,the ,foreign ,biblical ,library4 ,,edited ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,w4 ,,robertson ,,nicoll1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 #ab ,volumes4 ,large crown #hvo4 ,price #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,i4 ,still ,hours4 ,by ,,richard ,,rothe4 ,translated by ,,jane ,t4 ,,stoddart4 ,with an ,introductory ,essay by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,macpherson1 ,m4,a4 ,,ii4 ,biblical ,commentary on the ,book of ,psalms4 ,by ,professor ,,franz ,,delitzsch1 of ,leipzig4 ,from the latest edition specially revised by the ,author4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,,david ,,eaton1 ,m4,a4 ,in three ,volumes4 ,,iii4 ,a ,manual of ,introduction to the ,new ,testament4 ,by ,,bernhard ,,weiss4 ,translated by ,miss ,,davidson4 ,in #b ,vols4 ,,iv4 ,church ,history4 ,by ,professor ,,kurtz4 ,authorized ,translation1 from the latest ,revised ,edition1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,macpherson1 ,m4,a4 ,in #c ,vols4 ,v4 ,selected ,sermons of ,schleiermacher4 ,translated by ,,mary ,f4 ,,wilson4 ,,vi4 ,a ,commentary on the ,book of ,isaiah4 ,by ,professor ,,franz ,,delitzsch4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,,james ,,denney1 ,b4,d4 ,in #b ,vols4 ,,london3 ,,hodder ,,and ,,stoughton1 #bg1 ,,paternoster ,,row4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation has been standardized4 ,the ,table of ,contents has been updated to agree with the headings and subheadings of the text4 ,the symbol next to a date was not defined in the text4 ,it appears to mean approximate year of death4 ,characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps4 ,non-printable characteristics have been given the following transliteration3 ,italic text3 -- text bold text3 -- text4 ,italics have been dropped on leading alpha characters 7a4 b4 c47 to improved readability4 ,this book was written in a period when many words had not become standardized in their spelling4 ,words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text4 ,these have been left unchanged unless indicated with a ,transcriber's ,note4 ,many names appear with multiple spelling variations4 ,the most common form used has been added in brackets following alternate forms to facilitate document searching4 ,latin words and quotations are regularly italicized in the text4 ,italics have been added to words missed by the printer4 ,footnotes are numbered consecutively through the #c volumes and are identified in the text with a number in brackets #b and have been accumulated in a single section at the end of the text4 ,transcriber's ,notes are used when making corrections to the text or to provide additional information for the modern reader4 ,these notes are not identified in the text1 but have been accumulated in a single section at the end of the book4 ,,church ,,history4 ,,by ,,professor ,,kurtz4 ,,authorized ,,translation ,,from ,,latest ,,revised ,,edition ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,john ,,macpherson1 ,m4,a4 ,,in ,,three ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,second ,,edition4 ,london3 ,,hodder ,,and ,,stoughton1 #bg1 ,,paternoster ,,row4 ,,mdcccxci4 ,,butler ,,tanner1 ,,the ,,selwood ,,printing ,,works1 ,,frome1 ,,and ,,london4 ,,preface4 ,the ,english reader is here presented with a translation of the ninth edition of a work which first appeared in #ahdi1 and has obtained a most distinguished place1 it might be said almost a monopoly1 as a text-book of ,church ,history in the ,german ,universities4 ,since #ahej1 when the second edition was issued1 an ,english translation of which has been widely used in ,britain and ,america1 ,dr4 ,kurtz has given great attention to the improvement of his book4 ,the increase of size has not been caused by wordy amplification1 but by an urgent necessity felt by the author as he used the vast materials that recent years have spread out before the historical student4 ,in #ahgj ,dr4 ,kurtz retired from his professorship1 and has conscientiously devoted himself to bring up each successive edition of his text-book to the point reached by the very latest scholarship of his own and other lands4 ,in his ,preface to the ninth edition of #ahhe he claims to have made very special improvements on the presentation of the history of the first three centuries1 where ample use is made of the brilliant researches of ,harnack and other distinguished scholars of the day4 ,in the exercise of that discretion which has been allowed him1 the translator has ventured upon an innovation1 which he trusts will be generally recognised as a very important improvement4 ,the ,german edition has frequently pages devoted to the literature of the larger divisions1 and a considerable space is thus occupied at the beginning of most of the ordinary sections1 as well as at the close of many of the sub- sections4 ,the books named in these lists are almost exclusively ,german works and articles that have appeared in ,german periodicals4 ,experience has shown that the reproduction of such lists in an ,english edition is utterly useless to the ordinary student and extremely repulsive to the reader1 as it seriously interferes with the continuity of the text4 ,the translator has therefore ventured wholly to cancel these lists1 substituting carefully selected standard ,english works known to himself from which detailed information on the subjects treated of in the several paragraphs may be obtained4 ,these he has named in footnotes at the places where such references seemed to be necessary and most likely to be useful4 ,those students who know ,german so thoroughly as to be able to refer to books and articles by ,german specialists will find no difficulty in using the ,german edition of ,kurtz1 in which copious lists of such literature are given4 ,the first ,english volume is a reproduction without retrenchment of the original2 but in the second volume an endeavour has been made to render the text-book more convenient and serviceable to ,british and ,american students by slightly abridging some of those paragraphs which give minute details of the ,reformation work in various ,german provinces4 ,but even there care has been taken not to omit any fact of interest or importance4 ,no pains have been spared to give the ,english edition a form that may entitle it to occupy that front rank among students' text-books of ,church ,history which the original undoubtedly holds in ,germany4 ,,john ,,macpherson4 ,,findhorn1 ,july1 #ahhh4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,,idea ,,and ,,task ,,of ,,church ,,history4 #b4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,church ,,history ,,according ,,to ,,contents4 7#a7 ,the ,various ,branches ,included in a ,complete ,course of ,church ,history4 7#b7 ,the ,separate ,branches of ,church ,history4 #c4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,church ,,history ,,according ,,to ,,periods4 #d4 ,,sources ,,and ,,auxiliaries ,,of ,,church ,,history4 7#a7 ,literature of the ,sources4 7#b7 ,literature of the ,auxiliary ,sciences4 #e4 ,,history ,,of ,,general ,,church ,,history4 7#a7 ,down to the ,reformation4 7#b7 ,the #afth and #agth ,centuries4 7#c7 ,the #ahth ,century4 7#d7 ,the #aith ,century4 7#e7 ,the #aith ,century--,continued4 7#f7 ,the #aith ,century--,continued4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,preparation ,,for ,,christianity4 ,the pre-,christian ,world preparing the way of the ,christian ,church4 #f4 ,,the ,,standpoint ,,of ,,universal ,,history4 #g4 ,,heathenism4 7#a7 ,the ,religious ,character of ,heathenism4 7#b7 ,the ,moral ,character of ,heathenism4 7#c7 ,the ,intellectual ,culture in ,heathenism4 7#d7 ,the ,hellenic ,philosophy4 7#e7 ,the ,heathen ,state4 #h4 ,,judaism4 7#a7 ,judaism under special ,training of ,god through the ,law and ,prophecy4 7#b7 ,judaism after the ,cessation of ,prophecy4 7#c7 ,the ,synagogues4 7#d7 ,pharisees1 ,sadducees1 and ,essenes4 #i4 ,,samaritanism4 #aj4 ,,intercourse ,,between ,,judaism ,,and ,,heathenism4 7#a7 ,influence of ,heathenism upon ,judaism4 7#b7 ,influence of ,judaism upon ,heathenism4 #aa4 ,,the ,,fulness ,,of ,,time4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,beginnings4 ,the ,founding of the ,church by ,christ and ,his ,apostles4 #ab4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,beginnings4 ,i4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,jesus4 #ac4 ,,jesus ,,christ1 ,,the ,,saviour ,,of ,,the ,,world4 7#a7 ,year of ,birth and ,year of ,death of ,jesus4 7#b7 ,earliest ,non-,biblical ,witnesses to ,christ4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,apostolic ,,age4 ,a4,d4 #cj-gj4 #ad4 ,,the ,,ministry ,,of ,,the ,,apostles ,,before ,,paul4 ,beginning and ,close of ,apostolic ,age4 #ae4 ,,the ,,ministry ,,of ,,the ,,apostle ,,paul4 ,details of ,paul's ,life4 #af4 ,,the ,,other ,,apostles ,,after ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,the ,,apostle ,,paul4 7#a7 ,the ,roman ,episcopate of ,peter4 7#b7 ,the ,apostle ,john4 7#c7 ,james1 the brother of the ,lord4 7#d7 ,the ,later ,legends of the ,apostles4 #ag4 ,,constitution1 ,,worship1 ,,and ,,discipline4 7#a7 ,the ,charismata of the ,apostolic ,age4 7#b7 ,the ,constitution of the ,mother ,church at ,jerusalem4 7#c7 ,the ,constitution of the ,pauline ,churches4 7#d7 ,the ,church in the ,pauline ,epistles4 7#e7 ,congregational and ,spiritual ,offices4 7#f7 ,the ,question about the ,original ,position of the ,episcopate and ,presbyterate4 7#g7 ,christian ,worship4 7#h7 ,christian ,life and ,ecclesiastical ,discipline4 #ah4 ,,heresies ,,in ,,the ,,apostolic ,,age4 7#a7 ,jewish ,christianity and the ,council of ,apostles4 7#b7 ,the ,apostolic ,basis of ,doctrine4 7#c7 ,false ,teachers4 ,,first ,,division4 ,history of the ,development of the ,church during the ,grco-,roman and ,grco-,byzantine ,periods4 #ai4 ,,content1 ,,distribution ,,and ,,boundaries ,,of ,,those ,,periods4 ,,first ,,section4 ,history of the ,grco-,roman ,church during the ,second and ,third ,centuries 7,a4,d4 #gj-cbc74 #bj4 ,,content1 ,,distribution ,,and ,,boundaries ,,of ,,this ,,period4 7#a7 ,the ,post-,apostolic ,age4 7#b7 ,the ,age of the ,old ,catholic ,church4 7#c7 ,the ,point of ,transition from the ,one ,age to the ,other4 ,i4 ,,the ,,relationship ,,of ,,extra-,,christian ,,paganism ,,and ,,judaism ,,to ,,the ,,church4 #ba4 ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,christianity4 #bb4 ,,persecutions ,,of ,,the ,,christians ,,in ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 7#a7 ,claudius1 ,nero and ,domitian4 7#b7 ,trajan and ,hadrian4 7#c7 ,antoninus ,pius and ,marcus ,aurelius4 7#d7 ,septimius ,severus and ,maximinus ,thrax4 7#e7 ,decius1 ,gallus and ,valerian4 7#f7 ,diocletian and ,galerius4 7#g7 ,maximinus ,daza1 ,maxentius and ,licinius4 #bc4 ,,controversial ,,writings ,,of ,,paganism4 7#a7 ,lucian's ,satire ,de ,morte ,peregrini4 7#b7 ,worshippers of an ,ass4 7#c7 ,polemic properly so-called4 #bd4 ,attempted ,reconstruction of ,paganism4 7#a7 ,apollonius of ,tyana4 7#b7 ,neo-platonism4 #be4 ,jewish and ,samaritan ,reaction4 7#a7 ,disciples of ,john4 7#b7 ,the ,samaritan ,heresiarchs4 a4 ,dositheus4 b4 ,simon ,magus4 c4 ,menander4 ,,ii4 ,,danger ,,to ,,the ,,church ,,from ,,pagan ,,and ,,jewish ,,elements ,,within ,,its ,,own ,,pale4 #bf4 ,,gnosticism ,,in ,,general4 7#a7 ,gnosticism4 7#b7 ,the ,problems of ,gnostic ,speculation4 7#c7 ,distribution4 7#d7 ,sources of ,information4 #bg4 ,,the ,,gentile ,,christian ,,gnosticism4 7#a7 ,cerinthus4 7#b7 ,the ,gnosticism of ,basilides4 7#c7 ,irenus' ,sketch of ,basilideanism4 7#d7 ,valentinian ,gnosticism4 7#e7 ,two ,divisions of the ,valentinian ,school4 7#f7 ,the ,ophites and related ,sects4 7#g7 ,the ,gnosis of the ,ophites4 7#h7 ,antinomian and ,libertine ,sects4 a4 ,the ,nicolaitans4 b4 ,the ,simonians4 c4 ,the ,carpocratians4 d4 ,the ,prodicians4 7#i7 ,saturninus4 7#aj7 ,tatian and the ,encratites4 7#aa7 ,marcion and the ,marcionites4 7#ab7 ,marcion's ,disciples4 7#ac7 ,hermogenes4 #bh4 ,,ebionism ,,and ,,ebionitic ,,gnosticism4 7#a7 ,nazareans and ,ebionites4 7#b7 ,the ,elkesaites4 7#c7 ,the ,pseudo-,clementine ,series of ,writings4 a4 ,homili ,,xx ,clementis4 b4 ,recognitiones ,clementis4 c4 ,epitom4 7#d7 ,the ,pseudo-,clementine ,doctrinal ,system4 #bi4 ,,manich,,ism4 7#a7 ,the ,founder4 7#b7 ,the ,system4 7#c7 ,constitution1 ,worship1 and ,missionarizing4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,doctrinal ,,development ,,and ,,apologetical ,,activity ,,of ,,the ,,church4 #cj4 ,,the ,,theological ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,post-,,apostolic ,,age1 ,a4,d4 #gj-agj4 7#a7 ,the ,beginnings of ,patristic ,literature4 7#b7 ,the ,theology of the ,post-,apostolic ,age4 7#c7 ,the so-called ,apostolic ,fathers4 a4 ,clement of ,rome4 7#d7 b4 ,barnabas4 c4 ,pastor ,hermas4 7#e7 d4 ,ignatius1 ,bishop of ,antioch4 7#f7 e4 ,polycarp1 ,bishop of ,smyrna4 f4 ,papias1 ,bishop of ,hierapolis4 g4 ,epistle to ,diognetus4 7#g7 ,the ,didache or ,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles4 7#h7 ,the ,writings of the ,earliest ,christian ,apologists4 7#i7 ,extant ,writings of ,apologists of the ,post-,apostolic ,age4 a4 ,justin ,martyr4 7#aj7 b4 ,tatian4 c4 ,athenagoras4 d4 ,theophilus1 ,bishop of ,antioch4 e4 ,hermias4 #ca4 ,,the ,,theological ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,catholic ,,age1 ,a4,d4 #agj-cbc4 7#a7 ,the ,theological ,schools and ,tendencies4 #a4 ,,church ,,fathers ,,writing ,,in ,,greek4 7#b7 ,church ,teachers of the ,asiatic ,type4 a4 ,irenus4 7#c7 b4 ,hippolytus4 7#d7 ,the ,alexandrian ,church ,teachers4 a4 ,pantnus4 b4 ,titus ,flavius ,clement4 7#e7 c4 ,origen4 7#f7 d4 ,dionysius of ,alexandria4 e4 ,gregory ,thaumaturgus4 f4 ,pamphilus4 7#g7 ,greek-speaking ,church ,teachers in other ,quarters4 a4 ,hegesippus4 b4 ,caius of ,rome4 7#h7 c4 ,sextus ,julius ,africanus4 7#i7 d4 ,methodius4 e4 ,lucian of ,samosata4 #b4 ,,church ,,fathers ,,writing ,,in ,,latin4 7#aj7 ,the ,church ,teachers of ,north ,africa4 ,tertullian4 7#aa7 ,cyprian4 7#ab7 ,various ,ecclesiastical ,writers using the ,latin ,tongue4 a4 ,minucius ,felix4 b4 ,commodus4 c4 ,novatian4 d4 ,arnobius4 e4 ,victorinus of ,pettau4 f4 ,lucius ,lactantius4 #cb4 ,,the ,,apocryphal ,,and ,,pseudepigraphical ,,literature4 7#a7 ,professedly ,old ,heathen ,prophecies4 7#b7 ,old ,testament ,pseudepigraphs4 a4 ,book of ,enoch4 b4 ,assumptio ,mosis4 c4 ,fourth ,book of ,ezra4 d4 ,book of ,jubilees4 7#c7 ,pseudepigraphs of ,christian ,origin4 a4 ,history of ,assenath4 b4 ,the ,testaments of the ,,xii4 ,patriarchs4 c4 ,ascensio ,isai and ,visio ,isai4 d4 ,spelunca thesaurorum4 7#d7 ,new ,testament ,apocrypha and ,pseudepigraphs4 ,i4 ,apocryphal ,gospels4 7#e7 ,,ii4 ,apocryphal ,histories and ,legends of the ,apostles4 7#f7 ---- ,apocryphal ,monographs4 7#g7 ,,iii4 ,apostolic ,epistles4 ,,iv4 ,apocryphal ,apocalypses4 ,v4 ,apostolical ,constitutions4 7#h7 ,the ,acts of the ,martyrs4 #cc4 ,,the ,,doctrinal ,,controversies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,catholic ,,age4 7#a7 ,the ,trinitarian ,questions4 7#b7 ,the ,alogians4 7#c7 ,the ,theodotians and ,artemonites4 7#d7 ,praxeas and ,tertullian4 7#e7 ,the ,notians and ,hippolytus4 7#f7 ,beryllus and ,origen4 7#g7 ,sabellius2 ,dionysius of ,alexandria2 ,dionysius of ,rome4 7#h7 ,paul of ,samosata4 7#i7 ,chiliasm4 ,,iv4 ,,constitution1 ,,worship1 ,,life ,,and ,,discipline4 #cd4 ,,the ,,inner ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,church4 7#a7 ,the ,continuation of ,charismatic ,endowments into ,post-,apostolic ,times4 7#b7 ,the ,development of the ,episcopal ,hierarchy4 7#c7 ,the ,regular ,ecclesiastical ,offices of the ,old ,catholic ,age4 7#d7 ,clergy and ,laity4 7#e7 ,the ,synods4 7#f7 ,personal and ,epistolary ,intercourse4 7#g7 ,the ,unity and ,catholicity of the ,church4 7#h7 ,the ,roman ,primacy4 #ce4 ,,the ,,administration ,,of ,,baptism4 7#a7 ,the ,preparation for ,receiving ,baptism4 7#b7 ,the ,baptismal ,formula4 7#c7 ,the ,administration of ,baptism4 7#d7 ,the ,doctrine of ,baptism4 7#e7 ,the ,controversy about ,heretics' ,baptism4 #cf4 ,,public ,,worship ,,and ,,its ,,various ,,parts4 7#a7 ,the ,agape4 7#b7 ,the ,missa ,catechumenorum4 7#c7 ,the ,missa ,fidelium4 7#d7 ,the ,disciplina ,arcani4 7#e7 ,the ,doctrine of the ,lord's ,supper4 7#f7 ,the ,sacrificial ,theory4 7#g7 ,the ,use of ,scripture4 7#h7 ,formation of a ,new ,testament ,canon4 7#i7 ,the ,doctrine of ,inspiration4 7#aj7 ,hymnology4 #cg4 ,,feasts ,,and ,,festival ,,seasons4 7#a7 ,the ,festivals of the ,christian ,year4 7#b7 ,the ,paschal ,controversies4 7#c7 ,the ,ecclesiastical ,institution of ,fasting4 #ch4 ,,the ,,church ,,buildings ,,and ,,the ,,catacombs4 7#a7 ,the ,catacombs4 7#b7 ,the ,antiquities of the ,catacombs4 7#c7 ,pictorial ,art and the ,catacombs4 7#d7 ,pictorial and ,artistic ,representations4 a4 ,significant ,symbols4 b4 ,allegorical ,figures4 c4 ,parabolic ,figures4 d4 ,historical ,pictures of ,o4 ,t4 ,types4 e4 ,figures from the ,gospel ,history4 f4 ,liturgical ,figures4 #ci4 ,,life1 ,,manners1 ,,and ,,discipline4 7#a7 ,christian ,morals and ,manners4 7#b7 ,the ,penitential ,discipline4 7#c7 ,asceticism4 7#d7 ,paul of ,thebes4 7#e7 ,beginning of ,veneration of ,martyrs4 7#f7 ,superstition4 #dj4 ,,the ,,montanist ,,reformation4 7#a7 ,montanism in ,asia ,minor4 7#b7 ,montanism at ,rome4 7#c7 ,montanism in ,proconsular ,africa4 7#d7 ,the ,fundamental ,principle of ,montanism4 7#e7 ,the ,attitude of ,montanism toward the ,church4 #da4 ,,schismatic ,,divisions ,,in ,,the ,,church4 7#a7 ,the ,schism of ,hippolytus at ,rome about ,a4,d4 #bbj4 7#b7 ,the ,schism of ,felicissimus at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #bej4 7#c7 ,the ,schism of the ,presbyter ,novatian at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #bea4 7#d7 ,the ,schism of ,meletius in ,egypt in ,a4,d4 #cjf4 ,,second ,,section4 ,the ,history of the ,grco-,roman ,church from the #dth-#gth centuries4 ,a4,d4 #cbc-fib4 ,i4 ,,church ,,and ,,state4 #db4 ,,the ,,overthrow ,,of ,,paganism ,,in ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 7#a7 ,the ,romish ,legend of the ,baptism of ,constantine4 7#b7 ,constantine the ,great and his ,sons4 7#c7 ,julian the ,apostate 7,a4,d4 #cfa-cfc74 7#d7 ,the ,later ,emperors4 7#e7 ,heathen ,polemics and ,apologetics4 7#f7 ,the ,religion of the ,hypsistarians4 #dc4 ,,the ,,christian ,,empire ,,and ,,the ,,ecclesiastical ,,law4 7#a7 ,the ,jus ,circa ,sacra4 7#b7 ,the ,institution of cumenical ,synods4 7#c7 ,canonical ,ordinances4 7#d7 ,pseudepigraphic ,church ,ordinances4 7#e7 ,the ,apostolic ,church ,ordinances4 ,,ii4 ,,monasticism1 ,,clericalism ,,and ,,hierarchism4 #dd4 ,,monasticism4 7#a7 ,the ,biography of ,st4 ,anthony4 7#b7 ,the ,origin of ,christian ,monasticism4 7#c7 ,oriental ,monasticism4 7#d7 ,western ,monasticism4 7#e7 ,institution of ,nunneries4 7#f7 ,monastic ,asceticism4 7#g7 ,anti-,ecclesiastical and ,heretical ,monasticism4 #de4 ,,the ,,clergy4 7#a7 ,training of the ,clergy4 7#b7 ,the ,injunction of ,celibacy4 7#c7 ,later ,ecclesiastical ,offices4 7#d7 ,church ,property4 #df;,a4 ,,the ,,patriarchal ,,constitution ,,and ,,the ,,primacy4 7#a7 ,the ,patriarchal ,constitution4 7#b7 ,the ,rivalry between ,rome and ,byzantium4 #df;,b4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,chair ,,and ,,its ,,claims ,,to ,,the ,,primacy4 7#c7 ,from ,melchiades to ,julius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #caj to ,a4,d4 #ceb4 7#d7 ,from ,liberius to ,anastasius1 ,a4,d4 #ceb to ,a4,d4 #djb4 7#e7 ,from ,innocent ,i4 to ,zosimus1 ,a4,d4 #djb to ,a4,d4 #dah4 7#f7 ,from ,boniface ,i4 to ,sixtus ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #dai to ,a4,d4 #ddj4 7#g7 ,from ,leo the ,great to ,simplicius1 ,a4,d4 #ddj to ,a4,d4 #dhc4 7#h7 ,from ,felix ,,iii4 to ,boniface ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #dhc to ,a4,d4 #ecb4 7#i7 ,from ,john ,,ii4 to ,pelagius ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #ecb to ,a4,d4 #eij4 7#aj7 ,from ,gregory ,i4 to ,boniface ,v41 ,a4,d4 #eij to ,a4,d4 #fbe4 7#aa7 ,from ,honorius ,i4 to ,gregory ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #fbe to ,a4,d4 #gda4 ,,iii4 ,,theological ,,science ,,and ,,literature4 #dg4 ,,the ,,theological ,,schools ,,and ,,their ,,most ,,celebrated ,,representatives4 7#a7 ,the ,theological ,schools and ,tendencies4 a4 ,in the #dth and #eth centuries4 b4 ,of the #fth and #gth ,centuries4 #a4 ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,teachers ,,of ,,the ,,eastern ,,church4 7#b7 ,the ,most ,celebrated ,representative of the ,old ,alexandrian ,school----,eusebius4 7#c7 ,church ,fathers of the ,new ,alexandrian ,school4 a4 ,athanasius4 7#d7 ---- ,the ,three ,great ,cappadocians4 b4 ,basil the ,great4 c4 ,gregory ,nazianzen4 d4 ,gregory of ,nyssa4 7#e7 e4 ,apollinaris4 f4 ,didymus the ,blind4 7#f7 g4 ,macarius ,magnes4 h4 ,cyril1 ,patriarch of ,alexandria4 i4 ,isidore of ,pelusium4 7#g7 ---- ,mystics and ,philosophers4 k4 ,macarius the ,great or the ,elder4 l4 ,marcus ,eremita4 m4 ,synesius of ,cyrene4 n4 ,nemesius1 ,bishop of ,emesa4 o4 neas of ,gaza4 7#h7 ,the ,antiocheans4 a4 ,eusebius of ,emesa4 b4 ,diodorus of ,tarsus4 c4 ,john of ,antioch 7,chrysostom74 7#i7 d4 ,theodore1 ,bishop of ,mopsuestia4 e4 ,polychronius1 ,bishop of ,apamea4 f4 ,theodoret1 ,bishop of ,cyrus4 7#aj7 ,other ,teachers of the ,greek ,church during the #dth and #eth ,centuries4 a4 ,cyril1 ,bishop of ,jerusalem4 b4 ,epiphanius1 ,bishop of ,salamis4 c4 ,palladius4 d4 ,nilus4 7#aa7 ,greek ,church ,fathers of the #fth and #gth ,centuries4 a4 ,johannes ,philoponus4 b4 ,dionysius the ,areopagite4 7#ab7 c4 ,leontius ,byzantinus4 d4 ,maximus ,confessor4 e4 ,johannes ,climacus4 f4 ,johannes ,moschus4 g4 ,anastasius ,sinaita4 7#ac7 ,syrian ,church ,fathers4 a4 ,jacob of ,nisibis4 b4 ,aphraates4 c4 ,ephraim the ,syrian4 d4 ,ibas1 ,bishop of ,edessa4 e4 ,jacob1 ,bishop of ,edessa4 #b4 ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,teachers ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,church4 7#ad7 f4 ,during the ,period of the ,arian ,controversy4 a4 ,jul4 ,firmicus ,maternus4 b4 ,lucifer of ,calaris4 c4 ,marius ,victorinus4 d4 ,hilary of ,poitiers4 e4 ,zeno1 ,bishop of ,verona4 f4 ,philaster1 ,bishop of ,brescia4 g4 ,martin of ,tours4 7#ae7 g4 ,ambrose1 ,bishop of ,milan4 h4 ,ambrosiaster4 i4 ,pacianus1 ,bishop of ,barcelona4 7#af7 ,during the ,period of ,origenistic ,controversy4 a4 ,jerome4 7#ag7 b4 ,tyrannius ,rufinus4 c4 ,sulpicius ,severus4 d4 ,peter ,chrysologus1 ,bishop of ,ravenna4 7#ah7 ,the ,hero of the ,soteriological ,controversy--,augustine4 7#ai7 ,augustine's ,works4 a4 ,philosophical ,treatises4 b4 ,dogmatic ,treatises4 c4 ,controversial ,treatises4 d4 ,apologetical ,treatises4 e4 ,exegetical ,works4 7#bj7 ,augustine's ,disciples and ,friends4 a4 ,paulinus1 ,deacon of ,milan4 b4 ,paul ,orosius4 c4 ,marius ,mercator4 d4 ,prosper ,aquitanicus4 e4 ,csarius1 ,bishop of ,arelate4 f4 ,fulgentius1 ,bishop of ,ruspe4 7#ba7 ,pelagians and semi-,pelagians4 ,i4 ,pelagius4 ,,ii4 ,semi-,pelagians or ,massilians4 a4 ,johannes ,cassianus4 b4 ,vincent ,lerinensis4 c4 ,eucherius1 ,bishop of ,lyons4 d4 ,salvianus1 ,presbyter at ,marseilles4 e4 ,faustus of ,rhegium4 f4 ,arnobius the ,younger4 7#bb7 ,the ,most ,important ,church ,teachers among the ,roman ,popes4 a4 ,leo the ,great4 b4 ,gelasius ,i4 c4 ,gregory the ,great4 7#bc7 ,the ,conservators and ,continuators of ,patristic ,culture4 a4 ,bothius4 b4 ,magnus ,aurelius ,cassiodorus4 c4 ,dionysius ,exiguus4 #dh4 ,,branches ,,of ,,theological ,,science ,,and ,,christian ,,poetry4 7#a7 ,exegetical ,theology4 7#b7 ,historical ,theology4 7#c7 ,systematic ,theology4 a4 ,apologetics4 b4 ,polemics4 c4 ,positive ,dogmatics4 d4 ,morals4 7#d7 ,practical ,theology4 7#e7 ,christian ,poetry4 7#f7 ,christian ,latin ,poetry4 7#g7 ,poetry of ,national ,syrian ,church4 7#h7 ,the ,legendary ,history of ,cyprian4 ,,iv4 ,,doctrinal ,,controversies ,,and ,,heresies4 #di4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,doctrine ,,generally4 ,heretical ,developments4 #ej4 ,,the ,,trinitarian ,,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #cah-cha4 7#a7 ,preliminary ,victory of the ,homoousia1 ,a4,d4 #cah-cbe4 7#b7 ,victory of ,eusebianism1 ,a4,d4 #cbh-cef4 7#c7 ,victory of ,homoiousianism1 ,a4,d4 #ceg-cfa4 7#d7 ,final ,victory of the ,nicene ,creed1 ,a4,d4 #cfa-cha4 7#e7 ,the ,pneumatomachians1 ,a4,d4 #cfb-cha4 7#f7 ,the ,literature of the ,controversy4 7#g7 ,post-,nicene ,development of the ,dogma4 7#h7 ,schisms in consequence of the ,arian ,controversy4 ,i4 ,the ,meletian ,schism at ,antioch4 ,,ii4 ,the ,schism of the ,luciferians4 ,,iii4 ,the ,schism of ,damasus and ,ursacius at ,rome4 #ea4 ,,the ,,origenist ,,controversies1 ,a4,d4 #cid-dch4 7#a7 ,the ,monks of the ,scetic and ,nitrian ,deserts4 7#b7 ,the ,controversy in ,palestine and ,italy1 ,a4,d4 #cid-cii4 7#c7 ,the ,controversy in ,alexandria and ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #cii-dch4 #eb4 ,,the ,,christological ,,controversy4 7#a7 ,the ,apollinarian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #cfb-cha4 7#b7 ,christology of the ,opposing ,theological ,schools4 7#c7 ,the ,dyoprosopic or ,nestorian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #dbh-ddd4 7#d7 ,the ,monophysite ,controversy4 ,i4 ,eutychianism1 ,a4,d4 #ddd-dea4 7#e7 ,,ii4 ,imperial ,attempts at ,union1 ,a4,d4 #dea-eai4 7#f7 ,,iii4 ,justinian's ,decrees1 ,a4,d4 #ebg-eec4 7#g7 ,,iv4 ,the ,monophysite ,churches4 7#h7 ,the ,monothelite ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #fcc-fhj4 7#i7 ,the ,case of ,honorius4 #ec4 ,,the ,,soteriological ,,controversies1 ,a4,d4 #dab-ebi4 7#a7 ,preliminary ,history4 7#b7 ,the ,doctrine of ,augustine4 7#c7 ,pelagius and his ,doctrine4 7#d7 ,the ,pelagian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #daa-dca4 7#e7 ,the ,semi-,pelagian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #dbg-ebi4 #ed4 ,,reappearance ,,and ,,remodelling ,,of ,,earlier ,,heretical ,,sects4 7#a7 ,manichism4 7#b7 ,priscillianism1 ,a4,d4 #chc-efc4 ,v4 ,,worship1 ,,life1 ,,discipline ,,and ,,morals4 #ee4 ,,worship ,,in ,,general4 ,the ,age of ,cyril of ,alexandria4 #ef4 ,,festivals ,,and ,,seasons ,,for ,,public ,,worship4 7#a7 ,the ,weekly ,cycle4 7#b7 ,hours and ,quarterly ,fasts4 7#c7 ,the ,reckoning of ,easter4 7#d7 ,the ,easter ,festivals4 7#e7 ,the ,christmas ,festivals4 7#f7 ,the ,church ,year4 7#g7 ,the ,church ,fasts4 #eg4 ,,worship ,,of ,,saints1 ,,relics ,,and ,,images4 7#a7 ,the ,worship of ,martyrs and ,saints4 7#b7 ,the ,worship of ,mary and ,anna4 7#c7 ,worship of ,angels4 7#d7 ,worship of ,images4 7#e7 ,worship of ,relics4 7#f7 ,the ,making of ,pilgrimages4 #eh4 ,,the ,,dispensation ,,of ,,the ,,sacraments4 7#a7 ,administration of ,baptism4 7#b7 ,the ,doctrine of the ,supper4 7#c7 ,the ,sacrifice of the ,mass4 7#d7 ,the ,administration of the ,lord's ,supper4 #ei4 ,,public ,,worship ,,in ,,word ,,and ,,symbol4 7#a7 ,the ,holy ,scriptures4 7#b7 ,the ,creeds of the ,church4 ,i4 ,the ,nicno-,constantinopolitan ,creed4 ,,ii4 ,the ,apostles' ,creed4 ,,iii4 ,the ,athanasian ,creed4 7#c7 ,bible ,reading in ,church and ,preaching4 7#d7 ,hymnology4 7#e7 ,psalmody and ,hymn ,music4 7#f7 ,the ,liturgy4 7#g7 ,liturgical ,vestments4 7#h7 ,symbolical ,acts in ,worship4 7#i7 ,processions4 #fj4 ,,places ,,of ,,public ,,worship1 ,,buildings ,,and ,,works ,,of ,,art4 7#a7 ,the ,basilica4 7#b7 ,secular ,basilicas4 7#c7 ,the ,cupola ,style4 7#d7 ,accessory and ,special ,buildings4 7#e7 ,church furniture4 7#f7 ,the ,graphic and ,plastic ,arts4 #fa4 ,,life1 ,,discipline ,,and ,,morals4 7#a7 ,church ,discipline4 7#b7 ,christian ,marriage4 7#c7 ,sickness1 ,death and ,burial4 7#d7 ,purgatory and ,masses for ,souls4 #fb4 ,,heretical ,,reformers4 7#a7 ,audians and ,apostolics4 7#b7 ,protests against ,superstition and ,external ,observances4 7#c7 ,protests against the ,over-,estimation of ,doctrine4 #fc4 ,,schisms4 7#a7 ,the ,donatist ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #caa-dae4 7#b7 ,the ,concilium ,quinisextum1 ,a4,d4 #fib4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,church ,,outside ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 #fd4 ,,missionary ,,operations ,,in ,,the ,,east4 7#a7 ,the ,ethiopic-,abyssinian ,church4 7#b7 ,the ,persian ,church4 7#c7 ,the ,armenian ,church4 7#d7 ,the ,iberians4 #fe4 ,,the ,,counter-,,mission ,,of ,,the ,,mohammedans4 7#a7 ,the ,fundamental ,principle of ,islam4 7#b7 ,the ,providential ,place of ,islam4 ,,third ,,section4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,gr,,co-,,byzantine ,,church ,,in ,,the #h,,th-#ae,,th ,,centuries 7,a4,d4 #fib-adec74 ,i4 ,developments of the ,greek ,church in ,combination with the ,western4 #ff4 ,,iconoclasm ,,of ,,the ,,byzantine ,,church 7,a4,d4 #gbf-hdb74 7#a7 ,leo ,,iii41 the ,isaurian1 ,a4,d4 #gag-gda4 7#b7 ,constantine ,v4 ,a4,d4 #gda-gge4 7#c7 ,leo ,,iv41 ,chazarus1 ,a4,d4 #gge-ghj4 7#d7 ,leo ,v41 the ,armenian1 ,a4,d4 #hac-hbj4 #fg4 ,,division ,,between ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,churches ,,and ,,attempts ,,at ,,union1 ,a4,d4 #heg-adec4 7#a7 ,foundation of the ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #hfg4 7#b7 ,leo ,,vi41 the ,philosopher1 ,a4,d4 #hhf-iaa4 7#c7 ,completion of the ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #ajed4 7#d7 ,attempts at ,reunion4 7#e7 ,andronicus ,,iii4 ,palologus and ,barlaam4 7#f7 ,council of ,florence4 7#g7 ,decay of ,byzantine ,empire4 ,,ii4 ,developments in the ,eastern ,church without the ,co-operation of the ,western4 #fh4 ,,theological ,,science ,,and ,,literature4 7#a7 ,revival of ,classical ,studies4 7#b7 ,aristotle and ,plato4 7#c7 ,scholasticism and ,mysticism4 7#d7 ,the ,branches of ,theological ,science4 7#e7 ,distinguished ,theologians4 7#f7 ,barlaam and ,josaphat4 #fi4 ,,doctrinal ,,controversies ,,in ,,the #ab,,th-#ad,,th ,,centuries4 7#a7 ,dogmatic ,questions4 7#b7 ,the ,hesychast ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #acda-acea4 #gj4 ,,constitution1 ,,worship ,,and ,,life4 7#a7 ,the ,arsenian ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #abfb-acab4 7#b7 ,public ,worship4 7#c7 ,monasticism4 7#d7 ,endeavours at ,reformation4 #ga4 ,,dualistic ,,heretics4 7#a7 ,the ,paulicians4 7#b7 ,the ,children of the ,sun4 7#c7 ,the ,euchites4 7#d7 ,the ,bogomili4 #gb4 ,,the ,,nestorian ,,and ,,monophysite ,,churches ,,of ,,the ,,east4 7#a7 ,the ,persian ,nestorians4 7#b7 ,monophysite ,churches4 7#c7 ,the ,maronites4 7#d7 ,the ,legend of ,prester ,john4 #gc4 ,,the ,,slavonic ,,churches ,,adhering ,,to ,,the ,,orthodox ,,greek ,,confession4 7#a7 ,slavs in the ,greek ,provinces4 7#b7 ,the ,chazari4 7#c7 ,the ,bulgarians4 7#d7 ,the ,russian ,church4 7#e7 ,russian ,sects4 7#f7 ,romish ,efforts at ,union4 ,,second ,,division4 ,,the ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,and ,,roman ,,church ,,during ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 #gd4 ,,character ,,and ,,divisions ,,of ,,this ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,development4 7#a7 ,the ,character of ,medival ,history4 7#b7 ,periods in the ,church ,history of the ,german-,roman ,middle ,ages4 ,,first ,,section4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,german-,,roman ,,church ,,from ,,the #d,,th ,,to ,,the #i,,th ,,century 7,,down ,,to ,a4,d4 #iaa74 ,i4 ,founding1 ,spread1 and ,limitation of the ,german ,church4 #ge4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,the ,,germans4 7#a7 ,the ,predisposition of the ,germans for ,christianity4 7#b7 ,unopposed ,adoption of ,christianity4 7#c7 ,mode of ,conversion in the ,church of these ,times4 #gf4 ,,the ,,victory ,,of ,,catholicism ,,over ,,arianism4 7#a7 ,the ,goths in the lands of the ,danube4 7#b7 ,the ,visigoths in ,gaul and ,spain4 7#c7 ,the ,vandals in ,africa4 7#d7 ,the ,suevi4 7#e7 ,the ,burgundians4 7#f7 ,the ,rugians4 7#g7 ,the ,ostrogoths4 7#h7 ,the ,longobards in ,italy4 7#i7 ,the ,franks in ,gaul4 #gg4 ,,victory ,,of ,,the ,,romish ,,over ,,the ,,old ,,british ,,church4 7#a7 ,the ,conversion of the ,irish4 7#b7 ,the ,mission to ,scotland4 7#c7 ,the ,peculiarities of the ,celtic ,church4 7#d7 ,the ,romish ,mission to the ,anglo-,saxons4 7#e7 ,celtic ,missions among the ,anglo-,saxons4 7#f7 ,the ,celtic ,element ,driven out of the ,anglo-,saxon ,church4 7#g7 ,spread and ,overthrow of the ,british ,church on the ,continent4 7#h7 ,overthrow of the ,old ,british ,system in the ,iro-,scottish ,church4 #gh4 ,,the ,,conversion ,,and ,,romanizing ,,of ,,germany4 7#a7 ,south-,western ,germany4 7#b7 ,south-,eastern ,germany4 7#c7 ,north-,western ,germany4 7#d7 ,the ,missionary ,work of ,boniface4 7#e7 ,the ,organization ,effected by ,boniface4 7#f7 ,heresies ,confronted by ,boniface4 7#g7 ,the ,end of ,boniface4 7#h7 ,an ,estimate of ,boniface4 7#i7 ,the ,conversion of the ,saxons4 #gi4 ,,the ,,slavs ,,in ,,german ,,countries4 7#a7 ,the ,carantanians and ,avars4 7#b7 ,the ,moravian ,church4 7#c7 ,the ,beginnings of ,christianity in ,bohemia4 #hj4 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,nations4 7#a7 ,ansgar4 7#b7 ,ansgar's ,successor--,rimbert4 #ha4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,islam4 7#a7 ,islam in ,spain4 7#b7 ,islam in ,sicily4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,hierarchy1 ,,the ,,clergy ,,and ,,the ,,monks4 #hb4 ,,the ,,papacy ,,and ,,the ,,carolingians4 7#a7 ,the ,period of the ,founding of the ,states of the ,church4 7#b7 ,stephen ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gfh-ggb4 ,hadrian ,i41 ,a4,d4 #ggb-gie4 7#c7 ,charlemagne and ,leo ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gie-haf4 7#d7 ,louis the ,pious and the ,popes of his ,time4 7#e7 ,the ,sons of ,louis the ,pious and the ,popes of their ,days4 7#f7 ,the ,legend of the ,female ,pope ,joanna4 7#g7 ,nicholas ,i4 and ,hadrian ,,ii4 7#h7 ,john ,,viii4 and his ,successors4 7#i7 ,the ,papacy and the ,nationalities4 #hc4 ,,the ,,rank ,,of ,,metropolitan4 7#a7 ,the ,position of ,metropolitans in ,general4 7#b7 ,hincmar of ,rheims4 7#c7 ,metropolitans in other lands4 #hd4 ,,the ,,clergy ,,in ,,general4 7#a7 ,the ,superior ,clergy4 7#b7 ,the ,inferior ,clergy4 7#c7 ,compulsory ,celibacy4 7#d7 ,canonical life4 #he4 ,,monasticism4 7#a7 ,benedict of ,nursia4 7#b7 ,benedict of ,aniane4 7#c7 ,nunneries4 7#d7 ,the ,greater ,monasteries4 7#e7 ,monastic ,practices among the ,clergy4 7#f7 ,the ,stylites4 #hf3 ,,the ,,property ,,of ,,churches ,,and ,,monasteries4 7#a7 ,the ,revenues of ,churches and ,monasteries4 7#b7 ,the ,benefice ,system4 #hg4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,legislation4 7#a7 ,older ,collections of ,ecclesiastical ,law4 7#b7 ,the ,collection of ,decretals of the ,pseudo-,isidore4 7#c7 ,details of the ,history of the ,forgery4 7#d7 ,the ,edict and ,donation of ,constantine4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,people4 #hh4 ,,public ,,worship ,,and ,,art4 7#a7 ,liturgy and ,preaching4 7#b7 ,church ,music4 7#c7 ,the ,sacrifice of the ,mass4 7#d7 ,the ,worship of ,saints4 7#e7 ,times and ,places for ,public ,worship4 7#f7 ,ecclesiastical ,architecture and ,painting4 #hi4 ,,national ,,customs1 ,,social ,,life ,,and ,,church ,,discipline4 7#a7 ,superstition4 7#b7 ,popular ,education4 7#c7 ,christian ,popular ,poetry4 7#d7 ,social ,condition4 7#e7 ,practice of ,pubic ,law4 7#f7 ,church ,discipline and ,penitential ,exercises4 ,,iv4 ,,theology ,,and ,,its ,,battles4 #ij4 ,,scholarship ,,and ,,theological ,,science4 7#a7 ,rulers of the ,carolingian ,line4 ,charlemagne1 ,a4,d4 #gfh-had4 ,louis the ,pious1 ,a4,d4 #had-hdj4 ,charles the ,bald1 ,a4,d4 #hdj-hgg4 7#b7 ,the most distinguished ,theologians of the ,pre-,carolingian ,age4 #a4 ,merovingian ,france4 #b4 ,south of the ,pyrenees4 #c4 ,england4 7#c7 ,the most distinguished ,theologians of the ,age of ,charlemagne4 #a4 ,alcuin4 #b4 ,paulus ,diaconus4 #c4 ,theodulf1 ,bishop of ,orleans4 #d4 ,paulinus1 ,patriarch of ,aquileia and ,bishop ,leidrad of ,lyons4 #e4 ,hatto1 ,abbot of ,reichenau4 7#d7 ,the most distinguished ,theologians of the ,age of ,louis the ,pious4 #a4 ,agobard of ,lyons4 #b4 ,claudius1 ,bishop of ,turin4 #c4 ,jonas of ,orleans4 #d4 ,amalarius of ,metz4 #e4 ,christian ,druthmar4 #f4 ,rabanus ,magnentius ,maurus4 #g4 ,walafrid ,strabo4 7#e7 ,the ,most ,distinguished ,theologians of the ,age of ,charles the ,bald4 #a4 ,hincmar of ,rheims4 #b4 ,paschasius ,radbertus4 #c4 ,ratramnus4 #d4 ,florus ,magister4 #e4 ,haymo1 ,bishop of ,halberstadt4 #f4 ,servatus ,lupus4 #g4 ,remigius of ,auxerre4 #h4 ,regius of ,prm4 7#f7 #i4 ,anastasius ,bibliothecarius4 #aj4 ,eulogius of ,cordova4 7#g7 #aa4 ,joannes ,scotus ,erigena4 7#h7 ,the ,monastic and ,cathedral ,schools4 7#i7 ,various ,branches of ,theological ,science4 #a4 ,exegesis4 #b4 ,systematic ,theology4 #c4 ,practical ,theology4 #d4 ,historical ,theology4 7#aj7 ,anglo-,saxon ,culture under ,alfred the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #hga-ija4 #ia4 ,,doctrinal ,,controversies4 7#a7 ,the ,adoptionist ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #ghb-gii4 7#b7 ,controversy about the ,procession of the ,holy ,spirit4 7#c7 ,the ,eucharistic ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #hdd4 7#d7 ,controversy about the ,conception of the ,virgin4 7#e7 ,the ,predestinarian ,controversy ,a4,d4 #hdg-hfh4 7#f7 ,the ,trinitarian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #heg4 #ib4 ,,endeavours ,,after ,,reformation4 7#a7 ,the ,carolingian ,opposition to ,image ,worship1 ,a4,d4 #gij-hbe4 7#b7 ,agobard of ,lyons and ,claudius of ,turin4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,,idea ,,and ,,task ,,of ,,church ,,history4 ,the ,christian ,church is to be defined as the one1 many-branched communion1 consisting of all those who confess that ,jesus of ,nazareth is the ,christ who in the fulness of time appeared as the ,saviour of the world4 ,it is the ,church's special task to render the saving work of ,christ increasingly fruitful for all nations and individuals1 under all the varying conditions of life and stages of culture4 ,it is the task of ,church ,history to describe the course of development through which the ,church as a whole1 as well as its special departments and various institutions1 has passed1 from the time of its foundation down to our own day2 to show what have been the ,church's advances and retrogressions1 how it has been furthered and hindered2 and to tell the story of its deterioration and renewal4 #b4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,church ,,history ,,according ,,to ,,contents4 ,the treatment of ,church ,history1 on account of its manifold ramifications1 demands a distribution of its material1 on the one hand1 according to definite periods1 during which the end hitherto aimed at in the whole course of development has been practically attained1 so that either entirely new phenomena gain prominence1 or else the old go forth in an altogether different direction2 on the other hand1 according to the various phases of endeavour and development1 which in respect of time are evolved alongside of one another4 ,when this last-mentioned method of division is adopted1 we may still choose between two different modes of treatment4 ,first1 we may deal with national churches1 in so far as these are independent and have pursued some special direction2 or with particular churches1 which have originated from the splitting up of the church universal over some important difference in doctrine1 worship1 and constitution4 ,secondly1 we may group our material according to the various departments of historical activity1 which are essential to the intellectual and spiritual life of all national churches and denominations1 and are thus common to all1 although in different churches in characteristic ways and varying degrees4 ,it follows however from the very idea of history1 especially from that of the universal history of the church1 that the distribution according to periods must be the leading feature of the entire exposition4 ,at the same time1 whatever may now and again1 in accordance with the other principles of arrangement1 be brought into prominence will be influenced materially by the course of the history and formally by the facility afforded for review by the mode of treatment pursued4 #b4a4 ,the ,various ,branches ,included in a ,complete ,course of ,church ,history4--,the ,christian ,church has undertaken the task of absorbing all peoples and tongues4 ,hence it is possessed of an eager desire to enlarge its borders by the conversion of all non-,christian races4 ,the description of what helps or hinders this endeavour1 the history of the spread and limitation of ,christianity1 is therefore an essential constituent of church history4 ,since1 further1 the church1 in order to secure its continued existence and well-being1 must strive after a legally determined position outwardly1 as well as a firm1 harmonious articulation1 combination and order inwardly1 it evidently also belongs to our science to give the history of the ecclesiastical constitution1 both of the place which the church has in the state1 and the relation it bears to the state2 and also of its own internal arrangements by superordination1 subordination1 and co-ordination1 and by church discipline and legislation4 ,not less essential1 nay1 even more important for the successful development of the church1 is the construction and establishment of saving truth4 ,in ,holy ,scripture the church indeed has possession of the fountain and standard1 as well as the all-sufficient power and fulness1 of all saving knowledge4 ,but the words of ,scripture are spirit and life1 living seeds of knowledge1 which1 under the care of the same ,spirit who sows them1 may and shall be developed so as to yield a harvest which becomes ever more and more abundant2 and therefore the fulness of the truth which dwells in them comes to be known more simply1 clearly1 fully1 and becomes always more fruitful for all stages and forms of culture1 for faith1 for science1 and for life4 ,hence church history is required to describe the construction of the doctrine and science of the church1 to follow its course and the deviations from it into heresy1 whenever these appear4 ,the church is1 further1 in need of a form of public worship as a necessary expression of the feelings and emotions of believers toward their ,lord and ,god1 as a means of edification and instruction4 ,the history of the worship of the church is therefore also an essential constituent of church history4 ,it is also the duty of the church to introduce into the practical life and customs of the people that new spiritual energy of which she is possessor4 ,and thus the history of the ,christian life among the people comes to be included in church history as a further constituent of the science4 ,further1 there is also included here1 in consequence of the nature and aim of ,christianity as a leaven 7,matt4 xiii4 #cc71 an account of the effects produced upon it by the development of art 7of which various branches1 architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 music1 have a direct connexion with ,christian worship71 and likewise upon national literature1 philosophy1 and secular science generally2 and also1 conversely1 an estimate of the influence of these forms of secular culture upon the condition of the church and religion must not be omitted4 ,the order of succession in the historical treatment of these phases under which the life of the church is manifested1 is not to be rigidly determined in the same way for all ages after an abstract logical scheme4 ,for each period that order of succession should be adopted which will most suitably give prominence to those matters which have come to the front1 and so call for early and detailed treatment in the history of that age4 #b4b4 ,the ,separate ,branches of ,church ,history4--,the constituent parts of church history that have been already enumerated are of such importance that they might also be treated as independent sciences1 and indeed for the most part they have often been so treated4 ,in this way1 not only is a more exact treatment of details rendered possible1 but also1 what is more important1 the particular science so limited can be construed in a natural manner according to principles furnished by itself4 ,the history of the spread and limitation of ,christianity then assumes a separate form as the ,history of ,missions4 ,the separate history of the ecclesiastical constitution1 worship1 and customs is known by the name of ,christian ,archology1 which is indeed1 in respect of title and contents1 an undefined conglomeration of heterogeneous elements restricted in a purely arbitrary way to the early ages4 ,the treatment of this department therefore requires that we should undertake the scientific task of distinguishing these heterogeneous elements1 and arranging them apart for separate consideration2 thus following the course of their development down to the present day1 as the history of the constitution1 of the worship1 and of the culture of the church4 ,the history of the development of doctrine falls into four divisions3 a4 ,the ,history of ,doctrines in the form of a regular historical sketch of the doctrinal development of the church4 b4 ,symbolics1 which gives a systematic representation of the relatively final and concluded doctrine of the church as determined in the public ecclesiastical confessions or symbols for the church universal and for particular sects3 these again being compared together in ,comparative ,symbolics4 c4 ,patristics1 which deals with the subjective development of doctrine as carried out by the most distinguished teachers of the church1 who are usually designated church ,fathers1 and confined to the first six or eight centuries4 d4 ,and1 finally1 the ,history of ,theology in general1 or the ,history of the particular ,theological ,sciences1 which treats of the scientific conception and treatment of theology and its separate branches according to its historical development2 while the ,history of ,theological ,literature1 which when restricted to the age of the ,fathers is called ,patrology1 has to describe and estimate the whole literary activity of the church according to the persons1 motives1 and tendencies that are present in it4 ,as the conclusion and result of church history at particular periods1 we have the science of ,ecclesiastical ,statistics1 which describes the condition of the church in respect of all its interests as it stands at some particular moment1 8like a slice cut cross-wise out of its history40 ,the most important works in these departments are the following3 a4 ,history of ,missions4-- ,brown1 8,hist4 of ,propag4 of ,christ4 among ,heathen since ,reformation40 #crd ,ed41 #c vols41 ,edin41 #ahed4 ,warneck1 8,outlines of ,hist4 of ,prot4 ,miss40 ,edin41 #ahhd4 ,smith1 8,short ,hist4 of ,christ4 ,miss40 ,edin41 #ahhd4 b4 ,history of the ,papacy4-- ,ranke1 8,history of ,papacy in #afth and #agth ,cent40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahee4 ,platina 7,lib4 of ,vatican71 8,lives of ,popes40 7#adha74 ,trans4 by ,rycaut1 ,lond41 #afhe4 ,bower1 8,hist4 of ,popes40 #g vols41 ,lond41 #agej4 ,bryce1 8,holy ,rom4 ,empire40 ,lond41 #ahff4 ,creighton1 8,hist4 of ,papacy during the ,reformation40 ,vols4 ,i4-,,iv41 from ,a4,d4 #acgh-aeah1 ,lond41 #ahhb-ahhf4 ,janus1 8,pope and the ,council40 ,lond41 #ahfi4 ,pennington1 8,epochs of the ,papacy40 ,lond41 #ahhb4 c4 ,history of ,monasticism4-- ,hospinianus ,hospinian1 8,de ,monachis40 ,etc41 ,tigur41 #afji4 ,maitland1 8,the ,dark ,ages40 ,lond41 #ahdd4 d4 ,history of ,councils4-- ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ,vols4 ,i4-,,iii41 to ,a4,d4 #dea1 ,edin41 #ahga-ahhc4 7,original ,german work brought down to the ,council of ,trent exclusive47 e4 ,church law4-- ,haddan and ,stubbs1 8,councils and ,eccl4 ,documents illust4 ,eccl4 ,hist4 of ,gr4 ,brit4 and ,ireland40 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahfi ff4 ,phillimore1 8,eccl4 ,law40 ,lond41 #ahgc4 f4 ,archology4-- ,by ,cath4 ,didron1 8,christ4 ,iconography2 or1 ,hist4 of ,christ4 ,art in ,m4 ,a40 ,lond41 #ahhf4 ,by ,prot4 ,bingham1 8,antiq4 of ,christ4 ,church40 #i vols41 ,lond41 #ahde4 8,dictionary of ,christ4 ,antiquities40 ,ed4 by ,smith ,cheetham1 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahge ff4 g4 ,history of ,doctrines4-- ,neander1 8,hist4 of ,christ4 ,doct40 #b vols41 ,lond4 ,hagenbach1 8,hist4 of ,christ4 ,doctrines40 #c vols41 ,edin41 #ahhj f4 ,shedd1 8,hist4 of ,christ4 ,doc40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahfi4 h4 ,symbolics and ,polemics4-- ,winer1 8,confessions of ,christendom40 ,edin41 #ahgc4 ,schaff1 8,creeds of ,christendom40 #c vols41 ,edin41 #ahgg ff4 ,mhler1 8,symbolism3 an ,expos4 of the ,doct4 ,differences between ,catholics and ,protestants40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahdc4 i4 ,patrology and ,history of ,theolog4 ,literature4-- ,dupin1 8,new ,history of ,ecclesiastical ,writers40 ,lond41 #afif4 ,cave1 8,script4 ,eccl4 ,hist4 ,lit40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #affh4 ,fabricii1 8,biblioth4 ,grca40 #ad vols41 ,hamb41 #agje2 8,biblioth4 ,medi et infin ,latin40 #f vols41 ,hamb41 #agcd4 ,teuffel1 8,hist4 of ,rom4 ,lit40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahgc4 k4 ,history of the ,theological ,sciences4-- ,buddus1 8,isagoge ,hist4 ,theol4 ad ,theol4 ,univ40 ,lps41 #agbg4 ,rbiger1 8,encyclopdia of ,theology40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahhd4 ,dorner1 8,hist4 of ,prot4 ,theol40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahga4 ,history of ,exegesis4-- ,davidson1 8,sacred ,hermeneutics2 including ,hist4 of ,biblical ,interpretation from earliest ,fathers to ,reformation40 ,edin41 #ahdc4 ,farrar1 8,hist4 of ,interpretation40 ,lond41 #ahhf4 ,history of ,morals4-- ,wuttke's 8,christian ,ethics40 ,vol4 ,i41 8,hist4 of ,ethics40 ,edin41 #ahgc4 l4 ,biographies4-- 8,acta ,sanctorum40 #fc vols4 fol41 ,ant41 #afdc ff4 ,mabillon1 8,acta ,ss4 ord4 ,s4 ,bened40 #i vols4 fol41 ,par41 #afff ff4 ,flaccius ,flacius1 8,catalog4 ,testium ,veritatis40 #aeee4 ,piper1 8,lives of ,leaders of ,church ,universal40 #b vols41 ,edin4 ,smith and ,wace1 8,dict4 of ,chr4 ,biog40 etc41 #d vols41 ,lond41 #ahgg ff4 #c4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,church ,,history ,,according ,,to ,,periods4 ,in the history of the world's culture three historical stages of universal development succeed each other3 the ,oriental1 the ,franco-,german1 and the ,teutono-,romanic4 ,the kingdom of ,god had to enter each of these and have in each a distinctive character1 so that as comprehensive a development as possible might be secured4 ,the history of the preparation for ,christianity in the history of the ,israelitish theocracy moves along the lines of ,oriental culture4 ,the history of the beginnings of ,christianity embraces the history of the founding of the church by ,christ and ,his ,apostles4 ,these two together constitute ,biblical history1 which1 as an independent branch of study receiving separate treatment1 need be here treated merely in a brief1 introductory manner4 ,this holds true also of the history of pagan culture alongside of and subsequent to the founding of the church4 ,church history1 strictly so-called1 the development of the already founded church1 begins therefore1 according to our conception1 with the ,post-,apostolic ,age1 and from that point pursues its course in three principal divisions4 ,the ancient church completes its task by thoroughly assimilating the elements contributed by the ,grco-,roman forms of civilization4 ,in the ,teutono-,romanic ,church of the middle ages the appropriation and amalgamation of ancient classical modes of thought with modern tendencies awakened by its immediate surroundings were carried out and completed4 ,on the other hand1 the development of church history since the ,reformation has its impulse given it by that ,teutono-,christian culture which had maturity and an independent form secured to it by the ,reformation4 ,this distribution in accordance with the various forms of civilization seems to us so essential1 that we propose to borrow from it our principle for the arrangement of our church history4 ,the chronological distribution of the material may be represented in the following outline3 ,i4 ,history of the ,preparation for ,christianity3 ,preparation for ,redemption during the ,hebraic-,oriental stage of civilization1 and the construction alongside of it in the universalism of classical culture of forms that prepared the way for the coming salvation4 ,,ii4 ,history of the ,beginnings of ,christianity3 a sketch of the redemption by ,christ and the founding of the ,church through the preaching of it by the ,apostles4 ,,iii4 ,history of the ,development of ,christianity1 on the basis of the sketch of the redemption given in the history of the ,beginnings3 ,a4 ,in the ,grco-,roman and ,grco-,byzantine ,period1 under ,ancient ,classical ,forms of ,civilization4 ,first ,section1 ,a4,d4 #gj to ,a4,d4 #cbc1--;down to the final victory of ,christianity over the ,grco-,roman paganism2 the ,post-,apostolic and ,old ,catholic ,ages4 ,second ,section1 from ,a4,d4 #cbc to ,a4,d4 #fib1--;down to the final close of cumenical development of doctrine in ,a4,d4 #fhj1 and the appearance of what proved a lasting estrangement between the ,eastern and the ,western ,churches in ,a4,d4 #fib1 which was soon followed by the alliance of the ,papacy with the ,frankish instead of the ,byzantine empire2 the cumenico-,catholic ,church1 or the ,church of the ,roman-,byzantine ,empire4 ,third ,section1 from ,a4,d4 #fib to ,a4,d4 #adec1--;down to the overthrow of ,constantinople4 ,languishing and decay of the old church life in the ,byzantine ,empire2 complete breach and futile attempts at union between ,east and ,west4 ,the ,church of the ,byzantine ,empire4 ,b4 ,in the ,medival ,period1 under ,teutono-,romanic ,forms of ,civilization4 ,first ,section1 #d-ith cent4--from the first beginnings of ,teutonic church life down to the end of the ,carlovingian ,age1 ,a4,d4 #iaa4 ,the ,teutonic ,age4 ,second ,section1 #aj-acth cent4--down to ,boniface ,,viii41 ,a4,d4 #abid2 rise of medival institutions--the ,papacy1 ,monasticism1 ,scholasticism2 ,germany in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political movement4 ,third ,section1 the #ad-aeth cent4--down to the ,reformation in ,a4,d4 #aeag2 deterioration and collapse of medival institutions2 ,france in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political movement4 ,c4 ,in the ,modern ,period1 under the ,european ,forms of ,civilization4 ,first ,section1 the #afth cent4 ,age of ,evangelical-,protestant ,reformation and ,roman ,catholic ,counter-,reformation4 ,second ,section1 the #agth cent4 ,age of ,orthodoxy on the ,protestant side and continued endeavours after restoration on the side of ,catholicism4 ,third ,section1 the #ahth cent4 ,age of advancing ,illuminism in both churches1--,deism1 ,naturalism1 ,rationalism4 ,fourth ,section1 the #aith cent4 ,age of re-awakened ,christian and ,ecclesiastical life4 ,unionism1 ,confessionalism1 and ,liberalism in conflict with one another on the ,protestant side2 the revival of ,ultramontanism in conflict with the civil power on the ,catholic side4 ,in opposition to both churches1 widespread pantheistic1 materialistic1 and communistic tendencies4 #d4 ,,sources ,,and ,,auxiliaries ,,of ,,church ,,history4#a ,the sources of ,church history are partly original1 in the shape of inscriptions and early documents2 partly derivative1 in the shape of traditions and researches in regard to primitive documents that have meanwhile been lost4 ,of greater importance to church history than the so-called dumb sources1 e4g4 church buildings1 furniture1 pictures1 are the inscriptions coming down from the earliest times2 but of the very highest importance are the extant official documents1 e4g4 acts and decisions of ,church ,councils1 decrees and edicts of the ,popes1--decretals1 bulls1 briefs1--the pastoral letters of bishops1 civil enactments and decrees regarding ecclesiastical matters1 the rules of ,spiritual ,orders1 monastic rules1 liturgies1 confessional writings1 the epistles of influential ecclesiastical and civil officers1 reports by eye witnesses1 sermons and doctrinal treatises by ,church teachers1 etc4 ,in regard to matters not determined by any extant original documents1 earlier or later fixed traditions and historical researches must take the place of those lost documents4--,sciences ,auxiliary to ,church ,history are such as are indispensable for the critical estimating and sifting1 as well as for the comprehensive understanding of the sources of church history4 ,to this class the following branches belong3 ,diplomatics1 which teaches how to estimate the genuineness1 completeness1 and credibility of the documents in question2 ,philology1 which enables us to understand the languages of the sources2 ,geography and ,chronology1 which make us acquainted with the scenes and periods where and when the incidents related in the original documents were enacted4 ,among auxiliary sciences in the wider sense1 the history of the ,state1 of ,law1 of ,culture1 of ,literature1 of ,philosophy1 and of ,universal ,religion1 may also be included as indispensable owing to their intimate connection with ecclesiastical development4 #d4a4 ,literature of the ,sources4-- a4 ,inscriptions3 de ,rossi1 8,inscriptt4 chr4 urbis ,rom40 ,vols4 ,i4 ,,ii41 ,rome1 #aheg4 b4 ,collections of ,councils3 ,harduin ,hardouin1 8,conc4 coll40 7to ,a4,d4 #agae71 #ab vols41 ,par41 #agae4 ,mansi1 8,conc4 nova et ampl4 coll40 #ca vols41 ,flor41 #agei4 c4 ,papal ,acts3 ,jaffe1 8,regesta pont4 ,rom40 7to ,a4,d4 #aaih71 #b ed41 ,brl41 #ahha4 ,potthast1 8,regesta pont4 ,rom40 7,a4,d4 #aaih-acjd71 #b ,vols41 ,brl41 #ahgc4 ,the ,papal ,decretals in 8,corp4 jur4 ,canonici40 ed41 ,friedberg1 ,lips41 #ahgi4 8,bullarum1 diplom4 et privil4 ,,ss4 rom4 pont40 ,taurenensis editio1 #bd vols41 #aheg ff4 ,nussi1 8,conventiones de reb4 eccl4 inter s4 sedem et civ4 pot4 init40 ,mogunt41 #ahgj4 d4 ,monastic ,rules3 ,holstenii1 8,cod4 regul4 mon4 et4 can40 #f vols41 #agei4 e4 ,liturgies3 ,daniel1 8,cod4 liturg4 eccl4 univ40 #d vols41 ,leipz41 #ahdg ff4 ,hammond1 8,ancient ,liturgies40 ,oxf41 #ahgh4 f4 ,symbolics3 ,kimmel1 8,ll4 ,symb4 eccl4 ,orient40 ,jena41 #ahdc4 ,danz1 8,ll4 ,symb4 eccl4 ,rom4 ,cath40 ,weimar1 #ahce4 ,hase1 8,ll4 ,symb4 eccl4 evang40 ,ed4 iii41 ,leipz41 #ahdj4 ,niemeyer1 8,coll4 ,conf4 eccl4 ,ref40 ,leipz41 #ahdj4 ,schaff1 8,creeds of ,christendom40 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahhb4 g4 ,martyrologies3 ,ruinart1 8,acta prim4 ,mart40 #c vols41 #ahjb4 ,assemanni ,assemani1 8,acta ,,ss4 ,mart4 orient4 et occid40 #b vols41 ,rome1 #agdh4 h4 ,greek and ,latin ,church ,fathers and ,teachers3 ,migne1 8,patrologi currus completus40 ,ser4 ,i41 ,eccl4 ,grc41 #afb vols41 ,par41 #aheg ff42 ,ser4 ,,ii41 ,eccl4 ,lat41 #bba vols41 ,par41 #ahdd ff4 ,horoy1 8,media vi biblioth4 patrist40 7from ,a4,d4 #abaf to #aefd71 ,paris1 #ahgi4 8,corpus ,scriptorum eccl4 lat40 ,vindob41 #ahff ff4 ,grabe1 8,spicilegium ,,ss4 ,pp4 et ,hrett40 ,sc4 ,i4-,,iii41 #c vols41 ,oxford1 #afih4 ,routh1 8,reliqui sac40 #d vols41 ,oxford1 #ahad ff4 8,ante-,nicene ,christian ,library2 a collection of all the works of the ,fathers of the ,christian ,church prior to the ,council of ,nica40 #bd vols41 ,edin41 #ahfg ff4 i4 ,ancient ,writers of the ,east3 ,assemanus ,assemani1 8,biblioth4 orient40 #d vols41 ,rome1 #agai4 k4 ,byzantine ,writers3 ,niebuhr1 8,corp4 scr4 hist4 ,byz40 #dh vols41 ,bonn1 #ahbh ff4 ,sathas1 8,biblioth4 ,grc4 ,med4 vi40 ,vols4 ,i4-,,vi41 ,athens1 #ahgb ff4 #d4b4 ,literature of the ,auxiliary ,sciences4-- a4 ,diplomatics3 ,mabillon1 8,de re diplomatic40 ,ed4 ii41 ,par41 #agji4 b4 ,philology3 ,du ,fresne 7du ,cange71 8,glossarium ad scriptt4 med4 et infim4 ,latin40 #f vols41 ,par41 #agcc2 ,new ed41 ,henschel and ,favre1 in course of publication4 ,du ,fresne1 8,glossarium1 ad scriptt4 med4 et infim4 ,grc40 #b vols41 ,leyden1 #afhh4 ,suiceri1 8,thesaurus ecclesiast4 e patribus grcis40 ,ed4 ii41 #b vols41 ,amst41 #agbh4 c4 ,geography and ,statistics3 ,mich4 le ,quien1 8,oriens christianus in quatuor patriarchatus digestus40 #c vols41 ,par41 #agjd4 d4 ,chronology3 ,nicolas1 8,the ,chronology of ,history40 #b ed41 ,lond41 #ahch4 8,l'art de verifier les dates1 by d',antine40 ,etc41 ed4 by ,courcelles1 #ai vols41 ,par41 #ahba-ahbd4 #e4 ,,history ,,of ,,general ,,church ,,history4 ,the earliest writer of church history properly so called is ,eusebius1 ,bishop of ,csarea1 #cdj4 ,during the fifth century certain members of the ,greek ,church continued his work4 ,the ,western ,church did not so soon engage upon undertakings of that sort1 and was contented with translations and reproductions of the materials that had come down from the ,greeks instead of entering upon original investigations4 ,during the middle ages1 in consequence of the close connection subsisting between ,church and ,state1 the ,greek ,scriptores histori ,byzantin1 as well as the ,latin national histories1 biographies1 annals1 and chronicles1 are of the very utmost importance as sources of information regarding the church history of their times4 ,it was the ,reformation1 however1 that first awakened and inspired the spirit of true critical research and scientific treatment of church history1 for the appeal of the ,reformers to the pure practices and institutions of the early days of the church demanded an authoritative historical exposition of the founding of the church1 and this obliged the ,catholic church to engage upon the studies necessary for this end4 ,the ,lutheran as well as the ,catholic ,church1 however1 down to the middle of the #agth century1 were satisfied with the voluminous productions of the two great pioneers in ,church history1 ,flacius and ,baronius4 ,afterwards1 however1 emulation in the study of church history was excited1 which was undoubtedly1 during the #agth century1 most successfully prosecuted in the ,catholic ,church4 ,in consequence of the greater freedom which prevailed in the ,gallican ,church1 these studies flourished conspicuously in ,france1 and were pursued with exceptional success by the ,oratorians and the ,order of ,st4 ,maur4 ,the ,reformed theologians1 especially in ,france and the ,netherlands1 did not remain far behind them in the contest4 ,throughout the #ahth century1 again1 the performances of the ,lutheran ,church came to the front1 while a laudable rivalry leads the ,reformed to emulate their excellencies4 ,in the case of the ,catholics1 on the other hand1 that zeal and capacity which1 during the #agth century1 had won new laurels in the field of honour1 were now sadly crippled4 ,but as rationalism spread in the domain of doctrine1 pragmatism spread in the domain of church history1 which set for itself as the highest ideal of historical writing the art of deducing everything in history1 even what is highest and most profound in it1 from the co-operation of fortune and passion1 arbitrariness and calculation4 ,it was only in the #aith century1 when a return was made to the careful investigation of original authorities1 and it came to be regarded as the task of the historian1 to give a conception and exposition of the science as objective as possible1 that this erroneous tendency was arrested4 #e4a4 ,down to the ,reformation4--,the church history of ,eusebius1 which reaches down to ,a4,d4 #cbd1 was to some extent continued by his ,vita ,constantini1 down to ,a4,d4 #ccg 7 #dg1 #b74 ,the church history of ,philostorgius1 which reaches from ,a4,d4 #cah-dbc1 coming down to us only in fragments quoted by ,photius1 was an ,arian party production of some importance4 ,during the #eth century1 however1 the church history of ,eusebius was continued down to ,a4,d4 #dci by the ,catholic ,socrates1 an advocate at ,constantinople1 written in a simple and impartial style1 yet not altogether uncritical1 and with a certain measure of liberality2 and down to ,a4,d4 #dbc1 by ,sozomen1 also an advocate at ,constantinople1 who in large measure plagiarizes from ,socrates1 and is1 in what is his own1 uncritical1 credulous1 and fond of retailing anecdotes2 and down to ,a4,d4 #dbh by ,theodoret1 ,bishop of ,cyrus in ,syria1 who produces much useful material in the shape of original authorities1 confining himself1 however1 like both of his predecessors1 almost exclusively to the affairs of the ,eastern ,church4 ,in the #fth century1 ,theodorus1 reader at ,constantinople1 made a collection of extracts from these works1 continuing the history down to his own time in ,a4,d4 #ebg4 ,of this we have only fragments preserved by ,nicephorus ,callisti4 ,the continuation by ,evagrius of ,antioch1 reaching from ,a4,d4 #dca-eid1 is characterized by carefulness1 learning1 and impartiality1 along with zealous orthodoxy1 and an uncritical belief in the marvellous4 ,collected editions of all these works have been published by ,valesius 7,par41 #afei71 and ,reading 7,cantab41 #agbj71 in each case in #c vols4 folio4--,in the ,latin ,church ,rufinus of ,aquileia translated the work of ,eusebius and enlarged it before the continuations of the three ,greek historians had appeared1 carrying it down to his own time in ,a4,d4 #cie in an utterly uncritical fashion4 ,sulpicius ,severus1 a presbyter of ,gaul1 wrote about the same time his ,historia ,sacra1 in two books1 from the creation of the world down to ,a4,d4 #djj4 ,in the #fth century1 ,cassiodorus fused together into one treatise in #ab books1 by means of extracts1 the works of the three ,greek continuators of ,eusebius1 under the title ,hist4 ecclesiastica tripartita1 which1 combined with the history of ,rufinus1 remained down to the ,reformation in common use as a text-book4 ,a church history written in the #fth century in ,syriac1 by the monophysite bishop1 ,john of ,ephesus1 morbidly fond of the miraculous1 first became known to us in an abridged form of the third part embracing the history of his own time4 7,ed4 ,cureton1 ,oxf41 #ahec4 ,transl4 into ,engl4 by ,payne ,smith1 ,oxford1 #ahei47--;,belonging to the ,latin church of the middle ages1 ,haymo of ,halberstadt deserves to be named as a writer of universal history1 about ,a4,d4 #hej1 leaning mainly upon ,rufinus and ,cassiodorus4 ,the same too may be said about the work entitled1 ,libri ,,xiii4 histori ecclesiastic written by the ,abbot ,odericus ,vitalis in ,normandy1 about ,a4,d4 #aaej1 which forms upon the whole the most creditable production of the middle ages4 ,in the #bd books of the ,church history of the ,dominican and ,papal librarian1 ,tolomeo of ,lucca1 composed about ,a4,d4 #acae1 church history is conceived of as if it were simply a historical commentary on the ecclesiastical laws and canons then in force1 as an attempt1 that is1 to incorporate in the history all the fictions and falsifications1 which ,pseudo-,isidore in the #ith century 7 #hg1 #b-d71 ,gratian in the #abth century1 and ,raimundus ,raimund de ,penneforti ,pennaforte in the #acth century 7 #ii1 #e71 had wrought into the ,canon law4 ,toward the end of the #aeth century1 under the influence of humanism there was an awakening here and there to a sense of the need of a critical procedure in the domain of church history1 which had been altogether wanting throughout the middle ages4 ,in the ,greek ,church again1 during the #adth century1 ,nicephorus ,callisti of ,constantinople1 wrote a treatise on church history1 reaching down to ,a4,d4 #faj1 devoid of taste and without any indication of critical power4 #e4b4 ,the #afth and #agth ,centuries4--,about the middle of the #afth century the ,lutheran ,church produced a voluminous work in church history1 the so-called ,magdeburg ,centuries1 composed by a committee of ,lutheran theologians1 at the head of which was ,matthias ,flacius1 of ,illyria in ,magdeburg4 ,this work consisted of #ac folio vols41 each of which embraced a century4 7,eccles4 ,hist41 integram eccl4 ideam complectens1 congesta per aliquot studiosos et pios viros in urbe ,magdb4 ,bas41 #aeei-aegd47 ,they rest throughout on careful studies of original authorities1 produce many documents that were previously unknown1 and1 with an unsparingly bitter polemic against the ,romish doctrinal degeneration1 address themselves with special diligence to the historical development of dogma4 ,in answer to them the ,romish ,oratorian1 ,csar ,baronius1 produced his ,annales ecclesiastici1 in #ab vols4 folio1 reaching down to ,a4,d4 #aaih 7,rome1 #aehh-afjg74 ,this work moves entirely along ,roman ,catholic lines and is quite prejudiced and partial1 and seeks in a thoroughly uncritical way1 by every species of ingenuity1 to justify ,romish positions2 yet1 as communicating many hitherto unknown1 and to others inaccessible documents1 it must be regarded as an important production4 ,it secured for its author the cardinal's hat1 and had wellnigh raised him to the chair of ,st4 ,peter4 ,in the interests of a scholarly and truth-loving research1 it was keenly criticised by the ,franciscan ,anthony ,pagi 7,critica hist-chronol4 #d vols41 ,antw41 #agje71 carried down in the #agth century from ,a4,d4 #aaih-aefe1 in #i vols4 by ,oderic4 ,raynaldi1 in the #ahth century from ,a4,d4 #aeff-aega1 in #c vols4 by de ,laderchi1 and in the #aith century down to ,a4,d4 #aehe in #c vols4 by ,august ,theiner4 ,a new edition was published by ,mansi 7#dc vols41 #agch ff471 with ,raynaldi's continuation and ,pagi's criticism4--,during the #agth century the ,french ,catholic scholars bore the palm as writers of ,church history4 ,the course was opened in general church history by the ,dominican ,natalis ,alexander1 a learned man1 but writing a stiff scholastic style 7,selecta hist4 eccl4 capita et diss4 hist4 chron4 et dogm4 #bd vols41 ,par41 #afgf ff474 ,this first edition1 on account of its ,gallicanism was forbidden at ,rome2 a later one by ,roncaglia of ,lucca1 with corrective notes1 was allowed to pass4 ,sebast4 le ,nain de ,tillemont1 with the conscientiousness of his ,jansenist faith1 gave an account of early church history in a cleverly grouped series of carefully selected authorities 7,memoires pour servir l'hist4 eccl4 des six premiers sicles1 justifis par les citations des auteurs originaux4 #af vols41 ,par41 #afic ff474 ,bossuet wrote1 for the instruction of the ,dauphin1 what ,hase has styled 8an ecclesiastical history of the world with eloquent dialectic and with an insight into the ways of providence1 as if the wise ,bishop of ,meaux had been in the secrets not only of the king's but also of ,god's councils0 7,discours sur l'hist4 universelle depuis le commencement du monde jusqu' l'empire de ,charles ,m4 ,par41 #afha74 ,claude ,fleury1 aiming at edification1 proceeds in flowing and diffuse periods 7,histoire ecclst4 #bj vols41 ,par41 #afia ff474--,the history of the ,french ,church 7,a4,d4 #aehj7 ascribed1 probably erroneously1 to ,theodore ,beza1 the successor of ,calvin1 marks the beginning of the writing of ecclesiastical history in the ,reformed ,church4 ,during the #agth century it secured an eminence in the department of church history1 especially on account of learned special researches 7 #afj1 #g71 but also to some extent in the domain of general church history4 ,j4 ,h4 ,hottinger overloaded his ,hist4 ecclst4 ,n4 ,t4 7#i vols41 ,fig41 #afea ff47 by dragging in the history of ,judaism1 and ,paganism1 and even of ,mohammedanism1 with much irrelevant matter of that sort4 ,superior to it were the works of ,friedr4 ,spanheim 7,summa hist4 eccl4 ,leyd41 #afhi7 ,jas4 ,basnage 7,hist4 de l'gl4 #b vols41 ,rotd41 #afii74 ,most important of all were the keen criticism of the ,annals of ,baronius by ,isaac ,casaubon 7,exercitt4 ,baronian4 ,lond41 #afad71 and by ,sam4 ,basnage 7,exercitt4 hist4 crit4 ,traj41 #afib2 and ,annales polit4 ecclst4 #c vols41 ,rotd41 #agjf74 #e4c4 ,the #ahth ,century4--,after the publication of the ,magdeburg ,opus palmare the study of church history fell into the background in the ,lutheran ,church4 ,it was ,george ,calixtus 7 ,a4,d4 #afeh7 and the syncretist controversies which he occasioned that again awakened an interest in such pursuits4 ,gottfr4 ,arnold's colossal party-spirited treatise entitled 8,unparteiische ,kirchen- und ,ketzerhistorie0 7#b vols4 fol41 ,frkf41 #afii71 which scarcely recognised ,christianity except in heresies and fanatical sects1 gave a powerful impulse to the spirit of investigation and to the generous treatment of opponents4 ,this bore fruit in the irenical and conciliatory attempts of ,weismann of ,tbingen 7,introd4 in memorabilia ecclst4 #b vols41 ,tb41 #agah74 ,the shining star1 however1 in the firmament of church history during the #ahth century was ,j4 ,lor4 v4 ,mosheim in ,helmstedt ,helmstadt and ,gttingen1 distinguished alike for thorough investigation1 with a divinatory power of insight1 and by a brilliant execution and an artistic facility in the use of a noble ,latin style 7,institutionum hist4 ecclst4 ,libri ,,iv4 ,helmst41 #agee2 transl4 into ,english by ,murdock1 ed4 by ,reid1 #aath ed41 ,lond41 #ahhj74 ,j4 ,a4 ,cramer1 in ,kiel1 translated ,bossuet's ,einl4 in die ,gesch4 d4 ,welt u4 d4 ,relig41 with a continuation which gave a specially careful treatment of the theology of the middle ages 7#g vols41 ,leipz41 #ageg ff474 ,j4 ,sal4 ,semler1 in ,halle1 shook1 with a morbidly sceptical criticism1 many traditional views in ,church history that had previously been regarded as unassailable 7,hist4 eccl4 selecta capita4 #c vols41 ,halle1 #agfg ff42 ,versuch e4 fruchtb4 ,auszugs d4 ,k4 ,gesch4 #c vols41 ,halle1 #aggc ff474 ,on the other hand1 ,jon4 ,matt4 ,schrckh of ,wittenberg produced a gigantic work on church history1 which is characterized by patient research1 and gives1 in so far as the means within his reach allowed1 a far-sighted1 temperate1 and correct statement of facts 7,christl4 ,k4 ,g4 #de vols41 ,leipz41 #aggb ff41 the last two vols4 by ,tzschirner74 ,the ,wrtemburg ,wrttemberg minister of state1 ,baron von ,spittler1 sketched a ,grundriss der ,k4 ,gesch41 in short and smartly expressed utterances1 which in many cases were no better than caricatures 7#eth ed4 by ,planck1 ,gtt41 #ahab74 ,in his footsteps ,henke of ,helmstedt ,helmstadt1 followed1 who1 while making full acknowledgment of the moral blessing which had been brought by true ,christianity to mankind1 nevertheless described the 8,allg4 ,gesch4 der ,kirche0 as if it were a bedlam gallery of religious and moral aberrations and strange developments 7#f vols41 ,brsweig41 #aghh ff42 #eth ed4 revised and continued by ,vater in #i vols474--,in the ,reformed ,church1 ,herm4 ,venema1 of ,franeker1 the ,mosheim of this church1 distinguished himself by the thorough documentary basis which he gave to his exposition1 written in a conciliatory spirit 7,institutt4 hist4 eccl4 ,v4 et ,n4 ,t4 #g vols41 ,leyd41 #aggg ff474 ,in the ,catholic ,church1 ,royko of ,prague1 favoured by the reforming tendencies of the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii41 was able with impunity to give expression to his anti-hierarchical views in an almost cynically outspoken statement 7,einl4 in d4 chr4 ,rel4 u4 ,k4 ,g4 ,prague1 #aghh74 #e4d4 ,the #aith ,century4 ,in his ,handb4 d4 chr4 ,k4 ,g41 publ4 in #ahja 7in #bnd ed4 contin4 by ,rettberg1 #g vols41 ,giessen1 #ahcd71 ,chr4 ,schmidt of ,giessen expressly maintained that the supreme and indeed the only conditions of a correct treatment of history consisted in the direct study of the original documents1 and a truly objective exhibition of the results derived therefrom4 ,by objectivity1 however1 he understood indifference and coolness of the subject in reference to the object1 which must inevitably render the representation hard1 colourless1 and lifeless4 ,gieseler of ,gttingen1 #ahed1 commended this mode of treatment by his excellent execution1 and in his ,lehrbuch 7#e vols41 ,bonn1 #ahbd-aheg2 ,engl4 transl4 8,compendium of ,church ,history40 #e vols41 ,edinb41 #ahdf-ahef71 a master-piece of the first rank1 which supports1 explains and amplifies the author's own admirably compressed exposition by skilfully chosen extracts from the documents1 together with original and thoughtful criticism under the text4 ,a temperate1 objective1 and documentary treatment of church history is also given in the ,handbuch of ,engelhardt of ,erlangen 7#e vols41 ,erlang41 #ahcb ff474 ,among the so-called ,compendia the most popular was the ,universalgeschichte d4 ,k4 by ,studlin1 of ,gttingen 7,hann41 #ahjg2 #eth ed4 by ,holzhausen1 #ahcc74 ,it was superseded by the ,lehrbuch of ,hase1 of ,jena 7,leipz41 #ahcd2 #ajth ed41 #ahgg2 ,engl4 transl4 from #gth ,germ4 ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahee71 which is a generally pregnant and artistically tasteful exposition with often excellent and striking features1 subtle perception1 and with ample references to documentary sources4 ,the ,vorlesungen of ,schleiermacher1 #ahcd1 published after his death by ,bonell 7,brl41 #ahdj71 assume acquaintance with the usual materials1 and present in a fragmentary manner the general outlines of the church's course of development4 ,niedner's ,lehrbuch 7#bnd ed41 ,brl41 #ahff71 is distinguished by a philosophical spirit1 independent treatment1 impartial judgment1 and wealth of contents with omission of customary matter1 but marred by the scholastic stiffness and awkwardness of its style4 ,gfrrer's 7 #ahfa7 ,kirchengeschichte 7#g vols4 reaching down to ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 ,stuttg41 #ahdj7 treats early ,christianity as purely a product of the culture of the age1 and knows of no moving principles in the historical development of the ,christian church but clerical self-seeking1 political interests1 machinations and intrigues4 ,nevertheless the book1 especially in the portion treating of the middle ages1 affords a fresh and lively account of researches among original documents and of new results1 although even here the author does not altogether restrain his undue fondness for over subtle combinations4 ,after his entrance into the ,catholic ,church his labours in the domain of church history were limited to a voluminous history of ,gregory ,,vii41 which may be regarded as a continuation of his church history1 the earlier work having only reached down to that point4 ,baur of ,tbingen began the publication of monographical treatises on particular periods1 reaching down to the ,reformation 7#c vols41 #bnd ed41 ,tb41 #ahfj ff471 a continuation to the end of the #ahth cent4 7published by his son ,f4 ,baur1 #ahfc71 and also a further volume treating of the #aith cent4 7publ4 by his son-in-law ,zeller1 #bnd ed41 #ahgg74 ,these works of this unwearied investigator show thorough mastery of the immense mass of material1 with subtle criticism and in many cases the first establishment of new views4 ,bhringer's massive production 7,die ,kirche ,christi und ihre ,zeugen1 oder ,kirchengeschichte in ,biographien4 #bd vols41 ,zur41 #ahdb2 #bnd ed41 ,zur41 #ahgc71 upon the basis of an independent study of the several ages down to the ,reformation1 characterizes by means of detailed portraiture the personalities prominent during these periods4 ,in the second edition1 thoroughly recast with the assistance of his two sons1 there is evidence of a more strictly critical research and a judicial frame of mind1 so that the predominantly panegyrical character of the first edition is considerably modified4 ,rothe's lectures1 edited after his death1 with additions from his literary remains1 by ,weingarten 7#b vols41 ,hdlb41 #ahge7 are quite fragmentary because the usual historical matter was often supplied from ,gieseler1 ,neander1 or ,hase4 ,the work is of great value in the departments of the ,constitution and the ,life of the ,church1 but in other respects does not at all satisfy the expectations which one might entertain respecting productions bearing such an honoured name2 thoroughly solid and scholarly1 however1 are the unfortunately only sparse and short notes of the learned editor4 #e4e4 ,almost contemporaneously with ,gieseler1 ,aug4 ,neander of ,berlin1 #ahej1 began the publication of his ,allg4 ,gesch4 d4 chr4 ,kirche in xi4 divisions down to ,a4,d4 #adaf 7,ham41 #ahbd-aheb4 ,engl4 ,transl4 #i vols41 ,edin41 #ahdg-ahee71 by which ground was broken in another direction4 ,powerfully influenced by the religious movement1 which since the wars of independence had inspired the noblest spirits of ,germany1 and sympathizing with ,schleiermacher's theology of feeling1 he vindicated the rights of subjective piety in the scientific treatment of church history1 and sought to make it fruitful for edification as a commentary of vast proportions on the parable of the leaven4 ,with special delight he traces the developments of the inner life1 shows what is ,christian in even misconceived and ecclesiastically condemned manifestations1 and feels for the most part repelled from objective ecclesiasticism1 as from an ossification of the ,christian life and the crystallization of dogma4 ,in the same way he undervalues the significance of the political co-efficients1 and has little appreciation of esthetic and artistic influences4 ,the exposition goes out too often into wearisome details and grows somewhat monotonous1 but is on every side lighted up by first hand acquaintance with the original sources4 ,his scholar1 ,hagenbach of ,basel1 #ahgd1 put together in a collected form his lectures delivered before a cultured public upon several periods of church history1 so as to furnish a treatise dealing with the whole field 7#g vols41 ,leipz41 #ahfh74 ,these lectures are distinguished by an exposition luminous1 interesting1 sometimes rather broad1 but always inspired by a warm ,christian spirit and by circumspect judgment1 inclining towards a mild confessional latitudinarianism4 ,what1 even on the confessional and ecclesiastical side1 had been to some extent passed over by ,neander1 in consequence of his tendency to that inwardness that characterizes subjective and pectoral piety1 has been enlarged upon by ,guericke of ,halle1 #ahgh1 another of ,neander's scholars1 in his ,handbuch 7#b vols41 ,leipz41 #ahcc2 #ith ed41 #c vols41 #ahff2 ,eng4 transl4 8,manual of ,ch4 ,hist40 ,edinb41 #aheg71 by the contribution of his own enthusiastic estimate of the ,lutheran ,church in a strong but clumsy statement2 beyond this1 however1 the one-sidedness of ,neander's standpoint is not overcome1 and although1 alongside of ,neander's exposition1 the materials and estimates of other standpoints are diligently used1 and often the very words incorporated1 the general result is not modified in any essential respect4 ,written with equal vigour1 and bearing the impress of a freer ecclesiastical spirit1 the ,handbuch of ,bruno ,lindner 7#c vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahdh ff47 pursues with special diligence the course of the historical development of doctrine1 and also emphasizes the influence of political factors4 ,this same end is attempted in detailed treatment with ample production of authoritative documents in the ,handbuch of the author of the present treatise 7vol4 ,i4 in three divisions1 in a #bnd ed42 vol4 ,,ii4 #a1 down to the end of the ,carlovingian ,era4 ,mitau1 #aheh ff474 ,milman 7#agia-ahfh7 an ,english church historian of the first rank 78,hist4 of ,chr4 to ,abolit4 of ,pag4 in ,rom4 ,emp40 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahdj2 8,history of ,latin ,christianity to the ,pontificate of ,nicholas ,v40 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahed71 shows himself1 especially in the latter work1 learned1 liberal and eloquent1 eminently successful in sketching character and presenting vivid pictures of the general culture and social conditions of the several periods with which he deals4 ,the ,vorlesungen of ,r4 ,hasse ,hase1 published after his death by ,khler 7#bnd ed41 ,leipz41 #ahgb71 form an unassuming treatise1 which scarcely present any trace of the influence of ,hegel's teaching upon their author4 ,kllner of ,giessen writes an ,ordnung und ,uebersicht der ,materien der chr4 ,kirchengeschichte1 ,giess41 #ahfd1 a diligent1 well-arranged1 and well packed1 but somewhat dry and formless work4 ,h4 ,schmid of ,erlangen has enlarged his compendious ,lehrbuch 7#bnd ed41 #ahef71 into a ,handbuch of two bulky volumes 7,erlang41 #ahhj72 and ,o4 ,zckler of ,greifswald has contributed to the ,handbuch d4 theolog4 ,wissenschaften 7,erlang41 #ahhd2 #bnd ed41 #ahhe7 edited by him an excellent chronological summary of church history4 ,ebrard's ,handbuch 7#d vols41 ,erlang41 #ahfe ff47 endeavours to give adequate expression to this genuine spirit of the ,reformed conception of historical writing by bringing church history and the history of doctrines into organic connection4 ,the attempt is there made1 however1 as ,hase has expressed it1 with a paradoxical rather than an orthodox tendency4 ,the spirit and mind of the ,reformed ,church are presented to us in a more temperate1 mild and impartial form1 inspired by the pectoralism of ,neander1 in the ,handbuch of ,j4 ,j4 ,herzog of ,erlangen1 #ahhb 7#c vols41 ,erlang41 #ahgf71 which assumes the name of ,abriss or ,compendium4 ,this work set for itself the somewhat too ambitious aim of supplying the place of the productions of ,gieseler and ,neander1--which1 as too diffuse1 have unfortunately repelled many readers--by a new treatise which should set forth the important advances in the treatment of church history since their time1 and give a more concise sketch of universal church history4 ,the ,histoire du ,christianisme of ,prof4 ,chastel of ,geneva1 7#e vols41 ,par41 #ahha ff47 in its earlier volumes occupies the standpoint of ,neander1 and we often miss the careful estimation of the more important results of later research4 ,in regard to modern church history1 notwithstanding every effort after objectivity and impartiality1 theological sympathies are quite apparent4 ,on the other hand1 in the comprehensive ,history of the ,christian ,church by ,philip ,schaff 7in #h vols41 ,edinb41 #ahhe1 reaching down to ,gregory ,,viii41 ,a4,d4 #ajgc71 the rich results of research subsequent to the time of ,neander are fully and circumspectly wrought up in harmony with the general principles of ,neander's view of history4 ,herzog's ,realencyclopdie fr protest4 ,theol4 u4 ,kirche1 especially in its #bnd ed4 by ,herzog and ,plitt1 and after the death of both1 by ,hauck 7#ah vols41 ,leipz41 #ahgg ff471 has won peculiar distinction in the department of church history from the contributions of new and powerful writers4 ,lichtenberger1 formerly ,prof4 of ,theol4 in ,strassburg1 now in ,paris1 in his ,encyclopdie des sciences relig4 has produced a ,french work worthy of a place alongside that of ,herzog4 ,the ,dictionary of ,christian ,biography1 ,literature1 ,sects1 and ,doctrines during the first eight centuries1 edited with admirable circumspection and care by ,dr4 ,wm4 ,smith and ,prof4 ,wace1 combines with a completeness and richness of contents never reached before1 a thoroughgoing examination of the original sources4 7#d vols41 ,lond41 #ahgg ff47 ,weingarten's ,chronological ,tables for ,church ,history 7,zeittafeln z4 ,k4,g4 #bnd ed41 ,brl41 #ahgd7 are most useful to students as the latest and best helps of that kind4 #e4f4 ,in the ,catholic ,church of ,germany too a great activity has been displayed in the realm of church history4 ,first of all in general ,church history we have the diffuse work of the convert von ,stolberg 7,gesch4 d4 ,rel4 ,jesu1 #ae vols41 down to ,a4,d4 #dcj1 ,hamb41 #ahjf ff41 continued by von ,kerz1 vols4 #af-de1 and by ,brischar1 vols4 #df-eb1 ,mainz1 #ahbe-ahei71 spreading out into hortatory and uncritical details4 ,the elegant work of ,katerkamp 7,k4,g41 #e vols41 down to #aaec1 ,mnst41 #ahai ff47 followed it1 inspired by a like mild spirit1 but conceived in a more strictly scientific way4 ,liberal1 so far as that could be without breaking with the hierarchy1 is the ,handbuch der ,k4,g4 7#c vols41 ,bonn1 #ahbf ff42 #fth ed4 by ,ennen1 #b vols41 #ahfb71 by ,i4 ,ign4 ,ritter4 ,the ample and detailed ,gesch4 d4 ,chr4 ,rel4 u4 d4 ,k4 7#h vols41 down to #ajgc1 ,ravensb41 #ahbd ff47 of ,locherer reminds one of ,schrckh's work in other respects than that of its voluminousness4 ,a decidedly ultramontane conception of church history1 with frequent flashes of sharp wit1 first appears in ,hortig's ,handbuch 7#b vols41 ,landsh41 #ahbf74 ,dllinger in #ahbh publ4 as a #crd vol4 of this work a ,handbuch d4 ,neuern ,k4,g41 which1 with a similar tendency1 assumed a more earnest tone4 ,this theologian afterwards undertook a thoroughly new and independent work of a wider range1 which still remains incomplete 7,gesch4 d4 chr4 ,k41 ,i4 #a1 #b1 partially down to ,a4,d4 #fcj1 ,landsh41 #ahcc-ahce74 ,this work with ostensible liberality exposed the notorious fables of ,romish historical literature2 but1 on the other hand1 with brilliant ingenuity1 endeavoured carefully to preserve intact everything which on ultramontane principles and views might seem capable of even partial justification4 ,his ,lehrbuch 7,i4 ,,ii4 #a41 ,rgsb41 #ahcf ff471 reaching down only to the ,reformation1 treats the matter in a similar way1 and confines itself to a simple statement of acknowledged facts4 ,in the meantime ,j4 ,a4 ,mhler1 by his earlier monographical works1 and still more decidedly by his far-reaching influence as a ,professor at ,tbingen1 gave rise to an expectation of the opening up of a new epoch in the treatment of ,catholic church history4 ,he represented himself as in spiritual sympathy with the forms and means of ,protestant science1 although in decided opposition and conflict with its contents1 maintaining his faithful adhesion to all elements essential to ,roman ,catholicism4 ,this master1 however1 was prevented by his early death1 #ahch1 from issuing his complete history4 ,this was done almost thirty years after his death by ,gams1 who published the work from his posthumous papers 7,k4 ,g41 #c vols41 ,rgsb41 #ahfg ff471 with much ultramontane amendment4 ,it shows all the defects of such patchwork1 with here and there1 but relatively1 very few fruitful cases4 ,traces of his influence still appear in the spirit which pervades the ,lehrbcher proceeding from his school1 by ,alzog 7 #ahgh7 and ,kraus4 ,the ,universalgeschichte d4 ,k41 by ,j4 ,alzog 7,mainz1 #ahda2 #ith ed41 #b vols41 #ahgb2 transl4 into ,engl41 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahgg71 was1 in its earlier editions1 closely associated with the lectures of his teacher1 not ashamed even to draw from ,hase's fresh-sparkling fountains something at times for his own yet rather parched meadows1 but in his later editions he became ever more independent1 more thorough in his investigation1 more fresh and lively in his exposition1 making at the same time a praiseworthy endeavour at moderation and impartiality of judgment1 although his adhesion to the ,catholic standpoint grows more and more strict till it reaches its culmination in the acceptance of the dogma of ,papal ,infallibility4 ,the #ajth ed4 of his work appeared in #ahhb under the supervision of ,kraus1 who contributed much to its correction and completion4 ,the ,lehrbuch of ,f4 ,xav4 ,kraus of ,freiburg 7#bnd ed41 ,trier1 #ahhb7 is without doubt among all the ,roman ,catholic handbooks of the present the most solid from a scientific point of view1 and while diplomatically reserved and carefully balanced in its expression of opinions1 one of the most liberal1 and it is distinguished by a clever as well as instructive mode of treatment4 ,on the other hand1 the ,wrzburgian theologian1 ,j4 ,hergenrther 7since #ahgi ,cardinal and ,keeper of the ,papal ,archives at ,rome71 who represents the normal attitude of implicit trust in the ,vatican1 has published a ,handbuch 7#b vols4 in #d parts1 ,freib41 #ahgf ff42 #bnd ed41 #ahgi1 with a supplement3 ,sources1 ,literat41 and ,foundations74 ,in this work he draws upon the rich stores of his acknowledged scholarship1 which1 however1 often strangely forsakes him in treating of the history of ,protestant theology4 ,it is a skilful and instructive exposition1 and may very fitly be represented as 8a history of the church1 yea1 of the whole world1 viewed through correctly set ,romish spectacles40 ,far beneath him in scientific importance1 but in obstinate ultramontanism far above him1 stands the ,lehrbuch of ,h4 ,bruck ,brck 7#bnd ed41 ,mainz1 #ahgg74 ,a far more solid production is presented in the ,dissertatt4 select in hist4 ecclst4 of ,prof4 ,b4 ,jungmann of ,louvain1 which treat in chronological succession of parties and controversies prominent in church history1 especially of the historical development of doctrine1 in a thorough manner and with reference to original documents1 not without a prepossession in favour of ,vaticanism 7vols4 i4-iii41 ,ratisb41 #ahhj-ahhc1 reaching down to the end of the #ith cent474 ,the ,kirchenlexikon of ,wetzer and ,wette 7#ab vols41 ,freib41 #ahdg ff47 gained a prominent place on account of the articles on church history contributed by the most eminent ,catholic scholars1 conceived for the most part in the scientific spirit of ,mhler4 ,the very copious and of its kind admirably executed #bnd ed4 by ,kaulen 7,freib41 #ahhj ff471 under the auspices of ,card4 ,hergenrther1 is conceived in a far more decidedly ,papistic-,vatican spirit1 which often does not shrink from maintaining and vindicating even the most glaring productions of medival superstition1 illusion and credulity1 as grounded in indubitable historical facts4 ,much more important is the historical research in the ,hist4 ,jahrbuch der ,grres-,gesellschaft1 edited from #ahhj by ,g4 ,hffer1 and from #ahhc by ,b4 ,gramich1 which presents itself as 8a means of reconciliation for those historians with whom ,christ is the middle point of history and the ,catholic ,church the ,god-ordained institution for the education of the human race40--,in the ,french ,church the following are the most important productions3 the ,hist4 de l'gl4 of ,berault-,bercastel 7#bd vols41 ,par41 #aggh ff471 which have had many ,french continuators and also a ,german translator 7#bd vols41 ,vienna1 #aghd ff472 the ,hist4 ecclst4 depuis la cration1 etc41 of ,baron ,henrion1 ed4 by ,migne 7#be vols41 ,par41 #aheb ff472 and the very diffuse compilation1 wholly devoted to the glorification of the ,papacy and its institutions1 ,hist4 universelle de l'gl4 ,cath4 of the ,louvain ,french ,abb ,rohrbacher 7#bi vols41 ,par41 #ahdb ff42 of which an ,english transl4 is in course of publication74 ,finally1 the scientifically careful exposition of the ,old ,catholic ,j4 ,rieks1 ,gesch4 d4 chr4 ,k4 u4 d4 ,papstthums1 ,lahr41 #ahhb1 though in some respects onesided1 may be mentioned as deserving of notice for its general impartiality and love of the truth4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,preparation ,,for ,,christianity4 ,the pre-,christian ,world preparing the way of the ,christian ,church4 #f4 ,,the ,,standpoint ,,of ,,universal ,,history4 ,the middle point of the epochs and developments of the human race is the incarnation of ,god in ,christ4 ,with it begins1 upon it rests1 the fulness of the time 7,gal4 iv4 #d71 and toward it the whole pre-,christian history is directed as anticipatory or progressive4 ,this preparation has its beginning in the very cradle of humanity1 and is soon parted in the two directions of ,heathenism and ,judaism4 ,in the former case we have the development of merely human powers and capacities2 in the latter case this development is carried on by continuous divine revelation4 ,both courses of development1 distinguished not only by the means1 but also by the task undertaken and the end aimed at1 run alongside of one another1 until in the fulness of the time they are united in ,christianity and contribute thereto the fruits and results of what was essential and characteristic in their several separate developments4 #g4 ,,heathenism4 ,the primitive race of man1 surrounded by rich and luxuriant forms of nature1 put this abundance of primeval power in the place of the personal and supramundane ,god4 ,surrounded by such an inexhaustible fulness of life and pleasures1 man came to look upon nature as more worthy of sacrifice and reverence than a personal ,god removed far off into supramundane heights4 ,thus arose heathenism as to its general features3 a self-absorption into the depths of the life of nature1 a deification of nature1 a worshipping of nature 7,rom4 i4 #ba ff471 therefore1 the religion of nature1 in accordance with which1 too1 its moral character is determined4 ,most conspicuously by means of its intellectual culture has heathenism given preliminary aid to the church for the performing of her intellectual task4 ,and even the pagan empire1 with its striving after universal dominion1 as well as the active commercial intercourse in the old heathen world1 contributed in preparing the way of the church4 #g4a4 ,the ,religious ,character of ,heathenism4--,the hidden powers of the life of nature and the soul1 not intellectually apprehended in the form of abstract knowledge1 but laid hold of in immediate practice1 and developed in speculation and mysticism1 in natural magic and soothsaying1 and applied to all the relations of human life1 seemed revelations of the eternal spirit of nature1 and1 mostly by means of the intervention of prominent personalities and under the influence of various geographical and ethnographical peculiarities1 produced manifold systems of the religion of nature4 ,common to all1 and deeply rooted in the nature of heathenism1 is the distinction between the esoteric religion of the priests1 and the exoteric religion of the people4 ,the former is essentially a speculative ideal pantheism2 the latter is for the most part a mythical and ceremonial polytheism4 ,the religious development of heathenism has nevertheless been by no means stripped of all elements of truth4 ,apart from casual remnants of the primitive divine revelation1 which1 variously contorted on their transmission through heathen channels1 may lie at the foundation or be inwrought into its religious systems1 the hothouse-like development of the religion of nature has anticipated many a religious truth which1 in the way of divine revelation1 could only slowly and at a late period come to maturity1 but has perverted and distorted it to such a degree that it was little better than a caricature4 ,to this class belong1 for example1 the pantheistic theories of the ,trinity and the ,incarnation1 the dualistic acknowledgment of the reality of evil1 etc4 ,to this also especially belongs the offering of human victims which has been practised in all religions of nature without exception1--a terrible and to some extent prophetic cry of agony from ,god-forsaken men1 which is first toned down on ,golgotha into hymns of joy and thanksgiving4 ,witness is given to the power and energy1 with which the religions of nature in the time of their bloom took possession of and ruled over the minds and emotions of men1 by the otherwise unexampled sacrifices and self-inflictions1 such as hecatombs1 offerings of children1 mutilation1 prostitution1 etc41 to which its votaries submitted1 and not less the almost irresistible charm which it exercised again and again upon the people of ,israel during the whole course of their earlier history4 ,it also follows from this that the religion of heathenism does not consist in naked lies and pure illusions4 ,there are elements of truth in the lies1 which gave this power to the religion of nature4 ,there are anticipations of redemption1 though these were demoniacally perverted1 which imparted to it this charm4 ,there are mysterious phenomena of natural magic and soothsaying which seemed to establish their divine character4 ,but the worship of nature had the fate of all unnatural1 precocious development4 ,the truth was soon swallowed up by the lies1 the power of development and life1 of which more than could possibly be given was demanded1 was soon consumed and used up4 ,the blossoms fell before the fruit had set4 ,mysteries and oracles1 magic and soothsaying1 became empty forms1 or organs of intentional fraud and common roguery4 ,and so it came to pass that one harauspex could not look upon another without laughing4 ,unbelief mocked everything1 superstition assumed its most absurd and utterly senseless forms1 and religions of an irrational mongrel type sought in vain to quicken again a nerveless and soulless heathenism4 #g4b4 ,the ,moral ,character of ,heathenism4--,religious character and moral character go always hand in hand4 ,thus1 too1 the moral life among heathen peoples was earnest1 powerful1 and true1 or lax1 defective1 and perverse1 in the same proportion as was the religious life of that same period4 ,the moral faults of heathenism flow from its religious faults4 ,it was a religion of the present1 to whose gods therefore were also unhesitatingly ascribed all the imperfections of the present4 ,in this way religion lost all its power for raising men out of the mire and dust surrounding them4 ,the partly immoral myths sanctioned or excused by the example of the gods the grossest immoralities4 ,as the type and pattern of reproductive power in the deified life of nature1 the gratification of lust was often made the central and main point in divine service4 ,the idea of pure humanity was wholly wanting in heathenism4 ,it could only reach the conception of nationality1 and its virtues were only the virtues of citizens4 ,in the ,east despotism crushed1 and in the ,west fierce national antipathies stifled the acknowledgment of1 universal human rights and the common rank of men1 so that the foreigner and the slave were not admitted to have any claims4 ,as the worth of man was measured only by his political position1 the significance of woman was wholly overlooked and repudiated4 ,her position was at most only that of the maid of the man1 and was degraded to the lowest depths in the ,east by reason of the prevalent polygamy4 ,notwithstanding all these great and far-reaching moral faults1 heathenism1 in the days of its bloom and power1 at least in those departments of the moral life1 such as politics and municipal matters1 in which pantheism and polytheism did not exert their relaxing influence1 had still preserved much high moral earnestness and an astonishing energy4 ,but when the religion of their fathers1 reduced to emptiness and powerlessness1 ceased to be the soul and bearer of those departments of life1 all moral power was also withdrawn from them4 ,the moral deterioration reached its culminating point in the dissolute age of the ,roman ,emperors4 ,in this indescribable state of moral degeneration1 the church found heathenism1 when it began its spiritual regeneration of the world4 #g4c4 ,the ,intellectual ,culture in ,heathenism4--,the intellectual culture of heathenism has won in regard to the church a twofold significance4 ,on the one hand it affords a pattern1 and on the other it presents a warning beacon4 ,pagan science and art1 in so far as they possess a generally culturing influence and present to the ,christian church a special type for imitation1 are but the ultimate results of the intellectual activity which manifested itself among the ,greeks and ,romans in philosophy1 poetry and historical writing1 which have in two directions1 as to form and as to contents1 become the model for the ,christian church1 preparing and breaking up its way4 ,on the one side they produced forms for the exercise of the intellectual life1 which by their exactness and clearness1 by their variety and many-sidedness1 afforded to the new intellectual contents of ,christianity a means for its formal exposition and expression4 ,but1 on the other side1 they also produced1 from profound consideration of and research into nature and spirit1 history and life1 ideas and reflections which variously formed an anticipation of the ideas of redemption and prepared the soil for their reception4 ,the influence1 however1 on the other hand1 which oriental forms of culture had upon the development and construction of the history of redemption1 had already exhausted itself upon ,judaism4 ,what the symbolism of orientalism had contributed to ,judaism1 namely the form in which the divine contents communicated by ,old ,testament prophesy should be presented and unfolded1 the dialectic of classical heathenism was to ,christianity1 in which the symbolic covering of ,judaism was to be torn off and the thought of divine redemption to be manifested and to be laid hold of in its purely intellectual form4 ,the influence of heathenism upon the advancing church in the other direction as affording a picture of what was to be avoided1 was represented not less by ,eastern culture than by the classical culture of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,here it was exclusively the contents1 and indeed the ungodly anti-,christian contents1 the specifically heathen substance of the pagan philosophy1 theosophy1 and mysteriosophy1 which by means of tolerated forms of culture sought to penetrate and completely paganize ,christianity4 ,to heathenism1 highly cultured but pluming itself in the arrogance of its sublime wisdom1 ,christianity1 by whose suggestive profundity it had been at first attracted1 appeared altogether too simple1 unphilosophical1 unspeculative1 to satisfy the supposed requirements of the culture of the age4 ,there was needed1 it was thought1 fructification and enriching by the collective wisdom of the ,east and the ,west before religion could in truth present itself as absolute and perfect4 #g4d4 ,the ,hellenic ,philosophy4--,what is true of ,greek-,roman culture generally on its material and formal sides1 that it powerfully influenced ,christianity now budding into flower1 is preeminently true of the ,greek ,philosophy4 ,regarded as a prefiguration of ,christianity1 ,greek philosophy presents a negative side in so far as it led to the dissolution of heathenism1 and a positive side in so far as it1 by furnishing form and contents1 contributed to the construction of ,christianity4 ,from its very origin ,hellenic philosophy contributed to the negative process by undermining the people's faith in heathenism1 preparing for the overthrow of idolatry1 and leading heathenism to take a despondent view of its own future4 ,it is with ,socrates1 who died in ,b4,c4 #cii1 that the positive prefiguring of ,christianity on the part of ,greek philosophy comes first decidedly into view4 ,his humble confession of ignorance1 his founding of the claim to wisdom on the 1 the tracing of his deepest thoughts and yearnings back to divine suggestions 7his 71 his grave resignation to circumstances1 and his joyful hope in a more blessed future1 may certainly be regarded as faint anticipations and prophetic adumbrations of the phenomena of ,christian faith and life4 ,plato1 who died ,b4,c4 #cdh1 with independent speculative and poetic power1 wrought the scattered hints of his teacher's wisdom into an organically articulated theory of the universe1 which in its anticipatory profundity approached more nearly to the ,christian theory of the universe than any other outside the range of revelation4 ,his philosophy leads men to an appreciation of his ,god-related nature1 takes him past the visible and sensible to the eternal prototypes of all beauty1 truth and goodness1 from which he has fallen away1 and awakens in him a profound longing after his lost possessions4 ,in regard to matter ,aristotle1 who died ,b4,c4 #cbb1 does not stand so closely related to ,christianity as ,plato1 but in regard to form1 he has much more decidedly influenced the logical thinking and systematizing of later ,christian sciences4 ,in these two1 however1 are reached the highest elevation of the philosophical thinking of the ,greeks1 viewed in itself as well as in its positive and constructive influence upon the church4 ,as philosophy down to that time1 consciously or unconsciously1 had wrought for the dissolution of the religion of the people1 it now proceeded to work its own overthrow1 and brought into ever deeper1 fuller and clearer consciousness the despairing estimate of the world regarding itself4 ,this is shown most significantly in the three schools of philosophy which were most widely spread at the entrance of the church into the ,grco-,roman world1 ,epicureanism1 ,stoicism1 and ,scepticism4 ,epicurus1 who died ,b4,c4 #bga1 in his philosophy seeks the highest good in pleasure1 recognises in the world only a play of fortune1 regards the soul as mortal1 and supposes that the gods in their blissful retirement no longer take any thought about the world4 ,stoicism1 founded by ,zeno1 who died in ,b4,c4 #bfj1 over against the ,epicurean deism set up a hylozoistic pantheism1 made the development of the world dependent upon the unalterable necessity of fate1 which brings about a universal conflagration1 out of which again a new world springs to follow a similar course4 ,to look on pleasure with contempt1 to scorn pain1 and in case of necessity to end a fruitless life by suicide--these constitute the core of all wisdom4 ,when he has reached such a height in the mastery of self and of the world the wise man is his own god1 finding in himself all that he needs4 ,finally1 in conflict with ,stoicism arose the ,scepticism of the ,new ,academy1 at the head of which were ,arcesilaus who died ,b4,c4 #bdj and ,carneades who died ,b4,c4 #abh4 ,this school renounced all knowledge of truth as something really unattainable1 and in the moderation 77 of every opinion placed the sum of theoretic wisdom1 while it regarded the sum of all practical wisdom to consist in the evidence of every passionate or exciting effort4 #g4e4 ,the ,heathen ,state4--,in the grand endeavour of heathenism to redeem itself by its own resources and according to its own pleasure1 the attempt was finally made by the concentration of all forces into one colossal might4 ,to gather into one point all the mental and bodily powers of the whole human race1 and through them also all powers of nature and the products of all zones and lands1 and to put them under one will1 and then in this will to recognise the personal and visible representation of the godhead--to this was heathenism driven by an inner necessity4 ,hence arose a struggle1 and in consequence of the pertinacity with which it was carried on1 one kingdom after another was overthrown1 until the climax was reached in the ,roman empire4 ,yet even this empire was broken and dissolved when opposed by the spiritual power of the kingdom of ,god4 ,like all the endeavours of heathenism1 this struggle for absolute sovereignty had a twofold aspect2 there are thereby made prominent men's own ways and ,god's ways1 the undivine aims of men1 and the blessed results which ,god's government of the world could secure for them4 ,we have here to do first of all simply with the ,roman universal empire1 but the powers that rose in succession after it are only rejuvenations and powerful continuations of the endeavour of the earlier power1 and so that is true of every state which is true of the ,roman4 ,its significance as a preparer of the way for the church is just this1 that in consequence of the articulation of the world into one great state organisation1 the various stages and elements of culture found among the several civilized races hitherto isolated1 contributed now to one universal civilization1 and a rapid circulation of the new life-blood driven by the church through the veins of the nations was made possible and easy4 ,with special power and universal success had the exploits of ,alexander the ,great in this direction made a beginning1 which reached perfection under the ,roman empire4 ,the ever advancing prevalence of one language1 the ,greek1 which at the time of the beginning of the church was spoken and understood in all quarters of the ,roman empire1 which seemed1 like a temporary suspension of the doom of the confusion of languages which accompanied the rise of heathenism 7,gen4 xi471 to celebrate its return to the divine favour1 belongs also pre-eminently to those preparatory influences4 ,and as the heathen state sought after the concentration of all might1 ,industry and ,trade1 moved by the same principle1 sought after the concentration of wealth and profit4 ,but as worldly enterprise for its own ends made paths for universal commerce over wastes and seas1 and visited for purposes of trade the remotest countries and climes1 it served unwittingly and unintentionally the higher purposes of divine grace by opening a way for the spread of the message of the gospel4 #h4 ,,judaism4 ,in a land which1 like the people themselves1 combined the character of insular exclusiveness with that of a central position in the ancient world1 ,israel1 on account of the part which it was called to play in universal history1 had to be the receiver and communicator of ,god's revelations of ,his salvation1 had to live quiet and apart1 taking little to do with the world's business2 having1 on the other hand1 the assurance from ,god's promise that disasters threatened by heathenish love of conquest and oppression would be averted4 ,this position and this task were1 indeed1 only too often forgotten4 ,only too often did the ,israelites mix themselves up in worldly affairs1 with which they had no concern4 ,only too often by their departure from their ,god did they make themselves like the heathen nations in religion1 worship1 and conversation1 so that for correction and punishment they had often to be put under a heavy yoke4 ,yet the remnant of the holy seed 7,isa4 iv4 #c2 vi4 #ac7 which was never wholly wanting even in times of general apostasy1 as well as the long-suffering and faithfulness of their ,god1 ensured the complete realisation of ,israel's vocation1 even though the unspiritual mass of the people finally rejected the offered redemption4 #h4a4 ,judaism under special ,training of ,god through the ,law and ,prophecy4--,abraham was chosen as a single individual 7,isa4 li4 #b71 and1 as the creator of something new1 ,god called forth from an unfruitful womb the seed of promise4 ,as saviour and redeemer from existing misery ,he delivered the people of promise from the oppression of ,egyptian slavery4 ,in the ,holy ,land the family must work out its own development1 but in order that the family might be able unrestrainedly to expand into a great nation1 it was necessary that it should first go down into ,egypt4 ,moses led the people thus disciplined out of the foreign land1 and gave them a theocratic constitution1 law1 and worship as means for the accomplishment of their calling1 as a model and a schoolmaster leading on to future perfection 7,gal4 iii4 #bd2 ,heb4 x4 #a74 ,the going out of ,egypt was the birth of the nation1 the giving of the law at ,sinai was its consecration as a holy nation4 ,joshua set forth the last condition for an independent people1 the possession of a country commensurate with the task of the nation1 a land of their own that would awaken patriotic feelings4 ,now the theocracy under the form of a purely popular institution under the fostering care of the priesthood could and should have borne fruit1 but the period of the ,judges proves that those two factors of development were not sufficient1 and so now two new agencies make their appearance2 the ,prophetic order as a distinct and regular office1 constituted for the purpose of being a mouth to ,god and a conscience to the state1 and the ,kingly order for the protecting of the theocracy against hurt from without and for the establishment of peace within her borders4 ,by ,david's successes the theocracy attained unto a high degree of political significance1 and by ,solomon's building of the temple the typical form of worship reached the highest point of its development4 ,in spite1 however1 of prophecy and royalty1 the people1 ever withdrawing themselves more and more from their true vocation1 were not able outwardly and inwardly to maintain the high level4 ,the division of the kingdom1 internal feuds and conflicts1 their untheocratic entanglement in the affairs of the world1 the growing tendency to fall away from the worship of ,jehovah and to engage in the worship of high places1 and calves1 and nature1 called down incessantly the divine judgments1 in consequence of which they fell a prey to the heathen4 ,yet this discipline was not in vain4 ,cyrus decreed their return and their independent organization1 and even prophecy was granted for a time to the restored community for its establishment and consolidation4 ,under these political developments has prophecy1 in addition to its immediate concern with its own times in respect of teaching1 discipline1 and exhortation1 given to the promise of future salvation its fullest expression1 bringing a bright ray of comfort and hope to light up the darkness of a gloomy present4 ,the fading memories of the happy times of the brilliant victories of ,david and the glorious peaceful reign of ,solomon formed the bases of the delineations of the future ,messianic kingdom1 while the disasters1 the suffering and the humiliation of the people during the period of their decay gave an impulse to ,messianic longings for a ,messiah suffering for the sins of the people and taking on ,himself all their misery4 ,and now1 after it had effected its main purpose1 prophecy was silenced1 to be reawakened only in a complete and final form when the fulness of time had come4 #h4b4 ,judaism after the ,cessation of ,prophecy4--,the time had now come when the chosen people1 emancipated from the immediate discipline of divine revelation1 but furnished with the results and experiences of a rich course of instruction1 and accompanied by the law as a schoolmaster and by the light of the prophetic word1 should themselves work out the purpose of their calling4 ,the war of extermination which ,antiochus ,epiphanes in his heathen fanaticism waged against ,judaism1 was happily and victoriously repelled1 and once more the nation won its political independence under the ,maccabees4 ,at last1 however1 owing to the increasing corruption of the ruling ,maccabean family1 they were ensnared by the craft of the ,roman empire4 ,the ,syrian religious persecution and the subsequent oppression of the ,romans roused the national spirit and the attachment to the religion of their fathers to the most extreme exclusiveness1 fanatical hatred1 and proud scorn of everything foreign1 and converted the ,messianic hope into a mere political and frantically carnal expectation4 ,true piety more and more disappeared in a punctilious legalism and ceremonialism1 in a conceited self-righteousness and boastful confidence in their own good works4 ,priests and scribes were eagerly bent on fostering this tendency and increasing the unsusceptibility of the masses for the spirituality of the redemption that was drawing nigh1 by multiplying and exaggerating external rules and by perverse interpretation of scripture4 ,but in spite of all these perverting and far-reaching tendencies1 there was yet in quiet obscurity a sacred plantation of the true ,israel 7,john i4 #dg2 ,luke i4 #f2 ii4 #be1 #ch1 etc471 as a garden of ,god for the first reception of salvation in ,christ4 #h4c4 ,the ,synagogues4--,the institution of the ,synagogues was of the greatest importance for the spread and development of post-exilian ,judaism4 ,they had their origin in the consciousness that1 besides the continuance of the symbolical worship of the temple1 a ministry of the word for edification by means of the revelation of ,god in the law and the prophets was1 after the withdrawal of prophecy1 all the more a pressing need and duty4 ,but they also afforded a nursery for the endeavour to widen and contract the law of ,moses by ,rabbinical rules1 for the tendency to external legalism and hypocrisy1 for the national arrogance and the carnal ,messianic expectations1 which from them passed over into the life of the people4 ,on the other hand1 the synagogues1 especially outside of ,palestine1 among the dispersion1 won a far-reaching significance for the church by reason of their missionary tendency4 ,for here where every ,sabbath the holy scripture of the ,old ,testament was read in the ,greek translation of the ,septuagint and expounded1 a convenient opportunity was given to heathens longing for salvation to gain acquaintance with the revelations and promises of ,god in the ,old ,covenant1 and here there was already a place for the first ministers of the gospel1 from which they could deliver their message to an assembled multitude of people from among the ,jews and ,gentiles4 7,schrer1 8,hist4 of the ,jewish ,people in the ,time of ,jesus ,christ40 ,div4 ii41 vol4 #b41 8,the ,school and ,synagogue40 pp4 #dd-hi1 ,edin41 #ahhe47 #h4d4 ,pharisees1 ,sadducees1 and ,essenes4--,the strict1 traditionally legalistic1 carnally particularistic tendency of ,post-,exilian ,judaism had its representatives and supporters in the sect of the ,pharisees 71 71 so called because their main endeavour was to maintain the strictest separation from everything heathenish1 foreign1 and ceremonially unclean4 ,by their ostentatious display of zeal for the law1 their contempt for everything not ,jewish1 their democratic principles and their arrogant patriotism1 they won most completely the favour of the people2 they shared the evil fortunes of the ,maccabean princes1 and became the bitterest enemies of the ,herodians1 and entertained a burning fanatical hatred to the ,romans4 ,they held sway in the synagogues to such an extent that the names ,scribes and ,pharisees were regarded as almost synonymous1 and even in the ,sanhedrim they secured many seats4 ,in the times of ,jesus the schools of ,hillel and ,shammai contended with one another1 the former pleading for somewhat lax views1 especially in reference to divorce and the obligation of oaths1 while the latter insisted upon the most rigorous interpretation of the law4 ,both1 however1 were agreed in the recognition of oral tradition1 the 1 as a binding authority and an essential supplement to the law of ,moses4 ,in direct opposition to them stand the ,sadducees1 out of sympathy with the aspirations of the people1 and abandoning wholly the sacred traditions1 and joining themselves in league with the ,herodians and ,romans4 ,the name originally designated them as descendants of the old temple aristocracy represented by the family of the high priest ,zadok1 and1 in consequence of the similarity in sound between and 1 gave expression to their claim to be regarded as essentially and truly righteous because of their outward adherence to the ,mosaic law4 ,proceeding on the principle that virtue as a free act of man has in it its own worth and reward1 just as vice has in it its own punishment1 they rejected the doctrine of a future judgment1 denied the doctrine of a resurrection1 the existence of angels and spirits1 and the doctrine of the divine foreknowledge4#b ,the ,essenes1 not mentioned in the ,bible1 but named by ,philo1 ,josephus1 and the elder ,pliny1 form a third sect4 ,their name was probably derived from 1 pious4 ,the original germ of their society is found in distinct colonies on the banks of the ,dead ,sea1 which kept apart from the other ,jews1 and recognised even among themselves four different grades of initiation1 each order being strictly separated from the others4 ,a member was received only after a three years' novitiate1 and undertook to keep secret the mysteries of the order4 ,community of goods in the several communities and clans1 meals in common accompanied by religious ceremonies1 frequent prayers in the early morning with the face directed to the rising sun1 oft repeated washings and cleansings1 diligent application to agriculture and other peaceful occupations1 abstaining from the use of flesh and wine1 from trade and every warlike pursuit1 from slavery and taking of oaths1 perhaps also abstinence from marriage in the higher orders1 were the main conditions of membership in their association4 ,the ,sabbath was observed with great strictness1 but sacrifices of blood were abolished1 and all anointing with oil was regarded as polluting4 ,they still1 however1 maintained connection with ,judaism by sending gifts to the temple4 ,so far the order may fairly be regarded1 as it is by ,ritschl1 as a spiritualizing exaggeration of the ,mosaic idea of the priestly character that had independently grown up on ,jewish soil1 and indeed especially as an attempt to realize the calling set forth in ,exod4 xix4 #e1 #f1 and repudiated in ,exod4 xx4 #ai1 #bj1 unto all ,israelites to be a spiritual priesthood4 ,but when1 on the other hand1 the ,essenes1 according to ,josephus1 considered the body as a prison in which the soul falling from its ethereal existence is to be confined until freed from its fetters by death it returns again to heaven1 this can scarcely be explained as originating from any other than a heathen source1 especially from the widely spread influences of ,neo-,pythagoreanism 7 #bd74 ,lucius 7#ahha7 derives the name and seeks their origin from the ,asidans1 ,chasidim1 or ,pious1 in #a ,macc4 ii4 #db2 vii4 #ac2 and #b ,macc4 xiv4 #f4 ,very striking too is ,hilgenfeld's carefully weighed and ably sustained theory 7,ketzergesch41 pp4 #hg-adi71 that their descent is to be traced from the ,kenite ,rechabites 7,jer4 xxxv42 ,judg4 i4 #af71 and their name from the city ,gerasa1 west of the ,dead ,sea1 called in ,josephus also ,essa1 where the ,rechabites1 abandoning their tent life1 formed a settlement4 ,in the time of ,josephus the ,essenes numbered about four thousand4 ,in consequence of the ,jewish war1 which brought distress upon them1 as well as upon the ,christians1 they were led into friendly relations with ,christianity2 but even when adopting the ,christian doctrines1 they still carried with them many of their earlier tenets 7 #bh1 #b1 #c74c #i4 ,,samaritanism4 ,the ,samaritans1 who came into existence at the time of the overthrow of the kingdom of ,israel1 from the blending of ,israelitish and heathenish elements1 desired fellowship with the ,jewish colony that returned from the ,babylonish captivity1 but were repelled on account of their manifold compromises with pagan practice4 ,and although an expelled ,jew named ,manasseh purified their religion as far as possible of heathenish elements1 and gave them a temple and order of worship on ,mount ,gerizim1 this only increased the hatred of the ,jews against them4 ,holding fast to the ,judaism taught them by ,manasseh1 the ,samaritans never adopted the refinements and perversions of later ,judaism4 ,their ,messianic expectations remained purer1 their particularism less severe4 ,while thus rendered capable of forming a more impartial estimate of ,christianity1 they were also inclined upon the whole1 because of the hatred and contempt which they had to endure from ,pharisaic ,judaism1 to look with favour upon ,christianity despised and persecuted as they themselves had been 7,john iv4 #da2 ,acts viii4 #e ff474 ,on the other hand1 the syncretic-heathen element1 which still flourished in ,samaritanism1 showed its opposition to ,christianity by positive reactionary attempts 7 #be1 #b74d #aj4 ,,intercourse ,,between ,,judaism ,,and ,,heathenism4 ,alexander the ,great's conquest of the world brought into connection with one another the most diverse elements of culture in antiquity4 ,least of all could ,judaism outside of ,palestine1 the diaspora1 living amid the influences of heathen or ,hellenic culture and ways of viewing things1 withdraw itself from the syncretic current of the age4 ,the ,jews of ,eastern ,asia maintained a closer connection and spiritual affinity with the exclusive ,palestinian ,rabbinism1 and the heathen element1 which here penetrated into their religious conceptions1 became1 chiefly through the ,talmud1 the common property of post-,christian ,judaism4 ,but heathenism also1 contemptible as ,judaism appeared to it1 was susceptible to ,jewish influences1 impressed by the deeper religious contents of ,judaism1 and though only sporadic1 instances of such influence were by no means rare4 #aj4a4 ,influence of ,heathenism upon ,judaism4--,this reached its greatest strength in ,egypt1 the special centre and source of the syncretic tendencies of the age4 ,forming for itself by means of the adoption of ,greek culture and especially of the ,platonic philosophy a more universal basis of culture1 ,jewish ,hellenism flourished in ,alexandria4 ,after ,aristobulus1 who wrote 1 about ,b4,c4 #agj1 now only found in a fragment of doubtful authority1 and the author of the ,book of ,wisdom1 the chief representative of this tendency was the ,alexandrian ,jew ,philo1 a contemporary of ,christ4 ,his ,platonism enriched by elements drawn from ,old ,testament revelation and from the doctrines of the ,essenes has on many points carried its speculation to the very borders of ,christianity1 and has formed a scaffolding for the ,christian philosophy of the ,church ,fathers4 ,he taught that all nations have received a share of divine truth1 but that the actual founder and father of all true philosophy was ,moses1 whose legislation and teaching formed the source of information for even the ,greek ,philosophy and ,mysteriosophy4 ,but it is only by means of allegorical interpretation that such depths can be discovered4 ,god is 1 matter 4 ,an intermediate world1 corresponding to the ,platonic world of ideas1 is the 1 consisting of innumerable spirits and powers1 angels and souls of men1 but bound together into a unity in and issuing from the ,word of ,god1 who as the was embraced in ,god from eternity1 coming forth from ,god as the for the creation of the world 7thought and word74 ,the visible world1 on account of the physical impotence of matter1 is an imperfect representation of the 1 etc4 ,on the ground of the writing ,de vita contemplativa attributed to ,philo1 the ,therapeut1 or worshippers of ,god1 mentioned therein1 had been regarded as a contemplative ascetic sect related to the ,essenes1 affected by an ,alexandrian philosophical spirit1 living a sort of monastic life in the neighbourhood of ,alexandria1 until ,lucius 7,strassb41 #ahgi7 withdrew them from the domain of history to that of ,utopian romance conceived in support of a special theory4 ,this scholar has proved that the writing referred to cannot possibly be assigned to ,philo1 but must have been composed about the end of the third century in the interest of ,christian monasticism1 for which it presented an idealizing apology4 ,this1 however1 has been contested by ,weingarten1 in ,herzog1 x4 #gfa1 on good grounds1 and the origin of the book has been assigned to a period soon after ,philo1 when ,hellenistic ,judaism was subjected to a great variety of religious and philosophical influences4#e #aj4b4 ,influence of ,judaism upon ,heathenism4--,the heathen state showed itself generally tolerant toward ,judaism4 ,alexander the ,great and his successors1 the ,ptolemies1 to some extent also the ,seleucid1 allowed the ,jews the free exercise of their religion and various privileges1 while the ,romans allowed ,judaism to rank as a religio licita4 ,nevertheless the ,jews were universally despised and hated4 ,tacitus calls them despectissima pars servientium1 teterrima gens2 and even the better class of writers1 such as ,manetho1 ,justin1 ,tacitus1 gave currency to the most absurd stories and malicious calumnies against them4 ,in opposition to these the ,jewish historian ,flavius ,josephus took pains to overcome the prejudices of ,greeks and ,romans against his nation1 by presenting to them its history and institutions in the most favourable light4 ,but on the other side1 the ,greek translation of the ,old ,testament1 called the ,septuagint1 as well as the multitude of ,jewish synagogues1 which during the ,roman period were scattered over the whole world1 afforded to every heathen interested therein the opportunity of discovering by personal examination and inquiry the characteristic principles of ,judaism4 ,when1 therefore1 we consider the utterly corrupt condition of heathenism1 we cannot wonder that ,judaism1 in spite of all the contempt that was thrown upon it1 would attract1 by reason of its hoary antiquity and the sublime simplicity of its creed1 the significance of its worship1 and its ,messianic promises1 many of the better aspiring heathens1 who were no longer satisfied with their sorely degraded forms of religion4 ,and though indeed only a few enrolled themselves as 8,proselytes of ,righteousness10 entering the ,jewish community by submitting to the rite of circumcision1 the number of the 8,proselytes of the ,gate0 who without observing the whole of the ceremonial law undertook to abandon their idols and to worship ,jehovah1 in all ranks of society1 mostly women1 was very considerable1 and it was just among them that ,christianity found the most hearty and friendly acceptance4 #aa4 ,,the ,,fulness ,,of ,,time4 ,the fulness of the olden time had come when the dawn of a new era burst forth over the mountains of ,judea4 ,all that ,judaism and heathenism had been able to do in preparing the way for this new era had now been done4 ,heathenism was itself conscious of its impotence and unfitness for satisfying the religious needs of the human spirit1 and wherever it had not fallen into dreary unbelief or wild superstition1 it struggled and agonized1 aspiring after something better4 ,in this way negatively a path was prepared for the church4 ,in science and art1 as well as in general intellectual culture1 heathenism had produced something great and imperishable2 and ineffectual as these in themselves had proved to restore again to man the peace which he had lost and now sought after1 they might become effectually helpful for such purposes when made subservient to the true salvation4 ,and so far heathenism was a positive helper to the church4 ,the impression that a crisis in the world's history was near at hand was universal among ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,the profound realization of the need was a presage of the time of fulfilment4 ,all true ,israelites waited for the promised ,messiah1 and even in heathenism the ancient hope of the return of the ,golden ,age was again brought to the front1 and had1 from the sacred scriptures and synagogues of the ,jews1 obtained a new holding ground and a definite direction4 ,the heathen state1 too1 made its own contribution toward preparing the way of the church4 ,one sceptre and one language united the whole world1 a universal peace prevailed1 and the most widely extended commercial intercourse gave opportunity for the easy and rapid spread of saving truth4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,beginnings4 ,the ,founding of the ,church by ,christ and ,his ,apostles4 #ab4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,beginnings4 ,the propriety in a treatise on general church history of separating the ,times of ,jesus and the ,times of the ,apostles1 closely connected therewith1 from the ,history of the ,development of the ,church1 and giving to them a distinct place under the title of the ,history of the ,beginnings1 rests on the fact that in those times we have the germs and principles of all that follows4 ,the unique capacity of the ,apostles1 resulting from special enlightenment and endowment1 makes that which they have done of vital importance for all subsequent development4 ,in our estimation of each later form of the church's existence we must go back to the doctrine and practice of ,christ and ,his ,apostles as the standard1 not as to a finally completed form that has exhausted all possibilities of development1 and made all further advance and growth impossible or useless1 but rather as to the authentic fresh germs and beginnings of the church1 so that not only what in later development is found to have existed in the same form in the beginning is recognised as genuinely ,christian1 but also that which is seen to be a development and growth of that primitive form4 ,i4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,jesus4 #ac4 ,,jesus ,,christ1 ,,the ,,saviour ,,of ,,the ,,world4 8,but when the fulness of the time was come1 ,god sent forth ,his ,son1 made of a woman1 made under the law1 to redeem them that were under the law1 that we might receive the adoption of sons0 7,gal4 iv4 #d1 #e74 ,in accordance with prophetic announcements1 ,he was born in ,bethlehem as the ,son of ,david1 and1 after ,john the ,baptist1 the last of the prophets of the ,old ,covenant1 had prepared ,his way by the preaching of repentance and the baptism of repentance1 ,he began in the thirtieth year of ,his age ,his fulfilment by life and teaching of the law and the prophets4 ,with twelve chosen disciples ,he travelled up and down through the land of the ,jews1 preaching the kingdom of ,god1 helping and healing1 and by miracles and signs confirming ,his divine mission and doctrine4 ,the ,pharisees contradicted and persecuted ,him1 the ,sadducees disregarded ,him1 and the people vacillated between acclamations and execrations4 ,after three years' activity1 amid the hosannas of the multitude1 ,he made ,his royal entry into the city of ,his kingly ancestors4 ,but the same crowd1 disappointed in their political and carnal ,messianic expectations1 a few days later raised the cry3 ,crucify ,him1 crucify ,him6 ,thus then ,he suffered according to the gracious good pleasure of the ,father the death of the cross for the sins of the world4 ,the ,prince of life1 however1 could not be holden of death4 ,he burst the gates of ,hades1 as well as the barriers of the grave1 and rose again the third day4 ,for forty days ,he lingered here below1 promised ,his disciples the gift of ,his ,holy ,spirit1 and commissioned them to preach the gospel to all nations4 ,then upon ,his ascension ,he assumed the divine form of which ,he had emptied ,himself during ,his incarnation1 and sits now at the right hand of power as the ,head of ,his church and the ,lord of all that is named in heaven and on earth1 until visibly and in glory1 according to the promise1 ,he returns again at the restitution of all things4 #ac4a4 ,in regard to the year of the birth and the year of the death of the ,redeemer no absolutely certain result can now be attained4 ,the usual ,christian chronology constructed by ,dionysius ,exiguus in the sixth century1 first employed by the ,venerable ,bede1 and brought into official use by ,charlemagne1 assumes the year #ged ,a4,u4,c4 as the date of ,christ's birth1 which is evidently wrong1 since1 in ,a4,d4 #gej or #gea1 ,herod the ,great was already dead4 ,zumpt takes the seventh1 others the third1 fourth1 or fifth year before our era4 ,the length of ,christ's public ministry was fixed by many ,church ,fathers1 in accordance with ,isaiah lxi4 #a1 #b1 and ,luke iv4 #ai1 at one year1 and it was consequently assumed that ,christ was crucified when thirty years of age 7,luke iii4 #ba74 ,the synoptists indeed speak only of one passover1 the last1 during ,christ's ministry2 but ,john 7ii4 #ac2 vi4 #d2 xii4 #a7 speaks of three1 and also besides 7v4 #a7 of a 4 #ac4b4 ,among the non-biblical witnesses to ,christ the earliest is probably a ,syrian ,epistle of ,mara to his son ,serapion1 written1 according to ,cureton 78,spicileg4 ,syriacum40 ,lond41 #ahee71 about ,a4,d4 #gc4 ,the father1 highly cultured in ,greek wisdom but dissatisfied with it1 writes from exile words of comfort and exhortation to his son1 in which he places ,christ alongside of ,socrates and ,pythagoras1 and honours him as the wise ,king1 by whose death the ,jews had brought upon themselves the swift overthrow of their kingdom1 who would1 however1 although slain1 live for ever in the new land which ,he has given4 ,to this period also belongs the witness of the ,jewish historian ,josephus1 which in its probably genuine portions praises ,jesus as a worker of miracles and teacher of wisdom1 and testifies to ,his death on the cross under ,pilate1 as well as the founding of the church in ,his name4 ,distinctly and wholly spurious is the ,correspondence of ,christ with ,abgar1 ,prince of ,edessa1 who entreats ,christ to come to ,edessa to heal him and is comforted of the ,lord by the sending of one of ,his disciples after ,his ascension4 ,this document was first communicated by ,eusebius 7,hist4 ,eccl41 i4 #ac7 from the ,archives of ,edessa in a literal translation from the ,syriac1 and is also to be found in the ,syrian book ,doctrina ,addi 7 #cb1 #f74 ,of a similar kind are the apocryphal ,acta ,pilati1 as well the heathen form which has perished 7 #bb1 #g71 as the ,christian form which is still extant 7 #cb1 #d74 ,an ,epistle of ,lentulus1 pretending to be from a ,roman resident in ,palestine on terms of intimacy with ,pilate1 containing a description of the appearance of ,christ1 is quoted1 and even then as a forgery1 by ,laurentius ,valla in his writing on the ,donation of ,constantine4 ,since in many particulars it agrees with the description of the person of ,christ given in the ,church ,history by ,nicephorus ,callisti 7 #e1 #a71 in accordance with the type then prevailing among ,byzantine painters1 it may fairly be regarded as an apocryphal ,latin retouching of that description originating in the fifteenth century4 ,at ,edessa a picture of ,christ was known to exist in the fourth century 7according to the ,doctr4 ,addi71 which must have been brought thither by the messengers of ,abgar1 who had picked it up in ,jerusalem4 ,during the fourth century mention is made of a statue of ,christ1 first of all by ,eusebius1 who himself had seen it4 ,this was said to have been set up in ,paneas by the woman cured of the issue of blood 7,matt4 ix4 #bj74 ,it represents a woman entreating help1 kneeling before the lofty figure of a man who stretches out his hand to her1 while at his feet a healing herb springs up4 ,in all probability1 however1 it was simply a votive figure dedicated to the god of healing1 sculapius4 ,the legend that has been current since the fifth century of the sweat-marked handkerchief of ,veronica--this name being derived either from vera icon1 the true likeness1 or from ,bernice or ,beronice1 the name given in apocryphal legends to the woman with the issue of blood1--on which the face of the ,redeemer which had been wiped by it was imprinted1 probably arose through the transferring to other incidents the legendary story of ,edessa4 ,on the occurrence of similar transferences see #eg1 #e4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,apostolic ,,age4 ,a4,d4 #cj-gj4 #ad4 ,,the ,,ministry ,,of ,,the ,,apostles ,,before ,,paul4 ,after the ,apostolate had been again by means of the lot raised to the significant number of twelve1 amid miraculous manifestations1 the ,holy ,spirit was poured out on the waiting disciples as they were assembled together on the day of ,pentecost1 ten days after the ,ascension of the ,lord4 ,it was the birthday of the church1 and its first members were won by the preaching of ,peter to the wondering multitude4 ,by means of the ministry of the ,apostles1 who at first restricted themselves to ,jerusalem1 the church grew daily4 ,a keen persecution1 however1 on the part of the ,jews1 beginning with the execution of the deacon ,stephen1 scattered them apart1 so that the knowledge of the gospel was carried throughout all ,palestine1 and down into ,phnicia and ,syria4 ,philip preached with peculiarly happy results in ,samaria4 ,peter soon began a course of visitation through the land of ,jews1 and at ,csarea received into the church by baptism the first ,gentile family1 that of ,cornelius1 having been prepared for this beforehand by a vision4 ,at the same time there arose independently at ,antioch in ,syria a ,christian congregation1 composed of ,jews and ,gentiles1 through the great eagerness of the ,gentiles for salvation4 ,the ,levite ,barnabas1 a man of strong faith1 was sent down from ,jerusalem1 took upon himself the care of this church1 and strengthened his own ministry by securing ,paul1 the converted ,pharisee1 as his colleague4 ,this great man1 some years before1 by the appearing of ,christ to him on the way to ,damascus1 had been changed from a fanatical persecutor into a zealous friend and promoter of the interests of the church4 ,thus it came about that the ,apostolic mission broke up into two different sections1 one of which was purely ,jewish and had for its centre and starting point the mother church at ,jerusalem1 while the other1 issuing from ,antioch1 addressed itself to a mixed audience1 and preeminently to the ,gentiles4 ,it is difficult to determine with chronological exactness either the beginning 7 #ac1 #a7 or the close of the ,apostolic ,age4 ,still we cannot be far wrong in taking ,a4,d4 #cj as the beginning and ,a4,d4 #gj as the close of that period4 ,the last perfectly certain and uncontested date of the ,apostolic ,age is the martyrdom of the ,apostle ,paul in ,a4,d4 #fd1 or perhaps ,a4,d4 #fg1 see #ae1 #a4 ,we have it on good evidence that ,james the elder died about ,a4,d4 #dd1 and ,james the ,just about ,a4,d4 #fc 7 #af1 #c71 that ,peter suffered martyrdom contemporaneously with ,paul 7 #af1 #a71 that about the same time or not long after the most of the other ,apostles had been in all probability already taken home1 at least in regard to their life and work after the days of ,paul1 we have not the slightest information that can lay any claim to be regarded as historical4 ,the ,apostle ,john forms the only exception to this statement4 ,according to important witnesses from the middle and end of the second century 7 #af1 #b71 he entered upon his special field of labour in ,asia ,minor after the death of ,paul1 and continued to live and labour there1 with the temporary interruption of an exile in ,patmos1 down to the time of ,trajan1 ,a4,d4 #ih-aag4 ,but the insufficient data which we possess regarding the nature1 character1 extent1 success1 and consequences of his ,apostolic activity there are partly1 if not in themselves altogether incredible1 interesting only as anecdotes1 and partly wholly fabulous1 and therefore little fitted to justify us1 simply on their account1 in assigning the end of the first or the beginning of the second century as the close of the ,apostolic ,age4 ,we are thus brought back again to the year of ,paul's death as indicating approximately the close of that period4 ,but seeing that the precise year of this occurrence is matter of discussion1 the adoption of the round number #gj may be recommended1 all the more as with this year1 in which the last remnant of ,jewish national independence was lost1 the opposition between ,jewish and ,gentile ,christianity1 which had prevailed throughout the ,apostolic ,age1 makes its appearance under a new phase 7 #bh74 #ae4 ,,the ,,ministry ,,of ,,the ,,apostle ,,paul4 ,set apart to the work by the church by prayer and laying on of hands1 ,paul and ,barnabas started from ,antioch on their first missionary journey to ,asia ,minor1 ,a4,d4 #dh-ej4 ,notwithstanding much opposition and actual persecution on the part of the enraged ,jews1 he founded mixed churches1 composed principally of ,gentile ,christians1 comprising congregations at ,antioch in ,pisidia1 ,iconium1 ,lystra1 and ,derbe4 ,when ,paul undertook his second missionary journey1 ,a4,d4 #eb-ee1 ,barnabas separated himself from him because of his refusal to accept the company of his nephew ,john ,mark1 who had deserted them during their first journey1 and along with ,mark embarked upon an independent mission1 beginning with his native country ,cyprus2 of the success of this mission nothing is known4 ,paul1 on the other hand1 accompanied by ,silas and ,luke1 with whom at a later period ,timothy also was associated1 passed through ,asia ,minor1 and would thereafter have returned to ,antioch had not a vision by night at ,troas led him to take ship for ,europe4 ,there he founded churches at ,philippi1 ,thessalonica1 ,berea1 ,athens1 and ,corinth1 and then returned through ,asia ,minor to ,syria4 ,without any lengthened interval he entered upon his third missionary journey1 ,a4,d4 #ee-eh1 accompanied by ,luke1 ,titus1 and ,timothy4 ,the centre of his ministerial activity during this period was ,ephesus1 where he founded a church with a large membership4 ,his success was extraordinary1 so that the very existence of heathenism in ,asia ,minor was seriously imperilled4 ,driven away by the uprising of a heathen mob1 he travelled through ,macedonia1 pressed on to ,illyricum1 visited the churches of ,greece1 and then went to ,jerusalem1 for the performance of a vow4 ,here his life1 threatened by the excited ,jews1 was saved by his being put in prison by the ,roman captain1 and then sent down to ,csarea1 ,a4,d4 #eh4 ,an appeal to ,csar1 to which as a ,roman citizen he was entitled1 resulted in his being sent to ,rome1 where he1 beginning with the spring of ,a4,d4 #fa1 lived and preached for several years1 enduring a mild form of imprisonment4 ,the further course of his life and ministry remains singularly uncertain4 ,of the later labours and fortunes of ,paul's fellow-workers we know absolutely nothing4 ,it may be accepted as a well authenticated and incontestable fact that ,paul suffered martyrdom at ,rome under ,nero4 ,this is established by the testimony of ,clement of ,rome-- 1--and is further explained and confirmed by ,dionysius of ,corinth1 quoted in ,eusebius1 and by ,irenus1 ,tertullian1 ,caius of ,rome 7 #af1 #a74 ,on the other hand it is disputed whether it may have happened during the imprisonment spoken about in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 or during a subsequent imprisonment4 ,according to the tradition of the church given currency to by ,eusebius 7,hist4 ,eccl41 ii4 #bb71 which even in our own time has been maintained by many capable scholars1 ,paul was released from his first ,roman imprisonment shortly before the outburst of ,nero's persecution of the ,christians in ,a4,d4 #fd 7 #bb1 #a71 and made a fourth missionary journey which was brought to a close by his being a second time arrested and subsequently beheaded at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #fg4 ,the proofs1 however1 that are offered in support of this assertion are of a very doubtful character4 ,paul certainly in ,a4,d4 #eh had the intention 7,rom4 xv4 #bd1 #bh7 after a short visit to ,rome to proceed to ,spain2 and when from his prison in ,rome he wrote to ,philemon 7v4 #bb7 and to the ,philippians 7i4 #be2 ii4 #bd71 he believed that his cherished hope of yet regaining his liberty would be realised2 but there is no further mention of a journey into ,spain1 for apparently other altogether different plans of travel are in his mind4 ,and indeed circumstances may easily be conceived as arising to blast such hopes and produce in him that spirit of hopeless resignation1 which he gives expression to in #b ,tim4 iv4 #f ff4 ,but the words of ,clement of ,rome1 chap4 #e3 1 etc41 are too indefinite and rhetorical to be taken as a certain testimony on behalf of a ,spanish missionary journey4 ,the incomplete reference in the ,muratorian ,fragment 7 #cf1 #h7 to a profectio ,pauli ab ,urbe ad ,spaniam proficiscentis may be thought to afford more direct testimony1 but probably it is nothing more than a reminiscence of ,rom4 xv4 #bd1 #bh4 ,much more important1 nay almost conclusive1 in the opposite direction1 is the entire absence1 not only from all the patristic1 but also from all the apocryphal1 literature of the second and third centuries1 of any allusion to a fourth missionary journey or a second imprisonment of the ,apostle4 ,the assertion of ,eusebius introduced by a vague can scarcely be regarded as outweighing this objection4 ,consequently the majority of modern investigators have decided in favour of the theory of one imprisonment4 ,but then the important question arises as to whether the ,epistles to ,timothy and ,titus1 claiming to be ,pauline1 with the journeys referred to or presupposed in them1 and the residences of the ,apostle and his two assistants1 can find a place in the framework of the narrative in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and if so1 what that place may be4 ,in answering this question those investigators take diverse views4 ,of those who cannot surrender their conviction that the ,pastoral ,epistles are genuine1 some assign them to the ,apostle's residence of almost three years in ,ephesus1 others to the imprisonment in ,csarea which lasted two years and a half1 and others to the ,roman imprisonment of almost three years4 ,others again1 looking upon such expedients as inadmissible1 deny the authenticity of the ,pastoral ,epistles1 these having appeared to them worthy of suspicion on other grounds4 #af4 ,,the ,,other ,,apostles ,,after ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,the ,,apostle ,,paul4 ,only in reference to the most distinguished of the ,apostles have any trustworthy accounts reached us4 ,james the brother of ,john1 at an early period1 in ,a4,d4 #dd1 suffered a martyr's death at ,jerusalem4 ,peter was obliged by this persecution to quit ,jerusalem for a time4 ,inclination and his special calling marked him out as the ,apostle of the ,jews 7,gal4 ii4 #g-i74 ,his ministry outside of ,palestine was exercised1 according to #a ,pet4 i4 #a1 in the countries round about the ,black ,sea1 and1 according to chap4 v4 #ac1 extended to ,babylon4 ,the legend that1 contemporaneously with the beheading of ,paul1 he suffered death by crucifixion under ,nero at ,rome 7,john xxi4 #ah1 #ai71 is doubtful2 and it is also questionable whether he ever went to ,rome1 while the story of his having down to the time of his death been ,bishop of ,rome for twenty-five years is wholly fabulous4 ,john1 according to the tradition of the church1 took up ,asia ,minor as his special field of labour after it had been deprived of its first ,apostle by the martyr death of ,paul1 fixing his residence at ,ephesus4 ,at the head of the mother church of ,jerusalem stood ,james the ,just1 the brother of the ,lord4 ,he seems never to have left ,jerusalem1 and was stoned by the ,jews between ,a4,d4 #fc-fi4 ,regarding the rest of the ,apostles and their fellow-workers we have only legendary traditions of an extremely untrustworthy description1 and even these have come down to us in very imperfect and corrupt forms4 #af4a4 ,the ,roman ,episcopate of ,peter4--,the tradition that ,peter1 after having for some years held the office of bishop at ,antioch1 became first ,bishop of ,rome1 holding the office for twenty-five years 7,a4,d4 #db-fg71 and suffered martyrdom at the same time with ,paul1 had its origin in the series of heretical apocryphal writings1 out of which sprang1 both the romance of the ,clementine ,homilies and ,recognitions 7 #bh1 #c71 and the ,ebionite ,acts of ,peter2 but it attained its complete form only at the end of the fourth century1 after it had been transplanted into the soil of the church tradition through the ,acta ,petri et ,pauli 7 #cb1 #f74 ,what chiefly secured currency and development to this tradition was the endeavour1 ever growing in strength in ,rome1 to vindicate on behalf of the ,roman ,episcopate as the legitimate successor and heir to all the prerogatives alleged to have been conferred on ,peter in ,matt4 xvi4 #ah1 a title to primacy over all the churches 7 #cd1 #h2 #df1 #c ff474 ,but that ,peter had not really been in ,rome as a preacher of the gospel previous to the year ,a4,d4 #fa1 when ,paul came to ,rome as a prisoner1 is evident from the absence of any reference to the fact in the ,epistle to the ,romans1 written in ,a4,d4 #eh1 as well as in the concluding chapter of the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,according to the ,acts1 ,peter in ,a4,d4 #dd lay in prison at ,jerusalem1 and according to ,gal4 ii41 he was still there in ,a4,d4 #ea4 ,besides1 according to the unanimous verdict of tradition1 as expressed by ,irenus1 ,eusebius1 ,rufinus1 and the ,apostolic ,constitutions1 not ,peter1 but ,linus1 was the first ,bishop of ,rome1 and it is only in regard to the order of his successors1 ,anacletus and ,clement1 that any real uncertainty or discrepancy occurs4 ,this1 indeed1 by no means prevents us from admitting an appearance of ,peter at ,rome resulting in his martyrdom4 ,but the testimonies in favour thereof are not of such a kind as to render its historical reality unquestionable4 ,that ,babylon is mentioned in #a ,pet4 v4 #ac as the place where this ,epistle was composed1 can scarcely be used as a serious argument1 since the supposition that ,babylon is a symbolical designation of ,rome as the centre of anti-,christian heathenism1 though quite conceivable and widely current in the early church1 is not by any means demonstrable4 ,toward the end of the first century1 ,clement of ,rome relates the martyrdom of ,peter as well as of ,paul1 but he does not even say that it took place at ,rome4 ,on the other hand1 clear and unmistakable statements are found in ,dionysius of ,corinth1 about ,a4,d4 #agj1 then in ,caius of ,rome1 in ,irenus and ,tertullian1 to the effect that ,peter and ,paul exercised their ministry together and suffered martyrdom together at ,rome4 ,these statements1 however1 are interwoven with obviously false and fabulous dates to such a degree that their credibility is rendered extremely doubtful4 ,nevertheless they prove this much1 that already about the end of the second century1 the story of the two ,apostles suffering martyrdom together at ,rome was believed1 and that some1 of whom ,caius tells us1 professed to know their graves and to have their bones in their possession4 #af4b4 ,the ,apostle ,john4--,soon after the death of ,paul1 the ,apostle ,john settled in ,ephesus1 and there1 with the temporary break caused by his exile to ,patmos 7,rev4 i4 #i71 he continued to preside over the church of ,asia ,minor down to his death in the time of ,trajan 7,a4,d4 #ih-aag74 ,this rests upon the church tradition which1 according to ,polycrates of ,ephesus 7,eus41 ,hist4 ,eccl41 v4 #bd7 and ,irenus1 a scholar of ,polycarp's 7,eus41 iv4 #ad71 was first set forth during the ,easter controversies 7 #cg1 #b7 in the middle of the second century by ,polycarp of ,smyrna1 and has been accepted as unquestionable through all ages down to our own4 ,according to ,irenus 7,eus41 iii4 #ah71 his exile occurred under ,domitian2 the ,syrian translation of the ,apocalypse1 which was made in the sixth century1 assigned it to the time of ,nero4 ,but seeing that1 except in ,rev4 i4 #aa1 neither in the ,new ,testament scriptures1 nor in the extant writings and fragments of the ,church ,fathers of the second century before ,irenus1 is a residence of the ,apostle ,john at ,ephesus asserted or assumed1 whereas ,papias 7 #cj1 #f71 according to ,georgius ,hamartolus1 a chronicler of the #ith cent41 who had read the now lost work of ,papias1 expressly declares that the ,apostle ,john was slain 8by ,jews0 7comp4 ,matt4 xx4 #bc71 which points to ,palestine rather than to ,asia ,minor1 modern critics have denied the credibility of that ecclesiastical tradition1 and have attributed its origin to a confusion between the ,apostle ,john and a certain ,john the ,presbyter1 with whom we first meet in the ,papias-,fragment quoted in ,eusebius as 4 ,others again1 while regarding the residence of the ,apostle at ,ephesus as well established1 have sought1 on account of differences in style standpoint and general mode of thought in the ,johannine ,apocalypse on the one hand1 and the ,johannine ,gospel and ,epistles on the other hand1 to assign them to two distinct of the same name1 and by assigning the ,apocalypse to the ,presbyter and the ,gospel and ,epistles to the ,apostle1 they would in this way account for the residence at ,ephesus4 ,this is the course generally taken by the ,mediation theologians of ,schleiermacher's school4 ,the advanced liberal critics of the school of ,baur assign the ,apocalypse to the ,apostle and the ,gospel and ,epistles to the ,presbyter1 or else instead of the ,apostle assume a third ,john otherwise unknown4 ,conservative orthodox theology again maintains the unity of authorship of all the ,johannean writings1 explains the diversity of character discernible in the different works by a change on the part of the ,apostle from the early ,judo-,christian standpoint 7,gal4 ii4 #i71 which is still maintained in the ,apocalypse1 to the ideal universalistic standpoint assumed in the ,gospel and the ,epistles1 and is inclined to identify the ,presbyter of ,papias with the ,apostle4 ,even in ,tertullian we meet with the tradition that under ,nero the ,apostle had been thrown into a vat of boiling oil1 and in ,augustine we are told how he emptied a poisoned cup without suffering harm4 ,it is a charming story at least that ,clement of ,alexandria tells of the faithful pastoral care which the aged ,apostle took in a youth who had fallen so far as to become a bandit chief4 ,of such a kind1 too1 is the story told of the ,apostle by ,jerome1 how in the extreme weakness of old age he had to be carried into the assemblies of the congregation1 and with feeble accents could only whisper1 ,little children1 love one another4 ,according to ,irenus1 when by accident he met with the heretic ,cerinthus 7 #bg1 #a7 in the bath1 he immediately rushed out to avoid any contact with him4 #af4c4 ,james1 the brother of the ,lord4--,the name of ,james was borne by two of the twelve disciples of ,jesus3 ,james1 the son of ,zebedee and brother of ,john1 who was put to death by the command of ,herod ,agrippa ,i4 7,acts xii4 #b7 about ,a4,d4 #dd1 and ,james1 son of ,alphus1 about whom we have no further information4 ,a third ,james1 designated in ,gal4 i4 #ai the brother of the ,lord1 who according to ,hegesippus 7,euseb41 ,hist4 ,eccl41 ii4 #bc7 on account of his scrupulous fulfilment of the law received the title of the ,just1 is met with in ,acts xii4 #ag2 xv4 #ac2 xxi4 #ah1 and is recognised by ,paul 7,gal4 i4 #ai2 ii4 #i-ab7 as the ,president of the church in ,jerusalem4 ,according to ,hegesippus 7 #ca1 #g71 he was from his childhood a ,nazirite1 and shortly before the destruction of ,jerusalem1 the ,jews at the ,passover having desired of him a testimony against ,christ1 and he having instead given a powerful testimony on ,his behalf1 he was hurled down from a pinnacle of the temple1 stoned1 and at last1 while praying for his enemies1 slain by the blows of a fuller's club4 ,according to ,josephus1 however1 ,ananus1 the high priest1 after the recall of the ,proconsul ,festus and before the arrival of his successor ,albinus1 along with other men hostile to ,james1 hastily condemned him and had him stoned1 about ,a4,d4 #fc4 ,in regard to the person of this last-named ,james three different theories have been proposed4 a4 ,in the ancient church1 the brothers of ,jesus1 of whom besides ,james other three1 ,joses1 ,simon1 and ,judas1 are named1 were regarded undoubtedly as step-brothers of ,jesus1 sons of ,joseph and ,mary 7,matt4 i4 #be71 and even ,tertullian argues from the existence of brothers of the ,redeemer according to the flesh against the ,docetism of the ,gnostics4 b4 ,soon1 however1 it came to be felt that the idea that ,joseph had conjugal intercourse with ,mary after the birth of ,jesus was in conflict with the ascetic tendency now rising into favour1 and so to help themselves out of this embarrassment1 it was assumed that the brothers of ,jesus were sons of ,joseph by a former wife4 c4 ,the want of biblical foundation for this view was the occasion of its being abandoned in favour of a theory1 first hinted at by ,jerome1 according to which the expression brothers of ,jesus is to be taken in a wider sense as meaning cousins1 and in this way ,james the brother of the ,lord was identified with ,james the son of ,alphus1 one of the twelve disciples1 and the four or five ,jameses named in the ,new ,testament were reduced to two1 ,james the son of ,zebedee and ,james son of ,alphus4 ,it was specially urged from ,john xix4 #be that ,james the son of ,alphus was the sister's son of ,jesus' mother4 ,this was done by a purely arbitrary identification of the name ,clopas or ,cleophas with the ,alphus of the ,synoptists1 the rendering of the words by the wife of ,clopas1 and also the assumption1 which is scarcely conceivable1 that the sister of the mother of ,jesus was also called ,mary4 ,we should therefore in this passage regard the sister of the mother of ,jesus and ,mary wife of ,clopas as two distinct persons4 ,in that case the wife of ,alphus may have been called ,mary and have had two sons who1 like two of the four brothers of ,jesus1 were named ,james and ,joses 7,matt4 xxvii4 #ef2 ,mark xv4 #dj2 ,luke xxiv4 #aj72 but even then1 in the ,james here mentioned1 we should meet with another ,james otherwise unknown1 different from the ,james son of ,alphus in the list of the ,apostles1 whose name occurs in ,luke xv4 #af and ,acts i4 #ac in the phrase ,judas of ,james1 where the genitive undoubtedly means brother of ,james son of ,alphus4 ,and though in ,gal4 i4 #ai1 ,james the brother of the ,lord seems to be called an ,apostle1 when this is compared with ,acts xiv4 #ad1 it affords no proof that he belonged to the number of the twelve4 ,but the fact that the brothers of ,jesus are all and always expressly distinguished from ,his twelve ,apostles1 and form a group outwardly and inwardly apart from them 7,matt4 xii4 #df2 ,mark iii4 #ca2 ,luke viii4 #ai2 ,john ii4 #ab71 tells decidedly against that idea4 ,in ,john vii4 #c1 #e1 they are1 at a time when ,james son of ,alphus and ,judas brother of ,james were already in the ,apostolate1 described as unbelieving1 and only subsequently to the departure of the ,lord1 who after ,his resurrection appeared to ,james 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #g71 do we meet them1 though even then distinguished from the twelve1 standing in the closest fellowship with the ,christian believing community 7,acts i4 #ad2 #a ,cor4 ix4 #e74 ,besides1 in accordance with ,matt4 xxviii4 #ai1 none of the twelve could assume the permanent presidency of the mother church1 and ,hegesippus not only knows of 1 and so surely of more than two1 but makes ,james enter upon his office in ,jerusalem first 4 #af4d4 ,the ,later ,legends of the ,apostles4--,the tradition that after the ,lord's ascension ,his disciples1 their number having been again made up to twelve 7,acts i4 #ac71 in fulfilment of their ,lord's command 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ah71 had a special region for missionary labour assigned by lot to each1 and also the other tradition1 according to which1 before their final departure from ,jerusalem1 after a stay there for seven or twelve years1 they drew up by common agreement rules for worship1 discipline and constitution suited to the requirements of universal ,christendom1 took shape about the middle of the second century1 and gave occasion to the origin of many apocryphal histories of the ,apostles 7 #cb1 #e1 #f71 as well as apocryphal books of church order 7 #dc1 #d1 #e74 ,whether any portion at all1 and if so1 how much1 of the various contradictory statements of the apocryphal histories and legends of the ,apostles about their mission fields and several fortunes can be regarded as genuine tradition descending from the ,apostolic ,age1 must be left undecided4 ,in any case1 the legendary drapery and embellishment of casual genuine reminiscences are in the highest degree fantastic and fabulous4 ,ancient at least1 according to ,eusebius1 are the traditions of ,thomas having preached in ,parthia1 ,andrew in ,scythia1 and ,bartholomew in ,india2 while in later traditions ,thomas figures as the ,apostle of ,india 7 #cb1 #e74 ,the statement by ,eusebius1 supported from many ancient authorities1 that the ,apostle ,philip exercised his ministry from ,hierapolis in ,phrygia to ,asia ,minor1 originated perhaps from the confounding of the ,apostle with the ,evangelist of the same name 7,acts xxi4 #h1 #i74 ,a history of the ,apostle ,barnabas1 attributed to ,john ,mark1 but in reality dating only from the fifth century1 attaching itself to ,acts xv4 #ci1 tells how he conducted his mission and suffered martyrdom in his native country of ,cyprus2 while another set of legends1 probably belonging to the same period1 makes him the founder of the church of ,milan4 ,john ,mark1 sister's son of ,barnabas1 who appears in ,col4 iv4 #aj2 #b ,tim4 iv4 #aa2 and ,philem4 #bd1 as the fellow-labourer of the ,apostle ,paul1 in #a ,pet4 v4 #ac as companion of ,peter at ,babylon1 and1 according to ,papias1 wrote his gospel at ,rome as the amanuensis of ,peter1 is honoured1 according to another very widely received tradition1 quoted by ,eusebius from a ,chronicle belonging to the end of the second century1 from which also ,julius ,africanus drew information1 as the founder and first bishop of the church of ,alexandria1 etc41 etc4 #ag4 ,,constitution1 ,,worship1 ,,and ,,discipline4#f ,bound under ,christ its one head into an articulated whole1 the church ought by the co-operation of all its members conditioned and determined by position1 talent1 and calling1 to build itself up and grow 7#a ,cor4 xii4 #ab ff42 ,eph4 i4 #bb f474 ,development will thus be secured to natural talent and the spiritual calling through the bestowment of special gifts of grace or charismata4 ,the first form of ,christian church fellowship1 in the ,jewish as well as the ,gentile ,christian churches1 was of a thoroughly free character2 modelled upon1 and attached to1 forms of organization already existing and legitimized1 or1 at least1 tolerated by the state1 but all the while inspired and leavened by a free ,christian spirit4 ,compelled by the necessity which is felt in all social federations for the recognised ranking of superiority1 inferiority1 and equality1 in which his own proper sphere and task would be assigned to each member1 and encroachment and disorderliness prevented1 a collegial church council was soon formed by a free compact1 the members of which1 all possessed of equal rights1 were called in consideration of their personal character1 and in consideration of their official duties4 ,upon them devolved especially attention and care in regard to all outward things that might affect the common interests of the church1 management of the property which had to be realised and spent on the religious services1 and of the means required for the support of the poor1 as well as the administration of justice and of discipline4 ,but alongside of these were other more independent offices1 the holders of which did not go forth like the members of the eldership as the choice of the churches1 but rather had the spiritual edification of the church assigned them as their life work by a special divine call and a charismatic endowment of the gift of teaching4 ,to this class belong1 besides ,apostles and helpers of the ,apostles1 ,prophets1 ,pastors1 and ,teachers4 #ag4a4 ,the ,charismata of the ,apostolic ,age are presented to us in #a ,cor4 xii4 #d ff4 as signs 71 v4 #g7 of the presence of the ,spirit of ,god working in the church1 which1 attaching themselves to natural endowment and implying a free personal surrender to their influence1 and manifesting themselves in various degrees of intensity from the natural to the supernatural1 qualified certain members of the church with the powers necessary and desirable for the upbuilding and extension of the ,christian community4 ,in verses #h-aa1 the ,charismata are arranged in three classes by means of the twice-repeated 4 #a4 ,gifts of ,teaching1 embracing the and the 4 #b4 ,completeness of ,faith1 or with the possession of supernatural powers for healing the sick1 working miracles1 and prophesying1 and alongside of the latter1 for sifting and proving it1 4 #c4 ,ecstatic speaking with tongues1 1 1 alongside of which is placed the interpretation of tongues necessary for the understanding thereof 4 ,in addition to these three are mentioned1 in verse #bh1 1 care of the poor1 the sick and strangers1 and 1 church government4 ,the essential distinction between speaking with tongues and prophesying consists1 according to #a ,cor4 xiv4 #a-ah1 in this1 that whereas the latter is represented as an inspiration by the ,spirit of ,god1 acting upon the consciousness1 the of the prophet1 and therefore requiring no further explanation to render it applicable for the edification of the congregation1 the former is represented as an ecstatic utterance1 wholly uncontrolled by the of the human instrument1 yet employing the human organs of speech1 1 which leaves the assembled congregation out of view and addresses itself directly to ,god1 so that in ver4 #ac-ae it is called a 1 being made intelligible to the audience only by means of the charismatic interpretation of men immediately acted upon for the purpose by the ,spirit of ,god4 ,in ,rom4 xii4 #f-h1 although there the charisms are enumerated in even greater details1 so as to include even the showing of mercy with cheerfulness1 the is wanting4 ,it would thus seem that this sort of spiritual display1 if not exclusively 7,acts ii4 #d2 x4 #df2 xix4 #f2 ,mark xvi4 #ag71 yet with peculiar fondness1 which was by no means commended by the ,apostle1 was fostered in the church of ,corinth4 ,the thoroughly unique speaking with tongues which took place on the first ,pentecost 7,acts ii4 #f1 #aa7 is certainly not to be understood as implying that the ,apostles had been either temporarily or permanently qualified to speak in the several languages and dialects of those present from all the countries of the dispersion4 ,it probably means simply that the power was conferred upon the speakers of speaking with tongues and that at the same time an analogous endowment of the interpretation of tongues was conferred upon those who heard 7,comp41 ,acts ii4 #ab1 #ae1 with #a ,cor4 xiv4 #bb f4 74 #ag4b4 ,the ,constitution of the ,mother ,church at ,jerusalem4--,the notion which gained currency through ,vitringa's learned work 8,de synagoga vetere10 publ4 #afif1 that the constitution of the ,apostolic church was moulded upon the pattern of the synagogues1 is now no longer seriously entertained4 ,not only in regard to the ,pauline churches wholly or chiefly composed of ,gentile ,christians1 but also in regard to the ,palestinian churches of purely ,jewish ,christians1 no evidence in support of such a theory can be found4 ,there is no sort of analogy between any office bearers in the church and the who were essentially characteristic of all the synagogues both in ,palestine and among the dispersion 7,mark v4 #bb2 ,luke viii4 #da1 #di2 ,acts xiii4 #ae2 xviii4 #h1 #ag71 nor do we find anything to correspond to the or inferior officers of the synagogue 7,luke iv4 #bj74 ,on the other hand1 the office bearers of the ,christian churches1 who1 consisting1 according to ,acts vi41 of deacons1 and also afterwards1 according to ,acts xi4 #cj1 of 1 or elders of the church at ,jerusalem1 occupied a place alongside of the ,apostles in the government of the church1 are without any analogy in the synagogues4 ,the ,jewish mentioned in ,matt4 xxi4 #bc2 xxvi4 #c2 ,acts iv4 #e2 xxii4 #e1 etc41 did not exercise a ministry of teaching and edification in the numerous synagogues of ,jerusalem1 but a legislatory1 judicial and civil authority over the whole ,jewish commonwealth as members of the ,sanhedrim1 of chief priest1 scribes and elders4 ,between even these1 however1 and the elders of the ,christian church a far-reaching difference exists4 ,the ,jewish elders are indeed representatives of the people1 and have as such a seat and vote in the supreme council1 but no voice is allowed to the people themselves4 ,in the council of the ,christian church1 on the other hand1 with reference to all important questions1 the membership of all believers is called together for consultation and deliverance 7,acts vi4 #b-f2 xv4 #d1 #bb74 ,a complaint on the part of the ,hellenistic members of the church that their poor were being neglected led to the election of seven men who should care for the poor1 not by the ,apostles1 but by the church4 ,this is commonly but erroneously regarded as the first institution of the deaconship4 ,to those then chosen1 for whom the ,acts 7xxi4 #h7 has no other designation than that of 8the seven10 the is certainly assigned3 but they were not and were not called ,deacons in the official sense any more than the ,apostles1 who still continued1 according to v4 #d1 to exercise the 4 ,when the bitter persecution that followed the stoning of ,stephen had scattered the church abroad over the neighbouring countries1 they also departed at the same time from ,jerusalem 7,acts viii4 #a71 and ,philip1 who was now the most notable of their number1 officiated henceforth only as an evangelist1 that is1 as an itinerant preacher of the gospel1 in the region about his own house in ,csarea 7,acts viii4 #e2 xxi4 #h2 comp4 ,eph4 iv4 #aa2 #b ,tim4 iv4 #e74 ,upon the reorganization of the church at ,jerusalem1 the ,apostles beginning more clearly to appreciate their own special calling 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ai71 gave themselves more and more to the preaching of the gospel even outside of ,jerusalem1 and thus the need became urgent of an authoritative court for the conducting of the affairs of the church even during their absence4 ,in these circumstances it would seem1 according to ,acts xi4 #cj1 that those who ministered to the poor1 chosen probably from among the most honourable of the first believers 7,acts ii4 #da71 passed over into a self-constituted college of presbyters4 ,at the head of this college or board stood ,james1 the brother of the ,lord 7,gal4 i4 #ai2 ii4 #i2 ,acts xii4 #ag2 xv4 #ac2 xxi4 #ae71 and after his death1 according to ,hegesippus1 a near relation of the ,lord1 ,simeon1 son of ,clopas1 as a descendant of ,david1 was unanimously chosen as his successor4 ,the episcopal title1 however1 just like that of ,deacon1 is first met with in the ,new ,testament in the region of the ,pauline missions1 and in the terminology of the ,palestinian churches we only hear of presbyters as officers of the church 7,acts xv4 #d1 #f1 #bb2 xxi4 #ah2 ,james v4 #ad74 ,in #a ,peter v4 #b1 however1 although does not yet appear as an official title1 the official duty of the is assigned to presbyters 7see #ag1 #f74 ,it is ,hegesippus1 about ,a4,d4 #ahj1 who first gives the title ,bishop of ,jerusalem to ,james1 after the ,clementines 7 #bh1 #c7 had already ten years previously designated him 4 #ag4c4 ,the ,constitution of the ,pauline ,churches4 ,founding upon the works of ,mommsen and ,foucart1 first of all ,heinrici and soon afterwards the ,english theologian ,hatch#g has wrought out the theory that the constitution of the churches that were wholly or mainly composed of ,gentile ,christians was modelled on those convenient1 open or elastic rules of associations under which the various ,hellenistic guilds prospered so well 71 71--associations for the naturalization and fostering of foreign1 often oriental1 modes of worship4 ,in the same way1 too1 the ,christian church at ,rome1 for social and sacred purposes1 made use of the forms of association employed in the ,collegia or ,sodalicia1 which were found there in large numbers1 especially of the funeral societies in which both of those purposes were combined 7collegia funeraticia74 ,in both these cases1 then1 the church1 by attaching itself to modes of association already existing1 acknowledged by the state1 or tolerated as harmless1 assumed a form of existence which protected it from the suspicion of the government1 and at the same time afforded it space and time for independent construction in accordance with its own special character and spirit4 ,as in those ,hellenic associations all ranks1 even those which in civil society were separated from one another by impassable barriers1 found admission1 and then1 in the framing of statutes1 the reception of fellow members1 the exercise of discipline1 possessed equal rights2 as1 further1 the full knowledge of their mysteries and sharing in their exercise were open only to the initiated 771 yet in the exercise of exoteric worship the doors were hospitably flung open even to the 2 as upon certain days those belonging to the narrow circle joining together in partaking of a common feast2 so too all this is found in the ,corinthian church1 naturally inspired by a ,christian spirit and enriched with ,christian contents4 ,the church also has its religious common feast in its ,agape1 its mystery in the ,eucharist1 its initiation in baptism1 by the administration of which the divine service is divided into two parts1 one esoteric1 to be engaged in only by the baptized1 the other exoteric1 a service that is open to those who are not ,christians4 ,all ranks 7,gal4 iii4 #bh7 have the same claim to admission to baptism1 all the baptized have equal rights in the congregation 7see #ag1 #g74 ,it is evident1 however1 that the connection between the ,christian churches and those heathen associations is not so to be conceived as if1 because in the one case distinctions of rank were abolished1 so also they were in the other2 or that1 because in the one case religious festivals were observed1 this gave the first hint as to the observance of the ,christian ,agape2 or that1 because and in the manner in which there a mysterious service was celebrated from which all outside were strictly excluded1 so also here was introduced an exclusive eucharistic service4 ,these observances are rather to be regarded as having grown up independently out of the inmost being of ,christianity2 but the church having found certain institutions existing inspired by a wholly different spirit1 yet outwardly analogous and sanctioned by the state1 it appropriated1 as far as practicable1 their forms of social organization1 in order to secure for itself the advantages of civil protection4 ,that even on the part of the pagans1 down into the last half of the second century1 the ,christian congregational fellowship was regarded as a special kind of the mystery-communities1 is shown by ,lucian's satire1 ,de morte ,peregrini 7 #bc1 #a71 where the description of ,christian communities1 in which its hero for a time played a part1 is full of technical terms which were current in those associations4 8,it is also10 says ,weingarten1 8expressly acknowledged in ,tertullian's ,apologeticus1 c4 #ch1 #ci1 written about ,a4,d4 #aih1 that even down to the close of the second century1 the ,christian church was organized in accordance with the rules of the ,collegia funeraticia1 so that it might claim from the state the privileges of the ,factiones licit4 ,the arrangements for burial and the ,christian institutions connected therewith are shown to have been carefully subsumed under forms that were admitted to be legal40 #ag4d4 ,confining ourselves meantime to the oldest and indisputably authentic epistles of the ,apostle1 we find that the autonomy of the church in respect of organization1 government1 discipline1 and internal administration is made prominent as the very basis of the constitution4 ,he never interferes in those matters1 enjoining and prescribing by his own authority1 but always1 whether personally or in spirit1 only as associated with their assemblies 7#a ,cor4 v4 #c71 deliberating and deciding in common with them4 ,thus his ,apostolic importance shows itself not in his assuming the attitude of a lord 7#b ,cor4 i4 #bd71 but that of a father 7#a ,cor4 iv4 #ad f471 who seeks to lead his children on to form for themselves independent and manly judgments 7#a ,cor4 x4 #ae2 xi4 #ac74 ,regular and fixed church officers do not seem to have existed in ,corinth down to the time when the first ,epistle was written1 about ,a4,d4 #eg4 ,a diversity of functions 7 1 #a ,cor4 xii4 #d7 is here1 indeed1 already found1 but not yet definitely attached to distinct and regular offices 7#a ,cor4 vi4 #a-f74 ,it is always yet a voluntary undertaking of such ministries on the one hand1 and the recognition of peculiar piety and faithfulness1 leading to willing submission on the other hand1 out of which the idea of office took its rise1 and from which it obtained its special character4 ,this is especially true of a peculiar kind of ministry 7,rom4 xvi4 #a1 #b7 which must soon have been developed as something indispensable to the ,christian churches throughout the ,hellenic and ,roman regions4 ,we mean the part played by the patron1 which was so deeply grounded in the social life of classical antiquity4 ,freedmen1 foreigners1 proletarii1 could not in themselves hold property and had no claim on the protection of the laws1 but had to be associated as ,clientes with a ,patronus or ,patrona 7 and 7 who in difficult circumstances would afford them counsel1 protection1 support1 and defence4 ,as in the ,greek and ,roman associations for worship this relationship had long before taken root1 and was one of the things that contributed most materially to their prosperity1 so also in the ,christian churches the need for recognising and giving effect to it became all the more urgent in proportion as the number of members increasing for whom such support was necessary 7#a ,cor4 i4 #bf-bi74 ,phbe is warmly recommended in ,rom4 xvi4 #a1 #b1 as such a ,christian 1 at ,cenchrea1 the port of ,corinth1 among whose numerous clients the ,apostle himself is mentioned4 ,many inscriptions in the ,roman catacombs testify to the deep impress which this social scheme made upon the organization1 especially of the ,roman church1 down to the end of the first century1 and to the help which it gave in rendering that church permanent4 ,all the more are we justified in connecting therewith the 7,rom4 xii4 #h71 and in giving this passage in connection with the preceding and succeeding context the meaning3 whoever represents any one as patron let him do it with diligence4--,the gradual development of stated or independent congregational offices1 after privileges and duties were distinguished from one another1 was thus brought about partly by the natural course of events1 and partly by the endeavour to make the church organization correspond with the ,greek and ,roman religious associations countenanced by the state by the employment in it of the same or similar forms and names4 ,in the older communities1 especially those in capital cities1 like ,thessalonica1 ,corinth1 ,rome1 etc41 the heads of the families of the first believers attained an authoritative position altogether unique1 as at ,corinth those of the household of ,stephanas1 who1 according to #a ,cor4 xvi4 #ae1 as the 4 ,such honour1 too1 was given to the most serviceable of the chosen patrons and others1 who evidently possessed the gifts of and 1 and those who first in an informal way had discharged official duties had amends made them even after death by a formal election4 ,on the other hand1 the churches that sprang up at a later period were probably provided immediately with such offices under the direction and with the consent of the ,apostle or his apostolic assistants 7#a ,tim4 v4 #i2 ,tit4 i4 #e74 #ag4e4 ,congregational and ,spiritual ,offices4--,while then1 down to ,a4,d4 #eg no ecclesiastical offices properly so called as yet existed at ,corinth1 and no injunctions are given by the ,apostle for their definite introduction1 it is told us in ,acts xiv4 #bc that1 so early as ,a4,d4 #ej1 when ,paul was returning from his first missionary journey he ordained with prayer and fasting elders or presbyters in those churches of ,asia ,minor previously founded by him4 ,now it is indeed quite conceivable that in these cases he adhered more closely to the already existing presbyterial constitution of the mother church at ,jerusalem 7,acts xi4 #cj71 than he did subsequently in founding and giving a constitution to the churches of the ,european cities where perhaps the circumstances and requirements were entirely different4 ,but be this as it may1 it is quite certain that the ,apostle on his departure from lately formed churches took care to leave them in an organized condition1 and the author of the ,acts has given expression to the fact proleptically in terms with which he was himself conversant and which were current in his time4--,among the ,pauline epistles which are scarcely1 if at all1 objected to by modern criticism the first to give certain information regarding distinct and independent congregational offices1 together with the names that had been then assigned to these offices1 is the ,epistle to the ,philippians1 written during the ,roman imprisonment of the ,apostle4 ,in chap4 i4 #a1 he sends his apostolic greeting and blessing 4#h ,the ,episcopate and the ,diaconate make their appearance here as the two categories of congregational offices1 of both of which there are several representatives in each congregation4 ,it is in the so-called ,pastoral ,epistles that for the first time we find applied in the ,gentile ,christian communities the title of ,presbyter which had been the usual designation of the president in the mother church at ,jerusalem4 ,this title1 just as in ,acts xx4 #ag1 #bh1 is undoubtedly regarded as identical with that of bishop 77 and is used as an alternative 7,tit4 i4 #e1 #g2 #a ,tim4 iii4 #a2 iv4 #ad2 v4 #ag1 #ai74 ,from the practical identity of the qualifications of bishops 7#a ,tim4 iii4 #a7 or of deacons 7v4 #ab f471 it follows that their callings were essentially the same2 and from the etymological signification of their names1 it would seem that there was assigned to the bishops the duty of governing1 administrating and superintending1 to the deacons that of serving1 assisting and carrying out details as subordinate auxiliaries4 ,it is shown by ,rom4 xvi4 #a1 that even so early as ,a4,d4 #eh1 the need of a female order of helpers had been felt and was supplied4 ,when this order had at a later period assumed the rank of a regular office1 it became the rule that only widows above sixty years of age should be chosen 7#a ,tim4 v4 #i74--,we are introduced to an altogether different order of ecclesiastical authorities in ,eph4 iv4 #aa1 where we have named in the first rank ,apostles1 in the second ,prophets1 in the third ,evangelists1 and in the fourth ,pastors and ,teachers4 ,what is here meant by ,apostles and ,prophets is quite evident 7 #cd1 #a74 ,from #b ,tim4 iv4 #e and ,acts xxi4 #h 7viii4 #e71 it follows that ,evangelists are itinerant preachers of the gospel and assistants of the ,apostles4 ,it is more difficult to determine exactly the functions of ,pastors and ,teachers and their relation to the regular congregational offices4 ,their introduction in ,eph4 iv4 #aa1 as together constituting a fourth class1 as well as the absence of the term ,pastor in the parallel passage1 #a ,cor4 xii4 #bh1 #bi1 presupposes such a close connection of the two orders1 the one having the care of souls1 the other the duties of preaching and catechizing1 that we unhesitatingly assume that both were1 if not always1 at least generally1 united in the same person4 ,they have been usually identified with the bishops or presbyters4 ,in ,acts xx4 #ag1 #bh1 and in #a ,pet4 v4 #b-d1 presbyters are expressly called pastors4 ,the order of the in ,heb4 xiii4 #g1 1 has also been regarded as identical with that of bishops4 ,in regard to the last named order a confusion already appears in ,acts xv41 where men1 who in v4 #bb are expressly distinguished from the elders 7presbyters7 and in v4 #cb are ranked as prophets1 are yet called 4 ,we should also be led to conclude from #a ,cor4 xii4 #bh1 that those who had the qualifications of and 1 functions certainly belonging to bishops or presbyters as administrative and diocesan officers1 are yet personally distinguished from ,apostles1 ,prophets1 and ,teachers4 ,now it is explicitly enjoined in ,tit4 i4 #i that in the choice of bishops special care should be taken to see that they have capacity for teaching4 ,in #a ,tim4 v4 #ag double honour is demanded for the 1 if they also labour 4 ,this passage1 however1 shows teaching did not always and in all circumstances1 or even ex professo belong to the special functions of the president of the congregation2 that it was rather in special circumstances1 where perhaps these gifts were not at all or not in sufficient abundance elsewhere to be found1 that these duties of teaching were undertaken in addition to their own proper official work of presidency 774 ,the dividing line between the two orders1 bishops and deacons on the one hand1 and pastors and teachers on the other1 consists in the fundamentally different nature of their calling4 ,the former were congregational offices1 the latter1 like those of ,apostles and ,prophets1 were spiritual offices4 ,the former were chosen by the congregation1 the latter had1 like the ,apostles and ,prophets1 a divine call1 though according to ,james iii4 #a not without the consenting will of the individual1 and the charismatic capacity for teaching1 although not in the same absolute measure4 ,the former were attached to a particular congregation1 the latter were1 like the ,apostles and ,prophets1 first of all itinerant teachers and had1 like them1 the task of building up the churches 7,eph4 iv4 #ab1 74 ,but1 while the ,apostles and ,prophets laid the foundation of this building on ,christ1 the chief corner stone1 preachers and teachers had to continue building on the foundation thus laid 7,eph4 ii4 #bj74 ,a place and importance are undoubtedly secured for these three spiritual offices1 in so far as continued itinerant offices1 by the example of the ,lord in ,his preliminary sending forth of the twelve in ,matt4 x41 and of the seventy disciples in ,luke x4--,continuation1 #cd1 #a4 #ag4f4 ,the question about the original position of the ,episcopate and ,presbyterate1 as well as their relation to one another1 has received three different answers4 ,according to the ,roman ,catholic theory1 which is also that of the ,anglican ,episcopal ,church1 the clerical1 hierarchical arrangement of the third century1 which gave to each of the larger communities a bishop as its president with a number of presbyters and deacons subject to him1 existed as a divine institution from the beginning4 ,it is unequivocally testified by the ,new ,testament1 and1 as appears from the ,first ,epistle of ,clement of ,rome 7ch4 #db1 #dd1 #eg71 the fact had never been disputed down to the close of the first century1 that bishops and presbyters are identical4 ,the force of this objection1 however1 is sought to be obviated by the subterfuge that while all bishops were indeed presbyters1 all presbyters were not bishops4 ,the ineptitude of such an evasion is apparent4 ,in ,phil4 i4 #a the ,apostle1 referring to this one particular church greeted not one but several bishops4 ,according to ,acts xx4 #ag1 #bh1 all the presbyters of the one ,ephesian community are made bishops by the ,holy ,ghost4 ,also1 ,tit4 i4 #e1 #g unconditionally excludes such a distinction2 and according to #a ,pet4 v4 #b1 all such presbyters should be 4--,in opposition to this theory1 which received the sanction of the ,council of ,trent1 the ,old ,protestant theologians maintained the original identity of the two names and offices4 ,in support of this they could refer not only to the ,new ,testament1 but also to ,clement of ,rome and the ,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles 7 #cd1 #a71 where1 just as in ,phil4 i4 #a1 only bishops and deacons are named as congregational officers1 and as appointed by the free choice of the congregation4 ,they can also point to the consensus of the most respected church fathers and church teachers of later times4 ,chrysostom 7,hom4 ix4 in ,ep4 ad ,tim47 says3 1 4 ,jerome 7ad ,tit4 i4 #e7 says3 ,idem est presbyter qui et episcopus et antequam diaboli instinctu studia in religione fierent 444 communi presbyterorum concilio gubernantur ecclesi4 ,augustine1 and other church fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries1 as well as ,urban ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #ajia1 ,petrus ,peter ,lombardus and the ,decree of ,gratian1 may all be referred to as supporting the same view4 ,after such an identification of the person and office1 the existence of the two names must be explained from their meaning as words1 by assuming that the title 1 which arose among the ,gentile-,christian churches1 pointed more to the duty officially required1 while the title 1 which arose among the ,jewish-,christian churches1 pointed more to the honourable character of the person 7#a ,tim4 v4 #ag1 #ai74 ,the subsequent development of a monarchical episcopacy is quite conceivable as having taken place in the natural course of events 7 #cd1 #b74--;,a third theory is that proposed by ,hatch1 of ,oxford1 in ,a4,d4 #ahha1 warmly approved of and vigorously carried out by ,harnack4 ,according to this theory the two names in question answer to a twofold distinction that appears in the church courts3 on the college of presbyters was devolved the government of the community1 with administration of law and discipline2 on the bishops and their assistants the superintendence and management of the community in the widest sense of the word1 including its worship1 and first of all and chiefly the brotherly care of the poor1 the sick and strangers1 together with the collecting1 keeping1 and dispensing of money needful for those ends4 ,in the course of time the two organizations were combined into one1 since the bishops1 on account of their eminently important place and work1 obtained in the presbytery not only a simple seat and vote1 but by-and-by the presidency and the casting vote4 ,in establishing this theory it is pointed out that in the government and management of federations of that time for social and religious purposes in country districts or in cities1 in imitation of which the organization of the ,christian communities was formed1 this twofold distribution is also found1 and that especially the administrators of the finances in these societies had not only the title of 1 but had also the president's seat in their assemblies 71 71 which1 however1 is not altogether conclusive1 since it is demonstrable that this title was also borne by judicial and political officials4 ,it is also pointed out on the other hand that1 in accordance with the modified view presented in the ,pastoral ,epistles1 the ,acts1 and the ,epistle of ,clement of ,rome1 the consciousness of the original diversity of calling of the two offices were maintained throughout the whole of the second century1 inasmuch as often a theoretical distinction between bishops and presbyters in the way specified was asserted4 ,now1 in the first place1 it can scarcely be matter of dispute as to whether the administration of property1 with the care of the poor 77 as the principal task1 could actually have won a place so superior in respectability1 influence and significance to that of congregational government 771 or whether the authority which embraced the functions of a judicial bench1 a court of discipline1 and a court of equity did not rather come to preponderate over that which was occupied in the administration of property and the care of the poor4 ,but above all we shall have to examine the ,new ,testament writings1 as the relatively oldest witnesses to the matter of fact as well as to the usage of the language1 and see what they have to say on the subject4 ,this must be done even by those who would have the composition of the ,pastoral ,epistles and the ,acts removed out of the ,apostolic ,age4 ,in these writings1 however1 there is nowhere a firm and sure foundation afforded to that theory4 ,it has1 indeed1 been supposed that in ,phil4 i4 #a mention is made only of bishops and deacons because by them the present from the ,philippians had been brought to the ,apostle4 ,but seeing that1 in the case of there actually existing in ,philippi at this time besides the bishops a college of presbyters1 the omission of these from the greeting in this epistle1 the chief purpose of which was to impart apostolic comfort and encouragement1 and which only refers gratefully at the close1 ch4 iv4 #aj1 to the contribution sent1 would have been damaging to them1 we must assume that the bishops with their assistants the deacons were the only office-bearers then existing in that community4 ,thus this passage tells as much against as in favour of the limiting of the episcopal office to economical administration4 ,often as mention is made in the ,new ,testament of an and a in and over the community1 this never stands in specific and exclusive relation to administration of property and care of the poor4 ,it is indeed assumed in ,acts xi4 #cj that care of the poor is a duty of the presbyter2 so also the charismatic caring for the sick is required of presbyters in ,james v4 #ad2 and in #a ,pet4 v4 #b presbyters are described as 2 in #a ,pet4 ii4 #be ,christ is spoken of as 2 in ,acts i4 #bj the apostolic office is called 1 while in ,acts i4 #be and often1 especially in the ,pauline epistles1 it is designated a 4#i--;,continuation1 #cd1 #b4 #ag4g4 ,christian ,worship4--,even in ,jerusalem1 where the temple ordinances were still observed1 the religious needs of the ,christian community demanded that separate services of a distinctly ,christian character should be organized4 ,but just as the ,jewish services of that day consisted of two parts--the ministry of the word for purposes of instruction and edification in the synagogues1 and the symbolic service of a typical and sacramental character in the temple1--the ,christian service was in like manner from the first divided into a homiletical-didactic part1 and a eucharistic-sacramental part4--,the ,homiletical and ,didactic part1 on account of the presence of those who were not ,christians1 must have had1 just like the synagogue service1 alongside of its principal aim to instruct and edify the congregation1 a definite and deliberately planned missionary tendency4 ,the church in ,jerusalem at the first held these morning services in one of the halls of the temple1 where the people were wont to assemble for prayer 7,acts ii4 #df2 iii4 #a1 #aa72 but at a later period they were held in private houses4 ,in the ,gentile churches they seem from the first to have been held in private houses or in halls rented for the purpose4 ,the service consisted in reading of portions of the ,old ,testament1 and at a later period1 portions of the ,apostolic ,epistles and ,gospels1 and in connection therewith1 doctrinal and hortatory discourses1 with prayer and singing of psalms4 ,it is more than probable that the liberty of teaching1 which had prevailed in the synagogues 7,luke ii4 #df2 iv4 #af2 ,acts xiii4 #ae71 was also permitted in the similar assemblies of ,jewish ,christians 7,acts viii4 #d2 xi4 #ai2 ,james iii4 #a72 and it may be concluded from #a ,cor4 xiv4 #cd that this also was the practice in ,gentile-,christian congregations4 ,the apparent contradiction of women as such being forbidden to speak1 while in #a ,cor4 xi4 #e it seems to be allowed1 can only be explained by supposing that in the passage referred to the woman spoken of as praying or prophesying is praying in an ecstasy1 that is1 speaking with tongues 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #ac-ae71 or uttering prophetic announcements1 like the daughters of ,philip 7,acts xxi4 #i71 and that the permission applies only to such cases1 the exceptional nature of which1 as well as their temporary character1 as charismatic and miraculous gifts1 would prevent their being used as precedents for women engaging in regular public discourse 7#a ,thess4 v4 #ai74 ,in #a ,cor4 xiv4 #bd the 7synonymous with the in the statutes of ,hellenic religious associations7 are mentioned as admitted along with the to the didactic services1 and1 according to v4 #af1 they had a place assigned to them separate from the congregation proper4 ,we are thus led to see in them the uninitiated or not yet baptized believers1 that is1 the catechumens4--,the ,sacramental part of the service1 the separation of which from the didactic part was rendered necessary on account alike of its nature and purpose1 and is therefore found existing in the ,pauline churches as well as in the church of ,jerusalem1 was scrupulously restricted in its observance1 in ,jewish and ,gentile churches alike1 to those who were in the full communion of the ,christian church 7,acts ii4 #df2 #a ,cor4 xi4 #bj-bc74 ,the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper 7 1 #a ,cor4 xi4 #ba71 after the pattern of the meal of institution1 consisting of a meal partaken of in common1 accompanied with prayer and the singing of a hymn1 which at a later period was named the 1 as the expression of brotherly love 7,jude v4 #ab71 was the centre and end of these evening services4 ,the elements in the ,lord's ,supper were consecrated to their sacramental purpose by a prayer of praise and thanksgiving 71 #a ,cor4 xi4 #bd2 or 1 #a ,cor4 x4 #af71 together with a recital of the words of institution which contained a proclamation of the death of ,christ 7#a ,cor4 xi4 #bf74 ,this prayer was followed by the kiss of brotherhood4#aj ,in the service of song they used to all appearance besides the psalms some ,christian hymns and doxologies 7,eph4 v4 #ai2 ,col4 iii4 #af74aa--,the homiletical as well as the eucharistic services were at first held daily2 at a later period at least every ,sunday4#ab ,for very soon1 alongside of the ,sabbath1 and among ,gentile ,christians1 instead of it1 the first day of the week as the day of ,christ's resurrection began to be observed as a festival4#ac ,but there is as yet no trace of the observance of other festivals4 ,it cannot be exactly proved that infant baptism was an ,apostolic practice1 but it is not improbable that it was so4#ad ,baptism was administered by complete immersion 7,acts viii4 #ch7 in the name of ,christ or of the ,trinity 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ai74 ,the charism of healing the sick was exercised by prayer and anointing with oil 7,jas4 v4 #ad74 ,on the other hand1 confession of sin even apart from the public service was recommended 7,jas4 v4 #af74 ,charismatic communication of the ,spirit and admission to office in the church#ae was accomplished by prayer and laying on of hands4#af #ag4h4 ,christian ,life and ,ecclesiastical ,discipline4--,in accordance with the commandment of the ,lord 7,john xiii4 #cd71 brotherly love in opposition to the selfishness of the natural life1 was the principle of the ,christian life4 ,the power of youthful love1 fostered by the prevalent expectation of the speedy return of the ,lord1 endeavoured at first to find for itself a fitting expression in the mother church of ,jerusalem by the voluntary determination to have their goods in common1--an endeavour which without prejudice of its spiritual importance soon proved to be impracticable4 ,on the other hand the well-to-do ,gentile churches proved their brotherly love by collections for those originally poor1 and especially for the church at ,jerusalem which had suffered the special misfortune of famine4 ,the three inveterate moral plagues of the ancient world1 contempt of foreign nationalities1 degradation of woman1 and slavery1 were overcome1 according to ,gal4 iii4 #bh1 by gradual elevation of inward feeling without any violent struggle against existing laws and customs1 and the consciousness of common membership in the one head in heaven hallowed all the relationships of the earthly life4 ,even in apostolic times the bright mirror of ,christian purity was no doubt dimmed by spots of rust4 ,hypocrisy 7,acts v47 and variance 7,acts vi47 in single cases appeared very early in the mother church2 but the former was punished by a fearfully severe judgment1 the latter was overcome by love and sweet reasonableness4 ,in the rich ,gentile churches1 such as those of ,corinth and ,thessalonica1 a worldly spirit in the form of voluptuousness1 selfishness1 pride1 etc41 made its appearance1 but was here also rooted out by apostolic exhortation and discipline4 ,if any one caused public scandal by serious departure from true doctrine or ,christian conduct1 and in spite of pastoral counsel persisted in his error1 he was by the judgment of the church cast out1 but the penitent was received again after his sincerity had been proved 7#a ,cor4 v4 #a2 #b ,cor4 ii4 #e74 #ah4 ,,heresies ,,in ,,the ,,apostolic ,,age4#ag ,when ,christianity began its career of world conquest in the preaching of the ,apostle ,paul1 the representatives of the intellectual culture of the ancient world assumed toward it an attitude1 either of utter indifference1 or of keen hostility1 or of readiness to accept ,christian elements1 while retaining along with these many of their old notions4 ,from this mixing of heterogeneous elements a fermentation arose which was the fruitful mother of numerous heresies4 #ah4a4 ,jewish ,christianity and the ,council of ,apostles4--,the ,lord had commanded the disciples to preach the gospel to all nations 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ai71 and so they could not doubt that the whole heathen world was called to receive the church's heritage2 but feeling themselves bound by utterances of the ,old ,testament regarding the eternal validity of the law of ,moses1 and having not yet penetrated the full significance of the saying of ,christ 7,mark v4 #ag71 they thought that incorporation into ,judaism by circumcision was still an indispensable condition of reception into the kingdom of ,christ4 ,the ,hellenist ,stephen represented a more liberal tendency 7,acts vi4 #ad72 and ,philip1 also a ,hellenist1 preached at least occasionally to the ,samaritans1 and the ,apostles recognised his work by sending down ,peter and ,john 7,acts viii4 #ad74 ,on the other hand1 it needed an immediate divine revelation to convince ,peter that a ,gentile thirsting for salvation was just as such fit for the kingdom of ,god 7,acts x474 ,and even this revelation remained without any decisive influence on actual missionary enterprise4 ,they were ,hellenistic ,jews who finally took the bold step of devoting themselves without reserve to the conversion of the ,gentiles at ,antioch 7,acts xi4 #ai74 ,to foster the movement there the ,apostles sent ,barnabas1 who entered into it with his whole soul1 and in ,paul associated with himself a yet more capable worker4 ,after the notable success of their first missionary journey had vindicated their claim and calling as ,apostles of the ,gentiles1 the arrival of ,jewish zealots in the ,antiochean church occasioned the sending of ,paul and ,barnabas to ,jerusalem1 about ,a4,d4 #ea1 in order finally to settle this important dispute4 ,at a ,council of the ,apostles convened there ,peter and ,james the ,just delivered the decision that ,gentile converts should only be required to observe certain legal restrictions1 and these1 as it would seem from the conditions laid down 7,acts xv4 #bj71 of a similar kind to those imposed upon proselytes of the gate4 ,an arrangement come to at this time between the two ,antiochean ,apostles and ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john1 led to the recognition of the former as ,apostles of the ,gentiles and the latter as ,apostles of the ,jews 7,gal4 ii4 #a-aj74 ,nevertheless during a visit to ,antioch ,peter laid himself open to censure for practical inconsistency and weak connivance with the fanaticism of certain ,jewish ,christians1 and had to have the truth respecting it very pointedly told him by ,paul 7,gal4 ii4 #aa-ad74 ,the destruction of the temple and the consequent cessation of the entire ,jewish worship led to the gradual disappearance of non-sectarian ,jewish ,christianity and its amalgamation with ,gentile ,christianity4 ,the remnant of ,jewish ,christianity which still in the altered condition of things continued to cling to its principles and practice assumed ever more and more the character of a sect1 and drifted into open heresy4 7,comp4 #bh74 #ah4b4 ,the ,apostolic ,basis of ,doctrine4--,the need of fixing the apostolically accredited accounts of the life of the ,redeemer by written documents1 led to the origin of the ,gospels4 ,the continued connection of the missionary ,apostles with the churches founded by them1 or even their authority of general superintendence1 called forth the apostolic doctrinal epistles4 ,a beginning of the collection and general circulation of the ,new ,testament writings was made at an early date by the communication of these being made by one church to another 7,col4 iv4 #af74 ,there was as yet no confession of faith as a standard of orthodoxy1 but the way was prepared by adopting ,matt4 xxviii4 #ai as a confession by candidates for baptism4 ,paul set up justification through faith alone 7,gal4 i4 #h1 #i71 and ,john1 the incarnation of ,god in ,christ 7#a ,john iv4 #c71 as indispensable elements in a ,christian confession4 #ah4c4 ,false ,teachers4--,the first enemy from within its own borders which ,christianity had to confront was the ordinary ,pharisaic ,judaism with its stereotyped traditional doctrine1 its lifeless work-righteousness1 its unreasonable national prejudices1 and its perversely carnal ,messianic expectations4 ,its shibboleth was the obligation of the ,gentiles to observe the ,mosaic ceremonial law1 the ,sabbath1 rules about meats1 circumcision1 as an indispensable condition of salvation4 ,this tendency had its origin in the mother church of ,jerusalem1 but was there at a very early date condemned by the ,apostolic ,council4 ,this party nevertheless pursued at all points the ,apostle ,paul with bitter enmity and vile calumnies4 ,traces of a manifestation of a ,sadducean or sceptical spirit may perhaps already be found in the denial of the resurrection which in #a ,cor4 xv4 ,paul opposes4 ,on the other hand1 at a very early period ,greek philosophy got mixed up with ,christianity4 ,apollos1 a philosophically cultured ,jew of ,alexandria1 had at first conceived of ,christianity from the speculative side1 and had in this form preached it with eloquence and success at ,corinth4 ,paul did not contest the admissibility of this mode of treatment4 ,he left it to the verdict of history 7#a ,cor4 iii4 #aa-ad71 and warned against an over-estimation of human wisdom 7#a ,cor4 ii4 #a-aj74 ,among many of the seekers after wisdom in ,corinth1 little as this was intended by ,apollos1 the simple positive preaching of ,paul lost on this account the favour that it had enjoyed before4 ,in this may be found perhaps the first beginnings of that fourfold party faction which arose in the ,corinthian church 7#a ,cor4 i474 ,the ,judaists appealed to the authority of the ,apostle ,peter 7 72 the ,gentile ,christians were divided into the parties of ,apollos and of ,paul1 or by the assumption of the proud name 1 sought to free themselves from the recognition of any ,apostolic authority4 ,paul successfully opposes these divisions in his ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,apprehension of a threatened growth of gnostic teachers is first expressed in the ,apostle ,paul's farewell addresses to the elders of ,asia ,minor 7,acts xx4 #bi72 and in the ,epistle to the ,colossians1 as well as in the ,pastoral ,epistles1 this is expressly opposed as manifesting itself in the adoption of oriental theosophy1 magic1 and theurgy1 in an arbitrary asceticism that forbade marriage and restricted the use of food1 in an imaginary secret knowledge of the nature and order of the heavenly powers and spirits1 and idealistic volatilizing of concrete ,christian doctrines1 such as that of the resurrection 7#b ,tim4 ii4 #ah74 ,in the ,first ,epistle of ,john1 again1 that special form of ,gnosis is pointed out which denied the incarnation of ,god in ,christ by means of docetic conceptions2 and in the ,second ,epistle of ,peter1 as well as in the ,epistle of ,jude1 we have attention called to antinomian excrescences1 unbridled immorality and wanton lust in the development of magical and theurgical views4 ,it should not1 however1 be left unmentioned1 that modern criticism has on many grounds contested the authenticity of the ,new ,testament writings just named1 and has assigned the first appearance of heretical gnosis to the beginning of the second century4 ,the ,nicolaitans of the ,apocalypse 7iii4 #e1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj7 appear to have been an antinomian sect of ,gentile ,christian origin1 spread more or less through the churches of ,asia ,minor1 perhaps without any gnostic background1 which in direct and intentional opposition to the decision of the ,apostolic ,council 7,acts xv4 #bi7 took part in heathen sacrificial feasts 7comp4 #a ,cor4 x471 and justified or at least apologized for fleshly impurity4 ,,first ,,division4 ,history of the ,development of the ,church during the ,grco-,roman and ,grco-,byzantine ,periods4 #ai4 ,,content1 ,,distribution ,,and ,,boundaries ,,of ,,those ,,periods4 ,at the very beginning of the ,apostolic ,age the universalistic spirit of ,christianity had already broken through the particularistic limitations of ,judaism4 ,when once the substantial truth of divine salvation had cast off the ,judaistic husk in which the kernel had ripened1 those elements of culture which had come to maturity in the ,roman-,greek world were appropriated as means for giving to ,christian ideas a fuller and clearer expression4 ,the task now to be undertaken was the development of ,christianity on the lines of ,grco-,roman culture1 or the expansion of the church's apostolicity into catholicity4 ,the ancient church of the ,roman and ,byzantine world fulfilled this task1 but in doing so the sound evangelical catholic development encountered at every point elements of a false1 because an unevangelical1 ,catholicism4 ,the centre1 then1 of all the movements of ,church ,history is to be found in the ,teutono-,roman-,slavic empire4 ,the ,roman church preserved and increased her importance by attaching herself to this new empire1 and undertaking its spiritual formation and education4 ,the ,byzantine church1 on the other hand1 falling into a state of inward stagnation1 and pressed from without by the forces of ,islam1 passes into decay as a national church4 ,the history of this first stage of the development of the church falls into three periods4 ,the first period reaches down to ,constantine the ,great1 who1 in ,a4,d4 #cbc1 secured to ,christianity and the church a final victory over ,paganism4 ,the second period brings us down to the close of the universal catholic or cumenical elaboration of doctrine attained by the church under its old classical form of culture1 that is1 down to the close of the ,monothelite controversy 7 #eb1 #h71 by the ,sixth cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #fhj4 ,but inasmuch as the ,concilium quini-sextum in ,a4,d4 #fib undertook simply the completion of the work of the two previous cumenical synods with reference to church constitution and worship1 and as here the first grounds were laid for the great partition of the church into ,eastern and ,western 7 #fc1 #b71 we prefer to make ,a4,d4 #fib the closing limit of the second period4 ,the conclusion of the third period1 is found in the overthrow of ,constantinople by the ,turks in ,a4,d4 #adec4 ,the first two periods are most evidently distinguished from one another in respect of the outward condition of the church4 ,before the times of ,constantine1 it lives and develops its strength amid the oppression and persecution of the pagan state2 under ,constantine the state itself becomes ,christian and the church enjoys all the advantages1 all the care and furtherance1 that earthly protection can afford4 ,along with all this worldly splendour1 however1 a worldly disposition makes its way into the church1 and in exchange for its protection of the church the state assumes an autocratic lordship over it4 ,even in the inner1 and pre-eminently doctrinal1 development of the church the two periods of this age are essentially distinguished from one another4 ,while it was the church's endeavour to adopt only the forms of culture of ancient paganism1 while rejecting its godless substance1 it too often happened that pagan ideas got mixed up with ,christianity1 and it was threatened with a similar danger from the side of ,judaism4 ,it was therefore the special task of the church during the first period to resist the encroachment of anti-,christian ,jewish and ,pagan elements4 ,in the first period the perfecting of its own genuinely ,christian doctrinal content was still a purely subjective matter1 resting only on the personal authority of the particular church teachers4 ,in the second period1 on the other hand1 the church universal1 as represented by cumenical synods with full power1 proceeds to the laying down and establishing of an objective-ecclesiastical1 cumenical-catholic system of doctrine1 constituting an all-sided development of the truth in opposition to the one-sided development of subjective heretical teaching4 ,in doing so1 however1 the culture of the old ,grco-,roman world exhausted its powers4 ,the measure of development which these were capable of affording the church was now completed1 and its future must be looked for among the new nationalities of ,teutonic1 ,romanic1 and ,slavic origin4 ,while the ,byzantine empire1 and with it the glory of the ancient church of the ,east was pressed and threatened by ,islam1 a new empire arose in the ,west in youthful vigour and became the organ of a new phase of development in the history of the church2 and while the church in the ,west struggled after a new and higher point in her development1 the ,eastern church sank ever deeper down under outward oppression and inward weakness4 ,the partition of the church into an ,eastern and a ,western division1 which became imminent at the close of the second period1 and was actually carried out during the third period1 cut off the church of the ,east from the influence of those new vital forces1 political as well as ecclesiastical1 and which it might otherwise1 perhaps1 have shared with the ,west4 ,by the overthrow of the ,east-,roman empire the last support of its splendour and even of its vital activity was taken away4 ,here too ends the history of the church on the lines of purely antique classical forms of culture4 ,the remnants of the church of the ,east were no longer capable of any living historical development under the oppression of the ,turkish rule4 ,,first ,,section4 ,history of the ,grco-,roman ,church during the ,second and ,third ,centuries 7,a4,d4 #gj-cbc74ah #bj4 ,,content1 ,,distribution ,,and ,,boundaries ,,of ,,this ,,period4#ai ,as the history of the beginnings of the church has been treated by us under two divisions1 so also the first period of the history of its development may be similarly divided into the ,post-,apostolic ,age1 which reaches down to the middle of the second century1 and the ,age of the ,old ,catholic ,church1 which ends with the establishment of the church under and by ,constantine1 and at that point passes over into the ,age of the cumenical ,catholic or ,byzantine-,roman ,imperial ,church4--,as the ,post-,apostolic ,age was occupied with an endeavour to appropriate and possess in a fuller and more vigorous manner the saving truths transmitted by the ,apostles1 and presents as the result of its struggles1 errors1 and victories1 the ,old ,catholic ,church as a unity1 firmly bound from within1 strictly free of all compulsion from without1 so on the basis thus gained1 the ,old ,catholic ,church goes forward to new conflicts1 failures1 and successes1 by means of which the foundations are laid for the future perfecting of it through its establishment by the state into the cumenical ,catholic ,imperial ,church4#bj #bj4a4 ,the ,post-,apostolic ,age4--,the peril to which the church was exposed from the introduction of ,judaistic and ,pagan elements with her new converts was much more serious not only than the ,jewish spirit of persecution1 crushed as it was into impotence through the overthrow of ,jewish national independence1 but also than the persecution of anti-,christian paganism which at this time was only engaged upon sporadically4 ,all the more threatening was this peril from the peculiar position of the church during this age4 ,since the removal of the personal guidance of the ,apostles that control was wanting which only at a subsequent period was won again by the establishment of a ,new ,testament canon and the laying down of a normative rule of faith1 as well as by the formation of a hierarchical-episcopal constitution4 ,in all the conflicts1 then1 that occupied this age1 the first and main point was to guard the integrity and purity of traditional ,apostolic ,christianity against the anti-,christian ,jewish and ,pagan ideas which new converts endeavoured to import into it from their earlier religious life4 ,those ,judaic ideas thus imported gave rise to ,ebionism2 those ,pagan ideas gave rise to ,gnosticism 7 #bf-bh74 ,and just as the ,pauline ,gentile ,christianity1 in so far as it was embraced under this period 7 #cj1 #b71 secured the victory over the moderate and non-heretical ,jewish ,christianity1 this latter became more and more assimilated to the former1 and gradually passed over into it 7 #bh1 #a74 ,add to this the need1 ever more pressingly felt1 of a sifting of the not yet uniformly recognised early ,christian literature that had passed into ecclesiastical use 7 #cf1 #g1 #h7 by means of the establishment of a ,new ,testament canon2 that is1 the need of a collection of writings admitted to be of ,apostolic origin to occupy henceforth the first rank as a standard and foundation for the purposes of teaching and worship1 and to form a bulwark against the flood of heretical and non-heretical ,pseudepigraphs that menaced the purity of doctrine 7 #cb74 ,further1 the no less pressing need for the construction of a universally valid rule of faith 7 #ce1 #b71 as an intellectual bond of union and mark of recognition for all churches and believers scattered over the earth's surface4 ,then again1 in the victory that was being secured by ,episcopacy over ,presbyterianism1 and in the introduction of a ,synodal constitution for counsel and resolution1 the first stage in the formation of a hierarchical organization was reached 7 #cd74 ,finally1 the last dissolving action of this age was the suppression of the fanatical prophetic and fanatical rigorist spirit1 which1 reaching its climax in ,montanism1 directed itself mainly against the tendency already appearing on many sides to tone down the unflinching severity of ecclesiastical discipline1 to make modifications in constitution1 life and conversation in accordance with the social customs of the world1 and to settle down through disregard of the speedy return of the ,lord1 so confidently expected by the early ,christians1 into an easy satisfaction in the enjoyment of earthly possessions 7 #dj1 #e74 #bj4b4 ,the ,age of the ,old ,catholic ,church4--,the designation of the universal ,christian church as ,catholic dates from the time of ,irenus1 that is1 from the beginning of this second part of our first period4 ,this name characterizes the church as the one universally 7' 7 spread and recognised from the time of the ,apostles1 and so stigmatizes every opposition to the one church that alone stands on the sure foundation of holy scripture and pure apostolic tradition1 as belonging to the manifold particularistic heretical and schismatical sects4 ,the church of this particular age1 however1 has been designated the ,old ,catholic ,church as distinguished from the cumenical ,catholic church of the following period1 as well as from the ,roman ,catholic and ,greek ,catholic churches1 into which afterwards the cumenical ,catholic church was divided4 ,at the beginning of this age1 the heretical as well as the non-heretical ,ebionism may be regarded as virtually suppressed1 although some scanty remnants of it might yet be found4 ,the most brilliant period of ,gnosticism1 too1 when the most serious danger from ,paganism within the ,christian pale in the form of ,hellenic and ,syro-,chaldaic ,theosophy and ,mysteriosophy threatened the church1 was already past4 ,but in ,manichism 7 #bi7 there appeared1 during the second half of the third century1 a new peril of a no less threatening kind1 inspired by ,parseeism and ,buddhism1 which1 however1 the church on the ground of the solid foundations already laid was able to resist with powerful weapons4 ,on the other hand the ,pagan element within the church asserted itself more and more decidedly 7 #ci1 #f7 by means of the intrusion of magico-theurgical superstition into the catholic doctrine of the efficacy of the church sacraments and sacramental acts 7 #eh74 ,but now also1 with ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,paganism outside of ,christianity as embodied in the ,roman state1 begins the war of extermination against the church that was ever more and more extending her boundaries4 ,such manifestation of hostility1 however1 was not able to subdue the church1 but rather led1 under and through ,constantine the ,great1 to the ,christianizing of the state and the establishment of the church4 ,during the same time the episcopal and synodal-hierarchical organization of the church was more fully developed by the introduction of an order of ,metropolitans1 and then in the following period it reached its climax in the oligarchical ,pentarchy of ,patriarchs 7 #df1 #a71 and in the institution of cumenical ,synods 7 #dc1 #b74 ,by the condemnation and expulsion of ,montanism1 in which the inner development of the ,post-,apostolic ,age reached its special and distinctive conclusion1 the endeavour to naturalize ,christianity among the social customs of the worldly life was certainly legitimized by the church1 and could now be unrestrictedly carried out in a wider and more comprehensive way4 ,in the ,trinitarian controversies1 too1 in which several prominent theologians engaged1 the first step was taken in that cumenical-ecclesiastical elaboration of doctrine which occupied and dominated the whole of the following period 7 #di-eb74 #bj4c4 ,the ,point of ,transition from the ,one ,age to the ,other may unhesitatingly be set down at ,a4,d4 #agj4 ,the following are the most important data in regard thereto4 ,the death about ,a4,d4 #afe of ,justin ,martyr1 who marks the highest point reached in the ,post-,apostolic ,age1 and forms also the transition to the ,old ,catholic ,age2 and ,irenus1 flourishing somewhere about ,a4,d4 #agj1 who was the real inaugurator of this latter age4 ,besides these we come upon the beginnings of the ,trinitarian controversies about the year #agj4 ,finally1 the rejection of ,montanism from the universal ,catholic church was effected about the year #agj by means of the ,synodal institution called into existence for that very purpose4 ,i4 ,,the ,,relationship ,,of ,,extra-,,christian ,,paganism ,,and ,,judaism ,,to ,,the ,,church4#ba #ba4 ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,christianity4 ,amid all the persecutions which the church during this period had to suffer it spread with rapid strides throughout the whole ,roman empire1 and even far beyond its limits4 ,edessa1 the capital of the kingdom of ,osrhone in ,mesopotamia1 had1 as early as ,a4,d4 #agj1 a ,christian prince1 named ,abgar ,bar ,maanu1 whose coins were the first to bear the sign of the cross4 ,we find ,christianity gaining a footing contemporaneously in ,persia1 ,media1 ,bactria1 and ,parthia4 ,in the third century we find traces of its presence in ,armenia4 ,paul himself made his way into ,arabia 7,gal4 i4 #ag74 ,in the third century ,origen received an invitation from a 1 who wished to receive information about ,christianity4 ,at another time he accepted a call from that country in order to settle an ecclesiastical dispute 7 #cc1 #f74 ,from ,alexandria1 where ,mark had exercised his ministry1 the ,christian faith spread out into other portions of ,africa1 into ,cyrene and among the ,coptic races1 neighbouring upon the ,egyptians properly so-called4 ,the church of proconsular ,africa1 with ,carthage for its capital1 stood in close connection with ,rome4 ,mauretania and ,numidia had1 even in the third century1 so many churches1 that ,cyprian could bring together at ,carthage a ,synod of eighty-seven bishops4 ,in ,gaul there were several flourishing churches composed of colonies and teachers from ,asia ,minor1 such as the churches of ,lyons1 ,vienne1 etc4 ,at a later period seven missionary teachers of the ,christian faith came out of ,italy into ,gaul1 among whom was ,dionysius1 known as ,st4 ,denis1 the founder of the church at ,paris4 ,the ,roman colonies in the provinces of the ,rhine and the ,danube had several flourishing congregations as early as the third century4 ,the emptiness and corruption of paganism was the negative1 the divine power of the gospel was the positive1 means of this wonderful extension4 ,this divine power was manifested in the zeal and self-denial of ,christian teachers and missionaries 7 #cd1 #a71 in the life and walk of ,christians1 in the brotherly love which they showed1 in the steadfastness and confidence of their faith1 and above all in the joyfulness with which they met the cruellest of deaths by martyrdom4 ,the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the church1 and it was not an unheard-of circumstance that the executioners of those ,christian witnesses became their successors in the noble army of confessors4 #bb4 ,,persecutions ,,of ,,the ,,christians ,,in ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4#bb ,the ,law of the ,twelve ,tables had already forbidden the exercise of foreign modes of worship within the ,roman empire 7,religiones peregrin1 ,collegia illicita71 for religion was exclusively an affair of the state and entered most intimately into all civil and municipal relations1 and on this account whatever endangered the national religion was regarded as necessarily imperilling the state itself4 ,political considerations1 however1 led to the granting to conquered nations the free use of their own forms of worship4 ,this concession did not materially help ,christianity after it had ceased1 in the time of ,nero1 to be regularly confounded by the ,roman authorities with ,judaism1 as had been the case in the time of ,claudius1 and ,judaism1 after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 had been sharply distinguished from it4 ,it publicly proclaimed its intention to completely dislodge all other religions1 and the rapidity with which it spread showed how energetically its intentions were carried out4 ,the close fellowship and brotherliness that prevailed among ,christians1 as well as their exclusive1 and during times of persecution even secret assemblies1 aroused the suspicion that they had political tendencies4 ,their withdrawal from civil and military services on account of the pagan ceremonies connected with them1 especially their refusal to burn incense before the statues of the emperor1 also the steadfastness of their faith1 which was proof against all violence and persuasion alike1 their retiredness from the world1 etc41 were regarded as evidence of their indifference or hostility to the general well-being of the state1 as invincible stiff-neckedness1 as contumacy1 sedition1 and high treason4 ,the heathen populace saw in the ,christians the sacrilegious enemies and despisers of their gods2 and the ,christian religion1 which was without temples1 altars and sacrifices1 seemed to them pure ,atheism4 ,the most horrible calumnies1 that in their assemblies 7,agap7 the vilest immoralities were practised 7,concubitus dipodei71 children slain and human flesh eaten 7,epul ,thyeste1 comp4 #cf1 #e71 were readily believed4 ,all public misfortunes were thus attributed to the wrath of the gods against the ,christians1 who treated them with contempt4 ,non pluit ,deus1 duc ad ,christianos6 ,the heathen priests also1 the temple servants and the image makers were always ready in their own common interests to stir up the suspicions of the people4 ,under such circumstances it is not to be wondered at that the fire of persecution on the part of the heathen people and the heathen state continued to rage for centuries4 #bb4a4 ,claudius1 ,nero and ,domitian4--,regarding the ,emperor ,tiberius 7,a4,d4 #ad-cg71 we meet in ,tertullian with the undoubtedly baseless tradition1 that1 impressed by the story told him by ,pilate1 he proposed to the ,senate to introduce ,christ among the gods1 and on the rejection of this proposal1 threatened the accusers of the ,christians with punishment4 ,the statement in ,acts xviii4 #b1 that the ,emperor ,claudius 7,a4,d4 #da-ed7 expelled from ,rome all ,jews and with them many ,christians also1 is illustrated in a very circumstantial manner by ,suetonius3 ,claudius ,judos impulsore ,chresto assidue tumultuantes ,roma expulit4 ,the tumults1 therefore1 between the ,jews and the ,christians1 occurring about the year #ea or #eb1 gave occasion to this decree4 ,the first persecution of the ,christians proceeding from a ,roman ruler which was directed against the ,christians as such1 was carried out by the ,emperor ,nero 7,a4,d4 #ed-fh7 in the year #fd1 in consequence of a nine days' conflagration in ,rome1 the origin of which was commonly ascribed by the people to the ,emperor himself4 ,nero1 however1 laid the blame upon the hated ,christians1 and perpetrated upon them the most ingeniously devised cruelties4 ,sewn up in skins of wild animals they were cast out to be devoured of dogs2 others were crucified1 or wrapt in tow and besmeared with pitch1 they were fixed upon sharp spikes in the imperial gardens where the people gathered to behold gorgeous spectacles1 and set on fire to lighten up the night 7,tac41 ,ann41 xv4 #dd74 ,after the death of ,nero the legend spread among the ,christians1 that he was not dead but had withdrawn beyond the ,euphrates1 soon to return as ,antichrist4 ,nero's persecution seems to have been limited to ,rome1 and to have ended with his death4--,it was under ,domitian 7,a4,d4 #ha-if7 that individual ,christians were for the first time subjected to confiscation of goods and banishment for godlessness or the refusal to conform to the national religion4 ,probably also1 the execution of his own cousin1 the ,consul ,flavius ,clemens ,clement1 on account of his and his 7,dio ,cass41 lxvii4 #ad71 as well as the banishment of ,clemens' ,clement's wife1 ,flavia ,domitilla 7,a4,d4 #ic71 was really on account of their attachment to the ,christian faith 7 #cj1 #c74 ,the latter at least is proved by two inscriptions in the catacombs to have been undoubtedly a ,christian4 ,domitian insisted upon having information as to the political significance of the kingdom of ,christ1 and brought from ,palestine to ,rome two relatives of ,jesus1 grandsons of ,jude1 the brother of the ,lord1 but their hands horny with labour satisfied him that his suspicions had been unfounded4 ,the philanthropic ,emperor ,nerva 7,a4,d4 #if-ih7 recalled the exiles and did not listen to those who clamoured bitterly against the ,christians1 but ,christianity continued after as well as before a ,religo illicita1 or rather was now reckoned such1 after it had been more distinctly separated from ,judaism4#bc #bb4b4 ,trajan and ,hadrian4--,with ,trajan 7,a4,d4 #ih-aag71 whom historians rightly describe as a just1 earnest1 and mild ruler1 the persecutions of the ,christians enter upon a new stage4 ,he renewed the old strict prohibition of secret societies1 hetr1 which could easily be made to apply to the ,christians4 ,in consequence of this law the younger ,pliny1 as ,governor of ,bithynia1 punished with death those who were accused as ,christians1 if they would not abjure ,christianity4 ,but his doubts being awakened by the great number of every rank and age and of both sexes against whom accusations were brought1 and in consequence of a careful examination1 which showed the ,christians to be morally pure and politically undeserving of suspicion and to be guilty only of stubborn attachment to their superstition1 he asked definite instructions from the ,emperor4 ,trajan approved of what he had done and what he proposed2 the ,christians were not to be sought after and anonymous accusations were not to be regarded1 but those formally complained of and convicted1 if they stubbornly refused to sacrifice to the gods and burn incense before the statues of the ,emperor were to be punished with death 7,a4,d4 #aab74 ,this imperial rescript continued for a long time the legal standard for judicial procedure with reference to the ,christians4 ,the persecution under ,trajan extended even to ,syria and ,palestine4 ,in ,jerusalem the aged bishop ,simeon1 the successor of ,james1 accused as a ,christian and a descendant of ,david1 after being cruelly scourged1 died a martyr's death on the cross in ,a4,d4 #ajg4 ,the martyrdom1 too1 of the ,antiochean bishop1 ,ignatius1 in all probability took place during the reign of ,trajan 7 #cj1 #e74 ,an edict of toleration supposed to have been issued at a later period by ,trajan1 a copy of which exists in ,syriac and ,armenian1 is now proved to be apocryphal4--,during the reign of ,hadrian 7,a4,d4 #aag-ach71 the people began to carry out in a tumultuous way the execution of the ,christians on the occasion of the heathen festivals4 ,on the representation of the proconsul of ,asia1 ,serenius ,granianus1 ,hadrian issued a rescript addressed to his successor1 ,minucius ,fundanus1 against such acts of violence1 but executions still continued carried out according to the forms of law4 ,the genuineness of the rescript1 however1 as given at the close of the first ,apology of ,justin ,martyr1 has been recently disputed by many4 ,in ,rome itself1 between ,a4,d4 #ace and ,a4,d4 #acg1 bishop ,telesphorus1 with many other ,christians1 fell as victims of the persecution4 ,the tradition of the fourth century1 that ,hadrian wished to build a temple to ,christ1 is utterly without historical foundation4 ,his unfavourable disposition toward the ,christians clearly appears from this1 that he caused a temple of ,venus to be built upon the spot where ,christ was crucified1 and a statue of ,jupiter to be erected on the rock of the sepulchre1 in order to pollute those places which ,christians held most sacred4 #bb4c4 ,antoninus ,pius and ,marcus ,aurelius4--,under ,antoninus ,pius 7,a4,d4#ach-afa71 the tumultuous charges of the people against the ,christians1 on account of visitations of pestilence in many places1 were renewed1 but the mildly disposed emperor sought to protect them as much as possible from violence4 ,the rescript1 however1 ,ad ,commune ,asi1 which bears his name is very probably of ,christian authorship4--,the persecutions again took a new turn under ,marcus ,aurelius 7,a4,d4 #afa-ahj7 who was1 both as a man and a ruler1 one of the noblest figures of antiquity4 ,in the pride of his stoical wisdom1 however1 despising utterly the enthusiasm of the ,christians1 he not only allowed free scope to the popular hatred1 but also introduced the system of espionage1 giving to informers the confiscated property of the ,christians1 and even permitting the use of torture1 in order to compel them to recant1 and thus gave occasion to unexampled triumphs of ,christian heroism4 ,at ,rome1 the noble ,apologist ,justin ,martyr1 denounced by his opponent the philosopher ,crescens1 after cruel and bloody scourging1 died under the executioner's axe about ,a4,d4 #afe 7 #cj1 #i74--;,in regard to a very severe persecution endured by the church of ,smyrna1 we possess an original report of it sent from that church to one closely related to it1 embellished with legendary details or interpolated1 which ,eusebius has incorporated in his ,church ,history4 ,the substance of it is a description of the glorious martyr death of their aged bishop ,polycarp 7 #cj1 #f71 who1 because he refused to curse the ,lord whom he had served for eighty-six years1 was made to mount the funeral pile1 and while rejoicing in the midst of the flames1 received the crown of martyrdom4 ,according to the story the flames gathered around him like a wind-filled sail1 and when a soldier pierced him with his sword1 suddenly a white dove flew up2 moreover the glorified spirit also appeared to a member of the church in a vision1 clothed in a white garment4 ,eusebius places the date of ,polycarp's death shortly before ,a4,d4 #aff4 ,but since it has been shown by ,waddington1 on the basis of an examination of recently discovered inscriptions1 that the proconsul of ,asia1 ,statius ,quadratus1 mentioned in the report of the church of ,smyrna1 did not hold that office in ,a4,d4 #aff1 but in ,a4,d4 #aee-aef1 the most important authorities have come to regard either ,a4,d4 #aee or ,a4,d4 #aef as the date of his martyrdom4 ,still some whose opinions are worthy of respect refuse to accept this view1 pointing out the absence of that chronological statement from the report in ,eusebius and to its irreconcilability with the otherwise well-supported facts1 that ,polycarp was on a visit to ,rome in ,a4,d4 #aee 7 #cg1 #b71 and that the reckoning of the day of his death in the report as would suit indeed the ,easter of ,a4,d4 #aee1 as well as that of ,a4,d4 #aff1 but not that of ,a4,d4 #aef4 #bd ,the legend of the ,legio fulminatrix1 that in the war against the ,marcomanni in ,a4,d4 #agd the prayers of the ,christian soldiers of this legion called forth rain and thunder1 and thus saved the ,emperor and his army from the danger of perishing by thirst1 whereupon this modified law against the accusers of the ,christians was issued1 has1 so far as the first part is concerned1 its foundation in history1 only that the heathen on the other hand ascribed the miracle to their prayer to ,jupiter ,pluvius4 #be--,regarding the persecution at ,lyons and ,vienne in ,a4,d4 #agg1 we also possess a contemporary report from the ,christian church of these places 7 #cb1 #h74 ,bishop ,pothinus1 in his ninetieth year1 sank under the effects of tortures continued during many days in a loathsome prison4 ,the young and tender slave-girl ,blandina was scourged1 her body scorched upon a red-hot iron chair1 her limbs torn by wild beasts and at last her life taken2 but under all her tortures she continued to repeat her joyful confession3 8,i am a ,christian and nothing wicked is tolerated among us40 ,under similar agonies the boy ,ponticus1 in his fifteenth year1 showed similar heroism4 ,the dead bodies of the martyrs were laid in heaps upon the streets1 until at last they were burnt and their ashes strewn upon the ,rhone4 ,commodus 7,a4,d4 #ahj-aib71 the son of ,marcus ,aurelius1 who in every other respect was utterly disreputable1 influenced by his mistress ,marcia1 showed himself inclined1 by the exercise of his clemency1 to remit the sentences of the ,christians4 ,the persecution at ,scillita in ,north ,africa1 during the first year of the reign of ,commodus1 in which the martyr ,speratus suffered1 together with eleven companions1 was carried out in accordance with the edict of ,marcus ,aurelius4 #bb4d4 ,septimius ,severus and ,maximinus ,thrax4--,septimius ,severus 7,a4,d4 #aic-baa71 whom a ,christian slave1 ,proculus1 had healed of a sickness by anointing with oil1 was at first decidedly favourable to the ,christians4 ,even in ,a4,d4 #aig1 after his triumphal entrance into ,rome1 he took them under his personal protection when the popular clamour1 which such a celebration was fitted to excite1 was raised against them4 ,the judicial persecution1 too1 which some years later1 ,a4,d4 #bjj1 his deputy in ,north ,africa carried on against the ,christians on the basis of existing laws because they refused to sacrifice to the genius of the ,emperor1 he may not have been able to prevent4 ,on the other hand1 he did himself1 in ,a4,d4 #bjb1 issue an edict which forbade conversions to ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,the storm of persecution thereby excited was directed therefore first of all and especially against the catechumens and the neophytes1 but frequently also1 overstepping the letter of the edict1 it was turned against the older ,christians4 ,the persecution seems to have been limited to ,egypt and ,north ,africa4 ,at ,alexandria ,leonidas1 the father of ,origen1 was beheaded4 ,the female slave1 ,potamina1 celebrated as much for her moral purity as for her beauty1 was accused by her master1 whose evil passions she had refused to gratify1 as a ,christian1 and was given over to the gladiators to be abused4 ,she succeeded1 however1 in defending herself from pollution1 and was then1 along with her mother ,marcella1 slowly dipped into boiling pitch4 ,the soldier1 ,basilides by name1 who should have executed the sentence himself embraced ,christianity1 and was beheaded4 ,the persecution raged with equal violence and cruelty in ,carthage4 ,a young woman of a noble family1 ,perpetua1 in her twenty-second year1 in spite of imprisonment and torture1 and though the infant in her arms and her weeping pagan father appealed to her heart's affections1 continued true to her faith1 and was thrown to be tossed on the horns of a wild cow1 and to die from the dagger of a gladiator4 ,the slave girl ,felicitas who1 in the same prison1 became a mother1 showed similar courage amid similar sufferings4 ,persecution smouldered on throughout the reign of ,septimius1 showing itself in separate sporadic outbursts1 but was not renewed under his son and successor ,caracalla 7,a4,d4 #baa-bag71 who in other respects during his reign stained with manifold cruelties1 did little to the honour of those ,christian influences by which in his earliest youth he had been surrounded 78lacte ,christiano educatus10 ,tert474--,that ,christianity should have a place given it among the senseless religions favoured by ,elagabalus or ,heliogabalus 7,a4,d4 #bah-bbb71 was an absurdity which nevertheless secured for it toleration and quiet4 ,his second wife1 ,severina or ,severa1 to whom ,hippolytus dedicated his treatise 1 was the first empress friendly to the ,christians4 ,alexander ,severus 7,a4,d4 #bbb-bce71 embracing a noble eclecticism1 placed among his household gods the image of ,christ1 along with those of ,abraham1 ,orpheus1 and ,apollonius of ,tyana1 and showed himself well disposed toward the ,christians2 while at the same time his mother1 ,julia ,mamma1 encouraged and furthered the scholarly studies of ,origen4 ,the golden saying of ,christ1 ,luke vi4 #ca1 was inscribed upon the gateway of his palace4 ,his murderer1 ,maximinus ,thrax 7,a4,d4 #bce-bch71 from very opposition to his predecessor1 became at once the enemy of the ,christians4 ,clearly perceiving the high importance of the clergy for the continued existence of the church1 his persecuting edict was directed solely against them4 ,the imperial position which he had usurped1 however1 was not sufficiently secure to allow him to carry out his intentions to extremities4 ,under ,gordianus the ,christians had rest1 and ,philip the ,arabian 7,a4,d4 #bdd-bdi7 favoured them so openly and decidedly1 that it came to be thought that he himself had been a ,christian4 #bb4e4 ,decius1 ,gallus and ,valerianus ,valerian4--,soon after the accession of ,decius 7,a4,d4 #bdi-bea71 in the year #bej1 a new persecution broke out that lasted without interruption for ten years4 ,this was the first general persecution and was directed at first against the recognised heads of the churches1 but by-and-by was extended more widely to all ranks1 and exceeded all previous persecutions by its extent1 the deliberateness of its plan1 the rigid determination with which it was conducted1 and the cruelties of its execution4 ,decius was a prudent ruler1 an earnest man of the old school1 endued with an indomitable will4 ,but it was just this that drove him to the conclusion that ,christianity1 as a godless system and one opposed to the interests of the state1 must be summarily suppressed4 ,all possible means1 such as confiscation of goods1 banishment1 severe tortures1 or death1 were tried in order to induce the ,christians to yield4 ,very many spoiled by the long peace that they had enjoyed gave way1 but on the other hand crowds of ,christians1 impelled by a yearning after the crown of martyrdom1 gave themselves up joyfully to the prison and the stake4 ,those who fell away1 the lapsi1 were classified as the ,thurificati or ,sacrificati1 who to save their lives had burnt incense or sacrificed to the gods1 and ,libellatici1 who without doing this had purchased a certificate from the magistrates that they had done so1 and ,acta facientes1 who had issued documents giving false statements regarding their ,christianity4 ,those were called ,confessores who publicly professed ,christ and remained steadfast under persecution1 but escaped with their lives2 those were called ,martyrs who witnessing with their blood1 suffered death for the faith they professed4 ,the ,roman church could boast of a whole series of bishops who fell victims to the storm of persecution3 ,fabianus ,fabian in ,a4,d4 #bej1 and ,cornelius in ,a4,d4 #bec1 probably also ,lucius in ,a4,d4 #bed1 and ,stephanus in ,a4,d4 #beg4 ,and as in ,rome1 so also in the provinces1 whole troops of confessors and martyrs met a joyful death1 not only from among the clergy1 but also from among the general members of the church4--,then again1 under ,gallus 7,a4,d4 #bea-bec71 the persecution continued1 excited anew by plagues and famine1 but was in many ways restricted by political embarrassment4 ,valerianus ,valerian 7,a4,d4 #bec-bfj71 from being a favourer of the ,christians1 began from ,a4,d4 #beg1 under the influence of his favourite ,macrianus1 to show himself a determined persecutor4 ,the ,christian pastors were at first banished1 and since this had not the desired effect1 they were afterwards punished with death4 ,at this time1 too1 the bishop of ,carthage1 ,cyprian1 who under ,decius had for a short season withdrawn by flight into the wilderness1 won for himself the martyr's crown4 ,so1 likewise1 in ,a4,d4 #beh1 suffered ,sixtus ,,ii4 of ,rome4 ,the ,roman bishop was soon followed by his deacon ,laurentius1 a hero among ,christian martyrs1 who pointed the avaricious governor to the sick1 the poor and the orphans of the congregation as the treasures of the church1 and was then burnt alive on a fire of glowing coal4 ,but ,valerian's son1 ,gallienus 7,a4,d4 #bfj-bfh71 by an edict addressed to the bishops1 abolished the special persecuting statutes issued by his father1 without1 however1 as he is often erroneously said to have done1 formally recognising ,christianity as a ,religio licita4 ,the ,christians after this enjoyed a forty years' rest2 for the commonly reported cruel persecution of ,christians under ,claudius ,,ii41 7,a4,d4 #bfh-bgj7 has been proved to be a pure fable of apocryphal ,acts of the ,martyrs2 and also the persecution planned by ,aurelian 7,a4,d4 #bgj-bge71 toward the close of his reign1 was prevented by his assassination committed by a pagan officer4 #bb4f4 ,diocletian and ,galerius4--,when ,diocletian 7,a4,d4 #bhd-cje7 was proclaimed ,emperor by the army in ,chalcedon1 he chose ,nicomedia in ,bithynia as his residence1 and transferred the conduct of the war to the general ,maximianus ,maximian ,herculius with the title of ,csar1 who1 after the campaign had been closed successfully in ,a4,d4 #bhf1 was raised to the rank of ,augustus or joint-,emperor4 ,new harassments from within and from without led the two ,emperors in ,a4,d4 #bhf to name two ,csars1 or sub-,emperors1 who by their being adopted were assured of succession to imperial rank4 ,diocletian assumed the administration of the ,east1 and gave up ,illyricum as far as ,pontus to his ,csar and son-in-law ,galerius4 ,maximian undertook the government of the ,west1 and surrendered ,gaul1 ,spain and ,britain to his ,csar1 ,constantius ,chlorus4 ,according to ,martyrologies1 there was a whole legion1 called ,legio ,thebaica1 that consisted of ,christian soldiers4 ,this legion was originally stationed in the ,east1 but was sent into the war against the ,gauls1 because its members refused to take part in the persecution of their brethren4 ,after suffering decimation twice over without any result1 it is said that ,maximian left this legion1 consisting of #f1fjj men1 along with its commander ,st4 ,maurice1 to be hewn down in the pass of ,agaunum1 now called ,st4 ,moritz1 in the ,canton ,valais4 ,according to ,rettberg1#bf the historical germ of this consists in a tradition reported by ,theodoret as originating during the fifth or sixth century1 in a letter of ,eucherius bishop of ,lyons1 about the martyrdom of ,st4 ,maurice1 who as ,tribunus ,militum was executed at ,apamea along with seventy soldiers1 by the orders of ,maximian4 ,diocletian1 as the elder and supreme ,emperor1 was an active1 benevolent1 clear-sighted statesman and ruler1 but also a zealous adherent of the old religion as regenerated by ,neo-platonic influences 7 #bd1 #b71 and as such was inclined to hold ,christianity responsible for many of the internal troubles of his kingdom4 ,he was restrained from interfering with the ,christians1 however1 by the policy of toleration which had prevailed since the time of ,gallienus1 as well as by his own benevolent disposition1 and not least by the political consideration of the vast numbers of the ,christian population4 ,his own wife ,prisca and his daughter ,valeria had themselves embraced ,christianity1 as well as very many1 and these the truest and most trustworthy1 of the members of his household4 ,yet the incessant importunities and whispered suspicions of ,galerius were not without success4 ,in ,a4,d4 #bih he issued the decree1 that all soldiers should take part in the sacrificial rites1 and thus obliged all ,christian soldiers to withdraw from the army4 ,during a long sojourn in ,nicomedia he finally prevailed upon the ,emperor to order a second general persecution2 yet even then ,diocletian persisted1 that in it no blood should be shed4 ,this persecution opened in ,a4,d4 #cjc with the imperial command to destroy the stately church of ,nicomedia4 ,soon after an edict was issued forbidding all ,christian assemblies1 ordering the destruction of the churches1 the burning of the sacred scriptures1 and depriving ,christians of their offices and of their civil rights4 ,a ,christian tore up the edict and was executed4 ,fire broke out in the imperial palace and ,galerius blamed the ,christians for the fire1 and also charged them with a conspiracy against the life of the ,emperor4 ,a persecution then began to rage throughout the whole ,roman empire1 ,gaul1 ,spain and ,britain alone entirely escaping owing to the favour of ,constantius ,chlorus who governed these regions4 ,all conceivable tortures and modes of death were practised1 and new and more horrible devices were invented from day to day4 ,diocletian1 who survived to ,a4,d4 #cac1 and ,maximian1 abdicated the imperial rank which they had jointly held in ,a4,d4 #cje4 ,their places were filled by those who had been previously their ,csars1 and ,galerius as now the chief ,augustus proclaimed as ,csars1 ,severus and ,maximinus ,daza1 the most furious enemies of the ,christians that could be found1 so that the storm of persecution which had already begun in some measure to abate1 was again revived in ,italy by ,severus and in the ,east by ,maximinus4 ,then in order to bring all ,christians into inevitable contact with idolatrous rites1 ,galerius in ,a4,d4 #cjh had all victuals in the markets sprinkled with wine or water that had been offered to idols4 ,seized with a terrible illness1 mortification beginning in his living body1 he finally admitted the uselessness of all his efforts to root out ,christianity1 and shortly before his death1 in common with his colleague1 he issued in ,a4,d4 #caa1 a formal edict of toleration1 which permitted to all ,christians the free exercise of their religion and claimed in return their intercession for the emperor and the empire4--,during this persecution of unexampled cruelty1 lasting without intermission for eight years1 many noble proofs were given of ,christian heroism and of the joyousness that martyrdom inspired4 ,the number of the ,lapsi1 though still considerable1 was in proportion very much less than under the ,decian persecution4 ,how much truth1 if any1 there may have been in the later assertion of the ,donatists 7 #fc1 #a71 that even the ,roman bishop1 ,marcellinus ,marcellus 7,a4,d4 #bif-cjd71 and his presbyters1 ,melchiades1 ,marcellus and ,sylvester1 who were also his successors in the bishopric1 had denied ,christ and sacrificed to idols1 cannot now be ascertained4 ,augustine denies the charge1 but even the ,felician ,catalogue of the ,popes reports that ,marcellinus ,marcellus during the persecution became a ,thurificatus1 adding1 however1 the extenuation1 that he soon thereafter1 seized with deep penitence1 suffered martyrdom4 ,the command to deliver up the sacred writings gave rise to a new order of apostates1 the so-called ,traditores4 ,many had recourse to a subterfuge by surrendering heretical writings instead of the sacred books and as such1 but the earnest spirit of the age treated these as no better than traditors4#bg #bb4g4 ,maximinus ,daza1 ,maxentius and ,licinius4--,after the death of ,galerius his place was taken by the ,dacian ,licinius1 who shared with ,maximinus the government of the ,east1 the former taking the ,european1 the latter the ,asiatic part along with ,egypt4 ,constantius ,chlorus had died in ,a4,d4 #cjf1 and ,galerius had given to the ,csar ,severus the empire of the ,west4 ,but the army proclaimed ,constantine1 son of ,constantius1 as ,emperor4 ,he also established himself in ,gaul1 ,spain and ,britain4 ,then also ,maxentius1 son of the abdicated emperor ,maximian1 claimed the ,western ,empire1 was proclaimed ,augustus by the ,prtorians1 recognised by the ,roman senate1 and after the overthrow of ,severus1 ruled in ,italy and ,africa4--,the pagan fanaticism of ,maximinus prevailed against the toleration edict of ,galerian4 ,he heartily supported the attempted expulsion of ,christians on the part of several prominent cities1 and commended the measure on brazen tablets4 ,he forbade the building of churches1 punished many with fines and dishonour1 inflicted in some cases bodily pains and even death1 and gave official sanction to perpetrating upon them all sorts of scandalous enormities4 ,the ,acta ,pilati1 a pagan pseudepigraph filled with the grossest slanders about the passion of ,christ1 was widely circulated by him and introduced as a reading-book for the young in the public schools4 ,constantine1 who had inherited from his father along with his ,neo-platonic eclecticism his toleration of the ,christians1 secured to the professors of the ,christian faith in his realm the most perfect quiet4 ,maxentius1 too1 at first let them alone2 but the rivalry and enmity that was daily increasing between him and ,constantine1 the favourer of the ,christians1 drew him into close connection with the pagan party1 and into sympathy with their persecuting spirit4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cab ,constantine led his army over the ,alps4 ,maxentius opposed him with an army drawn up in three divisions2 but ,constantine pressed on victoriously1 and shattered his opponent's forces before the gates of ,rome4 ,betaking himself to flight1 ,maxentius was drowned in the ,tiber1 and ,constantine was then sole ruler over the entire ,western ,empire4 ,at ,milan he had a conference with ,licinius1 to whom he gave in marriage his sister ,constantia4 ,they jointly issued an edict in ,a4,d4 #cac1 which gave toleration to all forms of worship throughout the empire1 expressly permitting conversion to ,christianity1 and ordering the restoration to the ,christians of all the churches that had been taken from them4 ,soon thereafter a decisive battle was fought between ,maximinus and ,licinius4 ,the former was defeated and took to flight4 ,the friendly relations that had subsisted between ,constantine and ,licinius gave way gradually to estrangement and were at last succeeded by open hostility4 ,licinius by manifesting zeal as a persecutor identified himself with the pagan party1 and ,constantine threw in his lot with the ,christians4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cbc a war broke out between these two1 like a struggle for life and death between ,paganism and ,christianity4 ,licinius was overthrown and ,constantine was master of the whole empire 7 #db1 #b74 ,eusebius in his ,vita ,constantini reports1 on the basis probably of a sworn statement of the emperor1 that during the expedition against ,maxentius in ,a4,d4 #cab1 after praying for the aid of the higher powers1 when the sun was going down1 he saw in heaven a shining cross in the sun with a bright inscription3 4 ,during the night ,christ appeared to him in a dream1 and commanded him to take the cross as his standard in battle and with it to go into battle confident of victory4 ,in his ,church ,history1 ,eusebius makes no mention of this tradition of the vision4 ,on the other hand there is here the fact1 contested indeed by critics1 that after the victory over ,maxentius the emperor had erected his statue in the ,roman ,forum1 with the cross in his hand1 and bearing the inscription3 8,by this sign of salvation have ,i delivered your city from the yoke of the tyrant4 0 ,this only is certain1 that the imperial standard1 which had the unexplained name ,labarum1 bore the sign of the cross with the monogram of the name of ,christ4 #bc4 ,,controversial ,,writings ,,of ,,paganism4 ,pagan writers in their published works passed spiteful and contemptuous judgments upon ,christians and ,christianity 7,tacitus1 ,pliny1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 and the physician ,galen71 or1 like the rhetorician ,fronto1 argued against them with violent invective2 while popular wit ran riot in representing ,christianity by word and picture as the devout worship of an ass4 ,but even the talented satirist ,lucian of ,samosata was satisfied with ridiculing the ,christians as senseless fools4 ,the first and also the most important of all really pagan advocates was ,celsus1 who in the second century1 with brilliant subtlety and scathing sarcasm sought to prove that the religion of the ,christians was the very climax of unreason4 ,in respect of ability1 keenness and bitterness of polemic he is closely followed by the ,neo-platonist ,porphyry4 ,far beneath both stands ,hierocles1 governor of ,bithynia4 ,against such attacks the most famous ,christian teachers took the field as ,apologists4 ,they disproved the calumnies and charges of the pagans1 demanded fair play for the ,christians1 vindicated ,christianity by the demonstration of its inner truth1 the witness borne to it by the life and walk of ,christians1 its establishment by miracles and prophecies1 its agreement with the utterances and longings of the most profound philosophers1 whose wisdom they traced mediately or immediately from the ,old ,testament1 and on the other hand1 they sought to show the nothingness of the heathen gods1 and the religious as well as moral perversity of paganism4 #bc4a4 ,lucian's ,satire ,de ,morte ,peregrini takes the form of an account given by ,lucian to his friend ,cronius of the ,cynic ,peregrinus ,proteus' burning of himself during the ,olympic games of ,a4,d4 #afe1 of which he himself was a witness4 ,peregrinus is described as a low1 contemptible man1 a parricide and guilty of adultery1 unnatural vice and drunkenness1 who having fled from his home in ,palestine joined the ,christians1 learnt their 1 became their prophet 7 #cd1 #a71 ,thiasarch 7 #ag1 #c7 and ,synagogeus1 and as such expounded their sacred writings1 even himself composed and addressed to the most celebrated ,greek cities many epistles containing new ordinances and laws4 ,when cast into prison he was the subject of the most extravagant attentions on the part of the ,christians4 ,their and 7deaconesses7 nursed him most carefully1 and 7,agap7 were celebrated in his prison1 they loaded him with presents1 etc4 ,nevertheless on leaving prison1 on account of his having eaten a forbidden kind of meat 7flesh offered to idols7 he was expelled by them4 ,he now cast himself into the arms of the ,cynics1 travelled as the apostle of their views through the whole world1 and ended his life in his mad thirst for fame by voluntarily casting himself upon the funeral pile4 ,lucian tells with scornful sneer how the superstitious people supposed that there had been an earthquake and that an eagle flew up from his ashes crying out3 ,the earth ,i have lost1 to ,olympus ,i fly4 ,this fable was believed1 and even yet it is said that sometimes ,peregrinus will be seen in a white garment as a spirit4--,it is undoubtedly recorded by ,aulus ,gellius that a ,cynic ,peregrinus lived at this time whom he describes as vir gravis et constans4 ,this too is told by the ,apologist ,tatian1 who in him mocks at the pretension on the part of heathen philosophers to emancipation from all wants4 ,but neither of them knows anything about his ,christianity or his death by fire4 ,it is nevertheless conceivable that ,peregrinus had for some time connection with ,christianity2 but without this assumption it seems likely that ,lucian in a satire which1 under the combined influence of personal and class antipathies1 aimed first and chiefly at stigmatizing ,cynicism in the person of ,peregrinus1 should place ,christianity alongside of it as what seemed to him with its contempt of the world and self-denial to be a new1 perhaps a nobler1 but still nothing more than a species of ,cynicism4 ,many features in the caricature which he gives of the life1 doings and death of ,peregrinus seem to have been derived by him from the life of the ,apostle ,paul as well as from the account of the martyrdom of ,ignatius1 and especially from that of ,polycarp 7 #bb1 #c74bh #bc4b4 ,worshippers of an ,ass 7,asinarii7 was a term of reproach that was originally and from early times applied to the ,jews4 ,they now sought to have it transferred to the ,christians4 ,tertullian tells of a picture publicly exhibited in ,carthage which represented a man clothed in a toga1 with the ears and hoof of an ass1 holding a book in his hand1 and had this inscription3 ,deus ,christianorum ,onochoetes4 ,this name is variously read4 ,if read as it means asini sacerdos4 ,alongside of this we may place the picture1 belonging probably to the third century1 discovered in ,a4,d4 #aheh scratched on a wall among the ruins of a school for the imperial slaves1 that were then excavated4 ,it represents a man with an ass's head hanging on a cross1 and beneath it the caricature of a worshipper with the words written in a schoolboy's hand2 ,alexamenos worships ,god 7,a4 72 evidently the derision of a ,christian youth by a pagan companion4 ,the scratching on another wall gives us probably the answer of the ,christian3 ,alexamenos fidelis4 #bc4c4 ,polemic properly so-called4-- 7a7 ,the of ,celsus is in great part preserved in the answer of ,origen 7 #ca1 #e74 ,he identifies the author with that ,celsus to whom ,lucian dedicated the little work ,alexander or ,pseudomantis in which he so extols the philosophy of ,epicurus that it seems he must be regarded as an ,epicurean4 ,since1 however1 the philosophical standpoint of our ,celsus is that of a ,platonist the assumption of the identity of the two has been regarded as untenable4 ,but even our ,celsus does not seem to have been a pure ,platonist but an ,eclectic1 and as such might also show a certain measure of favour to the philosophy of ,epicurus4 ,their age is at least the same4 ,lucian wrote that treatise soon after ,a4,d4 #ahj1 and according to ,keim1 the was probably composed about ,a4,d4 #agh4 ,almost everything that modern opponents down to our own day have advanced against the gospel history and doctrine is found here wrought out with original force and subtlety1 inspired with burning hatred and bitter irony1 and highly spiced with invective1 mockery1 and wit4 ,first of all the author introduces a ,jew who repeats the slanders current among the ,jews1 representing ,jesus as a vagabond impostor1 ,his mother as an adulteress1 ,his miracles and resurrection as lying fables2 then enters a heathen philosopher who proves that both ,judaism and ,christianity are absurd2 and finally1 the conditions are set forth under which alone the ,christians might claim indulgence3 the abandonment of their exclusive attitude toward the national religion and the recognition of it by their taking part in the sacrifices appointed by the state4#bi 7b7 ,the ,neo-platonist ,porphyry1 about ,a4,d4 #bgj1 as reported by ,jerome1 in the ,,xv4 ,book of his points to a number of supposed contradictions in holy scripture1 calls attention to the conflict between ,paul and ,peter 7,gal4 ii471 explains ,daniel's prophecies as ,vaticinia post eventum1 and censures the allegorical interpretation of the ,christians4 ,although even among the ,christians themselves ,porphyry as a philosopher was highly esteemed1 and notwithstanding contact at certain points between his ethical and religious view of the world and that of the ,christians1 perhaps just because of this1 he is the worst and most dangerous of all their pagan assailants4 ,against his controversial writings1 therefore1 the edict of ,theodosius ,,ii4 ordering them to be burnt was directed in ,a4,d4 #ddh 7 #db1 #d71 and owing to the zeal with which his works were destroyed the greater part of the treatises which quoted from it for purposes of controversy also perished with it--the writings of ,methodius of ,tyre 7 #ca1 #i71 ,eusebius of ,csarea 7 #dg1 #b71 ,philostorgius 7 #e1 #a7 and ,apollinaris the younger 7 #dg1 #e74 ,of these according to ,jerome those of the last named were the most important4 ,in the recently discovered controversial treatise of ,macarius ,magnes 7 #dg1 #f7 an unnamed pagan philosopher is combated whose attacks1 chiefly directed against the ,gospels1 to all appearance verbally agree with the treatise of ,porphyry1 or rather1 perhaps1 with that of his plagiarist ,hierocles4 7c7 ,hierocles who as governor of ,bithynia took an active part in the persecution of ,galerius1 wrote two books against the ,christians1 about ,a4,d4 #cje1 which have also perished4 ,eusebius' reply refers only to his repudiation of the equality assigned to ,christ and ,apollonius of ,tyana 7 #bd1 #a74 ,while the title of his treatise is borrowed from that of ,celsus1 he has also according to the testimony of ,eusebius in great part copied the very words of both of his predecessors4 #bd4 ,attempted ,reconstruction of ,paganism4 ,all its own more thoughtful adherents had long acknowledged that paganism must undergo a thorough reform and reconstruction if it were to continue any longer in existence4 ,in the ,augustan ,age an effort was made to bolster up ,neopythagoreanism by means of theurgy and magic4 ,the chief representative of this movement was ,apollonius of ,tyana4 ,in the second century an attempt was made to revivify the secret rites of the ancient mysteries1 of ,dea ,syra1 and ,mithras4 ,yet all this was not enough4 ,what was needed was the setting up of a pagan system which would meet the religious cravings of men in the same measure as ,christianity with its supernaturalism1 monotheism and universalism had done1 and would have the absurdities and impurities that had disfigured the popular religion stripped off4 ,such a regeneration of paganism was undertaken in the beginning of the third century by ,neoplatonism4 ,but even this was no more able than pagan polemics had been to check the victorious career of ,christianity4 #bd4a4 ,apollonius of ,tyana in ,cappadocia1 a contemporary of ,christ and the ,apostles1 was a philosopher1 ascetic and magician esteemed among the people as a worker of miracles4 ,as an earnest adherent of the doctrine of ,pythagoras1 whom he also imitated in his dress and manner of life1 claiming the possession of the gifts of prophecy and miracle working1 he assumed the role of a moral and religious reformer of the pagan religion of his fathers4 ,accompanied by numerous scholars1 teaching and working miracles1 he travelled through the whole of the then known world until he reached the wonderland of ,india4 ,he settled down at last in ,ephesus where he died at an advanced age1 having at least passed his ninety-sixth year4 ,at the wish of the ,empress ,julia1 wife of ,septimius ,severus1 in the third century1 ,philostratus the elder composed in the form of a romance in eight books based upon written and oral sources1 a biography of ,apollonius1 in which he is represented as a heathen counterpart of ,christ1 who is otherwise completely ignored1 excelling ,him in completeness of life1 doctrine and miraculous powers4#cj #bd4b4 ,in ,neo-platonism1 by the combination of all that was noblest and best in the exoteric and esoteric religion1 in the philosophy1 theosophy and theurgy of earlier and later times in ,east and ,west1 we are presented with a universal religion in which faith and knowledge1 philosophy and theology1 theory and practice1 were so perfectly united and reconciled1 and all religious needs so fully met1 that in comparison with its wealth and fulness1 the gnosis as well as the faith1 the worship and the mysteries of the ,christians must have seemed one-sided1 commonplace and incomplete4 ,the first to introduce and commend this tendency1 which was carried out in three successive schools of philosophy1 the ,alexandrian-,roman1 the ,syrian and the ,athenian1 was the ,alexandrian ,ammonius ,saccas1--this surname being derived from his occupation as a porter4 ,he lived and taught in ,alexandria till about ,a4,d4 #bej4 ,he sought to combine in a higher unity the ,platonic and the ,aristotelian philosophies1 giving to the former a normative authority1 and he did not hesitate to enrich his system by the incorporation of ,christian ideas4 ,his knowledge of ,christianity came from ,clement of ,alexandria and from ,origen1 whose teacher in philosophy he had been4 ,porphyry indeed affirms that he had previously been himself a ,christian1 but had at a later period of life returned to paganism4--,the most distinguished of his scholars1 and also the most talented and profound of all the ,neo-platonists1 was ,plotinus1 who was in ,a4,d4 #bed a teacher of philosophy at ,rome1 and died in ,a4,d4 #bgj4 ,his philosophico-theological system in its characteristic features is a combination of the ,platonic antithesis of the finite world of sense and the eternal world of ideas with the stoical doctrine of the world soul4 ,the eternal ground of all being is the one supramundane1 unintelligible and indescribable good 7 1 71 from which all stages of being are radiated forth2 first2 spirit or the world of ideas 71 71 the eternal type of all being2 and then1 from this the world soul 772 and from this1 finally1 the world of phenomena4 ,the outermost fringe of this evolution1 the forms of which the further they are removed from the original ground become more and more imperfect1 is matter1 just as the shadow is the outermost fringe of the light4 ,it is conceived of as the finite1 the fleeting1 even as evil in itself4 ,but imperfect as the world of sense is1 it is nevertheless the vehicle of the ideal world and in many ways penetrated by the ideas1 and the lighting up imparted by the ideas affords it its beauty4 ,in consequence of those rays shining in from the realm of ideas1 a whole vast hierarchy of divine forms has arisen1 with countless dmons good and bad1 which give room for the incorporation of all the divine beings of the ,greek and oriental mythologies4 ,in this way myths that were partly immoral and partly fantastic can be rehabilitated as symbolical coverings of speculative ideas4 ,the souls of men1 too1 originate from the eternal world soul4 ,by their transition1 however1 into the world of sense they are hampered and fettered by corporeity4 ,they themselves complete their redemption through emancipation from the bonds of sense by means of asceticism and the practice of virtue4 ,in this way they secure a return into the ideal world and the vision of the highest good1 sometimes as moments of ecstatic mystical union with that world1 even during this earthly life1 but an eternally unbroken continuance thereof is only attained unto after complete emancipation from all the bonds of matter4#ca--,plotinus' most celebrated scholar1 who also wrote his life1 and collected and arranged his literary remains1 was ,porphyry4 ,he also taught in ,rome and died there in ,a4,d4 #cjd4 ,his 1 a collection of oracular utterances1 was a positive supplement to his polemic against ,christianity 7 #bc1 #c71 and afforded to paganism a book of revelation1 a heathen bible1 as ,philostratus had before sought to portray a heathen saviour4 ,of greater importance for the development of medival scholasticism was his ,commentary on the logical works of ,aristotle1 published in several editions of the ,aristotelian ,organon4--,his scholar ,iamblichus of ,chalcis in ,cle-,syria1 who died ,a4,d4 #ccc1 was the founder of the ,syrian school4 ,the development which he gave to the ,neo-platonic doctrine consisted chiefly in the incorporation of a fantastic oriental mythology and theurgy4 ,this also brought him the reputation of being a magician4--,finally1 the ,athenian school had in ,proclus1 who died in ,a4,d4 #dhe1 its most distinguished representative4 ,while on the one hand1 he proceeded along the path opened by ,iamblichus to develop vagaries about dmons and theurgical fancies1 on the other hand1 he gave to his school an impulse in the direction of scholarly and encyclopdic culture4--,the ,neo-platonic speculation exercised no small influence on the development of ,christian philosophy4 ,the philosophizing church fathers1 whose darling was ,plato1 got acquaintance with his philosophical views from its relatively pure reproduction met with in the works of the older ,neo-platonists4 ,the influence of their mystico-theosophic doctrine1 especially as conveyed in the writings of the ,pseudo-,dionysius 7 #dg1 #aa71 is particularly discernible in the ,christian mysticism of the middle ages1 and has been thence transmitted to modern times4#cb #be4 ,jewish and ,samaritan ,reaction4 ,the ,judaism of the ,apostolic ,age in its most characteristic form was thoroughly hostile to ,christianity4 ,the ,pharisees and the mass of the people with their expectation of a political ,messiah1 took offence at a ,messiah crucified by the ,gentiles 7#a ,cor4 i4 #ac72 their national pride was wounded by the granting of equality to ,samaritans and heathens1 while their legal righteousness and sham piety were exposed and censured by the teachings of ,christianity4 ,on the other side1 the ,sadducees felt no less called upon to fight to the death against ,christianity with its doctrine of the resurrection 7,acts iv4 #b2 xxiii4 #f74 ,the same hostile feeling generally prevailed among the dispersion4 ,the ,jewish community at ,berea 7,acts xvii4 #b7 is praised as a pleasing exception to the general rule4 ,finally1 in ,a4,d4 #gj destruction fell upon the covenant people and the holy city4 ,the ,christian church of ,jerusalem1 acting upon a warning uttered by the ,lord 7,matt4 xxiv4 #af71 found a place of refuge in the mountain city of ,pella1 on the other side of ,jordan4 ,but when the ,pseudo-,messiah1 ,bar-,cochba 7,son of a ,star1 ,num4 xxiv4 #ag71 roused all ,palestine against the ,roman rule1 in ,a4,d4 #acb1 the ,palestinian ,christians who refused to assist or recognise the false ,messiah1 had again to endure a bloody persecution4 ,bar-,cochba was defeated in ,a4,d4 #ace4 ,hadrian now commanded that upon pain of death no ,jew should enter lia ,capitolina1 the ,roman colony founded by him on the ruins of ,jerusalem4 ,from that time they were deprived of all power and opportunity for direct persecution of the ,christians4 ,all the greater was their pleasure at the persecutions by the heathens and their zeal in urging the pagans to extreme measures4 ,in their seminaries they gave currency to the most horrible lies and calumnies about ,christ and the ,christians1 which also issued thence among the heathens4 ,on the other hand1 however1 they intensified their own anti-,christian attitude and sought protection against the advancing tide of ,christianity by strangling all spiritual movement under a mass of traditional interpretations and judgments of men4 ,the ,schools of ,tiberias and ,babylon were the nurseries of this movement1 and the ,talmud1 the first part of which1 the ,mishna1 had its origin during this period1 marks the completion of this anti-,christian self-petrifaction of ,judaism4 ,the disciples of ,john1 too1 assumed a hostile attitude toward ,christianity1 and formed a distinct set under the name of ,hemerobaptists4 ,contemporaneously with the first successes of the ,apostolic mission1 a current set in among the ,samaritans calculated to checkmate ,christianity by the setting up of new religions4 ,dositheus1 ,simon ,magus and ,menander here made their appearance with claims to the ,messiahship1 and were at a later period designated heresiarchs by the church fathers1 who believed that in them they found the germs of the ,gnostic heresy 7 #bf ff474 #be4a4 ,disciples of ,john4--,even after their master had been beheaded the disciples of ,john the ,baptist maintained a separate society of their own1 and reproached the disciples of ,jesus because of their want of strict ascetic discipline 7,matt4 ix4 #ad1 etc474 ,the disciples of ,john in the ,acts 7xviii4 #be2 xix4 #a-g7 were probably ,hellenist ,jews1 who on their visits to the feasts had been pointed by ,john to ,christ1 announced by him as ,messiah1 without having any information as to the further developments of the ,christian community4 ,about the middle of the second century1 however1 the ,clementine ,homilies 7 #bh1 #c71 in which ,john the ,baptist is designated a 1 speaks of gnosticizing disciples of ,john1 who may be identical with the ,hemerobaptists1 that is1 those who practise baptism daily1 of ,eusebius 7,hist4 ,eccl41 iv4 #bb74 ,they originated probably from a coalition of ,essenes 7 #h1 #d7 and disciples of the ,baptist who when orphaned by the death of ,john persistently refused to join the disciples of ,christ4--,we hear no more of them till the ,carmelite missionary ,john a ,jesu in ,persia came upon a sect erroneously called ,christians of ,st4 ,john or ,nazoreans4#cc ,authentic information about the doctrine1 worship and constitution of this sect that still numbers some hundred families1 was first obtained in the #aith century by an examination of their very comprehensive sacred literature1 written in an ,aramaic dialect very similar to that of the ,babylonian ,talmud4 ,the most important of those writings the so-called ,great ,book 7,sidra rabba71 also called ,ginza1 that is1 thesaurus1 has been faithfully reproduced by ,petermann under the title ,thesaurus s4 ,liber magnus1 etc41 #b vols41 ,berl41 #ahfg4--;,among themselves the adherents of this sect were styled ,mandans1 after one of their numerous divine beings or ons1 ,manda de chaje1 meaning 4 ,in their extremely complicated religious system1 resembling in many respects the ,ophite ,gnosis 7 #bg1 #f7 and ,manicheism 7 #bi71 this on takes the place of the heavenly mediator in the salvation of the earthly world4 ,among those without1 however1 they called themselves ,subba1 ,sabeans from or to baptize4 ,although they cannot be identified right off with the ,disciples of ,john and ,hemerobaptists1 a historical connection between them1 carrying with it gnostic and oriental-heathen influences1 is highly probable4 ,the name ,sabean itself suggests this1 but still more the position they assign to ,john the ,baptist as the only true prophet over against ,abraham1 ,moses1 ,jesus1 and ,mohammed4 ,as adherents of ,john the ,baptist rejected by the ,jews the old ,disciples of ,john had an anti-,jewish character1 and by their own rejection of ,christ an anti-,christian character4 ,by shifting their residence to ,babylon1 however1 they became so dependent on the ,syro-,chaldean mythology1 theosophy and theurgy1 that they sank completely into paganism1 and so their opposition to ,judaism and ,christianity increased into fanatical hatred and horrid calumniation4#cd #be4b4 ,the ,samaritan ,heresiarchs4 7a7 ,dositheus was according to ,origen a contemporary of ,jesus and the ,apostles1 and gave himself out as the prophet promised in ,deut4 xviii4 #ah4 ,he insisted upon a curiously strict observance of the ,sabbath1 and according to ,epiphanius he perished miserably in a cave in consequence of an ostentatiously prolonged fast4 ,purely fabulous are the stories of the ,pseudo-,clementine writings 7 #bh1 #c7 which bring him into contact with ,john the ,baptist as his scholar and successor1 and with ,simon ,magus as his defeated rival4 ,more credible is the account of an ,arabic-,samaritan ,chronicle1#ce according to which the sect of the ,dostanians at the time of ,simon ,maccabus traced their descent from a ,samaritan tribe1 while also the ,catholic heresiologies 7 #bf1 #d7 reckon the ,dositheans among the pre-,christian sects4 ,according to a statement of ,eulogius of ,alexandria recorded by ,photius1 the ,dositheans and ,samaritans in ,egypt in ,a4,d4 #ehh disputed as to the meaning of ,deut4 xviii4 #ah4 7b7 ,simon ,magus1 born1 according to ,justin ,martyr1 at ,gitta in ,samaria1 appeared in his native country as a soothsayer with such success that the infatuated people hailed him as the 4 ,when ,philip the ,deacon preached the gospel in ,samaria1 ,simon also received baptism from him1 but was sternly denounced by ,peter from whom he wished to buy the gift of communicating the ,spirit 7,acts viii74 ,as to the identity of this man with ,simon the ,magician1 according to ,josephus hailing from ,cyprus1 who induced the ,herodian ,drusilla to quit her husband and become the wife of the ,governor ,felix 7,acts xxiv4 #bd71 it can scarcely claim to be more than a probability4 ,a vast collection of fabulous legends soon grew up around the name of ,simon ,magus1 not only from the ,gentile-,christian and ,catholic side1 but also from the ,jewish-,christian and heretical side2 the latter to be still met with in the ,pseudo-,clementine ,homilies and ,recognitions1 while in the ,acta ,petri et ,pauli1 we have the ,catholic revision and reproduction of the no longer extant ,ebionistic ,acts of ,peter 7 #cb1 #f74 ,these ,judaizing heretics particularly amused themselves by making a very slightly veiled vile caricature of the great ,apostle of the ,gentiles by transferring to the name of the magician many distorted representations of occurrences in the life and works of the ,apostle ,paul4 ,this representation1 however1 was recognised in the ,acts above referred to and by the church fathers as originally descriptive of ,simon ,magus4 ,on the basis of this legendary conglomerate ,irenus1 after the example of ,justin1 describes him as ,magister ac progenitor omnium hreticorum4 ,from a house of ill fame in ,tyre he bought a slave girl ,helena1 to whom he assigned the role of the world creating of ,god4 ,the angels born of her for the purpose of creating the world had rebelled against her2 she was enslaved1 and was imprisoned1 sometimes in this1 sometimes in that1 human body2 at one time in the body of ,helen of ,troy1 and at last in that of the ,tyrian prostitute4 ,in order to redeem her and with her the world enslaved by the rebel angels1 the supreme ,god 7 7 ,himself came down and assumed the form of man1 was born unbegotten of man1 suffered in appearance in ,judea1 and reveals ,himself to the ,samaritans as ,father1 to the ,jews as ,son1 and to the ,gentiles as the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the salvation of man consists simply in acknowledging ,simon and his ,helena as the supreme gods4 ,by faith only1 not by works1 is man justified4 ,the law originated with the evil angels and was devised by them merely to keep men in bondage under them4 ,this last point is evidently transferred to the magician partly from the ,apostle ,paul1 partly from ,marcion 7 #bg1 #aa71 and is copied from ,ebionite sources4 ,the ,simon myth is specially rich in legends about the magician's residence in ,rome1 to which place he had betaken himself after being often defeated in disputation by the ,apostle ,peter1 and where he was so successful that the ,romans erected a column in his honour on an island in the ,tiber1 which ,justin ,martyr himself is said to have seen1 bearing the inscription3 ,simoni sancto ,deo4 ,the discovery in ,a4,d4 #aegd of the column dedicated to the ,sabine god of oaths1 inscribed 8,semoni ,sanco ,deo ,fidio10 explains how such a legend may have arisen out of a misunderstanding4 ,although by a successful piece of jugglery--decapitation and rising again the third day1 having substituted for himself a goat whom he had bewitched to assume his appearance1 whose head was cut off--he won the special favour of ,nero1 he was thereafter in public disputation before the emperor unmasked by ,peter4 ,in order to rehabilitate himself he offered to prove his divine power by ascending up into heaven4 ,for this purpose he mounted a high tower4 ,peter adjured the angel of ,satan1 which carried him through the air1 and the magician fell with a crash to the ground4 ,probably there is here transferred to one magician what is told by ,suetonius 7,nero1 xii47 and ,juvenal 7,sat4 iii4 #gi ff47 as happening to a soothsayer in ,nero's time who made an attempt to fly4 ,the school of ,baur 7 #ahb1 #g71 after ,baur himself had discovered in the ,simon ,magus of the ,clementine ,homilies a caricature of the ,apostle ,paul1 has come to question the existence of the magician altogether1 and has attempted to account for the myth as originating from the hatred of the ,jewish ,christians to the ,apostle of the ,gentiles4 ,support for this view is sought from ,acts viii41 the offering of money by the magician being regarded as a maliciously distorted account of the contribution conveyed by ,paul to the church at ,jerusalem4#cf ,recently1 however1 ,hilgenfeld1 who previously maintained this view1 has again recognised as well grounded the tradition of the ,church ,fathers1 that ,simon was the real author of the 1 and has carried out this idea in his 8,ketzergeschichte40 7c7 ,menander was1 according to ,justin ,martyr1 a disciple of ,simon4 ,subsequently he undertook to play the part of the ,saviour of the world4 ,in doing so1 however1 he was always1 as ,irenus remarks1 modest enough not to give himself out as the supreme god1 but only as the ,messiah sent by ,him4 ,he taught1 however1 that any one who should receive his baptism would never become old or die4#cg ,,ii4 ,,danger ,,to ,,the ,,church ,,from ,,pagan ,,and ,,jewish ,,elements ,,within ,,its ,,own ,,pale4 #bf4 ,,gnosticism ,,in ,,general4#ch ,the ,judaism and paganism imported into the church proved more dangerous to it than the storm of persecution raging against it from without4 ,ebionism 7 #bh7 was the result of the attempt to incorporate into ,christianity the narrow particularism of ,judaism2 ,heretical ,gnosis or ,gnosticism was the result of the attempt to blend with ,christianity the religious notions of pagan mythology1 mysteriology1 theosophy and philosophy4 ,these two tendencies1 moreover1 were combined in a ,gnostic ,ebionism1 in the direction of which ,essenism may be regarded as a transitional stage 7 #h1 #d74 ,in many respects ,manichism 7 #bi71 which sprang up at a later period1 is related to the ,gnosticism of ,gentile ,christianity1 but also in character and tendency widely different from it4 ,the church had to employ all her powers to preserve herself from this medley of religious fancies and to purify her fields from the weeds that were being sown on every side4 ,in regard to ,ebionism and its gnosticizing developments this was a comparatively easy task4 ,the ,gnosticism of ,gentile ,christianity was much more difficult to deal with1 and although the church succeeded in overcoming the weed in her fields1 yet many of its seeds continued hidden for centuries1 from which sprouts grew up now and again quite unexpectedly 7 #ed1 #ga1 #ajh74 ,this struggle has nevertheless led to the furtherance of the church in many ways1 awakening in it a sense of scientific requirements1 stirring it up to more vigorous battling for the truth1 and endowing it with a more generous and liberal spirit4 ,it had learnt to put a ,christian gnosis in the place of the heretical1 a right and wholesome use of speculation and philosophy1 of poetry and art1 in place of their misuse1 and thus enabled ,christianity to realise its universal destination4 #bf4a4 ,gnosticism was deeply rooted in a powerful and characteristic intellectual tendency of the first century4 ,a persistent conviction that the ancient world had exhausted itself and was no longer able to resist its threatened overthrow1 now prevailed and drove the deepest thinkers to adopt the boldest and grandest ,syncretism the world has ever beheld1 in the blending of all the previously isolated and heterogeneous elements of culture as a final attempt at the rejuvenating of that which had become old 7 #be74 ,even within the borders of the church this ,syncretism favoured by the prevailing spirit of the age influenced those of superior culture1 to whom the church doctrine of that age did not seem to make enough of theosophical principles and speculative thought1 while the worship of the church seemed dry and barren4 ,out of the fusing of cosmological myths and philosophemes of oriental and ,greek paganism with ,christian historical elements in the crucible of its own speculation1 there arose numerous systems of a higher fantastic sort of religious philosophy1 which were included under the common name of ,gnosticism4 ,the pagan element is upon the whole the prevailing one1 inasmuch as in most ,gnostic systems ,christianity is not represented as the conclusion and completion of the development of salvation given in the ,old ,testament1 but often merely as the continuation and climax of the pagan religion of nature and the pagan mystery worship4 ,the attitude of this heretical gnosis toward holy scripture was various4 ,by means of allegorical interpretation some endeavoured to prove their system from it2 others preferred to depreciate the ,apostles as falsifiers of the original purely gnostic doctrine of ,christ1 or to remodel the apostolic writings in accordance with their own views1 or even to produce a bible of their own after the principles of their own schools in the form of gnostic pseudepigraphs4 ,with them1 however1 for the most part the tradition of ancient wisdom as the communicated secret doctrine stood higher than holy scripture4 ,over against the heretical gnosis1 an ecclesiastical gnosis was developed1 especially in the ,alexandrian school of theology 7,clement and ,origen1 #ca1 #d1 #e71 which1 according to #a ,cor4 xii4 #h1 #i2 xiii4 #b1 was esteemed and striven after as1 in contradistinction to faith1 a higher stage in the development of the religious consciousness4 ,the essential distinction between the two consisted in this1 that the latter was determined1 inspired and governed by the believing consciousness of the universal church1 as gradually formulated in the church confession1 whereas the former1 completely emancipated therefrom1 disported itself in the unrestricted arbitrariness of fantastic speculation4 #bf4b4 ,the ,problems of ,gnostic ,speculation are3 the origin of the world and of evil1 as well as the task1 means and end of the world's development4 ,in solving these problems the ,gnostics borrowed mostly from paganism the theory of the world's origin1 and from ,christianity the idea of redemption4 ,at the basis of almost all ,gnostic systems there lies the dualism of ,god and matter 772 only that matter is regarded sometimes in a ,platonic sense as non-essential and non-substantial 7 7 and hence without hostile opposition to the godhead1 sometimes more in the ,parsee sense as inspired and dominated by an evil principle1 and hence in violent opposition to the good ,god4 ,in working out the theosophical and cosmological process it is mainly the idea of emanation 77 that is called into play1 whereby from the hidden ,god is derived a long series of divine essences 771 whose inherent divine power diminishes in proportion as they are removed to a distance from the original source of being4 ,these ons then make their appearance as intermediaries in the creation1 development and redemption of the world4 ,the substratum out of which the world is created consists in a mixture of the elements of the world of light 77 with the elements of matter 77 by means of nature1 chance or conflict4 ,one of the least and weakest of the ons1 who is usually designated 1 after the example of ,plato in the ,timus1 is brought forward as the creator of the world4 ,creation is the first step toward redemption4 ,but the ,demiurge cannot or will not carry it out1 and so finally there appears in the fulness of the times one of the highest ons as redeemer1 in order to secure perfect emancipation to the imprisoned elements of light by the communication of the 4 ,seeing that matter is derived from the evil1 he appears in a seeming body or at baptism identifies himself with the psychical ,messiah sent by the ,demiurge4 ,the death on the cross is either only an optical illusion1 or the heavenly ,christ1 returning to the pleroma1 quits the man ,jesus1 or gives ,his form to some other man 7,simon of ,cyrene1 ,matt4 xxvii4 #cb7 so that he is crucified instead of ,him 7,docetism74 ,the souls of men1 according as the pleromatic or hylic predominates in them1 are in their nature1 either ,pneumatic1 which alone are capable of the 1 or ,psychical1 which can only aspire to 1 or finally1 ,hylic 71 71 to which class the great majority belongs1 which1 subject to ,satanic influences1 serve only their lower desires4 ,redemption consists in the conquest and exclusion of matter1 and is accomplished through knowledge 77 and asceticism4 ,it is therefore a chemical1 rather than an ethical process4 ,seeing that the original seat of evil is in matter1 sanctification is driven from the ethical domain into the physical1 and consists in battling with matter and withholding from material enjoyments4 ,the ,gnostics were thus originally very strict in their moral discipline1 but often they rushed to the other extreme1 to libertinism and antinomianism1 in consequence partly of the depreciation of the law of the ,demiurge1 partly of the tendency to rebound from one extreme to the other1 and justified their conduct on the ground of 4 #bf4c4 ,distribution4--,gieseler groups the ,gentile ,christian ,gnostics according to their native countries into ,egyptian or ,alexandrian1 whose emanationist and dualistic theories were coloured by ,platonism1 and the ,syrian1 whose views were affected by ,parseeism4--,neander divides ,gnostic systems into ,judaistic and ,anti-,jewish1 subdividing the latter into such as incline to ,paganism1 and such as strive to apprehend ,christianity in its purity and simplicity4--,hase arranges them as ,oriental1 ,greek and ,christian4--,baur classifies the ,gnostic systems as those which endeavour to combine ,judaism and paganism with ,christianity1 and those which oppose ,christianity to these4--,lipsius marks three stages in the development of ,gnosticism3 the blending of ,asiatic myths with a ,jewish and ,christian basis which took place in ,syria2 the further addition to this of ,greek philosophy either ,stoicism or ,platonism which was carried out in ,egypt2 and recurrence to the ethical principles of ,christianity1 the elevation of above 4--,hilgenfeld arranges his discussion of these systems in accordance with their place in the early heresiologies4--,but none of these arrangements can be regarded as in every respect satisfactory1 and indeed it may be impossible to lay down any principle of distribution of such a kind4 ,there are so many fundamental elements and these of so diverse a character1 that no one scheme of division may suffice for an adequate classification of all ,gnostic systems4 ,the difficulty was further enhanced by the contradiction1 approximation1 and confusion of systems1 and by their construction and reconstruction1 of which ,rome as the capital of the world was the great centre4 #bf4d4 ,sources of ,information4--,abundant as the literary productions were which assumed the name or else without the name developed the principles of ,gnosticism1 comparatively little of this literature has been preserved4 ,we are thus mainly dependent upon the representations of its catholic opponents1 and to them also we owe the preservation of many authentic fragments4 ,the first church teacher who ex professo deals with ,gnosticism is ,justin ,martyr 7 #cj1 #i71 whose controversial treatise1 however1 as well as that of ,hegesippus 7 #ca1 #g71 has been lost4 ,the most important of extant treatises of this kind are those of ,irenus in five books ,adv4 hreses1 and of ,hippolytus 1 the so-called ,philosophoumena 7 #ca1 #c74 ,the 4 4 4 of ,hippolytus is no longer extant in the original2 a ,latin translation of it apparently exists in the ,libellus adv4 omnes hreses1 which has been attributed to ,tertullian4 ,together with the work of ,irenus1 it formed a query for the later heresiologists1 ,epiphanius and ,philaster 7 #dg1 #aj1 #ad71 who were apparently unacquainted with the later written but more important and complete ,elenchus4 ,besides these should be mentioned the writings of ,tertullian 7 #ca1 #aj7 and ,theodoret 7 #dg1 #i7 referring to this controversy1 the ,stromata of ,clement of ,alexandria1 and the published discussions of ,origen 7 #ca1 #d1 #e71 especially in his ,commentary on ,john1 also the five ,dialogues of the ,pseudo-,origen 7,adamantius7 against the ,gnostics from the beginning of the fourth century2#ci and finally many notices in the ,church ,history of ,eusebius4 ,the still extant fragments of the ,gnostic ,apocryphal historian of the ,apostles afford information about the teaching and forms of worship of the later syncretic vulgar ,gnosticism1 and also from the very defective representations of them in the works of their ,catholic opponents4 #bg4 ,,the ,,gentile ,,christian ,,gnosticism4 ,in the older heretical ,gnosticism 7 #ah1 #c71 ,jewish1 pagan1 and ,christian elements are found1 which are kept distinct1 or are amalgamated or after examination are rejected1 what remains being developed1 consolidated and distributed1 but in a confused blending4 ,this is the case with ,cerinthus4 ,in ,basilides again1 who attaches himself to the doctrines of ,stoicism1 we have ,gnosticism developed under the influence of ,alexandrian culture2 and soon thereafter in ,valentinus1 who builds on ,plato's philosophy1 it attains its richest1 most profound and noblest expression4 ,from the blending of ,syro-,chaldan mythology with ,greek and ,hellenistic-,gnostic theories issue the divers ,ophite systems4 ,antinomian ,gnosticism with loose practical morality was an outgrowth from the contempt shown to the ,jewish ,god that created the world and gave the law4 ,the genuinely ,syrian ,gnosticism with its ,parseeist-dualistic ruggedness was most purely represented by ,saturninus1 while in ,marcion and his scholars the exaggeration of the ,pauline opposition of law and grace led to a dualistic contrast of the ,god of the ,old ,testament and of the ,new4 ,from the middle of the second century onwards there appears in the historical development of ,gnosticism an ever-increasing tendency to come to terms with the doctrine of the church4 ,this is shown by the founders of new sects1 ,marcion1 ,tatian1 ,hermogenes2 and also by many elaborators of early systems1 by ,heracleon1 ,ptolomus and ,bardesanes who developed the ,valentinian system1 in the so-called ,pistis ,sophia1 as the exposition of the ,ophite system4 ,this tendency to seek reconciliation with the church is also shown in a kind of syncretic popular or vulgar ,gnosticism which sought to attach itself more closely to the church by the composition of apocryphal and pseudepigraphic ,gospels and ,acts of ,apostles under biblical names and dates 7 #cb1 #d-f74--,the most brilliant period in the history of ,gnosticism was the second century1 commencing with the age of ,hadrian4 ,at the beginning of the third century there was scarcely one of the more cultured congregations throughout the whole of the ,roman empire and beyond this as far as ,edessa1 that was not affected by it4 ,yet we never find the numbers of regular ,gnostic congregations exceeding that of the ,catholic4 ,soon thereafter the season of decay set in4 ,its productive power was exhausted1 and while1 on the one side1 it was driven back by the ,catholic ecclesiastical reaction1 on the other hand1 in respect of congregational organization it was outrun and outbidden by ,manichism1 and also by ,marcionism4 #bg4a4 ,cerinthus1 as ,irenus says1 resting on the testimony of ,polycarp1 was a younger contemporary of the ,apostle ,john in ,asia ,minor2 the ,apostle meeting the heretic in a bath hastened out lest the building should fall upon the enemy of the truth4 ,in his ,gnosticism1 resting according to ,hippolytus on a basis of ,alexandrian-,greek culture1 we have the transition from the ,jewish-,christian to a more ,gentile than ,jewish-,christian ,gnostic standpoint4 ,the continued hold of the former is seen according to ,epiphanius in the maintaining of the necessity of circumcision and of the observances by ,christians of the law given by disposition of angels1 as also1 according to ,caius of ,rome1 who regards him as the author of the ,new ,testament ,apocalypse1 in chiliastic expectations4 ,both of these1 however1 were probably intended only in the allegorical and spiritual sense4 ,at the same time1 according to ,irenus and ,theodoret1 the essentially ,gnostic figure of the ,demiurge already appears in his writings1 who without knowing the supreme ,god is yet useful to ,him as the creator of the world4 ,even ,jesus1 the son of ,joseph and ,mary1 knew him not1 until the descended upon him at his baptism4 ,before the crucifixion1 which was a merely human mischance without any redemptive significance1 the ,christ had again withdrawn from him4 #bg4b4 ,the ,gnosticism of ,basilides4--,basilides 77 was a teacher in ,alexandria about ,a4,d4 #abj-acj4 ,he pretends to derive the gnostic system from the notes of the esoteric teaching of ,christ taken down by the ,apostle ,matthew and an amanuensis of ,peter called ,glaucias4 ,he also made use of ,john's ,gospel and ,paul's ,epistles to the ,romans1 ,corinthians and ,ephesians4 ,he himself left behind #bd books and his equally talented son ,isidorus has left a treatise under the title 4 ,fragments of both are found in ,clement of ,alexandria1 two passages from the first are given also in the 8,acts of ,disputation10 by ,archelaus of ,cascar 7 #bi1 #a74 ,irenus1 i4 #bd1 who refers to him as a disciple of ,menander 7 #be1 #b71 and the ,pseudo-,tertullian1 c4 #da1 ,epiphanius1 #ba1 and ,theodoret1 i4 #d1 describe his system as grossly dualistic and decidedly emanationist4 ,hippolytus1 vii4 #ad ff41 on the other hand1 with whom ,clement seems to agree1 describes it as a thoroughly monistic system1 in which the theogony is developed not by emanation from above downwards but by evolution from below upwards4 ,this latter view which undoubtedly presents this system in a more favourable light1--according to ,baur1 ,uhlhorn1 ,jacobi1 ,mller1 ,funk1 etc41 its original form3 according to ,hilgenfeld1 ,lipsius1 ,volkmar1 etc41 a later form influenced by later interpolations of ,greek pantheistic ideas1--makes the development of ,god and the world begin with pure nothing3 4 ,the principle of all development is 1 who out of ,himself 7 7 calls chaos into being4 ,this chaos was still itself an 1 but yet also the upon which now the as operated attractively by his beauty4 ,the pneumatic element in the newly created chaos is represented in a threefold sonship 7 7 of which the first and most perfect immediately after creation with the swiftness of thought takes its flight to the happy realm of non-existence1 the ,pleroma4 ,the second less perfect sonship struggles after the first 7hence called1 71 but must1 on reaching the borders of the happy realm1 cast aside the less perfect part of its being1 which now as the ,holy ,spirit 7 7 forms the vestibule 77 or boundary line between the ,pleroma 7 7 and the cosmos1 and although severed from the sonship1 still1 like a vessel out of which sweet ointment has been taken1 it bears to this lower world some of the perfume adhering to it4 ,the third sonship being in need of purifying must still remain in the ,panspermia1 and is as such the subject of future redemption4 ,on the other hand1 the greatest archon as the most complete concentration of all wisdom1 might and glory which was found in the psychical elements of chaos1 flew up to the firmament as 4 ,he now fancied himself to be the ,supreme ,god and ruler of all things1 and begot a son1 who according to the predetermination of the non-existing excelled him in insight and wisdom4 ,for himself and ,son1 having with them besides six other unnamed principalities1 he founded the higher heavens1 the so- called ,ogdoas4 ,after him there arose of chaos a second inferior ,archon with the predicate 1 who likewise begat a son mightier than himself1 and founded a lower heavenly realm1 the so-called ,hebdomas1 the planetary heavens4 ,the rest of the ,panspermia was the developed 1 that is1 in accordance with the natural principle implanted in it by the non-existent 8at our stage0 7 ' 74 ,as the time drew near for the manifestation of the children of ,god1 that is1 of men whose pneumatical endowment was derived from the third sonship1 the son of the great ,archon through the mediation of the first devised the saving plan of the ,pleroma4 ,with fear and trembling now the great ,archon too acknowledged his error1 repented of this self-exaltation and with the whole ,ogdoas rejoiced in the scheme of salvation4 ,through him also the son of the second ,archon is enlightened1 and he instructs his father1 who now as the ,god of the ,old ,testament prepares the way for the development of salvation by the law and prophecy4 ,the beginning is made by ,jesus1 son of the virgin ,mary1 who first himself absorbed the ray of the higher light1 and as 8the firstborn of the children of ,god0 became also the ,saviour 77 of his brethren4 ,his sufferings were necessary for removing the psychical and somatical elements of the ,panspermia adhering to him4 ,they were therefore actual1 not mere seeming sufferings4 ,his bodily part returned to the formlessness out of which it sprang2 his psychical part arose from the grave1 but in his ascension returned into the ,hebdomas1 while his pneumatic being belonging to the third sonship went up to the happy seat of the 4 ,and as he1 the firstborn1 so also all the children of ,god1 have afterwards to perform their task of securing the highest possible development and perfection of the groaning creation 7,rom4 viii4 #ai71 that is1 of all souls which by their nature are eternally bound 8to our stage40 ,then finally1 ,god will pour over all ranks of being beginning from the lowest the great ignorance 7 7 so that no one may be disturbed in their blessedness by the knowledge of a higher4 ,thus the restitution of all things is accomplished4--,the mild spirit which pervades this dogmatic system preserved from extravagances of a rigoristic or libertine sort the ethical system resulting from it4 ,marriage was honoured and regarded as holy1 though celibacy was admitted to be helpful in freeing the soul from the thraldom of fleshly lusts4 #bg4c4 ,the system set forth by ,irenus and others1 as that of ,basilides1 represents the ,supreme ,god as ,pater innatus or 4 ,from him emanates the 1 from this again the 1 from this the 1 who brings forth and 4 ,from the two last named spring the 1 and 1 who with number seven of the higher gods1 the primal father1 at their head1 constitute the highest heaven4 ,from this as its radiates forth a second spiritual world1 and the emanation continues in this way1 until it is completed and exhausts itself in the number of #cfe spiritual worlds or heavens under the mystic name or which has in its letters the numerical value referred to4 ,this last and most imperfect of these spiritual worlds with its seven planet spirits forms the heaven visible to us4 ,through this three hundred and sixty-five times repeated emanation the ,pleroma approaches the borders of the hyle1 a seething mass of forces wildly tossing against one another4 ,these rush wildly against it1 snatch from it fragments of light and imprison them in matter4 ,from this mixture the ,archon of the lowest heaven in fellowship with his companions creates the earth1 and to each of them apportions by lot a nation1 reserving to himself the ,jewish nation which he seeks to raise above all other nations1 and so introduces envy and ambition into heaven1 and war and bloodshed upon earth4 ,finally1 the ,supreme ,god sends his ,first-born1 the 1 in order to deliver men from the power of the angel that created the world4 ,he assumes the appearance of a body1 and does many miracles4 ,the ,jews determined upon his death2 nevertheless they crucified instead of him ,simon the ,cyrenian1 who assumed his shape4 ,he himself returned to his ,father4 ,by means of the ,gnosis which he taught men's souls are redeemed1 while their bodies perish4--,the development of one of these systems into the other might be most simply explained by assuming that the one described in the ,elenchus of ,hippolytus is the original and that its reconstruction was brought about by the overpowering intrusion of current dualistic1 emanationistic1 and docetic ideas4 ,all that had there been said about the great ,archon must now be attributed to the ,supreme ,god1 the ,pater innatus1 while the inferior archon might keep his place as ruler of the lowest planetary heaven4 ,the #cfe spiritual worlds had perhaps in the other system a place between the two ,archons1 for even ,hippolytus1 vii4 #bf1 mentions in addition the #cfe heavens to which also he gives the name of the great ,archon ,abrasax4--,it is a fact of special importance that even ,irenus and ,epiphanius distinguish from the genuine disciples of ,basilides the so-called ,pseudo-,basilideans as representing a later development1 easily deducible from the second but hardly traceable from the first account of the system4 ,that with their ,gnosis they blended magic1 witchcraft and fantastic superstition appears from the importance which they attached to mystic numbers and letters4 ,their libertine practice can be derived from their antinomian contempt of ,judaism as well as from the theory that their bodies are doomed to perish4 ,so1 too1 their axiom that to suffer martyrdom for the crucified1 who was not indeed the real ,christ1 is foolish1 may be deduced from the ,docetism of their system4 ,abrasax gems which are still to be met with in great numbers and in great variety are to be attributed to these ,basilideans2 but these found favour and were used as talismans not only among other ,gnostic sects but also among the ,alchymists of the ,middle ,ages4 #bg4d4 ,valentinian ,gnosticism4--,valentinus1 the most profound1 talented and imaginative of all the ,gnostics1 was educated in ,alexandria1 and went to ,rome about ,a4,d4 #adj1 where1 during a residence of more than twenty years1 he presided over an influential school1 and exercised also a powerful influence upon other systems4 ,he drew the materials for his system partly from holy scripture1 especially from the ,gospel of ,john1 partly from the esoteric doctrine of a pretended disciple of ,paul1 ,theodades4 ,of his own voluminous writings1 in the form of discourses1 epistles and poems1 only a few fragments are extant4 ,the reporters of his teaching1 ,irenus1 ,hippolytus1 ,tertullian1 ,epiphanius1 differ greatly from one another in details1 and leave us in doubt as to what really belongs to his own doctrine and what to its development by his disciples--,the fundamental idea of his system rests on the notion that according to a law founded in the depths of the divine nature the ons by emanation come into being as pairs1 male and female4 ,the pairing of these ons in a holy marriage is called a ,syzygy4 ,with this is joined another characteristic notion1 that in the historical development of the ,pleroma the original types of the three great crises of the earthly history1 ,creation1 the ,fall1 and ,redemption1 are met with4 ,on the basis of this he develops the most magnificently poetic epic of a ,christian mythological ,theogony and ,cosmogony4 ,from the or and its or 1 evolving his thought hitherto only in silent contemplation of his own perfection1 emanates the first and highest pair of ons1 the or who alone of all ons can bear to look into the depths of the perfection of the ,father of all1 and beside him his bride 4 ,from them spring the and as the second pair1 and from this pair again and as the third pair4 ,the and his ,ennoia1 with the first and highest pair of ons emanating for them1 and these together with the second ,tetras1 form the ,ogdoas4 ,the ,logos then begets a further removed circle of five pairs1 the ,decas1 and finally the ,anthropos begets the last series of six pairs1 the ,dodecas4 ,therewith the ,pleroma attains a preliminary completion4 ,a final boundary is fixed for it by the emanating from the ,father of all1 who1 being alone raised above the operation of the law of the ,syzygy1 is endowed with a twofold 1 an 1 by means of which he wards off all from without that would hurt1 and an 1 the symbol of which is the cross1 with which he maintains inward harmony and order4 ,how necessary this was is soon made apparent4 ,for the 1 the last and least member of the fourteen on pairs1 impelled by burning desire1 tears herself away from her partner1 and seeks to plunge into the ,bythos in order to embrace the ,father of ,all himself4 ,she is indeed prevented from this by the ,horos2 but the breach in the ,pleroma has been made4 ,in order to restore the harmony that has thus been broken1 the ,monogenes begets with ,aletheia a new on pair1 the and the which emancipates the ,sophia from her disorderly1 passionate nature 771 cuts out this latter from the ,pleroma1 but unites again the purified ,sophia with her husband1 and teaches all the ons about the ,father's unapproachable and incomprehensible essence1 and about the reason and end of the ,syzygies4 ,then they all1 amid hymns of praise and thanksgiving1 present an offering to the ,father1 each one of the best that he has1 and form thereof an indescribably glorious on-being1 the 1 and for his service myriads of august angels1 who bow in worship before him4--,the basis for the origination of the sensible world1 the 1 consist of the ,enthymesis ejected from the ,pleroma into the desert1 void and substanceless ,kenoma1 which is by it for the first time filled and vitalized4 ,it is an 1 an abortion1 which however retains still the on nature of its divine present1 and as such bears the name of 77 or 774 ,hence even the blessed spirits of the ,pleroma can never forsake her4 ,they all suffer with the unfortunate1 until she who had sprung from the ,pleroma is restored to it purified and matured4 ,hence they espouse her1 the ,ektroma of the last and least of the ons1 to the ,ano-,soter1 the noblest1 most glorious and most perfect being in the on-heaven1 as her redeemer and future husband4 ,he begins by comforting the despondent and casting out from her the baser affections4 ,among the worst1 fear1 sorrow1 doubt1 etc41 is found the basis of the hylic stage of existence2 among the better1 repentance1 desire1 hope1 etc41 that of the psychic stage of existence 774 ,over the beings issuing forth from the former presides ,satan2 over the psychical forms of being1 as their highest development1 presides the ,demiurge1 who prepares as his dwelling-place the seven lower heavens1 the ,hebdomas4 ,but ,achamoth had retired with the pneumatic substratum still remaining in her into the 1 between the ,pleroma and the lower world1 whence she1 inspired by the ,ano-,soter1 operates upon the ,demiurge1 who1 knowing nothing of her existence1 has no anticipation thereof4 ,from the dust of the earth and pneumatic seed1 which unobserved she conveys into it1 he formed man1 breathed into him his own psychical breath of life1 and set him in paradise1 that is1 in the third of his seven heavens1 but banished him to earth1 when he disobeyed his command1 and instead of his first ethereal garment clothed him in a material body4 ,when men had spread upon the earth1 they developed these different natures3 ,pneumatical1 which free from the bondage of every outward law and not subject to the impulses of the senses1 a law unto themselves1 travel toward the ,pleroma2 next1 the ,hylic1 which1 hostile to all spirit and law1 and the sport of all lusts and passions1 are doomed to irremediable destruction2 and finally1 the ,psychical1 which under the discipline of outward law attain not indeed to a perfect divine life1 but yet to outward righteousness1 while on the other hand they may sink down to the rank and condition of the ,hylic natures4 ,the ,psychical natures were particularly numerous among the ,jews4 ,therefore the ,demiurge chose them as his own1 and gave them a strict law and through his prophets promised them a future ,messiah4 ,the ,hylic natures which were found mostly among the heathens1 were utterly hateful to him4 ,the ,pneumatical natures with their innate longing after the ,pleroma1 he did not understand and therefore disregarded2 but yet1 without knowing or designing it1 he chose many of them for kings1 priests1 and prophets of his people1 and to his amazement heard from their lips prophecies of a higher soul1 which originated from ,achamoth1 and which he did not understand4 ,when the time was fulfilled1 he sent his ,messiah in the person of ,jesus4 ,when he was baptized by ,john1 the heaven opened over him and the ,ano-,soter descended upon him4 ,the ,demiurge saw it and was astonished1 but submitted himself awe-stricken to the will of the superior deities4 ,the ,soter remained then a year upon the earth4 ,the ,jews1 refusing to receive him1 nailed his organ1 the psychical ,messiah1 to a cross2 but his sufferings were only apparent sufferings1 since the ,demiurge had supplied him in his origin with an ethereal and only seemingly material body4 ,in consequence of the work of the ,ano-,soter the ,pneumatical natures by means of the ,gnosis taught by him1 but the ,psychical natures by means of ,pistis1 attain unto perfection after their kind4 ,when once everything pneumatical and psychical which was bound up in matter1 has been freed from it1 the course of the world has reached its end and the longed-for time of ,achamoth's marriage will have come4 ,accompanied by myriads of his angels1 the ,soter leads the noble sufferer into the ,pleroma4 ,the pneumatical natures follow her1 and as the ,soter is married to ,achamoth1 the angels are married to them4 ,the ,demiurge goes with his tried and redeemed saints into the 4 ,but from the depths of the ,hyle breaks forth a hidden fire which utterly consumes the ,hylic natures and the ,hyle itself4#dj #bg4e4 ,according to ,hippolytus the ,valentinian school split up into two parties--an ,italian party1 the leaders of which1 ,heracleon and ,ptolemus ,ptolemy1 were at ,rome1 and an ,eastern party to which ,axionicus and ,bardesanes belonged4 ,heracleon of ,alexandria was a man of a profoundly religious temperament1 who in his speculation inclined considerably toward the doctrine of the church1 and even wrote the first commentary on the ,gospel of ,john1 of which many fragments are preserved in ,origen's commentary on that gospel4 ,ptolemus ,ptolemy drew even closer than his master to the church doctrine4 ,epiphanius quotes a letter of his to his pupil ,flora in which1 after ,marcion's example 7see #bg1 #aa71 the distinction of the divine and the demiurgical in the ,old ,testament1 and the relation of the ,old ,testament to the ,new1 are discussed4 ,a position midway between that of the ,west and of the ,east is apparently represented by ,marcus and his school4 ,he combined with the doctrine of ,valentinus the ,pythagorean and cabbalistic mysticism of numbers and letters1 and joined thereto magical and soothsaying arts4 ,his followers1 the ,marcosians1 had a form of worship full of ceremonial observances1 with a twofold baptism1 a psychical one in the ,kato-,christus for the forgiveness of sins1 and a pneumatical one for affiance with the future heavenly syzygy4 ,of the ,antiochean ,axionicus we know nothing but the name4 ,of far greater importance was ,bardesanes1 who flourished according to ,eusebius in the time of ,marcus ,aurelius1 but is assigned by authentic ,syrian documents to the beginning of the third century4 ,the chief sources of information about his doctrine are the #ef rhyming discourses of ,ephraem ,ephraim against the heretics4 ,living at the court and enjoying the favour of the king of ,edessa1 he never attacked in his sermons the doctrinal system of the church1 but spread his ,gnostic views built upon a ,valentinian basis in lofty hymns of which1 besides numerous fragments in ,ephraem ,ephraim1 some are preserved in the apocryphal ,acta ,thomae 7 #cb1 #f74 ,among his voluminous writings there was a controversial treatise against the ,marcionites 7see #bg1 #aa74 ,in a ,dialogue1 1 attributed to him1 but probably belonging to one of his disciples named ,philippus1 from which ,eusebius 7,prp4 ,ev4 vi4 #aj7 quotes a passage1 the ,syrian original of which1 8,the ,book of the ,laws of the ,land10 was only recently discovered1#da astrology and fatalism are combated from a ,christian standpoint1 although the author is still himself dominated by many ,zoroastrian ideas4 ,harmonius1 the highly gifted son of ,bardesanes1 distinguished himself by the composition of hymns in a similar spirit4 #bg4f4 ,the ,ophites and related ,sects4--,the multiform ,ophite ,gnosis is in general characterized by fantastic combinations of ,syro-,chaldaic myths and ,biblical history with ,greek mythology1 philosophy and mysteriosophy4 ,in all its forms the serpent 71 7 plays an important part1 sometimes as ,kakodemon1 sometimes as ,agathodemon4 ,this arose from the place that the serpent had in the ,egyptian and ,asiatic cosmology as well as in the early biblical history4 ,one of the oldest forms of ,ophitism is described by ,hippolytus1 who gives to its representatives the name of ,naassenes1 from 4 ,the formless original essence1 1 revealed himself in the first men1 1 ,adam1 ,cadmon1 in whom the pneumatic1 psychical and hylic principles were still present together4 ,as the instrument in creation he is called ,logos or ,hermes4 ,the serpent is revered as ,agathodemon2 it proceeds from the ,logos1 transmitting the stream of life to all creatures4 ,christ1 the redeemer1 is the earthly representative of the first man1 and brings peace to all the three stages of life1 because he1 by his teaching1 directs every one to a mode of life in accordance with his nature4--,the ,sethites1 according to ,hippolytus1 taught that there were two principles3 an upper one1 1 an under one1 1 and between these 1 the atmosphere that moves and causes motion4 ,from a blending of light with darkness arose chaos1 in which the pneuma awakened life4 ,then from chaos sprang the soul of the world as a serpent1 which became the ,demiurge4 ,man had a threefold development3 hylic or material in ,cain1 psychical in ,abel1 and pneumatical in ,seth1 who was the first ,gnostic4--,the founders of the ,perates1 who were already known to ,clement of ,alexandria1 are called by ,hippolytus ,euphrates and ,celbes4 ,their name implies that they withdrew from the world of sense in order to secure eternal life here below1 4 ,the original divine unity1 they taught1 had developed into a ,trinity3 1 and 1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,hyle4 ,the ,son is the world serpent that moves and quickens all things 7 74 ,it is his task to restore everything that has sunk down from the two higher worlds into the lower1 and is held fast by its ,archon4 ,sometimes he turns himself serpent-like to his ,father and assumes his divine attributes1 sometimes to the lower world to communicate them to it4 ,in the shape of a serpent he delivers ,eve from the law of the ,archon4 ,all who are outlawed by this ,archon1 ,cain1 ,nimrod1 etc41 belong to him4 ,moses1 too1 is an adherent of his1 who erected in the wilderness the healing brazen serpent to represent him1 while the fiery biting serpent of the desert represent the demons of the ,archon4 ,the ,cainites1 spoken of by ,irenus and ,epiphanius1 were closely connected with the ,perates4 ,all the men characterized in the ,old ,testament as godless are esteemed by them genuine pneumatical beings and martyrs for the truth4 ,the first who distinguished himself in conflict with the ,god of the ,jews was ,cain2 the last who led the struggle on to victory1 by bringing the psychical ,messiah through his profound sagacity to the cross1 was ,judas ,iscariot4 ,the ,gnostic ,justin is known to us only through ,hippolytus1 who draws his information from a ,book of ,baruch4 ,he taught that from the original essence1 or 1 1 emanated a male principle1 1 1 which had a pneumatical nature1 and a female principle1 1 1 which was above man 7psychical7 and below the serpent 7hylic74 ,from the union of this pair sprang twelve 1 who had in them the father's nature1 and twelve 1 on whom the mother's nature was impressed4 ,together they formed ,paradise1 in which ,baruch1 an angel of ,elohim1 represented the tree of life1 and ,naas1 an ,edem-angel1 represented the tree of knowledge4 ,the ,elohim-angel formed man out of the dust of ,paradise2 ,edem gave him a soul1 ,elohim gave him a spirit4 ,pressing upward by means of his pneumatical nature ,elohim raised himself to the borders of the realms of light4 ,the ,agathos took him and set him at his right hand4 ,the forsaken ,edem avenged himself by giving power to ,naas to grieve the spirit of ,elohim in man4 ,he tempted ,eve to commit adultery with him1 and got ,adam to commit unnatural vice with him4 ,in order to show the grieved spirit of man the way to heaven1 ,elohim sent ,baruch first to ,moses and afterwards to other ,prophets of the ,old ,testament2 but ,naas frustrated all his efforts4 ,even from among the heathen ,elohim raised up prophets1 such as ,hercules whom he sent to fight against the twelve ,edem-angels 7his twelve labours71 but one of them named ,babel or ,aphrodite robbed even this divine hero of his power 7a reminiscence of the story of ,omphale74 ,finally1 ,elohim sent ,baruch to the peasant boy ,jesus1 son of ,joseph and ,mary4 ,he resisted all the temptations of ,naas1 who therefore got him nailed upon the cross4 ,jesus commended his spirit into the hands of the ,father1 into whose heaven he ascended1 leaving his body and soul with ,edem4 ,so1 after his example1 do all the pious4 #bg4g4 ,the ,gnosis of the ,ophites1 described by ,irenus1 etc41 is distinguished from that of the earlier ,naasenes ,naassenes by its incorporation of ,valentinian and dualistic or ,saturninian 7see #bg1 #i7 ideas4 ,from the ,bythos who1 as the primary being1 is also called the first man1 ,adam ,cadmon1 emanates the thought1 1 of himself as the second man or son of man1 and from him the ,holy ,spirit or the ,ano-,sophia1 who in turn bears the ,ano-,christus and ,achamoth4 ,the latter1 an imperfect being of light1 who is also called 1 which according to ,epiphanius means 1 drives about through the dark ocean of chaos1 over which the productive mother1 the ,holy ,spirit1 broods1 in order to found for himself in it an independent world of his own4 ,there dense matter unites with the element of light and darkens it to such a degree that even the consciousness of its own divine origin begins to fade away from it4 ,in this condition of estrangement from ,god she produces the ,demiurge1 ,jaldabaoth1 1 son of chaos2 and he1 a wicked as well as limited being1 full of arrogance and pride1 determines that he himself alone will be lord and master in the world which he creates4 ,this brings ,achamoth to penitent deliberation4 ,by the vigorous exercise of all the powers of light dwelling in her1 and strengthened by a gleam of light from above1 she succeeds in raising herself from the realm of chaos into the 4 ,nevertheless ,jaldabaoth brought forth six star spirits or planets after his own image1 and placed himself as the seventh at their head4 ,but they too think of rebelling4 ,enraged at this ,jaldabaoth glances wildly upon the deep-lying slime of the ,hyle2 his frightfully distorted countenance is mirrored in this refuse of chaos2 the image there comes to life and forms ,ophiomorphus or ,satan4 ,by order of ,jaldabaoth the star spirits make man2 but they produce only an awkward spiritless being that creeps along the ground4 ,in order to quicken it and make it stand erect the ,demiurge breathes into it his own breath1 but thereby deprives himself of a great part of that pneumatical element which he had from his mother4 ,the so-called fall1 in which ,ophiomorphus or the serpent was only the unconscious instrument of ,achamoth1 is in truth the beginning of the redemption of man1 the advance to self-consciousness and moral freedom4 ,but as a punishment for his disobedience ,jaldabaoth drove him out of the higher material world1 ,paradise1 into the lower1 where he was exposed to the annoyances of ,ophiomorphus1 who also brought the majority of mankind1 the heathens1 under his authority1 while the ,jews served ,jaldabaoth1 and only a small number of pneumatical natures by the help of ,achamoth kept themselves free from both4 ,the prophets whom ,jaldabaoth sent to his people1 were at the same time unconscious organs of ,achamoth1 who also sent down the ,ano-,christus from the ,pleroma upon the ,messiah1 whose kingdom is yet to spread among all nations4 ,jaldabaoth now let his own ,messiah be crucified1 but the ,ano-,christus was already withdrawn from him and had set himself unseen at the right hand of the ,demiurge1 where he deprives him and his angels of all the light element which they still had in them1 and gathers round himself the pneumatical from among mankind1 in order to lead them into the ,pleroma4--,the latest and at the same time the noblest product of ,ophite ,gnosticism is the ,pistis ,sophia1#db appearing in the middle of the third century1 with a strong tincture of ,valentinianism4 ,it treats mainly of the fall1 repentance1 and complaint of ,sophia1 and of the mysteries that purify for redemption1 often approaching very closely the doctrine of the church4 #bg4h4 ,antinomian and ,libertine ,sects4--,the later representatives of ,alexandrian ,gnosticism on account of the antinomian tendency of their system fell for the most part into gross immorality1 which excused itself on the ground that the pneumatical men must throw contempt upon the law of the ,demiurge1 1 7whence they were also called ,antitactes71 and that by the practice of fleshly lusts one must weaken and slay the flesh1 1 so as to overcome the powers of the ,hyle4 ,the four following sects may be mentioned as those which maintained such views4-- a4 ,the ,nicolaitans1 who in order to give themselves the sanction of primitive ,christianity sought to trace their descent from ,nicolaus ,nicolas the ,deacon 7,acts vi4 #e74 ,but while they have really no connection with him1 they are just as little to be identified with the ,nicolaitans of the ,apocalypse 7 #ah1 #c74 b4 ,in a similar way the ,simonians sought to attach themselves to ,simon ,magus 7 #be1 #b74 ,they gave to the fables associated with the name of ,simon a speculative basis borrowed from the central idea of the philosophy of ,heraclitus1 that the principle of all things 7 7 is fire4 ,from it in three syzygies1 and 1 and 1 and 1 proceed the six roots of the supersensible world1 and subsequently the corresponding six roots of the sensible world1 ,heaven and earth1 ,sun and moon1 ,air and water1 in which unlimited force is present as 1 1 and 4 ,justin ,martyr was already acquainted with this sect1 and also ,hippolytus1 who quotes many passages from their chief treatise1 entitled1 and reports scandalous things about their foul worship4 c4 ,the ,carpocratians4 ,in the system of their founder ,carpocrates1 who lived at ,alexandria in the first half of the second century1 ,god is the eternal ,mould1 the unity without distinctions1 from whom all being flows and to whom all returns again4 ,from ,him the revolted4 ,by the creation of the world they established a distinct order of existence apart from ,god and consolidated it by the law issuing from them and the national religions of ,jews and ,gentiles founded by them4 ,thus true religion or the way of return for the human spirit into the ,one and ,all consists theoretically in ,gnosis1 practically in emancipation from the commands of the ,demiurge and in a life 4 ,the distinction of good and bad actions rests merely on human opinions4 ,man is redeemed by faith and love4 ,in order to be able to overcome the powers that created the world1 he is in need of magic which is intimately connected with ,gnosis4 ,every human spirit who has not fully attained to this end of all religious endeavour1 is subjected1 until he reaches it1 to the assumption of one bodily form after another4 ,among the heroes of humanity who with special energy and success have assailed the kingdom of the ,demiurge by contempt of his law and spread of the true ,gnosis1 a particularly conspicuous place is assigned to ,jesus1 the son of ,joseph4 ,what he was for the ,jews1 ,orpheus1 ,pythagoras1 ,plato1 etc41 were for the ,gentiles4 ,to the talented son of ,carpocrates1 named ,epiphanes1 who died in his seventeenth year1 after impressing upon his father's ,gnostic system a boundless communistic and libertine tendency with community of goods and wives1 his followers erected a temple at ,cephalonia1 in which they set up for divine honours the statues of ,christ and the ,greek philosophers4 ,at the close of their ,agap1 they indulged in ,concubitus promiscuus4 d4 ,the ,prodicians flourished about the time of ,clement of ,alexandria1 and were connected1 perhaps1 through their founder ,prodicus1 with the ,carpocratians4 ,in order to prove their dominion over the sensible world they were wont to appear in their assemblies naked1 and hence are also called ,adamites4 ,so soon as they succeeded in thus reaching the state of innocence that had preceded the fall1 they maintained that as pneumatical king's sons they were raised above all law and entitled to indulge in unbridled lust4 #bg4i4 ,saturninus1 or ,satornilus of ,antioch1 according to ,irenus1 a disciple of ,menander1 was one of the oldest ,syrian ,gnostics1 during the age of ,hadrian1 and the one in whose system of ,dualism the most decided traces of ,parsee colouring is found4 ,from the the spirit world of the kingdom of light emanates in successive stages4 ,on the lowest stage stand the seven planet spirits1 1 at their head the creator of the world and the god of the ,jews4 ,but from eternity over against the realm of light stands the ,hyle in violent opposition under the rule of ,satanas4 ,the seven star spirits think to found therein a kingdom free and independent of the ,pleroma1 and for this purpose make an inroad upon the kingdom of the ,hyle1 and seize upon a part of it4 ,therefore they form the sensible world and create man as keeper thereof after a fair model sent by the good ,god of which they had a dim vision4 ,but they could not give him the upright form4 ,the supreme ,god then takes pity upon the wretched creature4 ,he sends down a spark of light into it which fills it with pneumatical life and makes it stand up4 ,but ,satanas set a hylic race of men over against this pneumatical race1 and persecuted the latter incessantly by demons4 ,the ,jewish god then plans to redeem the persecuted by a ,messiah1 and inspires prophets to announce his coming4 ,but ,satan1 too1 has his prophets1 and the ,jewish god is not powerful enough to make his views prevail over his enemy's4 ,finally the good ,god sends to the earth the ,aeon on 1 in what has the appearance of a body1 in order that he as may teach the pneumatical how to escape1 by ,gnosis and asceticism1 abstaining from marriage and the eating of flesh1 not only the attacks of ,satan1 but also the dominion of the ,jewish god and his star spirits1 how to emancipate themselves from all connection with matter1 and to raise themselves into the realm of light4 #bg4aj4 ,tatian and the ,encratites4--,the ,assyrian ,tatian1 converted to ,christianity at ,rome by ,justin ,martyr1 makes his appearance as a zealous apologist of the faith 7 #cj1 #aj74 ,in his later years1 however1 just as in the case of ,marcion1 in consequence of his exaggeration of the ,pauline antithesis of flesh and spirit1 law and grace1 he was led to propound a theory of the dualistic opposition between the god of the law1 the ,demiurge1 and the god of the gospel1 which found expression in a ,gnostic-ascetic system1 completely breaking away from the ,catholic church1 and reaching its conclusion in the hyperascetic sect of the ,encratites that arose in ,rome about ,a4,d4 #agb4 ,he now became head and leader of this sect1 which1 with its fanatical demand of complete abstinence from marriage1 from all eating of flesh and all spirituous liquors1 won his approval1 and perhaps from him received its first dogmatic ,gnostic impress4 ,of ,tatian's ,gnostic writings1 and 1 only some fragments1 with scanty notices of his ,gnostic system1 are preserved4 ,his dualistic opposition of the god of the ,old ,testament and the god of the ,new ,testament cannot have meant a thorough hostility1 for he makes the ,demiurge sitting in darkness address himself to the supreme ,god in the language of prayer1 8,let there be light40 ,he declares1 however1 that ,adam1 as the author of the fall1 is incapable of redemption4--,his followers were also called 1 ,aquarii1 because at the ,supper they used water instead of wine4 ,see ,lit4 at #cj1 #aj4 #bg4aa4 ,marcion and the ,marcionites4--,marcion of ,sinope in ,pontus1 who died about ,a4,d4 #agj1 was1 according to ,tertullian1 a rich shipmaster who1 on his arrival in ,rome1 in his early enthusiasm for the faith1 bestowed upon the ,church there a rich present1 but was afterwards excommunicated by it as a heretic4 ,according to the ,pseudo-,tertullian and others he was the son of a bishop who excommunicated him for incontinence with one under the vow of virginity4 ,the story may possibly be based upon a later misunderstanding of the charge of corrupting the church as the pure bride of ,christ4 ,he was a man of a fiery and energetic character1 but also rough and eccentric1 of a thoroughly practical tendency and with little speculative talent4 ,he was probably driven by the hard inward struggles of his spiritual life1 somewhat similar to those through which ,paul had passed1 to a full and hearty conception of the free grace of ,god in ,christ2 but conceived of the opposition between law and gospel1 which the ,apostle brought into harmony by his theory of the pdogogical office of the law1 as purely hostile and irreconcileable4 ,at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #adj1 the ,syrian ,gnostic ,cerdo1 who already distinguished between the 8good0 ,god of ,christianity and the 8just0 ,god of ,judaism1 gained an influence over him4 ,he consequently developed for himself a ,gnostic system1 the dominating idea of which was the irreconcilable opposition of righteousness and grace1 law and gospel1 ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,he repudiated the whole of the ,old ,testament1 and set forth the opposition between the two ,testaments in a special treatise entitled ,antitheses4 ,he acknowledged only ,paul as an ,apostle1 since all the rest had fallen back into ,judaism1 and of the whole ,new ,testament he admitted only ten ,pauline epistles1 excluding the ,pastoral ,epistles and the ,epistles to the ,hebrews1 and admitting the ,gospel of ,luke only in a mutilated form4#dc ,marcion would know nothing of a secret doctrine and tradition and rejected the allegorical interpretation so much favoured by the ,gnostics1 as well as the theory of emanation and the subordination of ,pistis under ,gnosis4 ,while other ,gnostics formed not churches but only schools of select bands of thinkers1 or at most only small gatherings1 ,marcion1 after vainly trying to reform the ,catholic church in accordance with his exaggerated ,paulinism1 set himself to establish a well organised ecclesiastical system1 the members of which were arranged as ,perfecti or ,electi and ,catechumeni4 ,of the former he required a strict asceticism1 abstinence from marriage1 and restriction in food to the simplest and least possible4 ,he allowed the ,catechumens1 however1 in opposition to the ,catholic practice 7 #ce1 #a71 to take part in all the services1 which were conducted in the simplest possible forms4 ,the moral earnestness and the practical tendency of his movement secured him many adherents1 of whom many congregations maintained their existence for a much longer time than the members of other ,gnostic sects1 even down to the seventh century4 ,none of the founders of the old ,gnostic sects were more closely connected in life and doctrine to the ,catholic ,church than ,marcion1 and yet1 or perhaps just for that reason1 none of them were opposed by it so often1 so eagerly and so bitterly4 ,even ,polycarp1 on his arrival in ,rome 7 #cg1 #b71 in reply to ,marcion's question whether he knew him1 said3 4--,the general scope and character of the ,system of ,marcion have been variously estimated4 ,all older ecclesiastical controversialists1 ,justin1 ,rhodon in ,eusebius1 ,tertullian and ,irenus1 in their description and refutation of it seem to recognise only two principles 771 which stand in opposition to one another1 as and 4 ,the latter appears as creator of the world1 or ,demiurge1 the god of the ,jews1 the giver of the law1 unable1 however1 by his law to save the ,jews and deter them from breaking it1 or to lead back the ,gentiles to the observance of it4 ,then of his free grace the 8good0 ,god1 previously quite unknown1 determined to redeem men from the power of the ,demiurge4 ,for this purpose he sends his ,logos into the world with the semblance of a body4 ,by way of accommodation he gives himself out as the ,messiah of the ,jewish god1 proclaims the forgiveness of sins through free grace1 communicates to all who believe the powers of the divine life1 is at the instigation of the angry ,demiurge nailed to the cross to suffer death in appearance only1 preaches to ,gentiles imprisoned in ,hades1 banishes the ,demiurge to ,hades1 and ordains the ,apostle ,paul as teacher of believers4--,the later heresiologists1 however1 ,hippolytus1 in his ,elenchus1 ,epiphanius1 ,theodoret1 and especially the ,armenian ,esnig 7 #fd1 #c71 are equally agreed in saying that ,marcion recognised three principles 772 that besides the good ,god and the righteous ,god he admitted an evil principle1 the ,hyle concentrated in ,satan1 so that even the pre-,christian development of the world was viewed from the standpoint of a dualistic conflict between divine powers4 ,the righteous ,god and the ,hyle1 as a quasi female principle1 united with one another in creating the world1 and when the former saw how fair the earth was1 he resolved to people it with men created of his own likeness4 ,for this purpose the ,hyle at his request afforded him dust1 from which he created man1 inspiring him with his own spirit4 ,both divine powers rejoiced over man as parents over a child1 and shared in his worship4 ,but the ,demiurge sought to gain undivided authority over man1 and so commanded ,adam1 under pain of death1 to worship him alone1 and the ,hyle avenged himself by producing a multitude of idols to whom the majority of ,adam's descendants1 falling away from the ,god of the law1 gave reverence4--,the harmonizing of these two accounts may be accomplished by assuming that the older ,church ,fathers1 in their conflict with ,marcion had willingly restricted themselves to the most important point in the ,marcionite system1 its characteristic opposition of the ,gods of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 passing over the points in which it agreed more or less with other ,gnostic systems2 or by assuming that later ,marcionites1 such as ,prepon 7 #bg1 #ab71 in consequence of the palpable defectiveness and inadequacy of the original system of two principles1 were led to give it the further development that has been described4#dd #bg4ab4 ,the speculative weakness and imperfection of his system led ,marcion's ,disciples to expand and remodel it in many ways4 ,two of these1 ,lucanus and ,marcus1 are pre-eminent as remodellers of the system1 into which they imported various elements from that of ,saturninus4 ,the ,assyrian ,prepon placed the 8righteous0 ,logos as third principle between the 8good0 ,god and the 8evil0 ,demiurge4 ,of all the more nameful ,marcionites1 ,apelles1 who died about ,a4,d4 #ahj1 inclined most nearly to the church doctrine4 ,eusebius tells about a ,disputation which took place in ,rome between him and ,rhodon1 a disciple of ,tatian4 ,at the head of his essentially monistic system ,apelles places the as the 4 ,this ,god1 besides a higher heavenly world1 had created an order of angels1 of whom the first and most eminent1 the so-called ,angelus inclytus or gloriosus as ,demiurge made the earthly world after the image and to the glory of the supreme ,god4 ,but another angel1 the 1 corrupted his creation1 which was already in itself imperfect1 by bringing forth the 1 with which he clothed the souls enticed down from the upper world4 ,it was he1 too1 who spoke to ,moses out of the burning bush1 and as the god of the ,jews gave the law from ,sinai4 ,the ,demiurge soon repented of his ill-fated performance1 and prayed the supreme ,god to send his ,son as redeemer4 ,christ appeared1 lived1 wrought and suffered in a real body4 ,it was not1 however1 the that he assumed1 but a sinless body composed out of the four elements which he gave back to the elements on his ascension to heaven4 ,towards the close of his life ,apelles seems1 under the influence of the mystic revelations of a prophetess1 ,philoumena1 whose he published1 to have more and more renounced his ,gnostic views4 ,he had already admitted in his ,disputation with ,rhodon1 that even on the ,catholic platform one may be saved1 for the main thing is faith in the crucified ,christ and the doing of his works4 ,he would even have been prepared to subscribe to the ,monotheism of the church1 had he not been hindered by the opposition between the ,old ,testament and the ,new4 #bg4ac4 ,the painter ,hermogenes in ,north ,africa1 about ,a4,d4 #bjj1 whom ,tertullian opposed1 took offence at the ,catholic doctrine of creation as well as at the ,gnostic theory of emanation1 because it made ,god the author of evil4 ,he therefore assumed an eternal chaos1 from whose striving against the creative and formative influence of ,god he explained the origin of everything evil and vile4 #bh4 ,,ebionism ,,and ,,ebionitic ,,gnosticism4#de ,the ,jewish-,christianity that maintained separation from ,gentile-,christianity even after the overthrow of the ,holy ,city and its temple1 assumed partly a merely separatist1 partly a decidedly heretical character4 ,both tendencies had in common the assertion of the continued obligation to observe the whole of the ,mosaic law4 ,but while the former limited this obligation to the ,christians of ,jewish descent as the peculiar stem and kernel of the new ,messianic community1 and allowed the ,gentile ,christians as ,proselytes of the ,gate to omit those observances1 the latter would tolerate no such concession and outran the ,old ,testament monotheism by a barren monarchianism that denied the divinity of ,christ 7 #cc1 #a74 ,at a later period the two parties were distinguished as ,nazareans and ,ebionites4 ,on the other hand1 in the ,ebionites described to us by ,epiphanius we have a form of ,jewish ,christianity permeated by ,gnostic elements4 ,these ,ebionites1 settling along with the ,essenes 7 #h1 #d7 on the eastern shores of the ,dead ,sea1 came to be known under the name of ,elkesaites4 ,in the ,pseudo-,clementine scheme of doctrine1 this ,ebionitic ,gnosis was carried out in detail and wrought up into a comprehensive and richly developed system4 #bh4a4 ,nazareans and ,ebionites4--,tertullian and with him most of the later ,church ,fathers derive the name ,ebionite from ,ebion1 a founder of the sect4 ,since the time of ,gieseler1 however1 the name has generally been referred to the ,hebrew word meaning poor1 in allusion partly to the actual poverty of the church of ,jerusalem 7,gal4 ii4 #aj71 partly to the association of the terms poor and pious in the ,psalms and ,prophets 7comp4 ,matt4 v4 #c74 ,minucius ,felix1 c4 xxxvi4 testifies that the ,gentile ,christians were also so designated by those without3 ,ceterum quod plerique 8,pauperes0 dicimur1 non est infamia nostra1 sed gloria4 ,recently1 however1 ,hilgenfeld has recurred to the patristic derivation of the name4--,in ,irenus the name ,ebioni makes its first appearance in literature1 and that as a designation of ,jewish ,christians as heretics who admitted only a ,gospel according to ,matthew1 probably the so-called ,gospel according to the ,hebrews 7 #cb1 #d71 branded the ,apostle ,paul as an apostate1 insisted upon the strict observance of the ,jewish law1 and taught on ,christological questions 8consimiliter ut ,cerinthus et ,carpocrates0 7 #bg1 #a1 #h71 while they denied that ,christ was born of a virgin1 and regarded ,him as a mere man4 ,origen 7 ,a4,d4 #bdc7 embraced all ,jewish ,christians under the name but did not deny the existence of two very different parties among them 7 and 74 ,eusebius does the same4 ,jerome again is the first to distinguish the more moderate party by the name ,nazareans 7,acts xxiv4 #e7 from the more extreme who are designated ,ebionites4 ,this too is the practice of ,augustine and ,theodoret4 ,the former party acknowledged the virgin birth of ,christ and so ,his divine origin1 assigned to ,paul his place as ,apostle to the ,gentiles1 and made no demand of ,gentile ,christians that they should observe the ceremonial law of ,moses1 although they believed that they themselves were bound thereby4 ,the latter again regarded it as absolutely necessary to salvation1 and also held that ,christ was the ,messiah1 but only a man1 son of ,joseph by ,mary1 endowed with divine powers in ,his baptism4 ,his ,messianic work1 according to them1 consisted in ,his fulfilling by ,his teaching the ,mosaic law4 ,his death was an offence to them1 but they took comfort from the promise of ,his coming again1 when they looked for the setting up of an earthly ,messianic kingdom4 ,paul was depreciated by them and made of little account4 ,ebionites of both parties continued to exist in small numbers down to the fifth century1 especially in ,palestine and ,syria4 ,both however had sunk by the middle of the second century into almost utter insignificance4 ,the scanty remains of writings issuing from the party prove that especially the non-heretical ,jewish ,christianity before the close of this century had in great part abandoned its national ,jewish character1 and therewith its separate position as a religious sect1 and by adopting the views of the ,pauline ,gentile ,christianity 7 #cj1 #b7 became gradually amalgamated with it4#df #bh4b4 ,the ,elkesaites4--,independent accounts of this sect in substantial agreement with one another are given by ,hippolytus in his ,elenchus1 by ,origen as quoted in ,eusebius1 and by ,epiphanius4 ,their designation has also led the ,church ,fathers to assume a sect founder of the name of ,elxai or ,elchasai1 who is said to have lived in the time of ,hadrian4 ,the members of the sect themselves derived their name from 1 1 the hidden power of ,god operating in them1 that is1 the ,holy ,spirit1 the of the ,clementine ,homilies4 ,probably it was the title of a book setting forth their esoteric doctrine1 which circulated only among those bound under oath to secrecy4 ,origen says that the book was supposed to have fallen down from heaven2 ,hippolytus says that it was held to have been revealed by an angel who was the ,son of ,god himself4 ,elxai obtained it from the ,serians in ,parthia and communicated it to the ,sobiai1 probably from 2 then the ,syrian ,alcibiades brought it from ,apamea to ,rome in the third century4 ,the doctrinal system of the ,elkesaites was very variable1 and is represented by the ,church ,fathers referred to as a confused mixture of ,christian elements with the legalism of ,judaism1 the asceticism of ,essenism1 and the naturalism of paganism1 and exhibiting a special predilection for astrological and magical fancies4 ,the law was regarded as binding1 especially the precepts concerning the ,sabbath and circumcision1 but the sacrificial worship was abandoned1 and the portions of the ,old ,testament referring to it as well as other parts4 ,their doctrine of baptism varied from that of baptism once administered to that of a baptism by oft repeated washings on days especially indicated by astrological signs4 ,baptism was for the forgiveness of sins and also for the magical cure of the sick4 ,it was administered in the name of the ,father and the ,son1 and in addition there were seven witnesses called1 the five elements1 together with oil and salt1 the latter as representative of the ,lord's ,supper1 which was celebrated with salt and bread without wine4 ,eating of flesh was forbidden1 but marriage was allowed and highly esteemed4 ,their ,christology presented the appearance of unsettled fermentation4 ,on the one hand ,christ was regarded as an angel1 and indeed as the 1 of gigantic size1 #if miles high1 and #bd miles broad2 but on the other hand1 they taught also a repeated incarnation of ,christ as the ,son of ,god1 the final ,one being the ,christ born of the virgin4 ,he represents the male principle1 and by his side1 as the female principle1 stands the ,holy ,spirit4 ,denial of ,christ in times of persecution seemed to them quite allowable4 ,at the time of ,epiphanius1--who identifies them with the ,sampseans1 whose name was derived from the sun1 because in prayer they turned to the sun1 called also 1--they had for the most part their residence round about the ,dead ,sea1 where they got mixed up with the ,essenes of that region4--,more recently the ,elkesaites have been brought into connection with the still extant sect of the ,sabeans or ,mandeans 7 #be1 #a74 ,these ,sabeans1 from meaning 1 1 are designated by the medival ,arabic writers ,mogtasilah1 those who wash themselves1 and ,elchasaich is named as their founder1 and as teaching the existence of two principles a male and a female4 #dg #bh4c4 ,the ,pseudo-,clementine ,series of ,writings forms a literature of a romantic historico-didactic description which originated between ,a4,d4 #afj and #agj4 a4 ,the so-called ,homili ,,xx ,clementis#dh were prefaced by two letters to the ,apostle ,james at ,jerusalem4 ,the first of these is from ,peter enjoining secrecy in regard to the 8,kerugma0 sent therewith4 ,the second is from ,clement of ,rome after the death of ,peter1 telling how he as the founder and first bishop of the church of ,rome had ordained ,clement as his successor1 and had charged him to draw up those accounts of his own career and of the addresses and disputations of ,peter which he had heard while the ,apostle pursued and contended with ,simon ,magus1 and to send them to ,james as head of the church1 8bishop of bishops1 who ruled the church of ,jerusalem and all the churches10 that they might be certified by him4 ,the historical framework of the book represents a distinguished ,roman of philosophical culture and of noble birth1 named ,clement1 as receiving his first acquaintance with ,christianity at ,rome1 and then as going forth on his travels to ,judea as an eager seeker after the truth4 ,at ,alexandria 7 #af1 #d7 ,barnabas convinces him of the truth of ,christianity1 and ,clement follows him to ,csarea where he listens to a great debate between ,peter and ,simon ,magus 7 #be1 #b74 ,simon defeated betakes himself to flight1 but ,peter follows him1 accompanied by ,clement and two who had been disciples of the magician1 ,niceta and ,aquila4 ,though he goes after him from place to place1 ,peter does not get hold of ,simon1 but founds churches all along his route4 ,on the way ,clement tells him how long before his mother1 ,mattidia1 and his two brothers had gone on a journey to ,athens1 and how his father1 ,faustus1 had gone in search of them1 and no trace of any of them had ever been found4 ,soon thereafter the mother is met with1 and then it is discovered that ,niceta and ,aquila are the lost brothers ,faustinus and ,faustinianus4 ,at the baptism of the mother the father also is restored4 ,finally at ,laodicea ,peter and ,simon engage a second time in a four-days' disputation which ends as the first4 ,the story concludes with ,peter's arrival at ,antioch4 b4 ,the ten books of the so-called ,recognitiones ,clementis1#di present us again with the ,clement of the historical romance1 the historical here overshadowing the didactic1 and a closer connection with church doctrine being here maintained4 ,critical examinations of the relations between the two sets of writings have more and more established the view that an older ,jewish-,christian ,gnostic work lay at the basis of both4 ,this original document seems to have been used contemporaneously1 but in a perfectly independent manner in the composition of both2 the ,homilies using the materials in an anti-,marcionite interest 7 #bg1 #aa71 the ,recognitions using them in such a way as to give as little offence as possible to their ,catholic readers4 ,still it is questionable whether this original document1 which probably bore the title of 1 embraced in its earliest form the domestic romance of ,clement1 or only treated of the disputation of ,peter with ,simon at ,csarea1 and was first enlarged by addition of the giving the story of ,peter's travels 774 c4 ,finally1 extracts from the ,homilies1 worthless and of no independent significance1 are extant in the form of two ,greek ,epitom 7ed4 ,dressel1 ,lps41 #ahei74 ,equally unimportant is the ,syrian ,epitome1 edited by ,lagarde1 ,lps41 #ahfa1 a compilation from the ,recognitions and the ,homilies4 ,all the three writers of the ,epitomes had an interest only in the romantic narrative4 #bh4d4 ,the ,pseudo-,clementine ,doctrinal ,system is represented in the most complete and most original manner in the ,homilies4 ,in the conversations1 addresses1 and debates there reported the author develops his own religious views1 and by putting them in the mouth of the ,apostle ,peter seeks to get them recognised as genuine unadulterated primitive ,christianity1 while all the doctrines of ,catholic ,paulinism which he objects to1 as well as those of heretical ,gnosticism and especially of ,marcionism1 are put into the mouth of ,simon ,magus1 the primitive heretic2 and then an attempt is made at a certain reconciliation and combination of all these views1 the evil being indeed contended against1 but an element of truth being recognised in them all4 ,he directs his ,polemics against the polytheism of vulgar paganism1 the allegorical interpretation by philosophers of pagan myths1 the doctrine of the creation of the world out of nothing and the sacrificial worship of ,judaism1 against the hypostatic ,trinity of ,catholicism1 the chiliasm of the ,ebionites1 the pagan naturalistic element in ,elkesaism1 the dualism1 the doctrine of the ,demiurge1 the ,docetism and ,antinomianism of the ,gentile ,christian ,gnostics4 ,he attempts in his ,ironies to point out the ,ebionitic identity of genuine ,christianity with genuine ,judaism1 emphasizes the ,essenic-,elkesaitic demand to abstain from eating flesh1 to observe frequent fasts1 divers washings and voluntary poverty 7through a recommendation of early marriages71 as well as the ,catholic doctrine of the necessity of baptism for the forgiveness of sins1 and justifies the ,gnostic tendency of his times by setting up a system of doctrine of which the central idea is the connection of ,stoical ,pantheism with ,jewish ,theism1 and is itself thoroughly dualistic3 ,god the eternal pure ,being was originally a unity of and 1 and his life consisted in extension and contraction1 and 1 the symbol of which the human heart was a later copy4 ,the result of such an was the separation of and 1 wherewith a beginning of the development of the world was made4 ,the is thus represented as 1 also called or 2 the is represented as or which four times parts asunder in twofold opposition of the elements4 ,satan springs from the mixing of these elements1 and is the universal soul of the 4 ,the has thereby become and 4 ,thus the ,monas has unfolded itself into a ,dyas1 as the first link of a long chain of contrasted pairs or ,syzygies1 in the first series of which the large and male stands opposite the small and female1 heaven and earth1 day and night1 etc4 ,the last ,syzygy of this series is ,adam as the true male1 and ,eve as the false female prophet4 ,in the second series that relation had come to be just reversed1 ,cain and ,abel1 ,ishmael and ,isaac1 etc4 ,in the protoplasts this opposition of truth and falsehood1 of good and evil1 was still a physical and necessary one2 but in their descendants1 because both elements of their parents are mixed up in them1 it becomes an ethical one1 conditioning and requiring freedom of self-determination4 ,meanwhile ,satan tempted men to error and sin2 but the true prophet 7 7 in whom the divine dwelt as and 1 always leads them back again into the true way of ,gnosis and the fulfilment of the law4 ,in ,adam1 the original prophet1 who had taught whole and full truth1 he had at first appeared1 returning again after every new obscuration and disfigurement of his doctrine under varying names and forms1 but always anew proclaiming the same truth4 ,his special manifestations were in ,enoch1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 ,moses1 and finally1 in ,christ4 ,alongside of them all1 however1 stand false prophets inspired by the spirit of lies1 to whom even ,john the ,baptist belongs1 and in the ,old ,testament many of their doctrines and prophecies have slipped in along with the true prophecy4 ,the transition from the original pantheistic to the subsequent theistic standpoint1 in which ,god is represented as personal creator of the world1 lawgiver1 and governor1 seems to have been introduced by means of the primitive partition of the divine being into and 4 ,in vain1 however1 do we seek an explanation of the contradiction that1 on the one hand1 the end of the development of the world is represented as the separation of the evil from the good for the eternal punishment of the former1 but on the other hand1 as a return1 through the purification of the one and the destruction of the other1 of all into the divine being1 the 4 ,equally irreconcilable is the assertion of the unconditional necessity of ,christian baptism with the assertion of the equality of all stages of revelation4 #bi4 ,,manich,,ism4 ,manichism makes its appearance in ,persia about the middle of the third century1 independently of the ,gentile-,christian ,gnosticism of the ,roman empire1 which was more or less under the influence of the ,greek philosophy of the second century1 but bearing undoubted connection with ,mandism 7 #be1 #a71 and ,elkesaism 7 #bh1 #b74 ,in principle and tendency1 it was at various points1 as e4g4 in its theory of emanation1 its doceticism1 etc41 connected with ,gnosticism1 but was distinguished therefrom pre-eminently by using ,christian soteriological ideas and modes of thought as a mere varnish for oriental pagan or ,babylonian-,chaldaic theosophy1 putting this in place of ,platonic or ,stoical notions which are quite foreign to it1 basing the system on ,persian dualism and impregnating it with elements from ,buddhist ethics4 ,another point in which it is distinguished from ,gnosticism is that it does not present itself as an esoteric form of religion meant only for the few specially gifted spirits1 but distinctly endeavours to build up a community of its own with a regularly articulated constitution and a well organized ritual4 #bi4a4 ,the ,founder4--,what the ,greek and ,latin ,fathers 7,titus of ,bostra1 ,epiphanius1 ,augustine1 etc47 say about the person and history of the founder of this sect is derived mainly from an account of a disputation which a bishop ,archelaus of ,cascar in ,mesopotamia is said to have held with ,manes or ,manichus4 ,this document is written in ,syriac and dates about ,a4,d4 #cbj1 but it is simply a polemical work under the guise of a debate between men with historical names4 ,these 8,acts0 have come down to us in a very corrupt ,latin version1 and contain1 especially in their historical allusions1 much that is incredible and legendary1 while in their representation of the doctrine of ,manes they are much more deserving of confidence4 ,according to them the origin of ,manichism is to be attributed to a far travelled ,saracen craftsman1 named ,scythianus1 who lived in the age of the ,apostles4 ,his disciple1 ,terebinthus1 who subsequently in ,babylon took the name ,buddas1 and affirmed that he had been born of a virgin1 wrote at the master's dictation four books1 ,mysteria1 ,capitula1 ,evangelium1 ,thesaurus1 which after his death came into the possession of a freed slave1 ,cubricus or ,corbicus4 ,this man made the wisdom taught therein his own1 developed it more fully1 appeared in ,persia as the founder of a new religion1 and called himself ,manes4 ,he was even received at court1 but his failure to heal a prince was used by the jealous magicians to secure his overthrow4 ,he escaped1 however1 from prison1 and found a safe hiding place in ,arabion1 an old castle in ,mesopotamia4 ,meanwhile he had got access to the sacred writings of the ,christians and borrowed much from them for the further development of his system4 ,he now gave himself out as the ,paraclete promised by ,christ1 and by means of letters and messengers developed a great activity in the dissemination of his views1 especially among ,christians4 ,this led to the disputation of ,archelaus above referred to1 in which ,manes suffered utter defeat4 ,he was soon thereafter seized by order of the ,persian king1 flayed alive1 and his stuffed skin publicly exhibited as a warning4 ,the reports in ,persian documents of the ninth and tenth centuries though later seem much more credible1 and the dates derivable from ,manes' own writings and those of his disciples quoted in ,arabic documents of the tenth and eleventh centuries1 are quite worthy of acceptance4#ej ,according to them ,fatak the father of ,manes1 called in a ,greek oath formula still extant1 was descended from a noble ,persian family in ,hamadan or ,ecbatana1 married a princess of the ,parthian ,asarcidae1 not long before this1 in ,a4,d4 #bbf1 driven out by the ,persian ,sassanid1 and settled down with her at ,ctesiphon1 the ,parthian capital4 ,here he met with the ,mogtasilah1 ,mandeans or ,elkesaites 7 #bh1 #b71 then removed to ,southern ,chaldea1 and trained his son1 born in ,a4,d4 #baf1 with great care in this faith4 ,but even in his twelfth year ,manes received a divine revelation1 which ordained him to be the founder of a new religion1 and in his twenty-fourth year he was commissioned to preach this religion publicly4 ,on his first appearance in ,persia1 on the coronation day of king ,sapor ,i41 in ,a4,d4 #bdb1 he met with so little support that he found it necessary to keep away from the ,persian empire for several decades1 which he spent in foreign lands developing his system and successfully prosecuting missionary work4 ,it was only about the end of ,sapor's reign 7 ,a4,d4 #bgb7 that he ventured again to return4 ,he won over to his views the king's brother ,peroz and through him found favour temporarily with ,sapor1 which1 however1 soon again turned into dislike4 ,sapor's successor1 ,hormuz or ,hormisdas ,i41 seemed inclined to be tolerant toward him4 ,for this very reason ,bahram or ,baranes ,i4 showed himself all the more hostile1 and had him crucified in ,a4,d4 #bgf1 his body flayed1 and the skin stuffed with straw thrown out at the gate of the city4 ,the two accounts may1 according to ,kessler1 be brought into harmony thus4 ,the name ,scythianus was given to ,fatak as coming from ,parthia or ,scythia4 ,terebinthus1 a corruption of the ,aramaic tarbitha1 sapling1 was given originally as ,nomen appell4 to the son of ,fatak1 and was afterwards misunderstood and regarded as ,nomen propr4 of an additional member of the family1 intermediate between ,fatak and ,manes4 ,in the ,latin ,cubricus1 however1 we meet with a scornful rendering of his original name1 which he1 on his entering independently on his work1 exchanged for the name ,manes4#ea ,the name ,buddas seems to indicate some sort of connection with ,buddhism4 ,we also meet with the four ,terebinthus books among the seven chief works of ,manes catalogued in the ,fihrist4 ,according to a ,persian document the ,evangelium bore the title ,ertenki ,mani1 was composed by ,manes in a cave in ,turkestan1 in which he stayed for a long time during his banishment1 and was adorned with beautiful illustrations1 and passed for a book sent down to him direct from heaven4 #bi4b4 ,the ,system4--,the different sets of documents give very different accounts of the religious system of ,manichism4 ,this is not occasioned so much by erroneous tradition or misconception as by the varying stages through which the doctrine of ,manes passed4 ,in ,western and ,christian lands it took on a richer ,christian colouring than in ,eastern and pagan countries4 ,in all its forms1 however1 we meet with a groundwork of magical dualism4 ,as in ,parseeism1 ,ahriman and his ,devas stand opposed to ,ormuzd and his ,ameshaspentas and ,izeds1 so also here from all eternity a luminous ether surrounding the realm of light1 the ,terra lucida1 of the good ,god1 with his twelve ons and countless beings of light1 stands opposed to the realm of darkness1 the ,terra pestifera1 with ,satan and his demons4 ,each of the two kingdoms consists of five elements3 the former of bright light1 quickening fire1 clear water1 hot air1 soft wind2 the latter of lurid flame1 scorching fire1 grimy slime1 dark clouds1 raging tempest4 ,in the one1 perfect concord1 goodness1 happiness1 and splendour prevail2 in the other1 wild1 chaotic and destructive waves dash confusedly about4 ,clothing himself in a borrowed ray of light1 ,satan prepared himself for a robber campaign in the realm of light4 ,in order to keep him off the ,father of ,lights caused to emanate from him the 8,mother of ,life10 and placed her as a watcher on the borders of his realm4 ,she brought forth the first man 7 71 who armed with the five pure elements engaged in battle with the demons4 ,when he sank before their furious onslaught1 ,god sent a newly emanated on for his deliverance1 the 8living spirit0 7 71 who freed him and vanquished the demons4 ,but a portion of the ethereal substance of the first man1 his armour of light1 had been already devoured by the demoniac ,hyle1 and as the ,jesus patibilis1 1 remains imprisoned in it4 ,out of the elements of light which he saved the living ,spirit now forms the ,sun and ,moon1 and settles there the first man as ,jesus impatibilis1 1 while out of the ,hyle impregnated with elements of light he constructs the present earthly world1 in order gradually to deliver the fragments of light bound up in it1 the ,jesus patibilis or the soul of the world1 and to fit them for restoration to their eternal home4 ,the first man dwelling in the sun and the ,holy ,spirit enthroned in the luminous ether have to further and direct this process of purification4 ,the sun and moon are the two light-ships1 lucid naves1 which the light particles wrenched out of the world further increase4 ,the zodiac with its twelve signs operates in this direction like a revolving wheel with twelve buckets1 while the smaller ship1 as new moon1 receives them1 and as full moon empties them again into the sun1 which introduces them into the realm of light4 ,in order to check this process of purification ,satan1 out of the ,hyle and the imprisoned particles of light1 of which he still had possession1 made ,adam and ,eve after his own image and that of the first man1 and incited them to fleshly lusts and carnal intercourse1 so that the light of their soul became dim and weak1 and more and more the body became its gloomy prison4 ,his demons1 moreover1 were continually busying themselves in fastening the chains of darkness more tightly about their descendants by means of the false religions of ,judaism and paganism4 ,therefore at last the ,jesus impatibilis1 clothed with the appearance of a body1 descended from the sun to the earth1 to instruct men about their souls and the means and end of their redemption4 ,the sufferings and death inflicted upon him by the ,prince of ,darkness were only in appearance4 ,the death of the cross and the resurrection were only sensible representations of the overthrow and final victory of the ,jesus patibilis4 ,as in the macrocosm of the earthly world there is set forth the emancipation of this suffering ,christ from the bonds of hylic matter1 so also in the microcosm represented in each individual man1 we have the dominion of the spirit over the flesh1 the redemption of the soul of light from the prison of the body1 and its return to the realm of light1 conceived of as the end and aim of all endeavour4 ,the method for attaining this consists in the greatest possible abstinence from all connection and intercourse with the world of sense2 the ,signaculum oris in particular demands absolute abstinence from all animal food and restriction in the use even of vegetable food1 for in the slaughtering of the animal all elements of light are with the life withdrawn from its flesh1 and only hylic elements remain1 whereas in vegetable fare the substances of light there present contribute to the strengthening of the light in the man's own soul4 ,wine and all intoxicating drinks as 8,satan's gall0 are strictly forbidden1 as well as animal food4 ,the ,signaculum manuum prohibits all injuring of animal or plant life1 all avoidable contact with or work upon matter1 because the material is thereby strengthened4 ,the ,signaculum sinus forbids all sensual pleasure and carnal intercourse4 ,the souls of those men who have perfectly satisfied the threefold injunction1 return at death immediately into the blessed home of light4 ,those who only partially observe them must1 by transmigration of the soul into other bodies1 of animals1 plants or men1 in proportion to the degree of purification attained unto1 that is1 by metempsychosis1 have the purifying process carried to perfection4 ,but all who have not entered upon the way of sanctification1 are finally delivered over unreservedly to ,satan and hell4 ,the ,apostles greatly misunderstood and falsified this doctrine of ,christ2 but in the person of ,manes the promised ,paraclete appeared1 who taught it again in its original purity4 ,for the most part ,manes accepted the ,pauline epistles in which the doctrines of the groaning creation and the opposition of flesh and spirit must have been peculiarly acceptable to him2 all the more decidedly did he reject the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and vigorously did he oppose the account which it gave of the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit as in conflict with his doctrine of the ,paraclete4 ,according to the ,fihrist1 ,manes distinguished from the ,jesus impatibilis who as true redeemer descended to earth in the appearance of a body1 the historical ,jesus as prophet of the ,devil1 and the false ,messiah who for the punishment of his wickedness suffered actual death on the cross instead of the true ,jesus4 ,the ,old ,testament he wholly rejected4 ,the god of the ,jews was with him the ,prince of ,darkness2 the prophets with ,moses at their head were the messengers of the ,devil4 ,as his own true precursors--the precursors of the ,paraclete--he named ,adam1 ,seth1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,buddha1 and ,zoroaster4 #bi4c4 ,constitution1 ,worship1 and ,missionarizing4--,manes was still regarded after his death as the invisibly present head 7,princeps7 of the church4 ,at the head of the hierarchical order as his visible representative stood an ,imam or ,pope1 who resided at ,babylon4 ,the first of these1 appointed by ,manes himself before his death1 was named ,sis or ,sisinius4 ,the ,manichan ministry was distributed under him into twelve ,magistri and seventy-two ,bishops1 with presbyters and deacons in numbers as required4 ,the congregations consisted of ,catechumens 7,auditores7 and ,elect 7,electi1 ,perfecti74 ,the latter were strictly bound to observe the threefold ,signaculum4 ,the ,auditores brought them the food necessary for the support of their life and out of the abundance of their holiness they procured pardon to these imperfect ones for their unavoidable violation of mineral and vegetable life in making this provision4 ,the ,auditores were also allowed to marry and even to eat animal food2 but by voluntary renunciation of this permission they could secure entrance into the ranks of the ,electi4 ,the worship of the ,manichans was simple1 but orderly4 ,they addressed their prayers to the sun and moon4 ,the ,sunday was hallowed by absolute fasting1 and the day of common worship was dedicated to the honour of the spirit of the sun2 but on ,monday the ,electi by themselves celebrated a secret service4 ,at their annual chief festival1 that of the ,pulpit 771 on the day of their founder's death1 they threw themselves down upon the ground in oriental fashion before a beautifully adorned chair of state1 the symbol of their departed master4 ,the five steps leading up to it represented the five hierarchical decrees of the ,electi1 ,diaconi1 ,presbyteri1 ,episcopi and ,magistri4 ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper1 the former with oil1 the latter with bread without wine1 belonged to the secret worship of the ,perfect4 ,oil and bread were regarded as the most luminous bearers of the universal soul in the vegetable world4--,notwithstanding the violent persecution which after the execution of ,manes was raised against the adherents of his doctrine throughout the whole ,persian empire1 their number increased rapidly in all quarters1 especially in the ,east1 but also in the ,west1 in ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,egypt1 etc4 ,proconsular ,africa became the centre of its ,western propaganda2 and thence it spread into ,italy and ,spain4 ,in ,a4,d4 #bij ,diocletian issued an edict by which the ,proconsul of ,africa was required to burn the leaders of this sect1 doubly dangerous as springing from the hostile ,persian empire1 along with their books1 to execute with the sword its persistent adherents1 or send them to work in the quarries1 and confiscate their goods4--,continuation at #ed1 #a4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,doctrinal ,,development ,,and ,,apologetical ,,activity ,,of ,,the ,,church4#eb #cj4 ,,the ,,theological ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,post-,,apostolic ,,age1 ,a4,d4 #gj-agj4ec ,the literary remains of the so-called ,apostolic ,fathers constitute the first fruits of ,patristic-,christian literature4 ,these are in respect of number and scope insignificant1 and1 inasmuch as they had their origin1 from the special individual circumstances of their writers1 they were composed for the most part in the form of epistles4 ,the old traditional view that the authors of these treatises had enjoyed the immediate fellowship and instruction of the ,apostles is at once too narrow and too wide4 ,among these writings must be included first of all the recently discovered 8,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles40 ,about ,a4,d4 #acj1 when ,christianity was making its way among the ranks of the cultured1 ,christian writers began to feel themselves called upon to engage with paganism in a literary warfare defensive and offensive1 in order to repel the charges and calumnies raised against their religion and to demonstrate its inner worth in opposition to the moral and religious degradation of heathenism4 ,these writings had a more theological and scientific character than those of the ,apostolic ,fathers1 which had more of a practical and hortatory tendency4 ,the works of these ,apologists still extant afford interesting and significant glimpses of the life1 doctrine1 and thinking of the ,christians of that age1 which but for these writings would have been almost unknown4 #cj4a4 ,the ,beginnings of ,patristic ,literature4--,according to the established rule of the church we have to distinguish between ,new ,testament and ,patristic literature in this way3 to the former belongs those writings to which1 as composed by ,apostles or at least under ,apostolic authority1 the ancient church assigned an objectively fundamental and regulative significance for further ecclesiastical development2 while in the latter we have represented the subjective conception and estimation which the ,church ,fathers made of the ,christian message of salvation and the structure they reared upon this foundation4 ,the so-called ,apostolic ,fathers may be regarded as occupying a position midway between the two and forming a transition from the one to the other1 or as themselves constituting the first fruits of ,patristic literature4 ,indeed as regards the ,new ,testament writings themselves the ancient church was long uncertain and undecided as to the selection of them from the multitude of contemporary writings2#ed and ,eusebius still designated several of the books that were subsequently definitely recognised 2 while modern criticism has not only repeated such doubts as to the genuineness of these writings but has extended these doubts to other books of the ,new ,testament4 ,but even this criticism cannot deny the historical significance assigned above to those ,new ,testament books contested by it1 even though it may feel obliged to reject the account of them given by the ancient church1 and to assign their composition to the ,post-,apostolic ,age4--,when we turn to the so-called ,apostolic ,fathers1 on closer examination the usual designation as well as the customary enumeration of seven names as belonging to the group will be found too narrow because excluding the ,new ,testament writings composed by disciples of the ,apostles1 and too wide because including names which have no claim to be regarded as disciples or contemporaries of the ,apostles1 and embracing writings of which the authenticity is in some cases clearly disproved1 in other cases doubtful or at least only problematical4 ,we come upon firm ground when we proceed to deal with the ,apologists of the age of ,hadrian4 ,it was not1 however1 till the period of the ,old ,catholic ,church1 about ,a4,d4 #agj1 that the literary compositions of the ,christians became broadened1 deepened and universalized by a fuller appropriation and appreciation of the elements of ,grco-,latin culture1 so as to form an all-sided universal ,christian literature representative of ,christianity as a universal religion4 #cj4b4 ,the ,theology of the ,post-,apostolic ,age4--,by far the greater number of the ecclesiastical writers of this period belong to the ,gentile ,christian party4 ,hence we might suppose that it would reflect the ,pauline type of doctrine1 if not in its full depth and completeness1 yet at least in its more significant and characteristic features4 ,this expectation1 however1 is not altogether realised4 ,among the ,church ,fathers of this age we rather find an unconscious deterioration of the original doctrine of ,paul revealing itself as a smoothing down and belittling or as an ignoring of the genuine ,paulinism1 which1 therefore1 as the result of the struggle against the ,gnostic tendency1 only in part overcome1 was for the first time fully recognised and proved finally victorious in the ,reformation of the #afth century4 ,on the one hand1 we see that these writers1 if they do not completely ignore the position and task assigned to ,israel as the chosen people of ,god1 minimise their importance and often fail to appreciate the pdagogical significance of the ,mosaic law 7,gal4 iii4 #bd71 so that its ceremonial parts are referred to misunderstanding1 want of sense1 and folly1 or are attributed even to demoniacal suggestion4 ,but on the other hand1 even the gospel itself is regarded again as a new and higher law1 purified from that ceremonial taint1 and hence the task of the ante-mundane ,son of ,god1 begotten for the purpose of creating the world1 but now also manifest in the flesh1 from whose influence upon ,old ,testament prophets as well as upon the sages of paganism all revelations of pre-,christian ,judaism as well as all of true knowledge in paganism have sprung1 is pre-eminently conceived of as that of a divine teacher and lawgiver4 ,in this way there was impressed upon the ,old ,catholic ,church as it grew up out of ,pauline ,gentile ,christianity a legalistic moral tendency that was quite foreign to the original ,paulinism1 and the righteousness of faith taught by the ,apostle when represented as obedience to the 8new law0 passed over again unobserved into a righteousness of works4 ,redemption and reconciliation are indeed still always admitted to be conditioned by the death of ,christ and their appropriation to be by the faith of the individual2 but this faith is at bottom nothing more than the conviction of the divinity of the person and doctrine of the new lawgiver evidencing itself in repentance and rendering of practical obedience1 and in confident expectation of the second coming of ,christ1 and in a sure confidence of a share in the life everlasting4--,the introduction of this legalistic tendency into the ,gentile ,christian ,church was not occasioned by the influence of ,jewish ,christian legalism1 nor can it be explained as the result of a compromise effected between ,jewish ,christian ,petrinism and ,gentile ,christian ,paulinism1 which were supposed by ,baur1 ,schwegler1 etc41 to have been1 during the ,apostolic ,age1 irreconcilably hostile to one another4 ,this has been already proved by ,ritschl1 who charges its intrusion rather upon the inability of ,gentile ,christianity fully to understand the ,old ,testament bases of the ,pauline doctrine4 ,by means of a careful analysis of the undisputed writings of ,justin ,martyr and by a comparison of these with the writings of the ,apostolic ,fathers1 ,engelhardt has proved that anything extra-1 un-1 or anti-,pauline in the ,christianity of these ,fathers has not so much an ,ebionitic-,jewish ,christian1 but rather a pagan-philosophic1 source4 ,he shows that the prevalent religio-moral mode of thought of the cultured paganism of that age reappears in that form of ,christianity not only as an inability to reach a profound understanding of the ,old ,testament1 but also just as much as a minimising and depreciating1 or disdaining of so many characteristic features of the ,pauline doctrinal resting on ,old ,testament foundations4 #cj4c4 ,the so-called ,apostolic ,fathers4#ee-- a4 ,clement of ,rome was one of the first ,roman bishops1 probably the third 7 #af1 #a74 ,the opinion that he is to be identified with the ,clement named in ,phil4 iv4 #c is absolutely unsupported4 ,the sameness of age and residence in some small measure favours the identifying him with ,tit4 ,flav4 ,clemens ,clement1 the consul1 and cousin of the ,emperor1 who on account of his ,christianity 787 was executed in ,a4,d4 #ie 7 #bb1 #a74 ,besides a multitude of other writings which subsequently assumed his well-known name 7 #bh1 #c2 #dc1 #d71 there are ascribed to him two so-called ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 of which however1 the second certainly is not his4 ,the ,first ,epistle which in the ancient church was considered worthy to be used in public worship1 was afterwards lost1 but fragments of it were recovered in ,a4,d4 #afbh in the so-called ,codex ,alexandrinus 7 #aeb1 #b71 together with a portion of the so-called 8,second ,epistle40 ,recently however both writings were found in a complete form by ,bryennius1 ,metropolitan of ,serr in ,macedonia1 in a ,jerusalem ,codex of ,a4,d4 #ajef discovered at ,constantinople and published by him4#ef ,in the following year a ,codex of the ,syrian ,new ,testament at ,cambridge was more closely examined1#eg and in it there was found a complete ,syriac translation of both writings inserted between the ,catholic and the ,pauline ,epistles1 while in ,codex ,alexandrinus they are placed after the ,apocalypse4 ,the 8,first0 ,epistle1 the date of which is generally given as ,a4,d4 #ic-ie1 does not give the author's name1 but is assigned to ,clement of ,rome by ,dionysius of ,corinth in ,a4,d4 #agj1 as quoted in ,eusebius1 and by ,irenus1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 and ,origen1 and described as written from ,rome in name of the church of that place to the church of ,corinth1 counselling peace and unity4 ,in the passage c4 #eh-fc1 formerly wanting but now restored1 the exhortation passes into a long prayer with intercessions for those in authority and for the church according to what was perhaps already the customary form of public prayer in ,rome4 ,both churches1 those of ,rome and ,corinth1 are admitted without dispute to have been ,gentile ,christian churches1 which had accepted the ,pauline type of doctrine1 without however fully fathoming or understanding it4 ,but ,peter also occupies a position of equal honour alongside of ,paul1 and nowhere does any trace appear of a consciousness of any opposition between the two apostles4 ,the divine sonship of the ,redeemer and ,his consequent universal sovereignty are the basis of the ,christian confession1 but no sort of developed doctrine of the divinity of ,christ is here found1 and even ,his pre-existence is affirmed only as the presupposition of the view that ,he was already operative in the prophets by ,his spirit4 ,the ,old ,testament1 allegorically and typically interpreted1 is therefore the source and proof of ,christian doctrine4 ,of a particular election of ,israel the author knows nothing4 ,christians as such1 whether descended from ,gentiles or from ,jews1 are the chosen people of ,god2 ,abraham by reason of his faith is their father2 and it is only by faith in the ,almighty ,god that men of all ages have been justified before ,god4--,in the so-called ,second 8,epistle0 the completed form of the second half proves what the less complete form rendered probable1 that it is no ,epistle but a sermon1 and indeed the oldest specimen of a sermon1 that we here possess4 ,the author1 who delivered it somewhere about ,a4,d4 #add-aej1 wrote it out first for his own use1 and then for the church4 ,as it has in its theological views many points of contact with the ,shepherd of ,hermas 7 #cj1 #d71 ,harnack thinks it probable that a younger ,clement of ,rome mentioned by ,hermas may be the author2 while ,hilgenfeld is inclined to regard it as a youthful work of ,clement of ,alexandria 7 #ca1 #d74 ,it contains a forcible exhortation to thorough repentance and conversion in accordance with the command of ,christ1 with a reference to the judgment and the future glory4 ,this shows in a remarkable way what rapid progress had been made from the religio-moral mode of thought of cultured paganism toward moralizing legalism1 and the smoothing down of ,christianity thereby introduced into the ,gentile-,christian ,catholic ,church1 during the half century between the composition of the ,epistle of ,clement and this ,clementine discourse4 ,for in the latter already the gospel is represented as a new law1 a higher divine doctrine of virtue and reward1 in which alms1 fasts1 and prayer appear as specially meritorious works4 ,the righteousness that avails with ,god is still indeed derived from faith1 but this faith is reduced to a belief in the future recompense of eternal life4 ,christ as ,son of ,god is conceived of by the author as a pneumatical heavenly being1 created before the world1 who1 sent by ,god into the world for man's redemption1 took upon ,him human 4 ,but besides ,him1 he also knows a second pneumatical hypostasis created before the world1 8before sun and moon10 the 1 which1 as the heavenly body of ,christ1 is at the same time the presupposition for the making of the world restored by ,his work of salvation4 ,for the creation of this divine pair of ons1 that is1 of ,christ as the and of the church as ,his heavenly 1 the author refers to the account of the creation in ,gen4 i4 #bg4 ,of passages quoted as sayings of ,christ several are not to be found in our ,gospels4 #cj4d4 b4 ,the ,epistle known by the name of ,paul's travelling companion ,barnabas 7,acts iv4 #cf7 was first recovered in the #agth century4 ,the first #d chapters were added from an old ,latin translation1 till in the #aith century the ,codex ,sinaiticus of the ,new ,testament1 and recently also the ,jerusalem ,codex of ,bryennius above referred to1 supplied the complete ,greek text4#eh ,the date of the epistle has been variously assigned to the age of ,domitian1 to that of ,nerva1 to that of ,hadrian2 and is placed by ,harnack between ,a4,d4 #if and ,a4,d4 #abe4 ,its extravagant allegorical interpretation of the ,old ,testament betrays its ,alexandrian origin1 and in ,gentile-,christian depreciation of the ceremonial law of the ,old ,testament it goes so far as to attribute the conception and actual composition of its books to diabolical inspiration4 ,it admits indeed a covenant engagement between ,god and ,israel1 but maintains that this was immediately terminated by ,moses' breaking of the tables of the law4 ,all things considered the composition of this ,epistle by ,barnabas is scarcely conceivable4 ,this was acknowledged by ,eusebius who counted it among the 1 and by ,jerome1 who placed it among the ,apocrypha4 ,for the rest1 however1 its type of doctrine is in essential agreement with that of ,paul1 though it fails to penetrate the depths of apostolic truth4 ,it is at least decidedly free from any taint of that legalistic-moral conception of ,christianity which is so strongly masked in the discourse of ,clement4 ,the divine sonship1 pre-existence1 and world-creating activity of ,christ is expressly acknowledged and taught1 though there is yet no reference to the doctrine of the ,logos4 c4 ,the prophetical writing known to us as ,pastor ,herm ,hermas1#ei which was first erroneously attributed by ,origen to ,hermas the scholar of ,paul at ,rome 7,rom4 xvi4 #ad71 was so highly esteemed in the ancient church that it was used in public like the canonical books of the ,new ,testament4 ,irenus quotes it as holy scripture2 ,clement and ,origen regarded it as inspired1 and the ,african church of the #crd century included it in the ,new ,testament canon4 ,on the other hand1 the ,muratorian canon 7 #cf1 #h7 had already ranked it among the ,apocrypha that might be used in private but not in public worship4 ,the book owes its title to the circumstance that in it an angel appears in the form of a shepherd instructing ,hermas4 ,it contains four visions1 in which the church1 which 1 appears to the author as an old woman giving instruction 772 it contains also twelve ,mandata of the angel1 and finally1 ten ,similitudines or parables4 ,the ,gentile-,christian origin of the author is shown by the position which he assigns to the church as coeval with the creation of the world and as at first embracing all mankind4 ,the sending of the ,son of ,god into the world has for its end not the founding but only the renewing and perfecting of the church1 and the twelve tribes to which the ,apostles were to preach the gospel are 8the twelve peoples who dwell on the whole earth0 7comp4 ,deut4 xxxii4 #h74 ,in all the three parts the book takes the form of a continuous earnest call to repentance in view of the early coming again of ,christ1 dominated throughout by that same legalistic conception of the ,gospel that we meet with in the discourse of ,clement4 ,indeed this is more fully carried out1 for it teaches that the true penitent is able not only to live a perfectly righteous life1 but also in good works1 such as fasts1 alms1 etc41 to do more than fulfil the commands of ,god1 and in this way to win for himself a higher measure of the divine favour and eternal blessedness4 ,in ,hermas we find no trace of any application of the doctrine of the ,logos to the person of ,christ1 and the ideas of the ,son of ,god and the ,holy ,spirit are confused with one another4 ,the ,son of ,god as the ,holy ,spirit is 2 at ,his suggestion and by ,his means ,god created the world2 through ,him ,he bears1 sustains1 and upholds it2 and by ,him ,he redeems it by means of ,his incarnation1 for the ,son of ,god as the ,holy ,spirit descends upon the man ,jesus in ,his baptism4 ,from its prophetical utterances1 its eager expectation of the early return of the ,lord1 and its promises of a new outpouring of the ,spirit for the quickening of the church already become too worldly1 the book may be characterized as a precursor of the ,montanist movement 7 #dj71 although on questions of practical morality1 such as second marriages1 martyrdom1 fasting1 etc41 it exhibits a milder tendency than that of ,montanistic rigorism1 and in reference to penitential discipline 7 #ci1 #b71 while acknowledging the inadmissibility of absolution for a mortal sin committed after baptism1 it nevertheless1 owing to the nearness of the second coming1 allows to be proclaimed by the angel a repeated1 though only short1 space for repentance4 ,the date of the composition of this book is still matter of controversy4 ,since ,hermas is commanded in the second vision to send a copy of his book to 8,clement0 in order to secure its further circulation1 most of the earlier scholars1 and among the moderns specially ,zahn1 identifying this ,clement with the celebrated ,roman ,presbyter-,bishop of that name1 fix its date at somewhere about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,recently1 however1 ,harnack1 v4 ,gebhardt1 and others have rightly assigned much greater importance to the testimony of the ,muratorian canon1 according to which it was written somewhere between ,a4,d4 #acj-afj1 8nuperrime temporibus nostris in urbe ,roma10 by ,hermas1 the brother of the ,roman bishop ,pius 7,a4,d4 #aci-aed74 #cj4e4 d4 ,ignatius1 ,bishop of ,antioch1 is said to have been a pupil of the ,apostle ,john1 though no evidence of this can be produced from the ,epistles ascribed to him4 ,the ,acta martyrii sancti ,ignatii1 extant in five parts1 are purely legendary and full of contradictory statements4 ,according to a later document1 that of the ,byzantine chronographer ,joh4 ,malalas1 at the time of the ,parthian war during the visit of ,trajan to ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #aae1 soon after an earthquake had been experienced there1 he was torn asunder by lions in the circus as a despiser of the gods4 ,according to the martyrologies he was transported to ,rome and suffered this fate there1 as usually supposed in ,a4,d4 #aae1 in the opinion of ,wieseler and others in ,a4,d4 #ajg 7,lightfoot says between ,a4,d4 #ajj-aah71 according to ,harnack soon after ,a4,d4 #acj4fj ,the epistles to various churches and one to ,polycarp ascribed to him have come down to us in three recensions differing from one another in extent1 number and character4 ,there is a shorter ,greek recension containing seven1 a larger ,greek form1 with expansions introduced for a purpose1 containing thirteen epistles1 twelve by and one to ,ignatius1 and the shortest of all in a ,syriac translation containing three epistles1 those to the ,romans1 to the ,ephesians1 and to ,polycarp4#fa ,according to the first-named recension1 ,ignatius is represented as writing all his epistles during his martyr journey to ,rome1 but no reference to this is made in the ,syrian recension4 ,vigorous polemic against ,judaistic and ,docetic heresy1 undaunted confession of the divinity of ,christ1 and unwearied exhortation to recognise the bishop as the representative of ,christ1 while the presbyters are described as the successors of the ,apostles1 distinguish these epistles from all other writings of this age1 especially in the two ,greek recensions1 and have led many critics to question their genuineness4 ,bunsen1 ,lipsius1 ,ritschl1 etc41 regarded the ,syrian recension1 in which the hierarchical tendency was more in the background1 as the original and authentic form4 ,uhlhorn1 ,dsterdieck1 ,zahn1 ,funk1 ,lightfoot1 ,harnack1 etc41 prefer the shorter ,greek recension1 and view the ,syrian form as abbreviated perhaps for liturgical purposes1 ,baur1 ,hilgenfeld1 ,volkmar1 etc41 deny the genuineness of all three4 ,but even on this assumption1 in determining the date of the composition of the two shorter recensions1 to whichever of them we may ascribe priority and originality1 we cannot on internal grounds put them later than the middle of the second century1 whereas the larger ,greek recension paraphrased and expanded into thirteen epistles belongs certainly to a much later date 7 #dc1 #d74fb #cj4f4 e4 ,polycarp1 ,bishop of ,smyrna1 had also been according to ,irenus ordained to this office by the ,apostle ,john4 ,he died at the stake under ,marcus ,aurelius 7,antoninus ,pius87 in ,a4,d4 #aff 7or ,a4,d4 #aee7 at an extreme old age 7 #bb1 #c74 ,we possess an epistle of his to the ,philippians of practical contents important on account of its ,new ,testament quotations4 ,its genuineness1 however1 has been contested by modern criticism4 ,it stands and falls with the seven ,ignatian epistles1 as it occupies common ground with them4 ,we have a legendary biography of ,polycarp by ,pionius dating from the #dth century1 which is reproduced in ,lightfoot's work4 f4 ,papias1 ,bishop of ,hierapolis in ,galatia1 was also1 according to ,irenus1 a pupil of the ,apostle ,john4 ,this statement1 however1 in the opinion of ,eusebius and many moderns1 rests upon a confusion between the ,apostle and another ,john1 whom ,papias himself distinguishes by the title 7 #af1 #b74 ,he is said to have suffered death as a martyr under ,marcus ,aurelius1 about ,a4,d4 #afc4 ,with great diligence he collected mediately and immediately from the mouths of the 1 that is1 from such as had intercourse with the ,apostles1 or had been1 like the above-mentioned ,john the ,presbyter1 1 oral traditions about the discourses of the ,lord1 and set down the results of his inquiries in a writing entitled 4 ,a passage quoted by ,eusebius in his ,ch4 ,hist41 iii4 #bi1 from the preface of this treatise has given rise to a lively controversy as to whether ,papias was a pupil of the ,apostle ,john and was acquainted with the fourth ,gospel4 ,another fragment on the history of the origin of the ,gospels of ,matthew and ,mark has occasioned a dispute as to whether only these two ,gospels were known to him4 ,finally1 there is preserved in ,irenus a passage giving a reputed saying of ,christ regarding the fantastically rich fruitfulness of the earth during the thousand years' reign 7 #cc1 #i74 ,he so revels in fantastic and sensuous chiliastic dreams that ,eusebius1 who had previously spoken of him as a learned and well-read man1 is driven to pass upon him the harsh judgment3 4#fc g4 ,finally1 we must here include an epistle to a certain ,diognetus by an unknown writer1 who has described himself as 4 ,justin ,martyr1 among whose writings this epistle got inserted1 cannot possibly have been the author1 as both his style and his point of view are different4 ,the epistle controverts in a spirited manner the objections of ,diognetus to ,christianity1 views the pagan deities not1 like the other ,church ,fathers1 as demons1 but as unsubstantial phantoms1 explains the ,old ,testament institutions as human1 and so in part foolish enactments1 and maintains keenly and determinedly the opinion that ,god for the first time revealed ,himself to man in ,christ4 ,he thus1 as ,drseke thinks1 to some extent favours the ,marcionite view of the ,old ,testament1 so that he regards it as not improbable that our epistle was composed by a disciple of ,marcion1 one perhaps like ,apelles1 who in the course of the later development of the school had rejected many of his master's crudities 7 #bg1 #ab74 ,he addresses his discourse to ,diognetus1 the stoical philosopher who boasts of ,marcus ,aurelius as his master4 ,on the other hand1 ,overbeck assigns its composition to the ,post-,constantine ,age1 and the ,french scholar ,doulcet1 setting it down to the age of ,hadrian1 thinks he has discovered the author to be the ,athenian philosopher ,aristides4 ,this idea has been more fully carried out by ,kihn1 who endeavours to make out not only the identity of the author1 but that of him to whom the epistle is addressed3 1 8,almighty son of ,zeus10 that is1 ,hadrian4 #cj4g4 ,the ,didache or ,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles4--,the celebrated little treatise bearing the title was discovered by ,bryennius 7then metropolitan of ,serr1 now of ,nicomedia7 in the ,jerusalem ,codex1 to which we also owe the perfect text of the two so-called ,epistles of ,clement1 and it was edited by this scholar with prolegomena and notes in ,greek1 at ,constantinople in #ahhc4 ,it at once set in motion many learned pens in ,germany1 ,france1 ,holland1 ,england1 and ,north ,america4--,eusebius1 who first expressly names it in his list of ,new ,testament writings as 1 which ,rufinus renders by ,doctrina qu dicitur ,app41 places it in the closest connection with the ,epistle of ,barnabas among the 7 #cf1 #h74 ,four years later ,athanasius ranks it as 4 along with the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 giving it the first place1 as a ,new ,testament supplement corresponding to the ,old ,testament 7 #ei1 #a74 ,clement of ,alexandria quoting a passage from it uses the formula1 1 and thus treats it as holy scripture4 ,in ,origen again no sort of reference to it has as yet been found4 ,from the #cith ,festival ,epistle of ,athanasius1 ,a4,d4 #cfg1 which ranks it1 as we have just seen1 as a ,new ,testament supplement like the ,old ,testament ,anaginoskomena1 we know that it like these were used at ,alexandria in the instruction of catechumens4 ,in the ,east1 according to ,rufinus1 when enumerating in his ,expos4 ,symb4 ,ap4 the ,athanasian ,anaginoskomena1 we find alongside of ,hermas1 instead of the ,didache1 the 8,two ,ways10 ,du vi vel ,judicium secundum ,petrum4 ,jerome1 too1 in his ,de vir4 ill41 mentions among the pseudo-,petrine writings a ,judicium ,petri4 ,we have here no doubt a ,latin translation or recension of the first six chapters of the ,didache beginning with the words3 1 these two ways being the way of life and the way of death4 ,the second title instead of the twelve ,apostles names their spokesman ,peter as the reputed author of the treatise4 ,soon after the time of ,athanasius our tract passed out of the view of the ,church ,fathers1 but it reappears in the ,ecclesiastical ,constitutions of the #dth century 7 #dc1 #d1 #e71 of which it formed the root and stem4 ,the ,didache itself1 however1 should not be ranked among the pseudepigraphs1 for it never claims to have been written by the twelve ,apostles or by their spokesman ,peter4--,bryennius and others1 from the intentional prominence given to the twelve ,apostles in the title and from the legalistic moralizing spirit that pervades the book1 felt themselves justified in seeking its origin in ,jewish-,christian circles4 ,but this moralizing character it shares with the other ,gentile-,christian writings of the ,post-,apostolic ,age 7 #cj1 #b71 and the restriction of the term 8,apostles0 by the word 8twelve0 was occasioned by this1 that the itinerant preachers of the gospel of that time1 who in the ,new ,testament are called ,evangelists 7 #ag1 #e7 were now called ,apostles as continuators of the ,apostles' missionary labours1 and also the exclusion of the ,apostle ,paul is to be explained by the consideration that the book is founded upon the sayings of the ,lord1 the tradition of which has come to us only through the twelve4 ,it has been rightly maintained on the other hand by ,harnack1 that the author must rather have belonged to ,gentile-,christian circles which repudiated all communion with the ,jews even in matters of mere form2 for in chap4 viii4 #a1 #b1 resting upon ,matt4 vi4 #e1 #af1 he forbids fasting with the hypocrites1 8the ,jews10 or perhaps in the sense of ,gal4 ii4 #ac1 the ,jewish-,christians1 on ,monday and ,thursday1 instead of ,wednesday and ,friday according to the ,christian custom 7 #cg1 #c71 and using ,jewish prayers instead of the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,the address of the title3 is to be understood according to the analogy of ,rom4 xi4 #ac2 ,gal4 ii4 #ab-ad2 and ,eph4 iii4 #a4 ,the author wishes in as brief1 lucid1 easily comprehended1 and easily remembered form as possible1 to gather together for ,christians converted from heathenism the most important rules for their moral1 religious and congregational life in accordance with the precepts of the ,lord as communicated by the twelve ,apostles1 and in doing so furnishes us with a valuable 8commentary on the earliest witnesses for the life1 type of doctrine1 interests and ordinances of the ,gentile-,christian churches in the pre-,catholic age40 ,as to the date of its composition1 its connection with the ,epistle of ,barnabas and the ,shepherd of ,hermas indicates the period within which it must fall1 for the connection is so close that it must have employed them or they must have employed it4 ,however1 not only is the age of the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 as well as that of the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 still undetermined1 but it is also disputed whether one or other of these two or the ,didache has priority and originality4 ,on the other hand1 the ,didache itself in almost all its data and presuppositions bears so distinct an impress of an archaic character that one feels obliged to assign its date as near the ,apostolic ,age as possible4 ,harnack who feels compelled to ascribe priority not only to the ,pseudo-,barnabas1 but also to the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 fixes its date between ,a4,d4 #adj-afe1 after ,hermas and before ,marcion4 ,on the other hand1 ,zahn and ,funk1 ,lechler1 ,taylor1 etc41 give the ,didache priority even over the ,epistle of ,barnabas4 ,the place as well as the time of the composition of this work is matter of dispute4 ,those who maintain its ,jewish-,christian origin think of the southern lands to the east or west of the ,jordan2 others think of ,syria4 ,on account of its connection with the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 and with reference to ,clement and ,athanasius 7see above71 ,harnack has decided for ,egypt1 and1 on account of its agreement with the ,sahidic translation of the ,new ,testament in omitting the doxology from ,matt4 v4 #ac1 he fixes more exactly upon ,upper ,egypt4 ,the objection that the designation of the grain of which the bread for the ,lord's ,supper is made in the eucharistic prayer given in chap4 ix4 #d as 1 does not correspond with that grown there1 is sought to be set aside with the scarcely satisfactory remark that 8the origin of the eucharistic prayer does not decide the origin of the whole treatise40 ,that the book1 however1 does not bear in itself any specifically ,alexandrian impress1 such as1 e4g41 is undeniably met with in the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 has been admitted by ,harnack4#fd #cj4h4 ,the ,writings of the ,earliest ,christian ,apologists#fe are lost4 ,at the head of this band stood ,quadratus of ,athens1 who addressed a treatise in defence of the faith to ,hadrian1 in which among other things he shows that he himself was acquainted with some whom ,jesus had cured or raised from the dead4 ,no trace of this work can be found after the #gth century4 ,his contemporary1 ,aristides the philosopher1 in ,athens after his conversion addressed to the same emperor an ,apology that has been praised by ,jerome4 ,a fragment of an ,armenian translation of this treatise1 which according to its superscription belongs to the #eth century1 was found in a codex of the #ajth century by the ,mechitarists at ,s4 ,lazzaro1 and was edited by them along with a ,latin translation4 ,this fragment treats of the nature of ,god as the eternal creator and ruler of all things1 of the four classes of men1--barbarians who are sprung from ,belos1 ,chronos1 etc41 ,greeks from ,zeus1 ,danaus1 ,hellenos1 etc41 ,jews from ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 and ,christians from ,christ1--and of ,jesus ,christ as the ,son of ,god born of a ,jewish virgin1 who sent ,his twelve ,apostles into all the world to teach the nations wisdom4 ,this probably formed the beginning of the ,apology4 ,the antique character of its point of view and the complete absence of any reference to the ,logos doctrine or to any heretical teaching1 lends great probability to the authenticity of this fragment1 although the designation of the mother of ,jesus as the 8bearer of ,god0 must be a later interpolation 7comp4 #eb1 #c74 ,the genuineness of the second piece1 however1 taken from another ,armenian ,codex1--an anti-docetic homily1 ,de ,latronis clamore et ,crucifixi responsione 7,luke xxiii4 #db71 which from the words of ,christ and those crucified with ,him proves ,his divinity--is both on external and on internal grounds extremely doubtful4 ,according to the ,armenian editor this ,codex has the title3 ,by the ,athenian philosopher ,aristeas4 ,this is explained as a corruption of the name ,aristides1 but recently another ,catholic scholar1 ,dr4 ,vetter1 on close examination found that the name was really that of ,aristides4--,to a period not much later must be assigned the apologetic dialogue between the ,jewish ,christian ,jason and the ,alexandrian ,jew ,papiscus1 in which the proof from prophecy was specially emphasized1 and the in principio of ,gen4 i4 #a was interpreted as meaning in filio4 ,the pagan controversialist ,celsus is the first to mention this treatise4 ,he considers it1 on account of its allegorical fancies1 not so much fitted to cause laughter as pity and contempt1 and so regards it as unworthy of any serious reply4 ,origen1 too1 esteemed it of little consequence4 ,subsequently1 however1 in the #eth century1 it obtained high repute and was deemed worthy of a ,latin translation by the ,african bishop ,celsus4 ,the controversialist ,celsus1 and also ,origen1 ,jerome1 and the ,latin translator1 do not name the writer4 ,his name is first given by ,maximus ,confessor as ,ariston of ,pella4 ,harnack has rendered it extremely probable that in the 8,altercatio ,simonis ,judi et ,theophili ,christiani0 discovered in the #ahth century1 reported on by ,gennadius 7 #dg1 #af71 and ascribed by him to a certain ,evagrius1 we have a substantially correct ,latin reproduction of the old ,greek dialogue1 in which everything that is told us about the earlier document is met with1 and which1 though written in the #eth century1 in its ways of looking at things and its methods of proof moves within the circle of the ,apologists of the #bnd century4 ,in it1 just as in those early treatises the method of proof is wholly in accordance with the ,old ,testament2 by it every answer of the ,christian to the ,jew is supported2 at last the ,jew is converted and asks for baptism1 while he regards the ,christians as lator salutis and grotorum bone medice with a play probably upon the word and from this it is conceivable how ,clement of ,alexandria supposed ,luke1 the physician1 to be the author of the treatise4 ,harnack's conclusion is significant inasmuch as it lends a new confirmation to the fact that the non-heretical ,jewish ,christianity of the middle of the second century had already completely adopted the dogmatic views of ,gentile ,christianity4 ,claudius ,apollinaris1 bishop of ,hierapolis1 and the rhetorician ,miltiades of ,athens addressed very famous apologies to the emperor ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,melito of ,sardis was also a highly esteemed apologist1 and a voluminous writer in many other departments of theological literature4#ff ,the elaborate introduction to the mystical interpretation of scripture by investigating the mystical meaning of biblical names and words published in ,pitra's 8,spicileg4 ,solesm40 ,,ii4 ,,iii41 as 8,clavis ,melitonis10 belongs to the later period of the middle ages4 ,melito's six books of ,eclogues deal with the ,old ,testament as a witness for ,christ and ,christianity1 where he takes as his basis not the ,,lxx4 but the ,hebrew canon 7 #cf1 #a74fg #cj4i4 ,extant ,writings of ,apologists of the ,post-,apostolic ,age4 a4 ,the earliest and most celebrated of these is ,justin ,martyr4#fh ,born at ,shechem 7,flavia ,neapolis7 of ,greek parents1 he was drawn to the ,platonic doctrine of ,god and to the ,stoical theory of ethics1 more than to any of the other philosophical systems to which1 as a pagan1 he turned in the search after truth4 ,but full satisfaction he first found in the prophets and apostles1 to whom he was directed by an unknown venerable old man1 whom he once met by the sea-side4 ,he now in his thirtieth year cast off his philosopher's cloak and adopted ,christianity1 of which he became a zealous defender1 but thereby called down upon himself the passionate hatred of the pagan sages4 ,his bitterest enemy was the ,cynic ,crescens in ,rome1 who after a public disputation with him1 did all he could to compass his destruction4 ,in ,a4,d4 #afe1 under ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,justin was condemned at ,rome to be scourged and beheaded4--,his two ,apologies1 addressed to ,antoninus ,pius and his son ,marcus ,aurelius are certainly genuine4 ,of these1 however1 the shorter one1 the so-called second ,apology is probably only a sort of appendix to the first4 ,his ,dialogus cum ,tryphone ,judo is probably a free rendering of a disputation which actually occurred4 ,except a few fragments1 his have been lost4 ,it is disputed whether that was an integral part of the of which he himself makes mention1 or a later independent work4 ,the following are of more than doubtful authenticity3 the 7,cohortatio ad ,grcos71 which seeks to prove that not by the poets nor by the philosophers1 but only by ,moses and the prophets can the true knowledge of ,god be found1 and that whatever truth is spoken by the former1 they had borrowed from the latter2 also1 the shorter 7,oratio ad ,grcos71 on the irrationality and immorality of the pagan mythology2 further1 the short treatise 1 which proves the vanity of polytheism from the admissions of heathen poets and philosophers2 and a fragment 4--,justin's theology is of the ,gentile ,christian type1 quite free from any ,ebionitic taint1 inclining rather to the speculation and ethics of ,greek philosophy and to an ,alexandrian-,hellenistic conception and exposition of scripture4 ,to these sources everything may be traced in which he unconsciously departs from biblical ,paulinism and ,catholic orthodoxy4 ,then in his idea of ,god and creation1 he has not quite overcome the partly pantheistic1 partly dualistic1 principles derived from the ,platonic philosophy4 ,he shows traces of ,alexandrian influences in his conception of the person and work of ,christ1 to whom he assigns merely the role of a divine teacher1 who has made known the true idea of ,god the ,creator1 of righteousness1 and of eternal life1 and has won power by death1 resurrection and ascension1 and will give evidence of it by ,his coming again to reward the righteousness of the saints with immortal blessedness4 ,he was also led into doctrinal aberrations in the anthropological domain1 because his idea of freedom and virtue borrowed from ,greek philosophy prevented him from fully grasping the ,pauline doctrine of sin4 ,his theory of morals1 with its legalistic tendency and its righteousness of works1 was grounded not in ,judaism but in ,stoicism4 ,his chiliasm1 too1 is not ,ebionitic but is immediately derived from scripture1 and has less significance for his speculation than the other eschatological principles of ,resurrection1 ,judgment1 and ,recompence4 ,his ,christianity consists essentially of only three elements3 ,worship of the true ,god1 a virtuous life according to the commandments of ,christ1 and belief in rewards and punishments hereafter4 ,over against the pagan philosophy it represents itself as the true philosophy1 and over against the ,mosaic law as the new law freed from the fetters of ceremonialism4 ,even in the natural man1 in consequence of the divine reason that is innate in him1 there dwells the power of living as a ,christian3 ,abraham and ,elias1 ,socrates and ,heraclitus1 etc41 have to such a degree lived according to reason that they must be called ,christians4 ,but even they possessed only 1 only a 2 for the divine reason dwells in men only as 2 in ,christ alone as the incarnate ,logos it dwells as or 4 ,he is the only true ,son of ,god1 pre-mundane but not eternal1 the 1 or the 1 by whom ,god in the beginning created all things4 ,the ,father alone is 1 and the ,logos only a divine being of the second rank1 a 1 to whom1 however1 as such1 worship should be rendered4 ,in ,justin's theological speculation the ,holy ,spirit stands quite in the background1 though the baptismal and congregational ,trinitarian confession obliged him to assign to the ,spirit the rank of an independent divine being1 whom the ,logos had used for the enlightening of ,his prophets4 ,justin too knows nothing of a particular election of ,israel as the people of ,god2 with him the ,christians as such are the true ,israel1 the people of ,god1 the children of the faith of ,abraham4 ,from the ,old ,testament he proves the divinity of the person and doctrine of ,christ1 and from the 7 #cf1 #g7 he derives his information about the historical life1 teaching1 and works of ,jesus4 ,the ,gospel of ,john1 although never mentioned1 was not unknown to him1 but it appeared to him more as a doctrinal and hortatory treatise than as a historical document1 and undoubtedly his ,logos doctrine is connected with that of ,john4 ,he shows himself familiar with the ,epistles of ,paul1 although he never expressly quotes from them4 #cj4aj4 b4 ,tatian1 a ,greek born in ,assyria 7according to ,zahn1 a ,semite7 while engaged as a rhetorician at ,rome1 was won to ,christianity by ,justin ,martyr1 according to ,harnack about ,a4,d4 #aej4 ,as the fruit of youthful zeal1 he published an ,apologetical 1 in which he treats the ,greek paganism and its culture with withering scorn for even its noblest manifestations1 and shared with his teacher the hatred and persecution of the philosopher ,crescens4 ,his later written 7 #cf1 #g7 was a ,gospel harmony1 in which the removal of all reference to the descent of ,jesus from the seed of ,david1 according to the flesh1 objected to by ,theodoret1 was occasioned perhaps more by antipathy to ,ebionism than by any sympathy with ,gnosticism4 ,zahn affirms1 while ,harnack decidedly denies1 that this work was originally composed in ,syriac4 ,the exclusive use by the ,syrians of the ,greek name ,diatessaron seems to afford a strong argument for a ,greek original4 ,its general agreement with the readings of the so-called ,itala 7 #cf1 #h7 witnesses to the ,west as the place of its composition4 ,the introduction of a ,syriac translation of it into church use in the ,east is to be explained by a longer residence of the author in his eastern home2 and its neglect on the part of many of the ,greek and ,latin ,church ,fathers1 and even their complete ignorance of it1 may be accounted for by the fact that1 while in the far ,east it was unsuspected1 elsewhere it came to be branded as heretical 7 #bg1 #aj74fi c4 ,athenagoras1 about whose life we have no authentic information1 in ,a4,d4 #agg addressed his 7,intercessio7 to ,marcus ,aurelius1 in which he clearly and convincingly disproves the hideous calumnies of ,atheism1 dipodean atrocities1 ,thyestean feasts 7 #bb71 and extols the excellence of ,christianity in life and doctrine4 ,in the treatise he proves1 from the general philosophical rather than distinctively ,christian standpoint1 the necessity of resurrection from the vocation of man in connection with the wisdom1 omnipotence and righteousness of ,god4 d4 ,theophilus1 ,bishop of ,antioch 7 after ,a4,d4 #ahj71 was by birth a pagan4 ,his writing is one of the most excellent apologetical treatises of this period4 ,autolycus was one of his heathen acquaintances4 ,his commentaries and controversial works have been lost4 ,zahn1 indeed1 has sought to prove that an extant ,latin ,commentary on selected passages from the four ,gospels in the allegorical style belonging to the first half of the #crd century1 and bearing the name of ,theophilus of ,antioch1 is a substantially faithful translation of the authentic ,greek original of ,a4,d4 #agj4 ,he has also called attention to the great importance of this commentary1 not only for the oldest history of the ,canon1 ,text and ,exposition1 but also for that of the church life1 the development of doctrine and the ecclesiastical constitution1 especially of the monasticism already appearing in those early times4 ,but while ,zahn reached those wonderful results from a conviction that the verbal coincidences of the ,latin ,church ,fathers of the #crd to the #eth centuries with the supposed ,theophilus commentary were examples of their borrowing from it1 ,harnack has convincingly proved that this so-called commentary is rather to be regarded as a compilation from these same ,latin ,church ,fathers made at the earliest during the second half of the #eth century4 e4 ,finally1 an otherwise unknown author ,hermias wrote under the title 7,irrisio gentilium philos47 a short abusive treatise1 in a witty but superficial style1 of which the fundamental principle is to be found in #a ,cor4 iii4 #ai4 #ca4 ,,the ,,theological ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,catholic ,,age1 ,a4,d4 #agj-cbc4 ,from about ,a4,d4 #agj1 during the ,old ,catholic ,age1 scientific theology in conflict with ,judaizing1 paganizing and monarchianistic heretics progressed in a more vigorous and comprehensive manner than in the apologetical and polemical attempt at self-defence of ,post-,apostolic ,times4 ,throughout this period1 however1 the zeal for apologetics continued unabated1 but also in other directions1 especially in the department of dogmatics1 important contributions were made to theological science4 ,while these developments were in progress1 there arose within the ,catholic church three different theological schools1 each with some special characteristic of its own1 the ,asiatic1 the ,alexandrian1 and the ,north ,african4 #ca4a4 ,the ,theological ,schools and ,tendencies4--,the ,school of ,asia ,minor was the outcome of ,john's ministry there1 and was distinguished by firm grasp of scripture1 solid faith1 conciliatory treatment of those within and energetic polemic against heretics4 ,its numerous teachers1 highly esteemed in the ancient church1 are known to us only by name1 and in many cases even the name has perished4 ,only two of their disciples resident in the ,west--,irenus and ,hippolytus--are more fully known4 ,a yet greater influence1 more widely felt and more enduring1 was that of the ,alexandrian ,school4#gj ,most of its teachers were distinguished by classical culture1 a philosophical spirit1 daring speculativeness and creative power4 ,their special task was the construction of a true ecclesiastical gnosis over against the false heretical gnosis1 and so the most celebrated teachers of this school have not escaped the charge of unevangelical speculative tendencies4 ,the nursery of this theological tendency was especially this ,catechetical ,school of ,alexandria which from an institution for the training of educated ,catechumens had grown up into a theological seminary4 ,the ,north ,african ,school by its realism1 a thoroughly practical tendency1 formed the direct antithesis of the idealism and speculative endeavours of the ,alexandrian4 ,it repudiated classical science and philosophy as fitted to lead into error1 but laid special stress upon the purity of ,apostolic tradition1 and insisted with all emphasis upon holiness of life and strict asceticism4--,finally1 our period also embraces the first beginnings of the ,antiochean ,school1 whose founders were the two presbyters ,dorotheus and ,lucian4 ,the latter especially gave to the school in its earlier days the tendency to critical and grammatico-historical examination of scripture4 ,at ,edessa1 too1 as early as the end of the #bnd century1 we find a ,christian school existing4 #a4 ,,church ,,fathers ,,writing ,,in ,,greek4 #ca4b4 ,church ,teachers of the ,asiatic ,type4 a4 ,irenus1 a pupil of ,polycarp1 was a native of ,asia ,minor4 ,according to the ,vita ,polycarpi of ,pionius he lived in ,rome at the time of ,polycarp's death as a teacher1 and it is not improbable that he had gone there in company with his master 7 #cg1 #b74 ,subsequently he settled in ,gaul1 and held the office of presbyter at ,lyons4 ,during his absence at ,rome as the bearer of a tract by the imprisoned confessors of ,lyons on the ,montanist controversy to the ,roman bishop ,eleutherus1 ,pothinus1 the aged bishop of ,lyons1 fell a victim to the dreadful persecution of ,marcus ,aurelius which raged in ,gaul4 ,irenus succeeded him as bishop in ,a4,d4 #agh4 ,about the time and manner of his death nothing certain is known4 ,jerome1 indeed1 once quite casually designates him a martyr1 but since none of the earlier ,church ,fathers1 who speak of him1 know anything of this1 it cannot be maintained with any confidence4 ,gentleness and moderation1 combined with earnestness and decision1 as well as the most lively interest in the catholicity of the church and the purity of its doctrine according to scripture and tradition1 were the qualities that make him the most important and trustworthy witness to his own age1 and led to his being recognised in all times as one of the ablest and most influential teachers of the church and a most successful opponent of heretical ,gnosticism4 ,his chief work against the ,gnostics3 7,adv4 hreses7 in #e books1 is mainly an ex professo directed against the ,valentinians and the schools of ,ptolemy and ,marcus ,there is appended to it1 beyond what had been proposed at the beginning1 a short discussion of the views of other ,gnostics1 the basis of which may be found in an older treatise1 perhaps in the ,syntagma of ,justin4 ,the last four books give the express scripture proofs to sustain the general confutation1 without doing this1 however1 in a complete manner2 at the same time there is rapid movement amid many digressions and excursuses4 ,this work has come down to us in a complete form only in an old translation literally rendered in barbarous ,latin1 even to the reproduction of misunderstood words1 which was used as early as by ,tertullian in his treatise against the ,valentinians4 ,we are indebted to the writings of the heresiologists ,hippolytus and ,epiphanius for the preservation of many remarkable fragments of the original1 with or without the author's name4 ,of his other writings we have only a few faint reminiscences4 ,two epistles addressed to the ,roman presbyter ,florinus combat the ,valentinian heresy to which ,florinus was inclined4 ,during the controversy about ,easter 7 #cg1 #b7 he wrote several epistles of a conciliatory character1 especially one to ,blastus in ,rome1 an adherent of the ,asiatic practice1 and in the name of the whole ,gallic church1 he addressed a letter to the ,roman bishop1 ,victor1 and afterwards a second letter in his own name4#ga #ca4c4 b4 ,hippolytus1 a presbyter and afterwards schismatical bishop at ,rome1 though scarcely to be designated of ,asia ,minor1 but rather a ,lyonese1 if not a ,roman pupil of ,irenus1 belonged to the same theological school4 ,he was celebrated for his comprehensive learning and literary attainments1 and yet his career until quite recently was involved in the greatest obscurity4 ,eusebius1 who is the first to refer to him1 places him in the age of ,alex4 ,severus 7,a4,d4 #bbb-bce71 calls him a bishop1 without1 however1 naming his supposed oriental diocese1 which even ,jerome was unable to determine4 ,the ,liberian list of ,popes of ,a4,d4 #ced1 describes him as ,yppolytus presbyter who was burnt in ,sardinia about ,a4,d4 #bce along with the ,roman bishop1 ,pontianus 7 #da1 #a74 ,in the fifth century1 the ,roman church gave him honour as a martyr4 ,the poet ,prudentius 7 ,a4,d4 #dac7 who himself saw the crypt in which his bones were laid and which in the book of his martyrdom was pictorially represented1 celebrated his career in song4 ,according to him ,hippolytus was an adherent of the ,novatian schism 7 #da1 #c71 but returned to the ,catholic church and suffered martyrdom at ,portus near ,rome4 ,according to his own statement quoted by ,photius he was a hearer of the doctrinal discourses of ,irenus4 ,a statue representing him in a sitting posture which was exhumed at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #aeea1 has on the back of the seat a list of his writings along with an ,easter cycle of sixteen years drawn up by him 7 #ef1 #c74 ,finally1 there was found among the works of ,origen a treatise on the various philosophical systems entitled ,philosophoumena1 which professes to be the first book of a writing in ten books found in ,greece in ,a4,d4 #ahdb1 4 ,starting from the position1 and seeking to establish it1 that the heretics have got their doctrines not from holy scripture1 but from astrology1 pagan mysteries and the ,greek philosophers1 this treatise is generally of great importance not only for the history of the heresies of the ,gnostics and ,monarchians1 but also for the history of philosophy4 ,the ,english editor1 ,e4 ,miller 7,oxon41 #ahea71 attributed the authorship of the whole to ,origen1 which1 however1 from the complete difference of style1 point of view and position was soon proved to be untenable4 ,since the writer admits that he was himself the author of a book 1 and ,photius ascribes a book with the same title to the ,roman ,caius 7 #ca1 #g71 ,baur attributes to the latter the composition of the ,elenchus4 ,photius1 however1 founds his opinion simply upon an apocryphal note on the margin of his copy of the book4 ,incomparably more important are the evidences for the ,hippolytus authorship1 which is now almost universally admitted4 ,the ,elenchus is not1 indeed1 enumerated in the list of works on the statue4 ,the book 1 however1 appears there1 and it contains the statement that its author also wrote the ,elenchus4 ,the author of the ,elenchus also states that he had previously written a similar work in a shorter form1 and ,photius describes such a shorter writing of ,hippolytus1 dating from the time of his intercourse with ,irenus1 under the title 4 ,lipsius has made it appear extremely probable that in the ,libellus adv4 omnes hreticos appended to ,tertullian's ,de prscriptione hreticorum1 and so usually styled a treatise of the ,pseudo-,tertullian1 we have an abbreviated ,latin reproduction of that work2 for this one as well as the other begins with ,dositheus and ends with ,notus1 and both deal with thirty-two heresies4 ,epiphanius and ,philastrius ,philaster have used it largely in their heresiological works4 ,the discussion in the ,elenchus agrees therewith in many passages but also in many is essentially different1 which1 however1 when we consider the much later date of the first named treatise affords no convincing evidence against the theory that both are by one author4 ,the ,elenchus thereby wins a high importance as giving information about the condition of the ,roman church during the first decades of the #crd century1 about the position of the author who describes himself in his treatise as a pupil of ,irenus1 about his own and his opponents' way of viewing things1 and about his conflict with them leading to schism1 though all is told from the standpoint of an interested party 7 #cc1 #e2 #da1 #a74 ,a considerable fragment directed against the errors of ,notus 7 #cc1 #e7 was perhaps originally a part of his ,syntagma1--though not perhaps of the anonymous1 so-called ,little ,labyrinth against the ,artemonites 7 #cc1 #c7 or probably against the ,monarchians generally1 from which ,eusebius makes extensive quotations1 especially about the ,theodotians4 ,this work is ascribed by ,photius to the ,roman ,caius1 but without doubt wrongly4 ,great probability has been given to the recently advanced idea that this book too may have been written by ,hippolytus4#gb #ca4d4 ,the ,alexandrian ,church ,teachers4 a4 ,the first of the teachers of the catechetical school at ,alexandria known by name was ,pantnus1 who had formerly been a ,stoic philosopher4 ,about ,a4,d4 #aij he undertook a missionary journey into ,southern ,arabia or ,india1 and died in ,a4,d4 #bjb after a most successful and useful life4 ,jerome says of him3 ,hujus multi quidem in s4 ,scri4 exstant ,commentarii1 sed ,magis viva voce ecclesiis profuit4 ,of his writings none are preserved4 b4 ,titus ,flavius ,clemens ,clement was the pupil of ,pantnus and his successor at the catechetical school in ,alexandria4 ,on his travels undertaken in the search for knowledge he came to ,alexandria as a learned pagan philosopher1 where probably ,pantnus gained an influence over him and was the means of his conversion4 ,during the persecution under ,septimius ,severus in ,a4,d4 #bjb he sought in flight to escape the rage of the heathens1 in accordance with ,matt4 x4 #bc4 ,but he continued unweariedly by writing and discourse to promote the interests of the church till his death in ,a4,d4 #bbj4 ,the most important and most comprehensive of his writings is the work in three parts of which the first part entitled 7,cohortatio ad ,grcos7 with great expenditure of learning seeks to prepare the minds of the heathen for ,christianity by proving the vanity of heathenism2 the second part1 in three books1 with a ,hymnus in ,salvatorem attached1 gives an introduction to the ,christian life2 and the third part1 7,stromata71 that is1 patchwork1 so-called from the aphoristic style and the variety of its contents1 in eight books1 setting forth the deep things of ,christian gnosis1 but in the form rather of a collection of materials than a carefully elaborated treatise4 ,the little tractate 7,quis dives salvetur7 shows how even wealth may be made contributory to salvation4 ,among his lost treatises the most important was the in eight books1 an expository review of the contents of holy scripture4#gc #ca4e4 c4 ,great as was the reputation of ,clement1 he was far outstripped by his pupil and successor ,origen1 acknowledged by pagan and ,christian contemporaries to be a miracle of scholarship4 ,on account of his indomitable diligence1 he was named 4 ,celebrated as a philosopher1 philologist1 critic1 exegete1 dogmatist1 apologist1 polemist1 etc41 posterity has with equal right honoured him as the actual founder of an ecclesiastical and scientific theology1 and reproached him as the originator of many heretical opinions 7 #ea2 #eb1 #f74 ,he was born of ,christian parents at ,alexandria about ,a4,d4 #ahe1 was educated under his father ,leonidas1 ,pantnus and ,clement1 while still a boy encouraged his father when he suffered as a martyr under ,septimius ,severus in ,a4,d4 #bjb1 became the support of his helpless mother and his six orphaned sisters1 and was called in ,a4,d4 #bjc by bishop ,demetrius to be teacher of the catechetical school4 ,in order to qualify himself for the duties of his new calling1 he engaged eagerly in the study of philosophy under the ,neo-,platonist ,ammonius ,saccas4 ,his mode of life was extremely simple and from his youth he was a strict ascetic4 ,in his eager striving after ,christian perfection he had himself emasculated1 from a misunderstanding of ,matt4 xix4 #ab1 but afterwards he admitted that that was a wrong step4 ,his fame advanced from day to day4 ,about ,a4,d4 #baa he visited ,rome4 ,accepting an honourable invitation in ,a4,d4 #bae he wrought for a long time as a missionary in ,arabia1 he was then appointed by the celebrated ,julia ,mamma 7 #bb1 #d7 to ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #bah2 and in ,a4,d4 #bcj undertook in the interest of the church a journey to ,greece through ,palestine1 where the bishops of ,csarea and ,jerusalem admitted him to the rank of a presbyter4 ,his own bishop1 ,demetrius1 jealous of the daily increasing fame of ,origen and feeling that his episcopal rights had been infringed upon1 recalled him1 and had him at two ,alexandrian ,synods1 in ,a4,d4 #bca and #bcb1 arraigned and excommunicated for heresy1 self-mutilation and contempt of the ecclesiastical laws of his office4 ,origen now went to ,csarea1 and there1 honoured and protected by the ,emperor1 ,philip the ,arabian1 opened a theological school4 ,his literary activity here reached its climax4 ,but under ,decius he was cast into prison at ,tyre1 in ,a4,d4 #bed1 and died in consequence of terrible tortures which he endured heroically4--,of his numerous writings#gd only a comparatively small number1 but those of great value1 are preserved2 some in the original1 others only in a ,latin translation4 #a4 ,to the department of ,biblical ,criticism belongs the fruit of twenty-seven years' labour1 the so-called ,hexapla1 that is1 a placing side by side the ,hebrew text of the ,o4,t4 7first in ,hebr4 and then in the ,gr4 letters7 and the existing ,greek translations of the ,,lxx41 ,aquila1 ,symmachus and ,theodotion2 by the addition in some books of other anonymous translations1 it came to be an ,octopla or ,enneapla4 ,by critical marks on the margin all variations were carefully indicated4 ,the enormous bulk of fifty volumes hindered its circulation by means of transcripts2 but the original lay in the library at ,csarea open to the inspection of all1 until lost1 probably in the sack of the city by the ,arabians in ,a4,d4 #fec4ge #b4 ,his ,exegetical works consist of or short scholia on separate difficult passages1 or complete commentaries on whole books of the bible1 and or practical expository lectures4 ,origen1 after the example of the ,rabbinists and ,hellenists1 gave a decided preference to the allegorical method of interpretation4 ,in every scripture passage he distinguished a threefold sense1 as 1 1 1 first a literal1 and then a twofold higher sense1 the tropical or moral1 and the pneumatical or mystical4 ,he was not just a despiser of the literal sense1 but the unfolding of the mystical sense seemed to him of infinitely greater importance4 ,all history in the bible is a picture of things in the higher world4 ,most incidents occurred as they are told2 but some1 the literal conception of which would be unworthy or irrational1 are merely typical1 without any outward historical reality4 ,the ,old ,testament language is typical in a twofold sense3 for the ,new ,testament history and for the heavenly realities4 ,the ,new ,testament language is typical only of the latter4 ,he regarded the whole bible as inspired1 with the exception of the books added by the ,,lxx41 but the ,new ,testament in a higher degree than the ,old4 ,but even the ,new ,testament had defects which will only be overcome by the revelation of eternity4 #c4 ,to the department of ,dogmatics belongs his four books 7,de ,principiis71 which have come down to us in a ,latin translation of ,rufinus with arbitrary interpolations4 ,his in ten books which sought to harmonize the ,christian doctrine with ,greek philosophy is lost1 and also his numerous writings against the heretics4 ,his comprehensive apologetical work in eight books1 ,contra ,celsum 7 #bc1 #c71 has come down to us complete4#gf ,gregory of ,nazianzus ,nazianzen and ,basil the ,great made a book entirely from his writings under the title 1 which contains many passages from lost treatises1 and a valuable original fragment from his 4 ,his principal doctrinal characteristics are the following3 ,there is a twofold revelation1 the primitive revelation in conscience to which the heathen owe their 1 and the historical revelation in holy scripture2 there are three degrees of religious knowledge1 that of the 1 an unreasoned acceptance of the truth1 wrought by ,god immediately in the heart of men1 that of or to which the reasoning mind of man can reach by the speculative development of scripture revelation in his life1 and finally1 that of or 1 the vision of ,god1 the full enjoyment of which is attained unto only hereafter4 ,for his doctrine of the ,trinity1 see #cc1 #f4 ,his cosmological1 angelological and anthropological views represent a mixture of ,platonic1 ,gnostic and spiritualistic ideas1 and run out into various heterodoxies2 thus1 he believes in timeless or eternal creation1 an ante-temporal fall of human souls1 their imprisonment in earthly bodies1 he denies the resurrection of the body1 he believed in the animation and the need and capacity of redemption of the stars and star-spirits1 in the restoration of all spirits to their original1 ante-temporal blessedness and holiness1 4 #d4 ,of his ,ascetical ,works1 the treatise with an admirable exposition of the ,lord's prayer1 and a have been preserved4 ,of his numerous epistles1 the ,epistola ad ,julium ,africanum defends against his correspondent the genuineness of the history of ,susannah4 #ca4f4 d4 ,among the successors of ,origen in the school of ,alexandria the most celebrated1 from about ,a4,d4 #bcb1 was ,dionysius ,alexandrinus of ,alexandria4 ,he was raised to the rank of bishop in ,a4,d4 #bdg1 and died in ,a4,d4 #bfe4 ,in speculative power he was inferior to his teacher ,origen4 ,his special gift was that of 4 ,he was honoured by his own contemporaries with the title of ,the ,great4 ,during the ,decian persecution he manifested wisdom and good sense as well as courage and steadfastness4 ,the ecclesiastical conflicts of his age afforded abundant opportunities for testing his noble and gentle character1 as well as his faithful attachment to the church and zeal for the purity of its doctrine1 and on all hands his self-denying amiability wrought in the interests of peace4 ,of his much-praised writings1 exegetical1 ascetical1 polemical 7 #cc1 #i71 apologetical 7 against the ,atomism of ,democritus and ,epicurus71 and dogmatical 7 #cc1 #g71 only fragments are preserved1 mostly from his ,epistles in quotations by ,eusebius4 ,we have1 however1 one short tract complete addressed to ,novatian at ,rome 7 #ca1 #ab71 containing an earnest entreaty that he should abandon his schismatic rigorism4 e4 ,gregory ,thaumaturgus was one of ,origen's pupils at ,csarea4 ,origen was the means of converting the truth-seeking heathen youth to ,christianity1 and ,gregory clung to his teacher with the warmest affection4 ,he subsequently became bishop of his native city of ,neo-,csarea1 and was able on his death-bed in ,a4,d4 #bgj to comfort himself with the reflection that he left to his successor no more unbelievers in the city than his predecessor had left him of believers 7their number was seventeen74 ,he was called the second ,moses and the power of working miracles was ascribed to him4 ,we have from his pen a panegyric on ,origen1 an ,epistle on ,church ,discipline1 a 1 a ,confession of ,faith important for the history of the ,ante-,nicene period 7 #ej1 #a73 4 ,two other tracts in a ,syrian translation are ascribed to him3 ,to ,philagrius on ,consubstantiality1 and ,to ,theopompus on the ,passibility of ,god4 ,drseke1 however1 identifies the first-named with ,oratio #de of ,gregory ,nazianzus ,nazianzen and assigns to him the authorship4#gg f4 ,the learned presbyter ,pamphilus of ,csarea1 the friend of ,eusebius 7 #dg1 #b7 and founder of a theological seminary and the celebrated library of ,csarea1 who died as a martyr under ,maximinus1 belongs to this group4 ,his ,old ,testament ,commentaries have been lost4 ,in prison he finished his work in five books which he undertook jointly with ,eusebius1 the ,apology for ,origen1 to which ,eusebius independently added a sixth book4 ,only the first book is preserved in ,rufinus' ,latin translation4 #ca4g4 ,greek-speaking ,church ,teachers in other ,quarters4 a4 ,hegesippus wrote his five books 1 about ,a4,d4 #ahj1 during the age of the ,roman bishop ,eleutherus4 ,from his knowledge of the ,hebrew language1 literature and traditions ,eusebius concludes that he was a ,jew by birth4 ,he himself says distinctly that in ,a4,d4 #aee during the time of bishop ,anicetus he was staying in ,rome1 and that on his way thither he visited ,corinth4 ,the opinion formerly current that his ,hypomnemata consisted of a collection of historical traditions from the time of the ,apostles down to the age of the writer1 and so might be called a sort of ,church ,history1 arose from the historical character of the contents of eight quotations made from this treatise by ,eusebius in his own ,church ,history4 ,it is1 however1 not borne out by the fact that what ,hegesippus tells in his detailed narrative of the end of ,james the ,just 7 #af1 #c7 occurs1 not in the first or second but in the fifth and last book of his treatise4 ,moreover1 among writers against the heretics or ,gnostics1 ,eusebius enumerates in the first place one ,hegesippus1 having it would seem his ,hypomnemata in view4 ,from this circumstance1 in conjunction with everything else quoted from and told about him by ,eusebius1 we may with great probability conclude that the purpose of his writing was to confute the heresies of his age4 ,in doing so he traces them partly to ,gentile sources1 but partly and mainly to pre-,christian ,jewish heresies1 seven of which are enumerated4 ,he treats in the first three books of the so-called ,gnostics and their relations to heathenism and false ,judaism4 ,then in the fourth book he discusses the heretical ,apocrypha and1 as contrasted with them1 the orthodox ecclesiastical writings1 mentioning among them expressly the ,epistle of ,clemens ,clement ,romanus of ,rome to the ,corinthians4 ,finally1 in the fifth book1 he proves from the ,apostolic succession of the leaders of the church1 the unity and truth of ecclesiastically transmitted doctrine4 ,the historical value of his writing1 owing to the confusion and want of critical power shown in the instances referred to1 cannot be placed very high4 ,the school of ,baur1 more particularly ,schwegler 7see #bj71 attached greater importance to him as a supposed representative of the anti-,pauline ,judaism of his time4 ,the value of his testimony in this direction1 however1 is reduced by his acknowledgment of the ,epistle of ,clement that accords so high a place to the ,apostle ,paul4 ,his relations to ,rome and ,corinth1 with his judgment on the general unity of faith in the church of his age1 prove that he would be by no means disposed to repudiate the ,apostle ,paul in favour of any ,ebionitic tendency4 b4 ,caius of ,rome1 a contemporary of bishop ,zephyrinus about ,a4,d4 #baj1 was one of the most conspicuous opponents of ,montanism4 ,eusebius who characterizes him as and 1 quotes four times from his now lost controversial tract in dialogue form against ,proclus the ,roman ,montanist leader4 #ca4h4 c4 ,sextus ,julius ,africanus1 according to ,suidas a native of ,libya1 took part1 as he says himself in his 1 in the campaign of ,septimius ,severus against ,osrhone in ,a4,d4 #aie1 became intimate with the ,christian king ,maanu ,,viii4 of ,edessa1 whom in his ,chronographies he calls 1 and was often companion in hunting to his son and successor ,maanu ,,ix4 ,about ,a4,d4 #bbj we find him1 according to ,eusebius and others1 in ,rome at the head of an embassy from ,nicopolis or ,emmaus in ,palestine petitioning for the restoration of that city4 ,in consequence of ,origen addressing him about ,a4,d4 #bbg as it has been rashly concluded that he was then a presbyter or at least of clerical rank4 ,the five books1 1 were his first and most important work4 ,this work which was known partly in the original1 partly in the citations from it in the ,eusebian ,chronicle 7 #dg1 #b71 together with its ,latin continuation by ,jerome proved a main source of information in general history during the ,byzantine period and the ,latin ,middle ,age4 ,beginning with the creation of the world and fixing the whole course of the world's development at #f1jjj years1 he set the middle point of this period to the age of ,peleg 7,gen4 x4 #be71 and in accordance with the chronology of the ,,lxx4 and reckoning by ,olympiads1 proceeded to synchronize biblical and profane history4 ,he assigned the birth of ,christ to the middle of the sixth of the thousand year periods1 at the close of which he probably expected the beginning of the millennium4 ,from the fragments preserved by later ,byzantine chroniclers1 ,gelzer has attempted to reproduce as far as possible the original work1 carefully indicating its sources and authorities4 ,of the other works of ,africanus we have in a complete form only an ,epistle to ,origen1 8a real gem of brilliant criticism spiced with a gentle touch of fine irony0 7,gelzer71 which combats the authenticity and credibility of the ,pseudo-,daniel's history of ,susannah4 ,we have also a fragment quoted in ,eusebius from an ,epistle to a certain ,aristides1 which attempts a reconciliation of the genealogies in ,matt4 and ,luke by distinguishing and with reference to ,deut4 xxv4 #e4 ,according to ,eusebius 8the chronologist ,julius ,africanus10 according to ,suidas 8,origen's friend ,africanus with the prnomen ,sextus10 is also the author of the so called 7embroidery71 a great comprehensive work of which only fragments have been preserved1 in which all manner of wonderful things from the life of nature and men1 about agriculture1 cattle breeding1 warfare1 etc41 were recorded1 so that it had the secondary title 4 ,the excessive details of pagan superstition here reported1 much of which1 such as that relating to the secret worship of ,venus1 was distinctly immoral1 and its dependence on the secret writings of the ,egyptians seem now as hard to reconcile with the standpoint of a believing ,christian1 as with the sharpness of intellect shown in his criticism of the letter of ,susannah4 ,it has therefore been assumed that alongside of the ,christian chronologist ,julius ,africanus there was a pagan ,julius ,africanus who wrote the 1--or1 seeing the identity of the two is strongly evidenced both on internal and external grounds1 the composition of the is assigned to a period when the author was still a heathen4 ,the facts1 however1 that the ,chronicles close with ,a4,d4 #bba and that the is dedicated to ,alex4 ,severus 7,a4,d4 #bbb-bce71 seem to guarantee the earlier composition of the ,chronicles4 ,the author of the 1 too1 by his quotation of ,ps4 xxxiv4 #i with the formula 1 shows himself a ,christian1 and on the other hand1 the author of the ,chronicles says that at great cost he had made himself acquainted in ,egypt with a celebrated secret book4 #ca4i4 d4 ,methodius bishop of ,olympus in ,lycia1 subsequently at ,tyre1 a man highly esteemed in his day1 died as a martyr in ,a4,d4 #caa4 ,he was a decided opponent of the spiritualism prevailing in the school of ,origen4 ,his is a dialogue between several virgins regarding the excellence of virginity written in eloquent and glowing language 7transl4 in ,ante-,nicene ,lib41 ,edin41 #ahgj74 ,of his other works only outlines and fragments are preserved by ,epiphanius and ,photius4 ,to these belong 1 a polemic against the ,platonic-,gnostic doctrine of the eternity of matter as the ultimate ground and cause of sin1 which are to be sought rather in the misuse of human freedom2 the dialogues and 1 the former of which combats ,origen's doctrine of the resurrection1 and the latter his doctrine of creation4 ,his controversial treatise against ,porphyry 7 #bc1 #c7 has been completely lost4 e4 ,the martyr ,lucian of ,samosata1 born and brought up in ,edessa1 was presbyter of ,antioch and co-founder of the theological school there that became so famous 7 #dg1 #a71 where he1 deposed by a ,syrian ,synod of ,a4,d4 #bfi1 and persecuted by the ,emperor ,aurelian in ,a4,d4 #bgb1 as supporter of bishop ,paul of ,samosata 7 #cc1 #h71 maintained his position under the three following bishops 7till ,a4,d4 #cjc7 apart from the official church1 and died a painful martyr's death under the ,emperor ,maximinus in ,a4,d4 #cab4 ,that secession1 however1 was occasioned less perhaps through doctrinal and ecclesiastical1 than through national and political1 anti-,roman and ,syrian sympathies with his heretical countrymen of ,samosata4 ,for though in the ,arian controversy 7 #ej1 #a7 ,lucian undoubtedly appears as the father of that ,trinitarian-,christological view first recognised and combated as heretical in his pupil ,arius in ,a4,d4 #cah1 this was certainly essentially different from the doctrine of the ,samosatian4 ,about ,lucian's literary activity only the scantiest information has come down to us4 ,his most famous work was his critical revision of the ,text of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 which according to ,jerome was officially sanctioned in the dioceses of the ,patriarchs of ,antioch and ,constantinople1 and thus probably lies at the basis of ,theodoret's and ,chrysostom's exegetical writings4 ,rufinus' ,latin translation of ,eusebius' ,church ,history gives an extract from the 8,apologetical ,discourse0 in which he seems to have openly confessed and vindicated his ,christian faith before his heathen judge4 #b4 ,,church ,,fathers ,,writing ,,in ,,latin4 #ca4aj4 ,the ,church ,teachers of ,north ,africa4--,quintus ,septimius ,florens ,tertullianus ,tertullian was the son of a heathen centurion of ,carthage1 distinguished as an advocate and rhetorician1 converted somewhat late in life1 about ,a4,d4 #aij1 and1 after a long residence in ,rome1 made presbyter at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #bbj4 ,he was of a fiery and energetic character1 in his writings as well as in his life pre-eminently a man of force1 with burning enthusiasm for the truth of the gospel1 unsparingly rigorous toward himself and others4 ,his 8,punic style0 is terse1 pictorial and rhetorical1 his thoughts are original1 brilliant and profound1 his eloquence transporting1 his dialectic clear and convincing1 his polemic crushing1 enlivened with sharp wit and biting sarcasm4 ,he shows himself the thoroughly accomplished jurist in his use of legal terminology and also in the acuteness of his deductions and demonstrations4 ,fanatically opposed to heathen philosophy1 though himself trained in the knowledge of it1 a zealous opponent of ,gnosticism1 in favour of strict asceticism and hostile to every form of worldliness1 he finally attached himself1 about ,a4,d4 #bbj1 to the party of the ,montanists 7 #dj1 #c74 ,here he found the form of religion in which his whole manner of thought and feeling1 the energy of his will1 the warmth of his emotions1 his strong and forceful imagination1 his inclination to rigorous asceticism1 his love of bald realism1 could be developed in all power and fulness1 without let or hindrance4 ,if amid all his enthusiasm for ,montanism he kept clear of many of its absurdities1 he had for this to thank his own strong common sense1 and also1 much as he affected to despise it1 his early scientific training4 ,he at first wrote his compositions in ,greek1 but afterwards exclusively in ,latin1 into which he also translated the most important of his earlier writings4 ,he is perhaps not the first who treated of the ,christian truth in this language 7 #ca1 #ab;a71 but he has been rightly recognised as the actual creator of ecclesiastical ,latin4 ,his writings may be divided into three groups4 a4 ,apologetical and ,controversial ,treatises against ,jews and ,pagans1 which belong to his pre-,montanist period4 ,the most important and instructive of these is the ,apologeticus adv4 ,gentes1 addressed to the ,roman governor4 ,a reproduction of this work intended for the general public1 less learned1 but more vigorous1 scathing and uncompromising1 is the treatise in two books entitled ,ad ,nationes4 ,in the work ,ad ,scapulam1 who as ,proconsul of ,africa under ,septimius ,severus had persecuted the ,christians with unsparing cruelty1 he calls him to account for this with all earnestness and plainness of speech4 ,in the book1 ,de testimonio anim he carries out more fully the thought already expressed in the ,apologeticus c4 #ag of the ,anima humana naturaliter christiana1 and proves in an ingenious manner that ,christianity alone meets the religious needs of humanity4 ,the book ,adv4 ,judos had its origin ostensibly in a public disputation with the ,jews1 in which the interruptions of his audience interferes with the flow of his discourse4 b4 ,controversial ,treatises against the ,heretics4 ,in the tract ,de prscriptione hreticorum he proves that the ,catholic church1 because in prescriptive possession of the field since the time of the ,apostles1 is entitled on the legal ground of prscriptio to be relieved of the task of advancing proof of her claims1 while the heretics on the other hand are bound to establish their pretensions4 ,a heresiological appendix to this book has been erroneously attributed to ,tertullian 7see #ca1 #c74 ,he combats the ,gnostics in the writings3 ,de baptismo 7against the ,gnostic rejection of water baptism72 ,adv4 ,hermogenem2 ,adv4 ,valentinianos2 ,de anima 7an ,anti-,gnostic treatise1 which maintains the creatureliness1 yea1 the materiality of the soul1 traces its origin to sexual intercourse1 and its mortality to ,adam's sin72 ,de carne ,christi 7,anti-,docetic73 ,de resurrectione carnis ,scorpiace 7an antidote to the scorpion-poison of the ,gnostic heresy72 finally1 the five books1 ,adv4 ,marcionem4 ,the book ,adv4 ,praxeam is directed against the ,patripassians 7 #cc1 #d74 ,in this work his realism reaches its climax at c4 #g in the statement3 8,quis enim negabit1 ,deum corpus esse1 etsi ,deus spiritus est8 ,spiritus enim corpus sui generis in sua effigie10--where1 however1 he is careful to state that with him corpus and substantia are identical ideas1 so that he can also say in c4 #aj de carne ,christi3 8,omne quod est1 corpus est sui generis4 ,nihil est incorporate nisi quod non est40 c4 ,practical and ,ascetical ,treatises4 ,his pre-,montanist writings are characterized by moderation as compared with the fanatical rigorism and scornful bitterness against the ,psychical1 i4e4 the ,catholics1 displayed in those of the ,montanist period4 ,to the former class belong3 ,de oratione 7exposition of the ,lord's ,prayer72 ,de baptismo 7necessity of water baptism1 disapproval of infant baptism72 ,de pnitentia2 ,de idolatria2 ,ad ,martyres2 ,de spectaculis2 ,de cultu feminarum 7against feminine love of dress72 ,de patientia2 ,ad uxorem 7a sort of testament for his wife1 with the exhortation after his death not to marry again1 but at least in no case to marry an unbeliever74 ,to the ,montanist period belong3 ,de virginibus velandis2 ,de corona militis 7defending a ,christian soldier who suffered imprisonment for refusing to wear the soldier's crown72 ,de fuga in persecutione 7which with fanatical decision is declared to be a renunciation of ,christianity72 ,de exhortatione castitatis and ,de monogamia 7both against second marriages which are treated as fornication and adultery72 ,de pudicitia 7recalling his milder opinion given in his earlier treatise ,de pnitentia1 that every mortal sin is left to the judgment of ,god1 with the possibility of reconciliation72 ,de jejuniis adv4 ,psychicos 7vindication of the fasting discipline of the ,montanists1 #dj1 #d72 ,de pallio 7an essay full of wit and humour in answer to the taunts of his fellow-citizens about his throwing off the toga and donning the philosopher's mantle1 i4e4 the ,pallium1 which even the ,ascetics might wear74#gh #ca4aa4 ,thascius ,ccilius ,cyprianus ,cyprian1 descended from a celebrated pagan family in ,carthage1 was at first a teacher of rhetoric1 then1 after his conversion in ,a4,d4 #bde1 a presbyter and from ,a4,d4 #bdh bishop in his native city4 ,during the ,decian persecution the hatred of the heathen mob expressed itself in the cry ,cyprianum ad leonem2 but he withdrew himself for a time in flight into the desert in ,a4,d4 #bej1 from whence he guided the affairs of the church by his ,epistles1 and returned in the following year when respite had been given4 ,the disturbances that had meanwhile arisen afforded him abundant opportunity for the exercise of that wisdom and gentleness which characterized him1 and the earnestness1 energy and moderation of his nature1 as well as his ,christian tact and prudence all stood him in good stead in dealing1 on the one hand1 with the fallen who sought restoration1 and on the other1 the rigorous schismatics who opposed them 7 #da1 #b74 ,when persecution again broke out under ,valerian in ,a4,d4 #beg he was banished to the desert ,curubis1 and when he returned to his oppressed people in ,a4,d4 #beh1 he was beheaded4 ,his epoch-making significance lies not so much in his theological productions as in his energetic and successful struggle for the unity of the church as represented by the monarchical position of the episcopate1 and in his making salvation absolutely dependent upon submission to episcopal authority1 as well as in the powerful impetus given by him to the tendency to view ecclesiastical piety as an opus operatum 7 #ci74 ,as a theologian and writer he mainly attaches himself to the giant ,tertullian1 whose thoughts he reproduces in his works1 with the excision1 however1 of their ,montanist extravagances4 ,jerome relates that no day passed in which he did not call to his amanuensis3 ,da magistrum6 ,in originality1 profundity1 force and fulness of thought1 as well as in speculative and dialectic gifts1 he stands indeed far below ,tertullian1 but in lucidity and easy flow of language and pleasant exposition he far surpasses him4 ,his eighty-one ,epistles are of supreme importance for the ,ch4 ,hist4 of his times1 and next to them in value is the treatise 8,de unitate ecclesi0 7 #cd1 #g74 ,his ,liber ad ,donatum s4 de gratia ,dei1 the first writing produced after his conversion1 contains treatises on the leadings of ,god's grace and the blessedness of the ,christian life as contrasted with the blackness of the life of the pagan world4 ,the ,apologetical writings ,de idolorum vanitate and ,testimonia adv4 ,judos1 ,,ii4 iii41 have no claims to independence and originality4 ,this applies also more or less to his ascetical tracts3 ,de habitu virginum1 ,de mortalitate1 ,de exhortatione martyrii1 ,de lapsis1 ,de oratione dominica1 ,de bono patienti1 ,de zelo et livore1 etc4 ,his work ,de opere et eleemosynis specially contributed to the spread of the doctrine of the merit of works4#gi #ca4ab4 ,various ,ecclesiastical ,writers using the ,latin ,tongue4 a4 ,the ,roman attorney ,minucius ,felix1 probably of ,cirta in ,africa1 wrote under the title of ,octavius a brilliant ,apology1 expressed in a fine ,latin diction1 in the form of a conversation between his two friends the ,christian ,octavius and the heathen ,ccilius1 which resulted in the conversion of the latter4 ,it is matter of dispute whether it was composed before or after ,tertullian's ,apologeticus1 and to which of the two the origin of thoughts and expressions common to both is to be assigned4 ,recently ,ebert has maintained the opinion that ,minucius is the older1 and this view has obtained many adherents2 whereas the contrary theory of ,schultze has reached its climax in assigning the composition of the ,octavius to ,a4,d4 #cjj-cjc1 so that he is obliged to ascribe the ,octavius as well as the ,apologeticus to a compiler of the fourth or fifth century1 plagiarizing from ,cyprian's treatise ,de idolorum vanitate6 b4 ,commodianus ,commodus1 born at ,gaza1 was won to ,christianity by reading holy scripture1 and wrote about ,a4,d4 #bej his ,instructiones adv4 ,gentium ,deos1 consisting of eighty acrostic poems in rhyming hexameters and scarcely intelligible1 barbarous ,latin4 ,his ,carmen apologeticum adv4 ,jud4 et ,gent4 was first published in #aheb4 c4 ,the writings of his contemporary the schismatical ,novatian of ,rome 7 #da1 #c7 show him to have been a man of no ordinary dogmatical and exegetical ability4 ,his ,liber de ,trinitate s4 de ,regula fidei is directed in a subordinationist sense against the ,monarchians 7 #cc74 ,the ,epistola de cibis ,judaici repudiates any obligation on the part of ,christians to observe the ,old ,testament laws about food2 and the ,epistola ,cleri ,romani advocates milder measures in the penitential discipline4 d4 ,arnobius was born at ,sicca in ,africa1 where he was engaged as a teacher of eloquence about ,a4,d4 #cjj4 ,for a long time he was hostilely inclined toward ,christianity1 but underwent a change of mind by means of a vision in a dream4 ,the bishop distrusted him and had misgivings about admitting him to baptism1 but he convinced him of the honesty of his intentions by composing the seven books of ,disputationes adv4 ,gentes4 ,this treatise betrays everywhere defective understanding of the ,christian truth2 but he is more successful in combating the old religion than in defending the new4 e4 ,the bishop ,victorinus of ,pettau 7,petavium in ,styria71 who died a martyr during the ,diocletian persecution in ,a4,d4 #cjc1 wrote commentaries on the ,old and ,new ,testament books that are no longer extant4 ,only a fragment ,de fabrica mundi on ,gen4 i4 and ,scholia on the ,apocalypse have been preserved4 f4 ,lucius ,clius ,firmianus ,lactantius 7 about ,a4,d4 #ccj71 probably of ,italian descent1 but a pupil of ,arnobius in ,africa1 was appointed by ,diocletian teacher of ,latin eloquence at ,nicomedia4 ,at that place about ,a4,d4 #cja he was converted to ,christianity and resigned his office on the outbreak of the persecution4 ,constantine the ,great subsequently committed to him the education of his son ,crispus1 who1 at his father's command1 was executed in ,a4,d4 #cbf4 ,from his writings he seems to have been amiable and unassuming1 a man of wide reading1 liberal culture and a warm heart4 ,the purity of his ,latin style and the eloquence of his composition1 in which he excels all the ,church ,fathers1 has won for him the honourable name of the ,christian ,cicero4 ,we often miss in his writings grip1 depth and acuteness of thinking2 especially in their theological sections we meet with many imperfections and mistakes4 ,he was not only carried away by a fanatical chiliasm1 but adopted also many opinions of a ,manichan sort4 ,the ,institutiones divin in seven bks41 a complete exposition and defence of the ,christian faith1 is his principal work4 ,the ,epitome div4 inst4 is an abstract of the larger works prepared by himself with the addition of many new thoughts4 ,his book ,de mortibus persecutorum 7,engl4 trans4 by ,dr4 ,burnett1 8,relation of the ,death of the ,primitive ,persecutors40 ,amsterdam1 #afhg71 contains a rhetorically coloured description of the earlier persecutions as well as of those witnessed by himself during his residence in ,nicomedia4 ,it is of great importance for the history of the period but must be carefully sifted owing to its strongly partisan character4 ,not only the joy of the martyrs but also the proof of a divine ,nemesis in the lives of the persecutors are regarded as demonstrating the truth of ,christianity4 ,the tract ,de ira ,dei seeks to prove the failure of ,greek philosophy to combine the ideas of justice and goodness in its conception of ,god4 ,the book ,de opificio ,dei proves from the wonderful structure of the human body the wisdom of divine providence4 ,jerome praises him as a poet2 but of the poems ascribed to him only one on the bird phnix1 which1 as it rises into life out of its own ashes is regarded as a symbol of immortality and the resurrection1 can lay any claim to authenticity4 #cb4 ,,the ,,apocryphal ,,and ,,pseudepigraphical ,,literature4#hj ,the practice1 so widely spread in pre-,christian times among pagans and ,jews1 of publishing treatises as original and primitive divine revelations which had no claim to such a title found favour among ,christians of the first centuries1 and was continued far down into the ,greek and ,latin ,middle ,ages4 ,the majority of the apocryphal or anonymous and pseudepigraphic writings were issued in support of heresies ,ebionite or ,gnostic4 ,many1 however1 were free from heretical taint and were simply undertaken for the purpose of glorifying ,christianity by what was then regarded as a harmless pia fraus through a vaticinia post eventum1 or of filling up blanks in the early history with myths and fables already existing or else devised for the occasion4 ,they took the subjects of their romances partly from the field of the ,old ,testament1 and partly from the field of the ,new ,testament in the form of ,gospels1 ,acts1 ,apostolic ,epistles and ,apocalypses4 ,a number of them are professedly drawn from the prophecies of old heathen seers4 ,of greater importance1 especially for the history of the constitution1 worship and discipline of the church are the ,eccles4 ,constitutions put forth under the names of ,apostles4 ,numerous apocryphal ,acts of ,martyrs are for the most part utterly useless as historical sources4 #cb4a4 ,professedly ,old ,heathen ,prophecies4--,of these the ,sibylline ,writings occupy the most conspicuous place4 ,the ,grco-,roman legend of the ,sibyls1 7ol4 for 71 i4e4 prophetesses of pagan antiquity1 was wrought up at a very early period in the interests of ,judaism and afterwards of ,christianity1 especially of ,ebionite heresy4 ,the extant collection of such oracles in fourteen books were compiled in the #eth or #fth century4 ,it contains in ,greek verses prophecies partly purely ,jewish1 partly ,jewish wrought up by a ,christian hand1 partly originally ,christian1 about the history of the world1 the life and sufferings of ,christ1 the persecutions of ,his disciples and the stages in the final development of ,his kingdom4 ,the ,christian participation in the composition of the ,sibylline oracles began in the first century1 soon after the irruption of ,vesuvius in ,a4,d4 #gi1 and continued down to the #eth century4 ,the ,apologists1 especially ,lactantius1 made such abundant use of these prophecies that the heathens nicknamed them ,sibyllists4--,of the prophecies about the coming of ,christ ascribed to an ancient ,persian seer1 ,hystaspes1 none have been preserved4 #cb4b4 ,old ,testament ,pseudepigraphs4#ha--,these are mostly of ,jewish ,origin1 of which1 however1 many were held by the early ,christians in high esteem4 a4 ,to this class belongs pre-eminently the ,book of ,enoch1 written originally in ,hebrew in the last century before ,christ1 quoted in the ,epistle of ,jude1 and recovered only in an ,ethiopic translation in ,a4,d4 #ahba4 ,in its present form in which a great number of older writings about ,enoch and ,noah have been wrought up1 the book embraces accounts of the fall of a certain part of the angels 7,gen4 vi4 #a-d2 ,jude #f2 and #b ,pet4 ii4 #d71 also statements of the holy angels about the mysteries of heaven and hell1 the earth and paradise1 about the coming of the ,messiah1 etc4 b4 ,the ,assumptio ,mosis 771 from which1 according to ,origen1 the reference to the dispute between ,michael and ,satan about the body of ,moses in the ,epistle of ,jude is taken1 was discovered by the librarian ,ceriani at ,milan4 ,he found the first part of this book in an old ,latin translation and published it in ,a4,d4 #ahfj4 ,in the exercise of his official gift ,moses prophesies to ,joshua about the future fortunes of his nation down to the appearing of the ,messiah4 ,the second part1 which is wanting1 dealt with the translation of ,moses4 ,the exact date of its composition is not determined1 but it may be perhaps assigned to the first ,christian century4 c4 ,the so-called ,fourth ,book of ,ezra is first referred to by ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,it is an ,apocalypse after the manner of the ,book of ,daniel4 ,it was probably written originally in ,greek but we possess only translations3 a ,latin one and four oriental ones--,ethiopic1 ,arabic1 ,syriac and ,armenian4 ,from these oriental translations the blanks in the ,latin version have been supplied1 and its later ,christian interpolations have been detected4 ,the angel ,uriel in seven visions makes known to the weeping ,ezra the signs of the approaching destruction of ,jerusalem1 the decay of the ,roman empire1 the founding of the ,messianic kingdom1 etc4 ,the fifth vision of the eagle with twelve wings and three heads seems to fix the date of its composition to the time of ,domitian4 d4 ,in the year #ahdc the missionary ,krapff sent to ,tbingen the title of an ,ethiopic ,codex1 in which ,ewald recognised the writing referred to frequently by the ,church ,fathers as the ,book of ,jubilees 77 or the ,little ,genesis 774 ,this book1 written probably about ,a4,d4 #ej or #fj1 is a complete summary of the ,jewish legendary matter about the early biblical history from the creation down to the entrance into ,canaan1 divided into fifty jubilee periods4 ,the name ,little ,genesis was given it1 notwithstanding its large dimensions1 as indicating a ,genesis of the second rank4#hb #cb4c4 ,the following ,pseudepigraphs are of ,christian ,origin4 a4 ,the short romantic ,history of ,assenath1 daughter of ,potiphar and wife of ,joseph 7,gen4 xli4 #de74 ,its main point is the conversion of ,assenath by an angel4 b4 ,the ,testaments of the ,,xii4 ,patriarchs1 after the style of ,gen4 xlix41 written in ,greek in the #bnd cent41 and quoted by ,origen4 ,as in the chapter of ,gen4 referred to parting counsels are put in the mouth of ,jacob1 they are here ascribed to his twelve sons4 ,these discourses embrace prophecies of the coming of ,christ and ,his atoning sufferings and death1 statements about baptism and the ,lord's supper1 about the great ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 the rejection of the ,o4,t4 covenant people and the election of the ,gentiles1 the destruction of ,jerusalem and the final completion of the kingdom of ,god4 ,the book is thus a cleverly compiled and comprehensive handbook of ,christian faith1 life and hope4 c4 ,of the ,ascensio ,isai 77 and the ,visio ,isai 77 traces are to be found as early as in ,justin ,martyr and ,tertullian4 ,the ,greek original is lost4 ,dillmann published an old ,ethiopic version 7,lps41 #ahgg71 and ,gieseler an old ,lat4 text 7,gtt41 #ahcb74 ,its ,cabbalistic colouring commended it to the ,gnostics4 ,in its first part1 borrowed from an old ,jewish document1 it tells about the martyrdom of ,isaiah who was sawn asunder by ,king ,manasseh2 in its second part1 entitled ,visio ,isai it is told how the prophet in an ecstasy was led by an angel through the seven heavens and had revealed to him the secrets of the divine counsels regarding the incarnation of ,christ4 d4 ,a collection in ,syriac belonging perhaps to the #eth or #fth century in which other legends about early ages are kept together1 is called ,spelunca thesaurorum4 ,we are here told about the sepulchre of the patriarch ,lamech and the treasures preserved there from which the wise men obtained the gifts which they presented to the infant ,saviour4 ,the ,ethiopic ,vita ,adami is an expansion of the book just referred to4 ,this book is manifestly a legendary account of the changes wrought upon all relations of life in our first parents by means of the fall 7hence the title3 8,conflict of ,adam and ,eve071 and ,golgotha is named as ,adam's burying place4 ,a second and shorter part treats of the ,sethite patriarchs down to ,noah4 ,the still shorter third part relates the post-diluvian history down to the time of ,christ4#hc #cb4d4 ,new ,testament ,apocrypha and ,pseudepigraphs4--,the ,gnostics especially produced these in great abundance4 ,epiphanius speaks of them as numbering thousands4 ,but the ,catholics1 too1 were unable to resist the temptation to build up the truth by these doubtful means4 ,i4 ,apocryphal ,gospels4 #a4 ,complete ,gospels existed in considerable numbers1 i4e4 embracing the period of ,christ's earthly labours1 more or less corrupted in the interests of ,gnostic or ,ebionitic heresy1 or independently composed ,gospels2 but only of a few of these do we possess any knowledge4#hd ,the most important of these are the following3 ,the ,gosp4 of the ,egyptians1 esteemed by the ,encratites1 according to ,origen one of the writings referred to in ,luke i4 #a2 also the ,gosp4 of the ,,xii4 ,apostles1 generally called by the ,fathers 4 ' originally written in ,aramaic2 and finally1 the ,gosp4 of ,marcion 7 #bg1 #aa74 ,the most important of these is the ,gospel of the ,hebrews1 on account of its relation to our canonical ,gospel of ,matthew1 which is generally supposed to have been written originally in ,aramaic4#he ,jerome who translated the ,hebrew ,gospel says of it3 ,vocatur a plerisque ,matthi authenticum2 but this is not his own opinion1 nor was it that of ,origen and ,eusebius4 ,the extant fragments show many divergences as well as many similarities1 partly in the form of apocryphal amplifications1 partly of changes made for dogmatic reasons4 #b4 ,gospels dealing with particular ,periods--referring to the days preceding the birth of ,jesus and the period of the infancy or to the closing days of ,his life1 where the heretical elements are wanting or are subordinated to the general interests of ,christianity4 ,of these there was a large number and much of their legendary or fabulous material1 especially about the family history of the mother of ,jesus 7 #eg1 #b71 has passed over into the tradition of the ,catholic ,church4 ,among them may be mentioned2 a4 ,the ,protevangel4 ,jacobi minoris1 perhaps the oldest1 certainly the most esteemed and most widely spread1 written in ,greek1 beginning with the story of ,mary's birth and reaching down to the death of the children of ,bethlehem2 b4 ,the ,ev4 ,pseudo ,matthi1 similar in its contents1 but continued down to the period of ,jesus' youth1 and now existing only in a ,lat4 translation2 c4 ,the ,ev4 de nativitate ,mari1 only in ,lat41 containing the history of ,mary down to the birth of ,jesus2 d4 ,the ,hist4 ,josephi fabri lignarii down to his death1 dating probably from the #dth cent41 only now in an ,arabic version2 e4 ,the ,ev4 ,infanti ,salvatoris1 only in ,arabic1 a compilation with no particular dogmatic tendency2 f4 ,also the so-called ,ascension of ,mary 7 #eg1 #b7 soon became the subject of apocryphal treatment1 for which ,john was claimed as the authority 7,john xix4 #bf71 and is preserved in several ,greek1 ,syriac1 ,arabic and ,latin manuscripts2 g4 ,the ,ev4 ,nicodemi 7,john xix4 #ci7 in ,greek and ,lat4 contains two ,jewish writings of the #bnd century4 ,the first part consists of the ,gesta or ,acta ,pilati4 ,there can be no doubt of its identity with the ,acta ,pilati quoted by ,justin1 ,tert41 ,euseb41 ,epiph4 ,it contains the stories of the canonical ,gospels variously amplified and an account of the judicial proceedings evidently intended to demonstrate ,jesus' innocence of the charges brought against ,him by ,his enemies4 ,the second part1 bearing the title ,descensus ,christi ad inferos1 is of much later origin1 telling of the descent of ,christ into ,hades along with two of the saints who rose with him 7,matt4 xxvii4 #eb71 ,leucius and ,carinus1 sons of ,simeon 7,luke ii4 #be74hf #cb4e4 ,,ii4 ,the numerous ,apocryphal ,histories and ,legends of the ,apostles were partly of heretical1 and partly of ,catholic1 origin4 ,while the former have in view the establishing of their heretical doctrines and peculiar forms of worship1 constitution and life by representing them as ,apostolic institutions1 the latter arose mostly out of a local patriotic intention to secure to particular churches the glory of being founded by an ,apostle4 ,those inspired by ,gnostic influences far exceed in importance and number not only the ,ebionitic but also the genuinely ,catholic4 ,the ,manichans especially produced many and succeeded in circulating them widely4 ,the more their historico-romantic contents pandered to the taste of that age for fantastic tales of miracles and visions the surer were they to find access among ,catholic circles4--,a collection of such histories under the title of was received as canonical by ,gnostics and ,manichans1 and even by many of the ,church ,fathers4 ,augustine first named as its supposed author one ,leucius4 ,we find this name some decades later in ,epiphanius as that of a pupil of ,john and opponent of the ,ebionite ,christology1 and also in ,pacianus of ,barcelona as that of one falsely claimed as an authority by the ,montanists4 ,according to ,photius this collection embraced the ,acts of ,peter1 ,john1 ,andrew1 ,thomas and ,paul1 and the author's full name was ,leucius ,carinus1 who also appears in the second part of the ,acta ,pilati1 but in quite other circumstances and surroundings4 ,that all the five books were composed by one author is not probable2 perhaps originally only the ,acts of ,john bore the name of ,leucius1 which was subsequently transferred to the whole4 ,zahn's view1 on the other hand1 is1 that the 1 especially the ,acts of ,john1 was written under the falsely assumed name of ,john's pupil ,leucius1 about ,a4,d4 #acj1 at a time when the ,gnostics had not yet been separated from the ,church as a heretical sect1 was even at a later period accepted as genuine by the ,catholic church teachers notwithstanding the objectionable character of much of its contents1 its modal docetic ,christology and encratite ,ethics with contempt of marriage1 rejection of animal food and the use of wine and the demand of voluntary poverty1 and held in high esteem as a source of the second rank for the ,apostolic history4 ,lipsius considers that it was composed in the interests of the vulgar ,gnosticism 7 #bg7 in the second half of the #bnd1 or first half of the #crd cent41 and proves that from ,eusebius down to ,photius1 who brands it as 1 the ,catholic church teachers without exception speak of it as heretical and godless1 and that the frequent patristic references to the ,histori ecclesiastici do not apply to it but to ,catholic modifications of it1 which were regarded as the genuine and generally credible original writing of ,leucius which were wickedly falsified by the ,manichans4--,catholic modifications of particular ,gnostic 1 as well as independent ,catholic writings of this sort in ,greek are still preserved in ,,ms4 in great numbers and have for the most part been printed4 ,the ,hist4 certaminis apostolici in ten books1 which the supposed pupil of the ,apostles ,abdias1 first bishop of ,babylon1 wrote in ,hebrew1 was translated by his pupil ,eutropius into ,greek and by ,julius ,africanus into ,latin4#hg--,they are all useless for determining the history of the ,apostolic ,age1 although abundantly so used in the ,catholic church tradition4 ,for the history of doctrines and sects1 the history of the canon1 worship1 ecclesiastical customs and modes of thought during the #bnd-#dth cents41 they are of the utmost importance4 #cb4f4 ,from the many apocryphal monographs still preserved on the life1 works and martyrdom of the biblical ,apostles and their coadjutors1 in addition to the ,pseudo-,clementines already discussed in #bh1 #c1 the following are the most important4 a4 ,the ,greek ,acta ,petri et ,pauli4 ,these describe the journeys of ,paul to ,rome1 the disputation of the two ,apostles at ,rome with ,simon ,magus1 and the ,roman martyrdom of both1 and constitute the source of the traditions regarding ,peter and ,paul which are at the present day regarded in the ,roman ,catholic ,church as historical4 ,these ,acts1 however1 as ,lipsius has shown1 are not an original work1 but date from about ,a4,d4 #afj1 and consist of a ,catholic reproduction of ,ebionite or ,anti-,pauline1 ,acts of ,peter1 with additions from ,gentile-,christian traditions of ,paul4 ,the ,acts of ,peter take up the story where the ,pseudo-,clementines end1 as may be seen even from their ,catholic reproduction1 for they make ,simon ,magus1 followed everywhere and overcome by the ,apostle ,peter1 at last seek refuge in ,rome1 where1 again unmasked by ,peter1 he met a miserable end 7 #be1 #b74 ,as the which formed the basis of the ,pseudo-,clementine writings combats the specifically ,pauline doctrines as derived from ,simon ,magus 7 #bh1 #d71 so the ,acts of ,peter identify him even personally with ,paul1 for they maliciously and spitefully assign well-known facts from the ,apostle's life to ,simon ,magus1 which are bona fide in the ,catholic reproduction assumed to be genuine works of ,simon4--,the ,gnostic ,acts of ,peter and ,acts of ,paul had wrought up the current ,ebionite and ,catholic traditions about the doings and martyr deaths of the two ,apostles with fanciful adornments and embellishments after the style and in the interests of ,gnosticism4 ,a considerable fragment of these1 purified indeed by ,catholic hands1 is preserved to us in the ,passio ,petri et ,pauli1 to which is attached the name of ,linus1 the pretended successor of ,peter4 ,the fortunes of the two ,apostles are related quite independently of one another3 ,paul makes his appearance at ,rome only after the death of ,peter4 ,of the non-heretical ,acts of ,paul which according to ,eusebius were in earlier times received in many churches as holy scripture 7 #cf1 #h71 no trace has as yet been discovered4 b4 ,among the ,greek ,acts of ,john1 the remnants of the ,leucian preserved in their original form deserve to be first mentioned4 ,according to ,zahn1 they are one of the earliest witnesses for the genuineness of the ,gospel of ,john1 and give the deathblow to the theory that with and after the ,apostle ,john1 there was in ,ephesus another ,john the ,presbyter distinct from him 7 #af1 #b74 ,lipsius1 on the other hand1 places their composition in the second half of the #bnd cent41 and deprives them of that significance for the life of the ,apostle1 but admits their great value for a knowledge of doctrines1 principles and forms of worship of the vulgar ,gnosticism then widely spread4 ,the 1 greatly esteemed in the ,greek church1 and often translated into other languages1 written in the #eth cent4 by a ,catholic hand and ascribed to ,prochoros ,prochorus the deacon of ,jerusalem 7,acts vi4 #e71 is a poetic romance with numerous raisings from the dead1 exorcisms1 etc41 almost wholly the creation of the writer's own imagination1 without a trace of any encratite tendency like the ,leucian and without any particular doctrinal significance4 c4 ,to the same age and the same ,gnostic party as the ,leucian ,acts of ,john1 belong the ,acts of ,andrew preserved in many fragments and circulated in various ,catholic reproductions4 ,of these latter the most esteemed were the ,acts of ,andrew and ,matthew in the city of the cannibals4 d4 ,the ,catholic reproductions in ,greek and ,syriac that have come down to us of the ,leucian ,acts of ,thomas are of special value because of the many ,gnostic elements which1 particularly in the ,greek1 have been allowed to remain unchanged in the very imperfectly purified text4 ,the scene of the ,apostle's activity is said to be ,india4 ,the central point in his preaching to sinners is the doctrine that only by complete abstinence from marriage and concubinage can we become at last the partner of the heavenly bridegroom 7 #bg1 #d74 ,a highly poetical hymn on the marriage of ,sophia 7,achamoth7 is left in the ,greek text unaltered1 while the ,syriac text puts the church in place of ,sophia4 ,then we have two poetical consecration prayers for baptism and the eucharist1 in which the ,syriac substituted ,christ for ,achamoth4 ,but besides1 even in the ,syriac text1 a grandly swelling hymn1 which is wanting in the ,greek text1 romances about the fortunes of the soul1 which1 sent from heaven to earth to fetch a pearl watched by the serpent forgets its heavenly origin and calling1 and only remembers this after repeated reminders from heaven1 etc4 ,gutschmied has shown it to be probable that the history groundwork of the ,acts of ,thomas is borrowed from older ,buddhist legends 7 #fh1 #f74 e4 ,the ,acta ,pauli et ,thecla1 according to ,tertullian and ,jerome1 were composed by a presbyter of ,asia ,minor who1 carried away by the mania for literary forging1 excused himself by saying that he had written ,pauli amore1 but was for this nevertheless deprived of his office4 ,according to these ,acts ,thecla1 the betrothed bride of a young man of importance at ,iconium1 was won to ,christianity by a sermon of ,paul on continence as a condition of a future glorious resurrection1 forsook her bridegroom1 devoted herself to perpetual virginity1 and attached herself forthwith to the ,apostle whose bodily presence is described as contemptible1--little1 bald-headed1 large nose1 and bandy legs1--but lighted up with heavenly grace4 ,led twice to martyrdom she was saved by miraculous divine interposition1 first from the flames of the pile1 then1 after having baptized herself in the name of ,christ by plunging into a pit full of water1 from the rage of devouring animals2 whereupon ,paul1 recognising that sort of baptism in an emergency as valid1 sent her forth with the commission3 ,go hence and teach the word of ,god6 ,after converting and instructing many1 she died in peace in ,seleucia4 ,although ,jerome treats our book as apocryphal1 the legends of ,thecla as given in it were regarded in the ,west as genuine1 and ,st4 ,thecla was honoured throughout the whole of the ,latin middle ages next to the mother of ,jesus as the most perfect pattern of virginity4 ,in the ,greek church where we meet with the name first in the ,symposium of ,methodius1 the book remained unsuspected and its heroine1 as and 1 was honoured still more enthusiastically than in the ,west4 f4 ,the ,syriac ,doctrina ,addi ,apost4 was according to its own statement deposited in the library of ,edessa1 but allusions to later persons and circumstances show that it could not have been written before ,a4,d4 #bhj 7according to ,zahn about ,a4,d4 #bgj-bij2 acc4 to ,lipsius not before ,a4,d4 #cfj74 ,it assigns the founding of the church of ,edessa1 which is proved to have been not earlier than ,a4,d4 #agj1 according to local tradition to the ,apostle ,addai ,addi 7in ,euseb4 and elsewhere1 ,thaddeus3 comp4 ,matt4 x4 #c2 ,mark iii4 #ah71 whom it represents as one of the seventy disciples and as having been sent by ,thomas to ,abgar ,uchomo in accordance with ,christ's promise 7 #ac1 #b74hh #cb4g4 ,,iii4 ,apostolic ,epistles4 ,the apocryphal ,epistle of ,paul to the ,laodiceans 7,col4 iv4 #af71 and that to the ,corinthians suggested by the statement in #a ,cor4 v4 #i1 are spiritless compilations from the canonical ,epistles4 ,from the ,correspondence of ,paul with ,seneca1 quotations are made by ,jerome and ,augustine4 ,it embraces fourteen short epistles4 ,the idea of friendly relations between these two men suggested by ,acts xviii4 #ab1 ,gallio being ,seneca's brother1 forms the motive for the fiction4 ,,iv4 ,the apocryphal ,apocalypses that have been preserved are of little value4 ,an ,apocalypsis ,petri was known to ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,the ,apoc4 ,pauli is based on #b ,cor4 xii4 #b4 ,v4 ,apostolical ,constitutions1 comp4 #dc1 #d1 #e4hi #cb4h4 ,the ,acts of the ,martyrs4--,of the numerous professedly contemporary accounts of celebrated martyrs of the #bnd and #crd cents41 those adopted by ,eusebius in his ,church ,history may be accepted as genuine2 especially the ,epistle of the ,church of ,smyrna to the ,church at ,philomelium about the persecution which it suffered 7 #bb1 #c72 also the ,report of the ,church at ,lyons and ,vienne to the ,christians in ,asia and ,phrygia about the persecution under ,marcus ,aurelius in ,a4,d4 #agg 7 #bb1 #c72 and an ,epistle of ,dionysius ,bishop of ,alexandria to ,fabian of ,antioch about the ,alexandrian martyrs and confessors during the ,decian persecution4 ,the ,acts of the ,martyrs of ,scillita are also genuine 7 #bb1 #c72 so too the ,montanistic ,history of the sufferings of ,perpetua1 ,felicitas1 and their companions 7 #bb1 #d2 #dj1 #c72 as well as the ,acta s4 ,cypriani4 ,the main part of the ,martyrdom of ,justin ,martyr by ,simeon ,metaphr4 7 #fh1 #d7 belongs probably to the #bnd cent4 ,the ,martyrdom of ,ignatius 7 #cj1 #e7 professedly by his companions in his last journey to ,rome1 and the ,martyrdom of ,sympherosa in the ,tiber1 who was put to death with her seven sons under ,hadrian1 as well as all other ,acts of the ,martyrs professedly belonging to the first four centuries1 are of more than doubtful authenticity4 #cc4 ,,the ,,doctrinal ,,controversies ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,catholic ,,age4#ij ,the development of the system of ,christian doctrine must become a necessity when ,christianity meeting with pagan culture in the form of science is called upon to defend her claim to be the universal religion4 ,in the first three centuries1 however1 there was as yet no official construction and establishment of ecclesiastical doctrine4 ,there must first be a certain measure of free subjective development and wrestling with antagonistic views4 ,a universally acknowledged organ is wanting1 such as that subsequently found in the cumenical ,councils4 ,the persecutions allowed no time and peace for this2 and the church had enough to do in maintaining what is specifically ,christian in opposition to the intrusion of such anti-,christian1 ,jewish and ,pagan elements as sought to gain a footing in ,ebionism and ,gnosticism4 ,on the other hand1 friction and controversy within the church had already begun as a preparation for the construction of the ecclesiastical system of doctrine4 ,the ,trinitarian controversy was by far the most important1 while the ,chiliastic discussions were of significance for ,eschatology4 #cc4a4 ,the ,trinitarian ,questions4--,the discussion was mainly about the relation of the divine 7the unity of ,god7 to the 7the ,trinitarian being and movement of ,god74 ,then the relation of the ,son or ,logos to the ,father came decidedly to the front4 ,from the time when the more exact determination of this relationship came to be discussed1 toward the end of the #bnd cent41 the most eminent teachers of the ,catholic church maintained stoutly the personal independence of the ,logos--,hypostasianism4 ,but the necessity for keeping this view in harmony with the monotheistic doctrine of ,christianity led to many errors and vacillations4 ,adopting ,philo's distinction of and 7 #aj1 #a71 they for the most part regarded the hypostasizing as conditioned first by the creating of the world and as coming forth not as a necessary and eternal element in the very life of ,god but as a free and temporal act of the divine will4 ,the proper essence of the ,godhead was identified rather with the ,father1 and all attributes of the ,godhead were ascribed to the ,son not in a wholly equal measure as to the ,father1 for the word of ,christ3 8the ,father is greater than ,i0 7,john xiv4 #bh71 was applied even to the pre-existent state of ,christ4 ,still greater was the uncertainty regarding the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the idea of ,his personality and independence was far less securely established2 ,he was much more decidedly subordinated1 and the functions of inspiration and sanctification proper to ,him were ascribed to ,christ1 or ,he was simply identified with the ,son of ,god4 ,the result1 however1 of such subordinationist hypostasianism was that1 on the one hand1 many church teachers laid undue stress on the fundamental anti-pagan doctrine of the unity of ,god1 just as on the other hand1 many had indulged in exaggerated statements about the divinity of ,christ4 ,it seemed therefore desirable to set aside altogether the question of the personal distinction of the ,son and ,spirit from the ,father4 ,this happened either in the way clearly favoured by the ,ebionites who regarded ,christ as a mere man1 who1 like the prophets1 though in a much higher measure1 had been endued with divine wisdom and power 7dynamic ,monarchianism71 or in a way more accordant with the ,christian mode of thought1 admitting that the fulness of the ,godhead dwelt in ,christ1 and either identifying the ,logos with the ,father 7,patripassianism71 or seeing in ,him only a mode of the activity of the ,father 7modal ,monarchianism74 ,monarchianism in all these forms was pronounced heretical by all the most illustrious fathers of the #crd cent41 and hypostasianism was declared orthodox4 ,but even under hypostasianism an element of error crept in at a later period in the form of subordinationism1 and modal ,monarchianism approached nearer to the church doctrine by adopting the doctrine of sameness of essence 77 in ,son and ,father4 ,the orthodox combination of the two opposites was reached in the #crd cent1 in homoousian hypostasianism1 but only in the #dth cent4 attained universal acceptance 7 #ej74 #cc4b4 ,the ,alogians4--,soon after ,a4,d4 #agj in ,asia ,minor we meet with the ,alogians as the first decided opponents from within the church of ,logos doctrine laid down in the ,gospel by ,john and the writings of the ,apologists4 ,they started in diametrical opposition to the chiliasm of the ,montanists and their claims to prophetic gifts1 and were thus led not only to repudiate the ,apocalypse but also the ,gospel of ,john2 the former on account of its chiliast-prophetic contents which embraced so much that was unintelligible1 yea absurd and untrue2 the latter1 first of all on account of the use the ,montanists made of its doctrine of the ,paraclete in support of their prophetic claims 7 #dj1 #a71 but also on account of its seeming contradictions of and departures from the narratives of the ,synoptists1 and finally1 on account of its ,logos doctrine in which the immediate transition from the incarnation of the ,logos to the active life of ,christ probably seemed to them too closely resembling docetic ,gnosticism4 ,they therefore attributed to the ,gnosticizing ,judaist1 ,cerinthus1 the authorship both of the ,fourth ,gospel and of the ,apocalypse4 ,of their own ,christological theories we have no exact information4 ,irenus and ,hippolytus deal mildly with them and recognise them as members of the ,catholic church4 ,it is ,epiphanius who first gives them the equivocal designation of ,alogians 7which may either be 8deniers of the ,logos0 or 8the irrational071 denouncing them as heretical rejecters of the ,logos doctrine and the ,logos-,gospel4 ,this is the first instance which we have of historical criticism being exercised in the ,church with reference to the biblical books4 #cc4c4 ,the ,theodotians and ,artemonites4--,epiphanius describes the sect of the ,theodotians at ,rome as an 4 ,the main source of information about them is the ,little ,labyrinth 7 #ca1 #c71 and next to it ,hippolytus in his ,syntagma1 quoted by the ,pseudo-,tertullian and ,epiphanius1 and in his ,elenchus4 ,the founder of this sect1 ,theodotus 1 the ,tanner1 a man well trained in ,greek culture1 came ,a4,d4 #aij to ,byzantium where1 during the persecution1 he denied ,christ1 and on this account changed his residence to ,rome and devoted himself here to the spread of his dynamic ,monarchianism4 ,he maintained 1--,spiritu quidem sancto natum ex virgine1 sed hominem nudum nulla alia pr cteris nisi sola justit auctoritate4 ,he sought to justify his views by a one-sided interpretation of scripture passages referring to the human nature of ,christ4#ia ,but since he acknowledged the supernatural birth of ,christ as well as the genuineness of the ,gospel of ,john1 and in other respects agreed with his opponents1 he could still represent himself as standing on the basis of the ,old ,catholic ,regula fidei 7 #ce1 #b74 ,nevertheless the ,roman bishop ,victor 7,a4,d4 #ahi-aii7 excommunicated him and his followers4 ,the most distinguished among his disciples was a second ,theodotus 1 the ,money-changer4 ,by an exegesis of ,heb4 v4 #f1 #aj2 vi4 #bj2 vii4 #c1 #ag1 he sought to prove that ,melchisedec was and more glorious than ,christ2 the former was the original type1 the latter only the copy2 the former was intercessor before ,god for the angels1 the latter only for men2 the origin of the former is secret1 because truly heavenly1 that of ,christ open1 because born of ,mary4 ,the later heresiologists therefore designate his followers ,melchisedecians4 ,laying hold upon the theory which1 according to ,epiphanius1 was held even by ,catholics1 and also1 like the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 identifying the ,son of ,god with the ,holy ,spirit that descended in baptism on the man ,jesus1 ,theodotus seems from those two points of view to have proceeded to teach1 that the historical ,christ1 because operated upon only dynamically by the ,holy ,spirit or the ,son of ,god1 was inferior to the purely heavenly ,melchisedec who was himself the very eternal ,son of ,god4 ,the reproaches directed against the ,theodotians by their opponents were mainly these3 that instead of the usual allegorical exegesis they used only a literal and grammatical1 that they practised an arbitrary system of ,textual criticism1 and that instead of holding to the philosophy of the divine ,plato1 they took their wisdom from the empiricists 7,aristotle1 ,euclid1 ,galen1 etc471 and sought by such objectionable means to support their heretical views4 ,we have thus probably to see in them a group of ,roman theologians1 who1 towards the close of the #bnd cent4 and the beginning of the #crd cent4 maintained exegetical and critical principles essentially the same as those which the ,antiochean school with greater clearness and definiteness set forth toward the end of the #crd cent4 7 #ca1 #a2 #dg1 #a74 ,the attempt1 however1 which they made to found an independent sect in ,rome about ,a4,d4 #baj was an utter failure4 ,according to the report of the ,little ,labyrinth1 they succeeded in getting for their bishop a weak-minded confessor called ,natalius4 ,haunted by visions of judgment and beaten sore one night by good angels till in a miserable plight1 he hasted on the following morning to cast himself at the feet of bishop ,zephyrinus 7,a4,d4 #aii-bag71 successor of ,victor1 and showing his stripes he begged for mercy and restoration4--,the last of the representatives of the ,theodotians in ,rome1 and that too under this same ,zephyrinus1 was a certain ,artemon or ,artemas4 ,he and his followers maintained that their own doctrine 7which cannot be very exactly determined but was also of the dynamic order7 had been recognised in ,rome as orthodox from the time of the ,apostles down to that of bishop ,victor1 and was first condemned by his successor ,zephyrinus4 ,this assertion cannot be said to be altogether without foundation in view1 on the one hand1 of the agreement above referred to between ,theodotus the younger and the ,roman ,hermas1 and on the other hand1 of the fact that the ,roman bishops ,zephyrinus and ,callistus had passed over to ,notian ,modalism4 ,artemon must have lived at least until ,a4,d4 #bfj1 when ,paul of ,samosata 7 #cc1 #h71 who also maintained fellowship with the excommunicated ,artemonites in ,rome1 conducted a correspondence with him4 #cc4d4 ,praxeas and ,tertullian4--,patripassianism1 which represented the ,father ,himself as becoming man and suffering in ,christ1 may be characterized as the precursor and first crude form of ,modalism4 ,it also had its origin during the #bnd cent41 in that same intellectually active church of ,asia ,minor1 and from thence the movement spread to ,rome1 where after a long and bitter struggle it secured a footing in the #crd cent4--,praxeas1 a confessor of ,asia ,minor and opponent of ,montanism1 was its first representative at ,rome1 where unopposed he expounded his views about ,a4,d4 #aij4 ,as he supported the ,roman bishop ,victor in his condemnation of ,montanism 7 #dj1 #b71 so he seems to have won the bishop's approval for his ,christological theory4#ib ,perhaps also the excommunication which was at this time uttered against the dynamic ,monarchian1 ,theodotus the ,elder1 was the result of the bishop's change of views4 ,from ,rome ,praxeas betook himself1 mainly in the interest of his ,anti-,montanist crusade1 to ,carthage1 and there also won adherents to his ,christology4 ,meanwhile1 however1 ,tertullian returned to ,carthage1 and as a convert to ,montanism1 hurled against ,praxeas and his followers a controversial treatise1 in which he laid bare with acute dialectic the weaknesses and inconsistencies1 as well as the dangerous consequences of their theory4 ,just like the ,alogians1 ,praxeas and his adherents refused to admit the doctrine of the ,logos into their ,christology1 and feared that it in connection with the doctrine of the hypostasis would give an advantage to ,gnosticism4 ,in the interests of monotheism1 as well as of the worship of ,christ1 they maintained the perfect identity of ,father and ,son4 ,god became the ,son by the assumption of the flesh2 under the concept of the ,father therefore falls the divinity1 the spirit2 under that of the ,son1 the humanity1 the flesh of the ,redeemer4--,tertullian himself in his ,hypostasianism had not wholly got beyond the idea of subordinationism1 but he made an important advance in this direction by assuming three stages in the hypostasizing of the ,son 7,filiatio74 ,the first stage is the eternal immanent state of being of the ,son in the ,father2 the second is the forthcoming of the ,son alongside of the ,father for the purpose of creating the world2 and the third is the going forth of the ,son into the world by means of the incarnation4 #cc4e4 ,the ,notians and ,hippolytus4--,the ,patripassian standpoint was maintained also by ,notus of ,smyrna1 who summed up his ,christological views in the sentence3 the ,son of ,god is ,his own1 and not another's ,son4 ,one of his pupils1 ,epigonus1 in the time of bishop ,zephyrinus brought this doctrine to ,rome1 where a ,notian sect was formed with ,cleomenes at its head4 ,sabellius too1 who in ,a4,d4 #bae came to ,rome from ,ptolemais in ,egypt1 attached himself to it1 but afterwards constructed an independent system of doctrine in the form of a more speculative ,modalism4 ,the most vigorous opponent of the ,notians was the celebrated presbyter ,hippolytus 7 #ca1 #c74 ,he strongly insisted upon the hypostasis of the ,son and of the ,spirit1 and claimed for them divine worship4 ,but inasmuch as he maintained in all its strictness the unity of ,god1 he too was unable to avoid subordinating the ,son under the ,father4 ,the ,son1 he taught1 owed ,his hypostasizing to the will of the ,father2 the ,father commands and the ,son obeys2 the perfect ,logos was the ,son from eternity1 but 1 ' 1 therefore in a hypostasis1 which ,he became only at the creation of the world1 so that ,he became perfect ,son first in the incarnation4 ,bishop ,zephyrinus1 on the other hand1 was not inclined to bear hard upon the ,notians1 but sought in the interests of peace some meeting-point for the two parties4 ,the conflagration fairly broke out under his successor1 ,callistus 7,a4,d4 #bag-bbb2 comp4 #da1 #a74 ,believing that truth and error were to be found on both sides he defined his own position thus3 ,god is a spirit without parts1 filling all things1 giving life to all1 who as such is called ,logos1 and only in respect of name is distinguished as ,father and ,son4 ,the ,pneuma become incarnate in the ,virgin is personally and essentially identical with the ,father4 ,that which has thereby become manifest1 the man ,jesus1 is the ,son4 ,it therefore cannot be said that the ,father as such has suffered1 but rather that the ,father has suffered in and with the ,son4 ,decidedly ,monarchian as this formula of compromise undoubtedly is1 it seems to have afforded the bridge upon which the official ,roman theology crossed over to the homoousian ,hypostasianism which forty years later won the day 7 #cc1 #g74 ,among the opposing parties it found no acceptance4 ,hippolytus denounced the bishop as a ,notian1 while the ,notians nicknamed him a ,dytheist4 ,the result was that the two party leaders1 ,sabellius and ,hippolytus1 were excommunicated4 ,the latter formed the company of his adherents in ,rome into a schismatic sect4 #cc4f4 ,beryllus and ,origen4--,beryllus of ,bostra#ic in ,arabia also belonged to the ,patripassians2 but he marks the transition to a nobler ,modalism1 for though he refuses to the deity of ,christ the 1 he designates it 1 and sees in it a new form of the manifestation 77 of ,god4 ,in regard to him an ,arabian ,synod was held in ,a4,d4 #bdd1 to which ,origen was invited4 ,convinced by him of his error1 ,beryll ,beryllus retracted4--,all previous representatives of the hypostasis of the ,logos had understood his hypostatizing as happening in time for the purpose of the creation and the incarnation4 ,origen removed this restriction when he enunciated the proposition3 ,the ,son is from eternity begotten of the ,father and so from eternity an hypostasis4 ,the generation of the ,son took not place simply as the condition of creation1 but as of itself necessary1 for where there is light there must be the shedding forth of rays4 ,but because the life of ,god is bound to no time1 the objectivizing of ,his life in the ,son must also lie outside of all time4 ,it is not therefore an act of ,god accomplished once and for ever1 but an eternally continued exercise of living power 7 74 ,origen did not indeed get beyond subordinationism1 but he restricted it within the narrowest possible limits4 ,he condemns the expression that the ,son is 1 but only in opposition to the ,gnostic theories of emanation4 ,he maintained a 1 but only in opposition to the in the ,patripassian sense4 ,he teaches a generation of the ,son 1 but only because he sees in ,him the objectified divine will4 ,he calls ,him a 1 but only in so far as ,he is 1 not 1 though indeed the ,son is 1 1 4 ,thus what he teaches is not a subordination of essence or nature1 but only of existence or origin4 #cc4g4 ,sabellius and ,dionysius of ,alex4 and ,dionysius of ,rome4--,we have already seen that ,sabellius had founded in ,rome a speculative ,manichan system1 which found much favour among the bishops of his native region4 ,his assigning an essential and necessary place in his system to the ,holy ,spirit indicates an important advance4 ,god is a unity 77 admitting of no distinctions1 resting in ,himself as coming forth out of ,himself 7for the purpose of creation7 as 4 ,in the course of the world's development the ,monas for the sake of redemption assumes necessarily three different forms of being 7 71 each of which embraces in it the complete fulness of the ,monas4 ,they are not 1 but 1 masks1 we might say roles1 which the ,god who manifests ,himself in the world assumes in succession4 ,after the prosopon of the ,father accomplished its work in the giving of the law1 it fell back into its original condition2 advancing again through the incarnation as ,son1 it returns by the ascension into the absolute being of the ,monas2 it reveals itself finally as the ,holy ,spirit to return again1 after securing the perfect sanctification of the church1 into the ,monas that knows no distinctions1 there to abide through all eternity4 ,this process is characterized by ,sabellius as an expansion 77 and contraction 774 ,by way of illustration he uses the figure of the sun 1 1 namely 1 4--,at a ,synod of ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #bfa ,dionysius the ,great 7 #ca1 #f7 entered the lists against the ,sabellianism of the ,egyptian bishops1 and with well-intentioned zeal employed subordinationist expressions in a highly offensive way 7 ' 1-- 74 ,when bishop ,dionysius of ,rome 7,a4,d4 #bei-bfh7 was informed of these proceedings he condemned his ,alexandrian colleague's modes of expression at a ,synod at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #bfb1 and issued a tract 771 in which against ,sabellius he affirmed hypostasianism and against the ,alexandrians1 notwithstanding the suspicion of ,manichanism that hung about it1 the doctrine of the and the eternal generation of the ,son4 ,with a beautiful modesty ,dionysius of ,alexandria retracted his unhappily chosen phrases and declared himself in thorough agreement with the ,roman exposition of doctrine4 #cc4h4 ,paul of ,samosata4--,in ,rome and throughout the ,west general dynamical ,monarchianism expired with ,artemon and his party4 ,in the ,east1 however1 it was revived by ,paul of ,samosata1 in ,a4,d4 #bfj bishop of the ,grco-,syrian capital ,antioch1 which1 however1 was then under the rule of ,queen ,zenobia of ,palmyra4 ,attaching himself to the other dynamists1 especially the ,theodotians and ,artemonites1 he went in many respects beyond them4 ,maintaining as they did the unipersonality of ,god 7 71 he yet admitted a distinction of ,father1 ,son 77 and ,spirit 77 the two last1 however1 being essentially identical attributes of the first1 and also the distinction of the from the 1 the one being the operative in the prophets1 the other the 4 4 latent in ,god4 ,further1 while placing like the dynamists the personality of ,christ in ,his humanity and acknowledging ,his supernatural birth from the ,holy ,spirit by the ,virgin1 he conceived of ,him1 like the modern ,socinians1 as working the way upward1 1 i4e4 by reason of ,his unique excellence to divine rank and the obtaining of the divine name4--,between ,a4,d4 #bfd-bfi the ,syrian bishops held three large ,synods in regard to him at ,antioch1 to which also many other famous bishops of the ,east were invited4 ,the first two were without result1 for he knew how to conceal the heterodox character of his views4 ,it was only at the third that the presbyter ,malchion1 a practised dialectician and formerly a rhetorician1 succeeded in unmasking him at a public disputation4 ,the ,synod now declared him excommunicated and deprived him of his office1 and also transmitted to all the catholic churches1 first of all to ,rome and ,alexandria1 the records of the disputation together with a complete report in which he was described as a proud1 vain1 pompous1 covetous and even immoral man 7 #ci1 #c74 ,nevertheless by the favour of the ,queen he kept possession of his bishopric1 and holding a high office at the court he exercised not only spiritual functions but also great civil authority4 ,but when ,zenobia was overcome by ,aurelian in ,a4,d4 #bgb1 the rest of the bishops accused him before the pagan emperor1 who decided that the ecclesiastical buildings should be made over to that one of the contending bishops whom the ,christian bishops of ,rome and ,italy should recognise4 ,in these conflicts undoubtedly a national and political antagonism lay behind the dogmatic and ecclesiastical dispute 7 #ca1 #i e74--,at the ,synod of ,a4,d4 #bfi the expression 1 which since it had been first used by ,sabellius was always regarded with suspicion in church circles1 was dragged into the debate and expressly condemned2 and so it is doubtful whether ,paul himself had employed it1 or whether1 on the contrary1 he wished to charge his opponents with heresy as being wont to use this term4 #cc4i4 ,chiliasm or the doctrine of an earthly reign of the ,messiah in the last times full of splendour and glory for ,his people arose out of the literal and realistic conception of the ,messianic prophecies of the ,old ,testament4 ,the adoption of the period of a thousand years for its duration rested on the idea that as the world had been created in six days1 so1 according to ,ps4 xc4 #d and #b ,pet4 iii4 #h1 its history would be completed in six thousand years4 ,under the oppression of the ,roman rule this notion came to be regarded as a fundamental doctrine of ,jewish faith and hope 7,matt4 xx4 #ba2 ,acts i4 #f74 ,the ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john was chiefly influential in elaborating the ,christian chiliastic theory4 ,in chap4 xx4 under the guise of vision the doctrine is set forth that after the finally victorious conflict of the present age there will be a first and partial resurrection1 the risen saints shall reign with ,christ a thousand years1 and then after another revolt of ,satan that is soon suppressed the present age will be closed in the second universal resurrection1 the judgment of the world and the creation of new heavens and a new earth4 ,what fantastic notions of the glory of the thousand years' reign might be developed from such passages1 is seen in the traditional saying of the ,lord given by ,papias 7,iren41 v4 #cc7 about the wonderful fruitfulness of the earth during the millennium3 one vine-stock will bear #aj1jjj stems 7palmites71 each stem will have #aj1jjj branches 7bracchia71 each branch #aj1jjj twigs 7flagella71 each twig #aj1jjj clusters 7botrus71 each cluster #aj1jjj grapes1 and every grape will yield #be measures of wine2 8et quum eorum apprehenderit aliquis ,sanctorum1 alius clamabit3 ,botrus ego melior sum1 me sume1 per me ,dominum benedic60 ,after the time of ,papias ,chiliasm became the favourite doctrine of the ,christians who under the severe pressure of pagan persecution longed for the early return of the ,lord4 ,the ,apologists of the #bnd century do indeed pass it over in silence1 but only perhaps because it seemed to them impolitic to give it a marked prominence in works directly addressed to the pagan rulers2 at least ,justin ,martyr does not scruple in the ,dialog4 c4 ,tryph4 addressed to another class of readers to characterize it as a genuinely orthodox doctrine4 ,asia ,minor was the chief seat of these views1 where1 as we have seen 7 #dj71 ,montanism also in its most fanatical and exaggerated form was elevated into a fundamental article of the ,christian faith4 ,irenus enthusiastically adopted chiliastic views and gave a full though fairly moderate exposition of them in his great work against the ,gnostics 7v4 #bd-cf74 ,tertullian also championed these notions1 at the same time rejecting many outgrowths of a grossly carnal nature 7,adv4 ,marc41 iii4 #bd1 and in a work no longer extant1 ,de spe fidelium74 ,the most vigorous opposition is shown to ,chiliasm by the ,alogians1 ,praxeas the ,patripassian and ,caius of ,rome1 who were also the determined opponents of ,montanism4 ,the last named indeed went so far in his controversial writing against ,proclus the ,montanist1 as to ascribe the authorship of the ,johannine ,apocalypse to the heretic ,cerinthus 7 #bg1 #a74 ,the ,alexandrian spiritualists too1 especially ,origen 7,de ,prin41 ii4 #aa71 were decided opponents of every form of ,chiliasm and explained away the ,scripture passages on which it was built by means of allegorical interpretation4 ,nevertheless even in ,egypt it had numerous adherents4 ,at their head about the middle of the #crd cent4 stood the learned bishop ,nepos of ,arsinoe1 whose directed against the ,alexandrians is no longer extant4 ,after his death his party under the leadership of the presbyter ,coracion separated from the church of ,alexandria1 the bishop ,dionysius the ,great going down himself expressly to ,arsinoe in order to heal the breach4 ,in a conference of the leaders of the parties continued for three days he secured the sincere respect of the dissentients by his counsels1 and even ,coracion was induced to make a formal recantation4 ,dionysius then wrote for the confirmation of the converts his book3 4 ,but not long after1 opposition to the spiritualism of the school of ,origen made ,methodius1 the bishop of ,olympus1 play the part of a new herald of ,chiliasm1 and in the ,west1 ,commodian1 ,victor of ,poitiers1 and especially ,lactantius1 became its zealous advocates in a particularly materialistic form4 ,its day1 however1 was already past4 ,what tended most to work its complete overthrow was the course of events under ,constantine4 ,amid the rejoicings of the national church as a present reality1 interest in the expectation of a future thousand years' reign was lost4 ,among post-,constantine church teachers only ,apollinaris the ,younger favoured ,chiliasm 7 #dg1 #e74 ,jerome indeed1 in deference to the cloud of witnesses from the ancient church1 does not venture to pronounce it heretical1 but treats it with scornful ridicule2 and ,augustine 7,de civ4 ,dei71 though at an earlier period not unfavourable to it1 sets it aside by showing that the scriptural representations of the thousand years' reign are to be understood as referring to the church obtaining dominion through the overthrow of the pagan ,roman empire1 the thousand years being a period of indefinite duration1 and the first resurrection being interpreted of the reception of saints and martyrs into heaven as sharers in the glory of ,christ4--,see ,candlish1 8,the ,kingdom of ,god40 ,edin41 #ahhd4 ,especially pp4 #dji-dae1 8,augustine on the ,city of ,god40 ,,iv4 ,,constitution1 ,,worship1 ,,life ,,and ,,discipline4#id #cd4 ,,the ,,inner ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,church4#ie ,from the beginning of the #bnd cent4 the episcopal constitution was gradually built up1 and the superiority of one bishop over the whole body of the other presbyters 7 #ag1 #f7 won by degrees universal acceptance4 ,the hierarchical tendency inherent in it gained fresh impetus from two causes3 7#a7 from the gradual disappearance of the charismatic endowments which had been continued from the ,apostolic ,age far down into post-,apostolic times1 and the disposition of ecclesiastical leaders more and more to monopolise the function of teaching2 and 7#b7 from the reassertion of the idea of a special priesthood as a divine institution and the adoption of ,old ,testament conceptions of church officers4 ,the antithesis of ,ordo or 7sc4 7 and ,plebs or 77 when once expression had been given to it1 tended to become even more marked and exclusive4 ,in consequence of the successful extension of the churches the functions1 rights and duties of the existing spiritual offices came to be more precisely determined and for the discharge of lower ecclesiastical service new offices were created4 ,thus arose the partition of the clergy into ,ordines majores and ,ordines minores4 ,as it was in the provincial capital that common councils were held1 which were convened1 at first in consequence of the requirements of the hour1 afterwards as regular institutions 7,provincial ,synods71 the bishop of the particular capital assumed the president's chair4 ,among the metropolitans pre-eminence was claimed by churches founded by ,apostles 7sedes apostolic71 especially those of ,rome1 ,antioch1 ,jerusalem1 ,alexandria1 ,ephesus and ,corinth4 ,to the idea of the unity and catholicity of the church1 which was maintained and set forth with ever increasing decision1 was added the idea of the ,apostle ,peter being the single individual representative of the church4 ,this latter notion was founded on the misunderstood word of the ,lord1 ,matt4 xvi4 #ah1 #ai4 ,rome1 as the capital of the world1 where ,peter and ,paul suffered death as martyrs 7 #af1 #a71 arrogated to itself the name of ,chair 7,cathedra7 of ,peter and transferred the idea of the individual representation of the church to its bishops as the supposed successors of ,peter4 #cd4a4 ,the ,continuation of ,charismatic ,endowments into ,post-,apostolic ,times has1 by means of the ,apostolic ,didache recently rendered accessible to us 7 #cj1 #g71 not only received new confirmation1 but their place in the church and their relation to it has been put in a far clearer light4 ,in essential agreement with #a ,cor4 xii4 #bh1 and ,eph4 iv4 #aa 7 #ag1 #e71 it presents to us the three offices of ,apostle1 ,prophet and ,teacher4 ,the ,pastors and ,teachers of the ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 as well as of the passage from ,corinthians1 are grouped together in one2 and the ,evangelists1 that is1 helpers of the ,apostles1 appear now after the decease of the original ,apostles1 as their successors and heirs of their missionary calling under the same title of ,apostles4 ,hermas indeed speaks only of ,apostles and ,teachers2 but he himself appears as a ,prophet and so witnesses to the continuance of that office4 ,the place and task of the three offices are still the same as described in #ag1 #e from ,eph4 iv4 #aa1 #ab and ii4 #bj4 ,these three were not chosen like the bishops and deacons by the congregations1 but appointment and qualifications for office were dependent on a divine call1 somewhat like that of ,acts xiii4 #b-d1 or on a charism that had evidently and admittedly been bestowed on them4 ,they are further not permanent officials in particular congregations but travel about in the exercise of their teaching function from church to church4 ,prophets and ,teachers1 however1 but not ,apostles1 might settle down permanently in a particular church4--,in reference exclusively to the ,apostles the ,didache teaches as follows3 ,in the case of their visiting an already constituted church they should stay there at furthest only two days and should accept provision only for one day's journey but upon no account any money 7,matt4 x4 #i1 #aj74 ,eusebius too1 in his ,ch4 ,hist41 iii4 #cg1 tells that after the death of the twelve the gospel was successfully spread abroad in all lands by means of itinerating ,apostolic men1 whom he designates1 however1 by the old name of evangelists1 and praises them for having according to the command of the ,lord 7,matt4 x4 and ,luke x47 parted their possessions among the poor1 and having adhered strictly to the rule of everywhere laying only the foundations of the faith and leaving the further care of what they had planted to the settled pastors4--,the ,didache assigns the second place to the ,prophets3 they too1 inasmuch as like the ,apostles they are itinerants1 are without a fixed residence2 but they are distinguished from the latter by having their teaching functions directed not to the founding of a church but only to its edification1 and in this respect they are related to the ,teachers4 ,their distinguishing characteristic1 however1 is the possession of the charism of prophesying in the wider sense1 whereas the ,teachers' charism consisted in the and the 7 #ag1 #a74 ,when they enter into a church as 1 that church may not1 according to the ,didache1 in direct opposition to #a ,thess4 v4 #ba2 #a ,cor4 xii4 #aj2 xiv4 #bi2 #a ,john iv4 #a1 exercise the right of trying their doctrine1 for that would be to commit the sin against the ,holy ,ghost who speaks through them1 but the church may inquire of their life1 and thus distinguish true prophets from the false4 ,if they wish to settle down in a particular church1 that church should make provision for their adequate maintenance by surrendering to them1 after the pattern of the ,mosaic law1 all firstlings of cattle1 and first fruits of grain and oil and wine1 and also the first portion of their other possessions1 8for they are your high priests40 ,this phrase means either1 that for them they are with their prophetic gift what the high priests of the old covenant with their ,urim and ,thummim were to ancient ,israel1 or1 as ,harnack understands it on the basis of chap4 x4 #g3 1 while ordinary ministers had to confine themselves to the usual formularies1 that they were pre-eminently entrusted with the administration of the ,lord's ,supper which was the crowning part of the worship4 ,if1 however1 there were no ,prophets present1 these first fruits were to be distributed among the poor4--,the rank also of ,teachers 71 ,doctores7 is still essentially the same as described in #ag1 #e4 ,as their constant association with the ,apostles and ,prophets would lead us to expect1 they also were properly itinerant teachers1 who like the ,prophets had to minister to the establishment of existing churches in the ,christian life1 in faith and in hope4 ,but when they settled down in a particular church1 whether in consequence of that church's special needs1 or with its approval in accordance with their own wish1 that church had to provide for their maintenance according to the principle that the labourer is worthy of his reward4 ,the author of the ,didache1 as appears from the whole tenor of his book1 was himself such a teacher4 ,hermas1 who at the same time makes no mention of the ,prophets1 speaks only twice and that quite incidentally of the ,teachers1 without indicating particularly their duties and privileges4--,the continuance of those three extraordinary offices down to the end of the #bnd cent4 was of the utmost importance4 ,the numerous churches scattered throughout all lands had not as yet a firmly established ,new ,testament ,canon nor any one general symbol in the form of a confession of faith1 and so were without any outward bond of union3 but these ,teachers1 by means of their itinerant mode of life and their authoritative position1 which was for the first time clearly demonstrated by ,harnack1 contributed powerfully to the development of the idea of ecclesiastical unity4 ,according to ,harnack1 the composition of the so-called ,catholic ,epistles and similar early ,christian literature is to be assigned to them1 and in this way he would account for the ,apostolic features which are discoverable in these writings4 ,he would not1 however1 attribute to them the fiction of claiming for their works an ,apostolic origin1 but supposes that the subsequently added superscriptions and the author's name in the address rest upon an erroneous tradition4--,the gradual disappearance of charismatic offices was mainly the result of the endeavour1 that became more and more marked during the #bnd cent41 after the adoption of current social usages and institutions1 which necessarily led to a repression of the enthusiastic spirit out of which those offices had sprung and which could scarcely reconcile itself with what seemed to it worldly compromises and concessions4 ,the fanatical and eccentric pretension to prophetic gifts in ,montanism1 with its uncompromising rigour 7 #dj7 and its withdrawal from church fellowship1 gave to these charismatic offices their deadly blow4 ,a further cause of their gradual decay may certainly be found in their relation to the growing episcopal hierarchy4 ,at the time of the ,didache1 which knows nothing of a subordination of presbyters under the bishop 7indeed like ,phil4 i4 #a1 it makes no mention of presbyters71 this relation was one of thoroughly harmonious co-ordination and co-operation4 ,in the #acth chap4 the exhortation is given to choose only faithful and approved men as bishops and deacons1 8for they too discharge for you and so they represent along with those the among you40 ,the service of prophets1 according to the ,didache1 was pre-eminently that of the and so there was entrusted to them the consecration of the elements in the ,lord's ,supper4 ,this service the bishops and deacons discharged1 inasmuch as1 in addition to their own special duties as presidents of the congregation charged with its administration and discipline1 they were required in the absence of prophets to conduct the worship4 ,then also they had to officiate as ,teachers 7#a ,tim4 v4 #ag7 when occasion required and the necessary qualifications were possessed4 ,but this peaceful co-operating of the two orders undoubtedly soon and often gave place to unseemly rivalry1 and the hierarchical spirit obtruding itself in the ,protepiscopate 7 #ag1 #f71 which first of all reduced its colleagues from their original equality to a position of subordination soon asserted itself over against the extraordinary offices which had held a place co-ordinate with and in the department of doctrine and worship even more authoritative and important than that of the bishops themselves4 ,they were only too readily successful in having their usurpation of their offices recognised as bearing the authority of a divine appointment4 ,these soon completed the theory of the hierarchical and monarchical rank of the clergy and the absurd pretension to having obtained from ,god the absolute fulness of ,his ,spirit and absolute sovereign power4 #cd4b4 ,the ,development of the ,episcopal ,hierarchy was the result of an evolution which in existing circumstances was not only natural but almost necessary4 ,in the deliberations and consultations of the college of presbyters constituting the ecclesiastical court1 just as in every other such assembly1 it must have been the invariable custom to confer upon one of their number1 generally the eldest1 or at least the one among them most highly esteemed1 the presidency1 committing to him the duty of the orderly conduct of the debates1 as well as the formulating1 publishing and enforcing of their decrees4 ,this president must soon have won the pre-eminent authority of a primus inter pares1 and have come to be regarded as an of higher rank4 ,from such a primacy to supremacy1 and from that to a monarchical position1 the progress was natural and easy4 ,in proportion as the official authority1 the 1 concentrated itself more and more in the president1 the official title1 1 at first by way of eminence1 then absolutely1 was appropriated to him4 ,this would be all the more easily effected since1 owing to the twofold function of the office 7 #ag1 #e1 #f71 he who presided in the administrative council still bore the title of 4 ,it was not accomplished1 however1 without a long continued struggle on the part of the presbyters who were relegated to a subordinate rank1 which occasioned keen party contentions and divisions lasting down even into the #crd century 7 #da74 ,but the need of the churches to have in each one man to direct and control was mightier than this opposition4 ,that need was most keenly felt when the church was threatened with division and dissolution by the spread of heretical and separatist tendencies4 ,the need of a single president in the local churches was specially felt in times of violent persecution1 and still more just after the persecution had ceased when multitudes who had fallen away during the days of trial sought to be again restored to the membership of the church 7 #ci1 #b71 in order to secure the reorganization of the institution which1 by violence from without and weakness within1 had been so sorely rent4 ,both in the ,old and in the ,new ,testament there seemed ground for regarding the order of things that had grown up in the course of time as jure divino and as existing from the beginning4 ,after the idea of a distinct sacerdotal class had again found favour1 the distribution of the clergy in the ,old ,testament into ,high priest1 priests and ,levites was supposed to afford an exact analogy to that of the episcopate1 presbyterate and diaconate4 ,to effect this the charismatic offices of teaching had to be ignored and their divinely ordained functions had to be set aside4 ,it was even supposed that the relative ranks in the offices of the ,christian church must be determined by the corresponding orders in the ,old ,testament4 ,then in the gospels1 it seemed as if the relations of ,christ to ,his disciples corresponded to that of the bishop to the presbyters2 and from the ,acts of the ,apostles the preponderating authority of ,james at the head of the ,jerusalem presbytery or eldership 7 #ag1 #b7 might be used as a witness for the supremacy of the bishop4 ,the oldest and most important contender for the monarchical rank of the bishop is the author of the ,ignatian ,epistles 7 #cj1 #e74 ,in every bishop he sees the representative of ,christ1 and in the college of presbyters the representatives of the ,apostles4 ,in the ,clementines too the bishop appears as 4 ,this view also finds expression in the ,apostolic ,constitutions 7#b1 #bf71 and even in the writings of ,dionysius the ,areopagite 7 #dg1 #aa74 ,another theory1 according to which the bishops are successors of the ,apostles and as such heirs of the absolute dominion conferred in ,matt4 xiv4 #ah1 #ai upon ,peter and through him on all the ,apostles1 sprang up in the ,west and gained currency by means of ,cyprian's eloquent enunciation of it 7 #cd1 #g74 #cd4c4 ,the ,regular ,ecclesiastical ,offices of the ,old ,catholic ,age4 ,the ,ordines ,majores embraced the ,bishops1 ,presbyters and ,deacons4 ,upon the ,bishop1 elected by the people and the clergy in common1 there devolved in his monarchical position the supreme conduct of all the affairs of the church4 ,the exclusively episcopal privileges were these3 the ordination of presbyters and deacons1 the absolving of the penitent1 according to strict rule also the consecration of the eucharistic elements1 in later times also the right of speaking at ,synods1 and in the ,west also the confirmation of the baptised4 ,in large cities where a single church was no longer sufficient daughter churches were instituted4 ,country churches founded outside of the cities were supplied with presbyters and deacons from the city4 ,if they increased in importance1 they chose for themselves their own bishop1 who remained1 however1 as dependent upon the city bishop4 ,thus distinctly official episcopal dioceses came to be formed4 ,and just as the city bishops had a pre-eminence over the country bishops1 so also the bishops of the chief cities of provinces soon came as metropolitans to have a pre-eminence over those of other cities4 ,to them was granted the right of calling and presiding at the ,synods1 and of appointing and ordaining the bishops of their province4 ,the name ,metropolitan1 however1 was first used in the ,acts of the ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe4--,the ,presbyters were now only the advisers and assistants of the bishop1 whose counsel and help he accepted just in such ways and at such times as seemed to him good4 ,they were employed in the directing of the affairs of the church1 in the administration of the sacrament1 in preaching and in pastoral work1 but only at the bidding or with the express permission of the bishop4 ,during the following period for the first time1 when demands had multiplied1 and the episcopal authority was no longer in need of being jealously guarded1 were their functions enlarged to embrace an independent pastoral care1 preaching and dispensation of the sacraments for which they were personally responsible4--,in regard to official position the ,deacons had a career just the converse of this2 for their importance increased just as the range of their official functions was enlarged4 ,seeing that in the earliest times they had occupied a position subordinate to the presbyter-bishops1 they could not be regarded in this way as their rivals2 and the development of the proto-presbyterate into a monarchical episcopate was too evidently in their own interests to awaken any opposition on their part4 ,they therefore stood in a far closer relation to the bishops than did the presbyters4 ,they were his confidants1 his companions in travel1 often also his deputies and representatives at the ,synods4 ,to them he committed the distribution of the church's alms1 for which their original charge of the poor qualified them4 ,to these duties were added also many of the parts of divine service2 they baptised under the commission of the bishop1 obtained and prepared the sacramental elements1 handed round the cup1 at the close of the service carried to the sick and imprisoned the body and blood of the ,lord1 intimated the beginning and the close of the various parts of divine service1 recited the public prayers1 read the gospels1 and kept order during worship4 ,often1 too1 they preached the sermon4 ,in consequence of the preponderating position given to the ,old ,testament idea of the priesthood the bishop was compared to the high priest1 the presbyters to the priests1 and the deacons to the ,levites1 and so too did they already assume the name1 from which the ,german word 8,priester10 ,english 8,priest10 ,french 8,prtre10 ,italian 8,prte10 is derived4 ,among the ,ordines ,minores the oldest was the office of ,reader1 4 ,in the time of ,cyprian this place was heartily accorded to the ,confessors4 ,in later times it was usual to begin the clerical career with service in the readership4 ,the duties of this office were the public reading of the longer scripture portions and the custody of the sacred books4 ,somewhat later than the readership the office of the ,subdiaconi1 was instituted4 ,they were assistants to the ,deacons1 and as such took first rank among the ,ordines ,minores1 and of these were alone regarded as worthy of ordination4 ,toward the end of the #crd century the office of the ,cantores1 1 was instituted for the conducting of the public service of praise4 ,the ,acolytes1 who are met with in ,rome first about the middle of the #crd century1 were those who accompanied the bishop as his servants4 ,the ,exorcists discharged the spiritual function of dealing with those possessed of evil spirits1 1 1 over whom they had to repeat the public prayers and the formula of exorcism4 ,as there was also an exorcism associated with baptism1 the official functions of the exorcists extended to the catechumens4 ,the ,ostiarii or ,janitores1 1 1 occupied the lowest position4--,in the larger churches for the instruction of the catechumens there were special ,catechists appointed1 ,doctores audientium1 and where the need was felt1 especially in the churches of ,north ,africa speaking the ,punic tongue1 there were also ,interpreters whose duty it was to translate and interpret the scripture lessons4 ,to the ,deaconesses1 for the most part widows or virgins1 was committed the care of the poor and sick1 the counselling of inexperienced women and maidens1 the general oversight of the female catechumens4 ,they had no clerical character4--,the ,ordination of the clergy was performed by the laying on of hands4 ,those were disqualified who had just recently been baptised or had received baptism only during severe illness 7,neophyti1 ,clinici71 also all who had been excommunicated and those who had mutilated themselves4--,continuation1 #de1 #c4 #cd4d4 ,clergy and ,laity4--,the idea that a priestly mediation between sinful men and a gracious deity was necessary had been so deeply implanted in the religious consciousness of pre-,christian antiquity1 pagan as well as ,jewish1 that a form of public worship without a priesthood seemed almost as inconceivable as a religion without a god4 ,and even though the inspired writings of the ,new ,testament decidedly and expressly taught that the pre-,christian or ,old ,testament institution of a special human priesthood had been abolished and merged in the one eternal mediation of the exalted ,son of ,god and ,son of man1 and that there was now a universal spiritual priesthood of all ,christians with the right and privilege of drawing near even to the heavenly throne of grace 7,heb4 iv4 #af2 #a ,pet4 ii4 #e1 #i2 ,rev4 i4 #f71 yet1 in consequence of the idea of the permanence of ,old ,testament institutions which prevailed1 even in the ,post-,apostolic ,age1 the sacerdotal theory came more and more into favour4 ,this relapse to the ,old ,testament standpoint was moreover rendered almost inevitable by the contemporary metamorphosis of the ecclesiastical office which existed as the necessary basis of human organisation 7 #ag1 #d7 into a hierarchical organisation resting upon an assumed divine institution4 ,for clericalism1 with its claims to be the sole divinely authorised channel for the communication of ,god's grace1 was the correlate and the indispensable support of hierarchism1 with its exclusive claims to legislative1 judicial1 disciplinary and administrative precedence in the affairs of the church4 ,the reaction which ,montanism 7 #dj7 initiated in the interests of the ,christian people against the hierarchical and clerical tendencies spreading throughout the church1 was without result owing to its extreme extravagance4 ,tertullian emphasised indeed very strongly the ,apostolic idea of the universal priesthood of all ,christians1 but in ,cyprian this is allowed to fall quite behind the priesthood of the clergy and ultimately came to be quite forgotten4--,the ,old ,catholic ,age1 however1 shows many reminiscences of the original relation of the congregation to the ecclesiastical officers1 or as it would now be called1 of the laity to the clergy4 ,that the official teaching of religion and preaching in the public assemblies of the church1 although as a rule undertaken by the ,ordines majores1 might even then in special circumstances and with due authorisation be discharged by laymen1 was shown by the ,catechetical institution at ,alexandria and by the case of ,origen who when only a ,catechist often preached in the church4 ,the ,apostolic ,constitutions1 too1 #h1 #ca1 supported the view that laymen1 if only they were skilful in the word and of irreproachable lives1 should preach by a reference to the promise3 8,they shall be all taught of ,god40 ,the repeated expressions of disapproval of the administration of the eucharist by laymen in the ,ignatian ,epistles presupposes the frequent occurrence of the practice2 ,tertullian would allow it in case of necessity1 for 8,ubi tres1 ecclesia est1 licet laici40 ,likewise in reference to the administration of baptism he teaches that under ordinary circumstances propter ecclesi honorem it should be administered only by the bishop and the clergy appointed by him to the work1 alioquin 7e4g4 in times of persecution7 etiam laicis jus est4 ,this1 too1 is the decision of the ,council of ,elvira in ,a4,d4 #cjf4 ,the report which ,cyprian gives of his procedure in regard to the vast number of the ,lapsi of his time 7 #ci1 #b2 #da1 #b7 affords evidence that at least in extraordinary and specially difficult cases of discipline the whole church was consulted4 ,the people's right to take part in the choice of their minister had not yet been questioned1 and their assistance at least in the ,synods was never refused4 #cd4e4 ,the ,synods4--,the ,council of ,apostles at ,jerusalem 7,acts xv47 furnished an example of ,synodal deliberation and issuing of decrees4 ,but even in the pagan world such institutions had existed4 ,the old religio-political confederacies in ,greece and ,asia ,minor had indeed since the time of the ,roman conquest lost their political significance2 but their long accustomed assemblies 7 1 ,concilia7 continued to meet in the capitals of the provinces under the presidency of the ,roman governor4 ,the fact that the same nomenclature was adopted seems to show that they were not without formal influence on the origin of the institution of the church synod4 ,the first occasion for such meetings was given by the ,montanist movements in ,asia ,minor 7 #dj1 #a72 and soon thereafter by the controversies about the observance of ,easter 7 #cg1 #b74 ,in the beginning of the #crd century the ,provincial ,synods had already assumed the position of fixed and regularly recurring institutions4 ,in the time of ,cyprian1 the presbyters and deacons took an active part in the ,synods alongside of the bishops1 and the people generally were not prevented from attending4 ,no decision could be arrived at without the knowledge and the acquiescence of the members of the church4 ,from the time of the ,nicene ,council1 in ,a4,d4 #cbe1 the bishops alone had a vote and the presence of the laity was more and more restricted4 ,the decrees of ,synods were communicated to distant churches by means of ,synodal rescripts1 and even in the #crd century the claim was made in these1 in accordance with ,acts xv41 to the immediate enlightenment of the ,holy ,spirit4--,continuation1 #dc1 #b4 #cd4f4 ,personal and ,epistolary ,intercourse4--,from the very earliest times the ,christian churches of all lands maintained a regular communication with one another through messengers or itinerating brethren4 ,the ,teaching of the ,,xii4 ,apostles furnishes the earliest account of this3 ,any one who comes from another place in the name of the ,lord shall be received as a brother2 one who is on his journey1 however1 shall not accept the hospitality of the church for more than two1 or at furthest than three days2 but if he chooses to remain in the place1 he must engage in work for his own support1 in which matter the church will help him2 if he will not so conduct himself he is to be sent back as a 1 who has been seeking to make profit out of his profession of ,christ4 ,the ,didache knows nothing as yet of the letters of authentication among the earlier messengers of the church which soon became necessary and customary4 ,as a guarantee against the abuse of this custom such 7#b ,cor4 iii4 #a7 had come into use even in ,tertullian's time1 who speaks of a ,contesseratio hospitalitatis1 in such a form that they were understood only by the initiated as recognisable tokens of genuineness1 and were hence called ,litter format1 or 4 ,the same care was also taken in respect of important epistolary communications from one church to another or to other churches4 ,among these were included1 e4g4 the ,synodal rescripts1 the so-called by which the newly-chosen bishops intimated their entrance upon office to the other bishops of their district1 the ,epistol festales 7paschales7 regarding the celebration of a festival1 especially the ,easter festival 7 #ef1 #c71 communications about important church occurrences1 especially about martyrdoms 7 #cb1 #h71 etc4 ,according to ,optatus of ,mileve 7 #fc1 #a73 8,totus orbis0 could boast of 8comnmercio formatarum in una communionis societate concordat40 #cd4g4 ,the ,unity and ,catholicity of the ,church4--,the fact that ,christianity was destined to be a religion for the world1 which should embrace all peoples and tongues1 and should permeate them all with one spirit and unite them under one heavenly head1 rested upon the presupposition that the church was one and universal or catholic4 ,the inward unity of the spirit demanded also a corresponding unity in manifestation4 ,it is specially evident from the ,teaching of the ,,xii4 ,apostles that the consciousness of the unity of the church had deeply rooted itself even in the ,post-,apostolic ,age 7 #bj1 #a74 8,the points which according to it prove the unity of ,christendom are the following3 firstly1 the disciplina in accordance with the ethical requirements of the ,lord1 secondly1 baptism in the name of the ,father1 ,son and ,holy ,spirit1 thirdly1 the order of fasting and prayer1 especially the regular use of the ,lord's ,prayer1 and fourthly and lastly1 the eucharist1 i4e4 the sacred meal in partaking of which the church gives thanks to ,god1 the creator of all things1 for the revelation imparted to it through ,jesus1 for faith and knowledge and immortality1 and implores the fulfilment of its hope1 the overthrow of this world1 the coming again of ,christ1 and reception into the kingdom of ,god4 ,he who has this doctrine and acts in accordance with it is a #8,christian1' belongs to #8the saints1' is a #8brother1' and ought to be received even as the ,lord0 7,harnack74 ,the struggle against the ,gnostics had the effect of transforming this primitive ,christian idea of unity into a consciousness of the necessity of adopting a common doctrinal formula1 which again this controversy rendered much more definite and precise1 to which a concise popular expression was given in one common ,regula fidei 7 #ce1 #b71 and by means of which the specific idea of catholicity was developed 7 #bj1 #b74--,the misleading and dangerous thing about this construction and consolidation of one great ,catholic church was that every deviation from external forms in the constitution and worship as well as erroneous doctrine1 immorality and apostasy1 was regarded as a departing from the one ,catholic church1 the body of ,christ1 and consequently1 since not only the body was put upon the same level with the head1 but even the garment of the body was identified with the body itself1 as a separating from the communion of ,christ1 involving the loss of salvation and eternal blessedness4 ,this notion received a powerful impulse during the #bnd century when the unity of the church was threatened by heresies1 sects and divisions4 ,it reached its consummation and won the ,magna ,charta of its perfect enunciation in ,cyprian's book ,de ,unitate ,ecclesi4 ,in the monarchical rank of the bishop of each church1 as the representative of ,christ1 over the college of presbyters1 as representatives of the ,apostles1 ,ignatius of ,antioch sees the guarantee of the church's unity4 ,according to ,cyprian1 this unity has its expression in the ,apostolate2 in the ,episcopate it has its support4 ,the promise of ,christ1 ,matt4 xvi4 #ah1 is given to ,peter1 not as the head but as the single representative of the ,apostles 7,john xx4 #ba74 ,the ,apostolic office1 with the promise attached to it1 passed from the ,apostles by means of ordination to the bishops4 ,these1 through their monarchical rank1 represent continuously for the several churches 7,ecclesia est in episcopo71 and through their combined action1 for the whole of ,christendom1 the unity of the church2 ,episcopatus unus est1 cujus a singulus in solidum1 pars tenetur4 ,all the bishops1 just as all the ,apostles1 have perfect parity with one another2 pares consortio1 jure et honore4 ,each of them is a successor of ,peter and heir of the promise given first to ,peter but for all4--,he who cuts himself off from the bishops1 cuts himself off from the church4 ,habere non potest ,deum patrem1 qui ecclesiam non habet matrem4444 ,extra ecclesiam nulla spes salutis4 ,alongside of the ,apostolic writings1 the tradition which prevailed among the ,apostolic churches 7,sedes apostolic7 was regarded as a standard of catholicity in constitution1 worship and doctrine2 indeed1 it must even have ranked above the ,apostolic writings themselves in settling the question of the ,new ,testament ,canon 7 #cf1 #h71 until these had secured general circulation and acceptance4 #cd4h4 ,the ,roman ,primacy4--,the claims of the ,roman bishopric to the primacy over the whole church1 which reached its fuller development in the #dth and #eth centuries 7 #df1 #g71 were founded originally and chiefly on the assertion that the promise of ,matt4 xvi4 #ah1 #ai1 was given only and exclusively to the ,apostle ,peter as the ,primate of the ,apostles and the head of the church4 ,this assumption overlooked the fact that in ,matt4 xviii4 #ah and ,john xx4 #ba ff41 this promise was given with reference to all the ,apostles4 ,these claims were further supposed to be supported by the words addressed to ,peter1 8strengthen thy brethren0 7,luke xxii4 #ca71 which seemed to accord to ,peter a primacy over his fellow ,apostles2 and also by the interpretation given of ,john xxi4 #ae ff41 where 8lambs0 were understood of laymen and 8sheep0 of the ,apostles4 ,it was likewise assumed that the bishop of ,rome was the successor of ,peter1 and so the legitimate and only heir of all his prerogatives4 ,the fable of the ,roman bishopric of ,peter 7 #af1 #a7 was at an early period unhesitatingly adopted1 all the more because no one expected the results which in later times were deduced from a quite different understanding of ,matt4 xvi4 #ah4 ,during this whole period such consequences were never dreamt of either by a ,roman bishop or by anybody else4 ,only this was readily admitted at least by the ,west that ,rome was the foremost of all the ,apostolic churches1 that there the ,apostolic tradition had been preserved in its purest form1 and that1 therefore1 its bishops should have a particularly influential voice in all questions that were to be judged of by the whole episcopate1 and the ,roman bishops were previously content with taking advantage of this concession in the largest measure possible4#if #ce4 ,,the ,,administration ,,of ,,baptism4#ig ,as an indispensable means to participation in salvation and as a condition of reception into the communion of the church1 baptism was practised from the earliest times4 ,infant baptism1 though not universally adopted1 was yet in theory almost universally admitted to be proper4 ,tertullian alone is found opposing it4 ,all adults who desired baptism had1 as ,catechumens1 to pass through a course of training under a ,christian teacher4 ,many1 however1 voluntarily and purposely postponed their baptism1 frequently even to a deathbed1 in order that all the sins of their lives might be certainly removed by baptismal grace4 ,after a full course of instruction had been passed through1 the ,catechumens prepared themselves for baptism by prayer and fasting1 and before the administration of the sacred ordinance they were required to renounce the devil and all his works 7,abrenuntiare diabolo et pomp et angelis ejus7 and to recite a confession of their faith4 ,the controversy as to whether baptism administered by heretics should be regarded as valid was conducted with great bitterness during the #crd century4 #ce4a4 ,the ,preparation for ,receiving ,baptism4--,after a complete exposition of the evangelical moral code in chap4 #a-f1 the ,teaching of the ,,xii4 ,apostles proceeds thus3 1 etc4 ,at this time1 therefore1 besides the necessarily presupposed acquaintance with the chief points in the gospel history1 the initiation into the moral doctrine of the gospel of the person receiving baptism was regarded as most essential in the baptismal instruction4 ,in this passage there is no mention of a doctrinal course of teaching based upon a symbol4 ,but what here is still wanting is given in a summary way in chaps4 #g ff4 in the instructions about baptism and the ,lord's supper attached to the baptismal formula and the eucharistic prayers4 ,this therefore was reserved for that worship from which the candidates for baptism and the newly baptized had to gather their faith and hope as to the future completion of the kingdom of ,god4 ,first the struggle against ,gnosticism obliged the church to put more to the front the doctrines of faith which were thereby more fully developed1 and to concern itself with these questions even in the instruction of the ,catechumens4 ,the custom1 which the ,didache and ,justin ,martyr show to have been prevalent in post-,apostolic times1 of the baptiser together with others voluntarily offering themselves taking part with the candidate for baptism in completing the preparation for the holy ordinance by observing a two days' fast1 seems soon1 so far as the baptiser and the others were concerned1 to have fallen into desuetude1 and is never again mentioned4--,since the development of the ,old ,catholic church the preparation of candidates for baptism has been divided into two portions of very unequal duration1 namely1 that of instruction1 for which on an average a period of two years was required1 and that of immediate preparation by prayer and fasting after the instructions had been completed4 ,during the former period the aspirants were called 1 ,catechumeni2 during the latter1 1 ,competentes4 ,as to their participation in the public divine service1 the ,catechumens were first of all as admitted only to the hearing of the sermon1 and had thus no essential privileges over the unbelievers4 ,they first came into closer connection with the church only when it was permitted them to take part in the devotional exercises1 yet only in those portions which had reference to themselves1 kneeling as 1 while also the congregation prayed kneeling4 ,only in cases of dangerous illness could baptism be given before the ,catechumen had completed his full course 7,baptismus ,clinicorum74 ,the ,council of ,neo-,csarea soon after ,a4,d4 #cad ordained that a ,catechumen who as a had been guilty of an open sin1 should be put back to the first stage of the ,catechumenate1 namely1 to that of the 1 and if he then again sinned he should be cast off altogether2 and the cumenical ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe demanded that offending 77 ,catechumens should remain for three years and only then should be allowed to take part in the devotional service of the church4#ih #ce4b4 ,the ,baptismal ,formula4--,in close connection with the words of institution of baptism 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ai7 and hence in a trinitarian framework1 an outline of the doctrine common to all the churches1 introduced first of all as a confession of faith professed by candidates for baptism1 obtained currency at a very early date4 ,only a few unimportant modifications were afterwards made upon it1 and amid all the varieties of provincial and local conditions1 the formula remained essentially the same4 ,hence it could always be properly characterized with ,irenus as 1 and with ,tertullian as immobilis et irreformabilis4 ,as a token of membership in the ,catholic church it is called the ,baptismal ,formula or ,symbolum4 ,after the introduction of the ,disciplina arcani 7 #cf1 #d7 it was included in that1 and hence was kept secret from heathens and even from catechumens1 and first communicated to the competentes4 ,as the 8unalterable and inflexible0 test and standard of the faith and doctrine1 as well as an intellectual bond of union between churches scattered over all the earth1 it was called ,regula fidei and 4 ,that we never find it quoted in the ,old ,catholic ,age1 is to be explained from its inclusion in the disciplina arcani and by this also1 that the ancient church in common with ,jeremiah 7xxxi4 #cc71 laid great stress upon its being engraven not with pen and ink on paper1 but with the pen of the ,holy ,spirit on the hearts of believers4 ,instead then of literal quotation we find among the fathers of the ,old ,catholic ,age 7,irenus1 ,tertullian1 ,origen1 ,novatian1 etc47 only paraphrastic and explanatory references to it which1 seeing that no sort of official sanction was accorded them in the church1 are erroneously spoken of as ,regul fidei4 ,these paraphrases1 however1 are valuable as affording information about the creed of the early church1 because what is found the same in them all must be regarded as an integral part of the original document4 ,in harmony with this is the testimony of ,rufinus1 about ,a4,d4 #cij1 who in his ,expositio ,symb4 apost4 produces three different recensions1 namely1 the ,roman1 the ,aquileian and the ,oriental4 ,the oldest and simplest was that used in ,rome1 traces of which may be found as early as the middle of the #bnd century4 ,in the time of ,rufinus there was a tradition that this ,roman creed had been composed by the ,,xii4 ,apostles in ,jerusalem at the time of their scattering1 as a universal rule of faith1 and had been brought to ,rome by ,peter4 ,it is not quite the same as that known among us as the ,apostles' ,creed4 ,it wants the phrases 8,creator of heaven and earth10 8suffered1 dead1 descended into hell10 8catholic1 communion of saints1 eternal life40 ,the creed of ,aquileia adopted the clause 8,descendit ad infera10 and intensified the clause ,carnis resurrectio by the addition of 8hujus0 and the phrase ,deus pater omnipotens by the addition of the anti-,patripassian predicate 7 #cc1 #d7 invisibilis et impassibilis4 #ce4c4 ,the ,administration of ,baptism4--,according to the showing of the ,teaching of the ,,xii4 ,apostles baptism was ordinarily administered by a thrice-repeated immersion in flowing water in the name of the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,spirit4 ,if there be no flowing water at hand1 any other kind1 even warm water1 may be used1 and in case of necessity sprinkling may be substituted for the thrice-repeated immersion4 ,at a later time sprinkling was limited to the baptism of the sick1 ,baptismus clinicorum4 ,we hear nothing of a consecration of the water to its holy use1 nor is there any mention of the renunciation and exorcism which became customary first in the #crd century through the use of a form of adjuration previously employed only in cases of possession4 ,upon immersion followed an anointing1 7still unknown to the ,didache71 as a symbol of consecration to a spiritual priesthood 7#a ,pet4 ii4 #i71 and then1 in accordance with ,acts viii4 #af f41 the laying on of hands as the vehicle for the communication of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,soon the immersion came to be regarded as the negative part of the ordinance1 the putting away of sin1 and the anointing with the laying on of hands as the positive part1 the communication of the ,spirit4 ,in the ,eastern church presbyters and deacons were permitted to dispense baptism including also the anointing4 ,both1 therefore1 continued there unseparated4 ,in the ,west1 however1 the bishops claimed the laying on of hands as their exclusive right1 referring in support of their claim to ,acts viii4 ,where then the bishop did not himself dispense the baptism1 the laying on of hands as well as the chrismatic anointing was given separately and in addition by him as ,confirmation1 ,confirmatio1 ,consignatio1 which separation1 even when the baptism was administered by a bishop1 soon became the usual and legal practice4 ,nevertheless even in the ,roman church there was at the baptism an anointing with oil which had canonical sanction and was designated chrism1 without prejudice to confirmation as an independent act at a later time4 ,the usual seasons for administering baptism were ,easter1 especially the ,sabbath of ,passion week1 baptism into the death of ,christ1 ,rom4 vi4 #c1 and ,pentecost1 and in the ,east also the ,epiphany4 ,the place for the administration of baptism was regarded as immaterial4 ,with infant baptism was introduced the custom of having sponsors1 1 sponsores1 who as sureties repeated the confession of faith in the name of the unconscious infant receiving the baptism4--,continuation1 #eh1 #a4 #ce4d4 ,the ,doctrine of ,baptism4--,the ,epistle of ,barnabas says3 4 ,hermas says3 ,ascendunt vit assignati4 ,with ,justin the water of baptism is a 1 1 ,according to ,irenus it effects a 4 ,tertullian says3 ,supervenit spiritus de clis1--caro spiritualiter mundatur4 ,cyprian speaks of an unda genitalis1 of a nativitas secunda in novum hominem4 ,firmilian says3 ,nativitas1 qu est in baptismo1 filios ,dei generat4 ,origen calls baptism 4--,of the bloody baptism of martyrdom ,tertullian exclaims3 ,lavacrum non acceptum reprsentat et perditum reddit4 ,hermes and ,clement of ,alexandria maintain that there will be in ,hades a preaching and a baptism for the sake of pious ,gentiles and ,jews4 #ce4e4 ,the ,controversy about ,heretics' ,baptism4--,the church of ,asia ,minor and ,africa denied the validity of baptism administered by heretics2 but the ,roman church received heretics returning to the fold of the ,catholic church1 if only they had been baptized in the name of ,christ or of the ,holy ,trinity1 without a second baptism1 simply laying on the hands as in the case of penitents4 ,stephen of ,rome would tolerate no other than the ,roman custom and hastened to break off church fellowship with those of ,asia ,minor 7,a4,d4 #bec74 ,cyprian of ,carthage whose ideal of the unity of that church in which alone salvation was to be obtained seemed to be overthrown by the ,roman practice1 and ,firmilian of ,csarea in ,cappadocia1 were the most vigorous supporters of the view condemned by ,rome4 ,three ,carthaginian ,synods1 the last and most important in ,a4,d4 #bef1 decided unequivocally in their favour4 ,dionysius of ,alexandria sought to effect a reconciliation by writing a tenderly affectionate address to ,stephen4 ,to this end even more effectively wrought the ,valerian persecution1 which soon afterwards broke out1 during which ,stephen himself suffered martyrdom 7,a4,d4 #beg74 ,thus the controversy reached no conclusion4 ,the ,roman practice1 however1 continued to receive more and more acceptance1 and was confirmed by the first cumenical ,council at ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe1 with the exclusion only of the ,samosatians 7 #cc1 #h72 likewise also at the ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha1 with the exclusion of the ,montanists 7 #dj1 #a71 the ,eunomians 7 #ej1 #c7 and the ,sabellians 7 #cc1 #g74 ,these exceptions1 therefore1 referred mostly to the ,unitarian heretics1 the ,montanists being excluded on account of their doctrine of the ,paraclete4 ,augustine's successful polemic against the ,donatists 7 #fc1 #a71 in his treatise in seven books ,de baptismo first overcame all objections hitherto waged against the validity of baptism administered by heretics derived from the objectivity of the sacrament1 and henceforth all that was required was that it should be given in the name of the three-one ,god4 #cf4 ,,public ,,worship ,,and ,,its ,,various ,,parts4#ii ,there was a tendency from the #bnd century onwards more and more to dissolve the connection of the ,lord's ,supper with the evening ,agape 7 #ag1 #g74 ,trajan's strict prohibition of secret societies1 hetr 7 #bb1 #b7 seems to have given the first occasion for the separation of these two and for the temporary suppression of the love-feasts4 ,the ,lord's ,supper was now observed during the ,sunday forenoon service and the mode of its observance is described even by ,justin ,martyr4 ,in consideration of the requirements of the ,catechumens the service was divided into two parts1 a homiletical and a sacramental1 and from the latter all unbaptized persons1 as well as all under discipline and those possessed of evil spirits1 were excluded4 ,each part of the service was regularly closed by a concluding benediction1 and in the ,west bore the designations respectively of ,missa catechumenorum and ,missa fidelium1 while in the ,east they were distinguished as and 4 ,in connection with this there grew up a notion that the sacramental action had a mysterious character1 ,disciplina arcani4 ,owing to the original connection of the ,supper with the ,agape it became customary to provide the elements used in the ordinance from the voluntary gifts brought by the members of the church1 which were called ,oblationes1 1--a designation which helped to associate the idea of sacrifice with the observance of the ,lord's ,supper4 #cf4a4 ,the ,agape4--,that in consequence of the imperial edict against secret societies1 at least in ,asia ,minor1 the much suspected and greatly maligned love-feasts 7 #bb7 were temporarily abandoned1 appears from the report of ,pliny to the ,emperor1 according to which the ,christians of whom he made inquiries assured him that they had given up the mos coeundi ad capiendum cibum promiscuum4 ,but in ,africa they were still in use or had been revived in the time of ,tertullian1 who in his ,apology makes mention very approvingly of them1 although at a later period1 after he had joined the ,montanists1 he lashes them in his book ,de ,jejuniis with the most stinging sarcasm4 ,clement of ,alexandria too is aware of flagrant abuses committed in connection with those feasts4 ,they continued longest to be observed in connection with the services in commemoration of the dead and on the festivals of martyrs4 ,the ,council of ,laodica1 about the middle of the #dth century1 forbade the holding of these in the churches and the ,second ,trullan ,council in ,a4,d4 #fib renewed this prohibition4 ,after this we find no further mention of them4 #cf4b4 ,the ,missa ,catechumenorum4--,the reading of scripture 71 ,lectio1--comp4 #cf1 #g7 formed the chief exercise during this part of the service4 ,there was unrestricted liberty as to the choice of the portions to be read4 ,it was the duty of the ,readers1 1 to perform this part of the worship1 but frequently ,evangelists on the invitation of the ,deacons would read1 and the whole congregation showed their reverence by standing up4 ,at the close of the reading an expository and practical address 71 1 ,sermo1 ,tractatus7 was given by the bishop or in his absence by a presbyter or deacon1 or even by a ,catechist1 as in the case of ,origen1 and soon1 especially in the ,greek church1 this assumed the form of an artistic1 rhetorical discourse4 ,the reading and exposition of ,god's word were followed by the prayers1 to which the people gave responses4 ,these were uttered partly by the bishop1 partly by the deacons1 and were extemporary utterances of the heart1 though very soon they assumed a stereotyped form4 ,the congregation responded to each short sentence of the prayer with 4 ,in the fully developed order of public worship of the #crd century the prayers were arranged to correspond to the different parts of the service1 for ,catechumens1 energumens 7possessed71 and penitents4 ,after all these came the common prayer of the church for all sorts of callings1 conditions1 and needs in the life of the brethren4 #cf4c4 ,the ,missa ,fidelium4--,the centre of this part of the service was the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,in the time of ,justin ,martyr the liturgy connected therewith was very simple4 ,the brotherly kiss followed the common prayer1 then the sacramental elements were brought in to the ministrant who consecrated them by the prayer of praise and thanksgiving 774 ,the people answered ,amen1 and thereupon the consecrated elements were distributed to all those present4 ,from that prayer the whole ordinance received the name 1 because its consecrating influence made common bread into the bread of the ,supper4 ,much more elaborate is the liturgy in the #hth ,book of the ,apostolic ,constitutions 7 #dc1 #d71 which may be regarded as a fair sample of the worship of the church toward the end of the #crd century4 ,at the close of the sermon during the prayers connected with that part of the service began the withdrawal successively of the ,catechumens1 the energumens and the penitents4 ,then the ,missa fidelium was commenced with the common intercessory prayer of the church4 ,after various collects and responses there followed the brotherly kiss1 exhortation against participation in unworthy pleasures1 preparation of the sacramental elements1 the sign of the cross1 the consecration prayer1 the words of institution1 the elevation of the consecrated elements1 all accompanied by suitable prayers1 hymns1 doxologies and responses4 ,the bishop or presbyter distributed the bread with the words1 2 the deacon passed round the cup with the words1 1 4 ,finally the congregation kneeling received the blessing of the bishop1 and the deacon dismissed them with the words1 4--,the bread was that commonly used1 i4e41 leavened bread 7 72 the wine also was1 according to the custom of time1 mixed with water 771 in which ,cyprian already fancied a symbol of the union of ,christ and the church4 ,in the ,african and ,eastern churches1 founding on ,john vi4 #ec1 children1 of course1 those who had already been baptised1 were allowed to partake of the communion4 ,at the close of the service the deacons carried the consecrated sacramental elements to the sick and imprisoned4 ,in many places a portion of the consecrated bread was taken home1 that the family might use it at morning prayer for the consecration of the new day4 ,no formal act of confession preceded the communion4 ,the need of such an act in consequence of the existing disciplinary and liturgical ordinance had not yet made itself felt4 #cf4d4 ,the ,disciplina ,arcani4--,the notion that the sacramental part of the divine service1 including in this the prayers and hymns connected therewith1 the ,lord's prayer1 administration of baptism and the baptismal formula1 as well as the anointing and the consecration of the priest1 was a mystery 7 1 7 which was to be kept secret from all unbaptised persons 77 and only to be practised in presence of the baptised 771 is quite unknown to ,justin ,martyr and also to ,irenus4 ,justin accordingly describes in his ,apology1 expressly intended for the heathen1 in full detail and without hesitation1 all the parts of the eucharistic service4 ,it was in ,tertullian's time that this notion originated1 and it had its roots in the catechumenate and the consequent partition of the service into two parts1 from the second of which the unbaptised were excluded4 ,the official ,roman ,catholic theology1 on the other hand1 regards the disciplina arcani as an institution existing from the times of the ,apostles1 and from it accounts for the want of patristic support to certain specifically ,roman ,catholic dogmas and forms of worship1 in order that they may1 in spite of the want of such support1 maintain that these had a place in primitive ,christianity4 #cf4e4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,lord's ,supper4--,though the idea was not sharply and clearly defined1 there was yet a widespread and profound conviction that the ,lord's ,supper was a supremely holy mystery1 spiritual food indispensable to eternal life1 that the body and blood of the ,lord entered into some mystical connection with the bread and wine1 and placed the believing partaker of them in true and essential fellowship with ,christ4 ,it was in consequence of the adoption of such modes of expression that the pagan calumnies about ,thyestian feasts 7 #bb7 first gained currency4 ,ignatius calls the ,lord's ,supper a 1 the cup a 1 and professes 4 ,justin ,martyr says3 4 ,according to ,irenus1 it is not communis panis1 sed eucharistia ex duabus rebus constans1 terrena et clesti1 and our bodies by means of its use become jam non corruptibilia1 spem resurrectionis habentia4 ,tertullian and ,cyprian1 too1 stoutly maintain this doctrine1 but incline sometimes to a more symbolical interpretation of it4 ,the spiritualistic ,alexandrians1 ,clement and ,origen1 consider that the feeding of the soul with the divine word is the purpose of the ,lord's ,supper4#ajj--;,continuation #eh1 #b4 #cf4f4 ,the ,sacrificial ,theory4--,when once the sacerdotal theory had gained the ascendancy 7 #cd1 #d7 the correlated notion of a sacrifice could not much longer be kept in the background4 ,and it was just in the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper that the most specious grounds for such a theory were to be found4 ,first of all the prayer1 which formed so important a part of this celebration that the whole service came to be called from it the ,eucharist1 might be regarded as a spiritual sacrifice4 ,then again the gifts brought by the congregation for the dispensation of the sacrament were called 1 ,oblationes1 names which were already in familiar use in connection with sacrificial worship4 ,and just as the congregation offered their contributions to the ,supper1 so also the priests offered them anew in the sacramental action1 and also to this priestly act was given the name 1 4 ,then again1 not only the prayer but the ,supper itself was designated a 1 ,sacrificium1 though at first indeed in a non-literal1 figurative sense4--,continuation #eh1 #c4 #cf4g4 ,the ,use of ,scripture4--,in consequence of their possessing but few portions of ,scripture1 the references of the ,apostolic ,fathers to the ,new ,testament books must necessarily be only occasional4 ,the synoptic gospels are most frequently quoted1 though these are referred to only as a whole under the name 4 ,in ,justin ,martyr the references become more frequent1 yet even here there are no express citation of passages2 only once1 in the ,dialogue1 is the ,revelation of ,john named4 ,he mentions as his special source for the life and works of ,jesus the 4 ,what he borrows from this source is for the most part to be found in our ,synoptic ,gospels2 but we have not in this sufficient ground for identifying the one with the other4 ,on the contrary1 we find that the citations of our ,lord's words do not correspond to the text of our gospels1 but are sometimes rather in verbal agreement with the ,apocryphal writings1 and still further1 that he adopts ,apocryphal accounts of the life of ,jesus1 e4g41 the birth of ,christ in a cave1 the coming of the ,magi from ,arabia1 the legend that ,jesus as a carpenter made ploughs and yokes1 etc41 borrowing them from the 4 ,if one further considers ,justin's account of the ,sunday service as consisting of the reading of the or the writings of the ,prophets1 and thereafter closed by the expository and hortatory address of the president 771 he will be led to the conclusion that his 8,apostolic ,memoirs0 must have been a ,gospel ,harmony for church use1 probably on the basis of ,matthew's ,gospel drawn from our ,synoptic ,gospels1 with the addition of some apocryphal and traditional elements4 ,the author of the ,didache too does not construct his 8commands of the ,lord communicated by the ,apostles0 directly from our ,synoptic ,gospels1 but from a which presented a text of ,matthew enriched by additions from ,luke4 ,the ,diatessaron of ,tatian 7 #cj1 #aj7 shows that soon after this the gospel of ,john1 which was not regarded by ,justin or the author of the ,didache as a source for the evangelical history1 although there are not wanting in both manifold references to it1 came to be regarded as a work to be read in combination with these4 ,it was only after a ,new ,testament ,canon had been in the ,old ,catholic ,age gradually established1 and from the vast multitude of books on gospel history1 which even ,luke had found existing 7i4 #a7 and which had been multiplied to an almost incalculable extent both in the interests of heresy and of church doctrine1 our four gospels were universally recognised as alone affording authentic information of the life and doctrines of the ,lord1 that the eclectic gospels hitherto in use had more and more withdrawn from them the favour of the church4 ,tatian's ,diatessaron maintained its place longest in the ,syrian ,church4 ,theodoret1 ,a4,d4 #deg1 testifies that in his diocese he had found and caused to be put away about two hundred copies4 ,aphraates 7about ,a4,d4 #cdj1 #dg1 #ac7 still used it as the text of his homilies4 ,at the time of publication of the ,doctrina ,addi 7 #cb1 #f7 it was still used in the church of ,edessa1 and ,ephraim ,syrus in ,a4,d4 #cfj refers to a commentary in the form of scholia on it in an ,armenian translation1 in which the passages commented on are literally reproduced1 ,theodoret's charge against it of cutting out passages referring to the descent of ,christ after the flesh from ,david1 especially the genealogies of ,matthew and ,luke1 is confirmed by these portions thus preserved4 ,otherwise however1 it is free from heretical alterations1 though not wholly without apocryphal additions4 ,all the four gospels are in brief summary so skilfully wrought into one another that no joining is ever visible4 ,what cannot be incorporated is simply left out1 and the whole historical and doctrinal material is distributed over the one working year of the synoptists4 #cf4h4 ,formation of a ,new ,testament ,canon4--,the oldest collection of a ,new ,testament ,canon known to us was made by the ,gnostic ,marcion 7 #bg1 #aa7 about ,a4,d4 #aej4 ,some twenty years later in the so-called ,muratorian ,canon1 a fragment found by ,muratori in the #ahth century with a catalogue in corrupt ,latin justifying the reception of the ,new ,testament writings received in the ,roman church4 ,for later times the chief witnesses are ,irenus1 ,tertullian1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,origen and ,eusebius4 ,the ,muratorian ,canon and ,eusebius are witnesses for the fact that in the #bnd century1 besides the ,gospels1 the ,apostolic ,epistles and the ,revelation of ,john1 other so-called ,apostolic ,epistles were read at worship in the churches1 for instance1 the #ast ,ep4 of ,clement of ,rome1 the ,ep4 of ,barnabas1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 in some churches also the apocryphal ,apocalypse of ,peter and ,acts of ,paul1 in ,corinth1 an ,ep4 of the ,roman bishop ,soter 7,a4,d4 #aff-agd7 to that church1 and also ,acts of the ,martyrs4 ,montanist as well as ,gnostic excesses gave occasion for the definite fixing of the ,new ,testament ,canon by the ,catholic church 7 #dj74 ,since the time of ,irenus1 the four ,gospels1 the ,acts1 the #ac ,epp4 of ,paul1 the ,ep4 to the ,hebrews 7which some in the ,west did not regard as ,pauline71 #ast ,peter1 and #ast ,john1 along with the ,revelation of ,john1 were universally acknowledged4 ,eusebius therefore calls these 4 ,there was still some uncertainty as to the ,ep4 of ,james1 #bnd ,peter1 #bnd and #crd ,john and ,jude 774 ,the antilegomena of a second class1 which have no claim to canonicity1 although in earlier times they were much used in churches just like the canonical scriptures1 were called by him 1 viz4 the ,acts of ,paul1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 the ,apocalypse of ,peter1 the ,ep4 of ,barnabas1 and the ,didache4 ,he would also very willingly have included among these the ,revelation of ,john 7 #cc1 #i71 although he acknowledged that elsewhere that is included in the ,homologoumena4--,the ,old ,testament ,canon was naturally regarded as already completed4 ,but since the ,old ,testament had come to the ,greek and ,latin ,church ,teachers in the expanded form of the ,,lxx41 they had unhesitatingly assumed that its added books were quite as sacred and as fully inspired as those of the ,hebrew ,canon4 ,melito of ,sardis1 however1 about ,a4,d4 #agj1 found it desirable to make a journey of research through ,palestine in order to determine the limits of the ,jewish ,canon1 and then to draw up a list of the ,holy ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament essentially corresponding therewith4 ,origen too informs us that the ,jews1 according to the number of letters in their alphabet acknowledged only #bb books1 which1 however1 does not lead him to condemn this reception of the additional books of the church4 ,from the end of the #bnd century1 the ,western church had ,latin ,translations of the biblical books1 the origin of which is to be sought in ,north ,africa1 where in consequence of prevailing ignorance of the ,greek language the need of such translations was most deeply felt4 ,even so early as the beginning of the #eth century we find ,jerome 7 #dbj7 complaining of varietas and vitiositas of the ,codices latini1 and declaring3 ,tot sunt exemplaria 7forms of the text7 paene quot codices4 ,augustine#aja gives preference to the ,itala over all others4 ,the name ,itala is now loosely given to all fragments of ,latin translations previous to that of ,jerome4--,the ,syriac translation1 the ,peshito1 plain or simple 7so-called because it exactly and without paraphrasing renders the words of the ,hebrew and ,greek originals7 belongs to the #crd century1 although first expressly referred to by ,ephraim4 ,in it #b ,peter1 #b and #c ,john and ,jude are not found4 #cf4i4 ,the ,doctrine of ,inspiration4--,in earlier times it was usual1 after the example of ,philo1 to regard the prophetic inspiration of the sacred writers as purely passive1 as 4 ,athenagoras compares the soul of the prophet while prophesying to a flute2 ,justin ,martyr in his ,cohort4 ad ,grc4 to a lyre1 struck by the ,holy ,spirit as the plectrum1 etc4 ,the ,montanist prophets first brought this theory into disrepute4 ,the ,apologist ,miltiades of ,asia ,minor was the first ,church ,teacher who vindicated over against the ,montanists the proposition3 4 ,the ,alexandrians who even admitted an operation of the ,holy ,spirit upon the nobler intellects of paganism1 greatly modified the previously accepted doctrine of inspiration4 ,origen1 for example1 teaches a gradual rising or falling in the measure of inspiration even in the bible1 and determines this according to the more or less prominence secured by the human individuality of the writers of scripture4 #cf4aj4 ,hymnology4--,the ,carmen ,christo quasi ,deo dicere secum invicem in the report of ,pliny 7 #bb1 #b71 may be classed with the antiphonal responsive hymns of the church4 ,tertullian bears witness to a rich use of song in family as well as congregational worship4 ,so too does ,origen4 ,in the composition of church hymns the heretics seem for a long while to have kept abreast of the ,catholics 7,bardesanes and ,harmonius1 #bg1 #e71 but the latter were thereby stirred up to greater exertions4 ,the ,martyr ,athenogenes and the ,egyptian bishop ,nepos are named as authors of church hymns4 ,we have still a hymn by ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,socrates ascribes to ,ignatius1 bishop of ,antioch1 the introduction of the alternate-song 7between different congregational choirs74 ,more credible is ,theodoret's statement that the ,antiochean monks ,flavian and ,diodorus had imported it1 about ,a4,d4 #bfj1 from the ,national ,syrian into the ,greek-,syrian church4--,continuation #ei1 #d1 #e4 #cg4 ,,feasts ,,and ,,festival ,,seasons4#ajb ,sunday as a day of joy was distinguished by standing at prayer1 instead of kneeling as at other times1 and also by the prohibition of fasting4 ,of the other days of the week1 ,wednesday1 the day on which the ,jewish ,council decided to put ,jesus to death and ,judas had betrayed him1 and ,friday1 as the day of his death1 were consecrated to the memory of ,christ's suffering2 hence the ,feria quarta et sexta were celebrated as watch days1 dies stationum1 after the symbolism of the ,militia christiana 7,eph4 vi4 #aj-ag71 by public meetings of the congregation4 ,as days of the ,passion1 penitence and fasting they formed a striking contrast to the ,sunday4 ,the chief days of the ,christian festival calendar1 which afterwards found richer and more complete expression in the cycle of the ,christian year1 were thus at first associated with the weekly cycle4 ,a long continued and wide spread controversy as to the proper time for celebrating ,easter arose during the #bnd century4 #cg4a4 ,the ,festivals of the ,christian ,year4--,the thought of ,christ's suffering and death was so powerful and engrossing that even in the weekly cycle one day had not been sufficient4 ,still less could one festal day in the yearly cycle satisfy the hearts of believers4 ,hence a long preparation for the festival was arranged1 which was finally fixed at forty days1 and was designated the season ,quadragesima 774 ,its conclusion and acme was the so-called ,great ,week1 beginning with the ,sunday of the entrance into ,jerusalem1 culminating in the day of the crucifixion1 ,good ,friday1 and closing with the day of rest in the tomb4 ,this ,great ,week or ,passion ,week was regarded as the antitype of the ,old ,testament ,passover feast4 ,the ,old ,catholic church did not1 however1 transfer this name to the festival of the resurrection 7 #ef1 #d74 ,the day of the resurrection was rather regarded as the beginning of a new festival cycle consecrated to the glorification of the redeemer1 viz4 the season of ,quinquagesima 771 concluding with the festival of the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit on the anniversary of the founding of the ,christian church1 which has now come to be known par excellence as ,pentecost4 ,the fifty intervening days were simply days of joy4 ,there was daily communion1 no fasting1 only standing and not kneeling at prayer4 ,the fortieth day1 the day of the ,ascension1 had a special pre-eminence as a day of festal celebrations4 ,the festival of ,epiphany on #fth ,january originated in the ,east to celebrate the baptism of ,christ in ,jordan1 as the manifestation of his ,messianic rank4 ,as yet there is nowhere any trace of the ,christmas festival4--,continuation1 #ef4 #cg4b4 ,the ,paschal ,controversies4--,during the #bnd century1 there were three different practices prevalent in regard to the observance of the ,paschal festival4 ,the ,ebionite ,jewish ,christians 7 #bh1 #a7 held the ,paschal feast on the #adth ,nisan according to the strict literal interpretation of the ,old ,testament precepts1 maintaining also that ,christ1 who according to the synoptists died on the #aeth1 observed the ,passover with his disciples on the #adth4 ,then again the church of ,asia ,minor followed another practice which was traced back to the ,apostle ,john4 ,those of ,asia ,minor attached themselves indeed in respect of date to the ,jewish festival1 but gave it a ,christian meaning4 ,they let the passover alone1 and pronounced the memorial of ,christ's death to be the principal thing in the festival4 ,according to their view1 based upon the fourth ,gospel1 ,christ died upon the #adth ,nisan1 so that ,he had not during the last year of ,his life observed a regular ,passover4 ,on the #adth ,nisan1 therefore1 they celebrated their ,paschal festival1 ending their fast at the moment of ,christ's death1 three o'clock in the afternoon1 and then1 instead of the ,jewish ,passover1 having an ,agape with the ,lord's ,supper4 ,those who adopted either of those two forms were at a later period called ,quartodecimans or ,tessareskaidekatites4 ,different from both of these was a third practice followed in all the ,west1 as also in ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,pontus and ,greece1 which detached itself still further from the ,jewish ,passover4 ,this ,western usage disregarded the day of the month in order to secure the observance of the great resurrection festival on the first day of the week4 ,the 1 then1 if the #adth did not happen to be a ,friday1 was always celebrated on the first ,friday after the #adth1 and the ,easter festival with the observance of the ,lord's ,supper on the immediately following ,sunday4 ,the ,westerns regarded the day of ,christ's death as properly a day of mourning1 and only at the end of the pre-,easter fast on the day of the ,resurrection introduced the celebration of the ,agape and the ,lord's ,supper4 ,these divergent practices first awakened attention on the appearing of ,polycarp1 bishop of ,smyrna at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #aee4 ,the ,roman bishop ,anicetus referred to the tradition of the ,roman ,church2 ,polycarp laid stress upon the fact that he himself had celebrated the ,paschal festival after the manner followed in ,asia ,minor along with the ,apostle ,john4 ,no common agreement was reached at this time2 but1 in token of their undisturbed church fellowship1 ,anicetus allowed ,polycarp to dispense the communion in his church4 ,some fifteen years later a party1 not distinctly particularised1 obtained at ,laodicea in ,phrygia sanction for the ,ebionite practice with strict observance of the time of the ,passover1 and awakened thereby a lively controversy in the church of ,asia ,minor1 in which opposite sides were taken by the ,apologists1 ,apollinaris and ,melito 7 #cj1 #g74 ,the dispute assumed more serious dimensions about ,a4,d4 #aif through the passionate proceedings of the ,roman bishop ,victor4 ,roused probably by the agitation of a ,quartodeciman named ,blastus then in ,rome1 he urged upon the most distinguished bishops of the ,east and ,west the need of holding a ,synod to secure the unequivocal vindication of the ,roman practice4 ,on this account many ,synods were held1 which almost invariably gave a favourable verdict4 ,only those of ,asia ,minor with ,polycrates1 bishop of ,ephesus at their head1 entered a vigorous protest against the pretensions of ,rome1 and notwithstanding all the ,roman threatenings determined to stand by their own well established custom4 ,victor now went the length of breaking off church fellowship with them1 but this extreme procedure met with little favour4 ,even ,irenus expressed himself to the ,gallican bishops as opposed to it4--,continuation #ef1 #c4 #cg4c4 ,the ,ecclesiastical ,institution of ,fasting4--,the ,didache gives evidence that even at so early a date1 the regular fasts were religiously observed on the ,dies stationum by expressly forbidding fasting 8with hypocrites0 7,jews and ,jewish ,christians1 ,luke xviii4 #ab7 on ,monday and ,thursday1 instead of the ,christian practice of so observing ,wednesday and ,friday4 ,the usual fast continued as a rule only till three o'clock in the afternoon 7,semijejunia1 ,acts x4 #i1 #cj2 iii4 #a74 ,in ,passion week the ,saturday night1 which1 at other times1 just like the ,sunday1 was excluded from the fasting period1 as part of the day during which ,christ lay buried1 was included in the forty-hours' fast1 representing the period during which ,christ lay in the grave4 ,this was afterwards gradually lengthened out into the forty-days' fast of ,lent 7,exod4 xxxiv4 #bh2 #a ,kings xix4 #h2 ,matt4 iv4 #b71 in which1 however1 the jejunium proper was limited to the ,dies ,stationum1 and for the rest of the days only the 1 first forbidden by the ,montanists 7 #dj1 #d71 i4e4 all fattening foods1 such as flesh1 eggs1 butter1 cheese1 milk1 etc41 were abstained from4--,on fasting preparatory to baptism1 see #ce1 #a4 ,the ,didache1 c4 i4 #c1 adds to the gospel injunction that we should pray for our persecutors 7,matt4 v4 #dd7 the further counsel that we should fast for them4 ,the meaning of the writer seems to be that we should strengthen our prayers for persecutors by fasting4 ,hermas1 on the other hand1 recommends fasting in order that we may thereby spare something for the poor2 and ,origen says that he read in quodam libello as ab apostolis dictum3 ,beatus est1 qui etiam jejunat pro eo ut alat pauperem4 #ch4 ,,the ,,church ,,buildings ,,and ,,the ,,catacombs4 ,the earliest certain traces of special buildings for divine worship which had been held previously in private houses of ,christians are met with in ,tertullian about the end of the #bnd century4 ,in ,diocletian's time ,nicomedia became a royal residence and hard by the emperor's palace a beautiful church proudly reared its head 7 #bb1 #f71 and even in the beginning of the #crd century ,rome had forty churches4 ,we know little about the form and arrangement of these churches4 ,tertullian and ,cyprian speak of an altar or table for the preparation of the ,lord's supper and a desk for the reading1 and in the ,apostolic ,constitutions it is required that the building should be oblong in shape4 ,the wide-spread tradition that in times of sore persecution the worshippers betook themselves to the ,catacombs is evidently inconsistent with the limited space which these afforded4 ,on the other hand1 the painter whose works1 by a decree of a ,spanish ,council in ,a4,d4 #cjf1 were banished from the churches1 found here a suitable place for the practice of sacred art4 #ch4a4 ,the ,catacombs4--,the ,christian burying places were generally called 1 ,dormitoria4 ,they were laid out sometimes in the open fields 7,are71 sometimes1 where the district was suitable for that1 hewn out in the rock 71 crypts74 ,this latter term was1 by the middle of the #dth century1 quite interchangeable with the name ,catacumb1 7 in the caves74 ,the custom of laying the dead in natural or rock-hewn caves was familiar to pagan antiquity1 especially in the ,east4 ,but the recesses used for this purpose were only private or family vaults4 ,their growth into catacombs or subterranean necropolises for larger companies bound together by their one religion without distinctions of rank 7,gal4 iii4 #bh71 first arose on ,christian soil from a consciousness that their fellowship transcended death and the grave4 ,for the accomplishment of this difficult and costly undertaking1 ,christian burial societies were formed after the pattern of similar institutions of paganism 7 #ag1 #c74 ,specially numerous and extensive necropolises have been found laid out in the immediate neighbourhood of ,rome4 ,but also in ,malta1 in ,naples1 ,syracuse1 ,palermo1 and other cities1 this mode of sepulchre found favour4 ,the ,roman catacombs1 of which in the hilly district round about the eternal city fifty-eight have been counted in fourteen different highways1 are almost all laid out in the white porous tufa stone which is there so abundant1 and useful neither for building nor for mortar4 ,it is thus apparent that these are neither wrought-out quarries nor gravel pits 7,arenari71 but were set in order from the first as cemeteries4 ,a few ,arenari may indeed have been used as catacombs1 but then the sides with the burial niches consist of regularly built walls4 ,the ,roman ,catacombs in the tufa stone form labyrinthine1 twisting1 steep galleries only #c or #d feet broad1 with rectangular corners caused by countless intersections4 ,their perpendicular sides varied greatly in height and in them the burial niches1 ,loculi1 were hewn out one above the other1 and on the reception of the body were built up or hermetically sealed with a stone slab bearing an inscription and a ,christian symbol4 ,the wealthy laid their dead in costly marble sarcophagi or stone coffins ornamented with bas-reliefs4 ,the walls too and the low-arched roofs were adorned with symbols and pictures of scripture scenes4 ,from the principal passages many side paths branched off to so-called burial chambers1 ,cubicula1 which were furnished with shafts opening up to the surface and affording air and light1 ,luminaria4 ,in many of these chambers1 sometimes even in the passages1 instead of simple ,loculi we meet with the so-called ,arcosolium as the more usual form2 one or more coffin-shaped grooves hewn out in the rocky wall are covered with an altar-shaped marble plate1 and over this plate1 ,mensa1 is a semicircular niche hewn out spreading over it in its whole extent4 ,these chambers are often held in reverence as 8catacomb churches10 but they are so small in size that they could only accommodate a very limited number1 such as might gather perhaps at the commemoration of a martyr or the members of a single family4 ,and even where two or three such chambers adjoin one another1 connected together by doors and having a common lighting shaft1 accommodating at furthest about twenty people1 they could not be regarded as meeting-places for public congregations properly so called4--,where the deposit of tufa stone was sufficiently large1 there were several stories 7,piani71 as many as four or five connected by stairs1 laid out one above the other in galleries and chambers4 ,according to de ,rossi's#ajc moderate calculation there have been opened altogether up to this time so many passages in the catacombs that if they were put in a line they would form a street of #abj geographical miles4 ,their oldest inscriptions or epitaphs date from the first years of the second century4 ,after the destruction of ,rome by the hordes of ,alaric in ,a4,d4 #daj1 the custom of burying in them almost entirely ceased4 ,thereafter they were used only as places of pilgrimage and spots where martyr's relics were worshipped4 ,from this time the most of the so-called ,graffiti1 i4e4 scribblings of visitors on the walls1 consisting of pious wishes and prayers1 had their origin4 ,the marauding expedition of the ,longobard ,aistulf into ,roman territory in ,a4,d4 #gef1 in which even the catacombs were stripped of their treasures1 led ,pope ,paul ,i4 to transfer the relics of all notable martyrs to their ,roman churches and cloisters4 ,then pilgrimages to the catacombs ceased1 their entrances got blocked up1 and the few which in later times were still accessible1 were only sought out by a few novelty hunting strangers4 ,thus the whole affair was nigh forgotten until in ,a4,d4 #aegh a new and lively interest was awakened by the chance opening up again of one of those closed passages4 ,ant4 ,bosio from ,a4,d4 #aeic till his death in ,a4,d4 #afbi1 often at the risk of his life1 devoted all his time and energies to their exploration4 ,but great as his discoveries were1 they have been completely outdone by the researches of the ,roman nobleman1 ,giov4 ,battista de ,rossi1 who1 working unweariedly at his task since ,a4,d4 #ahdi till the present time1 is recognised as the great master of the subject1 although even his investigations are often too much dominated by ,roman ,catholic prejudices and by undue regard for traditional views4#ajd #ch4b4 ,the ,antiquities of the ,catacombs4--,the custom widely spread in ancient times and originating in piety or superstition of placing in the tombs the utensils that had been used by the deceased during life was continued1 as the contents of many burial niches show among the early ,christians4 ,children's toys were placed beside them in the grave1 and the clothes1 jewels1 ornaments1 amulets1 etc41 of grown up people4 ,quite a special interest attaches to the so-called ,blood ,vases1 ,phiol rubricat1 which have been found in or near many of these niches1 i4e4 crystal1 rarely earthenware1 vessels with ,christian symbols figured on a red ground4 ,the ,congregation of rites and relics in ,a4,d4 #affh1 asserted that they were blood-vessels1 in which the blood of the martyrs had been preserved and stood alongside of their bones2 and the existence of such jars1 as well as every pictorial representation of the palm branch 7,rev4 vii4 #i71 was supposed to afford an indubitable proof that the niches in question contained the bones of martyrs4 ,but the ,reformed theologian ,basnage shows that this assumption is quite untenable1 and he has explained the red ground from the dregs of the red sacramental wine which may have been placed in the burial niches as a protection against demoniacal intrusion4 ,even many good ,roman ,catholic archologists1 ,mabillon1 ,papebroch1 ,tillemont1 ,muratori1 etc41 contest or express doubts as to the decree of the ,congregation4 ,at the instigation probably of the ,belgian ,jesuit ,vict4 de ,buck1 ,pius ,,ix4 in ,a4,d4 #ahfc confirmed and renewed the old decree1 and among others1 ,xav4 ,kraus has appeared as its defender4 ,but a great multitude of unquestionable facts contradict the official decree of the church2 e4g4 the total absence of any support to this view in tradition1 the silence of such inscriptions as relate to the martyrs1 above all the immense number of these jars1 their being found frequently alongside the bones of children of seven years old1 the remarkable frequency of them in the times of ,constantine and his successors which were free from persecution1 the absence of the red dregs in many jars1 etc4 ,since dregs of wine1 owing to their having the vegetable property of combinableness could scarcely be discernible down to the present day1 it has recently been suggested that the red colour may have been produced by a mineral-chemical process as oxide of iron4 #ch4c4 ,pictorial ,art and the ,catacombs4--,many of the earliest ,christians may have inherited a certain dislike of the pictorial arts from ,judaism1 and may have been confirmed therein by their abhorrence of the frivolous and godless abuse of art in heathenism4 ,but this aversion which in a ,tertullian grew from a ,montanistic rigorism into a fanatical hatred of art1 is never met with as a constituent characteristic of ,christianity4 ,much rather the great abundance of paintings on the walls of the ,roman and ,neapolitan catacombs1 of which many1 and these not the meanest1 belong to the #bnd century1 some indeed perhaps to the last decades of the #ast century1 serves to show how general and lively was the artistic sense among the earliest ,christians at least in the larger and wealthier communities4 ,yet from its circumstances the ,christian church in its appreciation of art was almost necessarily limited on two sides2 for1 on the one hand1 no paintings were tolerated in the churches1 and on the other hand1 even in private houses and catacombs they were restricted almost exclusively to symbolico-allegorical or typical representations4 ,the #cfth ,canon of the ,council of ,elvira in ,a4,d4 #cjf is a witness for the first statement when it says3 ,placuit picturas in ecclesia non esse debere1 ne quod colitur et adoratur in parietibus depingatur4 ,the plain words of the ,canon forbid any other interpretation than this3 ,from the churches1 as places where public worship is regularly held1 all pictorial representations must be banished1 in order to make certain that in and under them there might not creep in those images1 forbidden in the decalogue1 of ,him who is the object of worship and adoration4 ,the ,council thus assumed practically the same standpoint as the ,reformed church in the #afth century did in opposition to the practice of the ,roman ,catholic and ,lutheran churches4 ,it cannot1 however1 be maintained that the ,canon of this rigorous ,council 7 #de1 #b7 found general acceptance and enforcement outside of ,spain--,proof of the second limitation is as convincingly afforded by what we find in the catacombs4 ,on the positive side1 it has its roots in the fondness which prevailed during these times for the mystical and allegorical interpretation of scripture2 and on the negative side1 in the endeavour1 partly in respect for the prohibition of images contained in the decalogue1 partly1 and perhaps mainly1 in the interests of the so-called ,disciplina arcani1 fostered under pressure of persecution1 to represent everything that pertained to the mysteries of the ,christian faith as a matter which only ,christians have a right fully to understand4 ,from the prominence given to the point last referred to it may be explained how amid the revolution that took place under ,constantine the age of ,symbolism and ,allegory in the history of ,christian art also passed away1 and henceforth painters applied themselves pre-eminently to realistic historical representations4 #ch4d4 ,the pictorial and artistic representations of the pre-,constantine age may be divided into the six following groups3-- a4 ,significant ,symbols4--,to these belong especially the cross1#aje though1 for fear of the reproaches of ,jews and heathens 7 #bc1 #b71 not yet in its own proper form but only in a form that indicated what was meant1 namely in the form of the ,greek 1 very frequently in later times in the monogram of the name of ,christ1 i4e4 in a variously constructed combination of its first two letters and 1 while the 1 as crux dissimulat1 has very often on either side the letters and 4 b4 ,allegorical ,figures4--,in the #dth century a particularly favourite figure was that of the ,fish1 the name of which1 1 formed a highly significant monogrammatic representation of the sentence1 1 and which pointed strikingly to the new birth from the water of baptism4 ,then there is the lamb or sheep1 as symbol of the soul1 which still in this life seeks after spiritual pastures2 and the dove as symbol of the pious believing soul passing into eternal rest1 often with an olive branch in its mouth 7,gen4 viii4 #aa71 as symbol of the eternal peace won4 ,also we have the hart 7,ps4 xlii4 #a71 the eagle 7,ps4 ciii4 #e71 the chicken1 symbol of ,christian growth1 the peacock1 symbol of the resurrection on account of the annual renewal of its beautiful plumage1 the dolphin1 symbol of hastiness or eagerness in the appropriation of salvation1 the horse1 symbol of the race unto the goal of eternal life1 the hare1 as symbol of the ,christian working out his salvation with fear and trembling1 the ship1 with reference to ,noah's ark as a figure of the church1 the anchor 7,heb4 vi4 #ai71 the lyre 7,eph4 v4 #ai71 the palm branch 7,rev4 vii4 #i71 the garland 7or crown of life1 ,rev4 ii4 #i71 the lily 7,matt4 vi4 #bh71 the balances1 symbol of divine righteousness1 fishes and bread1 symbol of spiritual nourishment with reference to ,christ's miracle of feeding in the wilderness1 etc4 c4 ,parabolic ,figures4--,these are illustrations borrowed from the parables of the ,gospels4 ,to these belong conspicuously the figure of the ,good ,shepherd1 who bears on ,his shoulder the lost sheep that ,he had found 7,luke xv4 #e71 the ,vine ,stock 7,john xv471 the ,sower 7,matt4 xiii4 #c71 the ,marriage ,feast 7,matt4 xxii471 the ,ten ,virgins 7,matt4 xxv471 etc4 d4 ,historical ,pictures of ,o4 ,t4 ,types4--,among these we have ,adam and ,eve1 the ,rivers of ,paradise 7as types of the four evangelists71 ,abel and ,cain1 ,noah in the ,ark1 the ,sacrifice of ,isaac1 ,scenes from ,joseph's ,history1 ,moses at the ,burning ,bush1 the ,passage of the ,red ,sea1 the ,falling of the ,manna1 the ,water out of the ,rock1 ,history of ,job1 ,samson with the ,gates of ,gaza 7the gates of ,hell71 ,david's ,victory over ,goliath1 ,elijah's ,ascension1 ,scenes from the ,history of ,jonah and ,tobit1 ,daniel in the ,lion's ,den1 the ,three ,children in the ,fiery ,furnace1 etc4 ,also typical material from heathen mythology had a place assigned them1 such as the legends of ,hercules1 ,theseus1 and especially of ,orpheus who by his music bewitched the raging elements and tamed the wild beasts1 descended into the lower world and met his death through the infuriated women of his own race4 e4 ,figures from the ,gospel ,history4--,these1 e4g4 the ,visit of the ,wise ,men from the ,east1 and the ,resurrection of ,lazarus1 are throughout this period still exceedingly rare4 ,we do not find a single representation of the ,passion of our ,lord1 nor any of the sufferings of ,christian martyrs4 ,pictorial representations of the person of ,christ1 as a beardless youth with a friendly mild expression1 are met with in the catacombs from the first half of the #bnd century1 but without any claim to supply the likeness of a portrait1 such as might be claimed for the figures of ,christ in the temple of the ,carpocratians 7 #bg1 #h7 and in the ,lararium of the ,emperor ,alexander ,severus 7 #bb1 #d74 ,clement of ,alexandria and ,tertullian1 in accordance with the literal interpretation of ,isa4 liii4 #b1 #c1 thought that ,christ had an unattractive face2 the post-,constantine fathers1 on the contrary1 resting upon ,ps4 xlv4 #c and ,john i4 #ad1 thought of ,him as beautiful and gracious4 f4 ,liturgical ,figures4--,these were connected only with the ordinances of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper4 #ci4 ,,life1 ,,manners1 ,,and ,,discipline4#ajf ,when the chaff had been so relentlessly severed from the wheat by the persecutions of that age1 a moral earnestness and a power of denying the world and self must have been developed1 sustained by the divine power of the gospel and furthered by a strict and rigorous application of church discipline to the ,christian life1 such as the world had never seen before4 ,what most excited and deserved wonder in the sphere of heathendom1 hitherto accustomed only to the reign of selfishness1 was the brotherly love of the ,christians1 their systematic care of the poor and sick1 the widespread hospitality1 the sanctity of marriage1 the delight in martyrdom1 etc4 ,marriages with ,jews1 heathens and heretics were disapproved1 frequently even the celebration of a second marriage after the death of the first wife was disallowed4 ,public amusements1 dances1 and theatres were avoided by ,christians as ,pompa diaboli4 ,they thought of the ,christian life1 in accordance with ,eph4 vi4 #aj ff41 as ,militia ,christi4 ,but even in the ,post-,apostolic ,age we come upon indications of a tendency to turn from the evangelical spirituality1 freedom and simplicity of the ,apostolic ,age toward a pseudo-catholic externalism and legalism in the fundamental views taken of ethical problems1 and at the same time and in the same way in the departments of the church constitution 7 #cd71 worship 7 #cf7 and exposition of doctrine 7 #cj1 #b74 ,the teachers of the church do still indeed maintain the necessity of a disposition corresponding to the outward works1 but by an over-estimation of these they already prepare the way for the doctrine of merit and the opus operatum1 i4e4 the meritoriousness of works in themselves4 ,even the ,epistle of ,barnabas and the ,didache reckon almsgiving as an atonement for sins4 ,still more conspicuously is this tendency exhibited by ,cyprian 7,de ,opere et eleemosynis7 and even in the ,shepherd of ,hermas 7 #cj1 #d7 we find the beginnings of the later distinction1 based upon #a ,cor4 vii4 #be1 #bf2 ,matt4 xxv4 #ba1 and ,luke xviii4 #aj1 between the divine commands1 ,mandata or ,prcepta1 which are binding upon all ,christians1 and the evangelical counsels1 ,consilia evangelica1 the non-performance of which is no sin1 but the doing of which secures a claim to merit and more full divine approval4 ,among the ,alexandrian theologians1 too1 under the influence of the ,greek philosophy a very similar idea was developed in the distinction between higher and lower morality1 after the former of which the ,christian sage 7 7 is required to shine1 while the ordinary ,christian may rest satisfied with the latter4 ,on such a basis a special order of ,ascetics very early made its appearance in the churches4 ,those who went the length of renouncing the world and going out into the wilderness were called ,anchorets4 ,this order first assumed considerable dimensions in the #dth century 7 #dd74 #ci4a4 ,christian ,morals and ,manners4--,the ,christian spirit pervaded the domestic and civil life and here formed for itself a code of ,christian morals4 ,it expressed itself in the family devotions and family communions 7 #cf1 #c71 in putting the sign of the cross upon all callings in life1 in the ,christian symbols 7 #ch1 #c7 with which dwellings1 garments1 walls1 lamps1 cups1 glasses1 rings1 etc4 were adorned4 ,as to private worship the ,didache requires without fixing the hours that the head of the household shall have prayers three times a day 7,dan4 vi4 #cj71 meaning probably1 as with ,origen1 morning1 noon1 and night4 ,tertullian specifies the #crd1 #fth1 and #ith hours as the hours of prayer1 and distinctly demands a separate morning and evening prayer4--,the concluding of marriage according to the then existing ,roman law had to be formally carried through by the expressed agreement of the parties in the presence of witnesses1 and this on the part of the church was regarded as valid4 ,the ,christian custom required that there should be a previous making of it known1 ,professio1 to the bishop1 and a subsequent going to the church of the newly married pair in order that1 amid the church's intercessions and the priestly benediction1 a religious sanction might be given to their marriage covenant1 by the oblation and common participation of the ,lord's ,supper at the close of the public services4 ,tertullian's ,montanistic rigorism shows itself in regarding marriages where these are omitted1 occult conjunctiones1 as no better than mchia and fornicatio4 ,the crowning of the two betrothed ones and the veiling of the bride were still disallowed as heathenish practices2 but the use of the wedding ring was sanctioned at an early date and had a ,christian significance attached to it4 ,the burning of dead bodies prevalent among the heathens reminded them of hell fire2 the ,christians therefore preferred the ,jewish custom of burial and referred in support to #a ,cor4 xv4 #cf4 ,the day of the deaths of their deceased members were celebrated in the ,christian families by prayer and oblations in testimony of their fellowship remaining unbroken by death and the grave4--,continuation #fa1 #b1 #c4 #ci4b4 ,the ,penitential ,discipline4--,according to the ,apostolic ordinance 7 #ag1 #h7 notorious sinners were excluded from the fellowship of the church1 ,excommunicatio1 and only after prolonged trial of their penitence1 ,exomologesis1 were they received back again1 ,reconciliatio4 ,in the time of ,cyprian1 about ,a4,d4 #bej1 there was already a well defined order of procedure in this matter of restoring the lapsed which continued in force until the #eth century4 ,penance1 ,pnitentia1 must extend through four stages1 each of which according to circumstances might require one or more years4 ,during the first stage1 the 1 ,fletio1 the penitents1 standing at the church doors in mourning dress1 made supplication to the clergy and the congregation for restoration2 in the second1 the 1 ,auditio1 they were admitted again to the reading of the scriptures and the sermon1 but still kept in a separate place2 in the third1 1 ,substratio1 they were allowed to kneel at prayer2 and finally1 in the fourth1 1 ,consistentia1 they took part again in the whole of the public services1 with the exception of the communion which they were only allowed to look at standing4 ,then they received ,absolution and ,reconciliation 7pacem dare7 in presence of the assembled and acquiescing congregation by the imposition of the hands of the bishop and the whole of the clergy1 together with the brotherly kiss and the partaking of the communion4 ,this procedure was directed against open and demonstrable sins of a serious nature against the two tables of the decalogue1 against so called deadly sins1 ,peccata or crimina mortalia1 #a ,john v4 #af4 ,excommunication was called forth1 on the one side1 against idolatry1 blasphemy1 apostasy from the faith and abjuration thereof2 on the other1 against murder1 adultery and fornication1 theft and lying1 perfidy and false swearing4 ,whether reconciliation was permissible in the case of any mortal sin at all1 and if so1 what particular sins might thus be treated1 were questions upon which teachers of the church were much divided during the #crd century4 ,but only the ,montanists and ,novatians 7 #dj1 #da7 denied the permissibility utterly and that in opposition to the prevailing practice of the church1 which refused reconciliation absolutely only in cases of idolatry and murder1 and sometimes also in the case of adultery4 ,even ,cyprian at first held firmly by the principle that all mortal sins committed 8against ,god0 must be wholly excluded from the range of penitential discipline1 but amid the horrors of the ,decian persecution1 which left behind it whole crowds of fallen ones1 ,lapsi 7 #bb1 #e71 he was induced by the passionate entreaties of the church to make the concession that reconciliation should be granted to the ,libellatici after a full penitential course1 but to the ,sacrificati only when in danger of death4 ,all the teachers of the church1 however1 agree in holding that it can be granted only once in this life1 and those who again fall away are cut off absolutely4 ,but excessive strictness in the treatment of the penitents called forth the contrary extreme of undue laxity 7 #da1 #b74 ,the ,confessors frequently used their right of demanding the restoration of the fallen by means of letters of recommendation1 ,libelli pacis1 to such an extent as to seriously interfere with a wholesome discipline4#ajg--;,continuation #fa1 #a4 #ci4c4 ,asceticism4--,the ,ascetism 7,continentia1 7 of heathenism and ,judaism1 of ,pythagoreanism and ,essenism1 resting on dualistic and pseudo-spiritualistic views1 is confronted in ,christianity with the proposition3 7#a ,cor4 iii4 #ba2 vi4 #ab74 ,christianity1 however1 also recognised the ethical value and relative wholesomeness of a moderate asceticism in proportion to individual temperament1 needs and circumstances 7,matt4 ix4 #ab2 #a ,cor4 vii4 #e-g71 without demanding it or regarding it as something meritorious4 ,this evangelical moderation we also find still in the #bnd century1 e4g4 in ,ignatius4 ,but very soon a gradual exaggeration becomes apparent and an ever-advancing over estimation of asceticism as a higher degree of morality with claims to be considered peculiarly meritorious4 ,the negative requirements of asceticism are directed first of all to frequent and rigid fasts and to celibacy or abstinence from marital intercourse2 its positive requirements1 to the exercise of the spiritual life in prayer and meditation4 ,the most of the ,ascetics1 too1 in accordance with ,luke xviii4 #bd1 voluntarily divested themselves of their possessions4 ,the number of them1 men and women1 increased1 and even in the first half of the #bnd century1 they formed a distinct order in the church1 though they were not yet bound to observe this mode of life by any irrevocable vows4 ,the idea that the clergy were in a special sense called to an ascetic life resulted in their being designated the 4 ,owing to the interpretation given to #a ,tim4 iii4 #b1 second marriages were in the #bnd century prohibited among the clergy1 and in the #crd century it was regarded as improper for them after ordination to continue marital intercourse4 ,but it was first at the ,council of ,elvira1 in ,a4,d4 #cjf1 that this opinion was elevated into a law1 though it could not even then be rigorously enforced 7 #de1 #b74--,the immoral practice of ascetics or clerics having with them virgins devoted to ,god's service as ,sorores1 on the ground of #a ,cor4 ix4 #e1 with whom they were united in spiritual love1 in order to show their superiority to the temptations of the flesh1 seems to have been introduced as early as the #bnd century4 ,in the middle of the #crd century it was already widespread4 ,cyprian repeatedly inveighs against it4 ,we learn from him that the so-called ,sorores slept with the ,ascetics in one bed and surrendered themselves to the tenderest caresses4 ,for proof of the purity of their relations they referred to the examinations of midwives4 ,among bishops1 ,paul of ,samosata in ,antioch 7 #cc1 #h7 seems to have been the first who favoured this evil custom by his own example4 ,the popular wit of the ,antiochenes ,antiocheans invented for the more than doubtful relationship the name of the 1 ,subintroduct1 ,agapet1 ,extrene4 ,bishops and ,councils sent forth strict decrees against the practice4--,the most remarkable among the celebrated ascetics of the age was ,hieracas1 who lived at ,leontopolis in ,egypt toward the end of the #crd and beginning of the #dth century and died there when ninety years old4 ,a pupil of ,origen1 he was distinguished for great learning1 favoured the allegorical interpretation of ,scripture1 a spiritualistic dogmatics and strict asceticism4 ,besides this he was a physician1 astronomer and writer of hymns1 could repeat by heart almost all the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 wrote commentaries in ,greek and ,coptic1 and gathered round him a numerous society of men and women1 who accepted his ascetical principles and heterodox views4 ,founding upon ,matt4 xix4 #ab2 #a ,cor4 vii4 and ,heb4 xii4 #ad1 he maintained that celibacy was the only perfectly sure way to blessedness and commended this doctrine as the essential advance from the ,old ,testament to the ,new ,testament morality4 ,he even denied salvation to ,christian children dying in infancy because they had not yet fought against sensuality1 referring to #b ,tim4 ii4 #e4 ,of a sensible paradise he would hear nothing1 and just as little of a bodily resurrection2 for the one he interprets allegorically and the other spiritually4 ,epiphanius1 to whom we owe any precise information that we have about him1 is the first to assign him and his followers a place in the list of heretics4 #ci4d4 ,paul of ,thebes4--,the withdrawal of particular ascetics from ascetical motives into the wilderness1 which was a favourite craze for a while1 may have been suggested by ,old and ,new ,testament examples1 e4g4 #a ,kings xvii4 #c2 xix4 #d2 ,luke i4 #hj2 iv4 #a2 but it was more frequently the result of sore persecution4 ,of a regular professional institution of anchorets with life-long vows there does not yet appear any authentic trace4 ,according to ,jerome's ,vita ,pauli monachi a certain ,paul of ,thebes in ,egypt1 about ,a4,d4 #bej1 during the ,decian persecution1 betook himself1 when sixteen years old1 to the wilderness1 and there forgotten by all the world but daily fed by a raven with half a loaf 7#a ,kings xvii4 #d71 he lived for ninety-seven years in a cave in a rock1 until ,st4 ,anthony 7 #dd1 #a71 directed to him by divine revelation and led to him first by a centaur1 half man1 half horse1 then by a fawn1 and finally by a she-wolf1 came upon him happily just when the raven had brought him as it never did before a whole loaf4 ,he was just in time to be an eye-witness1 not indeed of his death1 but rather of his subsequent ascension into heaven1 accompanied by angels1 prophets and apostles1 and to arrange for the burial of his mortal remains1 for the reception of which two lions1 uttering heart-breaking groans1 dug a grave with their claws4 ,these lions after earnestly seeking and obtaining a blessing from ,st4 ,anthony1 returned back to their lair4--,contemporaries of the author1 as indeed he himself tells1 declared that the whole story was a tissue of lies4 ,church history1 however1 until quite recently1 has invariably maintained that there must have been some historical foundation1 though it might be very slight1 for such a superstructure4 ,but seeing that no single writer before ,jerome seems to know even the name of ,paul of ,thebes and also that the ,vita ,antonii ascribed to ,athanasius knows nothing at all of such a wonderful expedition of the saint1 ,weingarten 7 #dd7 has denied that there ever existed such a man as this ,paul1 and has pronounced the story of ,jerome to be a monkish ,robinson ,crusoe1 such as the popular taste then favoured1 which the author put forth as true history ad majorem monachatus gloriam4 ,we may simply apply to this book itself what ,jerome at a later period confessed about his epistles of that same date ad ,heliodorum3--sed in illo opere pio tate tunc lusimus et celentibus adhuc ,rhetorum studiis atque doctrinis qudam scholastico flore depinximus4 #ci4e4 ,beginning of ,veneration of ,martyrs4--,in very early times a martyr death was prized as a sin-atoning ,lavacrum sanguinis1 which might even abundantly compensate for the want of water baptism4 ,the day of the martyr's death which was regarded as the day of his birth into a higher life1 1 ,natalitia martyrum1 was celebrated at his grave by prayers1 oblations and administration of the ,lord's ,supper as a testimony to the continuance of that fellowship with them in the ,lord that had been begun here below4 ,their bones were therefore gathered with the greatest care and solemnly buried2 so e4g4 ,polycarp's bones at ,smyrna 7 #bb1 #b71 as 1 so that at the spot where they were laid the brethren might be able to celebrate his 1 4 ,of miracles wrought by means of the relics1 however1 we as yet find no mention4 ,the ,graffiti on the walls of the catacombs seem to represent the beginning of the invocation of martyrs4 ,in these the pious visitors seek for themselves and those belonging to them an interest in the martyr's intercessions4 ,some of those scribblings may belong to the end of our period2 at least the expression 8,otia petite pro10 etc4 in one of them seem to point to a time when they were still undergoing persecution4 ,the greatest reverence1 too1 was shown to the ,confessors all through their lives1 and great influence was assigned them in regard to all church affairs1 e4g4 in the election of bishops1 the restoration of the fallen1 etc4--,continuation1 #eg4 #ci4f4 ,superstition4--,just as in later times every great ,christian missionary enterprise has seen religious ideas transferred from the old heathenism into the young ,christianity1 and1 consciously or unconsciously1 secretly or openly1 acquiesced in or contended against1 securing for themselves a footing1 so also the ,church of the first centuries did not succeed in keeping itself free from such intrusions4 ,a superstition forcing its entrance in this way can either be taken over nude crude in its genuinely pagan form and1 in spite of its palpable inconsistency with the ,christian faith1 may nevertheless assert itself side by side with it1 or it may divest itself of that old pagan form1 and so unobserved and uncontested gain an entrance with its not altogether extinguished heathenish spirit into new ,christian views and institutions and thus all the more dangerously make its way among them4 ,it is especially the magico-theurgical element present in all heathen religions1 which even at this early period stole into the ,christian life and the services of the church and especially into the sacraments and things pertaining thereto 7 #eh71 while it assumed new forms in the veneration of martyrs and the worship of relics4 ,one can scarcely indeed accept as a convincing proof of this the statement of the ,emperor ,hadrian in his correspondence regarding the religious condition of ,alexandria as given by the historian ,vopiscus3 ,illic qui ,serpem colunt ,christiani sunt1 et devoti sunt ,serapi qui se ,christi episcopos dicunt2 nemo illic archisynagogus ,judorum1 nemo ,samarites1 nemo ,christianorum presbyter non mathematicus1 non haruspex1 non aliptes4 ,this statement bears on its face too evidently the character of superficial observation1 of vague hearsay and confused massing together of sundry reports4 ,what he says of the worship of ,serapis1 may have had some support from the conduct of many ,christians in the ascetic order1 the designating of their presbyters alipt may have been suggested by the chrism in baptism and the anointing at the consecration of the clergy1 perhaps also in the anointing of the sick 7,matt4 vi4 #ac2 ,jas4 v4 #ad72 so too the characterizing of them as mathematici may have arisen from their determining the date of ,easter by means of astronomical observations 7 #cg1 #b2 #ef1 #c71 though it could not be specially wonderful if there actually were ,christian scholars among the ,alexandrian clergy skilled in astronomy1 notwithstanding the frequent alliance of this science with astrology4 ,but much more significant is the gross superstition which in many ways shows itself in so highly cultured a ,christian as ,julius ,africanus in his ,cest 7 #ca1 #h74 ,in criticising it1 however1 we should bear in mind that this book was written in the age of ,alexander ,severus1 in which1 on the one hand1 a wonderful mixture of religion and theurgical superstition had a wonderful fascination for men1 while on the ,christian side the whirlwind of persecution had not for a long time blown its purifying breeze4 ,the catacombs1 too1 afford some evidences of a mode of respect for the departed that was borrowed from heathen practices1 but these on the whole are wonderfully free from traces of superstition4 #dj4 ,,the ,,montanist ,,reformation4#ajh ,earnest and strict as the moral1 religious and ascetical requirements of the church of the #bnd and #crd centuries generally were in regard to the life and morals of its members1 and rigidly as these principles were carried out in its penitential discipline1 there yet appeared even at this early date1 in consequence of various instances of the relaxation of such strictness1 certain eager spirits who clamoured for a restoration or even an intensification of the earlier rules of discipline4 ,such a movement secured for itself a footing about the middle of the #bnd century in ,montanism1 a growth of ,phrygian soil1 which without traversing in any way the doctrine of the church1 undertook a thorough reformation of the ecclesiastical constitution on the practical side4 ,montanism1 in opposition to the eclecticism of heretical ,gnosticism1 showed the attitude of ,christianity to heathenism to be exclusive2 against the spiritualizing and allegorizing tendencies of the church ,gnosticism it opposed the realism and literalism of the doctrines and facts of the scripture revelation2 against what seemed the excessive secularization of the church it presented a model of church discipline such as the nearness of the ,lord's coming demanded2 against hierarchical tendencies that were always being more and more emphasized it maintained the rights of the laity and the membership of the church2 while in order to secure the establishment of all these reforms it proclaimed that a prophetically inspired spiritual church had succeeded to ,apostolic ,christianity4 #dj4a4 ,montanism in ,asia ,minor4--,according to ,epiphanius as early as ,a4,d4 #aef1 according to ,eusebius in ,a4,d4 #agb1 according to ,jerome in ,a4,d4 #aga1 a certain ,montanus appeared as a prophet and church reformer at ,pepuza in ,phrygia4 ,he was formerly a heathen priest and was only shortly before known as a ,christian4 ,he had visions1 preached while unconscious in ecstasy of the immediate coming again of ,christ 7,parousia71 fulminated against the advancing secularisation of the church1 and1 as the supposed organ of the ,paraclete promised by ,christ 7,john xiv4 #af7 presented in their most vigorous form the church's demands in respect of morals and discipline4 ,a couple of excited women ,prisca and ,maximilla were affected by the same extravagant spirit by which he was animated1 fell into a somnambulistic condition and prophesied as he had done4 ,on the death of ,maximilla about ,a4,d4 #ahj1 ,montanus and ,prisca having died before this1 the supposed prophetic gift among them seems to have been quenched4 ,at least an anonymous writer quoted in ,eusebius 7according to ,jerome it was ,rhodon1 #bg1 #ab71 in his controversial treatise published thirteen years afterwards1 states that the voices of the prophets were then silent4 ,so indeed she herself had declared3 ' 1 4 ,the ,montanist prophecies occasioned a mighty commotion in the whole church of ,asia ,minor4 ,many earnest ,christians threw themselves eagerly into the movement4 ,even among the bishops they found here and there favour or else mild criticism1 while others combated them passionately1 some going so far as to regard the prophesying women as possessed ones and calling exorcism to their aid4 ,by the end of the year #agj several synods1 the first synods regularly convened1 had been held against them1 the final result of which was their exclusion from the catholic church4 ,montanus now organized his followers into an independent community4 ,after his death1 his most zealous follower1 ,alcibiades1 undertook its direction4 ,it was also not without literary defenders4 ,themison1 ,alcibiades' successor1 issued 8in imitation of the ,apostle0 7,john87 a 1 and the utterances of the prophets were collected and circulated as holy scripture4 ,on the other hand during this same year #agj they were attacked by the eminent apologists ,claudius ,apollinaris and ,miltiades 7 #cf1 #i7 probably also by ,melito4 ,their radical opponents were the so-called ,alogi 7 #cc1 #b74 ,among their later antagonists1 who assumed more and more a passionately embittered tone1 the most important according to ,eusebius were one ,apollinaris1 whom ,tertullian combats in the ,,vii4 ,bk4 of his work1 ,de ecstasi1 and ,serapion4 ,at a ,synod at ,iconium about the middle of the #crd century at which also ,firmilian of ,csarea 7 #ce1 #e7 was present and voted1 the baptism of the ,montanists1 although their trinitarian orthodoxy could not be questioned1 was pronounced to be like heretical baptism null1 because administered extra ecclesiam1 and a second baptism declared necessary on admission to the ,catholic church4 ,and although at the ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe and of ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha1 the validity of heretics' baptism was admitted if given orderly in the name of the ,holy ,trinity1 the baptism of the ,montanists was excluded because it was thought that the ,paraclete of ,montanism could not be recognised as the ,holy ,spirit of the church4--,already in the time of ,constantine the ,great the ,montanists were spreading out from ,phrygia over all the neighbouring provinces1 and were called from the place where they originated and ,pepuziani4 ,the ,emperor now forbade them holding any public assemblies for worship and ordered that all places for public service should be taken from them and given over to the ,catholic church4 ,far stricter laws than even these were enforced against them by later emperors down to the #eth century1 e4g4 prohibition of all ,montanist writings1 deprivation of almost all civil rights1 banishment of their clergy to the mines1 etc4 ,thus they could only prolong a miserable existence in secret1 and by the beginning of the sixth century every trace of them had disappeared4 #dj4b4 ,montanism at ,rome4--,the movement called forth by ,montanism in the ,east spread by and by also into the ,west4 ,when the first news reached ,gaul of the synodal proceedings in ,asia ,minor that had rent the church1 the ,confessors imprisoned at ,lyons and ,vienne during the persecution of ,marcus ,aurelius1 of whom more than one belonged to a colony that had emigrated from ,phrygia to ,gaul1 were displeased1 and1 along with their report of the persecution they had endured 7 #cb1 #h71 addressed a letter to those of ,asia ,minor1 not given by ,eusebius1 but reckoned pious and orthodox1 exhorting to peace and the preservation of unity4 ,at the same time 7,a4,d4 #agg7 they sent the ,presbyter ,irenus to ,rome in order to win from ,bishop ,eleutherus 7,a4,d4 #agd-ahi71 who was opposed to ,montanism1 a mild and pacific sentence4 ,owing1 however1 to the arrival of ,praxeas1 a ,confessor of ,asia ,minor and a bitter opponent of ,montanism1 a formal condemnation was at last obtained 7 #cc1 #d74 ,tertullian relates that the ,roman bishop1 at the instigation of ,praxeas1 revoked the letters of peace which had been already prepared in opposition to his predecessors4 ,it is matter of controversy whether by this unnamed bishop ,eleutherus is meant1 who then was first inclined to a peaceable decision by ,irenus and thereafter by the picture of ,montanist extravagances given by ,praxeas was led again to form another opinion2 or that it was1 what seems from the chronological references most probable1 his successor ,victor 7,a4,d4 #ahi-aii71 in which case ,eleutherus is represented as having hardened himself against ,montanism in spite of the entreaties of ,irenus1 while ,victor was the first who for a season had been brought to think otherwise4--,yet even after their condemnation a small body of ,montanists continued to exist in ,rome1 whose mouthpiece during the time of bishop ,zephyrinus 7,a4,d4 #aii-bag7 was ,proclus1 whom the ,roman ,caius 7 #ca1 #g7 opposed by word and writing4 #dj4c4 ,montanism in ,proconsular ,africa4--,when and how ,montanism gained a footing in ,north ,africa is unknown1 but very probably it spread thither from ,rome4 ,the movement issuing therefrom first attracted attention when ,tertullian1 about ,a4,d4 #bja or #bjb1 returned from ,rome to ,carthage1 and with the whole energy of his character decided in its favour1 and devoted his rich intellectual gifts to its advocacy4 ,that the ,montanist party in ,africa at that time still continued in connection with the ,catholic church is witnessed to by the ,acts of the ,martyrs ,perpetua and ,felicitas 7 #cb1 #h71 composed some time after this1 which bear upon them almost all the characteristic marks of ,montanism1 while a vision communicated there shows that division was already threatened4 ,the bishop and clergy together with the majority of the membership were decided opponents of the new ecstatic-visionary prophecy already under ecclesiastical ban in ,asia ,minor4 ,they had not yet1 however1 come to an open breach with it1 which was probably brought about in ,a4,d4 #bjf when quiet had been again restored after the cessation of the persecution begun about ,a4,d4 #bjb by ,septimius ,severus4 ,tertullian had stood at the head of the sundered party as leader of their sectarian services1 and defended their prophesyings and rigorism in numerous apologetico-polemical writings with excessive bitterness and passion1 applying them with consistent stringency to all the relations of life1 especially on the ethical side4 ,from the high esteem in which1 notwithstanding his ,montanist eccentricities1 ,tertullian's writings continued to be held in ,africa1 e4g4 by ,cyprian 7 #ca1 #aa71 and generally throughout the ,west1 the tendency defended by him was not regarded in the church there as in the ,east as thoroughly heretical1 but only as a separatistic overstraining of views allowed by the church4 ,this mild estimate could all the easier win favour1 since to all appearance the extravagant visionary prophesying1 which caused most offence1 had been in these parts very soon extinguished4--,augustine reports that a small body of 8,tertullianists0 continued in ,carthage down to his time 7 #dcj71 and had by him been induced to return to the ,catholic church2 and besides this1 he also tells us that ,tertullian had subsequently separated himself from the 8,cataphrygians10 i4e4 from the communion of the ,montanists of ,asia ,minor1 whose excesses were only then perhaps made known to him4 #dj4d4 ,the ,fundamental ,principle of ,montanism4--,montanism arose out of a theory of a divinely educative revelation proceeding by advancing stages1 not finding its conclusion in ,christ and the ,apostles1 but in the age of the ,paraclete which began with ,montanus and in him reached its highest development4 ,the times of the law and the prophets in the ,old ,covenant is the childhood of the kingdom of ,god2 in the gospel it appears in its youth2 and by the ,montanist shedding forth of the ,spirit it reaches the maturity of manhood4 ,its absolute perfection will be attained in the millennium introduced by the approaching ,parousia and the descent of the heavenly ,jerusalem at ,pepuza 7,rev4 xx4 #ba74 ,the ,montanist prophecy did not enrich or expand but only maintained and established against the heretics1 the system of ,christian doctrine already exclusively revealed in the times of ,christ4 ,montanism regarded as its special task a reformation of ,christian life and ,church discipline highly necessary in view of the approaching ,parousia4 ,the defects that had been borne with during the earlier stages of revelation were to be repaired or removed by the ,mandata of the ,paraclete4 ,the following are some of the chief of these prescriptions3 ,second marriage is adultery2 ,fasting must be practised with greater strictness2 ,on dies stationum 7 #cg1 #c7 nothing should be eaten until evening1 and twice a year for a whole week only water and bread 772 ,the excommunicated must remain their whole lifetime in status pnitenti2 ,martyrdom should be courted1 to withdraw in any way from persecution is apostasy and denial of the faith2 ,virgins should take part in the worship of ,god only when veiled2 ,women generally must put away all finery and ornaments2 secular science and art1 all worldly enjoyments1 even those that seem innocent1 are only snares of the devil1 etc4 ,an anti-hierarchical tendency early showed itself in ,montanism from the circumstance that it arrogated to itself a new and high authority to which the hierarchical organs of the church refused to submit themselves4 ,yet even ,montanism1 after repudiating it1 for its own self-preservation was obliged to give itself an official congregational organization1 which1 according to ,jerome1 had as its head a patriarch resident at ,pepuza1 and1 according to ,epiphanius1 founding on ,gal4 iii4 #bh1 gave even women admission into ecclesiastical offices4 ,its worship was distinguished only by the space given to the prophesyings of its prophets and prophetesses4 ,epiphanius notes this as a special characteristic of the sect1 that often in their assemblies seven white-robed virgins with torches made their appearance prophesying2 evidently1 as the number seven itself shows1 as representatives of the seven spirits of ,god 7,rev4 iv4 #e1 etc471 and not of the ten virgins who wait for the coming of the ,lord4 ,according to ,philaster they allowed even unbaptized persons to attend all their services and were in the habit of baptizing even the dead1 as is elsewhere told also of certain ,gnostic sects4 ,epiphanius too speaks of a ,montanist party which celebrated the ,lord's ,supper with bread and cheese1 ,artotyrites1 according to ,augustine1 because the first men had presented offerings of the fruits of the earth and sheep4 #dj4e4 ,the ,attitude of ,montanism toward the ,church4--,the derivation of ,montanism from ,ebionism1 contended for by ,schwegler1 has nothing in its favour and much against it4 ,to disprove this notion it is enough to refer to the ,montanist fundamental idea of a higher stage of revelation above ,moses and the prophets as well as above the ,messiah and ,his ,apostles4 ,neither can we agree with ,neander in regarding the peculiar character of the ,phrygian people1 as exhibited in their extravagant and fanatical worship of ,cybele1 as affording a starting point for the ,montanist movement1 but at most as a predisposition which rendered the inhabitants of this province peculiarly susceptible in presence of such a movement4 ,the origin of ,montanism is rather to be sought purely among the specifically ,catholic conditions and conflicts within the church of ,asia which at that time was pre-eminently gifted and active4 ,in regard to dogma ,montanism occupied precisely the same ground as the ,catholic church2 even upon the trinitarian controversies of the age it took up no sectarian position but went with the stream of the general development4 ,not on the dogmatical but purely on the practical side1 namely1 on that of the ,christian life and ecclesiastical constitution1 discipline and morals1 lay the problems which by the action of the ,montanists were brought into conflict4 ,but even upon this side ,montanism1 with all its eccentricities1 did not assume the attitude of an isolated separatistic sect1 but rather as a quickening and intensifying of views and principles which from of old had obtained the recognition and sanction of the church1--views which on the wider spread of ,christianity had already begun to be in every respect toned down or even obliterated1 and just in this way called forth that reaction of enthusiasm which we meet with in ,montanism4 ,from the ,apostles' time the expectation of the early return of the ,lord had stood in the foreground of ,christian faith1 hope and yearning1 and this expectation continued still to be heartily entertained4 ,nevertheless the fulfilment had now been so long delayed that men were beginning to put this coming into an indefinitely distant future 7#b ,pet4 iii4 #d74 ,hence it happened that even the leaders of the church1 in building up its hierarchical constitution and adjusting it to the social circumstances and conditions of life by which they were surrounded1 made their arrangements more and more deliberately in view of a longer continuance of the present state of things1 and thus the primitive ,christian hope of an early ,parousia1 though not expressly denied1 seemed practically to have been set aside4 ,hence the ,montanist revivalists proclaimed this hope as most certain1 giving a guarantee for it by means of a new divine revelation4 ,similarly too the moral1 ascetic and disciplinary rigorism of the ,montanist prophecy is to be estimated as a vigorous reaction against the mild practice prevailing in the church with its tendency to make concessions to human weakness1 in favour of the strict exercise of church discipline in view of the nearness of the ,parousia4 ,montanism could also justify the reappearance of prophetic gifts among its founders by referring to the historical tradition which from the ,apostolic ,age 7,acts xi4 #bg f42 xxi4 #i7 presented to view a series of famous prophets and prophetesses1 endowed with ecstatic visionary powers4 ,the exclusion of ,montanism from the ,catholic ,church could not1 therefore1 have been occasioned either by its proclaiming an early ,parousia or by its rigorism1 or finally1 even by its prophetic claims1 but purely by its doctrine of the ,paraclete4 ,under the pretence of instituting a new and higher stage of revelation1 it had really undertaken to correct the moral and religious doctrines of ,christ and the ,apostles as defective and incomplete1 and had thereby proved itself to the representatives of the church to be undoubtedly a pseudo-prophecy4 ,the spiritual pride with which the ,montanists proclaimed themselves to be the privileged people of the ,holy ,spirit1 1 ,spirituales and characterized the ,catholics as1 on the contrary1 1 ,carnales1 as also the assumption that chose their own obscure ,pepuza for the site of the heavenly ,jerusalem1 and the manifold extravagances committed by their prophets and prophetesses in their ecstatic trances1 must have greatly tended to create an aversion to every form of spiritualistic manifestation4 ,the origin of ,montanism1 the contesting of it and its final expulsion1 constitute indeed a highly significant crisis in the historical development of the church1 conditioned not so much by a separatistic sectarian tendency1 but rather by the struggle of two tendencies existing within the church1 in which the tendency represented by ,montanism and honestly endeavouring the salvation of the church1 went under1 while that which was victorious would have put an end to all enthusiasm4 ,the expulsion of ,montanism from the church contributed greatly to freeing the church from the reproach so often advanced against it of being a narrow sect1 made its consenting to the terms1 demands and conditions of everyday life in the world easier1 gave a freer course and more powerful impulse to its development in constitution and worship dependent upon these1 as well as in the further building up of its practical and scientific endeavours1 and generally advanced greatly its expansion and transformation from a sectarian close association into a universal church opening itself up more and more to embrace all the interests of the culture of the age2--a transformation which indeed in many respects involved a secularizing of the church and imparted to its spiritual functions too much of an official and superficial character4 #da4 ,,schismatic ,,divisions ,,in ,,the ,,church4 ,even after the ecclesiastical sentence had gone forth against ,montanism1 the rigoristic penitential discipline in a form more or less severe still found its representatives within the ,catholic church4 ,as compared with the advocates of a milder procedure these were indeed generally in the minority1 but this made them all the more zealously contend for their opinions and endeavour to secure for them universal recognition4 ,out of the contentions occasioned thereby1 augmented by the rivalry of presbyter and episcopus1 or episcopus and metropolitan1 several ecclesiastical divisions originated which1 in spite of the pressing need of the time for ecclesiastical unity1 were long continued by ambitious churchmen in order to serve their own selfish ends4 #da4a4 ,the ,schism of ,hippolytus at ,rome about ,a4,d4 #bbj4--,on what seems to have been the oldest attempt to form a sect at ,rome over a purely doctrinal question1 namely that of the ,theodotians1 about ,a4,d4 #baj1 see #cc1 #c4--,much more serious was the schism of ,hippolytus1 which broke out ten years later4 ,in ,a4,d4 #bag1 after an eventful and adventurous life1 a freedman ,callistus was raised to the bishopric of ,rome1 but not without strong opposition on the part of the rigorists1 at whose head stood the celebrated presbyter ,hippolytus4 ,they charged the bishop with scoffing at all ,christian earnestness1 conniving at the loosening of all church discipline toward the fallen and sinners of all kinds1 and denounced him especially as a supporter of the ,noetian ,notian heresy 7 #cc1 #e74 ,they took great offence also at his previous life which his opponent ,hippolytus 7,elench41 ix4 #aa ff47 thus describes3 ,when the slave of a ,christian member of the imperial household1 ,callistus with the help of his lord established a bank2 he failed1 took to flight1 was brought back1 sprang into the sea1 was taken out again and sent to the treadmill4 ,at the intercession of ,christian friends he was set free1 but failing to satisfy his urgent creditors1 he despairingly sought a martyr's death1 for this end wantonly disturbed the ,jewish worship1 and was on that account scourged and banished to the ,sardinian mines4 ,at the request of bishop ,victor the imperial concubine ,marcia 7 #bb1 #c7 obtained the freedom of the exiled ,christian confessors among whom ,callistus1 although his name had been intentionally omitted from the list presented by ,victor1 was included4 ,after ,victor's death he wormed himself into the favour of his weak successor ,zephyrinus1 who placed him at the head of his clergy1 in consequence of which he was able by intrigues and craft to secure for himself the succession to the bishopric4--,an opportunity of reconciliation was first given1 it would seem1 under ,pontianus1 the second successor of ,callistus1 by banishing the two rival chiefs to ,sardinia4 ,both parties then united in making a unanimous choice in ,a4,d4 #bce4aji #da4b4 ,the ,schism of ,felicissimus at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #bej4--,several presbyters in ,carthage were dissatisfied with the choice of ,cyprian as bishop in ,a4,d4 #bdh and sought to assert their independence4 ,at their head stood ,novatus4 ,taking the law into their own hands they chose ,felicissimus1 the next head of the party1 as a deacon4 ,when ,cyprian during the ,decian persecution withdrew for a time from ,carthage1 they charged him with dereliction of duty and faint-heartedness4 ,cyprian1 however1 soon returned1 ,a4,d4 #bea1 and now they used his strictness toward the ,lapsi as a means of creating a feeling against him4 ,he expressed himself very decidedly as to the recklessness with which many confessors gave without examination ,libelli pacis to the fallen1 and called upon these to commit their case to a ,synod that should be convened after the persecution4 ,a church visitation completed the schism2 the discontented presbyters without more ado received all the fallen and1 notwithstanding that ,cyprian himself on the return of persecution introduced a milder practice1 they severed themselves from him under an opposition bishop ,fortunatus4 ,only by the unwearied exercise of wisdom and firmness did ,cyprian succeed in putting down the schism4#aaj #da4c4 ,the ,schism of the ,presbyter ,novatian at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #bea4--;,in this case the rigorist and presbyterial interests coincide4 ,after the martyrdom of bishop ,fabian under ,decian in ,a4,d4 #bej1 the ,roman bishopric remained vacant for more than a year4 ,his successor ,cornelius 7,a4,d4 #bea-bec7 was an advocate of the milder practice4 ,at the head of his rigorist opponents stood his unsuccessful rival1 ,novatian1 a learned but ambitious presbyter 7 #ca1 #ab74 ,meanwhile ,novatus1 excommunicated by ,cyprian at ,carthage1 had also made his way to ,rome4 ,notwithstanding his having previously maintained contrary principles in the matter of church discipline1 he attached himself to the party of the purists and urged them into schism4 ,they now chose ,novatian as bishop4 ,both parties sought to obtain the recognition of the most celebrated churches4 ,in doing so ,cornelius described his opponent in the most violent and bitter manner as a mere intriguer1 against whose reception into the number of presbyters as one who had received clinical baptism 7 #ce1 #c7 and especially as an energoumenon under the care of the exorcists1 he had already protested2 further as having extorted a sham episcopal consecration from three simple ,italian bishops1 after he had attached them to himself by pretending to be a peacemaker1 then locking them up and making them drunk1 etc4 ,cyprian1 as well as ,dionysius of ,alexandria1 expressed himself against ,novatian1 and attacked the principles of his party1 namely1 that the church has no right to give assurance of forgiveness to the fallen or such as have broken their baptismal vows by grievous sin 7although the possibility of finding forgiveness through the mercy of ,god was indeed admitted71 and that the church as a communion of thoroughly pure members should never endure any impure ones in its bosom1 nor receive back any excommunicated ones1 even after a full ecclesiastical course of penitence4 ,the ,novatianists had therefore called themselves the 4 ,the moral earnestness of their fundamental principles secured for them even from bishops of contrary views an indulgent verdict1 and ,novatianist churches sprang up over almost all the ,roman empire4 ,the cumenical ,council at ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe maintained an attitude toward them upon the whole friendly1 and in the ,arian controversy 7 #ej7 they stood faithfully side by side with their ecclesiastical opponents in the defence of ,nicene orthodoxy1 and with them suffered persecution from the ,arians4 ,later on1 however1 the ,catholic church without more ado treated them as heretics4 ,theodosius the ,great sympathizing with them because of such unfair treatment1 took them under his protection2 but ,honorius soon again withdrew these privileges from them4 ,remnants of the party continued nevertheless to exist down to the #fth century4#aaa #da4d4 ,the ,schism of ,meletius in ,egypt in ,a4,d4 #cjf4--,meletius1 bishop of ,lycopolis in the ,thebaid1 a representative of the rigorist party1 during the ,diocletian persecution claimed to confer ordinations and otherwise infringed upon the metropolitan rights of ,peter1 bishop of ,alexandria1 a supporter of the milder practice who for the time being lived in retirement4 ,all warnings and admonitions were in vain4 ,an ,egyptian ,synod under the presidency of ,peter issued a decree of excommunication and deposition against him4 ,then arose the schism1 ,a4,d4 #cjf1 which won the whole of ,egypt4 ,the ,general ,synod at ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe confirmed the ,alexandrian bishop in his rights of supremacy 7 #df1 #c7 and offered to all the ,meletian bishops an amnesty and confirmation in the succession on the death of the catholic anti-bishop of their respective dioceses4 ,many availed themselves of this concession1 but others persisted in their schismatical course and finally attached themselves to the ,arian party 7 #ej1 #b74 ,,second ,,section4 ,the ,history of the ,grco-,roman ,church from the #dth-#gth centuries4 ,a4,d4 #cbc-fib4 ,i4 ,,church ,,and ,,state4 #db4 ,,the ,,overthrow ,,of ,,paganism ,,in ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4#aab ,after the overthrow of ,licinius 7 #bb1 #g7 ,constantine identified himself unreservedly with ,christianity1 but accepted baptism only shortly before his death in ,a4,d4 #ccg4 ,he was tolerant toward paganism1 though encouraging its abandonment in all possible ways4 ,his sons1 however1 began to put it down by violence4 ,julian's short reign was a historical anomaly which only proved that paganism did not die a violent death1 but rather gradually succumbed to a ,marasmus senilis4 ,succeeding emperors reverted to the policy of persecution and extermination4--,neoplatonism1 notwithstanding the patronage of ,julian and the brilliant reputation of its leading representatives1 could not reach the goal arrived at1 but from the ethereal heights of philosophical speculation sank ever further and further into the misty region of fantastic superstition 7 #bd1 #b74 ,the attempts at regeneration made by the ,hypsistarians1 ,euphemites1 ,clicol1 in which paganism strove after a revival by means of a barren ,jewish monotheism or an effete ,sabaism1 proved miserable failures4 ,the literary conflict between ,christianity and paganism had almost completely altered its tone4 #db4a4 ,the ,romish ,legend of the ,baptism of ,constantine4--,that ,constantine the ,great only accepted baptism shortly before his death in ,nicomedia1 from ,eusebius1 bishop of that place1 and a well-known leader of the ,arian party 7 #ej1 #a1 #b71 is put beyond question by the evidence of his contemporary ,eusebius of ,csarea in his ,vita ,const41 of ,ambrose1 of ,jerome in his ,chronicle1 etc4 ,about the end of the #eth century1 however1 a tradition1 connecting itself with the fact that a ,roman baptistery bore the name of ,constantine1 gained currency in ,rome1 to the effect that ,constantine had been baptised at this baptistery more than twenty years before his death by ,pope ,sylvester 7,a4,d4 #cad-cce74 ,according to this purely fabulous legend ,constantine1 who had up to that time been a bitter enemy and persecutor of the ,christians1 became affected with leprosy1 for the cure of which he was recommended to bathe in a tub filled with the blood of an innocent child4 ,moved by the tears of the mother the emperor rejected this means of cure1 and under the direction of a heavenly vision applied to the ,pope1 who by ,christian baptism delivered him from his malady1 whereupon all the members of the ,roman senate still heathens1 and all the people were straightway converted to ,christ1 etc4 ,this legend is told in the so-called ,decretum ,gelasii 7 #dg1 #bb71 but is first vindicated as historically true in the ,liber pontificalis 7 #ij1 #f71 and next in ,a4,d4 #gbi1 in ,bede's ,chronicle 7 #ij1 #b74 ,in the notorious ,donatio ,constantini 7 #hg1 #d7 it is unhesitatingly accepted4 ,since then1 at first with some exceptions but soon without exceptions1 all chroniclers of the ,middle ,ages and likewise since the #ith century the ,scriptores hist4 ,byzant41 have adopted it4 ,and although in the #aeth century neas ,sylvius and ,nicolaus ,nicolas of ,cusa admitted that the legend was without foundation1 yet in the #afth century in ,baronius and ,bellarmine1 and in the #agth in ,schelstraate1 it found earnest defenders4 ,the learned ,french ,benedictines of the #agth century were the first to render it utterly incredible even in the ,roman ,catholic church4#aac #db4b4 ,constantine the ,great and his ,sons4--,constantine's profession of ,christianity was not wholly the result of political craft1 though his use of the name ,pontifex ,maximus and in this capacity the continued exercise of certain pagan practices1 gave some colour to such an opinion4 ,outbursts of passion1 impulsiveness exhibited in deeds of violence and cruelty1 as in the order for the execution of his eldest son ,crispus in ,a4,d4 #cbf and his second wife ,fausta1 are met with even in his later years4 ,soon after receiving baptism he died without having ever attended a complete divine service4 ,his toleration of paganism must be regarded purely as a piece of statecraft4 ,he only prohibited impure rites and assigned to the ,christians but a few of the temples that had actually been in use4 ,aversion to the paganism still prevalent among the principal families in ,rome may partly have led him to transfer his residence to ,byzantium1 since called ,constantinople1 in ,a4,d4 #ccj4 ,his three sons divided the ,empire among them4 ,constantius 7,a4,d4 #ccg-cfa7 retained the ,east1 and became1 after the death of ,constantine ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #cdj and of ,constans in ,a4,d4 #cej1 sole ruler4 ,all the three sought to put down paganism by force4 ,constantius closed the heathen temples and forbade all sacrifices on pain of death4 ,multitudes of heathens went over to ,christianity1 few probably from conviction4 ,among the nobler pagans there was thus awakened a strong aversion to ,christianity4 ,patriotism and manly spirit came to be identified with the maintenance of the old religion4#aad #db4c4 ,julian the ,apostate 7,a4,d4 #cfa-cfc74--,the sons of ,constantine the ,great began their reign in ,a4,d4 #ccg with the murder of their male relatives4 ,the brothers ,julian and ,gallus1 nephews of ,constantine1 alone were spared2 but in ,a4,d4 #cde they were banished to a ,cappadocian castle where ,julian officiated for a while as reader in the village church4 ,having at last obtained leave to study in ,nicomedia1 then in ,ephesus1 and finally in ,athens1 the chief representatives of paganism fostered in him the conviction that he was specially raised up by the gods to restore again the old religion of his fathers4 ,as early as ,a4,d4 #cea in ,nicomedia he formally though still secretly returned to paganism1 and at ,athens in ,a4,d4 #cee he took part in the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,soon thereafter ,constantius1 harassed by foreign wars1 assigned to him the command of the army against the ,germans4 ,by affability1 personal courage and high military talent1 he soon won to himself the enthusiastic attachment of the soldiers4 ,constantius thought to weaken the evident power of his cousin which seemed to threaten his authority1 by recalling the best of the legions1 but the legions refused obedience and proclaimed ,julian emperor4 ,then the emperor refused to ratify the election and treated ,julian himself as a rebel4 ,the latter advanced at the head of his army by forced marches upon the capital1 but ere he reached the city1 he received the tidings of the opposing emperor's death4 ,acknowledged now as emperor throughout the whole empire without any opposition1 ,julian proceeded with zeal1 enthusiasm and vigour to accomplish his long-cherished wish1 the restoring of the glory of the old national religion4 ,he used no violent measures for the subversion and overthrow of ,christianity1 nor did he punish ,christian obstinacy with death1 except where it seemed to him the maintenance of his supremacy required it4 ,but he demanded that temples which had been converted into churches should be restored to the heathen worship1 those destroyed should be restored at the cost of the church exchequer and the money for the state that had been applied to ecclesiastical purposes had to be repaid4 ,he scornfully referred the clergy thus robbed of their revenues to the blessedness of evangelical poverty4 ,he also fomented as much as possible dissension in the church1 favoured all sectaries and heretics1 excluded ,christians from all the higher1 and afterwards from all the lower1 civil and military offices1 and loaded them on every occasion with reproach and shame1 and by these means he actually induced many to apostatise4 ,in order to discredit ,christ's prophecy in ,matt4 xxiv4 #b1 he resolved on the restoration of the ,jewish temple at ,jerusalem1 but after having been begun it was destroyed by an earthquake4 ,he excluded all ,christian teachers from the public schools1 and also forbade them in their own schools from explaining the classical writers who were objected to and contested by them only as godless2 so that ,christian boys and youths could obtain a higher classical education only in the pagan schools4 ,by petty artifices he endeavoured to get ,christian soldiers to take part1 if only even seemingly1 in the heathen sacrifices4 ,indeed at a later period in ,antioch he was not ashamed to stoop to the mean artifice of ,galerian 7 #bb1 #f7 of sprinkling with sacrificial water the necessaries of life exposed in the public market1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 he strove in every way to elevate and ennoble paganism4 ,from ,christianity he borrowed ,benevolent ,institutions1 ,church ,discipline1 ,preaching1 ,public ,service of ,song1 etc42 he gave many distinctions to the heathen priesthood1 but required of them a strict discipline4 ,he himself sacrificed and preached as ,pontifex ,maximus1 and led a strictly ascetic1 almost a cynically simple life4 ,the ineffectiveness of his attempts and the daring1 often even contemptuous1 resistance of many ,christian zealots embittered him more and more1 so that there was now danger of bloody persecution when1 after a reign of twenty months1 he was killed from a javelin blow in a battle against the ,persians in ,a4,d4 #cfc4 ,shortly before in answer to the scornful question of a heathen1 8,what is your ,carpenter's ,son doing now80 it had been answered1 8,he is making a coffin for your emperor40 ,at a later period the story became current that ,julian himself1 when he received the deadly stroke1 exclaimed1 ,tandem vicisti ,galile6 ,his military talents and military virtues had shed a glory around the throne of the ,csars such as it had not known since the days of ,marcus ,aurelius1 and yet his whole life's struggle was and remained utterly fruitless and vain4#aae #db4d4 ,the ,later ,emperors4--,after ,julian's death1 ,jovian1 and then on his death in ,a4,d4 #cfd1 ,valentinian ,i4 7 #cge71 were chosen emperors by the army4 ,the latter resigned to his brother ,valens the empire of the ,east 7,a4,d4 #cfd-cgh74 ,his son and successor ,gratian 7,a4,d4 #cge-chc7 at the wish of the army adopted his eldest half-brother of four years old1 ,valentinian ,,ii41 as colleague in the empire of the ,west1 and upon the death of ,valens resigned the government of the ,west to the ,spaniard ,theodosius ,i41 or the ,great 7,a4,d4 #cgi-cie71 who1 after the assassination of ,valentinian ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #cib1 became sole ruler4 ,after his death his sons again divided the empire among them3 ,honorius 7 #dbc7 took the ,west1 ,arcadius 7 #djh7 the ,east1 and now the partitioned empire continued in this condition until the incursions of the barbarians had broken up the whole ,west ,roman division 7,a4,d4 #dgf74 ,belisarius and ,narses1 the victorious generals of ,justinian ,i41 were the first to succeed1 between ,a4,d4 #ecc-eec1 in conquering again ,north ,africa and all ,italy along with its islands4 ,but in ,italy the ,byzantine empire from ,a4,d4 #efi was reduced in size from time to time by the ,longobards1 and in ,africa from ,a4,d4 #ffe by the ,saracens1 while even earlier1 about ,a4,d4 #fcc1 the ,saracens had secured to themselves ,syria1 ,palestine1 and ,egypt4--,julian's immediate successors tolerated paganism for a time4 ,it was1 however1 a very temporary respite4 ,no sooner had ,theodosius ,i4 quieted in some measure political disorders1 than he proceeded in ,a4,d4 #chb to accomplish the utter overthrow of paganism4 ,the populace and the monks combined in destroying the temples4 ,the rhetorician ,libanius 7 #cie7 then addressed his celebrated discourse to the emperor2 but the remaining temples were closed and the people were prohibited from visiting them4 ,in ,alexandria1 under the powerful bishop ,theophilus1 there were bloody conflicts1 in consequence of which the ,christians destroyed the beautiful ,serapeion in ,a4,d4 #cia4 ,in vain did the pagans look for the falling down of the heavens and the destruction of the earth2 even the ,nile would not once by causing blight and barrenness take vengeance on the impious4 ,in the ,west1 ,gratian was the first of the emperors who declined the rank of pontifex maximus2 he also deprived the heathen priests of their privileges1 removed the foundations of the temple of ,fiscus1 and commanded that the altar of ,victory should be taken away from the hall of the ,senate in ,rome4 ,in vain did ,symmachus1 prfectus urbi1 entreat for its restoration1 if not 8numinis0 yet 8nominis causa40 ,valentinian ,,ii41 urged on by ,ambrose1 sent back four times unheard the deputation that came about this matter4 ,so soon as ,theodosius ,i4 became sole ruler the edicts were made more severe4 ,on his entrance into ,rome in ,a4,d4 #cid he addressed to the ,roman ,senate a severe lecture and called them to repentance4 ,his sons1 ,honorius in the ,west and ,arcadius in the ,east1 followed the example of their father4 ,under the successor of the latter1 ,theodosius ,,ii4 7,a4,d4 #djh-dej71 monks with imperial authority for the suppression of heathenism traversed the provinces1 and in ,a4,d4 #ddh1 in common with ,valentinian ,,iii4 7,a4,d4 #dbe-dee71 the western emperor1 he issued an edict which strictly enjoined the burning of all pagan polemical writings against ,christianity1 especially those of ,porphyry 8the crack-brained10 wherever they might be found4 ,this period is also marked by deeds of bloody violence4 ,the most horrible of these was the murder of the noble pagan philosopher ,hypatia1 the learned daughter of ,theon the mathematician1 at ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #dae4 ,officially paganism may be regarded as no longer existent4 ,branded long even before this as the religion of the peasants 7such is the derivation of the word paganism71 it was now almost wholly confined to remote rural districts4 ,its latest and solitary stronghold was the ,university of ,athens raised to the summit of its fame under ,proclus 7 #bd1 #b74 ,justinian ,i4 7,a4,d4 #ebg-efe7 decreed the suppression of this school in ,a4,d4 #ebi4 ,its teachers fled into ,persia1 and there laid the first foundations of the later literary period of ,islam under the ruling family of the ,abassid at ,bagdad 7 #fe1 #b74 ,this was the death hour of heathenism in the ,roman empire4 ,the ,mainott in the mountains of the ,peloponnesus still maintained their political independence and the heathen religion of their fathers down to the #ith century4 ,in the ,italian islands1 too1 of ,sardinia1 ,corsica1 and ,sicily1 there were still many heathens even in the time of ,gregory the ,great 7 #fjd74aaf #db4e4 ,heathen ,polemics and ,apologetics4--,julian's controversial treatise 1 in #c bks4 according to ,cyril1 in #g bks4 according to ,jerome1 is known only from the reply of ,cyril of ,alexandria 7 #dg1 #f7 which follows it section by section1 the rest of the answers to it having been entirely lost4 ,of ,cyril's book only the first ten have come down to us in a complete state1 and from these we are able almost wholly to restore the first book of ,julian's treatise4 ,only fragments of the second decade of ,cyril's work are extant1 and not even so much of the third1 so that of ,julian's third book we may be said to know nothing4#aag ,julian represented ,christianity as a deteriorated ,judaism1 but ,christolatry and the worship of martyrs as later falsifications of the doctrine of ,christ4--,the later advocates of heathenism1 ,libanius and ,symmachus1 were content with claiming toleration and religious freedom4 ,but when from the #eth century1 under the influence of the barbarians1 signs of the speedy overthrow of the ,roman empire multiplied1 the heathen polemics assumed a bolder attitude1 declaring that this was the punishment of heaven for the contempt of the old national religion1 under which the empire had flourished4 ,such is the standpoint especially of the historians ,eunapius and ,zosimus4 ,but history itself refuted them more successfully than the ,christian apologists2 for even these barbarous peoples passed over in due course to ,christianity1 and vied with the ,roman emperors in their endeavours to extirpate heathenism4 ,in the #eth century1 the celebrated ,neo-,platonist ,proclus wrote 8eighteen arguments 77 against the ,christians0 in vindication of the ,platonic doctrine of the eternity of the world and in refutation of the ,christian doctrine of creation4 ,the ,christian grammarian ,john ,philoponus 7 #dg1 #aa7 answered them in an exhaustive and elaborate treatise1 which again was replied to by the philosopher ,simplicius1 one of the best teachers in the pagan ,university of ,athens4--,the dialogue ,philopatris1 8the ,patriot10 included among the works of ,lucian of ,samosata1 but certainly not composed by him1 is a feeble imitation of the famous scoffer1 in which the writer declares that he can no longer fitly swear at the ,olympic gods with their many unsavoury loves and objectionable doings1 and with a satirical reference to ,acts xvii4 #bc recommends for this purpose 8the unknown ,god at ,athens10 whom he further scurrilously characterizes as 1 1 7 #ej1 #a1 #g74 ,finally he tells of some closely shaven men 7 #de1 #a7 who were treated as liars1 because1 having in consequence of a ten days' fast and singing had a vision foreboding ill to their fatherland1 their prophecy was utterly discredited by the arrival of an account of the emperor's successes in the war against the ,persians4 ,the impudence with which the orthodox ,christianity and the ,nicene orthodox formula are sneered at1 as well as the allusions to the spread of monasticism and a victorious war against the ,persians1 fix the date of the dialogue in the reign of ,julian1 or rather1 since the writer would scarcely have had ,julian's approval in his scoffing at the gods of ,olympus1 in the time of the ,arian ,valens 7 #ej1 #d74 ,but since the overthrow of ,egypt and ,crete is spoken of in this treatise1 ,niebuhr has put its date down to the time of the ,emperor ,nicephoras ,phocas 7,a4,d4 #ifc-ifi71 understanding by ,persians the ,saracens and by ,scythians the ,bulgarians4 #db4f4 ,the religion of the ,hypsistarians in ,cappadocia was1 according to ,gregory ,nazianzen1 whose father had belonged to the sect1 a blending of ,greek paganism with bald ,jewish monotheism1 together with the oriental worship of fire and the heavenly bodies1 with express opposition to the ,christian doctrine of the trinity4 ,of a similar nature were the vagaries of the ,euphemites1 8,praise singers10 in ,asia1 who were also called ,messalians1 8,petitioners10 or ,euchites1 and in ,africa bore the name of ,clicol4 #dc4 ,,the ,,christian ,,empire ,,and ,,the ,,ecclesiastical ,,law4 ,as in earlier times the supreme direction of all religious matters belonged to the ,roman ,emperor as ,pontifex ,maximus1 so now that ,christianity had become the state religion he claimed for himself the same position in relation to the church4 ,even ,constantine the ,great regarded himself as 1 and all his successors exercised the ,jus circa sacra as their unquestioned right4 ,only the ,donatists 7 #fc1 #a7 denied to the state all and any right over the church4 ,there was no clear consciousness of the limits of this jurisdiction1 but this at least in theory was firmly maintained1 that in all ecclesiastical matters1 in worship1 discipline and doctrine1 the emperors were not of themselves entitled to issue conclusive decisions4 ,for this purpose they called cumenical ,synods1 the decrees of which had legal validity throughout the empire when ratified by the emperor4 ,but the more the ,byzantine empire degenerated and became a centre of intrigues1 the more hurtful did contact with the court become1 and more than once the most glaring heresy for a time prevailed by means of personal passion1 unworthy tricks and open violence1 until at last orthodoxy again secured the ascendency4--,from the ordinances issued by the recognised ecclesiastical and civil authorities upon ecclesiastical rights1 duties and conditions1 as well as from the pseudo-epigraphic apostolic writings already being secretly introduced in this department1 there sprang up during this period a rich and varied literature on canon law4 #dc4a4 ,the ,jus circa sacra gave to the ,emperors the right of legally determining all the relations between church and state1 but assigned to them also the duty of caring for the preservation or restoration of peace and of unity in the church1 guarding orthodoxy with a strong arm1 looking after the interests of the church and the clergy1 and maintaining the authority of ecclesiastical law4 ,even ,constantine the ,great excluded all heretics from the privileges which he accorded to the church1 and regarded it as a duty forcibly to prevent their spread4 ,the destruction or closing of their churches1 prohibition of public meetings1 banishment of their leaders1 afterwards seizure of their possessions1 were the punishments which the state invariably used for their destruction4 ,the first death sentence on a heretic was issued and executed so early as ,a4,d4 #che by the usurper ,maximus 7 #ed1 #b71 but this example was not imitated during this period4 ,constans ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #fed gave the first example of scourging to the effusion of blood and barbarous mutilation upon a persistent opponent of his union system of doctrine 7 #eb1 #h74 ,the fathers of the #dth century were decidedly opposed to all compulsion in matters of faith 7comp4 however #fc1 #a74 ,the right of determining by imperial edict what was to be believed and taught in the empire was first asserted by the usurper ,basilicus in ,a4,d4 #dgf 7 #eb1 #e74 ,the later emperors followed this example2 most decidedly ,justinian ,i4 7 #eb1 #f7 and the court theologians justified such assumptions from the emperor's sacerdotal rank1 which was the antitype of that of ,melchizedec ,melchisedec4 ,the emperor exercised a direct influence upon the choice of bishops especially in the capital cities2 at a later period the emperor quite arbitrarily appointed these and set them aside4 ,the church's power to afford protection secured for it generally a multitude of outward privileges and advantages4 ,the state undertook the support of the church partly by rich gifts and endowments from state funds1 partly by the making over of temples and their revenues to the church1 and ,constantine conferred upon the church the right of receiving bequests of all kinds4 ,the churches and their officers were expressly exempted from all public burdens4 ,the distinct judicial authority of the bishops recognised of old was formally legitimized by ,constantine under the name of ,audentia episcopalis4 ,the clergy themselves were exempted from the jurisdiction of civil tribunals and were made subject to an ecclesiastical court4 ,the right of asylum was taken from the heathen temples and conferred upon the ,christian churches4 ,with this was connected also the right of episcopal intercession or of interference with regard to decisions already come to by the civil courts which were thus in some measure subject to clerical control4 #dc4b4 ,the ,institution of cumenical ,synods4--,the 1 ,concilia universalia s4 generalia1 owe their origin to ,constantine the ,great 7 #ej1 #a74 ,the calling of councils was an unquestioned right of the crown4 ,a prelate chosen by the emperor or the council presided2 the presence of the imperial commissioner1 who opened the ,synod by reading the imperial edict1 was a guarantee for the preservation of the rights of the state4 ,the treasury bore the expense of board and travelling4 ,the decisions generally were called 1 ,definitiones2 if they were resolutions regarding matters of faith1 2 if in the form of a confession1 2 if they bore upon the constitution1 worship and discipline1 4 ,on doctrinal questions there had to be unanimity2 on constitutional questions a majority sufficed4 ,only the bishops had the right of voting1 but they allowed themselves to be influenced by the views of the subordinate clergy4 ,as a sort of substitute for the cumenical councils which could not be suddenly or easily convened we have the at ,constantinople1 which were composed of all the bishops who might at the time be present in the district4 ,at ,alexandria1 too1 these endemic ,synods were held4 ,the ,provincial ,synods were convened twice a year under the presidency of the metropolitan2 as courts of higher instances we have the ,patriarchal or ,diocesan ,synods 7comp4 #df1 #a74aah #dc4c4 ,canonical ,ordinances4--,as canonical decrees acknowledged throughout the whole of the ,catholic national church or at least throughout the more important ecclesiastical districts the following may be named4 #a4 ,the ,canons of the cumenical ,councils4 #b4 ,the ,decrees of several important ,particular ,synods4 #c4 ,the ,epistol canonic of distinguished bishops1 especially those of the ,sedes apostolic1 #cd1 preeminently of ,rome and ,alexandria1 pertaining to questions which have had a determining influence on church practice1 which were at a later time called at ,rome ,epistt4 decretales4 #d4 ,the canonical laws of the emperors1 7,codex ,theodosianus in ,a4,d4 #ddj1 ,codex ,justinianus in ,a4,d4 #ecd1 ,novell ,justiniani74 ,the first systematically arranged collection of the ,greek church known to us was made by ,johannes ,scholasticus1 then presbyter at ,antioch1 afterwards ,patriarch at ,constantinople 7 #egh74 ,a second collection1 also ascribed to him1 to which were added the canonical of ,justinian1 received the name of the ,nomocanon4 ,in the ,west all earlier collections were put out of sight by the ,codex canonum of the ,roman abbot ,dionysius the ,little 7 #dg1 #bc71 to which were also added the extant ,decretal ,epistles about ,a4,d4 #ebj4 #dc4d4 ,pseudepigraphic ,church ,ordinances4--,even so early as the #bnd and #crd centuries there sprang up no inconsiderable number of writings upon church law1 with directions about ethical1 liturgical and constitutional matters for the instruction of the church members as well as the clergy1 the moral precepts of which are of importance in church procedure as affording a standard for discipline4 ,the oldest probably of these has lately been made again accessible to us in the ,teaching of the ,,xii4 ,apostles1 the ,didache 7 #cj1 #g74 ,it designates its contents1 even where these are taken not from the ,old ,testament or the 8,gospel10 but from the so-called church practice1 as apostolic1 with the honest conviction that by means of oral apostolic tradition it may be traced back to the immediate appointment of the ,lord1 without1 however1 pseudepigraphically claiming to have been written by the ,apostles4 ,many treatises of the immediately following period1 no longer known to us or known only by fragments1 occupied the same standpoint4 ,but even so early as the end of the #crd century pseudepigraphic apostolic fiction makes its appearance in the so-called ,apostolic ,didascalia1 and some sixty years later1 it reached its climax in the eight bks4 of the so-called ,constitutiones ,apostolic1 4 4 ,the first six bks4 correspond to the previously named ,didascalia expanded and variously altered4#aai ,it assumes the form of a prolix epistolary discourse of the ,apostle1 communicated through ,clement of ,rome1 about everything pertaining to the ,christian life1 the ,catholic system of doctrine1 liturgical practice and hierarchical constitution which may be necessary and useful for the laity as well as the clergy to know1 with the exclusion1 however1 of everything which belonged to the department of what was then regarded as the ,disciplina arcani 7 #cf1 #d74 ,of older writings1 so far as known1 those principally used are the seven ,ignatian ,epistles 7 #cj1 #e74 ,it is post-,novatianist 7 #da1 #c7 and belongs to a time pre-,constantine but free from persecution 7 #bb1 #f71 and may therefore be placed somewhere between ,a4,d4 #bfj and ,a4,d4 #cjb4 ,it was written probably in ,syria4--,while the first six bks4 of the ,apostolic ,constitutions may be compared to the ,syrian recension as a contemporary rendition of the ,didascalia1 the seventh book from an examination of the ,didache seems a rendition of that little work1 in which the assumption of apostolic authorship is made1 and from which everything offensive to the forger and his age is cut out1 the old text being otherwise literally reproduced1 while into it is cleverly smuggled from his own resources whatever would contribute to the support of his own peculiar views as well as the prevailing practice of the church4 ,the ,eusebian symbol1 which is given in the #dast chap41 is an anti-,nicene1 anti-,marcellianist1 ,arianizing formula1 fixing the date of the forgery at the period of the ,arian controversy1 somewhere between ,a4,d4 #cdj and ,a4,d4 #cej 7 #ej1 #b74--,the eighth book is in great part an unmistakeable forgery compiled from older sources belonging to the #crd century1 some of which are still to be found1 and forms a handbook for the discharge of clerical1 especially episcopal1 duties in the conducting of worship and other clerical functions1 e4g4 ordination1 baptism1 etc41 together with the relative liturgical formularies1 drawn up in a thoroughly legal-like style1 in which the ,apostles one by one give their contribution with the formula 4 ,the composition is probably ante-,nicene1 but the date of its incorporation with the other seven books is uncertain4--,in most1 though not in all1 ,,mss4 the ,canones ,apostolorum1 sometimes #ej1 sometimes #he1 in number1 are appended to the eighth book as its last chapter4 ,their standpoint is that common to the canons of the early councils from which they are chiefly borrowed4 ,in respect of contents they treat mainly of the moral behaviour and official functions of the clergy4 ,the #heth contains a ,scripture canon of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 including the two ,epp4 of the ,roman ,clement 7 #cj1 #c71 as well as the ,apost4 ,constitutions1 but omitting the ,apocalypse of ,john 7comp4 #cc1 #i74 ,the collection of the apostolic canon cannot have been made before the beginning of the #eth century1 and most likely in ,syria4 ,dionysius the ,little admitted only the first #ej as ,canones qui dicuntur ,apostolorum1 but ,johannes ,scholasticus quite unhesitatingly ascribes all the #he to ,clement of ,rome4 ,the ,second ,trullan ,council in ,a4,d4 #fib 7 #fc1 #b7 acknowledged the genuineness of the #he1 but rejected the ,apostolic ,constitutions as a heretical forgery which had found no general acceptance in the ,west4--,while hitherto it has been surmised that the #gth bk4 of the ,apost4 ,constit41 as an independent and original work1 should be assigned to another and a much later author than the first six bks41 ,harnack1 founding upon his study of the ,didache1 has come to a clear understanding of their mutual relations4 ,he shows that the original documents lying at the basis respectively of the ,didache and the ,didascalia are fundamentally distinct in respect of composition and character1 but the two in the form in which they lie before us in the ,apost4 ,constit4 are undoubtedly the work of one and the same interpolator4 ,we further obtain the equally convincing and surprising result that the author of this forgery is also identical with the author of the thirteen ,pseudo-,ignatian ,epistles 7 #cj1 #e71 and had in the one case and in the other the same object in view4 ,finally1 he characterizes him as a ,syrian cleric well versed in ,scripture1 especially the ,old ,testament1 but also a shrewd worldly politician1 opposed to all strict asceticism1 who sought by his forgeries to win apostolic sanction and justification not only for the constitutional and liturgical institutions of the church1 as well as the milder practice of his age1 but also for his own semi-,arian doctrinal views4 #dc4e4 ,the ,apostolic ,church ,ordinances#abj are1 according to ,harnack's careful analysis1 a compilation executed in a most scholarly fashion of extracts from four old writings3 the ,didache1 the ,ep4 of ,barnabas1 from which the moral precepts are taken1 a from the beginning of the #crd century1 and a from the end of the #bnd century1 with many clumsy alterations and excursuses after the style of the church tradition of its own period1 the beginning of the #dth century4 ,its introduction consists of a formula of greeting modelled upon the ,ep4 of ,barnabas from the twelve ,apostles who are designated by name4 ,the list1 which begins with the name of ,john1 wants one of the two ,jameses and the late chosen ,matthias1 and the number of twelve is made up by the addition of the name of ,nathanael and that of ,cephas in addition to that of ,peter4 ,then the ,apostles tell that ,christ had commanded them to divide among them by lot the ,eparchies1 ,episcopates1 ,presbyterates1 ,diaconates1 etc41 of all lands1 and to send forth into the whole 2 then follow these 1 first the moral rules1 then the constitutional enactments1 both being divided among the several ,apostles 7 1 1 etc474 ,the compilation had its origin in ,egypt1 not1 however1 at ,alexandria1 where ,athanasius was still unacquainted with it1 or at least did not think it worthy of being mentioned among the church manuals 7 #ei1 #a71 while at a later period it was held in the highest esteem by the ,copts1 ,ethiopians1 ,arabians1 etc41 and took the first rank among their books on ecclesiastical procedure4 ,,ii4 ,,monasticism1 ,,clericalism ,,and ,,hierarchism4 #dd4 ,,monasticism4#aba ,disgusted with worldly pursuits and following an impulse of the oriental character in favour of the contemplative life1 many ascetics withdrew into deserts and solitudes1 there as ,anchorets 71 1 71 amid prayer and labour1 privation and self-denial1 wringing out of the wilderness their scanty support1 they strove after holiness of life which they thought they could reach only by forsaking the accursed world4 ,the place where this extravagant extreme of the old ascetism arose was the ,thebaid in ,upper ,egypt 7 #ci1 #c74 ,the first1 and for a long time isolated1 examples of such professional abandonment of the world may be traced back to the #crd century2 but they had wider spread first in the post-,constantine ,age4 ,the example of ,st4 ,anthony was specially influential in leading a number of like-minded men to betake themselves to isolated dwellings1 1 in his neighbourhood and to place themselves under his spiritual direction4 ,in this we have already the transition from a solitary anchoret life to a communal cnobite life 7 71 and this reached maturity when ,anthony's disciple ,pachomius gathered the scattered residents in his district into one common dwelling1 ,claustrum1 ,cnobium1 ,monasterium1 ,mandrafold1 and bound them under a common system of ascetic practice in prayer and labour1 especially basket making and carpet weaving4 ,this arrangement1 without1 however1 any tendency to displace the anchoret life properly so-called1 won great favour1 and this went on for some decades until first of all in the ,east1 then also in the ,west about ,a4,d4 #cgj1 the land was covered over with monasteries4 ,the monastic life under its twofold aspect was now esteemed as 7,matt4 xxii4 #cj71 1 melior vita4 ,yet even here corruption soon spread4 ,not merely the feeling of spiritual need1 but ambition1 vanity1 slothfulness and especially the desire to avoid military service and villainage1 taxes and imposts1 induced men to enter the monasteries4 ,the ,emperor ,valens therefore issued an order in ,a4,d4 #cfe that such men should be dragged out by force from their retreats4 ,spiritual vices too were not wanting--extravagance and fanaticism1 spiritual pride1 etc4 ,all the more did the most distinguished bishops1 e4g4 ,basil the ,great1 feel it their duty to take the monasteries under their special supervision and care4 ,under such direction1 besides serving their own special purpose1 they became extremely important and beneficial as places of refuge for the oppressed and persecuted1 and as benevolent institutions for the sick and the poor4 ,sometimes also by the introduction of theological studies as seminaries to prepare candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices4 ,other prelates1 however1 preferred to use their monks as a trusty horde for the accomplishment of their own ambitious party ends4 ,the monks were always reckoned among laymen1 but were distinguished from the ,seculares as ,religiosi or ,conversi4 #dd4a4 ,the ,biography of ,st4 ,anthony4--,according to the ,vita s4 ,antonii ascribed to ,athanasius1 ,anthony was sprung from a wealthy ,coptic family of the country town of ,coma in ,upper ,egypt1 and was born in ,a4,d4 #bea4 ,at the age of eighteen he lost his parents1 and1 being powerfully affected by hearing the story of the rich young ruler in the gospel read in church1 he gave away all his goods to the poor and withdrew into the desert 7,a4,d4 #bhe74 ,amid terrible inward struggles1 which took the form of daily conflicts with demons1 who sprang upon him from the sides of his cave in the shape of all sort of beasts and strange creatures1 he spent a long time in a horrible tomb1 then twenty years in the crumbling ruins of a castle1 and finally he chose as his constant abode a barren mountain1 afterwards called ,anthony's ,mount1 where a well and some date palms afforded him the absolutely indispensable support4 ,his clothing1 a sheep's skin and a hairy cloak1 was on his body day and night1 nor did he ever wash himself4 ,the fame of his holiness attracted a multitude of like-minded ascetics who settled in his neighbourhood and put themselves under his spiritual direction4 ,but also men of the world of all ranks made pilgrimages to him1 seeking and finding comfort4 ,even ,constantine and his sons testified in correspondence with him their veneration1 and he answered 8like a ,christian ,diogenes to the ,christian ,alexander40 ,pointing to ,christ as the only miracle worker1 he healed by his prayers bodily maladies and by his conversations afflictions of the soul4 ,amid the distress of the persecution of ,maximian in ,a4,d4 #caa he went to ,alexandria1 but found not the martyrdom which he courted4 ,again1 in ,a4,d4 #cea1 during the bitter ,arian controversy 7 #ej71 he appeared suddenly in the great capital1 this time gazed at by ,christians and pagans as a divine wonder1 and converting crowds of the heathen4 ,in his last days he resigned the further direction of the society of hermits gathered about him to his disciple ,pachomius1 himself withdrawing along with two companions into an unknown solitude1 where he1 bequeathing to the author his sheepskin1 died in ,a4,d4 #cef1 in his #ajeth year1 after exacting a promise that no one should know the place of his burial4--,until the appearance of this book1 which was very soon translated into ,latin by a certain ,evagrius1 no single writer1 neither ,lactantius1 nor ,eusebius1 nor even ,athanasius in any of his other undoubtedly genuine writings1 mentions the name of this patriarchal monk afterwards so highly esteemed1 and all later writers draw only from this one source4 ,weingarten has now not only proved that this ,vita s4 ,ant4 is not a biography in the proper sense1 but a romance with a purpose which was intended 8to represent the ideal of a monkish life dovetailed into the ecclesiastical system and raised notwithstanding all popular and vital elements into a spiritual atmosphere10 but has also disproved the ,athanasian authorship of the book1 without1 however1 seeking to deny the historical existence of ,st4 ,anthony and his importance in the establishment of monasticism1 as this is already vouched for by the fact that even in the #dth century in the days of ,rufinus pilgrimages were made to ,mons ,antonii4--,the most important witness for the ,athanasian authorship is ,gregory ,nazianzen1 who begins his panegyric on ,athanasius delivered in ,constantinople only a few years after that father's death1 which occurred in ,a4,d4 #cgc1 with the wish that he could describe brilliantly the life of the highly revered man1 as he himself had portrayed the ideal of monasticism in the person of ,st4 ,anthony4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,jerome in his ,vita ,pauli and ,rufinus in his ,hist4 eremit4 seem not yet to have known the author of the book1 and the former1 first in his ,de scriptoribus ecclst41 written twenty years later1 knows that ,athanasius was the author4 ,internal reasons1 too1 seem with no small weight to tell against the authenticity of the book1 the biographical contents of which are largely intermixed with fabulous and legendary elements4 #dd4b4 ,the ,origin of ,christian ,monasticism4--,from the fact that not only ,lactantius1 but also ,eusebius1 whose history reaches down to ,a4,d4 #cbd1 have nothing to say of a monasticism already developed or then first in process of development1 it may perhaps be concluded that although in a general way such an institution was already in existence1 it had not yet become known beyond the bounds of the ,thebaid where it originated4 ,but from the fact that ,eusebius1 who died in ,a4,d4 #cdj1 in his ,vita ,constantini reaching down to ,a4,d4 #ccg1 never makes any mention of monasticism1 we cannot with like probability infer a continuance of such ignorance down to the above-mentioned year1 but must attribute it to the limited range of the book in question4 ,in his commentary on ,ps4 lxviii4 #g and lxxxiv4 #d he distinctly speaks of a ,christian monasticism4 ,the fugitive ,athanasius1 too1 so early as ,a4,d4 #cef betakes himself to the monks of the ,thebaid1 and stays for a year with them 7 #ej1 #b1 #d71 which presupposes a certain measure of organization and celebrity on the part of the community of that region4 ,in his ,hist4 ,arianorum ad monachos1 written about ,a4,d4 #cfj1 he declares that already monasticism had spread through all the or districts of ,egypt4 ,of a monasticism outside of ,egypt1 however1 even this writing still knows nothing4 ,we shall not1 therefore1 greatly err if we assume that the latter years of ,constantine's reign are to be taken as the period of the essential origin of ,egyptian monasticism2 though from this it is not to be concluded that the first isolated beginnings of it1 which had not yet won any special recognition1 are not to be assigned to a very much earlier period4 ,even the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 in the persons of ,elijah1 ,john the ,baptist1 and our ,lord ,himself1 tell of temporary withdrawals1 from religious and ascetical motives1 into the wilderness4 ,but even the life-long professional anchoretism and cnobitism had their precursors in the ,indian gymnosophists1 in the ,east-,asiatic ,buddhism and the ,egyptian ,serapis worship1 and to a certain extent also in the ,essenism of ,palestine 7 #h1 #d74 ,from the place of its origin and the character of its development1 however1 ,christian monasticism can have been influenced only by the ,egyptian ,serapis worship1 and that in a very general sort of way4 ,that this actually was the case1 ,weingarten especially has sought to prove from various analogies based upon the learned researches of ,french ,academicians4 #dd4c4 ,oriental ,monasticism4--,for centuries ,egypt continued the central seat and training school of ,christian monasticism both for the ,east and for the ,west4 ,the most celebrated of all the ,egyptian hermit colonies was that founded by ,pachomius1 formerly perhaps a monk of ,serapis1 7 #cdh71 at ,tabenn1 an island of the ,nile4 ,to the mother monastery were soon attached numerous daughter monasteries4 ,each of these institutions was under the direction of a president called the abbot1 ,abbas1 i4e4 8father10 or ,archimandrite2 while all of them together were under the superior of the parent monastery4 ,similar unions were established by ,ammonius among the ,nitrian mountains1 and by ,macarius the ,elder 7 #dg1 #g7 in the ,scetic desert4 ,hilarion1 a disciple of ,st4 ,anthony 7 #cga71 is celebrated by ,jerome as the founder of ,palestinian monasticism4 ,the ,vita ,hilarionis of the latter1 richly adorned with records of adventurous travels and wonderful events1 most extravagant wonders and demoniacal apparitions1 like the life of ,paul of ,thebes 7 #ci1 #d71 has been recently shown to be a romance built upon certain genuine reminiscences4 ,basil the ,great and ,gregory ,nazianzen with youthful enthusiasm sought to introduce monasticism into their native ,asia ,minor1 while ,eustathius1 ,bishop of ,sebaste 7 #chj71 carried it still further east4 ,but though among the ,syrian discourses of ,aphraates 7 #dg1 #ac7 there is found one on monasticism1 which thus would seem to have been introduced into ,mesopotamia by ,a4,d4 #cdj1 this is in contradiction to all other witnesses and awakens a suspicion of the ungenuineness of the discourse1 which is further confirmed by its being wanting in the ,armenian translation1 as well as in the enumeration of ,gennadius4--,the zeal especially of ,basil was successful in ennobling monasticism and making it fruitful4 ,the monastic rules drawn up by him superseded all others in the ,east1 and are to this day alone recognised in the orthodox ,greek ,church4 ,according to these every monastery had one or more clerics for conducting worship and administering the sacrament4 ,basil also advanced the development and influence of monasticism by setting down the monasteries in the neighbourhood of the cities4 ,in the #eth century two of the noblest1 most sensible and talented representatives of ancient monasticism did much for its elevation and ennobling2 namely1 ,isidore1 who died about ,a4,d4 #dej1 abbot and priest of a cloister at ,pelusium in ,egypt1 and his contemporary ,nilus1 who lived among the monks of ,sinai4 ,the not inconsiderable remnants of their numerous letters still extant testify to their far-reaching influence1 as well as to the noble and liberal spirit which they manifested 7 #dg1 #f1 #aj74abb ,a peculiar kind of cnobite life is found amongst the ,acoimet1 for whom the ,roman ,studius founded about ,a4,d4 #df,o the afterwards very celebrated monastery ,studion at ,constantinople1 in which as many as a thousand monks are said to have lived together at one time4 ,they took their name from the divine service uninterruptedly continued in their cloister night and day4 ,from the #eth century the legislative ,synods undertook the care of the monasteries4 ,the ,council of ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea put them under the jurisdiction of the bishop4 ,returning to the world was at first freely permitted1 but was always regarded as discreditable and demanding submission to penance4 ,from the #fth century1 however1 monastic vows were regarded as of life-long obligation1 and therefore a regular canonical age was fixed and a long novitiate prescribed as a time of testing and consideration4 ,about this time1 too1 besides the propria professio1 the paterna devotio was also regarded as binding in accordance with the example of #a ,sam4 i4 #aa4 #dd4d4 ,western ,monasticism4--,the ,west did not at first take kindly to the monastic idea1 and only the combined exhortations of the most respected bishops and teachers of the ,church1 with ,ambrose1 ,jerome1 and ,augustine at their head1 secured for it acceptance there4 ,the idea that already the universally revered ,athanasius who from ,a4,d4 #cda resided a long time in ,rome 7 #ej1 #b71 had brought hither the knowledge of ,egyptian monasticism and first awakened on behalf of it the sympathies of the ,westerns1 is devoid of any sure foundation4 ,owing1 however1 to the free intercourse which even on the side of the ,church existed between ,east and ,west1 it is on the other hand scarcely conceivable that the first knowledge of ,eastern monasticism should have reached ,italy through ,jerome on his return in ,a4,d4 #cgc from his ,eastern travels4 ,but it is certain that ,jerome from that time most zealously endeavoured to obtain recruits for it in the ,west1 applying himself specially to conspicuous pious ladies of ,rome and earning for this scant thanks from their families4 ,the people's aversion1 too1 against monasticism was so great that even in ,a4,d4 #chd1 when a young female ascetic called ,blasilla1 the daughter of ,st4 ,paula1 died in ,rome as some supposed from excessive fasting1 an uproar was raised in which the indignant populace1 as ,jerome himself relates1 cried out1 ,quousque genus detestabile monachorum non urbe pellitur8 ,non lapidibus obruitur8 non prcipitatur in fluctus8 ,but twenty years later ,jerome could say with exultation1 ,crebra virginum monasteria1 monachorum1 innumerabilis multitudo1 ut 444 quod prius ignomini fuerat1 esset postea glori4 ,popular opposition to the monks was longest and most virulently shown in ,north ,africa4 ,even so late as about ,a4,d4 #dej1 ,salvianus reports the expressions of such hate3 ,ridebant1 444 maledicebant 444 insectabantur 444 detestabantur 444 omnia in monacho pne fecerunt qu in ,salvatorem nostrum ,judorum impietas1 etc4 ,nevertheless monasticism continued to spread and therewith also the institution grew in popular esteem in the ,west4 ,martin of ,tours 7 #dg1 #ad7 established it in ,northern ,gaul in ,a4,d4 #cgj2 and in ,southern ,gaul1 ,honoratus ,honorius about ,a4,d4 #djj founded the celebrated monastery of ,serinum1 on the uninhabited island of ,lerina1 and ,john ,cassianus 7 #dg1 #ba71 the still more celebrated one at ,massilia1 now ,marseilles4 ,the inroads of the invaders well nigh extinguished ,western monachism4 ,it was ,benedict of ,nursia who first1 in ,a4,d4 #ebi1 gave to it unity1 order1 and a settled constitution1 and made it for many centuries the pioneer of agricultural improvement and literary culture throughout the ,western empire that had been hurled into confusion by the wars of the barbarians 7 #he74 #dd4e4 ,institution of ,nunneries4--,virgins devoted to ,god1 who repudiated marriage1 are spoken of as early as the #bnd century4 ,the limitations of their sex forbade them entering on the life of anchorets1 but all the more heartily did they adopt the idea of the cloister life4 ,st4 ,anthony himself is said to have laid its first foundations when he was hastening away into solitude1 by establishing at ,coma for the sake of his sister whom he was leaving behind1 an association of virgins consecrated unto ,god4 ,pachomius founded the first female cloister with definite rules1 the superior of which was his own sister4 ,from that time there sprang up a host of women's cnobite unions4 ,the lady superior was called ,ammas1 8mother20 the members1 1 sanctimoniales1 nonn1 which was a ,coptic word meaning chaste4 ,the patroness of female monachism in the ,west was ,st4 ,paula of ,rome1 who was the scholar and friend of ,jerome4 ,accompanied by her daughter ,eustochium1 she followed him to ,palestine1 and founded three nunneries at ,bethlehem4 #dd4f4 ,monastic ,asceticism4--,although the founders of the ,eastern monastic rules subjected themselves to the strictest asceticism and performed them to a remarkable extent1 especially in fasting and enduring privations1 yet the degree of asceticism which they enjoined upon their monks in fasting1 watching1 prayer and labour1 was in general moderate and sensible4 ,valorous acts of self mortification1 so very congenial to the oriental spirit1 are thus met with in the proper monastic life seldomer than among ascetics living after their own fancy in deserts and solitudes4 ,this accounts for the rare appearance of the ,stylites or pillar saints1 by whom expression was given in an outward way to the idea of elevation above the earthly and of struggle toward heaven4 ,the most celebrated of these was ,simeon ,stylites1 who lived in the neighbourhood of ,antioch for thirty years on a pillar seventy feet high1 and preached repentance to the people who flocked to him from every side4 ,thousands of ,saracens who roamed through those regions sought baptism1 overcome1 according to the legend1 by the power of his discourse4 ,he died ,a4,d4 #dei4 ,after him the most celebrated pillar saints were one ,daniel who died at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #dhi1 and a younger ,simeon who died at ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #eif4 #dd4g4 ,anti-,ecclesiastical and ,heretical ,monasticism4--,even after the regulating of monachism by ,pachomius and ,basil1 there were still isolated hermit societies which would be bound by no rules4 ,such were the ,sarabaites in ,egypt and the ,remoboth in ,syria4 ,crowds of monks1 too1 under no rule swarmed about1 called 1 ,pabulatores or ,grazers1 because they supported themselves only on herbs and roots4 ,in ,italy and ,africa from the #eth century we hear of so-called ,gyrovagi1 who under the pretence of monachism led a useless vagabond life4 ,monasticism assumed a decidedly heretical and schismatical character among the ,euchites and ,eustathianists in the second half of the #dth century4 ,the ,euchites1 called also from their mystic dances ,messalians or ,chorentes1 not to be confounded with the pagan ,euchites 7 #db1 #f71 thought that they had reached the ideal of perfection1 and were therefore raised above observance of the law4 ,under pretext of engaging in constant prayer and being favoured with divine visions1 they went about begging1 because work was not seemly for perfect saints4 ,every man they taught1 by reason of his descent from ,adam1 brings with him into the world an evil demon who can be overcome only by prayer1 and thus evil can be torn out by the roots4 ,then man is in need neither of the law1 nor of holy scripture1 nor of the sacraments1 and may be unconditionally left to himself1 and may even do that which to a legal man would be sinful4 ,the mystic union of ,god and man they represented by lascivious acts of sensual love4 ,they understood the gospel history only as an allegory and considered fire the creative light of the universe4 ,by craft and espionage ,bishop ,flavian of ,antioch1 in ,a4,d4 #cha1 came to know their secret principles and proceedings4 ,but notwithstanding the persecution now directed against them1 they continued in existence till the #fth century4 ,the ,eustathianists took their name from ,eustathius1 ,bishop of ,sebaste1 the founder of monasticism in the eastern provinces of the empire4 ,their fanatical contempt of marriage went so far that they regarded fellowship with the married impure and held divine service by themselves alone4 ,they repudiated the ,church fasts and instead ordained fasts on ,sundays and festival days1 and wholly abstained from eating flesh4 ,the women dressed in men's clothes4 ,from the rich they demanded the surrender of all their goods4 ,servants forsook their masters1 wives their husbands1 in order to attach themselves to the associations of these saints4 ,but the resolute interference of the ,synod of ,gangra in ,paphlagonia1 between ,a4,d4 #cfj and ,a4,d4 #cgj1 checked their further spread4--,more closely related to the old ascetic order than to the newly organized monasticism was a sect which1 according to ,augustine1 had gained special acceptance among the country people round about ,hippo4 ,in accordance with the example of ,abel1 who in the ,old ,testament history is without children1 its members1 the so-called ,abelites1 indeed married1 but restrained themselves from marital intercourse1 in order that they might not by begetting children contribute to the spread of original sin1 and maintained their existence by the adoption of strange children1 one boy and one girl being received into each family4 #de4 ,,the ,,clergy4 ,the distinction between clergy and laity was ever becoming more and more clearly marked and in the higher church offices there grew up a spiritual aristocracy alongside of the secular aristocracy4 ,the priesthood arrogated a position high above the laity just as the soul is higher than the body4 ,there was consequently such a thronging into the clerical ranks that a restriction had to be put upon it by the civil laws4 ,the choice of the clergy was made by the bishops with the formal consent of the members of the church4 ,in the ,east the election of bishops lay ordinarily with the episcopal board of the province concerned though under the presidency of the metropolitan1 whose duty it was to ordain the individual so elected4 ,the episcopal chair of the imperial capital1 however1 was generally under the patronage of the court4 ,in the ,west on the other hand the old practice was continued1 according to which bishops1 clergy and members of the church together made the election4 ,at ,rome1 however1 the emperor maintained the right of confirming the appointment of the new bishop4 ,the exchange of one bishopric for another was forbidden by the ,nicene ,council as spiritual adultery 7,eph4 v4 #cc ff471 but was nevertheless frequently practised4 ,the monarchical rank of the bishop among the clergy was undisputed4 ,the ,chorepiscopi 7 #cd1 #c7 had their episcopal privileges and authority always more and more restricted1 were made subordinate to the city bishops1 and finally1 about ,a4,d4 #cfj1 were quite set aside4 ,to the ,presbyters1 on the other hand1 in consequence of the success of the anti-episcopal reaction1 especially among the daughter and country churches1 complete independence was granted in regard to the ministry of the word and dispensation of sacraments1 with the exception of the ordination of the clergy1 and in the ,west also the confirmation of the baptism1 which the bishop alone was allowed to perform4 #de4a4 ,training of the ,clergy4--,the few theological seminaries of ,alexandria1 ,csarea1 ,antioch1 ,edessa and ,nisibis could not satisfy the need of clerical training1 and even these for the most part disappeared amid the political and ecclesiastical upheavals of the #eth and #fth centuries4 ,the ,west was entirely without such institutions4 ,so long as pagan schools of learning flourished at ,athens1 ,alexandria1 ,nicomedia1 etc41 many ,christian youths sought their scientific preparation for the service of the church in them1 and added to this on the ,christian side by asceticism and theological study among the anchorets or monks4 ,others despised classical culture and were satisfied with what the monasteries could give4 ,others again began their clerical career even in boyhood as readers or episcopal secretaries1 and grew up under the oversight and direction of the bishop or experienced clergymen4 ,augustine organized his clergy into a monastic association1 ,monasterium ,clericorum1 and gave it the character of a clerical seminary4 ,this useful institution found much favour and was introduced into ,sicily and ,sardinia by the bishops driven out by the ,vandals4 ,the ,regula ,augustini1 so often referred to the ,latin ,middle ,ages1 is of later and uncertain origin1 but is based upon two discourses of ,augustine1 8,de ,moribus ,clericorum0 and an ,epistle to the ,nuns at ,hippo4--,the age of thirty was fixed upon as the canonical age for entering the order of presbyter or priest2 twenty-five for that of deacon4 ,neophytes1 those who had been baptized on a sickbed 7,clinici71 penitents and energoumeni1 ,bigenie1 the mutilated1 eunuchs1 slaves1 actors1 comedians1 dancers1 soldiers1 etc41 were excluded from the clerical office4 ,the ,african church even in the #dth century prescribed a strict examination of candidates as to their attainments and orthodoxy4 ,justinian at least insisted upon a guarantee of orthodoxy by means of episcopal examination4--,ordination#abc made its appearance as an appendage to the baptismal anointing as a sacramental ordinance4 ,the one was consecration to the priesthood in the special sense3 the other in the general sense2 both bore a character indelibilis4 ,their efficacy was generally regarded as of a magical kind4 ,the imparting of ordination was exclusively an episcopal privilege2 but presbyters could assist at the consecration of those of their own order4 ,the proposition3 ,ne quis vage ordinatur1 was of universal application2 the missionary office was the only exception4 ,the anniversaries of episcopal ordinations1 ,natales episcoporum1 were frequently observed as festivals4 ,legally no one could be ordained to a higher ecclesiastical office1 who had not passed through all the lower offices from that of subdeacon4 ,in earlier times ordination consisted only in imposition of hands2 but subsequently1 after the pattern of baptism there was added an anointing with ,chrism1 i4e4 oil with balsam4 ,the ,lord's ,supper was partaken of before ordination1 the candidate having previously observed a fast4--,from the #eth century it was made imperative that the party ordained should adopt the ,tonsure4#abd ,it had been introduced first in connection with the penitents1 then as a symbol of humility it found favour among the monks1 and from these it passed over to the clergy4 ,originally the whole head was shaved bare4 ,at a later period the ,greek tonsure1 ,tonsura ,pauli1 which merely shaved the forehead1 was distinguished from the ,romish1 ,tonsura ,petri1 which left a circle of hair round about the crown of the head1 as a memorial of ,christ's crown of thorns or as the symbol of the royal priesthood1 ,corona sacerdotalis4 ,the shaving of the beard1 as an effeminate foppish custom1 seemed to the ancient church to detract from the sternness and dignity of the clerical rank4 ,in all ,eastern churches the full beard was retained1 and the wearing of it by-and-by made obligatory1 as it is to this day4 ,in the ,west1 however1 perhaps to mark a contrast to the bearded clergy of the ,arian ,germans1 shaving became general among the ,catholic clergy1 and by papal and synodal ordinances became almost universally prevalent4 ,the adoption of the custom was also perhaps furthered by a desire to give symbolic expression by the removal of the beard to the renunciation of the claims of the male sex on the part of a celibate clergy4--,a solemn ,investiture with the insignia of office 7 #ei1 #g7 was gradually introduced1 and was that which marked distinctions between the consecrations to the various ranks of clerical offices4 #de4b4 ,the ,injunction of ,celibacy4--,in accordance with a hint given by the ,spanish ,provincial ,synod of ,elvira in ,a4,d4 #cjf in its #cbnd canon1 the cumenical ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe was inclined to make the obligation of celibacy at least for the ,ordines ,majores a binding law over the whole church4 ,but on the other hand the ,egyptian bishop ,paphnutius1 a confessor and from his youth an ascetic1 stoutly maintained that the fellowship of married persons too is chastity4 ,his powerful voice decided the matter4 ,the usual practice1 however1 was that bishops1 presbyters and deacons should not contract a second marriage 7#a ,tim4 iii4 #b71 after ordination should contract no marriage at all1 and if previously married1 should continue to live with their wives or not as they themselves should find most fit4 ,the ,easterns maintained this free standpoint and at the ,synod of ,gangra in ,a4,d4 #cfj contended against the ,eustathianists 7 #dd1 #g7 for the holiness of marriage and the legitimacy of married priests2 and in the #eth ,apost4 ,canon there was an express injunction3 ,episcopus vel presbyter1 vel diaconus uxorem suam non rejiciat religionis prtexti2 sin autem rejecerit segregetur1 et si perseveret deponatur4 ,examples of married bishops are not rare in the #dth and #eth centuries2 e4g4 the father of ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,gregory of ,nyssa1 ,synesius of ,ptolemais1 etc4 ,justinian ,i4 forbade the election of a married man as bishop4 ,the second ,trullan ,council in ,a4,d4 #fib 7 #fc1 #b7 confirmed this decree1 interdicted second marriages to all the clergy1 but1 with an express protest against the unnatural hardness of the ,roman church1 allowed to presbyters a single marriage with all its privileges which1 however1 must have been entered upon before consecration1 and during the period of service at the altar all marital intercourse had to be discontinued4 ,in ,rome1 however1 the ,spanish principles were strictly maintained4 ,a decretal of the ,roman bishop1 ,siricius1 in ,a4,d4 #che1 with semi-,manichan abuse of marriage1 insisted on the celibacy of all bishops1 presbyters and deacons1 and ,leo the ,great included even subdeacons under this obligation4 ,all the more distinguished ,latin church teachers contended zealously for the universal application of the injunction of clerical celibacy4 ,yet there were numerous instances of the contravention of the order in ,italy1 in ,gaul1 and in ,spain itself1 and conformity could not be secured even by the most emphatic re-issue of the injunction by successive ,synods4 ,in the ,british and ,iro-,scottish church the right of the clergy and even of bishops to marry was insisted upon 7 #gg1 #c74abe #de4c4 ,later ,ecclesiastical ,offices4--,in addition to the older church offices we now meet with attendants on the sick or ,parabolani1 from 1 and grave-diggers1 1 ,fossarii1 whose number in the capital cities rose to an almost incredible extent4 ,they formed a bodyguard ever ready to gratify episcopal love of pomp4 ,theodosius ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #dah restricted the number of the ,parabolani of ,alexandria to six hundred and the number of the ,copiati of ,constantinople to nine hundred and fifty4 ,for the administration of ,church property there were 2 for the administration of the laws of the church there were advocates1 1 1 ,defensores2 for drawing up legal documents in regard to church affairs there were ,notarii1 1 besides1 ,keepers of ,archives1 1 ,librarians1 ,thesaurarii1 1 etc4 ,none of these as such had clerical consecration4 ,but also within the ranks of the ,ordines ,majores new offices sprang up4 ,in the #dth century we meet with an ,archdeacon at the head of the deacons4 ,he was the right hand of the bishop1 his representative and plenipotentiary in the administration and government of the diocese1 frequently also his successor in office4 ,the college of presbyters1 too1 had as its head the ,arch-,presbyter who represented and supported the bishop in all acts of public worship4 ,a city presbyter was entrusted with the supervision of the country churches as ,visitor4 ,the ,african ,seniores plebis were mere lay elders without clerical ordination4 ,the office of ,deaconess more or less lost its significance and gradually fell into disuse4--,justinian ,i4 restricted the number of ecclesiastical officers in the four great churches of ,constantinople to #ebe2 namely1 in addition to the bishop1 #fj presbyters1 #ajj deacons1 #dj deaconesses1 #ij subdeacons1 #aaj readers1 #bd singers1 and #ajj doorkeepers4 #de4d4 ,church ,property4--,the possessions of the church regularly increased by presents and bequests was regarded down to the #eth century generally as the property of the poor1 ,patrimonium pauperum1 while the cost of maintaining public worship and supplying the clergy with the means of livelihood were defrayed by the voluntary contributions1 ,oblationes1 of the church members4 ,but the growing demands of the clergy1 especially of the bishops1 for an income corresponding to their official rank and the increasing magnificence of the service1 led1 first of all in ,rome1 to the apportioning of the whole sum into four parts2 for the bishops1 for the subordinate clergy1 for the expenses of public worship 7buildings1 vestments1 etc471 and for the needs of the poor4 ,with the introduction of the ,old ,testament idea of priesthood the thought gradually gained ground that the laity were under obligation1 at first regarded simply as a moral obligation1 to surrender a tenth of all their possessions to the church1 and at a very early date this1 in the form of freewill offerings1 was often realised4 ,but the ,council at ,macon in ,a4,d4 #ehe1 demanded these tithes as a right of the church resting on divine institution1 without1 however1 being thereby able to effect what first was secured by the ,carolingian legislation 7 #hf1 #a74 ,the demand that all property which a cleric earned in the service of the church1 should revert to the church after his death1 was given effect to in a ,council at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #cig4 #df;,a4 ,,the ,,patriarchal ,,constitution ,,and ,,the ,,primacy4#abf ,a hierarchical distinction of ranks among the bishops had already made its appearance even in the previous period by the elevation of the metropolitan see and the yet more marked precedency given to the so-called ,sedes apostolic 7 #cd74 ,this tendency got powerful support from the political divisions of the empire made by ,constantine the ,great2 for now the bishops of capital cities demanded an extension of their spiritual superiority corresponding to that given in secular authority to the imperial governors4 ,the guarding of earlier privileges along with respectful consideration of more recent claims prevented the securing of a perfect correspondence between the political and hierarchical distribution of ranks4 ,the result of giving consideration to both was the development of the ,patriarchal ,constitution1 in which the bishops of ,rome1 ,alexandria1 ,antioch1 ,constantinople and ,jerusalem were recognised as heads of the church universal of equal rank with jurisdiction over the patriarchates assigned them4 ,the first place in this clerical ,pentarchy was claimed by the ,roman see1 which ever more and more decidedly strove for the primacy of the whole church4 #df4a4 ,the ,patriarchal ,constitution4--,constantine the ,great divided the whole empire into four prefectures which were subdivided into dioceses1 and these again into provinces4 ,many bishops then of the capitals of these dioceses1 especially in the ,east1 under the title of ,exarchs1 assumed a rank superior to that of the metropolitans1 just as these had before arrogated a rank superior to that of provincial bishops4 ,the first cumenical ,council at ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe 7 #ej1 #a7 affirmed on behalf of the bishops of the three most prominent ,sedes apostolic1 ,rome1 ,alexandria and ,antioch1 that their supremacy had been already established by old custom4 ,the so-called second cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha 7 #ej1 #d7 exempted the bishop of ,constantinople1 7since ,a4,d4 #ccj71 from the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of ,heraclea1 and gave him the first rank after the bishop of ,rome4 ,to these distinguished prelates there was given the title of honour1 ,patriarch1 which formerly had been given to all bishops2 but the ,roman bishops1 declining to take common rank with the others1 refused the title1 and assumed instead the exclusive use of the title ,papa1 1 which had also been previously applied to all of episcopal rank4 ,the fourth cumenical ,council of ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea1 in the #bhth canon1 ranked the patriarch of the ,eastern capital along with the bishop of ,rome1 granted him the right of hearing complaints against the metropolitans of all dioceses that they might be decided at an endemic ,synod 7 #dc1 #b71 and as an equivalent to the vast dominions of his ,roman colleague1 gave him as an endowment in addition to his own patriarchal district1 the three complete dioceses of ,thrace1 ,pontus and ,asia4 ,the ,exarchs of ,heraclea in ,thrace1 of ,neo-,csarea in ,pontus1 and of ,ephesus in ,asia1 thus placed under him1 bearing the title of ,archbishops1 1 formed a hierarchical middle rank between him and the metropolitans of these dioceses1 without1 however1 any strict definition of their status being given1 so that their preferential rank remained uncertain and gradually fell back again into that of ordinary metropolitans4 ,but even at ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe the bishopric of ,jerusalem had been declared worthy of very special honour1 without1 however1 its subordination under the ,metropolitan of ,csarea being disputed4 ,founding on this1 ,juvenal of ,jerusalem in the #crd cumenical ,council of ,ephesus in ,a4,d4 #dca claimed the rank and privileges of a patriarch1 but on the motion of ,cyril of ,alexandria was refused4 ,he then applied to the ,emperor ,theodosius ,,ii4 who by an edict named him patriarch1 and assigned to him all ,palestine and ,arabia4 ,maximus1 however1 patriarch of ,antioch1 who was thereby deprived of part of his diocese1 persisted in protesting until at ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea at least ,phnicia and ,arabia were restored to him4--,within his own official district each of these five prelates exercised supreme spiritual authority1 and at the head of his patriarchal ,synod decided all the affairs of the churches within the bounds4 ,still many metropolitans1 especially those of ,salamis in ,cyprus1 of ,milan1 ,aquileia and ,ravenna maintained a position1 as 1 independent of any superiority of patriarchate or exarchate4 ,alongside of the patriarchs in the ,east there were as councillors and assistants1 and at the imperial court they were represented by permanent legates who were called ,apocrisiarians4 ,from the #fth century the ,popes of ,rome began by sending them the pallium to confer confirmation of rank upon the newly-elected metropolitans of the ,west1 who were called in these parts ,archiepiscopi1 ,archbishops4 ,the patriarchs meeting as a court represented the unity of the church universal4 ,without their consent no cumenical ,council could be held1 nor could any decision be binding on the whole church4--,but first ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #fcg1 then ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #fch1 and next ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #fdj1 fell under the dominion of the ,saracens4 #df4b4 ,the ,rivalry between ,rome and ,byzantium4--,from the time of the ,council of ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea the patriarch of ,constantinople continued to claim equality in rank and authority with the bishop of ,rome4 ,but the principle upon which in either case the claims to the primacy were based were already being interpreted strongly in favour of ,rome4 ,in the ,east the spiritual rank of the bishoprics was determined in accordance with the political rank of the cities concerned4 ,constantinople was the residence of the ruler of the 1 consequently its bishop was cumenical bishop4 ,but in the eyes of the world ,old ,rome still ranked higher than the ,new ,rome4 ,all the proud memories of history clustered round the capital of the ,west4 ,from ,byzantium1 on the other hand1 dated the visible decline1 the threatened overthrow of the empire4 ,moreover the ,west refused even to admit the principle itself4 ,not the will of the emperor1 not the fortunes of the empire1 ever becoming more and more deplorable1 should determine the spiritual rank of the bishops1 but the history of the church and the will of its ,divine ,founder and ,head4 ,measured by this standard the see of ,constantinople stood not only lower than those of ,alexandria1 ,antioch and ,jerusalem1 but even below many other sees which though they scarcely had metropolitan rank1 could yet boast of apostolic origin4 ,then1 ,rome unquestionably stood at the head of the church1 for here had lived1 confessed and suffered the two chief apostles1 here too were their tombs and their bones2 yea1 still further1 on the ,roman chair had ,peter sat as its first bishop 7 #af1 #a71 whom the ,lord ,himself had called to the primacy of the ,apostles 7 #cd1 #h71 and the ,roman bishops were his successors and heirs of his privileges4 ,the patriarch of ,constantinople had nothing to depend upon but his nearness to the court4 ,he was backed up and supported by the court1 was only too often a tool in the hands of political parties and a defender of heresies which had the imperial favour4 ,the case for the ,roman bishop was incomparably superior4 ,his being a member of the ,west-,roman empire1 ,a4,d4 #cie-dgf1 with emperors for the most part weak and oppressed on all sides by the convulsions caused by the invasions of the barbarians1 secured to him an incomparably greater freedom and independence of action1 which was little1 if at all1 restricted by the ,rugian and ,ostrogoth invaders of ,italy1 ,a ,d4 #dgf-ecf4 ,and even in ,a4,d4 #ecf1 when the ,byzantine empire again obtained a footing in ,italy1 and held out with difficulty against the onslaught of the ,longobards from ,a4,d4 #efi to ,a4,d4 #geb within ever narrowing limits1 the court could only seldom exercise an influence upon his proceedings or punish him for his refusal to yield by removal1 imprisonment or exile4 ,and while the ,east was rent by a variety of ecclesiastical controversies1 in which sometimes the one1 sometimes the other party prevailed1 the ,west under the direction of ,rome almost constantly presented the picture of undisturbed unity4 ,the controversialists sought the mediating judgment of ,rome1 the oppressed sought its intercession and protection1 and because the ,roman bishops almost invariably lent the weight of their intellectual and moral influence to the cause of truth and right1 the party in whose favour decision was given1 almost certainly at last prevailed4 ,thus ,rome advanced from day to day in the eyes of the ,christian world1 and soon demanded as a constant right what personal confidence or pressure of circumstances had won for it in particular cases4 ,and in the course of time ,rome has never let a favourable opportunity slip1 never failed to hold what once was gained or even claimed with any possibility of success4 ,a strong feeling in favour of strict hierarchical pretensions united all parties and found its rallying point in the chair of ,st4 ,peter2 even incapable and characterless popes were upborne and carried through by means of this idea4 ,thus ,rome advanced with firm step and steady aim1 and in spite of all opposition and resistance continually approached nearer and nearer to the end in view4 ,the ,east could at last hold on and save its ecclesiastical independence only by a complete and incurable division 7 #fg74 #df;,b4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,chair ,,and ,,its ,,claims ,,to ,,the ,,primacy4#abg ,the history of the ,roman bishopric during the first three centuries is almost wholly enveloped in a cloud of legend which is only occasionally broken by a gleam of historical light 7see #cc1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g2 #ce1 #e2 #cg1 #b2 #dj1 #b2 #da1 #a1 #c74 ,only after the martyr church became in the #dth century the powerful state church does it really enter into the field of regular and continuous history4 ,and now also first begins that striving after primacy1 present from the earliest times among its bishops and inherited from the political supremacy of 8eternal ,rome10 to be prosecuted with success in political and ecclesiastical quarters4 ,its history1 for which biographies of the popes down to the end of the #ith century in the so-called ,liber pontificalis 7 #ij1 #f7 are most instructive sources1 certainly always in need of critical sifting in a high degree1 permits therefore and demands for our purposes at this point earnest and close consideration4 #df4c4 ,from ,melchiades to ,julius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #caj to ,a4,d4 #ceb4--;,at the time when ,constantine's conversion so completely changed the aspect of things ,melchiades occupied the bishopric of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #caj to ,a4,d4 #cad4 ,even in ,a4,d4 #cac ,constantine conferred on him as the chief bishop of the ,west the presidency of a clerical commission for inquiry into the ,donatist schism 7 #fc1 #a74 ,under ,sylvester ,i41 ,a4,d4 #cad to ,a4,d4 #cce1 the ,arian controversy broke out 7 #ej71 in which1 however1 he laid no claim to be an authority on either side4 ,that by his legates1 ,vitus and ,vincentius ,vincent1 he presided at the first cumenical ,synod at ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe is a purely ,romish fabrication2 no contemporary and none of the older historians know anything of it4 ,on account of the rise in ,egypt of the ,meletian schism 7 #da1 #d7 the #fth canon of the ,council prescribes that the bishop of ,alexandria 8in accordance with the old customs shall have jurisdiction over ,egypt1 in ,libya and in ,pentapolis1 since it is also according to old custom for the bishop of ,rome to have such jurisdiction1 as also the churches in ,antioch and in the other provinces40 ,the ,council1 therefore1 as ,rufinus also and the oldest ,latin collection of canons1 the so-called ,prisca1 understand this canon1 maintains that the ecclesiastical supremacy of the ,roman chair extended not over all the ,west but only over the ten suburbicarian provinces belonging to the diocese of ,rome according to ,constantine's division1 i4e4 over ,middle and ,southern ,italy1 with the islands of ,sardinia1 ,corsica and ,sicily4 ,the bishop of ,rome1 however1 was and continued by the wider development of the patriarchal constitution the sole patriarch in all the ,west4 ,what more natural than that he should regard himself as the one patriarch over all the ,west8 ,but1 even as the only sedes apostolica of the ,west1 ,rome had already for a long time obtained a rank far beyond the limits of the ,nicene canon4 ,in doubtful cases application was made from all quarters of the ,west to ,rome for instruction as to the genuine apostolic tradition1 and the epistolary replies to such questions assumed even in the #dth century the tone of authoritative statements of the truth1 epistol decretales4 ,but down to ,a4,d4 #cdd it was never attempted to claim the authority of ,rome over the ,east in giving validity to any matter4 ,in this year1 however1 the pressure of circumstances obliged the ,council of ,sardica 7 #ej1 #b71 after most of the ,eastern bishops had already withdrawn1 to agree to hand over to the bishop of ,rome1 ,julius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #ccg-ceb1 as a steadfast and consistent confessor of the orthodox faith in this age of ecclesiastical wavering1 the right of receiving appeals from condemned bishops throughout the empire1 and if he found them well supported1 of appointing a new investigation by the bishops of the neighbouring province4 ,but this decree affected only the person of ,julius and was only the momentary makeshift of a hard-pressed minority4 ,it therefore attracted no attention and was soon forgotten1--only ,rome forgot it not4 #df4d4 ,from ,liberius to ,anastasius1 ,a4,d4 #ceb to ,a4,d4 #djb4--;,julius' successor ,liberius1#abh ,a4,d4 #ceb to ,a4,d4 #cff1 maintained with equal steadfastness as his predecessor the confession of the orthodox ,nicene faith1 and was therefore banished by the ,emperor ,constantius in ,a4,d4 #cee1 who appointed as his successor the accommodating deacon ,felix4 ,but the members of the church would have nothing to do with the contemptible intruder1 who moreover on the very day of the deportation of ,liberius had solemnly sworn with the whole clergy of ,rome to remain faithful to the exiled bishop4 ,he succeeded indeed in drawing over to himself a considerable number of the clergy4 ,the people1 however1 continued unfalteringly true to their banished bishop1 and even after he had in ,a4,d4 #ceh by signing a heretical creed 7 #ej1 #c7 obtained permission to return1 they received him again with unfeigned joy4 ,it was the emperor's wish that ,liberius and ,felix should jointly preside over the ,roman church4 ,but ,felix was driven away by the people and could not again secure a footing among them4 ,liberius1 who henceforth held his position in ,rome as a ,nican1 amnestied those of the clergy who had fallen away4 ,but the schism occasioned thereby in the church of ,rome broke out with great violence after his death4 ,a rigorist minority repudiated ,damasus ,i41 ,a4,d4 #cff to ,a4,d4 #chd1 who had been chosen as his successor by the majority1 because he too at an earlier date had belonged to the oath-breaking party of ,felix4 ,this minority elected ,ursinus as anti-bishop4 ,over this there were contentions that led to bloodshed4 ,the party of ,damasus attacked the church of ,ursinus and one hundred and thirty-seven corpses were carried out4 ,valentinian ,,iii4 now exiled ,ursinus1 and ,gratian in ,a4,d4 #cgh by an edict conferred upon ,damasus the right of giving decision without appeal as party and judge in one person against all bishops and clergy involved in the schism4 ,in consequence of this victory of ,damasus as partisan of ,felix there was now formed in ,rome a tradition which has passed over into the lists of the popes and the martyrologies1 in which ,liberius figures as the adherent of a heretical emperor and a bloody persecutor of the true ,nicene faith and ,felix ,,ii4 as the legitimate pope4 ,he is also confounded with the martyr ,felix who suffered under ,maximian and was celebrated in song by ,paulinus ,nolanus1 and is thus represented as a holy martyr4#abi ,to the pontificate of ,siricius1 ,a4,d4 #chd to ,a4,d4 #cih1 the western church is indebted for the oldest extant papal decretals dating from ,a4,d4 #che which contain a reply to various questions of the ,spanish bishop couched quite in the hierarchical form and insisting in strong terms upon the binding obligation of clerical celibacy4 ,subsequently the same pope1 burdened with 8the care of all the churches10 feels himself obliged to issue an encyclical to all the churches of the ,west1 denouncing the frequent neglect of existing ecclesiastical laws4 ,in the ,origenist controversy between ,jerome and ,rufinus 7 #ea1 #b7 he favoured the latter2--whereas his successor1 ,anastasius1 ,a4,d4 #cih to ,a4,d4 #djb1 took the side of ,jerome4 #df4e4 ,from ,innocent ,i4 to ,zosimus1 ,a4,d4 #djb to ,a4,d4 #dah4--;,in consequence of the partition of the empire into an eastern and a western division in ,a4,d4 #cfd 7comp4 #db1 #d71 the claims of the ,roman chair to ecclesiastical supremacy over the whole of the ,west were not only confirmed but also very considerably extended4 ,for by this partition the western half of the empire included not only those countries which had previously been reckoned western1 namely1 ,africa1 ,spain1 ,britain1 ,gaul and ,italy1 but also the prefecture of ,illyricum 7,greece1 ,thessaly1 ,macedonia1 ,dalmatia1 ,pannonia1 ,msia1 ,dacia7 with its capital ,thessalonica1 and thus events played into the hands of those who pressed the patriarchal claims of ,rome4 ,even when in ,a4,d4 #cgi ,eastern ,illyria 7,macedonia1 ,msia and ,dacia7 was attached to the ,eastern empire1 the ,roman bishops continued still to regard it as belonging to their patriarchal domain4 ,these claims were advanced with special emphasis and with corresponding success by ,innocent ,i41 ,a4,d4 #djb to ,a4,d4 #dag4 ,when in ,a4,d4 #djb he intimated to the archbishop of ,thessalonica his elevation to the chair1 he at the same time transferred to him as his representative the oversight of all the ,illyrian provinces1 and to his successor1 in ,a4,d4 #dab1 he sent a formal document of installation as ,roman vicar4 ,not only did he apply to the ,roman chair that canon of the ,council of ,sardica which had referred only to the person of ,julius1 but in a decretal to a ,gallic bishop he extended also the clearly circumscribed right of appeal on the part of condemned bishops into an obligation to submit all 8caus majores0 to the decision of the apostolic see4 ,from ,africa a ,carthaginian ,synod in ,a4,d4 #djd sent messengers to ,rome in order to secure its intercession with the emperor to put down the ,donatists4 ,from the ,east ,theophilus of ,alexandria and ,chrysostom of ,constantinople solicited the weighty influence of ,rome in the ,origenist controversy 7 #ea1 #c72 and ,alexander of ,antioch 7 #ej1 #h7 expresses the proud satisfaction he had1 as only ,western bishops had done before1 in asking the ,roman bishop's advice on various constitutional and disciplinary matters4 ,during the ,pelagian controversy 7 #ec1 #d7 the ,palestinian ,synod at ,diospolis in ,a4,d4 #dae interceded with the ,pope in favour of ,pelagius accused of heresy in ,africa2 on the other hand the ,african ,synods of ,mileve and ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #daf besieged him with the demand to give the sanction of his authority to their condemnation of the heretic4 ,he took the side of the ,anti-,pelagians1 and ,augustine could shower upon the heretics the pregnant words3 ,roma locuta 444 causa finita4--,the higher the authority of the ,roman chair rose under ,innocent1 all the more painful to ,rome must the humiliation have been1 which his successor ,zosimus1 ,a4,d4 #dag-dah1 called down upon it1 when he1 in opposition to his predecessor1 took the part of ,pelagius and his companion ,clestius1 and addressed bitter reproaches to the ,africans for their treatment of him1 but afterwards in consequence of their vigorous remonstrances and the interference of the emperor ,honorius was obliged to withdraw his previous judgment and formally to condemn his quondam proteg4 ,and when a deposed presbyter of ,africa1 ,apiarius1 sought refuge in ,rome1 the ,council of ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #dah1 in which ,augustine also took part1 made this an excuse for forbidding under threat of excommunication any appeal ad transmarina judicia4 ,zosimus indeed appealed to the canon of the ,sardican ,synod1 which he quoted as ,nicene2 but the ,africans1 to whom that canon was quite unknown1 only said that on this matter they must make inquiries among the ,eastern churches4#acj #df4f4 ,from ,boniface ,i4 to ,sixtus ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #dai to ,a4,d4 #ddj4--;,after the death of ,zosimus1 #bfth ,dec41 #dah1 a minority of the clergy and the people1 by the hasty election and ordination of the deacon ,eulalius1 anticipated the action of the majority who chose the presbyter ,boniface4 ,the recommendation of the city prefect ,symmachus secured for the former the recognition of the ,emperor ,honorius2 but the determined remonstrance of the majority moved him to convene a ,synod at ,ravenna in ,a4,d4 #dai for a final settlement of the dispute4 ,when the bishops there assembled could not agree1 he called a new ,synod to meet at ,spoleto at the approaching ,easter festival1 and ordered1 so as to make an end of disturbances and tumults in the city1 that both rivals should quit ,rome until a decision had been reached4 ,eulalius1 however1 did not regard the injunction but pushed his way by force of arms into the city4 ,the ,emperor now banished him from ,rome on pain of death1 and at ,spoleto the bishops decided in consequence of the moderation he had shown1 to recognise ,boniface ,i41 ,a4,d4 #dai to ,a4,d4 #dbb1 as bishop of ,rome4 ,his successor was ,clestine ,i41 ,a4,d4 #dbb to ,a4,d4 #dcb4 ,apiarius1 who meanwhile1 because he professed repentance and besought forgiveness1 had been restored1 began anew to offend1 was again deposed1 and again obtained protection and encouragement at ,rome4 ,but an ,african ,synod at ,carthage energetically protested against ,clestine's interference1 charging him with having often referred to a ,nicene canon warranting the right of appeal to ,rome which the most diligent inquiries among the churches of ,constantinople1 ,alexandria and ,antioch1 had failed to discover4 ,on the outbreak of the ,nestorian controversy 7 #eb1 #c7 two opponents again sued for the favour of the ,roman league2 first of all1 ,nestorius of ,constantinople1 because he professed to have given particular information about the ,pelagian-minded bishops driven from ,italy who sought refuge in ,constantinople 7 #ec1 #d7 and had immediately made a communication about the error of confounding the two natures of ,christ which had recently sprung up in the ,east4 ,the brotherly tone of this writing1 free from any idea of subordination1 found no response at ,rome4 ,the letters of ,cyril of ,alexandria proved more acceptable1 filled as they were with cringing flatteries of the ,roman chair and venomous invectives against the ,constantinopolitan see and its occupier4 ,clestine unreservedly took the side of ,cyril1 commanded ,nestorius under threat of deposition and excommunication within ten days to present to a ,roman ,synod1 ,a4,d4 #dbj1 a written retractation1 and remitted to ,cyril the carrying out of this judgment4 ,to his legates at the ,council of ,ephesus1 ,a4,d4 #dca1 he gave the instructions3 ,auctoritatem sedis apostolic custodire debere mandamus4444 ,ad disceptationem si fuerit ventum1 vos de eorum sententiis judicare debetis1 non subire certamen4 ,the ,council decided precisely according to ,clestine's wish4 ,the proud ,alexandrian patriarch had recognised ,rome as the highest court of appeal2 a ,western educated at ,rome1 named ,maximian1 thoroughly submissive to ,clestine1 was1 with the pope's hearty approval1 raised to the patriarchal see of ,constantinople as successor of the deposed ,nestorius2 only ,john of ,antioch opposed the decision4 ,clestine's successor ,sixtus ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #dcb to ,a4,d4 #ddj1 could already boast in ,a4,d4 #dcc that he had put himself superior to the decrees of the ,council1 and in commemoration of the victory dedicated a beautiful church newly built to the mother of ,god1 now called ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore4#aca #df4g4 ,from ,leo the ,great to ,simplicius1 ,a4,d4 #ddj to ,a4,d4 #dhc4--,leo ,i41 ,a4,d4 #ddj to ,a4,d4 #dfa 7comp4 #dg1 #bb71 unquestionably up to that date the greatest of all the occupants of the ,roman chair1 was also the most powerful1 the worthiest and most successful vindicator of its authority in the ,east as well as in the ,west2 indeed he may be regarded as properly the founder of the ,roman papacy as a universal episcopate with the full sanction of the civil power4 ,even the ,western ,fathers of the #dth and #eth centuries1 such as ,hilary1 ,ambrose1 ,jerome and ,augustine1 as also ,innocent ,i41 had still interpreted the of ,matt4 xvi4 #ah partly of the confession of ,peter1 partly of the ,person of ,christ4 ,first in the time of ,clestine an attempt was made to refer it to the person of ,peter4 ,the legates of ,clestine at the ,council of ,ephesus in ,a4,d4 #dca had said3 1 4 ,thus they claimed universal primacy as of immediately ,divine authority4 ,leo ,i4 adopted this view with all his soul4 ,in the most determined and persistent way he carried it out in the ,west2 then next in proconsular ,africa which had so energetically protested in the times of ,innocent and ,clestine against ,romish pretensions4 ,when news came to him of various improprieties spreading there1 he sent a legate to investigate1 and in consequence of his report addressed severe censures which were submitted to without opposition4 ,the right of ,african clerics to appeal to ,rome was also henceforth unchallenged4 ,in ,gaul1 however1 ,leo had still to maintain a hard struggle with ,hilary1 archbishop of ,arles1 who1 arrogating to himself the right of a primacy of ,gaul1 had deposed ,celedonius1 bishop of ,besontio1 ,besanon4 ,but ,leo took up his case and had him vindicated and restored by a ,roman ,synod4 ,hilary1 who came himself to ,rome1 defied the ,pope1 escaped threatened imprisonment by secret flight1 and was then deprived of his metropolitan rights4 ,at the same time1 in ,a4,d4 #dde1 ,leo obtained from the young ,emperor of the ,west1 ,valentinian ,,iii41 a civil enactment which made every sort of resistance to the divinely established universal primacy of the ,roman see an act of high treason4--,in the ,east1 too1 ,leo gained a higher position than had ever before been accorded to ,rome on account of his moderation in the ,eutychian controversy 7 #eb1 #d74 ,once again was ,rome called in to mediate between the two conflicting parties4 ,at the ,robber-,synod of ,ephesus in ,a4,d4 #ddi1 under the presidency of the tyrannical ,dioscurus of ,alexandria1 the legates of ,leo were not1 indeed1 allowed to speak4 ,but at the next cumenical ,council at ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea his doctrine won a brilliant victory2 even here1 however1 much objection was raised to his hierarchical pretensions4 ,he demanded from the first the presidency for his legates1 which1 however1 was assigned not to them1 but to the imperial commissioners4 ,the demand1 too1 for the expulsion of ,dioscurus from the ,synod1 because he dared ,synodum facere sine auctoritate sedis apostolic1 quod mumquam licuit1 numquem factum est1 did not1 at first at least1 receive the answer required4 ,when1 notwithstanding the opposition of the legates the question of the relative ranks of the patriarchs was dealt with1 they withdrew from the session and subsequently protested against the #bhth canon agreed upon at that session with a reference to the #fth ,nicene canon which in the ,roman translation1 i4e4 forgery1 began with the words3 ,ecclesia ,romana semper habuit primatum4 ,but the ,council sent the ,acts with a dutiful report to ,rome for confirmation1 whereupon ,leo strictly repudiated the #bhth canon1 threatening the church of ,constantinople with excommunication1 and so finally gained his point4 ,the emperor annulled it in ,a4,d4 #ded1 and ,anatolius1 patriarch of ,constantinople1 was obliged to write a humble letter to ,leo acquiescing in its erasure2 but this did not prevent his successor from always maintaining its validity 7 #fc1 #b74--,when the wild hordes of ,attila1 king of the ,huns1 spread terror and consternation by their approach1 ,leo's priestly form appeared before him as a messenger of ,god1 and saved ,rome and ,italy from destruction4 ,less successful was his priestly intercession with the ,arian ,vandal chief ,genseric1 whose army in ,a4,d4 #dee plundered1 burnt and murdered throughout ,rome for fourteen days2 but all the more strikingly after his withdrawal did the pope's ability display itself in restoring comfort and order amid scenes of unutterable destitution and confusion4 #df4h4 ,from ,felix ,,iii4 to ,boniface ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #dhc to ,a4,d4 #ecb4--,under ,leo's second successor1 the ,rugian or ,scyrrian ,odoacer put an end to the ,west-,roman empire in ,a4,d4 #dgf 7 #gf1 #f74 ,as to the enactments of the ,roman state1 although himself an ,arian1 after seventeen years of a wise rule he left untouched the orthodox ,roman church1 and the ,roman bishops could under him1 as under his successor1 the ,ostrogoth ,theodoric1 also an ,arian1 from ,a4,d4 #dic to ,a4,d4 #ebf1 more freely exercise their ecclesiastical functions than under the previous government1 all the more as neither of these rulers resided in ,rome but in ,ravenna4 ,pope ,felix ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #dhc to ,a4,d4 #dib1 in opposition to the ,byzantine ecclesiastical policy1 which by means of the imperial authority had for quite a hundred years retarded the development of the orthodox doctrine 7 #eb1 #e71 began a schism lasting for thirty-five years between ,east and ,west1 from ,a4,d4 #dhd to ,a4,d4 #eai1 which no suspicion of disloyal combination with the ,western rulers can account for4 ,on the appointment of ,felix ,,iii4 ,odoacer assumed the right of confirming all elections of ,popes1 just as previously the ,west ,roman emperors had claimed1 and ,rome submitted without resistance4 ,the ,gothic kings1 too1 maintained this right4--,gelasius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #dib to ,a4,d4 #dif 7comp4 #dg1 #bb71 ventured before the ,emperor ,anastasius ,i41 in ,a4,d4 #dic1 to indicate the relation of ,sacerdotium and ,imperium according to the ,roman conception1 which already exhibits in its infant stage of development the medival theory of the two swords 7 #aaj1 #a7 and the favourite analogy of the sun and the moon 7 #if1 #i74 ,his peaceable successor ,anastasius ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #dif to ,a4,d4 #dih1 entered into negotiations for peace with the ,byzantine court2 but a number of ,roman fanatics wished on this account to have him cast out of the communion of the church1 and saw in his early death a judgment of heaven upon his conduct4 ,he has ever since been regarded as a heretic1 and as such even ,dante consigns him to a place in hell4 ,after his death there was a disputed election between ,symmachus1 ,a4,d4 #dih to ,a4,d4 #ead1 and ,laurentius4 ,the schism soon degenerated into the wildest civil war1 in which blood was shed in the churches and in the streets4 ,theodoric decided for ,symmachus as the choice of the majority and the first ordained1 but his opponents then charged him before the king as guilty of the gravest crimes4 ,to investigate the charges brought against the bishop the king now convened at ,rome a ,synod of all the ,italian bishops1 ,synodus palmaris of ,a4,d4 #ejb1 so called from the porch of ,st4 ,peter's ,church adorned with palms1 where it first met4 ,as ,symmachus on his way to it was met by a wild mob of his opponents and only narrowly escaped with his life1 ,theodoric insisted no longer on a regular proof of the charges against him4 ,the bishops without any investigation freely proclaimed him their pope1 and the deacon ,eunodius of ,pavia1 known also as a hymn writer1 commissioned by them to make an apology for their procedure1 laid down the proposition that the pope who himself is judge over all1 cannot be judged of any man4 ,bloody street fights between the two parties1 however1 still continued by day and night4 ,symmachus' successor ,hormisdas1 ,a4,d4 #ead to ,a4,d4 #ebc1 had the satisfaction of seeing the ,byzantine court1 in order to prepare the way for the winning back of ,italy1 seeking for reconciliation with the ,western church1 and in ,a4,d4 #eai submitting to the humbling conditions of restoration to church fellowship offered by the pope4 ,a sharp edict of the ,west ,roman emperor ,justin ,,ii4 against the ,arians of his empire caused ,theodoric to send an embassy in their favour to ,constantinople1 at the head of which stood ,john ,i41 ,a4,d4 #ebc to ,a4,d4 #ebf1 with a threat of reprisals4 ,the pope1 however1 seems rather to have utilized his journey for intrigues against the ,italian government of the ,goths1 for after his return ,theodoric caused him to be cast into prison1 in which he died4 ,he was succeeded by ,felix ,,iv4 ,a4,d4 #ebf to ,a4,d4 #ecj1 after whose death the election was again disputed by two rivals4 ,this schism1 however1 was only of short duration1 since ,dioscurus1 the choice of the majority1 died during the next month4 ,his rival ,boniface ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #ecj to ,a4,d4 #ecb1 a ,goth by birth and favoured by the ,ostrogoth government1 applied himself with extreme severity to put down the opposing party4 #df4i4 ,from ,john ,,ii4 to ,pelagius ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #ecb to ,a4,d4 #eij4--,meanwhile ,justinian ,i4 had been raised to the ,byzantine throne1 and his long reign from ,a4,d4 #ebg to ,a4,d4 #efe1 was in many ways a momentous one for the fortunes of the ,roman bishopric4 ,the reconquest of ,italy1 from ,a4,d4 #ecf to ,a4,d4 #eec1 by his generals ,belisarius and ,narses1 and the subsequent founding of the ,exarchate at ,ravenna in ,a4,d4 #efg1 at the head of which a representative of the emperor1 a so-called ,roman patrician stood1 freed the pope indeed from the control of the ,arian ,ostrogoths which since the restoration of ecclesiastical fellowship with the ,east had become oppressive1 but it brought them into a new and much more serious dependence4 ,for ,justinian and his successors demanded from the ,roman bishops as well as from the patriarchs of ,constantinople unconditional obedience4--,agapetus ,i41 ,a4,d4 #ece to ,a4,d4 #ecf1 sent as peacemaker by the ,goths to ,constantinople1 escaped the fate of ,john ,i4 perhaps just because he suddenly died there4 ,under his successor ,silverius1 ,a4,d4 #ecf to ,a4,d4 #ecg1 ,belisarius1 in ,december1 ,a4,d4 #ecf1 made his entry into ,rome1 and in the ,march following he deposed the pope and sentenced him to banishment4 ,this he did at the instigation of the ,empress ,theodora whose machinations in favour of ,monophysitism had been already felt by ,agapetus4 ,theodora had already designated the wretched ,vigilius1 ,a4,d4 #ecg to ,a4,d4 #eee1 as his successor4 ,he had purchased her favour by the promise of two hundred pounds of gold and acquiescence in the condemnation of the so-called three chapters 7 #eb1 #f7 so eagerly desired by her4 ,owing to his cowardliness and want of character ,africa1 ,north ,italy and ,illyria shook off their allegiance to the ,roman see and maintained their independence for more than half a century4 ,terrified by this disaster he partly retracted his earlier agreement with the empress1 and ,justinian sent him into exile4 ,he submitted unconditionally and was forgiven1 but died before reaching ,rome4 ,pelagius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #eee to ,a4,d4 #efj1 also a creature of ,theodora1 subscribed the agreement and so confirmed the ,western schism which ,gregory the ,great first succeeded in overcoming4--,the fantastic attempt of ,justinian to raise his obscure birthplace ,tauresium1 the modern ,bulgarian ,achrida1 to the rank of a metropolis as ,justinianopolis or ,prima ,justiniana1 and its bishop to the rank of patriarch with ,eastern ,illyria as his patriarchate1 proved1 notwithstanding the consent of ,vigilius1 a still-born child4 #df4aj4 ,from ,gregory ,i4 to ,boniface ,v41 ,a4,d4 #eij to ,a4,d4 #fbe4--;,after the papal chair had been held by three insignificant popes in succession ,gregory the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #eij to ,a4,d4 #fjd 7comp4 #dg1 #bb71 was raised to the ,apostolic see1 the greatest1 most capable1 noblest1 most pious and most superstitious in the whole long series of popes4 ,he took the helm of the church at a time when ,italy was reduced to the most terrible destitution by the savage and ruthless devastations of the ,arian ,longobards lasting over twenty years 7 #gf1 #h71 and neither the emperor nor his exarch at ,ravenna had the means of affording help4 ,gregory could not allow ,italy and the church to perish utterly under these desperate circumstances1 and so was compelled to assume the functions of civil authority4 ,when the ,longobards in ,a4,d4 #eic oppressed ,rome to the uttermost there remained nothing for him but to purchase their withdrawal with the treasures of the church1 and the peace finally concluded with them in ,a4,d4 #eii was his and not the exarch's work4 ,the exceedingly rich possessions of lands and goods1 the so-called ,patrimonium ,petri1 extending throughout all ,italy and the islands1 brought him the authority of a powerful secular prince far beyond the bounds of the ,roman duchy1 in comparison with which the rank of the exarch himself was insignificant4 ,the ,longobards too treated with him as an independent political power4 ,gregory1 therefore1 may rightly be regarded as the first founder of the temporal power of the ,papacy on ,italian soil4 ,but all this as we can easily understand provoked no small dislike of the pope at ,constantinople4 ,the pope1 on the other hand1 was angry with the ,emperor ,maurice because he gave no consideration to his demand that the patriarch1 ,johannes ,jejunator1 should be prohibited from assuming the title 4 ,gregory's own position in regard to the primacy appears from his ,epistles4 ,he writes to the bishop of ,syracuse3 ,si qua culpa in episcopis invenitur1 nescio1 quis ,sedi apostolic subjectus non sit2 cum vero culpa non existit1 omnes secundum rationem humilitatis quales sunt4 ,and with this reservation it was certainly meant when he1 in a letter to the patriarch of ,alexandria1 who had addressed him as 8,universalis ,papa10 most distinctly refused this title and readily conceded to the ,alexandrian as well as to the ,antiochean see1 as of ,petrine origin 7the ,antiochean directly1 #af1 #a2 the ,alexandrian indirectly through ,mark1 #af1 #d71 equal rank and dignity with that of ,rome2 and when he denounced as an anti-,christ every bishop who would raise himself above his fellow bishops4 ,thus he compared ,johannes ,jejunator to ,lucifer who wished to exalt himself above all the angels4 ,gregory1 on the other hand1 in proud humility styled himself1 as all subsequent popes have done1 ,servus servorum ,dei4 ,when he extolled the ,frankish ,jezebel ,brunhilda ,brunehilda 7 #gg1 #g71 who had besought him to send her relics and at another time a pallium for a bishop1 as an exemplary pious ,christian woman and a wise ruler1 he may1 owing to the defective communication between ,rome and ,gaul1 have had no authentic information about her doings and disposition4 ,the memory of the otherwise noble-minded pope is more seriously affected by his conduct in reference to the emperor ,phocas1 ,a4,d4 #fjb to ,a4,d4 #faj1 the murderer of the noble and just emperor ,maurice1 whom he congratulates upon his elevation to the throne1 and makes all the angelic choirs of heaven and all tongues on earth break forth in jubilees and hymns of thanksgiving2 but even here again1 when he thus wrote1 the news of his iniquities1--not only the slaughter of the emperor1 but also of his queen1 his five sons and three daughters1 etc41 by which this demon in human form cut his way to the throne1--may not have been known to him in their full extent4--,phocas1 however1 showed himself duly thankful1 for at the request of pope ,boniface ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #fjf to ,a4,d4 #fjg1 he refused to allow the patriarch of ,constantinople to assume the title of ,universal bishop1 while at the same time he formally acknowledged the chair of ,peter at ,rome as ,caput omnium ecclesiarum4 ,to the next pope ,boniface ,,iv41 ,a4,d4 #fjh to ,a4,d4 #fae1 he presented the beautiful ,pantheon at ,rome1 which from being a temple dedicated to ,cybele1 the mother of the gods1 and to all the gods1 he turned into a church of the mother of ,god and of all the martyrs4#acb #df4aa4 ,from ,honorius ,i4 to ,gregory ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #fbe to ,a4,d4 #gda4--;,for almost fifty years1 from ,a4,d4 #fcc under ,honorius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #fbe to ,a4,d4 #fch1 the third successor of ,boniface ,,iv41 the ,monothelite controversy 7 #eb1 #h7 continued its disastrous course4 ,honorius1 a pious and peace-loving man1 had seen nothing objectionable in this attempt of the ,emperor ,heraclius 7,a4,d4 #faa to ,a4,d4 #fda7 to win the numerous ,monophysites back to the unity of the church by the concession of one will in the two natures of ,christ1 and was prepared to co-operate in the work4 ,but the conviction grew more and more strong that the doctrine proposed in the interests of peace was itself heretical4 ,all subsequent bishops of ,rome therefore unanimously condemned as an accursed heresy 7 #eb1 #i71 what their predecessor ,honorius had agreed to and confessed4 ,this explains how the exarch of ,ravenna delayed for more than a year the confirmation of the election of the next pope1 ,severinus1 ,a4,d4 #fch to ,a4,d4 #fdj1 and granted it only in ,a4,d4 #fdj as amends for his wholesale plundering of the treasury of the ,roman church to supply his own financial deficiencies4 ,in the time of ,martin ,i41 ,a4,d4 #fdi to ,a4,d4 #fec1 the ,emperor ,constans ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #fdb to ,a4,d4 #ffh1 sought to make an end of the bitter controversy by the strict prohibition of any statement as to one will or two wills4 ,the determined pope had to suffer for his opposition by severe imprisonment and still more trying banishment1 in which he suffered from hunger and other miseries 7,a4,d4 #fee74 ,the new emperor ,constantinus ,pogonnatus1 ,a4,d4 #ffh to ,a4,d4 #fhe1 finally recognised the indispensable necessity of securing reconciliation with the ,west4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fhj1 he convened an cumenical ,council at ,constantinople at which the legates of the pope ,agatho1 ,a4,d4 #fgh to ,a4,d4 #fhb1 the fifth successor of ,martin ,i41 once more prescribed to the ,greeks what should henceforth be regarded throughout the whole empire as the orthodox faith4 ,the ,council sent its ,acts to ,rome with the request that they might be confirmed1 which ,agatho's successor1 ,leo ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #fhb to ,a4,d4 #fhc1 did1 notwithstanding the condemnation therein very pointedly expressed of the heretical pope ,honorius1 which indeed he explicitly approved4--,once again in ,a4,d4 #fhf1 the ,roman church was threatened with a schism by a double election to the papal chair4 ,this1 however1 was averted by the opposing electors1 lay and clerical1 agreeing to set aside both candidates and uniting together in the election of the ,thracian ,conon1 ,a4,d4 #fhf to ,a4,d4 #fhg4 ,precisely the same thing happened with a similar result on the death of ,conon4 ,the new candidate whom both parties agreed upon this time was ,sergius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #fhg to ,a4,d4 #gja1 but he was obliged to purchase the exarch's confirmation by a present of a hundred pounds of gold4 ,his rejection of the conclusions of the second ,trullan ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #fib 7 #fc1 #b71 which in various points disregarded the pretensions of ,rome1 brought him into conflict with the emperor ,justinian ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #fhe to ,a4,d4 #gaa4 ,the result of this contest was to show that the power and authority of the pope in ,italy were at this time greater than those of the emperor4 ,when the emperor sent a high official to ,rome with the order to bring the pope prisoner to ,constantinople1 almost the whole population of the exarchate gathered out in the pope's defence4 ,the ,byzantine ambassador sought and obtained protection from the pope1 under whose bed he crept1 and was then allowed to quit ,rome in safety1 followed by the scorn and abuse of the people4 ,soon thereafter1 in ,a4,d4 #fie1 ,justinian was overthrown1 and with slit ears and nose sent into exile4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gje1 having been restored by the ,bulgarian king1 he immediately took fearful revenge upon the rebel inhabitants of ,ravenna4 ,pope ,constantine ,i41 ,a4,d4 #gjh to ,a4,d4 #gae1 intimidated by what he had seen1 did not dare to refuse the imperial mandate which summoned him to ,byzantium for the arrangement of ecclesiastical differences4 ,with fear and trembling he embarked4 ,but he succeeded in coming to an understanding with the emperor1 who received and dismissed him with every token of respect4 ,under his successor1 ,gregory ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #gae to ,a4,d4 #gca1 the ,byzantine iconoclast controversy 7 #ff1 #a7 gave occasion to an almost complete rupture between the papacy and the ,byzantine empire2 and under ,gregory ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gca to ,a4,d4 #gda1 the papacy definitely withdrew from the ,byzantine and put itself under the ,frankish government4 ,down to the latest age of the exarchate of ,ravenna the confirmation of papal elections by the emperor or his representative1 the exarch1 was always maintained1 and only after it had been given was consecration allowed4 ,this is proved both from the biographies of the papal books and from the relative formul of petition in the ,liber diurnus ,rom4 ,pontificum1 a collection of formul for the performance of the most important acts in the service of the ,romish ,church made between ,a4,d4 #fhe and ,a4,d4 #gea4 ,the election itself was in the hands of the three orders of the city 7clerus1 exercitus and populus74--,continuation #hb4 ,,iii4 ,,theological ,,science ,,and ,,literature4 #dg4 ,,the ,,theological ,,schools ,,and ,,their ,,most ,,celebrated ,,representatives4 ,the ,ancient ,church reached its highest glory during the #dth and #eth centuries4 ,the number of theological schools properly so-called 7 #de1 #a7 was indeed small1 and so the most celebrated theologians were self-taught in theology4 ,but all the greater must the intellectual resources of this age have been and all the more powerful the general striving after culture1 when the outward means1 helps and opportunities for obtaining scientific training were so few4 ,the middle of the #eth century1 marked by the ,council of ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea1 may be regarded as the turning point where the greatest height in theological science and in other ecclesiastical developments was reached1 and from this point we may date the beginnings of decline4 ,after this the spirit of independent research gradually disappeared from the ,eastern as well as from the ,western ,church4 ,political oppression1 hierarchical exclusiveness1 narrowing monasticism and encroaching barbarism choked all free scientific effort1 and the industry of compilers took the place of fresh youthful intellectual production4 ,the authority of the older church teachers stood so high and was regarded as binding in so eminent a degree that at the ,councils argument was carried on almost solely by means of quotations from the writings of those fathers who had been recognised as orthodox4 #dg4a4 ,the ,theological ,schools and ,tendencies3 a4 ,in the #dth and #eth centuries4--,since the time of the two ,dionysiuses 7 #cc1 #g7 the ,alexandrian theology had been divided into two different directions which we may distinguish as the old and the new ,alexandrian4 ,the ,old ,alexandrian ,school held by the subordinationist view of ,origen and strove to keep open to scientific research as wide a field as possible4 ,its representatives showed deep reverence for ,origen but avoided his more eccentric speculations4 ,its latest offshoot was the ,semiarianism with which it came to an end in the middle of the #dth century4 ,this same free scientific tendency in theology was yet more decidedly shown in the ,antiochean ,school4 ,although at first animated by the spirit which ,origen had introduced into theology1 its further development was a thoroughly independent one1 departing from its original in many particulars4 ,to the allegorical method of interpretation of the ,origenist school it opposed the natural grammatico-historical interpretation1 to its mystical speculation1 clear positive thinking4 ,inquiry into the simple literal sense of holy scripture and the founding of a purely biblical theology were its tasks4 ,averse to all mysteries1 it strove after a positive1 rational conception of ,christianity and after a construction of dogma by means of clear logical thought4 ,hence its dogmatic aim was pre-eminently the careful distinguishing of the divine and human in ,christ and in ,christianity1 forming a conception of each by itself and securing especially in both due recognition of the human4 ,the theology of the national ,east-,syrian ,church1 far more than that of the ,antiochean or ,grco-,syrian1 was essentially bound down by tradition4 ,it had its seminaries in the theological schools of ,nisibis and ,edessa4 ,the oriental spirit was here displayed in an unrestricted manner2 also a tendency to theosophy1 mysticism and asceticism1 a special productiveness in developing forms of worship and constitution1 and withal doctrinal stability4 ,in their exegesis the members of this school co-operated with the ,antiocheans1 though not so decidedly1 in opposing the arbitrary allegorizing of the ,origenist school1 but their exegetical activity was not1 as with the ,antiocheans1 scientific and critical but rather practical and homiletical4 ,the ,new ,alexandrian ,school was the prevailing one for the #dth century so far as ,alexandrian culture was concerned4 ,its older representatives1 at least1 continued devotedly attached to ,origen and favourable to the speculative treatment of ,christian doctrine introduced by him4 ,but they avoided his unscriptural extravagances and carried out consistently the ecclesiastical elements of his doctrine4 ,by a firm acceptance of the doctrine of the eternal generation of the ,son they overcame the subordinationism of their master1 and in this broke away from the old ,alexandrian school and came into closer relations to the theology of the ,western church4 ,to the ,antiochean school1 however1 they were directly opposed in respect of the delight they took in the mysteries of ,christianity1 and their disinclination to allow the reason to rule in theology4 ,the union of the divine and human in ,christ and in ,christianity seemed to them a sublime1 incomprehensible mystery1 any attempt to resolve it being regarded as alike useless and profane4 ,but in this way the human element became more and more lost to view and became absorbed in the divine4 ,they energetically affirmed the inseparable union of the two1 but thereby lost the consciousness of their distinctness and fell into the contrary error of ,antiochean onesidedness4 ,with ,cyril of ,alexandria the ,new ,alexandrian school properly began to assume the form of a sect and to show symptoms of decay1 although he himself retained the reputation of an orthodox teacher4 ,the ,western ,theology of this period1 as well as its ,north-,african precursor 7 #ca1 #aj1 #aa71 energetically insisted upon the application of ,christianity to the life1 the development of the doctrines affecting this matter and the maintenance of the church system of doctrine as a strong protection against all wilfulness in doctrine4 ,in it therefore the traditional theology finds its chief home4 ,still the points of contact with the ,east were so many and so vital that however much inclined to stability the ,west might be1 it could not altogether remain unmoved and without enrichment from the theological movements of the age4 ,thus we distinguish in the ,west four different but variously inter-connected tendencies4 ,first of all there is the genuinely ,western1 which is separated on the one hand in ,tertullian and ,cyprian1 but on the other hand is variously influenced by the talented teachers of the ,new ,alexandrian ,school1 which continued to mould and dominate the cultured theology of the ,west4 ,its chief representatives are ,hilary of ,poitiers1 ,ambrose1 and above all1 ,augustine1 who completely freed the ,latin theology from its hitherto prevailing dependence on the ,greek1 placing it now upon its own feet4 ,the representatives of this tendency were at first in complete accord with the members of the ,new ,alexandrian school in their opposition to the semi-,arian ,origenists and the ,nestorianizing ,antiocheans1 but then as that school itself drifted into the position of a heretical sect1 they also decidedly contended for the other side of the truth which the ,antiochean school maintained4 ,a second group of ,western theologians were inspired by the writings of ,origen1 without1 however1 abandoning the characteristics of the ,western spirit4 ,to this class belongs ,jerome1 who afterwards repudiated his master and joined the previously named school1 and ,rufinus4 ,the third group of ,pelagians represent the practical but cool rationalistic tendency of the ,west4 ,the fourth is that of the semi-,pelagians who in the ,western theology intermingle synergistic elements of an ,antiochean complexion4 b4 ,of the #fth and #gth ,centuries4--,the brilliant period of theological literature had now closed4 ,there still were scholars who wrought laboriously upon the original contributions of the fathers1 and reproduced the thoughts of their predecessors in a new shape suited to the needs of the time1 but spirit and life1 creative power and original productivity had well nigh disappeared4 ,after the monophysite ,johannes ,philoponus of ,alexandria had commented on the works of ,aristotle and applied their categories to theology1 the ,platonic philosophy1 hitherto on account of its ideal contents the favourite of all philosophizing church fathers1 was more and more set aside by the philosophy of the ,stagirite so richly developed on the formal side4 ,the theology of the ,greeks even at so early a date assumed to some extent the character of ,scholasticism4 ,alongside of it1 however1 we have a theosophic mysticism which reverting from the tendency that had lately come into vogue to ,neoplatonic ideas1 drew its chief inspiration from the ,pseudo-,dionysian writings4 ,in the ,west1 in addition to the general causes of decay1 we have also the sufferings of the times amid the tumult of the migration of the nations4 ,in ,italy ,bothius and ,cassiodorus won for themselves imperishable renown as the fosterers of classical and patristic studies in an age when these were in danger of being utterly forgotten4 ,the series of ,latin church fathers in the strict sense ends with ,gregory the ,great2 that of ,greek church fathers with ,johannes ,damascenus4 #a4 ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,teachers ,,of ,,the ,,eastern ,,church4 #dg4b4 ,the ,most ,celebrated ,representative of the ,old ,alexandrian ,school is the father of ,church ,history ,eusebius ,pamphili1 i4e41 the friend of ,pamphilus 7 #ca1 #f71 bishop of ,csarea from ,a4,d4 #cad to ,a4,d4 #cdj4 ,the favour of the emperor ,constantine laid the imperial archives open to him for his historical studies4 ,by his unwearied diligence as an investigator and collector he far excels all the church teachers of his age in comprehensive learning1 to which we owe a great multitude of precious extracts from long lost writings of pagan and ,christian antiquity4 ,his style is jejune1 dry and clumsy1 sometimes bombastic4 ,his ,historical ,writings supported on all sides by diligent research1 want system and regularity1 and suffer from disproportionate treatment and distribution of the material4 ,to his in #aj bks41 reaching down to ,a4,d4 #cbd1 he adds a highly-coloured biography of ,constantine in #d bks41 which is in some respects a continuation of his history2 and to it1 again1 he adds a fawning panegyric on the emperor4--,at a later date he wrote an account of the ,martyrs of ,palestine during the ,diocletian persecution which was afterwards added as an appendix to the #hth bk4 of the ,history4 ,a collection of old martyrologies1 three bks4 on the life of ,pamphilus1 and a treatise on the origin1 celebration and history of the ,easter festival1 have all been lost4 ,of great value1 especially for the synchronizing of biblical and profane history1 was his diligently compiled ,chronicle1 1 similar to that of ,julius ,africanus 7 #ca1 #c71 an abstract of universal history reaching down to ,a4,d4 #ceb1 to which chronological and synchronistic tables were added as a second part4 ,the ,greek original has been lost1 but ,jerome translated it into ,latin1 with arbitrary alterations1 and carried it down to ,a4,d4 #cgh4--,the ,apologetical ,writings take the second place in importance4 ,still extant are the two closely-connected works3 ,prparatio ,evangelica1 1 in #ae bks41 and the ,demonstratio ,evangelica1 1 in #h out of an original of #bj bks4 ,the former proves the absurdity of heathenism2 the latter1 the truth and excellence of ,christianity4 ,a condensed reproduction of the contents and text of the in #e bks4 is found only in a ,syriac translation4 ,the in #d bks41 of which only a portion is extant1 expounds the ,old ,testament in an allegorizing fashion for apologetic purposes2 and the treatise against ,hierocles 7 #bc1 #c7 contests his comparison of ,christ with ,apollonius of ,tyana4 ,a treatise in #cj bks4 against ,porphyry1 and some other apologetical works are lost4--,his ,dogmatic ,writings are of far less value4 ,these treatises-- 1 in #b bks41 the one already named against ,hierocles1 and 1 also against ,marcellus 7 #ej1 #b7--;are given as an ,appendix in the editions of the ,demonstratio ,evangelica4 ,on his share in ,pamphilus' ,apology for ,origen1 see #ca1 #f2 and on his ,ep4 to the ,princess ,constantia1 see #eg1 #d4 ,the weakness of his dogmatic productions was caused by his vacillating and mediating position in the ,arian controversy1 where he was the mouthpiece of the moderate semi-,arians 7 #ej1 #a1 #c71 and this again was due to his want of speculative capacity and dogmatic culture4--,of his ,exegetical ,writings the ,commentaries on ,isaiah and the ,psalms are the most complete1 but of the others we have only fragments4 ,we have1 however1 his in the ,latin translation of ,jerome3 ,de ,situ et ,nominibus ,locorum ,hebraeorum4#acc #dg4c4 ,church ,fathers of the ,new ,alexandrian ,school4 a4 ,the most conspicuous figure in the church history of the #dth century is ,athanasius1 styled by an admiring posterity ,pater orthodoxi4 ,he was indeed every inch of him a church father1 and the history of his life is the history of the church of his times4 ,his life was full of heroic conflict4 ,unswervingly faithful1 he was powerful and wise in building up the church2 great in defeat1 great in victory4 ,his was a life in which insight1 will and action1 earnestness1 force and gentleness1 science and faith1 blended in most perfect harmony4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cai he was a deacon in ,alexandria4 ,his bishop ,alexander soon discovered the eminent gifts of the young man and took him with him to the ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe1 where he began the battle of his life4 ,soon thereafter1 in ,a4,d4 #cbh1 ,alexander died and ,athanasius became his successor4 ,he was bishop for forty-five years1 but was five times driven into exile4 ,he spent about twenty years in banishment1 mostly in the ,west1 and died in ,a4,d4 #cgc4 ,his writings are for the most part devoted to controversy against the ,arians 7 #ej1 #f72 but he also contested ,apollinarianism 7 #eb1 #a71 and vindicated ,christianity against the attacks of the heathens in the pre-,arian treatise in two bks4 ,contra ,gentes1 1 the first bk4 of which argues against heathenism1 while the second expounds the necessity of the incarnation of ,god in ,christ4 ,for a knowledge of his life and pastoral activity the ,libr paschales1 ,festal letters 7 #ef1 #c71 are of great value4#acd ,of less importance are his exegetical1 allegorical writings on the ,psalms4 ,his dogmatic1 apologetical and polemical works are all characterized by sharp dialectic and profound speculation1 and afford a great abundance of brilliant thoughts1 skilful arguments and discussions on fundamental points in a style as clear as it is eloquent2 but we often miss systematic arrangement of the material1 and they suffer from frequent repetition of the same fundamental thoughts1 defects which1 from the circumstances of their composition1 amid the hot combats of his much agitated life1 may very easily be understood and excused4#ace #dg4d4 7,the ,three ,great ,cappadocians47-- b4 ,basil the ,great1 bishop of his native city of ,csarea in ,cappadocia1 is in very deed a 8kingly0 figure in church history4 ,his mother ,emmelia and his grandmother ,macrina early instilled pious feelings into his youthful breast4 ,studying at ,athens1 a friendship founded on love to the church and science soon sprang up between him and his likeminded countryman ,gregory ,nazianzen1 and somewhat later his own brother ,gregory of ,nyssa became an equally attached member of the fraternity4 ,after he had visited the most celebrated ascetics in ,syria1 ,palestine and ,egypt1 he continued long to live in solitude as an ascetic1 distributed his property among the poor1 and became presbyter in ,a4,d4 #cfd1 bishop in ,a4,d4 #cgj4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cgi4 ,the whole rich life of the man breathed of the faith that overcometh the world1 of self-denying love and noble purpose4 ,he gave the whole powers of his mind to the holding together of the ,catholic church in the ,east during the violent persecution of the ,arian ,valens4 ,the most beautiful testimony to his noble character was the magnificent ,basil institute1 a hospital in ,csarea1 to which he1 while himself living in the humblest manner1 devoted all his rich revenues4 ,his writings1 too1 entitle ,basil to a place among the most distinguished church fathers4 ,they afford evidence of rich classical culture as well as of profound knowledge of ,scripture and of human nature1 and are vigorous in expression1 beautiful and pictorial in style4 ,in exegesis he follows the allegorical method4 ,among his dogmatic writings the following are the most important3 ,ll4 #e ,adv4 ,eunomium 7 #ej1 #c7 and ,de ,spiritu s4 ad ,amphilochium against the ,pneumatomachians 7 #ej1 #e74 ,the other writings bearing his name comprise #cfe ,epistles1 moral and ascetic tractates1 ,homilies on the ,hexmeron and #ac ,psalms1 and ,discourses 7among them1 1 71 a larger and a short ,monastic rule1 and a ,liturgy4#acf c4 ,gregory ,nazianzen was born in the ,cappadocian village ,arianz4 ,his father ,gregory1 in his earlier days a ,hypsistarian 7 #db1 #f71 but converted by his pious wife ,nonna1 became bishop of ,nazianzum ,nazianzen4 ,the son1 after completing his studies in ,csarea1 ,alexandria and ,athens1 spent some years with ,basil in his cloister in ,pontus1 but1 when his father allowed himself to be prevailed upon to sign an ,arianizing confession1 he hasted to ,nazianzum ,nazianzen1 induced him to retract1 and was there and then suddenly and against his will ordained by him a presbyter in ,a4,d4 #cfa4 ,from that time1 always vacillating between the desire for a quiet contemplative ascetic life and the impulse toward ecclesiastical official activity1 easily attracted and repelled1 not without ambition1 and so sometimes irritable and out of humour1 he led a very changeful life1 which prevented him succeeding in one definite calling4 ,basil transferred to him the little bishopric of ,sasima2 but ,gregory fled thence into the wilderness to escape the ill-feelings stirred up against him4 ,he was also for a long time assistant to his father in the bishopric of ,nazianzum ,nazianzen4 ,he withdrew1 however1 in ,a4,d4 #cge1 when the congregation in spite of his refusal appointed him successor to his father4 ,then the small1 forsaken company of ,nicene believers in ,constantinople called him to be their pastor4 ,he accepted the call in ,a4,d4 #cgi1 and delivered here in a private chapel1 which he designated by the significant name of ,anastasia1 his celebrated five discourses on the divinity of the ,logos1 which won for him the honourable title of 4 ,he was called thence by ,theodosius the ,great in ,a4,d4 #chj to be patriarch of the capital1 and had assigned to him the presidency of the ,synod of ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha4 ,but the malice of his enemies forced him to resign4 ,he returned now to ,nazianzum ,nazianzen1 administered for several years the bishopric there1 and died in ,a4,d4 #cij in rural retirement1 without having fully realised the motto of his life3 4 ,his writings consist of #de ,discourses1 #bdb ,epistles1 and several poems 7 #dh1 #e74 ,after the #e and the 7a justification of his flight from ,nazianzum ,nazianzen by a representation of the eminence and responsibility of the priesthood71 the most celebrated are two philippics1 7the mark branded on one at the public pillory71 ,invectiv in ,julianum ,imperatorem1 occasioned by ,julian's attempt to deprive the ,christians of the means of classical culture4#acg d4 ,gregory of ,nyssa was the younger brother of ,basil4 ,in philosophical gifts and scientific culture he excelled his two elder friends4 ,his theological views too were rooted more deeply than theirs in those of ,origen4 ,but in zeal in controverting ,arianism he was not a whit behind them1 and his reputation among contemporaries and posterity is scarcely less than theirs4 ,basil ordained him bishop of ,nyssa in ,a4,d4 #cga1 and thus1 not without resistance1 took him away from the office of a teacher of eloquence4 ,the ,arians1 however1 drove him from his bishopric1 to which he was restored only after the death of the ,emperor ,valens4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cid4 ,he took his share in the theological controversies of his times and wrote against ,eunomius and ,apollinaris4 ,his dogmatic treatises are full of profound and brilliant thoughts1 and especially the 1 an instruction how to win over ,jews and ,gentiles to the truth of ,christianity2 1 conversations between him and his sister ,macrina after the death of their brother ,basil1 one of his most brilliant works2 1 against the fatalistic theory of the world of paganism2 1 for the establishment of the doctrine of the ,trinity on principles of reason4 ,in his numerous exegetical writings he follows the allegorical method in the brilliant style of ,origen4 ,we also have from him some ascetical tracts1 several sermons and #bf ,epistles4 #dg4e4 e4 ,apollinaris1 called the ,younger1 to distinguish him from his father of the same name1 was a contemporary of ,athanasius1 and bishop of ,laodicea4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cij4 ,a fine classical scholar and endowed with rich poetic gifts1 he distinguished himself as a defender of ,christianity against the attacks of the heathen philosopher ,porphyry 7 #bc1 #c7 and also as a brilliant controversialist against the ,arians2 but he too went astray when alongside of the trinitarian question he introduced those ,christological speculations that are now known by his name 7 #eb1 #a74 ,that we have others of his writings besides the quotations found in the treatises of his opponents1 is owing to the circumstance that several of them were put into circulation by his adherents under good orthodox names in order to get impressed upon the views developed therein the stamp of orthodoxy4 ,the chief of these is 7i4e4 developed bit by bit7 1 which has come down to us under the name of ,gregory ,thaumaturgus 7 #ca1 #f74 ,theodoret quotes passages from it and assigns them to ,apollinaris1 and its contents too are in harmony with this view4 ,so too with the tract 1 ,de ,incarnatione ,verbi1 ascribed to ,athanasius1 which a scholar of ,apollinaris1 named ,polemon1 with undoubted accuracy ascribed to his teacher4 ,that ,cyril of ,alexandria ascribes this last-named tract to ,athanasius may be taken as proof of the readiness of the ,monophysites and their precursor ,cyril to pass off the false as genuine 7 #eb1 #b74 ,to ,apollinaris belong also an ,epistle to ,dionysius attributed to ,julius1 bishop of ,rome 7 #ej1 #b7 and a tract1 attributed to the same1 1 which were also assigned to ,apollinaris by his own scholars4 ,finally1 the ,pseudo-,justin seems to be a reproduction of a treatise of ,apollinaris' 1 supposed to be lost1 enlarged with clumsy additions and palmed off in this form under the venerated name of ,justin ,martyr4 f4 ,didymus the ,blind lost his sight when four years of age1 but succeeded in making wonderful attainments in learning4 ,he was for fifty years ,catechist in ,alexandria1 and as such the last brilliant star in the catechetical school4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cie4 ,an enthusiastic admirer of ,origen1 he also shared many of his eccentric views1 e4g4 ,apocatastasis1 pre-existence of the soul1 etc4 ,but also in consequence of the theological controversies of the times he gave to his theology a decidedly ecclesiastical turn4 ,his writings were numerous2 but only a few have been preserved4 ,his book ,de ,spiritu ,s4 is still extant in a ,latin translation of ,jerome2 his controversial tract against the ,manichans is known only from fragments4 ,his chief work ,de ,s4 ,trinitate1 1 in #c bks41 in which he showed himself a vigorous defender of the ,nicene ,creed1 was brought to light in the #ahth century4 ,a commentary on the of ,origen now lost1 was condemned at the second ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #ghg4 #dg4f4 g4 ,macarius ,magnes1 bishop of ,magnesia in ,asia ,minor about ,a4,d4 #djc1 under the title 1 etc41 wrote an apology for ,christianity in #e bks41 only recovered in ,a4,d4 #ahfg1 which takes the form of an account of a disputation with a heathen philosopher4 ,doctrinally it has a strong resemblance to the works of ,gregory of ,nyssa4 ,the material assigned to the opponent is probably taken from the controversial tract of ,porphyry 7 #bc1 #c74 h4 ,cyril1 ,patriarch of ,alexandria1 was the nephew1 proteg and1 from ,a4,d4 #dab1 also the successor of ,theophilus 7 #ea1 #c74 ,the zealous and violent temper of the uncle was not without an injurious influence upon the character of the nephew4 ,at the ,synodus ad ,quercum in ,a4,d4 #djc1 he voted for the condemnation of ,chrysostom1 but subsequently1 on further consideration1 he again of his own accord entered upon the diptyche 7 #ei1 #f7 of the ,alexandrian church the name of the disgracefully persecuted man4 ,in order to revenge himself upon the ,jews by whom in a popular tumult ,christian blood had been shed1 he came down upon them at the head of a mob1 drove them out of the city and destroyed their houses4 ,he also bears no small share of the odium of the horrible murder of the noble ,hypatia 7 #db1 #d74 ,he shows himself equally passionate and malevolent in the contest with the ,nestorians and the ,antiocheans 7 #eb1 #c71 and to this controversy many of his treatises1 as well as #hg epistles1 are almost entirely devoted4 ,the most important of his writings is 7 #db1 #e74 ,he systematically developed in almost scholastic fashion the dogma of the ,trinity in his ,thesaurus de ,s4 ,consubstantiali ,trinitate2 and in a briefer and more popular form1 in two short tracts4 ,as a preacher he was held in so high esteem1 that1 as ,gennadius relates1 ,greek bishops learnt his homilies by heart and gave them to their congregations instead of compositions of their own4 ,his #cj 1 ,homili paschales1 delivered at the ,easter festivals observed in ,alexandria 7 #ef1 #c71 in unctuous language expatiate upon the burning questions of the day1 mostly polemical against ,jews1 heathens1 ,arians and ,nestorians4 ,his commentaries on the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments illustrate the extreme arbitrariness of the typical-allegorical method4#ach ,the treatise gives a typical exposition of the ceremonial law of ,moses1 and his contain 8ornate and elegant10 i4e4 typical-allegorical1 expositions of selected passages from the ,pentateuch4 i4 ,isidore of ,pelusium1 priest and abbot of a monastery at ,pelusium in ,egypt1 who died about ,a4,d4 #dej1 was one of the noblest1 most gifted and liberal representatives of monasticism of his own and of all times4 ,a warm supporter of the new ,alexandrian system of doctrine but also conciliatory and moderate in his treatment of the persons of opponents1 while firm and decided in regard to the subject in debate1 he most urgently entreats ,cyril to moderation4 ,his writings ,contra ,gentiles and ,contra ,fatum are lost2 but his still extant #b1jab ,epistles in #e bks4 afford a striking evidence of the richness of his intellect and of his culture1 as well as of the great esteem in which he was held and of his far-reaching influence4 ,his exegesis1 too1 which always inclines to a simple literal sense1 is of far greater importance than that of the other ,alexandrians4 #dg4g4 7,mystics and ,philosophers47 k4 ,macarius the ,great or the ,elder1 monk and priest in the ,scetic desert1 was exiled by the ,arian ,emperor ,valens on account of his zeal for ,nicene orthodoxy4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cia4 ,from his writings1 consisting of #ej ,homilies1 a number of ,apophthegms1 some epistles and prayers1 there is breathed forth a deep warm mysticism with various approaches to ,augustine's soteriological views1 while other passages seem to convey quite a ,pelagian type of doctrine4 l4 ,marcus ,eremita1 a like-minded younger contemporary of the preceding1 lived about ,a4,d4 #djj as an inhabitant of the ,scetic desert4 ,we possess of his writings only nine tracts of an ascetic mystical kind1 the second of which1 bearing the title 1 has secured for them a place in the ,roman ,index with the note 8,caute legenda40 ,however even in his mysticism contradictory views1 ,augustinian and ,pelagian1 in regard to human freedom and divine grace1 on predestination and sanctification1 etc41 find a place alongside one another1 and have prominence given them according to the writer's humour and the requirement of his meditation or exhortation4 m4 ,synesius of ,cyrene1#aci subsequently bishop of ,ptolemais in ,egypt1 was a disciple of the celebrated ,hypatia 7 #db1 #d7 and an enthusiastic admirer of ,plato4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dbj4 ,a happy husband and father1 in comfortable circumstances and devoted to the study of philosophy1 he could not for a long time be prevailed upon to accept a bishopric4 ,he openly confessed his ,origenistic heterodoxy in reference to the resurrection doctrine1 the eternity of the world1 as well as the pre-existence of the soul4 ,he also publicly declared that as bishop he would continue the marriage relation with his wife1 and no one took offence thereat4 ,in the episcopal office he distinguished himself by noble zeal and courage which knew no fear of man4 ,his #aj ,hymns contain echoes of ,valentinian views 7 #bg1 #d71 and his philosophical tracts are only to a small extent dominated by ,christian ideas4 ,his #aee ,epistles are more valuable as illustrating on every hand his noble character4 n4 ,nemesius1 ,bishop of ,emesa in ,phnicia1 lived in the first half of the #eth century4 ,he left behind a brilliant treatise on religious philosophy1 4 ,the traditional doctrine of the ,eastern church is unswervingly set forth by him2 still he too finds therein a place for the eternity of the world1 the pre-existence of the soul1 a migration of souls 7excluding1 however1 the brute creation71 the unconditional freedom of the will1 etc4 o4 neas of ,gaza1 a disciple of the ,neo-,platonist ,hierocles and a rhetorician in ,alexandria1 about ,a4,d4 #dcg wrote a dialogue directed against the ,origenistic doctrines of the eternity of the world and the pre-existence of the soul2 as also against the ,neo-,platonic denial of the resurrection of the body4 ,it bore the title3 4 #dg4h4 ,the ,antiocheans4 a4 ,eusebius of ,emesa was born at ,edessa and studied in ,csarea and ,antioch4 ,a quiet1 peaceful scholar1 and one who detested all theological wrangling1 he declined the call to the ,alexandrian bishopric in place of the deposed ,athanasius in ,a4,d4 #cda1 but accepted the obscure bishopric of ,emesa4 ,he was not1 however1 to be left here4 ,when1 on account of his mathematical and astronomical attainments1 the people there suspected him of sorcery1 he quitted ,emesa and from that date till his death in ,a4,d4 #cfj taught in ,antioch4 ,of his numerous exegetical1 dogmatical and polemical writings only a few fragments are extant4 b4 ,diodorus of ,tarsus1 a scholar of the preceding1 monk and presbyter at ,antioch1 was afterwards bishop of ,tarsus in ,cilicia1 and died in ,a4,d4 #cid4 ,only a few fragments of his numerous writings survive4 ,as an exegete he concerned himself with the plain grammatico-historical sense and contested the ,alexandrian mode of interpretation in the treatise3 4 ,by he understands insight into the relations transcending the bare literal sense but yet essentially present in it as the ideal4 ,by his polemic against ,apollinaris 7 #eb1 #a71 he imprinted upon the ,antiochean school its specific dogmatic character 7 #eb1 #b71 in consequence of which he was at a later period regarded as the original founder of the ,nestorian party4 c4 ,his scholar again was ,john of ,antioch1 whose proper name afterwards almost disappeared before the honourable title of ,chrysostom4 ,educated by his early widowed mother ,arethusa with the greatest care1 he attended the rhetoric school of ,libanius and started with great success as an advocate in ,antioch4 ,but after receiving baptism he abandoned his practice and became a monk4 ,he was made deacon in ,a4,d4 #chj and presbyter in ,a4,d4 #chf in his native city4 ,his brilliant eloquence raised him at last in ,a4,d4 #cih to the patriarchal chair at ,constantinople 7 #ea1 #c74 ,he died in exile in ,a4,d4 #djg4 ,next to ,athanasius and the three ,cappadocians he is one of the most talented of the ,eastern fathers1 the only one of the ,antiochean school whose orthodoxy has never been questioned4 ,in his exegesis he follows the fundamental principles of the ,antiochean school4 ,he wrote commentaries on ,isaiah 7down to chap4 viii4 #aj7 and on ,galatians4 ,besides these his #fej ,expository ,homilies on all the ,biblical books and particular sections cover almost the whole of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,among his other dogmatical1 polemical and hortatory church addresses the most celebrated are the #ba ,de ,statuis ad populum ,antiochen1 delivered in ,a4,d4 #chg4 7,the people of ,antioch1 roused on account of the exorbitant tax demanded of them1 had broken down the statues of ,theodosius ,i47 ,the ,demonstratio c4 ,julianum et ,gentiles quod ,christus sit ,deus and the ,liber in ,s4 ,babylam c4 ,judos et ,gentiles are apologetical treatises4 ,of his ethico-ascetic writings1 in which he eagerly commends virginity and asceticism1 by far the most celebrated is 1 ,de ,sacerdotis1 in #d bks41 in the form of a dialogue with his ,cappadocian friend ,basil 7the ,great7 who in ,a4,d4 #cgj had felt compelled to accept the bishopric of ,csarea after ,chrysostom had escaped this honour by flight4#adj #dg4i4 d4 ,theodore1 bishop of ,mopsuestia in ,cilicia1 was the son of respectable parents in ,antioch1 the friend and fellow-student of ,chrysostom1 first under ,libanius1 then under ,diodorus4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #dbi4 ,it was he who gave full development and consistent expression to the essential dogmatic and hermeneutical principles of the ,antiochean theology4 ,for this reason he was far more suspected of heresy by his ,alexandrian opponents than even his teacher ,diodorus1 and they finally obtained their desire by the formal condemnation of his person and writings at the fifth cumenical ,synod in ,a4,d4 #eec 7 #eb1 #f74 ,leontius ,byzantinus formulated his exegetical offence by saying that in his exposition he treated the ,holy ,scriptures precisely as ordinary human writings1 especially that he interpreted the ,song of ,songs as a love poem1 libidinose pro sua et mente et lingua meretricia1 explained the ,psalms after the manner of the ,jews till he emptied them dry of all ,messianic contents1 ,judaice ad ,zorobabelem et ,ezechiam retulit1 denied the genuineness of the titles of the ,psalms1 rejected the canonical authority of ,job1 the ,chronicles and ,ezra as well as ,james and other ,catholic ,epistles1 etc4 ,in every respect ,theodore was one of the ablest exegetes of the ancient church and the ,syrian church has rightly celebrated him as the 8,interpres0 par excellence4 ,he set forth his hermeneutical principles in the treatise3 ,de ,allegoria et ,historia4 ,of his exegetical writings we have still his ,comm4 on the ,minor ,prophets1 on ,romans1 fragments of those on other parts of the ,new ,testament4 ,latin translations of his ,comm4 on the ,minor ,epp4 of ,paul1 with the corresponding ,greek fragments1 are edited by ,swete1 #b vols41 ,cambr41 #ahhj1 #ahhb4 ,an introduction to ,biblical ,theology collected from ,theodore's writings and reproduced in a ,latin form by ,junilius ,africanus 7 #dh1 #a7 is still extant4 ,his dogmatic1 polemical and apologetical works on the ,incarnation and ,original ,sin 7 #ec1 #d71 against ,eunomius 7 #ej1 #c71 ,apollinaris 7 #eb1 #a7 and the ,emperor ,julian 7 #db1 #e71 are now known only from a few fragmentary quotations4 e4 ,polychronius1 bishop of ,apamea1 was ,theodore's brother and quite his equal in exegetical acuteness and productivity1 while he excelled him in his knowledge of the ,hebrew and ,syriac4 ,tolerably complete scholia by him on ,ezekiel1 ,daniel and ,job have been preserved in the ,greek ,caten 7 #dh1 #a74 ,in regard to ,daniel he maintains firmly its historical character and understands chap4 vii4 of ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 f4 ,theodoret1 bishop of ,cyrus in ,syria1 was ,theodore's ablest disciple1 the most versatile scholar and most productive writer of his age1 an original investigator and a diligent pastor1 an upright and noble character and a man who kept the just mean amid the extreme tendencies of his times1--yet even he could not escape the suspicion of heresy 7 #eb1 #c1 #d1 #f74 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #deg4 ,as an exegete he followed the course of grammatico-historical exposition marked out by his ,antiochean predecessors1 but avoided the rationalistic tendencies of his teacher4 ,he commented on most of the historical books of the ,old ,testament1 on the ,prophets1 the ,song1 which he understood allegorically of the church as the bride of ,christ1 and on the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,among his historical works the first place belongs to his continuation of the history of ,eusebius 7 #e1 #a74 ,his 1 ,hist4 religiosa1 gives a glowing description of the lives of #cc celebrated ascetics of both sexes4 ,of higher value is the 1 ,hreticarum fabularum compendium4 ,his 1 ,de ,curandis ,grcorum ,affectionibus1 is an apologetical treatise4 ,his seven ,dialogues ,de s4 ,trinitate are polemics against the ,macedonians and ,apollinarians4 ,the ,reprehensio xii4 ,anathematismorum is directed against ,cyril of ,alexandria2 and the against monophysitism as a heresy compounded of many heresies 7 #eb1 #d74 ,besides these we have from him #agi ,epistles4#ada #dg4aj4 ,other ,teachers of the ,greek ,church during the #dth and #eth ,centuries4 a4 ,cyril1 bishop of ,jerusalem1 from ,a4,d4 #cea to ,a4,d4 #chf1 in the ,arian controversy took the side of the conciliatory semi-,arians and thus came into collision with his imperious and decidedly ,arian metropolitan ,acacius of ,csarea4 ,during a famine he sold the church furniture for distribution among the needy1 and was for this deposed by ,acacius4 ,under ,julian he ventured to return1 but under ,valens he was again driven out and found himself exposed to the persecution of the ,arians1 which was all the more violent because in the meantime he had assumed a more decided attitude toward ,nicene orthodoxy4 ,at the death of ,valens in ,a4,d4 #cgh he returned and became reconciled to the victorious maintainers of the ,homoousion by fully accepting the doctrine at the ,council of ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha 7 #ej1 #d74 ,we still have his #bc ,catechetical ,lectures delivered in ,a4,d4 #cdh by him as presbyter to the baptized at ,jerusalem4 ,the first #ah are entitled3 1 ,ad ,competentes 7 #ce1 #a72 the last five3 1 ,catecheses ,mystagogic1 on ,baptism1 ,anointing and the ,lord's ,supper4 ,in their present form they afford but faint evidence of their author having surmounted the semi-,arian standpoint4#adb b4 ,epiphanius1 bishop of ,salamis or ,constantia in ,cyprus1 was born of ,jewish parents in the ,palestinian village ,besanduce and was baptized in his sixteenth year4 ,his pious and noble1 but narrow and one-sided character was formed by his education under the monks4 ,he completed his ascetic training by several years residence among the monks of the ,scetic desert1 then founded a monastery in his native place over which he presided for thirty years until in ,a4,d4 #cfg he was raised to the metropolitan's chair at ,salamis1 where he died in ,a4,d4 #djc4 ,in the discharge of his episcopal duties he was a miracle of faithfulness and zeal1 specially active and self-denying in his care of the poor4 ,but in the forefront of all his thinking and acting there ever stood his glowing zeal for ecclesiastical orthodoxy4 ,the very soul of honour1 truth-loving and courageous1 but credulous1 positive1 with little knowledge of the world and human nature1 and hence not capable of penetrating to the bottom of complicated affairs1 he was all his days misused as a tool of the intriguing ,alexandrian ,theophilus in the ,origenistic controversies 7 #ea1 #c74 ,he was all the more easily won to this from the fact that he had brought with him from the ,scetic desert the conviction that ,origen was the prime mover in the ,arian and all other heresies4 ,in spite of all defects in form and contents his writings have proved most serviceable for the history of the churches and heresies of the first four centuries4 ,the diligence and honourable intention of his research in some measure compensate for the bad taste and illogical character of his exposition and for his narrow1 one-sided and uncritical views4 ,his lxxx4 is a full and learned though confused and uncritical work1 in which the idea of heresy is so loosely defined that even the ,samaritans1 ,pharisees1 ,essenes1 etc41 find a place in it4 ,he himself composed an abridgment of it under the title3 4 ,his is an exposition of the ,catholic faith1 which during the tumults of the ,arian controversy should serve as an anchor of salvation to the ,christians4 ,the book 1 ,de mensuris et ponderibus1 answers to this title only in the last chapter1 the #bdth2 the preceding chapters treat of the ,canon and translations of the ,old ,testament4 ,there are two old codices in the ,british ,museum which have in addition1 in a ,syriac translation1 #cg chapters on biblical weights and measures and #ai on the biblical science of the heaven and the earth4 ,the tract 7on the high-priest's breastplate7 is of little consequence4 c4 ,palladius1 born in ,galatia1 retired at an early age into the ,nitrian desert1 but lived afterwards in ,palestine1 where he was accused of favouring the heresy of ,origen 7 #ea1 #b74 ,chrysostom consecrated him bishop of ,hellenopolis in ,bithynia4 ,latterly he administered a small bishopric in ,galatia1 where he died before ,a4,d4 #dca4 ,his chief writing is the 1 ,hist4 ,lausiaca1 a historical romance on the hermit and monkish life of his times which is dedicated to an eminent statesman called ,lausus4 d4 ,nilus1 sprung from a prominent family in ,constantinople1 retired with his son ,theodulus to the recluses of ,mount ,sinai4 ,by a murderous onslaught of the ,saracens his beloved son was snatched away from him1 but an ,arabian bishop bought him and ordained both father and son as priests4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dej4 ,in his ascetical writings and specially in the #d books of his ,epistles1 about #a1jjj in number1 he shows himself to be of like mind and character to his companion ,isidore1 but with a deeper knowledge and more sober conception of ,holy ,scripture4 ,he himself describes the capture of his son in ,narrationes de cde monachorum et captivitate ,theoduli4 #dg4aa4 ,greek ,church ,fathers of the #fth and #gth ,centuries4 a4 ,johannes ,philoponus was in the first half of the #fth century teacher of grammar at ,alexandria1 and belonged to the sect of tritheistic monophysites in that place 7 #eb1 #g74 ,although trained in the ,neo-,platonic school1 he subsequently applied himself enthusiastically to the ,aristotelian philosophy1 composed many commentaries on ,aristotle's writings1 and was the first to apply the ,aristotelian categories to ,christian theology4 ,notwithstanding many heretical tendencies in his theology1 among which is his statement in a lost work1 1 that for the saved at the last day entirely new bodies and an entirely new world will be created1 his philosophical writings powerfully impelled the medival ,greek ,church to the study of philosophy4 ,his chief doctrinal treatise is known only from quotations in ,leontius ,byzantinus and ,johannes ,damascenus4 ,of his other writings the most important was the controversial treatise ,contra ,procli pro ternitate mundi argumenta in #ah bks4 ,the #g bks4 treat of the six days' work of creation with great display of philosophical acuteness and acquaintance with natural history4 b4 ,dionysius the ,areopagite4 ,under this name 7,acts xvii4 #cd7 an unknown writer1 only a little earlier than the previously named1 published writings of a decidedly mystico-theosophical kind4 ,the first mention of them is at a conference of the monophysite ,severians 7 #eb1 #g7 with the ,catholics at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #ecc1 where the former referred to them1 while the other side denied their authenticity4 ,subsequently1 however1 they were universally received as genuine1 not only in the ,east but also in the ,west4 ,they comprise four tracts3 #a4 2 #b4 2 #c4 2 #d4 2 and also #ab ,epp4 to ,apostolic men4 ,their author was a ,monophysite-,christian ,neo-,platonist1 who transferred the secret arts of the ,dionysian mysteries to ,christian worship1 monasticism1 hierarchy and church doctrines4 ,he distinguished a 1 which consisted in symbolic representations1 from a 1 which surmounted the symbolical shell and rose to the perception of the pure idea by means of ecstasy4 ,side by side with the revealed doctrine of ,holy ,scripture he sets a secret doctrine1 the knowledge of which is reached only by initiation4 ,the primal mystagogue1 who like the sun enlightens all spirits1 is the divine hierarch ,christ1 and the primitive type of all earthly order in the heavenly hierarchy as represented in the courses of angels and glorified spirits4 ,there is constant intercourse between the earthly and heavenly hierarchies by means of ,christ the highest hierarch incarnate4 ,the purpose of this intercourse is the drawing out of the of man by means of priestly consecration and the mysteries 7i4e4 the ,sacraments of which he reckons six1 #eh74 ,the has its foundation in baptism as consecration to the divine birth1 1 and its completion in consecration of the dead1 the anointing of the body4 ,the historical ,christ with ,his redeeming life1 sufferings and death is at no time the subject of the ,areopagite mysticism4 ,it is always concerned with the heavenly ,christ1 not about the reconciliation but only about the mystical living fellowship of ,god and man1 about the immediate vision and enjoyment of ,god's glory4 ,the monophysite standpoint of the author betrays itself in his tendency to think of the human nature of ,christ as absorbed by the divine4 ,his ,christian ,neo-,platonism appears in his fantastic speculations about the nature of ,god1 the orders of angels and spirits1 etc42 while his antagonism to the pagan ,neo-,platonism is seen in his regarding the not as a natural power proper to and dwelling in man1 but as a supernatural power made possible by the of ,christ1 but still more expressly by his emphatic assertion over against the ,neo-,platonic depreciation of the body1 of the resurrection of the flesh as the completion of the 4 ,hence also the importance which he attaches to the sacrament of the consecration of the dead4#adc #dg4ab4 c4 ,leontius ,byzantinus1 at first an advocate at ,constantinople1 subsequently a monk at ,jerusalem1 wrote about the end of the #fth century controversial tracts against ,nestorians1 ,monophysites and ,apollinarians1 and in his ,scholia s4 ,liber de sectis presented a historico-polemical summary of all heresies up to that time4 d4 ,maximus ,confessor1 the scion of a well-known family of ,constantinople1 was for a long time private secretary to the ,emperor ,heraclius1 but retired about ,a4,d4 #fcj from love of a contemplative life into a monastery at ,chrysopolis near ,constantinople1 where he was soon raised to the rank of abbot4 ,the further details of his story are given in #eb1 #h4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #ffb4 ,in decision of character1 fidelity to his convictions and courage as a confessor during the ,monothelete controversy1 he stands out among his characterless countrymen and contemporaries as a rock in the ocean4 ,in scientific endowments and comprehensive learning1 in depth and wealth of thought there is none like him1 although even in him the weakness of the age1 especially slavish submission to authority1 is quite apparent4 ,his scientific theology is built up mainly upon the three great ,cappadocians1 among whom the speculative ,nyssa has most influence over him4 ,his dialectic acuteness and subtlety he derived from the study of ,aristotle1 while his imaginative nature and the intensity of his emotional life which predestined him to be a mystic1 found abundant nourishment and satisfaction in the writings of ,dionysius4 ,he was saved1 however1 by the manysidedness of his mind and the soundness of his whole life's tendencies1 from many eccentricities of the ,areopagite mysticism1 so that in his humility he thought that his soul was not pure enough to be able fully to penetrate and comprehend these mysteries4 ,his numerous writings1 of which more than fifty are extant1 were in great part occasioned by the struggle against ,monophysitism and ,monotheletism4 ,his mystico-ascetic writings are also important1 such as his 1 treatises on the symbolico-mystic meaning of the acts of church worship1 his epistles and several beautiful hymns4 ,he also wrote scholia and commentaries on the works of the ,areopagite4 ,he is weakest in exegesis1 where the most wilful allegorizing prevails4 e4 ,johannes ,climacus1 abbot of the monastery at ,sinai1 died at an extremely old age in ,a4,d4 #fjf4 ,under the title 1 ,heavenly ,guide1 he composed a directory toward perfection in the ,christian life in thirty steps1 which became a favourite reading book of pious monks4 f4 ,johannes ,moschus was a monk in a cloister at ,jerusalem4 ,accompanying his friend ,sophronius1 afterwards patriarch of ,jerusalem 7 #eb1 #h71 he travelled through ,egypt and the ,east1 visiting all the pious monks and clerics4 ,at last he reached ,rome1 where he wrote an account in his 1 ,pratum ,spirituale1 of the edifying discourses which he had had with famous monks during his travels1 and soon thereafter1 in ,a4,d4 #fai1 he died4 g4 ,anastasius ,sinaita1 called the new ,moses1 because like ,moses he is said to have seen ,god1 was priest and dweller on ,mount ,sinai at the end of the #gth century4 ,his chief work 1 ,vi du1 is directed against the ,acephalians 7 #eb1 #e7 and his ,contemplationes preserved only in a ,latin translation give an allegorico-mystical exposition of the ,hexmeron4 #dg4ac4 ,syrian ,church ,fathers4#add a4 ,jacob of ,nisibis1 as bishop of his native city and founder of the theological school there1 performed most important services to the national ,syrian ,church4 ,at the ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe he distinguished himself by vindicating the homosion and also subsequently we find him sometimes in the front rank of the champions of ,nicene orthodoxy4 ,of his writings none are known to us4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cch4 b4 ,aphraates was celebrated in his time as a ,persian sage4 ,as bishop of ,st4 ,matthew near ,mosul he adopted the ,christian name of ,mar ,jacob1 and dedicated his #bc ,homilies1 which are rather instructions or treatises1 to a certain ,gregory4 ,he wrote them between ,a4,d4 #ccf and ,a4,d4 #cde4 ,the ,sermones ascribed even by ,gennadius at the end of the #eth century to ,nisibis were composed by ,aphraates4 ,although he lived when the ,arian controversy was at its height1 there is no reference to it in his treatises1 which may be explained by his geographical isolation4 ,the polemic against the ,jews to which seven tracts are devoted ex professo1 was one which specially interested him4 c4 ,ephraim the ,syrian1#ade called1 on account of his importance in the ,syrian ,church1 ,propheta ,syrorum1 was born at ,nisibis and was called by the bishop ,jacob to be teacher of the school founded there by him4 ,when the ,persians under ,sapor in ,a4,d4 #cej plundered the city and destroyed the school1 ,ephraim retired to ,edessa1 founded a school there1 administered the office of deacon1 and died at a great age in ,a4,d4 #cgh4 ,as an exegete he indulged to his heart's content in typology1 but in other respects mostly followed the grammatico-historical method with a constant endeavour after what was edifying4 ,many of his writings have been lost4 ,those remaining partly in the ,syriac original1 partly in ,greek and ,latin translations1 have been collected by the brothers ,assemani4 ,they comprise ,commentaries on almost the whole ,bible1 ,homilies and ,discourses in metrical form on a variety of themes1 of these #ef are against heretics 7,gnostics1 ,manichans1 ,eunomians1 ,audians1 etc471 and ,hymns properly so called1 especially funeral ,odes4 d4 ,ibas1 bishop of ,edessa1 at first teacher in the high school there1 translated the writings of ,diodorus and ,theodore into ,syriac1 and thus brought down upon himself the charge of being a ,nestorian4 ,having been repeatedly drawn into discussion1 and being naturally outspoken1 he was excommunicated and deposed at the ,robber ,synod of ,ephesus in ,a4,d4 #ddi1 but his orthodoxy was acknowledged by the ,council of ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea1 after he had pronounced anathema upon ,nestorius4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #deg4 ,an epistle1 in which he gives an account of these proceedings to ,bishop ,meris of ,hardashir in ,persia1 led to a renewal of his condemnation before the fifth cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #eec 7 #eb1 #d1 #f74 e4 ,jacob1 bishop of ,edessa1 a monophysite1 is the most important and manysided among the later ,syrians1 distinguished as theologian1 historian1 grammarian and translator of the ,greek fathers4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #gjh4 ,of his works still extant in ,,ms4--scholia on the ,bible1 liturgical works and treatises on church law1 revision of the ,syrian ,old ,testament according to the ,,lxx41 continuation of the ,eusebian ,chronicle1 etc4--only a few have been printed4 #b4 ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,teachers ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,church4 #dg4ad4 f4 ,during the ,period of the ,arian ,controversy4 a4 ,jul4 ,firmicus ,maternus4 ,under this name we have a treatise ,de errore profanarum religionum1 addressed to the sons of ,constantine the ,great1 in which the writer combats heathenism upon the ,euhemerist theory 7which traces the worship of the heathen gods from the deifying of famous ancestors71 but besides reclaims many myths as corruptions of the biblical history1 and shows that the violent overthrow of all idolatry is the sacred duty of a ,christian ruler from ,god's command to ,joshua to destroy utterly the ,canaanites4 b4 ,lucifer of ,calris ,calaris in ,sardinia1 was a violent1 determined1 and stubborn zealot for the ,nicene doctrine1 whose excessive severity against the penitent ,arians and semi-,arians drove him into schism 7 #ej1 #h74 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cga4 ,in his tract1 ,ad ,constantium ,augustum pro ,s4 ,athansio1 lb4 ii41 written in ,a4,d4 #cfj1 he upbraids the emperor with his faults so bitterly as to describe him as a reckless apostate1 antichrist1 and ,satan4 ,he boldly acknowledged the authorship and1 in prospect of a death sentence1 wrote in ,a4,d4 #cfa his consolatory treatise1 ,moriendum esse pro filio ,dei4 ,the early death of the emperor1 however1 permitted his return from exile 7 #ej1 #b1 #d71 where he had written ,de regibus apostaticis and ,de non conveniendo cum hreticis4 c4 ,marius ,victorinus from ,africa1 often confounded with the martyr of the same name 7 #ca1 #ab71 was converted to ,christianity when advanced in life1 about ,a4,d4 #cfj1 while occupying a distinguished position as a heathen rhetorician in ,rome4 ,he gave proof of his zeal as a neophyte by the composition of controversial treatises against the ,manichans1 ,ad ,justinum ,manichum1 and against the ,arians1 ,lb4 iv4 adv4 ,arium1 ,de generatione divina ad ,candidum1 ,de recipiendo4 ,in his treatise1 ,de verbis scriptur1 ,gen4 i4 #e1 he shows that the creative days began not with the evening1 but with the morning4 ,he composed three hymns de ,trinitate1 and an epic poem on the seven brothers1 the ,maccabees4 d4 ,hilary of ,poitiers--,hilarius ,pictavienses--styled the ,athanasius of the ,west1 and made doctor ecclesi by ,pius ,,ix4 in ,a4,d4 #ahea1 was sprung from a noble pagan family of ,poitiers 7,pictavium74 ,with wife and daughter he embraced ,christianity1 and was soon thereafter1 about ,a4,d4 #cej1 made bishop of his native city4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cef1 however1 as a zealous opponent of ,arianism1 he was banished to ,phrygia1 from which he returned in ,a4,d4 #cfj4 ,two years later he travelled to ,milan1 in order if possible to win from his error the bishop of that place1 ,auxentius1 a zealous ,arian4 ,that bishop1 however1 obtained an imperial edict which obliged him instantly to withdraw4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cff4 ,the study of ,origen seems to have had a decided influence upon his theological development4 ,his strength lay in the speculative treatment of the groundworks of doctrine4 ,at the same time he is the first exegete proper among the ,western fathers writing the ,latin language4 ,he follows exactly the allegorical method of the ,alexandrians4 ,his works embrace commentaries on the ,psalms and the ,gospel of ,matthew1 several polemical lectures 7 #ej1 #f71 and his speculative dogmatic masterpiece de ,trinitate in xii4 books4 e4 ,zeno1 bishop of ,verona1 who died about ,a4,d4 #chj1 left behind ninety-three ,sermones which1 in beautiful language and spirited style1 treat of various subjects connected with faith and morals1 combat paganism and ,arianism1 and eagerly recommend virginity and monasticism4 f4 ,philaster1 bishop of ,brescia1 contemporary of ,zeno1 in his book ,de hresibus1 described in harsh and obscure language1 in an uncritical fashion and with an extremely loose application of the word heresy1 #bh pre-,christian and #abh post-,christian systems of error4 g4 ,martin of ,tours1#adf son of a soldier1 had before baptism1 but after his heart had been filled with the love of ,christ1 entered the ,roman cavalry4 ,once1 legend relates1 he parted his military cloak into two pieces in order to shield a naked beggar from the cold1 and on the following night the ,lord ,jesus appeared to him clothed in this very cloak4 ,in his eighteenth year he was baptized1 and for some years thereafter attached himself to ,hilary of ,poitiers1 and then went to his parents in ,pannonia4 ,he did not succeed in converting his father1 but he was successful with his mother and many of the people4 ,scourged and driven away by the ,arian party which there prevailed1 he turned to ,milan where1 however1 he got just as little welcome from the ,arian bishop ,auxentius4 ,he then lived some years on the island of ,gallinaria1 near ,genoa4 ,when ,hilary returned from banishment to ,pictavium1 he followed him there1 and founded in the neighbourhood a monastery1 the earliest in ,gaul4 ,he was guilefully decoyed to ,tours1 and forced to mount the episcopal chair there in ,a4,d4 #cge4 ,he converted whole crowds of heathen peasants1 and1 according to the legend given by ,sulpicius ,severus and ,gregory of ,tours 7 #ij1 #b71 wrought miracle after miracle4 ,but he was himself with his holy zeal1 his activity in doing good1 his undoubted power over men's hearts1 and a countenance before which even the emperor quailed 7 #ed1 #b71 the greatest and the most credible miracle4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #djj in the monastery of ,marmontiers ,marmoutiers1 which he had founded out from ,tours4 ,his tomb was one of the most frequented places of pilgrimage4 ,he was wholly without scholarly culture1 but the force of intellect with which he was endowed lent him a commanding eloquence4 ,the ,confessio de s4 ,trinitate attributed to him is not genuine4 #dg4ae4 g4 ,ambrose1 bishop of ,milan1 sprung from a prominent ,roman family1 was governor of the province of ,milan4 ,after the death of the ,arian ,auxentius in ,a4,d4 #cgd violent quarrels broke out over the choice of a successor4 ,then a child is said to have cried from the midst of the crowd 8,ambrose is bishop10 and all the people1 ,arians as well as ,catholics1 agreed4 ,all objection was vain4 ,up to this time only a catechumen1 he received baptism1 distributed his property among the poor1 and eight days after mounted the episcopal chair4 ,his new office he administered with truly apostolic zeal1 a father of the poor1 a protector of all oppressed1 an unweariedly active pastor1 a powerful opponent of heresy and heathenism4 ,his eloquence1 which had won him a high reputation in the forum1 was yet more conspicuous in the service of the church4 ,to ransom the prisoners he spared not even the furniture of the church4 ,to a peculiarly winning friendliness and gentleness he added great strength of character1 which prevented him being checked in his course by any respect of persons1 or by any threatening and danger4 ,he so decidedly opposed the intrigues of the ,arian ,empress ,justina1 during the minority of her son ,valentinian ,,ii41 that she1 powerless to execute her wrath1 was obliged to desist from her endeavours 7 #ej1 #d74 ,with ,theodosius the ,great he stood in the highest esteem4 ,when the passionate emperor had ordered a fearful massacre without distinction of rank1 age and sex1 without enquiry as to guilt or innocence1 of the inhabitants of ,thessalonica on account of a tumult in which a general and several officers had been murdered1 ,ambrose wrote him a letter with an earnest call to repentance1 and threatened him with exclusion from the communion of the church and its services4 ,the emperor1 already repenting of his hastiness1 took patiently the rebuke administered1 but did nothing to atone for his crime4 ,some time after he went as usual to church1 but ,ambrose met him at the entrance of the house of ,god and refused him admission4 ,for eight months the emperor refrained from communion2 then he applied for absolution1 which was granted him1 after he had publicly done penance before the congregation and promised never in future to carry out a death sentence within thirty days of its being pronounced4 ,theodosius afterwards declared that ,ambrose was the only one truly deserving the name of a bishop4 ,ambrose was also a zealous promoter of monasticism in the ,west4 ,in his sermons he so powerfully recommended virginity that many families forbade their daughters attending them4 ,he deserves special credit for his contributions to the liturgical services 7,officium ,ambrosianum1 ,cantus ,ambr41 ,hymn ,composition1 #ei1 #d-f74 ,on all dogmatic questions he strongly favoured the realism of the ,north ,african school1 while in exegesis he did not surmount the allegorical method of the ,alexandrians4 ,to the department of morals and ascetics belong the #c bks4 ,de ,officiis ,ministrorum1 a ,christian construction of ,cicero's celebrated work and the most important of all ,ambrose's writings2 also several treatises in recommendation of virginity4 ,the book ,de ,mysteriis explains baptism and the ,lord's ,supper to the neophytes4 ,the #e bks4 ,de fide1 the #c bks4 ,de ,spiritu ,s4 and the tract ,de incarnatonis sacramento1 treat of the fundamental doctrines of the ,christian faith in opposition to ,arians1 ,sabellians1 ,apollinarians1 etc4 ,these are somewhat dependent upon the ,greeks1 especially ,athanasius1 ,didymus and ,basil4 ,his expositions of ,old ,testament histories 7,hexameron1 ,de ,paradiso1 ,de ,cain et ,abel1 ,de ,no et arca1 ,de ,abraham1 ,de ,jacob et anima1 etc47 are allegorical and typical in the highest degree4 ,more important are his ,sermones and #ib ,epistles4 ,but all his writings are distinguished by their noble1 powerful and popular eloquence4 h4 ,ambrosiaster is the name given to an unknown writer whose allegorizing ,commentary on ,paul's ,epistles was long attributed to ,ambrose4 ,this work1 highly popular on account of its pregnant brevity1 was perhaps the joint work of several writers4 ,in its earliest portions it belongs to the age of ,damasus1 bishop of ,rome1 who died in ,a4,d4 #chd1 who is named as a contemporary4 ,augustine names a ,hilary1 not otherwise known1 as author of a passage quoted from it4 i4 ,pacianus1#adg bishop of ,barcelona1 who died about ,a4,d4 #cij1 wrote in a clear style and correct ,latinity three ,epistles against the ,novatians1 from the first of which1 ,de ,catholico nomine1 is borrowed the beautiful saying3 ,christianus mihi nomen est1 ,catholicus cognomen4 ,he also wrote a ,liber exhortatorius ad pnitentiam and a ,sermo de baptismo4 #dg4af4 ,during the ,period of ,origenistic ,controversy4 a4 ,jerome#adh--,sophronius ,eusebius ,hieronymus--of ,stridon in ,dalmatia1 received his classical training under the grammarian ,donatus at ,rome4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cfj he was baptized by bishop ,liberius1 but afterwards fell into sensual excesses which he atoned for by penitential pilgrimages to the catacombs4 ,during a journey through ,gaul and the provinces of the ,rhine and ,moselle he seems to have formed the fixed resolve to devote himself to theology and an ascetic life4 ,then for more than a year he stayed at ,aquileia1 ,a4,d4 #cgb1 where he formed an intimate friendship with ,rufinus4 ,he next undertakes a journey to the ,east4 ,at ,antioch in a vision1 during a violent fever1 placed before the throne of the judge of all1 having answered the question ,who art thou8 by the confession that he was a ,christian1 he heard the words distinctly uttered3 ,thou liest6 thou art a ,ciceronian and no ,christian6 ,he then sentenced himself to severe castigation and promised with an oath to give up the reading of the heathen classics which he had so much enjoyed4 ,he afterwards indeed excused himself from the fulfilment of this twofold obligation2 but this had sealed his devotion to an ascetic life1 and the desert of ,chalcis1 the ,syrian ,thebaid1 became for him during many years the school of ascetic discipline4 ,worn out with privations1 penances and sensual temptations he returned in ,a4,d4 #cgi to ,antioch1 where he was ordained presbyter but without any official district being assigned4 ,urged by ,gregory of ,nazianzum ,nazianzen1 he next spent several years in ,constantinople4 ,from ,a4,d4 #chb to ,a4,d4 #che he again lived in ,rome1 where bishop ,damasus honoured him with his implicit confidence4 ,this aroused against him the envy and enmity of many among the ,roman clergy1 while at the same time his zeal for the spread of monasticism and virginity1 as well as his ascetic influence with women1 drew upon him the hatred of many prominent families 7 #dd1 #d74 ,on the death of his episcopal patron in ,a4,d4 #chd his position in ,rome thus became untenable4 ,he now returned to the ,east1 visited all the holy places in ,palestine1 and also made an excursion to ,alexandria where he stayed for four weeks in the school of the blind ,didymus4 ,he then settled down at ,bethlehem1 founded there with the means of his ,roman lady friends an establishment for monks1 over which he presided till his death in ,a4,d4 #dbj2 and an establishment for nuns over which ,st4 ,paula presided1 who with her daughter ,eustochium had accompanied him from ,rome4 ,as to his share in the ,origenistic controversies into which he allowed himself to be drawn1 see #ea1 #b4 ,his character was not without defects3 vanity1 ambition1 jealousy1 passionateness1 impatience and intense bitterness in debate1 are only all too apparent in his life4 ,but where these1 as well as his scrupulous anxiety for the maintaining of a reputation for unwavering orthodoxy and by zeal for monasticism and asceticism1 did not stand in the way1 we often find in him an unexpected clearness and liberality of view4 ,comp4 #ag1 #f2 #eg1 #f2 #ei1 #a2 #fa1 #a4 ,to the instructions of the ,jew ,bar ,hanina he was indebted for his knowledge of ,hebrew and ,chaldee4 ,the greatest and most enduring service was rendered to the study of holy scripture by his pioneer labours in this direction4 ,he is at his weakest in his dogmatic works1 which mostly are disfigured by immoderately passionate polemic4 ,in exegesis he represents the grammatico-historical method1 but nevertheless frequently falls back again into allegorico-mystical explanations4 ,his style is pure1 flowing and elegant1 but in polemic often reckless and coarse even to vulgarity4 ,in the department of exegesis the first place belongs to his translation of the bible 7 #ei1 #a74 ,we have also a number of ,commentaries--on ,genesis1 ,ecclesiastes1 ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 ,daniel1 ,minor ,prophets1 ,matthew1 ,galatians1 ,ephesians1 ,philippians and ,philemon4 ,his ,onomasticon s4 de situ et nominibus locorum ,hebr4 is a ,latin reproduction of the of ,eusebius4 ,in the department of dogmatics we have polemics against ,lucifer of ,calaris 7 #ej1 #c71 against ,helvidius1 ,jovinian and ,vigilantius 7 #fc1 #b71 against ,john of ,jerusalem 7 #ea1 #b7 and in several treatises against ,rufinus1 and finally against the ,pelagians 7 #ec1 #d74 ,in the department of history we have his ,latin adaptation and continuation of the second part of the ,eusebian ,chronicle1 his ,catalogus ,scriptorum ecclest4 s4 de viris illustr41 which tells in anecdotal form about the lives and writings of biblical and ecclesiastical writers1 #ace in number1 from ,peter down to himself1 with the avowed purpose of proving the falseness of the reproach that only ignorant and uncultured men had embraced ,christianity4 ,it was afterwards continued by the ,gaul ,gennadius of ,marseilles down to the end of the fifth century4 ,finally1 the romancing legendary sketches of the lives of the famous monks ,paul of ,thebes 7 #ci1 #d71 ,hilarion 7 #dd1 #c7 and ,malchus1 were added4 ,his #aej ,epistles are extremely important for the church history of his times4 ,of his translations of the ,greek fathers only those of ,didymus1 ,de ,spiritu ,s4 and that of #gj ,homilies of ,origen1 are now extant4 #dg4ag4 b4 ,tyrannius ,rufinus of ,aquileia after receiving baptism lived for a long time in monastic retirement4 ,his enthusiasm for monasticism and asceticism led him in ,a4,d4 #cgc to ,egypt4 ,at ,alexandria he spent several years in intercourse with ,didymus4 ,he contracted there that enthusiastic admiration of ,origen which made his after life so full of debate and strife4 ,he next went in ,a4,d4 #cgi to ,jerusalem1 where bishop ,john ordained him presbyter4 ,here he found ,jerome1 with whom he had become acquainted at ,aquileia1 and the two friends were brought more closely together from their mutual love for ,origen1 although afterwards this was to prove the occasion of the most bitter enmity 7 #ea1 #b74 ,about ,a4,d4 #cig he returned to ,italy4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #daj4 ,his literary activity was mainly directed to the transplanting of the writings of ,greek fathers to ,latin soil4 ,to his zeal in this direction we owe the preservation of ,origen's most important work 1 ,de principiis1 and of no fewer than #abd ,homilies4 ,the former1 indeed1 has been in many places altered in an arbitrary manner4 ,he also translated several ,homilies of ,basil and ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,pamphilus' ,apology for ,origen1 the ,pseudo-,clementine ,recognitions 7 #bh1 #c71 etc4 ,there are extant of his own works3 the ,continuation of his ,latin reproduction of the ,church ,history of ,eusebius1 down to ,a4,d4 #chh1 the romancing ,historia eremitica s4 ,vit ,patrum1 biographies of #cc saints of the ,nitrian desert 7 #ea1 #a71 an ,apologia pro fide sua1 the ,invectiv ,hieron4 in #b bks4 the treatise ,de benedictionibus ,patriarcharum1 an exposition of ,genesis xlix4 in the spirit and style of ,origen1 and an ,expositio symboli apost4 c4 ,sulpicius ,severus#adi from ,aquitania in ,gaul1 had gained great reputation by his eloquence as an advocate1 when the death of his young wife disgusted him with the world1 and led him to withdraw into a monastery4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #daj4 ,in his ,chronica or ,historia sacra 7 #e1 #a71 a summary of biblical and ecclesiastical history1 he imitates not unsuccessfully the eloquence of ,sallust1 so that he has been called 8the ,christian ,sallust40 ,his ,vita of ,martin of ,tours is a panegyric overflowing with reports of miracles4 ,the three dialogues on the virtues of ,eastern ,monks and on the merits of ,st4 ,martin1 may be regarded as a supplement to the ,vita4 d4 ,petrus ,peter ,chrysologus is the name by which ,peter1 bishop of ,ravenna1 is best known4 ,he also received the title ,chrysostomus ,latinorum4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #dej4 ,among the #agf ,sermones ascribed to him1 the discourses expository of the baptismal formula are deserving of special mention4 ,of his ,epistles1 one in ,latin and ,greek addressed to ,eutyches 7 #eb1 #d7 is still preserved1 in which the writer warns ,eutyches against doctrinal errors4 #dg4ah4 ,the ,hero of the ,soteriological ,controversy4--,augustine--,aurelius ,augustinus--was born in ,a4,d4 #ced at ,tagaste in ,numidia4 ,from his pious mother ,monica he early received ,christian religious impressions which1 however1 were again in great measure effaced by his pagan father the ,decurio ,patricius4 ,while he studied in ,carthage1 he gave way to sensuality and worldly pleasure4 ,cicero's ,hortensius first awakened again in him a longing after higher things4 ,from about ,a4,d4 #cgd he sought satisfaction in the tenets of the ,manichan sect1 strongly represented in ,africa1 and for ten years he continued a catechumen of that order4 ,but here1 too1 at last finding himself cruelly deceived in his struggle after the knowledge of the truth1 he would have sunk into the most utter scepticism1 had not the study of the ,platonic philosophy still for awhile held him back4 ,in ,a4,d4 #chc he left ,africa and went to ,rome1 and in the following year he took up his residence in ,milan as a teacher of eloquence4 ,an ,african bishop1 once himself a ,manichan1 had comforted his anxious mother1 who followed him hither1 by assuring her that the son of so many sighs and prayers could not be finally lost4 ,at ,milan too the sermons of ,ambrose made an impression on ,augustine's heart4 ,he now began diligently to search the scriptures4 ,at last the hour arrived of his complete renewal of heart and life4 ,after an earnest conversation with his friend ,alypius1 he hastened into the solitude of the garden4 ,while agonizing in prayer he heard the words thrice repeated3 ,tolle1 lege6 ,he took up the scriptures1 and his eye fell upon the passage ,rom4 xiii4 #ac1 #ad4 ,this utterance of stern ,christian morality seemed as if written for himself alone1 and from this moment he received into his wounded spirit a peace such as he had never known before4 ,in order to prepare for baptism he withdrew with his mother and some friends to the country house of one of them1 where scientific studies1 pious exercises and conversations on the highest problems of life occupied his time4 ,out of these conversations sprang his philosophical writings4 ,at ,easter ,a4,d4 #chg ,ambrose baptized him1 and at the same time his illegitimate son ,adeodatus1 who not long afterwards died4 ,his return journey to ,africa was delayed by the death of his mother at ,ostia1 and at last1 after almost a year's residence in ,rome1 he reached his old home again4 ,in ,rome he applied himself to combat the errors of ,manichism1 arguing with many of his old companions whom he met there4 ,after his return to ,africa in ,a4,d4 #chh1 he spent some years on his small patrimonial estate at ,tagaste engaged in scientific work4 ,during a casual visit to ,hippo in ,a4,d4 #cia he was1 in spite of all resistance1 ordained presbyter1 and in ,a4,d4 #cie colleague of the aged and feeble bishop ,valerius1 whose successor he became in the following year4 ,now began the brilliant period of his career1 in which he stands forth as a pillar of the church and the centre of all theological and ecclesiastical life throughout the whole ,western world4 ,in ,a4,d4 #djj began his battle against the ,donatists 7 #fc1 #a74 ,and scarcely had he brought this to a successful end in a religious discussion at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #daa1 when he was drawn into a far more important ,soteriological controversy by ,pelagius and his followers 7 #ec71 which he continued till the close of his life4 ,his death occurred in ,a4,d4 #dcj during the siege of ,carthage by the ,vandals4 ,he has written his own life in his ,confessiones 7,engl4 translat41 ,oxf41 #ahch2 ,edin41 #ahgf74 ,in the form of an address to ,god he here unfolds before the ,omniscient ,one his whole past life with all its errors and gracious providences in the language of prayer full of the holiest earnestness and most profound humility1 a lively commentary on the opening words3 ,magnus es1 ,domine1 et laudabilis valde4444 ,fecisti nos ad te1 et inquietum est cor nostrum1 donec requiescat in te4 ,the biography of his disciple ,possidius may serve as a supplement to the ,confessions4--,augustine was the greatest1 most powerful1 and most influential of all the fathers4 ,in consequence of his thoroughly ,western characteristics he was indeed less perfectly understood and appreciated in the ,east2 but all the greater was his reputation in the ,west1 where the whole development of church and doctrine seemed always to move about him as its centre4 ,the main field of his literary activity in consequence of his own peculiar mental qualities1 his philosophical culture1 speculative faculty1 and dialectic skill1 as well as the ecclesiastical conflicts of his time1 to which his most important works are devoted1 was ,systematic ,theology1 ,dogmatics and ,ethics1 ,polemics and ,apologetics4 ,he is weakest as an exegete2 for he had little interest in philological and grammatico-historical research into the simple literal sense of scripture4 ,he was unacquainted with the original language of the ,old ,testament1 and even the ,new ,testament he treats only in a popular way according to the ,latin translations4 ,neither does he deal much with the exegetical foundations of dogmatics1 which he rather develops from the ,christian consciousness by means of speculation and dialectic1 and from the proof of its meeting the needs of humanity4 ,over against philosophy he insisted upon the independence and necessity of faith as the presupposition and basis of all religious knowledge4 ,rationabiliter dictum est per prophetam3 ,nisi credideretis non intelligetis4 ,credamus ut id quod credimus intelligere valeamus4 #dg4ai4 ,augustine's ,works4 a4 ,philosophical ,treatises belonging to the period preceding his ordination4 ,the #c bks4 ,contra ,academicos combat their main position that men cannot attain to any certain knowledge2 the treatise ,de ,vita beata shows that true happiness consists in the knowledge of ,god2 the #b bks4 ,de ,ordine treat of the relation of good and evil in the divine order of the world2 the #b bks4 ,soliloquia are monologues on the means and conditions of the knowledge of supernatural truths1 and contain beside the main question an ,appendix ,de immortalitate anim1 etc4 b4 ,dogmatic ,treatises4 ,the most important are3 ,de ,trinitate in #ae bks4 7,engl4 transl41 ,edin41 #ahgd71 a speculative dogmatic construction of the dogma1 of great importance for its historical development2 ,de doctrina christiana in #d bks4 7,engl4 transl41 ,edin41 #ahge71 of which the first three bks4 form a guide to the exposition of scripture after the analogy of faith1 while the #dth book shows how the truth thus discovered is to be used 7,hermeneutics and ,homiletics72 finally1 the two bks4 ,retractationes1 written in his last years1 in which he passes an unfavourable judgment on his earlier writings1 and withdraws or modifies much in them4 ,among his ,moral-ascetic writings the bk4 ,de bono conjugali is of special interest1 called forth by ,jovinian's utterances on non-meritoriousness of the unmarried state 7 #fb1 #b72 he admits the high value of ,christian marriage1 but yet sees in celibacy genuinely chosen as a means to holiness a higher step in the ,christian life4 ,also the bk4 ,de adulterinis conjugis against second marriages1 and two treatises ,de ,mendacium and ,contra ,mendacium ad ,consentium1 which in opposition to the contrary doctrine of the ,priscillianists 7 #ed1 #b71 unconditionally repudiates the admissibility of equivocation4 c4 ,controversial ,treatises4 ,of #aa treatises against the ,manichans 7 #ed1 #a7 the most important is that ,c4 ,faustum in #cc bks4 7,engl4 transl41 ,edin41 #ahge71 interesting as reproducing in quotations the greater part of the last work of this great champion of the ,manichans4 ,then came the discussion with the ,donatists 7 #fc1 #a71 which he engaged in with great vigour4 ,we have ten treatises directed against them 7,engl4 transl41 ,edin41 #ahgc74 ,of far greater importance was the conflict which soon after broke out against the ,pelagians and then against the semi-,pelagians 7 #ec1 #d1 #e71 in which he wrote fourteen treatises 7,engl4 transl41 #c vols41 ,edin41 #ahgc-ahgf74 ,also the ,arians1 ,priscillianists1 ,origenists and ,marcionites were combated by him in special treatises1 and in the bk4 ,de hresibus he gave a summary account of the various heresies that had come under his notice4 d4 ,among his ,apologetical ,treatises against pagans and ,jews1 by far the ablest and most important is the work ,de ,civitate ,dei1 in #bb bks41 a truly magnificent conception 7,engl4 transl41 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahgc71 the most substantial of all apologetical works of ,christian antiquity1 called forth by the reproach of the heathens that the repeated successes of the barbarians resulted from the weakening and deteriorating influence of ,christianity upon the empire4 ,the author repels this reproach in the first four bks4 by showing how the ,roman empire had previously in itself the seeds of decay in its godless selfishness1 and thence advancing immorality2 ,ilium was and continued pagan1 but its gods could not save it from destruction4 ,ilium's ,epigone1 haughty ,rome1 meets the same fate4 ,it owed its power only to ,god's will and ,his government of the world1 and to ,his using it as a scourge for the nations4 ,the next five books show the corruption of the heathen religions and the inadequacy of heathen philosophy4 ,then the last #ab bks4 point out the contrast between the kingdom of ,god and the kingdom of the world in respect of their diverse foundations1 their entirely different motive powers1 their historical development and their ultimate disposal in the last judgment4 e4 ,the most important and complete of his ,exegetical ,works are the #ab bks4 ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 a gigantic commentary on the three first chapters of ,genesis1 which in spite of its title very often leaves the firm ground of the literal sense to revel in the airy regions of spiritualistic and mystical expatiation4 ,of his ,sermones1 #djj are recognised as genuine 7,engl4 transl41 ,hom4 on ,n4,t41 #b vols41 ,oxf41 #ahdd f42 ,hom4 on ,john and #ast ,john1 #b vols41 ,oxf41 #ahdh2 ,comm4 on ,psalms1 #f vols41 ,oxf41 #ahdg f42 ,harmony of ,evangelists1 and ,serm4 on ,mt41 ,edin41 #ahgd2 ,commentary on ,john1 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahge74 ,his correspondence still preserved comprises #bgj ,epistles 7,engl4 transl41 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahgd1 #ahgf74 #dg4bj4 ,augustine's ,disciples and ,friends4 a4 ,paulinus1 deacon of ,milan1 who wrote1 at ,augustine's request1 the life of ,ambrose1 awakened in ,a4,d4 #daa the ,pelagian controversy by the charges which he made1 and took part in it himself by writing in ,a4,d4 #dag the ,libellus c4 ,clestium ad ,zosimum ,papam4 b4 ,paulus ,paul ,orosius1 a ,spanish presbyter1 who visited ,augustine in ,africa in ,a4,d4 #dae to urge him to combat ,priscillianism1 took part with him there in his conflict with the ,pelagians4 ,he has left behind a ,commonitorium de errore ,priscillianistarum et ,origenistarum ad ,augustinum2 an ,apologeticus de arbitrii libertate c4 ,pelagium and ,hist4 adv4 ,paganos in #g bks4 ,the last named work was written at ,augustine's urgent entreaty1 and pursues in a purely historical manner the same end which ,augustine in his ,city of ,god sought to reach in a dogmatico-apologetic way4 c4 ,marius ,mercator was a learned and acute layman1 belonging to the ,west1 but latterly resident in ,constantinople4 ,he made every effort to secure the condemnation of ,pelagianism even in the ,east1 and so wrote not only against its ,western leaders but also against its ,antiochean supporters1 ,nestorius and ,theodore of ,mopsuestia 7 #ec1 #d74 d4 ,prosper ,aquitanicus1 also a layman and an enthusiastic follower of ,augustine1 not only wrote several treatises against the semi-,pelagians of his native ,gaul 7 #ec1 #e71 but also poured out the vials of his wrath upon them in poetic effusions 7 #dh1 #f74 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dfj4 e4 ,csarius1 bishop of ,arelate1 now ,arles in ,gaul1 originally a monk in the monastery of ,larinum1 was one of the most celebrated1 most influential1 and in church work most serviceable of the men of his times4 ,it is also mainly due to him that in ,a4,d4 #ebi moderate ,augustinianism gained the victory over semi-,pelagianism4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #edc4 ,his treatise ,de gratia et libero arbitrio is no longer extant1 but two rules for monks and nuns composed by him1 ,ad monachos1 ,ad virgines1 as well as a considerable number of ,sermones1 the best of their time1 are still preserved4 f4 ,fulgentius1 bishop of ,ruspe in ,africa1 on account of his zeal for the ,catholic doctrine1 was banished by the ,arian ,vandal king ,thrasimund1 but returned after the king's death in ,a4,d4 #ebc4 ,he was one of the stoutest champions of ,augustinianism4 ,his writings against ,arians and semi-,pelagians have been often printed4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #eee4 ,his scholar and biographer was ,fulgentius ,ferrandus1 deacon at ,carthage about ,a4,d4 #edg4 ,alongside of and after him we meet with bishop ,facundus of ,hermiane1 and the archdeacon ,liberatus of ,carthage1 who with characteristic ,african energy defend the ,tria ,capitula 7 #eb1 #f7 basely surrendered by the ,roman bishop ,vigilius4 #dg4ba4 ,pelagians and semi-,pelagians4 ,i4 ,pelagius1 a ,british monk1 the originator of the heresy named after him 7 #ec1 #c1 #d71 left behind a considerable number of writings1 of which1 however1 for the most part we have now only fragments in the works of his opponents4 ,references in ,augustine1 ,marius ,mercator1 and others show that to him belong the ,lb4 xiv4 ,expositionum in ,epistt4 ,pauli1 which have been ascribed to ,jerome and included among his works1 scholia-like explanations with good sound grammatico-historical exegesis4 ,the wish to make this useable and safe for the ,catholic church led at an early date to various omissions and alterations in it4 ,afterwards its heretical origin was forgotten which notwithstanding the purifying referred to is still quite discernible4 ,two epistles addressed to ,roman ladies recommending virginity have also got a place among the works of ,jerome4--,julianus1 bishop of ,eclanum in ,italy1 is the only one among the followers of ,pelagius who can be regarded as of scientific importance4 ,he was an acute but frivolous and vulgar opponent of ,augustine1 whom he honoured with the epithets amentissimus et bardissimus 7comp4 #ec1 #d74 ,,ii4 ,at the head of the semi-,pelagians or ,massilians stands3 a4 ,johannes ,cassianus4 ,gennadius designates him as natione ,scythus2 but he received his early education in a monastery at ,bethlehem4 ,he then undertook a journey in company with the abbot to visit the ,egyptian monks1 stayed next for a long time with ,chrysostom at ,constantinople1 and after his banishment resided some years in ,rome1 and finally in ,a4,d4 #dae settled down at ,massilia 7,marseilles71 where he established a monastery and a nunnery1 and organised both after the ,eastern model4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dcb4 ,his writings were held in high esteem throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,in the ,de institutis ,cnobiorum he describes the manner of life of the ,palestinian and ,egyptian monks1 and then treats of the eight vices to which the monks were specially exposed4 ,the #bd ,collationes ,patrum report the conversations which he had with the ,eastern monks and hermits about the ways and means of attaining ,christian perfection4 ,the #acth ,collatio is1 without naming him1 directed against ,augustine's doctrine1 and develops semi-,pelagian ,synergism 7 #ec1 #e74 ,both writings1 however are certainly calculated to serve the development of his own monkish ideal as well as his own dogmatic and ethical views1 rather then to afford a historically faithful representation of the life and thinking of oriental monasticism of that time4 ,the #g bks4 ,de incarnatione ,christi combat not only ,nestorianism but also ,pelagianism as in its consequences derogatory to the divinity of ,christ4 b4 ,vincentius ,vincent ,lerinensis1 monk in the ,gallic monastery of ,lerinum1 was ,cassianus' most distinguished disciple4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dej4 ,on his often printed ,commonitorium pro cath4 fidei antiquit4 et universit41 comp4 #ec1 #e4 c4 ,eucherius1 bishop of ,lyons1 left behind him several ascetical works 7,de laude eremi2 ,de contemtu mundi71 ,homilies1 and a ,liber formularum spiritualis intelligenti as guide to the mystico-allegorical interpretation of ,scripture4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dej4 d4 ,salvianus1 presbyter at ,marseilles1 was in his earlier days married to a heathen woman whom he converted1 and with her took the vow of continency4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dhe4 ,he wrote ,adv4 avaritiam ,lb4 iv41 in which the support of the poor and surrender of property to the church for pious uses are recommended as means of furthering the salvation of one's own soul4 ,in consequence of the oppression of the times during the convulsions of the migration of the peoples and the reproach of the heathen again loudly raised that the weakness of the ,roman empire was occasioned by the introduction of ,christianity1 he wrote ,de providentia s4 de gubernatione ,dei et de justo prsentique judicio1 ,lb4 viii41 which in rhetorical and flowery language depicted the dreadful moral condition of the ,roman world of that day4 e4 ,faustus of ,rhegium1 now ,riez in ,provence1 in his earlier years an advocate1 then monk and abbot of the cloister of ,lerinum1 and finally bishop of ,rhegium1 was the head of the ,gallic semi-,pelagians of his times4 ,in his writings he stated this doctrine in a moderate form4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #dic4 f4 ,arnobius the ,younger1 the contemporary and fellow-countryman of ,faustus1 wrote a very important work entitled ,prdestinatus1 which in a very thorough and elaborate manner contests the doctrines of ,augustine4 ,comp4 #ec1 #e4 #dg4bb4 ,the ,most ,important ,church ,teachers among the ,roman ,popes4 a4 ,leo the ,great occupied the papal chair from ,a4,d4 #ddj to ,a4,d4 #dfa4 ,while but a deacon he was the most distinguished personage in ,rome4 ,on assuming the bishopric he gave the whole powers of his mind to the administration of his office in all directions4 ,by the energy and consistency with which he carried out the idea of the ,roman primacy1 he became the virtual founder of the spiritual sovereignty of ,rome4 ,with a strong arm he guided the helm of the church1 reformed and organized on every side1 settled order and discipline1 defended orthodoxy1 contended against heretics 7,manichans1 ,priscillianists1 ,pelagians1 ,eutychians71 and appeased the barbarians 7,attila74 ,of his writings we have #if ,sermones and #agc ,epistles1 which last are of the utmost importance for the church history of his times4 ,he is also supposed to be the author of a talented work ,de vocatione ,gentium 7 #ec1 #e74 b4 ,gelasius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #dib to ,a4,d4 #dif1 left behind him a treatise ,adv4 hresin ,pelagianem1 another ,de duabus in ,christo naturis1 and a work against the observance of the ,lupercalia which some prominent ,romans wished to have continued4 ,he also wrote #ah ,decretals4 ,the celebrated ,decretum de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis1 in a sense the oldest ,index prohibitorum1 is ascribed to him4 ,the first section1 wanting in the best ,,mss41 contains a biblical canon corresponding to that of the ,synod of ,hippo1 ,a4,d4 #cic 7 #ei1 #a72 the second section treats of the pre-eminence of the ,church of ,rome granted by our ,lord ,himself in the person of ,peter2 the third enumerates the cumenical ,councils2 and the fourth1 the writings of the fathers received by the ,roman ,church2 the ,chronicle and ,church ,history of ,eusebius are found fault with 7quod tepuerit7 but not rejected2 in respect to the writings of ,origen and ,rufinus the opinion of ,jerome is approved4 ,the fifth section gives a list of books not to be received--the ,new ,testament ,apocrypha1 ,tertullian1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,arnobius1 ,cassianus1 ,faustus of ,rhegium1 etc4 c4 ,gregory the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #eij to ,a4,d4 #fjd1 born in ,rome about ,a4,d4 #edj1 sprung from a distinguished old ,roman family1 held about ,a4,d4 #egd the office of city prefect1 after his father's death founded on his inherited estates1 six monasteries1 and himself withdrew into a seventh1 which he built in ,rome4 ,ordained deacon against his will in ,a4,d4 #egi1 he was entrusted with the important and difficult office of a papal apocrisiarius in ,constantinople1 and was constrained in ,a4,d4 #eij1 after a long persisted-in refusal1 to mount the papal chair1 which obliged him to abandon the long-cherished plan of his life1 the preaching of the gospel to the ,anglo-,saxons 7 #gg1 #d74 ,gregory united a rare power and energy of will with real mildness and gentleness of character1 deep humility and genuine piety with the full consciousness of his position as a successor of ,peter1 insight1 circumspection1 yea even an unexpected measure of liberal-mindedness 7comp4 e4g4 #eg1 #d2 #ge1 #c7 with all monkish narrowness and stiff adherence to the traditional forms1 doctrines and views of the ,roman ,church4 ,he himself lived in extremest poverty and simplicity according to the strictest monastic asceticism1 and applied all that he possessed and received to the support of the poor and the help of the needy4 ,it was a hard time in which he lived1 the age of the birth throes of a new epoch of the world's history4 ,there is therefore much cause to thank the good providence which set such a man as spiritual father1 teacher and pastor at the head of the ,western ,church4 ,he took special interest in fostering monasticism and such-like institutions1 which were1 indeed1 most conducive to the well-being of the world1 for during this dangerous period of convulsion1 monasticism was almost the only nursery of intellectual culture4 ,the ,roman ,catholic church ranks him as the last of the ,fathers1 and places him alongside of ,ambrose1 ,jerome and ,augustine1 the four greatest teachers of the church1 ,doctores ecclesi1 whose writings have been long reverenced as the purest and most complete vehicles of the ,catholic tradition4 ,among the ,greeks a similar position is given to ,athanasius1 ,basil1 ,gregory ,nazianzen and ,chrysostom4 ,the rank thus assigned to ,gregory is justifiable inasmuch as in him the formation and malformation of doctrine1 worship1 discipline and constitution peculiar to the ancient church are gathered up1 completed and closed4 ,his most complete work is the ,expositio in b4 ,jobum s4 ,moralium1 ,ll4 xxxv41 7,engl4 transl41 ,lib4 of ,fath41 #c vols41 ,oxf41 #ahdd-ahej7 which1 by dragging in all possible relations of life which an allegorical interpretation can furnish1 is expanded into a repertory of moral reflections4 ,his ,regula pastoralis s4 ,liber cur pastoralis obtained in the ,west a position of almost canonical authority4 ,in his 8,dialogues10 of which the first three books treat 8de vita et miraculis ,patrum ,italicorum10 and the #dth book mostly of visionary views of the hereafter 7heaven1 hell and purgatory71 8de ternitate animarum10 we meet with a very singular display of the most uncritical credulousness and the most curious superstition4 ,besides these we have from him ,homilies on ,ezekiel and the ,gospels1 as well as a voluminous correspondence in #hhj ,epistles of great importance for the history of the age4 ,to ,gregory also is attributed the oft quoted saying which compares holy scripture to a stream in quo agnus peditat et elephas natat4 #dg4bc4 ,the ,conservators and ,continuators of ,patristic ,culture4 a4 ,bothius1 ,anicius ,manlius ,torquatus ,severinus1 was descended from a distinguished ,roman family1 and stood high in favour with the ,ostrogoth ,arian king ,theodoric4 ,accused1 however1 by his enemies of treasonable correspondence with the ,byzantine court1 he was1 after a long imprisonment1 condemned unheard and executed1 ,a4,d4 #ebe4 ,in prison he composed the celebrated treatise1 ,de consolatione philosophi1 which1 written in pure and noble language1 was the favourite book of the ,latin ,middle ,ages1 and was translated into all ,european languages3 first of all by ,alfred the ,great into ,anglo-,saxon1 and often reprinted in its original form4 ,the book owed its great popularity to the medival tradition which made its author a martyr for the ,catholic faith under ,arian persecution2 but modern criticism has sought to prove that in all probability he was not even a ,christian4 ,still more decidedly the theological writings on the ,trinity and the ,two ,natures of ,christ bearing his name are repudiated as irreconcileable with the contents and character of the ,de consolatione2 though1 on the other hand1 their authenticity has again found several most capable defenders4 ,finally1 ,usener has conclusively1 as it seems1 in a newly discovered fragment of ,cassiodorus1 brought forward a quite incontestable witness for their authenticity4 ,in any case ,bothius did great service in preserving the continuity of ,western culture by his hearty encouragement and careful prosecution of classical studies at a time when these were threatened with utter neglect4 ,of special importance was his translation of a commentary on the logical works of ,aristotle as the first and for a long time almost the only philosophical groundwork of medival scholasticism 7 #ii1 #b74 c4 ,magnus ,aurelius ,cassiodorus1 surnamed ,senator1 belonged to ,southern ,italy and held the highest civil offices under ,odoacer and ,theodoric for fifty years4 ,about ,a4,d4 #edj1 he retired to the cloister of ,vivarium founded by him in ,southern ,italy1 and devoted the rest of his life to the sciences and the instruction of the monks4 ,he collected a great library in his monastery1 and employed the monks in transcribing classical and patristic writings4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #ege when almost a hundred years old4 ,his own writings show indeed no independence and originality1 but are all the more important as concentrated collections of classical and patristic learning for the later ,latin ,middle ,ages4 ,his twelve books of the ,history of the ,goths have come down only in the condensed reproduction of ,jordanes or ,jornandes4 ,his twelve books ,variarum 7sc4 epistolarum et formularum71 which consist of a collection of acts and ordinances of the period of his civil service1 are important for the history of his age4 ,his ,historia ecclest4 tripartita 7 #e1 #a71 was for many centuries almost the only text book of church history1 and his ,institutiones divinarum et scularum litterarum had a similar position as a guide to the study of theology and the seven liberal arts 7 #ij1 #h74 ,also his commentary on the ,psalms and the most of the books of the ,new ,testament1 made up of compilations1 was held in high esteem4 c4 ,dionysius ,exiguus1 a ,scythian by birth1 who became a ,roman abbot1 and died about ,a4,d4 #eff1 may also be placed in this group4 ,he translated many ,greek patristic writings1 by his ,cyclus paschalis became founder of the ,western reckoning of ,easter 7 #ef1 #c71 and also the more universally adopted so-called ,dionysian era4 ,by his ,codex ,canonum he is also the founder of the ,western system of ,canon ,law 7 #dc1 #c74 #dh4 ,,branches ,,of ,,theological ,,science ,,and ,,christian ,,poetry4 #dh4a4 ,exegetical ,theology4--,nothing was done in the way of criticism of the original biblical text4 ,even ,jerome was only a translator4 ,for the ,old ,testament the ,,lxx4 sufficed1 and the divergences of the ,hebrew text were explained as ,jewish alterations4 ,hebrew was a terra incognita to the fathers1 ,polychronius and ,jerome only are notable exceptions4 ,the allegorical method of interpretation was and continued to be the prevalent one4 ,the ,antiocheans1 however1 put limits to it by their theory and practice of the right of historico-grammatical interpretation4 ,diodorus of ,tarsus and ,theodore of ,mopsuestia contested the principles of ,origen1 while ,gregory of ,nyssa in his ,proemium in ,cant4 undertook their defence4 ,the first attempt at a system of ,hermeneutics was made by the learned ,donatist ,tychonius in his book the ,regul vii4 ad investigandam intelligentiam ss4 ,scr4 ,more profound is ,augustine's ,de ,doctrina ,chr4 ,the of the ,greek ,adrianus with its opposition to the immoderate allegorizing that then prevailed1 deserves mention here4 ,jerome contributed to biblical ,introduction by his various ,promia4 ,the first attempt at a scientific introduction to biblical study 7isagogical and biblico-theological in the form of question and answer71 is met with in the #b bks4 ,instituta regularia div4 legis of the ,african ,junilius1 a prominent courtier at ,constantinople1 about ,a4,d4 #eej4 ,there is a ,latin rendering made by ,junilius at the request of ,primasius1 bishop of ,adrumetum1 of a treatise composed originally in ,syriac1 by ,paul the ,persian1 teacher of the ,nestorian seminary at ,nisibis1 which he had collected from the works of ,theodore of ,mopsuestia1 for the purposes of instruction4 ,the title ,departibus div4 legis1 usually given to the whole1 properly belongs only to the first part of the treatise4 ,a more popular guide is ,cassiodorus' ,institutio divinarum litt4 ,some contributions were made to biblical archaeology by ,eusebius and ,epiphanius4 ,of the allegorical ,exegetes of the ,east1 the most productive was ,cyril of ,alexandria4 ,the ,antiochean school produced a whole series of able expositors of the grammatico-historical sense of scripture4 ,in the commentaries of ,chrysostom and ,ephraem ,ephraim the ,syrian1 that method of interpretation is applied in a directly practical interest4 ,the ,westerns ,hilary1 ,ambrose1 ,ambrosiaster1 ,jerome and ,augustine1 as well as their later imitators1 all allegorize2 yet ,jerome also applied himself very diligently to the elucidation of the grammatical sense4 ,only ,pelagius is content to rest in the plain literal meaning of scripture4 ,from the #fth century1 almost all independent work in the department of exegesis ceased4 ,we have from this time only ,caten1 collections of passages from commentaries and homilies of distinguished fathers4 ,the first ,greek writer of ,caten1 was ,procopius of ,gaza1 in the #fth century2 and the first ,latin writer of these was ,primasius of ,adrumetum1 about ,a4,d4 #efj4 #dh4b4 ,historical ,theology4--,the writing of ,church history flourished especially during the #dth and #eth centuries 7 #e1 #a74 ,for the history of heresies we have ,epiphanius1 ,theodoret1 ,leontius of ,byzantium2 and among the ,latins1 ,augustine1 ,philastrius ,philaster1 and the author of ,prdestinatus 7 #dg1 #ba;f74 ,there are numerous biographies of distinguished fathers4 ,on these compare the so-called ,liber pontificalis1 see #ij1 #f4 ,jerome laid the foundation of a history of theological literature in a series of biographies1 and ,gennadius of ,massilia continued this work4 ,with special reference to monkish history1 we have among the ,greeks1 ,palladius1 ,theodoret and ,joh4 ,moschus2 and among the ,latins1 ,rufinus1 ,jerome1 ,gregory the ,great and ,gregory of ,tours 7 #ij1 #b74 ,of great importance for ecclesiastical statistics is the in #ab bks41 whose author ,cosmas ,indicopleustes1 monk in the ,sinai peninsula about ,a4,d4 #edj1 had in his earlier years as an ,alexandrian merchant travelled much in the ,east4 ,the connection of biblical and profane history is treated of in the ,chronicle of ,eusebius4 ,orosius too treats of profane history from the ,christian standpoint4 ,the ,hist4 persecutionis ,vandalorum 7 #gf1 #c71 of ,victor1 bishop of ,vita in ,africa1 about ,a4,d4 #dhg1 is of great value for the church history of ,africa4 ,for chronology the so-called ,chronicon paschale1 in the ,greek language1 is of great importance4 ,it is the work of two unknown authors2 the work of the one reaching down to ,a4,d4 #ced1 that of the other1 down to ,a4,d4 #fcj4 ,these chronological tables obtained their name from the fact that the ,easter cycles and indictions are always carefully determined in them4 #dh4c4 ,systematic ,theology4 a4 ,apologetics4 ,the controversial treatises of ,porphyry and ,hierocles were answered by many 7 #bc1 #c72 that of the ,emperor ,julian also 7 #db1 #e71 especially by ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,chrysostum ,chrysostom 7in the ,discourse on ,st4 ,babylas71 and most powerfully by ,cyril of ,alexandria4 ,ambrose and the poet ,prudentius answered the tract of ,symmachus1 referred to in #db1 #d4 ,the insinuations of ,zosimus1 ,eunapius1 and others 7 #db1 #e7 were met by ,orosius with his ,histori1 by ,augustine with his ,civ4 ,dei1 and by ,salvian ,salvianus with his ,de gubernatione ,dei4 ,johannes ,philoponus wrote against ,proclus' denial of the biblical doctrine of creation4 ,the vindication of ,christianity against the charges of the ,jews was undertaken by ,aphraates1 ,chrysostom1 ,augustine1 and ,gregentius1 bishop of ,taphne in ,arabia1 who1 in ,a4,d4 #edj1 disputed for four days amid a great crowd with the ,jew ,herban4 ,apologies of a general character were written by ,eusebius of ,csarea1 ,athanasius1 ,theodoret and ,firmicus ,maternus4 b4 ,in ,polemics against earlier and later heretics1 the utmost energy and an abundance of acuteness and depth of thought were displayed4 ,see under the history of theological discussions1 #ej ff4 c4 ,positive ,dogmatics4 ,origen's example in the construction of a complete scientific system of doctrine has no imitator4 ,for practical purposes1 however1 the whole range of ,christian doctrine was treated by ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 ,gregory of ,nyssa1 ,apollinaris1 ,epiphanius1 ,rufinus 7,expositio ,symboli ,apost471 ,augustine 7in the last book of the ,civ4 ,dei1 in first book of his ,de ,doctrina ,chr41 and in the ,enchiridium ad ,laurentium74 ,the ,african ,fulgentius of ,ruspe 7,de regula ver fidei71 ,gennadius of ,massilia 7,de fide sua71 and ,vincentius ,vincent of ,lerinum in his ,commonitorium4 ,much more important results for the development of particular dogmas were secured by means of polemics4 ,of supreme influence on subsequent ages were the mystico-theosophical writings of the ,pseudo-,areopagite4 ,this mysticism1 so far as adopted1 was combined by the acute and profound thinker ,maximus ,confessor with the orthodox theology of the ,councils4 d4 ,morals4 ,the ,de officiis ministr4 of ,ambrose is a system of moral instruction for the clergy2 and of the same sort is ,chrysostom's 2 while ,cassianus' writings form a moral system for the monks1 and ,gregory's ,exposit4 in ,jobum a vast repertory on general morality4 #dh4d4 ,practical ,theology4--,the whole period is peculiarly rich in distinguished homilists4 ,the most brilliant of the ,greek preachers were3 ,macarius the ,great1 ,basil the ,great1 ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,ephraem ,ephraim the ,syrian1 and above all ,chrysostom4 ,of the ,latins the most distinguished were ,ambrose1 ,augustine1 ,zeno of ,verona1 ,petrus ,peter ,chrysologus1 ,leo the ,great1 and ,csarius of ,arles4 ,a sort of ,homiletics is found in the #dth of ,augustine's ,de ,doctr4 ,chr41 and a directory for pastoral work1 in the ,regula pastoralia of ,gregory the ,great4 ,on ,liturgical writings1 comp4 #ei1 #f2 on ,constitutional works1 #dc1 #c-e4 #dh4e4 ,christian ,poetry4--,the beginning of the prevalence of ,christianity occurred at a time when the poetic art had already ceased to be consecrated to the national life of the ancient world4 ,but it proved an intellectual power which could cause to swell out again the poetic vein1 relaxed by the weakness of age4 ,in spite of the depraved taste and deteriorated language1 it called forth a new period of brilliancy in the history of poetry which could rival classical poetry1 not indeed in purity and elegance of form1 but in intensity and depth4 ,the ,latins in this far excelled the ,greeks2 for to them ,christianity was more a matter of experience1 emotion1 the inner life1 to the ,greeks a matter of knowledge and speculation4 ,among the ,greeks the most distinguished are these3 ,gregory ,nazianzen4 ,he deserves notice mainly for his satirical ,carmen de vita sua1 4 ,among his numerous other poems are some beautiful hymns and many striking phrases1 but also much that is weak and flat4 ,the drama 1 perhaps wrongly bearing his name1 modelled on the tragedies of ,euripides and in great part made up of ,euripidean verses1 is not without interest as the first ,christian passion-play1 and contains some beautiful passages2 e4g4 the lament of ,mary2 but it is on the whole insipid and confused4 ,nonnus of ,panopolis1 about ,a4,d4 #djj1 wrote a 4 1 somewhat more useful for textual criticism and archaeology1 than likely to afford enjoyment as poetry4 ,of the poetical works of the ,empress ,eudocia1 wife of ,theodosius ,,ii41 daughter of the pagan rhetorician ,leontius of ,athens1 hence called ,athenais 7she died about the year #dfj71 only fragments of their renderings in the ,cyprian legends have come down to us4 ,the loss of her ,homero-centoes celebrated by ,photius1 i4e4 reproductions of the biblical books of the ,new ,testament in pure ,homeric words and verses1 is not perhaps to be very sorely lamented4 ,on the other hand1 the poetic description of the church of ,sophia1 built by ,justinian ,i4 and of the ambo of that church which ,paulus ,silentiarius left behind him1 is not only of archaeological value1 but also is not without poetic merit4 #dh4f4 ,christian ,latin ,poetry reached its highest excellence in the composition of hymns 7 #ei1 #d74 ,but also in the more ambitious forms of epic1 didactic1 panegyric1 and hortatory poems1 it has respectable representatives1 especially in ,spain and ,gaul1 whose excellence of workmanship during such a period of restlessness and confusion is truly wonderful4 ,to the fourth century belongs the ,spaniard ,juvencus1 about ,a4,d4 #ccj4 ,his ,hist4 evangelica in #d books1 is the first ,christian epic2 a work of sublime simplicity1 free of all bombast or rhetorical rant1 which obtained for him the name of 8the ,christian ,virgil40 ,his ,liber in ,genesin versifies in a similar manner the ,mosaic history of the patriarchs4 ,his countryman ,prudentius1 who died about ,a4,d4 #daj1 was a poet of the first rank1 distinguished for depth of sensibility1 glowing enthusiasm1 high lyrical flow1 and singular skill in versification4 ,his ,liber ,cathemerinon consists of #ab hymns1 for the #ab hours of the day1 and his ,liber ,peristephanon1 #ad hymns on the same number of saints who had won the martyr's crown2 his ,apotheosis is an ,anti-,arian glorification of ,christ2 the ,hamartigenia treats of the origin of sin2 the ,psychomachia describes the conflict of the virtues and vices of the human soul2 and his #b bks4 ,contra ,symmachum combat the views of ,symmachus1 referred to in #db1 #d4--;,in the fifth century flourished3 ,paulinus1 bishop of ,nola in ,campania1 who died in ,a4,d4 #dca4 ,he left behind him #cj poems1 of which #ac celebrate in noble1 enthusiastic language1 the life of ,felix of ,nola1 martyr during the ,decian persecution4 ,coelius ,sedulius1 an ,irishman 7871 composed in smooth dignified verse the ,life of ,jesus1 and the ,mirabilia divina s4 ,opus paschale1 so called from #a ,cor4 v4 #g in #e bks42 and a ,collatio ,v4 et ,n4,t4 in elegiac verse4 ,the ,de libero arbitrio c4 ingratos of the ,gaul ,prosper ,aquitanicus lashes with poetic fury the thankless despisers of grace 7 #ec1 #e74--,the most important poet of the sixth century was ,venantius ,fortunatus1 bishop of ,poitiers1 ,vita ,martini1 hymns1 elegies1 etc4 #dh4g4 ,in the ,national ,syrian ,church1 the first place as a poet belongs to ,ephraem ,ephraim1 the ,propheta ,syrorum4 ,in poetic endowment1 lyrical flow1 depth and intensity of feeling1 he leaves all later writers far behind4 ,next to him stands ,cyrillonas1 about ,a4,d4 #djj1 a poet whose very name1 until quite recently1 was unknown1 of whose poems six are extant1 two being metrical homilies4 ,of ,rabulas of ,edessa1 who died in ,a4,d4 #dce1 the notorious partisan of ,cyril of ,alexandria 7 #ec1 #c71 and of ,balus1 about ,a4,d4 #dcj1 we possess only a number of liturgical odes1 which are not altogether destitute of poetic merit4 ,this cannot1 however1 be said of the poetic works of ,isaac of ,antioch1 who died about ,a4,d4 #dfj1 filled with frigid polemics against ,nestorius and ,eutyches1 of which their ,catholic editor 7,opp4 ed4 ,g4 ,bickell1 ,giess41 #ahgc f47 has to confess they are thoroughly 8insipid1 flat and wearisome1 and move backwards and forwards in endless tautologies40 ,less empty and tiresome are the poetic effusions of the famous ,jacob of ,sarug1 who died in ,a4,d4 #eba2 biblical stories1 metrical homilies1 hymns1 etc4 ,most of the numerous liturgical odes are the compositions of unknown authors4 #dh4h4 ,the ,legendary ,history of ,cyprian4--,at the basis of the poetic rendering of this legend in #c bks4 by the ,empress ,eudocia1 about ,a4,d4 #ddj1 lay three little works in prose1 still extant in the ,greek original and in various translations4 ,in early youth ,cyprian1 impelled by an insatiable craving after knowledge1 power and enjoyment1 seeks to obtain all the wisdom of the ,greeks1 all the mysteries of the ,east1 and for this purpose travels through ,greece1 ,egypt1 and ,chalda4 ,but when he gets all this he is not satisfied2 he makes a compact with the devil1 to whom he unreservedly surrenders himself1 who in turn places at his disposal now a great multitude of demons1 and promises to make him hereafter one of his chief princes4 ,then comes he to ,antioch4 ,there ,aglaidas1 an eminent heathen sophist1 who in vain abandoned all to win the love of a maiden named ,justina1 who had taken vows of perpetual virginity1 calls in his magical arts1 in order thereby to gain the end so ardently desired4 ,cyprian enters into the affair all the more eagerly since he himself also meanwhile has entertained a strong passion for the fair maiden4 ,but the demons sent by him1 at last the devil himself1 are forced to flee from her1 through her calling on the name of ,jesus and making the sign of the cross1 and are obliged to own their powerlessness before the ,christians' ,god4 ,now ,cyprian repents1 repudiates his covenant with the devil1 lays before an assembly of ,antiochean ,christians a confession inspired by the most profound despairing sorrow of the innumerable mischiefs wrought by him with the help of the demons1 is comforted by the ,christians present by means of consolatory words of scripture1 receives baptism1 enters the ranks of the clergy as reader1 passes quickly through the various clerical offices1 and suffers the death of a martyr as bishop of ,antioch1 along with ,justina1 under the ,emperor ,claudius ,,ii4--,gregory ,nazianzen too in a discourse delivered at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cgi1 8on the day of the holy martyr and bishop ,cyprian10 treated of the legend1 in which without more ado he identifies the converted ,antiochean sorcerer with the famous ,carthaginian bishop of that name1 and makes him suffer martyrdom under ,decius 7874--,the romance may have borrowed the name of its hero from an old wizard2 but his type of character is certainly to be looked for in the philosophico-theurgical efforts of the ,syrio-,neoplatonic school of ,iamblichus 7 #bd1 #b71 in which the then expiring heathenism gathered up its last energies for conflict with victorious ,christianity4 ,the conception of the heroine on the other hand1 is with slight modifications borrowed from the ,thecla legend 7 #cb1 #f74 ,by the ,legenda aurea 7 #ajd1 #h71 which is just an adaptation of this earlier one1 the legend of ,cyprian was carried down even beyond the time of the ,reformation4 ,calderon's 8,wonder-working ,magician0 presents a ,spanish-,catholic1 as the ,faustus legend of the #afth century presents a ,german ,protestant construction1 which latter1 however1 in direct opposition to the tendency of the early ,christian legend1 allows the magician to drop into hell because his repentance came too late4 ,the ,romish ,church1 however1 still maintains the historical genuineness of the old legend1 and celebrates both of the supposed saints on one day1 #beth ,september4 ,,iv4 ,,doctrinal ,,controversies ,,and ,,heresies4 #di4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,doctrine ,,generally4 ,when a considerable fulness of ,christian doctrine had already in previous periods found subjective and therefore variously diversified development1 it had now1 besides being required by the altered condition of things1 become necessary that the church should sift and confirm what was already developed or was still in the course of development4 ,the endeavour after universal scientific comprehension and accurate definition became stronger every day4 ,the lively intercourse between the churches1 which prevented the various doctrinal types from being restricted to particular countries1 brought opposite views into contact and conflict with one another4 ,the court1 the people1 the monks took parts1 and so the church became the scene of passionate and distracting struggles1 which led to the issuing of a canon of orthodoxy recognised by the whole ,catholic church of the ,west and of the ,east1 and to the branding every deviation therefrom with the mark of heresy4 ,the ,heresies of the previous period were mainly of a syncretic kind 7 #bf74 ,those of the period now under consideration have an evolutionary or formatory character4 ,they consist in the construction of the system of doctrine by exclusive attention and extreme estimation of the one side of the ,christian truth that is being developed1 which thus passes over into errors2 while it is the task of orthodoxy to give proportionate development to both sides and to bring them into harmony4 ,of syncratic heresies only sporadic traces from the previous period are found in this 7 #ed74 ,the third possible form of heresies is the revolutionary or reformatory4 ,heretics of this class fancy that they see in the developed and fixed system of the ,catholic church excrescences and degenerations which either do not exist1 so that by their removal the church is injured and hindered in her essential and normal functions1 or do really exist1 but for the most part are not now duly distinguished from the results of sound and normal development1 so that the good would be removed with the bad4 ,during the period under consideration only isolated instances of this kind of heresy are met with 7 #fb74 #ej4 ,,the ,,trinitarian ,,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #cah-cha4aej ,the series of doctrinal contendings opened with the ,trinitarian or ,arian controversy4 ,it first of all dealt with the nature and being of the ,logos become man in ,christ and the relation of this ,logos to the ,father4 ,from the time of the controversy of the two ,dionysiuses 7 #cc1 #g7 the idea of the consubstantiality of the ,son and the ,father had found supporters even in ,alexandria and a new school was formed with it as the fundamental doctrine 7 #dg1 #a74 ,but the fear excited by ,sabellius and the ,samosatians 7 #cc1 #h71 that the acknowledgment of the ,homoousia might lead to ,monarchianism1 caused a strong reaction and doomed many excellent fathers to the bonds of subordinationism4 ,it was pre-eminently the school of the ,antiochean ,lucian 7 #ca1 #i7 that furnished able contenders against the ,homoousia4 ,in ,origen the two contraries1 subordination and the eternal generation from the substance of the ,father1 had been still maintained together 7 #cc1 #f74 ,now they are brought forward apart from one another4 ,on the one side1 ,athanasius and his party repudiate subordination but hold firmly by the eternal generation1 and perfected their theory by the adoption of the ,homoousia2 but on the other side1 ,arius and his party gave up the eternal generation1 and held fast to the subordination1 and went to the extreme of proclaiming the ,heteroousia4 ,a third intermediate party1 the semi-,arians1 mostly ,origenists1 wished to bind the separated contraries together with the newly discovered cement of the 4 ,in the further course of the controversies that now broke out and raged throughout the whole church for almost a century1 the question of the trinitarian position of the ,holy ,spirit was of necessity dragged into the discussion4 ,after various experiences of victory and discomfiture1 the ,homoousia of the ,son and of the ,spirit was at last affirmed and became the watchword of inviolable orthodoxy4 #ej4a4 ,preliminary ,victory of the ,homoousia1 ,a4,d4 #cah-cbe--;,arius1 a disciple of ,lucian1 from ,a4,d4 #cac presbyter at ,alexandria1 a man of clear intellect and subtle critical spirit1 was in ,a4,d4 #cah charged with the denial of the divinity of ,christ1 because he publicly taught that while the ,son was indeed before all time yet ,he was not from eternity 7 71 that by the will of the ,father 7 7 ,he was created out of nothing 7 71 and that by ,his mediating activity the world was called into being2 as the most perfect created image of the ,father and as executor of the ,divine plan of creation1 ,he might indeed in an inexact way be called and 4 ,alexander1 bishop of ,alexandria at that time1 who maintained the doctrine of the eternal generation and consubstantiality1 convened a synod at ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #cba1 which condemned the doctrine of ,arius and deposed him4 ,but the people1 who revered him as a strict ascetic1 and many bishops1 who shared his views1 took part with him4 ,he also applied for protection to famous bishops in other places1 especially to his former fellow student 77 ,eusebius of ,nicomedia1 and to the very influential ,eusebius of ,csarea 7 #dg1 #b74 ,the former unreservedly declared himself in favour of the ,arian doctrine2 the latter regarded it as at least not dangerous4 ,arius spread his views among the people by means of popular songs for men of various crafts and callings1 for millers1 sailors1 travellers1 etc4 ,in this way a serious schism spread through almost all the ,east4 ,in ,alexandria the controversy was carried on so passionately that the pagans made it the subject of reproach in the theatre4 ,when ,constantine the ,great received news of this general commotion he was greatly displeased4 ,he commanded1 fruitlessly1 as might be expected1 that all needless quarrels 7 7 should be avoided4 ,hosius1 bishop of ,cordva1 who carried the imperial injunction to ,alexandria1 learnt the state of matters there and the serious nature of the conflict1 and brought the emperor to see the matter in another light4 ,constantine now summoned in ,a4,d4 #cbe an cumenical ,council at ,nica1 where he himself and #cah bishops met4 ,the majority1 with ,eusebius of ,csarea at their head1 were ,origenists and sought1 as did also the ,eusebians1 the party of ,eusebius of ,nicomedia1 to mediate between the opposing views1 the latter1 however1 being much more favourable to the ,arians4 ,the maintainers of the ,homoousia were in a decided minority1 but the vigorous eloquence of the young deacon ,athanasius1 whom ,alexander brought with him1 and the favour of the emperor1 secured complete ascendancy to their doctrine4 ,upon the basis of the baptismal formula proposed by ,eusebius of ,csarea to his own congregation1 a new confession of faith was sketched out1 which was henceforth used to mark the limits of this trinitarian discussion4 ,in this creed several expressions were avoided which1 though biblical1 had been understood by the ,arians in a sense of their own1 such as 1 and in their place strictly ,homoousian formul were substituted1 1 1 2 while with added anathemas those entertaining opposite views were condemned4 ,this was the ,symbolum ,nicnum4 ,arius was excommunicated and his writings condemned to be burnt4 ,dread of deposition and love of peace induced many to subscribe who were not convinced4 ,only ,arius himself and two ,egyptian bishops1 ,theonas and ,secundus1 refused and went into exile to ,illyria4 ,also ,eusebius of ,nicomedia and ,theognis of ,nica1 who subscribed the ,symbol but refused to sign the anathematizing formula1 were three months afterwards banished to ,gaul4#aea #ej4b4 ,victory of ,eusebianism1 ,a4,d4 #cbh-cef4--,this unity under the ,nicene ,symbol was merely artificial and could not therefore be enduring4 ,the emperor's dying sister ,constantia and the persuasion of distinguished bishops induced ,constantine to return to his earlier view of the controversy4 ,arius agreed to a ,confession drawn up in general terms and was1 along with the other banished ones1 restored in ,a4,d4 #cbh4 ,soon thereafter1 in ,a4,d4 #ccj1 the emperor commanded that ,arius should be restored to office4 ,but meanwhile1 in ,a4,d4 #cbh1 ,athanasius himself had become bishop and replied with unfaltering determination that he would not comply4 ,the emperor threatened him with deposition1 but by a personal conference ,athanasius made such an impression upon him that he gave way4 ,the enemies of ,athanasius1 however1 especially the ,meletians driven on by ,eusebius of ,nicomedia 7 #da1 #d71 ceased not to excite suspicion about him as a disturber of the peace1 and got the emperor to reopen the question at a ,synod at ,tyre1 in ,a4,d4 #cce4 consisting of pure ,arians4 ,athanasius appealed against its verdict of deposition4 ,a new ,synod was convened at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cce and the emperor banished him to ,treves in ,a4,d4 #ccf4 ,it was now enjoined that1 notwithstanding the opposition of the bishop of ,constantinople1 ,arius should be there received back again into church fellowship1 but on the evening before the day appointed he died suddenly1 being over eighty years old4 ,constantine the ,great soon followed him1 ,a4,d4 #ccg1 and ,constantine ,,ii4 restored ,athanasius to his church which received him with enthusiasm4 ,constantius1 however1 was decidedly favourable to the ,eusebians1 and this gave tone to the court and to the capital where in all the streets and markets1 in all the shops and houses1 the questions referred to were considered and discussed4 ,the ,eastern bishops for the most part vacillated between the two extremes and let themselves be led by ,eusebius of ,nicomedia4 ,he and his party managed for a time to set aside the ,homoousian formula and yet to preserve an appearance of orthodoxy4 ,eusebius1 who from ,a4,d4 #cch was bishop in the capital1 died in ,a4,d4 #cda1 but his party continued to intrigue in his spirit4 ,the whole ,west1 on the other hand1 was strictly ,nican4 ,the ,eusebians in ,a4,d4 #cdj opened a ,council at ,antioch1 which anew deposed ,athanasius1 and put in his place a rude ,cappadocian1 ,gregorius ,gregory4 ,athanasius fled to ,rome1 where a ,council under bishop ,julius in ,a4,d4 #cda solemnly acknowledged his orthodoxy and innocence4 ,a new ,council convened at ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #cdj for the consecration of a church1 sketched four creeds one after another1 approaching indeed1 in order to conciliate the ,west1 as closely as possible that of ,nica1 but carefully avoiding the term 4 ,in the interests of unity ,constantius and ,constans jointly convened an cumenical ,council at ,sardica in ,illyria in ,a4,d4 #cdd4 ,but when the ,westerns under the presidency of ,hosius1 disregarding the ,antiochean anathema1 allowed a seat and vote to ,athanasius1 the ,easterns withdrew and formed an opposition ,council at ,philippopolis in ,thrace4 ,at ,sardica where important privileges were granted to the ,roman bishop ,julius 7 #df1 #c71 the ,nicene creed was renewed and ,athanasius was restored4 ,constantius1 after ,gregorius ,gregory had died1 who meanwhile had become doubly hated because of his violent deeds1 confirmed ,athanasius' restoration1 and the ,alexandrian church received again their old pastor with shouts of joy4 ,but after the death of ,constans in ,a4,d4 #cej1 ,constantius was again won over to the side of the ,arians4 ,they assembled at the ,council of ,sirmium in ,pannonia in ,a4,d4 #cea1 where1 however1 they did not strike directly at ,athanasius but at first only at a friend of his who presented to them a weak spot4 ,the bishop ,marcellus of ,ancyra in ,galatia by his zealous defence of the ,nicene ,homoousia had been betrayed into the use of ,sabellian expressions and views4 ,at a ,synod at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #ccf he was on this account suspended1 and then contended with by ,eusebius of ,csarea in the course of this ,council2 but in the ,west and at the ,council of ,sardica he had been defended4 ,afterwards1 however1 one of his own scholars ,photinus1 bishop of ,sirmium1 had drifted into unmistakable1 and indeed into dynamic ,monarchianism 7 #cc1 #a74 ,his doctrine had been already rejected as heretical at a ,council at ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #cdd and also in the ,west at a distinctly ,nican ,council at ,milan in ,a4,d4 #cde4 ,the ,council of ,sirmium now formally deposed him and with his condemned also ,marcellus' doctrine4#aeb ,the ,eusebians1 however1 were not satisfied with this4 ,so soon as ,constantius by the conquest of the usurper ,magnentius got an absolutely free hand1 he arranged at their instigation for two ,eusebian ,synods1 one at ,arles in ,gaul1 ,a4,d4 #cec1 the other at ,milan1 ,a4,d4 #cee1 where ,athanasius was again condemned4 ,the emperor now commanded that all ,western bishops should subscribe his condemnation4 ,those who refused were deposed and banished4 ,among them were1 the ,roman bishop ,liberius1 ,hosius of ,cordova1 ,hilary of ,poitiers1 ,eusebius of ,vercelli1 and ,lucifer of ,calris ,calaris4 ,and now a second ,gregorius ,gregory1 a ,cappadocian1 not less rude and passionate than the first1 was forcibly installed bishop of ,alexandria4 ,athanasius performed the service in a quiet and dignified manner1 and then withdrew to the monks in the ,egyptian desert in ,a4,d4 #cef4 ,thus it seemed that ,arianism in the modified or rather concealed form of ,eusebianism had secured a final victory throughout the whole range of the ,roman ,empire4 #ej4c4 ,victory of ,homoiousianism1 ,a4,d4 #ceg-cfa4--,the ,eusebians now1 however1 fell out among themselves4 ,the more extreme party1 with the ,antiochean deacon ,atius and bishop ,eunomius of ,cyzicus at their head1 carried their heresy so far as to declare that the ,son is unlike to the ,father 774 ,they were hence called ,anomans1 also ,exucontians 7 74 ,but also the distinctly moderate party1 called semi-,arians#aec or ,homoiousians1 from their adoption of the formula 1 made preparations for a decisive conflict4 ,at their head stood ,basil1 bishop of ,ancyra1 and ,constantius too was favourable to them4 ,but the intriguing court bishops1 ,ursacius and ,valens1 strictly ,arian at heart1 knew how to gain their ends by secret paths4 ,with the emperor's consent they held a second ,council at ,sirmium in ,a4,d4 #ceg1 where it was resolved to avoid wholly the non-biblical phrase 1 which caused all the contention1 to abandon all definitions of the nature of ,god which to man is incomprehensible1 and to unite upon the simple formula1 that the ,son is like the ,father 7 hence the name ,homoians74 ,hosius of ,cordova1 facile through age and sufferings1 bought his reprieve by subscription4 ,he died1 after a bitter repentance1 in ,a4,d4 #cfa1 when almost a hundred years old4 ,the rest of the ,westerns1 however1 at the ,synod of ,agenum renewed their ,nicene ,confession2 the semi-,arians under ,basil at ,ancyra their ,antiochean ,confession4 ,the latter1 too1 found access to the emperor1 who let their ,confession be confirmed at a third ,synod at ,sirmium in ,a4,d4 #ceh1 and obliged the court bishops to sign it4 ,the latter then came to a compromise with the semi-,arians in the formula3 4 ,liberius of ,rome1 too1 worn out with three years' exile1 agreed to sign this symbol and ventured to return to ,rome 7 #df1 #d74 ,the formula pleased the emperor so well that he decided to have it confirmed by an cumenical ,council4 ,but in order to prevent the dreaded combination of the ,homoousians and ,homoiousians in the ,west1 ,ursacius and ,valens contrived to have two ,councils instead of one1 an ,eastern ,council at ,seleucia and a ,western ,council at ,rimini1 ,a4,d4 #cei4 ,both rejected the formula of ,sirmium2 the ,easterns holding by that of ,antioch1 the ,westerns by that of ,nica4 ,but ,ursacius knew how by cunning intrigues to weary them out4 ,when the bishops had spent two years at ,seleucia and ,rimini1 which seemed to them no better than banishment1 and their messengers after a half year's journey had not succeeded in obtaining an audience of the emperor1 they at last subscribed the ,homoian symbol4 ,those who refused1 ,atius and ,eunomius1 were persecuted as disturbers of the church's peace4 ,thus the ,homoian creed prevailed through the whole ,roman empire4 ,constantius' death1 however1 in ,a4,d4 #cfa1 soon broke up this artificial bond4 #ej4d4 ,final ,victory of the ,nicene ,creed1 ,a4,d4 #cfa-cha4--;,julian gave equal rights to all parties and recalled all the banished bishops1 so that many churches had two or three bishops4 ,athanasius also returned4 ,for the restoration of church order he called a ,synod at ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #cfb1 and here in the exercise of a gentle and wise temper he received back into church fellowship the penitent ,arian bishops1 in spite of the protest of the strict zealot ,lucifer of ,calaris4 ,the happy results of ,athanasius' procedure led the emperor again to banish him1 on the pretext that he was a disturber of the peace4 ,julian's successor1 ,jovian1 was favourable to the ,nicene doctrine and immediately restored ,athanasius1 ,a4,d4 #cfd1 meanwhile extending toleration to the ,arians4 ,but ,valens1 to whom his brother ,valentinian ,i4 surrendered the ,east1 ,a4,d4 #cfd-cgh1 proved a zealous ,arian4 ,he raged with equal violence against the ,athanasians and against the semi-,arians1 and thus drove the two into close relations with one another4 ,athanasius was obliged to flee1 but ventured after four months to return1 and lived in peace to the end of his days4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cgc4 ,valens was meanwhile restricted in his persecutions on two sides1 by the pressing representations of his brother ,valentinian1 and by the manly resistance of eminent bishops1 especially the three ,cappadocians 7 #dg1 #d74 ,the machinations of the ,western empress ,justinia1 during the minority of her son ,valentinian ,,ii41 were successfully checkmated by ,ambrose of ,milan4 ,he passively but victoriously opposed the soldiers who were to take possession of his church for the ,arians by a congregation praying and singing psalms4 ,theodosius the ,great gave its deathblow to ,arianism4 ,he called ,gregory ,nazianzen to the patriarchal chair at ,constantinople4 ,to ,gregory also at a subsequent time he assigned the presidency of the so-called ,second cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha4aed--,when1 however1 his patriarchate was attacked1 because he had changed his bishopric 7 #de71 he resigned his office4 ,no new ,symbol was here drawn up1 but only the ,nicene ,symbol was confirmed as irrefragable4 ,on the so-called ,nican-,constantinopolitan ,symbol1 comp4 #ei1 #b4 ,after this the ,arians ventured only to hold services outside of the cities4 ,subsequently all churches in the empire were taken from them4--,the ,constantinopolitan ,council of ,a4,d4 #cha did not fairly represent parties4 ,being called by the then merely ,eastern emperor1 and so consisting only of ,eastern bishops1 it was not properly an cumenical synod1 and for a long time even in the ,east itself was not regarded as such4 ,still it was of importance to the bishop of ,constantinople that it should have this rank1 and his endeavours were favoured by the circumstance that it had been called by ,theodosius who was honoured both in ,east and ,west as ,sole ,potentate and 8second ,constantine40 ,after the ,council of ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea 7 #df1 #a7 the whole ,east was unanimous in recognising it4 ,the ,west1 however1 at least ,rome1 still rejected it1 until finally under ,justinian ,i41 in consequence of the ,roman chair becoming dependent upon the ,byzantine court 7 #df1 #i71 the dispute was here no longer agitated4 #ej4e4 ,the ,pneumatomachians1 ,a4,d4 #cfb-cha4--;,arius and the ,arians had described the ,holy ,spirit as the first creature produced by the ,son4 ,but even zealous defenders of the ,homoousia of the ,son vacillated4 ,the ,nicene ,symbol was satisfied with a bare 2 and even ,hilary of ,poitiers1 avoiding all exact definition1 contented himself with recording the phrases of ,scripture4 ,but ,athanasius1 at the ,synod of ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #cfb1 ,didymus the ,blind1 and the three ,cappadocians1 consistently applied their idea of the ,homoousia to the ,spirit and won the adhesion of the ,nicene theologians4 ,it was hardest for the semi-,arians who had accepted the ,nicene platform1 at whose head stood ,macedonius1 bishop of ,constantinople1 who had been deposed by the ,homoians in ,a4,d4 #cfj1 to acquiesce in this conclusion 7,macedonians1 ,pneumatomachians74 ,the so-called second cumenical ,council of ,a4,d4 #cha sanctioned in a now lost doctrinal 8,tome0 the full ,homoousia of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the ,west had already in ,a4,d4 #chj at a ,roman ,synod under the presidency of ,bishop ,damasus condemned in #bd anathemas1 along with all other trinitarian errors1 every sort of opposition to the perfect ,homoousia of the ,spirit4#aee #ej4f4 ,the ,literature of the ,controversy4--,arius himself developed his doctrine in a half poetical writing1 the 1 fragments of which are given by ,athanasius4 ,arianism found a zealous apologist in the ,sophist ,asterius1 whose treatise is lost4 ,the church historian1 ,philostorgius 7 #e1 #a71 sought to vindicate it historically4 ,on the semi-,arian side ,eusebius of ,csarea wrote against ,marcellus-- and 4 ,the of ,eunomius is lost4 ,among the opponents of ,arianism1 ,athanasius occupies by a long way the first place 7,,iv4 ,orations against the ,arians1 ,ep4 concerning ,councils of ,seleucia and ,ariminum1 ,hist4 of ,arians to the ,monks1 ,apology against the ,arians1 etc41 all included in ,hist4 ,tracts of ,athanasius1 8,lib4 of ,fath410 #b vols41 ,oxf41 #ahdc f474 ,on the works of ,apollinaris belonging to this controversy see #dg1 #e4 ,basil the ,great wrote #d bks4 against ,eunomius2 1 ,ad ,amphilochium1 against the ,pneumatomachians4 ,gregory ,nazianzen wrote five 4 ,gregory of ,nyssa #ab 4 ,didymus the ,blind1 #c bks4 ,de ,trinitate4 ,epiphanius1 the 4 ,cyril of ,alexandria a 4 ,chrysostom delivered twelve addresses against the ,anomoians4 ,theodoret wrote ,dialogi ,,vii4 d4 s4 ,trinitate4 ,ephram ,ephraim ,syrus1 too1 combated the ,arians frequently in his sermons4 ,among the ,latins the most celebrated polemists are3 ,lucifer of ,calaris 7,ad ,constantium p4 ,lb4 ,,ii4 pro ,athen472 ,hilary of ,poitiers 7,de ,trinitate ,lb4 ,i41 de ,synodus s4 de fide ,orientalium1 contra ,constantium ,aug42 ,c4 ,auxentium72 ,phbadius1 bishop of ,agenum about ,a4,d4 #cei 7,c4 ,arianos72 ,ambrose 7,de fide ad ,gratianum ,aug4 ,lb4 ,v472 ,augustine 7,c4 ,sermonem ,arianorum2 ,collatio cum ,maximo ,arianorum episc42 ,c4 ,maximinum72 ,fulgentius of ,ruspe 7,c4 ,arianos1 and #c bks4 against the ,arian ,vandal king ,thrasimund74 #ej4g4 ,post-,nicene ,development of the ,dogma4--,even the ,nicene ,symbol did not completely surmount every trace of subordinationism4 ,it is at least capable of a subordinationist interpretation when the ,father alone is called and so identified with the ,monas4 ,augustine completely surmounted this defect 7,de ,trinitate ,lb4 ,,xv474 ,the personality of the ,spirit1 too1 as well as ,his relation to the ,father and the ,son1 had not yet been determined4 ,a step was taken towards the formulating of the doctrine of the ,spirit's personality by the acknowledgment in the now lost ,tome of the ,council of ,constantinople of ,a4,d4 #cha of the full ,homoousia of the ,spirit with the ,father and the ,son4#aef ,but the doctrine of the ,spirit's relations to ,father and ,son still continued undetermined and even by the addition 7to the 4 47 of3 1 1 1 in the so-called ,symbolum ,nic4-,constant4 7 #ei1 #b71 a definition so incomplete was obtained1 that even five hundred years afterwards the great schism that rent the church into an ,eastern and a ,western division found in this its doctrinal basis 7 #fg1 #a74 ,augustine1 too1 had meanwhile come forward with a further development of this doctrine1 and taught in his speculation upon the ,spirit that ,he proceeded from the ,son as well as from the ,father 7,john xv4 #bf74 ,fulgentius of ,ruspe was the next most famous representative of the further development of the dogma 7,de s4 ,trinitate74 ,the so-called ,athanasian ,creed 7 #ei1 #b7 simply adopted this advanced development in the proposition3 qui procedit a ,patre et ,filio4 ,similarly the ,filioque is found also in the so-called ,nic4-,constant4 ,creed laid before the ,synod of ,toledo in ,a4,d4 #ehi 7 #gf1 #b74--;,continuation #fg1 #a2 #ia1 #b4 #ej4h4 ,schisms in consequence of the ,arian ,controversy4 ,i4 ,the ,meletian ,schism at ,antioch4 ,the ,arians at ,antioch had already in ,a4,d4 #ccj driven away ,eustathius1 the bishop of the see1 who favoured the ,nicene doctrine4 ,a portion of his people1 however1 remained attached to him and ,homoousianism under the leadership of the ,presbyter ,paulinus1 and were called ,eustathians4 ,when in ,a4,d4 #cfj ,eudoxius1 the ,arian bishop1 left ,antioch1 in order to take possession of the episcopal chair of the capital1 his former congregation chose ,meletius1 bishop of ,sebaste1 formerly a ,eusebian1 but for some time friendly to the ,nicene party1 as his successor4 ,his first sermon1 however1 served to undeceive those who had chosen him1 so that after a few weeks they drove him away and put ,euzoius1 a decided ,arian1 in his place4 ,yet he had already won a following in the congregation which1 when ,julian's succession made it possible for him to return1 took him back as bishop4 ,athanasius and the ,alexandrian ,synod of ,a4,d4 #cfb had meanwhile made every effort to reconcile these ,meletians and the ,eustathians and to unite them under the banner of ,nicanism4 ,but ,lucifer1 bishop of ,calaris1 sent to ,antioch for this purpose1 confirmed the schism instead of healing it by ordaining ,paulinus bishop on the death of ,eustathius in ,a4,d4 #cfj4 ,the whole church now took sides1 the ,east that of ,meletius1 the ,west along with ,egypt1 that of ,paulinus4 ,the ,council of ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha gave to ,meletius the presidency as the oldest bishop present4 ,when1 after two days1 he died1 ,gregory ,nazianzen1 his successor in the presidency1 recommended that the next election should be postponed till the death of the aged ,paulinus and that then both parties should join the election4 ,it was1 however1 all in vain4 ,flavian was appointed successor to ,meletius1 and when ,paulinus died in ,a4,d4 #chh1 the ,presbyter ,evagrius was chosen opposition bishop in his stead4 ,theodosius ,i41 from ,a4,d4 #cib sole ruler1 insisted upon the ,west recognising ,flavian4 ,but in ,antioch itself the schism lasted down to the death of ,evagrius4 ,finally1 in ,a4,d4 #dae1 the able successor of ,flavian1 bishop ,alexander1 effected a reconciliation1 by taking part on a feast day along with his congregation in the public worship of the ,eustathians1 joining with them in singing and prayer1 and in this way won them over to join him in the principal church4 ,,ii4 ,the ,schism of the ,luciferians4 ,after ,lucifer by his irrational zeal had caused so much discord in ,antioch1 he returned in ,a4,d4 #cfb to ,alexandria1 and there protested against ,athanasius for receiving back penitent ,arians and semi-,arians4 ,he and his fanatical adherents formed the sect of ,luciferians1 which renewed the ,novatianist demands for ,church purity1 and continued to exist down to the fifth century4 ,,iii4 ,on the ,schism of ,damasus and ,ursacius at ,rome1 see #df1 #d4 #ea4 ,,the ,,origenist ,,controversies1 ,a4,d4 #cid-dch4 ,naturally and necessarily the ,christological are closely connected with the ,trinitarian controversies 7 #eb74 ,but between the two comes in another controversy1 the ,origenistic1 which was indeed more of personal than of ecclesiastical interest1 but still strengthened the church in the conviction that ,origen was an arch-heretic4 #ea4a4 ,the ,monks of the ,scetic and ,nitrian ,deserts4--,the most distinguished defenders of ,nicene orthodoxy1 ,athanasius1 the three ,cappadocians1 ,didymus1 ,hilary1 etc41 had all held ,origen in high esteem4 ,but the constant references of the ,arians to his authority brought him into discredit1 not only among the more narrow-minded opposers of ,arius1 especially in the ,west1 but also among the monks of the ,scetic desert in ,egypt1 with ,pachomius at their head4 ,these repudiated the speculation of ,origen as the source of all heresy1 and in their views of ,god and divine things adopted a crude anthropomorphism4 ,epiphanius1 bishop of ,salamis1 also belonged originally to this party 7 #dg1 #aj74 ,in direct opposition to them1 another ,egyptian monkish order in the ,nitrian desert adhered to ,origen with enthusiastic reverence and occupied themselves in a pious contemplative mysticism that tended to a somewhat extreme spiritualism4 #ea4b4 ,the ,controversy in ,palestine and ,italy1 ,a4,d4 #cid-cii4--;,in ,palestine ,origen had a warm supporter in bishop of ,jerusalem1 and in the two ,latins ,jerome and ,rufinus who were staying there 7 #dg1 #af1 #ag74 ,but when in ,a4,d4 #cid a couple of ,westerns who happened to come there expressed their surprise1 ,jerome1 anxious for his reputation for orthodoxy1 was at once prepared to condemn the errors of ,origen4 ,meanwhile the ,scetic monks had called the attention of the old zealot ,epiphanius to the ,palestinian nursery of heresy4 ,immediately he made his way thither and took advantage of ,john's friendly invitation to occupy his pulpit by preaching a violent sermon against ,origenism4 ,john then preached against anthropomorphism4 ,epiphanius pronounced an anathema against that tendency but desired ,john to do the same in regard to ,origenism4 ,when ,john refused1 then ,epiphanius1 together with ,jerome and the ,bethlehemite monks withdrew from communion with ,john and ,rufinus1 and invaded ,john's episcopal rights by ordaining a presbyter over the ,bethlehemite monks4 ,now sprang up a violent controversy1 which ,theophilus of ,alexandria1 by sending the presbyter ,isidore1 sought to allay4 ,jerome and ,rufinus were reconciled at the altar in ,a4,d4 #cif4 ,the latter soon again returned to the ,west4 ,he translated1 omitting objectionable passages1 ,origen's work 1 and was indiscreet enough to remark in the preface that even the orthodox ,jerome was an admirer of ,origen4 ,stirred up by his ,roman friends1 ,jerome began with unmeasured violence a passionate polemic against ,origenism and the friend of his youth4 ,he produced at the same time a literal rendering1 no longer extant1 of the 4 ,rufinus replied with equal bitterness1 and the passion displayed by both led to further causes of offence4 ,the ,roman bishop ,siricius took part with ,rufinus1 but his successor ,anastasius summoned him to answer for his opinions at ,rome4 ,rufinus did not appear1 but sent an apology which so little satisfied ,anastasius that he rather consented to send letters to ,john of ,jerusalem and other oriental bishops in condemnation of ,origenism1 ,a4,d4 #cii4 ,rufinus withdrew to ,aquileia and there continued to translate the writings of ,origen and others of the ,greeks4 #ea4c4 ,the ,controversy in ,alexandria and ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #cii-dch4--,theophilus1 patriarch of ,alexandria1 a pompous1 ambitious and strong-handed ecclesiastical prince1 had down to ,a4,d4 #cii been on good terms with the ,origenist monks and even in the ,easter address of that year expressed himself in strong terms against the heresy of the anthropomorphists4 ,the monks rose in rebellion over this1 attacked him with clubs and forced him to pronounce an anathema upon ,origen4 ,soon thereafter he had a personal dispute with his former friends4 ,the aged and venerable presbyter ,isidore and the four so-called 8long brothers10 1 two of whom served in his church as conomi1 refused to pay him pupils' and legates' money and fled from his passionate displeasure to their companions in the ,nitrian desert4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cii1 however1 at an endemic ,synod at ,alexandria he condemned ,origen1 and in ,a4,d4 #dja published a violent manifesto against the ,origenists4#aeg ,the noble but shortsighted ,epiphanius approved it and ,jerome hastened to translate it into ,latin4 ,with rude military force the ,nitrian monks were scattered and driven away4 ,persecuted by the warrants issued by the patriarch1 they sought protection from bishop ,john ,chrysostom at ,constantinople 7 #dg1 #h71 whose intercession1 however1 ,theophilus contemptuously rejected4 ,for peace sake ,chrysostom now wished to retire4 ,but the monks found access to the ,empress ,eudoxia1 and upon her appeal to the ,emperor ,arcadius1 ,theophilus was cited before a ,synod at ,constantinople over which ,chrysostom presided4 ,theophilus foamed with rage4 ,he succeeded by misrepresentation of the facts to win to his side the zealot ,epiphanius4 ,the noble old man hasted full of zeal and prejudice to ,constantinople1 but coming to see things in their true light1 he withdrew from them with the words1 8,i leave to you the court and hypocrisy40 ,theophilus1 however1 knew well how to get on with the court and hypocrisy4 ,chrysostom1 by severe and searching preaching1 had aroused the anger of the ,empress4 ,relying upon this1 ,theophilus landed with a great retinue at ,constantinople1 and organized at the ,empress's estate of ,drus1 the ,oak1 near ,chalcedon1 a ,council1 ,synodus ad ,quercum1 ,a4,d4 #djc1 which pronounced ,chrysostom guilty of immorality1 offences against the church and high treason4 ,the ,emperor condemned him to exile4 ,chrysostom soothed the people excited in his favour1 and allowed himself quietly to be sent away4 ,a violent earthquake1 however1 next night and the incontrollable excitement of the populace1 led the ,emperor to entreat the exile by special messenger immediately to return4 ,after three days' absence he had a triumphal entrance again into the city4 ,theophilus fled precipitately to ,alexandria4 ,soon thereafter ,chrysostom very solemnly denounced the noisy inauguration of a statue of the empress during the celebration of worship1 and when on this account her rage flamed up against him afresh1 the unfortunate words were uttered by him in a sermon on the day of ,john the ,baptist3 1 1 4 ,now the game was again in ,theophilus' favour4 ,his party fanned the flame at the court4 ,during the ,easter vigils1 ,a4,d4 #djd1 armed men burst into the church of ,chrysostom and carried him away an exile to ,cucusus in ,armenia4 ,with heroic courage he bore all the miseries of the journey1 the climate and the wild lawless neighbourhood4 ,with his people from the place of his banishment he maintained regular pastoral intercourse4--,soon after the outbreak of the conflict1 ,theophilus as well as ,chrysostom had diligently sought to obtain the support of the ,west4 ,both sent letters and messengers to ,rome1 ,milan and ,aquileia1 seeking to justify their cases before the churches4 ,innocent ,i4 of ,rome urged the deciding of the controversy at an cumenical ,council1 but did not carry his point4 ,after the disgraceful banishment of ,chrysostom the whole ,west took his side1 and ,innocent got ,honorius to apply to ,arcadius for his recall2 but the only result was that in ,a4,d4 #djg he was sent to still more severe banishment at ,pityus1 on the ,black ,sea4 ,he succumbed to the fatigues of the journey and died on the way with words on his lips that had been the motto of his life3 4 ,a great part of his congregation at ,constantinople refused to acknowledge the new patriarch ,arsacius and his successor ,atticus1 and continued apart1 notwithstanding all persecutions1 under the name of ,johannites1 until ,theodosius ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #dch fetched back with honour the bones of their revered pastor and laid them in the imperial vault4 ,amid personal animosities and embittered feelings the ,origenist controversy was long lost to view1 but we must return to it again further on 7 #eb1 #f74aeh #eb4 ,,the ,,christological ,,controversy4#aei ,in the ,trinitarian controversy we dealt with the pre- and extra-historical existence of the ,son of ,god1 with ,his divine nature in itself2 but now1 at the crucial point of ,christian speculation and ecclesiastical conflict1 we come to treat of ,his historical existence as that of the incarnate ,son of ,god1 of the connection of the divine nature of the ,logos with the human nature of the ,son of ,mary1 and of the mutual relations of both to one another4 ,even during the ,arian controversy the conflict was begun1 and while the church maintained against ,arius the full divinity of ,christ1 it also affirmed against ,apollinaris the completeness of ,his humanity4 ,in three further phases this conflict was continued4 ,in the ,dyoprosopic controversy the church maintained the unity of the ,person of ,christ against the ,antiochean extreme represented by ,nestorius1 which hold both natures so far apart that the result seemed to be two persons4 ,in the ,monophysite controversy the opposite extreme of the new ,alexandrian school was combated1 which in the unity of the person lost sight of the distinctness of the natures4 ,in the ,monothelite controversy a unionistic effort was resisted which indeed allowed the duality of natures to be affirmed nominally1 but practically denied it by the acknowledgment of only one will4 #eb4a4 ,the ,apollinarian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #cfb-cha4afj--,previously the older ,modalists1 e4g41 ,beryllus and ,sabellius1 had taught that by the incarnation the ,logos had received merely a human body4 ,marcellus shared this view2 but also his antipodes ,arius had adopted it in order to avoid postulating two creatures in ,christ4 ,athanasius held by the doctrine of ,origen1 that the human soul in ,christ is a necessary bond between the ,logos and the body1 as well as an organ for giving expression to the ,logos through the body4 ,at the ,synod of ,alexandria1 ,a4,d4 #cfb1 therefore1 he obtained ecclesiastical sanction for the recognition of a complete human nature in ,christ4 ,apollinaris of ,laodicea 7 #dg1 #e71 who had helped to arrange for this ,council1 also disapproved of the expression 1 but yet thought that the doctrine of the completeness of the human nature must be denied4 ,he was led to this position by his adoption of trichotomic principles4 ,he maintained that ,christ has taken merely a with a 1 and that the place of the 7 7 was represented in him by the divine ,logos4 ,if this were not so then1 he thought1 one must assume two persons in ,christ or let ,christ sink down to the position of a mere 4 ,only in this way too could absolute sinlessness be affirmed of him4 ,on the other hand1 ,athanasius and the two ,gregories saw that in this way the substantiality of the incarnation and the completeness of redemption were lost4 ,the so-called second cumenical ,council of ,a4,d4 #cha rejected the doctrine of ,apollinaris1 who with his party was excluded from the ,church4 ,the ,apollinarians subsequently joined the ,monophysites4 #eb4b4 ,christology of the ,opposing ,theological ,schools4--,in consequence of the ,arian controversy the perfect divinity1 and in consequence of the ,apollinarian controversy the perfect humanity1 of ,christ were finally established4 ,on the relation between the two natures conditioned by the union there was definite result attained unto4 ,apollinaris had taught a connection of the divinity with the incomplete manhood so intimate that he had unwittingly destroyed the duality of the natures1 and by means of an transferred the attributes of the one nature to the other2 so that not only the body of ,christ must have been deified and have been therefore worthy of worship1 but also birth1 suffering and death must be referred to ,his divinity4 ,in his treatise3 1 he teaches3 1 1 1 1 and in the tract ,de incarnatione ,verbi1 wrongly attributed to ,athanasius3 1 1 1 4 ,so1 too1 in the ,epistle ascribed to ,julius of ,rome4 ,the ,alexandrian ,theology1 although rejecting the mutilation of the human nature favoured by ,apollinaris1 sympathized with him in his love for the mystical1 the inconceivable and the transcendental4 ,in opposition to the ,arian heresy it gave special emphasis to the divinity of ,christ and taught a of both natures4 ,only before the union and in abstracto can we speak of two natures2 after the incarnation and in concreto we can speak only of one divine-human nature4 ,mary was therefore spoken of as the mother of ,god1 4 ,athanasius in his treatise against ,apollinaris acknowledged an 1 and explained this as a 4 ,the ,cappadocians 7 #dg1 #d7 indeed expressly admitted two natures1 1 but yet taught a commingling of them1 1 1 a of the two natures1 1 a of the 4 ,cyril of ,alexandria taught that the was a 1 an incarnation in the proper sense4 ,christ consists 1 but not 1 i4e4 only before the incarnation and in abstracto 7 7 can we speak of two natures4 ,in the ,god-man two natures would be two subjects1 and so there would be two ,christs2 the redeemer would then only be an and not a 1 and could thus afford no guarantee of a complete redemption1 etc4 ,the ,antiochean ,theology 7 #dg1 #h1 #i71 in opposition to ,apollinaris1 affirmed most emphatically the complete and unchangeable reality of the human nature of ,christ at and after its union with the divine4 ,it would therefore only admit of a or a 1 by which both are brought into the relation 77 of common being and common action4 ,expressions like 1 1 1 seemed to the thinkers of this school blasphemous1 or at least absurd4 ,they acknowledged indeed that the of ,christ is worthy of adoration but only in so far as it is the organ of the redeeming ,logos1 not because in itself it shares in the divine attributes4 ,the most developed form of this doctrine was presented by ,theodore of ,mopsuestia in strict connection with his anthropology and soteriology4 ,the historical development of the ,god-man is with him the type and pattern of the historical redemption of mankind4 ,christ assumed a complete human nature1 with all its sinful affections and tendencies1 but he fought these down and raised ,his human nature by constant conflict and victory to that absolute perfection to which by the same way ,he leads us through the communication of ,his ,spirit4 ,he expressly guarded himself against the charge of making ,christ into two persons3 ,christ is 1 but not for the human nature has in the incarnation renounced personality and independence4--,each of these two schools represented one side of the truth of the church's doctrine2 in the union of the two sides the church proclaimed the full truth4 ,on the other hand the two schools proceeded more and more one-sidedly to emphasise each its own side of the truth1 and so tended toward positive error4 ,thus arose two opposite errors1 the separating of the natures and the confusing of the natures1 which the church rejected one after the other1 and proclaimed the truth that lay at the root of both4--,during this discussion arose the ,western ,theology as the regulator of the debate4 ,so long as it dealt with the one-sided extreme of the ,antiocheans it stood side by side with the ,alexandrians4 ,augustine1 e4g4 used indeed the expression mixture1 but in reality he explains the relation of both natures to one another quite in accordance with the afterwards settled orthodoxy4 ,but when at last the method of exclusions reached the error of the ,alexandrians1 the ,westerns turned quite as decidedly to the other side and maintained the union of the two sides of the truth 7,leo the ,great74 ,the conflict attracted great attention when it broke out at first in the ,west1 but it was so quickly settled that soon no trace of it remained4 ,in ,southern ,gaul a monk ,leporius came forward teaching the ,antiochean doctrine of the union of the two natures4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dbf he went to ,africa1 entered into conflict with ,augustine1 but retracted his errors almost immediately4 #eb4c4 ,the ,dyoprosopic or ,nestorian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #dbh-ddd4afa--;,in ,a4,d4 #dbh a monk of ,antioch called ,nestorius1 a distinguished orator1 was appointed patriarch of ,constantinople4 ,he was an eloquent and pious man but hasty and imprudent1 with little knowledge of the world and human nature1 and immoderately severe against heretics4 ,the hatred of an unsuccessful rival in ,constantinople called ,proclus and the rivalry of the patriarch of ,alexandria1 who hated him not only as a rival but as an ,antiochean1 made the position of the unsupported monk a very hard one1 and his protection of the expatriated ,pelagians 7 #ec1 #d7 excited the ,roman bishop ,clestine against him4 ,anastasius1 a presbyter brought with him by ,nestorius1 was annoyed at the frequent use of the expression and preached against it4 ,nestorius took his part against people and monks1 sentenced the monks who had insulted him personally to endure corporal punishment1 and at an endemic ,synod in ,a4,d4 #dci condemned the doctrine objected to4 ,and now ,cyril of ,alexandria 7 #dg1 #f7 entered the lists as champion of the ,alexandrian dogmatics4 ,he won to himself ,clestine of ,rome 7 #df1 #f71 as well as bishops ,memnon of ,ephesus and ,juvenalis ,juvenal of ,jerusalem1 and at the court1 ,pulcheria 7sister of ,theodosius ,,ii4 ,a4,d4 #djh-dej72 while the empress ,eudocia 7 #dh1 #e7 and the ,syrian bishops took the side of ,nestorius4 ,all conciliatory attempts were frustrated by the stiffness of the two patriarchs4 ,clestine of ,rome in ,a4,d4 #dcj demanded of ,nestorius a recantation within ten days1 and ,cyril at a ,synod of ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #dcj produced twelve strong counterpropositions containing anathemas1 which ,nestorius answered immediately by twelve counteranathemas4 ,thus the controversy and the parties engaged in it became more and more violent4 ,for its settlement the emperor called the so-called ,third 7properly ,second1 comp4 #ej1 #d7 cumenical ,council at ,ephesus in ,a4,d4 #dca4 ,nestorius enjoyed the decided favour of the emperor1 the imperial plenipotentiary was his personal friend1 and a portion of the emperor's bodyguard accompanied him to ,ephesus4 ,but ,cyril appeared with a great retinue of bishops and a faithful guard of servants of the church and seamen1 who should in case of need prove the correctness of the ,alexandrian dogmatics with their fists4 ,in addition ,memnon of ,ephesus had in readiness a crowd of clergy1 monks and people from ,asia ,minor4 ,before the ,roman legates and the ,syrian bishops had arrived ,cyril opened the ,council without them with #bjj bishops4 ,nestorianism was condemned1 ,nestorius excommunicated and deposed1 and ,cyril's anathematizing propositions adopted as the standard of ecclesiastical orthodoxy4 ,the ,roman legate recognised the ,council1 but the imperial commissioner refused his approval2 and the ,syrian bishops1 under the presidency of ,john of ,antioch proceeded1 on their arrival1 to hold an opposition ,council1 which excommunicated ,cyril and ,memnon4 ,nestorius of his own accord retired into a monastery4 ,meanwhile in ,constantinople1 at the instigation of ,pulcheria1 a popular tumult was raised in favour of ,cyril4 ,the emperor set aside all the three leaders1 ,nestorius1 ,cyril and ,memnon1 and authorised a mediating creed drawn up by ,theodoret 7 #dg1 #i7 in which the was recognised but an was affirmed4 ,cyril and ,memnon still remained in their offices4 ,they subscribed ,theodoret's formula and ,john subscribed the condemnation of ,nestorius1 ,a4,d4 #dcc1 who was deposed and given over to the vengeance of his enemies4 ,driven from his monastic retreat and in many ways ill-treated1 he died in destitution in ,a4,d4 #ddj4 ,the compromise of the two leaders called forth opposition on every side4 ,the ,syrian church was in revolt over their patriarch's betrayal of the person of ,nestorius4 ,john avenged himself by deposing his opponents4 ,this had well-nigh been the fate of the noble ,theodoret2 but the patriarch exempted him from condemning the person of ,nestorius in consideration of his condemnation of the doctrine4--,the ,egyptians also charged their patriarch with the denial of the true doctrine4 ,he was at pains1 however1 to give proof of his zeal by the vindictiveness of his persecutions4 ,not without an eye to results he wrought to have the anathema of the church pronounced upon the heads of the ,antiochean school1 and one of their partisans1 bishop ,rabulas of ,edessa1 pounced upon the famous theological school at ,edessa1 at the head of which then stood the distinguished presbyter ,ibas 7 #dg1 #ac74 ,after the death of ,rabulas1 however1 in ,a4,d4 #dcf1 the school again rose to great eminence4 ,theodoret and ,cyril meanwhile contended with one another in violent writings4 ,death closed the mouth of ,cyril in ,a4,d4 #ddd4 ,but ,rabulas unweariedly sought out and burnt the writings of ,theodore of ,mopsuestia1 which ,ibas had translated into ,syriac4 ,the latter published a letter to ,maris bishop of ,hardashir in ,persia1 which at a subsequent period obtained symbolical rank among the ,nestorians1 and ,thomas ,barsumas1 bishop of ,nisibis1 wrought successfully for the spread of ,nestorianism in the ,persian church4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dhi the school of ,edessa was again destroyed by order of the emperor ,zeno4 ,teachers and scholars migrated to ,persia1 and founded at ,nisibis a school that long continued famous4 ,at a ,synod in ,seleucia in ,a4,d4 #dii1 under the patriarch ,babus of ,seleucia1 the whole ,persian church finally broke off from the orthodox church of the ,roman empire 7 #fd1 #b74 ,they called themselves according to their ecclesiastical language ,chaldean ,christians4 ,their patriarch bore the title ,jazelich1 4 ,the ,nestorian church passed on from ,persia into ,india1 where its adherents1 appropriating the old legend that the apostle ,thomas had introduced ,christianity into ,india 7 #af1 #d71 called themselves ,thomas-,christians4 #eb4d4 ,the ,monophysite ,controversy4 ,i4 ,eutychianism1 ,a4,d4 #ddd-dea4--;,cyril's successor was ,dioscurus1 who was inferior to his predecessor in acuteness1 but in passionateness and tyrannical cruelty left him far behind4 ,an old archimandrite in ,constantinople called ,eutyches taught not only that after ,his incarnation ,christ had only one nature1 but also that the body of ,christ as the body of ,god is not of like substance with our own4 ,the patriarch ,domnus of ,antioch accused him without success to ,theodosius ,,ii41 and ,theodoret wrote against him a controversial treatise under the title 1 in which he opposed the doctrine of ,eutyches as a conglomeration of many heresies4 ,dioscurus now joined in the fray1 and wrought upon the emperor1 whose minister the eunuch ,chrysaphius and whose consort ,eudocia he had won over to his side1 to pass severe measures against the ,syrians1 and especially ,theodoret1 whom the emperor forbade to pass beyond the range of his diocese4 ,eusebius1 bishop of ,dorylum1 in ,phrygia1 however1 accused ,eutyches before an endemic ,synod at ,constantinople1 in ,a4,d4 #ddh1 presided over by the patriarch ,flavian4 ,eutyches1 though under imperial protection1 was nevertheless1 upon his refusal to retract1 excommunicated and deposed4 ,he appealed to an cumenical ,synod and betook himself to ,leo the ,great 7 #df1 #g7 at ,rome4 ,flavian also appeared before the ,roman bishop4 ,leo took the side of ,flavian1 and in a letter to that patriarch developed with great acuteness and clearness the doctrine of the two natures in ,christ4 ,the emperor1 however1 convoked an cumenical ,council at ,ephesus1 ,a4,d4 #ddi1 at which ,dioscurus presided1 while ,flavian and his party had no vote and ,theodoret was not even present1 but at which for the first time there was a representative of the monastic order in the person of the zealous monophysite1 the ,abbot ,barsumas4 ,the ,council was conducted in an extremely arbitrary and violent manner4 ,the doctrine of two natures was rejected1 and when ,eusebius stepped forward to defend it1 the ,egyptians shouted3 ,away with him6 ,burn him6 ,tear him in two pieces1 as he has torn the ,christ6 ,flavian as well as ,eusebius appealed to the bishop of ,rome2 but the ,synod pronounced on both the sentence of excommunication4 ,when now some bishops sprang forward1 and embracing ,dioscurus' knees entreated him to desist from such injustice1 he called in the soldiers to his help who with chains and unsheathed swords rushed into the church1 after them a crowd of fanatical monks1 stout parabolani and a raging rabble4 ,flavian was sorely injured by blows and kicks1 and died soon afterwards in banishment4 ,the ,roman legates and ,eusebius escaped similar maltreatment only by speedy flight4 ,during the later sittings ,eutyches was restored1 but the chiefs of the opposite party1 ,ibas1 ,theodoret1 ,domnus1 etc41 were deposed and excommunicated4 ,leo the ,great addressed to the emperor a vigorous protest against the decisions of this ,robber ,synod1 ,latrocinium ,ephesinum1 4 ,the result was that ,theodosius quarrelled with ,eudocia1 was reconciled to ,pulcheria1 and dismissed his minister4 ,flavian's body was now taken in state to ,constantinople1 and honourably buried4 ,theodosius' death in ,a4,d4 #dej prevented any further steps being taken4 ,his sister ,pulcheria1 with her husband ,marcian1 ascended the throne4 ,a new cumenical ,council 7the so-called fourth7 at ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #dea1 deposed ,dioscurus1 who was banished to ,gangra in ,paphlagonia1 but spared the other party leaders of the ,monophysites1 and condemned ,nestorianism as well as ,eutychianism4 ,cyril's synodal rescripts against ,nestorius and ,leo's ,epistle were made the basis of the formal statement of the orthodox doctrine3 8that ,christ is true ,god and true man1 according to ,his ,godhead begotten from eternity and like the ,father in everything1 according to his humanity born of ,mary the ,virgin and ,god bearer in time and like to us men in everything1 only without sin2 and that after ,his incarnation the unity of the person consists in two natures which are conjoined without confusion 77 and without change 771 but also without rending 77 and without separation 7740 ,in this ,synod too there were frequently scenes which in unruly violence were little behind those of the ,robber ,synod4 ,when1 for example1 ,theodoret entered amid the loud cheers of the orientals1 the ,egyptians saluted him with wild shouts 7' 1 said they73 8,away with the ,jew1 the blasphemer of ,god60 ,a scene of wild confusion and tumult followed which only with the greatest difficulty was quelled by the imperial commissioners4 ,then at the eighth session1 when the ,egyptians demanded not only the express and special condemnation of the doctrine but also that of the person of ,nestorius1 and ,theodoret sought to justify him1 the storm broke out afresh1 and this time the ,egyptians gained their point1 but they were again defeated after violent debate1 in their attempt to secure the condemnation of the person and writings of ,ibas4#afb #eb4e4 ,,ii4 ,imperial ,attempts at ,union1 ,a4,d4 #dea-eai4--,the supporters of the ,alexandrian dogmatics left the ,council full of resentment at the defeat which they had sustained4 ,they were henceforth called ,monophysites4 ,the whole church was now in a state of feverish excitement4 ,in ,palestine the monk ,theodosius1 secretly co-operating with the dowager empress ,eudocia living there in exile1 roused the mob into rebellion4 ,in ,egypt the uproar was still more violent4 ,timotheus ,alurus assumed the position of an opposition patriarch and drove out the orthodox patriarch ,proterius4 ,the same thing was done in ,antioch by the monk ,petrus ,peter ,fullo 7 74 ,in order to give a ,monophysite colour to the liturgy he added to the ,trishagion 7,is4 vi4 #c71 which had been liturgically used in the oldest churches1 the formula ' 4 ,party violence meanwhile went the length of insurrections and blood-shedding on both sides4 ,the new emperor ,leo ,i4 the ,thracian1 ,a4,d4 #deg-dgd1 a powerful and prudent ruler1 interposed to bring about a pacification4 ,in accordance with the advice of the most distinguished bishops of the empire the two mutinous leaders of the ,monophysites were banished1 and the patriarchal sees thus vacated filled by moderate ,dyophysites4 ,but after ,leo's death and the dethronement of his son-in-law ,zeno in ,a4,d4 #dge1 the usurper ,basiliscus issued an edict in ,a4,d4 #dgf1 under the name of an ,encyclion1 by which the ,chalcedonian ,symbol1 along with ,leo's ,epistle1 was condemned1 and ,monophysitism was proclaimed to be the universal national religion4 ,fullo and ,alurus were also reinstated4 ,the patriarch ,acacius of ,constantinople1 on the other hand1 organized a ,dyophysite counter-revolution1 ,basiliscus was overthrown1 and the emperor ,zeno again placed upon the throne in ,a4,d4 #dgg4 ,about this time ,alurus died1 and his party chose ,petrus ,peter ,mongus 71 stammering7 as his successor2 but the court appointed a ,dyophysite ,johannes ,talaja4 ,acacius1 when ,talaja took up a hostile position towards him1 joined with his opponent ,mongus4 ,both agreed upon a treaty of union1 which also found favour with the emperor ,zeno1 and by an edict1 the so-called ,henoticon of ,a4,d4 #dhb obtained the force of a law4 ,nestorianism and ,eutychianism were condemned1 ,cyril's anathematisms were renewed1 the ,chalcedonian decisions abrogated1 and the ,nicene faith alone declared valid1 while all controverted points were to be carefully avoided in teaching and preaching4 ,naturally protests were made from both sides4 ,the strict ,monophysites of ,egypt threw off ,mongus1 and were now called 4 ,felix ,,iii4 of ,rome1 at the head of the ,dyophysites1 refused to have church fellowship with ,acacius4 ,thus arose a #ce years' schism1 ,a4,d4 #dhd-eai1 between ,east and ,west4 ,only the ,acoimet monks in ,constantinople 7 #dd1 #c7 continued to hold communion with ,rome4 ,church fellowship between the parties was not restored until ,justin ,i41 who thought that the schism would hinder his projected reconquest of ,italy1 in conjunction with the ,roman bishop ,hormisdas in ,a4,d4 #eai1 cancelled the ,henoticon1 and deposed those who adhered to it4 #eb4f4 ,,iii4 ,justinian's ,decrees1 ,a4,d4 #ebg-eec4--;,during the violent conflict of parties ,justinian ,i4 entered upon his long and politically considered glorious reign1 ,a4,d4 #ebg-efe4 ,he regarded it as his life task permanently to establish orthodoxy1 and to win back heretics to the church1 above all the numerous ,monophysites4 ,but the well-disposed emperor1 who moreover had no deep insight into the thorny questions of theological controversy1 was in various ways misled by the intrigues of court theologians1 and the machinations of his crafty consort ,theodora1 who was herself secretly a ,monophysite4 ,the ,theopaschite ,controversy first called forth from him a decree4 ,the addition made to the ,trishagion by ,petrus ,peter ,fullo1 ' 1 had been smuggled into the ,constantinopolitan liturgy about ,a4,d4 #eab4 ,the ,acoimet pronounced it heretical1 and ,hormisdas of ,rome admitted that it was at least capable of being misunderstood and useless4 ,but ,justinian sanctioned it in ,a4,d4 #ecc4 ,encouraged by this first success1 ,theodora used her influence to raise the ,monophysite ,anthimus to the episcopal chair of the capital4 ,but the ,roman bishop ,agapetus1 who stayed in ,constantinople as ambassador of the ,goths1 unmasked him1 and obtained his deposition4 ,mennas1 a friend of ,agapetus1 was appointed his successor in ,a4,d4 #ecf4 ,all ,monophysite writings were ordered to be burnt1 their transcribers were punished by the loss of their hand4 ,two ,palestinian abbots1 ,domitian and ,theodore ,ascidas1 secret ,monophysites and zealous friends of ,origen1 lived at court in high favour4 ,to compass their overthrow1 ,mennas at an endemic ,synod at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #edc renewed the condemnation of the arch-heretic and his writings4 ,the court theologians1 however1 subscribed without objection1 and in concert with ,theodora plotted their revenge4 ,justinian had long regarded ,egypt with peculiar interest as the granary of the empire4 ,he felt that something must be done to pacify the ,monophysites who abounded in that country4 ,theodora persuaded him that the ,monophysites would be satisfied if it were resolved1 along with the writings of ,theodore1 the father of the ,nestorian heresy1 to condemn also the controversial writings of ,theodoret against the venerated ,cyril and the ,epistle of ,ibas to ,maris4 ,the supposed errors of these were collected before him in the ,three ,chapters4 ,the emperor did this by an edict in ,a4,d4 #edd1 and demanded the consenting subscription of all the bishops4 ,the orientals obeyed2 but in the ,west opposition was shown on all sides1 and thus broke out the violent ,controversy of the ,three ,chapters4 ,vigilius of ,rome1 a creature of ,theodora 7 #df1 #i71 had secretly promised his co-operation1 but1 not feeling able to face the storm in the ,west1 he broke his word4 ,justinian had him brought to ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #edg and forced from him a written declaration1 the so-called ,judicatum1 in which he agreed to the condemnation of the ,three ,chapters4 ,the ,africans1 under ,reparatus of ,carthage excommunicated the successor of ,peter1 and fought manfully for the rights and honour of the calumniated fathers4 ,fulgentius ,farrandus ,ferrandus wrote ,pro tribus capitt41 ,facundus of ,hermiane1 ,defenso ,,iii4 capitt41 and the deacon ,liberatus of ,carthage1 a ,breviarium caus ,nestorian4 et ,eutychianorum1 an important source of information for the history of the ,christological ,controversies4 ,justinian finally convened the ,fifth cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #eec1 which confirmed all the imperial edicts4 ,vigilius issued a ,constitum ad ,imp41 in which he indeed rejected the doctrines of the ,three ,chapters but refused to condemn the persons4 ,under imprisonment and exile he became pliable1 and subscribed in ,a4,d4 #eed4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #eee on his return to his bishopric4 ,his successor ,pelagius formally acknowledged the ,constantinopolitan decrees1 and ,north ,africa1 ,north ,italy and ,illyria renounced the dishonoured chair of ,peter4 ,at last ,gregory the ,great1 with much difficulty1 gradually brought this schism to an end4 #eb4g4 ,,iv4 ,the ,monophysite ,churches4--,justinian1 however1 did not thereby reach the end he had in view4 ,the ,monophysites continued their separation because the hated ,chalcedonian ,symbol was still acknowledged4 ,but more injurious to them than the persecutions of the orthodox national church were the endless quarrels and divisions among themselves4 ,first of all the two leaders in ,alexandria1 ,julianus and ,severus1 became heads of rival parties4 ,the ,severians or taught that the body of ,christ in itself had been subject to corruption 7the 72 the ,julianists denied it4 ,this first split was followed by many others4 ,by transferring the ,monophysite confusion of and to the doctrine of the ,trinity arose the ,monophysite sect of the ,tritheists1 who taught that in ,christ there is one nature1 and that in the ,trinity a separate nature is to be ascribed to each of the three persons4 ,among them was the celebrated philosopher1 ,johannes ,philoponus 7 #dg1 #aa71 who supported this doctrine by the ,aristotelian categories4 ,he also vindicated the notion that the present world as to form and matter would perish at the last day1 and an entirely new world with new bodies would be created4 ,in opposition to this ,conon1 bishop of ,tarsus1 affirmed that the overthrow of the world would be in form only1 and that the risen saints would again possess the same bodies though in a glorified form4 ,his followers the so-called ,cononites separated from the main stem of the ,tritheists and formed an independent sect4--,the ,monophysites were most numerous in ,egypt4 ,out of hatred to the ,greek ,catholics they forbade the use of the ,greek language in their churches1 and chose a ,coptic patriarch for themselves4 ,they aided the ,saracens in their conquest of ,egypt in ,a4,d4 #fdj1 who out of gratitude for this drove away the ,catholic patriarch4 ,from ,egypt ,monophysitism spread into ,abyssinia 7 #fd1 #a74 ,already in ,a4,d4 #ecf ,byzantine ,armenia had been conquered by the ,persians1 who showed favour to the previously oppressed ,monophysites 7 #fd1 #c74 ,in ,syria and ,mesopotamia1 during ,justinian's persecutions1 the unwearied activity of a monk1 ,jacob ,zanzalus1 commonly called el ,baradai1 because he went about clad as a beggar1 ordained by the ,monophysites as bishop of ,edessa and the whole ,east1 saved the ,monophysite church from extinction4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #ech4 ,after him the ,monophysites were called ,jacobites4 ,they called the ,catholics ,melchites1 ,royalists4 ,their patriarch resided at ,guba in ,mesopotamia4 ,subordinate to him was a suffragan bishop at ,tagrit with the title of ,maphrian1 i4e4 the ,fruit-bearer4 ,at the head of the ,armenian ,monophysites stood the patriarch of ,aschtarag with the title ,catholicus4 ,the ,abyssinian church had a metropolitan with the title ,abbuna#afc--;,continuation #gb1 #b4 #eb4h4 ,the ,monothelite ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #fcc-fhj4--,the increasing political embarrassments of the emperor made a union with the ,monophysites all the more desirable4 ,the emperor ,heraclius1 ,a4,d4 #faa-fda1 was advised to attempt a union of parties under the formula3 that ,christ accomplished ,his work of redemption by the exercise of one divine human will 7 74 ,several ,catholic bishops found nothing objectionable in this formula which had already been used by the ,pseudo-,dionysius 7 #dg1 #aa74 ,in ,a4,d4 #fcc the patriarchs ,sergius of ,constantinople and ,cyrus of ,alexandria on the basis of this concluded a treaty1 in consequence of which most of the ,severians attached themselves again to the national church4 ,honorius of ,rome also was won over4 ,but the monk ,sophronius1 who soon thereafter in ,a4,d4 #fcd became patriarch of ,jerusalem1 came forward as the decided opponent ,of this union1 which led back to ,monophysitism4 ,the conquest of ,jerusalem1 however1 soon after this1 ,a4,d4 #fcg1 by the ,saracens put him outside of the scene of conflict4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fch the emperor issued an edict1 the ,ecthesis1 by which it was sought to make an end of the strife by substituting for the offensive expression the less objectionable term 1 and confirming the ,monothelite doctrine as alone admissible4 ,now the monk ,maximus 7 #dg1 #ab7 entered the lists as the champion of orthodoxy4 ,he betook himself to ,africa1 where since ,justinian's time zeal for the maintenance of the ,chalcedonian faith was strongest1 and here secured political support in ,gregorius ,gregory the imperial governor who sought to make himself independent of ,byzantium4 ,this statesman arranged for a public disputation at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #fde between ,maximus and the ex-patriarch ,pyrrhus of ,constantinople1 the successor of ,sergius1 who1 implicated in a palace intrigue1 deposed from his office and driven from ,constantinople1 sought refuge in ,africa4 ,pyrrhus willingly submitted and abjured his error4 ,an ,african ,general ,synod in ,a4,d4 #fdf unanimously condemned ,monothelitism1 renounced church fellowship with ,paulus1 the new patriarch of ,constantinople1 and demanded of ,pope ,theodorus1 ,a4,d4 #fdb-fdi1 a fulmination against the heresy4 ,in order to give this demand greater emphasis1 ,maximus and ,pyrrhus travelled together to ,rome4 ,the latter was recognised by the pope as legitimate patriarch of ,constantinople1 but1 being induced by the exarch of ,ravenna to recant his recantation1 he was excommunicated by the pope1 with a pen dipped in the sacramental wine1 returned to ,constantinople and was1 after the death of ,paulus1 reinstated in his former office4 ,maximus remained in ,rome and there won the highest reputation as the shield of orthodoxy4--,the proper end of the union1 namely the saving of ,syria and ,egypt1 was meanwhile frustrated by the ,mohammedan conquest of ,syria in ,a4,d4 #fch1 and of ,egypt in ,a4,d4 #fdj4 ,the court1 however1 for its own honour still persevered in it4 ,africa and ,italy occupied a position of open revolt4 ,then emperor ,constans ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #fdb-ffh1 resolved to annul the ,ecthesis4 ,in its place he put another enactment about the faith1 the ,typus1 ,a4,d4 #fdh1 which sought to get back to the state of matters before the ,monothelite movement2 that neither one nor two wills should be taught4 ,but ,martin ,i4 of ,rome at the first ,lateran ,synod at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #fdi condemned in the strongest terms the ,typus as well as the ,ecthesis along with its original maintainers1 and sent the ,acts to the emperor4 ,the exarch of ,ravenna1 ,olympius1 was now ordered to take the bold prelate prisoner1 but did not obey4 ,his successor sent the pope in chains to ,constantinople4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fec he was banished for high treason to the ,chersonese1 where he literally suffered hunger1 and died in ,a4,d4 #fee six months after his arrival4 ,still more dreadful was the fate of the abbot ,maximus4 ,at the same time with ,martin or soon after he too was brought to ,constantinople a prisoner from ,rome4 ,here for a whole year every effort imaginable was made1 entreaties1 promises1 threats1 imprisonment1 hunger1 etc41 in order to induce him to acknowledge the ,typus1 but all in vain4 ,the emperor then lost all patience4 ,in a towering rage at the unparalleled obstinacy of the monk's resistance he doomed him1 ,a4,d4 #ffb1 to dreadful scourging1 to have his tongue wrenched out and his hand hewn off1 and to be sent into the wildest parts of ,thrace1 where he died a few weeks after his arrival at the age of #hb years4 ,such barbaric severity was effectual for a long time4 ,but under the next emperor ,constantinus ,pogonnatus1 ,a4,d4 #ffh-fhe1 the two parties prepared for a new conflict4 ,the emperor resolved to make an end of it by a ,general ,council4 ,pope ,agatho held a brilliant ,synod at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #fgi1 where it was laid down that not one iota should be abated from the decisions of the ,lateran ,synod4 ,with these decisions and a missive from the pope himself1 the papal legates appeared at the ,sixth cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #fhj1 called also ,concil4 ,trullanum ,i41 because it was held in the mussel-shaped vaulted hall ,trullus in the imperial castle1 under the presidency of the emperor4 ,as at ,chalcedon the ,epistle of ,leo ,i41 so also here that of ,agatho lay at the basis of the ,council's doctrinal decrees3 1 1 1 1 1 4 ,the ,synod even condescended to grant the pope a report of the proceedings and to request his confirmation of its decisions4 ,but the ,greeks1 finding a malicious pleasure in the confusion of their rivals1 contrived to mix in the sweet drink a strong infusion of bitter wormwood1 for the ,council among the other representatives of ,monothelite error ostentatiously and expressly condemned pope ,honorius as an accursed heretic4 ,pope ,leo ,,ii4 in a letter to the emperor confirmed the decisions of the ,council1 expressly homologating the condemnation of ,honorius1 8qui profana proditione immaculatam fidem subvertere conatus est40--,henceforth ,dyothelitism prevailed universally4 ,only in one little corner of ,asia1 to which the arm of the state did not reach1 a vestige of ,monothelitism continued to exist4 ,its scattered adherents gathered in the monastery of ,st4 ,maro in ,lebanon1 and acknowledged the abbot of this cloister as their ecclesiastical head4 ,they called themselves ,maronites1 and with sword in hand maintained their ecclesiastical as well as political independence against ,byzantines and ,saracens 7 #gb1 #c74 #eb4i4 ,the ,case of ,honorius4--,the two ,roman ,synods1 ,a4,d4 #fdi and #fgi1 had simply ignored the notorious fact of the complicity of ,honorius in the furtherance of ,monothelite error1 and ,agatho might hope by the casual statement in his letter1 that the ,roman chair never had taken the side of heretical novelties1 to beguile the approaching cumenical ,synod into the same obliviousness4 ,but the ,greeks paid no heed to the hint4 ,his successor ,leo ,,ii4 could not do otherwise than homologate the ,eastern leaders' condemnation of heresy1 even that of ,honorius1 hard though this must have been to him4 ,on the other hand1 the biographies of the popes from ,honorius to ,agatho in the ,roman ,liber pontificalis 7 #ij1 #f7 help themselves out of this dilemma again by preserving a dead silence about any active or passive interference of ,honorius in the ,monothelite controversy4 ,in the biography of ,leo ,,ii4 for the first time is ,honorius' name mentioned among those of the condemned ,monothelites1 but without any particular remark about him as an individual4 ,so too in the formulary of a profession of faith in the ,liber diurnus of the ,roman church made by every new pope and in use down to the #aath century 7 #df1 #aa74 ,from the biography of ,leo in the ,pontifical book was copied the simple name into the readings of the ,roman ,breviary for the day of this saint1 and so it remained down to the #agth century4 ,it had then been quite forgotten in the ,west that by this name a pope was designated4 ,oftentimes it had been affirmed that even ,roman popes might fall and actually had fallen into error2 but only such cases as those of ,liberius 7 #df1 #d71 ,anastasius 7 #df1 #h71 ,vigilius 7 #eb1 #f71 ,john ,,xxii4 7 #aaj1 #c2 #aab1 #b7 were adduced2 that of ,honorius occurred to nobody4 ,it was only in the #aeth century1 through more careful examination of ,acts of ,synods that the true state of matters was discovered1 and in the #afth century when the question of the infallibility of the pope had become a burning one 7 #adi1 #d71 the case of ,honorius became the real ,sisyphus rock of ,roman ,catholic theology4 ,the most laborious attempts have been made by most venturesome means to get it out of the way4 ,the condemnation of ,honorius by the sixth cumenical ,council has been described as merely a spiteful invention of later ,greeks1 who falsified everything relating to him in the ,acts of the ,council2 so1 e4g4 ,baronius1 ,bellarmine1 etc4--,the condemnation actually took place but not at the cumenical first1 but at the schismatical second1 ,trullan ,council of ,a4,d4 #fib 7 #fc1 #b71 and the record of procedure has been by the malice of later ,greeks transferred from the record of the second to that of the first4--,forged epistles of ,honorius were laid before the sixth cumenical ,council1 by means of which it was misled into passing sentence upon him4--,the condemnation of the pope did not turn upon his doctrine but upon his unseasonable love of peace4--,the pope meant well1 but expressed himself so as to be misunderstood2 so e4g4 the ,jesuit ,garnier in his ed4 of the ,liber diurnus1 the ,vatican ,council1 and ,hefele in the #bnd ed4 of his ,hist4 of the ,councils4--,in the epistles referred to he spoke as a private individual and not officially1 ex cathedra4--,it is1 however1 fatal to all such explanations that the infallible pope ,leo ,,ii4 solemnly denounced ex cathedra his infallible predecessor ,honorius as a heretic4 ,besides the only other possible escape by distinguishing the question du fait and the question du droit has been formally condemned ex cathedra in connection with another case 7 #aef1 #e74afd #ec4 ,,the ,,soteriological ,,controversies1 ,a4,d4 #dab-ebi4afe ,while the ,trinitarian and ,christological controversies had their origin in the ,east and there gave rise to the most violent conflicts1 the ,west taking indeed a lively interest in the discussion and by the decisive voice of ,rome giving the victory to orthodoxy at almost every stage of the struggle1 it was in the ,west that a controversy broke out1 which for a full century proceeded alongside of the ,christological controversy1 without awakening in the ,east more than a passing and even then only a secondary interest4 ,it dealt with the fundamental questions of sin and grace4 ,in opposition to the ,pelagian ,monergism of human freedom1 as well as the semi-,pelagian ,synergism of divine grace and human freedom1 the ,augustinian ,monergism of divine grace finally obtained the victory4 #ec4a4 ,preliminary ,history4--,from the earliest times the actual universality of sin and the need of divine grace in ,christ for redemption from sin received universal acknowledgment throughout the whole church4 ,but as to whether and how far the moral freedom of men was weakened or lost by sin1 and in what relation human conduct stood to divine grace1 great uncertainty prevailed4 ,opposition to ,gnosticism and ,manichism led the older fathers to emphasise as strongly as possible the moral freedom of men1 and induced them to deny inborn sinfulness as well as the doctrine that sin was imprinted in men in creation1 and to account for man's present condition by bad training1 evil example1 the agency of evil spirits1 etc4 ,this tendency was most vigorously expressed by the ,alexandrians4 ,the new ,alexandrian school showed an unmistakable inclination to connect the universality of sin with ,adam's sin1 without going the length of affirming the doctrine of inherited sinfulness4 ,in ,soteriology it remained faithful to its traditional synergism 7comp41 however1 #dg1 #gk1 l47 ,the ,antiochean school sought to give due place to the co-operation of the human will alongside of the necessity of divine grace1 and reduced the idea of inherited sin to that of inherited evil4 ,so especially ,chrysostom1 who was indeed able to conceive that ,adam by his actual sin become mortal could beget only mortal children1 but not that the sinner could beget only sinners4 ,the first man brought death into the world1 we confirm and renew the doom by our own sin4 ,man by his moral will does his part1 the divine grace does its part4 ,the whole ,east is unanimous in most distinctly repudiating all predestinational wilfulness in ,god4 ,in the ,west1 on the other hand1 by ,traducianism or ,generationism introduced by ,tertullian1 which regards the soul as begotten with the body1 the way was prepared for recognising the doctrine of inherited sin 7,tradux anim1 tradux peccati7 and consequently also of monergism4 ,tertullian1 himself1 proceeding from the experience1 that in every man from birth there is present an unconquerable tendency to sin1 spoke with great decidedness of a ,vitium originis4 ,in this he was followed by ,cyprian1 ,ambrose and ,hilary4 ,yet even these teachers of the church had not altogether been emancipated from synergism1 and alongside of expressions which breathe the hardest predestinationism1 are found others which seem to give equal weight to the opposite doctrine of human co-operation in conversion4 ,augustine was the first to state with the utmost consistency the doctrine of the divine monergism2 while ,pelagius carried out the synergism of the earlier fathers until it became scarcely less than human monergism4--,meanwhile ,traducianism did not succeed in obtaining universal recognition even in the ,west4 ,augustine vacillates2 ,jerome and ,leo the ,great prefer ,creationism1 which represents ,god as creating a new soul for each human being begotten4 ,most of the later church fathers1 too1 are creationists1 without1 however1 prejudicing the doctrine of inherited sin4 ,those of them who supported the trichotomic theory 7 #eb1 #a7 held that it was the cobegotten 1 anima sensitiva as opposed to the anima intellectualis1 while those who supported the dichotomic theory1 which posits merely body and soul1 held that it was the soul created good by ,god1 which was infected on its passing into the body begotten by human parents with its inherited sin4 ,the theory of ,pre existence1 which ,origen had brought forward 7 #ca1 #e7 had1 even in the ,east1 only occasional representatives 7 #dg1 #gm1 n1 o474#aff #ec4b4 ,the ,doctrine of ,augustine4--,during the first period of his ,christian life1 when the conflict with ,manichism still stood in the forefront of his thinking and controversial activity1 ,augustine1 looking at faith as a self-determining of the human will1 had thought a certain measure of free co-operation on the part of man in his conversion to be necessary and had therefore refused to maintain his absolute want of merit4 ,but by his whole life's experience he was irresistibly led to acknowledge man's natural inability for any positive co-operation and to make faith together with conversion depend solely upon the grace of ,god4 ,the perfect and full development of this doctrine was brought about by means of his controversy with the ,pelagians4 ,augustine's doctrinal system in its most characteristic features is as follows3 ,man was created free and in the image of ,god1 destined to and capable of attaining immortality1 holiness and blessedness1 but also with the possibility of sinning and dying4 ,by the exercise of his freedom he must determine his own career4 ,had he determined himself for ,god1 the being able not to sin and not to die1 would have become an impossibility of sinning and dying1 the ,posse non peccare et mori would have become a ,non posse peccare et mori4 ,but tempted by ,satan he fell1 and thus it became for him impossible that he should not sin and die1 non posse non peccare et non mori4 ,all prerogatives of the ,divine image were lost2 he retained only the capacity for outward civil righteousness1 ,justitia civilis1 and a capacity for redemption4 ,in ,adam1 moreover1 all mankind sinned1 for he was all mankind4 ,by generation ,adam's nature as it was after sin1 with sin and guilt1 death and condemnation1 but also the capacity for redemption1 passed over to all his posterity4 ,divine grace1 which alone can redeem and save man1 attached itself to the remnant of the divine image which expressed itself in the need of redemption and the capacity for redemption4 ,grace is therefore absolutely necessary1 in the beginning1 middle and end of the ,christian life4 ,it is granted man1 not because he believes1 but that he may believe2 for faith too is the work of ,god's grace4 ,first of all grace awakens through the law the consciousness of sin and the desire for redemption1 and leads by the gospel to faith in the ,redeemer 7gratia prveniens74 ,by means of faith it thus secures the forgiveness of sin as primum beneficium through appropriating the merits of ,christ and in part the powers of the divine life through the implanting of living fellowship with ,christ 7in baptism74 ,thus is free will restored to the good 7,gratia operans7 and evidences itself in a holy life in love4 ,but even in the regenerate the old man with his sinful lusts is still present4 ,in the struggle of the new with the old he is continually supported by ,divine grace 7,gratia co-operans7 unto his justification 7,justificatio7 which is completed in the making righteous of his whole life and being through the ,divine impartation 7,infusio7 of new powers of will4 ,the final act of grace1 which1 however1 according to the educative wisdom of ,god is not attained in this life1 is the absolute removal of evil desire 7,concupiscentia7 and transfiguration into the perfect likeness of ,christ through resurrection and eternal life 7,non posse peccare et mori74 ,apart from the inconsistent theory of justification proposed1 this view of nature and grace is thoroughly ,pauline4 ,augustine1 however1 connects with it the doctrine of an absolute predestination4 ,experience shows that not all men attain to conversion and redemption4 ,since man himself can contribute nothing to his conversion1 the ground of this must be sought not in the conduct of the man but only in an eternal unconditional decree of ,god1 ,decretum absolutum1 according to which ,he has determined out of the whole fallen race of man1 ,massa perditionis1 to save some to the glory of ,his grace and to leave others to their deserved doom to the glory of ,his penal righteousness4 ,the ground of this election is only the wise and mysterious good pleasure of the divine will without reference to man's faith1 which is indeed only a gift of ,god4 ,if it is said3 8,god wills that all men should be saved10 that can only mean1 8all who are predestinated40 ,as the outcasts 7,reprobati7 can in no way appropriate grace unto themselves1 the elect 7,electi7 cannot in any way resist it 7,gratia irresistibilis74 ,the one sure sign that one is elected is1 therefore1 undisturbed perseverance in the possession of grace 7,donum perseveranti74 ,to the heathens1 even the noblest of them1 he refused salvation1 but made a distinction in the degrees of their penal tortures4 ,so too unbaptized children were all regarded as lost4 ,although over against this he also set down the proposition3 ,contemtus1 non defectus sacramenti damnat1 the resolution of this contradiction lay in the special divine election of grace1 which secures to the elect the dispensation of the sacrament4#afg #ec4c4 ,pelagius and his ,doctrine4--,pelagius 7 #dg1 #ba71 a ,british monk of respectable learning and decided moral earnestness1 living far away from the storms and strife of life1 without any strong inward temptations1 without any inclination to manifest sins and without deep experience of the ,christian life1 knowing and striving after no higher ideal than that of monkish asceticism1 had developed a theory quite antagonistic to that of ,augustine4 ,he was strengthened in his opposition to ,augustine's doctrine of the corruption of human nature and its unfitness for all co-operation in conversion and sanctification1 by observing that this doctrine was often misused by careless men as an excuse for carnal confidence and moral selfishness4 ,he was thus made more resolute in maintaining that it is more wholesome to preach to men an imperative moral law whose demands they1 as he thought1 could satisfy by determined will and moral endeavour4 ,man at first was created mortal by ,god1 and not temporal but spiritual death is the consequence and punishment of sin4 ,adam's fall has changed nothing in human nature and has had no influence upon his descendants4 ,every man now is born just as ,god created the first man1 i4e4 without sin and without virtue4 ,by his wholly unweakened freedom he decides for himself on the one side or the other4 ,the universality of sin results from the power of seduction1 of mere example and habit4 ,still there may be completely sinless men2 and there have been such4 ,god's grace facilitates man's accomplishment of his purpose4 ,it is1 therefore1 not absolutely1 but by the actual universality of sin1 relatively necessary4 ,grace consists in enlightenment by revelation1 in forgiveness of sin as the expression of divine forbearance1 and in the strengthening of our moral powers by the incentive of the law and the promise of eternal life4 ,god's grace is destined for all men1 but man must make himself worthy of it by honest striving after virtue4 ,christ became man1 in order by ,his perfect teaching and by the perfect pattern of ,his life to give us the most powerful incentive to reformation and the redeeming of ourselves thereby4 ,as in sin we are ,adam's offspring1 so in virtue shall we be ,christ's offspring4 ,he regarded baptism as necessary 7infant baptism in remissionem futurorum peccatorum74 ,children dying unbaptized he placed in a lower stage of blessedness4 ,the same inconsistent submission to the fathers of ecclesiastical tradition shows itself in the acceptance of ecclesiastical views of revelation1 miracles1 prophecy1 the ,trinity and the ,divinity of ,christ1 whereas a more consistent and systematic thinker would have felt compelled from his anthropological principles to set aside or at least modify these supernaturalistic elements4 #ec4d4 ,the ,pelagian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #daa-dca4--;,from ,a4,d4 #dji ,pelagius resided in ,rome4 ,here he gained over to his views ,clestius1 a man of greater acuteness and scientific attainments than himself4 ,both won high respect in ,rome for their zeal for morality and asceticism and promulgated their doctrine without opposition4 ,in ,a4,d4 #daa both went to ,carthage1 whence ,pelagius went and settled in ,palestine4 ,clestius remained behind and obtained the office of presbyter4 ,now for the first time his errors were opposed4 ,paulinus deacon of ,milan 7 #dg1 #bj7 happening to be there formally complained against him1 and a provincial ,synod at ,carthage ,a4,d4 #dab excommunicated him1 on his refusal to retract4 ,in the same year too ,augustine published his first controversial treatise3 ,de peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum1 ,lb4 ,,iii4 ,in ,palestine ,pelagius had attached himself to the ,origenists4 ,jerome1 besides passing a depreciatory judgment upon his literary productions1 contested his doctrine as an expounder of the ,origenist heresy 7,ep4 ad ,ctesiphontem and ,dialog4 c4 ,pelagium1 ,lb4 ,,iii471 and a young ,spanish presbyter ,paulus ,paul ,orosius 7 #dg1 #bj7 complained of him to the ,synod of ,jerusalem ,a4,d4 #dae1 under the presidency of bishop ,john of that city4 ,the synergistic orientals1 however1 could not be convinced of the dangerous character of his carefully guarded doctrine4 ,such too was the result of the ,synod of ,diospolis or ,lydda in ,a4,d4 #dae under bishop ,eulogius of ,csarea1 where two ,gallic bishops appeared as accusers4 ,augustine proved to the ,palestinians in ,de gestis ,pelagii that they had allowed themselves to be kept in the dark by ,pelagius4 ,orosius too published a controversial tract1 ,apologeticus c4 ,pelag41 in reply to which1 or more probably to ,jerome1 ,theodore of ,mopsuestia wrote the book now lost1 1 4 ,then the ,africans again took up the controversy4 ,two ,synods at ,mileve and ,carthage1 in ,a4,d4 #daf1 reiterated their condemnation and sent their decree to ,innocent ,i4 at ,rome4 ,the ,pope acquiesced in the proceedings of the ,africans4 ,pelagius sent a veiled confession of faith and ,clestius appeared personally in ,rome4 ,innocent died1 however1 in ,a4,d4 #dag1 before his arrival4 ,his successor ,zozimus ,zosimus1 perhaps a ,greek and certainly weak as a dogmatist1 allowed himself to be won over by ,clestius and brought severe charges against the ,africans1 against which again these entered a vigorous protest4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dah the emperor ,honorius issued his ,sacrum rescriptum against the ,pelagians and a general ,synod at ,carthage in the same year emphatically condemned them4 ,now ,zozimus ,zosimus was prevailed on also to condemn them in his ,epistola tractatoria4 ,eighteen ,italian bishops1 among them ,julian of ,eclanum in ,apulia1 the most acute and able apologist of ,pelagianism1 refused to subscribe and were banished4 ,they sought and obtained protection from the ,constantinopolitan bishop ,nestorius4 ,but this connection did harm to both4 ,the ,roman bishop ,clestine took part with those who opposed the ,christological views of ,nestorius 7 #eb1 #c71 and at the cumenical ,council of ,ephesus in ,a4,d4 #dca1 the orientals condemned along with ,nestorius also ,pelagius and ,clestius1 without1 however1 determining anything positive in regard to the doctrine under discussion4 ,to this end with unwearied zeal laboured ,marius ,mercator1 a learned layman of ,constantinople1 who published two ,commonitoria against ,pelagius and ,clestius1 and a controversial treatise against ,julian of ,eclanum4 ,meanwhile too ,augustine rested not from his energetic polemic4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dac he wrote ,de spiritu et littera ad ,marcellinum2 in ,a4,d4 #dae against ,pelagius1 ,de natura et gratia2 against ,clestius1 ,de perfectione justiti hominis4 ,in ,a4,d4 #daf1 ,de gestis ,pelagii4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dah1 ,de gratia ,dei et de peccato originali ,lb4 ,,ii4 c4 ,pelag4 et ,cl4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dai1 ,de nuptiis et concupiscentia ,lb4 ,,ii41 against the charge that his doctrine was a reviling of ,god-appointed marriage4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dbj1 ,c4 duas epistolas ,pelagianorum et ,bonifatium ,i41 against the vindicatory writings of ,julian and his friends4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dba1 ,lb4 ,,vi4 c4 ,julianum4 ,and later still1 ,opus imperfectum c4 secundam ,juliani responsionem4 ,engl4 ,transl42 ,ante-,nicene ,lib43 ,anti-,pelag4 ,wr41 #c vols41 ,edin41 #ahfg ff4 #ec4e4 ,the ,semi-,pelagian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #dbg-ebi4--;,bald ,pelagianism was overthrown1 but the excessive crudeness of the predestination theory1 as set forth by ,augustine1 called forth new forms of opposition4 ,the monks of the monastery of ,adrumetum in ,north ,africa1 by severely carrying out the predestination theory to its last consequences1 had fallen1 some into sore distress of soul and despair1 others into security and carelessness1 while others again thought that to avoid such consequences1 one must ascribe to human activity in the work of salvation a certain degree of meritoriousness4 ,the abbot of the monastery in this dilemma applied to ,augustine1 who in two treatises1 written in ,a4,d4 #dbg1 ,de gratia et libero arbitrio and ,de correptione et gratia1 sought to overcome the scruples and misconceptions of the monks4 ,but about this time in ,southern ,gaul there was a whole theological school which rejected the doctrine of predestination1 and maintained the necessity of according to human freedom a certain measure of co-operation with divine grace1 in consequence of which sometimes the one1 sometimes the other1 is fundamental in conversion4 ,at the head of this school was ,johannes ,cassianus 7 ,a4,d4 #dcb71 a disciple and friend of ,chrysostom1 founder and president of the monastery at ,massilia4 ,his followers are thence called ,massilians or ,semi-,pelagians4 ,he had himself contested ,augustine's doctrine1 without naming it1 in the #acth of his ,collationes ,patrum 7 #dg1 #ba74 ,of his disciples the most famous was ,vincentius ,vincent ,lerinensis 7of the monastery of ,lerinum71 who in his ,commonitorium pro ,catholic fidei antiquitate et universitate 7,engl4 ,transl41 ,oxford1 #ahcf7 laid down the principle that the catholic faith is1 quod semper1 ubique et ab omnibus creditum est4 ,judged by this standard ,augustine's doctrine was by no means catholic4 ,the second book of this work1 now lost1 probably contested ,augustinianism expressly and was1 therefore1 suppressed4 ,but ,augustine had talented supporters even in ,gaul1 such as the two laymen ,hilarius and ,prosper ,aquitanicus 7 #dg1 #bj74 ,what took place around them they reported to ,augustine1 who wrote against the ,massilians ,de predestinatione ,sanctorum and ,de dono perseveranti4 ,he was prevented by his death1 which took place in ,a4,d4 #dcj1 from taking part longer in the contest4 ,hilarius and ,prosper1 however1 continued it4 ,since the ,roman bishop ,clestine1 before whom in ,a4,d4 #dca they personally made complaint1 answered with a ,yes and ,no theology1 ,prosper himself took up the battle in an able work ,de gratia ,dei et libero arbitrio contra ,collatorem1 but in doing so unwittingly smoothed off the sharpest points of the ,augustinian system4 ,this happened yet more decidedly in the ingenious treatise ,de ,vocatione gentium1 whose author was perhaps ,leo the ,great1 afterwards pope but then only a deacon4 ,on the other side1 opponents 7,arnobius the younger87 used the artifice of presenting1 in the notable work entitled ,prdestinatus1 pretending to be written by a follower of ,augustine1 a caricature of the doctrine of predestination carried to the utmost extreme of absurdity1 and these sought to justify their own position4 ,the first book contains a description of ninety heresies1 the last of which is predestinationism2 the second gives as supplement to the first the pretended treatise of such a predestinarian2 and the third confutes it4 ,a certain presbyter ,lucidus1 a zealous adherent of the doctrine of predestination1 was by a semi-,pelagian synod at ,aries in ,a4,d4 #dge forced to recant4 ,faustus1 bishop of ,rhegium 7 #dg1 #ba71 sent after him by order of the ,council a controversial treatise ,de gratia ,dei et human mentis libero arbitrio1 and also in the same year ,a4,d4 #dge1 a ,synod at ,lyons sanctioned semi-,pelagianism4 ,the treatise of ,faustus1 although moderate and conciliatory1 caused violent agitation among a community of ,scythian monks in ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #ebj4 ,they complained through bishop ,possessor of ,carthage to pope ,hormisdas1 but he too answered with a ,yes and ,no theology4 ,then the ,africans banished by the ,vandals to ,sardinia took up the matter4 ,they held a ,council in ,a4,d4 #ebc1 by whose order ,fulgentius of ,ruspe 7 #dg1 #bj71 a zealous apologist of ,augustinianism composed his ,de veritate prdest4 et gratia ,dei ,lb4 ,,iii41 which made an impression even in ,gaul4 ,and now two able ,gallic bishops1 ,avitus of ,vienne and ,csarius of ,arles 7 #dg1 #bj7 entered the lists in behalf of a moderate ,augustinianism1 and won for it at the ,synod of ,oranges in ,a4,d4 #ebi a decided victory over semi-,pelagianism4 ,augustine's doctrine of original sin in its strictest form1 and his assertions about the utter want of merit in every human act and the unconditional necessity of grace were acknowledged1 faith was extolled as exclusively the effect of grace1 but predestination in regard to the ,reprobati was reduced to mere foreknowledge1 and predestination to evil was rejected as blasphemy against ,god4 ,a synod held in the same year1 ,a4,d4 #ebi1 at ,valence confirmed the decrees of ,oranges4 ,boniface ,,ii4 of ,rome did the same in ,a4,d4 #ecj4afh--;,continuation #ia1 #e4 #ed4 ,,reappearance ,,and ,,remodelling ,,of ,,earlier ,,heretical ,,sects4 ,manichism 7 #bi7 had still numerous adherents not merely in the far off eastern provinces but also in ,italy and ,north ,africa2 and isolated ,marcionite churches 7 #bg1 #aa7 were still to be found in almost all the countries within the empire and also beyond its bounds4 ,an independent reawakening of ,gnostic-,manichan tendencies arose in ,spain under the name of ,priscillianism4 #ed4a4 ,manichism4--,the universal toleration of religion1 which ,constantine introduced1 was also extended to the ,manichans of his empire 7 #bi1 #c74 ,but from the time of ,valentinian ,i4 the emperors issued repeatedly severe penal laws against them4 ,the favour which they obtained in ,syria and ,palestine led bishop ,titus of ,bostra in ,arabia ,petra1 about ,a4,d4 #cgj1 to write his #d ,bks4 against the ,manichans4 ,the ,manichan church stood in particularly high repute in ,north ,africa1 even to the #dth and #eth centuries4 ,its most important representative there1 ,faustus of ,mileve1 published a controversial treatise against the ,catholic church1 which ,augustine1 who had earlier been himself an adherent of the ,manichans1 expressly answered in #cc ,bks4 7,engl4 ,transl43 8,ante-,nicene ,lib40 ,treatises against ,faustus the ,manichan1 ,edin41 #ahfh74 ,when the ,manichan ,felix1 in order to advance the cause of his church1 came to ,hippo1 ,augustine challenged him to a public disputation1 and after two days' debate drove him into such straits that he at last admitted himself defeated1 and was obliged to pronounce anathema on ,mani and his doctrine4 ,with still greater zeal than by the imperial government were the ,african ,manichans persecuted by the ,vandals1 whose king ,hunerich 7 #gf1 #c7 burnt many1 and transported whole ships' loads to the continent of ,europe4 ,in the time of ,leo the ,great 7 ,a4,d4 #dfa7 they were very numerous in ,rome4 ,his investigations tend to show that they entertained antinomian views1 and in their mysteries indulged in lustful practices4 ,also in the time of ,gregory the ,great 7 ,a4,d4 #fjd7 the church of ,italy was still threatened by their increase4 ,since then1 however1 nothing more is heard of ,manichan tendencies in the ,west down to the #aath century1 when suddenly they again burst forth with fearfully threatening and contagious power 7 #ajh1 #a74 ,in the eastern parts of the empire1 too1 numerous ,gnostic-,manichan remnants continued to exist in secret1 and from the #ith to the #abth century reappeared in a new form 7 #ga74 ,still more widely about this time did such views spread among the ,mussulman rulers of the ,eastern borderlands1 as far as ,china and ,india1 as the ,arabian historians of this period testify 7 #bi1 #a74 #ed4b4 ,priscillianism1 ,a4,d4 #chc-efc4--,the first seeds of the ,gnostic-,manichan creed were brought to ,spain in the #dth century by an ,egyptian ,marcus4 ,a rich and cultured layman ,priscillian let himself be drawn away in this direction1 and developed it independently into a dualistic and emanationistic system4 ,marriage and carnal pleasures were forbidden1 yet under an outward show of strict asceticism were concealed antinomian tendencies with impure orgies4 ,at the same time the sect encouraged and required lies and perjury1 hypocrisy and dissimulation for the spread and preservation of their community4 8,jura1 perjura1 secretum perdere noli40 ,soon ,priscillianists spread over all ,spain2 even some bishops joined them4 ,bishop ,idacius of ,emerida by his passionate zeal against them fanned the flickering fire into a bright flame4 ,a synod at ,saragossa in ,a4,d4 #chj excommunicated them1 and committed the execution of its decrees to ,bishop ,ithacius of ,sossuba1 a violent and besides an immoral man4 ,along with ,idacius he had obtained from the emperor ,gratian an edict which pronounced on all ,priscillianists the sentence of banishment4 ,priscillian's bribes1 however1 not only rendered this edict inoperative1 but also an order for the arrest of ,ithacius1 which he avoided only by flight into ,gaul4 ,here he won over the usurper ,maximus1 the murderer of ,gratian1 who1 greedy for their property1 used the torture against the sect1 and had ,priscillian as well as some of his followers beheaded at ,treves in ,a4,d4 #che4 ,this was the first instance of capital punishment used against heretics4 ,the noble bishop1 ,martin of ,tours 7 #dg1 #ad71 to whom the emperor had previously promised that he would act mildly1 hastened to ,treves and renounced church fellowship with ,ithacius and all bishops who had assented to the death sentence4 ,ambrose too and other bishops expressed their decided disapproval4 ,this led ,maximus to stop the military inquisition against them4 ,but the glory of martyrdom had fired the enthusiasm of the sect1 and among the barbarians who made their way into ,spain from ,a4,d4 #dji they won a rich harvest4 ,paulus ,paul ,orosius 7 #dg1 #bj7 wrote his ,commonitorium de errore ,priscillianist4 in ,a4,d4 #dae1 looking for help to ,augustine1 whom1 however1 concern and contests in other directions allowed to take but little part in this controversy4 ,of more consequence was the later interference of ,leo the ,great1 occasioned by a call for help from bishop ,turribius of ,astorga4 ,following his instructions1 a ,concilium ,hispanicum in ,a4,d4 #ddg and still more distinctly a ,council at ,braga in ,a4,d4 #efc passed vigorous rules for the suppression of heresy4 ,since then the name of the ,priscillianists has disappeared1 but their doctrine was maintained in secret for some centuries longer4#afi ,v4 ,,worship1 ,,life1 ,,discipline ,,and ,,morals4 #ee4 ,,worship ,,in ,,general4 ,christian worship freed by ,constantine from the pressure of persecution developed a great wealth of forms with corresponding stateliness of expression4 ,but doctrinal controversies claimed so much attention that neither space nor time was left for carrying the other developments in the same way through the fire of conflict and sifting4 ,hence forms of worship were left to be moulded in particular ways by the spirit of the age1 nationality and popular taste4 ,the public spirit of the church1 however1 gave to the development an essential unity1 and early differences were by and by brought more and more into harmony4 ,only between ,east and ,west was the distinction strong enough to make in various ways an impression in opposition to the levelling endeavours of catholicity4 ,the age of ,cyril of ,alexandria marks an important turning point in the development of worship4 ,it was natural that ,cyril's prevailing doctrine of the intimate connection of the divine and human natures in the person of ,christ should have embodied itself in the services of the church4 ,but this doctrine was yet at least one-sided theory which did not wholly exclude its perversion into error4 ,in the dogma1 indeed1 thanks to the exertions of ,leo and ,theodoret1 the still extant ,monophysite error had no place given it4 ,but in the worship of the church it had embedded itself1 and here it was not overcome1 and its presence was not even suspected1 so1 it could now not only develop itself undisturbed in the direction of worship of saints1 images1 relics1 of pilgrimages1 of sacrifice of the mass1 etc41 but also it could decisively deduce therefrom a development of dogmas not yet established1 e4g4 in the doctrine of the church1 of the priesthood1 of the sacraments1 especially of the ,lord's ,supper1 etc41 etc4 #ef4 ,,festivals ,,and ,,seasons ,,for ,,public ,,worship4 ,the idea of having particular days of the week consecrated in memory of special incidents in the work of redemption had even in the previous period found expression 7 #cg71 but it now passed into the background all the more as the church began to apply itself to the construction in the richest possible form of a ,christian year4 ,the previous difference in the development of ,east and ,west occasioned each to take its own particular course1 determined in the one case very much by a ,jewish-,christian1 in the other by a ,gentile-,christian1 tendency4 ,nevertheless in the #dth century we find a considerable levelling of these divergences4 ,this at least was attained unto thereby that the three chief festivals received an essentially common form in both churches4 ,but in the #eth and #fth centuries1 in the further development of the ,christian year1 the two churches parted all the more decidedly from one another4 ,the ,western church especially gave way more and more unreservedly to the tendency to make the natural year the type and pattern for the ,christian year4 ,thus the ,western ,christian year obtained a richer development and grew up into an institution more vitally and inwardly related to the life of the people4 ,the luxuriant overgrowth of saints' days1 however1 prevented the church from here reaching its ideal4 #ef4a4 ,the ,weekly ,cycle4--,constantine the ,great issued a law in ,a4,d4 #cba1 according to which all magisterial1 judicial and municipal business was stopped on ,sunday4 ,at a later period he also forbade military exercises4 ,his successors extended the prohibition to the public spectacles4 ,alongside of ,sunday the ,sabbath was long celebrated in the ,east by meetings in the churches1 avoidance of fasting and by standing at prayers4 ,the ,dies stationum1 ,wednesday and ,friday 7 #cg71 were observed in the ,east as fast days4 ,the ,west gave up the ,wednesday fast1 and introduced in its place the anti-,judaic ,sabbath fast4 #ef4b4 ,hours and ,quarterly ,fasts4--,the number of appointed hours of prayer 7the #crd1 #fth and #ith hours1 comp4 ,dan4 vi4 #aj-ad2 ,acts ii4 #ae2 iii4 #a2 x4 #i7 were increased during the #eth century to eight 7,hor canonic3 ,matutina or matins at #c a4m42 ,prima at #f a4m42 ,tertia at #i a4m42 ,sexta at #ab noon2 ,nona at #c p4m42 ,vesper at #f p4m42 ,completorium at #i p4m42 and ,mesonyktion or ,vigils at #ab midnight72 yet generally two of the night hours were combined1 so as to preserve the seven times required in ,ps4 cxix4 #afd4 ,this arrangement of hours was strictly observed by monks and clerics4 ,the common basis of prayer for devotions at these hours was the ,psalter divided among the seven days of the week4 ,the rest of the material adapted to the course of the ,christian year1 consisting of scripture and patristic readings1 legends of martyrs and saints1 prayers1 hymns1 doxologies1 etc4 gradually accumulated so that it had to be abbreviated1 and hence the name ,breviarium commonly given to such selections4 ,the ,roman ,breviary1 arranged mainly by ,leo the ,great1 ,gelasius and ,gregory the ,great1 gradually throughout the ,west drove all other such compositions from the field4 ,an abbreviation by ,haymo1 ,general of the ,minorites1 in ,a4,d4 #abda was sanctioned by ,gregory ,,ix41 but had subsequently many alterations made upon it4 ,the ,council of ,trent finally charged the ,papal chair with the task of preparing a new redaction which the clergy of the whole catholic church would be obliged to use4 ,such a production was issued by ,pius ,v4 in ,a4,d4 #aefh1 and then in ,a4,d4 #afca ,urban ,,viii4 gave it the form in which it is still current4--,in the ,west the year was divided into three-monthly periods1 quatuor tempora1 corresponding to the seasons of prayer recurring every three hours4 ,there were harvest prayer and thanksgiving seasons1 occupied1 in accordance with ,joel ii41 with penance1 fasting and almsgiving4 ,leo the ,great brought this institution to perfection4 ,the quatuor tempora1 ember days1 occur in the beginning of the ,quadragesima1 in the week after ,pentecost1 and in the middle of the #gth and #ajth months 7,sept4 and ,dec471 and were kept by a strict fast on ,wednesday1 ,friday and ,saturday with a ,sabbath vigil4 #ef4c4 ,the ,reckoning of ,easter4--,at the ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe the ,roman mode of observing ,easter prevailed over that of ,asia ,minor 7 #cg1 #b74 ,those who adhered to the latter method were regarded as a sect 7,quartadecimani 74 ,the ,council decreed that the first day of full moon after the spring equinox should be regarded as the #adth ,nisan1 and that the festival of the resurrection should be celebrated on the ,sunday following4 ,the bishop of ,alexandria undertook the astronomical determination of the festival on each occasion1 because there astronomical studies were most diligently prosecuted4 ,he published yearly1 usually about ,epiphany1 a circular letter1 ,liber paschalis1 giving to the other churches the result of the calculation1 and took advantage generally of the opportunity to discuss the ecclesiastical questions of the day4 ,first of all at ,alexandria1 probably to prevent for all time a combination of the ,jewish and ,christian ,easter festivals1 the practice was introduced of keeping the feast when the #adth and #afth of the new moon fell upon ,friday and ,sunday1 not on the same ,sunday but eight days later1--a practice which ,rome also1 and with her a great part of the ,west1 adopted in the #eth century 7 #gg1 #c74 ,a further difference existed as to the point of time with which the day of full moon was to be regarded as beginning4 ,the ,easter ,canon of ,hippolytus 7 #ca1 #c7 had calculated it in a very unsatisfactory manner according to a sixteen-years' cycle of the moon1 after the course of which the day of full moon would again occur on the same day of the year4 ,in ,alexandria the more exact nineteen-years' cycle of ,anatolius was adopted1 according to which the day of full moon had an aberration of about one day only in #caj years1 and even this was caused rather by the imperfection of the ,julian year of #cfe days with three intercalary days in #djj years4 ,but in ,rome the reckoning was made as the basis of an eighty-four years' cycle which had indeed the advantage of completing itself not only on the same day of the year but on the same day of the week2 while1 on the other hand1 it had this drawback that after eighty-four years it had fallen about a day behind the actual day of full moon4 ,there was also this further difference that in ,alexandria the #bast of ,march was regarded as the day when day and night were equal1 and at ,rome1 but wrongly1 the #ahth of ,march4 ,the cycle of #ecb 7#bh #ai7 years reckoned in ,a4,d4 #deb by ,victorius1 a bishop of ,aquitaine1 was assimilated to the ,alexandrian1 without1 however1 losing the advantage of the eighty-four years' cycle above referred to1 which1 however1 it succeeded in obtaining only by once in every period of nineteen years fixing the equinox on the #bjth of ,march4 ,the ,roman abbot ,dionysius ,exiguus 7 #dg1 #bc71 finally1 in ,a4,d4 #ebe harmonized the ,roman and the ,alexandrian reckoning by setting up a ninety-five years' cycle 7#e #ai71 and this cycle was introduced throughout all the ,west by ,isidore of ,seville and the ,venerable ,bede 7 #ij1 #b74 ,the error occasioned by the inexactness of the ,julian calendar continued till the ,gregorian reform of the calendar 7 #adi1 #c74 #ef4d4 ,the ,easter ,festivals4--,the pre-eminence of the ,christian festival of victory 7the resurrection7 over that of suffering1 especially among the ,greeks1 led1 even in the #dth century to the former as the fruit of the latter being drawn into the paschal season1 and distinguished as from that as 1 and also at last to the adoption of the one name of ,paschal or ,easter ,festival and to the regarding of the whole ,quadragesima season as a preparation for ,easter4 ,the ,saxon name ,easter is derived from the old ,german festival of ,ostara the goddess of spring which was celebrated at the same season4--,with the beginning of the ,quadragesima the whole mode of life assumes a new form4 ,all amusements were stopped1 all criminal trials sisted and the din of traffic in streets and markets as far as possible restricted4 ,the ,east exempted ,sunday and ,sabbath from the obligation of fasting1 with the exception of the last ,sabbath as the day of ,christ's rest in the grave1 but the ,west exempted only ,sunday4 ,gregory the ,great1 therefore1 fixed the beginning of the ,quadragesima on ,wednesday of the seventh week before ,easter1 ,caput jejunii1 ,dies cinerum1 ,ash ,wednesday1 so called because the bishop strewed ashes on the heads of believers with a warning reference to ,gen4 iii4 #ai1 comp4 xviii4 #bg4 ,with the ,tuesday preceding1 ,shrove ,tuesday 7from shrive1 to confess71 ended the carnival season 7carni valedicere7 which1 beginning with #fth ,jan4 or the feast of the three holy kings1 reached its climax in the last days1 from three to eight1 before ,ash ,wednesday4 ,on this closing day the people generally sought indemnification for the approaching strict fast by an unmeasured abandoning of themselves to pleasure4 ,from ,italy where this custom arose and was most fully carried out1 it subsequently found its way into the other lands of the ,west4 ,in opposition to these unspiritual proceedings the period of the ,easter festivals was begun three weeks earlier with the #ajth ,sunday before ,easter 7,septuagesima74 ,the ,hallelujah of the ,mass was silenced1 weddings were no more celebrated 7,tempus clausum71 monks and clerics already began the fast4 ,the ,quadragesima festival reached its climax in the last1 the great week4 ,it began with ,palm ,sunday 7 7 and ended with the great ,sabbath1 the favourite time for baptisms 7,rom4 vi4 #c74 ,thursday as the memorial day of the institution of the ,lord's ,supper1 and ,friday as the day of ,christ's death1 ,good ,friday1 were days of special importance4 ,a solemn night service1 ,easter vigils1 marked the transition to the joyous ,easter celebrations4 ,the old legend that on this night ,christ's second coming would take place rendered the service peculiarly solemn4 ,easter morning began with the jubilant greeting3 ,the ,lord is risen1 and the response1 ,he is risen indeed4 ,on the following ,sunday1 the ,easter ,octave1 ,pascha clausum1 1 the ,easter festival was brought to a close4 ,those baptized on the great ,sabbath wore for the last time their white baptismal dress4 ,hence this sabbath was called ,dominica in albis2 subsequently1 in accordance with the ,introitus from #a ,pet4 ii4 #b1 ,quasimodogeniti2 and by the ,greeks1 4 ,the joyous celebrations of ,easter extended over all the ,quinquagesima period between ,easter and ,pentecost4 ,ascension day1 ,festum ascensionis1 1 and ,pentecost1 1 were introduced as high festivals by vigil services2 and the latter was concluded by the ,pentecost-,octave1 by the ,greeks called and at a much later date styled by the ,latins ,trinity ,sunday4 ,the ,festival-,octaves1 1 had an ,old ,testament pattern in the of the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 ,lev4 xxiii4 #bf4 #ef4e4 ,the ,christmas ,festivals4--,the first traces of the ,christmas festival 7,natalis ,christi1 7 in the ,roman church are found about ,a4,d4 #cfj4 ,some decades later they appear in the ,eastern church4 ,the late introduction of this festival is to be explained from the disregard of the birthday and the prominence given to the day of the death of ,christ in the ancient church2 but ,chrysostom even regarded it as the 4 ,since the #beth of ,march as the spring equinox was held as the day of creation1 the day of the incarnation1 the conception of ,christ1 the second ,adam1 as the beginning of the new creation was held on the same day1 and hence #beth ,dec4 was chosen as the day of ,christ's birth4 ,the ,christian festival thus coincided nearly with the heathen ,saturnalia1 in memory of the ,golden ,age1 from #agth to #bcrd ,dec41 the ,sigillaria1 on the #bdth ,dec41 when children were presented with dolls and images of clay and wax1 sigilla1 and the ,brumalia1 on #beth ,dec41 ,dies natalis invicti solis1 the winter solstice4 ,it was considered no mere chance coincidence that ,christ1 the eternal ,sun1 should be born just on this day4 ,the ,christmas festival too was introduced by a vigil and lasted for eight days1 which in the #fth century became the ,festum circumcisionis4 ,the revelling that characterised the ,new ,year ,festival of the pagans1 caused the ancient church1 to observe that day as a day of penance and fasting4 ,the feast of the ,epiphany on the #fth ,jan4 7 #cg1 #a7 was also introduced in the ,west during the #dth century but obtained there a ,gentile-,christian colouring from ,luke ii4 #ba and was kept as the festival of the first fruits of the ,gentiles and received the name of the ,festival of the three holy kings4 ,for even ,tertullian in accordance with ,ps4 lxxii4 #aj had made the ,magi kings2 it was concluded that they were three because of the three gifts spoken of2 and ,bede1 about ,a4,d4 #gjj1 gives their names as ,caspar1 ,melchior and ,balthasar4 ,by others this festival was associated with ,christ's first miracle at the marriage in ,cana1 and also with the feeding of the #e1jjj in the wilderness4 ,after the analogy of the ,easter festival since the #fth century a longer preliminary celebration has been connected with the ,christmas festival4 ,in the ,eastern church1 beginning with the #adth of ,nov41 it embraced six ,sundays with forty fast days1 as the second ,quadragesima of the year4 ,in the ,latin church1 as the season of ,advent1 it had only four ,sundays1 with a three weeks' fast4 #ef4f4 ,the ,church ,year was in the ,east a symbolic adaptation of the natural year only in so far as it brought with it the ,christianising of the ,jewish festivals and the early recognition of ,western ideas about the feasts4 ,only on the high festivals1 ,christmas1 ,easter and ,pentecost are they retained2 on the other ,sundays and festivals they never obtained expression4 ,the ,easter festival was considered the beginning of the church year2 thereafter the ,quadragesima or ,epiphany2 and finally1 the ,old ,testament beginning of the year in ,september4 ,the whole church year was divided into four parts according to the ,lectio continua of the gospel1 and the ,sundays were named thereafter4 ,the was immediately after ,pentecost4 ,the ,latin ,church ,year begins with the season of ,advent1 and distinguishes a ,semestre ,domini and a ,semestre ecclesi4 ,but only the former was fully developed3 ,christmas1 ,easter1 ,pentecost with the ,sundays belonging to them1 representing the founding1 developing and completing of the history of salvation4 ,to a corresponding development of the second half we find early contributions1 e4g4 the ,feast of ,peter and ,paul on #bith ,june as festival of the founding of the church by the ,apostles1 the ,feast of the leading martyr ,laurentius 7 #bb1 #e7 on #ajth ,august as memorial of the struggle prescribed to the ,ecclesia militans1 and the ,feast of ,michael on #bith ,september with reference to the completion in the ,ecclesia triumphans4 ,that in these feasts we have already the germs of the three festivals of the community of the church which were to correspond to the three festivals of the ,lord's history appears significantly in the early designation of the ,sundays after ,pentecost as ,dominica post ,apostolos1 post ,laurentium1 post ,angelos4 ,but it never was distinctly further carried out4 ,this deeply significant distribution was overlaid by saint worship1 which overflowed the ,semestre ,domini4 ,the principle of ,christianising the ,pagan rites was legitimated by ,gregory the ,great4 ,he instructed the ,anglo-,saxon missionaries to the effect 7 #gg1 #d71 that they should convert the heathen temples into churches and heathen festivals into ecclesiastical festivals and days of martyrs1 ut dur mentes gradibus vel passibus non autem saltibus eleventur4 ,the saints henceforth take the place of gods of nature and the church year reproduced with a ,christian colouring all the outstanding points in the natural year4--,as the last festival connected with the history of the ,lord1 the ,feast of the ,glorification1 1 was held in the ,east on #fth ,august4 ,according to tradition the scene was enacted on ,mt4 ,tabor1 hence the feast was called 4 ,the ,latin church adopted it first in the #aeth century 7,f4 transfigurationis74#agj #ef4g4 ,the ,church ,fasts 7 #cg1 #c74--;,in the ,greek church the ordinance of fasting was more strict than in the ,latin4 ,in one period1 however1 we have a system of fasts embracing four great fasting seasons3 ,the ,quadragesima of ,easter and of ,christmas1 the period of from three to five weeks from the ,pentecost ,octave 7the ,greek ,feast of ,all ,saints7 to that of ,peter and ,paul on #bith ,june1 and the fourteen days before the ,ascension of ,mary on #aeth ,august4 ,there were also the on the evenings previous to other festivals2 and finally1 the weekly recurring fasts of ,wednesday and ,friday4 ,the strictest was the pre-,easter fast1 observed with gradually advancing rigidness4 ,on ,sexagesima ,sunday flesh was eaten for the last time1 then followed the so-called ,butter week1 when butter1 cheese1 milk and eggs were still allowed2 but thereafter complete avoidance of all fattening food was enjoined1 reaching during the great week to the utmost possible degree of abstinence4 ,in the ,west instead of ,wednesday1 ,saturday was taken along with ,friday1 and down to the #acth century it was enjoined that nothing should be eaten on these two days of the week1 as also on the quarterly days 7quatuor tempora7 and the evenings preceding the feasts of the most famous ,apostles and martyrs1 the vigil fasts1 until #c p4m4 7,semijejunium7 or even till #f p4m4 7,plenum jejunium72 while in the longer seasons of fasting before ,easter and before ,christmas the injunction was restricted to avoidance of all fat foods 7,abstinentia74--,continuation #aae1 #a4 #eg4 ,,worship ,,of ,,saints1 ,,relics ,,and ,,images4#aga ,though with the times of persecution martyrdom had ceased1 asceticism where it was preached with unusual severity gave a claim to canonisation which was still bestowed by the people's voice regarded as the voice of ,god4 ,forgotten saints were discovered by visions1 and legend insensibly eked out the poverty of historical reminiscences with names and facts4 ,the veneration of martyrs rose all the higher the more pitiable the present generation showed in its lukewarmness and worldliness over against the world-conquering faith of that great cloud of witnesses4 ,the worship of ,mary1 which came in as a result of the ,nestorian controversy1 was later of being introduced than that of the martyrs1 but it almost immediately shot far ahead and ranked above the adoration of all the other saints4 ,the adoration of ,angels1 of which we find the beginnings even in ,justin and ,origen1 remained far behind the worship of the saints4 ,pilgrimages were zealously undertaken1 from the time when the emperor's mother ,helena1 in ,a4,d4 #cbf1 went as a pilgrim to holy places in ,palestine and afterwards marked these out by building on them beautiful churches4 ,the worship of images was introduced first in the age of ,cyril of ,alexandria and was carried out with peculiar eagerness in the art-loving ,east4 ,the ,western teachers1 however1 and even ,gregory the ,great himself1 only went the length of becoming decoration1 using images to secure more impressiveness in teaching and greater liveliness in devotion4 ,in the ,west1 however1 still more than in the ,east1 veneration of relics came into vogue4 #eg4a4 ,the ,worship of ,martyrs and ,saints 7 #ci1 #e74agb--;,at a very early period churches were built upon the graves of ,martyrs 7,memoria1 ,confessio1 71 or their bones were brought into churches previously built 7,translationes74 ,new edifices were dedicated in their names1 those receiving baptism were named after them4 ,the days of their death were observed as special holy seasons with vigil services1 ,agape and oblations at their graves4 ,in glowing discourses the orators of the church1 in melodious hymns the poets1 sounded forth their praises4 ,the bones of the martyrs were sought out with extraordinary zeal and were looked upon and venerated as supremely sacred4 ,each province1 each city and each calling had its own patron saint 7,patronus74 ,perhaps as early as the #crd century several churches had their martyr calendars1 i4e4 lists of those who were to have the day of their death celebrated4 ,in the #dth century this custom had become universal1 and from the collection of the most celebrated calendars1 with the addition of legendary stories of the lives and sufferings of martyrs or saints 7,legend1 so called because they were wont to be read at the memorial services of the individuals referred to71 sprang up the ,martyrologies and ,legends of the ,saints1 among the ,greeks called ,menologies from 1 a month4 ,most esteemed in the ,west was the martyrology of the ,roman church1 whose composition has been recently put down1 equally with and upon the same grounds as that of the so called ,liber ,comitis1 #ei1 #c1 to the time of ,jerome as the chief representative of ,western theological learning4 ,this collection formed the basis of the numerous ,latin martyrologies of the ,middle ,ages 7 #ij1 #i74 ,a rich choice was afforded by these catalogues of saints to those wishing names to use at baptism or confirmation2 the saint preferred became thereby the patron of him who took his name4 ,the three great ,cappadocians in the ,east and ,ambrose in the ,west were the first to open the floodgates for the invocation of saints by their proclaiming that the glorified saints through communion with the ,lord shared in ,his attribute of omniprescence and omniscience2 while ,augustine rather assigned to the angels the task of communicating the invocations of men to the saints4 ,in the liturgies prayers for the saints were now displaced by invocations for their intercession4 ,in this the people found a compensation for the loss of hero1 genius and manes worship4 ,the church teachers at least wished indeed to make a marked distinction between ,adoratio and ,invocatio1 and 1 rendering the former to ,god only4 ,a festival of ,all the ,martyrs was celebrated in the ,east as early as the #dth century on the ,pentecost octave 7 #ef1 #d74 ,in the ,west1 ,pope ,boniface ,,iv41 in ,a4,d4 #faj1 having received from the ,emperor ,phocas the ,pantheon as a gift and having converted it into a church of the most ,blessed ,virgin and all the ,martyrs1 founded a ,festum omnium ,sanctorum1 which was not1 however1 generally recognised before the #ith century 7#ast ,nov474 ,owing to the great number of saints one or more had to be assigned to each day in the calendar4 ,the day fixed was usually that of the death of the saint4 ,the only instance of the celebration of a birthday was the festival of ,john the ,baptist 7,natalis ,s4 ,joannis74 ,the #bdth ,june was fixed upon by calculating from ,christmas 7acc4 to ,luke i4 #bf71 and its occurring in the other half of the year from that of ,christ afforded a symbolical parallel to ,john iii4 #cj4 ,as an appendage to this we meet even in the #eth century with the ,f4 decollationis ,s4 ,joannis on #bith ,aug4 ,on the second day of the ,christmas festival the ,feast of the ,proto-martyr ,stephen was celebrated as the first fruits of the incarnation of ,god2 on the third1 the memory of the disciple who lay on the ,master's breast2 on the fourth1 the innocent children of ,bethlehem 7,f4 innocentium7 as the flores or primiti martyrum4 ,the festival of the ,maccabees 7 7 leads yet further back as the memorial of the heroic mother and her seven sons under ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 ,it was observed as early as the #dth century and did not pass out of use till the #acth4 ,among the festivals of ,apostles that of ,peter and ,paul 7,f4 ,apost4 ,petri et ,pauli7 on #bith ,june1 as the solemnization of their common martyrdom at ,rome1 was universally observed4 ,but ,rome celebrated besides a double ,f4 ,cathedr ,petri1 for the ,cathedra ,romana on #ahth ,jan41 and for the ,cathedra ,antiochena on #bbnd ,feb4 ,for a long time a symbolical arrangement of the calendar days prevailed2 the patriarchs of the ,old ,testament were put in the time before ,christmas1 the later saints of the old dispensation in the ,quadragesima1 and the ,apostles and ,founders of the church after ,pentecost1 then the ,martyrs1 next the ,confessors1 and finally1 the ,virgins as prototype of the perfected church4 #eg4b4 ,the ,worship of ,mary and ,anna4#agc--,the who herself full of the ,holy ,ghost had prophesied3 1 1 was regarded as the highest ideal of all virginity4 ,all the reverence1 which the church accorded to virginity1 culminated therefore in her4 ,even ,tertullian alongside of the ,pauline contrasts ,adam and ,christ1 placed this other1 ,eve and ,mary4 ,the perpetua virginitas b4 ,mari was an uncontested article of faith from the #dth century4 ,ambrose understood of her ,ezek4 xliv4 #c1 and affirmed that she was born utero clauso2 ,gregory the ,great saw an analogy between this and the entering of the ,risen ,one through closed doors 7,john xx4 #ai72 and the second ,trullan ,council1 in ,a4,d4 #fib1 confessed3 4 ,irenus1 ,tertullian1 ,origen1 ,basil1 ,chrysostom1 had indeed still found something in her worthy of blame1 but even ,augustine refuses to admit that she should be reckoned among sinners3 ,unde enim scimus1 quid ei plus grati collatum fuerit ad vincendum omni ex parte peccatum8 ,yet for a long time this veneration of ,mary made little progress4 ,this was caused partly by the absence of the glory of martyrdom1 partly by its development in the church being forestalled and distorted by the heathenish and godless ,mariolatry of the ,collyridians1 an ,arabian female sect of the #dth century1 which offered to the ,holy ,virgin1 as in heathen times to ,ceres1 cakes of bread 774 ,epiphanius1 who opposed them1 taught3 1 1 4 ,on the ,antidicomarianites1 see #fb1 #b4 ,the victory of those who used the term in the ,nestorian controversy gave a great impulse to ,mariolatry4 ,even in the #eth century1 the festival of the ,annunciation1 ,f4 annunciationis1 incarnationis1 1 1 was held on the #beth ,march4 ,with this was also connected in the ,west the festival of the ,purification of ,mary1 ,f4 purificationis on #bnd ,feb41 according to ,luke ii4 #bb4 ,on account of the candles used in the service it was called the ,candlemas of ,mary1 ,f4 candelarum1 luminum1 ,luke ii4 #cb4 ,in consequence of an earthquake and pestilence in ,a4,d4 #edb1 ,justinian founded the corresponding 1 ,f4 occursus1 only that here the meeting with ,simeon and ,anna 7,luke ii4 #bd7 is put in the foreground4 ,both festivals1 the ,annunciation and the ,purification1 had the same dignity as those dedicated to the memory of our ,lord4 ,from the endeavour to put alongside of each of the festivals of the ,lord a corresponding festival of ,mary1 about the end of the #fth century the ,feast of the ,ascension of ,mary 7 1 ,f4 assumptionis1 dormitionis ,m47 was introduced and celebrated on #aeth ,aug42 and in the #gth century1 the ,feast of the ,birth of ,mary 7,f4 nativitatis ,m471 on #hth ,sept4 ,the former was founded on the apocryphal legend 7 #cb1 #d71 according to which ,christ with the angels brought the soul of his just departed mother1 and1 on the following day1 its glorified body1 to heaven1 and there united it again with the soul4--,the first traces of a veneration of ,anna around whom1 as the supposed wife of ,joachim and mother of the ,virgin1 the apocryphal gospels of the childhood had already gathered a mass of romantic details1 are found in the #dth century in ,gregory of ,nyssa and ,epiphanius4 ,justinian ,i4 in ,a4,d4 #eej built a church of ,st4 ,anna in ,constantinople4 ,in the ,east the #beth of ,july was celebrated as the day of her death1 the #ith ,sept4 as the day of her marriage1 and the #ith ,dec4 as the day of her conception4 ,in the ,west the veneration of ,anna was later of being introduced4 ,it became popular in the later ,middle ,ages and was made obligatory on the whole catholic church by ,gregory ,,xiii4 in ,a4,d4 #aehd4 ,the day fixed was #bfth ,july4 ,yet ,leo ,,iii4 in the #hth century had allowed a pictorial representation of the legend of ,st4 ,joachim and ,st4 ,anna to be put in the church of ,st4 ,paul in ,rome4--,continuation #ajd1 #g1 #h4 #eg4c4 ,worship of ,angels4--,the idea of guardian angels of nations1 cities1 individuals1 was based on ,deut4 xxxii4 #h 7in the ,,lxx472 ,dan4 x4 #ac1 #bj1 #ba2 xii4 #a2 ,matt4 xviii4 #aj2 ,acts xii4 #ae1 even as early as the #bnd century4 ,ambrose required the invocation of angels4 ,but when the ,phrygian sect of the ,angelians carried the practice the length of idolatrous worship1 the ,council at ,laodicea in the #dth century opposed it1 and ,epiphanius placed it in his list of heresies4 ,supposed manifestations of the ,archangel ,michael led to the institution from the #eth century of the feast of ,michael observed on #bith ,sept41 as a festival of the angels collectively representing the idea of the church triumphant4 #eg4d4 ,worship of ,images 7 #ch1 #c74--,the disinclination of the ancient church to the pictorial representations of the person of ,christ as such1 and also the unwillingness to allow religious pictures in the churches1 based upon the prohibition of images in the decalogue1 was not yet wholly overcome in the #dth century4 ,eusebius of ,csarea1 with reference to the statues of ,paneas 7 #ac1 #b7 and other images of ,christ and the ,apostles1 speaks of an 4 ,he administered a severe reproof to the emperor's sister1 ,constantia1 and referred to the prohibition of the decalogue1 when she expressed a wish to have an image of ,christ4 ,asterius1 bishop of ,amasa in ,pontus 7 ,a4,d4 #daj71 earnestly declaimed against the custom of people of distinction wearing clothes embroidered with pictures from the gospel history1 and recommends them rather to have ,christ in their hearts4 ,the violent zealot1 ,epiphanius1 the most decided opponent of all religious idealism1 tore the painted curtain of a ,palestinian village church in ,anablatha with the injunction to wrap therewith a beggar's corpse4 ,but ,greek love of art and the religious needs of the people gained the victory over ,judaic-legal rigorism and abstract spiritualism4 ,here too the age of ,cyril marks the turning point4 ,in the #eth century authentic miraculous pictures of ,christ1 the ,apostles and the ,god-mother 7 71 made their appearance1 and with them began image worship properly so called1 with lighting of candles1 kissing1 burning incense1 bowing of the knee1 prostrations 7 74 ,soon all churches and church books1 all palaces and cottages1 were filled with images of ,christ and the saints painted or drawn by the monks4 ,miracle after miracle was wrought beside1 upon or through them4 ,in this1 however1 the ,west did not keep pace with the ,east4 ,augustine complains of image worship and advises to seek ,christ in the bible rather than in images4 ,gregory the ,great1 while blaming the violence of ,serenus1 bishop of ,massilia in breaking the images1 wishes that in churches images should be made to serve ad instruendas solummodo mentes nescientium4 ,the ,nestorians who were strongly opposed to images1 expressly declared that the hated ,cyril was the originator of ,iconolatry4 #eg4e4 ,worship of ,relics 7 #ci1 #e74--,the veneration for relics 77 proceeded from a pious feeling in human nature and is closely associated with that higher reverence which the church paid to its martyrs4 ,it began with public assemblies at the graves of martyrs1 memorial celebrations and services in connection with the translations of their bones held in the churches4 ,soon no church1 no altar 7,rev4 vi4 #i71 could be built without relics4 ,when the small number of known martyrs proved insufficient1 single parts of their bodies were divided to different churches4 ,but dreams and visions showed rich stores previously unthought of in remnants of the bones of martyrs and saints4 ,the catacombs especially proved inexhaustible mines4 ,miracles and signs vouched for their genuineness4 ,theodosius ,i4 already found it necessary in ,a4,d4 #chf1 to prohibit the traffic in relics4 ,besides bones1 were included also clothes1 utensils1 instruments of torture4 ,they healed the sick1 cast out devils1 raised the dead1 averted plagues1 and led to the discovery of offenders4 ,the healed expressed their gratitude in votive tablets and in presentations of silver and golden figures of the healed parts4 ,a scriptural foundation was sought for this veneration of relics in #b ,kings xiii4 #ba2 ,ecclesiastic4 xlvi4 #ad2 ,acts xix4 #ab4 ,according to a legend commonly believed in the #eth century1 but unknown to ,eusebius and the ,bordeaux pilgrim of ,a4,d4 #ccc1 ,helena1 mother of ,constantine1 found in ,a4,d4 #cbf the ,cross of ,christ along with the crosses of the two thieves4 ,the one was distinguished from the others by a miracle of healing or of raising from the dead4 ,the pious lady left one half of the cross to the church of the ,holy ,sepulchre and sent the rest with the nails to her son1 who inlaid the wood in his statues and some of the nails in his diadem1 while of the rest he made a bit for his horse4 ,since the publication of the ,doctrina ,addaei1 #cb1 #f1 it has become apparent that this ,helena legend is just another version of the old ,edessa legend about the ,byzantine saint1 according to which the wife of the emperor ,claudius converted by ,peter is represented in precisely similar circumstances as having found the cross4 ,to pious and distinguished pilgrims permission was given to take small splinters of the wood kept in ,jerusalem1 so that soon bits of the cross were spread and received veneration throughout all the world4 ,according to a much later report a on #adth ,sept4 was observed in the ,east as early as the #dth century in memory of the finding of the cross4 ,from the time of ,gregory the ,great a ,f4 inventionis ,s4 ,crucis was observed in the ,west on #crd ,may4 ,the festival of the exaltation of the cross1 1 ,f4 exaltationis ,s4 ,crucis1 on #adth ,sept41 was instituted by the emperor ,heraclius when the ,persians on their being conquered in ,a4,d4 #fbi1 were obliged to restore the cross which they had taken away4 #eg4f4 ,the ,making of ,pilgrimages4--,the habit of making pilgrimages 7pilgrimperegrinus7 to sacred places also rested upon a common tendency in human nature4 ,the pilgrimage of ,helena in ,a4,d4 #cbf found numerous imitators1 and even the conquest of ,palestine by the ,saracens in the #gth century did not quench pilgrims' ardour4 ,next to the sacred places in ,palestine1 ,sinai1 the grave of ,peter and ,paul at ,rome 7,limina ,apostolorum71 the grave of ,martin of ,tours 7 #dg1 #ad7 and the supposed scene in ,arabia of the sufferings of ,job1 as a foreshadowing of ,christ's1 were the spots most frequented by pilgrims4 ,gregory of ,nyssa in an ,epistle most vigorously opposed the immoderate love of pilgrimages1 especially among monks and women4 ,in the strongest language he pointed out the danger to true religion and morality2 and even ,jerome so far gave way to reason as to say3 ,et de ,hierosolymis et de ,brittania qualiter patet aula clestis4 ,chrysostom and ,augustine1 too1 opposed the over estimating of this expression of pious feeling4 #eh4 ,,the ,,dispensation ,,of ,,the ,,sacraments4 ,during this period nothing was definitely established as to the idea and number of the sacraments 774 ,the name was applied to the doctrines of grace in so far as they transcended the comprehension of the human understanding1 as well as to those solemn acts of worship by which grace was communicated and appropriated in an incomprehensible manner to believers1 so that only in the #abth century 7 #ajd1 #b7 were the consecrations and blessings hitherto included therein definitely excluded from the idea of the sacrament under the name ,sacramentalia4 ,it was1 however1 from the first clearly understood that ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper were essentially the sacramental means of grace4 ,yet even in the #crd century1 anointing and laying on of hands as an independent sacrament of ,confirmation 7,confirmatio1 7 was separated from the idea of baptism1 and in the ,west1 from the administration of baptism4 ,the reappearance of the idea of a special priesthood as a divine institution 7 #cd1 #d7 gave also to ,ordination the importance of a sacrament 7 #de1 #a74 ,augustine whom the ,pelagians accused of teaching by his doctrine of original sin and concupiscence that ,god-ordained marriage was sinful1 designated ,christian marriage1 with reference to ,eph4 v4 #cb1 a sacrament 7 #fa1 #b7 in order more decidedly to have it placed under the point of view of the nature sanctified by grace4 ,pseudo-,dionysius1 in the #fth century 7 #dg1 #aa71 enumerates six sacraments3 ,baptism1 ,chrism1 ,lord's ,supper1 ,consecration of ,priests and ,monks and the ,anointing of the ,dead 7 74 ,on ,extreme ,unction1 comp4 #fa1 #c4 #eh4a4 ,administration of ,baptism 7 #ce1 #d74--,the postponing of baptism from lukewarmness1 superstition or doctrinal prejudice1 was a very frequent occurrence4 ,the same obstacles down to the #fth century stood in the way of infant baptism being regarded as necessary4 ,gregory of ,nyssa wrote 1 and with him all the church fathers earnestly opposed the error4 ,in case of need 7in periculo mortis7 it was allowed even by ,tertullian that baptism might be dispensed by any baptized layman1 but not by women4 ,the institution of godfather was universal and founded a spiritual relationship within which marriage was prohibited not only between the godparents themselves1 but also between those and the baptized and their children4 ,the usual ceremonies preceding baptism were3 ,the covering of the head by the catechumens and the uncovering on the day of baptism2 the former to signify the warding off every distraction and the withdrawing into oneself4 ,with exorcism was connected the ceremony of breathing upon 7,john xx4 #bb71 the touching of the ears with the exclamation3 ,ephphatha 7,mark vii4 #cd71 marking the brow and breast with the sign of the cross2 in ,africa also the giving of salt acc4 to ,mark ix4 #ej1 in ,italy the handing over of a gold piece as a symbol of the pound 7,luke xiii4 #ab f47 entrusted in the grace of baptism4 ,the conferring of a new name signified entrance into a new life4 ,at the renunciation the baptized one turned him to the setting sun with the words3 2 to the rising sun with the words3 4 ,the dipping was thrice repeated3 in the ,spanish church1 in the anti-,arian interest1 only once4 ,sprinkling was still confined to ,baptismus ,clinicorum and was first generally used in the ,west in infant baptism in the #abth century1 while the ,east still retained the custom of immersion4 #eh4b4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,supper 7 #cf1 #e74--,the doctrine of the ,lord's ,supper was never the subject of ,synodal discussion1 and its conception on the part of the fathers was still in a high degree uncertain and vacillating4 ,all regarded the holy supper as a supremely holy1 ineffable mystery 71 tremendum71 and all were convinced that bread and wine in a supernatural manner were brought into relation to the body and blood of ,christ2 but some conceived of this relation spiritualistically as a dynamic effect1 others realistically as a substantial importation to the elements1 while most vacillated still between these two views4 ,almost all regarded the miracle thus wrought as 1 ,transfiguratio1 using this expression1 however1 also of the water of baptism and the anointing oil4 ,the spiritualistic theory prevailed among the ,origenists1 most decidedly with ,eusebius of ,csarea1 less decidedly with ,athanasius and ,gregory ,nazianzen1 and again very decidedly with ,pseudo-,dionysius4 ,in the ,west ,augustine and his disciples1 even including ,leo the ,great1 favour the spiritualistic view4 ,with ,augustine the spiritualistic view was a consequence of his doctrine of predestination2 only to the believer1 i4e4 to the elect can the heavenly food be imparted4 ,yet he often expresses himself very strongly in a realistic manner4 ,the realistic view was divided into a dyophysitic or consubstantial and a monophysitic or transubstantial theory4 ,a decided tendency toward the idea of transubstantiation was shown by ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 ,chrysostom1 ,hilary of ,poitiers1 and ,ambrose4 ,the view of ,gregory of ,nyssa is peculiar3 ,as by ,christ during ,his earthly life food and drink by assimilation passed into the substance of ,his body1 so now bread and wine by the almighty operation of ,god by means of consecration is changed into the glorified body of ,christ and by our partaking of them are assimilated to our bodies4 ,the opposing views were more sharply distinguished in consequence of the ,nestorian controversy1 but the consistent development of dyophysitism in the eucharistic field was first carried out by ,theodoret and ,pope ,gelasius 7 ,a4,d4 #dif74 ,the former says3 2 and the latter3 ,esse non desinit substantia vel natura panis et vini4444 ,hoc nobis in ipso ,christo ,domino sentiendum 7,christological71 quod in ejus imagine 7,eucharistical71 profitemur4 ,the massive concrete popular faith had long before converted the into an essential1 substantial transformation4 ,thence this view passed over into the liturgies4 ,gallican and ,syrian liturgies of the #eth century express themselves unhesitatingly in this direction4 ,also the tendency to lose the creaturely in the divine which still continued after the victory of ,dyophysitism at ,chalcedon1 told in favour of the development of the dogma and about the end of our period the doctrine of ,transubstantiation was everywhere prevalent4#agd--;,continuation #ia1 #c4 #eh4c4 ,the ,sacrifice of the ,mass 7 #cf1 #f74--;,even in the #dth century the body of ,christ presented by consecration in the ,supper was designated a sacrifice1 but only in the sense of a representation of the sacrifice of ,christ once offered4 ,gradually1 however1 the theory prevailed of a sacramental memorial celebration of the sacrifice of ,christ in that of an unbloody but actual repetition of the same4 ,to this end many other elements than those mentioned in #cf1 #f co-operated4 ,such were especially the rhetorical figures and descriptions of ecclesiastical orators1 who transferred the attributes of the one sacrifice to its repeated representations2 the re-adoption of the idea of a priesthood 7 #cd1 #d7 which demanded a corresponding conception of sacrifice2 the pre-eminent place given to the doctrine of sacraments2 the tendency to place the sacrament under the point of view of a magically acting divine power1 etc4 ,the sacrificial idea1 however1 obtained its completion in its application to the doctrine of ,purgatory by ,gregory the ,great 7 #fa1 #d74 ,the oblationes pro defunctis which had been in use from early times became now masses for the souls of individuals2 their purpose was not the enjoyment of the body and blood of ,christ by the living and the securing thereby continued communion with the departed1 but only the renewing and repeating of the atoning sacrifice for the salvation of the souls of the dead1 i4e4 for the moderating and shortening of purgatorial sufferings4 ,the redeeming power of the sacrifice of the eucharist was then in an analogous manner applied to the alleviation of earthly calamities1 sufferings and misfortunes1 in so far as these were viewed as punishments for sin4 ,for such ends1 then1 it was enough that the sacrificing priest should perform the service 7,miss solitari1 ,private ,masses74 ,the partaking of the membership was at last completely withdrawn from the regular public services and confined to special festival seasons4--,continuation #hh1 #c4 #eh4d4 ,the ,administration of the ,lord's ,supper4--,the sharp distinction between the ,missa ,catechumenorum and the ,missa ,fidelium 7 #cf1 #b1 #c7 lost its significance after the general introduction of infant baptism1 and the name ,missa1 mass1 was now restricted to the ordinance of the ,lord's ,supper properly so called4 ,in the ,eastern and ,north ,african churches the communion of children continued common2 the ,western church forbade it in accordance with #a ,cor4 xi4 #bh1 #bi4 ,the ,communis sub una 7sc4 specie71 i4e4 with bread only1 was regarded as a ,manichan heresy 7 #bi1 #c74 ,only in ,north ,africa was it exceptionally allowed in children's communion1 after a little girl from natural aversion to wine had vomited it up4 ,in the ,east1 as early as the #dth century1 one observance of the ,lord's ,supper in the year was regarded as sufficient2 but ,western ,councils of the #eth century insisted upon its observance every ,sunday and threatened with excommunication everyone who did not communicate at least on the three great festivals4 ,the elements of the supper were still brought as presents by the members of the church4 ,the bread was that in common use1 therefore usually leavened4 ,the ,east continued this practice1 but the ,west subsequently1 on symbolical grounds1 introduced the use of unleavened bread4 ,the colour of the wine was regarded as immaterial4 ,subsequently white wine was preferred as being free from the red colouring matter4 ,the mixing of the wine with water was held to be essential1 and was grounded upon ,john xix4 #cd2 or regarded as significant of the two natures in ,christ4 ,only the ,armenian ,monophysites used unmixed wine4 ,the bread was broken4 ,to the sick was often brought in the ,east instead of the separate elements bread dipped in wine4 ,subsequently also1 first in children's communion and in the ,greek church only1 bread and wine together were presented in a spoon4 ,the consecrated elements were called after #a ,cor4 x4 #af4 ,the left over 77 were after communion divided among the clergy4 ,at a later period only so much was consecrated as it was thought would be needed for use at one time4 ,the overplus of unconsecrated oblations was blessed and distributed among the non-communicants1 the catechumens and penitents4 ,the name was now applied to those elements that had only been blessed which were also designated 4 ,the old custom of sending to other churches or bishops consecrated sacramental elements as a sign of ecclesiastical fellowship was forbidden by the ,council at ,laodicea in the #dth century4--,continuation #ajd1 #c4 #ei4 ,,public ,,worship ,,in ,,word ,,and ,,symbol4 ,the text of the sermon was generally taken from the bible portion previously read4 ,the liturgy attained a rich development1 but the liturgies of the ,latin and ,greek churches were fundamentally different from one another4 ,scripture ,psalms1 ,songs of ,praise with ,doxologies formed the main components of the church service of song4 ,gnostics 7 #bg1 #e71 ,arians 7 #ej1 #a71 ,apollinarians and ,donatists found hymns of their own composition very popular4 ,the church was obliged to outbid them in this4 ,the ,council at ,laodicea1 however1 in ,a4,d4 #cfj1 sought to have all banished from the church1 probably in order to prevent heretical poems being smuggled in4 ,the ,western church did not discuss the subject2 and ,chrysostom at least adorned the nightly processions which the rivalry of the ,arians in ,constantinople obliged him to make1 with the solemn singing of hymns4 #ei4a4 ,the ,holy ,scriptures 7 #cf1 #g1 #h74--,the doubts about the genuineness of particular ,new ,testament writings which had existed in the days of ,eusebius1 had now greatly lessened4 ,fourteen years after ,eusebius1 ,athanasius in his #cith ,festal ,letter of ,a4,d4 #cfg gave a list of canonical scriptures in which the ,eusebian antilegomena of the first class 7 #cf1 #h7 were without more ado enumerated among the 4 ,from these he distinguished the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 ,ecclesiasticus1 ,esther1 ,judith1 and ,tobit1 as well as the and the ,shepherd of ,hermas as 1 i4e4 as books which from their excellent moral contents had been used by the fathers in teaching the catechumens and which should be recommended as affording godly reading4 ,the ,council at ,laodicea gave a ,canon in which we miss only the ,apocalypse of ,john1 objected to probably on account of the unfavourable view of chiliasm entertained by the church at that time 7 #cc1 #i72 as regards the ,old ,testament it expressly limited the public readings in churches to the #bb bks4 of the ,hebrew canon4 ,the ,council at ,hippo1 in ,a4,d4 #cic1 gave synodic sanction for the first time in the ,west to that ,canon of the ,new ,testament which has from that time been accepted4--,the question as to the value of the books added to the ,old ,testament in the ,,lxx4 remained undecided down to the time of the ,reformation4 ,the ,greek church kept to the ,athanasian distinction of these as from the 1 until the confession of ,dositheus in ,a4,d4 #afbi 7 #aeb1 #c7 in its anti-,calvinistic zeal maintained that even those books should be acknowledged as 4 ,in the ,north ,african church ,tertullian and ,cyprian had characterized them without distinction as holy scripture4 ,augustine followed them1 though not altogether without hesitation3 ,maccab4 scripturam non habent ,judi 444 sed recepta est ab ecclesia non inutilitor1 si sobrie legatur vel audiatur2 and the ,synods at ,hippo in ,a4,d4 #cic and at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #cig and ,a4,d4 #dai put them without question into their list of canonical books1 adding this1 however1 that they would ask the opinion of the transmarine churches on the matter4 ,meanwhile too in ,rome this view had prevailed and ,innocent ,i4 in ,a4,d4 #dje expressly homologated the ,african list4 ,hilary of ,poitiers and ,rufinus on the other hand upheld the view of ,athanasius1 and ,jerome in his ,prologus galeatus after enumerating the books of the ,hebrew ,canon went so far as to say3 ,quidquid extra hos est1 inter ,apocrypha ponendum1 and elsewhere calls the addition to ,daniel merely nni4 ,in the ,prfatio in libros ,salom41 he expresses himself more favourably of the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 ,ecclesiasticus1 ,judith1 ,tobit and ,maccabees3 legit quidem ecclesia1 sed inter canonicas scripturas non recipit 444 legat ad dificationem plebis sed non ad auctoritatem dogmatum confirmandam4 ,this view prevailed throughout the whole of the ,middle ,ages among the most prominent churches down to the meeting of the ,council of ,trent 7 #acf1 #d72 whereas the ,tridentine fathers owing to the rejection of the books referred to by the ,protestants 7 #afa1 #h71 and their actual or supposed usefulness in supporting anti-,protestant dogmas1 e4g4 the meritoriousness of good works1 ,tob4 iv4 #aa1 #ab2 intercession of saints1 #b ,macc4 xv4 #ab-ad2 veneration of relics1 ,ecclus4 xlvi4 #ad2 xlix4 #ab2 masses for souls and prayers for the dead1 #b ,macc4 xii4 #dc-df1 felt themselves constrained to pronounce them canonical4--,the inconvenient ,scriptio continua in the biblical ,codices led first of all the ,alexandrian deacon ,euthalius1 about ,a4,d4 #dfj1 by stichometric copies of the ,new ,testament in which every line 77 embraced as much as with regard to the sense could be read without a pause4 ,he also undertook a division of the ,apostolic ,epistles and the ,acts into chapters 774 ,an ,alexandrian church teacher1 ,ammonius1 even earlier than this1 in arranging for a harmony of the gospels had divided the gospels in #a1afe chapters and added to the #cee chapters of ,matthew's gospel the number of the chapter of parallel passages in the other gospels4 ,eusebius of ,csarea completed the work by his 8,evang4 ,canon10 for he represents in ten tables which chapters are found in all the four1 in three1 in two or in one of the gospels4#age--;,jerome made emendations upon the corrupt text of the ,itala by order of ,damasus1 bishop of ,rome1 and then made from the ,hebrew a translation of the ,old ,testament of his own1 which1 joined to the revised translation of the ,new ,testament1 after much opposition gradually secured supremacy throughout all the ,west under the name of the ,vulgata4 ,the ,monophysite ,syrians got from ,polycarp in ,a4,d4 #ejh at the request of bishop ,xenajas or ,philoxenus of ,mabug1 a new slavishly literal translation of the ,new ,testament4 ,this so-called ,philoxenian translation was1 in ,a4,d4 #faf1 corrected by ,thomas of ,charcal1 provided after the manner of the ,hexapla of ,origen with notes--the ,harclensian translation--and in ,a4,d4 #fag enlarged by a translation of the ,old ,testament executed by bishop ,paulus of ,tella in ,mesopotamia according to the ,hexapla text of the ,,lxx4--,diligent ,scripture ,reading was recommended by all the fathers1 with special fervour by ,chrysostom1 to the laity as well as the clergy4 ,yet the idea gained ground that the study of ,scripture was the business of monks and clerics4 ,the second ,trullan ,council1 in ,a4,d4 #fib1 forbade under severe penalties that scripture should be understood and expounded otherwise than had been done by the old fathers4 #ei4b4 ,the ,creeds of the ,church4 ,i4 ,the ,nicno-,constantinopolitan ,creed4--,the ,nicene ,creed 7 #ej1 #a1 #g7 did not in the ,east succeed in dislodging the various forms of the ,baptismal formula 7 #ce1 #b72 indeed1 owing to the statement of this third article restricting itself to a mere it was little fitted to become a universal symbol4 ,but what the ,nicnum in spite of its unexampled pretensions never won1 the so-called ,nicno-,constantinopolitanum of ,a4,d4 #dea1 not being chargeable with the deficiency referred to1 actually achieved4 ,the idea prevailing until quite recently that this ,symbol originated at the so-called second cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha as an enlargement of the ,nicene confession1 has now been shown to be quite erroneous4 ,after the ,romish theologian ,vincenzi laboured to prove that this was a production forged by the ,greeks in the interests of their 8heretical0 doctrine of the procedure of the ,holy ,spirit from the ,father only 7 #ej1 #g71 ,harnack on the basis of the researches of ,caspari and ,hort reached the following results3 ,the so-called ,nicno-,constantinopolitan ,creed is identical with the creed recommended by ,epiphanius in his ,anchoratus1 about ,a4,d4 #cgc1 as genuinely apostolic-,nicene2 the creed of the ,anchoratus is that which forms the subject of ,cyril's ,catechetical ,lectures 7 #dg1 #aj71 probably at a later date revised1 enriched by the introduction of the most important phrases from the ,nicnum and an additional section on the ,holy ,spirit 7comp4 #ej1 #e1 #g71 and issued in his own name by ,cyril while bishop of ,jerusalem 7,a4,d4 #cea-chf7 as a ,baptismal formula for the church of ,jerusalem2 this new recension of the ,jerusalem ,symbol was probably laid before the ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #cha by ,cyril as a proof of his own orthodoxy that had always been somewhat questionable and as such passed over into the ,acts which are now lost2 thus at least is it most simply explained how even in ,a4,d4 #dea it could be quoted in the ,acts of the ,council of ,chalcedon alongside of the ,nicene as the ,constantinopolitan2 in proportion then as the ,council of ,constantinople of ,a4,d4 #cha came to be regarded as an cumenical ,council 7 #ej1 #d71 this creed1 erroneously ascribed to that ,council1 had accorded to it the rank of an cumenical ,symbol4 ,,ii4 ,the ,apostles' ,creed4--,the ,roman church and with it the whole ,west1 standing upon the supposed ,apostolic origin of their symbol1 did not suffer it to be dislodged by the ,nicnum nor to be assimilated by any importations from it4 ,nevertheless during the period when the ,roman chair was dominated by the ,byzantine court theology 7 #eb1 #c7 the so-called ,nicno-,constantinopolitanum succeeded in displacing the old ,western creed1 aided by the opposition to the ,arianism that was being driven forward by the ,visigoths and ,ostrogoths in ,italy and ,spain 7 #gf1 #b1 #g71 which demanded a more decidedly anti-,arian formula4 ,after this danger had been long overcome1 the desire was expressed in the #ith century for a shorter creed that might serve as a baptismal formula and as the basis of catechetical teaching4 ,they fell back1 however1 not upon the old ,roman creed1 but upon a more modern ,gallic expansion of it1 which forms what is called by us now the ,apostles' ,creed4 ,owing to the reverence shown to the ,roman church this creed soon found its way throughout all the ,west1 and arrogated to itself here the name of an cumenical ,symbol1 although it has never been acknowledged by the ,greek church4 ,the legend of its apostolic origin was carried out still further by the assertion that each of the twelve ,apostles composed one article as his contribution to the formula 774 ,laurentius ,valla and ,erasmus were the first to dispute its apostolic origin4 ,,iii4 ,the ,athanasian ,creed4--,the so-called ,athanasian ,symbol1 which from its opening words is also known as ,symb4 8,quicunque10 sprang up in the end of the #eth century out of the opposition of ,western ,catholicism to ,german ,arianism1 so that it is doubtful whether it had its origin in ,gaul1 ,spain or ,north ,africa4 ,in short1 sharply accentuated propositions it sets forth first of all the ,nicene-,constant4 doctrine of the ,trinity in its fuller form as developed by ,augustine 7 #ej1 #g71 then in the second part the dogmatic results of the ,nestorian and ,eutychian controversies 7 #eb1 #c1 #d71 and in the severest terms makes eternal salvation dependent on the acceptance of all these beliefs4 ,the earliest certain trace of its existence is found in ,csarius of ,arles 7,a4,d4 #ejc-edc7 who quotes some sentences borrowed from it as of acknowledged authority4 ,the idea that ,athanasius was its author arose in the #hth century and was soon accepted throughout the ,west as an undoubted truth4 ,it was first taken notice of by the ,greek church in the #aath century1 and on account of the filioque 7 #fg1 #a7 was pronounced heretical4#agf #ei4c4 ,bible ,reading in ,church and ,preaching4--,the ,reading of non-canonical books in church1 which had previously been customary 7 #cf1 #c71 was now forbidden4 ,the ,lectio continua1 i4e4 the reading of entire biblical books was the common practice down to the #eth century4 ,in the ,latin church at each service there were usually two readings1 one from the ,gospels1 the other from the ,epistles or the ,prophets4 ,the ,apostolic ,constitutions 7 #dc1 #d7 have three1 the ,prophets1 ,epistles1 and ,gospels2 so too the ,gallican and ,spanish churches2 while the ,syrian had four1 the additional one being from ,acts4 ,as the idea of the ,christian ,year was carried out1 however1 the ,lectio continua gave place to the ,lectio propria1 i4e4 a selection of passages which correspond to the character of the particular festival4 ,in the ,west this selection was fixed by the ,lectionaries among which the so-called ,liber comitis1 which tradition assigned to ,jerome1 in various forms and modifications1 found acceptance generally throughout the ,west4 ,in the ,east where the ,lectio continua continued much more prevalent1 lectionaries came into use first in the #hth century4 ,the lesson was read by a reader from a reading desk2 as a mark of distinction1 however1 the gospel was often read by the deacon4 ,for the same purpose1 too1 lights were often kindled during this reading4--,the ,sermon was generally by the bishop1 who might1 however1 transfer the duty to a presbyter or deacon4 ,monks were forbidden to preach in the church4 ,they were not hindered from doing so in the streets and markets1 from roofs1 pillars and trees4 ,the bishop preached from his episcopal throne1 but often1 in order to be better heard1 stood at the railing of the choir 7,cancelli74 ,augustine and ,chrysostom often preached from the reading desk4 ,in the ,east preaching came very much to the front1 lasted often for an hour1 and aimed at theatrical effects4 ,very distracting was the practice1 specially common in ,greece of giving loud applause with waving of handkerchiefs and clapping of hands 71 ,acclamatio74 ,in the ,west the sermon consisted generally of short simple addresses 7,sermones74 ,extempore discourses 7 7 were greatly appreciated1 more so than those repeated from memory2 reading was quite an exceptional occurrence4 ,even the emperors after ,constantine's example gave sometimes sermonic lectures in extra-ecclesiastical assemblies4 ,among the ,syrians sermons in verse and strophically arranged1 with equal number of syllables in the lines but unrhymed1 were very popular4 #ei4d4 ,hymnology4#agg--;,ephram ,ephraim the ,syrian 7 ,a4,d4 #cgh7 introduced melodious orthodox hymns in place of the heterodox hymns of the ,syrian ,gnostics ,bardesanes and ,harmonius 7 #bg1 #e74 ,on the later ,syrian hymn writers1 see #dh1 #g4 ,the introduction of their hymns into the public service caused no trouble4 ,for the ,greeks orthodox hymns were composed by ,gregory ,nazianzen and ,synesius of ,ptolemais4 ,the want of popularity and the ban of the ,laodicean ,council hindered their introduction into the services of the church2 but this ban was removed as early as the #eth century4 ,under the name of ,troparies1 from art of music1 shorter1 and soon also longer1 poems of their own composition were introduced alongside of the church service of ,psalms 7 #gj1 #b74 ,but unquestionably the palm for church hymn composition belongs to the ,latin church4 ,with ,hilary of ,poitiers 7 ,a4,d4 #cfh7 begins a series of poets 7,ambrose1 ,damasus1 ,augustine1 ,sedulius1 ,eunodius1 ,prudentius1 ,fortunatus1 ,gregory the ,great7 who bequeathed to their church a precious legacy of spiritual songs of great beauty1 spirituality1 depth1 power1 grandeur and simplicity4 #ei4e4 ,psalmody and ,hymn ,music4#agh--;,from the time when clerical cantores 7 #cd1 #c7 were appointed the symphonic singing of psalms by the congregation seems to have been on the wane4 ,the ,council of ,laodicea forbade it altogether1 without1 however1 being able quite to accomplish that4 ,antiphonal or responsive singing was much enjoyed4 ,hypophonic singing of the congregation in the responses with which the people answered the clerical intonings1 readings and prayers1 and in the beating of time with which they answered the clerical singing of psalms1 was long persisted in in spite of clerical exclusiveness4 ,the singing of prayers1 readings and consecrations was first introduced in the #fth century4 ,at first church music was simple1 artless1 recitative4 ,but the rivalry of heretics forced the orthodox church to pay greater attention to the requirements of art4 ,chrysostom had to declaim against the secularisation of ,church music4 ,more lasting was the opposition of the church to the introduction of instrumental accompaniments4 ,even part singing was at this time excluded from the church4 ,in the ,west psalmody took a high flight with a true ecclesiastical character4 ,even in ,a4,d4 #ccj1 bishop ,sylvester erected a school at ,rome for training singers for the churches4 ,ambrose of ,milan was the author of a new kind of church music full of melodious flow1 with rhythmical accent and rich modulation1 nobly popular and grandly simple 7,cantus ,ambrosianus74 ,augustine speaks with enthusiasm of the powerful impression made on him by this lively style of singing1 but expresses also the fear that the senses might be spellbound by the pleasant sound of the tune1 and thus the effect of the words on the mind be weakened4 ,and in fact the ,ambrosian chant was in danger during the #fth century through increasing secularisation of losing its ecclesiastical character4 ,then appeared ,gregory the ,great as reformer and founder of a new style of music 7,cantus ,romanus1 ferinus1 choralis7 for which at the same time1 in order that he might fix it in a tune book 7,antiphonarium71 he invented a special notation1 the so-called ,neum1 either from as characterizing the music1 or from as characterizing the musical notes1 a wonderful mixture of points1 strokes and hooks4 ,the ,gregorian music is in unison1 slow1 measured and uniform without rhythm and beat1 so that it approaches again the old recitative mode of psalm singing1 while still at the same time its elaboration of the art with much richer modulation marks an important step in advance4 ,the ,ambrosian briskness1 freshness and popular style were indeed lost1 but all the more certainly the earnestness1 dignity and solemnity of ,church music were preserved4 ,but it was a very great defect that the ,gregorian music was assigned exclusively to well equipped choirs of clerical singers1 hence ,cantus choralis1 for the training of which ,gregory founded a school of music in ,rome4 ,the congregation was thus deprived of that lively participation in the public service which up to that time it had enjoyed4 #ei4f4 ,the ,liturgy4--,the numerous liturgies that had sprung up since the #dth century were reared on the basis of one common type which we find in the liturgy of the ,apostolic ,constitutions 7 #dc1 #d74 ,the most important orthodox liturgies are3 the ,jerusalem liturgy which is ascribed to the ,apostle ,james1 the ,alexandrian which claims as its author ,mark1 disciple of the ,apostles 7 #af1 #d71 the ,byzantine which professes to have been composed by ,basil and abbreviated by ,chrysostom1 which ultimately dislodged all others from the orthodox church of the ,east4 ,among ,western liturgies the following are distinguished for antiquity1 reputation and significance3 the ,gallican ,masses of the #eth century1 the ,milan liturgy1 professedly by ,barnabas1 probably by ,ambrose1 and the ,roman or that of ,st4 ,peter1 to the successive revisions of which are attached the names of the great popes ,leo the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #dfa1 ,gelasius ,i41 ,a4,d4 #dif1 and ,gregory the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #fjd4 ,it gradually obtained universal ascendancy in the ,west4 ,its components are3 ,the sacramentarium1 prayers for the service of the ,mass1 the antiphonarium1 the lectionarium1 and the ,ordo ,romanus1 guide to the dispensation of the ,mass4 ,the uniting of these several writings to the ,missale ,romanum belongs to a later period4--,the ,greek ,liturgy in the combining of the vesper1 matins and principal service of worship represents a threefold religious drama in which the whole course of the sacred history from the creation of the world to the ascension of our ,lord is brought to view4 ,in the lighting and extinguishing of candles1 in opening and closing of doors1 in the figured cloth covering the altar space1 7 #fj1 #a71 in burning of incense and presentations1 in the successive putting on of various liturgical vestments1 in the processions and genuflections of the inferior clergy1 in the handling of the sacramental elements1 etc41 the chief points of the gospel history are symbolically set forth4 ,the word accompanying the ceremonies 7intonations1 responses1 prayers1 readings1 singing7 has a subordinate significance and forms only a running commentary on the drama4--,the ,latin ,church changed the dramatic character of the liturgy into a dogmatic one4 ,it is no longer the objective history of salvation which is here represented1 but the subjective appropriation of salvation4 ,the sinner in need of redemption comes to the altar of the ,lord1 seeks and finds quickening and instruction1 forgiveness and grace4 ,the real pillar of the whole service is therefore the word1 and to the symbol is assigned only the subordinate part of accompanying the word with a pictorial representation4 ,the components of the liturgy are partly such as invariably are repeated in every ,mass1 partly such as change with the calendar and the requirements of particular festivals4 ,among the former the canon of the ,mass forms the real centre of the whole ,mass4 ,it embraces the eucharistic forms of consecration with the prayer offered up in connection with the offering of it up4--,among the liturgical writings are specially to be named the ,diptychs 7 1 to fold twice71 writing tablets which were covered on the inside with wax4 ,they were the official lists of persons of the ancient church1 and were of importance for the liturgy inasmuch as the names written upon them were the subject of special liturgical intercession4 ,we have to distinguish1 1 in which are written the names of the foreign bishops with whom church fellowship is maintained1 and or lists of their own church members as the offerers1 and 4#agi #ei4g4 ,liturgical ,vestments4--,a special clerical costume which made the clergy recognisable even in civil life arose from their scorning to submit to the whims of fashion4 ,the transition from this to a compulsory liturgical style of dress was probably owing to the fact that the clergy in discharging their official functions wore not their every-day attire1 but a better suit reserved for the purpose4 ,if in this way the idea of sacred vestments was arrived at it was an easy step to associate them with the official costume of the ,old ,testament priesthood1 attributing to them1 as to the dress of the ,jewish priests1 a symbolico-mystical significance1 to be diversified according to their patterns as well as according to the needs of the worship and their hierarchical rank4 ,in the ,west the proper dress for ,mass was and continued the so-called ,alba1 among the ,greeks or 1 a white linen shirt reaching down to the feet after the pattern of the old ,roman ,tunica and corresponding to the long coat of the ,old ,testament priest1 with a girdle 7,cingulum74 ,the shorter ,casula or ,pineta1 among the ,greeks 1 over the ,alba took the place of the ,toga4 ,it was originally without sleeves1 simply a coloured garment of costly material furnished with an opening for the head1 but in later times made more convenient by being slit half way down on both sides4 ,the ,orarium1 1 afterwards called ,stola1 is a long wide strip of costly cloth which the deacon threw over his left shoulder and on his right thigh1 but the priest and the bishop wore it over both shoulders and at the sacrifice of the ,mass in the form of the cross over the breast4 ,over these priestly vestments the bishop wore as representing the high priest's ephod the so-called ,dalmatica1 among the ,greeks 1 a costly sleeved robe2 and the archbishop also the ,pallium1 4 ,this last was originally a complete robe1 but in order not to conceal the episcopal and priestly ornaments it was reduced to a small white woollen cape with two strips hanging down on the breast and the back4 ,to episcopal ornaments of the ,greeks besides belonged the 1 a square-shaped piece of cloth1 hanging down from the on the left side1 ornamented with a picture of ,christ sewed on stiff pasteboard2 and to correspond to the high priest's ,urim and ,thummim1 the 1 a painting in enamel of a saint1 hung to the breast by a golden chain4 ,among the ,latins the place of the latter is taken by the golden cross for the breast or ,pectorale4 ,as covering of the head the priest had the ,barretta 7birretum71 the bishop the mitre1 mitra 7 #hd1 #a74 ,the ring and staff 7marriage ring and shepherd's staff7 were in very early times made the insignia of the episcopal office4 ,the settling of the various liturgical colours for the successive festivals of the ,christian year was first made during the #abth century4#ahj #ei4h4 ,symbolical ,acts in ,worship4--,the fraternal kiss was a general custom throughout the whole period4 ,on entering1 the church door or threshold was kissed2 during the liturgical service the priest kissed the altar1 the reader the ,gospel4 ,even relics and images were kissed4 ,when one confessed sin he beat upon his breast4 ,the sign of the cross was made during every ecclesiastical action and even in private life was frequently used4 ,the custom of washing the hands on entering ,god's house and lighting candles in it1 was very ancient4 ,no quite certain trace of sprinkling with holy water is found before the #ith century4 ,the burning of incense 7thurificari7 is first found late in the #dth century4 ,in earlier times it was supposed to draw on and feed the demons2 afterwards it was regarded as the surest means of driving them away4 ,the consecration of churches and the annual commemoration thereof are referred to even by ,eusebius 7 74 ,even so early as the times of ,ambrose the possession of relics was regarded as an indispensable condition to such services4 #ei4i4 ,processions are of early date and had their prototypes in the heathen worship in the solemn marches at the high festivals of ,dionysos1 ,athene1 etc41 etc4 ,first at burials and weddings1 they were practised since the #dth century at the reception of bishops or relics1 at thanksgivings for victories1 especially at seasons of public distress and calamity 7,rogationes1 ,supplicationes74 ,bishop ,mamertus of ,vienna about ,a4,d4 #dej and ,gregory the ,great developed them into regularly recurring institutions whose celebration was rendered more solemn by carrying the gospels in front1 costly crosses and banners1 blazing torches and wax candles1 relics1 images of ,mary and the saints1 by psalm and hymn singing4 ,the prayers arranged for the purpose with invocation of saints1 and angels and the popular refrain1 ,ora pro nobis6 were called ,litanies4 #fj4 ,,places ,,of ,,public ,,worship1 ,,buildings ,,and ,,works ,,of ,,art4#aha ,church architecture made rapid advance as a science in the times of ,constantine the ,great4 ,the earliest architectural style thus developed is found in the ,christian ,basilicas4 ,whether this was a purely original kind of building called forth by the requirements of congregational worship1 or whether and how far it was based upon previously existing styles1 is still a subject of discussion4 ,in later1 and especially oriental1 church buildings the flat roof of the basilica was often changed into a cupola4 ,of the plastic arts painting was the next to be represented4 #fj4a4 ,the ,basilica4--,the original form of the ,christian basilica was that of an oblong four-sided building running from west to east4 ,it was divided lengthwise by rows of pillars1 into three parts or aisles1 in such a way as to leave the middle aisle at least double the breadth of each of the other two4 ,the middle aisle led up to a semicircular recess 71 1 ,concha1 ,absida71 curved out of the eastern side wall1 which was separated from the middle aisle proper by a railing 71 ,cancelli7 and a curtain 71 ,velum71 and1 because raised a few steps1 was called 7from 74 ,from the #eth century the pillars running down the length of the house were not carried on to the eastern gable1 and thus a cross passage or transept was formed1 which was raised to the level of the ,bema and added to it4 ,this transept now in connection with the middle aisle and the recess imprints upon the ground plan of the church the significant form of the cross4 ,at the entrance at the western end there was a porch which occupied the whole breadth of the house4 ,thus then the whole fell into three divisions4 ,the ,bema was reserved for the clergy4 ,the elevated seat of the bishop 71 ,cathedra7 stood in the middle of the round wall forming the recess1 lower seats for the presbyters on both sides 771 the altar in the centre or in front of the recess4 ,as a place reserved for the altar and the clergy the had also the names 1 1 1 ,sacrarium1 ,sanctuarium1 the name 8,handbook of ,painting3 ,italian ,schools4 ,based on ,kgler's ,handbook40 by ,eastlake2 new ed4 by ,layard1 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahhf4 of ,choir being first given it in the ,middle ,ages4 ,under the ,apse or ,bema there was usually a subterranean chamber1 1 ,memoria1 ,confessio1 containing the bones of martyrs4 ,the altar space in later times in the ,eastern churches instead of being marked off by railings or curtains was separated by a wooden partition which because adorned with sacred pictures painted often on a golden ground and inlaid with most precious stones1 was called the picture screen 774 ,it had usually three doors of which the middle one1 the largest of the three1 the so-called 8,royal0 door1 was reserved for the bishop and for the emperor when he communicated4 ,the ,nave or main part of the building1 consisting of three1 less frequently of five1 aisles 71 1 ,navis1 so called partly from its oblong form1 partly and chiefly on account of the symbolical significance of the ship as a figure of the means of salvation1 ,gen4 vii4 #bc71 was the place where the baptized laity met1 and were arranged in the different aisles according to sex1 age and rank4 ,in the ,eastern churches galleries 77 were often introduced along the sides for the women4 ,the ,porch 71 ,vestibulum7 which from its great width was also called or ,ferula1 properly the hollow stalk of an umbelliferous plant1 was the place occupied by the catechumens and penitents4 ,in front of it1 in earlier times unroofed1 afterwards covered1 was the enclosure 71 1 ,atrium1 ,area7 where a basin of water stood for washing the hands4 ,here too the penitents during the first stage of their discipline1 as well as the energumeni1 had to stand4 ,that the ,atrium was also called ,paradisus1 as ,athanasius tells us1 is best explained by supposing that here for the warning of penitents there was a picture of ,adam and ,eve being driven out of ,paradise4 ,the porch and the side aisles just to the height of the pillars1 were shut in with tesselated rafters and covered with a one-sided slanting roof4 ,but middle aisle and transept were heightened by side walls resting on the pillars and rising high above the side roofs and covered with a two-sided slanting roof4 ,in order that the pillars might be able to bear this burden1 they were bound one to another by an arched binding4 ,the walls of the middle aisle and transepts rising above the side roofs were supplied with windows1 which were usually wanting in the lower walls4--,utility was the main consideration in the development of the plan of the basilicas1 but nevertheless at the same time the idea of symbolical significance was also in many ways very fully carried out1 such as the form of the cross in the ground plan1 and the threefold division into middle and side aisles4 ,in the bow-shaped binding of the pillars the idea of pressing forward 7,phil4 iii4 #ac1 #ad7 was represented1 for there the eye was carried on from one pillar to the other and led uninterruptedly forward to the recess at the east end1 where stood the altar1 where the ,sun of righteousness had risen 7,mal4 iv4 #b74 ,the semicircle of the recess to which the eye was carried forward reminded of the horizon from which the sun rose in his beauty2 and the bold rising of the walls of the middle aisle1 which rested on the arched pillars1 pointed the eye upwards and gave the liturgical sursum corda which the bishop called out to the congregation a corresponding expression in architectural form4 ,this significance was further intensified by the light falling down from above into the sacred place4 #fj4b4 ,secular ,basilicas4--,all spaces adorned with pillared courts were called among the ancient ,romans basilicas4 ,in the private houses of distinguished ,romans the name ,basilica domestica was given to the so-called ,ocus1 i4e4 the chamber reserved for solemn occasions with the peristyle in front1 the inner open court surrounded by covered pillared halls2 while public markets and courts of justice were called ,basilic forenses4 ,the latter were oblong in shape2 at the end opposite the entrance the dividing wall was broken through and in the opening a semicircular recess was carved out with an elevated platform1 and in this were the tribunal of the prtor and seats for the assessors and the jury4 ,in the covered pillared courts along the two sides were the wares exposed for sale and in the usually uncovered large middle space the buyers and lookers-on moved about4 ,outside of the enclosing wall before the entrance was often a pillared porch standing by itself for a lobby4--,from having the same name and many correspondences in construction the later ,christian basilica was supposed to have been copied from the forensic basilica4 ,zestermann was the first to contest this theory and in this found hearty support especially on the ,catholic side4 ,according to him the ,christian basilica had nothing in common with the forensic1 but was called forth quite independently of any earlier style of building by the requirements of ,christian worship4 ,now certainly on the one side the similarity had been quite unduly over-estimated4 ,for almost everything that gave its symbolically significant character to the ecclesiastical basilica1--the transept and the form of the cross brought out by it1 the bow-shaped binding of the pillars1 the walls of the middle aisle resting on the pillars rising sheer into the heights1 as well as the entirely new arrangement of the whole house1 are the essential and independent product of the ,christian spirit4 ,but on the other hand1 differences have been greatly exaggerated and features which the ecclesiastical basilica had in common with the forensic1 which were demonstrably copied from the latter1 have been ignored4 ,on both sides1 too1 the importance for our question of the basilic domestic used for worship before regular churches were built1 has been overlooked4 ,here the peristyle with its pillared courts with the ocus attached supplied the divisions needed for the different classes attending divine service 7clergy1 congregation1 penitents1 catechumens74 ,what was more natural than that this form of building1 brought indeed into more perfect accord with the ,christian idea and congregational requirements1 should be adopted in church building and with it also the name with a new application to ,christ the heavenly ,king8 ,but one and indeed a very essential feature in the later basilica style is wanting generally in the ocus of private houses1 viz4 the ,apse4 ,one would naturally suppose that it was borrowed from the forensic basilica in consideration of its purpose there1 scruples against such procedure being lessened as the heathen state passed over to ,christianity4 ,thus too it is easily explained how the earliest basilicas1 like that of ,tyre consecrated in ,a4,d4 #cac1 of which ,eusebius' description gives us full information1 have as yet no ,apse4 #fj4c4 ,the ,cupola ,style4--,we meet with the first example of the cupola style among ,christian buildings in the form of ,roman mausoleums in chapels or churches raised over martyrs' graves4 ,this style1 however1 was in many ways unsuitable for regular parish churches4 ,the necessarily limited inner space embraced within the circular or polygonal walls would not admit of the significant shape of the nave being preserved2 it could not be proportionally partitioned among clergy1 congregation1 catechumens and penitents4 ,in an ideal point of view only the centre of the whole space was suitable for the bema with the altar1 bishop's throne1 etc4 ,in that case1 however1 the half of the congregation present would have to stand behind the officiating clergy and so this arrangement was not to be thought of4 ,in the later ecclesiastical buildings1 therefore1 of the cupola style the ground plan of the basilica was adopted1 with atrium and narthex at the west end and bema and apse at the east end4 ,the old basilica style1 though capable of so much artistic adornment1 passed now indeed more and more into desuetude before the overpowering impression made upon one entering the building by the cupola 71 ,cuppula7 like a cloud of heaven overspanning at a giddy height the middle space1 pierced by many windows and resting on four pillars bound by arches one to another4 ,besides this main and complete cupola there were often a number of semi- and secondary cupolas1 which gave to the whole building from without the appearance of a rich well ordered organism4 ,the greatest masterpiece in this style1 which ,byzantine love of art and beauty valued far more than the simple basilica1 is the church of ,sophia at ,constantinople 771 at the completion of which in ,a4,d4 #ehg ,justinian ,i4 cried out3 4 #fj4d4 ,accessory and ,special ,buildings4--,alongside of the main building there generally were additional buildings for special purposes 771 surrounded by an enclosing wall4 ,among these isolated extra buildings ,baptistries 71 7 held the first rank4 ,they were built in rotunda form after the pattern of the ,roman baths4 ,the baptismal basin 71 ,piscina7 in the middle of the inner space was surrounded by a series of pillars4 ,in front there was frequently a roomy porch used for the instruction of catechumens4 ,when infant baptism became general1 separate baptistries were no longer needed4 ,their place was taken by the baptismal font in the church itself on the north side of the main entrance4 ,for the custody of church jewels1 ornaments1 robes1 books1 archives1 etc4 in the larger churches there were special buildings provided4 ,the spirit of brotherhood1 the ,philadelphia1 expressed itself in the 1 1 1 7,foundling ,hospitals71 1 4 ,the burying ground 71 ,cimeterium1 ,dormitorium1 ,area7 was also usually within the wall enclosing the church property4 ,the privilege of burial within the church was granted only to emperors and bishops4 ,when clocks came into vogue towers were introduced1 but these were at first simply attached to the churches1 occasionally even standing quite apart4 #fj4e4 ,church furniture4--,the centre of the whole house of ,god was the ,altar 7 1 1 ,ara1 ,altare71 since the #eth century commonly of stone1 often overlaid with gold and silver4 ,the altar stood out at the east end1 the officiating priest behind it facing the congregation4 ,the introduction of the ,miss solitari 7 #eh1 #c7 made it necessary in the ,west to have a large number of altars4 ,in the ,greek church the rule was to have one altar4 ,moveable altars1 for missionaries1 crusaders1 etc41 were necessary since the consecration of the altar had been pronounced indispensable4 ,the ,latins used for this purpose a consecrated stone plate with a cover 7,palla72 the ,greeks only a consecrated altar cloth 774 ,the altar cloth was regarded as essential1 a denudatio alteris as impious desecration2 according to liturgical rule1 however1 the altar was bared on ,friday and ,saturday of ,passion ,week4 ,from the altar cloth was distinguished the ,corporale1 1 for covering the oblations4 ,on the altar stood the ,ciborium1 a canopy supported by four feet1 to which by a golden chain was attached a dove-shaped vessel 77 with the consecrated sacramental elements for the communion of the sick4 ,the ,thuribulum was for the burning of incense1 cross for marches and processions 7,cruces stationales7 and banners 7,vexilla74 ,in the nave were seats for the congregation2 in the narthex there were none4 ,the pulpit or reading desk 7,pulpitum7 at first movable1 afterwards permanently fixed to the railings in the middle of the bema in the basilica was called the ,ambo from 1 or ,lectorium1 our ,english ,lectern4 ,in many churches two ambos were erected1 on the north or left side for the gospel1 and on the south or right side for the epistle4 ,in larger churches1 however1 the ambo was often brought forward into the nave4 ,our chancel had its origin late in the ,middle ,ages by a separate preaching ,ambo being erected beside the lectern1 and raised aloft in order that the preacher might be better seen and heard4--,the introduction of church clocks 7,nol1 ,campanul1 because commonly made of ,campanian brass which was regarded as the best7 is sometimes ascribed to bishop ,paulinus of ,nola in ,campania1 who died in ,a4,d4 #dca1 sometimes to ,pope ,sabinianus1 who died in ,a4,d4 #fjf4 ,in the ,east they were first introduced in the #ith century4 ,in early times the hours of service were announced by ,cursores1 1 afterwards by trumpets or beating of gongs4 #fj4f4 ,the ,graphic and ,plastic ,arts 7 #ch1 #c2 #eg1 #d74--,the ,greek church forbade all nudity2 only face1 hands and feet could be left uncovered4 ,this narrowness was overcome in the ,west4 ,brilliancy of colour1 costliness of material and showy overloading of costume made up for artistic deficiencies4 ,the afforded stereotyped forms for the countenances of images of ,christ1 ,mary and the ,apostles4 ,the ,nimbus1 originally a soft mist or transparent cloud1 with which pagan poets and painters surrounded the persons or heads of the gods1 in later times also those of the ,roman emperors1 made its appearance during the #eth century in ,christian painting as the halo1 in the form of rays1 of a diadem or of a circle1 first of all in figures of ,christ4 ,images of the ,saviour bound to the cross were first introduced about the end of the #fth century4 ,the symbol was previously restricted to the representation of a lamb at the foot of the cross1 a bust of ,christ at the top or in the middle of the cross1 or the full figure of ,christ holding ,his cross before ,him4 ,anastasius ,sinaita in the #gth century1 to show his opposition to the monophysite doctrine that only the body had been crucified1 painted a figure of the crucified which straightway came to be regarded in the ,eastern church as the pattern figure1 without the crown of thorns1 with nimbus1 the wound of the spear with blood streaming forth1 the cross with an inscription on both sides--,,jc4 ,,xc4--and a sloping peg as support for the feet1 and under the cross the skull of ,adam4 ,the ,western crucifix figures1 on the other hand1 though likewise governed by a special type1 show greater freedom in artistic development4 ,wall or fresco painting was most extensively carried on in the ,catacombs during the #dth-#fth centuries4 ,mosaic painting1 ,musivum1 1 with its imperishable beauty of colouring1 was used to decorate the long flat walls of the basilicas1 the vaulted ceilings of the cupolas and the curving sides of the apse 7glass-mosaic on a gold ground74 ,liturgical books were adorned with miniature figures4 ,sublimity came more and more to characterize ecclesiastical art2 it became more majestic1 dignified and dispassionate1 but also stiffer and less natural4 ,statues seemed to the ancient church heathenish1 sensuous and realistic4 ,the ,greek church at last prohibited them entirely and would not suffer even a single crucifix1 but only simple crosses with a sloping transverse beam at the foot4 ,the ,west had more liberal views1 yet even there ,christian statues were only quite isolated phenomena4 ,there was less scruple in regard to bas-reliefs and alto-reliefs 77 especially on sarcophagi and ecclesiastical furniture4 #fa4 ,,life1 ,,discipline ,,and ,,morals4#ahb ,when whole crowds of worldly-minded men1 who only sought worldly advantages from professing ,christ1 were drawn into the church after the ,state had become ,christian1 the ,christian life lost much of the earnestness1 power and purity1 by which it had conquered the old world of heathenism4 ,more and more the church became assimilated and conformed to the world1 church discipline grew more lax1 and moral decay made rapid progress4 ,passionate contentions1 quarrels and schisms among bishops and clergy filled also public life with party strife1 animosity and bitterness4 ,the immorality of the court poisoned by its example the capital and the provinces4 ,savagery and licentiousness grew rampant amid the devastating raids of the barbarians4 ,hypocrisy and bigotry speedily took the place of piety among those who strove after something higher1 while the masses consoled themselves with the reflection that every man could not be a monk4 ,but in spite of all ,christianity still continued to act as a leaven4 ,in public and civil life1 in the administration of justice and the habits of the people1 the ,christian spirit1 theoretically at least1 and often also practically1 was still everywhere present4 ,the requirements of humanity and the rights of man were recognised2 slavery was more and more restricted2 gladiatorial shows and immoral exhibitions were abolished2 the limits of proud exclusive nationality were broken through2 polygamy was never tolerated1 and the sanctity of marriage was insisted upon1 the female sex obtained its long unacknowledged rights2 benevolent institutions 7 #fj1 #d7 flourished2 and the inveterate vices of ancient paganism could at least be no longer regarded as the sound1 legitimate and natural conditions and expressions of civil and social life4 ,even the pagan1 who1 adopting the profession of ,christianity1 remained pagan at heart1 was obliged at least to submit himself to the forms and requirements of the church1 to its discipline and morals4 ,the shady side of this period is glaring enough1 but a bright side and noble personages of deep piety1 moral earnestness1 resolute denial of self and the world1 are certainly not wanting4 #fa4a4 ,church ,discipline4--,the ,penitential ,discipline of the #crd century 7 #ci1 #b7 dealt only with public offences which had become common scandal4 ,but even those who were burdened in conscience with heavy but hidden sins and thereby felt themselves excluded from church fellowship1 were advised to seek deliverance from this secret excommunication by public confession of sin before the church in the form of exomologesis and to submit to whatever humiliation the church should lay upon them4 ,in presence of this hard and unreasonable demand the need must have soon become apparent of a secret and private tribunal in place of this public one1 which when once introduced would soon drive the earlier out of the field4 ,the first step in this direction was taken in the end of the #crd and beginning of the #dth century in the ,eastern church by the appointment of a special penitential presbytery 74 71 who under an oath of secresy heard the confession of such sinners and laid upon them the proper penances4 ,but when in ,a4,d4 #cia1 a female penitent1 a married lady of good family in ,constantinople1 having committed adultery in the church with a deacon during her time of penance1 confessed this sin also to a priestly confessor and so brought about the excommunication of the guilty deacon1 the ,patriarch ,nectarius was obliged on account of the popular feeling excited to again abolish the whole institution and to leave to the consciences of such sinners themselves the question of partaking in the sacraments4 ,but it was evident that this could not exclude pastoral advice and guidance by the clergy4 ,in the ,west1 notwithstanding the confident assertions of ,socrates1 we never meet with a penitential priest expressly appointed to such duties4 ,jerome on ,matt4 xvi4 #ai calls it pharisaic pride in a bishop or presbyter to arrogate the judicial function of forgiving sins1 8cum apud ,deum non sententia sacerdotum1 sed reorum vita quratur40 ,augustine distinguishes three kinds of penance corresponding to the three classes in the congregation4 #a4 ,the penance of catechumens2 all their previous sins are atoned for by baptism4 #b4 ,the penance of believers whose venial sins 7peccata venialia7 occasioned by the universal sinfulness of human nature obtain forgiveness in daily prayer4 #c4 ,the penance of those who on account of serious actual breaches of the decalogue 7peccata gravia s4 mortalia7 are punished with ecclesiastical excommunication4 ,in estimating the church discipline to be exacted of this last class of offenders he lays down the principle that the degree of its publicity is to be measured in accordance with the degree of publicity of the offence committed1 and according to the magnitude of the scandal which it has occasioned4 ,and when some ,italian bishops demanded 8in pnitentia1 qu a fidelibus postulatur0 the reading before the congregation of a written confession of their sin1 ,leo the ,great forbade this extreme practice1 as unevangelical as it was unreasonable1 declaring that it was quite enough to confess the sin first to ,god and then in secret confession to the priest4 ,but when ,leo added the assertion3 divina bonitate ordinatum esse1 ut indulgentia ,dei nisi supplicationibus sacerdotum nequeat obtineri2 et salvatorem ipsum1 qui hane prpositis ecclesi tradidit potestatem1 ut et confidentibus actionem pnitenti durent1 et eosdem salubri satisfactione purgatos ad communionem sacramentorum per januam reconciliationis admitterent1 huic utique operi incessabiliter intervenire1--we have here the first foundation laid of the present ,roman ,catholic doctrine of penance4 ,but this confessio secreta is still something very different from the later so-called ,auricular ,confession4 ,leo's ordinance treats only of the confession of grave offences1 which1 if openly committed or proclaimed1 would have called forth punishment from the judicial tribunal2 quibus1 says ,leo1 possint legum constitutione percelli4 ,but still more important is the distinction that even ,leo does not confer upon the priest absolute power of forgiving sin as ,god's vicegerent1 but only allows him to officiate as 8peccator pro delictis pnitentium40 ,besides ,leo's view of the unconditional necessity of confession in order to obtain divine forgiveness of heinous sins by no means gained universal acceptance in the church4 ,the opinion that it was enough to confess sins to ,god alone1 and that confession to a priest1 while helpful and wholesome1 was not absolutely necessary1 was universally prevalent in the ,east1 where ,chrysostom especially maintained it1 and even in the ,west down to the time of ,gratian1 ,a4,d4 #aaej1 and ,petrus ,peter ,lombardus ,lombard1 ,a4,d4 #aafd1 had numerous and important representatives among the teachers of the church 7 #ajd1 #d74 ,an important step onwards on the path opened up by ,leo was taken soon after him in the ,west when not merely actual sins but even sinful dispositions and desires1 ambition1 anger1 pride1 lust1 etc41 of which ,joh4 ,cassianus enumerates eight as vitia principalia1 as well as the sinful thoughts springing from them1 were included in the province of secret confession4 ,a system of confession as a regular and necessary preparation for observing the sacrament did not as yet exist4--,the so-called ,penitential books from the #fth century afforded a guide to determine the penances to be imposed upon the penitents in the form of fasts1 prayers1 almsgiving1 etc41 according to the degree of their guilt4 ,the first ,penitential book for the ,greek church is ascribed to the ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 ,joh4 the ,faster or ,jejunator1 ,a4,d4 #eie1 and is entitled3 4#ahc--;,continuation #hi1 #f4 #fa4b4 ,christian ,marriage4--,the ecclesiastical consecration of the marriage tie 7 #ci1 #a7 performed after1 as well as before1 civil marriage by mutual consent before two secular witnesses1 was made more solemn by being separated from the ordinary worship and celebrated at a special week-day service 7missa pro sponsis71 and a rich ritual grew up which gradually developed itself into an independent liturgy4 ,into this many bridal customs hitherto despised as heathenish were introduced1 the wedding ring1 veiling the bride1 the crowning both betrothed parties with wreaths1 bridal sashes1 bridal torches1 bridesmaids or 4 ,the granting of the wedding ceremony was regarded as an honour which would be refused in the case of marriages not approved by the church4 ,but neither the refusal nor the neglect of the ceremony on the part of those newly married interfered with the validity of the marriage4 ,charlemagne was the first in the ,west and ,leo ,,vi4 7 #gj1 #b7 was the first in the ,east1 to make the church ceremony obligatory4 ,marriage between free and bond1 which was regarded by the state as concubinage1 was regarded by the church as perfectly valid4 ,blood relationship by consanguinity and affinity was regarded as hindrance to marriage2 artificial relationship by adoption and spiritual relationship by baptismal and confirmational sponsorship 7 #eh1 #a7 were also hindrances4 ,marriage between brothers' or sisters' children was pronounced unbecoming by ,augustine4 ,gregory the ,great forbade it on physiological grounds1 and permitted marriage only in the third or fourth degree of relationship4 ,with gradually increasing strictness the prohibition was extended even to the seventh degree1 but finally was fixed at the fourth by ,innocent ,,iii4 in ,a4,d4 #abae4 ,in direct opposition to the ,roman law of hereditary claims which established the degree of relationship according to the number of actual descendants1 so that father and son were counted as related in the first degree to one another1 brothers and sisters as in the second degree1 uncle and niece or nephew as in the third1 brothers' or sisters' children as in the fourth degree1 the canon law on hindrances to marriage begins this reckoning after the withdrawal of the common parents1 so that brother and sister are related in the first degree1 uncle and niece in the second1 etc4 ,several ,councils of the #dth century wished to make the contracting of a second marriage occasion of church discipline2 subsequently this demand was abandoned4 ,many canonists1 however1 contest even yet the legitimacy of a third marriage1 and a fourth was almost universally admitted to be sinful and unallowable 7 #fg1 #b74 ,the contracting of mixed marriages1 with heathens1 ,jews or heretics1 demanded penance1 and was strictly forbidden by the second ,trullan ,council in ,a4,d4 #fib4 ,only adultery was usually admitted as affording ground for divorce2 and also for the most part1 unnatural vice1 murder and apostasy4 ,the ,council at ,mileve in ,africa in ,a4,d4 #daf for the first time forbade divorced persons marrying again1 even the innocent party1 and ,pope ,innocent ,i4 ,a4,d4 #dag1 made this prohibition applicable universally4--,continuation #hi1 #d4 #fa4c4 ,sickness1 ,death and ,burial4--,the anointing the sick with oil 7,mk4 vi4 #ac2 ,jas4 v4 #ad7 as means of charismatic bodily healing is met with down to the #eth century4 ,innocent ,i4 put it in a decretal of ,a4,d4 #daf1 for the first time as a sacrament for the dispensation of spiritual blessing to the sick4 ,but many centuries passed before the anointing of the sick was generally observed as the sacrament of ,extreme ,unction 7 #gj1 #b2 #ajd1 #e74 ,on the other hand1 the ,areopagite 7 #dg1 #aa7 reckoned the anointing of the dead a sacrament4 ,the closing of the eyes implied that death was a sleep with the hope of an awakening in the resurrection4 ,the fraternal kiss sealed the communion of ,christians even beyond the grave4 ,the putting garlands on the corpse as expressive of victory still met with opposition4 ,several ,synods found it necessary to forbid the absurdity of squeezing the consecrated elements into the lips of the dead or laying them in the coffin4 ,passionate lamentation1 rending of garments1 wearing sackcloth and ashes1 hired mourners1 cypress branches1 etc41 were regarded as despairing1 heathenish customs4 ,so too festivals of the dead by night were condemned1 while on the contrary funeral processions by day1 with torches1 lamps1 palm and olive branches1 were in high repute4 ,julian and the ,vandals prohibited them4 ,in the #dth century the celebration of the ,agape and ,supper at the grave was still frequent4 ,in their place afterwards we find mourning feasts1 but these1 on account of their being abused1 were disallowed by the church4 #fa4d4 ,purgatory and ,masses for ,souls4--,the connection of the custom already referred to by ,tertullian of not only praying in family worship for members of the family that had fallen asleep1 but also by oblations of sacramental elements on the memorial days of the dead 7,oblationes pro defunctis7 of giving to the intercessions at the ,supper in public worship a special direction to them1 with the doctrine of ,purgatory 7,ignis purgatorius7 which had developed itself in the ,west since the #eth century1 gave rise to the institution of masses for souls 7 #eh1 #c74 ,the idea of a place of punishment between death and the resurrection1 in which the venial sins 7peccata venialia7 of believers must be atoned for1 was quite unknown to the whole ancient church down to the age of ,augustine and to the ,greek church till even after his day 7 #fg1 #f74 ,mention is made indeed even by ,origen of a future or 2 but he means by it a mere spiritual burning1 from which even a ,paul and a ,peter were not exempted4 ,in the ,west it was first ,augustine who deduced from ,matt4 xii4 #cb1 that even in the hereafter forgiveness of sins is possible1 holding in accordance with #a ,cor4 iii4 #ac-ae that it is not incredible1 but yet always questionable1 that many believers who took over with them into the hereafter a sinful connection with their earthly past life1 might there he purified by an 8ignis purgatorius0 of longer or shorter duration as the continuation and completion of the earthly 8ignis tribulationis10 fiery trial1 from the earthly dross still adhering to them1 and so might be saved4 ,with greater confidence ,csarius of ,arles teaches that believers who during their earthly life had neglected to atone for their minor offences by almsgiving and other good works1 must be purified by a lingering fire in the next world1 in order to win admission into eternal blessedness4 ,finally1 ,gregory the ,great raised this idea into an established dogma of the ,western church1 while he1 at the same time1 taught that by the intercession of the living for the dead1 and especially by the sacrifices of the mass offered for them their purgatorial pains would be moderated and curtailed4 ,he too referred to ,matt4 xii4 and #a ,cor4 iii4 ,the reference to #b ,maccabees xii4 #da-df belongs to a later period4--,continuation1 #ajf1 #b1 #c4 #fb4 ,,heretical ,,reformers4 ,during the #dth century a spirit of opposition to the dominant ecclesiastical system was awakened1 but as it manifested itself in isolated forms1 it had no abiding result and was soon stamped out4 ,this spirit showed itself in various attempts which passed beyond what evangelical principles could vindicate4 ,it directed its attacks partly against the secularization of the church1 branching out often into wild fanaticism and rigorism1 and partly against superstition and externalism4 ,disgusted with the interminable theological controversies and heresy huntings of that age1 many came to regard the distinction between orthodoxy and heresy as a matter of indifference so far as religion is concerned1 and to look for the core and essence of ,christianity not so much in doctrine as in morals4 #fb4a4 ,audians and ,apostolics4--,as fanatical opponents of the secularizing of the church1 besides the ,montanists 7 #dj1 #a7 and the ,novatians 7 #da1 #c7 still surviving as isolated communities down to the #eth century1 we meet during the #dth century with the ,donatists 7 #fc1 #a71 the ,audians and the ,apostolics4 ,the sect of the ,audians was founded about ,a4,d4 #cdj by a layman1 a monk1 ,audius or ,udo from ,mesopotamia4 ,having been challenged for his crude anthropomorphic views1 in support of which he referred to ,gen4 i4 #bf and other passages1 he allowed himself to be chosen and ordained bishop over his adherents4 ,placed thus in a directly hostile relation to the ,catholic church1 they accused the church of most arrant worldliness and degeneracy1 called for a return to apostolic poverty and avoided all communion with its members4 ,they also rejected the ,nicene canon on the observance of ,easter and adopted the quartodeciman practice 7 #ef1 #c74 ,on the motion of several ,catholic bishops the emperor banished the founder of the sect to ,scythia1 where he laboured earnestly for the conversion of the ,goths1 founded also some bishoprics and monasteries with strict rules1 and died in ,a4,d4 #cgb4 ,the persecution of the ,christians under ,athanaric1 in ,a4,d4 #cgj 7 #gf1 #a71 pressed sorely upon the ,audians4 ,still remnants of them continued to exist down to the end of the #eth century4--,the so-called ,apostolics of ,asia ,minor in the #dth century went even further than the ,audians4 ,of their origin nothing certain is known4 ,they declared that the holding of private property and marriage are sinful1 and unconditionally refused readmission to all excommunicated persons4 #fb4b4 ,protests against ,superstition and ,external ,observances4--,about the end of the #dth century lively protests were made against the superstitions and shallow externalism of the church4 ,they were directed first of all to the worship of ,mary1 especially the now wide-spread belief in her perpetua virginitas as mother of ,jesus 7 #eg1 #b74 ,the first protesters against this doctrine that we meet with are the so-called ,antidicomarianites in ,arabia1 whom ,epiphanius sought to turn from their heresy by a doctrinal epistle incorporated in his history of heresies4 ,in the ,west too there sprang up several opponents of this dogma of the church4 ,one of the most prominent of these was a layman ,helvidius in ,rome in ,a4,d4 #chj1 a scholar of ,auxentius1 the ,arian bishop of ,milan4 ,then about ,a4,d4 #chh the ,roman monk ,jovinian opposed on substantial doctrinal grounds the prevailing notions about the merit of works and external observances1 especially monasticism1 asceticism1 celibacy and fasting4 ,and finally1 ,bonosus1 bishop of ,sardica1 about ,a4,d4 #cij1 wrought in the same direction1 though at a later period he seems to have given his adhesion to the ,ebionite error that ,jesus had been an ordinary man whom ,god adopted as ,his ,son on account of ,his merit 7,filius ,dei adoptivus74 ,at least his younger contemporary ,marius ,mercator describes him as an advocate of these views alongside of ,paul of ,samosata and ,photinus4 ,we also find many allusions during the #gth century to a sect of ,bonosians teaching similar doctrines in ,spain and ,gaul1 who are frequently associated with the ,photinians4 ,even before ,jovinian1 ,arius1 a presbyter of ,sebaste in ,armenia1 about ,a4,d4 #cfj1 entered his protest against the doctrine of the merit of external observances4 ,he objected to prayer and oblations for the dead1 would have no compulsory fasting1 and no distinction of rank between bishops and presbyters4 ,in this way he was brought into collision with his bishop ,eustathius 7 #dd1 #c74 ,persecuted on all sides1 his adherents betook themselves to the caves and forests4 ,the two monks of ,milan1 ,sarmatio and ,barbatianus1 about ,a4,d4 #cif1 were perhaps scholars of ,jovinian1 were at least of the same mind with him4 ,finally1 ,vigilantius1 presbyter at ,barcelona about ,a4,d4 #djj1 with passionate violence opposed the veneration of relics1 the invocation of saints1 the prevailing love of miracles1 the vigil services1 the celibacy of the clergy and the merit of outward observances4--,the counterblast of the church was hot and violent4 ,epiphanius wrote against the ,audians and ,arians2 ,ambrose against ,bonosus and the followers of ,jovinian2 ,jerome with unparalleled bitterness and passion against ,helvidius1 ,jovinian and ,vigilantius2 ,augustine with greater moderation discussed the views of ,jovinian which in their starting point were related to his own soteriological views4#ahd #fb4c4 ,protests against the ,over-,estimation of ,doctrine4--,even in the times of ,athanasius a certain ,rhetorius made his appearance with the assertion that all heretics had a right to their opinion1 and ,philastrius ,philaster speaks of a sect of ,rhetorians in ,egypt who1 perhaps with a reference to ,phil4 i4 #ah1 set aside altogether the idea of heresy and placed the essence of orthodoxy in fidelity to convictions4 ,the ,gnosimachians were related to them in the depreciation of dogma1 but went beyond them by wholly withdrawing themselves from the domain of dogmatics and occupying themselves exclusively with morals4 ,they are put in the list of heretics by ,joh4 ,damascenus4 ,this sect had sprung up during the monophysite and monothelite controversies1 and maintained that since ,god requires of a ,christian nothing more than a righteous life 7 71 all striving after theoretical knowledge is useless and fruitless4 #fc4 ,,schisms4 ,the ,novatian and the ,alexandrian ,meletian ,schisms 7 #da1 #c1 #d7 continued to rage down into our period4 ,then in consequence of the ,arian controversy there arose among the orthodox three new schisms 7 #ej1 #h74 ,among them was a ,roman schism1 followed later by several others that grew out of double elections 7 #df1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #aa74 ,the most threatening of all the schisms of this period was the ,donatist in ,north ,africa4 ,on the ,johannite schism in ,constantinople1 see #ea1 #c4 ,owing to various diversities in the development of doctrine 7 #ej1 #g71 constitution 7 #df71 worship 7 #ef ff471 and discipline 7 #fa1 #a71 material was accumulating for the grand explosion that was to burst up the connection of ,east and ,west 7 #fg74 ,the imperial union attempts during the ,monophysite controversy caused a thirty-five years' schism between the two halves of the ,christian world 7 #eb1 #e71 and want of character in the ,roman bishop ,vigilius split off the ,west for half a century 7 #eb1 #f74 ,the split between the ,east and ,west over the union with the ,monothelite party 7 #eb1 #h7 was soon indeed overcome4 ,but soon thereafter the second ,trullan ,council at ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #fib1 which1 as the continuation of the #eth and #fth cumenical ,councils 7 1 ,concilium quinisextum71 occupied itself exclusively with questions of constitution1 worship1 and discipline1 which had not there been discussed1 gave occasion to the later incurable and disastrous schism4 #fc4a4 ,the ,donatist ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #caa-dae4--;,in ,north ,africa1 where echoes of the ,montanist enthusiasm were still heard1 many voluntarily and needlessly gave themselves up to martyrdom during the ,diocletian persecution4 ,the sensible bishop of ,carthage ,mensurius and his archdeacon ,ccilian ,ccilius opposed this fanaticism4 ,both had given up heretical books instead of the sacred books demanded of them4 ,this was sufficient to make the opposite party denounce them as traditores4 ,mensurius died in ,a4,d4 #caa1 and his followers chose ,ccilian ,ccilius as his successor1 and had him hastily ordained by bishop ,felix of ,aptunga1 being sorely pressed by the machinations of the other party4 ,the opposition1 with a bigoted rich widow ,lucilla at its head1 denounced ,felix as a traditor1 and so treated his ordination as invalid4 ,it put up a rival bishop in the person of the reader ,majorinus1 who soon got1 in ,a4,d4 #cac1 a more powerful successor in ,donatus1 called by his own followers the ,great4 ,the schism spread from ,carthage over all ,north ,africa4 ,the peasants1 sorely oppressed by exorbitant taxes and heavy villeinage1 took the side of the ,donatists 7,pars ,donati74 ,constantine the ,great at the very first declared himself against them4 ,when they complained of this1 the emperor convened for the purpose of special investigation a clerical commission at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #cac1 under the presidency of the ,roman bishop ,melchiades1 and then a great ,western ,synod at ,arles in ,a4,d4 #cad4 ,both decided against the ,donatists4 ,they appealed to the immediate decision of the emperor1 who also heard the two parties at ,milan1 but decided in accordance with previous judgments in ,a4,d4 #caf4 ,now followed severe measures1 taking churches from them and banishing their bishops which powerfully excited and increased their fanaticism4 ,constantine resorted therefore to milder and more tolerant procedure1 but in their fanatical zeal they repudiated all compromises4 ,under ,constans the matter became still more formidable4 ,ascetics mad with enthusiasm1 drawn from the very dregs of the people1 who called themselves ,milites ,christi1 ,agonistici1 swarmed as beggars through the country1 ,circumcelliones1 roused the oppressed peasants to revolt1 preached freedom and fraternity1 forced masters to do the work of slaves1 robbed1 murdered1 and burned4 ,political revolution was carried on under the cover of a religious movement4 ,an imperial army put down the revolt1 and an attempt was made in ,a4,d4 #cdh to pacify the needy ,donatists by imperial gold4 ,but ,donatus flung back the money with indignation1 and the rebellion was renewed4 ,a severe sentence was now passed upon the heads of the party1 and all ,donatist churches were closed or taken from them4 ,julian restored the churches and recalled the exiled bishops4 ,he allowed the ,donatists with impunity to take violent revenge upon the ,catholics4 ,julian's successor however again issued strict laws against the sectaries1 and schisms arose among themselves4 ,toward the end of the #dth century bishop ,optatus of ,mileve opposed them in his treatise ,de ,schismate ,donatistarum ,ll4 ,,vii4 ,in ,a4,d4 #djj ,augustine1 bishop of ,hippo ,regius1 began his unwearied attacks upon this sect4 ,the mildest terms were offered to induce the ,donatists to return to the church4 ,many of the more moderate took advantage of the opportunity2 but this only made the others all the more bitter4 ,they refused repeated invitations to a discussion1 fearing ,augustine's masterly dialectic4 ,augustine1 who at first maintained that force should not be used in matters of faith1 was moved by the persistent stiffneckedness and senseless fanaticism of his opponents to change his opinion1 and to confess that in order to restore such heretics to the church1 to salvation1 recourse must be had to violent compulsion 7coge intrare1 ,lk4 xiv4 #bc74 ,a synod at ,carthage in ,a4,d4 #dje called upon the ,emperor ,honorius to take proceedings against this stiffnecked sect4 ,he did so by imposing fines1 banishing their clergy1 and taking their churches4 ,augustine renewed the challenge to a public disputation4 ,the ,donatists were at last compelled by the emperor to enter the lists4 ,thus came about the three days' ,collatio cum ,donatistis of ,a4,d4 #daa at ,carthage4 ,there appeared #bgi ,donatist and #bhf ,catholic bishops4 ,petilian and ,primian were the chief speakers on the side of the ,donatists1 ,augustine and ,aurelian of ,carthage on the other4 ,the imperial commissioner assigned the victory to the ,catholics4 ,in vain the ,donatists appealed4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dad the ,emperor declared that they had forfeited all civil rights1 and in ,a4,d4 #dae he threatened all who attended their meetings with death4 ,the ,vandals1 who conquered ,africa in ,a4,d4 #dbi1 persecuted ,catholics and ,donatists alike1 and a common need furthered their reconciliation and secured a good mutual understanding4--,the ,donatists started from the principle that no one who is excommunicated or deserves to be excommunicated is fit for the performance of any sacramental action4 ,with the ,novatians they demanded the absolute purity of the church1 but admitted that repentance was a means for regaining church fellowship4 ,they maintained that they were the pure and the ,catholics were schismatics1 who had nothing in common with ,christ1 whose administration of the sacraments was therefore invalid and useless1 so that they even rebaptized those who had ,catholic baptism4 ,the partiality of the state for their opponents and confused blending of the ideas of the visible and invisible church led them to adopt the view that church and state1 the kingdom of ,god and the kingdom of the world1 had nothing in common with one another1 and that the state should not interfere in religious matters4 #fc4b4 ,the ,concilium ,quinisextum1 ,a4,d4 #fib4--,this ,council claimed to be regarded as cumenical and was recognised as such even by ,pope ,sergius ,i4 ,the ,greeks had not yet got over their vexation at the triumph which ,rome had won at the last cumenical ,council 7 #eb1 #h74 ,it thus happened that among the multitude of harmless decrees the following six were smuggled in which were in flat contradiction to the ,roman practice4 #a4 ,in enumerating the sources of the canon law alone valid almost all the ,latin ,councils and ,papal ,decretals were omitted1 and the whole #he ,canones ,apostt4 7 #dc1 #d7 included1 whereas ,rome had pronounced only the first #ej valid4 #b4 ,the ,roman custom of enforcing celibacy on presbyters and bishops is condemned as unjustifiable and inhuman 7 #de1 #b74 #c4 ,fasting on the ,saturdays of the ,quadragesima is forbidden 7 #ef1 #d74 #d4 ,the #bhth ,canon of the ,council of ,chalcedon which makes the patriarch of ,constantinople equal to the bishop of ,rome is repeated and anew enforced 7 #df1 #a1 #g74 #e4 ,the ,levitical prohibition against blood and things strangled is sanctioned as still binding upon ,christians1 although it had never been enforced by the ,roman church4 #f4 ,images of ,christ in the shape of a lamb1 which were very common in the ,west1 were forbidden4 ,the papal legates subscribed the decrees of the ,council2 but the ,pope forbade their publication in all the churches of the ,west4 ,compare further #df1 #aa4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,church ,,outside ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4#ahe #fd4 ,,missionary ,,operations ,,in ,,the ,,east4 ,the real missionarizing church of this period was the ,western 7 #ge ff474 ,it was pre-eminently fitted for this by its practical tendency and called to it by its intimate connection with the hordes of the migrating peoples4 ,examples of organized missionary activity in the ,east are rare4 ,yet other more occasional ways were opened for the spread of ,christianity outside of the empire1 by ,christian fugitives and prisoners of war1 political embassies and trade associations4 ,anchorets1 monks and stylites1 too1 who settled on the borders of the empire or in deserts outside1 by their extraordinary appearance made a powerful impression on the surrounding savage tribes4 ,these streamed in in crowds1 and those strange saints preached ,christ to them by word and work4 #fd4a4 ,the ,ethiopic-,abyssinian ,church4#ahf--;,about ,a4,d4 #caf a certain ,meropius of ,tyre on a voyage of discovery to the countries south of ,egypt was murdered with his whole ship's company4 ,only his two nephews ,frumentius and ,aedesius were spared4 ,they won the favour of the ,abyssinian king and became the tutors of the heir apparent1 ,aizanas4 ,frumentius was subsequently1 in ,a4,d4 #dch1 ordained by ,athanasius bishop of the country4 ,aizanas was baptised1 the church spread rapidly from ,abyssinia to ,ethiopia and ,numidia4 ,a translation of the bible into the ,geez dialect1 the language of the country1 is attributed to ,frumentius4 ,closely connected with the ,egyptian mother church1 it fell with it into ,monophysitism 7 #eb1 #g74 ,in worship and discipline1 besides much that is primitive1 it has borrowed many things from ,judaism1 and retained many of the old habits of the country1 e4g4 observing the ,sabbath alongside of the ,sunday1 forbidding certain meats1 circumcision1 covenanting4 ,their canon comprised #ha books3 besides the biblical1 there are #af patristic writings of the ,pre-,chalcedonian age4 #fd4b4 ,the ,persian ,church4--,the church had taken root in ,persia as early as the #crd century4 ,with the #dth century there came a sore time of bloody persecution1 which was constantly fed partly by the fanatical ,magians1 partly by the almost incessant wars with the ,christian ,roman empire1 which aroused suspicion of foreign sympathies hostile to the country4 ,the first great and extensive persecution of the ,christians broke out in ,a4,d4 #cdc under ,shapur or ,sapores ,sapor ,,ii4 ,it lasted #ce years and during this dreadful time #af1jjj of the clergy1 monks and nuns were put to death1 but the number of martyrs from the laity was far beyond reckoning4 ,only shortly before his death ,shapur ,sapor stopped the persecution and proclaimed universal religious toleration4 ,during #dj years' rest the ,persian church attained to new vigour2 but the fanaticism of ,bishop ,abdas of ,susa who caused a fire-temple to be torn down in ,a4,d4 #dah1 occasioned a new persecution1 which reached its height in ,a4,d4 #dbj under ,bahram or ,baranes ,v4 and was carried on for #cj years with the most fiendish ingenuity of cruel tortures4 ,the generosity of a ,christian bishop1 ,acacius of ,amida in ,mesopotamia1 who by the sale of the church property redeemed a multitude of ,persian prisoners of war and sent them to their homes1 at last moved the king to stop the persecution4 ,the ,nestorians driven from the ,roman empire found among the ,persians protection and toleration1 but were the occasion under king ,firuz or ,peroz of a new persecution of the ,catholics1 ,a4,d4 #dfe4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dih the whole ,persian church declared in favour of ,nestorianism 7 #eb1 #c71 and enjoyed forthwith undisturbed toleration1 developed to an unexpected extent1 retained its bloom for centuries1 gave itself zealously to scientific studies in the seminaries at ,nisibis1 and undertook successfully mission work among the ,asiatic tribes4 ,the war with the ,byzantines continued without interruption4 ,chosroes ,,ii4 advanced victoriously as far as ,chalcedon in ,a4,d4 #faf and persecuted with renewed cruelty the ,catholic ,christians of the conquered provinces4 ,finally the emperor ,heraclius plucked up courage4 ,by the utter rout of ,a4,d4 #fbh the power of the ,persians was broken 7 #eg1 #e71 and in ,a4,d4 #fea the ,khalifs overthrew the dynasty of the ,sassanid4 #fd4c4 ,the ,armenian ,church4--,there were flourishing ,christian churches in ,armenia so early as ,tertullian's time4 ,the ,arsacian ruler ,tiridates ,,iii41 from ,a4,d4 #bhf1 was a violent persecutor of the ,christians4 ,during his reign1 however1 ,gregory the ,illuminator1 the ,apostle of ,armenia1 carried on his successful labours4 ,he was the son of a ,parthian prince1 who1 snatched when a child of two years' old by his nurse from the midst of a massacre of his whole family1 received in ,cappadocia a ,christian training4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cjb he succeeded in winning over to ,christianity the king and the whole country4 ,he left behind him the church which he thus founded in a most prosperous condition4 ,his grandson ,husig1 his great grandson ,nerses ,i4 and his son ,isaac the ,great held possession of the patriarchal dignity and flourished even in the hard times1 when ,byzantines1 ,arsacides1 and ,sassanid fought for possession of the country4 ,mesrop1 with the help of ,isaac1 whose successor he became in ,a4,d4 #ddj 7dying in ,a4,d4 #dda71 gave to his church a translation of the bible into their own tongue1 for which he had to invent a national alphabet4 ,under his successor1 the patriarch ,joseph1 the famous religious war with the ,persian ,sassanid broke out1 who wished to lead back the ,armenians to the doctrine of ,zoroaster4 ,in the fierce battle at the river ,dechmud in ,a4,d4 #dea the holy league was defeated4 ,but ,armenia still maintained amid sore persecution its ,christian confession4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fea the overthrow of the ,sassanid brought it under the rule of the ,khalifs4--,the ,armenian church had vigorously and earnestly warded off ,nestorianism1 but willingly opened its arms to ,monophysitism introduced from ,byzantine ,armenia4 ,at a synod at ,feyin1 in ,a4,d4 #ebg1 it condemned the ,chalcedonian dogma4--,gregory the ,illuminator had excited among the ,armenians an exceedingly lively interest in culture and science1 and when ,mesrop gave them an independent system of writing1 the golden age of ,armenian literature dawned 7the #eth century74 ,not only were many works of classical and patristic ,greek and ,syrian literature made the property of the ,armenians through translations1 but numerous writers built up a literature of their own4 ,the history of the conversion of ,armenia was written in the #dth century by ,agathangelos1 private secretary of the king4 ,whether this was composed in ,greek or in ,armenian is doubtful2 both texts are still extant1 evidently much interpolated with fabulous matter and also in many points conflicting with one another4 ,in the #eth century ,eznik in his 8,overthrow of ,heretics0 addressed a vigorous polemic against pagans1 ,persians1 ,marcionites and ,manichans4 ,moses of ,chorene1 also a scholar of ,mesrop1 composed from the archives a history of ,armenia1 and ,elisaeus described the ,armeno-,persian religious war1 in which1 as secretary of the ,armenian commander in chief1 he had taken part4 ,on the service done by the ,mechitarists to the old ,armenian literature1 see #afd1 #b4ahg #fd4d4 ,the ,iberians1 in what is now called ,georgia and ,grusia1 received ,christianity about ,a4,d4 #cbf through an ,armenian female slave ,nunia1 whose prayer had healed many sick4 ,the church then extended from ,iberia to the ,lazians in what is now ,colchias and among the neighbouring ,abasgians4 ,in ,india ,theophilus of ,diu 7an island of the ,arabian ,gulf87 found in the middle of the #dth century several isolated ,christian communities4 ,he was sent by his fellow-citizens as hostage to ,constantinople and there was educated for the ,arian priesthood4 ,he then returned home and carried on a successful mission among the ,indians4 ,the relations of the ,indian to the ,persian church led to the former becoming affected with ,nestorianism 7 #eb1 #c74 ,cosmas ,indicopleustes 7 #dh1 #b7 found in the #fth century three ,christian churches still surviving in ,india4 ,theophilus also wrought in ,arabia4 ,he succeeded in converting the king of the ,himyarite kingdom at ,yemen4 ,in the #fth century1 however1 a ,jew ,dhu-,nowas obtained for himself the sovereignty of ,yemen and persecuted the ,christians with unheard of barbarity4 ,at last ,eleesban king of ,abyssinia interfered2 the crowned ,jew was slain1 and from that time ,yemen had ,christian kings till the ,persian ,chosroes ,,ii4 made it a ,persian province in ,a4,d4 #faf4 ,anchorets1 monks and stylites wrought successfully among the ,arab nomadic hordes4 #fe4 ,,the ,,counter-,,mission ,,of ,,the ,,mohammedans4#ahh ,abu ,al' ,kasem ,mohammed from ,mecca made his appearance as a prophet in ,a4,d4 #faa1 and founded a mixed religion of arid ,monotheism and sensual ,endmonism drawn from ,judaism1 ,christianity and ,arabian paganism4 ,his work first gained importance when driven from ,mecca he fled to ,medina 7,hejira1 #aeth ,july1 ,a4,d4 #fbb74 ,in ,a4,d4 #fcj he conquered ,mecca1 consecrated the old ,heathen ,kaaba as the chief temple of the new religion1 ,islam 7hence ,moslems71 and composed the ,coran1 consisting of #aad suras1 which had been collected by his father-in-law1 ,abu ,bekr4 ,at his death all ,arabia had accepted his faith and his rule4 ,as he made it the most sacred duty of his adherents to spread the new religion by the sword and had inspired them with a wild fanaticism1 his successors snatched one province after another from the ,roman empire and the ,christian church4 ,within a few years1 ,a4,d4 #fcc-fea1 they conquered all ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,egypt and ,persia1 then1 in ,a4,d4 #gjg1 ,north ,africa1 and1 in ,a4,d4 #gaa1 ,spain4 ,farther1 however1 they could not go for the present4 ,twice they unsuccessfully besieged ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #ffi-fgf1 and ,a4,d4 #gag-gah1 and1 in ,a4,d4 #gcb1 ,charles ,martel at ,tours completely crushed all their hopes of extending further into the ,west4 ,but the whole ,asiatic church was already reduced by their oppressions to the most miserable condition1 and three patriarchates1 those of ,alexandria1 ,antioch and ,jerusalem1 were forced to submit to their caprices4 ,amid manifold oppressions the ,christians in those conquered lands were tolerated on the payment of a tax1 but fear and an eye to worldly advantages led whole crowds of nominal ,christians to profess ,islam4 #fe4a4 ,the ,fundamental ,principle of ,islam is an arid ,monotheism4 ,abraham1 ,moses and ,jesus are regarded as ,god-sent prophets4 ,the miraculous birth of ,jesus1 by a virgin1 is also accepted1 and ,mary is identified with ,miriam the sister of ,moses4 ,the ascension of ,christ is also received4 ,mohammed1 the last and highest of all the prophets1 of whom ,moses and ,christ prophesied1 has restored to its original purity his doctrine1 which had been corrupted by ,jews and ,christians4 ,at the end of the days ,christ will come again to conquer ,antichrist and give universal sovereignty to ,islam4 ,most conspicuous among the corruptions of the doctrine of ,jesus is the dogma of the ,trinity1 which is without more ado pronounced ,tritheism1 and conceived of as including the mother of ,jesus as the third person4 ,so too the incarnation of ,god is regarded as a falsification4 ,the doctrine of divine providence is strongly emphasized1 but is contorted into the grossest fatalism4 ,the ,mussulman is in need of no atonement4 ,faith in the one ,god and ,his prophet ,mohammed secure for him the divine favour1 and his good works win for him the most abundant fulness of eternal blessedness1 which consists in absolutely unrestricted sensual enjoyments4 ,the constitution is theocratic2 the prophet and his successors the ,khalifs are ,god's vicegerents on earth4 ,worship is restricted to prayers1 fastings and washings4 ,the ,sunna or tradition of oral utterances of the prophet is acknowledged as a second principal source for ,islam1 alongside of the ,coran4 ,the opposition of the ,shiites to the ,sunnites is rooted in the non-recognition of the first three ,khalifs and the prophet's utterances only witnessed to by them4 ,mysticism was first fostered among the ,ssufis4 ,the ,wechabites1 who first appear in the #abth century1 are the ,puritans of ,islam4 #fe4b4 ,the ,providential ,place of ,islam4--,the service under ,providence rendered by ,mohammedanism which first attracts attention is the doom which it executed upon the debased church and state of the ,east4 ,but it seems also to have had a positive task which must be sought mainly in its relation to heathenism4 ,it regarded the abolition of idolatry as its principal task4 ,neither the prophet nor his successors gave any toleration to paganism4 ,islam converted a mass of savage races in ,asia and ,africa from the most senseless and immoral idolatries to the worship of the one ,god1 and raised them to a certain stage of culture and morality to which they could never have risen of themselves4 ,but also upon yet another side1 though only in a passing way1 it has served a providential purpose1 in spurring on medival ,christianity by its example of devotion to scientific pursuits4 ,syncretic1 as its religious and intellectual life originally was1 during its flourishing period from ,a4,d4 #gej1 under the brilliant dynasty of the ,abassidean ,khalifs at ,bagdad in ,asia1 and from ,a4,d4 #gef 7comp4 #ha7 under the no less brilliant dynasty of the ,ommaiadean ,khalifs at ,cordova in ,spain1 driven out by the ,abassid from ,damascus1 it readily appropriated the elements of culture which the classical literature of the ancient ,greeks afforded it 7 #db1 #d71 and with youthful enthusiasm its scholars for centuries on this foundation kept alive and advanced scientific studies--philosophy1 astronomy1 mathematics1 natural science1 medicine1 geography1 history--and by their appropriation of those researches the ,latin ,middle ,ages reached to the height of their scientific culture 7 #ajc1 #a74 ,but also the reawakening of classical studies in the ,byzantine ,middle ,ages 7 #fh1 #a71 which is of still more importance for the ,west 7 #abj1 #a71 is preeminently due to the impetus given by the scientific enthusiasm of the ,moslems of ,bagdad1 who shamed the ,greeks into the study of their own literature4 ,with the overthrow of those two dynasties1 the culture period of the ,moslems closed suddenly and for ever1 but not until it had accomplished its task for the ,christian world4#ahi ,,third ,,section4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,gr,,co-,,byzantine ,,church ,,in ,,the #h,,th-#ae,,th ,,centuries 7,a4,d4 #fib-adec74 ,i4 ,developments of the ,greek ,church in ,combination with the ,western4 #ff4 ,,iconoclasm ,,of ,,the ,,byzantine ,,church 7,a4,d4 #gbf-hdb74aij ,the worship of images 7 #eg1 #d7 had reached its climax in the ,east in the beginning of the #hth century4 ,even the most zealous defenders of images had to admit that there had been exaggerations and abuses4 ,some1 e4g41 had taken images as their godfathers1 scraped paint off them to mix in the communion wine1 laid the consecrated bread first on the images so as to receive the body of the ,lord from their hands1 etc4 ,a powerful ,byzantine ruler1 who was opposed to image worship from personal dislike as well as on political grounds1 applied the whole strength of his energetic will to the uprooting of this superstition4 ,thus arose a struggle that lasted more than a hundred years between the enemies of images 77 and the friends of images 771 in which there stood1 on the one side1 the emperor and the army1 on the other1 the monks and the people4 ,twice it seemed as if image worship had been completely and for ever stamped out2 but on both occasions a royal lady secured its restoration4 ,in practice indeed the ,roman church remained behind the ,greek1 but in theory they were agreed1 and in the struggle it gave the whole weight of its authority to the friends of images4 ,on the part taken by the ,frankish church1 see #ib1 #a4 #ff4a4 ,leo ,,iii41 the ,isaurian1 ,a4,d4 #gag-gda4--,leo1 who was one of the most powerful of the ,byzantine emperors1 after the attack of the ,saracens on ,constantinople1 in ,a4,d4 #gah1 had been successfully repelled1 felt himself obliged to take other measures against the aggressions of ,islam4 ,in the worship of images abhorred by ,jews and ,moslems he perceived the greatest obstacle to their conversion1 and1 being personally averse to image worship1 he issued an edict1 in ,a4,d4 #gbf1 which first ordered the images to be placed higher in the churches that it might be impossible for the people to kiss them4 ,but the peaceable overcoming of this deeply rooted form of devotion was frustrated by the unconquerable firmness of the ninety-year old patriarch ,germanus in ,constantinople1 as well as by the opposition of the people and the monks4 ,the greatest dogmatist of this age1 ,joh4 ,damascenus1 who was secured from the rage of the emperor in ,palestine under ,saracen rule1 issued three spirited tracts in defence of the images4 ,a certain ,cosmas took advantage of a popular rising in the ,cyclades1 had himself proclaimed emperor and went with a fleet against ,constantinople4 ,but ,leo conquered and had him executed1 and now in a second edict of ,a4,d4 #gcj ordered all images to be removed from the churches4 ,now began a war against images by military force1 which went to great excess in fanatical violence4 ,repeated popular tumults were quelled in blood4 ,only in ,rome and ,north ,italy did the powerful arm of the emperor make no impression4 ,pope ,gregory ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #gae-gca1 treated him in his letters like a stupid1 ill-mannered school-boy4 ,in proportion as the bitterness against the emperor increased enthusiasm for the pope increased1 and gave expression to itself in the most vehement revolts against the imperial ,council4 ,a great part of the exarchate 7 #df1 #i7 surrendered voluntarily to the ,longobards and so much of it in the north as remained with the emperor proved more obedient to the pope than to the sovereign4 ,gregory ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gca-gda1 at a ,synod in ,rome in ,a4,d4 #gca excommunicated all enemies of images4 ,the emperor fitted out a powerful fleet to chastise him1 but a storm broke it up4 ,he now deprived the pope of all his revenues from ,southern ,italy1 severed ,illyria 7 #df1 #e7 in ,a4,d4 #gcb from the papal chair and gave it to the patriarch of ,constantinople1 but in doing so he cut the last cord that bound the ,roman chair to the interests of the ,byzantine ,court 7 #hb1 #a74 #ff4b4 ,constantine ,v4 ,a4,d4 #gda-gge4--,to the son and successor of ,leo the monks gave the unsavoury names of ,copronymus and ,caballinus in token of their hatred1 the latter on account of his love of horses1 the former because it was said that at his baptism he had defiled the water4 ,he was like his father a powerful ruler and soldier1 and in the battle against images yet more reckless and determined4 ,he conquered his brother-in-law who had rebelled with the aid of the friends of the images1 and caused him to be cruelly treated and blinded4 ,as popular tumults still continued1 he thought to get ecclesiastical sanction for his principles from an cumenical ,council4 ,about #cej bishops assembled in ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #ged4 ,but1 as the chair of ,constantinople had just become vacant1 while ,rome1 which had excommunicated the enemies of images1 refused to answer the summons1 and ,alexandria1 ,antioch and ,jerusalem were under ,saracen rule1 there was not a single patriarch present at the ,synod4 ,the ,council excommunicated all who made images of ,christ1 for it declared that the ,supper was the only true image of ,christ1 and condemned every kind of veneration of images4 ,these decrees were now relentlessly carried out with savage violence4 ,thousands of monks were scourged1 imprisoned1 banished1 chased through the circus with nuns in their arms for the sport of the people1 or forced into marriage1 many had their eyes gouged out1 or had their nose or ears cut off1 and the monasteries were turned into barracks or stables4 ,even in private houses no image of a saint was any longer to be seen4 ,from ,rome ,stephen ,,ii4 protested against the decisions of the ,council1 and ,stephen ,,iii4 from a ,lateran ,synod of ,a4,d4 #gfi thundered a fearful anathema against the enemies of images4 ,but in the ,byzantine empire monkery and image worship were well nigh extinguished4 #ff4c4 ,leo ,,iv41 ,chazarus1 ,a4,d4 #gge-ghj4--,the son of ,constantine was of the same mind with his father1 but wanted his energy4 ,his wife ,irene was an eager friend of the images4 ,when the emperor discovered this1 he began to take active measures1 but his suspiciously sudden death put a stop to operations4 ,irene now used the freedom which the minority of her son ,constantine ,,vi4 afforded her for the introduction of image worship4 ,she called a new ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #ghf1 which also ,hadrian ,i4 of ,rome attended1 while the other patriarchs1 being under ,saracen rule1 took no part in it4 ,but the imperial guard attacked the place where they were sitting1 and broke up the ,council4 ,irene now arranged for the ,seventh cumenical ,council at ,nica1 ,a4,d4 #ghg4 ,the eighth and last session was held in the imperial palace at ,constantinople1 after the guards had been withdrawn from the city and disarmed4 ,the ,council annulled the decisions of ,a4,d4 #ged1 and sanctioned image worship for it allowed the bowing and prostration before the images 7 7 as a token of the reverence which was due to the original1 and declared that this in no way interfered with that worship 77 which was due to ,god alone4#aia #ff4d4 ,the next emperors were friendly to image worship1 but the victory had departed from their standards4 ,then the army1 which had always been hostile to images1 proclaimed ,leo ,v41 the ,armenian1 ,a4,d4 #hac-hbj1 emperor1 an avowed opponent of images4 ,he proceeded very cautiously1 but the soldiers set aside his prudence and launched out into violent raids against images4 ,at the head of the patrons of images was ,theodorus ,studita1 abbot of the monastery of ,studion 7 #dd1 #b71 a man of unfeigned piety and unfaltering decision of character1 the most acute apologist of image worship1 who had even in exile been eagerly promoting the interests of his party4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #hbf4 ,leo lost his life at the hand of conspirators4 ,his successor1 ,michael ,,ii41 ,balbus1 ,a4,d4 #hbj-hbi1 allowed at least that images should be reverenced in private4 ,his son ,theophilus1 ,a4,d4 #hbi-hdb1 on the other hand1 made it the business of his life to root out entirely every trace of image worship4 ,but his wife ,theodora1 who after his death conducted the government as regent1 had it formally reintroduced by a ,synod at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #hdb4 ,since then all opposition to it has ceased in the ,greek church1 and the day of the ,synodal decision1 #aith ,february1 was appointed a standing festival of orthodoxy4 #fg4 ,,division ,,between ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,churches ,,and ,,attempts ,,at ,,union1 ,a4,d4 #heg-adec4aib ,the second ,trullan ,council in ,a4,d4 #fib had given the first occasion to the great schism which rent the ,christian world into two halves 7 #fc1 #b72 ,photius gave it a doctrinal basis in ,a4,d4 #hfg2 and ,michael ,crularius in ,a4,d4 #ajec completed its development4 ,the increasing need of the ,byzantine government drove it to make repeated attempts at reconciliation1 but these either were never concluded or the union1 if at all completed1 proved a mere paper union4 ,the ,sisyphus labour of union efforts ended only with the overthrow of the ,byzantine empire in ,a4,d4 #adec4 ,the three stages referred to--the early misunderstandings1 the avowed doctrinal divergence1 and the final decisive separation--as well as the persistent rejection of attempts at reunion1 were not wholly owing to the importance of ceremonial differences4 ,after as well as before there had been free church communion between them4 ,it was not owing to the importance of the almost solitary point of doctrinal difference between them1 in reference to the filioque 7 #ej1 #g71 where if there had been good will a common understanding might easily have been won4 ,it was really the papal claims to the primacy to which the ,greeks absolutely refused to submit4 #fg4a4 ,foundation of the ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #hfg4--;,during the minority of the emperor ,michael ,,iii41 son of ,theodora 7 #ff1 #d71 surnamed the ,drunkard1 his uncle ,bardas1 ,theodora's brother1 directed the government4 ,ignatius1 patriarch of ,constantinople at that time1 himself descended from the imperial family1 lashed severely the godless1 vicious life of the court1 and in ,a4,d4 #heg kept back from the communion the all-powerful ,bardas1 who lived in incestuous intercourse with his own daughter-in-law4 ,he was then deposed and banished4 ,photius1 the most learned man of his age1 previously commander of the imperial bodyguard1 was raised to the vacant chair1 and inherited the hatred of all the friends of ,ignatius4 ,he made proposals of agreement which were proudly and scornfully rejected4 ,he then held a ,synod in ,a4,d4 #hei1 which confirmed the deposition of ,ignatius and excommunicated him4 ,but nothing in the world could make his party abandon his claims4 ,now ,photius wished to be able to lay in the scales the ,roman bishop's approval of his questionable proceedings4 ,he therefore laid an account of matters highly favourable to himself before ,pope ,nicholas ,i41 and sought his brotherly love and intercessions4 ,the pope answered that he must first examine the whole affair4 ,his two legates1 ,rhodoald of ,porto and ,zacharias of ,anagni1 were bribed and at a ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #hfa gave their consent to the deposition of ,ignatius4 ,nicholas1 however1 had other reporters4 ,he excommunicated his own legates and pronounced ,ignatius the lawful patriarch4 ,bitterness of feeling reached its height in ,constantinople1 when soon thereafter the ,bulgarians broke their connection with the ,byzantine mother church and submitted to the pope 7 #gc1 #c74 ,photius now by an ,encyclica of ,a4,d4 #hff called the patriarchs of the ,east to a ,council at ,constantinople1 and charged the ,roman church with the most extreme heresies2 that it enjoined fasting on ,saturday 7 #ef1 #a71 allowed milk1 butter and cheese to be eaten during the first week of the ,quadragesima 7 #ef1 #g71 did not acknowledge married priests 7 #de1 #b71 did not prohibit the clergy from shaving the beard 7 #de1 #a71 pronounced anointing by a presbyter invalid 7 #ce1 #d71 but above all1 that by the addition of the filioque 7 #ej1 #g7 it had falsified the creed1 recognising thus two principles and so falling back into dualism4 ,with such heresies too the pope had now infected the ,bulgarians4 ,the meeting of the ,council took place in ,a4,d4 #hfg4 ,three monks1 tutored by ,photius1 represented the patriarchs under ,saracen rule4 ,excommunication and deposition were hurled against the pope1 and this sentence was communicated to the ,western churches4 ,the pope was evidently alarmed4 ,he justified himself before the ,frankish clergy and insisted that they should answer the charges of the ,greeks in a scholarly reply4 ,this was done by several1 most ably by ,ratramnus1 monk at ,corbie4 ,but during that year1 ,a4,d4 #hfg1 the emperor ,michael was murdered4 ,his murderer and successor ,basil the ,macedonian undertook the patronage of the party of ,ignatius1 and asked of ,pope ,hadrian ,,ii4 a new investigation and decision4 ,a ,synod at ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #hfi1 counted by the ,latins the #hth cumenical1 condemned ,photius and restored ,ignatius4 ,the deciding about the ,bulgarians1 however1 was not committed to the ,council but to the reputed representatives of the ,saracen patriarchs as impartial umpires4 ,they naturally decided in favour of the ,byzantine patriarch4 ,in vain the legates remonstrated4 ,photius in other respects under misfortune displays a character worthy of our esteem4 ,for several years he languished without company1 without books1 under the strictest monastic rules4 ,yet he reconciled himself to ,ignatius4 ,basil entrusted him with the education of his children1 and on the death of ,ignatius in ,a4,d4 #hgh1 restored him to the patriarchate4 ,but still the ban of an cumenical ,council lay upon him4 ,only a new cumenical ,council could vindicate him4 ,john ,,viii4 agreed to this against the remonstrances of the ,bulgarians4 ,but at the ninth ,council at ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #hgi1 the eighth according to the ,greeks1 the papal legates were completely duped4 ,there was no mention of the ,bulgarians1 the ,council of ,a4,d4 #hfi was repudiated1 and every one excommunicated who dared add anything to the creed4 ,the pope afterwards indeed launched an anathema against the patriarch1 his ,council1 and his followers4 ,the succeeding emperor1 ,leo the ,philosopher1 ,a4,d4 #hhf-iaa1 again deposed ,photius in ,a4,d4 #hhf1 but only that he might put an imperial prince in his place4 ,photius died in monastic exile in ,a4,d4 #hia4 #fg4b4 ,leo ,,vi41 the ,philosopher1 ,a4,d4 #hhf-iaa4--,this emperor was three times married without having any children4 ,he married the fourth only when he had assured himself that she would not be barren4 ,the patriarch ,nicolaus ,nicolas ,mysticus refused 7 #fa1 #b7 to celebrate the marriage and was deposed4 ,a ,synod at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #ijf1 attended by the legates of ,pope ,sergius ,,iii41 approved the marriage and the deposition4 ,but on his deathbed ,leo repented of his violence4 ,his brother and successor ,alexander restored the patriarch ,nicolas1 and ,pope ,john ,x4 attended a ,synod at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #ibj1 which condemned the ,council of ,a4,d4 #ijf1 and pronounced a fourth marriage absolutely unallowable1 but showed no inclination to make any concessions to the pope4 ,new negociations were begun by the emperor ,basil ,,ii4 ,in consideration of a large sum of money the venal pope ,john ,,xix4 was willing to acknowledge the ,byzantines as cumenical patriarchs of the ,east1 and to resign all claims of the chair of ,peter upon the ,eastern church4 ,but the affair became known before it was concluded4 ,the removal of the new ,judas was loudly demanded throughout the ,west1 and the pope was compelled to break off his negociations4 #fg4c4 ,completion of the ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #ajed4-,though so many anathemas had been flung at ,rome by ,byzantium and at ,byzantium by ,rome1 they had hitherto been directed only against the persons and their followers1 not against the respective churches as such4 ,this defect was now to be supplied4 ,the emperor ,constantine ,monmachus sought the papal friendship which he thought necessary to the success of his warlike undertakings4 ,but the patriarch ,michael ,crularius frustrated his efforts4 ,in company with the ,metropolitan of the ,bulgarians1 ,leo of ,achrida1 he addressed in ,a4,d4 #ajec an epistle to bishop ,john of ,trani in ,apulia1 in which he charged the ,latins with the worst heresies1 and adjured the ,western bishops to separate from them4 ,to the heresies already enumerated by ,photius1 he added certain others2 the use of blood and things strangled1 the withdrawal of the ,hallelujah during the fast season1 and above all the use of unleavened bread in the ,supper 7 #eh1 #d71 on account of which he invented for the heretics the name of ,azymites4 ,this letter fell into the hands of ,cardinal ,humbert1 who translated it and laid it before pope ,leo ,,ix4 ,a violent correspondence followed4 ,the emperor offered to do anything to restore peace4 ,at his request the pope sent three legates to ,constantinople1 among them the occasion of the strife1 ,humbert 7 #aja1 #b71 and ,cardinal ,frederick of ,lothringen1 afterwards pope ,stephen ,,ix4 7 #if1 #f74 ,these fanned the flame1 instead of quenching it4 ,imperial pressure indeed brought the abbot of ,studion1 ,nicetas ,pectoratus to burn his controversial treatise before the legates1 but no threat nor violence could move to submission the patriarchs1 on whose side were the people and the clergy4 ,the legates finally laid a formal decree of excommunication on the altar of the church of ,sophia1 which ,michael together with the other ,eastern patriarchs solemnly returned1 ,a4,d4 #ajed4 #fg4d4 ,attempts at ,reunion4--,the crusades increased the breach instead of healing it4 ,many negociations were begun but none of them came to much4 ,at a ,synod at ,bari in ,naples1 in ,a4,d4 #ajih1 ,anselm of ,canterbury 7 #aja1 #a71 who then lived as a fugitive in ,italy1 proved to the ,greeks there present the correctness of the ,latin doctrine of the ,procession of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,in ,a4,d4 #aaac1 ,petrus ,peter ,chrysologus1 ,archbishop of ,milan1 vindicated it in a complete discourse before the emperor at ,constantinople4 ,and in ,a4,d4 #aace1 ,anselm of ,havelberg1 who went to ,constantinople as ambassador for ,lothair ,,ii41 disputed with the ,archbishop ,nicetas of ,nicomedia1 and afterwards at the command of the pope wrote down the disputation with creditable faithfulness4 ,the hatred and abhorrence of the ,greeks reached its climax on the erection of the ,latin empire at ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #abjd-abfa 7comp4 #id1 #d74 ,nevertheless ,michael ,palologus1 ,a4,d4 #abfj-abhb1 who brought this dynasty to an end1 strove on political grounds in every way possible to overcome this ecclesiastical schism4 ,the patriarch ,joseph of ,constantinople and his librarian1 the celebrated ,joannes ,beccus1 stubbornly withstood him4 ,the latter indeed in imprisonment became convinced that the differences were unessential and that a union was possible4 ,this change of mind secured for him the patriarch's chair4 ,meanwhile the negotiations of the emperor with the pope1 ,gregory ,x41 in which he acknowledged the ,roman chair to be the highest court of appeal in doctrinal controversies1 were brought to a point in the cumenical ,council at ,lyons1 ,a4,d4 #abgd1 reckoned by the ,latins the fourteenth4 ,the imperial legates here acknowledged the primacy of the pope and subscribed a ,roman creed1 while to them was granted liberty to use their creed without the addition and to practise their peculiar ecclesiastical customs4 ,beccus vindicated this union in several treatises4 ,but a change of dynasty overthrew him in ,a4,d4 #abhc4 ,joseph was restored and the union of ,lyons was broken up leaving no trace behind4 #fg4e4 ,the advance of the ,turks made it absolutely necessary for the ,east ,roman emperors to secure the support of the ,west by reconciling and uniting themselves with the papacy4 ,but the powerful party of the monks1 supported by popular prejudice against the proposal1 thwarted the imperial wishes on all sides4 ,the patriarchs of ,alexandria1 ,antioch and ,jerusalem too were zealous opponents1 not only animated by the old bitterness toward their more prosperous rivals on the chair of ,peter1 but also influenced against the views of the emperor by the policy of their ,saracen rulers4 ,the emperor ,andronicus ,,iii4 ,palologus won to his side the abbot ,barlaam of ,constantinople1 hitherto1 though born in ,calabria and there educated in the ,roman ,catholic faith1 a zealous opponent of the ,western doctrine4 ,barlaam went at the head of an imperial embassy to ,avignon where the pope at that time1 ,benedict ,,xiii41 resided1 ,a4,d4 #acci4 ,negotiations1 however1 broke down through the obstinacy of the pope1 who demanded of the ,greeks above all unconditional submission in doctrine and constitution1 and also showed not once any wish for renewing the conference4--,on ,barlaam1 comp4 #fi1 #b4--,the political difficulties of the emperor1 however1 continually increased1 and so ,joannes ,v4 ,palologus took further steps4 ,he himself in ,a4,d4 #acfi in ,rome passed over to the ,latin church1 but neither did he get his people to follow him1 nor did pope ,urban ,v4 get the ,western princes to give help against the ,turks4 #fg4f4 ,the union attempts of ,joannes ,,vii4 ,palologus had more appearance of success4 ,the emperor had won over the patriarch ,joseph of ,constantinople1 as well as the clever and highly cultured archbishop ,bessarion of ,nica1 and went personally in company with the latter and many bishops1 in ,a4,d4 #adch1 to the papal ,council at ,ferrara 7 #aaj1 #h71 where the pope1 ,eugenius ,,iv41 fearing lest the ,greeks might join the reformatory ,council at ,basel1 showed himself very gracious4 ,the ,council1 nominally on account of the outbreak of a plague at ,ferrara was transferred to ,florence1 and here the union was actually consummated in ,a4,d4 #adci4 ,the primacy of the pope was acknowledged1 though not altogether without dubiety of expression1 the ritual differences as well as the priestly marriages of the ,greeks tolerated1 the doctrinal difference reduced to a misunderstanding and the orthodoxy of both churches maintained4 ,in the ,latin text of the decree referred to the pope was acknowledged as 8,successor of ,peter1 the chief of the ,apostles1 and the vicar of ,christ10 as 8head of the whole ,church1 and father and teacher of all ,christians1 to whom plenary power was given by our ,lord ,jesus ,christ to feed1 rule1 and govern the universal ,church0--yet with the significant addition 8in such a way as it is set forth in the cumenical ,councils and in the sacred ,canons10 by which certainly the ,greeks thought only of the ,canons of ,nica and ,chalcedon referred to in #df1 #a1 but the ,latins mainly of the ,pseudo-,decretals of #hg1 #b2 and thus it happens that in most of the ,greek texts the propositions that define the universal primacy of the pope are either wanting1 or essentially modified4 ,the first place after the pope is given to the patriarch of ,constantinople4 ,in regard to the doctrine of the ,procession of the ,holy ,spirit it was admitted that the ,greek formula 8ex ,patre per ,filium0 was essentially the same as the ,latin 8ex ,patre ,filioque10 and by the definition 8quod ,sp4 ,s4 ex ,p4 simul et ,f4 et ex utroque ternaliter tanquam ab uno principio et unica spiratione procedit10 the latter was saved from the charge of dualism4 ,a new difference1 however1 came to light in reference to ,purgatory 7 #fa1 #d74 ,the intercessions of the living and the presenting of masses for the dead were allowed by the ,greeks as helping to secure the forgiveness of their still unatoned for venial sins1 but they decidedly opposed the view that any of the dead could obtain this by his own temporary endurance of penal sufferings1 and they would not hear of a fire as a means for its attainment4 ,the ,latins also taught that the unbaptized or those dying in mortal sin immediately pass into eternal condemnation and the perfectly pious immediately pass into ,god's presence2 while the ,greeks maintained that this happens only at the last judgment4 ,after long disputes1 the ,greeks1 urged by their emperor1 at last gave in on both points4 ,without much difficulty they accepted the seven sacraments of the ,westerns 7 #ajd1 #b74 ,thus was the union consummated amid embracings and jubilant shoutings4 ,but in reality everything remained as of old4 ,a powerful party at whose head stood archbishop ,marcus ,eugenicus of ,ephesus1 who had been shouted down at ,florence1 roused the whole ,east against the union that had been made on paper4 ,the new patriarch ,metrophanes1 whom they repudiated1 was ridiculed as 1 and in ,a4,d4 #addc the rest of the ,eastern patriarchs at a ,synod at ,jerusalem excommunicated all who maintained the union4 ,when moreover the hoped for help from the ,west did not come even the union party lost their interest in it4 ,bessarion passed over to the ,roman church1 became cardinal and bishop of ,tuscoli1 and was as such on two occasions very near being made pope4#aic #fg4g4 ,the ,byzantine ,christian empire went meanwhile rapidly to decay4 ,on the #bith ,may1 #adec1 ,constantinople was stormed by ,mohammed ,,ii4 ,the last emperor1 ,constantine ,,xi41 fell in a heroic struggle against tremendous odds4 ,mohammed conferred upon the patriarch ,gennadius 7 #fh1 #e7 the spiritual primacy and even temporal supremacy and full jurisdiction over the whole orthodox inhabitants of the empire1 making him1 however1 answerable for their conduct4 ,the other two patriarchates of ,jerusalem and ,antioch were in religious matters co-ordinate1 in political matters subordinate1 to him4 ,for the executing of his spiritual power he had around him a ,synod of twelve archbishops1 of whom four as holders of the four divisions of the patriarchal diocese resided in ,constantinople4 ,the ,synod chose the patriarchs and the ,sultan confirmed the elections4--,all union negociations were now at an end1 for the ,porte could only wish for the continuance of the schism4 ,the enormous crowds of ,greek refugees who sought protection in foreign lands1 especially in ,italy1 ,hungary1 ,galicia1 ,poland1 ,lithuania1 either went directly over to the ,roman ,catholic church1 or formed churches of their own under the name of ,united ,greeks1 purchasing liberty to observe their old church constitution and liturgy by accepting the ,romish doctrine and the papal primacy4 ,,ii4 ,developments in the ,eastern ,church without the ,co-operation of the ,western4 #fh4 ,,theological ,,science ,,and ,,literature4 ,the iconoclastic struggle1 ,a4,d4 #gbf-hdb1 was to some extent a war against art and science4 ,at least no period in the history of the ,greek ,middle ,ages is so poor in these as this4 ,but about the middle of the #ith century ,byzantine culture awoke from its deep torpor to a vigour of which no one would have thought it capable4 ,what is still more wonderful1 for six hundred years it maintained its position without a break at this elevation and prosecuted literary and scientific studies with a zeal that seemed to be quickened as its political condition became more and more desperate4 ,what specially characterized the scholarly efforts of this time was the revival of classical studies which from the #fth century had been almost entirely neglected4 ,now all at once the decaying ,greeks1 who were threatened with intellectual as well as political bankruptcy1 began to realize the rich heritage which their pagan forefathers had bequeathed them4 ,they searched out these treasures amid the dust of libraries and applied to them a diligence1 an enthusiasm1 a pride1 which fills us with astonishment4 ,the ,hellenic intellect had1 indeed1 long lost its genial creative power4 ,the most ambitious effort of this age did not go beyond explanatory reproduction and scholarship4 ,upon theology1 however1 bound hard and fast in traditional propositions and ,aristotelian formul1 the revival of classical studies had relatively little influence1 and where it did break the fetters it only gave entrance to a deluge of heathen ,hellenic views that paganized ,christianity4 #fh4a4 ,the shame caused by the zeal with which the ,khalifs of the ,abassidean line at the end of the #hth century applied themselves to the classical ,greek literature seems to have given the first impulse to the ,revival of ,classical ,studies4 ,behind this we must suppose there was the influence of the ,byzantine rulers1 unless they had lost all trace of national feeling4 ,bardas1 the guardian and co-regent of ,michael ,,iii4 7 #fg1 #a71 if there is nothing else in him worthy of praise1 has the credit of having been the first to lay anew the foundation of classical studies by establishing schools and paying their teachers4 ,basil the ,macedonian1 although himself no scholar1 patronized and protected the sciences4 ,photius was the teacher of his children1 and implanted in them a love of study which they transmitted to their children and children's children4 ,leo1 the ,philosopher1 the son1 and ,constantine ,porphyrogenneta1 the grandson1 of ,basil were the brilliant scholars in the ,macedonian dynasty4 ,their place was taken by the line of the ,comneni from ,a4,d4 #ajeg1 which introduced a most brilliant period in the history of scientific studies4 ,the princesses of this house1 ,eudocia and ,anna ,comnena1 won high fame as gifted and learned authors4 ,what ,photius was for the age of the ,macedonians1 ,psellus was for the age of the ,comneni4 ,thessalonica vied with ,constantinople as a new ,athens in the brilliancy of its classical culture4 ,the rudeness of the crusaders threatened during the sixty years' interregnum of the ,latin dynasty1 to undo the work of the ,comneni4 ,but when in ,a4,d4 #abfa the ,palologi again obtained possession of ,constantinople1 learning rose once more to the front and won an ever increasing significance4 ,and when the ,turks took it in ,a4,d4 #adec crowds of learned ,greeks settled in ,italy and spread their carefully fostered culture all over the ,west4 #fh4b4 ,aristotle and ,plato4--,the revival of classical studies secured again a preference for ,plato1 who seemed more classical1 at least more ,hellenic1 than ,aristotle4 ,but the ecclesiastical imprimatur that had been given to ,aristotle1 which had been formally expressed by ,joh4 ,damascenus1 formed a barrier against the overflowing of ,platonism into the theological domain4 ,the church's distrust of ,plato1 on the other hand1 drove many of the more enthusiastic friends of classical studies into a sort of ,hellenic paganism4 ,the eagerness of the struggle reached its height in the #aeth century4 ,gemisthus ,pletho moved heaven and earth to drive the hated usurper ,aristotle from the throne of science4 ,he called for unconditional surrender to the wisdom of the divine ,plato and expressed the confident hope that soon the time would come when ,christianity and ,islam would be conquered and the religion of pure humanity would have universal sway4 ,of similar views were his numerous scholars1 of whom the most distinguished was ,bessarion 7 #fg1 #f74 ,but ,aristotle also had talented representatives in ,george of ,trebizond and his scholars4 ,numerous representatives of the two schools settled in ,italy and there carried on the conflict with increasing bitterness4--,continuation #abj1 #a4 #fh4c4 ,scholasticism and ,mysticism 7 and 74--,by the application of the ,aristotelian method which ,joh4 ,philoponus 7 #dg1 #aa7 had suggested1 and ,joh4 ,damascenus had carried out1 the scientific treatment of doctrine in the ,greek church had taken a form which in many respects resembles the scholasticism of the ,latin ,middle ,ages1 without being able1 however1 to reach its wealth1 power1 subtlety and depth4 ,but alongside of the dialectic scholastic treatment of dogma there was found1 especially in the quiet life of the monasteries1 diligent fostering of the mysticism based upon the pseudo-,areopagite 7 #dg1 #aa74 ,its chief representative was ,nicolas ,cabasilas4 ,this mysticism never ran counter to the worship or doctrine of the church1 but rather rendered to it unconditional acknowledgment1 and was specially characterized by its decided preference for the symbolical1 to which it is careful to attach a thoroughly sacramental significance4 ,no reason existed for any hostile encounters between dialectic and mysticism4 #fh4d4 ,the ,branches of ,theological ,science4--,about the beginning of our period ,joh4 ,damascenus collected the results of previous ,dogmatic labours in the ,greek church by the use of the dialectic forms of ,aristotle into an organic system4 ,his ,ecdosis is the first and last complete dogmatic of the old ,greek church4 ,the manifold intercourse with the ,latin church occasioned by the union efforts was not1 however1 without influence on the ,greek church4 ,in spite of the keenest opposition on debated questions1 the far more thoroughly developed statement by ,latin scholasticism of doctrines in regard to which both were agreed communicated itself to the ,greek church1 so that all unwittingly it adopted on many points the same bases and tendencies of belief4 ,polemics were constantly carried on with ,nestorians1 ,monophysites and ,monothelites1 and fresh subjects of debate were found in the iconoclastic disputes1 newly emerging dualistic sects1 the ,latin schismatics and the defenders of the union4 ,by the changed circumstances of the time ,apologetics again came to the front as a theological necessity4 ,the incessant advance of ,islam and the ,jewish polemic1 which was now gaining boldness from the protection of the ,saracens1 urgently demanded the work of the ,apologist1 but the dominant scholastic traditional theology of the ,greeks in its hardness and narrowness was little fitted to avert the storm of ,god's judgment4 ,finally1 too1 the revival of classical studies and the introduction of pagan modes of thought were followed by a renewal of anti-pagan ,apologetics 7,nicolas of ,methone74 ,in ,exegesis there was no independent original work4 ,valuable catenas were compiled by cumenius1 ,theophylact and ,euthymius ,zigabenus4 ,church ,history lay completely fallow4 ,only ,nicephorus ,callisti in the #adth century gave any attention to it 7 #e1 #a74 ,incomparably more important for the church history of those times are the numerous ,scriptores hist4 ,byzantin4 ,as a writer of legends ,simeon ,metaphrastes in the #ajth century 787 gained a high reputation4 #fh4e4 ,the most distinguished theologian of the #hth century was ,joannes ,damascenus4 ,he was long in the civil service of the ,saracens1 and died about ,a4,d4 #gfj as monk in the monastery of ,sabas in ,jerusalem4 ,his admirers called him ,chrysorrhoas2 the opponents of image worship who pronounced a thrice repeated anathema upon him at the ,council of ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #ged1 called him ,mansur4 ,his chief work1 which ranks in the ,greek church as an epoch-making production1 is the 4 ,its first part1 1 forms the dialectic1 the second part1 1 the historical1 introduction to the third or chief part3 1 a systematic collection of the doctrines of faith according to the ,councils1 and the teachings of the ancient ,fathers1 especially of the three ,cappadocians4 ,his contain a collection of loci classici from patristic writings on dogmatic and moral subjects arranged in alphabetical order4 ,he wrote besides controversial tracts against ,christological heretics1 the ,paulicians1 the opponents of image worship1 etc41 and composed several hymns for church worship4#aid--;,among the numerous writings of ,photius1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hia1 undoubtedly the most important is his ,bibliotheca1 4 ,it gives reports about and extracts from #bgi ,christian and pagan works1 which have since in great part been lost4 ,in addition to controversial treatises against the ,latins and against the ,paulicians1 there are still extant his 1 answers to more than #cjj questions laid before him by bishop ,amphilochius1 and his ,nomo-canon 7 #dc1 #c7 which is still the basis of ,greek canon law1 and was1 about ,a4,d4 #aahj1 commented on by the deacon of ,constantinople1 ,theodore ,balsamon in his 4--,the brilliant period of the ,comnenian dynasty was headed by ,michael ,psellus1 teacher of philosophy at ,constantinople1 a man of wide culture and possessed of an astonishingly extensive store of information which was evinced by numerous works on a variety of subjects1 so that he was designated 4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #aaje4 ,among his theological writings the most important is 7comp4 #ga1 #c74 ,as this work is of the utmost importance for the demonology of the ,middle ,ages1 so the 1 a compendium of universal science on the basis of theology1 is for the encyclopdic knowledge of that period4 ,his contemporary ,theophylact1 archbishop of ,achrida1 in ,bulgaria1 left behind him an important commentary in the form of a catena4 ,euthymius ,zigabenus1 monk at ,constantinople1 in the beginning of the #abth century1 composed1 by order of the emperor ,alexius ,comnenus1 in reply to the heretics1 a in #bd bks41 which gained for him great repute in his times4 ,it is a mere compilation1 and only where he combats the sects of his own age is it of any importance4 ,his exegetical compilations are of greater value4 ,the most important personality of the #abth century was ,eustathius1 archbishop of ,thessalonica4 ,as commentator on ,homer and ,pindar he has been long highly valued by philologists2 but from the publication of his theological ,opuscula it appears that he is worthy of higher fame as a ,christian1 a theologian1 a church leader and reformer of the debased monasticism of his age 7 #gj1 #d74 ,his friend and pupil1 ,michael ,acominatus of ,chon1 archbishop of ,athens1 treated with equal enthusiasm of the church and his fatherland1 of ,christian faith and ,greek philosophy1 of patristic and classical literature1 and in a beautiful panegyric raised a becoming memorial to his departed teacher4 ,his younger brother1 ,nicetas ,acominatus1 a highly esteemed statesman of ,constantinople1 wrote a in #bg bks41 which consists of a justificatory statement of the orthodox doctrine together with a refutation of heretics1 much more independent and important than the similar work of ,euthymius4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #abjf4 ,at the same time flourished the noble bishop ,nicolas of ,methone in ,messenia1 whose refutation of the attacks of the neo-,platonist ,proclus1 is one of the most valuable productions of this period4 ,his doctrine of redemption1 which has a striking resemblance to ,anselm of ,canterbury's theory of satisfaction 7 #aja1 #a71 is worthy of attention4 ,he also contributed several tracts to the struggle against the ,latins4 ,during the times of the ,palologi1 ,a4,d4 #abej-adej1 the chief subjects of theological authorship were the vindication and denunciation of the union4 ,nicolas ,cabasilas1 archbishop of ,thessalonica and successor of ,palamas1 deserves special mention4 ,he was like his predecessor the vindicator of the ,hesychasts 7 #fi1 #b71 and was himself one of the noblest mystics of any age4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #aced4 ,his chief work is 4 ,his mysticism is distinguished by depth and spirituality as well as by reformatory struggling against a superficial externalism4 ,he also shares the partiality of ,greek mysticism for the liturgy as his ,expositio ,miss shows4 ,from his contemporary ,demetrius ,cydonius we have an able treatise ,de ,contemnenda ,morte4 ,archbishop ,simeon of ,thessalonica belongs to a somewhat later time1 about ,a4,d4 #adjj1 a thorough expert in classical and patristic literature and a distinguished church leader4 ,his comprehensive work1 ,de ,fide1 ,ritibus et ,mysteriis ,ecclesiast4 is an important source of information about the church affairs of the ,greek ,middle ,ages4 ,marcus ,eugenicus of ,ephesus1 the most capable opponent of the ,florentine union 7 #fg1 #b71 besides controversial tracts1 wrote a treatise as a philosophico-dogmatic foundation of the doctrine of eternal punishment at which the emperor ,john ,,vii4 ,palologus had taken offence as incompatible with divine justice and human frailty4 ,his disciple ,gregorius ,gregory ,scholarius1 known as a monk by the name ,gennadius1 was the first patriarch of ,constantinople after it had been taken by the ,turks4 ,at the ,council of ,florence he still supported the union1 but was afterwards its most vigorous assailant4 ,in the controversy of the philosophers he contended against ,pletho for the old-established predominance of ,aristotle4 ,at the request of the ,sultan1 ,mohammed ,,ii41 he laid before him a ,professio fidei4 #fh4f4 ,a religious romance entitled ,barlaam and ,josaphat whose author is not named1 but evidently belonged to the ,east1 was included1 even in the ,middle ,ages1 among the works of ,joh4 ,damascenus1 read by many especially in the ,west1 translated into ,latin and rendered often in metrical form4 ,it describes the history of the conversion of the ,indian prince ,josaphat by the eremite ,barlaam with the object of showing the power of ,christianity against the allurements of sin and its superiority to other religions4 ,an uncritical age accepted the story as historical1 and venerated its two heroes as saints4 ,the ,roman martyrology celebrated the #bgth ,nov4 in their memory4 ,liebrecht has discovered that the romance so popular in its days was but a ,christianized form of a legendary history of the life and conversion of the founder of ,buddhism1 which existed in pre-,christian times1 and has come down to us under the title ,lalita ristara ,purna1 often copying its original even in the minutest details4 #fi4 ,,doctrinal ,,controversies ,,in ,,the #ab,,th-#ad,,th ,,centuries4 ,with the mental activity of the ,comnenian age there was also reawakened a love of theological speculation and discussion1 and several doctrinal questions engaged considerable attention4 ,then there came a lull in the controversial strife for two hundred years1 to be roused once more by a question of abstruse mysticism4 #fi4a4 ,dogmatic ,questions4--,under the emperor ,manuel ,comnenus1 ,a4,d4 #aadc-aahj1 the question was discussed whether ,christ presented ,his sacrifice for the sins of the world only to the ,father and the ,holy ,spirit1 or also at the same time to the ,logos1 i4e4 to ,himself4 ,a ,synod at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #aaef sanctioned the latter notion4--,ten years later a controversy arose over the question whether the words of ,christ3 8,the ,father is greater than ,i10 refer to ,his divine or to ,his human nature or to the union of the two natures4 ,the discussion was carried on by all ranks with a liveliness and passionateness which reminds one of the similar controversies of the #dth century 7 #ej1 #b74 ,the emperor's opinion that the words applied to the ,god-man gained the victory at a ,synod at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #aaff4 ,the dissentients were punished with the confiscation of their goods and banishment4--,manuel excited a third controversy by objecting to the anathema of 8the ,god of ,mohammed0 in the formula of abjuration for converts from ,mohammedanism4 ,in vain did the bishops show the emperor that the ,god of ,mohammed was not the true ,god4 ,the formula had to be altered4 #fi4b4 ,the ,hesychast ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #acda-acea4--;,in the monasteries of ,mount ,athos in ,thessaly the ,areopagite mysticism had its most zealous promoters4 ,following the example given three centuries earlier by ,simeon1 an abbot of the monastery of ,mesnes in ,constantinople1 the monks by artificial means put themselves into a condition that would afford them the ecstatic vision of ,god which the ,areopagite had extolled as the highest end of all mystic endeavours4 ,kneeling in a corner of the solitary closed cell1 the chin pressed firmly on the breast1 the eyes set fixedly on the navel1 and the breath held in as long as possible1 they sank at first into melancholy and their eyes became dim4 ,continuing longer in this position the depression of spirit which they at first experienced gave way to an inexpressible rapture1 and at last they found themselves surrounded by a bright halo of light4 ,they called themselves ,resting ,ones1 1 and maintained that the brilliancy surrounding them was the uncreated divine light which shone around ,christ on ,mount ,tabor4 ,barlaam 7 #fg1 #e71 just returned from his unfortunate union expedition1 accused the monks and their defender1 ,gregorius ,gregory ,palamas1 afterwards archbishop of ,thessalonica1 as ,ditheistic heretics1 scornfully styling them navel-souls1 4 ,but a ,council at ,constantinople1 in ,a4,d4 #acda1 the members of which were unfavourable to ,barlaam because of his union efforts1 approved the doctrine of uncreated divine light which as divine is to be distinguished from the divine 4 ,barlaam1 in order to avoid condemnation1 recanted1 but withdrew soon afterwards to ,italy1 where he joined the communion of the ,latin church in ,a4,d4 #acdh1 and died as a bishop in ,calabria4 ,a disciple of ,barlaam1 ,gregorius ,gregory ,acindynos and the historian ,nicephorus ,gregoras ,gregory continued the controversy against the ,hesychasts4 ,down to ,a4,d4 #acea as many as three ,synods had been held1 which all decidedly favoured the monks4 #gj4 ,,constitution1 ,,worship ,,and ,,life4 ,the ,byzantine emperors had been long accustomed to carry out in a very high-handed manner their own will even in regard to the internal affairs of the church4 ,the anointing with sacred oil gave them a sacerdotal character and entitled them to be styled 4 ,most of the emperors1 too1 from ,leo the ,philosopher 7 #fh1 #a71 possessed some measure of theological culture4 ,the patriarchate1 however1 if amid so many arbitrary appointments and removals it fell into the proper hands1 was always a power which even emperors had to respect4 ,what protected it against all encroachments of the temporal power was the influence of the monks and through them of the people4 ,in consequence of the controversies about images1 ,theodorus ,studita 7 #ff1 #d7 founded a strong party which fought with all energy against every interference of the ,state in ecclesiastical matters and against the appointing of ecclesiastical officers by the temporal power1 but only with temporary success4 ,the monks1 who had been threatened by the iconoclastic ,isaurian with utter extermination1 at the restoration grew and prospered more than ever in outward appearance1 but gave way more and more to spiritual corruption and extravagance4 ,the ,eastern monks had not that genial many-sided culture which was needed for the cultivation of the fields and the minds of the barbarians4 ,they were deficient in those powers of tempering1 renovating and ennobling1 whereby the monks of the ,west accomplished such wonderful results4 ,but1 nevertheless1 if in those debased and degenerate days one looks for examples of fidelity to convictions1 firmness of character1 independence and moral earnestness1 he will always find the noblest in the monasteries4--,public worship had already in the previous period attained to almost complete development1 but theory and practice received enrichment in various particulars4 #gj4a4 ,the ,arsenian ,schism1 ,a4,d4 #abfb-acab4--,michael ,palologus1 after the death of the emperor ,theodore ,lascaris in ,a4,d4 #abei1 assumed the guardianship of his six years' old son ,john1 had himself crowned joint ruler1 and in ,a4,d4 #abfa had the eyes of the young prince put out so as to make him unfit for governing4 ,the patriarch ,arsenius then excommunicated him4 ,michael besought absolution1 and in order to obtain it submitted to humiliating penances2 but when the patriarch insisted that he should resign the throne1 the emperor deposed and exiled him1 ,a4,d4 #abfg4 ,the numerous adherents of ,arsenius refused to acknowledge the new patriarch ,joseph 7 #fg1 #d71 seceded from the national church1 and when their leader died in exile in ,a4,d4 #abgc1 their veneration for him expressed itself in burning hatred of his persecutors4 ,when ,joseph died in ,a4,d4 #abhc1 an attempt was made to decide the controversy by a direct appeal to ,god's judgment4 ,each of the two parties cast a tract in defence of its position into the fire1 and both were consumed4 ,the ,arsenians1 who had expected a miracle1 felt themselves for the moment defeated and expressed a readiness to be reconciled4 ,but on the third day they recalled their admissions and the schism continued1 until the patriarch ,niphon in ,a4,d4 #acab had the bones of ,arsenius laid in the church of ,sophia and pronounced a forty days' suspension on all the clergy who had taken part against him4 #gj4b4 ,public ,worship4--,in the ,greek church preaching retained its early prominence2 the homiletical productions1 however1 are but of small value4 ,the objection to hymns other than those found in ,scripture was more and more overcome4 ,as in earlier times 7 #ei1 #d7 ,troparies were added to the singing of psalms1 so now the ,new ,testament hymns of praise and doxologies were formed into a so-called 1 i4e4 a collection of new odes arranged for the several festivals and saints' days4 ,the #hth century was the ,augustan age of church song4 ,to this period belonged the celebrated 1 ,andrew of ,crete1 ,john of ,damascus1 ,cosmas of ,jerusalem1 and ,theophanes of ,nica4 ,the singing after this as well as before was without instrumental accompaniment and also without harmonic arrangement4--,there was a great diversity of opinion in regard to the idea of the sacraments and their number4 ,damascenus speaks only of two3 ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper4 ,theodorus ,studita1 on the other hand1 accepts the six enumerated by the ,pseudo-,areopagite 7 #eh74 ,petrus ,peter ,mogilas in his ,anti-,protestant ,confessio orthodoxa of ,a4,d4 #afdc 7 #aeb1 #c7 is the first confidently to assert that even among the ,latins of the ,middle ,ages the ,sacraments had been regarded as seven in number4 ,the ,greeks differed from the ,latins in maintaining the necessity of immersion in baptism1 in connecting the chrism with the baptism1 using leavened bread in the ,supper and giving both elements to all communicants4 ,from the time of ,joh4 ,damascenus the teachers of the church decidedly subscribed to the doctrine of ,transubstantiation2 but in regard to penance and confession they stoutly maintained 7 #fa1 #a71 that not the priest but ,god alone can forgive sins4 ,the ,unctio inferiorum1 1 also made way in the ,greek church1 applied in the form of the cross to forehead1 breast1 hands and feet2 yet with this difference that1 expressly repudiating the designation 8extreme0 unction1 it was given not only in cases of mortal illness1 but also in less serious ailments1 and had in view bodily cure as well as spiritual benefit4--,the emperor ,leo ,,vi4 the ,philosopher made the benediction of the church 7 #fa1 #b7 obligatory for a legally valid marriage4 #gj4c4 ,monasticism4--,the most celebrated of all the monastic associations were those of ,mount ,athos in ,thessaly1 which was covered with monasteries and hermit cells1 and as 8the holy mount0 had become already a hallowed spot and the resort of pilgrims for all ,greek ,christendom4 ,the monastery of ,studion1 too 7 #dd1 #c71 was held in high repute4 ,there was no want of ascetic extravagances among the monks4 ,there were numerous stylites2 many also spent their lives on high trees1 1 or shut up in cages built on high platforms 771 or in subterranean caverns1 etc4 ,others bound themselves to perpetual silence4 ,many again wore constantly a shirt of iron 771 etc4 ,a rare sort of pious monkish practice made its appearance in the #abth century among the ,ecet1 4 ,they were monks who danced and sang hymns with like-minded nuns in their monasteries after the pattern of ,exod4 xv4 #bj1 #ba4 ,although they continued orthodox in their doctrine and were never charged with any act of immorality1 ,nicetas ,acominatus proceeded against them as heretics4 #gj4d4 ,endeavours at ,reformation4--,in the beginning of the #abth century a pious monk at ,constantinople1 ,constantinus ,chrysomalus1 protested against prevailing hypocrisy and formalism4 ,a decade later the monk ,niphon took a similar stand4 ,around both gathered groups of clergy and laymen who1 putting themselves under their pastoral direction and neglecting the outward forms of the church1 applied themselves to the deepening of the spiritual life4 ,both brought down on themselves the anathema of the church4 ,the patriarch ,cosmas1 who was not convinced that ,niphon was a heretic and so received him into his house and at his table1 was deposed in ,a4,d4 #aaej4 ,eustathius1 archbishop of ,thessalonica 7 #fh1 #e71 carried on his reformatory efforts quite within the limits of the dominant institutions of the church1 and so kept himself safe from the machinations of his enemies4 ,relentlessly and powerfully he struggled against the corruption in the ,christian life of the people1 and especially against the formalism and hypocrisy1 the rudeness and vulgarity1 the spiritual blindness and pride1 and the eccentric caricatures of ascetism that were exhibited by the monks1 though he was himself in heart and soul a monk4 ,two hundred years later ,nicolas ,cabasilas 7 #fh1 #e7 yet more distinctly maintained that a consistent life was the test and love the root of all virtue4 #ga4 ,,dualistic ,,heretics4 ,remnants of the ,gnostic-,manichan heresy lingered on into the #gth century in ,armenia and ,syria1 where the surrounding ,parseeism gave them a hold and support4 ,constantinus of ,mananalis near ,samosata gathered these together about the middle of the #gth century and reformed them somewhat in the spirit of ,marcion 7 #bg1 #aa74 ,the ,catholics1 sneeringly called by them 1 gave the name of ,paulicians to them because they regarded ,paul alone as a true apostle4 ,even before the rise of the ,paulicians1 a sect existed in ,armenia called ,children of the ,sun who had mixed up the ,zoroastrian worship with ,christian elements4 ,they1 too1 during the #ith and #ajth centuries1 by reorganization reached a position of more importance1 and represented1 like the ,paulicians1 a reformatory opposition to the formal institutions of the ,catholic church4 ,a similar attitude was assumed by the ,euchites in ,thrace during the #aath century4 ,like the old ,euchites 7 #dd1 #g71 they got their name from the unceasing prayers which they regarded as the token of highest perfection4 ,their dualistic-gnostic system is met with again among the ,bogomili in ,bulgaria4 ,these were still more decidedly hostile to the ,catholic church1 and had adopted the anthropological views of ,saturninus and the ,ophites as well as the trinitarian theory of ,sabellius 7 #bg1 #f1 #i2 #cc1 #g74 ,all these sects were accused by their ,catholic opponents with entertaining antinomian doctrines and practising licentious orgies and unnatural abominations4 #ga4a4 ,the ,paulicians4--,they called themselves only 1 but were in the habit of giving to their leaders and churches the names of ,paul's companions and mission stations4 ,they combined dualism1 demiurgism and docetism with a mysticism that insisted upon inward piety1 demanded a strict but not rigorous asceticism1 forbade fasting and allowed marriage4 ,their worship was very simple1 their church constitution moulded after the apostolic pattern1 with the rejection of the hierarchy and priesthood4 ,they were specially averse to the accumulation of ceremonies and the veneration of images1 relics and saints in the ,catholic church4 ,they also urged the diligent study of ,scripture1 rejecting1 however1 the ,old ,testament1 and the ,jewish-,christian gospels and epistles of the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,catholic polemists of the #ith century traced their origin and even their name 77 to a ,manichan family of the fourth century1 a widow ,callinice and her two sons ,paul and ,john4 ,none of the distinctive marks of ,manichism1 however1 are discoverable in them1 and their founding by ,constantine of ,mananalis is a historic fact1 as also that he1 in ,a4,d4 #feg1 assumed the ,pauline name of ,sylvanus4 ,the first church1 which he called ,macedonia1 was founded by him at ,cibossa in ,armenia4 ,from this point he made successful missionary journeys in all directions4 ,the emperor ,constantinus ,pogonnatus1 ,a4,d4 #ffh-fhe1 began a bloody persecution of the ,paulicians4 ,but the martyr enthusiasm of ,sylvanus1 who was stoned in ,a4,d4 #fhe1 made such an impression upon the imperial officer ,symeon1 that he himself joined the sect1 was made their chief under the name of ,titus1 and on the renewal of persecution in ,a4,d4 #fij joyfully died at the stake4 ,his successor ,gegnesius1 who took the name of ,timothy1 was obliged by ,leo the ,isaurian to undergo an examination under the patriarch of ,constantinople1 had his orthodoxy attested1 and received from the iconoclast emperor a letter of protection4 ,soon1 however1 divisions sprang up within the sect itself4 ,one of their chiefs ,baanes1 on account of his antinomian practices1 was nicknamed the smutty4 ,but1 about ,a4,d4 #hja1 ,sergius ,tychicus1 converted in earlier years by a ,paulician woman1 who directed him to the ,bible1 made his appearance as a reformer and second founder of the sect4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #hce4 ,leo the ,armenian1 ,a4,d4 #hac-hbj1 organized an expedition for their conversion4 ,the penitents were received back into the church1 the obstinate were executed4 ,a mob of ,paulicians murdered the judges1 fled to the ,saracen regions of ,armenia1 and founded at ,argaum1 the ancient ,colosse1 a military colony which made incessant predatory and retaliating raids upon the ,byzantine provinces4 ,they were most numerous in ,asia ,minor4 ,the empress ,theodora 7 #ff1 #d7 carried out against them about ,a4,d4 #hdb a new and fearfully bloody persecution4 ,many thousands were put to death4 ,this too was the fate of an officer of high rank4 ,his son1 ,carbeas1 also an officer1 incited by an ardent desire for revenge1 gathered about #e1jjj armed ,paulicians around him in ,a4,d4 #hdd1 fled with them to ,argaum1 and became military chief of the sect4 ,new crowds of ,paulicians streamed daily in1 and the ,khalifs assigned to them two other fortified frontier cities4 ,with a well organized army1 thirsting for revenge1 ,carbeas wasted the ,byzantine provinces far and wide1 and repeatedly defeated the imperial forces4 ,basil the ,macedonian after two campaigns1 at last in ,a4,d4 #hga1 hemmed in the ,paulician army in a narrow pass and annihilated it4 ,their political power was now broken4 ,the sect1 however1 still continued to gather members in ,syria and ,asia ,minor4 ,in ,a4,d4 #igj1 the emperor ,john ,tzimisces transported the greater part of them as watchers of the frontier of ,thrace1 where ,philippopolis became their ,zion4 ,they soon had possession of all ,thrace4 ,alexius ,comnenus1 ,a4,d4 #ajha-aaah1 was the first earnestly again to attempt their conversion4 ,he himself appeared at ,philippopolis in ,a4,d4 #aaae1 disputed a whole day with their leaders1 promised and threatened1 rewarded and punished1 but all his efforts were fruitless4 ,from that time we hear nothing more of them4 ,their remnants probably joined the ,euchites and the ,bogomili4 #ga4b4 ,the ,children of the ,sun1 or ,arevendi were a sect gathered and organized in the #ith century in ,armenia by a ,paulician ,sembat in the country town of ,thontrace into a separate community of ,thontracians4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ajjb the metropolitan ,jacob of ,harkh gave a ,christian tinge to their doctrine1 went through the country preaching repentance and the performances of ritual observances1 and obtained much support from clergy and laity4 ,the ,catholicus of the ,armenian church caused him to be branded and imprisoned4 ,he made his escape1 but was afterwards slain by his opponents4 #ga4c4 ,the ,euchites1 ,messelians ,messalians1 ,enthusiasts1 attracted the attention of the government in the beginning of the #aath century as a sect widely spread in ,thrace4 ,in common with the earlier ,euchites 7 #dd1 #g7 they had great enthusiasm in prayer1 but they were distinguished from them by their dualism4 ,their doctrine of the two sons of ,god1 ,satanal and ,christ1 shows a certain relation to the form of ,persian dualism1 which derives the two opposing principles1 ,ormuzd and ,ahriman1 from one eternal primary essence1 ,zeruane ,acerene4 ,the germs of this sect may have come from the transplanting of ,paulicians to ,thrace by the emperor ,tzimisces4 ,the ,byzantine government sent a legate to ,thrace to suppress them4 ,this may have been ,michael ,psellus 7 #fh1 #e7 whose is the only source of information we have regarding them4 #ga4d4 ,the ,bogomili1 1 taught3 that ,satanal1 the firstborn son of ,god1 as chief and head over all angels1 clothed with full glory of the ,godhead1 sat at the right hand of the ,father2 but1 swelling with pride1 he thought to found an empire independent of his ,father and seduced a portion of the angels to take part with him4 ,driven with them out of heaven1 he determined after the pattern of the creation of the ,father 7,gen4 i4 #a7 to create a new world out of chaos 7,gen4 ii4 #c ff474 ,he formed the first man of earth mixed with water4 ,when he set up the figure1 some of the water ran out of the great toe of the right foot and spread out over the ground2 and after he had breathed his breath into it1 that also escaped owing to the looseness of the figure by the toe1 permeated the soil moistened with the water and animated it as a serpent4 ,at ,satanal's earnest entreaty the heavenly ,father took pity on the miserable creature1 and gave it life by breathing into it ,his own breath4 ,afterwards with the ,father's help ,eve1 too1 was created4 ,satanal in the form of the serpent seduced1 deceived and lay with ,eve in order that by his seed1 ,cain and his twin sister ,calomina1 ,adam's future descendants1 ,abel1 ,seth1 etc41 might be oppressed and brought into bondage4 ,jealous lest the latter should obtain that heavenly dwelling place from which they had been driven1 ,satanal's angels seduced their daughters 7,gen4 vi474 ,from this union sprang giants who rebelled against ,satanal1 but were destroyed by him in the flood4 ,henceforth he reigned unopposed as 1 seduced the greater part of mankind1 and endowed ,moses with the power of working miracles as the instrument of his tyranny4 ,only a few men under the oppression of his law attained the end of their being2 the sixteen prophets and those named in ,matt4 i4 and ,luke iii4 ,finally1 in the year #e1ejj after the creation of man1 the supreme ,god moved with pity caused a second son1 the ,logos1 to go forth from ,his bosom1 who as chief of the good angels is called ,michael1 and sent ,him to earth for man's redemption4 ,he entered in an ethereal body through the right ear into the virgin to be born of her with the semblance of an earthly body4 ,mary noticed nothing of all this4 ,without knowing how or whence1 she found the child in swaddling clothes before her in the cave4 ,his death on the cross was naturally in appearance only4 ,after his resurrection he showed himself to ,satanal in his true form1 bound him with chains1 robbed him of his divine power1 and compelled him to abandon his divine designation1 by taking the ,el from his name1 so that he is henceforth called ,satan4 ,then ,he returned to the ,father1 took the seat that formerly was ,satanal's at ,his right hand1 and sinks again into the bosom of the ,father out of which ,he had come4 ,this1 however1 did not take place before a new ,aon on1 the ,holy ,spirit1 emanated from the ,godhead1 and was sent forth as continuator and completer of the work of redemption4 ,this ,spirit1 too1 after he has finished his task will sink back again into the ,father's bosom4--,of the ,old ,testament the ,bogomili acknowledged only the ,psalter and the ,prophets2 of the ,new ,testament books they valued most the ,gospel of ,john4 ,veneration of relics and images1 as well as the sign of the cross they abhorred as demoniacal inventions4 ,church buildings were regarded by them as the residences of demons4 ,satanal himself in earlier days resided in the temple of ,jerusalem1 later in the church of ,sophia at ,constantinople4 ,water baptism1 which was introduced by ,john the ,baptist a servant of ,satanal1 they rejected2 but the baptism of ,christ is spiritual baptism 7,consolamentum74 ,it was imparted by laying the ,gospel of ,john on the head of the subject of baptism1 with invocation of the ,holy ,spirit and chanting the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,they declared the ,catholic mass to be a sacrifice presented to demons2 the true eucharist consists in the spiritual nourishment by the bread of life brought down in ,christ from heaven1 to which also the fourth petition in the ,lord's ,prayer refers4 ,they placed great value upon prayer1 especially the use of the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,so too they valued fasting4 ,their ascetism was strict and required abstinence from marriage and from the eating of flesh4 ,but prevarication and dissimulation they regarded as permissible4--,the emperor ,alexius ,comnenus caused their chief ,basil to be brought to ,constantinople1 under the delusive pretext of wishing himself to become a proselyte of the sect1 got him to open all his heart1 and enticed him under the semblance of a purely private conference to make reckless statements1 while behind the curtain a judge of heresies was taking notes4 ,this first act in the drama was followed by a second4 ,the sentence of death was passed upon all adherents of ,basil who could be laid hold upon4 ,two great funeral piles were erected1 one of which was furnished with the figure of the cross4 ,the emperor exhorted them1 at least to die as true ,christians1 and in token of this to choose the place of death provided with a cross4 ,those who did so were pardoned1 the rest for the most part condemned to imprisonment for life4 ,basil himself1 however1 was actually burnt1 ,a4,d4 #aaah4 ,the sect was not by any means thus rooted out4 ,the ,bogomili hid themselves mostly in monasteries1 and ,bulgaria long remained the haunt of dualistic heresy1 which spread thence through the ,latin church of the ,west4 #gb4 ,,the ,,nestorian ,,and ,,monophysite ,,churches ,,of ,,the ,,east4 ,the ,nestorian and ,monophysite churches of the ,east owed the protection and goodwill of their ,moslem rulers to their hostile position in regard to the ,byzantine national church4 ,among the ,persian ,nestorians as well as among the ,syrian and ,armenian ,monophysites we find an earnest endeavour after scholarship and great scientific activity4 ,they were the teachers of the ,saracens in the classical1 philosophical and medical sciences1 and with no little zeal pursued the study of ,christian theology4 ,the ,nestorians also long manifested great earnestness in missions4 ,only when the science-loving ,khalifs gave place to ,mongolian and ,turkish barbarians did those churches lose their prestige1 and that stagnation and torpidity passed over them in which they still lie4 ,in order to crown the ,florentine union attempts of ,a4,d4 #adci 7 #fg1 #f71 ,rome solemnly proclaimed in the immediately following year the complete union with all the detached churches of the ,east4 ,but this was a vain self-delusion or a bit of jugglery4 ,men pretending to be deputed by those churches treated about restoration to the bosom of the church1 which was accorded them amid great applause4 #gb4a4 ,the ,persian ,nestorians1 or ,chaldean ,christians 7 #fd1 #b71 stood in peculiarly friendly relations to the ,khalifs1 who1 in the ,nestorian opposition to ,theotokism1 worship of saints1 images and relics1 and priestly celibacy1 saw an approach to a rational ,christianity more in accordance with the ,moslem ideal4 ,the ,nestorian seminaries at ,edessa1 ,nisibis1 ,seleucia1 etc41 were in high repute4 ,the rich literature issued by them is1 however1 mostly lost1 and what of it remains is known only by ,asseman's ,assemani's quotations 7,biblioth4 ,orientalia74 ,among the later ,nestorian authors the best known is ,ebed ,jesus1 ,metropolitan of ,nisibis1 who died in ,a4,d4 #acah4 ,his writings treat of all subjects in the domain of theology4 ,the missionary zeal of the ,nestorians continued unabated down to the #acth century4 ,their chief mission fields were ,china and ,india4 ,at the beginning of the #aath century they converted the prince of the ,karaites1 a ,tartar tribe to the south of ,lake ,baikal1 who as vassals of the great ,chinese empire had the name ,ung-,khan4 ,a large number of the people followed their prince4 ,the ,mongol conqueror ,genghis-,khan married the daughter of the ,karaite prince1 but quarrelled with him1 drove him from his throne1 and took his life1 ,a4,d4 #abjb4--,with the overthrow of the ,khalifs by ,genghis-,khan in ,a4,d4 #abai1 the prosperity of the ,nestorian church came to an end4 ,at first the ,nestorians attempted missionary operations not unsuccessfully among the ,mongols4 ,but the savage ,tamerlane1 the ,scourge of ,asia1 ,a4,d4 #acfi-adje1 drove them into the inaccessible mountains and wild ravines of the province of ,kurdistan4#aie #gb4b4 ,among the ,monophysite ,churches the most important was the ,armenian 7 #fd1 #c74 ,it boasted1 at least temporarily and partially1 of political independence under national rulers4 ,the ,armenian patriarch from the #abth century had his residence in the monastery of ,etshmiadzin at the foot of ,ararat4 ,the literary activity in the translation of classical and patristic writings1 as well as in the production of original works1 reached a particularly high point in the #hth and then again in the #abth century4 ,to the earlier period belong the patriarch ,johannes ,ozniensis and the metropolitan ,stephen of ,snik1 to the later1 the still more famous name of the patriarch ,nerses ,,iv4 ,clajensis1 whose epic 8,jesus the ,son0 is regarded as the crown of ,armenian poetry1 and his nephew1 the metropolitan ,nerses of ,lampron4 ,the two last named readily aided the efforts for reunion with the ,byzantine church1 but owing to the troubles of the time these came to nothing4 ,the ,western endeavours after union which were actively carried on from the beginning of the #acth century1 split upon the dislike of the ,armenian church to the ,western ritual1 and found acceptance with only a relatively small fragment of the people4 ,these ,united ,armenians acknowledged the primacy of the pope and the catholic system of doctrine1 but retained their own constitution and liturgy4--,in the ,jacobite-,syrian ,church 7 #eb1 #g71 too1 theological and classical studies were prosecuted with great vigour4 ,the most distinguished of its scholars during our period was ,george1 bishop of the ,arabs1 who died in ,a4,d4 #gdj4 ,he translated and annotated the ,organon of ,aristotle1 and wrote exegetical1 dogmatic1 historical and chronological works1 also poems on various themes1 and a number of epistles important for the history of culture during these times1 in which he answered questions put to him by his friends and admirers4 ,the brilliant ,gregory ,abulfarajus is the last of the distinguished scholars of the ,jacobite-,syrian church4 ,he was the son of a converted ,jewish physician1 and hence he is usually called ,barhebrus4 ,he was made bishop of ,guba1 afterwards ,maphrian of ,mosul1 and died in ,a4,d4 #abhf4 ,his noble and truly benevolent disposition1 his extraordinary learning1 the rich and attractive productions of his pen1 and his skill as a physician made him universally revered by ,christians1 ,mohammedans and ,jews4 ,among his writings1 for the most part still in manuscript1 the most important and best known is the ,chronicon ,syriacum4--,the ,jacobite church suffered most in ,egypt4 ,the perfidy of the ,copts1 who surrendered the country to the ,saracens1 was terribly avenged4 ,from ,a4,d4 #abed the ,fatimide ,khalifs held them down under the most severe oppression1 and this became yet more severe under the ,mamelukes4 ,the ,copts were completely driven out of the cities1 and even in the villages maintained only a miserable existence4 ,their church was now in a condition of utter stagnation4 ,in ,abyssinia 7 #fd1 #a7 the national rulers maintained their position1 though pressed within narrower limits from time to time by the ,saracens4 ,but here1 too1 church life became fossilized4 ,at the head of the church was an ,abbuna consecrated by the ,coptic patriarch 7 #fd1 #a2 #afe1 #c74 #gb4c4 ,the ,maronites 7 #eb1 #h7 attached themselves to the ,western church on the appearance of the crusades in ,a4,d4 #aahb1 renouncing their ,monothelite heresy and acknowledging the primacy of the pope1 but retaining their own ritual4 ,in consequence of the ,florentine union measures they renewed their connection in ,a4,d4 #adde1 and subsequently adopted also the doctrinal conclusions of the ,council of ,trent4 ,their numbers at the present day amount to somewhere about #bjj1jjj4 #gb4d4 ,the ,legend of ,prester ,john4--,in ,a4,d4 #aadd ,bishop ,otto of ,freisingen obtained from the bishop of ,cabala in ,palestine1 whom he met at ,viterbo1 information about a powerful ,christian empire in ,central ,asia1 and published it in ,a4,d4 #aade in his widely-read ,chronicle4 ,according to this story the king of that region1 a ,nestorian ,christian1 who was named ,prester ,john1 had not long before driven to flight the ,mohammedan kings of the ,persians and ,medes1 and thus delivered from great danger the crusaders in the ,holy ,land4 ,he had also wished to go to the help of the church of ,jerusalem1 but was prevented by the ,tigris which overflowed its banks4 ,twenty years later appeared a writing attributed to ,prester ,john1 first referred to by the ,chronicler ,alberich4 ,it was addressed to the ,european princes in a ,latin translation which contained the most fabulous stories1 borrowed from the ,alexander legends1 about the extent and glory of his empire and the many wonders in nature1 white lions1 the phnix1 giants and pigmies1 dog-headed and horned men1 fauns1 satyrs1 cyclops1 etc41 which were to be seen in his country2 and notwithstanding all these absurdities it was received as genuine4 ,the pope1 ,alexander ,,iii41 took occasion from its appearance to send an answer to ,prester ,john by his own physician ,philip1 of whose fate nothing more is known4 ,when in ,a4,d4 #abai the first news reached ,palestine of the irrepressible advance of ,mongolian hordes under ,genghis ,khan1 the crusaders felt justified in assuming that he was the successor of the celebrated ,prester ,john1 and was now to accomplish what his distinguished predecessor had wished to undertake4 ,but they were soon cruelly undeceived4 ,the missionaries sent to the ,mongols about the middle of the #acth century 7 #ic1 #ae71 reported that the last ,prester ,john had lost his kingdom and his life in battle with ,genghis ,khan4 ,nevertheless the belief in the continued existence of an exceedingly glorious and powerful empire ruled by a ,christian priest in further ,india was not by any means overthrown2 but it was no longer sought in an ,asiatic but in an ,african 8,india10 and the ,portuguese actually believed that at last the famed ,prester ,john had been found in the ,christian king of ,abyssinia1 so that that country was known down to the #agth century as ,regnum presb4 ,joannis4--,the ,jacobite historian ,barhebrus had identified the first ,presbyter-king with the prince of the ,mongolian ,karaites converted by the ,nestorians4 ,his name ,ung-,khan or ,owang-,khan corresponded both to the name ,joannes and to the ,chaldean priest4 ,this notion prevailed until recently the ,orientalist ,oppert by careful examination and comparison of all ,oriental and ,western reports reached the conclusion 7 #ic1 #af7 that these legends are to be referred to the kingdom established about ,a4,d4 #aabe by ,kur-,khan1 prince of the tribe of the ,caracitai in the ,mandshuria of to-day4 ,this prince1 who was probably himself a ,nestorian ,christian1 favoured the establishment of ,christianity in his country2 but this was utterly destroyed by ,genghis ,khan so early as ,a4,d4 #abjh4 ,the title ,prester or ,presbyter given to the prince of this tribe is to be explained perhaps by the statement of the missionary ,ruysbroek that almost all male ,nestorians in ,central ,asia received priestly consecration4#aif #gc4 ,,the ,,slavonic ,,churches ,,adhering ,,to ,,the ,,orthodox ,,greek ,,confession4 ,among the crowds of immigrants whom the wanderings of the people had set in motion1 the ,germans and the ,slavs are those whose future is of most historic interest4 ,the former went at once in a body over to the ,roman ,catholic church1 and at first it appeared as if the ,slavs were with similar unanimity to attach themselves to the ,byzantine orthodox church4 ,but only the ,slavs of the ,eastern countries remained true to that communion1 though they were mostly with it brought under the yoke of the ,turkish power4 ,so was it with the specially promising ,bulgarian church4 ,all the more important was the incomparably more significant gain which the ,greek church made in the conversion of the ,russians4 #gc4a4 ,soon after ,justinian's time the ,slavic hordes began to overflow the ,greek ,provinces--,macedonia1 ,thessaly1 ,hellas and ,peloponnesus4 ,the old ,hellenic population was mostly rooted out2 only in well fortified cities1 especially coast towns1 as well as on the islands1 did the ,greek people and the ,christian confession remain undisturbed4 ,the empress ,irene made the first successful attempt to restore ,slavic ,greece to the allegiance of the empire and the church1 and ,basil the ,macedonian1 ,a4,d4 #hfg-hhf1 completed the work so thoroughly that at last even the old pagan ,mainottes 7 #db1 #d7 in the ,peloponnesus bent their necks to the double yoke4 ,regenerated ,hellenism by its higher culture and national1 as well as ecclesiastical1 tenacity1 completely absorbed by assimilation the numerically larger ,slavic element of the population1 and ,mount ,athos with its hermits and monasteries 7 #gj1 #c7 became the ,zion of the new church4 #gc4b4 ,the ,chazari in the ,crimea asked about ,a4,d4 #hej for ,christian missionaries from ,constantinople4 ,the court sent them a celebrated monk ,constantine1 surnamed the ,philosopher1 better known under his monkish name of ,cyril4 ,born at ,thessalonica1 and so probably of ,slavic descent1 at least acquainted with the language of the ,slavs1 he converted in a few years a great part of the people4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ajaf1 however1 the kingdom of the ,chazari was destroyed by the ,russians4 #gc4c4 ,the ,bulgarians in ,thrace and ,msia had obtained a knowledge of ,christianity from ,greek prisoners1 but its first sowing was watered with blood4 ,a sister1 however1 of the ,bulgarian king ,bogoris had been baptized when a prisoner in ,constantinople4 ,after her liberation1 she sought1 with the help of the ,byzantine monk ,methodius1 a brother of ,cyril1 to win her brother to the ,christian faith4 ,a famine came to their aid1 and a picture painted by ,methodius1 representing the last judgment1 made a deep impression on ,bogoris4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hfa he was baptized and compelled his subjects to follow his example4 ,but soon thereafter1 ,methodius1 along with his brother ,cyril1 was called to labour in another field1 in ,moravia 7 #gi1 #b71 and political considerations led the ,bulgarian prince in ,a4,d4 #hff to join the ,western church4 ,at his request pope ,nicholas ,i4 sent bishops and clergy into ,bulgaria to organize the church there after the ,roman model4 ,byzantine diplomacy1 however1 succeeded in winning back the ,bulgarians1 and at the cumenical ,council at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #hfi1 their ambassadors admitted that the ,bulgarian church according to divine and human laws belonged to the diocese of the ,byzantine patriarch 7 #fg1 #a74 ,meantime the two ,apostles of the ,slavs1 ,cyril and ,methodius1 by the invention of a ,slavic alphabet and a ,slavic translation of the ,bible1 laid the foundation of a ,slavic ecclesiastical literature1 which was specially fostered in ,bulgaria under the noble-minded prince ,symeon1 ,a4,d4 #hhh-ibg4 ,basil ,,ii41 the ,slayer of the ,bulgarians1 conquered ,bulgaria in ,a4,d4 #ajah4 ,it gained its freedom again1 together with ,walachia1 in ,a4,d4 #aahf2 but fell a prey to the ,tartars in ,a4,d4 #abhe1 and became a ,turkish province in ,a4,d4 #acia4 #gc4d4 ,the ,russian ,church4--,photius speaks in ,a4,d4 #hff of the ,conversion of the ,russians as an accomplished fact4 ,in the days of the ,grand ,duke ,igor1 about ,a4,d4 #ijj1 there was a cathedral at ,kiev4 ,olga1 ,igor's widow1 made a journey to ,constantinople and was there baptized in ,a4,d4 #iee under the name ,helena4 ,but her son ,swtoslaw could not be persuaded to follow her example4 ,the aged princess is said according to the report of ,german chroniclers to have at last besought the emperor ,otto ,i4 to send ,german missionaries1 and that in response ,adalbert of ,treves1 afterwards archbishop of ,magdeburg1 undertook a missionary tour1 from which1 however1 he returned without having achieved his purpose1 after his companions had been slain4 ,olga's grandson1 ,vladimir1 8,equal of the ,apostles10 was the first to put an end to paganism in the country4 ,according to a legend adorned with many romantic episodes he sent ten ,boyars in order to see how the different religions appeared as conducted in their chief seats4 ,they were peculiarly impressed with the beautiful service in the church of ,sophia4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ihh1 in the old ,christian commercial town ,cherson1 shortly before conquered by him1 ,vladimir was baptized with the name ,basil1 and at the same time he received the hand of the princess ,anna4 ,the idols were now everywhere broken up and burnt2 the image of ,perun was dragged through the streets tied to the tail of a horse1 beaten with clubs and thrown into the ,dnieper4 ,the inhabitants of ,kiev were soon afterwards ordered to gather at the ,dnieper and be baptized4 ,vladimir knelt in prayer on the banks and thanked ,god on his knees1 while the clergy1 standing in the stream1 baptized the people4 ,on the further organization of the ,russian church ,anna exercised a powerful and salutary influence4 ,vladimir died in ,a4,d4 #ajae4 ,his son ,jaroslaw ,i41 the ,justinian of the ,russians1 attended to the religious needs of his people by the erection of many churches1 monasteries and schools1 improved the worship1 enriched the psalmody1 awakened a taste for art and patronized learning4 ,the monastery of ,petchersk at ,kiev was the birthplace of ,russian literature and a seminary for the training of the clergy4 ,here1 at the end of the #aath century1 the monk ,nestor wrote his annals in the language of the country4 ,the metropolitan of ,kiev was the spiritual head of the whole ,russian church under the suzerainty of the patriarch of ,constantinople4 ,after the great fire of ,a4,d4 #aagj1 which laid the glory of ,kiev in ashes1 the residency of the ,grand ,duke was transferred to ,vladimir4 ,in ,a4,d4 #abii the metropolitan also took up his abode there1 but only for a short time2 for in ,a4,d4 #acbh the ,grand ,duke ,ivan ,danilowitsch settled at ,moscow and the metropolitan went there along with him4 ,the patriarch of ,constantinople on his own authority consecrated in ,a4,d4 #acec a second ,russian metropolitan for the forsaken ,kiev1 to whom he assigned the ,southern and ,western ,russian provinces which since ,a4,d4 #acbj had been under the rule of the pagan ,lithuanians4 ,this schism was overcome in ,a4,d4 #achj on the next occasion of a vacancy in the ,moscow chair by the appointment to ,moscow of the ,kiev metropolitan4 ,but the ,lithuanian government1 which had meanwhile become ,catholic 7 #ic1 #ae71 compelled the ,south ,russian bishops in ,a4,d4 #adad to choose a metropolitan of their own independent of ,moscow1 who in ,a4,d4 #aeid with his whole diocese at the ,synod of ,brest 7 #aea1 #c7 attached himself to ,rome4 ,the primate of ,moscow continued under the jurisdiction of ,constantinople until1 in ,a4,d4 #aehi1 the patriarch ,jeremiah ,,ii4 7 #aci1 #bf71 on the occasion of his being personally present at ,moscow voluntarily declared the ,russian church independent of him1 and himself consecrated ,job1 the metropolitan of that time1 its first patriarch4#aig #gc4e4 ,russian ,sects4--,about ,a4,d4 #aaej1 the monk ,martin1 an ,armenian by birth1 insisted upon a liturgical reform that seemed to him most necessary4 ,among other things he declared that it was sinful to lead the subject of baptism to the baptismal font from right to left or from south to north2 the direction should be reversed following the course of the sun4 ,but it seemed to him most important that a reform should be made in the hitherto prevalent mode of making the sign of the cross4 ,instead of symbolizing1 as up to this time had been done1 the two natures in ,christ and the three persons in the ,trinity by bending the little finger and the thumb1 and making the sign of the cross with other three1 they made this sign with the fore and middle fingers4 ,for nearly ten years this monk was allowed to disseminate his errors unchecked1 till a ,council obliged him to retract4 ,two hundred years later a certain ,carp ,strigolnik at ,novgorod in ,a4,d4 #acge publicly accused the clergy of sinning1 because1 in accordance with an old custom1 they took fees in assisting in the consecration of bishops1 and demanded of all orthodox ,christians that they should separate from them as unworthy of their office4 ,but he1 along with many of his followers1 was mobbed by the adherents of the opposite party and drowned in the ,volga4 ,more dangerous than all the earlier sectaries was the so-called ,jewish sect at the end of the #aeth century1 which sought to reduce orthodox ,christianity to a rationalistic cabbalistic ,ebionitism4 ,about ,a4,d4 #adgj the ,jew ,zachariah arrived at ,novgorod4 ,he won two distinguished priests ,alexis and ,denis to his views1 that ,christ was nothing more than an ordinary ,jewish prophet1 that the ,mosaic law is a divine institution and is of perpetual obligation4 ,by the advice of the ,jew the two priests continued to profess the greatest zeal for the ceremonial laws of the ,church1 and by strict observance of the fasts obtained a great reputation for piety1 but secretly they wrought all the more successfully for the dissemination of their sect among all classes of the people4 ,when the czar1 ,ivan ,,iii41 in ,a4,d4 #adhj1 came to ,novgorod1 they made so favourable an impression on him that he took them with him to ,moscow1 where they reaped a rich harvest for their secret doctrine4 ,they succeeded through their influence with the czar in placing at the head of the whole ,russian church a zealous proselyte for their sect in the archimandrite ,zosima4 ,meanwhile at ,novgorod iconoclast excesses were committed by the sectaries1 which the archbishop of that place1 ,gennadius1 set himself to suppress by imposing generally mild penalties4 ,his successor ,joseph ,ssanin proceeded much more energetically4 ,he did not rest till the czar in ,a4,d4 #aejd called a ,church ,synod at ,novgorod which condemned the chiefs of the sect to be burnt1 and their followers to be shut up in monasteries4 ,even the metropolitan ,zosima as a favourer of the sect was sent to a monastery2 but ,alexis managed so cleverly that he retained his office and dignity to the end of his life4 ,secret remnants of this sect1 as well as of the two previously referred to1 continued to exist for a long time1 even down to the #agth century1 when sectarianism in the ,russian ,church made again a new departure 7 #afc1 #aj74 #gc4f4 ,romish ,efforts at ,union4--,from a very early time ,rome cast a covetous glance at the young ,russian church1 and she spared neither delicate hints nor attempts to subdue by force by the aid of ,danes1 ,swedes1 ,livonians and at a later time1 the ,poles4 ,in order to avert this danger and to obtain from the ,west assistance against the oppressive yoke of the ,mongols1 ,a4,d4 #abcd-adhj1 the ,grand ,duke ,jaroslav ,jaroslaw ,,ii4 of ,novgorod was not averse to a union4 ,his son ,alexander succeeded him in ,a4,d4 #abdg4 ,by a glorious victory over the ,swedes in ,a4,d4 #abdj1 on the ,neva1 he won for himself the surname ,newsky1 and in ,a4,d4 #abdb he defeated the ,livonians on the ice of ,lake ,peipus4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iv4 who had already in ,a4,d4 #abdf nominated ,arch bishop ,albert ,suerbeer 7 #ic1 #ab7 a legate to ,russia with the power to erect bishoprics there1 addressed an earnest exhortation to the young prince in ,a4,d4 #abdh with promises of help against the ,mongols1 urging him to go in the footsteps of his father and to secure his own and his subjects' salvation by doing what his father had promised4 ,the ,grand ,duke referred to the wisest men of the land and answered the ,pope3 ,from ,adam to the flood1 from that to the ,confusion of languages1 etc41 down to ,constantine and the seventh cumenical ,council1 we know the true history of the ,church1 but yours we do not wish to acknowledge4 ,alexander ,newsky died in ,a4,d4 #abfc1 and has been ever since venerated by his country as a national hero and by his ,church as a national saint4 ,the prospects of the ,roman ,curia were more favourable during the #adth century owing to the ,lithuanian and ,polish supremacy in ,south and ,west ,russia1 and by the schism of the ,russian ,church into ,kiev and ,moscow primacies4 ,in those ,southern and ,western provinces there was originally less disinclination to ,rome than in ,moscow4 ,still even here we meet during the #aeth century in the metropolitan ,isidore1 born in ,thessalonica1 a prelate who made everything work toward a union with ,rome4 ,when the ,union ,synod of ,a4,d4 #adch was to meet at ,ferrara 7 #fg1 #f71 he represented to the ,grand ,duke ,vassili that it was his duty to appear there4 ,he gave a hesitating and unwilling consent4 ,at the ,council ,isidore along with ,bessarion showed himself a zealous promoter of the union4 ,he returned in ,a4,d4 #adda as cardinal and papal legate4 ,but when at the first public service in ,moscow he read aloud the union documents1 the ,grand ,duke had him imprisoned and banished to a monastery4 ,he escaped from his prison and died in ,rome in ,a4,d4 #afdc4--;,continuation1 #aea1 #c4 ,,second ,,division4 ,,the ,,historical ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,and ,,roman ,,church ,,during ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4#aih #gd4 ,,character ,,and ,,divisions ,,of ,,this ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,development4 ,with the historically significant appearance of the ,germanic peoples1 from whose blending with the old ,celtic and ,latin races of the conquered countries the ,romance group of nationalities has its origin1 there begins a new phase in the historical development of the world and the church4 ,the so-called migration of the nations produced an upheaval and revolution among the very foundations and springs of history such as have never since been seen4 ,for a similar significance cannot be ascribed to the appearance at a somewhat later period of a motley crowd of ,slavic tribes and a detached contingent of the ,turanian-,altaic race 7,finns1 ,magyars1 etc471 because the stream of their development ran in the same channel4 ,thus the appearance of the ,germans forms the watershed between the old world and the new4 ,this dividing boundary1 however1 is not a straight line2 for the shoots of the old world run on for centuries alongside of and among the young growths of the new world4 ,in so far as those remnants of the old have no relation to the new and work out uninfluenced by their surroundings their own material in their own way1 the history of their developments has no place here2 but even these demand consideration at this point in so far as they affect the development of the new world as a means of educating and moulding1 arresting and perverting4 ,just as the history of the church and the world as a whole is distributed into ancient and modern1 so the special history of the ,germano-,roman world can and must be distributed into ancient and modern1 the dividing boundary of which is the ,reformation of the #afth century4 ,the earlier of these two phases of history presents itself to us with a ,janus-head1 whose two faces are directed the one to the ancient1 the other to the modern world4 ,this follows from the fact that the groups of peoples referred to did not require any longer to pursue the weary way of their development on their own charges1 but rather entered upon the spiritual heritage of the defunct ancient world1 and were able by means thereof more quickly and surely to grow to the maturity of their own proper and independent rank and culture4 ,the ,roman and1 for some branches of the ,slavic races1 also the ,byzantine1 church was the bearer and medium of this spiritual heritage1 and as such became teacher and disciplinarian of the young world4 ,the ,reformation is the emancipation from the administrator of discipline1 whose leading strings were cast off by the youth when he reached the maturity of man's estate4 ,it is the assertion of the ,german nation that it had reached its intellectual majority4 #gd4a4 ,the ,character of ,medival ,history4--,as its name implies the medival period of church history is one of transition from the old to the new4 ,the old is the now completed development of ,christianity under the moulding influences of the ancient ,greek and ,roman world2 the new is the complete incorporation of the special forms of life and culture that characterize the new peoples1 who are placed by means of the migration of the nations in the foreground of history4 ,but since the peculiar culture of these nations was first present only potentially and as a capacity1 and was to realize itself first through the influence of the early ,christian culture1 between the old and the new a middle and intermediate age intervened1 the extent of which was just that influence of the old completed culture upon the new developing culture4 ,this conflict during the whole course of the ,middle ,ages was carried on by those powerful waves of action and reaction 7formation1 deformation1 reformation71 which1 however1 amid the ferment of the times displayed an ever varying mixing of the one with the other4 ,the ,middle ,ages have brought forth the most magnificent phenomena1 the papacy1 the monastic system1 scholasticism1 etc41 but characteristic of them all is that crude blending of the three kinds of movement named above1 which hindered its effectiveness and led to its own deterioration4 ,first in the beginning of the #afth century did the reformatory endeavours become so mature and strong that it could assume a purer form and carry out its efforts with success4 ,with this too we reach the end of the ,middle ,ages and witness the birth of the modern world4 #gd4b4 ,periods in the ,church ,history of the ,german-,roman ,middle ,ages4--,the first regular period is marked by the end of the ,carolingian age1 which may be regarded as completed by the dying out of the ,german ,carolingians in ,a4,d4 #iaa4 ,the movement in all the chief departments of the church was hitherto regular and unbroken3 before ,charlemagne an ascending one1 during his reign reaching the summit1 and after his death declining4 ,it is the universal ,german period of history4 ,the fundamental idea of the ,carolingian dynasty1 which survived even its weakest representatives1 was no other than the combination of all ,german1 ,roman and ,slavic nationalities under the sceptre of one ,german empire4 ,the last ,german ,carolingian carried this idea with him to the grave4 ,the powerful impulse present even in the #ith century toward national separation and the dismemberment of the ,carolingian empire into independent ,germanic1 ,romanic and ,slavic nations has since asserted its irresistible power4 ,but with the ,carolingian empire the ,carolingian epoch of civilization also came to an end4 ,and even the glory of the papacy1 whose intrigues had undermined the empire1 because it had thus snapped the branch on which it sat1 now sank into the lowest depths of weakness and corruption4 ,when we take a general survey of the beginning of the #ajth century1 we find on all sides1 in church and state1 in secular and spiritual governments1 in science1 culture and art1 the creations of ,charlemagne overthrown1 and a seculum obscurum introduced from which amid great oppression and savagery1 emerge the conditions1 earnests and germs of a new golden age4--,a second period is marked out1 in quite a different fashion1 by the age of ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 or the beginning of the #adth century4 ,up to this time ,germany stood distinctly in the foreground both of the history of the world and of the church2 but the unhappy conflict of ,boniface with ,philip the ,fair of ,france placed the papacy at the mercy of ,french policy1 and so henceforth in all the movements of ,church history ,france stands in the front4 ,the pontificate of ,boniface forms a turning point also for the historical development within the church itself4 ,the most vast and influential products of medival ecclesiasticism are the papacy1 monasticism and scholasticism4 ,the period before ,boniface is characterized by the growth and flourishing of these2 the period after ,boniface by their decay and deterioration4 ,the reformatory current1 too1 which permeated the whole of the ,middle ,ages1 has in each of these two periods its own distinctive character4 ,before ,boniface those representatives of the dominant ecclesiastical system were themselves inspired by a powerful reformatory spirit working its way up from the great and widespread depravation of the #ajth century1 accompanied1 however1 by a hierarchical lust of power far beyond the limits justifiable on evangelical principles4 ,the evangelical reformatory endeavours again directed against those representatives of ecclesiasticism are still relatively few and isolated and find but a slight echo1 while as their caricature we see alongside of them heretical extravagances which have scarcely ever had their like in history4 ,toward the end of the first period1 however1 this relation begins to be reversed4 ,the papacy1 monasticism and scholasticism becoming more and more deteriorated are the patrons of every sort of deterioration within the church4 ,the revolutionary heretical movement is indeed overcome1 but all the more powerfully1 generally and variedly does the evangelical reformatory movement1 though still always burdened with much that was confused and immature1 assert itself independently of and over against those ecclesiastical principalities1 without being able1 however1 to exert upon them any abiding influence4--,thus our phase of development is divided into three periods3 the period from the #dth to the #ith cent4 7till ,a4,d4 #iaa72 the period from the #ajth to the #acth cent4 7,a4,d4 #iaa-abid72 and the period of the #adth and #aeth cent4 7,a4,d4 #abid-aeag74 ,,first ,,section4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,german-,,roman ,,church ,,from ,,the #d,,th ,,to ,,the #i,,th ,,century 7,,down ,,to ,a4,d4 #iaa74 ,i4 ,founding1 ,spread1 and ,limitation of the ,german ,church4#aii #ge4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,the ,,germans4 ,in the pre-,german age ,europe was for the most part inhabited by ,celtic races4 ,in ,britain1 ,spain and ,gaul1 however1 these were subjugated by the ,roman forces and ,romanized1 whereas in northern1 eastern and middle ,europe they were oppressed1 exterminated or ,germanized by the ,germans4 ,in its victorious march through ,europe1 ,christianity met with ,celtic races of unmixed nationality only in ,ireland and ,scotland1 for even among the neighbouring ,britons the ,celtic nationality was already blended with the ,roman4 ,only in a very restricted field1 therefore1 could the church first of all develop itself according to the ,celtic mode of culture4 ,but here1 with a wonderful measure of independence1 missionary operations were so energetically prosecuted that for a long time it seemed as if the greater part of the opposite continent with its ,german population was to be its prey1 until at last the ,romish church would be driven out of its own home as well as out of its hopeful mission fields 7 #gg74--;,even in pre-,christian times a second and more powerful immigration from the ,east had begun to pour over ,europe4 ,the various ,germanic groups of tribes now presented themselves1 followed by other warlike races1 ,huns1 ,slavs1 ,magyars1 etc41 alternately driving and being driven4 ,the ,germans first came into contact with ,christian elements in the second half of the #crd century1 and toward the end of the #eth a whole series of powerful ,german peoples are found professing the ,christian faith1 and each successive century far down into the ,middle ,ages brings always new trophies from these nations into the treasure-house of the church4 ,it would certainly be wrong to ascribe these results to a national predisposition of the ,german churches and type of mind for ,christianity4 ,this cannot be altogether denied1 but it did not predispose the ,german peoples to ,christianity as it then was preached1 but was first developed when this by other ways and means had found an entrance and only at the ,reformation of the #afth century did it get full expression4 ,for that predisposition was directed to the deepest and innermost sides of ,christianity1 for which the ecclesiastical institution of the times in its externalism had little appreciation2 and the first task of the ,german spirit was to secure recognition of this reformatory principle4 #ge4a4 ,the ,predisposition of the ,germans for ,christianity4--,what we have been accustomed to hear about this subject is in part greatly exaggerated1 in part sought for where its proper germ does not lie4 ,the ,german mythology may indeed conceal many deep thoughts under the garb of legendary poetry which have some relation to ,christian truth and afford evidence of the religious needs1 the speculative gifts and the characteristic profundity of ,german thought1 but this scarcely in a larger measure than in the ,greek myths1 philosophemes and mysteries4#bjj ,much more suggestive of a predisposition to ,christianity than such bright spots in the mythological system of the ,germans are the special and distinguishing characteristics of the life of the ,german people4 ,the fidelity of the vassal to his lord1 transferred to ,christ the heavenly king1 constitutes the special core of ,christianity4 ,besides1 closely connected therewith1 the love of battle and faithfulness in battle for and with the hereditary or elected chief found a parallel in the struggles and victories of the ,christian life4 ,further1 the ,germans' noble love of freedom1 sanctified by the ,gospel1 afforded form and expression for the glorious freedom of the children of ,god4 ,and finally1 the spirituality of the ,germans' worship1 praised even by ,tacitus1 who says that they nec cohibere parietibus ,deos1 neque in ullam humani oris speciem adsimulare1 ex magnitudine clestium arbitrantur1 predisposed them in favour of the worshipping of ,god in spirit and in truth4 #ge4b4 ,what is of most significance1 however1 for understanding the almost unopposed ,adoption of ,christianity by so many ,german races is the slight hold that their heathen religion had upon them at that time4 ,it is essentially characteristic of heathenism as the religion of nature that it can flourish only on its native soil4 ,german paganism1 however1 had been uprooted by its transplantation to ,european soil and had1 amid the movements of peoples during the first centuries after their migration1 never quite struck root in the new ground4 ,in the later centuries1 when it had long enough time for doing so1 e4g4 among the ,frisians1 ,saxons1 ,danes1 it offered an incomparably more resolute resistance4 ,again1 rapid conversion will be furthered or hindered according as the new home is one where already from ,roman times ,christian institutions existed or even had existed1 or is one where the old primitive heathenism still prevailed4 ,only in the latter case could ,german paganism develop its full power and strike its roots deeply and feel at home upon the new soil2 whereas in the other case1 the higher culture and spiritual power of ,christianity1 even where it had been vanquished by the barbarians1 disturbed the even tenour and navete of the genuinely pagan course of development4 ,the circumstance also deserves mention1 that the marriage of heathen princes with ,christian princesses frequently secured their conversion along with that of their subjects4 ,in the narrower circles of the home1 the family1 the tribe1 innumerable instances of the same sort of thing repeatedly occurred4 ,there is something specially ,germanic1 in the prominent position which ,german feeling had assigned to the wife3 ,inesse quin etiam1 says ,tacitus1 sanctum aliquid et providum putant2 nec aut consilia earum adspernantur1 aut responsa negligunt4#bja #ge4c4 ,mode of ,conversion in the ,church of these ,times4--,apart from the too frequent practice of ,christian rulers to secure conversions by the sword1 baptism and conversion were commonly regarded as an opus operatum1 and whole crowds of heathens without any knowledge of saving truth1 with no real change of heart and mind1 were received into the church by baptism4 ,no one can approve this4 ,but it must be admitted that only in this way could striking and rapid results have been reached2 that indeed in the stage of childhood1 in which the ,germans then were1 it had a certain measure of justification4 ,by the history even of its attack upon ,german paganism an entirely different career of conflict and victory was marked out to ,christianity than that through which it had to pass in its conquests of ,grco-,roman paganism4 ,in this latter case it had to confront a high form of civilization which had outlived its powers and had lost itself in its own perplexities1 which for a thousand years had proved in its civilization and history a 4 ,all this was wanting to the ,germans4 ,if the ,roman world might be compared to a proselyte who in ripe1 well proved and much experienced maturity receives baptism1 the conversion of the ,germans may be compared to the baptism of children4--,gregory the ,great had at first directed the missionaries to the ,anglo-,saxons 7 #gg1 #d7 to destroy the idol temples of converted heathens4 ,but further reflection convinced him that it was better to transform them into ,christian churches1 and now he laid it down as a maxim in ,roman ,catholic missions that pagan forms of worship and places of worship which were capable of modification to ,christian uses should be carefully preserved and respected3 8,nam duris mentibus simul omnia abscindere impossibile esse dubium non est1 quia et is qui summum locum ascendere nititur1 gradibus vel passibus1 non autem saltibus1 elevatur40 ,it was a fateful1 two-edged word1 which led ,catholic missions to a brilliant outward success1 but has saturated the ,catholic worship and life with a pagan leaven1 which works in it powerfully down to the present day4 #gf4 ,,the ,,victory ,,of ,,catholicism ,,over ,,arianism4#bjb ,the first conversions of multitudes of the ,german races occurred at the time when ,arianism had reached its climax in the ,roman empire4 ,internal disturbances and external pressure compelled a portion of the ,goths in the second half of the fourth century to throw themselves into the arms of the ,east ,roman empire and to purchase its protection by the adoption of ,arian ,christianity4 ,the missionary zeal of the national clergy1 with bishop ,ulfilas at their head1 though we cannot indicate particularly his methods1 spread ,arianism in a short time over a multitude of the ,german nationalities4 ,down to the end of the fifth century ,arianism was professed by the larger portion of the ,german world1 by ,visigoths and ,ostrogoths1 by ,vandals1 ,suevi and ,burgundians1 by the ,rugians and ,herulians1 by the ,longobards1 etc4 ,and as the early friendly relations to the ,roman empire had given ,arianism a foundation among those peoples1 so the later hostile relations to the ,roman empire now turned ,catholic made them cling tenaciously to their ,arian heresy4 ,arianism had more and more assumed the character of a national ,german ,christianity1 and it almost seemed as if the whole ,german world1 and with it the universal history of the future1 were its secure prey4 ,but a quick end was made of these expectations by the conversion of one of its chief branches to ,catholicism4 ,the ,franks had from the first pursued a policy which was directed rather to the strengthening of the future of its brother tribes1 than to the accelerating of the downfall of the ,roman empire4 ,this policy led them to embrace ,catholicism4 ,trusting to the protection of the ,catholic ,christians' ,god and the sympathies of the whole ,catholic ,west1 the ,frankish rulers took advantage of the call to suppress heresy and conquer heretics' lands4 ,to renounce heresy so as to find occasion for attacking the territories of heretics1 was probably with them a matter of political necessity4 #gf4a4 ,the ,goths in the lands of the ,danube4--,from the middle of the #crd century ,christianity had found an entrance among the ,goths through ,roman prisoners of war4 ,at the ,council of ,nica in ,a4,d4 #cbe there was present a ,gothic bishop ,theophilus4 ,from ,a4,d4 #cdh the scion of an imprisoned ,cappadocian ,christian family1 ,ulfilas#bjc by name1 wrought as bishop among the ,visigoths1 already attached to the ,arian confession1 with so much zeal and success for the spread of ,christianity that the hatred of the pagans was roused to such a pitch that in ,a4,d4 #cee they began a bloody persecution of the ,christians4 ,with a great part of the ,gothic ,christians ,ulfilas fled over the ,danube1 and the emperor ,constantius1 who honoured him as a second ,moses1 assigned him a dwelling-place in ,mount ,hmus4 ,ulfilas continued his work for thirty-three years with many tokens of blessing4 ,in order that the ,goths might have access to the original fount of saving knowledge1 he translated the ,holy ,scriptures into their language1 for which he invented a written character of his own4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #cha4 ,a short biography of the ,apostle of the ,goths was written by his disciple ,auxentius1 bishop of ,dorostorus in ,silistria1 which gives an account at first hand of his life and doctrine4 ,but not all ,gothic ,christians were expatriated with ,ulfilas4 ,those who remained behind were a leaven which ever continued to expand and spread4 ,so ,athanaric1 king of the ,thervingians1 about ,a4,d4 #cgj1 started a new and cruel persecution against them4 ,soon afterwards a rebellion broke out among the pagan ,thervingians4 ,at the head of the malcontents was ,frithigern4 ,he was subdued1 but got aid from the emperor ,valens and in gratitude for the help given adopted the ,arian religion of the emperor4 ,this was the first conversion in multitude among the ,goths4 ,a second followed not long after4 ,the ,huns had rushed down like a whirlwind in ,a4,d4 #cge and destroyed the empire of the ,ostrogoths4 ,a part of these were obliged to join the ,huns2 while another fled into the country of the ,thervingians4 ,these last again were driven before the conquerors and crossed the ,danube under ,frithigern and ,alaviv1 where in ,a4,d4 #cgf ,valens gave them a settlement on condition that they should profess ,arian ,christianity4 ,but this friendship did not last long1 and ,valens fell in ,a4,d4 #cgh fighting against them4 ,theodosius1 the restorer of the ,catholic faith in the ,roman empire1 made peace with them4 ,they retained1 however1 their ,arian ,confession1 which spread from them in a way not yet explained to the ,ostrogoths and other related tribes4 ,chrysostom started a ,catholic mission among them1 but it was stopped at his death4 #gf4b4 ,the ,visigoths in ,gaul and ,spain4--,the death of ,theodosius in ,a4,d4 #cie and the partition of his empire gave the signal to the ,visigoths to attempt securing for themselves more room4 ,alaric devastated ,greece1 broke in upon ,italy in search of prey and plundered ,rome in ,a4,d4 #daj4 ,his successor ,athaulf descended upon southern ,gaul1 and ,wallia founded there a ,visigoth empire with ,toulouse for its capital1 which under ,euric1 who died in ,a4,d4 #dhc1 reached the summit of its glory4 ,euric extended his kingdom in ,gaul1 and in ,a4,d4 #dge1 conquered the most of ,spain4 ,he sought to strengthen his government by having one system of law and one religion1 but in his projected conversion of his subjects to ,arianism1 he met with unexpected opposition1 which he sought in vain to put down by a severe persecution of the ,catholics4 ,the ,roman population and the ,catholic bishops longed for a ,catholic government and placed their hopes in the ,frankish king ,clovis who had been converted in ,a4,d4 #dif4 ,as saviour and avenger of the ,catholic faith ,clovis completely destroyed the ,visigoth power on this side the ,pyrenees in a battle at ,vougl near ,poitiers in ,a4,d4 #ejg4 ,in ,spain1 however1 the ,visigoths retained their power and persisted in their efforts to convert all to the ,arian faith4 ,under the violent ,leovigild these efforts culminated in ,a4,d4 #ehe in a cruel persecution4 ,his son and successor ,reccared1 however1 saw the vanity and danger of this policy and took the opposite course4 ,at the third ,synod of ,toledo in ,a4,d4 #ehi he adopted the ,catholic faith and with the co-operation of the able metropolitan ,leander of ,seville secured complete ascendency for ,catholicism throughout the empire4 ,under the later kings the ,visigoth power sank lower and lower amid the treacheries1 murders and revolts of internal factions1 and in ,a4,d4 #gaa the last king of the ,visigoths1 ,roderick1 after a bloody fight at ,xeres de la ,frontera yielded to the ,saracens who had rushed down from ,africa upon ,spain4 #gf4c4 ,the ,vandals in ,africa4--,early in the #eth century the ,vandals1 who were even then ,arian ,christians1 combining with the ,alani and ,suevi1 made a descent from ,pannonia upon ,gaul in ,a4,d4 #djf and from thence upon ,spain in ,a4,d4 #dji1 and made dreadful havoc of these rich and fertile lands4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dbh the ,roman proconsul of ,africa1 ,boniface1 unjustly accused of treason by the ,roman government1 in his straits called in the aid of the ,vandals4 ,their king ,genseric went in ,a4,d4 #dbi with #ej1jjj men4 ,boniface1 however1 was meanwhile reconciled with his government and did all in his power to get the barbarians to retire4 ,but all in vain4 ,genseric conquered ,africa and founded there a powerful ,vandal empire4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dee he even made an attack upon ,rome1 which was plundered by his hordes for fourteen days4 ,in order to prevent any sympathy being shown by ,africa for ,rome he determined to secure throughout his empire uniform profession of the ,arian creed1 and in prosecuting this purpose during his fifty years' reign exercised continual cruelties4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #dgg4 ,but the ,african ,catholics were faithful to their creed unto death and went forth to martyrdom in a spirit worthy of their ancestors of the #bnd or #crd centuries4 ,his son ,hunneric allowed them only a short respite and began again in ,a4,d4 #dhc the bloody work4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #dhd4 ,under his successor ,guntamund ,gunthamund1 who died in ,a4,d4 #dif1 a stop was put to the persecution2 but ,thrasamund ,thrasimund1 who died in ,a4,d4 #ebc1 again adopted bloody measures4 ,hilderic1 who died in ,a4,d4 #ecj1 a man of mild and generous temper1 and the son of a ,catholic mother1 openly favoured the ,catholics4 ,gelimer1 a great-grandson of ,genseric1 put himself at the head of the ,arians whom ,hilderic's catholic sympathies had alienated1 took ,hilderic prisoner and had him executed4 ,but before he could carry out the intended persecution1 ,justinian's general ,belisarius marched into ,africa1 annihilated the ,vandal army in a battle near ,tricameron in ,a4,d4 #ecc1 and overthrew the ,vandal empire4#bjd #gf4d4 ,the ,suevi were still heathens when they entered ,spain with the ,vandals in ,a4,d4 #dji4 ,here under their king ,rechiar they adopted the ,catholic faith4 ,but ,remismund to please the ,visigoths went over to ,arianism in ,a4,d4 #dfe with the whole people4 ,carraric1 who thought he owed the cure of his son to the relics of ,martin of ,tours1 passed over again to ,catholicism in ,a4,d4 #eej4 ,with the co-operation of ,martin1 metropolitan of ,braga1 he converted his people1 and a ,provincial ,synod at ,braga in ,a4,d4 #efc under ,theodimir ,i4 completed the work4 ,the empire of the ,suevi was destroyed by ,leovigild king of the ,visigoths1 in ,a4,d4 #ehe4 #gf4e4 ,the ,burgundians carried on by the irresistible advance of ,vandals1 ,suevi and ,alani from their home on the ,main and the ,neckar1 where they had adopted the ,catholic faith1 founded an independent kingdom in the ,jura district4 ,here they came into contact with the ,visigoths and for the most part fell away to ,arianism4 ,of ,gundiac's four sons1 who divided the empire among them1 only ,chilperic ,,ii41 the father of ,clotilda1 remained ,catholic4 ,by fratricide his brother ,gundobald secured complete sovereignty4 ,the bishop ,avitus of ,vienne 7 #ec1 #e71 however1 vigorously opposed ,arianism1 and to secure its suppression called a ,council at ,epaon in ,a4,d4 #eag1 the decisions of which were recognised by ,sigismund1 ,gundobald's son1 and were made valid throughout the empire4 ,but even this did not satisfy ,clotilda1 the wife of the ,frankish king ,clovis1 as an atonement for her father's death4 ,her sons1 urged by their mother to prove avengers of her father's blood1 made an end of the ,burgundian empire in ,a4,d4 #ecd4 #gf4f4 ,the ,rugians1 in combination with the ,herulians1 ,scyrians and ,turcellingians1 had founded an independent kingdom in the ,old ,roman ,noricum1 the ,lower ,austria of to-day4 ,arianism had been introduced among them by the ,goths but without the complete expulsion of paganism4 ,the ,romans among them attached to ,catholicism were sorely oppressed4 ,but from ,a4,d4 #ded1 ,severinus wrought among them like a messenger from heaven to bless1 help and comfort the heavily burdened4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #dhb4 ,even from the barbarians he won the deepest reverence1 and over heathens and ,arians he had an almost magical power4 ,he prophesied to the ,scyrian ,odoacer his future greatness4 ,this prince in ,a4,d4 #dgf put an end to the ,west ,roman empire and ruled ably and wisely as king of ,italy for seventeen years4 ,he put an end too to ,arian fanaticism in ,rugiland in ,a4,d4 #dhg by overthrowing the empire of the ,rugians4 ,but in ,a4,d4 #dhi the ,ostrogoth ,theodoric came down upon ,italy1 conquered ,ravenna after a three years' siege1 took ,odoacer prisoner and in a wild drunken revel had him put to death in ,a4,d4 #dic4 #gf4g4 ,the ,ostrogoths when they conquered ,italy had already for a long time been ,arians1 but were free from that fanaticism which so often characterized ,german ,arianism4 ,theodoric granted full liberty to ,catholicism1 spared1 protected and prized ,roman culture1 in all which certainly his famous minister ,cassiodorus 7 #dg1 #bc7 had no small share4 ,this liberal-minded tolerance was indeed made easy to the king by the thirty-five years' schism of that time 7 #eb1 #e71 which prevented any suspicions of danger to the state from the combination of ,roman and ,byzantine ,catholics4 ,and in fact1 when this schism was healed in ,a4,d4 #eai1 ,theodoric began to interest himself more in ,arianism and to give way to such suspicions4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #ebf4 ,the confusions that followed his death were taken advantage of by the emperor ,justinian for the reconquest of ,italy4 ,his general ,narses annihilated the last remnants of the ,ostrogoth power in ,a4,d4 #eed4 ,the ,byzantine government again rose upon the ruins of the ,goths1 and in ,a4,d4 #efg established the exarchate with ,ravenna as its capital4 ,for the time being ,arianism was completely destroyed in ,italy4#bje #gf4h4 ,the ,longobards in ,italy4--,in ,a4,d4 #efi the ,longobards under ,alboin made a descent upon ,italy from the lands of the ,danube1 and conquered what has been called ,lombardy after them1 with its capital ,ticinum1 now ,pavia4 ,his successors extended their conquests farther south1 till at last only the farthest point of ,italy1 the duchies of ,naples1 ,rome and ,perugia1 ,ravenna with its subject cities and ,venice1 acknowledged ,byzantine rule4 ,excited by desire of plunder and political jealousy1 the ,arian ,longobards warred incessantly for twenty years with ,roman culture and ,roman ,catholicism4 ,but after this first outburst of persecution had been stilled1 religious indolence won the upper hand and the ,arian clergy were not roused from their indifference to spiritual things by the growing zeal for conversions which characterized the ,catholic bishops4 ,pope ,gregory the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #eij-fjd1 devoted himself unweariedly to the task1 and was powerfully supported by a ,bavarian princess1 the zealous ,catholic queen ,theodelinde4 ,the ,longobards were so enamoured of this fair and amiable queen that1 when her first husband ,anthari was murdered in ,a4,d4 #eij1 one year after their marriage1 they allowed her to choose for herself one of the dukes to be her husband and their king4 ,her choice fell on ,agilulf1 who indeed himself still continued an ,arian1 but did not prevent the spread of ,catholicism among his people4 ,their daughter ,gundiberge1 married successively to two ,longobard kings1 ,ariowald 7 ,a4,d4 #fcf7 and ,rothari 7 ,a4,d4 #feb7 was an equally zealous protectress of the ,catholic church2 and with ,rothari's successor ,aribert1 brother's son of ,theodelinde1 who died in ,a4,d4 #ffc1 begins the series of ,catholic rulers of the ,longobards4--,continuation1 #hb1 #a4 #gf4i4 ,the ,franks in ,gaul4--,when the ,west ,roman empire was overthrown by ,odoacer in ,a4,d4 #dgf1 the ,roman authority was still for a long time maintained in ,gaul by the proconsul ,syagrius4 ,but the ,merovingian ,clovis1 ,a4,d4 #dha-eaa1 put an end to it by the battle of ,soissons in ,a4,d4 #dhf4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dic he married the ,burgundian princess ,clotilda1 and she1 a zealous ,catholic1 used every effort to convert her pagan husband4 ,the national pride of the ,frank resisted long1 but she got permission to have her firstborn son baptized4 ,the boy1 however1 died in his baptismal robes1 and ,clovis regarded this as a punishment from his gods4 ,nevertheless on the birth of his second son he was unable to resist the entreaties of his beloved wife4 ,he too sickened after his baptism2 but when contrary to expectation he recovered amid the fervent prayers of the mother1 the heathen father confessed that prayer to the ,christian's ,god is more powerful than ,woden's vengeance4 ,he remembered this when threatened in ,a4,d4 #dif at ,tolbiac with loss of the battle1 of his life and of his empire in the war with the ,alemanni4 ,prayer to the national gods had proved fruitless4 ,he now turned in prayer to the ,god of the ,christians1 promising to own allegiance to ,him1 if ,he should get the victory4 ,the fortune of battle soon turned4 ,the army and kingdom of the ,alemanni were destroyed4 ,at his baptism at ,rheims on ,christmas ,eve1 ,a4,d4 #dif1 ,archbishop ,remigius addressed him thus3 8,bend thy neck1 proud ,sigamber2 adore what thou hast burnt1 burn what thou hast adored60 ,the later tradition1 first reported by ,hincmar of ,rheims in the #ith century1 relates that when the church officer with the anointing oil could not get forward because of the crowd1 in answer to ,remigius' prayer a white dove brought an oil flask from heaven1 out of which all the kings of the ,franks from that day have been anointed4 ,the conversion of ,clovis1 soon followed by that of the nobles and the people1 seems really to have been a matter of conviction and genuine according to the measure of his knowledge of ,god4 ,he made a bargain with the ,christian's ,god and fulfilled the obligations under which he had placed himself4 ,of an inner change of heart we can indeed find no trace4 ,there was1 however1 no mention of that in his bargain4 ,just after his conversion he commits the most atrocious acts of faithlessness1 treachery and secret murder4 ,the ,catholic clergy of the whole ,west nevertheless celebrated in him a second ,constantine1 called of ,god as avenger upon heathenism and ,arian heresy1 and asked of him nothing more1 seeing in this the task which providence had assigned him4 ,the conversion of ,clovis was indeed in every respect an occurrence of the greatest moment4 ,the rude ,arianism of the ,germans1 incapable of culture1 received here its deathblow4 ,the civilization and remnants of culture of the ancient world found in the ,catholic church its only suitable vehicle for introduction into the ,german world2 and now the ,franks were at the head of it and laid the foundation of a new universal empire which would for centuries form the central point of universal history4 ,on the work of ,friddin ,fridolin and ,columbanus in the land of the ,franks1 see #gg1 #g4 #gg4 ,,victory ,,of ,,the ,,romish ,,over ,,the ,,old ,,british ,,church4#bjf ,according to an ancient but more than doubtful tradition a ,british king ,lucius about the middle of the #bnd century is said to have asked ,christian missionaries of the ,roman bishop ,eleutherus and by them to have been converted along with his people4 ,this1 however1 is certain1 that at the end of the #crd century 7 #bb1 #f7 ,christianity had taken root in ,roman ,britain1 probably through intercourse with the ,romans4 ,down to the ,anglo-,saxon invasion in ,a4,d4 #ddi1 the ,british church certainly kept up regular communication with that of the continent1 especially with ,gaul4 ,from that time1 being driven back into ,north and ,south ,wales1 it was completely isolated from the continental church2 but all the more successfully it spread itself out among its neighbours in the allied tribes of ,ireland and ,scotland1 among the former through ,patrick1 the ,apostle of the ,irish1 among the latter by ,columba1 the ,apostle of the ,scots1 and followed a thoroughly independent course of development4 ,when one hundred and fifty years later1 in ,a4,d4 #eif the long interrupted intercourse with ,rome was again renewed by a ,romish mission to the ,anglo-,saxons1 several divergences from ,roman practice were discovered among the ,britons in respect of worship1 constitution and discipline4 ,rome insisted that these should be corrected1 but the ,britons insisted on retaining them and repudiated the pretensions of the ,romish hierarchy4 ,the keen struggle which therefore arose1 beginning amid circumstances that promised a brilliant success to the ,british church1 ended with complete submission to ,rome4 ,the battle-field was then transferred to ,germany1 and there too in spite of the resolute resistance of their apostles the contest concluded with the same result 7 #gh74 ,the struggle was not merely one of highly tragic interest but of incomparable importance for the history of ,europe4 ,for had the result been1 as for a time it seemed likely that it would be1 in favour of the old ,british church1 not only ,england but also all ,germany would have taken up a decidedly anti-papal attitude1 and not only the ecclesiastical but also the political history of the ,middle ,ages would have most likely been led into an altogether different course4 #gg4a4 ,the ,conversion of the ,irish4--,among the ,celtic inhabitants of the island of ,ireland there were some individual ,christians from the beginning of the #eth century4 ,the mission of a ,roman deacon ,palladius in ,a4,d4 #dca was without result4 ,but in the following year1 ,a4,d4 #dcb1 the true apostle of the ,irish1 ,patrick1 with twenty-four companions1 stept upon the shore of the island4 ,the only reliable source of information about his life and work is an autobiography which he left behind him1 ,confessiones4 ,according to it he was grandson of a presbyter and son of a deacon residing at ,banava1 probably in ,britain1 not likely in ,gaul4 ,in his sixteenth year he was taken to ,ireland by ,irish pirates and sold to an ,irish chief whose flocks he tended for six years4 ,after his escape by flight the love of ,christ which glowed within his heart gave him no rest and his dreams urged him to bring the glorious liberty of the children of ,god to those who so long kept him bound under hard slavery4 ,familiar with the language and the customs of the country1 he gathered the people by beat of drum into an open field and told them of the sufferings of ,christ for man's salvation4 ,the ,druids1 priests of the ,celts1 withstood him vigorously1 but his attractive and awe-inspiring personality gained the victory over them4 ,without a drop of martyr's blood ,ireland was converted in a few years1 and was thickly strewn with churches and monasteries4 ,patrick himself had his residence at ,macha1 round which the town of ,armagh1 afterwards the ecclesiastical metropolis1 sprang up4 ,he died about ,a4,d4 #dfe1 and left the island church in a flourishing condition4 ,the numerous monasteries1 in which calm piety flourished along with diligent study of ,scripture and from which many teachers and missionaries went forth1 won for the land the name of ,insula ,sanctorum4 ,only after the robber raids of the ,danes in the #ith century did the glory of the ,irish monasteries begin to fade4#bjg #gg4b4 ,the ,mission to ,scotland4--,a ,briton1 ,ninian1 educated at ,rome1 wrought1 about ,a4,d4 #dcj1 among the ,celtic ,picts and ,scots in ,scotland or ,caledonia4 ,but those converted by him fell back into paganism after his death4 ,the true ,apostle of ,scotland was the ,irishman ,columba4 ,in ,a4,d4 #efc he settled with twelve disciples on the small ,hebridean island ,hy4 ,its common name1 ,iona1 seems to have originated by a clerical error from ,ioua1 and was then regarded as the ,hebrew equivalent of ,columba1 a dove4 ,icolmkill means ,columba's cell4 ,here he founded a monastery and a church1 and converted from this centre all ,caledonia4 ,although to the last only a presbyter and abbot of this monastery1 he had all the authority of an apostle over the ,scottish church and its bishops1 a position that was maintained by successive abbots of ,iona4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #eig4 ,the numerous monasteries founded by him vied with the ,irish in learning1 piety and missionary zeal4 ,the original monastery of ,iona flourished in a superlative degree4#bjh #gg4c4 ,the ,peculiarities of the ,celtic ,church4--,in the ,anglo-,saxon struggle the following were the main points at issue4 #a4 ,on the part of ,rome it was demanded that they should submit to the archiepiscopal jurisdiction instituted by the pope1 which the ,british refused as an unrighteous assumption4 #b4 ,the ,british had an ,easter ,canon different from that of the ,romish church4 ,they were indeed nothing else than ,quartodecimans1 although they like these in ignorance referred to the ,johannine tradition 7 #cd1 #b71 but celebrated their ,easter always on a ,sunday1 the settling of which they decided according to an #hd years' cycle of the moon1 after ,rome had adopted a cycle of #ai years 7 #ef1 #c74 #c4 ,the ,celtic clergy had also a different ,tonsure from the ,roman ,tonsura ,petri which seems to have been the ,greek ,tonsura ,pauli 7 #de1 #a71 although the zealous advocate of the ,roman customs1 ,ceolfrid1 abbot of ,jarrow1 in a letter to ,naitan1 king of the ,picts1 derives it from ,simon ,magus4 #d4 ,besides this there was also the question of the ,marriage of ,priests1 which indeed the popish ,anglo-,saxon ,archbishop ,augustine declared himself at first willing to allow to the ,british1 which1 however1 was subsequently so passionately denounced by ,boniface as fornicatio and adulterium4 #e4 ,if1 further1 according to ,bede's statement1 besides their divergent views about ,easter1 the ,british et alia plurima imitati ecclesiastic contraria faciebant1 this certainly cannot be understood of doctrinal divergences1 but only of different forms of constitution and worship1 or ecclesiastical habits and customs1 as might be well expected in churches that had been completely separated since ,a4,d4 #ddi4 ,we need only think1 e4g41 of the progress made by the idea of the papal primacy 7 #df1 #g-aj71 the consolidation and reconstruction of monasticism under ,benedict 7 #he71 the codification of ,roman canon law by ,dionysius ,exiguus 7 #dc1 #c71 the modification of the idea of penance since ,leo the ,great 7 #fa1 #a7 and the development of the doctrine of the mass down to ,gregory the ,great 7 #eh1 #c2 #ei1 #f74 ,the most considerable peculiarity of constitution in the ,celtic church seems to have been that above referred to in placing the abbots of the principal monasteries at the head of the hierarchy4 ,only in one passage 7,bede1 ,,iii4 #ai7 is there mention of ecclesiastical doctrine3 ,in ,a4,d4 #fdj ,pope ,john ,,iv4 addressed a conciliatory letter to the ,scots in which he warns them against the ,pelagian heresy1 8quam apud eos revivescere didicerat40 ,when then we turn our attention to the ,celtic church planted on the continent at a later period1 it is specially ,columbanus' view of ,easter that is regarded in ,france as heretical4 ,often and loud as ,boniface lifted up his voice against the horrible heresies of ,british1 ,irish and ,scotch intruders1 it is found at last that these consist in the same or similar divergences as those of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,not insisting upon the law of celibacy1 opposition to the ,roman primacy1 the ,romish tradition and the ,romish canon law1 especially the ever-increasing strictness of the ,roman marriage laws 7 #fa1 #b71 more simple modes of administering the sacraments and conducting public worship1 even in unconsecrated places in forests and fields1--these and such like were the heresies complained of4--,as concerns the pro and con4 of the evangelical purity of the ancient ,british ,christianity1 so highly praised by ,ebrard1 one occupying an impartial historical standpoint is justified in expecting that as all the good development so also all the bad development which had taken firm root in the common thought and feeling of the church down to the middle of the #eth century1 would not have been uprooted from the church of ,patrick and ,columba1 so also in the #gth century it would be still prevalent there4 ,and this expectation is in general confirmed1 so far as our information goes about all which was not expressly imported from ,rome into the ,british church4 ,if we deduct the by no means insignificant amount of unevangelical corruption which was first introduced into the ,romish church during the period between ,leo the ,great and ,gregory the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #ddj-fjd1 partly by exaggerating and adorning elements previously there1 partly by bringing in wholly new elements of ecclesiastical credulity1 superstition and mistaken faith1 there still remains for the ,celtic church standing outside of this process of deterioration a relatively purer doctrine4 ,yet the ,christianity that remains is by no means free of mixture from unevangelical elements as ,jonas of ,bobbio himself shows in his biography of his teacher ,columbanus4 ,but the more embittered the conflict between the ,british and the ,romish churches became over matters of constitution and worship1 the more did differences in faith and life1 which had been overlooked at first1 assume serious proportions1 and supported by a careful study of ,scripture1 led to greater evangelical freedom and purity on the side of the ,british4 ,this is thoroughly confirmed by ,ebrard's numerous quotations from the literature of that period4#bji #gg4d4 ,the ,romish ,mission to the ,anglo-,saxons4--,to protect himself against the robber raids of the ,picts and ,scots1 the ,british king ,vortigern sought the aid of the ,germans inhabiting the opposite shores4 ,two princes of the ,jutes1 ,hengist and ,horsa1 driven from their home1 led a horde of ,angles and ,saxons over to ,britain in ,a4,d4 #ddi4 ,new hordes kept following those that had gone before and after a hundred years the ,british were driven back into the western parts of the island4 ,the incomers founded seven kingdoms2 at the head of all stood the prince of one of the divisions who was called principal king1 the ,bretwalda4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons were heathens and the bitter feelings that prevailed between them and the ancient ,britons prevented the latter from carrying on missionary operations among the former4 ,the opportunity which the ,british missed was seized upon by ,rome4 ,the sight of ,anglo-,saxon youths exposed as slaves in the ,roman market inspired a pious monk1 afterwards ,pope ,gregory ,i41 with a desire to evangelize a people of such noble bodily appearance4 ,he wished himself to take the work in hand1 but was hindered by the call to the chair of ,peter4 ,he now bought ,anglo-,saxon youths in order to train them as missionaries to their fellow-countrymen4 ,but when soon thereafter the ,bretwalda ,ethelbert of ,kent married the ,frankish princess ,bertha1 ,gregory sent the ,roman abbot ,augustine to ,england with forty monks in ,a4,d4 #eif4 ,ethelbert gave them a residence and support in his own capital ,dorovernum1 now ,canterbury4 ,at ,pentecost the following year he received baptism and #aj1jjj of his subjects followed his example4 ,augustine asked from ,gregory further instructions about relics1 books1 etc4 ,the pope sent him what he sought and besides the pallium with archiepiscopal rights over the whole ,saxon and ,british church4 ,augustine now demanded of the ,britons submission to his archiepiscopal authority and that they should work together with him for the conversion of the ,saxons4 ,but the ,british would do nothing of the sort4 ,a personal interview with their chiefs under ,augustine's oak in ,a4,d4 #fjc was without result4 ,at a second conference everything was spoilt by ,augustine's prelatic pride in refusing to stand up on the arrival of the ,britons4 ,inclined to compliance the ,britons had just proposed this at the suggestion of a member as a sign4 ,augustine died in ,a4,d4 #fje4 ,the pope nominated as his successor his previous assistant ,laurentius4 ,ethelbert's heathen son and successor1 ,eadbald1 oppressed the missionaries so much that they decided to withdraw from the field1 in ,a4,d4 #faf4 ,only ,laurentius delayed his retreat in order to make a final attempt at the conversion of ,eadbald4 ,he was successful4 ,eadbald was baptized2 the fugitives returned to their former posts4 ,in the kingdom of ,essex ,augustine had already established ,christianity1 but a change of government had again restored paganism4 ,the gospel1 however1 soon afterwards got entrance into ,northumbria1 the most powerful of the seven kingdoms4 ,king ,edwin1 the founder of ,edinburgh1 won the hand of the ,kentish princess ,ethelberga1 daughter of ,bertha4 ,with her1 as spiritual adviser of the young queen1 went the monk ,paulinus1 ,a4,d4 #fbe4 ,these two persuaded the king and he again persuaded his nobles and the priests to embrace ,christianity4 ,at a popular assembly ,paulinus proved the truth of ,christianity1 and the chief priest ,coisi1 setting at defiance the gods of his fathers1 flung with his own hand a spear into the nearest idol temple4 ,the people thought him mad and looked for ,woden's vengeance4 ,when it came not1 they obeyed the command of ,coisi and burnt down the temple1 ,a4,d4 #fbg4 ,paulinus was made bishop of ,eboracum1 now ,york1 which pope ,honorius on sending a pallium raised to a second metropolitanate4 ,edwin1 however1 fell in battle in ,a4,d4 #fcc fighting against ,penda1 the pagan king of ,mercia2 ,paulinus had to flee and the church of ,northumbria was almost entirely rooted up4#baj #gg4e4 ,celtic ,missions among the ,anglo-,saxons4--,the saviour of ,northumbria was ,oswald1 ,a4,d4 #fce-fdb1 the son of a former king who had been driven out by ,edwin4 ,he had found refuge as a fugitive in the monastery of ,hy and was there converted to ,christianity4 ,to restore the church in ,northumbria the monks sent him one of their number1 the amiable ,aidan4 ,oswald acted as his interpreter until he acquired the ,saxon language4 ,his success was unexampled4 ,oswald founded a religious establishment for him on the island of ,lindisfarne1 and supported by new missionaries from ,hy1 ,aidan converted the whole of the northern lands to ,christianity4 ,oswald fell in battle against ,penda4 ,he was succeeded as king and also as ,bretwalda by his brother ,oswy4 ,irish missionaries joined the missionary monks of ,hy1 rivalling them in their exertions1 and by ,a4,d4 #ffj all the kingdoms of the ,heptarchy had been converted to ,christianity1 and down to this date all1 with the exception of ,kent1 which alone still adhered to the ,romish church1 belonged to the ancient ,british communion4#baa #gg4f4 ,the ,celtic ,element ,driven out of the ,anglo-,saxon ,church4--,oswy perceived the political danger attending the continuance of such ecclesiastical disputes4 ,he succeeded in convincing also his neighbour kings of the need of ecclesiastical uniformity4 ,the only question was as to which of the two should be recognised4 ,the choice fell upon the ,romish4 ,oswy himself most decidedly preferred it4 ,his wife ,eanfled1 ,edwin's daughter1 was a zealous partisan of the ,romish church1 and on her side stood a man of extraordinary power1 prudence and persistence1 the abbot ,wilfrid1 a native ,northumbrian1 trained in the monastery of ,lindisfarne4 ,he had1 however1 visited ,rome1 and since then used all his eloquence and skill in intrigue in order to lay all ,england at the feet of the pope4 ,the queen and the abbot wrought together upon the ,bretwalda1 and he in his turn upon the other princes4 ,to these personal influences were added others of a more general kind3 the preference for things foreign over those of home growth1 the brilliancy and preponderating weight of the ,romish church1 and above all1 the gulf1 not yet by any means bridged over1 between the ,saxons and the ,british4 ,when secret negociations toward the desired end had been carried out1 ,oswy called a general ,synod at the nunnery of ,streoneshalch1 now ,whitby1 ,synodus ,pharensis1 ,a4,d4 #ffd4 ,here all the civil and ecclesiastical notabilities of the ,heptarchy were assembled4 ,the chief speaker on the ,roman side was ,wilfrid1 on the ,celtic side bishop ,colman of ,lindisfarne4 ,the observance of ,easter was the first subject of discussion4 ,wilfrid referred to the ,apostle ,peter1 to whom the ,lord said3 ,thou art ,peter1 etc4 ,then ,oswy asked ,colman whether it was true that the ,lord had said so to ,peter4 ,colman could not deny it1 and ,oswy declared that he would follow him who had the power to open for them the gates of heaven4 ,and so the question was settled4 ,oswy as ,bretwalda carried out with energy the decisions of the ,council1 and within a few weeks the scissors had completed the conversion of the whole ,heptarchy to the ,roman tonsure and the ,roman faith4#bab #gg4g4 ,spread and ,overthrow of the ,british ,church on the ,continent4--,the first ,celtic missionary who crossed the channel was the ,irishman ,fridolin1 about ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,with several companions he settled near ,poitiers in ,aquitaine which was then under the ,visigoths1 converted the ,arian bishop of that place together with his congregation to trinitarian orthodoxy1 and1 under the protection of ,clovis1 who had meanwhile1 ,a4,d4 #ejg1 overthrown the ,visigoth power in ,gaul1 founded churches and monasteries4 ,afterwards he wrought among the heathen ,alemanni in ,switzerland 7 #gh1 #a74 ,we have fuller and more reliable accounts of ,columba the younger1 usually called ,columbanus1 an ,irishman by birth1 who1 in ,a4,d4 #eij1 with twelve zealous companions1 went forth from the ,british monastery of ,bangor in ,co4 ,down1 ,ireland1 and settled among the ,vosges mountains4 ,here they founded the monastery of ,luxovium1 now ,luxeuil1 as centre with many others affiliated to it4 ,they cultivated the wilderness and wrought laboriously in restoring church discipline and order in a region that had been long spiritually neglected4 ,but their strict adherence to the ,british mode of observing ,easter caused offence4 ,the severe moral discipline which they enjoined was galling to the careless ,burgundian clergy1 and the aged ,brunehilda swore to compass their death and destruction1 because of the influence adverse to her authority which they exercised upon her grandson1 the young king ,theodoric ,,ii4 ,thus it happened that in ,a4,d4 #faj1 after twenty years' labours1 they were driven away4 ,they turned then to ,switzerland 7 #gh1 #a74 ,but when persecuted here also1 ,columbanus with his followers migrated to ,italy1 about ,a4,d4 #fab1 where1 under ,agilulf's protection 7 #gf1 #h71 he founded the celebrated monastery of ,bobbio and contended against ,arianism4 ,the ,regula ,columbani extant in several ,,mss4 constitutes a written guide to ,christian piety and breathes a free evangelical spirit1 while the annexed ,regula cnobialis fratrum de ,hibernia1 also ascribed to him1 bears a rigoristic ascetic character1 enjoining frequent flagellations4 ,columbanus died in ,a4,d4 #fae4 ,the monks of his order joined the ,benedictines in the #ith century4 ,on his personal relation to the ,romish chair during his residence in ,gaul and ,italy we get some information from three of his epistles still extant4 ,in the first he asks ,gregory the ,great for an explanation of the ,gallic observance of ,easter1 and in the second he asks ,boniface ,,iv4 to confirm his old ,british mode of reckoning ,easter4 ,in both he recognises the pope as occupier of the chair of ,peter1 and in the second greets him as head of all the churches of ,europe and describes the ,roman church as the chief seat of the orthodox faith4 ,in the third1 on the other hand1 he demands of the pope in firm terms an account of his own faith and that of the ,roman church4 ,he did so in consequence of a report having reached him1 probably through the mention by the #eth cum4 ,council 7 #eb1 #f7 of a schism between ,rome and ,northern ,italy1 that the ,roman chair had fallen into the heresies of ,eutyches and ,nestorius4--,the ablest of ,columbanus' followers was ,gallus or ,st4 ,gall4 ,he remained in ,switzerland and had his faithfulness rewarded by rich success4 ,after ,columbanus had been expelled from ,france traces of ,celtic ecclesiastical institutions may indeed for a considerable time have lingered on among his ,frankish scholars and friends animated by the missionary zeal of their master4 ,for from their midst as it would seem proceeded most of those ,frankish missionaries who carried the gospel in the #gth century to the ,german lands 7 #gh74 ,but from the time of the overthrow of the old ,celtic ecclesiastical system at the ,synod of ,streoneshalch in ,a4,d4 #ffd1 whole troops of its adherents1 ,british1 ,irish1 ,scotch and ,anglo-,saxons1 crossed the channel to convert ,germany4 ,with very few exceptions1 only the names of these men1 and for the most part not even these1 have come down to us4 ,but their zeal and success are witnessed to by the fact that even in the beginning of the #hth century throughout all the district of the ,rhine1 as well as ,hesse1 ,thuringia1 ,bavaria and ,alemannia we find a network of flourishing churches bearing the impress of ,celtic institutions4 ,and the overthrow of this great and promising ecclesiastical system1 partly by peaceful1 partly by violent transportation into the ,romish church1 was the work of the ,anglo-,saxon ,winfrid1 whom the ,romanists1 quite rightly from their point of view1 honour1 under the name of ,boniface1 as the ,apostle of ,germany 7 #gh1 #d-h74bac #gg4h4 ,overthrow of the ,old ,british ,system in the ,iro-,scottish ,church4--,after the ,british ,church had lost1 in ,a4,d4 #ffd1 all support in the ,anglo-,saxon ,heptarchy1 it could not long maintain itself in its own original ,celtic home4 ,the ,scottish kings on political grounds1 in order to avoid giving their ,saxon neighbours an opportunity of gratifying the love of conquest under the pretext of zeal for the faith1 were obliged to assimilate their church organization with that of the ,southerns4 ,the learned ,abbot ,adamnan of ,hy1 when1 in ,a4,d4 #fhd1 by order of his king1 he visited the ,northumbrian court1 professed to be there convinced of the correctness of the ,romish observance of ,easter4 ,but when his monks stoutly resisted1 he left the monastery and went on a missionary tour to ,ireland where he urged his views so successfully that in ,a4,d4 #gja the most of the ,irish adopted the ,roman reckoning4 ,some years later1 in ,a4,d4 #gaj1 ,naitan ,,ii41 the powerful king of the ,picts1 asked instructions from ,abbot ,ceolfrid about the superiority of the ,romish practice regarding ,easter and the tonsure1 forced his whole people to adopt the ,romish doctrine and banished the obstinate priests4 ,finally1 the ,anglo-,saxon ,egbert1 educated in ,ireland1 but subsequently won over to the ,romish church1 induced by visions and tempests to abandon his projected mission to the heathen ,frisians 7 #gh1 #c71 and to devote himself to what was regarded as the more arduous task of the conversion of the schismatical monks of ,hy1 succeeded in ,a4,d4 #gaf in so far overcoming their obstinacy that they at least gave up their divergent tonsure and ,easter reckoning4 ,thereafter the ,romanists were satisfied with the gradual ,romanizing of the whole ,celtic regions in the west and north4 ,in worship1 constitution and discipline all remained for a long time as it had been of old4 ,the ,roman law of celibacy could not win its way4 ,public worship was conducted and the sacraments dispensed in the language of the people and in the simple forms of primitive times4 ,canon law was almost everywhere made subordinate to the customs of the national church4 ,indeed1 when in ,a4,d4 #hdc1 the kingdom of the ,picts1 where the papacy had made most progress1 went by inheritance to the ,scottish king ,kenneth1 he restored even there the old ecclesiastical institutions of their fathers4 ,malcolm ,,iii41 who died in ,a4,d4 #ajic1 was the first of the ,scottish kings to begin the complete1 thorough and lasting ,romanizing of the whole country4 ,his marriage with the ,english princess ,margaret1 a zealous supporter of the papacy1 marks the beginning of that policy which was carried out and completed by their son ,david1 who died in ,a4,d4 #aaeb4 ,in ,ireland the ,english conquest of ,a4,d4 #aaga under ,henry ,,iii4 prepared the way for the complete ,romanizing of the island4 ,still in both ,scotland and ,ireland down to the #adth century many of the old ,celtic priests survived4 ,to them was given the ,celtic name ,kele-de1 servus or vir ,dei1 ,latinized as ,colidei1 and in modern form1 ,culdees4 ,they were secular priests who1 bound by a strict rule1 in companies generally of twelve with a prior over them1 like a ,catholic canon 7 #hd1 #a71 devoted themselves to a common spiritual life and activity1 maintaining an existence in many places down to the end of the #hth century4 ,the origin of the rule under which they lived is still very obscure4 ,it allowed them to marry but enforced abstinence from marital intercourse during the period of their service1 and required of them1 besides the charge of the public services1 special attention to the poor4 ,in ,scotland particularly their societies soon became so numerous that almost the whole secular clergy went over to them4 ,by the forcible introduction of regular canons they were crushed more and more down to the #aath century1 or where they still existed1 they were deprived of the right of pastoral supervision and administration of the sacraments and reduced to subordinate positions1 such as that of choir singers4--,the usual application of the name of ,culdees to all1 even earlier representatives of the ,celtic church1 is quite unjustifiable4#bad #gh4 ,,the ,,conversion ,,and ,,romanizing ,,of ,,germany4#bae ,in the ,roman period the regions of the ,rhine and the ,danube had become ,christian countries1 but the rush of the migration of the peoples had partly destroyed the ,christian foundations1 partly overlaid them with heathen superstitions4 ,by the end of the #fth century a great part of ,germany was already under the dominion of the ,franks1 and1 to distinguish it from the country of the ,west ,franks or ,neustria1 was called ,austrasia or the land of the ,east ,franks4 ,south-western and ,south-eastern ,germany 7,alemannia1 ,bavaria1 ,thuringia7 was governed by native dukes under the often disputed over-lordship of the ,franks4 ,north-western ,germany 7embracing the ,frisians and the ,saxons7 still enjoyed undisputed national independence4 ,the first serious attempt to introduce or restore ,christianity in ,austrasia began about the end of the #fth century4 ,the missionaries who took the work in hand went1 partly from ,neustria1 partly from this side of the ,channel4 ,the ,irish and ,scottish monasteries were overflowing4 ,those dwelling in them had an unconquerable passion for travel and in their hearts an eager longing to spread ,christ's kingdom by preaching the gospel4 ,this impulse was greatly strengthened by the overthrow of their national prestige 7 #gg1 #f74 ,they were thus out of sympathy with their native land1 and were encouraged to hope that they might win on the opposite continent what they had lost at home4 ,crowds of monks from ,iro-,scottish monasteries crossed over into the heathen provinces of ,germany4 ,but ,romish ,christian ,anglo-,saxons1 no less fond of travel1 impelled by the same missionary fervour and no slight zeal for their own communion1 followed in their steps4 ,thus in the #hth century on ,german soil the struggle was renewed which at home had been already fought out1 to end again as before in the defeat of the ,celtic claims4 ,in almost all ,german countries we find traces of ,irish or ,scottish missionaries and married priests1 reproachfully styled adulterers4 ,what mainly secured for the ,anglo-,saxons the victory over them was the practical talent for organization shown by the former1 and their attachment to the imposing spiritual power of the papal see4 ,to them alone is ,germany indebted for her incorporation into the ,roman ecclesiastical union2 for even the ,frankish missionaries for the most part had no connection with ,rome4--,most rapid and successful progress was made by the mission where there had previously been ,christian institutions1 e4g4 in the provinces of the ,rhine and the ,danube4 ,the work was more difficult on the east of the ,scheldt in ,friesland1 ,hesse1 ,thuringia and ,saxony1 where paganism had reigned undisturbed4 ,mission work was at once furthered and hindered by the selfish patronage of the ,frankish rulers4 ,paganism and national liberty1 the yoke of ,christ and the yoke of the ,franks1 seemed inseparably conjoined4 ,the one stood and fell with the other4 ,the sword of the ,franks was to make the way for the cross of ,christ1 and the result of preaching was to afford an introduction to political subjection4 ,the missionaries submitted regretfully to this amalgamation of religious and political interests1 but it was generally unavoidable4 #gh4a4 ,south-,western ,germany4--,here were located the powerful race of the ,alemanni4 ,of the ,christian institutions of the ,roman period only some shadowy remnants were now to be seen4 ,the diet of ,tolbiac in ,a4,d4 #dif which gave the ,franks a ,christian king1 first secured an entrance among the ,alemanni to ,christianity4 ,yet progress was slow1 for the ,franks did not resort to force4 ,the revision of ,alemannian jurisprudence1 concluded by ,dagobert ,i4 about ,a4,d4 #fcj1 assumed indeed that the country was wholly ,christian1 but it only anticipated what the country was destined to become4 ,fridolin 7 #gg1 #g71 founder of the monastery of ,seckingen on an island of the ,rhine above ,basel1 is called the first ,apostle of the ,alemanni1 ,a4,d4 #eaj4 ,the reports that have reached us of his work are highly legendary and unreliable4 ,after ,columbanus in ,a4,d4 #faj had been compelled along with his companions to leave the ,frankish territory 7 #gg1 #g71 he chose ,alemannian ,switzerland as the field of their operations4 ,they settled first of all at ,tuggen on the ,zurich lake4 ,the fiery zeal with which they destroyed heathen idols1 roused the wrath of the inhabitants1 who maltreated them and drove them away4 ,they next wrought for three years at ,bregentz where they converted many pagans4 ,the main instrument in this work was ,gallus who had gained thorough mastery of the language of the people4 ,driven from this place also1 ,columbanus and his followers settled in ,italy4 ,only ,gallus1 who was ill at the time1 remained behind4 ,he felt obliged1 in spite of all unfavourable circumstances1 to carry on the work that had been begun4 ,in a wild forest dale by the stream ,steinach1 where he was held firm by a thorn bush while on his knees praying1 he built a cell1 from which arose in later times the famous abbey of ,st4 ,gall4 ,he died1 after an eminently useful and successful life in his #ieth year in ,a4,d4 #fdf4 ,he does not seem to have been so persistent as ,columbanus in maintaining the peculiarities of the ,british church4 ,his disciple ,magnoald continued his work and founded the monastery of ,fssen on the ,upper ,lech in ,swabia4 ,at the same time there wrought at ,breisgau the hermit ,trudpert1 an ,irishman1 who laid the foundation of the future abbey of ,trudpert at the foot of the ,black ,forest1 and was murdered in ,a4,d4 #fdc by a servant given up to him for forced labour4 ,somewhat later we meet with ,pirminius1 a ,frankish cleric1 on the ,lake of ,constance1 where1 under the protection of the ,frankish ruler ,charles ,martel1 he founded the monastery of ,reichenau in ,a4,d4 #gbd4 ,a national rising of the ,alemanni against the ,franks drove him away after three years2 but the monastery remained uninjured4 ,he then proceeded down the ,rhine and founded several monasteries1 the last at ,hornbach in the diocese of ,metz1 where he died in ,a4,d4 #gec4 #gh4b4 ,south-,eastern ,germany4--,after the successful labours of ,severinus 7 #gf1 #f7 the history of the ,danubian provinces is shrouded in thick darkness4 ,a hundred years later we find there the powerful nation of the ,boyars1 now ,bavarians1 with native dukes descended from ,agilulf4 ,only scanty remnants of ,christianity were to be seen4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fae the ,frankish abbot ,eustasius of ,luxeuil1 the successor of ,columbanus1 appears prosecuting the missionary labours1 and struggling against the so-called heresies of ,bonosus and ,photinus1 remnants probably of ,gothic ,arianism4 ,about the middle of the #gth century1 at the court of the ,duke of ,bavaria1 ,theodo ,i41 at ,regensburg1 ,emmeran1 bishop of ,poitiers1 laboured for three years4 ,suddenly he left the country and made a pilgrimage to ,italy4 ,being charged with the seduction of the ,princess ,ota1 he was on his journey in ,a4,d4 #feb1 according to others in ,a4,d4 #gae1 overtaken by her brother and cruelly murdered4 ,ota is said at the advice of the saint himself to have named him as her seducer1 in order to screen the actual seducer from vengeance4 ,the true ,apostle of ,bavaria was bishop ,rupert of ,worms4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fif he baptized the ,duke ,theodo ,,ii4 with his household1 founded many churches and monasteries1 and almost completed the ,christianizing of the country4 ,the centre of his operations was the bishopric of ,salzburg1 founded by him4 ,about ,a4,d4 #gaf he returned to ,worms and died there in ,a4,d4 #gag4 ,an old tradition describes him as a ,scot1 whether in respect of his descent or of his undoubtedly ecclesiastical tendencies1 is uncertain4 ,we find at least no trace of his having had any connection with ,rome4 ,soon after him a ,frankish itinerant bishop called ,corbinianus made his appearance in ,bavaria1 and was the founder of the episcopal see at ,freisingen1 ,a4,d4 #gbd4 ,he was a man of imperious temper and unbending stubbornness1 who exercised discipline with reckless strictness1 rooted out the remnants of pagan superstition1 and founded many churches and monasteries4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #gcj4--,that the ,frankish missionaries were still more or less influenced by the old ,british traditions is shown by the fact that ,boniface found the ,bavarian church free from ,rome4 ,duke ,theodo ,,ii4 soon after ,rupert's departure on a pilgrimage to ,rome had indeed entered into relations with ,gregory ,,ii41 in consequence of which three ,roman clerics made their appearance in ,bavaria4 ,but the organization of the ,bavarian church committed to them by the pope could not be carried out on account of political troubles4 ,boniface was the first who succeeded in some measure in doing this4--,the ,apostle of the neighbouring ,thuringians was an ,irishman ,kilian or ,kyllena1 who1 toward the end of the #gth century1 along with twelve companions1 entered the province of ,wrzburg4 ,these faithful men found the reward of their labours in the crown of martyrdom4 ,but crowds of their zealous believing fellow-countrymen followed them1 and continued with rich success the work which they had begun1 until1 after a hard struggle1 they were obliged to resign the field to ,boniface4 #gh4c4 ,north-,western ,germany4--,in the ,middle ,rhine provinces ,christian episcopal dioceses had been maintained1 but in a feeble condition and overrun with crowds of heathen people4 ,about the middle of the #fth century a ,frank called ,goar settled as a hermit within the bounds of the diocese of ,treves1 converted many of the surrounding heathens and put to shame the envious suspicions of the clergy of ,treves1 his holiness being attested according to later legends by many extraordinary miracles4 ,the beautiful town of ,st4 ,goar has grown up round the spot where he built his cell and church4 ,after him in the same region wrought a ,longobard ,wulflaich who as a stylite 7 #dd1 #f71 in spite of the northern climate1 preached down to the heathens from his pillar4 ,but the neighbouring bishops disliked his senseless asceticism and had the pillar thrown down4--,after the ,frankish king ,dagobert ,i4 conquered the south of the ,netherlands in ,a4,d4 #fcj1 an accomplished ,frankish priest1 ,amandus1 appeared at ,rome preaching the gospel among the ,frisians settled there4 ,the command given by him for the compulsory baptism of all the pagans only intensified the hatred against him and his sacred message4 ,insulted1 maltreated and repeatedly thrown into the ,scheld1 he left the country to missionarize among the ,basques of the ,pyrenees and then among the ,slavs of the ,danube4 ,but at a later period he returned to ,ghent1 and gained great influence after having succeeded in converting a rich ,frisian called ,bavo1 with whose help he built two monasteries4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fdg he was chosen bishop of ,maestricht1 but retired in ,a4,d4 #fdi1 notwithstanding the dissuasion of ,pope ,martin ,i41 on account of the opposition of his clergy1 and then founded the monastery of ,elno1 afterwards called ,st4 ,amand1 near ,tournay1 where he died in ,a4,d4 #fdh4 ,during the same period wrought ,eligius1 formerly a skilful goldsmith at the court of ,dagobert1 from ,a4,d4 #fda bishop of ,noyon1 where he died in ,a4,d4 #feh4 ,he took numerous missionary journeys for the conversion of the ,frisians extending as far as the ,scheld4 ,from this side of the ,channel too wistful eyes had looked over to the ,frisian coasts4 ,a ,briton said to have been converted to ,romanism by ,augustine the ,apostle of the ,anglo-,saxons1 ,livinus1 appeared as a missionary on the ,scheld about ,a4,d4 #fej1 but was slain by the heathens soon after his arrival4 ,the celebrated supporter of ,romish claims1 ,wilfrid 7 #gg1 #f71 first preached the gospel to the ,frisians living north of the ,scheld4 ,he had been elected archbishop of ,york1 but1 expelled from his bishopric 7 #hh1 #c71 he went to seek protection at ,rome and was cast by a storm on the ,frisian shores1 which was fortunate for him as hired assassins waited for him in ,france4 ,he spent the winter of ,a4,d4 #fgg-fgh in ,friesland1 preached daily1 baptized ,duke ,aldgild and 8thousands0 of the people4 ,but in the following spring he took his departure4 ,aldgild's successor ,radbod 7 ,a4,d4 #gai71 who passed his whole life in war with ,pippin of ,heristal 7 ,a4,d4 #gad7 and ,charles ,martel1 hated and persecuted ,christianity as the religion of the ,franks1 and the seed sown by ,wilfrid perished4 ,pippin's victory at ,dorstadt in ,a4,d4 #fhi compelled him for a time to show greater toleration4 ,then immediately a ,frankish mission was started under bishop ,wulfram of ,sens1 a pupil of the monastery of ,fontanelle founded by ,columbanus4 ,according to an interesting tradition1 which1 however1 does not stand the test of criticism1 ,radbod was himself just about to receive baptism1 but drew back from the baptismal font1 because he would rather go with his glorious forefathers to hell than enter the ,christian heaven with a crowd of miserable people4 ,it is probably only a legend designed in the interest of the doctrine of predestination4--,the true ,apostle of the ,frisians was the ,anglo-,saxon ,wilibrord who1 in company with twelve followers1 undertook the work in ,a4,d4 #fij4 ,born in ,northumbria about ,a4,d4 #feh1 he received his first training under ,wilfrid at the monastery of ,ripon and then in an ,irish monastery under the direction of ,egbert1 whose debt to the ,frisians 7 #gg1 #h7 he now undertook to pay4 ,pippin gave protection and aid to the missionaries1 and ,wilibrord travelled to ,rome that he might get there support for his life work4 ,he returned armed with papal approbation and supplied with relics4 ,but meanwhile a party of his followers1 probably dissatisfied with his control1 sent one of their number called ,suidbert to ,england1 where he received episcopal consecration4 ,wilibrord's party1 however1 kept the upper hand4 ,suidbert went to the ,bructeri on the ,upper ,ems1 and1 when driven thence by the ,saxons1 to the ,rhine1 where he built a monastery on an island of the ,rhine given him by ,pippin1 and died there in ,a4,d4 #gae4--;,after many years' successful labour ,wilibrord1 at ,pippin's command1 went a second time to ,rome in ,a4,d4 #fif1 to be there consecrated a bishop4 ,sergius ,i4 gave him consecration under the name of ,clement1 distinguishing him in this way as an eminent man1 and ,pippin gave him the castle of ,utrecht as an episcopal residence4 ,from this centre his missionary labours stretched out over ,radbod's realm and even across the ,danish frontier4 ,during a visit to the island of ,heligoland he ventured to baptize three men in a holy well4 ,radbod would have the blasphemers together to sacrifice to the gods2 thrice he enquired at the sacred lot1 but it answered regularly in favour of the missionaries4 ,but1 in consequence of the complete defeat which ,charles ,martel suffered at the hands of ,radbod at ,cologne1 in ,a4,d4 #gae1 the ,frisian mission was stopped and only after ,radbod's death in ,a4,d4 #gai could ,wilibrord commence operations again from the monastery of ,echternach1 to which he had meanwhile withdrawn4 ,when he died at the age of eighty-one in ,a4,d4 #gci1 the conversion at least of ,south ,friesland was almost completed4 ,we hear nothing of conflicts and disputes with ,celtic missionaries all through his fifty years of missionary labour1 in consequence1 no doubt1 of his mild and peaceful temper1 which led him to attend rather to the ,christianizing of the heathen than to the ,romanizing of those who were already ,christian4--,in consequence of jurisdictional claims of the ,cologne see1 the episcopate of ,utrecht remained vacant for a long time after ,wilibrord's death4 ,the mission among the heathens was meanwhile conducted with zeal and success by ,gregory1 a ,frankish nobleman of the ,merovingian family and a favourite pupil of ,boniface1 who as abbot of the monastery of ,utrecht presided over its famous seminary4 ,willehad1 the ,anglo-,saxon1 was held in high repute by his scholars and was made bishop of ,bremen by ,charlemagne4 ,the conversion of the northern ,frisians was completed by ,liudger1 a native ,frisian1 afterwards bishop of ,mnster4 #gh4d4 ,the ,missionary ,work of ,boniface4--,the ,anglo-,saxon ,winfrid or ,boniface1#baf born at ,kirton in ,wessex about ,a4,d4 #fhj had at an early age1 on account of his piety1 ecclesiastical tastes and practical talent1 gained an honourable position in the church of his native land4 ,but he was driven by an irresistible impulse to devote himself to the heathen tribes of ,germany4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gaf he landed in ,friesland4 ,although ,radbod1 then at war with ,charles ,martel1 considering that he had no connection with the ,franks1 put no hindrances in his way1 he had not such success as encouraged him to continue1 and so before winter he returned home4 ,but his missionary ardour gave him no rest2 even his election as abbot of his monastery of ,nutscall was not sufficient to hold him back4 ,and so in the spring of ,a4,d4 #gah he crossed the ,channel a second time1 but went first of all to ,rome1 where ,gregory ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #gae-gca1 supplied him with relics and papal authority for the ,german mission4 ,the task to which he now applied himself was directed less to the uprooting of paganism than to the overthrow of that ,celtic heresy which had on many sides struck its roots deeply in ,german soil4 ,he next attempted to gain a footing in ,thuringia4 ,but he could neither induce the 8adulterous0 priests to submit to ,rome1 nor seduce their people from allegiance to them4 ,news of ,radbod's death in ,a4,d4 #gai moved him to make a journey into ,friesland1 where he aided ,wilibrord for three years in converting the heathens4 ,wilibrord wished him to remain in ,friesland as his coadjutor1 and to be his future successor in the bishopric of ,utrecht4 ,but this reminded him of his own special task4 ,he tore himself away and returned to ,upper ,hesse in ,a4,d4 #gbb4 ,here he won to ,roman ,christianity two ,christian chiefs ,dettic and ,deorulf1 erected with their help the monastery of ,amanaburg 7,arnneburg1 not far from the ,ohm or ,amana71 and baptized1 as his biographer ,willibald assures us1 in a short time 8many thousands0 of the heathens4 ,he reported his success to the pope who called him to ,rome in ,a4,d4 #gbc1 where1 after exacting of him a solemn vow of fealty to the papal chair1 he consecrated him ,apostolic bishop or ,primate of all ,germany1 and gave him a ,codex canonum and commendatory letters to ,charles ,martel and the ,german clergy1 as well as to the people and princes of ,thuringia1 ,hesse1 and even heathen ,saxony4 ,he next secured at the court of ,charles ,martel a letter of protection and introduction from that powerful prince1 and then again betook himself to ,hesse4 ,the cutting down of the old sacred oak of ,thor at ,geismar near ,fritzlar in ,a4,d4 #gbd1 against which he raised the axe with his own hand amid the breathless horror of the heathen multitudes1 building a ,christian chapel with its timber1 marked the downfall of heathenism in the heart of ,germany4 ,in the following year1 ,a4,d4 #gbe1 he extended his operations into ,thuringia1 where ,celtic institutions were still more widely spread than in ,hesse4 ,this extension of his field of labour required a corresponding increase of his staff4 ,he applied to his ,english friends1 of whom bishop ,daniel of ,winchester was the most distinguished4 ,his call was responded to year after year by ,anglo-,saxon priests1 monks and nuns4 ,all ,england was roused to enthusiasm for the work of its apostle and supported him with advice and practical aid1 with prayers and intercessions1 with gifts and presents for his personal and ecclesiastical necessities4 ,thus there soon arose two spiritual armies over against one another2 both fought with equal enthusiasm for what seemed to them most high and holy4 ,but the ,anglo-,saxon invader gained ground always more and more1 though indeed amid much want1 weariness and care1 and the ,celtic church gradually disappeared before advancing ,romanism4 ,meanwhile ,gregory ,,ii4 had died4 ,his successor ,gregory ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gca-gda1 to whom ,boniface had immediately submitted a report1 answered by sending him the archiepiscopal pallium with a commission as papal legate in the ,german lands to found bishoprics and consecrate bishops4 ,his work in ,thuringia1 after ten years' struggles and contests1 was so far successful that he could look around for other fields of labour4 ,he chose now1 however1 not heathen ,saxony but the already ,christianized ,bavaria1 which1 as still free from ,rome and strongly infected with the ,british heresy1 seemed to afford a more attractive field for his missionary zeal4 ,he made a hasty tour of inspection through the country in ,a4,d4 #gce-gcf4 ,the most important result of this journey was the accession of a fiery young ,bavarian named ,sturm1 supposed to be next in succession to ,odilo the heir of the throne1 whom ,boniface took with him to educate at the seminary at ,fritzlar4 ,in the following year he undertook a third journey to ,rome1 undoubtedly to consult with the pope about the further organization of the ,german church and the best mode of its accomplishment4 ,he had the most flattering reception and stayed almost a whole year in ,rome4 ,the pope sent him away in ,a4,d4 #gch with apostolic letters to the clergy1 people and nobles of ,middle ,germany1 and also to some distinguished ,bavarian and ,alemannian bishops1 in which those addressed were urged to assist his legate by their ready and hearty obedience in bringing about a much-needed organization of the churches in their several provinces4#bag #gh4e4 ,the ,organization ,effected by ,boniface4--,the attention of ,boniface was directed first of all to ,bavaria1 and duke ,odilo reigning there since ,a4,d4 #gcg anticipated it by an invitation4 ,arriving in ,bavaria he divided the whole ,bavarian church into four dioceses4 ,bivilo of ,passau had before this been consecrated as bishop in ,rome4 ,erembert of ,freisingen received consecration at the hand of the legate4 ,the bishops of ,regensburg and ,salzburg1 however1 down to the close of their lives1 asserted themselves as opposition bishops over against those appointed by ,boniface4 ,odilo1 too1 withdrew from him his favour1 and entrusted not to him but to ,pirminian the ,alemannian ,apostle1 who sided with the ,celtic church1 the organization and oversight of several newly-founded ,bavarian monasteries4 ,thus the results of the papal legate's visit to ,bavaria were of a very doubtful kind1 and he had not even made a beginning of ,romanizing ,alemannia4 ,in the meantime1 however1 an incident occurred which gave him in a short time the highest measure of influence and success4 ,charles ,martel died in ,a4,d4 #gda and his sons succeeded him1 ,carloman in ,austrasia and ,pepin the ,short in ,neustria4 ,charles ,martel had indeed on ,gregory's recommendation given ,boniface a letter of protection that he might carry on his work in ,hesse and ,thuringia1 but he had never gone further1 so that ,boniface often complained bitterly to his ,english friends of the indolent1 even hostile attitude of the ,frankish prince4 ,but he could not wish a better coadjutor than ,carloman1 who was really rather more a monk than a prince4 ,and so ,boniface no longer delayed the organization of the ,hessian and ,thuringian churches1 for in the course of the year #gda he founded four bishoprics there4 ,it was a matter of still greater consequence that ,carloman and then also ,pepin aided him in the reorganization of the ,frankish national church on both sides of the ,vosges mountains1 where partly on account of sympathy with the ,british church system1 partly on account of the wild spirit engendered by a life of war and the chase1 the clergy had not hitherto submitted to the influence of the papal emissary4 ,in order that the estates of the realm might be advised by 8the envoy of ,st4 ,peter0 and the clergy of the empire about what was necessary for the ,austrasian church1 ,carloman1 at the close of an imperial diet1 at a place unknown1 called the first ,austrasian ,synod1 ,concilium ,germanicum1 in ,a4,d4 #gdb1 and gave to its decrees the authority of imperial laws4 ,boniface was recognised as ,archbishop and ,primate of the whole ,austrasian church2 it was forbidden that the higher or lower clergy should have anything to do with arms1 hunting and war1 that all 8false and adulterous0 priests should be expelled2 that the admission of 8strange0 clerics should be dependent on examination before a ,synod to be held annually2 that in all monasteries the ,benedictine rule 7 #he1 #a7 should be enforced2 and that it be made the duty of counts to support the bishops in maintaining church discipline and stamping out all remnants of paganism4 ,in the next year1 ,a4,d4 #gdc1 ,carloman summoned the ,second ,austrasian ,synod at ,liptin1 now ,lestines1 near ,cambray1 which confirmed the decrees of the first and enlarged their scope1 especially in regard to the rooting out of pagan superstition and enforcing strictly the ,romish prohibition of marriage between those naturally 7 #fa1 #b7 and spiritually 7 #eh1 #a7 related4 ,thus upon the whole the legal reorganization of the church of ,austrasia might have been regarded as complete1 even though its actual enforcement required yet many severe struggles4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gdd ,boniface laid the foundation of the famous monastery of ,fulda which for many centuries was a chief resort and principal school of the ,benedictine monks of ,germany4 ,its first abbot was young ,sturm4--,after the close of the ,austrasian ,synod ,boniface began to treat with ,pepin about the reorganization of the church in ,neustria4 ,pepin called a ,neustrian provincial ,synod at ,soissons in ,a4,d4 #gdd4 ,its decrees in regard to discipline were in essential agreement with those of the two ,austrasian ,synods4 ,besides it was resolved to erect three metropolitan sees4 ,two of the prelates designate1 however1 refused to accept the pallium offered by pope ,zacharias1 ,a4,d4 #gda-geb1 ostensibly on the plea that the payment of the fee demanded would render them guilty of simony4 ,their refusal1 however1 was perhaps mainly due to ,pepin's discovery that the political unity of ,neustria required a ,primate at ,rheims rather than three metropolitans 7 #hc74 ,at a national ,synod1 place of meeting unknown1 held in ,a4,d4 #gde1 called by the two princes acting together1 at ,boniface's request the bishop ,gewilib of ,mainz1 a rude warrior guilty of secret murders1 was deposed4 ,it was now the wish of ,boniface that he should receive the vacant episcopal chair of ,cologne1 which was destined to be raised into a metropolitan see4 ,yet1 through the machinations of his opponents1 the vacancy at ,cologne was otherwise filled1 and ,boniface was at last obliged to be satisfied with the less important bishopric of ,mainz4 ,at a second national ,council of ,a4,d4 #gdh held probably at ,dren he succeeded in getting a considerable number of ,austrasian and ,neustrian bishops to subscribe a declaration of absolute submission to the pope in which they fully acknowledged the papal supremacy over the ,frankish church4 ,pepin1 who now1 after the retirement of his brother ,carloman from the government in ,a4,d4 #gdg1 in order to spend the rest of his days in the monastery of ,monte ,cassino1 was sole ruler of both kingdoms1 obtained the express approval of pope ,zacharias in ,a4,d4 #geb in making an end of the puppet show of a sham ,merovingian royalty 7 #hb1 #a74 ,but it is quite a mistake to say that ,boniface was the intermediary in this matter between the pope and the mayor of the palace4 ,his letters rather show1 from the disfavour in which he at that time stood at the court of ,pepin1 that the negociations were carried on directly with the pope without his knowledge4#bah #gh4f4 ,heresies ,confronted by ,boniface4--,among the numerous heresies with which ,boniface had to deal the most important were those of the ,frankish ,adalbert1 the ,scotchman ,clement1 and the ,irishman ,virgilius4 ,adalbert wrought on the left bank of the ,rhine far into the interior of ,neustria2 ,clement among the ,east ,franks4 ,in the summer of ,a4,d4 #gdc ,carloman had at ,boniface's urgent request cast both into prison1 and at the ,neustrian ,synod of ,soissons in ,a4,d4 #gdd ,boniface secured ,adalbert's condemnation4 ,yet soon after we find both at liberty4 ,boniface now accused them before the pope ,zacharias1 and they were condemned unheard at a ,lateran ,council in ,a4,d4 #gde4 ,the legate's written accusation charged the ,frankish ,adalbert with the vilest hypocrisy and blasphemy3 ,he boasted that an angel had brought him relics of extraordinary miracle-working power1 by which he could do anything that ,god could2 he placed himself on an equality with the apostles2 he introduced unlearned and uncanonically ordained bishops2 he forbade pilgrimages to ,rome1 and the consecration of churches and chapels in the names of apostles and martyrs1 but had no objection to their consecration in his own name2 he neglected divine service in consecrated places and assembled the people for worship in woods and fields and wheresoever it seemed good to him2 he let his own hair and nails be venerated as relics2 he absolved those who came to him in confession with the words3 ,i know all your sins1 for nothing is hidden from me1 confession is unnecessary1 go in peace1 your sins are forgiven you1 etc42 in this way he won great influence especially over women and peasants1 who honoured him as a great apostle and miracle-worker4 ,three documents supported the report of ,boniface2 viz41 a biography of ,adalbert composed by one of his admirers1 according to which his mother in the 8ever blessed0 hour of his birth had in vision seen an ox go forth out her right side2 also1 a letter said to have fallen from heaven to ,jerusalem which guaranteed his divine mission2 and finally1 a prayer composed by him which while generally breathing a spirit of deep humility and firm faith1 went on to invoke a rarely-named angel4 ,if we strike out from these charges those which evidently rest upon misunderstanding and legendary or malevolent exaggeration1 we have before us a man who in opposition to the prevailing worship of saints and relics maintained that the relics set up for veneration were no more worthy of it than his own hair and nails would be1 who also disputed the advantage of pilgrimages1 denied the necessity of auricular confession1 insisted upon the universal priesthood of believers in opposition to ,romish hierarchical claims1 and the evangelical worship of ,god in spirit and in truth in opposition to the ,romish overestimation of consecrated places2 but in doing so perhaps1 more certainly in mystic-theosophic enthusiasm than in conscious deceitfulness1 he may have boasted of divine revelations and the possession of miracle-working power4--,the figure of the ,scotchman ,clement comes out yet more distinctly in the charge formulated against him4 ,he is simply an adherent of the pure and unadulterated ecclesiastical system of the old ,british church4 ,he treats with contempt the ,canon law1 and does not regard himself as bound by the decrees of ,synods or the authority of the ,latin ,fathers2 he claims to be a bishop and still lives in 8adulterous0 wedlock2 he affirms that a man may marry the widow of his deceased brother2 he teaches with reference to ,christ's descent into hell that even those who died in heathenism may yet be redeemed1 and 8affirmat multa alia horribilia de prdestinatione ,dei contraria fidei cath40 ,the pope committed to his legate the execution of the ,synod's condemnatory judgment4 ,but still in ,a4,d4 #gdg ,boniface again complains that the undiminished reputation of both heretics at all points stands in his way4 ,soon after this1 however1 ,carloman1 after ,adalbert had submitted in a disputation with ,boniface1 sent him into confinement in the monastery of ,fulda1 from which he made his escape1 and after long wanderings was at last killed by the swineherds4 ,no information has reached us as to the end of ,clement4--,the ,irishman ,virgilius was from ,a4,d4 #gdd bishop of ,salzburg1 and1 as before at the court of ,pepin1 so now at his recommendation at the court of the ,bavarian duke ,odilo1 he stood in high favour4 ,after a long and determined refusal he at last agreed to submit to the ,romish choice of bishops4 ,a priest of his diocese unskilled in ,latin had baptized in nomine patria et filia et speritus sancti1 ,boniface pronounced such baptism invalid4 ,virgilius thought otherwise and appealed to the pope who was obliged to admit that he was right4 ,but now ,boniface complained of him as a heretic because he taught3 ,quod alius mundus et alii homines sub terra sint1 and this time the pope took the side of his legate1 because upon the accepted notion of the orbicular form of the earth1 the doctrine of antipodes 7already regarded by ,lactantius and ,augustine as of dangerous tendency7 amounted to a denial of the unity of the human race and the universality of redemption1 whereas the ,irishman belonging to a seafaring race probably considered the earth to be globular4 ,the pope1 in ,a4,d4 #gdh1 ordered his deposition and removal from the clerical order1 which ,boniface1 however1 was not able to accomplish4#bai #gh4g4 ,the ,end of ,boniface4--,on the one hand1 distrusted1 and set aside by ,pepin and the new pope ,stephen ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #geb-geg1 from his position as legate 7 #hb1 #a71 and also1 on the other hand1 feeling himself overborne in his old age by the burden of his episcopal and archiepiscopal cares1 sorrows and conflicts1 ,boniface had his favourite pupil1 the energetic ,lullus1 already recognised by pope ,zacharias1 elected as his successor1 and with ,pepin's consent transferred to him at once the independent administration of the episcopal diocese of ,mainz4 ,he now determined to devote his last as he had his first energies undividedly to his archiepiscopal diocese embracing the ,frisian church1 which still needed firm episcopal control and was now threatened with a pagan reaction4 ,after ,wilibrord's death in ,a4,d4 #gci1 ,cologne1 resting its pretensions on an ancient deed of gift by ,dagobert1 claimed jurisdiction over the ,frisian church4 ,boniface indeed at ,carloman's orders had ordained a new bishop to the ,utrecht chair1 in ,a4,d4 #gda1 probably the ,anglo-,saxon ,eoban4 ,yet this new bishop never came into actual1 at least not into undisputed possession4 ,in one of his last letters ,boniface earnestly but in vain implores pope ,stephen ,,ii4 to disallow the unjust pretensions of ,cologne4 ,charlemagne first settled the dispute by requiring ,alberich1 ,gregory's successor in the ,utrecht see1 to receive consecration at the hands of the ,cologne prelate4 ,with a stately retinue of fifty-two followers clerical or lay1 and with a foreboding presentiment carrying with him a winding sheet1 ,boniface sailed down the ,rhine in the spring of ,a4,d4 #ged4 ,whether he had now in view a reorganization of the existing ,frisian church and how far he succeeded1 we have no means of knowing4 ,on the other hand his biographers in their legendary exaggeration cannot sufficiently extol the wonderful success of his missionary preaching4 ,wherever he appeared throughout the land he baptized thousands of heathens4 ,at last he had pitched his tent in the neighbourhood of what is now ,dokkum1 and there1 on ,june #eth1 ,a4,d4 #gee1 a number of neophytes received confirmation4 ,but a wild troop of heathen apostates rushed down on them before the break of day4 ,the guard desired to offer armed resistance1 but ,boniface refused to shed blood1 and1 according to the report of an old woman1 received his deathblow holding the gospel over his head4 ,his companions were also cut down around him4 ,utrecht1 ,mainz and ,fulda quarrelled over his bones4 ,signs and wonders at last decided in favour of ,fulda1 which he had himself fixed upon as their resting place4--,by order of ,lullus1 a priest of ,mainz called ,wilibald wrote his life about ,a4,d4 #gfj4 ,another life by an anonymous author in ,utrecht appeared about ,a4,d4 #gij2 and yet another by the ,regensburg monk ,othlo about ,a4,d4 #ajfj4 ,his literary remains consist of ,epistles1 ,sermons1 and ,penitentials of doubtful authenticity4 #gh4h4 ,an ,estimate of ,boniface4--,in opposition to the current ,roman ,catholic apotheosis of ,boniface which assigns to him as the true ,apostle of the ,germans the highest place of honour in the firmament of ,german saints and cannot find the least shadow or defect in all his life1 struggles and doings1 ultra-protestant estimates have run to the very contrary extreme4 ,ebrard has carried this to the utmost length4 ,he refuses to credit him with zeal1 any hearty regard1 any real capacity for proper mission work among the heathens4 ,alongside of ,wilibrord he was only a despicable ,romish spy2 in ,hesse and ,thuringia only the brutal destroyer of the ,culdee church that flourished there1 and in the ,frankish empire only the inconscionable agent of ,rome who allied himself to the ,rome-favouring dynasty of ,pepin in order to secure the overthrow of the ,culdee-favouring ,merovingians1 purchasing thus ,frankish aid in subjecting the ,german and ,frankish churches to the hierarchical tyranny of ,rome4 ,he can find in him no trace of intellectual or spiritual greatness4 ,on the contrary fanaticism1 hatred and a persecuting spirit1 intrigue and dishonesty1 servility1 dissimulation1 hypocrisy1 lying and double dealing are there in abundance4 ,his world-wide fame is accounted for by this1 that he is the accursed founder of all mischief which has arisen upon ,germany from its connection with the papal chair4--,it is true that ,boniface stopped the course of the national and independent development of the ,german church that had begun and put it on the track of ,roman ,catholic development and mal-development4 ,but even had ,boniface never crossed the ,channel this fate could scarcely have been averted4 ,it is further true that ,boniface was far more eager in uprooting heretical 8,celtism0 and bringing ,frankish and ,bavarian ,christians under the ,romish yoke than in converting heathen ,saxons to ,christianity4 ,but he was thus eager because that seemed to him in the first instance more necessary and important than aiming at new conversions4 ,it is a crying injustice to deny that he showed any zeal1 any energy1 or that he had any success in the conversion of the heathen in ,friesland1 ,hesse and ,thuringia4 ,all his thoughts1 labours and endeavours are dominated by a steadfast conviction that the pope is the head and representative of the church in which alone salvation can be found4 ,but yet with him the church laws which emanate from the ,holy ,spirit stand superior to the pope4 ,hence the right of final decision on all ecclesiastical questions belongs indeed to the pope1 but only secundum canones4 ,the expression ascribed to ,boniface in ,gratian's ,decretal3 ,papa a nemine judicetur nisi devius a fide is never met with in any of his extant writings1 but it thoroughly well characterizes his position4 ,thus alongside of the most abject submission to the chair of ,peter1 we see how firmly he speaks to pope ,zacharias in connection with the ,neustrian pallium affair about the ,simoniacal greed of the officials1 and on another occasion declares his profound indignation at the immoral1 superstitious and blasphemous proceedings1 fit to be compared to the old pagan ,saturnalia1 which1 went on in ,rome openly before the eyes of the pope unchecked and unpunished4 ,he also showed brave resistance when papal dispensations infringed his ordinances founded upon the canon law1 and protested vigorously1 when ,stephen ,,ii41 in ,a4,d4 #ged1 disregarding the archiepiscopal authority gave episcopal consecration to ,chrodegang of ,metz4 ,but ,boniface never mixed himself up with the political intrigues of the popes1 nor did he ever intermeddle in the political manuvres between ,pepin and the ,merovingians1 between the ,frankish empire and its ,german vassals4 ,an inventive genius1 great and profound thoughts1 a liberal and comprehensive view of matters1 we certainly often miss in him4 ,all his thoughts1 feelings and desires were bound within the narrow limits of ,romish ecclesiasticism4 ,his piety was deep1 earnest and sincere1 but is quite of the legalistic and hard external kind that characterizes ,roman ,catholicism4 ,with the most painful conscientiousness he holds by ,rome's ecclesiastical institutions2 any resistance to these is abhorrent to him and he persecutes heresies as cursed and soul-destroying4 ,he clearly understands the absurdity of prohibiting marriage between those who are related only in baptism and at confirmation4 ,for he sees that on this principle all marriages between ,christian people as recipients of baptism must be forbidden since by baptism they have all become sons and daughters of ,christ and ,his church1 and so are spiritually brothers and sisters4 ,but then he willingly sacrifices his understanding1 and continues to denounce all marriages between those spiritually related as fearful sin and horrible incest4 ,very characteristic too are many of his questions to the popes as to what should be held on this point and that1 mostly about very trivial and indifferent matters of common life4 ,thus he lets himself be informed that raw bacon should only be eaten smoked1 but that the eating of the flesh of horses1 hares1 beavers1 jackdaws1 ravens and storks is absolutely forbidden1 8immundum enim est et execrabile40#bbj #gh4i4 ,the ,conversion of the ,saxons4--,the first missionary attempts among the ,saxons1 who had forced their way from the north-west of ,germany down to the neighbourhood of the ,rhine1 were made by two ,anglo-,saxon monks1 who were both called ,ewald1 the black or the white ,ewald4 ,a ,saxon peasant received them hospitably1 but so soon as he discovered their object1 fell upon them with his household servants and slew them1 ,a4,d4 #fia4 ,boniface had many pious wishes about his heathen kinsfolk but did nothing for their conversion4 ,the most that he did was to found the monastery of ,fulda on the ,saxon frontier as the rallying point for a future clerical raid upon ,saxon paganism4 ,for thirty years1 however1 this remained but a pious wish1 till at last the sword of the most powerful of the ,frankish kings took up the mission4 ,the subjugation of the powerful as well as hostile ,saxon people was with ,charlemagne a political necessity4 ,but lasting subjugation was impossible without conversion and conversion was impossible without subjugation2 for the ,saxons hated the religion of the ,franks no less heartily than they did the ,franks themselves4 ,alcuin with true magnanimity exerted all his influence with his royal friend against any use of force in conversion1 but political necessity overcame the counsel of the much trusted friend4 ,the ,saxon war lasted for thirty-three years1 ,a4,d4 #ggb-hjd4 ,in the very first campaign the strongest ,saxon fortress ,eresburg was stormed and their most revered idol1 the ,erminsul1 was destroyed4 ,frankish priests followed the ,frankish arms and ,christianized immediately the conquered districts4 ,but as soon as ,charlemagne's army was engaged elsewhere1 the ,saxons proceeded to destroy again all ,christian foundations4 ,in the imperial diet at ,paderborn in ,a4,d4 #ggg they were obliged to swear that life and property would be forfeited by a new apostasy4 ,but the most powerful of the ,saxon princes1 ,wittekind1 who had not appeared at the diet1 organized a new revolt4 ,the ,frankish army sustained a fearful defeat at ,mount ,sunthal1 all ,christian priests were murdered1 all churches were destroyed4 ,charlemagne took a dreadful revenge4 ,at ,verden he beheaded in one day #d1ejj ,saxons4 ,after a new rebellion1 a second diet at ,paderborn in ,a4,d4 #ghe prescribed for them horribly bloody laws4 ,the least resistance against the precepts of the church was punished with death4 ,wittekind and ,albion1 the two most famous ,saxon chiefs1 acknowledged the vanity of further resistance4 ,they were baptized in ,a4,d4 #ghe and continued thenceforward faithful to the king and the church4 ,but the rebellions of the rest of the ,saxons were still continued4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hjd ,charlemagne drove #aj1jjj ,saxon families from their homes on the ,elbe1 and gave the country to the ,obohites ,obotrites that were subject to him4 ,now for the first time was a lasting peace secured4 ,charlemagne had founded eight bishoprics in ,saxony1 and under these bishops' care throughout this blood-deluged country1 no longer disturbed1 a ,christianity was developed as truly hearty and fresh as in any other part of ,germany4 ,one witness to this among others is afforded by the popular epic the ,heliand 7 #hi1 #c74bba #gi4 ,,the ,,slavs ,,in ,,german ,,countries4#bbb ,the sudden rush of the wild hordes of the ,huns in the #eth century drove the ,slavs to the south of the ,danube and to the west of the ,vistula4 ,again in the #fth century ,slavic tribes forced their way westward under pressure from the ,mongolian ,avars who took possession of ,dacia1 ,pannonia and ,dalmatia4 ,for the conversion of the ,slavs in north-eastern ,germany nothing was done2 but much was attempted on behalf of the conversion of the southern ,slavs and the ,avars1 who were specially under the care of the see of ,salzburg4 #gi4a4 ,the ,carantanians and ,avars4--,the ,carantanian prince ,boruth1 in what is now called ,carinthia1 in ,a4,d4 #gdh asked the help of the ,bavarian duke ,thassilo ,,ii4 against the oppression of the ,avars4 ,his nephew ,chatimar1 who had received a ,christian training in ,bavaria1 when in ,a4,d4 #gec he succeeded to the throne1 introduced ,christianity into his country4 ,after the overthrow of ,thassilo in ,a4,d4 #ghh1 ,carinthia came under ,frankish rule1 and ,charlemagne extended his conquests over the ,avars and ,moravians4 ,bishop ,arno of ,salzburg1 to whom metropolitan rights had been accorded1 conducted a regular mission by ,charlemagne's orders for the conversion of these peoples4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gif1 ,tudun1 the prince of the ,avars1 with a great band of his followers1 received baptism1 and vowed in ,a4,d4 #gig to turn the whole nation of the ,avars to ,christianity1 and asked for ,christian teachers4 ,in the #ith century1 however1 the name of the ,avars passed away from history4 #gi4b4 ,the ,moravian ,church4--,in ,a4,d4 #hee ,rastislaw1 ,grand ,duke of ,moravia1 freed his country from the ,frankish yoke and deprived the ,german bishops of all their influence4 ,he asked ,slavic missionaries from the ,byzantine emperor4 ,the brothers ,cyril and ,methodius 7 #gc1 #b1 #c7 who had already approved themselves as apostles of the ,slavs1 answered the call in ,a4,d4 #hfc4 ,they introduced a liturgy and public worship in the language of the ,slavs1 and by preaching in the ,slavic tongue they won their way to the hearts of the heathen people4 ,but in spite of this encouraging success they found themselves1 amid the political convulsions of the age1 in a difficult position4 ,only by attachment to the pope could they reasonably expect to hold their ground4 ,they accepted therefore an invitation of ,nicholas ,i4 in ,a4,d4 #hfg1 but on their arrival in ,rome they found that ,hadrian ,,ii4 had succeeded to the papal chair4 ,cyril remained in ,rome and soon died1 ,a4,d4 #hfi4 ,methodius swore fealty to the pope and was sent away as archbishop of ,moravia4 ,but now all the more were the ,german bishops hostile to him4 ,they suspected his fidelity to the pope1 charged him with heresy and inveighed against the ,slavic liturgy which he had introduced4 ,john ,,viii41 rendered suspicious of him by these means1 called upon him in strong terms in ,a4,d4 #hgi to make answer for himself at ,rome4 ,methodius obeyed and succeeded in completely vindicating himself4 ,the pope confirmed him in his archiepiscopal rank and expressly permitted him to use the ,slavic liturgy1 enjoining1 however1 that by way of distinction the gospel should first be read in ,latin and then rendered in a ,slavic translation4 ,the intrigues of the ,german clergy1 however1 continued and embittered the last days of the good and brave apostle of the ,slavs4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #hhe4 ,a general persecution now broke out against the ,slavic priests and the metropolitan chair of ,moravia remained vacant for fourteen years4 ,john ,,ix4 restored it in ,a4,d4 #hii4 ,but in ,a4,d4 #ijh the ,moravian kingdom was overthrown4 ,the ,bohemians and ,magyars shared the spoil between them4 #gi4c4 ,the ,beginnings of ,christianity in ,bohemia4--,on ,new ,year's day of ,a4,d4 #hde fourteen ,bohemian lords appeared at ,regensburg at the court of ,louis of ,germany and asked for baptism along with their followers4 ,of the motives and of the consequences of this step we know nothing4 ,when ,rastislaw raised the ,moravian empire to such a height of glory the ,bohemians connected themselves closely with ,moravia4 ,rastislaw's successor ,swatopluc married a daughter of the ,bohemian prince ,borsivoi in ,a4,d4 #hga4 ,after that ,methodius extended his missionary labours into ,bohemia4 ,borsivoi himself and his wife1 ,ludmilla1 were baptized by ,methodius in ,a4,d4 #hga4 ,the sons of ,borsivoi1 also1 ,spitihnew1 who died in ,a4,d4 #iab and ,wratislaw1 who died in ,a4,d4 #ibf1 with the active support of their mother furthered the interests of the church in ,bohemia4 #hj4 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,nations4#bbc ,the mission to the ,frisians and ,saxons called the attention of missionaries to the neighbouring ,jutes and ,danes4 ,wilibrord 7 #gh1 #c7 in ,a4,d4 #fif carried the gospel across the ,eider1 and ,charlemagne felt it necessary in order to maintain his authority over the ,frisians and ,saxons to extend his conquest and that of the church over the peninsula of ,jutland to the sea coast4 ,he could not1 however1 accomplish his design4 ,better prospects opened up before ,louis the ,pious4 ,threatened with expulsion through disputes about the succession1 ,harald the king of the ,jutes sought the protection of the ,franks4 ,consequently ,ebo1 archbishop of ,rheims1 crossed the ,eider in ,a4,d4 #hbc at the head of an imperial embassy and clothed with full authority from pope ,paschalis ,i4 ,he baptized also a number of ,danes1 and when1 after a year's absence1 he returned home1 he took with him several young ,jutes to educate as teachers for their countrymen4 ,but ,harald was again hard pressed and concluded to break entirely with the national paganism4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hbf he took ship1 with wife and child1 accompanied by a stately retinue1 and at ,mainz1 where ,louis then held his court1 received baptism with great pomp and ceremony4 ,soon after his return a young monk followed him from the monastery of ,corbei on the ,weser4 ,ansgar1 the apostle of the north1 had committed to him by ,louis the hard and dangerous task of winning the ,scandinavian nations for the church4 ,ansgar devoted his whole life to the accomplishment of this task1 and in an incomparable manner fulfilled it1 so far as indomitable perseverance1 devotion and self-denial amid endless difficulties and perverse opposition could do it4 #hj4a4 ,ansgar or ,anschar1 the son of a ,frankish nobleman1 born ,a4,d4 #hja1 was educated in the monastery of ,old ,corbie in ,picardy1 and on the founding of ,new ,corbie in ,a4,d4 #hbb was made ,superior of it4 ,even in very early youth he had dreams and visions which led him to look forward to the mission field and the crown of martyrdom4 ,accompanied by his noble-minded brother monk ,autbert1 who would not let his beloved friend go alone1 ,ansgar started in ,a4,d4 #hbf on his first missionary journey4 ,harald had established his authority in the maritime provinces of ,jutland1 but he ventured not to push on into the interior4 ,in this way the missionary efforts of the two friends were restricted4 ,on the frontier of ,schleswig1 however1 they founded a school1 bought and educated ,danish slave youths1 redeemed ,christian prisoners of war and preached throughout the country4 ,but in the year following ,harald was driven out and fled to the province of ,rstringen on the ,weser1 which ,louis assigned to him for life4 ,also the two missionaries were obliged to follow him4 ,autbert died in the monastery of ,corbie in ,a4,d4 #hbi1 having retired again to it when seized with illness4 ,soon afterwards the emperor obtained information through ambassadors sent by the ,swedish king ,bjorn1 that there were many isolated ,christians in their land1 some of them merchants1 others prisoners of war1 who had a great desire to be visited by ,christian priests4 ,ansgar1 with several companions1 undertook this mission in ,a4,d4 #hcj4 ,on the way they were plundered by ,norse pirates4 ,his companions spoke of returning home1 but ,ansgar would not be discouraged4 ,king ,bjorn received them in a very kindly manner4 ,a little group of ,christian prisoners gathered round them and heartily joined in worship4 ,a school was erected1 boys were bought and adults preached to4 ,several ,swedes sought baptism1 among them the governor of ,birka1 ,herigar1 who built at his own cost the first ,christian church4 ,after eighteen months ,ansgar returned to the ,frankish court in order to secure a solid basis for his mission4 ,louis thus perceived an opportunity of founding a bishopric for the ,scandinavian ,norsemen at ,hamburg on the borders of ,denmark4 ,he appointed ,ansgar bishop in ,a4,d4 #hcd1 and assigned to him and the mission the revenues of the rich abbey of ,turholt in ,flanders4 ,ansgar obtained in ,rome from ,gregory ,,iv4 the support of a bull which recognised him as exclusively vicar apostolic over all the ,norse4 ,then he built a cathedral at ,hamburg1 besides a monastery1 bought again ,danish boys to educate for the priesthood and sent new labourers among the ,swedes1 at whose head was the ,frankish monk ,gauzbert4 ,but soon misfortunes from all sides showered down upon the poor bishop4 ,his patron ,louis died in ,a4,d4 #hdj1 ,harald apostatized from the faith1 the ,swedish missionaries were driven out by the pagans1 the ,norse rushed down on ,hamburg and utterly destroyed city1 church1 monastery1 and library4 ,moreover ,charles the ,bald took possession of the abbey of ,turholt which according to the ,treaty of ,verdun in ,a4,d4 #hdc had fallen to ,flanders1 in order to bestow it upon a favourite4 ,ansgar was now a homeless beggar4 ,his clergy1 when he had no longer support for them1 left him4 ,his mission school was broken up4 ,his neighbour1 bishop ,leuterich of ,bremen1 with whom he sought shelter1 inspired by despicable jealousy1 turned him from his door4 ,at last he got shelter from a nobleman's widow who provided for him at her own expense a lodging at ,ramslo1 a country house near ,hamburg4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hdf ,leuterich died4 ,louis of ,germany now gave to the homeless ,apostle of the ,north a fixed habitation by appointing ,ansgar to the vacant bishopric4 ,the bishops of ,cologne and ,verden had divided between them the shattered fragments of the ,hamburg bishopric4 ,but at last pope ,nicholas ,i4 in ,a4,d4 #hcd put an end to their selfish pretensions by uniting the two dioceses of ,hamburg and ,bremen into one1 and conferring upon it metropolitan rights for the ,north4 ,but meanwhile ,ansgar notwithstanding all the neediness in which he himself lived had been working away uninterruptedly on behalf the ,scandinavian mission4 ,in ,denmark the king was ,eric whose court ,ansgar repeatedly visited as ambassador of the ,german king4 ,by ,eric's favour he had been enabled to found a church in ,schleswig and to organize a mission stretching over the whole country4 ,eric did not venture himself to pass over to ,christianity1 and when pagan fanaticism broke out in open rebellion in ,a4,d4 #hed1 he fell in a battle against his nephew who headed the revolt4 ,a boy1 ,eric ,,ii41 perhaps grandson of the fallen ,eric1 mounted the throne4 ,but the chief ,jovi reigned in his name1 a bitter foe of the ,christians1 who drove away all ,christian priests and threatened every ,christian in the land with death4 ,yet in ,a4,d4 #hee ,eric ,,ii4 emancipated himself from the regency of ,jovi and granted toleration to the ,christians4 ,the work of conversion was now again carried on with new zeal and success4--,all attempts1 by means of new missionaries1 to gather again the fragments of the mission in ,sweden1 broken up by ,gauzbert's expulsion1 had hitherto proved vain4 ,at last ,ansgar himself started on his journey thitherward about ,a4,d4 #hej4 ,by rich presents and a splendid entertainment he won king ,olaf's favour4 ,a popular assembly determined to abide by the decision of the sacred lot and this decided in favour of the adoption of ,christianity4 ,from that time the ,swedish mission was carried on without check or hindrance under the direction of ,erimbert1 whom ,ansgar left there4 ,ansgar died in ,a4,d4 #hfe4 ,the most dearly cherished hope of his life1 that he should be honoured with the crown of martyrdom1 was not realized2 but a life so full of toil1 privation and trouble1 sacrifice1 patience and self-denial1 was surely nobler than a martyr's crown4#bbd #hj4b4 ,ansgar's ,successor in the see of ,hamburg-,bremen was ,rimbert1 his favourite scholar1 his companion in almost all his journeys1 who wrote an account of his master's life and pronounced him a saint4 ,he laboured according to his ability to follow in the steps of his teacher1 especially in his care for the ,scandinavian mission4 ,but he was greatly hindered by the wild doings of the ,danish and ,norse pirates4 ,this trouble reached its height after ,rimbert's death1 and went so far that the archbishop of ,cologne on the pretext that the ,hamburg see had been extinguished was able to renew his claims upon ,bremen4--,continuation1 #ic4 #ha4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,islam4#bbe ,from ,a4,d4 #ffe the ,byzantine rule in ,north ,africa 7 #gf1 #c7 was for a time narrowed and at last utterly overthrown by the ,saracens from ,egypt1 with whom were joined the ,berbers or ,moors who had been converted to ,islam4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gaa1 called in by a rebel1 they also overthrew the ,visigoth power in ,spain 7 #gf1 #b74 ,in less than five years the whole peninsula1 as far as the mountain boundaries of the north1 was in the hands of the ,moors4 ,then they cast a covetous glance upon the fertile plains beyond the ,pyrenees1 but ,charles ,martel drove them back with fearful loss in the bloody battle of ,poitiers in ,a4,d4 #gcb4 ,the ,franks were in this the saviours of ,europe and of ,christianity4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gej the ,ommaiadean dynasty at ,damascus1 whose lordship embraced also the ,moors1 were displaced by the ,abbassidean1 but a scion of the displaced family1 ,abderrhaman ,i41 appeared in ,spain and founded there an independent khalifate at ,cordova in ,a4,d4 #gef1 which soon rose to an unexampled splendour4 ,also in ,sicily the ,moslem power obtained an entrance and endeavoured from that centre to maintain itself by constant raids upon the courts of ,italy and ,provence4 ,the expulsion of the ,moors from ,spain and ,sicily was first completely accomplished during the next period 7 #ie74 #ha4a4 ,islam in ,spain4--,the ,spanish ,christians under the ,ommaiade rule were called ,mozarabians1 ,arabi ,mustaraba1 i4e4 ,arabianized ,arabs as distinguished from ,arabs proper or ,arabi ,araba4 ,they were in many places under less severe restrictions than the ,oriental ,christians under ,saracen rule4 ,many ,christian youths from the best families attended the flourishing ,moorish schools1 entered enthusiastically upon the study of the ,arabic language and literature1 pressed eagerly on to the service of the ,court and ,government1 etc4 ,but in opposition to such abandonment of the ,christian and national conscience there was developed the contrary extreme of extravagant rigorism in obtrusive confessional courage and uncalled-for denunciation of the prophet4 ,christian fanaticism awakened ,moslem fanaticism1 which vented itself in a bloody persecution of the ,christians in ,a4,d4 #hej-hei4 ,the first martyr was a monk ,perfectus4 ,when asked his opinion about ,mohammed he had pronounced him a false prophet1 and was executed4 ,the khalif of that period1 ,abderrhaman ,,ii41 was no fanatic4 ,he wished to stop the extravagant zeal of the ,christians at its source1 and made the metropolitan ,recafrid of ,seville issue an ecclesiastical prohibition of all blasphemy of the prophet4 ,but this enactment only increased the fanaticism of the rigorists1 at whose head stood the presbyter1 subsequently archbishop1 ,eulogius of ,cordova and his friend ,paulus ,alvarus 7 #ij1 #f74 ,eulogius himself1 who kept hidden from her parents a converted ,moorish maiden1 and was on this account beheaded along with her in ,a4,d4 #hei1 was the last victim of the persecution4--,the rule of the ,arabs in ,spain1 however1 was threatened from two sides4 ,when ,roderick's government 7 #gf1 #b7 had fallen before the arms of the ,saracens in ,a4,d4 #gaa1 ,pelayo1 a relation of his1 with a small band of heroic followers1 maintained ,christian national independence in the inaccessible mountains of ,asturia1 and his son-in-law ,alphonso the ,catholic in the ,cantabrian mountains on the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,alphonso subsequently united both parties1 conquered ,galicia and the ,castilian mountain land1 erecting on all sides the standard of the cross4 ,his successors in innumerable battles against the infidels enlarged their territory till it reached the ,douro4 ,of these ,alphonso ,,ii41 the ,chaste1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hej1 specially distinguished himself by his heroic courage and his patronage of learning4 ,oviedo was his capital4 ,on the east too the ,christian rule now again made advance4--,charlemagne in ,a4,d4 #ggh conquered the country down to the ,ebro4 ,but a rebellion of the ,saxons prevented him advancing further1 and the freebooting ,basques of the ,pyrenees cut down his noblest heroes4 ,two subsequent campaigns in ,a4,d4 #hjj1 #hja1 reduced all the country as far as the ,ebro1 henceforth called the ,spanish ,march1 under the power of the ,franks4#bbf #ha4b4 ,islam in ,sicily4--,a ,byzantine military officer fled from punishment to ,africa in ,a4,d4 #hbg and returned with #aj1jjj ,saracen troops which terribly devastated ,sicily4 ,further migrations followed and in a few years all ,sicily was under the rule of the ,arabs1 who made yearly devastating raids from thence upon the ,italian coasts1 venturing even to the very gates of ,rome4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hhj they settled on the banks of the ,garigliano1 and put all central ,italy under tribute1 until at last in ,a4,d4 #iaf the efforts of pope ,john ,x4 were successful in driving them out4 ,spanish-,moorish pirates landed in ,a4,d4 #hhi on the coasts of ,provence1 besieged the fortress of ,fraxinetum1 and plundered from this centre for a hundred years the ,alpine districts and northern ,italy4 ,their robber career in south ,italy was most serious of all4 ,it lasted for three centuries and was first brought to an end by the ,norman invasion4--,continuation1 #ie1 #a4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,hierarchy1 ,,the ,,clergy ,,and ,,the ,,monks4 #hb4 ,,the ,,papacy ,,and ,,the ,,carolingians4 ,the ,christianizing of the ,german world was in great part accomplished without the help of ,rome4 ,hence the ,german churches1 even those that were ,catholic1 troubled themselves little at first about the papal chair4 ,the ,visigoth church in ,spain was most completely estranged from it4 ,the ,saracen invasion of ,a4,d4 #gaa cut off all possibility of intercourse with ,rome4 ,even the free ,christian states in ,spain down to the #aath century had no connection with ,rome4 ,the ,frankish churches1 too1 in ,gaul as well as in ,austrasia1 throve and ran wild in their independence during the ,merovingian age4 ,on the other hand1 the relation of the ,english ,church to ,rome was and continued to be very intimate4 ,numerous pilgrimages of ,anglo-,saxons of higher and lower ranks were undertaken to the grave of the chief of the ,apostles1 and increased the dependence of the nation on the chair of ,st4 ,peter4 ,for the support of these pilgrims and as a training school for ,english clergy1 the ,schola ,saxonica was founded in the #hth century1 and for its maintenance and that of the holy places in the city1 on ,peter's day the #bith ,june was collected the so-called ,peter's pence1 a penny for every house4 ,out of this sprang a standing impost on all the ,english people for the papal chair1 which in the #acth century became a money tax upon the kings of ,england which ,henry ,,viii4 was the first to repudiate in ,a4,d4 #aecb4 ,the credit belongs to the ,anglo-,saxons and especially to ,boniface of not only delivering the rich sheaves of their missionary harvest into the granaries of ,rome1 but also of organizing the previously existing churches of the ,frankish territories after the ,romish method and rendering them obedient to the ,roman see4 ,since then there has been such a regular intercourse between the pope and the ,carolingian rulers that it absorbed almost completely the whole diplomatic activity of the ,romish curia4 #hb4a4 ,the ,period of the ,founding of the ,states of the ,church4--,from bequests and presents of ancient times the ,roman chair succeeded to an immense landed property1 ,patrimonium ,s4 ,petri1 which afforded it the means of greatly assuaging the distress of the inhabitants of ,italy during the disturbances of the migrations of the peoples4 ,there was naturally then no word of the exercise of sovereign rights4 ,from the time of the restoration of the ,byzantine exarchate in ,a4,d4 #efg 7 #gf1 #g7 the political importance of the pope grew immensely2 its continued existence was often dependent on the good will of the pope for whom generally indeed the idea of becoming the court patriarch of a ,longobard-,roman emperor was not an enticing one4 ,but the pope could not prevent the ,longobard power 7 #gf1 #h7 from gaining ground in the north as well as in the south of the peninsula4 ,an important increase of influence1 power and prestige was brought to the papal chair under ,gregory ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #gae-gca1 through the rebellions in northern and central ,italy occasioned by the ,byzantine iconoclastic disputes4 ,rome was in this way raised to a kind of political suzerainty not only over the ,roman duchy but also over the rest of the exarchate in the north--,ravenna and the neighbouring cities together with ,venice 7 #ff1 #a74 ,gregory ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gca-gda1 hard pressed by ,luitprand the ,longobard1 thrice 7,a4,d4 #gci1 #gdj7 applied for help to the ,frank ,charles ,martel1 who1 closely bound in friendship with ,luitprand1 his ally against the ,saracens1 sent some clerics to ,italy to secure a peaceful arrangement4 ,gregory's successor ,zacharias1 ,a4,d4 #gda-geb1 sanctioned by his apostolic judgment the setting aside of the ,merovingian sham king ,childeric ,,iii41 whereupon ,pepin the ,short1 in ,a4,d4 #geb1 assumed the royal title with the royal power which he had long possessed4 ,the next elected pope called ,stephen died before consecration1 consequently his successor of the same name is usually designated ,stephen ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #geb-geg4 ,the ,longobard ,aistulf had in ,a4,d4 #gea conquered ,ravenna and the cities connected with it4 ,pope ,stephen ,,ii4 sought help anew of the ,frankish king and supported his petition by forwarding an autograph letter of the ,apostle ,peter1 in which he exhorted the king of the ,franks as his adopted son under peril of all the pains of hell to save ,rome and the ,roman church4 ,he himself at ,pepin's invitation went to ,france4 ,at ,ponthion1 where1 in ,a4,d4 #ged1 the king greeted him1 ,pepin promised the pope to restore to ,rome her former possessions and to give protection against further inroads of the ,longobards2 while the pope imparted to the king and his two sons ,charles and ,carloman the kingly anointing in the church of ,st4 ,dionysius or ,denis in ,paris4 ,at ,quiersy then ,pepin took counsel with his sons and the nobles of his kingdom about the fulfilling of his promise1 bound the ,longobard king by oath in the year following after a successful campaign to surrender the cities1 properties and privileges claimed by the pope1 and assigned these in ,a4,d4 #gee as a present to ,st4 ,peter as their possessor from that time forth4 ,but scarcely had he retired with his army when ,aistulf not only refused all and any surrender1 but broke in anew upon ,roman territory1 robbing and laying waste on every side4 ,by a second campaign1 however1 in ,a4,d4 #gef1 ,pepin compelled him actually to deliver over the required cities in the provinces of ,rome and ,ravenna the key of which he deposited with a deed of gift1 no longer extant1 on the grave of ,st4 ,peter2 while the pope1 transferring to ,pepin the honorary title of ,exarch of ,ravenna1 decorated him with the insignia of a ,roman patrician4 ,when the ,byzantine envoys claimed ,ravenna as their own property1 ,pepin answered that the ,franks had not shed their blood for the ,greeks but for ,st4 ,peter4--,aistulf's death followed soon after this and amid the struggles for the succession to the throne one of the candidates1 duke ,desiderius of ,tuscany1 sought the powerful support of the pope and promised him in return the surrender of those cities of the eastern province of ,ravenna which still remained in the hands of the ,longobards4 ,the pope obtained ,pepin's consent to this transaction1 and ,desiderius was made king4 ,but neither ,stephen nor his successor ,paul ,i41 ,a4,d4 #geg-gfg1 could get him completely to fulfil his promise1 and new encroachments of the ,longobards as well as new claims of the pope intensified the bad feeling between them1 which the conciliation of ,pepin1 who died in ,a4,d4 #gfh had not by any means overcome4#bbg #hb4b4 ,after the death of ,paul ,i4 the nobles forced one of their own order upon the ,romans as pope under the name of ,constantine ,,ii4 ,another party with ,longobard help appointed a presbyter1 ,philip4 ,the former maintained his ground for thirteen months1 but was then overthrown by a clerical party and1 with his eyes put out1 was cast into the street4 ,they now united in the choice of ,stephen ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gfh-ggb4--;,desiderius wished greatly to form a marriage connection with the ,frankish court1 and found a zealous friend in ,bertrada1 the widow of ,pepin4 ,when ,stephen heard of it his wrath was unbounded1 and he gave unbridled expression to it in a letter which he sent to her sons ,charlemagne and ,carloman4 ,referring to the fact that the devil had already in ,paradise by the persuasion of a woman overthrown the first man and with him the whole race1 he characterized this plan as propria diabolica immissio1 declared that any idea of a connection by marriage of the illustrious reigning family of the ,franks with the ftentissima ,longobardorum gens1 from which all vile infections proceed1 was nothing short of madness1 etc4 ,not peace and friendship1 but only war and enmity with this robber of the patrimony of ,peter would be becoming in the pious kings of the ,franks4 ,he laid down this his exhortation at the grave of ,peter and performed over it a ,mass4 ,whoever sets himself to act contrary to it1 on him will fall the anathema and with the devil and all godless men he shall burn in everlasting flames2 but whosoever is obedient to it1 shall be partaker of eternal salvation and glory4 ,nevertheless ,charles married ,desiderata the daughter of ,desiderius1 and ,gisela1 ,charles' sister1 married the son of ,desiderius4 ,but before a year had passed1 in ,a4,d4 #gga1 he wearied of the ,longobard wife and sent her home4 ,soon after this ,carloman died4 ,charles seized upon the inheritance of his youthful nephews1 who together with their mother found shelter with ,desiderius4 ,when ,hadrian ,i41 ,a4,d4 #ggb-gie1 refused to give the royal anointing to ,carloman's sons1 ,desiderius took from him a great part of the ,states of the ,church and threatened ,rome4 ,but ,charles hastened at the pope's call to give him help1 conquered ,pavia1 shut up king ,desiderius in the monastery of ,corbei1 and joined ,lombardy to the ,frankish empire4 ,further information as to what passed between him and ,hadrian at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #ggd is only to be got from the ,vita ,hadriani 7 #ij1 #f7 written during the reign of ,louis of ,france4 ,it relates as follows3 ,at the grave of ,peter the pope earnestly exhorted him to fulfil at last completely the promise which his father ,pepin ,i4 with his own consent and that of the ,frankish nobles gave to pope ,stephen ,,ii4 at ,quiersy in ,a4,d4 #ged4 ,charles after reading over the document referred to agreed to everything promised therein1 and produced a new deed of gift after the style 7ad instar7 of the old1 undertaking to transfer to the ,roman church a territorial possession which1 together with the assumed ,promissio of ,pepin described with geographical precision1 embraced almost all ,italy1 excepting ,lombardy but including ,corsica1 ,venice and ,istria4 ,it is now quite inconceivable that ,charles1 let alone ,pepin1 should have given the pope such an immense territory which ,pepin for a simple footing in ,a4,d4 #ged1 and ,charles for at least three-fourths of it1 must have first themselves conquered4 ,moreover this account of the matter is directly contradicted by the statement of all the witnesses of ,pepin's own times4 ,on the part of the ,franks the continuator of the ,chronicler ,fredgar1 on the part of the ,romans the biographer of ,stephen ,,ii4 in the ,liber pontificalis and that pope himself in his letters to ,pepin1 all speak of the negociations between the king and the pope as having reference simply to ,rome and ,ravenna4 ,and since all attempts to reconcile these contradictions by exegetical devices have failed1 we can only regard this as a fiction designed to palm off upon ,louis of ,france ,rome's own ambitious territorial scheme4 ,all that ,charlemagne did was to confirm and renew his father's gifts1 as ,hadrian himself distinctly states3 ,amplius 7further1 i4e4 for time to come7 confirmavit4--,moreover ,pepin1 and still more ,charlemagne1 would hardly have granted to the holy father by his gift absolute sovereignty over the ,states of the ,church thus founded4 ,by conferring the patriciate upon the two ,frankish princes1 the pope1 indeed1 himself acknowledged that the suzerainty now belonged to them which formerly the ,byzantine emperor had exercised by his viceroy1 the exarch of ,ravenna4 ,a more exact definition of these rights1 however1 may have been first given when ,charles was crowned emperor1 his imperial authority undoubtedly extending over the ,papal ,states4 ,the pope as a temporal prince was his vassal and must himself1 like all citizens of ,rome1 take the oath of allegiance to the emperor4 ,judicial authority and the appointment of government officials belonged to him2 but they were supervised and controlled by the ,frankish ambassadors1 ,missi dominici1 who heard appeals and complaints of all kinds and were authorized to give a final judgment4 #hb4c4 ,charlemagne and ,leo ,,iii4--,hadrian ,i4 was succeeded by ,leo ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #gie-haf4 ,during a solemn procession in ,a4,d4 #gii he was murderously attacked by the nephews of his predecessor and severely beaten4 ,some of the bystanders declared that they had seen the bandits tear out his tongue and eyes4 ,the legend vouched for by the pope himself was added that ,peter by a miracle restored him both the next night4 ,leo meanwhile escaped from his tormentors and fled to ,charlemagne4 ,his opponents accused him before the king of perjury and adultery1 and the hearing of witnesses seems to have confirmed the serious charges1 for ,alcuin hastened to burn the report which was given in to him on the subject4 ,but the pope was honourably discharged and assumed again the chair of ,peter under the protection of a ,frankish guard4 ,next year ,charles crossed the ,alps with his army for a campaign against ,benevento4 ,he convened a ,synod at ,rome2 but the bishops maintained that the pope1 the head of all1 can be judged of none2 yet the pope with twelve sponsors swore an oath of purgation and prayed for his accusers4 ,at the ,christmas festival ,charles went to the church of ,st4 ,peter4 ,at the close of ,mass the pope amid the applause of the people placed a beautiful golden crown upon his head 7,a4,d4 #hjj74 ,the world is asked to believe that he did it by the immediate impulse of a divine inspiration2 but it was the result of the negociations of years and the fulfilment of a promise by which the pope had purchased the king's protection against his enemies4 ,with the idea of the imperial power ,charlemagne connected the idea of a theocratic ,christian universal monarchy in the sense of ,daniel's prophecy4 ,the ,greeks had proved themselves unworthy of this position and so ,god had transferred it to the king of the ,franks4 ,as emperor1 ,charles stands at the head of all ,christendom1 and has only ,god and ,his law over him4 ,he is the most obedient son1 the most devoted servant of the church1 so far as it is the vehicle and dispenser of salvation2 but he is its supreme lord and ruler so far as it needs to adopt earthly forms and an earthly government4 ,church and state are two separate domains1 which1 however1 on all sides limit and condition one another4 ,their uniting head they have in the person of the emperor4 ,hence on every hand ,charles' legislation enters the domain of the church1 in respect of her constitution1 worship and doctrine4 ,on these matters he consults the bishops and synods1 but he confirms1 enlarges and modifies their decisions according to his own way of thinking1 because for this he is personally answerable to ,god4 ,in the pope he honours the successor of ,peter and the spiritual head of the church2 but1 because the emperor stands over church and state1 he is also ruler of the pope4 ,the pope who gave him imperial consecration did it not by any power of his own immanent in the papacy1 but by special divine impulse and authority4 ,hence the crowning of the emperor is only to be once received at the pope's hand4 ,this rank is henceforth hereditary in the house of ,charles1 and only the emperor can beget and nominate the new emperor4 ,the unity of the empire is to be maintained under all circumstances1 and hence1 contrary to the ,frankish custom of dividing the inheritance1 younger sons are to receive only the subordinate rank of ruling princes4#bbh #hb4d4 ,louis the ,pious and the ,popes of his ,time4--,charlemagne's weaker son ,louis the ,pious1 ,a4,d4 #had-hdj1 was not in a position to carry out the work his father had begun4 ,but pious as ,louis was1 he was yet as little inclined as his immediate successor to give up the imperial suzerainty over the city and chair of ,st4 ,peter4 ,the popes were most expressly required before receiving papal consecration to obtain imperial confirmation of their election4 ,leo's successor ,stephen ,,iv41 ,a4,d4 #haf-hag1 seems indeed to have evaded it1 yet still he let the ,romans take the oath of fealty to the emperor1 and unasked submitted to make a journey over the ,alps in order to get over the anomaly of an emperor without the consecration of ,peter's hand4 ,an agreement come to on that occasion1 ,a4,d4 #haf1 between emperor and pope has not been preserved4 ,a few days after his return the pope died4 ,the newly-elected ,paschalis ,i41 ,a4,d4 #hag-hbd1 also indeed mounted the papal chair without imperial confirmation1 but apologized by an embassy on the ground that he had been unwillingly obliged to act so1 and praying for a continuation of the agreement made with his predecessor1 to which the emperor consented4 ,indeed1 according to a diploma of ,a4,d4 #hag1 extant only in a transcript1 bearing the name of ,louis1 the king was to bestow upon the papal chair1 besides what ,pepin and ,charlemagne had given1 ,corsica1 ,sardinia and ,sicily1 and many estates in ,calabria and ,naples4 ,there was also an undertaking that only after having been consecrated should any newly-elected pope interchange friendly greetings with the emperor4 ,all copies of this document can be traced back to a collection of imperial grants to the ,romish church of the #aath century4 ,at its basis there lay probably a genuine document1 but it has been variously altered in the interests of the high church party4--,some years later1 after he had decoyed to ,france and blinded his illegitimate nephew ,bernard1 who had as reigning prince in ,italy rebelled against the law of succession passed in ,a4,d4 #hag1 ,louis sent his son ,lothair into ,italy to quiet the tumults there1 and the pope availed himself of this opportunity to crown the prince already crowned by his father as co-emperor4 ,but scarcely had ,lothair got over the ,alps again when two of the most distinguished and zealous of the ,frankish partisans were in ,a4,d4 #hbc blinded and beheaded in the papal palace4 ,before the imperial commission the pope took an oath of purgation1 to which #cd bishops and #e presbyters joined with him in swearing1 but bluntly refused to deliver up the perpetrator of the deed4 ,as the pope died soon afterwards1 ,lothair was sent a second time to ,rome1 in order to enforce once and for all upon his successor ,eugenius ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #hbd-hbg1 the observance of imperial rights4 ,the result of their conference was the so-called ,constitutio ,romano1 by which the election of the pope 7 #df1 #aa7 was taken from the common people and given to the clergy and nobles1 but the consecration was made dependent on the emperor's confirmation and an oath of homage from the newly-elected pope 7,a4,d4 #hbd74 ,nevertheless his successor ,valentine was elected and consecrated without any reference to the constitution4 ,he died1 however1 after six months1 and now the ,frankish party came forward so energetically that the new pope ,gregory ,,iv41 ,a4,d4 #hbg-hdd1 was obliged to submit in all particulars to the requirements of the law4 ,but soon after political troubles arose in the ,frankish kingdom which could not fail to contribute to the endeavours of the papacy after emancipation4 ,from his weak preference for his younger son1 ,charles the ,bald1 born of a second marriage1 ,louis was led in ,a4,d4 #hbi to set aside the law of succession he himself had issued in ,a4,d4 #hag4 ,the sons thus disinherited rebelled with the assistance of the most distinguished ,frankish prelates1 at whose head was ,wala1 abbot of ,old ,corbie1 cousin of ,charlemagne1 and the bishops ,agobard of ,lyons1 ,ebo of ,rheims1 etc41 as assertors of the unity of the empire4 ,also pope ,gregory ,,iv41 whose predecessors had sanctioned the law of succession now set aside1 was won over and was taken across the ,alps by ,lothair to strengthen his cause by the weight of his apostolic authority4 ,the pope threatened with the ban those bishops who remained true to the old emperor and had obeyed his summons to attend the diet4 ,but they answered the pope that he had no authority in the empire of the ,franks1 and that if he did not quietly take himself over the ,alps again they would excommunicate him4 ,he was inclined to yield1 but ,wala's counsel restrained him4 ,he answered the bishops earnestly and moderately1 and1 as a last attempt at conciliation1 went himself personally to the camp of the emperor1 but was unable to effect anything4 ,but next morning ,louis had no army2 during the night most of his soldiers had passed over to the camp of his enemy4 ,the emperor now had to surrender himself prisoner to his son ,lothair1 then at a diet at ,compigne in ,a4,d4 #hcc1 to do humble penance in church and to resign the government4 ,his penitent son1 ,louis the ,german1 however1 set him free in ,a4,d4 #hcd4 ,a severe judgment was now passed upon the confederate prelates at the ,diedenhosen in ,a4,d4 #hce4 ,but the brothers continued constantly at war with one another1 and ,louis the ,pious did not live to see the end of it4 #hb4e4 ,the ,sons of ,louis the ,pious and the ,popes of their ,days4--,the ,treaty of ,verdun1 ,a4,d4 #hdc1 put an end to the bitter war between the sons of ,louis the ,pious1 and made of the western empire three independent groups of states under ,lothair1 ,louis the ,german and ,charles the ,bald4 ,lothair ,i41 who got the title of ,emperor with ,italy and a strip of land between ,neustria and ,austrasia1 died in ,a4,d4 #hee4 ,of his sons1 ,louis ,,ii4 inherited ,italy with title of ,emperor1 ,lothair ,,ii4 the province called after him ,lotharingia1 ,lotharii regnum1 and ,charles ,burgundy and ,provence4 ,lothair and ,charles died in ,a4,d4 #hfi soon after one another without heirs1 and before the emperor ,louis ,,ii4 could lay his hands upon their territories they were seized by the uncle4 ,by the treaty of ,mersen1 ,a4,d4 #hgj1 ,charles took the ,romanic1 and ,louis the ,german took the ,german portions4 ,thus was completed the partition of the ,carolingian empire into three parts distinguished as homogeneous groups of states by language and nationality3 ,germany1 ,france and ,italy4--,gregory ,,iv4 had survived the overthrow of the universal monarchy of ,charlemagne4 ,his successor1 ,sergius ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #hdd-hdg1 did not observe the obligations devolving on him by the ,constitutio ,romana4 ,but ,lothair ,i4 was not inclined to let pass this slight to his imperial authority4 ,his son ,louis was sent into ,italy with a powerful army1 and obliged the pope and the ,romans to take the oaths of fealty to his father with the promise not again to consecrate a pope before they had the emperor's consent4 ,but the next pope ,leo ,,iv41 ,a4,d4 #hdg-hee1 was also consecrated without it1 but excused himself from the circumstances of the age1 the pressure of the ,saracens1 while making humble professions of most dutiful obedience4 ,his successor ,benedict ,,iii41 ,a4,d4 #hee-heh1 did not regard the imperial consent as necessary1 and the anti-pope set up by the ,french party could not maintain his position4 #hb4f4 ,the ,legend of the ,female ,pope ,joanna4--,between ,leo ,,iv4 and ,benedict ,,iii4 is inserted an old legend of the pontificate of a woman1 the so-called female pope ,joanna3 ,a maiden from ,mainz went in man's clothes with her lover to ,athens1 obtained there great learning1 then appeared at ,rome as ,joannes ,anglicus1 was elected pope1 but having become pregnant by one of her chamberlains1 was seized with labour pains in the midst of a solemn procession and died soon after1 having been pope under the name of ,john ,,viii4 for two years1 five months and four days4 ,this story was widely credited from the #acth to the #agth century1 but its want of historical foundation is proved by the following facts3 #a4 ,the immediate succession of ,benedict ,,iii4 to ,leo4 ,,iv4 has contemporary testimony from the ,annales ,bertiniani of ,a4,d4 #hee1 also from a letter of ,hincmar to ,nicholas ,i41 ,benedict's successor1 as well as the inscription 8,benedict0 and 8,lothair10 on a ,roman denarius of the same year4 #b4 ,neither ,photius nor ,michael ,crularius1 who certainly would not have failed to make a handle of such a papal scandal 7 #fg71 know anything of the matter4 #c4 ,the first certain trace of the existence of such a legend is found about ,a4,d4 #abcj in ,stephen of ,bourbon1 yet there indeed the words are added3 ,ut dicitur in chronicis2 but he makes the female pope mount ,st4 ,peter's chair only about ,a4,d4 #aajj1 knows neither her name nor her native country1 and describes the catastrophe of her overthrow differently from the legend current in later times4 #d4 ,on the other hand1 the existence of her biography in the ,liber pontificalis between that of ,leo ,,iv4 and that of ,benedict ,,iii41 was regarded down to the #agth century as the oldest and indeed almost contemporary witness to the historicity of the female pope4 ,it is wanting1 however1 in the oldest and best ,,mss4 and must therefore be considered a later interpolation4 ,this also applies to the reference made thereto by ,marianus ,sectus 7d4 ,a4,d4 #ajhf71 ,sigbert of ,semblours 7d4 ,a4,d4 #aaac71 ,otto of ,friesingen 7d4 ,a4,d4 #aaeh71 and ,godfrey of ,viterbo 7about ,a4,d4 #aaij74 ,even in the oldest ,,mss4 of the ,chronicle of the ,roman penitentiary ,martinus ,polonus 7d4 ,a4,d4 #abgh7 we read nothing of the female pope2 yet the story must soon have been inserted there1 for ,tolomeo of ,lucca about ,a4,d4 #acab affirms in his ,church ,history1 that all writers whom he had read1 with the single exception of ,martin1 made ,benedict ,,iii4 follow immediately after ,leo ,,iv4 ,perhaps ,martin himself in a second enlarged edition of his chronicle had inserted a biography of the female pope1 which he might do with the less hesitation if it was true that the pope of his own time ,john ,,xx41 ,a4,d4 #abgf-abgg1 thought it wrong not to count the female pope and so styled himself ,john ,,xxi4 ,from that time all chroniclers of the ,middle ,ages without the slightest expression of doubt repeated the legend in essentially the same way as ,martin's chronicle and the ,liber pontificalis report it4 ,the ,reformed theologian1 ,david ,blondel1 in ,a4,d4 #afdi1 performed a service to the ,catholic church by his elaborate critical treatment of the legend which destroyed all belief in its historicity4 ,after this1 however1 it was again vindicated by ,spanheim 7,opp4 ii4 #egg7 and ,kist2 and even ,hase regards it as still conceivable that the church which has affirmed the existence of things that never were1 may have denied the existence of things that were1 if the knowledge of it might prove hazardous to the interests of the papacy4 ,the origin and gradual development of the legend1 about the middle of the #abth century and certainly in ,rome1 may be most simply explained with ,dllinger from a combination of the following data4 #a4 ,from the time of ,paschalis ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #ajii it was customary for the new pope in the solemn ,lateran procession when having his entrance on office attested to sit upon two old chairs standing in the ,lateran with pierced seats1 which probably came from an old ,roman bath4 ,but the popular wit of the ,romans suggested another reason for the pierced seats4 ,the chairs were thus pierced in order that before the consecration a deacon might satisfy himself of the manhood of the new pope2 for1 it would be added by and by1 a woman in disguise was once made pope1 etc4 #b4 ,in a street of ,rome was found a statue in white robes with a child and an enigmatical inscription1 the letter ,p six times repeated which some read3 ,parce pater patrum papiss prodere partum1 others3 ,papa pater patrum peperit papissa papellum2 so that this statue was supposed to represent the female pope with her child4 #c4 ,further the papal processions between the ,lateran and the ,vatican at a point where the direct way was too narrow were wont to diverge into another wider street2 this was done1 it was now said1 because at this place the catastrophe referred to had befallen the female pope4 #d4 ,that the name ,joannes was given to the female pope is easily explained from the frequency of this name among the popes4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ajbd it had been already held by nineteen4 ,and that she who had brought such a disgrace upon the papacy should have been described as a native of the ,german city of ,mainz1 is explained from national antipathy entertained by the ,italians for everything ,german4 #e4 ,finally1 the most difficult part of the problem1 why this episode should have been inserted just between ,leo ,,iv4 and ,benedict ,,iii41 may perhaps find satisfactory solution in the supposition that the legend may have been first introduced as an appendix to a codex of the ,liber ponficalis which closed with the biography of ,leo ,,iv4#bbi #hb4g4 ,nicholas ,i4 and ,hadrian ,,ii4--,the successor of ,benedict ,,iii41 ,nicholas ,i41 ,a4,d4 #heh-hfg1 was chosen with the personal concurrence of the emperor ,louis ,,ii4 then in ,rome4 ,this pope was undoubtedly the greatest of all the popes between ,gregory ,i4 and ,gregory ,,vii4 ,he was a man of inflexible determination1 clear insight and subtle intellect1 who1 favoured by the political movement of the age1 supported by public opinion which regarded him as a second ,elijah1 and finally backed up in his endeavours after papal supremacy by the ,isidorian collection of decretals just now brought forward 7 #hg1 #b71 could give prestige and glory to the struggle for law1 truth and discipline4 ,among the many battles of his life none brought him more credit and renown than that with ,lothair ,,ii4 of ,lothringia4 ,that he might marry his mistress ,waldrade1 ,lothair accused his wife ,thielberga of committing incest before her marriage with her brother1 abbot ,hucbert1 and of having obtained abortion to conceal her wickedness4 ,before a civil tribunal she was in ,a4,d4 #heh acquitted by submitting to a divine ordeal1 the boiling caldron ordeal which a servant undertook for her4 ,but ,lothair treated her so badly that at last1 in order simply to be rid of her tormentors1 she confessed herself guilty of the crime charged against her before a ,synod at ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #hei attended by the two ,lothringian metropolitans ,gnther of ,cologne and ,thietgaut of ,treves1 and expressed the wish that she should atone for her sins in a cloister4 ,but soon she regretted this step and fled to ,charles the ,bald in ,neustria4 ,a second ,synod at ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #hfj now declared the marriage with ,thielberga null1 and ,lothair formally married ,waldrade4 ,meanwhile the ,neustria metropolitan ,hincmar of ,rheims had published an opinion in respect of civil and ecclesiastical law 7,de divortio ,lotharii7 wholly favourable to the ill-used queen1 and she herself had referred the matter to the pope4 ,nicholas sent two ,italian bishops1 one of whom was ,rhodoald of ,porto 7 #fg1 #a71 to ,lothringia to investigate the affair4 ,these took bribes and decided at the ,synod of ,metz in ,a4,d4 #hfc in favour of the king4 ,but ,nicholas annulled the decisions of the ,council1 excommunicated his legates and deposed the two ,lothringian metropolitans who had vainly trusted to the omnipotence of ,lothringian gold in ,rome4 ,thirsting for revenge they incited the emperor ,louis ,,ii41 ,lothair's brother1 against the pope4 ,he besieged ,rome1 but came to an understanding with the pope through his wife's mediation4 ,lothair1 detested by his subjects1 threatened with war by his uncles ,louis of ,germany and ,charles the ,bald as champions of the childless ,thielberga1 repented and besought the pope for grace and protection from the ambitious designs of his uncles4 ,nicholas now sent a legate1 ,arsenius1 across the ,alps1 who acting as plenipotentiary in all three kingdoms1 obliged ,lothair to take back ,thielberga and put away ,waldrade4 ,but she flung herself upon him and in her arms ,lothair soon forgot the promise to which he had sworn4 ,at the same time he reconciled himself to his uncles whose zeal had somewhat cooled in presence of the lordly conduct of the papal legate4 ,thielberga now herself sought divorce from the pope4 ,but ,nicholas continued firmly to insist upon his demands4 ,his successor ,hadrian ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #hfg-hgb1 an old man of seventy-five years1 could only gradually emancipate himself from the imperial party which had elected him and taken him under its protection4 ,he received back again the two excommunicated metropolitans1 without1 however1 restoring them to their offices1 released ,waldrade from church discipline1 and always put off granting ,thielberga's reiterated request for divorce4 ,lothair now went himself to ,rome1 took a solemn oath that he had no carnal intercourse with ,waldrade since the restoration of his wife1 and received the sacrament from the pope's hand4 ,full of hope that he would get success in his object he started for home1 but died at ,piacenza of a violent fever in ,a4,d4 #hfi4 ,when dead the uncles pounced upon the kingdom4 ,hadrian used all his influence in favour of the emperor1 the legitimate heir1 and threatened his opponents with excommunication4 ,but ,hincmar of ,rheims composed a state paper by order of his king1 in which he told the pope that the opinion of ,france was that he should not interfere with things about which he knew nothing4 ,the pope was obliged to let this insult pass unrevenged4 ,in a dispute of his own ,hincmar succeeded in giving the pope a second rebuff 7 #hc1 #b74bcj #hb4h4 ,john ,,viii4 and his ,successors4--,his successor ,john ,,viii41 ,a4,d4 #hgb-hhb1 was more successful than ,hadrian in bringing the ,carolingian king to kneel at his footstool4 ,in the art of intrigue and in the perfidy1 hypocrisy and unconscionableness required therefor1 he was1 however1 greatly superior4 ,he succeeded almost completely in freeing the papal chair from the imperial authority4 ,but he did so only to make it a playball of the wildest party interests around his own hearth4 ,to his account mainly must be laid the unfathomable degradation and debasement of the papacy during the #ajth century4 ,when the emperor ,louis ,,ii4 died in ,a4,d4 #hge1 ,louis the ,german1 as elder and full brother of his father1 ought to have been his heir4 ,but the pope wished to show the world that the papal favour could make a gift of the imperial crown to whomsoever it chose4 ,accepting his invitation1 ,charles the ,bald appeared in ,rome and was crowned by the pope on ,christmas ,day1 ,a4,d4 #hge4 ,but he had to pay dearly for the papal favour1 by formally renouncing all claims to the rights of superior over the ,states of the ,church1 allow for the future absolute freedom in the election of popes1 and accept a papal representative and clerical primate for all ,france and ,germany4 ,but not altogether satisfied with this1 the pope made the new emperor submit himself to a formal act of election by the ,lombards of ,pavia1 and in order to secure the approval of his own nobles to his proceedings he even agreed to give them the right of election4 ,the ,neustrian clergy1 however1 with ,hincmar at their head1 offered a vigorous resistance and at the first ,synod at ,pontion in ,a4,d4 #hgf there were violent altercations4 ,the shameful compromise satisfied neither pope nor emperor4 ,in ,rome a wild party faction gained ground against the pope1 and the ,saracens pressed further and further into ,italy4 ,from the emperor1 who knew not how to keep back the advances of the ,normans in his own country1 no help could be expected4 ,yet he made hasty preparations1 purchased a dishonourable peace from the ,normans1 and crossed the ,alps4 ,but new troubles at home imperiously called him back1 and at the foot of ,mount ,cenis in ,a4,d4 #hgg1 he died in a miserable hut of poison administered by his physician1 a ,jew4 ,the pope got into yet greater straits and made his position worse by further intrigues4 ,also his negotiations with ,byzantium in ,a4,d4 #hgi involved him in yet more serious troubles 7 #fg1 #a74 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #hhb1 apparently by the hand of an assassin4 ,a year before his death ,charles the ,fat1 the youngest son of ,louis the ,german1 had been crowned emperor1 and he1 the least capable of all the ,carolingian line1 by the choice of the ,neustrian nobles1 united once more all the ,frankish empire under his weak sceptre4 ,marinus1 the successor of ,john ,,viii41 died after a single year's pontificate4 ,so was it1 too1 with ,hadrian ,,iii4 ,and now the ,romans1 without paying any heed to the impotent wrath of the emperor1 elected and consecrated ,stephen ,v41 ,a4,d4 #hhe-hia1 as their pope4 ,in ,a4,d4 #heg the ,german nobles at last put an end to the despicable rule of the fat ,charles by passing an act of formal deposition4 ,they chose in his place ,arnulf of ,carinthia1 a natural son of ,charles' brother ,carloman4 ,pope ,formosus1 ,a4,d4 #hia-hif1 called him to his assistance in ,a4,d4 #hid1 and crowned him emperor4 ,but he could not hold his ground in ,italy and the opposition emperor ,lambert1 a ,longobard1 had possession of the field4 ,formosus died soon after ,arnulf's withdrawal4 ,boniface ,,vi41 who died after fifteen days1 was succeeded by ,stephen ,,vi4 in ,a4,d4 #hif4 ,this man1 infected by ,italian fanaticism1 had the body of ,formosus1 who had favoured the ,germans1 lifted from the grave1 shamefully abused and then thrown into the ,tiber4 ,the three following popes reigned only a few weeks or months1 and were either murdered or driven away4 ,john ,,ix41 ,a4,d4 #hih-ijj1 in order to pacify the ,german party1 honoured again the memory of ,formosus4--,arnulf's tenure of the empire1 however1 had only been a short vain dream2 but in ,germany during a trying period he wielded the sceptre with power and dignity4 ,when he died in ,a4,d4 #hii1 the ,german nobles elected his seven-year-old son1 ,louis the ,child4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #iaa1 and with him the dynasty of the ,carolingians in ,germany became extinct4 ,in ,france this line continued to exist in pitiable impotence down to the death of ,louis ,v4 in ,a4,d4 #ihg4--;,continuation1 #if4 #hb4i4 ,the ,papacy and the ,nationalities4#bca--;,from the time of ,charlemagne the policy of the ,french kings was to establish bishoprics on the frontiers of their territories for ,christianizing the neighbouring heathen countries1 and thereby securing their conquest1 or1 if this had been already won1 confirming it4 ,the first part of this purpose the popes could only approve and further1 but just as decidedly they opposed the second4 ,there must be a reference to the chair of ,peter1 that the pope may maintain and preserve as head of the universal church the rights of nationalities4 ,each country won to ,christianity should be received into the organism of the church with its national position unimpaired1 and so under the spiritual fatherhood of the pope there would be established a ,christian family of states1 of which each member occupies a position of perfect equality with the others4 ,in this way the interests of humanity1 and at the same time1 the selfish interests of papal policy1 were secured4 ,this policy was therefore directed to the emancipating as soon as possible the newly founded national churches from the supremacy of the ,german clergy and giving them an independent national church organization under bishops and archbishops of their own4 #hc4 ,,the ,,rank ,,of ,,metropolitan4#bcb ,the position of metropolitan was not regarded with equal favour in the ,german church and in the ,german state4 ,amid the variety of races the metropolitans represented the unity of the national church1 as the pope did that of the universal church1 while at the same time as an estate of the empire they exercised great influence on civil administration and foreign policy4 ,the reigning princes recognised in the unity of the ecclesiastical administration of the country a support and security for the political unity and therefore opposed the partition of the national church into several metropolitanates1 or1 where the larger extension of the empire required several archbishoprics1 wished rather to give the ablest of these the rank and authority of a primate4 ,the popes on the other hand endeavoured to give each of the larger countries at least two or three metropolitans1 and to prevent as far as possible the appointment of a national church primate2 for in the unity of the national church they perceived the danger of such a prelate sooner or later giving way to the desire to emancipate himself from ,rome and secure for himself the position of an independent patriarch4 #hc4a4 ,the ,position of ,metropolitans in ,general4--,as representing the unity of the national churches the interests of the metropolitans were bound up with those of the ruling princes4 ,they were the most vigorous supporters of their policy1 and generally got in return the prince's hearty support4 ,this coalition of the metropolitans and the civil power1 however1 threatened the subordinate clergy with abject servitude1 and drove them to champion the interests of the pope4 ,through pressure of circumstances1 a widespread conspiracy of bishops and abbots was formed during the last years of ,louis the ,pious to emancipate the clergy and especially the episcopate from the dominion of the state and the metropolitans and to place them immediately under the papal jurisdiction4 ,they founded upon the ,isidorian decretals as showing their rights in the earliest times 7 #hg1 #b74 ,their endeavour met indeed powerful opposition1 but the statements of the ,pseudo-,isidore had now obtained the validity of canon law4 #hc4b4 ,hincmar of ,rheims4--,among the ,french prelates after the restoration of the order of metropolitans by ,boniface the first place was held by the occupant of the see of ,rheims4 ,it reached the summit of its glory under ,hincmar of ,rheims1 ,a4,d4 #hde-hhb1 the ablest of all the ecclesiastical leaders of ,france4 ,his life consists of an uninterrupted series of battles of the most varied kind4 ,the first fight in which he engaged was the predestination controversy of ,gottschalk 7 #ia1 #e74 ,but his strength did not lie in dogmatics but in church government4 ,and here1 every inch a metropolitan1 he has fought the most glorious battles of his life and affirmed1 against the assumptions of popes and emancipation efforts of bishops1 the autonomy of reigning princes1 the freedom and independence of national churches1 and the jurisdiction of metropolitans4 ,of this sort was his contest with bishop ,rothad of ,soissons4 ,hincmar had deposed him in ,a4,d4 #hfa for insubordination4 ,rothad appealed to pope ,nicholas ,i4 on the ground of the ,sardican ,canon 7 #df1 #c71 which1 however1 had never been accepted in the ,frankish ,empire4 ,he had at the same time referred the pope to the ,isidorian decretals4 ,thus supported1 ,nicholas after a hard struggle had ,rothad reinstated in ,a4,d4 #hfe4 ,the insolent defiance of his own nephew1 ,hincmar1 bishop of ,laon1 led the archbishop into another obstinate fight4 ,here too the ,isidorian decretals played a prominent part4 ,hadrian ,,ii4 in ,a4,d4 #hfi took the side of the nephew1 but the metropolitan gained the victory1 and the nephew1 who defied the king as well as the metropolitan and moreover had entered into treasonable communication with the ,german court1 ended his course by being deprived of his eyes by the king4 ,down to ,a4,d4 #hge ,hincmar was inflexibly true to the king as a pillar of his policy and his throne4 ,but when ,charles the ,bald in that year paid down as purchase price for the imperial throne1 not only the autonomy of the empire but also the freedom of the ,french church and the rights of the metropolitans1 he was obliged now to turn his weapons against him4 ,hincmar died in ,a4,d4 #hhb in flight before the ,normans4 ,with him the glory of the ,french archbishopric sank into its grave4 ,the pseudo-,isidorian party had triumphed1 the bishops were emancipated from the government of the princes of their country1 but instead of this were often surrendered to the rude caprice of secular nobles4 #hc4c4 ,metropolitans in other lands4--,the ,english princes in the interests of the political unity of the ,heptarchy for a long time withstood the endeavours of the popes to place a rival alongside of the archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,the action and reaction of these opposing interests were particularly strong in the time of ,wilfrid 7 #gh1 #c71 whom the ,roman party had appointed archbishop of ,york4 ,wilfrid was driven away and died in ,a4,d4 #gji after an eventful life1 without succeeding in taking possession of the place to which he had been appointed4 ,at last1 however1 the pope reached his end4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gce a ,northumbrian prince obtained a pallium1 and after that the see of ,york got an undisputed place alongside that of ,canterbury4--,in ,northern ,italy there were metropolitan sees at ,ravenna1 ,milan and ,aquileia which still made their old claims to self-government 7 #df1 #a74 ,sergius1 the prelate of ,ravenna1 about ,a4,d4 #gfj1 thought it would be well out of the ruins of the exarchate to found an ecclesiastical state after the model of that of ,rome4 ,there was often opposition there to the ,roman supremacy4 ,on this account the violent archbishop ,john of ,ravenna1 who was also a defrauder of the church1 suffered the most complete humiliation from ,nicholas ,i4 in ,a4,d4 #hfa1 in spite of the emperor's protection4 ,the force of public opinion compelled the emperor to abandon his protg when excommunicated by the pope4 ,but during the pontificate of ,john ,,viii41 ,ausbert1 prelate of ,milan 7died ,a4,d4 #hhb71 who kept true to the ,german party1 could defy papal anathema and deposition4 ,his successor1 however1 again acknowledged the papal supremacy4--,in ,germany1 since the time of ,charlemagne1 new metropolitan sees had been created at ,salzburg1 ,cologne1 ,treves and ,hamburg-,bremen4 ,mainz1 however1 still claimed the primacy and represented the unity of the ,german church4 ,the ,isidorian forgery availed not here as in the land of its birth to stop the contention of the archbishop4 ,the ,german metropolitanate to the advantage of the empire maintained its rights untouched for centuries4 ,among the primates of ,mainz the most important by far was ,hatto ,i41 ,a4,d4 #hia-iac4 ,even under ,arnulf 7died ,a4,d4 #hii71 whose most trusted adviser he was1 he exercised a wide as well as wholesome influence on the administration of the empire4 ,it was still greater under ,louis the ,child 7died ,a4,d4 #iaa7 whom he raised to the throne and for whom he acted as regent4 ,conrad ,i4 7 #if1 #a7 also owed to him his election as king of the ,germans4 ,in the internal affairs of the ,german church1 he directed and adjusted1 organized and ruled in this time of general upheaval with wonderful insight1 wisdom and energy1 most conspicuously1 and that too against papal assumptions1 at the great national synod of ,tribur in ,a4,d4 #hie4 ,the primate regarded it as a political axiom1 that1 in order to conserve and advance the unity of the empire1 the particularism of the several races and the struggles of their chiefs and princes for independence should be crushed4 ,owing to the consistency and energy with which he carried out his idea1 he did indeed make many enemies4 ,the stories of insidious perfidy and bloody violence which have attached themselves to his memory are to all appearance due to their calumnious hatred4 ,his sudden death probably gave rise to the legend that the devil fetched him away and cast him into the mouth of ,etna4 ,to him1 and not to the much less important ,hatto ,,ii41 who died in ,a4,d4 #igj1 is the other equally baseless legend of the ,musethurm near ,bingen to be referred4--,continuation1 #ig1 #b4 #hd4 ,,the ,,clergy ,,in ,,general4#bcc ,the bishops subject to the archbishop were called diocesan bishops1 or1 as voting members of the ,provincial ,synod1 suffragan bishops4 ,the canonical election of bishops by the people and clergy was completely done away with in the ,german national church4 ,kings without opposition filled vacant bishoprics according to their own choice4 ,louis the ,pious at the ,synod of ,aachen1 in ,a4,d4 #hag1 restored canonical election by people and clergy1 subject to the emperor's confirmation1 but his successors paid no attention to the law4 ,deposition was usually carried out by the ,provincial and ,national ,synods4 ,the investiture of bishops with pastoral staff and marriage ring by the reigning prince is occasionally met with even in the ,merovingian age and became general after the development of the benefice system in the #ith century4 ,out of the institution of bishops without dioceses1 ,episcopi regionarii1 originally intended for missionary service1 arose in all probability the institution of ,chorepiscopi which flourished especially in ,france during the #hth and #ith centuries4 ,with the old ,chorepiscopi 7 #cd1 #b2 #de7 they have nothing in common beyond the name4 ,they were subordinate assistants of the diocesan bishops1 whose convenience1 unspirituality and often absence on state affairs demanded such substitutes4 ,but by their arbitrary conduct and refractoriness they often gave great trouble to those bishops who had any care for their flock4 ,a ,synod at ,paris1 therefore1 in ,a4,d4 #hdi1 withdrew all authority from them4 ,from that time they gradually sank out of view4 ,the inferior clergy1 taken generally from the serfs1 stood mostly in slavish dependence on the bishop and often had not the barest necessaries of culture4 ,their appointment lay with the bishop1 yet the founder of a church and his successors frequently retained the right of patronage in choosing their own officiating clergymen4#bcd ,especially in the later ,merovingian and earlier ,carolingian periods1 the ,frankish clergy1 superior and inferior1 had become terribly corrupt4 ,boniface was the first to reintroduce some sort of discipline 7 #gh1 #e7 and ,charlemagne's powerful government contributed in an extraordinary measure to the ennobling of the clergy4 ,yet the corruption was too general and too great to be altogether eradicated4 ,louis the ,pious1 therefore1 in ,a4,d4 #haf1 extended to the whole kingdom a reformation which ,chrodegang of ,metz had introduced fifty years previously among his own clergy1 by which means discipline and order were again improved for some decades4 ,but in the troublous times of the last ,carolingians everything went again into confusion and decay4 ,exemption from civil jurisdiction was accorded the clergy during this period only to this extent1 that the secular courts could not proceed against a clergyman without the advice of the bishop1 and the bishop himself was subject only to the jurisdiction of the king and the ,provincial ,synod4 #hd4a4 ,the ,superior ,clergy4--,in the ,german states from the earliest times the superior clergy constituted a spiritual aristocracy which by means of their higher culture won a more influential position in civil life than the secular nobles4 ,in all important affairs of state the bishops were the advisers of the king2 they were almost exclusively employed on embassies2 on all commissions there were clerical members and always one half of the ,missi dominici were clerics4 ,this nearness to the person of the king and their importance in civil life made them rank as one of the estates of the realm4 ,the ,frankish idea of immunity1 in consequence of which by royal gift along with the rights of territorial lords there were handed over to the new proprietors also the princely right of levying taxes and administering justice1 brought to them secular as well as spiritual jurisdiction over a great part of the land4 ,as the court of the ,frankish king was moved from place to place1 he required a special court1 chapel1 with a numerous court-clergy1 at the head of which was an ,arch-chaplain1 usually the most distinguished prelate in the land4 ,the names ,capella and ,capellani were originally applied only to court chapels and court chaplains1 and were derived from the fact that in the chapel was kept the ,cappa or coat of ,martin of ,tours as a precious relic and the national palladium of ,france4 ,the court clergy formed the nursery for future bishops of the realm4 ,in addition to the ring and staff as episcopal insignia we find in the ,carolingian age the bishop's cap1 consisting of two long sheets of tin or pasteboard running up to a peak1 covered with silk of the same colour as the dress used in celebrating mass1 generally richly ornamented with gold and precious stones1 called by the old pagan name ,infula or ,mitra4#bce #hd4b4 ,the ,inferior ,clergy4--,the enormous expansion of episcopal dioceses rendered a new arrangement of the inferior clergy indispensable4 ,the extension churches in towns and the country churches which previously had been served by the clergy of the cathedral church1 obtained a regular clergy of their own4 ,as these churches were always dedicated to a saint they were called ,tituli1 and the clergy appointed to officiate in them1 ,intitulati1 ,incardinati1 ,cardinales4 ,thus originated the idea of ,parochia1 and of ,parochus or parish priest1#bcf who1 because the cura animarum was committed to him was also called ,curate1 as in the ,french cur4 ,over about ten parishes was placed an ,archipresbyter ruralis who was called ,decanus1 ,dean4 ,as the right of administering baptism belonged originally to him exclusively1 his church was called ,ecclesia baptisimalis2 his diocese1 ,christianitas or ,plebs2 he himself also1 ,plebanus4 ,a further arrangement was first introduced in the #hth century by ,heddo of ,strasburg ,strassburg1 who gave to each of the deans in his diocese seven archdeacons1 prpositi1 provosts4 ,besides the parish churches there were many chapels or oratories where divine service was conducted only at certain times by the neighbouring parish clergy or chaplains appointed for that purpose4 ,to this class also belong the domestic chapels in episcopal residences or on the estates of noblemen which were served by special domestic or castle chaplains4 ,the latter indeed had in addition the duty of feeding the dogs1 waiting at table and taking charge of the lady's pony4 ,notwithstanding repeated reinforcement of the old law3 ,ne quis vage ordinetur1 there was still a great number of so-called ,clericis vagis1 mostly vagabonds and idlers1 who1 ordained by unprincipled bishops for a reward1 roamed over the country like clerical pedlars4 #hd4c4 ,compulsory ,celibacy was stoutly resisted by the ,german clergy4 ,the inferior clergy were mostly married4 ,at ordination they were ordered indeed to separate from their wives and to abstain from marital intercourse1 but the promise was rarely fulfilled4 ,among the unmarried clergy1 fornication1 adultery and unnatural lust were prevalent4 ,a bishop1 ,ulrich of ,augsburg1 addressed to ,nicholas ,i4 a philippic against the law of celibacy with fearless exposures of its evil consequences4 ,the moral condition of the clergy was generally speaking shockingly low4 ,legacy hunting1 forging of documents1 simony and chaffering for benefices were carried on in a shameless way4 ,the lordly habits of the bishops consisted in hunting1 going about with dogs and falcons1 and in wild drunken revels4 ,in the #gth century it was the peculiar pleasure of the ,frankish bishops in wild scenes of blood that induced them to take part in the wars1 and led to their being afterwards obliged to fit out contingents for the field at the cost of their ecclesiastical revenues4 ,pepin1 ,charlemagne and ,louis the ,pious passed stringent laws against these warlike habits of churchmen2 but the later ,carolingians not only tolerated but actually encouraged them4 #hd4d4 ,canonical life4--,augustine's institution of a monasterii ,clericorum 7 #de1 #a7 was often imitated in later times4 ,but bishop ,chrodegang of ,metz1 who died in ,a4,d4 #gff1 gave it for the first time1 about ,a4,d4 #gfj1 a fixed and permanent form4 ,his rule or ,canon is closely connected with the monastic rule of ,st4 ,benedict 7 #he71 with the omission of the vow of poverty4 ,he built a commodious residence ,domus1 monasterium 7comp4 ,germ4 words ,dom and ,mnster71 in which all the clergy of his cathedral church were obliged to live1 pray1 work1 eat and sleep under the constant and strict supervision of the bishop or his archdeacon4 ,this was the ,vita canonica4 ,after morning devotions all the members of the establishment gathered together in the hall where the bishop or provost read to them a chapter from the ,bible1 most frequently from ,leviticus1 from the rule or from the fathers1 and added thereto the necessary explanations and exhortations4 ,the hall was therefore called the ,chapter ,house2 then the name ,chapter#bcg was given to the whole body gathered together there4 ,the ,colleges#bch were a subsequent development of the chapter in non-episcopal city churches1 with a provost or deacon at their head4 ,louis the ,pious allowed ,chrodegang's rule to be revived and generalized by the deacon ,amalarius of ,metz1 and at the ,national ,assembly at ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #hag enforced it for the whole kingdom4 ,it is known as ,regula ,aquisgranensis4 ,but soon after the ,canons endeavoured to emancipate themselves more and more from the burdensome yoke of episcopal control4 ,gunther of ,cologne 7 #hb1 #g7 who1 though deposed by the pope1 retained his official position1 was obliged to purchase the support of his chapter by a bargain in accordance with which a great part of the ecclesiastical revenues of the chapter were placed at their own full disposal as ,prebends or ,benefices4 ,and what this one chapter gained for itself was afterwards contended for by others4#bci--;,continuation1 #ig1 #c4 #he4 ,,monasticism4#bdj ,while from the #eth century one rush of migrating peoples was rapidly followed by another1 the monkish orders fell into decay1 barbarism and corruption4 ,they would scarcely have survived this period of commotion1 at least would not have proved the great blessing that they have been to the ,german west1 had not the spirit of ancient ,rome with its practical turn1 its appreciation of law and order and its organizing talent1 given them at the right time1 what they hitherto wanted1 a rule answering to the requirements and circumstances of the age1 and by means of it firm footing1 unity1 order and legal form4 ,this task was accomplished by ,benedict of ,nursia 7d4 ,a4,d4 #edc71 the patriarch of ,western ,monasticism4 ,the rule1 which he prescribed in ,a4,d4 #ebi to the monks of the monastery of ,monte ,cassino in ,campania founded by him1 was not unduly ascetic1 combined strict discipline with a certain degree of mildness and indulgence1 estimated the needs of human nature as well as the circumstances of the times1 and was1 in short1 adaptable and practical4 ,from the rule of ,cassiodorus 7 #dg1 #bc7 ,benedict's disciples borrowed that zeal for scholarly studies about which their master had given no directions1 and ,gregory the ,great inspired the order with enthusiasm for missionary labours4 ,thus the ,benedictine order obtained its full consecration to its calling of worldwide significance4 ,soon spreading over all the ,west1 being introduced into ,france by ,maurus in ,a4,d4 #edc1 it nobly fulfilled its vocation by cultivating the soil and the mind1 by clearing the forests1 bringing in waste lands1 zealously preaching the gospel1 rooting out superstition and paganism1 educating the young1 fostering and restoring literature1 science and art4 ,the barbarous age1 however1 which saw the overthrow of the ,merovingians and the rise of the ,carolingians1 exerted a deteriorating influence also on the ,benedictines4 ,but ,charlemagne restored strict discipline1 and assigned to the monasteries the task of erecting schools and prosecuting scholarly studies4 ,by authority of ,louis the ,pious and by order of the ,national ,assembly at ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #hag1 ,benedict of ,aniane undertook a reformation and re-organization of all the monkish systems throughout the empire4 ,at the head of a commission appointed for that purpose he visited all the ,frankish monasteries1 and compelled them to organize themselves after his improved ,benedictine ,rule4 #he4a4 ,the one source of information regarding the life of ,benedict of ,nursia is the miracle-laden record of the miracle-loving pope ,gregory the ,great in the second book of his ,dialogues4 ,benedict's ,rule comprises #gc chapters4 ,the first principle of the monastic life is obedience to the ,abbot1 as representative of ,christ4 ,the choice of abbot lies with the brothers4 ,of serving brothers the rule knows nothing4 ,the chief occupation is agriculture4 ,idleness is strictly forbidden4 ,charge of the kitchen and reading at table are duties performed by all the monks in turn week about4 ,divine service begins at #c a4m4 and is rendered regularly through all the seven hours 7 #ef1 #b74 ,two meals a day are partaken of and each monk has daily half a bottle of wine4 ,flesh meat is given only to the sick and weak4 ,at table and after the ,completorium or last hour of prayer1 no word was allowed to be spoken4 ,all the brothers slept in a common dormitory1 each in a separate bed1 but completely dressed and girded1 so as to be ready at call for matins4 ,the discipline was strict and reasonable2 first private1 then public rebuke1 then penal fasting1 corporal punishment1 and finally excommunication4 ,hospitality and attention to the poor were enjoined on all monasteries4 ,reception was preceded by a year's novitiate4 ,the vow included ,stabilitas loci1 ,conversio morum 7poverty and chastity7 and ,obedientia4 ,the ,oblati were a special kind of novices1 i4e4 children who in their early youth were placed in the monastery by their parents4 ,they were educated in the monastic schools and were not allowed to go back to the world4 #he4b4 ,benedict of ,aniane 7,a4,d4 #hba7 was originally called ,witiza and was the son of a ,visigoth count4 ,he had served as a soldier under ,charlemagne4 ,in attempting to save his brother he was himself almost drowned4 ,his ambition was now directed to an ascetic life1 in which his personal performances were most remarkable4 ,on the river ,anianus in ,languedoc he founded in ,a4,d4 #ggi the monastery of ,aniane4 ,he was the indispensable and all-powerful counsellor of ,louis the ,pious4 ,in order to have him always near him1 ,louis founded for him the monastery of ,inda or the ,cornelius-,mnster near ,aachen4 ,in the interests of his cloister reform he published in ,a4,d4 #hag a ,codex regulorum in which he collected all the monastic rules previously known4 #he4c4 ,the rule of the elder ,benedict made no reference to ,nunneries2 but his sister ,scholastica is regarded as the founder of the order of female ,benedictines4 ,another form of female asceticism was developed after the model of the canonical life of the secular clergy in the institution of canonesses4 ,the rule1 which ,louis the ,pious at ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #haf allowed them to draw up for themselves1 is distinctly milder than that of the nuns4 ,the ladies' orders gradually became places of resort for the unmarried daughters of the nobles4 ,the canonical age for taking the nun's vows was twenty-five4 ,the novitiate lasted three years4 ,besides the propria professio the paterna devotio was also regarded as binding4 ,in regard to dress the adoption of the veil was the main thing2 but in addition they wore the wreath as a symbol of virginity and the ring as token of spiritual marriage4 ,at this time the cutting of the hair was only a punishment for unchaste nuns4 ,the honourable position of the wife among the ,germans secured special respect for the abbess1 and obtained for the most famous nunneries exemption1 civil prerogatives and proprietary1 even princely rights4 ,the frequent appearance of ,double-,cloisters where monks and nuns1 naturally in separate dwellings1 under a common rule either of an abbess as often in ,england1 or of an abbot1 was also peculiarly ,german4 #he4d4 ,the ,greater ,monasteries1 formed as they were of a vast number of separate buildings for agriculture1 cattle rearing1 handicraft and arts of all kinds1 for elementary teaching1 for higher education1 for hospitable entertainment1 caring for the sick1 etc41 came by and by to attain the proportions of little towns4 ,frequently they were the centre around which cities were raised4 ,the monastery of ,vivarium in ,calabria1 ,cassiodorus' foundation1 inspired ,western monasticism with an enthusiasm for scholarly studies4 ,the regulations of ,monte ,cassino were extended to all monasteries of the ,west4 ,columbanus' monastery of ,bobbio rooted out paganism and ,arianism in northern ,italy4 ,the monasteries of ,iona in ,scotland and ,bangor in ,ireland gained high repute in the struggle of the ,celtic church against the ,roman4 ,the ,english monastery of ,wearmouth was a famous school of science4 ,in ,france ,st4 ,denys near ,paris and ,old ,corbei in ,picardy gained a high reputation4 ,in ,south ,germany ,st4 ,gall1 ,reichenau1 ,lorsch and ,hirschau1 in ,central ,germany ,fulda1 ,hersfeld and ,fritzlar1 and in ,north ,germany ,new ,corbei1 a branch from ,old ,corbei1 were main centres of ,christian culture4 #he4e4 ,in its new ,western form also monasticism was still without the clerical character4 ,but there was an ever-increasing tendency to draw the monastic and the clerical institutions more and more closely together4 ,by means of celibacy and the introduction of the canonical life 7 #hd1 #d7 the clergy came to have the monkish character1 and on the other hand1 most of the monks1 in the first instance for monastic and mission services1 took clerical orders4 ,by and by monks sought appointments as curates 7 #hd1 #b71 and thus rivalries arose between them and the clergy4 ,the monasteries were wholly under the jurisdiction of the bishops in whose diocese they lay4 ,the exemptions of this period were limited to security for the free election of the abbot1 independent administration of property and gratuitous performance of consecrations by the bishop4 ,in the ,frankish empire1 however1 abbots were ordinarily appointed to vacancies by the court1 and rich abbeys were also often bestowed upon distinguished noblemen in commendam1 i4e41 for temporary administration with the enjoyment of their revenues1 or even to court and military officers as a reward for special services4 ,such lay abbots or abbacomites often stayed in the monasteries for months with their families1 their huntsmen and their soldiers1 and made them the scene of their drinking bouts1 their field sports and their military exercises4 ,the kings retained the richest abbacies to themselves or gave them to their sons and daughters1 wives and concubines4 #he4f4 ,the ,stylites 7 #dd1 #f7 on account of the climate1 could gain no footing1 though attempts were indeed made1 e4g4 by ,wulflaich 7 #gh1 #c74 ,in place of them we find male and female recluses1 ,reclusi 7,inclusi7 and ,reclus1 who shut themselves up in cells which they never quitted4 ,hermits of the ,woods1 unfettered by any rules1 found great favour among the ,germans4 ,their national melancholic temperament inclining them to solitude1 their strong love of nature1 their passionate delight in roaming unchecked through woods and mountains1 contributed to make such a mode of life attractive4 ,it was during the #fth century that this craze for hermit life reached its height in ,germany1 and its main seat was in ,auvergne with its wild mountains1 glens and gorges4 ,but as the cell of the saint was often in later times developed into a monastery on account of the crowds of disciples that gathered round1 the hermit life gradually passed over into a regulated cnobite life4 ,in ,switzerland ,meinard1 son of a count of ,zollern1 was a hermit of this sort4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hfa he had been murdered by two robbers1 and this was afterwards discovered1 the legend says1 by means of two ravens feeding upon the body of the murdered man4 ,his cell in later times grew into the beautiful ,benedictine abbey of ,maria-,einsiedeln with its miracle-working image of the mother of ,god1 which at this day is visited by more than a hundred thousand pilgrims yearly4 #hf3 ,,the ,,property ,,of ,,churches ,,and ,,monasteries4 ,the inalienableness of church property being regarded as the first principle of its administration1 it grew by enormous strides from year to year through donations and legacies1 ,at the end of the #gth century there was in ,gaul fully a third of the whole territory in the possession of the churches and monasteries1 while the national exchequer was quite exhausted4 ,in this emergency ,charles ,martel founded the benefice system1 for which he also converted into money the abundant possessions of the church4 ,his sons1 however1 ,carloman and ,pepin the ,short1 in consideration of the reorganization of the ,frankish church effected by ,boniface 7 #gh1 #e71 sought to avert the impoverishment of many churches and cloisters by a partial restitution so far as the neediness of the times would allow4 ,charlemagne and ,louis the ,pious did still more in this direction1 so that partly by these means1 partly by the continued donations of rich people1 church property soon acquired its earlier proportions4 ,thus1 e4g41 the monastery of ,luxeuil had in the #ith century an estate with #ae1jjj farm-houses upon it4--,the administration of the property of churches and monasteries lay in the hands of the bishops and abbots4 ,for defending and maintaining secular and legal rights there were ecclesiastical and monastic advocates1 ,advocati ecclesi4 ,this institution1 however1 often degenerated into an agency for oppressing the peasants and plundering the property of their clients2 for many advocates assumed arbitrary powers and dealt with the property of the church and its proceeds just as they chose4 #hf4a4 ,the ,revenues of ,churches and ,monasteries4--,the main sources of their growing wealth were donations and legacies4 ,princes often made bequests of enormous magnitude and rich people in private life vied with them4 ,occasions were never wanting2 restoration from sickness1 escape from danger1 the birth of a child1 etc41 regularly won for the church whose patron saint had been helpful1 some valuable present4 ,the clergy also used all means in their power to encourage this prevailing readiness to bestow presents2 and to this must in great measure be traced the beginnings of the forging of deeds4 ,a peculiar form for bequeathing a gift was that of the ,precaria1 according to which the giver retained to himself for his lifetime the use of the goods which he gifted4 ,church property was farther greatly increased by the personal possessions of the clergy and the monks1 which at the death of the former and at the conversio of the latter usually became part of the revenue of the church or cloister to which their owners belonged4 ,besides the proceeds of its own estates the church drew the tithes of all property and incomes of parishioners1 the claim being enforced as a jus divinum by a reference to the ,mosaic legislation and made a law of the empire by the injunction of ,charlemagne4 ,on the other hand the clergy were forbidden to exact payment for discharge of official duties1 so called stole-dues1 because they were performed by the priest dressed in the stola4 ,the cathedral church was entitled to an annual tax1 ,honor cathedr1 levied upon all the churches of the diocese4 ,the inferior clergy1 on the other hand1 often arrogated to themselves the right in accordance with a bad custom of grasping by violent plunder the possessions of their deceased bishop1 ,spolium4#bda #hf4b4 ,the ,benefice ,system4--,in consequence of the vast gifts of the ,merovingians to the churches and their ministrants1 when ,charles ,martel assumed the government1 the sources of crown revenue that hitherto seemed inexhaustible were almost completely dried up1 while this prince1 in order to deliver the country from the ,saracens and in order to maintain his rule over against the innumerable petty tyrants who threatened to dismember the empire1 required a yet fuller treasury than any of his predecessors4 ,out of these circumstances grew the ,benefice ,system4 ,the soldiers who had served the nation and princes had been as before rewarded by grants of lands4 ,these1 however1 were no longer given as hereditary possessions but only for the lifetime of the receiver 7,beneficium71 and for this he was under obligation to supply a proportionate contingent for military service4 ,when the crown lands had been well nigh exhausted1 ,charles ,martel did not hesitate to lay claim to the church property4 ,his son ,carloman at the first ,austrasian national ,synod in ,a4,d4 #gdb 7 #gh1 #e7 promised to restore the church property that had thus been alienated1 but had soon to confess his inability to perform his promise4 ,at the second ,austrasian ,synod at ,lestines in ,a4,d4 #gdc he therefore limited the immediate restitution to the most pressing cases of notoriously poor and needy churches and monasteries4 ,he was driven to this by the absolutely needful claims of the civil and military departments4 ,but the claim of the church to get back the property was secured by the beneficiary giving a ,precarial letter and by the payment of an annual tax of a solidus for every farm house on the estate4 ,the king also promised the full restoration on the death of the beneficiary1 with express retention1 however1 of the right1 if the needs of the times required it1 to lease out again the vacant precari4 ,even ,pepin at the ,neustrian national ,synod at ,soissons in ,a4,d4 #gdd granted similar concessions1 but yet in the execution of them did not go so far as his brother4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gea he caused a descriptio et divisio1 i4e4 an inventory of church property with an exact fixing of the limits of its various titles to be made4#bdb--,the annual tax referred to was transformed by ,charlemagne into a second tithe1 the so-called ,non4 ,but even after the partial restitution effected by the descendants of ,pepin there still remained upon the restored property the beneficial burdens that had been laid upon it1 especially the obligation to supply and equip a certain number of soldiers1 and this was thence transferred to the whole property of the church4--,the benefice system1 originating in the pressure of circumstances1 continued to spread more and more1 and formed the foundation of the entire social and civil organization of the ,middle ,ages4#bdc #hg4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,legislation4 ,the construction of ecclesiastical legislation for the ,german empire was at first wholly the work of the ,synods4 ,the popes exerted scarcely any influence upon it1 but all the more powerfully was felt the influence of the kings4 ,they summoned the ,synods1 laid down to them the subjects to be discussed1 and confirmed according to their own judgment their decisions4 ,from the time that the ,frankish bishoprics were filled by native ,franks the independent life of the ,synods was quenched1 and ecclesiastical affairs were arranged at the national assemblies in which the bishops also took part as territorial nobles4 ,the great national ,synods1 too1 at which ,boniface's reorganization of the church in accordance with ,roman ecclesiastical law as carried 7 #gh1 #e7 were ,concilia mixta of this kind2 and even under ,charlemagne and ,louis of ,france these were still prevalent4 ,charles1 however1 made their proceedings more orderly by grouping the nobles into three ranks as bishops1 abbots and counts4 ,under the ,pepin dynasty alongside of the synodal we have the royal decrees1 arranged in separate chapters1 and hence the ordinances are called ,capitularia4 ,purely ecclesiastical ,synods in later times again gained a footing and were particularly numerous in the times of ,hincmar4 #hg4a4 ,older ,collections of ,ecclesiastical ,law4--,gregory ,,ii4 furnished ,boniface with a ,codex canonum1 undoubtedly the ,dionysiaca 7 #dc1 #c71 and ,hadrian ,,ii4 presented ,charlemagne with one which was solemnly received at the ,national ,synod of ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #hjb4 ,there was in ,spain a new collection which was erroneously attributed to bishop ,isidore of ,seville1 who to distinguish him from the ,frankish ,pseudo-,isidore is designated the genuine ,isidore1 or more correctly as ,hispana4 ,this collection in form attaches itself to ,dionysiaca4 ,in the #ith century it was introduced among the ,franks1 and here gave contents and name to the ,pseudo-,isidorian collection4 ,in close connection with this masterpiece of forgery stands the collection of laws by ,benedictus ,levita of ,mainz1 which was indeed called a collection of capitularies1 but was gathered mainly from documents of ecclesiastical legislation1 genuine and spurious4 ,a collection of true and genuine capitularies was made in ,a4,d4 #hbg by ,ansegis1 ,abbot of ,fontenelles4 ,benedict's collection was included in it as #eth1 #fth1 and #gth books4 ,besides these large collections many bishops prepared epitomized collections for the use of their own dioceses1 of which several are extant under the name of ,capitula ,episcoporum4 ,decidedly in the interest of the ,pseudo-,isidore are the ,capitula ,angilramni1 composed and subscribed by bishop ,angilramnus of ,metz 7d4 ,a4,d4 #gia74 ,the dates and contents of the three first-named collections were determined in the interest of the ,pseudo-,isidorian1 and are still a matter of controversy4 ,benedict1 according to his own credible statement1 undertook his work at the command of the archbishop ,otgar1 of ,mainz1 for the archives of ,mainz1 but completed and published it probably in ,france only after ,otgar's death1 which occurred in ,a4,d4 #hdg4 ,but while in earlier times it was generally believed that ,benedict had used the ,pseudo-,isidore1 ,hinschius has become convinced that the author of the capitula is identical with the ,pseudo-,isidore1 and from ,benedict's capitularies has unravelled first the composition of the capitula and then that of the decretals4#bdd #hg4b4 ,the ,collection of ,decretals of the ,pseudo-,isidore4--,in the fiftieth year of the #ith century there appeared in ,france under the name of ,isidorus ,mercator a collection of canons and decretals1 which indeed completely embraced the older so-called ,isidoriana1 but was enlarged by the addition of a multitude of forged decretals4 ,the surname ,mercator1 otherwise ,peccator1 is probably derived from the well known ,marius ,mercator 7 #dg1 #bj71 who had also occupied himself with the translation of ecclesiastical documents1 which the ,pseudo-,isidore used for his work4 ,it begins with the fifty ,canones ,apostt41 then follow fifty-nine forged decretals which are assigned to the thirty oldest popes from ,clement to ,melchiades 7d4 ,a4,d4 #cad74 ,the second part embraces1 besides the original document of the ,donation of ,constantine1 genuine synodal decrees falsified apparently only in one passage4 ,the third part1 again1 contains decretals of ,sylvester1 the successor of ,melchiades1 down to ,gregory ,,ii4 7d4 ,a4,d4 #gca71 of which thirty-five are not genuine4 ,the non-genuine decretals are for the most part not altogether forgeries1 but are rather based upon the literature of theology and canon law then existing1 amplified or altered1 and wrought up to serve the purposes of the compiler4 ,the system of the ,pseudo-,isidore is characterized by the following peculiarities3 ,over the ,imperium is raised the ,sacerdotium1 ordained of ,christ to be governor and judge of the world4 ,the unity and head of the ,sacerdotium is represented by the pope4 ,bishops are related to the pope as the other apostles were to ,peter4 ,the metropolitan is only primus inter pares4 ,between the pope and the bishops as an intermediate rank we have the primates or patriarchs4 ,this rank1 however1 belongs only to such metropolitan sees as either were ordained to it by the apostles and their successors1 or to such sees in more recently converted lands as were elevated to this position in consequence of the multitude of bishops belonging to them4 ,provincial ,synods should be held only with the consent of the pope1 their decrees become valid only after receiving his confirmation1 and all caus majores1 especially all complaints against bishops1 belong solely to his own judicature4 ,priests are the ,familiares ,dei1 the ,spirituales2 the laity1 on the other hand1 are the ,carnales4 ,no clergyman1 least of all a bishop1 may be taken before a secular tribunal4 ,a layman may not appear as an accuser against a clergyman1 and the ,synods are enjoined to render charges against a bishop as difficult as possible4 ,an expelled bishop1 before the charges against him can be examined1 must have been fully restored 7,exceptio ,spolii74 ,if the accused regards his judges as inimici or suspecti1 he may appeal to be examined before the pope4 ,for the establishing of a charge at least seventy-two witnesses are necessary1 etc4 #hg4c4 ,the forgery originated in ,france1 where it had been in existence for some years before it was known in ,rome1 as appears from the process against ,rothad of ,soissons 7 #hc1 #b74 ,rothad first brought it to ,rome in ,a4,d4 #hfd4 ,blondel and ,kunst regard ,benedict ,levita as its author4 ,he first gave currency to the forgery in his ,collection of ,capitularies4 and so arouses the suspicion that he is himself the forger4 ,philipps fathers it upon ,rothad of ,soissons2 ,wasserschleben ascribes it to archbishop ,otgar of ,mainz1 who1 as a prominent head of the clerical conspiracy against ,louis the ,pious 7 #hb1 #d71 would have reason to defend himself against the judgment which would befall conspirators4 ,but this doom did not in any very special manner threaten ,otgar4 ,on ,louis' restoration he was not sentenced or deposed by any synod1 but was without more ado received into favour by the emperor4 ,the ,pseudo-,isidore's hostile attitude toward the chorepiscopi 7 #hd71 while gaining no footing in ,germany1 certainly prevailed in ,france2 and ,france1 not ,germany1 was the place where this collection first appeared between ,a4,d4 #hec and #hfd4 ,since now1 moreover1 the prominence given by the ,pseudo-,isidore to the rank of primate may be regarded as equally favourable to the see of ,rheims as to that of ,mainz1 ,weizscker and v4 ,noorden have sought the original home of the forgery in the diocese of ,rheims1 and point to ,ebo1 archbishop of ,rheims1 ,hincmar's predecessor1 as the forger4 ,and ,ebo certainly stood in the front rank of the revolt referred to4 ,before him ,louis had specially to humble himself4 ,he was therefore taken prisoner immediately upon the emperor's restoration1 and deprived of his office at the ,synod of ,didenhofen in ,a4,d4 #hce 7 #hb1 #d74 ,the emperor ,lothair1 indeed1 restored him in ,a4,d4 #hdj1 but his position was still very insecure1 as he had before a year passed to save himself by flight on the approach of ,charles the ,bald1 and never again saw ,rheims1 which till ,hincmar's elevation remained in the hands of chorepiscopi4 ,the composition of the collection1 according to v4 ,noorden1 belongs to the period immediately preceding and lasting through his restitution4 ,finally ,hinschius regards ,rheims as undoubtedly the scene of the composition of these forgeries1 but he cannot ascribe them to ,ebo because1 according to his demonstration1 ,benedict's ,pseudo-,isidore used as his authority only a collection completed after ,a4,d4 #hdg1 and by that time ,ebo could not have the shadow of a hope of restoration4 ,but he also advances other weighty considerations4 ,ebo himself had never attempted to make good the claims which the ,pseudo-,isidorian decretals would have afforded him4 ,if his own affairs had first led him to think of forging decretals he must have foreseen that the extensive studies necessary for such a work would have demanded many years of laborious effort1 and would be concluded much too late to serve his purpose4 ,it would1 therefore1 seem to him safer to confine himself to what his immediately present circumstances urgently required2 whereas the actual ,pseudo-,isidore1 on the contrary1 puts in the mouths of the early popes1 with no little zeal and emphasis1 a vast array of other exhortations and decrees that seemed to him useful amid the troubles of that age for the well being of the church and its ministers4 ,thus the whole work assumes more of the character of a pia fraus of a somewhat high church cleric of that time than of a forgery devised in the selfish interests of an individual4 ,this much1 however1 must be admitted1 that the directions quoted about judicial procedure against accused bishops exactly fit the case of ,ebo4 ,as the first attempt to use the non-genuine decretals only found in ,pseudo-,isidore was made at the ,synod of ,soissons in ,a4,d4 #hec1 by those clerics who had been ordained by ,ebo after his deposition but rejected by ,hincmar1 the final redaction and publication must fall between ,a4,d4 #hdg and #hec4 ,langen fixes the date at ,a4,d4 #hej1 and refers its authorship to ,servatus ,lupus 7 #ij1 #e74 ,nobody then doubted their genuineness4 ,even ,hincmar seems for a long time to have had no doubts4 ,but he decidedly repudiated their legal authority in the ,frankish church1 and energetically opposed them when they were sought to be enforced against the independence of the church4 ,thus he could always refer to them where their contentions agreed with his own1 or1 as in the case against his nephew1 where they supported his rights as primate1 in order to defeat his opponents with their own weapons4 ,subsequently however1 in ,a4,d4 #hgb1 in a letter written in the name of his king to pope ,hadrian1 he characterized them in contrast with the genuine and valid decretals as secus a quoquam compilata sive conficta4 ,the ,magdeburg ,centuriators were the first conclusively to prove them spurious4 ,the ,jesuit ,turrianus1 however1 entered the lists once more on their behalf4 ,but the reformed theologian1 ,david ,blondel1 castigated so sharply and thoroughly this theological unprincipledness1 that even in the ,roman ,catholic church their non-genuineness has been now since admitted4#bde #hg4d4 ,among the many spurious documents which the ,pseudo-,isidore included in his collection of ecclesiastical laws1 we find an ,edictum ,constantini ,imperatoris4 ,in the first part of it1 the so-called ,confessio1 ,constantine makes a confession of his faith1 and relates in detail in what a wonderful way he was converted to ,christianity by pope ,sylvester1 and cured of leprosy 7 #db1 #a74 ,then in the second part1 the so-called ,donatio1 he confers upon the chair of ,peter1 with recognition of its absolute primacy over all patriarchates of the empire1 imperial power1 rank1 honour1 and insignia1 as all privileges and claims of imperial senators upon its clergy4 ,in order that the possessor of this gift may be able to all time to maintain the dignity of his position1 he gives him the ,lateran palace1 transfers to him independent dominion over 8,romanam urbem et omnes ,itali seu 7in ,frankish ,latin of the #hth and #ith centuries this means #8as well as'7 occidentalium regionum provincias1 loca et civitates0 7therefore not merely ,italy but the whole ,west ,roman empire72 he removes his own imperial residence to ,byzantium1 8quoniam ubi principates ,sacerdotum et ,christ4 religionis ,caput ab ,imperatore clesti constitutum est1 justum non est1 ut illic ,imperator terrerum habeat potestatem40 ,in a letter of ,hadrian ,i4 to ,charlemagne in ,a4,d4 #ghh1 in which he salutes the emperor as a second ,constantine who is called upon by ,god not only to restore to the apostolic chair the 8potestas in his ,hesperi partibus10 which had been already assigned it by the first ,constantine1 but also all later legacies and donations 8of various patricians and other ,god-fearing men10 which the godless race of the ,longobards in course of time tore from it1 we have the first hint at the idea of a ,donatio ,constantini4 ,the same pope1 too1 according to the ,vita ,hadriani in the ,romish ,pontifical1 on the occasion of ,charles' visit to ,rome in ,a4,d4 #ggd is said to have reclaimed from him an enormous grant of land 7 #hb1 #b74 ,it seemed therefore an extremely probable supposition that assigned ,rome as the place where this document originated1 and the period of the overthrow of the ,longobard empire1 whether actually accomplished or on the eve of taking place1 as the date of its fabrication 7 #hb1 #a1 #b74 ,against this view1 almost universally prevalent1 quite recently ,grauert has advanced a vast array of powerful arguments1 e4g41 the limitation of the ,donatio of ,constantine to ,italy which is here suggested contradicts its own express statement4 ,the words of the letter of ,hadrian referred to speak not of a dominion over ,italy1 and which they could have read1 8in has ,h4 partes10 but of a dominion in ,italy which was founded upon ,constantine's munificence and enlarged by many subsequent presents4 ,they do not1 therefore1 refer like the words of the ,donatio to sovereign territorial authority1 but to the exceedingly wide-spread and rich property included in the ,patrimonium ,petri 7 #df1 #aj74 ,the 8potestas10 said to have been assigned by ,constantine to the ,roman see1 does not exceed the authority which even according to the ,vita ,sylvestri of the ,pontifical had been given by ,constantine to that pope4--,thus the donation document is met with first in the ,pseudo-,isidore4 ,it was often afterwards referred to by the ,frankish government4 ,by ,rome1 on the other hand1 although even ,nicholas ,i4 was made acquainted with the ,pseudo-,isidorian decretals by ,rothad1 and referred to them in ,a4,d4 #hfe1 they are never used1 either against the ,franks or against the ,byzantines until1 in ,a4,d4 #ajec1 we meet an allusion to them in a letter from ,leo ,,ix4 to the patriarch ,michael ,crularius 7 #fg1 #c74 ,grauert accounts for this by saying that there were two recensions of ,pseudo-,isidore1 a shorter1 which had only the first part of the document1 the so-called ,confessio2 and a longer1 which had also the ,donatio1 and that ,rothad took probably only the shorter one to ,rome4 ,from these and other data adduced by ,grauert it seems more than probable that the foundry in which the document was forged was not in ,rome1 but rather in ,france among the high church party there1 from which also the full-fledged forgery proceeded4 ,it would also seem that a double purpose was served by its composition4 ,on the one hand1 over against the ,greeks it represented the chair of ,peter as raised above all the patriarchates of the empire1 and the ,western empire as a thoroughly legitimate one transferred by ,constantine the ,great to the pope1 and then by him to the kings of the ,franks4 ,and1 on the other hand1 it also made it clear to the ,frankish princes that all temporal power in the ,west essentially1 and from of old1 belonged to the pope1 and is bestowed upon them by means of their coronation by the pope's hands4--,that from the time when they met with the document unto the #aath century the ,byzantines did not contest its genuineness1 need not surprise us when we consider the uncritical character of the age4 ,they would also be the less disposed to do so as they could only thereby hope to win that perfect equality in spiritual authority as well as in secular rank with the ,roman bishop which the fourth cumenical council had assigned to their patriarchal see4 ,but while the ,byzantines may be regarded as inconsiderately incorporating this donation of ,constantine into their historical and legal books1 blotting out indeed the passages which seemed to them to favour the pretensions of the pope to universal sovereignty1 it is a more difficult task to secure for it acceptance among ,western diplomatists4 ,even in ,a4,d4 #iii a state paper of ,otto ,,iii4 describes it as a pure fiction4 ,high church tendencies1 however1 raised their standard also in the ,west during the #aath century 7 #if1 #d1 #e74 ,indeed1 even in ,a4,d4 #aaeb1 an ,arnoldist 7 #ajh1 #g71 named ,wetzel1 wrote to the ,emperor ,frederick ,i43 8,their lies and heretical fables are now so completely exploded that even day-labourers and cow-men could prove to scholars their emptiness1 and the pope with his cardinals ventures not for shame to show himself in the city of ,rome40 ,the victory1 however1 of the papacy over the ,hohenstaufen gained currency for it again1 and it was the treatise of ,laurentius ,valla1 8,de falso credita et ementita ,constantini donatione declamatio10 which ,ulrich von ,hutten issued in multitude from the press1 gave it the death blow 7 #abj1 #a74 ,when1 thereafter1 even ,baronius admitted the spuriousness of the document1 though assigning its fabrication to the ,greeks1 who wished by it to prove that the ,roman primacy was not of ,christ but from ,constantine1 it found no longer a vindicator even in the ,roman ,catholic church4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,people4 #hh4 ,,public ,,worship ,,and ,,art4 ,the ,german ,arians undoubtedly used the language of the people in their services4 ,the adoption of ,catholicism1 however1 led to the introduction of the ,latin tongue4 ,the last trace of acquaintance with ,ulfilas' translation of the ,bible is found in the #ith century4 ,the nations converted directly to ,catholicism had from the first the ,latin language in public worship4 ,only the ,slavs still retained the use of their mother tongue 7 #gi1 #b74 ,the ,roman liturgy1 as well as the ,roman language1 was adopted in all churches with the exception of those of ,milan and ,spain4 ,after ,pepin had entered into closer relations with the popes1 he endeavoured1 in ,a4,d4 #ged1 at their desire1 to bring about a uniformity between the ,frankish ritual and the ,roman pattern2 and ,charlemagne1 whom ,hadrian ,i4 presented with a ,roman ,sacramentarium1 carried it out with relentless energy4 ,the slightness of the liturgical contributions of the ,germans is to be accounted for partly by the fact that the ,roman liturgy was already presented to them in a richly developed and essentially complete form1 but also partly by the exclusion of the national languages and the refusal to give the people a share in the liturgical services4 ,under the constraint of a foreign tongue the ,germans could not put the impress of their national character on a department in which language plays so important a part4 #hh4a4 ,liturgy and ,preaching4--,alongside of the ,roman or ,gregorian ,liturgy many others also were in use4 ,the people and clergy of ,milan so determinedly adhered to their old ,ambrosian liturgy1 that even ,charlemagne could not dislodge it1 and down to the present day ,milan has preserved this treasure4 ,no less energetically did the ,spaniards hold by their national liturgy1 the so-called ,mozarabic 7 #ha1 #a74 ,it has a strong resemblance to the oriental liturgies1 but was further elaborated by bishops ,leander and ,isidore of ,seville 7 #hj1 #b71 and was recognised by the ,national ,synod of ,toledo in ,a4,d4 #fcc as valid for the whole of ,spain4 ,the ,gallican liturgies too of the ,carolingian times betrayed a certain dependence upon the oriental rituals4 ,preaching1 in the services of the ,western churches was always subordinate to the liturgy1 and the relapse into savagery occasioned by the migrations of the peoples drove it almost completely out of the field4 ,the missionary fervour in the ,western church during the #gth century was the first thing to re-awaken a sense of its importance4 ,but then very few priests could compose a sermon4 ,charlemagne1 therefore1 about ,a4,d4 #ghj1 had a ,latin ,homiliarium compiled by ,paulus ,diaconus ,paul ,warnefrid 7 #ij1 #c7 from the fathers for all the ,sundays and ,festivals of the year1 as a model for their own composition1 or1 where that was too much to be expected1 for reading in the original or in a translation4 ,during the whole ,middle ,ages and beyond the ,reformation it continued to be one of the most read and most diligently used books in the ,roman ,catholic church4 ,missionaries naturally preached themselves or through interpreters in the language of the people2 even in constituted churches preaching was generally conducted in the speech of the country4 ,charlemagne and the ,synods of his time insisted at least upon ,german or ,romanic preaching4 #hh4b4 ,church ,music 7 #ei1 #d1 #e74--;,after ,gregory's ordinance church music continued to be restricted to the clergy4 ,charlemagne indeed insisted1 but unsuccessfully1 that all the people should take part in singing the ,gloria and the ,sanctus4 ,in the #gth-#ith cent4 a number of ,latin hymn-writers flourished1 of whom the most distinguished were ,bede1 ,paul ,warnefrid1 ,theodulf of ,orleans1 ,alcuin1 ,rabanus ,maurus1 and ,walafrid ,strabo4 ,the beautiful ,pentecost hymn ,veni creator ,spiritus is ascribed to ,charlemagne4 ,the old classical form and colouring were more and more lost1 but all the more the essentially ,christian and ,germanic character of simplicity and spirituality became prominent4 ,toward the end of our period the composition of ,latin hymns obtained a new and fruitful impetus from the adoption of the so-called ,sequences or ,proses in the ,mass4 ,under the long series of notes1 hitherto without words attached1 which were appended to the ,alleluia to express inarticulate jubilation1 hence called jubilationes1 were now placed appropriate rhythmical words in ,latin prose1 which1 however1 soon assumed the form of metre1 rhyme and strophes4 ,the first famous writer of ,sequences was the monk ,notker ,balbulus of ,st4 ,gall1 who died in ,a4,d4 #iab4 ,connected in form with the ,latin ,sequences were the more recently introduced ,old ,frankish ,lais 7,celticverse1 song7 and the ,old ,german ,leiche 7melody1 song71 to simple airs that had been used for popular songs4 ,the only one which the church allowed to the people1 and that only in services outside of the church1 in processions1 rogations and pilgrimages1 in going to the church1 at translations of relics1 funerals1 consecrations of churches1 popular religious festivals1 etc41 was the singing or rather reciting of the ,kyrie eleison from the great ,litany4 ,the fondness of the ,germans for singing and composing hymns led1 in the second half of the #ith century1 to the attaching to these words short rhyming sacred verses in their mother tongue1 and this in such a manner that the ,kyrie eleison always formed the refrain of a strophe1 so that they were called ,leisons4 ,this was the beginning of ,german church music4 ,of the ,leisons only one hymn to ,st4 ,peter in the ,old ,high-,german dialect has come down to our day4--,the ,gregorian ,music1 ,cantus firmus or choralis1 won a most complete victory over the ,ambrosian 7 #ei1 #e74 ,in ,a4,d4 #ged ,pepin at the request of ,stephen ,,ii4 ordered that in ,france only the ,roman singing should be allowed1 and ,charlemagne secured for it complete and exclusive ascendency in all the ,west by violently extirpating the already very degenerate ,ambrosian music1 by establishing the celebrated singing schools of ,metz1 ,soissons1 ,orleans1 ,paris1 ,lyons1 etc41 at the head of which he placed teachers brought from ,rome1 and by introducing instruction in singing in all the higher and lower schools4 ,the first ,organ came to ,france in ,a4,d4 #geg as a present to ,pepin the ,short from the ,greek emperor ,constantinus ,copronymus2 the second to ,aachen with an embassy from the emperor ,michael ,i4 in ,charlemagne's time4 ,from that time they became more common4 ,they were still as instruments very imperfect4 ,they had only from #i to #ab notes1 and the keys were so stiff that they had to be beaten down with the fist4#bdf--;,continuation1 #ajd1 #aj1 #aa4 #hh4c4 ,the ,sacrifice of the ,mass4--,as the idea of sacrifice gained place there sprang up in addition to the masses for the souls of the departed 7 #eh1 #c7 private masses for various other purposes1 for the success of some undertaking1 for the recovery of a sick person1 for good weather and a good harvest1 etc4 ,to some extent the multiplication of masses was limited by the ordinance that celebration should be made at the same altar and by the same priest only once in the day4 ,from the wish to secure that as many masses as possible should be said for their souls after death1 churches and monasteries were formed into fraternities with a stipulated obligation to celebrate a certain number of masses for each deceased member of the fraternity in all the churches and monasteries belonging thereto4 ,fraternities of this kind1 into which as a special favour princes and nobles were received1 were called ,confederacies for the ,dead4 #hh4d4 ,the ,worship of ,saints 7 #eg74--,this practice found a very ready response from the ,germans4 ,it afforded some compensation for the abandoned worship of their ancestors4 ,but over all other saints towered the mother of ,god1 the meek and gentle queen of heaven4 ,in her the old ,german reverence for woman found its ideal and full satisfaction4 ,in respect of ,image ,worship 7 #eg1 #d7 the ,germans lagged behind1 partly from the scarcity of images1 partly from national aversion to them4 ,the ,frankish church of the ,carolingian age protested formally against them 7 #ib1 #a74 ,but all the greater was the zeal shown in the ,worship of ,relics 7 #eg1 #e7 in which the worshipper had the saint concretely and bodily4 ,the relics of the ,west were innumerable4 ,rome was an inexhaustible storehouse2 and from the successive missionaries1 from the deserts and solitudes1 from the monasteries and bishops' seats1 there went forth crowds of new saints whose bones were venerated with enthusiasm4 ,the gaining of a new relic for a church or monastery was regarded as a piece of good fortune for the whole land1 and amid thousands assembled from far and near the translation was carried out1 accompanied with liberal gifts of money4 ,the ,frankish monastery of ,centula could show in the #ith century an immensely long list of the relics which it possessed1 from the grave of the ,innocents1 the milk of the ,holy ,virgin1 the beard of ,peter1 his cloak1 the ,oratorium of ,paul1 and even from the wood of the three tabernacles that ,peter wished to build on ,tabor4 ,the custom of making ,pilgrimages 7 #eg1 #f7 also found great favour among the travel-loving ,germans1 especially among the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,the places most frequented by pilgrims were the tomb of the chief ,apostles at ,rome1 then the tomb of ,martin of ,tours1 and1 toward the end of our period1 that of ,st4 ,james of ,compostella1 ,jacobus ,apostolus the elder1 the supposed founder of the ,spanish church1 whose bones were discovered there by ,alfonso the ,chaste4 ,the immoralities consequent upon pilgrimages1 about which even the ancient church complained1 were also only too apparent in this later age4 ,on account of them ,boniface urges that his countrywomen should be forbidden to go on pilgrimages1 since this only served to supply the cities of ,gaul and ,italy with prostitutes4 ,the idea of ,guardian ,angels 7 #eg1 #c7 was eagerly adopted by the ,germans4 ,they were specially drawn to the warlike ,archangel ,michael1 the conqueror of the great dragon 7,dan4 xii4 #a2 ,jude #i2 ,rev4 xii4 #g ff474--,continuation1 #ajd1 #h4 #hh4e4 ,times and ,places for ,public ,worship4--,the beginning of the church year was changed from ,easter to ,christmas4 ,all ,saints' ,day 7 #eg1 #a71 originally a ,roman local festival1 was made a universal ordinance by ,gregory ,,iv4 who1 in ,a4,d4 #hce1 fixed its date at #ast ,nov4 ,the abundance of relics and the multitude of masses that were said made it necessary to increase the number of altars in the churches beyond what ,charlemagne had enjoined4 ,afterwards they were usually limited to three4 ,the high altar stood out by itself in the middle of the choir recess4 ,the side altars leant on pillars or on the chief altar4 ,a relic shrine generally from the #hth century formed the back of the altar4 ,no trace of a chancel is found1 not even of a confessional chair4 ,in churches which had the right of baptizing 7 #hd1 #b7 there were as a rule separate baptistries4 ,in place of these1 after the right of baptizing was conferred on all churches1 the baptismal font was introduced1 either on the left side of the main entrance or at the point where the transepts crossed the nave4 ,this change required the substitution of sprinkling for immersion4 ,clocks and towers became always more common4 ,the latter1 at first separate from the buildings1 were from ,charlemagne's time attached to the church edifice4 ,the baptism of bells1 their consecration with water1 oil and chrism1 with the bestowing on them of some saint's name1 was forbidden by ,charlemagne1 but it was nevertheless continued1 and is common to this day in the ,roman ,catholic church4 #hh4f4 ,most attention was paid to ecclesiastical architecture and painting1 south of the ,alps during the ,ostro-gothic period1 north of the ,alps during the ,carolingian period4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons1 however1 in their island home also developed a taste for art4 ,during the #ith century it received special attention in the ,german monasteries of ,st4 ,gall and ,fulda4 ,the monk ,tutilo of ,st4 ,gall1 d4 ,a4,d4 #iab1 was pre-eminently distinguished both as a master in architecture1 painting and sculpture1 and in poetry and scholarship4 ,the old ,roman basilica style still maintained the front rank in church building4 ,yet at ,ravenna1 the ,byzantium of ,italy1 during the ,gothic domination there were several beautiful churches in the ,byzantine cupola style4 ,einhard received from ,charlemagne the rank of a court architect4 ,of all the churches built in ,charlemagne's time the most important was the cathedral of ,aachen4 ,it was built in the cupola style after the pattern of the cathedral church of ,ravenna4 ,intended as a royal chapel1 it was connected by a pillared passage with the palace4 ,it was therefore also of only moderate dimensions4 ,its being appropriated as the coronation church led subsequently to its enlargement by the addition to it in ,a4,d4 #acee of a large choir in the ,gothic style4 ,the church afforded abundant scope for the use of the art of the statuary4 ,costly shrines for relics were required1 crucifixes1 lamps1 ciboria1 incense vessels1 etc41 on which might be lavished all the refinements of artistic skill4 ,the church books had artistically carved covers4 ,church doors1 episcopal thrones1 reading desks1 baptismal fonts1 afforded room for practice in relievo work4 ,among the various kinds of pictorial representations miniature painting was most diligently practised upon copies of the church books4--,continuation1 #ajd1 #ab1 #ad4 #hi4 ,,national ,,customs1 ,,social ,,life ,,and ,,church ,,discipline4 ,the remains of ,christian popular poetry of this period afford a convincing proof of the powerful and profound manner in which the truths of ,christianity 7 #ge1 #a7 had been grasped by the ,german races4 ,the great mass of the people indeed had adopted the new faith in a purely historical fashion4 ,only gradually did it make its way into the inner spiritual life1 and meanwhile out of the not fully conquered paganism there grew up a rich crop of superstitions in connection with the ,christian life4 ,it must be confessed that the state of morality among the ,germans had fallen very low as compared with that which prevailed before ,germany's conversion to ,christianity4 ,a sadder contrast is scarcely conceivable than that presented by a comparison of the description in ,tacitus of the old ,german customs and discipline and the account of ,gregory of ,tours of colossal criminality and brutish sensuality in the ,merovingian ,age4 ,but never more than here does the fallacy3 ,post hoc ergo propter hoc1 require to be guarded against4 ,the moral deterioration of the ,german peoples was carried out independently of their contemporaneous1 merely external1 ,christianization4 ,the cause of it lies only in the overturning of the foundations of ,german life by the migration of the peoples4 ,severed from their original home1 the most powerful guardian of ancestral customs1 and set down as conquerors in the midst of rich countries with morally base surroundings1 which had a poisonous effect upon them1 with that eagerness and tenacity which characterize children of nature1 they seized upon the seductive treasures and enjoyments1 and their unfettered passion broke through all restraints of discipline and morality4 ,the clearest proof of this view lies in the fact that the moral decay appeared in so remarkable a degree only among such peoples as settled in the corrupt ,roman world and became amalgamated with it1 most conspicuously among the ,franks in ,gaul and the ,longobards in ,italy1 whereas among the ,anglo-,saxons and the inhabitants of ,germany the moral development was more normal4 #hi4a4 ,superstition4--,a powerful impulse was given to superstition on the one hand by the church1 according to the educational method recommended by ,gregory the ,great 7 #ge1 #c71 refusing recklessly to root out every element of paganism and rather endeavouring to give ,christian applications to heathen institutions and views and to fill pagan forms with ,christian contents1 and on the other hand1 by the representatives of the church not regarding belief in the existence of heathen deities as a delusion but counting the gods and goddesses as demons4 ,the popular belief therefore saw in them a set of dethroned deities who in certain realms of nature maintain their ancient sway1 whom therefore they dare not venture altogether to disoblige4 ,the fanciful poetic view of nature prevailing among the ,germans contributed also to this result1 with its love of the mysterious and supernatural1 its fondness for subtle enquiries and intellectual investigations4 ,thus1 in the worship of the saints as well as in the church's belief in angels and devils1 new rich worlds opened themselves up before the ,christianized ,germans1 which the popular belief soon improved upon4 ,the pious man is exposed on all sides to the vexations of demons1 but he is also on all sides surrounded by the protecting care of saints and angels4 ,the popular belief made a great deal of the devil1 but the relation of men to the prince of darkness and his attendant spirits seemed much too earnest and real to be as yet the subject of the humour which characterized the devil legends of the later ,middle ,ages1 in which the cheated1 8stupid0 devil is represented as at last possessed only of impotent rage and sneaking off in disgrace4 #hi4b4 ,popular ,education4--,the idea of a general system of education for the people was already present to the mind of ,charlemagne4 ,yet as we may suppose only beginnings were made toward its realization4 ,bishop ,theodulf of ,orleans was specially active in founding schools for the people in all the villages and country towns of his diocese4 ,the religious instruction of the youth was restricted as a rule to the teaching of the ,lord's ,prayer and the ,apostles' ,creed4 ,whatever grown up man or woman did not know these two was at ,charles' command to be subjected to flogging and fasting and to be made to learn them besides4 ,as evidence of the extent of a religious consciousness among the people may be adduced the ,german forms of adjuration1 belief1 confession and prayer1 of the #hth and #ith centuries which are still preserved4 ,further means of advancing the religious education of the people were afforded by the attempts to make the biblical and patristic books accessible to the people by translations in their own language4 ,among the ,germans the monastery of ,st4 ,gall was famous for its zeal in originating a national literature4 ,among the ,anglo-,saxons this effort was made and carried out by ,alfred the ,great1 who died in ,a4,d4 #ija 7 #ij1 #aj74 #hi4c4 ,christian ,popular ,poetry4--,it makes its first appearance at the end of the #gth century and continued far down into the #ith century4 ,it flourished chiefly in ,england and ,germany4 ,under the name of the ,northumbrian ,cdmon1 who died in ,a4,d4 #fhj1 there has been preserved a whole series of biblical poems of no small poetic merit1 which range over the whole of the ,old and ,new ,testament history4 ,the most important ,anglo-,saxon poet after him was his countryman ,cynewulf living about a century later4 ,his poems are less homely and simple1 but more elaborate than those of ,cdmon1 and as full of poetic enthusiasm as these4 ,he too paints for us in his 8,christ0 the picture of the ,redeemer as that of a manly victorious prince among his true 8champions and earls0 with such clear-cut features that 8whoever once beholds them will never again forget them40 ,his poetically wrought up legends bear more of the ,romish stamp with traces of saint worship and the doctrine of merit4#bdg ,still higher than these two ,anglo-,saxon productions stands the ,german-,saxon epic the ,heliand1 of the time of ,louis of ,france1 a song of the ,messiah worthy of its august subject1 truly national1 perfect in form1 simple1 lively and majestic in style1 transposing into ,german blood and life a genuine deep ,christianity4 ,in poetic value scarcely less significant is the 8,krist0 of ,otfried1 a monk of ,weissenberg about ,a4,d4 #hfj4 ,near to his heart as well as to that of the ,anglo-,saxon singers lay the thought3 thaz wir ,kriste sungun in unsere ,zungun4 ,it is1 however1 no longer popular but artistic poetry1 in which the old ,german letter rhyme or alliteration gives place to the softer and more delicate final rhyme4 ,to this class belongs also the so-called ,wessobrunner ,prayer1 of which the first poetical half is probably a fragment of a larger hymn of the creation1 and a poem in ,high ,german on the end of the world and the last judgment1 known by the name of ,muspilli1 extant only as a fragment which is1 however1 almost unsurpassable in dignity and grandeur of description4 #hi4d4 ,social ,condition4--,from the point of view of ,german law the contract of betrothal had the validity of marriage and the subsequent nuptial ceremony or surrender of the bride to the bridegroom in a public legal manner by her father or legal guardian was held to be only the carrying out of that contract4 ,the bridal ceremony with the ecclesiastical benediction of the marriage bond already legally tied1 was frequently celebrated only on the day following the marriage1 therefore after its consummation4 ,the ,capitulary of ,charlemagne of ,a4,d4 #hjb came to the support of the claims of the church 7 #fa1 #b71 ordaining that without previous careful enquiry as to the relationship of the parties by the priest1 and the elders of the people1 and also without the priestly benediction1 no marriage could be concluded4 ,the ,pseudo-,isidorian decretals ascribed this demand to the popes of the #dth and #eth centuries4 ,but the right to perform marriages was not thereby committed to the church2 it was only that the religious consecration of the civil ordinance of marriage was now made obligatory4 ,it seemed best of all when sooner or later the spouses voluntarily renounced marital intercourse2 but this was strictly forbidden during ,lent 7 #ef1 #d1 #e71 on all festivals and on the station days of the week 7,wednesday1 ,friday1 ,saturday and ,sunday74 ,second marriages were branded with the reproach of incontinence and called forth a lengthened penance4 ,there was on the other hand as yet no prohibition of divorce1 and the marrying again of those separated was only unconditionally forbidden in particular cases4 ,the church was not willing to tolerate mixed marriages with heathens1 ,jews and ,arians4 ,the ,germans found it most difficult to reconcile themselves to the strict requirements of the church in regard to the prohibited degrees of relationship4 ,national customs had regarded many such marriages1 especially with a brother's widow1 as even a pious duty4#bdh--;,continuation1 #ajd1 #f4--,slavery or ,serfdom was an institution so closely connected among the ,germans with their notions of property that the church could not think of its entire abolition2 indeed the church itself1 with its large landed possessions1 owned quite a multitude of slaves4 ,yet it earnestly maintained the religious and moral equality of masters and servants1 assigned to the manumission of slaves one of the first places among good works1 and was always ready to give protection to bondmen against cruel masters4#bdi--,the church with special energy entered upon the task of ,caring for the ,poor2 even proud and heartless bishops could not overlook it4 ,every well appointed church had several buildings in which the poor1 the sick1 widows and orphans were maintained at the church's cost4#bej #hi4e4 ,practice of ,pubic ,law4--,the custom of ,blood ,revenge was also a thoroughly ,german institution4 ,it had1 however1 been fairly restricted by the custom of ,composition or the payment of satisfaction in the form of a pecuniary fine4 ,the church from its dislike of capital punishment decidedly favoured this system4 ,as a means of securing judicial evidence oaths and ordeals were administered4 ,only the freeman1 who was quite capable of acting in accordance with his own judgment1 was allowed to take an ,oath2 the husband took the oath for his wife1 the father for the children1 the master for the slave4 ,relatives1 friends and equals in rank swore along with him as sharers of his oath1 ,conjuratores4 ,although they repeated with him the oath formula1 the meaning of their action simply was that they were fully satisfied as to the honour and truthfulness of him who took the oath4 ,where the oath of purgation was not allowed1 conjuratores were not forthcoming and the other means of proof awanting1 the ,ordeal 7,ordale from ,ordljudgment7 was introduced4 ,under this may be included3 #a4 ,the ,duel1 derived from the old popular belief3 ,deum adesse bellantitus4 ,only a freeman was allowed to enter the lists4 ,old men1 women1 children and priests were allowed to put in their place another of the same rank by birth4 #b4 ,various fire tests2 holding the bare hand a length of time in the fire2 in a simple shirt walking over burning logs of wood2 carrying glowing iron in the bare hand for nine paces2 walking barefoot over nine or twelve glowing ploughshares4 #c4 ,two water tests3 the accused was obliged to pick up with his naked hand a ring or stone out of a kettle filled with boiling water1 or with a cord round his naked body he was cast into deep water1 his sinking was the proof of his innocence4 #d4 ,the cross test3 he whose arms first sank with weariness from the cruciform position1 was regarded as defeated4 #e4 ,the ,eucharist test1 applied especially to priests3 it was expected that the criminal should soon die under the stroke of ,god's wrath4 ,as a substitute for this among the laity we find the test of the consecrated morsel1 ,judicium off which the accused was required to swallow during mass4 #f4 ,the bier test1 ,judicium feretri3 if when the accused touched the wound of the murdered man blood flowed from the wound or forth from the mouth1 it was regarded as proof of his guilt4 ,the church with its belief in miracles occupied the same ground as that on which the ordeal practice was rooted4 ,it could therefore only combat the heathen conception of the ordeal and not the thing itself4 ,but the church took charge of the whole procedure1 and certainly did much to reduce the danger to a minimum4 ,it was ,agobard of ,lyons1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hdj1 who first contended against the superstition as worthy of reprobation4 ,subsequently the ,roman chair1 first by ,nicholas ,i41 forbade ordeals of all kinds4--,among the various kinds of privileges involving the inviolability of person and goods1 profession and business1 the privileges of the church were regarded as next highest to those of the king4 ,any injury done to ecclesiastical persons or properties and any crime committed in a sacred place1 required a threefold greater composition than ceteris paribus would have otherwise been required4 ,the bishop ranked with the duke1 the priest with the count4 #hi4f4 ,church ,discipline and ,penitential ,exercises 7 #fa1 #a74--,the ,german ,state allowed the church a share in the administration of punishments1 and regarded an evildoer's atonement as complete only when he had submitted to the ecclesiastical as well as the secular judgment4 ,out of this grew the institution of ,episcopal ,synodal ,judicatures1 ,synodus1 under ,charlemagne4 ,once a year the bishop accompanied by a royal ,missus was to travel over the whole diocese1 and1 of every parish priest assisted by assessors sworn for the purpose1 should inquire minutely into the moral and ecclesiastical condition of each of the congregations under him and punish the sins and shortcomings discovered4 ,directions for the conducting of ,synodal judicatures were written by ,regino of ,prm and ,hincmar of ,rheims 7 #ij1 #e74 ,the state also gave authority to ,ecclesiastical ,excommunication by putting its civil forces at the disposal of the church4 ,pepin ordained that no excommunicated person should enter a church1 no ,christian should eat or drink with him1 none should even greet him4 ,directions for the practice of ,penitential ,discipline are given in the various ,penitentials or ,confessional-books1 which1 after the pattern of forensic productions1 settle the amount of penal exactions for all conceivable sins in proportion to their enormity4 ,the ,penitential erroneously ascribed to ,theodore archbishop of ,canterbury 7 #ij1 #h7 is the model upon which most of these are constructed4 ,the ,confessional-books that go under the names of the ,venerable ,bede and ,egbert of ,york obtained particularly high favour4 ,all these books1 even in their earliest form extremely perverse and in their later much altered forms full of contradictions1 errors and arbitrary positions1 reduced the whole penitential practice to the utmost depths of externalization and corruption4 ,how confused and warped the church idea of penitence had become is seen by the rendering of the word pnitentia by penance1 i4e4 satisfaction1 atonement4 ,in the ,penitentials pnitere is quite identical with jejunare4 ,the idea of pnitentia having been once associated with external performances1 there could be no objection to substitute the customary penitential act of fasting 7 #ef1 #g7 for other spiritual exercises1 or by adoption of the ,german legal practice of receiving composition to accept a money tax for ecclesiastical or benevolent purposes4 ,in this way the first traces made their appearance of the ,indulgences of the later ,roman ,catholic church4 ,it therefore followed from this1 that1 as satisfaction could be rendered for all sins by corresponding acts of penance1 so these works might also be performed vicariously by others4 ,thus in the ,penitentials there grew up a system of ,penitential ,redemptions which formed the most despicable mockery of all earnest penitence4 ,for example1 a direction is given as to how a rich man may be absolved from a penance of seven years in three days1 without inconveniencing himself1 if he produces the number of men needed to fast for him4 ,such deep corruption of the penitential discipline1 however1 aroused1 in the #hth and #ith centuries1 a powerful reaction against the ,confessional-books and their corrupt principles4 ,it was first brought forward at the ,english ,synod at ,clovesho in ,a4,d4 #gdg2 in its footsteps followed the ,french ,synods of ,chalons in ,a4,d4 #hac1 of ,paris ,a4,d4 #hbi1 of ,mainz1 ,a4,d4 #hdg4 ,the ,council of ,paris ordered that all ,confessional-books should be seized and burnt4 ,they nevertheless still continued to be used4--,there did not as yet exist any universal and unconditional compulsion to make confession4 ,the custom1 however1 of a yearly confession in the ,easter forty days' season was even during the #ith century so prevalent1 that the omission of it was followed by a severe censure by the synodal court4 ,the formul of absolution were only deprecative1 not judicative4#bea ,,iv4 ,,theology ,,and ,,its ,,battles4 #ij4 ,,scholarship ,,and ,,theological ,,science4#beb ,with the exception of ,ulfilas' famous efforts1 the ,arian period of ,german church history is quite barren in scientific performances4 ,yet those few who preserved and fostered the scientific gains of earlier times were honoured and made use of by the noble-minded ,ostrogoth king ,theodoric1 and under him ,boethius ,bothius and ,cassiodorus 7 #dg1 #bc7 performed the praiseworthy task of saving the remnants of classical and patristic learning4 ,for ,spain the same office was performed by ,isidore of ,seville1 who died in ,a4,d4 #fcf1 whose text-books continued for centuries1 even on this side the ,pyrenees1 to supply the groundwork of scholarly studies4 ,the numerous ,scottish and ,irish monasteries maintained their reputation down to the #ith century for eminent piety and distinguished scholarship4 ,among the ,anglo-,saxons the learned ,greek monk ,theodore of ,tarsus1 who died in ,a4,d4 #fij1 and his companion ,hadrian1 enkindled an enthusiasm for classical studies1 and the venerable ,bede1 who died in ,a4,d4 #gce1 though he never quitted his monastery1 became the most famous teacher in all the ,west1 ,the ,danish pirates did indeed crush almost to extinction the seeds of ,anglo-,saxon culture1 but ,alfred the ,great sowed them anew1 though this revival was only for a little while4 ,in ,gaul ,gregory of ,tours1 who died in ,a4,d4 #eie1 was the last representative of ,roman ecclesiastical learning4 ,after him we enter upon a chaos without form and void1 from which the creative spirit of ,charlemagne first called a new day which spread over the whole ,west its enlightening beams4 ,this light1 however1 was put out even by the time of the great emperor's grandson1 and then we suddenly pass into the night of the ,sculum ,obscurum 7 #ajj74 #ij4a4 ,rulers of the ,carolingian ,line4--,charlemagne1 ,a4,d4 #gfh-had1 may be regarded as beginning his scientific undertakings on his first entrance into ,italy in ,a4,d4 #ggd4 ,on this occasion he came to know the scholars ,peter of ,pisa1 ,paul ,warnefrid1 ,paulinus of ,aquileia1 and ,theodulf of ,orleans1 and brought them to his palace4 ,from ,a4,d4 #ghb1 however1 the particularly brilliant star of his court was the ,anglo-,saxon scholar ,alcuin1 whom ,charles had met in ,italy in the previous year4 ,scientific studies were now carried on in an exceedingly vigorous manner in the palace4 ,the royal family1 the whole court and its surroundings engaged upon them1 but of them all ,charles himself was the most diligent and successful of ,alcuin's students4 ,in the royal school1 ,schola palatina1 which was ambulatory like the royal residence itself1 the sons and daughters of the king with the children of the most distinguished families of the land received a high-class education4 ,the teaching staff was constantly recruited from ,england1 ,ireland and ,italy4 ,after such preparations ,charles issued in ,a4,d4 #ghg a circular to all the bishops and abbots of his kingdom which enjoined under threat of his severe royal displeasure that schools should be erected in all monasteries and cathedral churches4 ,meanwhile his endeavours were most successful1 but were rather one-sided in the preference given to classical and patristic literature1 without a proper national foundation4 ,charles's great and generous nature indeed had a warm interest in national culture1 but those around him1 with the single exception of ,paul ,warnefrid1 had in consequence of their ,latin monkish training lost all taste for ,german thought1 language and nationality1 and fearing lest such studies might endanger ,christianity and cause a relapse into paganism1 they did not help but rather hindered the king's effort to promote a national literature4--,louis the ,pious1 ,a4,d4 #had-hdj1 had his weak government disturbed by the strifes of parties and of the citizens4 ,this period1 therefore1 was not specially favourable to the development of scientific studies1 but the seed sown by his father still bore noble fruit4 ,his son ,lothair issued an ordinance which gave a new organization to the educational system of ,italy1 indeed created it anew4 ,but ,italy restless and full of factions was the land where least of all such institutions could be successfully conducted4 ,a new golden age1 however1 dawned for ,france under ,charles the ,bald1 ,a4,d4 #hdj-hgg4 ,his court resembled that of his great grandfather in having gathered to it the lite of scholars from all the ,west4 ,the royal school gained new renown under the direction of ,joannes ,scotus ,erigena4 ,the cathedral and monastic schools of ,france vied with the most famous institutions of ,germany 7,st4 ,gall1 ,fulda1 ,reichenau1 etc471 and over the ,french episcopal sees men presided who had the most distinguished reputation for scholarship4 ,but after ,charles's death the bloom of the ,carolingian period passed away with almost inconceivable rapidity amid the commotions of the time into thick darkness1 chaos and barbarism4 #ij4b4 ,the most distinguished ,theologians of the ,pre-,carolingian ,age4 #a4 ,in ,merovingian ,france flourished ,gregory of ,tours1 sprung of a good ,roman family4 ,when in ,a4,d4 #egc1 in order to get cured of an illness1 he made a pilgrimage to the tomb of ,st4 ,martin 7 #dg1 #ad71 he had the bishopric of ,tours conferred upon him1 where he continued till his death in ,a4,d4 #eie4 ,his ,historia ,ecclesiastica ,francorum in ten ,bks4 affords us the only exact and trustworthy information we possess of the ,merovingian age4 ,the ,ll4 ,,vii4 ,miraculorum are a collection of several hagiographic writings1 four of them recounting some of the innumerable miracles of ,st4 ,martin4 #b4 ,scientific studies were prosecuted more vigorously on the other side of the ,pyrenees than on this4 ,in the empire of the ,suevi 7 #gf1 #d7 archbishop ,martin of ,braccara1 now ,braga1 distinguished himself in the work of ,catholicising the ,arian population4 ,he was previously abbot of the monastery of ,dumio1 and died about ,a4,d4 #ehj4 ,he was a voluminous writer on church law and also in the departments of moral and ascetical theology4 ,his writings in the latter section have so much in common with those of ,seneca that they were at one time ascribed to the ,roman moralist4 ,the treatise ,de ,correctione ,rusticorum is very important for the history of the morals1 legal institutions and culture of that period4--,the great star of the ,spanish ,visigothic kingdom was ,isidorus ,isidore ,hispalensis1 who died in ,a4,d4 #fcf4 ,he was descended from a distinguished ,gothic family1 and1 as successor of his brother ,leander1 rose to the archbishopric of ,seville 7,hispalis74 ,his writings are diligent compilations1 which have preserved to us many fragments and items of information otherwise unknown4 ,incomparably greater1 however1 was the service they rendered in conveying classical and patristic learning to the ,german world of that age4 ,his most comprehensive work consists of xx4 ,bks4 ,originum s4 ,etymologiarum1 an encyclopdic exhibition of the whole field of knowledge of the day4 ,he also wrote a ,chronicon reaching down to ,a4,d4 #fbg1 and ,hist4 de regibus ,gotorum1 a shorter ,hist4 ,vandalorum et ,suevorum1 and a continuation of ,jerome's ,catalogus de viris illustr4 ,of more importance than his numerous compilations of mystico-allegorical expositions of ,scripture are the iii4 ,bks4 ,sententiarum1 a well-arranged system of doctrine and morals from patristic passages1 especially from ,augustine and ,gregory the ,great1 and the ,lb4 ,,ii4 de ecclest4 officiis4 ,the two last-named works were highly prized as text-books throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,the two books ,contra ,judos belong to the department of apologetics4 ,he also composed a monastic rule 7comp4 further #hg1 #a and #hh1 #a74--;,isidore's elder brother ,leander of ,seville1 who died in ,a4,d4 #eij1 had a good reputation as a church leader 7 #gf1 #b2 #hh1 #a71 and had no insignificant rank as a theological writer4 ,the same may be said of the two bishops of ,toledo1 ,ildefonsus1 who died in ,a4,d4 #ffi1 and ,julianus1 who died in ,a4,d4 #fij4 #c4 ,england's greatest and most famous teacher was the ,anglo-,saxon1 the ,venerable ,bede4 ,trained in the monastery of ,wearmouth1 he subsequently took up his residence in the monastery of ,jarrow1 where he died in ,a4,d4 #gce4 ,he was a proficient in all the sciences of his time and withal a model of humility1 piety and amiability4 ,while his numerous pupils reached the highest places in the service of the church1 their famous teacher continued in quiet retirement as a simple monk4 ,he himself wished nothing else4 ,even on his deathbed he continued unweariedly to teach and write4 ,immediately before his death he dictated the last chapter of an ,anglo-,saxon translation of the ,gospel of ,john4 ,by far his most important work for us is the ,hist4 ecclest4 gentis ,anglorum in #e ,bks4 reaching down to ,a4,d4 #gca 7,engl4 ,transl4 by ,giles1 ,lond41 #ahdj2 and by ,gidley1 ,lond41 #ahga74 ,connected with this are his biographies of several saints of his native land1 also a history of the monastery of ,wearmouth1 and a ,chronicon de sex tatibus mundi reaching down to ,a4,d4 #gbi4 ,his commentaries ranging over almost all the books of the ,old and ,new ,testament give evidence of a wonderful knowledge of the fathers4 ,his numerous sermons are mostly exegetical and practical1 rarely doctrinal4 ,he was distinguished too as a poet in ,latin as well as in his mother tongue4 #ij4c4 ,the most distinguished ,theologians of the ,age of ,charlemagne4 #a4 ,the brightest star in the theological firmament of this period was the ,anglo-,saxon ,alcuin 7,albinus7 with the ,horatian surname of ,flaccus1 which he got for his poetical productions4 ,he was educated in the famous school of ,york under ,egbert and ,elbert4 ,when the latter was made archbishop in ,a4,d4 #gff1 ,alcuin undertook the presidency of the schools4 ,while on a visit to ,rome in ,a4,d4 #gha he met ,charlemagne who took him to his court1 where he became the emperor's teacher1 friend and most trusted counsellor4 ,down to his death in ,a4,d4 #hjd he was the king's right hand in all religious ecclesiastical and educational matters4 ,in order to allay a feeling of home-sickness1 he undertook a journey in ,a4,d4 #ghi to his native country as ambassador of ,charlemagne1 returned in ,a4,d4 #gic1 and did not again quit ,france4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gif ,charles gave him the abbacy of ,tours4 ,he soon raised its monastic school to the highest rank as a seminary of learning4 ,his exegetical works are mere compilations4 ,the ,ll4 ,,ii4 de fide s4 et ,individu ,trinitatis may be regarded as his dogmatic masterpiece2 a compendium of dogmatics based upon ,augustine's writings4 ,the ,qustiones de ,trin4 treat of the same matter in the catechetical form of question and answer4 ,he contributed to the doctrinal controversies of his time the ,libellus de processione ,spiritus ,s4 7 #ia1 #b7 and by several learned controversial tracts against the leaders of the ,adoptionists 7 #ia1 #a74 ,it is doubtful whether at all1 and if so to what extent1 he had to do with the composition of the ,libri ,carolini 7 #id1 #a7 which appeared during his stay in ,england4 ,his numerous epistles1 about #cjj in number1 are very important for the history of his times4 ,in his ,latin poems he sometimes very happily imitates his classical models4#bec #b4 ,paulus ,diaconus or ,paul 7the son of7 ,warnefrid1 of an honourable ,longobard family1 was next to ,alcuin the most distinguished scholar of his age4 ,probably sorrow at the overthrow of his people 7 #hb1 #b7 drove him into the monastery of ,monte ,cassino2 but ,charlemagne took him to his court in ,a4,d4 #ghb1 where he was an object of admiration as a ,homer among the ,grecians1 a ,virgil1 ,horace1 ,tibullus1 among the ,latinists1 and a ,philo 767 among the ,hebraists4 ,love of his native land1 however1 led him back to his monastery in ,a4,d4 #ghf1 where he died at a very advanced age in ,a4,d4 #gie4 ,what was specially praiseworthy in this learned and amiable man1 all the more that few then took interest in those matters1 was love and enthusiasm for the language1 the national legends and heroic tales1 the old laws and customs of his fellow-countrymen4 ,his most important work is the ,historia s4 de ,gestis ,langobardorum in #f bks41 reaching down to ,a4,d4 #ggd4 ,the earlier ,hist4 ,romana1 composed at the wish of a daughter of king ,desiderius1 is1 so far as its earlier periods are concerned1 compiled from the classical historians1 but for the later periods down to the overthrow of the ,gothic rule is more independent4 ,at the ,frankish court he composed the ,hist4 ,episcoporum ,mettensium4 ,he was also distinguished as a poet4 ,on his ,homiliarius comp4 #hh1 #a4bed #c4 ,theodulf1 bishop of ,orleans1 distinguished as a ,christian poet and learned theologian1 and especially as a promoter of popular education1 stood in high repute with ,charlemagne1 but under ,louis the ,pious1 being suspected of treasonable correspondence with ,bernard of ,italy1 was deposed and banished in ,a4,d4 #hah4 ,subsequently1 however1 he was pardoned and recalled1 but died in ,a4,d4 #hba before he reached his diocese4 ,his book ,de ,spiritu ,s4 was a contribution to the controversy about the procession of the ,holy ,spirit 7 #ia1 #b74 ,at ,charlemagne's request he described and explained the baptismal ceremony in the book ,de ordine baptismi4 ,his numerous poems have been published in #f bks4 #d4 ,paulinus1 patriarch of ,aquileia1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hjd1 and bishop ,leidrad of ,lyons1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hac1 took part in ,alcuin's controversy against the ,adoptionists by the publication of able treatises4 #e4 ,of the works of ,hatto1 abbot of ,reichenau1 subsequently bishop of ,basel1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hcf1 we still have the so-called ,capitulare ,hattonis1 with prefatory directions for the official guidance of the ,basel clergy1 and the ,visio ,wettini1 describing the vision of a monk of ,reichenau called ,wettin1 who in ,a4,d4 #hbd three days before his death was conducted by an angel through hell1 purgatory and paradise4 ,hatto wrote it in prose and ,walafrid ,strabo rendered it into verse4 ,it made a great impression on his contemporaries and was probably not without influence upon ,dante's ,divina ,comedi4 #ij4d4 ,the most distinguished ,theologians of the ,age of ,louis the ,pious4 #a4 ,agobard of ,lyons1 a ,spaniard by birth1 died as archbishop of ,lyons in ,a4,d4 #hdj4 ,as the resolute defender of the integrity of the empire and the head of the national church party among the ,frankish clergy1 he was drawn into a conspiracy against ,louis the ,pious in ,a4,d4 #hcc 7 #hb1 #d71 which led to his deposition and banishment in ,a4,d4 #hce4 ,after two years1 however1 he was pardoned4 ,he was a man of remarkable culture and extraordinary force of character1 and withal a vigorous opponent of all ecclesiastical and extra-ecclesiastical superstition4 ,on his writings referring to these matters see #ib1 #b4 ,in the book ,adv4 dogma ,felicis he contended against ,adoptionism 7 #ia1 #a74 ,in connection with his battle against the insolence and pride of the numerous and wealthy ,jews in his diocese he wrote and dedicated to the emperor the accusatory tract ,de insolentia ,judorum1 followed by several similar addresses to the most influential councillors of the crown4 ,another series of writings from his pen was devoted to the vindication of the attitude which he had assumed in the struggle between ,louis the ,pious and his sons4 ,several treatises on the position and task1 the rights and duties of the ministerial office show a reformatory tendency4 ,he engaged in a passionate controversy with ,amalarius of ,metz about the necessity of a liturgical reform4 ,against ,fredigis of ,tours1 ,alcuin's successor1 he maintained the view regarding the prophets and apostles that the ,holy ,spirit non solum sensum prdicationis et modos vel argumenta dictionum inspiraverit1 sed etiam ipsa corporalia verba extrinsecus in ora illorum ipse formaverit4 #b4 ,claudius1 bishop of ,turin1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hci1 was also a ,spaniard by birth and a scholar of ,felix of ,urgel 7 #ia1 #a71 without1 however1 imbibing his heretical views4 ,he was throughout his whole career a zealous and determined reformer4 ,his reformatory notions were set forth first of all in his exegetical works that covered almost the whole range of ,scripture4 ,of these only the commentary on ,galatians is now extant4 ,he also vindicated his position against the attacks of his old friend the abbot ,theodemir in his ,apologeticus 7 #ib1 #b74 #c4 ,jonas of ,orleans1 the successor of ,theodulf1 was one of the most distinguished prelates of his age1 who wrought earnestly and successfully for the restoring of discipline and order in his diocese4 ,in the struggle between ,louis the ,pious and his sons he resolutely took the side of the old king4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #hdd4 ,his three books1 ,de institutione laicali constitute a handbook of morals for married persons1 which also1 because it deals with the sins and vices that were then rampant1 is of value as a picture of the moral condition of his age4 ,the book ,de institutione regia1 addressed to ,louis' son ,pepin1 may be regarded as an appendix to the former treatise4 ,in opposition to the iconoclastic opinions of ,claudius 7 #ib1 #b7 he wrote ,ll4 ,,iii4 ,de cultu imaginum4 #d4 ,the principal work of the priest ,amalarius of ,metz is his ,de ecclesiasticis officiis in #d bks41 a detailed description of all the ceremonies of public worship and the ecclesiastical furniture and vestments1 with many arbitrary mystico-allegorical explanations1 which called forth a crushing rejoinder from ,agobard4 ,on his revision of the rule of ,chrodegang1 see #hd1 #d4 #e4 ,from the pen of the ,german monk ,christian ,druthmar of ,old ,corbei we have a commentary on ,matthew1 which is remarkable for the doctrine of the ,lord's ,supper which it sets forth 7 #ia1 #c71 as well as for the hermeneutical principle there laid down1 that first and foremost the exegete must secure a thorough understanding of the historical literal sense1 before he may think of developing the spiritual sense1 which must have the former as its basis4 #f4 ,rabnus ,rabanus ,magnentius ,maurus1 the most distinguished scholar of his age1 was descended from an old ,roman family but one that had long been ,germanized at ,mainz4 ,his earliest education was received at the monastery of ,fulda4 ,he then became a pupil of ,alcuin at ,tours4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hjc he became himself a teacher at ,tours1 and in ,a4,d4 #hbb was made abbot of ,fulda4 ,after the death of ,louis the ,pious he took the side of ,lothair against ,louis the ,german1 and was consequently obliged to resign his position as abbot and to quit ,fulda in ,a4,d4 #hdb4 ,subsequently1 however1 he obtained ,louis' favour1 and upon ,otgar's death in ,a4,d4 #hdg 7 #hg1 #c7 was appointed his successor in the archiepiscopal see of ,mainz4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #hef4 ,the monastic school at ,fulda was raised by him to the highest eminence4 ,his commentaries extending over almost all the ,old and ,new ,testaments are mainly occupied with the development of the so-called spiritual sense1 manifest wonderful familiarity with the writings of the ,latin fathers from ,ambrose to ,bede1 and were held in the highest esteem throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,the same may be said of his numerous homilies4 ,the encyclopdic work ,de universo in #bb bks41 is a continuation of ,isidore's ,origines4 ,his book ,de institutione clericorum in #c bks4 affords a summary of all that was then to be learnt by the clergy for the practical work of the ministry4 ,the ,tractatus de diversis qustionibus ex ,v4 et ,n4 ,t4 contra ,judos is an apologetic treatise4 ,he wrote against ,gottschalk's doctrine of predestination in a letter to bishop ,noting of ,verona 7 #ia1 #e71 and another to the abbot ,eigil of ,prm against ,radbert's doctrine of the ,lord's ,supper 7 #ia1 #c74 ,of his many other works we may mention a ,martyrologium based upon ancient authorities4 #g4 ,walafrid ,strabo received his early training in the monastery of ,reichenau4 ,he studied subsequently under ,rabanus at ,fulda1 in which institution he became a teacher4 ,about ,a4,d4 #hdb he was made abbot of ,reichenau2 the seminary here he raised to high repute1 although he died in his early prime in ,a4,d4 #hdi4 ,among his evangelical writings his so-called ,gloss ordinari1 i4e4 short explanations of the ,latin text of the ,bible1 mostly culled from the commentaries of ,rabanus1 were extremely popular1 and continued in use throughout the ,middle ,ages as an exegetical handbook4 ,in the liturgical department we have his treatise ,de exordiis et incrementis rerum ecclesiasticarum1 in which he expresses himself on the image controversy in the spirit of the old ,frankish church 7 #ib1 #a74 ,walafrid was also famous as a writer of sacred and secular poems4 #ij4e4 ,the ,most ,distinguished ,theologians of the ,age of ,charles the ,bald4 #a4 ,the powerful metropolitan ,hincmar of ,rheims1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hhb 7 #hb1 #g2 #hc1 #b71 was not indeed strong in dogmatics1 but in his writings just as well as in his life and struggle he was heart and soul a church leader and statesman4 ,his most important work from a theological point of view is the ,capitula ,synodica ad presbyteros parochi su on various points of worship and discipline1 a notable witness to the zeal and care which this man1 so much taken up with affairs of state and ecclesiastical controversies1 showed in the discharge of his ministerial duties4 ,of his writings in connection with the ,gottschalk controversy 7 #ia1 #e1 #f7 only the prolix work ,de predest4 ,dei et libero arbitrio vindicating the decrees of ,quiersy of ,a4,d4 #hec are now extant4 #b4 ,paschasius ,radbertus1 who died about ,a4,d4 #hfe1 was monk1 and1 from ,a4,d4 #hdd-hea1 also abbot of the monastery of ,corbei in ,picardy4 ,but among the monks of that place there was a cotery which occasioned the most profound grief to the pious-minded abbot2 especially the learned monk ,ratramnus under the protection of court favour took delight in contesting the somewhat ultra-pietistic views of his abbot4 ,probably it was this that led ,radbertus to resign his office in ,a4,d4 #hea4 ,besides the two treatises controverted by ,ratramnus he composed biblical commentaries1 which are more independent and contain more of his own than was common at that time4 ,he also wrote #c bks4 on faith1 love and hope2 besides several ,hagiographies4 #c4 ,ratramnus1 the antagonist of the former1 takes a very prominent place among the clear and subtle thinkers of that age4 ,besides his controversial treatises against ,radbertus 7 #ia1 #c1 #d7 and against ,hincmar 7 #ia1 #e1 #f71 he took part in the burning controversy between the ,greeks and ,latins 7 #fg1 #a7 and wrote1 ,contra ,grcorum opposita ,romanam eccl4 infamantium4 #d4 ,florus ,magister was a cleric of the diocese of ,lyons distinguished no less for great learning than for poetic gifts4 ,his principal work ,de actione ,missarum1 s4 expositio in ,canonem ,miss is1 notwithstanding its title1 not so much a liturgical treatise as a controversial tract against ,radbertus' doctrine of the ,eucharist 7 #ia1 #c74 ,in the liturgical controversy between ,agobard and ,amalarius1 he took the side of ,agobard and argued against ,amalarius in several epistles4 ,in the predestinarian controversy he published the work ,contra ,j4 ,scoti ,erigen erroneas definitiones 7 #ia1 #e74 ,he also composed a ,martyrologium4 #e4 ,haymo1 bishop of ,halberstadt1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hec1 won great reputation not only by his compiled exegetical works and his ,homiliarium for the festival part of the year1 but also as author of a ,church ,history1 which1 however1 is nothing more than a working up of extracts from ,rufinus4 #f4 ,servatus ,lupus1 scholar of ,rabanus1 was from ,a4,d4 #hdb abbot of ,ferrires4 ,his #acj epistles are important for the history of his time1 as he was in constant correspondence with the most famous men of his day4 ,on the side of ,gottschalk in the predestinarian controversy he wrote his treatise ,de tribus qustionibus4 #g4 ,remigius of ,auxerre1 who died about ,a4,d4 #ijh1 was teacher of the monastic school at ,rheims1 and subsequently at ,paris4 ,besides numerous commentaries on the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments in the usual compilatory and allegorical style1 he has left in his ,expositio ,miss a mystico-allegorical explanation of the ceremonies of the mass4 #h4 ,regius of ,prm1 abbot of the monastery there1 subsequently resigned his rank and retired into the monastery of ,treves4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #iae4 ,his ,chronicon reaching down to ,a4,d4 #ijf is of great value for his own times4 ,his #b bks4 ,de cantis synodalibus et disciplinis ecclesiasticis are a directory for the visitation of churches to be carried out by means of synodical judicatures4 #ij4f4 #i4 ,anastasius ,bibliothecarius was abbot of a ,roman monastery and librarian under popes ,nicholas ,i41 ,hadrian ,,ii4 and ,john ,,viii41 and visited the ,byzantine court in ,a4,d4 #hfi as member of an embassy of ,emperor ,louis ,,ii41 and was also present at the #hth cumenical ,council at ,constantinople 7 #fg1 #a74 ,he translated the acts of this synod into ,latin1 wrote the lives of several saints1 and composed a ,hist4 ecclest4 s4 ,chronographia tripartita drawn from three ,byzantine historical works of that period4 ,to the ,liber ,pontificalis s4 de vitio ,roman4 pontificum1 reaching down to the death of ,stephen ,v4 in ,a4,d4 #hia1 which has been ascribed to him1 he can only have contributed the ,vita of pope ,nicholas ,i41 and perhaps also the ,vit of his four immediate predecessors4 ,it is a history of the popes gathered together from various sources that had their origin at different times1 the earliest of which goes back to ,a4,d4 #ced4 ,the oldest extant recension of it reaches down to ,pope ,conon in ,a4,d4 #fhg1 and forms an important link in the chain of ,romish fabrications and interpolations1 by means of which the numerous fabricated acts of ,romish martyrs1 as well as already existing fables referring to particular popes and emperors 7comp4 e4g4 #db1 #a71 gained credence1 more recently introduced liturgical practices had assigned to them a more remote antiquity1 and the popes were represented as legislators for the whole church4 ,the complete biographies often written by contemporaries preserved in this collection are of great historical value4 #aj4 ,eulogius of ,cordova was chosen archbishop in ,a4,d4 #heh1 but was not received by the ,moorish government1 and suffered martyrdom in ,a4,d4 #hei 7 #ha1 #a74 ,the most important of his writings is the historical ,memoriale ,sanctorum s4 ,ll4 ,,iii4 de ,martyrib4 ,cordubens4 ,the ,apologeticus ,sanctorum is a continuation of the former with violent invectives against ,islam and its false prophet4 ,paulas ,paul ,alvarus of ,cordova1 from his youth closely associated with ,eulogius1 wrote his life and vindicated in a ,judiculus luminosus the tendency to court martyrdom then frequently shown by ,christians but often objected to4 #ij4g4 #aa4 ,joannes ,scotus ,erigena1 the miracle as well as the enigma of his age1 by birth probably an ,irishman1 who flashed out as a brilliant meteor in the court of ,charles the ,bald and passed away from view1 without its being known whence he came or whither he went1 was the greatest scholar1 the most profound1 subtle and liberal thinker of his times1 with a speculative power the like of which was not seen for centuries before and after4 ,he died after ,a4,d4 #hgg4 ,his extant works embrace fragments of his commentary on the ,areopagite 7 #dg1 #aa71 and a ,latin faithful1 literal and therefore hard to understand translation of the ,areopagite's writings1 also a translation of a work of ,maximus ,confessor on difficult passages from the writings of ,gregory ,nazianzen 7,loca ambigua71 his controversial treatise ,de prdestinatione 7 #ia1 #e71 a homily on the prologue of ,john's gospel1 a fragment of a speculative-mystical treatise ,de egressu et regressu anim ad ,deum1 and the ,opus palmare of the author1 by far the most comprehensive of his writings1 the #e bks4 ,de divisione natur4 ,based upon the gnosis of the school of ,origen1 but resting mainly on the theosophical mysticism of the ,areopagite and the dialectic of ,maximus ,confessor1 he produced in this treatise a system of speculative theology of magnificent dimensions which1 in spite of every effort to hold by the doctrinal position of the church1 is but one piece of heterodoxy from beginning to end4 ,he starts from the principle that true theology and true philosophy are only formally different1 but essentially identical4 ,the ,fides have to express the truth as ,theologia affirmativa 77 in the biblically revealed and ecclesiastically communicated shell1 accommodating itself to the finite understanding by figurative and metaphorical expressions4 ,but the task of the ,ratio is to strip off this shell 7,theologia negativa1 71 and by means of speculation raise the faith to knowledge4 ,the title of this book is to be explained from its fundamental thought that nature1 i4e4 the sum of all being and non-being1 by which he understands everything the existence of which is yet unknown1 or merely potential1 or necessarily belonging to things past1 comprises four forms of existence3--,natura creatrix non creata1 i4e4 ,god as the potential sum of all being1 ,natura creatrix creata1 i4e4 the eternal thoughts of ,god regarding the world as the eternal primal types of all creation1 ,natura creata non creans1 i4e4 the world in time as the visible product and sensible realization of the eternal invisible world of ideas1 and ,natura nee creata nee creans1 i4e4 ,god as the final end of all created being1 to whom all creation when all contradictions have been overcome returns in the 4 ,the ,aristotelian threefold division into the unmoved and moving1 the moved and moving1 and the moved and not moving1 seems to have afforded him the starting-point for his fourfold division2 while the divergent conception of them1 their enlargement and development may be traced to ,platonic and ,neo-,platonic influences4--,that such a system must essentially tend to pantheism soon became evident1 but on the other hand ,erigena's own ,christian consciousness strongly reacted against the pantheistic current of his thought1 and he was anxiously concerned to preserve the fundamental truths of ,christian ,theism4 ,by the fundamental fourfold division of his system he could not give to the doctrine of the ,trinity a necessary and controlling but only an accidental and occasional position4 ,only the presence of this doctrine in ,scripture and tradition obliged him to maintain it4 ,he speaks indeed of three persons in ,god1 but he uses the expression only in an improper sense1 and has no intention of explaining ,father1 ,son and ,spirit as mere names of divine relations 7habitudines1 relationes73 ,pater vult1 ,filius facit1 ,spir4 ,s4 perficit4 ,in the ,son as the creative ,word of ,god are all original causes of things1 undistinguished1 unordered2 by the ,spirit are they differentiated into the various phenomena and effects in the kingdom of nature as well as of grace4 ,on his doctrine of evil1 comp4 #ia1 #e4 ,as ,origen has in himself the germs of all orthodoxy and heterodoxy of the ancient church undeveloped and uncontrasted1 so also in ,erigena are there the germs of the contradictions of later scholasticism and mysticism4 ,had he lived three centuries later he would probably have set the whole learned world astir1 but now he passed unhonoured1 misunderstood1 scarcely regarded worth dealing with for heresy 7 #ia1 #e71 and apparently leaving little trace behind him4 ,his great work ,de divisione natur was first condemned by a provincial ,council at ,sens1 and this judgment was confirmed by ,honorius ,,iii4 in ,a4,d4 #abbe4 ,the book was characterized as ,scatens vermibus hretic pravitatis2 orders were given that it should be sought out everywhere and burnt4#bee #ij4h4 ,the ,monastic and ,cathedral ,schools had as their main task the training of capable servants for the church4 ,the handbooks mainly in use were those of ,cassiodorus1 ,isidore1 ,bede1 ,alcuin and ,rabanus4 ,great diligence was shown1 especially in the monasteries1 in founding libraries and multiplying books by means of good copies4 ,alcuin made a threefold division of all sciences2 ethics1 physics and theology4 ,ethics corresponded to what was afterwards called the ,trivium 7,grammar1 ,rhetoric and ,dialectic72 ,physics to the ,quadrivium 7,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 ,music and ,astronomy74 ,these two together comprehended the whole range of the seven free arts1 i4e4 worthy of the study of a free man1 liberal studies4 ,latin was the language of intercourse and instruction4 ,greek1 which was spread by ,theodore of ,tarsus1 a ,greek monk1 who1 after being long a teacher in ,rome1 was in ,a4,d4 #ffi made archbishop of ,canterbury1 and by his pupils was also taught in the more important schools4 ,acquaintance with ,hebrew was much more rare1 and was often obtained by means of intercourse with learned ,jews4 ,boethius ,bothius was the vehicle of instruction in philosophy4 ,in the #ith century the works ascribed to ,dionysius the ,areopagite 7 #dg1 #aa7 were sent to ,france as a present from the ,byzantine emperor ,michael to ,louis of ,france4 ,he was identified with the founder of the church of ,paris of the same name1 and patriotic feeling gave an immense impulse to the study of his writings4 ,the abbot ,hildmin of ,st4 ,denys1 and subsequently ,joannes ,erigena1 translated them into ,latin4 ,encyclopdic works1 giving compendiums of the whole range of the sciences then known1 were produced by ,isidore and ,rabanus4#bef--;,continuation1 #ii1 #c4 #ij4i4 ,various ,branches of ,theological ,science4--,the labours of the ,german church in the department of scientific theology was directed to the church's immediate needs1 and hence the character of its theology was biblical and practical1 and the reputation of the fathers so extravagantly high1 that wherever it was possible1 teaching1 preaching1 proving and refuting were all carried on in their very words4 ,charlemagne's powerful efforts in the direction of reform gave even in the department of theology abundant occasion and encouragement to scholars round about him to a more independent procedure1 and the theological controversies of the #ith century afforded sufficient scope to independent thinking4 #a4 ,exegesis on the basis of the ,vulgate was most diligently prosecuted4 ,charlemagne set ,alcuin to produce a critical revision of its very corrupt text4 ,agobard combated the mechanical theory of inspiration by the assertion that the holy prophets were something better than ,balaam's ass4 ,only one out of the very numerous exegetes1 ,christian ,druthmar1 recognised it as a first principle1 most essential and necessary1 if not the only task of the exegete1 to bring out the grammatical and historical sense of the words of ,scripture4 ,the literal sense was and continued to be regarded as the scullion of interpretation1 while it was thought that the most precious treasures of ,divine wisdom were to be found in the allegorical sense1 i4e4 with application to the mysteries of the faith1 the tropological or moral1 and the anagogical1 which aimed at the elevation of the mind4 #b4 ,in ,systematic ,theology ,apologetics was most feebly represented4 ,the humble form of the paganism to be controverted did not require elaborate defences of the ,christian faith1 but the advance of ,mohammedanism and the great number of ,jews established in ,france1 especially under ,louis of ,france1 by means of their wealth and bribes1 developed an incredible arrogance4 ,while ,jewish and pagan slaves were not allowed to have baptism1 ,christian slaves on the other hand were compelled to observe the ,sabbath1 to work on ,sunday1 to eat flesh on fast days2 they openly blasphemed ,christ1 insulted the church and sold ,christian slaves to the ,saracens4 ,agobard fought against them energetically by word1 ,scripture and action1 but the needy court protected them4 ,isidore and ,rabanus in their apologetical writings proved the nullity of the ,jewish beliefs4 ,from the time of ,charlemagne theologians were much more eagerly engaged in polemics 7 #ia1 #ib74 ,isidore in his ,ll4 ,,iii4 ,sententiarum collected from patristic passages a system of doctrine and morals1 which continued a favourite text-book for centuries4 ,alcuin's ,ll4 ,,iii4 ,de fide ,trinitatis form a compendium of dogmatics4 ,the introduction of the ,pseudo-,areopagita into the ,west prepared the way for speculative mysticism1 which had its first representative in ,joannes ,scotus ,erigena4 #c4 ,in ,practical ,theology homiletical literature was but poorly represented4 ,besides the ,homiliarius of ,paul ,warnefrid 7 #hh1 #a71 we meet with ,bede1 ,walafrid1 ,rabanus and ,haymo as authors of sermons4 ,on the other hand great and constant interest was shown in developing a theory of worship1 in describing it and giving a mystical explanation of it4 ,isidore with ,de officiis ecclesiasticis was the first in this department4 ,charlemagne set to all his theologians the task of explaining the baptismal ceremony4 ,in the time of ,louis the ,pious1 ,agobard appears as a reformer of the liturgy1 in connection with which he passionately contended against ,amalarius1 against whom also ,florus ,magister entered the lists4 ,important works in this department were also written by ,rabanus1 ,walafrid and ,remigius4 ,on works treating of church law and church discipline1 see #hg and #hi1 #e4 #d4 ,finally1 as to the department of ,historical ,theology all knowledge of earlier church history was derived from ,rufinus and ,cassiodorus4 ,even ,haymo's ,church ,history is made up simply of extracts from ,rufinus4 ,all the greater diligence was shown throughout the ,middle ,ages in chronicling the ecclesiastical and political events of the immediate present and also keeping the past in memory4 ,this endeavour shows itself in a threefold direction4 7a7 ,the writing of ,national ,chronicles4 ,the ,visigoths had their ,isidore1 the ,ostrogoths their ,cassiodorus1#beg the ,longobards their ,paul ,warnefrid1 the ,franks their ,gregory of ,tours1 the ,britons their ,gildas#beh and ,nennius1#bei the ,anglo-,saxons their ,bede4--7b7 ,then we have the clumsy compilations of ,annals and ,chronicles which most monasteries produced1 and which were continued from year to year4--7c7 ,and further1 ,biographies1 both of distinguished statesmen and distinguished churchmen4 ,the ,vit ,sanctorum are innumerable1 mostly quite uncritical1 composed purely for the glorification of some local saint4 ,to this category belong the numerous ,martyrologies1 arranged in the order of the ,calendar4 ,among the most famous were those prepared by ,bede1 ,ado of ,vienne1 ,usuardus1 ,rabanus1 ,notker ,balbulus1 ,wandelbert1 etc4 ,in the department of historical biography proper may be included the portion of the ,liber pontificalis belonging to this period1 the ,hist4 ,mettensium ,episcoporum of ,paul ,warnefrid1 and ,isidore's continuation of ,jerome's ,catalogus1 which was further continued by ,ildefonsus of ,toledo4 #ij4aj4 ,anglo-,saxon ,culture under ,alfred the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #hga-ija4--;,alfred the ,great1 the greatest and noblest of all the kings that ,england has ever had1 was the grandson of ,egbert who had united in ,a4,d4 #hbg the seven ,anglo-,saxon kingdoms4 ,when five years old he received papal anointing at ,rome and two years later in company with his pious father he travelled thence1 made a considerable stay at the brilliant court of ,charlemagne where he received the impress of its superior culture1 and began his reign in ,a4,d4 #hga in his #bbnd year when the kingdom was sorely oppressed by ,danish invasions4 ,he applied all the energy of his mind to the difficult problems of government1 to the emancipation and civilization of his country and people by driving out the ,danish robbers1 and then improving the internal condition of the land by attention to agriculture1 industry and trade1 by a wise organization1 legislation and administration1 by the founding of churches1 monasteries and schools1 and by furthering every scientific endeavour from a thoroughly national point of view4 ,when already thirty-six years of age he learnt the ,latin language and used this acquirement for the enriching of ,anglo-,saxon literature by translations from his own hand1 with many important additions of his own1 of ,bothius' ,consolatio philosophi1 the ,universal ,history of ,orosius1 ,bede's ,history of the ,church of ,england and the ,regula pastoralis of ,gregory the ,great4 ,he also began a translation of the ,psalms4 ,he stimulated his learned friends to a like activity1 among whom bishop ,asser of ,sherborne in his ,vita ,alfredi 7,engl4 transl4 in 8,six ,old ,english ,chronicles07 has reared a worthy memorial of his master4#bfj--;,continuation1 #ajj1 #a4 #ia4 ,,doctrinal ,,controversies4 ,the first important heresy that grew up independently on ,german soil was ,adoptionism4 ,this heresy took its rise at that point in the development of ,christology that was reached by the #fth cumenical ,council of ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #fhj 7 #eb1 #h71 for it recognises the double nature and the double will while denying the double sonship4 ,frankish orthodoxy1 however1 saw in it not a further development of doctrine1 but a relapse into ,nestorianism1 and so condemned the new doctrine4 ,during the same period the dogma of the procession of the ,holy ,spirit was the subject of lively controversy1 and the ,frankish church came forward as defender of ,western orthodoxy against the ,greeks4 ,in the ,eucharistic controversy the most eminent ,frankish theologians opposed the ,transubstantiation doctrine of ,balbutus ,balbulus4 ,a further controversy as to the conception of the ,blessed ,virgin was closely connected with the one just referred to4 ,neither of them was made the subject of any synodal decision4 ,on the other hand very definite synodal decisions were passed in reference to the predestination controversy1 without1 however1 bringing that controversy by any means to a conclusion4 ,of subordinate importance was the dispute over the expression ,trina ,deitas4 #ia4a4 ,the ,adoptionist ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #ghb-gii4--,of all ,christian dogmas none were so offensive to the ,moslems as that of the ,trinity which to their barren monotheism necessarily appeared as ,tritheism1 and none were the subject of so much scorn as the idea that ,god should have a son4 ,it need not1 therefore1 surprise us to find that ,spanish theologians endeavoured to put this doctrine in a form as little offensive as possible to the ,moslems4 ,one ,migetius went so far as to adopt a very crude form of ,sabellianism1 for he1 undoubtedly approaching the ,mohammedan view of the prophetic order1 represented the ,trinitarian development of the one ,divine ,being as a threefold historical manipulation of ,god3 in ,david the person of the ,father is revealed1 in ,christ as son of ,david that of the ,son1 and finally1 in the ,apostle ,paul that of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,at a ,spanish synod of ,a4,d4 #ghb he was successfully opposed by the archbishop ,elipandus of ,toledo1 who took the opportunity of attempting a further development of the ,christological dogma4 ,this also was more fully elaborated by ,felix of ,urgel in the ,spanish ,mark4 ,both taught3 ,that ,christ is properly ,son of ,god only according to ,his divine nature 7,filius ,dei ,natur72 according to ,his human nature ,he is properly1 like all of us1 a servant of ,god1 and only by the decision of the ,divine will is ,he adopted as the ,son of ,god 7,filius ,dei ,adoptivus71 just as all of us may by ,him and after ,his example be raised from the condition of servant into the family of ,god4 ,according to ,his ,divine nature therefore ,he is the ,only ,begotten1 according to ,his human nature the ,first ,begotten ,son of ,god4 ,the adoption of the human nature into ,divine ,sonship began with its conception by the ,holy ,ghost1 but was more definitely determined in ,his baptism1 and perfected in ,his resurrection4 ,the first scene of the controversy called forth by this doctrine was enacted on ,spanish soil4 ,two representatives of the ,asturian clergy1 the presbyter ,beatus of ,libana and bishop ,etherius of ,osma1 contended by word and writing against the heresy of ,elipandus 7,a4,d4 #ghe74 ,this was done perhaps with the view of emancipating the ,asturian church from the see of ,toledo then under ,saracen domination4 ,the ,asturians applied to ,hadrian ,i41 who in an epistle to the bishops of ,spain in ,a4,d4 #ghf condemned ,adoptionism as a heresy4 ,the controversy entered upon a second stage through the interference of ,charlemagne4 ,the absence of ,adoptionism in ,frankish ,spain afforded him an excuse for interfering1 and he readily seized upon this1 because it gave him an opportunity of posing as the defender of orthodoxy in the ,west1 i4e4 as ,emperor in esse4 ,before a ,synod at ,regensburg in ,a4,d4 #gib1 ,felix was compelled to renounce this heresy1 and was sent to ,rome to pope ,hadrian ,i4 ,there he had to make a second recantation1 but escaped from prison and fled to ,saracenic territory4 ,in the meantime ,alcuin had returned from his travels in ,england1 and immediately engaged in controversy by addressing an affectionate exhortation to ,felix4 ,the ,spaniards gave a very firm reply and ,charlemagne then convened the famous cumenical ,german ,synod of ,frankfort in ,a4,d4 #gid4 ,after further investigation ,adoptionism was again condemned1 and the judgment of the synod1 in order that it might have an cumenical character1 was sent to ,spain accompanied by four complete reports as representing the various national churches and authorities4 ,but on the ,spaniards this made little impression4 ,just as little effect had a learned controversial tract of ,alcuin's1 to which ,felix made a smart rejoinder4 ,meanwhile ,charlemagne sent a clerical commission under ,leidrad of ,lyons and ,benedict of ,aniane 7 #he1 #b7 into the ,spanish ,mark1 in order to root out the weeds of heresy that were growing there4 ,felix declared himself ready for further enquiry4 ,at the national ,synod of ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #gib he disputed for six days with ,alcuin1 and declared himself at last thoroughly convinced4 ,alcuin and ,paulinus of ,aquileia published new controversial tracts1 and ,leidrad went a second time into the ,spanish ,mark where he succeeded in rooting out the heresy4 ,but all the more determined were the bishops of ,saracenic ,spain in maintaining their doctrine1 and ,elipandus answered a conciliatory letter of ,alcuin in a passionate and angry tone4 ,felix remained until the end of his life in ,a4,d4 #hah under the guardianship of the bishop of ,lyons4 ,leidrad's successor1 ,agobard1 found among his papers undoubted evidence that to the end he was at heart an ,adoptionist1 and from this took occasion to publish another controversial tract4 ,this was the very last of these productions4 ,but in ,spain ,adoptionism seems to have maintained its hold down to the second half of the #ith century4 ,at last about that time ,paulus ,alvarus of ,cordova 7 #ij1 #f7 contended with a certain ,joannes ,spalensis on account of his ,adoptionist views4 ,in the #abth century the controversy again broke out on ,german soil 7 #ajb1 #f74bfa #ia4b4 ,controversy about the ,procession of the ,holy ,spirit4--,at a ,synod at ,gentiliacum in ,a4,d4 #gfg1 held for the purpose of meeting a ,byzantine embassy about the iconoclast controversy1 the addition to the creed of the ,filioque was spoken about 7 #fg1 #a74 ,the result of the discussion is unknown4 ,in ,charlemagne's time ,alcuin and ,theodulf defended the ,latin doctrine in special treatises1 and at a ,synod at ,friaul in ,a4,d4 #gia ,paulinus of ,aquileia justified its adoption into the creed and the ,carolingian books 7 #ib1 #a74 ,the discussion was renewed when the ,latin monks of ,mount ,olivet1 blamed by the ,greeks because of the addition1 appealed to the usage of the ,frankish church4 ,pope ,leo ,,iii4 communicated in regard to this with ,charlemagne1 and a ,council at ,aachen in ,a4,d4 #hji defended the addition4 ,but the pope1 although not contesting the correctness of the doctrine1 disallowed the change in the creed1 and had two silver tablets erected in ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome with the creed wanting the addition4 ,this was evidently a damper upon the ecclesiastico-political movements of the emperor4 #ia4c4 ,the ,eucharistic ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #hdd4--,vacillations about the doctrine of the ,supper 7 #eh1 #b7 lasted down to the #ith century4 ,paschasius ,radbertus1 monk at ,corbie1 undertook in ,a4,d4 #hca1 in his treatise ,de ,sanguine et corpore ,domini1 theologically to justify1 and on all sides to develop the doctrine of the ,supper1 which had long ago struck its roots in the practice of the church and the faith of the people4 ,the air of genuine piety which meets us in this work impresses us favourably1 and it cannot be denied that he had a profound perception of fulness1 power1 and depth of the ,sacrament4 ,it was1 therefore1 quite in accordance with popular belief4 ,he could1 also1 refer to facts from the ,vit ,sanctorum1 where the inner ,veritas had come to outer manifestation4 ,he thinks that the fact that this did not always happen is to be accounted for partly by this1 that the ,supper in its very nature is a ,mysterium for faith and not a ,miraculum for unbelief1 partly by the divine condescendence which takes into account the natural horror at flesh and blood1 and would take away from the heathen all occasion for blasphemy4 ,at this time1 ,a4,d4 #hca1 the ,scriptures were not appealed to4 ,meantime ,radbertus was made abbot of ,corbie1 and in this important position he revised his work1 and presented it to ,charles the ,bald in ,a4,d4 #hdd4 ,the king called upon the learned monk1 ,ratramnus of ,corbie1 to express his opinion on the subject1 and he was only too ready to do an injury to his abbot4 ,without naming him1 he contested his doctrine in his treatise1 ,de corp4 et sang4 ,domini ad ,carolum ,calvum1 with bitter criticism1 and subtly developed his own view1 according to which the body and blood of ,christ are enjoyed only spiritualiter et secundum potentiam4 ,rabanus ,maurus1 ,scotus ,erigena1 and ,florus of ,lyons also opposed the magical transformation doctrine of ,radbertus in favour of a merely spiritual enjoyment4 ,hincmar and ,haymo1 on the other hand1 took the side of ,radbertus1 while ,walafrid ,strabo1 and the able1 energetic ,christian ,druthmar1 found in the idea of impanation and consubstantiation a more fitting expression for the solemn mystery4 ,but ,radbertus had spoken the word which gave clear utterance to the ecclesiastical feeling of the age2 the protest of so many great authorities might delay1 but could not destroy its effects4 ,continuation1 #aja1 #b4 #ia4d4 ,controversy about the ,conception of the ,virgin4--,this notion of the magical operation of the ,divine prevailed with ,radbertus when soon afterwards he undertook in his own way1 and also in accordance with ,ps4 xxii4 #aj and ,jer4 xxxi4 #bb1 in the tract1 ,de partu virginali1 to establish the opinion already expressed by ,ambrose and ,jerome 7 #eg1 #b71 that ,mary brought forth utero clauso1 and without pain4 ,ratramnus also has left a treatise on this theme3 ,de eo quod ,christus ex ,virigine natus est4 ,he maintains equally with ,radbertus that during conception as well as in bearing1 the ,virgin did not lose her virginity4 ,but while ,radbertus contended against those who taught less than this1 i4e41 that though ,mary conceived as a virgin1 she bore after the manner of all women1 ,ratramnus directed his attack against those who affirmed more than that1 i4e41 that ,christ at ,his birth did not leave ,his mother's womb in the usual1 natural manner1 by ,his mother bearing ,him4 ,further1 while the former was angry at the profaning of the mystery of the birth of ,christ1 by ranking it under the laws of nature1 the latter emphasized the fact that in no case should it be regarded as in itself ignominious to be placed under the laws of nature4 ,finally1 while ,radbertus unconditionally repudiated the position1 ,vulvam aperuit1 ,ratramnus felt compelled by ,luke ii4 #bc to admit it in a certain sense4 ,c4 v4 8,utique vulvam aperuit1 non et clausam corrumperet1 sed et per eam su nativitatis ostium aperiret1 sicut et in ,ezech4 xliv4 #c porta et clausa describitur et tamen narratur ,domino aperta2 non quod liminis sui fores dimoverit ad ejus egressum1 sed quod sic clausa patuerit dominanti10 and c4 viii4 8,exivit clauso sepulchro 787 et ingressus foribus obseratis 7,jo4 xx4 #i7 444 ut et clausam relinqueret et per eam transiret 444 nec haureundo patefecit40 ,the polemic1 therefore1 was most probably occasioned not by anything in the writings1 but rather in their oral utterances4 ,neither understood the other's view1 and the one drew consequences from the other's statements that were not warrantable4 ,but when ,ratramnus pretends to be debating1 not with his abbot but with an unnamed ,german opponent1 this can only be regarded as a literary artifice4 #ia4e4 ,the ,predestinarian ,controversy ,a4,d4 #hdg-hfh4--,the earlier predestinarian controversy 7 #ec1 #e71 was1 so far from being brought to a conclusion1 that all the gradations of doctrinal views1 from that of ,semi-,pelagianism to a doctrine of predestination to condemnation that went far beyond ,augustine1 could find representatives among the teachers of the church4 ,in the #ith century the controversy broke out in a passionate form4 ,gottschalk1 the son of ,berno1 a ,saxon count1 had been placed by his parents when a child in the monastery of ,fulda4 ,a ,synod at ,mainz in ,a4,d4 #hbi allowed him to go forth1 but the abbot of ,fulda at that time1 ,rabanus ,maurus1 got ,louis the ,pious to annul this dispensation4 ,transferred to the monastery of ,orbais1 in the diocese of ,soissons1 ,gottschalk sought comfort in the study of the writings of ,augustine1 and was an enthusiastic defender of the doctrine of absolute predestination4 ,in one point he even went beyond ,augustine himself1 for he taught a two-fold predestination 7,gemina prdestinatio71 a predestination to salvation and a predestination to condemnation1 while ,augustine had spoken of the latter mostly as a giving over to deserved condemnation4 ,he took advantage of two journeys into ,italy in ,a4,d4 #hdj and ,a4,d4 #hdg for spreading his doctrine4 ,impelled with a vehement desire to make converts1 he made an attempt upon bishop ,noting of ,verona4 ,through him ,rabanus1 from ,a4,d4 #hdg archbishop of ,mainz1 obtained information thereof1 and issued to ,noting1 as well as to ,count ,eberhard of ,friaul1 with whom ,gottschalk was living1 threatening letters which distorted ,gottschalk's doctrine in many particulars1 and drew from it unfair consequences1 making the ,prdestinatio ad damnationem a ,prdestinatio ad peccatum4 ,rabanus's own doctrine distinguished prescience and predestination1 and placed the condemnation of the wicked under the former point of view4 ,at the same time1 in ,a4,d4 #hdh1 he convened a ,synod at ,mainz1 before which ,gottschalk stated his doctrine without reserve1 in the joyous conviction that it was in accordance with the doctrine of the church4 ,but the ,council excommunicated him1 and assigned him for punishment to his metropolitan ,hincmar of ,rheims4 ,hincmar had him anew condemned at the ,synod of ,quiersy in ,a4,d4 #hdi1 then1 because he steadily refused to recant1 had him savagely scourged and consigned to imprisonment for life in the monastery of ,hautvilliers4 ,gottschalk offered to prove the justice of his cause by submitting to an ordeal2 but ,hincmar1 though in other instances a defender of the ordeal1 denounced this as the proposal of a second ,simon ,magus4 ,the inhuman treatment of the poor monk1 and the rejection of the doctrine of ,augustine by two church leaders1 occasioned a mighty commotion in the ,frankish church1 which was mainly directed against ,hincmar4 ,at first1 bishop ,prudentius of ,troyes took the condemned monk's part4 ,then ,charles the ,bald asked the opinions of ,ratramnus of ,corbie and the abbot ,servatus ,lupus of ,ferrires4 ,both of these took the side of ,gottschalk4 ,hincmar's position threatened to become very serious4 ,he looked out for supporters1 and succeeded in finding champions in the deacon ,florus of ,lyons1 the priest ,amalarius of ,metz1 and the learned ,joannes ,scotus ,erigena4 ,but the latter's advocacy was almost more dangerous to the metropolitan than the charges of his accusers4 ,for the speculative ,irishman founded his objections to the doctrine of predestination on the position1 unheard of before in the ,west1 that evil is only a 1 and condemnation therefore not a positive punishment of ,god1 but consisting only in the consciousness of a defect4 ,hincmar's position was now worse than ever1 for his opponents made him responsible for the heresies of ,scotus4 ,and not only an old objector1 ,prudentius of ,troyes in his ,de prdest4 c4 ,joh4 ,scotu1 but even archbishop ,wessilo of ,sens and the deacon ,florus of ,lyons1 who had hitherto supported him1 now put on their armour against him4 ,but ,charles the ,bald took the part of the sorely-beset metropolitan1 and summoned the national ,synod of ,quiersy of ,a4,d4 #hec1 where in four articles 7,capitula ,carisiaca71 a modified ,augustinianism1 rejecting the gemina prdestinatio1 was set forth as the orthodox faith4 ,the ,neustrian objectors were now compelled to keep silence1 but archbishop ,remigius of ,lyons set a ,lothringian national ,synod of ,valence of ,a4,d4 #hee over against the ,neustrian ,synod4 ,this ,synod expressly condemned the decisions of the ,synod of ,quiersy1 together with the ,scottish mixture 7pultus ,scotorum71 and laid down six conflicting articles as the standard of orthodoxy4 ,finally the rulers of the ,west ,franks combined their forces and called an ,imperial ,synod at ,savonnires1 a suburb of ,toul1 in ,a4,d4 #hei4 ,but harmony was not yet secured1 and they were likely to part with bitter feelings1 when ,remigius made the proposal to reserve decision for a subsequent assembly to be convened in a less agitated time1 and meanwhile to maintain the peace4 ,this was agreed upon1 and so the controversy put out of view1 for the proposed assembly was never brought about4 ,gottschalk1 left in the lurch by his former friends1 now turned for help to the powerful pope ,nicholas ,i4 ,the pope ordered ,hincmar to answer before the papal plenipotentiaries for his proceedings against the monk at the ,synod of ,metz in ,a4,d4 #hfc 7 #hb1 #g74 ,hincmar preferred not to comply to this demand1 and to his delight the pope himself annulled the decisions of the ,synod because his legates had been bribed4 ,moreover the metropolitan succeeded by intercession and well-planned letters in winning over the pope4 ,thus then ,gottschalk was cheated out of his last hope4 ,for twenty years he languished in prison1 but with his latest breath he rejected every proposal of recantation4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #hfh1 and by ,hincmar's orders was buried in unconsecrated earth4 #ia4f4 ,the ,trinitarian ,controversy1 ,a4,d4 #heg4--;,from his prison ,gottschalk had accused his metropolitan of a second heresy4 ,hincmar had removed from a church hymn1 ,te trina ,deitas unaque poscimus1 the expression1 trina ,deltas1 as favouring ,arianism1 and substituted the words1 sancta ,deitas4 ,his opponents therefore charged him with ,sabellianism1 and ,ratramnus made this accusation in a controversial tract no longer extant4 ,ratramnus1 on the other hand1 to whom ,hincmar applied1 supported the change1 but would not commit himself to a written approval of it1 whereupon ,hincmar himself undertook a defence of the expression substituted in his treatise1 ,de una et non trini ,deitate4#bfb #ib4 ,,endeavours ,,after ,,reformation4 ,the independence which ,charlemagne gave to the ,german church first awakened in it the consciousness of its vocation as a reformer4 ,this consciousness was maintained throughout the ,middle ,ages1 though hampered indeed by much narrowness1 one-sidedness1 and error4 ,charlemagne himself stood first in the series of reformers with his energetic protest against image worship4 ,louis the ,pious too persevered in this same direction1 and encouraged ,agobard of ,lyons and ,claudius of ,turin when they contested similar forms of ecclesiastical superstition4 #ib4a4 ,the ,carolingian ,opposition to ,image ,worship1 ,a4,d4 #gij-hbe4--,on the occasion of an embassy of the emperor ,constantinus ,copronymus 7 #ff1 #b7 ,pepin the ,short convened a ,synod at ,gentiliacum in ,a4,d4 #gfg 7 #ia1 #b7 where the question of image worship was dealt with4 ,we have no further information1 as the acts of this ,synod have been lost4 ,then in ,a4,d4 #gij ,hadrian ,i4 sent to ,charlemagne the acts of the #gth occasional ,synod of ,nica 7 #ff1 #c74 ,charles1 as emperor-elect1 regarded himself as grievously wronged by the assumption of the ,greeks1 who1 without consulting the ,german court1 sought to enact laws that were wholly antagonistic to the ,frankish practice4 ,he published under his own name a state paper in #d bks41 the so-called ,libri ,carolini1 in which the ,byzantine proceedings were censured in strong terms1 the synodal acts refuted one by one1 every form of image worship denounced as idolatry1 while at the same time the position of the iconoclasts was repudiated and1 with reference to ,gregory the ,great 7 #eg1 #d71 the usefulness of images in quickening devotion1 instructing the people and providing suitable decoration for sacred places was admitted4 ,veneration of saints1 relics1 and the cross is1 on the other hand1 permitted4 ,charlemagne sent this writing to the pope1 who in the most courteous language wrote a refutation1 which1 however1 made no impression upon ,charlemagne4 ,on the contrary he now hastened preparations for calling a great cumenical ,synod of all ,german churches that would outdo the ,synod of the ,byzantine court4 ,alcuin utilized his visit to ,england for securing a representation at this ,synod of the ,anglo-,saxon church4 ,the ,synod met at ,frankfort in ,a4,d4 #gid and confirmed the positions of the ,caroline books4 ,the pope found it prudent to yield to the times and the people4 ,under ,louis the ,pious the matter was brought forward anew on the occasion of an embassy from the iconoclast emperor ,michael ,balbus4 ,a national ,synod at ,paris in ,a4,d4 #hbe condemned image worship sharply1 in opposition to ,hadrian ,i41 and affirmed the positions of the ,caroline books4 ,pope ,eugenius ,,ii4 kept silent on this subject4 ,in the ,frankish empire down to the #ajth century no recognition was given to the #bnd ,nicene ,council1 and official opposition was continued against image worship4 #ib4b4 ,soon after the ,parisian council of ,a4,d4 #hbe1 ,agobard of ,lyons made his appearance with a powerful polemic3 ,contra superstitionem eorum1 qui picturis et imaginibus sanctorum adorationis obsequiem deferendum putant4 ,he goes much further than the ,caroline books1 for not only does he regard it as advisable1 on account of the inevitable misuse on the part of the people1 to banish images entirely1 but with image worship he also rejects all adoration of saints1 relics1 and angels4 ,man should put his trust in the omnipotent ,god alone1 and worship and reverence only the one ,mediator1 ,christ4 ,he comes forward also as a reformer of the liturgy4 ,he finds fault with all sensuous additions to ,divine service1 would banish from it all non-,biblical hymns1 urges to earnest study of ,scripture1 contends against the folly of the ordeal 7,de ,divinis ,sententiis71 the popular superstitions about witchcraft and weather omens 7,contra insulsam vulgi opinionem de grandine et tonitruis71 and the idea that by presents to churches a stop can be put to epidemics and pestilences4 ,also on inspiration he entertained very liberal opinions 7 #ij1 #i74 ,no one thought on account of these views to charge him with heresy4 ,claudius of ,turin went still further than ,agobard4 ,by the help of ,augustine he was able to grasp more profoundly than any of his contemporaries the essential core of saving truth1 that man without any merit of works is justified and saved by the grace of ,god in ,christ alone4 ,louis the ,pious appointed him to the bishopric of ,turin with the express injunction that he should contend against image worship in his ,italian diocese4 ,he found there image worship along with an extravagant devotion to relics1 crosses and pilgrimages carried on to such a degree that he felt himself constrained reluctantly because of the condition of affairs to cast images and crosses out of the churches altogether4 ,the popular excitement over this proceeding rose to the utmost pitch1 and his life was saved and his office retained only through dread of the ,frankish arms4 ,when pope ,paschalis intimated to him his displeasure1 he said the pope is only to be honoured as apostolic1 when he does the works of an apostle1 otherwise ,matt4 xxiii4 #b-d applies to him4 ,against the views of his early scholar and friend the abbot ,theodemir1 regarding monastic psalmody1 he vindicated himself in ,a4,d4 #hbe in his controversial tract ,apologeticus1 which is now known only from the replies of his opponents4 ,a ,scotchman1 ,dungal1 teacher at ,pavia1 entered the lists against him and accused him before the emperor1 who1 however1 contented himself with calling upon bishop ,jonas of ,orleans to refute the apologetical treatise4 ,this refutation appeared only after the death of ,claudius4 ,it assumed the position of the ,frankish church on the question of image worship1 as also ,dungal had done4 ,butler ,tanner1 ,the ,selwood ,printing ,works1 ,frome1 and ,london4 ,,footnotes4 #a ,dowling1 8,introduction to ,study of ,eccl4 ,hist42 its ,progress and ,sources40 ,lond41 #ahch4 ,smedt1 8,introd4 generalis ad ,hist4 ,eccl4 critice tractandam40 ,gandavi1 #ahgf4 #b ,see ,sermon on ,the ,pharisees in ,mozley's 8,univ4 ,sermons40 ,lond41 #ahgf2 also ,schrer1 ,div4 ,,ii41 vol4 ii41 pp4 #a-dc1 8,pharisees and ,sadducees40 #c ,see ,lightfoot1 ,ep4 to the ,col41 #eth ed41 ,lond41 #ahhj1 ,diss4 on 8,essenes1 their ,name1 ,origin1 and ,relation to ,christianity40 pp4 #cdi-dai2 also ,schrer1 ,div4 ,,ii41 vol4 ii41 pp4 #ahh-bah1 8,the ,essenes40 #d ,nutt1 ,sketch of ,samaritan ,history1 ,dogma1 and ,literature4 ,lond41 #ahgd4 #e ,on ,philo1 see ,schrer1 ,div4 ,,ii41 vol4 iii41 pp4 #cba-cha4 #f ,j4 ,bannerman1 8,the ,church of ,christ40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahfh4 ,jacob1 8,ecclesiastical ,polity of the ,new ,testament40 ,lond41 #ahga4 ,hatch1 8,the ,organization of the ,early ,chr4 ,churches40 ,lond41 #ahha2 #bnd ed41 #ahhc4 ,d4 ,d4 ,bannerman1 8,the ,doctrine of the ,church40 ,edin41 #ahhg4 ,hodge1 8,the ,church and its ,polity40 ,edin41 #ahgi4 ,binnie1 8,the ,church40 ,edin41 #ahhb4 ,pressens1 8,life and ,pract4 of ,early ,church40 ,lond41 #ahgi4 ,lightfoot1 8,comm4 on ,philip40 8,essay on ,christian ,ministry40 #fth ed41 ,lond41 #ahha1 pp4 #aha-bfi4 #g ,mommsen1 8,de collegiis et sodaliciis ,rom40 ,kiel1 #ahdc4 ,foucart1 8,les associat4 relig4 chez les ,grecs40 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,hatch1 8,organization of ,early ,chr4 ,churches40 pp4 #bf-ci4 #h ,lightfoot1 8,epistle to ,phil40 #fth ed41 ,lond41 #ahha1 p4 #ie4 ,detached notes on the synonyms 8bishop0 and 8presbyter40 8,diss4 on ,christian ,ministry40 pp4 #ahg-bjj4 #i ,blondel1 8,apologia pro sententia ,hieron4 de episcop4 et presbyt40 ,amst41 #afdf4 #aj ,the of ,rom4 xvi4 #af2 #a ,cor4 xvi4 #bj4 #aa ,of these we probably find fragments in ,eph4 ii4 #ad2 #a ,tim4 iii4 #af2 #b ,tim4 ii4 #aa-ac2 and perhaps also in #a ,tim4 iii4 #a1 #af2 ,jas4 i4 #ag2 ,rev4 i4 #d2 iv4 #aa2 v4 #i2 xi4 #ae2 xv4 #c2 xxi4 #a2 xxii4 #aj4 #ab ,acts ii4 #d1 #f2 xx4 #g4 #ac ,john xx4 #bf2 ,acts xx4 #g2 #a ,cor4 xvi4 #b2 ,rev4 i4 #aj4 #ad ,acts ii4 #ci2 xvi4 #cc2 #a ,cor4 vii4 #ad4 #ae ,acts viii4 #ag2 vi4 #f2 xiii4 #c2 #a ,tim4 iv4 #ad4 #af ,on the subject of this section consult3 ,pressens1 8,early ,years of ,christianity40 ,vol4 #b1 8,apostolic ,age40 ,lond41 #ahgi1 pp4 #cfa-cha4 ,lechler1 8,apostolic and ,post ,apostolic ,times40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahhf2 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #cg-fg1 #acj-add4 #ag ,burton1 8,heresies of the ,apostolic ,age40 ,oxford1 #ahbi4 #ah ,as authorities for this period consult3 ,moshemii1 8,commentarii de reb4 ,christianor4 ante ,constant40 ,helmst41 #agec4 ,baur1 8,first ,three ,centuries of the ,christian ,church40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 ,milman1 8,hist4 of ,chr4 to ,abol4 of ,pag4 in ,rom4 ,emp40 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahdj4 ,pressens1 8,early ,years of ,christianity40 #d vols41 ,lond41 #ahgi4 #ai ,consult3 ,killen1 8,the ,ancient ,church40 ,edin41 #ahei2 8,the ,old ,catholic ,church40 ,edin41 #ahga4 ,lechler1 8,apost4 and ,post-,apost4 ,times40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahhf2 ,vol4 ii41 pp4 #bfj-cgi4 ,robertson1 8,hist4 of ,chr4 ,church40 ,vol4 i41 7,a4,d4 #fd-eij71 ,lond41 #aheh4 #bj ,although the ,post-,apostolic and ,old ,catholic ,ages are sharply enough distinguished from one another in point of time and of contents along many lines of historical development1 and are rightly partitioned off from each other1 so that they might seem to require treatment as independent periods2 yet1 on the one hand1 passing over from the one to the other is so frequent and is for the most part of so liquid and incontrollable a nature1 while on the other hand1 the opposition of and the distinction between these two periods and the cumenical ,catholic ,imperial ,church that succeeds are so thorough-going1 that we prefer to embrace the two under one period and to point out the boundary lines between the two wherever these are clearly discernible4 #ba ,inge1 8,society in ,rome under the ,csars40 ,lond41 #ahhg4 #bb ,uhlhorn1 8,conflict of ,christianity with ,heathenism40 ,steere1 8,account of the ,persecutions of the ,church under the ,roman ,emperors40 #bc ,renan1 8,antichrist40 ,lond41 #ahgd4 ,merivale1 8,hist4 of ,rom4 ,emp40 ,vols4 v4 vi41 ,lond41 #ahef1 #aheh4 ,farrar's 8,early ,days of ,christianity40 ,lond41 #ahhd2 ,bk4 ,i41 pp4 #a-dd4 ,mommsen1 8,hist4 of ,rome40 #f vols41 ,lond41 #ahge ff4 #bd ,renan1 8,marcus ,aurelius40 ,lond41 #ahhc4 ,lightfoot1 8,ignatius and ,polycarp40 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahhe4 #be ,lightfoot1 8,ignatius40 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #dfi-dgf4 #bf 8,kirchengesch4 v4 ,dtschl40 ,i4 #id4 #bg ,mason1 8,the ,persecution of ,diocletian40 ,cambridge1 #ahgf4 #bh ,cotterill1 8,peregrinus ,proteus40 ,edin41 #ahgi2 ,engl4 ,transl4 of ,lucian's works1 by ,dr4 ,francklin1 #d vols41 ,lond41 #agha4 #bi ,baur1 8,christian ,church in ,first ,three ,centuries40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 8,celsus and ,origen40 in vol4 iv4 of ,froude's 8,short ,studies40 #cj ,philostratus1 8,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana40 ,first #b bks41 ,transl4 by ,blount1 ,lond41 #afhj4 ,newman1 8,hist4 ,sketches40 ,vol4 i41 chap4 ii41 8,apollonius of ,tyana40 #ca ,the works of ,plotinus consist of #ed treatises arranged in #f ,enneads1 8,opera ,omnia40 ed4 ,creuzer1 #c vols41 ,oxon41 #ahce4 ,several of the treatises transl4 into ,english by ,h4 ,taylor1 ,lond41 #agid and #ahag4 #cb ,zeller1 8,history of ,eclecticism in ,greek ,philosophy40 ,lond41 #ahca4 ,ueberweg1 8,hist4 of ,phil40 ,lond41 #ahgb2 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #bdj-beb4 #cc 8,narratio orig4 rituum et error4 ,christianor4 ,s4 ,joannis40 ,rom41 #afeb4 #cd ,ewald1 8,hist4 of ,israel40 ,lond41 #ahhf2 ,vol4 viii41 p4 #abj4 #ce ,in de ,sacy's 8,chrestom4 ,arabe40 #b ed41 ,i4 #ccc4 #cf #a ,cor4 xvi4 #c2 #b ,cor4 viii4 #ai2 ,gal4 ii4 #i4 #cg ,burton1 8,heresies of the ,apostolic ,age40 ,oxford1 #ahbi4 ,zeller1 8,acts of the ,apostles40 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahge1 #ahgf4 ,pressens1 8,apostolic ,age40 ,london1 #ahgi1 pp4 #ff-gc2 #cah-ccj4 #ch ,neander's 8,first ,planting of ,christianity and ,antignostikus40 7,bohn71 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahea4 ,mansel1 8,gnostic ,heresies of ,first and ,second ,centuries40 ,ed4 by ,bishop ,lightfoot1 ,lond41 #ahge4 ,king1 8,remains of the ,gnostics40 ,lond41 #ahfd2 new ed41 #ahhg4 ,ueberweg1 8,hist4 of ,phil40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahgb1 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #bhj-bij4 #ci ,these are published among the works of ,origen4 ,recently ,caspari discovered an admirable ,latin translation of them made by ,rufinus1 and published it in his 8,kirchenhist4 ,anecdota40 ,i41 7,christ41 #ahhc74 #dj ,lipsius1 8,valentinus and his ,school40 in ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,biography40 ,vol4 iv41 ,lond41 #ahhg4 #da ,in ,cureton's 8,spicil4 ,syr40 ,lond41 #ahee4 #db ,in its extant ,coptic form1 ed4 by ,petermann1 ,brl41 #ahea4 ,in a ,latin transl4 by ,schwartze1 ,brl41 #ahec4 ,in ,english transl4 in ,king's 8,remains of the ,gnostics40 ,lond41 #ahhg4 #dc ,yet the school of ,baur regard this ,gospel of ,marcion as the original of ,luke4 ,hilgenfeld thinks that both our ,luke and ,marcion drew from one earlier source4 ,hahn has sought to restore the ,marcionite ,gospel in ,thilo's 8,cod4 ,apoc4 ,n4,t40 ,i4 #dja4 ,sanday1 8,gospels in the ,second ,century40 ,london1 #ahgf4 #dd ,salmon1 8,introd4 to the ,n4,t40 ,london1 #ahhe1 pp4 #bdb-bdh4 ,reuss1 8,hist4 of ,n4,t40 ,edin41 #ahhd1 #bia1 #bdf1 #cfb1 #ejh4 #de ,lightfoot1 8,comm4 on ,galatians40 ,camb41 #ahfe2 ,diss4 8,st4 ,paul and the ,three40 #df ,lechler1 8,apost4 and ,post-,apostol4 ,times40 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #bfc ff4 ,ewald1 8,hist4 of ,israel40 ,lond41 #ahhf1 ,vol4 viii41 p4 #aeb4 #dg ,ewald1 8,hist4 of ,israel40 ,vol4 viii41 p4 #abb4 #dh ,we possess this work in the original ,greek4 ,the first complete edition was that of ,cotelerius in his 8,pp4 ,apost40 ,the latest and most careful separate ed41 is by ,lagarde1 ,lps41 #ahfe2 ,eng4 transl4 in ,ante ,nicene ,lib41 ,edin41 #ahga4 #di ,existing only in the ,latin transl4 of ,rufinus4 ,published in ,cotelerius1 8,pp4 ,apost40 ,separate ed4 by ,gersdorf1 ,lps41 #ahch2 ,eng4 transl4 ,ante-,nicene ,lib41 ,edin41 #ahfg4 #ej ,see de ,sacy1 8,mem4 sur diverses antiqu4 de la ,perse40 ,par41 #agid4 ,the most important of these ,arabic works are the ,literary ,history of ,an-,naddim1 ,kitab al ,fihrist1 ed4 ,flgel and ,roediger1 ,lps41 #ahga2 then ,al-,shurstani's 8,hist4 of relig4 and phil4 sects40 ed4 ,cureton1 ,lond41 #ahdb2 and ,al-,biruni's 8,chron4 d4 ,orient ,vlker40 ed4 ,sachau1 ,lps41 #ahgh4 #ea ,among the ,mandeans mana rabba means one of the highest ons1 and is thus perhaps identical with the name ,paraclete borrowed from the ,christian terminology1 which ,manes assumed4 #eb ,ueberweg1 8,hist4 of ,phil40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahgb1 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #bij-cbe4 ,patristic4 ,phil4 down to ,council of ,nica4 #ec ,donaldson1 8,apostolic ,fathers40 ,lond41 #ahgd4 ,lightfoot1 8,clement of ,rome40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahfi1 #ahgg2 ,ignatius and ,polycarp1 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahhe4 ,sanday1 8,the ,gospels in the ,second ,century40 ,lond41 #ahgf4 #ed ,luke i4 #a2 #cb1 #d2 #cf1 #g2 #ei1 #a4 #ee 8,patrum ,apost4 ,opera40 ,ed4 ,gebhardt1 ,harnack and ,zahn1 #c vols41 ,lps41 #ahgf ff4 8,apostolic ,fathers40 ,engl4 transl4 in ,ante-,nicene ,library1 ,edin41 #ahfg4 ,donaldson1 8,apostolic ,fathers40 ,edin41 #ahgd4 #ef ,at ,constantinople1 #ahge4 #eg ,comp4 ,lightfoot1 8,st4 ,clement of ,rome1 ,an ,appendix40 etc41 ,lond41 #ahgg4 #eh ,donaldson1 8,history of ,christian ,literature40 ,vol4 i41 ,lond41 #ahfd4 ,cunningham1 8,dissertation on ,epistle of ,st4 ,barnabas40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 #ei 8,herm ,pastor40 ed4 ,hilgenfeld1 #b ed41 ,lps41 #ahha4 ,down to the middle of the #aith century it was known only in a ,latin translation1 but since then the ,greek original has been accessible in two recensions1 as well as in an ancient ,ethiopic translation 7ed4 d',abbadie1 ,lps41 #ahfj74 ,one of the ,greek recensions almost complete was found in the monastery of ,athos2 and an older1 but less perfect one1 was found in the ,codex ,sinaiticus4 ,schodde1 8,herm ,nab2 ,the ,ethiopic version of ,pastor ,herm examined40 ,lps41 #ahgf4 #fj ,comp4 ,harnack in ,expositor for ,march1 #ahhf1 pp4 #ahe-aib4 ,lightfoot1 8,ignatius and ,polycarp40 ,lond41 #ahhe1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #dcc-dgj4 #fa ,cureton1 8,corpus ,ignatianum40 7,rom41 ,eph41 and ,ep4 to ,polyc471 ,lond41 #ahai4 #fb ,against their genuineness3 ,dallus1 8,de scrr4 qu sub ,dionysii et ,ignatii nom4 circumfer40 ,gen41 #afff4 ,killen1 8,ignatian ,epistles entirely ,spurious40 ,edin41 #ahhf4 ,in favour3 ,pearson1 8,vindici ,st4 ,ignat40 ,cantab41 #afgb4 ,lightfoot1 8,ignatius and ,polycarp40 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahhe4 #fc ,salmon1 8,introd4 to the ,new ,testament40 ,lond41 #ahhe1 pp4 #ajd-abf4 ,sanday1 8,gospels in ,second ,century40 ,lond41 #ahgf4 #fd ,schaff1 8,the ,oldest ,church ,manual40 ,edin41 #ahhf4 ,hitchcock and ,brown1 8,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles40 ,new ,york1 #ahhd4 ,taylor1 8,the ,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles with ,illus4 from the ,talmud40 ,cambr41 #ahhf4 ,expositor1 ,april and ,june1 #ahhf1 pp4 #cai f4 and #dja ff42 ,nov41 #ahhg1 pp4 #cei-cga4 #fe ,donaldson1 8,hist4 of ,chr4 ,lit4 from death of ,app4 to ,nic4 ,council40 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahfd1 ,vols4 ii4 and iii41 8,the ,apologists40 #ff ,the ,syriac translation of a treatise of ,melito's given in ,cureton's 8,spicileg4 ,syr40 ,lond41 #ahec1 which gives itself out as an address delivered before ,antoninus ,csar1 is not identical with his ,apology to ,antoninus ,pius1 of which ,eusebius has preserved three fragments1 as these passages are not found in it4 #fg ,the fragments of ,melito's works are collected by ,routh1 8,reliqui ,sacr40 ,l41 ,oxon41 #ahad4 #fh 8,opera40 ed4 ,otto1 #c vols41 ,jena1 #ahgf2 ,engl4 transl4 in ,ante-,nicene ,library1 ,edin41 #ahfg4 ,semisch1 8,just4 ,mart40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahdc4 ,kaye1 8,writings and ,opin4 of ,just4 ,mart40 ,lond41 #ahec4 #fi ,salmon1 8,introd4 to ,new ,test40 ,on ,tatian1 pp4 #if-ajd4 ,wace on 8,zahn's ,tatian's ,diatessaron40 in ,expositor for ,sept4 and ,oct41 #ahhb4 #gj ,bigg1 8,the ,christian ,platonists of ,alexandria40 ,bampton ,lect4 for #ahhf1 ,oxf41 #ahhf4 ,kingsley1 8,alexandria and her ,schools40 ,camb41 #ahed4 #ga 8,opera40 ed4 ,harvey1 ,cantab41 #aheg2 ,introd4 ,,ii4 8,life and ,wr4 of ,irenus40 ,engl4 transl4 in ,ante-,nicene ,lib41 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahfh1 #ahfi4 ,lightfoot1 8,churches of ,gaul40 in ,contemp4 ,review1 ,aug4 #ahgf4 ,lipsius1 8,irenus40 in ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,chr4 ,biog40 ,,iii41 pp4 #bec-bgi4 #gb ,many works ascribed to him have been lost2 whatever fragments of these exist have been collected by ,fabricius and ,lagarde4 ,these were3 ,exeget41 a ,com4 on ,daniel2 ,apolog41 2 ,polem41 against ,gnostics and ,monarchians1 against the ,asiatic ,observance of ,easter 7 #cg1 #b72 ,dogmat41 1 1 7 #bb1 #d71 2 ,hist4-chron41 ,chronicle1 and ,easter-,canon4 ,on ,philosophoumena3 ,dllinger1 8,hippolytus and ,callistus40 ,edin41 #ahgf4 #gc 8,opera40 ed4 ,dindorf1 #d vols41 ,oxon41 #ahfh4 8,supplementum ,clementinum1 in ,zahn's ,forsch40 ,vol4 iii41 ,engl4 transl4 in ,ante-,nicene ,lib41 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahfg4 ,bigg1 8,chr4 ,plat4 of ,alex40 ,lectt4 ,,ii4 ,,iii41 ,oxf41 #ahhf4 ,kaye1 8,clement of ,alexandria40 ,london1 #ahee4 ,reuss1 8,hist of ,canon40 ,edin41 #ahhd1 pp4 #aab-aaf4 #gd ,jerome reckons them at #b1jjj2 ,epiphanius at #f1jjj2 these must include the thousands of separate epistles and homilies4 ,bigg1 8,chr4 ,platonists of ,alex40 ,lectt4 ,,iv4-,,vi41 ,oxf41 #ahhf4 #ge ,hexaplorum qu supersunt4 ,ed4 ,field1 ,oxon41 #ahga4 #gf ,ed4 ,selwyn1 ,cantab41 #ahgf2 ,engl4 transl4 of ,c4 ,celsum and ,de ,principiis1 in ,ante-,nicene ,library1 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahfi-ahgb4 #gg 8,gregory ,thaumaturgus1 ,dionysius of ,alex4 and ,archelaus40 transl4 by ,prof4 ,salmond1 ,edin41 #ahga4 #gh ,neander1 8,antignosticus1 or the ,spirit of ,tertull40 appended to 8,hist4 of ,planting of ,chr4 ,church40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahea4 ,kaye1 8,eccles4 ,hist4 of #bnd and #crd ,cents4 illustr4 from ,wr4 of ,tertull40 #b ed41 ,camb41 #ahbi4 ,tertullian1 8,works40 #c vols41 ,ante-,nicene ,lib41 ,edin41 #ahfi4 #gi 8,cyprian's ,treatises and ,epistles40 ,lib4 of ,fathers1 #b vols41 ,oxf41 #ahci1 #ahdd4 8,writings of ,cyprian40 ,ante-,nicene ,lib41 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahfh4 ,poole1 8,life and ,times of ,c40 ,oxf41 #ahdj4 ,pressens1 8,martyrs and ,apologists40 ,lond41 #ahgi1 pp4 #dad-dch4 #hj ,dillmann1 8,pseudepigraph4 des ,a4 ,ts40 ,herzog1 xii4 #cda4 ,reuss1 8,hist4 of the ,n4 ,t40 ,edin41 #ahhd4 ,salmon1 8,introd4 to ,n4 ,t40 #bnd ed41 ,lond41 #ahhf4 #ha 8,fabricius1 ,codex pseudepigr4 ,v4,t40 ,ed4 #b41 ,hamb41 #agbb4 #hb ,drummond1 8,jewish ,messiah40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 ,lawrence1 8,book of ,enoch40 ,oxf41 #ahba4 ,schodde1 8,bk4 of ,enoch40 ,andover1 #ahhb4 ,schurer1 8,hist4 of ,jew4 ,peo4 in ,times of ,j4 ,chr40 ,div4 ,,ii41 ,vol4 #c41 pp4 #ei ff41 #gc ff41 #ic ff41 #acd ff42 7,enoch1 ,assumptio1 ,ezra1 ,bk4 of ,jub474 ,bensly1 8,missing ,fragment of ,lat4 ,transl4 of #dth ,bk4 of ,ezra40 ,cambr41 #ahge4 #hc ,sinker1 8,test4 ,,xii4 ,patriarchum40 ,cambr41 #ahfi2 ,appendix1 #ahgi4 ,malan1 8,book of ,adam and ,eve40 ,lond41 #ahhb4 ,hort on ,bks4 of ,adam1 in ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,chr4 ,biog40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 #hd ,salmon1 8,introd4 to ,n4,t40 ,lond41 #ahhe2 ,lect4 ,,xii41 8,apoc4 and ,her4 ,gospels40 pp4 #bbf-bdh4 #he ,nicholson1 8,the ,gosp4 acc4 to the ,hebrews40 ,lond41 #ahgi4 #hf ,giles1 8,cod4 ,apoc4 ,n4 ,t40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #aheb4 ,tischendorf1 8,evv4 ,apocr40 ,ed4 #b1 ,lps41 #ahgf4 #hg ,wright1 8,apocryphal ,acts of the ,apostles40 ,syriac and ,english1 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahga4 ,malan1 8,the ,conflicts of the ,holy ,apostles40 ,lond41 #ahga4 ,tischendorf1 8,acta app4 ,apocr40 ,lps41 #ahea4 #hh ,phillips1 8,addai the ,apostle40 ,syriac and ,english1 ,lond41 #ahgf4 #hi ,lightfoot1 8,comm4 on ,phil40 #fth ed41 ,lond41 #ahha2 8,diss4 on ,paul and ,seneca40 pp4 #bgj-cbh2 8,letters of ,paul and ,seneca40 pp4 #cbi-ccc4 ,lightfoot1 8,comm4 on ,col40 #e ed41 ,lond41 #ahhj2 pp4 #bgd-cjj1 8,the ,epistle from ,laodicea40 #ij ,dorner1 8,hist4 of ,dev4 of ,doctr4 of ,person of ,chr40 #e vols41 ,edin41 #ahfb4 ,pressens1 8,heresy and ,christian ,doctrine40 ,lond41 #ahgi4 #ia ,deut4 xviii4 #ae2 ,isa4 liii4 #c2 ,matt4 xii4 #cb2 ,luke i4 #ce2 ,john viii4 #dj2 ,acts ii4 #bb2 #a ,tim4 ii4 #e4 #ib ,tertullian says3 ,ita duo negotia diaboli ,praxeas ,rom procuravit1 prophetiam expulit et hresim intulit1 paracletum fugavit et patrem crucifixit4--,ps4-,tertull43 ,hresim introduxit1 quam ,victorinus corroborare curavit4 #ic ,dorner1 8,person of ,christ40 ,vol4 ii4 #id ,pressens1 8,life and ,practice in the ,early ,church40 ,lond41 #ahgb4 #ie ,hatch1 8,the ,organization of the ,early ,christian ,churches40 ,lond41 #ahha2 8,the ,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ,lond41 #ahhg4 ,bannerman1 8,doctr4 of the ,church40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #aheh2 espec4 vol4 i41 pp4 #bgg-dhj4 ,lightfoot1 8,comm4 on ,phil40 #fth ed41 ,lond41 #ahha3 8,dissertat4 on ,chr4 ,ministry40 ,papers in ,expositor1 #ahhg1 on 8,origin of ,chr4 ,ministry40 by ,sanday1 ,harnack and others4 #if ,we are not carried further than this by ,irenus1 iii4 #c4 ,similarly1 too1 ,cyprian1 ,de ,unitate ,ecclesi1 iv4 ,tertullian also does not accept the ,roman tradition as of supreme authority1 but prefers that of ,asia ,minor in regard to the ,easter ,controversy1 and1 in the ,de ,pudicitia1 he opposes with bitter invective the penitential discipline of the ,roman bishop ,zephyrinus or ,callistus4 ,so1 too1 ,cyprian repudiates the ,roman practice in regard to heretics' baptism 7 #ce1 #e72 and on the same subject ,firmilian of ,csarea in ,cappadocia hesitates not to write3 ,non pudet ,stephanum1 ,cyprianum pseudo-christum et pseudo-apostolum et dolosum operarium dicere3 qui omnia in se esse conscius prvenit1 ut alteri per mendacium objiceret1 qu ipse ex merito audire deberet4--,consult3 ,blondel1 8,trait hist4 de la primaut40 ,gen41 #afda4 ,salacious1 8,de ,primatu ,pap40 ,lugd4 ,bat41 #afde4 ,kenrick1 8,the ,primacy of the ,apostolic ,see ,vindicated40 ,new ,york1 #ahdh4 8,the ,pope and the ,council40 by ,janus1 ,lond41 #ahfi4 #ig ,wall1 8,hist4 of ,infant ,baptism40 with ,gale's ,reflections1 and ,wall's ,defence1 #d vols41 ,oxf41 #ahcf4 ,wilberforce1 8,doctr4 of ,holy ,baptism40 ,lond41 #ahdi4 #ih ,funk's assertion that the and the were not stages in the ,catechumenate1 but penal ranks in which offending ,catechumens were placed1 and that there was only one order of ,catechumens is untenable for these reasons3 #a4 ,because the penitential institution presupposes a falling away from the grace of baptism2 #b4 ,because the ,canon of ,neo-,csarea with its 1 1 1 necessarily implies that is a stage in the ,catechumenate2 #c4 ,because this ,canon provides that after the first penal procedure1 not after passing through two penitential orders1 the sinner will be expelled2 #d4 ,finally1 because the of the ,catechumens1 just like that of the congregation in prayer1 is even in expression something quite different from the of the penitents4--,consult3 ,pressens1 8,life and ,practice in the ,early ,church40 ,lond41 #ahgi1 pp4 #e-cf1 #ccc4 #ii ,pressens1 8,life and ,practice in the ,early ,church40 pp4 #bja-baf1 #bfc-bhf4 ,lechler1 8,apostolic and ,post-,apost4 ,times40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahhf2 ,vol4 ii4 #bih4 ,jacob1 8,ecclest4 ,polity of ,n4 ,t40 ,lond41 #ahga1 pp4 #ahg-cai4 #ajj ,jacob1 8,ecclest4 ,polit4 of ,n4,t40 ,lond41 #ahga1 ,lect4 vii41 8,the ,lord's ,supper40 ,waterland1 8,review of the ,doctrine of the ,eucharist40 ,lond41 #agcg4 #aja ,see1 ,de ,doctr4 ,christiana4 ,,ii4 ii4 #ae4--8,old ,latin ,biblical ,texts40 ,edited by ,john ,wordsworth1 ,bp4 of ,salisbury1 ,oxford1 #ahhe1 etc4 #ajb ,lechler1 8,apostolic and ,post-,apostolic ,times40 ,edin41 #ahhf1 ,vol4 ii41 pp4 #cja-caj4 #ajc ,bosio1 8,roma ,sotteranea40 ,rom41 #afcb4 ,de ,rossi1 8,roma sott4 crist40 #c vols41 ,rome1 #ahfd-ahgg4 ,northcote and ,brownlow1 8,roma ,sotteranea40 ,lond41 #ahfi4 ,withrow1 8,the ,catacombs of ,rome40 ,lond41 #ahgf4 #ajd ,marriott1 8,testimony of the ,catacombs40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 #aje ,zckler1 8,the ,cross of ,christ40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 ,allen1 8,early ,christian ,symbolism40 ,lond41 #ahhg4 ,didson1 8,chr4 ,iconography40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahhf4 #ajf ,schmidt1 8,the ,social ,results of ,early ,christianity40 ,lond41 #ahhf4 ,brace1 8,gesta ,christi40 ,lond41 #ahhc4 ,uhlhorn1 8,chr4 ,charity in the ,ancient ,church40 ,edin41 #ahhc4 ,pressens1 8,life and ,practice in ,early ,church40 ,lond41 #ahgi1 pp4 #cde-dgg4 ,ryan1 8,hist4 of the ,effects of ,relig4 upon ,mankind40 ,dublin1 #ahbj4 #ajg ,morinus1 8,de discipl4 in administr4 s4 pnitenti40 ,par41 #afea4 ,marshall1 8,penitential ,discipline of the ,prim4 ,church for the ,first ,four ,centuries40 ,lond41 #ahdd 7#ast ed41 #agah74 ,tertullian1 8,de ,pnitentia40 ,see ,transl4 in ,library of ,fathers1 ,tertullian1 vol4 i41 8,apologetic and ,practical ,treatises40 ,oxf41 #ahdc2 ,,xi4 ,of ,repentance1 with long and valuable notes by ,dr4 ,pusey1 pp4 #cdi-djh4 #ajh ,j4 de ,soyres1 8,montanism and the ,primitive ,church40 ,cambr41 #ahgh4 ,cunningham1 8,the ,churches of ,asia40 ,lond41 #ahhj1 p4 #aei ff4 #aji ,bunsen1 8,hippolytus and his ,age40 ,lond41 #ahed4 ,wordsworth1 8,st4 ,hippolytus and the ,church of ,rome40 ,lond41 #aheb4 ,dllinger1 8,hippolytus and ,callistus40 ,edin41 #ahgf 7orig4 publ4 #ahec74 #aaj 8,library of ,fathers40 ,oxf41 #ahdc1 ,cyprian's ,treatises3 v48,on ,unity of the ,church40 vi4 8,on the ,lapsed40 with prefaces4 ,also1 8,epp4 of ,s4 ,cyprian40 7#ahdd7 xli4-xlv41 lii4 and lix4 #aaa 8,library of ,fathers40 ,oxf41 #ahdd2 8,epp4 of ,s4 ,cyprian40 ,ep4 lii41 also ,ep4 lv4 #aab ,merivale1 8,conversion of the ,roman ,empire40 ,lond41 #ahfd4 ,milman1 8,hist4 of ,christianity to ,abol4 of ,pag4 in ,rom4 ,emp40 #c vols41 ,lond4 ,lecky1 8,hist4 of ,eur4 ,morals40 ,vol4 ii41 8,from ,constantine to ,charlemagne40 #aac ,dllinger1 8,fables respecting the ,popes of the ,middle ,ages40 ,lond41 #ahga4 #aad ,original source is ,eusebius1 8,life of ,constantine40 ,trans4 ,lond41 #ahdb4 ,see interesting lect4 on ,constantine in ,stanley's 8,hist4 of ,eastern ,church40 ,lond41 #ahfa4 ,madden1 8,christian ,emblems on ,coins of ,constantine ,i40 ,lond41 #ahgh4 #aae ,neander1 8,the ,emperor ,julian and his ,generation40 ,lond41 #ahej4 ,g4 ,h4 ,rendall1 8,the ,emperor ,julian40 ,lond41 #ahgi4 ,newman1 8,miracles in ,eccl4 ,hist40 ,oxf41 #ahdb4 ,bp4 ,wordsworth1 8,julian40 in ,smith's ,dict4 of ,biog41 vol4 iii41 pp4 #dhd-ebc4 #aaf ,on this whole period consult3 ,histories of ,theodoret1 ,sozomen1 ,socrates1 and ,evagrius 7containing much fabulous matter1 but useful as contemporary records extending down to ,a4,d4 #eid74 ,transl4 in #d vols41 ,lond41 #ahab-ahdf4 ,for ,theodosius ,i4 see ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 vol4 ii41 p4 #cda ff41 ,edin41 #ahgf4 #aag ,a careful reconstruction of the whole as far as possible has been attempted by ,neumann 7,leipz41 #ahhj71 accompanied by prolegomena and a ,german translation4 #aah ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,church ,councils40 ,edin41 #ahgb1 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #a-dh4 ,pusey1 8,councils of ,ch4 from ,a4,d4 #ea to ,a4,d4 #cha3 their constit41 obj41 and history40 ,oxf41 #aheg4 #aai ,its original form is probably preserved in a ,syriac translation2 see ,bunsen's 8,analecta ,antenicna40 ii4 #de-cch1 ,lond41 #ahed4 #abj ,first published in the ,greek original by ,bickell under the title1 inapplicable to the first part3 4 #aba ,maitland1 8,the ,dark ,ages40 ,lond41 #ahdd4 ,ozanam1 8,hist4 of ,civilization in #eth ,cent40 ,transl4 by ,glyn1 #b vols4 ,montalembert1 8,monks of the ,west1 from ,benedict to ,bernard40 #g vols41 ,edin41 #ahfa ff4 #abb ,stephens1 8,chrysostom3 his ,life and ,times40 #crd ed41 ,london1 #ahhc1 pp4 #ei ff41 #bid ff4 #abc ,hatch1 8,organization of the ,early ,christian ,churches40 ,london1 #ahha1 pp4 #abd-aci4 ,hatch1 8,ordination40 in ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,bibl4 ,antiq40 ,vol4 ii4 #abd ,hatch1 8,organization of ,chr4 ,ch40 p4 #afa4 ,bede1 8,eccles4 ,hist40 iv4 #a4 #abe ,dale1 8,synod of ,elvira1 and ,christ4 ,life in the #dth cent40 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,lea1 8,hist4 of ,sacerdotal ,celibacy40 ,philad41 #ahfg4 ,lecky1 8,hist4 of ,europ4 ,morals40 ,london1 #ahgg1 ,vol4 ii41 pp4 #cbh ff4 ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,christ4 ,councils40 ,edin41 #ahgb1 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #aej1 #chj1 #dce4 #abf ,neale1 8,hist4 of the ,holy ,eastern ,church40 #e vols41 ,london1 #ahdg-ahgc4 ,stanley1 8,lect4 on the ,eastern ,church40 ,london1 #ahfa4 #abg ,greenwood1 8,cathedra ,petri3 ,pol4 ,hist4 of ,great ,latin ,patriarchate from #ast to #afth cent40 #f vols41 ,london1 #ahef ff4 #abh ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ,vol4 ii41 ,edin41 #ahgf1 pp4 #bca ff41 #dhc ff4 #abi ,comp4 ,dllinger1 8,fables ,respecting the ,popes of the ,middle ,ages40 ,lond41 #ahga4 #acj ,milman1 8,latin ,christianity40 ,vol4 i4 #aca ,bright1 8,hist4 of ,church from ,a4,d4 #cac-dea40 #b ed41 ,cambr41 #ahfi4 ,milman1 8,latin ,christianity40 ,vol4 i4 #acb ,kellett1 8,pope ,gregory the ,great and his ,relations with ,gaul40 7,cambridge ,essays1 ,no4 ii471 ,cambridge1 #ahhi4 #acc ,engl4 ,transl43 8,eccles4 ,hist4 with ,life of ,euseb4 by ,valesius40 ,lond41 #ahdc4 8,theophania1 or ,div4 ,manifest4 of the ,lord40 from ,syr4 by ,dr4 ,sam4 ,lee1 ,lond41 #ahdc4 8,life of ,constantine40 ,lond41 #ahdd4 8,life of ,eusebius40 by ,bright1 prefixed to ,oxf4 ed4 of ,eccl4 ,hist4 of #ahgb4 #acd 8,festal ,epp4 of ,athanasius40 7transl4 from ,syriac discovered in #ahdb by ,tattam1 and first edited by ,cureton in #ahdh71 ,oxf41 #ahed4 #ace 8,treatises against ,arians40 #b vols41 ,oxf41 #ahdb 7new ed41 #a vol41 #ahgg74 8,historical ,tracts40 ,oxf41 #ahdc2 8,select ,tracts10 with ,newman's ,notes1 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahha4 #acf ,newman's1 8,hist4 ,sketches40 ,vol4 ii41 chap4 v2 ,sketches of ,basil1 ,gregory1 etc4 ,originally publ4 under title 8,church of the ,fathers40 ,lond41 #ahdb4 #acg ,ullmann1 8,gregory ,nazianzen40 ,oxford1 #ahee2 and ,newman 8,church of the ,fathers40 #ach ,cyril's ,comm4 on ,luke is transl4 from the ,syriac by ,dr4 ,payne ,smith1 ,oxf41 #ahei4 #aci ,a very full and admirable account of ,synesius and his writings is given by ,rev4 ,t4 ,r4 ,halcomb in ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,chr4 ,biog40 ,vol4 iii41 pp4 #gef-ghj4 #adj ,neander1 8,life of ,chrysostom40 ,lond41 #ahde4 ,stephens1 8,life of ,chrysostom40 #crd ed41 ,lond41 #ahhc4 ,chase1 8,chrysostom3 a ,study40 ,cambr41 #ahhg4 ,his ,homilies and ,addresses are transl4 in #ae vols4 in the 8,lib4 of the ,fathers40 ,oxf41 #ahci-ahea4 ,various ,eng4 translations of the tract 8,on the ,priesthood40 #ada ,newman's 8,historical ,sketches40 ,vol4 ii41 chap4 i41 8,theodoret40 #adb ,translated by ,dean ,church in 8,lib4 of the ,fathers40 ,oxf41 #ahch2 with interesting and instructive ,preface by ,newman4 #adc ,ueberweg1 8,hist4 of ,philosophy40 ,lond41 #ahgb1 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #cdi-ceb4 ,colet1 8,on the ,hierarchies of ,dionysius40 ed4 by ,lupton1 ,lond41 #ahfi4 ,wescott1 8,dionysius the ,areopagite40 in ,contemp4 ,review for ,may1 #ahfg4 #add ,etheridge1 8,the ,syrian ,churches3 their ,early ,hist41 ,liturg4 and ,lit40 ,lond41 #ahdf4 #ade ,morris1 8,select ,writings of ,ephraim the ,syrian40 ,oxford1 #ahag4 ,burgess1 8,repentance of ,nineveh1 ,metrical ,homily by ,ephraem40 ,lond41 #ahec4 8,select ,metrical ,hymns and ,homilies of ,eph4 ,syr40 ,lond41 #ahec4 #adf ,newman1 8,church of the ,fathers40 #bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,reprinted in ,hist4 ,sketches1 vol4 ii4 ,gilly1 8,vigilantius and his ,times40 ,london1 #ahdd4 #adg 8,lib4 of ,fathers40 in vol4 of ,cyprian's ,epps41 ,oxf41 #ahdd1 pp4 #cah-chd4 ,for phrase quoted1 see p4 #cbb4 #adh ,a good account of the writings of ,jerome is given by the late ,prof4 ,william ,ramsay in ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,grk4 and ,rom4 ,biogr40 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #dfj4 ,milman1 8,hist4 of ,chr40 ,vol4 iii41 ch4 xi4 ,cutts1 8,st4 ,jerome40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 ,gilly1 8,vigilantius and his ,times40 ,lond41 #ahdd4 #adi ,gilly1 8,vigilantius and his ,times40 ,london1 #ahdd4 #aej ,newman's 8,arians of the #dth ,century40 ,london1 #ahch4 ,gwatkin1 8,studies of ,arianism40 ,camb41 #ahhb4 ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ,vols4 i4 ii41 ,edin41 #ahgb1 #ahgf4 ,newman's 8,tracts ,theolog4 and ,eccles40 ,chap4 ii42 ,doctrinal ,causes of ,arianism4 8,select ,treatises of ,athanasius40 ,ed4 by ,newman1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahha1 ,vol4 #b containing notes on ,arius1 ,athanasius1 etc4 #aea ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ,i41 pp4 #bca-ddg4 ,kaye1 8,hist4 of ,council of ,nica40 ,london1 #ahec4 ,tillemont1 8,hist4 of ,arians and ,council of ,nice40 ,london1 #agba4 #aeb ,newman's 8,select ,treat4 of ,athanasius40 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #aif f4 ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ,vol4 ii41 ,edin41 #ahgf1 p4 #aic4 #aec ,newman's 8,select ,treat4 of ,athanasius40 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #bhb ff4 ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ii41 p4 #bag4 #aed ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ii41 pp4 #cdj-cgc4 ,hort1 8,two ,dissertations40 ii41 ,on the ,constantinople ,creed and other ,eastern ,creeds of the #dth cent41 ,camb41 #ahgd4 #aee ,swete1 8,the ,hist4 of the ,doctr4 of the ,procession of the ,holy ,spirit from ,apost4 ,age to ,death of ,charlemagne40 ,cambr41 #ahgf4 ,pusey1 8,on the clause #8,and the ,son4'0 ,oxf41 #ahgf4 #aef ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ii41 p4 #cdh ff41 #ig1 ,the ,tome and the ,creed4 #aeg ,stephens1 8,chrysostom40 pp4 #bhg-cje4 ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ii41 p4 #dcj ff4 #aeh ,the most useful and complete account of ,chrysostom is that of ,stephens4 ,consult also ,milman1 8,hist4 of ,chr40 ,vol4 iii41 pp4 #bjf ff4 #aei ,dorner1 8,hist4 of the ,development of the ,doctr4 of the ,person of ,christ40 #e vols41 ,edin41 #ahfa4 #afj ,newman1 8,tracts ,theological and ,ecclesiastical40 ,chap4 iii41 ,apollinarianism4 #afa ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 ,vol4 iii41 pp4 #a-aef4 #afb ,most informing about all these transactions is ,hefele1 8,hist4 of ,councils40 iii41 ,edin41 #ahhc2 7,robber ,synod1 p4 #bda ff42 ,chalcedon1 p4 #dea ff474 ,perry1 8,second ,council of ,ephesus40 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,bright1 8,hist4 of ,church from ,a4,d4 #cac-dea40 ,cambr41 #ahfi4 #afc ,butler1 8,ancient ,coptic ,churches40 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhd4 #afd ,dllinger1 8,fables respecting the ,popes of the ,middle ,ages40 ,lond41 #ahga4 ,willis1 8,pope ,honorius and the ,new ,roman ,dogma40 ,lond41 #ahgi4 ,bottalla1 8,pope ,honorius before the ,tribunal of ,reason and ,history40 ,london1 #ahfh4 #afe ,wiggers1 8,augustinianism and ,pelagianism40 ,andover1 #ahdj4 ,mller1 8,chr4 ,doctrine of ,sin40 #b vols41 ,edin41 #ahfh4 ,ritschl1 8,hist4 of ,chr4 ,doctr4 of ,justific4 and ,reconciliation40 ,edin41 #ahgb4 #aff ,laidlaw1 8,the ,bible ,doctrine of ,man40 ,edin41 #ahgi4 ,heard1 8,tripartite ,nat4 of ,man40 #crd ed41 ,edin41 #ahgj1 pp4 #ahi-bjj4 ,delitzsch1 8,biblical ,psychology40 #bnd ed41 ,edin41 #ahfi1 pp4 #abh-adb4 ,beck1 8,outlines of ,biblical ,psychology40 ,edin41 #ahgg1 p4 #aj4 #afg ,for an entirely different representation of the ,augustinian system see ,cunningham1 8,s4 ,austin and his ,place in ,hist4 of ,chr4 ,thought40 ,lond41 #ahhf2 esp4 chaps4 ii4 and iii41 pp4 #de-ajg4 ,a good outline and defence in ,hodge's 8,system4 ,theol40 ,edin41 #ahgd1 ,vol4 ii41 pp4 #ccc-cec4 ,mosheim1 8,eccl4 ,hist40 ed4 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,reid1 ,lond41 #ahhj1 p4 #baj1 notes #c and #d2 7pt4 ,,ii41 chap4 v41 #be47 ,mozley1 8,augustinian ,doctrine of ,predestination40 ,lond41 #ahee4 #afh ,hodge1 8,systematic ,theology40 ,vol4 ii41 pp4 #aff-afh4 #afi ,lardner1 8,credibility of the ,gospel ,hist40 ,vol4 iv41 ,london1 #agdc4 #agj ,butcher1 8,the ,ecclesiastical ,calendar40 ,london4 ,hampson1 8,medii vi ,kalend40 #aga ,gieseler1 8,ecclesiastical ,history40 ,edinburgh1 #ahdh1 ,vol4 ii41 pp4 #ada-ade4 #agb ,tyler1 8,image ,worship of ,ch4 of ,rome contrary to ,scripture and the ,prim4 ,ch40 ,london1 #ahdg4 #agc ,tyler1 8,worship of ,virgin ,mary contrary to ,script4 and ,faith of ,ch4 of first #e ,cents40 ,london1 #ahea4 ,clagett1 8,prerogatives of ,anna the ,mother of ,god40 ,london1 #afhh4 ,also by same3 8,discourse on ,worship of ,virgin and ,saints40 ,london1 #afhf4 #agd ,cosin1 8,scholastic ,history of ,popish ,transubstantiation40 ,lond41 #afgf4 #age ,reuss1 8,history of the ,n4,t4 ,scriptures40 ,edin41 #ahhd1 #cgg4 ,keil1 8,introduction to the ,o4,t40 ,edin41 #ahgj1 ,vol4 ii41 pp4 #bja-bjc4 #agf ,swainson1 8,the ,nicene and ,apostles' ,creeds40 ,camb41 #ahge4 ,westcott1 8,the ,historic ,faith40 ,lond41 #ahhc1 note iii41 the ,creeds4 ,harvey1 8,hist4 and ,theology of the three ,creeds40 ,camb41 #ahed4 ,hort1 ,two ,dissertations3 ,,ii4 8,the ,constantinopolitan ,creed and the ,eastern ,creeds of #dth cent40 ,camb41 #ahgf4 ,schaff1 8,creeds of ,christendom40 ,edin41 #ahgg1 vol4 i4 ,lumby1 8,history of the ,creeds40 ,camb41 #ahgc4 ,waterland1 8,crit4 ,hist4 of ,athanasian ,creed40 ,camb41 #agbd4 ,heurtley1 8,the ,athanasian ,creed40 ,oxf41 #ahgb4 ,ommaney1 8,ath4 ,creed3 an ,exam4 of ,recent ,theories respecting its ,date and ,origin40 ,lond41 #ahge4 #agg ,neale1 8,hymns of the ,eastern ,church40 ,lond41 #ahfc4 8,medival ,hymns and ,sequences40 ,lond41 #ahfc4 ,gieseler1 8,ecclesiastical ,history40 ,vol4 iii41 p4 #cec4 #agh ,hawkins1 8,history of ,music40 ,lond41 #ahec4 #agi ,hammond1 8,ancient ,liturgies40 ,oxf41 #ahgh4 ,neale and ,littledale1 8,translations of ,primitive ,liturgies40 ,lond41 #ahfi4 ,neale1 8,essays on ,liturgiology40 ,lond41 #ahfg4 #ahj ,marriott1 8,vestiarium ,christianum3 ,origin and gradual development of ,dress of ,holy ,ministry of ,church40 ,lond41 #ahfh4 #aha ,woltmann and ,woermann1 8,history of ,painting40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahhf2 vol4 i41 8,anc41 ,early ,chr4 and ,medival ,painting40 ed4 by ,prof4 ,sidney ,colvin4 8,handbook of ,painting3 ,italian ,schools4 ,based on ,kgler's ,handbook40 by ,eastlake2 new ed4 by ,layard1 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahhf4 #ahb ,ozanam1 8,hist4 of ,civilization during the #eth ,century40 #b vols4 ,lecky1 8,hist4 of ,european ,morals40 ,vol4 ii4 #ahc ,smith's 8,dictionary of ,christian ,biography40 vol4 iii41 p4 #cfg4 #ahd ,gilly1 8,vigilantius and his ,times40 ,lond41 #ahdj4 #ahe ,gieseler1 8,eccl4 ,hist40 ii4 #adh4 #ahf ,ludolphus1 8,history of ,ethiopia40 ,london1 #afhd4 #ahg ,malan1 8,gregory the ,illuminator3 his ,life and ,times40 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,article by ,lipsius on ,eznik in ,smith's 8,dictionary of ,chr4 ,biography40 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #dci4 #ahh ,muir1 8,life of ,mohammed and ,hist4 of ,islam40 #d vols41 ,lond4 ,bosworth ,smith1 8,mohammed and ,mohammedanism40 ,lond41 #ahgd4 ,mhleisen-,arnold1 8,islam1 its ,hist41 ,chr4 and ,rel4 to ,christianity40 #crd ed41 ,lond41 #ahgd4 ,deutsch1 8,literary ,remains3 ,islam40 ,lond41 #ahgd4 ,stephens1 8,christianity and ,islam40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 ,mills1 8,hist4 of ,mohammedanism40 ,lond41 #ahag4 #ahi ,muir1 8,annals of the ,earlier ,khalifate40 #aij ,finlay1 8,hist4 of ,greece from ,rom4 ,conquest40 #g vols41 ,lond41 #ahfd1 new ed41 #ahgg2 vols4 ii4 and iii4 ,bower's 8,lives of ,popes40 ,vols4 iii4 and iv41 ,lond41 #aged4 ,comber1 8,disc4 on #bnd ,council of ,nica40 ,reprinted in ,gibson's 8,preserv4 from ,popery40 ,lond41 #ahdh4 ,didron1 8,christian ,iconography40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahhf4 #aia ,mendham1 8,the ,seventh ,general ,council1 the ,second of ,nica40 in which the worship of images was established4 #aib ,allatius1 8,de eccl4 occid4 et orient4 perpetua consensione40 ,colon41 #affi4 ,swete1 8,hist4 of the ,procession of the ,holy ,spirit40 ,camb41 #ahgf4 ,ffoulkes1 8,christendom's ,divisions40 ,london4 ,neale1 8,holy ,eastern ,church40 #e vols41 ,london1 #ahdg4 #aic ,popoff1 8,hist4 of ,council of ,florence40 ,transl4 from ,russian by ,neale1 ,london1 #ahfa4 #aid ,lupton1 8,st4 ,john of ,damascus40 ,london1 #ahhb4 #aie ,badger1 8,the ,nestorians and their ,rituals40 #b vols41 ,london1 #aheb4 #aif ,baring-,gould1 8,curious ,myths of the ,middle ,ages40 ,lond41 #ahha4 #aig ,murawieff1 8,hist4 of the ,church of ,russia40 ,trans4 from the ,russ41 ,lond41 #ahdb4 ,romanoff1 8,sketches of the ,rites and ,customs of the ,grco-,russian ,church40 ,lond41 #ahfi4 #aih ,potthast1 8,biblioth4 ,hist4 ,modii vi40 ,berol41 #ahfb1 with suppl4 in #ahfh4 ,d',achery1 8,vett4 ,script4 ,spicilegium40 7#afee71 #c vols41 ,par41 #aghc4 ,eccard1 8,corpus ,hist4 ,medii vi40 #b vols41 ,lps41 #agbc4 ,du ,chesne1 8,hist4 ,francorum ,serr40 #e vols41 ,par41 #afcf4 ,parker1 8,rer4 ,brit4 ,serr4 ,vetust40 ,lugd4 ,b41 #aehg4 ,gale1 8,hist4 ,brit41 ,saxon41 ,anglo-,dan4 ,scrr40 #b vols41 ,oxf41 #afia4 ,wharton1 8,anglia ,sacra40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #afia4 ,wilkins1 8,conc4 ,brit4 et ,hib40 #d vols41 ,lond41 #agcg4 ,haddan and ,stubbs1 8,councils and ,eccles4 ,documents40 7,revision of ,wilkins71 ,lond41 #ahgi ff4 ,maitland1 8,the ,dark ,ages3 ,essays on the ,state of ,relig4 and ,lit4 in #ith1 #ajth1 #aath1 and #abth ,centuries40 ,lond41 #ahdd4 #aii ,bryce1 8,the ,holy ,roman ,empire40 ,lond41 #ahff4 ,ranke1 8,history of the ,latin and ,teutonic ,nations40 ,lond41 #ahhf4 #bjj ,ebrard1 8,christian ,apologetics40 #c vols41 ,edin41 #ahhf-ahhg1 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #djg2 8,the ,religion of the ,germans and that of the ,slavs40 #bja ,mallet1 8,northern ,antiquities40 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,hallam1 8,europe during the ,middle ,ages40 ,guizot1 8,hist4 of ,civiliz4 in ,europe40 #bjb ,hodgkin1 8,italy and her ,invaders3 ,a4,d4 #cgf-dgf40 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhj4 #bjc ,scott1 8,ulfilas1 the ,apostle of the ,goths40 ,cambr41 #ahhe4 ,douse1 8,introduction to the ,gothic of ,ulfilas40 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,bosworth's 8,gothic and ,anglo-,saxon ,gospels40 ,oxf41 #ahgd4 #bjd ,gibbon1 8,decline and ,fall of ,roman ,empire40 ,chaps4 xxxiii41 xxxvi41 xxxvii4 #bje ,freeman1 8,historical ,essays40 #crd series1 ,lond42 8,the ,goths at ,ravenna40 #bjf ,ussher1 8,brit4 ,eccl4 ,antiqu40 ,lond41 #afci4 ,perry1 8,hist4 of ,english ,church40 i41 ,lond41 #ahhb4 ,lanigan1 8,eccl4 ,hist4 of ,ireland40 #d vols41 #bnd ed41 ,dublin1 #ahbi4 ,stokes1 8,ireland and the ,celtic ,ch40 ,lond41 #ahhf4 ,lingard1 8,hist4 and ,antiqu4 of ,anglo-,sax4 ,ch40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahde4 ,maclauchlan1 8,early ,scottish ,church40 ,edinb41 #ahfe4 ,reeves1 8,the ,culdees of the ,british ,islands40 ,dublin1 #ahfd4 ,skene1 8,celtic ,scotland40 #c vols41 ,edin41 #ahgf2 #b ed41 #ahhf4 ,bright1 8,chapters of ,early ,eng4 ,ch4 ,hist40 ,oxf41 #ahgh4 ,pryce1 8,ancient ,british ,church40 ,lond41 #ahhf4 #bjg ,todd1 8,life of ,st4 ,patrick40 ,dublin1 #ahfd4 ,cusack1 8,life of ,st4 ,patrick40 ,lond41 #ahga4 ,o',curry1 8,lects4 on ,anc4 ,irish ,history40 ,dublin1 #ahfa4 ,writings of ,st4 ,patrick4 ,transl4 and ed4 by ,stokes and ,wright1 ,lond41 #ahhg4 #bjh ,maclauchlan1 8,early ,scottish ,church40 ,pp4 #ade-bje4 ,adamnan1 8,life of ,columba40 ,ed4 by ,dr4 ,reeves1 ,dublin1 #aheg4 ,smith1 8,life of ,columba40 ,edin41 #agih4 ,forbes1 8,lives of ,ninian1 ,columba1 ,kentigern40 in series of ,historians of ,scotland4 #bji ,ussher1 8,discourse of the ,religion anciently ,professed by the ,irish and ,british40 ,lond41 #afca4 ,maclauchlan1 8,early ,scottish ,church40 ,pp4 #bci-bej4 ,warren1 8,ritual and ,liturgy of the ,celtic ,church40 ,oxf41 #ahha4 #baj ,soames1 8,the ,anglo-,saxon ,church40 #dth ed41 ,lond41 #ahef4 ,stanley1 8,historical ,memorials of ,canterbury40 ,lond41 #ahee4 ,hook1 8,lives of ,archbishops of ,canterbury40 ,vol4 i4 ,sharon ,turner1 8,hist4 of ,anglo-,saxons to the ,roman ,conquest40 #f ed41 #c vols41 ,lond41 #ahcf4 #baa ,lappenburg1 8,anglo-,saxon ,kings40 ,lond41 #ahde4 ,bede1 8,eccles4 ,history40 ,book ,,iii4 ,maclauchlan1 8,early ,scottish ,church40 ,pp4 #bag-bch4 #bab ,gildas 7 ,a4,d4 #egj71 8,de excidio ,britanni40 ,engl4 transl4 by ,giles1 ,london1 #ahda4 ,bede 7 ,a4,d4 #gce71 8,eccles4 ,hist4 of ,engl40 ,transl4 by ,giles1 ,london1 #ahdj4 #bac ,lanigan1 8,eccl4 ,hist4 of ,ireland40 iii41 ch4 #ac4 ,innes1 8,ancient ,inhab4 of ,scotland40 in the ,series of ,historians of ,scotland4 #bad ,maclauchlan1 8,early ,scottish ,church40 p4 #dce4 ,reeves1 8,the ,culdees of the ,british ,islands40 ,dublin1 #ahfd4 ,robertson1 8,scotland under her ,early ,kings40 ,edin41 #b vols41 #ahfb4 #bae ,merivale1 8,conversion of the ,northern ,nations40 ,london1 #ahff4 ,maclear1 8,apostles of ,medival ,europe40 #baf ,that he first received the ,latin name after his consecration as bishop in ,a4,d4 #gbc is rendered more than doubtful by the fact that it is found in letters of earlier date4 ,it is probably only a ,latinizing of the ,anglo-,saxon ,winfrid or ,wynfrith 7from ,vynfortune1 luck1 health2 frid or frithpeace2 therefore3 peaceful1 wholesome fortune7 into the name1 widely spread in ,christian antiquity1 of ,bonifatius 7from bonumfatum1 ,greek3 ,eutyches1 good luck74 ,but the transposition into the form ,bonifacius which might seem the equivalent of the ,anglo-,saxon word 8,benefactor0 of the ,german people1 is first met with1 although even then only occasionally1 in the #hth century1 but afterwards always more and more frequently1 and then is given to the popes and other earlier bearers of the name4 ,by the #aeth century the original and etymological style of writing the name and that used in early documents had been completely discarded and forgotten1 till modern philology1 diplomatics and epigraphies have again clearly vindicated the earlier form4 #bag ,wright1 8,biog4 ,britannica ,literaria40 ,lond41 #ahdb4 ,cox1 8,life of ,boniface40 ,lond41 #ahec4 ,hope1 8,boniface40 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,maclear1 8,apostles of ,medival ,europe40 #bah ,trench1 8,lectures on ,medival ,church ,history40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 ,hardwick1 8,history of ,christian ,church during ,middle ,ages40 #bai ,mosheim1 8,eccl4 ,hist40 ,ed4 by ,reid1 ,london1 #ahhj1 p4 #bhe1 ,cent4 viii41 pt4 ii41 ch4 #e4 ,wright1 8,biographia ,brit4 ,literaria40 ,london1 #ahdb4 #bbj ,milman1 8,hist4 of ,latin ,christianity40 ,vol4 ii41 ,trench's 8,lectures on ,medival ,church ,history40 #bba 8,william of ,malmesbury's ,chronicle of ,kings of ,england40 ,bk4 ,i41 ch4 #d4 #bbb ,freeman1 8,historical ,essays40 #bnd series3 8,the ,southern ,slavs40 #bbc ,adam of ,bremen1 8,gesta ,hammaburgensia40 ,a4,d4 #ghh-ajgb4 ,pontoppidan1 8,annales ,eccles4 ,danic40 ,copenhag41 #agda4 ,merivale1 8,conversion of the ,northern ,nations40 ,london1 #ahfe4 #bbd ,geijer1 8,history of the ,swedes40 ,transl4 by ,turner1 ,lond41 #ahdg4 #bbe ,muir1 8,annals of ,early ,khalifate40 ,ockley1 8,hist4 of ,saracens and their ,conquests in ,syria1 ,persia and ,egypt40 #bbf ,cond1 8,history of ,dominion of ,arabs in ,spain40 #c vols4 ,freeman1 8,hist4 and ,conquests of the ,saracens40 #bnd ed41 ,lond41 #ahgf4 ,abd-el-,hakem1 8,history of the ,conquest of ,spain40 ,tr4 from ,arabic by ,jones1 ,gtt41 #aheh4 #bbg ,kingsley1 8,roman and ,teuton40 ,lectures in ,univ4 of ,cambr43 8,the ,popes and the ,lombards40 #bbh ,crakenthorp1 8,the ,defence of ,constantine1 with a ,treatise on the ,pope's ,temporal ,monarchy40 ,lond41 #afba4 #bbi ,platina1 8,lives of ,popes40 ,under ,john ,,vii4 ,bower1 8,lives of ,popes40 ,vol4 iv4 ,blondel1 8,joanna ,papissa40 ,amst41 #afeg4 ,hase1 8,church ,history40 ,new ,york1 #ahee1 p4 #ahf4 #bcj ,cunningham1 8,discussions on ,church ,principles40 ,edin41 #ahfc1 pp4 #aja-afc2 8,temporal ,supremacy of the ,pope and ,gallican ,liberties40 ,barrow1 8,pope's ,supremacy40 ,london1 #afhc4 #bca ,hatch1 8,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ch4 viii41 ,national ,churches1 pp4 #aci-aed4 #bcb ,hefele1 8,history of ,councils40 iii4 #fi1 #aca1 #adi4 ,field1 8,of the ,church40 ,reprint by ,eccl4 ,hist4 ,society1 #e vols41 ,london1 #ahdg2 vol4 iii41 pp4 #g1 #bde ff4 ,hatch1 8,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ch4 vii41 ,the ,metropolitan1 pp4 #abh-ace4 #bcc ,lea1 8,studies in ,church ,history40 ,philad41 #ahfi4 ,lecky1 8,history of ,european ,morals40 #crd ed41 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahgg4 #bcd ,hatch1 8,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ,london1 #ahhg1 p4 #dc4 #bce ,marriott1 8,vestiarium ,christianum40 ,p4 #ahg ff41 ,london1 #ahfh4 #bcf ,hatch1 8,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ,ch4 v41 ,the ,parish1 pp4 #hi-ig4 #bcg ,hatch1 8,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ,ch4 ix41 ,the ,canonical ,rule1 pp4 #aeg-agb2 ,ch4 x41 ,the ,cathedral ,chapter1 pp4 #age-aij4 #bch ,hatch1 8,growth of ,ch4 ,instit40 ,ch4 xi41 ,the ,chapter of the ,diocese1 pp4 #aic-bjh4 ,stubbs1 8,constit4 ,hist4 of ,england40 ,vol4 iii4 #bci ,walcott1 8,cathedralia40 ,ibid41 8,sacred ,archology40 ,hatch1 8,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ,ch4 iii41 ,fixed ,tenure of ,parish ,priest2 ,ch4 iv41 ,the ,benefice4 #bdj ,lecky1 8,hist4 of ,europ4 ,morals40 ii41 #ahc-bdh4 ,montalembert1 8,monks of ,west from ,benedict to ,bernard40 #g vols41 ,edin41 #ahfa ff4 #bda ,hatch1 8,growth of ,church ,institutions40 ,ch4 vi41 ,tithes and their ,distribution1 pp4 #aja-aag4 #bdb ,roth1 however1 regards this divisio as putting a complete stop to the secularization of church property4 #bdc ,hatch1 8,growth of ,ch4 ,institutions40 ,ch4 iv41 ,the ,benefice1 pp4 #fa-gg4 ,art4 8,benefice40 in ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,chr4 ,antiquities40 #bdd ,ayliffe1 8,parergon ,juris ,canonici40 ,lond41 #agbf4 ,guizot1 8,hist4 of ,civilization40 ,transl4 by ,hazlitt1 ,lond41 #ahdf4 ,walcott1 8,sacred ,archology40 #bde ,blondel1 8,pseudo-,isid4 et ,turrianus vapulantes40 ,genev41 #afbh4 #bdf ,hopkins1 8,the ,organ1 its hist4 and construct40 ,lond41 #ahee4 #bdg ,guest1 8,history of ,english ,rhythms40 ,vol4 ii41 ,london1 #ahch4 ,wright1 8,biogr4 ,brit4 ,lit4 ,anglo-,saxon ,period40 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,thorpe1 8,cdmon's ,paraphrase in ,anglo-,saxon with ,engl4 ,transl40 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,conybeare1 8,illustr4 of ,anglo-,saxon ,poetry40 ,london1 #ahbg4 #bdh ,evans1 8,treatise on ,chr4 ,doct4 of ,marriage40 ,new ,york1 #ahgj4 ,hammond1 8,on ,divorces40 ,in his ,works1 vol4 i41 ,london1 #afgd4 ,cosin1 8,argument on the ,dissolution of ,marriage40 ,works1 vol4 iv41 ,oxf41 #ahed4 ,tertullian1 ,treatise in 8,lib4 of ,fath40 ,oxf41 #ahed1 with two ,essays by ,pusey1 8,on ,second ,marriages of the ,clergy40 and 8,on ,early ,views as to ,marriage after ,divorce40 #bdi ,babington1 8,influence of ,chr4 in promoting the ,abolition of ,slavery in ,europe40 ,london1 #ahfd4 ,edwards1 8,inquiry into the ,state of ,slavery in the ,early and ,middle ,ages of the ,christian ,era40 ,edin41 #ahcf4 #bej ,smith's 8,dict4 of ,chr4 ,antiq40 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #ghe-gib2 ,arts43 8,hospitality1 ,hospitals1 ,hospitium40 #bea ,haddan and ,stubbs1 8,councils and ,eccl4 ,documents40 ,vol4 iii41 ,oxf41 #ahga4 #beb ,barington1 8,lit4 ,hist4 of the ,middle ,ages40 ,lond41 #ahdf4 ,hallam1 8,europe in ,middle ,ages40 #b vols41 ,lond41 #ahah4 ,trench1 8,lect4 on ,med4 ,ch4 ,hist40 ,lond41 #ahgg4 #bec ,lorentz1 8,life of ,alcuin40 ,transl4 by ,slee1 ,lond41 #ahcg4 #bed ,kingsley1 8,roman and ,teuton3 ,paulus ,diaconus40 #bee ,hampden1 8,the ,scholastic ,philosophy in its rel4 to ,chr4 ,theology40 ,oxf41 #ahcc4 ,ueberweg1 8,hist4 of ,philosophy40 ,vol4 i41 pp4 #ceh-cfe4 #bef ,mullinger1 8,schools of ,charles the ,great and ,restoration of ,education in the #ith cent40 ,cambr41 #ahgg4 #beg ,cassiodorus' work in #ab bks41 ,de rebus gestes ,gotorum1 has indeed been lost1 but about ,a4,d4 #eej ,jornandes1 who also used other documents1 embodied this work in his ,de ,getarum orig4 et reb4 gestis4 #beh ,gildas wrote about ,a4,d4 #efj his3 ,liber querulis de excidio ,britanni 7,eng4 transl4 in 8,six ,old ,english ,chronicles40 ,london1 ,bohn74 #bei ,nennius wrote about ,a4,d4 #hej his3 ,eulogium ,britanni s4 ,hist4 ,britonum 7,engl4 transl4 in 8,six ,old ,engl4 ,chron4074 #bfj ,collected ,ed4 of ,alfred's works1 by ,bosworth1 #b vols41 ,lond41 #aheh4 ,fox1 8,whole ,wks4 of ,alfred the ,great1 with ,essays on ,hist41 ,arts and ,manners of #ith cent40 #c vols41 ,oxf41 #aheb4 ,spelman1 8,life of ,alfred the ,great40 ,oxf41 #agji4 ,pauli1 8,life of ,alfred the ,gt40 transl4 with ,alfred's ,orosius1 ,lond41 #ahec4 ,hughes1 8,alfred the ,great40 ,giles1 8,life and ,times of ,king ,alfred the ,great40 ,lond41 #ahdh4 #bfa ,robertson1 8,hist4 of ,chr4 ,church40 ,vol4 ii41 ,london1 #ahef2 pp4 #aed ff4 ,dorner1 8,hist4 ,development of ,person of ,chr40 ,div4 ,,ii41 vol4 i4 #bfb ,ussher1 8,gotteschalci et controv4 ab eo mot hist40 ,dubl41 #afca4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes4 ,the following corrections have been made in the text3 #g1 #a4 ,sentence starting3 ,there are mysterious phenomena4444 - added omitted ,word #8to' 7which seemed to establish7 #ad4 ,sentence starting3 ,the ,levite ,barnabas1444 - #8ministery' replaced with #8ministry' 7and strengthened his own ministry7 #af1 #a4 ,sentence starting3 ,that ,babylon is mentioned4444 - #8#bc' replaced with #8#ac' 7#a ,pet4 v4 #ac7 #bj4 ,sentence starting3 ,as the history of4444 - #8beginings' replaced with #8beginnings' 7the beginnings of the church7 #be1 #b;b4 ,sentence starting3 ,the school of ,baur4444 - #8 #ahc1 #i' replaced with #8 #ahb1 #g' 7school of ,baur 7 #ahb1 #g77 #bf1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,the most important of extant4444 - #8,hippolylus' replaced with #8,hippolytus' 7and of ,hippolytus 7 #bg1 #b4 ,sentence starting3 ,after him there arose444 - #8,hebdomes' replaced with #8,hebdomas' 7the so-called ,hebdomas7 #bg1 #aa4 ,sentence starting3 ,he consequently developed444 - #8irreconcileable' replaced with #8irreconcilable' 7the irreconcilable opposition of righteousness7 #ca1 #a4 ,sentence starting3 ,the latter especially gave4444 - #8gramatico' replaced with #8grammatico' 7grammatico-historical examination of scripture47 #ca1 #h4 ,sentence starting3 ,sextus ,julius ,africanus1444 - #8,septimus' replaced with #8,septimius' 7campaign of ,septimius ,severus7 #cb1 #f f4 ,sentence starting3 ,it assigns the founding4444 - #8 #ab1 #b' replaced with #8 #ac1 #b' 7,christ's promise 7 #ac1 #b747 #ce1 #b4 ,sentence starting3 ,only a few unimportant4444 - #8immobolis' replaced with #8immobilis' 7immobilis et irreformabilis7 #ch1 #a4 ,sentence starting3 ,thereafter they were used4444 - #8were' replaced with #8where' 7and spots where martyr's relics7 #dj1 #a4 ,sentence starting3 ,themison1 ,alcibiades' successor1444 - #8' replaced with #8' 7a 17 #dj1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,the following are some of4444 - #8 #eg1 #c' replaced with #8 #cg1 #c' 7,on dies stationum 7 #cg1 #c7 nothing7 #dd1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,but twenty years later4444 - #8portea' replaced with #8postea' 7esset postea glori7 ,sentence starting3 ,martin of ,tours4444 - #8 #dg1 #ae' replaced with #8 #dg1 #ad' 7,martin of ,tours 7 #dg1 #ad7 established7 #de1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,but the ,council at ,macon4444 - #8 #he1 #a' replaced with #8 #hf1 #a' 7,carolingian legislation 7 #hf1 #a747 #df1 #c4 ,sentence starting3 ,in this year1 however1444 - #8 #ec1 #b' replaced with #8 #ej1 #b' 7the ,council of ,sardica 7 #ej1 #b717 #df1 #f4 ,sentence starting3 ,to his legates at the ,council4444 - #8,ephesns' replaced with #8,ephesus' 7at the ,council of ,ephesus7 #dg1 #ae4 ,sentence starting3 ,he deserves special credit for4444 - #8 #fi1 #d-f' replaced with #8 #ei1 #d-f' 7,hymn ,composition1 #ei1 #d-f7 #dg1 #bb;c4 ,sentence starting3 ,ordained deacon against his4444 - #8apocrisarius' replaced with #8apocrisiarius' 7a papal apocrisiarius in ,constantinople7 #dh1 #b4 ,sentence starting3 ,for the history of heresies4444 - #8 #eg1 #ba;h' replaced with #8 #dg1 #ba;f' 7the author of ,prdestinatus 7 #dg1 #ba;f747 #dh1 #g4 ,sentence starting3 ,this cannot1 however1 be said4444 - #8,eutchyes' replaced with #8,eutyches' 7against ,nestorius and ,eutyches7 #ej1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,for the restoration of church4444 - #8followship' replaced with #8fellowship' 7received back into church fellowship7 #ej1 #f4 ,sentence starting3 ,basil the ,great wrote #d bks4444 - #8,eunonius' replaced with #8,eunomius' 7#d bks4 against ,eunomius7 - #8,amphilochum' replaced with #8,amphilochium' 7,ad ,amphilochium1 against the7 #eb1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,he appealed to an cumenical4444 - #8 #dfg' replaced with #8 #df1 #g' 7to ,leo the ,great 7 #df1 #g7 at ,rome7 #eb1 #e4 ,sentence starting3 ,the strict ,monophysites of4444 - #8,diophysites' replaced with #8,dyophysites' 7at the head of the ,dyophysites7 #ef1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,the pre-eminence of the ,christian4444 - #8,quadrigesma' replaced with #8,quadragesima' 7the whole ,quadragesima season7 #ei #a1 ,sentence starting3 ,this view prevailed4444 - #8 #afj1 #h' replaced with #8 #afa1 #h' 7referred to by the ,protestants 7 #afa1 #h77 #ei1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,under the name of ,troparies1444 - #8 #ga1 #b' replaced with #8 #gj1 #b' 7church service of ,psalms 7 #gj1 #b747 #fc4 ,sentence starting3 ,owing to various diversities4444 - #8 #fa1 #g' replaced with #8 #fa1 #a' 7and discipline 7 #fa1 #a717 #fg1 #g4 ,sentence starting3 ,for the executing of his spiritual4444 - #8divisons' replaced with #8divisions' 7holders of the four divisions7 #ga1 #a4 ,sentence starting3 ,the ,catholic polemists of the4444 - #8,manichian' replaced with #8,manichan' 7to a ,manichan family7 #gc1 #e4 ,sentence starting3 ,secret remnants of this sect1444 - #8 #afb1 #aj' replaced with #8 #afc1 #aj' 7a new departure 7 #afc1 #aj77 #gf1 #h4 ,sentence starting3 ,pope ,gregory the ,great1444 - #8#fid' replaced with #8#fjd' 7,gregory the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #eij-fjd7 #gg4 ,sentence starting3 ,this1 however1 is certain1444 - #8 #bc1 #f' replaced with #8 #bb1 #f' 7end of the #crd century 7 #bb1 #f77 #gg1 #d4 ,sentence starting3 ,two princes of the ,jutes4444 - removed duplicate #8of' 7led a horde of ,angles and ,saxons7 #gg1 #f4 ,sentence starting3 ,his wife ,eanfled1 ,edwin's daughter4444 - #8decidly' replaced with #8decidedly' 7most decidedly preferred it7 #gh1 #h4 ,sentence starting3 ,thus he lets himself be informed4444 - #8forbiden' replaced with #8forbidden' 7and storks is absolutely forbidden7 #hf4 ,sentence starting3 ,this institution1 however1444 - #8ust' replaced with #8just' 7just as they chose7 #hg1 #c4 sentence starting3 ,langen fixes the date4444 - #8 #bij1 #e' replaced with #8 #ij1 #e' 7to ,servatus ,lupus 7 #ij1 #e77 #ia1 #b4 ,sentence starting3 ,at a ,synod at ,gentiliacum4444 - #8,gentiliscum' replaced with #8,gentiliacum' 7,at a ,synod at ,gentiliacum7 ,footnote #hb4 - #8,assumtio' replaced with #8,assumptio' 7,enoch1 ,assumptio1 ,ezra1 ,bk4 of ,jub47 ,footnote #bea4 - #8,hadden' replaced with #8,haddan' 7,haddan and ,stubbs7