---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,minor errors1 attributable to the printer1 have been corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,the cover image has been modified to include the title1 author and publication date1 and is1 so modified1 added to the public domain4 ,,the ,,east ,,india ,,vade-,,mecum4 ,,the ,,east ,,india ,,vade-,,mecum2 ,,or1 ,complete ,guide ,,to ,,gentlemen ,,intended ,,for ,,the ,,civil1 ,,military1 ,,or ,,naval ,,service ,,of ,,the ,,hon4 ,,east ,,india ,,company4 ------- ,,by ,,captain ,,thomas ,,williamson1 ,author of #8,the ,wild ,sports of the ,east4' ,,in ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ------------------------------------ ,,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,,black1 ,,parry1 ,,and ,,kingsbury1 ,booksellers to the ,honorable ,east ,india ,company1 #g1 ,,leadenhall-,,street4 --- #ahaj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,pages ,great ,heats1 modes of refrigeration1 general plan #a - #af of building1 various kinds of lime and cement1 tarras floors ,pucka and ,cutcha houses1 ancient buildings1 #ag - #ec white-ants1 sleeping in the open air1 floors on pots1 north-westers1 bungalows and out-offices1 mats of sorts1 satrinjes1 cheeks1 glass windows1 talc as a substitute1 ,chalk-,hills1 purdahs ,various kinds of timber1 modes of floating them1 #ed - #hd prices1 and uses1 mango-fruit1 and plantations ,bamboos1 mode of fitting-out trading-boats1 #hd - #ajf toddy-tree1 coir rigging1 cocoa-nuts1 oil from them1 meemii-ke-tale1 writing on cocoa-tree leaves1 hot winds ,state of society among ,europeans1 sitting-up1 #ajg - #adi meals1 wines1 malt liquors4 ,invalid ,establishment1 levees1 sugar-candy1 bread1 camp-ovens1 milk1 ghee-butter1 meats1 buffaloes ,spirits1 wines1 fish1 poultry1 table apparatus1 #aej - #aih furniture1 china-bazar1 ,europe-shops1 wax and candles1 insects1 snakes of sorts1 antidotes to their poison1 musquitoes1 and curtains to repel them1 cock-roaches1 scorpions1 centipedes1 wasps1 hornets ,shampoing1 amusements1 theatres1 races1 gaming1 #aih - #bbc music1 balls1--,churches1 schools1 ,fort-,william1 military establishments ,false ideas of ,indian prosperity1 anecdote1 #bbc - #bfg depreciation of specie1 the bore1 brackish waters1 preservation of rain-water4 ,the several great rivers1 physical properties1 fossile alkali1 streams impregnated with minerals1 inundations1 ,hindu corpses1 plague not known in ,india ,tanks and jeels1 eleemosynary alligators1 #bfh - #cbe seraies1 gunjes1 durgaws1 ,hill people1 bunds1 quicksands1 wells on great roads1 hot-wells1 sol-lunar influence on fevers1 huckeems1 state of medicine1 refrigerating principle1 state of learning1 ,koits1 ,llhs1 ,gooroos1 good books ,posts1 and conveyance of parcels1 c41 travelling #cbe - #cff in a palanquin1 rice1 mode of expelling weevils1 meal from barley1 wheat1 c41 travelling by water1 the ,soonderbund ,passage1 water in jars1 fire-wood1 ,new ,harbour1 entrances of the ,hoogly ,river4 ,opinions regarding ,gour1 and the great ,delta of the ,ganges ,salt manufacture #cff - #cfh ,hire of budjrows1 rates and distances1 #cfh - #dbj precautions1 contraband trade1 trading and baggage-boats1 tracking1 ,decoits1 or pirates1 guards requisite1 ,coolies1 ,chokeydars1 and ,dowraws1 expert thieves1 anecdotes1 leger de main1 puppet-shows1 gymnastic feats1 ,nuts1 or ,indian gypsies1 curious comparison of their language ,slavery1 how far tolerated1 ,indian #dbj - #dbi ,lock-,hospitals1 summary punishment of adultery1 curious incident1 dancing-girls ,elephants1 their points1 qualities1 prices1 c41 #dcj - #dfg camels1 the appropriate soils1 conveying them over rivers1 bullocks1 the ,company's regulations1 tattoos1 or indigenous breed of horses1 tanians1 tazees1 serissahs1 horses imported from ,persia1 the ,punjab1 c41 stables ,tanning1 artificers1 great improvements made in #dfh - #dgc most professions1 newspapers1 ,persian ,akbars1 paper ,the ,mocurrery 7or perpetual7 ,system of ,revenue4 #dgd - #dig ,the periods for collection1 stations of collectors1 judges1 commercial residents1 custom masters1 and diplomatic characters ,security afforded to private property1 inland #dih - #ejf traders1 agency-houses1 rates of commission and remittance1 trade and situation of ,calcutta4 ,conclusion ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,east ,,india ,,vade-,,mecum4 ,for some months1 generally during the latter part of the rains1 the weather is so close and sultry1 that universal exudation takes place1 even while sitting quiet4 ,the natives1 as ,i remarked in the outset of this subject1 have1 from experience1 adopted a very different mode from that we should have expected to find in use1 under such a latitude4 ,we should1 no doubt1 have been prepared to see airy habitations1 through which the wind could pass freely in every direction4 ,but it is far otherwise2 and ,europeans have1 at length1 become convinced1 that the most insupportable heats are derived from the glare of light objects2 or1 in other words1 from the reflection of surfaces intensely acted upon by a vertical sun4 ,some conception may be formed of that intensity1 from the fact of meat having been broiled on the cannon mounted upon the ramparts of ,fort-,william6 ,we1 therefore1 must coincide with the habits of the natives1 to a certain extent1 if we mean to retain health1 or to acquire comfort4 ,such1 indeed1 should1 in every country1 be held in view3 for1 however absurd many practices may at first appear1 it will ordinarily result that necessity was their parent4 ,i do not mean to say that we should imitate1 much less adopt1 without discrimination1 all we see2 but it may be considered an axiom1 that1 by taking the general outline of indigenous customs for our guide1 if we err1 it will be on the safe side4 ,nothing can be more preposterous than the significant sneers of gentlemen on their first arrival in ,india2 meaning1 thereby1 to ridicule1 or to despise1 what they consider effeminacy1 or luxury4 ,thus1 several may be seen annually walking about without chattahs1 7i4e4 umbrellas17 during the greatest heats2 they affect to be ashamed of requiring aid1 and endeavor to uphold1 by such a display of indifference1 the great reliance placed on strength of constitution4 ,this unhappy infatuation rarely exceeds a few days2 at the end of that time1 sometimes only of a week1 7nay1 ,i have known the period to be much shorter17 we too often are called upon to attend the funeral of the self-deluded victim6 ,the first attack is generally announced by cold shiverings1 and bilious vomiting2 delirium speedily ensues1 when putrefaction advances with such hasty strides1 as often to render interment necessary so soon as can possibly be effected4 ,the glare is certainly far more distressing than exposure to the sun1 at some seasons3 but nothing can equal the effects of both glare and sun-shine1 acting upon the human frame1 during a ,midsummer's day2 when1 perhaps1 not a breath of air is moving1 when every leaf seems to repose1 and every bird1 saving the vulture1 the adjutant1 7or argeelah17 and the kite1 retires to some shady spot1 to avoid the solar ray4 ,at such times1 the peaceful ,hindu confines himself to an apartment1 from which light is generally excluded3 there he sits among his family1 enjoying his pipe1 refreshing himself occasionally by bathing1 drinking the pure beverage afforded by some adjacent spring or well2 and1 in general1 avoiding to eat1 except of ripe fruits1 especially the turbooz1 or water-melon1 until the cool of the evening4 ,in the meanwhile1 however1 he perspires copiously1 even though in a state of inactivity1 unless when refreshed by a punkah1 or fan1 moved either by his own hand1 or by that of some menial4 ,the instinct of the birds above named1 to wit1 the argeelah1 the vulture1 and the kite1 all of which are extremely numerous throughout ,india1 and contribute greatly to the salubrity of the air1 by carrying off astonishing quantities of putrefactive offal1 c41 is wonderful6 ,about mid-day1 when the sun's beams strike with incredible force upon the earth's surface1 these feathered scavengers ascend1 perhaps to the height of seven or eight hundred yards1 so that the largest of them1 7the argeelah7 is scarcely discernible3 there they soar beyond the reach of reflection from the heated soil1 enjoying the freshness of a cooler atmosphere1 and descending only when allured by the scent of prey4 ,their sense of smelling must1 indeed1 be acute2 for we see them1 especially the vultures1 flying for miles1 and from all quarters1 towards some carcase1 usually that of a ,hindu1 floating down the stream1 or stranded upon some shelving bank2 but so situated as to render it perfectly certain that the visual faculties could have no concern in the discovery4 ,few of the natives have tatties applied to their doors1 or windows2 though by no means insensible to the gratification they afford2 but penury1 or1 to say the least1 close and parsimonious economy1 prompt to the denial of such a comfort2 a comfort without which any constitution1 not inured to the climate1 would speedily give way4 ,it is really curious to observe what may be effected by habit6 ,when we understand how fatally the sun's rays act upon our ,european frames1 even while under the shade of a thick painted umbrella1 and although our diet may be nearly similar to that of the most abstemious ,hindu1 it certainly must appear wonderful1 that children1 of whatever age1 whose rapid circulation1 and sable color1 should1 according to the estimates we form of temperament1 be highly unfavorable to such exposure1 run about at all seasons1 bare-headed1 and perfectly nude2 seeming to set the sun1 the wind1 and the rain1 alike at defiance4 ,we see the same individuals making long journies1 in the most torrid seasons1 under nearly similar circumstances2 nay1 they even carry bangies1 containing1 on an average1 full a maund1 7#hblb4 avoirdupoise17 sixteen1 eighteen1 twenty miles1 or even more1 under such an oppressive heat as would kill an ,european outright2 and this1 too1 for a few pence4 ,if1 in considering this point1 we urge the benefits of extreme temperance1 we urge that which often does not exist2 since many1 who practise the above1 may be ranked among the most arduous votaries of ,bacchus1 devouring fish1 flesh1 and fowl1 highly spiced1 whenever their purses1 or the bounty of others1 may afford them so welcome a regale4 ,when we see the several shop-keepers1 in every city and town1 serving their customers1 or1 in their absence1 smoking like ,vesuvius1 in their little boutiques1 exposed to the glare1 and to the burning winds2 when we see these persons1 with parched skins1 and their eyes violently irritated1 and clogged1 by the clouds of dust which range along the streets1 and which1 occasionally taking a whirl1 nearly suffocate all within their reach2 we may then fairly admire the force of habit1 and congratulate ourselves on the blessings of a more temperate climate6 ,in the same situations1 we see two classes of persons1 both natives of the soil1 acting in diametric opposition to each other2 and exhibiting that powerful resistance capable of being made by long residence1 or rather by aboriginal habitude1 against that which never fails to consign our countrymen to the grave4 ,the former class confine themselves1 as much as their avocations may permit1 within gloomy1 but cool1 chambers2 living most abstemiously1 yet1 at certain times1 exposing themselves in the most unequivocal manner to the severest heats3 the other1 perfectly inattentive to the dictates of prudence1 yet performing what we may fairly term wonders1 in opposition to their destructive locality4 ,when the ,english first visited ,india1 they adopted a mode of building by no means consistent with common sense1 and displaying a total ignorance of the most simple of nature's laws4 ,we accordingly find1 that all the old buildings1 such as may lay claim to a duration of from forty to sixty years1 were1 like the celebrated ,black-,hole1 constructed more like ovens1 than like the habitations of enlightened beings4 ,the doors were very small1 the windows still less1 in proportion1 while the roofs were carried up many feet above both4 ,those roofs were in themselves calculated to retain heat to an extreme1 being built of solid tarras1 at least a foot thick1 lying horizontally upon immense timbers1 chiefly of teak1 or of saul wood4 ,again1 when they built bungalows1 7i4e4 thatched houses17 of one 7ground7 floor only1 the utmost care was taken to close up all the intervals between the thatch1 and the walls1 on which it rested2 so as to exclude the external air1 as well as the dust3 a practice religiously observed even to the present date4 ,the obvious consequence of this latter construction is1 that1 whatever air is retained between the thatch1 7which1 in the course of the day1 becomes very1 very warm17 and the upper lines of the windows must be highly rarefied4 ,thus1 we invariably observe1 that1 towards sun-set1 when the inhabitants quit the inner hall1 c41 either to sit out on chabootahs1 7i4e4 large terraces17 raised perhaps a foot or two from the level of the area1 and abundantly watered for the occasion2 or when they remove to the windward veranda 7or balcony72 on either of these occasions1 the interior becomes intolerably hot1 on account of the rarefied air being drawn down by that current inevitably attendant upon the removal of all the tatties2 and1 by the throwing open of all the doors and windows4 ,in a preceding page1 ,i have shewn1 that the ,french generally acted upon more philosophical principles2 they making their doors and windows remarkably high3 but1 there yet remains a very important improvement to be made2 namely1 the introduction of tin ventilators1 to be inserted near the summits of the thatches4 ,it is a fact1 that1 during many months in the year1 the houses built by most ,europeans1 and especially their bungalows1 are so extremely heated1 as to render it absolutely impossible to sleep in their interior1 without the intervention of some artificial means for keeping the air around the bed at a proper temperature4 ,however faulty the first ,european builders in ,india might have been1 the moderns have by no means made such improvements as we should suppose experience would have led them to adopt4 ,whether from economy1 or from more attention to exterior1 than to comfort1 scarce a house is now built with such spacious1 lofty1 and substantial verandas1 as are to be seen on the south side of almost every old mansion4 ,some of these antiquated edifices had verandas on several sides1 and a few might be quoted having them all around2 as seen in the officers' quarters at ,berhampore1 and ,dinapore4 ,it can scarcely be doubted1 that such verandas are1 in every respect1 admirably suited to the climate2 since they prevent the sun from striking on the main wall2 which1 in exposed situations1 have been known to give from #h to #aj difference on the thermometer2 under circumstances in every other respect similar4 ,it is peculiar1 that1 until within the last twenty-five years1 the ground floors1 that is1 the whole of the basements1 of those fine large houses to be seen in all quarters of ,calcutta1 and in various parts of the interior1 were consigned to the reception of palanquins1 gigs1 water-stores1 or to be wine-godowns1 7or cellars17 butler-connahs1 7or pantries17 and even1 in some instances1 stables6 ,in those days1 the whole of the family resided in1 and confined themselves to1 the first floor2 which was then the summit of the habitation3 leaving to their luggage1 cattle1 and menials1 that part which has lately been discovered to be1 in every respect1 most suitable to the accommodation of the ,european population4 ,in houses of agency1 c41 we now see the basement converted partly into offices1 and but rarely any portion of it appropriated as above described2 while1 the generality of new houses are built upon a scale such as favors this salutary change1 by giving sufficient height to the lower apartments2 thereby adapting them to every purpose1 and occasioning a considerable reduction of the ground plan1 in consequence of the accommodations thus gained4 ,the practice of building houses without verandas1 certainly cannot be approved2 whereas1 the old mode of building them on pillars1 was highly ornamental1 and1 at some seasons1 not less appropriate3 but1 the great art of keeping a house cool during the prevalence of the hot-winds1 rests entirely on shutting them out1 except at some few apertures supplied with tatties2 which1 being kept constantly moist1 or1 indeed1 dripping wet1 produce such an immense evaporation1 as to cool the interior completely3 of course1 a suitable draught must be preserved1 by opening some window1 c4 on the lee-side4 ,this is commonly effected by means of ,venetians2 which allow the air to pass1 but debar the access of glare4 ,without adverting to the expence1 it should seem that a close-veranda is by far preferable to an open one2 and1 were it not for the immense additional charges1 we can hardly doubt that the ,european inhabitants of ,calcutta would1 in imitation of the generality of bungalow-residents1 have their apartments surrounded by a veranda1 of full fourteen feet in width2 with apertures1 of a good size1 in the exterior wall1 corresponding with those of the interior4 ,this arrangement renders the generality of bungalows remarkably pleasant2 but1 it must be noticed1 that there is a very wide difference in the expence incurred in rendering them so3 their roofs being of thatch1 and their walls of sun-burnt bricks1 plastered with mud and chaff1 offer a great contrast in the out-lay1 both as relating to the labor1 and to the materials1 in a house constructed of burnt bricks1 and good lime1 whose roof is of masonry1 and in which timbers of great price are every where used4 ,accordingly1 we find1 that1 in almost every part of ,india1 an excellent bungalow may be built for about five thousand rupees1 completely fitted with glass doors1 and windows1 and with all the necessary out-offices duly tiled1 or thatched1 according to their purposes2 while1 a house suited to the accommodation of the same family1 in ,calcutta1 could not be finished for less than ten times that sum4 ,the bricks form a very1 very small portion of the disbursements incident to building in ,india3 so cheap1 indeed1 are they1 that most of the made-roads about ,calcutta1 and in other parts1 are formed by laying broken1 or even whole1 bricks regularly2 giving the centre two or three layers1 gradually tapered off to the sides1 and then covering them with a coat of rubbish1 or1 which is far better1 coarse sand4 ,such roads are extremely firm1 and far more durable1 than those we make with gravel1 flint1 lime-stone1 c4 ,but great allowance must be made for the heavy machines used among us1 and carrying such tremendous burthens2 whereas1 an ,indian hackery can rarely weigh five cwt41 nor can its load be averaged at more than fifteen cwt41 being altogether only a ton4 ,we well know1 that our common narrow-wheeled waggons weigh from fifteen to twenty-five cwt42 and1 that1 except where weigh-bridges limit their burthens1 it is by no means uncommon to see them carrying from two and a half1 up to four1 tons4 ,three chaldron of coals will be found to average about seventy cwt42 yet1 are often drawn by three horses through the streets of ,london4 ,the lime used in ,calcutta1 is brought down from the ,morungs1 and their vicinity1 in large boats1 being previously slaked2 though it is sometimes imported in its quick state1 or as nearly so as accident may permit4 ,it may readily be concluded1 that1 after a passage of from three to four hundred miles1 this article is rather deteriorated2 especially as the voyage can rarely be effected under three weeks or a month4 ,the prices of this kind of lime1 made from a very firm stone1 called gutty1 abundant in some parts1 vary much according to the season1 and to the demand3 it has been sold as low as six or seven rupees per hundred maunds1 but1 at other times1 has reached to twenty and twenty-five4 ,at ,madras1 and indeed all along the coast of ,coromandel1 as well as on some parts of the ,malabar border1 an excellent kind of lime is made from sea shells4 ,this nearly equals what is made in ,italy1 from the refuse of marble1 and receives an extraordinary fine surface1 competiting even with that of polished glass2 at the same time that it is incomparably firm1 and durable4 ,when laid upon a wall1 which is done only by way of a finish1 it is carefully freed from grit1 and kept working1 and rubbing1 until nearly dry2 thereby to prevent the surface from cracking1 as it would be subject to do1 when acted upon by the hot air at mid-day3 when nearly dry1 it is rubbed with coarse calico cloths1 until it receives a beautiful lustre1 which causes it to appear semi-diaphanous4 ,a few houses at ,calcutta have been finished with this kind of lime1 conveyed from ,madras by shipping2 but the expence1 being very considerable1 has occasioned the common ,morung lime to be generally employed1 both for cement1 and for white-washing4 ,in the ordinary buildings constructed in the upper parts of the country1 a weaker kind of lime is obtained by burning a substance called kunkur1 which1 at first1 might be mistaken for small rugged flints1 slightly coated with soil4 ,the experiments made upon these alkaline concretions1 which abound in most parts above ,bengal ,proper1 and1 in some places1 prove extremely troublesome to the farmer1 but especially to the horticulturist1 give the following result3 calcareous earth1 #da1 cilicious earth1 #af1 calx of iron1 #c1 and air1 #dj4 ,kunkur is not easily reduced to a calx1 it requiring a greater heat than is necessary to burn the harder kinds of gutty2 it is1 likewise1 less durable and tenacious as a cement2 of which the color1 viz4 commonly what we call fawn1 is a strong indication4 ,whether from want of sufficient power in their kilns1 or that the kunkur is so peculiarly hard1 we commonly find that1 on slaking1 a large portion of the interior of each lump remains unsubdued4 ,these insoluble masses are often pounded by means of a dainky1 or foot-break1 and mixed with the perfect calx3 nor is the lime burner very scrupulous in regard to keeping out the wood ashes1 c41 remaining at the bottom of the kiln1 after the kunkur has been taken out2 on the contrary1 he will1 if not very narrowly watched1 mix as much as he can with the calx2 thereby causing the lime to be very considerably deteriorated4 ,this kind of lime1 commonly called cutcha1 7i4e4 weak17 sells for about six or seven rupees per hundred maunds4 ,in all parts of ,india1 the lime-burners proceed on the most expensive plan2 their kilns being rarely more than four feet in diameter1 nor above that much in height3 consequently1 they have not sufficient accumulation1 concentration1 or reverberation of heat1 to burn the stones properly2 neither do they1 in general1 break them sufficiently small1 but bundle them in1 with very little attention to regularity or economy4 ,it is the same with the brick and tile-kilns2 which are1 for the most part1 of a pyramidal form2 the raw bricks being laid intermediately with the fuel1 and the exterior being plastered over1 perhaps half a foot in thickness1 with mud4 ,the best bricks ,i ever saw in ,india were made by an engineer officer1 who had some extensive public works to carry on4 ,he first built the whole of the walls of a bungalow he required1 with sun-burnt bricks1 properly cemented with mud well filled in2 taking care to arch over the door and window openings in such way1 that the frames could be afterwards introduced4 ,the whole interior was then laid with bricks and fuel1 while the exterior of the veranda walls were also closed in with sufficient to heat them thoroughly2 and a complete coating was given1 in the ordinary way4 ,the bricks baked uncommonly well1 while the walls became a solid mass1 capable of resisting all the elements1 should they unite for its destruction4 ,the bungalow proved remarkably dry1 and the plaster was found to adhere in a surprizing manner1 while rats1 snakes1 c41 were all set at defiance2 it being impossible for them to burrow in so hard a substance3 the greater part of the cement1 which happened to contain cilicious particles1 was nearly vitrified4 ,thirty years ago1 the generality of houses were coated with the same kind of tarras as is employed for laying the floors1 and the roofs3 this was made of chunam1 7i4e4 white-lime17 one third2 soorky1 7i4e4 brick-dust17 one third2 and sand1 one third2 these1 being mixed duly with a large portion of cut hemp1 7wool being very scarce1 and short hair not to be procured on any terms17 together with some jaggery1 or refuse molasses1 made a tolerably strong cement4 ,the surface1 after a house had been duly plastered1 was washed1 while yet moist1 with a strong solution of lime in water4 ,this would have been enough to blind every man1 woman1 or child1 in the place1 had it not been partially remedied1 by the admixture of some coloring matter with the finishing wash3 but1 whether red1 yellow1 or blue1 which were the prevailing colors1 it was found that the alkali generally destroyed their appearance1 and left a motley kind of work4 ,the good taste of a few individuals1 chiefly gentlemen in the corps of engineers1 gradually overcame this vile imitation of ,dutch and ,portugueze finery1 they substituting1 in their public works1 a plaster composed of river sand1 saturated with a solution of white lime1 of the consistency of cream4 ,the addition of the usual allowance of cut hemp1 gave this simple compound1 7if ,i may so blend the terms17 not only much additional durability1 but a remarkably neat appearance2 especially when the body of the building was of that fine grey1 thus obtained1 and the cornices1 c4 were finished of a pure white4 ,houses thus exteriorly finished became yet further neat1 by the contrast of their ,venetian windows1 invariably painted green3 some prefer all verdigris2 others1 a deep clear green for the frame-work1 with verdigris for the several leaves1 or valves4 ,almost every house has folding ,venetians to each window1 or outward door2 these are sustained by very strong hinges1 which allow each fold1 or shutter1 to open outwards1 and to lie back flat upon the exterior wall3 in that position the ,venetians are kept from blowing about1 by means of hooks2 in the same manner as we see practised in ,england1 where this kind of shutter is in use4 ,sash-windows are never made upon the ,european construction1 but move invariably in two folds1 one to the right1 the other to the left2 each opening inwardly1 and lying within the thickness of the wall1 or nearly so4 ,in no part of the world is more attention paid to the foundation of a house than in ,india2 and that not without necessity1 the rains being so very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed to their action1 either above1 below1 or laterally4 ,when houses are built with what is termed cutcha1 that is1 with sun-dried bricks cemented with mud1 and either plastered with the same1 or with mortar1 the least crack in the roof1 or the smallest hollow near the foundation1 will teem with danger4 ,the rain which1 often for a whole day1 descends in streams1 soon gets into the walls1 where it does incalculable mischief3 many of these houses1 whose substance and general appearance should indicate a better fate1 may annually be seen in ruins after a continued fall of heavy1 or of drizzling1 but oblique1 rain3 the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to such buildings as are insecurely coated2 it drifts in under the plaster1 damps the mud cement1 and brings down the heavy roofs with a most sonorous crash4 ,few of these cutcha houses are now to be seen with tarras roofs2 such as are so built for the sake of cheapness1 being1 almost without exception1 intended for thatches1 and thus becoming what we term bungalows4 ,the natives build sometimes on that kind of half and half plan1 which commonly1 in the end1 cheats the contriver4 ,thus1 ,i have seen some1 of a small description1 built with cutcha 7or sun-dried7 bricks for the interior1 while the exterior of the wall was made of pucka 7or burnt7 bricks2 from whose interstices the mortar was carefully picked out1 as though about to be pointed2 for the purpose of causing the exterior plastering to get into the joints1 and thus to retain its position firmly4 ,admitting1 and even admiring1 the ingenuity of such a system1 when properly conducted1 ,i lament1 that1 in almost every case which came within my knowledge1 the whole system was disgraced1 by the house either falling in toto1 or by shedding its coat of mail4 ,there certainly did formerly exist some mode of mixing the ingredients1 or some particular recipe giving better proportions1 or better materials1 which1 after a time1 formed a very capital cement3 of this1 many very well known edifices furnish ample proof4 ,the old fort1 situate within the town of ,calcutta1 may be an apt quotation4 ,the impressions made by shots1 of #bd and #cblb4 fired by ,admiral ,watson against its western face1 when his fleet lay within three hundred yards of it1 in the year #agee1 were absolutely insignificant2 the brave admiral might have battered for a century1 without bringing down the wall4 ,in the year #aggi1 when the ,company's cloth godown took fire1 the third regiment of ,european infantry1 then in garrison at ,fort-,william1 marched out with engines1 c4 to aid towards its extinction2 yet were they utterly unable to get the iron bars loose from the masonry2 though provided with tackles1 crows1 axes1 c4 ,this godown1 which occupied a large part of the northerly face of the old fort1 was afterwards converted into offices2 but with incredible labor6 ,the masonry was as hard as rock6 ,when this occurrence took place1 the old fort had been built about forty years2 whereas1 we find that all the ,company's1 or any other1 buildings which now claim that age1 are of a very different complexion6 ,the greater part of them1 though not in a state of absolute ruin1 are kept up at an inordinate expence2 while such of them as have given up the ghost1 display a crude mass of loose1 friable1 and mouldering rubbish4 ,nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate than the old walls3 many of these may be seen among the ruins of cities1 and towns1 of which we have scarcely any information1 absolutely retaining their places1 although the beams on which they formerly rested have been1 ,god only knows how many years1 removed4 ,if these roofs had possessed any convexity1 or been constructed according to the ,syrian principle1 we should have had less cause to admire their solidity1 and toughness2 but1 such has never been the case with any ,i have seen2 and which1 though certainly of no considerable dimensions1 appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small calibre4 ,i have often been one of a party to walk on such4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be in place here to describe the manner in which roofs are constructed in ,india3 ,i mean such as are now under consideration4 ,the beams are rarely more than two feet apart2 and1 speaking generally1 may have a scantling of ten or eleven inches depth1 by five1 or six1 in width2 sometimes1 though but rarely1 and then only when under the eye of science1 cambered to the extent of three or four inches2 according to the length of the timber4 ,these joists are laid upon the bare wall1 having their ends previously well charred2 and1 in some cases1 smeared with petroleum2 called by the natives1 #8earth-oil4' ,this is done to deter the white-ants from making an attack upon the wood2 which1 in time1 they would certainly do1 but for the above precaution4 ,the ends of the timbers are cased in with masonry1 so as to leave about four inches all the way round1 and at their bases3 in order that the timber may be removed1 in case of decay1 without damaging the wall2 the interval is1 however1 filled up afterwards with cutcha work2 which1 not being liable to adhere firmly to the pucka wall1 may be easily removed when the joist is to be changed4 ,when plastered over1 the whole appears uniform4 ,in some parts of the country1 but especially in the upper provinces1 the natives cover in their houses with flat roofs1 made of clay1 beat very firm1 and about a foot in thickness4 ,this mode of construction requires some care1 but is found to be extremely efficient4 ,the walls ought to be substantial1 as should also the joists2 and the surface of the clay should be rather convex1 so as to direct the water falling on it into proper gutters1 or drains1 and to prevent the building from being damped4 ,without this precaution1 the heavy falls of rain1 which may be constantly expected during three months in the year1 would speedily dissolve such tenements1 with nearly as much facility as though they were made of lump-sugar4 ,but when due care is taken1 both to prevent1 and to stop1 leaks1 clay roofs are rather eligible1 than objectionable2 especially in the vicinity of bazars1 7or markets17 and lines1 in which fires are frequent4 ,many gentlemen have adopted the plan1 some wholly1 others partially1 in their bungalows1 and find little or no cause to regret their having done so4 ,it is1 however1 expedient to send up a man now and then1 to lute any cracks that may appear in consequence of excessive heats2 but1 after a season or two1 the clay becomes extremely firm1 nearly equal to mortar-tarras1 resisting the various changes of temperature1 and appearing to be consolidated into a very firm mass4 ,the greatest inconvenience it produces1 is the harbor afforded to that inconceivably obnoxious insect1 the white-ant4 ,this little depredator rarely fails to take advantage of whatever opportunity is offered for the exhibition of its powers4 ,assembling by the ten thousand1 in a few hours they will eat out the bottom of a deal box1 perhaps an inch in thickness1 or render it a mere honeycomb4 ,of fir1 they are remarkably fond1 as also of mango-wood4 ,it seems rather peculiar that they should be so partial to woods abounding so highly1 as these both do1 in turpentine2 while the presence of a few drops of petroleum1 which is imported from ,pegu1 ,ava1 and the ,arvean coast1 under the name of mutty ke tale1 7earth-oil17 seems to be a perfect preventive4 ,few things come amiss to these obnoxious visitants1 which every where abound1 and destroy wood1 leather1 cottons1 woollens1 c4 ,nay1 a story is current1 that1 some years back1 they were absolutely accused of having devoured some thousands of dollars6 ,fortunately1 on deeper research1 it was discovered1 that they had only ate away the bottom of the treasure-chest2 and1 like misers1 had buried the hard cash some feet under ground4 ,as ceilings are not in use in ,india1 each joist is neatly finished1 having its lower edges rounded off with a beading-plane4 ,at right angles with the joists1 smaller battens1 called burgahs1 are laid2 three or four inches wide1 by about two or three deep1 or vice vers2 these are nailed down upon the joists at such parallel distances1 in general about seven or eight inches1 as may allow a large kind of tile to be laid on them4 ,over the tiles they lay rubbish1 rather dry1 about four or five inches deep1 patting it down gently1 by the continual operation of some dozens of men1 women1 and children1 who1 squatting1 like monkies1 on their haunches1 and having batons of about a cubit in length1 something of a trowel shape1 though not so obtuse1 continually beat the materials until they become perfectly compact4 ,the better method1 which is in more general adoption1 is1 instead of such rubbish1 to put on a coarser kind of mortar1 well worked up1 but not very moist2 which is beat in the mode above described4 ,after this has been duly compacted1 but before it is quite dry1 another coating of two or three inches1 but of finer materials1 is put on1 and beat in like manner2 then a third1 perhaps only an inch deep1 of still finer materials2 and1 ultimately1 the whole is coated1 for about half an inch in depth1 with the finest ingredients1 mixed1 after being sifted through a coarse cloth1 with jaggree1 and by some with peas-meal2 which the natives consider to be peculiarly valuable in cement4 ,this last coat is laid on with a trowel1 very firmly pressed1 in order to compact it the more1 and to prevent cracking2 which will1 nevertheless1 always take place1 more or less1 according as more or less pressure and beating have been used2 or1 as the great body of the tarras may be made of good or bad materials4 ,all the partition-walls1 dividing off the several apartments1 are necessarily of masonry2 both because the pressure from above is enormous2 and1 that wood cannot be trusted1 where the white-ants could honeycomb its interior1 without being much1 if at all1 noticed on its surface4 ,these partition-walls are carried up about six inches above the tarras roof2 whereby the latter appears to be divided into chequers1 corresponding with the several apartments4 ,small channels are cut1 to allow the water to pass into the spouts1 or drains2 from which jars1 of about a hogshead in measurement1 are filled with water intended for table use4 ,some spouts are made to extend full a yard from the wall1 and1 in some instances1 have canvas hoses attached1 for the purpose of leading the water into the jars2 but the more modern practice is to build pipes of pottery within the wall1 or to clamp them to it with iron1 until their lower ends1 which are crooked for the purpose1 form a proper debouchure4 ,the latter mode1 however1 in very heavy rains1 subjects the walls to be damped1 in consequence of the fall of water being greater than the pipes can instantly carry off4 ,this may give some idea of those deluges which at times take place1 almost instantaneously4 ,the tops of houses are invariably enclosed with breast-parapets1 or with balustrades2 which give a very finished appearance to these superb buildings4 ,with the exception of those ridges formed by the continuation of the partition-walls1 the roofs afford a pleasant promenade at certain seasons3 some of them command most interesting views4 ,during the very hot weather1 probably from the end of ,april to the setting in of the rains in the first or second week of ,june1 many gentlemen have their cots1 7as the bed1 with all its apparatus1 is usually called17 carried to the tops of their houses1 and sleep there during the night4 ,this may appear a very hazardous proceeding2 but1 when it is considered1 that no dew1 worthy of notice1 falls at that season1 and1 that the cots have generally curtains1 which would receive1 and absorb1 what little might fall1 we may1 on the whole1 pronounce it to be less dangerous than should at first be supposed4 ,if1 indeed1 this were to be done more to the southward1 near the mouth of the ,hoogly river1 where the immense marshes1 the ouze left by the returning tides1 and the jungles1 which every where abound1 produce the most deleterious exhalations1 we should then be correct in exclaiming against the practice3 but few1 very few1 instances could be adduced of any serious indisposition having attended it2 while1 on the other hand1 it is confessed by all who have adopted it1 that the greatest refreshment ever resulted2 enabling them to rise early1 divested of that most distressing lassitude attendant upon sleeping in an apartment absolutely communicating a febrile sensation1 and peculiarly oppressive to the lungs4 ,i believe all those fatal1 or injurious effects1 which have been so often adduced1 by way of caution to persons impatient of heat1 have been produced not by sleeping in an open exposure1 but in a current of air4 ,this ,i cannot recommend2 on the contrary1 ,i must vehemently censure such a custom1 as being highly dangerous3 ,i could quote several most melancholy cases1 arising entirely from this most injudicious conduct6 ,mr4 ,johnson1 who appears to have been about two years in ,india1 during which time he was surgeon of a frigate1 has published a volume1 in which there are occasionally to be found interesting details1 and sensible observations4 ,i shall offer to my readers some remarks he has made1 at page #bfi1 that bear closely on the subject under discussion4 ,he says2 #8,europeans1 in general1 on their first arrival in ,india1 are prepossessed with the idea1 that sleeping at night in the open air must be a very dangerous practice2 but1 in the course of a short residence on shore1 they get rid of this prejudice1 by observing most of the natives1 and many of the ,europeans1 sleeping on open terraces1 and in verandas1 not only with impunity1 but as a preservative against the debilitating effects of a hot climate4 ,but on board-ships1 where they have not an opportunity of seeing1 or of reflecting on1 these circumstances1 they frequently adhere1 for a considerable time after their arrival on the station1 to the established regulations1 of making every man sleep in his proper berth3 and suffering none to lie about upon the decks2 a system1 in my opinion1 very prejudicial to the health of ships' companies in ,india4 ,at sea1 indeed1 it is not of so much consequence1 where the watch on deck always gives sufficient room to those below2 but it is in harbours1 and road-steds1 where the air is much hotter than at sea1 the impolicy of the measure becomes manifest4'--,and again1 page #bgj1 #8,we will suppose1 that every man1 when he turns into his hammock1 falls fast asleep in a few minutes2 which1 by the by1 is not always the case4 ,about eleven o'clock1 however1 ,i will venture to say1 he wakes in a deluge of perspiration1 panting with the heat and rarefied air2 upon which he turns out1 and goes upon deck1 for the purpose1 as he terms it1 of getting a mouthful of fresh air2 anathematizing1 as he ascends1 the infernal heat of the climate6 ,under pretence of going to the head1 he gets upon the forecastle2 when the cool breeze from the shore immediately chills him1 and gives a sudden check to his perspiration4' ,all this ,i have personally experienced1 both on board-ship and on shore2 and ,i make no scruple of saying1 that1 in lieu of being injured by sleeping out on a chabootah1 in a well-covered cot1 my whole frame has been braced1 my rest has been sound and refreshing1 and ,i have avoided all the miseries inseparably attendant upon seeking repose in a close1 muggy atmosphere2 where thirst and irritation create perpetual restlessness1 banish sleep1 and cause that relaxation and debility which render each subsequent day burthensome as its preceding night has been distressing6 ,in a former page1 ,i observed1 that boarded floors were almost unknown in ,india3 various reasons have1 doubtless1 combined to explode them2 firstly1 the depredations of the white-ant2 secondly1 the perpetual danger of their warping2 and1 thirdly1 the difficulty of rendering the sounds of foot-steps less audible4 ,this last may appear trivial2 but1 where so many menials1 c41 are ever moving about in various parts of a house1 and that1 too1 with little ceremony1 though1 it is true1 they are all bare-footed1 it would prove extremely inconvenient at those times when the family might retire to rest during the heat of the day4 ,about twenty-five or thirty years back1 all the stairs were of masonry2 but1 of late years1 wooden ones have been introduced4 ,these1 being made to rest on strong beams1 obvious in every part1 save where they enter the walls1 may be considered as tolerably safe from the white-ants2 certainly they are much neater1 and more easily kept in order4 ,all the joists1 in every house1 are either painted1 or tarred2 the latter has a very unpleasant1 indeed1 a mean appearance2 and is not often practised3 for the most part1 white1 with a very slight cast of blue1 to preserve it from fading1 is adopted4 ,some paint the beaded1 or moulded1 edges of the door pannels1 also the rounded corners of the joists1 with some delicate color2 such as a very light sky-blue1 a very light verdigris-green1 or a lilac2 and1 by way of conformity1 ornament the mouldings of the wall pannels with similar tints4 ,in the upper provinces1 it is a very prevalent fashion to color the pannels with some native ochres1 of beautiful hues1 leaving the mouldings1 cornices1 c4 white4 ,these mouldings1 c4 are all done by means of trowels shaped for the purpose1 and not by moulds1 or stamps2 of course1 what with want of device1 and want of activity1 such ornaments may be reckoned among that variety of tedious labors of which ,blacky is extremely enamoured4 ,yet1 in the execution of such matters1 he will display great ingenuity1 consummate patience1 and1 often1 great delicacy3 but1 with respect to design1 taste1 composition1 perspective1 consistency1 and harmony2 in all these1 whether in drawing1 sculpture1 or in any mode of representation1 he will prove himself to be completely ignoramus4 ,let the former apology be pleaded2 namely1 that1 in every branch1 the ,indian mechanic is called upon1 after1 perhaps1 only a few days of observation1 or1 at least1 with so little practice as would1 among us1 be considered rather an objection than a qualification1 to perform that which we judge to be unattainable1 except by the application of several years1 closely attached to one individual intention4 ,therefore1 in lieu of condemning their operations1 we should rather regard them with admiration2 for1 ,i will venture to assert1 that we should not fail to wonder at one of our own countrymen1 who1 perhaps at rather an advanced age1 without previous education1 without the possibility of reference to books1 or to public institutions1 should undertake to do that with a hatchet1 or any other gross implement1 which persons regularly brought up in the respective profession should assert to be impracticable1 unless duly provided with benches1 vices1 and tools1 of exquisite formation1 out of number4 ,the ,asiatic has the bare soil for his bench1 his toes are his vice1 and his implements usually amount to no more than a small adze1 a saw1 with1 perhaps1 a chisel1 and a pair of uncouth pincers6 ,the same operations which ,i have described to be necessary for the construction of a tarras roof1 are equally so for the floors in every part of the house2 but1 unless the basement stands very high1 so as to allow of water houses1 c4 underneath the ground-floor1 it is usual to have the latter flued1 by means of narrow channels1 or air-conduits1 of about four inches deep1 and as many wide2 so as to be covered with bricks of an ordinary size3 these flues are made in parallel lines1 at1 perhaps1 a foot or more asunder1 and pass entirely under the house1 in both directions1 having their several apertures covered by small iron grates1 for the purpose of keeping out rats1 snakes1 c42 which would else find admirable asylums within these intersecting channels4 ,the lower tarrases are thus kept thoroughly dry by the flues1 which1 of course1 give ventilation to every part under the floor4 ,where bricks are scarce1 which is often the case1 on account of their never being made for general sale1 except at public stations and great cities1 and then of a very small size1 it is common to build the ground tarras upon inverted pots2 each being capable of containing about three pecks1 or a bushel4 ,these pots may be had1 in any quantity1 all over the country2 generally at the low rate of a farthing1 or1 at the utmost1 a halfpenny1 each4 ,the pots are ranged upon the ground1 within the area formed by the walls1 side by side1 but not quite in contact1 each resting on its mouth1 which consists generally of a rim1 projecting about three or four inches from the body of the vessel1 which is nearly spherical4 ,the loosest sand that can be had1 or1 in its absence1 any dry rubbish1 is then thrown in1 so as to fill up all the intervals1 and to cover the pots1 about four inches in depth4 ,this surface being levelled1 another stratum of pots is added1 if judged necessary2 the whole process of filling up is similar in both1 and the tarras is laid in the usual manner on the levelled surface4 ,by far the greater portion of the subsoil throughout ,bengal1 at least1 in that wide expanse reaching from ,gogra to ,dacca1 on the north-east1 and from the ,soane1 along the plains at the foot of the hills1 to the debouchure of the ,hoogly1 7which1 together1 form the limits of our richest1 and most populous1 purgunnahs1 or districts17 is a loose1 gritty sand1 very like what farmers term a lush2 which1 in a few places1 receives a strong red tint from the ferruginous mountains1 every where to be seen along either boundary4 ,this extreme looseness of the subsoil creates a most peremptory necessity for securing the foundations of weighty buildings1 by every possible means2 and1 in the sinking of wells1 is often found to present the most formidable obstacles4 ,under such circumstances1 it must appear self-evident1 that those large mansions forming the bulk of ,calcutta1 by which ,i mean that portion raised1 and inhabited1 by ,europeans2 together with the several garden-houses1 and the numerous edifices on a large scale erected by the natives1 especially their places of worship1 which are most ponderously constructed2 all these necessarily require to be very firmly founded3 nor can too much attention be paid to carrying off the water1 which pours down from the tops of the houses2 lest the bases should be sapped1 and very serious injury be entailed4 ,with this intention1 almost every compound1 or enclosed area1 is either laid with pan-tiles1 or is well coated with soorky1 in the same manner as the roads2 while1 in many instances1 the junction of the wall with the level of the area is concealed1 and secured1 by a talus1 blending with the building1 at about a foot or more above that level4 ,with respect to bungalows1 or any other buildings coming under the designation of #8temporary1' their foundations are usually very shallow4 ,these are1 for the most part1 raised a foot or two from the surrounding level2 and1 as their inner walls1 that often run from sixteen to twenty feet in height1 are well secured by the verandas1 which likewise preserve the precinct1 for full twelve or fourteen feet1 from being softened by the rains1 very shallow foundations are deemed sufficient4 ,the surrounding parapet which limits1 while it raises1 the veranda1 is usually of burnt-brick1 cemented with good mortar1 and plastered over with the same2 but the whole of the residue of bricklayers' work is such as has been already explained4 ,the verandas of bungalows are sustained either by strong wooden posts1 or by pillars of masonry2 their intervals are filled up with jaumps1 before described1 which may be raised at pleasure1 to any angle1 including about #aj1 or #ae1 above the horizontal2 or they may be suffered to hang perpendicularly against the exterior faces of the pillars4 ,in tempestuous weather1 and especially during those violent squalls called #8north-westers1' in consequence of their usually either commencing on1 or veering round to1 that quarter1 it will be found necessary to place the bamboo props1 whereby the jaumps are usually elevated1 against their exterior sides2 by which means the jaump is pressed to the pillar1 and becomes greatly exempted from the danger of being blown away2 which1 nevertheless1 frequently is its fate1 although its weight may be full a cwt4 and a half1 or even two cwt4 ,the force of these north-westers is next to incredible6 ,i recollect one in particular1 which1 in ,november #aghg1 tore up an immense tree1 called the #8,barrackpore ,beacon1' on account of its being situated at a point where it could be seen from ,duckansore1 along a beautiful reach of the ,hoogly river4 ,this fine piece of timber measured nearly twenty feet in girth1 and branched out in the most luxuriant manner1 reaching to full seventy or eighty feet in height3 it was torn up by its roots1 though some of the ramifications were much thicker than my own body1 leaving an excavation of not less than #ae1jjj cubic feet4 ,when stationed at ,hazary-,bang1 in the ,ramghur district1 my bungalow was1 ,i firmly believe1 saved from falling by mere accident4 ,it had become fashionable to construct fire places in our halls1 running up the chimnies1 so as to pierce the thatches immediately below the summit of that wall in which the fire-place was made1 and which served as the front face of the chimney4 ,cutting through the wall1 to make a proper opening wherein to set the grate1 ,i found that1 in lieu of being firm1 as it should have been1 the whole cut like so much butter4 ,in consequence of this discovery1 ,i hastened the finishing of the stove1 which1 in a short time1 aired the room1 and completely dried the walls2 but1 not before they began to display very unequivocal tokens of what would have taken place1 but for my very fortunate adoption of the whim then in vogue4 ,it is remarkable1 that the bungalow stood on a gentle declivity1 from which the superficial water was well drained2 but1 the soil was proverbially spongy1 and retained every shower1 much the same as chalk1 but without its good qualities3 thus1 notwithstanding the floors1 7or tarrases17 were full two feet above the surrounding level1 my habitation would1 ,i am well convinced1 have subsided2 burying every inhabitant under its ruins6 ,probably1 that fatal moment would have accorded with the height of some north-wester2 to whose fury the catastrophe would1 though erroneously1 have been imputed4 ,the verandas of bungalows are generally allotted to the accommodation of servants of all descriptions2 and1 except where1 as in ,calcutta1 a separate lodging-room is provided1 serve for the home of whatever cahars1 or bearers1 may be employed4 ,these have each their mat1 on which they sleep1 forming a pillow of any g'hettry1 or bundle of cloaths1 and covering themselves with their quilts1 c43 blankets being but very little in use among domestics of any description4 ,when a gentleman has company1 the side-board is usually set out in the veranda1 where also the several guests' hookahs are prepared2 and1 in rainy weather1 their water cooled4 ,all servants come upon being called only2 there being no bells hung in any part of the country1 and very1 very few even of hand-bells to be seen4 ,the common call1 ,qui hi8 7meaning #8who is there8'7 often rouzes a dozen of the slumbering crew1 though it is occasionally repeated1 with some vociferation too1 before one will stir4 ,although to many bungalows there are abundance of out-offices1 some of which may have been built for the reception of palanquins1 and especially of a gig1 7there called a buggy17 few persons allow either their mahanahs1 or their bohahs1 to be kept in such places1 as they would be subject to various unpleasant purposes1 whereby their interior especially would often be soiled3 this objection acts likewise in some measure towards the common practice of retaining the gig1 as well as the palanquin1 within the veranda2 the latter is easily lifted in and out by the bearers1 but the former requires that a ramp1 or slope1 should be made1 up and down which the syce 7or groom7 draws it with facility4 ,all conveyances1 when housed1 are covered with a double cloth1 usually made of karwah4 ,throughout ,calcutta the doors are pannelled1 and have1 generally1 handsome brass mountings1 with mortice locks2 the windows are well glazed2 and1 in many instances1 the rooms are laid with superb carpets1 either of ,european1 ,persian1 or ,mirzapore manufacture3 the two latter are generally made of silk2 exhibiting not only rich patterns1 but the most brilliant colors1 at least equal to any made at our manufactories4 ,the floors1 or1 more properly speaking1 the tarrases1 are almost invariably covered with a matting made of a species of rush1 which possesses considerable firmness and pliancy4 ,this1 after being duly cleansed from fibres1 c4 is made up into bundles1 about a cubit in length1 and nearly the same in girth1 in which state it is well soaked3 from these bundles the mat-makers1 who are usually of the ,cunjoor tribe1 weave the mats upon a kind of woof made of twine1 but perfectly concealed by the rushes4 ,some of these mats are made plain2 while others are in various stripes1 or in chequers4 ,with this manufacture a room of any size may be fitted2 the work being either done on the spot1 or at the houses of the persons employed2 the color is generally that of faded straw2 though1 sometimes1 red or black rushes1 dyed for the purpose1 are introduced4 ,for the accommodation of persons residing in parts where they cannot have floors fitted with entire mats1 long strips1 of about a yard wide1 and four or five yards long1 are sold in almost every great bazar 7or market74 ,these require to be sewed side by side1 the same as our ,scotch carpeting2 but1 exclusive of that disadvantage1 are not so eligible2 both because they are less carefully made1 and that1 in almost every instance1 they are manufactured from refuse materials4 ,in the upper provinces1 where the kudjoor 7or date-tree7 abounds1 a very passable kind of matting is made of its leaves2 it is true1 this is not so durable1 nor so handsome1 nor so even1 as that sort just described2 owing to the coarseness of the materials1 it is rather subject to catch the feet of chairs2 add to this1 the danger of fire from hookahs1 c43 all these circumstances limit the use of the kudjoor mats to very ordinary purposes2 or1 at the least1 to laying down in such rooms as are to be wholly or partially carpeted4 ,mats are likewise made1 in every part of the country1 from green bamboos2 which1 being split into very thin laths1 of about half an inch1 or less1 in width1 answer the same purpose as the foregoing2 these are1 however1 very uncomfortable1 and harbour centipedes by the hundred3 the kudjoor mats partake of that objection1 but not to the same extent4 ,mats1 if we may so call them1 are likewise made by laying down rattans1 and stringing them together with strips of their own bark1 the same as is done in making the seerky used in thatching2 but this species is very rare3 indeed1 ,i believe only a few were ever seen in ,calcutta1 and they were said to have been brought by the ,dutch from ,malacca1 whence great numbers of rattans are yearly imported4 ,the price of the best rush-mats may be taken at about a rupee per square yard2 that of the mats in strips at from four annas 7#h d47 to eight annas 7#ag;d472 but the kudjoor1 and bamboo kinds1 can only be computed by the demand for materials1 and the prices of labor1 locally3 probably1 taking all things into consideration1 we may estimate a square yard of either at two annas1 or about #d;d4 ,a very beautiful species of mat is made in some parts of the country1 but especially in the south-eastern districts1 about ,dacca and ,luckypore1 from a kind of reedy grass1 of which the rind1 being pared off very thin1 and trimmed to about the eighth of an inch in width1 is wove into mats1 rarely exceeding seven or eight feet in length1 by about four feet in width4 ,these are peculiarly slippery1 whence they are designated #8seekul-putty1' 7i4e4 polished sheets72 their color resembles that of common horn1 and their prices are generally from two to six rupees per piece2 according to their fineness1 and to the state of the markets4 ,the principal uses of the seekul-putty1 are1 to be laid under the lower sheet of a bed1 thereby to keep the body cool2 which is certainly effected to a great degree by this device1 by its remarkably slippery surface3 some few pillows for couches are likewise covered therewith1 and ,i have seen it employed in making covers for mahogany tables2 to which it is well adapted1 on account of its repelling dust3 in such case1 it ought to have all the joinings well taped1 and to be lined with blanket1 or with karwah1 c4 properly quilted4 ,exclusive of the carpets before mentioned1 and which are very high priced1 a manufacture of satrinjes is carried on at ,mirzapore1 and in many other parts4 ,these serve all the purposes of carpets1 but have no plush2 being in that particular very similar to our ,scotch carpeting1 but1 at the same time1 very dissimilar in respect to pattern4 ,the satrinje is nothing more than a very large colored sheet1 in which1 except for about a cubit's breadth all around1 the whole is divided into bars1 or stripes1 usually from two to six inches wide1 proportioned to the extent of the fabric4 ,the principal colors in these carpets are crimson for a ground1 with bars of deep1 or light red2 or blue grounds1 with white1 yellow1 or tawny bars2 or green grounds1 with deeper1 or lighter green1 or crimson1 or orange bars2 or any of these1 vice vers4 ,the common price of a woollen satrinje1 may be from twelve annas 7i4e4 #c_/d of a rupee7 to three rupees per square yard2 according to fineness1 substance1 color1 demand1 c4 ,of cotton satrinjes1 the price rarely exceeds a rupee1 or a rupee and a quarter1 for the same extent2 these1 however1 wash admirably4 ,it is no uncommon thing to see a satrinje of full twenty by thirty feet2 and this1 too1 made upon nothing more than a bamboo roller1 round which the work gradually collects1 as the threads are crossed1 by passing the warp-lines1 alternately over and under the woof-lines1 in regular changes6 ,cheeks1 or screens1 to keep out the glare1 are made in a similar manner4 ,these simple1 yet most comfortable1 addenda to our ,indian habitations1 are formed of bamboo wires1 7if ,i may use the term17 from four to six feet in length1 and about the thickness of a very large knitting-needle1 or1 perhaps1 of a crow-quill4 ,a thin1 clean-worked lath1 of the same material1 is put at the top and bottom4 ,many cheeks are made of bamboo wires1 previously painted either green1 or reddish brown1 but generally the former4 ,these require no particular care1 further than keeping them separate1 as they dry2 which is usually effected by laying them upon two rows of bricks1 or against a wall1 or upon scattered straw1 when the weather is calm4 ,when cheeks are intended to represent any pattern1 such as birds on branches1 or ,indian deities1 c41 the whole of the wires are laid with their respective ends on two boards1 over which two others are placed perfectly parallel1 and even1 so as to press the ends of the wires1 and to prevent their being easily displaced4 ,a pattern1 being cut out on paper of the required size1 is fastened down upon the wires1 and its outline every where distinctly marked upon them2 after which it is worked in on the former ground1 say a green1 with brown for branches1 a deeper green for the leaves1 and red1 yellow1 c41 for the birds3 the whole is then left to dry4 ,when ready for use1 the cheek-wallah 7or maker7 fixes his apparatus close to the top1 and1 taking each wire in succession1 fastens it down in its proper place1 being guided by two lateral lines1 as they are handed to him by an urchin1 perhaps not more than three or four years of age6 ,in this way the representation is preserved4 ,the neatest patterned cheeks come from ,china2 but the ,bengallee artist is getting fast forward1 and bids fair to put a stop to the importation3 it is usual to have the whole cheek bound1 all around1 either with a light cotton tape1 of about three or four inches broad1 or with red1 or blue1 karwah4 ,at the top of each cheek1 generally1 a piece of circular leather is attached1 two being sewed together1 though on different sides of the wires2 to these the cotton cords1 usually white1 or red and white1 or blue and white1 about an inch in circumference1 and each a full yard in length1 are sewed3 their use is1 to tie up the cheek1 when rolled towards the door-plate1 at such times as it is not wanted4 ,each end of the top lath has similar pieces of leather sewed on1 for the cords by which the cheek is to be suspended4 ,it is understood1 that white cheeks are preferable2 both because they keep out the glare much better1 and as they render the interior less distinguishable to any spectator from without3 consequently1 they contribute most to coolness1 and to privacy4 ,i believe it would be impossible to find any house inhabited by an ,european of respectability1 in any part of ,calcutta1 which should prove to be destitute of proper doors1 of pannelled wood1 or of windows1 at least1 furnished with ,venetians1 if not with glass sashes4 ,whether for appearance1 convenience1 or real utility1 certainly there cannot be any thing equal to glass1 the use of which is now become so general1 that almost every bungalow in the upper provinces1 unless merely built as a shelter for a few months1 is provided with glass2 some1 perhaps1 only partially1 but a great majority throughout4 ,were it not that this most agreeable improvement were attainable on what may be called very moderate terms1 the great number of serious drawbacks it has to encounter1 would assuredly cause its exportation to the ,east to be very limitted4 ,the principal objections to its use1 are1 #astly1 the difficulty of getting glass cut to fit the sashes2 #b;dly1 the aptness of even the best seasoned wood to warp1 so as to cause the panes to fly2 #c;dly1 the difficulty which frequently exists of getting glass at all2 especially of the larger sizes4 ,as a balance to this1 we find1 that this brittle commodity1 after undergoing all the risques attendant upon shipping1 and landing1 together with all the dangers of the seas1 and much occasional rough usage after being consigned to the up-country trader1 can usually be sold at ,futty-,ghur1 or ,lucknow1 which are each distant about a thousand miles1 by water1 from ,calcutta1 at the following prices3 panes of #h by #aa inches1 at about twenty rupees per coorge1 7or score172 #aj by #ad1 at about twenty-six rupees2 of #ab by #af1 at about thirty-two2 of #ae by #bj1 at about forty2 of #ah by #bf1 at about fifty2 and of #bj by #cj1 at about sixty rupees4 ,these prices give little more than cent4 per cent4 upon the wholesale prices of ,london4 ,what with the necessity for making those panes and sashes1 which are exposed to the sun1 very firm1 as well as from a due attention to economy in so expensive an article1 we generally see1 in the upper provinces1 the panes laid transversely1 instead of upright2 and only one row of such panes in each frame2 the wood-work being made very broad1 so as to occupy a large space4 ,the light thus admitted1 is found fully adequate to every common purpose2 the atmosphere being1 for full eight months out of the twelve1 perfectly clear2 and there being rarely any buildings to debar the full enjoyment of that blessing3 besides1 that great exposure to an unclouded sky1 which may in ,england be deemed highly advantageous1 would1 in ,india1 prove objectionable2 by admitting so forcible a glare as must give more uneasiness than pleasure4 ,when glass either cannot be had2 or1 that1 owing to some speculator having monopolized1 the price is considered too high1 it is not uncommon to see windows furnished with plates of talc2 which may be obtained1 in almost any quantity1 at the several cities1 especially towards the frontiers2 very extensive dealings being carried on in this article1 by persons resident chiefly at ,lucknow1 ,benares1 and ,patna1 who import it from ,thibet1 and the countries on the north of the ,punjab1 or ,seik territory1 in masses1 often as large as a quartern loaf4 ,the principal intention of such traffic is for the supply of that fine powder1 used in the ,hindu holiday1 called hooly1 which may generally be viewed as the carnival of that sect4 ,the masses of talc commonly sell for about a rupee and a half1 or even up to two rupees per seer 7of about two pounds avoirdupoise73 when good1 it is of a pure pearl color1 but it has1 ordinarily1 either a yellowish1 or a faint blue cast3 by means of proper tools1 this mineral may be split into very thin leaves1 which often present smooth surfaces1 but are apt to have little scaly blisters1 that greatly deteriorate their value4 ,however1 a seer of talc1 that splits well1 will sometimes yield a dozen or more panes1 of about #ab inches by #i1 or of #aj by #aj2 and thus1 according to the form of the lump2 which can only be split in the direction of its lamin4 ,these panes are so far diaphanous as to allow ordinary objects to be seen at about twenty or thirty yards tolerably distinct2 and1 of course1 present an excellent substitute for glass4 ,i am surprized that the very simple process whereby talc may be vitrified1 has not encouraged some ingenious person to establish a manufactory for that purpose4 ,when combined with alkaline salt1 7every where attainable in ,india17 it is fusible in a strong heat1 and forms a transparent1 handsome1 greenish-yellow glass4 ,if equal portions of talc and of chalk be melted together1 with one-fourth part of borax1 7the soohaugah1 or tincal1 so abundant throughout the ,east17 the mixture will produce a fine pellucid1 greenish glass1 of considerable lustre and hardness2 gypsous earths1 7which1 though not brought into use1 are supposed to abound in some parts of ,bahar1 and of the upper provinces17 may be advantageously substituted for chalk1 whence the result will be a rich1 pellucid1 yellow glass1 of equal brightness and durability4 ,speaking of chalk1 ,i must remark1 that very large quantities are occasionally sent to ,india1 notwithstanding some of the hills at the back of ,raje ,mahal abound therewith4 ,i understood1 many years ago1 from an old friend1 who was quarter-master of a regiment stationed at ,monghyr1 distant about forty miles from the former place1 that1 in consequence of a scarcity of musquet flints1 he had sent people to the ,chalk ,hills of ,raje ,mahal1 whence he had obtained a boat-load that answered admirably4 ,in reply to my questions regarding the chalk1 he informed me it was very coarse4 ,but he forgot1 that1 by dissolving it in a large quantity of water1 and allowing the rubbish to sink1 the finer particles would be for a while suspended2 and1 on being poured off1 would1 after repeated washings in this manner1 yield the purest whiting4 ,it really appears surprizing1 that those chalk hills should remain unnoticed2 and1 that even the lime-burners should neglect to take advantage of their being so advantageously situated among wildernesses of fuel1 and within a mile of the great channel of the ,ganges6 ,that the ,company should ever send out whiting1 or put themselves to the expence of millions upon millions of gun and pistol flints1 when they possess such a quarry1 7of which the extent is not known17 appears highly inconsistent with that economy so much and so properly studied4 ,if it be argued1 that some impolicy might exist in shewing the natives how to provide themselves with flints2 the answer is very easy2 for the gun-smiths of ,monghyr are fully apprized of the whole process4 ,but1 surely the chalk cannot be accused of the same dangerous tendency6 ,to say the least1 government might1 with great advantage1 cause all the lime required for their own works to be made from it2 imposing a price upon all that might be dug by merchants1 or others2 as they do at their stone quarries1 near ,chunar-,ghur1 c4 ,my readers will1 at all events1 discover that a very useful glass might be made in ,india1 the duty on which would produce a much larger sum than the whole amount of profits accruing to our exporters4 ,it is1 indeed1 a well-known fact1 that the captains of ,indiamen take out window glass more with the view to making up a general assortment1 than from any great advantage arising from its sale to the ,european shop-keepers1 c4 ,in time of peace they are invariably undersold by foreign traders2 who carry out glass of an inferior quality1 which sells to a certain extent2 and is often rather sought1 than rejected1 on account of its greenish hue1 which is found to soften the light considerably2 especially in exposed situations4 ,the natives do1 occasionally1 make a weak1 greenish1 and blistered glass into caraboys1 or great bottles for rose-water1 and into lesser ones1 such as the gundies1 or itinerant perfumers1 use2 but this is on a very small scale1 and chiefly supplied from broken tumblers1 shades1 c41 of ,european manufacture4 ,there are persons at ,patna1 who have men constantly employed in purchasing broken glass1 of every description1 from the servants of ,europeans1 and in collecting such fragments as may be thrown out among the ordinary rubbish4 ,it must occasionally happen1 that neither glass1 nor talc1 can be readily obtained2 in which case1 the best mode is to make light frames1 and to pannel1 or fill them up with wax-cloth1 neatly nailed on4 ,this is an admirable substitute1 not only keeping out wind1 rain1 and dust1 but1 in the cold season1 preserving the warmth of rooms1 yet admitting sufficient light for ordinary purposes3 ,i have very frequently resorted to this expedient1 and even to frames of oiled paper2 all ,i had to regret was1 that they debarred my seeing what passed abroad4 ,to a person just arrived from ,europe1 such would appear a most distressing privation2 but1 after experiencing a few seasons behind tatties1 without being able to enjoy the light during the whole day1 and that for months together1 such recluseness would scarcely be considered worthy of notice3 so true it is1 that we gradually become habituated to the loss of ordinary enjoyments1 of faculties1 and even of civil and religious liberty666 ,although bungalows have not any ceilings of plaster1 they are rendered inconceivably neat within1 by means of a double sheet1 made of very coarse cotton cloth1 called guzzy2 of which tents are usually constructed4 ,these sheets are fitted to the several apartments respectively1 are bound with strong tape around1 and have1 besides1 various tapes forming an union cross of eight limbs1 or rays1 all meeting in the centre4 ,as the cornices commonly project near a foot1 abundance of space is left for lacing the sheet 7called the chandny17 to battens1 nailed to pegs built in the wall3 these battens being firmly secured all the way round1 about an inch above the cornice1 admit the sheet to be strained very tight1 so as to bag very little1 if at all1 in the centre4 ,some white-wash their chandnies1 and take so much pains in establishing a firm appearance1 as to render them very similar to well made ceilings4 ,without this last mode of preparation1 music has no effect in a bungalow2 indeed1 at the best1 the most powerful instrument is heard under very great disadvantages1 owing to the number of apertures1 the satringes1 mats1 couch and table covers1 c41 all which deaden the tones considerably4 ,those who are very particular in whatever relates to their furniture1 c41 have their verandas lined in the same manner as their apartments1 giving them a finished appearance2 but1 in such exposed situations the cloths are apt to collect considerable quantities of dust1 which is perpetually set in motion by the shaking of the cloths when acted upon by the wind3 on this account seerky appears to me far preferable as a lining for verandas4 ,the usual expedient1 when doors of any description are not made1 is to provide purdahs1 made of karwah1 7or guzzy17 or both mixed in perpendicular stripes of eight or ten inches wide each3 some1 especially those who are stationary1 make their purdahs of shalloon1 perpet1 or very coarse broad-cloth1 in the following manner4 ,the cloth is made into two sheets of equal dimensions1 say nine feet by six1 and having strong tapes1 perhaps five or seven in number1 inserted cross-wise between them3 these tapes are double4 ,the whole circumference of the purdah is then sewed very neatly1 and bound with tape1 corresponding with the color of the cloth1 and the ends of the tapes are also bound by means of leather1 covered with the same materials4 ,between every pair of tapes1 a bamboo1 of a small kind1 but very tough1 is introduced2 or1 perhaps1 a stout lath made from a bamboo of the large sort4 ,these sticks1 or laths1 serve to keep the cloth stretched out1 and when the purdah is suspended1 much in the same manner as has been explained for the mounting of a cheek1 lie horizontally2 thus preventing the wind from blowing in the purdah4 ,it is observed as a general rule1 always to make a purdah full a foot wider on each side than the door way it is to conceal2 also to carry it a foot above the door plate1 and to have a portion1 about a foot in depth1 without any lath1 at the bottom1 so as to trail a little on the ground4 ,those purdahs which are made of karwah1 or other cotton stuff1 are generally quilted with cotton1 or are composed of many folds1 or have coarse blankets inlaid between their outer coatings4 ,the last is by far the most effectual1 most neat1 and most durable mode of construction2 but1 at the best1 purdahs are a very indifferent make-shift2 and1 though often1 from necessity1 applied to windows1 are by no means answerable to their intention4 ,their best use is certainly to deaden sounds2 hence1 they are advantageously suspended outside the doors of sleeping1 or other retired apartments2 when1 by closing the doors1 privacy and quiet may usually be effected4 ,the presence of a purdah usually indicates the exclusion of males2 and that the apartments1 within that entrance1 are devoted to the accommodation of ladies2 except when rolled up1 and tied1 as has been explained in regard to cheeks4 ,the best timber for building1 in whatever branch1 is the sygwam1 or teak2 but its dearness prevents its general use1 especially since naval architecture has been so much an object of speculation at ,calcutta4 ,however1 it can generally be purchased at about a rupee1 or a rupee and a quarter1 per foot3 making its utmost price about three shillings and three-pence4 ,those who build houses of the first class1 rarely fail to lay all their tarrases upon teak joists2 both because they possess superior strength1 and that they are far less likely to be attacked by the white-ants4 ,this has been attributed to the quantity of tannin contained in teak-wood1 which some have asserted to be a perfect preventive1 or antidote2 but1 after having seen those noxious insects devouring shoes and boots by wholesale1 ,i can never bring myself to accord with such an opinion4 ,there is1 in teak-wood1 evidently some property1 hitherto occult1 that repels the white-ant1 at least for some years1 but which is doubtless diminished by exposure to the air2 as we find that very old teak-timbers become rather more subject to depredation1 than new ones4 ,the greater part of the teak used in ,bengal1 and at ,madras1 is imported from the ,pegu coast1 in immense beams1 and in spars1 planks1 c41 of all sizes4 ,it is by no means unusual to see the squared timbers measuring from forty1 to fifty1 feet in length1 and averaging from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter4 ,here is food for our dock-yards6 ,it would certainly be attended with considerable benefit to the public1 if that occult principle1 or matter1 which apparently exists in the teak-wood1 enabling it to resist both the white-ant1 and the river-worm1 could be ascertained2 it might be possible to impregnate1 or to saturate1 other timber in a similar manner4 ,this is the more essential1 because we have abundant proofs that mere hardness does not deter those voracious insects1 which are found at times even upon the lignum vit6 ,but the principal object1 so far as relates to naval purposes1 is1 that the teak-wood certainly is1 in a great measure1 devoid of the gallic1 or any other1 acid2 or1 if such is present1 it assuredly must be in a very limitted portion2 since the nails driven into teak-wood are never corroded so as to decay the surrounding wood1 and to liberate it from confinement4 ,to this decay1 called #8iron-sickness1' are attributed many losses of ships1 supposed to have foundered at sea1 in consequence of planks starting2 which must often happen when the wood embracing a nail is destroyed by the acid1 or by the action of salt water upon the iron4 ,in repairing ships built of oak1 many nails are found perfectly insulated1 by the wood having been rotted1 and fallen away2 which has never been the case with vessels built of teak4 ,the generality of apartments being large1 the halls measuring perhaps from thirty to forty feet in length1 and from sixteen to twenty-four in width1 and other rooms in proportion1 it is evident that very substantial1 as well as long1 timbers must be requisite to support their flat roofs2 for1 with a few exceptions1 truss-roofs are not in use4 ,the mode introduced by ,mr4 ,lyon1 the ,company's architect1 at ,berhampore1 certainly contributed greatly to reduce the quantity of timber in a roof1 but it rendered it absolutely necessary that every timber should be perfectly sound4 ,that gentleman1 whose professional skill1 and excellent social qualities1 demand an ample tribute1 exploded burgahs1 7or smaller battens17 from the roofs he constructed2 and1 in their stead1 threw arches from the centre of one to the centre of the other timber2 so that the intervals between the timbers were to appearance grooved1 or fluted1 longitudinally4 ,this1 however1 was barely distinguishable1 the arches being very elliptic2 rarely1 indeed1 including more than an angle of six degrees1 on a circle having full ten feet of radius4 ,hence1 it will be seen1 that the joists were tolerably close1 but their diameters admitted of considerable reduction1 on account of the continuity of such a series of arches1 which gave great solidity2 and1 by their mutual pressure1 admitted that a joist should be freely removed1 without in the least affecting the roof4 ,the houses built and inhabited by the natives1 invariably have flat roofs4 ,in these the apartments are1 for the most part1 extremely narrow1 and dark4 ,the verandas1 where any are made1 consist of arcaded fronts1 invariably indented gothic2 and have pillars1 either of an hexagonal1 or of an octagonal1 form1 resting on short pedestals1 while the arch may be seen to break off rather too suddenly from the shaft1 which continues up to baisez-mur1 7or bassimere1 as our architects vulgarly call it17 and divides the upper part into various compartments1 all of which are ornamented with a profusion of carved work4 ,in almost every ,hindostanee building1 of this description1 there will be seen an odd number of arches1 to which others in the main part of the edifice generally correspond4 ,the chambers1 if so we may call them1 are taken off from the ends of the halls1 by similar arcades2 each of which1 as well as those of the exterior1 is furnished with a purdah4 ,these narrow slips have no windows1 or1 at the best1 only small loop holes4 ,the intention of such oven-like recesses would perplex an ,european unacquainted with ,asiatic customs1 but he would soon find that1 in the cold season1 such are peculiarly warm1 and that1 during those months in which the glare is obnoxious1 they remain cooler than such as admit more light4 ,almost every house is furnished with some means of ascending to the chut1 7or flat tarras-roof17 whereon the natives often pass the evening1 causing the heat to be first abated1 by means of several pots of water1 which throw up a steam fully indicating the temperature at which the tarras had arrived4 ,the natives are not partial to upper-roomed houses in general2 though they affect to pride themselves greatly in the possession of doomaulahs1 that is1 of houses having a second floor3 it seems that ostentation is the reason of this predilection in favor of ground floors1 whereon all their attendants1 c41 may be seen from the level of their compounds 7or enclosed areas74 ,the stairs1 where any exist1 7for sometimes a very mean boarded ladder is made to answer that intention17 are narrow1 steep1 and unsafe3 these are almost always built of solid masonry1 as far up as the first turn1 7or landing place17 after which they commonly consist of small bricks laid edgeways in lime mortar1 supported by stout timbers1 placed at a proper angle1 and resting on the proximate joist of the upper floor4 ,in every ,hindostanee house1 the doors are very low1 and often are made to open into a long arcaded veranda1 running the whole length of the interior1 much the same as in our inns2 while1 in the front1 or towards the road1 a hanging balcony is sometimes made1 supported on continuations of the joists1 of which the extremities are carved into grotesque forms2 such as the heads of alligators1 or of tigers1 or of serpents1 and not infrequently of little human figures1 whose size and squat position strongly put us in mind of a foetus in utero4 ,saul-wood is used to an immense extent1 both in buildings1 and in the construction of ships1 but is not to be compared1 either for toughness1 strength1 resistance against insects1 or durability1 with teak4 ,its price is much in favor of general service1 to which its great size1 and admirable straightness1 are considerable1 and valuable recommendations2 but it is extremely apt to crack1 though not to snap2 especially when exposed to the weather4 ,there is something very peculiar in saul-wood2 since it is seen to warp1 even after having been employed in bulk for many years1 riving into large fissures longitudinally3 the white-ants also devour it with avidity4 ,mr4 ,lyon1 already noticed1 when he was building the ,general ,hospital at ,berhampore1 caused an immense copper trough to be made1 in which he boiled the beams intended for that edifice3 some were boiled in pure water1 others with tannin1 and some with arsenic2 under the hope both of seasoning the timber1 and of giving it a repellant1 or preservative quality4 ,this ingenious1 and highly praise-worthy experiment1 was by no means successful2 for1 although1 in the first instance1 the timbers seemed to defy the white-ant1 especially those boiled in the solution of arsenic1 still they were not completely secured from depredation2 while1 on the other hand1 nine in ten rived so dangerously as to demand immediate props1 and ultimate removal4 ,many authors have recommended the boiling of timber1 planks1 c41 with a view to extract the sap1 and thus to season them out of hand2 but they have invariably neglected to furnish us with the results4 ,now1 ,i have ever held it necessary1 that medical practitioners should keep a register of the obituary1 as well as of the convalescent department1 in order that we may know how to avoid certain systems2 which1 doubtless1 for want of such a guide1 or caution1 have been repeatedly resorted to by various medical characters1 who1 insensible of those fatal effects that had attended former experiments1 thus consign many patients to their graves6 ,so should all experiments1 such as that above recorded1 be fully laid before the public1 and their results be candidly detailed4 ,it is evident1 that where we see only the suggestion1 without the proofs of its failure1 we must frequently be induced to adopt hints of a most pernicious tendency4 ,saul timber1 when used in buildings1 ought always to have its ends completely open to inspection2 both to prevent the white-ant from preying upon it under cover1 and to insure its being duly aerated2 without which1 however charred and tarred it may be1 rottenness will speedily take place4 ,this arises from being bedded in masonry1 which1 during the rainy season1 even under the best roofs1 will absord a large portion of moisture1 that will1 infallibly1 in time1 penetrate into the timber4 ,it must be recollected1 that not one in hundreds of the houses in ,calcutta1 or that are built on their plan1 contains a fire-place3 hence1 during some months in the year1 the walls will exhibit various indications of moisture1 even to their very cornices2 though this will often depend upon the proper selection of sand for mixing in the plaster4 ,it is now well known1 though not long since discovered1 that all sand1 taken up within the flowing of the tides1 is strongly impregnated with salt1 which will keep the mortar wherein it is mixed eternally subject to damps2 notwithstanding the tarrases may be flued1 or be founded upon pots4 ,i have known several1 otherwise highly eligible1 houses rendered untenable1 merely by this incautious use of river sand2 which occasioned whatever mats1 or carpets1 were laid down1 to be speedily rotted4 ,the fault was at first imputed to the vicinity of the river1 whence it was suspected the damps were received2 but it was ascertained1 that such tarrases1 and mortar1 as were compounded of pit-sand1 remained dry1 and free from so obnoxious a defect4 ,nevertheless1 the greater part of the buildings1 in and about ,calcutta1 receive a certain portion of river-sand1 taken up within the reach of brackish water3 while this practice is allowed1 the walls and tarrases will remain subject to occasional moisture2 and1 as we daily see in that city1 the plastering will blister1 or1 indeed1 become mottled1 and obviously unsound4 ,saul-timbers are found in all the forests1 ranging under the hills1 branching our possessions from ,assam up to ,hurdwar2 they are more abundant in some parts than in others1 but no where scarce4 ,many of these forests present thousands upon thousands of acres1 whereon the saul1 sissoo1 and other useful timbers grow spontaneously2 offering to us an inexhaustible dept6 ,the only consideration is1 that water-carriage should be at hand4 ,the ,indian wood-feller1 who pays not more than sixpence1 or a shilling1 for each tree he may choose1 and which may1 perhaps1 contain from sixty to a hundred feet of timber1 considers it a bad speculation1 if some river be not within a stone's throw of the selected wood3 his object is to lop and bark as fast as he can1 and then to launch the tree into the river1 there to be fastened to others1 intended to form a raft1 or float1 which1 being secured to a boat1 may glide down with the current to some established market4 ,his expences are very trifling2 for1 with the exception of some duties1 most injudiciously imposed1 his adventure will not cost more than two-pence per foot1 when arrived at the place of destination2 where it may commonly be sold1 without risk or delay1 for full three times that sum4 ,few saul-timbers measuring a ton1 or even a load1 7i4e4 forty1 or fifty1 cubic feet17 stand the owner in more than three rupees when landed at ,patna2 where such always meet with a very ready sale1 in whole rafts1 at nine1 ten1 and sometimes up to fifteen1 rupees per stick1 7or timber27 and this1 notwithstanding the number of competitors in the trade4 ,those competitors rarely prove injurious to each other1 while they render great service to the public1 by preventing the whole trade from falling into a few hands4 ,thus1 the prices of saul-timber are not only kept down1 but1 in general1 owing to occasional gluts1 seasoned timbers may be1 to any amount1 purchased at the several ghauts1 or wharfs4 ,the mode of floating timber being so very different from that in use with us1 ,i offer a description of it1 under the hope of its affording at least some variety1 if not some useful information4 ,a common pulwar1 7or paunchway17 of perhaps thirty feet in length1 and six or seven in width1 is equipped with two sticks of saul1 say forty feet long1 and two feet in girth3 these are placed across her gunwales1 at right angles with her length1 and about six feet from her centre1 and very firmly lashed down4 ,the boat1 being in about three feet water1 has a tree brought up to each of her sides1 where they are respectively lashed to the cross timbers1 and thus1 in succession1 until she is judged incapable of receiving more burthen4 ,in the centre of the boat1 a small cabin is generally made1 either of thatch1 or of arched bamboo laths1 covered with durmah mats3 in this the crew are sheltered at night4 ,it is highly expedient to avoid launching such rafts when the river is at the fullest1 or the current any way prone to deviate from the deepest channels1 as it must do in great floods1 on account of the waters finding1 for a while1 passages along hollows among the inland parts2 that is1 beyond their limits in ordinary seasons4 ,when a float of timber once gets over the river's bank1 it must be the result of great good fortune1 if the channel is ever regained4 ,hence1 when the waters are falling1 it is common to see very large pinnaces1 budjrows1 and boats of burthen1 left upon some sand1 on which they had struck1 but which the rapid ebbing of the floods prevented them from quitting6 ,in such cases1 some are allowed to remain until the ensuing year1 when the floods lift them2 others are unladen1 and1 by means of the joint efforts of hundreds of villagers1 are pushed along the sands to the deep water2 while those which appear unequal to such a severe operation1 are generally broken up1 and sold for various purposes4 ,when a float of timber becomes thus situated1 the best way is to cut the ropes of at least half the exterior sticks on each side1 and so to lighten the boat1 that she may be carried into a depth suited to receiving them again3 but this operation1 which1 on paper1 appears very simple1 requires great exertion1 and no less despatch2 as the strength of the current1 which often runs six or seven miles within the hour1 renders it extremely difficult to manage such immense logs2 especially as they are very apt to sink into the sands4 ,we commonly see several floats in company1 proceeding1 when the reaches are straight1 and the waters deep1 with great regularity2 the boatmen1 in such situations1 having little to do1 sit smoking their nereauls1 with great composure3 sometimes a sail is hoisted1 but1 for the most part1 it is deemed expedient to check1 rather than to accelerate1 the progress4 ,almost every float1 or1 at least1 every company of floats1 has a canoe attached to it2 which1 in doubtful waters1 precedes1 and directs the men in charge of the respective vessels1 who1 by means of luggies1 7or bamboo-poles1 from twenty even to fifty feet in length17 fend off the floats from banks1 or guide them along the deep water3 without such pilotage1 they would be in perpetual danger of grounding1 the inconveniences of which are1 as above shewn1 by no means inconsiderable4 ,floats of timber cannot well come to an anchor1 except in very still water2 hence1 they are usually brought-to under steep banks1 where there is great depth2 and where1 in case the river should fall during the night1 they would not be left high and dry4 ,the greatest danger to which a timber float can be exposed1 is that of running upon a sunken tree1 which1 having been washed away1 by the bank whereon it stood being undermined by the strong currents1 is hurled away into deep water1 where it probably lies exposed to view for the first year4 ,during the hot season1 when the waters are low1 the boughs are often cut away by persons in want of fuel2 or1 perhaps1 they are torn off by the succeeding rains1 so far as to cause their being concealed a foot or two under the surface4 ,when thus situated1 they throw up a deal of water1 so that their locality may be ascertained at some distance2 but1 owing to heavy mists1 and especially to clouds of sand1 they frequently are not discovered by the boatmen1 until it becomes impossible to avoid them4 ,if the pulwar1 i4e4 the supporting boat1 strikes upon one of the branches1 her bottom will infallibly be staved in2 and1 in all probability1 the immense body of water bearing upon the timbers1 will either tear them away from the pulwar1 or carry off her upper works1 leaving her bottom entangled4 ,in either case1 the situation of the boatmen becomes highly critical2 but1 as they generally are expert swimmers1 7though1 strange to say1 some dandies1 have1 like ,falstaff1 #8a wonderful alacrity at sinking1'7 few are drowned on such occasions4 ,the timbers1 however1 rarely fail to find the bottom1 so soon as their buoyant companion is wrecked4 ,the great number of trees thus immersed1 some of which equal our largest oaks1 render it extremely dangerous to go down with the stream during the night3 in some strong waters1 such impediments are numerous1 and render the navigation very hazardous1 even during the day time2 especially should a goon1 or track rope1 give way just after getting a boat above them2 when this misfortune happens1 the chances of escape are comparatively small indeed4 ,when boats1 heavily laden1 strike upon a tree1 they sometimes go to pieces1 in consequence of the water's rapidity2 but1 when so entangled as to be pierced in several parts1 they very generally remain entire1 presenting1 as the waters subside1 the very curious spectacle of a vessel1 perhaps carrying twelve or fifteen hundred maunds1 sitting1 as it were1 among the boughs1 often ten or twelve feet above the surface of the stream4 ,it is by no means unusual1 in the course of a week's travelling1 to see one1 or more1 of these disastrous elevations2 more especially about the month of ,october4 ,the misfortune is1 that1 though the cargo may1 perhaps1 be saved1 if not of a perishable nature1 such as sugar1 salt-petre1 c42 yet1 that the vessel1 however expeditiously emptied1 can never be got off2 consequently1 she must be broken up4 ,with respect to the prices of saul timbers1 we generally find them to be nearly the same1 year after year1 at the same places2 provided a sufficient number1 but not a great glut1 should arrive within the proper season4 ,on an average1 near ,patna1 the cubic foot will cost about sixpence1 at ,moorshadabad1 about a shilling1 and1 at ,calcutta1 about two shillings1 or even half-a-crown4 ,an extra price is1 of course1 put on timbers of superior dimensions1 while the smaller kinds1 called bautties1 which rarely contain more than eight or ten feet1 are1 in an opposite degree1 depreciated4 ,the saul is a very solid wood1 at least equally so as elm1 but has not its pliancy1 nor is it quite so apt to split3 its grain usually runs tolerably even2 it is likewise heavy1 yet by no means so ponderous as teak3 both1 like many of our firmer woods1 sink in fresh water4 ,in the upper provinces1 some very fine oak timbers are occasionally to be seen3 these are chiefly of a peculiar kind1 nearly approaching to chocolate color1 extremely difficult to cut up1 and1 consequently1 very heavy3 this last characteristic gives them the name of seesah1 or1 lead-wood4 ,the prices of these trees1 which generally measure about the same as the saul1 from the same forests1 7namely1 from the neighbourhood of ,peelabeet17 rather exceed those of the latter description2 and would probably be greatly enhanced1 if the natives stood in need of such very substantial wood for any of their buildings1 or manufactures4 ,the fact is1 that the carpenters generally endeavor to dissuade their employers from purchasing oak1 by representing it as subject to many defects2 though the true reason is1 that its hardness infallibly causes more grinding of1 than working with1 their tools2 which are almost always either too much1 or too little tempered4 ,at ,futty-,ghur1 saul timbers commonly sell for full eighteen-pence the foot1 and oaks for about two shillings4 ,i recollect buying some of the former1 that measured thirty feet in length1 with an average squaring of fourteen inches1 for twenty-eight rupees each2 and oaks of the same dimensions1 or nearly so1 at thirty-five3 but wood was then extremely scarce1 and at full twenty per cent4 above the ordinary rates4 ,the great aptness of saul-wood to warp1 we should suppose1 might have favored the importation of oak1 notwithstanding the outcry against its flinty hardness3 and such would doubtless have been the case1 had not another kind of wood1 possessing a very fine grain1 and rather handsomely veined1 been abundant4 ,this1 which is called the sissoo1 grows in most of the great forests1 intermixed with the saul2 but1 in lieu of towering up with a straight stem1 seems partial to crooked forms1 such as suit it admirably for the knees of ships1 and for such parts as require the grain to follow some particular curve4 ,this wood is extremely hard1 and heavy1 of a dark brown1 inclining to a purple tint when polished2 after being properly seasoned1 it rarely cracks1 or warps2 nor is it so subject as saul to be destroyed by either white-ants1 or river-worms4 ,the domestic uses of sissoo are chiefly confined to the construction of furniture1 especially chairs1 tables1 tepoys1 7or tripods17 bureaus1 book-cases1 ecritoires1 c4 c4 for all which purposes it is peculiarly appropriate1 with the exception of its being very ponderous4 ,this objection is1 however1 counter-balanced by its great durability1 and by the extraordinary toughness of the tenons1 dovetails1 c4 necessarily made by the cabinet-maker1 or joiner4 ,sissoo is1 of late1 more employed than formerly for the frame1 ribs1 knees1 c4 of ships1 especially those of great burthen3 for such1 it is found to be fully as tough and as durable as the best oak4 ,when timbers can be had of this wood long enough for the purpose1 it is often applied for bends1 and1 indeed1 for a portion of the planking1 or casing2 but it is very rarely that a plank of ten feet can be had free from curve4 ,though admirably suited for stern and head-work1 it is neither long enough for keels in general1 nor sufficiently uniform in its diameter for the supply of stern-posts4 ,some sissoo-trees grow to a great weight2 but1 unluckily1 the devious directions of their boughs render it necessary to lop them away for minor purposes3 if1 instead of dividing into several large branches1 at perhaps only ten or twelve feet from the ground1 one large stem were to rise1 however crooked1 to double that height1 there would be a great encrease of substance2 as it is1 however1 we may account it an excellent timber indeed that measures a ton 7i4e4 forty cubic feet74 ,this inconvenience is greatly augmented by the slovenly manner in which trees are felled throughout ,india4 ,there1 it is common to see the axe 7for no saws are used on such occasions7 laid to the stem often at a yard or more from the soil2 while1 at the same time1 full a cubit in depth is destroyed in widening the orifice1 so as to penetrate into the heart3 this creates considerable loss1 which is frequently rendered still greater by the irregular manner in which the butt rends when in the act of quitting the root1 or stool4 ,if this wood were more scarce1 probably greater pains would be taken to make the most of its length2 as it is1 we see1 that1 even those ship-builders who occasionally send their agents into the ,morungs1 or great forests to the north of ,bahar and ,purneah1 allow the same loss to take place2 thus disqualifying the timbers from more general1 as well as more important1 adaptation4 ,the price of sissoo1 for the most part1 runs about twenty-five1 or even to forty per cent4 above that of saul2 but1 in many places1 up the country especially1 where naval architecture is not in view1 their values are generally about equal4 ,in such situations1 it is less an object of import2 since its utility is greatly circumscribed1 and1 in a great variety of instances1 superseded1 by the baubool1 7a species of mimosa1 generally growing wild17 whose crooked billets are deservedly in great estimation1 and whose bark is considered to be1 if any thing1 superior to that of oak for the tanners' use4 ,i should have remarked1 that1 in some parts of the country1 especially along the western frontier1 a small kind of saul grows wild3 this rarely exceeds six inches in diameter1 and is commonly used entire1 in lieu of bamboos1 for enclosures1 rafters of bungalows1 c4 ,it is very peculiar that this wood cannot be trusted for any length of time1 even under a thatch2 it being subject to the depredations of a very small insect1 called the g'hoon1 which perforates it in a thousand places1 depositing its eggs1 which are very numerous1 and absolutely rendering the rafter a mere honey-comb4 ,during the day1 these mischievous little devils are commonly quiet1 but1 after night-fall1 when all else is still1 may be heard in every quarter6 ,a person unaccustomed to the sounds1 would suppose that a very heavy shower of hail were falling on the thatch4 ,in the course of two or three seasons1 sometimes in much less1 the rafters will be found to give way2 on examination1 they appear as though pierced with large awls2 and1 when struck forcibly with a hammer1 yield a cloud of yellowish powder1 resulting no doubt from the labors of the multitude of inhabitants4 ,the g'hoon1 which rarely exceeds the sixth of an inch in length1 is of a chocolate color1 very hard about the head1 has firm exterior coats over its wings1 and terminates abruptly behind1 giving the exact appearance of its rump having been burnt off4 ,those timbers which are used immediately after being felled1 as usually happens1 are certainly the first to be attacked by the g'hoon2 but1 so far as my own observations went1 and according to the experience of two years1 in a quarter where we used scarcely any other kind of wood for rafters1 even a year's seasoning did not afford security against1 though it obviously retarded1 their attacks4 ,possibly1 if all of this description of saul trees intended for rafters1 were to be immersed in some of the very numerous puddles every where abounding in their vicinity1 and of which a great majority are strongly impregnated with minerals1 particularly iron1 copper1 and sulphur1 the g'hoons might be altogether repelled3 the immersion should continue for a year or two2 the trees being previously allowed to season standing1 by cutting away a circle of bark1 about six inches wide1 near the ground1 that the flow of sap might be discontinued4 ,we find no mode to answer so well as this for our climate2 in ,india1 the advantages would be still more extensive1 in consequence of the regularity1 and particular effects of the three great seasons1 into which the year is there naturally divided4 ,it is curious1 but true1 that the g'hoon acts less upon such timbers as have been squared1 than on such as have only been deprived of their bark2 and1 that in the large species of saul1 that is1 such as is used in most parts of the country for great buildings1 c41 it either is unable1 or not disposed1 to burrow4 ,intermixed with the smaller species of saul1 though by no means abundant1 we find another tree1 bearing1 in common with the oak1 the designation of seesah2 and that1 too1 owing to the great specific gravity of its wood3 this1 however1 does not grow to any size1 but appears admirably suited to many of those purposes for which lignum vit1 and ebony1 are now used4 ,in the same jungles with the foregoing1 a most remarkable tree is sometimes found1 of which the interior is of a very dark color1 nearly approaching to black3 hence1 the natives call it the #8cowah' 7or #8crow-tree'72 but1 from the hardness of its wood1 it certainly might1 with propriety1 be termed the #8iron-tree4' ,the carpenters seem to view it much in the same light with the black-oak of ,peelabeet2 and1 doubtless1 tremble for their tools1 whenever the cowah is to become subject to their labors4 ,although such bungalows as are built with a view to duration1 are sometimes built of the best materials1 and have every part of their roofs sustained by rafters of the best saul1 by far the majority of such buildings1 and nearly all at the military stations1 are constructed on a much cheaper scale1 having only mango-wood rafters1 door-plates1 c4 ,the great abundance of mango trees1 added to their being easily worked1 and their growing in general with stems sufficiently straight to furnish beams1 of perhaps two feet square1 and from fifteen to thirty feet long1 give them a decided preference over every other kind of wood brought from any distance4 ,formerly1 a gentleman could send out his servant1 with wood-cutters1 sawyers1 c41 to fell whatever trees might be found suitable to his intentions1 without any questions being asked2 but of late1 and especially since the introduction of the ,mocurrery settlement1 7which will be hereafter explained17 the zemindars1 7or land-holders17 and the raiuts1 7or peasants17 have set a value upon every twig that grows1 and invariably demand from one to four rupees1 for such mango trees as may be felled for the use of any ,european2 especially in the military4 ,as to a ,company's civil servant1 either the hope of his favor1 or the fear of his resentment1 generally is found to seal the mouth of the pretended proprietor of the soil2 who even is assiduous in furnishing workmen and conveyance on most occasions of this description4 ,i must caution my readers against entertaining any sentiment unfavorable to the gentlemen alluded to3 the adulation in question results entirely from that servile1 abject1 and crafty disposition1 for which the zemindars are notorious where their interests are any way implicated4 ,they judge of our collectors1 magistrates1 c41 as they would of their own2 at least1 so far as to suppose that courtesy will secure their good-will2 but1 they are1 at the same time1 thoroughly sensible1 that in all public1 as well as in all private1 intercourse1 the ,company's servants act with the most conscientious propriety1 and with the most undeviating attention to justice4 ,it matters not that this character may be repugnant to some proofs existing of former rapacity1 and extortion2 which may now be deemed obsolete1 or1 at the utmost1 only existing to such extent as must be expected under every form of government1 and among every race of people1 in spite of the utmost vigilance4 ,the wood of the mango is much like that of the plane-tree1 but rather more tough1 and its fibres rather coarser3 nevertheless1 it is in very general use for rafters1 door and wall-plates1 frames for windows and doors1 especially of out-offices1 pannelled and plain doors1 floorings of factories1 and drying-rooms2 likewise for wine chests1 indigo boxes1 roofs of budjrows1 and a thousand other purposes1 both of individual convenience1 and of mercantile service4 ,it is1 however1 particularly subject to the white-ant2 and1 unless carefully preserved from damp1 will speedily decay3 its being very light1 and easy to work1 are points much in its favor4 ,though we consider a mango-plank to be at least at par1 when it measures twenty inches1 or two feet1 in width1 yet great numbers may be had1 by research1 of double that breadth4 ,my carpenters once felled a tree1 which proved too large for any saw ,i could obtain in that quarter4 ,sometimes we see very old tables made of mango-wood1 which exhibit some beautiful veins1 and acquire a substantial polish2 but1 such can only attend a very careful choice of planks1 which must likewise be seasoned1 and be worked to great advantage3 otherwise1 a mango-wood table will appear singularly coarse and mean4 ,as to the tree itself1 much may be said in its favor1 though1 owing to the stiffness of the leaves1 it cannot be termed graceful3 its deep green1 contrasted with the white spindling blossoms1 7much resembling those of the horse-chesnut17 and its abundant foliage1 give it a richness1 and render it peculiarly gratifying to the eye2 especially as it is in its greatest beauty during the early part of the hot season1 when the grass begins to parch1 and the surface of the soil changes from that agreeable verdure produced by the rains1 and1 in some degree1 cherished by the succeeding cold months1 to a very sombre russet6 ,the fruit does not run much risque after the blossoms have once fairly set2 though1 sometimes1 severe blights occur1 which render the whole abortive2 when about the size of a very large gooseberry1 the young mangoes make excellent pies2 not unlike those containing apples1 but with a certain terebinthinic flavor1 which does not always please in the first instance1 but soon becomes palatable4 ,when about half grown1 that is1 beyond the size of a large walnut1 they are in good order for pickling4 ,this fruit is also preserved in common mosaul-oil2 in this instance1 they are allowed to remain about a month in the vinegar pickle1 before they are immersed in the oil4 ,many persons are very partial to the pickle thus made2 but1 in my humble opinion1 nothing can be more rank2 especially when the rinds are not pared off4 ,mangoes likewise make a very rich preserve1 provided they are prepared before the stones are suffered to harden2 else they will be very fibrous1 and cut with peculiar harshness4 ,with respect to the ripe fruit1 it is impossible to describe the flavor2 since1 even on the same tree1 various kinds will often be found4 ,a stranger would conclude1 on seeing mangoes of different colors1 different scents1 and different shapes1 ripening on the same tree1 that they had been grafted2 but such is not the fact3 there seems to be some very peculiar property1 that causes it to shoot out with such different bearings1 which remain on distinct boughs2 as though the tree were composed of various twigs1 all proceeding from the same stem4 ,what can be said of a fruit varying in flavor1 from the finest apricot1 down to a very bad carrot8 ,such1 however1 is known to be common3 it is true1 that1 for the most part1 the whole crop of a tree will be pretty similar1 both in shape1 and flavor2 but such is not always the case4 ,as for the produce of trees resulting from the kernels of the same kind of mango1 that is quite a lottery2 for1 like potatoes raised from seed1 there will generally be found a great variety4 ,the ,chinese have produced considerable amelioration in mangoes1 by a very simple process4 ,they select some healthy branches on a good tree1 and1 having pricked the bark through with a sharp awl1 surround the part with a lump of wet clay1 or loam2 which they secure by means of a piece of canvas1 bound lightly with hempen bands4 ,above each part thus treated1 a large pot of water is suspended1 having in its bottom a small hole2 which1 being partially stopped with a piece of rag1 allows the water to drip1 whereby the clay is kept constantly moist4 ,in about three months1 small fibres shoot out through the punctured bark2 which1 on the branch being cut off1 and the canvas being removed1 strike into the soil1 and become roots4 ,it is highly curious1 that the fruit produced by branches thus treated1 becomes more fleshy1 while the stone diminishes considerably2 it being more flat1 and rarely so firm as that of the common mango4 ,by persevering in the operation1 that is1 by repeating it on the branches of a tree thus cultivated1 for some generations1 the kernel becomes so reduced as scarcely to be noticeable1 while the skin also loses much of that highly acrid quality1 arising from the abundance of turpentine it contains4 ,mangoes are peculiarly stimulant1 rarely failing to cause those who eat of them freely to break out with boils of considerable size1 and often very tedious in their cure4 ,it is absolutely necessary to treat these as critical abscesses2 for1 were any repellent to be applied1 serious consequences would inevitably follow4 ,persons lately arrived in the country1 often devour this luscious fruit1 until checked either by a dozen or two of these most distressing companions1 or1 perhaps1 in consequence of that kind of bowel-complaint prevalent in all hot climates1 and which1 though generally not very difficult to remedy when properly treated in its first stage1 soon turns to dysentery1 carrying off a large portion of those whose constitutions are not remarkably sound4 ,when eaten in moderation1 mangoes are gently aperient2 but if1 notwithstanding its acrid taste and effects1 the rind should be incautiously swallowed1 the stomach will be considerably disordered4 ,the gland1 or kernel1 which in shape is something like a very large1 flat1 ,windsor-bean1 is unpleasant to the palate1 its flavor being very similar to that of the acorn4 ,swine1 especially of the wild tribes1 which often take shelter1 during the season1 in topes1 or forests1 of wild mangoes1 eat the entire fruit1 as it falls from the trees1 with great avidity1 and thrive amazingly4 ,the generality of mango-topes owe their origin to religious institutions1 or to bequests1 or to charitable donations4 ,to plant one1 it is necessary that the land should be purchased in fee-simple2 when1 the trees being set out1 perhaps thirty feet1 or more1 asunder1 in rows1 so as to form regular square intervals1 the whole are fenced by means of a deep ditch2 from which the excavated soil is thrown inwards1 and either planted with baubool1 7mimosa17 or sown with that tall kind of grass which bears a very large tassel1 and is known by the name of surput3 of this grass notice has already been taken in describing the seerky used in thatching bungalows4 ,some topes are endowed with small sums for the purpose of maintaining a priest1 for whom a comfortable residence1 and a substantial durgaw1 7or temple17 are erected4 ,the sale of the fruit1 7which generally proves a full crop in four or five years1 the trees being then as large as a well-grown walnut-tree17 furnishes the means of sinking a well1 cased with masonry4 ,but it is more common for the person who causes the tope to be planted1 to sink the well also2 and to celebrate the marriage of the former with the latter1 in a manner suitable to his rank or property4 ,on such occasions1 the well1 being supposed to possess the fecundatory powers1 is considered the husband2 the tope being typified as feminine1 by the fruit it produces4 ,however much we may be disposed to smile at a custom generally attended with much ceremony1 and expence1 we cannot but admire its effects2 which1 in a tropical climate1 are highly beneficial1 both to the weary traveller1 and to the thirsty soil4 ,hence1 the sight of a mango-tope is generally attended with the most pleasing anticipations6 ,although mango-topes abound in every part of the lower provinces1 their wood1 except in bungalows1 is rarely employed in ,european architecture2 nor do the natives make much use of it as a timber3 large quantities are every year cut up for planks1 intended chiefly for very ordinary purposes1 where great strength and durability are not essentials4 ,the immense quantities of fine bamboos1 which ordinarily grow very straight to the height of sixty feet1 or more1 though rarely measuring more than five inches diameter near the root1 and gradually tapering off as they ascend1 supply the contented native with rafters1 joists1 posts1 pillars1 laths1 and a great variety of et ceteras1 all tending either to his shelter1 or to his convenience4 ,the ordinary price of these invaluable reeds 7for they are of the arundo tribe7 may be from three-pence to five-pence each2 that is1 generally from seven to twelve for a rupee1 according to size and demand4 ,millions of them are annually brought to ,calcutta1 both by water1 and on hackeries2 in the former instance1 they1 being remarkably buoyant1 are floated in clumps1 or1 perhaps1 are made into rafts1 on which boossah1 7or chaff17 and even corn1 are laden2 or they are tied to the sides of very large boats1 which also carry from five hundred1 to as many thousands1 as a cargo4 ,the buoyancy of the bamboo is occasioned as much by its various cells1 as by the lightness of its wood4 ,these cells1 in a common sized bamboo1 may be about three quarters of an inch in diameter in those joints that are near the roots2 where the wood is far more solid and compact than in the upper parts1 towards which the cells become gradually wider1 and the joints longer2 thus reducing the substance of the bamboo very considerably1 as we find to be the case with reeds in general4 ,this variety in the several parts affords considerable convenience1 their allotment being made according as the work may require more or less substance2 and1 as the whole bamboo may be split1 like whale-bone1 from top to bottom1 without much exertion1 scope is afforded for applying it1 with great promptness1 to an infinite variety of purposes4 ,in their whole state1 bamboos are used1 not only for rafters in the construction of bungalows1 but as yards for the sails of the common country craft2 sometimes those of extraordinary size are selected for top-gallant studding-sail booms1 in vessels not exceeding four or five hundred tons3 their immense strength qualifying them admirably for that situation4 ,the smaller open boats1 throughout the ,east1 are generally fitted with bamboo masts1 selected from the lower part of the reed1 the upper being more suited1 by its lightness1 to be employed as yards3 thus1 for three-pence1 a boat of about four or five tons may be furnished1 from the same bamboo1 with both mast and yard4 ,in vessels of greater burthen1 two or more1 even up to a dozen1 of bamboos1 are lashed together around a stout piece of wood1 which1 passing through the thatch1 fits into a step on the vessel's bottom1 and is well secured by chocks and lashings in various places4 ,this stick1 which serves as the base of the mast1 may be about fifteen feet long1 and nine or ten inches diameter3 it is commonly left in a very rough state1 that the bamboos which are to surround it may be more firmly held in their places4 ,in this manner the mast is run up1 probably to the height of forty or fifty feet1 according to the vessel's burthen1 and at every two or three feet is bound by cords made of white hemp4 ,the position of this awkward-looking pile is maintained by stays innumerable2 many of which1 being allowed to point forward1 before the line of the mast's perpendicular1 obstruct the bracing of the yard very considerably4 ,the strength of that yard must be proportioned to the sail2 sometimes one well-selected bamboo may suffice1 but in vessels of great bulk1 say from sixty to ninety tons1 two1 or even three1 stout bamboos are found requisite4 ,the sail is usually made of a very coarse kind of canvas1 constructed of a very indifferent kind of hemp1 generally used for rice bags1 c41 and known by the name of gunny3 each piece may measure six or seven feet by thirty inches2 consequently1 the innumerable joinings made in a large sail1 offer a very ready means for the wind's escape4 ,blacky is not very particular in this respect2 with him1 a sail is a sail1 so long as a bit remains adequate to giving the vessel way through still waters4 ,it will naturally be asked1 #8,why is such miserable tackling in use8' ,the reasons are1 firstly1 because the native owner of a vessel will not go to one farthing expence beyond what may be indispensably necessary1 however clumsy1 or subject to mishap1 to set his vessel afloat1 and to have her1 as he thinks1 ready for departure4 ,secondly1 the materials are probably of his own growth1 or he deals in them1 or1 which is often the sole motive1 he finds them1 in the first instance1 by far cheaper than more substantial materials2 and1 thirdly1 even if other materials of a better quality1 and in every instance more appropriate1 were to be had for the same money1 he would not very readily deviate from the customs of his ancestors4 ,were a vessel fitted up on ,european principles to be wrecked1 the whole family would impute the accident to the sin engendered by such adoption of the customs of a race held in abomination by even the lowest casts1 7or sects17 throughout the country4 ,nevertheless1 we sometimes see the manjy and dandies grievously put out of their way1 by some shrewd native1 who resolutely breaks through the general prejudice1 and imitates that which his faculties convince him is founded upon science4 ,not that he will understand the how1 and the wherefore3 no2 he sees the practice is good1 and he adopts it3 whereas1 if any regulation were to be framed to enforce his compliance with our system1 in that1 or in any other particular1 we should assuredly witness his receding1 if possible1 from every idea of improvement2 or1 if under the necessity of conforming1 that his whole deportment would betray the reluctance1 and antipathy1 he felt on the occasion4 ,may not this trait in the character of ,asiatics in general1 serve as a hint to those who talk of coercing them to the adoption of ,christianity8 ,may it not shew that much may be done by suaviter in modo1 provided we temper the fortiter in re8--,certainly6 ,exclusive of the bamboo1 the natives have an ample resource for rafters1 as well as for posts and pillars1 in the cocoa-nut tree1 which grows1 it may be said wild1 throughout those parts within reach either of the sea-water1 or of the sea-air4 ,not that it is absolutely confined to such situations2 but1 in proportion as those are removed1 so does the natural growth of this tree gradually diminish2 giving way to the taul1 7or fan-leafed palm17 which1 though less umbrageous1 and1 in many instances1 less useful1 attains a great height1 and furnishes a much larger quantity of wood4 ,in general1 few ,bengallees will cut down a nereaul1 7or cocoa-nut tree17 which supplies them with so many requisites4 ,thus1 the outer coating1 which often weighs from one to two pounds1 when stripped off longitudinally1 furnishes those fibres called coir1 whereof both small rigging and cables are made4 ,this kind of rope is particularly elastic1 and buoyant2 floating on the surface of the sea1 to any extent2 therefore1 when1 owing to the strength of the current1 a boat misses a ship1 it is usual to veer out a quantity of coir2 having previously fastened an oar1 or a small cask1 c4 to its end3 by this device1 the boat may be easily enabled to haul up to the ship's stern4 ,i should think1 that1 were a coir hawser kept on board every ship in the ,british marine1 a great number of lives would be saved4 ,it is1 however1 peculiar1 that fresh water rots coir in a very short time2 corroding it in a most unaccountable manner2 whereas salt water absolutely invigorates2 seeming to afford additional elasticity4 ,this shews that coir is by no means fit to be used in running rigging1 nor as shroud-hawsers1 c41 especially for vessels subject to approach low latitudes2 it being easily snapped in frosty weather4 ,nothing can equal the ease with which a ship rides at anchor when her cables are of coir3 as the surges approach the bows1 the vessel gradually recedes1 in consequence of the cable yielding to their force2 but1 so soon as they have passed1 it contracts again1 drawing the vessel gently back to her first position4 ,the lightness of the material doubtless adds to this pleasing effect2 for the cable would float1 were not the anchor sufficiently heavy to keep it perfectly down4 ,it is to be remarked1 that a hempen-cable always makes a curve downwards1 between the vessel and the anchor1 but a coir cable makes a curve upwards3 therefore1 if a right line were drawn from the hawse-hole1 to the ring of the anchor1 it would be something like the axis of a parabolic spindle2 of which the cables would form the two elliptic segments1 or nearly so4 ,a very considerable trade is carried on1 from all parts of ,india1 with the ,maldivies1 and ,sechelles1 7very numerous clusters of islands near the west coast of the peninsula17 for coir and cowries2 the latter being used for inferior currency1 while the former is greatly appreciated1 on account of the fibres being much larger1 and firmer1 than those grown upon the continent4 ,not only the islands above named1 but all within the ,indian seas1 abound with the cocoa-nut tree2 which1 in many of them1 stand absolutely in the water4 ,these owe their origin to the growth of such nuts as1 having been blown down1 or dropped1 when ripe1 are buried in the sands2 above which their acrospires soon appear1 when the tree shoots up with greater vigor than its inland competitors4 ,it is said1 that1 about a hundred and fifty years back1 the ,sechelles and ,maldivies were known only as concealed sands1 highly dangerous to the navigator2 and that1 after they had1 by the action of the sea1 accumulated so as to become superficial1 a vessel laden with cocoa-nuts was wrecked upon one of these banks1 which speedily threw up whole forests of that tree1 in consequence of the seed thus furnished3 others attribute the first supply to the adventitious floating of nuts from the ,malabar coast4 ,nothing appears to discredit either of the accounts2 but the former appears by far the most probable4 ,be it one way or the other1 we now find that the islands in question not only produce immense forests of cocoas1 but1 that they are inhabited by a people1 governed much in the same way as the other ,arabian islands1 7for such we may call these1 as well as ,johanna1 ,comora1 ,succotra1 c427 and whose commercial relations may be said to consist of coir and cowries1 bartered with their neighbours of the peninsula1 and the ,arabs of ,museat1 c41 for cotton-cloths1 rice1 sugar1 c4 ,to whatever chance it may have been owing1 the navigator now feels less anxiety when near these isles2 for1 notwithstanding they are so little elevated as to remain nearly in their former state of immersion1 yet their cocoa forests1 which generally tower to the height of thirty or forty feet1 being visible at the distance of many miles1 enable him to ascertain his locality with correctness1 and to avoid the numerous shoals1 by a due attention to the bearings and soundings4 ,the natives are said to be extremely well acquainted with their archipelago1 and to pilot vessels of great burthen with perfect security and precision4 ,the next consideration with the native1 respecting the cocoa-nut1 is its water1 by us called cocoa-nut milk4 ,this pleasant beverage is contained within the shell1 and1 in general1 may amount to three quarters of a pint4 ,it is purest when the nut is so young and tender as to allow the husk and shell to be cut with about as much facility as a stringy turnip2 at which time1 very little coagulum adheres to the interior of the shell1 and that little is soft1 like milk barely turned by rennet4 ,gradually1 the water becomes rather turbid1 and acquires a stronger taste2 while the coagulum encreases to about the third1 or even the half1 of an inch in thickness2 hardening1 and becoming tough1 but easily snapped into pieces4 ,when arrived at this state1 it abounds in oil1 which1 at first is remarkably sweet1 though of a peculiar flavor1 and is much used by the native ,portugueze1 in lieu of ghee1 in their culinary operations4 ,the mode of extracting the oil is very simple3 a piece of wood1 say two feet in length1 six inches broad1 and two or three thick1 bears at one of its extremities a stem of iron1 driven in by means of a spike3 this stem must be stout1 and should measure about ten inches2 but1 towards its summit1 spreading into the form of an inverted crescent1 somewhat concave1 and deeply jagged at its circumference4 ,sitting1 as usual1 on the ground1 the operator keeps the baton from tilting1 by placing one of his feet firmly upon it3 in that position he takes the nuts1 commonly broken into two or more pieces1 by a forcible stroke of some heavy implement1 or by dashing them on the floor1 and1 by rasping the interior of each piece against the jagged edges of the iron1 causes the coagulum to fall1 in form of a coarse powder1 into a vessel placed below to receive it4 ,to effect this with more facility1 the stem slants obliquely from the baton2 allowing room for the receiver to be put immediately under the crescent4 ,the raspings are now put into hot water1 in which they are well stirred and pressed with a large wooden spoon2 by this means the oil is separated2 it is drawn off by opening a little hole near its surface1 as it floats upon the water4 ,it is inconceivable how much oil is thus obtained in a few minutes2 but1 both from its own nature1 and the mode of extraction1 it soon becomes offensively rancid2 a state in which it is by no means objectionable to the swarthy ,signors1 who1 as well as the ,hindus in general1 are partial to it as an unguent for the hair4 ,to a fresh ,european1 the scent of this powerful finish to the charms of an ,indian ,venus is highly objectionable3 of all the stinks of which ,india can boast1 it certainly is the worst4 ,but1 as before observed1 if used immediately after extraction1 nothing can be sweeter3 it also burns remarkably well2 therefore is in general use for lamps among all the ,european inhabitants4 ,the residuum1 after separating the oil1 fattens poultry better than grain3 the pork of swine fed upon cocoa-nuts is delicious2 as must be confessed by all who have visited the ,andamans and ,nicobars4 ,considering the coagulum as a food for mankind1 ,i should by no means feel disposed to recommend it2 though it is certain that the natives eat of it freely3 experience satisfies me1 that it is extremely difficult of digestion2 and that1 when ate as a meal1 much inconvenience1 if not indisposition1 will generally follow4 ,nor can ,i recommend the water of the young nut to persons whose bowels are not of the strongest2 it being aperient1 and1 when used beyond a certain quantity1 extremely apt to induce dysentery3 the amount of a nut-ful may1 perhaps1 be drank with perfect safety4 ,during very hot weather1 if the nuts are fresh gathered1 or suffered to remain for a while in cold water1 it is not very easy to withstand the temptation4 ,the shell of the cocoa-nut is always most valuable when suffered to ripen upon the tree2 it then acquires great hardness1 and a fine dark chocolate color1 interveined by fine lines of a rich dun1 or clay1 or perhaps striated with those tints3 they then take a good polish1 and may1 when tastefully mounted1 be considered as ornamental to the sideboard4 ,but1 it is to be observed1 that they are rather a brittle ware1 compared with their solid appearance2 and1 that it requires a great length of time to divest them wholly of a certain strong scent1 reminding those who have been accustomed to the oil1 of that peculiar and powerful rancidity it invariably acquires by long keeping1 and especially by exposure to the air4 ,previous to the introduction of lamps in the halls1 passages1 c41 in the houses of ,europeans1 cocoa-nut oil was to be had for about three-pence1 or four-pence1 per seer 7i4e4 the measurement of a seer1 which comes very nearly to the ,english quart2 in some places exceeding it1 but in others falling short74 ,since that practice has obtained1 in consequence of candles having been doubled in price1 the oil has likewise been enhanced2 so that it now sells at about three and a half1 or four seers per rupee2 which accords with seven-pence halfpenny of our currency per quart4 ,no kind of animal oil is in use among the natives of ,india1 either as food1 or in manufactories2 if1 indeed1 we except that most curious production1 the meemii-ke-tale1 or oil extracted from the bodies of malefactors2 who1 being well fed for a month1 or more1 previous to execution1 for the purpose of encreasing their fat1 have large fires lighted under them while on the gibbet1 and metal vessels placed to receive the drippings4 ,that this practice has heretofore obtained1 under the government of the native princes1 does not1 ,i believe1 admit of a doubt2 but1 that it is now obsolete1 is equally certain4 ,still meemii-ke-tale 7i4e4 human oil7 may be had at many places2 though not genuine1 but composed of whatever materials may form a mass resembling that originally in use4 ,i have seen several of these masses1 which were of a dark1 opaque brown1 appearing something like coagulated blood mixed with dirty jelly1 and become hard by exposure to the sun1 or by inspissation3 its smell was intolerably offensive4 ,on the whole1 this celebrated extract1 which is supposed to cure all contractions1 and stiffness of the joints1 is a subject of astonishment1 when we consider it to be in use among a people so very peculiar in their tenets1 and professing so much humanity1 not only towards their brethren1 but towards all animated nature4 ,had ,shakespeare been acquainted with the existence of the meemii1 he certainly would have given it a place in ,hecate's stir-about6 ,if the natives were intent upon obtaining animal oils1 the greatest abundance could be commanded2 porpoises1 turtles1 alligators1 dog-fishes1 and sharks1 all of which contain large quantities1 exist in every part where the water is brackish2 some of them1 indeed1 become even more numerous as their distance from the sea encreases4 ,whales1 likewise1 are occasionally seen in the ,indian ,sea1 and in the ,mozambique ,channel are extremely common4 ,but1 to persons habituated from their infancy to the use of high-savored viands1 any sweet oil would be insipid3 such people want a haut-got in their sauces2 yet it must be confessed1 they certainly manage to render even their strongest preparations extremely palatable2 but1 to relish them properly1 the culinary operations must not always be witnessed4 ,babachees1 or cooks1 in the employ of ,europeans1 are sometimes extremely filthy2 far more so than when dressing their own victuals4 ,few of the natives are sparing in the use of water on such occasions1 even though it should be brought from some distance2 yet1 it is equally true1 that whole villages are sometimes content to use water from a pool1 comparable only with that into which ,ariel ushered the surly ,caliban4 ,the trunk of the cocoa-nut tree not only answers1 when the central pith is scooped out1 for canoes1 but1 when split1 as it may easily be into slips of any width1 forms excellent rafters3 if applied to that purpose1 all the soft part is taken entirely away1 leaving only the exterior case1 which is very hard1 tough1 and elastic1 about three inches in thickness4 ,a trunk of about a foot in diameter will commonly rive into five staves1 each about seven inches wide3 such should be placed edgeways on the walls1 that their scantlings may be in a proper direction4 ,rafters thus made1 provided they be not more than twenty feet1 or thereabouts1 in length1 and not too heavily laden1 will stand for generations1 without shewing the smallest symptom of decay4 ,in saying this1 ,i am to be understood as alluding to their being under cover2 otherwise1 they will not exhibit such durability1 although they may fully claim to be on a par with most of the indigenous timbers4 ,the reader is to understand1 that1 excepting where merely temporary1 that is to say1 intended for a few weeks1 or months1 bungalows are always built with pavilion thatches2 by which construction they resist the weather far better1 while the quantity of brick-work is considerably less than where gables are run up4 ,the proximity of the thatches in the veranda parts1 renders them far less cool1 in the hot months1 than the interior1 in which the thatch is so much further removed3 the latter would be rendered much cooler were flues1 or ventilators1 to be made for the purpose of carrying off the rarefied air1 as already suggested4 ,cocoa-nuts are often sawed into two equal parts1 for the purpose of being made into ladles3 to effect this1 a hole is made on each side1 about half an inch from the edge1 and a stick is passed through1 serving as a handle2 much the same as we see in the jets used by brewers for taking liquor out of their vats4 ,when sawed into two equal parts1 across the grain of the coir coating1 cocoa-nuts make excellent table brushes1 causing the planks to assume a very high polish from their friction4 ,as this operation requires some strength1 it is proper to be careful that the edges of the shell1 if left in1 7as is sometimes1 though improperly1 done17 should be perfectly smooth2 being once rendered so1 they will never scratch1 however forcibly the brush may be applied4 ,a very good mode is1 to strip off the coir1 and1 after soaking it well in water1 to beat it with a heavy wooden mall until the pieces become a little pliant1 when they should be firmly bound together with an iron ring3 their ends being then levelled1 the implement is fit for use4 ,a little bees'-wax rubbed occasionally upon them1 adds greatly to the lustre of the furniture1 without being clammy4 ,the stem of the toddy-tree is very similar to that of the cocoa1 but grows to a much greater height1 and is put to the same purposes4 ,on first seeing a grove of toddy-palms1 one would suppose that a strong wind must inevitably tear up the whole by their roots2 which consist of innumerable small fibres1 that penetrate but a very little way1 comparatively1 into the soil4 ,when one of these trees is laid prostrate by the wind1 a very small cavity is made1 rarely so much as a cubic yard4 ,the leaves differ very widely from those of the cocoa3 the former being rather spear-shaped1 about a foot1 or more1 in length1 by perhaps two inches at their broadest part1 and attached to each side of the rib1 which may be from ten to fourteen feet in length1 and hang gracefully on every side of the trunk2 covering the nuts1 which grow on very short1 stiff stems1 close under the place where the leaves start from it in all directions2 a tuft of similar1 but smaller1 branches1 grow with rather a vertical tendency4 ,the toddy-palm has1 on the contrary1 about ten or a dozen large leaves1 radiated from their stems1 arranged in folds very similar to a lady's fan half spread2 but the outer edges are indented considerably3 the leaves form each about three-fourths of a circle1 but not very regularly so2 some more1 some less4 ,these are made into punkahs1 or fans1 of various sizes2 or1 when torn into strips of about two inches wide1 which may be about the medium breadth of each fold1 serve the natives in lieu of paper4 ,the greater part of the accounts kept by ,bengallees are written on these leaves1 by means of any sharp-pointed instrument1 which1 marking through the glossy rind1 or coating1 on either side of the leaf1 remains1 ever after1 perfectly distinct and legible4 ,those who wish to have the letters still more so1 rub the leaves1 after filled with writings1 with kaujool1 or lamp-black2 which sinks into the porous parts laid open by the instrument1 but easily wipes off from that portion of the surface which has not been pierced4 ,some hundreds of these leaves may be seen1 secured together at one end by a twine passed through each1 like waste paper in a grocer's shop2 thus forming a voluminous collection4 ,the fruit of the taul consists of two1 or sometimes three1 lobes1 or pods1 somewhat similar to those in a horse-chesnut1 and1 like them1 concealed in a pithy1 spherical coating1 but with a smooth exterior4 ,each lobe is hollow1 and contains a small quantity of very clear liquor1 partaking1 in a very slight degree1 of the flavor of rose-water2 the lobes themselves are about the size of a ,chelsea-bun1 are rather of a crisp1 but gelatinous substance1 and pleasant to the palate3 their exterior is covered with a very thin1 brown rind1 like that of an almond2 rather astringent1 but by no means acrid4 ,the liquor1 called toddy1 is obtained by making an incision under the head of the tree1 when1 a thin wedge being introduced1 the toddy will gradually exude into a vessel suspended to receive it4 ,this liquor is very pleasing when fresh drawn1 but1 in a few hours1 acquires a harsh flavor1 ferments1 and becomes highly intoxicating4 ,it answers admirably as leaven1 making very light dough2 but if kept1 as is too commonly done1 until rather sub-acid1 it communicates a most unpleasant tartness to the bread4 ,groves of toddy-trees1 in some parts of the country1 yield a very handsome revenue1 and great profit to the renters4 ,like the cocoa-nut tree1 they have within their summits a substance very like a cabbage in flavor3 this occasions mariners sometimes to fell them1 with the view of carrying that part to sea2 where it will1 if left within its rind1 keep for many months4 ,i have tasted of this vegetable1 but did not feel much gratified1 though it assuredly was not disagreeable3 it seemed to require much boiling4 ,the stem of the toddy-palm is annulated1 but not very deeply3 of this the toddy-men take advantage1 ascending to the summit1 and descending again to the plain1 with wondrous agility4 ,this is effected by a piece of strong twine1 about a yard or more in length1 but doubled into a loop of half that extent4 ,the great toes are respectively put into the ends of the loop1 so as to keep it perfectly extended4 ,the man first embraces the tree1 as high as he can reach1 for the purpose of raising himself from the ground2 his feet being instantly carried1 on opposite sides of the trunk1 as far asunder as the loop may admit4 ,then1 sustaining himself by means of the loop1 he slides his arms upwards to take a second spring2 following1 in due time1 by the removal of his feet1 as much higher as he has been able to reach4 ,in this manner1 successively stretching up his arms1 and swarming with his feet1 he reaches the summit2 where1 while he either suspends the pot1 or releases it1 his weight generally rests on the loop4 ,the great art1 both in ascending1 and descending1 is to keep the loop always stretched3 should it be allowed to slacken1 in all probability it would fall off4 ,few persons1 following this profession1 require more than half a minute to mount the highest palmira2 by which name the toddy-palm is most generally known to ,europeans4 ,the natives designate it the taul 7or taul-gautch74 ,i believe very few kinds of wood1 except those ,i have mentioned1 ever come within the ordinary course of domestic architecture2 though1 in some few situations1 the soondry and jarrool are employed for the minor purposes2 but1 with some reserve on the part of the natives1 who hold them to be more applicable to the construction of small craft1 and to the formation of carriages of various descriptions4 ,the soondry is a remarkably tough1 heavy1 and elastic wood2 while the jarrool1 though rather harder1 more resembles the beech1 than any other of our indigenous timber trees3 as a material in boat-building1 it ranks next to the teak1 hence1 many of the donies1 7or coasting vessels17 measuring from fifty1 to a hundred and fifty1 tons1 are principally built therewith4 ,when teak is scarce1 we occasionally see the ship-wrights apply jarrool in their repairs of the upper works of large vessels4 ,having said thus much of the manner in which houses1 and bungalows1 are constructed1 ,i have only to observe1 that1 of late years1 the ,european architects have been rather prone to sacrifice comfort to appearance4 ,those old houses built at a time when punkahs1 tatties1 glass-sashes1 c41 were not in use1 certainly evince that attention was paid to coolness1 but without disregarding convenience4 ,now1 although building is full fifty per cent4 cheaper than it was thirty years ago1 we see the walls much less substantial1 and1 on the whole1 a want of local fitness in the arrangement of the several apartments4 ,i must caution the reader1 that what would appear an admirable plan for a residence in our climate1 would be found totally inconsistent with the temperatures attendant upon the changes of season in ,india1 and with the several practices1 and operations1 peremptorily necessary towards meeting those changes4 ,it must never be forgotten1 that1 at some seasons1 and at some hours in all seasons1 every door and window is usually thrown open2 likewise1 that1 during the continuance of the hot winds1 such apartments as cannot be kept moderately cool1 by tatties applied to some apertures on that floor1 whence the current of refrigerated air may find admission1 will be scarcely habitable1 and1 at night in particular1 will glow like ovens4 ,the hot-wind commonly rises with the sun1 blowing at first very gently1 but encreasing gradually1 until about one or two o'clock2 after which1 it subsides into a perfect calm4 ,this is its ordinary course1 but some days remain calm throughout1 while1 at other times1 the wind blows a hurricane the whole night through4 ,i have1 indeed1 known it to continue1 with very little change of temperature1 or variation of force1 for full ten days2 during which period1 the nights were1 if any thing1 hotter than the days2 so that extra b'heesties were retained to water the tatties during the night4 ,that was1 to be sure1 a very singular season1 carrying with it a prodigious mortality2 great numbers dying suddenly4 ,it was peculiar that the fit1 which resembled apoplexy1 attacked all ages alike1 and paid no deference to the abstemious and temperate1 any more than to the licentious and gormandizing classes4 ,in describing the habitations of the lower orders of natives1 ,i explained1 that their chief attention was paid to privacy1 and to the exclusion of the glare4 ,the superior ranks are not less intent upon the same objects2 though many of their state apartments do not indicate1 that either the one or the other were of the smallest consideration4 ,some of the ,durbars are uncommonly exposed2 and1 in consequence of the crowd1 the fastidious ceremony observed1 and the constant succession of entrances and exits1 form a most uncomfortable tout ensemble4 ,yet1 it appears that the natives have made little or no variation in their system1 not only within the time we have been acquainted with them1 but1 if we examine their ancient structures1 not for centuries before a ,british foot was placed upon their soil4 ,we ordinarily find nearly the same aspect given to all their buildings1 especially to their places of worship3 nimauzes1 7or open temples17 where the ,mussulmans are in the habit of offering up their prayers1 invariably are made to front the west2 under the idea of their facing the shrine of ,mahomed4 ,this error may be considered on a par with the placing of altars in our churches always at the east end1 with the view to their standing towards the place of our ,saviour's nativity3 we also inter our dead with their heads to the west1 on the same account4 ,having detailed what relates to the domestic habits1 and to the architecture of the country1 ,i shall now proceed to describe the manner of living among ,europeans in ,india2 observing1 that there are two very distinct classes1 though perfectly on a footing2 namely1 the residents of ,calcutta1 and those among the civil and military1 who are subject to be detached from the ,presidency4 ,formerly1 only such gentlemen as held offices of considerable emolument1 or those who were married1 supported a regular table3 such might be said to keep open-house2 at least1 far the greater number usually laid several spare covers1 especially at supper-time1 under the hope of seeing their friends drop in to partake of whatever might be in preparation4 ,the dinner hour being known1 7for almost every family then dined between two and three o'clock17 it was rarely needful to make enquiries respecting the proper moment for repairing to the hospitable board4 ,little or no ceremony was required2 the host being as much pleased with the compliment paid by the visit of a young friend1 as the latter was to find a welcome among the most opulent and respectable portion of the ,european community4 ,nor did the benefit accruing to the latter1 confine itself within the limits of economical saving3 it was generally found1 that such as became habitually inmates of this description1 were recommended to the notice of ,government1 or to such situations1 7if not in the ,company's service17 as afforded the immediate means of maintenance1 or eventually led to lucrative speculations4 ,a variety of instances could be adduced1 of young gentlemen having1 from the foregoing admission within the domestic circle of visitants1 been rescued from that most unpleasant situation1 namely1 a want of respectable friends2 these1 as ,shakespeare properly remarks1 #8had greatness thrust upon them4' ,such was the state of society when ,i first arrived in ,india1 #aggh and such was the fair expectation1 with which not only young gentlemen1 but many #8far advanced upon time's list1' landed on the shores of the ,ganges4 ,in fact1 it required that some very substantial objection should personally exist1 to deprive any individual of an implied right to the most friendly reception4 ,still1 however1 it must be acknowledged1 that a certain distinction1 rather too fastidious1 was prevalent in favor of those who came with appointments to the ,company's service2 especially in the civil line4 ,to a certain extent1 such might have been considered reasonable1 when we reflect that future association in the same duties was to be expected2 but1 the matter was doubtless carried too far2 it being distinguished by that kind of deference which stamps a superior value upon its object1 the whole amount of which is deducted from the supposed inferior2 thus1 causing the former to preponderate in society in a multiplied ratio1 in the same manner as taking from one scale to put into the other1 occasions the difference to encrease in the proportion of three to one4 ,the gradual encrease of commercial transactions1 and of intercourse1 with several parts of that extensive territory1 which ultimately has come under the influence1 if not the control1 of the ,british government1 served as invitations to many adventurers1 who quitted ,europe under assurances of employ in the ,east4 ,their expectations were generally confirmed by permanent establishments in various parts of the country2 whereby a complete change took place1 as to the estimation in which free-merchants1 as they are generally termed1 were held4 ,among this class1 there have1 within a few years1 appeared numbers1 whose industry1 and extensive concerns1 rendered them conspicuous2 and it would not1 perhaps1 be too bold to predict1 that1 in the course of a few years1 the success of their efforts may prove a stimulus to such an encrease of private traders1 as cannot fail to give birth to events of great national importance4 ,it would not be in place to notice such probable results in this work1 but it may be permitted1 without trespassing the bounds ,i have marked out to myself1 to anticipate1 that the commercial society of ,india will1 in time1 grow out of the knowledge of such as surveyed its state some thirty years ago4 ,we have1 at the same time1 to lament1 that1 owing to such an augmentation of all ranks1 it has been found necessary to drop many customs suited only to a limitted society1 and to adopt a certain reserve1 which may not be exactly conformable to those very sanguine ideas entertained by persons who may have read of the ancient regime of ,oriental hospitality2 the declination of which has unavoidably kept pace with the additional imports consequent to extended commerce4 ,there will1 however1 even at this day1 be found much to approve2 and the mind endued with sensibility will have to acknowledge many a civility1 very nearly akin to kindness1 and sufficiently poignant to give an ample scope for many a grateful acknowledgment4 ,morning visits are not1 generally speaking1 so uncommon as they were3 formerly1 few went to pay visits of ceremony during the forenoon2 for1 the dinner-hour being early1 there was little time for such unsocial compliments2 whereas1 now1 that it is generally delayed until about sun-set1 that is to say1 to perhaps five1 or six1 or even to seven o'clock1 the forenoon is more applicable to the reception of visitors2 who1 if on any terms of intimacy1 do not hesitate to join the family at a little avant-diner commonly called a tiffing1 and known among us by the name of lunch4 ,this kind of refreshment 7for it is not considered a repast7 usually takes place between one and two o'clock1 and consists of grilled fowls1 mutton chops1 cold meats1 and sometimes of curry and rice4 ,being conducted without ceremony1 and in a very desultory style1 the dropping in of friends never occasions the slightest discontinuance1 any more than the accidental arrival among an ,english party here1 of an intimate1 while partaking of a slice of cake and a glass of wine4 ,the various formalities are1 however1 now transferred from ,p4 ,m4 to ,a4 ,m4 and it is usual to see the town of ,calcutta thronged with palanquins during the whole of what is called the forenoon2 but which commonly is made to extend to three o'clock2 about which time1 especially during nine months in the year1 most persons are at home1 divested of their usual dresses1 and reclining1 in some cool apartment1 on a bed1 or a couch1 for the purpose of repose1 and to prepare for that change of linen1 and for those ablutions1 not forgetting the bath1 which are both comfortable1 and essential1 in so very sultry a climate4 ,gentlemen who purpose visiting the ladies1 commonly repair to their houses between eight and nine o'clock in the evening2 ordinarily under the expectation of being invited to stay and sup3 an invitation that is rarely declined4 ,among ladies who are intimately acquainted1 morning visits are common1 but all who wish to preserve etiquette1 or merely return the compliment by way of keeping up a distant acquaintance1 confine them to the evening2 when1 attended by one or more gentlemen1 they proceed1 in their palanquins1 on a tour devoted entirely to this cold exchange of what is called civility4 ,among the several justly-exploded ceremonies1 we may reckon that1 which existed until within the last twenty years1 of #8,,sitting ,,up1' as it was called3 we must1 at the same time1 do the ci-devant inhabitants of ,calcutta the justice to remark1 that the practice was evidently founded on good-will and hospitality2 although it bore so strong a resemblance to the exhibition of a cargo of slaves1 as to occasion many a caricature1 and many a satirical expenditure of ink4 ,this #8,,sitting ,,up1' as it was termed1 generally took place at the house of some lady of rank1 or fortune1 who1 for three successive nights1 threw open her mansion towards the evening1 for the purpose of receiving all1 both ladies and gentlemen1 who chose to pay their respects to such ladies as might have recently arrived in the country4 ,the fair damsels were thus at once introduced to the whole settlement1 and not unfrequently obtained a variety of offers from men of the first consequence4 ,many matches have1 indeed1 been concluded even before the third night of exhibition4 ,if we consider the fatigue attendant upon the return of these numerous visits1 7for the slightest omission would have been an unpardonable offence17 and that the novelty of riding in a bohah1 7or chair-palanquin17 would not be agreeable to all1 we may form some idea of what many a delicate female1 melting with the heat1 tight-laced1 and tormented with musquito-bites1 must have undergone during the performance of this ceremony4 ,to the gentlemen of the settlement1 it might have been abundantly pleasing2 they had nothing to do but to post about in their palanquins from one sitting up to another1 and there either to admire1 or to quiz1 the fair sufferers1 according as their taste1 or caprice1 might dictate4 ,the throng has1 in some lovely instances1 been so very great1 that even a fourth night has been required for the benefit of bachelors from the interior6 ,the great encrease1 not only of inhabitants1 but of houses1 some of which are situated at an inconvenient distance1 has rendered the custom of #8sitting up' nearly obsolete4 ,the modern instances of its continuance1 are1 indeed1 so very few1 and those few so modified1 as barely to leave room for saying that it is at all in use4 ,in these days1 a lady is received on landing by her friends1 who1 generally1 after a few days of repose1 and of preparation1 invite their acquaintances1 to be introduced to their fair companion1 who1 in the course of a week1 usually returns their visits4 ,this is merely a partial shew1 compared with what formerly took place1 and is no more than would be practised in ,england on a similar occasion3 it is true1 that1 where superlative attractions exist1 many1 who probably are not in the habit of visiting the family1 will often avail themselves of the opportunity to chaperon some acquaintance1 merely with the intention of gaining a peep at the goddess4 ,the company rarely sit long at table after dinner1 unless among those convivial souls who deem the presence of a petticoat a perfect nuisance4 ,such were formerly very numerous1 but of late1 the society of the sex has been more duly appreciated1 and we see the gentlemen quitting the bottle to retire to the chabootah1 7or terrace17 there to enjoy the cool air of the evening1 and to take a cup of tea1 or to smoke their hookahs2 after which1 those who have business to attend1 proceed to their offices1 c41 while the larger portion separate to partake of a family supper with some of their female acquaintances4 ,very little ceremony is used on such occasions2 the gentlemen leaving their hats in their palanquins1 and ordering their servants to proceed1 as a matter of course1 to the houses whither their palanquins are to be conveyed4 ,in many instances1 these evening visits are paid in a very airy manner3 coats being often dispensed with2 the gentlemen wearing only an upper and an under waistcoat1 both of white linen1 and the former having sleeves4 ,such would appear an extraordinary freedom1 were it not established by custom2 though1 it generally happens1 that gentlemen newly arrived from ,europe1 especially the officers of his ,majesty's regiments1 wear their coats1 and prefer undergoing a kind of warm bath of the most distressing description1 both to themselves1 and to their neighbours2 but1 in the course of time1 they fall in with the local usages1 and1 though they may enter the room in that cumbrous habit1 rarely fail to divest themselves of it1 so soon as the first ceremonies are over1 in favor of an upper waistcoat1 which a servant has in readiness4 ,supper1 though enumerated among the ordinary meals of a family residing at the ,presidency1 seems rather to be the means of concentrating the party1 than partaken of with that keenness we often witness in our colder climate4 ,few do more than take a glass or two of wine1 generally ,claret1 with1 perhaps1 a crust1 and a morsel of cheese3 the appetite at this hour1 say ten1 being by no means keen4 ,after supper1 the hookah is again produced1 and1 after sitting awhile in conversation1 the lady of the house retires3 few remain long after that has taken place4 ,on the whole1 it may be said1 that at least four in five are in bed before twelve2 or1 perhaps1 before eleven o'clock4 ,from this1 ,i exempt all concerned in card-parties1 especially if the stakes run high3 for such1 no measure1 or calculation1 exists2 the whole night being occasionally passed at tradrille1 which is the favorite game1 or at whist1 c4 ,such exceptions fortunately are not very numerous2 it would certainly be difficult to find any city1 wherein celibacy among the males is so prevalent1 as at ,calcutta1 that can boast of so few excesses of any description4 ,the ,european inhabitants of respectability certainly live well2 that is1 they keep as good tables as the seasons may enable them to furnish2 and they drink none but the best of wines3 ,claret1 ,madeira1 and ,port1 are in general use4 ,of the former1 there are two kinds2 one called #8,english ,claret1' which is the best wine that ,france produces1 manufactured after its arrival in ,england1 with an addition of ,brandy1 c41 to enable its standing the hot climate of ,india1 and with other liquids1 to give it a richer body4 ,such wine generally sells at ,calcutta for about thirty rupees per dozen1 equal to six shillings and threepence per bottle4 ,the other kind of ,claret1 which is the purest that can be obtained from the most valuable vineyards near ,bourdeaux1 the ,cot-,roti1 ,chateau ,margeau1 c41 can rarely be obtained1 except in times of peace1 when sixteen rupees per dozen1 equal to about three shillings and four-pence per bottle1 may be considered a fair price4 ,this wine1 however well packed1 and carefully treated1 will not keep long3 at the end of six or seven months after arrival1 it will be found rather sharp1 and then becomes extremely pernicious to the bowels4 ,when fresh1 it is remarkably fine1 and delicate1 and being far lighter than the #8,english ,claret1' is certainly best adapted to the climate4 ,occasionally1 a few chests of ,claret are imported at ,serampore1 a ,danish settlement1 about sixteen miles above ,calcutta1 but experience has proved1 that1 in regard to wholesomeness1 as well as to flavor1 it is far inferior to either of the former3 the severe bowel-complaints its free use often occasions1 are attributed to the litharge with which it is said to be fined2 hence1 what is called #8,danish ,claret' is rarely found at any gentleman's table4 ,about thirty years back1 a large quantity of ,madeira used to be imported at ,calcutta1 by the ,company1 in pipes of extra-measurement1 for the use of their servants4 ,sometimes nearly a thousand pipes arrived during the course of the season2 being of prime quality1 and laid in by the ,company's agents at ,fonchall1 it always sold well at the annual auctions3 six hundred rupees was a common average4 ,for some time past1 the ,company have1 generally speaking1 declined this trade1 which was of extensive convenience to the residents at ,bengal1 and must be supposed to have paid them amply for their outward tonnage1 while the returning tonnage was always at liberty to receive investments for the ,europe market4 ,the cause of this relinquishment has been attributed to various circumstances2 but1 ,i believe1 is to be found in that immense supply which1 at the close of the war in #aghb1 glutted the markets for some seasons4 ,until that date1 the ,company had nearly monopolized the trade1 there being no competitors of consequence1 though the speculation was open to all2 but its excellence1 which seemed to offer full seventy pounds for every pipe1 that cost perhaps only twenty-five1 or thirty1 on the ,island of ,madeira1 induced the ,french1 ,portugueze1 and some ,english speculators1 to embark on vessels under ,imperial colors1 and to become rivals in a trade which could not bear extension beyond certain narrow limits4 ,all could not be supplied at ,fonchall2 therefore ,teneriffe1 and other inferior wines1 were substituted2 whereby the depreciation even of the best genuine ,madeira was enhanced1 and it fell1 in consequence1 full fifty per cent4 ,of late years1 very little of the latter has found its way to ,india2 the produce of the island being almost wholly required for the ,europe market2 but the merchants in that quarter have found out the way to doctor the inferior wines of the neighbouring isles1 so as to sell them at a good price1 under the captivating titles of #8,london ,particular1' #8,london ,choice ,particular ,particular1' c4 c4 ,the low price to which ,madeira fell1 7for1 in #agha-b it had been so high as two thousand rupees per pipe17 made a great change in the affairs of some adventurers1 who had anticipated the golden harvest with which they were to return to ,europe4 ,the general effects were highly beneficial1 as the greater portion of persons settled in ,calcutta1 c41 were enabled to purchase large quantities2 which1 being kept in godowns1 7warehouses and cellars17 gradually improved in that hot climate1 and1 after a few years1 became highly valuable4 ,many gentlemen availed themselves of the low state of the markets to supply themselves abundantly2 some purchased from forty to sixty pipes1 and thus secured to themselves a supply of capital wine1 for many years consumption1 at a certain price4 ,it is no uncommon thing to see ,madeira1 which has been in a gentleman's godown ten years in the wood3 many have much older wine in their possession2 a few can1 indeed1 boast of some1 which1 though inconceivably mild1 and rich in flavor1 is extremely potent4 ,none will attempt to produce1 at their tables1 ,madeira that has not been two or three years in the country2 for the new wine is neither pleasant nor wholesome1 and may be readily distinguished from the old1 notwithstanding some venders are well skilled in the art of adding1 in the course of a few hours1 many years of age to the liquor4 ,among the military1 it is found best to purchase wine that is known to be of good quality1 and of a certain age2 which is easily done1 through the several agency-houses2 all of which have generally large quantities1 of every description1 either on commission1 or at command4 ,this mode is far preferable to the otherwise general practice of buying several pipes1 with a view to filling up the ullage1 7say of four1 from a fifth17 as the contents decrease4 ,by such management1 any person settled at ,calcutta1 or elsewhere1 may1 in the course of five or six years1 become possessed of a stock of excellent ,madeira2 observing1 however1 that1 in that time1 every fifth pipe will have been drawn off1 to fill up its neighbours3 therefore1 in computing the value of such remaining pipes1 that of the pipe thus expended must be included4 ,nothing can injure a cargo of ,madeira more than the presence of a cask of coal-tar3 it communicates to the wine a most nauseous flavor1 and scent2 rendering it totally unfit for use4 ,i recollect1 about seventeen years ago1 dining with a ,general ,officer1 who had inadvertently allowed his ,madeira pipes to be smeared with coal-tar1 for the purpose of preserving them4 ,whether it had that effect on the wood ,i never took the trouble to enquire1 but it certainly preserved the wine2 which1 ,i doubt not1 may be in existence to this day2 for it was really too potent1 even for parasitical stomachs6 ,the price of good ,madeira wine that has been three or four years in the country1 may be generally stated at about four hundred rupees1 equal to #ej4 ,the pipes are not so large as formerly1 but will commonly run about forty dozens2 which brings the price per dozen nearly to twenty-five shillings1 or little more than two shillings per bottle4 ,wine of the first quality may be about fifty1 or even sixty1 per cent4 dearer4 ,the ,port-wine used in ,india is generally of a light kind1 not unlike what we term #8,southampton ,port3' about ten years ago1 when ,claret began to be scarce1 a large quantity was sent out1 and was bought up with readiness2 but1 on account of its astringent1 and1 consequently1 heating1 quality1 it fell into disrepute4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 highly esteemed as a restorative1 especially in a convalescent state after obstinate bowel-complaints1 and in cases of debility not proceeding from obstructions4 ,such exceptions are1 indeed1 rare2 for1 ,i believe1 very few of the local diseases are exempted from such connections with obstruction3 in fact1 almost every ague1 which is a very common complaint in many parts of the country1 and is generally designated the #8,hill1' or #8the ,jungle-fever1' according to the situation in which it is engendered1 either originates from1 or resolves into1 confirmed hepatitis4 ,porter1 pale-ale1 and table-beer of great strength1 are often drank after meals3 all these are found in the utmost perfection1 for indifferent malt-liquors do not stand the voyage2 and1 even should they arrive in a sound state1 would meet no sale4 ,a temporary beverage1 suited to the very hot weather1 and called #8country-beer1' is in rather general use1 though water1 artificially cooled1 is commonly drank during the repasts3 in truth1 nothing can be more gratifying at such a time1 but especially after eating curry4 ,country-beer is made of about one-fifth part porter1 or beer1 with a wine glass full of toddy1 7or palm-wine1 which is the general substitute for yeast17 a small quantity of brown sugar1 and a little grated ginger1 or the dried peel of ,seville oranges1 or of limes2 which are a small kind of lemon1 abounding in citric acid1 and to be had very cheap4 ,the great cheapness and abundance of the materials1 added to the frequent and great thirst to which ,europeans are subject while resident in ,india1 should appear to be strong inducements toward the free use of punch1 lemonade1 sangaree1 negus1 c4 ,the reverse is the case2 for1 ,i believe1 with the exception of the lowest classes1 all such beverages are totally discarded3 they are deleterious2 rarely failing1 in the first instance1 to injure1 and ultimately disgracing all who yield to the temptation4 ,fortunately1 that temptation is not very strong2 as liquors of a superior quality are found to be more wholesome1 more pleasant1 and1 in the long run1 not much dearer4 ,besides1 there is a certain odium attaches in that quarter to all who are in the habit of drinking spirits1 whether raw or diluted4 ,in a climate so ungenial to ,european constitutions1 and where1 as above said1 thirst is often very distressing1 the frequent recourse to #8brandy shrob pauny' 7brandy and water7 never fails to produce that sottishness at all times despicable1 but peculiarly unsuited to ,oriental society1 in which at least the better half are men of very liberal education1 and all are gentlemen4 ,in saying thus much1 ,i barely do justice to the persons of whom mention is made2 for it may be said1 without fear of refutation1 that fewer deviations from propriety are to be found in our ,indian settlements1 than in one-tenth the number of inhabitants of the same classes in any other country1 whose manners and properties1 either personal observation1 or respectable authors1 have enabled me to estimate4 ,this results1 not simply from the advantage almost every individual in the ,company's service1 and in the mercantile branches1 possesses1 of having been brought up in the most respectable seminaries1 c41 and of being early initiated in the walks of decorum and integrity among their respective friends in ,europe2 it proceeds partially from the nature of the climate1 and from that mode of association which the duties attendant upon each profession1 as well as certain localities1 seem1 imperiously indeed1 to inculcate4 ,i have before shewn that taverns1 punch-houses1 c41 are by no means places of resort1 as in ,europe3 there is no such thing as a coffee-room1 merely as such2 unless we so consider the few mansions of certain ,french and ,english traiteurs and restaurateurs1 who occasionally have to accommodate committees of shipping1 or town meetings1 c41 and who send out dinners to any part of the town1 or its vicinity1 on terms advantageous to both parties4 ,therefore1 under such exceptions1 which are rare1 and setting apart the civic operations of the beef-steak clubs1 c41 it may properly be said1 that coffee-house association is unknown in ,calcutta1 at least among the respectable members of the community4 ,neither does any corps in the ,company's service keep a mess3 all the officers dine either at home1 or in small parties1 according as their several fancies1 or occasion1 may lead them4 ,it is common to hear one or two of a party1 before they retire from table1 which is always done without the least ceremony1 enquire1 who will dine with them the next day8 ,thus1 it is extremely easy to avoid any obnoxious person1 be the objection to him what it may2 and as the omission of any individual1 from the ordinary course of invitations of such a description1 soon produces explanation1 it is impossible that a person of unpleasant manners1 or of an indifferent character1 can1 for any length of time1 stand his ground2 the whole circle1 by degrees1 drop his acquaintance1 while1 in lieu of that friendly and familiar salutation which denotes approbation1 the shunned offender experiences the most distant1 and most forbidding reserve4 ,being once condemned1 something more than ordinary must appear to produce his re-admission3 for the most part1 especially if habitual inebriation be in question1 the unhappy man pursues his career1 either until the grave may receive his dropsical remains1 or the ,invalid ,establishment affords him an asylum against the mortifying neglect of his late associates4 ,this kind of retirement1 of course1 can only apply to military characters1 and certainly does infinite credit to the humanity of those who tolerate the measure4 ,it may1 probably1 be urged1 that such an institution should not be open to persons retiring merely in consequence of indulgence in depravity2 or because they are no longer acceptable among their former associates3 it may be asserted1 that the admission of such men within so honorable a pale1 must be injurious both to the character of the corps1 and to the feeling of those meritorious individuals who are compelled by wounds1 c41 to accept the benefits of that establishment4 ,this is undeniable2 but when we consider1 that1 perhaps1 after long service in an oppressive climate1 the best of us may be brought to that kind of conduct which disqualifies from military service1 it may not be too much to assert1 that the concession and indulgence thus granted1 are at least charitable1 and often incontrovertibly merited4 ,among the gentlemen of the civil service1 the society is far less diversified than with us in ,europe2 therefore1 much facility is afforded towards the evasion of intercourse with persons in any way unacceptable4 ,it must at the same time be remarked1 that1 in this instance1 the most liberal consideration is very generally exhibited2 and1 that so long as any hope of reform may remain1 there will rarely be found a disposition to exile a man from that converse with his countrymen1 without which he can neither preserve the appearance of respectability among the natives1 nor1 in all probability1 receive the approbation of ,government4 ,hence1 what we commonly call a #8black-sheep1' is a most marked1 and equally forlorn character1 throughout the ,east2 and1 consequently1 is very scarce4 ,many years ago1 when it was customary for the ,governor-,general1 and some of the leading gentlemen1 such as the ,members of ,council1 c41 to have public breakfasts weekly1 persons of all characters mixed promiscuously at table2 good and bad were to be seen around the same tea-pot4 ,this occasioned a native of some consequence to remark1 that1 #8among ,europeans1 all who wore a hat and breeches were gentlemen4' ,the sarcasm was not1 however1 quite applicable2 for1 the breakfast being considered merely the preface to a levee1 it was to be expected that1 on such occasions1 persons of every description would be seen1 who1 having public business to transact at the levee1 naturally availed themselves of the opportunity1 without reference to the opinions of others regarding their private conduct4 ,after the arrival of ,marquis ,cornwallis1 these public breakfasts were discontinued1 and open levees substituted4 ,this was certainly pleasanter for both the ,governor and the governed4 ,however1 there are1 to this day1 ,i believe1 some remains of the former ceremony preserved1 among a few of the principal gentry2 who1 on certain days1 expect to see their friends1 and such others as may wish to consult them4 ,some have two levees1 if we may so designate them1 weekly2 one for ,europeans1 and one for natives2 but such cannot be considered official4 ,a breakfast in ,india bears a strong resemblance to the same meal in ,scotland1 with the exception of whiskey2 the introduction of which1 7if to be had17 or of any other spirits1 would be considered both nauseous and vulgar4 ,the general bill of fare1 at this time1 consists of tea1 coffee1 toast1 bread1 butter1 eggs1 rice1 salt-fish1 kitchery1 7a kind of olio17 various sweetmeats prepared in the country1 especially preserved ginger1 and orange marmalade1 honey1 c42 and1 after hunting or shooting1 occasionally cold meat1 with proper accompaniments4 ,during a great portion of the year1 breakfast may be considered rather a substantial meal4 ,the generality of ,european gentlemen rise about day-break1 and either proceed to the parade1 to their field diversions1 or to ride on horseback1 or on elephants2 thus enjoying the cool air of the morning4 ,from the middle of ,march to the middle of ,october1 the sun is very powerful1 even when the atmosphere is overcast with clouds of great density4 ,this induces all who ride for health1 or for pleasure1 to avoid violent exercise2 they proceeding1 generally in small parties1 each gentleman being attended by his syce1 who carries a whisk made of horse-hair1 fastened to a short lacquered stick1 for the purpose of driving away the flies1 which are generally very troublesome both to the horses and to their riders4 ,it is not uncommon to see the backs of the latter covered with these noxious parasites1 which1 by their buzzing1 and their attempts to alight on the face1 produce extreme irritation4 ,during some part of the year1 when scarce a leaf is in motion1 and the clouds hang very low1 exercise1 even so early in the morning1 is often found more injurious than refreshing3 at such seasons1 nothing but the abundant perspiration which then relaxes the whole frame1 and absolutely oozes through the light cloathing in common use1 could prevent the occurrence of diseases highly inflammatory4 ,many feel so uneasy1 in consequence of this unpleasant exudation1 as to be induced to change their linen three or four times within the day2 but1 however refreshing such a change may prove1 it is by no means to be commended2 experience proving that considerable prostration of strength is the inseparable consequence of so ill-judged an indulgence4 ,the best plan is1 to have night apparel1 and to ride out in the linen worn during the preceding evening2 changing for a clean suit on returning1 so as to sit down to breakfast in comfort4 ,those who are subject to bile cannot be too cautious in regard to their diet2 which should be rather sparing1 and confined to viands dressed in a simple manner4 ,many gentlemen of the faculty1 in ,england1 entertain an opinion1 that eggs1 moderately boiled1 are rather beneficial1 than otherwise1 in bilious cases3 the idea they entertain is1 that the yolk assimilates with the bile1 and carries it off4 ,but practice is better than theory2 and it is to be wished1 that such as maintain the above hypothesis could view the number of patients who may be said to owe their pains and sorrows merely to the practice of eating eggs for breakfast4 ,in this climate1 to a person possessing a robust constitution1 and whose stomach might vie with that of an ostrich1 eggs may be innocent2 but1 in the ,east1 where relaxation weakens the powers of digestion1 they are by no means a proper article of diet4 ,if1 as physicians assert1 assimilation takes place1 it assuredly is on the wrong side of the question2 for ,i believe all oriental practitioners will allow1 that the bile is considerably augmented1 but not carried off1 by eggs4 ,however grateful many of the other items1 such as salt-fish1 c41 may be1 they certainly cannot tend much to the preservation of health2 therefore1 should be discarded from the breakfast table4 ,i speak feelingly2 for1 although ,i did not possess sufficient resolution to withstand what then appeared a very alluring temptation1 ,i have now the candor to confess1 that thirst1 heat1 and uneasiness were generally attendant upon my imprudence1 and no doubt occasioned me to swallow many a nauseous dose1 which might have been avoided by a moderate share of discretion4 ,therefore1 let me strongly recommend to those of my juvenile readers who may be about to proceed to ,india1 not to indulge in breakfasts such as ,i have described4 ,the tea used in ,india is generally what we call green1 or hyson2 very little bohea being drank4 ,it is very rarely that either kind can be obtained good2 indeed1 the climate speedily renders tea unfit for use1 if at all exposed to the air3 on this account1 leaden catties of various sizes1 but generally containing from four to ten pounds1 are employed for preserving it4 ,these catties fit in pairs1 or1 if large1 singly1 into neat boxes provided with locks4 ,but little tea being sold retail1 it is usual for a few friends1 perhaps three or four1 to club1 and buy a chest2 which may be had for about #aej1 or even so high as #bjj rupees 7#be74 ,this1 however1 is not the price of the best teas1 which occasionally sell for nearly double the latter sum1 unless there may be a very large supply at market2 when1 as it is a very perishable commodity1 the prices sometimes fall even below prime cost4 ,to say the truth1 it rarely matters much whether the tea be good1 or bad2 for it is always made at a side-table by some menial who knows nothing of the matter1 and who never tastes it himself3 hence1 a cup of good tea is really a rarity2 which must appear extraordinary1 when it is recollected that many vessels import at ,calcutta in five or six weeks only from ,china4 ,the ,arabs now convey immense quantities of fine coffee from ,mocha to every part of ,india2 but they sell it at a high price1 generally from forty to sixty rupees1 or even more1 per maund of #hblb42 which brings it1 at the latter rate1 to #cs4 #i;d4 per lb4 in its raw state4 ,bourbon and the ,mauritius raise coffee1 but of an inferior quality2 and1 within these few years1 considerable plantations have been formed at ,chittagong2 but the produce1 though abundant1 cannot compare with even the ,french coffee4 ,i have often had coffee that tasted very salt1 and rather bitter1 the cause of which was then unknown to me2 but a gentleman1 who was #8up to the trick1' assured me it was occasioned by the frazils 7or baskets7 being immersed in seawater1 in order to give the berries that greenish1 horny appearance1 which is supposed to be the indication of a superior quality4 ,sugar-candy is always used for making tea1 coffee1 and1 indeed1 for all such purposes3 it is to be had of various degrees of purity1 and either of indigenous manufacture1 or imported from ,china4 ,the former kind is sold by the maund1 and may be estimated at from twenty to forty rupees2 the latter in tubs made of thin deal1 and other light wood1 in which the candy is packed among dried bamboo-leaves4 ,the price of a tub is usually about twenty rupees1 7more or less1 as the markets may stand17 for which about sixty pounds weight are obtained4 ,although the sugar-cane is1 by many1 supposed to be indigenous in ,india1 yet it has only been within the last fifty years that it has been cultivated to any great extent3 since the failure which took place some twenty years back in the ,west ,indies1 it has become a most important article of commerce4 ,strange to say1 the only sugar-candy used until that time was received from ,china2 latterly1 however1 many gentlemen have speculated deeply in the manufacture1 and1 by serving themselves richly1 have rescued the country from a very impolitic branch of imposition4 ,we now see sugar-candy1 of the first quality1 manufactured in various parts of ,bengal1 and1 ,i believe it is at length admitted1 that the raw sugars from that quarter are pre-eminently good4 ,i have lately had occasion to purchase some of a very superior fineness1 called ,soonamooky1 from a place of that name in the ,burdwan district1 which was as high as eleven-pence per pound4 ,about thirty-two years ago1 the common raw sugar1 known by the name of g'hoor1 was to be had at three rupees per maund of #iflb4 in the upper provinces3 this was about three farthings per pound2 for a ,sonaut or ,tersooly rupee then was exchanged at about two shillings1 or even so low as one shilling and ten-pence4 ,in consequence of the great demand for the article1 it rose gradually1 but in comparatively a very short time1 to eight rupees the maund of #gblb42 and it has been so high as twelve rupees1 but not1 ,i believe1 for any length of time3 partial instances could be quoted1 of even fourteen rupees being given4 ,the superior kind1 which may often be had nearly white1 at least of a dove color1 perfectly dry1 and sharp grained1 under the name of cheeny1 was formerly about seven1 or eight1 rupees per maund 7of #iflb472 of late1 it has risen to full fifteen2 and has been up to twenty4 ,the sugar-candy made in ,india1 where it is known by the name of miscery1 bears a price suited to its quality3 some may be had at twenty1 and some up as high as forty1 rupees per maund 7#hblb74 ,it is usually made in small conical pots1 whence it concretes into masses1 weighing from three to six pounds each4 ,for further information1 ,i must refer my readers to ,mr4 ,colebrooke's excellent ,essay on the ,husbandry of ,bengal4 ,bread is not made of flour1 but of the heart of the wheat1 which is very fine1 ground into what is called soojy2 a kind of meal1 so far from being pulverized1 as to bear a strong resemblance to rather coarse sand4 ,soojy is kneaded the same as is done with flour1 but there being no yeast in the country1 7,i mean such as we know by that name17 it is leavened by means of toddy2 which is the juice obtained by making incisions into the taul1 7or palm-tree17 already described4 ,in many parts of ,india1 taul trees are very scarce1 and are carefully preserved for the sake of the toddy1 which is sold to the nonbaies1 7or bakers17 at a high price4 ,in ,bahar these trees are peculiarly abundant3 there we often see groves1 of hundreds upon hundreds1 let out to the kulwars1 or distillers1 to great advantage4 ,these venders of misery have the art of rendering the toddy peculiarly potent1 by causing it to work upon the kernels of the datura1 that grows wild in every part of ,india1 and possesses in every part1 whether the stem1 root1 leaf1 or nut1 a most deleterious property4 ,toddy1 that has been strongly impregnated with datura1 7which is the name it bears in the ,east17 acts very rapidly on the brain2 producing mania1 and1 not unfrequently1 apoplexy1 when drank to excess4 ,the bread is usually made into small loaves1 weighing about a pound each2 these are called #8single-loaves' and may generally sell from fifteen1 to twenty1 for a rupee2 which brings the bread to about three half-pence1 to two-pence1 per pound4 #8,double loaves' include double the weight1 and sell in proportion4 ,a large portion1 of both sizes1 is baked in tin moulds1 of a brick form2 these are generally preferred1 on account of their rarely scorching1 and not requiring to be rasped1 as all the other bread1 baked in the form of heavy cakes1 generally does4 ,soojy1 7the basis of the bread17 is frequently boiled into #8stir-about' for breakfast2 and eaten with milk1 salt1 and butter2 though some of the more zealous may be seen to moisten with porter2 a curious medley1 by no means to my taste6 ,nor is much to be said of its qualities2 as few stomachs are suited to its reception4 ,the camp-oven in common use1 consists merely of a very large naud1 or pot1 capable of containing from thirty to fifty gallons1 and of rather a conical form4 ,this vessel is prepared for the purpose1 by having a hole punched through its bottom1 large enough to admit a man's arm2 it is then placed1 mouth downwards1 over a corresponding cavity1 dug out of the soil1 so as to fit close every way2 but1 in order to allow a proper draught of air1 two1 or more1 sloping apertures are left1 passing under the circumference of the naud4 ,the vessel is next well covered with turf1 c41 and thus rendered capable of retaining considerable heat1 long enough to bake small bread4 ,the interior being filled with chips of wood1 charcoal1 gutties1 7i4e4 dried cow-dung17 or any other kind of fuel that may be at hand1 a strong fire is kept up in it1 until the naud appears to be nearly at a red heat4 ,the hole1 which served for a chimney1 is then closed2 and1 the embers being withdrawn1 the bread is introduced upon pieces of iron plate1 or of tin1 or boards1 or leaves1 c41 c4 ,i should here remark1 that the natives invariably eat unleavened bread1 generally made of wheaten1 or of barley-meal2 which1 being made into a good dough1 is flattened into cakes1 called chow-patties1 between the hands1 with very great dexterity4 ,such cakes are then either put at the edges of the heated choolah1 or fire-place1 or they are baked upon a convex plate of iron1 circular1 and about ten inches1 or a foot1 in diameter4 ,this plate1 called a towah1 is precisely the same as the girdle made in ,scotland for baking their oaten bread1 and is used in the same manner4 ,milk is to be had in abundance throughout ,india1 especially among the ,hindus1 who venerate the cow1 and follow all occupations relating to the dairy2 but1 owing to the general custom of smoking the insides of whatever vessels are allotted to its reception1 will not be obtainable in such a state as suits the palate of an ,european1 unless a clean pitcher1 c41 be sent to the gwallah1 or cow-keeper1 that the cow may be milked into it4 ,that fuliginous taste1 to us so obnoxious1 is perfectly palatable1 and perhaps agreeable1 to the natives2 who assign1 as the reason for smoking their vessels1 that it prevents the milk from turning4 ,it1 however1 becomes a question1 whether or not the operation of scalding1 always performed when practicable1 while the milk is warm1 be not the true preventive against acidulation4 ,certain it is1 that sour milk is very rarely found in ,india1 although1 for full half the year1 the thermometer is generally up between #ge1 and #ie1 in the shade2 and1 in a ,bengallee hut1 frequently rising to #aaj1 or more6 ,the milk obtained from buffaloes is certainly much richer than that from cows2 yet1 the butter produced from the former is very inferior1 generally white1 and brittle3 it1 however1 possesses qualities suiting it admirably to the climate1 and occasioning the natives to give it the preference4 ,after being warmed to a certain degree1 so as to become rather liquified1 it is kept nearly stationary in that state for a long time2 whereby it loses its aqueous particles1 and is rendered fit for keeping4 ,when thus treated1 it is called ghee4 ,others deviate from this tedious process1 and1 by exposing it to a greater heat1 keeping it simmering for some time1 effect the purpose more speedily1 but not without danger of burning1 or1 at least1 of giving it a certain empyreumatic flavor4 ,few of the natives will touch cow-butter1 to which they attribute many bad effects1 though they will drink ghee by the quart1 and pride themselves not a little in being able to afford so luscious an enjoyment4 ,the uncontrolled expenditure of this article1 among those whose purses will bear them out in the indulgence1 though it may tend to that obesity of which they are inordinately vain1 cannot but contribute greatly to the generation of those bilious diseases which so often attack the more opulent natives4 ,ghee and idleness may be said to give birth to half their ailings4 ,as an article of commerce1 ghee possesses some claim to importance2 many thousands of maunds being sent every season from some of the grazing districts1 such as ,purneah1 and ,sircar-sarun1 to the more cultivated parts1 and especially to the western provinces4 ,the ghee is generally conveyed in dubbahs1 or bottles made of green hide1 which1 being freed from the hair1 and worked up while in a pliant state1 into the form of a caraboy1 such as we use for spirits of turpentine1 c41 will keep sweet for a long time1 provided the mouth of the vessel be well closed4 ,in this manner it is conveyed by water in dubbahs1 often measuring nearly a hogshead2 but a smaller kind1 containing1 perhaps1 from fifteen to twenty gallons each1 are made for the purpose of being slung across the backs of bullocks1 by which it is carried to places situated at a distance from navigable streams4 ,the price of ghee varies according to the demand1 and to its quality3 generally1 from six to eight seers of #blb4 each may be had for a rupee in favorable situations2 otherwise1 it will be from thirty to fifty per cent4 dearer4 ,it may be supposed that buffaloes' milk must possess a very considerable portion of cream1 when it is stated1 that milk is considered very cheap at #cj seers 7or quarts7 for a rupee1 and that five seers of ghee1 equal to one-sixth of the mass of milk1 may be had for the same sum1 in almost any part of the country4 ,according to this proportion1 we find that one-sixth part of the milk turns to butter2 whereas1 in this country1 a cow1 yielding twenty gallons of milk within the week1 will rarely produce ten pounds of butter2 which is equal to only one-eighth part of the mass of milk3 it must1 indeed1 be a good cow that will produce that quantity4 ,the d'hoob grass1 which grows wild in almost every part of the country1 is peculiarly nutritious2 but the food of cattle1 of all descriptions1 throughout ,india1 is more dry and solid than is offered to cows in ,england4 ,hence1 though the quantity of milk yielded by a buffalo1 may not be equal to that of an ,english cow of equal weight1 the produce in butter1 from an equal quantity of milk1 will be in favor of the former4 ,i have already stated the difficulty of getting milk devoid of the taste of smoke2 this arises from the cause already described1 and is encreased by the very small proportion of milk yielded by the cows in ,india1 which are1 with few exceptions1 white1 and rarely grow larger than the generality of yearlings1 or steers1 bred in ,england4 ,in some grazing districts they thrive well1 attaining to full thirteen hands in height1 and weighing1 when fit for the butcher1 from four to five hundred weight3 but such are merely local1 and not very numerous4 ,butter produced from cows' milk is very indifferent1 unless carefully made from such as are well fed4 ,the number of gentlemen keeping dairies is extremely confined1 perhaps less than ten for all ,india3 they certainly obtain excellent butter1 but that sold by the muckun-wallahs1 7i4e4 the butter-men17 would appear1 to a stranger1 not to be made from the same species of animals4 ,considering the price of a cow1 which may be averaged at from four rupees to eight1 7i4e4 from ten to twenty shillings17 it is remarkably dear1 as is usually the case with articles of inferior quality3 thus1 we consider three pounds for a rupee to be a fair rate1 though sometimes four may be had2 but such can only happen where cattle are very abundant2 for1 as ,i have already said1 buffaloes1 and not cows1 are almost invariably kept by the natives for their milk1 on account of their greater produce1 and because the ghee made from their butter is more appreciated4 ,we may1 therefore1 estimate the pound of cow-butter at nine-pence2 whereas1 ghee rarely sells for more than three-pence3 a strange disproportion2 to be attributed1 in some measure1 to the demand for the former being confined to the ,europeans4 ,in speaking of the berriarah1 or shepherd1 ,i have already noticed1 that1 for the supply of their tea-tables1 gentlemen usually keep a few goats1 which afford milk of a remarkably fine quality1 and are herded in company with those store sheep intended to supply vacancies among the fatting stock4 ,the kids produced1 generally twice in the year1 by each milch-goat1 7mostly twins1 and not unfrequently trins1 or even four1 at a birth17 serve to keep up the number of the flock1 besides yielding occasionally a most delicate viand for the table4 ,i know not of any meat more sweet1 or wholesome1 than that of a kid allowed to suck the mother at pleasure3 it is as white1 and1 in proportion1 as fat as any veal4 ,being in general request1 and admirably suited to making rich curries1 as also roasting remarkably well1 kid-meat may be had of any butcher2 the usual price being a rupee for a whole kid1 and in proportion for halves and quarters4 ,when of a good size1 and duly fatted1 an entire one may weigh about six pounds2 which brings the meat to five-pence per pound4 ,by the word butcher1 we are not to understand the individual to be a shop-keeper1 exposing the several joints of various animals for sale1 in that pleasing mode of exhibition so common in our markets4 ,on the contrary1 a fat kussee 7i4e4 cut-goat17 or two1 and two or three kids1 daily1 with1 now and then1 a half-fatted ox during the cold months1 may be said to comprize the whole business of one of this profession in full trade2 indeed1 a first-rate knight of the cleaver6 ,the greater part of the profit arising to this class1 is derived from slaughtering oxen1 calves1 pigs1 sheep1 and kids1 for families2 for which labor they ordinarily receive a few annas1 7or two-pences17 according to the size of the animal3 in most instances they take the skin1 pluck1 and1 of some1 the head1 as a perquisite4 ,it is impossible to produce finer mutton than is served upon table in ,india2 nor can there be finer beef than is to be seen in most cantonments1 and among fixed residents4 ,at some of the principal military and civil stations1 those gentlemen who keep a regular table1 usually fatten several bullocks for winter slaughtering4 ,some of these are fed full two years1 with that intent1 on gram2 and1 exclusive of being burthened with fat on the kidneys1 c41 have their flesh absolutely marbled by the admixture of fat among the fleshy parts4 ,sometimes1 the officers of a regiment club to fatten four or five head1 the joints of which are either divided according to mutual concurrence1 or drawn for by lot3 this supplies fresh beef during the winter season2 very few bullocks being killed at any other time1 on account of the extreme difficulty of curing the meat4 ,to persons inexperienced as to the hasty strides of putrefaction in hot climates1 this forbearance from beef1 for so large a portion of the year1 might appear unnecessary2 but the fact is1 that1 during the close weather1 prevalent throughout the rains1 and for a certain part of the hot season1 meat1 though killed only about midnight1 will often become absolutely putrid long before the time at which it ought to be on the spit2 and that1 too1 in spite of every precaution6 ,the markets at ,calcutta are open at daybreak2 when very fine meat1 of every kind1 together with various sorts of choice fish1 fruits1 vegetables1 c41 may be had on very reasonable terms4 ,there1 indeed1 beef may sometimes be seen in the hottest weather2 because1 being cut up into small joints1 a bullock may be readily sold off among so many customers2 but1 in general1 the prime pieces1 together with all the best fish1 c41 will have been bought up by sunrise3 the refuse joints are generally taken by the ,portugueze1 7who are the only customers for bazar-pork17 and by ,europeans of the lower classes1 or by persons who supply the shipping4 ,the whole of the non-commissioned and privates1 in the several regiments of ,europeans1 are served with meat1 rice1 spirits1 and fire-wood1 by contract2 receiving their several quotas early in the morning1 under the inspection of their commissioned officers1 who make their reports regarding any deficiencies1 either in quantity1 or of quality4 ,those gentlemen who produce pork at their tables1 are extremely particular as to the manner in which their pigs are fed4 ,many are so extremely fastidious1 as not to allow any to be served up unless educated1 as it is called1 in their own sties2 the very circumstance of being born elsewhere1 absolutely disqualifying1 and rendering of no avail1 all that change of bulk1 and all that purification1 derived from perhaps a whole year of confinement to a clean stye2 in which nothing but the best corn 7gram7 is given to the grunting inhabitant4 ,this1 certainly1 is carrying daintiness to an extreme2 but it must be confessed1 that swine are so offensively greedy in the indulgence of their appetites in that part of the world1 as to give occasion for many very reasonable scruples regarding the use of bazar-pork2 which is indiscriminately killed from the fattest of those wanderers that sometimes absolutely interrupt the operations of the multitude1 who resort1 generally at dusk1 and at day-break1 to lay their offerings at the shrine of a certain deity6 ,this calls to mind a very laughable circumstance which happened at ,berhampore1 in #ahjc4 ,an officer1 who had been many years at ,gibraltar1 where a joint of meat1 of any kind1 was probably snapped up without any questions being asked as to its education1 produced at his table a very fine corned leg of pork1 of which all his guests ate with great avidity4 ,one of them1 when the repast was over1 begged leave to enquire how the gentleman kept his pigs2 what had been then on table1 being of so superior a flavor1 that he presumed it was educated in some very particular manner4 #8,oh no1' answered the host1 #8,i never trouble my head about sties2 my man bought a whole side of it this morning of ,neeloo the butcher1 for eight annas' 7#ae;d47 ,this untimely disclosure operated not only like magic1 but like emetic tartar2 the whole company were taken with violent sickness1 and retired to give vent1 both to the pork1 and to their feelings1 on so dreadful an occasion4 ,however1 none died in consequence of having been thus poisoned2 but the whole station received the tale with horror1 and resolved1 to a man1 never to accept another invitation from the unfortunate hero of the rock6 ,whether it be owing to the foregoing cause1 or1 that the time necessary for the completion of a pig's #8education1' be too protracted to allow of persons1 subject to removal1 engaging in that branch of domestic economy1 may be difficult to determine1 but certain it is1 that very few officers have piggeries2 they commonly content themselves with hams and cheeks imported to them from ,england4 ,the grossness of the viand is1 however1 so very inappropriate to the climate1 that1 even after the most delicate course of management1 pork is by no means considered a choice dish3 sucking pigs are more generally approved4 ,veal is so very seldom to be obtained in the market1 of a quality fit to be brought to table1 that it is customary for four or five friends to subscribe for the purpose of rearing calves for their own expenditure2 each taking a share of every calf that is slaughtered4 ,the best1 and most economical plan1 is to agree with some butcher1 through whose means alone it can in general be effected1 to receive of him a cow and calf1 the latter being newly born1 and to return him the mother1 after the calf may have been killed1 together with four rupees 7#ajs47 ,by this mode1 the calf will thrive admirably1 provided the cow be well fed2 but it is usual1 and ,i have practised it with great success1 to give the little one as much scalded milk as it can drink1 three times daily2 drenching it with either a horn1 or a quart-bottle3 from three to four quarts1 in each of which the yolk of a fresh egg is beat up1 will commonly produce the desired effect1 rendering the meat very fine by the end of a month2 the usual age at which they are slaughtered4 ,what with the keep of the mother1 the milk and eggs given to the calf1 and the necessary attendance1 a gold-mohur1 7#b417 will generally be expended upon each calf1 unless several be kept together as a successive supply for the table2 in which case1 about twelve rupees will be found the average expence4 ,in this1 ,i reckon the out-lay upon a calf that will now and then1 perhaps one in five1 prove a bad subject2 and1 notwithstanding every precaution1 either scour or pine4 ,it is a great misfortune that1 on account of the extreme antipathy the horned cattle of ,india always exhibit towards ,europeans1 no possibility exists for remedying many bad practices1 and neglects1 to which these animals are subject1 when under the care of the native servants4 ,an ,indian ox1 or cow1 when at liberty1 is always shunned very carefully1 lest it should indulge its savage disposition4 ,on first entering that country1 the cattle would be supposed to be wild1 instead of domesticated2 for not one in a thousand will admit the approach of an ,european2 nor are they always less gentle towards strangers of any description4 ,as to what are called tame buffaloes1 they are commonly more fierce than any ,british bull1 and1 when they have calves at their sides1 make no scruple of attacking man and horse1 with unbounded ferocity4 ,hence1 it is extremely proper to be very cautious of approaching herds1 or single cattle of either kind1 even when tolerably mounted4 ,sometimes1 in riding through the country1 and especially where jeels 7lakes7 are to be forded1 or pools to be passed1 the unwary traveller may find himself1 on a sudden1 within a few yards of a whole herd of buffaloes1 which1 to avoid the heat of mid-day1 wallow in the muddy water1 so deep as to have1 in general1 only their noses and eyes above the surface4 ,being1 perhaps1 among rushes1 c4 even those parts are not discernible1 or1 if in an open expanse1 may be easily mistaken for clods of mud2 for the horns lie back towards the false ribs4 ,on a sudden1 the whole herd sometimes rise1 and at the least frighten the horse1 whatever the rider's heart may be made of3 such a surprize1 and from animals that1 according to the old saying1 #8give but a word and a blow1 and the blow comes first1' is far from pleasant4 ,in such situations1 all depends on the conduct of the leading bull2 if he snorts1 shakes his horns1 and advances1 the danger is imminent4 ,but it frequently happens1 that1 whether owing to lassitude1 or the absence of any object particularly irritating to buffaloes1 of which a red coat may be considered the extreme1 the herd content themselves with rising from their reclined postures1 and1 after those who rouzed them may have passed on1 again sink into the friendly pool4 ,the ,british settlers in ,india are extremely indebted to the ,dutch for many essential improvements4 ,the small town of ,chinsurah1 situate about twenty-eight miles north of ,calcutta1 on the banks of the ,hoogly river1 has1 in this instance1 proved serviceable to ,india at large4 ,the ,dutch1 to whom that place appertained before the war1 were the first to introduce the culture of that invaluable esculent1 the potatoe2 which was received from their settlement at the ,cape of ,good ,hope3 they likewise were the first to exhibit any disposition towards horticulture4 ,from them the ,british received1 annually1 the seeds of every kind of vegetable useful at the table1 as well as several plants of which there appeared much need1 especially various kinds of pot-herbs4 ,they likewise supplied us with vines1 from which innumerable cuttings have been dispensed to every part of ,bengal and its upper dependencies4 ,the whole of the lower provinces1 at least1 those parts skirting the ranges of hills that bound them1 produce immense quantities of wild vines1 which1 during the rains1 may be seen partially to bear grapes of a red color1 and about the size of a pistol-ball4 ,these vines tower over the high saul trees1 or creep along the rocky masses1 throughout the ,ramghur district especially1 in all the majesty of wild luxuriance4 ,here is a field for speculation6 ,let us suppose1 that the wines which should be raised might not prove of the best quality1 still we might derive the most important advantages from the brandy and vinegar to which they might be converted4 ,as to wood for the staves1 and iron for the hoops1 they are both to be had on the spot2 and1 in regard to distillation1 abundance of men1 sufficiently skilled1 may be found among the natives4 ,fuel is every where abundant1 indeed1 a perfect nuisance4 ,the only impediment ,i could ever discover1 is1 that the neighbouring streams are not generally navigable1 or1 perhaps1 only for a few months in the year3 they might1 however1 be easily rendered adequate to every purpose1 there being lime-stone in various adjacent hills1 while1 among the convicts1 who are in a state of idleness for the most part1 many persons might be selected fully capable of constructing whatever masonry1 or timber-work1 should be found necessary4 ,some years ago1 ,i had the honor of submitting this suggestion to the ,court of ,directors4 ,the ,india minister of that day was forcibly struck with the facility obviously afforded of founding an immense national concern3 and1 had he remained in office1 would probably have taken means to ascertain every point contained in my memoir1 with the utmost exactitude3 the result must have been perfectly satisfactory4 ,when we consider1 that the ,company pay two lacs of rupees 7#be1jjj47 yearly for spirits1 of a very inferior quality1 for the use of the ,european soldiery2 and1 that good vinegar cannot be had under two rupees per gallon1 7#es47 it should seem an object1 even in that limitted view1 to cultivate the vine for their own use2 but1 if we extend the prospect1 and shew that any quantity of brandy1 if not of wine1 might be imported from ,bengal1 the benefits will be found so great1 as to claim every encouragement on the part of the legislature4 ,it appears highly probable1 that full a million sterling would be annually saved to the nation1 by its adoption of this speculation2 which might be began at little or no expence1 and be progressively extended1 by giving employment to the whole body of convicts1 who now are a heavy burthen on the revenue1 without doing a thousandth part of the service of which they are physically capable4 ,if my information be correct1 there are now sold at ,calcutta near four thousand pipes of ,madeira1 ,teneriffe1 c41 annually1 and about as many chests of ,claret1 including ,french and ,english2 the quantity of ,brandy imported at that settlement is full #aj1jjj gallons1 besides ,hollands1 ,rum1 and other liquors1 of which ,i shall make no account4 ,the licences granted for the retail of spirits are amply abundant2 and the number of shops where ,toddy1 ,mowah1 ,pariah ,arrack1 c41 are served out1 absolutely incalculable4 ,from the best computation ,i have been enabled to make1 full #aj1jjj1jjj gallons of spirits are made and sold in ,bengal and its dependant provinces1 the average of which may be taken at one rupee per gallon1 as it comes from the still2 the retail prices will1 no doubt1 double that sum2 making no less than #bj1jjj1jjj of rupees1 equal to #b1ejj1jjj expended annually by debauchees1 and by the regular consumption among the soldiery1 c4 ,if the foregoing items be put together1 they must make a tremendous total2 while we shall see1 that a most ruinous intercourse prevails1 throwing money into the pockets of our rivals1 and enabling them to carry home investments in exchange for their own produce4 ,we shall further see1 that1 supposing a duty of only #be per cent4 were imposed on all spirits sold1 exclusive of the amount of licences1 which are very trivial1 no less than #fbe1jjj4 would annually flow into the treasury4 ,this may appear a very large sum1 but1 when it is recollected that the manufacture of salt1 monopolized by the ,company1 yields1 on the average of several years1 the sum of #a1ejj1jjj41 7after deducting about #ebe1jjj4 for the expences of boiling1 c417 we may fairly consider the above computation to be far within the bounds of probability4 ,rum is made in ,bengal from refuse sugar1 the same as in the ,west ,indies2 its quality is by no means inferior1 though it sells1 when new1 at the very cheap rate of about a rupee the gallon4 ,it is to be had1 of a good age1 of the several great distillers and merchants1 at a proportionate advance4 ,i have known it1 after being six years in the godown1 7warehouse17 to be compared with ,jamaica ,rum1 warranted ten years old2 when the preference was given decidedly in favor of the former4 ,with respect to arrack1 which is in a manner peculiar to the ,east2 the native distillers produce excellent alcohol1 which1 after being properly rectified1 and kept for some years1 proves an admirable spirit1 supposed to be far more wholesome than rum4 ,though1 on the whole1 the fish brought to the ,calcutta markets1 cannot be compared with such as we see at ,billingsgate1 c41 there are1 nevertheless1 some kinds1 which might please the most dainty epicure4 ,the hilsah1 7or sable fish17 which seems to be mid-way between a mackarel and a salmon1 whether for form1 general appearance1 or flavor1 is1 perhaps1 the richest fish with which any cook is acquainted4 ,it abounds so with fat1 that most persons1 after being served with a portion1 immerse it in boiling water1 brought in a soup-plate2 thereby causing a large quantity of grease to float4 ,when baked in vinegar1 or preserved in tamarinds1 the hilsah is remarkably fine4 ,like the salmon1 these run up to the very spring-heads1 seeming to abound more and more in proportion as they approximate thereto2 though certainly they grow to the largest size1 immediately within the tide's reach3 getting beyond that1 they dart up as far as possible during the season1 returning1 after spawning1 to the sea4 ,they are in perfection towards the latter end of the rains4 ,the bickty1 7or cockup17 very strongly resembles the jack1 and grows to an enormous size4 ,i have seen one measuring more than eight feet in length1 and various others that weighed full a maund 7#hblb47 ,the average size at which they are brought to market1 may be from eighteen1 to thirty1 inches in length2 and their weight from two to ten1 or twelve1 pounds4 ,they flake like cod1 to which also their flavor greatly assimilates4 ,soles1 of a diminutive size1 are sometimes to be had at ,calcutta3 the natives call them kookoor jibbys1 7i4e4 dogs' tongues17 in allusion to their shape4 ,these are sometimes caught in the brackish waters1 among the bicktys1 or cockups1 or in the flat sands about ,diamond-,harbour1 c4 ,prawns of a very good size1 and very small crayfish1 are to be found in most parts of the country1 as also a kind of eel1 called baum2 which1 however1 bears more resemblance to the gar1 or guard-fish1 of which millions may be taken in most of the fresh-water jeels1 7lakes17 though rarely exceeding a foot in length4 ,the rooy1 or r'hooee1 is a species of the carp1 as is also the meergah4 ,they are both abundant in the great rivers1 and in all the waters connected with them1 though the former are most numerous1 and thrive greatly in ponds4 ,the latter are of a browner color1 and rarely exceed ten pounds in weight1 whereas1 the former are often found of fifty lb41 and sometimes up to a maund4 ,the cutlah is a species of the perch1 though some consider it to be of the bream-kind3 it is only found in the great rivers1 is generally of a dark color1 approaching to black1 and commonly weighs from ten to sixty lbs4 ,the whole of the above1 viz4 ,the r'hooee1 the meergah1 and the cutlah1 may be taken by angling2 as may also the soly1 a species of the jack1 and nearly as voracious4 ,trouts1 about as large as smelts1 are sometimes to be seen in those small streams that have their rise among mountains1 but they are not so distinctly spotted as we see them in ,europe3 they are1 indeed1 very scarce1 and generally bear a small red1 or gold1 or black1 spot on each scale3 the adipous fin1 by which all the salmon tribe are distinguished1 is scarcely elevated above the loins4 ,the fresh-water anchovy1 called by the natives helwar1 is to be found in shoals on every flat sand throughout the great rivers3 these are generally scared1 so as to precipitate themselves on the beach1 by two men1 who1 wading in the water up to their knees1 gradually draw a line of fifty or sixty feet in length1 every where laden with small1 colored rags1 in such manner as to enclose the helwahs in a crescent1 and ultimately to drive them ashore4 ,occasionally1 mullets1 of a small size1 are found among the booty3 they are remarkably sweet and firm4 ,nothing can be more common than to see shoals of them struggling against the current1 especially in the cold months1 with their eyes out of the water4 ,their motions are very nimble1 but it is not uncommon to see several killed by a round of small shot1 from a common fowling-piece3 they are not to be taken by angling4 ,as to the tingrah1 a kind of freshwater gurnet1 it is extremely voracious1 and grows to a good size2 often weighing eight or nine lbs42 though the average may be from two to four4 ,they are very strong1 and afford ample amusement when hooked4 ,the skait grows to full twelve or fourteen lbs41 and is common in all the great rivers2 but1 it must be handled with caution1 on account of its having a dreadful spine about the centre of its tail4 ,these two last-mentioned fishes are rarely seen at table2 nor is the buallee1 which is rather flat1 and has a continued abdominal fin1 the same as eels4 ,this fish is extremely coarse1 but desperately rapacious2 seizing almost any bait with avidity1 but affording little sport when hooked4 ,the puftah is of the same description1 but1 in lieu of weighing1 as the buallee often does1 from ten to fifteen lbs41 seldom amounts to so many ounces4 ,its flesh is remarkably rich and sweet1 but1 when hooked1 it is as little disposed as the former to resist4 ,the most esteemed fish is1 that called by the natives tupsey1 but by us #8mango-fish1' on account of its appearing about the time that mangoes first come into season3 it comes up with the tide4 ,in appearance1 it is not unlike the smelt1 though rather deeper1 and with reddish fins4 ,the flesh of this fish is fine1 but its roe is deservedly esteemed to be delicious4 ,an immense quantity are cured1 by being slightly salted1 and sun-dried2 after which1 they are smoked for a short time over a fire made of chaff1 c4 ,turtle1 of about a cwt41 are to be found in almost every river and creek1 as also in some of the large jeels2 though they are very rarely seen in standing waters1 and then1 perhaps1 only in a state of migration4 ,the flesh of these is peculiarly unwholesome2 and1 so far from being1 like the sea-turtles1 composed of parts resembling fish1 flesh1 and fowl1 may be aptly compared with bacon of the coarsest description1 with some tendency to rancidity4 ,the batchwah1 or #8freshwater herring1' 7though it has no scales17 is one of the best fishes the ,indian rivers produce2 but a general prejudice is entertained1 with much justice too1 against its selection of food4 ,the most appropriate baits for most fishes are the goorgoory1 7or gryllus monstrosus17 and the cockroach 7or blatta74 ,it would be endless to recount all the kinds of fishes to be found in the streams and lakes of ,india2 but it may justly be stated1 that1 in some parts1 their numbers are so great as absolutely to corrupt the waters4 ,with respect to the minor species of fish1 occasionally served at table1 they are very numerous1 and1 in most places1 abundant3 every creek and jeel is replete with them1 and every village in their vicinity contains persons provided with some kind of apparatus suited to catching an ample supply4 ,on the larger pieces of water1 there are usually either canoes or dingies1 which1 together with their owners1 are subservient to the jemmadars1 or head-boroughs1 and may also be set in motion for a very trivial present1 made ostensibly to the laborer1 but commonly transferred privately to that proud1 imperious1 and avaricious officer4 ,,poultry next come under consideration3 of this1 great variety is to be found4 ,fowls1 capons1 ducks1 geese1 turkies1 and pigeons1 are for sale in every city1 or great station1 at very moderate prices4 ,in general1 taking an average of all places1 fine chickens1 called chujahs1 may be had at ten for a rupee 7i4e4 #c;d4 each72 middle-sized1 or meem-kabobbies1 7small roasters17 at seven or eight for a rupee 7about #d;d4 each72 and good-sized roasters1 or kabobbies1 at five for a rupee 7about #f;d4 each74 ,capons are only to be had in particular parts of the country2 generally they are white1 and so cheap as to give ten or twelve for a rupee2 though ,i have purchased no less than twenty-nine for that sum1 7i4e4 #a;d4 each17 in the ,tomar district1 where they are produced in immense numbers by the ,pahariahs1 or ,hill people1 of that mountainous district4 ,these people are more immediately distinguished by the designation of ,dangahs3 they are of a small stature1 very1 very poor1 rather squalid1 but capable of undergoing great fatigue3 they are wonderfully adroit in the exercise of the bow2 and1 after performing the little labor needful for the cultivation of the vallies1 generally repair1 at certain seasons1 to the military and civil stations in the neighbouring districts of ,ramghur1 c41 where they serve as bearers2 especially on the new-road1 which is much frequented by gentlemen travelling dawk1 7post17 in palanquins1 to or from the upper stations4 ,ducks are of various prices1 but may be considered at an average of four or five for a rupee 7about #g;d4 or #f;d4 each72 and geese at a rupee each4 ,these thrive prodigiously throughout ,india2 but it is far otherwise with turkies1 which are extremely tender1 and cannot endure the great heats of summer1 unless allowed to graze upon a plot well watered1 and generally sheltered from the sun4 ,it is not uncommon to see them crowding to some little verdant spot under the shade of the lee-side1 where a current of air1 refrigerated by the tatties1 passes out from the bungalow1 c4 ,without some such restorative1 they would1 to a certainty1 pine away1 and speedily disappoint the hopes of their owner4 ,among the grass on the plots generally preserved near the dwelling1 it is common to see immense numbers of ants1 of all descriptions1 which resort thither both for coolness1 and for the collection of the seeds that are perpetually falling4 ,it is very strange1 but true1 that these little depredators are not easily deterred1 by the water being laid on occasionally1 from forming their nest in such plots of grass1 though they generally prefer some dry1 hard walk1 or level area1 along which they form little paths1 by laying the gravel1 c41 aside2 so that their progress is not obstructed when robbing some store4 ,many of these paths may be traced for fifty or sixty yards2 occasionally1 they are double2 one being appropriated for the egressors1 the other for those returning laden with the booty4 ,when the turkies light upon such a line of march1 they fall to with a famous appetite2 seeming to rival our pheasants in that particular1 and exhibiting the satisfaction they feel on receiving a supply of their favorite food4 ,in thus devouring the ants1 they do great service2 for1 ,i know not of any more unpleasant companions than the little tormentors in question1 whose bite is extremely keen1 producing considerable irritation4 ,some of these ants grow to full three-quarters of an inch in length1 and are capable of causing great pain4 ,many prevent their being destroyed1 under the opinion that they feed upon white-ants3 this ,i never could establish1 though ,i believe they are ready enough to march off with the body of a dead white-ant1 the same as they would with any other morsel of animal substance4 ,the difficulty of rearing turkies1 renders them extremely scarce2 hence1 it is not uncommon to pay a gold mohur 7#b47 for a well-grown1 fat1 turkey-cock3 few1 either cocks or hens1 are to be had in any part of the country1 for less than half that sum2 and then chiefly from ,portugueze families1 that make a livelihood by rearing them4 ,about ,bandel1 a ,portugueze town1 some thirty miles above ,calcutta1 great numbers are reared2 as are also ducks1 and geese1 in abundance4 ,at all the great stations1 both civil and military2 some persons of that description generally reside1 through whose industry families are supplied4 ,fowls are reared by the same persons2 though less an object to them1 as almost every ,mahomedan family maintains a few1 mostly for its own use1 but sometimes for sale4 ,as to the ,hindus1 nothing could be more criminal than such a speculation3 the very touch of a fowl being considered the acm of pollution4 ,from this we may judge how necessary it is to be guarded in making changes in the dress of our native soldiers2 whose zeal and fidelity are unquestionable1 but who instantly revolt at any invasion1 however slight1 of their religious tenets1 or of their vulgar prejudices4 ,those who affect to consider such to be easily overruled1 or1 who vainly talk of coercing so many millions to adopt our faith1 would do well to take a trip to ,bengal1 and to insist on any ,hindu menials1 or others1 under their authority1 wearing a feather in their turban4 ,as to the numerous species of wild game1 such as antelopes1 hog-deer1 hogs1 geese1 ducks1 teal1 snipes1 ortolans1 quails1 partridges1 florikens1 7or bustards17 pigeons of sorts1 wild and tame1 hares1 c41 they are generally to be had in abundance2 those of my readers who wish for a more detailed account1 will find it in my #8,,wild ,,sports ,,of ,,the ,,east1' published in folio1 with colored plates1 as also in quarto royal1 and imperial octavo1 by ,mr4 ,edward ,orme1 of ,bond-street1 and by ,messrs4 ,black and ,co4 ,leadenhall-street4 ,in that superb work1 the details of every branch of hunting1 shooting1 c41 will be found4 ,there are no wild rabbits in ,india1 but great numbers of tame ones are to be had at ,calcutta1 and at some of the subordinate stations4 ,the prices vary according to demand1 age1 and condition2 but we may take the average at four for a rupee when half grown1 and at double that rate when fit for the table4 ,it is1 however1 extremely difficult to preserve them in safety from their numerous enemies the dogs1 jackals1 foxes1 cats1 rats1 bats1 snakes1 hawks1 crows1 c4 ,having1 ,i believe1 generally discussed what relates to the supply of the table1 ,i shall proceed to the description of other matters relating to the convenience and service of gentlemen resident in the ,east4 ,the dinner table is invariably laid with two cloths2 one of the usual size1 the other about large enough to cover the surface only3 this last is removed when the meat is taken off2 so that the dessert is laid upon the lower one1 which has1 in the mean while1 been preserved by it from stains1 grease1 crumbs1 c4 ,a napkin is laid with every cover1 together with a tumbler or rummer1 a long glass for ,claret1 and an ordinary-sized one for ,madeira4 ,each glass is provided with a cover1 which may be lifted off by means of a stud in its centre4 ,in opulent families1 these covers are usually made of silver1 otherwise of turned wood4 ,it is remarkable1 that some of the common indigenous woods have the peculiar property1 when used for this purpose1 of imparting a most offensive smell1 attended with a similar flavor1 to water1 c41 if left for a few minutes4 ,the knives and forks are all of ,european manufacture1 though1 within these few years1 some excellent imitations have appeared4 ,i doubt if ,blacky can1 as yet1 bring his work so low as our artizans1 though he certainly has the advantage of them in cheapness of living1 and in being generally exempt from the operation of a variety of taxes4 ,this deficiency on the part of the natives1 proceeds from their being obliged to perform all those operations by hand1 which we both accelerate and perfect by means of machinery4 ,the greater part of the plate1 used throughout the country1 is made by native smiths1 who1 in some instances1 may be seen to tread very close on the heels of our jewellers1 not only in the graceful form of the articles manufactured1 but in the patterns1 whether carved or embossed4 ,such specimens of perfection are1 however1 rare1 and are produced chiefly under the superintendence of ,european masters2 though ,i have seen some pieces1 made by sonaars1 7goldsmiths17 totally independent of such aid1 or instruction1 which displayed much skill and some taste4 ,speaking1 however1 of the common workmanship of this class1 it must be put out of all comparison with ,british plate1 on account of its being indifferently shaped1 and rudely ornamented4 ,hence1 such plate as is sent from this country1 as well as what is made up by ,europeans settled in ,india1 very generally sells for full #be1 or even for #ej per cent4 more than what is manufactured by the native artizans4 ,the whole of the glass-ware used in ,india1 is furnished from ,england1 and commonly sells at full two1 if not three1 hundred per cent4 on the prime cost3 this is not unreasonable1 when we consider how brittle the commodity is1 and that the extent of sale is not so considerable as to render it1 individually1 an object of adventure4 ,table cloths and napkins are manufactured in several parts of the country1 especially at ,patna1 ,tondah1 and most of those cities where piece-goods are made4 ,the beauty of some fabrics of this description is very striking2 nor is their durability less conspicuous4 ,i have by me1 at this moment1 some that have been in constant use for full twelve years1 and my stock1 at no time1 exceeded a dozen and a half of table cloths4 ,the prices of such may be supposed to vary according to quality2 but a very superior bird's eye may be generally had for about two rupees per square yard2 observing1 that the cost will necessarily be somewhat encreased in proportion to the greater extent of the piece4 ,others1 of a coarser texture1 and of a plain diaper1 are to be had extremely cheap2 perhaps as low as eight annas 7#ae;d47 per square yard4 ,such are1 however1 extremely flimsy1 and never appear creditable4 ,towels are also manufactured at various prices2 some reaching so high as two rupees 7#es47 each1 while others may be obtained by the dozen for the same money4 ,the best for common use may be rated at about five or six rupees per dozen4 ,a kind1 generally of mixed colored borders1 wove in1 is made at ,chittagong3 these are rough1 like what we call huckaback1 and are peculiarly well calculated for drying and cleaning the skin after washing2 but they are not so durable as the plain diapers4 ,great quantities of furniture are sent from ,europe1 being first taken to pieces1 and packed within a very small space4 ,of this description1 mahogany tables and chairs form by far the greater portion2 few other articles being shipped1 though now and then we see a few bureaus1 secretaires1 ecritoires1 c41 among a cargo from ,europe4 ,all such commodities would bear even a higher price than is now charged for them1 were it not that1 among the natives1 as well as among the ,european carpenters1 and joiners1 settled in ,calcutta1 the ,british mechanics experience considerable1 and very successful1 rivalship4 ,the excellent woods1 of different kinds1 produced in almost every part of ,india1 and the facility with which they may be brought to market1 present the most favorable aids to the ,indian artizans2 but1 owing to the want of capital among the natives1 the work done by them is rarely found to answer3 it warps dreadfully1 and sometimes rives from one1 to the other1 end4 ,this is entirely owing to the deficiency of seasoning2 for we find1 that whenever a gentleman is at the pains1 and has the opportunity1 to saw up his own wood1 and to season it properly1 it will commonly be found to answer his expectations fully2 both in respect to durability1 and to the polish it may take4 ,although there is1 in some instances1 an obvious cheapness in employing a native carpenter1 it may safely be asserted1 that1 on the long run1 what with delay1 impositions1 imperfections1 c41 it is frequently found to be a very round-about way of saving a trifle4 ,i strongly recommend to all persons arriving in ,india1 to visit the several depts of furniture to be seen at every auction-warehouse1 and generally at the godowns 7warehouses7 of the ,european shopkeepers4 ,there is1 besides1 a whole street1 called the #8china-bazar1' as well as various scattered boutiques1 appropriated entirely to the display of ,european articles1 and of china-ware1 of every description2 all which are sold for ready money only1 by a tribe of ,hindu speculators1 who1 from attending at auctions1 are enabled to make cheap purchases1 and become perfectly acquainted with the qualities of every article2 or1 at least1 with such points as give a preference in the eye of an ,european4 ,in this bazar1 7or market17 almost every thing an ,european can require1 for common purposes1 may be obtained3 he may1 indeed1 purchase an ample library1 either of new1 or of second-hand books2 and1 generally speaking1 may equip himself in such a manner as may enable him to keep house at full thirty per cent4 cheaper than among the ,european shop-keepers4 ,though we may find a few trades1 such as coach-making1 jewellery1 cutlery1 armoury1 c41 perfectly distinct1 and unconnected with any other speculation1 we are not to suppose that commodities1 in general1 are separately classed1 and exhibited in shops solely allotted to them4 ,on the contrary1 what we call an #8,europe-,shop1' affords a rich display of that heterogeneous kind of cargo imported in every merchant-ship proceeding to that quarter4 ,consequently1 each shop offers an astonishing variety of wares4 ,liquors of all kinds1 guns1 pistols1 glass ware1 tin and copper ware1 crockery1 stationary1 shoes and boots1 hosiery1 woollens1 linens1 ironmongery1 hats1 cheese1 grocery1 and an infinity of articles of the most opposite natures1 may be found in the spacious rooms1 and godowns1 allotted to the exhibition of the miscellaneous profusion6 ,though it is not common to see ,european goods1 especially those which are not immediately perishable1 selling for less than thirty or forty per cent4 advance upon the salt-water invoices1 it sometimes happens1 that an immense importation of some few particular articles may lower them to full fifty per cent4 under prime cost4 ,this is easily accounted for3 for instance1 should hats1 shoes1 and boots1 bear a great price at the time a fleet is about to be despatched for ,europe1 all the commanders and officers note it down1 for the purpose of making those articles bear a large proportion in their next outward-bound cargoes4 ,thus1 each unwittingly becomes the dupe of his own avarice2 and1 on the return of those ships to ,india1 experiences the lamentable effects of having allowed himself to be guided by former prices4 ,i recollect hearing an officer on board one of the ,company's ships declare1 that he made it a rule always to lay in a good stock of those articles which were cheap at the time he quitted ,india3 for1 that he was certain the lowness of the prices would influence the others of his class to avoid purchasing them for the ,india markets1 which1 by the time of his return1 he invariably found to have regained their former level4 ,by holding back a little while1 until the ,europe shop-keepers found that he was the sole1 or1 at least1 the principal1 importer of those goods1 he had never failed to make a very profitable bargain4 ,however much we1 in ,europe1 may admire genuine china-ware1 our countrymen in the ,east seem1 for the most part1 indifferent to its beauties2 they preferring our ornamented ,staffordshire ware2 which1 owing to its bulk1 and brittleness1 necessarily sells at a very high price in every quarter of ,india4 ,what is called #8a long set1' by which we mean a service equal to a table for at least thirty persons1 often sells for #ejj sicca rupees1 equal to #fe42 and #8short sets' in proportion4 ,the disadvantage attendant upon the use of this ware1 in so remote a situation1 is1 that1 when1 owing to the numerous accidents to which all such articles are subject1 even under especial vigilance1 but particularly under the auspices of native menials1 the set may be much reduced1 it is utterly impracticable to fill up the vacancies thus occasioned4 ,with china ware1 it is very different2 for it is not so easy to distinguish between two complex patterns1 if tolerably similar2 and1 as there is always a very large stock on hand1 among the retailers in the china-bazar1 a very great chance1 if not a certainty1 exists1 of being furnished with any number of plates1 dishes1 c41 that may be required to restore the set to its complement1 or even to augment it1 if necessary4 ,it may be a proper precaution1 however1 not to buy a set of china ware of any very particular pattern2 but to select one from those numerous rich patterns every where common1 and annually imported4 ,this seems to prove1 that1 unless under particular orders1 the ,chinese deviate but little from their established fashions2 as may be further seen in their constant manufacture of that kind of crockery we generally term #8dragon-china1' which appears to have been in use among them for centuries4 ,a very expensive article of general consumption is wax-candle4 ,the price of wax1 some years back1 was about sixteen rupees per maund1 7equal to #f;d4 per lb417 but1 of late years1 it has more than trebled1 in consequence of the encreased demand4 ,here we see that want of system which too often tends to annihilate what might1 under due regulation1 be made a most advantageous concern4 ,it is necessary to be understood1 that honey is of little value in ,india1 the natives considering it unwholesome1 and the ,hindus being particularly averse to destroying so many lives1 for the purpose of robbing their combs4 ,these circumstances tend to diminish the collection of wax1 which1 in some districts1 hangs for years neglected upon the briars in the jungles2 and1 added to the jealousy of the zemindars1 7or land-holders17 who rarely omit to exact a very smart duty upon whatever is taken from their soil1 deters those who possess a spirit of enterprize from becoming dealers in wax4 ,i have not a doubt but that half a million of maunds might be annually collected1 if proper encouragement were held out1 and a sale insured to the adventurers1 at any particular towns in the several districts where bees are abundant4 ,within the last twenty years1 a few ,europeans have established manufactories of wax-candles1 which often sell for eighty rupees per maund 7#hblb74 ,this1 though an excessive price1 compared with that formerly prevalent1 comes to rather less than #bs4 #f;d4 per lb42 and1 as the wax is always pure1 it should seem1 that1 as an article of commerce1 much profit might be derived from importation4 ,at present1 wax-candles are prohibited1 although the price of raw bees'-wax is here up to near #ds41 and tallow at a very exorbitant height4 ,i am greatly mistaken1 if the benefits this branch of business is capable of yielding1 both to the nation1 and to individuals1 are properly understood4 ,to place this in a proper point of view will require but little detail2 for1 if we say that wax candles1 of the first quality1 can be offered for sale at ,calcutta for #ac4 per cwt41 and that raw wax sells with us at #cs4 #f;d4 per lb41 or #ai4 #abs4 per cwt41 it is obvious that the manufactured article might be imported to us at full #ej per cent4 cheaper than the raw material can be obtained on our own soil4 ,let us compute this on the large scale2 comparing the manufactured articles1 and making allowances for the fair value of the raw materials in either country4 ,a ton of wax candles of ,indian manufacture1 even at the high price of #hj rupees 7i4e4 #aj47 per maund of #hblb4 would be #bfj ,freight1 shipping1 charges1 and insurance1 per ton #be ,wharfage1 c41 on landing1 per ton #e ---- ,total #bij ,a ton of wax candles of ,european manufacture1 at #bh4 per cwt41 equal to #es4 per lb4 #efj ---- ,difference in favor of the ,indian candles1 per ton #bgj ---- ,raw wax may be had at ,calcutta for about forty rupees per maund1 or rather under #g4 per cwt4 which brings the ton to #adj ,freight1 c41 as above #cj ---- #agj ,whereas1 the raw wax produced1 in ,england1 generally sells for about #cs4 #f;d4 per lb4 or #ai4 #abs4 per cwt41 or1 per ton #cib ---- ,giving a balance in favor of ,indian wax1 of1 per ton #bbb ,i have not made any allowance for duties2 but it will be seen from the above very simple calculation1 that a very heavy impost might be laid on either the raw material1 or the manufactured article1 without reducing the profit so low as to leave no encouragement to the speculator4 ,let us1 however1 set it down at #fj4 per ton1 which is an enormous sum1 and say1 that1 in consequence of the great importation1 wax should fall one-third in price4 ,this fall would reduce the ton of candles to #chj41 from which deduct the #fj4 duty1 and there would be left #cbj42 so that1 after paying the #bij4 of cost and incidental charges1 no less than #cj4 would remain as the net profit on each ton4 ,if we1 in like manner1 take one third1 say #acb4 from the #cib4 to result from the sale of the raw material1 and #dj4 more for duties1 we reduce the net profits from #bbb4 to #ej4 ,in either way the speculation is highly interesting1 and requires only to be thoroughly examined to insure attention4 ,i am not1 at this moment1 prepared to say what may be the amount of duties collected on wax1 or of the excise on the manufacture of candles1 but apprehend that it must fall very short of what might be realized if wax candles were more generally used in the houses of opulent persons4 ,some forty years ago1 when wax candles sold for three shillings per pound1 they were in great request4 ,if1 however1 we calculate for the importation of #c1jjj tons of wax annually1 in its raw state1 paying a duty of #dj4 per ton1 we should find a result of no less than #abj1jjj4 ,the foregoing estimate stands entirely on the present high prices of wax in ,india1 but which might1 by proper regulations1 be reduced to one-third4 ,thus1 if it were stipulated that the rents of certain districts should be payable1 to a particular extent1 in crude wax1 at a fixed valuation1 the quantity brought to market might1 ,i am fully confident1 be equal to what ,i have already stated1 viz4 #ejj1jjj maunds1 or #ah1gej tons1 which1 taken at #bjj4 only per ton1 when landed1 would give a national benefit equal to #c1gej1jjj6 and a revenue of #fej1jjj4 arising from the duty1 at #dj4 per ton on the raw material6 ,when it is recollected how dependent we have been on other nations for a supply of tallow2 and that1 on an average of peace and war1 we pay nearly #hj4 per ton for foreign tallow2 also1 that one wax candle of equal weight will burn out two of tallow2 it should seem evident1 that the importation of wax from our settlements abroad1 as well as from various ,indian islands1 in which it is abundantly produced1 should become an object of national consideration4 ,the very unpleasant scent attendant upon the use of tallow1 and its great aptitude to gutter in so hot a climate1 occasion its use to be confined to those ,europeans whose circumstances may not permit them to use wax4 ,this occasions all who return from ,india1 after long residence there1 to be extremely incommoded by the smell of mould candles2 the smoke of which is1 to them1 peculiarly offensive1 and strongly calls to mind the cheraugs1 or oil-lamps1 in common employ among the natives1 and in the zenanahs of ,europeans4 ,the whole of the doors and windows being thrown open1 during the evenings especially1 it would be impossible to prevent the current of air1 passing through every part of the interior1 from extinguishing the several lights1 were it not that large glass covers1 called shades1 were applied by way of preventives4 ,some of these shades are made to stand on pillars1 or pedestals1 generally of wood1 with brass ferules1 and having broad plinths1 either square or circular1 to prevent their being easily overset4 ,the other kind of table-shade is by no means so convenient as that just described1 it being an irregular tube1 standing on its base1 or broader extremity2 and1 though spreading in the centre1 drawing narrower toward the upper part4 ,this kind requires to be much longer1 so as to shelter the flame of a candle standing on a candlestick1 which should not1 properly1 be more than six inches in height4 ,the inconveniences by which this shade is attended are self-evident2 as it cannot be carried about1 or lifted1 in toto1 as the pedestal shade may be4 ,those lights which are affixed to the walls1 either on sconces1 or brackets1 or that are suspended from hooks1 are generally on the same principle2 with this necessary difference1 that oil is chiefly burnt in such1 by means of a small glass tumbler half filled with water1 on which the oil floats1 and supports a very slight tin tube with four tin wings1 to each of which a piece of cork is affixed4 ,during the rainy season1 when insects of every description are beyond credibility numerous1 it is often absolutely necessary to remove all lights from the supper table2 otherwise moths1 flies1 bugs1 c41 would be attracted in such numbers as to extinguish them altogether1 but1 at all events1 to prove extremely obnoxious4 ,when the lights are retained on the table1 it is customary to place the candlesticks in soup plates1 c41 filled with water3 by this means1 such insects1 especially the stinking-bugs1 which fly with great force1 are often precipitated and drowned3 it is not unusual to catch whole platefuls in this manner1 which would otherwise continue to torment the company4 ,nothing can exceed the irritation produced by these bugs when they get into the hair1 or between the linen and the body6 ,nor are they in themselves innocent2 for1 though they neither bite nor sting1 such is the acrimony they possess1 that1 if bruised in such manner as to leave any moisture on the skin1 great heat1 and sometimes blisters1 followed by excoriations that do not quickly heal1 may take place4 ,the same effect is produced by the urine of lizards1 which frequent the interior of houses1 and may often be seen in great numbers crawling about the walls1 or on the ceiling1 7if we may so term the roofs already described17 in pursuit of the smaller and more delicate insects1 which they snap up with great dexterity and greediness4 ,it is really amusing to observe with what sagacity and care they approach their prey1 and with what rapidity they dart forth their long tongues armed with gluten4 ,with respect to frogs1 toads1 and1 occasionally1 snakes1 patrolling about the skirts of the apartments1 even of the best houses in the country1 they must be put up with as matters of course2 as must also the alighting of cock-roaches on the face while at table1 or at cards1 c43 nor1 indeed1 must the resident in ,india be very squeamish in regard to bats1 which freely indulge in ariel circuits over the heads of the company1 on which1 too1 they now and then find it convenient to halt awhile1 without undergoing the previous ceremony of obtaining permission4 ,these all appear terrible drawbacks1 but are scarcely noticed after awhile3 so strong is the power of habit4 ,certainly a very considerable portion of the enjoyments1 which might otherwise be indulged in1 are1 in a manner1 proscribed by these nuisances2 but1 whether it be owing to that ennui generally prevalent1 or to that kind of reconciliation which takes place between the pest and its sufferer1 may be difficult to determine2 we1 however1 see all the old residents treat insects1 frogs1 toads1 c41 with great indifference2 though1 to be sure1 when a snake1 of whatever class1 makes his entre1 an astonishing degree of activity1 far beyond what the former lethargic symptoms could indicate1 suddenly prevails4 ,i have several times seen large snakes coiled1 or rather twined1 among the ,venetians of bungalow windows1 and have observed that the grass-snake1 which is of a beautiful green1 with a reddish head1 is partial to secreting itself under the leaves of tables1 and1 in situations of that description1 where it may be easily dislodged1 or touched1 by accident4 ,such a propensity is peculiarly obnoxious in a serpent whose bite is generally fatal4 ,this snake may occasionally be seen twisted round the smaller boughs of trees1 whence1 if disturbed1 it drops with great readiness1 and proceeds along the tops of the grass with admirable celerity1 and1 owing to the similarity of its color1 scarcely allowing the dazzled eye to follow its course4 ,the ,cunjoors carry a great variety of serpents about the country1 which they are in the habit of exhibiting to families for a mere trifle4 ,some1 such as the adjghur or boa-constrictor1 which has been known to reach the immense length of thirty feet1 destroy by the extent of their bite1 or by compression2 while the lesser species seem to be provided with poison to make up for their deficiency of bulk4 ,the skeleton of an adjghur was found near ,chittagong1 about forty years ago1 having in its fauces the skeleton of a full-grown deer2 the horns of which1 it was supposed1 had occasioned the suffocation of its unwieldy devourer4 ,i have seen one of this kind that required eight men to lift him into his basket6 ,an operation to which1 either from habit1 or fatigue1 it submitted with great resignation4 ,the covra capella1 is the same as the hooded-snake of ,america1 thus designated from a peculiar spreading of the throat when in a state of irritation1 so as to give it much resemblance to a flounder1 but with a curious figure extremely similar to a pair of spectacles1 which1 being under the throat1 is fully exhibited as the snake rises1 as he is wont to do1 nearly half his length1 before he darts upon the object of resentment4 ,these snakes are peculiarly venomous1 and1 though averaging from three to five feet1 are seen to attain a larger size4 ,i have shot four in one day1 namely1 two males1 of a black1 or deep bottle green2 and two females1 ordinarily of a clay color2 which measured from six to nine feet4 ,a few years ago1 ,i saw one exhibited by the ,cunjoors1 or ,saumpareahs1 7i4e4 snake-men17 which actually measured about thirteen feet6 ,the daumeen grows to a large size1 perhaps eight to twelve feet1 but has no venomous teeth1 or fangs4 ,he lashes with his tail1 coiling into a bow1 and awaiting the approach of dogs1 men1 c41 before he lashes2 which he does with such severity as often to cut the integuments very deeply4 ,the natives entertain an opinion that the tail of this snake is venomous2 and it might be supposed1 from the almost certainly fatal effects produced by its operation1 that it were so2 but ,i have always attributed the mischief occasioned thereby1 to that laceration produced by a very rough scaly body1 such as the tail is1 proceeding with great force over parts well known to be peculiarly irritable2 occasioning a strong tendency to that most horrible affection the tetanus1 or locked-jaw1 from which not one in a thousand recovers4 ,the covra manilla rarely grows to more than fifteen or eighteen inches1 and is of a mottled appearance1 very indicative of its deleterious property3 if ,i err not1 its bite is invariably fatal4 ,the double-headed snake receives that name from its body being nearly cylindrical1 the tail terminating in a short cone1 resembling a second head4 ,this snake is chiefly seen in hilly countries1 but is occasionally washed down by the annual floods1 to the plains1 where it is found in drains and hollows1 from which it does not appear to be over-well qualified to escape4 ,its average length may be from two to three feet1 and its thickness1 or circumference1 from four to six inches4 ,it may be acceptable to my readers1 while upon this subject1 to be informed of the antidote2 viz4 the volatile alkali1 or eau de luce4 ,a few drops of this diluted sufficiently in a wine glass full of water1 if taken in time1 and repeated every two or three hours1 or even more frequently1 has been known to counteract the venom after its effects had been so fully ascertained as to leave but little chance of recovery4 ,i never went out shooting without a small bottle of this1 closed by a ground stopper1 in my tin box of apparatus4 ,fortunately1 although ,i have been repeatedly in imminent danger1 and had snakes dancing the hayes all around me1 no occasion ever presented itself for having recourse to my precautionary bottle6 ,the following extracts1 from a very interesting communication made by ,w4 ,boag1 ,esq4 to the ,asiatic ,society1 will set this matter in a proper form1 and qualify any person to judge of the danger1 from the several symptoms prevalent1 in ordinary cases1 when the venom takes effect4 ,it may be proper to premise1 that many who have been bitten by snakes of the worst description have not been affected2 merely owing to the thickness of their cloathing1 by which the noxious fluid has been absorbed4 ,mr4 ,boag informs us1 that #8,the symptoms which arise from the bite of a serpent1 are1 commonly1 pain1 swelling1 and redness in the part bitten2 great faintness1 with sickness at stomach1 and sometimes vomiting1 succeed2 the breath becomes short and laborious2 the pulse low1 quick1 and interrupted3 the wound1 which was at first red1 becomes livid1 black1 and gangrenous2 the skin of the wounded limb1 and sometimes of the whole body1 assumes a yellowish hue2 cold sweats and convulsions come on1 and the patient sinks1 sometimes in a few hours1 but commonly at the end of two1 three1 or four days4 #8,this is the usual progress when the disease terminates fatally2 but1 happily1 the patient will most commonly recover2 a reflection which should moderate the fears of those who happen to be bitten by snakes1 and which1 at any rate1 should1 as much as possible1 be resisted2 as the depressing passion of fear will1 in all cases1 assist the operation of the poison4 #8,the volatile alkali is the remedy mostly employed by physicians1 both in ,india and in ,europe2 but the belief which formerly prevailed1 that it possessed some specific power1 which corrected the poison1 seems to be now very generally relinquished2 and it is now acknowledged to have no other action than that ascribed to it by ,mr4 ,williams1 7of ,benares17 of stimulating the vascular system to a more vigorous exertion4 #8,the calces1 or1 as they are more properly called1 the oxyds of some metals1 as arsenic1 mercury1 and silver1 have been made use of2 the efficacy of which1 as remedies in this disease1 merit a more attentive consideration4 #8,we are indebted to ,,fontaua for any knowledge we possess regarding the use of the lunar-caustic2 which is a preparation of silver in the nitrous acid2 and1 considering the length of time that has elapsed since his publication1 and the advantages resulting from its use1 it is wonderful it has not excited more general attention4 #8,he first mixed the venom with the lunar-caustic1 applied this mixture to a wound1 and found that the venom was rendered entirely innocent1 while the corroding power of the caustic was diminished4 ,he next wounded a variety of animals1 with venomous teeth1 scarified the wounds1 and washed them with a solution of lunar-caustic in water3 by this means1 the lives of the greatest number of the animals were saved1 though they were such as he knew to be most easily killed by the poison1 and the death of others was retarded4 ,he also tried a weak solution1 of the same remedy1 internally1 with remarkable success1 and1 upon the whole1 he congratulates himself in seeing his labors at length rewarded1 by the discovery of a true specific remedy for the bites of serpents4 #8,a ligature should1 as soon as possible1 be made above the part bitten1 so as to impede1 but not entirely to stop1 the circulation of the blood2 for the bite of a serpent is1 for the most part1 superficial1 and the poison is carried into circulation by the smaller vessels on the surface2 the wound should then be scarified1 and washed in a solution 7rather weak7 of the lunar-caustic in water4' ,mr4 ,boag recommends a warm bath for the limb bitten1 and thinks the addition of a small quantity of nitrous acid would produce excellent effects4 ,he speaks of it only as a suggestion1 and1 where time may admit1 and the means be at hand1 there certainly ought to be a fair trial made of so promising a theory3 the misfortune is1 that1 owing to the great heat of the climate1 and the dread ever entertained of the result1 all the symptoms proceed with rapidity4 ,that gentleman speaks of several hours elapsing between the accident1 and the fatal termination2 but my own experience satisfies me1 that not one in ten of those bitten during the hot months1 and especially when at work1 or heated with travelling1 c41 survive more than one hour3 ,i have1 indeed1 seen various cases1 in which half that time was the utmost2 and could adduce some instances of persons dying within the quarter of an hour4 ,though snakes certainly1 for the most part1 endeavor to avoid the human race1 they have been known to come very fiercely to the attack4 ,no doubt1 when this has happened1 some previous irritation has occurred1 or they have been pursued by the ichneumon2 7i4e4 the benjy1 bissy1 or neoule17 which is to be seen wild in every part of ,india1 and may1 at times1 be found contending with snakes of great bulk4 ,this active little animal1 the natural enemy of all serpents1 as well as of the smaller kinds of vermin1 worries his opponent by incessant feints1 as though he were about to seize its throat1 and1 in time1 so fatigues1 as to render it unable to resist with its primary celerity and caution4 ,when the snake is in that state1 the ichneumon rushes forward1 and1 by seizing its throat1 or the back of its head1 soon lays the envenomed reptile lifeless at its command4 ,it sometimes happens that the ichneumon receives a bite1 when he immediately relinquishes his object1 and seeks among the neighbouring verdure for some root1 of which he eats1 and1 after rolling himself in the soil1 returns to the charge with unabated keenness4 ,should the snake have retired1 the little quadruped speedily scents him out1 and rarely fails to revenge himself for his past danger4 ,what it is the animal has recourse to1 never has been ascertained2 of course1 remains among our other important desiderata4 ,the ichneumon is not only domesticated with facility1 if obtained at an early age1 but becomes extremely affectionate4 ,neither rats nor snakes will enter a house in which a tame ichneumon is retained1 and allowed1 as is usual1 to range about at pleasure4 ,the ,saumpareahs1 or snake-men1 keep one1 or more1 for the purpose of exhibiting their feats in the attack of snakes4 ,it is wonderful how accurately a ,saumpareah will ascertain1 merely by smelling at a hole in a wall1 c41 whether a snake be within4 ,if such should be the case1 the reptile's fate may be considered as decided2 for1 what with the music of a rude species of oboe1 and the allurement of various drugs1 in which dunneah1 a species of coriander1 among which snakes delight to bask1 are prevalent1 he soon comes forth1 and is either taken in a bag1 or by an assistant snatching hold of his tail with one hand1 and sliding the other with great rapidity up to its throat2 which1 being constricted by the grasp1 occasions the fangs to be exposed3 these being extracted1 the captive is added to the stock of innocents4 ,though diminutive1 in regard to corporeal extent1 the musquito may be considered a most formidable enemy to the repose of almost every thing possessing animation1 but especially to ,europeans2 whose manner of living generally gives a considerable tendency to general1 as well as to local1 inflammation4 ,in this ,i speak relatively2 for1 when we compare the habits of our countrymen with those of the natives1 we shall find that a very great difference prevails1 and that1 what we might in ,europe call moderation1 may1 in ,asia1 very properly be construed into excess4 ,this difference is so great1 that1 in ordinary cases1 the physicians' first care is to lower the temperament of his ,british patient1 thereby to repress the usual tendency towards inflammation2 especially in persons of a plethoric habit1 or lately arrived from ,europe2 while1 on the contrary1 it generally requires some effort to keep the frugal native from sinking under that typhus to which he is most subject4 ,musquitoes generally remain inactive during the day1 retiring to the borders of some muddy pool1 or stinking drain1 where they deposit their ova1 which1 in a few days1 produce a noxious million1 that may be seen in their several stages1 at most times of the year1 and especially during the hot season1 when such puddles are often both replete with1 and covered by1 young musquitoes4 ,these unpleasant companions not only make a very disagreeable humming1 but thrust their trunks1 the same as the common knat does his proboscis1 between the threads of a stocking1 c42 and1 while sucking the blood of their victim1 cause a very smarting sensation1 which does not immediately cease2 if scratched1 a musquito-bite will usually rise into a small white1 hard lump2 which1 on further provocation1 proceeds to suppurate2 frequently degenerating into very obstinate sores4 ,instances have occurred of very serious consequences being entailed1 by an unguarded indulgence granted to the nails at the moment of irritation4 ,every bed1 7commonly called a cot17 is furnished with a set of inner curtains1 made of gauze1 manufactured for that purpose in several parts of ,bengal1 and known by the name of koppradool4 ,these curtains1 being very thin1 and generally of a green color1 serve not only to debar access to the musquitoes1 but1 without much obstruction to the air1 offer a pleasant medium between the eye1 and any glare which may either enter directly from the exterior1 or be reflected by the walls2 which1 in most houses1 are white1 as already explained in describing the ,european architecture of the ,east4 ,it is always expedient to have these curtains put up before it is dark2 otherwise musquitoes1 being then on the wing1 will1 if possible1 find their way to the interior2 whence it is not very easy to fan them out4 ,besides1 by this easy precaution1 it is not very practicable for snakes1 or rats1 to get under the pillows1 or into the bed2 situations in which they have occasionally been found4 ,the rats are often induced to burrow into the pillows1 which are usually stuffed with the silky-cotton called seemul1 wherein the seeds are left1 and1 by their oily nature1 attract this description of vermin in particular4 ,the females sometimes resort to it when about to bring forth their young3 hence1 it is not uncommon to find the old lady in possession of a pillow1 or bolster1 or1 eventually1 of the mattress2 especially if no person has slept on them for a few nights4 ,on board budjrows1 rats are often very troublesome1 destroying boots1 shoes1 c41 without mercy3 ,i have frequently felt them1 during the night1 attacking the powder and pomatum at the back of my head4 ,of this the cock-roach also is very fond1 but the sensation it produces is nothing more than a tickling1 as though the fingers of another person were introduced among the hair2 whereas1 a rat makes a more desperate attack1 often giving a strong pull1 or1 occasionally1 knawing at the accumulated grease1 which adheres to the head itself4 ,though ,i made it a rule always to have my bed-cloaths stripped off1 and my pillows turned over1 before ,i got into bed1 nothing of the serpent kind was ever discovered1 though many rats and mice were at times dislodged4 ,other persons have not been so fortunate2 my own experience has made me acquainted with various instances of snakes being found in beds whereon gentlemen were about to repose4 ,a very curious circumstance happened many years back1 of a lady being called by her servant to see a snake that lay very contentedly between two of her infants1 which slept on a small cot4 ,it may be readily supposed their perilous situation produced the most dreadful anxiety4 ,with great fortitude1 and presence of mind1 she directed the menial to go to one side of the bed1 and to seize one of the children by a leg and an arm1 while she did the same with the other2 and thus to snatch them away4 ,this was a bold measure1 and possibly saved the little ones from injury2 but1 had the mother caused a chaffing dish to be brought into the apartment1 and set thereon some milk to boil1 the smell of it would instantly have caused the snake to creep out1 for the purpose of partaking of his favorite food4 ,though all snakes are peculiarly fond of a certain warm temperature1 inclining to summer heat1 they will1 in general1 take to the water very freely1 especially when pursued4 ,many persons pretend to distinguish such as are venomous1 by their aversion thereto2 but such is very fallacious4 ,i have repeatedly seen covra capellas dart into puddles1 and ponds1 with seeming eagerness4 ,it is extremely dangerous to proceed along path-ways1 leading through grass covers1 or jungles1 at night2 as1 at that time1 numbers of snakes will quit the heavy grass for the purpose of lying in the current of air1 which necessarily proceeds along those paths whose sides are confined1 perhaps to the height of several feet1 by grass and underwood1 and cause them to resemble the vistas cut through coppices1 c4 ,from what has been said above1 many may be led to suppose1 that1 in ,india1 every step is attended with danger2 and1 that neither the day1 nor the night1 offers security4 ,this certainly is not always the case2 but ,i should strongly advise every person to act throughout with caution2 and to suppose these dangers ,i have described to be imminent4 ,this1 though it may not be comfortable1 will generally insure safety4 ,with regard to scorpions1 centipedes1 c41 too much circumspection cannot be used4 ,in some parts of the country they are very numerous1 capable of inflicting great pain1 and of producing very severe local inflammation4 ,instances have been known of serious indisposition having been induced by the stings of scorpions in particular4 ,the young ones are generally of a yellowish1 or dun1 or clay color2 as they advance in growth1 they gradually become darker1 until they acquire a bottle color4 ,though very rare1 ,i have seen a few of these which measured nearly eight inches from the mouth to the point of the sting1 which much resembles a large dark-colored thorn from a rose-bush4 ,there are1 however1 two kinds of scorpions1 of which that species above described is certainly the most formidable2 fortunately1 it is seldom to be seen in places much frequented3 the other kind may often be seen by dozens in the folds of a tent1 c41 laid by in a dark place among old rubbish2 and1 not unfrequently1 in the cracks of old mud walls4 ,many a poor servant1 in walking about a house at night1 or in rummaging among old stores1 gets stung by the beehu 7scorpion74 ,the part affected generally swells1 and smarts1 or1 rather aches1 considerably3 but the remedy is easy2 a rag moistened with vinegar affording speedy relief4 ,the same application is equally proper in case of being bitten by a centipede1 called by the natives kaungoojer2 from the opinion entertained that it is apt to creep into the ear4 ,that such may have taken place1 cannot be denied2 but it would1 ,i believe1 prove extremely difficult to produce a well-authenticated instance4 ,the centipede is by no means calculated for such an insinuation2 he being of some breadth1 and growing1 rather quickly1 to such a size as must preclude the possibility of his getting into the ear3 ,i have seen several measuring nine and ten inches in length2 and as broad1 though not above a third so thick1 as a man's finger3 we may consider half those dimensions to constitute the ordinary bulk4 ,wasps and hornets are every where abundant during the whole year3 the latter commonly nestle in the ground1 or in the hollow of a tree1 or perhaps form a small cell in some corner1 or under a thatch1 and there deposit their larv4 ,the former are sometimes seen in such numbers as to occasion considerable uneasiness2 they not only make their nests within the walls of bungalows1 if1 by means of cracks1 or of distances between wood-work1 they should find the opportunity1 but boldly construct their combs within the apartments2 sometimes attached to a cornice1 but most generally in one of the upper corners of a window frame1 so as to have ready means of retiring4 ,the destruction of these intruders is not always practicable1 without considerable danger4 ,the best mode is to cover a man well up in a blanket1 and to place on his head a pot of embers1 on which a lump of sulphur is laid2 so that1 by standing under the comb1 the fumes may stupify1 or at least expel1 the wasps2 after which the comb may be removed without difficulty4 ,the greatest danger is when the wasps take possession of some spot very near to the thatch2 for instance1 if they attach their dwelling to one of the rafters4 ,when it is considered1 that half the thatches are extremely decayed1 and take fire like tinder1 it must be obvious how delicately the operation should be managed3 in such case1 a slow match1 made to contain a large portion of sulphur1 and fastened to the end of a pole1 is1 perhaps1 the most secure device2 for1 if a single spark were to fly into the thatch1 it probably would1 like ,doctor ,slop's wig1 be #8nearly consumed before it were well kindled6' ,bees are by no means so bold as wasps and hornets1 but they frequently take possession of some bush1 or even of several parts of a hedge around a garden1 especially one well stocked with flowers2 rendering it unsafe to approach that quarter4 ,the combs are sometimes large1 but may1 perhaps1 on the average1 when full1 weigh from four to ten pounds4 ,no bees are domesticated in ,india2 at least ,i never heard of an apiary of any description2 though1 from the great abundance of food to be had at all seasons1 it might prove very easy to maintain them properly4 ,the truth is1 that wild honey is so cheap and abundant as to preclude the necessity for taking any further pains to obtain it1 than merely cutting the combs away from their thorny defences4 ,bugs1 such as infest our beds in ,europe1 are beyond imagination numerous throughout the ,east4 ,every charpoy1 7or bedstead17 of whatever size1 or description1 in use among the natives1 swarms with them6 ,hence1 it is next to impossible to prevent their getting among the furniture1 and especially into the boxes1 drawers1 c41 in which cloaths are kept2 and the most careful1 cleanly person1 may sometimes find a stray bug crawling upon his linen1 or lying concealed among the plaits4 ,musquito curtains are1 on this account also1 very useful2 but they should be searched daily1 lest any stragglers1 c41 be on them4 ,perhaps the best defence against these nasty tormentors1 is that in general use as a preventive against the visits of ants1 centipedes1 c42 viz4 causing the four posts of a bed to stand each upon a stone1 perhaps a foot in diameter1 and five or six inches deep1 wherein a deep trough is cut1 which1 being kept full of water1 insulates each post4 ,some use metal pans1 which certainly have a neater appearance1 and secure the carpet1 mat1 c41 from being injured by the damp2 which sometimes will find its way1 more or less1 through stone1 however hard4 ,the natives rarely have posts to their bedsteads2 though a few1 occasionally1 affix a kind of tester1 by means of a staple1 at the head2 those who could afford the best furniture1 and every convenience1 are more pleased when attended by a slave1 or menial1 who1 with a small punkah1 7or fan17 gently agitates the air1 and keeps off flies and musquitoes4 ,it scarcely need be pointed out how offensive such a practice may occasionally prove1 and that when the servant drops asleep while performing his tedious office1 the master generally will be awaked4 ,some1 of the natives especially1 cannot go to sleep without being lulled thereto1 by means of an operation called by ,europeans shampoing4 ,this consists in a gentle pressure of the feet and legs1 as also of the arms and hand1 or1 occasionally1 of the body also1 between the hands of the operator1 who passes either slowly1 or rather rapidly1 according to the fancy of his1 or her1 master1 from one part to another4 ,that considerable relief is obtained from shampoing1 cannot be doubted2 ,i have repeatedly been restored surprizingly from severe fatigue1 as well as from a certain langor and watchfulness1 common in hot climates1 and no doubt proceeding from indigestion1 or from a nervous affection1 merely by having my feet gently pressed in this manner4 ,it is curious1 that ,captain ,cook should have found this custom to be prevalent in the ,island of ,tongataboo1 where it is called #8toogey-toogey1' in allusion to the beating of a drum with the fists4 ,now1 the common small drums used in ,india1 which are suspended in front of the body1 are called #8doog-doogies1' and1 in some places1 the natives of ,india1 shampo1 by beating with the fists1 calling the operation1 not by the common term debounah1 7or pressing17 but doogaunah4 ,it is a question whether the latter term be a corruption1 or a derivative from the doog-doogy4 ,a similar practice obtains in ,egypt1 and1 indeed1 throughout the ,turkish empire2 especially at the baths1 where shampoing is considered a matter of course4 ,if my memory be correct1 ,captain ,cook was relieved from a severe rheumatic complaint by an operation of this description2 with this difference1 that1 in lieu of soothing pressure1 the parts affected were not beat gently1 but squeezed forcibly1 between the hands4 ,i have somewhere read1 that gouty pains were in like manner removed2 but should conclude1 that such could only be flying pains2 for the tenderness of parts locally attacked by the gout1 could not1 ,i apprehend1 be invaded1 without subjecting the party to excruciating torture4 ,setting apart the benefits which may occasionally be derived from shampoing1 we may consider it as one of those luxuries which1 like the hookah1 the snuff-box1 the brandy-bottle1 c41 become so habitual as to plunge us into indescribable uneasiness whenever they may be out of our reach2 of course1 it is prudent to avoid being shampoed1 except when a kind of restlessness1 or watchfulness1 is induced by excess1 of any description4 ,in such case1 immediate relief is often of great importance2 but it may be proper not to have recourse to the indulgence except on emergency1 since its effects are gradually lessened by repetition1 and the want of a menial to perform the operation may cause much irritation and disquietude4 ,the greatest attention is requisite to arate every apartment in a proper manner daily2 without that precaution1 all the aids of champoing1 of musquito-curtains1 water-pots1 bathing1 c41 will be of little avail1 as fevers and obstructions of the liver invariably follow1 whenever the atmosphere within a chamber is allowed to become foul3 ,i know not1 indeed1 any thing more weakening1 or more destructive to the constitution1 than sleeping in one that is deficient in point of ventilation2 and to continue in such1 after being1 in any degree1 indisposed1 is little less than absolute insanity6 ,nothing will be found to contribute more to health than sleeping cool2 adverting1 at the same time1 to the precautions already laid down1 not to place the cot so that any forcible current of air should pass over it1 lest perspiration be obstructed1 and the worst consequences be induced4 ,the winter months will often dictate the use of one1 or perhaps two1 good thick blankets2 while the summer heats will cause the rejection of all bed-cloathing above the body2 occasioning the general use of long drawers1 which1 for the most part1 are made of thin silk1 or of fine calico3 some have them made with feet1 thereby effectually preventing musquitoes from biting in that quarter1 but1 to me1 such were always extremely unpleasant4 ,during the hottest part of the year1 many dispense with their shirts1 but retain their banians1 or under-shirts1 the skirts of which are confined by the long drawers1 which are usually fastened by a drawing cord of silk4 ,early rising is particularly to be recommended1 for the purpose of taking exercise before breakfast4 ,among military persons this salutary practice is generally inculcated malgr lui2 and1 among civilians1 ought to be so1 by the additional motive of having the forenoon devoted to office attendance1 or to whatever duties may demand notice4 ,the amusements offered to ,europeans in ,india are by no means numerous1 nor are they of any continuance2 the climate1 the localities1 and the occupations1 of all1 rendering it impossible to partake of such variety1 or in such comfort1 as we enjoy in ,europe4 ,calcutta can boast of a very tolerable theatre1 centrically situated1 and spacious enough to contain as many spectators as are generally to be found within the town4 ,this was built about fifty years ago1 by subscription1 in shares of one thousand rupees each2 but1 owing to the very heavy expences incurred in getting up plays1 which formerly depended entirely on the penchant of gentlemen1 who performed all the characters1 both male and female1 the debts became so very heavy1 that the concern fell into disrepute1 and the shares were sold for half their original value4 ,it may seem strange1 that1 while no performers of any description were employed1 the house should get into debt2 and1 that since hirelings have been engaged1 it should have been in a more flourishing state4 ,the enigma is1 however1 easy of solution4 ,gentlemen of property1 fashion1 and consequence1 were not easily controlled2 they would have new dresses for every character1 and were to be kept in humour by good suppers after each rehearsal1 some tickets for their friends1 c41 c41 c42 so that1 when all was reckoned up1 the receipts were invariably less than the disbursements4 ,it is true that a gold-mohur 7#b guineas7 was the price of a box admission1 that the pit was half a mohur1 and the gallery a quarter of a mohur2 but the house was rarely full1 and there were rarely more than ten pieces performed during the whole year1 and those generally in ,december1 ,january1 and ,february4 ,the house had cost a lac of rupees 7i4e4 #ajj1jjj1 equal to #ab1ejj47 in building1 and fitting up2 therefore1 there was a constant demand for interest1 at twelve per cent41 equal to #a1ejj4 yearly2 that1 however1 was commuted into silver tickets1 which necessarily diminished the receipts2 causing the shares to sink from money speculations into mere family conveniences4 ,the heavy incumbrances brought on by the above inconsiderate measures1 occasioned a necessity for letting out the theatre to any person who would conduct the amusements in such manner as might prevent matters from growing worse4 ,this accordingly was done1 and a spirit of enterprize was created in the manager thus appointed by a majority of the proprietors1 whereby a great encrease took place in the performances1 which became chiefly dependant on professional persons engaged at liberal salaries2 while1 at the same time1 few gentlemen in the ,company's service contributed the aid of their talents4 ,this secession was occasioned by the marked displeasure evinced by ,marquis ,cornwallis towards all who took parts in the dramas3 it threatened to close the doors of the theatre4 ,a competition arising about the same time1 produced an effect which accidentally sustained the speculation1 by causing an interest1 indeed1 a spirited party1 to be formed1 in favor of the old house1 which1 in a very short time1 triumphed1 and caused the opposition to give up4 ,with respect to the merits of the gentlemen performers1 much may be said3 there certainly were among them some who might have appeared before a ,london audience without any fear of disapprobation4 ,the names of ,fleetwood1 ,messink1 ,norfor1 ,golding1 ,bigger1 ,call1 ,keasberry1 ,robinson1 c41 c41 will long be remembered by the lovers of the drama2 nor will they be easily effaced from the memory of those in whose hearts their merits1 as members of society1 were deeply impressed4 ,the scenery was originally furnished from ,england1 under the auspices of ,garrick1 who sent out ,mr4 ,messink for the purpose of regulating the theatre at its out-set4 ,since that time1 various additions have been made by different artists of acknowledged ability1 among whom1 ,mr4 ,battle may be noticed as possessing superior talents1 both in that important branch1 and in the representation of various interesting characters4 ,it is1 however1 to be expected1 that1 notwithstanding the great encrease of the ,european population1 by whom it is almost wholly supported1 the theatre must be sold off4 ,this1 though a severe privation1 where every item in the catalogue of public amusements is highly appreciated1 will not fall heavy on the proprietors4 ,the facility with which the edifice might be converted into a superb suite of offices1 or into a magnificent dwelling1 would insure them the re-payment of their money2 especially as the quantity of land reserved around it1 for the accommodation of palanquins1 c41 is extremely valuable3 indeed1 that alone must be worth full the aggregate amount of the shares at their ordinary value2 which has generally been about forty or fifty per cent4 under par4 ,the temporary theatres that have at various times been erected at the several military stations1 have always offered considerable gratification to their several audiences4 ,in these cheap #8epitomes of ,roman greatness' many a good play has been performed in an excellent style1 such as put us in mind of the mother-country1 and occasioned many a comparison by no means derogatory to the ,asiatic boards4 ,exclusive of the exertions of those officers who indulged themselves in this recreation1 many of the noncommissioned and privates of the ,european regiments contributed richly to the catalogue of histrionic characters4 ,some1 though perhaps not gifted with grace1 nor enriched by erudition1 nevertheless displayed an accurate discrimination of the authors' intentions1 and commanded the applause of their audiences2 among whom1 a very large portion were competent judges of dramatic excellence4 ,the ,calcutta race-course is situate about a mile and a half to the southward of the town2 it is by no means duly preserved1 being occasionally much injured by the carriages of gentlemen who frequent it as a ride4 ,it is true there is a clerk of the course2 but he has no power to enforce the observance of the rules laid down by the ,jockey-,club2 he cannot1 in fact1 prevent the course from being miserably defaced1 and cut up2 nor can he1 even when the horses are running1 keep it clear from obstructions4 ,this evil arises from a want of disposition in the majority of those who frequent the place1 to join in the sports1 or even to encourage them2 hence1 a want of courtesy is prevalent1 and the horses run under great disadvantages4 ,it may be said1 that1 as they run only during the cold months1 when the turf is tolerably firm1 little injury is done by the carriages which travel over it2 but1 in answer to this1 it may be urged1 that a rut1 or track1 made at that time1 speedily hardens1 and becomes dangerous both to the horses and to their riders4 ,but1 where few are interested1 few will be considerate4 ,many horses that have started at ,calcutta would make no contemptible figure even at ,newmarket3 according to the distance1 and the time in which the course has been run over1 ,i have reason to believe1 that a few1 which could be mentioned1 might competite with the best of the second class of ,british racers4 ,taking into consideration1 that such are entirely the result of chance purchases1 and not from any care in breeding1 it may be fairly argued that the horses of ,india1 by which ,i mean those brought from ,candahar1 ,lahore1 the ,maharrattah states1 c41 possess considerable speed4 ,many1 indeed1 of that small indigenous breed1 which is usually held in contempt1 especially on the turf1 have displayed very great powers1 and distanced horses not only of considerable value1 but of high reputation4 ,the race-grounds in other parts of the country are not better preserved than that at the ,presidency2 however1 there is ample room for toleration1 both because there are few horses kept for running2 the races1 in those quarters1 being merely desultory1 and the course generally marked out1 pro tempore1 from some uncultivated spot2 which1 having a tolerable surface1 may answer the purpose of amusement for two or three days at ,christmas4 ,though there are tattoo 7i4e4 poney7 races1 at ,calcutta1 few of that class are brought forward1 except after very full proof of their qualifications2 in fact1 the poney-races are often superior to those run by the best cattle on the clerk's register4 ,at the out-stations1 matches1 or sweepstakes1 are made solely with the view to merriment1 or from whim1 frolic1 or periodical elevation after a hearty regale4 ,here we see cause for mirth1 and1 not unfrequently1 find a clumsy-looking beast1 with heavy heels1 and a head like a yam1 taking the lead of #8trim-built wherries1' that seem to challenge competition4 ,i recollect a curious instance of this3 a very shabby1 heavy-looking tattoo1 belonging to ,captain ,csar ,jones1 started in this adventitious manner1 and1 to the surprize of all1 fairly distanced several celebrated steeds4 ,he was sent to ,calcutta1 where his uncouth appearance caused him to be ridiculed1 but there was no standing against his speed and bottom4 ,hence1 he acquired the name of #8,,take-,,in2' a designation which the knowing ones feelingly acknowledged to be highly appropriate6 ,the spirit for betting at races does not run very high in ,india2 though there have existed some characters who devoted their whole attention to this species of gambling3 but so little encouragement offers for speculations on the turf1 that1 with the exception of a few fat pigeons1 it may be said no money has been made by racing3 the wagers rarely exceed a few gold-mohurs4 ,every horse becoming so thoroughly known to all the sporting community1 little opening is left for deception or contrivance4 ,the smallest indication of collusion would1 in that quarter1 prove instantly fatal to reputation1 and cause at least a shyness1 if not an absolute estrangement1 on the part of society1 towards the offending individual4 ,in ,europe this would not be so much felt1 because a man may change his quarters1 and1 for a long time1 screen himself from public1 or general disapprobation2 but1 in ,india1 when an individual is cut at one station1 he will rarely experience common civility at any other2 his character generally preceding him by many a day's journey6 ,gambling was formerly one of the most prominent vices to be seen in ,calcutta2 but of late years has considerably diminished4 ,those who recollect the institution of ,selby's ,club1 and who now contemplate the very small portion of time dissipated1 even by the younger classes1 at cards1 c41 by way of #8profit and loss1' cannot but approve the salutary reform introduced by ,marquis ,cornwallis1 who1 whatever may have been his foibles1 his prejudices1 and his errors1 in other matters1 certainly was entitled to the approbation of the ,company1 as well as to the gratitude of their servants1 for having checked so effectually a certain licentious spirit1 which had1 till his arrival1 been totally uncontrolled1 indeed1 unnoticed1 in any shape1 by his predecessors4 ,to expect that any ,governor should be able totally to annihilate every bad practice1 would be to consider him as vested with supernatural powers2 but1 it is assuredly within the reach of every person bearing that high office1 to chace the abandoned into their secret recesses1 and to render them at least timid1 if not innocent4 ,by removing such characters from office1 and by persevering in resolution not to give employments of emolument to any but the most assiduous1 and correct1 of the ,company's servants1 much may be1 much has been1 done4 ,common sense points out the impropriety of allowing a gambler to occupy any office in which either great trust1 or particular application1 and vigilance1 might be requisite2 therefore1 as the generality of the posts held under the ,company are of either one or other of those descriptions1 or may perhaps blend both1 it stands to reason that a man whose brains are ever casting the dice1 and whose carriage rolls upon the four aces1 never can with safety be trusted4 ,those who are partial to cards1 as an amusement1 may find abundance of parties during the evenings1 where1 for the most part1 tradrille and whist 7the favorite games7 are played at such low stakes as not to be productive of regret1 or inconvenience4 ,quadrille is barely known in ,india1 nor are what we term #8round-games' much in use3 cribbage is played in some families1 and1 occasionally1 loo4 ,in all the above games1 the ,european inhabitants of ,calcutta1 as well as those dispersed over the country1 are generally proficient2 far more so than we find persons of the same description among us3 a large portion are well acquainted with chess1 and back-gammon2 and many excellent players at fives1 billiards1 c41 are to be found in every quarter4 ,cricket is not much in vogue2 being confined principally to a club at ,calcutta1 and to some occasional ,christmas matches at the several army stations4 ,on the whole1 though far less violent1 as an exercise1 than fives1 it is less adapted to the climate2 the alternate successions of exertion1 and of inactivity1 rendering the players liable to severe colds1 and to consequent obstructions4 ,music1 it might be thought1 would prove a great source of gratification in a country where ennui is so much to be dreaded2 but the climate is unfavorable to instruments of every kind1 especially to pianos1 and offers a most formidable bar to the indulgence of a musical ear4 ,no persons can be more liberal in their purchases of instruments1 or of select music1 than the ladies of ,india2 they often giving two hundred pounds for a good grand-piano2 but the incessant apprehension of warps1 and cracks1 is a tremendous draw-back on the interest they feel in the possession of even the best of its kind4 ,repairs1 of every sort1 whether of violins1 pianos1 flutes1 c41 are exorbitantly dear1 and1 even at ,calcutta1 not always practicable2 either owing to dissipation1 the want of some essential article1 or the quantity of work in hand4 ,nor is it easy to obtain the temporary accommodation of an instrument while one is repairing1 unless at such a rate as utterly precludes all of moderate income from availing themselves of such an opportunity1 when it may chance to offer4 ,with respect to what is called #8preparing an instrument for the climate1' much may certainly be done1 by taking care that only the best seasoned wood is employed1 and by clamping the case with metal1 both within and without2 but all this has little connection with the belly1 or sounding-board2 which cannot be much strengthened without considerably deteriorating the tone1 and causing a piano to be in the first instance condemned1 for want of that richness which cannot be given to one whose vibrations are obstructed4 ,the only chance is1 to keep a piano well covered with blankets during the heats1 as also in very damp weather1 and to uncloathe it gradually1 when about to be opened for performance4 ,by such precautions1 the instrument may remain tolerably in tune1 and not sustain much injury from the variations of seasons3 after two or three years the danger may be less2 but it will be prudent never to relax in point of prevention1 lest the instrument should suddenly fail4 ,with the exception of such little parties as1 in a few families1 assemble during the afternoons to enjoy the pleasures arising from the musical talents of some lady1 ,calcutta has little to offer in this captivating branch of amusement4 ,if we cast out of the account some accidental quartetto parties1 or the solitary warblings of some flute-player1 c41 the whole may be deemed a blank4 ,now and then a subscription concert1 for the benefit of some professor1 who lives more by means of eleemosynary bounty1 than by the encouragement of his abilities1 calls the town together1 not to listen to the notes1 to the fine melodies1 and rich harmonies of ,haydn1 c41 but to see1 and to be seen1 and to talk1 and be talked to4 ,in brief1 ,india is not the soil to which a man of science1 or of taste1 should repair1 under the hope of being liberally repaid for his trouble and expences2 much less of being cherished for his genius and acquirements4 ,one or two insulated exceptions are not to be adduced in refutation of my assertion3 ,i am ready to acknowledge1 that1 now and then1 a professor has been seen pampering under all the influence of high and boundless patronage2 but the per contra shews a numerous list of those who have lingered through all the penalties attendant upon humble merit1 until the grave has kindly terminated their ill-fated labors4 ,assemblies1 balls1 routs1 c41 or under whatever name dissipation1 vanity1 and luxury1 may arrange their concordance1 are not very numerous in ,india4 ,the ,governor-,general1 and the ,members of ,council1 occasionally circulate their invitations during the cold months2 and1 at times1 some spacious public rooms are engaged for the same purpose on speculation2 but ,i never understood that it proved lucrative4 ,it was not until about twenty years back that the ,british had any regular church in ,bengal1 and now they have but one1 which was built partly by private aid1 and partly by the profits arising--from a lottery666 ,the latter was1 ,i understand1 very forcibly opposed by one or two gentlemen1 who considered it as a very unbecoming mode of raising supplies for so holy a purpose4 ,when we reflect that a ,portugueze merchant built one1 for the use of the ,catholics1 from his own purse2 and that1 though he was accounted a rich man1 yet his property could not be compared with what various individuals1 of our own nation1 resident in ,india1 can boast2 it may be fairly quoted1 as a singular instance of parsimony against our countrymen4 ,not that impiety or disrespect to public worship can be urged against the settlement2 for no church can be better attended than that in question3 the liberality of the inhabitants was partially exemplified by the institution of a free-school1 where a number of children1 both of ,europeans1 and of native mothers1 are educated in a very sufficient manner2 a circumstance of considerable moment where education is so dear4 ,this dearness should seem unreasonable1 if we only take into account the prices of provisions1 which are very low2 but we must carry in mind the enormous rates of house-rent2 and that1 whatever may be the profession in which persons proceeding to ,india engage1 the return to ,europe with a comfortable independence is the main consideration4 ,supposing ten thousand pounds to be gained in twenty years1 by attention to his pupils1 it cannot be denied1 that a pedagogue is barely rewarded for so great a duration of slavery in such a climate1 and at such a distance from all his friends and connections4 ,whatever may be the merits of the teachers1 nothing could reconcile me to bringing up a child in ,india4 ,all so educated1 are rendered unfit for the society of gentlemen who have been brought up in ,europe2 they know nothing of the world1 but1 while imitating the manners and customs of those they term their countrymen1 exercise all that craft which so peculiarly characterizes the native youths4 ,in a moral point of view1 the detention of a child1 particularly a female1 in ,india1 is highly culpable2 and when treated of as a matter of economy1 will1 in the end1 be found equally objectionable4 ,that the disadvantage under which parents labor1 in sending their children to ,europe1 is considerable1 must be fully admitted2 and1 it must also be acknowledged1 that many may be able to spare a certain monthly1 or annual1 sum towards education1 which could not be furnished at once4 ,such parents are to be pitied2 because they can rarely have a child creditably schooled at ,calcutta for less than fifty rupees 7#ge47 per mensem1 all charges included2 whereas1 for about half that sum1 say for #dj41 a much better education could be given at excellent schools in various parts of ,britain4 ,if we suppose #aej4 to be expended in transmitting a child to ,europe1 and that the sum of #ce4 be annually saved after arrival here1 the difference1 both principal and interest1 would be cleared off in about five years2 while many important advantages would be gained1 and a thousand very obnoxious habits avoided4 ,the encrease of population has been followed by an augmentation in the number of schools2 but1 if ,i judge correctly1 the latter has been rather beyond what the former should appear to authorize4 ,the first school that was set up in the vicinity of ,calcutta1 started about the year #aghj1 under the charge of a ,mrs4 ,hodges1 who succeeded beyond the expectations of her most sanguine patrons2 and1 in the course of about twenty years1 realized a very handsome fortune1 with great credit to herself2 and1 if marrying off at an early age be desirable1 with great advantage to numerous young ladies2 who1 in succession1 entrapped the hearts of sundry gay ,lotharios1 by whom her dancing-room was much frequented4 ,it would be cruel1 and unjust1 in the extreme1 to assert that young women brought up at such a seminary1 were1 in every respect1 inferior3 it must be admitted1 that they may dance1 play the piano1 work at their needle1 read1 write1 and cast accounts1 and perhaps speak ,french3 all these may be done to admiration2 but1 alas6 these are1 properly speaking1 merely mechanical1 and1 though they may please for awhile1 never can give that zest depending solely on the enlargement of the mind1 and on some knowledge of the world4 ,so true is this1 that not one in fifty of the girls thus brought up can hold conversation in any way pleasing or interesting2 and1 which is worse1 the other forty-nine are very apt to be childish1 vain1 imperious1 crafty1 vulgar1 and--wanton6 ,but they are1 generally1 well formed1 pretty1 active1 gay1 and insinuating2 therefore we must not wonder at the matches we see take place1 nor at the poverty they generally entail upon their husbands1 by a certain prolific propensity which may be said to characterize the whole breed4 ,the several schools in and about ,calcutta1 may be considered on nearly the same footing as in ,europe2 some dear1 others more reasonable2 some good1 others highly exceptionable4 ,most of them are well situated1 so far as relates to convenience and salubrity2 but it appears to me1 that more than one of the seminaries for young ladies are subject to overlook objects by no means suited to female delicacy1 and1 in a great measure1 derogatory to the judgment of those who selected such sites for their establishments4 ,those academies which are about two or three miles out of town1 are certainly preferable in the above respect2 while1 at the same time1 they are not beyond the common distance to which bearers are in the habit of conveying their employers on visits during the forenoon4 ,in a former part1 ,i cursorily made mention of the old fort1 in which stood the ,black-,hole1 so famous in history4 ,this fortress is now converted into public-offices and warehouses1 for both which purposes it is admirably adapted1 from the centrical situation it occupies1 and from the great solidity of the walls1 c4 ,the defences are extremely simple1 and might answer well enough for the times in which they were constructed1 as well as for the prowess of the troops by which they were likely to be attacked3 being on the bank of the river ,hoogly1 a retreat by water might easily be effected under the cover of shipping2 and1 by the same means1 supplies could generally be afforded4 ,according to the present system of warfare1 and the probability of being attacked by an ,european army1 it would be unsafe to place the smallest reliance on the old fort1 further than as an immediate asylum in the event of insurrection2 in which case1 many houses that now command the works must be destroyed3 this1 owing to the want of cannon on the ramparts1 would not be an easy operation4 ,the town is protected chiefly by ,fort-,william1 a more modern work1 capable of containing at least fifteen thousand men2 the defences1 indeed1 require near ten thousand to man them properly4 ,the garrison ordinarily consists of two or three regiments of ,europeans1 a battalion of artillery1 with a very large establishment of artificers1 c41 attached to the arsenal1 where stores of every description are lodged in bomb-proofs4 ,provisions1 equal to six months' consumption1 are always kept in the fort4 ,the native corps1 intended to aid in the defence1 and of which the amount may be from four to five thousand1 are cantoned at ,barrackpore1 a station about sixteen miles from ,calcutta1 on the banks of the river1 and exactly facing the ,danish town of ,serampore4 ,of these troops1 about twelve hundred constantly do duty in the fort2 being relieved monthly in regular rotation4 ,fort-,william is the grand dept of ,bengal1 and may be considered as the key to that part of the ,company's possessions1 if not to the whole2 for it does not appear probable that any effectual resistance could be made1 if that fortress were to fall into the hands of the enemy4 ,such a loss would infallibly destroy the opinion now held of our prowess1 and precipitate us from the pinnacle of power1 into an awful abyss of ruin6 ,as ,mr4 ,hastings very properly stated1 #8our power in the ,east depends entirely on opinion4' ,when we consider the immense population over which we hold control1 with comparatively an insignificant force1 and1 that that force is composed chiefly of natives1 it must immediately occur to us how necessary it is to satisfy our ,asiatic subjects that our sway is mild1 and that1 in submitting to us1 they rescue themselves from tyranny and extortion4 ,there may arise local circumstances wherein the possession of a strong hold would be invaluable2 and rescue us from the most imminent dangers4 ,of this1 our affair with ,cheyt ,sing is a most obvious and undeniable proof3 had not the fortress of ,chimar1 a place rather of reputed1 than of real1 strength1 been at hand1 our force in that part must have been annihilated2 when the insurrection would infallibly have spread in every direction4 ,without entering into particulars1 ,i shall give a brief statement of the ,company's forces at their several presidencies2 observing1 that the number of their ,european regiments has been considerably diminished1 amounting1 nearly1 to a total reduction1 for the purpose of making way for the introduction of king's troops4 ,with respect to the ,european strength1 therefore1 it must be understood that no fixed establishment exists3 but the average amount of that branch1 independent of the ,company's battalions of artillery and infantry1 may be taken at about sixteen or eighteen thousand firelocks1 including the cavalry4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,presidencies4,cavalry1 ,native1 ,regiments4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,infantry1 ,native1 ,regiments4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,artillery1 ,battalions1 ,european4 ------------------------------------ ,infantry1 ,battalion1 ,european4 ---------------------------- ,marine1 ,battalions1 ,native4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,bengal #h #bg #c #a #j ,madras #h #be #b #a #j ,bombay #j #i #a #a #a ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,at each presidency1 the native regiments are formed into two battalions1 with the same strength of ,european commissioned officers as are allotted to one regiment of ,europeans4 ,a colonel commands each regiment1 and every battalion has attached to it one lieutenant-colonel1 and one major1 together with a proportion of the captains and subaltern officers4 ,two serjeants are allowed to each battalion1 viz4 one acting as serjeant-major1 the other under the quartermaster4 ,the companies are commanded by ,european officers1 under whom1 one soubadar1 one jemmadar1 five havildars1 five naicks1 and ninety privates1 7sepoys17 are enrolled4 ,the soubadars and jemmadars have commissions1 and are competent to sit on regimental1 or line1 courts-martial for the trial of natives1 whether in the military service1 or camp followers4 ,the havildars correspond in rank and duties with our serjeants1 and the naicks1 with our corporals4 ,each battalion has two grenadier1 and eight battalion companies3 no recruit is taken whose age exceeds twenty-five1 or whose stature does not reach to five feet six inches and a half1 or1 more generally1 to five feet seven inches2 unless on emergency1 or when obvious juvenility warrants the acceptance of an under-sized candidate2 who1 generally1 being well fed1 and taught to stand erect1 in the course of drilling over-tops the standard of admission4 ,reference to the table of pay and allowances in the ,directory1 will prove useful to those who may proceed to ,india1 and may serve to guide those who are not acquainted with the particulars of income in that quarter4 ,the usual exchange is two shillings and sixpence per sicca rupee1 about five per cent4 better than the sonaut rupee1 which is the standard of military payments4 ,in viewing the sum-total of an officer's pay1 when reduced to ,english currency1 which may be done with tolerable correctness at the above rate of eight rupees to the pound sterling1 very considerable allowance must be made for the inevitable expences1 c41 incident1 not only to military men1 but to all residing in ,india4 ,this consideration will amount to a very plain1 and correct1 conclusion1 viz4 that though a subaltern officer may live on his pay1 provided his out-set be duly allowed for1 yet1 that he must have more than ordinary luck1 or possess a bent towards parsimony by no means to be envied1 and rarely attaining its object1 to enable his saving a few pounds within the year4 ,this is necessary to be well understood1 and1 when understood1 ought to be ever carried in mind by those who expect a young man on his arrival1 as a cadet1 in ,india1 to support himself without adventitious aids4 ,that he may do so1 by arranging a proper plan with others of his class1 cannot be denied2 but to effect this1 not only all luxuries1 but1 what in ,india are considered the necessaries of life1 must be relinquished4 ,on receiving a commission1 his allowances1 of course1 are considerably augmented1 but1 on the other hand1 his expences will be rather greater2 and this unavoidably1 and exclusive of his equipment to join his corps4 ,therefore1 let no unreasonable expectations be entertained1 merely from observing the gross sum of annual receipts2 let not the parent1 who can spare a moderate sum towards his son's comfort1 deny it for the few first years after the latter may arrive in ,india4 ,the best mode of effecting this1 in a proper manner1 is through some respectable agency-house1 which should have the power to afford seasonable aids1 under the injunction not to encourage1 nor to tolerate1 extravagance4 ,those sanguine ideas too often entertained by persons not in affluent circumstances1 that their sons1 brothers1 c41 should remit to them1 yearly1 a portion of their pay1 ought to be peremptorily suppressed2 the illusion should be done away2 otherwise1 inconvenience at least1 if not ruin1 may be entailed6 ,to shew how folks1 on this side the water1 sometimes err1 ,i shall relate an anecdote which may prove serviceable to many2 the circumstance happened1 within my own knowledge1 to a brother subaltern with whom ,i was very intimate4 ,he had1 from the day of his admission to the service1 formed the resolution of amassing a certain sum1 which should be devoted to the comfort of three sisters he had left in ,scotland1 and who1 he knew1 would not1 in the meanwhile1 be destitute of support4 ,at the end of about his tenth year of service1 his favorite object was effected1 and he remitted to them no less than twelve hundred pounds1 i4e4 four hundreds to each1 with a letter1 expressing his satisfaction at being enabled to provide them the means of improving their diet1 c42 closing his brotherly epistle with the assurance1 that1 in so doing1 he had surrendered his all2 and that1 as it was his intention thenceforward to lay by every spare rupee for the purpose of retiring from the service1 they were to expect no further aid until his demise4 ,the good souls were astonished at the receipt of so handsome a present1 which they never had expected2 they put their heads together1 and1 after many a pleasing confab41 in which expectation1 rather than gratitude1 doubtless was expressed1 made up their minds to the full conviction that their brother was as rich as a ,jew1 and that there was no occasion for economy in future4 ,they made their good fortune known1 both by words1 and by the encrease of their establishment1 c41 c42 and1 for a year or more1 made a very gay appearance on the strength of their brother's money2 but1 as that was rather #8of a perishable nature1' and because1 as poor ,richard says1 #8going often to the meal-tub1 but never putting in1 will soon find the bottom1' bills1 and demands of various kinds1 began to accumulate1 and the ladies were reduced to considerable distress4 ,in this awkward predicament1 application was made to the agent through whom the payment had been paid in ,london2 but he knew nothing whatever of their brother's concerns1 nor could he venture to make them any advance upon the bills of exchange they proposed to give him4 ,reduced to the last extremity by their own imprudence1 they wrote him a most extraordinary letter1 which was submitted to my perusal1 wherein1 among other matters1 they reproached him as having occasioned their distress #8by not having been punctual in the ,,annual ,,remittance he had led them to expect6' ,the foregoing fact1 ,i am thoroughly satisfied could be matched1 if many family occurrences1 of which the public do not hear1 were exposed to view4 ,the number of questions ,i have been obliged to answer1 and the evident disappointments that have resulted from my candid exposition of the subjects in question1 leave not a doubt in my mind1 that the most preposterous expectations are often 7as in the above instance7 formed upon very slight grounds1 or even without the smallest foundation4 ,according to the regulations1 every man in the service ought to be paid monthly2 but this is not always done1 even in times of peace1 on account of the collections1 i4e4 the revenues1 being received only at particular periods3 if nothing particular should occur to occasion the monies being otherwise appropriated1 the deputy pay-masters at the several stations receive notice1 that the amount of pay1 due to the troops attached thereto1 may be received2 otherwise1 it sometimes happens that two1 three1 or more months1 elapse without any such notice being given4 ,it is inconceivable to what inconvenience such delays give birth6 ,no regimental pay-master1 no regimental agent1 no certain means of obtaining a supply of cash1 in general1 exist4 ,consequently1 recourse must be had to the native money-lenders1 of whom ,i have already made honorable mention4 ,when a notice arrives at the deputy pay-master's office1 application is made by him for an escort1 generally of a company of sepoys1 under the command of an ,european officer1 which proceeds to that civil station whence the supplies are to be derived4 ,sometimes1 however1 the escort is detained for many days1 or even for weeks2 this is usually owing to sudden calls for remittances having been received1 when1 of course1 the escort had better wait for fresh receipts than return empty handed4 ,payments are made in specie1 generally in silver2 the sicca rupees of ,lucknow1 ,benares1 ,patna1 c41 being held as sonauts1 in which the pay of the whole army is calculated4 ,when much gold is received at a station1 but especially at the ,presidency1 that coin is instantly depreciated1 to the great loss of every military man4 ,in some instances1 payments are made to troops by means of bills of exchange1 payable at short dates3 this answers very well for small sums1 in situations not authorizing the detachment of a party to escort from a considerable distance1 provided the party on whom the bill is given be a responsible man1 which is very generally the case2 for1 though we do sometimes hear of a shroff 7i4e4 native banker7 stopping payment1 very little apprehension need be entertained as to the punctuality of those on whom respectable firms draw1 as they usually do1 at fifty-one days4 ,this is done with the view to induce the party who is to receive the money1 to discount with him who is to pay it2 thus deriving to the drawer of the bill a double profit4 ,it happens sometimes1 as ,i once experienced1 that some little pretended informality is not discovered until the bill becomes due1 when it is generally returned to be rectified3 by this device1 an additional profit is exacted4 ,i do not apply these cases to all the shroffs1 but notice them as being occasionally within the sphere of an ,european's disappointments1 and to caution against a too hasty acceptance of bills from any shroff not established in character1 as well as in property4 ,with respect to the recovery of sums advanced on bills of exchange1 extreme difficulty very generally prevails4 ,the bankrupt laws of ,britain do not extend to her colonies1 and1 if they did1 it could be to the several presidencies only2 beyond their immediate sites1 the several courts of judicature have no immediate authority over any but ,british subjects4 ,about thirty years back1 the ,supreme ,court at ,calcutta made an attempt to extend its powers into the interior1 and to take cognizance of civil matters between the native inhabitants1 but they were personally opposed1 and such serious consequences were apprehended1 that the enterprize was relinquished1 and the judges compelled to confine their operations to the letter of that act by which they had been sent to ,india4 ,until within the last ten years1 the troops in the upper provinces received an addition to their pay1 under the name of #8double-full-batta1' originally given by the ,nabob ,vizier of ,oude to the officers serving within his dominions1 and by the ,company to all who served beyond their own immediate possessions3 this has1 however1 been abrogated1 and full-batta is now the highest pay given on any occasion4 ,when the above allowance1 i4e4 double-full-batta1 was in force1 the upper provinces were considered preferable in point of emolument2 but1 on account of the great prices of liquors1 and of all articles1 excepting immediate table provision1 in demand among ,european gentlemen1 very little advantage was gained from the receipt of greater pay2 except by those who proceeded upon a plan of determined economy1 and retired from the great circle of society for the express purpose of living within certain bounds1 whatever privations they might endure4 ,such persons necessarily acquired property in proportion to their receipts2 an object of great importance where the legal interest is twelve per cent41 and where abundance of government securities at ten per cent4 have been generally for sale at par1 or nearly so1 in the money market4 ,under such favorable circumstances1 the first saving was invaluable2 it was sure to accumulate1 and commonly was doubled in about seven years4 ,since the abolition of #8double-full-batta1' the ,presidency is considered the best station1 so many opportunities offering of making cheap purchases at the several daily auctions in ,calcutta1 only sixteen miles from the cantonments at ,barrackpore4 ,in a gig1 the distance may be easily ran in two hours1 the road being remarkably good2 in a palanquin1 the journey may occupy about four hours1 if a relay of bearers be posted at the half-way bungalow4 ,during the rains1 and especially when the tide serves1 a well-manned pulwar1 or a paunchway1 or dingy1 7small boats calculated for expedition17 may proceed from ,barrackpore to ,calcutta in little more than an hour2 the return is rarely very quick1 except during spring-tides in the dry-season1 before the river rises4 ,care must be taken to start with the first of the tide1 but not before the baun1 or bore1 has past4 ,those who have seen the bore in the ,medway1 and in the ,severn1 will at once comprehend the dangers attendant upon that impetuous rush of the waters1 which1 in the ,hoogly1 begins near ,fultah1 about forty miles below ,calcutta1 and may be felt even so high as ,nia-serai1 full thirty-five miles above the capital4 ,in a work entitled #8,the ,oriental ,voyager1' by ,j4 ,johnson1 ,esq41 ,surgeon in the ,royal ,navy1 at page #hj1 is the following passage4 ,speaking of the ,ganges1 he says1 #8,the tides in this river1 particularly at full and change1 are rapid beyond belief1 forming what are called boars1 or bores1 when the stream seems tumbling down a steep descent1 doing great mischief among the boats1 by upsetting and running them over each other3 ships themselves are frequently dragged from their anchors1 and dashed furiously against each other1 at these periods4 ,they attempt to account for these torrents1 by saying they depend on the other small rivers1 that open into the main one by bars2 which1 at a certain time of the tide1 allow the waters to rush out1 all at once1 into the great stream1 and thereby so much encrease its velocity6' ,where ,mr4 ,johnson got his information about these bars1 ,i know not2 nor would it be possible1 in my humble opinion1 for any man to have disguised1 or confused1 the fact more completely than is done in the above paragraph3 a circumstance which creates surprize1 when we consider1 that the volume in question contains many remarks1 inducing us to expect the absence of so unphilosophical a description1 and so erroneous a conception4 ,the matter lies in a nutshell1 as ,mr4 ,johnson ought to have known3 viz4 ,those rivers whose mouths are much expanded1 and that1 after a course of several miles1 during which their banks are nearly parallel1 suddenly contract1 are subject to bores2 that is1 to an immense wave which heads the flood tide4 ,this bore1 which is described with justice as being very powerful1 arises from the contraction of the channel2 which1 while it directs the great volume of water into a narrowed space1 necessarily compels it to assume a greater height4 ,the successive flow drives on the leading wave1 which gradually subsides as it becomes more distant from the propelling power4 ,but the bore rarely1 if ever1 occupies the whole breadth of the stream2 it ordinarily runs upon one side1 until it comes to a bend1 when it crosses over1 and continues its action until another turn of the river causes it to cross again2 and thus until its force is expended4 ,the bore does not run under ,calcutta1 but along the opposite bank2 it crosses at ,chitpore1 about four miles above the fort1 and ranges with great violence past ,barnagore1 ,duckensore1 c4 ,lesser rivers1 whose mouths lie embayed2 as is the case with the ,medway1 which branches from the ,thames1 and the ,wye1 that falls into the ,severn1 are subject to bores1 in consequence of the tide taking such a course as throws the great body of water into them4 ,in such small streams1 the bore will generally be tremendous2 because so great an expanse is suddenly thrown into so narrow a channel3 hence1 the bridge at ,chepstow is necessarily raised to so great a height1 and by floating made to yield to the tide's force4 ,i much fear ,mr4 ,johnson was not very successful in his enquiries1 nor over fastidious in his acceptance of vulgar errors2 for1 ,i observe1 that at page #aac1 he has allowed himself to be egregiously duped regarding ,mannacolly ,point2 so called1 from the village of ,mannacolly1 which formerly stood there4 ,mr4 ,johnson tells us a long story about a lady proceeding to ,india1 and finding her husband a corpse at that place3 whence1 #8,melancholy ,point4'666 ,i am well aware1 that the same fable has been retailed to many others1 who gaped for information2 but that is no apology for its being upheld as matter of fact3 had any respectable authority been consulted on the occasion1 before the volume was committed to press1 so palpable a traditional error would not have been offered to that public1 among whom so many are equal to its refutation4 ,what ,mr4 ,johnson states respecting the injuries done to ships by the bore1 is at times verified1 but they are rarely worthy of notice3 if a vessel be properly secured1 the bore will have little effect on her safety1 though the swell may cause her to pitch rather deep for a while4 ,during the rainy season there is no bore2 which is to be accounted for by the tide being so weakened at its entrance into the narrows near ,fultah1 as not to be competent to form such a wave as precedes it at other seasons2 but1 in exchange for this1 a violent eddy1 and great agitation of the waters1 takes place between ,diamond-,harbour and that place4 ,it has been several times my lot1 when proceeding with the last of the tide from ,barrackpore to ,calcutta1 to meet the bore1 generally near ,chitpore2 but1 as its approach was indicated by the putting off of all the small craft from that shore1 along which it invariably pursued its course1 and to remain near which would be dangerous1 my boat-men always followed the example1 and kept along the centre2 where1 though we were tossed about famously1 no danger existed4 ,once1 indeed1 in turning ,sulky ,point1 in a sailing boat1 ,i was obliged to dash through the bore1 which ,i did not suppose to be so near1 notwithstanding the dingies1 c41 were putting out4 ,the surf assuredly appeared awful1 but we mounted over it1 stem on1 without difficulty1 and speedily recovered from a certain pallid complexion which had insensibly crept over our countenances1 as we approached the roaring waters4 ,from what has been said1 it must be evident that the bore travels at the same rate as the incipient spring-tide1 the velocity of which is different in various parts1 but may be taken at an average of full twenty miles within the hour4 ,notwithstanding this rapidity1 vessels1 such as budjrows1 and other craft1 intended for pleasure1 or for burthen1 ordinarily ride safe at anchor2 sustaining no injury from the bore1 though they may perhaps drag their anchors a few yards4 ,but1 to insure this security1 care must be taken that the broadside should not be exposed2 else there will be great danger of over-setting3 this danger is not unfrequent1 owing to the manjies and dandies 7boatmen7 neglecting1 especially during the night1 to swing the stern round1 either by means of a spring1 or a small hawser1 or by luggies 7bamboo-poles72 so that the vessel's head may meet the bore in its direct course4 ,those who are anxious to make the best of their way1 should not delay putting off until the tide may have fairly set in1 but ought to be out in the stream just as the bore is ranging along the bank1 so that they may receive the first impulse1 which is prodigiously forcible1 and endeavor1 by the exertions of their boatmen1 to keep up1 as much as may be practicable1 with the leading waters4 ,it is wonderful how great a difference this sometimes makes in the start from ,calcutta6 ,sometimes a budjrow may1 by this precaution1 reach beyond ,bandel1 and nearly to the ultimatum of the tide's way1 after which1 the current is invariably in opposition1 at various rates1 according to the season of the year4 ,during the dry season1 which includes from the end of ,october to the middle of ,june1 though sometimes the rains are of greater duration1 or set in earlier1 the ,hoogly river is nearly in a state of rest above ,nia-serai2 but1 during the rains1 and especially about ,august and ,september1 not only the beds of the rivers1 but the country around1 present a formidable body of water4 ,within the banks1 the current may average from four to eight miles an hour1 according to localities1 but what is called #8the inundation1' rarely exceeds half a mile2 and1 ,i believe1 never moves at a full mile within that time4 ,in this1 due allowance must be made whether the waters are rising1 or falling3 in the former instance1 they will become nearly stationary until they may overflow where nearest the sea1 and thus obtain a vent2 in the latter case1 such parts as may be near to great rivers1 then subsiding within their banks1 must be greatly accelerated4 ,as the parched soil of ,egypt is refreshed by the overflowing of the ,nile1 so do the waters of the ,ganges1 by their annual expansion and abundance1 renew the fertility of many millions of acres1 and restore the blessings of health to those industrious and peaceable peasantry inhabiting that flat country through which they majestically wind their course4 ,at ,calcutta1 and ,dacca1 each of which is about seventy miles from the sea1 not only is the water unpalatable1 from its saline impregnation1 but even the sand1 taken from the beds of the rivers1 is found to retain so much moisture1 notwithstanding the heat of the climate1 as to disqualify it from mixture in the cements used for building1 but especially for making tarrases1 known to us here under the designation of grist floors4 ,the great tank at ,calcutta1 which occupies a space of about ten acres1 is not less than two hundred yards from the river4 ,the soil is generally a rich sandy loam near the surface1 but becomes rather looser1 and inclinable to a fine gravel1 after digging about ten feet4 ,the tank may be sixty feet from the top of its banks1 7which are level with the streets17 to its bottom2 and the river is from four to seven fathoms deep opposite its site4 ,we should conclude that such a distance would secure the waters of the tank from becoming brackish2 but the soil favors the communication with the river1 and1 during the hot season1 occasions the tank to be so strongly impregnated as to be unfit for either culinary purposes1 or for washing4 ,what is more remarkable1 the wells in the different out-works of ,fort-,william1 some of which are four or five hundred yards from the river1 partake equally of the moisture3 so much1 indeed1 as to have caused ,government to be at a great expence in forming an immense reservoir1 7to be filled1 if required1 by rain water17 occupying the whole of one of the bastions4 ,it should be here noticed1 that1 during the rainy season1 the rivers are full up to their banks1 and run with such force1 often six or eight miles in the hour1 as to occasion the tide to be little felt1 either at ,calcutta1 or at ,dacca2 consequently1 the whole of the water1 both of the rivers1 and of the tanks and wells1 becomes fresh and pure4 ,on the other hand1 during the hot months1 viz4 ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 and part of ,june1 when1 except during a north-wester1 or squall incident to the season1 not a drop of rain is to be expected1 the waters are every where proportionably low2 and1 as the tides come up with extreme force1 we must conclude the portion of sea-water to be very considerable4 ,such is the fact2 for those who visit either ,calcutta1 or ,dacca1 at that season1 and who drink even of the tank-water1 are sure to feel its cathartic effects1 and1 eventually1 to suffer under a very troublesome kind of itch4 ,at ,dacca1 where the air is more saline1 all visitors undergo the penance of a copious eruption3 some of the old residents have a return of it every hot season2 although they may be extremely careful never to touch river water1 but1 like the inhabitants of ,calcutta1 allot a spacious godown to the reception of immense jars of earthen ware1 which1 being placed side by side1 in close rows1 are successively filled by the aub-dar1 or servant whose business is confined to the care1 and to the cooling1 of water for table expenditure4 ,the water thus preserved is caught in large vessels1 placed under the several spouts that conduct it thereto1 during heavy falls of rain2 the quantity varies according to the consumption1 but we may ordinarily compute that of a family at ,calcutta to amount to full sixty or seventy hogsheads within the year4 ,in the course of a few weeks1 each vessel will be found to contain innumerable larv1 occasioned by musquitoes1 and other insects1 and which would1 in a certain time1 taint the fluid4 ,it is therefore customary to strain the whole so soon as the larv are discovered1 and afterwards to plunge into each jar an immense mass of iron1 made red-hot2 whereby whatever animalcul may have escaped through the strainer may be destroyed4 ,this being done1 some alum is dissolved in water1 and a sufficient quantity put into each vessel to fine its contents4 ,some1 and ,i think the practice should be more generally adopted1 after the foregoing operations1 sprinkle a quantity of very fine sand on the surface of the water in each jar2 thereby giving1 to whatever gross particles it may contain1 a tendency to precipitation4 ,it may1 at first view1 appear that1 in the common course of society1 gentlemen must be subject to partake of water which may not have been so scrupulously purified1 and perhaps brought from some neighbouring tank1 or from a river1 impregnated by the influx of a brackish tide4 ,such may1 assuredly1 be the case occasionally2 but it will be found1 on reference to what has been said of the duties of the aub-dar1 or water-servant1 that purified water is carried by a bearer1 in a bangy1 or perhaps in a soorye1 or earthen jug1 to the house at which his master is to dine4 ,in camp1 it is a very general custom for every guest's servant to supply his master with water of his own purifying2 which is effected either by means of alum1 or of some other astringent producing a similar effect4 ,the waters in the great rivers have various sources2 but1 speaking generally of the ,ganges1 which receives almost all the other rivers in its course from those mountains among which it has its source1 to the ,bay of ,chittagong1 where it empties itself into the sea in an immense expanse1 we may divide its properties according to the countries through which it passes4 ,hence the various opinions that have been entertained of its qualities2 which have been generally mentioned in a very loose1 indiscriminate manner1 without reference to the various soils whereby its purity must be affected1 in a country where1 as in ,egypt1 annual inundations prevail2 or where1 at least1 such immense quantities of rain fall as would astonish a person not habituated to the most impetuous showers4 ,the ,ganges takes its rise at the back of the ,kammow ,hills1 beyond ,hurdwar1 where it issues forth as a narrow1 but rapid stream1 from among broken rocks1 and soon spreads to some extent in the fertile plains of the ,rohilcund district1 which it divides from the province of ,delhi4 ,the natives of ,india rarely venture beyond ,hurdwar4 ,they have1 however1 an opinion that the true ,ganga1 as they term the ,ganges1 originates at that spot2 and1 considering the cow as the greatest blessing given to mankind1 7for the ,hindus venerate it with even more fervor than a ,catholic does a supposed relic of our ,saviour17 emphatically term it #8the ,cow's ,mouth2' implying thereby the purity1 as well as the value1 of the waters4 ,but those mountains which give birth to the ,ganges1 are likewise the sources of the ,barampooter2 a river exceeding even the ,ganges in capacity6 ,these two immense streams deviate at their origin to opposite quarters2 the ,ganges proceeding westward1 and the ,barampooter eastward4 ,the former1 after winding at the back of the ,kammow and ,nagrocote ,mountains1 passes ,hurdwar1 and1 proceeding in a devious track through the plains of ,oude1 ,allahabad1 ,benares1 ,bahar1 ,jungleterry1 ,mauldah1 ,comercally1 ,dacca1 and other subordinate districts1 receives the ,luckyah1 as a branch from the ,barampooter1 and a few miles below ,dacca unites with that river2 whence1 under the designation of #8the ,,megna1' they pursue their course for about sixty miles to the eastern part of the ,bay of ,bengal1 forming by their junction a volume of water1 encreasing1 from about seven1 to twenty miles in width4 ,in the upper country1 the ,ganges receives various inferior streams1 such as the ,doojoorah1 the ,cally-,nuddy1 the ,goombeerah1 the ,gunduck1 the ,mahanuddy1 the ,rooee1 the ,jumma1 the ,goomty1 the ,carimnassa1 the ,gogra1 7or ,dewah17 the ,soane1 the ,coosah1 and various other streams not vying in extent with the ,ganges1 but generally equal to the ,thames at ,london4 ,the ,gogra1 the ,soane1 and the ,coosah1 are1 indeed1 rivers of the second class2 as wide as the ,thames at ,gravesend4 ,from ,sooty1 which is in the ,jungleterry district1 the ,ganges throws off a considerable branch3 this widening in a curious manner1 under the name of the ,baug-,retty1 passes ,moorshadabad1 formerly the seat of the government of ,bengal1 under ,sooraja ,dowlah1 ,meer ,jaffiers1 and their ancestors2 at length1 after a course of about #aej miles1 it meets at ,nuddeah1 with the ,jellinghy1 also detached from the ,ganges1 whence the two form a large river under the name of the ,hoogly1 which1 flowing under ,hoogly1 ,bandel1 ,chinsurah1 ,chandernagore1 ,serampore1 ,calcutta1 and many inferior places1 empties itself into the western end of the ,bay of ,bengal1 having previously received the ,roopnariam1 and the ,dummoodah4 ,in its course from ,bagwangolah1 which stands near to ,sooty1 the ,ganges sends a great variety of small streams through the ,jessore1 and ,mahomedpore districts1 which1 meeting with large inlets from the sea1 form an immense labyrinth of deep waters1 intersecting that wild country called the ,sunderbunds1 in such various mazes as to require a pilot for their navigation4 ,having thus detailed the courses of the rivers1 ,i shall account for their rise and fall2 as thereon many physical points of the utmost importance will be found to depend3 the various soils through which they pass will be described1 and enable us to judge more correctly1 of the causes of that variety of character attached to the waters in various parts4 ,the ,thibet ,mountains1 which form the north-east boundary of a long valley1 stretching from ,napaul to ,sirinaghur1 are covered with snow all the year4 ,their height must be very great2 for1 on a clear day1 they may be seen from the ,golah at ,patna1 though distant little less than #cjj miles4 ,from the north-west part of this ,alpine range1 the ,ganges and ,barampooter derive their sources1 as before described1 back to back from the same mountains4 ,to the dissolution of a part of the snow which cloaths their summits1 we may1 perhaps1 safely attribute a slight encrease that takes place about the middle of ,may in those rivers3 fluctuating1 more or less1 at intervals1 until the periodical rains set in2 generally about the middle of ,june4 ,some have ascribed their rise to heavy rains in the countries through which the streams pass2 but such cannot be considered as the true cause1 for various reasons4 ,firstly1 those rains must be extremely heavy if they tended to swell the rivers2 the ground being parched1 and requiring great moisture to saturate it4 ,secondly1 the encrease is not attendant with any turbid appearance2 as would indisputably result from such heavy rains1 as1 after saturating the thirsty soil1 could raise such large rivers1 often a foot1 or more4 ,thirdly1 there are other rivers which derive their sources from the ,kammow ,hills1 and from the ,morungs1 not so distant from the ,thibet ,hills but that they might be expected to receive their share of the rains1 and to shew some encrease1 which they do not2 the rise being confined to the ,ganges and ,barampooter1 whose sources lie among the snow-clad mountains4 ,fourthly1 the encrease happens at the hottest time of the year1 and the water loses the genial warmth imparted by the solar ray1 becomes harder1 and1 in the upper country1 near ,annopshier1 about sixty miles below the ,cow's ,mouth1 is found1 at that particular season1 to cause acute bowel complaints1 which is not the case at other seasons4 ,add to this1 that1 among the natives of the countries above ,hurdwar1 the goiture1 or wen in the throat1 in some measure prevails3 a strong symptom of the dissolution of snow4 ,the following may1 generally1 be considered the soils peculiar to the several provinces through which the ,ganges has its course1 after leaving ,hurdwar4 ,the west bank is generally high all the way to ,benares1 and consists1 with little exception1 of lime1 concreted into irregular masses1 much like roots of ginger1 or ,jerusalem artichokes1 of various sizes1 some weighing perhaps five or six pounds1 others scarcely an ounce4 ,these are of a ginger1 or ash color2 though some1 being more mixed with the gravelly part of the soil1 are of a yellowish red4 ,this kind of concretion is known throughout ,india by the name of kunkur1 and1 when burnt1 yields a very inferior kind of cement1 friable1 and not very tenacious in regard to the body whereto it is applied1 nor hardening so as to resist moisture effectually4 ,all the rivers1 therefore1 which issue from the western bank1 are1 more or less1 impregnated with this kind of lime2 while1 on the opposite bank1 the waters partake of a strong solution of nitre1 with which most of the plains of ,oude1 ,fyzabad1 ,gazypore1 c41 abound4 ,such is the abundance1 that the ,company are induced to prohibit the salt-petre manufactured in the ,nabob ,vizier of ,oude's dominions1 from being imported within their own provinces2 otherwise1 the cheapness of the former1 which is usually sold at ,furruckabad for about two shillings and sixpence per cwt41 would destroy the manufactories at ,patna1 where it ordinarily sells for double that price4 ,the country lying between the ,ganges and the ,goomty1 7on the eastern bank17 from ,currah to ,benares1 is replete with alkali in a fossile state1 known by the name of sudjy4 ,this is usually found on the surface1 at the close of the rainy season especially1 when it begins to shew itself very obviously1 and is pared off with mattocks2 rising in large cellular strata from one to three inches in thickness1 and much resembling thin free-stone1 though far more porous4 ,in this state it is carried to market1 where it is purchased by the manufacturers of soap at ,allahabad1 ,patna1 and other places2 it is generally combined with oil1 and1 when ready1 sells at about ten shillings the maund of #hjlb4 ,at ,calcutta it is ordinarily sold at about #ej per cent4 profit4 ,it is made in baskets1 is of a dark color1 and very moist4 ,it is curious that the inhabitants of these countries have never turned their thoughts to the effects produced by these substances4 ,on the western bank the people are subject to nephritic complaints1 which they generally express under the vague term of kummer-ka-dook 7or pains in the back72 while1 on the eastern bank1 they are troubled with the moormoory1 7or gripes17 with which those living inland1 especially1 are severely afflicted1 owing to their use of tank-water4 ,during the rainy season1 these powerful agents combine1 and give birth to most alarming and excruciating maladies1 which1 however1 readily yield to a few gentle cathartics1 aided by congee1 7or rice-water17 by which the intestines are sheathed4 ,the natives generally have recourse to opiates2 whereby they often fix the disease4 ,in the dry season1 that is1 from the end of ,october to the middle of ,june1 the river water1 having deposited the noxious particles1 is remarkably clear and wholesome2 except when the rise takes place1 about the middle or end of ,may1 as before related4 ,the bed of the river being invariably a coarse sand1 occasionally blended with immense sheets of kunkur1 whereof the banks are formed for miles in some parts1 easily receives the lime and alkali1 leaving the running waters clear1 and free from those substances4 ,europeans never drink of water fresh drawn in any situation2 it being always left to stand for at least one day2 during which1 a copious deposit takes place3 in the rainy season1 perhaps full a fourth of the contents of the vessel4 ,some gentlemen are very particular in having their water boiled4 ,the low plains of the ,shawabad and ,buxar districts1 situate on the western bank of the ,ganges1 are chiefly cultivated with rice1 while the higher parts are productive of white corn1 opium1 sugar1 c4 ,the swamps near ,saseram1 bordering the range of hills at the western boundary1 and which come round to ,chunar1 are annually in a state of partial corruption1 sufficient to occasion terribly malignant diseases1 about ,november2 when the sun's power promotes an astonishing evaporation1 filling the air with miasma1 and spreading destruction among all the living tribes4 ,but those waters are1 in themselves1 highly dangerous2 both on account of the putrefaction of the vegetables they contain1 and of the powerful coalition of various mineral streams1 which1 having in the rainy season exceeded their ordinary limits1 stray into the low country1 and mix with the already deleterious mass4 ,finding a discharge for their redundancy1 by means of the multitude of fissures1 or small channels1 every where existing1 these blend with the purer torrents1 occasioned by the impetuous rains1 and cause a fever to prevail1 which1 in addition to the lime and nitre already afloat1 perform wonders in the cause of desolation4 ,this assemblage of rivulets forms that great river the ,soane1 which1 for the short course it has to run1 not being more than sixty miles from its numerous sources in the hills before noticed1 presents an uncommon expanse1 being generally from three quarters of a mile to two miles in breadth2 but1 in the dry season1 contracting its stream to a very narrow channel1 winding in the most fanciful meanders1 and causing1 by its waters being so dispersed in a very flat bed1 more quicksands than probably are to be found in any river in the world4 ,it is worthy of remark here1 that several rivers in that part of the world1 which have sandy beds1 appear suddenly to be lost2 owing to sand banks1 that1 during the stream's violence1 have been thrown up1 so high as to be above the waters when the rains have subsided3 the current continues very perceptible1 but as the bar prevents the water from going forward1 it passes through the intervals of the very coarse grit which forms that bar2 and1 perhaps1 at the distance of half a mile lower1 re-appears4 ,the natives1 who attribute every thing that can bear the perversion to some invisible agent1 never fail to apply this as a curse upon any village that may be opposite to such a bar1 under the opinion that the waters ceased to run in its vicinity on account of some impiety1 either known1 or concealed1 perpetrated by the inhabitants4 ,the ,gogra1 or ,dewah1 which takes its rise in the hills north of ,gorackpore1 dividing ,napaul from the ,company's possessions1 rolls its impetuous course through a country nearly desolate1 and bounding its banks with most extensive forests and wildernesses4 ,the soil is not so impregnated with nitre as in other parts1 nor are the streams that form its volume tainted so strongly with minerals4 ,perhaps owing to the length of its course1 which may be about #bej miles1 or more1 the more weighty particles may be deposited2 for it is held that this river contains less obnoxious mixture than any part of the ,ganges4 ,of lime it may certainly partake1 since it runs through some tracts abounding with kunkur2 but its course is chiefly through clay1 sand1 and a species of black potters' marle1 of which crockery is made in some parts of north ,bahar1 in imitation of our ,staffordshire ware2 though very inferior as to form and finish4 ,for this1 the neighbourhood of ,sewan is famous4 ,the province of ,bahar abounds in nitre2 and every petty rivulet either takes its rise from some swamp strongly impregnated therewith1 or passes through soils which yield it profusely4 ,those streams that originate in the ,chittrah1 ,ramghur1 ,gyah1 and ,monghyr ,hills1 are often so very highly saturated with deleterious substances1 as to betray their bad qualities even to the eye4 ,the ,mahana1 the ,mutwallah1 and various mountain rivers in that quarter1 which rush into the ,ganges between ,patna and ,boglepore1 are frequently tinged with copper1 of which some small veins are to be found4 ,an instance occurred1 while the #abth battalion of native infantry was marching from ,patna to the ,ramghur station1 where the whole corps were so extremely affected by the water1 as scarcely to be able to ascend from the camp1 then at ,dungaie1 to the summit of the ,kanachitty ,pass2 such was the state to which it had1 by its cupreous solution1 reduced both men and beasts4 ,fortunately1 it was very cold weather1 and the use made of the waters had been very limitted4 ,some officers from the same corps being on a shooting party1 during the next year1 happened to encamp at ,dungaie4 ,the kettle had been put on2 the water1 indeed1 was ready for breakfast2 but the gentlemen1 on alighting from their horses1 as usual1 had water brought them to wash2 when the contraction it occasioned in their mouths instantly reminded them of their former escape1 and thereby set them on their guard3 on enquiring1 they found1 that1 either from want of memory1 or through indolence1 their servants had taken the water from the rivulet running at the foot of the pass1 in lieu of drawing it from a well in the town1 which was at no great distance4 ,many such streams pour into the ,ganges1 either singly1 or in conjunction with others4 ,as to chalybeate influence1 that cannot be wanting2 for the whole range of hills1 in the elevated parts of ,ramghur1 ,rotas1 ,chittrah1 ,tomar1 ,pachete1 ,beerboom1 ,ragonautpore1 ,midnapore1 c41 may be termed one mass of iron2 lying in huge projections exposed to view1 and giving the soil a strong rust color4 ,the natives1 in those parts1 fuse immense quantities for sale4 ,the country from ,benares to ,patna is generally fertile in the extreme1 abounding in rich plains1 and affording far purer water than is to be found above that interval4 ,at ,gazypore and ,buxar the waters receive no additional adulteration1 except from the ,caramnassa1 which certainly is an impure stream4 ,such is the opinion held by the natives regarding this river1 that1 on account of its being necessary to cross it between ,saseram and ,benares1 a road much frequented by pilgrims and devotees2 particularly the immense hordes who repair from the ,maharrattah country1 to visit the holy ,hindu city of ,kassi1 which is the name they give to ,benares2 that a rich man1 residing so far off as ,poonah1 the capital of the ,maharrattah empire1 near ,bombay1 bequeathed a large sum of money for building a bridge1 thereby to obviate the necessity pious travellers were under of being carried over on the backs of men2 who gained a livelihood by transporting those who1 from over-nice scruples1 would not wade through the stream1 as they must have done through hundreds of others1 before they got so near their holy object4 ,unhappily for those delicate gentry1 the bridge did not1 when ,i last saw it1 about twelve years ago1 seem likely to perform its office3 the soil being sandy1 and the architect understanding but little of his profession1 piers had repeatedly been raised to about seven or eight feet high1 but always gave way2 so that ,i fear the poor itinerants must still pay their pence1 and ride across as before2 unless the edifice may be entrusted to ,european architects4 ,the ,coosah comes down from the ,morungs1 a wild1 mountainous country1 replete with impenetrable forests1 and containing some few minerals3 however1 on that head little is known2 the extent of the wilds being such as to debar the possibility of exploring the supposed riches contained in the bosom of the mountains4 ,from this quarter1 and the continuance of the forest before described1 which stretches eastward to ,assam1 and westward to ,peelabeet1 or further1 the whole of the lower countries are supplied with saul and sissoo timbers1 and some firs4 ,such is the country in which the ,coosah has its rise2 quitting which1 after a foaming course of about forty miles1 it enters the extensive plains of ,purneah1 through which it passes in a more tranquil state1 though ever rapid1 until it joins the ,ganges a little below ,colgong1 which stands on the opposite bank1 and where the ,termahony1 a small sluggish river of about eighty or a hundred yards in breadth1 blends its waters with the great river4 ,the ,termahony is very deep1 and1 in the rainy season1 equally impetuous4 ,like the ,coosah1 it flows chiefly through a flat country1 during its short course1 and as the soils in this part are sabulous1 there does not appear any thing remarkable in the effects of the waters upon the inhabitants4 ,the ,ganges may be considered as far more pure between ,raje-,mahal1 in the ,jungleterry district1 and ,mauldah1 or ,bagwangolah1 than for some distance above2 during the dry season1 it is remarkable for the clearness and lightness of its waters3 after leaving this to proceed southward1 we find them greatly changed during the rainy season1 when the immense inundation which prevails throughout ,bengal1 properly so called1 and which1 moving in general at a rate not exceeding half a mile in the hour1 may be considered as stagnant4 ,we now lose the great body of sand that in all the upper country forms the bed1 not only of the ,ganges1 but of every river whose course continues uninterrupted during the dry season2 though its stream may become insignificant4 ,here it should be remarked1 that sandy beds generally produce the finest beverage1 and that the water will be found more pure in proportion as the sand is coarse4 ,hence1 the waters in the deep parts of such streams are invariably the sweetest2 for the coarse sand will naturally find its way to the greatest depths1 precipitating the impurities with it4 ,on the contrary1 the light floating sands1 which with every little motion become agitated1 will set the impurities also in action4 ,such are generally found on the borders of the stream1 whence most persons derive their supplies1 and where it may usually be seen in an active state2 or1 if at rest1 blended with slime1 or fibrous substances4 ,we should ever remember the distinction between the effects of fine and of coarse sand as strainers4 ,coarse sand allows heavy1 or coarse bodies1 to pass through it freely1 provided the particles be not adhesive1 or too gross for filtration3 consequently1 when such sand is deposited in the bed of a river1 the lesser particles of lime1 or of minerals and their ores1 will sink1 and remain fixed4 ,not so with fine sand2 which has a greater tendency to compactness1 and which1 gradually filling up the smallest intervals1 becomes firm1 and resists all admixture with heterogeneous substances2 the latter must1 of necessity1 remain on their surface1 subject to be taken up with the water4 ,persons accustomed to filtration must know1 that1 owing to this tendency1 fine sand is by far the best medium to filter through1 while coarse sand is preferable for the purposes of precipitation4 ,the inundation which overflows ,bengal1 especially in the districts of ,nattore1 ,dacca1 ,jessore1 the southern parts of ,rungpore1 and a part of ,mahomed-,shi1 is1 perhaps1 one of the most curious of nature's phenomena6 ,the wisdom of our ,creator is most conspicuously shewn in the appropriation of sustenance1 both for the human and for the brute species1 suited to meet this annual visitation of the waters4 ,however copious the rains may be in the southern provinces1 though they might become boggy1 and be partially inundated where the lands were low1 yet1 without the influx of these immense streams1 which1 owing to the declivity of the surface1 pour down from the upper country1 ,bengal would1 at such seasons1 be but a miry plain1 or a shallow morass4 ,the great inundation does not1 generally1 take place till a month after the period when the rains have1 according to the phrase in use1 #8set in4' ,the thirsty soils of ,oude1 ,corch1 ,allahabad1 ,benares1 ,gazypore1 ,patna1 ,rungpore1 ,boglepore1 ,purneah1 and all beyond the #beth degree of latitude1 require much moisture to saturate them1 as do also those parched plains into which they ultimately pour their streams1 before any part of the soil can be covered1 indeed1 such is the state of the southern provinces after the cold season1 that that rich friable soil in which they abound is seen cake-dried and cracked by fissures of many inches in breadth1 as though some great convulsion of nature had been exerted to rend the surface into innumerable divisions4 ,under the circumstances of a flood1 which lasts for many months1 fluctuating from the middle or end of ,july to the beginning of ,october1 7though the water does not drain off before the middle of ,december in low situations17 the inhabitants might be supposed to suffer under all the miseries of a general ruin and subsequent scarcity4 ,the reverse is1 however1 the fact2 for1 provided the rains do not fall in such torrents as to wash away their habitations1 and to occasion so rapid a rise in the fluid plain as to overwhelm the growing rice1 the more ample the bursauty1 7i4e4 the rains17 the more plentiful the crop1 and generally the less sickly does the season prove4 ,the latter point will appear self-established1 when we consider that amplitude of inundation serves1 not only to divide the septic matter contained in the water1 but likewise to accelerate its action1 and cause its proceeding with added impetus to discharge itself into the bay4 ,at this season1 rivers are only known by the currents1 and consequent swells1 which appear amidst this temporary ocean6 ,the navigation1 for several months1 assumes a new appearance4 ,vessels of great burthen1 perhaps of two thousand maunds1 7each #hjlb417 equal to nearly one hundred tons1 are seen traversing the country in all directions1 principally with the wind1 which is then within a few points on either side of south4 ,noted cities1 exalted mosques1 and populous gunjes1 or grain-markets1 on the river's bank1 are not objects of attention4 ,the boatman having set his enormous square sail1 proceeds by guess1 or1 perhaps1 guided by experience1 through the fields of rice1 which every where raise their tasseled heads1 seeming to invite the reaper to collect the precious grain4 ,as to depth of water1 there is generally from ten to thirty feet1 in proportion as the country may be more or less elevated4 ,it is curious to sail among these insulated towns1 which1 at this season1 appear almost level with the surrounding element1 and hemmed in by their numerous dingies1 or boats1 which1 exclusive of the necessity for preparing against an over-abundant inundation1 are requisite for the purposes of cutting the paddy3 rice being so called while in the husk4 ,so soon as what is considered the final secession of the inundation is about to commence1 the whole of the boats are in motion1 and the paddy is cut with astonishing celerity4 ,it is fortunate1 that1 owing to the country on the borders of the sea being higher than the inundated country1 the waters cannot draw off faster than they can find vent1 by means of the rivers which discharge into the ,bay of ,bengal1 else the growing rice would be subjected to various fluctuations unsuited to its nature1 and occasioning the straw to bend2 whereby its growth would be injured1 even if it should recover from its reclined state so as again to assume a vigorous appearance on the surface4 ,the waters of the inundation1 it will be seen1 are a mixture of all the streams flowing from every part of the extensive valley formed by the ranges of mountains stretching from ,chittagong to ,loll ,dong1 or ,hurdwar1 on the east and north-east1 and from ,midnapore to ,lahore on the west and north-west1 a course of not less than fifteen hundred miles1 and generally from two to four miles in breadth4 ,it may be supposed1 that many impurities must be involved with these contributary streams1 as particularized in the foregoing pages3 to this we must add the offensive1 and certainly not salutary1 effect1 induced by the ,hindu custom of consigning every corpse to the waters of the ,ganges1 or of any stream flowing into it4 ,the ,hindu religion requires that the deceased should be burnt to ashes1 on the borders of the ,ganges1 and that those ashes1 with all the remnants of wood used in the pile1 should1 together with the small truck bedstead on which the body was brought from the habitation to the river side1 be wholly committed to the stream4 ,the wholesomeness of such a practice1 in a country where the strides of putrefaction know no bounds1 infection and its effects being prodigiously extensive and rapid1 cannot be disputed2 such an ordinance may vie with the acts of any other legislature1 however enlightened4 ,but1 either the poverty1 the indolence1 or the sordidness1 of the people1 has1 in time1 converted this wholesome precaution into a perfect nuisance4 ,from fifty to a hundred bodies1 in different stages of putrefaction1 may be seen floating past any one spot within the course of the day4 ,these having been placed on a scanty pile1 and that not suffered to do its office1 either on account of hot1 cold1 or wet1 weather1 have been pushed1 by means of a bamboo pole1 into the stream1 to the great annoyance of water-travellers1 and of all persons abiding near those eddies1 where the nuisance may be kept circling for days1 until forcibly removed1 or until the pariah dogs swim in1 and drag the carcase to the shore3 there it speedily becomes the prey of various carrion birds1 and of the indigenous village curs known by the above designation4 ,under all the circumstances of such a combination of putrid animal and vegetable substance1 of mineral adulteration1 and of the miasma naturally arising from the almost sudden exposure of an immense residuum of slime1 c42 added to the cessation of the pure sea air1 the wind changing after the rains from the southerly to the northerly points1 are we to wonder at the malignancy of those fevers prevalent throughout the province of ,bengal ,proper1 from the end of ,september to the early part of ,january1 when the swamps are generally brought into narrow limits1 and the air is laden with noxious vapors8 ,although it appears1 that the general sickness prevailing throughout ,bengal at the above season1 is induced by nearly the same causes that1 according to our best informations1 engender the yellow fever in ,america1 yet no symptom of that alarming complaint has ever been known in ,india1 nor does the bilious1 or putrid fever1 of ,bengal at all assimilate in regard to symptoms with the ,american fatality4 ,certainly it is common to see whole villages in a state of jaundice1 and in some years the ravages of the disease are truly formidable2 but1 though it may be classed as epidemic1 we may1 at the same time1 annex an endemic distinction in regard to each village separately4 ,except in cases of putrid accession1 or of obvious typhus1 there does not seem any danger of infection2 and it has been proved1 that the malady might1 by proper care1 be wholly averted4 ,it is a fact1 that1 at several civil stations1 and at some of the principal military cantonments1 which were formerly considered the emporium of fever1 the inhabitants have been preserved in an ordinary state of health merely by cutting a few drains1 or by banking up such places as formerly proved inlets to inundate plains that now remain sufficiently free from water to allow of pasturage during the whole of the rainy season4 ,the confinement occasioned by a long term of rain1 must necessarily alter the habit1 while the incumbent atmosphere1 being laden with moisture1 must1 at the same moment1 dispose the system to the reception1 or to the generation1 of disease4 ,the poor native does not change his diet1 and very probably retains the same damp cloaths for many days4 ,his temperate system of living seems to be his greatest aid in case of illness2 those medicines that in him effect a great change being found comparatively feeble when administered either to one of a debauched conduct1 or to ,europeans2 who1 being accustomed to a more substantial and more stimulant mode of living1 are not to be acted upon but by the more potent of the materia medica4 ,it has often been asked1 as a matter of surprize1 how it happens that ,bengal has never been visited by the plague4 ,the question has been founded on the supposed affinity between that country and ,egypt1 in regard to the annual inundations2 and to the narrowness1 as well as the filth1 of the streets in the great cities2 which would1 if the conjecture were correct1 induce pestilence1 as the same causes are said to do in ,turkey4 ,the case is widely different4 ,in ,egypt1 although the lands are inundated1 rain is scarcely ever known to fall2 the floods coming from the southerly mountains4 ,hence1 the inhabitants are under all the disadvantages attendant upon a hot atmosphere1 during eight months in the year1 and are1 for the remaining four1 exposed to the insalubrity arising from the inundation1 especially when it is draining off4 ,in regard to the narrowness of the streets1 and the filth they contain1 something may be said in alleviation4 ,the houses in ,turkey are much higher1 are built of more solid materials1 and the inhabitants being wholly of one religion1 viz4 followers of ,mahomed1 but partaking of some of the bad habits of the neighbouring countries1 being also in a more variable climate1 more pointed attention is paid to durability and to closeness in the edifices1 than is commonly shewn in ,india4 ,in the latter country1 the utmost jealousy subsists between the ,mussulmans and the ,hindus1 but the latter are most numerous in every place1 even in the cities where ,mussulman princes hold their durbars1 or courts4 ,this jealousy occasions the ,hindus to look upon every vestige of a ,mussulman as a contamination2 and1 as ablutions are enjoined even more by the ,hindu law than by the ,koran1 which is the ,mussulman's book of faith1 we may consider the person of a ,hindu to be as clean and wholesome as repeated washings can make it4 ,he wears only a small lock of hair1 growing from a spot about the size of a dollar on the crown of his head4 ,his cloaths are washed as often as his body1 and1 on the whole1 it should appear almost impossible for him to carry any disease arising from1 or communicated through1 a deficiency of individual cleanliness4 ,the houses of the natives throughout ,india1 if we except about one-third of ,benares1 about a twentieth of ,patna1 the same of ,moorshadabad1 and a mere trifle of the ,black ,town of ,calcutta1 are built of mats1 bamboos1 and straw2 in the latter1 they have been1 under late regulations1 tiled4 ,the generality of village-huts are built with mud walls4 ,on the whole1 however1 whether owing to cracks in the walls1 or intervals between them and the thatches1 windows1 c41 the air finds a free course throughout4 ,add to this1 that the natives do not sleep on feather beds1 flock1 c41 but generally on mats made of reeds4 ,this1 of itself1 may be considered a preventive against infection4 ,the fires kept up in the houses of the natives of ,turkey are in fixed stoves1 or under chimnies1 which do not answer the purposes of fumigation4 ,whereas1 the ,indian1 by means of a moveable stove1 unintentionally fumigates the whole house2 making the eyes of all smart with the smoke4 ,this fuel is not bituminous2 but1 in every situation1 is either wood1 or the dried dung of cattle4 ,besides1 the floor of a ,hindu's house is1 perhaps daily1 washed with a thick solution of cow-dung1 whence a freshness is diffused1 not perhaps very gratifying1 in point of savour1 to an ,european's nostrils1 but assuredly anti-septic1 and answering various good purposes2 especially as the walls are1 to the height of1 perhaps1 three or four feet1 smeared with the same mixture4 ,the use of tobacco is common to both ,turkey and ,india1 and may be considered as contributary to a resistance against the damps during the rainy season1 as well as against infection4 ,with regard to the apprehensions arising from filth1 fortunately1 they are not better founded than those just noticed as dependant on the narrowness of the streets4 ,this lucky evasion of disease is not1 however1 to be attributed to any attention on the part of the natives individually1 or to the fostering care of the native governments4 ,few towns of any importance but are built on the borders of some navigable river1 of which there are abundance throughout the country4 ,the swarms of vultures1 kites1 crows1 and of a large kind of butcher bird1 standing at least six feet high1 called the argeelah1 added to the immense numbers of pariah dogs1 generally roving at liberty1 and unacknowledged by any particular owner2 together with the multitude of jackalls1 that patrol through the cities1 as well as the plains1 during the night1 all contribute to remove whatever carrion1 or putrescent matter1 may be exposed to their researches4 ,it would not1 perhaps1 be so easy to keep cities in a state of tolerable cleanliness in such a hot climate1 if the inhabitants subsisted on butchers' meat4 ,the shambles alone would prove highly offensive3 it is therefore fortunate that the natives make rice and vegetables their principal food4 ,there being no privies attached to houses in general1 is an additional benefit2 though accompanied with some small inconvenience1 it being requisite to walk to the outskirts of the city1 or1 eventually1 among some ruins1 on all occasions4 ,the privies of the higher orders of natives1 and of ,europeans in general1 are built on a plan which admits of instantly removing the filth2 a practice never neglected by a servant1 whose office consists only in that duty1 and in sweeping the house at various times of the day4 ,the argeelah1 or butcher bird1 before mentioned1 is to be seen partially all the year round2 but1 generally speaking1 comes with the first showers in ,june1 and stays until the cold season is far advanced2 when it retires into the heavy covers on the borders of the large unfrequented lakes1 near the mountains1 to breed4 ,this bird has been fully described in the representation of the ,ganges breaking its ,banks1 in my work entitled the #8,,wild ,,sports ,,of ,,india1' published by ,mr4 ,orme1 of ,new ,bond-street1 and by ,messrs4 ,black1 ,parry1 and ,kingsbury1 of ,leadenhall-street4 ,it is by some called the bone-eater1 from its peculiarity of digestion2 it having the power of swallowing whole joints1 such as a leg of lamb1 and of returning the bone after the meat has been digested3 when thus rejected1 it appears as clean as though it had been boiled for a whole day4 ,i cannot give a better idea of the fitness of this bird to eat of the most putrid substances1 than by stating1 that ,i have frequently rubbed an ounce1 or more1 of emetic tartar into a piece of meat1 which an argeelah has swallowed1 without shewing symptoms of uneasiness on the occasion1 though very closely watched for hours after4 ,from this1 it may be inferred1 that ordinary stimulants do not disagree with the stomach of this unsightly1 but innocent1 and useful1 animal4 ,inland towns are usually built in the vicinity of some large jeel1 or lake1 or on some ravine1 which1 during the rains1 forms a rapid water course4 ,such as are near to hills1 are often1 for many days together1 impassable2 owing to the torrents which1 through their means1 find a way either to some expanse1 or to some navigable river1 ,the jeel1 or1 for want of one1 the tank nearest to the town1 usually becomes the receptacle of every ,hindu corpse1 and1 at the same time1 supplies the inhabitants with water for every purpose4 ,one would think this intolerable practice were1 of itself1 sufficient to deter men1 who pretend to the utmost delicacy and purity in all respects1 from drinking at so contaminated and corrupt a reservoir4 ,what then shall we say1 when it is known that the borders of tanks in such situations1 become places of ease1 where men1 women1 and children1 perform their duties to the goddess in colloquial association2 and where1 having got rid of their burthens1 they free themselves from its remains1 by washing with those very waters whence1 probably1 another person is baling into his pot1 or leather bag1 for culinary purposes1 or for beverage4 ,tanks and jeels are1 in almost every part of ,india1 full of rushes1 and of the conferva1 which1 together with duck-weed1 docks1 c41 both cover the surface and fill up the deeps4 ,they are1 generally1 replete with small fishes of various descriptions1 and if of any extent1 or deep1 either harbour1 or serve as visiting places for alligators1 which infest both the running and the stagnant waters in every part of the country4 ,these voracious animals travel at night from one jeel1 or tank1 to another2 often announcing their presence by snapping up some poor unsuspecting ,hindu1 who wades up to his middle for the purpose of performing his ablutions1 and of offering up the customary prayers on such occasions4 ,in many tanks1 alligators are known to exist in numbers2 nay1 in some places1 they are subsisted by the eleemosynary donations of travellers1 who disburse a trifle in money1 or present some provision to a faqueer1 7or mendicant priest17 to provide food for the alligators1 which come forth from the waters1 on hearing the well-known voice of their holy purveyor2 from whom they seldom fail to receive each a small cake of meal1 or some other provision4 ,this liberality does not1 however1 occasion any qualmish scruples of gratitude2 it being found1 that alligators thus handsomely treated are not a whit more reserved in the application of their teeth to bathers1 c41 than those which have never been honored by such liberal consideration4 ,the respiration and effluvia proceeding from an animal1 perhaps twenty1 or twenty-five1 feet in length1 and from six to twelve in circumference1 must have an effect upon even a large body of water4 ,allowing that such a monster should consume as much air as ten men1 which1 surely1 is not an unfair calculation1 and that twenty gallons of water contain one of air2 as a man1 on an average1 consumes one gallon of air in a minute1 the alligator must consume twelve hundred gallons1 equal to near twenty hogsheads1 in an hour3 in twenty-four hours1 the quantity of water contaminated by one alligator would amount to four hundred and eighty hogsheads6 ,from this1 we may conceive the effect produced by the presence of1 perhaps1 seven or eight alligators in a tank not exceeding two acres in measurement1 and no where above twelve or fourteen feet in depth3 we must likewise take into the account abundance of fishes2 for1 if that abundance did not exist1 the alligators would speedily decamp4 ,add to these two sufficient drawbacks1 all that has been said of the impurities added by the inhabitants1 and we shall form such a nauseating and unwholesome combination as must cause us to wonder how ever one should be left to tell the fate of his lost friends4 ,amidst the mountains1 where1 of course1 the inundations cannot be of any duration1 and where the waters of every description are limitted as to extent2 the streams being very small1 and1 excepting a few hollows between two hills1 or1 eventually1 a valley1 in which a pool may exist1 alligators are to be seen4 ,they are generally small1 but of a very savage species1 making up1 by their rapacity and activity1 for the want of that bulk which renders the alligator of the great rivers more apparently dangerous4 ,by the term #8small1' we must not conclude them to be diminutive1 but1 that they rarely exceed twelve or fourteen feet in length4 ,such will1 however1 seize a bullock when wading in a tank1 or jeel2 stealing upon him with the utmost caution1 so as not to disturb the fluid1 and even keeping the dorsal spines depressed until the very moment of seizure2 when1 fastening upon the unwary animal's leg1 and throwing his whole weight backwards2 at the same time swinging round1 so forcibly as to raise the greater part of his disgusting frame above the surface1 the alligator1 by one violent effort1 which appears almost instantaneous1 ordinarily succeeds in dragging the poor animal into a sufficient depth4 ,pain1 surprize1 and the unrelaxing bite of his devourer1 combine to disable him from making any adequate resistance2 being1 besides1 kept completely immersed by the subtle and experienced assailant1 no more is seen1 except that the waters appear for about a minute violently agitated1 by the efforts of both parties3 the alligator is1 however1 compelled to raise his head above the surface when in the act of deglutition4 ,this is seen daily1 even when a fish becomes the victim4 ,on these occasions1 the stupendous animal rears in the waters1 exposing sometimes so far as his shoulders1 and ordinarily biting the fish in two1 when1 with the utmost ease1 he swallows what would make a hearty meal for thirty or forty men of keen appetite4 ,i have frequently seen an alligator thus chuck down a rooee1 or river carp1 weighing from fifty to sixty pounds3 a size by no means uncommon in the great rivers of ,bengal6 ,the great use made of water by the natives in every part of ,india1 occasions an immense number of tanks and wells to be dug1 chiefly by persons of property1 under the pretence of aiding the poorer classes1 but1 in fact1 with the view to become popular1 or of transmitting their names to posterity by affixing them as designations to the tank or well in question4 ,this takes place equally in regard to plantations1 generally of mango trees2 and in the building of seraies1 for the accommodation of travellers1 such as ,europeans generally understand to be caravan seraies2 but that term can only apply to those parts of ,arabia1 c41 that furnish caravans2 which are not known in the great peninsula of ,india2 where1 on account of the extent of sea-coast1 navigation absorbs the chief part of the trade4 ,seraies are usually known by the name1 or title1 of the founder4 ,thus1 ,maraud ka ,seray implies that the public accommodation for the reception of travellers was founded by ,maraud2 respecting whom the people in attendance either have some traditional account1 or supply a famous history1 invented for the occasion4 ,seraies are now going fast to decay2 the power of the native princes has been so much abridged1 and their influence is so little felt1 that1 generally speaking1 were a rich or exalted character to found a seray1 even on the most liberal footing1 it is probable his expectation of immortal fame would not be realized4 ,the rage is now more bent towards gunges1 or grain markets2 hauts1 or villages1 holding periodical markets2 maylahs1 or annual fairs2 and1 in fact1 to such establishments as afford a profit1 or which1 from becoming notorious in the way of trade1 are more likely to perpetuate the celebrity of the institution4 ,durgaws1 7commonly called mosques17 appertain exclusively to those of the ,mahomedan faith1 and mhuts1 which are1 properly1 places of ,hindu worship1 also madressahs1 or colleges1 with endowments for faqueers1 or ,hindu priests1 seem to hold their ground4 ,these1 like the abbeys of ,monkish times1 are ever to be found in the most beautiful and most eligible situations3 above all things having a command of excellent water4 ,the tanks in the hills1 that is to say1 such as have resulted from artificial means1 are generally small1 full of weeds1 and rarely lined with masonry2 their banks are soft1 and the waters1 being accessible to cattle on every side1 foul and turbid4 ,sometimes these become nearly dry during the hot months1 affording1 if any1 a most offensive and insalubrious beverage4 ,nevertheless1 the indolent native will often drink thereof1 rather than send half a mile to a purer spring4 ,the generality of these tanks have originally a regular supply from numberless springs1 fed either by a natural syphonic process from higher lands1 or by percolation of the profuse dews that1 throughout the immense jungles on the higher soils1 fall during the hottest months2 but the want of proper attention to preserve the tanks from the incursions of cattle1 which1 being very wild in their nature1 often swim or wade over to the opposite sides1 quickly choak the springs1 which1 in such open soils1 easily find other vents1 and expose the inhabitants to great suffering from drought4 ,in many instances we see wells dug in the tanks2 thereby causing a great saving of labor2 as1 when once a spring discharges into the tank1 in such a situation1 it is not necessary to dig the whole area to an equal depth4 ,this is a cheap expedient1 adopted by such as have vanity enough to attract public notice1 but not money enough to do the thing completely1 or to a great extent4 ,from these causes1 we are led to the consideration of those effects produced in hilly countries1 by the waters in common use4 ,nor are we deceived in our expectation as to the results naturally arising from so forcible an agent4 ,we find throughout the hilly country1 that1 exclusive of the diminutive features attached1 all over the world1 to the various classes of mountaineers1 there is an additional tendency to departure from the ordinary bulk of the natives in the adjacent low lands1 obviously induced by the diet1 and most especially by the waters in use4 ,it is remarkable that in ,tomar1 the back part of ,chittrah1 and ,ramghur1 where the immense extent of low woods almost debars population1 and where the ,hill people1 known by the name of ,dhangahs1 subsist principally on rice1 wild fruits1 and1 occasionally1 a little game1 and where they drink of water such as has just been described1 collected either in small pools1 or in artificial tanks1 the inhabitants are extremely stinted in their growth1 are squalid1 troubled with wens1 half devoured with a kind of scurvy1 herpetic eruption1 and appear even at a very early age to lose their vigor4 ,they have1 besides1 a peculiar kind of opthalmia1 partly induced by an excessive passion for liquor1 there distilled in large quantities1 and by their exposure to a damp1 impregnated atmosphere2 while in their huts1 their whole happiness seems to consist of an intense fumigation1 chiefly from green-wood1 such as would wholly suffocate one not habituated from his birth to so admirable an imitation of the fumes of ,tartarus4 ,the difference between these haggard objects1 and the inhabitants of the plains from which the mountains take their rise1 requires no comment4 ,it most forcibly arrests the traveller's attention1 causing him to doubt whether1 within the short interval of perhaps six or seven miles1 he may believe his senses1 which pourtray to him a change from vigorous and personable manhood1 to a decrepid1 hideous1 and dwarfish1 state3 more resemblant of the ,weird ,sisters than our imaginations can conceive1 or than our best comedians can represent4 ,some tanks1 dug by the more charitable persons of property1 are on a very extensive scale1 covering perhaps ten or twelve acres4 ,many of these are of great antiquity1 and have been very deep1 perhaps thirty feet1 but1 by the growth of vegetable matter1 added to the heavy bodies of sand and dust that nearly darken the air in the dry season1 of which much falls into the waters1 their depth is considerably reduced3 in some1 various shoals appear1 indicating the accumulation of rubbish1 and in a manner reproaching those who use the element with indolence and ingratitude4 ,in such places fish abound1 and grow to an astonishing size1 sometimes affording excellent angling1 but their flavor does not correspond with their looks2 for the most part they are intolerably muddy4 ,the quantity of weeds1 the shoals1 and various posts being generally sunk in different parts of the tank1 armed with tenter-hooks1 for the purpose of preventing poachers from robbing the stock1 are insuperable bars to the use of nets4 ,boats are not in use in such places1 and there seems to be no attention in any respect to any thing relating to such waters1 except that the shecarries1 or native sportsmen1 exercise much ingenuity and skill in their depredations among the wild geese1 wild ducks1 teal1 widgeons1 c41 with which all the waters of ,india are profusely stocked during the winter months2 when every unfrequented puddle is covered with wild fowl1 which often alight during the dark nights on waters situated in the very hearts of cities1 in which sometimes tanks are seen of such size1 as to secure the birds1 when collected near the centre1 from the reach of small shot4 ,this1 though not to be classed with daily occurrences1 is by no means singular4 ,by far the greater number of tanks1 especially those by the road-side1 or contiguous to cities and populous towns1 are walled in with masonry4 ,in such case1 they have at one1 or more sides1 either a long slope1 or a flight of steps of excellent masonry2 some1 indeed1 have both1 the former being intended for the use of cattle1 which are either suffered to drink there1 or are employed to carry large leather bags of water for the use of the inhabitants4 ,owing to the great force of the periodical rains1 and to the swelling of the soil during the season of excessive moisture1 the masonry is generally burst in various places1 and for the most part either sinks1 or is prostrated into the tank4 ,as no credit would follow the repairs of such breaches1 they are left to their fate4 ,a due attention to the proper proportion of base1 so as to give a substantial talus both within and without the walls1 added to the precaution of leaving vents for the free discharge of the springs1 or the super-abundant fluid1 into the tank1 would most assuredly counteract so destructive a weakness as now generally exists4 ,i cannot call to mind1 at this time1 any very old masonry that has not succombed thereto1 excepting the great bund1 or dyke1 at ,juanpore2 which1 according to tradition1 was built about fifteen hundred years ago1 and having been made of a very obdurate kind of kunkur1 found in those parts1 blended with excellent lime1 probably burnt from the same stones1 appears now a complete mass of rock1 capable of resisting the ravages of all time to come4 ,this bund1 which bears all the venerable marks of antiquity1 was originally thrown up to limit the ,goomty2 a fine river that rises in the ,peelabeet country1 and1 washing ,lucknow1 the capital of ,oude1 passes through the city of ,juanpore under a very lofty bridge1 built on strong piers1 terminating in gothic arches4 ,the want of due breadth in the arches occasions the waters to rise during the rainy season to an immense height1 creating a fall of which that at ,london ,bridge1 at its worst1 is indeed but a poor epitome6 ,the distance between the top of the bridge and the water below it1 in the dry season1 is something less than sixty feet2 yet it is on record1 and in the memory of many inhabitants of ,juanpore1 that the river has been so full as to run over the bridge1 which is flat from one end to the other1 lying level between two high banks1 distant about three hundred and twenty yards4 ,formerly1 when the waters were high1 they used1 according to the tradition alluded to1 to over-run the country on the left bank2 forming an immense inundation throughout the country lying east of ,juanpore1 and extending down towards the fertile plains of ,gazypore4 ,the hollow1 or low land1 by which they penetrated1 was about two miles in width2 therefore the bund was built to a suitable extent3 it is now about two miles and a half long2 in most parts1 about thirty feet broad at the top1 and double that width at the base4 ,its height varies from ten to twenty feet4 ,the record states it to have proved effectual in resisting the inundation1 which1 however1 on account of the bund being at right angles with the river1 so as to occupy a favorable position1 and cut off the torrent1 continued to flow annually as far as its base4 ,in time1 the sediment deposited by the water thus rendered stagnant1 filled up the hollow1 raising its surface as high as the other parts of the river's boundary1 and creating a soil peculiarly valuable1 now chiefly occupied by indigo planters4 ,the insalubrity occasioned by the many swamps left by the inundation1 was at the same time averted1 and the dread entertained that the ,goomty would1 in time1 force a new channel for the entire body of its stream1 removed4 ,large tracts1 before of little value1 acquired a deep staple of soil1 which1 at this date1 yields sugar1 indigo1 wheat1 barley1 c41 in abundance and perfection4 ,the rage for digging tanks1 has1 ,i apprehend1 in a certain measure1 subsided2 for we find little of that very absurd ostentation now prevalent1 which must have actuated to such immense works1 rendered useless by their too great number1 or carried to an excess in regard to their measurement4 ,it would be1 perhaps1 difficult to ascribe to any other motive than that of unparalleled vanity1 why a man should have dug near seventy tanks1 all nearly contiguous1 on a plain not many miles distant from the military station of ,burragong1 in the district of ,sircar ,sarung1 situate between the ,gunduc and the ,gogra4 ,the population did not require more than one tank2 especially as a stream of tolerably good water passes within a few hundred yards of the site of these offsprings of ostentation4 ,the inhabitants tell various stories as to the person who lavished his money in this empty manner2 and1 7which would1 no doubt1 vex the real prodigal to his very heart17 the modern narrators differ widely even as to the name and rank of the individual6 ,with respect to seraies1 we may1 at least1 praise the convenience they afford1 without bestowing much admiration on the charity of their founders4 ,some of these are very extensive1 covering1 perhaps1 six or eight acres4 ,they generally consist of a quadrangle1 built across the road1 which passes under two lofty arched gateways1 having battlements1 or turrets1 over them4 ,the gates open to an extent sufficient to allow any laden elephant1 however stupendous1 to pass freely4 ,they are made of strong wood1 well bound with iron1 and studded with iron spikes1 of which the points are on the outside2 for the purpose of preventing elephants from forcing them by pressure4 ,the surrounding walls of the quadrangle are generally about fourteen feet in height1 and from two to four in thickness1 according either to the antiquity of the building1 or to the parsimony of the builder4 ,they are lined all around with a shed1 built on pillars1 and divided by mats1 c41 into various apartments1 all sheltered from the sun and rain by means of doors1 c41 of bamboos1 mats1 grass1 c41 as the country may afford2 or1 eventually1 a part is built up with thin brick1 or with mud4 ,in the central parts of the seray there are generally some shops1 ranged on each side of the road1 and one building appropriated to the cutwal1 or superintendant of the place2 whose office is1 properly1 to regulate all matters1 and to see that travellers are duty accommodated2 that the bytearahs1 or cooks1 dress their victuals1 and that the chokey-dars take due charge of the goods consigned to their care4 ,all this1 however1 is done in a slovenly way2 the greatest impositions are often practised2 and the itinerant journies on from one scene of thievish combination to another4 ,although a seray may be built near to a river1 or to some sufficient stream1 yet there is invariably a well1 ordinarily lined with circular tiles1 or masonry1 in the area4 ,the water is drawn from such wells1 for the most part1 by means of a truck-pulley1 suspended between the limbs of a forked bough cut for the purpose1 and having a wooden pin through it as an axle4 ,each person draws his own water1 and for that purpose carries a line1 generally about twenty feet long4 ,few indeed travel1 even on foot1 without a lootah1 or brass water-vessel2 of which there are various sizes1 from a pint1 to half a gallon2 a tully1 or flat brass plate1 with a border about an inch high1 nearly perpendicular2 and a cuttorah1 or metal cup4 ,some even carry their daikhees1 or metal boilers2 though1 in general1 they purchase for a farthing1 or1 at the utmost1 for a halfpenny1 a new earthen pot1 capable of holding perhaps three quarts1 or a gallon1 with a lid of the same1 in which1 if they do not intend to employ the people of the seray1 they dress their own victuals2 leaving the crockery1 which no one else will use1 it being considered as polluted4 ,the water of wells in the seraies1 or in populous towns1 is certainly far fresher and better than is to be had1 in general1 from small rivers4 ,but much will depend on the soil1 the lining of the well1 its depth1 and1 indeed1 on its width4 ,a quick draught necessarily insures a plentiful flow1 and prevents corruption from any impurity that may casually fall in from above4 ,at a certain depth there is usually found a stratum of sand2 this is remarkably fine1 and1 in some places1 retains such a large portion of fluid as to become a perfect quicksand4 ,in many parts1 and especially in the ,ramghur district1 which1 on an average1 may be a thousand feet or more above the level country1 this sub-stratum presents a most serious difficulty in the sinking of wells4 ,of this ,i experienced two instances in my own practice1 which gave me much trouble4 ,having to sink a well in the corner of a garden1 and wishing to avoid the expence and delay attendant on masonry1 ,i cut a square shaft1 and went on admirably until ,i came to a tremulous body of sand4 ,never having met with a quicksand at such a depth1 then about twenty-four feet from the surface1 and on so elevated a table land1 there being no hills nearer than two miles1 and those being separated by deep vallies1 in which were running streams1 ,i was somewhat disconcerted4 ,i felt the whole of the difficulty1 but necessity urged me to proceed4 ,the well was to be lined with logs of about seven feet long1 and about eight inches diameter2 they were notched at each end1 so that two1 being placed parallel at five feet distance1 and two others being laid over their ends1 the four made a quadrangle1 which1 by means of the notches1 came nearly to a level1 and locked very firmly into each other4 ,having prepared abundance of these logs1 ,i commenced my operations1 by affixing a pulley over the well for the purpose of lowering them down to a laborer who stood on a board slung from four stakes at the brink of the shaft2 for he could not stand on the sand1 which1 when the surface was broken1 instantly became loose and liquid4 ,the four first logs were scarcely placed before their own weight began to sink them1 scarcely allowing time to put on four others before they disappeared4 ,i perceived my error1 and immediately had the other logs all wrapped round with straw-rope of about an inch in diameter2 whereby they became more buoyant1 and resisted the liquescence of the sand more powerfully1 by their encrease of diameter4 ,as a foundation1 ,i pinned the four first1 forming the primary layer1 strongly at their several corners2 so that they made a fixed frame4 ,the work now went on merrily1 but it was with the utmost difficulty ,i could supply the logs fast enough1 the sand removed by their admission rose so very rapidly4 ,being determined to overcome the difficulty1 ,i let down full twenty rounds of logs1 equal to about seventeen feet1 when ,i had the pleasure to see no more would sink3 the sand was excavated1 and ,i found1 that1 although in one or two places intervals of two or three inches had taken place1 yet1 on the whole1 ,i was able to boast of better success than ,i expected4 ,by degrees1 ,i got the logs settled in their places1 7a work of serious labor17 and always had water enough for every culinary purpose1 but not for a large garden1 which required ample irrigation daily during the hot season2 further1 a quantity was indispensably requisite for wetting the tatties1 or frames applied during that season to the doors and windows1 to keep my house cool4 ,my well appeared full of water up to the top of the quicksand1 but it was a perfect deception3 the sand filled up the shaft in the course of three or four days1 though emptied to the very bottom1 which was a hard red clay4 ,finding that more expence was incurred by the perpetual necessity for sending men down to empty out the sand1 ,i resolved to adopt the old custom of lining the well with masonry2 and having got all clear to the bed of clay1 into which ,i sunk a stout frame1 near a foot and a half deep1 ,i went on with spirit for a whole day1 in which near two yards of wall were built up3 but1 during the night1 the balers went to sleep1 and ,i found the whole immersed in the morning4 ,as the sand and water were emptied1 the draft was so great as to wash the lime from between the bricks1 and ,i was compelled to take all out again4 ,it then occurred to me to have bricks made in the form of the frustum of a pyramid1 so as to fit exactly in a circle of two feet and a half in diameter internally1 and of four feet externally4 ,these were laid on the frame1 which ,i now buried a full yard in the clay3 between the bricks ,i put abundance of dry lime1 rubbing them close together1 and1 with the clay1 all the interval between the masonry and the wooden frame was filled up4 ,two workmen were employed all night2 one in the well1 who ladled the water from the four corners into a bucket1 which the other raised to the surface3 none worthy of notice got within the circular masonry1 and ,i had the satisfaction1 in about a week1 to see the whole completed4 ,sufficient water found its way through the crevices1 to keep me supplied1 and the sand gave so little trouble1 that1 during a whole year that ,i occupied the premises1 no clearance was necessary4 ,this digression may appear irrelevant to the subject2 but ,i could not forbear giving the fact a place here1 as it possibly may prove an useful guide to others who may be under similar disadvantages4 ,it is curious1 that a very large well1 of about twelve feet diameter1 was commenced at the same time by a brother officer1 within a hundred yards of mine1 which went on admirably1 and was finished in a very short time4 ,he had no quicksand opposed to his labors2 on the contrary1 his great difficulty lay in cutting through two strata of rock1 from which only a few dribblets appeared while the well was lining with masonry2 but1 so soon as the rainy season set in1 those rocks prevented the descent of the moisture1 which1 being by them directed to the well1 rushed in such a violent manner against the masonry1 as to force out many stones3 creating a fissure which1 in a few weeks1 proved fatal to the whole of the work4 ,a handsome well1 with a rich spring issuing from a gravelly bottom1 was thus ruined1 and the station was again subjected to much inconvenience for what we often had in too liberal abundance4 ,the natives throughout ,india have a great respect for such persons as plant mango topes 7or woods74 ,these are1 in general1 managed with great care1 the trees being set at regular distances each way1 forming parallel vistas both lengthwise and breadthwise3 the width of which are equal each way1 and varying from twenty to forty feet4 ,when first planted1 they are well enclosed with a ditch and bank1 sufficient to prevent cattle from doing mischief to the young trees1 which are also watered at intervals during the dry season1 generally through the means of a well1 dug at the expence of the planter on one side of the tope4 ,if the proprietor be rich1 the well is usually large1 lined with masonry1 and furnished with cisterns of the same1 or of hewn stone1 so that cattle may be refreshed in numbers2 two pillars of masonry1 or of substantial wood1 are erected2 each supporting the end of a timber1 stretching across the well at about five feet above the brink4 ,on this timber1 a shieve of wood is fixed1 with one or more grooves for the reception of the cord used in drawing water4 ,the first-fruits of plantations are1 with few exceptions1 considered as appertaining to the tutelary deity of the planter1 and are tendered to him as offerings on the part of the tope4 ,the priests who officiate on these august occasions1 commonly find means to save the sacred character of their invisible patron from any suspicion of gluttony1 by taking upon themselves the troublesome office of proxy1 on this and every occasion wherein mastication is needful4 ,on many of the great roads1 such as that leading from ,benares to the upper stations1 we find very large wells1 conveniently situated near some shelter1 though1 perhaps1 distant from any town3 occasionally1 a hut or two may be erected in the vicinity1 for the residence of a bunneah1 7or kind of chandler17 or for a vender of spirits4 ,some of these wells are furnished with various sets of pillars and shieves1 very substantial in their construction2 so as to bear the weight of a leather bag1 formed by stitching the edges of a whole hide1 trimmed of its superfluous angles1 c41 to an iron hoop of about a foot and a half in diameter3 by means of two arched irons1 rivetted at their crossing in the middle by a swivel and loop1 the bag1 or moot1 is managed in the same way as a bucket in ,europe4 ,many of these moots are capable of containing1 at least1 half a hogshead4 ,they retain the water more steadily in ascending1 than any vessel whose sides are fixed and firm2 and1 as they are drawn into a cistern1 or over a bed made hollow for their reception1 above the brink of the well1 no great exertion is required in emptying them2 the waters discharging voluntarily when the moot is suffered1 by the slackening of the rope1 to touch the bottom of the bed1 or cistern4 ,it may reasonably be inferred1 that such a weight of water as may be contained in an ordinary ox or cow hide1 though of small growth1 must be more than manual strength could well manage2 especially as the pulley is extremely small1 rarely more than six or seven inches in diameter1 nearly as much in width1 and moving on a rude piece of wood for an axis2 of which1 probably1 nearly half has been lost by the excessive friction so unfinished1 and ill proportioned1 a piece of machinery must occasion4 ,not one in a thousand ever is lubricated1 but the hole in the shieve is generally adequate to the admission of an axis treble the size of that in use2 whence the pulley must jump from one inequality to another2 creating1 at every such transition1 a check of some consequence to that power whence it derives its motion4 ,to draw water by means of the moot1 two men and a pair oxen are requisite3 the size of the moot being proportioned to the bulk of the cattle1 which are yoked in the ordinary manner1 drawing by means of the rope fastened round the centre of the yoke1 and passing between them4 ,the strength of the oxen is aided very considerably1 by the path they follow being on a declivity2 so that1 in proceeding from the well1 as they draw up the moot1 they descend a talus1 or slope1 of which the angle may vary from fifteen to twenty-five degrees3 the driver frequently seats himself on the yoke1 to encrease the weight acting in opposition to the moot4 ,the quantity of earth derived from the shaft of the well1 rarely suffices to give the talus sufficient slope1 therefore1 one half the length of the bullock's track 7which is regulated by the length of the rope1 and may usually measure about twenty-five yards7 is sunk in the ground1 and the height near the well raised with the proceeds of the excavation4 ,this ensures a sufficient addition to the energies of the cattle in descending3 which they do with great effect1 when goaded by the driver4 ,arriving at the bottom of the slope1 or when the moot is raised above the surface of the well1 the cattle stop1 and the man in attendance at the brink draws the moot over the bed1 or cistern1 which is made to project over about one-third of the well4 ,some of the wells seen at the sides of the great roads1 measure fifteen or sixteen feet in diameter1 and have slopes cut out of the soil1 lined on each side with masonry1 that lead to an opening in the well's circumference1 near to the ordinary level of the water2 which1 in the dry season1 is generally within very narrow limits4 ,near the opening1 we sometimes see an iron ladle fastened by means of a chain4 ,this convenience is1 for the most part1 held sacred1 and he would1 in those parts1 be considered a consummate villain1 that would pilfer one from its place of security4 ,but1 from many obvious marks of violence1 we must suppose that there are men so depraved as to steal these chains and ladles1 when necessity may press them to take advantage of a fair opportunity4 ,we should naturally conclude1 that wells founded on such a principle1 in a climate where excessive heats prevail for three months1 at least1 would be invaluable4 ,but they really are little used2 their surfaces are1 in general1 covered with duck-weed1 and they rarely are deficient of an ample colony of frogs4 ,where huts are built near them1 their waters being rather less stagnant1 are1 of course1 more wholesome1 as well as more palatable3 the encampment of a regiment in their neighbourhood soon sweetens them4 ,some are rendered foul by their containing fish4 ,it would be difficult to account for fish being there1 unless they fall with the heavy showers attendant upon those violent squalls called north-westers1 during the hot season1 when multitudes of small fry have been occasionally found1 even on the tops of houses1 in various parts of the country4 ,some assert that many have been found alive3 ,i have seen some lying dead2 once1 in particular1 near ,allahabad1 after a very heavy shower of rain4 ,it does not appear possible1 that1 even if sucked up by a water-spout1 and immediately returned with the rain1 they could survive the rapidity of the ascent1 and the force with which they fall4 ,it is remarkable1 that only three kinds of fish are ever seen in wells2 viz4 the solee1 which1 in a great measure1 resembles our pike1 and is equally ravenous2 the gurrye1 or mud-fish1 very similar in form to our miller's thumb2 and the singnee1 or bayonet-fish1 so called from its having three terrible spines in its dorsal and lateral fins1 the wounds made by which are1 generally1 very severe4 ,this fish has a purplish skin1 without scales1 is thin like a substantial pork knife1 and has a broad flat head4 ,like the gurrye1 it is found only among mud and slime1 wherein it works very nimbly4 ,both species can live a long while in moist mud2 as is proved by their being found in recent puddles1 where water had formerly been dried up4 ,it is remarkable1 that both the gurrye and the singnee are very sweet eating1 and are never muddy2 the latter in particular4 ,if we except those small streams that come down from mountains containing ores1 which must1 of course1 impregnate the waters in those parts1 the catalogue of mineral springs1 as yet discovered in ,bengal1 and the subordinate stations under that presidency1 will be found very confined indeed4 ,possibly1 numbers may exist that are not generally known2 and this ,i am the more apt to believe1 from having myself discovered one within a few yards of the road on the west bank of the ,mahana1 a small river which rises among the hills near the ,catcumsandy-pass in the ,ramghur district4 ,the river being much swelled by heavy rains1 ,i was compelled to wait until it subsided sufficiently to admit of my being conveyed over on a raft made of pots4 ,the mineral water above mentioned would1 very probably1 have escaped my notice1 had ,i not been attracted by a nauseous smell1 and the black greasy appearance of the soil whence it issued4 ,the flavor was soapy1 but strongly sulphuric2 and a slight scum1 which appeared to rise with the spring1 was peculiarly acrid4 ,i do not believe it was ever analyzed1 but should conjecture it to have proceeded from a bed composed of sulphur and bitumen2 especially as coals are found within that district4 ,there is a very remarkable hot-spring at a place call ,seetah-,coon1 within three miles of the fort of ,monghyr4 ,this1 it appears1 has been known for ages1 it is about twelve or fourteen feet square1 and may be from seven to eight feet deep in the middle3 that1 however1 must be taken as a computation2 the sides being of masonry1 shelving in greatly1 and the bottom not remarkably clear of weeds1 c4 ,the water is very hot3 it was with great difficulty ,i could keep my finger immersed during the time ,i counted one hundred and five2 and that1 too1 rather hastily1 it being for a wager4 ,my finger1 far from being the better for my curiosity1 was slightly blistered4 ,i have seen an egg moderately poached at this spring1 and have heard that one was boiled in it2 but1 ,i apprehend1 not to any degree of firmness4 ,the most complete proof that a large portion of caloric is contained in this spring1 may be collected from the melancholy fact1 of an artillery soldier1 who1 in the year #aggg1 attempting to swim across1 was scalded in such a manner as to expire shortly after being taken out4 ,the natives1 who judge by appearances1 and1 probably1 are guided in this particular from the encreased quantity of vapour that appears during the winter to rise from the spring1 affirm1 that the water is then considerably hotter than at any other season4 ,the fallacy of such an opinion is easily detected1 and has1 indeed1 been proved3 several gentlemen have been at the trouble of keeping a register of its daily variations1 which were found to be extremely small4 ,i could not assert myself to be correct in stating its average degree of heat1 having mislaid my memoranda on that head2 but1 to the best of my memory1 the temperature lay between #adj and #afj of ,fahrenheit4 ,this well1 of which the waters are considered remarkably wholesome1 stands on the borders of a small plantation of 7,i believe mango7 trees2 near to three or four other wells1 of which the waters are cold1 and have not any distinguishing quality4 ,the redundant water from the hot well affords a stream1 whose section may be equal to thirty square inches2 it passes into a large marsh1 of at least twenty acres1 close to the plantation1 where it nourishes a great variety of aquatic plants1 that appear to grow with more than ordinary vigor4 ,the same negligence in regard to botany and natural history1 which appears to operate throughout ,india1 7if we except the labours of a few zealous individuals1 among whom1 ,captain ,t4 ,hardwicke1 of the ,bengal ,artillery2 ,dr4 ,roxburgh1 ,superintendant of the ,botanic ,garden at ,calcutta2 ,dr4 ,bruce1 formerly ,physician to the ,nabob of ,oude2 and ,dr4 ,william ,hunter1 of the ,bengal ,medical ,department2 are the most conspicuous17 seems to operate against enquiry into various important matters relating to the mineral waters2 which1 ,i doubt not1 would be found in abundance1 were either the cost of research so moderate as to permit active individuals to explore the vast regions whose very boundaries are1 as yet1 scarcely known2 or1 were the ,government of ,india to defray the expence of a few capable men1 whose time should be wholly devoted to an enquiry into whatever might appertain to botany1 mineralogy1 natural history1 and the various branches of knowledge on which chemistry and physic depend4 ,the disbursement could not be felt2 while1 not only would the world at large be benefitted1 but1 possibly1 some new articles of trade1 or for manufacture1 might be discovered2 whereby even the ,company itself would derive those solid advantages to which1 on most occasions1 they direct the attention of their servants4 ,such has been the negligence shewn in regard to the hot well at ,monghyr1 that1 although it stands within two miles of the ,ganges1 is not more than three miles from the ,fort of ,monghyr1 7a grand dept for stores1 garrisoned by upwards of two thousand invalids17 and is in the direct track from ,calcutta to the upper provinces2 nay1 although the waters of this well are sent for from all parts of the country1 and form1 frequently1 a part of the stock of persons1 especially ladies1 going to sea2 for which purpose it is bottled in very large quantities2 yet1 strange to tell1 its properties have never been duly analyzed4 ,i have been in company with various medical men1 who differed as to its basis2 some asserting it to be chalybeate1 others considering it as impregnated with soda1 while some1 ,i know not why1 declared it to possess no particular impregnation1 nor any active principle4 ,it must be evident1 that1 in a country whose soil is subject to be parched during so many months in the year1 heavy fogs and miasma must abound2 consequently1 during the four months following the cessation of the annual rains1 it frequently happens that the atmosphere is laden with mists and vapors until a very late hour in the day4 ,in great cities1 the bad effects of these are not so perceptible1 on account of the general fumigation which takes place during the evenings1 when the bulk of the inhabitants1 as if by general consent1 kindle fires for the purpose of cooking their victuals2 of which they rarely eat at an earlier hour than six or seven o'clock2 the cold remains of the repast being put by for the morning's meal4 ,this fortuitous circumstance tends to purify the air1 and obviates a large portion of those evils to which the villages1 which stand more exposed in the midst of the marshy tracts1 are imminently subject4 ,in such1 it is common to find a very large portion of the inhabitants annually laid up with intermittents of a very obstinate description1 but from which they are rescued by their moderation in regard to diet1 and by a few medicinal simples every where common1 and whose application is sufficiently understood4 ,great numbers are1 however1 swept off by the disease itself1 or by the obstructions it generally creates4 ,those obstructions are ever to be dreaded1 even though a perfect cure should apparently have taken place4 ,it is by no means uncommon to see persons1 especially ,europeans1 who have1 to appearance1 been cured of ,jungle1 or ,hill-fevers1 as they are locally designated1 and which correspond exactly with our ,marsh-fever1 laid up at either the full or change of the moon1 or1 possibly1 at both1 for years after4 ,many have affected to doubt the planetary influence on the human constitution1 but1 to me1 there appears every reason to accredit the opinion4 ,i have seen so many instances1 among my own most intimate friends1 as well as a thousand ordinary cases among soldiers1 camp-followers1 villagers1 c41 that my mind was fully made up on the subject long before ,i had the opportunity of perusing the treatise of ,dr4 ,francis ,balfour1 of the ,bengal ,medical ,establishment2 from which ,i offer to the consideration of my readers the following interesting extracts4 ,,of ,,the ,,paroxysms ,,of ,,fevers4 #8,in ,bengal1 there is no reason to doubt that the human frame is affected by the influence connected with the relative situations of the sun and moon4 ,in certain states of health and vigor1 this influence has not power to shew itself by any obvious effects2 and1 in such cases1 its existence is often not acknowledged4 ,but1 in certain states of debility and disease1 it is able to manifest itself by exciting febrile paroxysms2 and the propensity1 or aptitude1 of the constitution to be affected with febrile paroxysms in such cases1 may be denominated the paroxysmal disposition4' ,,of ,,perfect ,,types4 #8,febrile paroxysms universally discover a tendency to appear1 and to disappear1 in coincidence with those positions of the sun and moon that regulate the rising and falling of the tides4 ,the diurnal and nocturnal encrease of sol-lunar power acting on constitutions1 in which the propensity of the paroxysmal disposition is complete and perfect1 produces paroxysms every twelve hours1 in coincidence with the periods of the tides2 and constitute types which1 on account of this regular coincide1 ,i denominate perfect4' ,,of ,,imperfect ,,types4 #8,the diurnal and nocturnal encrease of sol-lunar power acting on constitutions in which the propensity to paroxysm is incomplete1 or imperfect1 has power only to produce paroxysms in coincidence with every second1 third1 or fourth1 period of the tides1 or others1 more remote2 constituting types1 which1 on account of this irregular coincidence1 ,i have called imperfect4' ,doctor ,balfour states1 in a note1 that1 #8,in several cases of the plague1 recorded by ,dr4 ,patrick ,russell1 the febrile paroxysms returned obviously every four hours1 in coincidence with the periods of the tides2 and his predecessor and relation1 the author of ',the ,natural ,history of ,aleppo1#8 asserts positively1 that the generality of the fevers there1 and1 indeed1 in almost all acute cases1 are subject to exacerbations once or twice in twenty-four hours4' ,in ,cordiner's ,description of ,ceylon1 ,i find the following passage3--#8,medical men have discovered this swelling' 7viz4 the elephantiasis7 #8to be an effect of fever1 which returns on the patients monthly4' 7,vol4 ,i4 page #ahb47 ,the natives1 generally in the first instance1 have recourse to the bit-noben or kala-neemuk1 7i4e4 black-salt17 a solution of which1 though certainly very disgusting1 on account of its taste1 strongly reminding us of the scent of gun washings1 or of rotten eggs1 proves an excellent cathartic1 and1 if duly persisted in1 rarely fails to rid the patient of an immense quantity of bile4 ,that being effected1 a strong decoction of cherrettah1 a root about the size of slender birch twigs1 but of a redder color1 and possessing some of the properties of ,peruvian bark1 is frequently taken4 ,but1 the best medicine in the catalogue of ,indian simples certainly is the lotah1 or kaut-kullaigee1 which is the kernel taken from the pod of a creeping kind of cow-itch4 ,this kernel is extremely bitter1 and possesses all the virtues of the bark2 but with this advantage1 that1 in lieu of binding1 it commonly proves very mildly aperient when taken to the amount of two or three nuts daily4 ,i have often given it1 with great success1 during the paroxysms of an ague2 having previously cleared the stomach and intestines by suitable means1 such as ipecacuanha and calomel4 ,that we are absolutely in a state of ignorance regarding the medical properties of various plants1 highly appreciated by the natives1 cannot be denied2 we must not1 however1 yield an implicit belief to the many marvellous stories related throughout ,hindostan1 of the extraordinary cures performed by their aid3 many disproofs of such fables are publicly extant1 and teach us to view the objects so highly extolled through the medium of a minifying glass2 thereby to reduce their virtues to the proper standard of estimation4 ,so fully was that learned1 and zealous president of the ,asiatic ,society1 ,sir ,william ,jones1 impressed with an opinion of our overlooking many of the most valuable of nature's vegetable productions1 that1 shortly after the formation of that excellent institution1 he expressed a wish1 an earnest one1 indeed1 for early framing a code of the botany of ,hindostan in particular2 and1 in a short address to the society1 urged1 that a #8,treatise on the ,plants of ,india' should be diligently and carefully drawn up4 ,in that address1 ,sir ,william says1 #8,some hundreds of plants which are yet imperfectly known to ,european botanists1 and1 with the virtues of which we are wholly unacquainted1 grow wild on the plains1 and in the forests1 of ,india4 ,the #8,amarcosh1' an excellent vocabulary of the ,sanscrit language1 contains1 in one chapter1 the names of about three hundred medicinal vegetables2 the #8,medini' may comprize as many more2 and the #8,dravyabidana1' or1 #8,dictionary of ,natural ,productions1' includes1 ,i believe1 a far greater number2 the properties of which are distinctly related in medical tracts of approved authority4' ,here ,i must beg leave to enter my protest against the too ready acceptance of what the books above quoted may tender to our medical repositories2 and that for the following reason2 namely1 although the natives may be sufficiently acquainted with certain properties of certain plants1 yet1 owing to a total ignorance of pathology1 phisiology1 nosology1 and especially of the circulation of the blood1 and of chemistry as applicable to analysis and synthesis1 it is utterly impossible they should be able to act except by rote1 and according to their ideas of specifics2 whereby the virtues of the medicines in question are supposed to be applicable to all the stages1 not only of the same1 but of various diseases1 totally opposite in their natures4 ,it surely cannot require to be pointed out1 how uncertain the results must be under such circumstances1 even when each simple is administered separately1 and with a patient attention to its operation3 but1 when we take into account the known fact1 that1 on most occasions where the native ,huckeems1 or ,hakeems1 prescribe1 they rely greatly upon compounds of herbs and minerals2 each having its virtues recorded in some popular distich1 to dispute which would be considered an open avowal of consummate ignorance2 ,i say1 under such circumstances1 we may fairly1 and1 in duty to ourselves should1 hesitate to receive information from so impure a source4 ,it is not my intention to depreciate the merits of many simples in use among the natives3 ,i argue against their competency to estimate them2 but1 at the same time1 entertain no doubt that their several books may lead us to the greatest advantages1 by giving hints1 which1 being properly1 but guardedly followed up1 should enrich our catalogue of valuable remedies4 ,this cannot be done in a few days1 nor even in a few years3 whenever it may be effected1 ,i doubt not that the memory of that president1 whose life was devoted to the service1 not only of his existing fellow-creatures1 but of posterity also1 will be duly venerated4 ,the ,botanic ,gardens established at the several ,presidencies1 under the care of medical gentlemen1 duly qualified1 offer the means of putting much assertion to the tests of chemistry1 and of time3 the former have not1 as yet1 been properly resorted to1 and the latter has not run its due course1 to enable the philosophical world to decide with precision4 ,in the first volume of the ,asiatic ,researches1 the late ,matthew ,leslie1 ,esq4 very sensibly observed1 that #8there are in our ,indian provinces many animals1 and many hundreds of medicinal plants1 which have either not been described at all1 or1 what is worse1 ill described1 by the naturalists of ,europe4' ,in this remark there is much truth2 but a certain portion of the very extensive meaning of ,mr4 ,leslie1 who was1 assuredly1 a man of considerable abilities1 and who had much opportunity for research1 will be received with caution1 from the consideration of his avowed partiality towards native physicians2 who1 as ,i have just stated1 are by no means competent to guide us through the mazes of botanical research4 ,the state of medicine throughout ,india1 7,i mean among the natives17 is not such as to induce the belief that we shall obtain any valuable information among the ,huckeems2 of whom1 full ninety-nine in the hundred are self-taught1 as well as self-sufficient4 ,what1 then1 is to be expected among persons thus practising a profession1 to which the old adage of #8ars longa1 vita brevis' so admirably applies1 when we see not even one didactic page to which they can resort2 no public institution where knowledge is either bestowed or received2 no liberal1 enlightened1 patron1 under whose auspices genius may be enabled to penetrate into the mines of science8 ,this being the fact1 shall we refrain from smiling at those of our countrymen who1 quitting the aid and guidance of their well-informed medical friends1 resort to such quacks1 whose reputation they thus unjustly raise among the gaping crowd1 and who have the art to propagate the most unbounded reliance on their nostrums8 ,that1 here and there1 a simple of peculiar efficacy may be in use among such persons1 ,i shall not deny2 but must appeal to our more enlightened medical societies1 whether1 in the hands of an ignorant man1 brought up in vanity1 and regardless of the minuti of physical causes and of physical effects1 even the most simple medicine can be safely entrusted8 ,the greatest part of the burlesque is1 that these highly renowned physicians1 to a man1 rely upon proper conjunctions of the planets1 lucky hours1 c41 not only for the culling1 but for the mixing1 and administration of their medicines1 without regard to those critical moments of which our silly disciples of ,hippocrates and ,galen are so very watchful6 ,we must1 however1 do the natives the justice to allow1 that the refrigerating principle lately adopted by some of our leading physicians1 owes its origin solely to the ancient practice of the ,brahmans1 or ,hindu priests2 of whom the generality affect to be deeply versed in pharmacy4 ,i believe1 that1 if taken in time1 few fevers would be found to degenerate into typhus1 and that very seldom any determination towards the liver from acute cases would occur1 were the refrigerating course to be adopted4 ,often have ,i known my servants1 when attacked with fever1 to drink cold water in abundance1 and to apply wet cloths to their heads1 with great success2 the former has generally lowered the pulse considerably1 by throwing out a strong perspiration1 while the latter has given immediate local relief4 ,were it not that cast 7i4e4 sect7 opposes a formidable barrier to the more extensive practice of ,european physicians among the natives in general1 the native doctors would speedily be consigned to their merited contempt3 but such are the prejudices arising from religious tenets1 among the ,hindus in particular1 that1 even when at the last extremity1 many would rather die than suffer any medicine prepared1 or perhaps of which the liquid part had been barely touched1 by one not of their own cast1 to enter their mouths6 ,where such infatuation prevails1 ignorance will maintain her empire1 until1 by the gradual abolition of vulgar errors1 the light of science1 and of reason1 may begin to glimmer among the people at large4 ,it will not suffice1 that a few skilful ,european professors should be seen1 and be admired1 by a grateful few3 that has already happened2 but the dread of religious anathema1 and of domestic excommunication1 are too forcibly opposed to such weak demonstrations4 ,unhappily1 we aimed at a reform1 in this particular1 at that very point to which it should have had only a remote tendency3 we peremptorily attacked the very existence of full a tenth of the whole population1 that is1 of the ,brahmans1 or ,hindu priests2 and we excited1 among the people at large1 suspicions such as have given scope to our enemies for inculcating1 that we are intent on subjecting their minds1 as well as their bodies4 ,from this dilemma1 ,i understand1 with pleasure1 we are gradually extricating ourselves2 by withdrawing those noxious publications1 which1 in a moment of unguarded zeal1 we had allowed our clergy to introduce to the notice of the people of ,hindostan4 ,with respect to the motive1 that is out of the question3 ,i am not considering the merits of one religion opposed to another1 but simply the fact1 as it relates to our political connection with the ,east1 and the diffusion of true philosophy over that vast region4 ,nor am ,i here censuring the measure in a religious sense2 though1 on reference to history1 and to my own experience of the dispositions of the ,hindus1 ,i feel surprized that fanaticism should have been allowed to meddle with a country over which we1 in truth1 have not an efficient control1 and among a race whose tenets are by no means obnoxious to humanity2 among whom apostacy is a mortal sin1 who disclaim all interference with the doctrines of other sects1 and who have most amply proved their title1 at least to toleration1 if not to protection4 ,i have said1 that we began at the wrong end2 and this surely will appear to be the case when the matter is properly understood4 ,in lieu of attacking that which carries with it no offence against ourselves1 and instead of endeavoring to force upon them our creed1 we should have studied to render the natives acquainted with whatever could tend to their worldly comfort1 and to the removal of errors often pregnant with destruction4 ,let us suppose1 for instance1 that1 in various parts of the country1 the ,company were to establish schools1 where youths of every description might be instructed in the mathematics1 botany1 chemistry1 surgery1 pharmacy1 agriculture1 mechanics1 c42 and that valuable premiums should1 at certain periods1 be presented to such as might merit the distinction4 ,the obvious consequence would be1 that1 in due time1 an infinity of absurdities would vanish1 and that1 in proportion as science should expand among them1 the superior circles would begin to estimate our value as an enlightened people4 ,they would then look up to us as their superiors2 in lieu of rating us1 as they now do1 very low indeed on the scale of degradation4 ,such a system would not only give an effectual shake to the basis of priest-craft1 but cause all the literary stores1 and the natural productions of the soil1 to be laid open to our examination3 then1 indeed1 our medical men might enjoy a high reputation in every quarter of the ,east1 and the world might be benefitted1 both by the correction of many errors1 and by the acquisition of most important novelties in medicine1 and in the various arts on which commerce is dependant4 ,then should we have no occasion to goad the ,hindus towards ,christianity3 they would thirst for knowledge1 and pant to be rid of those fetters imposed upon their minds by their artful clergy4 ,i have heard it said #8the natives have no disposition for the sciences4' ,this is imposing a cruel sentence on a hundred millions of people6 ,allow it to be true2 and look back to the state of ,britain while under the control1 in a certain measure1 of the ,druids2 who are now well ascertained to have been the same1 in their days1 as the ,brahmans of ,bengal1 c41 are at this time4 ,who can fail to admire the change8 ,who could suppose it possible that such a change could have been effected among a people1 who1 if we are to give credit to ,csar1 and to other authorities1 were completely barbarous1 and #8who shewed no disposition for the sciences8' ,in opposition to so absurd1 and so malicious an assertion1 let me state a few facts4 ,when ,mr4 ,reuben ,burrow was in ,india1 as head of the mathematical department1 he was solicited by several of the natives to instruct them in astronomy1 algebra1 c4 ,unhappily1 although possessing pre-eminent talents1 ,mr4 ,burrow was not exactly calculated to conciliate the good will1 nor to excite the admiration1 of persons who did not1 like himself1 blaze at the spark of science3 in fact1 he partook greatly of the character of the celebrated ,doctor ,samuel ,johnson1 and might be termed #8a mathematical ,hottentot6' ,this important deficiency of suavity caused the natives to quit2 indeed1 it tended to disgust those of his countrymen who1 being compelled by their avocations to attend his lectures1 were subjected to his caprices and gross manners4 ,however1 one native1 of mediocre opulence1 was not to be scared by what appeared a trifle1 when compared with the acquirements he hoped to possess3 he bent to the storm1 and1 by unremitting application1 speedily rendered himself competent to converse with ,mr4 ,burrow on his usual topic4 ,in time1 the student became a favorite1 and was allowed to attend his preceptor when the latter was deputed on a survey of considerable extent1 and to measure a degree of latitude in the western districts4 ,such was the progress made by this native under the auspices of ,mr4 ,burrow1 that1 in a few years1 he qualified himself to instruct others in the ordinary courses of the higher mathematics4 ,what became of him ,i know not2 but apprehend that many others must have derived some little benefit from his learning3 unless1 indeed1 his priests found a pretext for upholding him as unworthy of imitation1 and threatened to place all who might consider him to be thus #8civilized1' or improved1 under the bar of ecclesiastical censure4 ,when ,i say #8civilized1' it is in deference to a ,british divine1 who has been pleased to represent the people of ,bengal in such terms as might lead persons who never visited ,india to set them down for a cruel1 barbarous1 ignorant1 vindictive1 senseless1 and sanguinary race2 whose civilization is #8devoutly to be wished4' ,how far they merit such a character1 may be understood from their forbearing to massacre all the ,europeans in ,india2 a work that might be effected by only one in thousands of their population striking the deadly blow6 ,setting whatever relates to religion apart1 and viewing our intercourse with ,india as a matter merely of meum and tuum1 it is self-evident1 that to whatever extent we may instruct the natives to analyze the produce of their soil1 and to present it to us in a marketable shape1 so much must ,britain be benefitted by the extension of her commerce1 and by the possession of a territory whose value would be thereby proportionally raised4 ,this is said with the view to encourage the researches of our medical men2 who1 from their general knowledge of chemistry1 and perhaps of botany1 are certainly best qualified to pursue them with national effect4 ,under the present very limitted establishment of physicians and surgeons1 as well as from the prter nihil benefits derived from the ,botanical ,garden1 when seen in this point of view1 we are not authorized to be very sanguine in our hopes that any important advantages will result in that direction4 ,while the ,company can barely afford a surgeon and two assistants to a regiment of #bjjj men1 it is not to be supposed they could form such establishments of the above description1 as might give us a thorough command over the mineral and vegetable productions of their territory1 or tend to create a spirit of enquiry among the natives4 ,the want of printed books is1 in every country1 a great evil2 but1 in ,india1 is a drawback of great moment4 ,there1 all books1 all proclamations1 7except such as we print at ,calcutta1 c417 all newspapers1 c41 c41 are manuscripts4 ,it is not to be imagined how few volumes are to be seen even of this kind4 ,we should suppose that1 where provisions1 lodging1 cloathing1 fuel1 c41 are so remarkably cheap1 learning would become general3 the reverse is1 however1 the case2 not one in five hundred can read1 or write1 even indifferently4 ,there are abundance of little day-schools to which children may be sent at a very trifling expence2 but there they learn very little4 ,generally1 a bed of sand serves for paper1 and a finger1 or a piece of stick1 for pen and ink2 consequently1 no traces of any instruction remain for the future consideration of the pupil4 ,the more affluent1 and the more zealous1 ordinarily provide their children with a board1 about a foot long1 and nine or ten inches wide1 which1 being painted black1 and varnished1 becomes an admirable tablet1 whereon the young folks are enabled to write their lessons with a reed pen2 the ink being generally chalk and water4 ,to these1 though certainly more perfect than the former mode1 the same objection exists2 namely1 that they want stability1 and that the lesson is no sooner repeated by rote1 and written much in the same manner1 than it is forgotten1 at least it never again obtrudes on the eye2 since1 in order to make way for further instruction1 it is necessarily expunged4 ,the koits1 or scribes1 and the llhs1 or accountants1 7though the latter often confine their occupations to merely reading or transcribing17 are nearly the same among the lower classes1 especially where the ,naugry character is in question1 that the moonshies are among the superior orders1 who1 almost invariably1 use the ,persian language and character1 in all public1 as well as in private1 matters4 ,so far1 indeed1 is this carried1 that ,persian is held to be both the language of the ,court1 and of the ,law4 ,as those who study the ,persian are aided by moonshies1 so are such persons as would acquire the ,naugry character necessitated to employ koits1 or llhs1 for that purpose4 ,the wages of these may be from two to five rupees per month2 but1 in some families1 the servants contribute to the extent of a few annas1 or1 eventually1 as far as a rupee1 in the aggregate2 in consideration of which douceur1 the llh commonly writes letters for them to their friends1 and explains the answers1 c4 ,such servants as have the charge of money to be disbursed on master's account1 commonly take care to be on good terms with this cullum-burdar 7i4e4 quill-driver72 who1 as has been said of compadores1 generally taxes all items he knows to be overcharged1 by a small deduction in his own favor4 ,persons of this class often keep little schools1 such as have been described1 and then are designated gooroos2 a term implying that kind of respect we entertain for pastors in general4 ,if we contemplate the extreme inattention prevalent throughout ,hindostan1 respecting literary attainments1 and the great cunning practised by the priesthood1 in their sedulous endeavors to prevent the natives from receiving the least information regarding philosophy in general1 it must appear surprizing that so much has been done by the artizans of ,bengal towards the adaptation of their labors to the convenience of the ,british residents4 ,our admiration of these people cannot but be heightened1 from the circumstance of particular trades being confined to particular casts1 or sects2 for though we may1 possibly1 at first view1 consider that to be an advantage1 inasmuch as it should seem to perpetuate knowledge in an hereditary line1 those who have resided in the ,east fully know that no such heir-loom ability is to be found3 on the other hand1 we immediately recognize the bar raised against genius2 which1 when to be found within the cast1 may struggle for ever under some base1 forbidding1 and loathsome degradation2 or1 if it should start in another sect1 cannot adopt its native intention1 but must resign in favor of some other pursuit1 perhaps requiring no genius2 or1 eventually1 one of a very different bent4 ,once a carpenter1 always a carpenter2 once a swine-herd1 always a swine-herd6 ,the evil effects attendant upon the useful arts in general1 from such a system1 are certainly great1 but by no means to be compared with the degradations1 and consequent imbecility1 inseparable from the total suppression of every thing tending to excite emulation4 ,when we see an hereditary priesthood1 and that1 too1 by no means remarkable for the paucity of its members1 we cannot but picture to ourselves the arrogance thus privileged in the whole of that tribe1 and the humiliation which marks the actions1 as well as the sentiments1 of all who do not stand within the hallowed pale4 ,such a contrast can exist only while one party can deceive1 and while the other deems accusation to be nothing less than blasphemy2 therefore we cannot be mistaken regarding the only means of correction3 to wit1 a knowledge of the world1 and of its inhabitants2 or what we1 in other terms1 call learning4 ,pour but a little of this into the minds of a certain number2 satisfy them that morality in ,europe1 and morality in ,asia1 are the same thing2 that #8whether we do our duties in a black skin1 or in a white one1' matters not2 that men were born to aid each other1 and not to be made the slaves of party1 sect1 or color2 and1 that he who knows most regarding the works of the ,creator1 is most likely to have a proper sense of his bounty4 ,convince the natives of ,india1 or of any other nation1 that such is the truth1 and that you practise1 while you teach1 the doctrines of ,christianity1 and nothing will1 in the end1 be able to stand against so formidable an attack4 ,but if we proceed1 as has been too rashly done1 to attempt a schism among them by mere declamation1 or by means of creeds and parables in which they have no belief1 7merely because they know no better17 our object will be either mistaken1 or designedly misrepresented2 and we shall experience in ,asia all those penalties that formerly awaited the avowal of ,lutheranism in ,europe6 ,in brief2 convince the natives that their priests are fools and knaves1 and that poverty1 disgrace1 and even disease1 are the consequences of a mistaken bigotry1 and the whole country will prostrate itself at your feet6 ,waving every other objection1 and resting solely on the very inadequate means of instruction afforded by parents to their children1 through the medium of koits1 llhs1 and gooroos1 it seems probable that1 unless some effectual reform may take place1 the natives of ,india are likely to remain in darkness1 ad infinitum4 ,this is the more to be regretted1 when we consider how willing they are to follow such means as may be offered them1 provided those means may not oppose established principles1 nor be contrary to their ideas of sanctity and benevolence4 ,nor can we but repine at such infatuations among a race whose intellectual qualities1 whatever may be said by ignorant or designing men1 are at least on a par with those of ,europeans4 ,that they are perverted1 will not be denied2 but1 that they are naturally imperfect1 needs little proof indeed6 ,set some dozens1 or scores1 of our youths to bellow in unison1 7with all the ennui attendant upon monotonous rote17 any particular passages from the ,scripture1 day after day1 and year after year2 and1 after some seasons1 search among them for ,newtons1 ,lockes1 ,blackstones1 and ,solons6 ,the result need not be told6 ,in recommending to those of my readers who may be intent upon acquiring a knowledge of the language1 7by which ,i mean not only the ,bengallee1 and the ,hindui1 both of which may be considered vernacular1 but the ,persian also17 to purchase such translations as may be extant of the works of ,indian authors1 ,i am far from being partial to their contents1 and disclaim the idea of affording any thing more than exercise in translation when ,i do so2 for there appears to me a great disposition to trifle1 or to the hyperbole1 in all ,i have ever seen4 ,by means of such translations1 the originals may be more readily understood1 whereby the study may be rendered both brief and pleasing2 provided proper attention be paid to all material points1 and that1 in reading the translation1 the student does not indulge in the erroneous opinion that he is making himself master of the original4 ,almost every book written in the ,east is the production of some court sycophant3 a few have resulted from the labors of men who1 being disposed to meditation1 have committed their reveries to paper2 and1 a very small portion have displayed such scintillations of ability1 as leave us to regret they were either not better educated1 so as to enlighten their countrymen1 or that they were not born in those parts of the world where their talents might have been fostered1 and duly appreciated4 ,with regard to ethics1 numbers have amused themselves1 to all appearance1 more from ostentation than from #8being virtuous over-much4' ,the facility with which scraps from the ,koran1 7i4e4 the ,bible of the ,mahomedans17 may be set forth in glowing terms1 in a language rich in expression1 has1 no doubt1 induced many a very tolerable lay-man to annoy his neighbours1 by the repetition of page after page of the most tiresome tautologies1 whereon his fame has been built3 of this description abundance exist1 all alike unworthy of review4 ,i have always thought the poets of ,india to be particularly happy in those little tales which convey a moral1 though a very worldly one1 under some alluring allegory4 ,from this1 however1 ,i exempt the celebrated ,,heetopades1 translated by ,mr4 ,wilkins4 ,this1 by general consent1 is allowed to be the store from whence ,pilpay's ,fables have been taken2 but the original can never appear in competition with their offspring2 for1 while the latter are interesting1 and afford a very rich treat1 by their apt application to the affairs of life1 the former are heavy1 dull1 tedious1 and of a most motley character2 the subject is generally forced1 and spun out into all the varieties garrulity could invent6 ,the ,asiatic student may find1 in the several works of ,gilchrist1 ,baillie1 ,f4 ,gladwin1 ,sir4 ,w4 ,jones1 ,sir ,william ,ousely1 ,richardson1 and ,wilkins1 abundance of instruction in the several languages most current in ,hindostan2 the ,asiatic ,researches will give him a considerable insight into a number of interesting and important matters relating to the natural history of the ,east1 the manners1 and the climate under consideration2 while1 by means of ,colebrooke's ,digest of the ,hindu ,laws1 and ,rousseau's ,dictionary of ,mahomedan ,law1 he may become very generally acquainted with that important branch of knowledge4 ,with respect to the politics of the country1 they have been so much canvassed1 that various treatises on that topic are to be had3 unfortunately1 all are either devoted to partial considerations1 or written to serve a party6 ,in almost every country1 whereof the inhabitants are either considered by their neighbours1 or deem themselves to be1 civilized1 the records of the state1 the several libraries1 whether scholastic1 traditionary1 scientific1 or amusing only1 are open to the inspection of persons of all nations2 and1 above all1 the sacred institutions are subject to visitation1 and even to research4 ,in ,india1 no such recreation or benefit is ever afforded to the inquisitive traveller1 who may remain1 for years1 within a stone's-throw of what1 to him1 would appear an invaluable treasure1 without his being able to obtain the smallest indulgence in aid of his pursuits4 ,whatever may be the complaints against our continental neighbours on the score of persecution1 we must give them credit for the most ample toleration of the million of visitors who intrude on their several cabinets1 libraries1 c42 some1 from the most laudable motives1 others1 actuated by the mere desire of seeing all that is to be seen1 without1 in the least1 regarding those points by which the philosophic eye is naturally attracted4 ,though so heavy a charge lies against the ,hindus1 on account of their strict rejection of our countrymen1 in general1 when application has been made for information on particular points1 it must be allowed1 that they doubtless have1 in a few instances1 been more explicit1 and furnished information on particular topics1 which1 to us1 has proved extremely interesting4 ,in truth1 we have no exclusive right of complaint2 for all nations1 and all sects1 except their own1 have been equally subject to denial2 or1 when indulged1 have been compelled to perform some ceremonies obnoxious to their faith1 or to their persons4 ,whether this be absolutely necessary1 or has been devised solely with the intention of deterring the curious1 may not be difficult to determine2 thus much we know1 that1 in order to obtain admission to a knowledge of certain forms1 or to the perusal of certain records1 various operations1 amounting nearly to apostacy1 though no recantation be made1 must be performed4 ,there is room to doubt whether any true accounts of the antiquity of the ,seek ,college at ,benares1 and of the migrations of the ,hindus from the countries bordering on ,palestine1 actually exists3 many persons1 of considerable talents1 and of great erudition1 are disposed to treat the whole of what has been delivered to us1 with so much solemnity1 by the ,pundits1 or learned ,brahmans1 as a deception1 intended to ridicule our curiosity1 and to repress1 or at least to divert1 it from the true course4 ,circumstances may be adduced in support of this hypothesis2 and we cannot but regard the manner in which the ,pundits arrogate to themselves the whole knowledge of their history1 which is carefully concealed from a large portion even of the ,brahmans1 as a circumstantial proof of our having been designedly led astray1 both by a fictitious record1 and by a well concerted fable1 invented for the occasion3 this may be aptly compared to the whale and the tub4 ,fortunately1 no material point appears to rest on the antiquity1 or otherwise1 of the ,hindu mythology1 or the records of the ,seeks1 regarding the origin of that people2 though it would perhaps be found1 that their true exposition might tend to afford many proofs in favor of the mission of our ,saviour4 ,when the immense extent of territory we hold in ,india is considered1 and1 that perhaps no country in the world offers greater facilities1 not only for literary correspondence1 but for the researches of naturalists1 the conveyance of gross articles1 and the manufacture of raw materials1 which every where abound1 we cannot but lament the want of such institutions as might enable us to turn such important advantages to the immediate benefit of ,great ,britain1 on the most unbounded scale4 ,we are absolutely ignorant of a million of facts now included1 either directly1 or by affinity1 in our endless catalogue of desiderata1 which need not remain in that disgraceful list1 provided due means were taken to correct our errors1 and to extend our resources4 ,during the dry season1 or at least for four months in the year1 scarce a part of the country opposes the progress of a traveller2 unless through those immense wildernesses already described4 ,it may1 on the whole1 be said1 that one half the country is passable at all seasons by land2 though the progress will doubtless be slow1 and difficult1 during the heavy falls of rain4 ,intercourse is never at a stand4 ,the dawk1 or post1 proceeds at all seasons2 and is rarely more than two days longer on its way from ,calcutta to the upper provinces1 than at the favorable time of the year4 ,bridges and ferries are found on all the great roads2 whereby regiments have occasionally marched on emergency with such despatch1 as could scarcely have been exceeded even during the hot season4 ,the communication with ,europe1 overland1 has been established1 during peaceable times1 for full twenty years2 but it was not until about twelve years ago1 that the public have been permitted to avail themselves of so essential a means of correspondence at fixed rates1 and under particular regulations4 ,prior to that period1 the ,company used to receive1 and to despatch1 packets overland1 in which occasional indulgences were granted to favored individuals4 ,i abstract this from the very old custom of sending intelligence1 on sudden occasions1 by the despatch of some confidential person to or from ,india4 ,the utility of some permanent and certain conveyance for letters from a quarter daily becoming more opulent1 and more important1 cannot be doubted2 were it only for the purpose of transmitting bills of exchange payable after sight1 the notices of bankruptcies1 the information of intended consignments1 the state of the markets1 c41 such a systematic communication must be invaluable to the several merchants4 ,to the ,government it is of the highest importance6 ,many complain of the heavy rates of postage overland1 and others of the severe restrictions2 but such complaints are ill founded3 the expence of the posts is very heavy1 and it is indispensably necessary for ,government to hold a severe check over whatever intercourse might lead to mischief4 ,the tables of postage1 and of bangy carriage1 contained in the ,directory1 will enable the reader to judge how far the charges are from being exorbitant3 he will not fail to recollect1 that the sums paid in ,britain are very trifling1 owing to the immense intercourse subsisting between the several parts of the kingdom1 far beyond what exists in any part of ,india4 ,bath is the same distance from ,london that the cantonments of ,berhampore are from ,calcutta1 viz4 #ajf miles3 the former pays #h;d4 postage1 the latter #d annas1 which is about the same sum3 the other charges are considerably cheaper2 viz4 ,allahabad1 which is full five hundred miles from ,calcutta1 pays only #g annas 7about #ac;d472 but this is on the great road1 while the other is scarcely to be considered a thoroughfare1 compared with what it was before the new road was cut through the ,ramghur district to ,chunar4 ,with the exception of such parts as may be infested by tigers1 the post seldom or never fails of arriving within an hour of its appointed time2 except1 as has been observed1 when the waters are out2 in which case1 many circuitous roads must be followed1 whereby the way is considerably lengthened in the aggregate4 ,taking the average1 a hundred miles per day may be run over by the dawk1 or post1 in fair weather4 ,each mail-bag is conveyed by an hirkarah1 7or runner17 who is attended by one or two doog-doogy-wallahs1 or drummers1 who keep up a kind of #8long-roll1' as they pass any suspicious place4 ,ordinarily1 two mosaulchees1 or link-bearers1 accompany each dawk2 and1 where tigers are known to commit depredations1 one or two teerin-dauzes1 or archers1 are supplied1 under the intention of protecting the party4 ,but such puny aid is of no avail2 for the onset of the tiger is too sudden1 and too discomfiting1 to allow any effort of consequence to be timously adopted3 the very act of seizure is a death-blow1 from which ,i never heard of any recovery2 provided the unhappy victim were not so particularly situated as to prevent it from decidedly taking effect4 ,here it may be needful to explain1 that a tiger invariably strikes his prey with the fore paw1 in so forcible a manner as often to fracture the skull2 which1 generally1 is the object aimed at3 many oxen have had their cheek bones shivered by the contusion4 ,it sometimes happens1 that the marks of one or two claws are to be seen1 but they are generally en passant1 and by no means the result of primary intention4 ,the wrist of a tiger being often nearly two feet in circumference1 may give some idea of the violence with which the coup de grace falls on the head of a human being6 ,the mosauls1 or flambeaux1 are intended to intimidate the tigers1 as are also the doog-doogies1 but experience has shewn that1 when hungry1 tigers are not to be restrained by any such device3 indeed1 instances have occurred of the mosaulchees themselves being carried off4 ,it would1 nevertheless1 be presumptuous to judge from such partial data1 that many tigers are not deterred by the noise and fire accompanying the letter-carriers2 on the contrary1 there should rather seem a probability1 that many young tigers1 or such grown ones as may not be hungry1 nor be attended by cubs1 are frequently intimidated from those attacks they would make but for these precautions4 ,a residence of two years at ,hazary-,bang1 the station for a battalion in the ,ramghur district1 enabled me to form a fair estimate of the dangers to which the dawk1 and travellers in general1 were subject4 ,during some seasons1 the roads were scarcely to be considered passable2 day after day1 for nearly a fortnight in succession1 some of the dawk people were carried off1 either at ,goomeah1 ,kannachitty1 ,katcumsandy1 or ,dungaie2 four passes in that country1 all famous for the exploits of these enemies to the human race6 ,so few valuables are ever sent by the post1 that thieves never attempt any depredations on the letter-bags4 ,hoondis 7i4e4 banker's drafts7 would be of no use whatever to them2 and as bank notes are not in general currency1 no object is held out for enterprize of that description4 ,nor do the dawk-bangies1 or parcel-dawks1 offer any substantial inducement2 for1 even if any plate1 or watches1 or trinkets1 were to be sent by such a conveyance1 the want of a market1 and the impossibility of confiding in any village jeweller1 would render the act both hazardous and unavailing4 ,hence1 the dawk generally proceeds in perfect safety1 throughout every part of the country2 while the bangies maybe considered equally secure2 except1 indeed1 in some parts of the dominions of the ,nabob ,vizier of ,oude1 where a lawless uncontrolled banditti subject every passenger to contribution3 this evil is fortunately on the decline1 in consequence of our having assumed the reins of government4 ,it has frequently been asked why1 in a country so completely under our control1 we did not establish mails1 similar to those in use throughout ,england4 ,before this can be effected1 an immense revolution must take place1 not only in the minds of the natives1 but in the features of the country4 ,at present1 there appears no desire on the part of the inhabitants to communicate by land1 farther than may be necessary for the purpose of attending hauts1 7markets17 maylahs1 7fairs17 or for the resort to certain places of worship1 c4 ,for such purposes1 a pedestrian trip suffices2 or1 at the utmost1 a poney1 worth only a few shillings1 is either borrowed or hired4 ,the contact of various casts1 or sects1 being considered a pollution1 it is not to be supposed that a ,hindu would like to be pent up1 for hours together1 with a ,mahomedan1 who makes no scruple of killing and eating a cow3 or that the ,mussulman would1 in his turn1 feel comfortable under similar circumstances1 with a ,british kaufur1 7unbeliever17 who1 besides his condemnation of the prophet1 makes no scruple of devouring ham and bacon wholesale6 ,admitting that all parties should be agreed to associate within the body of a stage-coach1 still there would not exist intercourse sufficient to support the expences1 in a quarter where horses are so dear1 and where the necessary repairs could not1 in case of accident1 be promptly effected4 ,then1 again1 the roads must be suitably made1 at an enormous expence1 and be afterwards supported by heavy disbursements1 or by a contribution of labor on the part of the land-holders1 by no means agreeable to their feelings4 ,all this may1 in time1 pass under a complete metamorphosis3 the produce of the country will be more generally estimable2 the people will relax greatly from the vigorous attention now paid to religious tenets2 and1 as their prejudices may give way to their true interests1 will extend their speculations without fear or restriction4 ,those who may then inhabit ,india1 will see roads1 mails1 and inns2 whereas1 at present1 there are only pathways and runners1 but no inns4 ,there are1 to be sure1 seraies and choultries1 for the accommodation of travellers1 but these are mostly going fast to decay2 and1 at the best1 can be viewed only as shelter for men and cattle2 goods being usually left exposed to the weather4 ,the bytearens1 or female cooks1 who ply1 in more than one capacity1 at such places1 and who1 on receiving money before-hand1 buy and cook such victuals as may be ordered1 or the place may afford1 cannot be considered otherwise than as menials1 and not to be classed with our inn-keepers2 no1 nor even with the poorest village retailer1 #8,lysunst to del in ,t1 ,koffy1 and ,tibaky6' ,there is1 however1 a wide field for practical improvement2 as may be fully understood from the following statement4 ,the dawk rarely travels at a less expence than twenty-five rupees per month1 for each stage of eight miles 7four cosses7 on the average4 ,this sum is absorbed by a moonshy at each chokey1 or relief at the end of a stage1 who pretends to be very scrupulous in regard to ascertaining that all the parcels are right1 but who1 as ,i have repeatedly witnessed1 is more intent on receiving little presents of ottah1 7meal17 spices1 c41 sent to him from the neighbouring villages1 in return for letters conveyed by the dawk-hirkarahs1 who are sometimes laden pretty heavily with such contributions4 ,i speak from what ,i have been an eye-witness to repeatedly2 as to hear-say1 much more might be asserted4 ,it appears to me that the above sum would carry on the system with double the speed1 and double the efficiency4 ,in lieu of sending off four1 five1 and six1 men with the dawks1 let a horseman convey the bags for about twelve miles1 on an allowance of fifteen rupees per month for man and horse2 and1 during the rainy season1 when the roads are deep1 let a fresh horse be allowed for the several returns1 instead of causing the same man and horse to return with the counter-dawks4 ,on the above allowance a very good steed might be kept1 the celerity of the dawk would be greatly encreased1 and there would be no occasion for moonshies1 except at such chokies as might be upon diverging roads1 where it would be necessary to have the proper parcels sorted out1 and delivered to the various branch-dawks4 ,travelling in a palanquin by dawk1 7i4e4 post17 is effected much in the same manner as the despatch of the dawks4 ,bearers are stationed at the several stages1 for the purpose of relief2 each station1 in general1 supplying eight bearers1 and a bangy1 in all nine men1 together with one or two mosaulchies for night stages4 ,the expence of travelling in this manner will depend greatly on the distance3 if only a short journey is to be made1 such as may be compassed within eight or ten hours1 nothing more is needful than to send on a set1 or two1 of bearers1 who then receive their daily hire of four annas 7#h;d47 each1 while out from home2 or1 if there should exist the means of so doing1 a hirkarah1 7or messenger17 may be despatched to collect bearers at the several stages4 ,in this manner1 the relays may be properly supplied1 and the cost will not amount to more than a rupee for three miles2 equal to ten-pence a mile2 whereas1 in the ordinary mode of having bearers laid by the post-master1 each mile will cost full one rupee1 7i4e4 #bs4 #f;d417 besides various little disbursements by way of buxees1 or presents1 to every set of bearers in the journey3 these may be fairly estimated at two rupees for every set1 or relief1 which1 if the distances run by each should average ten miles1 will be about twenty rupees 7#b4 #ajs47 for every hundred miles4 ,the ordinary rate of this kind of conveyance may be rated at four miles per hour during the cold season1 three and a half during the hot season1 and from two to three during the rains1 provided the waters are not much out3 otherwise1 no estimate can be formed4 ,the above includes stops4 ,the establishment of dawk-bangies for the conveyance of parcels1 at rates in proportion to their weights respectively1 has produced considerable convenience to those who reside at a distance from the ,presidency4 ,until this plan was adopted1 few could send small articles1 such as trinkets1 c41 to the ,presidency1 but under favor of some individual who might perchance be travelling thither1 and who might possibly be some months on the way3 the same inconvenience attended the return2 so that it was not uncommon for a gentleman whose watch required inspection1 to be four or five months deprived of its use4 ,this is now done away1 and a watch1 c4 may be sent from ,cawnpore to ,calcutta1 there undergo repair1 and be returned with ease1 in the course of a month1 or less4 ,the same kind of convenience is1 of course1 afforded regarding books1 and all other articles too bulky1 or too heavy1 to proceed by the dawk1 but not of sufficient importance to induce the employment of a boat1 or of a bangy1 to convey them3 nor1 indeed1 could a single bearer travel with a bangy more than twenty miles within the twenty-four hours2 so that he would be full a month in going from ,calcutta to ,cawnpore2 whereas1 the dawk-bangies travel by relays of bearers1 therefore can almost keep up with the dawk-hirkarahs1 who carry the mail-bags suspended at the end of a stick over their shoulders4 ,the communication by water between ,calcutta and the several subordinate stations1 whether civil or military1 is much resorted to2 during the rainy season in particular4 ,at that time1 few are inaccessible to craft of some description1 though but for a while3 those immense falls of rain which cause the ravines to fill1 and every little creek to become navigable for boats of ten or fifteen tons1 swell the ,ganges1 and the other great rivers1 to an astonishing height2 causing them to run with awful velocity4 ,the rivers generally rise in ,may1 but a few inches only1 in ,june1 they often approach the summits of their banks1 between which they fluctuate1 rising and falling until the great swell1 which takes place in ,august4 ,sometimes the river rises twice1 sometimes thrice1 or1 even four times1 during the season2 but1 in general1 one ample inundation serves all the purposes of agriculture1 provided the rains do not afterwards abate too suddenly in ,september1 before the rice is cut4 ,when such an untimely cessation takes place1 it is attended with great mortality3 the immense expanse of slime1 suddenly exposed to the influence of the sun1 then on the equinoctial1 throws forth the most destructive miasma1 whereby epidemics1 of the most dangerous description1 are propagated4 ,the swelling of the great rivers is a matter of great uncertainty2 sometimes they rise very early1 before the quantity of rain that falls in the lower provinces could lead to the expectation of their doing so3 when this is the case1 it is not uncommon to see the ,cossimbazar river1 commonly called the ,baugrutty1 nearly dry at night1 and full twenty feet1 or more1 deep the next morning4 ,in other seasons the waters are very tardy2 a matter of serious moment to the husbandman1 who is naturally anxious to plant his crop of rice in due time1 so that it may be securely attached to the soil before the great inundation comes on4 ,the growth of the rice stalk is certainly one of the most curious proofs of nature's adaptation of that plant to the situation in which it is cultivated2 namely1 in the water3 it will not thrive unless the stem be immersed for several inches2 and1 owing to the formation of its stalk1 which draws out like the concentric tubes of a pocket telescope1 it can put forth many feet in the course of a few hours1 so as1 apparently1 to grow as fast as the water may rise1 and to keep its pannicle from being overflowed4 ,it is by no means rare for the rice stalks to shoot forth from five to six feet during the twenty-four hours3 ,i have seen it do much more6 ,in parts subject to the regular annual inundation1 all the villages are built on rising grounds3 many stand on artificial mounds1 formed by excavations around their bases1 so that they are surrounded nearly by moats1 in which their dingies1 or small boats1 are immersed during the dry season1 and affording admirable refreshment to their buffaloes during the summer heats4 ,but it sometimes happens1 that the waters rise to so great a height as to endanger even these elevated villages2 some of which are then completely inundated4 ,to avoid this1 most of the houses are built upon piles1 or stakes1 thereby to raise their floors from four to six feet above the ground1 and open enough to permit the waters to pass through with freedom4 ,in the dry time of the year1 the cattle are occasionally kept within the areas thus enclosed under the floors2 but1 while the inundation is at its height1 so as to insulate a village completely1 all the live stock are kept in boats moored around it1 where they are fed by a species of the doob1 or doop-grass1 dragged up from the bottom of the waters by means of split bamboos1 made to serve as forks3 but for so providential a supply1 the cattle must be led scores of miles to some part of the country1 whose elevation exempts it from inundation4 ,the mention of a country being so completely under water1 cannot but cause considerable surprize4 ,the fact is1 however1 too well known to be disputed4 ,even at ,berhampore1 which is not considered within the ordinary verge of inundation1 it is common to see boats of great burthen1 perhaps fifty tons1 sailing over the plains1 as through a boundless sea4 ,as to the country lying between the mouth of the ,jellinghy and the debouchures of the ,ganges1 that is always overflowed for full three months1 perhaps to the average depth of ten or twelve feet4 ,i have sailed over it full a hundred miles by the compass2 aided1 indeed1 by some remarkable villages1 mosques1 banks1 c41 well known to the boatmen1 who1 probably from their earliest days1 had traversed the same expanse during every rainy season4 ,were it not for the water being strongly colored1 and the strength of the current1 it would not be easy in many places to distinguish the great rivers which are crossed in steering through this fresh-water ocean3 the water of the inundation is generally of a bluish tinge1 derived from the quantity of vegetable matter at the bottom1 of which a certain quantity decays1 and partially taints the fluid4 ,a large portion is concealed by the d'haun1 7or rice17 which rises above its surface4 ,this1 in the first instance1 bears the appearance of a long grass1 of a rich green1 rising above the surface1 so as to be mistaken at a little distance for terra firma3 gradually1 the pannicles shoot forth1 of a pale-dun color1 turning1 as they ripen1 to a deep dun1 or light clay4 ,the grains of rice1 which are called by ,europeans #8paddy1' retain the name of d'haun so long as in their coats2 as we often see a few grains among the rice imported to us3 these coats are peculiarly harsh to the feel1 and are fluted longitudinally1 so that no water can lodge upon them4 ,each grain is fastened to a short stalk1 joining to a main stem1 and furnishing a very pleasing bunch of grain1 not very dissimilar to an ear of oats1 but far richer1 both in color1 and in quantity4 ,rice has no husk or chaff2 therefore is easily separated from the straw1 which is eaten by cattle when no other provender can be had1 and makes excellent litter1 it being very long and soft4 ,where the inundation prevails1 the straw is of little use3 the grain being cut in boats1 and the straw settling at the bottom as the waters subside2 thereby adding to the natural fertility of the soil4 ,in the more elevated parts1 the straw is cut the same as in the rubbee1 or corn crops1 and bundled for domestic purposes3 there1 its length rarely exceeds two feet1 whereas1 among the inundations1 it is often seen from fifteen to eighteen feet in length4 ,the head1 or pannicle1 generally bears from a hundred and fifty1 to three hundred1 grains of rice4 ,two modes of clearing rice from the shell are in use2 the one performed by the very simple process of scalding1 which occasions the rice to swell1 and to burst the shell1 so that the latter is removed with very little trouble2 the other is1 by putting the d'haun into an immense wooden mortar1 called an ookly1 and beating it by the application of two or more beetles1 called moosuls1 of about four feet in length1 by three inches in diameter1 shod at the bottom with iron ferules1 and thinned towards their centres1 so as to be grasped by the women2 each alternately impelling one1 in nearly a perpendicular direction1 among the d'haun in the ookly4 ,after the shells have been duly separated1 the rice1 now called choul1 is separated1 by winnowing either in a strong draught of air1 or by means of a kind of scoop1 made of fine wicker-work1 called a soop1 wherewith the native women can most dexterously separate different kinds of corn1 and effectually remove all rubbish4 ,the coat of rice is peculiarly harsh1 and not much relished by cattle3 ,i have seen it mixed with dung for fuel with excellent effect4 ,the natives1 in general1 make little distinction between the rice separated by scalding1 which is called oosnah1 and that dressed by the ookly1 which is called urwah2 but some of the more fastidious prefer one or the other1 according to particular prejudices handed down in their families1 or supposed to appertain to their respective sects4 ,i think the scalded rice generally deficient in flavor2 the grains are larger1 and less compact2 the beaten rice certainly boils with rather more difficulty1 but appears whiter1 and drier4 ,the scalded rice does not immediately separate from the coat1 but is usually submitted to the operation of a machine composed of a stout beam1 nearly equipoised by means of a thorough-pin1 on a fork1 of wood also1 fixed in the ground4 ,it is inconceivable what quantities of rice1 of a coarse reddish cast1 but peculiarly sweet1 and large grained1 are prepared1 about ,backergunge1 near the debouchure of the ,megna1 for exportation4 ,in that quarter fuel is cheap1 and water conveyance every where at hand2 so that the immense crops raised in the inundated districts find a ready sale4 ,the average return from a bigah of #afjj square yards1 of three bigahs to our statute acre1 sown with about twenty-five seers of d'haun1 may be taken at nine maunds4 ,the price of the grain1 when cleared of its coat1 may be from thirty to forty seers of fine rice1 and from sixty even to a hundred and twenty seers 7i4e4 three maunds7 of coarse1 commonly called #8cargo-rice4' ,but the demand always regulates the value2 especially when great consignments are forwarded to the coast of ,coromandel4 ,large quantities of rice are usually cleared by contract1 the operator receiving the grain at the door of the golah1 or warehouse1 where he sets up his cauldron and machines1 and returning twenty-five seers of clean rice for every maund 7forty seers7 delivered to him2 he finding the fuel1 and reserving the husks4 ,in a country where labor is so very cheap1 it is not so very necessary to have recourse to mechanical devices for the purpose of diminishing the expence of such operations2 yet it occurs to me1 that1 were tide wheels to be used at ,backergunge and elsewhere1 or a floating mill1 like that moored between ,blackfriars' and ,london ,bridge1 to be made out of some condemned hulk1 an immense advantage would be gained in regard to time4 ,by the proper adaptation of machinery1 whereby the rice might be hoisted in1 or lowered down1 either by the force of water1 or of steam1 and the beetles be properly worked1 the grain might certainly be prepared for market in less time1 and infinitely less charge for cooly hire1 in landing1 loading1 c43 should this hint be well received by any speculating ,european1 it might tend to lower the prices of rice at those times1 when1 either from want of laborers1 or from the expediency of shipping off with as little delay as possible1 the saving of a few days might prove an object of importance4 ,at all events1 the work might be done more regularly1 more frugally1 and more independently1 than by manual process4 ,the rice grown in the low countries by no means equals that produced in the uplands1 where it is cultivated with great care1 and subjected to many vicissitudes in regard to the state of moisture in which its roots are retained4 ,in many parts of the most hilly districts d'haun is to be seen in every little narrow valley1 winding among the bases of those stupendous eminences from which the torrents of rain supply a superabundant flow of moisture at one time1 while1 at others1 only the little rills proceeding from boggy springs seem to feed the artificial pools in which the growing plants are kept in a state of semi-immersion1 by means of small embankments made of mud4 ,in every instance the d'haun is to be kept duly watered2 else it withers1 and becomes unproductive4 ,in order to preserve the water as much as possible1 the bed1 or level1 nearest to the springs1 is raised as high as can be afforded1 and its exterior border banked up1 to about a foot and a half1 with soil3 the next level may be from a foot to a yard lower1 and receives the overflow2 which is again passed on to the next lower bed2 and thus1 in succession1 for perhaps a mile or more2 the ends of the beds requiring no embankment1 on account of the land rising on either side4 ,such situations afford a certain crop in ordinary seasons2 and1 if the rains should fail1 the dews falling on the adjacent hills1 generally covered with jungle of some kind1 ordinarily afford moisture enough to keep up the springs1 thus causing sufficient dampness to prevent the rice from perishing1 before some ample showers may again float the whole of the irrigated cultivation4 ,rice thus produced is commonly small in grain1 rather long and wiry1 but remarkably white1 and admirably suited to the table4 ,the natives1 though they admire its appearance1 are not partial to it2 they generally preferring the larger-bodied grain1 with a reddish inner rind1 which does not readily separate1 when new1 from the rice3 this kind1 as ,i have before expressed1 is assuredly the sweetest1 and is1 on that account1 preferred by those who distil arrack4 ,remoteness from the sea air is said to be the reason why the up-country rice possesses less saccharine matter than that grown near the sea-coast1 and among the inundation2 but this appears an erroneous judgment4 ,there is1 no doubt1 a great encrease of saccharine matter in plants 7of the same genus7 cultivated on spots well manured3 now1 few1 if any1 of the places devoted to the cultivation of rice in the upper country1 receive much aid from manure2 nor are they1 in general1 subject to the reception of nutritious particles1 such as are either floated down1 or are engendered and deposited by1 the inundation1 which may be viewed as the grand dept of whatever can enrich the soil4 ,when we look to the large tracts of plain1 not subject to such an immense flow of feculous moisture1 but seeming merely as reservoirs for the retention of local rains1 we shall then see1 that the superior sweetness of the rice produced about ,backergunge1 ,dacca1 ,hajygunge1 ,luricool1 ,mahomedpore1 ,comercolly1 ,jessore1 c41 is to be attributed solely to the superior fatness of the soil1 on which the most luxuriant crops of cotton1 and of esculents1 are raised during the dry season4 ,when the soil is fresh turned up for the second crop1 it is generally very offensive1 and1 doubtless1 by no means favorable to the health of the cultivators1 who1 at that season1 7commonly in ,november1 ,december1 and ,january17 are subjected to very obstinate agues4 ,rice is very subject to the weevil1 which often multiplies among it so fast1 as to threaten destruction to the whole dept4 ,the natives have recourse to a very simple preventive2 viz4 by placing one or two live cray-fish within the heap3 their effluvia quickly expel the predatory tribe4 ,here we have a question for naturalists and philosophers2 a question pregnant with interest to the agricultural world1 namely1 #8,whether there is any particular1 and what1 property in a live cray-fish1 that produces this effect upon insects under such circumstances8' ,whatever may be the cause1 the effect is well known2 therefore the enquiry is so far forwarded as to furnish data1 or at least hints1 respecting those results which might be expected both from marine productions1 and from other living bodies4 ,the inhabitants of the lower provinces are chiefly ,hindus2 therefore1 owing to religious tenets1 by which they are led to consider almost every animal as unclean1 few experiments could be expected to take place among them2 otherwise1 we might probably have found that any living animal1 such as a rat1 a frog1 c41 if confined in a small box1 and placed within a heap of rice infested by weevils1 would produce a similar effect4 ,rice is by no means subject to this species of depredation when in the coat1 that is1 in the state called d'haun1 but the natives are averse to retaining it in that form1 because the grains shrink considerably1 and1 when beat out for sale1 do not occupy so much space as when exposed to the air4 ,hence1 it is an object with the rice-merchants to dispose of their crops before the month of ,march1 unless the markets may be so glutted as to cause that grain to sell1 as it has in some years done1 at such low prices as could not fail to ruin the farmer4 ,it has been known so cheap as seven and eight maunds 7equal to seven cwt47 for a rupee6 ,when this happens1 such merchants as have the command of money rarely fail to make immense fortunes4 ,many have been known to possess four or five lacs of maunds6 ,rice is the most common article of food among the natives1 whether ,hindus or ,mussulmans1 throughout the lower provinces1 where it is to be found in far greater abundance than corn of any description4 ,the inhabitants of the upper provinces1 where wheat and barley are cultivated to such an extent as to be sold in the retail for about a rupee and a quarter1 and a rupee1 respectively1 subsist chiefly on the meals of those grains2 which1 being well kneaded with water1 are made into chow-patties1 or bannocks1 are baked at the common choolahs1 and are both palatable and nourishing4 ,the natives hold an opinion that rice is very injurious to the sight2 but1 ,i believe1 whatever injury may arise from its use proceeds entirely from eating it too hot1 and in such quantities at one meal1 generally about sun-set1 as can scarcely fail to injure the stomach4 ,barley-meal is considered1 and with great justice1 to be very nourishing1 but heating2 therefore most of those who prefer ottah 7meal7 to rice1 use that made from wheat4 ,large quantities of rice are carried upwards1 towards the ,nabob ,vizier's dominions1 where it sells to great advantage2 while1 on the other hand1 immense consignments of corn1 chiefly wheat1 barley1 and r'hur1 are made from those parts towards the lower districts2 where they are consumed by all classes of persons4 ,while the ,baugrutty1 7i4e4 the ,cossimbazar river17 and the ,jellinghy1 both of which branch from the ,ganges1 and1 uniting at ,nuddeah1 form the ,hoogly1 which passes ,calcutta1 are open1 boats of all kinds proceed that way2 but chiefly through the former channel1 on which ,moorshadabad1 ,berhampore1 ,cossimbazar1 and ,jungypore1 are situate4 ,this is the shortest line of communication by water between the ,presidency and the upper provinces2 but1 unfortunately1 it is open only for about six months in the year2 it rarely having water before the middle of ,june1 and being commonly reduced to a very low ebb by the middle of ,december2 though1 in some years1 it remains navigable for small boats for a month or six weeks longer4 ,it may1 indeed1 be passed in such all the year through1 provided they be dragged over the shallows1 which1 often for a mile or more1 oppose the progress of whatever may draw more than a few inches of water3 in such case1 the bottom of a boat should be good1 otherwise she may be strained by the immense exertions of perhaps fifty men1 who1 ranging along either side1 and dragging by means of ropes1 as well as by pushing and lifting behind1 force her along the shallows1 and thus pass her over all the more prominent obstacles4 ,i have1 more than once1 had a very small pulwar-budjrow navigated1 if ,i may so call it1 down the ,baugrutty1 from ,mohanahpore1 at the mouth of that river1 as far as ,berhampore2 which1 by land1 is full forty miles1 and1 by water1 cannot be less than seventy4 ,but there are so many bars1 or shoals1 between ,berhampore and ,augah-,deep1 about thirty-five miles by land1 lower down1 as to render that part absolutely impassable1 except when the river has an average depth of two feet1 or two feet and a half4 ,during the dry months1 the whole of the commodities transmitted from the upper provinces to the ,presidency1 with the exception of some few articles of small compass1 which may be landed at ,bagwangolah1 and proceed to ,augah-,deep overland1 are sent down the ,ganges for the purpose of proceeding through the ,soonderbunds4 ,this highly interesting1 but difficult navigation1 reaches from the ,megna to ,calcutta1 near to which a canal offers to adventurers a safe and easy communication between the ,hoogly and the ,salt-,water ,lake1 which lies at the back of ,calcutta4 ,the generality of trading and passage vessels proceed by this cut1 paying a moderate toll1 either on the tonnage of the former1 or the number of oars of the latter4 ,but the salt vessels despatched from ,joynaghur1 c41 with the produce of the different pans in that quarter1 commonly take the lower passages near ,chingree-,cauly1 and ,culpee1 which are by far the most dangerous1 though rather more direct4 ,the ,soonderbunds1 or ,sunderbunds1 consist of an immense wilderness1 full fifty miles in depth1 and in length about a hundred and eighty miles4 ,this wilderness1 which borders the coast to the water's edge1 forming a strong natural barrier in that quarter1 occupies the whole of what is called the ,delta of the ,ganges2 every where intersected by great rivers1 and innumerable creeks1 in which the tides are so intermixed1 that a pilot is absolutely necessary1 both to thread the intricacies of the passage1 and to point out at what particular parts the currents will1 at certain times1 be favorable in proceeding either to the eastward or to the westward4 ,in many places there is scarcely breadth for the passing of a single boat1 and even then the boughs of the immense trees1 and of the subordinate jungle1 frequently are found so to hang over1 as nearly to debar the progress of ordinary trading vessels4 ,fortunately1 these narrow creeks are short1 or1 at least1 have in various parts such little bays as enable boats to pass3 one or two are1 however1 so limitted throughout in point of width1 as to render it expedient that musquets should be discharged before a boat proceeds1 in order that others may not enter at the opposite end of the narrow3 but for such a precaution1 one of them would be compelled to put back4 ,the water being brackish1 or rather absolutely salt1 throughout the ,sunderbunds1 it is necessary for all who navigate this passage1 to take a good stock2 calculating for at least a fortnight's service4 ,even the villages1 which here and there are to be found on the banks of the great rivers1 are sometimes supplied from a great distance2 especially during the dry season1 when the tides are very powerful4 ,the regular trading vessels1 which pass through the ,sunderbunds1 perhaps every month1 or two1 are usually provided with very large nauds1 or gounlahs1 made in the form of a rather flat turnep1 of a black earth which bakes very hard4 ,casks are never used in ,india for water2 all the ships in the country trade have one or more tanks made of teak wood1 rendered perfectly water tight1 and containing from twenty to fifty butts4 ,the water is thus carried in a small compass1 and remains sweet much longer than when in casks4 ,even if no other reason could be assigned1 it must be obvious1 that1 in a tank1 the surface of wood necessary to contain fifty butts of water1 will not exceed six hundred and fifty square feet2 whereas1 each of the fifty butts would present a surface of more than forty feet1 whence the whole must amount to two thousand square feet4 ,where a ship is navigated by lascars1 many rules and ceremonies are adopted for the preservation of the water from impure contact4 ,when native troops are on board1 only particular persons are allowed to lay it in1 or to serve it out1 and even under such precaution1 many of the more fastidious shew great aversion to using the tank water2 often undergoing great sufferings1 both from hunger and from thirst1 rather than drink of it1 or even taste of viands prepared therewith4 ,but this prejudice has1 of late years1 subsided considerably1 in consequence of the frequent occasions the ,british government have had to send native troops on distant expeditions by sea4 ,casks would certainly prove obnoxious to servants1 and others1 proceeding through the ,soonderbunds1 owing to a general opinion among them1 that we convey spirits1 meat1 c41 in such vessels2 which1 having been once used for such a purpose1 could never be viewed by them as receptacles for beverage1 without disgust and execration4 ,the town of ,calcutta is supplied with firewood by persons who resort to the woods1 about twenty-five miles from ,calcutta1 where they cut the smaller kinds of serress1 jarrool1 soondry1 g'hob1 c41 into junks about four feet in length1 which are rived into two or four pieces1 according to their diameter1 and carried to market1 where such billets are usually retailed at from twelve to fourteen rupees per hundred maunds1 delivered at the door4 ,this is the only kind of fuel used in the kitchens of ,europeans1 and forms the supply of nine-tenths of the native population also3 the remainder use the gutties made of dung4 ,it is to be lamented that ,government have never adopted a plan ,i long ago offered1 of employing the convicts in clearing away a sufficient tract around ,diamond ,harbour1 which is now peculiarly unhealthy1 and is the grave of full one-fourth of the crews of the ,india ,company's1 and other ships1 that generally are moored there for months4 ,i am aware that objections have been stated in regard to clearing away the forests in the ,soonderbunds1 on account of their being considered a natural defence in that quarter2 but1 without entering upon the policy1 or otherwise1 of such a retention of that #8wilderness of all wildernesses1' there does not appear to me any sound reason for suffering the principal naval station to be backed and flanked by woods and swamps1 from which disease is poured forth amidst our unfortunate countrymen4 ,i have been assured1 that1 taking one year with another1 full three hundred ,european sailors die of diseases incident to the laying up of ships for a while in the river1 of whom1 the larger portion are taken ill at1 or below1 ,diamond ,harbour4 ,those who have occasion to pass through the ,sunderbunds1 which can be done by water only1 ought to be extremely careful not to venture ashore1 unless at some of the little towns1 whose vicinity may afford some security against the attacks of tigers1 by the jungle having been partially cleared away4 ,the romantic scenery1 every where inviting the eye1 should not be permitted to allure the traveller from his state of safety2 nor should the abundance of game1 especially of deer1 lead him among those coverts in which danger equally abounds4 ,nor are the waters less devoid of mischief3 sharks1 of an uncommon size1 are every where numerous and greedy2 while their competitors1 the alligators1 not only infest the streams1 but often lie among the grass and low jungle1 waiting for a prey1 with which1 so soon as seized1 they plunge into the water4 ,instances have been know1 both of tigers swimming off to board boats1 and of alligators striking the dandies 7boatmen7 out of the boats1 with their tails1 and snapping their victims up with a nimbleness fully proving the falsehood of that doctrine1 which teaches to escape from the crocodile by running out of the right line1 #8because the animal cannot turn to follow6' ,if those who either gave1 or believed in1 such advice1 were to see with what facility an alligator can turn about1 or with what agility he can pursue1 and catch1 the large fishes that abound in the great rivers of ,india1 the folly would be so self evident1 as to cause an immediate dereliction of so preposterous an opinion4 ,besides1 the koomeer1 or bull-headed alligator1 which1 generally speaking1 is the only kind to be seen in brackish waters1 is peculiarly fierce and active2 far more so than could be supposed1 at first sight1 of an amphibious animal of the lacerta tribe1 7for it is nothing more than an immense lizard1 or guana17 whose length has been thirty feet1 and whose girth has equalled twelve feet4 ,such is the ravenous disposition of the koomeer1 that it will not hesitate to seize cattle that proceed to drink of the river water where it is fresh2 but this does not often happen2 the places where cattle proceed to slake their thirst1 being1 for the most part1 rather shallow1 so that an alligator1 sufficiently formidable for such an attack1 could not lie concealed4 ,it has fallen within my way to see some oxen that had been seized by the head1 or by the fore leg1 but which had either been rescued by their drovers1 or had succeeded in escaping from their merciless enemy3 they were all so lacerated as to be completely disfigured6 ,the size of a boat may make much difference regarding the time required to make the ,soonderbund-passage3 generally from ten to twelve days will elapse in making the shortest cut in a budjrow of from twelve to sixteen oars2 while a light pulwar1 that can pass through the lesser creeks1 and make way against the tides1 which are extremely intricate1 on account of the numerous channels that wind in every direction1 may perhaps get through in seven or eight days4 ,much will depend on the route3 if ,dacca1 or any part of the ,megna1 be the destination1 full ten days will be requisite1 but if the ,comercolly track1 which opens into the ,ganges nearly opposite to ,nattore1 be followed1 the great body of the wilderness will be avoided1 and the fertile districts of ,jessore1 ,mahomedpore1 and ,comercolly1 will be passed through with facility and gratification4 ,it does not appear that any accurate survey has been taken of the ,soonderbunds1 further than to ascertain the several channels1 and to lay down the bearings of particular shoals1 which run for many miles off the coast1 presenting1 on the whole1 a most intricate and dangerous approach to vessels even of small burthen2 though1 with proper care1 ships of great size may be carried into the ,rogmungul1 the ,hooringattah1 and the ,mutwallah rivers1 where they may ride in perfect safety4 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,lacarn1 many years back1 explored the passage at the back of ,saugur ,island1 and presented to the ,government in ,india very accurate draughts of the soundings and bearings2 from which he enabled the ,board to judge of the practicability of resorting to that passage1 with more safety and convenience than now exists1 in respect to those channels that lie to the westward of ,saugur4 ,the spot selected for the reception of vessels was called ,new ,harbour1 and the stream leading to it from ,culpee was designated ,channel ,creek4 ,it is to be presumed1 that1 notwithstanding the plan has not been carried into effect1 although occasionally resorted to1 the merits of the suggestion must have been considerable1 as the ,company have thought it but just to remunerate that gentleman's abilities and research1 by an annuity of #fjj41 which has been lately raised to #ajjj4 ,several objections have been urged against the adoption of ,new ,harbour1 of which some may be cogent2 but1 from all ,i have ever heard on the subject1 it appears to me1 that the reasons given for rejection exist at least as formidably in the western channels1 where some of the advantages offered by ,new ,harbour are totally wanting4 ,the time will probably arrive1 when ,saugur ,island1 instead of being a desolate waste1 inhabited by various wild animals1 may present a rich expanse of agriculture1 destined for the support of an industrious population1 inhabiting those shores so favorably situated for extensive commerce1 and so highly protected by nature against foreign incursion4 ,the channels leading past it1 on either side1 are narrow1 and certainly might be defended by a very small force against a powerful fleet4 ,many opinions1 and some bold assertions1 have been offered regarding the ,soonderbunds4 ,some consider the immense wilderness that borders the coast1 to be of no great antiquity1 and pretend1 that probably one hundred years would be too much to allow for the duration of that soil1 whereon such stupendous forests of noble trees are now to be seen4 ,that the whole of the country south of the ,ganges1 from ,bogwangolah to ,saugur1 and in the other direction to ,luckypore1 c41 was formerly covered by the ocean1 may be readily believed1 both from the nature of the soil in general1 and from the various marine productions to be found occasionally1 when wells are dug to any considerable depth4 ,the ancient city of ,,gour1 of which only an immense assemblage of ruins1 covering full thirty square miles1 are to be seen1 stood not very far from ,mauldah4 ,that able geographer1 ,major ,rennell1 states it to have been the capital of ,bengal #gcj years before ,christ1 and that it was deserted in consequence of a pestilence2 that it formerly stood on the banks of the ,ganges1 from which it is now distant nearly five miles2 the river having1 as is very common in that quarter1 changed its course3 the ,mahanuddy1 which passes within two miles of it1 is navigable throughout the year4 ,many parts of ,,gour are now full twelve miles from the ,ganges4 ,the following extract from ,major ,rennell's ,memoirs1 pages #ee-f1 may serve to illustrate the position ,i have to assume regarding the ,soonderbunds3 he says1 #8,taking the extent of the ruins of ,,gour at the most reasonable calculation1 it is not less than fifteen miles in length1 7extending along the old bank of the ,ganges17 and from two to three in breadth4 ,several villages stand on part of its site3 the remainder is either covered with thick forests1 the habitations of tigers1 and other beasts of prey1 or is become arable land1 whose soil is chiefly composed of brick-dust4 #8,the principal ruins are a mosque1 lined with black marble1 elaborately wrought1 and two gates of the citadel1 which are strikingly grand and lofty4 ,these fabrics1 and some few others1 appear to owe their duration to the nature of their materials1 which are less marketable1 and more difficult to separate1 than those of the ordinary brick buildings2 and are transported to ,moorshadabad1 ,mauldah1 and other places1 for the purpose of building4 ,these bricks are of the most solid texture of any ,i ever saw2 and have preserved the sharpness of their edges1 and the smoothness of their surfaces1 through a series of ages4 #8,the situation of ,gour was highly convenient for the capital of ,bengal and ,bahar1 as united under one government2 being nearly centrical with respect to the populous parts of those provinces1 and near the junction of the principal rivers that compose that extraordinary inland navigation for which those provinces are formed2 and1 moreover1 secured by the ,ganges1 and other rivers1 on the only quarter from which ,bengal has any cause for apprehension4' ,here ,i feel at a loss2 for the author has evidently been deficient in that perspicuity which characterizes his work2 it does not appear to me what quarter is meant in this instance2 the greater part of ,bengal being divided from ,,gour by that same river1 the ,ganges1 which is here described as a protection to ,,gour against incursions from ,bahar4 ,if this be not the ,major's meaning1 ,i can find no other2 at all events1 the passage is incongruous4 ,setting1 however1 that matter at rest1 as being irrelevant on this occasion1 ,i shall proceed to observe1 that throughout the ,delta of the ,ganges1 which forms an area of full twenty thousand square miles1 7it being nearly a right-angled triangle1 whose sides average about two hundred miles17 we have not one vestige of remote date6 ,it has1 no doubt1 been asserted by some travellers1 and ,i have heard several of the natives declare1 that1 in some parts of the ,soonderbunds1 ruins of great extent are to be seen4 ,these are said to be the remains of cities which formerly flourished on the borders of the ocean1 but were abandoned in consequence of the depredations of the ,burmans1 or ,muggs1 who inhabited the country lying south of ,chittagong1 and who have1 within the last fifteen years1 called to our memory that such a nation was still in existence4 ,admitting the existence of such reputed ruins1 we have no right to place them to the account of the earlier ages2 we have no records of their existence2 the whole of the details that have hitherto been offered to the world1 either by native traditionists1 or ,european surveyors1 give no account of any such fragments2 while1 on the other hand1 every presumption is in favor of the whole ,delta being comparatively modern4 ,major ,rennell1 at page #cdg of his ,memoirs1 observes in a note1 that #8a glass of water taken out of the ,ganges1 when at its height1 yields about one part in four of mud4 ,no wonder then that the subsiding waters should quickly form a stratum of earth2 or that the ,delta should encroach upon the sea4' ,if we estimate the course of the ,ganges1 7setting apart the ,barampooter17 at fifteen hundred miles1 and take its mean width at half a mile2 which is1 indeed1 reducing that magnificent flow of water to a mere stream1 we have then a surface of seven hundred and fifty square miles1 of which1 one fourth is said to be mud1 or matter light enough to be kept suspended by the violence of the current4 ,this should give nearly two hundred square miles of soil4 ,the foregoing computation proves the ,delta to contain twenty thousand square miles2 therefore1 if ,major ,rennell's hypothesis be correct1 the whole of the ,delta might have been formed in one hundred years2 taking the depth of the river1 when at its highest1 to be equal to the depth of the soil4 ,but1 if we recollect that probably many fathoms of sea were filled up by the encroachment that thus took place1 we may be correct in allowing ten times that period1 i4e4 a thousand years1 for the completion1 or1 rather1 for the gradual accumulation1 of so extensive an addition to the terra firma of ,asia4 ,at page #cdh1 ,major ,rennell argues very strongly1 though unintentionally1 perhaps1 in support of my hypothesis1 that ,,gour formerly stood on the borders of the ocean1 and was1 probably the ,tyre of ,hindostan4 ,he says1 #8,as a strong presumptive proof of the wandering of the ,ganges1 from the one side of the ,delta to the other1 ,i must observe1 that there is no appearance of virgin earth1 between the ,tipperah ,hills on the east1 and the province of ,burdwan on the west2 nor on the north till we arrive at ,dacca and ,bauleah4' ,uniting all these points1 and agreeing with ,major ,rennell that the ,ganges discharges1 on a medium1 #ahj1jjj cubic feet of water in a second1 we may easily imagine that the present ,delta has been formed by the sedimentary portion propelled forward in constant succession1 until it gained the highest level to which the annual inundation could raise it2 after which1 the black mould on the surface must have been produced by the constant accumulation of vegetable matter that rotted thereon4 ,it is a curious1 but well known1 fact1 that from ,sooty to that part of the ,cossimbazar ,island which lies nearest to the tide's way1 the whole is obliged to be preserved from inundation by an embankment1 called the poolbundy1 maintained at a very great and regular expence2 an obvious demonstration that the present course of the ,hooghly has not been settled many centuries2 for almost all rivers1 long subject to such overflows as those we witness in ,bengal1 ultimately raise their banks1 by an annual deposit of matter1 to such a height as afterwards prevents their streams from passing over into the adjacent country4 ,there can be little doubt1 that the city of ,gour stood on a spot which1 in very ancient times1 was washed by the sea2 and we may1 without being accused of credulity in the extreme1 admit the great probability of the ,ganges having then debouched into the sinus1 or bay1 at that same spot4 ,nor should we doubt1 that those sands1 which are1 at this day1 so dangerous to navigation1 from ,balasore to ,chittagong1 will1 at some remote period1 be encreased and raised1 so as to become1 in the first instance1 islands2 and1 ultimately1 parts of the continent2 the present channels serving for the courses of future rivers1 which1 in so loose a soil1 may1 like the ,ganges in our times1 be subject to changes of locality1 whenever the floods may prove so impetuous as to open new beds1 and cause the streams to be diverted into them4 ,the ,sunderbunds1 whatever may be their date or origin1 present1 at this day1 a most inhospitable aspect1 and give1 exteriorly1 a feature to the country which by no means corresponds with the interior3 they are1 in truth1 a hideous belt of the most unpromising description1 such as could not fail to cause any stranger who might be wrecked on that coast1 and who should not proceed beyond the reach of the tide1 to pronounce it #8a country fit for the residence of neither man nor beast4' ,when ,major ,rennell remarked1 #8that they furnish an inexhaustible supply of wood for boat building2' he might have added1 #8of timber for ship building4' ,many very large vessels have been launched from this quarter1 but1 no pains having been taken to season the timber1 it was not to be expected they should prove so durable as they might have been rendered by due precautions in that particular4 ,nor is the wood itself of the best quality for naval architecture2 for1 though it is very strong1 and to be bent with facility to any necessary form1 it1 being extremely subject to be worm-eaten1 proves a great draw-back on its being brought into more general use1 unless for such vessels as are intended to be coppered3 for such1 the jarrool may answer1 as may also the soondry2 both which abound in every part of the ,sunderbunds4 ,the whole coast1 from ,balasore to ,chittagong1 has at times been occupied by a class of natives called ,molungies1 who manufacture salt from the sea-water4 ,the produce of the several chokies1 or manufactories1 is immensely valuable1 as has already been shewn1 and suffices for the consumption of the whole population of all the ,company's dominions1 besides what is exported into those of the ,nabob ,vizier1 c4 ,about thirty-five years ago1 salt used to be sold at a rupee1 or a rupee and a half1 per factory maund of #gblb42 which might average about one half-penny per lb42 but1 since the ,company monopolized the manufacture1 and imposed a heavy duty1 the price of salt has gradually risen to about four rupees per maund4 ,the importation of salt1 by sea1 is prohibited1 except under partial or temporary licences2 but it is brought from the mines to the northward of ,delhi in large quantities1 though not of so good a quality1 it being generally very bitter1 especially the ,salumbah1 or more opaque rock-salt1 which is far less serviceable for curing meat than the ,samber2 both these kinds are brought in small prismatic masses1 and1 though in common use among the natives of the upper provinces1 are never1 except from necessity1 allowed to appear at the tables of ,europeans1 though employed in their culinary preparations4 ,salt is also obtained1 but not of a prime quality1 by piling up large quantities of the sand forming the beds of rivers1 after the waters have subsided into very narrow channels4 ,on these heaps water is poured in abundance1 and1 being afterwards drained into reservoirs1 the salt either chrystalizes by solar heat1 or by being boiled in large iron pans1 similar to those used for chrystalizing sugar from the expressed juice of the cane4 ,in travelling by water1 many points1 totally unheeded by ,european tourists1 are necessarily to be attended to previous to departure4 ,i have already warned my readers1 that no furnished house1 no lodgings1 no public vehicles1 no inns1 and1 in short1 no preparation for the lodgment or convenience of temporary sojourners1 are to be expected in any part of ,india2 with the exception of the taverns and punch-houses already described4 ,therefore1 when an excursion is to be made by water1 a budjrow must be hired1 which may commonly be effected either by what is called #8teekah1' or so much for the trip1 according to the distance1 with some allowance for demurrage2 or the vessel may be hired at a certain monthly sum2 generally taken at ten rupees per oar4 ,sometimes return-budjrows are to be had at a cheaper rate3 whichever way the bargain may be made1 the person hiring has nothing to do with the pay1 or provision1 of the several men employed in navigating the vessel4 ,the following ,table of ,allowances granted by the ,company to officers1 and others1 proceeding1 according to orders1 from one station to another1 will be both useful to those who may be proceeding to the ,east1 and serve to give a general idea of the periods required1 in ordinary seasons1 taking the year round1 for a boat's reaching her destination1 and returning to the place she quitted4 ,the allowance likewise includes whatever may be intended for not only the budjrow1 but for an attendant baggage-boat1 and a cook-boat4 ,,table ,,of ,,allowance ,,for ,,budjrows ,,and ,,boats4 ,sonaut ,rupees per ,month4 ,to a ,colonel #icj ,to a ,lieutenant-,colonel1 ,physician1 ,general1 or #fcj ,chief ,surgeon ,to a ,major and ,head ,surgeon #cfj ,to a ,captain1 ,pay-,master1 ,deputy ,pay-,master1 and #ahj ,regimental ,surgeon ,to a ,subaltern1 ,hospital1 or ,regimental ,mate #ajj ,to a ,cadet #hj ,to a ,conductor #ej ,officers are entitled to the allowance for budjrows and boats only in the following instances3 viz4 ,when posted to corps on their first joining the army4 ,when ordered to proceed1 by water1 upon any duty4 ,when removed1 without their own application1 to supply vacancies in the corps to which they are removed4 ,when water conveyance is not practicable1 the difference of batta is to be drawn1 calculating from the day of appointment1 and allowing ten miles for daily progress4 ,where no ascertained rate is given1 officers are to draw at the rate of ten miles against1 and fourteen with1 the current1 for each day's progress4 ,the following may be considered the general standard2 by which extraordinary cases are likewise governed4 ,from ,calcutta to ,berhampore is allowed for #a as ,ditto to ,monghyr #a ,ditto to ,patna1 or ,dinapore #b ,ditto to ,buxar #b ,ditto to ,chunar or ,benares #b ,ditto to ,allahabad #c ,ditto to ,cawnpore #c ,ditto to ,futty-,ghur #d ,ditto to ,dacca #a ,ditto to ,chittagong #b ,ditto to ,midnapore ,it is proper to remark in this place1 that a boat may1 at most seasons of the year1 proceed to ,berhampore1 7provided the river be open17 in about seven or eight days4 ,the distance by water is nearly double that by land1 owing to the winding course of the river1 which formerly could competite with that passing under ,lucknow2 which1 owing to the mazes of its course1 received the name of #8,goomty1' or winding4 ,within the last twelve or fifteen years1 many of the narrow isthmuses have been cut through1 whereby the distance from ,moorshadabad to ,calcutta has been reduced full twenty miles2 some yet require the aid of art1 to perfect what the hand of time seems preparing for the still further abbreviating the passage by water3 probably1 in the course of twenty years1 the river may be brought into a tolerable line2 but1 how long it will remain so1 is another consideration2 as the soil is every where1 except about ,rangamatty1 7i4e4 the red soil17 a few miles below ,berhampore1 so loose as to be totally unqualified to restrain the violent current which prevails in every part during four months in the year4 ,the passage to ,chittagong can rarely be performed in a common budjrow1 a great part of it being across the mouth of the ,megna1 indeed1 in an open sea1 subject1 at least1 to very heavy swells1 if not to squalls1 such as give much trouble even to those who are on board substantial sloops1 and other vessels coming under the description of sea-boats4 ,however1 during the cold months1 an adventurous manjy will sometimes make the trip with his budjrow1 provided a handsome gratuity be offered on such a hazardous occasion4 ,the best mode is to embark at ,calcutta on board one of the ,chittagong traders1 of which some are commonly on the point of sailing1 and to make a sea trip at once1 in a secure1 and tolerably pleasant manner4 ,it is true1 this mode does not offer all the conveniences of a good large budjrow2 but that is balanced by the safety and celerity with which the voyage is made4 ,a budjrow will rarely complete the trip to ,chittagong under three weeks2 whereas1 a coasting sloop will commonly perform it in as many days1 after quitting the pilot1 either in the northerly or southerly monsoon2 the coast being east1 with a very little southing4 ,after a budjrow has been offered for hire1 it will be but common prudence to send a carpenter on board to search her bottom1 and to place a servant on board for a day and a night1 to ascertain how much water she may take in during that time4 ,some of the best1 in appearance1 are extremely rotten1 and can only be kept afloat by constant baling1 in consequence either of the depredations of worms1 or of the number of years they may have been built4 ,some are neat and clean1 others are filthy in the extreme2 some are supplied with good ,venetians1 lockers1 curtains outside the windows1 c41 c42 while not a few1 though not totally destitute of such conveniences1 offer them in a most miserable state of wretchedness and of inutility4 ,the roofs of nine in ten do not keep out water4 ,it will1 on every occasion1 be indispensably necessary to make memoranda of the terms on which the budjrow1 c41 may be taken2 and to obtain from the manjy a written agreement2 the want of which may prove unpleasant1 either in consequence of any misunderstanding1 or from any attempt that may be made to impose upon such ,europeans as may not be supposed to have sufficient knowledge of the ordinary routine of such affairs1 to secure them from depredation4 ,the masts1 sails1 rigging1 c41 of the vessel should be carefully over-hauled2 and1 in particular1 great care should be taken that one or two good ghoons1 or track ropes1 of sufficient length1 be on board2 since a defect in this branch of equipment will inevitably produce great delay1 and1 in strong currents1 subject the boat to imminent danger4 ,let it be remembered1 that1 whatever the number of oars paid for may be1 so many actual boatmen there ought to be1 exclusive of the manjy1 or steersman1 and the goleah1 or bowman3 it is a very common deception to count the latter in among the rowers1 because he sometimes sits to an oar fitted out for him on the very prow of the vessel1 when there is no occasion for his standing to throw the luggy1 or bamboo-pole1 whereby the boat is kept clear of banks1 shoals1 stumps1 c4 ,when an engagement is made of the teekah1 or job-kind1 the manjy will1 for his own sake1 endeavor to get away as speedily as possible1 and will ordinarily make sure of a good crew1 in order that his money may be the sooner earned2 but1 when paid by the month1 there will be no end to excuses1 delays1 and evasions3 the dandies will generally be wanting in number1 and their quality be very indifferent4 ,the best mode1 on such occasions1 is to apply to the police1 which1 under proper circumstances of established criminality1 will put a peon 7or messenger7 on board1 at the expence of the delinquent1 and make such a change in the posture of affairs as cannot fail to please the employer4 ,this is a safe and efficacious mode of proceeding2 whereas1 when justice is taken into the hands of the person hiring the boat1 and that abuse and blows are dealt out1 under the hope of gaining the point1 the grounds of complaint are laid1 and the dandies1 so far from doing their duty1 will either abscond wholly1 or secrete themselves in such manner as effectually to impose an embargo4 ,i do not mean to say1 that sometimes a recourse to the manual may not be advisable1 or even peremptorily necessary2 but such must be adopted with extreme caution1 and with such a mixture of resolution and conciliation1 as may produce the desired effect1 without establishing a character for brutality1 or unnecessary harshness4 ,if1 during the trip1 occasion for complaint should arise1 it is best to refer the matter to any persons in office1 whether native or ,european1 who may be within a suitable distance4 ,the manjies have an insuperable antipathy to this mode of proceeding1 because it deprives them of all grounds for justification1 or representation2 the want of which1 in the hearing of an ,european magistrate1 speedily induces to their corporal punishment2 while1 in the estimation of a cutwal1 or chief of a village1 it is sure to subject them to some pecuniary loss1 whether by fine1 by deduction from the sum to be paid as hire1 or by having to maintain one or more peons1 according to the nature of the offence4 ,most budjrows have two apartments1 exclusive of an open veranda in front2 the latter is on a level with the dining apartment1 but the chamber1 which is more towards the stern1 rises one or two steps above their level1 in consequence of the form of the vessel's stern3 beyond all there is usually a small privy1 which1 being still more elevated1 is ascended by other steps4 ,as the chamber contracts considerably towards the after-part of its floor1 it will be necessary to ascertain whether a small cot 7i4e4 a bedstead7 can stand in that part of the budjrow1 without inconvenience2 as also whether the height1 between the floor and the roof1 may admit of the bed-posts being erected4 ,if the space should not allow them to be elevated1 they must be unshipped1 either by taking off their hinges1 or by drawing them forth from their sockets1 and the curtains must be suspended from hooks1 nails1 c41 driven for that purpose into the beams that support the roof4 ,though floating on a large river1 whose waters are celebrated for their virtues and purity by the whole population of ,hindostan1 it will1 nevertheless1 be indispensably necessary to take on board a good large g'oulah1 or jar1 which may be lashed to the mast1 and be used as a depot for such water as may be intended for culinary purposes1 or for beverage4 ,in a few hours it will have settled thoroughly1 and should then be drawn off as required into smaller vessels1 called kedjeree-pots by ,europeans1 but by the natives gurrahs4 ,whence the former designation originated ,i never could learn1 but conclude it resulted either from the supplies of crockery furnished to our shipping at ,kedjeree1 or from the very common circumstance of that preparation of rice1 split peas1 c41 called kitchurry1 which may often be seen boiling1 wholesale1 in vessels of this description1 for the supply of a dozen1 or more1 of dandies1 c4 ,the forepart of every budjrow is decked1 and furnished with two hatchways1 with appropriate coverings3 the whole of the part under the deck1 which reaches from the veranda to the stern1 is generally considered by the manjy as a privilege1 of which he rarely fails to avail himself1 when it is possible to render the trip a trading voyage4 ,against this too much precaution cannot be adopted2 for not only will the budjrow be so heavily laden as to draw more water1 7an object of considerable importance17 but to track with far greater difficulty1 and to leak very abundantly4 ,if any contraband trade can be carried on with tolerable safety1 it is usually in this manner2 because1 owing to the general deference paid by the custom-house officers1 and chokey-peons1 in every part of the country1 to ,european gentlemen1 and to their equipages1 few1 or none1 will attempt to search a budjrow under hire3 the facility with which goods can be landed1 is such as to obviate1 almost totally1 any danger to be apprehended in the performance of that part of the adventure4 ,government has1 it is true1 placed a number of checks on this kind of fraud2 but1 unhappily1 it is out of its power to go so far into the remedy as would put a total stop to illicit commerce1 without subjecting their own servants1 of whatever rank1 to the intrusive1 and ultimately insolent1 researches of those natives by whom they should1 on every occasion1 be treated with the utmost respect and consideration4 ,it is inconceivable with what secresy1 and caution1 the manjies act on such occasions4 ,an instance is within my knowledge1 of a gentleman hiring a budjrow at ,patna1 to proceed to the ,presidency1 but it was in vain that he importuned the manjy1 day after day1 and hour after hour1 to complete his crew1 and to have all in readiness for embarkation3 at length1 all was adjusted1 and the vessel proceeded in high style4 ,the gentleman was unaccountably drowsy1 and often wondered at the rapidity with which he seemed to be making his passage1 but was not displeased to find himself so speedily floated towards the place of destination3 it was in vain that he endeavored to prevent the manjy from stopping at ,chandernagore1 a ,french settlement1 about twenty-two miles from ,calcutta2 when1 to his great surprize1 he saw several boxes of opium1 which had been concealed in various parts of the budjrow1 and particularly under the floors1 handed out to some sircars who were at the g'haut1 or landing-place1 anxiously awaiting her arrival4 ,however unpleasant the above-mentioned cargo might have proved1 it cannot be compared with the truly offensive practice common among all the boat-men of ,hindostan1 of cutting such fish as they may purchase1 catch1 or steal1 into slices1 and hanging them over the quarters to become sun-dried4 ,this custom should never be tolerated on any account2 not only because the effluvia are cruelly distressing1 but1 that1 wherever it is allowed to obtain1 all the rats are sure to be attracted from whatever boats1 or banks1 may come in contact with the budjrow3 once in1 ,old ,nick cannot get them out2 except by emptying the vessel completely1 and fumigating her with sulphur2 or by sinking her for a while1 so as to drown the vermin1 of all descriptions1 that harbour in the numberless recesses1 chinks1 c41 to be found in every quarter of an old budjrow4 ,when a single gentleman is intent on proceeding on the most economical and expeditious plan1 he will find it best not to have even a cook-boat in his suite2 but should confine himself entirely to whatever convenience his budjrow may afford4 ,if this plan is acted upon1 the several boxes1 c41 may be arranged within the cabins1 or1 at the utmost1 under the deck2 taking care1 however1 to debar the dandies from visiting that part of the vessel1 by placing stout battens1 or bamboo-laths1 across1 by way of confining them to the fore hatchway1 down which they ordinarily keep their cloaths1 fire-wood1 c41 c41 and1 occasionally1 make a choolah1 or hearth and fire-place1 of mud1 whereon to cook the victuals of the crew2 an operation performed by one of the dandies1 who1 on that account1 is exempted from all ordinary duties1 and who is generally capable of serving up an admirably well-savored curry4 ,the after-part of the hold is commonly spacious enough to hold a tent of ordinary dimensions2 but it may become a question how far it would be prudent to put camp equipage in the way of the rats1 which would1 probably1 for the sake of shelter in the vicinity of the culinary operations1 soon burrow into the hearts of the packages1 and do inconceivable damage4 ,if1 however1 no other place can be allotted for the reception of a tent1 and the weather be such as not to warrant its being stowed upon the poop1 no alternative is left1 and the risk of destruction1 or1 at least1 of very serious injury1 must be met with resignation4 ,though not indispensably necessary1 a tent of some kind will be found extremely convenient1 when proceeding by water to any distant station1 especially during the hot season4 ,as the boat-men usually come to about sun-set1 or1 perhaps1 a little earlier1 if any favorable situation1 or the proximity of some large town1 should invite1 a small tent may easily be taken ashore1 and pitched on the elevated bank1 where the freshness of the air1 and the wide range of prospect1 prove a most comfortable relief to a person who1 during the day1 may have been obliged to remain under the heated roof of a cabin1 whereof the windows were closed to keep out the sun1 hot winds1 and flying sand4 ,many gentlemen have one small boat employed chiefly in going forward with such a convenience1 and which1 after the bed1 c4 may be shipped at day-break on board the budjrow1 that no delay may arise in departing1 waits to receive the baggage left on the spot1 with which it proceeds at such a rate as soon makes up for the detention3 a boat of this kind is extremely useful in many instances1 but especially in procuring supplies from an opposite bank1 for going to or from shore in shoal water1 for towing a budjrow in strong waters1 for carrying out an anchor1 or rope1 to warp by1 c41 c4 ,where only a budjrow and such a small boat are employed1 the latter generally has a choolah1 or hearth1 c41 prepared within it under a small thatch4 ,she commonly has to carry the proper supply of dry fire-wood2 that obtained on the way being1 with few exceptions1 green1 and causing the viands to acquire a very smoky1 unpleasant flavor4 ,the poultry are also usually conveyed on the thatch of the cook-boat1 in small tappahs1 or cages1 made of split bamboos3 this part of the stock may consist of a dozen of fowls1 with a few ducks1 and a goose or two2 and1 occasionally1 is accompanied by one or two milch goats1 which1 being supplied with foliage cut for that purpose1 during the day1 and being sent to some verdant spot when the boat comes to in the evening1 rarely fail to furnish milk enough1 of a very superior quality1 for the morning and evening tea4 ,the traveller must not expect to be supplied with beef1 mutton1 or veal1 as he may proceed1 in any part of the country1 except at military or civil stations3 there he may1 perhaps1 be enabled to purchase a sufficient supply of meat to make some variety in his diet as he passes from one station to another2 but1 unless in some very particular situations1 he must content himself with poultry of various kinds1 but chiefly chickens1 and with kids1 of which the meat is excellent4 ,he may1 at some of the principal towns where ,mussulmans reside1 here and there fall in with a butcher1 who can furnish a joint of kussy 7i4e4 cut-goat72 or he may perchance pick up a tolerable sheep1 which may1 at all events1 serve for gravy1 and supply his pointers and spaniels with two or three days' substantial provision4 ,the mention of cutting up a sheep for such purposes1 may appear extraordinary to the ,european reader1 but it must be recollected1 that such sheep are rarely worth more than two shillings1 that in some parts the country swarms with them1 and that their wool is not valuable1 owing to its being lank1 coarse1 harsh1 and not of a strong fibre3 it is1 indeed1 more like that hair which grows upon many horses that are turned out during the winter1 and comes off by handfuls as the spring advances4 ,the boats employed for carrying baggage are of two kinds2 woolachs and patellies3 the former are built in the lower provinces1 with round bottoms1 and often draw much water2 the latter are chiefly of up-country build1 have flat bottoms1 and are clinkered2 this construction suits them admirably to the shallows1 which1 after the rainy season1 abound in all the rivers beyond the tide's way1 and especially at a distance from the sea4 ,some of the woolachs used by the more opulent native merchants are capable of bearing from fifteen hundred to three thousand maunds1 7i4e4 from eighty to a hundred and twenty tons17 but their medium may be taken at from four to eight hundred maunds1 which is also the general measurement of patellies in the common employ of grain-merchants1 c43 many are to be seen of full two thousand maunds1 but such are calculated for the great rivers only2 not but that in the channels abundant depth of water may be found1 so deep1 indeed1 that several ships1 of five hundred tons burthen1 have been built at ,patna1 which is1 by water1 six hundred miles from the sea2 but those channels are so crooked1 and the currents so strong1 as to render it very difficult for the ordinary number of dandies1 proportioned to the tonnage1 to navigate such unwieldy boats with safety and expertness1 ,the best size for a baggage-boat to attend upon a budjrow1 especially in proceeding against the stream1 may be from three hundred to five hundred maunds3 observing1 that the patelly is by far better calculated for shallow water1 and for the conveyance of horses1 than a woolach2 but1 being so low in the water1 the former is rather subject to be swamped in rough water1 and1 owing to its construction1 is very apt to become hog-backed1 and1 ultimately1 to give way in the middle2 an accident which seldom or never happens to the latter4 ,when horses are to be carried in boats1 as is very commonly done1 it becomes necessary to make a platform1 at about a foot from the bottom of the boat1 consisting of brush-wood1 mats1 and soil3 the thwarts being rarely a yard asunder1 one must be taken out to make a stall of sufficient width2 therefore1 if three or four horses are put on board the same boat1 a corresponding number of thwarts must be withdrawn4 ,when the animals are about to be embarked1 the thatch opposite the stall must be raised high enough to allow a horse to leap in without danger1 from the bank4 ,this operation is often attended with considerable difficulty2 for some horses are extremely averse to enter upon the solid platform of a large substantial ferry-boat1 such as that at ,ghyretty1 even when placed on a level therewith1 by means of a fixed1 or moveable pier4 ,when1 therefore1 it is considered how many obstacles seem to oppose the admission of a horse into a covered boat1 when1 probably1 he is standing above his knees in water1 and has to rise1 under every disadvantage1 over the boat's gunwhale1 it will not appear surprizing that many hold out for hours1 notwithstanding every effort on the part of the syces1 7or grooms17 and that a large portion are severely lamed in the attempt4 ,it is curious to observe how very quiet and temperate horses become after embarkation6 ,in such a situation1 they seem to forget that wonderful propensity they invariably display when on shore1 to attack each other1 even when at a considerable distance2 but1 though parted by only a few feet1 they become so tractable while in a boat1 that their natures seem to undergo a complete change4 ,notwithstanding this periodical1 or1 rather1 local1 timidity1 it will be proper to secure that part of the boat's side against which a horse may be able to kick2 many instances having occurred of fiery steeds driving their hooves through the planks1 which are not always very sound1 and1 even if undecayed1 are generally by far too thin to resist so severe an operation3 more than one patelly has foundered outright1 with all the contents1 in consequence of such an accident2 the best mode of preventing which1 is1 by fastening a quantity of jow 7an aquatic species of fern17 to the inside1 as a lining1 whereby the planks may be secured from injury4 ,when a vessel is tracked against the stream1 it is usual for the dandies1 or boatmen1 to go ashore1 each furnished with a club of bamboo1 about two feet in length1 to which a piece of strong cord is fastened at one end2 at the same time1 the ghoon1 or track-rope1 is veered out from a pulley in the mast head1 or from a block lashed thereto1 to as great a length as the situation may demand2 commonly1 from about seventy to a hundred and fifty yards may suffice1 though1 in very shoal water1 mixed with deeps1 or1 where the ground is foul1 even a greater length may be requisite4 ,the ghoon is about two inches round1 and is made of white rope well laid3 if made of tarred rope1 it would prove too heavy1 and oppose great resistance1 by its want of elasticity1 to the exertions of the dandies1 each of whom1 fixing the end of his cord to it1 and resting the bamboo club over his shoulder1 so that it may act1 in some measure1 as a lever1 proceeds at an easy pace1 his body leaning well forward1 each following at about four feet behind the other4 ,the foremost at the track-rope has a great advantage over his followers2 he not being subject to the numerous checks and vibrations occasioned by the frequent impediments1 whether bushes1 banks1 masts of other vessels1 c41 which operate very forcibly on those whose cords are attached to that part of the rope in his rear4 ,the number of dandies at a track-rope may be too many1 as well as too few2 except when a boat can keep close to the shore1 and the ghoon makes but a very small angle from the line of her progress3 then1 all the power that can be given certainly proves efficient2 but1 when the angle between the boat's direction and the rope becomes considerable1 it is evident the whole labor falls on a very few of the leading dandies2 in fact1 all but those few are then compelled to liberate their cords from the ghoon1 otherwise they must be inevitably dragged out into the stream1 unless those cords were many fathoms1 instead of only four or five feet1 in length4 ,the greater part of the trading boats use a different apparatus for tracking2 in them1 each dandy is supplied with a fine cord1 about as thick as a swan's quill1 made of a fine kind of long grass called moonje1 which1 when wetted1 and twisted into this kind of tackle1 becomes firm and elastic2 though it will not answer for cordage in general4 ,each dandy has about seventy yards of line1 the inner end of which fastens to a stout rope1 reeved1 the same as the ghoon1 at the mast-head1 and long enough to be let out amply where requisite4 ,the other end of the line is coiled up by each dandy respectively1 who fastens his bamboo club by its cord1 at such part of the moonje line as may be let out2 generally a small quantity of coil being reserved1 which hangs down either over each dandy's breast or shoulder4 ,by this means1 each man tracks separately1 and cannot be idle without the manjy instantly detecting him2 the several lines form so many rays from the mast-head1 and are capable1 when equally strained1 to bear an immense burthen4 ,nothing can be more unpleasant than having to pass a ghaut where numbers of boats are lying3 on such an occasion1 a man is sent up to the mast-head of each1 in succession1 for the purpose of passing the ghoon2 which1 when liberated from one1 swings on to another1 causing a severe shock to the hinder dandy of the tracking party4 ,some use a very simple device for passing the ghoon over their mast-heads3 this consists merely of a kind of fork1 made by tying the end of the ghoon1 of each vessel respectively1 then at rest1 to a long bamboo1 about a quarter of the length down4 ,the ghoon being pulled1 the bamboo is raised1 and carries with it that of the boat in motion3 a man then slips the latter over the mast-head with great facility4 ,it is not always that the people on board boats1 laying at ghauts1 will turn out to pass the ghoon2 on which occasions1 words are rarely of much avail4 ,i always found that a pellet-bow1 which sends clay-balls to about a hundred yards distance with considerable force1 produced an instantaneous effect2 the first shot rattling against the matted sides of a vessel's interior1 rarely failing to cause wondrous activity on the part of her crew2 though1 now and then1 it has been necessary to repeat the operation1 before the desired effect could be produced4 ,i strongly recommend to all gentlemen travelling by water1 that they insist on the manjies of their several boats carrying a small flag1 of some obvious distinction1 at their mast-heads3 this prevents them from lying to1 and concealing their vessels amidst a forest of masts1 as they are very apt to do1 when intent upon a clandestine trading voyage4 ,besides1 as in the course of a day's tracking1 and especially when sailing1 it is very common for a budjrow to get many miles a-head1 such a device then becomes a guide as to the propriety of coming to for the night1 or1 intermediately1 for dinner1 c4 ,the number of miles which can be run over in the course of a day in a budjrow1 will necessarily vary according to circumstances1 guided by the quantity of water in the river1 the direction and force of the wind1 and the competency of the crew4 ,i cannot do better1 in this place1 than offer the words of ,major ,rennell4 ,at page #cfj of his ,memoirs1 he says1 #8,from the beginning of ,november1 to the middle1 or latter end of ,may1 the usual rate of going with the stream1 is forty miles in a day of twelve hours2 and1 during the rest of the year1 from fifty to seventy miles4 ,the current is strongest while the waters of the inundation are draining off2 which happens1 in part1 in ,august and ,september4' ,in a former part1 ,i remarked that the rivers generally rise a few inches in ,may2 which is to be attributed to the melting of the snow on those hills where the ,ganges and ,barampooter have their source4 ,both those rivers1 which have their rise at the base1 but on opposite sides1 of the same mountain1 and1 after separating to full twelve hundred miles asunder1 unite1 and form that immense volume of water called the ,megna1 receive a supply from the same quarter1 and at the same time3 we cannot1 however1 expect the force of their currents to be encreased much before the rains are fairly set in1 which may be1 generally1 about the #ajth of ,june1 when their waters do1 indeed1 roll impetuously2 so much1 that many a boat has proceeded from ,patna to ,monghyr1 a distance of one hundred measured miles by land1 and full one hundred and twenty by water1 between day-break and sun-set4 ,major ,rennell adds1 #8,seventeen to twenty miles a day1 according to the ground1 and the number of impediments1 is the greatest distance that a large budjrow can be towed against the stream1 during the fair season2 and1 to accomplish this1 the boat must be drawn through the water1 at the rate of four miles and a half per hour1 for twelve hours4 ,when the waters are high1 a greater progress will be made1 notwithstanding the encreased velocity of the current2 because1 the filling of the river-bed gives many opportunities of cutting off angles and turnings2 and1 sometimes1 even large windings1 by going through creeks4 ,as the wind1 at this season1 blows upwards1' 7i4e4 against the current17 #8in most of the rivers1 opportunities of using the sail frequently occur4' ,it must not be supposed1 from the foregoing1 that the boat actually makes a progress of four miles and a half within the hour3 far from it1 the dandies rarely walk more than two miles in that time1 but the velocity of the current being taken into account1 would shew1 that1 if a log were to be heaved1 the difference between the log and the boat's advance would give the result alluded to by the ,major1 whose general correctness cannot be too much admired4 ,in using the sail1 infinite changes take place2 sometimes it is full1 then again close-hauled1 and1 perhaps1 ultimately1 lowered on a sudden1 according as the course of the river may change2 and this some twenty or thirty times within the day4 ,but when the reaches lie tolerably fair1 that opportunity offers1 as sometimes happens for a whole day together1 and that the wind is brisk in favor1 a budjrow will run off from four to six miles within the hour4 ,the river is often so low as to render the navigation very tedious1 even under all the above favorable circumstances1 by forcing the manjy to abide by the strong deep waters1 and to wind in among the sands1 which cause the channel to change its direction very frequently4 ,during the rains1 and especially in the cold months1 travelling by water is extremely pleasant with the stream2 but1 whatever facilities may be afforded1 in any shape1 ,i cannot say that any trip upwards1 at whatever season1 afforded me the smallest gratification4 ,what with tracking1 getting aground1 remaining long among eddies1 in which human carcases were floating in all the various stages of putrefaction1 the dust flying1 c41 c41 nothing but ennui1 or impatience1 can reasonably be expected4 ,here and there a walk may be taken2 but he who ventures ashore must be watchful to embark before the budjrow may be obliged to put far out for the purpose of passing some endless shallow2 otherwise1 he may have to walk under a vertical sun1 through bushes1 or over ploughed1 or muddy1 lands1 and among ravines1 for many an hour1 before the opportunity many offer for getting on board3 to crown the whole1 he may1 perhaps1 come to some nullah1 or small stream1 over which no conveyance is to be had1 either by bridge or boat6 ,my zeal for bringing home a few birds1 or a hare1 has often decoyed me into scrapes of this kind1 and caused me to utter many an imprecation against the river1 for winding1 the manjy1 for going on1 and my own folly1 for subjecting myself to such unpleasant circumstances4 ,i must freely confess1 that1 in this respect1 #8experience did not give wisdom2' for1 after full a thousand and one such disappointments1 ,i felt1 at the last1 just as eager as ever1 to silence such chuckores 7a species of grouse7 as had the insolence to crow within my hearing6 ,the navigation of the large rivers is rather more hazardous than among those of less breadth4 ,when it is considered1 that the ,ganges runs for upwards of a thousand miles through a country nearly level1 and whose undulations are scarcely perceptible1 except in a few places where the hills come down to the water's edge1 as at ,sickregully1 ,pointee1 ,colgong1 ,chunar1 c41 it must appear obvious that but little shelter can be expected from these squalls1 called #8north-westers1' which1 from the end of ,february until the setting in of the rains1 occur almost daily1 and blow with considerable violence4 ,even when under a high bank1 it will require much care1 and good tackle1 to prevent a budjrow from being blown out into the middle1 where1 if she is top-heavy1 as is too often the case1 and the proper means be not taken to keep her head to the wind1 she will stand a chance of being overset4 ,fortunately1 the approach of a squall is always strongly indicated by the black appearance above the horizon1 and by the distant lightnings3 when such are sufficiently characterized to leave little doubt of the storm's passing that way1 shelter should be sought in some creek1 or under some high bank1 of firm appearance1 where the budjrow should be well secured by hawsers1 carried out1 and made fast to1 substantial stakes driven into the ground by means of large malls1 with all which every boat should be amply provided4 ,luggies1 7or bamboo-poles17 ought to be carried out on the lee-side1 for the purpose of resisting the wind1 and causing the upper parts of the vessel to bear up duly against the severe gusts which commonly usher in the gale4 ,if the vessel is on a lee-shore1 the luggies must1 of course1 be between her and the bank1 to prevent her from bumping against it1 and the anchor should be carried out to windward1 into deep water1 to keep her from being forced ashore3 a danger particularly to be apprehended on long shelving sands2 where many a well-conditioned boat has had her bottom beat out1 by the force with which the surges1 coming across an expanse of perhaps a mile1 or more1 have dashed her against the hard sand4 ,such situations are peculiarly hazardous1 and ought to be avoided most carefully3 the misfortune is1 that1 from eagerness to get forward1 and from the hope that a north-wester may be either moderate1 or pass another way1 folks1 in general1 keep pushing on1 and allow many a secure asylum to be passed very imprudently6 ,those who have experienced the effects of a violent squall about ,sheerness1 may be proper judges of what is to be expected from a most furious gale1 which often continues for an hour1 or more1 in a river which may be said generally to flow between banks full two miles asunder1 and which are1 in most parts1 from three to five1 in some1 full seven1 miles apart6 ,about ,bengal1 especially in the ,sunderbund-passages1 decoits1 or water-robbers1 are sometimes numerous4 ,these often assemble in fleets1 composed of long narrow boats1 rowing from twelve to thirty oars1 or paddles1 at pleasure1 and carrying from thirty to sixty1 or seventy1 men4 ,sometimes their fleets have been so formidable1 and have so effectually put a stop to all commerce1 as to call the attention of government1 and to demand the presence of a strong establishment1 backed by liberal offers of rewards1 before the rivers could be resorted to in safety4 ,between ,dacca and ,backergunge1 among the islands formed by the several minor branches of the ,ganges1 and by the innumerable creeks1 with which the banditti are perfectly familiar1 it has often been impossible for any boat to make its way1 even for a few miles1 without being boarded by these decoits4 ,as to rewards1 little good is to be expected from them2 the system adopted by the marauders is such as to render abortive any lures of that description4 ,where all participate1 all will be found faithful to the cause1 whether virtue or vice be the leader2 and1 where localities are such as to afford perfect security from the common run of pursuers1 and where numbers render the association too formidable to admit any hope of success on the part of small detachments2 in such instances1 rewards can rarely produce the smallest benefit4 ,wherever a boat1 or even a fleet1 may come to for the night1 it will be indispensably necessary to keep a sharp look-out against thieves1 who1 appertaining to the several villages in the neighbourhood1 rarely fail to assemble1 during the night1 under some bold chief1 and to make an attempt to plunder by main force4 ,it is scarcely to be credited to what a height this daring species of robbery has been1 at times1 carried4 ,were no other occasion existing1 this would amount to ample cause for obtaining1 if possible1 a guard of sepoys1 for the purpose of protecting the boats2 but1 strange to say1 it is sometimes necessary to compel the villagers to sell their poultry1 c41 to passengers1 both by land and by water1 although not simply a liberal1 but an exorbitant remuneration is offered4 ,this does not proceed from unwillingness to make money1 nor to sell the article in question1 but merely from a spirit of opposition which pervades a large portion of the native population1 who are often too adverse to contribute to the comfort1 or1 more properly1 to the existence1 of ,europeans4 ,it must seem curious that our countrymen are allowed to reside among a people of such a disposition1 so far out-numbering1 and possessed of such easy means of extirpating1 us1 with very little previous arrangement4 ,in saying this1 ,i do not mean to accuse the natives of ,india of being so debased1 so immoral1 or so vindictive1 as they have been represented by many gentlemen1 especially some divines who have lately returned from the ,east1 and whose opinions breathe by no means the spirit of that sublime religion they would coerce the natives to adopt4 ,taking all points into consideration1 and viewing the nature of the country conjointly with the nature of their laws1 and of their former government1 ,i think we have by far more to admire than to censure1 in a race of people1 who1 notwithstanding some highly remarkable instances of depravity1 may be classed among the most innocent1 and most industrious1 of worldly inhabitants666 ,this is saying much1 but not too much1 of a nation whose government absolutely tolerates thieving as a regular profession1 and which has been known to make a very free use of the talents of its subjects for the purposes of obtaining plunder1 or of gratifying its pique and resentment4 ,i much fear1 that1 if such were the case with us1 and that1 if1 instead of being ruled by a virtuous king1 we were placed under a buccaneering monarch1 we should by no means find so many pleas of extenuation as the natives of ,hindostan can justly boast6 ,the truth of this position1 in itself so reasonable1 is made more fully evident by the obvious difference subsisting between the ,company's and the ,vizier's dominions4 ,in the former1 the depredations committed are always nocturnal1 and of that description to be expected under the foregoing circumstances2 in the latter1 the speculation is infinitely more open1 more systematic1 and more extensive4 ,that considerable amelioration must have taken place under our government1 is to be proved1 from the safety with which travellers may proceed by land throughout the country1 when compared with the extreme danger attendant upon a journey through any part of the ,vizier's territory2 wherein almost every well presents the horrid spectacle of the mangled bodies of those who become victims to the sanguinary hordes of robbers that infest every part of that prince's dominions4 ,on this account1 every gentleman proceeding by land1 from one to another station1 should make a point of obtaining a small guard of a naik and four1 or even of two1 sepoys1 whose presence will generally prove a considerable check on the adventurous disposition of the villagers in that quarter4 ,this precaution will not1 however1 alone be sufficient2 application should be made to the jemmadar1 or head-borough1 of each village where the party may encamp1 for a certain number of chokey-dars1 7watchmen17 proportioned to the number of tents1 horses1 c41 and the whole of the property of every description should be nominally put under the charge of the men thus furnished1 observing1 that the regular pay1 which may be from four to six pice1 or halfpence1 for each1 should be punctually paid to the jemmadar when the camp breaks up the next morning1 and that every item is found to be in a state of safety4 ,when coolies 7i4e4 porters7 are wanted1 to carry the beds1 tables1 c1 of a party1 application should be made1 in like manner1 to the jemmadar2 and when1 after arrival at the next stage1 they may be discharged1 it will be proper to be attentive to the regular payment of every individual thus furnished2 otherwise1 the servants to whom it may be entrusted to discharge them1 will generally withhold a large portion1 or even the whole1 of what may have been ordered4 ,by thus regularly attending to matters of this description1 the villagers will come forward with more alacrity2 though1 it must be confessed1 they are generally very unwilling to engage as coolies2 which is not to be wondered at1 since the jemmadars generally extort from them at least half their earnings on such occasions3 the evil being incurable1 as matters now stand1 must be borne as gracefully as our feelings may allow2 and we must remain content with the reflection of doing justice ourselves1 though we know for certain that our liberality1 in the end1 flows into a wrong channel4 ,when practicable1 it is highly expedient to obtain from the ,european collector's office1 or even from any of the natives under his immediate authority1 who may be deputed to1 or resident at1 such places as lie near the road1 a rhahwaunah1 or pass-port1 wherein it should be set forth1 that1 whatever necessaries1 or coolies1 or chokey-dars1 or dowraws1 7guides17 may be requisite1 should be furnished by such jemmadars of villages as should be called upon for supplies of the above description4 ,this always ensures respect and attention1 and causes the whole of the persons1 to whom it is addressed1 to be vigilant in the discharge of their duties1 lest complaints should be preferred to the collector1 who would speedily summon them to his court1 and punish them in a suitable manner4 ,however audacious the thieves1 whether house-breakers1 or collectors on the highways1 may be1 they very rarely make an immediate attack on ,europeans4 ,this1 no doubt1 proceeds from the sense they entertain of the importance we attach to the safety of our countrymen1 the murderer of whom would be assuredly detected1 and suffer the full sentence of the law4 ,besides1 all the people of ,hindostan know1 that1 with the exception of watches1 which1 for want of pawn-brokers1 and accomplices skilled in the melting of metals1 are of no use to the predatory tribe1 ,europeans never carry about with them any thing valuable4 ,no gentleman ever has money about him2 though his servants sometimes have1 in their waists1 a few rupees1 intended for such disbursements as cannot be delayed without inconvenience4 ,hence1 the boxes1 c41 of gentlemen1 are generally aimed at1 because the cash and valuables are contained in them2 for the same reason1 the most confidential servants are most commonly selected as objects of attack4 ,your true ,hindostanee robber is1 in general1 very active1 robust1 and capable of great deception3 he will patrole about a tent1 during a dark night1 in the manner of a dog1 or of a jackal2 the howl of which he can1 perhaps1 imitate so well as to deceive the sentries1 and throw them completely off their guard4 ,if allowed to approach a tent1 he will select that side where several servants are asleep under the fly1 or awning1 and gradually insinuate himself into the interior1 either by passing under the walls1 or between the overlaps2 if such cannot be easily effected1 he draws his choory1 7knife17 which is sharpened for the occasion1 and makes a slit in the cloth1 or canvas1 large enough to pass his body through1 when1 in the most cautious manner1 and retaining his breath as much as possible1 he gropes about for those articles which1 during the day-time1 he had seen deposited in some particular part of the tent1 and1 after making an opening large enough for his purpose1 or by opening one of the doors1 he watches the opportunity for escaping with his booty4 ,the attempt to seize a thief under such circumstances1 is extremely hazardous1 and ought to be strongly reprehended4 ,being perfectly naked1 and having the body highly lubricated with oil1 it is impossible to grasp him in any part2 while1 on the other hand1 he must be expected to use his knife very freely1 under the determination of escaping4 ,i recollect a curious circumstance that happened in #aghc1 at ,bankypore1 when the tent of a staff-officer was entered1 during the night1 by a fellow of this description1 who1 it being moon-light1 and one part of the tent only closed by a cheek1 was discovered by the gentleman as he lay in bed4 ,seeing his property on the move1 he sprang up to disengage a hog-spear that was tied up to that pole of the marquee which was nearest the bed2 but the thief got the start of him1 by seizing the officer's sword1 which was suspended by a hook that buckled on to the other pole4 ,the adventurer being thus armed1 prevented the gentleman from getting possession of the spear3 after one or two menacing flourishes1 he darted out of the tent1 sword in hand1 and was speedily beyond the reach of pursuit4 ,another very ludicrous circumstance occurred some years antecedent to the above4 ,a gentleman who inhabited a small bungalow1 on the banks of a river1 and who was very ill of that complaint #8the liver1' for which he was under a course of mercury1 perceived1 in the dusk of the evening1 a thief prowling about the apartment in which he was sitting4 ,the fellow was extremely industrious3 and threw a number of articles1 not even sparing the bed-linen1 out at a window that stood open4 ,the gentleman affected to take no notice1 but resolved1 when the thief should follow his booty1 to take him by surprize1 while in the act of collecting them from under the window4 ,this was1 by no means1 an imprudent resolution1 as it appeared probable that the rogue might be secured1 at the same time that the property should be recovered4 ,at length1 after having thrown out whatever was convenient to his purpose1 and having peeped out of the window1 the thief made suddenly towards the gentleman1 and snatched from his head a beautiful shawl1 with which he skipped out of the window4 ,this feat demanded instant action2 the gentleman called lustily for his servants1 who1 awaking from their slumbers1 ran to obey the vociferated summons1 and were just in time to see a small dingy 7or boat7 pulling away to the opposite bank1 with the goods1 the thief1 and his accomplices1 on board6 ,all who travel by land1 should be on their guard never to allow jugglers1 or show-men1 of whatever description1 to enter their tents2 which they will endeavor to do1 under pretence of shewing off their mummeries1 with the intention of ascertaining the posture of whatever moveables may be within4 ,in this1 they are sometimes mistaken2 it being usual to have all boxes1 camp-baskets1 c41 assembled about the foot of the tent-pole1 at night1 and to secure them by means of a chain passing through their respective handles1 c42 the ends of the chain being furnished with a padlock4 ,in fair weather1 the safest mode is to have all the things moved out of the tent1 and placed in a heap1 under charge of a sentry1 who then need pay little attention to any other object1 as the thieves are most intent on those trunks1 c41 which they suppose to contain money1 plate1 c43 as to articles of apparel1 they are of little value1 and would1 probably1 lead to discovery2 the handles of swords1 and breast-plates1 of officers1 being generally of solid silver1 may be placed among the furtive desiderata1 therefore1 should be placed in a state of security4 ,when ,i speak of discovery1 it is not to be understood that the same dread is entertained on that head1 as prevails among the thieves of this quarter of the world4 ,in ,india1 whole villages are inhabited by thieves1 who keep the country around in a state of perpetual terror and of vigilance3 hence1 when a jemmadar furnishes chokey-dars1 he often does it with great reluctance1 under the apprehension of a visit from some neighbouring gang of notoriety1 who act with greater confidence1 from the consideration1 that the village1 at which the robbery may take place1 will be accountable for whatever property may be stolen4 ,hence1 a party is always safest when encamped near a village of professed thieves1 who will1 ordinarily1 forbear to depredate under that circumstance2 conscious that the value put upon the several articles stolen1 must necessarily be1 at least1 tenfold their value to the robbers2 though not in the least exaggerated by those from whom they were stolen4 ,here it is to be observed1 that1 in order to render the claim to remuneration clear and decisive1 it is proper that a requisition should have been made to the jemmadar for chokey-dars2 otherwise1 it may be argued1 that the property was not under his protection4 ,sometimes1 by way of cavil1 a jemmadar1 of such a description1 will find fault with the position of an encampment1 and use many pleas for the purpose of raising objections1 whenever the losses sustained may be laid before the collector1 or judge of the district4 ,if1 however1 he should refuse to grant chokey-dars1 it will be necessary to keep a very sharp look-out2 it being a strong indication of intended mischief4 ,almost every jemmadar of character will reprobate the indulgence of that kind of curiosity which leads gentlemen1 on their first arrival1 to pay the smallest attention to the performances of mountebanks1 jugglers1 puppet-show-men1 c42 all of whom are notorious thieves1 and are attended by numerous confederates1 whose business it is to patrole about under the semblance of country-bumkins1 come to view the camp1 and to take advantage of whatever opportunities may arise1 in consequence of servants1 c41 quitting their several charges1 to witness the exhibitions of the attractive portion of the gang4 ,my memory supplies various instances of the success of this stratagem2 a circumstance not to be wondered at1 when we consider the almost incredible perfection to which leger-de-main1 the tour de passe-passe1 and gymnastic exhibitions1 are brought in ,india4 ,i shall offer a few of the feats displayed by these people1 observing1 that1 with regard to drawing yards of thread from the noses and ears of spectators2 cutting their turbans into pieces1 and joining them again2 changing eggs to chickens1 and mango-stones into growing bushes1 bearing the ripe fruit1 making pigeons lay eggs1 c42 all such are considered as mere common-place deceptions1 confined to the lower orders of this class of vagabonds4 ,the passing a sword-blade1 of about two feet in length1 and two inches in breadth1 down the gullet1 so as to be distinctly felt by the application of a hand to the operator's stomach1 is certainly the most extraordinary part of the exhibition4 ,in this1 there is no deception whatever2 the sword is entire1 and firmly fixed to the handle2 while its solidity is such as to remove all doubt regarding pliancy or evasion in any mode3 all we can say of it is1 that the practice is adopted at an early age2 and that the implement used is gradually encreased1 from a small rattan to that above described4 ,as to vaulting1 the number of somersets1 and capers1 made1 with seeming facility1 while bounding over the backs of elephants1 or of camels1 placed side-by-side1 are truly astonishing6 ,throwing spears at each other1 and catching them under the arms1 while in the act of mission1 mutually1 cannot but cause both dread and surprize3 the accuracy with which this is constantly done1 seems to preclude all admiration at the skill of the celebrated ,william ,tell4 ,jumping through a frame that supports several1 perhaps a dozen1 of tulwars1 7cutlasses17 of which the edges are remarkably sharp1 and which appear to preclude the passage of a man's body through the little interval left among their points1 must be viewed with admiration2 as must also the running bare-foot along a piece of cloth1 perhaps ten yards in length1 that is supported1 at about a foot from the ground1 by several men1 each of whom holds1 under the cloth1 a sharp tulwar1 of which the edge is turned upwards3 the astonishing agility with which this is performed1 absolutely requires to be seen ere it can be duly appreciated6 ,some curious performances in balancing are worthy of notice3 of these1 the stringing1 and unstringing1 of eggs1 is1 perhaps1 the most extraordinary4 ,a man balances1 on his head1 a kind of platter1 projecting1 perhaps1 six inches every way1 of rather a conical form1 7inverted17 and furnished all around with draw-loops of1 perhaps1 a foot in length1 and about two inches asunder3 their whole number may amount to twenty1 or more4 ,on his left arm he bears a basket1 containing as many eggs as there are loops attached to the platter4 ,using one foot for a pivot1 he keeps moving round by the aid of the other1 so as make about ten revolutions in a minute1 and1 while in motion1 successively takes the eggs from the basket1 and1 with his right hand only1 puts each into a loop1 drawing it tight1 so as to retain the egg firmly in an equipoised state4 ,in this manner he strings all the eggs1 and again unstrings and re-places them in the basket2 he always moving the same way4 ,when the whole are strung1 the music quickens its time considerably1 and the operator1 conforming to the change1 accelerates his pace in proportion1 until the velocity acquired by the eggs is such1 as to occasion their whirling on a level with the platter4 ,i consider this to be the most arduous of all the exercises in that branch which depends1 principally1 on delicacy and caution4 ,if we consider how many chances of failure exist1 whether from a slip of the foot1 a want of attention to the due elevation of the elbow1 the aptness of the unemployed loops to become entangled1 the giddiness to be apprehended from turning full half an hour1 with such speed1 always the same way1 and the possibility of allowing a newly-laden loop to fall into its place too suddenly1 and the same in withdrawing it1 when about to take out the egg2 all these are certainly points very difficult to compass1 or to avoid1 and entitle the artist to unlimitted approbation4 ,i observe1 in ,cordiner's ,description of ,ceylon1 some feats of the jugglers in that island noticed as being beyond compare2 but ,i cannot conceive any thing more dexterous than that operation1 so common in ,bengal1 of balancing a bamboo ladder1 about fifteen feet in length1 on a man's chin1 and allowing a well-grown lad1 or a young woman1 to ascend to the summit1 by winding in and out between the steps1 7which barely admit the body to pass17 and ultimately to descend1 head foremost1 in the same manner1 after balancing1 horizontally1 with extended arms and legs1 on either standard of the ladder4 ,i have often wondered what the man's chin could be made of666 ,swarming up a stout bamboo pole1 of full twenty feet long1 balanced on a man's hip1 or shoulder1 and descending again1 by first attaching to the summit by the toes1 and measuring a whole length downwards1 the back being against the bamboo2 then turning the opposite way1 and thus1 in alternate succession2 always appeared to me equally dangerous and astonishing4 ,to perform this1 a man must possess unconscionable strength in his toes and ankles3 the first slip would infallibly be the last6 ,the puppet-shows1 called kaut-pootlies1 7i4e4 wooden infants17 are certainly superior to ,mr4 ,punch and his wife1 as exhibited by various renowned persons throughout ,england4 ,in ,india1 there is to be seen far greater variety1 both in the subject1 and in the several dramatis person3 there1 something like a regular piece is represented1 and it rarely requires a glossary1 or interpreter1 to define the several scenes2 an aid1 without which our artists1 in general1 make but little impression on their spectators1 whose imaginations are generally set on the stretch to divine the meaning of various antics1 which1 though abundantly ludicrous1 seem to proceed from momentary fancy1 rather than from any regular system4 ,the kaut-pootly-wallah1 or puppet-dancer1 does not confine himself to a small centry-box-like theatre2 on the contrary1 when he is to display before any respectable persons1 he makes a point of paying his respects during the day1 and of soliciting the loan of either a small tent1 a konaut1 a satrinje1 or some such article1 for the purpose of enclosing and covering in the necessary space1 so that he and his co-adjutors may perform their parts in secresy4 ,it is commonly made a point that the performance should be by candle-light1 and at some little distance from the line of tents4 ,this is almost a sine qu non with this tribe1 who1 being in league with rogues of all descriptions1 rarely fail to profit by the absence of servants from the charge of their masters' property1 and1 while perhaps both master and man are grinning at the objects presented on the proscenium1 are employed in removing from the tents whatever articles1 of a portable description1 may be exposed to depredation4 ,sometimes the farce is concluded by a shower of clods1 c41 thrown from a distance1 and the whole fly in confusion4 ,this is a device practised on the liberal1 under the representation of the dealer in wood and wire-work1 that some of the nutkuts1 or frolicksome youths1 of the camp1 have battered the whole of the paraphernalia to pieces2 in confirmation of which1 some heads and tails of ci-devant kings and queens are produced4 ,i was once much amused with an imposition of this kind1 that was practised1 with admirable address1 upon a good-natured field officer1 who actually credited the representation1 and1 in addition to the loss of several candle-sticks1 and some other small items1 lent to the artists1 compounded to pay for various fractures1 simple and compound1 sustained by the inanimate heroes6 ,among the itinerant amusements of ,india1 we must class the nuts1 or tumblers1 a people totally distinct from all the other inhabitants of the country1 and who correspond1 in a number of instances1 with the gypsies of ,europe4 ,the following extracts from a paper furnished to the ,asiatic ,society by ,lieutenant-,colonel ,d4 ,t4 ,richardson1 a gentleman of acknowledged abilities1 and who has been remarkably industrious in obtaining a very complete acquaintance with the customs and languages of ,hindostan1 will display this matter in the best manner1 and shew that a greater connection subsists1 or at least has subsisted1 between the nuts of ,asia1 and the gypsies of ,europe1 than our literati are in general aware of4 ,at page #dgc1 of the ,asiatic ,researches1 we have the following passage4 #8,both the gypsies1 and the nuts1 are generally a wandering race of beings1 seldom having a fixed habitation4 ,they have each a language peculiar to themselves4 ,that of the gypsies is1 undoubtedly1 a specimen of ,hindostanee1 and so is that of the nuts4 ,in ,europe1 it answers all the purposes of concealment4 ,here1 a conversion of its syllables becomes necessary4' 7i4e4 in ,india47 #8,the gypsies have their king2 the nuts their nardar-boutah2 they are equally formed into companies1 and their peculiar employments are exactly similar2 viz4 dancing1 singing1 music1 palmistry1 quackery1 dancers of monkeys1 bears1 and snakes4 ,the two latter professions1 from local causes1 are peculiar to the nuts4 ,they are both considered as thieves2 at least1 that division of the nuts whose manners come nearest those of the gypsies4 ,in matters of religion they appear equally indifferent2 we know that neither the gypsies1 nor the budeea-nuts1 are very choice on that particular2 and1 though ,i have not obtained any satisfactory proof of their eating human flesh1 ,i do not find it easy to divest my mind of suspicions on this head4 ,indeed1 one would think the stomach that could receive1 without nausea1 a piece of putrid jackal1 could not well retain any qualms in the selection of animal food4' ,colonel ,richardson furnishes a number of words in use among the gypsies1 which correspond immediately with others in the language of the nuts4 ,i offer a few1 which appear to me best adapted to the illustration of this point2 observing1 that the orthography used by the author1 though perfectly correct1 would not prove satisfactory to a person unversed in the ,oriental pronunciation of the vowels4 ,as a remedy1 or rather an aid1 absolutely necessary towards giving the ,european reader a perfect conception of the due intonations1 ,i have1 in this1 followed my ordinary plan of spelling the ,hindostanee words1 in such manner as should enable a person totally ignorant of that language to pronounce them with propriety4 ,,gypsey ,,words4 ,,hindostanee ,,synonymes4 ,,english ,,translat4 ,apra ,ooper ,above ,bebee ,beebee ,aunt1 or lady ,pownee ,pawnee ,water ,devus ,dewus ,day ,rattee ,raut ,night ,can ,caun ,ear ,dad ,dada ,grandfather ,valashtee ,belaist ,finger ,mutchee ,mutchee ,fish ,gur ,g'hur ,house ,shing ,sing ,horn ,ballow ,baul ,hair ,shunalee ,soonaie ,hearing ,liecaw ,leckap ,writing ,dai ,dhye ,nurse ,mass ,mass ,food ,tod ,dood ,milk ,boot ,bote ,much ,nack ,nauk ,nose ,booro-panee ,burrah-paunee ,great water ,doriove ,derriow ,river ,lolo ,loll ,red ,booro-chairee ,burra-choory ,great knife ,roop ,roopah ,silver ,saup ,saump ,snake ,dicken ,deckna ,to see ,loon ,noon ,salt ,jaw ,jow ,go ,kali-coe ,kul-ko ,yesterday ,tschor ,choor ,thief ,dori ,doory ,string ,rajah ,rajah ,a lord ,ranee ,rannee ,princess ,raz ,raj ,principality ,banduk ,baundook ,musket ,jammadar ,jemmadar ,an officer ,gour ,gor ,grave ,mul ,mool ,wine ,dur ,door ,jar ,jungustri ,angootee ,ring ,paka ,punk ,wing ,schut ,kuttah ,sour ,ker ,g'hur ,house ,sapa ,savon ,soap ,menghna ,maungna ,to want ,pi ,pee ,drink ,metchana ,putchana ,to know ,me-dikaka ,my-deckata ,i saw ,chabben ,chabna ,to eat ,tober ,tobula ,an axe ,starrie ,sitara ,star ,rashee ,rishee ,priest ,bocolee ,bookap ,hungry ,por ,poor ,full ,geecoa ,jee-oo-ka ,life1 living4 ,the foregoing will suffice to give much insight into the affinity spoken of2 especially when it is considered that the gypsey words are chiefly taken from ,grellman's ,vocabulary1 wherein we are to make considerable allowances for ,german intonation1 especially regarding the vowel u1 and the dipthong oo1 as in dur1 and door2 and for dori1 and doory2 the slight differences between which1 so far as is connected with orthography1 would probably disappear if the words were spoken by a ,german gypsey1 and a nut1 respectively4 ,add to this1 that the natives of ,india use the letters ,l1 and ,n1 rather promiscuously3 thus1 they say either leel1 or neel1 7for blue72 the capital of ,oude is as often called ,nucklow1 as ,lucknow1 and the word noon1 7salt17 is very commonly pronounced loon2 as in the gypsey language4 ,if it is considered that the foregoing comparison did not take place at a time when ,colonel ,richardson had the opportunity to examine closely into the particulars1 by having access to ,european gypsies1 whose familiar conversation1 when explained1 might have furnished numberless instances of accordance1 which1 from his accurate knowledge of the ,hindostanee language1 might ever have been such as to enable him to understand a gypsey colloquy2 we must admit that strong probabilities exist1 as to the nuts and the gypsies being branches from the same stock4 ,colonel ,richardson observes1 very properly1 #8,should any real ,hindostanee scholars ever investigate this matter on the spot in ,europe1 their evidence and observations will probably settle the matter effectually1 one way or other1 for ever4' ,he likewise remarks1 that #8,grellman1 from a want of knowledge of the ,hindostanee1 lost many opportunities of producing the proper word1 in comparison with the gypsey one'--and again1 he forcibly remarks1 that #8,it is not the accidental coincidence of a few words1 but the whole vocabulary he 7,grellman7 produces1 differs not so much from the common ,hindostanee1 as provincial dialects of the same country usually do from each other4' ,that cast1 or tribe1 of nuts1 known by the name of bauzeegurs1 generally affect to follow the ,mahomedan faith1 but the purneah peeries1 or budeea tribe1 follow either that1 or the doctrines of ,brahma1 just as may suit their purposes1 or their locality4 ,either sect have so very few religious ceremonies1 as to render it doubtful whether they profess more than may serve to screen them from the imputation of atheism2 a charge which would sink them even lower in the estimation of every inhabitant of ,asia4 ,they inter their relations in a very slovenly manner1 and may often be found lying drunk about the grave3 their marriage forms are extremely simple1 the bride and bridegroom mutually mark each other's faces with red ochre1 after which1 they lock their little fingers together1 and avow their union3 the ceremony is usually concluded by a sacrifice to the muddled deity1 in which all bear their parts with great eagerness1 and devotion6 ,it is a rule among the nuts never to go to law1 nor to submit their differences to any arbitrators1 except of their own profession3 owing to the extreme jealousy of the men1 and the frequent excesses of both sexes in the use of gaunjah1 and other intoxicating draughts1 such differences are by no means rare1 and contribute partly to the support of their rulers1 who receive a fourth part of whatever is earned1 or perhaps begged1 borrowed1 or stolen1 by the several sets which ramble over the country1 according to their own fancies1 or as they may be ordered4 ,such regular debauchery1 added to the violent exercise undergone during their early years1 reduce the period of life among these people to a very short compass4 ,few live beyond the age of forty1 and by far the larger portion fail of attaining their thirtieth year2 the women generally fall victims after having borne four or five children4 ,with respect to dancing1 which is a part of the duties of a female nut1 much encomium cannot be justly bestowed3 their style of performance is vulgar1 and they generally study that kind of lewd display1 which renders their performances too indelicate to be described4 ,tumbling head-over-heels1 walking upon their hands1 ,catherine-wheel1 c41 c42 all come within the display afforded for a trifling gratuity6 ,the traveller will sometimes be visited by sets of nautch-girls1 who either reside in some of the principal towns1 and make a point of offering their services towards the amusement of gentlemen traversing the country2 or who are itinerants1 that pick up a livelihood by rambling about1 chiefly among the villages inhabited by ,mahomedans1 whose dispositions are more prompt than those of the ,hindus to receive gratification from voluptuous exhibitions4 ,besides1 the latter are generally more penurious1 and are so rigidly tied down1 both by tenet1 and by the vigilance of their neighbours1 as to have but little scope for indulgence in those sensualities1 which the followers of the ,prophet1 who anxiously look forward to the enjoyment of the houris1 are less scrupulous to conceal4 ,the greater part of the individuals composing the taffah1 or set of female dancers1 are either attached by family connections1 such as marriage with the oostauds and surmaunjahs1 who are the instructors and musicians2 or they are slaves obtained by purchase during times of scarcity3 some1 indeed1 are kidnapped when very young1 on account of their promising features2 these rarely are able to give any account of their parentage1 and do not always know the districts in which they were born4 ,whatever may be their origin1 or their connection1 the dancers1 who are likewise vocal performers1 are entirely subservient to some person1 whether male or female1 who is considered the proprietor of the set1 and on whose application to any court of law1 or to any soubah1 or person in power1 any run-away is immediately pursued1 and restored to the taffah2 whether the obligation be peremptory1 such as in the case of a baundy1 or actual slave2 or merely implied1 as in the case of a paulah1 or person preserved from famine1 c41 and reared in the capacity of a menial4 ,the ,mahomedan law barely recognizes actual slavery1 but makes a great distinction in favor of those who purchase1 or thus adopt1 children that would otherwise1 in all probability1 perish from want4 ,the latter are considered to be the property of the patron1 until arrived at their full growth1 which is understood to be about the age of eighteen2 but this affords easy evitation to such proprietors of taffahs as feel an interest in the detention of any particular girls under their authority4 ,to say the truth1 very little cause of complaint seems to exist on such occasions3 the girls are usually well cloathed1 and well fed2 they are rarely limitted in regard to paramours1 and1 on the whole1 experience as much comfort as their habits1 and those envious traits ever to be seen among persons of the same profession1 admit4 ,where these taffahs are found in the vicinity of our camps1 and stations1 whether civil or military1 it is common to see the dancers attach themselves to some particular ,european gentlemen1 of whose friendship they make much boast3 the profits of such a speculation cannot be wholly reserved by any one of the party2 they are supposed to be surrendered1 without diminution1 to the proprietor1 for the general benefit of the set4 ,that full surrender is not1 however1 always made2 on the contrary1 some contrive to redeem themselves from this species of demi-slavery1 by means of sums accumulated in the course of years1 and concealed1 with extreme solicitude1 from the scrutinizing eye of the proprietor4 ,when such a redemption takes place1 it is never done overtly1 but by the pretended interference of some gentleman1 or opulent native1 who1 either from love1 or charity1 feels disposed to pay the ransom3 were the possession of the property to be acknowledged by the anxious female1 it would instantly be seized as a droit1 and she would probably undergo that severest of ,hindostanee punishments1 the loss of all her kase1 or hair6 ,it is not uncommon for persons purchasing slaves1 or rearing deserted children1 to affix the badge of slavery immediately1 and to cause it to be worn by the unfortunate being1 thus devoted to tyrannical authority during life4 ,this type of dependance consists simply of an iron ring1 similar to those on light fetters1 which is worn on either of the ankles1 generally on the left3 there it is rivetted in the usual manner1 with the intention of being always seen4 ,to remove the ring1 is considered highly criminal on the part of all concerned1 and should the slave be thereby enabled to abscond1 would subject the abettors to payment of his or her value4 ,in every part of ,india the profession of a prostitute is devoid of that stigma annexed to it in ,europe3 persons following it are protected by law in certain privileges1 and their persons are far from being held in abomination1 such as we should suppose must be generated towards so impure a character among the moralists of the ,east4 ,this is entirely owing to the profession being hereditary1 the same as other sects1 and not promiscuous1 or arising from vicious propensities1 as we see daily the case among us4 ,it is true the term kusbee is used as a reproach2 but that seems rather to refer to such as1 like our wantons1 degenerate in consequence of their libidinous dispositions1 and are not attached to the two great divisions1 the meerasseens1 and the puttareahs1 both of which have claims on the bounty of princes1 and to exemptions from certain taxes2 though1 to make up for such indulgences1 the cutwals1 and other native officers1 under whose authority they may reside1 not only demand their attendance1 whether to sing1 dance1 or what not1 gratis1 but impose upon them heavy assessments1 in proportion to their repute and prosperity4 ,with the view to prevent the encrease of a certain disorder1 which proceeds with rapid strides in that hot climate1 it is customary to appoint a committee every month1 at each great station1 for the inspection of such dulcineas as may be resident within the bounds of the cantonments3 such as appear to be diseased1 are instantly confined to a small hospital1 appropriated to their reception3 a salutary measure1 which doubtless prevents much mischief1 and is superior to our ,lock ,institution1 which only offers1 but does not coerce to1 a proper course of medicine4 ,such women as1 being married1 or living under the protection of any person1 are found to indulge in variety1 are designated chinauls1 and are held in far greater disrepute than the professed kusbee1 or common prostitute4 ,as predestinarians constantly contradict1 by their evasions of danger1 the main principle of their creed1 so do the good folks of ,hindostan deviate widely from their system of ethics on this head2 for1 although adultery1 under any circumstances whatever1 is held up as a mortal sin1 to be atoned for by death only2 nevertheless1 we find the males of all ages particularly bent on that kind of gallantry which comes within the letter of the law1 and generally produces the contact of two persons whose casts are thereby respectively polluted4 ,in a former part1 ,i explained more fully the deceptions practised by native women retained by ,european gentlemen2 it remains for me to add1 that such is the spirit of intrigue prevalent among the people at large1 that we may at least conclude the ladies in that quarter to keep pace with the most enlightened of our own population6 ,when a native1 especially a ,hindu1 of high cast1 suspects that his wife is guilty of infidelity1 he generally proceeds to repudiate her in the most public manner2 but it often happens that he is saved that trouble1 either by the intervention of her father1 brother1 c41 who1 under pretence of conducting her home1 leads the offender to some lone spot1 where1 with his tulwar1 he severs her head from her body1 and deliberately leaves both to be devoured by jackals1 c4 ,this office is likewise occasionally performed by the husband himself2 who must1 however1 be careful not to betray his intention1 lest a powerful dose1 mixed among his takorry1 7vegetable curry17 should prevent the completion of his design1 or1 possibly1 cause him to fall a sacrifice to the lover's resentment4 ,a very curious instance of this occurred in #aghi1 wherein a sepoy1 of my own company1 was principally concerned4 ,he had long been in the good graces of a woman who was married to a sonaar1 7goldsmith17 then absent in another part of the country4 ,the lady's father1 who had no other child1 on learning the particulars of the intrigue from one of her servants1 remonstrated1 but in vain4 ,he then determined to sacrifice her1 and ordered that she should quit her own home1 for the purpose of being conducted to his house1 which was in a village some miles distant4 ,suspecting his intention1 the adultress communicated the circumstance to her lover1 who advised her to follow her father1 and promised to prevent his doing her any injury4 ,accordingly1 she allowed her parent to precede her1 as usual1 7for no woman ever walks before a man1 especially if it be her husband1 or any relative17 until they arrived at a small jungle1 when1 as he was about to draw his tulwar to sauf-kur 7literally1 #8to make clean1' but1 in the accepted sense1 to kill1 or destroy17 her1 the lover darted forth1 and1 at one blow1 took off his head4 ,the lady and her lover were both apprehended1 and tried before the zemindary court at ,benares1 within whose jurisdiction the crime was perpetrated3 against the woman nothing could be urged1 she was therefore acquitted2 the man was convicted1 and condemned2 but the woman1 being next of kin to the deceased1 and having the right1 according to the law1 of pardoning his murderer1 instantly gave him her absolution in open court1 and1 to the great surprize and mortification of the whole court1 returned homewards with her paramour1 to persevere in the adulterous intercourse4 ,it was in vain that ,marquis ,cornwallis1 on receipt of the intelligence1 used every endeavor to obtain a revision of the proceedings3 the ,court were inflexible1 and the parties could not1 legally1 be apprehended4 ,his ,lordship was1 therefore1 left without that redress he thought due to the public1 and could only cause the sepoy to be dismissed from the ,company's service1 and to be banished from the ,company's dominions4 ,where the law gives so absurd a power1 it might be expected that scarce a husband would be safe2 but that is not the case2 for they1 in general1 act very decidedly1 whenever they are made acquainted with the existence of offences against conjugal propriety4 ,the caution used in conducting an amour is not always very great1 but there is1 in fact1 only one difficulty to be overcome1 viz4 the obtaining admission to the interior while the husband is absent3 that being effected1 detection is not very easy1 because1 the immured state in which women are kept1 offers the best screen against the curiosity of prying neighbours4 ,what with the dark color of the mud walls1 the sombre complexion of the people themselves1 and the shade commonly cast by heavy foliages1 standing in the vicinity of villages in general1 as well as by the over-hanging thatches1 c41 it is not very easy1 even for a neighbour1 to ascertain1 after night-fall1 whether a person1 having a cloth on the head1 entering the sacred enclosure1 be male or female4 ,about the year #aghf1 a laughable story was current1 regarding a young officer who had a very pretty ,hindoo girl in keeping1 but who1 being of a very salacious disposition1 always endeavored to prevail with such young women as came to vend fruits1 or to sell choories1 c41 to be his inmate4 ,one of these daily visitors held out against every temptation1 which so roused the youth's passions1 that he resolved to obtain that by force which money could not purchase4 ,the struggle made a terrible discovery2 the supposed damsel proving to be a young ,portugueze drummer666 ,the ordinary mode of conveyance adopted by the generality of nautch-taffahs1 is the common hackery1 called a g'horry1 which has two wheels1 with a square body1 as has been already described2 in one of these1 four or five crowd together1 sitting almost back to back1 and allowing their legs to hang down on every side4 ,the generality are of very decent behavior1 but1 when they get a little majoom 7a sweatmeat prepared with b'haug7 into their noddles1 it is not uncommon to see them proceed in high style1 singing away in full chorus1 and1 occasionally1 exhibiting specimens of their profession1 by attitudes corresponding with the words of songs purely ,cyprian6 ,the baggage1 if any1 is commonly carried on some hired bullock1 or in a hackery2 some sets are1 however1 so opulent1 as to be able to keep one or two camels1 and to purchase a tolerably good ,hindostanee tent1 that is1 without walls1 and supported by two bamboo poles1 each about eight or nine feet long4 ,the baggage of ,europeans is1 ordinarily carried on elephants1 camels1 bullocks1 hackeries1 or coolies3 of late years1 a great improvement has been made1 by taking off the body of a gig1 with its shafts1 and substituting a frame1 made on such a plan as may serve to contain several trunks and liquor chests below1 while a cot1 with all the necessary bedding1 having over them a painted canvas canopy1 covers the whole1 and keeps every part compact and dry4 ,such a conveyance1 with a tolerably stout horse1 is found to get on far more expeditiously than any of the others4 ,with respect to elephants1 it may be said1 that they are either the best1 or the worst1 carriage3 in the low countries1 where the soil is often soft for the greater part of the year1 the elephant is certainly a most useful animal2 his feet being broad1 and his power so great as to enable his acting with decision and energy at the moment of difficulty1 qualify him1 almost exclusively1 for the transportation of tents1 and heavy baggage1 in such parts of the country as remain heavy or swampy during the more settled part of the year4 ,though we may suppose1 that1 previous to the plains of ,bengal being cultivated1 they were over-ran with elephants1 the same as other parts of ,india1 of which that animal is a native1 still it should seem1 that their principal haunts must have been along that hilly wilderness in which they are now found in a gregarious state4 ,it is well known that the elephant thrives best near the sea1 that in its vicinity he attains his greatest bulk1 and is exempt from various diseases1 especially the opthalmia and the dropsy1 both of which attack at least four in five of such as are removed to dry soils4 ,this circumstance1 as well as the peculiar formation and substance of the foot1 appear to render the elephant peculiarly appropriate to the use of such persons as have occasion for carriage-cattle 7i4e4 cattle that bear burthens7 in the lower provinces4 ,endued with wonderful sagacity1 the elephant will only proceed on soils which bear him up to a certain extent3 so soon as he feels a peculiar vibration1 that indicates a want of firmness below1 he instantly declines further progress1 and1 turning round1 or receding1 with more activity than his clumsy form may indicate1 hastens to quit the apprehended danger2 and1 without regard to things or persons1 makes the best of his way to terra firma4 ,sometimes1 however1 this majestic animal gets bogged1 and1 notwithstanding his immense strength1 becomes completely incapable of self-extrication4 ,on such an occasion1 nothing more is necessary than to supply him with abundance of straw1 or cut grass1 tied in bundles2 these he forces down with his proboscis1 till they are under his feet respectively2 and1 by their accumulated resistance1 afford the means of gradually bearing up1 and of raising him to the surface4 ,his egress is ensured by an ample stock of the same materials1 together with faggots1 c41 thrown before him1 in number sufficient to form a kind of path-way1 along which the elephant moves with wondrous caution3 on such an occasion1 he should1 like a mule on a mountain1 be left to himself1 as he will manage with perfect prudence2 whereas1 if actuated by a mohout1 7or driver17 he might be again plunged into difficulty4 ,the stature of elephants1 in general1 may be rated between seven and nine feet3 the former is the standard at which they are admitted upon the ,company's establishment1 at the value of five hundred sicca rupees each 7#fe74 ,provided the animals be stout1 and competent to carry a proper burthen1 such blemishes as would depreciate them considerably among the natives1 who entertain many prejudices in this particular1 are not considered4 ,the principal defects1 in the eye of a native merchant1 are1 #a4 ,a broken tail2 or a deficiency of the forked hair at its termination4 ,the former arises from the habit the elephants are in1 of laying hold of their opponent's tails with their trunks1 and of twisting them so1 that1 occasionally1 they are absolutely snapped1 or1 perhaps1 tumefy1 and1 in the end1 sphacelate4 #b;d4 ,an uneven number of claws to the feet3 there should be five on each fore1 and four on each hind foot4 #c;d4 ,bad tusks2 that is1 such as are decayed1 or1 having been broken in contests1 cannot be rendered ornamental3 an elephant born with only one tooth1 or tusk1 is highly prized1 as being sure to overwhelm its owner with good fortune4 #dth4 ,having a black1 or spotted palate2 either of which is supposed to be an indication of bad health1 as well as of misfortune4 #eth4 ,bad eyes2 though sometimes we see very serviceable elephants totally deprived of sight1 which travel admirably with burthens1 but are unfit for the howdah2 these are extremely careful to put their trunks forward as they proceed1 whereby they are warned of any hollows1 c4 ,blind elephants are peculiarly attentive to the words of command given by their drivers4 #fth4 ,the want of hair on the forehead1 lean jaws1 small jagged ears1 narrow feet1 thin legs1 short bodies1 and a contracted barrel1 or carcase1 are all objectionable1 and become serious objects of attention in the purchase of this animal4 ,an ,european1 not accustomed to view elephants critically1 would conclude that little variety1 in the above respects1 would be found2 but there are certainly as many estimable1 or agreeable1 points in a fine elephant1 as in a fine horse2 though we rarely look so narrowly into the perfections of the former1 on account of being less in the habits of cherishing1 or of driving1 them in person4 ,according to the regulations1 an elephant ought to be able to carry twenty-five maunds1 which is within a twenty-sixth part of being a ton2 but1 although the several contractors stipulate1 without hesitation1 that their elephants should be able to carry that weight at all times1 not one in a hundred of those in the service1 or in the possession of individuals1 could bear it even for one day's ordinary march1 which should not exceed eight coss1 7sixteen miles17 all beyond that being considered a forced march4 ,the elephant is furnished with two pads1 of which the under one1 called a guddaylah1 is commonly made of red karwah1 stuffed to the thickness of an inch and a half with cotton1 and well quilted4 ,the upper pad1 called a guddy1 is made of tawt1 which is a narrow kind of very coarse canvas1 and is stuffed very hard with straw to about the thickness of six inches4 ,these are put on1 the one over the other1 and firmly secured to the body by means of stout ropes passing round the whole1 as well as under the tail1 by way of crupper4 ,such a thickness may appear too great2 but it is to be considered that an elephant ought1 by the contract1 to carry either four common marquees1 each weighing1 when dry1 #dbelb41 and1 when wet1 #eiglb42 or six private tents1 each weighing1 when dry1 #bgelb41 and1 when wet1 #dbflb4 ,therefore1 when ,i take the medium at twenty-five maunds1 it is but striking a fair balance4 ,an ordinary elephant requires two servants2 namely1 a mohout1 or driver1 who sits upon his back1 and guides1 by means of a crooked instrument of iron1 called a haunkus1 aided by words of command1 and the application of his toes behind the animal's ears4 ,the other servant1 called a cooly1 or grass-cutter1 performs all the more menial offices1 such as taking the elephant out for charrah1 i4e4 fodder1 of which it can carry as much as will suffice for two1 or1 if well laden1 for three days4 ,the feet of an elephant require considerable care2 they being extremely apt to chafe1 and wear away1 at the soles1 so as to render him completely unserviceable for a time4 ,this generally happens where the soil is dry and harsh1 as throughout the upper country1 but may be1 in a great measure1 prevented by paying them with astringent applications1 so that the skin may be rendered harder1 and the foot1 in general1 somewhat callous4 ,when an elephant is chafed on the back1 the part is usually rubbed with ghee and turmeric1 and the pad cushioned so as to raise the spot under which the excoriation may be3 if suffered to continue in a state of irritation1 the smallest sore will speedily assume a most formidable appearance1 owing to the peculiarly cellular formation of an elephant's flesh4 ,the mode of catching elephants for the public service is very simple1 requiring more perseverance than skill1 yet attended with a heavy expence4 ,in those wildernesses near ,chittagong1 ,tipperah1 c41 along the eastern boundary1 some hundreds1 or perhaps thousands1 of villagers are assembled1 who form a circle around those herds they may find1 and gradually frighten them into a kind of trap1 called a keddah1 of which the entrance is of a crescent form1 leading to a large area1 properly enclosed by an immense trench1 and by large piles well bound together4 ,after a while1 the animals are driven1 or induced1 into a smaller area1 from which they are taken into a narrow passage1 for the purpose of being secured1 and led away to the stands1 at which they remain until completely tamed4 ,it was formerly the practice to break their spirit by privations and severity2 but1 of late years1 it has been found preferable to sooth as much as possible2 a change which has been attended with the most happy results4 ,so far has this plan succeeded1 that many elephants are now better reconciled in one month than they formerly were in four or five2 while1 at the same time1 many inconveniences1 especially those severe ligatures1 which invariably made desperate sores about the ankles1 c41 are almost wholly avoided4 ,the practice of decoying the large single males1 which separate from the herds1 and are called sauns1 or goondahs1 is extremely curious3 two or three females are generally sent out for the purpose of inveigling the ferocious males thus ranging about4 ,such female elephants1 which are called k'hoomkies1 are highly valuable1 especially if they be large1 and attached to their mohouts1 whom they will protect to the last moment1 if accidentally discovered by their intended prize while passing the ropes around his legs4 ,for a particular account of this1 which can scarcely be rendered distinct but by the aid of plates1 ,i refer my readers to #8,,the ,,wild ,,sports ,,of ,,the ,,east1' published from my designs and memoirs by ,mr4 ,edward ,orme1 of ,bond ,street1 and ,messrs4 ,black1 ,parry1 and ,kingsbury1 of ,leadenhall ,street4 ,contrary to the opinion formerly current1 it has been ascertained that elephants copulate in the same manner as other quadrupeds4 ,this has been certified by ,mr4 ,john ,corse1 the resident ,surgeon at ,tipperah1 who established a breed of elephants at that place2 whereby much insight has been obtained regarding the natural history of this noble animal4 ,when ,mr4 ,corse transmitted that account which may be seen in the third volume of the ,asiatic ,researches1 he had not the opportunity of ascertaining the period of gestation1 which has since been found to give an average of about twenty-two months4 ,that less time could not be required1 was evident from the incipient portion of that gentleman's researches2 as a female elephant1 taken in ,january1 #aghh1 did not produce her calf1 which was thirty-five inches high at his birth1 and grew four inches in as many months1 until the #afth of ,october1 #aghi4 ,elephants are invariably measured at the shoulder1 and not on the arch of the back1 the want of which is to be considered as indicative of age4 ,elephants are to be found along the whole extent of frontier1 ranging from the ,chittagong district1 to the very borders of ,thibet4 ,they become more scarce1 and are1 besides1 less robust1 and of smaller stature1 in proportion as they recede from the sea coasts4 ,those sent yearly1 by way of compliment1 or of tribute1 from the ,rajah of ,napaul1 are by no means to be compared with the coomaeeahs1 and mooknahs of ,tipperah1 and ,chittagong1 whose form and bulk certainly entitle them to superior estimation4 ,some of these are1 occasionally1 sold for immense sums to the native princes in the upper parts of ,hindostan4 ,two thousand rupees are held to be but a low price for a male of nine feet in height1 provided his teeth are large1 even1 and of regular curves3 sometimes elephants1 of extraordinary bulk1 and of remarkably fine points1 have reached to eight or ten thousand rupees4 ,the expence of keeping an elephant will vary according to the situation1 and to the general services wherein it is employed3 in the ,dacca district but little expence is incurred1 unless hard labour is to be performed1 there being abundance of d'hul1 7grass17 and of foliage1 of which the animal can always obtain an ample supply gratis4 ,there1 a mohout rarely receives more than three rupees monthly1 and a grass-cutter more than two4 ,i have shewn1 in describing the servants necessary to be retained in a gentleman's suite1 that the wages of these menials are generally much higher2 which1 when added to the average charges for food1 chiefly badjra1 or millet stems1 which must be paid for1 and rice1 or barley1 perhaps to the extent of #cjlb4 daily1 will cause the expence of maintaining an elephant in the upper provinces1 to amount to full thirty1 or thirty-five1 rupees per mensem2 and that1 too1 exclusive of the wear and tear of gear of all kinds4 ,on the whole1 we may compute that an elephant1 well kept1 will cost full forty rupees 7#e47 monthly4 ,when we consider that1 in ,england1 few gentlemen keep their horses for much less1 and that an elephant performs so much essential drudgery1 indeed1 equal to a team of three stout cart horses1 also that the value of money in ,india is not half so great as with us1 we may deem the above aggregate to be very moderate3 the misfortune is1 that an elephant is not1 like a horse1 promptly or generally useful2 and that1 owing to the nature of the climate1 as well as of the soil1 months often elapse before the proprietor of the former may be able to avail himself of the valuable powers of his sable property4 ,camels are very generally kept by the officers of the army throughout the upper provinces1 that is to say1 above the ,delta of the ,ganges1 where the soil is more appropriate to their form1 than those muddy1 slippery1 tracts1 in which these animals are extremely subject to fall4 ,when such an accident happens1 it is a great chance but the animal is rendered useless2 as1 owing to the great length of the hind legs1 and to the want of any membranes1 or muscles1 calculated to prevent their easy divergence in diametrically opposite directions1 the pelvis is extremely apt to split1 and the power of extrication1 or even of support itself1 is entirely lost to this very valuable quadruped4 ,though we generally attach the term #8camel' to that species of the camelus found in ,india1 where great numbers are bred by persons who make a very large profit from their labors1 the animal under consideration1 having but one hump1 or bunch1 on its back1 should1 properly1 be called a #8dromedary4' ,whatever may be the true designation1 the utility of the animal in a climate1 and on a soil1 to which it is so admirably suited by nature1 is indisputable2 but1 with regard to its powers1 as described by naturalists1 or by travellers1 ,i must beg leave to enter a partial dissent4 ,i have now before me a very respectable publication1 wherein it is said1 that #8a camel will carry a weight of #a1bjjlb41 and will perform a journey of three hundred leagues in eight days4' ,now1 my own experience convinces me very fully that few camels will carry more than eight maunds1 when making1 on an average1 stages of from fourteen1 to sixteen1 or1 at the very utmost1 twenty miles within the day1 for two months2 allowing a weekly halt4 ,so sensible are the ,government of ,india of the inability of a camel to perform any thing like the service above described1 that1 in all their contracts1 in which it must have been seen they take care so to proportion the burthens1 that none but the choicest of cattle could move under them1 it is especially detailed that such camels as may be admitted upon the ,company's establishment of carriage-cattle1 should be rated in the proportion of three camels to one elephant2 which1 in other words1 assigns to each a burthen composed of two private tents1 the weight of each1 when dry1 being #bgelb41 and1 when wet1 #dbflb42 including poles1 pins1 mallets1 bags1 c4 ,taking the medium as a standard1 i4e4 one wet1 and one dry tent1 the average burthen would be only #gjalb41 which will be found a greater load than any camels1 setting apart perhaps one or two of extraordinary powers1 which have come within my observation1 could carry in a proper manner1 so as to answer general purposes1 when marching with a regiment4 ,the value of a camel varies according to size1 form1 age1 condition1 and disposition3 supposing all those points to be mediocrity1 from eighty1 to a hundred and twenty1 rupees may be taken as a standard2 observing1 that1 where no military movement is in question1 the prices are often lower1 and that1 in cases of emergency1 they have been known to rise even so high as to four1 five1 and six1 hundred rupees3 but such1 fortunately1 is very rarely the case4 ,most gentlemen keep two or three camels1 for the purpose of carrying their tent1 liquors1 and cot4 ,if on a moderate scale1 two will generally prove competent to the work1 but if the tent be large1 the liquors and linen abundant1 and the cot extensive1 or on a heavy construction1 a third camel will be necessary4 ,in fact1 ,i know not of worse policy1 than that we too often see adopted1 of burthening an animal with as much as it can stand under4 ,when the moment of difficulty comes1 as it rarely fails to do1 infinite vexation1 and an enormous encrease of expence1 invariably follow4 ,hence1 it will be found advisable1 though the primary expence may be encreased1 and the subsequent monthly charges be a trifle greater1 always to retain three1 in preference to two camels2 unless the intended burthens be very compact1 and not subject to accumulate a great addition of weight in wet weather4 ,the difference shewn to exist between tents1 when wet1 and when dry1 according to the ,company's standard1 ascertained by actual experiments1 should prove a guide to all persons about to proceed on a march1 so to proportion the loads imposed on their cattle as not to endanger their total failure4 ,it should never be forgotten1 that excoriations1 however trivial in the first instance1 speedily rankle into wounds1 not simply painful1 but generally trenching deeply on the immediate powers1 as well as on the condition1 of those useful dumb animals1 which submit to the last moment to the will of their heedless employers4 ,camels1 as well as elephants1 lie down1 so as to bring their stomachs to the ground1 while receiving or discharging their burthens4 ,at such moments1 the former are extremely irritable2 snarling1 and watching the opportunity for biting4 ,to say the best of these animals1 they are never to be trusted1 their dispositions being1 for the most part1 sanguinary and treacherous1 although they are not carnivorous1 being fed chiefly on gram1 and chaff of various kinds3 a camel1 like the bull-dog1 rarely lets go his hold4 ,the expence of maintaining a camel may be averaged at about four or five rupees monthly1 exclusive of its portion of the surwan's 7i4e4 the driver's7 wages3 the large crook saddle1 with its jolah1 or canvas trappings1 and its saleetah1 or canvas sheet made of tawt1 for the purpose of lading tents1 and especially for bringing in chaff1 may be averaged1 for wear and tear1 at about a rupee monthly4 ,from this it will be seen1 that if a surwan1 attending three camels1 should receive six rupees for pay1 and that each of the camels should cost six more1 the whole expence1 amounting to twenty-four rupees per mensem1 would fall far short of that incurred by one elephant4 ,the advantages attendant upon an elephant1 are1 that the load is all carried compact and entire2 that he can travel in swampy districts1 where no other animal could proceed at all2 and that he is serviceable to ride upon1 and to join in the line to beat hogs1 and other game1 out of heavy covers4 ,on the other hand1 a camel will travel on those dry soils which destroy an elephant's feet1 without sustaining the smallest injury2 he is more patient under heat1 and the absence both of fodder and of water2 his prime cost is considerably less2 his maintenance cheaper2 and1 where a division of carriage becomes necessary1 one camel may be sent off1 while the others are retained4 ,but camels rarely thrive if exposed during the rains2 hence1 it is customary to build sheds for their reception during that season3 this1 however1 is done at a very trifling expence1 and might1 doubtless1 be dispensed with altogether1 at least in the upper provinces1 if young animals were to be purchased that had never been so domesticated4 ,few gentlemen retain their camels while serving near the ,presidency1 where fodder is at a most enormous price1 and where the mange commonly attacks within a few weeks after arrival4 ,the heavy1 awkward1 and apparently slow1 gait of the camel1 generally induces to a belief that its rate of travelling is disadvantageous1 inasmuch as it may denote inability to keeping up with the generality of elephants4 ,this1 however1 is a great mistake1 for it is very common to see the latter1 when in the least over-burthened1 or when the weather is hot1 or the road sandy1 very late in arriving at their destination2 whereas1 the camel1 under an appropriate load1 will move on at a regular pace1 generally making a distance of seven feet1 as ,i have repeatedly ascertained1 from the centre of that spot whence it lifts a foot1 to where it again sets it down3 few elephants do so much2 they walk quicker1 but their strides are rarely so extensive4 ,the propensity of a camel to stale1 so soon as eased of his burthen1 renders it indispensably necessary to drive him to a distance so soon as the tent is off his back2 otherwise1 the urinous stench attached to the spot would render it very unpleasant1 or1 rather1 insupportable4 ,the native chemists extract large quantities of ammonia from those stands where camels have been kept for many weeks4 ,the greatest inconvenience attached to a camel is his utter inability to swim across a river1 such as any other animal would consider no impediment4 ,it is true1 that1 occasionally1 camels may have been seen to swim for a few yards1 but1 in general1 they turn upon the side1 and1 unless instantly rescued1 would infallibly be drowned4 ,perhaps this arises from the general roundness of their bodies1 which are very easily acted upon by the super-incumbent weight of the neck and head1 that become levers1 not sufficiently opposed by their almost fleshless limbs4 ,some camels enter with readiness into ferry-boats1 even of the rudest construction1 while others require to be urged by the display of fire in their rear1 or even by the actual cautery6 ,when once on board1 they are generally quiet1 but do not seem to entertain such a dread of their insulated situation as horses do4 ,in this particular1 the elephant has a most decided superiority3 he enters the water with alacrity1 and1 guided by the mohout1 who preserves his seat on the animal's neck1 until the latter may1 by way of frolic1 descend to walk on the bottom1 keeping1 at the same time1 the end of his proboscis above water1 makes his way to the opposite bank1 though perhaps a mile distant4 ,if there be occasional shallows1 whereon he can refresh himself1 two or three miles are passed with equal facility4 ,in their wild state1 elephants cross very large rivers in herds2 the young ones swimming by the sides of their mothers1 which1 occasionally1 support their gigantic calves by means of their trunks1 either passed under the body1 or slightly hooked in with the young one's proboscis4 ,when domesticated1 elephants lose much of their natural energy in every instance2 and1 in lieu of viewing a tiger without fear1 gradually become so timid1 as to be dreadfully agitated at the sight1 or smell1 even of a dead one3 hence1 in tiger-hunting1 those elephants which are more recently taken from the keddahs1 provided they be sufficiently trained to be safe in other respects1 are usually best suited to the sport1 and afford their riders a better chance of success4 ,those who cannot afford1 or who consider it unnecessary1 to retain either an elephant1 or camels1 usually purchase1 or hire1 bullocks1 when about to march to any station not very remote4 ,some1 indeed1 prefer them altogether2 but1 after having given them more than one trial1 both from necessity1 and from the persuasions of others1 my mind is made up to the full conviction1 that1 although rarely costing more than sixteen or twenty rupees each1 7that is1 from forty to fifty shillings17 they are the most tardy1 the most troublesome1 and the most expensive1 of all the beasts of burthen in question6 ,knowing1 from dear-bought experience1 that a bullock which can carry five maunds is a rara avis of its kind1 ,i was much surprized to find1 in ,mr4 ,colebrooke's little treatise on the ,husbandry of ,bengal1 an assertion1 that the enormous #8load of #ejjlb4 of cotton is generally carried from ,nagpore to ,mirzapore1 a distance which1 by the shortest route1 exceeds four hundred miles1 in journies of eight or ten miles daily4' ,that some remarkably fine cattle are bred in the ,nagpore district is well known2 but ,i should have greatly doubted1 under any other than the highly respectable authority alluded to1 whether it would be possible to select1 in all ,bengal1 a sufficient number of bullocks1 bred in the country1 to carry on the extensive trade between ,nagpore and ,mirzapore1 under the circumstance of carrying #ejjlb4 as an ordinary load4 ,i have possessed very fine bullocks1 such as could not1 generally1 be obtained for less than a hundred rupees the pair1 and ,i have had occasion to rely on their services2 but found1 that1 whenever they were laden beyond four maunds1 7#cbjlb417 they became restive1 and required many extra hours to perform a march of twelve or fourteen miles1 even on excellent roads1 and when in far better plight than mahajuny 7trading7 bullocks are commonly seen4 ,but let us refer to the regulations of the ,company respecting cattle to be admitted upon their establishment2 we shall there find1 that one ,mirzapore bullock nearly equals three of them4 #8,the standard of cattle to be retained for1 or received into1 the service1 is not to be less than fifty inches for the draft-bullocks1 and forty-eight inches for the carriage-bullocks4 ,each carriage-bullock shall be competent to carry a burthen of one hundred and eighty pounds weight1 exclusive of his pad4' ,now1 it is well known the ,company employ excellent cattle1 and take care to have justice done them2 as1 indeed1 they are fully entitled to expect1 when they allow no less than thirty sicca rupees for each bullock purchased on their account2 especially1 as any distance beyond sixteen miles1 or when laden for more than nine hours within the twenty-four1 or when carrying more than #ahjlb41 come under the denomination of a forced march1 and subject the ,company to all risks4 ,i should rather apprehend that an error has crept into ,mr4 ,colebrooke's otherwise most accurate calculations1 owing to a cutcha-maund of five paseeries1 7of #ajlb4 each17 being in general use in that part of the country4 ,five of these maunds1 of #ejlb4 each1 make a tungy1 which is the common load for cattle carrying iron1 and other dead weights4 ,therefore1 if we estimate the general burthen to be in cutcha 7i4e4 small7 maunds1 we shall find the result to be nearer the ordinary result1 than when we take #ejjlb4 for the amount of a load4 ,it is a well-known truth1 that a private tent1 with its poles1 pins1 mallets1 and bags1 is an ample load for any bullock1 even in its dry state1 and that1 when wet1 it must be a choice animal that is competent to bear it for even a very few miles4 ,in some of the very stony parts1 it is usual to shoe the bullocks1 the same as is practised in many parts of ,england2 but1 in general1 that is not found necessary4 ,the saddles and pads must be properly attended to1 and the loads should be well strapped on2 otherwise1 owing to the skittishness of the cattle in ,india1 and their disposition to lie down1 very frequently1 in a day's journey1 considerable injury must be sustained1 by such articles of lading as may be subject to breakage1 from such a practice4 ,however great a drawback such a propensity may appear1 it is found1 that liquors may be safely trusted to be conveyed by bullocks2 but1 in order to ensure the bottles from breaking1 it is found necessary to pack every one of them separate1 wrapping round it a small loose band1 of that soft kind of hemp known by the name of paut1 and stitching the several rounds together in the same manner as ,florence oil flasks1 c41 are enveloped by small bands of fine straw4 ,the paut1 above mentioned1 is grown in every part of the country1 but chiefly in ,bengal1 where it attains to a considerable diameter1 perhaps an inch and a half in diameter1 and often grows eleven or twelve feet high4 ,about three years ago1 ,i presented a specimen of paut to the ,bath ,society1 measuring more than ten feet in length3 it was the remainder of a quantity in which ,i had packed some bottles when quitting ,bengal1 and had never been so much as put to the hackle4 ,nothing is so effectual as this material towards preserving bottles from fracture2 when properly wolded1 they may either be packed in boxes1 c41 without any addition of straw1 c41 or they may be advantageously put into strong bags of tawt1 and thus1 with seeming negligence1 be carried on either side the bullock4 ,i have several times adopted this mode1 and found it by far the safest1 as well as the least expensive1 and best suited to the animal4 ,by it1 the necessity for boxes was obviated1 and a good bullock could easily carry five dozens of wine for any length of time1 and for any number of miles1 a regiment would commonly march4 ,when tents are carried on oxen1 it is necessary to divide the load as equally as may be practicable2 observing1 that those which have to carry the two flies1 ought not to be encumbered with mallets1 pins1 c41 as it is a great desideratum to make sure1 as much as practicable1 that the flies1 the pole1 and a certain portion of pins1 together with a mallet or two1 should arrive early2 it being of less consequence if the bullocks bearing the walls1 satrinjes1 c41 be somewhat later2 since the main part of the operation of pitching the tent1 consisting of raising the flies1 may be performed1 and shelter afforded1 without the walls1 c41 being present4 ,although a very large stout bullock may1 here and there1 be found capable of carrying a pair of cloaths-trunks1 with a small cot above them1 such must not be generally expected4 ,the trunks will1 if properly constructed1 sit close1 as they do on a camel2 but the cot will assuredly swag1 so as to cause great unsteadiness of gait1 and subject the animal to chafe under the pad3 besides1 the disposition of most bullocks is such1 as by no means to warrant the lading them with any article subject to great injury from a fall4 ,i have already said the bullock is the worst kind of carriage used in the army1 but for draught it is essentially serviceable2 in fact1 without this animal1 ,i know not how the service could proceed in ,india4 ,a great deal1 however1 depends on breed2 and no less on due feeding and proper exercise4 ,only certain parts of the country1 such as the ,purneah and ,sircar-,sarun districts1 are found to produce oxen of a standard and frame suited to the ordnance department2 in which1 on the ,bengal ,establishment alone1 full five thousand head of cattle are employed1 exclusive of a large establishment of elephants and camels1 allotted to the conveyance of camp equipage4 ,the proportion of bullocks allowed for the draught of field-pieces of various calibres1 with which they are expected to keep pace with the ordinary rate at which troops march1 are as follow3-- ,to a #bd ,pounder #bd ,bullocks4 #ah ,ditto #ah ,ditto4 #ab ,ditto #ab ,ditto4 #f ,ditto #f ,ditto4 #c ,ditto #d ,ditto4 #h ,inch ,howitzer #ad ,ditto4 #e ,ditto #aj ,ditto4 #d ,ditto #f ,ditto4 ,artificer's ,cart #aj ,ditto4 ,tumbrel #f ,ditto4 ,it may surprize those who are personally unacquainted with ,india1 to learn that horses are very little employed in carriages4 ,i have already shewn1 that1 with the exception of the r'hunts let out for hire about ,calcutta1 of which some are drawn by one1 or by two tattoos1 all the vehicles in use among the natives1 and all the laborious part of whatever may relate to building1 trade1 and agriculture1 are consigned to oxen2 of which the prices are1 in some places1 so low1 that a small pair1 fit to be worked at a well in a gentleman's garden1 may usually be had for about ten rupees 7i4e4 #bes472 while the generality of husbandmen rarely pay more than six rupees 7#aes47 for a pair1 such as are adequate to the very insignificant tillage bestowed on the soil4 ,the indigenous breed of horses1 if ,bengal can boast of any such1 is remarkably small1 hardy1 and vicious3 to me1 however1 it has ever been a doubt1 whether this breed1 called tattoos1 be not a degenerate race from some supply obtained1 at a very remote date1 from ,durbungah1 and the districts ranging under the northerly frontier4 ,that breed1 generally distinguished by the appellation of serissahs1 is again questionable1 and may1 in all probability1 be traced to the tazees1 bred in the ,maharrattah country1 and in every part of the ,punjab4 ,considering the great strength and perseverance of tattoos in general1 it is rather surprizing that they are not put to more purposes1 than merely serving to carry a load on a march1 or to convey some infirm1 or rather affluent1 traveller1 when moving from one part to another4 ,as few castrations take place among the males1 and the sexes are allowed to intermix without restraint1 the species would multiply rapidly1 were it not that little care is taken of the pregnant mares1 and less of the progeny2 which usually has to shift for itself1 and to cut its own grass wherever a scanty meal may be obtainable4 ,if a selection were made of the tattoos1 male and female1 fitted for breeding from1 there might be established a supply of cattle1 far more useful to the peasant1 than those miserably defective oxen which1 in spite of the professed veneration of all ,hindus towards those sacred animals1 are often kept toiling at the plough until nature interposes in behalf of the worn-out deity1 and compels the reluctant peasant to allow the hour of dissolution to pass on in peace4 ,the ,company1 with a view to obtain a certain1 regular1 and efficient1 supply of horses for their cavalry regiments1 have1 for about seventeen years past1 maintained an establishment for breeding from select mares in ,north ,bahar3 the liberality with which this has been supported1 and the admirable selection made of persons for the management of every branch1 should give the most favorable result2 especially as the spot chosen for its site is peculiarly eligible in point of grazing4 ,but it does not appear that the expected benefits have been produced4 ,i recollect seeing a splendid calculation1 made about the year #agid1 which went so far as to demonstrate1 that1 by the end of the twelfth year1 full fifteen hundred horses would annually be supplied from the stud4 ,seeing that an agency still exists for the purchase of cavalry horses1 and knowing that the whole strength of the light regiments of cavalry do not exceed six thousand horses1 even including the body-guard1 we may reasonably conclude1 that the stud is by no means competent to furnish one-fourth of that number within the year6 ,the tattoos of ,bengal rarely grow to the height of twelve hands2 they are slight limbed1 and cat-hammed2 but carry immense burthens during a day's march1 and are no sooner turned off1 having their fore-feet tethered1 than a general war seems to be proclaimed among all of the tribe that may be within sight or hearing4 ,kicking1 biting1 and gallantry1 are the order of the day2 and woe betide the incautious wight who should1 at such a time1 approach within reach of their heels6 ,few tattoos ever have the bursautty2 a peculiar breaking out about the legs1 7by no means resembling the grease17 to which horses1 in general1 are extremely subject throughout the low countries2 especially if their standing be not remarkably dry1 and exercise given in proportion to their allowance of gram2 which is a species of pulse1 growing on a low plant of the tare kind1 and commonly sold at about a rupee per maund4 ,of this gram1 a horse will eat from three to six seers1 7of #blb4 each17 according to his size or appetite2 half in the morning1 and half at night4 ,when high fed1 and but little rode1 the most valuable horses1 in particular1 become victims to the bursautty2 which1 though it disappears in the spring and summer1 invariably returns1 generally1 too1 with encreased force1 during every rainy season4 ,as yet1 no cure has been discovered for this ruinous disease1 though numbers of gentlemen1 of eminent abilities1 have devoted their attention towards its eradication3 its abatement has1 in some instances1 been effected2 but1 notwithstanding the utmost skill and perseverance1 the blotches have returned1 in sufficient force to satisfy all medical men1 that no decided mode of treatment1 and no general specific1 has1 hitherto1 been established4 ,the exemption of tattoos1 for the most part1 from so formidable a distemper1 seems to indicate their peculiar fitness for the climate3 it matters not whether nature first planted them on the soil1 or whether1 by long continuance1 they have become habituated to it1 so completely as to defy that virulence with which the climate attacks strange animals4 ,wandering among all the puddles and jungles at every season2 and subsisting on the remains of temporary verdure2 ultimately1 indeed1 browsing1 or devouring1 the withered remains of long grass2 these useful animals contract no disease1 save what may be engendered by such absolute scarcity as would go nigh to starve a donkey6 ,the next breed of horses1 in point of strength and hardiness1 is the tanian1 a small kind1 obviously distinct from all the other breeds of ,india1 and peculiar to the ,thibet and ,bootan countries1 that lie at the back of our eastern and northern frontier1 all the way from ,assam to ,sirinagur3 allowing for the intervention of the ,nepaul ,rajah's dominions4 ,these horses are1 with few exceptions1 piebald2 though a few are seen entirely of one color4 ,the breed may be characterized in a few words1 viz4 that they are remarkably stout1 hog-maned1 have short bushy tails1 very short necks1 and large heads4 ,the ,bootan merchants1 who come down yearly with various articles of manufacture1 such as mats1 cloths1 c41 of a very peculiar kind1 by no means displeasing in their patterns1 commonly lade their goods upon tanians1 which they dispose of ultimately for a small sum1 perhaps from twenty-five to sixty rupees each2 reserving1 however1 a few1 whereon to transport the ,british woollens1 and other articles they obtain from the produce of their sales4 ,great numbers of the natives of ,bengal1 who are in good circumstances1 or are obliged to attend daily at particular offices1 c41 ride on tanians2 which1 though not to be termed quiet1 are far more so than tattoos in general4 ,these good folks abominate a trot1 as being uneasy and heating2 and not one of them would so far demean himself as to be seen gallopping6 ,this has given rise to the general adoption of that unnatural1 but very easy1 pace called the #8amble1' in which a horse moves the fore and hinder feet of the same side at one time4 ,it is singular1 that this mode of going should be so pleasant in a horse1 when1 in the elephant1 whose natural mode of gait it is1 there should result from it the only inconvenience with which the motion of that animal is attended4 ,tanians rarely exceed thirteen hands in height1 but their powers are wonderfully great2 they are capable of enduring great fatigue1 and1 though by no means sightly in a chariot1 will perform journies equal to what might be expected from larger animals4 ,in general1 they are rather fiery1 but1 by gentle usage1 shew sufficient coolness and temper for most purposes4 ,like most mountain-bred horses1 they are sure-footed1 and1 when left to themselves1 pick the best road with great circumspection2 proceeding at an easy pace1 which they will keep up for many hours4 ,i know not of any breed better qualified for drawing a light small chaise1 where great speed is not wanted2 but figure must be out of the question4 ,the ,serissah1 or ,durbungah-tazee1 derives its name from the places where great numbers are bred4 ,these horses are generally of a light make1 and1 when young1 promise to turn out well2 but1 as they approach their full standard1 lose many good points1 and1 for the most part1 become rather vicious4 ,they are1 however1 extremely serviceable as hacks1 and generally make good hog-hunters3 occasionally1 valuable horses are found among them2 and it is to be hoped1 that1 as the ,company's stalions are let out at low rates1 to cover such good mares as may be tendered at their stud1 there will soon be effected an immense improvement in the general stock of ,north ,bahar4 ,this1 in fact1 seems to be one of the prominent features in the establishment of the stud1 and promises to become very conspicuously successful2 though it is to be lamented1 that the native breeders1 owing to a want of liberal ideas1 and of expanded views1 are too apt to adopt that narrow policy1 which prompts to the doing that badly for sixpence1 which may be well done for a penny more6 ,time will probably overcome such an absurd system1 and convince them that the payment of a few rupees1 or the subscribing to certain regulations1 adopted for the general improvement of property1 so far from being detrimental1 are the surest means of obtaining a substantial profit1 in the most speedy manner4 ,there are annual fairs1 called maylahs1 in various parts of the country1 where the horses of this breed 7i4e4 serissahs17 are exhibited in immense numbers4 ,the greater part of them are exposed annually at ,buxar1 and are purchased by the natives1 either for their own use1 or for re-sale in various parts4 ,it is curious1 but true1 that1 some years ago1 a great number of horses that had been taken from ,durbungah into the ,maharrattah country1 were purchased there for the supply of the ,company's regiments4 ,formerly1 the immense body of cavalry paid by the ,nabob ,vizier of ,oude1 used to be mounted by horses from ,north ,bahar1 but1 since that worthless gang have been sent #8to the right about1' the demand created by that establishment has been almost wholly done away4 ,still1 however1 the prices have not1 so far as ,i can learn1 fallen3 they probably are upheld by our encreased strength of cavalry regiments4 ,the price of a serissah is not to be easily defined2 a very large portion of them sell for less than one hundred1 while some reach as high as six hundred1 rupees3 at a medium1 we may affix a hundred and fifty rupees at a fair standard1 if the purchase be made at a fair1 but1 if second-hand1 from a horse-dealer1 from fifty to a hundred per cent1 may be added4 ,i have known very handsome sets1 of four and six1 purchased at ,buxar1 averaging fifteen hands and a half1 that were purchased for about two hundred rupees each1 and re-sold1 to friends1 for five and six hundred1 a few weeks after6 ,the horses in highest estimation are chiefly imported from the ,punjab1 and from ,persia1 by regular dealers1 who come down to our north-west frontier annually1 after the rains1 accompanied by many camels1 generally of an excellent breed1 which1 besides conveying the tents1 c41 of the party1 bear heavy burthens of shawls1 dried fruits1 and1 occasionally1 cats of the most beautiful description4 ,such gentlemen as wish for horses of great strength1 ordinarily purchase toorkies2 which1 being extremely stout1 and phlegmatic1 answer well for persons of great weight1 and of timid disposition4 ,the ,persian horses have generally a finer shoulder1 and attain a better standard1 than the toorky1 which rarely measures fifteen hands1 and1 in general1 may be about fourteen3 both kinds are remarkable for heavy1 lob-ears1 and are always well advanced in years before they are brought for sale4 ,even under that great drawback1 they commonly sell for eight hundred1 or a thousand1 rupees1 and1 when of a handsome color1 well formed1 and of a good size1 will produce from fifteen hundred1 to three thousand1 rupees4 ,the jungle-tazee1 which is bred in the ,punjab1 or ,seik country1 is1 in general1 handsome1 and spirited4 ,these come at an earlier age1 as does the majennis1 which is bred in the same quarter1 and is usually the offspring of a jungle-tazee horse1 with a ,persian or toorky mare2 or vice vers4 ,both these kinds may be rated as rising to full fifteen hands2 and their prices are usually on a par with the toorky4 ,it is highly necessary1 when purchasing of a native dealer1 to look very accurately into every matter relating to soundness1 and quietness4 ,those gentry are admirable jockies1 and commonly administer such doses of opium to their vicious cattle1 as cause them for a while to appear pre-eminently passive2 a circumstance easily detected1 by insisting on the animal being left under charge of the purchaser's own syce1 7i4e4 groom17 for a day or two1 before the money is paid4 ,when making bargains with ,european gentlemen1 the whole of the transactions are generally overt1 and free from disguise1 but1 when native is opposed to native1 the affair is conducted with much assumed mystery4 ,a cloth is laid over the knees of the seller and purchaser1 as they squat vis a vis on the ground close together2 the hookah is introduced1 and resorted to1 whenever any little difference takes place3 at other times1 the parties have each one hand1 generally the right1 under the cloth1 when1 by means of pressures on the palms1 which denote hundreds1 and of the fingers1 which denote1 in their due order1 #bj1 #dj1 #fj1 and #hj1 speedily understand each other very fully4 ,this affectation is carried to such an extent1 that ,i have seen nearly a whole day passed in keeping up the farce1 though afterwards it was divulged to me1 as a great secret1 that the bargain had been made during the first five minutes2 but the seller was desirous to uphold a character for being very tenacious of the sum originally demanded6 ,almost every light-colored horse1 such as a grey1 or a dun1 has its tail stained for many inches near the tip with mindy1 7i4e4 hinna17 as used by the ladies of ,hindostan3 generally1 a ring of the same is added about two inches above1 and of about two inches in depth4 ,on account of the inconvenience and heat attendant upon the retention of full manes1 which are considered indispensable towards the beauty of a horse1 it is usual to braid them with silk1 or thread ties1 of various colors1 chiefly red1 or yellow3 the practice certainly has the intended effect1 but causes a large portion of the mane to fall off4 ,the hair of the tail is never cut by a native1 and but rarely by an ,european2 on account of the millions of gad-flies1 which1 but for such a defence1 would irritate the animal greatly1 and occasion him to fall off1 both from his condition1 and his food4 ,the stables for horses should be amply spacious1 and covered with thatch1 in preference to tiles1 which throw too great heat into the interior4 ,the head-ropes1 which commonly branch out from the head-stall in different directions angularly forward1 ought to be substantial1 and rather long than limitted4 ,the heel-ropes ought to be full twenty feet in length1 and kept a little off the ground1 by a small bar1 or prop1 to prevent their being rotted by the wet4 ,one end of each heel-rope is furnished with a loop of rather thinner and softer rope1 plaited flat1 so as not to injure the pastern1 round which it loops on4 ,but for such preventives1 the syces dare not rub down their cattle2 which would1 besides1 fight desperately1 unless thus restrained4 ,stalls of plank are by no means suited to the climate1 nor would they offer any defence against the horses of ,india1 very few of which are castrated4 ,the best1 but1 at the same time1 very insufficient1 device1 is the placing of swinging bars between the horses severally2 even these are no restraint1 further than limitting a horse in case he should get loose2 a circumstance instantly announced by the tremendous uproar occasioned by such an accident1 which but rarely occurs4 ,on account of the extreme danger to which horses are subjected by the frequency of fires1 it is advisable that every stable1 especially if thatched1 should have a range of water-pots placed along the ridge4 ,these should always be kept full of water1 to be at the disposal of men sent up to sprinkle the thatch1 and to extinguish whatever flakes may fall upon it2 but1 in case the thatch itself should accidentally take fire1 before any person can mount to distribute the water1 then the pots should be broken1 by means of clods1 poles1 or whatever means may offer under such emergency4 ,the horse-dealers from the ,punjab1 and from ,persia1 may be said to lay the ,company's provinces under annual contribution2 since it is ascertained1 that1 one year with another1 they take back bills1 cash1 or goods1 7generally the former17 to the full amount of four lacs of rupees 7#ej1jjj74 ,for this they deliver from five to six hundred horses1 of which nine in ten are aged1 some dried fruits1 ,persian cats1 and shawls1 the whole intrinsic value of which1 or at least the prime cost and duties payable on the way1 cannot exceed one-fourth of that sum4 ,in truth1 the duties1 which are rigorously exacted by various petty princes1 c41 through whose territories they must pass1 form the greater portion even of that share of the booty4 ,yet do the venerable dealers in horse-flesh always plead poverty1 and that they have made so very bad a trip1 that1 on their return home1 their affairs must go to ruin3 however1 they make a shift to come down1 year after year1 though buying and selling to so much loss6 ,in selling horses1 it is customary to describe their several casts1 the same as those of the people of ,india2 thus1 an auctioneer advertises a toorky1 or a majennis #8of high cast1' to be sold on such a day4 ,the term may1 however1 be considered as rather technical1 and at least as arbitrary in its meaning1 as when our ,british knights of the hammer puff off some hovel1 crammed into a corner1 where no one would have dreamt of seeing an edifice1 as #8a capital mansion1 undeniably situated6' ,it must1 at the same time1 be acknowledged1 that ,asiatic advertisements do not require to be so cautiously accepted1 cum grano salis1 as those catch-penny notices1 which not only attract the eye directly1 but are literally supported by insidious puffs interspersed among the news of the day4 ,the extravagant price to which all articles of horse furniture have at times risen in ,india1 operated as a considerable injury to the ,european manufacturer1 who rarely makes much profit on goods intended for exportation4 ,within the last thirty years1 numbers of persons1 both ,european and native1 have established themselves as saddlers and harness-makers4 ,at first they were not much encouraged1 owing to a belief very generally prevalent1 that leather tanned in ,india was inferior to that exported from this country4 ,that objection did not stand its ground2 for it was soon ascertained that the bark of the baubool 7mimoza7 was at least equal to that of the oak2 and that the leather prepared therewith by several ,europeans1 who had constructed tan-pits1 on a large scale1 was both equal to1 and full fifty per cent4 cheaper than1 what the ships conveyed to ,india4 ,thenceforward1 all the leather-work of the carriages built in ,india1 some of which might vie with any to be seen in ,europe1 was done with country hides4 ,shoe-makers1 both ,european and native1 resorted to the same means of supply1 and offered both boots and shoes of the best prepared leather1 the want of which had1 for a long time1 caused the very neat shoes made for about a shilling the pair1 by the latter class1 to be held in little estimation4 ,saddlers and harness-makers have appeared1 whose labors have proved eminently valuable2 their materials1 and their work1 being alike excellent4 ,i must here be understood to confine my approbation to the articles manufactured from leather tanned in a regular manner1 and not that paltry brown-paper-like rubbish manufactured in pots and pans by indigent natives1 who often work up a skin within the third or fourth day after its being stripped from some starved sheep1 or goat2 but which leather may always be distinguished by a narrow streak of white1 that is1 of raw hide1 remaining in the middle of its thickness4 ,saddles made of such crude materials1 but in every other respect by no means to be condemned1 may be had at ,monghyr1 where also bits and bridles are made with singular neatness1 for about ten rupees 7#be shillings72 but those of superior materials1 and made under the inspection of an ,european1 will cost full as much1 or perhaps more1 then the sums ordinarily paid in ,london for saddles1 c41 of prime quality1 and high finish4 ,the climate is extremely adverse to the tanner1 inasmuch as there is great difficulty in obtaining an ample stock of raw hides2 owing to the consumption of beef and mutton being confined to the ,european1 and to the ,mahomedan parts of the population2 and to the great difficulty of conveying the skins to the pits before incipient fermentation may become obvious1 and disqualify them for the purpose4 ,that leather might1 with great advantage to both countries1 be sent from ,india to ,europe1 cannot be doubted3 the great difficulty would be to furnish such a quantity as might render the trade an object4 ,according to the present high prices1 it would almost be worth while to buy cattle in ,india1 for the purpose of sending their hides and tallow to market in ,england4 ,as to the benefits to arise to the state1 they are too obvious to require pointing out4 ,a person who might have quitted ,india about thirty years ago1 when the generality of articles of almost every description in use among ,europeans1 were sent from ,england2 and when only one or two ,european tailors were to be seen in all ,bengal2 when1 also1 a news-paper was scarcely in existence1 would now1 on landing in that country1 be astonished at the improvements made in various branches of manufacture3 he would contemplate the advance made in the mechanical arts as the certain fore-runner of independence2 and he would view the columns of the several news-papers published at ,calcutta1 in all fourteen1 7besides magazines1 c417 whose columns teem with advertisements on a large scale3 these he would view as the paramount results of great enterprize1 founded upon extensive capitals1 and backed by an almost unlimitted credit4 ,the news-papers are generally published once or twice weekly1 at about a rupee each2 most days of the week bring forth two papers1 in which the price of advertising is generally eight annas1 7i4e4 half a rupee1 or #ae;d417 for each line3 as the type is rather large1 the expence of advertisements must1 in some great houses1 prove a conspicuous item among the disbursements4 ,in this particular1 the ,hindostanee1 or rather the ,persian1 news-papers are miserably deficient2 as1 indeed1 they are in whatever should be the contents of a publication devoted to the important purposes of mercantile1 or of political1 intelligence4 ,far from containing a single advertisement1 or from communicating any matter relative to the arts1 these bulletins1 for ,i can call them nothing better1 are penned by persons about the several native courts1 according to the whim of a sycophant1 or to the mere tattle in the suburbs of a city2 nay1 they are often manufactured hundreds of miles from the places whence they are supposed to emanate1 and contain accounts of battles and sieges1 capitulations and defeats1 halts and marches1 known to the fabricators only2 who1 in whatever relates to invention1 contradiction1 and re-contradiction1 absolutely surpass those industrious wights that supply our ,british news-mongers with paragraphs of the highest importance1 accidents1 murders1 c41 c41 at the cheap rate of ten shillings per dozen6 ,there being no presses in use among the natives1 every communication1 whether private or public1 must be manuscript2 hence1 the profession of scribe is1 in some places1 no bad livelihood2 especially at ,delhi1 which1 being the ancient seat of government1 and the immediate residence of a nominal king1 commonly called #8,the ,great ,mogul1' supplies every quarter of ,india with ,akbars1 7i4e4 news-papers17 written in the ,persian language and character1 on long narrow slips of a paper manufactured in ,india1 either from bamboos1 reeds1 or cotton-wool4 ,these slips are rolled up to about an inch in width1 and1 being enclosed in a small cover pasted together1 are despatched1 with the shew of great importance1 to the several quarters of ,hindostan1 under the pompous idea of their being every where in high estimation4 ,the only paper published by authority in ,bengal1 is the ,calcutta ,gazette1 which is usually replete with advertisements for the sale of lands1 printed in ,english1 ,persian1 and ,bengalese3 as to news1 or useful essays1 c41 it is uncommonly sterile4 ,private advertisements in this paper are extravagantly dear1 in consequence of the obligation imposed on all collectors1 c41 to take it in2 whereby one copy at least is received at every civil station1 however small4 ,the advertisements for the sale of lands1 above alluded to1 have sprung from the adoption of what is called the ,mocurrery system1 which originated with ,mr4 ,thomas ,law1 formerly collector of ,bahar1 and now settled in ,america4 ,that plan certainly wore a very specious appearance2 because it purported to be a perpetual adjustment of the rents1 which were before subject to augmentation1 and held out to the land-holders the comforting assurance of being considered on a footing with proprietors in fee-simple1 so long as they should pay the rents as settled by the ,mocurrery agreement4 ,while the plan was in agitation1 and under the consideration of ,marquis ,cornwallis1 by whom it was adopted1 the ,board of ,revenue1 to which it was1 pro forma1 submitted1 made several very sensible and cogent remarks1 which1 however1 had not the effect of causing it to be abandoned4 ,time has fully justified the objections stated by that ,board1 at which the present ,lord ,teignmouth1 then ,mr4 ,shore1 presided2 and we find1 after many years of experiment1 that1 without reaping the smallest advantage themselves1 the ,company appear bound to perpetuate a resignation of their rights as proprietors of the soil1 and of their interests as a body rationally entitled to derive an augmentation of rent1 in proportion as the produce of the soil may become more valuable1 and more abundant4 ,this discussion has led me to the consideration of a most important topic2 viz4 the ,revenue of ,bengal1 of which1 and its manner of collection1 ,i shall endeavor to give a summary2 first presenting my readers with a copy of the ,mocurrery1 or permanent system4 ,,by ,,the ,,governor-,,general4 ---------- ,proclamation4 ,to the ,zemindars1 ,independent ,talookdars1 and other actual ,proprietors of ,land1 paying ,revenue to ,government1 in the ,provinces of ,bengal1 ,bahar1 and ,orissa4 ,,article ,i4 ,in the original regulations for the decennial settlement of the ,public ,revenues of ,bengal1 ,bahar1 and ,orissa1 passed for these provinces respectively1 on the #ahth day of ,september1 #aghi1 the #beth day of ,november1 #aghi1 and the #ajth day of ,february1 #agij1 it was notified to the proprietors of land with1 or on behalf of1 whom a settlement might be concluded1 that the jumma assessed upon their lands under those regulations1 would be continued after the expiration of the ten years1 and remain unalterable for ever1 provided such continuance should meet with the approbation of the ,honorable ,court of ,directors for the affairs of the ,east ,india ,company1 and not otherwise4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,the ,marquis ,cornwallis1 ,knight of the ,most ,noble ,order of the ,garter1 ,governor-,general in ,council1 now notifies to all ,zemindars1 ,talookdars1 and other actual proprietors of land1 paying revenue to ,government1 in the provinces of ,bengal1 ,bahar1 and ,orissa1 that he has been empowered by the ,honorable ,court of ,directors1 for the affairs of the ,east ,india ,company1 to declare the jumma which has been1 or may be1 assessed upon their lands1 under the regulations above mentioned1 ,,fixed ,,for ,,ever4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council accordingly declares to the ,zemindars1 c41 with1 or on behalf of1 whom a settlement has been concluded under the regulations above mentioned1 that1 at the expiration of the term of the settlement1 no alteration will be made in the assessment which they have respectively engaged to pay2 but that they1 and their heirs1 and lawful successors1 will be allowed to hold their estates at such an assessment1 ,,for ,,ever4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,the lands of some ,zemindars1 c41 having been held k'has1,a or let in farm1 in consequence of their refusing to pay the assessment required of them1 under the regulations above mentioned1 the ,governor-,general in ,council now notifies to the ,zemindars1 c41 whose lands are held k'has1 that they shall be restored to the management of their lands1 upon their agreeing to the payment of the assessment1 which has been1 or may be1 required of them1 in conformity to the regulations above mentioned1 and that no alteration shall hereafter be made in that assessment1 but that they1 and their heirs1 and lawful successors1 shall be permitted to hold their respective estates at such an assessment ,,for ,,ever3 and he declares to the ,zemindars1 c41 whose lands have been let in farm1 that they shall not regain possession of their lands before the expiration of the period for which they have been farmed1 7unless the farmers shall voluntarily consent to make over to them the remaining term of their lease1 and the ,governor-,general in ,council shall approve of the transfer17 but1 that1 at the expiration of that period1 upon their agreeing to the payment of the assessment which may be required of them1 they shall be re-instated1 and that no alteration shall afterwards be made in the assessment2 but that they1 and their heirs1 and lawful successors1 shall be allowed to hold their respective estates at such an assessment ,,for ,,ever4 ,footnote ,a3 ,in hand1 or in trust4 ,,article ,v4 ,in the event of the proprietary right in lands that are1 or may1 become the property of ,government1 being transferred to individuals1 such individuals1 and their heirs1 and lawful successors1 shall be permitted to hold the lands1 at the assessment at which they maybe transferred1 ,,for ,,ever4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,it is well known to the ,zemindars1 c41 as well as to the inhabitants of ,bengal1 ,bahar1 and ,orissa1 in general1 that1 from the earliest times to the present period1 the public assessment upon the lands has never been fixed2 but1 that1 according to established rule and custom1 the rulers of these provinces have1 from time to time1 demanded an encrease of assessment from the proprietors of land2 and1 that1 for the purpose of obtaining this encrease1 not only frequent investigations have been made1 to ascertain the actual produce of their estates1 but that it has been the practice to deprive them of the management of their lands1 and either to let them in farm1 or to appoint officers on the part of ,government1 to collect the assessments immediately from the ,ryots4 ,the ,honorable ,court of ,directors1 considering these usages and measures to be detrimental to the prosperity of the country1 have1 with a view to promote the future ease and happiness of the people1 authorized the foregoing declaration2 and the ,zemindars1 independent ,talookdars1 and other actual proprietors of land1 with1 or on behalf of1 whom a settlement has been made1 or may be concluded1 are to consider these orders1 fixing the amount of the assessments1 as ,,irrevocable1 and not liable to alteration by any persons whom the ,court of ,directors may hereafter appoint to the administration of their affairs in this country4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council trusts that the proprietors of lands1 sensible of the benefits conferred upon them1 by the public assessments being fixed ,,for ,,ever1 will exert themselves in the cultivation of their lands1 under the certainty that they will enjoy exclusively the fruits of their own good management and industry1 and that no demand will ever be made upon them1 their heirs1 or successors1 by the present1 or any future1 ,government1 for an augmentation of the public assessment1 in consequence of the improvement of their respective estates4 ,to discharge the revenues at the stipulated periods1 without delay or evasion1 and to conduct themselves with good faith and moderation towards their dependant ,talookdars1 and ,ryots1 are duties at all times indispensably required from the proprietors of land2 and a strict observance of those duties is now1 more than ever1 incumbent upon them1 in return for the benefits which they themselves will derive from the orders now issued4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council therefore expects that the proprietors of land will not only act in this manner themselves1 towards their dependant ,talookdars1 but also enjoin the strictest adherence to the same principles1 in the persons whom they may appoint to collect the rents for them4 ,he further expects they will regularly discharge the revenue in all seasons1 and he accordingly notifies to them1 that1 in future1 no claims1 or applications1 for suspensions1 or remissions1 on account of drought1 inundation1 or other calamity of season1 will be attended to2 but1 that1 in the event of any ,zemindar1 c41 with1 or on behalf of1 whom a settlement has been made1 or may be concluded1 on his or her heirs1 or successors1 failing in the punctual discharge of the public revenue1 which has been1 or may be1 assessed upon their lands1 under the above-mentioned regulations1 a sale of the whole of the lands of the defaulter1 or such portion of them as may be sufficient to make good the means1 will positively and invariably take place4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,to prevent any misconstruction of the foregoing ,articles1 the ,governor-,general in ,council thinks it necessary to make the following declarations to the ,zemindars1 c4 ,first4 ,it being the duty of the ruling power to protect all classes of people1 and more particularly those who1 from situation1 are most helpless1 the ,governor-,general in ,council will1 whenever he may deem it proper1 enact such regulations as he may think necessary for the protection and welfare of the dependant ,talookdars1 ,ryots1 and other cultivators of the soil2 and no ,zemindar1 c4 shall be entitled1 on this account1 to make any objection to the discharge of the fixed assessment which they have respectively agreed to pay4 ,second4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council having1 on the #bhth day of ,july1 #agij1 directed the ,sayer ,collections to be abolished1 a full compensation was granted to the proprietors of land1 for the loss of revenue sustained by them in consequence of that abolition2 and he now declares1 that1 if he should hereafter think it proper to re-establish the ,sayer ,collections1 or any other internal duties1 and to appoint officers on the part of ,government to collect them1 no proprietor of land will be admitted to any participation thereof1 or be entitled to make any claim for remissions on that account4 ,third4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council will impose such assessments as he may deem equitable1 on all lands at present alienated1 and paying no public revenue1 which have been1 or may be1 proved to be held under illegal1 or invalid titles4 ,the assessment so imposed will belong to ,government1 and no proprietor of land will be entitled to any part of it4 ,fourth4 ,the jumma of those ,zemindars1 c41 which is declared fixed1 in the foregoing articles1 is to be considered unconnected with1 and exclusive of1 any allowances which have been made to them in the adjustment of their jumma for keeping up tannahs1 or police-establishments1 and also of the produce of any lands which they may have been permitted to appropriate for the same purpose3 and the ,governor-,general in ,council reserves to himself the option of resuming the whole1 or part1 of such allowances1 or produce of such lands1 according as he may think proper1 in consequence of his having exonerated the proprietors of land from the charge of keeping the peace1 and appointed officers1 on the part of ,government1 to superintend the police of the country4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council1 however1 declares that the allowances1 or the produce of lands1 which may be so resumed1 will be appropriated to no other purpose but that of defraying the expence of the police1 and that instructions will be sent to the collectors not to add such allowance1 nor the produce of such lands1 to the jumma of the proprietors of land1 but to collect the amount from them separately4 ,fifth4 ,nothing contained in this ,proclamation shall be construed to render the lands of the several descriptions of disqualified proprietors1 specified in the first article of the regulations1 regarding disqualified land-holders1 passed on the #aeth day of ,july1 #agia1 liable to sale for any arrears which may accrue on the fixed jumma that has been1 or may be1 assessed upon their lands under the above mentioned regulations for the decennial settlement1 provided that such arrears have accrued1 or may accrue1 during the time that they have been1 or may be1 dispossessed of the management of their lands under the said regulations of ,july the #aeth1 #agia4 ,it is to be understood1 however1 that1 whenever all1 or any1 of the descriptions of disqualified land-holders specified in the first article of the last mentioned regulations1 shall be permitted to assume1 or to retain1 the management of their lands1 in consequence of the ground of their disqualification no longer existing1 or of the ,governor-,general in ,council dispensing with1 altering1 or abolishing1 those regulations1 the lands of such proprietors will be held responsible for the payment of the fixed jumma that has been1 or may be1 assessed thereon1 from the time that the management may devolve upon them1 in the same manner as the lands of all actual proprietors of land who are declared qualified for the management of their estates2 and also of all actual proprietors who are unqualified for such management1 by natural1 or other1 disabilities1 but do not come within the description of unqualified land-holders specified in the first article of the regulations of ,july the #aeth1 #agia1 are1 and will be1 held answerable for any arrears that are1 or may become1 due from them on the fixed jumma1 which they1 or any persons on their behalf1 have engaged1 or may engage1 to pay under the above mentioned regulations1 for the decennial settlement4 ,,article ,,viii4 ,that no doubt may be entertained whether proprietors of land are entitled1 under the existing regulations1 to dispose of their estates1 without the previous sanction of ,government1 the ,governor-,general in ,council notifies to the ,zemindars1 c41 that they are privileged to transfer to whomsoever they may think proper1 by sale1 gift1 or otherwise1 their proprietary rights in the whole1 or any portion1 of their respective estates1 without applying to ,government for its sanction to the transfer2 and1 that all such transfers will be held valid1 provided they be conformable to the ,mahomedan1 or to the ,hindu1 ,laws1 according as the religious persuasions of the parties to each transaction may render the validity of it determinable by the former1 or the latter1 code1 and that they be not repugnant to any regulations now in force1 which may have been passed by the ,british administration1 or to any regulations that they may enact hereafter4,b ,footnote ,b3 ,here appears a wide field for innovation6 ,,article ,,ix4 ,from the limitation of the public demand upon the lands1 the net income1 and1 consequently1 the value 7independent of encrease obtainable by improvements7 of any landed property1 for the assessments on which a distinct engagement has been1 or may be1 entered into between ,government and the proprietor1 or that may be separately assessed1 although included in one engagement with other estates belonging to the same proprietor1 and which may be offered for public or private sale entire1 will always be ascertainable by a comparison of the amount of the fixed jumma assessed upon it1 7which1 agreeably to the foregoing declarations1 is to remain unalterable ,,for ,,ever1 to whomsoever the property may be transferred17 with the whole of its produce1 allowing for the charges of management4 ,but it is also essential1 that a notification should be made of the principles upon which the fixed assessment charged upon any such estate will be apportioned on the several divisions of it1 in the event of the whole of it being transferred1 by public or private sale1 or otherwise1 in two or more lots1 or of a portion of it being transferred1 in one1 or two1 or more lots1 or of its being joint property1 and a division of it being made amongst the proprietors2 otherwise1 from the want of a declared rule for estimating the proportion of the fixed jumma1 with which the several shares would be chargeable in such cases1 the real value of each share would be uncertain1 and1 consequently1 the benefits expected to result1 from fixing the public assessment upon the lands1 would be but partially obtained4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council has1 accordingly1 prescribed the following rules for apportioning the fixed assessment in the several cases above mentioned2 but1 as ,government might sustain a considerable loss of revenue by disproportionate lots of the assessment1 were the apportioning of it1 in any of the cases above specified1 left to the proprietors1 he requires1 that all such transfers1 or divisions1 as may be made by the private act of the parties themselves1 be notified to the collector of the revenue of that zillah in which the lands may be situated1 or to such other officer as ,government may1 in future1 prescribe1 in order that the fixed jumma assessed upon the whole estate maybe apportioned on the several shares1 in the manner hereafter directed2 and that the names of the proprietors of each share1 and the jumma charged thereon1 may be entered upon the public registers2 and that separate engagements1 for the payment of the jumma assessed upon each share1 may be executed by the proprietors1 who will thenceforward be considered as actual proprietors of land4 ,and the ,governor-,general in ,council declares1 that1 if the parties to such transfers or divisions shall omit to notify them to the collector of the revenue of the zillah1 or such other officer as may be hereafter prescribed1 for the purposes before mentioned1 the whole of such estate will be held responsible to ,government for the discharge of the fixed jumma assessed upon it1 in the same manner as if no such transfer or division had taken place4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council thinks it necessary further to notify1 in elucidation of the declarations contained in this article1 7which are conformable to the principles of the existing regulations17 that if any ,zemindar1 c41 shall dispose of a portion of his1 or her1 lands1 as a dependent ,talook1 the jumma which may be stipulated to be paid by the dependent ,talook1 will not be entered upon the records of ,government1 nor will the transfer exempt such lands from being answerable1 in common with the remainder of the estate1 for the payment of the public revenue assessed upon the whole of it1 in the event of the proprietor1 or his1 or her1 successors1 falling in arrear from any cause whatever2 nor will it be allowed1 in any case1 to affect the rights1 or claims1 of ,government1 any more than if it had never taken place4 ,first4 ,in the event of the whole of the lands of a ,zemindar1 c41 with1 or on behalf of1 whom a settlement has been1 or may be1 concluded under the regulations above mentioned1 being exposed to public sale1 by the order of the ,governor-,general in ,council1 for the discharge of arrears of assessment1 or in consequence of the decision of a court of justice1 in two or more lots1 the assessment upon each lot shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce1 as the fixed assessment upon the whole of the lands sold may bear to their actual produce4 ,this produce shall be ascertained in the mode that is1 or may be1 prescribed by the existing regulations1 or such other regulations as the ,governor-,general in ,council may1 hereafter1 adopt2 and the purchaser1 or purchasers1 of such lands1 and his1 or their1 heirs1 and lawful successors1 shall hold them at the jumma at which they may be so purchased1 ,,for ,,ever4 ,second4 ,when a portion of the lands of a ,zemindar1 c41 with1 or on behalf of1 whom a settlement has been1 or may be1 concluded under the above regulations1 shall be exposed to public sale1 by order of the ,governor-,general in ,council1 for the liquidation of arrears of assessment1 or pursuant to the decision of a court of justice1 the assessment upon such lands1 if disposed of in one lot1 shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to their actual produce1 as the fixed assessment upon the whole of the lands of such proprietors1 including those disposed of1 may bear to the whole of their actual produce4 ,if the lands sold shall be disposed of in two1 or more1 lots1 the assessment upon each lot shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce1 as the fixed assessment upon the whole of the lands of such proprietor1 including those sold1 may bear to the amount of their actual produce4 ,the actual produce of the whole of the lands of such proprietor1 whether the portion of them which may be sold be disposed of in one1 or in two1 or in more1 lots1 shall be ascertained in the mode that is1 or may be1 prescribed by the existing regulations1 or such other regulations as the ,governor-,general in ,council may hereafter enact1 and the purchaser1 or purchasers1 of such lands1 and his1 or her1 or their1 heirs1 and successors1 will be allowed to hold them at the jumma at which they may be so purchased1 ,,for ,,ever2 and the remainder of the public jumma1 which will consequently be payable by the former proprietor of the whole estate1 on account of the portion of it that may be left in his1 or her1 possession1 will continue unalterable ,,for ,,ever4 ,third4 ,when a ,zemindar1 c41 with1 or on behalf of1 whom a settlement has1 or may be1 made1 shall transfer the whole of his1 or her1 estate1 in two1 or more1 distinct portions1 to two1 or more1 persons1 or a portion thereof to one person1 or to two1 or more1 persons in joint property1 by private sale1 gift1 or otherwise1 the assessment upon each distinct portion of such estate1 so transferred1 shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce1 as the assessment on the whole estate of the transferring proprietor1 of which the whole1 or a portion1 nay be so transferred1 may bear to the whole of its actual produce4 ,this produce shall be ascertained in the mode that is1 or may be1 prescribed by the existing regulations1 or such other regulations as ,government may hereafter adopt2 and the person1 or persons1 to whom such lands may be transferred1 and his1 or her1 or their1 heirs1 and lawful successors1 shall hold them at the jumma at which they were so transferred1 ,,for ,,ever2 and 7where only a portion of such estate shall be transferred7 the remainder of the public jumma1 which will consequently be payable by the former proprietor of the whole estate1 on account of the lands that may remain in his1 or her1 possession1 shall be continued unalterable ,,for ,,ever4 ,fourth4 ,whenever a division shall be made of lands1 the settlement of which has been1 or may be1 concluded with1 or on behalf of1 the proprietor1 or proprietors1 and that are1 or may become1 the joint property of two1 or more1 persons1 the assessment upon each share shall be fixed at an amount which shall bear the same proportion to its actual produce1 as the fixed jumma1 assessed upon the whole of the estate divided1 may bear to the whole of its actual produce4 ,this produce shall be ascertained in the mode that is1 or may be1 prescribed by the existing regulations1 or such other regulations as the ,governor-,general in ,council may hereafter adopt2 and the sharers1 and their heirs1 and lawful successors1 shall hold their respective shares1 at the jumma at which they may be assessed1 ,,for ,,ever4 ,,article ,x4 ,the following rules are prescribed respecting the adjustment of the assessment on the lands of ,zemindars1 c41 whose farms are1 or may be1 held k'has1 or let in farm1 in the event of their being disposed of by public sale1 or transferred by any private act of the proprietor1 or of their being joint property1 and a division of them taking place among the proprietors4 ,first4 ,if the whole1 or a portion1 of the lands of a ,zemindar1 c41 who may not have agreed to the assessment proposed to him1 or her1 under the regulations above mentioned1 and whose lands are1 or may be1 held k'has1 or let in farm1 shall be exposed to public sale1 in one1 or two1 or more1 lots1 pursuant to the decree of a court of justice1 such lands1 if k'has1 shall be disposed of at whatever assessment the ,governor-,general in ,council may deem equitable1 and the purchaser1 or purchasers1 of such lands1 and his1 or her1 or their1 lawful successors1 or heirs1 shall hold the land at the assessment at which they may be so purchased1 ,,for ,,ever4 ,if the lands1 at the time of their being exposed for sale1 shall be held in farm1 and shall be put up in one1 or two1 or more1 lots1 they shall be disposed of under the following conditions4 ,the purchaser1 or purchasers1 shall receive during the unexpired part of the term of the lease of the farmer1 whatever such proprietor shall have been entitled to receive in virtue of his1 or her1 proprietary rights1 on account of the lands so purchased1 and such purchaser1 or purchasers1 shall engage to pay1 at the expiration of the lease of the farmers1 such assessment on account of the lands as ,government may deem equitable4 ,the sum to be received by the purchaser1 or purchasers1 during the unexpired part of the term of the lease of the farmer1 and the jumma to be paid by such purchaser1 or purchasers1 after the expiration of the lease1 shall be specified at the time of sale1 and such purchaser1 or purchasers1 and his1 or her1 or their1 heirs1 and lawful successors1 shall be allowed to hold the lands1 at the assessment at which they may be so purchased1 ,,for ,,ever4 ,second4 ,if a ,zemindar1 c41 whose lands are1 or may be1 held k'has1 or let in farm1 shall transfer by private sale1 gift1 or otherwise1 the whole1 or a portion1 of his1 or her1 lands1 in one1 or two1 or more1 lots1 the person1 or persons1 to whom the lands may be so transferred1 shall be entitled to receive from ,government1 7if the lands are held k'has17 or from the farmer1 7if the lands are let in farm17 the mali-connah to which the former proprietor was entitled1 on account of the lands so transferred4 ,the purchaser1 or purchasers1 of such lands will stand in the same predicament as the ,zemindars1 c41 mentioned in the fourth article1 whose lands are held k'has1 or have been let in farm1 in consequence of their refusing to pay the assessment required of them under the before mentioned regulations for the decennial settlement1 and the declarations contained in that article are to be held applicable to them4 ,third4 ,in the event of a division being made in lands that are1 or may become1 the joint property of two1 or more1 persons1 and which are1 or may be1 held k'has1 or be let in farm1 the proprietors of the several shares will stand in the same predicament1 with regard to their respective shares1 as the ,zemindars1 c41 specified in the fourth article1 whose lands have been let in farm1 or are held k'has1 in consequence of their having refused to pay the assessment required of them under the before mentioned regulations of the decennial settlement1 and the declarations contained in that article are to be considered applicable to them4 ,,article ,,xi4 ,the ,governor-,general in ,council avails himself of this opportunity to notify to the ,zemindars1 c41 as well as to all other description of persons1 that it is his intention forthwith to establish ,courts of ,justice throughout the country1 upon such principles as will put it out of the power of individuals to injure each other with impunity1 and prevent the officers of ,government from infringing the rights and property of any of the inhabitants of these provinces1 by ensuring a speedy and impartial administration of justice in all cases whatever4 ,dated at ,fort-,william1 the #bbnd day of ,march1 #agic1 corresponding with the #abth day of ,cheyte1 #aaii1 of the ,bengal ra1 and the #ith day of ,shabaun1 #abjg1 ,higeree4 ,in order to comprehend the foregoing more fully1 it is proper to state1 that when the mocurrery 7or perpetual7 system of revenue was originally proposed1 the ,governor-,general in ,council 7,marquis ,cornwallis7 notified1 that it would be tried1 in the first instance1 for ten years only2 whence the term #8decennial settlement4' ,but1 whether from an early conviction of its excellence1 or that the ,marquis felt anxious to ensure to the natives1 and1 as he apprehended1 to the ,company also1 those immense benefits attendant upon a final adjustment of so momentous1 and so extensive a concern1 we see that1 previous to his return to ,europe1 he rendered the settlement as permanent as human ability could effect4 ,if report be true1 the satisfaction he experienced1 on concluding the settlement1 was afterwards greatly diminished1 when1 on his re-appointment to ,india1 he found that a thousand deceptions had been practised by the natives1 notwithstanding every endeavor to frustrate such litigious or deceptive intentions2 that the ,company's finances had been fettered very imprudently by that restriction which precluded ,government from availing itself of growing resources2 and that the #8,zemindars1 independent ,talookdars1 and other actual proprietors of land1' so far from considering themselves to be under any obligation to the ,company1 raised their heads with no little insolence1 and1 in many instances1 even complained that enough had not been conceded to them4 ,the most mortifying fact was1 that full one-third of the landed property within the ,company's provinces had actually been under the hammer4 ,this was an evil which spoke for itself1 and which no gloss1 no colors1 could conceal4 ,that1 under such a government1 property1 to the amount of millions upon millions1 should become thus exposed to transfer1 was a reflection that could not fail to rankle in the mind of him1 who had expected to see content1 prosperity1 and loyalty1 teeming in every quarter6 ,never was the vanity of man more conspicuously displayed1 or the mortification of disappointed zeal more grievously felt4 ,the abrogation of that incertitude1 which not only subjected the land-holder to imposition1 but the revenue to much defalcation1 was assuredly a most serious consideration2 but1 in adopting those measures which might seem to have the most desirable tendency1 it was necessary to have a full idea of the views and dispositions of the persons on whom the most essential benefits were to be conferred4 ,a deficiency of experience1 or of insight into their true character1 could alone have led the ,marquis into an error1 from which the mode of extrication is1 ,i believe1 among the most pressing desiderata of the ,british government4 ,much pains have been taken to prove1 that the zemindars1 c41 were the legitimate proprietors of the soil2 but a very slight inspection of the forms of ancient grants1 made by the ,emperors of ,hindostan1 must satisfy the most scrupulous1 that no person whatever occupied the soil1 except by tolerance of that power under which it was protected4 ,until our acquisition of the ,dewany1 7i4e4 of the government of the provinces of ,bengal1 ,bahar1 and ,orissa17 no fixed tenure1 beyond the will of the ruling despot1 was known1 or even claimed2 to have asserted such a right1 would have been to provoke immediate castigation1 and removal from the lands4 ,even in the times of our own governors1 no hesitation was made respecting the banishment 7for it virtually was one7 of those who either assumed a decided claim to the property1 or who1 from whatever cause1 whether rebellion1 mis-management1 or unwillingness to pay their rents1 fell in arrears4 ,such men were always displaced1 and others were appointed in their stead1 as a mere matter of course4 #8,saheb ke koossy1' 7its master's pleasure17 was the patient response of the offender2 who1 whatever might be his feelings1 or his opinions1 felt the expediency of being perfectly passive on such an occasion4 ,i believe the records will prove1 that ,mr4 ,hastings1 during the ten years he was in the chair1 made a very free use of this well-understood authority2 yet1 so far were the natives from thinking him unjust1 or over severe1 that1 when the intelligence of his being acquitted by parliament1 was received in ,india1 such was the pleasure felt by all classes1 that addresses of congratulation were poured in from every part of the country6 ,this was a compliment that never had been paid by the natives to any of our governors1 even when about to return to ,europe2 a period1 at which it might be expected some adulatory addresses might1 by great influence1 be obtained3 no1 it was the spontaneous flow of gratitude1 pity1 and admiration2 such as never would have been forth-coming1 if the ejectment of a zemindar from his soil had been considered as the expulsion from an hereditary or established right1 rather than as the removal of tenants-at-will4 ,it certainly must appear curious1 that we receive eleven-sixteenths of the produce of the soil from its proprietors6 ,such is1 indeed1 the case1 taking all upon an average4 ,the peasantry1 in a number of instances1 pay more2 especially where middle-men 7a class of people by no means scarce in ,india7 are concerned4 ,these are the same harpies all over the world2 never failing to reduce the industrious to distress1 and to seize upon the all of those most unfortunate beings1 whom want of experience1 or of interest1 may place at their mercy6 ,the old system of farming out the country to particular persons1 many of whom rented of the ,company to the amount of fifty lacs1 7upwards of #fjj1jjj417 was productive of the greatest evils with which an industrious1 but indigent1 population could have to contend6 ,under that mode1 it was impossible for ,government to make certain of its rents1 which were generally remitted in part to the great farmers1 lest they should1 in bad seasons1 oppress the ,ryots1 and drive them either to despair1 or out of the country4 ,this was intended as an act of generosity on the part of ,government1 which had not the means of enforcing arrears1 otherwise than by the sale of a farmer-general's property1 whence but a small portion could be expected to result2 but1 unhappily1 no alleviation of consequence was extended to the real agriculturist2 who1 being subject to a very summary process1 was often compelled to embrace ruin1 rather than to suffer all the penalties inflicted by an avaricious and obdurate creditor4 ,that such should have been the case under the immediate eye of ,government1 may excite much surprize2 but it must be considered1 that1 under the farming system1 the least interference would have instantly been the signal for universal clamor1 and that it would have proved beyond the power of all the civil servants1 throughout the ,company's territories1 to have even registered1 much less to have heard1 and settled1 all the references which would have been made4 ,this difficulty could not fail to be greatly augmented1 by the extreme deficiency then existing of ,company's servants in every part of ,india2 for1 in each of the zillahs1 or districts1 only a collector1 with an assistant1 perhaps1 was stationed4 ,in one instance1 ,i recollect passing by a civil station1 when marching from one province to another1 when the resident-surgeon was under the necessity of requesting an officer of our corps to aid him in examining the accounts of the factory1 which he had been obliged to make out2 the president and his assistant being both absent on public business4 ,this occurrence afforded not only much amusement1 but a wide scope for observation regarding the paucity of ,europeans employed at the out-stations4 ,in those days1 the collector had abundance of duty to perform2 for he was not simply to settle all accounts respecting the revenue1 and1 in some instances1 of manufactures provided for the ,company's homeward cargoes1 but the whole of the criminal1 as well as of the civil1 code of justice1 were under his control3 whatever petty offences were committed1 or whatever disputes arose among the inhabitants1 became equally his province to enquire into4 ,fortunately1 the banian1 or dewan1 employed1 used to take a very considerable portion of such toil off master's hands1 and to prevent1 by a kind of petty adaulut1 or tribunal1 held in some corner of the office1 or perhaps at his own house1 thousands of references to his principal4 ,the chief renter of the zillah being often employed as banian to the collector1 it is easy to imagine to which side justice1 as it was called1 used to incline4 ,within the last twenty years1 the number of servants employed by the ,company has been greatly augmented2 not only on account of their extension of territory1 but1 in consequence of the separation1 very judiciously made1 of two offices1 incompatible to be held by the same individual4 ,the collector is now1 except in a very few zillahs of less note1 confined to the collection of the revenues1 having under him one or more assistants1 according to the extent of his district4 ,the whole of the judicial proceedings are under cognizance of a judge1 who1 aided by his register1 decides civil causes between parties residing within his jurisdiction2 while the criminal catalogue is handed over to a court composed of natives versed in the ,mahomedan and ,hindu laws1 though the former are1 generally1 the guide4 ,these native judges are superintended in their proceedings by three of the ,company's servants of long standing1 having likewise under them a secretary1 or register4 ,such tribunals are established in various parts of the country1 particularly at ,calcutta1 ,moorshadabad1 ,dacca1 ,patna1 ,benares1 and in the ,ceded ,provinces1 under the designation of ,provincial ,courts of ,appeal and ,circuit4 ,there are1 besides1 judges1 each having a register and an assistant1 stationed at ,benares1 ,moorshadabad1 ,patna1 and ,dacca1 for the especial purpose of administering justice1 and for the correction of abuses within those cities respectively4 ,the stations of the zillah courts1 and of the collectors1 are as follow3-- ,agra1 ,dacca1 ,nuddeah1 ,allahabad1 ,dinapore1 ,purneah1 ,ally-,ghur1 ,etayah1 ,rajeshaye1 ,backergunge1 ,furruckabad1 ,ramghur1 ,bareilly1 ,gorackpore1 ,rungpore1 ,bahar1 ,hoogly1 ,sahacunpore1 ,benares1 ,jessore1 ,sarun1 ,beerboom1 ,juanpore1 ,shahabad1 ,boglepore1 ,meerat1 ,sylhet1 ,burdwan1 ,mirzapore1 ,tipperah1 ,cawnpore1 ,momensing1 ,tirhoot1 ,chittagong1 ,moorshadabad1 ,twenty-four ,pergunnahs4 ,cuttack1 ,moradabad1 ,the stations of the commercial residents1 whose duty is entirely confined to the providing of investments for the ,company's shipping1 are1 ,bareilly1 ,goruckpore1 ,mauldah1 ,bauleah1 ,hurial1 ,midnapore1 ,commercolly1 ,hurripaul1 ,patna1 ,cossimbazar1 ,jungipore1 ,radnagore1 ,dacca1 ,keerpoy1 ,rungpore1 ,etayah1 ,luckypore and ,santipore1 ,chittagong1 ,golagore1 ,soonamooky4 ,collectors of government customs1 most of whom are also collectors of town duties1 are stationed at ,benares1 ,dacca1 ,moorshadabad1 ,calcutta1 ,furruckabad1 and ,patna4 ,cawnpore1 ,hoogly1 ,the diplomatic residents are as follow3--at ,delhi4 ,the ,court of the ,emperor4 ,hyderabad4 ,the ,court of the ,nizam4 ,lucknow4 ,the ,court of the ,nabob ,vizier of ,oude4 ,mysore4 ,the ,court of the ,rajah1 7late ,tippoo's country47 ,nagpore4 ,the ,court of the ,berar ,maharrattahs4 ,poonah4 ,the ,court of the ,peishwa1 and with ,dowlut ,row ,scindeah1 one of the ,chiefs of the ,maharrattah ,league4 ,the difference that has been made by the conduct of the ,british government1 in the suppression of an immense number of farmers on the large scale1 and of middle-men that again stood between those farmers and the peasants1 has been immense4 ,in many places1 the lands are now in the possession of an industrious population1 holding them from the renters1 or1 if ,i may use the term1 from the proprietors of villages and small talooks1 consisting of1 perhaps1 three or four thousand bigahs3 the revenues are thus rendered far more easy of collection1 and1 consequently1 more certain2 because it is now the interest of every honest renter to be forth-coming with his rents at the office of the collector1 at the several periods when they should be paid4 ,those periods are not equi-distant1 as in ,england2 but are generally settled in such manner as may be convenient to the tenants1 according as their several crops may be reasonably expected to become marketable4 ,the division is by a certain number of annas1 or sixteenths1 in each rupee1 being payable at particular seasons2 allowance being made for the different species of grain1 c41 cultivated4 ,there being no harvest of grain from the beginning of ,november to the beginning of ,march1 the collections generally fall light in the intermediate months1 but1 about ,april and ,may1 a large portion usually becomes payable1 and again1 in ,bengal1 after the rice is harvested3 but1 on the whole1 the rent may be commonly taken at four instalments1 two of which are considerable1 and two of smaller portions of the rupee4 ,the heavy kists1 or collections1 of ,bengal1 are from ,august to ,january1 in the proportion of two-thirds of the whole rent2 the great crops in that quarter being cut after the rains4 ,the gruff kists1 which include the rubbee1 or small harvest of white-corn1 sugar1 c41 come in between ,january and the beginning of ,may4 ,the fruits1 fish1 c41 from ,april to ,july4 ,in ,bengal1 the year begins in ,april2 in ,bahar1 it begins in ,september4 ,all the collections are made in money4 ,mr4 ,grant1 formerly collector of ,bhauglepore1 has published a small tract on the subject of the revenues1 which ,i strongly recommend to my readers3 the work is1 ,i believe1 rarely to be obtained2 therefore1 a new edition seems to be loudly demanded4 ,it is to be feared1 that1 however beneficial the existing system may be1 and1 however equitable the arrangements made under the ,mocurrery settlement have proved themselves1 still the ,company are not likely to be benefitted in proportion to the assiduity they have displayed1 or to the tenderness with which the rights of their subjects have been regarded4 ,this1 however1 is to be said2 that1 according as the enterprize of individuals may1 by degrees1 give additional value to the soil1 by an immense encrease of exportation1 from various parts of the country1 of a million of commodities1 which1 until latterly1 were either unknown1 or unheeded1 so will the duties collected at the several chokies1 7custom-house stations17 and at the several ports1 together with the demand for ,british manufactures1 be proportionally augmented4 ,it should be very generally made known1 that the ,company receive into their treasury all the realized property of persons demising in ,india1 under letters of administration1 or under the acts of executors1 duly acknowledged and certified by the supreme courts of justice at the several presidencies4 ,this effectually secures the interest persons in ,europe may have in the estates of friends1 c41 dying in ,india3 so rigidly is this observed1 that the relatives of any private soldier may fully ascertain how his property1 if any1 has been disposed of1 and receive whatever sums may be forth-coming from the sale of his effects1 c4 ,such a measure fully guards the principal of any sum left in the ,company's treasury2 while1 at the same time1 the most pleasing facility is given to individuals1 to enable them1 or their attornies1 to receive the interest1 either at the presidency1 or in the moofussul1 7that is1 from the collectors17 according as may be convenient3 but such can only be done under a specific power of attorney4 ,the generality of traders1 who resort to distant inland markets1 near which to reside1 or who1 in favorable situations1 become conspicuous as manufacturers1 whether of indigo1 cloth1 sugar1 c41 have invariably some connection with one or more agency-houses at the presidency2 on these they draw their bills1 generally for hypothecated cargoes1 sent from the manufactory1 either to be sold by them1 or to be shipped for ,europe4 ,this1 under a pure agency1 is unexceptionable1 provided the firm rests on the broad basis of absolute property1 and does not play with the cash belonging to its less speculative constituents3 such may be said to be merely the bankers of those whose consignments they receive1 and pass on to this country without participating in the adventure2 and confining themselves to a stipulated per centage on the amounts of invoices1 according to the scale in common use4 ,agency-houses are not confined to ,british subjects2 the ,portugueze1 the ,armenians1 the ,greeks1 and others1 form a portion of several firms of great respectability2 or1 at least1 of those companies which1 under different designations1 insure the greater part of those vessels1 which either sail from ,india to ,europe direct1 or that traverse the ,indian seas1 according to the state of the monsoons2 carrying on a lucrative trade among the several ,asiatic ports4 ,it must not be supposed1 that persons devoting their whole attention to the concern of others1 in such a climate1 where the expences are very great1 and from which it is an object with most adventurers1 and speculators1 to retire with such a competency as should afford some enjoyments during the decline of life1 are to be remunerated in the same manner as though they had merely to attend their counting-houses in ,london for a very few hours daily4 ,the ,indian agent must keep a large establishment of sircars1 podars1 c41 and must maintain extensive connections in various parts of the country3 nay1 he is often expected to have an apartment1 or two1 in his dwelling1 devoted to the accommodation of such of his country correspondents as may occasionally visit the presidency4 ,combining all these circumstances1 it will be evident1 that his charges for commission must be such as1 among us1 would appear extravagantly high4 ,the same causes operate towards raising the expences of a suit in the supreme court of judicature equally above those of the ,british courts2 though the latter are certainly full high enough6 ,the terms of receiving1 or paying1 money1 in exchange with ,europe1 ,china1 or other parts1 are completely arbitrary2 being governed solely by the value of money to any particular firm at the time of negociating3 ,i have known instances of some firms declining to offer more than two shillings and sixpence for a sicca rupee1 bills being given payable at six months after sight in ,europe1 while others1 whose stability appeared equally solid1 offered two shillings and nine-pence for the same accommodation4 ,in point of commerce1 ,calcutta may1 perhaps1 be properly classed with ,bristol2 making this allowance1 that what the former wants in the number of vessels employed1 is made up by their average tonnage being considerable1 and the value of their cargoes far superior4 ,the length of the voyage must likewise be taken into consideration3 a vessel may1 during times of profound peace1 make three voyages within twelve months1 from ,bristol to ,america1 or the ,west ,indies1 and back again1 and the same either to the ,baltic1 or to the ,levant2 whereas1 few ,indiamen make more than one return to their moorings in the ,thames under fifteen months2 the majority are out from fifteen to twenty months4 ,hence1 all our ,british ports appear more crowded1 taking the year round1 than ,calcutta1 which1 from ,july to ,november1 or even to ,january1 often presents a forest of masts2 while1 on the other hand1 during the rest of the year1 only such vessels as may be under repair1 or that have lost their season1 or that beat up the bay against the monsoon1 are to be seen in the river4 ,i have already explained1 that1 during half the year1 that is1 from about the middle of ,march to the middle of ,september1 the wind is southerly1 but then gradually changes to the northward1 from which quarter it blows regularly for about five months1 when it again gradually veers about to the southward4 ,this gives name to the #8northerly and southerly monsoons2' which all navigators study to take advantage of3 the difference in going with1 or against the monsoon1 from ,calcutta to ,madras1 or vice vers1 often makes the difference of full five or six weeks1 sometimes more3 the trip being very commonly made in a week with the monsoon2 but1 against it1 sometimes occupying no less than three months6 ,few ships make more than one trip between ,malabar and ,china1 within the year1 on account of the monsoon2 but1 between the intermediate ports from ,bombay to ,calcutta1 two trips may be considered the average4 ,during the wars with ,hyder1 and his son ,tippoo1 vessels have made four trips within the year1 from ,bengal to ,madras2 but such must not be considered a fair standard1 three being considered a great exertion4 ,the town of ,calcutta1 which is estimated at a population of a hundred thousand souls1 whereof not more than one thousand are ,british1 is situated very advantageously for commerce4 ,the ,hoogly1 which is navigable for ships of a thousand tons1 at least thirty-five miles above ,calcutta1 communicates with the ,ganges1 by means of the ,cossimbazar river1 and has communications with the whole of the ,sunderbund ,passages1 either through ,tolley's ,canal1 the creek called ,chingrah ,nullah1 or the southern passage1 through ,channel ,creek1 which is adopted by the greater part of the vessels conveying rice and salt from the ,soonderbunds3 these are of a very stout construction1 suited to those wide expanses of water they have to cross in that very hazardous line of navigation4 ,the average depth of water1 within a stone's throw of the eastern bank1 on which ,calcutta ranges for several miles1 7including the suburbs up to the ,maharrattah ,ditch17 may be from six to eight fathoms when the tide is out4 ,at particular places1 the water deepens very suddenly1 but1 in most parts1 a shelf1 abounding with mud1 runs out for sixty or seventy yards1 down to low water mark1 where the bank falls off1 so that ships of any burthen may moor within a very few yards4 ,the great front thus given to the town1 affords innumerable facilities to those concerned in the shipping2 especially as the custom-house1 which is on the quay belonging to the old fort1 stands nearly centrical1 in respect to the ,european population4 ,the donies1 which are small craft intended for the coasting trade carried on principally by native merchants1 commonly lie higher up1 opposite the ,chitpore m'hut1 or temple2 there1 in tiers1 much the same as the shipping in the ,thames1 these pariah vessels present a contrast with the superb edifices under ,british management1 and at once characterize not only the ignorance1 but the narrow minds of their owners4 ,few donies measure more than a hundred and fifty tons1 or have more than two masts2 sloops are by far most common1 and the generality are equipped with coir cordage1 as well as with country-made canvas4 ,the greater portion of these vessels return either in ballast1 after delivering their cargoes of rice1 at various ports in the ,northern ,sircars1 or perhaps in the ,carnatic2 or they import with light cargoes1 composed chiefly of coir and cowries1 from the ,sechelles and ,maldivies2 to which they likewise1 now and then1 make a bold voyage1 at favorable seasons1 with small invoices of coarse cottons1 fit for the use of those islanders4 ,here1 and there1 we see a doney with some ,european on board to navigate her2 but1 in general1 only natives are employed2 and the ,europe-ships1 which arrive with crews from their respective country1 are often compelled to take a portion of lascars on board1 for the purpose of aiding those who survive the pestilential miasma1 to which they are so inconsiderately1 or1 more properly1 inhumanly1 subjected1 while lying at ,diamond-,harbour1 c4 ,those who escape with their lives1 are usually much weakened by severe attacks of the ague1 of which they rarely get quit1 until relieved by an alterative course of mercury1 in conjunction with the change of air experienced by getting out to sea4 ,i shall1 for the present1 take leave of my readers2 observing1 that ,i am now preparing for the press a work intended to give a full1 but compact1 #8,,description ,,of ,,india ,,in ,,general4' ,in that work1 it will be my study so to combine and arrange the several important matters coming under consideration1 as to render the whole of whatever may relate to that interesting quarter1 fully intelligible1 and equally familiar4 ,,finis4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ahaj4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,on ,oriental ,literature1 c4 ,that will be found useful to ,writers1 ,cadets1 and ,gentlemen going to the ,east ,indies1 ,,sold ,,by ,,black1 ,,parry1 ,,and ,,kingsbury1 ,booksellers to the ,honorable ,east ,india ,company1 ,stationers1 ,map1 and ,chart ,sellers1 #g1 ,,leadenhall-,,street4 ---------- ,oriental ,language1 c4 ,the following valuable ,works are by ,j4 ,,borthwick ,,gilchrist1 ,esq4 ,,ll4 ,d4 late ,professor of ,hindoostanee1 at the ,college1 ,fort-,william1 ,calcutta4 4 s4 d4 ,bagho ,buhar1 or the ,entertaining ,story of the ,four ,friars1 in ,hindoostanee prose #a #j #j ,british ,indian ,monitor1 or the ,anti-jargonist ,strangers' ,guide1 and ,oriental ,linguist1 #b vol4 #d #d #j ,dialogues1 ,english and ,hindoostanee1 on ,domestic1 ,military1 and ,medical ,subjects1 c4 #j #aj #j ,gooli ,buchawalee1 a celebrated ,eastern ,romance #j #af #j ,hidayet ool ,islam1 in ,hindoostanee and ,arabic1 or the ,moosulman's ,common ,prayer ,book1 vol4 #a4 #j #ae #j ,hindee ,arabic ,mirror1 or ,improved ,tabular ,view of ,arabic ,words in the ,hindoostanee ,language #j #e #j ,hindee ,moral ,preceptor1 or ,persian ,scholar's ,shortest ,road to the ,hindoostanee ,language1 et vice vers #a #j #j ,hindee ,roman ,alphabetical ,prospectus #j #b #f 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,orthoepigraphical ,ultimatum #j #d #j ,new ,theory of ,persian ,verbs1 with their ,hindoostanee ,synonymes #j #ab #j ,nuzri ,benuseer1 an ,enchanting ,fairy ,tale1 in ,hindoostanee ,prose1 from the ,original #j #af #j ,oriental ,fabulist1 or ,polyglot ,fables1 in ,english1 ,hindoostanee1 ,persian1 ,arabic1 c4 #a #j #j ,rose ,garden of ,hindoostan1 a ,translation of ,sady's celebrated ,goolistan1 #b vol4 #a #aj #j ,strangers' #8,east ,india' ,guide to the ,hindoostanee1 bound1 #hvo4 #j #i #j ,tota ,kuhanee1 or ,tales of a ,parrot1 in ,hindoostanee #j #aj #j ,uklaqui ,hindee1 or ,indian ,ethics1 a ,hindoostanee ,translation of ,hitoopudes #j #af #j ---------- ,ancient ,indian ,literature1 being a ,summary of the #8,sheeve ,pouran1' the #8,brahme ,vivrtte ,pooran1' and the #8,arthe ,prekash ,shastre2' with ,extracts and ,epitomes1 #dto4 bds4 #a #e #j ,anvari ,soheily of ,hussein ,vaen ,kashefy1 ,calcutta printed1 #ahje1 half bound #c #aj #j ,baillie's ,arabic ,grammar1 #b vol4 #dto4 #a #a #j ,sixty ,tables on ditto1 folio #a #a #j ,balfour's ,forms of ,herkern1 ,arabic and ,english #j #aj #f ,barretto's ,persian and ,arabic ,dictionary1 #b vol4 #hvo4 #f #f #j 4 4 4 4 4 ,shums-ool-,loghat1 or a ,dictionary of the ,persian and ,arabic1 the interpretation being in ,arabic1 #b vol4 #dto4 #ab #ab #j ,carey's ,sungskrit ,grammar1 with ,examples for the ,exercise of the ,student1 and complete ,list of the ,dhatoos1 or ,roots1 boards #h #h #j ,carlyle's ,specimens of ,arabian ,poetry1 #b vol4 #j #af #j 4 4 4 4 ,maured ,allatafet1 #dto4 bds4 #j #ae #j ,dudley's1 ,rev4 ,john1 ,nerbudda1 or ,the ,metamorphosis of ,sona ,forster's ,bongalee and ,english1 and ,english and ,bongalee ,vocabulary1 #b vol4 #dto4 bds4 #d #d #j ,gladwin's ,gulistan of ,sady1 with an ,english ,translation1 #b vol4 #dto4 #e #e #j 4 4 4 4 ,gulistan of ,sady1 ,pers4 #a vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #j #af #j 4 4 4 4 ,gulistan of ,sady1 translated1 #hvo4 #j #aj #f 4 4 4 4 ,persian ,moonshee1 ,persian and ,english1 #dto4 half bound1 russia #c #c #j 4 4 4 4 ,tootinameh1 or ,tales of a ,parrot1 ,persian and ,english #j #ah #j 4 4 4 4 ,dissertation on the ,rhetoric of the ,persians1 #dto4 bds4 #j #ah #j ,hadley's ,moors' ,grammar1 with a ,vocabulary #j #aj #f ,hager's ,elements of the ,chinese ,language1 folio #b #b #j ,howison's ,malay ,grammar and ,dictionary ,jones's 7,sir ,wm47 ,persian ,grammar1 #dto4 bound #a #a #j ,l',herbelot's ,bibliotheque ,orientale1 #d vol4 #dto4 #d #d #j ,moise's ,persian ,interpreter1 with a ,vocabulary #j #ah #j ,ouseley's 7,sir ,wm47 ,persian ,miscellanies1 an ,essay to facilitate the reading of ,persian ,manuscripts1 #dto4 bds4 #a #aa #f ,ouseley's ,bahktyar ,nameh1 ,persian and ,english #j #ad #j 4 4 4 4 ,oriental ,collections1 #b vol4 #dto4 bds4 #d #d #j 4 4 4 4 ,oriental ,collections1 vol4 #c1 part ,i4 bds4 #j #aj #f ,persian ,lyrics of ,hafiz1 #dto4 bds4 #j #ae #j ,pendeh-i-,attar4--,the ,morals of ,attar1 a celebrated ,persian ,poem1 ,pers4 #abmo4 bds4 #j #g #f ,richardson's ,persian1 ,arabic1 and ,english ,dictionary1 by ,c4 ,wilkins1 ,esq4 ,,ll4 ,d4 #b vol4 #dto4 bds4 #ab #ab #j ,vol4 ,,ii4 will be delivered gratis when published2 ,a few ,copies are printed on ,imperial ,quarto4 ,richardson's ,arabic ,grammar1 #dto4 bound #a #a #j ,ramayuna of ,valmeeki1 in the original ,sungskrit1 with a ,prose ,translation1 and ,explanatory ,notes1 by ,w4 ,carey and ,j4 ,marsham1 vol4 #a1 bds4 #e #e #j ,ramayuna of ,valmeeki1 translated from the original ,sungskrit1 by ,w4 ,carey and ,j4 ,marsham1 #hvo4 vol4 #a1 bds4 #a #a #j ,rousseau's ,flowers of ,persian ,literature1 #dto4 bound #a #a #j 4 4 4 4 4 ,dictionary of ,mahomedan ,law1 c4 #abmo4 bds4 #j #g #j ,weston's ,conformity of ,languages1 #abmo4 bds4 #j #g #f ,wilkins's ,grammar of the ,sanskrita ,language1 bds4 #d #d #j 4 4 4 4 4 ,heetopades of ,veshonoo ,sarma1 from the ,sangskrit1 #hvo4 bds4 ,willmet's ,arabic ,lexicon1 #dto4 bds4 #a #a #j ,in the ,press4 ,dictionary1 ,english and ,hindoostanee1 by ,john ,borthwick ,gilchrist ,geography1 ,history1 c4 ,asiatic ,researches1 #i vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #e #h #j ,annual ,register1 #i vol4 #hvo4 half bound #e #a #f ,ayeen ,akberry1 or the ,institutes of the ,emperor ,akber1 #b vol4 #hvo4 boards #a #a #j ,barrow's ,travels to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #dto4 #c #c #j 4 4 4 4 ,cochin ,china1 #dto4 #c #ac #f 4 4 4 4 ,travels in ,china1 #dto4 #b #ab #f ,bolt's ,considerations on ,indian ,affairs1 #b vol4 #dto4 bds4 #b #b #j ,british ,india ,analyzed1 #c vol4 #hvo4 #j #ah #j ,brooke's ,gazetteer1 #hvo4 bound #j #aj #f 4 4 4 4 ,hist4 of the ,island of ,st4 ,helena1 #hvo4 bds4 #ajs4 #f;d4--royal #j #ae #j ,buchanan's ,tour into the ,mysore and ,cannara1 #c vol4 #dto4 with plates1 bds4 #f #f #j ,ditto1 large paper #i #i #j ,chatfield's ,historical ,view of ,hindustan1 #dto4 #a #af #j ,colebrook on the ,commerce of ,bengal1 bds4 #j #e #f 4 4 4 4's 7,h4 ,t47 ,digest of the ,hindu ,law1 #c vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #b #b #j ,dallas's ,vindication of the ,marquis ,wellesley #j #e #j ,dangers of ,british ,india from ,french ,invasion and ,missionary ,establishments1 second edit4 by ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,esq4 #j #g #j ,debates on the ,india ,budget #j #e #j 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,carnatic ,question #j #e #j ,dow's ,hist4 of ,hindostan1 #c vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #a #g #j ,ditto1 #c vol4 royal #hvo4 #b #j #j ,east ,india ,register and ,directory1 for #ahaj #j #g #f ,fuller's ,apology for the late ,christian ,missions to ,india1 parts #a1 #b1 and #c1 each #j #b #f ,guthrie's ,grammar1 #hvo4 bound #j #ah #j ,historical ,view of ,plans for the ,government of ,british ,india1 #dto4 bds4 #a #a #j ,johnson's ,oriental ,voyager1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #aj #f ,jones's 7,sir4 ,w47 ,works1 #f vol4 #dto4 bds4 #aj #aj #j ,ditto1 superfine imperial paper1 with proof plates #be #j #j ,ditto1 #ac vol4 #hvo4 with ,life by ,lord ,teignmouth #f #af #f ,jones's 7,sir ,w47 ,life1 by ,lord ,teignmouth1 #dto4 #a #aj #j #hvo4 #j #aj #f ,indian ,recreations1 by ,tennant1 #c vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #a #g #j ,lauderdale 7,lord7 on the ,government of ,india1 #hvo4 #j #g #f ,macpherson's ,annals of ,commerce1 #d vol4 #dto4 #h #h #j ,maurice's ,dissertations on ,indian ,antiquities1 #g vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #c #c #j 4 4 4 4 ,ancient ,hist4 of ,hindostan1 #b vol4 #dto4 bds4 #c #ag #f 4 4 4 4 ,modern ditto1 #b vol4 #dto4 bds4 #d #d #j ,orme's ,hist4 of ,hindostan1 with ,fragments1 #d vol4 bds4 #d #h #j ,ouseley's 7,sir ,william7 ,epitome of the ,ancient ,hist4 of ,persia1 bds4 #j #g #j 4 4 4 4 ,geography of ,ebn ,haukal1 #dto4 bds4 #a #g #j ,patten's ,hist4 of the ,asiatic ,monarchies1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #h #j ,percival's ,account of ,ceylon1 #dto4 new edit4 bds4 #a #aa #f 4 4 4 4 4 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #dto4 bds4 #a #j #j ,pinkerton's ,modern ,geography1 #c vol4 #dto4 bds4 #f #f #j ,ditto1 abridged1 #hvo4 bound #j #ac #f ,raynal's ,hist4 of the ,european ,settlements in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 #f v4 #hvo4 bds4 #a #af #j ,robertson's ,disquisitions on ,ancient ,india1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #i #j ,sale's ,alkoran of ,mahommed1 #b v4 #hvo4 bds4 #j #af #j ,scott's ,bahar ,danush1 #c vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #j #ae #j 4 4 4 ,translation of ,ferishta's ,hist4 of the ,dekkan1 #b vol4 #dto4 boards #b #b #j ,syms's ,embassy to ,ava1 #c vol4 #hvo4 and a #dto4 vol4 of plates1 bds4 #a #aa #f ,trial of ,robert ,henshaw1 ,esq4 ,custom ,master at ,bombay1 #hvo4 boards #j #g #f ,vindication of the ,hindoos1 ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii41 in ,reply to the ,observations of the ,christian ,observer of ,mr4 ,fuller and his anonymous ,friend2 with some ,remarks on a ,sermon preached at ,oxford1 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,barrow1 by a ,bengal ,officer1 sewed1 each #j #e #j ,walker's ,pronouncing ,dictionary1 #dto4 bds4 #a #aa #f ,ditto1 #hvo4 bound #j #ac #j ,wellesley's 7,marquis7 ,hist4 of the ,mahratta ,war1 notes1 c4 #c parts1 #dto4 bds4 #a #af #j ,a large ,collection of scarce and valuable ,books in the ,oriental ,languages1 also on the ,history1 ,antiquities1 ,voyages1 ,travels1 ,natural ,history1 and ,trade of the ,east ,indies1 are constantly kept on ,sale4 ,atlasses and ,maps4 ,arrowsmith's ,new ,map of ,india1 cloth and rollers #c #c #j ,ditto1 varnished #c #ae #j ,ditto1 on cloth1 in a portable case #c #h #j ,ditto ,map of ,asia1 cloth and rollers #a #aa #f ,ditto1 varnished #b #j #j ,rennel's 7,major7 ,map of ,india1 cloth and rollers #a #aa #f ,ditto1 varnished #b #j #j ,ditto1 on cloth1 in a portable case #a #ac #f ,rennel's ,bengal ,atlas1 folio1 half bound #b #ag #f ,small ,map of ,india1 in a portable case #j #af #f ,military4 ,act for ,punishing ,mutiny and ,desertion1 and ,articles of ,war #j #e #f ,adye on ,military ,courts ,martial1 #abmo4 bds4 #j #d #f ,baker's ,practice of the ,rifle ,gun1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #e #f ,bombardier1 or ,pocket ,gunner1 #abmo4 bound #j #e #j ,cadet1 a ,military ,treatise1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #f #j ,cunningham's 7,major7 ,tactics of the ,british ,army1 bds4 #j #ah #j ,herries's ,instructions ,regulations for ,cavalry1 #b vol4 ,hutton's ,mathematics1 #b vol4 #hvo4 bds4 #j #ah #j ,james's ,military ,dictionary1 #hvo4 bds4 #a #a #j 4 4 4 4 ,regimental ,companion1 #c vol4 bds4 #j #ah #j ,landmann's ,field ,engineer's ,vade ,mecum1 #hvo4 #j #g #j 4 4 4 4 4 ,practical ,geometry #j #g #f 4 4 4 4 4 ,principles of ,fortification #j #c #f ,manual and ,platoon ,exercise1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #b #j ,military ,mentor1 in ,letters from a ,general ,officer to his ,son1 #b vol4 #abmo4 #j #ab #j 4 4 4 4 4 ,essays on the ,theory and ,practice of ,war1 #c vol4 #hvo4 by the ,author of the #8,mentor' #a #af #j ,muller's ,works of ,fortification1 ,attack and ,defence1 ,engineering1 ,artillery1 c4 ,officer's ,manual in the ,field1 or a ,series of ,military ,plans1 bds4 #j #ae #j ,regulations for ,riflemen and ,light ,infantry1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #c #f 4 4 4 4 4 and ,instructions for ,cavalry1 c4 #hvo4 bds4 #j #g #f ,elucidation of ditto #j #g #j ,reid on the ,duties of ,infantry ,officers #j #e #j ,rifle ,manual1 with plates1 #dto4 bds4 #a #a #j ,rules and ,regulations for the ,formation of ,his ,majesty's ,infantry1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #f #j ,ditto for the ,sword ,exercise1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #g #j ,russell's ,instruction for ,drill1 #ah ,manuvres1 c4 #hvo4 bds4 #j #g #f 4 4 4 4 4 ,movements1 c4 of ,infantry1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #g #f ,smirke's ,review of a ,battalion of ,infantry1 #hvo4 #j #g #j ,struensee's ,fortification1 #hvo4 bds4 #j #g #f ,,bibles--,,prayer ,,books--,,stationary1 c4 ,where may be had1 the most ,esteemed ,works and ,modern ,publications1 also the latest and most accurate ,atlasses1 ,maps1 ,charts1 c4 ,printed by ,turner and ,harwood1 ,st4 ,john's ,square1 ,london4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,at the top of p4 #age1 the line #8,brought forward #agj' represents a continuation of table begun on the previous page4 ,that page break being moot here1 the line has been removed as redundant4 ,the following issues should be noted1 along with the resolutions4 ,there are frequent characters1 particularly punctuation1 which were not visible in the copy upon which this text is based4 ,where the missing character is obvious1 it has been restored1 as noted4 ,keeping in mind the vintage of the text1 spelling has generally been followed4 ,where obvious printer's errors occur1 they have been corrected1 as noted below4 ,the city #8,allahabad' is printed twice1 incorrectly1 as #8,allahahad' on p4 #beg and p4 #cbg4 ,it appears correctly elsewhere4 ,these two instances have been corrected4 p4 vi brackish waters ,restored4 p4 #aa regularly ,restored4 p4 #ac competiting ,corrected4 p4 #ad harder kinds of gutty2 ,restored4 7,most probably47 p4 #ae in with sufficientmissing word8 to ,sic4 heat p4 #db woollen ,added4 p4 #dg as large as a quartern lao_/oaf ,transposed4 p4 #ic remarkably sweet ,restored4 p4 #bjb ,the enign_/ma ,corrected4 p4 #bah ther_/ree ,transposed4 p4 #bci is confined to the care ,restored4 p4 #bdc ,moorshadababad ,redundant4 ,removed4 p4 #beg ,allahah_/bad ,corrected4 p4 #bfa either on account of ,restored4 p4 #bfc co_/antonments ,corrected4 p4 #bgb ordinarily ,added4 p4 #bgg atmosphere2 while ,restored4 p4 #bhh succombed ,sic4 p4 #cbh ,allahah_/bad ,corrected4 p4 #ccc less expence that_/n twenty-five rupees ,corrected4 p4 #ceh lie to the westward of ,saugur ,added4 p4 #che notwithstanding ,added4 a_/it will be proper ,corrected4 p4 #cie eargerness ,removed4 p4 #dje ascertaining ,added4 should be placed ,restored4 p4 #dab sine qa_/qu non ,corrected4 p4 #dae ,colonel ,richarsd_/dson ,transposed4 p4 #dbj encomiun_/m ,corrected4 p4 #dfa the ,company's stalions ,sic4 p4 #dfh saddlers ,added4 p4 #dhd pursuant to the desicion_/decision ,corrected4 p4 #dif ,hyderabad ,added4 p4 #eje but1 in in general1 ,line break duplication4