file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #eacbh-;h4htm or #eacbh-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#eacbh_/pg#eacbh-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#ea cbh_/eacbh-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/handphre nologica#jjlond ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,a carat character is used to denote superscription4 ,characters following the carat and enclosed by curly brackets are superscripted7example3 ,caine74 ,illustration3 ,plate #a4 ,elementary ,hand4 ,,the ,,hand ,,phrenologically ,,considered3 ,being a ,glimpse at the ,relation of the ,mind with the ,organisation of the ,body4 ,london3 ,chapman and ,hall1 #ahf ,strand4 ,m4,,dccc4,,xlviii4 8,les hommes ne peuvent en quelque genre que ce soit arriver quelque chose de raisonnable1 qu'aprs avoir en ce mme genre1 puis toutes les sottises imaginables40--,,fontenelle4 8,si la nature1 au lieu de mains et de doigts flexibles1 eut termin nos poignets par un pied de cheval2 qui doute que les hommes1 sans arts1 sans habitations1 sans dfense contre les animaux1 tout occups du soin de pourvoir leur nourriture et d'viter les btes froces1 ne fussent encore errans dans les forts comme des troupeaux fugitifs80--,,helvetius1 ,sur l',esprit4 8,manus sunt artium organa2 sicut lyra musici1 et forceps fabri40--,,galen4 ,london3 ,george ,barclay1 ,castle ,street1 ,leicester ,square4 ,,preface4 ,since the time of ,,john ,,indagine1 who published his 8,art of ,chiromancy0 in #aefc1 but little progress has been made in the study of the hand as an indication of the physical and mental peculiarities of the individual4 ,in our time1 by the publication of the classical work of ,sir ,c4 ,,bell 8,on the ,hand10 public attention has been once more directed to the form1 structure1 and uses of this important organ4 ,the varieties in the structure and conformation of the human hand which are met with in different individuals have recently been investigated with much success1 both in ,france and ,germany4 ,it is to ,d',,arpentigny1 a translation of whose work#a is now in course of publication in the 8,medical ,times10 that we are indebted for much of the information we possess as to the mutual relation existing between particular mental tendencies and certain definite forms of hand4 ,by ,professor ,,carus1 of ,dresden1#b the views of ,d',,arpentigny have been in part verified1 and at the same time considerably extended4 ,he has corrected much that was erroneous1 and endeavoured to establish a science of ,,chirology1 founded upon the anatomy and physiology of the hand4 ,i have availed myself freely of the materials collected by ,d',,arpentigny and ,,carus1 and have modified1 corrected1 or omitted their theories and statements when not in accordance with my own experience4 ,much new matter has been added1 and the whole arranged in a form which it is hoped may tend somewhat to contribute either to the amusement or instruction of the ,reader4 ,june #ahdh4 ,,the ,,hand ,,phrenologically ,,considered1 c4 c4 ,,chapter ,i4 8,the form and posture of the human body1 and its various organs of perception1 have an obvious reference to man's rational nature2 and are beautifully fitted to encourage and facilitate his intellectual improvement40--,,dugald ,,stewart1 ,moral ,philosophy4 ,,the ,,brain ,,the ,,organ ,,of ,,mind4 ,from the time of ,thales and ,pythagoras to our own day the opinions of metaphysicians have been divided with respect to the mode in which ideas take their origin4 ,some1 with ,descartes and ,leibnitz1 have contended that the faculties of the mind are innate--that is1 that they originate solely from within2 while others1 with ,locke and ,condillac1 affirm that they are acquired1 and in all cases derived1 from impressions received through the medium of the senses1--8,nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu40 ,however it may be with respect to this controverted point1 whether ideas originate from without or from within1 it is at least certain that the manifestations of the mind1 far from being independent of1 are1 on the contrary1 closely linked and connected with1 the conditions of matter4 ,hippocrates1 when sent for by the ,abderites to cure ,democritus of his supposed madness1 found him busily engaged in dissecting the brains of animals for the purpose of ascertaining the organs and causes of thought4 ,that the brain is the organ through which the manifestations of mind are made known to us1 was therefore suspected by ,democritus2 and the accumulated experience of centuries has rendered that a certainty which with him was but a mere conjecture4 ,in the language of an eloquent modern writer1 8,where shall we find proofs of the mind's independence of the bodily structure1--of that mind which1 like the corporeal frame1 is infantile in the child1 manly in the adult1 sick and debilitated in disease1 frenzied or melancholy in the madman1 enfeebled in the decline of life1 doting in decrepitude1 and annihilated by death80 ,,mind ,,and ,,outward ,,form ,,in ,,harmony4 ,admitting1 then1 that the brain is the organ of mind--the instrument by which we are rendered cognisant of our own mental operations and conceptions--it must be evident that1 for the purpose of making them known to others1 of carrying them into effect1 certain other parts become necessary1 the conception requiring instruments for its execution4 ,this important duty is intrusted to the care of the senses1 and for this reason they have been correctly termed the hand-maidens of the intellect1 as it is through their agency that the brain receives and transmits impressions4 ,hence the manifestations of mind are indicated and expressed by the outward form2 for the senses can act only through the medium of physical organs1 and with these latter the active phenomena of life must necessarily be in strict accordance4 ,thus1 from the external configuration of the body1 or of some of its parts1 we can legitimately draw conclusions respecting the degree and kind of mental power4 ,let us examine this proposition a little more in detail4 ,in his ,instauratio ,magna1 ,bacon relates that 8when he was a young man at ,poictiers in ,france1 he conversed familiarly with a certain ,frenchman1 a witty young man1 but something talkative1 who afterwards grew to be a very eminent man4 ,he was wont to inveigh against the manners of old men1 and would say1 that if their minds could be seen as their bodies are1 they would appear no less deformed2 he would also maintain that the vices of old men's minds have some correspondence and were parallel to the putrefaction of their bodies4 ,for the dryness of their skin1 he would bring in impudence2 for the hardness of their bowels1 unmercifulness2 for the lippitude of their eyes1 an evil eye and envy2 for the casting down of their eyes and bowing their bodies toward the earth1 atheism 7for1 saith he1 they look no more up to heaven as they were wont72 for the trembling of their members1 irresolution of their decrees and light inconstancy2 for the bending of their fingers1 as it were to catch1 rapacity and covetousness2 for the buckling of their knees1 fearfulness2 for their wrinkles1 craftiness and obliquity40 ,now1 without hoping to attain to the nice discrimination of this ingenious young gentleman1 we shall attempt to elucidate a few general facts connected with this part of our subject4 ,with that spirit of observation for which they were so eminently remarkable1 the ancients had long since remarked the constant connexion of certain peculiarities of outward form with particular modes of thinking--a correspondence between the physical and mental condition4 ,it was in accordance with this view that ,galen founded his celebrated doctrine of temperaments4 ,his distinction of the sanguine1 phlegmatic1 choleric1 and melancholic temperaments1 was based upon the notion of the ,greek philosophers1 that there were four primary constituents of the human body corresponding to the four supposed elements of nature1 and that the presence of the one or the other of these elements in excess occasioned the production of the different temperaments4 ,according to the definition of the able physiologist ,mller1 the temperaments are peculiar1 permanent conditions1 or modes of mutual reaction of the mind and organism1 and they are chiefly dependent on the relation which subsists between the strivings or emotions of the mind and the excitable structure of the body4 ,even if we may be disposed to contend that they are not absolutely dependent on any particular constitution of the body1 it must still be conceded that they are at least associated with certain peculiarities of outward organisation1 by which they may be readily recognised2 so that the physical structure1 the mental tendency1 and the character of ideas1 are always intimately connected4 ,thus persons of a sanguine or sensitive temperament are1 for the most part1 of moderate stature and embonpoint1 with a smiling florid countenance1 and light or chestnut hair4 ,their ideas1 like their physiognomy1 are all couleur de rose4 ,endowed with great excitability1 they are easily moved2 but impressions are not durable1 giving place quickly to other and newer emotions4 ,hence their life is made up of transitions--now grave1 now gay2 now happy1 now miserable3 their feelings are perpetually changing1 and impressions made upon their mobile minds become soon obliterated by some fresh object of attention4 ,the phlegmatic1 or elementary temperament1 is characterised by a persistence during adult existence of the physical structure proper to early life4 ,the body is loaded with cellular tissue and fat2 the muscles are large1 but soft1 and with indistinct outlines2 the countenance is pale2 the physiognomy but little marked1 and the features not sharply defined4 ,such persons are unexcitable1 their sensations are dull1 and the modes of reaction which they determine slow and apathetic2 their ideas are clear1 but they possess neither the quickness of conception and imagination of persons of the sanguine1 nor the energy of action and strong passions of those of the choleric temperament4 ,they love repose1 and excel in occupations which demand patience and attention1 of which they are possessed in a remarkable degree4 ,in individuals of the choleric1 or motive temperament1 the bony frame-work of the body is strong and much developed2 the articulations are large and prominent2 the muscles firm1 with but little cellular tissue and fat2 the physiognomy decided1 with sharply-chiselled features4 ,such individuals are remarkable for promptitude and energy of action2 impetuous1 passionate1 and endowed with great determination1 opposition only increases their endurance1 and excites a proportionate effort to conquer it4 ,in nature these temperaments are not frequently encountered pure and free from admixture1 but mostly more or less mixed the one with the other4 ,that must be held to be the most perfect temperament in which they are all blended in such proportions that neither is in excess2 8in which moderate excitability is combined with a due amount of energy of action2 in which imagination is tempered by reason1 and the ideas and conceptions are regulated by judgment1 and rectified by reflection40 ,impressions thus do not react upon all in the same manner4 ,in some they are like figures traced upon the sand of the sea-shore1 which are obliterated by the first advancing wave2 they pass away together with the ideas to which they give rise1 without leaving any1 even the slightest evidence1 of their existence4 ,in others they are as characters deeply graven upon metal2 arousing the attention with an irresistible force1 they enchain and captivate the faculties1 ceasing but to leave behind them a powerful and lasting impression upon the mind4 ,,effects ,,of ,,age1 ,,sex1 ,,climate1 ,,etc4 ,,upon ,,mind4 ,by age1 sex1 locality1 climate1 and regimen the mental operations are likewise powerfully influenced4 ,by locality and climate we do not mean air and temperature merely1 but the sum total of all influences1 whether physical or moral1 by which in every place we are surrounded4 ,the bodily structure is undoubtedly and materially influenced by climate4 ,of this the modern ,hungarians afford a most convincing proof--a race of people of a fine physical conformation1 and yet1 as their language and traditions attest1 derived from the same stock as the barbarous1 deformed ,ostiaks inhabiting the ,uralian ,chain1 to whom1 as we learn from history1 they bore no slight resemblance1 on their arrival in the countries in which they are at present located4 ,climate may thus affect the mind in two ways1 by modifying the structure of the body1 and by the more direct action which it exerts upon the mind itself2 and it is to these two causes that we must ascribe the differences in the form and habits1 the government and laws1 the superstitions and literature1 of northern and southern nations4 ,to differences and modifications of structure constantly correspond differences and modifications in ideas and passions4 ,the physical form and intellectual qualities are closely and mutually connected4 ,thus1 one individual may excel another in a given pursuit1 this excellence resulting rather from a peculiar aptitude for1 than from a particular devotion to1 its cultivation4 ,this aptitude1 in many cases at least1 is to be mainly referred to some peculiarity of structure in one or more of the organs of the senses2 it is original1 and without the particular organic conformation could never have been acquired by centuries of practice and experience4 ,,bodily ,,suffering ,,dependent ,,upon ,,organisation ,,of ,,nervous ,,system4 ,to differences in the degree of sensibility of the nervous system1 together with the varying amount of the peripheral ramifications distributed to the external surface1 must be ascribed the different amount of suffering experienced upon the application of inordinate stimuli to the nerves4 ,the will is undoubtedly capable of exerting very great control over the manifestations of feeling called forth by such painful impressions upon sentient nerves4 ,of this ,roman history affords us many notable examples4 ,but it seems probable that the ,romans were not endowed with a nervous system so delicately organised as that of the more highly civilised ,greeks2 witness the general structure of their language and their comparative inferiority in the fine arts4 ,neither heroism1 nor philosophy1 nor even religion1 can prevent some organisations from exhibiting manifestations of great pain from impressions upon nerves1 which in others would occasion but a moderate amount of suffering2 a physical necessity compels them to manifest evidences of intense feeling2 and thus1 by a rude shock inflicted upon the nervous system1 a mathematician may be at once recalled from the contemplation of other spheres1 or a metaphysician from the most sublime speculations on the nature and essence of the ,deity4 ,in the lowest grades of society the general nervous sensibility is mostly obtuse2 in the highest1 on the contrary1 it is frequently morbidly acute3 in the one case the mental manifestations are dull and obscure2 in the other they may be brilliant1 but are frequently wanting in strength and energy4 ,in his treatise on tropical diseases1 ,dr4 ,mosely observes1 that 8,negroes are void of sensibility to a surprising degree4 ,they are not subject to nervous diseases4 ,they sleep soundly in every disease1 nor does any mental disturbance ever keep them awake4 ,they bear chirurgical operations much better than white people2 and what would be the cause of insupportable pain to a white man1 a ,negro would almost disregard4 ,i have amputated the legs of many ,negroes1 who have held the upper part of the limb themselves40 ,,chapter ,,ii4 8,sollt es wahr ,sein4444 ,dasz die ,menschengestalt1 von allen sichtlichen ,dingen ,ganz allein uns lgt1 dasz wir1 was edel und albern1 ,was beschrnkt und grosz1 im ,angesicht zu suchen1 ,eitele ,thoren sind1 betrogne1 betrgende ,thoren40 ,g,,the4 ,,countenance ,,index ,,of ,,mind4 ,talleyrand was wont to say1 that speech was given to man for the purpose of concealing his thoughts4 ,among mankind in general the countenance may1 with equal force1 be said to represent a series of hieroglyphics by which the internal emotions of the mind may be readily deciphered4 ,observe a child thrown for the first time among a number of strangers4 ,to some it will immediately1 and as it were instinctively1 attach itself1 while to others it will manifest the greatest repugnance and dislike4 ,such first impressions are not the result of reasoning1 they spring from the quickness of perception peculiar to childhood2 and the choice is in general not the less happy1 although the reason may have had no effect in determining it4 ,with a rapid glance a mere infant will seize the prevailing expression of the physiognomy1 and detect at once the mental constitution of those by whom it is surrounded2 for pride and impatience1 and kindness and benevolence1 are written on the plastic countenance in broad legible characters1 though the many1 with their blunted perceptions1 may1 to a certain extent1 have lost the key to their solution4 ,contrast the expression of the physiognomy of some of the more celebrated among the ancients1 as exemplified in the collection of antique busts preserved in the museum of the ,capitol at ,rome4 ,compare the broad open brow and finely-chiselled features of ,trajan1 or the beauty1 majesty1 and grace expressed in the countenance of either of the ,antonines1 with the coarse1 heavy1 animal face of ,vitellius1 or the dull1 morose expression of ,caligula or of ,commodus1-- ----8,without a ray ,of mind1 that makes each feature play ,like sparkling waves on a sunny day40 ,the difference is as striking as that which we know from daily observation to exist between the face of a rogue and that of an honest man2 indeed1 we are disposed to believe1 with ,benjamin ,franklin1 8that if rogues knew the advantages attached to the practices of the virtues1 they would become honest men from mere roguery40 ,it was for this reason1 probably1 that beauty of form and proportion were so highly prized by the ancients2 and when they prayed the gods to grant them the beautiful with the good1 was it not because by experience they had found that in fact they were most frequently associated8 ,in support of this position1 we may cite the authority of ,bacon1 who1 in his ,essay on ,beauty1 remarks1 8that ,augustus ,csar1 ,titus ,vespasianus1 ,philip le ,bel of ,france1 ,edward ,,iv4 of ,england1 ,alcibiades of ,athens1 and ,ismael the sophi of ,persia1 were all high and great spirits1 and yet the most beautiful men of their time40 ,again1 the physiognomy of the passions affords us further proof that the emotions of the mind betray themselves by peculiar corporeal phenomena1--each having1 as it were1 its own proper dialect4 ,notice the expression of the passions which follow each other in such quick succession1 and are so forcibly depicted upon the mobile countenance of an infant1 even before any voluntary movements can be executed by the feeble and powerless limbs4 ,look at a coward1 his countenance blanched1 and almost cadaverous1--the heavy limbs drooping and powerless1--the instruments of life paralysed1 as though the fountain of existence were suddenly dried up4 ,for grief1 take the testimony of ,byron1 where he describes its effects in producing 8,the intersected lines of thought1-- ,those furrows which the burning share ,of sorrow ploughs untimely there1-- ,scars of the lacerated mind ,which the soul's war doth leave behind40 ,regard a man under the influence of a sublime or heroic thought1 with his head proudly elevated and nostrils dilated1--he raises himself to his utmost height2 while1 at the idea of infinity1 or the prospect of a boundless expanse1 the arms are involuntarily extended as though he would soar away into unlimited space4 ,the impress of pride is stamped in the bold erect bearing1 and that of fear in the drooping head and timid step4 ,so true is it that joy and sorrow1 love and hate1 pain and pleasure1 virtue and vice1 all betray themselves by their organic signs1 that when any of these affections are habitual1 or frequently recur1 their external manifestations become permanently marked in the form2 and it is in this sense that the habits and emotions of early youth stamp the lineaments with a character never to be effaced1 or which1 in many cases at least1 are destined to endure through life4 ,are we not then justified in concluding1 that the kind and degree of mental developement1--the presiding thought1--the ruling and predominating principle of life1 is influenced by the physical temperament and constitution1 and that this latter is in its turn reacted upon by the mind8 ,,particular ,,parts ,,of ,,organism ,,indicative ,,of ,,mode ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,mental ,,tendency4 ,we have next to inquire1 whether that which is undoubtedly true with respect to the whole does not also obtain with respect to a part8 whether1 in fact1 from the examination of a small portion of an organism--an extremity1 for example--we should be enabled to determine the nature1 mode of life1 and mental tendency of the being to which it belonged8 ,for a satisfactory solution of this important question we must appeal to the testimony afforded by the animal world4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 8,bestimmt ,die ,gestalt die ,lebensweise des ,thieres ,und die ,weise zu leben sie wirkt auf alle ,gestalten ,mchtig ,zurck40--,g,,the1 ,metamorphose der ,thiere4 ,,correspondence ,,between ,,forms ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,animals4 ,the most simple observation renders at once apparent a correspondence between the external form of animals1 the general direction of their tendencies1 and their habits4 ,let us examine this question at somewhat greater length4 ,from the age of ,aristotle to the present time1 zoologists have arranged the almost countless tribes of animals into a number of groups or divisions1 more or less related in general habits and structure4 ,all the classifications which have been hitherto proposed may be referred to one or the other of two general principles4 ,either the colour of the blood 7,aristotle71 the conformation of the heart 7,hunter71 the arrangement of the nervous system 7,owen71 or some other peculiarity of internal structure1 has been selected as the basis of arrangement2 or the animal creation has been grouped according to certain definite circumstances connected with outward form and configuration4 ,as regards their internal organisation1 the variations in the structure and arrangement of the nervous system affords by far the best means of classifying animals1 and the whole animal world has accordingly been divided into five primary divisions4 ,we have already endeavoured to prove that the manifestations of mind are only made known to us through the medium of corporeal organs1 whatever may be the nature of its essence4 ,by the state of the nervous system volition is modified or controlled1 the operation of the senses accelerated or retarded1 the muscular movements rendered feeble and uncertain1 or strong1 vigorous1 and energetic2 in fine1 the chief manifestations of life1 thought1 volition1 and independent motion1 are all regulated by the condition and structure of the central nervine masses4 ,,appendages ,,to ,,the ,,trunk ,a ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,entire ,,organisation ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,animals4 ,the appendages to the trunk1 like the arrangement of the nervous system1 furnish also a leading peculiarity of structure1 and they may be selected as the basis of a classification founded upon outward form4 ,for the most part1 destined either for the purposes of locomotion1 or to assist in the procuring of food1 they must of necessity be in perfect accordance with the nervous and nutritive systems4 ,hence the capacities1 powers1 and general habits of an animal1 must be in correspondence with this part of its organisation2 so that when we are acquainted with the form and arrangement of the extremities of an animal1 a key is thereby afforded to its entire organisation4 ,both its external configuration1 its mode of life1 and its internal structure1 must harmonise1 and be in accordance with the arrangement of the extremities4 ,its breathing and vascular apparatus1 its nutritive and generative systems1 are thus all indicated to us2 and from a knowledge of one particular we may safely and surely predicate the nature of the rest4 ,annelida4--,thus in the worms 7,annelida71 creatures exhibiting but few of the higher manifestations of life1 we find the appendages to the trunk in their simplest form1--that of fine1 minute bristles attached to the several rings or segments of the body4 ,in the sea-mouse 7,aphrodita71 their bristles attain a somewhat higher developement1 each of them being connected with a distinct elevation1 or mammillary process1 with which it is1 as it were1 articulated4 ,myriapoda4--,in the ,centipedes1 the first evidence of a well-formed extremity makes its appearance in the form of numerous articulated legs terminated by simple points4 ,these legs1 rudimentary in the lowest species 7,iulid71 in harmony with their retiring habits and vegetable diet1 are divided into distinct joints1 and provided with proper muscles1 in the strong and carnivorous varieties 7,scolopendrid74 ,in these latter animals1 the ventral nervous ganglia are also increased in size1 in a ratio proportioned to the higher and more complex structure of the appendages to the trunk4 ,insects4--,in insects1 creatures distinguished by so many and such admirable instincts1 and endowed with such active powers of locomotion1 the appendages to the body1 both legs and wings1 are perfectly and beautifully formed4 ,the former1 six in number1 are attached to the three first thoracic segments of the body1 composed of distinct articulations1 connected by ligaments and muscles1 and furnished with a series of minute breathing tubes1 or tracheal ramifications1 extending throughout their entire substance4 ,the latter--the wings--vary much in their number1 form1 and arrangement2 and it is upon characters furnished by them that the nearest approximation to a perfect classification of insects--that of ,burmeister--is based4 ,thus1 the legs are typical of the class1 the wings characterise the orders4 ,arachnida4--,in the spider tribe 7,arachnida7 the legs1 in their general structure1 resemble those of insects2 but they are eight in number1 and1 in addition to them1 these creatures are provided with remarkable claw-like appendages to their jaws--mere organs of feeling in the mites1 but strong and powerful instruments of prehension in the scorpion tribe4 ,crustacea4--,the crab and lobster tribe 7,crustaceans7 are likewise accurately characterised by the appendages to the trunk1 the number and disposition of these parts having been employed by ,milne ,edwards for the purpose of dividing these creatures into a number of orders4 ,mollusca4--,among the mollusks1 the classes are nearly all named from the peculiarities in form or the position of the feet4 ,we have the barnacles 7,cirrhopoda71 animals with six pair of articulated flexible arms1 composed of a series of small pieces studded with minute hairs1 and which form1 when they are extended1 a species of net by means of which the animal catches its prey4 ,the ,branchiopoda--creatures such as the ,terebratula--with two long fleshy arms placed near the mouth1 which are hollow1 muscular1 and disposed in spiral folds4 ,we have the ,tunicata1 such as ,ascidians and the ,conchifera1 as the oyster and mussel1 beings which are destitute of members1 and all but incapable of locomotion4 ,the ,gasteropoda1 of which the slug and snail afford familiar examples1 and that are furnished with a locomotive apparatus peculiar to the whole class1 and termed the foot or ventral disc4 ,the ,pteropoda1 nearly allied to the ,gasteropoda in their internal organisation1 but differing from them in the possession of two broad fleshy expansions1 resembling fins1 which are attached to the side of the neck1 and are well adapted for swimming4 ,and1 lastly1 we have the ,cephalopoda1 such as the nautilus and cuttle-fish1 creatures with numerous strong muscular arms attached around the head1 and in some species provided with sucking discs1 by means of which they are enabled successfully to attack and capture the strongest and most active prey4 ,in all these instances we clearly see that the appendages characterise the class1 and that1 from an acquaintance with their number and arrangement1 a naturalist could readily come to a conclusion as to the affinities1 structure1 and general habits of any animal in the series4 ,fishes4--,the fishes are divided into two great natural orders--those furnished with a bony skeleton and those in which the framework of the body is cartilaginous4 ,the former division are distinguished by the possession of a swimming bladder1 and by the nearly equal developement of the parts corresponding to the extremities--the pectoral and ventral fins4 ,the pectoral fins1 situated immediately behind the head1 are present in all the osseous fishes1 traces of them being found even where they might be supposed to be entirely wanting1 as in the eel2 they do not1 however1 attain any very considerable size1 rarely equalling1 and never surpassing1 the magnitude of the ventral fins4 ,in the cartilaginous fishes1 on the contrary1 not only in those which ordinarily remain quiet at the bottom of the water1 as the skate1 the sole1 the flounder1 and other flat fishes1 but even in the active and voracious sharks we find no swimming-bladder4 ,in these cases1 its place is supplied and its duty performed by the enormously developed anterior member or pectoral fin1 which greatly surpasses the ventral fin in size2 and it is by means of the active movements of this large hand that these creatures raise themselves from the bottom of the water to the surface4 ,reptiles4--,in the class of reptiles the characters afforded by the form of the extremities are not less important4 ,of the four orders into which this class is divided1 one--that of the serpents 7,ophidia7--is altogether destitute of members1 with the exception of the rudimentary traces of extremities met with in some few species 7,anguis1 ,bimanes1 and ,seps74 ,in another order1 that of amphibious animals 7,batrachia71 as the frogs1 toads1 c41 the extremities are still typical of certain peculiarities of organisation4 ,some of these creatures may be said to remain in an imperfectly developed or embryonic condition during their whole existence4 ,instead of breathing in adult life by means of lungs1 as do the more perfectly organised of the batrachia1 they retain throughout existence that peculiar structure of the respiratory apparatus--the branchial tufts--which in the latter are present but in the embryo condition4 ,in those of the amphibious animals which breathe by means of permanent branchia 7,perenni-branchiata71 such as the ,lepidosiren and the ,proteus1 the extremities are either mere filamentary appendages1 or at most but very imperfectly-formed organs1 and always typical of their comparatively inferior organisation2 while1 in the higher species1 that is1 those provided with lungs1 and losing their branchi in the adult state 7,caduci-branchiata71 as the frog1 the salamander1 c41 the extremities are well formed and perfectly developed4 ,the third order of reptiles--that of the lizard tribe 7,sauria7--is made up of members very dissimilar both in their appearance and general habits4 ,in the aquatic crocodiles the toes are connected by means of a membrane2 like ducks and other aquatic animals1 these creatures are web-footed4 ,the alligator1 so nearly allied to the crocodile in structure and habits1 with the exception that it is more terrestrial in its nature1 is furnished with a foot the toes of which are only webbed in half their length1 the other half being free and unconnected by membrane1 their amphibious mode of life being indicated by their foot4 ,if we compare the foot of these creatures with that of the true lizards1 the difference of structure will be found to be considerable4 ,the foot of the true lizard is provided with five toes to both the fore and hind members1 while attached to the hinder members of crocodiles and alligators we find but four toes4 ,the toes of the lizard are not connected by a membrane1 but are separate1 and armed with nails1 for these creatures live on land1 and have need of well-constructed locomotive organs to enable them to catch their active prey4 ,among lizards1 that remarkable animal the chameleon1 that is provided with a particular structure of the skin1 whereby its change of colour is effected1 is distinguished by the possession of a member1 the structure of which is not less peculiar4 ,the toes are arranged in two packets1 which are capable of being brought into opposition--a structure admirably adapted to the mode of life of the animal--the climbing of trees and shrubs in pursuit of insects4 ,the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus1 creatures of the lizard tribe which have now become extinct1 are both characterised by the form of their extremities4 ,the former has four members like paddles1 each composed of nearly a hundred small bones of an irregular polygonal shape and arranged in a pavement-like form4 ,the latter has also four paddle-shaped extremities1 but the number of bones of which each is composed is much less than in the ichthyosaurus--not above fifty1 the pieces being at the same time of a different shape1 and not arranged in a tessellated form4 ,birds4--,among birds the foot is a most important organ1 serving at once for support1 prehension1 and locomotion4 ,its modifications are accordingly very numerous1 and ornithologists have employed the characters presented by it as a basis of classification4 ,scopoli1 in his ,introduction to ,natural ,history 7#aggg71 proposed a systematic distribution of birds into two divisions founded upon the form of the scales covering the foot2 thus1 some are furnished with scales1 small and polygonal 7,retepedes71 while others 7,scutipedes7 have the legs covered in front with unequal semicircular plates4 ,so1 again1 in the division of birds proposed by ,nitzsch1 viz4 into the aerial1 terrestrial1 and aquatic1 the foot will at once serve to indicate the different orders4 ,we will proceed to examine the special characters afforded by the foot of birds in each of the groups or orders1 adopting the classification of ,kirby1 one of the most recent4 ,in the first order1 the birds of prey 7,raptores71 which includes the eagle1 the vulture1 the owl1 c41 for the purpose of striking their quarry1 and of securing it by a firm grasp1 a strong muscular foot is necessary1 and we consequently find that the foot is provided with four short muscular toes1 three placed before1 and one behind1 all armed with long1 sharp1 hooked talons1 those of the thumb and innermost toe being the longest1 as the great duty of grasping is mainly performed by them4 ,the claws are also capable of being drawn back1 they are retractile like those of the cat2 and the scales upon the upper surface of the foot1 as well as the skin covering it below1 are strong and tough for the purpose of protecting the member from the attacks of the living prey upon which these creatures feed4 ,the foot is also broadly marked1 the kind of marking and the size of the scales being especially characteristic of the different genera and families4 ,in the vultures1 which from their feeding on carrion do not require such strength of foot1 we find a notable deviation from this general character1 the toes becoming longer and slighter and the claws much weaker4 ,in the second order of birds1 the perchers 7,passeres of ,linnus71 which comprehends sparrows1 thrushes1 larks1 c41 the foot is constructed for another and a very different purpose4 ,its chief office is to support the bird in a horizontal position upon the boughs and branches of trees and shrubs2 hence the foot is long1 the toes slender1 very flexible1 and armed with long1 straight1 weak claws1 which are not at all retractile4 ,all the birds of this order possess four toes1 one of which1 the hind toe 7hallux71 is placed straight out behind1 the others being in front1 and those situated externally are connected to the middle ones at their bases4 ,the scales covering the foot are regularly disposed1 and as they are not needed for the purpose of defence1 they are thin and tender1 resembling ordinary scarf skin4 ,even in the shrikes1--the birds of prey of this order1 who feed upon living creatures and use the foot for securing them1 the claws are not sharp1 nor is the foot formed in such a manner as to ensure a very secure grasp1 and we accordingly find that they merely press this organ upon their prey for the purpose of holding it4 ,in a few other families of this order1 as the todies1 the kingfishers1 c41 the foot is called upon to assist in feeding1 and we consequently find certain modifications of structure indicative of this office4 ,in order to strengthen the foot and to secure a firmer grasp1 the external and middle toes are united almost to the apex1 and the strength of the hind toe is considerably increased4 ,in the third order1 the climbers 7,scansores71 or1 as they have been sometimes termed1 the yoke-footed1 to which the woodpecker and the parrot tribe belong1 the structure of the foot is modified for the important purpose of enabling the creature to support itself in all positions upon the stems and branches of trees4 ,in order to effect this the foot is made strong1 short1 and muscular1 the claws sharp and curved1 and the toes are placed in a very different position to that which they occupy in other orders1 two of them being situated in front and two behind4 ,by such a disposition1 a strong1 secure grasp is afforded2 and thus it is that most birds belonging to this order are enabled to climb in a vertical position1 and to effect movements like animals of the monkey tribe4 ,in general these birds move very awkwardly upon a level surface1 but in one or two species the structure of the foot is so modified that they can run upon the ground with great speed4 ,this is the case with the travellers' friend of ,south ,america1 and with the ground parrot of ,new ,south ,wales2 and these creatures have accordingly slender toes so constructed1 that one of the two placed behind can be brought in front at will1 so that a larger and more secure basis of support is thus afforded4 ,in the fourth order the scratchers 7,rasores71 to which the common fowl1 the pheasant1 and the pigeon belong1 the foot is adapted for an instrument of active locomotion1 as well as for the purpose of procuring food by scratching in the earth4 ,hence we find it strong1 with a long muscular leg1 and four toes1 three before and one behind1 covered with broad scales and armed with short claws4 ,the thumb1 so necessary for perching and climbing1 is in birds of this order short1 rudimentary1 and attached high up in the leg1 so that the whole foot being placed flat upon the ground1 affords a very firm support to the animal4 ,in the fifth order of birds1 the runners 7,cursores71 to which the ostrich1 the emu1 and the cassowary belong1 the structure of the foot is wholly that of a powerful instrument of locomotion4 ,the leg is long1 the thigh strong and muscular1 and the foot short and compact4 ,the toes which never exceed two or three in number1 and of which the second is the largest1 are placed all in front1 and armed with very short claws1 or1 as in the ,african ostrich1 with the outer toe destitute of a claw4 ,the scales are limited to the upper surface of the foot1 the under surface being flexible and occupied by an elastic pad upon which the member rests4 ,such a conformation of limb1 which would be wholly useless for perching or climbing1 is admirably fitted for running--witness the swiftness of the ostrich--a creature equalling and even surpassing the fleetest horse in speed4 ,in the sixth order1 the waders 7,grallatores71 or stilt birds1 as the stork1 the crane1 the heron1 c41 the leg is long and slender1 and the foot weak and covered with shield-shaped scales4 ,the toes1 four in number1 are long and straight1 three being placed anteriorly1 and a shorter one 7wanting in the plovers and lapwings7 behind2 they are frequently palmated at their base1 as in the stork2 or1 as in the middle claw of the heron1 toothed or notched like a saw2 while sometimes they have a narrow-winged appendage1 running along the side1 as in the sandpipers4 ,in search of their food1 insects and small fish1 the individuals of this order frequent marshy places and shallow waters1 and many of them1 as the stork and heron1 are remarkable for the unerring certainty with which they strike and seize their small finny prey4 ,in the last order1 the swimmers 7,natatores71 called also web-footed birds1 to which the goose1 duck1 and gull belong1 the foot is modified to assist in swimming4 ,the legs are short2 the four toes1 all placed in front1 are united by a broad membranous expansion1 and armed with claws1 the thumb being likewise brought in front1 so that a greater extent of surface may be given to this oar-like member4 ,a foot thus constructed would be wholly unsuited for perching1 running1 or grasping1 but it is well adapted to the wants and habits of these aquatic birds4 ,mammals4--,it is but in animals who suckle their young 7,mammalia7 that the extremities attain their greatest state of developement1 and it is in the higher orders alone that they become useful as organs of prehension1 their office being limited in most of the lower tribes to support and locomotion4 ,in the lowest order of the series1 or whale tribe 7,cetacea71 the members1 in the number of pieces of which they are composed1 bear a considerable resemblance to the fins of fishes1 though they are somewhat differently constructed1 according as the animal may be destined exclusively for an aquatic existence1 like the common sperm whale1 or be more or less herbivorous1 and consequently terrestrial in its habits1 like the dugong4 ,in the former case1 the extremities are converted into broad paddles adapted for swimming1 and the feet are webbed2 in the latter1 the members are better developed1 the toes being free1 and furnished with nails at their termination4 ,of those orders of ,mammalia which are provided with four members--the ordinary quadrupeds--some are furnished with a foot which appears to be entirely without toes1 their place being supplied by a mass of horny tissue--the hoof4 ,this is the case with the ruminants--animals that chew the cud--as the cow1 and with the horse2 but in the latter1 as the name of the order implies 7,solidungula71 the hoof is solid1 while in the ruminants it is cleft2 and hence by some naturalists these latter animals have been termed ,bisulca4 ,some slight differences are perceptible in the construction of the feet of ruminants3 thus the chamois1 the antelope1 and other of the deer tribe1 are furnished with an additional toe1 which1 projecting backwards1 affords a firmer support to the body4 ,in the thick-skinned animals 7,pachydermata7 the toes can hardly be said to be free1 being still partially enclosed in the tough skin4 ,it is from characters afforded by the foot that several tribes of animals belonging to this order are mainly characterised3 thus the elephant has five toes to each foot1 the rhinoceros three1 and the hog and hippopotamus four4 ,among those of the mammalia which are characterised by the presence of four members with distinct and separate toes and nails1 but few are furnished with a true hand--that is1 a member with a thumb capable of being brought into apposition with the other fingers4 ,carnivorous animals have either a foot with sharp recurved and retractile claws1 as the cat and tiger1 or with straight blunt claws1 not retractile1 as the bear2 or the feet are small1 almost completely enveloped in the skin1 and furnished with a membranous expansion connecting the toes1 as in the aquatic seal and walrus1 or river-horse3 but in all these animals1 although the fore-legs may be more or less employed as instruments of prehension1 they are not used for the purpose of conveying food to the mouth4 ,in some of the gnawing animals1 as the squirrel1 the anterior extremity commences to assume the function of a hand2 and in a few of the kangaroo tribe1 such as the opossum1 the hinder extremities are provided with a thumb capable of being brought into apposition with the other toes4 ,the hand of bats1 which serves these animals not merely for flying1 but also supplies the place of eyes and ears1 enabling them to avoid objects during the obscurity of night1 is furnished with a sense of touch extremely delicate4 ,it is in man and the monkey tribe only that we meet with a true and perfect hand4 ,in the latter1 both the fore and hind extremities are constructed upon the same general principle as the hand of man2 and hence these animals have been styled four-handed 7,quadrumana74 8,in man the upper members are disposed in a manner the most favourable for the exercise of their functions as organs of prehension and of touch3 the fingers are long and flexible2 they have all1 with the occasional exception of the ring-finger1 separate movements1 which other animals 7even those provided with hands7 have not2 the thumb1 which is apposable to these latter1 is longer in proportion to the fingers than in monkeys1 and consequently can more readily apply itself to the extremity of their palm or surface1 and better seize small objects4 ,the nails1 which are large and flat1 cover the back part only of the extremity of the fingers1 so as to furnish a support to the organs of touch without in the least depriving them of their delicacy4 ,the entire hand can execute rotatory movements the most extended2 and to the arm which supports it is afforded a solid attachment by means of a large shoulder or blade-bone and a long collar-bone40 ,the statement of ,milne ,edwards1#c then1 does not appear far removed from the truth1 8,that the faculties of the ,mammalia are the more elevated in proportion as their members are the better constructed for prehension and for touch40 ,,use ,,of ,a ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,appendages ,,to ,,trunks ,,in ,,geology4 ,a knowledge of the form of the appendages to the trunk of animals is of great service to the geologist1 for it has been well and truly said1 that the organic remains imbedded in rocks are as medals struck in commemoration of the great revolutions which the earth has undergone1 and so small a portion as the extremity of an animal is sufficient to indicate its nature1 and to enable us to ascertain the class and order to which it belongs4 ,let us take a few examples4 ,some fossil bones were discovered by ,general ,washington near his seat in ,virginia4 ,mr4 ,jefferson1 by whom they were examined1 stated that they had belonged to an enormous carnivorous animal1 which from the size of its claws he named the ,megalonyx4 ,upon an examination more carefully conducted by ,cuvier1 it was found that in the paw the second bone of the toe was symmetrical1 while in animal feeders furnished with retractile claws it is curved1 and not symmetrical2 the first bone1 too1 was the shortest1 whereas in the lion and others of the feline tribe it is the longest4 ,whence ,cuvier was led to conclude that the creature in question was a sloth of large dimensions1 which fed only upon plants4 ,upon another occasion1 from a careful consideration of the form and size of a toe found in the ,palatinate1 near ,eppelsheim1 ,cuvier was able to determine that the animal to which it belonged was of the edentate tribe of ,pangolins4 ,it was from an examination of the hand that ,cuvier decided upon the nature of the ,pterodactylus4 ,this curious animal partook of the nature of both the reptile and the bird4 ,like the bird1 it was furnished with a long neck and a horny beak1 but in its jaws and teeth it resembled the crocodile4 ,it had not1 however1 like the bird1 feathered wings without fingers to strengthen them1 nor had it a wing in which the thumb alone is free1 like that of the bat4 ,instead of the bony pieces of all the fingers being equally prolonged1 the second finger only was extended to a great length1 and from it the wing spread out1 the other fingers being short and furnished with nails like the toes of ordinary animals4 ,collini1 its discoverer1 supposed it to be of marine origin2 ,soemmerring contended that it was a mammal2 but its true place in the animal series was first assigned to it by ,cuvier1 who has satisfactorily shewn that it is in fact intermediate between a bird and a reptile4 ,a knowledge of the form of the extremities of animals has been of great service to palontology in another way--in proving the existence of certain species of animals at given periods of the earth's formation1 from the print of their footsteps left upon the sand or other material of the strata while it was yet in a soft state4 ,such traces were first observed by ,dr4 ,duncan in ,dumfries-shire4 ,on examining a sandstone quarry1 he found these prints not on one only1 but on several successive layers of the stone2 so that they must have been made at periods distant from each other4 ,similar impressions have been since observed in the ,forest marble-beds near ,bath1 at ,hessburg in ,saxony1 in the ,state of ,connecticut1 and in some other parts of the world4 8,the marks found in ,dumfries-shire1 of which there were as many as twenty-four upon a single slab1 formed as it were a regular track1 with six distinct repetitions of each foot1 the fore and hind feet having left different impressions1 and even the marks of the claws being discernible4 ,they appear to have been made by some animal of the tortoise kind4 ,at ,hessburg the impressions were discovered in quarries of grey and red sandstone alternating2 and the marks were both larger and more distinct than those found in ,scotland4 ,in one the hind foot measured twelve inches in length1 and the fore foot always appeared much smaller than the hind4 ,from this circumstance1 and from the distance between the two being only fourteen inches1 it is conjectured that the animal was a marsupial like the kangaroo1 and it has been termed by ,dr4 ,kaup ,chirotherium1 from the supposed resemblance of the four toes and turned-out thumb to a hand4 ,in the ,state of ,connecticut1 near ,northampton1 footsteps differing exceedingly in size have been found in inclined strata of sandstone4 ,they were evidently made before it assumed its present position4 ,the marks are always in pairs1 and the tracts cross each other like those of ducks on the margin of a muddy pond4 ,one is of the length of fifteen or sixteen inches1 and a feathery spur or appendage appears to have been attached to the heel1 eight or nine inches long4 ,the distance between the steps is proportioned to their length1 but in every case the pace appears to have been longer than that of the existing species of birds to which they approach nearest--the ostrich1 and the animal must consequently have been proportionably larger4 ,how much larger he was than the ostrich may be gathered from this1 that the large ,african ostrich has only a foot ten inches long1 less than two-thirds that of this bird1 and yet stands nine feet high4 ,these proportions would give a height of fourteen feet to the extinct animal40#d ,the characters afforded by the foot have recently enabled ,mr4 ,strickland to determine that the dodo1 a bird now extinct1 is not related either to the gallinaceous birds1--the vulture or the ostriches as some have conjectured1--but is closely allied to the pigeons4 ,from this cursory examination of the animal world we may gather the important conclusion1 that from the structure of an extremity we may obtain a complete insight into the entire organisation of an animal2 and thus the paws furnished with sharp retractile claws of the lion indicate at once to a naturalist its strong teeth1 its powerful jaws1 and its muscular strength of limb2 while from the cleft foot of the cow1 the complicated structure of its stomach1 the definite peculiarities of its jaws1 and its vegetable diet1 may with equal certainty be predicated4 ,thus1 as ,paley justly observes1 8,in the swan1 the web foot1 the spoon bill1 the long neck1 the thick down1 the graminivorous stomach1 have all a relation to one another1 inasmuch as they all concur in one design1 that of supplying the occasions of an aquatic fowl1 floating upon the surface of shallow parts of water1 and seeking its food at the bottom4 ,begin with any one of these peculiarities of structure1 and observe how the rest follow it4 ,the web foot qualifies the bird for swimming1 the spoon bill enables it to graze4 ,but how is an animal1 floating upon the surface of pools of water1 to gaze at the bottom except by the mediation of a long neck8 ,and a long neck is accordingly given to it4 ,again1 a warm-blooded animal1 which was to pass its life upon water1 required a defence against the coldness of that element4 ,such a defence is furnished to the swan in the muff in which its body is wrapped4 ,but all this outward apparatus would have been in vain if the intestinal system had not been suited to the digestion of vegetable substances40#e ,and1 again1 of the mole3 8,the form of the feet fixes the character of the animal4 ,they are so many shovels2 they determine its action to that of rooting in the ground2 and every thing about its body agrees with this destination4 ,the cylindrical figure of the mole1 as well as the compactness of its form1 arising from the terseness of its limbs1 proportionally lessens its labour2 because1 according to its bulk1 it thereby requires the least possible quantity of earth to be removed for its progress4 ,it has nearly the same structure of the face and jaws as a swine1 and the same office for them4 ,the nose is sharp1 slender1 tendinous1 strong2 with a pair of nerves going down to the end of it4 ,the plush covering1 which1 by the smoothness1 closeness1 and polish of the short piles that compose it1 rejects the adhesion of almost every species of earth1 defends the animal from cold and wet1 and from the impediment which it would experience by the mould sticking to its body4 ,from soils of all kind the little pioneer comes forth bright and clean4 ,inhabiting dirt1 it is of all animals the neatest40 ,,chapter ,,iv4 8,some animals have horns1 some have hoofs1 some talons1 some claws1 some spurs and beaks2 man hath none of all these1 but is weak and feeble1 and sent unarmed into the world4 ,why8--a hand1 with reason to rise it1 supplies the place of all these40--,,ray4 ,,form ,,of ,,extremities ,,differs ,,in ,,individuals ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,species4 ,sir ,j4 ,barrow states of the ,hottentot that there is not an animal among the numbers that range the wilds of ,africa1 if he be at all acquainted with it1 the print of whose foot he cannot distinguish4 ,the print of any of his companions' feet he would single out among a thousand4 ,that particular species of animals can be distinguished by their feet appears1 then1 an undoubted fact2 and it is not less true than that modifications in the form of the extremities are met with among animals of the same species4 ,thus the male frog is distinguished from the female by the presence of a more fully-developed thumb and the addition of a velvety1 cushion-like substance to its outer surface1 by means of which he is enabled to grasp the latter more securely1 and ensure the fecundation of the eggs4 ,the land-frog 7,hyla7 differs from the common frog 7,rana7 in possessing a viscous disc at the extremity of each toe1 so that this animal can readily mount the branches of trees in search of prey4 ,the courage of the falcon is estimated by the form and disposition of the wing feathers1 and that of the fighting cock by the conformation of his foot4 ,but it is to the hand of man1--the emblem of his vast superiority over all the lower animals1 that we would more particularly invite attention4 ,the hand of man1 like the appendages to the trunk of animals1 has a certain definite relation with his whole organisation4 ,as ,sir ,c4 ,bell observes1 8,the possession of an instrument like the hand implies that there must be a great part of the organisation which strictly belongs to it concealed4 ,the hand is not a thing appended1 or put on to the body1 like an additional movement in a watch2 but a thousand intricate relations must be established throughout the whole frame in connexion with it40 ,the form of the hand1 like that of the entire body1 is materially influenced by age1 sex1 and race2 and it is not less affected by the particular kind of organisation1 the mental disposition1 and the temperament of the individual4 ,age4--,in the minute germ1 or embryo of a month1 the form of the hand resembles that of one of the lower animals4 ,it puts on the appearance rather of a respiratory organ than of an instrument of prehension1 and1 being completely destitute of fingers1 presents a great analogy in form with the fin of a fish4 ,as the little being increases in size1 the fingers become gradually developed4 ,they at first appear as small bud-like projections attached to the perfectly-formed palm4 ,by degrees the several pieces of the fingers become more and more elongated1 and at length attain their perfect length and shape2 though1 even at birth1 the relative size of the palm1 compared with the fingers1 is considerably greater than in the adult4 ,during infancy and childhood the hand retains1 to a certain extent1 the same character1 the hand of the child being soft and thick1 with a broad palm and short rudimentary fingers4 ,with the period of puberty it attains its perfect developement1 and acquires characters which it preserves throughout manhood4 ,as old age creeps on the hand loses its softness and pliancy1 it becomes hard and insensible1 and its vigour1 like that of the mind1 may be said to be gone4 8,le cal de la main1 presque toujours1 jette une ombre sur l'esprit10 says ,d',arpentigny4 ,politics1 science1 literature--whatever active intellectual pursuit the mind formerly delighted in1 commences at this period of life to lose its former charm1 to be succeeded by a love of quiet rural occupation4 ,in the language of the author just quoted1 8,it is when our stiffened hands1 become1 as it were1 ossified and nearly insensible1 afford a faithful image of our impoverished intelligence1 that we are the most ruled by this mania for agricultural pursuits40 ,sex4--,the sexes differ as much in the form of their hands as they do in the figure of the skeleton1 and in the general habit and conformation of the entire body4 ,as ,carus observes1 8,he must be but a superficial observer of mankind who could not at once recognise the sex from a simple inspection of the hand4 ,the hand of woman is smaller1 more delicate1 and much more finely articulated than that of man2 it has a softer palm1 and joints which are but slightly prominent4 ,the hand of man1 on the contrary1 is large1 firm1 and broad1 is furnished with strong projecting joints1 and a hard wide palm1 together with a large thumb1 with a strong convex ball or root40 ,here1 again1 we find the physical structure in harmony with the mental disposition--the firm1 strong1 broad hand of man being indicative of his active1 energetic1 reasoning mind2 and the soft1 narrow1 delicate hand of woman1 symbolical of her sensitive1 yielding1 contemplative character4 ,race4--,we have not yet obtained sufficient data to enable us to ascertain any thing very definite respecting this part of our subject4 ,whether the hand of races springing from the ,caucasian stock presents a form essentially different from that of people originating from the ,mongolian1--whether the hand of the ,negro races resembles or differs from that of the ,american tribes1 must be determined by the future investigations of intelligent and observing travellers4 ,from the few observations that have hitherto been made1 it would appear that in the ,american and ,mongolian races the hand is characterised by a preponderance of the motive element over the sensitive1 the member being large and coarse1 with the bones1 muscles1 and joints1 strongly developed4 ,as regards the dark-coloured races we know that they differ somewhat from the white in the texture of their skin3 it is coarse in its structure1 provided with a larger number of sebaceous glands1 and covered by a thicker layer of cuticle1 so that the sentient terminations of the nerves being less exposed its general sensibility must be considerably less than that of the skin of white people4 ,but the hand not only affords us characters by which the age and sex may be determined1 it is likewise an index of the general habit of body1 of the kind of temperament1 and of the mental tendency and disposition4 ,,hand1 ,,index ,,of ,,habit ,,of ,,body ,,and ,,temperament4 ,the general habit of body1 and the kind of temperament1 we determine from certain general signs deduced from the hand4 ,we observe the structure of the skin--whether it be fine or coarse in its texture1 whether it be hard and unyielding1 or soft and elastic4 ,we note the quantity of fat and of cellular tissue2 and this enables us to form a judgment respecting the degree of embonpoint1 and we have already abundantly proved that a man of a soft1 lax habit1 with an abundance of cellular and fatty tissues1 differs in mental tendency and disposition from one of firm1 tense fibre1 in whom the bones1 muscles1 and articulations1 are strong and prominent4 ,thus1 a soft1 thick hand1 loaded with fat1 denotes little energy of character1 and a soft1 yielding1 inactive disposition2 while1 on the contrary1 a thin1 firm1 bony1 or muscular hand indicates a rough1 active1 energetic nature4 ,with respect to the texture of the skin--a hand possessing a delicate and highly-sensitive skin is accompanied by a similar structure of the tegumentary envelope of the entire body1 and is always associated with an excitable organisation1 with a highly sensitive1 mobile disposition4 ,a coarse1 dry texture of the skin denotes a preponderance of muscular force over sensibility1 and a character more remarkable for solidity and resolution than for imagination or vivacity of conception4 ,the hand partakes of the nature of the whole body2 when the latter is gracefully and symmetrically formed1 with its several parts in nice adaptation and co-ordination1 the former shares its perfection and is constructed after the same general plan2 and we accordingly find that a powerful1 athletic individual is furnished with a large hard hand1 with its joints or articulations strong and prominent1 and a delicate1 sensitive person1 with a small1 narrow hand1 with its joints small and but slightly prominent4 ,,hand1 ,,four ,,primary ,,forms ,,of1 ,,connected ,,with ,,particular ,,mental ,,tendencies4 ,in order correctly to determine the more particular signs of the mental disposition which may be drawn from an examination of the hand1 we must first take into consideration the special physiological functions of the organ4 ,on the one hand1 it is the most delicate instrument of feeling1--the organ of touch1 by means of which we judge of so many properties of bodies2 on the other hand1 the finest and most skilful instrument of motion and of prehension2 and it may likewise be regarded as the organ of art4 ,a hand rather below the average size1 and of which the skin is soft and delicate1 the fingers long1 and provided with numerous cuticular ridges1 which are indicative of a large number of the sentient papill of touch1 the bony portion but slightly developed1 and the joints not prominent1 is admirably adapted for an organ of sensation1 but by no means suited for an instrument of motion2 while1 on the contrary1 a size rather above the average1 together with a massive1 bony1 framework1 strong muscles and tendons1 and large joints1 are the characteristics of a powerful instrument of prehension--of a hand in which sensation is sacrificed to motion4 ,in the former case1 we may with certainty predicate a mind mobile1 imaginative1 and inclined to abstraction1--a mind employed chiefly on subjective phenomena2 in the latter1 the mind is rather objective in its action than subjective1 operating powerfully upon the external world1 whether by arms1 agriculture1 or the mechanical arts3 the former hand we term sensitive1 the latter motive4 ,in the highest and most perfect form of hand1 thin1 delicate1 conical fingers are combined with a moderate-sized palm and a well-developed thumb1--both the sensitive and motive parts are in nice and accurate adaptation2 the instrument being thus rendered capable of executing whatever the intellect may desire3 such a hand we term 8psychical40 ,in the lowest form of hand1 the member retains throughout adult life the character which it presented in infancy1 and it strikingly resembles the hand of those of the monkey tribe most nearly allied to man in their organisation and outward form1--a hard1 thick1 palm being joined to short1 rudimentary fingers3 such a form of hand we style 8elementary40 ,it is mostly associated with a crude1 undeveloped state of the intellectual powers4 ,thus1 by tracing the normal developement and the anatomy and physiology of the hand1 we have obtained four definite types of formation founded upon anatomical and physiological characters1 and corresponding to a certain extent to the temperaments1--the psychical as the highest form1 the elementary as the lowest1 and1 as intermediate forms1 the sensitive and the motive4 ,the sensitive is characterised by softness1 delicacy1 and a rounded form1--by a member adapted by its structure for an accurate discrimination of the external world1 and for a delicate organ of sensation2 the motive1 by great developement of the muscular1 tendinous1 and osseous structures1 and exercising its objective influence by virtue of its active movements and its physical force2 the psychical uniting the perfections of both the sensitive and the motive types1 the elementary without the excellencies of either4 ,we pass on to a somewhat more detailed examination of the several parts of the hand4 ,it may be considered as made up of the palm1 the thumb1 and the fingers4 ,palm4--,as regards the palm1 we have to notice its size1 thickness1 and degree of hardness2 its temperature1 degree of dryness1 and the furrows by which it is marked4 ,in all the lower animals the palm is large1 thick1 and hard4 ,hence ,d',arpentigny views the palm as indicative of the physical appetites or animal propensities1 and of the degree and intensity of the mental affections to which they give rise4 ,thus1 when the palm is narrow and thin1 the temperament is feeble1 the imagination without force1 and the mind rather subtle than comprehensive2 when its size and thickness are in harmony with the proportions of the thumb and fingers1 sensual impressions easily excite the mind1 but a salutary control is exercised by reason and imagination2 when it is large in comparison with the fingers1 sensuality and egotism predominate2 and lastly1 when it is large1 thick and hard1 the animal faculties preponderate over reason1 and the passions1 unrefined by imagination1 have full and uncontrolled sway4 ,a moist1 warm1 rosy palm denotes health1 youth1 delicate sensibility1 and energy of the vegetative functions4 ,thus ,shakspeare in 8,othello10 speaking of the hand of ,desdemona1-- 8,this hand is moist1 my lady4 99 99 99 99 ,this argues fruitfulness and liberal heart2 ,hot1 hot1 and moist4 ,this hand of yours requires ,a sequester from liberty1 fasting1 and prayer1 ,much castigation1 exercise devout2 ,for there's a young and sweating devil here ,that commonly rebels40 ,in febrile diseases1 the palm is hot and dry2 and the same obtains when the vegetative functions are languid1 or in exhaustion from debauchery or other causes4 ,as ,shakspeare has it in the 8,twelfth ,night10-- 8,maria4 ,now1 sir1 thought is free3 ,i pray you bring ,your hand to the buttery bar1 and let it drink4 ,sir ,andrew ,aguecheek4 ,wherefore1 sweetheart8 ,what's your metaphor8 ,maria4 ,it's dry1 sir40 ,according to the old chiroscopists1 the life-line--that is1 the furrow at the line of demarcation between the ball of the thumb and the palm--measures by its length the term of existence2 it is certainly more strongly marked in strong and healthy than in weak and sickly persons4 ,a pallid or yellowish colour of the furrows marking the palm is indicative of disease4 ,thumb4--,the thumb deserves particular notice in treating of the hand4 ,it is the presence of a thumb that imparts to the hand of the higher animals its character of superiority4 ,it is the higher developement and greater mobility of the human hand that render it so much more perfect than that of the ape3 8,l'animal suprieur est dans la main1 l'homme est dans la pouce10 says ,d',arpentigny4 ,the thumb being1 then1 the characteristic element of the human hand--the part last developed and most strongly typical of its superiority over that of the lower animals1 the perfect formation of this part of the hand must be regarded as a sign of the character of the species being well marked1--of a strong1 active individuality2 while the reverse obtains when it is small and rudimentary4 ,the ball of the thumb is made up of strong muscles1 and in it the motor function of the hand is1 as it were1 concentrated4 ,it is the mons ,veneris of the old chiroscopists2 the expression of 8la volont raisonne10 of decision1 perception1 and the logical faculty1 according to ,d',arpentigny1 who confirms the old opinion above alluded to1 remarking1 8,aimer c'est vouloir1 et vouloir c'est aimer40 ,persons with a small thumb are ruled by the heart1 those with a large by the head4 ,the motive hand is always furnished with a large thumb1 and hence1 probably1 the origin of the term1 from domare1 to rule 7,italian71 ,daumen 7,german72 power and objective force being imparted by it to the hand4 ,the ,romans applied the term pollex truncatus to a person who1 for the purpose of avoiding military service1 cut off or mutilated his thumb--hence our word poltroon4 ,it was by the position of the thumb that spectators determined the fate of conquered gladiators2 if it were raised1 life was spared1 if it were depressed1 it was a sentence of death4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon laws1 it is ordained that mutilation of the thumb shall be punished by a fine of twenty shillings1 and that of the middle finger by a fine of four only4 ,in ,la ,vende1 a large thumb is still thought to be indicative of a dabbler in the forbidden mysteries of the black art4 ,biting the thumb was formerly held to be expressive of insult and defiance2 thus ,shakspeare in 8,romeo and ,juliet10-- 8,samson4 ,i will bite my thumb at them2 which is a disgrace to them if they bear it40 ,fingers4--,having fully examined the palm and thumb1 we have next to direct our attention to the four fingers--to their length1 their general outline1 the size of the joints1 and the shape of the pieces of which the fingers are made up1--the phalanges1 more especially of the terminal one4 ,prominent joints evince great development of the bony and muscular structures of the hand2 they indicate a motive and prehensive organ4 ,persons with such fingers1 according to ,d',arpentigny1 are remarkable for their love of order and arrangement1 for a mind prone to analysis and reasoning1 and for actions regulated by the calm dictates of judgment1 and not impelled by the sudden inspiration of enthusiasm4 ,smooth1 even fingers1 on the contrary1 with a regular outline and articulations but slightly prominent1 denote that the nervous system is more developed than the bony and muscular1 and that the member is endowed with fine sensibility4 ,such an individual will be more or less swayed by imagination1 will act rather from the impulse of the moment than from reason and experience1 will be rather disposed to view things as a whole than to consider in detail their several parts1--in fact1 will be furnished with a mind with more of imagination and synthetical talent than of reason or logical ability4 ,the joints become more distinctly marked as age advances4 ,in fine1 says ,d',arpentigny1 8,man becomes the more orderly1 the less credulous1 and the more logical1 in proportion as the articular prominences become more strongly defined40 ,the last phalanx1 or terminal piece of the fingers1 may terminate in either of three ways4 ,it may be rounded1 cushiony1 somewhat enlarged as it were2 it may be square and flattened2 or it may be delicate1 tapering1 and conical4 ,the enlarged1 rounded1 cushiony-terminated phalanx1 characterises 8the doigts en spatule0 of ,d',arpentigny1 or1 as we shall term them1 8sensitive fingers40 ,it indicates a great number of the delicate papill of touch1 and serves to denote a sensitive hand4 ,the square terminal phalanx mostly accompanies the motive and elementary form of hand2 and the tapering1 conical extremity1 the psychical4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that among all nations the figures of saints1 angels1 and divinities1 should have been invariably figured with delicate1 tapering fingers4 ,the hands of witches1 demons1 and sorcerers1 have likewise been delineated with elongated fingers2 but they are rough1 thin1 and bony1 and armed with long nails or claws1 like the toes of the lower animals4 ,nails4--,we must say a few words upon the nails1--parts corresponding to the horny skeleton of invertebrate animals4 ,they are sometimes long and narrow1 as in the psychical hand3 sometimes short and broad1 as in the elementary type2 and sometimes square and strong1 as in the motive1 or they may be brittle or thickened1 or otherwise diseased4 ,in consumptive people they become curved1 somewhat claw-like4 ,if the characters which they furnish be in accordance with those which are indicated by the other parts of the hand1 they are thereby doubly confirmed2 if the two differ1 they mutually render each other less positive4 ,thus an elementary hand with long1 slender nails1 must be looked upon as having a decided tendency to assume a higher type of organisation1 while if the nails be broad and short like the fingers1 the signification is thereby the more confirmed4 ,,form ,,of ,,hands4 #a4--,the ,elementary ,hand4 ,see ,plate ,i4--,fingers thick1 and without flexibility1 palm large1 thick1 and hard1 thumb rudimentary1 and frequently bent somewhat backwards1 skin coarse in its texture1 nails short and thick4 ,in countries where such hands abound1 the people obey habit and instinct rather than reason4 ,the sensations are dull and inactive1 the imagination is without force1 and the character apathetic2 for the extremities of the nerves being deficient in sensibility1 the impressions conveyed to the brain are wanting in intensity1 and the ideas to which they give rise are consequently neither clear nor vivid4 8,aux mains lmentaires1 en ,europe le labourage1 le soin des tables et la longue suite des travaux grossiers auxquels suffisent les confuses lumires de l'instinct4 ,a elles la guerre1 en tant qu'il ne s'agit1 que d'arroser machinalement de la sueur un sol tranger4 ,enfermes dans le monde matriel elles ne se rattachent gure l'ensemble politique1 que par l'lment physique4 ,les convictions se ferment en elles dans une sphre inaccessible au raisonnement1 et leurs vertus tiennent le plus souvent des facults ngatives40 ,elementary hands abound in the north of ,europe4 ,the individuals characterised by them are always superstitious2 witness the ,lappes1 the ,finns1 and the ,icelanders4 ,by misfortune they are overwhelmed4 ,in ,india1 where they do not naturally exist1 they have been artificially produced in a particular caste--the ,parias--by political and social institutions4 ,they have been abundant among every people at the dawning of their civilisation2 they raised the pyramids in ,egypt and the ,cyclopean structures in ,italy1 and are described as existing in a rude state of society in the literature of various nations3 witness the ,polyphemus of the ,greeks1 the ,melibus of the ,latins1 the ,caliban of ,shakspeare1 and the ,sancho ,panza of ,cervantes4 ,this form of hand can unquestionably be produced by premature hard labour1 but it is found among the upper classes likewise1 where manual labour cannot be supposed to have given rise to it4 ,physiologically it must be looked upon as an arrest of developement1 its main bulk1 like the member of the lower animals and of the human ftus1 being made up of the solid palm4 ,it must hence be regarded as a primitive form of the member1 as a rudimentary1 and consequently an imperfect organ4 ,transitions from the elementary to other forms of hand are frequently met with4 ,thus1 when the fingers become elongated and somewhat thinner1 and the texture of the skin finer1 the hand may be said to be intermediate between the elementary and sensitive type1 while long1 hard1 bony fingers indicate an approach towards the motive type4 ,and thus it is that intelligence is more readily to be attained by persons with elementary1 than a fine sensibility by those furnished with a motive hand1 or great energy in objective action by those provided with a sensitive4 #b4 ,the ,sensitive ,hand 7see ,plate ,,ii47 is rather below than above the average size1 palm soft and narrow1 fingers thin and delicate1 with the extremity plump1 rounded1 and cushiony1 thumb thin and small1 skin fine and very vascular1 nails narrow and semi-transparent4 ,this type of hand may be looked upon as essentially feminine4 ,it denotes a highly-sensitive frame1 and a delicately-organised nervous system4 ,the nervous ramifications distributed to the surface of the body being covered only by a thin layer of cuticle or scarf-skin1 are easily excited by impressions from without1 and as readily transmit their excitement to the central organs1 thus occasioning a prompt and vivid flow of ideas4 ,illustration3 ,plate #b4 ,the ,sensitive ,hand 7a47 ,the ,artistic ,hand of ,d',arpentigny is a variety of this type4 ,it is characterised by a moderately-developed palm1 long tapering fingers1 very flexible1 and a small thumb4 ,it has for its object the worship of material beauty1 is disposed to view things through a romantic medium1 is fond of leisure1 of liberty1 and of change2 is at once bold and timid1 humble and vain1 exalted and depressed1 enthusiastic and desponding4 ,the charms of a quiet1 regulated1 domestic life possess but little attraction for such persons1 who1 with much originality1 have equal fickleness of character4 8,en ,france nos armes sont pleines de mains artistiques de tout genre2 elles leur doivent le caractre de mobilit aventureuse1 insouciante1 pittoresque2 cet lan fulgurant et prime sautier1 qui les distinguent4 ,elles s'accommodent de tout et sont propre tout4 ,on les enlve par la parole40 7b47 ,a gradual transition is afforded from this to the motive type by means of the spathulate hand1 which partakes both of the motive and sensitive character4 ,the spathulate hand1 when fully developed1 is furnished with smooth fingers1 with a rounded1 cushiony termination1 and a large thumb4 ,it denotes a love of corporeal movement1 and of active occupation--of horses1 dogs1 and field-sports2 it prefers the useful to the agreeable1 and is not content1 like the elementary hand1 with the merely necessary1 but demands abundance4 ,it is distinguished by an appearance of simplicity and frankness of character1 and likewise by its chastity2 so that ,diana or ,cyrus the ,younger may be said to be its representatives4 ,it is a native of the ,north1 is more common in ,scotland than in ,england1 in ,england than in ,france1 and in ,france than in ,italy or ,spain4 ,wherever it is the prevailing type1 as in ,england and ,america1 the political institutions are free4 ,it is essentially ,protestant4 8,amoureuses de l'art1 de la posie1 du roman1 des mystres1 les mains pointues veulent un dieu selon leur imagination2 amoureuses des sciences et de la ralit1 les mains en spatule veulent un dieu selon leur raison40 ,so that it may be truly said that the people of the north are physically ,protestant1 and those of the south ,catholic4 ,it must also be remarked1 that before the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes the ,protestants of ,france were likewise its chief manufacturers2 for the same spirit that led them to embrace ,protestantism impelled them to the cultivation of mechanical and scientific pursuits4 ,it prefers size and regularity to beauty1 opulence to luxury1 and that which excites astonishment to that which pleases4 ,in private life its motto is1 8,chacun pour soi40 ,illustration3 ,plate #c4 ,the ,motive ,hand4 ,the ,motive ,hand 7see ,plate ,,iii47--,above the mean size1 fingers with prominent joints1 of an average length1 and strong1 thick1 and bony1 with a square tip2 palm of a mean size1 hollow1 and tolerably firm2 thumb large1 with the muscular root strongly developed4 ,this form of hand cannot exist without a strong1 massive developement of the bony and muscular system4 ,it is essentially the hand of man1 as the sensitive is that of woman4 ,hence1 in the female sex1 it indicates a masculine energy of character3 witness the hardy peasants of ,switzerland and the ,tyrol4 ,in both sexes it denotes a preponderance of the masculine or reasoning mind over the imaginative faculties4 ,hence it loves form and arrangement1 possesses a strong instinctive feeling for right and authority1 and a profound respect for established forms2 prefers an aristocracy to a democracy1 and the known to the unknown2 takes a delight in organising1 in classifying1 in systematising1 in subjecting thought to opinion1 and man to his fellow-man4 ,devoid of originality1 and with but little imagination1 it moves only in the old beaten path1 and its belief is limited to that which it is capable of comprehending4 ,partaking of the character of the motive and psychical type1 we have a mixed intermediate form1 termed by ,d',arpentigny 8the philosophical hand40 7a47 ,the ,philosophical ,hand is somewhat smaller than the motive2 the fingers have large joints1 and are somewhat tapering at their tip2 the palm is large and elastic1 the thumb also large1 with its two phalanges nearly equal in length4 ,such was the hand of ,locke1 of ,condillac1 of ,descartes1 ,malebranche1 and ,leibnitz4 ,it denotes a love of absolute truth for its own sake1 and of speculations respecting the nature of life and the origin of things4 ,it adopts opinions only upon a careful investigation1 and reason is its only recognised guide4 ,illustration3 ,plate #d4 ,the ,psychical ,hand4 ,the ,psychical ,hand 7see ,plate ,,iv47 is at once the most beautiful and the most rare4 ,compared with the stature it is small and delicate2 the fingers are thin1 without articular prominences1 and long and tapering2 the palm is of average dimensions1 the thumb well formed and but of moderate size4 ,persons with such a hand are led by ideality2 soul is for them every thing2 great interests alone move them2 in religion and politics they are tolerant4 ,in literature1 ,milton1 ,klopstock1 and ,gthe1 are their representatives4 ,loving the ideal and the sublime1 they oppose to the school of ,voltaire and ,hume that of ,lamartine and ,chateaubriand4 ,among the ,greeks1 ,plato is their type4 ,d',arpentigny says of these hands3 8,elles attachent1 elles ajoutent1 aux uvres du penseur1 comme l'artiste l'uvre de l'artisan la beaut1 l'idalit2 elles les dorent d'un rayon de soleil1 elles les lvent sur un pidestal1 elles leur ouvrent le porte des curs2 l'me1 oublie et laisse en arrire par les mains philosophiques1 est leur guide1--la vrit dans l'amour1 et la sublimit leur but1 et l'expansion leur moyen40 ,this form of hand is met with among all classes of society1 but is rarely the prevailing one among any people4 ,in ,asia1 it is most common in ,india2 and in ,europe1 in ,germany4 ,thus to the spathulate and motive hands appertain matter and reality1 the useful and necessary arts1 the action and theory of things1 and the knowledge of facts2 to the sensitive and psychical hands the boundless ideal world--the fine arts1 sublime poetry1 and abstract intellectual philosophy4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,la ,chirognomonie2 ou1 l',art de ,reconnatre les ,tendances de l',intelligence1 d'aprs les ,formes de la ,main4 ,par le ,caine ,s4 ,,arpentigny4 ,paris1 #ahdc4 #b ,ueber ,grund und ,bedentung der verschiedenen ,formen der ,hand in verschiedenen ,personen4 ,by ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,,carus1 ,physician to the ,king of ,saxony1 c4 c4 ,stuttgart1 #ahdf4 #c ,p4 #bcg4 #d ,brougham on ,paley's 8,natural ,theology40 #e ,natural ,theology3 ch4 on 8,relations40 ,london3 ,george ,barclay1 ,castle ,street1 ,leicester ,square4