file :i* includes ! orig9al illu/rations4 ,see #eacbf-;h4htm or #eacbf-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/ #eacbf_/pg#eacbf-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#eacb f_/eacbf-;h4zip7 ,images ( ! orig9al pages are available ?r\gh ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,see https3_/_/ar*ive4org_/details_/cu#caibdj abcfgdda ,transcrib]'s note3 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 ,a c>at "* is us$ to d5ote sup]scription4 ,a s+le "* foll[+ ! c>at is sup]script$ 7example3 #jjagagt#b74 ,multiple sup]script$ *>act]s are enclos$ by curly brackets 7example3 ,v#j7a-,kt7-#a74 ,! ligature oe has be5 transcrib$ z oe4 ,! dagg] sign has be5 transcrib$ z 4 ,! inf9ity sign has be5 transcrib$ z oo4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emi/ry by ,d4 ,,m5del,,eff ,translat$ f ! ,russian 7,six? ,edition7 by ,george ,kam5sky1 ,a4,r4,s4,m4 ( ! ,imp]ial ,m9t1 ,/ ,pet]sburg3 ,memb] ( ! ,russian ,physico-,*emical ,society ,edit$ by ,t4 ,a4 ,lawson1 ,b4,sc4 ,,ph4,d4 ,exam9] 9 ,coal-,t> ,products to ! ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute ,fell[ ( ! ,in/itute ( ,*emi/ry ,9 ,two ,volumes ,,volume ,i4 ,longmans1 ,gre51 & ,co #ci ,pat]no/] ,r[1 ,london ,new ,york & ,bombay #ahig ,all rights res]v$ ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,engli% ,,translation ,! fir/ ,engli% edition ( ?is "w 0 publi%$ 9 #ahia1 & t a second edition is n[ call$ = is1 we ?9k1 a suffici5t pro( t ! en?usiasm ( ! au?or = 8 sci5ce1 & ! philosophical me?od ( 8 tea*+1 h be5 duly appreciat$ by ,engli% *emi/s4 ,9 ! sci5tific "w to :i* ,pr(essor ,m5deleff's life has be5 devot$1 8 cont9ual endeav\r has be5 to br+ ! scatt]$ facts ( *emi/ry )9 ! doma9 ( law1 & accord+ly 9 8 tea*+ he endeav\rs to impress ^u ! /ud5t ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce1 ! g5]alisations1 s f> z !y h be5 discov]$1 "u :i* ! facts naturally gr\p !mselves4 ,( ^? g5]alisations ! p]iodic law is p]haps ! mo/ important t has be5 put =w>d s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! atomic !ory4 ,x is !re=e int]e/+ to note t ,pr(essor ,m5deleff 0 l$ to its discov]y 9 prep>+ ! fir/ ,russian edition ( ?is book4 ,x is natural1 too1 t ! fur!r application & developm5t ( t g5]alisation %\ld be ! pr9cipal feature ( ?is1 ! late/ edition4 ,!re are special difficulties 9 r5d]+ ! ,russian language into good ,engli%1 & we are consci\s t ^! h n be5 entirely ov]come4 ,d\btless also !re are errors ( /atem5t :i* h escap$ correction1 b we believe t ! pres5t edition w be f\nd bett] 9 bo? respects ?an its pr$ecessor4 ,we h ?\ght x our duty z translators to give z f> z possible a fai?ful reproduction ( ,pr(essor ,m5deleff's "w--! six? ,russian edition--)\t amplify+ or modify+ 8 /atem5ts1 & 9 ?is we h ! au?or's approval4 ,al?\gh o!r duties h prev5t$ ,mr4 ,gre5away f und]tak+ ! c>e ( ! pres5t edition1 he has be5 k9d en\gh to give u ! b5efit ( 8 sugge/ions on sev]al po9ts4 ,we also wi% to ?ank ! ,manag]s ( ! ,royal ,in/itution = p]mission to repr9t ! lecture deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution by ,pr(essor ,m5deleff 7,app5dix ,i471 & to ! ,c\ncil ( ! ,*emical ,society = p]mission to repr9t ! ,f>aday lecture :i* =ms ,app5dix ,,ii4 ,9 conclusion1 we are indebt$ to ,mr4 ,f4 ,ev]%$1 :o has giv5 u mu* valuable assi/ance 9 revis+ ! %eets = ! press4 ,g4 ,k4 ,t4 ,a4 ,l4 ,augu/ #ahig ,,au?or',s ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,six? ,,russian ,,edition ,?is "w 0 writt5 dur+ ! ye>s #ahfh-ahgj1 its object be+ to acqua9t ! /ud5t n only ) ! me?ods ( obs]vation1 ! exp]im5tal facts1 & ! laws ( *emi/ry1 b also ) ! insight giv5 by ?is sci5ce into ! un*angeable sub/ratum und]ly+ ! v>y+ =ms ( matt]4 ,if /atem5ts ( fact !mselves dep5d ^u ! p]son :o obs]ves !m1 h[ mu* m di/9ct is ! reflection ( ! p]sonality ( him :o gives an acc\nt ( me?ods & ( philosophical speculations :i* =m ! ess5ce ( sci5ce6 ,= ?is reason !re w inevitably be mu* t is subjective 9 e objective exposition ( sci5ce4 ,& z an individual production is only significant 9 virtue ( t :i* has prec$$ & t :i* is contempor>y ) x1 x resembles a mirror :i* 9 reflect+ exagg]ates ! size & cle>ness ( neighb\r+ objects1 & causes a p]son ne> x to see reflect$ mo/ pla9ly ^? objects :i* are on ! side to :i* x is direct$4 ,al?\gh ,i h endeav\r$ to make my book a true mirror direct$ t[>ds ! :ole doma9 ( *emical *anges1 yet involunt>ily ^? influ5ces ne> to me h be5 ! mo/ cle>ly reflect$1 ! mo/ brightly illum9at$1 & h t9t$ ! entire "w ) _! col\r+4 ,9 ?is way ! *ief peculi>ity ( ! book has be5 det]m9$4 ,exp]im5tal & practical data occupy _! place1 b ! philosophical pr9ciples ( our sci5ce =m ! *ief !me ( ! "w4 ,9 =m] times sci5ces1 l bridges1 c\ld only be built up by support+ !m on a few broad buttresses & long gird]s4 ,9 addition to ! exposition ( ! pr9ciples ( *emi/ry1 x has be5 my desire to %[ h[ sci5ce has n[ be5 built up l a susp5sion bridge1 support$ by ! unit$ /r5g? ( a numb] ( sl5d]1 b firmly-fix$1 *a9s1 :i* individually are ( little /r5g?1 & has ?us be5 c>ri$ ov] difficulties :i* be=e appe>$ insup]able4 ,9 comp>+ ! sci5ce ( ! pa/1 ! pres5t1 & ! future1 9 plac+ ! p>ticul>s ( its re/rict$ exp]im5ts side by side ) its aspirations aft] unb\nd$ & inf9ite tru?1 & 9 re/ra9+ myself f yield+ to a bias t[>ds ! mo/ attractive pa?1 ,i h endeav\r$ to incite 9 ! read] a _s ( inquiry1 :i*1 dissatisfi$ ) speculative reason+s alone1 %\ld subject e idea to exp]im5t1 enc\rage ! habit ( /ubborn "w1 & excite a se>* = fre% *a9s ( evid5ce to complete ! bridge ov] ! bottomless unkn[n4 ,hi/ory proves t x is possible by ?is means to avoid two equally p]nici\s extremes1 ! ,utopian--a vision>y contemplation :i* proce$s f a curr5t ( ?\ght only--& ! /agnant realism :i* is cont5t ) b>e facts4 ,sci5ces l *emi/ry1 :i* deal ) ideas z well z ) mat]ial sub/ances1 & create a possibility ( imm$iately v]ify+ t :i* has be5 or may be discov]$ or assum$1 demon/rate at e /ep t ! "w ( ! pa/ has avail$ mu*1 & t )\t x x w\ld be impossible to advance into ! ocean ( ! unkn[n4 ,!y also %[ ! possibility ( becom+ acqua9t$ ) fre% portions ( ?is unkn[n1 & compel u1 :ile duly respect+ ! tea*+s ( hi/ory1 to ca/ aside classical illusions1 & to engage 9 a "w :i* n only gives m5tal satisfaction b is also practically useful to all our fell[-creatures4#a #a ,*emi/ry1 l e o!r sci5ce1 is at once a means & an end4 ,x is a means ( atta9+ c]ta9 practical results4 ,?us1 by its assi/ance1 ! obta9+ ( matt] 9 its v>i\s =ms is facilitat$2 x %[s new possibilities ( avail+ ourselves ( ! =ces ( nature1 indicates ! me?ods ( prep>+ _m sub/ances1 po9ts out _! prop]ties1 c4 ,9 ?is s5se *emi/ry is closely connect$ ) ! "w ( ! manufactur] & ! artisan1 its sph]e is active1 & is a means ( promot+ g5]al welf>e4 ,besides ?is hon\rable vocation1 *emi/ry has ano!r4 ,) x1 z ) e o!r elaborat$ sci5ce1 !re are _m l(ty aspirations1 ! contemplation ( :i* s]ves to inspire its work]s & adh]5ts4 ,?is contemplation comprises n only ! pr9cipal data ( ! sci5ce1 b also ! g5]ally-accept$ d$uctions1 & also hypo!ses :i* ref] to ph5om5a z yet b imp]fectly kn[n4 ,9 ?is latt] s5se sci5tific contemplation v>ies mu* ) times & p]sons1 x be>s ! /amp ( creative p[]1 & embraces ! highe/ =ms ( sci5tific progress4 ,9 t pure enjoym5t exp]i5c$ on approa*+ to ! ideal1 9 t eag]ness to draw aside ! veil f ! hidd5 tru?1 & ev5 9 t discord :i* exi/s betwe5 ! v>i\s work]s1 we ought to see ! sure/ pl$ges ( fur!r sci5tific progress4 ,sci5ce ?us advances1 discov]+ new tru?s1 & at ! same "t obta9+ practical results4 ,! edifice ( sci5ce n only requires mat]ial1 b also a plan1 & necessitates ! "w ( prep>+ ! mat]ials1 putt+ !m toge!r1 work+ out ! plans & ! symmetrical proportions ( ! v>i\s p>ts4 ,to conceive1 und]/&1 & grasp ! :ole symmetry ( ! sci5tific edifice1 includ+ its unf9i%$ portions1 is equival5t to ta/+ t enjoym5t only convey$ by ! highe/ =ms ( beauty & tru?4 ,)\t ! mat]ial1 ! plan alone is b a ca/le 9 ! air--a m]e possibility2 :il/ ! mat]ial )\t a plan is b useless matt]4 ,all dep5ds on ! concordance ( ! mat]ials ) ! plan & execution1 & ! g5]al h>mony !reby atta9$4 ,9 ! "w ( sci5ce1 ! artisan1 ar*itect1 & creator are v (t5 "o & ! same individual2 b sometimes1 z 9 o!r walks ( life1 !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 !m2 sometimes ! plan is preconceiv$1 sometimes x foll[s ! prep>ation & accumulation ( ! raw mat]ial4 ,free access to ! edifice ( sci5ce is n only all[$ to ^? :o devis$ ! plan1 work$ out ! detail$ draw+s1 prep>$ ! mat]ials1 or pil$ up ! brickwork1 b also to all ^? :o are desir\s ( mak+ a close acqua9tance ) ! plan1 & wi% to avoid dwell+ 9 ! vaults or 9 ! g>rets :]e ! useless lumb] is /or$4 ,kn[+ h[ cont5t$1 free1 & joyful is life 9 ! realm ( sci5ce1 "o f]v5tly wi%es t _m w\ld ent] its portals4 ,on ?is acc\nt _m pages ( ?is treatise are unwitt+ly /amp$ ) ! e>ne/ desire t ! habits ( *emical contemplation :i* ,i h endeav\r$ to in/il into ! m9ds ( my read]s w incite !m to ! fur!r /udy ( sci5ce4 ,sci5ce w !n fl\ri% 9 !m & by !m1 on a full] acqua9tance n only ) t little :i* is enclos$ )9 ! n>r[ limits ( my "w1 b ) ! fur!r le>n+ :i* !y mu/ imbibe 9 ord] to make !mselves ma/]s ( our sci5ce & p>tak]s 9 its fur!r advancem5t4 ,^? :o enli/ 9 ! cause ( sci5ce h no reason to fe> :5 !y rememb] ! urg5t ne$ = practical work]s 9 ! sph]es ( agriculture1 arts1 & manufacture4 ,by summon+ adh]5ts to ! "w ( !oretical *emi/ry1 ,i am confid5t t ,i call !m to a mo/ useful lab\r1 to ! habit ( deal+ correctly ) nature & its laws1 & to ! possibility ( becom+ truly practical m54 ,9 ord] to become actual *emi/s1 x is necess>y = beg9n]s to be well & closely acqua9t$ ) ?ree important bran*es ( *emi/ry--analytical1 organic1 & !oretical4 ,t "p ( *emi/ry :i* is dealt ) 9 ?is treatise is only ! gr\ndwork ( ! edifice4 ,= ! le>n+ & developm5t ( *emi/ry 9 its true/ & fulle/ s5se1 beg9n]s ought1 9 ! fir/ place1 to turn _! att5tion to ! practical "w ( analytical *emi/ry2 9 ! second place1 to practical & !oretical acqua9tance ) "s special *emical "q1 /udy+ ! orig9al treatises ( ! inve/igators ( ! subject 7at fir/1 "u ! direction ( exp]i5c$ tea*]s71 because 9 work+ out p>ticul> facts ! faculty ( judgm5t & ( correct criticism becomes %>p5$2 9 ! ?ird place1 to a k ( curr5t sci5tific que/ions ?r\gh ! special *emical j\rnals & pap]s1 & by int]c\rse ) o!r *emi/s4 ,! "t has come to turn aside f vision>y contemplation1 f platonic aspirations1 & f classical v]bosity1 & to ent] ! regions ( actual lab\r = ! common weal1 to prove t ! /udy ( sci5ce is n only air excell5t education = y\?1 b t x in/ils ! virtues ( indu/ry & v]acity1 & creates solid national weal?1 mat]ial & m5tal1 :i* )\t x w\ld be unatta9able4 ,sci5ce1 :i* deals ) ! inf9ite1 is itself )\t b\nds4 ,?us ! desire to direct ^? ?ir/+ = tru? to ! pure s\rce ( ! sci5ce ( ! =ces act+ ?r\gh\t nature =ms ! fir/ & mo/ important aim ( ?is book4 ,! "t has arriv$ :5 a k ( physics & *emi/ry =ms z important a "p ( education z t ( ! classics did two c5turies ago4 ,9 ^? days ! nations :i* excell$ 9 classical le>n+ /ood =emo/1 j z n[ ! mo/ advanc$ are ^? :i* are sup]ior 9 ! k ( ! natural sci5ces1 = !y =m ! /r5g? & *>act]i/ic ( our times4 ,9 foll[+ ! above & *ief aim1 ,i set myself a second object3 to furni% a text-book = an elem5t>y k ( *emi/ry & s satisfy a want :i* und\bt$ly exi/s among /ud5ts & ^? :o h rec\rse to *emi/ry ei!r z a s\rce ( tru? or welf>e4#b ,h5ce1 al?\gh ! fundam5tal object ( ?is "w 0 to express & embrace ! g5]al *emical tea*+ ( ! pres5t day f a p]sonal po9t ( view1 ,i h nev]!less /riv5 ?r\gh\t to ma9ta9 su* a level z w\ld r5d] ! ',pr9ciples ( ,*emi/ry' accessible to ! beg9n]4 ,_m aspects ( ?is "w are det]m9$ by ?is comb9ation ( requirem5ts :i* frequ5tly diff] widely4 ,an issue 0 only possible "u "o condition1 i4e4 n to be c>ri$ away by :at appe>s to be a plausible !ory 9 expla9+ individual facts & to always endeav\r to transmit ! simple tru? ( a giv5 fact1 extract+ x f ! va/ /ore ( ! lit]ature ( ! subject & f tri$ p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,9 publi%+ a new edition ( ?is "w ,i h /riv5 to add any facts ( importance rec5tly discov]$#c & to revise ! =m] edition 9 ! above _s4 ,) ?is object ,i h entirely gone ov] ?is edition1 & a comp>ison ( x ) ! =m] "o w %[ t ! additions & alt]ations h co/ z mu* lab\r z _m *apt]s ( ! "w4 ,i also wi%$ to %[ 9 an elem5t>y treatise on *emi/ry ! /rik+ advantages ga9$ by ! application ( ! p]iodic law1 :i* ,i fir/ saw 9 its entirety 9 ! ye> #ahfi :5 ,i 0 engag$ 9 writ+ ! fir/ edition ( ?is book1 9 :i*1 inde$1 ! law 0 fir/ enunciat$4 ,at t "t1 h[ev]1 ?is law 0 n e/abli%$ s firmly z n[1 :5 s _m ( its consequ5ces h be5 v]ifi$ by ! rese>*es ( num]\s *emi/s1 & especially by ,roscoe1 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 ,nilson1 ,braun]1 ,?orpe1 ,c>nelley1 ,laurie1 ,w9kl]1 & o!rs4 ,!1 to me1 unexpect$ly rapid success ) :i* ! tea*+ ( ! p]iodicity ( ! elem5ts has spread 9 our sci5ce1 & p]haps also1 ! p]sev]ance ) :i* ,i collect$ 9 ?is "w1 & ^u a new plan1 ! mo/ important data respect+ ! elem5ts & _! mutual relations1 expla9$ suffici5tly ! fact t ! =m] 7#e?1 #ahhi7 edition ( my "w has be5 translat$ into ,engli%#d & ,g]man#e & is be+ translat$ into ,fr5*4#f ,deeply t\*$ by ! fav\rable op9ions express$ by ,engli% m5 ( sci5ce ^u my book1 ,i ascribe !m *iefly to ! p]iodic law plac$ at ! basis ( my treatise & especially ( ! second "p ( ! book1 :i* conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( data hav+ a special & sometimes q unexpect$1 be>+ f ! po9t ( view ( ?is law4 ,z ! entire s*eme ( ?is "w is subord9at$ to ! law ( p]iodicity1 :i* may be illu/rat$ 9 a tabul> =m by plac+ ! elem5ts 9 s]ies1 gr\ps1 & p]iods1 two su* tables are giv5 at ! end ( ?is preface4 #b ,i recomm5d ^? :o are comm5c+ ! /udy ( *emi/ry ) my book to fir/ read only :at is pr9t$ 9 ! l>ge type1 because 9 t "p ,i h endeav\r$ to conc5trate all ! fundam5tal1 indisp5sable k requir$ = t /udy4 ,9 ! footnotes1 pr9t$ 9 small type 7:i* %\ld be read only aft] ! l>ge text has be5 ma/]$71 c]ta9 details are discuss$2 !y are ei!r fur!r examples1 or debatable que/ions on exi/+ ideas :i* ,i ?\ght useful to lay be=e ^? ent]+ into ! sph]e ( sci5ce1 or c]ta9 hi/orical & te*nical details :i* might be )drawn f ! fundam5tal portion ( ! book4 ,)\t int5d+ to atta9 9 my treatise to ! complet5ess ( a "w ( ref]5ce1 ,i h /ill endeav\r$ to express ! pr9cipal developm5ts ( sci5ce z !y conc]n ! *emical elem5ts view$ 9 t aspect 9 :i* !y appe>$ to me aft] long cont9u$ /udy ( ! subject & p>ticipation 9 ! contempor>y advance ( k4 ,i h also plac$ my p]sonal views1 suppositions1 & argum5ts 9 ! footnotes1 :i* are *iefly design$ = details & ref]5ces4 ,b ,i h endeav\r$ to avoid "h1 z 9 ! text1 n only all t ,i consid] d\btful1 b also ^? details :i* belong ei!r to special bran*es ( *emi/ry 7= in/ance1 to analytical1 organic1 physical1 !oretical1 physiological1 agricultural1 or te*nical *emi/ry71 or to diff]5t bran*es ( natural sci5ce :i* are m & m com+ into clos] & clos] contact ) *emi/ry4 ,*emi/ry1 ,i am conv9c$1 mu/ occupy a place among ! natural sci5ces side by side ) me*anics2 = me*anics treats ( matt] z a sy/em ( pond]able po9ts hav+ sc>cely any individuality & only /&+ 9 a c]ta9 /ate ( mobile equilibrium4 ,= *emi/ry1 matt] is an entire _w ( life1 ) an inf9ite v>iety ( individuality bo? 9 ! elem5ts & 9 _! comb9ations4 ,9 /udy+ ! g5]al uni=mity f a me*anical po9t ( view1 ,i ?9k t ! highe/ po9t ( k ( nature _c be atta9$ )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! individuality ( ?+s 9 :i* *emi/ry is set to seek = g5]al high] laws4 ,me*anics may be lik5$ to ! sci5ce ( /atesman%ip1 *emi/ry to ! sci5ces ( jurisprud5ce & sociology4 ,! g5]al univ]se c\ld n be built up )\t ! p>ticul> individual univ]se1 & w\ld be a dry ab/ract 7 x n enliv5$ by ! real v>iety ( ! individual _w4 ,me*anics =ms ! classical basis ( natural philosophy1 :ile *emi/ry1 z a comp>atively new & /ill "y sci5ce1 already /rives to--& w1 9 ! future introduce a new1 liv+ aspect into ! philosophy ( nature2 all ! m z *emi/ry alone is nev] at re/ or any:]e dead--its vital action has univ]sal sway1 & inevitably det]m9es ! g5]al aspect ( ! univ]se4 ,j z ! microscope & telescope enl>ge ! scope ( vision1 & discov] life 9 seem+ immobility1 s *emi/ry1 9 discov]+ & /riv+ to disc]n ! life ( ! invisible _w ( atoms & molecules & _! ultimate limit ( divisibility1 w cle>ly introduce new & important problems into our conception ( nature4 ,& ,i ?9k t its rle1 :i* is n[ consid]able1 w increase m & m 9 ! future2 t is1 ,i ?9k t 9 its fur!r developm5t x w occupy a place side by side ) me*anics = ! compreh5sion ( ! secrets ( nature4 ,b "h we require "s second ,newton2 & ,i h no d\bt t he w soon appe>4 #c ,i 0 mu* help$ 9 ga!r+ data f ! v>i\s *emical j\rnals ( ! la/ five ye>s by ! ab/racts made = me by ,mr4 ,y4 ,v4 ,k\ril(f1 to :om ,i t5d] my be/ ?anks4 #d ,! ,engli% translation 0 made by ,g4 ,kam5sky1 & edit$ by ,a4 ,j4 ,gre5away2 publi%$ by ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co4 #e ,! ,g]man translation 0 made by ,l4 ,jawe9 & ,a4 ,?illot2 publi%$ by ,rick] 7,/4 ,pet]sburg74 #f ,! ,fr5* translation has be5 comm5c$ by ,e4 ,a*k9asi & ,h4 ,c>rion f ! fif? edition1 & is publi%$ by ,tignol 7,p>is74 ,9 ?is ! six? edition ,i h n alt]$ any ess5tial feature ( ! orig9al "w1 & h reta9$ ^? alt]ations :i* 7 introduc$ into ! fif? edition4#g ,i h1 h[ev]1 add$ _m newly discov]$ facts1 & 9 ?is respect x is necess>y to say a few words4 ,al?\gh all aspects ( ! simple/ *emical relations are z f> z possible equally develop$ 9 ?is book1 yet on look+ back ,i see t ,i h1 nev]!less1 giv5 mo/ att5tion to ! s-call$ indef9ite comp\nds examples ( :i* may be se5 9 solutions4 ,i recur repeat$ly to !m1 & to all ! late/ data respect+ !m1 = 9 !m ,i see a />t+ po9t = ! future progress ( our sci5ce & to !m ,i affiliate num]\s in/ances ( def9ite comp\nds1 beg9n+ ) alloys & silicates & end+ ) complex acids4 ,!re are two reasons = ?is4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?is subject has deeply int]e/$ me f my y\?2 ,i h devot$ a portion ( my own rese>*es to x1 & !re=e x occupi$ an important position ev5 9 ! fir/ edition ( my book2 besides :i* all t has be5 subsequ5tly accompli%$ 9 our sci5ce1 especially dur+ ! la/ five or six ye>s1 %[s t at ! pres5t day an int]e/ 9 ^! que/ions plays an important "p 9 ! m9ds ( a l>ge circle ( contempor>y work]s 9 *emi/ry4 ,?is p]sonal atta*m5t1 if ,i may s call x1 to ! "q ( solutions & su* indef9ite comp\nds1 mu/ involunt>ily h impress$ itself ^u my "w1 & 9 ! lat] editions ,i h ev5 _h to /rive n to give ?is subject a great] developm5t ?an previ\sly1 s great 0 ! mat]ial accumulat$1 :i* h[ev] does n yet give u ! "r to consid] ev5 ! mo/ elem5t>y que/ions respect+ solutions z solv$4 ,?us1 we _c yet say :at a solution really is4 ,my own view is t a solution is a homog5e\s liquid sy/em ( un/able dissociat+ comp\nds ( ! solv5t ) ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,b al?\gh su* a !ory expla9s mu* to me1 ,i _c consid] my op9ion z prov$1 & !re=e give x ) "s res]ve z "o ( sev]al hypo!ses4#h ,z a subject yet f> f solv$1 ,i might naturally h ignor$ x1 or only m5tion$ x cursorily1 b su* a treatm5t ( solutions1 al?\gh usual 9 elem5t>y treatises on *emi/ry1 w\ld n h answ]$ my views ^u ! subject ( our sci5ce1 & ,i wi%$ t ! read] might f9d 9 my book beyond ev]y?+ an expression ( all t a /udy ( ! subject built up = me4 ,if 9 solutions ,i see & c frequ5tly prove di/9ct evid5ces ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? def9ite comp\nds :i* =m ! m g5]alis$ prov9ce ( *emical data1 ,i c\ld n refra9 f go+ into c]ta9 details respect+ solutions2 o!rwise1 !re w\ld h rema9$ no trace ( t g5]al idea1 t 9 !m we h only a c]ta9 in/ance ( ord9>y def9ite or atomic comp\nds1 subject to ,dalton's laws4 ,hav+ long _h ?is idea1 ,i wi%$ to impress x ^u ! read] ( my book1 & x is ?is desire :i* =ms ! second ( ^? *ief reasons :y ,i recur s frequ5tly to solutions 9 ?is "w4 ,at pres5t1 my ideas respect+ solutions are %>$ by few1 b ,i tru/ t by degrees ! in/ances ,i give w pave ! way = _! g5]al recognition1 & x is my hope t !y may f9d adh]5ts among ^? ( my read]s :o are 9 a position to "w out by exp]im5t ?is difficult b highly int]e/+ problem4 #g ,! fif? edition 0 n only consid]ably enl>g$1 comp>$ ) ! prec$+1 b also ! f\ndations ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts 7 plac$ f> m firmly 9 x ?an 9 ! =m] editions4 ,! subject-matt] 0 also divid$ into text & footnotes1 :i* conta9$ details unnecess>y = a fir/ acqua9tance ) *emi/ry4 ,! fif? edition sold out soon] ?an ,i expect$1 s t in/ead ( issu+ supplem5ts 7conta9+ ! late/ discov]ies 9 *emi/ry71 z ,i _h propos$1 ,i 0 oblig$ to publi% ! pres5t entirely new edition ( ! "w4 #h ,?is hypo!sis is n only m5tion$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ?is book1 b is p>tly 7f ! aspect ( ! specific gravity ( solutions7 develop$ 9 my "w1 ,! ,inve/igation ( ,solutions f _! ,specific ,gravity1 #ahhg4 ,9 conclusion1 ,i desire to record my ?anks to ,v4 ,d4 ,sapog5ik(f1 :o has correct$ ! pro(s ( ! :ole ( ?is edition & compil$ ! indexes :i* greatly facilitate ! se>* = ^? details :i* are scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! "w4 ,d4 ,,m5del,,eff4 ,,table ,i ,di/ribution ( ! ,elem5ts 9 ,gr\ps & ,s]ies ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,gr\p ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,s]ies #a ,h -- -- -- -- #b ,li ,be ,b ,c ,n #c ,na ,mg ,al ,si ,p #d ,k ,ca ,sc ,ti ,v #e 7,cu7 ,zn ,ga ,ge ,z #f ,rb ,sr ,y ,zr ,nb #g 7,ag7 ,cd ,9 ,sn ,sb #h ,cs ,ba ,la ,ce ,di8 #i -- -- -- -- -- #aj -- -- ,yb -- ,ta #aa 7,au7 ,hg ,tl ,pb ,bi #ab -- -- -- ,? -- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,r#b,o ,r#b,o#b,r#b,o#c,r#b,o#d,r#b,o#e -- ,,ro -- ,,ro#b -- -- -- -- ,,rh#d ,,rh#c ---------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,gr\p ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,s]ies #a -- -- #b ,o ,f #c ,s ,cl #d ,cr ,mn ,fe ,co ,ni ,cu #e ,se ,br #f ,mo -- ,ru ,rh ,pd ,ag #g ,te ,i #h -- -- -- -- -- -- #i -- -- #aj ,w -- ,os ,ir ,pt ,au #aa -- -- #ab ,u -- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,r#b,o#f,r#b,o#g ,high] oxides ,,ro#c -- ,,ro#d ,,rh#b ,,rh ,hydrog5 comp\nds ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,table ,,ii ,p]iodic ,sy/em & ,atomic ,weights ( ! ,elem5ts 7,giv+ ! pages on :i* !y are describ$7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bnd ,s]ies1 ,typical #d? #f? elem5ts ,s]ies ,s]ies ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,i4 ,li #g ,k #ci ,rb #hf vol4 i4 #egd vol4 i4 #eeh vol4 i4 #egf ,,ii4 ,be #i ,ca #dj ,sr #hh ----- vol4 i4 #fah vol4 i4 #eij vol4 i4 #fad ,,iii4 ,b #aa ,sc #dd ,y #hi ---- vol4 ii4 #fj vol4 ii4 #id vol4 ii4 #ic ,,iv4 ,c #ab ,ti #dh ,zr #ia vol4 i4 #cch vol4 ii4 #add vol4 ii4 #ic ,v4 ,n #ad ,v #ea ,nb #id vol4 i4 #bbc vol4 ii4 #aid vol4 ii4 #aig ,,vi4 ,o #af ,cr #eb ,mo #if ---- ----- vol4 i4 #aee vol4 ii4 #bgf vol4 ii4 #bij ,,vii4 ,f #ai ,mn #ee 8 #ii vol4 i4 #dhi vol4 ii4 #cjc ,fe #ef ,ru #ajb vol4 ii4 #cag vol4 ii4 #cfi ,,viii4 ,co #ei ,rh #ajc vol4 ii4 #cec vol4 ii4 #cfi ,ni #eie ,pd #ajf vol4 ii4 #cec vol4 ii4 #cfi #crd ,s]ies #e? ,s]ies #g? ,s]ies ,i4 ,h #a ,na #bc ,cu #fd ,ag #ajh ---- vol4 i4 #abi vol4 i4 #ecc vol4 ii4 #cih vol4 ii4 #dae ,,ii4 ,mg #bd ,zn #fe ,cd #aab vol4 i4 #eij vol4 ii4 #ci vol4 ii4 #dg ,,iii4 ,al #bg ,ga #gj ,9 #aad vol4 ii4 #gj vol4 ii4 #ij vol4 ii4 #ia ,,iv4 ,si #bh ,ge #gb ,sn #aai vol4 ii4 #ii vol4 ii4 #abd vol4 ii4 #abe ,v4 ,p #ca ,z #ge ,sb #abj ----- vol4 ii4 #adi vol4 ii4 #agi vol4 ii4 #ahf ,,vi4 ,s #cb ,se #gi ,te #abe vol4 ii4 #bjj vol4 ii4 #bgj vol4 ii4 #bgj ,,vii4 ,cl #cee ,br #hj ,i #abg ----- vol4 i4 #dei vol4 i4 #did vol4 i4 #dif ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- #h? #aj? #ab? ,s]ies ,s]ies ,s]ies ---- ---------------------------------------- --- ,i4 ,cs #acc -- -- vol4 i4 #egf ,,ii4 ,ba #acg -- -- ------ vol4 i4 #fad ,,iii4 ,la #ach ,yb #agc -- vol4 ii4 #ic vol4 ii4 #ic ,,iv4 ,ce #adj 8 #agh ,? #bcb vol4 ii4 #ic vol4 ii4 #adh ,v4 8 ,di #adb ,ta #ahc -- vol4 ii4 #ic vol4 ii4 #aig ,,vi4 -- ,w #ahd ,u #bci vol4 ii4 #bij vol4 ii4 #big ,,vii4 -- -- -- -- ,os #aib vol4 ii4 #cfi ,,viii4 -- ,ir #aic vol4 ii4 #cfi -- ,pt #aif ------ vol4 ii4 #cfi #i? #aa? ,s]ies ,s]ies ,i4 -- ,au #aig vol4 ii4 #ddb ,,ii4 -- ,hg #bjj vol4 ii4 #dh ,,iii4 -- ,tl #bjd vol4 ii4 #ia ,,iv4 -- ,pb #bjg vol4 ii4 #acd ,v4 -- ,bi #bji vol4 ii4 #ahi ,,vi4 -- -- ,,vii4 -- -- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,note4--,two l9es "u ! elem5ts indicate ^? :i* are v widely di/ribut$ 9 nature2 "o l9e indicates ^? :i*1 al?\gh n s frequ5tly met )1 are ( g5]al use 9 ! arts & manufactures4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume ,,page ,,translators' ,,preface v ,,au?or',s ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,six? ,,russian ,,edition vii ,,table ,,( ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,9 ,,gr\ps ,,& ,,s]ies xv ,,table ,,( ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,sy/em ,,& ,,atomic ,,weights ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts xvi ,,introduction #a ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,,on ,,wat] ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds #dj ,,ii4 ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,wat]4 ,,hydrog5 #aac ,,iii4 ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,! ,,*ief ,,aspects ,,( ,,its ,,sal9e ,,comb9ations #aeb ,,iv4 ,,ozone ,,& ,,hydrog5 ,,p]oxide4 ,,dalton',s ,,law #aih ,v4 ,,nitrog5 ,,& ,,air #bbc ,,vi4 ,,! ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,nitrog5 ,,) ,,hydrog5 ,,& ,,oxyg5 #bdf ,,vii4 ,,molecules ,,& ,,atoms4 ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,gay-,,lussac ,,& ,,avogadro-,,g]h>dt #bii ,,viii4 ,,c>bon ,,& ,,! ,,hydroc>bons #cch ,,ix4 ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,c>bon ,,) ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,nitrog5 #cgi ,x4 ,,sodium ,,*loride4 ,,b]?ollet',s ,,laws4 ,,hydro*loric ,,acid #dag ,,xi4 ,,! ,,halog5s3 ,,*lor9e1 ,,brom9e1 ,,iod9e ,,& ,,fluor9e #dei ,,xii4 ,,sodium #eac ,,xiii4 ,,potassium1 ,,rubidium1 ,c,,sium ,,& ,,li?ium4 ,,spectrum ,,analysis #edc ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,val5cy ,,& ,,specific ,,heat ,,( ,,! ,,metals4 ,,magnesium1 ,,calcium1 ,,/rontium1 ,,b>ium1 ,,& ,,b]yllium #eha ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emi/ry ,,introduction ,! /udy ( natural sci5ce1 ^: rapid developm5t dates f ! days ( ,galileo 7#afdb7 & ,newton 7#agbg71 & its clos] application to ! ext]nal univ]se#a l$ to ! sep>ation ( ,*emi/ry z a p>ticul> bran* ( natural philosophy1 n only ow+ to ! increas+ /ore ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts relat+ to ! mutual trans=mations ( sub/ances1 b also1 & m especially1 because 9 addition to gravity1 cohesion1 heat1 light & electricity x became necess>y to recognise ! exi/5ce ( p>ticul> int]nal =ces 9 ! ultimate p>ts ( all sub/ances1 =ces :i* make !mselves manife/ 9 ! trans=mations ( sub/ances into "o ano!r1 b rema9 hidd5 7lat5t7 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 & ^: exi/5ce _c !re=e be directly appreh5d$1 & s = a long "t rema9$ unrecognis$4 ,! prim>y object ( *emi/ry is ! /udy ( ! homog5e\s sub/ances#b ( :i* all ! objects ( ! univ]se are made up1 ) ! trans=mations ( ^! sub/ances into ea* o!r1 & ) ! ph5om5a#c :i* accompany su* trans=mations4 ,e *emical *ange or reaction1#d z x is call$1 c only take place "u a condition ( mo/ intimate & close contact ( ! re-act+ sub/ances1#e & is det]m9$ by ! =ces prop] to ! smalle/ invisible p>ticles 7molecules7 ( matt]4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% ?ree *ief classes ( *emical trans=mations4 #a ,! inve/igation ( a sub/ance or a natural ph5om5on consi/s 7a7 9 det]m9+ ! relation ( ! object "u exam9ation to t :i* is already kn[n1 ei!r f previ\s rese>*es1 or f exp]im5t1 or f ! k ( ! common surr\nd+s ( life--t is1 9 det]m9+ & express+ ! quality ( ! unkn[n by ! aid ( t :i* is kn[n2 7b7 9 measur+ all t :i* c be subject$ to measurem5t1 & !reby d5ot+ ! quantitative relation ( t "u inve/igation to t already kn[n & its relation to ! categories ( "t1 space1 temp]ature1 mass1 c42 7c7 9 det]m9+ ! position held by ! object "u inve/igation 9 ! sy/em ( kn[n objects guid$ by bo? qualitative & quantitative data2 7d7 9 det]m9+1 f ! quantities :i* h be5 measur$1 ! empirical 7visible7 dep5d5ce 7function1 or 'law1' z x is sometimes t]m$7 ( v>iable factors--= in/ance1 ! dep5d5ce ( ! composition ( ! sub/ance on its prop]ties1 ( temp]ature on "t1 ( "t on locality1 c42 7e7 9 fram+ hypo!ses or propositions z to ! actual cause & true nature ( ! relation betwe5 t /udi$ 7measur$ or obs]v$7 & t :i* is kn[n or ! categories ( "t1 space1 c42 7f7 9 v]ify+ ! logical consequ5ces ( ! hypo!ses by exp]im5t2 & 7g7 9 advanc+ a !ory :i* %all acc\nt = ! nature ( ! prop]ties ( t /udi$ 9 its relations ) ?+s already kn[n & ) ^? conditions or categories among :i* x exi/s4 ,x is c]ta9 t x is only possible to c>ry out ^! inve/igations :5 we h tak5 z a basis "s inconte/able fact :i* is self-evid5t to our und]/&+2 z1 = in/ance1 numb]1 "t1 space1 motion1 or mass4 ,! det]m9ation ( su* prim>y or fundam5tal conceptions1 al?\gh n exclud$ f ! possibility ( inve/igation1 frequ5tly does n subject itself to our pres5t mode ( sci5tific g5]alisation4 ,h5ce x foll[s t 9 ! inve/igation ( any?+1 !re always rema9s some?+ :i* is accept$ )\t inve/igation1 or admitt$ z a kn[n factor4 ,! axioms ( geometry may be tak5 z an example4 ,?us 9 ! sci5ce ( biology x is necess>y to admit ! faculty ( organisms = multiply+ !mselves1 z a conception ^: mean+ is z yet unkn[n4 ,9 ! /udy ( *emi/ry1 too1 ! notion ( elem5ts mu/ be accept$ almo/ )\t any fur!r analysis4 ,h[ev]1 by fir/ inve/igat+ t :i* is visible & subject to direct obs]vation by ! organs ( ! s5ses1 we may hope t 9 ! fir/ place hypo!ses w be arriv$ at1 & aft]w>ds !ories ( t :i* has n[ to be plac$ at ! basis ( our inve/igations4 ,! m9ds ( ! anci5ts /rove to seize at once ! v fundam5tal categories ( inve/igation1 :il/ all ! successes ( rec5t k are bas$ on ! above-cit$ me?od ( inve/igation )\t ! det]m9ation ( '! beg9n+ ( all beg9n+s4' ,by foll[+ ?is inductive me?od1 ! exact sci5ces h already succe$$ 9 becom+ accurately acqua9t$ ) mu* ( ! invisible _w1 :i* directly is imp]ceptible to ! organs ( s5se 7= example1 ! molecul> motion ( all bodies1 ! composition ( ! heav5ly lum9>ies1 ! pa?s ( _! motion1 ! necessity = ! exi/5ce ( sub/ances :i* _c be subject$ to exp]im5t1 c471 & h v]ifi$ ! k ?us obta9$1 & employ$ x = increas+ ! int]e/s ( humanity4 ,x may !re=e be safely said t ! inductive me?od ( inve/igation is a m p]fect mode ( acquir+ k ?an ! d$uctive me?od alone 7/>t+ f a little ( ! unkn[n accept$ z inconte/able to arrive at ! mu* :i* is visible & obs]vable7 by :i* ! anci5ts /rove to embrace ! univ]se4 ,by inve/igat+ ! univ]se by an inductive me?od 7endeav\r+ f ! mu* :i* is obs]vable to arrive at a little :i* may be v]ifi$ & is indubitable7 ! new sci5ce refuses to recognise dogma z tru?1 b ?r\gh reason1 by a sl[ & labori\s me?od ( inve/igation1 /rives = & atta9s to true d$uctions4 #b ,a sub/ance or mat]ial is t :i* occupies space & has weight2 t is1 :i* pres5ts a mass attract$ by ! e>? & by o!r masses ( mat]ial1 & ( :i* ! objects ( nature are compos$1 & by means ( :i* ! motions & ph5om5a ( nature are accompli%$4 ,x is easy to discov] by exam9+ & inve/igat+1 by v>i\s me?ods1 ! objects met ) 9 nature & 9 ! arts1 t "s ( !m are homog5e\s1 :il/ o!rs are compos$ ( a mixture ( sev]al homog5e\s sub/ances4 ,?is is mo/ cle>ly app>5t 9 solid sub/ances4 ,! metals us$ 9 ! arts 7= example1 gold1 iron1 copp]7 mu/ be homog5e\s1 o!rwise !y are brittle & unfit = _m purposes4 ,homog5e\s matt] exhibits simil> prop]ties 9 all its p>ts4 ,by break+ up a homog5e\s sub/ance we obta9 p>ts :i*1 al?\gh diff]5t 9 =m1 resemble ea* o!r 9 _! prop]ties4 ,glass1 pure sug>1 m>ble1 c41 are examples ( homog5e\s sub/ances4 ,examples ( non-homog5e\s sub/ances are1 h[ev]1 mu* m frequ5t 9 nature & ! arts4 ,?us ! majority ( ! rocks are n homog5e\s4 ,9 porphyries bright pieces ( a m9]al call$ 'or?oclase' are (t5 se5 int]sp]s$ among/ ! d>k mass ( ! rock4 ,9 ord9>y r$ granite x is easy to di/+ui% l>ge pieces ( or?oclase mix$ ) d>k semi-transp>5t qu>tz & flexible lam9 ( mica4 ,simil>ly1 plants & animals are non-homog5e\s4 ,?us1 leaves are compos$ ( a sk91 fibre1 pulp1 sap1 & a gre5 col\r+ matt]4 ,z an example ( ^? non-homog5e\s sub/ances :i* are produc$ artificially1 gunp[d] may be cit$1 :i* is prep>$ by mix+ toge!r kn[n proportions ( sulphur1 nitre1 & *>coal4 ,_m liquids1 also1 are n homog5e\s1 z may be obs]v$ by ! aid ( ! microscope1 :5 drops ( blood are se5 to consi/ ( a col\rless liquid 9 :i* r$ corpuscles1 invisible to ! nak$ eye ow+ to _! small size1 are float+ ab\t4 ,x is ^! corpuscles :i* give blood its peculi> col\r4 ,milk is also a transp>5t liquid1 9 :i* microscopical drops ( fat are float+1 :i* rise to ! top :5 milk is left at re/1 =m+ cream4 ,x is possible to extract f e non-homog5e\s sub/ance ^? homog5e\s sub/ances ( :i* x is made up4 ,?us or?oclase may he sep>at$ f porphyry by break+ x (f4 ,s also gold is extract$ f aurif]\s s& by wa%+ away ! mixture ( clay & s&4 ,*emi/ry deals only ) ! homog5e\s sub/ances met ) 9 nature1 or extract$ f natural or artificial non-homog5e\s sub/ances4 ,! v>i\s mixtures f\nd 9 nature =m ! subjects ( o!r natural sci5ces--z geognosy1 botany1 zoology1 anatomy1 c4 #c ,all ^? ev5ts :i* are accompli%$ by sub/ances 9 "t are t]m$ 'ph5om5a4' ,ph5om5a 9 !mselves =m ! fundam5tal subject ( ! /udy ( physics4 ,motion is ! prim>y & mo/ g5]ally und]/ood =m ( ph5om5on1 & !re=e we endeav\r to reason ab\t o!r ph5om5a z cle>ly z :5 deal+ ) motion4 ,= ?is reason me*anics1 :i* treats ( motion1 =ms ! fundam5tal sci5ce ( natural philosophy1 & all o!r sci5ces endeav\r to r$uce ! ph5om5a ) :i* !y are conc]n$ to me*anical pr9ciples4 ,a/ronomy 0 ! fir/ to take to ?is pa? ( reason+1 & succe$$ 9 _m cases 9 r$uc+ a/ronomical to purely me*anical ph5om5a4 ,*emi/ry & physics1 physiology & biology are proce$+ 9 ! same direction4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important que/ions ( all natural sci5ce1 & "o :i* has be5 h&$ d[n f ! philosoph]s ( classic times1 is1 :e!r ! compreh5sion ( all t is visible c be r$uc$ to motion8 ,its p>ticipation 9 all1 f ! 'fix$' />s to ! mo/ m9ute p>ts ( ! colde/ bodies 7,dew>1 9 #ahid %[$ t _m sub/ances cool$ to -#ahj fluoresce m /rongly ?an at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 i4e4 t !re is a motion 9 !m :i* produces light7 mu/ n[ be recognis$ z und\btable f direct exp]im5t & obs]vation1 b x does n foll[ f ?is t by motion alone c all be expla9$4 ,?is foll[s1 h[ev]1 f ! fact t we _c appreh5d motion o!rwise ?an by recognis+ matt] 9 a /ate ( motion4 ,if light & electricity be und]/ood z p>ticul> =ms ( motion1 !n we mu/ inevitably recognise ! exi/5ce ( a peculi> lum9if]\s 7univ]sal7 e!r z a mat]ial1 transmitt+ ?is =m ( motion4 ,& s1 "u ! pres5t /ate ( k1 x is inevitably necess>y to recognise ! p>ticul> categories1 motion & matt]1 & z *emi/ry is m closely conc]n$ ) ! v>i\s =ms ( ! latt]1 x %\ld1 toge!r ) me*anics or ! /udy ( motion1 lie at ! basis ( natural sci5ce4 #d ,! v]b 'to react' means to act or *ange *emically4 #e ,if a ph5om5on proce$s at visible or measurable di/ances 7z1 = in/ance1 magnetic attraction or gravity71 x _c be describ$ z *emical1 s9ce ^! ph5om5a only take place at di/ances immeasurably small & undi/+ui%able to ! eye or ! microscope2 t is to say1 !y are purely molecul>4 #a4 ,comb9ation is a reaction 9 :i* ! union ( two sub/ances yields a new "o1 or 9 g5]al t]ms1 f a giv5 numb] ( sub/ances1 a less] numb] is obta9$4 ,?us1 by heat+ a mixture ( iron & sulphur#f a s+le new sub/ance is produc$1 iron sulphide1 9 :i* ! con/itu5t sub/ances _c be di/+ui%$ ev5 by ! highe/ magnify+ p[]4 ,be=e ! reaction1 ! iron c\ld be sep>at$ f ! mixture by a magnet1 & ! sulphur by dissolv+ x 9 c]ta9 oily liquids2#g 9 g5]al1 be=e comb9ation !y might be me*anically sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 b aft] comb9ation bo? sub/ances p5etrate into ea* o!r1 & are !n nei!r me*anically sep>able nor individually di/+ui%able4 ,z a rule1 reactions ( direct comb9ation are accompani$ by an evolution ( heat1 & ! common case ( combu/ion1 evolv+ heat1 consi/s 9 ! comb9ation ( combu/ible sub/ances ) a portion 7oxyg57 ( ! atmosph]e1 ! gases & vap\rs conta9$ 9 ! smoke be+ ! products ( comb9ation4 #b4 ,reactions ( decomposition are cases ! rev]se ( ^? ( comb9ation1 t is1 9 :i* "o sub/ance gives two--or1 9 g5]al1 a giv5 numb] ( sub/ances a great] numb]4 ,?us1 by heat+ wood 7& also coal & _m animal or vegetable sub/ances7 )\t access to air1 a combu/ible gas1 a wat]y liquid1 t>1 & c>bon are obta9$4 ,x is 9 ?is way t t>1 illum9at+ gas1 & *>coal are prep>$ on a l>ge scale4#h ,all lime/ones1 = example1 flag/ones1 *alk1 or m>ble1 are decompos$ by heat+ to r$ness into lime & a peculi> gas call$ c>bonic anhydride4 ,a simil> decomposition1 tak+ place1 h[ev]1 at a mu* l[] temp]ature1 proce$s ) ! gre5 copp] c>bonate :i* is conta9$ 9 natural mala*ite4 ,?is example w be /udi$ m 9 detail pres5tly4 ,:il/ heat is evolv$ 9 ! ord9>y reactions ( comb9ation1 x is1 on ! contr>y1 absorb$ 9 ! reactions ( decomposition4 #c4 ,! ?ird class ( *emical reactions--:]e ! numb] ( re-act+ sub/ances is equal to ! numb] ( sub/ances =m$--may be consid]$ z a simultane\s decomposition & comb9ation4 ,if1 = in/ance1 two comp\nds ,a & ,b are tak5 & !y react on ea* o!r to =m ! sub/ances ,c & ,d1 !n suppos+ t ,a is decompos$ into ,d & ,e1 & t ,e comb9es ) ,b to =m ,c1 we h a reaction 9 :i* two sub/ances ,a1 or ,d ,e1 & ,b 7 tak5 & two o!rs ,c1 or ,e ,b1 & ,d 7 produc$4 ,su* reactions ought to be plac$ "u ! g5]al t]m ( reactions ( 're>rangem5t1' & ! p>ticul> case :]e two sub/ances give two fre% ones1 reactions ( 'sub/itution4'#i ,?us1 if a piece ( iron be imm]s$ 9 a solution ( blue vitriol 7copp] sulphate71 copp] is =m$--or1 r1 sep>at$ out1 & gre5 vitriol 7iron sulphate1 :i* only diff]s f ! blue vitriol 9 t ! iron has replac$ ! copp]7 is obta9$ 9 solution4 ,9 ?is mann] iron may be coat$ ) copp]1 s also copp] ) silv]2 su* reactions are frequ5tly made use ( 9 practice4 #f ,= ?is purpose a piece ( iron may be made r$ hot 9 a =ge1 & !n plac$ 9 contact ) a lump ( sulphur1 :5 iron sulphide w be obta9$ z a molt5 liquid1 ! comb9ation be+ accompani$ by a visible increase 9 ! gl[ ( ! iron4 ,or else iron fil+s are mix$ ) p[d]$ sulphur 9 ! proportion ( #e p>ts ( iron to #c p>ts ( sulphur1 & ! mixture plac$ 9 a glass tube1 :i* is !n heat$ 9 "o place4 ,comb9ation does n comm5ce )\t ! aid ( ext]nal heat1 b :5 once />t$ 9 any portion ( ! mixture x ext5ds ?r\gh\t ! entire mass1 because ! portion fir/ heat$ evolves suffici5t heat 9 =m+ iron sulphide to raise ! adjac5t p>ts ( ! mixture to ! temp]ature requir$ = />t+ ! reaction4 ,! rise 9 temp]ature ?us produc$ is s high z to s(t5 ! glass tube4 #g ,sulphur is slightly soluble 9 _m ?9 oils2 x is v soluble 9 c>bon bisulphide & 9 "s o!r liquids4 ,iron is insoluble 9 c>bon bisulphide1 & ! sulphur !re=e c be dissolv$ away f ! iron4 #h ,decomposition ( ?is k9d is t]m$ 'dry di/illation1' because1 z 9 di/illation1 ! sub/ance is heat$ & vap\rs are giv5 (f :i*1 on cool+1 cond5se into liquids4 ,9 g5]al1 decomposition1 9 absorb+ heat1 pres5ts mu* 9 common to a physical *ange ( /ate--su* z1 = example1 t ( a liquid into a gas4 ,deville lik5$ complete decomposition to boil+1 & comp>$ p>tial decomposition1 :5 a portion ( a sub/ance is n decompos$ 9 ! pres5ce ( its products ( decomposition 7or dissociation71 to evaporation4 #i ,a reaction ( re>rangem5t may 9 c]ta9 cases take place ) "o sub/ance only2 t is to say1 a sub/ance may by itself *ange into a new isom]ic =m4 ,?us1 = example1 if h>d yell[ sulphur be heat$ to a temp]ature ( #bej & !n p\r$ into cold wat] x gives1 on cool+1 a s(t1 br[n v>iety4 ,ord9>y phosphorus1 :i* is transp>5t1 poison\s1 & phosphoresc5t 9 ! d>k 79 ! air71 gives1 aft] be+ heat$ at #bgj 79 an atmosph]e incapable ( support+ combu/ion1 su* z /eam71 an opaque1 r$1 & non-poison\s isom]ic v>iety1 :i* is n phosphoresc5t4 ,cases ( isom]ism po9t out ! possibility ( an int]nal re>rangem5t 9 a sub/ance1 & are ! result ( an alt]ation 9 ! gr\p+ ( ! same elem5ts1 j z a c]ta9 numb] ( balls may be gr\p$ 9 figures & =ms ( diff]5t %apes4 ,! majority ( ! *emical *anges :i* occur 9 nature & are made use ( te*nically are v complicat$1 z !y consi/ ( an association ( _m sep>ate & simultane\s comb9ations1 decompositions1 & replacem5ts4 ,x is *iefly due to ?is natural complexity ( *emical ph5om5a t = s _m c5turies *emi/ry did n exi/ z an exact sci5ce2 t is s say1 t al?\gh _m *emical *anges 7 kn[n & made use (1#aj yet _! real nature 0 unkn[n1 nor c\ld !y be pr$ict$ or direct$ at w4 ,ano!r reason = ! t>dy progress ( *emical k is ! p>ticipation ( gase\s sub/ances1 especially air1 9 _m reactions4 ,! true compreh5sion ( air z a pond]able sub/ance1 & ( gases 9 g5]al z peculi> ela/ic & disp]sive /ates ( matt]1 0 only arriv$ at 9 ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies1 & x 0 only aft] ?is t ! trans=mations ( sub/ances c\ld =m a sci5ce4 ,up to t "t1 )\t und]/&+ ! invisible & yet pond]able gase\s & vapor\s /ates ( sub/ances1 x 0 impossible to obta9 any fundam5tal *emical evid5ce1 because gases escap$ f notice betwe5 ! react+ & resultant sub/ances4 ,x is easy f ! impression convey$ to u by ! ph5om5a we obs]ve to =m ! op9ion t matt] is creat$ & de/roy$3 a :ole mass ( trees burn1 & !re only rema9s a little *>coal & a%1 :il/ f "o small se$ !re gr[s little by little a maje/ic tree4 ,9 "o case matt] seems to be de/roy$1 & 9 ! o!r to be creat$4 ,?is conclusion is arriv$ at because ! =mation or consumption ( gases1 be+ "u ! circum/ances invisible to ! eye1 is n obs]v$4 ,:5 wood burns x und]goes a *emical *ange into gase\s products1 :i* escape z smoke4 ,a v simple exp]im5t w prove ?is4 ,by collect+ ! smoke x may be obs]v$ t x conta9s gases :i* diff] entirely f air1 be+ incapable ( support+ combu/ion or respiration4 ,^! gases may be weigh$1 & x w !n be se5 t _! weight exce$s t ( ! wood tak54 ,?is increase 9 weight arises f ! fact t1 9 burn+1 ! compon5t p>ts ( ! wood comb9e ) a portion ( ! air2 9 l mann] iron increases 9 weight by ru/+4 ,9 burn+ gunp[d] its sub/ance is n de/roy$1 b only conv]t$ into gases & smoke4 ,s also 9 ! gr[? ( a tree2 ! se$ does n increase 9 mass ( itself & f itself1 b gr[s because x absorbs gases f ! atmosph]e & sucks wat] & sub/ances dissolv$ !re9 f ! e>? ?r\gh its roots4 ,! sap & solid sub/ances :i* give plants _! =m are produc$ f ^! absorb$ gases & liquids by complicat$ *emical processes4 ,! gases & liquids are conv]t$ into solid sub/ances by ! plants !mselves4 ,plants n only d n increase 9 size1 b die1 9 a gas :i* does n conta9 ! con/itu5ts ( air4 ,:5 moi/ sub/ances dry !y decrease 9 weight2 :5 wat] evaporates we "k t x does n disappe>1 b w return f ! atmosph]e z ra91 dew1 & sn[4 ,:5 wat] is absorb$ by ! e>?1 x does n disappe> !re = ev]1 b accumulates some:]e und]gr\nd1 f :5ce x aft]w>ds fl[s =? z a spr+4 ,?us matt] does n disappe> & is n creat$1 b only und]goes v>i\s physical & *emical trans=mations--t is to say1 *anges its locality & =m4 ,matt] rema9s on ! e>? 9 ! same quantity z be=e2 9 a ^w x is1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 ev]la/+4 ,x 0 difficult to submit ?is simple & prim>y tru? ( *emi/ry to inve/igation1 b :5 once made cle> x rapidly spread1 & n[ seems z natural & simple z _m tru?s :i* h be5 ackn[l$g$ = ages4 ,m>iotte & o!r savants ( ! sev5te5? c5tury already suspect$ ! exi/5ce ( ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]1 b !y made no ef=ts to express x or to apply x to ! requirem5ts ( sci5ce4 ,! exp]im5ts by means ( :i* ?is simple law 0 arriv$ at 7 made dur+ ! latt] half ( ! la/ c5tury by ! f\nd] ( mod]n *emi/ry1 ,,lavoisi]1 ! ,fr5* ,academician & tax f>m]4 ,! num]\s exp]im5ts ( ?is savant 7 conduct$ ) ! aid ( ! balance1 :i* is ! only means ( directly & accurately det]m9+ ! quantity ( matt]4 #aj ,?us ! anci5ts knew h[ to conv]t ! juice ( grapes conta9+ ! sac*>9e pr9ciple 7glucose7 into w9e or v9eg>1 h[ to extract metals f ! ores :i* are f\nd 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & h[ to prep>e glass f e>?y sub/ances4 ,lavoisi] f\nd1 by weigh+ all ! sub/ances1 & ev5 ! app>atus1 us$ 9 e exp]im5t1 & !n weigh+ ! sub/ances obta9$ aft] ! *emical *ange1 t ! sum ( ! weights ( ! sub/ances =m$ 0 always equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! sub/ances tak52 or1 9 o!r words3 ,,matt] ,,is ,,n ,,creat$ ,,& ,,does ,,n ,,disappe>1 or t1 matt] is ev]la/+4 ,?is expression naturally includes a hypo!sis1 b our only aim 9 us+ x is to concisely express ! foll[+ l5g?y p]iod--,t 9 all exp]im5ts1 & 9 all ! inve/igat$ ph5om5a ( nature1 x has nev] be5 obs]v$ t ! weight ( ! sub/ances =m$ 0 less or great] 7z f> z accuracy ( weigh+ p]mits#aa7 ?an ! weight ( ! sub/ances orig9ally tak51 & z weight is proportional to mass#aa bis or quantity ( matt]1 x foll[s t no "o has ev] succe$$ 9 obs]v+ a disappe>ance ( matt] or its appe>ance 9 fre% quantities4 ,! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt] end[s all *emical inve/igations ) exactitude1 z1 on its basis1 an equation may be =m$ = e *emical reaction4 ,if 9 any reaction ! weights ( ! sub/ances tak5 be designat$ by ! lett]s ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c41 & ! weights ( ! sub/ances =m$ by ! lett]s ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 c41 !n ,a ,b ,c 444 444 444 ,m ,n ,o 444 444 444 ,!re=e1 %\ld ! weight ( "o ( ! re-act+ or resultant sub/ances be unkn[n1 x may be det]m9$ by solv+ ! equation4 ,! *emi/1 9 apply+ ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]1 & 9 mak+ use ( ! *emical balance1 mu/ nev] lose sight ( any "o ( ! re-act+ or resultant sub/ances4 ,%\ld su* an ov]-sight be made1 x w at once be rem>k$ t ! sum ( ! weights ( ! sub/ances tak5 is unequal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! sub/ances =m$4 ,all ! progress made by *emi/ry dur+ ! end ( ! la/1 & 9 ! pres5t1 c5tury is entirely & immovably f\nd$ on ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]4 ,x is absolutely necess>y 9 beg9n+ ! /udy ( *emi/ry to become famili> ) ! simple tru? :i* is express$ by ?is law1 & = ?is purpose sev]al examples elucidat+ its application w n[ be cit$4 #aa ,! exp]im5ts conduct$ by ,/aas 7describ$ 9 detail 9 ,*ap4 ,,xxiv4 on ,silv]7 =m "s ( ! accurate rese>*es1 prov+ t ! weight ( matt] is n alt]$ 9 *emical reactions1 because he accurately weigh$ 7introduc+ all ! necess>y corrections7 ! react+ & resultant sub/ances4 ,l&olt 7#ahic7 c>ri$ on v>i\s reactions 9 inv]t$ & seal$ glass ,u-tubes1 & on weigh+ ! tubes be=e reaction 7:5 ! react+ solutions 7 sep>at$ 9 ea* ( ! bran*es ( ! tubes71 & aft] 7:5 ! solutions _h be5 well mix$ toge!r by %ak+71 f\nd t ei!r ! weight rema9$ p]fectly con/ant or t ! v>iation 0 s small 7= in/ance1 #jb milligram 9 a total weight ( ab\t a million milligrams7 z to be ascrib$ to ! inevitable errors ( weigh+4 #aa bis ,! idea ( ! mass ( matt] 0 fir/ %ap$ into an exact =m by ,galileo 7di$ #afdb71 & m especially by ,newton 7born #afdc1 di$ #agbg71 9 ! glori\s epo* ( ! developm5t ( ! pr9ciples ( inductive reason+ enunciat$ by ,bacon & ,desc>tes 9 _! philosophical treatises4 ,%ortly aft] ! dea? ( ,newton1 ,lavoisi]1 ^: fame 9 natural philosophy %\ld rank ) t ( ,galileo & ,newton1 0 born on ,augu/ #bf1 #agdc4 ,! dea? ( ,lavoisi] occurr$ dur+ ! ,reign ( ,t]ror ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 :5 he1 toge!r ) tw5ty-six o!r *ief f>m]s ( ! rev5ue1 0 guillot9$ on ,may #h1 #agid1 at ,p>is2 b 8 works & ideas h made him immortal4 #a4 ,x is well kn[n t iron ru/s 9 damp air1#ab & t :5 heat$ to r$ness 9 air x becomes coat$ ) scoria 7oxide71 hav+1 l ru/1 ! appe>ance ( an e>?y sub/ance resembl+ "s ( ! iron ores f :i* metallic iron is extract$4 ,if ! iron is weigh$ be=e & aft] ! =mation ( ! scoria or ru/1 x w be f\nd t ! metal has increas$ 9 weight dur+ ! op]ation4#ac ,x c easily be prov$ t ?is increase 9 weight is accompli%$ at ! exp5se ( ! atmosph]e1 & ma9ly1 z ,lavoisi] prov$1 at ! exp5se ( t portion :i* is call$ oxyg54 ,9 fact1 9 a vacuum1 or 9 gases :i* d n conta9 oxyg51 = in/ance1 9 hydrog5 or nitrog51 ! iron nei!r ru/s nor becomes coat$ ) scoria4 ,_h ! iron n be5 weigh$1 ! p>ticipation ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e 9 its trans=mation into an e>?y sub/ance might h easily pass$ unnotic$1 z 0 =m]ly ! case1 :5 ph5om5a l ! above 71 = ?is reason1 misund]/ood4 ,x is evid5t f ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt] t z ! iron increases 9 weight 9 its conv]sion into ru/1 ! latt] mu/ be a m complex sub/ance ?an ! iron itself1 & its =mation is due to a reaction ( comb9ation4 ,we might =m an entirely wrong op9ion ab\t x1 & might1 = in/ance1 consid] ru/ to be a simpl] sub/ance ?an iron1 & expla9 ! =mation ( ru/ z ! removal ( some?+ f ! iron4 ,su*1 inde$1 0 ! g5]al op9ion prior to ,lavoisi]1 :5 x 0 held t iron conta9$ a c]ta9 unkn[n sub/ance call$ 'phlogi/on1' & t ru/ 0 iron depriv$ ( ?is suppos$ sub/ance4 #ab ,by cov]+ iron ) an enamel1 or v>ni%1 or ) unru/able metals 7su* z nickel71 or a coat+ ( p>aff91 or o!r simil> sub/ances1 x is protect$ f ! air & moi/ure1 & s kept f ru/+4 #ac ,su* an exp]im5t may easily be made by tak+ ! f9e/ 7unru/$7 iron fil+s 7ord9>y fil+s mu/ be fir/ wa%$ 9 e!r1 dri$1 & pass$ ?r\gh a v f9e sieve74 ,! fil+s ?us obta9$ are capable ( burn+ directly 9 air 7by oxidis+ or =m+ ru/71 especially :5 !y hang 7are attract$7 on a magnet4 ,a compact piece ( iron does n burn 9 air1 b spongy iron gl[s & sm\ld]s l t9d]4 ,9 mak+ ! exp]im5t1 a horse-%oe magnet is fix$1 ) ! poles d[nw>ds1 on "o arm ( a r s5sitive balance1 & ! iron fil+s are appli$ to ! magnet 7on a %eet ( pap]7 s z to =m a be>d ab\t ! poles4 ,! balance pan %\ld be exactly "u ! fil+s on ! magnet1 9 ord] t any :i* might fall f x %\ld n alt] ! weight4 ,! fil+s1 hav+ be5 weigh$1 are set light to by apply+ ! flame ( a c&le2 !y easily take fire1 & g on burn+ by !mselves1 =m+ ru/4 ,:5 ! combu/ion is end$1 x w be cle> t ! iron has increas$ 9 weight2 f #e-a_/b p>ts by weight ( iron fil+s tak51 !re are obta9$1 by complete combu/ion1 #g-a_/b p>ts by weight ( ru/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,app>atus = ! decomposition ( r$ m]cury oxide4 #b4 ,copp] c>bonate 79 ! =m ( a p[d]1 or z ! well-kn[n gre5 m9]al call$ 'mala*ite1' :i* is us$ = mak+ ornam5ts1 or z an ore = ! extraction ( copp]7 *anges into a black sub/ance call$ 'copp] oxide' :5 heat$ to r$ness4#ad ,?is black sub/ance is also obta9$ by heat+ copp] to r$ness 9 air--t is1 x is ! scoria or oxidation product ( copp]4 ,! weight ( ! black oxide ( copp] left is less ?an t ( ! copp] c>bonate orig9ally tak51 & !re=e we consid] ! reaction :i* occurr$ to h be5 "o ( decomposition1 & t by x some?+ 0 sep>at$ f ! gre5 copp] c>bonate1 &1 9 fact1 by clos+ ! orifice ( ! vessel 9 :i* ! copp] c>bonate is heat$ ) a well-fitt+ cork1 ?r\gh :i* a gas deliv]y tube#ae passes ^: end is imm]s$ "u wat]1 x w be obs]v$ t on heat+1 a gas is =m$ :i* bubbles ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,?is gas c be easily collect$1 z w pres5tly be describ$1 & x w be f\nd to ess5tially diff] f air 9 _m respects2 = in/ance1 a burn+ tap] is ext+ui%$ 9 x z if x _h be5 plung$ into wat]4 ,if weigh+ _h n prov$ to u t "s sub/ance _h be5 sep>at$1 ! =mation ( ! gas might easily h escap$ our notice1 = x is col\rless & transp>5t l air1 & is !re=e evolv$ )\t any /rik+ feature4 ,! c>bonic anhydride evolv$ may be weigh$1#af & x w be se5 t ! sum ( ! weights ( ! black copp] oxide & c>bonic anhydride is equal to ! weight ( ! copp] c>bonate#ag orig9ally tak51 & ?us by c>efully foll[+ out ! v>i\s /ages ( all *emical reactions we arrive at a confirmation ( ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]4 #ad ,= ! purpose ( exp]im5t1 x is mo/ conv5i5t to take copp] c>bonate1 :i* may be prep>$ by ! exp]im5t] himself1 by add+ a solution ( sodium c>bonate to a solution ( copp] sulphate4 ,! precipitate 7deposit7 s =m$ is collect$ on a filt]1 wa%$1 & dri$4 ,! decomposition ( copp] c>bonate into copp] oxide is effect$ by s mod]ate a heat t x may be p]=m$ 9 a glass vessel heat$ by a lamp4 ,= ?is purpose a ?9 glass tube1 clos$ at "o end1 & call$ a 'te/ tube1' may be employ$1 or else a vessel call$ a 'retort4' ,! exp]im5t is c>ri$ on1 z describ$ 9 example ?ree on p4 #aa1 by collect+ ! c>bonic anhydride ov] wat]1 z w be aft]w>ds expla9$4 #ae ,gas deliv]y tubes are usually made ( glass tub+ ( v>i\s diamet]s & ?icknesses4 ,if ( small diamet] & ?ickness1 a glass tube is easily b5t by heat+ 9 a gas jet or ! flame ( a _s lamp1 & x may also be easily divid$ at a giv5 po9t by mak+ a deep scrat* ) a file & !n break+ ! tube at ?is po9t ) a %>p j]k4 ,^! prop]ties1 toge!r ) _! imp]meability1 transp>5cy1 h>dness1 & regul>ity ( bore1 r5d] glass tubes mo/ useful 9 exp]im5ts ) gases4 ,naturally !y might be replac$ by /raws1 india-rubb]1 metallic1 or o!r tubes1 b ^! are m difficult to fix on to a vessel1 & are n entirely imp]vi\s to gases4 ,a glass gas deliv]y tube may be h]metically fix$ into a vessel by fitt+ x into a p]=at$ cork1 :i* %\ld be s(t & free f flaws1 & fix+ ! cork into ! orifice ( ! vessel4 ,to protect ! cork f ! action ( gases x is sometimes previ\sly soak$ 9 p>aff91 or x may be replac$ by an india-rubb] cork4 #af ,gases1 l all o!r sub/ances1 may be weigh$1 b1 ow+ to _! extreme lightness & ! difficulty ( deal+ ) !m 9 l>ge masses1 !y c only be weigh$ by v s5sitive balances2 t is1 9 su* z1 ) a consid]able load1 indicate a v small diff]5ce 9 weight--= example1 a c5tigram or a milligram ) a load ( #a1jjj grams4 ,9 ord] to weigh a gas1 a glass globe furni%$ ) a tight-fitt+ /op-cock is fir/ ( all exhau/$ ( air by an air-pump 7a ,spr5gel pump is ! be/74 ,! /op-cock is !n clos$1 & ! exhau/$ globe weigh$4 ,if ! gas to be weigh$ is !n let into ! globe1 its weight c be det]m9$ f ! increase 9 ! weight ( ! globe4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 t ! temp]ature & pressure ( ! air ab\t ! balance %\ld rema9 con/ant = bo? weigh+s1 z ! weight ( ! globe 9 air w 7accord+ to ! laws ( hydro/atics7 v>y ) its d5sity4 ,! volume ( ! air displac$1 & its weight1 mu/ !re=e be det]m9$ by obs]v+ ! temp]ature1 d5sity1 & moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e dur+ ! "t ( exp]im5t4 ,?is w be p>tly expla9$ lat]1 b may be /udi$ m 9 detail by physics4 ,ow+ to ! complexity ( all ^! op]ations1 ! mass ( a gas is usually det]m9$ f its volume & d5sity1 or f ! weight ( a kn[n volume4 #ag ,! copp] c>bonate %\ld be dri$ be=e weigh+1 z o!rwise--besides copp] oxide & c>bonic anhydride--wat] w be obta9$ 9 ! decomposition4 ,wat] =ms a "p ( ! composition ( mala*ite1 & has !re=e to be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,! wat] produc$ 9 ! decomposition may be all collect$ by absorb+ x 9 sulphuric acid or calcium *loride1 z w be describ$ fur!r on4 ,9 ord] to dry a salt x mu/ be heat$ at ab\t #ajj until its weight rema9s con/ant1 or be plac$ "u an air pump ov] sulphuric acid1 z w also be pres5tly describ$4 ,z wat] is met ) almo/ ev]y:]e1 & z x is absorb$ by _m sub/ances1 ! possibility ( its pres5ce %\ld nev] be lo/ sight (4 #c4 ,r$ m]cury oxide 7:i* is =m$ z m]cury ru/ by heat+ m]cury 9 air7 is decompos$ l copp] c>bonate 7only by heat+ m sl[ly & at a some:at high] temp]ature71 ) ! =mation ( ! peculi> gas1 oxyg54 ,= ?is purpose ! m]cury oxide is plac$ 9 a glass tube or retort1#ah to :i* a gas deliv]y tube is atta*$ by means ( a cork4 ,?is tube is b5t d[nw>ds1 z %[n 9 ! draw+ 7,fig4 #a74 ,! op5 end ( ! gas deliv]y tube is imm]s$ 9 a vessel fill$ ) wat]1 call$ a pneumatic tr\gh4#ai ,:5 ! gas beg9s to be evolv$ 9 ! retort x is oblig$1 hav+ no o!r outlet1 to escape ?r\gh ! gas deliv]y tube into ! wat] 9 ! pneumatic tr\gh1 & !re=e its evolution w be r5d]$ visible by ! bubbles com+ f ?is tube4 ,9 heat+ ! retort conta9+ ! m]cury oxide1 ! air conta9$ 9 ! app>atus is fir/ p>tly expell$1 ow+ to its expansion by heat1 & !n ! peculi> gas call$ 'oxyg5' is evolv$1 & may be easily collect$ z x comes (f4 ,= ?is purpose a vessel 7an ord9>y cyl9d]1 z 9 ! draw+7 is fill$ q full ) wat] & its m\? clos$2 x is !n inv]t$ & plac$ 9 ?is position "u ! wat] 9 ! tr\gh2 ! m\? is !n op5$4 ,! cyl9d] w rema9 full ( wat]--t is1 ! wat] w rema9 at a high] level 9 x ?an 9 ! surr\nd+ vessel1 ow+ to ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! atmosph]e presses on ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! tr\gh1 & prev5ts ! wat] f fl[+ out ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! m\? ( ! cyl9d] is plac$ ov] ! end ( ! gas deliv]y tube1#bj & ! bubbles issu+ f x w rise into ! cyl9d] & displace ! wat] conta9$ 9 x4 ,gases are g5]ally collect$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,:5 a suffici5t quantity ( gas has accumulat$ 9 ! cyl9d] x c be cle>ly %[n t x is n air1 b ano!r gas :i* is di/+ui%$ by its capacity = vigor\sly support+ combu/ion4 ,9 ord] to %[ ?is1 ! cyl9d] is clos$1 "u wat]1 & remov$ f ! ba?2 its m\? is !n turn$ upw>ds1 & a sm\ld]+ tap] plung$ into x4 ,z is well kn[n1 a sm\ld]+ tap] w be ext+ui%$ 9 air1 b 9 ! gas :i* is giv5 (f f r$ m]cury oxide x burns cle>ly & vigor\sly1 %[+ ! prop]ty possess$ by ?is gas = support+ combu/ion m en]getically ?an air1 & ?us enabl+ x to be di/+ui%$ f ! latt]4 ,x may be obs]v$ 9 ?is exp]im5t t1 besides ! =mation ( oxyg51 metallic m]cury is =m$1 :i*1 volatilis+ at ! high temp]ature requir$ = ! reaction1 cond5ses on ! cool] p>ts ( ! retort z a mirror or 9 globules4 ,?us two sub/ances1 m]cury & oxyg51 are obta9$ by heat+ r$ m]cury oxide4 ,9 ?is reaction1 f "o sub/ance1 two new sub/ances are produc$--t is1 a decomposition has tak5 place4 ,! means ( collect+ & inve/igat+ gases 7 kn[n be=e ,lavoisi]'s "t1 b he fir/ %[$ ! real "p !y play$ 9 ! processes ( _m *emical *anges :i* be=e 8 era 7 ei!r wrongly und]/ood 7z w be aft]w>ds expla9$7 or 7 n expla9$ at all1 b only obs]v$ 9 _! sup]ficial aspects4 ,?is exp]im5t on r$ m]cury oxide has a special significance 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry contempor>y ) ,lavoisi]1 because ! oxyg5 gas :i* is "h evolv$ is conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 & plays a mo/ important "p 9 nature1 especially 9 ! respiration ( animals1 9 combu/ion 9 air1 & 9 ! =mation ( ru/s or scori 7e>?s1 z !y 7 !n call$7 f metals--t is1 ( e>?y sub/ances1 l ! ores f :i* metals are extract$4 #ah ,z ! decomposition ( r$ oxide ( m]cury requires s high a temp]ature1 ne> r$ness1 z to s(t5 ord9>y glass1 x is necess>y = ?is exp]im5t to take a retort 7or te/ tube7 made ( h>d glass1 :i* is able to /& high temp]atures )\t s(t5+4 ,= ! same reason1 ! lamp us$ mu/ give a /rong heat & a l>ge flame1 capable ( embrac+ ! :ole bottom ( ! retort1 :i* %\ld be z small z possible = ! conv5i5ce ( ! exp]im5t4 #ai ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,app>atus = di/ill+ "u a dim9i%$ pressure liquids :i* decompose at _! boil+ po9ts "u ! ord9>y pressure4 ,! app>atus 9 :i* ! liquid is di/ill$ is connect$ ) a l>ge globe f :i* ! air is pump$ out2 ! liquid is heat$1 & ! receiv] cool$4 ,! pneumatic tr\gh may naturally be made ( any mat]ial 7*9a1 e>!nw>e1 or metal1 c471 b usually a glass "o1 z %[n 9 ! draw+1 is us$1 z x all[s ! progress ( ! exp]im5t to be bett] obs]v$4 ,= ?is reason1 z well z ! ease ) :i* !y are kept clean1 & f ! fact also t glass is n act$ on by _m sub/ances :i* affect o!r mat]ials 7= in/ance1 metals71 glass vessels ( all k9ds--su* z retorts1 te/ tubes1 cyl9d]s1 beak]s1 flasks1 globes1 c4--are pref]r$ to any o!r = *emical exp]im5ts4 ,glass vessels may be heat$ )\t any dang] if ! foll[+ precautions be obs]v$3 #a/1 !y %\ld be made ( ?9 glass1 z o!rwise !y are liable to crack f ! bad heat-conduct+ p[] ( glass2 #bnd1 !y %\ld be surr\nd$ by a liquid or ) s& 7,fig4 #b71 or s& ba? z x is call$2 or else %\ld /& 9 a curr5t ( hot gases )\t t\*+ ! fuel f :i* !y proce$1 or 9 ! flame ( a smokeless lamp4 ,a common c&le or lamp =ms a deposit ( soot on a cold object plac$ 9 _! flames4 ,! soot int]f]es ) ! transmission ( heat1 & s a glass vessel :5 cov]$ ) soot (t5 cracks4 ,& = ?is reason _s lamps1 :i* burn ) a smokeless flame1 or gas burn]s ( a peculi> con/ruction1 are us$4 ,9 ! ,buns5 burn] ! gas is mix$ ) air1 & burns ) a non-lum9\s & smokeless flame4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if an ord9>y lamp 7petroleum or b5z9e7 does n smoke x may be us$ = heat+ a glass vessel )\t dang]1 provid$ ! glass is plac$ well above ! flame 9 ! curr5t ( hot gases4 ,9 all cases1 ! heat+ %\ld be begun v c>efully by rais+ ! temp]ature by degrees4 #bj ,9 ord] to avoid ! necessity ( hold+ ! cyl9d]1 its op5 end is wid5$ 7& also gr\nd s t x may be closely cov]$ ) a gr\nd-glass plate :5 necess>y71 & plac$ on a /& bel[ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! ba?4 ,?is /& is call$ '! bridge4' ,x has sev]al circul> op5+s cut ?r\gh x1 & ! gas deliv]y tube is plac$ "u "o ( ^!1 & ! cyl9d] = collect+ ! gas ov] x4 #d4 ,9 ord] to illu/rate by exp]im5t "o m example ( *emical *ange & ! application ( ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]1 we w consid] ! reaction betwe5 common table salt & lun> cau/ic1 :i* is well kn[n f its use 9 caut]is+ w\nds4 ,by tak+ a cle> solution ( ea* & mix+ !m toge!r1 x w at once be obs]v$ t a solid :ite sub/ance is =m$1 :i* settles to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,?is sub/ance may be sep>at$ f ! solution by filt]+2 x is !n f\nd to be an entirely diff]5t sub/ance f ei!r ( ^? tak5 orig9ally 9 ! solutions4 ,?is is at once evid5t f ! fact t x does n dissolve 9 wat]4 ,on evaporat+ ! liquid :i* pass$ ?r\gh ! filt]1 x w be f\nd to conta9 a new sub/ance unlike ei!r table salt or lun> cau/ic1 b1 l !m1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,?us table salt & lun> cau/ic1 two sub/ances soluble 9 wat]1 produc$1 by _! mutual *emical action1 two new sub/ances1 "o insoluble 9 wat]1 & ! o!r rema9+ 9 solution4 ,"h1 f two sub/ances1 two o!rs are obta9$1 consequ5tly !re occurr$ a reaction ( sub/itution4 ,! wat] s]v$ only to conv]t ! re-act+ sub/ances into a liquid & mobile /ate4 ,if ! lun> cau/ic & salt be dri$#ba & weigh$1 & if ab\t #eh-a_/b grams#bb ( salt & #agj grams ( lun> cau/ic be tak51 !n #adc-a_/b grams ( insoluble silv] *loride & #he grams ( sodium nitrate w be obta9$4 ,! sum ( ! weights ( ! re-act+ & resultant sub/ances are se5 to be simil> & equal to #bbh-a_/b grams1 :i* necess>ily foll[s f ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]4 #ba ,dry+ is necess>y 9 ord] to remove any wat] :i* may be held 9 ! salts 7see ,note #ag1 & ,*apt] ,i41 ,notes #ac & #ad74 #bb ,! exact weights ( ! re-act+ & result+ sub/ances are det]m9$ ) ! greate/ difficulty1 n only f ! possible inexactitude ( ! balance 7e weigh+ is only correct )9 ! limits ( ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! balance7 & weights us$ 9 weigh+1 n only f ! difficulty 9 mak+ corrections = ! weight ( air displac$ by ! vessels hold+ ! sub/ances weigh$ & by ! weights !mselves1 b also f ! hygroscopic nature ( _m sub/ances 7& vessels7 caus+ absorption ( moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 & f ! difficulty 9 n los+ any ( ! sub/ance to be weigh$ 9 ! sev]al op]ations 7filt]+1 evaporat+1 & dry+1 c47 :i* h to be p]=m$ be=e arriv+ at a f9al result4 ,all ^! circum/ances h to be tak5 into consid]ation 9 exact rese>*es1 & _! elim9ation requires v _m special precautions :i* are impracticable 9 prelim9>y exp]im5ts4 ,accept+ ! tru? ( ! above law1 ! "q naturally arises z to :e!r !re is any limit to ! v>i\s *emical trans=mations1 or are !y unre/rict$ 9 numb]--t is to say1 is x possible f a giv5 sub/ance to obta9 an equival5t quantity ( any o!r sub/ance8 ,9 o!r words1 does !re exi/ a p]petual & inf9ite *ange ( "o k9d ( mat]ial into e o!r k9d1 or is ! cycle ( ^! trans=mations limit$8 ,?is is ! second ess5tial problem ( ,*emi/ry1 a "q ( quality ( matt]1 & "o1 x is evid5t1 :i* is m complicat$ ?an ! "q ( quantity4 ,x _c be solv$ by a m]e sup]ficial glance at ! subject4 ,inde$1 on see+ h[ all ! v>i$ =ms & col\rs ( plants are built up f air & ! elem5ts ( ! soil1 & h[ metallic iron c be trans=m$ into col\rs su* z inks & ,prussian blue1 we might be l$ to ?9k t !re is no end to ! qualitative *anges to :i* matt] is susceptible4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! exp]i5ces ( ev]yday life compel u to ackn[l$ge t food _c be made out ( a /one1 or gold out ( copp]4 ,?us a def9ite answ] c only be look$ = 9 a close & dilig5t /udy ( ! subject1 & ! problem has be5 resolv$ 9 diff]5t way at diff]5t times4 ,9 anci5t times ! op9ion mo/ g5]ally held 0 t ev]y?+ visible 0 compos$ ( f\r elem5ts--,air1 ,wat]1 ,e>?1 & ,fire4 ,! orig9 ( ?is doctr9e c be trac$ f> back into ! conf9es ( ,asia1 :5ce x 0 h&$ d[n to ! ,greeks1 & mo/ fully exp\nd$ by ,emp$ocles1 :o liv$ be=e #dfj ,b4,c4 ,?is doctr9e 0 n ! result ( exact rese>*1 b app>5tly owes its orig9 to ! cle> division ( bodies into gases 7l air71 liquids 7l wat]71 & solids 7l ! e>?74 ,! ,arabs appe> to h be5 ! fir/ :o attempt$ to solve ! "q by exp]im5tal me?ods1 & !y introduc$1 ?r\gh ,spa91 ! ta/e = ! /udy ( simil> problems into ,europe1 :]e f t "t !re appe> _m adepts 9 *emi/ry1 :i* 0 consid]$ z an unholy art1 & call$ 'al*emy4' ,z ! al*emi/s 7 ignorant ( any exact law :i* c\ld guide !m 9 _! rese>*es1 !y obta9$ mo/ anomal\s results4 ,_! *ief s]vice to *emi/ry 0 t !y made a numb] ( exp]im5ts1 & discov]$ _m new *emical trans=mations2 b x is well kn[n h[ !y solv$ ! fundam5tal problem ( *emi/ry4 ,_! view may be tak5 z a positive ackn[l$gm5t ( ! inf9ite transmutability ( matt]1 = !y aim$ at discov]+ ! ,philosoph]'s ,/one1 capable ( conv]t+ ev]y?+ into gold & diamonds1 & ( mak+ ! old "y aga94 ,?is solution ( ! "q 0 aft]w>ds completely ov]?r[n1 b x mu/ n1 = ?is reason1 be ?\ght t ! hopes held by ! al*emi/s 7 only ! fruit ( _! imag9ations4 ,! fir/ *emical exp]im5ts might well lead !m to _! conclusions4 ,!y took1 = in/ance1 ! bright metallic m9]al gal5a1 & extract$ metallic lead f x4 ,?us !y saw t f a metallic sub/ance :i* is unfitt$ = use !y c\ld obta9 ano!r metallic sub/ance :i* is ductile & valuable = _m te*nical purposes4 ,fur!rmore1 !y took ?is lead & obta9$ silv]1 a /ill m valuable metal1 f x4 ,?us !y might easily conclude t x 0 possible to ennoble metals by means ( a :ole s]ies ( transmutations--t is to say1 to obta9 f !m ^? :i* are m & m preci\s4 ,hav+ got silv] f lead1 !y assum$ t x w\ld be possible to obta9 gold f silv]4 ,! mi/ake !y made 0 t !y nev] weigh$ or measur$ ! sub/ances us$ or produc$ 9 _! exp]im5ts4 ,_h !y done s1 !y w\ld h le>nt t ! weight ( ! lead 0 mu* less ?an t ( ! gal5a f :i* x 0 obta9$1 & ! weight ( ! silv] inf9itesimal comp>$ ) t ( ! lead4 ,_h !y look$ m closely into ! process ( ! extraction ( ! silv] f lead 7& silv] at ! pres5t "t is *iefly obta9$ f ! lead ores7 !y w\ld h se5 t ! lead does n *ange into silv]1 b t x only conta9s a c]ta9 small quantity ( x1 & ?is am\nt hav+ once be5 sep>at$ f ! lead x _c by any fur!r op]ation give m4 ,! silv] :i* ! al*emi/s extract$ f ! lead 0 9 ! lead1 & 0 n obta9$ by a *emical *ange ( ! lead itself4 ,?is is n[ well kn[n f exp]im5t1 b ! fir/ view ( ! nature ( ! process 0 v likely to be an errone\s "o4#bc ,! me?ods ( rese>* adopt$ by ! al*emi/s c\ld give b little success1 = !y did n set !mselves cle> & simple que/ions ^: answ]s w\ld aid !m to make fur!r progress4 ,?us ?\gh !y did n arrive at any exact law1 !y left nev]!less num]\s & useful exp]im5tal data z an inh]itance to *emi/ry2 !y inve/igat$1 9 p>ticul>1 ! trans=mations prop] to metals1 & = ?is reason *emi/ry 0 = long aft]w>ds entirely conf9$ to ! /udy ( metallic sub/ances4 #bc ,besides :i*1 9 ! majority ( cases1 ! fir/ explanation ( mo/ subjects :i* d n repeat !mselves 9 ev]yday exp]i5ce "u v>i\s aspects1 b always 9 "o =m1 or only at int]vals & infrequ5tly1 is usually wrong4 ,?us ! daily evid5ce ( ! ris+ ( ! sun & />s evokes ! errone\s idea t ! heav5s move & ! e>? /&s /ill4 ,?is app>5t tru? is f> f be+ ! real tru?1 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 is contradictory to x4 ,simil>ly1 an ord9>y m9d & ev]yday exp]i5ce concludes t iron is incombu/ible1 :]eas x burns n only z fil+s1 b ev5 z wire1 z we %all aft]w>ds see4 ,) ! progress ( k v _m primitive prejudices h be5 oblig$ to give way to true ideas :i* h be5 v]ifi$ by exp]im5t4 ,9 ord9>y life we (t5 reason at fir/ sight ) p]fect tru?1 only because we are taught a "r judgm5t by our daily exp]i5ce4 ,x is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! nature ( our m9ds to rea* ! atta9m5t ( tru? ?r\gh elem5t>y & (t5 errone\s reason+ & ?r\gh exp]im5t1 & x w\ld be v wrong to expect a k ( tru? f a simple m5tal ef=t4 ,naturally1 exp]im5t itself _c give tru?1 b x gives ! means ( de/roy+ errone\s repres5tations :il/ confirm+ ^? :i* are true 9 all _! consequ5ces4 ,9 _! rese>*es1 ! al*emi/s frequ5tly made use ( two *emical processes :i* are n[ t]m$ 'r$uction' & 'oxidation4' ,! ru/+ ( metals1 & 9 g5]al _! conv]sion f a metallic into an e>?y =m1 is call$ 'oxidation1' :il/ ! extraction ( a metal f an e>?y sub/ance is call$ 'r$uction4' ,_m metals--= in/ance1 iron1 lead1 & t9--are oxidis$ by heat+ 9 air alone1 & may be aga9 r$uc$ by heat+ ) c>bon4 ,su* oxidis$ metals are f\nd 9 ! e>?1 & =m ! majority ( metallic ores4 ,! metals1 su* z t91 iron1 & copp]1 may be extract$ f ^! ores by heat+ !m toge!r ) c>bon4 ,all ^! processes 7 well /udi$ by ! al*emi/s4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds %[n t all e>?s & m9]als are =m$ ( simil> metallic ru/s or oxides1 or ( _! comb9ations4 ,?us ! al*emi/s knew ( two =ms ( *emical *anges3 ! oxidation ( metals & ! r$uction ( ! oxides s =m$ into metals4 ,! explanation ( ! nature ( ^! two classes ( *emical ph5om5a 0 ! means = ! discov]y ( ! mo/ important *emical laws4 ,! fir/ hypo!sis on _! nature is due to ,beck]1 & m p>ticul>ly to ,/ahl1 a surgeon to ! ,k+ ( ,prussia4 ,/ahl writes 9 8 ',fundam5ta ,*ymi1' #agbc1 t all sub/ances consi/ ( an impond]able fi]y sub/ance call$ 'phlogi/on' 7mat]ia aut pr9cipium ignis non ipse ignis71 & ( ano!r elem5t hav+ p>ticul> prop]ties = ea* sub/ance4 ,! great] ! capacity ( a body = oxidation1 or ! m combu/ible x is1 ! ri*] x is 9 phlogi/on4 ,c>bon conta9s x 9 great abundance4 ,9 oxidation or combu/ion phlogi/on is emitt$1 & 9 r$uction x is consum$ or ent]s into comb9ation4 ,c>bon r$uces e>?y sub/ances because x is ri* 9 phlogi/on1 & gives up a portion ( its phlogi/on to ! sub/ance r$uc$4 ,?us ,/ahl suppos$ metals to be comp\nd sub/ances consi/+ ( phlogi/on & an e>?y sub/ance or oxide4 ,?is hypo!sis is di/+ui%$ = its v great simplicity1 & = ?is & o!r reasons x acquir$ _m support]s4#bd #bd ,x is true t ,/ahl 0 acqua9t$ ) a fact :i* directly disprov$ 8 hypo!sis4 ,x 0 already kn[n 7f ! exp]im5ts ( ,geb]1 & m especially ( ,ray1 9 #afcj7 t metals increase 9 weight by oxidation1 :il/1 accord+ to ,/ahl's hypo!sis1 !y %\ld decrease 9 weight1 because phlogi/on is sep>at$ by oxidation4 ,/ahl speaks on ?is po9t z foll[s3--',i am well aw>e t metals1 9 _! trans=mation into e>?s1 increase 9 weight4 ,b n only does ?is fact n disprove my !ory1 b1 on ! contr>y1 confirms x1 = phlogi/on is light] ?an air1 &1 9 comb9+ ) sub/ances1 /rives to lift !m1 & s decreases _! weight2 consequ5tly1 a sub/ance :i* has lo/ phlogi/on mu/ be heavi]4' ,?is argum5t1 x w be se51 is f\nd$ on a misconception ( ! prop]ties ( gases1 reg>d+ !m z hav+ no weight & z n be+ attract$ by ! e>?1 or else on a confus$ idea ( phlogi/on itself1 s9ce x 0 fir/ def9$ z impond]able4 ,! conception ( impond]able phlogi/on tallies well ) ! habit & me?ods ( ! la/ c5tury1 :5 rec\rse 0 (t5 _h to impond]able fluids = expla9+ a l>ge numb] ( ph5om5a4 ,heat1 light1 magnetism1 & electricity 7 expla9$ z be+ peculi> impond]able fluids4 ,9 ?is s5se ! doctr9e ( ,/ahl corresponds entirely ) ! _s ( 8 age4 ,if heat be n[ reg>d$ z motion or en]gy1 !n phlogi/on also %\ld be consid]$ 9 ?is light4 ,9 fact1 9 combu/ion1 ( coals = in/ance1 heat & en]gy are evolv$1 & n comb9$ 9 ! coal1 al?\gh ! oxyg5 & coal d comb9e4 ,consequ5tly1 ! doctr9e ( ,/ahl conta9s ! ess5ce ( a true repres5tation ( ! evolution ( en]gy1 b naturally ?is evolution is only a consequ5ce ( ! comb9ation occurr+ betwe5 ! coal & oxyg54 ,z reg>ds ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry prior to ,lavoisi]1 besides ,/ahl's "w 7to :i* ref]5ce has be5 made above71 ,prie/ley's ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations on ,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,air1 ,london1 #agij1 & also ,s*eele's ,opuscula ,*imica et ,physica1 ,lips41 #aghh-hi1 #b vols41 mu/ be recomm5d$ z ! two lead+ works ( ! ,engli% & ,sc&9avian *emi/s %[+ ! condition ( *emical le>n+ be=e ! propagation ( ,lavoisi]'s views1 & conta9+ also _m important obs]vations :i* lie at ! basis ( ! *emi/ry ( our times4 ,a mo/ int]e/+ memoir on ! hi/ory ( phlogi/on is t ( ,rodwell1 9 ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e1 #ahfh1 9 :i* x is %[n t ! idea ( phlogi/on dates v f> back1 t ,basil ,val5t9e 7#acid-adae71 9 ! ,cursus ,triumphalis ,antimonii1 ,p>acelsus 7#adic-aeda71 9 8 "w1 ,de ,r]um ,natura1 ,glaub] 7#afjd-affh71 & especially ,john ,joa*im ,be*] 7#afbe-afhb71 9 8 ,physica ,subt]ranea1 all ref]r$ to phlogi/on1 b "u diff]5t names4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,lavoisi]'s app>atus = det]m9+ ! composition ( air & ! reason ( metals increas+ 9 weight :5 !y are calc9$ 9 air4 ,lavoisi] prov$ by means ( ! balance t e case ( ru/+ ( metals or oxidation1 or ( combu/ion1 is accompani$ by an increase 9 weight at ! exp5se ( ! atmosph]e4 ,he =m$1 !re=e1 ! natural op9ion t ! heavi] sub/ance is m complex ?an ! light] "o4#be ,lavoisi]'s celebrat$ exp]im5t1 made 9 #aggd1 gave indubitable support to 8 op9ion1 :i* 9 _m respects 0 contradictory to ,/ahl's doctr9e4 ,lavoisi] p\r$ f\r ounces ( pure m]cury into a glass retort 7fig4 #c71 ^: neck 0 b5t z %[n 9 ! draw+ & dipp$ into ! vessel ,r ,s1 also full ( m]cury4 ,! project+ end ( ! neck 0 cov]$ ) a glass bell-j> ,p4 ,! weight ( all ! m]cury tak51 & ! volume ( air rema9+ 9 ! app>atus1 namely1 t 9 ! upp] portion ( ! retort1 & "u ! bell-j>1 7 det]m9$ be=e beg9n+ ! exp]im5t4 ,x 0 mo/ important 9 ?is exp]im5t to "k ! volume ( air 9 ord] to le>n :at "p x play$ 9 ! oxidation ( ! m]cury1 because1 accord+ to ,/ahl1 phlogi/on is emitt$ into ! air1 :il/1 accord+ to ,lavoisi]1 ! m]cury 9 oxidis+ absorbs a portion ( ! air2 & consequ5tly x 0 absolutely necess>y to det]m9e :e!r ! am\nt ( air increas$ or decreas$ 9 ! oxidation ( ! metal4 ,x 01 !re=e1 mo/ important to measure ! volume ( ! air 9 ! app>atus bo? be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t4 ,= ?is purpose x 0 necess>y to "k ! total capacity ( ! retort1 ! volume ( ! m]cury p\r$ into x1 ! volume ( ! bell-j> above ! level ( ! m]cury1 & also ! temp]ature & pressure ( ! air at ! "t ( its measurem5t4 ,! volume ( air conta9$ 9 ! app>atus & isolat$ f ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e c\ld be det]m9$ f ^! data4 ,hav+ arrang$ 8 app>atus 9 ?is mann]1 ,lavoisi] heat$ ! retort hold+ ! m]cury = a p]iod ( twelve days at a temp]ature ne> ! boil+ po9t ( m]cury4 ,! m]cury became cov]$ ) a quantity ( small r$ scales2 t is1 x 0 oxidis$ or conv]t$ into an e>?4 ,?is sub/ance is ! same m]cury oxide :i* has already be5 m5tion$ 7example #c74 ,aft] ! lapse ( twelve days ! app>atus 0 cool$1 & x 0 !n se5 t ! volume ( ! air 9 ! app>atus _h dim9i%$ dur+ ! "t ( ! exp]im5t4 ,?is result 0 9 exact contradiction to ,/ahl's hypo!sis4 ,out ( #ej cubic in*es ( air orig9ally tak51 !re only rema9$ #db4 ,lavoisi]'s exp]im5t l$ to o!r equally important results4 ,! weight ( ! air tak5 decreas$ by z mu* z ! weight ( ! m]cury increas$ 9 oxidis+2 t is1 ! portion ( ! air 0 n de/roy$1 b only comb9$ ) m]cury4 ,?is portion ( ! air may be aga9 sep>at$ f ! m]cury oxide & has1 z we saw 7example #c71 prop]ties diff]5t f ^? ( air4 ,x is call$ 'oxyg54' ,t portion ( ! air :i* rema9$ 9 ! app>atus & did n comb9e ) ! m]cury does n oxidise metals1 & _c support ei!r combu/ion or respiration1 s t a light$ tap] is imm$iately ext+ui%$ if x be dipp$ into ! gas :i* rema9s 9 ! bell-j>4 ',x is ext+ui%$ 9 ! residual gas z if x _h be5 plung$ into wat]1' writes ,lavoisi] 9 8 memoirs4 ,?is gas is call$ 'nitrog54' ,?us air is n a simple sub/ance1 b consi/s ( two gases1 oxyg5 & nitrog51 & !re=e ! op9ion t air is an elem5t>y sub/ance is errone\s4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! air is absorb$ 9 combu/ion & ! oxidation ( metals1 & ! e>?s produc$ by ! oxidation ( metals are sub/ances compos$ ( oxyg5 & a metal4 ,by mix+ ! oxyg5 ) ! nitrog5 ! same air z 0 orig9ally tak5 is re-=m$4 ,x has also be5 %[n by direct exp]im5t t on r$uc+ an oxide ) c>bon1 ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! oxide is transf]r$ to ! c>bon1 & gives ! same gas t is obta9$ by ! combu/ion ( c>bon 9 air4 ,!re=e ?is gas is a comp\nd ( c>bon & oxyg51 j z ! e>?y oxides are compos$ ( metals & oxyg54 #be ,an ,engli%man1 nam$ ,may[1 :o liv$ a :ole c5tury be=e ,lavoisi] 79 #afff71 und]/ood c]ta9 ph5om5a ( oxidation 9 _! true aspect1 b 0 n able to develop 8 views ) cle>ness1 or support !m by conclusive exp]im5ts2 he _c !re=e be consid]$1 l ,lavoisi]1 z ! f\nd] ( contempor>y *emical le>n+4 ,sci5ce is a univ]sal h]itage1 & !re=e x is only j to give ! highe/ hon\r 9 sci5ce1 n to ^? :o fir/ enunciate a c]ta9 tru?1 b to ^? :o are fir/ able to conv9ce o!rs ( its au!nticity & e/abli% x = ! g5]al welf>e4 ,b sci5tific discov]ies are r>ely made all at once2 z a rule1 ! fir/ tea*]s d n succe$ 9 conv9c+ o!rs ( ! tru? !y h discov]$2 ) "t1 h[ev]1 a true h]ald comes =w>d1 possess+ e means = mak+ ! tru? app>5t to all1 b x mu/ n be =gott5 t su* are entirely indebt$ to ! lab\rs & mass ( data accumulat$ by _m o!rs4 ,su* 0 ,lavoisi]1 & su* are all ! great f\nd]s ( sci5ce4 ,!y are ! enunciators ( all pa/ & pres5t le>n+1 & _! names w always be rev]$ by po/]ity4 ,! _m examples ( ! =mation & decomposition ( sub/ances :i* are met ) conv9ce u t ! majority ( sub/ances ) :i* we h to deal are comp\nds made up ( sev]al o!r sub/ances4 ,by heat+ *alk 7or else copp] c>bonate1 z 9 ! second example7 we obta9 lime & ! same c>bonic acid gas :i* is produc$ by ! combu/ion ( c>bon4 ,on br++ lime into contact ) ?is gas & wat]1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 we aga9 obta9 ! comp\nd1 c>bonate ( lime1 or *alk4 ,!re=e *alk is a comp\nd4 ,s also are ^? sub/ances f :i* x may be built up4 ,c>bonic anhydride is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( c>bon & oxyg52 & lime is produc$ by ! oxidation ( a c]ta9 metal call$ 'calcium4' ,by resolv+ sub/ances 9 ?is mann] into _! compon5t p>ts1 we arrive at la/ at su* z are indivisible into two or m sub/ances by any means :atev]1 & :i* _c be =m$ f o!r sub/ances4 ,all we c d is to make su* sub/ances comb9e toge!r to act on o!r sub/ances4 ,sub/ances :i* _c be =m$ f or decompos$ into o!rs are t]m$ simple sub/ances 7elem5ts74 ,?us all homog5e\s sub/ances may be classifi$ into simple & comp\nd sub/ances4 ,?is view 0 introduc$ & e/abli%$ z a sci5tific fact dur+ ! lifetime ( ,lavoisi]4 ,! numb] ( ^! elem5ts is v small 9 comp>ison ) ! numb] ( comp\nd sub/ances :i* are =m$ by !m4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 only sev5ty elem5ts are kn[n ) c]ta9ty to exi/4 ,"s ( !m are v r>ely met ) 9 nature1 or are f\nd 9 v small quantities1 :il/ ! exi/5ce ( o!rs is /ill d\btful4 ,! numb] ( elem5ts ) ^: comp\nds we commonly deal 9 ev]yday life is v small4 ,elem5ts _c be transmut$ into "o ano!r--at lea/ up to ! pres5t n a s+le case ( su* a trans=mation has be5 met )2 x may !re=e be said t1 z yet1 x is impossible to transmute "o metal into ano!r4 ,& z yet1 not)/&+ ! numb] ( attempts :i* h be5 made 9 ?is direction1 no fact has be5 discov]$ :i* c\ld 9 any way support ! idea ( ! complexity ( su* well-kn[n elem5ts#bf z oxyg51 iron1 sulphur1 c4 ,!re=e1 f its v conception1 an elem5t is n susceptible to reactions ( decomposition4#bg #bf ,_m ( ! anci5t philosoph]s assum$ ! exi/5ce ( "o elem5t>y =m ( matt]4 ,?is idea /ill appe>s 9 our times1 9 ! con/ant ef=ts :i* are made to r$uce ! numb] ( ! elem5ts2 to prove1 = in/ance1 t brom9e conta9s *lor9e or t *lor9e conta9s oxyg54 ,_m me?ods1 f\nd$ bo? on exp]im5t & !ory1 h be5 tri$ to prove ! comp\nd nature ( ! elem5ts4 ,all lab\r 9 ?is direction has z yet be5 9 va91 & ! assurance t elem5t>y matt] is n s homog5e\s 7s+le7 z ! m9d w\ld desire 9 its fir/ transport ( rapid g5]alisation is /r5g!n$ f ye> to ye>4 ,all our k %[s t iron & o!r elem5ts rema91 ev5 at su* a high temp]ature z !re exi/s 9 ! sun1 z diff]5t sub/ances1 & are n conv]t$ into "o common mat]ial4 ,admitt+1 ev5 m5tally1 ! possibility ( "o elem5t>y =m ( matt]1 a me?od mu/ be imag9$ by :i* x c\ld give rise to ! v>i\s elem5ts1 z also ! modus op]&i ( _! =mation f "o mat]ial4 ,if x be said t ?is div]situde only takes place at l[ temp]atures1 z is obs]v$ ) isom]ides1 !n !re w\ld be reason to expect1 if n ! transition ( ! v>i\s elem5ts into "o p>ticul> & m /able =m1 at lea/ ! mutual trans=mation ( "s into o!rs4 ,b no?+ ( ! k9d has z yet be5 obs]v$1 & ! al*emi/'s hope to manufacture 7z ,b]?ollet puts x7 elem5ts has no !oretical or practical f\ndation4 #bg ,! weake/ po9t 9 ! idea ( elem5ts is ! negative "* ( ! det]m9ative signs giv5 !m by ,lavoisi]1 & f t "t rul+ 9 *emi/ry4 ,!y d n decompose1 !y d n *ange into "o ano!r4 ,b x mu/ be rem>k$ t elem5ts =m ! limit+ horizon ( our k ( matt]1 & x is always difficult to det]m9e a positive side on ! bord]l& ( :at is kn[n4 ,besides1 !re is no d\bt 7f ! results ( spectrum analysis7 t ! elem5ts are di/ribut$ z f> z ! mo/ di/ant />s1 & t !y support ! highe/ atta9able temp]atures )\t decompos+4 ,! quantity1 !re=e1 ( ea* elem5t rema9s con/ant 9 all *emical *anges3 a fact :i* may be d$uc$ z a consequ5ce ( ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]1 & ( ! conception ( elem5ts !mselves4 ,?us ! equation express+ ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt] acquires a new & /ill m important signification4 ,if we "k ! quantities ( ! elem5ts :i* occur 9 ! re-act+ sub/ances1 & if f ^! sub/ances !re proce$1 by means ( *emical *anges1 a s]ies ( new comp\nd sub/ances1 !n ! latt] w toge!r conta9 ! same quantity ( ea* ( ! elem5ts z !re orig9ally exi/$ 9 ! re-act+ sub/ances4 ,! ess5ce ( *emical *ange is embrac$ 9 ! /udy ( h[1 & ) :at sub/ances1 ea* elem5t is comb9$ be=e & aft] *ange4 ,9 ord] to be able to express v>i\s *emical *anges by equations1 x has be5 agre$ to repres5t ea* elem5t by ! fir/ or "s two lett]s ( its 7,lat97 "n4 ,?us1 = example1 oxyg5 is repres5t$ by ! lett] ,o2 nitrog5 by ,n2 m]cury 7hydr>gyrum7 by ,hg2 iron 7f]rum7 by ,fe2 & s on = all ! elem5ts1 z is se5 9 ! tables on page #bd4 ,a comp\nd sub/ance is repres5t$ by plac+ ! symbols repres5t+ ! elem5ts ( :i* x is made up side by side4 ,= example1 r$ m]cury oxide is repres5t$ by ,hg,o1 :i* %[s t x is compos$ ( oxyg5 & m]cury4 ,besides ?is1 ! symbol ( e elem5t corresponds ) a c]ta9 relative quantity ( x by weight1 call$ its 'comb9+' weight1 or ! weight ( an atom2 s t ! *emical =mula ( a comp\nd sub/ance n only designates ! nature ( ! elem5ts ( :i* x is compos$1 b also _! quantitative proportion4 ,e *emical process may be express$ by an equation compos$ ( ! =mul correspond+ ) ^? sub/ances :i* take "p 9 x & are produc$ by x4 ,! am\nt by weight ( ! elem5ts 9 e *emical equation mu/ be equal on bo? sides ( ! equation1 s9ce no elem5t is ei!r =m$ or de/roy$ 9 a *emical *ange4 ,on pages #bd1 #be1 & #bf a li/ ( ! elem5ts1 ) _! symbols & comb9+ or atomic weights1 is giv51 & we %all see aft]w>ds on :at basis ! atomic weights ( elem5ts are det]m9$4 ,at pres5t we w only po9t out t a comp\nd conta9+ ! elem5ts ,a & ,b is designat$ by ! =mula ,an ,bm1 :]e m & n are ! coeffici5ts or multiples 9 :i* ! comb9+ weights ( ! elem5ts ent] into ! composition ( ! sub/ance4 ,if we repres5t ! comb9+ weight ( ! sub/ance ,a by a & t ( ! sub/ance ,b by b1 !n ! composition ( ! sub/ance ,an ,bm w be express$ ?us3 x conta9s na p>ts by weight ( ! sub/ance ,a & mb p>ts by weight ( ! sub/ance ,b1 & consequ5tly #ajj p>ts ( our comp\nd conta9 na #ajj_/na mb p]c5tage p>ts by weight ( ! sub/ance ,a & mb #ajj_/na mb ( ! sub/ance ,b4 ,x is evid5t t z a =mula %[s ! relative am\nts ( all ! elem5ts conta9$ 9 a comp\nd1 ! actual weights ( ! elem5ts conta9$ 9 a giv5 weight ( a comp\nd may be calculat$ f its =mula4 ,= example1 ! =mula ,na,cl ( table salt %[s 7z ,na #bc & ,cl #cee7 t #ehe lbs4 ( salt conta9 #bc lbs4 ( sodium & #cee lbs4 ( *lor9e1 & t #ajj p>ts ( x conta9 #cic p] c5t4 ( sodium & #fjg p] c5t4 ( *lor9e4 ,:at has be5 said above cle>ly limits ! prov9ce ( *emical *anges1 because f sub/ances ( a giv5 k9d !re c be obta9$ only su* z conta9 ! same elem5ts4 ,ev5 ) ?is limitation1 h[ev]1 ! numb] ( possible comb9ations is inf9itely great4 ,only a comp>atively small numb] ( comp\nds h yet be5 describ$ or subject$ to rese>*1 & any "o work+ 9 ?is direction may easily discov] new comp\nds :i* _h n be=e be5 obta9$4 ,x (t5 happ5s1 h[ev]1 t su* newly-discov]$ comp\nds 7 =ese5 by *emi/ry1 ^: object is ! appreh5sion ( t uni=mity :i* rules ov] ! multitude ( comp\nd sub/ances1 & ^: aim is ! compreh5sion ( ^? laws :i* gov]n _! =mation & prop]ties4 ,! conception ( elem5ts hav+ be5 e/abli%$1 ! next objects ( *emi/ry 73 ! det]m9ation ( ! prop]ties ( comp\nd sub/ances on ! basis ( ! det]m9ation ( ! quantity & k9d ( elem5ts ( :i* !y are compos$2 ! inve/igation ( ! elem5ts !mselves2 ! det]m9ation ( :at comp\nd sub/ances c be =m$ f ea* elem5t & ! prop]ties :i* ^! comp\nds %[2 & ! appreh5sion ( ! nature ( ! connection betwe5 ! elem5ts 9 diff]5t comp\nds4 ,an elem5t ?us s]ves z ! />t+ po9t1 & is tak5 z ! prim>y conception on :i* all o!r sub/ances are built up4 ,:5 we /ate t a c]ta9 elem5t ent]s into ! composition ( a giv5 comp\nd 7:5 we say1 = in/ance1 t m]cury oxide conta9s oxyg57 we d n mean t x conta9s oxyg5 z a gase\s sub/ance1 b only desire to express ^? trans=mations :i* m]cury oxide is capable ( mak+2 t is1 we wi% to say t x is possible to obta9 oxyg5 f m]cury oxide1 & t x c give up oxyg5 to v>i\s o!r sub/ances2 9 a ^w1 we desire only to express ^? trans=mations ( :i* m]cury oxide is capable4 ,or1 m concisely1 x may be said t ! composition ( a comp\nd is ! expression ( ^? trans=mations ( :i* x is capable4 ,x is useful 9 ?is s5se to make a cle> di/9ction betwe5 ! conception ( an elem5t z a sep>ate homog5e\s sub/ance1 & z a mat]ial b invisible "p ( a comp\nd4 ,m]cury oxide does n conta9 two simple bodies1 a gas & a metal1 b two elem5ts1 m]cury & oxyg51 :i*1 :5 free1 are a gas & a metal4 ,nei!r m]cury z a metal nor oxyg5 z a gas is conta9$ 9 m]cury oxide2 x only conta9s ! sub/ance ( ^! elem5ts1 j z /eam only conta9s ! sub/ance ( ice1 b n ice itself1 or z corn conta9s ! sub/ance ( ! se$1 b n ! se$ itself4 ,! exi/5ce ( an elem5t may be recognis$ )\t kn[+ x 9 ! uncomb9$ /ate1 b only f an inve/igation ( its comb9ations1 & f ! k t x gives1 "u all possible conditions1 sub/ances :i* are unlike o!r kn[n comb9ations ( sub/ances4 ,fluor9e is an example ( ?is k9d4 ,x 0 = a long "t unkn[n 9 a free /ate1 & nev]!less 0 recognis$ z an elem5t because its comb9ations ) o!r elem5ts 7 kn[n1 & _! diff]5ce f all o!r simil> comp\nd sub/ances 0 det]m9$4 ,9 ord] to grasp ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! conception ( ! visible =m ( an elem5t z we "k x 9 ! free /ate1 & ( ! intr9sic elem5t 7or 'radicle1' z ,lavoisi] call$ x7 conta9$ 9 ! visible =m1 x %\ld be rem>k$ t comp\nd sub/ances also comb9e toge!r =m+ yet m complex comp\nds1 & t !y evolve heat 9 ! process ( comb9ation4 ,! orig9al comp\nd may (t5 be extract$ f ^! new comp\nds by exactly ! same me?ods z elem5ts are extract$ f _! correspond+ comb9ations4 ,besides1 _m elem5ts exi/ "u v>i\s visible =ms :il/ ! intr9sic elem5t conta9$ 9 ^! v>i\s =ms is some?+ :i* is n subject to *ange4 ,?us c>bon appe>s z *>coal1 graphite1 & diamond1 b yet ! elem5t c>bon alone1 conta9$ 9 ea*1 is "o & ! same4 ,c>bonic anhydride conta9s c>bon1 & n *>coal1 or graphite1 or ! diamond4 ,elem5ts alone1 al?\gh n all ( !m1 h ! peculi> lu/re1 opacity1 malleability1 & ! great heat & electrical conductivity :i* are prop] to metals & _! mutual comb9ations4 ,b elem5ts are f> f all be+ metals4 ,^? :i* d n possess ! physical prop]ties ( metals are call$ non-metals 7or metalloids74 ,x is1 h[ev]1 impossible to draw a /rict l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 metals & non-metals1 !re be+ _m int]m$i>y sub/ances4 ,?us graphite1 f :i* p5cils are manufactur$1 is an elem5t ) ! lu/re & o!r prop]ties ( a metal2 b *>coal & ! diamond1 :i* are compos$ ( ! same sub/ance z graphite1 d n %[ any metallic prop]ties4 ,bo? classes ( elem5ts are cle>ly di/+ui%$ 9 def9ite examples1 b 9 p>ticul> cases ! di/9ction is n cle> & _c s]ve z a basis = ! exact division ( ! elem5ts into two gr\ps4 ,! conception ( elem5ts =ms ! basis ( *emical k1 & 9 giv+ a li/ ( !m at ! v beg9n+ ( our "w1 we wi% to tabulate our pres5t k on ! subject4 ,altoge!r ab\t sev5ty elem5ts are n[ au!ntically kn[n1 b _m ( !m are s r>ely met ) 9 nature1 & h be5 obta9$ 9 su* small quantities1 t we possess b a v insuffici5t k ( !m4 ,! sub/ances mo/ widely di/ribut$ 9 nature conta9 a v small numb] ( elem5ts4 ,^! elem5ts h be5 m completely /udi$ ?an ! o!rs1 because a great] numb] ( inve/igators h be5 able to c>ry on exp]im5ts & obs]vations on !m4 ,! elem5ts mo/ widely di/ribut$ 9 nature are3-- ,hydrog51 ,h #a4 ,9 wat]1 & 9 animal & vegetable organisms4 ,c>bon1 ,c #ab4 ,9 organisms1 coal1 lime/ones4 ,nitrog51 ,n #ad4 ,9 air & 9 organisms4 ,oxyg51 ,o #af4 ,9 air1 wat]1 e>?4 ,x =ms ! great] "p ( ! mass ( ! e>?4 ,sodium1 ,na #bc4 ,9 common salt & 9 _m m9]als4 ,magnesium1 ,mg #bd4 ,9 sea-wat] & 9 _m m9]als4 ,alum9ium1 ,al #bg4 ,9 m9]als & clay4 ,silicon1 ,si #bh4 ,9 s&1 m9]als1 & clay4 ,phosphorus1 ,p #ca4 ,9 bones1 a%es ( plants1 & soil4 ,sulphur1 ,s #cb4 ,9 pyrites1 gypsum1 & 9 sea-wat]4 ,*lor9e1 ,cl #cee4 ,9 common salt1 & 9 ! salts ( sea-wat]4 ,potassium1 ,k #ci4 ,9 m9]als1 a%es ( plants1 & 9 nitre4 ,calcium1 ,ca #dj4 ,9 lime/ones1 gypsum1 & 9 organisms4 ,iron1 ,fe #ef4 ,9 ! e>?1 iron ores1 & 9 organisms4 ,besides ^!1 ! foll[+ elem5ts1 al?\gh n v l>gely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 are all m or less well kn[n f _! applications to ! requirem5ts ( ev]yday life or ! arts1 ei!r 9 a free /ate or 9 _! comp\nds3-- ,li?ium1 ,li #g4 ,9 m$ic9e 7,li#b;,,co#c71 & 9 photography 7,li,br74 ,boron1 ,b #aa4 ,z borax1 ,b#d,na#b,o#g1 & z boric anhydride1 ,b#b,o#c4 ,fluor9e1 ,f #ai4 ,z fluor sp>1 ,ca,f#b1 & z hydr(luoric acid1 ,,hf4 ,*romium1 ,cr #eb4 ,z *romic anhydride1 ,cr,o#c1 & potassium di*romate1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g4 ,manganese1 ,mn #ee4 ,z manganese p]oxide1 ,mn,o#b1 & potassium p]manganate1 ,mn,k,o#d4 ,cobalt1 ,co #eie ,9 smalt & blue glass4 ,nickel1 ,ni #eie ,= electro-plat+ o!r metals4 ,copp]1 ,cu #fc4 ,! well-kn[n r$ metal4 ,z9c1 ,zn #fe4 ,us$ = ! plates ( batt]ies1 ro(+1 c4 ,ars5ic1 ,z #ge4 ,:ite ars5ic 7poison71 ,z#b,o#c4 ,brom9e1 ,br #hj4 ,a br[n volatile liquid2 sodium bromide1 ,na,br4 ,/rontium1 ,sr #hg4 ,9 col\r$ fires 7,sr,n#b,o#f74 ,silv]1 ,ag #aji4 ,! well-kn[n :ite metal4 ,cadmium1 ,cd #aab4 ,9 alloys4 ,yell[ pa9t 7,cd,s74 ,t91 ,sn #aai4 ,! well-kn[n metal4 ,antimony1 ,sb #abj4 ,9 alloys su* z type metal4 ,iod9e1 ,i #abg4 ,9 m$ic9e & photography2 free1 & z ,,ki4 ,b>ium1 ,ba #acg4 ,p]man5t :ite1 & z an adult]ant 9 :ite lead1 & 9 heavy sp>1 ,ba,s,o#d4 ,plat9um1 ,pt #aif4 ,gold1 ,au #aig4 ,m]cury1 ,hg #bjj4 ,well-kn[n metals4 ,lead1 ,pb #bjg4 ,bismu?1 ,bi #bji4 ,9 m$ic9e & fusible alloys4 ,uranium1 ,u #bci4 ,9 gre5 fluoresc5t glass4 ,! comp\nds ( ! foll[+ metals & semi-metals h few] applications1 b are well kn[n1 & are some:at frequ5tly met ) 9 nature1 al?\gh 9 small quantities3-- ,b]yllium1 ,be #i4 ,palladium1 ,pd #ajg4 ,titanium1 ,ti #dh4 ,c]ium1 ,ce #adj4 ,vanadium1 ,v #ea4 ,tung/51 ,w #ahd4 ,sel5ium1 ,se #gi4 ,osmium1 ,os #aib4 ,zirconium1 ,zr #ia4 ,iridium1 ,ir #aic4 ,molybd5um1 ,mo #if4 ,?allium1 ,tl #bjd4 ,! foll[+ r>e metals are /ill m seldom met ) 9 nature1 b h be5 /udi$ some:at fully3-- ,sc&ium1 ,sc #dd4 ,g]manium1 ,ge #gb4 ,gallium1 ,ga #gj4 ,rubidium1 ,rb #hf4 ,yttrium1 ,y #hi4 ,csium1 ,cs #acc4 ,niobium1 ,nb #id4 ,lan?anum1 ,la #ach4 ,ru!nium1 ,ru #ajb4 ,didymium1 ,di #adb4 ,rhodium1 ,rh #ajc4 ,ytt]bium1 ,yb #agc4 ,indium1 ,9 #aad4 ,tantalum1 ,ta #ahc4 ,tellurium1 ,te #abe4 ,?orium1 ,? #bcb4 ,besides ^! #ff elem5ts !re h be5 discov]$3--,erbium1 ,t]bium1 ,sam>ium1 ,?ullium1 ,holmium1 ,mos&rium1 ,phillipium1 & sev]al o!rs4 ,b _! prop]ties & comb9ations1 ow+ to _! extreme r>ity1 are v little kn[n1 & ev5 _! exi/5ce z indep5d5t sub/ances#bh is d\btful4 #bh ,possibly "s ( _! comp\nds are comp\nds ( o!r already-kn[n elem5ts4 ,pure & inconte/ably indep5d5t comp\nds ( ^! sub/ances are unkn[n1 & "s ( !m h n ev5 be5 sep>at$1 b are only suppos$ to exi/ f ! results ( spectroscopic rese>*es4 ,!re c be no m5tion ( su* conte/able & d\btful elem5ts 9 a %ort g5]al h&book ( *emi/ry4 ,x has be5 inconte/ably prov$ f obs]vations on ! spectra ( ! heav5ly bodies t _m ( ! common] elem5ts 7su* z ,h1 ,na1 ,mg1 ,fe7 occur on ! f> di/ant />s4 ,?is fact confirms ! belief t ^? =ms ( matt] :i* appe> on ! e>? z elem5ts are widely di/ribut$ ov] ! entire univ]se4 ,b we d n yet "k :y1 9 nature1 ! mass ( "s elem5ts %\ld be great] ?an t ( o!rs4#bh bis #bh bis ,cl>k 9 ,am]ica made an approximate calculation ( ! am\nt ( ! diff]5t elem5ts conta9$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/ 7to a dep? ( #ae kilometres71 & f\nd t ! *ief mass 7ov] #ej p] c5t47 is compos$ ( oxyg52 !n comes silicon1 c42 :ile ! am\nt ( hydrog5 is less ?an #a p] c5t41 c>bon sc>cely #jbe p] c5t41 nitrog5 ev5 less ?an #jjc p] c5t4 ,! relative masses ( su* metals z ,cu1 ,ni1 ,au is m9ute4 ,judg+ f ! d5sity 7see ,*apt] ,,viii47 ( ! e>?1 a l>ge proportion ( its mass mu/ be compos$ ( iron4 ,! capacity ( ea* elem5t to comb9e ) "o or ano!r elem5t1 & to =m comp\nds ) !m :i* are 9 a great] or less degree prone to give new & yet m complex sub/ances1 =ms ! fundam5tal "* ( ea* elem5t4 ,?us sulphur easily comb9es ) ! metals1 oxyg51 *lor9e1 or c>bon1 :il/ gold & silv] ent] into comb9ations ) difficulty1 & =m un/able comp\nds1 :i* are easily decompos$ by heat4 ,! cause or =ce :i* induces ! elem5ts to ent] into *emical *ange mu/ be consid]$1 z also ! cause :i* holds diff]5t sub/ances 9 comb9ation--t is1 :i* endues ! sub/ances =m$ ) _! p>ticul> degree ( /ability4 ,?is cause or =ce is call$ aff9ity 7aff9itas1 aff9it1 ,v]w&ts*aft71 or *emical aff9ity4#bi ,s9ce ?is =ce mu/ be reg>d$ z exclusively an attractive =ce1 l gravity1 _m writ]s 7= in/ance1 ,b]gmann at ! end ( ! la/1 & ,b]?ollet at ! beg9n+ ( ?is1 c5tury7 suppos$ aff9ity to be ess5tially simil> to ! univ]sal =ce ( gravity1 f :i* x only diff]s 9 t ! latt] acts at obs]vable di/ances :il/ aff9ity only ev9ces itself at ! smalle/ possible di/ances4 ,b *emical aff9ity _c be entirely id5tifi$ ) ! univ]sal attraction ( gravity1 :i* acts at appreciable di/ances & is dep5d5t only on mass & di/ance1 & n on ! quality ( ! mat]ial on :i* x acts1 :il/ x is by ! quality ( matt] t aff9ity is mo/ =cibly influ5c$4 ,nei!r c x be entirely id5tifi$ ) cohesion1 :i* gives to homog5e\s solid sub/ances _! cry/all9e =m1 ela/icity1 h>dness1 ductility1 & o!r prop]ties1 & to liquids _! surface t5sion1 drop =mation1 capill>ity1 & o!r prop]ties1 because aff9ity acts betwe5 ! compon5t p>ts ( a sub/ance & cohesion on a sub/ance 9 its homog5eity1 al?\gh bo? act at imp]ceptible di/ances 7by contact7 & h mu* 9 common4 ,*emical =ce1 :i* makes "o sub/ance p5etrate into ano!r1 _c be entirely id5tifi$ ) ev5 ^? attract+ =ces :i* make diff]5t sub/ances adh]e to ea* o!r1 or hold toge!r 7z :5 two plane-poli%$ surfaces ( solid sub/ances are br\ght into close contact71 or :i* cause liquids to soak into solids1 or adh]e to _! surfaces1 or gases & vap\rs to cond5se on ! surfaces ( solids4 ,^! =ces mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) *emical =ces1 :i* cause "o sub/ance to p5etrate into ! sub/ance ( ano!r & to =m a new sub/ance1 :i* is nev] ! case ) cohesion4 ,b x is evid5t t ! =ces :i* det]m9e cohesion =m a connect+-l9k betwe5 me*anical & *emical =ces1 because !y only act by intimate contact4 ,= a long "t1 & especially dur+ ! fir/ half ( ?is c5tury1 *emical attraction & *emical =ces 7 id5tifi$ ) electrical =ces4 ,!re is c]ta9ly an intimate relation betwe5 !m1 = electricity is evolv$ 9 *emical reactions1 & has also a p[]ful influ5ce on *emical processes--= in/ance1 comp\nds are decompos$ by ! action ( an electrical curr5t4 ,& ! exactly simil> relation :i* exi/s betwe5 *emical ph5om5a & ! ph5om5a ( heat 7heat be+ develop$ by *emical ph5om5a1 & heat be+ able to decompose comp\nds7 only proves ! unity ( ! =ces ( nature1 ! capability ( "o =ce to produce & to be trans=m$ into o!rs4 ,= ?is reason ! id5tification ( *emical =ce ) electricity w n be> exp]im5tal pro(4#cj ,z ( all ! 7molecul>7 ph5om5a ( nature :i* act on sub/ances at immeasurably small di/ances1 ! ph5om5a ( heat are at pres5t ! be/ 7comp>atively7 kn[n1 hav+ be5 r$uc$ to ! simple/ fundam5tal pr9ciples ( me*anics 7( en]gy1 equilibrium1 & movem5t71 :i*1 s9ce ,newton1 h be5 subject$ to /rict ma!matical analysis1 x is q natural t an ef=t1 :i* has be5 p>ticul>ly pron\nc$ dur+ rec5t ye>s1 %\ld h be5 made to br+ *emical ph5om5a into /rict correlation ) ! already inve/igat$ ph5om5a ( heat1 )\t1 h[ev]1 aim+ at any id5tification ( *emical ) heat ph5om5a4 ,! true nature ( *emical =ce is /ill a secret to u1 j z is ! nature ( ! univ]sal =ce ( gravity1 & yet )\t kn[+ :at gravity really is1 by apply+ me*anical conceptions1 a/ronomical ph5om5a h be5 subject$ n only to exact g5]alisation b to ! detail$ pr$iction ( a numb] ( p>ticul> facts2 & s1 also1 al?\gh ! true nature ( *emical aff9ity may be unkn[n1 !re is reason to hope = consid]able progress 9 *emical sci5ce by apply+ ! laws ( me*anics to *emical ph5om5a by means ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat4 ,z yet ?is portion ( *emi/ry has be5 b little work$ at1 & !re=e1 :ile =m+ a curr5t problem ( ! sci5ce1 x is treat$ m fully 9 t p>ticul> field :i* is t]m$ ei!r '!oretical' or 'physical' *emi/ry1 or1 m correctly1 *emical me*anics4 ,z ?is prov9ce ( *emi/ry requires a k n only ( ! v>i\s homog5e\s sub/ances :i* h yet be5 obta9$ & ( ! *emical trans=mations :i* !y und]go1 b also ( ! ph5om5a 7( heat & o!r k9ds7 by :i* ^! trans=mations are accompani$1 x is only possible to ent] on ! /udy ( *emical me*anics aft] an acqua9tance ) ! fundam5tal *emical conceptions & sub/ances :i* =m ! subject ( ?is book4#ca #bi ,?is ^w1 fir/ introduc$1 if ,i mi/ake n1 into *emi/ry by ,glaub]1 is bas$ on ! idea ( ! anci5t philosoph]s t comb9ation c only take place :5 ! sub/ances comb9+ h some?+ 9 common--a m$ium4 ,z is g5]ally ! case1 ano!r idea evolv$ itself 9 antiquity1 & has liv$ until n[1 side by side ) ! fir/1 to :i* x is exactly contradictory2 ?is consid]s union z dep5d5t on contra/1 on pol> diff]5ce1 on an ef=t to fill up a want4 #cj ,especially conclusive are ^? cases ( s-call$ metalepsis 7,dumas1 ,laur5t74 ,*lor9e1 9 comb9+ ) hydrog51 =ms a v /able sub/ance call$ 'hydro*loric acid1' :i* is split up by ! action ( an electrical curr5t into *lor9e & hydrog51 ! *lor9e appe>+ at ! positive & ! hydrog5 at ! negative pole4 ,h5ce electro-*emi/s consid]$ hydrog5 to be an electro-positive & *lor9e an electro-negative elem5t1 & t !y are held toge!r 9 virtue ( _! opposite electrical *>ges4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 f metalepsis1 t *lor9e c replace hydrog5 7&1 inv]sely1 hydrog5 c replace *lor9e7 9 its comp\nds )\t 9 any way *ang+ ! gr\p+ ( ! o!r elem5ts1 or alt]+ _! *ief *emical prop]ties4 ,= in/ance1 acetic acid 9 :i* hydrog5 has be5 replac$ by *lor9e is /ill capable ( =m+ salts4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 :il/ consid]+ ?is subject1 t ! explanation sugge/+ electricity z ! orig9 ( *emical ph5om5a is uns\nd1 s9ce x attempts to expla9 "o class ( ph5om5a ^: nature is almo/ unkn[n by ano!r class :i* is no bett] kn[n4 ,x is mo/ in/ructive to rem>k t toge!r ) ! electrical !ory ( *emical attraction !re arose & survives a view :i* expla9s ! galvanic curr5t z be+ a transf]5ce ( *emical action ?r\gh ! circuit--i4e41 reg>ds ! orig9 ( electricity z be+ a *emical "o4 ,x is evid5t t ! connection is v intimate1 al?\gh bo? ph5om5a are indep5d5t & repres5t diff]5t =ms ( molecul> 7atomic7 motion1 ^: real nature is n yet und]/ood4 ,nev]!less1 ! connection betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( bo? categories is n only 9 itself v in/ructive1 b x ext5ds ! applicability ( ! g5]al idea ( ! unity ( ! =ces ( nature1 conviction ( ! tru? ( :i* has held s important a place 9 ! sci5ce ( ! la/ t5 ye>s4 #ca ,i consid] t 9 an elem5t>y text-book ( *emi/ry1 l ! pres5t1 x is only possible & advisable to m5tion1 9 ref]5ce to *emical me*anics1 a few g5]al ideas & "s p>ticul> examples ref]r+ m especially to gases1 ^: me*anical !ory mu/ be reg>d$ z ! mo/ complete4 ,! molecul> me*anics ( liquids & solids is z yet 9 embryo1 & conta9s mu* t is disputable2 = ?is reason1 *emical me*anics has made less progress 9 relation to ^! sub/ances4 ,x may n be sup]flu\s "h to rem>k1 ) respect to ! conception ( *emical aff9ity1 t up to ! pres5t "t gravity1 electricity1 & heat h all be5 appli$ to its elucidation4 ,ef=ts h also be5 made to introduce ! lum9if]\s e!r into !oretical *emi/ry1 & %\ld t connection betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( light & electricity :i* 0 e/abli%$ by ,maxwell be work$ out m 9 detail1 d\btless ^! ef=ts to elucidate all or a great deal by ! aid ( lum9if]\s e!r w aga9 appe> 9 !oretical *emi/ry4 ,an indep5d5t *emical me*anics ( ! mat]ial p>ticles ( matt]1 & ( _! int]nal 7atomic7 *anges1 w\ld1 9 my op9ion1 arise z ! result ( ^! ef=ts4 ,two hundr$ ye>s ago ,newton laid ! f\ndation ( a truly sci5tific !oretical me*anics ( ext]nal visible motion1 & on ?is f\ndation erect$ ! edifice ( cele/ial me*anics4 ,"o hundr$ ye>s ago ,lavoisi] arriv$ at ! fir/ fundam5tal law ( ! int]nal me*anics ( invisible p>ticles ( matt]4 ,?is subject is f> f hav+ be5 develop$ into a h>moni\s :ole1 because x is mu* m difficult1 &1 al?\gh _m details h be5 completely inve/igat$1 x does n possess any />t+ po9ts4 ,newton only came aft] ,cop]nicus & ,kepl]1 :o _h discov]$ empirically ! ext]ior simplicity ( cele/ial ph5om5a4 ,lavoisi] & ,dalton may1 9 respect to ! *emical me*anics ( ! molecul> _w1 be comp>$ to ,cop]nicus & ,kepl]4 ,b a ,newton has n yet appe>$ 9 ! molecul> _w2 :5 he does1 ,i ?9k t he w f9d ! fundam5tal laws ( ! me*anics ( ! invisible motions ( matt] m easily & m quickly 9 ! *emical /ructure ( matt] ?an 9 physical ph5om5a 7( electricity1 heat1 & light72 = ^! latt] are accompli%$ by p>ticles ( matt] already arrang$1 :il/ x is n[ cle> t ! problem ( *emical me*anics ma9ly lies 9 ! appreh5sion ( ^? motions :i* are invisibly accompli%$ by ! smalle/ atoms ( matt]4 ,z ! *emical *anges to :i* sub/ances are liable proce$ f int]nal =ces prop] to ^! sub/ances1 z *emical ph5om5a c]ta9ly consi/ ( motions ( mat]ial p>ts 7f ! laws ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt] & ( elem5ts71 & z ! inve/igation ( me*anical & physical ph5om5a proves ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( =ces1 or ! cons]vation ( en]gy--t is1 ! possibility ( ! trans=mation ( "o k9d ( motion into ano!r 7( visible or me*anical into invisible or physical7--we are inevitably oblig$ to ackn[l$ge ! pres5ce 9 sub/ances 7& especially 9 ! elem5ts ( :i* all o!rs are compos$7 ( a /ore ( *emical en]gy or invisible motion induc+ !m to ent] into comb9ations4 ,if heat be evolv$ 9 a reaction1 x means t a portion ( *emical en]gy is trans=m$ into heat2#cb if heat be absorb$ 9 a reaction1#cc t x is p>tly trans=m$ 7r5d]$ lat5t7 into *emical en]gy4 ,! /ore ( =ce or en]gy go+ to ! =mation ( new comp\nds may1 aft] sev]al comb9ations1 accompli%$ ) an absorption ( heat1 at la/ dim9i% to su* a degree t indiff]5t comp\nds w be obta9$1 al?\gh ^! sometimes1 by comb9+ ) en]getic elem5ts or comp\nds1 give m complex comp\nds1 :i* may be capable ( ent]+ into *emical comb9ation4 ,among elem5ts1 gold1 plat9um1 & nitrog5 h b little en]gy1 :il/ potassium1 oxyg51 & *lor9e h a v m>k$ degree ( en]gy4 ,:5 dissimil> sub/ances ent] into comb9ation !y (t5 =m sub/ances ( dim9i%$ en]gy4 ,?us sulphur & potassium :5 heat$ easily burn 9 air1 b :5 comb9$ toge!r _! comp\nd is nei!r inflammable nor burns 9 air l its compon5t p>ts4 ,"p ( ! en]gy ( ! potassium & ( ! sulphur 0 evolv$ 9 _! comb9ation 9 ! =m ( heat4 ,j z 9 ! passage ( sub/ances f "o physical /ate into ano!r a portion ( _! /ore ( heat is absorb$ or evolv$1 s 9 comb9ations or decompositions & 9 e *emical process1 !re occurs a *ange 9 ! /ore ( *emical en]gy1 & at ! same "t an evolution or absorption ( heat4#cd #cb ,! !ory ( heat gave ! idea ( a /ore ( int]nal motion or en]gy1 & !re=e ) x1 x became necess>y to ackn[l$ge *emical en]gy1 b !re is no f\ndation :atev] = id5tify+ heat en]gy ) *emical en]gy4 ,x may be suppos$1 b n positively affirm$1 t heat motion is prop] to molecules & *emical motion to atoms1 b t z molecules are made up ( atoms1 ! motion ( ! "o passes to ! o!r1 & t = ?is reason heat /rongly influ5ces reaction & appe>s or disappe>s 7is absorb$7 9 reactions4 ,^! relations1 :i* are app>5t & h>dly subject to d\bt on g5]al l9es1 /ill pres5t mu* t is d\btful 9 detail1 because all =ms ( molecul> & atomic motion are able to pass into ea* o!r4 #cc ,! reactions :i* take place 7at ! ord9>y or at a high temp]ature7 directly betwe5 sub/ances may be cle>ly divid$ into exo!rmal1 :i* are accompani$ by an evolution ( heat1 & endo!rmal1 :i* are accompani$ by an absorption ( heat4 ,x is evid5t t ! latt] require a s\rce ( heat4 ,!y are det]m9$ ei!r by ! directly surr\nd+ m$ium 7z 9 ! =mation ( c>bon bisulphide f *>coal & sulphur1 or 9 decompositions :i* take place at high temp]atures71 or else by a second>y reaction proce$+ simultane\sly1 or by "s o!r =m ( en]gy 7light1 electricity74 ,s1 = in/ance1 hydrog5 sulphide is decompos$ by iod9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] at ! exp5se ( ! heat :i* is evolv$ by ! solution 9 wat] ( ! hydrog5 iodide produc$4 ,?is is ! reason :y ?is reaction1 z exo!rmal1 only takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]2 o!rwise x w\ld be accompani$ by a cool+ effect4 ,z 9 ! comb9ation ( dissimil> sub/ances1 ! bonds exi/+ betwe5 ! molecules & atoms ( ! homog5e\s sub/ances h to be brok5 asund]1 :il/ 9 reactions ( re>rangem5t ! =mation ( any "o sub/ance proce$s simultane\sly ) ! =mation ( ano!r1 &1 z 9 reactions1 a s]ies ( physical & me*anical *anges take place1 x is impossible to sep>ate ! heat directly dep5d+ on a giv5 reaction f ! total sum ( ! obs]v$ heat effect4 ,= ?is reason1 !rmo*emical data are v complex1 & _c by !mselves give ! key to _m *emical problems1 z x 0 at fir/ suppos$ !y might4 ,!y ought to =m a "p ( *emical me*anics1 b alone !y d n con/itute x4 #cd ,z *emical reactions are effect$ by heat+1 s ! heat absorb$ by sub/ances be=e decomposition or *ange ( /ate1 & call$ 'specific heat1' goes 9 _m cases to ! prep>ation1 if x may be s express$1 ( reaction1 ev5 :5 ! limit ( ! temp]ature ( reaction is n atta9$4 ,! molecules ( a sub/ance ,a1 :i* is n able to react on a sub/ance ,b bel[ a temp]ature t1 by be+ heat$ f a some:at l[] temp]ature to t1 und]goes t *ange :i* _h to be arriv$ at = ! =mation ( ,a ,b4 ,= ! compreh5sion ( *emical ph5om5a z me*anical processes--i4e41 ! /udy ( ! modus op]&i ( *emical ph5om5a--x is mo/ important to consid]3 7#a7 ! facts ga!r$ f /o*iometry1 or t "p ( *emi/ry :i* treats ( ! quantitative relation1 by weight or volume1 ( ! react+ sub/ances2 7#b7 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! diff]5t =ms & classes ( *emical reactions2 7#c7 ! /udy ( ! *anges 9 prop]ties produc$ by alt]ation 9 composition2 7#d7 ! /udy ( ! ph5om5a :i* accompany *emical trans=mation2 7#e7 a g5]alisation ( ! conditions "u :i* reactions occur4 ,z reg>ds /o*iometry1 ?is bran* ( *emi/ry has be5 work$ out mo/ ?or\ghly1 & comprises laws 7( ,dalton1 ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 & o!rs7 :i* be> s deeply on all p>ts ( *emi/ry t at ! pres5t "t ! *ief problem ( *emical rese>* consi/s 9 ! application ( g5]al /o*iometrical laws to concrete examples1 i4e41 ! quantitative 7volumetric or gravimetric7 composition ( sub/ances4 ,all o!r bran*es ( *emi/ry are cle>ly subord9ate to ?is mo/ important portion ( *emical k4 ,ev5 ! v signification ( reactions ( comb9ation1 decomposition1 & re>rangem5t1 acquir$1 z we %all see1 a p>ticul> & new "* "u ! influ5ce ( ! progress ( exact ideas conc]n+ ! quantitative relations ( sub/ances ent]+ into *emical *anges4 ,fur!rmore1 9 ?is s5se !re arose a new--&1 till !n1 unkn[n--division ( comp\nd sub/ances into def9ite & indef9ite comp\nds4 ,ev5 at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury1 ,b]?ollet _h n made ?is di/9ction4 ,b ,pr\t %[$ t a numb] ( comp\nds conta9 ! sub/ances ( :i* !y are !y break up1 9 exact def9ite proportions by weight1 :i* are unalt]able "u any conditions4 ,?us1 = example1 r$ m]cury oxide always conta9s sixte5 p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 = e #bjj p>ts by weight ( m]cury1 :i* is express$ by ! =mula ,hg,o4 ,b 9 an alloy ( copp] & silv] "o or ! o!r metal may be add$ at w1 & 9 an aque\s solution ( sug>1 ! relative proportion ( ! sug> & wat] may be alt]$ & nev]!less a homog5e\s :ole ) ! sum ( ! indep5d5t prop]ties w be obta9$--i4e41 9 ^! cases !re 0 indef9ite *emical comb9ation4 ,al?\gh 9 nature & *emical practice ! =mation ( indef9ite comp\nds 7su* z alloys & solutions7 plays z ess5tial a "p z ! =mation ( def9ite *emical comp\nds1 yet1 z ! /o*iometrical laws at pres5t apply *iefly to ! latt]1 all facts conc]n+ indef9ite comp\nds suff] f inexactitude1 & x is only dur+ rec5t ye>s t ! att5tion ( *emi/s has be5 direct$ to ?is prov9ce ( *emi/ry4 ,9 *emical me*anics x is1 f a qualitative po9t ( view1 v important to cle>ly di/+ui% at ! v beg9n+ betwe5 rev]sible & non-rev]sible reactions4 ,sub/ances capable ( react+ on ea* o!r at a c]ta9 temp]ature produce sub/ances :i* at ! same temp]ature ei!r c or _c give back ! orig9al sub/ances4 ,= example1 salt dissolves 9 wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ! solution s obta9$ is capable ( break+ up at ! same temp]ature1 leav+ salt & sep>at+ ! wat] by evaporation4 ,c>bon bisulphide is =m$ f sulphur & c>bon at ab\t ! same temp]ature at :i* x c be resolv$ into sulphur & c>bon4 ,iron1 at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 sep>ates hydrog5 f wat]1 =m+ iron oxide1 :i*1 9 contact ) hydrog5 at ! same temp]ature1 is able to produce iron & wat]4 ,x is evid5t t if two sub/ances1 ,a & ,b1 give two o!rs ,c & ,d1 & ! reaction be rev]sible1 !n ,c & ,d w =m ,a & ,b1 &1 consequ5tly1 by tak+ a def9ite mass ( ,a & ,b1 or a correspond+ mass ( ,c & ,d1 we %all obta91 9 ea* case1 all f\r sub/ances--t is to say1 !re w be a /ate ( *emical equilibrium betwe5 ! react+ sub/ances4 ,by increas+ ! mass ( "o ( ! sub/ances we obta9 a new condition ( equilibrium1 s t rev]sible reactions pres5t a means ( /udy+ ! influ5ce ( mass on ! modus op]&i ( *emical *anges4 ,_m ( ^? reactions :i* occur ) v complicat$ comp\nds or mixtures may s]ve z examples ( non-rev]sible reactions4 ,?us _m ( ! comp\nd sub/ances ( animal & vegetable organisms are brok5 up by heat1 b _c be re-=m$ f _! products ( decomposition at any temp]ature4 ,gunp[d]1 z a mixture ( sulphur1 nitre1 & c>bon1 on be+ explod$1 =ms gases f :i* ! orig9al sub/ances _c be re-=m$ at any temp]ature4 ,9 ord] to obta9 !m1 rec\rse mu/ be _h to an indirect me?od ( comb9ation at ! mom5t ( sep>ation4 ,if ,a does n "u any circum/ances comb9e directly ) ,b1 x does n foll[ t x _c give a comp\nd ,a ,b4 ,= ,a c (t5 comb9e ) ,c & ,b ) ,d1 & if ,c has a great aff9ity = ,d1 !n ! reaction ( ,a ,c or ,b ,d produces n only ,c ,d1 b also ,a ,b4 ,z on ! =mation ( ,c ,d1 ! sub/ances ,a & ,b 7previ\sly 9 ,a ,c & ,b ,d7 are left 9 a peculi> /ate ( sep>ation1 x is suppos$ t _! mutual comb9ation occurs because !y meet toge!r 9 ?is nasc5t /ate at ! mom5t ( sep>ation 79 /atu nasc5di74 ,?us *lor9e does n directly comb9e ) *>coal1 graphite1 or diamond2 !re are1 nev]!less1 comp\nds ( *lor9e ) c>bon1 & _m ( !m are di/+ui%$ by _! /ability4 ,!y are obta9$ 9 ! action ( *lor9e on hydroc>bons1 z ! sep>ation products f ! direct action ( *lor9e on hydrog54 ,*lor9e takes up ! hydrog51 & ! c>bon lib]at$ at ! mom5t ( its sep>ation1 ent]s into comb9ation ) ano!r portion ( ! *lor9e1 s t 9 ! end ! *lor9e is comb9$ ) bo? ! hydrog5 & ! c>bon4#ce #ce ,x is possible to imag9e t ! cause ( a great _m ( su* reactions is1 t sub/ances tak5 9 a sep>ate /ate1 = in/ance1 *>coal1 pres5t a complex molecule compos$ ( sep>ate atoms ( c>bon :i* are fa/5$ toge!r 7unit$1 z is usually said7 by a consid]able aff9ity2 = atoms ( ! same k9d1 j l atoms ( diff]5t k9ds1 possess a mutual aff9ity4 ,! aff9ity ( *lor9e = c>bon1 al?\gh unable to break ?is bond asund]1 may be suffici5t to =m a /able comp\nd ) atoms ( c>bon1 :i* are already sep>ate4 ,su* a view ( ! subject pres5ts a hypo!sis :i*1 al?\gh dom9ant at ! pres5t "t1 is )\t suffici5tly firm f\ndation4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t n only does *emical reaction itself consi/ ( motions1 b t 9 ! comp\nd =m$ 79 ! molecules7 ! elem5ts 7atoms7 =m+ x are 9 h>moni\s /able motion 7l ! planets 9 ! sol> sy/em71 & ?is motion w affect ! /ability & capacity = reaction1 & !re=e ! me*anical side ( *emical action mu/ be exce$+ly complex4 ,j z !re are solid1 physically con/ant non-volatile sub/ances l rock1 gold1 *>coal1 c41 s are !re /able & *emically con/ant bodies2 :ile correspond+ to physically volatile sub/ances !re are bodies l camphor1 :i* are *emically un/able & v>iable4 ,z reg>ds ^? ph5om5a :i* accompany *emical action1 ! mo/ important circum/ance 9 ref]5ce to *emical me*anics is t n only d *emical processes produce a me*anical displacem5t 7a motion ( p>ticles71 heat1 light1 electrical pot5tial & curr5t2 b t all ^! ag5ts are !mselves capable ( *ang+ & gov]n+ *emical trans=mations4 ,?is reciprocity or rev]sibility naturally dep5ds on ! fact t all ! ph5om5a ( nature are only diff]5t k9ds & =ms ( visible & invisible 7molecul>7 motions4 ,fir/ s\nd1 & !n light1 0 %[n to consi/ ( vibratory motions1 z ! laws ( physics h prov$ & develop$ beyond a d\bt4 ,! connection betwe5 heat & me*anical motion & "w has ceas$ to be a supposition1 b has become an accept$ fact1 & ! me*anical equival5t ( heat 7#dbe kilogrammetres ( me*anical "w correspond ) "o kilogram unit ( heat or ,calorie7 gives a me*anical measure = !rmal ph5om5a4 ,al?\gh ! me*anical !ory ( electrical ph5om5a _c be consid]$ s fully develop$ z ! !ory ( heat1 bo? /atical & dynamical electricity are produc$ by me*anical means 79 common electrical ma*9es or 9 ,gramme or o!r dynamos71 & conv]sely1 a curr5t 79 electric motors7 c produce me*anical motion4 ,?us by connect+ a curr5t ) ! poles ( a ,gramme dynamo x may be made to revolve1 &1 conv]sely1 by rotat+ x an electrical curr5t is produc$1 :i* demon/rates ! rev]sibility ( electricity into me*anical motion4 ,accord+ly *emical me*anics mu/ look = ! fundam5tal l9es ( its advancem5t 9 ! correlation ( *emical ) physical & me*anical ph5om5a4 ,b ?is subject1 ow+ to its complexity & comp>ative novelty1 has n yet be5 express$ by a h>moni\s !ory1 or ev5 by a satisfactory hypo!sis1 & !re=e we %all avoid l+]+ ov] x4 ,a *emical *ange 9 a c]ta9 direction is accompli%$ n only by reason ( ! diff]5ce ( masses1 ! composition ( ! sub/ances conc]n$1 ! di/ribution ( _! p>ts1 & _! aff9ity or *emical en]gy1 b also by reason ( ! conditions "u :i* ! sub/ances occur4 ,9 ord] t a c]ta9 *emical reaction may take place betwe5 sub/ances :i* are capable ( react+ on ea* o!r1 x is (t5 necess>y to h rec\rse to conditions :i* are sometimes v diff]5t f ^? 9 :i* ! sub/ances usually occur 9 nature4 ,= example1 n only is ! pres5ce ( air 7oxyg57 necess>y = ! combu/ion ( *>coal1 b ! latt] mu/ also be heat$ to r$ness4 ,! r$-hot portion ( ! *>coal burns--i4e4 comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e--& 9 s do+ evolves heat1 :i* raises ! temp]ature ( ! adjac5t p>ts ( *>coal1 s t !y burn4 ,j z ! combu/ion ( *>coal is dep5d5t on its be+ heat$ to r$ness1 s also e *emical reaction only takes place "u c]ta9 physical1 me*anical1 or o!r conditions4 ,! foll[+ are ! *ief conditions :i* ex]t an influ5ce on ! progress ( *emical reactions4 7a7 ,temp]ature4--,*emical reactions ( comb9ation only take place )9 c]ta9 def9ite limits ( temp]ature1 & _c be accompli%$ outside ^! limits4 ,we may cite z examples n only t ! combu/ion ( *>coal beg9s at a r$ heat1 b also t *lor9e & salt only comb9e ) wat] at a temp]ature bel[ #j4 ,^! comp\nds _c be =m$ at a high] temp]ature1 = !y are !n :olly or p>tially brok5 up into _! compon5t p>ts4 ,a c]ta9 rise 9 temp]ature is necess>y to />t combu/ion4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! effect ( ?is rise may be expla9$ z caus+ "o ( ! react+ bodies to *ange f a solid into a liquid or gase\s =m4 ,! transf]5ce into a fluid =m facilitates ! progress ( ! reaction1 because x aids ! intimate contact ( ! p>ticles react+ on ea* o!r4 ,ano!r reason1 & to ?is mu/ be ascrib$ ! *ief influ5ce ( heat 9 excit+ *emical action1 is t ! physical cohesion1 or ! int]nal *emical union1 ( homog5e\s p>ticles is !reby weak5$1 & 9 ?is way ! sep>ation ( ! p>ticles ( ! orig9al sub/ances1 & _! transf]5ce into new comp\nds1 is r5d]$ easi]4 ,:5 a reaction absorbs heat--z 9 decomposition--! reason :y heat is necess>y is self-evid5t4 ,at ! pres5t day x may be ass]t$ ^u ! basis ( exi/+ data1 respect+ ! action ( high temp]ature1 t all comp\nd bodies are decompos$ at a m or less high temp]ature4 ,we h already se5 examples ( ?is 9 describ+ ! decomposition ( m]cury oxide into m]cury & oxyg51 & ! decomposition ( wood "u ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,_m sub/ances are decompos$ at a v mod]ate temp]ature2 = in/ance1 ! fulm9at+ salt :i* is employ$ 9 c>tridges is decompos$ at a little above #abj4 ,! majority ( ^? comp\nds :i* make up ! mass ( animal & vegetable tissues are decompos$ at #bjj4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is reason to ?9k t at a v l[ temp]ature no reaction :atev] c take place4 ,?us plants cease to c>ry on _! *emical processes dur+ ! w9t]4 ,ra\l ,pictet 7#ahib71 employ+ ! v l[ temp]atures 7z l[ z -#bjj;,c47 obta9$ by ! evaporation ( liquefi$ gases 7see ,*ap4 ,,ii471 has rec5tly aga9 prov$ t at temp]atures bel[ -#abj1 ev5 su* reactions z ^? betwe5 sulphuric acid & cau/ic soda or metallic sodium d n take place1 & ev5 ! coloration ( litmus by acids only comm5ces at temp]atures above -#hj4 ,if a giv5 reaction does n take place at a c]ta9 l[ temp]ature1 x w at fir/ only proce$ sl[ly ) a rise ( temp]ature 7ev5 if aid$ by an electric dis*>ge71 & w only proce$ rapidly1 ) ! evolution ( heat1 :5 a c]ta9 def9ite temp]ature has be5 rea*$4 ,e *emical reaction requires c]ta9 limits ( temp]ature = its accompli%m5t1 &1 d\btless1 _m ( ! *emical *anges obs]v$ by u _c take place 9 ! sun1 :]e ! temp]ature is v high1 or on ! moon1 :]e x is v l[4 ,! influ5ce ( heat on rev]sible reactions is p>ticul>ly in/ructive4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a comp\nd :i* is capable ( be+ reproduc$ f its products ( decomposition be heat$ up to ! temp]ature at :i* decomposition beg9s1 ! decomposition ( a mass ( ! sub/ance conta9$ 9 a def9ite volume is n imm$iately complet$4 ,only a c]ta9 fraction ( ! sub/ance is decompos$1 ! o!r portion rema9+ un*ang$1 & if ! temp]ature be rais$1 ! quantity ( ! sub/ance decompos$ increases2 fur!rmore1 = a giv5 volume1 ! ratio betwe5 ! "p decompos$ & ! "p unalt]$ corresponds ) ea* def9ite rise 9 temp]ature until x rea*es t at :i* ! comp\nd is entirely decompos$4 ,?is p>tial decomposition "u ! influ5ce ( heat is call$ dissociation4 ,x is possible to di/+ui% betwe5 ! temp]atures at :i* dissociation beg9s & ends4 ,%\ld dissociation proce$ at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 yet %\ld ! product or products ( decomposition n rema9 9 contact ) ! /ill undecompos$ portion ( ! comp\nd1 !n decomposition w g on to ! end4 ,?us lime/one is decompos$ 9 a limekiln into lime & c>bonic anhydride1 because ! latt] is c>ri$ (f by ! draught ( ! furnace4 ,b if a c]ta9 mass ( lime/one be enclos$ 9 a def9ite volume--= in/ance1 9 a gun b>rel--:i* is !n seal$ up1 & heat$ to r$ness1 !n1 z ! c>bonic anhydride _c escape1 a c]ta9 proportion only ( ! lime/one w be decompos$ = e increm5t ( heat 7rise 9 temp]ature7 high] ?an t at :i* dissociation beg9s4 ,decomposition w cease :5 ! c>bonic anhydride evolv$ pres5ts a maximum dissociation pressure correspond+ ) ea* rise 9 temp]ature4 ,if ! pressure be increas$ by increas+ ! quantity ( gas1 !n comb9ation beg9s afre%2 if ! pressure be dim9i%$ decomposition w recomm5ce4 ,decomposition 9 ?is case is exactly simil> to evaporation2 if ! /eam giv5 (f by evaporation _c escape1 its pressure w rea* a maximum correspond+ ) ! giv5 temp]ature1 & !n evaporation w cease4 ,%\ld /eam be add$ x w be cond5s$ 9 ! liquid2 if its quantity be dim9i%$--i4e4 if ! pressure be less5$1 ! temp]ature be+ con/ant--!n evaporation w g on4 ,we %all aft]w>ds discuss m fully ^! ph5om5a ( dissociation1 :i* 7 fir/ discov]$ by ,h5ri ,/4 ,claire ,deville4 ,we w only rem>k t ! products ( decomposition re-comb9e ) great] facility ! ne>] _! temp]ature is to t at :i* dissociation beg9s1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! initial temp]ature ( dissociation is ne> to ! initial temp]ature ( comb9ation4 7b7 ,! influ5ce ( an electric curr5t1 & ( electricity 9 g5]al1 on ! progress ( *emical trans=mations is v simil> to ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,! majority ( comp\nds :i* conduct electricity are decompos$ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t1 & z !re is great simil>ity 9 ! conditions "u :i* decomposition & comb9ation proce$1 comb9ation (t5 proce$s "u ! influ5ce ( electricity4 ,electricity1 l heat1 mu/ be reg>d$ z a peculi> =m ( molecul> motion1 & all t ref]s to ! influ5ce ( heat also ref]s to ! ph5om5a produc$ by ! action ( an electrical curr5t1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 only t a sub/ance c be sep>at$ into its compon5t p>ts ) mu* great] ease by electricity1 s9ce ! process goes on at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,! mo/ /able comp\nds may be decompos$ by ?is means1 & a mo/ important fact is !n obs]v$--namely1 t ! compon5t p>ts appe> at ! diff]5t poles ( electrodes by :i* ! curr5t passes ?r\gh ! sub/ance4 ,^? sub/ances :i* appe> at ! positive pole 7anode7 are call$ 'electro-negative1' & ^? :i* appe> at ! negative pole 7ca?ode1 t 9 connection ) ! z9c ( an ord9>y galvanic batt]y7 are call$ 'electro-positive4' ,! majority ( non-metallic elem5ts1 su* z *lor9e1 oxyg51 c41 & also acids & sub/ances analog\s to !m1 belong to ! fir/ gr\p1 :il/ ! metals1 hydrog51 & analog\s products ( decomposition appe> at ! negative pole4 ,*emi/ry is indebt$ to ! decomposition ( comp\nds by ! electric curr5t = _m mo/ important discov]ies4 ,_m elem5ts h be5 discov]$ by ?is me?od1 ! mo/ important be+ potassium & sodium4 ,lavoisi] & ! *emi/s ( 8 "t 7 n able to decompose ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( ^! metals1 b ,davy %[$ t !y might be decompos$ by an electric curr5t1 ! metals sodium & potassium appe>+ at ! negative pole4 ,n[ t ! dynamo gives ! possibility ( produc+ an electric curr5t by ! combu/ion ( fuel1 ?is me?od ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy is advantage\sly employ$ = obta9+ metals1 c4 on a l>ge scale1 = in/ance1 sodium f fus$ cau/ic soda or *lor9e f solutions ( salt4 7c7 ,c]ta9 un/able comp\nds are also decompos$ by ! action ( light4 ,photography is bas$ on ?is prop]ty 9 c]ta9 sub/ances 7= in/ance1 9 ! salts ( silv]74 ,! me*anical en]gy ( ^? vibrations :i* det]m9e ! ph5om5a ( light is v small1 & !re=e only c]ta91 & ^! g5]ally un/able1 comp\nds c be decompos$ by light--at lea/ "u ord9>y circum/ances4 ,b !re is "o class ( *emical ph5om5a dep5d5t on ! action ( light :i* =ms z yet an unsolv$ problem 9 *emi/ry--^! are ! processes accompli%$ 9 plants "u ! influ5ce ( light4 ,"h !re take place mo/ unexpect$ decompositions & comb9ations1 :i* are (t5 unatta9able by artificial means4 ,= in/ance1 c>bonic anhydride1 :i* is s /able "u ! influ5ce ( heat & electricity1 is decompos$ & evolves oxyg5 9 plants "u ! influ5ce ( light4 ,9 o!r cases1 light decomposes un/able comp\nds1 su* z are usually easily decompos$ by heat & o!r ag5ts4 ,*lor9e comb9es ) hydrog5 "u ! influ5ce ( light1 :i* %[s t comb9ation1 z well z decomposition1 c be det]m9$ by its action1 z 0 likewise ! case ) heat & electricity4 7d7 ,me*anical causes ex]t1 l ! =ego+ ag5ts1 an action bo? on ! process ( *emical comb9ation & ( decomposition4 ,_m sub/ances are decompos$ by friction or by a bl[--z1 = example1 ! comp\nd call$ iodide ( nitrog5 7:i* is compos$ ( iod9e1 nitrog51 & hydrog571 & silv] fulm9ate4 ,me*anical friction causes sulphur to burn at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 potassium *lorate4 ,pressure affects bo? ! physical & *emical /ate ( ! react+ sub/ances1 &1 toge!r ) ! temp]ature1 det]m9es ! /ate ( a sub/ance4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly evid5t :5 ! sub/ance occurs 9 an ela/ic-gase\s =m s9ce ! volume1 & h5ce also ! numb] ( po9ts ( enc\nt] betwe5 ! react+ sub/ances is greatly alt]$ by a *ange ( pressure4 ,?us1 "u equal conditions ( temp]ature1 hydrog5 :5 compress$ acts m p[]fully ^u iod9e & on ! solutions ( _m salts4 7e7 ,besides ! v>i\s conditions :i* h be5 enum]at$ above1 ! progress ( *emical reactions is accel]at$ or ret>d$ by ! condition ( contact 9 :i* ! react+ bodies occur4 ,o!r conditions rema9+ con/ant1 ! rate ( progress ( a *emical reaction is accel]at$ by increas+ ! numb] ( po9ts ( contact4 ,x w be en\gh to po9t out ! fact t sulphuric acid does n absorb e?yl5e "u ord9>y conditions ( contact1 b only aft] cont9u$ %ak+1 by :i* means ! numb] ( po9ts ( contact is greatly increas$4 ,to ensure complete action betwe5 solids1 x is necess>y to r$uce !m to v f9e p[d] & to mix !m z ?or\ghly z possible4 ,m4 ,spr+1 ! ,belgian *emi/1 has %[n t f9ely p[d]$ solids :i* d n react on ea* o!r at ! ord9>y temp]ature may d s "u an increas$ pressure4 ,?us1 "u a pressure ( #f1jjj atmosph]es1 sulphur comb9es ) _m metals at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & mixtures ( ! p[d]s ( _m metals =m alloys4 ,x is evid5t t an increase 9 ! numb] ( po9ts or surfaces mu/ be reg>d$ z ! *ief cause produc+ reaction1 :i* is d\btless accompli%$ 9 solids1 z 9 liquids & gases1 9 virtue ( an int]nal motion ( ! p>ticles1 :i* motion1 al?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees & =ms1 mu/ exi/ 9 all ! /ates ( matt]4 ,x is v important to direct att5tion to ! fact t ! int]nal motion or condition ( ! p>ts ( ! p>ticles ( matt] mu/ be diff]5t on ! surface ( a sub/ance f :at x is inside2 because 9 ! int]ior ( a sub/ance simil> p>ticles are act+ on all sides ( e p>ticle1 :il/ at ! surface !y act on "o side only4 ,!re=e1 ! condition ( a sub/ance at its surfaces ( contact ) o!r sub/ances mu/ be m or less modifi$ by !m--x may be 9 a mann] simil> to t caus$ by an elevation ( temp]ature4 ,^! consid]ations ?r[ "s light on ! action 9 ! l>ge class ( contact reactions2 t is1 su* z appe> to proce$ f ! m]e pres5ce 7contact7 ( c]ta9 special sub/ances4 ,por\s or p[d]y sub/ances are v prone to act 9 ?is way1 especially spongy plat9um & *>coal4 ,= example1 sulphur\s anhydride does n comb9e directly ) oxyg51 b ?is reaction takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( spongy plat9um4#cf #cf ,contact ph5om5a are sep>ately consid]$ 9 detail 9 ! "w ( ,pr(essor ,konoval(f 7#ahhd74 ,9 my op9ion1 x mu/ be held t ! /ate ( ! int]nal motions ( ! atoms 9 molecules is modifi$ at ! po9ts ( contact ( sub/ances1 & ?is /ate det]m9es *emical reactions1 & !re=e1 t reactions ( comb9ation1 decomposition1 & re>rangem5t are accompli%$ by contact4 ,pr(essor ,konoval(f %[$ t a numb] ( sub/ances1 "u c]ta9 conditions ( _! surfaces1 act by contact2 = in/ance1 f9ely divid$ silica 7f ! hydrate7 acts j l plat9um1 decompos+ c]ta9 comp\nd e!rs4 ,z reactions are only accompli%$ "u close contact1 x is probable t ^? modifications 9 ! di/ribution ( ! atoms 9 molecules :i* come ab\t by contact ph5om5a prep>e ! way = !m4 ,by ?is ! rle ( contact ph5om5a is consid]ably ext5d$4 ,su* ph5om5a %\ld expla9 ! fact :y a mixture ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 yields wat] 7explodes7 at diff]5t temp]atures1 accord+ to ! k9d ( heat$ sub/ance :i* transmits ?is temp]ature4 ,9 *emical me*anics1 ph5om5a ( ?is k9d h great importance1 b z yet !y h be5 b little /udi$4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t contact is a necess>y condition = e *emical reaction4 ,! above g5]al & introductory *emical conceptions _c be ?or\ghly grasp$ 9 _! true s5se )\t a k ( ! p>ticul> facts ( *emi/ry to :i* we %all n[ turn our att5tion4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 absolutely necess>y to become acqua9t$ on ! v ?re%old ) su* fundam5tal pr9ciples z ! laws ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt] & ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 s9ce x is only by _! acceptance1 & "u _! direction & influ5ce1 t ! exam9ation ( p>ticul> facts c give practical & fruitful results4 ,,*apt] ,i ,,on ,,wat] ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds ,wat] is f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e 9 nature1 & 9 all ?ree physical /ates4 ,z vap\r1 wat] occurs 9 ! atmosph]e1 & 9 ?is =m x is di/ribut$ ov] ! entire surface ( ! e>?4 ,! vap\r ( wat] 9 cond5s+1 by cool+1 =ms sn[1 ra91 hail1 dew1 & fog4 ,"o cubic metre 7or #a1jjj1jjj cubic c5timetres1 or #a1jjj litres1 or #cecaf cubic feet7 ( air c conta9 at #j only #dh grams ( wat]1 at #bj ab\t #agj grams1 at #dj ab\t #ejg grams2 b ord9>y air only conta9s ab\t #fj p] c5t4 ( ?is maximum4 ,air conta9+ less ?an #dj p] c5t4 is felt to be dry1 :il/ air :i* conta9s m ?an #hj p] c5t4 ( ! same maximum is consid]$ z di/9ctly damp4#a ,wat] 9 ! liquid /ate1 9 fall+ z ra9 & sn[1 soaks into ! soil & collects toge!r into spr+s1 lakes1 riv]s1 seas1 & oceans4 ,x is absorb$ f ! soil by ! roots ( plants1 :i*1 :5 fre%1 conta9 f #dj to #hj p] c5t4 ( wat] by weight4 ,animals conta9 ab\t ! same am\nt ( wat]4 ,9 a solid /ate1 wat] appe>s z sn[1 ice1 or 9 an int]m$iate =m betwe5 ^! two1 :i* is se5 on m\nta9s cov]$ ) p]petual sn[4 ,! wat] ( riv]s1#b spr+s1 oceans & seas1 lakes1 & wells conta9s v>i\s sub/ances 9 solution mo/ly salt1--t is1 sub/ances resembl+ common table salt 9 _! physical prop]ties & *ief *emical trans=mations4 ,fur!r1 ! quantity & nature ( ^! salts diff] 9 diff]5t wat]s4#c ,ev]ybody kn[s t !re are salt1 fre%1 iron1 & o!r wat]s4 ,! pres5ce ( ab\t #c-a_/b p] c5t4 ( salts r5d]s sea-wat]#d bitt] to ! ta/e & increases its specific gravity4 ,fre% wat] also conta9s salts1 b only 9 a comp>atively small quantity4 ,_! pres5ce may be easily prov$ by simply evaporat+ wat] 9 a vessel4 ,on evaporation ! wat] passes away z vap\r1 :il/ ! salts are left beh9d4 ,?is is :y a cru/ 7incru/ation71 consi/+ ( salts1 previ\sly 9 solution1 is deposit$ on ! insides ( kettles or boil]s1 & o!r vessels 9 :i* wat] is boil$4 ,runn+ wat] 7riv]s1 c47 is *>g$ ) salts1 ow+ to its be+ =m$ f ! collection ( ra9 wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! soil4 ,:ile p]colat+1 ! wat] dissolves c]ta9 p>ts ( ! soil4 ,?us wat] :i* filt]s or passes ?r\gh sal9e or calc>e\s soils becomes *>g$ ) salts or conta9s calcium c>bonate 7*alk74 ,ra9 wat] & sn[ are mu* pur] ?an riv] or spr+ wat]4 ,nev]!less1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 ra9 & sn[ succe$ 9 cat*+ ! du/ held 9 x1 & dissolve air1 :i* is f\nd 9 e wat]4 ,! dissolv$ gases ( ! atmosph]e are p>tly dis5gag$1 z bubbles f wat] on heat+1 & wat] aft] long boil+ is q fre$ f !m4 #a ,9 practice1 ! *emi/ has to cont9ually deal ) gases1 & gases are (t5 collect$ ov] wat]2 9 :i* case a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] passes into vap\r1 & ?is vap\r mixes ) ! gases4 ,x is !re=e mo/ important t he %\ld be able to calculate ! am\nt ( wat] or ( moi/ure 9 air & o!r gases4 ,let u imag9e a cyl9d] /&+ 9 a m]cury ba?1 & fill$ ) a dry gas ^: volume equals v1 temp]ature t1 & pressure or t5sion h mm4 7h millimetres ( ! column ( m]cury at #j74 ,we w introduce wat] into ! cyl9d] 9 su* a quantity t a small "p rema9s 9 ! liquid /ate1 & consequ5tly t ! gas w be saturat$ ) aque\s vap\r2 ! volume ( ! gas w !n increase 7if a l>g] quantity ( wat] be tak5 "s ( ! gas w he dissolv$ 9 x1 & ! volume may !re=e he dim9i%$74 ,we w fur!r suppose t1 aft] ! addition ( ! wat]1 ! temp]ature rema9s con/ant2 !n s9ce ! volume increases1 ! m]cury 9 ! cyl9d] falls1 & !re=e ! pressure z well z ! volume is increas$4 ,9 ord] to inve/igate ! ph5om5on we w artificially increase ! pressure1 & r$uce ! volume to ! orig9al volume v4 ,!n ! pressure or t5sion w be great] ?an h1 namely h f1 :i* means t by ! introduction ( aque\s vap\r ! pressure ( ! gas is increas$4 ,! rese>*es ( ,dalton1 ,gay-,lussac1 & ,regnault %[$ t ?is increase is equal to ! maximum pressure :i* is prop] to ! aque\s vap\r at ! temp]ature at :i* ! obs]vation is made4 ,! maximum pressure = all temp]atures may be f\nd 9 ! tables made f obs]vations on ! pressure ( aque\s vap\r4 ,! quantity f w be equal to ?is maximum pressure ( aque\s vap\r4 ,?is may be express$ ?us3 ! maximum t5sion ( aque\s vap\r 7& ( all o!r vap\rs7 saturat+ a space 9 a vacuum or 9 any gas is ! same4 ,?is rule is kn[n z ,dalton's law4 ,?us we h a volume ( dry gas v1 "u a pressure h1 & a volume ( moi/ gas1 saturat$ ) vap\r1 "u a pressure h f4 ,! volume v ( ! dry gas "u a pressure h f occupies1 f ,boyle's law1 a volume vh_/h f2 consequ5tly ! volume occupi$ by ! aque\s vap\r "u ! pressure h f equals v-vh_/7h f71 or vf_/7h f74 ,?us ! volumes ( ! dry gas & ( ! moi/ure :i* occurs 9 x1 at a pressure h f1 are 9 ! ratio f 3 h4 ,&1 !re=e1 if ! aque\s vap\r saturates a space at a pressure n1 ! volumes ( ! dry air & ( ! moi/ure :i* is conta9$ 9 x are 9 ! ratio 7n-f7 3 f1 :]e f is ! pressure ( ! vap\r accord+ to ! tables ( vap\r t5sion4 ,?us1 if a volume ,n ( a gas saturat$ ) moi/ure be measur$ at a pressure ,h1 !n ! volume ( ! gas1 :5 dry1 w be equal to ,n7,h-f7_/,h4 ,9 fact1 ! entire volume ,n mu/ be to ! volume ( dry gas x z ,h is to ,h-f2 !re=e1 ,n 3 x ,h 3 ,h-f1 f :i* x ,n7,h-f7_/,h4 ,"u any o!r pressure--= in/ance1 #gfj mm4--,! volume ( dry gas w be x,h_/#gfj1 or 7,h-f7_/#gfj1 & we ?us obta9 ! foll[+ practical rule3 ,if a volume ( a gas saturat$ ) aque\s vap\r be measur$ at a pressure ,h mm41 !n ! volume ( dry gas conta9$ 9 x w be obta9$ by f9d+ ! volume correspond+ to ! pressure ,h1 less ! pressure due to ! aque\s vap\r at ! temp]ature obs]v$4 ,= example1 #cge cubic c5timetres ( air saturat$ ) aque\s vap\r 7 measur$ at a temp]ature ( #aec1 & "u a pressure ( #gdgc mm4 ( m]cury 7at #j74 ,:at w be ! volume ( dry gas at #j & #gfj mm48 ,! pressure ( aque\s vap\r correspond+ to #aec is equal to #abi mm41 & !re=e ! volume ( dry gas at #aec & #gdgc mm4 is equal to #cge 7#gdgc-abi7_/gdgc2 at #gfj mm4 x w be equal to #cge 7#gcdd_/gfj72 & at #j ! volume ( dry gas w be #cge 7#gcdd_/gfj7 #bgc_/7bgc #aec7 #cdca c4c4 ,f ?is rule may also be calculat$ :at fraction ( a volume ( gas is occupi$ by moi/ure "u ! ord9>y pressure at diff]5t temp]atures2 = in/ance1 at #cj ,c4 f #cae1 consequ5tly #ajj volumes ( a moi/ gas or air1 at #gfj mm41 conta9 a volume ( aque\s vap\r #ajj 7#cae_/gfj71 or #daaj2 x is also f\nd t at #j !re is conta9$ #jfa p4c4 by volume1 at #aj #aba p4c41 at #bj #bbi p4c41 & at #ej up to #abaa p4c4 ,f ?is x may be judg$ h[ great an error might be made 9 ! measurem5t ( gases by volume if ! moi/ure 7 n tak5 into consid]ation4 ,f ?is x is also evid5t h[ great are ! v>iations 9 volume ( ! atmosph]e :5 x loses or ga9s aque\s vap\r1 :i* aga9 expla9s a numb] ( atmosph]ic ph5om5a 7w9ds1 v>iation ( pressure1 ra9falls1 /orms1 c47 ,if a gas is n saturat$1 !n x is indisp5sable t ! degree ( moi/ure %\ld be kn[n 9 ord] to det]m9e ! volume ( dry gas f ! volume ( moi/ gas4 ,! prec$+ ratio gives ! maximum quantity ( wat] :i* c be held 9 a gas1 & ! degree ( moi/ure %[s :at fraction ( ?is maximum quantity occurs 9 a giv5 case1 :5 ! vap\r does n saturate ! space occupi$ by ! gas4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! degree ( moi/ure equals #ej p4c4--t is1 half ! maximum--!n ! volume ( dry gas at #gfj mm4 is equal to ! volume ( dry gas at #gfj mm4 multipli$ by 7h-#je;f7_/#gfj1 or1 9 g5]al1 by 7h-rf7_/#gfj :]e r is ! degree ( moi/ure4 ,?us1 if x is requir$ to measure ! volume ( a moi/ gas1 x mu/ ei!r be ?or\ghly dri$ or q saturat$ ) moi/ure1 or else ! degree ( moi/ure det]m9$4 ,! fir/ & la/ me?ods are inconv5i5t1 & !re=e rec\rse is usually _h to ! second4 ,= ?is purpose wat] is introduc$ into ! cyl9d] hold+ ! gas to be measur$2 x is left = a c]ta9 "t s t ! gas may become saturat$1 ! precaution be+ tak5 t a portion ( ! wat] rema9s 9 a liquid /ate2 !n ! volume ( ! moi/ gas is det]m9$1 f :i* t ( ! dry gas may be calculat$4 ,9 ord] to f9d ! weight ( ! aque\s vap\r 9 a gas x is necess>y to "k ! weight ( a cubic measure at #j & #gfj mm4 ,kn[+ t "o cubic c5timetre ( air 9 ^! circum/ances weighs #jjjabic gram1 & t ! d5sity ( aque\s vap\r is #jfb1 we f9d t "o cubic c5timetre ( aque\s vap\r at #j & #gfj mm4 weighs #jjjjh gram1 & at a temp]ature t & pressure h ! weight ( "o cubic c5timetre w be #jjjjh h_/#gfj #bgc_/7bgc t74 ,we already "k t v volumes ( a gas at a temp]ature t pressure h conta9 v f_/h volumes ( aque\s vap\r :i* saturate x1 !re=e ! weight ( ! aque\s vap\r held 9 v volumes ( a gas w be v x #jjjjh f_/#gfj #bgc_/7bgc t74 ,accord+ly1 ! weight ( wat] :i* is conta9$ 9 "o volume ( a gas dep5ds only on ! temp]ature & n on ! pressure4 ,?is also signifies t evaporation proce$s to ! same ext5t 9 air z 9 a vacuum1 or1 9 g5]al t]ms 7?is is ,dalton's law71 vap\rs & gases diffuse into ea* o!r z if into a vacuum4 ,9 a giv5 space1 at a giv5 temp]ature1 a con/ant quantity ( vap\r ent]s1 :atev] be ! pressure ( ! gas fill+ t space4 ,f ?is x is cle> t if ! weight ( ! vap\r conta9$ 9 a giv5 volume ( a gas be kn[n1 x is easy to det]m9e ! degree ( moi/ure r p_/7v #jjjjh7 #gfj_/t 7#bgc t7_/#bgc4 ,on ! is f\nd$ ! v exact det]m9ation ( ! degree ( moi/ure ( air by ! weight ( wat] conta9$ 9 a giv5 volume4 ,x is easy to calculate f ! prec$+ =mula ! numb] ( grams ( wat] conta9$ at any pressure 9 "o cubic metre or million cubic c5timetres ( air saturat$ ) vap\r at v>i\s temp]atures2 = in/ance1 at #cj f #cae1 h5ce p #bihd grams4 ,! laws ( ,m>iotte1 ,dalton1 & ,gay-,lussac1 :i* are "h appli$ to gases & vap\rs1 are n entirely exact1 b are approximately true4 ,if !y 7 q exact1 a mixture ( sev]al liquids1 hav+ a c]ta9 vap\r pressure1 w\ld give vap\rs ( a v high pressure1 :i* is n ! case4 ,9 fact ! pressure ( aque\s vap\r is slightly less 9 a gas ?an 9 a vacuum1 & ! weight ( aque\s vap\r held 9 a gas is slightly less ?an x %\ld be accord+ to ,dalton's law1 z 0 %[n by ! exp]im5ts ( ,regnault & o!rs4 ,?is means t ! t5sion ( ! vap\r is less 9 air ?an 9 a vacuum4 ,! diff]5ce does n1 h[ev]1 exce$ #e p] c5t4 ( ! total pressure ( ! vap\rs4 ,?is decrem5t 9 vap\r t5sion :i* occurs 9 ! int]mixture ( vap\rs & gases1 al?\gh small1 indicates t !re is !n already1 s to speak1 a beg9n+ ( *emical *ange4 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] is t 9 ?is case !re occurs1 z on contact 7see prec$+ footnote71 an alt]ation 9 ! motions ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules1 & !re=e also a *ange 9 ! motion ( ! molecules !mselves4 ,9 ! uni=m int]mixture ( air & o!r gases ) aque\s vap\r1 & 9 ! capacity ( wat] to pass into vap\r & =m a uni=m mixture ) air1 we may p]ceive an in/ance ( a physical ph5om5on :i* is analog\s to *emical ph5om5a1 =m+ inde$ a transition f "o class ( ph5om5a to ! o!r4 ,betwe5 wat] & dry air !re exi/s a k9d ( aff9ity :i* obliges ! wat] to saturate ! air4 ,b su* a homog5e\s mixture is =m$ 7almo/7 indep5d5tly ( ! nature ( ! gas 9 :i* evaporation takes place2 ev5 9 a vacuum ! ph5om5on occurs 9 exactly ! same way z 9 a gas1 & !re=e x is n ! prop]ty ( ! gas1 nor its relation to wat]1 b ! prop]ty ( ! wat] itself1 :i* compels x to evaporate1 & !re=e 9 ?is case *emical aff9ity is n yet op]ative--at lea/ its action is n cle>ly pron\nc$4 ,t x does1 h[ev]1 play a c]ta9 "p is se5 f ! deviation f ,dalton's law4 #b ,9 fall+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 wat] dissolves ! gases ( ! atmosph]e1 nitric acid1 ammonia1 organic comp\nds1 salts ( sodium1 magnesium1 & calcium1 & me*anically wa%es out a mixture ( du/ & microbes :i* are susp5d$ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! am\nt ( ^! & c]ta9 o!r con/itu5ts is v v>iable4 ,ev5 9 ! beg9n+ & end ( ! same ra9fall a v>iation :i* is (t5 v consid]able may be rem>k$4 ,?us1 = example1 ,buns5 f\nd t ra9 collect$ at ! beg9n+ ( a %[] conta9$ #cg grams ( ammonia p] cubic metre1 :il/ t collect$ at ! end ( ! same %[] conta9$ only ,o#fd gram4 ,! wat] ( ! entire %[] conta9$ an av]age ( #adg gram ( ammonia p] cubic metre4 ,9 ! c\rse ( a ye> ra9 supplies an acre ( gr\nd ) z mu* z #e-a_/b kilos ( nitrog5 9 a comb9$ =m4 ,m>*& f\nd 9 "o cubic metre ( sn[ wat] #aefc1 & 9 "o cubic metre ( ra9 wat] #ajjg1 grams ( sodium sulphate4 ,angus ,smi? %[$ t aft] a ?irty h\rs' fall at ,man*e/] ! ra9 /ill conta9$ #cdc grams ( salts p] cubic metre4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( organic matt]1 namely #be grams p] cubic metre1 has be5 f\nd 9 ra9 wat]4 ,! total am\nt ( solid matt] 9 ra9 wat] rea*es #ej grams p] cubic metre4 ,ra9 wat] g5]ally conta9s v little c>bonic acid1 :il/ riv] wat] conta9s a consid]able quantity ( x4 ,9 consid]+ ! n\ri%m5t ( plants x is necess>y to keep 9 view ! sub/ances :i* are c>ri$ into ! soil by ra94 ,riv] wat]1 :i* is accumulat$ f spr+s & s\rces f$ by atmosph]ic wat]1 conta9s f #ej to #a1fjj p>ts by weight ( salts 9 #a1jjj1jjj p>ts4 ,! am\nt ( solid matt]1 p] #a1jjj1jjj p>ts by weight1 conta9$ 9 ! *ief riv]s is z foll[s3--! ,don #abd1 ! ,loire #ace1 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce #agj1 ! ,rhone #ahb1 ! ,dniep] #ahg1 ! ,danube f #aag to #bcd1 ! ,rh9e f #aeh to #cag1 ! ,se9e f #aij to #dcb1 ! ,?ames at ,london f #djj to #dej1 9 its upp] p>ts #chg1 & 9 its l[] p>ts up to #a1fag1 ! ,nile #a1ehj1 ! ,jordan #a1jeb4 ,! ,neva is *>act]is$ by ! rem>kably small am\nt ( solid matt] x conta9s4 ,f ! inve/igations ( ,pr(4 ,g4 ,k4 ,trapp1 a cubic metre ( ,neva wat] conta9s #cb grams ( incombu/ible & #bc grams ( organic matt]1 or altoge!r ab\t #ee grams4 ,?is is "o ( ! pure/ wat]s :i* is kn[n 9 riv]s4 ,! l>ge am\nt ( impurities 9 riv] wat]1 & especially ( organic impurity produc$ by pollution ) putrid matt]1 makes ! wat] ( _m riv]s unfit = use4 ,! *ief "p ( ! soluble sub/ances 9 riv] wat] consi/s ( ! calcium salts4 #ajj p>ts ( ! solid residues conta9 ! foll[+ am\nts ( calcium c>bonate--f ! wat] ( ! ,loire #ec1 f ! ,?ames ab\t #ej1 ! ,elbe #ee1 ! ,vi/ula #fe1 ! ,danube #fe1 ! ,rh9e f #ee to #ge1 ! ,se9e #ge1 ! ,rhone f #hb to #id4 ,! ,neva conta9s #dj p>ts ( calcium c>bonate p] #ajj p>ts ( sal9e matt]4 ,! consid]able am\nt ( calcium c>bonate :i* riv] wat] conta9s is v easily expla9$ f ! fact t wat] :i* conta9s c>bonic acid 9 solution easily dissolves calcium c>bonate1 :i* occurs all ov] ! e>?4 ,besides calcium c>bonate & sulphate1 riv] wat] conta9s magnesium1 silica1 *lor9e1 sodium1 potassium1 alum9ium1 nitric acid1 iron & manganese4 ,! pres5ce ( salts ( phosphoric acid has n yet be5 det]m9$ ) exactitude = all riv]s1 b ! pres5ce ( nitrates has be5 prov$ ) c]ta9ty 9 almo/ all k9ds ( well-inve/igat$ riv] wat]4 ,! quantity ( calcium phosphate does n exce$ #jd gram 9 ! wat] ( ! ,dniep]1 & ! ,don does n conta9 m ?an #e grams4 ,! wat] ( ! ,se9e conta9s ab\t #ae grams ( nitrates1 & t ( ! ,rhone ab\t #h grams4 ,! am\nt ( ammonia is mu* less2 ?us 9 ! wat] ( ! ,rh9e ab\t #je gram 9 ,june1 & #jb gram 9 ,octob]2 ! wat] ( ! ,se9e conta9s ! same am\nt4 ,?is is less ?an 9 ra9 wat]4 ,not)/&+ ?is insignificant quantity1 ! wat] ( ! ,rh9e alone1 :i* is n s v l>ge a riv]1 c>ries #af1bde kilograms ( ammonia into ! ocean e day4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! am\nt ( ammonia 9 ra9 & riv] wat] dep5ds on ! fact t ! soil ?r\gh :i* ! ra9 wat] passes is able to reta9 ! ammonia4 7,soil c also absorb _m o!r sub/ances1 su* z phosphoric acid1 potassium salts1 c47 ,! wat]s ( spr+s1 riv]s1 wells1 & 9 g5]al ( ^? localities f :i* x is tak5 = dr9k+ purposes1 may be injuri\s to heal? if x conta9s mu* organic pollution1 ! m s z 9 su* wat] ! l[] organisms 7bact]ia7 may rapidly develop1 & ^! organisms (t5 s]ve z ! c>ri]s or causes ( infecti\s diseases4 ,= in/ance1 c]ta9 pa?og5ic 7disease-produc+7 bact]ia are kn[n to produce typhoid1 ! ,sib]ian plague1 & *ol]a4 ,?anks to ! "w ( ,pa/eur1 ,met*nik(f1 ,ko*1 & _m o!rs1 ?is prov9ce ( rese>* has made consid]able progress4 ,x is possible to inve/igate ! numb] & prop]ties ( ! g]ms 9 wat]4 ,9 bact]iological rese>*es a gelat9\s m$ium 9 :i* ! g]ms c develop & multiply is prep>$ ) gelat9 & wat]1 :i* has previ\sly be5 heat$ sev]al times1 at int]vals1 to #ajj 7x is ?us r5d]$ /]ile--t is to say1 all ! g]ms 9 x are kill$74 ,! wat] to be inve/igat$ is add$ to ?is prep>$ m$ium 9 a def9ite & small quantity 7sometimes dilut$ ) /]ilis$ wat] to facilitate ! calculation ( ! numb] ( g]ms71 x is protect$ f du/ 7:i* conta9s g]ms71 & is left at re/ until :ole families ( l[] organisms are develop$ f ea* g]m4 ,^! families 7colonies7 are visible to ! nak$ eye 7z spots71 !y may be c\nt$1 & by exam9+ !m "u ! microscope & obs]v+ ! numb] ( organisms !y produce1 _! significance may be det]m9$4 ,! majority ( bact]ia are h>mless1 b !re are decid$ly pa?og5ic bact]ia1 ^: pres5ce is "o ( ! causes ( malady & ( ! spread ( c]ta9 diseases4 ,! numb] ( bact]ia 9 "o cubic c5timetre ( wat] sometimes atta9s ! imm5se figures ( hundr$s ( ?\s&s & millions4 ,c]ta9 well1 spr+1 & riv] wat]s conta9 v few bact]ia1 & are free f disease-produc+ bact]ia "u ord9>y circum/ances4 ,by boil+ wat]1 ! bact]ia 9 x are kill$1 b ! organic matt] necess>y = _! n\ri%m5t rema9s 9 ! wat]4 ,! be/ k9ds ( wat] = dr9k+ purposes d n conta9 m ?an #cjj bact]ia 9 a cubic c5timetre4 ,! am\nt ( gases dissolv$ 9 riv] wat] is mu* m con/ant ?an t ( its solid con/itu5ts4 ,"o litre1 or #a1jjj c4c41 ( wat] conta9s #dj to #ee c4c4 ( gas measur$ at normal temp]ature & pressure4 ,9 w9t] ! am\nt ( gas is great] ?an 9 summ] or autumn4 ,assum+ t a litre conta9s #ej c4c4 ( gases1 x may be admitt$ t ^! consi/1 on an av]age1 ( #bj vols4 ( nitrog51 #bj vols ( c>bonic anhydride 7proce$+ 9 all likelihood f ! soil & n f ! atmosph]e71 & ( #aj vols4 ( oxyg54 ,if ! total am\nt ( gases be less1 ! con/itu5t gases are /ill 9 ab\t ! same proportion2 9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 c>bonic anhydride pr$om9ates4 ,! wat] ( _m deep & rapid riv]s conta9s less c>bonic anhydride1 :i* %[s _! rapid =mation f atmosph]ic wat]1 & t !y h n succe$$1 dur+ a long & sl[ c\rse1 9 absorb+ a great] quantity ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! wat] ( ! ,rh9e1 ne> ,/rasburg1 accord+ to ,deville1 conta9s #h c4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride1 #af c4c4 ( nitrog51 & #g c4c4 ( oxyg5 p] litre4 ,f ! rese>*es ( ,pr(4 ,m4 ,r4 ,kap\/9 & 8 pupils1 x appe>s t 9 det]m9+ ! quality ( a wat] = dr9k+ purposes1 x is mo/ important to inve/igate ! composition ( ! dissolv$ gases1 m especially oxyg54 #c ,spr+ wat] is =m$ f ra9 wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! soil4 ,naturally a "p ( ! ra9 wat] is evaporat$ directly f ! surface ( ! e>? & f ! vegetation on x4 ,x has be5 %[n t out ( #ajj p>ts ( wat] fall+ on ! e>? only #cf p>ts fl[ to ! ocean2 ! rema9+ #fd are evaporat$1 or p]colate f> und]gr\nd4 ,aft] fl[+ und]gr\nd along "s imp]vi\s /rata1 wat] comes out at ! surface 9 _m places z spr+s1 ^: temp]ature is det]m9$ by ! dep? f :i* ! wat] has fl[$4 ,spr+s p5etrat+ to a great dep? may become consid]ably heat$1 & ?is is :y hot m9]al spr+s1 ) a temp]ature ( up to #cj & high]1 are (t5 met )4 ,:5 a spr+ wat] conta9s sub/ances :i* end[ x ) a peculi> ta/e1 & especially if ^! sub/ances are su* z are only f\nd 9 m9ute quantities 9 riv] & o!r fl[+ wat]s1 !n ! spr+ wat] is t]m$ a m9]al wat]4 ,_m su* wat]s are employ$ = m$ic9al purposes4 ,m9]al wat]s are class$ accord+ to _! composition into--7a7 sal9e wat]s1 :i* (t5 conta9 a l>ge am\nt ( common salt2 7b7 alkal9e wat]s1 :i* conta9 sodium c>bonate2 7c7 bitt] wat]s1 :i* conta9 magnesia2 7d7 *alybeate wat]s1 :i* hold iron c>bonate 9 solution2 7e7 arat$ wat]s1 :i* are ri* 9 c>bonic anhydride2 7f7 sulphurett$ wat]s1 :i* conta9 hydrog5 sulphide4 ,sulphurett$ wat]s may be recognis$ by _! smell ( rott5 eggs1 & by _! giv+ a black precipitate ) lead salts1 & also by _! t>ni%+ silv] objects4 ,arat$ wat]s1 :i* conta9 an excess ( c>bonic anhydride1 eff]vesce 9 ! air1 h a %>p ta/e1 & r$d5 litmus pap]4 ,sal9e wat]s leave a l>ge residue ( soluble solid matt] on evaporation1 & h a salt ta/e4 ,*alybeate wat]s h an inky ta/e1 & are col\r$ black by an infusion ( galls2 on be+ expos$ to ! air !y usually give a br[n precipitate4 ,g5]ally1 ! "* ( m9]al wat]s is mix$4 ,9 ! table bel[ ! analyses are giv5 ( c]ta9 m9]al spr+s :i* are valu$ = _! m$ic9al prop]ties4 ,! quantity ( ! sub/ances is express$ 9 million?s by weight4 ,column ,head+s3 ,a3 ,calcium salts ,b3 ,sodium *loride ,c3 ,sodium sulphate ,d3 ,sodium c>bonate ,e3 ,potassium iodide & bromide ---------------------------------------- ------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ---------------------------------------- ------- ,i4 #a1ibh -- #aeb -- -- #bd ,,ii4 #haf #chf #a1bci #bf -- #dc ,,iii4 #a1jhe #a1dcj #a1aje -- #d #ij ,,iv4 #cdc #c1ghc #af #c1dca -- #ad ,v4 #c1djf #ae1jdi -- -- #b -- ,,vi4 #ceb #c1ade -- #ie #ce #ej ,,vii4 #cjh #a1jcf #b1ehc #a1bfa #d #agh ,,viii4 #a1gbf #i1dhj -- -- #dj #abj ,,ix4 #eea #b1jdj #a1aej #iii -- #a ,x4 #bhe #eeh #bgi #c1hac -- -- ,,xi4 #cdj #iaj ,iron & alum9ium #a1jbj sulphates3 #a1ffj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,column ,head+s3 ,g3 ,iron c>bonate ,h3 ,magnesium salts ,i3 ,silica ,j3 ,c>bonic anhydride ,k3 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 ,l3 ,total solid cont5ts ---------------------------------------- -------- ,g ,h ,i ,j ,k ,l ---------------------------------------- -------- ,i4 -- #ddh #aeb #a1cjj #hj #b1fji ,,ii4 #i #beg #df #a1dhe -- #b1hab ,,iii4 -- #ahg #fe #a1cbf #aa #c1iej ,,iv4 -- #bea #aab #b1hhc -- #g1iej ,v4 #ag #a1ehg #bbi -- #gf #bj1bij ,,vi4 #a #bfj #aa #bj -- #c1igj ,,vii4 #d #agh #ge -- -- #e1dea ,,viii4 #bf #bjh #dj -- -- #aa1gij ,,ix4 #cj #bji #ej #b1gdj -- #d1jgj ,x4 #g #de #de #b1bfh -- #e1jca ,sulphuric ,,xi4 #idj #aij #b1eej & hydro*loric #ccj acids ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,i4 ,s]gieffsky1 a sulphur wat]1 ,gov4 ( ,sam>a 7temp4 #h ,c471 analysis by ,clause4 ,,ii4 ,gelznovodskya wat] s\rce ,no4 #aj1 ne> ,patigorsk1 ,caucasus 7temp4 #bbe71 analysis by ,fritzs*e4 ,,iii4 ,aleks&r(fsky1 alkal9e-sulphur s\rce1 ,patigorsk 7temp4 #dfe71 av]age ( analyses by ,h]man1 ,z99 & ,fritzs*e4 ,,iv4 ,b\g\nt\ksky1 alkal9e s\rce1 ,no4 #ag1 ,ess5t\kah1 ,caucasus 7temp4 #baf71 analysis by ,fritzs*e4 ,v4 ,sal9e wat]1 ,/>o-,russi1 ,gov4 ( ,novgorod1 analysis by ,nelub94 ,,vi4 ,wat] f artesian well at ! factory ( /ate pap]s1 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 analysis by ,/ruve4 ,,vii4 ,sprdel1 ,c>lsbad 7temp4 #hcg71 analysis by ,b]zelius4 ,,viii4 ,kreuzna* spr+ 7,elis5quelle71 ,prussia 7temp4 #hh71 analysis by ,bau]4 ,,ix4 ,eau de ,seltz1 ,nassau1 analysis by ,h5ry4 ,x4 ,vi*y wat]1 ,france1 analysis by ,b]?i] & ,puvy4 ,,xi4 ,p>amo de ,ruiz1 ,new ,granada1 analysis by ,levy2 x is di/+ui%$ by ! am\nt ( free acids4 #d ,sea wat] conta9s m non-volatile sal9e con/itu5ts ?an ! usual k9ds ( fre% wat]4 ,?is is expla9$ by ! fact t ! wat]s fl[+ into ! sea supply x ) salts1 & :il/ a l>ge quantity ( vap\r is giv5 (f f ! surface ( ! sea1 ! salts rema9 beh9d4 ,ev5 ! specific gravity ( sea wat] diff]s consid]ably f t ( pure wat]4 ,x is g5]ally ab\t #ajb1 b 9 ?is & also 9 respect ( ! am\nt ( salts conta9$1 samples ( sea wat] f diff]5t localities & f diff]5t dep?s (f] r rem>kable v>iations4 ,x w be suffici5t to po9t out t "o cubic metre ( wat] f ! und]m5tion$ localities conta9s ! foll[+ quantity 9 grams ( solid con/itu5ts3--,gulf ( ,v5ice1 #ai1abb2 ,leghorn ,h>b\r #bd1cab2 ,m$it]ranean1 ne> ,cetta1 #cg1ffe2 ! ,atlantic ,ocean f #cb1ehe to #ce1fie12 ! ,pacific ,ocean f #ce1bcc to #cd1gjh4 ,9 clos$ seas :i* d n communicate1 or are 9 v di/ant communication1 ) ! ocean1 ! diff]5ce is (t5 /ill great]4 ,?us ! ,caspian ,sea conta9s #f1cjj grams2 ! ,black ,sea & ,baltic #ag1gjj4 ,common salt =ms ! *ief con/itu5t ( ! sal9e matt] ( sea or ocean wat]2 ?us 9 "o cubic metre ( sea wat] !re are #be1jjj-ca1jjj grams ( common salt1 #b1fjj-f1jjj grams ( magnesium *loride1 #a1bjj-g1jjj grams ( magnesium sulphate1 #a1ejj-f1jjj grams ( calcium sulphate1 & #aj-gjj grams ( potassium *loride4 ,! small am\nt ( organic matt] & ( ! salts ( phosphoric acid 9 sea wat] is v rem>kable4 ,sea wat] 7! composition ( :i* is p>tially discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,x47 conta9s1 9 addition to salts ( common occurr5ce1 a c]ta9 & sometimes m9ute am\nt ( ! mo/ v>i$ elem5ts1 ev5 gold & silv]1 & z ! mass ( wat] ( ! oceans is s enorm\s ^! 'traces' ( r>e sub/ances am\nt to l>ge quantities1 s t x may be hop$ t 9 "t me?ods w be f\nd to extract ev5 gold f sea wat]1 :i* by means ( ! riv]s =ms a va/ res]voir = ! num]\s products ( ! *anges tak+ place on ! e>?'s surface4 ,! works ( ,engli%1 ,am]ican1 ,g]man1 ,russian1 ,sw$i%1 & o!r navigators & obs]v]s prove t a /udy ( ! composition ( sea wat] n only expla9s mu* 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?'s life1 b also gives ! possibility 7especially s9ce ! rese>*es ( ,c4 ,o4 ,mak>(f ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy7 ( fix+ "o's position 9 ! ocean 9 ! abs5ce ( o!r means1 = in/ance1 9 a fog1 or 9 ! d>k4 ,9 g5]al t]ms wat] is call$ pure :5 x is cle> & free f insoluble p>ticles held 9 susp5sion & visible to ! nak$ eye1 f :i* x may be fre$ by filtration ?r\gh *>coal1 s&1 or por\s 7natural or artificial7 /ones1 & :5 x possesses a clean fre% ta/e4 ,x dep5ds on ! abs5ce ( any ta/e1 decompos+ organic matt]1 on ! quantity ( air#e & atmosph]ic gases 9 solution1 & on ! pres5ce ( m9]al sub/ances to ! am\nt ( ab\t #cjj grams p] ton 7or #ajjj kilograms p] cubic metre1 or1 :at is ! same1 #cjj milligrams to a kilogram or a litre ( wat]71 & ( n m ?an #ajj grams ( organic matt]4#f ,su* wat] is suitable = dr9k+ & e practical application1 b evid5tly x is n pure 9 a *emical s5se4 ,a *emically pure wat] is necess>y n only = sci5tific purposes1 z an indep5d5t sub/ance hav+ con/ant & def9ite prop]ties1 b also = _m practical purposes--= in/ance1 9 photography & 9 ! prep>ation ( m$ic9es--because _m prop]ties ( sub/ances 9 solution are *ang$ by ! impurities ( natural wat]s4 ,wat] is usually purifi$ by di/illation1 because ! solid sub/ances 9 solution are n trans=m$ into vap\rs 9 ?is process4 ,su* di/ill$ wat] is prep>$ by *emi/s & 9 laboratories by boil+ wat] 9 clos$ metallic boil]s or /ills1 & caus+ ! /eam produc$ to pass into a cond5s]--t is1 ?r\gh tubes 7:i* %\ld be made ( t91 or1 at all ev5ts1 t9n$1 z wat] & its impurities d n act on t97 surr\nd$ by cold wat]1 & 9 :i* ! /eam1 be+ cool$1 cond5ses into wat] :i* is collect$#g 9 a receiv]4 ,by /&+ expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 h[ev]1 ! wat] 9 "t absorbs air1 & du/ c>ri$ 9 ! air4 ,nev]!less1 9 di/illation1 wat] reta9s1 besides air1 a c]ta9 quantity ( volatile impurities 7especially organic7 & ! walls ( ! di/illation app>atus are p>tly corrod$ by ! wat]1 & a portion1 al?\gh small1 ( _! sub/ance r5d]s ! wat] n entirely pure1 & a residue is left on evaporation4#h #e ,! ta/e ( wat] is greatly dep5d5t on ! quantity ( dissolv$ gases x conta9s4 ,^! gases are giv5 (f on boil+1 & x is well kn[n t1 ev5 :5 cool$1 boil$ wat] has1 until x has absorb$ gase\s sub/ances f ! atmosph]e1 q a diff]5t ta/e f fre% wat] conta9+ a consid]able am\nt ( gas4 ,! dissolv$ gases1 especially oxyg5 & c>bonic anhydride1 h an important influ5ce on ! heal?4 ,! foll[+ in/ance is v in/ructive 9 ?is respect4 ,! ,gr5elle artesian well at ,p>is1 :5 fir/ op5$1 suppli$ a wat] :i* _h an injuri\s effect on m5 & animals4 ,x appe>$ t ?is wat] did n conta9 oxyg51 & 0 9 g5]al v poor 9 gases4 ,z soon z x 0 made to fall 9 a cascade1 by :i* x absorb$ air1 x prov$ q fit = consumption4 ,9 long sea voyages fre% wat] is sometimes n tak5 at all1 or only tak5 9 a small quantity1 because x spoils by keep+1 & becomes putrid f ! organic matt] x conta9s und]go+ decomposition4 ,fre% wat] may he obta9$ directly f sea-wat] by di/illation4 ,! di/ill$ wat] no long] conta9s sea salts1 & is !re=e fit = consumption1 b x is v ta/eless & has ! prop]ties ( boil$ wat]4 ,9 ord] to r5d] x palatable c]ta9 salts1 :i* are usually held 9 fre% wat]1 are add$ to x1 & x is made to fl[ 9 ?9 /reams expos$ to ! air 9 ord] t x may become saturat$ ) ! compon5t p>ts ( ! atmosph]e--t is1 absorb gases4 #f ,h>d wat] is su* z conta9s mu* m9]al matt]1 & especially a l>ge proportion ( calcium salts4 ,su* wat]1 ow+ to ! am\nt ( lime x conta9s1 does n =m a la!r ) soap1 prev5ts vegetables boil$ 9 x f s(t5+ prop]ly1 & =ms a l>ge am\nt ( incru/ation on vessels 9 :i* x is boil$4 ,:5 ( a high degree ( h>dness1 x is injuri\s = dr9k+ purposes1 :i* is evid5t f ! fact t 9 sev]al l>ge cities ! dea?-rate has be5 f\nd to decrease aft] introduc+ a s(t wat] 9 ! place ( a h>d wat]4 ,putrid wat] conta9s a consid]able quantity ( decompos+ organic matt]1 *iefly vegetable1 b 9 populat$ di/ricts1 especially 9 t[ns1 *iefly animal rema9s4 ,su* wat] acquires an unpleasant smell & ta/e1 by :i* /agnant bog wat] & ! wat] ( c]ta9 wells 9 inhabit$ di/ricts are p>ticul>ly *>act]is$4 ,wat] ( ?is k9d is especially injuri\s at a p]iod ( epidemic4 ,x may be p>tially purifi$ by be+ pass$ ?r\gh *>coal1 :i* reta9s ! putrid & c]ta9 organic sub/ances1 & also c]ta9 m9]al sub/ances4 ,turbid wat] may be purifi$ to a c]ta9 ext5t by ! addition ( alum1 :i* aids1 aft] /&+ "s "t1 ! =mation ( a s$im5t4 ,condy's fluid 7potassium p]manganate7 is ano!r means ( purify+ putrid wat]4 ,a solution ( ?is sub/ance1 ev5 if v dilute1 is ( a r$ col\r2 on add+ x to a putrid wat]1 ! p]manganate oxidises & de/roys ! organic matt]4 ,:5 add$ to wat] 9 su* a quantity z to imp>t to x an almo/ imp]ceptible rose col\r x de/roys mu* ( ! organic sub/ances x conta9s4 ,x is especially salut>y to add a small quantity ( ,condy's fluid to impure wat] 9 times ( epidemic4 ,! pres5ce 9 wat] ( "o gram p] litre1 or #a1jjj grams p] cubic metre1 ( any sub/ance :atsoev]1 r5d]s x unfit & ev5 injuri\s = consumption by animals1 & ?is :e!r organic or m9]al matt] pr$om9ates4 ,! pres5ce ( #a p4c4 ( *lorides makes wat] q salt1 & produces ?ir/ in/ead ( assuag+ x4 ,! pres5ce ( magnesium salts is mo/ unpleasant2 !y h a disagreeable bitt] ta/e1 &1 9 fact1 imp>t to sea wat] its peculi> ta/e4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( nitrates is only f\nd 9 impure wat]1 & is usually injuri\s1 z !y may indicate ! pres5ce ( decompos+ organic matt]4 #g ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,di/illation by means ( a metallic /ill4 ,! liquid 9 ,c is heat$ by ! fire ,f4 ,! vap\rs rise ?r\gh ! head ,a & pass by ! tube ,t to ! worm ,s plac$ 9 a vessel ,r1 ?r\gh :i* a curr5t ( cold wat] fl[s by means ( ! tubes ,d & ,p4 ,di/ill$ wat] may be prep>$1 or di/illation 9 g5]al c>ri$ on1 ei!r 9 a metal /ill ) worm cond5s] 7fig4 #d7 or on a small scale 9 ! laboratory 9 a glass retort 7fig4 #e7 heat$ by a lamp4 ,fig4 #e illu/rates ! ma9 p>ts ( ! usual glass laboratory app>atus us$ = di/illation4 ,! /eam issu+ f ! retort 7on ! "r-h& side7 passes ?r\gh a glass tube surr\nd$ by a l>g] tube1 ?r\gh :i* a /ream ( cold wat] passes1 by :i* ! /eam is cond5s$1 & runs into a receiv] 7on ! left-h& side74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,di/illation f a glass retort4 ,! neck ( ! retort fits into ! inn] tube ( ! ,liebig's cond5s]4 ,! space betwe5 ! inn] & out] tube ( ! cond5s] is fill$ ) cold wat]1 :i* ent]s by ! tube g & fl[s out at f4 #h ,"o ( ,lavoisi]'s fir/ memoirs 7#aggj7 ref]r$ to ?is "q4 ,he inve/igat$ ! =mation ( ! e>?y residue 9 ! di/illation ( wat] 9 ord] to prove :e!r x 0 possible1 z 0 affirm$1 to conv]t wat] into e>?1 & he f\nd t ! residue 0 produc$ by ! action ( wat] on ! sides ( ! vessel conta9+ x1 & n f ! wat] itself4 ,he prov$ ?is to be ! case by direct weigh+4 ,= c]ta9 physical & *emical rese>*es1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to h p]fectly pure wat]4 ,to obta9 x1 a solution ( potassium p]manganate is add$ to di/ill$ wat] until ! :ole is a light rose col\r4 ,by ?is means ! organic matt] 9 ! wat] is de/roy$ 7conv]t$ into gases or non-volatile sub/ances74 ,an excess ( potassium p]manganate does no h>m1 because 9 ! next di/illation x is left beh9d 9 ! di/illation app>atus4 ,! second di/illation %\ld take place 9 a plat9um retort ) a plat9um receiv]4 ,plat9um is a metal :i* is n act$ on ei!r by air or wat]1 & !re=e no?+ passes f x into ! wat]4 ,! wat] obta9$ 9 ! receiv] /ill conta9s air4 ,x mu/ !n be boil$ = a long "t1 & aft]w>ds cool$ 9 a vacuum "u ! receiv] ( an air pump4 ,pure wat] does n leave any residue on evaporation2 does n 9 ! lea/ *ange1 h[ev] long x be kept2 does n decompose l wat] only once di/ill$ or impure2 & x does n give bubbles ( gas on heat+1 nor does x *ange ! col\r ( a solution ( potassium p]manganate4 ,wat]1 purifi$ z above describ$1 has con/ant physical & *emical prop]ties4 ,= in/ance1 x is ( su* wat] only t "o cubic c5timetre weighs "o gram at #d ,c4--i4e4 x is only su* pure wat] ^: specific gravity equals #a at #d ,c4#i ,wat] 9 a solid /ate =ms cry/als ( ! hexagonal sy/em#aj :i* are se5 9 sn[1 :i* g5]ally consi/s ( />-l clu/]s ( sev]al cry/als1 & also 9 ! half-melt$ scatt]$ ice float+ on riv]s 9 spr+ "t4 ,at ?is "t ( ! ye> ! ice splits up into sp>s or prisms1 b\nd$ by angles prop] to sub/ances cry/allis+ 9 ! hexagonal sy/em4 #i ,tak+ ! g5]ally-accept$ specific gravity ( wat] at its greate/ d5sity--i4e4 at #d z "o--x has be5 %[n by exp]im5t t ! specific gravity ( wat] at diff]5t temp]atures is z foll[s3 ,at #j #jiiihg ,at #cj #jiiegd #aj #jiiigd #dj #jiibcc #ae #jiiiae #ej #jihhag #bj #jiihbg #ajj #jiehei ,a comp>ison ( all ! data at pres5t kn[n %[s t ! v>iation ( ! specific gravity ,st ) ! temp]ature t 7det]m9$ by ! m]curial !rmomet]7 maybe express$ 7,m5deleff #ahia7 by ! =mula ,st #a - 7t-#d7b_/7ida t7 7#gjcea-t7 #ai ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- t ,c4 ,v>iation ( sp4 gr4 ) accord+ ,sp4 gr4 ,st a rise ( ,volume to ! 7at #d --------------------------tak+ vol4 m]curial #a1jjj1jjj7 ,temp4 p] #a;,c4,pressure p] at #d #a !rmomet] or ds_/dt #a atmosph]e or ds_/dp ---------------------------------------- --------------------- -#aj #iih1bha #bfd #ed #a1jja1gbb #j #iii1hgc #fe #ej #a1jjj1abg #aj #iii1gch -#he #dg #a1jjj1bfb #bj #iih1bgb -#bjc #de #a1jja1gca #cj #iie1gdc -#bii #dc #a1jjd1bgf #ej #ihh1agd -#dej #dj #a1jaa1ifg #gj #igg1idh -#efi #ci #a1jbb1edi #ij #ife1ecg -#fgj #da #a1jce1fib #ajj #ieh1eie -#gah #db #a1jdc1aid #abj #idc1had -#haj #dc #a1jfj1jic #afj #ijg1bfc -#iie #ee #a1ajb1baf #bjj #hfc1dgc -#a1bjj #gc #a1aeh1aad ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,if ! temp]ature be det]m9$ by ! hydrog5 !rmomet]1 ^: indications betwe5 #j & #ajj are slightly l[] ?an ! m]curial 7= example1 ab\t #ja ,c4 at #bj71 !n a slightly small] sp4 gr4 w be obta9$ = a giv5 t4 ,?us ,*appuis 7#ahib7 obta9$ #jiihbcc = #bj4 ,wat] at #d is tak5 z ! basis = r$uc+ measures ( l5g? to measures ( weight & volume4 ,! metric1 decimal1 sy/em ( measures ( weights & volumes is g5]ally employ$ 9 sci5ce4 ,! />t+ po9t ( ?is sy/em is ! metre 7#cicg in*es7 divid$ into decimetres 7 #ja metre71 c5timetres 7 #jja metre71 millimetres 7 #jjja metre71 & micrometres 7 "o million? ( a metre74 ,a cubic decimetre is call$ a litre1 & is us$ = ! measurem5t ( volumes4 ,! weight ( a litre ( wat] at #d 9 a vacuum is call$ a kilogram4 ,"o ?\s&? "p ( a kilogram ( wat] weighs "o gram4 ,x is divid$ into decigrams1 c5tigrams1 & milligrams 7 #jjja gram74 ,an ,engli% p\nd equals #decei grams4 ,! great advantage ( ?is sy/em is t x is a decimal "o1 & t x is univ]sally adopt$ 9 sci5ce & 9 mo/ int]national relations4 ,all ! measures cit$ 9 ?is "w are metrical4 ,! units mo/ (t5 us$ 9 sci5ce are3--,( l5g?1 ! c5timetre2 ( weight1 ! gram2 ( "t1 ! second2 ( temp]ature1 ! degree ,celsius or ,c5tigrade4 ,accord+ to ! mo/ tru/wor?y det]m9ations 7,kupf] 9 ,russia #ahda1 & ,*aney 9 ,engl& #ahib71 ! weight ( a c4 dcm4 ( wat] at #d 9 vacuo is ab\t #iiii grms4 ,= ord9>y purposes ! weight ( a c4 dcg4 may be tak5 z equal to a kg4 ,h5ce ! litre 7det]m9$ by ! weight ( wat] x holds7 is slightly great] ?an a cubic decimetre4 #aj ,z solid sub/ances appe> 9 indep5d5t1 regul>1 cry/all9e =ms :i* are dep5d5t1 judg+ f _! cleavage or lam9ation 79 virtue ( :i* mica breaks1 up into lam9ae1 & ,icel& sp>1 c41 into pieces b\nd$ by faces incl9$ to ea* o!r at angles :i* are def9ite = ea* sub/ance71 on an inequality ( attraction 7cohesion1 h>dness7 9 diff]5t directions :i* int]sect at def9ite angles ! det]m9ation ( cry/all9e =m !re=e af=ds "o ( ! mo/ important *>act]i/ics = id5tify+ def9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,! elem5ts ( cry/allography :i* comprise a special sci5ce %\ld !re=e he famili> to all :o desire to "w 9 sci5tific *emi/ry4 ,9 ?is "w we %all only h occasion to speak ( a few cry/all9e =ms1 "s ( :i* are %[n 9 figs4 #f to #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,example ( ! =m belong+ to ! regul> sy/em4 ,comb9ation ( an octah$ron & a cube4 ,! =m] pr$om9ates4 ,alum1 fluor sp>1 suboxide ( copp]1 & o!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,rhombic ,dodecah$ron ( ! regul> sy/em4 ,g>net4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,hexagonal prism t]m9at$ by hexagonal pyramids4 ,qu>tz1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,rhomboh$ron4 ,calc sp>1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,rhombic sy/em4 ,desm9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,tricl9ic pyramid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,tricl9ic sy/em4 ,albite1 c4 ,! temp]atures at :i* wat] passes f "o /ate to ano!r are tak5 z fix$ po9ts on ! !rmomet] scale2 namely1 ! z]o corresponds ) ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice1 & ! temp]ature ( ! /eam dis5gag$ f wat] boil+ at ! normal b>ometric pressure 7t is #gfj millimetres measur$ at #j1 at ! latitude ( #de1 at ! sea level7 is tak5 z #ajj ( ! ,celsius scale4 ,?us1 ! fact t wat] liquefies at #j & boils at #ajj is tak5 z "o ( its prop]ties z a def9ite *emical comp\nd4 ,! weight ( a litre ( wat] at #d is #a1jjj grams1 at #j x is #iiih grams4 ,! weight ( a litre ( ice at #j is less--namely1 #iag grams2 ! weight ( ! same cubic measure ( wat] vap\r at #gfj mm4 pressure & #ajj is only #jfj gram2 ! d5sity ( ! vap\r comp>$ ) air #jfb1 & comp>$ ) hydrog5 #i4 ,^! data briefly *>act]ise ! physical prop]ties ( wat] z a sep>ate sub/ance4 ,to ?is may be add$ t wat] is a mobile liquid1 col\rless1 transp>5t1 )\t ta/e or smell1 c4 ,its lat5t heat ( vaporisation is #ecd units1 ( liquefaction #gi units ( heat4#aa ,! l>ge am\nt ( heat /or$ up 9 wat] vap\r & also 9 liquid wat] 7= its specific heat is great] ?an t ( o!r liquids7 r5d]s x available 9 bo? =ms = heat+ purposes4 ,! *emical reactions :i* wat] und]goes1 & by means ( :i* x is =m$1 are s num]\s1 & s closely alli$ to ! reactions ( _m o!r sub/ances1 t x is impossible to describe ! majority ( !m at ?is e>ly /age ( *emical exposition4 ,we %all become acqua9t$ ) _m ( !m aft]w>ds1 b at pres5t we %all only cite c]ta9 comp\nds =m$ by wat]4 ,9 ord] to see cle>ly ! nature ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( comp\nds =m$ by wat] we w beg9 ) ! mo/ feeble1 :i* are det]m9$ by purely me*anical sup]ficial prop]ties ( ! react+ sub/ances4#ab #aa ,( all kn[n liquids1 wat] exhibits ! greate/ cohesion ( p>ticles4 ,inde$1 x asc5ds to a great] height 9 capill>y tubes ?an o!r liquids2 = in/ance1 two & a half times z high z alcohol1 ne>ly ?ree times z high z e!r1 & to a mu* great] height ?an oil ( vitriol1 c4 ,9 a tube "o mm4 9 diamet]1 wat] at #j asc5ds #aec mm41 measur+ f ! height ( ! liquid to two-?irds ( ! height ( ! m5iscus1 & at #ajj x rises #abe mm4 ,! cohesion v>ies v uni=mly ) ! temp]ature2 ?us at #ej ! height ( ! capill>y column equals #aci mm4--t is1 ! mean betwe5 ! columns at #j & #ajj4 ,?is uni=mity is n de/roy$ ev5 at temp]atures ne> ! freez+ po9t1 & h5ce x may be assum$ t at high temp]atures cohesion w v>y z uni=mly z at ord9>y temp]atures2 t is1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! columns at #j & #ajj be+ #bh mm41 ! height ( ! column at #ejj %\ld be #aeb-7e #bh7 #ab mm42 or1 9 o!r words1 at ^! high temp]atures ! cohesion betwe5 ! p>ticles ( wat] w\ld he almo/ nil4 ,only c]ta9 solutions 7sal ammoniac & li?ium *loride71 & ^! only ) a great excess ( wat]1 rise high] ?an pure wat] 9 capill>y tubes4 ,! great cohesion ( wat] d\btless det]m9es _m ( bo? its physical & *emical prop]ties4 ,! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o "p by weight ( wat] f #j to #a1 i4e4 by #a ,c41 is call$ ! unit ( heat or calorie2 ! specific heat ( liquid wat] at #j is tak5 z equal to unity4 ,! v>iation ( ?is specific heat ) a rise 9 temp]ature is inconsid]able 9 comp>ison ) ! v>iation exhibit$ by ! specific heats ( o!r liquids4 ,accord+ to ,ett+]1 ! specific heat ( wat] at #bj #ajaf1 at #ej #ajci1 & at #ajj #ajgc4 ,! specific heat ( wat] is great] ?an t ( any o!r kn[n liquid2 = example1 ! specific heat ( alcohol at #j is #jee--;i4e4 ! quantity ( heat :i* raises #ee p>ts ( wat] #a raises #ajj p>ts ( alcohol #a4 ,! specific heat ( oil ( turp5t9e at #j is #jda1 ( e!r #jec1 ( acetic acid #jebgd1 ( m]cury #jjcc4 ,h5ce wat] is ! be/ cond5s] or absorb] ( heat4 ,?is prop]ty ( wat] has an important significance 9 practice & 9 nature4 ,wat] prev5ts rapid cool+ or heat+1 & ?us temp]s cold & heat4 ,! specific heats ( ice & aque\s vap\r are mu* less ?an t ( wat]2 namely1 t ( ice is #jejd1 & ( /eam #jdh4 ,) an increase 9 pressure equal to "o atmosph]e1 ! compressibility ( wat] 7see ,note #i7 is #jjjjjdg1 ( m]cury #jjjjjjceb1 ( e!r #jjjjab at #j1 ( alcohol at #ac #jjjjjie4 ,! addition ( v>i\s sub/ances to wat] g5]ally decreases bo? its compressibility & cohesion4 ,! compressibility ( o!r liquids increases ) a rise ( temp]ature1 b = wat] x decreases up to #ec & !n increases l o!r liquids4 ,! expansion ( wat] by heat 7,note #i7 also exhibits _m peculi>ities :i* are n f\nd 9 o!r liquids4 ,! expansion ( wat] at l[ temp]atures is v small comp>$ ) o!r liquids2 at #d x is almo/ z]o1 & at #ajj x is equal to #jjjjh2 bel[ #d x is negative--i4e4 wat] on cool+ !n exp&s1 & does n decrease 9 volume4 ,9 pass+ into a solid /ate1 ! specific gravity ( wat] decreases2 at #j "o c4c4 ( wat] weighs #jiiihhg gram1 & "o c4c4 ( ice at ! same temp]ature weighs only #jiage gram4 ,! ice =m$1 h[ev]1 contracts on cool+ l ! majority ( o!r sub/ances4 ,?us #ajj volumes ( ice are produc$ f #ib volumes ( wat]--t is1 wat] exp&s consid]ably on freez+1 :i* fact det]m9es a numb] ( natural ph5om5a4 ,! freez+ po9t ( wat] falls ) an increase 9 pressure 7#jjjg p] atmosph]e71 because 9 freez+ wat] exp&s 7,?omson71 :il/ ) sub/ances :i* contract 9 solidify+ ! melt+ po9t rises ) an increase 9 pressure2 ?us1 p>aff9 "u "o atmosph]e melts at #df1 & "u #ajj atmosph]es at #di4 ,:5 liquid wat] passes into vap\r1 ! cohesion ( its p>ticles mu/ be de/roy$1 z ! p>ticles are remov$ to su* a di/ance f ea* o!r t _! mutual attraction no long] exhibits any influ5ce4 ,z ! cohesion ( aque\s p>ticles v>ies at diff]5t temp]atures1 ! quantity ( heat :i* is exp5d$ 9 ov]com+ ?is cohesion--or ! lat5t heat ( evaporation--w = ?is reason alone be diff]5t at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,! quantity ( heat :i* is consum$ 9 ! trans=mation ( "o "p by weight ( wat]1 at diff]5t temp]atures1 into vap\r 0 det]m9$ by ,regnault ) great accuracy4 ,8 rese>*es %[$ t "o "p by weight ( wat] at #j1 9 pass+ into vap\r hav+ a temp]ature t1 consumes #fjfe #jcjet units ( heat1 at #ej #fbag1 at #ajj #fcgj1 at #aej #febb1 & at #bjj #ffge4 ,b ?is quantity includes also ! quantity ( heat requir$ = heat+ ! wat] f #j to t--i4e4 besides ! lat5t heat ( evaporation1 also t heat :i* is us$ 9 heat+ ! wat] 9 a liquid /ate to a temp]ature t4 ,on d$uct+ ?is am\nt ( heat1 we obta9 ! lat5t heat ( evaporation ( wat] z #fjfe at #j1 #ega at #ej1 #ecd at #ajj1 #did at #aej1 & only #dec at #bjj1 :i* %[s t ! conv]sion ( wat] at diff]5t temp]atures into vap\r at a con/ant temp]ature requires v diff]5t quantities ( heat4 ,?is is *iefly dep5d5t on ! diff]5ce ( ! cohesion ( wat] at diff]5t temp]atures2 ! cohesion is great] at l[ ?an at high temp]atures1 & !re=e at l[ temp]atures a great] quantity ( heat is requir$ to ov]come ! cohesion4 ,on comp>+ ^! quantities ( heat1 x w be obs]v$ t !y decrease r uni=mly1 namely _! diff]5ce betwe5 #j & #ajj is #gb1 & betwe5 #ajj & #bjj is #ha units ( heat4 ,f ?is we may conclude t ?is v>iation w be approximately ! same = high temp]atures also1 & !re=e t no heat w\ld be requir$ = ! conv]sion ( wat] into vap\r at a temp]ature ( ab\t #djj4 ,at ?is temp]ature1 wat] passes into vap\r :atev] be ! pressure 7see ,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,! absolute boil+ po9t ( wat]1 accord+ to ,dew>1 is #cgj1 ! critical pressure #aif atmosph]es74 ,x mu/ "h be rem>k$ t wat]1 9 pres5t+ a great] cohesion1 requires a l>g] quantity ( heat = its conv]sion into vap\r ?an o!r liquids4 ,?us alcohol consumes #bjh1 e!r #ij1 turp5t9e #gj1 units ( heat 9 _! conv]sion into vap\r4 ,! :ole am\nt ( heat :i* is consum$ 9 ! conv]sion ( wat] into vap\r is n us$ 9 ov]com+ ! cohesion--t is1 9 int]nal accompli%$ 9 ! liquid4 ,a "p ( ?is heat is employ$ 9 mov+ ! aque\s p>ticles2 9 fact1 aque\s vap\r at #ajj occupies a volume #a1fei times great] ?an t ( wat] 7at ! ord9>y pressure71 consequ5tly a portion ( ! heat or "w is employ$ 9 lift+ ! aque\s p>ticles1 9 ov]com+ pressure1 or 9 ext]nal "w1 :i* may be usefully employ$1 & :i* is s employ$ 9 /eam eng9es4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ?is "w1 let u consid] ! v>iation ( ! maximum pressure or vap\r t5sion ( /eam at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,! obs]vations ( ,regnault 9 ?is respect1 z on ^? prec$+1 des]ve special att5tion f _! compreh5siv5ess & accuracy4 ,! pressure or t5sion ( aque\s vap\r at v>i\s temp]atures is giv5 9 ! adjo9+ table1 & is express$ 9 millimetres ( ! b>ometric column r$uc$ to #j4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,temp]ature ,t5sion ,temp]ature ,t5sion ---------------------------------------- ---- -#bj #ji #gj #bccc -#aj #ba #ij #ebed #j #df #ajj #gfjj #aj #ia #aje #ijfd #ae #abg #aaj #ajged #bj #agd #aae #abfid #be #bce #abj #adiac #cj #cae #aej #cehaj #ej #ibj #bjj #aafhij ---------------------------------------- ---- ,! table %[s ! boil+ po9ts ( wat] at diff]5t pressures4 ,?us on ! summit ( ,mont ,blanc1 :]e ! av]age pressure is ab\t #dbd mm41 wat] boils at #hdd4 ,9 a r>efi$ atmosph]e wat] boils ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b 9 evaporat+ x absorbs heat f ! neighb\r+ p>ts1 & !re=e x becomes cold & may ev5 freeze if ! pressure does n exce$ #df mm41 & especially if ! vap\r be rapidly absorb$ z x is =m$4 ,oil ( vitriol1 :i* absorbs ! aque\s vap\r1 is us$ = ?is purpose4 ,?us ice may be obta9$ artificially at ! ord9>y temp]ature ) ! aid ( an air-pump4 ,?is table ( ! t5sion ( aque\s vap\r also %[s ! temp]ature ( wat] conta9$ 9 a clos$ boil] if ! pressure ( ! /eam =m$ be kn[n4 ,?us at a pressure ( five atmosph]es 7a pressure ( five times ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure--i4e4 #e #gfj #c1hjj mm47 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] w\ld be #aeb4 ,! table also %[s ! pressure produc$ on a giv5 surface by /eam on issu+ f a boil]4 ,?us /eam hav+ a temp]ature ( #aeb ex]ts a pressure ( #eag kilos on a pi/on ^: surface equals #ajj sq4 cm41 = ! pressure ( "o atmosph]e on "o sq4 cm4 equals #a1jcc kilos1 & /eam at #aeb has a pressure ( five atmosph]es4 ,z a column ( m]cury #a mm4 high ex]ts a pressure ( #aceiei grams on a surface ( #a sq4 cm41 !re=e ! pressure ( aque\s vap\r at #j corresponds ) a pressure ( #fbe grams p] squ>e c5timetre4 ,! pressures = all temp]atures may be calculat$ 9 a simil> way1 & x w be f\nd t at #ajj x is equal to #a1jccbh grams4 ,?is means t if a cyl9d] be tak5 ^: sectional area equals #a sq4 cm41 & if wat] be p\r$ into x & x be clos$ by a pi/on weigh+ #a1jcc grams1 !n on heat+ x 9 a vacuum to #ajj no /eam w be =m$1 because ! /eam _c ov]come ! pressure ( ! pi/on2 & if at #ajj #ecd units ( heat be transmitt$ to ea* unit ( weight ( wat]1 !n ! :ole ( ! wat] w be conv]t$ into vap\r hav+ ! same temp]ature2 & s also = e o!r temp]ature4 ,! "q n[ arises1 to :at height does ! pi/on rise "u ^! circum/ances8 t is1 9 o!r words1 ,:at is ! volume occupi$ by ! /eam "u a kn[n pressure8 ,= ?is we mu/ "k ! weight ( a cubic c5timetre ( /eam at v>i\s temp]atures4 ,x has be5 %[n by exp]im5t t ! d5sity ( /eam1 :i* does n saturate a space1 v>ies v inconsid]ably at all possible pressures1 & is n9e times ! d5sity ( hydrog5 "u simil> conditions4 ,/eam :i* saturates a space v>ies 9 d5sity at diff]5t temp]atures1 b ?is diff]5ce is v small1 & its av]age d5sity ) ref]5ce to air is #jfd4 ,we w employ ?is numb] 9 our calculation1 & w calculate :at volume ! /eam occupies at #ajj4 ,"o cubic c5timetre ( air at #j & #gfj mm4 weighs #jjjabic gram1 at #ajj & "u ! same pressure x w weigh #jjjabic_/acfh or ab\t #jjjjidf gram1 & consequ5tly "o cubic c5timetre ( /eam ^: d5sity is #jfd w weigh #jjjjfje gram at #ajj1 & !re=e "o gram ( aque\s vap\r w occupy a volume ( ab\t #afec c4c4 ,consequ5tly1 ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d] ( #a sq4 cm4 sectional area1 & 9 :i* ! wat] occupi$ a height ( #a cm41 w be rais$ #a1fec cm4 on ! conv]sion ( ?is wat] into /eam4 ,?is pi/on1 z has be5 m5tion$1 weighs #a1jcc grams1 !re=e ! ext]nal "w ( ! /eam--t is1 t "w :i* ! wat] does 9 its conv]sion into /eam at #ajj--;is equal to lift+ a pi/on weigh+ #a1jcc grams to a height ( #a1fec cm41 or #agjg kilogram-metres ( "w--i4e4 is capable ( lift+ #ag kilograms #a metre1 or #a kilogram #ag metres4 ,"o gram ( wat] requires = its conv]sion into /eam #ecd gram units ( heat or #jecd kilogram unit ( heat--i4e4 ! quantity ( heat absorb$ 9 ! evaporation ( "o gram ( wat] is equal to ! quantity ( heat :i* is capable ( heat+ #a kilogram ( wat] #jecd4 ,ea* unit ( heat1 z has be5 %[n by accurate exp]im5t1 is capable ( do+ #dbd kilogram-metres ( "w4 ,h5ce1 9 evaporat+1 "o gram ( wat] exp5ds #dbd #jecd 7almo/7 #bbg kilogram-metres ( "w4 ,! ext]nal "w 0 f\nd to be only #ag kilogram-metres1 !re=e #baj kilogram-metres are exp5d$ 9 ov]com+ ! int]nal cohesion ( ! aque\s p>ticles1 & consequ5tly ab\t #ib p4c4 ( ! total heat or "w is consum$ 9 ov]com+ ! int]nal cohesion4 ,! foll[+ figures are ?us calculat$ approximately3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total "w ( ,ext]nal "w ( ,temp]ature evaporation 9 vap\r 9 ,int]nal kilogram-metres kilogram-metres "w ( vap\r ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #j #bee #ac #bdb #ej #bdb #ae #bbg #ajj #bbf #ag #bji #aej #bji #ai #aij #bjj #aib #bj #agb ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,! "w necess>y = ov]com+ ! int]nal cohesion ( wat] 9 its passage into vap\r decreases ) ! rise 9 temp]ature--t is1 corresponds ) ! decrease ( cohesion2 &1 9 fact1 ! v>iations :i* take place 9 ?is case are v simil> to ^? :i* are obs]v$ 9 ! heights to :i* wat] rises 9 capill>y tubes at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! am\nt ( ext]nal--or1 z x is t]m$1 useful--"w :i* wat] c supply by its evaporation is v small comp>$ ) ! am\nt :i* x exp5ds 9 its conv]sion into vap\r4 ,9 consid]+ c]ta9 physico-me*anical prop]ties ( wat]1 ,i _h 9 view n only _! importance = !ory & practice1 b also _! purely *emical significance2 = x is evid5t f ! above consid]ations t ev5 9 a physical *ange ( /ate ! greate/ "p ( ! "w done is employ$ 9 ov]com+ cohesion1 & t an enorm\s am\nt ( int]nal en]gy mu/ be exp5d$ 9 ov]com+ *emical cohesion or aff9ity4 #ab ,:5 x is necess>y to heat a consid]able mass ( liquid 9 diff]5t vessels1 x w\ld be v uneconomical to make use ( metallic vessels & to con/ruct a sep>ate furnace = ea*2 su* cases are cont9ually met ) 9 practice4 ,/eam f a boil] is introduc$ into ! liquid1 or1 9 g5]al1 into ! vessel :i* x is requir$ to heat4 ,! /eam1 9 cond5s+ & pass+ into a liquid /ate1 p>ts ) its lat5t heat1 & z ?is is v consid]able a small quantity ( /eam w produce a consid]able heat+ effect4 ,if x be requir$1 = in/ance1 to heat #a1jjj kilos ( wat] f #bj to #ej1 :i* requires approximately #cj1jjj units ( heat1 /eam at #ajj is pass$ into ! wat] f a boil]4 ,ea* kilogram ( wat] at #ej conta9s ab\t #ej units ( heat1 & ea* kilogram ( /eam at #ajj conta9s #fcg units ( heat2 !re=e1 ea* kilogram ( /eam 9 cool+ to #ej gives up #ehg units ( heat1 & consequ5tly #eb kilos ( /eam are capable ( heat+ #a1jjj kilos ( wat] f #bj to #ej4 ,wat] is v (t5 appli$ = heat+ 9 *emical practice4 ,= ?is purpose metallic vessels or pans1 call$ 'wat]-ba?s1' are made use (4 ,!y are clos$ by a cov] =m$ ( conc5tric r+s ly+ on ea* o!r4 ,! vessels--su* z beak]s1 evaporat+ bas9s1 retorts1 c4--conta9+ liquids1 are plac$ on ^! r+s1 & ! wat] 9 ! ba? is heat$4 ,! /eam giv5 (f heats ! bottom ( ! vessels to be heat$1 & ?us effects ! evaporation or di/illation4 ,wat] is me*anically attract$ by _m sub/ances2 x adh]es to _! surfaces j z du/ adh]es to objects1 or "o piece ( poli%$ glass adh]es to ano!r4 ,su* attraction is t]m$ 'moi/5+1' 'soak+1' or 'absorption ( wat]4' ,?us wat] moi/5s clean glass & adh]es to its surface1 is absorb$ by ! soil1 s&1 & clay1 & does n fl[ away f !m1 b lodges itself betwe5 _! p>ticles4 ,simil>ly1 wat] soaks into a sponge1 clo?1 hair1 or pap]1 c41 b fat & greasy sub/ances 9 g5]al are n moi/5$4 ,attraction ( ?is k9d does n alt] ! physical or *emical prop]ties ( wat]4 ,= in/ance1 "u ^! circum/ances wat]1 z is kn[n f ev]yday exp]i5ce1 may be expell$ f objects by dry+4 ,wat] :i* is 9 any way held me*anically may be dislodg$ by me*anical means1 by friction1 pressure1 c5trifugal =ce1 c4 ,?us wat] is squeez$ f wet clo? by pressure or c5trifugal ma*9es4 ,b objects :i* 9 practice are call$ dry 7because !y d n feel wet7 (t5 /ill conta9 moi/ure1 z may be prov$ by heat+ ! object 9 a glass tube clos$ at "o end4 ,by plac+ a piece ( pap]1 dry e>?1 or any simil> object 7especially por\s sub/ances7 9 su* a glass tube1 & heat+ t "p ( ! tube :]e ! object is situat$1 x w be rem>k$ t wat] cond5ses on ! cool] portions ( ! tube4 ,! pres5ce ( su* absorb$1 or 'hygroscopic1' wat] is g5]ally be/ detect$ 9 non-volatile sub/ances by dry+ !m at #ajj1 or "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump & ov] sub/ances :i* attract wat] *emically4 ,by weigh+ a sub/ance be=e & aft] dry+1 x is easy to det]m9e ! am\nt ( hygroscopic wat] f ! loss 9 weight4#ac ,only 9 ?is case ! am\nt ( wat] mu/ be judg$ ) c>e1 because ! loss 9 weight may sometimes proce$ f ! decomposition ( ! sub/ance itself1 ) dis5gagem5t ( gases or vap\r4 ,9 mak+ exact weigh+s ! hygroscopic capacity ( sub/ances--t is1 _! capacity to absorb moi/ure--mu/ be cont9ually kept 9 view1 z o!rwise ! weight w be untrue f ! pres5ce ( moi/ure4 ,! quantity ( moi/ure absorb$ dep5ds on ! degree ( moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e 7t is1 on ! t5sion ( ! aque\s vap\r 9 x7 9 :i* a sub/ance is situat$4 ,9 an entirely dry atmosph]e1 or 9 a vacuum1 ! hygroscopic wat] is expell$1 be+ conv]t$ into vap\r2 !re=e1 sub/ances conta9+ hygroscopic wat] may be completely dri$ by plac+ !m 9 a dry atmosph]e or 9 a vacuum4 ,! process is aid$ by heat1 z x increases ! t5sion ( ! aque\s vap\r4 ,phosphoric anhydride 7a :ite p[d]71 liquid sulphuric acid1 solid & por\s calcium *loride1 or ! :ite p[d] ( ignit$ copp] sulphate1 are mo/ g5]ally employ$ 9 dry+ gases4 ,!y absorb ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 air & all gases to a consid]able1 b n unlimit$1 ext5t4 ,phosphoric anhydride & calcium *loride deliquesce1 become damp1 sulphuric acid *anges f an oily ?ick liquid into a m mobile liquid1 & ignit$ copp] sulphate becomes blue2 aft] :i* *anges ^! sub/ances p>tly lose _! capacity ( hold+ wat]1 & c1 if x be 9 excess1 ev5 give up _! wat] to ! atmosph]e4 ,we may rem>k t ! ord] 9 :i* ^! sub/ances are plac$ above corresponds ) ! ord] 9 :i* !y /& 9 respect to _! capacity = absorb+ moi/ure4 ,air dri$ by calcium *loride /ill conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( moi/ure1 :i* x c give up to sulphuric acid4 ,! mo/ complete desiccation takes place ) phosphoric anhydride4 ,wat] is also remov$ f _m sub/ances by plac+ !m 9 a di% ov] a vessel conta9+ a sub/ance absorb+ wat] "u a glass bell j>4#ad ,! bell j>1 l ! receiv] ( an air pump1 %\ld be h]metically clos$4 ,9 ?is case desiccation takes place2 because sulphuric acid1 = in/ance1 fir/ dries ! air 9 ! bell j> by absorb+ its moi/ure1 ! sub/ance to be dri$ !n p>ts ) its moi/ure to ! dry air1 f :i* x is aga9 absorb$ by ! sulphuric acid1 c4 ,desiccation proce$s /ill bett] "u ! receiv] ( an air pump1 = !n ! aque\s vap\r is =m$ m quickly ?an 9 a bell j> full ( air4 #ac ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,dry+ ov51 compos$ ( braz$ copp]4 ,x is heat$ by a lamp4 ,! object to be dri$ is plac$ on ! gauze inside ! ov54 ,! !rmomet] indicates ! temp]ature4 ,9 ord] to dry any sub/ance at ab\t #ajj--t is1 at ! boil+ po9t ( wat] 7hygroscopic wat] passes (f at ?is temp]ature7--an app>atus call$ a 'dry+-ov5' is employ$4 ,x consi/s ( a d\ble copp] box2 wat] is p\r$ into ! space betwe5 ! int]nal & ext]nal boxes1 & ! ov5 is !n heat$ ov] a /ove or by any o!r means1 or else /eam f a boil] is pass$ betwe5 ! walls ( ! two boxes4 ,:5 ! wat] boils1 ! temp]ature inside ! inn] box w be approximately #ajj ,c4 ,! sub/ance to be dri$ is plac$ inside ! ov51 & ! door is clos$4 ,sev]al holes are cut 9 ! door to all[ ! free passage ( air1 :i* c>ries (f ! aque\s vap\r by ! *imney on ! top ( ! ov54 ,(t51 h[ev]1 desiccation is c>ri$ on 9 copp] ov5s heat$ directly ov] a lamp 7fig4 #ac74 ,9 ?is case any desir$ temp]ature may be obta9$1 :i* is det]m9$ by a !rmomet] fix$ 9 a special orifice4 ,!re are sub/ances :i* only "p ) _! wat] at a mu* high] temp]ature ?an #ajj1 & !n su* air ba?s are v useful4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e directly ! am\nt ( wat] 9 a sub/ance :i* does n "p ) any?+ except wat] at a r$ heat1 ! sub/ance is plac$ 9 a bulb tube4 ,by fir/ weigh+ ! tube empty & !n ) ! sub/ance to be dri$ 9 x1 ! weight ( ! sub/ance tak5 may be f\nd4 ,! tube is !n connect$ on "o side ) a gas-hold] full ( air1 :i*1 on op5+ a /op-cock1 passes fir/ ?r\gh a flask conta9+ sulphuric acid1 & !n into a vessel conta9+ lumps ( pumice /one moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ^! vessels ! air is ?or\ghly dri$1 hav+ giv5 up all its moi/ure to ! sulphuric acid4 ,?us dry air w pass into ! bulb tube1 & z hygroscopic wat] is entirely giv5 up f a sub/ance 9 dry air ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & /ill m rapidly on heat+1 ! moi/ure giv5 up by ! sub/ance 9 ! tube w be c>ri$ (f by ! air pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,?is damp air !n passes ?r\gh a ,u-%ap$ tube full ( pieces ( pumice /one moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid1 :i* absorbs all ! moi/ure giv5 (f f ! sub/ance 9 ! bulb tube4 ,?us all ! wat] expell$ f ! sub/ance w collect 9 ! ,u tube1 & s1 if ?is be weigh$ be=e & aft]1 ! diff]5ce w %[ ! quantity ( wat] expell$ f ! sub/ance4 ,if only wat] 7& n any gases7 come ov]1 ! increase ( ! weight ( ! ,u tube w be equal to ! decrease 9 ! weight ( ! bulb tube4 #ad ,in/ead ( "u a glass bell j>1 dry+ ov] sulphuric acid is (t5 c>ri$ on 9 a desiccator consi/+ ( a %all[ wide-m\!d glass vessel1 clos$ by a well-fitt+ gr\nd-glass cov]4 ,sulphuric acid is p\r$ ov] ! bottom ( ! desiccator1 & ! sub/ance to be dri$ is plac$ on a glass /& above ! acid4 ,a lat]al glass tube ) a /op-cock is (t5 fus$ into ! desiccator 9 ord] to connect x ) an air pump1 & s all[ dry+ "u a dim9i%$ pressure1 :5 ! moi/ure evaporates m rapidly4 ,! fact t 9 ! usual =m ( desiccator ! desiccat+ sub/ance 7sulphuric acid7 is plac$ b5ea? ! sub/ance to be dri$ has ! disadvantage t ! moi/ air be+ light] ?an dry air di/ributes itself 9 ! upp] portion ( ! desiccator & n bel[4 ,hempel1 9 8 desiccator 7#ahia71 avoids ?is by plac+ ! absorb5t above ! sub/ance to be dri$4 ,! process ( desiccation c be fur!r accel]at$ by cool+ ! upp] portion ( ! desiccator1 & s induc+ asc5d+ & desc5d+ curr5ts ( air )9 ! app>atus4 ,f :at has be5 said above1 x is evid5t t ! transf]5ce ( moi/ure to gases & ! absorption ( hygroscopic moi/ure pres5t great resemblance to1 b /ill are n1 *emical comb9ations ) wat]4 ,wat]1 :5 comb9$ z hygroscopic wat]1 does n lose its prop]ties & does n =m new sub/ances4#ae #ae ,*appuis1 h[ev]1 det]m9$ t 9 wett+ #a gram ( *>coal ) wat] #g units ( heat are evolv$1 & on p\r+ c>bon bisulphide ov] #a gram ( *>coal z mu* z #bd units ( heat are evolv$4 ,alum9a 7#a gram71 :5 moi/5$ ) wat]1 evolves #b-a_/b calories4 ,?is indicates t 9 respect to evolution ( heat moi/5+ already pres5ts a transition t[>ds exo!rmal comb9ations 7^? evolv+ heat 9 _! =mation74 ,! attraction ( wat] = sub/ances :i* dissolve 9 x is ( a diff]5t "*4 ,9 ! solution ( sub/ances 9 wat] !re proce$s a peculi> k9d ( indef9ite comb9ation2 a new homog5e\s sub/ance is =m$ f ! two sub/ances tak54 ,b "h also ! bond connect+ ! sub/ances is v un/able4 ,wat] conta9+ diff]5t sub/ances 9 solution boils at a temp]ature ne> to its usual boil+ po9t4 ,f ! solution ( sub/ances :i* are light] ?an wat] itself1 !re are obta9$ solutions ( a less d5sity ?an wat]--z1 = example1 9 ! solution ( alcohol 9 wat]2 :il/ a heavi] sub/ance 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] gives x a high] specific gravity4 ,?us salt wat] is heavi] ?an fre%4#af #af ,/rong acetic acid 7,c#b;,h#d,o#b71 ^: specific gravity at #ae is #ajee1 does n become light] on ! addition ( wat] 7a light] sub/ance1 sp4 gr4 #jiii71 b heavi]1 s t a solution ( #hj p>ts ( acetic acid & #bj p>ts ( wat] has a specific gravity ( #ajgd1 & ev5 a solution ( equal p>ts ( acetic acid & wat] 7#ej p4c47 has a sp4 gr4 ( #ajfe1 :i* is /ill great] ?an t ( acetic acid itself4 ,?is %[s ! high degree ( contraction :i* takes place on solution4 ,9 fact1 solutions--&1 9 g5]al1 liquids--on mix+ ) wat]1 decrease 9 volume4 ,we w consid] aque\s solutions some:at fully1 because1 among o!r reasons1 solutions are con/antly be+ =m$ on ! e>? & 9 ! wat]s ( ! e>?1 9 plants & 9 animals1 9 *emical processes & 9 ! arts1 & ^! solutions play an important "p 9 ! *emical trans=mations :i* are ev]y:]e tak+ place1 n only because wat] is ev]y:]e met )1 b *iefly because a sub/ance 9 solution pres5ts ! mo/ fav\rable conditions = ! process ( *emical *anges1 :i* require a mobility ( p>ts & a possible di/5sion ( p>ts4 ,9 dissolv+1 a solid sub/ance acquires a mobility ( p>ts1 & a gas loses its ela/icity1 & !re=e reactions (t5 take place 9 solutions :i* d n proce$ 9 ! undissolv$ sub/ances4 ,fur!r1 a sub/ance1 di/ribut$ 9 wat]1 evid5tly breaks up--t is1 becomes m l a gas & acquires a great] mobility ( p>ts4 ,all ^! consid]ations require t 9 describ+ ! prop]ties ( sub/ances1 p>ticul> att5tion %\ld be paid to _! relation to wat] z a solv5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,me?od ( transf]r+ a gas into a cyl9d] fill$ ) m]cury & ^: op5 end is imm]s$ "u ! m]cury 9 a ba? hav+ two glass sides4 ,! app>atus conta9+ ! gas is repres5t$ on ! "r4 ,its upp] extremity is furni%$ ) a tube ext5d+ "u ! cyl9d]4 ,! l[] "p ( ! vessel communicates ) a v]tical tube4 ,if m]cury be p\r$ into ?is tube1 ! pressure ( ! gas 9 ! app>atus is increas$1 & x passes ?r\gh ! gas-conduct+ tube into ! cyl9d]1 :]e x displaces ! m]cury1 & c be measur$ or subject$ to ! action ( absorb+ ag5ts1 su* z wat]4 ,x is well kn[n t wat] dissolves _m sub/ances4 ,salt1 sug>1 alcohol1 & a numb] ( o!r sub/ances1 dissolve 9 wat] & =m homog5e\s liquids ) x4 ,to demon/rate ! solubility ( gases 9 wat]1 a gas %\ld be tak5 :i* has a high co-effici5t ( solubility--= in/ance1 ammonia4 ,?is is introduc$ into a bell j> 7or cyl9d]1 z 9 fig4 #ad71 :i* is previ\sly fill$ ) m]cury & /&s 9 a m]cury ba?4 ,if wat] be !n introduc$ into ! cyl9d]1 ! m]cury w rise1 ow+ to ! wat] dissolv+ ! ammonia gas4 ,if ! column ( m]cury be less ?an ! b>ometric column1 & if !re be suffici5t wat] to dissolve ! gas1 all ! ammonia w be absorb$ by ! wat]4 ,! wat] is introduc$ into ! cyl9d] by a glass pipette1 ) a b5t end4 ,! b5t end is put into wat]1 & ! air is suck$ out f ! upp] end4 ,:5 full ( wat]1 its upp] end is clos$ ) ! f+]1 & ! b5t end plac$ 9 ! m]cury ba? "u ! orifice ( ! cyl9d]4 ,on bl[+ into ! pipette ! wat] w rise to ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! cyl9d] ow+ to its lightness4 ,! solubility ( a gas l ammonia may be demon/rat$ by tak+ a flask full ( ! gas1 & clos$ by a cork ) a tube pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,on plac+ ! tube "u wat]1 ! wat] w rise into ! flask 7?is may be accel]at$ by previ\sly w>m+ ! flask71 & beg9 to play l a f\nta9 inside x4 ,bo? ! ris+ ( ! m]cury & ! f\nta9 cle>ly %[ ! consid]able aff9ity ( wat] = ammonia gas1 & ! =ce act+ 9 ?is dissolution is r5d]$ evid5t4 ,a c]ta9 p]iod ( "t is requir$ bo? = ! homog5e\s int]mixture ( gases 7diffusion7 & ! process ( solution1 :i* dep5ds1 n only on ! surface ( ! p>ticipat+ sub/ances1 b also on _! nature4 ,?is is se5 f exp]im5t4 ,solutions ( diff]5t sub/ances heavi] ?an wat]1 su* z salt or sug>1 are p\r$ into tall j>s4 ,pure wat] is !n v c>efully p\r$ into ^! j>s 7?r\gh a funnel7 on to ! top ( ! solutions1 s z n to di/urb ! l[] /ratum1 & ! j>s are !n left undi/urb$4 ,! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! solution & ! pure wat] w be visible1 ow+ to _! diff]5t co-effici5ts ( refraction4 ,not)/&+ t ! solutions tak5 are heavi] ?an wat]1 aft] "s "t complete int]mixture w ensue4 ,gay ,lussac conv9c$ himself ( ?is fact by ?is p>ticul> exp]im5t1 :i* he conduct$ 9 ! cell>s "u ! ,p>is ,a/ronomical ,obs]vatory4 ,^! cell>s are well kn[n z ! locality :]e num]\s int]e/+ rese>*es h be5 conduct$1 because1 ow+ to _! dep? "u gr\nd1 !y h a uni=m temp]ature dur+ ! :ole ye>2 ! temp]ature does n *ange dur+ ! day1 & ?is 0 indisp5sable = ! exp]im5ts on ! diffusion ( solutions1 9 ord] t no d\bt z to ! results %\ld arise f a daily *ange ( temp]ature 7! exp]im5t la/$ sev]al mon?s71 :i* w\ld set up curr5ts 9 ! liquids & int]mix _! /rata4 ,not)/&+ ! uni=mity ( ! temp]ature1 ! sub/ance 9 solution 9 "t asc5d$ into ! wat] & di/ribut$ itself uni=mly ?r\gh x1 prov+ t !re exi/s betwe5 wat] & a sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x a p>ticul> k9d ( attraction or /riv+ = mutual int]p5etration 9 opposition to ! =ce ( gravity4 ,fur!r1 ?is ef=t1 or rate ( diffusion1 is diff]5t = salt or sug> or = v>i\s o!r sub/ances4#af bis ,x foll[s !re=e t a peculi> =ce acts 9 solution1 z 9 actual *emical comb9ations1 & solution is det]m9$ by a p>ticul> k9d ( motion 7by ! *emical en]gy ( a sub/ance7 :i* is prop] to ! sub/ance dissolv$ & to ! solv5t4 #af bis ,graham1 9 ! jelly =m$ by gelat9e1 & ,de ,vries 9 gelat9\s silica 7,*apt] ,,xviii47 mo/ frequ5tly employ$ col\r$ 7t9t$7 sub/ances1 = in/ance1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g1 :i* %[$ ! rate ( diffusion ) v great cle>ness4 ,pr(4 ,oum(f employ$ ! me?od describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,x41 ,note #ag1 = ?is purpose4 ,graham made a s]ies ( exp]im5ts simil> to ^? above describ$1 & %[$ t ! rate ( diffusion#ag 9 wat] is v v>iable--t is1 a uni=m di/ribution ( a sub/ance 9 ! wat] dissolv+ x is atta9$ 9 diff]5t p]iods ( "t ) diff]5t solutions4 ,graham comp>$ diffusive capacity ) volatility4 ,!re are sub/ances :i* diffuse easily1 & !re are o!rs :i* diffuse ) difficulty1 j z !re are m or less volatile sub/ances4 ,sev5 hundr$ cubic c5timetres ( wat] 7 p\r$ into a j>1 & by means ( a syphon 7or a pipette7 #ajj cub4 c5timetres ( a solution conta9+ #aj grams ( a sub/ance 7 cauti\sly p\r$ 9 s z to occupy ! l[] portion ( ! j>4 ,aft] a lapse ( sev]al days1 successive lay]s ( #ej cubic c5timetres 7 tak5 f ! top d[nw>ds1 & ! quantity ( sub/ance dissolv$ 9 ! diff]5t lay]s det]m9$4 ,?us1 common table salt1 aft] f\rte5 days1 gave ! foll[+ am\nts 79 milligrams7 9 ! respective lay]s1 beg9n+ f ! top3 #ajd1 #abj1 #abf1 #aih1 #bfg1 #cdj1 #dbi1 #ece1 #fed1 #gff1 #hha1 #iia1 #a1jij1 #a1ahg1 & #b1bff 9 ! rema9d]2 :il/ album9 9 ! same "t gave1 9 ! fir/ sev5 lay]s1 a v small am\nt1 & beg9n+ f ! eigh? lay]1 #aj1 #ae1 #dg1 #aac1 #cdc1 #hee1 #a1hib1 & 9 ! rema9d] #f1gbe milligrams4 ,?us1 ! diffusive p[] ( a solution dep5ds on "t & on ! nature ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 :i* fact may s]ve1 n only = expla9+ ! process ( solution1 b also = di/+ui%+ "o sub/ance f ano!r4 ,graham %[$ t sub/ances :i* rapidly diffuse ?r\gh liquids are able to rapidly pass ?r\gh membranes & cry/allise1 :il/ sub/ances :i* diffuse sl[ly & d n cry/allise are colloids1 t is1 resemble glue1 & p5etrate ?r\gh a membrane sl[ly1 & =m jellies2 t is1 occur 9 insoluble =ms1#ah z w be expla9$ 9 speak+ ( silica4 #ag ,! rese>*es ( ,graham1 ,fick1 ,n]n/1 & o!rs %[$ t ! quantity ( a dissolv$ sub/ance :i* is transmitt$ 7rises7 f "o /ratum ( liquid to ano!r 9 a v]tical cyl9drical vessel is n only proportional to ! "t & to ! sectional area ( ! cyl9d]1 b also to ! am\nt & nature ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ 9 a /ratum ( liquid1 s t ea* sub/ance has its correspond+ co-effici5t ( diffusion4 ,! cause ( ! diffusion ( solutions mu/ be consid]$ z ess5tially ! same z ! cause ( ! diffusion ( gases--t is1 z dep5d5t on motions :i* are prop] to _! molecules2 b "h mo/ probably ^? purely *emical1 al?\gh feebly-develop$1 =ces1 :i* incl9e ! sub/ances dissolv$ to ! =mation ( def9ite comp\nds1 also play _! "p4 #ah ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,dialys]4 ,app>atus = ! sep>ation ( sub/ances :i* pass ?r\gh a membrane f ^? :i* d n4 ,description 9 text4 ,! rate ( diffusion--l ! rate ( transmission--?r\gh membranes1 or dialysis 7:i* plays an important "p 9 ! vital processes ( organisms & also 9 te*nical processes71 pres5ts1 accord+ to ,graham's rese>*es1 a %>ply def9$ *ange 9 pass+ f su* cry/allisable sub/ances z ! majority ( salts & acids to sub/ances :i* are capable ( giv+ jellies 7gum1 gelat91 c47 ,! =m] diffuse into solutions & pass ?r\gh membranes mu* m rapidly ?an ! latt]1 & ,graham !re=e di/+ui%es betwe5 cry/alloids1 :i* diffuse rapidly1 & colloids1 :i* diffuse sl[ly4 ,on break+ solid colloids into pieces1 a total abs5ce ( cleavage is rem>k$4 ,! fracture ( su* sub/ances is l t ( glue or glass4 ,x is t]m$ a 'con*oidal' fracture4 ,almo/ all ! sub/ances ( :i* animal & vegetable bodies consi/ are colloids1 & ?is is1 at all ev5ts1 p>tly ! reason :y animals & plants h su* v>i$ =ms1 :i* h no resemblance to ! cry/all9e =ms ( ! majority ( m9]al sub/ances4 ,! colloid solid sub/ances 9 organisms--t is1 9 animals & plants--almo/ always conta9 wat]1 & take mo/ peculi> =ms1 ( networks1 ( granules1 ( hairs1 ( muc\s1 %apeless masses1 c41 :i* are q diff]5t f ! =ms tak5 by cry/all9e sub/ances4 ,:5 colloids sep>ate out f solutions1 or f a molt5 /ate1 !y pres5t a =m :i* is simil> to t ( ! liquid f :i* !y 7 =m$4 ,glass may he tak5 z ! be/ example ( ?is4 ,colloids are di/+ui%able f cry/alloids1 n only by ! abs5ce ( cry/all9e =m1 b by _m o!r prop]ties :i* admit ( cle>ly di/+ui%+ bo? ^! classes ( solids1 z ,graham %[$4 ,ne>ly all colloids are capable ( pass+1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 f a soluble into an insoluble /ate4 ,! be/ example is %[n by :ite ( eggs 7album97 9 ! raw & soluble =m1 & 9 ! h>d-boil$ & insoluble =m4 ,! majority ( colloids1 on pass+ into an insoluble =m 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 give sub/ances hav+ a gelat9\s appe>ance1 :i* is famili> to e "o 9 />*1 solidifi$ glue1 jelly1 c4 ,?us gelat91 or common c>p5t]'s glue1 :5 soak$ 9 wat]1 swells up into an insoluble jelly4 ,if ?is jelly be heat$1 x melts1 & is !n soluble 9 wat]1 b on cool+ x aga9 =ms a jelly :i* is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,"o ( ! prop]ties :i* di/+ui% colloids f cry/alloids is t ! =m] pass v sl[ly ?r\gh a membrane1 :il/ ! latt] p5etrate v rapidly4 ,?is may be %[n by tak+ a cyl9d]1 op5 at bo? ends1 & by cov]+ its l[] end ) a bladd] or ) vegetable p>*m5t 7unsiz$ pap] imm]s$ = two or ?ree m9utes 9 a mixture ( sulphuric acid & half its volume ( wat]1 & !n wa%$71 or any o!r membran\s sub/ance 7all su* sub/ances are !mselves colloids 9 an insoluble =m74 ,! membrane mu/ be firmly ti$ to ! cyl9d]1 s z n to leave any op5+4 ,su* an app>atus is call$ a dialys] 7fig4 #ae71 & ! process ( sep>ation ( cry/alloids f colloids by means ( su* a membrane is t]m$ dialysis4 ,an aque\s solution ( a cry/alloid or colloid1 or a mixture ( bo?1 is p\r$ into ! dialys]1 :i* is !n plac$ 9 a vessel conta9+ wat]1 s t ! bottom ( ! membrane is cov]$ ) wat]4 ,!n1 aft] a c]ta9 p]iod ( "t1 ! cry/alloid passes ?r\gh ! membrane1 :il/ ! colloid1 if x does pass ?r\gh at all1 does s at an incomp>ably sl[] rate4 ,! cry/alloid naturally passes ?r\gh into ! wat] until ! solution atta9s ! same /r5g? on bo? sides ( ! membrane4 ,by replac+ ! outside wat] ) fre% wat]1 a fre% quantity ( ! cry/alloid may be sep>at$ f ! dialys]4 ,:ile a cry/alloid is pass+ ?r\gh ! membrane1 a colloid rema9s almo/ entirely 9 ! dialys]1 & !re=e a mix$ solution ( ^! two k9ds ( sub/ances may be sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a dialys]4 ,! /udy ( ! prop]ties ( colloids1 & ( ! ph5om5a ( _! passage ?r\gh membranes1 %\ld elucidate mu* respect+ ! ph5om5a :i* are accompli%$ 9 organisms4 ,h5ce1 if x be desir$ to increase ! rate ( solution1 rec\rse mu/ be _h to /irr+1 %ak+1 or "s su* me*anical motion4 ,b if once a uni=m solution is =m$1 x w rema9 uni=m1 no matt] h[ heavy ! dissolv$ sub/ance is1 or h[ long ! solution be left at re/1 :i* fact aga9 %[s ! pres5ce ( a =ce hold+ toge!r ! p>ticles ( ! body dissolv$ & ( ! solv5t4#ai #ai ,! =mation ( solutions may be consid]$ 9 two aspects1 f a physical & f a *emical po9t ( view1 & x is m evid5t 9 solutions ?an 9 any o!r dep>tm5t ( *emi/ry h[ closely ^! prov9ces ( natural sci5ce are alli$ toge!r4 ,on ! "o h& solutions =m a p>ticul> case ( a physico-me*anical int]p5etration ( homog5e\s sub/ances1 & a juxtaposition ( ! molecules ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ & ( ! solv5t1 simil> to ! juxtaposition :i* is exhibit$ 9 homog5e\s sub/ances4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ?is diffusion ( solutions is exactly simil> to ! diffusion ( gases1 ) only ?is diff]5ce1 t ! nature & /ore ( en]gy are diff]5t 9 gases f :at !y are 9 liquids1 & t 9 liquids !re is consid]able friction1 :il/ 9 gases !re is comp>atively little4 ,! p5etration ( a dissolv$ sub/ance into wat] is lik5$ to evaporation1 & solution to ! =mation ( vap\r4 ,?is resemblance 0 cle>ly express$ ev5 by ,graham4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! ,dut* *emi/1 ,van't ,h(f1 has develop$ ?is view ( solutions 9 great detail1 hav+ %[n 79 a memoir 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,sw$i% ,academy ( ,sci5ce1 ,"p #ba1 ,no4 #ag1 ',lois de l'quilibre *imique dans l'tat dilu1 gazeux ou diss\s1' #ahhf71 t = dilute solutions ! osmotic pressure foll[s ! same laws ( ,boyle1 ,m>iotte1 ,gay-,lussac1 & ,avogadro-,g]h>dt z = gases4 ,! osmotic pressure ( a sub/ance dissolv$ 9 wat] is det]m9$ by means ( membranes :i* all[ ! passage ( wat]1 b n ( a sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x1 ?r\gh !m4 ,?is prop]ty is f\nd 9 animal protoplasmic membranes & 9 por\s sub/ances cov]$ ) an amorph\s precipitate1 su* z is obta9$ by ! action ( copp] sulphate on potassium f]rocyanide 7,pfeff]1 ,traube74 ,if1 = in/ance1 a "o p4c4 solution ( sug> he plac$ 9 su* a vessel1 :i* is !n clos$ & plac$ 9 wat]1 ! wat] passes ?r\gh ! walls ( ! vessel & increases ! pressure by #ej mm4 ( ! b>ometric column4 ,if ! pressure be artificially increas$ inside ! vessel1 !n ! wat] w be expell$ ?r\gh ! walls4 ,de ,vries f\nd a conv5i5t means ( det]m9+ isotonic solutions 7^? pres5t+ a simil> osmotic pressure7 9 ! cells ( plants4 ,= ?is purpose a portion ( ! s(t "p ( ! leaves ( ! ,tradescantis discolor1 = in/ance1 is cut away & moi/5$ ) ! solution ( a giv5 salt & ( a giv5 /r5g?4 ,if ! osmotic pressure ( ! solution tak5 be less ?an t ( ! sap conta9$ 9 ! cells !y w *ange _! =m or %r9k2 if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! osmotic pressure be great] ?an t ( ! sap1 !n ! cells w exp&1 z c easily be se5 "u ! microscope4 ,by alt]+ ! am\nt ( ! diff]5t salts 9 solution x is possible to f9d = ea* salt ! /r5g? ( solution at :i* ! cells beg9 to swell1 & at :i* !y w consequ5tly h an equal osmotic pressure4 ,z x increases 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( a sub/ance dissolv$ p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]1 x is possible1 kn[+ ! osmotic pressure ( a giv5 sub/ance--= in/ance1 sug> at v>i\s degrees ( conc5tration ( solution--& kn[+ ! composition ( isotonic solutions comp>$ ) sug>1 to det]m9e ! osmotic pressure ( all ! salts inve/igat$4 ,! osmotic pressure ( dilute solutions det]m9$ 9 ?is mann] directly or indirectly 7f obs]vations made by ,pfeff] & ,de ,vries7 0 %[n to foll[ ! same laws z ^? ( ! pressure ( gases2 = in/ance1 by d\bl+ or increas+ ! quantity ( a salt 79 a giv5 volume7 n times1 ! pressure is d\bl$ or increases n times4 ,s1 = example1 9 a solution conta9+ "o "p ( sug> p] #ajj p>ts ( wat] ! osmotic pressure 7accord+ to ,pfeff]7 #ehe cm4 ( m]cury1 if #b p>ts ( sug> #ajaf1 if #d p>ts #bjhb & s on1 :i* proves t ! ratio is true )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error4 7#b7 ,diff]5t sub/ances = equal /r5g?s ( solutions1 %[ v diff]5t osmotic pressures1 j z gases = equal p>ts by weight 9 equal volumes %[ diff]5t t5sions4 7#c7 ,if1 = a giv5 dilute solution at #j1 ! osmotic pressure equal p1 !n at t x w be great] & equal to p7#a #jjjcfgt71 i4e4 x increases ) ! temp]ature 9 exactly ! same mann] z ! t5sion ( gases increases4 7#d7 ,if 9 dilute solutions ( su* sub/ances z d n conduct an electric curr5t 7= in/ance1 sug>1 acetone1 & _m o!r organic bodies7 ! sub/ances be tak5 9 ! ratio ( _! molecul> weights 7express$ by _! =mul1 see ,*apt] ,,vii471 !n n only w ! osmotic pressure be equal1 b its magnitude w be det]m9$ by t t5sion :i* w\ld be prop] to ! vap\rs ( ! giv5 sub/ances :5 !y w\ld be conta9$ 9 ! space occupi$ by ! solution1 j z ! t5sion ( ! vap\rs ( molecul> quantities ( ! giv5 sub/ances w be equal1 & det]m9$ by ! laws ( ,gay-,lussac1 ,m>iotte1 & ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4 ,^? =mul 7,*apt] ,,vii41 ,notes #bc & #bd7 by :i* ! gase\s /ate ( matt] is det]m9$1 may also be appli$ 9 ! pres5t case4 ,s1 = example1 ! osmotic pressure p1 9 c5timetres ( m]cury1 ( a "o p] c5t4 solution ( sug>1 may be calculat$ accord+ to ! =mula = gases3 ,mp #fbjjs7#bgc t71 :]e ,m is ! molecul> weight1 s ! weight 9 grams ( a cubic c5timetre ( vap\r1 & t its temp]ature4 ,= sug> ,m #cdb 7because its molecul> composition is ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa74 ,! specific gravity ( ! solution ( sug> is #ajjc1 h5ce ! weight ( sug> s conta9$ 9 a #a p] c5t4 solution #jjajjc gram4 ,! obs]vation 0 made at t #ad4 ,h5ce1 accord+ to ! =mula1 we f9d p #ebb c5timetres4 ,& exp]im5ts c>ri$ on at #ad gave #ece c5timetres1 :i* is v ne> to ! above4 7#e7 ,= ! solutions ( salts1 acids1 & simil> sub/ances1 :i* conduct an electric curr5t1 ! calculat$ pressure is usually 7b n always 9 a def9ite or multiple numb] ( times7 less ?an ! obs]v$ by i times1 & ?is i = dilute solutions ( ,mg,s,o#d is ne>ly #a1 = ,,co#b #a1 = ,k,cl1 ,na,cl1 ,,ki1 ,,kno#c great] ?an #a1 & approximates to #b1 = ,ba,cl#b1 ,mg,cl#b1 ,k#b;,,co#c1 & o!rs betwe5 #b & #c1 = ,h,cl1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ,na,n,o#c1 ,ca,n#b,o#f1 & o!rs ne>ly #b & s on4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$ t ! above d$uctions are only applicable 7& ) a c]ta9 degree ( accuracy7 to dilute solutions1 & 9 ?is respect resemble ! g5]alisations ( ,mi*el & ,kraft 7see ,note #dd74 ,nev]!less1 ! ari?metical relation f\nd by ,van't ,h(f betwe5 ! =mation ( vap\rs & ! transition into dilute solutions =ms an important sci5tific discov]y1 :i* %\ld facilitate ! explanation ( ! nature ( solutions1 :ile ! osmotic pressure ( solutions already =ms a v important aspect ( ! /udy ( solutions4 ,9 ?is respect x is necess>y to m5tion t ,pr(4 ,konoval(f 7#ahia1 & subsequ5tly o!rs also7 discov]$ ! dep5d5ce 7& x may be a suffici5t explanation7 ( ! osmotic pressure ^u ! diff]5ces ( ! t5sions ( aque\s vap\rs & aque\s solutions2 ?is1 h[ev]1 already ent]s into a special prov9ce ( physical *emi/ry 7c]ta9 data are giv5 9 ,note #di & foll[+71 & to ?is physical side ( ! "q also belongs "o ( ! extreme consequ5ces ( ! resemblance ( osmotic pressure to gase\s pressure1 :i* is t ! conc5tration ( a uni=m solution v>ies 9 p>ts :i* are heat$ or cool$4 ,soret 7#ahha7 inde$ obs]v$ t a solution ( copp] sulphate conta9+ #ag p>ts ( ! salt at #bj only conta9$ #ad p>ts aft] heat+ ! upp] portion ( ! tube to #hj = a long p]iod ( "t4 ,?is aspect ( solution1 :i* is n[ be+ v c>efully & fully work$ out1 may be call$ ! physical side4 ,its o!r aspect is purely *emical1 = solution does n take place betwe5 any two sub/ances1 b requires a special & p>ticul> attraction or aff9ity betwe5 !m4 ,a vap\r or gas p]meates any o!r vap\r or gas1 b a salt :i* dissolves 9 wat] may n be 9 ! lea/ soluble 9 alcohol1 & is q insoluble 9 m]cury4 ,9 consid]+ solutions z a manife/ation ( *emical =ce 7& ( *emical en]gy71 x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t !y are "h develop$ to s feeble an ext5t t ! def9ite comp\nds 7t is1 ^? =m$ accord+ to ! law ( multiple proportions7 =m$ betwe5 wat] & a soluble sub/ance dissociate ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 =m+ a homog5e\s sy/em--t is1 "o 9 :i* bo? ! comp\nd & ! products into :i* x decomposes 7wat] & ! aque\s comp\nd7 occur 9 a liquid /ate4 ,! *ief difficulty 9 ! compreh5sion ( solutions dep5ds on ! fact t ! me*anical !ory ( ! /ructure ( liquids has n yet be5 s fully develop$ z ! !ory ( gases1 & solutions are liquids4 ,! conception ( solutions z liquid dissociat$ def9ite *emical comp\nds is bas$ on ! foll[+ consid]ations3 7#a7 t !re exi/ c]ta9 und\bt$ly def9ite *emical cry/allis$ comp\nds 7su* z ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o2 or ,na,cl1#b;,h#b,o2 or ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o2 c47 :i* melt on a c]ta9 rise ( temp]ature1 & !n =m true solutions2 7#b7 t metallic alloys 9 a molt5 condition are real solutions1 b on cool+ !y (t5 give entirely di/9ct & def9ite cry/allis$ comp\nds1 :i* are recognis$ by ! prop]ties ( alloys2 7#c7 t betwe5 ! solv5t & ! sub/ance dissolv$ !re are =m$1 9 a numb] ( cases1 _m und\bt$ly def9ite comp\nds1 su* z comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation2 7#d7 t ! physical prop]ties ( solutions1 & especially _! specific gravities 7a prop]ty :i* c be v accurately det]m9$71 v>y ) a *ange 9 composition1 & 9 su* a mann] z w\ld be requir$ by ! =mation ( "o or m def9ite b dissociat+ comp\nds4 ,?us1 = example1 on add+ wat] to fum+ sulphuric acid its d5sity is obs]v$ to decrease until x atta9s ! def9ite composition ,h#b,,s#d1 or ,,s#c ,h#b,o1 :5 ! specific gravity increases1 al?\gh on fur!r dilut+ ) wat] x aga9 falls4 ,moreov] 7,m5deleff1 ,! ,inve/igation ( ,aque\s ,solutions f _! ,specific ,gravities1 #ahhg71 ! increase 9 specific gravity 7ds71 v>ies 9 all well-kn[n solutions ) ! proportion ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ 7dp71 & ?is dep5d5ce c be express$ by a =mula 7ds_/dp ,a ,bp7 betwe5 ! limits ( def9ite comp\nds ^: exi/5ce 9 solutions mu/ be admitt$1 & ?is is 9 complete accordance ) ! dissociation hypo!sis4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 f ,h#b,,s#d to ,h#b,,s#d ,h#b,o 7bo? ^! sub/ances exi/ z def9ite comp\nds 9 a free /ate71 ! fraction ds_/dp #jjgbi-jjjjgdip 7:]e p is ! p]c5tage am\nt ( ,h#b,,s#d74 ,= alcohol ,c#b;,h#f,o1 ^: aque\s solutions h be5 m accurately inve/igat$ ?an all o!rs1 ! def9ite comp\nd ,c#b;,h#f,o #c;,h#b,o1 & o!rs mu/ be ackn[l$g$ 9 its solutions4 ,! two aspects ( solution above m5tion$1 & ! hypo!ses :i* h z yet be5 appli$ to ! exam9ation ( solutions1 al?\gh !y h some:at diff]5t />t+ po9ts1 w d\btless 9 "t lead to a g5]al !ory ( solutions1 because ! same common laws gov]n bo? physical & *emical ph5om5a1 inasmu* z ! prop]ties & motions ( molecules1 :i* det]m9e physical prop]ties1 dep5d on ! motions & prop]ties ( atoms1 :i* det]m9e *emical reactions4 ,= details ( ! que/ions deal+ ) !ories ( solution1 rec\rse mu/ n[ be _h to special memoirs & to works on !oretical 7physical7 *emi/ry2 = ?is subject =ms "o ( special int]e/ at ! pres5t epo* ( ! developm5t ( our sci5ce4 ,9 work+ out *iefly ! *emical side ( solutions1 ,i consid] x to be necess>y to reconcile ! two aspects ( ! "q2 ?is seems to me to be all ! m possible1 z ! physical side is limit$ to dilute solutions only1 :il/ ! *emical side deals ma9ly ) /rong solutions4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( ! process ( solution1 besides ! conception ( diffusion1 ano!r fundam5tal conception is necess>y--namely1 t ( ! saturation ( solutions4 ,j z moi/ air may be dilut$ ) any desir$ quantity ( dry air1 s also an indef9itely l>ge quantity ( a liquid solv5t may be tak51 & yet a uni=m solution w be obta9$4 ,b m ?an a def9ite quantity ( aque\s vap\r _c be introduc$ into a c]ta9 volume ( air at a c]ta9 temp]ature4 ,! excess above ! po9t ( saturation w rema9 9 ! liquid /ate4#bj ,! relation betwe5 wat] & sub/ances dissolv$ 9 x is simil>4 ,m ?an a def9ite quantity ( a sub/ance _c1 at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 dissolve 9 a giv5 quantity ( wat]2 ! excess does n unite ) ! wat]4 ,j z air or a gas becomes saturat$ ) vap\r1 s wat] becomes saturat$ ) a sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x4 ,if an excess ( a sub/ance be add$ to wat] :i* is already saturat$ ) x1 x w rema9 9 its orig9al /ate1 & w n diffuse ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! quantity ( a sub/ance 7ei!r by volume ) gases1 or by weight ) solids & liquids7 :i* is capable ( saturat+ #ajj p>ts ( wat] is call$ ! co-effici5t ( solubility or ! solubility4 ,9 #ajj grams ( wat] at #ae1 !re c be dissolv$ n m ?an #cehf grams ( common salt4 ,consequ5tly1 its solubility at #ae is equal to #cehf4ba ,x is mo/ important to turn att5tion to ! exi/5ce ( ! solid insoluble sub/ances ( nature1 because on !m dep5ds ! %ape ( ! sub/ances ( ! e>?'s surface1 & ( plants & animals4 ,!re is s mu* wat] on ! e>?'s surface1 t 7 ! surface ( sub/ances =m$ ( soluble matt]s x w\ld con/antly *ange1 & h[ev] sub/antial _! =ms might be1 m\nta9s1 riv] banks & sea %ores1 plants & animals1 or ! habitations & cov]+s ( m51 c\ld n exi/ = any l5g? ( "t4#bb #bj ,a sy/em ( 7*emically or physically7 re-act+ sub/ances 9 diff]5t /ates ( aggregation--= in/ance1 "s solid1 o!rs liquid or gase\s--is t]m$ a het]og5e\s sy/em4 ,up to n[ x is only sy/ems ( ?is k9d :i* c be subject$ to detail$ exam9ation 9 ! s5se ( ! me*anical !ory ( matt]4 ,solutions 7i4e4 unsaturat$ ones7 =m fluid homog5e\s sy/ems1 :i* at ! pres5t "t c only be inve/igat$ ) difficulty4 ,9 ! case ( limit$ solution ( liquids 9 liquids1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! solv5t & ! sub/ance dissolv$ is cle>ly se54 ,! =m] 7t is1 ! solv5t7 may be add$ 9 an unlimit$ quantity1 & yet ! solution obta9$ w always be uni=m1 :il/ only a def9ite saturat+ proportion ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ c be tak51 ,we w take wat] & common 7sulphuric7 e!r4 ,on %ak+ ! e!r ) ! wat]1 x w be rem>k$ t a portion ( x dissolves 9 ! wat]4 ,if ! e!r be tak5 9 su* a quantity t x saturates ! wat] & a portion ( x rema9s undissolv$1 !n ?is rema9+ portion w act z a solv5t1 & wat] w diffuse ?r\gh x & also =m a saturat$ solution ( wat] 9 ! e!r tak54 ,?us two saturat$ solutions w be obta9$4 ,"o solution w conta9 e!r dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & ! o!r solution w conta9 wat] dissolv$ 9 e!r4 ,^! two solutions w arrange !mselves 9 two lay]s1 accord+ to _! d5sity2 ! e!real solution ( wat] w be on ! top4 ,if ! upp] e!real solution be p\r$ (f f ! aque\s solution1 any quantity ( e!r may be add$ to x2 ?is %[s t ! dissolv+ sub/ance is e!r4 ,if wat] be add$ to x1 x is no long] dissolv$ 9 x2 ?is %[s t wat] saturates ! e!r--"h wat] is ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,if we act 9 ! same mann] ) ! l[] lay]1 we %all f9d t wat] is ! solv5t & e!r ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,by tak+ diff]5t am\nts ( e!r & wat]1 ! degree ( solubility ( e!r 9 wat]1 & ( wat] 9 e!r1 may be easily det]m9$4 ,wat] approximately dissolves #a_/aj ( its volume ( e!r1 & e!r dissolves a v small quantity ( wat]4 ,let u n[ imag9e t ! liquid p\r$ 9 dissolves a consid]able am\nt ( wat]1 & t wat] dissolves a consid]able am\nt ( ! liquid4 ,two lay]s c\ld n be =m$1 because ! saturat$ solutions w\ld resemble ea* o!r1 & !re=e !y w\ld int]mix 9 all proportions4 ,?is is1 consequ5tly1 a case ( a ph5om5on :]e two liquids pres5t consid]able co-effici5ts ( solubility 9 ea* o!r1 b :]e x is impossible to say :at ^! co-effici5ts are1 because x is impossible to obta9 a saturat$ solution4 #ba ,! solubility1 or co-effici5t ( solubility1 ( a sub/ance is det]m9$ by v>i\s me?ods4 ,ei!r a solution is expressly prep>$ ) a cle> excess ( ! soluble sub/ance & saturat$ at a giv5 temp]ature1 & ! quantity ( wat] & ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x det]m9$ by evaporation1 desiccation1 or o!r means2 or else1 z is done ) gases1 def9ite quantities ( wat] & ( ! soluble sub/ance are tak5 & ! am\nt rema9+ undissolv$ is det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,buns5's absorptiomet]4 ,app>atus = det]m9+ ! solubility ( gases 9 liquids4 ,! solubility ( a gas 9 wat] is det]m9$ by means ( an app>atus call$ an absorptiomet] 7fig4 #af74 ,x consi/s ( an iron /& f1 on :i* an india-rubb] r+ re/s4 ,a wide glass tube is plac$ on ?is r+1 & is press$ d[n on x by ! r+ h & ! screws i i4 ,! tube is ?us firmly fix$ on ! /&4 ,a cock r1 communicat+ ) a funnel r1 passes into ! l[] "p ( ! /&4 ,m]cury c be p\r$ into ! wide tube ?r\gh ?is funnel1 :i* is !re=e made ( /eel1 z copp] w\ld be affect$ by ! m]cury4 ,! upp] r+ h is furni%$ ) a cov] p1 :i* c be firmly press$ d[n on to ! wide tube1 & h]metically closes x by means ( an india-rubb] r+4 ,! tube r r c be rais$ at w1 & s by p\r+ m]cury into ! funnel ! height ( ! column ( m]cury1 :i* produces pressure inside ! app>atus1 c be increas$4 ,! pressure c also be dim9i%$ at w1 by lett+ m]cury out ?r\gh ! cock r4 ,a graduat$ tube e1 conta9+ ! gas & liquid to be exp]im5t$ on1 is plac$ inside ! wide tube4 ,?is tube is graduat$ 9 millimetres = det]m9+ ! pressure1 & x is calibrat$ = volume1 s t ! numb] ( volumes occupi$ by ! gas & liquid dissolv+ x c be easily calculat$4 ,?is tube c also be easily remov$ f ! app>atus4 ,! l[] portion ( ?is tube :5 remov$ f ! app>atus is %[n to ! "r ( ! figure4 ,x w be obs]v$ t its l[] end is furni%$ ) a male screw b1 fitt+ 9 a nut a4 ,! l[] surface ( ! nut a is cov]$ ) india-rubb]1 s t on screw+ up ! tube its l[] end presses ^u ! india-rubb]1 & ?us h]metically closes ! :ole tube1 = its upp] end is fus$ up4 ,! nut a is furni%$ ) arms c c1 & 9 ! /& f !re are correspond+ spaces1 s t :5 ! screw$-up int]nal tube is fix$ into /& f1 ! arms c c fix into ^! spaces cut 9 f4 ,?is enables ! int]nal tube to be fix$ on to ! /& f4 ,:5 ! int]nal tube is fix$ 9 ! /&1 ! wide tube is put into its "r position1 & m]cury & wat] are p\r$ into ! space betwe5 ! two tubes1 & communication is op5$ betwe5 ! inside ( ! tube e & ! m]cury betwe5 ! int]ior & ext]ior tubes4 ,?is is done by ei!r revolv+ ! int]ior tube e1 or by a key turn+ ! nut ab\t ! bottom "p ( f4 ,! tube e is fill$ ) gas & wat] z foll[s3 ! tube is remov$ f ! app>atus1 fill$ ) m]cury1 & ! gas to be exp]im5t$ on is pass$ into x4 ,! volume ( ! gas is measur$1 ! temp]ature & pressure det]m9$1 & ! volume x w\ld occupy at #j & #gfj mm4 calculat$4 ,a kn[n volume ( wat] is !n introduc$ into ! tube4 ,! wat] mu/ be previ\sly boil$1 s z to be q fre$ f air 9 solution4 ,! tube is !n clos$ by screw+ x d[n on to ! india-rubb] on ! nut4 ,x is !n fix$ on to ! /& f1 m]cury & wat] are p\r$ into ! int]v5+ space betwe5 x & ! ext]ior tube1 :i* is !n screw$ up & clos$ by ! cov] p1 & ! :ole app>atus is left at re/ = "s "t1 s t ! tube e1 & ! gas 9 x1 may atta9 ! same temp]ature z t ( ! surr\nd+ wat]1 :i* is m>k$ by a !rmomet] k ti$ to ! tube e4 ,! int]ior tube is !n aga9 clos$ by turn+ x 9 ! nut1 ! cov] p aga9 %ut1 & ! :ole app>atus is %ak5 9 ord] t ! gas 9 ! tube e may entirely saturate ! wat]4 ,aft] sev]al %ak+s1 ! tube e is aga9 op5$ by turn+ x 9 ! nut1 & ! app>atus is left at re/ = a c]ta9 "t2 x is !n clos$ & aga9 %ak51 & s on until ! volume ( gas does n dim9i% aft] a fre% %ak+--t is1 until saturation ensues4 ,obs]vations are !n made ( ! temp]ature1 ! height ( ! m]cury 9 ! int]ior tube1 & ! level ( ! wat] 9 x1 & also ( ! level ( ! m]cury & wat] 9 ! ext]ior tube4 ,all ^! data are necess>y 9 ord] to calculate ! pressure "u :i* ! solution ( ! gas takes place1 & :at volume ( gas rema9s undissolv$1 & also ! quantity ( wat] :i* s]ves z ! solv5t4 ,by v>y+ ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ wat]1 ! am\nt ( gas dissolv$ at v>i\s temp]atures may be det]m9$4 ,buns51 ,c>ius1 & _m o!rs det]m9$ ! solution ( v>i\s gases 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & c]ta9 o!r liquids1 by means ( ?is app>atus4 ,if 9 a det]m9ation ( ?is k9d x is f\nd t n cubic c5timetres ( wat] at a pressure h dissolve m cubic c5timetres ( a giv5 gas1 measur$ at #j & #gfj mm41 :5 ! temp]ature "u :i* solution took place 0 t1 !n x foll[s t at ! temp]ature t ! co-effici5t ( solubility ( ! gas 9 #a volume ( ! liquid w be equal to m_/n #gfj_/;h4 ,?is =mula is v cle>ly und]/ood f ! fact t ! co-effici5t ( solubility ( gases is t quantity measur$ at #j & #gfj mm41 :i* is absorb$ at a pressure ( #gfj mm4 by "o volume ( a liquid4 ,if n cubic c5timetres ( wat] absorb m cubic c5timetres ( a gas1 !n "o cubic c5timetre absorbs m_/n4 ,if m_/n c4c4 ( a gas are absorb$ "u a pressure ( h mm41 !n1 accord+ to ! law ( ! v>iation ( solubility ( a gas ) ! pressure1 !re w\ld he dissolv$1 "u a pressure ( #gfj mm41 a quantity v>y+ 9 ! same ratio to m_/n z #gfj 3 h4 ,9 det]m9+ ! residual volume ( gas its moi/ure 7note #a7 mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,bel[ are giv5 ! numb] ( grams ( sev]al sub/ances saturat+ #ajj grams ( wat]--t is1 _! co-effici5ts ( solubility by weight at ?ree diff]5t temp]atures3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,at #j ,at #bj ,at #ajj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,oxyg51 ,o#b #f_/ajjj #d_/ajjj -- ,gases ,c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b #ce_/ajj #ah_/ajj -- ,ammonia1 ,,nh#c #ijj #eah #gc ,ph5ol1 ,c#f;,h#f,o #di #eb oo ,liquids ,amyl alcohol1 ,c#e;,h#ab,o #dd #bi -- ,sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d oo oo oo ,gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o #a_/e #a_/d #a_/e ,alum1 ,al,k,s#b,o#h1ab;,h#b,o #cc #aed #cege ,solids ,anhydr\s sodium sulphate1 #de #bj #dc ,na#b,,s#d ,common ,salt1 ,na,cl #ceg #cfj #cig ,nitre1 ,,kno#c #acc #cag #bdfj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,sometimes a sub/ance is s slightly soluble t x may be consid]$ z insoluble4 ,_m su* sub/ances are met ) bo? 9 solids & liquids1 & su* a gas z oxyg51 al?\gh x does dissolve1 does s 9 s small a proportion by weight t x might be consid]$ z z]o did n ! solubility ( ev5 s little oxyg5 play an important "p 9 nature 7z 9 ! respiration ( fi%es7 & 7 n an inf9itesimal quantity ( a gas by weight s easily measur$ by volume4 ,! sign oo1 :i* /&s on a l9e ) sulphuric acid 9 ! above table1 indicates t x int]mixes ) wat] 9 all proportions4 ,!re are _m su* cases among liquids1 & ev]ybody kn[s1 = in/ance1 t _s 7absolute alcohol7 c be mix$ 9 any proportion ) wat]4 #bb ,j z ! exi/5ce mu/ he admitt$ ( sub/ances :i* are completely undecomposable 7*emically7 at ! ord9>y temp]ature--& ( sub/ances :i* are entirely non-volatile at su* a temp]ature 7z wood & gold71 al?\gh capable ( decompos+ 7wood7 or volatilis+ 7gold7 at a high] temp]ature--s also ! exi/5ce mu/ be admitt$ ( sub/ances :i* are totally insoluble 9 wat] )\t "s degree ( *ange 9 _! /ate4 ,al?\gh m]cury is p>tially volatile at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 !re is no reason to ?9k t x & o!r metals are soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 or o!r simil> liquids4 ,h[ev]1 m]cury =ms solutions1 z x dissolves o!r metals4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are _m sub/ances f\nd 9 nature :i* are s v slightly soluble 9 wat]1 t 9 ord9>y practice !y may be consid]$ z insoluble 7= example1 b>ium sulphate74 ,= ! compreh5sion ( t g5]al plan accord+ to :i* a *ange ( /ate ( sub/ances 7comb9$ or dissolv$1 solid1 liquid1 or gase\s7 takes place1 x is v important to make a di/9ction at ?is b\nd>y l9e 7on approa*+ z]o ( decomposition1 volatility1 or solubility7 betwe5 an insignificant am\nt & z]o1 b ! pres5t me?ods ( rese>* & ! data at our disposal at ! pres5t "t only j t\* su* que/ions 7by /udy+ ! electrical conductivity ( dilute solutions & ! developm5t ( micro-organisms 9 !m74 ,x mu/ be rem>k$1 besides1 t wat] 9 a numb] ( cases does n dissolve a sub/ance z su*1 b acts on x *emically & =ms a soluble sub/ance4 ,?us glass & _m rocks1 especially if tak5 z p[d]1 are *emically *ang$ by wat]1 b are n directly soluble 9 x4 ,sub/ances :i* are easily soluble 9 wat] be> a c]ta9 resemblance to x4 ,?us sug> & salt 9 _m ( _! sup]ficial features rem9d "o ( ice4 ,metals1 :i* are n soluble 9 wat]1 h no po9ts 9 common ) x1 :il/ on ! o!r h& !y dissolve ea* o!r 9 a molt5 /ate1 =m+ alloys1 j z oily sub/ances dissolve ea* o!r2 = example1 tall[ is soluble 9 petroleum & 9 olive oil1 al?\gh !y are all insoluble 9 wat]4 ,f ?is x is evid5t t ! analogy ( sub/ances =m+ a solution plays an important "p1 & z aque\s & all o!r solutions are liquids1 !re is good reason to believe t 9 ! process ( solution solid & gase\s sub/ances *ange 9 a physical s5se1 pass+ into a liquid /ate4 ,^! consid]ations elucidate _m po9ts ( solution--z1 = in/ance1 ! v>iation ( ! co-effici5t ( solubility ) ! temp]ature & ! evolution or absorption ( heat 9 ! =mation ( solutions4 ,! solubility--t is1 ! quantity ( a sub/ance necess>y = saturation--v>ies ) ! temp]ature1 &1 fur!r1 ) an increase 9 temp]ature ! solubility ( solid sub/ances g5]ally increases1 & t ( gases decreases2 ?is might be expect$1 z solid sub/ances by heat+1 & gases by cool+1 approa* to a liquid or dissolv$ /ate4#bc ,a graphic me?od is (t5 employ$ to express ! v>iation ( solubility ) temp]ature4 ,on ! axis ( absciss or on a horizontal l9e1 temp]atures are m>k$ out & p]p5dicul>s are rais$ correspond+ ) ea* temp]ature1 ^: l5g? is det]m9$ by ! solubility ( ! salt at t temp]ature--express+1 = in/ance1 "o "p by weight ( a salt 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] by "o unit ( l5g?1 su* z a millimetre4 ,by jo9+ ! summits ( ! p]p5dicul>s1 a curve is obta9$ :i* expresses ! degree ( solubility at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,= solids1 ! curve is g5]ally an asc5d+ "o--i4e4 rec$es f ! horizontal l9e ) ! rise 9 temp]ature4 ,^! curves cle>ly %[ by _! incl9ation ! degree ( rapidity ( increase 9 solubility ) ! temp]ature4 ,hav+ det]m9$ sev]al po9ts ( a curve--t is1 hav+ made a det]m9ation ( ! solubility = sev]al temp]atures--! solubility at int]m$i>y temp]atures may be det]m9$ f ! =m ( ! curve s obta9$2 9 ?is way ! empirical law ( solubility may be exam9$4#bd ,! results ( rese>* h %[n t ! solubility ( c]ta9 salts--z1 = example1 common table salt--v>ies comp>atively little ) ! temp]ature2 :il/ = o!r sub/ances ! solubility increases by equal am\nts = equal increm5ts ( temp]ature4 ,?us1 = example1 = ! saturation ( #ajj p>ts ( wat] by potassium *loride !re is requir$ at #j1 #bib p>ts1 at #bj1 #cdg1 at #dj1 #djb1 at #fj1 #deg2 & s on1 = e #aj ! solubility increases by #bge p>ts by weight ( ! salt4 ,!re=e ! solubility ( ! potassium *loride 9 wat] may be express$ by a direct equation3 a #bib #jbget1 :]e a repres5ts ! solubility at t4 ,= o!r salts1 m complicat$ equations are requir$4 ,= example1 = nitre3 a #acc #jegdt #jjagagt#b #jjjjjjcft#c1 :i* %[s t :5 t #j a #acc1 :5 t #aj a #bjh1 & :5 t #ajj a #bdfj4 #bc ,beilby 7#ahhc7 exp]im5t$ on p>aff91 & f\nd t "o litre ( solid p>aff9 at #ba weigh$ #hgd grams1 & :5 liquid1 at its melt+-po9t #ch1 #ghc grams1 at #di1 #gge grams1 & at #fj1 #gfg grams1 f :i* ! weight ( a litre ( liquefi$ p>aff9 w\ld be #gied grams at #ba if x c\ld rema9 liquid at t temp]ature4 ,by dissolv+ solid p>aff9 9 lubricat+ oil at #ba ,beilby f\nd t #gief grams occupy "o cubic decimetre1 f :i* he conclud$ t ! solution conta9$ liquefi$ p>aff94 #bd ,gay-,lussac 0 ! fir/ to h rec\rse to su* a graphic me?od ( express+ solubility1 & he consid]$1 9 accordance ) ! g5]al op9ion1 t by jo9+ up ! summits ( ! ord9ates 9 "o h>moni\s curve x is possible to express ! entire *ange ( solubility ) ! temp]ature4 ,n[1 !re are _m reasons = d\bt+ ! accuracy ( su* an admission1 = !re are und\bt$ly critical po9ts 9 curves ( solubility 7= example1 ( sodium sulphate1 z %[n fur!r on71 & x may be t def9ite comp\nds ( dissolv$ sub/ances ) wat]1 9 decompos+ )9 kn[n limits ( temp]ature1 give critical po9ts m (t5 ?an w\ld be imag9$2 x may ev5 be1 inde$1 t in/ead ( a cont9u\s curve1 solubility %\ld be express$--if n always1 !n n unfrequ5tly--by /raight or brok5 l9es4 ,accord+ to ,ditte1 ! solubility ( sodium nitrate1 ,na,n,o#c1 is express$ by ! foll[+ figures p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]3-- #j #d #aj #ae #ba #bi #cf #ea #fh #ffg #gaj #gfc #hjf #heg #ibi #iid #aacf #abea ,9 my op9ion 7#ahha7 ^! data %\ld be express$ ) exactitude by a /raight l9e1 #fge #jhgt1 :i* entirely agrees ) ! results ( exp]im5t4 ,accord+ to ?is ! figure express+ ! solubility ( salt at #j exactly co9cides ) ! composition ( a def9ite *emical comp\nd--,na,n,o#c1g;,h#b,o4 ,! exp]im5ts made by ,ditte %[$ t all saturat$ solutions betwe5 #j & -#aeg h su* a composition1 & t at ! latt] temp]ature ! solution completely solidifies into "o homog5e\s :ole4 ,betwe5 #j & -#aeg ! solution ,na,n,o#c1g;,h#b,o does n deposit ei!r salt or ice4 ,?us ! solubility ( sodium nitrate is express$ by a brok5 /raight l9e4 ,9 rec5t times 7#ahhh7 t>d discov]$ a simil> ph5om5on 9 _m ( ! sulphates4 ,br&es1 9 #ahcj1 %[s a dim9ution 9 solubility bel[ #ajj = manganese sulphate4 ,! p]c5tage by weight 7i4e4 p] #ajj p>ts ( ! solution1 & n ( wat]7 ( saturation = f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d1 f -#b to #fe #ace #jcghdt--t is1 ! solubility ( ! salt increases4 ,! solubility rema9s con/ant f #fe to #ih 7accord+ to ,br&es ! solubility !n increases2 ?is div]g5ce ( op9ion requires pro(71 & f #ih to #aej x falls z #ajdce - #jffhet4 ,h5ce1 at ab\t #aef ! solubility %\ld #j1 & ?is has be5 confirm$ by exp]im5t4 ,i obs]ve1 on my "p1 t t>d's =mula gives #cha p4c4 ( salt at #fe & #chh p4c4 at #ib1 & ?is maximum am\nt ( salt 9 ! solution v ne>ly corresponds ) ! composition ,fe,s,o#d1ad;,h#b,o1 :i* requires #cgf p4c4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x is evid5t t ! data conc]n+ solubility require a new me?od ( inve/igation1 :i* %\ld h 9 view ! entire scale ( solubility--f ! =mation ( completely solidifi$ solutions 7cryohydrates1 :i* we %all speak ( pres5tly7 to ! sep>ation ( salts f _! solutions1 if ?is is accompli%$ at a high] temp]ature 7= manganese & cadmium sulphates !re is an entire sep>ation1 accord+ to t>d71 or to ! =mation ( a con/ant solubility 7= potassium sulphate ! solubility1 accord+ to t>d1 rema9s con/ant f #afc to #bbj & equals #bdi p4c47 7,see ,*apt] ,,xiv41 note #ej1 solubility ( ,ca,cl#b47 ,curves ( solubility give ! means ( e/imat+ ! am\nt ( salt sep>at$ by ! cool+ to a kn[n ext5t ( a solution saturat$ at a giv5 temp]ature4 ,= in/ance1 if #bjj p>ts ( a solution ( potassium *loride 9 wat] saturat$ at a temp]ature ( #fj be tak51 & x be ask$ h[ mu* ( ! salt w be sep>at$ by cool+ ! solution to #j1 if its solubility at #fj #deg & at #j #bib8 ,! answ] is obta9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,at #fj a saturat$ solution conta9s #deg p>ts ( potassium *loride p] #ajj p>ts by weight ( wat]1 consequ5tly #adeg p>ts by weight ( ! solution conta9 #deg p>ts1 or1 by proportion1 #bjj p>ts by weight ( ! solution conta9 #fbg p>ts ( ! salt4 ,! am\nt ( salt rema9+ 9 solution at #j is calculat$ z foll[s2 ,9 #bjj grams tak5 !re w be #acgc grams ( wat]2 consequ5tly1 ?is am\nt ( wat] is capable ( hold+ only #dja grams ( ! salt1 & !re=e 9 l[]+ ! temp]ature f #fj to #j !re %\ld sep>ate f ! solution #fbg-dja #bbf grams ( ! dissolv$ salt4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! solubility ( salts1 c41 ) a rise or fall ( temp]ature is (t5 tak5 advantage (1 especially 9 te*nical "w1 = ! sep>ation ( salts1 9 int]mixture f ea* o!r4 ,?us a mixture ( potassium & sodium *lorides 7?is mixture is met ) 9 nature at ,/assfurt7 is sep>at$ f a saturat$ solution by subject+ x alt]nately to boil+ 7evaporation7 & cool+4 ,! sodium *loride sep>ates out 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( wat] expell$ f ! solution by boil+1 & is remov$1 :il/ ! potassium *loride sep>ates out on cool+1 z ! solubility ( ?is salt rapidly decreases ) a l[]+ 9 temp]ature4 ,nitre1 sug>1 & _m o!r soluble sub/ances are purifi$ 7ref9$7 9 a simil> mann]4 ,al?\gh 9 ! majority ( cases ! solubility ( solids increases ) ! temp]ature1 yet !re are "s solid sub/ances ^: solubilities decrease on heat+4 ,glaub]'s salt1 or sodium sulphate1 =ms a p>ticul>ly in/ructive example ( ! case 9 "q4 ,if ?is salt be tak5 9 an ignit$ /ate 7depriv$ ( its wat] ( cry/allisation71 !n its solubility 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] v>ies ) ! temp]ature 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 at #j1 #e p>ts ( ! salt =m a saturat$ solution2 at #bj1 #bj p>ts ( ! salt1 at #cc m ?an #ej p>ts4 ,! solubility1 z w be se51 increases ) ! temp]ature1 z is ! case ) ne>ly all salts2 b />t+ f #cc x sudd5ly dim9i%es1 & at a temp]ature ( #dj1 less ?an #ej p>ts ( ! salt dissolve1 at #fj only #de p>ts ( ! salt1 & at #ajj ab\t #dc p>ts ( ! salt 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat]4 ,?is ph5om5on may be trac$ to ! foll[+ facts3 ,fir/ly1 t ?is salt =ms v>i\s comp\nds ) wat]1 z w be aft]w>ds expla9$2 secondly1 t at #cc ! comp\nd ,na#b,,s#d #aj;,h#b,o =m$ f ! solution at l[] temp]atures1 melts2 & ?irdly1 t on evaporation at a temp]ature above #cc an anhydr\s salt1 ,na#b,,s#d sep>ates out4 ,x w be se5 f ?is example h[ complicat$ su* an app>5tly simple ph5om5on z solution really is2 & all data conc]n+ solutions lead to ! same conclusion4 ,?is complexity becomes evid5t 9 inve/igat+ ! heat ( solution4 ,if solution consi/$ ( a physical *ange only1 !n 9 ! solution ( gases !re w\ld be evolv$--& 9 ! solution ( solids1 !re w\ld be absorb$--j t am\nt ( heat correspond+ to ! *ange ( /ate2 b 9 reality a l>ge am\nt ( heat is always evolv$ 9 solution1 dep5d+ on ! fact t 9 ! process ( solution *emical comb9ation takes place accompani$ by an evolution ( heat4 ,sev5te5 grams ( ammonia 7?is weight corresponds ) its =mula ,,nh#c71 9 pass+ f a gase\s into a liquid /ate1 evolve #d1djj units ( heat 7lat5t heat72 t is1 ! quantity ( heat necess>y to raise ! temp]ature ( #d1djj grams ( wat] #a4 ,! same quantity ( ammonia1 9 dissolv+ 9 an excess ( wat]1 evolves twice z mu* heat--namely #h1hjj units--%[+ t ! comb9ation ) wat] is accompani$ by ! evolution ( #d1djj units ( heat4 ,fur!r1 ! *ief "p ( ?is heat is sep>at$ 9 dissolv+ 9 small quantities ( wat]1 s t #ag grams ( ammonia1 9 dissolv+ 9 #ah grams ( wat] 7?is weight corresponds ) its composition ,h#b,o71 evolve #g1ece units ( heat1 & !re=e ! =mation ( ! solution ,,nh#c ,h#b,o evolves #c1ace units ( heat beyond t due to ! *ange ( /ate4 ,z 9 ! solution ( gases1 ! heat ( liquefaction 7( physical *ange ( /ate7 & ( *emical comb9ation ) wat] are bo? positive 771 !re=e 9 ! solution ( gases 9 wat] a heat effect is always obs]v$4 ,?is ph5om5on is diff]5t 9 ! solution ( solid sub/ances1 because _! passage f a solid to a liquid /ate is accompani$ by an absorption ( heat 7negative1-heat71 :il/ _! *emical comb9ation ) wat] is accompani$ by an evolution ( heat 7 heat72 consequ5tly1 _! sum may ei!r be a cool+ effect1 :5 ! positive 7*emical7 portion ( heat is less ?an ! negative 7physical71 or x may be1 on ! contr>y1 a heat+ effect4 ,?is is actually ! case4 #abd grams ( sodium ?iosulphate 7employ$ 9 photography7 ,na#b,s#b,o#c1e;,h#b,o 9 melt+ 7at #dh7 absorbs #i1gjj units ( heat1 b 9 dissolv+ 9 a l>ge quantity ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature x absorbs #e1gjj units ( heat1 :i* %[s ! evolution ( heat 7ab\t #d1jjj units71 not)/&+ ! cool+ effect obs]v$ 9 ! process ( solution1 9 ! act ( ! *emical comb9ation ( ! salt ) wat]4#be ,b 9 mo/ cases solid sub/ances 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] evolve heat1 not)/&+ ! passage into a liquid /ate1 :i* indicates s consid]able an evolution ( 77 heat 9 ! act ( comb9ation ) wat] t x exce$s ! absorption ( 7-7 heat dep5d5t on ! passage into a liquid /ate1 ,?us1 = in/ance1 calcium *loride1 ,ca,cl#b1 magnesium sulphate1 ,mg,s,o#d1 & _m o!r salts evolve heat 9 dissolv+2 = example1 #fj grams ( magnesium sulphate evolve ab\t #aj1jjj units ( heat4 ,!re=e1 9 ! solution ( solid bodies ei!r a cool+#bf or a heat+#bg effect is produc$1 accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( ! react+ aff9ities4 ,:5 !y are consid]able--t is1 :5 wat] is ) difficulty sep>at$ f ! resultant solution1 & only ) a rise ( temp]ature 7su* sub/ances absorb wat] vap\r7--!n mu* heat is evolv$ 9 ! process ( solution1 j z 9 _m reactions ( direct comb9ation1 & !re=e a consid]able heat+ ( ! solution is obs]v$4 ,( su* a k9d1 = in/ance1 is ! solution ( sulphuric acid 7oil ( vitriol ,h#b,,s#d71 & ( cau/ic soda 7,na,h,o71 c41 9 wat]4#bh #be ,! lat5t heat ( fusion is det]m9$ at ! temp]ature ( fusion1 :il/ solution takes place at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & "o mu/ ?9k t at ?is temp]ature ! lat5t heat w\ld be diff]5t1 j z ! lat5t heat ( evaporation v>ies ) ! temp]ature 7see ,note #aa74 ,besides :i*1 9 dissolv+1 dis9tegration ( ! p>ticles ( bo? ! solv5t & ! sub/ance dissolv$ takes place1 a process :i* 9 its me*anical aspect resembles evaporation1 & !re=e mu/ consume mu* heat4 ,! heat emitt$ 9 ! solution ( a solid mu/ !re=e be consid]$ 7,p]sonne7 z compos$ ( ?ree factors--7#a7 positive1 ! effect ( comb9ation2 7#b7 negative1 ! effect ( transf]5ce into a liquid /ate2 & 7#c7 negative1 ! effect ( dis9tegration4 ,9 ! solution ( a liquid by a liquid ! second factor is remov$2 & !re=e1 if ! heat evolv$ 9 comb9ation is great] ?an t absorb$ 9 dis9tegration a heat+ effect is obs]v$1 & 9 ! rev]se case a cool+ effect2 &1 inde$1 sulphuric acid1 alcohol1 & _m liquids evolve heat 9 dissolv+ 9 ea* o!r4 ,b ! solution ( *lor(orm 9 c>bon bisulphide 7,bussy & ,b+et71 or ( ph5ol 7or anil9e7 9 wat] 7,alexeff71 produces cold4 ,9 ! solution ( a small quantity ( wat] 9 acetic acid 7,aba%eff71 or hydrocyanic acid 7,bussy & ,b+et71 or amyl alcohol 7,alexeff71 cold is produc$1 :il/ 9 ! solution ( ^! sub/ances 9 an excess ( wat] heat is evolv$4 ,! relation exi/+ betwe5 ! solubility ( solid bodies & ! heat & temp]ature ( fusion & solution has be5 /udi$ by _m inve/igators1 & m rec5tly 7#ahic7 by ,s*rd]1 :o /ates t 9 ! solution ( a solid body 9 a solv5t :i* does n act *emically ^u x1 a v simple process takes place1 :i* diff]s b little f ! int]mixture ( two gases :i* d n react *emically ^u ea* o!r4 ,! foll[+ relation betwe5 ! heat ( solution ,q & ! heat ( fusion p may !n be tak53 ,p_/,t#j ,q_/,t con/ant1 :]e ,t#j & ,t are ! absolute 7f -#bgc7 temp]atures ( fusion & saturation4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 9 ! case ( naph?al5e ! calculat$ & obs]v$ magnitudes ( ! heat ( solution diff] b slightly f ea* o!r4 ,! fulle/ in=mation conc]n+ ! solution ( liquids 9 liquids has be5 ga!r$ by ,w4 ,t4 ,alexeff 7#ahhc-ahhe72 ^! data are1 h[ev]1 f> f be+ suffici5t to solve ! mass ( problems respect+ ?is subject4 ,he %[$ t two liquids :i* dissolve 9 ea* o!r1 int]mix toge!r 9 all proportions at a c]ta9 temp]ature4 ,?us ! solubility ( ph5ol1 ,c#f;,h#f,o1 9 wat]1 & ! conv]se1 is limit$ up to #gj1 :il/ above ?is temp]ature !y int]mix 9 all proportions4 ,?is is se5 f ! foll[+ figures1 :]e p is ! p]c5tage am\nt ( ph5ol & t ! temp]ature at :i* ! solution becomes turbid--t is1 t at :i* x is saturat$3-- p #gab #ajbj #aeca #bfae #bhee #cfgj #dhhf #faae #gaig t #a #de #fj #fg #fg #fg #fe #ec #bj ,x is exactly ! same ) ! solution ( b5z5e1 anil9e1 & o!r sub/ances 9 molt5 sulphur4 ,alexeff discov]$ a simil> complete int]mixture = solutions ( second>y butyl alcohol 9 wat] at ab\t #ajg2 at l[] temp]atures ! solubility is n only limit$1 b betwe5 #ej & #gj x is at its m9imum1 bo? = solutions ( ! alcohol 9 wat] & = wat] 9 ! alcohol2 & at a temp]ature ( #e bo? solutions exhibit a fre% *ange 9 _! scale ( solubility1 s t a solution ( ! alcohol 9 wat] :i* is saturat$ betwe5 #e & #dj w become turbid :5 heat$ to #fj4 ,9 ! solution ( liquids 9 liquids1 ,alexeff obs]v$ a l[]+ 9 temp]ature 7an absorption ( heat7 & an abs5ce ( *ange 9 specific heat 7calculat$ = ! mixture7 mu* m frequ5tly ?an _h be5 done by previ\s obs]v]s4 ,z reg>ds 8 hypo!sis 79 ! s5se ( a me*anical & n a *emical repres5tation ( solutions7 t sub/ances 9 solution pres]ve _! physical /ates 7z gases1 liquids1 or solids71 x is v d\btful1 = x w\ld necessitate admitt+ ! pres5ce ( ice 9 wat] or its vap\r4 ,f :at has be5 said above1 x w be cle> t ev5 9 s v simple a case z solution1 x is impossible to calculate ! heat emitt$ by *emical action alone1 & t ! *emical process _c be sep>at$ f ! physical & me*anical4 #bf ,! cool+ effect produc$ 9 ! solution ( solids 7& also 9 ! expansion ( gases & 9 evaporation7 is appli$ to ! production ( l[ temp]atures4 ,ammonium nitrate is v (t5 us$ = ?is purpose2 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] x absorbs #gg units ( heat p] ea* "p by weight4 ,on evaporat+ ! solution ?us =m$1 ! solid salt is re-obta9$4 ,! application ( ! v>i\s freez+ mixtures is bas$ on ! same pr9ciple4 ,sn[ or brok5 ice frequ5tly ent]s into ! composition ( ^! mixtures1 advantage be+ tak5 ( its lat5t heat ( fusion 9 ord] to obta9 ! l[e/ possible temp]ature 7)\t alt]+ ! pressure or employ+ heat1 z 9 o!r me?ods ( obta9+ a l[ temp]ature74 ,= laboratory "w rec\rse is mo/ (t5 _h to a mixture ( ?ree p>ts ( sn[ & "o "p ( common salt1 :i* causes ! temp]ature to fall f #j to -#ba ,c4 ,potassium ?iocyanate1 ,,kcns1 mix$ ) wat] 7#c_/d by weight ( ! salt7 gives a /ill l[] temp]ature4 ,by mix+ t5 p>ts ( cry/allis$ calcium *loride1 ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o1 ) sev5 p>ts ( sn[1 ! temp]ature may ev5 fall f #j to -#ee4 #bg ,! heat :i* is evolv$ 9 solution1 or ev5 9 ! dilution ( solutions1 is also sometimes made use ( 9 practice4 ,?us cau/ic soda 7,na,h,o71 9 dissolv+ or on ! addition ( wat] to a /rong solution ( x1 evolves s mu* heat t x c replace fuel4 ,9 a /eam boil]1 :i* has be5 previ\sly heat$ to ! boil+ po9t1 ano!r boil] is plac$ conta9+ cau/ic soda1 & ! exhau/ /eam is made to pass ?r\gh ! latt]2 ! =mation ( /eam !n goes on = a some:at long p]iod ( "t )\t any o!r heat+4 ,norton makes use ( ?is = smokeless /reet locomotives4 #bh ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,curves express+ ! contraction1 quantity ( heat1 & rises ( temp]ature produc$ by mix+ sulphuric acid ) wat]4 ,p]c5tage ( ,h#b,,s#d is giv5 along ! axis ( abscissae4 ,! temp]atures obta9$ by mix+ monohydrat$ sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ) diff]5t quantities ( wat]1 are %[n on ! l[e/ curve 9 fig4 #ag1 ! relative proportions ( bo? sub/ances be+ express$ 9 p]c5tages by weight along ! horizontal axis4 ,! greate/ rise ( temp]ature is #adi4 ,x corresponds ) ! greate/ evolution ( heat 7giv5 on ! middle curve7 correspond+ ) a def9ite volume 7#ajj c4c47 ( ! solution produc$4 ,! top curve expresses ! degree ( contraction1 :i* also corresponds ) #ajj volumes ( ! solution produc$4 ,! greate/ contraction1 z also ! greate/ rise ( temp]ature1 corresponds ) ! =mation ( a trihydrate1 ,h#b,,s#d1b;,h#b,o 7 #gca p4c4 ,h#b,,s#d71 :i* v likely repeats itself 9 a simil> =m 9 o!r solutions1 al?\gh all ! ph5om5a 7( contraction1 evolution ( heat1 & rise ( temp]ature7 are v complex & are dep5d5t on _m circum/ances4 ,"o w\ld ?9k1 h[ev]1 judg+ f ! above examples1 t all o!r influ5ces are feebl] 9 _! action ?an *emical attraction1 especially :5 x is s consid]able z betwe5 sulphuric acid & wat]4 ,solution is a rev]sible reaction2 =1 if ! wat] be expell$ f a solution1 ! sub/ance orig9ally tak5 is obta9$ aga94 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! expulsion ( ! wat] tak5 = solution is n always accompli%$ ) equal facility1 because wat] has diff]5t degrees ( *emical aff9ity = ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,?us1 if a solution ( sulphuric acid1 :i* mixes ) wat] 9 all proportions1 be heat$1 x w be f\nd t v diff]5t degrees ( heat are requir$ to expel ! wat]4 ,:5 x is 9 a l>ge excess1 wat] is giv5 (f at a temp]ature slightly above #ajj1 b if x be 9 b a small proportion !re is su* an aff9ity betwe5 x & ! sulphuric acid t at #abj1 #aej1 #bjj1 & ev5 at #cjj1 wat] is /ill reta9$ by ! sulphuric acid4 ,! bond betwe5 ! rema9+ quantity ( wat] & ! sulphuric acid is evid5tly /rong] ?an ! bond betwe5 ! sulphuric acid & ! excess ( wat]4 ,! =ce act+ 9 solutions is consequ5tly ( diff]5t int5sity1 />t+ f s feeble an attraction t ! prop]ties ( wat]--z1 = in/ance1 its p[] ( evaporation--are b v little *ang$1 & end+ ) cases ( /rong attraction betwe5 ! wat] & ! sub/ance dissolv$ 9 or *emically comb9$ ) x4 ,9 consid]ation ( ! v important significance ( ! ph5om5a1 & ( ! cases ( ! break+ up ( solutions ) sep>ation ( wat] or ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ f !m1 we %all fur!r discuss !m sep>ately1 aft] hav+ acqua9t$ ourselves ) c]ta9 peculi>ities ( ! solution ( gases & ( solid bodies4 ,! solubility ( gases1 :i* is usually measur$ by ! volume ( gas#bi 7at #j & #gfj mm4 pressure7 p] #ajj volumes ( wat]1 v>ies n only ) ! nature ( ! gas 7& also ( ! solv5t71 & ) ! temp]ature1 b also ) ! pressure1 because gases !mselves *ange _! volume consid]ably ) ! pressure4 ,z might be expect$1 7#a7 gases :i* are easily liquefi$ 7by pressure & cold7 are m soluble ?an ^? :i* are liquefi$ ) difficulty4 ,?us1 9 #ajj volumes ( wat] only two volumes ( hydrog5 dissolve at #j & #gfj mm41 ?ree volumes ( c>bonic oxide1 f\r volumes ( oxyg51 c41 = ^! are gases :i* are liquefi$ ) difficulty2 :il/ !re dissolve #ahj volumes ( c>bonic anhydride1 #acj ( nitr\s oxide1 & #dcg ( sulphur\s anhydride1 = ^! are gases :i* are r easily liquefi$4 7#b7 ,! solubility ( a gas is dim9i%$ by heat+1 :i* is easily intelligible f :at has be5 said previ\sly--! ela/icity ( a gas becomes great]1 x is remov$ fur!r f a liquid /ate4 ,?us #ajj volumes ( wat] at #j dissolve #be volumes ( air1 & at #bj only #ag volume4 ,= ?is reason cold wat]1 :5 br\ght into a w>m room1 p>ts ) a portion ( ! gas dissolv$ 9 x4#cj 7#c7 ,! quantity ( ! gas dissolv$ v>ies directly ) ! pressure4 ,?is rule is call$ ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton1 & is applicable to ^? gases :i* are little soluble 9 wat]4 ,!re=e a gas is sep>at$ f its solution 9 wat] 9 a vacuum1 & wat] saturat$ ) a gas "u great pressure p>ts ) x if ! pressure be dim9i%$4 ,?us _m m9]al spr+s are saturat$ und]gr\nd ) c>bonic anhydride "u ! great pressure ( ! column ( wat] above !m4 ,on com+ to ! surface1 ! wat] ( ^! spr+s boils & foams on giv+ up ! excess ( dissolv$ gas4 ,sp>kl+ w9es & arat$ wat]s are saturat$ "u pressure ) ! same gas4 ,!y hold ! gas s long z !y are 9 a well-cork$ vessel4 ,:5 ! cork is remov$ & ! liquid comes 9 contact ) air at a l[] pressure1 "p ( ! gas1 unable to rema9 9 solution at a l[] pressure1 is sep>at$ z fro? ) ! hiss+ s\nd famili> to all4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton belongs to ! class ( approximate laws1 l ! laws ( gases 7,gay-,lussac's & ,m>iotte's7 & _m o!rs--t is1 x expresses only a portion ( a complex ph5om5on1 ! limit t[>ds :i* ! ph5om5on aims4 ,! matt] is r5d]$ complicat$ f ! influ5ce ( ! degree ( solubility & ( aff9ity ( ! dissolv$ gas = wat]4 ,gases :i* are little soluble--= in/ance1 hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog5--foll[ ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton ! mo/ closely4 ,c>bonic anhydride exhibits a decid$ deviation f ! law1 z is se5 f ! det]m9ations ( ,wroblewski 7#ahhb74 ,he %[$ t at #j a cubic c5timetre ( wat] absorbs #ah cubic c5timetre ( ! gas "u a pressure ( "o atmosph]e2 "u #aj atmosph]es1 #af cubic c5timetres 7& n #ah1 z x %\ld be accord+ to ! law72 "u #bj atmosph]es1 #bff cubic c5timetres 7in/ead ( #cf71 & "u #cj atmosph]es1 #ccg cubic c5timetres4#ca ,h[ev]1 z ! rese>*es ( ,se*5(f %[1 ! absorption ( c>bonic anhydride )9 c]ta9 limits ( *ange ( pressure1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 by wat]--& ev5 by solutions ( salts :i* are n *emically *ang$ by x1 or d n =m comp\nds ) x--v closely foll[s ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton1 s t ! *emical bond betwe5 ?is gas & wat] is s feeble t ! break+ up ( ! solution ) sep>ation ( ! gas is accompli%$ by a decrease ( pressure alone4#cb ,! case is diff]5t if a consid]able aff9ity exi/s betwe5 ! dissolv$ gas & wat]4 ,!n x might ev5 be expect$ t ! gas w\ld n be entirely sep>at$ f wat] 9 a vacuum1 z %\ld be ! case ) gases accord+ to ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton4 ,su* gases--&1 9 g5]al1 all ^? :i* are v soluble--exhibit a di/9ct deviation f ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton4 ,z examples1 ammonia & hydro*loric acid gas may be tak54 ,! =m] is sep>at$ by boil+ & decrease ( pressure1 :ile ! latt] is n1 b !y bo? deviate di/9ctly f ! law4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,pressure 9 mm4,ammonia dissolv$ ,hydro*loric acid ( m]cury 9 #ajj grams ( gas dissolv$ 9 #ajj wat] at #j grams ( wat] at #j ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,grams ,grams #ajj #bhj #feg #ejj #fib #ghb #a1jjj #aabf #hef #a1ejj #afef -- ---------------------------------------- ------------ #bi ,if a volume ( gas v be measur$ "u a pressure ( h mm4 ( m]cury 7at #j7 & at a temp]ature t ,c5tigrade1 !n1 accord+ to ! comb9$ laws ( ,boyle1 ,m>iotte1 & ( ,gay-,lussac1 its volume at #j & #gfj mm4 w equal ! product ( v into #gfj divid$ by ! product ( h into #a at1 :]e a is ! co-effici5t ( expansion ( gases1 :i* is equal to #jjjcfg4 ,! weight ( ! gas w be equal to its volume at #j & #gfj mm4 multipli$ by its d5sity ref]r$ to air & by ! weight ( "o volume ( air at #j & #gfj mm4 ,! weight ( "o litre ( air "u ^! conditions be+ #abic gram4 ,if ! d5sity ( ! gas be giv5 9 relation to hydrog5 ?is mu/ be divid$ by #add to br+ x 9 relation to air4 ,if ! gas be measur$ :5 saturat$ ) aque\s vap\r1 !n x mu/ be r$uc$ to ! volume & weight ( ! gas :5 dry1 accord+ to ! rules giv5 9 ,note #a4 ,if ! pressure be det]m9$ by a column ( m]cury hav+ a temp]ature t1 !n by divid+ ! height ( ! column by #a #jjjjaht ! correspond+ height at #j is obta9$4 ,if ! gas be enclos$ 9 a tube 9 :i* a liquid /&s above ! level ( ! m]cury1 ! height ( ! column ( ! liquid be+ ,h & its d5sity ,d1 !n ! gas w be "u a pressure :i* is equal to ! b>ometric pressure less ,,hd_/#acei1 :]e #acei is ! d5sity ( m]cury4 ,by ^! me?ods ! quantity ( a gas is det]m9$1 & its obs]v$ volume r$uc$ to normal conditions or to p>ts by weight4 ,! physical data conc]n+ vap\rs & gases mu/ be cont9ually kept 9 sight 9 deal+ ) & measur+ gases4 ,! /ud5t mu/ become p]fectly famili> ) ! calculations relat+ to gases4 #cj ,accord+ to ,buns51 ,w9kl]1 ,tim(eeff1 & o!rs1 #ajj vols4 ( wat] "u a pressure ( "o atmosph]e absorb ! foll[+ volumes ( gas 7measur$ at #j & #gfj mm473-- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #j #dhb #bce #bae #agig #ced #acje #dcga #fhhf #ed #ajdifj #gch #bj #caj #aed #ahc #ija #bcb #fgj #bije #cfbb #ce #fedjj #dga #a1 oxyg52 #b1 nitrog52 #c1 hydrog52 #d1 c>bonic anhydride2 #e1 c>bonic oxide2 #f1 nitr\s oxide2 #g1 hydrog5 sulphide2 #h1 sulphur\s anhydride2 #i1 m>% gas2 #aj1 ammonia2 #aa1 nitric oxide4 ,! decrease ( solubility ) a rise ( temp]ature v>ies = diff]5t gases2 x is great]1 ! great] ! molecul> weight ( ! gas4 ,x is %[n by calculation t ?is decrease v>ies 7,w9kl]7 z ! cube root ( ! molecul> weight ( ! gas4 ,?is is se5 f ! foll[+ table3 ---------------------------------------- -- ,decrease ( ,cube root ( ,ratio betwe5 solubility molecul> decrease & p] #bj 9 weight4 cube root ( p] c5t4 mol4 wt4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,h#b #aecb #abei #abag ,n#b #cdcc #cjcg #aacj ,,co #cddd #cjcg #aacd ,,no #cfbd #cajg #aaff ,o#b #cfee #cage #aaea ---------------------------------------- -- ,! decrease 9 ! coeffici5t ( absorption ) ! temp]ature mu/ be connect$ ) a *ange 9 ! physical prop]ties ( ! wat]4 ,w9kl] 7#ahia7 rem>k$ a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ! int]nal friction & ! coeffici5t ( absorption at v>i\s temp]atures4 #ca ,^! figures %[ t ! co-effici5t ( solubility decreases ) an increase ( pressure1 not)/&+ t ! c>bonic anhydride approa*es a liquid /ate4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 liquefi$ c>bonic anhydride does n int]mix ) wat]1 & does n exhibit a rapid increase 9 solubility at its temp]ature ( liquefaction4 ,?is indicates1 9 ! fir/ place1 t solution does n consi/ 9 liquefaction1 & 9 ! second place t ! solubility ( a sub/ance is det]m9$ by a peculi> attraction ( wat] = ! sub/ance dissolv+4 ,wroblewski ev5 consid]$ x possible to admit t a dissolv$ gas reta9s its prop]ties z a gas4 ,?is he d$uc$ f exp]im5ts1 :i* %[$ t ! rate ( diffusion ( gases 9 a solv5t is1 = gases ( diff]5t d5sities1 inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e roots ( _! d5sities1 j z ! velocities ( gase\s molecules 7see ,note #cd74 ,wroblewski %[$ ! aff9ity ( wat]1 ,h#b,o1 = c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 f ! fact t on exp&+ moi/ compress$ c>bonic anhydride 7compress$ at #j "u a pressure ( #aj atmosph]es7 he obta9$ 7a fall 9 temp]ature takes place f ! expansion7 a v un/able def9ite cry/all9e comp\nd1 ,,co#b #h;,h#b,o4 #cb ,z1 accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,roscoe & 8 collaborators1 ammonia exhibits a consid]able deviation at l[ temp]atures f ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton1 :il/ at #ajj ! deviation is small1 x w\ld appe> t ! dissociat+ influ5ce ( temp]ature affects all gase\s solutions2 t is1 at high temp]atures1 ! solutions ( all gases w foll[ ! law1 & at l[] temp]atures !re w 9 all cases be a deviation f x4 ,x w be rem>k$1 = in/ance1 f ?is table t :il/ ! pressure increas$ #aj times1 ! solubility ( ammonia only increas$ #d-a_/b times4 ,a numb] ( examples ( su* cases ( ! absorption ( gases by liquids might be cit$ :i* d n 9 any way1 ev5 approximately1 agree ) ! laws ( solubility4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 c>bonic anhydride is absorb$ by a solution ( cau/ic pota% 9 wat]1 & if suffici5t cau/ic pota% be pres5t x is n sep>at$ f ! solution by a decrease ( pressure4 ,?is is a case ( m intimate *emical comb9ation4 ,a correlation less completely /udi$1 b simil> & cle>ly *emical1 appe>s 9 c]ta9 cases ( ! solution ( gases 9 wat]1 & we %all aft]w>ds f9d an example ( ?is 9 ! solution ( hydrog5 iodide2 b we w fir/ /op to consid] a rem>kable application ( ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton#cc 9 ! case ( ! solution ( a mixture ( two gases1 & ?is we mu/ d all ! m because ! ph5om5a :i* !re take place _c be =ese5 )\t a cle> !oretical repres5tation ( ! nature ( gases4#cd #cc ,! ratio betwe5 ! pressure & ! am\nt ( gas dissolv$ 0 discov]$ by ,h5ry 9 #ahje1 & ,dalton 9 #ahjg po9t$ out ! adaptability ( ?is law to cases ( gase\s mixtures1 introduc+ ! conception ( p>tial pressures :i* is absolutely necess>y = a "r compreh5sion ( ,dalton's law4 ,! conception ( p>tial pressures ess5tially ent]s into t ( ! diffusion ( vap\rs 9 gases 7footnote #a72 = ! pressure ( damp air is equal to ! sum ( ! pressures ( dry air & ( ! aque\s vap\r 9 x1 & x is admitt$ z a coroll>y to ,dalton's law t evaporation 9 dry air takes place z 9 a vacuum4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to rem>k t ! volume ( a mixture ( two gases 7or vap\rs7 is only approximately equal to ! sum ( ! volumes ( its con/itu5ts 7! same1 naturally1 also ref]s to _! pressures7--t is to say1 9 mix+ gases a *ange ( volume occurs1 :i*1 al?\gh small1 is q app>5t :5 c>efully measur$4 ,= in/ance1 9 #ahhh ,br[n %[$ t on mix+ v>i\s volumes ( sulphur\s anhydride 7,,s#b7 ) c>bonic anhydride 7at equal pressures ( #gfj mm4 & equal temp]atures7 a decrease ( pressure ( #ci millimetres ( m]cury 0 obs]v$4 ,! possibility ( a *emical action 9 simil> mixtures is evid5t f ! fact t equal volumes ( sulphur\s & c>bonic anhydrides at -#ai =m1 accord+ to ,pictet's rese>*es 9 #ahhh1 a liquid :i* may be reg>d$ z an un/able *emical comp\nd1 or a solution simil> to t giv5 :5 sulphur\s anhydride & wat] comb9e to an un/able *emical :ole4 #cd ,! orig9 ( ! k9etic !ory ( gases n[ g5]ally accept$1 accord+ to :i* !y are animat$ by a rapid progressive motion1 is v anci5t 7,b]n\illi & o!rs 9 ! la/ c5tury _h already develop$ a simil> repres5tation71 b x 0 only g5]ally accept$ aft] ! me*anical !ory ( heat _h be5 e/abli%$1 & aft] ! "w ( ,krnig 7#ahee71 & especially aft] its ma!matical side _h be5 work$ out by ,clausius & ,maxwell4 ,! pressure1 ela/icity1 diffusion1 & int]nal friction ( gases1 ! laws ( ,boyle1 ,m>iotte1 & ( ,gay-,lussac & ,avogadro-,g]h>dt are n only expla9$ 7d$uc$7 by ! k9etic !ory ( gases1 b also express$ ) p]fect exactitude2 ?us1 = example1 ! magnitude ( ! int]nal friction ( diff]5t gases 0 =etold ) exactitude by ,maxwell1 by apply+ ! !ory ( probabilities to ! impact ( gase\s p>ticles4 ,! k9etic !ory ( gases mu/ !re=e be consid]$ z "o ( ! mo/ brilliant acquisitions ( ! latt] half ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,! velocity ( ! progressive motion ( ! p>ticles ( a gas1 "o cubic c5timetre ( :i* weighs d grams1 is f\nd1 accord+ to ! !ory1 to be equal to ! squ>e root ( ! product ( #cp,dq divid$ by d1 :]e p is ! pressure "u :i* d is det]m9$ express$ 9 c5timetres ( ! m]cury column1 ,d ! weight ( a cubic c5timetre ( m]cury 9 grams 7,d #acei1 p #gf1 consequ5tly ! normal pressure #a1jcc grams on a sq4 cm471 & g ! accel]ation ( gravity 9 c5timetres 7g #ihje1 at ! sea level & long4 #de #ihaib at ,/4 ,pet]sburg2 9 g5]al x v>ies ) ! longitude & altitude ( ! locality74 ,!re=e1 at #j ! velocity ( hydrog5 is #a1hdc1 & ( oxyg5 #dfa1 metres p] second4 ,?is is ! av]age velocity1 & 7accord+ to ,maxwell & o!rs7 x is probable t ! velocities ( individual p>ticles are diff]5t2 t is1 !y occur 91 z x 71 diff]5t conditions ( temp]ature1 :i* x is v important to take into consid]ation 9 inve/igat+ _m ph5om5a prop] to matt]4 ,x is evid5t f ! above det]m9ation ( ! velocity ( gases1 t diff]5t gases at ! same temp]ature & pressure h av]age velocities1 :i* are inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e roots ( _! d5sities2 ?is is also %[n by direct exp]im5t on ! fl[ ( gases ?r\gh a f9e orifice1 or ?r\gh a por\s wall4 ,?is dissimil> velocity ( fl[ = diff]5t gases is frequ5tly tak5 advantage ( 9 *emical rese>*es 7see ,*ap4 ,,ii4 & also ,*ap4 ,,vii47 9 ord] to sep>ate two gases hav+ diff]5t d5sities & velocities4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! velocity ( fl[ ( gases also det]m9es ! ph5om5on cit$ 9 ! foll[+ footnote = demon/rat+ ! exi/5ce ( an int]nal motion 9 gases4 ,if = a c]ta9 mass ( a gas :i* fully & exactly foll[s ! laws ( ,m>iotte & ,gay-,lussac ! temp]ature t & ! pressure p be *ang$ simultane\sly1 !n ! entire *ange w\ld be express$ by ! equation pv ,c7#a at71 or1 :at is ! same1 pv ,,rt1 :]e ,t t #bgc & ,c & ,r are con/ants :i* v>y n only ) ! units tak5 b ) ! nature ( ! gas & its mass4 ,b z !re are discrepancies f bo? ! fundam5tal laws ( gases 7:i* w be discuss$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]71 & z1 on ! "o h&1 a c]ta9 attraction betwe5 ! gase\s molecules mu/ be admitt$1 :ile on ! o!r h& ! molecules ( gases !mselves mu/ occupy a portion ( a space1 h5ce = ord9>y gases1 )9 any consid]able v>iation ( pressure & temp]ature1 rec\rse %\ld be _h to ,van d] ,waal's =mula-- 7p a_/v#b77v-p7 ,r7#a at7 :]e a is ! true co-effici5t ( expansion ( gases4 ,! =mula ( ,van d] ,waals has an especially important significance 9 ! case ( ! passage ( a gas into a liquid /ate1 because ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( bo? gases & liquids are equally well express$ by x1 al?\gh only 9 _! g5]al features4 ,! fur!r developm5t ( ! que/ions ref]r+ to ! subjects "h t\*$ on1 :i* are ( especial int]e/ = ! !ory ( solutions1 mu/ be look$ = 9 special memoirs & works on !oretical & physical *emi/ry4 ,a small "p ( ?is subject w be p>tially consid]$ 9 ! footnotes ( ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,! law ( p>tial pressures is z foll[s3--,! solubility ( gases 9 int]mixture ) ea* o!r does n dep5d on ! influ5ce ( ! total pressure act+ on ! mixture1 b on ! influ5ce ( t portion ( ! total pressure :i* is due to ! volume ( ea* giv5 gas 9 ! mixture4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 if oxyg5 & c>bonic anhydride 7 mix$ 9 equal volumes & ex]t$ a pressure ( #gfj millimetres1 !n wat] w\ld dissolve s mu* ( ea* ( ^! gases z w\ld be dissolv$ if ea* sep>ately ex]t$ a pressure ( half an atmosph]e1 & 9 ?is case1 at #j "o cubic c5timetre ( wat] w\ld dissolve #jjb cubic c5timetre ( oxyg5 & #jij cubic c5timetre ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,if ! pressure ( a gase\s mixture equals h1 & 9 n volumes ( ! mixture !re be a volumes ( a giv5 gas1 !n its solution w proce$ z ?\gh ?is gas 7 dissolv$ "u a pressure 7h a7_/n4 ,t portion ( ! pressure "u influ5ce ( :i* ! solution proce$s is t]m$ ! 'p>tial' pressure4 ,9 ord] to cle>ly und]/& ! cause ( ! law ( p>tial pressures1 an explanation mu/ be giv5 ( ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( gases4 ,gases are ela/ic & disp]se 9 all directions4 ,we are l$ f :at we "k ( gases to ! assumption t ^! fundam5tal prop]ties ( gases are due to a rapid progressive motion1 9 all directions1 :i* is prop] to _! smalle/ p>ticles 7molecules74#ce ,^! molecules 9 imp++ aga9/ an ob/acle produce a pressure4 ,! great] ! numb] ( molecules imp++ aga9/ an ob/acle 9 a giv5 "t1 ! great] ! pressure4 ,! pressure ( a sep>ate gas or ( a gase\s mixture dep5ds on ! sum ( ! pressures ( all ! molecules1 on ! numb] ( bl[s 9 a unit ( "t on a unit ( surface1 & on ! mass & velocity 7or ! vis viva7 ( ! imp++ molecules4 ,! nature ( ! diff]5t molecules is ( no acc\nt2 ! ob/acle is act$ on by a pressure due to ! sum ( _! vis viva4 ,b1 9 a *emical action su* z ! solution ( gases1 ! nature ( ! imp++ molecules plays1 on ! contr>y1 ! mo/ important "p4 ,9 imp++ aga9/ a liquid1 a portion ( ! gas ent]s into ! liquid itself1 & is held by x s long z o!r gase\s molecules imp+e aga9/ ! liquid--ex]t a pressure on x4 ,z reg>ds ! solubility ( a giv5 gas1 = ! numb] ( bl[s x makes on ! surface ( a liquid1 x is immat]ial :e!r o!r molecules ( gases imp+e side by side ) x or n4 ,h5ce1 ! solubility ( a giv5 gas w be proportional1 n to ! total pressure ( a gase\s mixture1 b to t portion ( x :i* is due to ! giv5 gas sep>ately4 ,moreov]1 ! saturation ( a liquid by a gas dep5ds on ! fact t ! molecules ( gases t h ent]$ into a liquid d n rema9 at re/ 9 x1 al?\gh !y ent] 9 a h>moni\s k9d ( motion ) ! molecules ( ! liquid1 & !re=e !y ?r[ !mselves (f f ! surface ( ! liquid 7j l its vap\r if ! liquid be volatile74 ,if 9 a unit ( "t an equal numb] ( molecules p5etrate into 7leap into7 a liquid & leave 7or leap out (7 a liquid1 x is saturat$4 ,x is a case ( mobile equilibrium1 & n ( re/4 ,!re=e1 if ! pressure be dim9i%$1 ! numb] ( molecules dep>t+ f ! liquid w exce$ ! numb] ( molecules ent]+ into ! liquid1 & a fre% /ate ( mobile equilibrium only takes place "u a fre% equality ( ! numb] ( molecules dep>t+ f & ent]+ into ! liquid4 ,9 ?is mann] ! ma9 features ( ! solution are expla9$1 & fur!rmore ( t special 7*emical7 attraction 7p5etration & h>moni\s motion7 ( a gas = a liquid1 :i* det]m9es bo? ! measure ( solubility & ! degree ( /ability ( ! solution produc$4 #ce ,al?\gh ! actual motion ( gase\s molecules1 :i* is accept$ by ! k9etic !ory ( gases1 _c be se51 yet its exi/5ce may be r5d]$ evid5t by tak+ advantage ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! velocities und\bt$ly belong+ to diff]5t gases :i* are ( diff]5t d5sities "u equal pressures4 ,! molecules ( a light gas mu/ move m rapidly ?an ! molecules ( a heavi] gas 9 ord] to produce ! same pressure4 ,let u take1 !re=e1 two gases--hydrog5 & air2 ! =m] is #add times light] ?an ! latt]1 & h5ce ! molecules ( hydrog5 mu/ move almo/ f\r times m quickly ?an air 7m exactly #ch1 accord+ to ! =mula giv5 9 ! prec$+ footnote74 ,consequ5tly1 if a por\s cyl9d] conta9+ air is introduc$ into an atmosph]e ( hydrog51 !n 9 a giv5 "t ! volume ( hydrog5 :i* succe$s 9 ent]+ ! cyl9d] w be great] ?an ! volume ( air leav+ ! cyl9d]1 & !re=e ! pressure inside ! cyl9d] w rise until ! gase\s mixture 7( air & hydrog57 atta9s an equal d5sity bo? inside & outside ! cyl9d]4 ,if n[ ! exp]im5t be rev]s$ & air surr\nd ! cyl9d]1 & hydrog5 be inside ! cyl9d]1 !n m gas w leave ! cyl9d] ?an ent]s x1 & h5ce ! pressure inside ! cyl9d] w be dim9i%$4 ,9 ^! consid]ations we h replac$ ! idea ( ! numb] ( molecules by ! idea ( volumes4 ,we %all le>n subsequ5tly t equal volumes ( diff]5t gases conta9 an equal numb] ( molecules 7! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt71 & !re=e in/ead ( speak+ ( ! numb] ( molecules we c speak ( ! numb] ( volumes4 ,if ! cyl9d] be p>tially imm]s$ 9 wat] ! rise & fall ( ! pressure c be obs]v$ directly1 & ! exp]im5t consequ5tly r5d]$ self-evid5t4 ,! consequ5ces ( ! law ( p>tial pressures are exce$+ly num]\s & important4 ,all liquids 9 nature are 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 :i*1 z we %all aft]w>ds see m fully1 consi/s ( an int]mixture ( gases1 *iefly f\r 9 numb]--oxyg51 nitrog51 c>bonic anhydride1 & aque\s vap\r4 #ajj volumes ( air conta91 approximately1 #gh volumes ( nitrog51 & ab\t #ba volumes ( oxyg52 ! quantity ( c>bonic anhydride1 by volume1 does n exce$ #jje4 ,"u ord9>y circum/ances1 ! quantity ( aque\s vap\r is mu* great] ?an ?is1 b x v>ies ( c\rse ) climatic conditions4 ,we conclude f ^! numb]s t ! solution ( nitrog5 9 a liquid 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e w proce$ "u a p>tial pressure ( 7#gh_/ajj7 #gfj mm4 if ! atmosph]ic pressure equal #gfj mm42 simil>ly1 "u a pressure ( #fjj mm4 ( m]cury1 ! solution ( oxyg5 w proce$ "u a p>tial pressure ( ab\t #afj mm41 & ! solution ( c>bonic anhydride only "u ! v small pressure ( #jd mm4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! solubility ( oxyg5 9 wat] is twice t ( nitrog51 ! ratio ( ,o to ,n dissolv$ 9 wat] w be great] ?an ! ratio 9 air4 ,x is easy to calculate :at quantity ( ea* ( ! gases w be conta9$ 9 wat]1 & tak+ ! simple/ case we w calculate :at quantity ( oxyg51 nitrog51 & c>bonic anhydride w be dissolv$ f air hav+ ! above composition at #j & #gfj mm4 pressure4 ,"u a pressure ( #gfj mm4 #a cubic c5timetre ( wat] dissolves #jjbjc cubic c5timetre ( nitrog5 or "u ! p>tial pressure ( #fjj mm4 x w dissolve #jjbjc #fjj_/gfj1 or #jjafj cubic c5timetre2 ( oxyg5 #jjdaa #afj_/gfj1 or #jjjhf cubic c5timetre2 ( c>bonic anhydride #ah #jd_/gfj or #jjjjie cubic c5timetre3 h5ce1 #ajj cubic c5timetres ( wat] w conta9 at #j altoge!r #bee cubic c5timetres ( atmosph]ic gases1 & #ajj volumes ( air dissolv$ 9 wat] w conta9 ab\t #fb p4c4 ( nitrog51 #cd p4c4 ( oxyg51 & #d p4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,! wat] ( riv]s1 wells1 c4 usually conta9s m c>bonic anhydride4 ,?is proce$s f ! oxidation ( organic sub/ances fall+ into ! wat]4 ,! am\nt ( oxyg51 h[ev]1 dissolv$ 9 wat] appe>s to be actually ab\t #a_/c ! dissolv$ gases1 :il/ air conta9s only #a_/e ( x by volume4 ,accord+ to ! law ( p>tial pressures1 :atev] gas be dissolv$ 9 wat] w be expell$ f ! solution 9 an atmosph]e ( ano!r gas4 ,?is dep5ds on ! fact t gases dissolv$ 9 wat] escape f x 9 a vacuum1 because ! pressure is nil4 ,an atmosph]e ( ano!r gas acts l a vacuum on a gas dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,sep>ation !n proce$s1 because ! molecules ( ! dissolv$ gas no long] imp+e ^u ! liquid1 are n dissolv$ 9 x1 & ^? previ\sly held 9 solution leave ! liquid 9 virtue ( _! ela/icity4#cf ,= ! same reason a gas may be entirely expell$ f a gase\s solution by boil+--at lea/1 9 _m cases :5 x does n =m p>ticul>ly /able comp\nds ) wat]4 ,9 fact ! surface ( ! boil+ liquid w be occupi$ by aque\s vap\r1 & !re=e all ! pressure act+ on ! gas w be due to ! aque\s vap\r4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 ! p>tial pressure ( ! dissolv$ gas w be v inconsid]able1 & ?is is ! sole reason :y a gas sep>ates f a solution on boil+ ! liquid conta9+ x4 ,at ! boil+ po9t ( wat] ! solubility ( gases 9 wat] is /ill suffici5tly great = a consid]able quantity ( a gas to rema9 9 solution4 ,! gas dissolv$ 9 ! liquid is c>ri$ away1 toge!r ) ! aque\s vap\r2 if boil+ be cont9u$ = a long "t1 all ! gas w f9ally be sep>at$4#cg #cf ,"h two cases occur2 ei!r ! atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! solution may be limit$1 or x may be proportionally s va/ z to be unlimit$1 l ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,if a gase\s solution be br\ght into an atmosph]e ( ano!r gas :i* is limit$--= in/ance1 z 9 a clos$ vessel--!n a portion ( ! gas held 9 solution w be expell$1 & ?us pass ov] into ! atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! solution1 & w produce its p>tial pressure4 ,let u imag9e t wat] saturat$ ) c>bonic anhydride at #j & "u ! ord9>y pressure is br\ght into an atmosph]e ( a gas :i* is n absorb$ by wat]2 = in/ance1 t #aj c4c4 ( an aque\s solution ( c>bonic anhydride is introduc$ into a vessel hold+ #aj c4c4 ( su* a gas4 ,! solution w conta9 #ah c4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,! expulsion ( ?is gas proce$s until a /ate ( equilibrium is arriv$ at4 ,! liquid w !n conta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride1 :i* is reta9$ "u ! p>tial pressure ( t gas :i* has be5 expell$4 ,n[1 h[ mu* gas w rema9 9 ! liquid & h[ mu* w pass ov] into ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e8 ,9 ord] to solve ?is problem1 let u suppose t x cubic c5timetres ( c>bonic anhydride are reta9$ 9 ! solution4 ,x is evid5t t ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride :i* pass$ ov] into ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e w be #ah-x1 & ! total volume ( gas w be #aj #ah-x or #bh-x cubic c5timetres4 ,! p>tial pressure "u :i* ! c>bonic anhydride is !n dissolv$ w be 7suppos+ t ! common pressure rema9s con/ant ! :ole "t7 equal to 7#ah-x7_/7#bh-x71 h5ce !re is n 9 solution #ah c4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride 7z w\ld be ! case 7 ! p>tial pressure equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure71 b only #ah7ah-x7_/7#bh-x71 :i* is equal to x1 & we !re=e obta9 ! equation #ah7ah-x7_/7#bh-x7 x1 h5ce x #hfi4 ,aga91 :]e ! atmosph]e into :i* ! gase\s solution is introduc$ is n only t ( ano!r gas b also unlimit$1 !n ! gas dissolv$ w1 on pass+ ov] f ! solution1 diffuse into ?is atmosph]e1 & produce an inf9itely small pressure 9 ! unlimit$ atmosph]e4 ,consequ5tly1 no gas c be reta9$ 9 solution "u ?is inf9itely small pressure1 & x w be entirely expell$ f ! solution4 ,= ?is reason wat] saturat$ ) a gas :i* is n conta9$ 9 air1 w be entirely depriv$ ( ! dissolv$ gas if left expos$ to ! air4 ,wat] also passes (f f a solution into ! atmosph]e1 & x is evid5t t !re might be su* a case z a con/ant proportion betwe5 ! quantity ( wat] vaporis$ & ! quantity ( a gas expell$ f a solution1 s t n ! gas alone1 b ! entire gase\s solution1 w\ld pass (f4 ,a simil> case is exhibit$ 9 solutions :i* are n decompos$ by heat 7su* z ^? ( hydrog5 *loride & iodide71 z w aft]w>ds be consid]$4 #cg ,h[ev]1 9 ^? cases :5 ! v>iation ( ! co-effici5t ( solubility ) ! temp]ature is n suffici5tly great1 & :5 a kn[n quantity ( aque\s vap\r & ( ! gas passes (f f a solution at ! boil+ po9t1 an atmosph]e may be obta9$ hav+ ! same composition z ! liquid itself4 ,9 ?is case ! am\nt ( gas pass+ ov] into su* an atmosph]e w n be great] ?an t held by ! liquid1 & !re=e su* a gase\s solution w di/il ov] un*ang$4 ,! solution w !n repres5t1 l a solution ( hydriodic acid 9 wat]1 a liquid :i* is n alt]$ by di/illation1 :ile ! pressure "u :i* ?is di/illation takes place rema9s con/ant4 ,?us 9 all its aspects solution pres5ts gradations f ! mo/ feeble aff9ities to examples ( intimate *emical comb9ation4 ,! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 ! solution ( equal volumes ( diff]5t gases is 9 di/9ct relation ) ^! v>iations ( /ability & solubility ( diff]5t gases4 #bbc litres ( ! foll[+ gases 7at #gfj mm4 pressure7 evolve ! foll[+ numb] ( 7gram7 units ( heat 9 dissolv+ 9 a l>ge mass ( wat]2 c>bonic anhydride #e1fjj1 sulphur\s anhydride #g1gjj1 ammonia #h1hjj1 hydro*loric acid #ag1djj1 & hydriodic acid #ai1djj4 ,! two la/-nam$ gases1 :i* are n expell$ f _! solution by boil+1 evolve approximately twice z mu* heat z gases l ammonia1 :i* are sep>at$ f _! solutions by boil+1 :il/ gases :i* are only slightly soluble evolve v mu* less heat4 ,x is evid5t t ! conception ( ! p>tial pressures ( gases %\ld be appli$ n only to ! =mations ( solutions1 b also to all cases ( *emical action ( gases4 ,especially num]\s are its applications to ! physiology ( respiration1 = 9 ^! cases x is only ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e t acts4#ch #ch ,among ! num]\s rese>*es conc]n+ ?is subject1 c]ta9 results obta9$ by ,paul ,b]t are cit$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii41 & we w "h po9t out t ,pr(4 ,se*5(f1 9 8 rese>*es on ! absorption ( gases by liquids1 v fully inve/igat$ ! ph5om5a ( ! solution ( c>bonic anhydride 9 solutions ( v>i\s salts1 & arriv$ at _m important results1 :i* %[$ t1 on ! "o h&1 9 ! solution ( c>bonic anhydride 9 solutions ( salts on :i* x is capable ( act+ *emically 7= example1 sodium c>bonate1 borax1 ord9>y sodium phosphate71 !re is n only an increase ( solubility1 b also a di/9ct deviation f ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton2 :il/1 on ! o!r h&1 t solutions ( salts :i* are n act$ on by c>bonic anhydride 7= example1 ! *lorides1 nitrates1 & sulphates7 absorb less ( x1 ow+ to ! 'competition' ( ! salt already dissolv$1 & foll[ ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton1 b at ! same "t %[ und\bt$ signs ( a *emical action betwe5 ! salt1 wat]1 & c>bonic anhydride4 ,sulphuric acid 7^: co-effici5t ( absorption is #ib vols4 p] #ajj71 :5 dilut$ ) wat]1 absorbs less & less c>bonic anhydride1 until ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o 7co-eff4 ( absorption !n equals #ff vols47 is =m$2 !n on fur!r addition ( wat] ! solubility aga9 rises until a solution ( #ajj p4c4 ( wat] is obta9$4 ,! solution ( solids1 :il/ dep5d+ only 9 a small measure on ! pressure "u :i* solution takes place 7because solids & liquids are almo/ incompressible71 is v cle>ly dep5d5t on ! temp]ature4 ,9 ! great majority ( cases ! solubility ( solids 9 wat] increases ) ! temp]ature2 & fur!r1 ! rapidity ( solution increases also4 ,! latt] is det]m9$ by ! rapidity ( diffusion ( ! solution =m$ into ! rema9d] ( ! wat]4 ,! solution ( a solid 9 wat]1 al?\gh x is z ) gases1 a physical passage into a liquid /ate1 is det]m9$1 h[ev]1 by its *emical aff9ity = wat]2 ?is is cle>ly %[n f ! fact t 9 solution !re occurs a dim9ution 9 volume1 a *ange 9 ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 a *ange 9 ! t5sion ( its vap\r1 9 ! freez+ po9t1 & 9 _m simil> prop]ties4 ,if solution 7 a physical1 & n a *emical1 ph5om5on1 x w\ld naturally be accompani$ by an increase & n by a dim9ution ( volume1 because g5]ally 9 melt+ a solid increases 9 volume 7its d5sity dim9i%es74 ,contraction is ! usual ph5om5on accompany+ solution & takes place ev5 9 ! addition ( solutions to wat]1#ci & 9 ! solution ( liquids 9 wat]1#dj j z happ5s 9 ! comb9ation ( sub/ances :5 evid5tly new sub/ances are produc$4#da ,! contraction :i* takes place 9 solution is1 h[ev]1 v small1 a fact :i* dep5ds on ! small compressibility ( solids & liquids1 & on ! insignificance ( ! compress+ =ce act+ 9 solution4#db ,! *ange ( volume :i* takes place 9 ! solution ( solids & liquids1 or ! alt]ation 9 specific gravity#dc correspond+ ) x1 dep5ds on peculi>ities ( ! dissolv+ sub/ances1 & ( wat]1 &1 9 ! majority ( cases1 is n proportional to ! quantity ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1#dd %[+ ! exi/5ce ( a *emical =ce betwe5 ! solv5t & ! sub/ance dissolv$ :i* is ( ! same nature z 9 all o!r =ms ( *emical reaction4#de #ci ,krem]s made ?is obs]vation 9 ! foll[+ simple =m3--,he took a n>r[-neck$ flask1 ) a m>k on ! n>r[ "p 7l t on a litre flask :i* is us$ = accurately measur+ liquids71 p\r$ wat] into x1 & !n ins]t$ a funnel1 hav+ a f9e tube :i* rea*$ to ! bottom ( ! flask4 ,?r\gh ?is funnel he c>efully p\r$ a solution ( any salt1 & 7hav+ remov$ ! funnel7 all[$ ! liquid to atta9 a def9ite temp]ature 79 a wat] ba?72 he !n fill$ ! flask up to ! m>k ) wat]4 ,9 ?is mann] two lay]s ( liquid 7 obta9$1 ! heavy sal9e solution bel[ & wat] above4 ,! flask 0 !n %ak5 9 ord] to accel]ate diffusion1 & x 0 obs]v$ t ! volume became less if ! temp]ature rema9$ con/ant4 ,?is c be prov$ by calculation1 if ! specific gravity ( ! solutions & wat] be kn[n4 ,?us at #ae "o c4c4 ( a #bj p4c4 solution ( common salt weighs #aaejj gram1 h5ce #ajj grams occupy a volume ( #hfif c4c4 ,z ! sp4 gr4 ( wat] at #ae #jiiiaf1 !re=e #ajj grams ( wat] occupy a volume ( #ajjjh c4c4 ,! sum ( ! volumes is #ahgjd c4c4 ,aft] mix+1 #bjj grams ( a #aj p4c4 solution are obta9$4 ,its specific gravity is #ajgbe 7at #ae & ref]r$ to wat] at its maximum d5sity71 h5ce ! #bjj grams w occupy a volume ( #ahfdh c4c4 ,! contraction is consequ5tly equal to #jef c4c4 #dj ,! contractions produc$ 9 ! case ( ! solution ( sulphuric acid 9 wat] are %[n 9 ! diagram ,fig4 #ag 7page #gg74 ,_! maximum is #aja c4c4 p] #ajj c4c4 ( ! solution =m$4 ,a maximum contraction ( #dae at #j1 #cgh at #ae1 & #cej at #cj1 takes place 9 ! solution ( #df p>ts by weight ( anhydr\s alcohol 9 #ed p>ts ( wat]4 ,?is signifies t if1 at #j1 #df p>ts by weight ( alcohol be tak5 p] #ed p>ts by weight ( wat]1 !n ! sum ( _! sep>ate volumes w he #ajdae1 & aft] mix+ _! total volume w be #ajj4 #da ,?is subject w be consid]$ lat] 9 ?is "w1 & we %all !n see t ! contraction produc$ 9 reactions ( comb9ation 7( solids or liquids7 is v v>iable 9 its am\nt1 & t !re are1 al?\gh r>ely1 reactions ( comb9ation 9 :i* contraction does n take place1 or :5 an increase ( volume is produc$4 #db ,! compressibility ( solutions ( common salt is less1 accord+ to ,grassi1 ?an t ( wat]4 ,at #ah ! compression ( wat] p] million volumes #dh vols4 = a pressure ( "o atmosph]e2 = a #ae p4c4 solution ( common salt x is #cb1 & = a #bd p4c4 solution #bf vols4 ,simil> det]m9ations 7 made by ,br[n 7#ahhg7 = saturat$ solutions ( sal ammoniac 7#ch vols471 alum 7#df vols471 common salt 7#bg vols471 & sodium sulphate at #a1 :5 ! compressibility ( wat] #dg p] million volumes4 ,?is inve/igator also %[$ t sub/ances :i* dissolve ) an evolution ( heat & ) an increase 9 volume 7z1 = in/ance1 sal ammoniac7 are p>tially sep>at$ f _! saturat$ solutions by an increase ( pressure 7?is exp]im5t 0 p>ticul>ly conclusive 9 ! case ( sal ammoniac71 :il/ ! solubility ( sub/ances :i* dissolve ) an absorption ( heat or dim9ution 9 volume increases1 al?\gh v slightly1 ) an increase ( pressure4 ,sorby obs]v$ ! same ph5om5on ) common salt 7#ahfc74 #dc ,! mo/ tru/wor?y data relat+ to ! v>iation ( ! specific gravity ( solutions ) a *ange ( _! composition & temp]ature1 are collect$ & discuss$ 9 my "w cit$ 9 footnote #ai4 ,! practical 7= ! am\nt ( a sub/ance 9 solution is det]m9$ by ! aid ( ! specific gravities ( solutions1 bo? 9 works & 9 laboratory practice7 & ! !oretical 7= specific gravity c be m accurately obs]v$ ?an o!r prop]ties1 & because a v>iation 9 specific gravity gov]ns ! v>iation ( _m o!r prop]ties7 int]e/ ( ?is subject1 besides ! /rict rules & laws to :i* x is liable1 make "o wi% t ?is prov9ce ( data conc]n+ solutions may soon be enri*$ by fur!r obs]vations ( z accurate a nature z possible4 ,_! collection does n pres5t any great difficulty1 al?\gh requir+ mu* "t & att5tion4 ,pick]+ 9 ,london & ,t\rbaba 9 ,kh>k(f mu/ be rank$ fir/ among ^? :o h pursu$ problems ( ?is nature dur+ rec5t ye>s4 #dd ,inasmu* z ! degree ( *ange exhibit$ 9 _m prop]ties on ! =mation ( solutions is n l>ge1 s1 ow+ to ! insuffici5t accuracy ( obs]vations1 a proportionality betwe5 ?is *ange & a *ange ( composition may1 9 a fir/ r\gh approximation & especially )9 n>r[ limits ( *ange ( composition1 easily be imag9$ 9 cases :]e x does n ev5 exi/4 ,! conclusion ( ,mi*el & ,kraft is p>ticul>ly in/ructive 9 ?is respect2 9 #ahed1 on ! basis ( _! incomplete rese>*es1 !y suppos$ t ! increm5t ( ! specific gravity ( solutions 0 proportional to ! increm5t ( a salt 9 a giv5 volume ( a solution1 :i* is only true = det]m9ations ( specific gravity :i* are exact to ! second decimal place--an accuracy insuffici5t ev5 = te*nical det]m9ations4 ,accurate measurem5ts d n confirm a proportionality ei!r 9 ?is case or 9 _m o!rs :]e a ratio has be5 g5]ally accept$2 z1 = example1 = ! rotatory p[] 7) respect to ! plane ( pol>isation7 ( solutions1 & = _! capill>ity1 c4 ,nev]!less1 su* a me?od is n only /ill made use (1 b ev5 has its advantages :5 appli$ to solutions )9 a limit$ scope--z1 = in/ance1 v weak solutions1 & = a fir/ acqua9tance ) ! ph5om5a accompany+ solution1 & also z a means = facilitat+ ! application ( ma!matical analysis to ! inve/igation ( ! ph5om5on ( solution4 ,judg+ by ! results obta9$ 9 my rese>*es on ! specific gravity ( solutions1 ,i ?9k t 9 _m cases x w\ld be ne>] ! tru? to take ! *ange ( prop]ties z proportional1 n to ! am\nt ( a sub/ance dissolv$1 b to ! product ( ?is quantity & ! am\nt ( wat] 9 :i* x is dissolv$2 ! m s s9ce _m *emical relations v>y 9 proportion to ! react+ masses1 & a simil> ratio has be5 e/abli%$ = _m ph5om5a ( attraction /udi$ by me*anics4 ,?is product is easily arriv$ at :5 ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! solutions to be comp>$ is con/ant1 z is %[n 9 inve/igat+ ! fall ( temp]ature 9 ! =mation ( ice 7see footnote #di1 p4 #ia74 #de ,all ! diff]5t =ms ( *emical reaction may be said to take place 9 ! process ( solution4 7#a7 ,comb9ations betwe5 ! solv5t & ! sub/ance dissolv$1 :i* are m or less /able 7m or less dissociat$74 ,?is =m ( reaction is ! mo/ probable1 & is t mo/ (t5 obs]v$4 7#b7 ,reactions ( sub/itution or ( d\ble decomposition betwe5 ! molecules4 ,?us x may be suppos$ t 9 ! solution ( sal ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 ! action ( wat] produces ammonia1 ,,nh#d;,,ho1 & hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 :i* are dissolv$ 9 ! wat] & simultane\sly attract ea* o!r4 ,z ^! solutions & _m o!rs d inde$ exhibit signs1 :i* are sometimes indisputable1 ( simil> d\ble decompositions 7?us solutions ( sal-ammoniac yield a c]ta9 am\nt ( ammonia71 x is probable t ?is =m ( reaction is m (t5 met ) ?an is g5]ally ?\ght4 7#c7 ,reactions ( isom]ism or replacem5t are also probably met ) 9 solution1 all ! m z "h molecules ( diff]5t k9ds come into intimate contact1 & x is v likely t ! configuration ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules "u ^! influ5ces is some:at diff]5t f :at x 0 9 its orig9al & isolat$ /ate4 ,"o is l$ to ?is supposition especially f obs]vations made on solutions ( sub/ances :i* rotate ! plane ( pol>isation 7& obs]vations ( ?is k9d are v s5sitive ) respect to ! atomic /ructure ( molecules71 because !y %[1 = example 7accord+ to ,s*neid]1 #ahha71 t /rong solutions ( malic acid rotate ! plane ( pol>isation to ! "r1 :il/ its ammonium salts 9 all degrees ( conc5tration rotate ! plane ( pol>isation to ! left4 7#d7 ,reactions ( decomposition "u ! influ5ces ( solution are n only rational 9 !mselves1 b h 9 rec5t ye>s be5 recognis$ by ,arrh5ius1 ,o/wald1 & o!rs1 p>ticul>ly on ! basis ( electrolytic det]m9ations4 ,if a portion ( ! molecules ( a solution occur 9 a condition ( decomposition1 ! o!r portion may occur 9 a yet m complex /ate ( comb9ation1 j z ! velocity ( ! motion ( diff]5t gase\s molecules may be f> f be+ ! same 7see ,note #cd1 p4 #ha74 ,x is1 !re=e1 v probable t ! reactions tak+ place 9 solution v>y bo? quantitatively & qualitatively ) ! mass ( wat] 9 ! solution1 & ! great difficulty 9 arriv+ at a def9ite conclusion z to ! nature ( ! *emical relations :i* take place 9 ! process ( solution w be und]/ood1 & if besides ?is ! exi/5ce ( a physical process1 l ! slid+ betwe5 & int]p5etration ( two homog5e\s liquids1 be also recognis$ 9 solution1 !n ! complexity ( ! problem z to ! actual nature ( solutions1 :i* is n[ to ! =e1 appe>s 9 its true light4 ,h[ev]1 ! ef=ts :i* are n[ be+ appli$ to ! solution ( ?is problem are s num]\s & ( su* v>i$ aspect t !y w af=d future inve/igators a va/ mass ( mat]ial t[>ds ! con/ruction ( a complete !ory ( solution4 ,= my "p1 ,i am ( op9ion t ! /udy ( ! physical prop]ties ( solutions 7& especially ( weak ones7 :i* n[ obta9s1 _c give any fundam5tal & complete solution ( ! problem :atev] 7al?\gh x %\ld add mu* to bo? ! prov9ces ( physics & *emi/ry71 b t1 p>allel ) x1 %\ld be und]tak5 ! /udy ( ! influ5ce ( temp]ature1 & especially ( l[ temp]atures1 ! application to solutions ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat1 & ! comp>ative /udy ( ! *emical prop]ties ( solutions4 ,! beg9n+ ( all ?is is already e/abli%$1 b x is impossible to consid] 9 s %ort an exposition ( *emi/ry ! fur!r ef=ts ( ?is k9d :i* h be5 made up to ! pres5t date4 ,! feeble developm5t ( ! *emical aff9ities act+ 9 solutions ( solids becomes evid5t f ^? multif>i\s me?ods by :i* _! solutions are decompos$1 :e!r !y be saturat$ or n4 ,on heat+ 7absorption ( heat71 on cool+1 & by int]nal =ces alone1 aque\s solutions 9 _m cases sep>ate into _! compon5ts or _! def9ite comp\nds ) wat]4 ,! wat] conta9$ 9 solutions is remov$ f !m z vap\r1 or1 by freez+1 9 ! =m ( ice1#df b ! t5sion ( ! vap\r ( wat]#dg held 9 solution is less ?an t ( wat] 9 a free /ate1 & ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice f solutions is l[] ?an #j4 ,fur!r1 bo? ! dim9ution ( vap\r t5sion & ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t proce$1 9 dilute solutions1 almo/ 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( a sub/ance dissolv$4#dh ,?us1 if p] #ajj grams ( wat] !re be 9 solution #a1 #e1 #aj grams ( common salt 7,na,cl71 !n at #ajj ! vap\r t5sion ( ! solutions decreases by #d1 #ba1 #dc mm4 ( ! b>ometric column1 aga9/ #gfj mm41 or ! vap\r t5sion ( wat]1 :il/ ! freez+ po9ts are -#jeh1 -#bia1 & -#faj respectively4 ,! above figures#di are almo/ proportional to ! am\nts ( salt 9 solution 7#a1 #e1 & #aj p] #ajj ( wat]74 ,fur!rmore1 x has be5 %[n by exp]im5t t ! ratio ( ! dim9ution ( vap\r t5sion to ! vap\r t5sion ( wat] at diff]5t temp]atures 9 a giv5 solution is an almo/ con/ant quantity1#ej & t = e 7dilute7 solution ! ratio betwe5 ! dim9ution ( vap\r t5sion & ( ! freez+ po9t is also a tol]ably con/ant quantity4#ea #df ,if solutions are reg>d$ z be+ 9 a /ate ( dissociation 7see footnote #ai1 p4 #fd7 x w\ld be expect$ t !y w\ld conta9 free molecules ( wat]1 :i* =m "o ( ! products ( ! decomposition ( ^? def9ite comp\nds ^: =mation is ! cause ( solution4 ,9 sep>at+ z ice or vap\r1 wat] makes1 ) a solution1 a het]og5e\s sy/em 7made up ( sub/ances 9 diff]5t physical /ates7 simil>1 = in/ance1 to ! =mation ( a precipitate or volatile sub/ance 9 reactions ( d\ble decomposition4 #dg ,if ! sub/ance dissolv$ is non-volatile 7l salt or sug>71 or only slightly volatile1 !n ! :ole ( ! t5sion ( ! vap\r giv5 (f is due to ! wat]1 b if a solution ( a volatile sub/ance--= in/ance1 a gas or a volatile liquid--evaporates1 !n only a portion ( ! pressure belongs to ! wat]1 & ! :ole pressure obs]v$ consi/s ( ! sum ( ! pressures ( ! vap\rs ( ! wat] & ( ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,! majority ( rese>*es be> on ! fir/ case1 :i* w be spok5 ( pres5tly1 & ! obs]vations ( ,d4 ,p4 ,konoval(f 7#ahha7 ref] to ! second case4 ,he %[$ t 9 ! case ( two volatile liquids1 mutually soluble 9 ea* o!r1 =m+ two lay]s ( saturat$ solutions 7= example1 e!r & wat]1 ,note #bj1 p4 #fg71 bo? solutions h an equal vap\r t5sion 79 ! case 9 po9t ! t5sion ( bo? is equal to #dca mm4 ( m]cury at #aih74 ,fur!r1 he f\nd t = solutions :i* are =m$ 9 all proportions1 ! t5sion is ei!r great] 7solutions ( alcohol & wat]7 or less 7solutions ( =mic acid7 ?an t :i* answ]s to ! rectil9e> *ange 7proportional to ! composition7 f ! t5sion ( wat] to ! t5sion ( ! sub/ance dissolv$2 ?us1 ! t5sion1 = example1 ( a #gj p4c4 solution ( =mic acid is less1 at all temp]atures1 ?an ! t5sion ( wat] & ( =mic acid itself4 ,9 ?is case ! t5sion ( a solution is nev] equal to ! sum ( ! t5sions ( ! dissolv+ liquids1 z ,regnault already %[$ :5 he di/+ui%$ ?is case f t 9 :i* a mixture ( liquids1 :i* are insoluble 9 ea* o!r1 evaporates4 ,f ?is x is evid5t t a mutual action occurs 9 solution1 :i* dim9i%es ! vap\r t5sions prop] to ! individual sub/ances1 z w\ld be expect$ on ! supposition ( ! =mation ( comp\nds 9 solutions1 because ! ela/icity !n always dim9i%es4 #dh ,?is am\nt is usually express$ by ! weight ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ p] #ajj p>ts by weight ( wat]4 ,probably x w\ld be bett] to express x by ! quantity ( ! sub/ance 9 a def9ite volume ( ! solution--= in/ance1 9 a litre--or by ! ratios ( ! numb] ( molecules ( wat] & ( ! sub/ance dissolv$4 #di ,! v>iation ( ! vap\r t5sion ( solutions has be5 inve/igat$ by _m4 ,! be/ kn[n rese>*es are ^? ( ,wlln] 9 ,g]many 7#aheh-ahfj7 & ( ,tamman 9 ,russia 7#ahhg74 ,! rese>*es on ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice f v>i\s solutions are also v num]\s2 ,blagd5 7#aghh71 ,rdorff 7#ahfa71 & ,de ,coppet 7#ahga7 e/abli%$ ! beg9n+1 b ?is k9d ( inve/igation takes its *ief int]e/ f ! "w ( ,ra\lt1 begun 9 #ahhb on aque\s solutions1 & aft]w>ds cont9u$ = solutions 9 v>i\s o!r easily froz5 liquids--= in/ance1 b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f 7melts at #dif71 acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b 7#afge71 & o!rs4 ,an especially important int]e/ is atta*$ to ^! cryoscopic inve/igations ( ,ra\lt 9 ,france on ! depression ( ! freez+ po9t1 because he took solutions ( _m well-kn[n c>bon-comp\nds & discov]$ a simple relation betwe5 ! molecul> weight ( ! sub/ances & ! temp]ature ( cry/allisation ( ! solv5t1 :i* enabl$ ?is k9d ( rese>* to be appli$ to ! inve/igation ( ! nature ( sub/ances4 ,we %all meet ) ! application ( ?is me?od lat] on 7see also ,*apt] ,,vii471 & at pres5t w only cite ! d$uction arriv$ at f ^! results4 ,! solution ( "o-hundr$? "p ( t molecul> gram weight :i* corresponds ) ! =mula ( a sub/ance dissolv$ 7= example1 ,na,cl #ehe1 ,c#b;,h#f,o #df1 c47 9 #ajj p>ts ( a solv5t l[]s ! freez+ po9t ( its solution 9 wat] #jahe1 9 b5z5e #jdi1 & 9 acetic acid ,o#ci1 or twice z mu* z ) wat]4 ,& z 9 weak solutions ! depression or fall ( freez+ po9t is proportional to ! am\nt ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 x foll[s t ! fall ( freez+ po9t = all o!r solutions may be calculat$ f ?is rule4 ,s1 = in/ance1 ! weight :i* corresponds ) ! =mula ( acetone1 ,c#c;,h#f,o is #eh2 a solution conta9+ #bdb1 #fbb1 & #abce grams ( acetone p] #ajj grams ( wat]1 =ms ice 7accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,beckmann7 at #jggj1 #aicj1 & #chbj1 & ^! figures %[ t ) a solution conta9+ #jeh gram ( acetone p] #ajj ( wat] ! fall ( ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice w be #jahe1 #jahj1 & #jagi4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! law ( proportionality betwe5 ! fall ( temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice1 & ! composition ( a solution1 is 9 g5]al only approximate1 & is only applicable to weak solutions 7,pick]+ & o!rs74 ,we w "h rem>k t ! !oretical int]e/ ( ?is subject 0 /r5g!n$ on ! discov]y ( ! connection exi/+ betwe5 ! fall ( t5sion1 ! fall ( ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice1 ( osmotic pressure 7,van't ,h(f1 ,note #ai71 & ( ! electrical conductivity ( solutions1 & we w !re=e supplem5t :at we h already said on ! subject by "s %ort rem>ks on ! me?od ( cryoscopic inve/igations1 al?\gh ! details ( ! subject =m ! subject ( m special works on physical *emi/ry 7su* z ,o/wald's ,lehrbu* d] allgeme95 ,*emie1 #ahia-ahid1 #b vols47 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice 7or ( cry/allisation ( o!r solv5ts71 a solution ( kn[n /r5g? is prep>$ & p\r$ into a cyl9drical vessel surr\nd$ by a second simil> vessel1 leav+ a lay] ( air betwe5 ! two1 :i*1 be+ a bad conductor1 prev5ts any rapid *ange ( temp]ature4 ,! bulb ( a s5sitive & correct$ !rmomet] is imm]s$ 9 ! solution1 & also a b5t plat9um wire = /irr+ ! solution2 ! :ole is !n cool$ 7by imm]s+ ! app>atus 9 a freez+ mixture71 & ! temp]ature at :i* ice beg9s to sep>ate obs]v$4 ,if ! temp]ature at fir/ falls slightly l[]1 x nev]!less becomes con/ant :5 ice beg9s to =m4 ,by !n all[+ ! liquid to get j w>m1 & aga9 obs]v+ ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice1 an exact det]m9ation may be arriv$ at4 ,x is /ill bett] to take a l>ge mass ( solution1 & induce ! =mation ( ! fir/ cry/als by dropp+ a small lump ( ice into ! solution already p>tially ov]-cool$4 ,?is only imp]ceptibly *anges ! composition ( ! solution4 ,! obs]vation %\ld be made at ! po9t ( =mation ( only a v small am\nt ( cry/als1 z o!rwise ! composition ( ! solution w become alt]$ f _! sep>ation4 ,e precaution mu/ be tak5 to prev5t ! access ( moi/ure to ! int]ior ( ! app>atus1 :i* might also alt] ! composition ( ! solution or prop]ties ( ! solv5t 7= in/ance1 :5 us+ acetic acid74 ,) respect to ! depression ( dilute solutions x is kn[n--7#a7 ,t ! depression increases 9 almo/ direct proportion to ! am\nt ( ! sub/ance 9 solution 7always p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]71 = example1 = ,k,cl :5 ! solution conta9s #a "p ( salt 7p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]7 ! depression #jde1 :5 ! solution conta9s #b p>ts ( salt #jij1 ) #aj p>ts ( salt #dd4 7#b7 ,! great] ! molecul> weight express$ by ! =mula 7see ,*apt] ,,vii471 & designat$ by ,m1 ! less1 "u o!r simil> conditions1 w be ! depression d1 & !re=e if ! conc5tration ( a solution 7! am\nt by weight ( sub/ance dissolv$ p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]7 be designat$ by p1 !n ! fraction ,md_/p or ! molecul> depression = a giv5 class ( sub/ances w be a con/ant quantity2 = example1 9 ! case ( me?yl alcohol 9 wat] #agc1 = acetone ab\t #ahj1 = sug> ab\t #ahe4 7#c7 ,9 g5]al ! molecul> depression = sub/ances ^: solutions d n conduct an electric curr5t is ab\t #ahe1 :ile = acids1 salts1 & su* l sub/ances ^: solutions d conduct electricity1 x is i times great]2 = in/ance1 = ,h,cl1 ,,ki1 ,,hno#c1 ,,kho1 c41 ab\t #cf 7i is ne>ly #b71 = borax ab\t #ff1 & s on :]e i v>ies 9 ! same mann] z x does 9 ! case ( ! osmotic pressure ( solutions 7,note #ai74 7#d7 ,diff]5t solv5ts 7wat]1 acetic acid1 b5z5e1 c47 h ea* _! correspond+ con/ants ( molecul> depression 7:i* h a c]ta9 remote connection ) _! molecul> weight72 = example1 = acetic acid ! molecul> depression is ab\t #ci & n #ai 7z x is = wat]71 = b5z5e #di1 = me?yl alcohol ab\t #ag1 c4 7#e7 ,if ! molecul> weight ,m ( a sub/ance be unkn[n1 !n 9 ! case ( non-conductors ( electricity or = a giv5 gr\p1 x may be f\nd by det]m9+ ! depression1 d1 = a giv5 conc5tration1 p2 = example1 9 ! case ( p]oxide ( hydrog51 :i* is a non-conductor ( electricity1 ! molecul> weight1 ,m1 0 f\nd to be ne>ly #cd1 i4e4 equal to ,h#b,o#b4 ,simil> results h also be5 f\nd = ! fall 9 ! vap\r t5sion ( solutions 7,note #ea71 & = ! rise ( _! boil+ po9ts 7h5ce ^! data may also s]ve = det]m9+ ! molecul> weight ( a sub/ance 9 solution1 z is %ortly describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii41 ,note #bg bis74 ,& z ^! conclusions are also applicable 9 ! case ( osmotic pressure 7,note #ai71 & a v>iation 9 ! magnitude ( i1 9 pass+ f solutions :i* d n conduct an electric curr5t to ^? :i* d conduct electricity is ev]y:]e rem>k$1 s x 0 natural to "h seek t causal connection :i* ,arrh5ius 7#ahhh71 ,o/wald1 & o!rs expect$ to f9d 9 ! supposition t a portion ( ! sub/ance ( ! electrolyte is already decompos$ 9 ! v act ( solution1 into its ions 7= example1 ,na,cl into ,na & ,cl71 or into ! atoms ( ^? individual sub/ances :i* make _! appe>ance 9 electrolysis1 & 9 ?is way to expla9 ! fact t i is great] = ^? bodies :i* conduct an electric curr5t4 ,we w n consid] "h ?is supposition1 kn[n z ! hypo!sis ( 'electrolytic dissociation1' n only because x :olly belongs to t special bran*--physical *emi/ry1 & gives sc>cely any help t[>ds expla9+ ! *emical relations ( solutions 7p>ticul>ly _! passage into def9ite comp\nds1 _! reactions1 & _! v =mation71 b also because--7#a7 all ! above data 7= con/ant depression1 osmotic pressure1 c47 only ref] to dilute solutions1 & are n applicable to /rong solutions2 :il/ ! *emical int]e/ 9 /rong solutions is n less ?an 9 dilute solutions1 & ! transition f ! =m] into ! latt] is consecutive & inevitable2 7#b7 because 9 all homog5e\s bodies 7al?\gh x may be insoluble & n an electrolyte7 a portion ( ! atoms may he suppos$ 7,clausius7 to be pass+ f "o p>ticle to ano!r 7,*apt] ,x41 ,note #bh71 & z x 7 dissociat$1 b !re are no reasons = believ+ t su* a ph5om5on is prop] to ! solutions ( electrolytes only2 7#c7 because no ess5tial m>k ( diff]5ce is obs]v$ betwe5 ! solution ( electrolytes & non-conductors1 al?\gh x might be expect$ !re w\ld be accord+ to ,arrh5ius' hypo!sis2 7#d7 because x is mo/ reasonable to suppose ! =mation ( new1 m complex1 b un/able & easily dissociat$ comp\nds 9 ! act ( solution1 ?an a decomposition1 ev5 p>tial1 ( ! sub/ances tak52 7#e7 because if ,arrh5ius' hypo!sis be accept$ x becomes necess>y to admit ! exi/5ce 9 solutions ( free ions1 l ! atoms ,cl or ,na1 )\t any app>5t exp5diture ( ! en]gy necess>y = _! disruption1 & if 9 ?is case x c be expla9$ :y i !n #b1 x is n at all cle> :y solutions ( ,mg,s,o#d give i #a1 al?\gh ! solution does conduct an electric curr5t2 7#f7 because 9 dilute solutions1 ! approximative proportionality betwe5 ! depression & conc5tration may be recognis$1 :ile admitt+ ! =mation ( hydrates1 ) z mu* "r z 9 admitt+ ! solution ( anhydr\s sub/ances1 & if ! =mation ( hydrates be recognis$ x is easi] to admit t a portion ( ^! hydrates is decompos$ ?an to accept ! break+-up into ions2 7#g7 because ! be/ conductors ( electricity are solutions l ! sulphates 9 :i* x is necess>y to recognise ! =mation ( associat$ sy/ems or hydrates2 7#h7 because ! cause ( electro-conductivity c be soon] look$ = 9 ?is aff9ity & ?is comb9ation ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ ) ! solv5t1 z is se5 f ! fact1 t 7,d4 ,p4 ,konoval(f7 nei!r anil9e nor acetic acid alone conduct an electric curr5t1 a solution ( anil9e 9 wat] conducts x badly 7& "h ! aff9ity is v small71 :ile a solution ( anil9e 9 acetic acid =ms a good electrolyte1 9 :i*1 )\t d\bt1 *emical =ces are act+1 br++ anil9e1 l ammonia1 into comb9ation ) ! acetic acid2 :i* is evid5t f ! rese>*es made by ,pr(4 ,konoval(f ^u mixtures 7solutions7 ( anil9e & o!r am9es2 &1 la/ly1 7#i7 because ,i1 toge!r ) _m ( ! *emi/s ( ! pres5t day1 _c reg>d ! hypo!sis ( electrolytic dissociation 9 ! =m giv5 to x up to n[ by ,arrh5ius & ,o/wald1 z answ]+ to ! sum total ( ! *emical data respect+ solutions & dissociation 9 g5]al4 ,?us1 al?\gh ,i consid] x sup]flu\s to discuss fur!r ! evolution ( ! above !ory ( solutions1 /ill ,i ?9k t x w\ld he mo/ useful = /ud5ts ( *emi/ry to consid] all ! data ref]r+ to ?is subject1 :i* c be f\nd 9 ! ,zeits*rift fr physikalis*e ,*emie1 #ahhh-ahid4 #ej ,?is fact1 :i* 0 e/abli%$ by ,gay-,lussac1 ,pi]son1 & v4 ,babo1 is confirm$ by ! late/ obs]vations1 & enables u to express n only ! fall ( t5sion 7p-p7 itself1 b its ratio to ! t5sion ( wat] 7p-p7_/p4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t 9 ! abs5ce ( any *emical action1 ! fall ( pressure is ei!r v small1 or does n exi/ at all 7note #cc71 & is n proportional to ! quantity ( ! sub/ance add$4 ,z a rule1 ! t5sion is !n equal1 accord+ to ! law ( ,dalton1 to ! sum ( ! t5sions ( ! sub/ances tak54 ,h5ce liquids :i* are insoluble 9 ea* o!r 7= example1 wat] & *loride ( c>bon7 pres5t a t5sion equal to ! sum ( _! individual t5sions1 & !re=e su* a mixture boils at a l[] temp]ature ?an ! m volatile liquid 7,magnus1 ,regnault74 #ea ,if1 9 ! example ( common salt1 ! fall ( t5sion be divid$ by ! t5sion ( wat]1 a figure is obta9$ :i* is ne>ly #aje times less ?an ! magnitude ( ! fall ( temp]ature ( =mation ( ice4 ,?is correlation 0 !oretically d$uc$ by ,goldb]g1 on ! basis ( ! application ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat1 & is repeat$ by _m inve/igat$ solutions4 ,! dim9ution ( ! vap\r t5sion ( solutions expla9s ! rise 9 boil+ po9t due to ! solution ( solid non-volatile bodies 9 wat]4 ,! temp]ature ( a vap\r is ! same z t ( ! solution f :i* x is g5]at$1 & !re=e x foll[s t ! aque\s vap\r giv5 (f f a solution w be sup]heat$4 ,a saturat$ solution ( common salt boils at #ajhd1 a solution ( #cce p>ts ( nitre 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #aaei1 & a solution ( #cbe p>ts ( potassium *loride 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #agi1 if ! temp]ature ( ebullition be det]m9$ by imm]s+ ! !rmomet] bulb 9 ! liquid itself4 ,?is is ano!r pro( ( ! bond :i* exi/s betwe5 wat] & ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,& ?is bond is se5 /ill m cle>ly 9 ^? cases 7= example1 9 ! solution ( nitric or =mic acid 9 wat]7 :]e ! solution boils at a high] temp]ature ?an ei!r wat] or ! volatile sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x4 ,= ?is reason ! solutions ( c]ta9 gases--= in/ance1 hydriodic or hydro*loric acid--boil above #ajj4 ,! sep>ation ( ice f solutions#eb expla9s bo? ! ph5om5on1 well kn[n to sailors1 t ! ice =m$ f salt wat] gives fre% wat]1 & also ! fact t by freez+1 j z by evaporation1 a solution is obta9$ :i* is ri*] 9 salts ?an be=e4 ,?is is tak5 advantage ( 9 cold c\ntries = obta9+ a liquor f sea wat]1 :i* is !n evaporat$ = ! extraction ( salt4 #eb ,fritzs*e %[$ t solutions ( c]ta9 col\r+ matt]s yield col\rless ice1 :i* cle>ly proves ! passage ( wat] only into a solid /ate1 )\t any int]mixture ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 al?\gh ! possibility ( ! admixture 9 c]ta9 o!r cases _c be d5i$4 ,on ! removal ( "p ( ! wat] f a solution 7by evaporation or ! sep>ation ( ice71 a saturat$ solution %\ld be obta9$1 & !n ! solid sub/ance dissolv$ %\ld sep>ate out4 ,solutions saturat$ at a c]ta9 temp]ature %\ld also sep>ate out a correspond+ portion ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ if !y be r$uc$1 by cool+1#ec to a temp]ature at :i* ! wat] c no long] hold ! =m] quantity ( ! sub/ance 9 solution4 ,if ?is sep>ation1 by cool+ a saturat$ solution or by evaporation1 take place sl[ly1 cry/als ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ are 9 _m cases =m$2 & ?is is ! me?od by :i* cry/als ( soluble salts are usually obta9$4 ,c]ta9 solids v easily sep>ate out f _! solutions 9 p]fectly =m$ cry/als1 :i* may atta9 v l>ge dim5sions4 ,su* are nickel sulphate1 alum1 sodium c>bonate1 *rome-alum1 copp] sulphate1 potassium f]ricyanide1 & a :ole s]ies ( o!r salts4 ,! mo/ rem>kable circum/ance 9 ?is is t _m solids 9 sep>at+ out f an aque\s solution reta9 a portion ( wat]1 =m+ cry/allis$ solid sub/ances :i* conta9 wat]4 ,a portion ( ! wat] previ\sly 9 ! solution rema9s 9 ! sep>at$ cry/als4 ,! wat] :i* is ?us reta9$ is call$ ! wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,alum1 copp] sulphate1 ,glaub]'s salt1 & magnesium sulphate conta9 su* wat]1 b nei!r sal-ammoniac1 table salt1 nitre1 potassium *lorate1 silv] nitrate1 nor sug>1 conta9s any wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,"o & ! same sub/ance may sep>ate out f a solution ) or )\t wat] ( cry/allisation1 accord+ to ! temp]ature at :i* ! cry/als are =m$4 ,?us common salt 9 cry/allis+ f its solution 9 wat] at ! ord9>y or at a high] temp]ature does n conta9 wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,b if its sep>ation f ! solution takes place at a l[ temp]ature1 namely bel[ -#e1 !n ! cry/als conta9 #ch p>ts ( wat] 9 #ajj p>ts4 ,cry/als ( ! same sub/ance :i* sep>ate out at diff]5t temp]atures may conta9 diff]5t am\nts ( wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,?is proves to u t a solid dissolv$ 9 wat] may =m v>i\s comp\nds ) x1 diff]+ 9 _! prop]ties & composition1 & capable ( appe>+ 9 a solid sep>ate =m l _m ord9>y def9ite comp\nds4 ,?is is indicat$ by ! num]\s prop]ties & ph5om5a connect$ ) solutions1 & gives reason = ?9k+ t !re exi/ 9 solutions !mselves su* comp\nds ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 & ! solv5t or comp\nds simil> to !m1 only 9 a liquid p>tly decompos$ =m4 ,ev5 ! col\r ( solutions may (t5 confirm ?is op9ion4 ,copp] sulphate =ms cry/als hav+ a blue col\r & conta9+ wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,if ! wat] ( cry/allisation be remov$ by heat+ ! cry/als to r$ness1 a col\rless anhydr\s sub/ance is obta9$ 7a :ite p[d]74 ,f ?is x may be se5 t ! blue col\r belongs to ! comp\nd ( ! copp] salt ) wat]4 ,solutions ( copp] sulphate are all blue1 & consequ5tly !y conta9 a comp\nd simil> to ! comp\nd =m$ by ! salt ) its wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,cry/als ( cobalt *loride :5 dissolv$ 9 an anhydr\s liquid--l alcohol1 = in/ance--give a blue solution1 b :5 !y are dissolv$ 9 wat] a r$ solution is obta9$4 ,cry/als f ! aque\s solution1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,potilitz91 conta9 six times z mu* wat] 7,co,cl#b1f;,h#b,o7 = a giv5 weight ( ! salt1 z ^? violet cry/als 7,co,cl#b1;,h#b,o7 :i* are =m$ by ! evaporation ( an alcoholic solution4 #ec ,z ! solubility ( c]ta9 sub/ances 7= example1 coni9e1 c]ium sulphate1 & o!rs7 decreases ) a rise ( temp]ature 7betwe5 c]ta9 limits--see1 = example1 note #bd71 s ^! sub/ances d n sep>ate f _! saturat$ solutions on cool+ b on heat+4 ,?us a solution ( manganese sulphate1 saturat$ at #gj1 becomes cl\dy on fur!r heat+4 ,! po9t at :i* a sub/ance sep>ates f its solution ) a *ange ( temp]ature gives an easy means ( det]m9+ ! co-effici5t ( solubility1 & ?is 0 tak5 advantage ( by ,pr(4 ,alexeff = det]m9+ ! solubility ( _m sub/ances4 ,! ph5om5on & me?od ( obs]vation are "h ess5tially ! same z 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! temp]ature ( =mation ( ice4 ,if a solution ( a sub/ance :i* sep>ates out on heat+ be tak5 7= example1 ! sulphate ( calcium or manganese71 !n at a c]ta9 fall ( temp]ature ice w sep>ate out f x1 & at a c]ta9 rise ( temp]ature ! salt w sep>ate out4 ,f ?is example1 & f g5]al consid]ations1 x is cle> t ! sep>ation ( a sub/ance dissolv$ f a solution %\ld pres5t a c]ta9 analogy to ! sep>ation ( ice f a solution4 ,9 bo? cases1 a het]og5e\s sy/em ( a solid & a liquid is =m$ f a homog5e\s 7liquid7 sy/em4 ,t solutions conta9 p>ticul> comp\nds ) wat] is fur!r %[n by ! ph5om5a ( sup]saturat$ solutions1 ( s-call$ cryohydrates1 ( solutions ( c]ta9 acids hav+ con/ant boil+ po9ts1 & ! prop]ties ( comp\nds conta9+ wat] ( cry/allisation ^: data x is indisp5sable to keep 9 view 9 ! consid]ation ( solutions4 ,sup]saturat$ solutions exhibit ! foll[+ ph5om5a3--,on ! refrig]ation ( a saturat$ solution ( c]ta9 salts1#ed if ! liquid be br\ght "u c]ta9 conditions1 ! excess ( ! solid may sometimes rema9 9 solution & n sep>ate out4 ,a great numb] ( sub/ances1 & m especially sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1 or ,glaub]'s salt1 easily =m sup]saturat$ solutions4 ,if boil+ wat] be saturat$ ) ?is salt1 & ! solution be p\r$ (f f any rema9+ undissolv$ salt1 &1 ! boil+ be+ /ill cont9u$1 ! vessel hold+ ! solution be well clos$ by cotton wool1 or by fus+ up ! vessel1 or by cov]+ ! solution ) a lay] ( oil1 !n x w he f\nd t ?is saturat$ solution does n sep>ate out any ,glaub]'s salt :atev] on cool+ d[n to ! ord9>y or ev5 to a mu* l[] temp]ature2 al?\gh )\t ! above precautions a salt sep>ates out on cool+1 9 ! =m ( cry/als1 :i* conta9 ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o--t is1 #ahj p>ts ( wat] = #adb p>ts ( anhydr\s salt4 ,! sup]saturat$ solution may be mov$ ab\t or %ak5 inside ! vessel hold+ x1 & no cry/allisation w take place2 ! salt rema9s 9 ! solution 9 z l>ge an am\nt z at a high] temp]ature4 ,if ! vessel hold+ ! sup]saturat$ solution be op5$ & a cry/al ( ,glaub]'s salt be ?r[n 91 cry/allisation sudd5ly takes place4#ee ,a consid]able rise 9 temp]ature is notic$ dur+ ?is rapid sep>ation ( cry/als1 :i* is due to ! fact t ! salt1 previ\sly 9 a liquid /ate1 passes into a solid /ate4 ,?is be>s "s resemblance to ! fact t wat] maybe cool$ bel[ #j 7ev5 to -#aj7 if x be left at re/1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 & evolves heat 9 sudd5ly cry/allis+4 ,al?\gh f ?is po9t ( view !re is a resemblance1 yet 9 reality ! ph5om5on ( sup]saturat$ solutions is mu* m complicat$4 ,?us1 on cool+1 a saturat$ solution ( ,glaub]'s salt deposits cry/als conta9+ ,na#b,,s#d1g;,h#bj1ef or #abf p>ts ( wat] p] #adb p>ts ( anhydr\s salt1 & n #ahj p>ts ( wat]1 z 9 ! above-m5tion$ salt4 ,! cry/als conta9+ #g;,h#b,o are di/+ui%$ = _! in/ability2 if !y /& 9 contact n only ) cry/als ( ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o1 b ) _m o!r sub/ances1 !y imm$iately become opaque1 =m+ a mixture ( anhydr\s & deca-hydrat$ salts4 ,x is evid5t t betwe5 wat] & a soluble sub/ance !re may be e/abli%$ diff]5t k9ds ( great] or less /able equilibrium1 ( :i* solutions =m a p>ticul> case4#eg #ed ,^? salts :i* sep>ate out ) wat] ( cry/allisation & give sev]al cry/allohydrates =m sup]saturat$ solutions ) ! greate/ facility1 & ! ph5om5on is mu* m common ?an 0 previ\sly imag9$4 ,! fir/ data 7 giv5 9 ! la/ c5tury by ,loewitz1 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,num]\s rese>*es h prov$ t sup]saturat$ solutions d n diff] f ord9>y solutions 9 any ( _! ess5tial prop]ties4 ,! v>iations 9 specific gravity1 vap\r t5sion1 =mation ( ice1 c41 take place accord+ to ! ord9>y laws4 #ee ,inasmu* z air1 z has be5 %[n by direct exp]im5t1 conta9s1 al?\gh 9 v small quantities1 m9ute cry/als ( salts1 & among !m sodium sulphate1 air c br+ ab\t ! cry/allisation ( a sup]saturat$ solution ( sodium sulphate 9 an op5 vessel1 b x has no effect on saturat$ solutions ( c]ta9 o!r salts2 = example1 lead acetate4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,de ,boisbaudran1 ,g]nez1 & o!rs1 isomorph\s salts 7analog\s 9 composition7 are capable ( induc+ cry/allisation4 ,?us1 a sup]saturat$ solution ( nickel sulphate cry/allises by contact ) cry/als ( sulphates ( o!r metals analog\s to x1 su* z ^? ( magnesium1 cobalt1 copp]1 & manganese4 ,! cry/allisation ( a sup]saturat$ solution1 set up by ! contact ( a m9ute cry/al1 />ts f x 9 rays ) a def9ite velocity1 & x is evid5t t ! cry/als z !y =m propagate ! cry/allisation 9 def9ite directions4 ,?is ph5om5on recalls ! evolution ( organisms f g]ms4 ,an attraction ( simil> molecules ensues1 & !y dispose !mselves 9 def9ite simil> =ms4 #ef ,at ! pres5t "t a view is v g5]ally accept$1 :i* reg>ds sup]saturat$ solutions z homog5e\s sy/ems1 :i* pass into het]og5e\s sy/ems 7compos$ ( a liquid & a solid sub/ance71 9 all respects exactly resembl+ ! passage ( wat] cool$ bel[ its freez+ po9t into ice & wat]1 or ! passage ( cry/als ( rhombic sulphur into monocl9ic cry/als1 & ( ! monocl9ic cry/als into rhombic4 ,al?\gh _m ph5om5a ( sup]saturation are ?us cle>ly und]/ood1 yet ! spontane\s =mation ( ! un/able hepta-hydrat$ salt 7) #g;,h#b,o71 9 ! place ( ! m /able deca-hydrat$ salt 7) mol4 #aj;,h#b,o71 indicates a prop]ty ( a saturat$ solution ( sodium sulphate :i* obliges "o to admit t x has a diff]5t /ructure f an ord9>y solution4 ,/*]ba*eff ass]ts1 on ! basis ( 8 rese>*es1 t a solution ( ! deca-hydrat$ salt gives1 on evaporation1 )\t ! aid ( heat1 ! deca-hydrat$ salt1 :il/ aft] heat+ above #cc x =ms a sup]saturat$ solution & ! hepta-hydrat$ salt4 ,b 9 ord] t ?is view %\ld be accept$1 "s facts mu/ be discov]$ di/+ui%+ solutions 7:i* are1 accord+ to ?is view1 isom]ic7 conta9+ ! hepta-hydrat$ salt f ^? conta9+ ! deca-hydrat$ salt1 & all ef=ts 9 ?is direction 7! /udy ( ! prop]ties ( ! solutions7 h giv5 negative results4 ,z "s cry/allohydrates ( salts 7alums1 sug> ( lead1 calcium *loride7 melt /raightway 7)\t sep>at+ out any?+71 :il/ o!rs 7l ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o7 are brok5 up1 !n x may be t ! latt] are only 9 a /ate ( equilibrium at a high] temp]ature ?an _! melt+ po9t4 ,x may "h be obs]v$ t 9 melt+ cry/als ( ! deca-hydrat$ salt1 !re is =m$1 besides ! solid anhydr\s salt1 a saturat$ solution giv+ ! hepta-hydrat$ salt1 s t ?is passage f ! deca-to ! hepta-hydrat$ salt1 & ! rev]se1 takes place ) ! =mation ( ! anhydr\s 7or1 x may be1 monohydrat$7 salt4 ,moreov]1 sup]saturation 7,potilitz91 #ahhi7 only takes place ) ^? sub/ances :i* are capable ( giv+ sev]al modifications or sev]al cry/allohydrates1 i4e4 sup]saturat$ solutions sep>ate out1 besides ! /able normal cry/allohydrate1 hydrates conta9+ less wat] & also ! anhydr\s salt4 ,?is degree ( saturation acts ^u ! sub/ance dissolv$ 9 a l mann] to heat4 ,sulphate ( nickel 9 a solution at #ae to #bj sep>ates out rhombic cry/als ) #g;,h#b,o1 at #cj to #dj cubical cry/als1 ) #f;,h#b,o1 at #ej to #gj monocl9ic cry/als1 also conta9+ #f;,h#b,o4 ,cry/als ( ! same composition sep>ate out f sup]saturat$ solutions at "o temp]ature 7#ag to #ai71 b at diff]5t degrees ( saturation1 z 0 %[n by ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran4 ,! capacity to volunt>ily sep>ate out slightly hydrat$ or anhydr\s salts by ! introduction ( a cry/al into ! solution is common to all sup]saturat$ solutions4 ,if a salt =ms a sup]saturat$ solution1 !n "o w\ld expect1 accord+ to ?is view1 t x %\ld exi/ 9 ! =m ( sev]al hydrates or 9 sev]al modifications4 ,?us ,potilitz9 conclud$ t *lorate ( /rontium1 :i* easily gives sup]saturat$ solutions1 %\ld be capable ( =m+ sev]al hydrates1 besides ! anhydr\s salt kn[n2 & he succe$$ 9 discov]+ ! exi/5ce ( two hydrates1 ,sr7,cl,o#c7b1c;,h#b,o & app>5tly ,sr7,cl,o#c7b1h;,h#b,o4 ,besides ?is1 ?ree modifications ( ! common anhydr\s salt 7 obta9$1 diff]+ f ea* o!r 9 _! cry/all9e =m4 ,"o modification sep>at$ out 9 ! =m ( rhombic octah$ra1 ano!r 9 oblique plates1 & a ?ird 9 long brittle prisms or plates4 ,fur!r rese>*es %[$ t salts :i* are n capable ( =m+ sup]saturat$ solutions su* z ! bromates ( calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium1 "p ) _! wat] ( hydration ) difficulty 7!y cry/allise ) #a;,h#b,o71 & decompose v sl[ly 9 a vacuum or 9 dry air4 ,9 o!r words ! t5sion ( dissociation is v small 9 ?is class ( hydrates4 ,z ! hydrates *>act]is$ by a small dissociation t5sion are incapable ( giv+ sup]saturat$ solutions1 s conv]sely sup]saturat$ solutions give hydrates ^: t5sion ( dissociation is great 7,potilitz91 #ahic74 #eg ,emulsions1 l milk1 are compos$ ( a solution ( glut9\s or simil> sub/ances1 or ( oily liquids susp5d$ 9 a liquid 9 ! =m ( drops1 :i* are cle>ly visible "u a microscope1 & =m an example ( a me*anical =mation :i* resembles solution4 ,b ! diff]5ce f solutions is "h evid5t4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 solutions :i* approa* v ne> to emulsions 9 ! facility ) :i* ! sub/ance dissolv$ sep>ates f !m4 ,x has long be5 kn[n1 = example1 t a p>ticul> k9d ( ,prussian blue1 ,k,fe#b7;,,cn7#f1 dissolves 9 pure wat]1 b1 on ! addition ( ! smalle/ quantity ( ei!r ( a numb] ( salts1 x coagulates & becomes q insoluble4 ,if copp] sulphide 7,cu,s71 cadmium sulphide 7,cd,s71 ars5ic sulphide 7,z#b,s#e7 7! exp]im5ts ) ^! sub/ances proce$ ) great ease1 & ! solution obta9$ is comp>atively /able71 & _m o!r metallic sulphides1 be obta9$ by a me?od ( d\ble decomposition 7by precipitat+ salts ( ^! metals by hydrog5 sulphide71 & be !n c>efully wa%$ 7by all[+ ! precipitate to settle1 p\r+ (f ! liquid1 & aga9 add+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 wat]71 !n1 z 0 %[n by ,s*ulze1 ,spr+1 ,pro/1 & o!rs1 ! previ\sly insoluble sulphides pass into transp>5t 7= m]cury1 lead1 & silv]1 r$di% br[n2 = copp] & iron1 gre5i% br[n2 = cadmium & indium1 yell[2 & = z9c1 col\rless7 solutions1 :i* may be pres]v$ 7! weak] !y are ! long] !y keep7 & ev5 boil$1 b :i*1 nev]!less1 9 "t coagulate--t is1 sep>ate 9 an insoluble =m1 & !n sometimes become cry/all9e & q incapable ( re-dissolv+4 ,graham & o!rs obs]v$ ! p[] %[n by colloids 7see note #ah7 ( =m+ simil> hydrosols or solutions ( gelat9\s colloids1 &1 9 describ+ alum9a & silica1 we %all aga9 h occasion to speak ( su* solutions4 ,9 ! exi/+ /ate ( our k conc]n+ solution1 su* solutions may be look$ on z a transition betwe5 emulsion & ord9>y solutions1 b no fundam5tal judgm5t c be =m$ ab\t !m until a /udy has be5 made ( _! relations to ord9>y solutions 7! solutions ( ev5 soluble colloids freeze imm$iately on cool+ bel[ #j1 &1 accord+ to ,gu?rie1 d n =m cryohydrates71 & to sup]saturat$ solutions1 ) :i* !y h c]ta9 po9ts 9 common4 ,solutions ( salts on refrig]ation bel[ #j deposit ice or cry/als 7:i* !n frequ5tly conta9 wat] ( cry/allisation7 ( ! salt dissolv$1 & on rea*+ a c]ta9 degree ( conc5tration !y solidify 9 _! entire mass4 ,^! solidifi$ masses are t]m$ cryohydrates4 ,my rese>*es on solutions ( common salt 7#ahfh7 %[$ t its solution solidifies :5 x rea*es a composition ,na,cl #aj;,h#b,o 7#ahj p>ts ( wat] p] #ehe p>ts ( salt71 :i* takes place at ab\t -#bc4 ,! solidifi$ solution melts at ! same temp]ature1 & bo? ! portion melt$ & ! rema9d] pres]ve ! above composition4 ,gu?rie 7#ahgd-ahgf7 obta9$ ! cryohydrates ( _m salts1 & he %[$ t c]ta9 ( !m are =m$ l ! above at comp>atively l[ temp]atures1 :il/ o!rs 7= in/ance1 corrosive sublimate1 alums1 potassium *lorate1 & v>i\s colloids7 are =m$ on a slight cool+1 to -#b or ev5 be=e4#eh ,9 ! case ( common salt1 ! cryohydrate ) #aj molecules ( wat]1 & 9 ! case ( sodium nitrate1 ! cryohydrate#ei ) #g molecules ( wat] 7i4e4 #abf p>ts ( wat] p] #he ( salt7 %\ld be accept$ z e/abli%$ sub/ances1 capable ( pass+ f a solid to a liquid /ate & conv]sely2 & !re=e x may be ?\ght t 9 cryohydrates we h solutions :i* are n only undecomposable by cold1 b also h a def9ite composition :i* w\ld pres5t a fre% case ( def9ite equilibrium betwe5 ! solv5t & ! sub/ance dissolv$4 #eh ,(f] 7#ahhj7 concludes1 f 8 rese>*es on cryohydrates1 t !y are simple mixtures ( ice & salts1 hav+ a con/ant melt+ po9t1 j z !re are alloys hav+ a con/ant po9t ( fusion1 & solutions ( liquids ) a con/ant boil+ po9t 7see note #fj74 ,?is does n1 h[ev]1 expla9 9 :at =m a salt is conta9$1 = in/ance1 9 ! cryohydrate ,na,cl #aj;,h#b,o4 ,at temp]atures above -#aj common salt sep>ates out 9 anhydr\s cry/als1 & at temp]atures ne> -#aj1 9 comb9ation ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 ,na,cl #b;,h#b,o1 &1 !re=e1 x is v improbable t at /ill l[] temp]atures x w\ld sep>ate )\t wat]4 ,if ! possibility ( ! solidifi$ cryohydrate conta9+ ,na,cl #b;,h#b,o & ice be admitt$1 !n x is n cle> :y "o ( ^! sub/ances does n melt be=e ! o!r4 ,if alcohol does n extract wat] f ! solid mass1 leav+ ! salt beh9d1 ?is does n prove ! pres5ce ( ice1 because alcohol also takes up wat] f ! cry/als ( _m hydrat$ sub/ances 7= in/ance1 f ,na,cl #b;,h#b,o7 at ab\t _! melt+-po9ts4 ,besides :i*1 a simple obs]vation on ! cryohydrate1 ,na,cl #aj;,h#b,o1 %[s t ) ! mo/ c>eful cool+ x does n on ! addition ( ice deposit ice1 :i* w\ld occur if ice 7 =m$ on solidification int]mix$ ) ! salt4 ,i may add ) reg>d to cryohydrates t _m ( ! solutions ( acids solidify completely on prolong$ cool+ 7= example1 ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o71 & !n =m p]fectly def9ite comp\nds4 ,= ! solutions ( sulphuric acid 7see ,*apt] ,,xx47 ,pick]+ obta9$1 = in/ance1 a hydrate1 ,h#b,,s#d1d;,h#b,o at -#be4 ,hydro*loric1 nitric1 & o!r acids also give simil> cry/all9e hydrates1 melt+ at l[ temp]atures & pres5t+ _m simil>ities ) ! cryohydrates4 #ei ,see note #bd4 ,! =mation ( def9ite b un/able comp\nds 9 ! process ( solution becomes evid5t f ! ph5om5a ( a m>k$ decrease ( vap\r t5sion1 or f ! rise ( ! temp]ature ( ebullition :i* occurs 9 ! solution ( c]ta9 volatile liquids & gases 9 wat]4 ,z an example1 we w take hydriodic acid1 ,,hi1 a gas :i* liquefies1 giv+ a liquid :i* boils at -#bj4 ,a solution ( x conta9+ #eg p4c4 ( hydriodic acid is di/+ui%$ by ! fact t if x be heat$ ! hydriodic acid volatilises toge!r ) ! wat] 9 ! same proportions z !y occur 9 ! solution1 !re=e su* a solution may be di/ill$ un*ang$4 ,! solution boils at a high] temp]ature ?an wat]1 at #abg4 ,a portion ( ! physical prop]ties ( ! gas & wat] h 9 ?is case already disappe>$--a new sub/ance is =m$1 :i* has its def9ite boil+ po9t4 ,to put x m correctly1 ?is is n ! temp]ature ( ebullition1 b ! temp]ature at :i* ! comp\nd =m$ decomposes1 =m+ ! vap\rs ( ! products ( dissociation1 :i*1 on cool+1 re-comb9e4 ,%\ld a less am\nt ( hydriodic acid be dissolv$ 9 wat] ?an ! above1 !n1 on heat+ su* a solution1 wat] only at fir/ di/ils ov]1 until ! solution atta9s ! above-m5tion$ composition2 x w !n di/il ov] unalt]$4 ,if m hydriodic acid be pass$ into su* a solution a fre% quantity ( ! gas w dissolve1 b x passes (f ) great ease1 l air f wat]4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be ?\ght t ^? =ces :i* det]m9e ! =mation ( ord9>y gase\s solutions play no "p :atev] 9 ! =mation ( a solution hav+ a def9ite boil+ po9t2 t !y d react is %[n f ! fact t su* con/ant gase\s solutions v>y 9 _! composition "u diff]5t pressures4#fj ,x is n1 !re=e1 at e1 b only at ! ord9>y1 atmosph]ic pressure t a con/ant boil+ solution ( hydriodic acid w conta9 #eg p4c4 ( ! gas4 ,at ano!r pressure ! proportion ( wat] & hydriodic acid w be diff]5t4 ,x v>ies1 h[ev]1 judg+ f obs]vations made by ,roscoe1 v little = consid]able v>iations ( pressure4 ,?is v>iation 9 composition directly indicates t pressure ex]ts an influ5ce on ! =mation ( un/able *emical comp\nds :i* are easily dissociat$ 7) =mation ( a gas71 j z x influ5ces ! solution ( gases1 only ! latt] is influ5c$ to a m consid]able degree ?an ! =m]4#fa ,hydro*loric1 nitric1 & o!r acids =m solutions hav+ def9ite boil+ po9ts1 l t ( hydriodic acid4 ,!y %[ fur!r ! common prop]ty1 if conta9+ b a small proportion ( wat]1 t !y fume 9 air4 ,/rong solutions ( nitric1 hydro*loric1 hydriodic1 & o!r gases are ev5 t]m$ 'fum+ acids4' ,! fum+ liquids conta9 a def9ite comp\nd ^: temp]ature ( ebullition 7decomposition7 is high] ?an #ajj1 & conta9 also an excess ( ! volatile sub/ance dissolv$1 :i* exhibits a capacity to comb9e ) wat] & =m a hydrate1 ^: vap\r t5sion is less ?an t ( aque\s vap\r4 ,on evaporat+ 9 air1 ?is dissolv$ sub/ance meets ! atmosph]ic moi/ure & =ms a visible vap\r 7fumes7 ) x1 :i* consi/s ( ! above-m5tion$ comp\nd4 ,! attraction or aff9ity :i* b9ds1 = in/ance1 hydriodic acid ) wat] is ev9c$ n only 9 ! evolution ( heat & ! dim9ution ( vap\r t5sion 7rise ( boil+ po9t71 b also 9 _m purely *emical relations4 ,?us hydriodic acid is produc$ f iod9e & hydrog5 sulphide 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 b unless wat] is pres5t ?is reaction does n take place4#fb #fj ,= ?is reason 7! want ( entire con/ancy ( ! composition ( con/ant boil+ solutions ) a *ange ( pressure71 ! exi/5ce ( def9ite hydrates =m$ by volatile sub/ances--= in/ance1 by hydro*loric acid & wat]--is frequ5tly d5i$4 ,x is g5]ally argu$ z foll[s3 ,if !re did exi/ a con/ancy ( composition1 !n x w\ld be unalt]$ by a *ange ( pressure4 ,b ! di/illation ( con/ant boil+ hydrates is und\bt$ly accompani$ 7judg+ by ! vap\r d5sities det]m9$ by ,b9eau71 l ! di/illation ( sal ammoniac1 sulphuric acid1 c41 by a complete decomposition ( ! orig9al comp\nd--t is1 ^! sub/ances d n exi/ 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 b _! products ( decomposition 7hydro*loric acid & wat]7 are gases at ! temp]ature ( volatilisation1 :i* dissolve 9 ! volatilis$ & cond5s$ liquids2 b ! solubility ( gases 9 liquids dep5ds on ! pressure1 &1 !re=e1 ! composition ( con/ant boil+ solutions may1 & ev5 ought to1 v>y ) a *ange ( pressure1 &1 fur!r1 ! small] ! pressure & ! l[] ! temp]ature ( volatilisation1 ! m likely is a true comp\nd to be obta9$4 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,roscoe & ,dittm> 7#ahei71 ! con/ant boil+ solution ( hydro*loric acid prov$ to conta9 #ah p4c4 ( hydro*loric acid at a pressure ( #c atmosph]es1 #bj p4c4 at #a atmosph]e1 & #bc p4c4 at #a_/aj ( an atmosph]e4 ,on pass+ air ?r\gh ! solution until its composition became con/ant 7i4e4 =c+ ! excess ( aque\s vap\r or ( hydro*loric acid to pass away ) ! air71 !n acid 0 obta9$ conta9+ ab\t #bj p4c4 at #ajj1 ab\t #bc p4c4 at #ej1 & ab\t #be p4c4 at #j4 ,f ?is x is se5 t by decreas+ ! pressure & l[]+ ! temp]ature ( evaporation "o arrives at ! same limit1 :]e ! composition %\ld be tak5 z ,h,cl #f;,h#b,o1 :i* requires #bebf p4c4 ( hydro*loric acid4 ,fum+ hydro*loric acid conta9s m ?an ?is4 ,9 ! case already consid]$1 z 9 ! case ( =mic acid 9 ! rese>*es ( ,d4 ,p4 ,konoval(f 7note #dg71 ! con/ant boil+ solution corresponds ) a m9imum t5sion--t is1 ) a boil+ po9t high] ?an t ( ei!r ( ! compon5t elem5ts4 ,b !re is ano!r case ( con/ant boil+ solutions simil> to ! case ( ! solution ( propyl alcohol1 ,c#c;,h#h,o1 :5 a solution1 undecompos$ by di/illation1 boils at a l[] po9t ?an t ( ! m volatile liquid4 ,h[ev]1 9 ?is case also1 if !re be solution1 ! possibility ( ! =mation ( a def9ite comp\nd 9 ! =m ,c#c;,h#h,o ,h#b,o _c be d5i$1 & ! t5sion ( ! solution is n equal to ! sum ( t5sions ( ! compon5ts4 ,!re are possible cases ( con/ant boil+ mixtures ev5 :5 !re is no solution nor any loss ( t5sion1 & consequ5tly no *emical action1 s9ce ! am\nt ( liquids t are volatilis$ is det]m9$ by ! product ( ! vap\r d5sities into _! vap\r t5sions 7,wanklyn71 9 consequ5ce ( :i* liquids ^: boil+ po9t is above #ajj--;= in/ance1 turp5t9e & e!real oils 9 g5]al--:5 di/ill$ ) aque\s vap\r1 pass ov] at a temp]ature bel[ #ajj4 ,consequ5tly1 x is n 9 ! con/ancy ( composition & boil+ po9t 7temp]ature ( decomposition7 t evid5ce ( a di/9ct *emical action is to be f\nd 9 ! above-describ$ solutions ( acids1 b 9 ! great loss ( t5sion1 :i* completely resembles ! loss ( t5sion obs]v$1 = in/ance1 9 ! p]fectly-def9ite comb9ations ( sub/ances ) wat] ( cry/allisation 7see lat]1 note #fe74 ,sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 z we %all le>n lat]1 is also decompos$ by di/illation1 l ,h,cl #f;,h#b,o1 & exhibits1 moreov]1 all ! signs ( a def9ite *emical comp\nd4 ,! /udy ( ! v>iation ( ! specific gravities ( solutions z dep5d5t on _! composition 7see note #ai7 %[s t ph5om5a ( a simil> k9d1 al?\gh ( diff]5t dim5sions1 take place 9 ! =mation ( bo? ,h#b,,s#d f ,h#b,o & ,,s#c1 & ( ,h,cl #f;,h#b,o 7or ( aque\s solutions analog\s to x7 f ,h,cl & ,h#b,o4 #fa ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] may he ?us repres5t$4 ,a gase\s or easily volatile sub/ance ,a =ms ) a c]ta9 quantity ( wat]1 n,h#b,o1 a def9ite complex comp\nd ,an,h#b,o1 :i* is /able up to a temp]ature t high] ?an #ajj4 ,at ?is temp]ature x is decompos$ into two sub/ances1 ,a ,h#b,o4 ,bo? boil bel[ t at ! ord9>y pressure1 & !re=e at t !y di/il ov] & re-comb9e 9 ! receiv]4 ,b if a "p ( ! sub/ance ,an,h#b,o is decompos$ or volatilis$1 a portion ( ! undecompos$ liquid /ill rema9s 9 ! vessel1 :i* c p>tially dissolve "o ( ! products ( decomposition1 & t 9 quantity v>y+ ) ! pressure & temp]ature1 & !re=e ! solution at a con/ant boil+ po9t w h a slightly diff]5t composition at diff]5t pressures4 #fb ,= solutions ( hydro*loric acid 9 wat] !re are /ill great] diff]5ces 9 reactions4 ,= in/ance1 /rong solutions decompose antimony sulphide 7=m+ hydrog5 sulphide1 ,h#b,s71 & precipitate common salt f its solutions1 :il/ weak solutions d n act ?us4 ,_m compunds conta9+ wat] ( cry/allisation are solid sub/ances 7:5 melt$ !y are already solutions--i4e4 liquids72 fur!rmore1 !y are capable ( be+ =m$ f solutions1 l ice or aque\s vap\r4 ,!y may be call$ cry/allo-hydrates4 ,inasmu* z ! direct pres5ce ( ice or aque\s vap\r _c be admitt$ 9 solutions 7= ^! are liquids71 al?\gh ! pres5ce ( wat] may be1 s also !re is no basis = ackn[l$g+ ! pres5ce 9 solutions ( cry/allo-hydrates1 al?\gh !y are obta9$ f solutions z su*4#fc ,x is evid5t t su* sub/ances pres5t "o ( ! _m =ms ( equilibrium betwe5 wat] & a sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x4 ,?is =m1 h[ev]1 rem9ds "o1 9 all respects1 ( solutions--t is1 aque\s comp\nds :i* are m or less easily decompos$1 ) sep>ation ( wat] & ! =mation ( a less aque\s or an anhydr\s comp\nd4 ,9 fact1 !re are n a few cry/als conta9+ wat] :i* lose a "p ( _! wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,( su* a k9d1 = in/ance1 are ! cry/als ( soda1 or sodium c>bonate1 :i*1 :5 sep>at$ f an aque\s solution at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 are q transp>5t2 b :5 left expos$ to air1 lose a portion ( _! wat]1 becom+ opaque1 &1 9 ! process1 lose _! cry/all9e appe>ance1 al?\gh pres]v+ _! orig9al =m4 ,?is process ( ! sep>ation ( wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature is t]m$ ! effloresc5ce ( cry/als4 ,effloresc5ce takes place m rapidly "u ! receiv] ( an air pump1 & especially at a g5tle heat4 ,?is break+ up ( a cry/al is dissociation at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,solutions are decompos$ 9 exactly ! same mann]4#fd ,! t5sion ( ! aque\s vap\r :i* is giv5 (f f cry/allo-hydrates is naturally1 z ) solutions1 less ?an ! vap\r t5sion ( wat] itself#fe at ! same temp]ature1 & !re=e _m anhydr\s salts :i* are capable ( comb9+ ) wat] absorb aque\s vap\r f moi/ air2 t is1 !y act l a cold body on :i* wat] is deposit$ f /eam4 ,x is on ?is t ! desiccation ( gases is bas$1 & x mu/ fur!r be rem>k$ 9 ?is respect t c]ta9 sub/ances--= in/ance1 potassium c>bonate 7,k#b;,,co#c7 & calcium *loride 7,ca,cl#b7--n only absorb ! wat] necess>y = ! =mation ( a solid cry/all9e comp\nd1 b also give solutions1 or deliquesce1 z x is t]m$1 9 moi/ air4 ,_m cry/als d n effloresce 9 ! lea/ at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 = example1 copp] sulphate1 :i* may be pres]v$ = an indef9ite l5g? ( "t )\t effloresc+1 b :5 plac$ "u ! receiv] ( an air pump1 if effloresc5ce be once />t$1 x goes on at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,! temp]ature at :i* ! complete sep>ation ( wat] f cry/als takes place v>ies consid]ably1 n only = diff]5t sub/ances1 b also = diff]5t portions ( ! conta9$ wat]4 ,v (t5 ! temp]ature at :i* dissociation beg9s is v mu* high] ?an ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,s1 = example1 copp] sulphate1 :i* conta9s #cf p4c4 ( wat]1 gives up #bhh p4c4 at #ajj1 & ! rema9+ quantity1 namely #gb p4c41 only at #bdj4 ,alum1 out ( ! #dee p4c4 ( wat] :i* x conta9s1 gives up #ahi p4c4 at #ajj1 #agg p4c4 at #abj1 #gg p4c4 at #ahj1 & #a p4c4 at #bhj2 x only loses ! la/ quantity 7#a p4c47 at its temp]ature ( decomposition4 ,^! examples cle>ly %[ t ! annexation ( wat] ( cry/allisation is accompani$ by a r pr(\nd1 al?\gh1 9 comp>ison ) in/ances :i* we %all consid] lat]1 /ill inconsid]able1 *ange ( its prop]ties4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! wat] ( cry/allisation is only giv5 (f :5 ! solid =m ( ! sub/ance is de/roy$3 :5 ! cry/als melt on heat+4 ,! cry/als are !n said to melt 9 _! wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,fur!r1 aft] ! sep>ation ( ! wat]1 a solid sub/ance rema9s beh9d1 s t by fur!r heat+ x acquires a solid =m4 ,?is is se5 mo/ cle>ly 9 cry/als ( sug> ( lead or lead acetate1 :i* melt 9 _! wat] ( cry/allisation at a temp]ature ( #efbe1 & 9 s do+ beg9 to lose wat]4 ,on rea*+ a temp]ature ( #ajj ! sug> ( lead solidifies1 hav+ lo/ all its wat]2 & !n at a temp]ature ( #bhj1 ! anhydr\s & solidifi$ salt aga9 melts4#fe bis #fc ,sup]saturat$ solutions give an excell5t pro( 9 ?is respect4 ,?us a solution ( copp] sulphate g5]ally cry/allises 9 p5ta-hydrat$ cry/als1 ,cu,s,o#d #e;,h#b,o1 & its saturat$ solution gives su* cry/als if x be br\ght into contact ) ! m9ute/ possible cry/al ( ! same k9d4 ,b1 accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 if a cry/al ( f]r\s sulphate 7an isomorph\s salt1 see note #ee71 ,fe,s,o#d #g;,h#b,o1 be plac$ 9 a saturat$ solution ( copp] sulphate1 !n cry/als ( hepta-hydrat$ salt1 ,cu,s,o#d #g;,h#b,o1 are obta9$4 ,x is evid5t t nei!r ! p5ta-nor ! hepta-hydrat$ salt is conta9$ z su* 9 ! solution4 ,! solution pres5ts its own p>ticul> liquid =m ( equilibrium4 #fd ,effloresc5ce1 l e evaporation1 proce$s f ! surface4 ,9 ! int]ior ( cry/als :i* h effloresc$ !re is usually f\nd a non-effloresc$ mass1 s t ! majority ( effloresc$ cry/als ( wa%+ soda %[1 9 _! fracture1 a transp>5t nucleus coat$ by an effloresc$1 opaque1 p[d]y mass4 ,x is a rem>kable circum/ance 9 ?is respect t effloresc5ce proce$s 9 a completely regul> & uni=m mann]1 s t ! angles & planes ( simil> cry/allographic "* effloresce simultane\sly1 & 9 ?is respect ! cry/all9e =m det]m9es ^? p>ts ( cry/als :]e effloresc5ce />ts1 & ! ord] 9 :i* x cont9ues4 ,9 solutions evaporation also proce$s f ! surface1 & ! fir/ cry/als :i* appe> on its rea*+ ! requir$ degree ( saturation are also =m$ at ! surface4 ,aft] fall+ to ! bottom ! cry/als naturally cont9ue to gr[ 7see ,*apt] ,x474 #fe ,accord+ to ,lescoeur 7#ahhc71 at #ajj a conc5trat$ solution ( b>ium hydroxide1 ,ba,h#b,o#b1 on fir/ deposit+ cry/als 7) ,h#b,o7 has a t5sion ( ab\t #fcj mm4 7in/ead ( #gfj mm41 ! t5sion ( wat]71 :i* decreases 7because ! solution evaporates7 to #de mm41 :5 all ! wat] is expell$ f ! cry/als1 ,ba,h#b,o#b ,h#b,o1 :i* are =m$1 b !y also lose wat] 7dissociate1 effloresce at #ajj71 leav+ ! hydroxide1 ,ba,h#b,o#b1 :i* is p]fectly undecomposable at #ajj--t is1 does n "p ) wat]4 ,at #gc 7! t5sion ( wat] is !n #bfe mm47 a solution1 conta9+ #cc;,h#b,o1 on cry/allis+ has a t5sion ( #bcj mm42 ! cry/als1 ,ba,h#b,o#b #h;,h#b,o1 :i* sep>ate out1 h a t5sion ( #afj mm42 on los+ wat] !y give ,ba,h#b,o#b ,h#b,o4 ,?is sub/ance does n decompose at #gc1 & !re=e its t5sion #j4 ,9 ^? cry/allohydrates :i* effloresce at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ! t5sion ( dissociation ne>ly approximates to t ( ! aque\s vap\r1 z ,lescoeur 7#ahia7 %[$4 ,to ?is category ( comp\nds belong ,b#b,o#c7c x7,h#b,o1 ,c#b,o#d;,h#b7b x7,h#b,o1 ,ba,o7#i x7,h#b,o1 & ,sr,o7#i x7,h#b,o4 ,& a /ill great] t5sion is possess$ by ,na#b,,s#daj;,h#b,o1 ,na#b;,,co#caj;,h#b,o1 & ,mg,s,o#d7g x7,h#b,o4 ,mll]-,erzba* 7#ahhd7 det]m9es ! t5sion 7) ref]5ce to liquid wat]7 by plac+ tubes ( ! same l5g? ) wat] & ! sub/ances exp]im5t$ ) 9 a desiccator1 ! rate ( loss ( wat] giv+ ! relative t5sion4 ,?us1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 cry/als ( sodium phosphate1 ,na#b;,,hpo#d #ab;,h#b,o1 pres5t a t5sion ( #jg comp>$ ) wat]1 until !y lose #e;,h#b,o1 !n #jd until !y lose #e;,h#b,o m1 & on los+ ! la/ equival5t ( wat] ! t5sion falls to #jjd comp>$ ) wat]4 ,x is cle> t ! diff]5t molecules ( wat] are held by an unequal =ce4 ,out ( ! five molecules ( wat] 9 copp] sulphate ! two fir/ are comp>atively easily sep>at$ ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7b only aft] sev]al days 9 a desiccator1 accord+ to ,lat*9(f72 ! next two are m difficultly sep>at$1 & ! la/ equival5t is reta9$ ev5 at #ajj4 ,?is is ano!r indication ( ! capacity ( ,cu,s,o#d to =m ?ree hydrates1 ,cu,s,o#de;,h#b,o1 ,cu,s,o#dc;,h#b,o1 & ,cu,s,o#d;,h#b,o4 ,! rese>*es ( ,&reae on ! t5sion ( dissociation ( hydrat$ sulphate ( copp] %[$ 7#ahia7 ! exi/5ce ( ?ree prov9ces1 *>act]is$ at a giv5 temp]ature by a con/ant t5sion3 7#a7 betwe5 #c-e1 7#b7 betwe5 #a-c1 & la/ly 7#c7 betwe5 #j-a molecule ( wat]1 :i* aga9 confirms ! exi/5ce ( ?ree hydrates ( ! above composition = ?is salt4 #fe bis ,sodium acetate 7,c#b;,h#c,o#b,na1#c;,h#b,o7 melts at #eh1 b re-solidifies only on contact ) a cry/al1 o!rwise x may rema9 liquid ev5 at #j1 & may be us$ = obta9+ a con/ant temp]ature4 ,accord+ to ,jeannel1 ! lat5t heat ( fusion is ab\t #bh calories1 & accord+ to ,pick]+ ! heat ( solution #ce calories4 ,:5 melt$ ?is salt boils at #abc--t is1 ! t5sion ( ! vap\r giv5 (f at t temp]ature equals ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x is mo/ important to recognise 9 respect to ! wat] ( cry/allisation t its ratio to ! quantity ( ! sub/ance ) :i* x is comb9$ is always a con/ant quantity4 ,h[ev] (t5 we may prep>e copp] sulphate1 we %all always f9d #cfad p4c4 ( wat] 9 its cry/als1 & ^! cry/als always lose f\r-fif?s ( _! wat] at #ajj1 & "o-fif? ( ! :ole am\nt ( ! wat] conta9$ rema9s 9 ! cry/als at #ajj1 & is only expell$ f !m at a temp]ature ( ab\t #bdj4 ,:at has be5 said ab\t cry/als ( copp] sulphate ref]s also to cry/als ( e o!r sub/ance1 :i* conta9 wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,x is impossible 9 any ( ^! cases to increase ei!r ! relative proportion ( ! salt or ( ! wat]1 )\t *ang+ ! homog5eity ( ! sub/ance4 ,if once a portion ( ! wat] be lo/--= in/ance1 if once effloresc5ce takes place--a mixture is obta9$1 & n a homog5e\s sub/ance1 namely a mixture ( a sub/ance depriv$ ( wat] ) a sub/ance :i* has n yet lo/ wat]--i4e4 decomposition has already comm5c$4 ,?is con/ant ratio is an example ( ! fact t 9 *emical comp\nds ! quantity ( ! compon5t p>ts is q def9ite2 t is1 x is an example ( ! s-call$ def9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,!y may be di/+ui%$ f solutions1 & f all o!r s-call$ indef9ite *emical comp\nds1 9 t at lea/ "o1 & sometimes bo?1 ( ! compon5t p>ts may be add$ 9 a l>ge quantity to an indef9ite *emical comp\nd1 )\t de/roy+ its homog5eity1 z 9 solutions1 :il/ x is impossible to add any "o ( ! compon5t p>ts to a def9ite *emical comp\nd )\t de/roy+ ! homog5eity ( ! entire mass4 ,def9ite *emical comp\nds only decompose at a c]ta9 rise 9 temp]ature2 on a l[]+ 9 temp]ature !y d n1 at lea/ ) v few exceptions1 yield _! compon5ts l solutions :i* =m ice or comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,?is leads to ! assumption t solutions conta9 wat] z wat]1#ff al?\gh x may sometimes be 9 a v small quantity4 ,!re=e solutions :i* are capable ( solidify+ completely 7= in/ance1 cry/allo-hydrates capable ( melt+7 su* z ! comp\nd ( #hd-a_/b p>ts ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ) #ae-a_/b p>ts ( wat]1 ,h#b,o1 or ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o 7or ,h#d,,s#e71 appe> z true def9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,if1 !n1 we imag9e su* a def9ite comp\nd 9 a liquid /ate1 & admit t x p>tially decomposes 9 ?is /ate1 sep>at+ wat]--n z ice or vap\r 7= !n ! sy/em w\ld be het]og5e\s1 includ+ sub/ances 9 diff]5t physical /ates71 b 9 a liquid =m1 :5 ! sy/em w be homog5e\s--we %all =m an idea ( a solution z an un/able1 dissociat+ fluid /ate ( equilibrium betwe5 wat] & ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,moreov]1 x %\ld be rem>k$ t1 judg+ by exp]im5t1 _m sub/ances give ) wat] n "o b div]se comp\nds1#fg :i* is se5 9 ! capacity ( "o sub/ance to =m ) wat] _m v>i\s cry/allo-hydrates1 or comp\nds ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 %[+ div]se & indep5d5t prop]ties4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 solutions#fh may be reg>d$ z fluid1 un/able1 def9ite *emical comp\nds 9 a /ate ( dissociation4#fi #ff ,su* a ph5om5on frequ5tly pres5ts itself 9 purely *emical action4 ,= in/ance1 let a liquid sub/ance ,a give1 ) ano!r liquid sub/ance ,b1 "u ! conditions ( an exp]im5t1 a m]e m9ute quantity ( a solid or gase\s sub/ance ,c4 ,?is small quantity w sep>ate out 7pass away f ! sph]e ( action1 z ,b]?ollet express$ x71 & ! rema9+ masses ( ,a & ,b w aga9 give ,c2 consequ5tly1 "u ^! conditions action w g on to ! end4 ,su*1 x seems to me1 is ! action 9 solutions :5 !y yield ice or vap\r indicat+ ! pres5ce ( wat]4 #fg ,c]ta9 sub/ances are capable ( =m+ toge!r only "o comp\nd1 o!rs sev]al1 & ^! ( ! mo/ v>i$ degrees ( /ability4 ,! comp\nds ( wat] are in/ances ( ?is k9d4 ,9 solutions ! exi/5ce ( sev]al diff]5t def9ite comp\nds mu/ be ackn[l$g$1 b _m ( ^! h n yet be5 obta9$ 9 a free /ate1 & x may be t !y _c be obta9$ 9 any o!r b a liquid =m--t is1 dissolv$2 j z !re are _m und\bt$ def9ite comp\nds :i* only exi/ 9 "o physical /ate4 ,among ! hydrates su* in/ances occur4 ,! comp\nd ,,co#b #h;,h#b,o 7see note #ca71 accord+ to ,wroblewski1 only occurs 9 a solid =m4 ,hydrates l ,h#b,s #ab;,h#b,o 7,de ,=cr& & ,vill>d71 ,h,br ,h#b,o 7,roozeboom71 c only be accept$ on ! basis ( a decrease ( t5sion1 b pres5t !mselves z v transi5t sub/ances1 incapable ( exi/+ 9 a /able free /ate4 ,ev5 sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 itself1 :i* und\bt$ly is a def9ite comp\nd1 fumes 9 a liquid =m1 giv+ (f ! anhydride1 ,,s#c--t is1 x exhibits a v un/able equilibrium4 ,! cry/allo-hydrates ( *lor9e1 ,cl#b #h;,h#b,o1 ( hydrog5 sulphide1 ,h#b,s #ab;,h#b,o 7x is =m$ at #j1 & is completely decompos$ at #a1 z !n #a vol4 ( wat] only dissolves #d vols4 ( hydrog5 sulphide1 :ile at #ja x dissolves ab\t #ajj vols471 & ( _m o!r gases1 are in/ances ( hydrates :i* are v un/able4 #fh ,( su* a k9d are also o!r indef9ite *emical comp\nds2 = example1 metallic alloys4 ,^! are solid sub/ances or solidifi$ solutions ( metals4 ,!y also conta9 def9ite comp\nds1 & may conta9 an excess ( "o ( ! metals4 ,accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,laurie 7#ahhh71 ! alloys ( z9c ) copp] 9 respect to ! electro-motive =ce 9 galvanic batt]ies behave j l z9c if ! proportion ( copp] 9 ! alloy does n exce$ a c]ta9 p]c5tage--t is1 until a def9ite comp\nd is atta9$--= 9 t case p>ticles ( free z9c are pres5t2 b if a copp] surface be tak51 & x be cov]$ by only "o-?\s&? "p ( its area ( z9c1 !n only ! z9c w act 9 a galvanic batt]y4 #fi ,accord+ to ! above supposition1 ! condition ( solutions 9 ! s5se ( ! k9etic hypo!sis ( matt] 7t is1 on ! supposition ( an int]nal motion ( molecules & atoms7 may be repres5t$ 9 ! foll[+ =m3--,9 a homog5e\s liquid--= in/ance1 wat]--! molecules occur 9 a c]ta9 /ate (1 al?\gh mobile1 /ill /able1 equilibrium4 ,:5 a sub/ance ,a dissolves 9 wat]1 its molecules =m ) sev]al molecules ( wat]1 sy/ems ,an,h#b,o1 :i* are s un/able t :5 surr\nd$ by molecules ( wat] !y decompose & re-=m1 s t ,a passes f "o mass ( molecules ( wat] to ano!r1 & ! molecules ( wat] :i* 7 at ?is mom5t 9 h>moni\s motion ) ,a 9 ! =m ( ! sy/em ,an,h#b,o1 9 ! next in/ant may h already succe$$ 9 gett+ free4 ,! addition ( wat] or ( molecules ( ,a may ei!r only alt] ! numb] ( free molecules1 :i* 9 _! turn ent] into sy/ems ,an,h#b,o1 or !y may introduce conditions = ! possibility ( build+ up new sy/ems ,am,h#b,o1 :]e m is ei!r great] or less ?an n4 ,if 9 ! solution ! relation ( ! molecules be ! same z 9 ! sy/em ,am,h#b,o1 !n ! addition ( fre% molecules ( wat] or ( ,a w\ld be foll[$ by ! =mation ( new molecules ,an,h#b,o4 ,! relative quantity1 /ability1 & composition ( ^! sy/ems or def9ite comp\nds w v>y 9 "o or ano!r solution4 ,i adopt$ ?is view ( solutions 7#ahhg1 ,pick]+ subsequ5tly put =w>d a simil> view7 aft] a mo/ intimate /udy ( ! v>iation ( _! specific gravities1 to :i* my book1 cit$ 9 note #ai1 is devot$4 ,def9ite comp\nds1 ,an#a;,h#b,o & ,am#a;,h#b,o1 exi/+ 9 a free--= in/ance1 solid--=m1 may 9 c]ta9 cases be held 9 solutions 9 a dissociat$ /ate 7al?\gh b p>tially72 !y are simil> 9 _! /ructure to ^? def9ite sub/ances :i* are =m$ 9 solutions1 b x is n necess>y to assume t su* sy/ems z ,na#b,,s#d #aj;,h#b,o1 or ,na#b,,s#d #g;,h#b,o1 or ,na#b,,s#d1 are conta9$ 9 solutions4 ,! comp>atively m /able sy/ems ,an#a;,h#b,o :i* exi/ 9 a free /ate & *ange _! physical /ate mu/ pres5t1 al?\gh )9 c]ta9 limits ( temp]ature1 an entirely h>moni\s k9d ( motion ( ,a ) n#a;,h#b,o2 ! prop]ty also & /ate ( sy/ems ,an,h#b,o & ,am,h#b,o1 occurr+ 9 solutions1 is t !y are 9 a liquid =m1 al?\gh p>tially dissociat$4 ,sub/ances ,a#a1 :i* give solutions1 are di/+ui%$ by ! fact t !y c =m su* un/able sy/ems ,an,h#b,o1 b besides !m !y c give o!r mu* m /able sy/ems ,an#a;,h#b,o4 ,?us e?yl5e1 ,c#b;,h#d1 9 dissolv+ 9 wat]1 probably =ms a sy/em ,c#b;,h#dn,h#b,o1 :i* easily splits up into ,c#b;,h#d & ,h#b,o1 b x also gives ! sy/em ( alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#d1;,h#b,o or ,c#b;,h#f,o1 :i* is comp>atively /able4 ,?us oxyg5 c dissolve 9 wat]1 & x c comb9e ) x1 =m+ p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,turp5t9e1 ,c#aj;,h#af1 does n dissolve 9 wat]1 b x comb9es ) x z a comp>atively /able hydrate4 ,9 o!r words1 ! *emical /ructure ( hydrates1 or ( ! def9ite comp\nds :i* are conta9$ 9 solutions1 is di/+ui%$ n only by its orig9al peculi>ities b also by a div]sity ( /ability4 ,a simil> /ructure to hydrates mu/ be ackn[l$g$ 9 cry/allo-hydrates4 ,on melt+ !y give actual 7real7 solutions4 ,z sub/ances :i* give cry/allo-hydrates1 l salts1 are capable ( =m+ a numb] ( div]se hydrates1 & z ! great] ! numb] ( molecules ( wat] 7n7 !y 7,an,h#b,o7 conta91 ! l[] is ! temp]ature ( _! =mation1 & z ! m easily !y decompose ! m wat] !y hold1 !re=e1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! isolation ( hydrates hold+ mu* wat] exi/+ 9 aque\s solutions may be soone/ look$ = at l[ temp]atures 7al?\gh1 p]haps1 9 c]ta9 cases !y _c exi/ 9 ! solid /ate72 &1 secondly1 ! /ability also ( su* high] hydrates w be at a m9imum "u ! ord9>y circum/ances ( ! occurr5ce ( liquid wat]4 ,h5ce a fur!r m detail$ inve/igation ( cryohydrates may help to ! elucidation ( ! nature ( solutions4 ,b x may be =ese5 t c]ta9 cryohydrates w1 l metallic alloys1 pres5t solidifi$ mixtures ( ice ) ! salts !mselves & _! m /able hydrates1 & o!rs w be def9ite comp\nds4 ,9 reg>d+ solutions f ?is po9t ( view !y come "u ! head ( ^? def9ite comp\nds ) :i* *emi/ry is ma9ly conc]n$4#gj #gj ,! above repres5tation ( solutions1 c41 consid]+ !m z a p>ticul> /ate ( def9ite comp\nds1 excludes ! indep5d5t exi/5ce ( indef9ite comp\nds2 by ?is means t unity ( *emical conception is obta9$ :i* _c be arriv$ at by admitt+ ! physico-me*anical conception ( indef9ite comp\nds4 ,! gradual transition f typical solutions 7z ( gases 9 wat]1 & ( weak sal9e solutions7 to sulphuric acid1 & f x & its def9ite1 b yet un/able & liquid1 comp\nds1 to cle>ly def9$ comp\nds1 su* z salts & _! cry/allo-hydrates1 is s imp]ceptible1 t 9 d5y+ t solutions p]ta9 to ! numb] ( def9ite b dissociat+ comp\nds1 we risk d5y+ ! def9it5ess ( ! atomic composition ( su* sub/ances z sulphuric acid or ( molt5 cry/allo-hydrates4 ,i repeat1 h[ev]1 t = ! pres5t ! !ory ( solutions _c be consid]$ z firmly e/abli%$4 ,! above op9ion ab\t !m is no?+ m ?an a hypo!sis :i* endeav\rs to satisfy ^? comp>atively limit$ data :i* we h = ! pres5t ab\t solutions1 & ( ^? cases ( _! transition into def9ite comp\nds4 ,by submitt+ solutions to ! ,daltonic conception ( atomism1 ,i hope t we may n only atta9 to a g5]al h>moni\s *emical doctr9e1 b also t new motives = inve/igation & rese>* w appe> 9 ! problem ( solutions1 :i* mu/ ei!r confirm ! propos$ !ory or replace x by ano!r full] & tru] "o2 & ,i = my "p _c consid] ?is to be ! case ) any ( ! o!r pres5t doctr9es ( solutions 7note #di74 ,we saw above t copp] sulphate loses f\r-fif?s ( its wat] at #ajj & ! rema9d] at #bdj4 ,?is means t !re are two def9ite comp\nds ( wat] ) ! anhydr\s salt4 ,wa%+ soda or c>bonate ( sodium1 ,na#b;,,co#c sep>ates out z cry/als1 ,na#b;,,co#c1aj;,h#b,o1 conta9+ #fbi p4c4 ( wat] by weight1 f its solutions at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,:5 a solution ( ! same salt deposits cry/als at a l[ temp]ature1 ab\t -#bj1 !n ^! cry/als conta9 #gah p>ts ( wat] p] #bhb p>ts ( anhydr\s salt4 ,fur!r1 ! cry/als are obta9$ toge!r ) ice1 & are left beh9d :5 x melts4 ,if ord9>y soda1 ) #fbi p4c4 ( wat]1 be cauti\sly melt$ 9 its own wat] ( cry/allisation1 !re rema9s a salt1 9 a solid /ate1 conta9+ only #ade p4c4 ( wat]1 & a liquid is obta9$ :i* conta9s ! solution ( a salt :i* sep>ates out cry/als at #cd1 :i* conta9 #df p4c4 ( wat] & d n effloresce 9 air4 ,la/ly1 if a sup]saturat$ solution ( soda be prep>$1 !n at temp]atures bel[ #h x deposits cry/als conta9+ #edc p4c4 ( wat]4 ,?us z _m z five comp\nds ( anhydr\s soda ) wat] are kn[n2 & !y are dissimil> 9 _! prop]ties & cry/all9e =m1 & ev5 9 _! solubility4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ! greate/ am\nt ( wat] 9 ! cry/als corresponds ) a temp]ature ( -#bj1 & ! smalle/ to ! highe/ temp]ature4 ,!re is app>5tly no relation betwe5 ! above quantities ( wat] & ! salts1 b ?is is only because 9 ea* case ! am\nt ( wat] & anhydr\s salt 0 giv5 9 p]c5tages2 b if x be calculat$ = "o & ! same quantity ( anhydr\s salt1 or ( wat]1 a great regul>ity w be obs]v$ 9 ! am\nts ( ! compon5t p>ts 9 all ^! comp\nds4 ,x appe>s t = #ajf p>ts ( anhydr\s salt 9 ! cry/als sep>at$ out at -#bj !re are #bgj p>ts ( wat]2 9 ! cry/als obta9$ at #ae !re are #ahj p>ts ( wat]2 9 ! cry/als obta9$ f a sup]saturat$ solution #abf p>ts1 9 ! cry/als :i* sep>ate out at #cd1 #ij p>ts1 & ! cry/als ) ! smalle/ am\nt ( wat]1 #ah p>ts4 ,on comp>+ ^! quantities ( wat] x may easily be se5 t !y are 9 simple proportion to ea* o!r1 = !y are all divisible by #ah1 & are 9 ! ratio #ae 3 #aj 3 #g 3 #e 3 #a4 ,naturally1 direct exp]im5t1 h[ev] c>efully x be conduct$1 is hamp]$ ) errors1 b tak+ ^! unavoidable exp]im5tal errors into consid]ation1 x w be se5 t = a giv5 quantity ( an anhydr\s sub/ance !re occur1 9 sev]al ( its comp\nds ) wat]1 quantities ( wat] :i* are 9 v simple multiple proportion4 ,?is is obs]v$ 91 & is common to1 all def9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,?is rule is call$ ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,x 0 discov]$ by ,dalton1 & w be evolv$ 9 fur!r detail subsequ5tly 9 ?is "w4 ,= ! pres5t we w only /ate t ! law ( def9ite composition enables ! composition ( sub/ances to be express$ by =mul1 & ! law ( multiple proportions p]mits ! application ( :ole numb]s z coeffici5ts ( ! symbols ( ! elem5ts 9 ^! =mul4 ,?us ! =mula ,na#b;,,co#c1aj;,h#b,o %[s directly t 9 ?is cry/allo-hydrate !re are #ahj p>ts ( wat] to #ajf p>ts by weight ( ! anhydr\s salt1 because ! =mula ( soda1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 directly answ]s to a weight ( #ajf1 & ! =mula ( wat] to #ah p>ts1 by weight1 :i* are "h tak5 #aj times4 ,9 ! above examples ( ! comb9ations ( wat]1 we saw ! gradually increas+ int5sity ( ! bond betwe5 wat] & a sub/ance ) :i* x =ms a homog5e\s comp\nd4 ,!re is a s]ies ( su* comp\nds ) wat]1 9 :i* ! wat] is held ) v great =ce1 & is only giv5 up at a v high temp]ature1 & sometimes _c be sep>at$ by any degree ( heat )\t ! entire decomposition ( ! sub/ance4 ,9 ^! comp\nds !re is g5]ally no outw>d sign :atev] ( _! conta9+ wat]4 ,a p]fectly new sub/ance is =m$ f an anhydr\s sub/ance & wat]1 9 :i* sometimes ! prop]ties ( nei!r "o nor ! o!r sub/ance are obs]vable4 ,9 ! majority ( cases1 a consid]able am\nt ( heat is evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( su* comp\nds ) wat]4 ,sometimes ! heat evolv$ is s int5se t a r$ heat is produc$ & light is emitt$4 ,x is h>dly to be wond]$ at1 aft] ?is1 t /able comp\nds are =m$ by su* a comb9ation4 ,_! decomposition requires great heat2 a l>ge am\nt ( "w is necess>y to sep>ate !m into _! compon5t p>ts4 ,all su* comp\nds are def9ite1 &1 g5]ally1 completely & cle>ly def9ite4 ,! numb] ( su* def9ite comp\nds ) wat] or hydrates1 9 ! n>r[ s5se ( ! ^w1 is g5]ally inconsid]able = ea* anhydr\s sub/ance2 9 ! great] numb] ( cases1 !re is =m$ only "o su* comb9ation ( a sub/ance ) wat]1 "o hydrate1 hav+ s great a /ability4 ,! wat] conta9$ 9 ^! comp\nds is (t5 call$ wat] ( con/itution--i4e4 wat] :i* ent]s into ! /ructure or composition ( ! giv5 sub/ance4 ,by ?is x is desir$ to express1 t 9 o!r cases ! molecules ( wat] are1 z x 71 sep>ate f ! molecules ( t sub/ance ) :i* x is comb9$4 ,x is suppos$ t 9 ! =mation ( hydrates ?is wat]1 ev5 9 ! smalle/ p>ticles1 =ms "o complete :ole ) ! anhydr\s sub/ance4 ,_m examples ( ! =mation ( su* hydrates might be cit$4 ,! mo/ famili> example 9 practice is ! hydrate ( lime1 or s-call$ 'slak$' lime4 ,lime is prep>$ by burn+ lime/one1 by :i* ! c>bonic anhydride is expell$ f x1 & !re rema9s a :ite /ony mass1 :i* is d5se1 compact1 & r t5aci\s4 ,lime is usually sold 9 ?is =m1 & be>s ! "n ( 'quick' or 'unslak$' lime4 ,if wat] be p\r$ ov] su* lime1 a great rise 9 temp]ature is rem>k$ ei!r directly1 or aft] a c]ta9 "t4 ,! :ole mass becomes hot1 "p ( ! wat] is evaporat$1 ! /ony mass 9 absorb+ wat] crumbles into p[d]1 & if ! wat] be tak5 9 suffici5t quantity & ! lime be pure & well burnt1 n a p>ticle ( ! orig9al /ony mass is left--x all crumbles into p[d]4 ,if ! wat] be 9 excess1 !n naturally a portion ( x rema9s & =ms a solution4 ,?is process is call$ 'slak+' lime4 ,slak$ lime is us$ 9 practice 9 int]mixture ) s& z mort>4 ,slak$ lime is a def9ite hydrate ( lime4 ,if x is dri$ at #ajj x reta9s #bdc p4c4 ( wat]4 ,?is wat] c only be expell$ at a temp]ature above #djj1 & !n quicklime is re-obta9$4 ,! heat evolv$ 9 ! comb9ation ( lime ) wat] is s int5se t x c set fire to wood1 sulphur1 gunp[d]1 c4 ,ev5 on mix+ lime ) ice ! temp]ature rises to #ajj4 ,if lime be moi/5$ ) a small quantity ( wat] 9 ! d>k1 a lum9\s effect is obs]v$4 ,b1 nev]!less1 wat] may /ill be sep>at$ f ?is hydrate4#ga ,if phosphorus be burnt 9 dry air1 a :ite sub/ance call$ 'phosphoric anhydride' is obta9$4 ,x comb9es ) wat] ) su* en]gy1 t ! exp]im5t mu/ be conduct$ ) great caution4 ,a r$ heat is produc$ 9 ! =mation ( ! comp\nd1 & x is impossible to sep>ate ! wat] f ! resultant hydrate at any temp]ature4 ,! hydrate =m$ by phosphoric anhydride is a sub/ance :i* is totally undecomposable into its orig9al compon5t p>ts by ! action ( heat4 ,almo/ z en]getic a comb9ation occurs :5 sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 comb9es ) wat]1 =m+ its hydrate1 sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,9 bo? cases def9ite comp\nds are produc$1 b ! latt] sub/ance1 z a liquid1 & capable ( decomposition by heat1 =ms an evid5t l9k ) solutions4 ,if #hj p>ts ( sulphuric anhydride reta9 #ah p>ts ( wat]1 ?is wat] _c be sep>at$ f ! anhydride1 ev5 at a temp]ature ( #cjj4 ,x is only by ! addition ( phosphoric anhydride1 or by a s]ies ( *emical trans=mations1 t ?is wat] c be sep>at$ f its comp\nd ) sulphuric anhydride4 ,oil ( vitriol1 or sulphuric acid1 is su* a comp\nd4 ,if a l>g] proportion ( wat] be tak51 x w comb9e ) ! ,h#b,,s#d2 = in/ance1 if #cf p>ts ( wat] p] #hj p>ts ( sulphuric anhydride be tak51 a comp\nd is =m$ :i* cry/allises 9 ! cold1 & melts at #h1 :il/ oil ( vitriol does n solidify ev5 at -#cj4 ,if /ill m wat] be tak51 ! oil ( vitriol w dissolve 9 ! rema9+ quantity ( wat]4 ,an evolution ( heat takes place1 n only on ! addition ( ! wat] ( con/itution1 b 9 a less degree on fur!r additions ( wat]4#gb ,& !re=e !re is no di/9ct b\nd>y1 b only a gradual transition1 betwe5 ^? *emical ph5om5a :i* are express$ 9 ! =mation ( solutions & ^? :i* take place 9 ! =mation ( ! mo/ /able hydrates4#gc #ga ,9 comb9+ ) wat] "o "p by weight ( lime evolves #bde units ( heat4 ,a high temp]ature is obta9$1 because ! specific heat ( ! result+ product is small4 ,sodium oxide1 ,na#b,o1 9 react+ on wat]1 ,h#b,o1 & =m+ cau/ic soda 7sodium hydroxide71 ,na,h,o1 evolves #eeb units ( heat = ea* "p by weight ( sodium oxide4 #gb ,! diagram giv5 9 note #bh %[s ! evolution ( heat on ! mixture ( sulphuric acid1 or monohydrate 7,h#b,,s#d1 i4e4 ,,s#c ,h#b,o71 ) diff]5t quantities ( wat] p] #ajj vols4 ( ! resultant solution4 ,e #ih grams ( sulphuric acid 7,h#b,,s#d7 evolve1 on ! addition ( #ah grams ( wat]1 #f1cgi units ( heat2 ) twice or ?ree times ! quantity ( wat] #i1dah & #aa1acg units ( heat1 & ) an inf9itely l>ge quantity ( wat] #ag1hfj units ( heat1 accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,?oms54 ,he also %[$ t :5 ,h#b,,s#d is =m$ f ,,s#c 7 #hj7 & ,h#b,o 7 #ah71 #ba1cjh units ( heat are evolv$ p] #ih p>ts by weight ( ! resultant sulphuric acid4 #gc ,?us1 = diff]5t hydrates ! /ability ) :i* !y hold wat] is v dissimil>4 ,c]ta9 hydrates hold wat] v loosely1 & 9 comb9+ ) x evolve little heat4 ,f o!r hydrates ! wat] _c be sep>at$ by any degree ( heat1 ev5 if !y are =m$ f anhydrides 7i4e4 anhydr\s sub/ances7 & wat] ) little evolution ( heat2 = in/ance1 acetic anhydride 9 comb9+ ) wat] evolves an inconsid]able am\nt ( heat1 b ! wat] _c !n be expell$ f x4 ,if ! hydrate 7acetic acid7 =m$ by ?is comb9ation be /rongly heat$ x ei!r volatilises )\t *ange1 or decomposes into new sub/ances1 b x does n aga9 yield ! orig9al sub/ances--i4e41 ! anhydride & wat]1 at lea/ 9 a liquid =m4 ,"h is an in/ance :i* gives ! reason = call+ ! wat] ent]+ into ! composition ( ! hydrate1 wat] ( con/itution4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! wat] ent]+ into ! s-call$ cau/ic soda or sodium hydroxide 7see note #ga74 ,b !re are hydrates :i* easily "p ) _! wat]2 yet ?is wat] _c be consid]$ z wat] ( cry/allisation1 n only because sometimes su* hydrates h no cry/all9e =m1 b also because1 9 p]fectly analog\s cases1 v /able hydrates are =m$1 :i* are capable ( p>ticul> k9ds ( *emical reactions1 z we %all subsequ5tly le>n4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! un/able hydrat$ oxide ( copp]1 :i* is n =m$ f wat] & oxide ( copp]1 b :i* is obta9$ j l f> m /able hydrates1 = example1 ! hydrat$ oxide ( b>ium ,ba,h#b,o#b equal to ,ba,o ,h#b,o1 by ! d\ble decomposition ( ! solution ( salts ) alkalies4 ,9 a ^w1 !re is no di/9ct b\nd>y ei!r betwe5 ! wat] ( hydrates & ( cry/allisation1 or betwe5 solution & hydration4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t 9 sep>at+ f an aque\s solution1 _m sub/ances1 )\t hav+ a cry/all9e =m1 hold wat] 9 ! same un/able /ate z 9 cry/als2 only ?is wat] _c be t]m$ 'wat] ( cry/allisation' if ! sub/ance :i* sep>ates out has no cry/all9e =m4 ,! hydrates ( alum9a & silica are examples ( su* un/able hydrates4 ,if ^! sub/ances are sep>at$ f an aque\s solution by a *emical process1 !n !y always conta9 wat]4 ,! =mation ( a new *emical comp\nd conta9+ wat] is "h p>ticul>ly evid5t1 = alum9a & silica 9 an anhydr\s /ate h *emical prop]ties diff]+ f ^? !y %[ :5 comb9$ ) wat]1 & d n comb9e directly ) x4 ,! entire s]ies ( colloids on sep>at+ f wat] =m simil> comp\nds ) x1 :i* h ! aspect ( solid gelat9\s sub/ances4 ,wat] is held 9 a consid]able quantity 9 solidifi$ glue or boil$ album94 ,x _c be expell$ f !m by pressure2 h5ce1 9 ?is case !re has ensu$ "s k9d ( comb9ation ( ! sub/ance ) wat]4 ,?is wat]1 h[ev]1 is easily sep>at$ on dry+2 b n ! :ole ( x1 a portion be+ reta9$1 & ?is portion is consid]$ to belong to ! hydrate1 al?\gh 9 ?is case x is v difficult1 if n impossible1 to obta9 def9ite comp\nds4 ,! abs5ce ( any di/9ct b\nd>y l9es betwe5 solutions1 cry/allo-hydrates1 & ord9>y hydrates above ref]r$ to1 is v cle>ly se5 9 su* examples4 ,we h ?us consid]$ _m aspects & degrees ( comb9ation ( v>i\s sub/ances ) wat]1 or in/ances ( ! comp\nds ( wat]1 :5 x & o!r sub/ances =m new homog5e\s sub/ances1 :i* 9 ?is case w evid5tly be complex--i4e4 made up ( diff]5t sub/ances--& al?\gh !y are homog5e\s1 yet x mu/ be admitt$ t 9 !m !re exi/ ^? compon5t p>ts :i* ent]$ into _! composition1 inasmu* z ^! p>ts may be re-obta9$ f !m4 ,x mu/ n be imag9$ t wat] really exi/s 9 hydrate ( lime1 any m ?an t ice or /eam exi/s 9 wat]4 ,:5 we say t wat] occurs 9 ! composition ( a c]ta9 hydrate1 we only wi% to po9t out t !re are *emical trans=mations 9 :i* x is possible to obta9 t hydrate by means ( wat]1 & o!r trans=mations 9 :i* ?is wat] may be sep>at$ out f ! hydrate4 ,?is is all simply express$ by ! words1 t wat] ent]s into ! composition ( ?is hydrate4 ,if a hydrate be =m$ by feeble bonds1 & be decompos$ ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & be a liquid1 !n ! wat] appe>s z "o ( ! products ( dissociation1 & ?is gives an idea ( :at solutions are1 & =ms ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 !m & o!r hydrates 9 :i* ! wat] is comb9$ ) great] /ability4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,wat]1 ,,hydrog5 ,! "q n[ arises1 ,is n wat] itself a comp\nd sub/ance8 ,_c x be =m$ by ! mutual comb9ation ( "s compon5t p>ts8 ,_c x be brok5 up into its compon5t p>ts8 ,!re _c be ! lea/ d\bt t if x does split up1 & if x is a comp\nd1 !n x is a def9ite "o *>act]is$ by ! /ability ( ! union betwe5 ^? compon5t p>ts f :i* x is =m$4 ,f ! fact alone t wat] passes into all physical /ates z a homog5e\s :ole1 )\t 9 ! lea/ v>y+ *emically 9 its prop]ties & )\t splitt+ up into its compon5t p>ts 7nei!r solutions nor _m hydrates c be di/ill$--!y are split up71 we mu/ conclude1 f ?is fact alone1 t if wat] is a comp\nd !n x is a /able & def9ite *emical comp\nd capable ( ent]+ into _m o!r comb9ations4 ,l _m o!r great discov]ies 9 ! prov9ce ( *emi/ry1 x is to ! end ( ! la/ c5tury t we are indebt$ = ! important discov]y t wat] is n a simple sub/ance1 t x is compos$ ( two sub/ances l a numb] ( o!r comp\nd sub/ances4 ,?is 0 prov$ by two ( ! me?ods by :i* ! comp\nd nature ( bodies may be directly det]m9$2 by analysis & by syn!sis--t is1 by a me?od ( ! decomposition ( wat] into1 & ( ! =mation ( wat] f1 its compon5t p>ts4 ,9 #agha ,cav5di% fir/ obta9$ wat] by burn+ hydrog5 9 oxyg51 bo? ( :i* gases 7 already kn[n to him4 ,he conclud$ f ?is t wat] 0 compos$ ( two sub/ances4 ,b he did n make m accurate exp]im5ts1 :i* w\ld h %[n ! relative quantities ( ! compon5t p>ts 9 wat]1 & :i* w\ld h det]m9$ its complex nature ) c]ta9ty4 ,al?\gh 8 exp]im5ts 7 ! fir/1 & al?\gh ! conclusion he drew f !m 0 true1 yet su* novel ideas z ! complex nature ( wat] are n easily recognis$ s long z !re is no s]ies ( rese>*es :i* entirely & indubitably proves ! tru? ( su* a conclusion4 ,! fundam5tal exp]im5ts :i* prov$ ! complexity ( wat] by ! me?od ( syn!sis1 & ( its =mation f o!r sub/ances1 7 made 9 #aghi by ,monge1 ,lavoisi]1 ,f\rcroy1 & ,vauquel94 ,!y obta9$ f\r ounces ( wat] by burn+ hydrog51 & f\nd t wat] consi/s ( #ae p>ts ( hydrog5 & #he p>ts ( oxyg54 ,x 0 also prov$ t ! weight ( wat] =m$ 0 equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! compon5t p>ts ent]+ into its composition2 consequ5tly1 wat] conta9s all ! matt] ent]+ into oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,! complexity ( wat] 0 prov$ 9 ?is mann] by a me?od ( syn!sis4 ,b we w turn to its analysis--i4e4 to its decomposition into its compon5t p>ts4 ,! analysis may be m or less complete4 ,ei!r bo? compon5t p>ts may be obta9$ 9 a sep>ate /ate1 or else only "o is sep>at$ & ! o!r is conv]t$ into a new comp\nd 9 :i* its am\nt may be det]m9$ by weigh+4 ,?is w be a reaction ( sub/itution1 su* z is (t5 tak5 advantage ( = analysis4 ,! fir/ analysis ( wat] 0 ?us conduct$ 9 #aghd by ,lavoisi] & ,meusni]4 ,! app>atus !y arrang$ consi/$ ( a glass retort conta9+ wat] previ\sly purifi$1 & ( :i* ! weight _h be5 det]m9$4 ,! neck ( ! retort 0 ins]t$ into a porcela9 tube1 plac$ inside an ov51 & heat$ to a r$ heat by *>coal4 ,iron fil+s1 :i* decompose wat] at a r$ heat1 7 plac$ inside ?is tube4 ,! end ( ! tube 0 connect$ ) a worm1 = cond5s+ any wat] :i* might pass ?r\gh ! tube undecompos$4 ,?is cond5s$ wat] 0 collect$ 9 a sep>ate flask4 ,! gas =m$ by ! decomposition 0 collect$ ov] wat] 9 a bell j>4 ,! aque\s vap\r 9 pass+ ov] ! r$-hot iron 0 decompos$1 & a gas 0 =m$ f x ^: weight c\ld be det]m9$ f its volume1 its d5sity be+ kn[n4 ,besides ! wat] :i* pass$ ?r\gh ! tube unalt]$1 a c]ta9 quantity ( wat] disappe>$ 9 ! exp]im5t1 & ?is quantity1 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,lavoisi] & ,meusni]1 0 equal to ! weight ( gas :i* 0 collect$ 9 ! bell j> plus ! increase 9 weight ( ! iron fil+s4 ,h5ce ! wat] 0 decompos$ into a gas1 :i* 0 collect$ 9 ! bell j>1 & a sub/ance1 :i* comb9$ ) ! iron2 consequ5tly1 x is compos$ ( ^! two compon5t p>ts4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ analysis ( wat] ev] made2 b "h only "o 7& n bo?7 ( ! gase\s compon5t p>ts ( wat] 0 collect$ sep>ately4 ,bo? ! compon5t p>ts ( wat] c1 h[ev]1 be simultane\sly obta9$ 9 a free /ate4 ,= ?is purpose ! decomposition is br\ght ab\t by a galvanic curr5t or by heat1 z we %all le>n directly4#a #a ,! fir/ exp]im5ts ( ! syn!sis & decomposition ( wat] did n af=d1 h[ev]1 an entirely conv9c+ pro( t wat] 0 compos$ ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 only4 ,davy1 :o inve/igat$ ! decomposition ( wat] by ! galvanic curr5t1 ?\ght = a long "t t1 besides ! gases1 an acid & alkali 7 also obta9$4 ,he 0 only conv9c$ ( ! fact t wat] conta9s no?+ b hydrog5 & oxyg5 by a long s]ies ( rese>*es1 :i* %[$ him t ! appe>ance ( an acid & alkali 9 ! decomposition ( wat] proce$s f ! pres5ce ( impurities 7especially f ! pres5ce ( ammonium nitrate7 9 wat]4 ,a f9al compreh5sion ( ! composition ( wat] is obta9$ f ! accurate det]m9ation ( ! quantities ( ! compon5t p>ts :i* ent] into its composition4 ,x w be se5 f ?is h[ _m data are necess>y = prov+ ! composition ( wat]--t is1 ( ! trans=mations ( :i* x is capable4 ,:at has be5 said ( wat] ref]s to all o!r comp\nds2 ! inve/igation ( ea* "o1 ! entire pro( ( its composition1 c only be obta9$ by ! accumulation ( a l>ge mass ( data ref]r+ to x4 ,wat] is a bad conductor ( electricity--t is1 pure wat] does n transmit a feeble curr5t2 b if any salt or acid be dissolv$ 9 x1 !n its conductivity increases1 & on ! passage ( a curr5t ?r\gh acidifi$ wat] x is decompos$ into its compon5t p>ts4 ,"s sulphuric acid is g5]ally add$ to ! wat]4 ,by imm]s+ plat9um plates 7electrodes7 9 ?is wat] 7plat9um is *os5 because x is n act$ on by acids1 :il/ _m o!r metals are *emically act$ on by acids71 & connect+ !m ) a galvanic batt]y1 x w be obs]v$ t bubbles ( gas appe> on ^! plates4 ,! gas :i* sep>ates is call$ detonat+ gas1#b because1 on ignition1 x v easily explodes4#c ,:at takes place is z foll[s3--,fir/1 ! wat]1 by ! action ( ! curr5t1 is decompos$ into two gases4 ,! mixture ( ^! gases =ms detonat+ gas4 ,:5 detonat+ gas is br\ght into contact ) an inc&esc5t sub/ance--= in/ance1 a light$ tap]--! gases re-comb9e1 =m+ wat]1 ! comb9ation be+ accompani$ by a great evolution ( heat1 & !re=e ! vap\r ( ! wat] =m$ exp&s consid]ably1 :i* x does v rapidly1 & z a consequ5ce1 an explosion takes place--t is1 s\nd & increase ( pressure1 & atmosph]ic di/urbance1 z 9 ! explosion ( gunp[d]4 #b ,?is gas is collect$ 9 a voltamet]4 #c ,9 ord] to obs]ve ?is explosion )\t ! slighte/ dang]1 x is be/ to proce$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,"s soapy wat] is prep>$1 s t x easily =ms soap bubbles1 & x is p\r$ into an iron tr\gh4 ,9 ?is wat]1 ! end ( a gas-conduct+ tube is imm]s$4 ,?is tube is connect$ ) any suitable app>atus1 9 :i* detonat+ gas is evolv$4 ,soap bubbles1 full ( ?is gas1 are !n =m$4 ,if ! app>atus 9 :i* ! gas is produc$ be !n remov$ 7o!rwise ! explosion might travel into ! int]ior ( ! app>atus71 & a light$ tap] be br\ght to ! soap bubbles1 a v %>p explosion takes place4 ,! bubbles %\ld be small to avoid any dang]2 t51 ea* ab\t ! size ( a pea1 suffice to give a %>p report1 l a pi/ol %ot4 ,9 ord] to discov] :at gases are obta9$ by ! decomposition ( wat]1 ! gases :i* sep>ate at ea* electrode mu/ be collect$ sep>ately4 ,= ?is purpose a ,v-%ap$ tube is tak52 "o ( its ends is op5 & ! o!r fus$ up4 ,a plat9um wire1 t]m9at+ inside ! tube 9 a plate1 is fus$ into ! clos$ end2 ! clos$ end is entirely fill$ ) wat]#d acidifi$ ) sulphuric acid1 & ano!r plat9um wire1 t]m9at+ 9 a plate1 is imm]s$ 9 ! op5 end4 ,if a curr5t f a galvanic batt]y be n[ pass$ ?r\gh ! wires an evolution ( gases w be obs]v$1 & ! gas :i* is obta9$ 9 ! op5 bran* passes into ! air1 :ile t 9 ! clos$ bran* accumulates above ! wat]4 ,z ?is gas accumulates x displaces ! wat]1 :i* cont9ues to desc5d 9 ! clos$ & asc5d into ! op5 bran* ( ! tubes4 ,:5 ! wat]1 9 ?is way1 rea*es ! top ( ! op5 end1 ! passage ( ! curr5t is /opp$1 & ! gas :i* 0 evolv$ f "o ( ! electrodes only is obta9$ 9 ! app>atus4 ,by ?is means x is easy to prove t a p>ticul> gas appe>s at ea* electrode4 ,if ! clos$ end be connect$ ) ! negative pole--i4e4 ) t jo9$ to ! z9c--!n ! gas collect$ 9 ! app>atus is capable ( burn+4 ,?is may be demon/rat$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,! b5t tube is tak5 (f ! /&1 & its op5 end /opp$ up ) ! ?umb & incl9$ 9 su* a mann] t ! gas passes f ! clos$ to ! op5 end4 ,x w !n be f\nd1 on apply+ a light$ lamp or tap]1 t ! gas burns4 ,?is combu/ible gas is hydrog54 ,if ! same exp]im5t be c>ri$ on ) a curr5t pass+ 9 ! opposite direction--t is1 if ! clos$ end be jo9$ up ) ! positive pole 7i4e4 ) ! c>bon1 copp]1 or plat9um71 !n ! gas :i* is evolv$ f x does n itself burn1 b x supports combu/ion v vigor\sly1 s t a sm\ld]+ tap] 9 x imm$iately bur/s into flame4 ,?is gas1 :i* is collect$ at ! anode or positive pole1 is oxyg51 :i* is obta9$1 z we saw be=e 79 ! ,introduction71 f m]cury oxide & is conta9$ 9 air4 #d ,9 ord] to fill ! tube ) wat]1 x is turn$ up1 s t ! clos$ end po9ts d[nw>ds & ! op5 end upw>ds1 & wat] acidifi$ ) sulphuric acid is p\r$ into x4 ,?us 9 ! decomposition ( wat] oxyg5 appe>s at ! positive pole & hydrog5 at ! negative pole1#d bis s t detonat+ gas w be a mixture ( bo?4 ,hydrog5 burns 9 air f ! fact t 9 do+ s x re-=ms wat]1 ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,detonat+ gas explodes f ! fact t ! hydrog5 burns 9 ! oxyg5 mix$ ) x4 ,x is v easy to measure ! relative quantities ( "o & ! o!r gas :i* are evolv$ 9 ! decomposition ( wat]4 ,= ?is purpose a funnel is tak51 ^: orifice is clos$ by a cork ?r\gh :i* two plat9um wires pass4 ,^! wires are connect$ ) a batt]y4 ,acidifi$ wat] is p\r$ into ! funnel1 & a glass cyl9d] full ( wat] is plac$ ov] ! end ( ea* wire 7fig4 #ah74 ,on pass+ a curr5t1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 collect 9 ^! cyl9d]s1 & x w easily be se5 t two volumes ( hydrog5 are evolv$ = e "o volume ( oxyg54 ,?is signifies t1 9 decompos+1 wat] gives two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg54 #d bis ,ow+ to ! gradual b /eady progress made dur+ ! la/ tw5ty-five ye>s 9 ! production ( an electric curr5t f ! dynamo & its transmission ov] consid]able di/ances1 ! electrolytic decomposition ( _m comp\nd bodies has acquir$ great importance1 & ! use ( ! electric curr5t is mak+ its way into _m *emical manufactures4 ,h5ce1 ,pr(4 ,d4 ,a4 ,la*9(f's proposal to obta9 hydrog5 & oxyg5 7bo? ( :i* h _m applications7 by means ( electrolysis 7ei!r ( a #aj to #ae p] c5t4 solution ( cau/ic soda or a #ae p] c5t4 solution ( sulphuric acid7 may f9d a practical application1 at all ev5ts 9 ! future4 ,9 g5]al1 ow+ to _! simplicity1 electrolytic me?ods h a great future1 b z yet1 s long z ! production ( an electric curr5t rema9s s co/ly1 _! application is limit$4 ,& = ?is reason1 al?\gh c]ta9 ( ^! me?ods are m5tion$ 9 ?is "w1 !y are n specially consid]$1 ! m s s9ce a pr(itable & prop] use ( ! electric curr5t = *emical purposes requires special electro-te*nical k :i* beg9n]s _c he assum$ to h1 & !re=e1 an exposition ( ! pr9ciples ( electrote*nology z appli$1 to ! production ( *emical trans=mations1 al?\gh ref]r$ to 9 places1 does n come )9 ! scope ( ! pres5t "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,decomposition ( wat] by ! galvanic curr5t1 = det]m9+ ! relation betwe5 ! volumes ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,wat] is also decompos$ into its compon5t p>ts by ! action ( heat4 ,at ! melt+ po9t ( silv] 7#ifj71 & 9 its pres5ce1 wat] is decompos$ & ! oxyg5 absorb$ by ! molt5 silv]1 :i* dissolves x s long z x is liquid4 ,b directly ! silv] solidifies ! oxyg5 is expell$ f x4 ,h[ev]1 ?is exp]im5t is n entirely conv9c+2 x might be ?\ght t 9 ?is case ! decomposition ( ! wat] did n proce$ f ! action ( heat1 b f ! action ( ! silv] on wat]--t silv] decomposes wat]1 tak+ up ! oxyg54 ,if /eam be pass$ ?r\gh a r$-hot tube1 ^: int]nal temp]ature atta9s #a1jjj1 !n a portion#e ( ! wat] decomposes into its compon5t p>ts1 =m+ detonat+ gas4 ,b on pass+ into ! cool] portions ( ! app>atus ?is detonat+ gas aga9 reunites & =ms wat]4 ,! hydrog5 & oxyg5 obta9$ comb9e toge!r at a l[] temp]ature4#f ,app>5tly ! problem--to %[ ! decomposability ( wat] at high temp]atures--is unatta9able4 ,x 0 consid]$ z su* be=e ,h5ri ,sa9te-,claire ,deville 79 ! fifties7 introduc$ ! conception ( dissociation into *emi/ry1 z ( a *ange ( *emical /ate resembl+ evaporation1 if decomposition be lik5$ to boil+1 & be=e he _h demon/rat$ ! decomposability ( wat] by ! action ( heat 9 an exp]im5t :i* w pres5tly be describ$4 ,9 ord] to demon/rate cle>ly ! dissociation ( wat]1 or its decomposability by heat1 at a temp]ature approa*+ t at :i* x is =m$1 x 0 necess>y to sep>ate ! hydrog5 f ! oxyg5 at a high temp]ature1 )\t all[+ ! mixture to cool4 ,deville took advantage ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! d5sities ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 #e ,z wat] is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 ) a consid]able evolution ( heat1 & z x c also be decompos$1 ?is reaction is a rev]sible "o 7see ,introduction71 & consequ5tly at a high temp]ature ! decomposition ( wat] _c be complete--x is limit$ by ! opposite reaction4 ,/rictly speak+1 x is n kn[n h[ mu* wat] is decompos$ at a giv5 temp]ature1 al?\gh _m ef=ts 7,buns51 & o!rs7 h be5 made 9 v>i\s directions to solve ?is "q4 ,n kn[+ ! coeffici5t ( expansion1 & ! specific heat ( gases at su* high temp]atures1 r5d]s all calculations 7f obs]vations ( ! pressure on explosion7 d\btful4 #f ,grove1 9 #ahdg1 obs]v$ t a plat9um wire fus$ 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame--t is1 hav+ acquir$ ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( wat]--& hav+ =m$ a molt5 drop at its end :i* fell into wat]1 evolv$ detonat+ gas--t is1 decompos$ wat]4 ,x !re=e foll[s t wat] already decomposes at ! temp]ature ( its =mation4 ,at t "t1 ?is =m$ a sci5tific p>adox2 ?is we %all unravel only ) ! developm5t ( ! conceptions ( dissociation1 introduc$ into sci5ce by ,h5ri ,sa9te-,claire ,deville1 9 #aheg4 ,^! conceptions =m an important epo* 9 sci5ce1 & _! developm5t is "o ( ! problems ( mod]n *emi/ry4 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] is t1 at high temp]atures1 wat] exi/s b also decomposes1 j z a volatile liquid1 at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 exi/s bo? z a liquid & z a vap\r4 ,simil>ly z a volatile liquid saturates a space1 atta9+ its maximum t5sion1 s also ! products ( dissociation h _! maximum t5sion1 & once t is atta9$ decomposition ceases1 j z evaporation ceases4 ,"u l conditions1 if ! vap\r be all[$ to escape 7& !re=e its p>tial pressure be dim9i%$71 evaporation recomm5ces1 s also if ! products ( decomposition be remov$1 decomposition aga9 cont9ues4 ,^! simple conceptions ( dissociation introduce inf9itely v>i$ consequ5ces into ! me*anism ( *emical reactions1 & !re=e we %all h occasion to return to !m v (t54 ,we may add t ,grove also conclud$ t wat] 0 decompos$ at a :ite heat1 f ! fact t he obta9$ detonat+ gas by pass+ /eam ?r\gh a tube ) a wire heat$ /rongly by an electric curr5t1 & also by pass+ /eam ov] molt5 oxide ( lead1 he obta9$1 on ! "o h&1 li?>ge 7 oxide ( lead & oxyg571 & on ! o!r1 metallic lead =m$ by ! action ( hydrog54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,decomposition ( wat] by ! action ( heat1 & ! sep>ation ( ! hydrog5 =m$ by its p]meat+ ?r\gh a por\s tube4 ,a wide porcela9 tube ,p 7fig4 #ai7 is plac$ 9 a furnace1 :i* c be rais$ to a high temp]ature 7x %\ld be heat$ ) small pieces ( good coke74 ,9 ?is tube !re is ins]t$ a second tube ,t1 ( small] diamet]1 made ( unglaz$ e>!nw>e & !re=e por\s4 ,! ends ( ! tube are lut$ to ! wide tube1 & two tubes1 ,c & ,c'1 are ins]t$ into ! ends1 z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,) ?is arrangem5t x is possible = a gas to pass into ! annul> space betwe5 ! walls ( ! two tubes1 f :5ce x c be collect$4 ,/eam f a retort or flask is pass$ ?r\gh ! tube ,d1 into ! inn] por\s tube ,t4 ,?is /eam on ent]+ ! r$-hot space is decompos$ into hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,! d5sities ( ^! gases are v diff]5t1 hydrog5 be+ sixte5 times light] ?an oxyg54 ,light gases1 z we saw above1 p5etrate ?r\gh por\s surfaces v mu* m rapidly ?an d5s] gases1 & !re=e ! hydrog5 passes ?r\gh ! pores ( ! tube into ! annul> space v mu* m rapidly ?an ! oxyg54 ,! hydrog5 :i* sep>ates out into ! annul> space c only be collect$ :5 ?is space does n conta9 any oxyg54 ,if any air rema9s 9 ?is space1 !n ! hydrog5 :i* sep>ates out w comb9e ) its oxyg5 & =m wat]4 ,= ?is reason a gas incapable ( support+ combu/ion--= in/ance1 nitrog5 or c>bonic anhydride--is previ\sly pass$ into ! annul> space4 ,?us ! c>bonic anhydride is pass$ ?r\gh ! tube ,c1 & ! hydrog51 sep>at$ f ! /eam1 is collect$ ?r\gh ! tube ,c'1 & w be p>tly mix$ ) c>bonic anhydride4 ,a c]ta9 portion ( ! c>bonic anhydride w p5etrate ?r\gh ! pores ( ! unglaz$ tube into ! int]ior ( ! tube ,t4 ,! oxyg5 w rema9 9 ?is tube1 & ! volume ( ! rema9+ oxyg5 w be half t ( ! volume ( hydrog5 :i* sep>ates out f ! annul> space4#f bis #f bis ,"p ( ! oxyg5 w also p5etrate ?r\gh ! pores ( ! tube2 b1 z 0 said be=e1 a mu* small] quantity ?an ! hydrog51 & z ! d5sity ( oxyg5 is sixte5 times great] ?an t ( hydrog51 ! volume ( oxyg5 :i* passes ?r\gh ! por\s walls w be f\r times less ?an ! volume ( hydrog5 7! quantities ( gases pass+ ?r\gh por\s walls are inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e roots ( _! d5sities74 ,! oxyg5 :i* sep>ates out into ! annul> space w comb9e1 at a c]ta9 fall ( temp]ature1 ) ! hydrog52 b z ea* volume ( oxyg5 only requires two volumes ( hydrog51 :il/ at lea/ f\r volumes ( hydrog5 w pass ?r\gh ! por\s walls = e volume ( oxyg5 t passes1 !re=e1 "p ( ! hydrog5 w rema9 free1 & c be collect$ f ! annul> space4 ,a correspond+ quantity ( oxyg5 rema9+ f ! decomposition ( ! wat] c be collect$ f ! int]nal tube4 ,! decomposition ( wat] is effect$ mu* m easily by a me?od ( sub/itution1 tak+ advantage ( ! aff9ity ( sub/ances = ! oxyg5 or ! hydrog5 ( wat]4 ,if a sub/ance be add$ to wat]1 :i* takes up ! oxyg5 & replaces ! hydrog5--!n we %all obta9 ! latt] gas f ! wat]4 ,?us ) sodium1 wat] gives hydrog51 & ) *lor9e1 :i* takes up ! hydrog51 oxyg5 is obta9$4 ,hydrog5 is evolv$ f wat] by _m metals1 :i* are capable ( =m+ oxides 9 air--t is1 :i* are capable ( burn+ or comb9+ ) oxyg54 ,! capacity ( metals = comb9+ ) oxyg51 & !re=e = decompos+ wat]1 or = ! evolution ( hydrog51 is v dissimil>4#g ,among metals1 potassium & sodium exhibit consid]able en]gy 9 ?is respect4 ,! fir/ occurs 9 pota%1 ! second 9 soda4 ,!y are bo? light] ?an wat]1 s(t1 & easily *ange 9 air4 ,by br++ "o or ! o!r ( !m 9 contact ) wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1#h a quantity ( hydrog51 correspond+ ) ! am\nt ( ! metal tak51 may be directly obta9$4 ,"o gram ( hydrog51 occupy+ a volume ( #aaaf litres at #j & #gfj mm41 is evolv$ f e #ci grams ( potassium1 or #bc grams ( sodium4 ,! ph5om5on may be obs]v$ 9 ! foll[+ way3 a solution ( sodium 9 m]cury--or 'sodium amalgam1' z x is g5]ally call$--is p\r$ into a vessel conta9+ wat]1 & ow+ to its weight s9ks to ! bottom2 ! sodium held 9 ! m]cury !n acts on ! wat] l pure sodium1 lib]at+ hydrog54 ,! m]cury does n act "h1 & ! same am\nt ( x z 0 tak5 = dissolv+ ! sodium is obta9$ 9 ! residue4 ,! hydrog5 is evolv$ gradually 9 ! =m ( bubbles1 :i* pass ?r\gh ! liquid4 #g ,9 ord] to demon/rate ! diff]5ce ( ! aff9ity ( oxyg5 = diff]5t elem5ts1 x is en\gh to comp>e ! am\nts ( heats :i* are evolv$ 9 _! comb9ation ) #af p>ts by weight ( oxyg52 9 ! case ( sodium 7:5 ,na#b,o is =m$1 or #df p>ts ( ,na comb9e ) #af p>ts ( oxyg51 accord+ to ,beket(f7 #ajj1jjj calories 7or units ( heat71 are evolv$1 = hydrog5 7:5 wat]1 ,h#b,o1 is =m$7 #fi1jjj calories1 = iron 7:5 ! oxide ,fe,o is =m$7 #fi1jjj1 & if ! oxide ,fe#b,o#c is =m$1 #fd1jjj calories1 = z9c 7,zn,o is =m$7 #hf1jjj calories1 = lead 7:5 ,pb,o is =m$7 #ea1jjj calories1 = copp] 7:5 ,cu,o is =m$7 #ch1jjj calories1 & = m]cury 7,hg,o is =m$7 #ca1jjj calories4 ,^! figures _c correspond directly ) ! magnitude ( ! aff9ities1 = ! physical & me*anical side ( ! matt] is v diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t cases4 ,hydrog5 is a gas1 &1 9 comb9+ ) oxyg51 gives a liquid2 consequ5tly x *anges its physical /ate1 &1 9 do+ s1 evolves heat4 ,b z9c & copp] are solids1 &1 9 comb9+ ) oxyg51 give solid oxides4 ,! oxyg51 previ\sly a gas1 n[ passes into a solid or liquid /ate1 &1 !re=e1 also mu/ h giv5 up its /ore ( heat 9 =m+ oxides4 ,z we %all aft]w>ds see1 ! degree ( contraction 7& consequ5tly ( me*anical "w7 0 diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t cases1 & !re=e ! figures express+ ! heat ( comb9ation _c directly dep5d on ! aff9ities1 on ! loss ( int]nal en]gy previ\sly 9 ! elem5ts4 ,nev]!less1 ! figures above cit$ correspond1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 ) ! ord] 9 :i* ! elem5ts /& 9 respect to _! aff9ity = oxyg51 z may be se5 f ! fact t ! m]cury oxide1 :i* evolves ! lea/ heat 7among ! above examples71 is ! lea/ /able is easily decompos$1 giv+ up its oxyg52 :il/ sodium1 ! =mation ( ^: oxide is accompani$ by ! greate/ evolution ( heat1 is able to decompose all ! o!r oxides1 tak+ up _! oxyg54 ,9 ord] to g5]alise ! connection betwe5 aff9ity & ! evolution & ! absorption ( heat1 :i* is evid5t 9 its g5]al features1 & 0 firmly e/abli%$ by ! rese>*es ( ,favre & ,silb]mann 7ab\t #ahdj71 & !n ( ,?oms5 79 ,d5m>k7 & ,b]!lot 79 ,france71 _m inve/igators1 especially ! "o la/ m5tion$1 e/abli%$ ! law ( maximum "w4 ,?is /ates t only ^? *emical reactions take place ( _! own accord 9 :i* ! greate/ am\nt ( *emical 7lat5t1 pot5tial7 en]gy is trans=m$ into heat4 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 we are n able1 judg+ f :at has be5 said above1 to di/+ui% t heat :i* corresponds ) purely *emical action f ! sum total ( ! heat obs]v$ 9 a reaction 79 ! calorimet]72 9 ! second place1 !re are evid5tly endo!rmal reactions :i* proce$ "u ! same circum/ances z exo!rmal 7c>bon burns 9 ! vap\r ( sulphur ) absorption ( heat1 :il/ 9 oxyg5 x evolves heat72 &1 9 ! ?ird place1 !re are rev]sible reactions1 :i* :5 tak+ place 9 "o direction evolve heat1 & :5 tak+ place 9 ! opposite direction absorb x2 &1 !re=e1 ! pr9ciple ( maximum "w 9 its elem5t>y =m is n support$ by sci5ce4 ,b ! subject cont9ues to be develop$1 & w probably lead to a g5]al law1 su* z !rmal *emi/ry does n at pres5t possess4 #h ,if a piece ( metallic sodium be ?r[n into wat]1 x floats on x 7ow+ to its lightness71 keeps 9 a /ate ( cont9ual motion 7ow+ to ! evolution ( hydrog5 on all sides71 & imm$iately decomposes ! wat]1 evolv+ hydrog51 :i* c be light$4 ,?is exp]im5t may1 h[ev]1 lead to an explosion %\ld ! sodium /ick to ! walls ( ! vessel1 & beg9 to act on ! limit$ mass ( wat] imm$iately adjac5t to x 7probably 9 ?is case ,na,h,o =ms ) ,na1 ,na#b,o1 :i* acts on ! wat]1 evolv+ mu* heat & rapidly =m+ /eam71 & ! exp]im5t %\ld !re=e be c>ri$ on ) caution4 ,! decomposition ( wat] by sodium may he bett] demon/rat$1 & ) great] safety1 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,into a glass cyl9d] fill$ ) m]cury1 & imm]s$ 9 a m]cury ba?1 wat] is fir/ introduc$1 :i* w1 ow+ to its lightness1 rise to ! top1 & !n a piece ( sodium wrapp$ 9 pap] is introduc$ ) =ceps into ! cyl9d]4 ,! metal rises ?r\gh ! m]cury to ! surface ( ! wat]1 on :i* x rema9s1 & evolves hydrog51 :i* collects 9 ! cyl9d]1 & may be te/$ aft] ! exp]im5t has be5 complet$4 ,! safe/ me?od ( mak+ ?is exp]im5t is1 h[ev]1 z foll[s4 ,! sodium 7clean$ f ! naph?a 9 :i* x is kept7 is ei!r wrapp$ 9 f9e copp] gauze & held by =ceps1 or else held 9 =ceps at ! end ( :i* a small copp] cage is atta*$1 & is !n held "u wat]4 ,! evolution ( hydrog5 goes on quietly1 & x may he collect$ 9 a bell j> & !n light$4 ,beyond ! hydrog5 evolv$ & a solid sub/ance1 :i* rema9s 9 solution 7x may be obta9$ by evaporat+ ! resultant solution7 no o!r products are "h obta9$4 ,consequ5tly1 f ! two sub/ances 7wat] & sodium7 tak51 ! same numb] ( new sub/ances 7hydrog5 & ! sub/ance dissolv$ 9 wat]7 h be5 obta9$1 f :i* we may conclude t ! reaction :i* "h takes place is a reaction ( d\ble decomposition or ( sub/itution4 ,! resultant solid is no?+ else b ! s-call$ cau/ic soda 7sodium hydroxide71 :i* is made up ( sodium1 oxyg51 & half ( ! hydrog5 conta9$ 9 ! wat]4 ,!re=e1 ! sub/itution took place betwe5 ! hydrog5 & ! sodium1 namely half ( ! hydrog5 9 ! wat] 0 replac$ by ! sodium1 & 0 evolv$ 9 a free /ate4 ,h5ce ! reaction :i* takes place "h may be express$ by ! equation ,h#b,o ,na ,na,h,o ,h2 ! mean+ ( ?is is cle> f :at has already be5 said4#i #i ,?is reaction is vigor\sly exo!rmal1 i4e4 x is accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat4 ,if a suffici5t quantity ( wat] be tak5 ! :ole ( ! sodium hydroxide1 ,na,h,o1 =m$ is dissolv$1 & ab\t #db1ejj units ( heat are evolv$ p] #bc grams ( sodium tak54 ,z #dj grams ( sodium hydroxide are produc$1 & !y 9 dissolv+1 judg+ f direct exp]im5t1 evolve ab\t #aj1jjj calories2 !re=e1 )\t an excess ( wat]1 & )\t ! =mation ( a solution1 ! reaction w\ld evolve ab\t #cb1ejj calories4 ,we %all aft]w>ds le>n t hydrog5 conta9s 9 its smalle/ isolable p>ticles ,h#b & n ,h1 & !re=e x foll[s t ! reaction %\ld be writt5 ?us--#b,na #b;,h#b,o ,h#b #b,na,o,h1 & x !n corresponds ) an evolution ( heat ( #fe1jjj calories4 ,& z ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f %[$ t ,na#b,o1 or anhydr\s oxide ( sodium1 =ms ! hydrate1 or sodium hydroxide 7cau/ic soda71 #b,na,h,o1 ) wat]1 evolv+ ab\t #ce1ejj calories1 !re=e ! reaction #b,na ,h#b,o ,h#b ,na#b,o corresponds to #bi1ejj calories4 ,?is quantity ( heat is less ?an t :i* is evolv$ 9 comb9+ ) wat]1 9 ! =mation ( cau/ic soda1 & !re=e x is n to be wond]$ at t ! hydrate1 ,na,h,o1 is always =m$ & n ! anhydr\s sub/ance ,na#b,o4 ,t su* a conclusion1 :i* agrees ) facts1 is inevitable is also se5 f ! fact t1 accord+ to ,beket(f1 ! anhydr\s sodium oxide1 ,na#b,o1 acts directly on hydrog51 ) sep>ation ( sodium1 ,na#b,o ,h ,na,h,o ,na4 ,?is reaction is accompani$ by an evolution ( heat equal to ab\t #c1jjj calories1 because ,na#b,o ,h#b,o gives1 z we saw1 #ce1ejj calories & ,na ,h#b,o evolves #cb1ejj calories4 ,h[ev]1 an opposite reaction also takes place--,na,h,o ,na ,na#b,o ,h 7bo? ) ! aid ( heat7--consequ5tly1 9 ?is case heat is absorb$4 ,9 ?is we see an example ( calorimetric calculations & ! limit$ application ( ! law ( maximum "w = ! g5]al ph5om5a ( rev]sible reactions1 to :i* ! case j consid]$ belongs4 ,b x mu/ be rem>k$ t all rev]sible reactions evolve or absorb b little heat1 & ! reason ( ! law ( maximum "w1 n be+ univ]sal mu/ fir/ ( all be look$ = 9 ! fact t we h no means ( sep>at+ ! heat :i* corresponds ) ! purely *emical process f ! sum total ( ! heat obs]v$1 & z ! /ructure ( a numb] ( sub/ances is alt]$ by heat & also by contact1 we c sc>cely hope t ! "t approa*es :5 su* a di/9ction w be possible4 ,a heat$ sub/ance1 9 po9t ( fact1 has no long] ! orig9al en]gy ( its atoms--t is1 ! act ( heat+ n only alt]s ! /ore ( motion ( ! molecules b also ( ! atoms =m+ ! molecules1 9 o!r words1 x makes ! beg9n+ ( or prep>ation = *emical *ange4 ,f ?is x mu/ be conclud$ t !rmo*emi/ry1 or ! /udy ( ! heat accompany+ *emical trans=mations1 _c he id5tifi$ ) *emical me*anics4 ,!rmo-*emical data =m a "p ( x1 b !y alone _c give x4 ,sodium & potassium act on wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,o!r heavi] metals only act on x ) a rise ( temp]ature1 & !n n s rapidly or vigor\sly4 ,?us magnesium & calcium only lib]ate hydrog5 f wat] at its boil+ po9t1 & z9c & iron only a r$ heat1 :il/ a :ole s]ies ( heavy metals1 su* z copp]1 lead1 m]cury1 silv]1 gold1 & plat9um1 d n 9 ! lea/ decompose wat] at any temp]ature1 & d n replace its hydrog54 ,f ?is x is cle> t hydrog5 may be obta9$ by ! decomposition ( /eam by ! action ( iron 7or z9c7 ) a rise ( temp]ature4 ,! exp]im5t is conduct$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 pieces ( iron 7fil+s1 nails1 c471 are plac$ 9 a porcela9 tube1 :i* is !n subject$ to a /rong heat & /eam pass$ ?r\gh x4 ,! /eam1 com+ into contact ) ! iron1 gives up its oxyg5 to x1 & ?us ! hydrog5 is set free & passes out at ! o!r end ( ! tube toge!r ) undecompos$ /eam4 ,?is me?od1 :i* is hi/orically v significant1#aj is practically inconv5i5t1 z x requires a r high temp]ature4 ,fur!r1 ?is reaction1 z a rev]sible "o 7a r$-hot mass ( iron decomposes a curr5t ( /eam1 =m+ oxide & hydrog52 & a mass ( oxide ( iron1 heat$ to r$ness 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 =ms iron & /eam71 does n proce$ 9 virtue ( ! comp>atively small diff]5ce betwe5 ! aff9ity ( oxyg5 = iron 7or z9c7 & = hydrog51 b only because ! hydrog5 escapes1 z x is =m$1 9 virtue ( its ela/icity4#aa ,if ! oxyg5 comp\nds--t is1 ! oxides--:i* are obta9$ f ! iron or z9c1 be able to pass into solution1 !n ! aff9ity act+ 9 solution is add$1 & ! reaction may become non-rev]sible1 & proce$ ) comp>atively mu* great] facility4#ab ,z ! oxides ( iron & z9c1 by !mselves insoluble 9 wat]1 are capable ( comb9+ ) 7h an aff9ity =7 acid oxides 7z we %all aft]w>ds fully consid]71 & =m sal9e & soluble sub/ances1 ) acids1 or hydrates hav+ acid prop]ties1 h5ce by ! action ( su* hydrates1 or ( _! aque\s solutions1#ac iron & z9c are able to lib]ate hydrog5 ) great ease at ! ord9>y temp]ature--t is1 !y act on solutions ( acids j z sodium acts on wat]4#ad ,sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 is usually *os5 = ?is purpose2 ! hydrog5 is displac$ f x by _m metals ) mu* great] facility ?an directly f wat]1 & su* a displacem5t is accompani$ by ! evolution ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat4#ae ,:5 ! hydrog5 9 sulphuric acid is replac$ by a metal1 a sub/ance is obta9$ :i* is call$ a salt ( sulphuric acid or a sulphate4 ,?us1 by ! action ( z9c on sulphuric acid1 hydrog5 & z9c sulphate ,zn,s,o#d1ae bis are obta9$4 ,! latt] is a solid sub/ance1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,9 ord] t ! action ( ! metal on ! acid %\ld g on regul>ly1 & to ! end1 x is necess>y t ! acid %\ld be dilut$ ) wat]1 :i* dissolves ! salt z x is =m$2 o!rwise ! salt cov]s ! metal1 & h9d]s ! acid f attack+ x4 ,usually ! acid is dilut$ ) f ?ree to five times its volume ( wat]1 & ! metal is cov]$ ) ?is solution4 ,9 ord] t ! metal %\ld act rapidly on ! acid1 x %\ld pres5t a l>ge surface1 s t a maximum am\nt ( ! react+ sub/ances may come into contact 9 a giv5 "t4 ,= ?is purpose ! z9c is us$ z /rips ( %eet z9c1 or 9 ! granulat$ =m 7t is1 z9c :i* has be5 p\r$ f a c]ta9 height1 9 a molt5 /ate1 into wat]74 ,! iron %\ld be 9 ! =m ( wire1 nails1 fil+s1 or cutt+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,app>atus = ! prep>ation ( hydrog5 f z9c & sulphuric acid4 #aj ,! composition ( wat]1 z we saw above1 0 det]m9$ by pass+ /eam ov] r$-hot iron2 ! same me?od has be5 us$ = mak+ hydrog5 = fill+ balloons4 ,an oxide hav+ ! composition ,fe#c,o#d is =m$ 9 ! reaction1 s t x is express$ by ! equation #c;,fe #d;,h#b,o ,fe#c,o#d #h;,h4 #aa ,! reaction betwe5 iron & wat] 7note #aj7 is rev]sible4 ,by heat+ ! oxide 9 a curr5t ( hydrog51 wat] & iron are obta9$4 ,f ?is x foll[s1 f ! pr9ciple ( *emical equilibria1 t if iron & hydrog5 be tak51 & also oxyg51 b 9 su* a quantity t x is insuffici5t = comb9ation ) bo? sub/ances1 !n x w divide itself betwe5 ! two2 "p ( x w comb9e ) ! iron & ! o!r "p ) ! hydrog51 b a portion ( bo? w rema9 9 an uncomb9$ /ate4 ,!re=e1 if iron & wat] be plac$ 9 a clos$ space1 decomposition ( ! wat] w proce$ on heat+ to ! temp]ature at :i* ! reaction #c;,fe #d;,h#b,o ,fe#c,o#d #h;,h comm5ces2 b x ceases1 does n g on to ! end1 because ! conditions = a rev]se reaction are atta9$1 & a /ate ( equilibrium w ensue aft] ! decomposition ( a c]ta9 quantity ( wat]4 ,"h aga9 7see note #i7 ! rev]sibility is connect$ ) ! small heat effect1 & aga9 bo? reactions 7direct & rev]se7 proce$ at a r$ heat4 ,b if1 9 ! above-describ$ reaction1 ! hydrog5 escapes z x is evolv$1 !n its p>tial pressure does n increase ) its =mation1 & !re=e all ! iron c he oxidis$ by ! wat]4 ,9 ?is we see ! elem5ts ( t influ5ce ( mass to :i* we %all h occasion to return lat]4 ,) copp] & lead !re w be no decomposition1 ei!r at ! ord9>y or at a high temp]ature1 because ! aff9ity ( ^! metals = oxyg5 is mu* less ?an t ( hydrog54 #ab ,9 g5]al1 if rev]sible z well z non-rev]sible reactions c take place betwe5 sub/ances act+ on ea* o!r1 !n1 judg+ by our pres5t k1 ! non-rev]sible reactions take place 9 ! majority ( cases1 :i* obliges "o to ackn[l$ge ! action1 9 ?is case1 ( comp>atively /rong aff9ities4 ,! reaction1 ,zn ,h#b,,s#d ,h#b ,zn,s,o#d1 :i* takes place 9 solutions at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 is sc>cely rev]sible "u ^! conditions1 b at a c]ta9 high temp]ature x becomes rev]sible1 because at ?is temp]ature z9c sulphate & sulphuric acid split up1 & ! action mu/ take place betwe5 ! wat] & z9c4 ,f ! prec$+ proposition results proce$ :i* are 9 "s cases v]ifi$ by exp]im5t4 ,if ! action ( z9c or iron on a solution ( sulphuric acid pres5ts a non-rev]sible reaction1 !n we may by ?is means obta9 hydrog5 9 a v compress$ /ate1 & compress$ hydrog5 w n act on solutions ( sulphates ( ! above-nam$ metals4 ,?is is v]ifi$ 9 reality z f> z 0 possible 9 ! exp]im5ts to keep up ! compression or pressure ( ! hydrog54 ,^? metals :i* d n evolve hydrog5 ) acids1 on ! contr>y1 %\ld1 at lea/ at an increase ( pressure1 be displac$ by hydrog54 ,& 9 fact ,brunn] %[$ t gase\s hydrog5 displaces plat9um & palladium f ! aque\s solutions ( _! *lor9e comp\nds1 b n gold1 & ,beket(f succe$$ 9 %[+ t silv] & m]cury1 "u a consid]able pressure1 are sep>at$ f ! solutions ( c]ta9 ( _! comp\nds by means ( hydrog54 ,reaction already comm5ces "u a pressure ( six atmosph]es1 if a weak solution ( silv] sulphate be tak52 ) a /rong] solution a mu* great] pressure is requir$1 h[ev]1 = ! sep>ation ( ! silv]4 #ac ,= ! same reason1 _m metals 9 act+ on solutions ( ! alkalis displace hydrog54 ,alum9ium acts p>ticul>ly cle>ly 9 ?is respect1 because its oxide gives a soluble comp\nd ) alkalis4 ,= ! same reason t91 9 act+ on hydro*loric acid1 evolves hydrog51 & silicon does ! same ) hydr(luoric acid4 ,x is evid5t t 9 su* cases ! sum ( all ! aff9ities plays a "p2 = in/ance1 tak+ ! action ( z9c on sulphuric acid1 we h ! aff9ity ( z9c = oxyg5 7=m+ z9c oxide1 ,zn,o71 ! aff9ity ( its oxide = sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c 7=m+ z9c sulphate1 ,zn,s,o#d71 & ! aff9ity ( ! resultant salt1 ,zn,s,o#d1 = wat]4 ,x is only ! fir/-nam$ aff9ity t acts 9 ! reaction betwe5 wat] & ! metal1 if no acc\nt is tak5 ( ^? =ces 7( a physico-me*anical "*7 :i* act betwe5 ! molecules 7= in/ance1 ! cohesion betwe5 ! molecules ( ! oxide7 & ^? =ces 7( a *emical "*7 :i* act betwe5 ! atoms =m+ ! molecule1 = in/ance1 betwe5 ! atoms ( hydrog5 giv+ ! molecule ,h#b conta9+ two atoms4 ,i consid] x necess>y to rem>k1 t ! hypo!sis ( ! aff9ity or endeav\r ( het]og5e\s atoms to ent] into a common sy/em & 9 h>moni\s motion 7i4e4 to =m a comp\nd molecule7 mu/ inevitably be 9 accordance ) ! hypo!sis ( =ces includ+ homog5e\s atoms to =m complex molecules 7= in/ance1 ,h#b71 & to build up ! latt] into solid or liquid sub/ances1 9 :i* ! exi/5ce ( an attraction betwe5 ! homog5e\s p>ticles mu/ c]ta9ly be admitt$4 ,!re=e1 ^? =ces :i* br+ ab\t solution mu/ also be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,^! are all =ces ( "o & ! same s]ies1 & 9 ?is may be se5 ! great difficulties surr\nd+ ! /udy ( molecul> me*anics & its prov9ce--*emical me*anics4 #ad ,x is ackn[l$g$ t z9c itself acts on wat]1 ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b t ! action is conf9$ to small masses & only proce$s at ! surface4 ,9 reality1 z9c1 9 ! =m ( a v f9e p[d]1 or s-call$ 'z9c du/1' is capable ( decompos+ wat] ) ! =mation ( oxide 7hydrat$7 & hydrog54 ,! oxide =m$ acts on sulphuric acid1 wat] !n dissolves ! salt produc$1 & ! action cont9ues because "o ( ! products ( ! action ( wat] on z9c1 z9c oxide1 is remov$ f ! surface4 ,"o might naturally imag9e t ! reaction does n proce$ directly betwe5 ! metal & wat]1 b betwe5 ! metal & ! acid1 b su* a simple repres5tation1 :i* we %all cite aft]w>ds1 hides ! me*anism ( ! reaction1 & does n p]mit ( its actual complexity be+ se54 #ae ,accord+ to ,?oms5 ! reaction betwe5 z9c & a v weak solution ( sulphuric acid evolves ab\t #ch1jjj calories 7z9c sulphate be+ =m$7 p] #fe p>ts by weight ( z9c2 & #ef p>ts by weight ( iron--:i* comb9e1 l #fe p>ts by weight ( z9c1 ) #af p>ts by weight ( oxyg5--evolve ab\t #be1jjj calories 7=m+ f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d74 ,p>acelsus obs]v$ ! action ( metals on acids 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury2 b x 0 n until ! eighte5? c5tury t ,lm]y det]m9$ t ! gas :i* is evolv$ 9 ?is action is a p>ticul> "o :i* diff]s f air & is capable ( burn+4 ,ev5 ,boyle confus$ x ) air4 ,cav5di% det]m9$ ! *ief prop]ties ( ! gas discov]$ by ,p>acelsus4 ,at fir/ x 0 call$ 'inflammable air'2 lat]1 :5 x 0 recognis$ t 9 burn+ x gives wat]1 x 0 call$ hydrog51 f ! ,greek words = wat] & g5]ator4 #ae bis ,if1 :5 ! sulphuric acid is p\r$ ov] ! z9c1 ! evolution ( ! hydrog5 proce$ too sl[ly1 x may be greatly accel]at$ by add+ a small quantity ( a solution ( ,cu,s,o#d or ,pt,cl#d to ! acid4 ,! reason ( ?is is expla9$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,xvi41 note #aj bis4 ,! usual me?od ( obta9+ hydrog5 is z foll[s3--,a c]ta9 quantity ( granulat$ z9c is put into a d\ble-neck$1 or ,w\lfe's1 bottle4 ,into "o neck a funnel is plac$1 rea*+ to ! bottom ( ! bottle1 s t ! liquid p\r$ 9 may prev5t ! hydrog5 f escap+ ?r\gh x4 ,! gas escapes ?r\gh a special gas conduct+ tube1 :i* is firmly fix$1 by a cork1 into ! o!r neck1 & ends 9 a wat] ba? 7fig4 #bj71 "u ! orifice ( a glass cyl9d] full ( wat]4#af ,if sulphuric acid be n[ p\r$ into ! ,w\lfe's bottle x w soon be se5 t bubbles ( a gas are evolv$1 :i* is hydrog54 ,! fir/ "p ( ! gas evolv$ %\ld n be collect$1 z x is mix$ ) ! air orig9ally 9 ! app>atus4 ,?is precaution %\ld be tak5 9 ! prep>ation ( all gases4 ,"t mu/ be all[$ = ! gas evolv$ to displace all ! air f ! app>atus1 o!rwise 9 te/+ ! combu/ibility ( ! hydrog5 an explosion may occur f ! =mation ( detonat+ gas 7! mixture ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air ) ! hydrog574#ag #af ,z laboratory exp]im5ts ) gases require a c]ta9 prelim9>y k1 we w describe c]ta9 practical me?ods = ! collection & prep>ation ( gases4 ,:5 9 laboratory practice an int]mitt5t supply ( hydrog5 7or o!r gas :i* is evolv$ )\t ! aid ( heat7 is requir$ ! app>atus repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ba is ! mo/ conv5i5t4 ,x consi/s ( two bottles1 hav+ orifices at ! bottom1 9 :i* corks ) tubes are plac$1 & ^! tubes are connect$ by an india-rubb] tube 7sometimes furni%$ ) a spr+ clamp74 ,z9c is plac$ 9 "o bottle1 & dilute sulphuric acid 9 ! o!r4 ,! neck ( ! =m] is clos$ by a cork1 :i* is fitt$ ) a gas-conduct+ tube ) a /opcock4 ,if ! two bottles are connect$ ) ea* o!r & ! /opcock be op5$1 ! acid w fl[ to ! z9c & evolve hydrog54 ,if ! /opcock be clos$1 ! hydrog5 w =ce out ! acid f ! bottle conta9+ ! z9c1 & ! action w cease4 ,or ! vessel conta9+ ! acid may be plac$ at a l[] level ?an t conta9+ ! z9c1 :5 all ! liquid w fl[ into x1 & 9 ord] to />t ! action ! acid vessel may be plac$ on a high] level ?an ! o!r1 & ! acid w fl[ to ! z9c4 ,x c also be employ$ = collect+ gases 7z an aspirator or gasomet]74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,a v conv5i5t app>atus = ! prep>ation ( gases obta9$ )\t heat4 ,x may also replace an aspirator or gasomet]4 ,9 laboratory practice1 h[ev]1 o!r =ms ( app>atus are g5]ally employ$ = exhau/+1 collect+1 & hold+ gases4 ,we w "h cite ! mo/ usual =ms4 ,an aspirator usually consi/s ( a vessel furni%$ ) a /opcock at ! bottom4 ,a /\t cork1 ?r\gh :i* a glass tube passes1 is fix$ into ! neck ( ?is vessel4 ,if ! vessel be fill$ up ) wat] to ! cork & ! bottom /opcock is op5$1 !n ! wat] w run out & draw gas 94 ,= ?is purpose ! glass tube is connect$ ) ! app>atus f :i* x is desir$ to pump out or exhau/ ! gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,cont9u\s aspirator4 ,! tube d %\ld be m ?an #cb feet long4 ,! aspirator repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bb may be recomm5d$ = its cont9u\s action4 ,x consi/s ( a tube d :i* wid5s out at ! top1 ! l[] "p be+ long & n>r[4 ,9 ! exp&$ upp] portion c1 two tubes are seal$2 "o1 e1 = draw+ 9 ! gas1 :il/ ! o!r1 b1 is connect$ to ! wat] supply w4 ,! am\nt ( wat] suppli$ ?r\gh ! tube b mu/ be less ?an ! am\nt :i* c be c>ri$ (f by ! tube d4 ,ow+ to ?is ! wat] 9 ! tube d w fl[ ?r\gh x 9 cyl9d]s alt]nat+ ) cyl9d]s ( gas1 :i* w be ?us c>ri$ away4 ,! gas :i* is drawn ?r\gh may be collect$ f ! end ( ! tube d1 b ?is =m ( pump is usually employ$ :]e ! air or gas aspirat$ is n to be collect$4 ,if ! tube d is ( consid]able l5g?1 say #dj ft4 or m1 a v fair vacuum w be produc$1 ! am\nt ( :i* is %[n by ! gauge g2 x is (t5 us$ = filt]+ "u r$uc$ pressure1 z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,if wat] be replac$ by m]cury1 & ! l5g? ( ! tube d be great] ?an #gfj mm41 ! aspirator may be employ$ z an air-pump1 & all ! air may be exhau/$ f a limit$ space2 = in/ance1 by connect+ g ) a holl[ sph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,ga%old]4 ,ga%old]s are (t5 us$ = collect+ & hold+ gases4 ,!y are made ( glass1 copp]1 or t9 plate4 ,! usual =m is %[n 9 fig4 #bc4 ,! l[] vessel ,b is made h]metically tight--i4e41 imp]vi\s to gases--& is fill$ ) wat]4 ,a funnel is atta*$ to ?is vessel 7on sev]al supports74 ,! vessel ,b communicates ) ! bottom ( ! funnel by a /opcock b & a tube a1 rea*+ to ! bottom ( ! vessel ,b4 ,if wat] be p\r$ into ! funnel & ! /opcocks a & b op5$1 ! wat] w run ?r\gh a1 & ! air escape f ! vessel ,b by b4 ,a glass tube f runs up ! side ( ! vessel ,b1 ) :i* x communicates at ! top & bottom1 & %[s ! am\nt ( wat] & gas ! ga%old] conta9s4 ,9 ord] to fill ! ga%old] ) a gas1 x is fir/ fill$ ) wat]1 ! cocks a1 b & e are clos$1 ! nut d unscrew$1 & ! end ( ! tube conduct+ ! gas f ! app>atus 9 :i* x is g5]at$ is pass$ into d4 ,z ! gas fills ! ga%old]1 ! wat] runs out at d4 ,if ! pressure ( a gas be n great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure & x be requir$ to collect x 9 ! ga%old]1 !n ! /opcock e is put into communication ) ! space conta9+ ! gas4 ,!n1 hav+ op5$ ! orifice d1 ! ga%old] acts l an aspirator2 ! gas w pass ?r\gh e1 & ! wat] run out at d4 ,if ! cocks be clos$1 ! gas collect$ 9 ! ga%old] may be easily pres]v$ & transport$4 ,if x be desir$ to transf] ?is gas into ano!r vessel1 !n a gas-conduct+ tube is atta*$ to e1 ! cock a op5$1 b & d clos$1 & ! gas w !n pass out at e1 ow+ to its pressure 9 ! app>atus be+ great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 due to ! pressure ( ! wat] p\r$ into ! funnel4 ,if x be requir$ to fill a cyl9d] or flask ) ! gas1 x is fill$ ) wat] & inv]t$ 9 ! funnel1 & ! /opcocks b & a op5$4 ,!n wat] w run ?r\gh a1 & ! gas w escape f ! ga%old] into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh b4 #ag ,:5 x is requir$ to prep>e hydrog5 9 l>ge quantities = fill+ balloons1 copp] vessels or wood5 casks l9$ ) lead are employ$2 !y are fill$ ) scrap iron1 ov] :i* dilute sulphuric acid is p\r$4 ,! hydrog5 g5]at$ f a numb] ( casks is c>ri$ ?r\gh lead pipes into special casks conta9+ wat] 79 ord] to cool ! gas7 & lime 79 ord] to remove acid fumes74 ,to avoid loss ( gas all ! jo9ts are made h]metically tight ) cem5t or t>4 ,9 ord] to fill 8 gigantic balloon 7( #be1jjj cubic metres capacity71 ,giff>d1 9 #ahgh1 con/ruct$ a complicat$ app>atus = giv+ a cont9u\s supply ( hydrog51 9 :i* a mixture ( sulphuric acid & wat] 0 cont9ually run into vessels conta9+ iron1 & f :i* ! solution ( iron sulphate =m$ 0 cont9ually drawn (f4 ,:5 coal gas1 extract$ f coal1 is employ$ = fill+ balloons1 x %\ld be z light1 or z ri* 9 hydrog51 z possible4 ,= ?is reason1 only ! la/ portions ( ! gas com+ f ! retorts are collect$1 &1 besides ?is1 x is !n sometimes pass$ ?r\gh r$-hot vessels1 9 ord] to decompose ! hydroc>bons z mu* z possible2 *>coal is deposit$ 9 ! r$-hot vessels1 & hydrog5 rema9s z gas4 ,coal gas may be yet fur!r enri*$ 9 hydrog51 & consequ5tly r5d]$ light]1 by pass+ x ov] an ignit$ mixture ( *>coal & lime4 ,l4 ,mond 7,london7 proposes to manufacture hydrog5 on a l>ge scale f wat] gas 7see infra1 & ,*apt]s ,,viii4 & ,,ix471 :i* conta9s a mixture ( oxide ( c>bon 7,,co7 & hydrog51 & is produc$ by ! action ( /eam ^u inc&esc5t coke 7,c ,h#b,o ,,co ,h#b74 ,he de/roys ! oxide ( c>bon by conv]t+ x into c>bon & c>bonic anhydride 7#b;,,co ,c ,,co#b71 :i* is easily done by means ( inc&esc5t1 f9ely-divid$ metallic nickel2 ! c>bon !n rema9s ) ! nickel1 f :i* x may be remov$ by burn+ x 9 air1 & ! nickel c !n be us$ ov] aga9 7see ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #bd bis74 ,! ,,co#b =m$ is remov$ f ! hydrog5 by pass+ x ?r\gh milk ( lime4 ,?is process %\ld app>5tly give hydrog5 on a l>ge scale m economically ?an any ( ! me?ods hi!rto propos$4 ,hydrog51 besides be+ conta9$ 9 wat]1 is also conta9$ 9 _m o!r sub/ances1#ah & may be obta9$ f !m4 ,z examples ( ?is1 x may be m5tion$ 7#a7 t a mixture ( =mate ( sodium1 ,c,h,na,o#b1 & cau/ic soda1 ,na,h,o1 :5 heat$ to r$ness1 =ms sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 & hydrog51 ,h#b2ai 7#b7 t a numb] ( organic sub/ances are decompos$ at a r$ heat1 =m+ hydrog51 among o!r gases1 & ?us x is t hydrog5 is conta9$ 9 ord9>y coal gas4 #ah ,( ! metals1 only a v few comb9e ) hydrog5 7= example1 sodium71 & give sub/ances :i* are easily decompos$4 ,( ! non-metals1 ! halog5s 7fluor9e1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e7 mo/ easily =m hydrog5 comp\nds2 ( ^! ! hydrog5 comp\nd ( *lor9e1 & /ill m t ( fluor9e1 is /able1 :il/ ^? ( brom9e & iod9e are easily decompos$1 especially ! latt]4 ,! o!r non-metals--= in/ance1 sulphur1 c>bon1 & phosphorus--give hydrog5 comp\nds ( diff]5t composition & prop]ties1 b !y are all less /able ?an wat]4 ,! numb] ( ! c>bon comp\nds ( hydrog5 is enorm\s1 b !re are v few among !m :i* are n decompos$1 ) sep>ation ( ! c>bon & hydrog51 at a r$ heat4 #ai ,! reaction express$ by ! equation ,c,na,h,o#b ,na,h,o ,c,na#b,o#c ,h#b may be effect$ 9 a glass vessel1 l ! decomposition ( copp] c>bonate or m]cury oxide 7see ,introduction72 x is non-rev]sible1 & takes place )\t ! pres5ce ( wat]1 & !re=e ,pictet 7see lat]7 made use ( x to obta9 hydrog5 "u great pressure4 ,*>coal itself lib]ates hydrog5 f /eam at a high temp]ature2#bj b ! reaction :i* "h takes place is di/+ui%$ by a c]ta9 complexity1 & w !re=e be consid]$ lat]4 #bj ,! reaction betwe5 *>coal & sup]heat$ /eam is a d\ble "o--t is1 !re may be =m$ ei!r c>bonic oxide1 ,,co 7accord+ to ! equation ,h#b,o ,c ,h#b ,,co71 or c>bonic anhydride ,,co#b 7accord+ to ! equation #b;,h#b,o ,c #b;,h#b ,,co#b71 & ! result+ mixture is call$ wat]-gas2 we %all speak ( x 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,! prop]ties ( hydrog54--,hydrog5 pres5ts u ) an example ( a gas :i* at fir/ sight does n diff] f air4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t ,p>acelsus1 hav+ discov]$ t an ari=m sub/ance is obta9$ by ! action ( metals on sulphuric acid1 did n det]m9e exactly its diff]5ce f air4 ,9 fact1 hydrog51 l air1 is col\rless1 & has no smell2#ba b a m intimate acqua9tance ) its prop]ties proves x to be entirely diff]5t f air4 ,! fir/ sign :i* di/+ui%es hydrog5 f air is its combu/ibility4 ,?is prop]ty is s easily obs]v$ t x is ! "o to :i* rec\rse is usually _h 9 ord] to recognise hydrog51 if x is evolv$ 9 a reaction1 al?\gh !re are _m o!r combu/ible gases4 ,b be=e speak+ ( ! combu/ibility & o!r *emical prop]ties ( hydrog51 we w fir/ describe ! physical prop]ties ( ?is gas1 z we did 9 ! case ( wat]4 ,x is easy to %[ t x is "o ( ! lighte/ gases4#bb ,if pass$ into ! bottom ( a flask full ( air1 hydrog5 w n rema9 9 x1 b1 ow+ to its lightness1 rapidly escapes & mixes ) ! atmosph]e4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a cyl9d] ^: orifice is turn$ d[nw>ds be fill$ ) hydrog51 x w n escape1 or1 m correctly1 x w only sl[ly mix ) ! atmosph]e4 ,?is may be demon/rat$ by ! fact t a light$ tap] sets fire to ! hydrog5 at ! orifice ( ! cyl9d]1 & is itself ext+ui%$ inside ! cyl9d]4 ,h5ce1 hydrog51 be+ itself combu/ible1 does n support combu/ion4 ,! great lightness ( hydrog5 is tak5 advantage ( = balloons4 ,ord9>y coal gas1 :i* is (t5 also us$ = ! same purpose1 is only ab\t twice z light z air1 :il/ hydrog5 is #ad-a_/b times light] ?an air4 ,a v simple exp]im5t ) soap bubbles v well illu/rates ! application ( hydrog5 = fill+ balloons4 ,*>les1 ( ,p>is1 %[$ ! lightness ( hydrog5 9 ?is way1 & con/ruct$ a balloon fill$ ) hydrog5 almo/ simultane\sly ) ,montgolfi]4 ,"o litre ( pure & dry hydrog5#bc at #j & #gfj mm4 pressure weighs #jjhihf gram2 t is1 hydrog5 is almo/ #ad-a_/b 7m exactly1 #adci7 times light] ?an air4 ,x is ! lighte/ ( all gases4 ,! small d5sity ( hydrog5 det]m9es _m rem>kable prop]ties :i* x %[s2 ?us1 hydrog5 passes exce$+ly rapidly ?r\gh f9e orifices1 its molecules 7,*apt] ,i47 be+ endu$ ) ! greate/ velocity4#bd ,at pressures some:at high] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 all o!r gases exhibit a great] compressibility & co-effici5t ( expansion ?an !y %\ld accord+ to ! laws ( ,m>iotte & ,gay-,lussac2 :il/ hydrog51 on ! contr>y1 is compress$ to a less degree ?an x %\ld be f ! law ( ,m>iotte1#be & ) a rise ( pressure x exp&s slightly less ?an at ! atmosph]ic pressure4#bf ,h[ev]1 hydrog51 l air & _m o!r gases :i* are p]man5t at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 does n pass into a liquid /ate "u a v consid]able pressure1#bg b is compress$ into a less] volume ?an w\ld foll[ f ,m>iotte's law4#bh ,f ?is x may be conclud$ t ! absolute boil+ po9t ( hydrog51 & ( gases resembl+ x1#bi lies v mu* bel[ ! ord9>y temp]ature2 t is1 t ! liquefaction ( ?is gas is only possible at l[ temp]atures1 & "u great pressures4#cj ,?is conclusion 0 v]ifi$ 7#ahgg7 by ! exp]im5ts ( ,pictet & ,cailletet4#ca ,!y compress$ gases at a v l[ temp]ature1 & !n all[$ !m to exp&1 ei!r by directly decreas+ ! pressure or by all[+ !m to escape into ! air1 by :i* means ! temp]ature fell /ill l[]1 & !n1 j z /eam :5 rapidly r>efi$#cb deposits liquid wat] 9 ! =m ( a fog1 hydrog5 9 exp&+ =ms a fog1 ?us indicat+ its passage into a liquid /ate4 ,b z yet x has be5 impossible to pres]ve ?is liquid1 ev5 = a %ort "t1 to det]m9e its prop]ties1 not)/&+ ! employm5t ( a temp]ature ( -#bjj & a pressure ( #bjj atmosph]es1#cc al?\gh by ^! means ! gases ( ! atmosph]e may be kept 9 a liquid /ate = a long "t4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! absolute boil+ po9t ( hydrog5 lies l[] ?an t ( all o!r kn[n gases1 :i* also dep5ds on ! extreme lightness ( hydrog54#cd #ba ,hydrog5 obta9$ by ! action ( z9c or iron on sulphuric acid g5]ally smells ( hydrog5 sulphide 7l rott5 eggs71 :i* x conta9s 9 admixture4 ,z a rule su* hydrog5 is n s pure z t obta9$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t or ( sodium on wat]4 ,! impurity ( ! hydrog5 dep5ds on ! impurities conta9$ 9 ! z9c1 or iron1 & sulphuric acid1 & on second>y reactions :i* take place simultane\sly ) ! ma9 reaction4 ,impure hydrog5 may be easily fre$ f ! impurities x conta9s3 "s ( !m--namely1 ^? hav+ acid prop]ties--are absorb$ by cau/ic soda1 & !re=e may be remov$ by pass+ ! hydrog5 ?r\gh a solution ( ?is sub/ance2 ano!r s]ies ( impurities is absorb$ by a solution ( m]curic *loride2 &1 la/ly1 a ?ird s]ies is absorb$ by a solution ( potassium p]manganate4 ,if absolutely pure hydrog5 be requir$1 x is sometimes obta9$ by ! decomposition ( wat] 7previ\sly boil$ to expel all air1 & mix$ ) pure sulphuric acid7 by ! galvanic curr5t4 ,only ! gas evolv$ at ! negative electrode is collect$4 ,or else1 an app>atus l t :i* gives detonat+ gas is us$1 ! positive electrode1 h[ev]1 be+ imm]s$ "u m]cury conta9+ z9c 9 solution4 ,! oxyg5 :i* is evolv$ at ?is electrode !n imm$iately1 at ! mom5t ( its evolution1 comb9es ) ! z9c1 & ?is comp\nd dissolves 9 ! sulphuric acid & =ms z9c sulphate1 :i* rema9s 9 solution1 & !re=e ! hydrog5 g5]at$ w be q free f oxyg54 #bb ,an inv]t$ beak] is atta*$ to "o arm ( ! beam ( a tol]ably s5sitive balance1 & its weight c\nt]pois$ by weights 9 ! pan atta*$ to ! o!r arm1 ,if ! beak] be !n fill$ ) hydrog5 x rises1 ow+ to ! air be+ replac$ by hydrog54 ,?us1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( a room1 a litre ( air weighs ab\t #ab gram1 & on replac+ ! air by hydrog5 a decrease 9 weight ( ab\t #a gram p] litre is obta9$4 ,moi/ hydrog5 is heavi] ?an dry--= aque\s vap\r is n9e times heavi] ?an hydrog54 ,9 fill+ balloons x is usually calculat$ t 7x be+ impossible to h p]fectly dry hydrog5 or to obta9 x q free f air7 ! lift+ =ce due to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weights ( equal volumes ( hydrog5 & air is equal to #a kilogram 7 #a1jjj grams7 p] cubic metre 7 #a1jjj litres74 #bc ,! d5sity ( hydrog5 9 relation to ! air has be5 repeat$ly det]m9$ by accurate exp]im5ts4 ,! fir/ det]m9ation1 made by ,lavoisi]1 0 n v exact2 tak+ ! d5sity ( air z unity1 he obta9$ #jjgfi = t ( hydrog5--t is1 hydrog5 z ?irte5 times light] ?an air4 ,m accurate det]m9ations are due to ,?oms51 :o obta9$ ! figure #jjfic2 ,b]zelius & ,dulong1 :o obta9$ #jjfhh2 & ,dumas & ,b\ss+ault1 :o obta9$ #jjfide4 ,regnault1 & m rec5tly ,le ,duc 7#ahib71 took two sph]es ( consid]able capacity1 :i* conta9$ equal volumes ( air 7?us avoid+ ! necessity ( any correction = weigh+ !m 9 air74 ,bo? sph]es 7 atta*$ to ! scale pans ( a balance4 ,"o 0 seal$ up1 & ! o!r fir/ weigh$ empty & !n full ( hydrog54 ,?us1 kn[+ ! weight ( ! hydrog5 fill+ ! sph]e1 & ! capacity ( ! sph]e1 x 0 easy to f9d ! weight ( a litre ( hydrog52 &1 kn[+ ! weight ( a litre ( air at ! same temp]ature & pressure1 x 0 easy to calculate ! d5sity ( hydrog54 ,regnault1 by ^! exp]im5ts1 f\nd ! av]age d5sity ( hydrog5 to be #jjfibf 9 relation to air2 ,le ,duc1 #jjfidh 7) a possible error ( #jjjjja71 & ?is latt] figure mu/ n[ be look$ ^u z ne> to ! tru?4 ,9 ?is "w ,i %all always ref] ! d5sities ( all gases to hydrog51 & n to air2 ,i w !re=e give1 = ! sake ( cle>ness1 ! weight ( a litre ( dry pure hydrog5 9 grams at a temp]ature t & "u a pressure ,h 7measur$ 9 millimetres ( m]cury at #j1 9 lat4 #de74 ,! weight ( a litre ( hydrog5 #jjhihf 7,h_/#gfj7 #a_/7a #jjjcfgt7 gram4 ,= aronauts x is v useful to "k1 besides ?is1 ! weight ( ! air at diff]5t heights1 & ,i !re=e ins]t ! adjo9+ table1 con/ruct$ on ! basis ( ,glai%]'s data1 = ! temp]ature & moi/ure ( ! atmosph]ic /rata 9 cle> wea!r4 ,all ! figures are giv5 9 ! metrical sy/em--#a1jjj millimetres #cicg in*es1 #a1jjj kilograms #bbjdccge lbs41 #a1jjj cubic metres #ce1caff cubic feet4 ,! />t+ temp]ature at ! e>?'s surface is tak5 z #ae ,c41 its moi/ure #fj p4c41 pressure #gfj millimetres4 ,! pressures are tak5 z indicat$ by an an]oid b>omet]1 assum$ to be correct$ at ! sea level & at lat4 #de ,c4 ,if ! height above ! level ( ! sea equal z kilometres1 !n ! weight ( #a cubic metre ( air may be approximately tak5 z #abbb- #jabz #jjjcggz#b kilogram4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,pressure,temp]ature,moi/ure ,height ,weight ( ! air 7metres77#a1jjj cubic metres7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #gfj mm4 #ae ,c4 #fj p4c4 #j #abbb kilos4 #gjj #aaj #fd #fij #aada #fej #gf #fd #acjj #ajgc #fjj #dc #fc #aifj #ajjc #eej -#aj #fb #bffj #ica #ejj -#bd #eh #cdbj #heg #dej -#eh #eb #dbej #gha #djj -#ia #dd #eagj #gjc #cej -#abe #cf #faij #fbd #cjj -#aei #bg #gcfj #edb #bej -#aib #ah #hgbj #deg ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,al?\gh ! figures 9 ?is table are calculat$ ) e possible c>e f av]age data1 yet !y c only be tak5 approximately1 = 9 e sep>ate case ! conditions1 bo? at ! e>?'s surface & 9 ! atmosph]e1 w diff] f ^? "h tak54 ,9 calculat+ ! height to :i* a balloon c asc5d1 x is evid5t t ! d5sity ( gas 9 relation to air mu/ be kn[n4 ,?is d5sity = ord9>y coal gas is f #jf to #jce1 & = hydrog5 ) its ord9>y cont5ts ( moi/ure & air f #ja to #jae4 ,h5ce1 = in/ance1 x may be calculat$ t a balloon ( #a1jjj cubic metres capacity fill$ ) pure hydrog51 & weigh+ 7! envelope1 tackle1 p1 & balla/7 #gbg kilograms1 w only asc5d to a height ( ab\t #d1bej metres4 #bd ,if a crack$ flask be fill$ ) hydrog5 & its neck imm]s$ "u wat] or m]cury1 !n ! liquid w rise up into ! flask1 ow+ to ! hydrog5 pass+ ?r\gh ! cracks ab\t #ch times quick] ?an ! air is able to pass ?r\gh ^! cracks into ! flask4 ,! same ph5om5on may be bett] obs]v$ if1 in/ead ( a flask1 a tube be employ$1 ^: end is clos$ by a por\s sub/ance1 su* z graphite1 unglaz$ e>!nw>e1 or a gypsum plate4 #be ,accord+ to ,boyle & ,m>iotte's law1 = a giv5 gas at a con/ant temp]ature ! volume decreases by z _m times z ! pressure increases2 t is1 ?is law requires t ! product ( ! volume v & ! pressure p = a giv5 gas %\ld be a con/ant quantity3 pv ,c1 a con/ant quantity :i* does n v>y ) a *ange ( pressure4 ,?is equation does v ne>ly & exactly express ! obs]v$ relation betwe5 ! volume & pressure1 b only )9 comp>atively small v>iations ( pressure1 d5sity1 & volume4 ,if ^! v>iations be 9 any degree consid]able1 ! quantity pv proves to be dep5d5t on ! pressure1 & x ei!r increases or dim9i%es ) an increase ( pressure4 ,9 ! =m] case ! compressibility is less ?an x %\ld he accord+ to ,m>iotte's law1 9 ! latt] case x is great]4 ,we w call ! fir/ case a positive discrepancy 7because !n d7pv7_/d7p7 is great] ?an z]o71 & ! second case a negative discrepancy 7because !n d7pv7_/d7p7 is less ?an z]o74 ,det]m9ations made by myself 79 ! sev5ties71 ,m4 ,l4 ,kirpi*eff1 & ,v4 ,a4 ,hemilian %[$ t all kn[n gases at l[ pressures--i4e4 :5 consid]ably r>efi$--pres5t positive discrepancies4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x appe>s f ! rese>*es ( ,cailletet1 ,natt]]1 & ,amagat t all gases "u great pressures 7:5 ! volume obta9$ is #ejj-a1jjj times less ?an "u ! atmosph]ic pressure7 also pres5t positive discrepancies4 ,?us "u a pressure ( #b1gjj atmosph]es air is compress$1 n #b1gjj times1 b only #hjj1 & hydrog5 #a1jjj times4 ,h5ce ! positive k9d ( discrepancy is1 s to say1 normal to gases4 ,& ?is is easily intelligible4 ,if a gas foll[$ ,m>iotte's law1 or if x 7 compress$ to a great] ext5t ?an is %[n by ?is law1 !n "u great pressures x w\ld atta9 a d5sity great] ?an t ( solid & liquid sub/ances1 :i* is 9 itself improbable & ev5 impossible by reason ( ! fact t solid & liquid sub/ances are !mselves b little compressible4 ,= in/ance1 a cubic c5timetre ( oxyg5 at #j & "u ! atmosph]ic pressure weighs ab\t #jjjad gram1 & at a pressure ( #c1jjj atmosph]es 7?is pressure is atta9$ 9 guns7 x w\ld1 if x foll[$ ,m>iotte's law1 weigh #db grams--t is1 w\ld be ab\t f\r times heavi] ?an wat]--& at a pressure ( #aj1jjj atmosph]es x w\ld be heavi] ?an m]cury4 ,besides ?is1 positive discrepancies are probable because ! molecules ( a gas !mselves mu/ occupy a c]ta9 volume4 ,consid]+ t ,m>iotte's law1 /rictly speak+1 applies only to ! int]molecul> space1 we c und]/& ! necessity ( positive discrepancies4 ,if we designate ! volume ( ! molecules ( a gas by b 7l van d] ,waals1 see ,*ap4 ,i41 ,note #cd71 !n x mu/ be expect$ t p7v-b7 ,c4 ,h5ce pv ,c bp1 :i* expresses a positive discrepancy4 ,suppos+ t = hydrog5 pv #a1jjj1 at a pressure ( "o metre ( m]cury1 accord+ to ! results ( ,regnault's1 ,amagat's1 & ,natt]]'s exp]im5ts1 we obta9 b z approximately #jg to #ji4 ,?us ! increase ( pv ) ! increase ( pressure mu/ be consid]$ z ! normal law ( ! compressibility ( gases4 ,hydrog5 pres5ts su* a positive compressibility at all pressures1 = x pres5ts positive discrepancies f ,m>iotte's law1 accord+ to ,regnault1 at all pressures above ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,h5ce hydrog5 is1 s to say1 a p]fect gas4 ,no o!r gas behaves s simply ) a *ange ( pressure4 ,all o!r gases at pressures f #a to #cj atmosph]es pres5t negative discrepancies--t is1 !y are !n compress$ to a great] degree ?an %\ld foll[ f ,m>iotte's law1 z 0 %[n by ! det]m9ations ( ,regnault1 :i* 7 v]ifi$ :5 repeat$ by myself & ,boguzsky4 ,?us1 = example1 on *ang+ ! pressure f #d to #bj metres ( m]cury--t is1 on increas+ ! pressure five times--! volume only decreas$ #dic times :5 hydrog5 0 tak51 & #ejf :5 air 0 tak54 ,! positive discrepancies f ! law at l[ pressures are ( p>ticul> int]e/1 &1 accord+ to ! above-m5tion$ det]m9ations made by myself1 ,kirpi*eff1 & ,hemilian1 & v]ifi$ 7by two me?ods7 by ,k4 ,d4 ,kraevit* & ,pr(4 ,ramsay 7,london1 #ahid71 !y are prop] to all gases 7ev5 to ^? :i* are easily compress$ into a liquid /ate1 su* z c>bonic & sulphur\s anhydrides74 ,^! discrepancies approa* ! case ( a v high r>efaction ( gases1 :]e a gas is ne> to a condition ( maximum disp]sion ( its molecules1 & p]haps pres5ts a passage t[>ds ! sub/ance t]m$ 'lum9if]\s e!r' :i* fills up int]planet>y & int]/ell> space4 ,if we suppose t gases are r>efiable to a def9ite limit only1 hav+ atta9$ :i* !y 7l solids7 d n alt] 9 volume ) a decrease ( pressure1 !n on ! "o h& ! passage ( ! atmosph]e at its upp] limits into a homog5e\s e!real m$ium becomes compreh5sible1 & on ! o!r h& x w\ld be expect$ t gases w\ld1 9 a /ate ( high r>efaction 7i4e4 :5 small masses ( gases occupy l>ge volumes1 or :5 fur!/ remov$ f a liquid /ate71 pres5t positive discrepancies f ,boyle & ,m>iotte's law4 ,our pres5t acqua9tance ) ?is prov9ce ( highly r>efi$ gases is v limit$ 7because direct measurem5ts are exce$+ly difficult to make1 & are hamp]$ by possible errors ( exp]im5t1 :i* may be consid]able71 & its fur!r developm5t promises to elucidate mu* 9 respect to natural ph5om5a4 ,to ! ?ree /ates ( matt] 7solid1 liquid1 & gase\s7 x is evid5t a f\r? mu/ yet be add$1 ! e!real or ultra-gase\s 7z ,crookes propos$71 und]/&+ by ?is1 matt] 9 its highe/ possible /ate ( r>efaction4 #bf ,! law ( ,gay-,lussac /ates t all gases 9 all conditions pres5t "o coeffici5t ( expansion #jjjcfg2 t is1 :5 heat$ f #j to #ajj !y exp& l air2 namely1 a ?\s& volumes ( a gas measur$ at #j w occupy #acfg volumes at #ajj4 ,regnault1 ab\t #ahej1 %[$ t ,gay-,lussac's law is n entirely correct1 & t diff]5t gases1 & also "o & ! same gas at diff]5t pressures1 h n q ! same coeffici5ts ( expansion4 ,?us ! expansion ( air betwe5 #j & #ajj is #jcfg "u ! ord9>y pressure ( "o atmosph]e1 & at ?ree atmosph]es x is #jcga1 ! expansion ( hydrog5 is #jcff1 & ( c>bonic anhydride #jcg4 ,regnault1 h[ev]1 did n directly det]m9e ! *ange ( volume betwe5 #j & #ajj1 b measur$ ! v>iation ( t5sion ) ! *ange ( temp]ature2 b s9ce gases d n entirely foll[ ,m>iotte's law1 ! *ange ( volume _c be directly judg$ by ! v>iation ( t5sion4 ,! inve/igations c>ri$ on by myself & ,kay&]1 ab\t #ahgj1 %[$ ! v>iation ( volume on heat+ f #j to #ajj "u a con/ant pressure4 ,^! inve/igations confirm$ ,regnault's conclusion t ,gay-,lussac's law is n entirely correct1 & fur!r %[$ 7#a7 t ! expansion p] volume f #j to #ajj "u a pressure ( "o atmosph]e1 = air #jcfh1 = hydrog5 #jcfg1 = c>bonic anhydride #jcgc1 = hydrog5 bromide #jchf1 c42 7#b7 t = gases :i* are m compressible ?an %\ld foll[ f ,m>iotte's law ! expansion by heat increases ) ! pressure--= example1 = air at a pressure ( ?ree & a half atmosph]es1 x equals #jcga1 = c>bonic anhydride at "o atmosph]e x equals #jcgc1 at ?ree atmosph]es #jchi1 & at eight atmosph]es #jdac2 7#c7 t = gases :i* are less compressible ?an %\ld foll[ f ,m>iotte's law1 ! expansion by heat decreases ) an increase ( pressure--= example1 = hydrog5 at "o atmosph]e #jcfg1 at eight atmosph]es #jcfi1 = air at a qu>t] ( an atmosph]e #jcgj1 at "o atmosph]e #jcfh2 & hydrog5 l air 7& all gases7 is less compress$ at l[ pressures ?an %\ld foll[ f ,m>iotte's law 7see ,note #be74 ,h5ce1 hydrog51 />t+ f z]o to ! highe/ pressures1 exhibits a gradually1 al?\gh only slightly1 v>y+ coeffici5t ( expansion1 :il/ = air & o!r gases at ! atmosph]ic & high] pressures1 ! coeffici5t ( expansion increases ) ! increase ( pressure1 s long z _! compressibility is great] ?an %\ld foll[ f ,m>iotte's law4 ,b :5 at consid]able pressures1 ?is k9d ( discrepancy passes into ! normal 7see ,note #be71 !n ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( all gases decreases ) an increase ( pressure1 z is se5 f ! rese>*es ( ,amagat4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two coeffici5ts ( expansion1 = a con/ant pressure & = a con/ant volume1 is expla9$ by ^! relations4 ,?us1 = example1 = air at a pressure ( "o atmosph]e ! true coeffici5t ( expansion 7! volume v>y+ at con/ant pressure7 #jjjcfh 7accord+ to ,m5deleff & ,kay&]7 & ! v>iation ( t5sion 7at a con/ant volume1 accord+ to ,regnault7 #jjjcfg4 #bg ,p]man5t gases are ^? :i* _c be liquefi$ by an increase ( pressure alone4 ,) a rise ( temp]ature1 all gases & vap\rs become p]man5t gases4 ,z we %all aft]w>ds le>n1 c>bonic anhydride becomes a p]man5t gas at temp]atures above #ca1 & at l[] temp]atures x has a maximum t5sion1 & may be liquefi$ by pressure alone4 ,! liquefaction ( gases1 accompli%$ by ,f>aday 7see ,ammonia1 ,*apt] ,,vi47 & o!rs1 9 ! fir/ half ( ?is c5tury1 %[$ t a numb] ( sub/ances are capable1 l wat]1 ( tak+ all ?ree physical /ates1 & t !re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 vap\rs & gases1 ! only di/9ction be+ t ! boil+ po9ts 7or ! temp]ature at :i* ! t5sion #gfj mm47 ( liquids lie above ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ^? ( liquefi$ gases bel[1 & consequ5tly a gas is a sup]heat$ vap\r1 or vap\r heat$ above ! boil+ po9t1 or remov$ f saturation1 r>efi$1 hav+ a l[] t5sion ?an t maximum :i* is prop] to a giv5 temp]ature & sub/ance4 ,we w "h cite ! maximum t5sions ( c]ta9 liquids & gases at v>i\s temp]atures1 because !y may be tak5 advantage ( = obta9+ con/ant temp]atures by *ang+ ! pressure at :i* boil+ or ! =mation ( saturat$ vap\rs takes place4 7,i may rem>k t ! dep5d5ce betwe5 ! t5sion ( ! saturat$ vap\rs ( v>i\s sub/ances & ! temp]ature is v complex1 & usually requires ?ree or f\r indep5d5t con/ants1 :i* v>y ) ! nature ( ! sub/ance1 & are f\nd f ! dep5d5ce ( ! t5sion p on ! temp]ature t giv5 by exp]im5t2 b 9 #ahib ,k4 ,d4 ,kraevit* %[$ t ?is dep5d5ce is det]m9$ by ! prop]ties ( a sub/ance1 su* z its d5sity1 specific heat1 & lat5t heat ( evaporation47 ,! temp]atures 7accord+ to ! air !rmomet]7 are plac$ on ! left1 & ! t5sion 9 millimetres ( m]cury 7at #j7 on ! "r-h& side ( ! equations4 ,c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b1 #j #abgi2 #aj #aihe2 #bj #biha2 #cj #dcaf2 #dj #fage2 #ej #hega4 ,*lorob5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#e;,cl1 #gj #igi2 #hj #adah2 #ij #bjhd2 #ajj #bibh2 #aaj #djbf2 #abj #edbh2 #acj #gaij4 ,anil9e1 ,c#f;,h#g,n1 #aej #bhcg2 #afj #chgj2 #agj #eaef2 #ahj #fggb2 #ahe #ggae4 ,me?yl salicylate1 ,c#h;,h#h,o#c1 #ahj #bidd2 #aij #ccji2 #bjj #dcbd2 #baj #eege2 #bbj #gajb2 #bbd #ggii4 ,m]cury1 ,hg1 #cjj #bdfh2 #caj #cjdi2 #cbj #cgcg2 #ccj #dedd2 #cdj #edhf2 #cej #fehj2 #cei #ggji4 ,sulphur1 ,s1 #cie #cjj2 #dbc #ejj2 #ddc #gjj2 #deb #hjj2 #dei #ijj4 ,^! figures 7,ramsay & ,"y7 %[ ! possibility ( obta9+ con/ant temp]atures 9 ! vap\rs ( boil+ liquids by alt]+ ! pressure4 ,we may add ! foll[+ boil+ po9ts "u a pressure ( #gfj mm4 7accord+ to ! air !rmomet] by ,coll5d> & ,griffi?s1 #ahia73 anil9e1 #ahd #ac2 naph?al5e1 #bag #id2 b5zoph5one1 #cje #hb2 m]cury1 #cef #gf2 triph5yl-me?ane1 #cef #dd2 sulphur1 #ddd #ec4 ,& melt+ po9ts3 t91 #bca #fh2 bismu?1 #bfi #bb2 lead1 #cbg #fi2 & z9c1 #dag #eg4 ,^! data may be us$ = obta9+ a con/ant temp]ature & = v]ify+ !rmomet]s4 ,! same object may be atta9$ by ! melt+ po9ts ( c]ta9 salts1 det]m9$ accord+ to ! air !rmomet] by ,v4 ,mey] & ,riddle 7#ahic73 ,na,cl1 #hea2 ,na,br1 #gbg2 ,na,i1 #fej2 ,k,cl1 #gfj2 ,k,br1 #gae2 ,,ki1 #fbc2 ,k#b;,,co#c1 #ajde2 ,na#b;,,co#c1 #ajih2 ,na#b;,b#d,o#g1 #hgc2 ,na#b,,s#d1 #hdc2 ,k#b,,s#d1 #ajgc4 ,! t5sion ( liquefi$ gases is express$ 9 atmosph]es4 ,sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1-cj #jd2-bj #jf2-aj #a2 #j #ae2 #aj #bc2 #bj #cb2 #cj #ec4 ,ammonia1 ,,nh#c1-dj #jg2-cj #aa2-bj #ah2 -#aj #bh2 #j #db2 #aj #fj2 #bj #hd4 ,c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1-aae #jjcc2 -#hj #a2-gj #ba2-fj #ci2-ej #fh2-dj #aj2-bj #bc2 #j #ce2 #aj #df2 #bj #eh4 ,nitr\s oxide1 ,n#b,o1-#abe #jjcc2-ib #a2-hj #ai2-ej #gf2 -#bj #bca2 #j #cfa2 #bj #eec4 ,e?yl5e1 ,c#b;,h#d1-adj #jjcc2-acj #ja2 -#ajc #a2-dj #ac2-a #db4 ,air1-#aia #a2-aeh #ad2-adj #ci4 ,nitrog51 ,n#b1-bjc #jjhe2-aic #a2-afj #ad2-adf #cb4 ,! me?ods ( liquefy+ gases 7by pressure & cold7 w be describ$ "u ammonia1 nitr\s oxide1 sulphur\s anhydride1 & 9 lat] footnotes4 ,we w n[ turn our att5tion to ! fact t ! evaporation ( volatile liquids1 "u v>i\s1 & especially "u l[1 pressures1 gives an easy means = obta9+ l[ temp]atures4 ,?us liquefi$ c>bonic anhydride1 "u ! ord9>y pressure1 r$uces ! temp]ature to -#hj1 & :5 x evaporates 9 a r>efi$ atmosph]e 7"u an air-pump7 to #be mm4 7 #jjcc atmosph]e7 ! temp]ature1 judg+ by ! above-cit$ figures1 falls to -#aae 7,dew>74 ,ev5 ! evaporation ( liquids ( common occurr5ce1 "u l[ pressures easily atta9able ) an air-pump1 may produce l[ temp]atures1 :i* may be aga9 tak5 advantage ( = obta9+ /ill l[] temp]atures4 ,wat] boil+ 9 a vacuum becomes cold1 & "u a pressure ( less ?an #de mm4 x freezes1 because its t5sion at #j is #de mm4 ,a suffici5tly l[ temp]ature may be obta9$ by =c+ f9e /reams ( air ?r\gh common e!r1 or liquid c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b1 or me?yl *loride1 ,,*#c;,cl1 & o!r simil> volatile liquids4 ,9 ! adjo9+ table are giv51 = c]ta9 gases1 7#a7 ! numb] ( atmosph]es necess>y = _! liquefaction at #ae1 & 7#b7 ! boil+ po9ts ( ! resultant liquids "u a pressure ( #gfj mm4 ,c#b;,h#d ,n#b,o ,,co#b1 ,h#b,s 7#a7 #db #ca #eb #aj 7#b7 -#ajc -#ib -#hj -#gd ,as,h#c1 ,,nh#c ,h,cl ,,*#c;,cl ,c#b,n#b ,,s#b 7#a7 #h #g #be #d #d #c 7#b7 -#eh -#ch -#ce -#bd -#ba -#aj #bh ,natt]]'s det]m9ations 7#ahea-ahed71 toge!r ) ,amagat's results 7#ahhj-ahhh71 %[ t ! compressibility ( hydrog51 "u high pressures1 may be express$ by ! foll[+ figures3-- p #a #ajj #ajjj #bejj v #a #jjajg #jjjai #jjjac pv #a #ajg #ai #cbe s #jaa #ajc #eh #he :]e p ! pressure 9 metres ( m]cury1 v ! volume1 if ! volume tak5 "u a pressure ( #a metre #a1 & s ! weight ( a litre ( hydrog5 at #bj 9 grams4 ,if hydrog5 foll[$ ,m>iotte's law1 !n "u a pressure ( #b1ejj metres1 "o litre w\ld conta9 n #he1 b #bfe grams4 ,x is evid5t f ! above figures t ! weight ( a litre ( ! gas approa*es a limit z ! pressure increases1 :i* is d\btless ! d5sity ( ! gas :5 liquefi$1 & !re=e ! weight ( a litre ( liquid hydrog5 w probably be ne> #ajj grams 7d5sity ab\t #ja1 be+ less ?an t ( all o!r liquids74 #bi ,cagni>d de ,lat\r1 on heat+ e!r 9 a clos$ tube to ab\t #aij1 obs]v$ t at ?is temp]ature ! liquid is trans=m$ into vap\r occupy+ ! orig9al volume--t is1 hav+ ! same d5sity z ! liquid4 ,! fur!r inve/igations made by ,drion & myself %[$ t e liquid has su* an absolute boil+ po9t1 above :i* x _c exi/ z a liquid & is trans=m$ into a d5se gas4 ,9 ord] to grasp ! true signification ( ?is absolute boil+ temp]ature1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! liquid /ate is *>act]is$ by a cohesion ( its p>ticles :i* does n exi/ 9 vap\rs & gases4 ,! cohesion ( liquids is express$ 9 _! capill>y ph5om5a 7! breaks 9 a column ( liquid1 drop =mation1 & rise 9 capill>y tubes1 c471 & ! product ( ! d5sity ( a liquid into ! height to :i* x rises 9 a capill>y tube 7( a def9ite diamet]7 may s]ve z ! measure ( ! magnitude ( cohesion4 ,?us1 9 a tube ( #a mm4 diamet]1 wat] at #ae rises 7! height be+ correct$ = ! m5iscus7 #adh mm41 & e!r at t to a height #ece-jjbht mm4 ,! cohesion ( a liquid is less5$ by heat+1 & !re=e ! capill>y heights are also dim9i%$4 ,x has be5 %[n by exp]im5t t ?is decrem5t is proportional to ! temp]ature1 & h5ce by ! aid ( capill>y obs]vations we are able to =m an idea t at a c]ta9 rise ( temp]ature ! cohesion may become #j4 ,= e!r1 accord+ to ! above =mula1 ?is w\ld occur at #aia4 ,if ! cohesion disappe> f a liquid x becomes a gas1 = cohesion is ! only po9t ( diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two /ates4 ,a liquid 9 evaporat+ & ov]com+ ! =ce ( cohesion absorbs heat4 ,!re=e1 ! absolute boil+ po9t 0 def9$ by me 7#ahfa7 z t temp]ature at :i* 7a7 a liquid _c exi/ z a liquid1 b =ms a gas :i* _c pass into a liquid /ate "u any pressure :atev]2 7b7 cohesion #j2 & 7c7 ! lat5t heat ( evaporation #j4 ,?is def9ition 0 b little kn[n until ,&rews 7#ahfi7 expla9$ ! matt] f ano!r aspect4 ,/>t+ f gases1 he discov]$ t c>bonic anhydride _c be liquefi$ by any degree ( compression at temp]atures above #ca1 :il/ at l[] temp]atures x c be liquefi$4 ,he call$ ?is temp]ature ! critical temp]ature4 ,x is evid5t t x is ! same z ! absolute boil+ po9t4 ,we %all aft]w>ds designate x by tc4 ,at l[ temp]atures a gas :i* is subject$ to a pressure great] ?an its maximum t5sion 7,note #bg7 is trans=m$ into a liquid1 :i*1 9 evaporat+1 gives a saturat$ vap\r possess+ ?is maximum t5sion2 :il/ at temp]atures above tc ! pressure to :i* ! gas is subject$ may increase indef9itely4 ,h[ev]1 "u ^! conditions ! volume ( ! gas does n *ange indef9itely b approa*es a def9ite limit 7see ,note #bh7--t is1 x resembles 9 ?is respect a liquid or a solid :i* is alt]$ b little 9 volume by pressure4 ,! volume :i* a liquid or gas occupies at tc is t]m$ ! critical volume1 & corresponds ) ! critical pressure1 :i* we w designate by pc & express 9 atmosph]es4 ,x is evid5t f :at has be5 said t ! discrepancies f ,m>iotte & ,boyle's law1 ! absolute boil+ po9t1 ! d5sity 9 liquid & compress$ gase\s /ates1 & ! prop]ties ( liquids1 mu/ all he intimately connect$ toge!r4 ,we w consid] ^! relations 9 "o ( ! foll[+ notes4 ,at pres5t we w supplem5t ! above obs]vations by ! values ( tc & pc = c]ta9 liquids & gases :i* h be5 inve/igat$ 9 ?is respect-- ---------------------------------------- --------------- tc pc tc pc ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,n#b -#adf #cc ,h#b,s #ajh #ib ,,co -#adj #ci ,c#b,n#b #abd #fb ,o#b -#aai #ej ,,nh#c #aca #aad ,,*#d -#ajj #ej ,,*#c;,cl #ada #gc ,,no -#ic #ga ,,s#b #aee #gi ,c#b;,h#d #aj #ea ,c#e;,h#aj #aib #cd ,,co#b #cb #gg ,c#d;,h#aj,o #aic #dj ,n#b,o #ec #ge ,c,h,cl#c #bfh #ee ,c#b;,h#b #cg #fh ,,cs#b #bgh #gh ,h,cl #eb #hf ,c#f;,h#f #bib #fj ,h#b,o #cfe #bjj ,c#f;,h#e;,f #bhg #de ,,*#c,,oh #bdj #gi ,c#f;,h#e;,cl #cfj #de ,c#b;,h#e,,oh #bdc #fc ,c#f;,h#e;,br #cig #de ,,*#c;,,cooh #cbb #eg ,c#f;,h#e;,i #ddh #de ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,"y & ,guy 7#ahia7 %[$ t tc & pc cle>ly dep5d ^u ! composition & molecul> weight4 #cj ,i came to ?is conclusion 9 #ahgj 7,ann4 ,phys4 ,*em4 #ada1 #fbc74 #ca ,pictet1 9 8 rese>*es1 effect$ ! direct liquefaction ( _m gases :i* up to t "t _h n be5 liquefi$4 ,he employ$ ! app>atus us$ = ! manufacture ( ice on a l>ge scale1 employ+ ! vaporisation ( liquid sulphur\s anhydride1 :i* may be liquefi$ by pressure alone4 ,?is anhydride is a gas :i* is trans=m$ into a liquid at ! ord9>y temp]ature "u a pressure ( sev]al atmosph]es 7see ,note #bg71 & boils at -#aj at ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure4 ,?is liquid1 l all o!rs1 boils at a l[] temp]ature "u a dim9i%$ pressure1 & by cont9ually pump+ out ! gas :i* comes (f by means ( a p[]ful air-pump its boil+ po9t falls z l[ z -#ge4 ,consequ5tly1 if on ! "o h& we =ce liquid sulphur\s anhydride into a vessel1 & on ! o!r h& pump out ! gas f ! same vessel by p[]ful air-pumps1 !n ! liquefi$ gas w boil 9 ! vessel1 & cause ! temp]ature 9 x to fall to -#ge4 ,if a second vessel is plac$ inside ?is vessel1 !n ano!r gas may be easily liquefi$ 9 x at ! l[ temp]ature produc$ by ! boil+ liquid sulphur\s anhydride4 ,pictet 9 ?is mann] easily liquefi$ c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b 7at -#fj "u a pressure ( f f\r to six atmosph]es74 ,?is gas is m refractory to liquefaction ?an sulphur\s anhydride1 b = ?is reason x gives on evaporat+ a /ill l[] temp]ature ?an c be atta9$ by ! evaporation ( sulphur\s anhydride4 ,a temp]ature ( -#hj may be obta9$ by ! evaporation ( liquid c>bonic anhydride at a pressure ( #gfj mm41 & 9 an atmosph]e r>efi$ by a p[]ful pump ! temp]ature falls to -#adj4 ,by employ+ su* l[ temp]atures1 x 0 possible1 ) ! aid ( pressure1 to liquefy ! majority ( ! o!r gases4 ,x is evid5t t special pumps :i* are capable ( r>efy+ gases are necess>y to r$uce ! pressure 9 ! *amb]s 9 :i* ! sulphur\s & c>bonic anhydride boil2 & t1 9 ord] to re-cond5se ! resultant gases into liquids1 special =ce pumps are requir$ = pump+ ! liquid anhydrides into ! refrig]at+ *amb]4 ,?us1 9 ,pictet's app>atus 7fig4 #bd71 ! c>bonic anhydride 0 liquefi$ by ! aid ( ! pumps ,e ,f1 :i* compress$ ! gas 7at a pressure ( #d-f atmosph]es7 & =c$ x into ! tube ,k1 vigor\sly cool$ by be+ surr\nd$ by boil+ liquid sulphur\s anhydride1 :i* 0 cond5s$ 9 ! tube ,c by ! pump ,b1 & r>efi$ by ! pump ,a4 ,! liquefi$ c>bonic anhydride fl[$ d[n ! tube ,k into ! tube ,h1 9 :i* x 0 subject$ to a l[ pressure by ! pump ,e1 & ?us gave a v l[ temp]ature ( ab\t -#adj4 ,! pump ,e c>ri$ (f ! vap\r ( ! c>bonic anhydride1 & conduct$ x to ! pump ,f1 by :i* x 0 aga9 liquefi$4 ,! c>bonic anhydride ?us made an entire circuit--t is1 x pass$ f a r>efi$ vap\r ( small t5sion & l[ temp]ature into a compress$ & cool$ gas1 :i* 0 trans=m$ into a liquid1 :i* aga9 vaporis$ & produc$ a l[ temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,g5]al arrangem5t ( ! app>atus employ$ by ,pictet = liquefy+ gases4 ,inside ! wide incl9$ tube ,h1 :]e ! c>bonic acid evaporat$1 0 plac$ a second & n>r[ tube ,m conta9+ hydrog51 :i* 0 g5]at$ 9 ! vessel ,l f a mixture ( sodium =mate & cau/ic soda 7,,*o#b,na ,na,h,o ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b74 ,?is mixture gives hydrog5 on heat+ ! vessel ,l4 ,?is vessel & ! tube ,m 7 made ( ?ick copp]1 & c\ld )/& great pressures4 ,!y 71 moreov]1 h]metically connect$ toge!r & clos$ up4 ,?us ! hydrog5 :i* 0 evolv$ _h no outlet1 accumulat$ 9 a limit$ space1 & its pressure increas$ 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( x evolv$4 ,?is pressure 0 record$ on a metallic manomet] ,r atta*$ to ! end ( ! tube ,m4 ,z ! hydrog5 9 ?is tube 0 submitt$ to a v l[ temp]ature & a p[]ful pressure1 all ! necess>y conditions 7 pres5t = its liquefaction4 ,:5 ! pressure 9 ! tube ,h became /eady--i4e4 :5 ! temp]ature _h fall5 to -#adj & ! manomet] ,r indicat$ a pressure ( #fej atmosph]es 9 ! tube ,m--!n ?is pressure did n rise ) a fur!r evolution ( hydrog5 9 ! vessel ,l4 ,?is s]v$ z an indication t ! t5sion ( ! vap\r ( ! hydrog5 _h atta9$ a maximum correspond+ ) -#adj1 & t consequ5tly all ! excess ( ! gas 0 cond5s$ to a liquid4 ,pictet conv9c$ himself ( ?is by op5+ ! cock ,n1 :5 ! liquid hydrog5 ru%$ out f ! orifice4 ,b1 on leav+ a space :]e ! pressure 0 equal to #fej atmosph]es1 & com+ into contact ) air "u ! ord9>y pressure1 ! liquid or p[]fully compress$ hydrog5 exp&$1 began to boil1 absorb$ /ill m heat1 & became /ill cold]4 ,9 do+ s a portion ( ! liquid hydrog51 accord+ to ,pictet1 pass$ into a solid /ate1 & did n fall 9 drops into a vessel plac$ "u ! outlet ,n1 b z pieces ( solid matt]1 :i* /ruck aga9/ ! sides ( ! vessel l %ot & imm$iately vaporis$4 ,?us1 al?\gh x 0 impossible to see & keep ! liquefi$ hydrog51 /ill x 0 cle> t x pass$ n only into a liquid1 b also into a solid /ate4 ,pictet 9 8 exp]im5ts obta9$ o!r gases :i* _h n previ\sly be5 liquefi$1 especially oxyg5 & nitrog51 9 a liquid & solid /ate4 ,pictet suppos$ t liquid & solid hydrog5 has ! prop]ties ( a metal1 l iron4 #cb ,at ! same "t 7#ahgi7 z ,pictet 0 work+ on ! liquefaction ( gases 9 ,switz]l&1 ,cailletet1 9 ,p>is1 0 occupi$ on ! same subject1 & 8 results1 al?\gh n s conv9c+ z ,pictet's1 /ill %[$ t ! majority ( gases1 previ\sly unliquefi$1 7 capable ( pass+ into a liquid /ate4 ,cailletet subject$ gases to a pressure ( sev]al hundr$ atmosph]es 9 n>r[ ?ick-wall$ glass tubes 7fig4 #be72 he !n cool$ ! compress$ gas z f> z possible by surr\nd+ x ) a freez+ mixture2 a cock 0 !n rapidly op5$ = ! outlet ( m]cury f ! tube conta9+ ! gas1 :i* consequ5tly rapidly & vigor\sly exp&$4 ,?is rapid expansion ( ! gas w\ld produce great cold1 j z ! rapid compression ( a gas evolves heat & causes a rise 9 temp]ature4 ,?is cold 0 produc$ at ! exp5se ( ! gas itself1 = 9 rapidly exp&+ its p>ticles 7 n able to absorb heat f ! walls ( ! tube1 & 9 cool+ a portion ( ! exp&+ gas 0 trans=m$ into liquid4 ,?is 0 se5 f ! =mation ( cl\d-l drops l a fog :i* r5d]$ ! gas opaque4 ,?us ,cailletet prov$ ! possibility ( ! liquefaction ( gases1 b he did n isolate ! liquids4 ,! me?od ( ,cailletet all[s ! passage ( gases into liquids be+ obs]v$ ) great] facility & simplicity ?an ,pictet's me?od1 :i* requires a v complicat$ & exp5sive app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,cailletet's app>atus = liquefy+ gases4 ,! me?ods ( ,pictet & ,cailletet 7 aft]w>ds improv$ by ,olszewski1 ,wroblewski1 ,dew>1 & o!rs4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a /ill l[] temp]ature !y employ$1 in/ead ( c>bonic acid gas1 liquid e?yl5e or nitrog5 & oxyg51 ^: evaporation at l[ pressures produces a mu* l[] temp]ature 7to -#bjj74 ,!y also improv$ on ! me?ods ( det]m9+ su* l[ temp]atures1 b ! me?ods 7 n ess5tially alt]$2 !y obta9$ nitrog5 & oxyg5 9 a liquid1 & nitrog5 ev5 9 a solid1 /ate1 b no "o has yet succe$$ 9 see+ hydrog5 9 a liquid =m4 ,! mo/ illu/rative & in/ructive results 7because !y gave ! possibility ( ma9ta9+ a v l[ temp]ature & ! liquefi$ gas1 ev5 air1 = a l5g? ( "t7 7 obta9$ 9 rec5t ye>s by ,pr(4 ,dew> 9 ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,london1 :i* is glorifi$ by ! names ( ,davy1 ,f>aday1 & ,tyndall4 ,dew>1 ) ! aid ( p[]ful pumps1 obta9$ _m kilograms ( oxyg5 & air 7! boil+ po9t "u ! atmosph]ic pressure -#aij7 9 a liquid /ate & kept !m 9 ?is /ate = a l5g? ( "t by means ( op5 glass vessels ) d\ble walls1 hav+ a vacuum betwe5 !m1 :i* prev5t$ ! rapid transf]5ce ( heat1 & s gave ! possibility ( ma9ta9+ v l[ temp]atures inside ! vessel = a long p]iod ( "t4 ,! liquefi$ oxyg5 or air c be p\r$ f "o vessel into ano!r & us$ = any inve/igations4 ,?us 9 ,june #ahid1 ,pr(4 ,dew> %[$ t at ! l[ temp]ature produc$ by liquid oxyg5 _m sub/ances become phosphoresc5t 7become self-lum9\s2 = in/ance1 oxyg5 on pass+ into a vacuum7 & fluoresce 7emit light aft] be+ illum9at$2 = in/ance1 p>aff91 glue1 c47 mu* m p[]fully ?an at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 also t solids !n greatly alt] 9 _! me*anical prop]ties1 c4 ,i _h ! opportunity 7#ahid7 at ,pr(4 ,dew>'s ( see+ _m su* exp]im5ts 9 :i* op5 vessels conta9+ p\nds ( liquid oxyg5 7 employ$1 & 9 foll[+ ! progress made 9 rese>*es conduct$ at l[ temp]atures1 x is my firm impression t ! /udy ( _m ph5om5a at l[ temp]atures %\ld wid5 ! horizon ( natural sci5ce z mu* z ! inve/igation ( ph5om5a made at ! highe/ temp]atures atta9$ 9 ! voltaic arc4 #cc ,! inve/igations ( ,s4 ,wroblewski 9 ,crac[ give reason to believe t ,pictet c\ld n h obta9$ liquid hydrog5 9 ! int]ior ( 8 app>atus1 & t if he did obta9 x1 x c\ld only h be5 at ! mom5t ( its outru% due to ! fall 9 temp]ature foll[+ its sudd5 expansion4 ,pictet calculat$ t he obta9$ a temp]ature ( -#adj1 b 9 reality x h>dly fell bel[ -#abj1 judg+ f ! late/ data = ! vaporisation ( c>bonic anhydride "u l[ pressure4 ,! diff]5ce lies 9 ! me?od ( det]m9+ l[ temp]atures4 ,judg+ f o!r prop]ties ( hydrog5 7see ,note #cd71 "o w\ld ?9k t its absolute boil+ po9t lies f> bel[ -#abj1 & ev5 -#adj 7accord+ to ! calculation ( ,s>rau1 on ! basis ( its compressibility1 at -#agd74 ,b ev5 at -#bjj 7if ! me?ods ( det]m9+ su* l[ temp]atures be correct7 hydrog5 does n give a liquid ev5 "u a pressure ( sev]al hundr$ atmosph]es4 ,h[ev]1 on expansion a fog is =m$ & a liquid /ate atta9$1 b ! liquid does n sep>ate4 #cd ,aft] ! idea ( ! absolute temp]ature ( ebullition 7tc1 ,note #bi7 _h be5 work$ out 7ab\t #ahgj71 & its connection ) ! deviations f ,m>iotte's law _h become evid5t1 & especially aft] ! liquefaction ( p]man5t gases1 g5]al att5tion 0 turn$ to ! developm5t ( ! fundam5tal conceptions ( ! gase\s & liquid /ates ( matt]4 ,"s inve/igators direct$ _! en]gies to ! fur!r /udy ( vap\rs 7= in/ance1 ,ramsay & ,"y71 gases 7,amagat71 & liquids 7,za5*effsky1 ,nades*d91 & o!rs71 especially to liquids ne> tc & pc2 o!rs 7,konoval(f & ,de ,he57 endeav\r$ to discov] ! relation betwe5 liquids "u ord9>y conditions 7remov$ f tc & pc7 & gases1 :il/ a ?ird class ( inve/igators 7van d] ,waals1 ,clausius1 & o!rs71 />t+ f ! g5]ally-accept$ pr9ciples ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat & ! k9etic !ory ( gases1 & assum+ 9 gases ! exi/5ce ( ^? =ces :i* c]ta9ly act 9 liquids1 d$uc$ ! connection betwe5 ! prop]ties ( "o & ! o!r4 ,x w\ld be out ( place 9 an elem5t>y h&book l ! pres5t to enunciate ! :ole mass ( conclusions arriv$ at by ?is me?od1 b x is well to give an idea ( ! results ( van d] ,waals' consid]ations1 = !y expla9 ! gradual un9t]rupt$ passage f a liquid into a gase\s /ate 9 ! simple/ mann]1 &1 al?\gh ! d$uction _c be consid]$ z complete & decisive 7see ,note #be71 nev]!less x p5etrates s deeply into ! ess5ce ( ! matt] t its signification is n only reflect$ 9 a great numb] ( physical inve/igations1 b also 9 ! prov9ce ( *emi/ry1 :]e in/ances ( ! passage ( sub/ances f a gase\s to a liquid /ate are s common1 & :]e ! v processes ( dissociation1 decomposition1 & comb9ation mu/ be id5tifi$ ) a *ange ( physical /ate ( ! p>ticipat+ sub/ances1 :i* has be5 elaborat$ by ,gibbs1 ,lav5ig1 & o!rs4 ,= a giv5 quantity 7weight1 mass7 ( a def9ite sub/ance1 its /ate is express$ by ?ree v>iables--volume v1 pressure 7ela/icity1 t5sion7 p1 & temp]ature t4 ,al?\gh ! compressibility--i4e41 d7v7_/d7p7--( liquids is small1 /ill x is cle>ly express$1 & v>ies n only ) ! nature ( liquids b also ) _! pressure & temp]ature 7at tc ! compressibility ( liquids is v consid]able74 ,al?\gh gases1 accord+ to ,m>iotte's law1 ) small v>iations ( pressure1 are uni=mly compress$1 nev]!less ! dep5d5ce ( _! volume v on t & p is v complex4 ,?is also applies to ! coeffici5t ( expansion d7v7_/d7t71 or d7p7_/d7t71 :i* also v>ies ) t & p1 bo? = gases 7see ,note #bf71 & = liquids 7at tc x is v consid]able1 & (t5 exce$s t ( gases1 #jjjcfg74 ,h5ce1 ! equation ( condition mu/ include ?ree v>iables1 v1 p1 & t4 ,= a s-call$ p]fect 7ideal7 gas1 or = inconsid]able v>iations ( d5sity1 ! elem5t>y expression pv ,r,greek3 a7#a ,greek3 at71 or pv ,r7#bgc t7 %\ld be accept$1 :]e ,r is a con/ant v>y+ ) ! mass & nature ( a gas1 z express+ ?is dep5d5ce1 because x includes 9 itself ! laws ( ,gay-,lussac & ,m>iotte1 = at a con/ant pressure ! volume v>ies proportionally to #a ,greek3 at1 & :5 t is con/ant ! product ( tv is con/ant4 ,9 its simple/ =m ! equation may be express$ ?us3 pv ,,rt2 :]e ,t d5otes :at is t]m$ ! absolute temp]ature1 or ! ord9>y temp]ature #bgc--t is1 ,t t #bgc4 ,/>t+ f ! supposition ( ! exi/5ce ( an attraction or int]nal pressure 7express$ by a7 proportional to ! squ>e ( ! d5sity 7or inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e ( ! volume71 & ( ! exi/5ce ( a real volume or dim9i%$ l5g? ( pa? 7express$ by b7 = ea* gase\s molecule1 van d] ,waals gives = gases ! foll[+ m complex equation ( condition3-- 7p a_/v#b77v-b7 #a #jjjcfgt2 if at #j "u a pressure p #a 7= example1 "u ! atmosph]ic pressure71 ! volume 7= in/ance1 a litre7 ( a gas or vap\r he tak5 z #a1 & !re=e v & b be express$ by ! same units z p & a4 ,! deviations f bo? ! laws ( ,m>iotte & ,gay-,lussac are express$ by ! above equation4 ,?us1 = hydrog5 a mu/ be tak5 z inf9itely small1 & b #jjjji1 judg+ by ! data = #a1jjj & #b1ejj metres pressure 7,note #bh74 ,= o!r p]man5t gases1 = :i* 7,note #bh7 ,i %[$ 7ab\t #ahgj7 f ,regnault's & ,natt]]'s data1 a decrem5t ( pv1 foll[$ by an increm5t1 :i* 0 confirm$ 7ab\t #ahhj7 by fre% det]m9ations made by ,amagat1 ?is ph5om5a may be express$ 9 def9ite magnitudes ( a & b 7al?\gh van d] ,waals' =mula is n applicable 9 ! case ( v small pressures7 ) suffici5t accuracy = contempor>y requirem5ts4 ,x is evid5t t van d] ,waals' =mula c also express ! diff]5ce ( ! coeffici5ts ( expansion ( gases ) a *ange ( pressure1 & accord+ to ! me?ods ( det]m9ation 7,note #bf74 ,besides ?is1 van d] ,waals' =mula %[s t at temp]atures above #bgc7h;a_/#bg;b-#a7 only "o actual volume 7gase\s7 is possible1 :il/ at l[] temp]atures1 by v>y+ ! pressure1 ?ree diff]5t volumes--liquid1 gase\s1 & p>tly liquid1 p>tly saturat$-vapor\s--are possible4 ,x is evid5t t ! above temp]ature is ! absolute boil+ po9t--t is 7tc7 #bgc7h;a_/#bg;b-#a74 ,x is f\nd "u ! condition t all ?ree possible volumes 7! ?ree roots ( van d] ,waals' cubic equation7 are !n simil> & equal 7vc #c;b74 ,! pressure 9 ?is case 7pc7 a_/7#bg;b#b74 ,^! ratios betwe5 ! con/ants a & b & ! conditions ( critical /ate--i4e4 7tc7 & 7pc7--give ! possibility ( det]m9+ ! "o magnitude f ! o!r4 ,?us = e!r 7,note #bi71 7tc7 #aic1 7tp7 #dj1 h5ce a #jjcjg1 b #jjjecc1 & 7vc7 #jjaf4 ,t mass ( e!r :i* at a pressure ( "o atmosph]e at #j occupies "o volume--= in/ance1 a litre--occupies1 accord+ to ! above-m5tion$ condition1 ?is critical volume4 ,& z ! d5sity ( ! vap\r ( e!r comp>$ ) hydrog5 #cg1 & a litre ( hydrog5 at #j & "u ! atmosph]ic pressure weighs #jjhif gram1 !n a litre ( e!r vap\r weighs #ccb grams2 !re=e1 9 a critical /ate 7at #aic & #dj atmosph]es7 #ccb grams occupy #jjaf litre1 or #af c4c42 !re=e #a gram occupies a volume ( ab\t #e c4c41 & ! weight ( #a c4c4 ( e!r w !n be #jba4 ,accord+ to ! inve/igations ( ,ramsay & ,"y 7#ahhg71 ! critical volume ( e!r 0 approximately su* at ab\t ! absolute boil+ po9t1 b ! compressibility ( ! liquid is s great t ! slighte/ *ange ( pressure or temp]ature has a consid]able effect on ! volume4 ,b ! inve/igations ( ! above savants gave ano!r indirect demon/ration ( ! tru? ( van d] ,waals' equation4 ,!y also f\nd = e!r t ! iso*ords1 or ! l9es ( equal volumes 7if bo? t & p v>y71 are g5]ally /raight l9es4 ,?us ! volume ( #aj c4c4 = #a gram ( e!r corresponds ) pressures 7express$ 9 metres ( m]cury7 equal to #jacet-#cc 7= example1 at #ahj ! pressure #ba metres1 & at #bhj x #cde metres74 ,! rectil9e> =m ( ! iso*ord 7:5 v a con/ant quantity7 is a direct result ( van d] ,waals' =mula4 ,:51 9 #ahhc1 ,i demon/rat$ t ! specific gravity ( liquids decreases 9 proportion to ! rise ( temp]ature ,st ,s#j-,kt or ,st ,s#j7a-,kt71 or t ! volumes increase 9 inv]se proportion to ! b9omial #a-,kt1 t is1 ,vt ,v#j7a-,kt7-#a1 :]e ,k is ! modulus ( expansion1 :i* v>ies ) ! nature ( ! liquid1 !n1 9 g5]al1 n only does a connection arise betwe5 gases & liquids ) respect to a *ange ( volume1 b also x w\ld appe> possible1 by apply+ van d] ,waals' =mula1 to judge1 f ! ph5om5a ( ! expansion ( liquids1 z to _! transition into vap\r1 & to connect toge!r all ! pr9cipal prop]ties ( liquids1 :i* up to ?is "t _h n be5 consid]$ to be 9 direct dep5d5ce4 ,?us ,?orpe & ,rck] f\nd t #b7tc7 #bgc #a_/,k1 :]e ,k is ! modulus ( expansion 9 ! above-m5tion$ =mula4 ,= example1 ! expansion ( e!r is express$ ) suffici5t accuracy f #j to #ajj by ! equation ,st #jgcf_/7a-jjjaedt71 or ,vt #a_/7a-jjjaedt71 :]e #jjjaed is ! modulus ( expansion1 & !re=e 7tc7 #ahh1 or by direct obs]vation #aic4 ,= silicon tetra*loride1 ,si,cl#d1 ! modulus equals #jjjacf1 f :5ce 7tc7 #bca1 & by exp]im5t #bcj4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,d4 ,p4 ,konoval(f1 admitt+ t ! ext]nal pressure p 9 liquids is insignificant :5 comp>$ ) ! int]nal 7a 9 van d] ,waals' =mula71 & t ! "w 9 ! expansion ( liquids is proportional to _! temp]ature 7z 9 gases71 directly d$uc$1 f van d] ,waals' =mula1 ! above-m5tion$ =mula = ! expansion ( liquids1 ,vt #a_/7a-,kt71 & also ! magnitude ( ! lat5t heat ( evaporation1 cohesion1 & compressibility "u pressure4 ,9 ?is way van d] ,waals' =mula embraces ! gase\s1 critical1 & liquid /ates ( sub/ances1 & %[s ! connection betwe5 !m4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 al?\gh van d] ,waals' =mula _c be consid]$ z p]fectly g5]al & accurate1 yet x is n only v mu* m exact ?an pv ,,rt1 b x is also m compreh5sive1 because x applies bo? to gases & liquids4 ,fur!r rese>* w naturally give a clos] proximity to tru?1 & w %[ ! connection betwe5 composition & ! con/ants 7a & b72 b a great sci5tific progress is se5 9 ?is =m ( ! equation ( /ate4 ,clausius 79 #ahhj71 tak+ into consid]ation ! v>iability ( a1 9 van d] ,waals' =mula1 ) ! temp]ature1 gave ! foll[+ equation ( condition3-- 7p a_/7,t7v c7#b77 7v-b7 ,,rt4 ,s>rau appli$ ?is =mula to ,amagat's data = hydrog51 & f\nd a #jjeea1 c -#jjjjdc1 b #jjjjhi1 & !re=e calculat$ its absolute boil+ po9t z -#agd1 & 7pc7 #ii atmosph]es4 ,b z simil> calculations = oxyg5 7-#aje71 nitrog5 7-#abd71 & m>% gas 7-#gf7 gave tc high] ?an x really is1 ! absolute boil+ po9t ( hydrog5 mu/ lie bel[ -#agd4 ,al?\gh a sub/ance :i* passes ) great difficulty into a liquid /ate by ! action ( physico-me*anical =ces1 hydrog5 loses its gase\s /ate 7t is1 its ela/icity1 or ! physical en]gy ( its molecules1 or _! rapid progressive motion7 ) comp>ative ease "u ! influ5ce ( *emical attraction1#ce :i* is n only %[n f ! fact t hydrog5 & oxyg5 7two p]man5t gases7 =m liquid wat]1 b also f _m ph5om5a ( ! absorption ( hydrog54 #ce ,?is & a numb] ( simil> cases cle>ly %[ h[ great are ! int]nal *emical =ces comp>$ ) physical & me*anical =ces4 ,hydrog5 is vigor\sly cond5s$ by c]ta9 solids2 = example1 by *>coal & by spongy plat9um4 ,if a piece ( fre%ly ignit$ *>coal be introduc$ into a cyl9d] full ( hydrog5 /&+ 9 a m]cury ba?1 !n ! *>coal absorbs z mu* z twice its volume ( hydrog54 ,spongy plat9um cond5ses /ill m hydrog54 ,b palladium1 a grey metal :i* occurs ) plat9um1 absorbs m hydrog5 ?an any o!r metal4 ,graham %[$ t :5 heat$ to a r$ heat & cool$ 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog51 palladium reta9s z mu* z #fjj volumes ( hydrog54 ,:5 once absorb$ x reta9s ! hydrog5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & only p>ts ) x :5 heat$ to a r$ heat4#cf ,?is capacity ( c]ta9 d5se metals = ! absorption ( hydrog5 expla9s ! prop]ty ( hydrog5 ( pass+ ?r\gh metallic tubes4#cg ,x is t]m$ occlusion1 & pres5ts a simil> ph5om5on to solution2 x is bas$ on ! capacity ( metals ( =m+ un/able easily dissociat+ comp\nds#ch ) hydrog51 simil> to ^? :i* salts =m ) wat]4 #cf ,! prop]ty ( palladium ( absorb+ hydrog51 & ( increas+ 9 volume 9 s do+1 may be easily demon/rat$ by tak+ a %eet ( palladium v>ni%$ on "o side1 & us+ x z a ca?ode4 ,! hydrog5 :i* is evolv$ by ! action ( ! curr5t is reta9$ by ! unv>ni%$ surface1 z a consequ5ce ( :i* ! %eet curls up4 ,by atta*+ a po9t] 7= in/ance1 a quill7 to ! end ( ! %eet ?is b5d+ effect is r5d]$ /rik+ly evid5t1 & on rev]s+ ! curr5t 7:5 oxyg5 w be evolv$ & comb9e ) ! absorb$ hydrog51 =m+ wat]7 x may be %[n t on los+ ! hydrog5 ! palladium rega9s its orig9al =m4 #cg ,deville discov]$ t iron & plat9um become p]vi\s to hydrog5 at a r$ heat4 ,he speaks ( ?is 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3--',! p]meability ( su* homog5e\s sub/ances z plat9um & iron is q diff]5t f ! passage ( gases ?r\gh su* non-compact sub/ances z clay & graphite4 ,! p]meability ( metals dep5ds on _! expansion1 br\ght ab\t by heat1 & proves t metals & alloys h a c]ta9 porosity4' ,h[ev]1 ,graham prov$ t x is only hydrog5 :i* is capable ( pass+ ?r\gh ! above-nam$ metals 9 ?is mann]4 ,oxyg51 nitrog51 ammonia1 & _m o!r gases1 only pass ?r\gh 9 extremely m9ute quantities4 ,graham %[$ t at a r$ heat ab\t #ejj c4c4 ( hydrog5 pass p] m9ute ?r\gh a surface ( "o squ>e metre ( plat9um #aa mm4 ?ick1 b t ) o!r gases ! am\nt transmitt$ is h>dly p]ceptible4 ,indi>ubb] has ! same capacity = all[+ ! transf]5ce ( hydrog5 ?r\gh its sub/ance 7see ,*apt] ,,iii471 b at ! ord9>y temp]ature "o squ>e metre1 #jjad mm4 ?ick1 transmits only #abg c4c4 ( hydrog5 p] m9ute4 ,9 ! exp]im5t on ! decomposition ( wat] by heat 9 por\s tubes1 ! clay tube may be ex*ang$ = a plat9um "o ) advantage4 ,graham %[$ t by plac+ a plat9um tube conta9+ hydrog5 "u ^! conditions1 & surr\nd+ x by a tube conta9+ air1 ! transf]5ce ( ! hydrog5 may be obs]v$ by ! decrease ( pressure 9 ! plat9um tube4 ,9 "o h\r almo/ all ! hydrog5 7#ig p4c47 _h pass$ f ! tube1 )\t be+ replac$ by air4 ,x is evid5t t ! occlusion & passage ( hydrog5 ?r\gh metals capable ( occlud+ x are n only intimately connect$ toge!r1 b are dep5d5t on ! capacity ( metals to =m comp\nds ( v>i\s degrees ( /ability ) hydrog5--l salts ) wat]4 #ch ,x appe>$ on fur!r inve/igation t palladium gives a def9ite comp\nd1 ,pd#b;,h 7see fur!r7 ) hydrog52 b :at 0 mo/ in/ructive 0 ! inve/igation ( sodium hydride1 ,na#b;,h1 :i* cle>ly %[$ t ! orig9 & prop]ties ( su* comp\nds are 9 entire accordance ) ! conceptions ( dissociation4 ,s9ce hydrog5 is a gas :i* is difficult to cond5se1 x is little soluble 9 wat] & o!r liquids4 ,at #j a hundr$ volumes ( wat] dissolve #ai volume ( hydrog51 & alcohol #fi volumes measur$ at #j & #gfj mm4 ,molt5 iron absorbs hydrog51 b 9 solidify+1 x expels x4 ,! solution ( hydrog5 by metals is to a c]ta9 degree bas$ on its aff9ity = metals1 & mu/ be lik5$ to ! solution ( metals 9 m]cury & to ! =mation ( alloys4 ,9 its *emical prop]ties hydrog51 z we %all see lat]1 has mu* ( a metallic "*4 ,pictet 7see ,note #ca7 ev5 affirms t liquid hydrog5 has metallic prop]ties4 ,! metallic prop]ties ( hydrog5 are also ev9c$ 9 ! fact t x is a good conductor ( heat1 :i* is n ! case ) o!r gases 7,magnus74 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature hydrog5 v feebly & r>ely ent]s into *emical reaction4 ,! capacity ( gase\s hydrog5 = reaction becomes evid5t only "u a *ange ( circum/ances--by compression1 heat+1 or ! action ( light1 or at ! mom5t ( its evolution4 ,h[ev]1 "u ^! circum/ances x comb9es directly ) only a v few ( ! elem5ts4 ,hydrog5 comb9es directly ) oxyg51 sulphur1 c>bon1 potassium1 & c]ta9 o!r elem5ts1 b x does n comb9e directly ) ei!r ! majority ( ! metals or ) nitrog51 phosphorus1 c4 ,comp\nds ( hydrog5 ) c]ta9 elem5ts on :i* x does n act directly are1 h[ev]1 kn[n2 !y are n obta9$ by a direct me?od1 b by reactions ( decomposition1 or ( d\ble decomposition1 ( o!r hydrog5 comp\nds4 ,! prop]ty ( hydrog5 ( comb9+ ) oxyg5 at a r$ heat det]m9es its combu/ibility4 ,we h already se5 t hydrog5 easily takes fire1 & t x !n burns ) a pale--t is1 non-lum9\s--flame4#ci ,hydrog5 does n comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 b ?is comb9ation takes place at a r$ heat1#dj & is accompani$ by ! evolution ( mu* heat4 ,! product ( ?is comb9ation is wat]--t is1 a comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,?is is ! syn!sis ( wat]1 & we h already notic$ its analysis or decomposition into its compon5t p>ts4 ,! syn!sis ( wat] may be v easily obs]v$ if a cold glass bell j> be plac$ ov] a burn+ hydrog5 flame1 &1 bett] /ill1 if ! hydrog5 flame be light$ 9 ! tube ( a cond5s]4 ,! wat] w cond5se 9 drops z x is =m$ on ! walls ( ! cond5s] & trickle d[n4#da #ci ,if x be desir$ to obta9 a p]fectly col\rless hydrog5 flame1 x mu/ issue f a plat9um nozzle1 z ! glass end ( a gas-conduct+ tube imp>ts a yell[ t9t to ! flame1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( sodium 9 ! glass4 #dj ,let u imag9e t a /ream ( hydrog5 passes along a tube1 & let u m5tally divide ?is /ream into sev]al p>ts1 consecutively pass+ out f ! orifice ( ! tube4 ,! fir/ "p is light$--t is1 br\ght to a /ate ( inc&esc5ce1 9 :i* /ate x comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( heat is evolv$ 9 ! comb9ation4 ,! heat evolv$ !n1 s to say1 ignites ! second "p ( hydrog5 com+ f ! tube1 &1 !re=e1 :5 once ignit$1 ! hydrog5 cont9ues to burn1 if !re be a cont9ual supply ( x1 & if ! atmosph]e 9 :i* x burns be unlimit$ & conta9s oxyg54 #da ,! combu/ibility ( hydrog5 may be %[n by ! direct decomposition ( wat] by sodium4 ,if a pellet ( sodium be ?r[n into a vessel conta9+ wat]1 x floats on ! wat] & evolves hydrog51 :i* may be light$4 ,! pres5ce ( sodium imp>ts a yell[ t9t to ! flame4 ,if potassium be tak51 ! hydrog5 bur/s into flame spontane\sly1 because suffici5t heat is evolv$ 9 ! reaction to ignite ! hydrog54 ,! flame is col\r$ violet by ! potassium4 ,if sodium be ?r[n n on to wat]1 b on to an acid1 x w evolve m heat1 & ! hydrog5 w !n also bur/ into flame4 ,^! exp]im5ts mu/ be c>ri$ on ) caution1 z1 sometimes t[>ds ! end1 a mass ( sodium oxide 7,note #h7 is produc$1 & flies ab\t2 x is !re=e be/ to cov] ! vessel 9 :i* ! exp]im5t is c>ri$ on4 ,light does n aid ! comb9ation ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 s t a mixture ( ^! two gases does n *ange :5 expos$ to ! action ( light2 b an electric sp>k acts j l a flame1 & ?is is tak5 advantage ( = inflam+ a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 or detonat+ gas1 inside a vessel1 z w be expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s4 ,z hydrog5 7& oxyg5 also7 is cond5s$ by spongy plat9um1 by :i* a rise ( temp]ature ensues1 & z plat9um acts by contact 7,introduction71 !re=e hydrog5 also comb9es ) oxyg51 "u ! influ5ce ( plat9um1 z ,db]e9] %[$4 ,if spongy plat9um be ?r[n into a mixture ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 an explosion takes place4 ,if a mixture ( ! gases be pass$ ov] spongy plat9um1 comb9ation also ensues1 & ! plat9um becomes r$-hot4#db #db ,?is prop]ty ( spongy plat9um is made use ( 9 ! s-call$ hydrog5 cig>-light]4 ,x consi/s ( a glass cyl9d] or beak]1 inside :i* !re is a small lead /& 7:i* is n act$ on by sulphuric acid71 on :i* a piece ( z9c is laid4 ,?is z9c is cov]$ by a bell1 :i* is op5 at ! bottom & furni%$ ) a cock at ! top4 ,sulphuric acid is p\r$ into ! space betwe5 ! bell & ! sides ( ! out] glass cyl9d]1 & w ?us compress ! gas 9 ! bell4 ,if ! cock ( ! cyl9d] be op5$ ! gas w escape by x1 & w be replac$ by ! acid1 :i*1 com+ into contact ) ! z9c1 evolves hydrog51 & x w escape ?r\gh ! cock4 ,if ! cock be clos$1 !n ! hydrog5 evolv$ w increase ! pressure ( ! gas 9 ! bell1 & ?us aga9 =ce ! acid into ! space betwe5 ! bell & ! walls ( ! out] cyl9d]4 ,?us ! action ( ! acid on ! z9c may be /opp$ or />t$ at w by op5+ or %utt+ ! cock1 & consequ5tly a /ream ( hydrog5 may be always turn$ on4 ,n[1 if a piece ( spongy plat9um be plac$ 9 ?is /ream1 ! hydrog5 w take light1 because ! spongy plat9um becomes hot 9 cond5s+ ! hydrog5 & inflames x4 ,! consid]able rise 9 temp]ature ( ! plat9um dep5ds1 among o!r ?+s1 on ! fact t ! hydrog5 cond5s$ 9 its pores comes into contact ) previ\sly absorb$ & cond5s$ atmosph]ic oxyg51 ) :i* hydrog5 comb9es ) great facility 9 ?is =m4 ,9 ?is mann] ! hydrog5 cig>-light] gives a /ream ( burn+ hydrog5 :5 ! cock is op54 ,9 ord] t x %\ld "w regul>ly x is necess>y t ! spongy plat9um %\ld be q clean1 & x is be/ envelop$ 9 a ?9 %eet ( plat9um foil1 :i* protects x f du/4 ,9 any case1 aft] "s "t x w be necess>y to clean ! plat9um1 :i* may be easily done by boil+ x 9 nitric acid1 :i* does n dissolve ! plat9um1 b cle>s x ( all dirt4 ,?is imp]fection has giv5 rise to sev]al o!r =ms1 9 :i* an electric sp>k is made to pass be=e ! orifice f :i* ! hydrog5 escapes4 ,?is is arrang$ 9 su* a mann] t ! z9c ( a galvanic elem5t is imm]s$ :5 ! cock is turn$1 or a small coil giv+ a sp>k is put into circuit on turn+ ! hydrog5 on4 ,al?\gh gase\s hydrog5 does n act directly#dc on _m sub/ances1 yet 9 a nasc5t /ate reaction (t5 takes place4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 wat] on :i* sodium amalgam is act+ conta9s hydrog5 9 a nasc5t /ate4 ,! hydrog5 is "h evolv$ f a liquid1 & at ! fir/ mom5t ( its =mation mu/ be 9 a cond5s$ /ate4#dd ,9 ?is condition x is capable ( react+ on sub/ances on :i* x does n act 9 a gase\s /ate4#dd bis ,reactions ( sub/itution or displacem5t ( metals by hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( its =mation are p>ticul>ly num]\s4#de #dc ,"u conditions simil> to ^? 9 :i* hydrog5 comb9es ) oxyg5 x is also capable ( comb9+ ) *lor9e4 ,a mixture ( hydrog5 & *lor9e explodes on ! passage ( an electric sp>k ?r\gh x1 or on contact ) an inc&esc5t sub/ance1 & also 9 ! pres5ce ( spongy plat9um2 b1 besides ?is1 ! action ( light alone is en\gh to br+ ab\t ! comb9ation ( hydrog5 & *lor9e4 ,if a mixture ( equal volumes ( hydrog5 & *lor9e be expos$ to ! action ( sunlight1 complete comb9ation rapidly ensues1 accompani$ by a report4 ,hydrog5 does n comb9e directly ) c>bon1 ei!r at ! ord9>y temp]ature or by ! action ( heat & pressure4 ,b if an electric curr5t be pass$ ?r\gh c>bon electrodes at a %ort di/ance f ea* o!r 7z 9 ! electric light or voltaic arc71 s z to =m an electric arc 9 :i* ! p>ticles ( c>bon are c>ri$ f "o pole to ! o!r1 !n1 9 ! int5se heat to :i* ! c>bon is subject$ 9 ?is case1 x is capable ( comb9+ ) hydrog54 ,a gas ( peculi> smell call$ acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b1 is ?us =m$ f c>bon & hydrog54 #dd ,!re is ano!r explanation ( ! facility ) :i* hydrog5 reacts 9 a nasc5t /ate4 ,we %all aft]w>ds le>n t ! molecule ( hydrog5 conta9s two atoms1 ,h#b1 b !re are elem5ts ! molecules ( :i* only conta9 "o atom--= in/ance1 m]cury4 ,!re=e1 e reaction ( gase\s hydrog5 mu/ be accompani$ by ! disruption ( t bond :i* exi/s betwe5 ! atoms =m+ a molecule4 ,at ! mom5t ( evolution1 h[ev]1 x is suppos$ t free atoms exi/1 & 9 ?is condition1 accord+ to ! hypo!sis1 act en]getically4 ,?is hypo!sis is n bas$ ^u facts1 & ! idea t hydrog5 is cond5s$ at ! mom5t ( its evolution is m natural1 & is 9 accordance ) ! fact 7,note #ab7 t compress$ hydrog5 displaces palladium & silv] 7,brunn]1 ,beket(f7--t is1 acts z at ! mom5t ( its lib]ation4 #dd bis ,!re is a v intimate & evid5t relation betwe5 ! ph5om5a :i* take place 9 ! action ( spongy plat9um & ! ph5om5a ( ! action 9 a nasc5t /ate4 ,! comb9ation ( hydrog5 ) aldehyde may be tak5 z an example4 ,aldehyde is a volatile liquid ) an aromatic smell1 boil+ at #ba1 soluble 9 wat]1 & absorb+ oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 & 9 ?is absorption =m+ acetic acid--! sub/ance :i* is f\nd 9 ord9>y v9eg>4 ,if sodium amalgam be ?r[n into an aque\s solution ( aldehyde1 ! great] "p ( ! hydrog5 evolv$ comb9es ) ! aldehyde1 =m+ alcohol--a sub/ance also soluble 9 wat]1 :i* =ms ! pr9ciple ( all spiritu\s liquors1 boils at #gh1 & conta9s ! same am\nt ( oxyg5 & c>bon z aldehyde1 b m hydrog54 ,! composition ( aldehyde is ,c#b;,h#d,o1 t ( alcohol ,c#b;,h#f,o4 #de ,:51 = in/ance1 an acid & z9c are add$ to a salt ( silv]1 ! silv] is r$uc$2 b ?is may be expla9$ z a reaction ( ! z9c1 & n ( ! hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( its =mation4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 examples to :i* ?is explanation is entirely inapplicable2 ?us1 = in/ance1 hydrog51 at ! mom5t ( its lib]ation easily takes up oxyg5 f its comp\nds ) nitrog5 if !y be 9 solution1 & conv]ts ! nitrog5 into its hydrog5-comp\nd4 ,"h ! nitrog5 & hydrog51 s to speak1 meet at ! mom5t ( _! lib]ation1 & 9 ?is /ate comb9e toge!r4 ,x is evid5t f ?is t ! ela/ic gase\s /ate ( hydrog5 fixes ! limit ( its en]gy3 prev5ts x f ent]+ into ^? comb9ations ( :i* x is capable4 ,9 ! nasc5t /ate we h hydrog5 :i* is n 9 a gase\s /ate1 & its action is !n mu* m en]getic4 ,at ! mom5t ( evolution t heat1 :i* w\ld be lat5t 9 ! gase\s hydrog51 is transmitt$ to its molecules1 & consequ5tly !y are 9 a /ate ( /ra91 & c h5ce act on _m sub/ances4 ,metals1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 are 9 _m cases able to replace ea* o!r2 !y also1 & 9 "s cases /ill m easily1 replace & are replac$ by hydrog54 ,we h already se5 examples ( ?is 9 ! =mation ( hydrog5 f wat]1 sulphuric acid1 c4 ,9 all ^! cases ! metals sodium1 iron1 or z9c displace ! hydrog5 :i* occurs 9 ^! comp\nds4 ,hydrog5 may be displac$ f _m ( its comp\nds by metals 9 exactly ! same mann] z x is displac$ f wat]2 s1 = example1 hydro*loric acid1 :i* is =m$ directly by ! comb9ation ( hydrog5 ) *lor9e1 gives hydrog5 by ! action ( a great _m metals1 j z sulphuric acid does4 ,potassium & sodium also displace hydrog5 f its comp\nds ) nitrog52 x is only f its comp\nds ) c>bon t hydrog5 is n displac$ by metals4 ,hydrog51 9 its turn1 is able to replace metals2 ?is is accompli%$ mo/ easily on heat+1 & ) ^? metals :i* d n !mselves displace hydrog54 ,if hydrog5 be pass$ ov] ! comp\nds ( _m metals ) oxyg5 at a r$ heat1 x takes up ! oxyg5 f ! metals & displaces !m j z x is itself displac$ by metals4 ,if hydrog5 be pass$ ov] ! comp\nd ( oxyg5 ) copp] at a r$ heat1 !n metallic copp] & wat] are obta9$--,cu,o ,h#b ,h#b,o ,cu4 ,?is k9d ( d\ble decomposition is call$ r$uction ) respect to ! metal1 :i* is ?us r$uc$ to a metallic /ate f its comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,b x mu/ be recollect$ t all metals d n displace hydrog5 f its comp\nd ) oxyg51 &1 conv]sely1 hydrog5 is n able to displace all metals f _! comp\nds ) oxyg52 ?us x does n displace potassium1 calcium1 or alum9ium f its comp\nds ) oxyg54 ,if ! metals be arrang$ 9 ! foll[+ s]ies3 ,k1 ,na1 ,ca1 ,al 444 ,fe1 ,zn1 ,hg 444 ,cu1 ,pb1 ,ag1 ,au1 !n ! fir/ are able to take up oxyg5 f wat]--t is1 displace hydrog5--:il/ ! la/ d n act ?us1 b are1 on ! contr>y1 r$uc$ by hydrog5--t is1 h1 z is said1 a less aff9ity = oxyg5 ?an hydrog51 :il/ potassium1 sodium1 & calcium h m4 ,?is is also express$ by ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 ! act ( comb9ation ) oxyg5 7see ,note #g71 & is %[n by ! fact t potassium & sodium & o!r simil> metals evolve heat 9 decompos+ wat]2 b copp]1 silv]1 & ! l d n d ?is1 because 9 comb9+ ) oxyg5 !y evolve less heat ?an hydrog5 does1 & !re=e x happ5s t :5 hydrog5 r$uces ^! metals heat is evolv$4 ,?us1 = example1 if #af grams ( oxyg5 comb9e ) copp]1 #ch1jjj units ( heat are evolv$2 & :5 #af grams ( oxyg5 comb9e ) hydrog51 =m+ wat]1 #fi1jjj units ( heat are evolv$2 :il/ #bc grams ( sodium1 9 comb9+ ) #af grams ( oxyg51 evolve #ajj1jjj units ( heat4 ,?is example cle>ly %[s t *emical reactions :i* proce$ directly & unaid$ evolve heat4 ,sodium decomposes wat] & hydrog5 r$uces copp]1 because !y are exo!rmal reactions1 or ^? :i* evolve heat2 copp] does n decompose wat]1 because su* a reaction w\ld be accompani$ by an absorption 7or secretion7 ( heat1 or belongs to ! class ( endo!rmal reactions 9 :i* heat is absorb$2 & su* reactions d n g5]ally proce$ directly1 al?\gh !y may take place ) ! aid ( en]gy 7electrical1 !rmal1 c47 borr[$ f "s =eign s\rce4#df #df ,sev]al num]ical data & reflections be>+ on ?is matt] are enum]at$ 9 ,notes #g1 #i1 & #aa4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! action ( iron or z9c on wat] is rev]sible4 ,b ! reaction ,cu,o ,h#b ,cu ,h#b,o is n rev]sible2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! degrees ( aff9ity is v great 9 ?is case1 &1 !re=e1 s f> z is at pres5t kn[n1 no hydrog5 is lib]at$ ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( a l>ge excess ( wat]4 ,x is to be fur!r rem>k$1 t "u ! conditions ( ! dissociation ( wat]1 copp] is n oxidis$ by wat]1 because ! oxide ( copp] is r$uc$ by free hydrog54 ,if a def9ite am\nt ( a metal & acid be tak5 & _! reaction be c>ri$ on 9 a clos$ space1 !n ! evolution ( hydrog5 w cease1 :5 its t5sion equals t at :i* compress$ hydrog5 displaces ! metal4 ,! result dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! metal & ! /r5g? ( ! solution ( acid4 ,tammann & ,n]n/ 7#ahib7 f\nd t ! metals /& 9 ! foll[+ ord] 9 respect to ?is limit+ t5sion ( hydrog53--,na1 ,mg1 ,zn1 ,al1 ,cd1 ,fe1 ,ni4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,app>atus employ$ by ,dumas = det]m9+ ! composition ( wat]4 ,describ$ 9 text4 ,! r$uction ( metals by hydrog5 is tak5 advantage ( = det]m9+ ! exact composition ( wat] by weight4 ,copp] oxide is usually *os5 = ?is purpose4 ,x is heat$ to r$ness 9 hydrog51 & ! quantity ( wat] ?us =m$ is det]m9$1 :5 ! quantity ( oxyg5 :i* occurs 9 x is f\nd f ! loss ( weight ( ! copp] oxide4 ,! copp] oxide mu/ be weigh$ imm$iately be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t4 ,! diff]5ce %[s ! weight ( ! oxyg5 :i* ent]$ into ! composition ( ! wat] =m$4 ,9 ?is mann] only solids h to be weigh$1 :i* is a v great ga9 9 ! accuracy ( ! results obta9$4#dg ,dulong & ,b]zelius 7#ahai7 7 ! fir/ to det]m9e ! composition ( wat] by ?is me?od1 & !y f\nd t wat] conta9s #hhia ( oxyg5 & #aaji ( hydrog5 9 #ajj p>ts by weight1 or #hjjh p>ts ( oxyg5 p] "o "p ( hydrog54 ,dumas 7#ahdb7 improv$ on ?is me?od1#dh & f\nd t wat] conta9s #abege p>ts ( hydrog5 p] #ajj p>ts ( oxyg5--t is1 #giij p>ts ( oxyg5 p] #a "p ( hydrog5--& !re=e x is usually accept$ t wat] conta9s eight p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 to "o "p by weight ( hydrog54 ,by :atev] me?od wat] be obta9$1 x w always pres5t ! same composition4 ,:e!r x be tak5 f nature & purifi$1 or :e!r x be obta9$ f hydrog5 by oxidation1 or :e!r x be sep>at$ f any ( its comp\nds1 or obta9$ by "s d\ble decomposition--x w 9 e case conta9 "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 & eight p>ts ( oxyg54 ,?is is because wat] is a def9ite *emical comp\nd4 ,detonat+ gas1 f :i* x may be =m$1 is a simple mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 al?\gh a mixture ( ! same composition z wat]4 ,all ! prop]ties ( bo? con/itu5t gases are pres]v$ 9 detonat+ gas4 ,ei!r "o or ! o!r gas may be add$ to x )\t de/roy+ its homog5eity4 ,! fundam5tal prop]ties ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 are n f\nd 9 wat]1 & nei!r ( ! gases c be directly comb9$ ) x4 ,b !y may be evolv$ f x4 ,9 ! =mation ( wat] !re is an evolution ( heat2 = ! decomposition ( wat] heat is requir$4 ,all ?is is express$ by ! words1 ,wat] is a def9ite *emical comp\nd ( hydrog5 ) oxyg54 ,tak+ ! symbol ( hydrog51 ,h1 z express+ a unit quantity by weight ( ?is sub/ance1 & express+ #af p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 by ,o1 we c =mulate all ! above /atem5ts by ! *emical symbol ( wat]1 ,h#b,o4 ,z only def9ite *emical comp\nds are d5ot$ by =mul1 hav+ d5ot$ ! =mula ( a comp\nd sub/ance we express by x ! entire s]ies ( prop]ties :i* g to make up our conception ( a def9ite comp\nd1 & at ! same "t ! quantitative composition ( ! sub/ance by weight4 ,fur!r1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 =mul express ! volume ( ! gases conta9$ 9 a sub/ance4 ,?us ! =mula ( wat] %[s t x conta9s two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg54 ,besides :i*1 we %all le>n t ! =mula expresses ! d5sity ( ! vap\r ( a comp\nd1 & on ?is _m prop]ties ( sub/ances dep5d1 &1 z we %all le>n1 det]m9e ! quantities ( ! bodies ent]+ into reactions4 ,?is vap\r d5sity we %all f9d also det]m9es ! quantity ( a sub/ance ent]+ into a reaction4 ,?us ! lett]s ,h#b,o tell ! *emi/ ! entire hi/ory ( ! sub/ance4 ,?is is an int]national language1 :i* end[s *emi/ry ) a simplicity1 cle>ness1 /ability1 & tru/wor?9ess f\nd$ on ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( nature4 #dg ,?is det]m9ation may be c>ri$ on 9 an app>atus l t m5tion$ 9 ,note #ac ( ,*apt] ,i4 #dh ,we w proce$ to describe ,dumas' me?od & results4 ,= ?is det]m9ation pure & dry copp] oxide is necess>y4 ,dumas took a suffici5t quantity ( copp] oxide = ! =mation ( #ej grams ( wat] 9 ea* det]m9ation4 ,z ! oxide ( copp] 0 weigh$ be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t1 & z ! am\nt ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 wat] 0 det]m9$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! weights1 x 0 ess5tial t no o!r sub/ance besides ! oxyg5 =m+ ! wat] %\ld be evolv$ f ! oxide ( copp] dur+ its ignition 9 hydrog54 ,x 0 necess>y1 also1 t ! hydrog5 %\ld be p]fectly pure1 & free n only f traces ( moi/ure1 b f any o!r impurities :i* might dissolve 9 ! wat] or comb9e ) ! copp] & =m "s o!r comp\nd ) x4 ,! bulb conta9+ ! oxide ( copp] 7fig4 #bf71 :i* 0 heat$ to r$ness1 %\ld be q free f air1 z o!rwise ! oxyg5 9 ! air might1 9 comb9+ ) ! hydrog5 pass+ ?r\gh ! vessel1 =m wat] 9 addition to t =m$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! oxide ( copp]4 ,! wat] =m$ %\ld be entirely absorb$ 9 ord] to accurately det]m9e its quantity4 ,! hydrog5 0 evolv$ 9 ! ?ree-neck$ bottle4 ,! sulphuric acid1 = act+ on ! z9c1 is p\r$ ?r\gh funnels into ! middle neck4 ,! hydrog5 evolv$ 9 ! ,w\lfe's bottle passes ?r\gh ,u tubes1 9 :i* x is purifi$1 to ! bulb1 :]e x comes into contact ) ! copp] oxide1 =ms wat]1 & r$uces ! oxide to metallic copp]2 ! wat] =m$ is cond5s$ 9 ! second bulb1 & any pass+ (f is absorb$ 9 ! second set ( ,u tubes4 ,?is is ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! app>atus4 ,! bulb ) ! copp] oxide is weigh$ be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t4 ,! loss 9 weight %[s ! quantity ( oxyg5 :i* ent]$ into ! composition ( ! wat] =m$1 ! weight ( ! latt] be+ %[n by ! ga9 9 weight ( ! absorb+ app>atus4 ,kn[+ ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! wat] =m$1 we also "k ! quantity ( hydrog5 conta9$ 9 x1 & consequ5tly we det]m9e ! composition ( wat] by weight4 ,?is is ! ess5ce ( ! det]m9ation4 ,we w n[ turn to c]ta9 p>ticul>s4 ,9 "o neck ( ! ?ree-neck$ bottle a tube is plac$ dipp+ "u m]cury4 ,?is s]ves z a safety-valve to prev5t ! pressure inside ! app>atus becom+ too great f ! rapid evolution ( hydrog54 ,if ! pressure rose to any consid]able ext5t1 ! curr5t ( gases & vap\rs w\ld be v rapid1 &1 z a consequ5ce1 ! hydrog5 w\ld n be p]fectly purifi$1 or ! wat] entirely absorb$ 9 ! tubes plac$ = ?is purpose4 ,9 ! ?ird neck ( ! ,w\lfe's bottle is a tube conduct+ ! hydrog5 to ! purify+ app>atus1 consi/+ ( eight ,u tubes1 de/9$ = ! purification & te/+ ( ! hydrog54 ,! hydrog51 evolv$ by z9c & sulphuric acid1 is purifi$ by pass+ x fir/ ?r\gh a tube full ( pieces ( glass moi/5$ ) a solution ( lead nitrate next ?r\gh silv] sulphate2 ! lead nitrate reta9s sulphurette hydrog51 & ars5iurett$ hydrog5 is reta9$ by ! tube ) silv] sulphate4 ,cau/ic pota% 9 ! next ,u tube reta9s any acid :i* might come ov]4 ,! two foll[+ tubes are fill$ ) lumps ( dry cau/ic pota% 9 ord] to absorb any c>bonic anhydride & moi/ure :i* ! hydrog5 might conta94 ,! next two tubes1 to remove ! la/ traces ( moi/ure1 are fill$ ) phosphoric anhydride1 mix$ ) lumps ( pumice-/one4 ,!y are imm]s$ 9 a freez+ mixture4 ,! small ,u tube conta9s hygroscopic sub/ances1 & is weigh$ be=e ! exp]im5t3 ?is is 9 ord] to "k :e!r ! hydrog5 pass+ ?r\gh /ill reta9s any moi/ure4 ,if x does n1 !n ! weight ( ?is tube w n v>y dur+ ! :ole exp]im5t1 b if ! hydrog5 evolv$ /ill reta9s moi/ure1 ! tube w increase 9 weight4 ,! copp] oxide is plac$ 9 ! bulb1 :i*1 previ\s to ! exp]im5t1 is dri$ ) ! copp] oxide = a long p]iod ( "t4 ,! air is !n exhau/$ f x1 9 ord] to weigh ! oxide ( copp] 9 a vacuum & to avoid ! ne$ ( a correction = weigh+ 9 air4 ,! bulb is made ( infusible glass1 t x may be able to )/& a l5g?y 7#bj h\rs7 exposure to a r$ heat )\t *ang+ 9 =m4 ,! weigh$ bulb is only connect$ ) ! purify+ app>atus aft] ! hydrog5 has pass$ ?r\gh = a long "t1 & aft] exp]im5t has %[n t ! hydrog5 pass+ f ! purify+ app>atus is pure & does n conta9 any air4 ,on pass+ f ! cond5s+ bulb ! gas & vap\r ent] into an app>atus = absorb+ ! la/ traces ( moi/ure4 ,! fir/ ,u tube conta9s pieces ( ignit$ pota%1 ! second & ?ird tubes phosphoric anhydride or pumice-/one moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid4 ,! la/ ( ! two is employ$ = det]m9+ :e!r all ! moi/ure is absorb$1 & is !re=e weigh$ sep>ately4 ,! f9al tube only s]ves z a safety-tube = ! :ole app>atus1 9 ord] t ! ext]nal moi/ure %\ld n p5etrate into x4 ,! glass cyl9d] conta9s sulphuric acid1 ?r\gh :i* ! excess ( hydrog5 passes2 x enables ! rate at :i* ! hydrog5 is evolv$ to be judg$1 & :e!r its am\nt %\ld be decreas$ or increas$4 ,:5 ! app>atus is fitt$ up x mu/ be se5 t all its p>ts are h]metically tight be=e comm5c+ ! exp]im5t4 ,:5 ! previ\sly weigh$ p>ts are connect$ toge!r & ! :ole app>atus put into communication1 !n ! bulb conta9+ ! copp] oxide is heat$ ) a _s lamp 7r$uction does n take place )\t ! aid ( heat71 & ! r$uction ( ! copp] oxide !n takes place1 & wat] is =m$4 ,:5 ne>ly all ! copp] oxide is r$uc$ ! lamp is remov$ & ! app>atus all[$ to cool1 ! curr5t ( hydrog5 be+ kept up all ! "t4 ,:5 cool1 ! drawn-out end ( ! bulb is fus$ up1 & ! hydrog5 rema9+ 9 x is exhau/$1 9 ord] t ! copp] may be aga9 weigh$ 9 a vacuum4 ,! absorb+ app>atus rema9s full ( hydrog51 & w\ld !re=e pres5t a less weight ?an if x 7 full ( air1 z x 0 be=e ! exp]im5t1 & = ?is reason1 hav+ disconnect$ ! copp] oxide bulb1 a curr5t ( dry air is pass$ ?r\gh x until ! gas pass+ f ! glass cyl9d] is q free f hydrog54 ,! cond5s+ bulb & ! two tubes next to x are !n weigh$1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! quantity ( wat] =m$4 ,dumas repeat$ ?is exp]im5t _m times4 ,! av]age result 0 t wat] conta9s #abecc p>ts ( hydrog5 p] #aj1jjj p>ts ( oxyg54 ,mak+ a correction = ! am\nt ( air conta9$ 9 ! sulphuric acid employ$ = produc+ ! hydrog51 ,dumas obta9$ ! av]age figure #abeae1 betwe5 ! extremes #abdgb & #abefb4 ,?is proves t p] #a "p ( hydrog5 wat] conta9s #giijd p>ts ( oxyg51 ) a possible error ( n m ?an #a_/bej1 or #jjc1 9 ! am\nt ( oxyg5 p] #a "p ( hydrog54 ,erdmann & ,m>*&1 9 eight det]m9ations1 f\nd t p] #aj1jjj p>ts ( oxyg5 wat] conta9s an av]age ( #a1beb p>ts ( hydrog51 ) a diff]5ce ( f #a1behe to #a1bdhg2 h5ce p] #a "p ( hydrog5 !re w\ld be #giieb ( oxyg51 ) an error ( at lea/ #jje4 ,keis] 7#ahhh71 9 ,am]ica by employ+ palladium hydride1 & by introduc+ v>i\s fre% precautions = obta9+ accurate results1 f\nd ! composition ( wat] to be #aeie p>ts ( oxyg5 p] #b ( hydrog54 ,c]ta9 ( ! late/ det]m9ations ( ! composition ( wat]1 z also ^? made by ,dumas1 always give less ?an #h1 & on ! av]age #gih1 ( oxyg5 p] #a "p ( hydrog54 ,h[ev]1 n "o ( ^! figures is to be entirely dep5d$ on1 & = ord9>y accuracy x may be consid]$ t ,o #af :5 ,h #a4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,! ,,*ief ,,aspects ,,( ,,its ,,sal9e ,,comb9ations ,on ! e>?'s surface !re is no o!r elem5t :i* is s widely di/ribut$ z oxyg5 9 its v>i\s comp\nds4#a ,x makes up eight-n9?s ( ! weight ( wat]1 :i* occupies ! great] "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,ne>ly all e>?y sub/ances & rocks consi/ ( comp\nds ( oxyg5 ) metals & o!r elem5ts4 ,?us1 ! great] "p ( s& is =m$ ( silica1 ,si,o#b1 :i* conta9s #ec p4c4 ( oxyg52 clay conta9s wat]1 alum9a 7=m$ ( alum9ium & oxyg571 & silica4 ,x may be consid]$ t e>?y sub/ances & rocks conta9 up to "o-?ird ( _! weight ( oxyg52 animal & vegetable sub/ances are also v ri* 9 oxyg54 ,)\t c\nt+ ! wat] pres5t 9 !m1 plants conta9 up to #dj1 & animals up to #bj p4c4 by weight ( oxyg54 ,?us1 oxyg5 comp\nds pr$om9ate on ! e>?'s surface4 ,besides ?is1 a portion exi/s 9 a free /ate1 & is conta9$ 9 admixture ) nitrog5 9 ! atmosph]e1 =m+ ab\t "o-f\r? ( its mass1 or "o-fif? ( its volume4 #a ,z reg>ds ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 x probably conta9s f> less oxyg5 comp\nds ?an ! surface1 judg+ by ! accumulat$ evid5ces ( ! e>?'s orig91 ( meteorites1 ( ! e>?'s d5sity1 c4 7see ,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #eh1 & ,*apt] ,,xxii41 ,note #b74 ,be+ s widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 oxyg5 plays a v important "p 9 x1 = a numb] ( ! ph5om5a :i* take place be=e u are ma9ly dep5d5t on x4 ,animals brea! air 9 ord] to obta9 only oxyg5 f x1 ! oxyg5 ent]+ into _! respiratory organs 7! lungs ( human be+s & animals1 ! gills ( fi%es1 & ! tra* ( insects72 !y1 s to say1 dr9k 9 air 9 ord] to absorb ! oxyg54 ,! oxyg5 ( ! air 7or dissolv$ 9 wat]7 passes ?r\gh ! membranes ( ! respiratory organs into ! blood1 is reta9$ 9 x by ! blood corpuscles1 is transmitt$ by _! means to all p>ts ( ! body1 aids _! trans=mations1 br++ ab\t *emical processes 9 !m1 & *iefly extract+ c>bon f !m 9 ! =m ( c>bonic anhydride1 ! great] "p ( :i* passes into ! blood1 is dissolv$ by x1 & is ?r[n (f by ! lungs dur+ ! absorption ( ! oxyg54 ,?us1 9 ! process ( respiration c>bonic anhydride 7& wat]7 is giv5 (f1 & ! oxyg5 ( ! air absorb$1 by :i* means ! blood is *ang$ f a r$ v5\s to a d>k-r$ art]ial blood4 ,! cessation ( ?is process causes dea?1 because !n all ^? *emical processes1 & ! consequ5t heat & "w :i* ! oxyg5 introduc$ into ! sy/em br\ght ab\t1 cease4 ,= ?is reason suffocation & dea? ensue 9 a vacuum1 or 9 a gas :i* does n conta9 free oxyg51 i4e4 :i* does n support combu/ion4 ,if an animal be plac$ 9 an atmosph]e ( free oxyg51 at fir/ its movem5ts are v active & a g5]al invigoration is rem>k$1 b a reaction soon sets 91 & dea? may ensue4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! air :5 x ent]s ! lungs is dilut$ ) f\r volumes ( nitrog51 :i* is n absorb$ into ! sy/em1 s t ! blood absorbs b a small quantity ( oxyg5 f ! air1 :il/ 9 an atmosph]e ( pure oxyg5 a l>ge quantity ( oxyg5 w\ld be absorb$1 & w\ld produce a v rapid *ange ( all p>ts ( ! organism1 & de/roy x4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x w be und]/ood t oxyg5 may be employ$ 9 respiration1 at any rate = a limit$ "t1 :5 ! respiratory organs suff] "u c]ta9 =ms ( suffocation & imp$im5t to brea?+4#b #b ,x is evid5t t ! p>tial pressure 7see ,*apt] ,i47 acts 9 respiration4 ,! rese>*es ( ,paul ,b]t %[$ ?is ) p>ticul> cle>ness4 ,"u a pressure ( "o-fif? ( an atmosph]e consi/+ ( oxyg5 only1 animals & human be+s rema9 "u ! ord9>y conditions ( ! p>tial pressure ( oxyg51 b organisms _c support air r>efi$ to "o-fif?1 = !n ! p>tial pressure ( ! oxyg5 falls to "o-tw5ty-fif? ( an atmosph]e4 ,ev5 "u a pressure ( "o-?ird ( an atmosph]e ! regul> life ( human be+s is impossible1 by reason ( ! impossibility ( respiration 7because ( ! decrease ( solubility ( oxyg5 9 ! blood71 ow+ to ! small p>tial pressure ( ! oxyg51 & n f any me*anical effect ( ! decrease ( pressure4 ,paul ,b]t illu/rat$ all ?is by _m exp]im5ts1 "s ( :i* he conduct$ on himself4 ,?is expla9s1 among o!r ?+s1 ! discom=t felt 9 ! asc5t ( high m\nta9s or 9 balloons :5 ! height rea*$ exce$s eight kilometres1 & at pressures bel[ #bej mm4 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bc74 ,x is evid5t t an artificial atmosph]e has to be employ$ 9 ! asc5t to great heights1 j z 9 subm>9e "w4 ,! cure by compress$ & r>efi$ air :i* is practis$ 9 c]ta9 illnesses is bas$ p>tly on ! me*anical action ( ! *ange ( pressure1 & p>tly on ! alt]ation 9 ! p>tial pressure ( ! respir$ oxyg54 ,! combu/ion ( organic sub/ances--t is1 sub/ances :i* make up ! composition ( plants & animals--proce$s 9 ! same mann] z ! combu/ion ( _m inorganic sub/ances1 su* z sulphur1 phosphorus1 iron1 c41 f ! comb9ation ( ^! sub/ances ) oxyg51 z 0 describ$ 9 ! ,introduction4 ,! decomposition1 rott+1 & simil> trans=mations ( sub/ances1 :i* proce$ ar\nd u1 are also v (t5 dep5d5t on ! action ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & also r$uce x f a free to a comb9$ /ate4 ,! majority ( ! comp\nds ( oxyg5 are1 l wat]1 v /able1 & d n give up _! oxyg5 "u ! ord9>y conditions ( nature4 ,z ^! processes are tak+ place ev]y:]e1 x might be expect$ t ! am\nt ( free oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e %\ld decrease1 & ?is decrease %\ld proce$ some:at rapidly4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 obs]v$ :]e combu/ion or respiration proce$s 9 a clos$ space4 ,animals suffocate 9 a clos$ space because 9 consum+ ! oxyg5 ! air rema9s unfit = respiration4 ,9 ! same mann] combu/ion1 aft] a "t1 ceases 9 a clos$ space1 :i* may be prov$ by a v simple exp]im5t4 ,an ignit$ sub/ance--= in/ance1 a piece ( burn+ sulphur--has only to be plac$ 9 a glass flask1 :i* is !n clos$ ) a /\t cork to prev5t ! access ( ! ext]nal air2 combu/ion w proce$ = a c]ta9 "t1 s long z ! flask conta9s any free oxyg51 b x w cease :5 ! oxyg5 ( ! enclos$ air has comb9$ ) ! sulphur4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x is evid5t t regul>ity ( combu/ion or respiration requires a con/ant r5ewal ( air--t is1 t ! burn+ sub/ance or respir+ animal %\ld h access to a fre% supply ( oxyg54 ,?is is atta9$ 9 dwell+s by hav+ _m w9d[s1 outlets1 & v5tilators1 & by ! curr5t ( air produc$ by fires & /oves4 ,z reg>ds ! air ov] ! entire e>?'s surface its am\nt ( oxyg5 h>dly decreases1 because 9 nature !re is a process go+ on :i* r5ews ! supply ( free oxyg54 ,plants1 or r _! leaves1 dur+ daytime1#c "u ! influ5ce ( light1 absorb c>bonic anhydride ,,co#b1 & evolve free oxyg54 ,?us ! loss ( oxyg5 :i* occurs 9 consequ5ce ( ! respiration ( animals & ( combu/ion is made good by plants4 ,if a leaf be plac$ 9 a bell j> conta9+ wat]1 & c>bonic anhydride 7because ?is gas is absorb$ & oxyg5 evolv$ f x by plants7 be pass$ into ! bell1 & ! :ole app>atus plac$ 9 sunlight1 !n oxyg5 w accumulate 9 ! bell j>4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 fir/ made by ,prie/ley at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,?us ! life ( plants on ! e>? n only s]ves = ! =mation ( food = animals1 b also = keep+ up a con/ant p]c5tage ( oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ! long p]iod ( ! life ( ! e>? an equilibrium has be5 atta9$ betwe5 ! processes absorb+ & evolv+ oxyg51 by :i* a def9ite quantity ( free oxyg5 is pres]v$ 9 ! entire mass ( ! atmosph]e4#d #c ,at night1 )\t ! action ( light1 )\t ! absorption ( t en]gy :i* is requir$ = ! decomposition ( c>bonic anhydride into free oxyg5 & c>bon 7:i* is reta9$ by ! plants7 !y brea! l animals1 absorb+ oxyg5 & evolv+ c>bonic anhydride4 ,?is process also goes on side by side ) ! rev]se process 9 ! daytime1 b x is !n f> feebl] ?an t :i* gives oxyg54 #d ,! e>?'s surface is equal to ab\t #eaj million squ>e kilometres1 & ! mass ( ! air 7at a pressure ( #gfj mm47 on ea* kilometre ( surface is ab\t #aj-a_/c ?\s& millions ( kilograms1 or ab\t #aj-a_/c million tons2 !re=e ! :ole weight ( ! atmosph]e is ab\t #e1ajj million million 7 #ea #ajad7 tons4 ,consequ5tly !re are ab\t #b #ajae tons ( free oxyg5 9 ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,! innum]able s]ies ( processes :i* absorb a portion ( ?is oxyg5 are comp5sat$ = by ! plant processes4 ,assum+ t #ajj million tons ( vegetable matt]1 conta9+ #dj p4c4 ( c>bon1 =m$ f c>bonic acid1 are produc$ 7& ! same process proce$s 9 wat]7 p] ye> on ! #ajj million squ>e kilometres ( dry l& 7t5 tons ( roots1 leaves1 /ems1 c41 p] hect>e1 or #a_/ajj ( a squ>e kilometre71 we f9d t ! plant life ( ! dry l& gives ab\t #ajj1jjj tons ( oxyg51 :i* is an insignificant fraction ( ! entire mass ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,oxyg5 0 obta9$ z an indep5d5t gas 9 #aggd by ,prie/ley 9 ,engl& & 9 ! same ye> by ,s*eele 9 ,sw$51 b its nature & great importance 7 only p]fectly elucidat$ by ,lavoisi]4 ,free oxyg5 may be obta9$ by "o or o!r me?od f all ! sub/ances 9 :i* x occurs4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! oxyg5 ( _m sub/ances may be transf]r$ into wat]1 f :i*1 z we h already se51 oxyg5 may be obta9$4#e ,we w fir/ consid] ! me?ods ( extract+ oxyg5 f air z be+ a sub/ance ev]y:]e di/ribut$4 ,! sep>ation ( oxyg5 f x is1 h[ev]1 hamp]$ by _m difficulties4 #e ,! extraction ( oxyg5 f wat] may be effect$ by two processes3 ei!r by ! decomposition ( wat] into its con/itu5t p>ts by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t 7,*apt] ,,ii471 or by means ( ! removal ( ! hydrog5 f wat]4 ,b1 z we h se5 & already "k1 hydrog5 ent]s into direct comb9ation ) v few sub/ances1 & !n only "u special circum/ances2 :il/ oxyg51 z we %all soon le>n1 comb9es ) ne>ly all sub/ances4 ,only gase\s *lor9e 7&1 especially1 fluor9e7 is capable ( decompos+ wat]1 tak+ up ! hydrog5 f x1 )\t comb9+ ) ! oxyg54 ,*lor9e is soluble 9 wat]1 & if an aque\s solution ( *lor9e1 s-call$ *lor9e wat]1 be p\r$ into a flask1 & ?is flask be inv]t$ 9 a bas9 conta9+ ! same *lor9e wat]1 !n we %all h an app>atus by means ( :i* oxyg5 may be extract$ f wat]4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & 9 ! d>k1 *lor9e does n act on wat]1 or only acts v feebly2 b "u ! action ( direct sunlight *lor9e decomposes wat]1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg54 ,! *lor9e !n comb9es ) ! hydrog51 & gives hydro*loric acid1 :i* dissolves 9 ! wat]1 & !re=e free oxyg5 only w be sep>at$ f ! liquid1 & x w only conta9 a small quantity ( *lor9e 9 admixture1 :i* c be easily remov$ by pass+ ! gas ?r\gh a solution ( cau/ic pota%4 ,f air1 :i* conta9s a mixture ( oxyg5 & nitrog51 ! nitrog5 alone _c be remov$1 because x has no incl9ation to comb9e directly or readily ) any sub/ance2 & al?\gh x does comb9e ) c]ta9 sub/ances 7boron1 titanium71 ^! sub/ances comb9e simultane\sly ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e4#f ,h[ev]1 oxyg5 may be sep>at$ f air by caus+ x to comb9e ) sub/ances :i* may be easily decompos$ by ! action ( heat1 &1 9 s do+1 give up ! oxyg5 absorb$--t is1 by mak+ use ( rev]sible reactions4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e may be made to oxidise sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b 7by pass+ directly ov] ignit$ spongy plat9um71 & to =m sulphuric anhydride1 or sulphur trioxide1 ,,s#c2 & ?is sub/ance 7:i* is a solid & volatile1 & !re=e easily sep>at$ f ! nitrog5 & sulphur\s anhydride71 on fur!r heat+1 gives oxyg5 & sulphur\s anhydride4 ,cau/ic soda or lime extracts 7absorbs7 ! sulphur\s anhydride f ?is mixture1 :il/ ! oxyg5 is n absorb$1 & ?us x is isolat$ f ! air4 ,on a l>ge scale 9 works1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 sulphur\s anhydride is trans=m$ into hydrate ( sulphuric trioxide1 or sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d2 if ?is is all[$ to drop on to r$-hot flag/ones1 wat]1 sulphur\s anhydride1 & oxyg5 are obta9$4 ,! oxyg5 is easily isolat$ f ?is mixture by pass+ ! gases ov] lime4 ,! extraction ( oxyg5 f oxide ( m]cury 7,prie/ley1 ,lavoisi]71 :i* is obta9$ f m]cury & ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 is also a rev]sible reaction by :i* oxyg5 may be obta9$ f ! atmosph]e4 ,s also1 by pass+ dry air ?r\gh a r$-hot tube conta9+ b>ium oxide1 x is made to comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,9 ?is reaction ! s-call$ b>ium p]oxide1 ,ba,o#b1 is =m$ f ! b>ium oxide1 ,ba,o1 & at a high] temp]ature ! =m] evolves ! absorb$ oxyg51 & leaves ! b>ium oxide orig9ally tak54#g #f ,a diff]5ce 9 ! physical prop]ties ( bo? gases _c be "h tak5 advantage (1 because !y are v simil> 9 ?is respect4 ,?us ! d5sity ( oxyg5 is #af times & ( nitrog5 #ad times great] ?an ! d5sity ( hydrog51 & !re=e por\s vessels _c be "h employ$--! diff]5ce betwe5 ! times ( _! passage ?r\gh a por\s surface w\ld be too insignificant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,graham's app>atus = ! decomposition ( air by pump+ x ?r\gh india-rubb]4 ,graham1 h[ev]1 succe$$ 9 enri*+ air 9 oxyg5 by pass+ x ?r\gh india-rubb]4 ,?is may be done 9 ! foll[+ way3--,a common india-rubb] cu%ion1 ,e 7,fig4 #bg71 is tak51 & its orifice h]metically connect$ ) an air-pump1 or1 bett] /ill1 a m]cury aspirator 7! ,spr5gel pump is designat$ by ! lett]s ,a1 ,c1 ,b74 ,:5 ! aspirator 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #af7 has pump$ out ! air1 :i* w be se5 by ! m]cury runn+ out 9 an almo/ un9t]rupt$ /ream1 & f its /&+ approximately at ! b>ometric height1 !n x may be cle>ly obs]v$ t gas passes ?r\gh ! india-rubb]4 ,?is is also se5 f ! fact t bubbles ( gas cont9ually pass along ) ! m]cury4 ,a m9us pressure may be con/antly ma9ta9$ 9 ! cu%ion by p\r+ m]cury into ! funnel ,a1 & screw+ up ! p9*cock ,c1 s t ! /ream fl[+ f x is small1 & !n a portion ( ! air pass+ ?r\gh ! india-rubb] w be c>ri$ along ) ! m]cury4 ,?is air may be collect$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 ,r4 ,its composition proves to be ab\t #db volumes ( oxyg5 ) #eg volumes ( nitrog51 & "o volume ( c>bonic anhydride1 :il/ ord9>y air conta9s only #ba volumes ( oxyg5 9 #ajj volumes4 ,a squ>e metre ( india-rubb] surface 7( ! usual ?ickness7 passes ab\t #de c4c4 ( su* air p] h\r4 ,?is exp]im5t cle>ly %[s t india-rubb] is p]meable to gases4 ,?is may1 by ! way1 be obs]v$ 9 common toy balloons fill$ ) coal-gas4 ,!y fall aft] a day or two1 n because !re are holes 9 !m1 b because air p5etrates into1 & ! gas f1 _! int]ior1 ?r\gh ! surface ( ! india-rubb] ( :i* !y are made4 ,! rate ( ! passage ( gases ?r\gh india-rubb] does n1 z ,mit*ell & ,graham %[$1 dep5d on _! d5sities1 & consequ5tly its p]meability is n det]m9$ by orifices4 ,x m resembles dialysis--t is1 ! p5etration ( liquids ?r\gh colloid surfaces4 ,equal volumes ( gases p5etrate ?r\gh india-rubb] 9 p]iods ( "t :i* are relat$ to ea* o!r z foll[s3--c>bonic anhydride1 #ajj2 hydrog51 #bdg2 oxyg51 #ecb2 m>% gas1 #fcc2 c>bonic oxide1 #a1bbj2 nitrog51 #a1ceh4 ,h5ce nitrog5 p5etrates m sl[ly ?an oxyg51 & c>bonic anhydride m quickly ?an o!r gases4 #beef volumes ( oxyg5 & #acehe volumes ( c>bonic anhydride p5etrate 9 ! same "t z "o volume ( nitrog54 ,by multiply+ ^! ratios by ! am\nts ( ^! gases 9 air1 we obta9 figures :i* are 9 almo/ ! same proportion z ! volumes ( ! gases p5etrat+ f air ?r\gh india-rubb]4 ,if ! process ( dialysis be repeat$ on ! air :i* has already pass$ ?r\gh india-rubb]1 !n a mixture conta9+ #fe p4c4 by volume ( oxyg5 is obta9$4 ,x may be ?\ght t ! cause ( ?is ph5om5on is ! absorption or occlusion 7see ,*ap4 ,,ii41 ,note #cg7 ( gases by india-rubb] & ! evolution ( ! gas dissolv$ 9 a vacuum2 &1 inde$1 india-rubb] does absorb gases1 especially c>bonic anhydride4 ,graham call$ ! above me?od ( ! decomposition ( air atmolysis4 #g ,! prep>ation ( oxyg5 by ?is me?od1 :i* is due to ,b\ss+ault1 is conduct$ 9 a porcela9 tube1 :i* is plac$ 9 a /ove heat$ by *>coal1 s t its ends project beyond ! /ove4 ,b>ium oxide 7:i* may be obta9$ by ignit+ b>ium nitrate1 previ\sly dri$7 is plac$ 9 ! tube1 "o end ( :i* is connect$ ) a pair ( bell[s1 or a gas-hold]1 = keep+ up a curr5t ( air ?r\gh x4 ,! air is previ\sly pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( cau/ic pota%1 to remove all traces ( c>bonic anhydride1 & x is v c>efully dri$ 7= ! hydrate ,ba,h#b,o#b does n give ! p]oxide74 ,at a d>k-r$ heat 7#ejj-fjj7 ! oxide ( b>ium absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 s t ! gas leav+ ! tube consi/s almo/ entirely ( nitrog54 ,:5 ! absorption ceases1 ! air w pass ?r\gh ! tube un*ang$1 :i* may be recognis$ f ! fact t x supports combu/ion4 ,! b>ium oxide is conv]t$ into p]oxide "u ^! circum/ances1 & elev5 p>ts ( b>ium oxide absorb ab\t "o "p ( oxyg5 by weight4 ,:5 ! absorption ceases1 "o end ( ! tube is clos$1 a cork ) a gas-conduct+ tube is fix$ into ! o!r end1 & ! heat ( ! /ove is increas$ to a bright-r$ heat 7#hjj74 ,at ?is temp]ature ! b>ium p]oxide gives up all t oxyg5 :i* x acquir$ at a d>k-r$ heat--i4e4 ab\t "o "p by weight ( oxyg5 is evolv$ f twelve p>ts ( b>ium p]oxide4 ,aft] ! evolution ( ! oxyg5 !re rema9s ! b>ium oxide :i* 0 orig9ally tak51 s t air may be aga9 pass$ ov] x1 & ?us ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 f "o & ! same quantity ( b>ium oxide may be repeat$ _m times4 ,oxyg5 has be5 produc$ "o hundr$ times f "o mass ( oxide by ?is me?od2 all ! necess>y precautions be+ tak51 z reg>ds ! temp]ature ( ! mass & ! removal ( moi/ure & c>bonic acid f ! air4 ,unless ^! precautions be tak51 ! mass ( oxide soon spoils4 ,z oxyg5 may become ( consid]able te*nical use1 f its capacity = giv+ high temp]atures & int5se light 9 ! combu/ion ( sub/ances1 its prep>ation directly f air by practical me?ods =ms a problem ^: solution _m inve/igators cont9ue to "w at up to ! pres5t day4 ,! mo/ practical me?ods are ^? ( ,tessi du ,motay & ,kassn]4 ,! fir/ is bas$ on ! fact t a mixture ( equal weights ( manganese p]oxide & cau/ic soda at an incipi5t r$ heat 7ab\t #cej7 absorbs oxyg5 f air1 ) ! sep>ation ( wat]1 accord+ to ! equation ,mn,o#b #b,na,h,o ,o ,na#b,mn,o#d ,h#b,o4 ,if sup]heat$ /eam1 at a temp]ature ( ab\t #dej1 be !n pass$ ?r\gh ! mixture1 ! manganese p]oxide & cau/ic soda orig9ally tak5 are reg5]at$1 & ! oxyg5 held by !m is evolv$1 accord+ to ! rev]se equation ,na#b,mn,o#d ,h#b,o ,mn,o#b #b,na,h,o ,o4 ,?is mode ( prep>+ oxyg5 may be repeat$ = an inf9ite numb] ( times4 ,! oxyg5 9 comb9+ lib]ates wat]1 & /eam1 act+ on ! resultant sub/ance1 evolves oxyg54 ,h5ce all t is requir$ = ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 by ?is me?od is fuel & ! alt]nate cutt+ (f ! supply ( air & /eam4 ,9 ,kassn]'s process 7#ahia7 a mixture ( oxide ( lead & lime 7,pb,o #b;,ca,o7 is heat$ to r$ness 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 oxyg5 is !n absorb$ & calcium plumbate1 ,ca#b,pb,o#d1 =m$4 ,! latt] is ( a *ocolate col\r1 & on fur!r heat+ evolves oxyg5 & gives ! orig9al mixture ,pb,o #b;,ca,o--t is1 ! ph5om5on is ess5tially ! same z 9 ,b\ss+ault's process 7) ,ba,o71 b accord+ to ,le ,*ateli] 7#ahic7 ! dissociation t5sion ( ! oxyg5 evolv$ f ,ca#b,pb,o#d is less ?an ) ,ba,o#b at equal temp]atures2 = in/ance1 at #idj1 #aab mm4 ( m]cury = ! fir/1 & = ! latt] #baj mm4 at #gbj1 & #fgj mm4 at #gij1 :ile = ,ca#b,pb,o#d ?is t5sion is only rea*$ at #a1jhj4 ,h[ev]1 9 ,kassn]'s process ! oxyg5 is absorb$ m rapidly1 & ! influ5ce ( ! pres5ce ( moi/ure & ,,co#b 9 ! air is n s m>k$1 s t ?is process1 l t ( ,tessi du ,motay1 des]ves consid]ation4 ,oxyg5 is evolv$ ) p>ticul> ease by a :ole s]ies ( un/able oxyg5 comp\nds1 ( :i* we %all proce$ to take a g5]al survey1 rem>k+ t _m ( ^! reactions1 al?\gh n all1 belong to ! numb] ( rev]sible reactions2#h s t 9 ord] to obta9 _m ( ^! sub/ances 7= in/ance1 potassium *lorate7 ri* 9 oxyg51 rec\rse mu/ be _h to indirect me?ods 7see ,introduction7 ) :i* we %all become acqua9t$ 9 ! c\rse ( ?is book4 #h ,ev5 ! decomposition ( manganese p]oxide is rev]sible1 & x may be re-obta9$ f t suboxide 7or its salts71 :i* is =m$ 9 ! evolution ( oxyg5 7,*ap4 ,,xi41 ,note #f74 ,! comp\nds ( *romic acid conta9+ ! trioxide ,cr,o#c 9 evolv+ oxyg5 give *romium oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c1 b !y re-=m ! salt ( *romic acid :5 heat$ to r$ness 9 air ) an alkali4 #a4 ,! comp\nds ( oxyg5 ) c]ta9 metals1 & especially ) ! s-call$ noble metals--t is1 m]cury1 silv]1 gold1 & plat9um--hav+ once be5 obta9$1 reta9 _! oxyg5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b "p ) x at a r$ heat4 ,! comp\nds are solids1 g5]ally amorph\s & infusible1 & are easily decompos$ by heat into ! metal & oxyg54 ,we h se5 an example ( ?is 9 speak+ ( ! decomposition ( m]cury oxide4 ,prie/ley1 9 #aggd1 obta9$ pure oxyg5 = ! fir/ "t by heat+ m]cury oxide by means ( a burn+-glass1 & cle>ly %[$ its diff]5ce f air4 ,he %[$ its *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( support+ combu/ion ') rem>kable vig\r1' & nam$ x dephlogi/icat$ air4 #b4 ,! sub/ances call$ p]oxides#i evolve oxyg5 at a great] or less heat 7& also by ! action ( _m acids74 ,!y usually conta9 metals comb9$ ) a l>ge quantity ( oxyg54 ,p]oxides are ! highe/ oxides ( c]ta9 metals2 ^? metals :i* =m !m g5]ally give sev]al comp\nds ) oxyg54 ,^? ( ! l[e/ degrees ( oxidation1 conta9+ ! lea/ am\nt ( oxyg51 are g5]ally sub/ances :i* are capable ( easily react+ ) acids--= in/ance1 ) sulphuric acid4 ,su* l[ oxides are call$ bases4 ,p]oxides conta9 m oxyg5 ?an ! bases =m$ by ! same metals4 ,= example1 lead oxide conta9s #ga p>ts ( oxyg5 9 #ajj p>ts1 & is basic1 b lead p]oxide conta9s #acc p>ts ( oxyg5 9 #ajj p>ts4 ,manganese p]oxide is a simil> sub/ance1 & is a solid ( a d>k col\r1 :i* occurs 9 nature4 ,x is employ$ = te*nical purposes "u ! "n ( black oxide ( manganese 79 ,g]man1 ',braun/e91' ! pyrolusite ( ! m9]alogi/74 ,p]oxides are able to evolve oxyg5 at a m or less elevat$ temp]ature4 ,!y d n !n "p ) all _! oxyg51 b ) only a portion ( x1 & are conv]t$ into a l[] oxide or base4 ,?us1 = example1 lead p]oxide1 on heat+1 gives oxyg5 & lead oxide4 ,! decomposition ( ?is p]oxide proce$s tol]ably easily on heat+1 ev5 9 a glass vessel1 b manganese p]oxide only evolves oxyg5 at a /rong r$ heat1 & !re=e oxyg5 c only be obta9$ f x 9 iron1 or o!r metallic1 or clay vessels4 ,?is 0 =m]ly ! me?od = obta9+ oxyg54 ,manganese p]oxide only p>ts ) "o-?ird ( its oxyg5 7accord+ to ! equation #c,mn,o#b ,mn#c,o#d ,o#b71 :il/ two-?irds rema9 9 ! solid sub/ance :i* =ms ! residue aft] heat+4 ,metallic p]oxides are also capable ( evolv+ oxyg5 on heat+ ) sulphuric acid4 ,!y !n evolve j t am\nt ( oxyg5 :i* is 9 excess ( t necess>y = ! =mation ( ! base1 ! latt] react+ on ! sulphuric acid =m+ a comp\nd 7salt7 ) x4 ,?us b>ium p]oxide1 :5 heat$ ) sulphuric acid1 =ms oxyg5 & b>ium oxide1 :i* gives a comp\nd ) sulphuric acid t]m$ b>ium sulphate 7,ba,o#b ,h#b,,s#d ,ba,s,o#d ,h#b,o ,o74#i bis ,?is reaction usually proce$s ) great] ease ?an ! decomposition ( p]oxides by heat alone4 ,= ! purposes ( exp]im5t p[d]$ manganese p]oxide is usually tak5 & mix$ ) /rong sulphuric acid 9 a flask1 & ! app>atus set up z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bh4 ,! gas :i* is evolv$ is pass$ ?r\gh a ,w\lfe's bottle conta9+ a solution ( cau/ic pota%1 to purify x f c>bonic anhydride & *lor9e1 :i* accompany ! evolution ( oxyg5 f comm]cial manganese p]oxide1 & ! gas is n collect$ until a ?9 sm\ld]+ tap] plac$ 9 front ( ! escape orifice bur/s into flame1 :i* %[s t ! gas com+ (f is oxyg54 ,by ?is me?od ( decomposition ( ! manganese p]oxide by sulphuric acid !re is evolv$1 n1 z 9 heat+1 "o-?ird1 b "o-half ( ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! p]oxide 7,mn,o#b ,h#b,,s#d ,mn,s,o#d ,h#b,o ,o7--t is1 f #ej grams ( p]oxide ab\t #g-a_/e grams1 or ab\t #e-a_/b litres1 ( oxyg51#aj :il/ by heat+ only ab\t #c-a_/b litres are obta9$4 ,! *emi/s ( ,lavoisi]'s "t g5]ally obta9$ oxyg5 by heat+ manganese p]oxide4 ,at ! pres5t "t m conv5i5t me?ods are kn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,prep>ation ( oxyg5 f manganese p]oxide & sulphuric acid4 ,! gas evolv$ is pass$ ?r\gh a ,w\lfe's bottle conta9+ cau/ic pota%4 #i ,we %all aft]w>ds see t x is only sub/ances l b>ium p]oxide 7:i* give hydrog5 p]oxide7 :i* %\ld be c\nt$ z true p]oxides1 & t ,mn,o#b1 ,pb,o#b1 c41 %\ld be di/+ui%$ f !m 7!y d n give hydrog5 p]oxide ) acids71 & !re=e x is be/ to call !m dioxides4 #i bis ,p]oxide ( b>ium also gives oxyg5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 ! pres5ce ( ! solutions ( _m sub/ances 9 a high] degree ( oxidation4 ,9 ?is respect we may m5tion t ,kassn] 7#ahij7 proposes to obta9 oxyg5 = laboratory purposes by mix+ ,ba,o#b ) ,fe,k#c7;,,cn7#f 7r$ prussiate ( pota%1 ,*apt] ,,xxii473 ! reaction proce$s ) ! evolution ( oxyg5 ev5 on ! addition ( a v small quantity ( wat]4 ,9 ord] to ensure a gradual evolution ( gas ! au?or proposes to introduce bo? sub/ances into ! reaction1 little by little1 in/ead ( all at once1 :i* may be done ) ! foll[+ arrangem5t 7,gaval(fsky73 f9ely p[d]$ p]oxide ( b>ium is plac$ 9 an ord9>y flask & suffici5t wat] is add$ to fill ! flask "o-?ird full4 ,! cork clos+ ! flask has ?ree holes2 7#a7 = ! gas-conduct+ tube2 7#b7 = a rod to /ir ! ,ba,o#b2 & 7#c7 = a glass rod t]m9at+ 9 a p]=at$ glass vessel conta9+ cry/als ( ,fe,k#c7;,,cn7#f4 ,:5 x is desir$ to />t ! evolution ( ! oxyg51 ! vessel is l[]$ until x is imm]s$ 9 ! liquid 9 ! flask1 & ! ,ba,o#b is /irr$ ) ! o!r rod4 ,! reaction proce$s accord+ to ! equation1 ,ba,o#b #b;,fe,k#c7;,,cn7#f ,fe,k#d7;,,cn7#f ,fe,k#b;,ba7,,cn7#f ,o#b4 ,! d\ble salt1 ,fe,ba#b7;,,cn7#f1 cry/allises out f ! "m liquor4 ,to und]/& ! c\rse ( ! reaction1 x mu/ be rememb]$ ,ba,o#b is ( a high] degree ( oxidation1 & t x p>ts ) oxyg5 & gives ! base ,ba,o :i* ent]s into ! complex salt ,fe,k#b;,ba7,,cn7#f ,fe7,,cn7#b #b,,kcn ,ba7,,cn7#b1 & ?is latt] ,ba,o #b;,,hcn-,h#b,o4 ,moreov]1 ,fe,k#c7;,,cn7#f conta9s ! salt ,fe#b7;,,cn7#f :i* also corresponds to ! high] degree ( oxidation ( iron1 ,fe#b,o#c1 :il/ aft] ! reaction a salt is obta9$ :i* conta9s ,fe7,,cn7#b1 & corresponds to ! l[] degree ( oxidation1 ,fe,o1 s t 79 ! pres5ce ( wat]7 oxyg5 is also set free on ?is side also1 i4e4 ! reaction gives l[] degrees ( oxidation & oxyg54 #aj ,s*eele1 9 #aghe1 discov]$ ! me?od ( obta9+ oxyg5 by treat+ manganese p]oxide ) sulphuric acid4 #c4 ,a ?ird s\rce to :i* rec\rse may be _h = obta9+ oxyg5 is repres5t$ 9 acids & salts conta9+ mu* oxyg51 :i* are capable1 by p>t+ ) a portion or all ( _! oxyg51 ( be+ conv]t$ into o!r comp\nds 7l[] products ( oxidation7 :i* are m difficultly decompos$4 ,^! acids & salts 7l p]oxides7 evolve oxyg5 ei!r on heat+ alone1 or only :5 9 ! pres5ce ( "s o!r sub/ance4 ,sulphuric acid may be tak5 z an example ( an acid :i* is decompos$ by ! action ( heat alone1#aa = x breaks up at a r$ heat into wat]1 sulphur\s anhydride1 & oxyg51 z 0 m5tion$ be=e4 ,prie/ley1 9 #aggb1 & ,s*eele1 some:at lat]1 obta9$ oxyg5 by heat+ nitre to a r$ heat4 ,! be/ examples ( ! =mation ( oxyg5 by ! heat+ ( salts is giv5 9 potassium *lorate1 or ,b]?ollet's salt1 s call$ aft] ! ,fr5* *emi/ :o discov]$ x4 ,potassium *lorate is a salt compos$ ( ! elem5ts potassium1 *lor9e1 & oxyg51 ,k,cl,o#c4 ,x occurs z transp>5t col\rless plates1 is soluble 9 wat]1 especially 9 hot wat]1 & resembles common table salt 9 "s ( its reactions & physical prop]ties2 x melts on heat+1 & 9 melt+ beg9s to decompose1 evolv+ oxyg5 gas4 ,?is decomposition ends 9 all ! oxyg5 be+ evolv$ f ! potassium *lorate1 potassium *loride be+ left z a residue1 accord+ to ! equation ,k,cl,o#c ,k,cl ,o#c4ab ,?is decomposition proce$s at a temp]ature :i* all[s ( its be+ conduct$ 9 a glass vessel4 ,h[ev]1 9 decompos+1 ! molt5 potassium *lorate swells up & boils1 & gradually solidifies1 s ! evolution ( ! oxyg5 is n regul>1 & ! glass vessel may crack4 ,9 ord] to ov]come ?is inconv5i5ce1 ! potassium *lorate is cru%$ & mix$ ) a p[d] ( a sub/ance :i* is infusible1 incapable ( comb9+ ) ! oxyg5 evolv$1 & is a good conductor ( heat4 ,usually x is mix$ ) manganese p]oxide4#ac ,! decomposition ( ! potassium *lorate is !n consid]ably facilitat$1 & proce$s at a l[] temp]ature 7because ! entire mass is !n bett] heat$1 bo? ext]nally & int]nally71 )\t swell+ up1 & ?is me?od is !re=e m conv5i5t ?an ! decomposition ( ! salt alone4 ,?is me?od = ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 is v conv5i5t2 x is g5]ally employ$ :5 a small quantity ( oxyg5 is requir$4 ,fur!r1 potassium *lorate is easily obta9$ pure1 & x evolves mu* oxyg54 #ajj grams ( ! salt give z mu* z #ci grams1 or #cj litres1 ( oxyg54 ,?is me?od is s simple & easy1#ad t a c\rse ( practical *emi/ry is (t5 comm5c$ by ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 by ?is me?od1 & ( hydrog5 by ! aid ( z9c & sulphuric acid1 s9ce by means ( ^! gases _m int]e/+ & /rik+ exp]im5ts may be p]=m$4#ae #aa ,all acids ri* 9 oxyg51 & especially ^? ^: elem5ts =m l[] oxides1 evolve oxyg5 ei!r directly at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7= in/ance1 f]ric acid71 or on heat+ 7nitric1 manganic1 *romic1 *loric1 & o!rs71 or if basic l[] oxides are =m$ f !m1 by heat+ ) sulphuric acid4 ,?us ! salts ( *romic acid 7= example1 potassium di*romate1 ,k#b;,cr#b,o#g7 give oxyg5 ) sulphuric acid2 fir/ potassium sulphate1 ,k#b,,s#d1 is =m$1 & !n ! *romic acid set free gives a sulphuric acid salt ( ! l[] oxide1 ,cr#b,o#c4 #ab ,?is reaction is n rev]sible1 & is exo!rmal--t is1 x does n absorb heat1 b1 on ! contr>y1 evolves #i1gac calories p] molecul> weight ,k,cl,o#c1 equal to #abb p>ts ( salt 7accord+ to ! det]m9ation ( ,?oms51 :o burnt hydrog5 9 a calorimet] ei!r alone or ) a def9ite quantity ( potassium *lorate mix$ ) oxide ( iron74 ,x does n proce$ at once1 b fir/ =ms p]*lorate1 ,k,cl,o#d 7see ,*lor9e & ,potassium74 ,x is to be rem>k$ t potassium *loride melts at #gff1 potassium *lorate at #cei1 & potassium p]*lorate at #faj4 7,conc]n+ ! decomposition ( ,k,cl,o#c1 see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #dg47 #ac ,! p]oxide does n evolve oxyg5 9 ?is case4 ,x may be replac$ by _m oxides--= in/ance1 by oxide ( iron4 ,x is necess>y to take ! precaution t no combu/ible sub/ances 7su* z bits ( pap]1 spl9t]s1 sulphur1 c47 fall into ! mixture1 z !y might cause an explosion4 #ad ,! decomposition ( a mixture ( fus$ & well-cru%$ potassium *lorate ) p[d]$ manganese p]oxide proce$s at s l[ a temp]ature 7! salt does n melt7 t x may be effect$ 9 an ord9>y glass flask4 ,! app>atus is arrang$ 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! decomposition ( m]cury oxide 7,introduction71 or z %[n 9 ! la/ draw+4 ,z ! reaction is exo!rmal1 ! decomposition ( potassium *lorate ) ! =mation ( oxyg5 may probably be accompli%$1 "u c]ta9 conditions 7= example1 "u contact action71 at v l[ temp]atures4 ,sub/ances mix$ ) ! potassium *lorate probably act p>tially 9 ?is mann]4 #ae ,_m o!r salts evolve oxyg5 by heat1 l potassium *lorate1 b !y only "p ) x ei!r at a v high temp]ature 7= in/ance1 common nitre7 or else are unsuit$ = use on acc\nt ( _! co/ 7potassium manganate71 or evolve impure oxyg5 at a high temp]ature 7z9c sulphate at a r$ heat gives a mixture ( sulphur\s anhydride & oxyg571 & are n !re=e us$ 9 practice4 ,a solution ( blea*+ p[d]1 :i* conta9s calcium hypo*lorite1 ,ca,cl#b,o#b1 evolves oxyg5 on g5tly heat+ :5 a small quantity ( c]ta9 oxides is add$--= in/ance1 cobalt oxide1 :i* 9 ?is case acts by contact 7see ,introduction74 ,:5 heat$ by itself1 a solution ( blea*+ p[d] does n evolve oxyg51 b x oxidises ! cobalt oxide to a high] degree ( oxidation2 ?is high] oxide ( cobalt 9 contact ) ! blea*+ p[d] decomposes into oxyg5 & l[] oxidation products1 & ! resultant l[] oxide ( cobalt ) blea*+ p[d] aga9 gives ! high] oxide1 :i* aga9 gives up its oxyg51 & s on4#af ,! calcium hypo*lorite is "h decompos$ accord+ to ! equation ,ca,cl#b,o#b ,ca,cl#b ,o#b4 ,9 ?is mann] a small quantity ( cobalt oxide#ag is suffici5t = ! decomposition ( an indef9itely l>ge quantity ( blea*+ p[d]4 #af ,su* is1 at pres5t1 ! only possible me?od ( expla9+ ! ph5om5on ( contact action4 ,9 _m cases1 su* z ! pres5t "o1 x is support$ by obs]vations bas$ on facts4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 x is kn[n1 z reg>ds oxyg51 t (t5 two sub/ances ri* 9 oxyg5 reta9 x s long z !y are sep>ate1 b directly !y come into contact free oxyg5 is evolv$ f bo? ( !m4 ,?us1 an aque\s solution ( hydrog5 p]oxide 7conta9+ twice z mu* oxyg5 z wat]7 acts 9 ?is mann] on silv] oxide 7conta9+ silv] & oxyg574 ,?is reaction takes place at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ! oxyg5 is evolv$ f bo? comp\nds4 ,to ?is class ( ph5om5a may be also ref]r$ ! fact t a mixture ( b>ium p]oxide & potassium manganate ) wat] & sulphuric acid evolves oxyg5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7,note #i bis74 ,x w\ld seem t ! ess5ce ( ph5om5a ( ?is k9d is entirely & purely a prop]ty ( contact2 ! di/ribution ( ! atoms is *ang$ by contact1 & if ! equilibrium be un/able x is de/roy$4 ,?is is m especially evid5t 9 ! case ( ^? sub/ances :i* *ange exo!rmally--t is1 = ^? reactions :i* are accompani$ by an evolution ( heat4 ,! decomposition ,ca,cl#b,o#b ,ca,cl#b ,o#b belongs to ?is class 7l ! decomposition ( potassium *lorate74 #ag ,g5]ally a solution ( blea*+ p[d] is alkal9e 7conta9s free lime71 & !re=e1 a solution ( cobalt *loride is add$ directly to x1 by :i* means ! oxide ( cobalt requir$ = ! reaction is =m$4 ,! prop]ties ( oxyg54#ah--;,x is a p]man5t gas--t is1 x _c be liquefi$ by pressure at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & fur!r1 is only liquefi$ ) difficulty 7al?\gh m easily ?an hydrog57 at temp]atures bel[ -#abj1 because ?is is its absolute boil+ po9t4 ,z its critical pressure#ai is ab\t #ej atmosph]es1 x c be easily liquefi$ "u pressures great] ?an #ej atmosph]es at temp]atures bel[ -#abj4 ,accord+ to ,dew>1 ! d5sity ( oxyg5 9 a critical /ate is #jfe 7wat] #a71 b1 l all o!r sub/ances 9 ?is /ate1#bj x v>ies consid]ably 9 d5sity ) a *ange ( pressure & temp]ature1 & !re=e _m inve/igators :o made _! obs]vations "u high pressures give a great] d5sity1 z mu* z #aa4 ,liquefi$ oxyg5 is an exce$+ly mobile transp>5t liquid1 ) a fa9t blue t9t & boil+ 7t5sion #a atmosph]e7 ab\t -#ahj4 ,oxyg51 l all gases1 is transp>5t1 & l ! majority ( gases1 col\rless4 ,x has no smell or ta/e1 :i* is evid5t f ! fact ( its be+ a compon5t ( air4 ,! weight ( "o litre ( oxyg5 gas at #j & #gfj mm4 pressure is #adbih gram2 x is !re=e slightly d5s] ?an air4 ,its d5sity 9 respect to air #aajef & 9 respect to hydrog5 #af4ba #ah ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t 9 all ! reactions above m5tion$ ! =mation ( oxyg5 may be prev5t$ by ! admixture ( sub/ances capable ( comb9+ ) x--= example1 *>coal1 _m c>bon 7organic7 comp\nds1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 & v>i\s l[] oxidation products1 c4 ,^! sub/ances absorb ! oxyg5 evolv$1 comb9e ) x1 & a comp\nd conta9+ oxyg5 is =m$4 ,?us1 if a mixture ( potassium *lorate & *>coal be heat$1 no oxyg5 is obta9$1 b an explosion takes place f ! rapid =mation ( gases result+ f ! comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 ( ! potassium *lorate ) ! *>coal & ! evolution ( gase\s ,,co#b4 ,! oxyg5 obta9$ by any ( ! above-describ$ me?ods is r>ely pure4 ,x g5]ally conta9s aque\s vap\r1 c>bonic anhydride1 & v (t5 small traces ( *lor9e4 ,! oxyg5 may be fre$ f ^! impurities by pass+ x ?r\gh a solution ( cau/ic pota%1 & by dry+ x4 ,if ! potassium *lorate be dry & pure1 x gives almo/ pure oxyg54 ,h[ev]1 if ! oxyg5 be requir$ = respiration 9 cases ( sickness1 x %\ld be wa%$ by pass+ x ?r\gh a solution ( cau/ic alkali & ?r\gh wat]4 ,! be/ way to obta9 pure oxyg5 directly is to take potassium p]*lorate 7,k,cl,o#d71 :i* c be well purifi$ & !n evolves pure oxyg5 on heat+4 #ai ,) reg>d to ! absolute boil+ po9t1 critical pressure1 & ! critical /ate 9 g5]al1 see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,notes #bi & #cd4 #bj ,judg+ f :at has be5 said 9 ,note #cd ( ! la/ *apt]1 & also f ! results ( direct obs]vation1 x is evid5t t all sub/ances 9 a critical /ate h a l>ge coeffici5t ( expansion1 & are v compressible4 #ba ,z wat] consi/s ( #a volume ( oxyg5 & #b volumes ( hydrog51 & conta9s #af p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 p] #b p>ts by weight ( hydrog51 x !re=e foll[s directly t oxyg5 is #af times d5s] ?an hydrog54 ,conv]sely1 ! composition ( wat] by weight may be d$uc$ f ! d5sities ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 & ! volumetric composition ( wat]4 ,?is me?od ( mutual & reciprocal correction /r5g!ns ! practical data ( ! exact sci5ces1 ^: conclusions require ! greate/ possible exactitude & v>iety ( corrections4 ,x mu/ he obs]v$ t ! specific heat ( oxyg5 at con/ant pressure is #jbage1 consequ5tly x is to ! specific heat ( hydrog5 7#cdji7 z #a is to #aef4 ,h5ce1 ! specific heats are inv]sely proportional to ! weights ( equal volumes4 ,?is signifies t equal volumes ( bo? gases h 7ne>ly7 equal specific heats--t is1 !y require an equal quantity ( heat = rais+ _! temp]ature by #a4 ,we %all aft]w>ds consid] ! specific heat ( diff]5t sub/ances m fully 9 ,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,oxyg51 l ! majority ( difficultly-liquefiable gases1 is b slightly soluble 9 wat] & o!r liquids4 ,! solubility is giv5 9 ,note #cj1 ,*ap4 ,i4 ,f ?is x is evid5t t wat] /&+ 9 air mu/ absorb--i4e4 dissolve--oxyg54 ,?is oxyg5 s]ves = ! respiration ( fi%es4 ,fi%es _c exi/ 9 boil$ wat]1 because x does n conta9 ! oxyg5 necess>y = _! respiration 7see ,*ap4 ,i47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,mode ( burn+ sulphur1 phosphorus1 sodium1 c41 9 oxyg54 ,9 its *emical prop]ties oxyg5 is rem>kable f ! fact t x v easily--&1 9 a *emical s5se1 vigor\sly--reacts on a numb] ( sub/ances1 =m+ oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,h[ev]1 only a few sub/ances & mixtures ( sub/ances 7= example1 phosphorus1 copp] ) ammonia1 decompos+ organic matt]1 aldehyde1 pyrogallol ) an alkali1 c47 comb9e directly ) oxyg5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :il/ _m sub/ances easily comb9e ) oxyg5 at a r$ heat1 & (t5 ?is comb9ation pres5ts a rapid *emical reaction accompani$ by ! evolution ( a l>ge quantity ( heat4 ,e reaction :i* takes place rapidly1 if x be accompani$ by s great an evolution ( heat z to produce inc&esc5ce1 is t]m$ combu/ion4 ,?us combu/ion ensues :5 _m metals are plung$ into *lor9e1 or oxide ( sodium or b>ium into c>bonic anhydride1 or :5 a sp>k falls on gunp[d]4 ,a great _m sub/ances are combu/ible 9 oxyg51 &1 ow+ to its pres5ce1 9 air also4 ,9 ord] to />t combu/ion x is g5]ally necess>y#bb t ! combu/ible sub/ance %\ld be br\ght to a /ate ( inc&esc5ce4 ,! cont9uation ( ! process does n require ! aid ( fre% ext]nal heat1 because suffici5t heat#bc is evolv$ to raise ! temp]ature ( ! rema9+ p>ts ( ! combu/ible sub/ance to ! requir$ degree4 ,examples ( ?is are famili> to all f e-day exp]i5ce4 ,combu/ion proce$s 9 oxyg5 ) great] rapidity1 & is accompani$ by a m p[]ful inc&esc5ce1 ?an 9 ord9>y air4 ,?is may be demon/rat$ by a numb] ( v conv9c+ exp]im5ts4 ,if a piece ( *>coal1 atta*$ to a wire & previ\sly br\ght to r$-heat1 be plung$ into a flask full ( oxyg51 x burns rapidly at a :ite heat--i4e4 x comb9es ) ! oxyg51 =m+ a gase\s product ( combu/ion call$ c>bonic anhydride1 or c>bonic acid gas1 ,,co#b4 ,?is is ! same gas t is evolv$ 9 ! act ( respiration1 = *>coal is "o ( ! sub/ances :i* is obta9$ by ! decomposition ( all organic sub/ances :i* conta9 x1 & 9 ! process ( respiration "p ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! body1 s to speak1 sl[ly burn4 ,if a piece ( burn+ sulphur be plac$ 9 a small cup atta*$ to a wire & introduc$ into a flask full ( oxyg51 !n ! sulphur1 :i* burns 9 air ) a v feeble flame1 burns 9 ! oxyg5 ) a violet flame1 :i*1 al?\gh pale1 is mu* l>g] ?an 9 air4 ,if ! sulphur be ex*ang$ = a piece ( phosphorus1#bd !n1 unless ! phosphorus be heat$1 x comb9es v sl[ly ) ! oxyg52 b1 if heat$1 al?\gh on only "o spot1 x burns ) an exce$+ly brilliant :ite flame4 ,9 ord] to heat ! phosphorus inside ! flask1 ! simple/ way is to br+ a r$-hot wire into contact ) x4 ,be=e ! *>coal c burn1 x mu/ be br\ght to a /ate ( inc&esc5ce4 ,sulphur also w n burn "u #ajj1 :il/ phosphorus inflames at #dj4 ,phosphorus :i* has be5 already light$ 9 air _c s well be introduc$ into ! flask1 because x burns v rapidly & ) a l>ge flame 9 air4 ,if a small lump ( metallic sodium be put 9 a small cup made ( lime1#be melt$1 & ignit$1#bf x burns v feebly 9 air4 ,b if burn+ sodium be introduc$ into oxyg51 ! combu/ion is invigorat$ & is accompani$ by a bright] yell[ flame4 ,metallic magnesium1 :i* burns brightly 9 air1 cont9ues to burn ) /ill great] vig\r 9 oxyg51 =m+ a :ite p[d]1 :i* is a comp\nd ( magnesium ) oxyg5 7magnesium oxide2 magnesia74 ,a /rip ( iron or /eel does n burn 9 air1 b an iron wire or /eel spr+ may be easily burnt 9 oxyg54#bg ,! combu/ion ( /eel or iron 9 oxyg5 is n accompani$ by a flame1 b sp>ks ( oxide fly 9 all directions f ! burn+ portions ( ! iron4#bh #bb ,c]ta9 sub/ances 7) :i* we %all aft]w>ds become acqua9t$71 h[ev]1 ignite spontane\sly 9 air2 = example1 impure phosphurett$ hydrog51 silicon hydride1 z9c e?yl1 & pyrophorus 7v f9ely divid$ iron1 c47 #bc ,if s little heat is evolv$ t ! adjac5t p>ts are n heat$ to ! temp]ature ( combu/ion1 !n combu/ion w cease4 #bd ,! phosphorus mu/ be dry2 x is usually kept 9 wat]1 z x oxidises 9 air4 ,x %\ld be cut "u wat]1 z o!rwise ! fre%ly-cut surface oxidises4 ,x mu/ be dri$ c>efully & quickly by wrapp+ x 9 blott+-pap]4 ,if damp1 x splutt]s on burn+4 ,a small piece %\ld be tak51 z o!rwise ! iron spoon w melt4 ,9 ?is & ! o!r exp]im5ts on combu/ion1 wat] %\ld be p\r$ ov] ! bottom ( ! vessel conta9+ ! oxyg51 to prev5t x f crack+4 ,! cork clos+ ! vessel %\ld n fit tightly1 9 ord] to all[ = ! expansion ( ! gas due to ! heat ( ! combu/ion4 #be ,an iron cup w melt ) sodium 9 oxyg54 #bf ,9 ord] to rapidly heat ! lime crucible conta9+ ! sodium1 x is heat$ 9 ! flame ( a bl[pipe describ$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,viii4 #bg ,9 ord] to burn a wat* spr+1 a piece ( t9d] 7or pap] soak$ 9 a solution ( nitre1 & dri$7 is atta*$ to "o end4 ,! t9d] is light$1 & ! spr+ is !n plung$ into ! oxyg54 ,! burn+ t9d] heats ! end ( ! spr+1 ! heat$ "p burns1 & 9 s do+ heats ! fur!r portions ( ! spr+1 :i* !n burns completely if suffici5t oxyg5 be pres5t4 #bh ,! sp>ks ( ru/ are produc$1 ow+ to ! fact t ! volume ( ! oxide ( iron is ne>ly twice t ( ! volume ( ! iron1 & z ! heat evolv$ is n suffici5t to entirely melt ! oxide or ! iron1 ! p>ticles mu/ be torn (f & fly ab\t4 ,simil> sp>ks are =m$ 9 ! combu/ion ( iron1 9 o!r cases also4 ,we saw ! combu/ion ( iron fil+s 9 ! ,introduction4 ,9 ! weld+ ( iron small iron spl9t]s fly (f 9 all directions & burn 9 ! air1 z is se5 f ! fact t :il/ fly+ ?r\gh ! air !y rema9 r$ hot1 & also because1 on cool+1 !y are se5 to be no long] iron1 b a comp\nd ( x ) oxyg54 ,! same ?+ takes place :5 ! hamm] ( a gun /rikes aga9/ ! fl9t4 ,small scales ( /eel are heat$ by ! friction1 & gl[ & burn 9 ! air4 ,! combu/ion ( iron is /ill bett] se5 by tak+ x z a v f9e p[d]1 su* z is obta9$ by ! decomposition ( c]ta9 ( its comp\nds--= in/ance1 by heat+ ,prussian blue1 or by ! r$uction ( its comp\nds ) oxyg5 by hydrog52 :5 ?is f9e p[d] is /rewn 9 air1 x burns by itself1 ev5 )\t be+ previ\sly heat$ 7x =ms a pyrophorus74 ,?is obvi\sly dep5ds on ! fact t ! p[d] ( iron pres5ts a l>g] surface ( contact ) air ?an an equal weight 9 a compact =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,mode ( burn+ a /eel spr+ 9 oxyg54 ,9 ord] to demon/rate by exp]im5t ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 9 oxyg51 a gas-conduct+ tube1 b5t s z to =m a conv5i5t jet1 is l$ f ! vessel evolv+ hydrog54 ,! hydrog5 is fir/ set light to 9 air1 & !n ! gas-conduct+ tube is let d[n into a flask conta9+ oxyg54 ,! combu/ion 9 oxyg5 w be simil> to t 9 air2 ! flame rema9s pale1 not)/&+ ! fact t its temp]ature rises consid]ably4 ,x is in/ructive to rem>k t oxyg5 may burn 9 hydrog51 j z hydrog5 9 oxyg54 ,9 ord] to %[ ! combu/ion ( oxyg5 9 hydrog51 a tube b5t v]tically upw>ds & end+ 9 a f9e orifice is atta*$ to ! /opcock ( a gas-hold] full ( oxyg54 ,two wires1 plac$ at su* a di/ance f ea* o!r z to all[ ! passage ( a con/ant s]ies ( sp>ks f a ,ruhmkorff's coil1 are fix$ 9 front ( ! orifice ( ! tube4 ,?is is 9 ord] to ignite ! oxyg51 :i* may also be done by atta*+ t9d] r\nd ! orifice1 & burn+ x4 ,:5 ! wires are arrang$ at ! orifice ( ! tube1 & a s]ies ( sp>ks passes betwe5 !m1 !n an inv]t$ 7because ( ! lightness ( ! hydrog57 j> full ( hydrog5 is plac$ ov] ! gas-conduct+ tube4 ,:5 ! j> cov]s ! orifice ( ! gas-conduct+ tube 7& n be=e1 z o!rwise an explosion might take place7 ! cock ( ! gasomet] is op5$1 & ! oxyg5 fl[s into ! hydrog5 & is set light to by ! sp>ks4 ,! flame obta9$ is simil> to t =m$ by ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 9 oxyg54#bi ,f ?is x is evid5t t ! flame is ! locality :]e ! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! hydrog51 !re=e a flame ( burn+ oxyg5 c be obta9$ z well z a flame ( burn+ hydrog54 #bi ,! exp]im5t may be conduct$ )\t ! wires1 if ! hydrog5 be light$ 9 ! orifice ( an inv]t$ cyl9d]1 & at ! same "t ! cyl9d] be br\ght ov] ! end ( a gas-conduct+ tube connect$ ) a gas-hold] conta9+ oxyg54 ,?oms5's me?od may be adopt$ = a lecture exp]im5t4 ,two glass tubes1 ) plat9um ends1 are pass$ ?r\gh orifices1 ab\t #a-a-a_/b c5timetre ap>t1 9 a cork4 ,"o tube is connect$ ) a gas-hold] conta9+ oxyg51 & ! o!r ) a gas-hold] full ( hydrog54 ,hav+ turn$ on ! gases1 ! hydrog5 is light$1 & a common lamp glass1 tap]+ t[>ds ! top1 is plac$ ov] ! cork4 ,! hydrog5 cont9ues to burn inside ! lamp glass1 at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg54 ,if ! curr5t ( oxyg5 be !n decreas$ little by little1 a po9t is rea*$ :51 ow+ to ! insuffici5t supply ( oxyg51 ! flame ( ! hydrog5 increases 9 size1 disappe>s = sev]al mom5ts1 & !n reappe>s at ! tube supply+ ! oxyg54 ,if ! fl[ ( oxyg5 be aga9 increas$1 ! flame reappe>s at ! hydrog5 tube4 ,?us ! flame may be made to appe> at "o or ! o!r tube at w1 only ! increase or decrease ( ! curr5t ( gas mu/ take place by degrees & n sudd5ly4 ,fur!r1 air may be tak5 in/ead ( oxyg51 & ord9>y coal-gas in/ead ( hydrog51 & x w !n be %[n h[ air burns 9 an atmosph]e ( coal-gas1 & x c easily be prov$ t ! lamp glass is full ( a gas combu/ible 9 air1 because x may be light$ at ! top4 ,if1 in/ead ( hydrog51 any o!r combu/ible gas be tak5--= example1 ord9>y coal gas--!n ! ph5om5on ( combu/ion w be exactly ! same1 only a bright flame w be obta9$1 & ! products ( combu/ion w be diff]5t4 ,h[ev]1 z coal gas conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( free & comb9$ hydrog51 x w also =m a consid]able quantity ( wat] 9 its combu/ion4 ,if hydrog5 be mix$ ) oxyg5 9 ! proportion 9 :i* !y =m wat]--i4e4 if two volumes ( hydrog5 be tak5 = ea* volume ( oxyg5--!n ! mixture w be ! same z t obta9$ by ! decomposition ( wat] by a galvanic curr5t--detonat+ gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,cav5di%'s app>atus = explod+ detonat+ gas4 ,! bell j> /&+ 9 ! ba? is fill$ ) a mixture ( two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg51 & ! ?ick glass vessel ,a is !n screw$ on to x4 ,! air is fir/ pump$ out ( ?is vessel1 s t :5 ! /opcock ,c is op5$1 x becomes fill$ ) detonat+ gas4 ,! /opcock is !n re-clos$1 & ! explosion produc$ by means ( a sp>k f a ,leyd5 j>4 ,aft] ! explosion has tak5 place ! /opcock is aga9 op5$1 & ! wat] rises into ! vessel ,a4 ,we h already m5tion$ 9 ! la/ *apt] t ! comb9ation ( ^! gases1 or _! explosion1 may be br\ght ab\t by ! action ( an electric sp>k1 because ! sp>k heats ! space ?r\gh :i* x passes1 & acts consequ5tly 9 a mann] simil> to ignition by means ( contact ) an inc&esc5t or burn+ sub/ance4#bi bis ,cav5di% made ?is exp]im5t on ! ignition ( detonat+ gas1 at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 9 ! app>atus %[n 9 fig4 #ca4 ,ignition by ! aid ( ! electric sp>k is conv5i5t1 = ! reason t x may !n be br\ght ab\t 9 a clos$ vessel1 & h5ce *emi/s /ill employ ?is me?od :5 x is requir$ to ignite a mixture ( oxyg5 ) a combu/ible gas 9 a clos$ vessel4 ,= ?is purpose1 especially s9ce ,buns5's "t1#cj an eudiomet] is employ$4 ,x consi/s ( a ?ick glass tube graduat$ along its l5g? 9 millimetres 7= indicat+ ! height ( ! m]cury column71 & calibrat$ = a def9ite volume 7weight ( m]cury74 ,two plat9um wires are fus$ into ! upp] clos$ end ( ! tube1 z %[n 9 fig4 #cb4ca ,by ! aid ( ! eudiomet] we may n only det]m9e ! volumetric composition ( wat]1#cb & ! quantitative cont5ts ( oxyg5 9 air1#cc b also make a numb] ( exp]im5ts expla9+ ! ph5om5on ( combu/ion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,eudiomet] #bi bis ,9 fact1 in/ead ( a sp>k a f9e wire may be tak51 & an electric curr5t pass$ ?r\gh x to br+ x to a /ate ( inc&esc5ce2 9 ?is case !re w be no sp>ks1 b ! gases w inflame if ! wire be f9e en\gh to become r$ hot by ! passage ( ! curr5t4 #cj ,n[1 a great _m o!r diff]5t =ms ( app>atus1 sometimes design$ = special purposes1 are employ$ 9 ! laboratory = ! inve/igation ( gases4 ,detail$ descriptions ( ! me?ods ( gas analysis1 & ( ! app>atus employ$1 mu/ be look$ = 9 works on analytical & appli$ *emi/ry4 #ca ,!y mu/ be seal$ into ! tube 9 su* a mann] z to leave no ap]ture betwe5 !m & ! glass4 ,9 ord] to te/ ?is1 ! eudiomet] is fill$ ) m]cury1 & its op5 end inv]t$ into m]cury4 ,if !re be ! smalle/ orifice at ! wires1 ! ext]nal air w ent] into ! cyl9d] & ! m]cury w fall1 al?\gh n rapidly if ! orifice be v f9e4 #cb ,! eudiomet] is us$ = det]m9+ ! composition ( combu/ible gases4 ,a detail$ acc\nt ( gas analysis w\ld be out ( place 9 ?is "w 7see ,note #cj71 b1 z an example1 we w give a %ort description ( ! det]m9ation ( ! composition ( wat] by ! eudiomet]4 ,pure & dry oxyg5 is fir/ introduc$ into ! eudiomet]4 ,:5 ! eudiomet] & ! gas 9 x acquire ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e--:i* is recognis$ by ! fact ( ! m5iscus ( ! m]cury n alt]+ its position dur+ a long p]iod ( "t--!n ! heights at :i* ! m]cury /&s 9 ! eudiomet] & 9 ! ba? are obs]v$4 ,! diff]5ce 79 millimetres7 gives ! height ( ! column ( m]cury 9 ! eudiomet]4 ,x mu/ be r$uc$ to ! height at :i* ! m]cury w\ld /& at #j & d$uct$ f ! atmosph]ic pressure1 9 ord] to f9d ! pressure "u :i* ! oxyg5 is measur$ 7see ,*ap4 ,i4 ,note #bi74 ,! height ( ! m]cury also %[s ! volume ( ! oxyg54 ,! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e & ! height ( ! b>ometric column mu/ also be obs]v$1 9 ord] to "k ! temp]ature ( ! oxyg5 & ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,:5 ! volume ( ! oxyg5 has be5 measur$1 pure & dry hydrog5 is introduc$ into ! eudiomet]1 & ! volume ( ! gases 9 ! eudiomet] aga9 measur$4 ,!y are !n explod$4 ,?is is done by a ,leyd5 j>1 ^: out] coat+ is connect$ by a *a9 ) "o wire1 s t a sp>k passes :5 ! o!r wire1 fus$ into ! eudiomet]1 is t\*$ by ! t]m9al ( ! j>4 ,or else an electrophorus is us$1 or1 bett] /ill1 a ,ruhmkorff's coil1 :i* has ! advantage ( work+ equally well 9 damp or dry air1 :il/ a ,leyd5 j> or electrical ma*9e does n act 9 damp wea!r4 ,fur!r1 x is necess>y to close ! l[] orifice ( ! eudiomet] be=e ! explosion 7= ?is purpose ! eudiomet]1 :i* is fix$ 9 a /&1 is firmly press$ d[n f above on to a piece ( india-rubb] plac$ at ! bottom ( ! ba?71 z o!rwise ! m]cury & gas w\ld be ?r[n out ( ! app>atus by ! explosion4 ,x mu/ also be rem>k$ t to ensure complete combu/ion ! proportion betwe5 ! volumes ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 mu/ n exce$ twelve ( hydrog5 to "o volume ( oxyg51 or fifte5 volumes ( oxyg5 to "o volume ( hydrog51 because no explosion w take place if "o ( ! gases be 9 great excess4 ,x is be/ to take a mixture ( "o volume ( hydrog5 ) sev]al volumes ( oxyg54 ,! combu/ion w !n be complete4 ,x is evid5t t wat] is =m$1 & t ! volume 7or t5sion7 is dim9i%$1 s t on op5+ ! end ( ! eudiomet] ! m]cury w rise 9 x4 ,b ! t5sion ( ! aque\s vap\r is n[ add$ to ! t5sion ( ! gas rema9+ aft] ! explosion4 ,?is mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 7,*ap4 ,i4 ,note #a74 ,if b little gas rema91 ! wat] :i* is =m$ w be suffici5t = its saturation ) aque\s vap\r4 ,?is may be le>nt f ! fact t drops ( wat] are visible on ! sides ( ! eudiomet] aft] ! m]cury has ris5 9 x4 ,if !re be none1 a c]ta9 quantity ( wat] mu/ be introduc$ into ! eudiomet]4 ,!n ! numb] ( millimetres express+ ! pressure ( ! vap\r correspond+ ) ! temp]ature ( ! exp]im5t mu/ be subtract$ f ! atmosph]ic pressure at :i* ! rema9+ gas is measur$1 o!rwise ! result w be inaccurate 7,*ap4 ,i4 ,note #a74 ,?is is ess5tially ! me?od ( ! det]m9ation ( ! composition ( wat] :i* 0 made = ! fir/ "t by ,gay-,lussac & ,humboldt ) suffici5t accuracy4 ,_! det]m9ations l$ !m to ! conclusion t wat] consi/s ( two volumes ( hydrog5 7m exactly #bjjc1 ,le ,duc #ahib71 & "o volume ( oxyg54 ,e "t !y took a great] quantity ( oxyg51 ! gas rema9+ aft] ! explosion 0 oxyg54 ,:5 !y took an excess ( hydrog51 ! rema9+ gas 0 hydrog52 & :5 ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 7 tak5 9 exactly ! above proportion1 nei!r "o nor ! o!r rema9$4 ,! composition ( wat] 0 ?us def9itely confirm$4 #cc ,conc]n+ ?is application ( ! eudiomet]1 see ! *apt] on ,nitrog54 ,x may be m5tion$ z illu/rat+ ! v>i\s uses ( ! eudiomet] t ,pr(4 ,tim]aseeff employ$ microscopically small eudiomet]s to analyse ! bubbles ( gas giv5 (f f ! leaves ( plants4 ,?us1 = example1 x may be demon/rat$1 by ! aid ( ! eudiomet]1 t = ! ignition ( detonat+ gas1 a def9ite temp]ature is requir$4 ,if ! temp]ature be bel[ t requir$1 comb9ation w n take place1 b if at any spot )9 ! tube x rises to ! temp]ature ( inflammation1 !n comb9ation w ensue at t spot1 & evolve en\gh heat = ! ignition ( ! adjac5t portions ( ! detonat+ mixture4 ,if to #a volume ( detonat+ gas !re be add$ #aj volumes ( oxyg51 or #d volumes ( hydrog51 or #c volumes ( c>bonic anhydride1 !n we %all n obta9 an explosion by pass+ a sp>k ?r\gh ! dilut$ mixture4 ,?is dep5ds on ! fact t ! temp]ature falls ) ! dilution ( ! detonat+ gas by ano!r gas1 because ! heat evolv$ by ! comb9ation ( ! small quantity ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 br\ght to inc&esc5ce by ! sp>k is n only transmitt$ to ! wat] proce$+ f ! comb9ation1 b also to ! =eign sub/ance mix$ ) ! detonat+ gas4#cd ,! necessity ( a def9ite temp]ature = ! ignition ( detonat+ gas is also se5 f ! fact t pure detonat+ gas explodes 9 ! pres5ce ( a r$-hot iron wire1 or ( *>coal heat$ to #bge1 b ) a l[] degree ( inc&esc5ce !re is n any explosion4 ,x may also be br\ght ab\t by rapid compression1 :51 z is kn[n1 heat is evolv$4#ce ,exp]im5ts made 9 ! eudiomet] %[$ t ! ignition ( detonat+ gas takes place at a temp]ature betwe5 #dej & #efj4cf #cd ,?us #a_/d volume ( c>bonic oxide1 an equal volume ( m>% gas1 two volumes ( hydrog5 *loride or ( ammonia1 & six volumes ( nitrog5 or twelve volumes ( air add$ to "o volume ( detonat+ gas1 prev5t its explosion4 #ce ,if ! compression be br\ght ab\t sl[ly1 s t ! heat evolv$ succe$s 9 pass+ to ! surr\nd+ space1 !n ! comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 does n take place1 ev5 :5 ! mixture is compress$ by #aej times2 = ! gases are n heat$4 ,if pap] soak$ ) a solution ( plat9um 79 aqua regia7 & sal ammoniac be burnt1 !n ! a% obta9$ conta9s v f9ely-divid$ plat9um1 & 9 ?is =m x is be/ fitt$ = ignit+ hydrog5 & detonat+ gas4 ,plat9um wire requires to be heat$1 b plat9um 9 s f9ely divid$ a /ate z x occurs 9 ?is a% inflames hydrog51 ev5 at -#bj4 ,_m o!r metals1 su* z palladium 7#age71 iridium1 & gold1 act ) a slight rise ( temp]ature1 l plat9um2 b m]cury1 at its boil+ po9t1 does n inflame detonat+ gas1 al?\gh ! sl[ =mation ( wat] !n beg9s at #cje4 ,all data ( ?is k9d %[ t ! explosion ( detonat+ gas pres5ts "o ( ! _m cases ( contact ph5om5a4 ,?is conclusion is fur!r confirm$ by ! rese>*es ( ,v4 ,mey] 7#ahib74 ,he %[$ t only a v sl[ =mation ( /eam beg9s at #ddh1 & t x only proce$s m rapidly at #eah4 ,! temp]ature ( ! explosion ( detonat+ gas1 accord+ to ! same au?or1 v>ies accord+ z to :e!r ! explosion is produc$ 9 op5 vessels or 9 clos$ tubes4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! temp]ature ( explosion lies betwe5 #ecj-fjf1 & 9 ! second betwe5 #fcj-gcj4 ,9 g5]al x may be rem>k$ t ! temp]ature ( explosion ( gase\s mixtures is always l[] 9 clos$ vessels ?an :5 ! detonat+ mixture fl[s freely ?r\gh tubes4 ,accord+ to ,frey] & ,v4 ,mey]1 ! foll[+ gases :5 mix$ ) ! requisite am\nt ( oxyg5 explode at ! foll[+ temp]atures3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- -- ,:5 fl[+ freely ,9 clos$ vessels ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,h#b #fcj-gcj #ecj-fjf ,,*#d #fej-gcj #fjf-fej ,c#b;,h#f #fjf-fej #ecj-fjf ,c#b;,h#d #fjf-fej #ecj-fjf ,,co #fej-gcj #fej-gcj ,h#b,s #cae-cbj #bej-bgj ,h#b ,cl#b #dcj-ddj #bdj-bgj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,! velocity ( ! transmission ( explosion 9 gase\s mixtures is z *>act]i/ic a quantity = gase\s sy/ems z ! velocity ( ! transmission ( s\nd4 ,b]!lot %[$ t ?is velocity dep5ds nei!r ^u ! pressure nor ^u ! size ( ! tubes 9 :i* ! gase\s mixture is conta9$1 nor ^u ! mat]ial out ( :i* ! tube is made4 ,dixon 7#ahia7 det]m9$ ! magnitude ( ^! velocities = v>i\s mixtures1 & 8 results prov$ v ne> to ^? previ\sly giv5 by ,b]!lot4 ,= comp>ison we give ! velocities express$ 9 metres p] second3 ----------------------------------- -- ,dixon ,b]!lot ----------------------------------- ,h#b ,o #b1hba #b1haj ,h#b ,n#b,o #b1cje #b1bhd ,,*#d #d,o #b1cbb #b1bhg ,c#b;,h#b #f,o #b1cfd #b1baj ,c#b;,h#b #e,o #b1cia #b1dhb ,c#b,n#b #d,o #b1cba #b1aie ----------------------------------- ,! addition ( oxyg5 to detonat+ gas l[]s ! velocity ( ! transmission ( explosion almo/ z mu* z ! introduction ( nitrog54 ,an excess ( hydrog5 on ! contr>y raises ! velocity ( transmission4 ,x is rem>k$ t ! explosion ( mixtures ( oxyg5 ) m>% gas1 e?yl5e & cyanog5 is transmitt$ m quickly if ! oxyg5 be tak5 9 su* a proportion t ! c>bon %\ld burn to oxide ( c>bon1 i4e4 ! velocity ( ! explosion is less if ! oxyg5 be tak5 9 suffici5t quantity to =m c>bonic anhydride4 ,obs]vations ^u liquid & solid explosives 7,b]!lot7 %[ t 9 ?is case ! velocity ( transmission ( explosion is dep5d5t ^u ! mat]ial ( ! tube4 ,?us ! explosion ( liquid nitro-me?yl e!r 9 glass tubes travels at ! rate 79 dep5d5ce ^u ! diam41 f #a mm4-#de mm47 ( f #a1hij to #b1dhb metres1 & 9 tubes ( ,britannia metal 7#c mm4 9 diam7 at ! rate ( #a1bcj metres4 ,! h>d] ! tube ! great] ! velocity ( transmission ( explosion4 ,! foll[+ are ! velocities = c]ta9 bodies3 metres ,nitro-glyc]9e #a1cjj ,dynamite #b1ejj ,nitro-mannite #g1gjj ,picric acid #f1ejj ,9 conclusion we may add t ,mall>d & ,le ,*ateli] 7#ahhb7 obs]v$ t 9 ! explosion ( a mixture ( #a volume ( detonat+ gas ) n volumes ( an in]t gas1 ! pressure is approximately equal to #ib-jin atmosph]es4 #cf ,f ! v comm5cem5t ( ! promulgation ( ! idea ( dissociation1 x might h be5 imag9$ t rev]sible reactions ( comb9ation 7! =mation ( ,h#b & ,o belongs to ?is numb]7 comm5ce at ! same temp]ature z t at :i* dissociation beg9s4 ,& 9 _m cases ?is is s1 b n always1 z may be se5 f ! facts 7#a7 t at #dej-efj1 :5 detonat+ gas explodes1 ! d5sity ( aque\s vap\r n only does n v>y 7& x h>dly v>ies at high] temp]atures1 probably because ! am\nt ( ! products ( dissociation is small71 b !re are n1 z f> z is yet kn[n1 any traces ( dissociation2 7#b7 t "u ! influ5ce ( contact ! temp]ature at :i* comb9ation takes place falls ev5 to ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :5 wat] & simil> comp\nds naturally are n dissociat$ &1 judg+ f ! data communicat$ by ,d4 ,p4 ,konoval(f 7,introduction1 ,note #ci7 & o!rs1 x is impossible to escape ! ph5om5a ( contact2 all vessels1 :e!r ( metal or glass1 %[ ! same influ5ce z spongy plat9um1 al?\gh to a mu* less degree4 ,! ph5om5a ( contact1 judg+ f a review ( ! data ref]r+ to x1 mu/ be especially s5sitive 9 reactions :i* are p[]fully exo!rmal1 & ! explosion ( detonat+ gas is ( ?is k9d4 ,! comb9ation ( hydrog5 ) oxyg5 is accompani$ by ! evolution ( a v consid]able am\nt ( heat2 accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,favre & ,silb]mann1#cg #a "p by weight ( hydrog5 9 =m+ wat] evolves #cd1dfb units ( heat4 ,_m ( ! mo/ rec5t det]m9ations are v close to ?is figure1 s t x may be tak5 t 9 ! =mation ( #ah p>ts ( wat] 7,h#b,o7 !re are evolv$ #fi major calories1 or #fi1jjj units ( heat4#ch ,if ! specific heat ( aque\s vap\r 7#jdh7 rema9$ con/ant f ! ord9>y temp]ature to t at :i* ! combu/ion ( detonat+ gas takes place 7b !re is n[ no d\bt t x increases71 7 ! combu/ion conc5trat$ at "o po9t#ci 7b x occurs 9 ! :ole region ( a flame71 7 !re no loss f radiation & heat conduction1 & did dissociation n take place--t is1 did n a /ate ( equilibrium betwe5 ! hydrog51 oxyg51 & wat] come ab\t--!n x w\ld be possible to calculate ! temp]ature ( ! flame ( detonat+ gas4 ,x w\ld !n be #h1jjj4dj ,9 reality x is v mu* l[]1 b x is nev]!less high] ?an ! temp]ature atta9$ 9 furnaces & flames1 & is z high z #b1jjj4 ,! explosion ( detonat+ gas is expla9$ by ?is high temp]ature1 because ! aque\s vap\r =m$ mu/ occupy a volume at lea/ #e times great] ?an t occupi$ by ! detonat+ gas at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,detonat+ gas emits a s\nd1 n only z a consequ5ce ( ! commotion :i* occurs f ! rapid expansion ( ! heat$ vap\r1 b also because x is imm$iately foll[$ by a cool+ effect1 ! conv]sion ( ! vap\r into wat]1 & a rapid contraction4#da #cg ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,favre & ,silb]mann's calorimet] = det]m9+ ! heat evolv$ 9 combu/ion4 ,! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 ! combu/ion ( a kn[n weight 7= in/ance1 #a gram7 ( a giv5 sub/ance is det]m9$ by ! rise 9 temp]ature ( wat]1 to :i* ! :ole ( ! heat evolv$ 9 ! combu/ion is transmitt$4 ,a calorimet]1 = example t %[n 9 fig4 #cc1 is employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,x consi/s ( a ?9 79 ord] t x may absorb less heat71 poli%$ 7t x %\ld transmit a m9imum ( heat7 metallic vessel1 surr\nd$ by d[n 7c71 or "s o!r bad conductor ( heat1 & an out] metallic vessel4 ,?is is necess>y 9 ord] t ! lea/ possible am\nt ( heat %\ld be lo/ f ! vessels2 nev]!less1 !re is always a c]ta9 loss1 ^: magnitude is det]m9$ by prelim9>y exp]im5t 7by tak+ w>m wat]1 & det]m9+ its fall 9 temp]ature aft] a def9ite p]iod ( "t7 z a correction = ! results ( obs]vations4 ,! wat] to :i* ! heat ( ! burn+ sub/ance is transmitt$ is p\r$ into ! vessel4 ,! /irr] g all[s ( all ! lay]s ( wat] be+ br\ght to ! same temp]ature1 & ! !rmomet] s]ves = ! det]m9ation ( ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,! heat evolv$ passes1 naturally1 n to ! wat] only1 b to all ! p>ts ( ! app>atus4 ,! quantity ( wat] correspond+ to ! :ole am\nt ( ^? objects 7! vessels1 tubes1 c47 to :i* ! heat is transmitt$ is previ\sly det]m9$1 & 9 ?is mann] ano!r mo/ important correction is made 9 ! calorimetric det]m9ations4 ,! combu/ion itself is c>ri$ on 9 ! vessel a4 ,! ignit$ sub/ance is introduc$ ?r\gh ! tube at ! top1 :i* closes tightly4 ,9 fig4 #cc ! app>atus is arrang$ = ! combu/ion ( a gas1 introduc$ by a tube4 ,! oxyg5 requir$ = ! combu/ion is l$ into a by ! tube e1 & ! products ( combu/ion ei!r rema9 9 ! vessel a 7if liquid or solid71 or escape by ! tube f into an app>atus 9 :i* _! quantity & prop]ties c easily be det]m9$4 ,?us ! heat evolv$ 9 combu/ion passes to ! walls ( ! vessel a1 & to ! gases :i* are =m$ 9 x1 & ^! transmit x to ! wat] ( ! calorimet]4 #ch ,?is quantity ( heat corresponds ) ! =mation ( liquid wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature f detonat+ gas at ! same temp]ature4 ,if ! wat] be z vap\r ! heat evolv$ #eh major calories2 if z ice #gjd major calories4 ,a portion ( ?is heat is due to ! fact t #b vols4 ( hydrog5 & #a vol4 ( oxyg5 give #b vols4 ( aque\s vap\r--t is to say1 contraction ensues--& ?is evolves heat4 ,?is quantity ( heat may be calculat$1 b x _c be said h[ mu* is exp5d$ 9 ! sep>ation ( ! atoms ( oxyg5 f ea* o!r1 &1 !re=e1 /rictly speak+1 we d n "k ! quantity ( heat :i* is evolv$ 9 ! reaction alone1 al?\gh ! numb] ( units ( heat evolv$ 9 ! combu/ion ( detonat+ gas is accurately kn[n4 ,! con/ruction ( ! calorimet] & ev5 ! me?od ( det]m9ation v>y consid]ably 9 diff]5t cases4 ,s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! n9eties1 a l>ge numb] ( det]m9ations ( ! heat ( combu/ion h be5 conduct$ 9 clos$ bombs conta9+ compress$ oxyg54 ,! greate/ numb] ( calorimetric det]m9ations 7 made by ,b]!lot & ,?oms54 ,!y are giv5 9 _! works ,essai de mcanique *imique fonde sur la !rmo*imie1 by ,m4 ,b]!lot1 #ahgi 7#b vols471 & !rmo*emis*e ,unt]su*ung51 by ,j4 ,?oms51 #ahhf 7#d vols47 ,! mo/ important me?ods ( rec5t !rmo*emi/ry1 & all ! tru/wor?y results ( exp]im5t1 are giv5 9 ,pr(4 ,p4 ,f4 ,l\g99's ,description ( ! ,diff]5t ,modes ( ,det]m9+ ! ,heat ( ,combu/ion ( ,organic ,comp\nds1 ,mosc[1 #ahid4 ,! /ud5t mu/ ref] to works on !oretical & physical *emi/ry = a description ( ! elem5ts & me?ods ( !rmo*emi/ry1 into ! details ( :i* x is impossible to ent] 9 ?is "w4 ,"o ( ! orig9ators ( !rmo*emi/ry1 ,hess1 0 a memb] ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,s9ce #ahgj a l>ge am\nt ( rese>* has be5 c>ri$ out 9 ?is prov9ce ( *emi/ry1 especially 9 ,france & ,g]many1 aft] ! inve/igations ( ! ,fr5* ,academician1 ,b]!lot1 & ,pr(essor ,?oms51 ( ,cop5hag54 ,among ,russians1 ,beket(f1 ,l\g991 ,*eltz(f1 ,*r\/*(f1 & o!rs are kn[n by _! !rmo*emical rese>*es4 ,! pres5t epo* ( !rmo*emi/ry mu/ be consid]$ r z a collective "o1 :]e9 ! mat]ial ( facts is amass$1 & ! fir/ consequ5ces aris+ f !m are notic$4 ,9 my op9ion two ess5tial circum/ances prev5t ! possibility ( d$uc+ any exact consequ5ces1 ( importance to *emical me*anics1 f ! imm5se /ore ( !rmo*emical data already collect$3 7#a7 ,! majority ( ! det]m9ations are conduct$ 9 weak aque\s solutions1 &1 ! heat ( solution be+ kn[n1 are ref]r$ to ! sub/ances 9 solution2 yet !re is mu* 7,*apt] ,i47 :i* leads to ! conclusion t 9 solution wat] does n play ! simple "p ( a dilut+ m$ium1 b ( itself acts indep5d5tly 9 a *emical s5se on ! sub/ance dissolv$4 7#b7 ,physical & me*anical *anges 7decrease ( volume1 diffusion1 & o!rs7 inv>iably proce$ side by side ) *emical *anges1 & = ! pres5t x is impossible1 9 a numb] ( cases1 to di/+ui% ! !rmal effect ( ! "o & ! o!r k9d ( *ange4 ,x is evid5t t ! "o k9d ( *ange 7*emical7 is ess5tially insep>able & incompreh5sible )\t ! o!r 7me*anical & physical72 & !re=e x seems to me t !rmo*emical data w only acquire _! true mean+ :5 ! connection betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( bo? k9ds 7on ! "o h& *emical & atomic1 & on ! o!r h& me*anical & molecul> or betwe5 entire masses7 is expla9$ m cle>ly & fully ?an is at pres5t ! case4 ,z !re is no d\bt t ! simple me*anical contact1 or ! action ( heat alone1 on sub/ances sometimes causes an evid5t & always a lat5t 7incipi5t7 *emical *ange--t is1 a diff]5t di/ribution or motion ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules--x foll[s t purely *emical ph5om5a are insep>able f physical & me*anical ph5om5a4 ,a me*anical *ange may be imag9$ )\t a physical *ange1 & a physical )\t a *emical *ange1 b x is impossible to imag9e a *emical *ange )\t a physical & me*anical "o1 = )\t ! latt] we %\ld n be able to recognise ! =m]1 & x is by _! means t we are enabl$ to d s4 #ci ,! flame1 or locality :]e ! combu/ion ( gases & vap\rs takes place1 is a complex ph5om5on1 'an entire factory1' z ,f>aday says1 & !re=e we w consid] flame 9 "s detail 9 "o ( ! foll[+ notes4 #dj ,if #cd1ejj units ( heat are evolv$ 9 ! combu/ion ( #a "p ( hydrog51 & ?is heat is transmitt$ to ! result+ #i p>ts by weight ( aque\s vap\r1 !n we f9d t1 tak+ ! specific heat ( ! latt] z #jdge1 ea* unit ( heat raises ! temp]ature ( #a "p by weight ( aque\s vap\r #ba & #i p>ts by weight 7#ba #i7 ,o#bc2 h5ce ! #cd1ejj units ( heat raise its temp]ature #g1ice4 ,if detonat+ gas is conv]t$ into wat] 9 a clos$ space1 !n ! aque\s vap\r =m$ _c exp&1 & !re=e1 9 calculat+ ! temp]ature ( combu/ion1 ! specific heat at a con/ant volume mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation2 = aque\s vap\r x is #jcf4 ,?is figure gives a /ill high] temp]ature = ! flame4 ,9 reality x is mu* l[]1 b ! results giv5 by diff]5t obs]v]s are v contradictory 7f #a1gjj to #b1djj71 ! discrepancies dep5d+ on ! fact t flames ( diff]5t sizes are cool$ by radiation to a diff]5t degree1 b ma9ly on ! fact t ! me?ods & app>atus 7pyromet]s7 = ! det]m9ation ( high temp]atures1 al?\gh !y enable relative *anges ( temp]ature to be judg$1 are ( little use = det]m9+ _! absolute magnitude4 ,by tak+ ! temp]ature ( ! flame ( detonat+ gas z #b1jjj1 ,i give1 ,i ?9k1 ! av]age ( ! mo/ tru/wor?y det]m9ations & calculations bas$ ^u ! det]m9ation ( ! v>iation ( ! specific heat ( aque\s vap\r & o!r gases 7see ,*apt] ,,xli47 #da ,x is evid5t t n only hydrog51 b e o!r combu/ible gas1 w give an explosive mixture ) oxyg54 ,= ?is reason coal-gas mix$ ) air explodes :5 ! mixture is ignit$4 ,! pressure obta9$ 9 ! explosions s]ves z ! motive p[] ( gas eng9es4 ,9 ?is case advantage is tak51 n only ( ! pressure produc$ by ! explosion1 b also ( t contraction :i* takes place aft] ! explosion4 ,on ?is is bas$ ! con/ruction ( sev]al motors1 ( :i* ,l5oir's 0 =m]ly1 & ,otto's is n[1 ! be/ kn[n4 ,! explosion is usually produc$ by coal-gas & air1 b ( late ! vap\rs ( combu/ible liquids 7k]os5e1 b5z5e7 are also be+ employ$ 9 place ( gas 7,*apt] ,,ix47 ,9 ,l5oir's eng9e a mixture ( coal-gas & air is ignit$ by means ( sp>ks f a ,ruhmkorff's coil1 b 9 ! mo/ rec5t ma*9es ! gases are ignit$ by ! direct action ( a gas jet1 or by contact ) ! hot walls ( a side tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,safety burn] = detonat+ gas1 describ$ 9 text4 ,mixtures ( hydrog5 & ( v>i\s o!r gases ) oxyg5 are tak5 advantage ( = obta9+ high temp]atures4 ,by ! aid ( su* high temp]atures metals l plat9um may be melt$ on a l>ge scale1 :i* _c be p]=m$ 9 furnaces heat$ ) *>coal & f$ by a curr5t ( air4 ,! burn]1 %[n 9 fig4 #cd1 is con/ruct$ = ! application ( detonat+ gas to ! purpose4 ,x consi/s ( two brass tubes1 "o fix$ inside ! o!r1 z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,! int]nal c5tral tube ,c ,c conducts oxyg51 & ! outside1 envelop+1 tube ,e' ,e' conducts hydrog54 ,previ\s to _! egress ! gases d n mix toge!r1 s t !re c be no explosion inside ! app>atus4 ,:5 ?is burn] is 9 use ,c is connect$ ) a gas-hold] conta9+ oxyg51 & ,e ) a gas-hold] conta9+ hydrog5 7or sometimes coal-gas74 ,! fl[ ( ! gases c be easily regulat$ by ! /opcocks ,o ,h4 ,! flame is %orte/ & evolves ! greate/ heat :5 ! gases burn+ are 9 ! proportion ( #a volume ( oxyg5 to #b volumes ( hydrog54 ,! degree ( heat may be easily judg$ f ! fact t a ?9 plat9um wire plac$ 9 ! flame ( a prop]ly proportion$ mixture easily melts4 ,by plac+ ! burn] 9 ! orifice ( a holl[ piece ( lime1 a crucible ,a ,b is obta9$ 9 :i* ! plat9um may be easily melt$1 ev5 9 l>ge quantities if ! curr5t ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 be suffici5tly great 7,deville74 ,! flame ( detonat+ gas may also be us$ = illum9at+ purposes4 ,x is by itself v pale1 b ow+ to its high temp]ature x may s]ve = r5d]+ infusible objects inc&esc5t1 & at ! v high temp]ature produc$ by ! detonat+ gas ! inc&esc5t sub/ance gives a mo/ int5se light4 ,= ?is purpose lime1 magnesia1 or oxide ( zirconium are us$1 z !y are n fusible at ! v high temp]ature evolv$ by ! detonat+ gas4 ,a small cyl9d] ( lime plac$ 9 ! flame ( detonat+ gas1 if regulat$ to ! requir$ po9t1 gives a v brilliant :ite light1 :i* 0 at "o "t propos$ = illum9at+ ligh?\ses4 ,at pres5t 9 ! majority ( cases ! electric light1 ow+ to its con/ancy & o!r advantages1 has replac$ x = ?is purpose4 ,! light produc$ by ! inc&esc5ce ( lime 9 detonat+ gas is call$ ! ,drummond light or limelight4 ,! above cases =m examples ( ! combu/ion ( elem5ts 9 oxyg51 b exactly simil> ph5om5a are obs]v$ 9 ! combu/ion ( comp\nds4 ,s1 = in/ance1 ! solid1 col\rless1 %9y sub/ance1 naph?al5e1 ,c#aj;,h#h1 burns 9 ! air ) a smoky flame1 :il/ 9 oxyg5 x cont9ues to burn ) a v brilliant flame4 ,alcohol1 oil1 & o!r sub/ances burn brilliantly 9 oxyg5 on conduct+ ! oxyg5 by a tube to ! flame ( lamps burn+ ^! sub/ances4 ,a high temp]ature is ?us evolv$1 :i* is sometimes tak5 advantage ( 9 *emical practice4 ,9 ord] to und]/& :y combu/ion 9 oxyg5 proce$s m rapidly1 & is accompani$ by a m int5se heat effect1 ?an combu/ion 9 air1 x mu/ be recollect$ t air is oxyg5 dilut$ ) nitrog51 :i* does n support combu/ion1 & !re=e few] p>ticles ( oxyg5 fl[ to ! surface ( a sub/ance burn+ 9 air ?an :5 burn+ 9 pure oxyg51 besides :i* ! reason ( ! int5sity ( combu/ion 9 oxyg5 is ! high temp]ature acquir$ by ! sub/ance burn+ 9 x4#da bis #da bis ,let u consid] z an example ! combu/ion ( sulphur 9 air & 9 oxyg54 ,if #a gram ( sulphur burns 9 air or oxyg5 x evolves 9 ei!r case #bbej units ( heat--i4e4 evolves suffici5t heat = heat+ #b1bej grams ( wat] #a ,c4 ,?is heat is fir/ ( all transmitt$ to ! sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( sulphur ) oxyg54 ,9 its combu/ion #a gram ( sulphur =ms #b grams ( sulphur\s anhydride--i4e4 ! sulphur comb9es ) #a gram ( oxyg54 ,9 ord] t #a gram ( sulphur %\ld h access to #a gram ( oxyg5 9 air1 x is necess>y t #cd grams ( nitrog5 %\ld simultane\sly rea* ! sulphur1 because air conta9s sev5ty-sev5 p>ts ( nitrog5 7by weight7 p] tw5ty-?ree p>ts ( oxyg54 ,?us 9 ! combu/ion ( #a gram ( sulphur1 ! #b1bej units ( heat are transmitt$ to #b grams ( sulphur\s oxide & to at lea/ #cd grams ( nitrog54 ,z #jaee unit ( heat is requir$ to raise #a gram ( sulphur\s anhydride #a ,c41 !re=e #b grams require #jca unit4 ,s also #cd grams ( nitrog5 require #cd #jbdd or #jhc unit ( heat1 & !re=e 9 ord] to raise bo? gases #a ,c4 #jca #jhc or #aad unit ( heat is requir$2 b z ! combu/ion ( ! sulphur evolves #b1bej units ( heat1 !re=e ! gases might be heat$ 7if _! specific heats rema9$ con/ant7 to #bbej_/aad or #a1igd ,c4 ,t is1 ! maximum possible temp]ature ( ! flame ( ! sulphur burn+ 9 air w be #a1igd ,c4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( ! sulphur 9 oxyg5 ! heat evolv$ 7#b1bej units7 c only pass to ! #b grams ( sulphur\s anhydride1 & !re=e ! highe/ possible temp]ature ( ! flame ( ! sulphur 9 oxyg5 w be #bbej_/jca or #gbeh4 ,9 ! same mann] x may be calculat$ t ! temp]ature ( *>coal burn+ 9 air _c exce$ #b1gjj1 :ile 9 oxyg5 x may atta9 #aj1ajj ,c4 ,= ?is reason ! temp]ature 9 oxyg5 w always be high] ?an 9 air1 al?\gh 7judg+ f :at has be5 said respect+ detonat+ gas7 nei!r "o temp]ature nor ! o!r w ev] approximate to ! !oretical am\nt4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,f>aday's exp]im5t = inve/igat+ ! diff]5t p>ts ( a c&le flame4 ,among ! ph5om5a accompany+ ! combu/ion ( c]ta9 sub/ances1 ! ph5om5on ( flame attracts att5tion4 ,sulphur1 phosphorus1 sodium1 magnesium1 naph?al5e1 c41 burn l hydrog5 ) a flame1 :il/ 9 ! combu/ion ( o!r sub/ances no flame is obs]v$1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! combu/ion ( iron & ( *>coal4 ,! appe>ance ( flame dep5ds on ! capacity ( ! combu/ible sub/ance to yield gases or vap\rs at ! temp]ature ( combu/ion4 ,at ! temp]ature ( combu/ion1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 sodium1 & naph?al5e pass into vap\r1 :il/ wood1 alcohol1 oil1 c41 are decompos$ into gase\s & vapor\s sub/ances4 ,! combu/ion ( gases & vap\rs =ms flames1 & !re=e a flame is compos$ ( ! hot & inc&esc5t gases & vap\rs produc$ by combu/ion4 ,x may easily be prov$ t ! flames ( su* non-volatile sub/ances z wood conta9 volatile & combu/ible sub/ances =m$ f !m1 by plac+ a tube 9 ! flame connect$ ) an aspirator4 ,besides ! products ( combu/ion1 combu/ible gases & liquids1 previ\sly 9 ! flame z vap\rs1 collect 9 ! aspirator4 ,= ?is exp]im5t to succe$--i4e4 9 ord] to really extract combu/ible gases & vap\rs f ! flame x is necess>y t ! suction tube %\ld be plac$ inside ! flame4 ,! combu/ible gases & vap\rs c only rema9 unburnt inside ! flame1 = at ! surface ( ! flame !y come into contact ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air & burn4#db ,flames are ( diff]5t degrees ( brilliancy1 accord+ to :e!r solid inc&esc5t p>ticles occur 9 ! combu/ible gas or vap\r1 or n4 ,inc&esc5t gases & vap\rs emit b little light by !mselves1 & !re=e give a pal] flame4#dc ,if a flame does n conta9 solid p>ticles x is transp>5t1 pale1 & emits b little light4#dd ,! flames ( burn+ alcohol1 sulphur1 & hydrog5 are ( ?is k9d4 ,a pale flame may be r5d]$ lum9\s by plac+ f9e p>ticles ( solid matt] 9 x4 ,?us1 if a v f9e plat9um wire be plac$ 9 ! pale flame ( burn+ alcohol--or1 bett] /ill1 ( hydrog5--! flame emits a bright light4 ,?is is /ill bett] se5 by sift+ ! p[d] ( an incombu/ible sub/ance1 su* z f9e s&1 into ! flame1 or by plac+ a bun* ( asbe/os ?reads 9 x4 ,e brilliant flame always conta9s "s k9d ( solid p>ticles1 or at lea/ "s v d5se vap\r4 ,! flame ( sodium burn+ 9 oxyg5 has a brilliant yell[ col\r1 f ! pres5ce ( p>ticles ( solid sodium oxide4 ,! flame ( magnesium is brilliant f ! fact t 9 burn+ x =ms solid magnesia1 :i* becomes :ite hot1 & simil>ly ! brilliancy ( ! ,drummond light is due to ! heat ( ! flame rais+ ! solid non-volatile lime to a /ate ( inc&esc5ce4 ,! flames ( a c&le1 wood1 & simil> sub/ances are brilliant1 because !y conta9 p>ticles ( *>coal or soot4 ,x is n ! flame itself :i* is lum9\s1 b ! inc&esc5t soot x conta9s4 ,^! p>ticles ( *>coal :i* occur 9 flames may be easily obs]v$ by introduc+ a cold object1 l a knife1 into ! flame4#de ,! p>ticles ( *>coal burn at ! out] surface ( ! flame if ! supply ( air be suffici5t1 b if ! supply ( air--t is1 ( oxyg5--be insuffici5t = _! combu/ion ! flame smokes1 because ! unconsum$ p>ticles ( *>coal are c>ri$ (f by ! curr5t ( air4#df #db ,f>aday prov$ ?is by a v conv9c+ exp]im5t on a c&le flame4 ,if "o arm ( a b5t glass tube be plac$ 9 a c&le flame above ! wick 9 ! d>k portion ( ! flame1 !n ! products ( ! p>tial combu/ion ( ! /e>9 w pass up ! tube1 cond5se 9 ! o!r arm1 & collect 9 a flask plac$ "u x 7fig4 #ce7 z heavy :ite fumes :i* burn :5 light$4 ,if ! tube be rais$ into ! upp] lum9\s portion ( ! flame1 !n a d5se black smoke :i* w n inflame accumulates 9 ! flask4 ,la/ly1 if ! tube be let d[n until x t\*es ! wick1 !n little b /e>ic acid cond5ses 9 ! flask4 #dc ,all transp>5t sub/ances :i* transmit light ) great ease 7t is1 :i* absorb b little light7 are b little lum9\s :5 heat$2 s also sub/ances :i* absorb b few heat rays1 :5 heat$ transmit few rays ( heat4 #dd ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no d\bt b t v heavy d5se vap\rs or gases "u pressure 7accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,frankl&7 are lum9\s :5 heat$1 because1 z !y become d5s] !y approa* a liquid or solid /ate4 ,?us detonat+ gas :5 explod$ "u pressure gives a brilliant light4 #de ,if hydrog5 gas be pass$ ?r\gh a volatile liquid hydroc>bon--= in/ance1 ?r\gh b5z5e 7! b5z5e may be p\r$ directly into ! vessel 9 :i* hydrog5 is g5]at$7--!n its vap\r burns ) ! hydrog5 & gives a v bright flame1 because ! resultant p>ticles ( c>bon 7soot7 become inc&esc5t4 ,b5z5e1 or plat9um gauze1 introduc$ into a hydrog5 flame may be employ$ = illum9at+ purposes4 #df ,9 flames ! sep>ate p>ts may be di/+ui%$ ) m or less di/9ctness4 ,t portion ( ! flame :i!r ! combu/ible vap\rs or gases fl[1 is n lum9\s because its temp]ature is /ill too l[ = ! process ( combu/ion to take place 9 x4 ,?is is ! space :i* 9 a c&le surr\nds ! wick1 or 9 a gas jet is imm$iately above ! orifice f :i* ! gas escapes4 ,9 a c&le ! combu/ible vap\rs & gases :i* are =m$ by ! action ( heat on ! melt$ tall[ or /e>9 rise 9 ! wick1 & are heat$ by ! high temp]ature ( ! flame4 ,by ! action ( ! heat1 ! solid or liquid sub/ance is "h1 z 9 o!r cases1 decompos$1 =m+ products ( dry di/illation4 ,^! products occur 9 ! c5tral portion ( ! flame ( a c&le4 ,! air travels to x f ! outside1 & is n able to int]mix at once ) ! vap\rs & gases 9 all p>ts ( ! flame equally2 consequ5tly1 9 ! out] portion ( ! flame ! am\nt ( oxyg5 w be great] ?an 9 ! int]ior portions4 ,b1 ow+ to diffusion1 ! oxyg51 ( c\rse mix$ ) nitrog51 fl[+ t[>ds ! combu/ible sub/ance1 does f9ally p5etrate to ! int]ior ( ! flame 7:5 ! combu/ion takes place 9 ord9>y air74 ,! combu/ible vap\rs & gases comb9e ) ?is oxyg51 evolve a consid]able am\nt ( heat1 & br+ ab\t t /ate ( inc&esc5ce :i* is s necess>y bo? = keep+ up ! combu/ion & also = ! uses to :i* ! flame is appli$4 ,pass+ f ! cold] envelope ( air ?r\gh ! int]ior ( ! flame1 to ! s\rce ( ! combu/ible vap\rs 7= in/ance1 ! wick71 we evid5tly fir/ trav]se lay]s ( high] & high] temp]ature1 & !n portions :i* are less & less hot1 9 :i* ! combu/ion is less complete1 ow+ to ! limit$ supply ( oxyg54 ,illu/rationtion3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,9 ! c&le flame ! portion ,c conta9s ! vap\rs & products ( decomposition2 9 ! bright zone ,a ! combu/ion has comm5c$1 & p>ticles ( c>bon are emitt$2 & 9 ! pale zone ,b ! combu/ion is complet$4 ,?us unburnt products ( ! decomposition ( organic sub/ances occur 9 ! int]ior ( ! flame4 ,b !re is always free hydrog5 9 ! int]ior ( ! flame1 ev5 :5 oxyg5 is introduc$ !re1 or :5 a mixture ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 burns1 because ! temp]ature evolv$ 9 ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 or ! c>bon ( organic matt] is s high t ! products ( combu/ion are !mselves p>tially decompos$--t is1 dissociat$--at ?is temp]ature4 ,h5ce1 9 a flame a portion ( ! hydrog5 & ( ! oxyg5 :i* might comb9e ) ! combu/ible sub/ances mu/ always be pres5t 9 a free /ate4 ,if a hydroc>bon burns1 & we imag9e t a portion ( ! hydrog5 is 9 a free /ate1 !n a portion ( ! c>bon mu/ also occur 9 ! same =m 9 ! flame1 because1 o!r conditions be+ un*ang$1 c>bon burns aft] hydrog51 & ?is is actually obs]v$ 9 ! combu/ion ( v>i\s hydroc>bons4 ,*>coal1 or ! soot ( a common flame1 arises f ! dissociation ( organic sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! flame4 ,! majority ( hydroc>bons1 especially ^? conta9+ mu* c>bon--= in/ance1 naph?al5e--burn1 ev5 9 oxyg51 ) sep>ation ( soot4 ,9 t portion ( ! flame :]e ! hydrog5 burns ! c>bon rema9s unburnt1 or at lea/ p>tly s4 ,x is ?is free c>bon :i* causes ! brilliancy ( ! flame4 ,t ! int]ior ( ! flame conta9s a mixture :i* is /ill capable ( combu/ion may be prov$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3 ,a portion ( ! gases may be )drawn by an aspirator f ! c5tral portion ( ! flame ( c>bonic oxide1 :i* is combu/ible 9 air4 ,= ?is purpose ,deville pass$ wat] ?r\gh a metallic tube hav+ a f9e lat]al orifice1 :i* is plac$ 9 ! flame4 ,z ! wat] fl[s along ! tube portions ( ! gases ( ! flame ent]1 &1 pass+ along ! tube alt]nately ) cyl9d]s ( wat]1 are c>ri$ away into an app>atus :]e !y c be inve/igat$4 ,x appe>s t all portions ( ! flame obta9$ by ! combu/ion ( a mixture ( c>bonic oxide & oxyg5 conta9 a portion ( ?is mixture /ill unburnt4 ,! rese>*es ( ,deville & ,buns5 %[$ t 9 ! explosion ( a mixture ( hydrog5 & ( c>bonic oxide ) oxyg5 9 a clos$ space1 complete combu/ion does n ev] take place imm$iately4 ,if two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg5 be conf9$ 9 a clos$ space1 !n on explosion ! pressure does n atta9 t magnitude :i* x w\ld 7 !re imm$iate & complete combu/ion4 ,x may be calculat$ t ! pressure %\ld atta9 tw5ty-six atmosph]es4 ,9 reality1 x does n exce$ n9e & a half atmosph]es4 ,h5ce ! admixture ( ! products ( combu/ion ) an explosive mixture prev5ts ! combu/ion ( ! rema9+ mass1 al?\gh capable ( burn+4 ,! admixture ( c>bonic anhydride prev5ts c>bonic oxide f burn+4 ,! pres5ce ( any o!r =eign gas int]f]es 9 ! same mann]4 ,?is %[s t e portion ( a flame mu/ conta9 combu/ible1 burn+1 & already burnt sub/ances--i4e4 oxyg51 c>bon1 c>bonic oxide1 hydrog51 hydroc>bons1 c>bonic anhydride1 & wat]4 ,consequ5tly1 x is impossible to atta9 in/antane\s complete combu/ion1 & ?is is "o ( ! reasons ( ! ph5om5on ( flame4 ,a c]ta9 space is requir$1 & ! temp]ature mu/ be unequal 9 diff]5t p>ts ( x4 ,9 ?is space diff]5t quantities ( ! compon5t p>ts are successively subject$ to combu/ion1 or are cool$ "u ! influ5ce ( adjac5t objects1 & combu/ion only ends :]e ! flame ends4 ,if ! combu/ion c\ld be conc5trat$ at "o spot1 !n ! temp]ature w\ld be incomp>ably high] ?an x is "u ! actual circum/ances4 ,! v>i\s regions ( ! flame h =m$ ! frequ5t subject ( exp]im5tal rese>*1 & ! exp]im5ts conduct$ by ,smi!lls & ,+le 7#ahib7 are p>ticul>ly in/ructive2 !y %[ t ! r$uc+ 7int]ior7 & oxidis+ 7ext]ior7 portions ( ! flame ( a burn+ gas may be divid$ by tak+ a ,buns5 burn] & surr\nd+ ! flame ( ! gas burnt 9 x1 by ano!r wid] tube 7)\t ! access ( air to ! annul> space or all[+ only a small curr5t ( air to pass71 :5 a gase\s mixture1 conta9+ oxide ( c>bon & capable ( fur!r combu/ion1 w issue f ?is envelop+ tube1 s t a second flame1 correspond+ to ! ext]ior 7oxidis+7 portion ( an ord9>y flame1 may be obta9$ above ! envelop+ tube4 ,?is division ( ! flame into two portions is p>ticul>ly cle> :5 cyanog5 ,c#b,n#b is burnt1 because ! int]ior portion 7:]e ,,co is *iefly =m$ accord+ to ! equation ,c#b,n#b ,o#b #b;,,co ,n#b1 b a portion ( ! nitrog5 is oxidis$7 is ( a rose col\r1 :ile ! ext]ior portion 7:]e ! ,,co burns into ,,co#b at ! exp5se ( a fre% quantity ( oxyg5 & ( ! oxides ( nitrog5 proce$+ f ! int]ior portions7 is ( a blui%-grey col\r4 ,! comb9ation ( v>i\s sub/ances ) oxyg5 may n pres5t any signs ( combu/ion--t is1 ! temp]ature may rise b inconsid]ably4 ,?is may ei!r proce$ f ! fact t ! reaction ( ! sub/ance 7= example1 t91 m]cury1 lead at a high temp]ature1 or a mixture ( pyrogallol ) cau/ic pota% at ! ord9>y temp]ature7 evolves b little heat1 or t ! heat evolv$ is transmitt$ to good conductors ( heat1 l metals1 or t ! comb9ation ) oxyg5 takes place s sl[ly t ! heat evolv$ succe$s 9 pass+ to ! surr\nd+ objects4 ,combu/ion is only a p>ticul>1 int5se1 & evid5t case ( comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,respiration is also an act ( comb9ation ) oxyg52 x also s]ves1 l combu/ion1 = ! developm5t ( heat by ^? *emical processes :i* accompany x 7! trans=mation ( oxyg5 into c>bonic anhydride74 ,lavoisi] enunciat$ ?is 9 ! lucid expression1 'respiration is sl[ combu/ion4' ,reactions involv+ sl[ comb9ation ( sub/ances ) oxyg5 are t]m$ oxidations4 ,comb9ation ( ?is k9d 7& also combu/ion7 (t5 results 9 ! =mation ( acid sub/ances1 & h5ce ! "n oxyg5 7,sau]/(f74 ,combu/ion is only rapid oxidation4 ,phosphorus1 iron1 & w9e may be tak5 z examples ( sub/ances :i* sl[ly oxidise 9 air at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,if su* a sub/ance be left 9 contact ) a def9ite volume ( air or oxyg51 x absorbs ! oxyg5 little by little1 z may be se5 by ! decrease 9 volume ( ! gas4 ,?is sl[ oxidation is n (t5 accompani$ by a s5sible evolution ( heat2 an evolution ( heat really does occur1 only x is n app>5t to our s5ses ow+ to ! small rise 9 temp]ature :i* takes place2 ?is is ow+ to ! sl[ rate ( ! reaction & to ! transmission ( ! heat =m$ z radiant heat1 c4 ,?us1 9 ! oxidation ( w9e & its trans=mation into v9eg> by ! usual me?od ( prep>ation ( ! latt]1 ! heat evolv$ _c be obs]v$ because x ext5ds ov] sev]al weeks1 b 9 ! s-call$ rapid process ( ! manufacture ( v9eg>1 :5 a l>ge quantity ( w9e is comp>atively rapidly oxidis$1 ! evolution ( heat is q app>5t4 ,su* sl[ processes ( oxidation are always tak+ place 9 nature by ! action ( ! atmosph]e4 ,dead organisms & ! sub/ances obta9$ f !m--su* z bodies ( animals1 wood1 wool1 grass1 c4--are especially subject to ?is action4 ,!y rot & decompose--t is1 _! solid matt] is trans=m$ into gases1 "u ! influ5ce ( moi/ure & atmosph]ic oxyg51 & g5]ally "u ! influ5ce ( o!r organisms1 su* z m\lds1 worms1 micro-organisms 7bact]ia71 & ! l4 ,^! are processes ( sl[ combu/ion1 ( sl[ comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,x is well kn[n t manure rots & develops heat1 t /acks ( damp hay1 damp fl\r1 /raw1 c41 become heat$ & are *ang$ 9 ! process4#dg ,9 all ^! trans=mations ! same *ief products ( combu/ion are =m$ z ^? :i* are conta9$ 9 smoke2 ! c>bon gives c>bonic anhydride1 & ! hydrog5 wat]4 ,h5ce ^! processes require oxyg5 j l combu/ion4 ,?is is ! reason :y ! entire prev5tion ( access ( air h9d]s ^! trans=mations1#dh & an increas$ supply ( air accel]ates !m4 ,! me*anical treatm5t ( arable l&s by ! pl\gh1 h>r[1 & o!r simil> means has n only ! object ( facilitat+ ! spread ( roots 9 ! gr\nd1 & ( mak+ ! soil m p]meable to wat]1 b x also s]ves to facilitate ! access ( ! air to ! compon5t p>ts ( ! soil2 z a consequ5ce ( :i* ! organic rema9s ( soil rot--s to speak1 brea! air & evolve c>bonic anhydride4 ,"o acre ( good g>d5 l& 9 ! c\rse ( a summ] evolves m ?an sixte5 tons ( c>bonic anhydride4 #dg ,cotton wa/e 7us$ 9 factories = clean+ ma*9es f lubricat+ oil7 soak$ 9 oil & ly+ 9 heaps is self-combu/ible1 be+ oxidis$ by ! air4 #dh ,:5 x is desir$ to pres]ve a supply ( vegetable & animal food1 ! access ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e 7& also ( ! g]ms ( organisms pres5t 9 ! air7 is (t5 prev5t$4 ,) ?is object articles ( food are (t5 kept 9 h]metically clos$ vessels1 f :i* ! air has be5 )drawn2 vegetables are dri$ & sold]$ up :ile hot 9 t9 boxes2 s>d9es are imm]s$ 9 oil1 c4 ,! removal ( wat] f sub/ances is also sometimes resort$ to ) ! same object 7! dry+ ( hay1 corn1 fruits71 z also is saturation ) sub/ances :i* absorb oxyg5 7su* z sulphur\s anhydride71 or :i* h9d] ! gr[? ( organisms =m+ ! fir/ cause ( putrefaction1 z 9 processes ( smok+1 embalm+1 & 9 ! keep+ ( fi%es & o!r animal specim5s 9 _s1 c4 ,x is n only vegetable & animal sub/ances :i* are subject to sl[ oxidation 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,"s metals ev5 ru/ "u ^! conditions4 ,copp] v easily absorbs oxyg5 9 ! pres5ce ( acids4 ,_m metallic sulphides 7= example1 pyrites7 are v easily oxidis$ ) access ( air & moi/ure4 ,?us processes ( sl[ oxidation proce$ ?r\gh\t nature4 ,h[ev]1 !re are _m elem5ts :i* d n "u any circum/ances comb9e directly ) gase\s oxyg52 nev]!less _! comp\nds ) oxyg5 may be obta9$4 ,plat9um1 gold1 iridium1 *lor9e1 & iod9e are examples ( su* elem5ts4 ,9 ?is case rec\rse is _h to a s-call$ indirect me?od--i4e4 ! giv5 sub/ance is comb9$ ) ano!r elem5t1 & by a me?od ( d\ble decomposition ?is elem5t is replac$ by oxyg54 ,sub/ances :i* d n directly comb9e ) oxyg51 b =m comp\nds ) x by an indirect me?od1 (t5 readily lose ! oxyg5 :i* !y _h absorb$ by d\ble decomposition or at ! mom5t ( its evolution4 ,su*1 = example1 are ! comp\nds ( oxyg5 ) *lor9e1 nitrog51 & plat9um1 :i* evolve oxyg5 on heat+--t is1 !y may be us$ z oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,9 ?is respect oxidis+ ag5ts1 or ^? comp\nds ( oxyg5 :i* are employ$ 9 *emical & te*nical practice = transf]r+ oxyg5 to o!r sub/ances1 are especially rem>kable4 ,! mo/ important among ^! is nitric acid or aqua =tis--a sub/ance ri* 9 oxyg51 & capable ( evolv+ x :5 heat$1 :i* easily oxidises a great numb] ( sub/ances4 ,?us ne>ly all metals & organic sub/ances conta9+ c>bon & hydrog5 are m or less oxidis$ :5 heat$ ) nitric acid4 ,if /rong nitric acid be tak51 & a piece ( burn+ *>coal be imm]s$ 9 ! acid1 x cont9ues to burn4 ,*romic acid acts l nitric acid2 alcohol burns :5 mix$ ) x4 ,al?\gh ! action is n s m>k$1 ev5 wat] may oxidise ) its oxyg54 ,sodium is n oxidis$ 9 p]fectly dry oxyg5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b x burns v easily 9 wat] & aque\s vap\r4 ,*>coal c burn 9 c>bonic anhydride--a product ( combu/ion--=m+ c>bonic oxide4 ,magnesium burns 9 ! same gas1 sep>at+ c>bon f x4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 comb9$ oxyg5 c pass f "o comp\nd to ano!r4 ,! products ( combu/ion or oxidation--& 9 g5]al ! def9ite comp\nds ( oxyg5--are t]m$ oxides4 ,"s oxides are n capable ( comb9+ ) o!r oxides--or comb9e ) only a few1 & !n ) ! evolution ( v little heat2 o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 ent] into comb9ation ) v _m o!r oxides1 & 9 g5]al h rem>kable *emical en]gy4 ,! oxides incapable ( comb9+ ) o!rs1 or only %[+ ?is quality 9 a small degree1 are t]m$ indiff]5t oxides4 ,su* are ! p]oxides1 ( :i* m5tion has be=e be5 made4 ,! class ( oxides capable ( ent]+ into mutual comb9ation we w t]m sal9e oxides4 ,!y fall into two *ief gr\ps--at lea/1 z reg>ds ! mo/ extreme memb]s4 ,! memb]s ( "o gr\p comb9e ) ! memb]s ( ! o!r gr\p ) p>ticul> ease4 ,z repres5tative ( "o gr\p may be tak5 ! oxides ( ! metals1 magnesium1 sodium1 calcium1 c4 ,repres5tatives ( ! o!r gr\p are ! oxides =m$ by ! non-metals1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 c>bon4 ,?us1 if we take ! oxide ( calcium1 or lime1 & br+ x into contact ) oxides ( ! second gr\p1 comb9ation v readily ensues4 ,= in/ance1 if we mix calcium oxide ) oxide ( phosphorus !y comb9e ) great facility & ) ! evolution ( mu* heat4 ,if we pass ! vap\r ( sulphuric anhydride1 obta9$ by ! comb9ation ( sulphur\s oxide ) oxyg51 ov] pieces ( lime heat$ to r$ness1 ! sulphuric anhydride is absorb$ by ! lime ) ! =mation ( a sub/ance call$ calcium sulphate4 ,! oxides ( ! fir/ k9d1 :i* conta9 metals1 are t]m$ basic oxides or bases4 ,lime is a famili> example ( ?is class4 ,! oxides ( ! second gr\p1 :i* are capable ( comb9+ ) ! bases1 are t]m$ anhydrides ( ! acids or acid oxides4 ,sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 may be tak5 z a type ( ! latt] gr\p4 ,x is a comp\nd ( sulphur ) oxyg5 =m$ n directly b by ! addition ( a fre% quantity ( oxyg5 to sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 by pass+ x toge!r ) oxyg5 ov] inc&esc5t spongy plat9um4 ,c>bonic anhydride 7(t5 t]m$ 'c>bonic acid'71 ,,co#b1 phosphoric anhydride1 sulphur\s anhydride1 are all acid oxides1 = !y c comb9e ) su* oxides z lime or calcium oxide1 magnesia or magnesium oxide1 ,mg,o1 soda or sodium oxide1 ,na#b,o1 c4 ,if a giv5 elem5t =m b "o basic oxide1 x is t]m$ ! oxide2 = example1 calcium oxide1 magnesium oxide1 potassium oxide4 ,"s indiff]5t oxides are also call$ 'oxides' if !y h n ! prop]ties ( p]oxides1 & at ! same "t d n %[ ! prop]ties ( acid anhydrides--= example1 c>bonic oxide1 ( :i* m5tion has already be5 made4 ,if an elem5t =ms two basic oxides 7or two indiff]5t oxides n hav+ ! *>act]i/ics ( a p]oxide7 !n t ( ! l[] degree ( oxidation is call$ a suboxide--t is1 suboxides conta9 less oxyg5 ?an oxides4 ,?us1 :5 copp] is heat$ to r$ness 9 a furnace x increases 9 weight & absorbs oxyg51 until = #fc p>ts ( copp] !re is absorb$ n m ?an #h p>ts ( oxyg5 by weight1 =m+ a r$ mass1 :i* is suboxide ( copp]2 b if ! roa/+ be prolong$1 & ! draught ( air increas$1 #fc p>ts ( copp] absorb #af p>ts ( oxyg51 & =m black oxide ( copp]4 ,sometimes to di/+ui% betwe5 ! degrees ( oxidation a *ange ( suffix is made 9 ! oxidis$ elem5t1 -ic oxide d5ot+ ! high] degree ( oxidation1 & -ous oxide ! l[] degree4 ,?us f]r\s oxide & f]ric oxide are ! same z suboxide ( iron & oxide ( iron4 ,if an elem5t =ms "o anhydride only1 !n x is nam$ by an adjective =m$ f ! "n ( ! elem5t made to end 9 -ic & ! ^w anhydride4 ,:5 an elem5t =ms two anhydrides1 !n ! suffixes -ous & -ic are us$ to di/+ui% !m3 -ous signify+ less oxyg5 ?an -ic2 = example1 sulphur\s & sulphuric anhydrides4#di ,:5 sev]al oxides are =m$ f ! same elem5t1 ! prefixes mon1 di1 tri1 tetra are us$1 ?us3 *lor9e monoxide1 *lor9e dioxide1 *lor9e trioxide1 & *lor9e tetroxide or *loric anhydride4 #di ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t c]ta9 elem5ts =m oxides ( all ?ree k9ds--i4e4 indiff]5t1 basic1 & acid2 = example1 manganese =ms mangan\s oxide1 manganic oxide1 p]oxide ( manganese1 r$ oxide ( manganese1 & manganic anhydride1 al?\gh "s ( !m are n kn[n 9 a free /ate b only 9 comb9ation4 ,! basic oxides conta9 less oxyg5 ?an ! p]oxides1 & ! p]oxides less ?an ! acid anhydrides4 ,?us !y mu/ be plac$ 9 ! foll[+ g5]al normal ord] ) respect to ! am\nt ( oxyg5 ent]+ into _! composition--7#a7 basic oxides1 suboxides1 & oxides2 7#b7 p]oxides2 7#c7 acid anhydrides4 ,! majority ( elem5ts1 h[ev]1 d n give all ?ree k9ds ( oxides1 "s giv+ only "o degree ( oxidation4 ,x mu/ fur!r be rem>k$ t !re are oxides =m$ by ! comb9ation ( acid anhydrides ) basic oxides1 or1 9 g5]al1 ( oxides ) oxides4 ,= e oxide hav+ a high] & a l[] degree ( oxidation1 x might be said t ! int]m$iate oxide 0 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ! high] ) ! l[] oxide4 ,b ?is is n true 9 all cases--= in/ance1 :5 ! oxide "u consid]ation =ms a :ole s]ies ( indep5d5t comp\nds--= oxides :i* are really =m$ by ! comb9ation ( two o!r oxides d n give su* indep5d5t comp\nds1 b 9 _m cases decompose into ! high] & l[] oxides4 ,! oxides !mselves r>ely und]go *emical trans=mations1 & 9 ! few cases :]e !y are subject to su* *anges a p>ticul>ly important "p is play$ by _! comb9ations ) wat]4 ,! majority (1 if n all1 basic & acid oxides comb9e ) wat]1 ei!r by a direct or an indirect me?od =m+ hydrates--t is1 comp\nds :i* split up into wat] & an oxide ( ! same k9d only4 ,x is well kn[n t _m sub/ances are capable ( comb9+ ) wat]4 ,oxides possess ?is prop]ty 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,we h already se5 examples ( ?is 7,*apt] ,i47 9 ! comb9ation ( lime1 & ( sulphuric & phosphoric anhydrides1 ) wat]4 ,! result+ comb9ations are basic & acid hydrates4 ,acid hydrates are call$ acids because !y h an acid ta/e :5 dissolv$ 9 wat] 7or saliva71 = !n only c !y act on ! palate4 ,v9eg>1 = example1 has an acid ta/e because x conta9s acetic acid dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,sulphuric acid1 to :i* we h frequ5tly ref]r$1 because x is ! acid ( ! greate/ importance bo? 9 practical *emi/ry & = its te*nical applications1 is really a hydrate =m$ by ! comb9ation ( sulphuric anhydride ) wat]4 ,besides _! acid ta/e1 dissolv$ acids or acid hydrates h ! prop]ty ( *ang+ ! blue col\r ( c]ta9 vegetable dyes to r$4 ,( ^! dyes litmus is p>ticul>ly rem>kable & mu* us$4 ,x is ! blue sub/ance extract$ f c]ta9 li*5s1 & is us$ = dye+ tissues blue2 x gives a blue infusion ) wat]4 ,?is infusion1 on ! addition ( an acid1 *anges f blue to r$4#ej #ej ,blott+ or unsiz$ pap]1 soak$ 9 a solution ( litmus1 is usually employ$ = detect+ ! pres5ce ( acids4 ,?is pap] is cut into /rips1 & is call$ te/ pap]2 :5 dipp$ into acid x imm$iately turns r$4 ,?is is a mo/ s5sitive reaction1 & may be employ$ = te/+ = ! smalle/ traces ( acids4 ,if #aj1jjj p>ts by weight ( wat] be mix$ ) #a "p ( sulphuric acid1 ! coloration is di/9ct1 & x is ev5 p]ceptible on ! addition ( t5 times m wat]4 ,c]ta9 precautions mu/1 h[ev]1 be tak5 9 ! prep>ation ( su* v s5sitive litmus pap]4 ,litmus is sold 9 lumps4 ,take1 say1 #ajj grams ( x2 p[d] x1 & add x to cold pure wat] 9 a flask2 %ake & decant ! wat]4 ,repeat ?is ?ree times4 ,?is is done to wa% away easily-soluble impurities1 especially alkalis4 ,transf] ! wa%$ litmus 7x is wa%$ ) absolute alcohol to remove ! non-s5sitive r$di% col\r+ matt]7 to a flask1 & p\r 9 #fjj c4c4 ( wat]1 heat1 & all[ ! hot infusion to rema9 = "s h\rs 9 a w>m place4 ,!n filt]1 & divide ! filtrate into two p>ts4 ,add a few drops ( nitric acid to "o portion1 s t a fa9t r$ t+e is obta9$1 & !n mix ! two portions4 ,add _s to ! mixture1 & keep x 9 a /opp]$ bottle 7x soon spoils if left op5 to ! air74 ,?is infusion may be employ$ directly2 x r$d5s 9 ! pres5ce ( acids1 & turns blue 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis4 ,if evaporat$1 a solid mass is obta9$ :i* is soluble 9 wat]1 & may be kept un*ang$ = any l5g? ( "t4 ,! te/ pap] may be prep>$ z foll[s3--,take a /rong infusion ( litmus1 & soak blott+-pap] ) x2 dry x1 & cut x into /rips1 & use x z te/-pap] = acids4 ,= ! detection ( alkalis1 ! pap] mu/ be soak$ 9 a solution ( litmus j r$d5$ by a few drops ( acid2 if too mu* acid be tak51 ! pap] w n be s5sitive4 ,su* acids z sulphuric acid col\r litmus1 & especially its infusion1 a brick-r$ col\r1 :il/ m feeble acids1 su* z c>bonic1 give a fa9t r$-w9e t+e4 ,te/-pap] ( a yell[ col\r is also employ$2 x is dy$ by an infusion ( turm]ic roots 9 _s4 ,9 alkalis x turns br[n1 b rega9s its orig9al hue 9 acids4 ,_m blue & o!r vegetable col\r+ matt]s may be us$ = ! detection ( acids & alkalis2 = example1 infusions ( co*9eal1 violets1 log-wood1 c4 ,c]ta9 artificially prep>$ sub/ances & dyes may also be employ$4 ,?us rosolic acid1 ,c#bj;,h#af,o#c & ph5olph?alen1 ,c#bj;,h#ad,o#d 7x is us$ 9 an alcoholic solution1 & is n suitable = ! detection ( ammonia71 are col\rless 9 an acid1 & r$ 9 an alkal9e1 solution4 ,cyan9e is also col\rless 9 ! pres5ce ( acids1 & gives a blue coloration ) alkalis4 ,me?yl-orange 7yell[ 9 an aque\s solution7 is n alt]$ by alkalis b becomes p9k ) acids 7weak acids h no action71 c4 ,^! are v s5sitive te/s4 ,_! behavi\r 9 respect to v>i\s acids1 alkalis1 & salts sometimes give ! means ( di/+ui%+ sub/ances f ea* o!r4 ,basic oxides1 9 comb9+ ) wat]1 =m hydrates1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 v few are soluble 9 wat]4 ,^? :i* are soluble 9 wat] h an alkal9e ta/e l t ( soap or ( wat] 9 :i* wood a%es h be5 boil$1 & are call$ alkalis4 ,fur!r1 alkalis h ! prop]ty ( re/or+ ! blue col\r to litmus :i* has be5 r$d5$ by ! action ( acids4 ,! hydrates ( ! oxides ( sodium & potassium1 ,na,h,o & ,,kho1 are examples ( basic hydrates easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,!y are true alkalis1 & are t]m$ cau/ic1 because !y act v p[]fully on ! sk9 ( animals & plants4 ,?us ,na,h,o is call$ 'cau/ic' soda4 ,! sal9e oxides are capable ( comb9+ toge!r & ) wat]4 ,wat] itself is an oxide1 & n an indiff]5t "o1 = x c1 z we h se51 comb9e ) basic & acid oxides2 x is a repres5tative ( a :ole s]ies ( sal9e oxides1 int]m$iate oxides1 capable ( comb9+ ) bo? basic & acid oxides4 ,!re are _m su* oxides1 :i*1 l wat]1 comb9e ) basic & acid anhydrides--= in/ance1 ! oxides ( alum9ium & t91 c4 ,f ?is x may be conclud$ t all oxides might be plac$1 9 respect to _! capacity = comb9+ ) "o ano!r1 9 "o un9t]rupt$ s]ies1 at "o extremity ( :i* w\ld /& ^? oxides :i* d n comb9e ) ! bases--t is1 ! alkalis--:ile at ! o!r end w\ld be ! acid oxides1 & 9 ! int]val ^? oxides :i* comb9e ) "o ano!r & ) bo? ! acid & basic oxides4 ,! fur!r ap>t ! memb]s ( ?is s]ies are1 ! m /able are ! comp\nds !y =m toge!r1 ! m en]getically d !y act on ea* o!r1 ! great] ! quantity ( heat evolv$ 9 _! reaction1 & ! m m>k$ is _! sal9e *emical "*4 ,we said above t basic & acid oxides comb9e toge!r1 b r>ely react on ea* o!r2 ?is dep5ds on ! fact t ! majority ( !m are solids or gases--t is1 !y occur 9 ! /ate lea/ prone to *emical reaction4 ,! gaseo-ela/ic /ate is ) difficulty de/roy$1 because x necessitates ov]com+ ! ela/icity prop] to ! gase\s p>ticles4 ,! solid /ate is *>act]is$ by ! immobility ( its p>ticles2 :il/ *emical action requires contact1 & h5ce a displacem5t & mobility4 ,if solid oxides be heat$1 & especially if !y be melt$1 !n reaction proce$s ) great ease4 ,b su* a *ange ( /ate r>ely occurs 9 nature or 9 practice4 ,only 9 a few furnace processes is ?is ! case4 ,= example2 9 ! manufacture ( glass1 ! oxides conta9$ 9 x comb9e toge!r 9 a molt5 /ate4 ,b :5 oxides comb9e ) wat]1 & especially :5 !y =m hydrates soluble 9 wat]1 !n ! mobility ( _! p>ticles increases to a consid]able ext5t1 & _! reaction is greatly facilitat$4 ,reaction !n takes place at ! ord9>y temp]ature--easily & rapidly2 s t ?is k9d ( reaction belongs to ! class ( ^? :i* take place ) unusual facility1 & are1 !re=e1 v (t5 tak5 advantage ( 9 practice1 & also h be5 & are go+ on 9 nature at e /ep4 ,we w n[ consid] ! reactions ( oxides 9 ! /ate ( hydrates1 n los+ sight ( ! fact t wat] is itself an oxide ) def9ite prop]ties1 & has1 !re=e1 no little influ5ce on ! c\rse ( ^? *anges 9 :i* x takes "p4 ,if we take a def9ite quantity ( an acid1 & add an infusion ( litmus to x1 x turns r$2 ! addition ( an alkal9e solution does n imm$iately alt] ! r$ col\r ( ! litmus1 b on add+ m & m ( ! alkal9e solution a po9t is rea*$ :5 ! r$ col\r *anges to violet1 & !n ! fur!r addition ( a fre% quantity ( ! alkal9e solution *anges ! col\r to blue4 ,?is *ange ( ! col\r ( ! litmus is a consequ5ce ( ! =mation ( a new comp\nd4 ,?is reaction is t]m$ ! saturation or neutralisation ( ! acid by ! base1 or vice v]s4 ,! solution 9 :i* ! acid prop]ties ( ! acid are saturat$ by ! alkal9e prop]ties ( ! base is t]m$ a neutral solution4 ,su* a solution1 al?\gh d]iv$ f ! mixture ( a base ) an acid1 does n exhibit ei!r ! acid or basic reaction on litmus1 yet x pres]ves _m o!r signs ( ! acid & alkali4 ,x is obs]v$ t 9 su* a def9ite admixture ( an acid ) an alkali1 besides ! *anges 9 ! col\r ( litmus !re is a heat+ effect--i4e4 an evolution ( heat--:i* is alone suffici5t to prove t !re 0 *emical action4 ,&1 inde$1 if ! resultant violet solution be evaporat$1 !re sep>ates out1 n ! acid or ! alkali orig9ally tak51 b a sub/ance :i* has nei!r acid nor alkal9e prop]ties1 b is usually solid & cry/all9e1 hav+ a sal9e appe>ance2 ?is is a salt 9 ! *emical s5se ( ! ^w4 ,h5ce a salt is d]iv$ f ! reaction ( an acid on an alkali1 9 a c]ta9 def9ite proportion4 ,! wat] "h tak5 = solution plays no o!r "p ?an m]ely facilitat+ ! progress ( ! reaction4 ,?is is se5 f ! fact t ! anhydrides ( ! acids are able to comb9e ) basic oxides1 & give ! same salts z d ! acids ) ! alkalis or hydrates4 ,h5ce1 a salt is a comp\nd ( def9ite quantities ( an acid ) an alkali4 ,9 ! latt] reaction1 wat] is sep>at$ out if ! sub/ance =m$ be ! same z is produc$ by ! comb9ation ( anhydr\s oxides toge!r4#ea ,examples ( ! =mation ( salts f acids & bases are easily obs]v$1 & are v (t5 appli$ 9 practice4 ,if we take1 = in/ance1 insoluble magnesium oxide 7magnesia7 x is easily dissolv$ 9 sulphuric acid1 & on evaporation gives a sal9e sub/ance1 bitt]1 l all ! salts ( magnesium1 & famili> to all "u ! "n ( ,epsom salts1 us$ z a purgative4 ,if a solution ( cau/ic soda--:i* is obta9$1 z we saw1 by ! action ( wat] on sodium oxide--be p\r$ into a flask 9 :i* *>coal has be5 burnt2 or if c>bonic anhydride1 :i* is produc$ "u s _m circum/ances1 be pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( cau/ic soda1 !n sodium c>bonate or soda1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 is obta9$1 ( :i* we h spok5 sev]al times1 & :i* is prep>$ on a l>ge scale & (t5 us$ 9 manufactures4 ,?is reaction is express$ by ! equation1 #b,na,h,o ,,co#b ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o4 ,?us1 ! v>i\s bases & acids =m an innum]able numb] ( diff]5t salts4#eb ,salts con/itute an example ( def9ite *emical comp\nds1 & bo? 9 ! hi/ory & practice ( sci5ce are mo/ (t5 cit$ z confirm+ ! conception ( def9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,inde$1 all ! indications ( a def9ite *emical comb9ation are cle>ly se5 9 ! =mation & prop]ties ( salts4 ,?us1 !y are produc$ ) a def9ite proportion ( oxides1 heat is evolv$ 9 _! =mation1#ec & ! *emical "* ( ! oxides & _m ( ! physical prop]ties become hidd5 9 _! salts4 ,= example1 :5 gase\s c>bonic anhydride comb9es ) a base to =m a solid salt1 ! ela/icity ( ! gas q disappe>s 9 its passage into ! salt4#ed #ea ,t wat] really is sep>at$ 9 ! reaction ( acid on alkal9e hydrates1 may be %[n by tak+ "s o!r int]m$iate hydrate--= example1 alum9a--in/ead ( wat]4 ,?us1 if a solution ( alum9a 9 sulphuric acid be tak51 x w h1 l ! acid1 an acid reaction1 & w !re=e col\r litmus r$4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 a solution ( alum9a 9 an alkali--say1 pota%--be tak51 x w h an alkal9e reaction1 & w turn r$ litmus blue4 ,on add+ ! alkal9e to ! acid solution until nei!r an alkal9e nor an acid reaction is produc$1 a salt is =m$1 consi/+ ( sulphuric anhydride & potassium oxide4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 ! reaction ( hydrates1 an int]m$iate oxide is sep>at$ out--namely1 alum9a4 ,its sep>ation w be v evid5t 9 ?is case1 z alum9a is insoluble 9 wat]4 #eb ,! mutual int]action ( hydrates1 & _! capacity ( =m+ salts1 may be tak5 advantage ( = det]m9+ ! "* ( ^? hydrates :i* are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,let u imag9e t a giv5 hydrate1 ^: *emical "* is unkn[n1 is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,x is !re=e impossible to te/ its reaction on litmus4 ,x is !n mix$ ) wat]1 & an acid--= in/ance1 sulphuric acid--is add$ to ! mixture4 ,if ! hydrate tak5 be basic1 reaction w take place1 ei!r directly or by ! aid ( heat1 ) ! =mation ( a salt4 ,9 c]ta9 cases1 ! resultant salt is soluble 9 wat]1 & ?is w at once %[ t comb9ation has tak5 place betwe5 ! insoluble basic hydrate & ! acid1 ) ! =mation ( a soluble sal9e sub/ance4 ,9 ^? cases :]e ! resultant salt is insoluble1 /ill ! wat] loses its acid reaction1 & !re=e x may he asc]ta9$1 by ! addition ( an acid1 :e!r a giv5 hydrate has a basic "*1 l ! hydrates ( oxide ( copp]1 lead1 c4 ,if ! acid does n act on ! giv5 insoluble hydrate 7at any temp]ature71 !n x has n a basic "*1 & x %\ld be te/$ z to :e!r x has an acid "*4 ,?is is done by tak+ an alkali1 in/ead ( ! acid1 & by obs]v+ :e!r ! unkn[n hydrate !n dissolves1 or :e!r ! alkal9e reaction disappe>s4 ,?us x may he prov$ t hydrate ( silica is acid1 because x dissolves 9 alkalis & n 9 acids4 ,if x be a case ( an insoluble int]m$iate hydrate1 !n x w be obs]v$ to react on bo? ! acid & alkali4 ,hydrate ( alum9a is an in/ance 9 "q1 :i* is soluble bo? 9 cau/ic pota% & 9 sulphuric acid4 ,! degree ( aff9ity or *emical en]gy prop] to oxides & _! hydrates is v dissimil>2 "s extreme memb]s ( ! s]ies possess x to a great ext5t4 ,:5 act+ on ea* o!r !y evolve a l>ge quantity ( heat1 & :5 act+ on int]m$iate hydrates !y also evolve heat to a consid]able degree1 z we saw 9 ! comb9ation ( lime & sulphuric anhydride ) wat]4 ,:5 extreme oxides comb9e !y =m /able salts1 :i* are decompos$ ) difficulty1 & (t5 %[ *>act]i/ic prop]ties4 ,! comp\nds ( ! int]m$iate oxides ) ea* o!r1 or ev5 ) basic & acid oxides1 pres5t a v diff]5t case4 ,h[ev] mu* alum9a we may dissolve 9 sulphuric acid1 we _c saturate ! acid prop]ties ( ! sulphuric acid1 ! result+ solution w always h an acid reaction4 ,s also1 :atev] quantity ( alum9a is dissolv$ 9 an alkali1 ! result+ solution w always pres5t an alkal9e reaction4 #ec ,9 ord] to give an idea ( ! quantity ( heat evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( salts ,i app5d a table ( data = v dilute aque\s solutions ( acids & alkalis1 accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,b]!lot & ,?oms54 ,! figures are giv5 9 major calories--t is1 9 ?\s&s ( units ( heat4 ,= example1 #di grams ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 tak5 9 a dilute aque\s solution1 :5 mix$ ) su* an am\nt ( a weak solution ( cau/ic soda1 ,na,h,o1 t a neutral salt is =m$ 7:5 all ! hydrog5 ( ! acid is replac$ by ! sodium71 evolves #ae1hjj units ( heat4 #di p>ts ( #fc p>ts ( ,h#b,,s#d ,,hno#c ,na,h,o #aeh #acg ,,kho #aeg #ach ,,nh#c #ade #abe ,ca,o #aef #aci ,ba,o #ahd #aci ,mg,o #aef #ach ,fe,o #abe #ajg 787 ,zn,o #aag #ih ,fe#b,o#c #eg #ei ,^! figures _c be consid]$ z ! heat ( neutralisation1 because ! wat] "h plays an important "p4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 sulphuric acid & cau/ic soda 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] evolve v mu* heat1 & ! resultant sodium sulphate v little2 consequ5tly1 ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 an anhydr\s comb9ation w be diff]5t f t evolv$ 9 a hydrat$ comb9ation4 ,^? acids :i* are n en]getic 9 comb9+ ) ! same quantity ( alkalis requir$ = ! =mation ( normal salts ( sulphuric or nitric acids always1 h[ev]1 give less heat4 ,= in/ance1 ) cau/ic soda3 c>bonic acid gives #ajb1 hydrocyanic1 #bi1 hydrog5 sulphide1 #ci major calories4 ,& z feeble bases 7= example1 ,fe#b,o#c7 also evolve less heat ?an ^? :i* are m p[]ful1 s a c]ta9 g5]al correlation betwe5 !rmo*emical data & ! degree ( aff9ity %[s itself "h1 z 9 o!r cases 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #g72 ?is does n1 h[ev]1 give any reason = measur+ ! aff9ity :i* b9ds ! elem5ts ( salts by ! heat ( _! =mation 9 dilute solutions4 ,?is is v cle>ly demon/rat$ by ! fact t wat] is able to decompose _m salts1 & is sep>at$ 9 _! =mation4 #ed ,c>bonic anhydride evolves heat 9 dissolv+ 9 wat]4 ,! solution easily dissociates & evolves c>bonic anhydride1 accord+ to ! law ( ,h5ry & ,dalton 7see ,*apt] ,i47 ,9 dissolv+ 9 cau/ic soda1 x ei!r gives a normal salt1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 :i* does n evolve c>bonic anhydride1 or an acid salt1 ,na,h,c,o#c :i* easily evolves c>bonic anhydride :5 heat$4 ,! same gas1 :5 dissolv$ 9 solutions ( salts1 acts 9 "o or ! o!r mann] 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #ch74 ,"h x is se5 :at a successive s]ies ( relations exi/s betwe5 comp\nds ( a diff]5t ord]1 betwe5 sub/ances ( diff]5t degrees ( /ability4 ,by mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( solutions & *emical comp\nds1 we ov]look ^? natural transitions :i* 9 reality exi/4 ,judg+ f ! above1 a salt is a comp\nd ( basic & acid oxides1 or ! result ( ! action ( hydrates ( ^! classes on ea* o!r ) sep>ation ( wat]4 ,b salts may be obta9$ by o!r me?ods4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t basic oxides are =m$ by metals1 & acid oxides usually by non-metals4 ,b metals & non-metals are capable ( comb9+ toge!r1 & a salt is frequ5tly =m$ by ! oxidation ( su* a comp\nd4 ,= example1 iron v easily comb9es ) sulphur1 =m+ iron sulphide ,fe,s 7z we saw 9 ! ,introduction72 ?is 9 air1 & especially moi/ air1 absorbs oxyg51 ) ! =mation ( ! same salt ,fe,s,o#d1 t may be obta9$ by ! comb9ation ( ! oxides ( iron & sulphur1 or ( ! hydrates ( ^! oxides4 ,h5ce1 x _c be said or suppos$ t a salt has ! prop]ties ( ! oxides1 or mu/ necess>ily conta9 two k9ds ( oxides 9 itself4 ,! d]ivation ( salts f oxides is m]ely "o ( ! me?ods ( _! prep>ation4 ,we saw1 = in/ance1 t 9 sulphuric acid x 0 possible to replace ! hydrog5 by z9c1 & t by ?is means z9c sulphate 0 =m$2 s likewise ! hydrog5 9 _m o!r acids may be replac$ by z9c1 iron1 potassium1 sodium1 & a :ole s]ies ( simil> metals1 correspond+ salts be+ obta9$4 ,! hydrog5 ( ! acid1 9 all ^! cases1 is ex*ang$ = a metal1 & a salt is obta9$ f ! hydrate4 ,reg>d+ a salt f ?is po9t ( view1 x may be said t a salt is an acid 9 :i* hydrog5 is replac$ by a metal4 ,?is def9ition %[s t a salt & an acid are ess5tially comp\nds ( ! same s]ies1 ) ! diff]5ce t ! latt] conta9s hydrog5 & ! =m] a metal4 ,su* a def9ition is m exact ?an ! fir/ def9ition ( salts1 inasmu* z x likewise includes ^? acids :i* d n conta9 oxyg51 &1 z we %all aft]w>ds le>n1 !re is a s]ies ( su* acids4 ,su* elem5ts z *lor9e & brom9e =m comp\nds ) hydrog5 9 :i* ! hydrog5 may be replac$ by a metal1 =m+ sub/ances :i*1 9 _! reactions & ext]nal *>act]s1 resemble ! salts =m$ f oxides4 ,table salt1 ,na,cl1 is an example ( ?is4 ,x may be obta9$ by ! replacem5t ( hydrog5 9 hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 by ! metal sodium1 j z sulphate ( sodium1 ,na#b,,s#d1 may be obta9$ by ! replacem5t ( hydrog5 9 sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 by sodium4 ,! ext]ior appe>ance ( ! result+ products1 _! neutral reaction1 & ev5 _! sal9e ta/e1 %[ _! resemblance to "o ano!r4 ,to ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( salts yet ano!r mu/ be add$--namely1 t !y are m or less decompos$ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t4 ,! results ( ?is decomposition are v diff]5t accord+ to :e!r ! salt be tak5 9 a fus$ or dissolv$ /ate4 ,b ! decomposition may g5]ally be s repres5t$1 t ! metal appe>s at ! electro-negative pole or ca?ode 7l hydrog5 9 ! decomposition ( wat]1 or its mixture ) sulphuric acid71 & ! rema9+ p>ts ( ! salt appe> at ! electro-positive pole or anode 7:]e ! oxyg5 ( wat] appe>s74 ,if1 = in/ance1 an electric curr5t acts on an aque\s solution ( sodium sulphate1 !n ! sodium appe>s at ! negative pole1 & oxyg5 & ! anhydride ( sulphuric acid at ! positive pole4 ,b 9 ! solution itself ! result is diff]5t1 = sodium1 z we "k1 decomposes wat] ) evolution ( hydrog51 =m+ cau/ic soda2 consequ5tly hydrog5 w be evolv$1 & cau/ic soda appe> at ! negative pole3 :ile at ! positive pole ! sulphuric anhydride imm$iately comb9es ) wat] & =ms sulphuric acid1 & !re=e oxyg5 w be evolv$ & sulphuric acid =m$ r\nd ?is pole4#ee ,9 o!r cases1 :5 ! metal sep>at$ is n able to decompose wat]1 x w be deposit$ 9 a free /ate4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! decomposition ( copp] sulphate1 copp] sep>ates out at ! ca?ode1 & oxyg5 & sulphuric acid appe> at ! anode1 & if a copp] plate be atta*$ to ! positive pole1 !n ! oxyg5 evolv$ w oxidise ! copp]1 & ! oxide ( copp] w dissolve & be deposit$ at ! negative pole--t is1 a transf] ( copp] f ! positive to ! negative pole ensues4 ,! galvanopla/ic art 7electro-typ+7 is bas$ on ?is pr9ciple4#ef ,!re=e ! mo/ radical & g5]al prop]ties ( salts 7includ+ also su* salts z table salt1 :i* conta9 no oxyg57 may be express$ by repres5t+ ! salt z compos$ ( a metal ,m & a haloid ,x--t is1 by express+ ! salt by ,,mx4 ,9 common table salt ! metal is sodium1 & ! haloid an elem5t>y body1 *lor9e4 ,9 sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1 sodium is aga9 ! metal1 b ! complex gr\p1 ,,s#d1 is ! haloid4 ,9 sulphate ( copp]1 ,cu,s,o#d1 ! metal is copp] & ! haloid ! same z 9 ! prec$+ salt4 ,su* a repres5tation ( salts expresses ) great simplicity ! capacity ( e salt to ent] into sal9e d\ble decompositions ) o!r salts2 consi/+ 9 ! mutual replacem5t ( ! metals 9 ! salts4 ,?is ex*ange ( _! metals is ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( salts4 ,9 ! case ( two salts ) diff]5t metals & haloids1 :i* are 9 solution or fusion1 or 9 any o!r mann] br\ght into contact1 ! metals ( ^! salts w always p>tially or :olly ex*ange places4 ,if we designate "o salt by ,,mx1 & ! o!r by ,,ny1 !n we ei!r p>tially or :olly obta9 f !m new salts1 ,,my & ,,nx4 ,?us we saw 9 ! ,introduction1 t on mix+ solutions ( table salt1 ,na,cl1 & silv] nitrate1 ,ag,n,o#c1 a :ite insoluble precipitate ( silv] *loride1 ,ag,cl1 is =m$ & a new salt1 sodium nitrate1 ,na,n,o#c1 is obta9$ 9 solution4 ,if ! metals ( salts ex*ange places 9 reactions ( d\ble decomposition1 x is cle> t metals !mselves1 tak5 9 a sep>ate /ate1 are able to act on salts1 z z9c evolves hydrog5 f acids1 & z iron sep>ates copp] f copp] sulphate4 ,:51 to :at ext5t1 & :i* metals displace ea* o!r1 & h[ ! metals are di/ribut$ betwe5 ! haloids1 w be discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,x41 :]e we %all be guid$ by ^? reflections & d$uctions :i* ,b]?ollet introduc$ into ! sci5ce at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury4 #ee ,?is k9d ( decomposition may be easily obs]v$ by p\r+ a solution ( sodium sulphate into a ,u-%ap$ tube & ins]t+ electrodes 9 ! two bran*es4 ,if ! solution be col\r$ ) an infusion ( litmus1 x w easily be se5 t x turns blue at ! ca?ode1 ow+ to ! =mation ( sodium hydroxide1 & r$ at ! electro-positive pole1 f ! =mation ( sulphuric acid4 #ef ,9 o!r cases ! decomposition ( salts by ! electric curr5t may be accompani$ by mu* m complex results4 ,?us1 :5 ! metal ( ! salt is capable ( a high] degree ( oxidation1 su* a high] oxide may be =m$ at ! positive pole by ! oxyg5 :i* is evolv$ !re4 ,?is takes place1 = in/ance1 9 ! decomposition ( salts ( silv] & manganese by ! galvanic curr5t1 p]oxides ( ^! metals be+ =m$4 ,?us 9 ! electrolysis ( a solution ( ,k,cl1 ,k,cl,o#c is =m$1 & ( sulphuric acid 7correspond+ to ,,s#c7 p]sulphuric acid1 correspond+ to ,s#b,o#g4 ,b all ! ph5om5a z yet kn[n may be express$ by ! above law--t ! curr5t decomposes salts into metals1 :i* appe> at ! negative pole1 & into ! rema9+ compon5t p>ts1 :i* appe> at ! positive pole4 ,accord+ to ! above obs]vations1 an acid is no?+ m ?an a salt ( hydrog54 ,wat] itself may be look$ on z a salt 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is comb9$ ) ei!r oxyg5 or ! aque\s radicle1 ,,oh2 wat] w !n be ,,hoh1 & alkalis or basic hydrates1 ,,moh4 ,! gr\p ,,oh1 or ! aque\s radicle1 o!rwise call$ hydroxyl1 may be look$ on z a haloid l ! *lor9e 9 table salt1 n only because ! elem5t ,cl & ! gr\p ,,oh v (t5 *ange places1 & comb9e ) "o & ! same elem5t1 b also because free *lor9e is v simil> 9 _m prop]ties & reactions to p]oxide ( hydrog51 :i* is ! same 9 composition z ! aque\s radicle1 z we %all aft]w>ds see 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,alkalis & basic hydrates are also salts consi/+ ( a metal & hydroxyl--= in/ance1 cau/ic soda1 ,na,o,h2 ?is is !re=e t]m$ sodium hydroxide4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 acid salts are ^? 9 :i* a portion only ( ! hydrog5 is replac$ by a metal1 & a portion ( ! hydrog5 ( ! acid rema9s4 ,?us sulphuric acid 7,h#b,,s#d7 n only gives ! normal salt ,na#b,,s#d1 ) sodium1 b also an acid salt1 ,na,h,s,o#d4 ,a basic salt is "o 9 :i* ! metal is comb9$ n only ) ! haloids ( acids1 b also ) ! aque\s radicale ( basic hydrates--= example1 bismu? gives n only a normal salt ( nitric acid1 ,bi7,,no#c7c1 b also basic salts l ,bi7,,oh7#b7,,no#c74 ,z basic & acid salts ( ! oxyg5 acids conta9 hydrog5 & oxyg51 !y are able to "p ) ^! z wat] & to give anhydro-salts1 :i* x is evid5t w be comp\nds ( normal salts ) anhydrides ( ! acids or ) bases4 ,?us ! above-m5tion$ acid sodium sulphate corresponds ) ! anhydro-salt1 ,na#b,s#b,o#g1 equal to #b,na,h,s,o#d1 less ,h#b,o4 ,! loss ( wat] is "h1 & frequ5tly 9 o!r cases1 br\ght ab\t by heat alone1 & !re=e su* salts are frequ5tly t]m$ pyro-salts--= in/ance1 ! prec$+ is sodium pyrosulphate 7,na#b,s#b,o#g71 or x may be reg>d$ z ! normal salt ,na#b,,s#d sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c4 ,d\ble salts are ^? :i* conta9 ei!r two metals1 ,k,al7,,s#d7b1 or two haloids4#eg #eg ,! above-enunciat$ g5]alisation ( ! conception ( salts z comp\nds ( ! metals 7simple1 or comp\nd l ammonium1 ,,nh#d71 ) ! haloids 7simple1 l *lor9e1 or comp\nd1 l cyanog51 ,,cn1 or ! radical ( sulphuric acid1 ,,s#d71 capable ( ent]+ into d\ble sal9e decomposition1 :i* is 9 accordance ) ! g5]al data respect+ salts1 0 only =m$ little by little aft] a succession ( mo/ v>i$ propositions z to ! *emical /ructure ( salts4 ,salts belong to ! class ( sub/ances :i* h be5 kn[n s9ce v e>ly times1 & h long be5 inve/igat$ 9 _m directions4 ,at fir/1 h[ev]1 no di/9ction 0 made betwe5 salts1 acids1 & bases4 ,glaub] prep>$ _m artificial salts dur+ ! latt] half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,up to t "t ! majority ( salts 7 obta9$ f natural s\rces1 & t salt :i* we h ref]r$ to sev]al times--namely1 sodium sulphate--0 nam$ ,glaub]'s salt aft] ?is *emi/4 ,r\elle di/+ui%$ normal1 acid1 & basic salts1 & %[$ _! action on vegetable dyes1 /ill he conf\nd$ _m salts ) acids 7ev5 n[ e acid salt ought to be reg>d$ z an acid1 because x conta9s hydrog51 :i* may be replac$ by metals--t is1 x is ! hydrog5 ( an acid74 ,baum disput$ ,r\elle's op9ion conc]n+ ! subdivision ( salts1 cont5d+ t normal salts only are true salts1 & t basic salts are simple mixtures ( normal salts ) bases & acid salts ) acids1 consid]+ t wa%+ alone c\ld remove ! base or acid f !m4 ,r\elle1 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 h[ev]1 r5d]$ a great s]vice to ! /udy ( salts & ! diffusion ( k respect+ ?is class ( comp\nds 9 8 attractive lectures4 ,he1 l ! majority ( ! *emi/s ( t p]iod1 did n employ ! balance 9 8 rese>*es1 b satisfi$ himself ) purely qualitative data4 ,! fir/ quantitative rese>*es on salts 7 c>ri$ on ab\t ?is "t by ,w5zel1 :o 0 ! director ( ! ,freiburg m9es1 9 ,saxony4 ,w5zel /udi$ ! d\ble decomposition ( salts1 & obs]v$ t 9 ! d\ble decomposition ( neutral salts a neutral salt 0 always obta9$4 ,he prov$1 by a me?od ( weigh+1 t ?is is due to ! fact t ! saturation ( a giv5 quantity ( a base requires su* relative quantities ( diff]5t acids z are capable ( saturat+ e o!r base4 ,hav+ tak5 two neutral salts--= example1 sodium sulphate & calcium nitrate--let u mix _! solutions toge!r4 ,d\ble decomposition takes place1 because calcium sulphate is =m$1 :i* is almo/ insoluble4 ,h[ev] mu* we might add ( ea* ( ! salts1 ! neutral reaction w /ill be pres]v$1 consequ5tly ! neutral "* ( ! salts is n de/roy$ by ! int]*ange ( metals2 t is to say1 t quantity ( sulphuric acid :i* saturat$ ! sodium is suffici5t = ! saturation ( ! calcium1 & t am\nt ( nitric acid :i* saturat$ ! calcium is en\gh to saturate ! sodium conta9$ 9 comb9ation ) sulphuric acid 9 sodium sulphate4 ,w5zel 0 ev5 conv9c$ t matt] does n disappe> 9 nature1 & on ?is pr9ciple he corrects1 9 8 ,doctr9e ( ,aff9ity1 ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts :5 he f\nd t he obta9$ less ?an he _h orig9ally tak54 ,al?\gh ,w5zel d$uc$ ! law ( ! d\ble decomposition ( salts q correctly1 he did n det]m9e ^? quantities 9 :i* acids & bases act on ea* o!r4 ,?is 0 c>ri$ out at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury by ,ri*t]4 ,he det]m9$ ! quantities by weight ( ! bases :i* saturate acids & ( ! acids :i* saturate bases1 & obta9$ comp>atively correct results1 al?\gh 8 conclusions 7 n correct1 = he /ates t ! quantity ( a base saturat+ a giv5 acid v>ies 9 ari?metical progression1 & ! quantity ( an acid saturat+ a giv5 base 9 geometrical progression4 ,ri*t] /udi$ ! deposition ( metals f _! salts by o!r metals1 & obs]v$ t ! neutral reaction ( ! solution is n de/roy$ by ?is ex*ange4 ,he also det]m9$ ! quantities by weight ( ! metals replac+ "o ano!r 9 salts4 ,he %[$ t copp] displaces silv] f its salt1 & t z9c displaces copp] & a :ole s]ies ( o!r metals4 ,^? quantities ( metals :i* 7 capable ( replac+ "o ano!r 7 t]m$ equival5ts4 ,ri*t]'s tea*+ f\nd no foll[]s1 because1 al?\gh he fully believ$ 9 ! discov]ies ( ,lavoisi]1 yet he /ill held to ! phlogi/ic reason+s :i* r5d]$ 8 expositions v obscure4 ,! works ( ! ,sw$i% savant ,b]zelius fre$ ! facts discov]$ by ,w5zel & ,ri*t] f ! obscurity ( =m] conceptions1 & l$ to _! be+ expla9$ 9 accordance ) ,lavoisi]'s views1 & 9 ! s5se ( ! law ( multiple proportions :i* _h already be5 discov]$ by ,dalton4 ,on apply+ to salts ^? conclusions :i* ,b]zelius arriv$ at by a :ole s]ies ( rese>*es ( rem>kable accuracy1 we arrive at ! foll[+ law ( equival5ts--"o "p by weight ( hydrog5 9 an acid is replac$ by ! correspond+ equival5t weight ( any metal2 &1 !re=e1 :5 metals replace ea* o!r _! weights are 9 ! same ratio z _! equival5ts4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 "o "p by weight ( hydrog5 is replac$ by #bc p>ts ( sodium1 #ci p>ts ( potassium1 #ab p>ts ( magnesium1 #bj p>ts ( calcium1 #bh p>ts ( iron1 #ajh p>ts ( silv]1 #cc p>ts ( z9c1 c42 &1 !re=e1 if z9c replaces silv]1 !n #cc p>ts ( z9c w take ! place ( #ajh p>ts ( silv]1 or #cc p>ts ( z9c w he sub/itut$ by #bc p>ts ( sodium1 c4 ,! doctr9e ( equival5ts w\ld be precise & simple did e metal only give "o oxide or "o salt4 ,x is r5d]$ complicat$ f ! fact t _m metals =m sev]al oxides1 & consequ5tly (f] diff]5t equival5ts 9 _! diff]5t degrees ( oxidation4 ,= example1 !re are oxides conta9+ iron 9 :i* its equival5t is #bh--?is is 9 ! salts =m$ by ! suboxide2 & !re is ano!r s]ies ( salts 9 :i* ! equival5t ( iron equals #ah-b_/c--:i* conta9 less iron1 & consequ5tly m oxyg51 & correspond ) a high] degree ( oxidation--f]ric oxide4 ,x is true t ! =m] salts are easily =m$ by ! direct action ( metallic iron on acids1 & ! latt] only by a fur!r oxidation ( ! comp\nd =m$ already2 b ?is is n always s4 ,9 ! case ( copp]1 m]cury1 & t91 "u diff]5t circum/ances1 salts are =m$ :i* correspond ) diff]5t degrees ( oxidation ( ^! metals1 & _m metals h two equival5ts 9 _! diff]5t salts--t is1 9 salts correspond+ ) ! diff]5t degrees ( oxidation4 ,?us x is impossible to end[ e metal ) "o def9ite equival5t weight4 ,h5ce ! conception ( equival5ts1 :ile play+ an important "p f an hi/orical po9t ( view1 appe>s1 ) a full] /udy ( *emi/ry1 to be b subord9ate to a high] conception1 ) :i* we %all aft]w>ds become acqua9t$4 ,! fate ( ! !oretical views ( *emi/ry 0 = a long "t b\nd up ) ! hi/ory ( salts4 ,! cle>e/ repres5tation ( ?is subject dates back to ,lavoisi]1 & 0 sy/ematically develop$ by ,b]zelius4 ,?is repres5tation is call$ ! b9>y !ory4 ,all comp\nds1 & especially salts1 are repres5t$ z consi/+ ( two p>ts4 ,salts are repres5t$ z comp\nds ( a basic oxide 7a base7 & an acid 7t is1 an anhydride ( an acid1 !n t]m$ an acid71 :il/ hydrates are repres5t$ z comp\nds ( anhydr\s oxides ) wat]4 ,su* an expression 0 employ$ n only to d5ote ! mo/ usual me?od ( =mation ( ^! sub/ances 7:]e x w\ld be q true71 b also to express t int]nal di/ribution ( ! elem5ts by :i* x 0 propos$ to expla9 all ! prop]ties ( ^! sub/ances4 ,copp] sulphate 0 suppos$ to conta9 two mo/ intimate compon5t p>ts--copp] oxide & sulphuric anhydride4 ,?is is an hypo!sis4 ,x arose f ! s-call$ electro-*emical hypo!sis1 :i* suppos$ ! two compon5t p>ts to be held 9 mutual union1 because "o compon5t 7! anhydride ( ! acid7 has electro-negative prop]ties1 & ! o!r 7! base 9 salts7 electro-positive4 ,! two p>ts are attract$ toge!r1 l sub/ances hav+ opposite electrical *>ges4 ,b z ! decomposition ( salts 9 a /ate ( fusion by an electric curr5t always gives a metal1 t repres5tation ( ! con/itution & decomposition ( salts call$ ! hydrog5 !ory ( acids is ne>] ! tru? ?an t :i* consid]s salts z made up ( a base & an anhydride ( an acid4 ,b ! hydrog5 !ory ( acids is also a b9>y hypo!sis1 & does n contradict ! electro-*emical hypo!sis1 b is r a modification ( x4 ,! b9>y !ory dates f ,r\elle & ,lavoisi]1 ! electro-*emical aspect 0 zeal\sly develop$ by ,b]zelius1 & ! hydrog5 !ory ( acids is due to ,davy & ,liebig4 ,^! hypo!tical views simplifi$ & g5]alis$ ! /udy ( a complicat$ subject1 & s]v$ to support fur!r argum5ts1 b :5 salts 7 9 "q x 0 equally conv5i5t to foll[ "o or ! o!r ( ^! hypo!ses4 ,b ^! !ories 7 br\ght to be> on all o!r sub/ances1 on all comp\nd sub/ances4 ,^? hold+ ! b9>y & electro-*emical hypo!ses se>*$ = two anti-pol> compon5t p>ts1 & endeav\r$ to express ! process ( *emical reactions by electro-*emical & simil> diff]5ces4 ,if z9c replaces hydrog51 !y conclud$ t x is m electro-positive ?an hydrog51 :il/ !y =got t hydrog5 may1 "u diff]5t circum/ances1 displace z9c--= in/ance1 at a r$ heat4 ,*lor9e & oxyg5 7 consid]$ z be+ ( opposite pol>ity to hydrog5 because !y easily comb9e ) x1 nev]!less bo? are capable ( replac+ hydrog51 &1 :at is v *>act]i/ic1 9 ! replacem5t ( hydrog5 by *lor9e 9 c>bon comp\nds n only does ! *emical "* (t5 rema9 unalt]$1 b ev5 ! ext]nal =m may rema9 un*ang$1 z ,laur5t & ,dumas demon/rat$4 ,^! consid]ations und]m9e ! b9>y1 & m especially ! electro-*emical !ory4 ,an explanation ( kn[n reactions !n began to be s\ght = n 9 ! diff]5ce ( ! pol>ity ( ! diff]5t sub/ances1 b 9 ! jo9t influ5ces ( all ! elem5ts on ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd =m$4 ,?is is ! rev]se ( ! prec$+ hypo!sis4 ,?is rev]sal 0 n1 h[ev]1 limit$ to ! de/ruction ( ! tott]+ f\ndations ( ! prec$+ !ory2 x propos$ a new doctr9e1 & laid ! f\ndation = ! mod]n c\rse ( our sci5ce4 ,?is doctr9e may be t]m$ ! unit>y !ory--t is1 x /rictly ackn[l$ges ! jo9t influ5ces ( ! elem5ts 9 a comp\nd sub/ance1 d5ies ! exi/5ce ( sep>ate & contr>y compon5ts 9 !m1 reg>ds copp] sulphate1 = in/ance1 z a /rictly def9ite comp\nd ( copp]1 sulphur1 & oxyg52 !n seeks = comp\nds :i* are analog\s 9 _! prop]ties1 &1 plac+ !m side by side1 endeav\rs to express ! influ5ce ( ea* elem5t 9 det]m9+ ! unit$ prop]ties ( its comp\nd4 ,9 ! majority ( cases x arrives at conclusions simil> to ^? :i* are obta9$ by ! above-m5tion$ hypo!ses1 b 9 c]ta9 special cases ! conclusions ( ! unit>y !ory are 9 entire opposition to ^? ( ! b9>y !ory & its coroll>ies4 ,cases ( ?is k9d are mo/ (t5 met ) 9 ! consid]ation ( comp\nds ( a m complex nature ?an salts1 especially organic comp\nds conta9+ hydrog54 ,b x is n 9 ?is *ange f an artificial to a natural sy/em1 important z x is1 t ! *ief s]vice & /r5g? ( ! unit>y doctr9e lies4 ,by a simple review ( ! va/ /ore ( data reg>d+ ! reactions ( typical sub/ances1 x succe$$ f its fir/ appe>ance 9 e/abli%+ a new & important law1 x introduc$ a new conception into sci5ce--namely1 ! conception ( molecules1 ) :i* we %all soon become acqua9t$4 ,! d$uction ( ! law & ( ! conception ( molecules has be5 v]ifi$ by facts 9 a numb] ( cases1 & 0 ! cause ( ! majority ( *emi/s ( our times des]t+ ! b9>y !ory & accept+ ! unit>y !ory1 :i* =ms ! basis ( ! pres5t "w4 ,laur5t & ,g]h>dt mu/ be consid]$ z ! f\nd]s ( ?is doctr9e4 ,inasmu* z oxyg5 comp\nds pr$om9ate 9 nature1 x %\ld be expect$ f :at has be5 said above1 t salts1 r ?an acids or bases1 w\ld occur mo/ frequ5tly 9 nature1 = ^! latt] w\ld always t5d to comb9e =m+ salts1 especially ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! all-p]vad+ wat]4 ,&1 z a matt] ( fact1 salts are f\nd ev]y:]e 9 nature4 ,!y occur 9 animals & plants1 al?\gh 9 b small quantity1 because1 z =m+ ! la/ /age ( *emical reaction1 !y are capable ( only a few *emical trans=mations4 ,& organisms are bodies 9 :i* a s]ies ( un9t]rupt$1 v>i$1 & active *emical trans=mations proce$1 :il/ salts1 :i* only ent] into d\ble decompositions betwe5 ea* o!r1 are little prone to su* *anges4 ,b organisms always conta9 salts4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 bones conta9 calcium phosphate1 ! juice ( grapes potassium t>trate 7cream ( t>t>71 c]ta9 li*5s calcium oxalate1 & ! %ells ( mollusca calcium c>bonate1 c4 ,z reg>ds wat] & soil1 portions ( ! e>? 9 :i* ! *emical processes are less active1 !y are full ( salts4 ,?us ! wat]s ( ! oceans1 & all o!rs 7,*ap4 ,i471 ab\nd 9 salts1 & 9 ! soil1 9 ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/1 9 ! upheav$ lavas1 & 9 ! fall+ meteorites ! salts ( silicic acid1 & especially its d\ble salts1 pr$om9ate4 ,sal9e sub/ances also make up ! composition ( ^? lime/ones :i* (t5 =m m\nta9 *a9s & :ole ?icknesses ( ! e>?'s /rata1 ^! consi/+ ( calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o#c4 ,?us we h se5 oxyg5 9 a free /ate & 9 v>i\s comp\nds ( diff]5t degrees ( /ability1 f ! un/able salts1 l ,b]?ollet's salt & nitre1 to ! mo/ /able silicon comp\nds1 su* z exi/ 9 granite4 ,we saw an entirely simil> gradation ( /ability 9 ! comp\nds ( wat] & ( hydrog54 ,9 all its aspects oxyg51 z an elem5t1 or s+le sub/ance1 rema9s ! same h[ev] v>i$ its *emical /ates1 j z a sub/ance may appe> 9 _m diff]5t physical /ates ( aggregation4 ,b our notion ( ! imm5se v>iety ( ! *emical /ates 9 :i* oxyg5 c occur w\ld n be completely und]/ood if we did n make ourselves acqua9t$ ) x 9 ! =m 9 :i* x occurs 9 ozone & p]oxide ( hydrog54 ,9 ^! x is mo/ active1 its en]gy seems to h increas$4 ,!y illu/rate fre% aspects ( *emical correlations1 & ! v>iety ( ! =ms 9 :i* matt] c appe> /& out cle>ly4 ,we w !re=e consid] ^! two sub/ances some:at 9 detail4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,ozone ,,& ,,hydrog5 ,,p]oxide--,,dalton',s ,,law ,,van ,,m>um1 dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 obs]v$ t oxyg5 9 a glass tube1 :5 subject$ to ! action ( a s]ies ( electric sp>ks1 acquir$ a peculi> smell1 & ! prop]ty ( comb9+ ) m]cury at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,?is 0 aft]w>ds confirm$ by a numb] ( fre% exp]im5ts4 ,ev5 9 ! simple revolution ( an electrical ma*9e1 :5 electricity diffuses into ! air or passes ?r\gh x1 ! peculi> & *>act]i/ic smell ( ozone1 proce$+ f ! action ( ! electricity on ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 is recognis$4 ,9 #ahdj ,pr(4 ,s*nbe91 ( ,basle1 turn$ 8 att5tion to ?is odorif]\s sub/ance1 & %[$ t x is also =m$1 ) ! oxyg5 evolv$ at ! positive pole1 9 ! decomposition ( wat] by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t2 9 ! oxidation ( phosphorus 9 damp air1 & also 9 ! oxidation ( a numb] ( sub/ances1 al?\gh x is di/+ui%$ = its in/ability & capacity = oxidis+ o!r sub/ances4 ,! *>act]i/ic smell ( ?is sub/ance gave x its "n1 f ! ,greek ,greek3 oz1 ',i emit an od\r4' ,s*nbe9 po9t$ out t ozone is capable ( oxidis+ _m sub/ances on :i* oxyg5 does n act at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,x w be suffici5t to po9t out = in/ance t x oxidises silv]1 m]cury1 *>coal1 & iron ) great en]gy at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,x might be ?\ght t ozone 0 "s new comp\nd sub/ance1 z x 0 at fir/ suppos$ to be2 b c>eful obs]vations made 9 ?is direction h long l$ to ! conclusion t ozone is no?+ b oxyg5 alt]$ 9 its prop]ties4 ,?is is mo/ /rik+ly prov$ by ! complete trans=mation ( oxyg5 conta9+ ozone into ord9>y oxyg5 :5 x is pass$ ?r\gh a tube heat$ to #bej4 ,fur!r1 at a l[ temp]ature pure oxyg5 gives ozone :5 electric sp>ks are pass$ ?r\gh x 7,m>ignac & ,de la ,rive74 ,h5ce x is prov$ bo? by syn!sis & analysis t ozone is t same oxyg5 ) :i* we are already acqua9t$1 only end[$ ) p>ticul> prop]ties & 9 a p>ticul> /ate4 ,h[ev]1 by :atev] me?od x be obta9$1 ! am\nt ( x conta9$ 9 ! oxyg5 is inconsid]able1 g5]ally only a few fractions p] c5t41 r>ely #b p] c5t41 & only "u v propiti\s circum/ances z mu* z #bj p] c5t4 ,! reason ( ?is mu/ be look$ = fir/ 9 ! fact t ozone 9 its =mation f oxyg5 absorbs heat4 ,if any sub/ance be burnt 9 a calorimet] at ! exp5se ( ozonis$ oxyg51 !n m heat is evolv$ ?an :5 x is burnt 9 ord9>y oxyg51 & ,b]!lot %[$ t ?is diff]5ce is v l>ge--namely1 #bi1fjj heat units correspond ) e =ty-eight p>ts by weight ( ozone4 ,?is signifies t ! trans=mation ( =ty-eight p>ts ( oxyg5 into ozone is accompani$ by ! absorption ( ?is quantity ( heat1 & t ! rev]se process evolves ?is quantity ( heat4 ,!re=e ! passage ( ozone into oxyg5 %\ld take place easily & fully 7z an exo!rmal reaction71 l combu/ion2 & ?is is prov$ by ! fact t at #bej ozone entirely disappe>s1 =m+ oxyg54 ,any rise ( temp]ature may ?us br+ ab\t ! break+ up ( ozone1 & z a rise ( temp]ature takes place 9 ! action ( an electrical dis*>ge1 !re are 9 an electric dis*>ge ! conditions bo? = ! prep>ation ( ozone & = its de/ruction4 ,h5ce x is cle> t ! trans=mation ( oxyg5 into ozone z a rev]sible reaction has a limit :5 a /ate ( equilibrium is arriv$ at betwe5 ! products ( ! two opposite reactions1 t ! ph5om5a ( ?is trans=mation accord ) ! ph5om5a ( dissociation1 & t a fall ( temp]ature %\ld aid ! =mation ( a l>ge quantity ( ozone4#a ,fur!r1 x is evid5t1 f :at has be5 said1 t ! be/ way ( prep>+ ozone is n by electric sp>ks1#b :i* raise ! temp]ature1 b by ! employm5t ( a cont9ual dis*>ge or fl[ ( electricity--t is1 by ! action ( a sil5t dis*>ge4#c ,= ?is reason all ozonis]s 7:i* are ( mo/ v>i$ con/ruction71 or =ms ( app>atus = ! prep>ation ( ozone f oxyg5 7or air7 by ! action ( electricity1 n[ usually consi/ ( %eets ( metal--= in/ance1 t9foil--a solution ( sulphuric acid mix$ ) *romic acid1 c4 sep>at$ by ?9 glass surfaces plac$ at %ort di/ances f ea* o!r1 & betwe5 :i* ! oxyg5 or air to be ozonis$ is introduc$ & subject$ to ! action ( a sil5t dis*>ge4#d ,?us 9 ,siem5s' app>atus 7fig4 #cg7 ! ext]ior ( ! tube a & ! int]ior ( ! tube b c are coat$ ) t9foil & connect$ ) ! poles ( a s\rce ( electricity 7) ! t]m9als ( a ,ruhmkorff's coil74 ,a sil5t dis*>ge passes ?r\gh ! ?9 walls ( ! glass cyl9d]s a & b c ov] all _! surfaces1 & consequ5tly1 if oxyg5 be pass$ ?r\gh ! app>atus by ! tube d1 fus$ into ! side ( a1 x w be ozonis$ 9 ! annul> space betwe5 a & b c4 ,! ozonis$ oxyg5 escapes by ! tube e1 & may be introduc$ into any o!r app>atus4#e ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,siem5s' app>atus = prep>+ ozone by means ( a sil5t dis*>ge4 #a ,?is conclusion1 d$uc$ by me z f> back z #ahgh 7,moniteur ,sci5tifique7 by conceiv+ ! molecules ( ozone 7see lat]7 z m complex ?an ^? ( oxyg51 & ozone z conta9+ a great] quantity ( heat ?an oxyg51 has be5 prov$ exp]im5tally by ! rese>*es ( ,mailf]t 7#ahhj71 :o %[$ t ! passage ( a sil5t dis*>ge ?r\gh a litre ( oxyg5 at #j may =m up to #ad milligrams ( ozone1 & at -#cj up to #fj milligrams2 b be/ ( all 9 ! det]m9ations ( ,*appuis & ,hautefeuille 7#ahhj71 :o f\nd t at a temp]ature ( -#be a sil5t dis*>ge conv]t$ #bj p4c4 ( oxyg5 into ozone1 :il/ at #bj x 0 impossible to obta9 m ?an #ab p4c41 & at #ajj less ?an #b p4c4 ( ozone 0 obta9$4 #b ,a s]ies ( electric sp>ks may be obta9$ by an ord9>y electrical ma*9e1 ! electrophorus ma*9es ( ,holtz & ,tepl(f1 c41 ,leyd5 j>s1 ,ruhmkorff coils1 or simil> means1 :5 ! opposite electricities are able to accumulate at ! t]m9als ( conductors1 & a dis*>ge ( suffici5t electrical int5sity passes ?r\gh ! non-conductors air or oxyg54 #c ,a sil5t dis*>ge is su* a comb9ation ( opposite /atical 7pot5tial7 electricities z takes place 7g5]ally betwe5 l>ge surfaces7 regul>ly1 )\t sp>ks1 sl[ly1 & quietly 7z 9 ! disp]sion ( electricity74 ,! dis*>ge is only lum9\s 9 ! d>k2 !re is no obs]vable rise ( temp]ature1 & !re=e a l>g] am\nt ( ozone is =m$4 ,b1 nev]!less1 on cont9u+ ! passage ( a sil5t dis*>ge ?r\gh ozone x is de/roy$4 ,= ! action to be obs]vable a l>ge surface is necess>y1 & consequ5tly a s\rce ( electricity at a high pot5tial4 ,= ?is reason ! sil5t dis*>ge is be/ produc$ by a ,ruhmkorff coil1 z ! mo/ conv5i5t means ( obta9+ a consid]able pot5tial ( /atical electricity ) ! employm5t ( ! comp>atively feeble curr5t ( a galvanic batt]y4 #d v4 ,babo's app>atus 0 "o ( ! fir/ con/ruct$ = ozonis+ oxyg5 by means ( a sil5t dis*>ge 7& x is /ill "o ( ! be/74 ,x is compos$ ( a numb] 7tw5ty & m7 ( long1 ?9 capill>y glass tubes clos$ at "o end4 ,a plat9um wire1 ext5d+ along _! :ole l5g?1 is introduc$ into ! o!r end ( ea* tube1 & ?is end is !n fus$ up r\nd ! wire1 ! end ( :i* protrudes outside ! tube4 ,! protrud+ ends ( ! wires are arrang$ alt]nately 9 two sides 9 su* a mann] t on "o side !re are t5 clos$ ends & t5 wires4 ,a bun* ( su* tubes 7=ty %\ld make a bun* ( n m ?an #a c4m4 diamet]7 is plac$ 9 a glass tube1 & ! ends ( ! wires are connect$ ) two conductors1 & are fus$ to ! ends ( ! surr\nd+ tube4 ,! dis*>ge ( a ,ruhmkorff coil is pass$ ?r\gh ^! ends ( ! wires1 & ! dry air or oxyg5 to be ozonis$ is pass$ ?r\gh ! tube4 ,if oxyg5 be pass$ ?r\gh1 ozone is obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities1 & free f oxides ( nitrog51 :i* are p>tially =m$ :5 air is act$ on4 ,at l[ temp]atures ozone is =m$ 9 l>ge quantities4 ,z ozone acts on corks & india-rubb]1 ! app>atus %\ld be made entirely ( glass4 ,) a p[]ful ,ruhmkorff coil & =ty tubes ! ozonation is s p[]ful t ! gas :5 pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( iodide ( potassium n only sets ! iod9e free1 b ev5 oxidises x to potassium iodate1 s t 9 five m9utes ! gas-conduct+ tube is *ok$ up ) cry/als ( ! insoluble iodate4 #e ,9 ord] to connect ! ozonis] ) any o!r app>atus x is impossible to make use ( india-rubb]1 m]cury1 or cem5ts1 c41 because !y are !mselves act$ on by1 & act on1 ozone4 ,all connections mu/1 z 0 fir/ propos$ by ,brodie1 be h]metically clos$ by sulphuric acid1 :i* is n act$ on by ozone4 ,?us1 a cork is pass$ ov] ! v]tical end ( a tube1 ov] :i* a wide tube passes s t ! end ( ! fir/ tube protrudes above ! cork2 m]cury is fir/ p\r$ ov] ! cork 7to prev5t its be+ act$ on by ! sulphuric acid71 & !n sulphuric acid is p\r$ ov] ! m]cury4 ,! protrud+ end ( ! fir/ tube is cov]$ by ! l[] end ( a ?ird tube imm]s$ 9 ! sulphuric acid4 ,! prop]ties ( ozone obta9$ by su* a me?od#f di/+ui% x 9 _m respects f oxyg54 ,ozone v rapidly decolorises indigo1 litmus1 & _m o!r dyes by oxidis+ !m4 ,silv] is oxidis$ by x at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :il/ oxyg5 is n able to oxidise silv] ev5 at high temp]atures2 a bright silv] plate rapidly turns black 7f oxidation7 9 ozonis$ oxyg54 ,x is rapidly absorb$ by m]cury1 =m+ oxide2 x trans=ms ! l[] oxides into high]--= in/ance1 sulphur\s anhydride into sulphuric1 nitr\s oxide into nitric1 ars5i\s anhydride 7,z#b,o#c7 into ars5ic anhydride 7,z#b,o#e7 c4#g ,b :at is especially *>act]i/ic 9 ozone is ! decompos+ action x ex]ts on potassium iodide4 ,oxyg5 does n act on x1 b ozone pass$ into a solution ( potassium iodide lib]ates iod9e1 :il/ ! potassium is obta9$ z cau/ic pota%1 :i* rema9s 9 solution1 #b,,ki ,h#b,o ,o #b,,kho ,i#b4 ,z ! pres5ce ( m9ute traces ( free iod9e may be discov]$ by means ( />* pa/e1 ) :i* x =ms a v d>k blue-col\r$ sub/ance1 a mixture ( potassium iodide ) />* pa/e w detect ! pres5ce ( v small traces ( ozone4#h ,ozone is de/roy$ or conv]t$ into ord9>y oxyg5 n only by heat1 b also by long keep+1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis1 p]oxide ( manganese1 *lor9e1 c4 #f ,! me?od above describ$ is ! only "o :i* has be5 well inve/igat$4 ,! admixture ( nitrog51 or ev5 ( hydrog51 & especially ( silicon fluoride1 appe>s to aid ! =mation & pres]vation ( ozone4 ,among/ o!r me?ods = prep>+ ozone we may m5tion ! foll[+3 #a4 ,9 ! action ( oxyg5 on phosphorus at ! ord9>y temp]ature a portion ( ! oxyg5 is conv]t$ into ozone4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature a /ick ( phosphorus1 p>tially imm]s$ 9 wat] & p>tially 9 air 9 a l>ge glass vessel1 causes ! air to acquire ! od\r ( ozone4 ,x mu/ fur!r be rem>k$ t if ! air be left = long 9 contact ) ! phosphorus1 or )\t ! pres5ce ( wat]1 ! ozone =m$ is de/roy$ by ! phosphorus4 #b4 ,by ! action ( sulphuric acid on p]oxide ( b>ium4 ,if ! latt] be cov]$ ) /rong sulphuric acid 7! acid1 if dilut$ ) only "o-t5? ( wat]1 does n give ozone71 !n at a l[ temp]ature ! oxyg5 evolv$ conta9s ozone1 & 9 mu* great] quantities ?an 9 t ozone is obta9$ by ! action ( electric sp>ks or phosphorus4 #c4 ,ozone may also be obta9$ by decompos+ /rong sulphuric acid by potassium manganate especially ) ! addition ( b>ium p]oxide4 #g ,ozone takes up ! hydrog5 f hydro*loric acid2 *lor9e is lib]at$1 & c dissolve gold4 ,iod9e is directly oxidis$ by ozone1 b n by oxyg54 ,ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 is oxidis$ by ozone into ammonium nitrite 7& nitrate71 #b,,nh#c ,o#c ,,nh#d,,no#b ,h#b,o1 & !re=e a drop ( ammonia1 on fall+ into ! gas1 gives a ?ick cl\d ( ! salts =m$4 ,ozone conv]ts lead oxide into p]oxide1 & suboxide ( ?allium 7:i* is col\rless7 into oxide 7:i* is br[n71 s t ?is reaction is made use ( = detect+ ! pres5ce ( ozone4 ,lead sulphide1 ,pb,s 7black71 is conv]t$ into sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d 7col\rless71 by ozone4 ,a neutral solution ( manganese sulphate gives a precipitate ( manganese p]oxide1 & an acid solution may be oxidis$ into p]manganic acid1 ,h,mn,o#d4 ,) respect to ! oxidis+ action ( ozone on organic sub/ances1 x may be m5tion$ t ) e!r1 ,c#d;,h#aj,o1 ozone gives e?yl p]oxide1 :i* is capable ( decompos+ ) explosion 7accord+ to ,b]!lot71 & is decompos$ by wat] into alcohol1 #b;,c#b;,h#f,o1 & hydrog5 p]oxide1 ,h#b,o#b4 #h ,?is reaction is ! "o usually made use ( = detect+ ! pres5ce ( ozone4 ,9 ! majority ( cases pap] is soak$ 9 solutions ( potassium iodide & />*4 ,su* ozonometrical or iodis$ />*-pap] :5 damp turns blue 9 ! pres5ce ( ozone1 & ! t9t obta9$ v>ies consid]ably1 accord+ to ! l5g? ( "t x is expos$ & to ! am\nt ( ozone pres5t4 ,! am\nt ( ozone 9 a giv5 gas may ev5 to a c]ta9 degree he judg$ by ! %ade ( col\r acquir$ by ! pap]1 if prelim9>y te/s be made4 ,te/-pap] = ozone is prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,"o gram ( neutral potassium iodide is dissolv$ 9 #ajj grams ( di/ill$ wat]2 #aj grams ( />* are !n %ak5 up 9 ! solution1 & ! mixture is boil$ until ! />* is conv]t$ into a jelly4 ,?is jelly is !n sme>$ ov] blott+-pap] & left to dry4 ,x mu/ always he rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! col\r ( iodis$ />*-pap] is *ang$ n only by ! action ( ozone1 b ( _m o!r oxidis]s2 = example1 by ! oxides ( nitrog5 7especially ,n#b,o#c7 & hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,h\zeau propos$ soak+ common litmus-pap] ) a solution ( potassium iodide1 :i* 9 ! pres5ce ( iod9e w\ld turn blue1 ow+ to ! =mation ( ,,kho4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e if ! blue col\r is n produc$ by an alkali 7ammonia7 9 ! gas1 a portion ( ! pap] is n soak$ 9 ! potassium iodide1 b moi/5$ ) wat]2 ?is portion w !n also turn blue if ammonia be pres5t4 ,a reag5t = di/+ui%+ ozone f hydrog5 p]oxide ) c]ta9ty is n kn[n1 & !re=e ^! sub/ances 9 v small quantities 7= in/ance1 9 ! atmosph]e7 may easily he conf\nd$4 ,until rec5t ye>s ! mi/ake has frequ5tly be5 made ( ascrib+ ! alt]ation ( iodis$ />*-pap] 9 ! air to ! pres5ce ( ozone2 at ! pres5t "t !re is reason to believe t x is mo/ (t5 due to ! pres5ce ( nitr\s acid 7,ilosva1 #ahhi74 ,h5ce ozone1 al?\gh x has ! same composition z oxyg51 diff]s f x 9 /ability1 & by ! fact t x oxidises a numb] ( sub/ances v en]getically at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,9 ?is respect ozone resembles ! oxyg5 ( c]ta9 un/able comp\nds1 or oxyg5 at ! mom5t ( its lib]ation4#h bis #h bis ,fluor9e 7,*ap4 ,,xi471 act+ ^u wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 takes up ! hydrog51 & evolves ! oxyg5 9 ! =m ( ozone 7,moissan1 #ahhi71 & !re=e ! reaction mu/ be express$ ?us3--#c;,h#b,o #c;,f#b #f;,,hf ,o#c4 ,9 ord9>y oxyg5 & ozone we see an example ( "o & ! same sub/ance1 9 ?is case an elem5t1 appe>+ 9 two /ates4 ,?is indicates t ! prop]ties ( a sub/ance1 & ev5 ( an elem5t1 may v>y )\t its composition v>y+4 ,v _m su* cases are kn[n4 ,su* cases ( a *emical trans=mation :i* det]m9e a diff]5ce 9 ! prop]ties ( "o & ! same elem5t are t]m$ cases ( isom]ism4 ,! cause ( isom]ism evid5tly lies deep )9 ! ess5tial conditions ( a sub/ance1 & its inve/igation has already l$ to a numb] ( results ( unexpect$ importance & ( imm5se sci5tific significance4 ,x is easy to und]/& ! diff]5ce betwe5 sub/ances conta9+ diff]5t elem5ts or ! same elem5ts 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,t a diff]5ce %\ld exi/ 9 ^! cases necess>ily foll[s1 if1 z our k compels u1 we admit t !re is a radical diff]5ce 9 ! simple bodies or elem5ts4 ,b :5 ! composition--i4e4 ! quality & quantity ( ! elem5ts 9 two sub/ances is ! same & yet _! prop]ties are diff]5t1 !n x becomes cle> t ! conceptions ( div]se elem5ts & ( ! v>y+ composition ( comp\nds1 alone1 are insuffici5t = ! expression ( all ! div]sity ( prop]ties ( matt] 9 nature4 ,some?+ else1 /ill m pr(\nd & int]nal ?an ! composition ( sub/ances1 mu/1 judg+ f isom]ism1 det]m9e ! prop]ties & trans=mation ( sub/ances4 ,on :at are ! isom]ism ( ozone & oxyg51 & ! peculi>ities ( ozone1 dep5d5t8 ,9 :at1 besides ! extra /ore ( en]gy1 :i* is "o ( ! peculi>ities ( ozone1 resides ! cause ( its diff]5ce f oxyg58 ,^! que/ions = long occupi$ ! m9ds ( inve/igators1 & 7 ! motive = ! mo/ v>i$1 exact1 & accurate rese>*es1 :i* 7 *iefly direct$ to ! /udy ( ! volumetric relations exhibit$ by ozone4 ,9 ord] to acqua9t ! read] ) ! previ\s rese>*es ( ?is k9d1 ,i cite ! foll[+ f a memoir by ,soret1 9 ! ',transactions ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces' = #ahff3 ',our pres5t k ( ! volumetric relations ( ozone may be express$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 '#a4 ,ord9>y oxyg5 9 *ang+ into ozone "u ! action ( electricity %[s a dim9ution 9 volume4 ,?is 0 discov]$ by ,&rews & ,tait4 '#b4 ,9 act+ on ozonis$ oxyg5 ) potassium iodide & o!r sub/ances capable ( be+ oxidis$1 we de/roy ! ozone1 b ! volume ( ! gas rema9s un*ang$4 ,= ! rese>*es ( ,&rews1 ,soret1 v4 ,babo1 & o!rs %[$ t ! proportion ( ozonis$ oxyg5 absorb$ by ! potassium iodide is equal to ! orig9al contraction ( volume ( ! oxyg5--t is1 9 ! absorption ( ! ozone ! volume ( ! gas rema9s un*ang$4 ,f ?is x might be imag9$ t ozone1 s to say1 does n occupy any space--is indef9itely d5se4 '#c4 ,by ! action ( heat ozonis$ oxyg5 increases 9 volume1 & is trans=m$ into ord9>y oxyg54 ,?is increase 9 volume corresponds ) ! quantity ( ozonis$ oxyg5 :i* is giv5 up to ! potassium iodide 9 its decomposition 7! same obs]v]s74 '#d4 ,^! unque/ionable exp]im5tal results lead to ! conclusion t ozone is d5s] ?an oxyg51 & t 9 its oxidis+ action x gives (f t portion ( its sub/ance to :i* is due its extra d5sity di/+ui%+ x f ord9>y oxyg54' ,if we imag9e 7says ,weltzi57 t n volumes ( ozone consi/ ( n volumes ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) m volumes ( ! same sub/ance1 & t ozone 9 oxidis+ gives up m volumes ( oxyg5 & leaves n volumes ( ord9>y oxyg5 gas1 !n all ! above facts c be expla9$2 o!rwise x mu/ be suppos$ t ozone is inf9itely d5se4 ',9 ord] to det]m9e ! d5sity ( ozone' 7we aga9 cite ,soret7 'rec\rse _c be _h to ! direct det]m9ation ( ! weight ( a giv5 volume ( ! gas1 because ozone _c be obta9$ 9 a pure /ate4 ,x is always mix$ ) a v l>ge quantity ( oxyg54 ,x 0 necess>y1 !re=e1 to h rec\rse to su* sub/ances z w\ld absorb ozone )\t absorb+ oxyg5 & )\t de/roy+ ! ozone4 ,!n ! d5sity might be d$uc$ f ! decrease ( volume produc$ 9 ! gas by ! action ( ?is solv5t 9 comp>ison ) ! quantity ( oxyg5 giv5 up to potassium iodide4 ,advantage mu/ also be tak5 ( ! det]m9ation ( ! increase ( volume produc$ by ! action ( heat on ozone1 if ! volume occupi$ by ! ozone be=e heat+ be kn[n4' ,soret f\nd two su* sub/ances1 turp5t9e & oil ( c9namon4 ',ozone disappe>s 9 ! pres5ce ( turp5t9e4 ,?is is accompani$ by ! appe>ance ( a d5se vap\r1 :i* fills a vessel ( small capacity 7#jad litre7 to su* an ext5t t x is imp5etrable to direct sol>-rays4 ,on leav+ ! vessel at re/1 x is obs]v$ t ! cl\d ( vap\r settles2 ! cle>+ is fir/ rem>k$ at ! upp] portion ( ! vessel1 & ! brilliant col\rs ( ! ra9b[ are se5 on ! edge ( a cl\d ( vap\r4' ,oil ( c9namon--t is1 ! volatile or ess5tial oil ( ! well-kn[n spice1 c9namon--gives "u simil> circum/ances ! same k9d ( vap\rs1 b !y are mu* less volum9\s4 ,on measur+ ! gase\s volume be=e & aft] ! action ( bo? volatile oils1 a consid]able decrease is rem>k$4 ,on apply+ all ! necess>y corrections 7= ! solubility ( oxyg5 9 ! oily liquids nam$ above1 = ! t5sion ( _! vap\r1 = ! *ange ( pressure1 c47 & mak+ a s]ies ( comp>ative det]m9ations1 ,soret obta9$ ! foll[+ result3 two volumes ( ozone capable ( be+ dissolv$1 :5 *ang$ to ord9>y 7by heat+ a wire to a r$-heat by a galvanic curr5t7 increase by "o volume4 ,h5ce x is evid5t t 9 ! =mation ( ozone ?ree volumes ( oxyg5 give two volumes ( ozone--t is1 its d5sity 7ref]r$ to hydrog57 #bd4 ,! obs]vations & det]m9ations ( ,soret %[$ t ozone is heavi] ?an oxyg51 & ev5 ?an c>bonic anhydride 7because ozonis$ oxyg5 passes ?r\gh f9e orifices m sl[ly ?an oxyg5 & ?an its mixtures ) c>bonic anhydride71 al?\gh light] ?an *lor9e 7x fl[s m rapidly ?r\gh su* orifices ?an *lor9e71 & !y indicat$ t ozone is "o & a half times d5s] ?an oxyg51 :i* may be express$ by designat+ a molecule ( oxyg5 by ,o#b & ( ozone by ,o#c1 & h5ce ozone ,,oo#b is comp>able ) comp\nd sub/ances#i =m$ by oxyg51 z = in/ance ,,co#b1 ,,s#b1 ,,no#b1 c4 ,?is expla9s ! *ief diff]5ces betwe5 ozone & oxyg5 & ! cause ( ! isom]ism1 & at ! same "t leads "o to expect#aj t ozone1 be+ a gas :i* is d5s] ?an oxyg51 w\ld be liquefi$ mu* m easily4 ,?is 0 actually %[n to be ! case 9 #ahhj1 by ,*appuis & ,hautefeuille 9 _! rese>*es on ! physical prop]ties ( ozone4 ,its boil+ po9t "u a pressure ( #gfj mm4 is ab\t -#ajf1 & consequ5tly compress$ & refrig]at$ ozone :5 rapidly exp&$ =ms drops1 i4e4 is liquefi$4 ,liquid & compress$#aa ozone is blue4 ,9 dissolv+ 9 wat] ozone p>tly passes into oxyg54 ,x explodes viol5tly :5 sudd5ly compress$ & heat$1 *ang+ into ord9>y oxyg5 & evolv+1 l all explosive sub/ances1#ab t extra heat :i* di/+ui%es x f oxyg54 #i ,ozone is1 s to say1 an oxide ( oxyg51 j z wat] is an oxide ( hydrog54 ,j z aque\s vap\r is compos$ ( two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg51 :i* on comb9+ cond5se into two volumes ( aque\s vap\r1 s also two volumes ( oxyg5 are comb9$ 9 ozone ) "o volume ( oxyg5 to give two volumes ( ozone4 ,9 ! action ( ozone on diff]5t sub/ances x is only t additional portion ( its molecule by :i* x diff]s f ord9>y oxyg5 t comb9es ) o!r bodies1 & t is :y1 "u ^! circum/ances1 ! volume ( ! ozonis$ oxyg5 does n *ange4 ,/>t+ ) two volumes ( ozone1 "o-?ird ( its weight is p>t$ )1 & two volumes ( oxyg5 rema94 ,! above obs]vations ( ,soret on ! capacity ( turp5t9e = dissolv+ ozone1 toge!r ) ,s*nbe9's rese>*es on ! =mation ( ozone 9 ! oxidation ( turp5t9e & ( simil> volatile vegetable oils 7ent]+ into ! composition ( p]fumes71 also expla9 ! action ( ?is e!real oil on a great _m sub/ances4 ,x is kn[n t turp5t9e oil1 :5 mix$ ) _m sub/ances1 promotes _! oxidation4 ,9 ?is case x probably n only itself promotes ! =mation ( ozone1 b also dissolves ozone f ! atmosph]e1 & ?us acquires ! prop]ty ( oxidis+ _m sub/ances4 ,x blea*es l95 & cork1 decolorises indigo1 promotes ! oxidation & h>d5+ ( boil$ l9se$ oil1 c4 ,^! prop]ties ( turp5t9e oil are made use ( 9 practice4 ,dirty l95 & _m /a9$ mat]ials are easily clean$ by turp5t9e1 n only because x dissolves ! grease1 b also because x oxidises x4 ,! admixture ( turp5t9e ) dry+ 7boil$7 oil1 oil-col\rs1 & lacs aids _! rapid dry+ because x attracts ozone4 ,v>i\s oils occurr+ 9 plants1 & ent]+ into ! composition ( p]fumes & c]ta9 sc5t extracts1 also act z oxidis]s4 ,!y act 9 ! same mann] z oil ( turp5t9e & oil ( c9namon4 ,?is p]haps expla9s ! refre%+ influ5ce !y h 9 sc5ts & o!r simil> prep>ations1 & also ! salubrity ( ! air ( p9e =e/s4 ,wat] ^u :i* a lay] ( turp5t9e oil has be5 p\r$ acquires1 :5 left /&+ 9 ! light1 ! dis9fect+ & oxidis+ prop]ties 9 g5]al ( ozonis$ turp5t9e 7is ?is due to ! =mation ( ,h#b,o#b874 #aj ,! d5se/1 mo/ complex1 & heavie/ p>ticles ( matt] %\ld1 "u equal conditions1 evid5tly be less capable ( pass+ into a /ate ( gase\s motion1 %\ld soon] atta9 a liquid /ate1 & h a great] cohesive =ce4 #aa ,! blue col\r prop] to ozone may be se5 ?r\gh a tube "o metre long1 fill$ ) oxyg51 conta9+ #aj p4c4 ( ozone4 ,! d5sity ( liquid ozone has n1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 be5 det]m9$4 #ab ,all explosive bodies & mixtures 7gunp[d]1 detonat+ gas1 c47 evolve heat 9 explod+--t is1 ! reactions :i* accompany explosions are exo!rmal4 ,9 ?is mann] ozone 9 decompos+ evolves lat5t heat1 al?\gh g5]ally heat is absorb$ 9 decomposition4 ,?is %[s ! mean+ & cause ( explosion4 ,?us1 judg+ by :at has be5 said above1 ozone %\ld he =m$ 9 nature n only 9 ! _m processes ( oxidation :i* g on1 b also by ! cond5sation ( atmosph]ic oxyg54 ,! significance ( ozone 9 nature has (t5 arre/$ ! att5tion ( obs]v]s4 ,!re is a s]ies ( ozonometrical obs]vations :i* %[ ! diff]5t am\nts ( ozone 9 ! air at diff]5t localities1 at diff]5t times ( ! ye>1 & "u diff]5t circum/ances4 ,b ! obs]vations made 9 ?is direction _c be consid]$ z suffici5tly exact1 because ! me?ods 9 use = det]m9+ ozone 7 n q accurate4 ,x is h[ev] indisputable#ac t ! am\nt ( ozone 9 ! atmosph]e is subject to v>iation2 t ! air ( dwell+s conta9s no ozone 7x disappe>s 9 oxidis+ organic matt]72 t ! air ( fields & =e/s always conta9s ozone1 or sub/ances 7p]oxide ( hydrog57 :i* act l x 7on iodis$ />* pap] c47#ac bis2 t ! am\nt ( ozone increases aft] /orms2 & t miasms1 c41 are de/roy$ by ozonis+ ! atmosph]e4 ,x easily oxidises organic sub/ances1 & miasms are produc$ by organic sub/ances & ! g]ms ( organisms1 all ( :i* are easily *ang$ & oxidis$4 ,inde$1 _m miasms--= in/ance1 ! volatile sub/ance ( decompos+ organisms--are cle>ly de/roy$ or *ang$ n only by ozone1 b also by _m o!r p[]fully oxidis+ sub/ances1 su* z *lor9e wat]1 potassium p]manganate1 & ! l4#ad ,all t is n[ kn[n respect+ ! pres5ce ( ozone 9 ! air may be summ$ up 9 ! foll[+ words3 ,a small quantity ( an oxidis+ sub/ance1 resembl+ ozone 9 its reactions1 has und\bt$ly be5 obs]v$ & det]m9$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 especially 9 fre% air1 = in/ance aft] a /orm1 & x is v likely t ?is sub/ance conta9s a mixture ( su* oxidis+ sub/ances z ozone1 p]oxide ( hydrog51 & ! l[] oxides ( nitrog5 7especially nitr\s acid & its ammonia salt7 produc$ f ! elem5ts ( ! atmosph]e by oxidation & by ! action ( electrical dis*>ges4 #ac ,9 ,p>is x has be5 f\nd t ! fur!r f ! c5tre ( ! t[n ! great] ! am\nt ( ozone 9 ! air4 ,! reason ( ?is is evid5t3 9 a city !re are _m conditions = ! de/ruction ( ozone4 ,?is is :y we di/+ui% c\ntry air z be+ fre%4 ,9 spr+ ! air conta9s m ozone ?an 9 autumn2 ! air ( fields m ?an ! air ( t[ns4 #ac bis ,! "q ( ! pres5ce ( ozone 9 ! air has n yet be5 fully elucidat$1 z ^? reactions by :i* ozone is g5]ally detect$ are also common to nitr\s acid 7& its ammonia salt74 ,ilosvay de ,ilosva 7#ahhi71 9 ord] to exclude ! influ5ce ( su* bodies1 pass$ air ?r\gh a #dj p] c5t4 solution ( cau/ic soda1 & !n ?r\gh a #bj p] c5t4 solution ( sulphuric acid 7^! solutions d n de/roy ozone71 & te/$ ! air ?us purifi$ = ! pres5ce ( ozone4 ,z no ozone 0 !n detect$ ! au?or concludes t all ! effects :i* 7 =m]ly ascrib$ to ozone %\ld be ref]r$ to nitr\s acid4 ,b ?is conclusion requires m c>eful v]ification1 s9ce ! rese>*es ( ,pr(4 ,s*nbe9 on ! pres5ce ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 9 ! atmosph]e4 #ad ,! oxidis+ action ( ozone may be tak5 advantage ( = te*nical purposes2 = in/ance1 = de/roy+ col\r+ matt]s4 ,x has ev5 be5 employ$ = blea*+ tissues & = ! rapid prep>ation ( v9eg>1 al?\gh ^! me?ods h n yet receiv$ wide application4 ,?us 9 ozone we see 7#a7 ! capacity ( elem5ts 7& x mu/ be all ! m m>k$ 9 comp\nds7 ( *ang+ 9 prop]ties )\t alt]+ 9 composition2 ?is is t]m$ isom]ism2#ae 7#b7 ! capacity ( c]ta9 elem5ts = cond5s+ !mselves into molecules ( diff]5t d5sities2 ?is =ms a special case ( isom]ism call$ polym]ism2 7#c7 ! capacity ( oxyg5 = appe>+ 9 a /ill m active & en]getic *emical /ate ?an t 9 :i* x occurs 9 ord9>y gase\s oxyg52 & 7#d7 ! =mation ( un/able equilibria1 or *emical /ates1 :i* are illu/rat$ bo? by ! ease ) :i* ozone acts z an oxidis] & by its capacity = decompos+ ) explosion4#af #ae ,isom]ism 9 elem5ts is t]m$ allotropism4 #af ,a numb] ( sub/ances resemble ozone 9 "o or o!r ( ^! respects4 ,?us cyanog51 ,c#b,n#b1 nitrog5 *loride1 c41 decompose ) an explosion & evolution ( heat4 ,nitr\s anhydride1 ,n#b,o#c1 =ms a blue liquid l ozone1 & 9 a numb] ( cases oxidises l ozone4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide4--,_m ( ^? prop]ties :i* we h se5 9 ozone belong also to a peculi> sub/ance conta9+ oxyg5 & hydrog5 & call$ hydrog5 p]oxide or oxyg5at$ wat]4 ,?is sub/ance 0 discov]$ 9 #ahah by ,?n>d4 ,:5 heat$ x is decompos$ into wat] & oxyg51 evolv+ z mu* oxyg5 z is conta9$ 9 ! wat] rema9+ aft] ! decomposition4 ,t portion ( oxyg5 by :i* hydrog5 p]oxide diff]s f wat] behaves 9 a numb] ( cases j l ! active oxyg5 9 ozone1 :i* di/+ui%es x f ord9>y oxyg54 ,9 ,h#b,o#b1 & 9 ,o#c1 "o atom ( oxyg5 acts z a p[]ful oxidis]1 & on sep>at+ out x leaves ,h#b,o or ,o#b1 :i* d n act s en]getically1 al?\gh !y /ill conta9 oxyg54#ag ,bo? ,h#b,o#b & ,o#c conta9 ! oxyg5 9 a compress$ /ate1 s to speak1 & :5 fre$ f pressure by ! =ces 7int]nal7 ( ! elem5ts 9 ano!r sub/ance1 ?is oxyg5 is easily evolv$1 & !re=e acts z oxyg5 does at ! mom5t ( its lib]ation4 ,bo? sub/ances 9 decompos+1 ) ! sep>ation ( a portion ( _! oxyg51 evolve heat1 :il/ decomposition is usually accompani$ by an absorption ( heat4 #ag ,x is evid5t t !re is a want ( words "h = di/+ui%+ oxyg51 ,o1 z an ultimate elem5t1 f oxyg51 ,o#b1 z a free elem5t4 ,! latt] %\ld be t]m$ oxyg5 gas1 did n cu/om & ! l5g? ( ! expression r5d] x inconv5i5t4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide is =m$ "u _m circum/ances by combu/ion & oxidation1 b 9 v limit$ quantities2 ?us1 = in/ance1 x is suffici5t to %ake up z9c ) sulphuric acid1 or ev5 ) wat]1 to obs]ve ! =mation ( a c]ta9 quantity ( hydrog5 p]oxide 9 ! wat]4#ah ,f ?is cause1 probably1 a s]ies ( div]se oxidation processes are accompli%$ 9 nature1 & accord+ to ,pr(4 ,s*ne ( ,mosc[1 hydrog5 p]oxide occurs 9 ! atmosph]e1 al?\gh 9 v>iable & small quantities1 & probably its =mation is connect$ ) ozone1 ) :i* x has mu* 9 common4 ,! usual mode ( ! =mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 & ! me?od by :i* x may be indirectly obta9$1#ai is by ! d\ble decomposition ( an acid & ! p]oxides ( c]ta9 metals1 especially ^? ( potassium1 calcium1 & b>ium4#bj ,we saw :5 speak+ ( ,oxyg5 7,*ap4 ,,iii47 t x is only necess>y to heat ! anhydr\s oxide ( b>ium to a r$ heat 9 a curr5t ( air or oxyg5 7or1 bett] /ill1 to heat x ) potassium *lorate1 & !n to wa% away ! potassium *loride =m$7 to obta9 p]oxide ( b>ium4#ba ,b>ium p]oxide gives hydrog5 p]oxide by ! action ( acids 9 ! cold4#bb ,! process ( decomposition is v cle> 9 ?is case2 ! hydrog5 ( ! acid replaces ! b>ium ( ! p]oxide1 a b>ium salt ( ! acid be+ =m$1 :ile ! hydrog5 p]oxide =m$ 9 ! reaction rema9s 9 solution4#bc #ah ,s*nbe9 /ates t ! =mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide is to be rem>k$ 9 e oxidation 9 wat] or 9 ! pres5ce ( aque\s vap\r4 ,accord+ to ,/ruve1 hydrog5 p]oxide is conta9$ 9 sn[ & 9 ra9-wat]1 & its =mation1 toge!r ) ozone & ammonium nitrate1 is ev5 probable 9 ! processes ( respiration & combu/ion4 ,a solution ( t9 9 m]cury1 or liquid t9 amalgam1 :5 %ak5 up 9 wat] conta9+ sulphuric acid1 produces hydrog5 p]oxide1 :il/ iron "u ! same circum/ances does n give rise to its =mation4 ,! pres5ce ( small quantities ( hydrog5 p]oxide 9 ^! & simil> cases is recognis$ by _m reactions4 ,among/ !m1 its action on *romic acid 9 ! pres5ce ( e!r is v *>act]i/ic4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide conv]ts ! *romic acid into a high] oxide1 ,cr#b,o#g1 :i* is ( a d>k-blue col\r & dissolves 9 e!r4 ,?is e!real solution is to a c]ta9 degree /able1 & !re=e ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide may be recognis$ by mix+ ! liquid to be te/$ ) e!r & add+ sev]al drops ( a solution ( *romic acid4 ,on %ak+ ! mixture ! e!r dissolves ! high] oxide ( *romium :i* is =m$1 & acquires a blue col\r4 ,! =mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide 9 ! combu/ion & oxidation ( sub/ances conta9+ or evolv+ hydrog5 mu/ be und]/ood 9 ! light ( ! conception1 to be consid]$ lat]1 ( molecules occupy+ equal volumes 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,at ! mom5t ( its evolution a molecule ,h#b comb9es ) a molecule ,o#b1 & gives ,h#b,o#b4 ,z ?is sub/ance is un/able1 a l>ge proportion ( x is decompos$1 a small am\nt only rema9+ un*ang$4 ,if x is obta9$1 wat] is easily =m$ f x2 ?is reaction evolves heat1 & ! rev]se action is n v probable4 ,direct det]m9ations %[ t ! reaction ,h#b,o#b ,h#b,o ,o evolves #bb1jjj heat units4 ,f ?is x w be und]/ood h[ easy is ! decomposition ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 z well z ! fact t a numb] ( sub/ances :i* are n directly oxidis$ by oxyg5 are oxidis$ by hydrog5 p]oxide & by ozone1 :i* also evolves heat on decomposition4 ,su* a repres5tation ( ! orig9 ( hydrog5 p]oxide has be5 develop$ by me s9ce #ahgj4 ,rec5tly 7#ahij7 ,traube has pron\nc$ a simil> op9ion1 /at+ t ,zn "u ! action ( wat] & air gives1 besides ,zn,h#b,o#b1 also ,h#b,o#b4 #ai ,! =mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide f b>ium p]oxide by a me?od ( d\ble decomposition is an in/ance ( a numb] ( indirect me?ods ( prep>ation4 ,a sub/ance ,a does n comb9e ) ,b1 b ,a ,b is obta9$ f ,a ,c 9 its action on ,b ,d 7see ,introduction7 :5 ,c ,d is =m$4 ,wat] does n comb9e ) oxyg51 b z a hydrate ( acids x acts on ! comp\nd ( oxyg5 ) b>ium oxide1 because ?is oxide gives a salt ) an acid anhydride2 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 hydrog5 ) oxyg5 does n directly =m hydrog5 p]oxide1 b :5 comb9$ ) a haloid 7= example1 *lor9e71 "u ! action ( b>ium p]oxide1 ,ba,o#b1 x leads to ! =mation ( a salt ( b>ium & ,h#b,o#b4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t ! passage ( b>ium oxide1 ,ba,o1 into ! p]oxide1 ,ba,o#b1 is accompani$ by ! evolution ( #ab1ajj heat units p] #af p>ts ( oxyg5 by weight comb9$1 & ! passage ( ,h#b,o into ! p]oxide ,h#b,o#b does n proce$ directly1 because x w\ld be accompani$ by ! absorption ( #bb1jjj units ( heat by #af p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 comb9$4 ,b>ium p]oxide1 9 act+ on an acid1 evid5tly evolves less heat ?an ! oxide1 & x is ?is diff]5ce ( heat t is absorb$ 9 ! hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,its en]gy is obta9$ f t evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( ! salt ( b>ium4 #bj ,p]oxides ( lead & manganese1 & o!r analog\s p]oxides 7see ,*ap4 ,,iii41 ,note #i71 d n give hydrog5 p]oxide "u ^! conditions1 b yield *lor9e ) hydro*loric acid4 #ba ,! impure b>ium p]oxide obta9$ 9 ?is mann] may be easily purifi$4 ,= ?is purpose x is dissolv$ 9 a dilute solution ( nitric acid4 ,a c]ta9 quantity ( an insoluble residue always rema9s1 f :i* ! solution is sep>at$ by filtration4 ,! solution w conta9 n only ! comp\nd ( ! b>ium p]oxide1 b also a comp\nd ( ! b>ium oxide itself1 a c]ta9 quantity ( :i* always rema9s uncomb9$ ) oxyg54 ,! acid comp\nds ( ! p]oxide & oxide ( b>ium are easily di/+ui%able by _! /ability4 ,! p]oxide gives an un/able comp\nd1 & ! oxide a /able salt4 ,by add+ an aque\s solution ( b>ium oxide to ! resultant solution1 ! :ole ( ! p]oxide conta9$ 9 ! solution may be precipitat$ z a pure aque\s comp\nd 7,k\ril(f1 #ahhi1 obta9$ ! same result by add+ an excess ( ,ba,o#b74 ,! fir/ portions ( ! precipitate w consi/ ( impurities--= in/ance1 oxide ( iron4 ,! b>ium p]oxide !n sep>ates out1 & is collect$ on a filt] & wa%$2 x =ms a sub/ance hav+ a def9ite composition1 ,ba,o#b1h;,h#b,o1 & is v pure4 ,pure hydrog5 p]oxide %\ld always be prep>$ f su* purifi$ b>ium p]oxide4 #bb ,9 ! cold1 /rong sulphuric acid ) b>ium p]oxide gives ozone2 :5 dilut$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] x gives oxyg5 7see ,note #f71 & hydrog5 p]oxide is only obta9$ by ! action ( v weak sulphuric acid4 ,hydro*loric1 hydr(luoric1 c>bonic1 & hydrosilic(luoric acids1 & o!rs1 :5 dilut$ ) wat] also give hydrog5 p]oxide ) b>ium p]oxide4 ,pr(essor ,s*ne1 :o v c>efully inve/igat$ hydrog5 p]oxide1 %[$ t x is =m$ by ! action ( _m ( ! above-m5tion$ acids on b>ium p]oxide4 ,9 prep>+ p]oxide ( hydrog5 by means ( sulphuric acid1 ! solution mu/ be kept cold4 ,a solution ( maximum conc5tration may be obta9$ by successive treatm5ts ) sulphuric acid ( increas+ /r5g?4 ,9 ?is mann] a solution conta9+ #b to #c grams ( pure p]oxide 9 #ajj c4c4 ( wat] may be obta9$ 7,v4 ,k\ril(f74 #bc ,) ! majority ( acids1 t salt ( b>ium :i* is =m$ rema9s 9 solution2 ?us1 = in/ance1 by employ+ hydro*loric acid1 hydrog5 p]oxide & b>ium *loride rema9 9 solution4 ,complicat$ processes w\ld be requir$ to obta9 pure hydrog5 p]oxide f su* a solution4 ,x is mu* m conv5i5t to take advantage ( ! action ( c>bonic anhydride on ! pure hydrate ( b>ium p]oxide4 ,= ?is purpose ! hydrate is /irr$ up 9 wat]1 & a rapid /ream ( c>bonic anhydride is pass$ ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,b>ium c>bonate1 insoluble 9 wat]1 is =m$1 & ! hydrog5 p]oxide rema9s 9 solution1 s t x may be sep>at$ f ! c>bonate by filt]+ only4 ,on a l>ge scale hydr(luosilicic acid is employ$1 its b>ium salt be+ also insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! reaction is express$ by ! equation ,ba,o#b ,h#b,,s#d ,h#b,o#b ,ba,s,o#d4 ,x is be/ to take a weak cold solution ( sulphuric acid & to almo/ saturate x ) b>ium p]oxide1 s t a small excess ( acid rema9s2 insoluble b>ium sulphate is =m$4 ,a m or less dilute aque\s solution ( hydrog5 p]oxide is obta9$4 ,?is solution may be conc5trat$ 9 a vacuum ov] sulphuric acid4 ,9 ?is way ! wat] may ev5 be entirely evaporat$ f ! solution ( ! hydrog5 p]oxide2 only 9 ?is case x is necess>y to "w at a l[ temp]ature1 & n to keep ! p]oxide = long 9 ! r>efi$ atmosph]e1 z o!rwise x decomposes4#bc bis ,a solution ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 7mix$ ) ! solution ( a salt ( sodium ,na,x7 is us$ = blea*+ 7especially silk & wool7 on a l>ge scale1 & is n[ usually prep>$ f p]oxide ( sodium ,na#b,o#b by ! action ( acids4 ,na#b,o#b #b;,,hx #b,na,x ,h#b,o#bbd4 #bc bis ,hydrog5 p]oxide may be extract$ f v dilute solutions by means ( e!r1 :i* dissolves x1 & :5 mix$ ) x ! hydrog5 p]oxide may ev5 be di/ill$4 ,a solution ( hydrog5 p]oxide 9 wat] may be /r5g!n$ by cool+ x to a l[ temp]ature1 :5 ! wat] cry/allises out--t is1 is conv]t$ into ice--:il/ ! hydrog5 p]oxide rema9s 9 solution1 z x only freezes at v l[ temp]atures4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t hydrog5 p]oxide1 9 a /rong solution 9 a pure /ate1 is exce$+ly un/able ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & !re=e x mu/ be pres]v$ 9 vessels always kept cold1 z o!rwise x evolves oxyg5 & =ms wat]4 #bd ,p]oxide ( sodium 7,*ap4 ,,xii41 ,note #di7 is prep>$ by burn+ sodium 9 dry air4 ,:5 pure1 hydrog5 p]oxide is a col\rless liquid1 )\t smell1 & hav+ a v unpleasant ta/e--su* z belongs to ! salts ( _m metals--! s-call$ 'metallic' ta/e4 ,wat] /or$ 9 z9c vessels has ?is ta/e1 :i* is probably due to its conta9+ hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,! t5sion ( ! vap\r ( hydrog5 p]oxide is less ?an t ( aque\s vap\r2 ?is enables its solutions to be conc5trat$ 9 a vacuum4 ,! specific gravity ( anhydr\s hydrog5 p]oxide is #adee4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide decomposes1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 :5 heat$ ev5 to #bj4 ,b ! m dilute its aque\s solution ! m /able x is4 ,v weak solutions may be di/ill$ )\t decompos+ ! hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,x decolorises solutions ( litmus & turm]ic1 & acts 9 a simil> mann] on _m col\r+ matt]s ( organic orig9 7= :i* reason x is employ$ = blea*+ tissues74#bd bis #bd bis ,p]oxide ( hydrog5 %\ld app>5tly f9d an indu/rial application 9 ! arts1 = in/ance1 7#a7 z a blea*+ ag5t1 x hav+ ! important advantage ov] *loride ( lime1 ,,s#b1 c41 ( n act+ ^u ! mat]ial "u treatm5t4 ,x may be us$ = blea*+ fea!rs1 hair1 silk1 wool1 wood1 c41 x also removes /a9s ( all k9ds1 su* z w9e1 ink1 & fruit /a9s2 7#b7 x de/roys bact]ia l ozone )\t hav+ any injuri\s effect ^u ! human body4 ,x c also be us$ = wa%+ all k9ds ( w\nds1 = purify+ ! air 9 ! sick room1 c41 & 7#c7 z a pres]v+ ag5t = pott$ meats1 c4 ,_m sub/ances decompose hydrog5 p]oxide1 =m+ wat] & oxyg51 )\t app>5tly suff]+ any *ange4 ,9 ?is case sub/ances 9 a /ate ( f9e division %[ a mu* quick] action ?an compact masses1 f :i* x is evid5t t ! action is "h bas$ on contact 7see ,introduction74 ,x is suffici5t to br+ hydrog5 p]oxide into contact ) *>coal1 gold1 ! p]oxide ( manganese or lead1 ! alkalis1 metallic silv]1 & plat9um1 to br+ ab\t ! above decomposition4#be ,besides :i*1 hydrog5 p]oxide =ms wat] & p>ts ) its oxyg5 ) great ease to a numb] ( sub/ances :i* are capable ( be+ oxidis$ or ( comb9+ ) oxyg51 & 9 ?is respect is v l ozone & o!r p[]ful oxidis]s4#bf ,to ! class ( contact ph5om5a1 :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( hydrog5 p]oxide z a sub/ance :i* is un/able & easily decomposable ) ! evolution ( heat1 mu/ be ref]r$ ! foll[+--t 9 ! pres5ce ( _m sub/ances conta9+ oxyg5 x evolves1 n only its own oxyg51 b also t ( ! sub/ances :i* are br\ght into contact ) x--t is1 x acts 9 a r$uc+ mann]4 ,x behaves ?us ) ozone1 ! oxides ( silv]1 m]cury1 gold & plat9um1 & lead p]oxide4 ,! oxyg5 9 ^! sub/ances is n /able1 & !re=e ! feeble influ5ce ( contact is en\gh to de/roy its position4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide1 especially 9 a conc5trat$ =m1 9 contact ) ^! sub/ances1 evolves an imm5se quantity ( oxyg51 s t an explosion takes place & an exce$+ly p[]ful evolution ( heat is obs]v$ if hydrog5 p]oxide 9 a conc5trat$ =m be made to drop ^u ^! sub/ances 9 dry p[d]4 ,sl[ decomposition also proce$s 9 dilute solutions4#bg #be ,z ! result ( c>eful rese>*1 c]ta9 ( ! catalytic or contact ph5om5a h be5 subject$ to exact explanation1 :i* %[s ! p>ticipation ( a sub/ance pres5t 9 ! process ( a reaction1 :il/1 h[ev]1 x does n alt] ! s]ies ( *anges proce$+ f me*anical actions only4 ,pr(essor ,s*ne1 ( ! ,petr(fsky ,academy1 has already expla9$ a numb] ( reactions ( hydrog5 p]oxide :i* previ\sly 7 n und]/ood4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 he %[$ t ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 alkalis give p]oxides ( ! alkal9e metals1 :i* comb9e ) ! rema9+ hydrog5 p]oxide1 =m+ un/able comp\nds :i* are easily decompos$1 & !re=e alkalis ev9ce a decompos+ 7catalytic7 influ5ce on solutions ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,only acid solutions ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 & !n only dilute ones1 c be pres]v$ well4 #bf ,hydrog5 p]oxide1 z a sub/ance conta9+ mu* oxyg5 7namely1 #af p>ts to "o "p by weight ( hydrog571 exhibits _m oxidis+ reactions4 ,?us1 x oxidises ars5ic1 conv]ts lime into calcium p]oxide1 ! oxides ( z9c & copp] into p]oxides2 x p>ts ) its oxyg5 to _m sulphides1 conv]t+ !m into sulphates1 c4 ,s1 = example1 x conv]ts black lead sulphide1 ,pb,s1 into :ite lead sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d1 copp] sulphide into copp] sulphate1 & s on4 ,! re/oration ( old oil pa9t+s by hydrog5 p]oxide is bas$ on ?is action4 ,oil col\rs are usually admix$ ) :ite lead1 & 9 _m cases ! col\r ( oil-pa9ts becomes d>k] 9 process ( "t4 ,?is is p>tly due to ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 conta9$ 9 ! air1 :i* acts on :ite lead1 =m+ lead sulphide1 :i* is black4 ,! int]mixture ( ! black col\r d>k5s ! re/4 ,9 clean+ a picture ) a solution ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 ! black lead sulphide is conv]t$ into :ite sulphate1 & ! col\rs bright5 ow+ to ! disappe>ance ( ! black sub/ance :i* previ\sly d>k5$ !m4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide oxidises ) p>ticul> en]gy sub/ances conta9+ hydrog5 & capable ( easily p>t+ ) x to oxidis+ sub/ances4 ,?us x decomposes hydriodic acid1 sett+ ! iod9e free & conv]t+ ! hydrog5 x conta9s into wat]2 x also decomposes sulphurett$ hydrog5 9 exactly ! same mann]1 sett+ ! sulphur free4 ,/>* pa/e ) potassium iodide is n1 h[ev]1 directly col\r$ by p]oxide ( hydrog5 9 ! entire abs5ce ( free acids2 b ! addition ( a small quantity ( iron sulphate 7gre5 vitriol7 or ( lead acetate to ! mixture is en\gh to entirely black5 ! pa/e4 ,?is is a v s5sitive reag5t 7te/7 = p]oxide ( hydrog51 l ! te/ ) *romic acid & e!r 7see ,note #h74 #bg ,to expla9 ! ph5om5on1 an hypo!sis has be5 put =w>d by ,brodie1 ,clausius1 & ,s*nbe9 :i* supposes ord9>y oxyg5 to be an electrically neutral sub/ance1 compos$1 s to speak1 ( two electrically opposite k9ds ( oxyg5--positive & negative4 ,x is suppos$ t hydrog5 p]oxide conta9s "o k9d ( su* pol> oxyg51 :il/ 9 ! oxides ( ! above-nam$ metals ! oxyg5 is ( opposite pol>ity4 ,x is suppos$ t 9 ! oxides ( ! metals ! oxyg5 is electro-negative1 & 9 hydrog5 p]oxide electro-positive1 & t on ! mutual contact ( ^! sub/ances ord9>y neutral oxyg5 is evolv$ z a consequ5ce ( ! mutual attraction ( ! oxyg5s ( opposite pol>ity4 ,brodie admits ! pol>ity ( oxyg5 9 comb9ation1 b n 9 an uncomb9$ /ate1 :il/ ,s*nbe9 supposes uncomb9$ oxyg5 to be pol> also1 consid]+ ozone z electro-negative oxyg54 ,! supposition t ! oxyg5 ( ozone is diff]5t f t ( hydrog5 p]oxide is contradict$ by ! fact t 9 act+ on b>ium p]oxide /rong sulphuric acid =ms ozone1 & dilute acid =ms hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,j z a :ole s]ies ( metallic comp\nds1 & especially ! oxides & _! hydrates1 correspond ) wat]1 s also !re are _m sub/ances analog\s to hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 calcium p]oxide is relat$ to hydrog5 p]oxide 9 exactly ! same way z calcium oxide or lime is relat$ to wat]4 ,9 bo? cases ! hydrog5 is replac$ by a metal--namely1 by calcium4#bg bis ,b x is mo/ important to rem>k t ! ne>e/ approa* to ! prop]ties ( hydrog5 p]oxide is af=d$ by a non-metallic elem5t1 *lor9e2 its action on col\r+ matt]s1 its capacity = oxidis+1 & = evolv+ oxyg5 f _m oxides1 is analog\s to t exhibit$ by hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,ev5 ! v =mation ( *lor9e is closely analog\s to ! =mation ( p]oxide ( hydrog52 *lor9e is obta9$ f manganese p]oxide1 ,mn,o#b1 & hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 & hydrog5 p]oxide f b>ium p]oxide1 ,ba,o#b1 & ! same acid4 ,! result 9 "o case is ess5tially wat]1 *lor9e1 & manganese *loride2 & 9 ! o!r case b>ium *loride & hydrog5 p]oxide are produc$4 ,h5ce wat] *lor9e corresponds ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 & ! action ( *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] is analog\s to ! action ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,?is analogy betwe5 *lor9e & hydrog5 p]oxide is express$ 9 ! conception ( an aque\s radicle1 :i* 7,*apt] ,,iii47 has be5 already m5tion$4 ,?is aque\s radicle 7or hydroxyl7 is t :i* is left f wat] if x be imag9$ z depriv$ ( half ( its hydrog54 ,accord+ to ?is me?od ( expression1 cau/ic soda w be a comp\nd ( sodium ) ! aque\s radicle1 because x is =m$ f wat] ) ! evolution ( half ! hydrog54 ,?is is express$ by ! foll[+ =mul3 wat]1 ,h#b,o1 cau/ic soda1 ,na,h,o1 j z hydro*loric acid is ,h,cl & sodium *loride ,na,cl4 ,h5ce ! aque\s radicle ,,ho is a comp\nd radicle1 j z *lor9e1 ,cl1 is a simple radicle4 ,!y bo? give hydrog5 comp\nds1 ,,hho1 wat]1 & ,h,cl1 hydro*loric acid2 sodium comp\nds1 ,na,h,o & ,na,cl1 & a :ole s]ies ( analog\s comp\nds4 ,free *lor9e 9 ?is s5se w be ,cl,cl1 & hydrog5 p]oxide ,,hoho1 :i* inde$ expresses its composition1 because x conta9s twice z mu* oxyg5 z wat] does4#bh #bg bis ,x %\ld be m5tion$ t ,s*il(f 7#ahic7 on tak+ a #c p] c5t4 solution ( ,h#b,o#b1 add+ soda to x1 & !n extract+ ! p]oxide ( hydrog5 f ! mixture by %ak+ x ) e!r1 obta9$ a #ej p] c5t4 solution ( ,h#b,o#b1 :i*1 al?\gh p]fectly free f o!r acids1 gave a di/9ctly acid reaction ) litmus4 ,& "h att5tion %\ld fir/ ( all be turn$ to ! fact t ! p]oxides ( ! metals correspond to ,h#b,o#b1 l salts to an acid1 = in/ance1 ,na#b,o#b & ,ba,o#b1 c4 ,fur!rmore1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,o is an analogue ( ,s 7,*apt]s ,,xv4 & ,,xx471 & sulphur gives ,h#b,s1 ,h#b,,s#c1 & ,h#b,,s#d4 ,& sulphur\s acid1 ,h#b,,s#c1 is un/able z a hydrate1 & gives wat] & ! anhydride ,,s#b4 ,if ! sulphur be replac$ by oxyg51 !n in/ead ( ,h#b,,s#c & ,,s#b1 we h ,h#b,,oo#c & ,,oo#b4 ,! latt] is ozone1 :ile ! salt ,k#b,o#d 7p]oxide ( potassium7 corresponds to ! hydrate ,h#b,o#d z to an acid4 ,& betwe5 ,h#b,o & ,h#b,o#d !re may exi/ int]m$iate acid comp\nds1 ! fir/ ( :i* w\ld be ,h#b,o#b1 9 :i*1 f analogy to ! sulphur comp\nds1 "o w\ld expect acid prop]ties4 ,besides :i* we may m5tion t = sulphur1 besides ,h#b,s 7:i* is a feeble acid71 ,h#b,s#b1 ,h#b,s#c1 ,h#b,s#e are kn[n4 ,?us 9 _m respects ,h#b,o#b (f]s po9ts ( resemblance to acid comp\nds1 & z reg>ds its qualitative 7reactive7 analogies1 x n only resembles ,na#b,o#b1 ,ba,o#b1 c41 b also p]sulphuric acid ,,hso#d 7to :i* ! anhydride ,s#b,o#g corresponds7 & ,cu#b,o#g1 c41 :i* w be subsequ5tly describ$4 #bh ,tamman & ,c>r>a 7#ahib7 %[$ by det]m9+ ! depression 7fall ( ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice1 ,*apt]s ,i4 & ,,vii47 t ! molecule ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 conta9s ,h#b,o#b1 & n ,,ho or ,h#c,o#c4 ,?us 9 ozone & hydrog5 p]oxide we see examples ( v un/able1 easily decomposable 7by "t1 spontane\sly1 & on contact7 sub/ances1 full ( ! en]gy necess>y = *ange1#bh bis capable ( be+ easily recon/itut$ 79 ?is case decompos+ ) ! evolution ( heat72 !y are !re=e examples ( un/able *emical equilibria4 ,if a sub/ance exi/s1 x signifies t x already pres5ts a c]ta9 =m ( equilibrium betwe5 ^? elem5ts ( :i* x is built up4 ,b *emical1 l me*anical1 equilibria exhibit diff]5t degrees ( /ability or solidity4#bi #bh bis ,! l[] oxides ( nitrog5 & *lor9e & ! high] oxides ( manganese are also =m$ ) ! absorption ( heat1 & !re=e1 l hydrog5 p]oxide1 act 9 a p[]fully oxidis+ mann]1 & are n =m$ by ! same me?ods z ! majority ( o!r oxides4 ,x is evid5t t1 be+ end[$ ) a ri*] /ore ( en]gy 7acquir$ 9 comb9ation or by absorption ( heat71 su* sub/ances1 comp>$ ) o!rs poor] 9 en]gy1 w exhibit a great] div]sity ( cases ( *emical action ) o!r sub/ances4 #bi ,if ! po9t ( support ( a body lies 9 a v]tical l9e bel[ ! c5tre ( gravity1 x is 9 un/able equilibrium4 ,if ! c5tre ( gravity lies bel[ ! po9t ( support2 ! /ate ( equilibrium is v /able1 & a vibration may take place ab\t ?is position ( /able equilibrium1 z 9 a p5dulum or balance1 :5 f9ally ! body assumes a position ( /able equilibrium4 ,b if1 keep+ to ! same me*anical example1 ! body be support$ n on a po9t1 9 ! geometrical s5se ( ! ^w1 b on a small plane1 !n ! /ate ( un/able equilibrium may be pres]v$1 unless de/roy$ by ext]nal influ5ces4 ,?us a man /&s upright support$ on ! plane1 or sev]al po9ts ( ! surfaces ( 8 feet1 hav+ ! c5tre ( gravity above ! po9ts ( support4 ,vibration is !n possible1 b x is limit$1 o!rwise on pass+ outside ! limit ( possible equilibrium ano!r m /able position is atta9$ ab\t :i* vibration becomes m possible4 ,a prism imm]s$ 9 wat] may h sev]al m or less /able positions ( equilibrium4 ,! same is also true ) ! atoms 9 molecules4 ,"s molecules pres5t a /ate ( m /able equilibrium ?an o!rs4 ,h5ce f ?is simple comp>ison x w be at once evid5t t ! /ability ( molecules may v>y consid]ably1 t "o & ! same elem5ts1 tak5 9 ! same numb]1 may give isom]ides ( diff]5t /ability1 &1 la/ly1 t !re may exi/ /ates ( equilibria :i* are s un/able1 s ephem]al1 t !y w only arise "u p>ticul>ly special conditions--su*1 = example1 z c]ta9 hydrates m5tion$ 9 ! fir/ *apt] 7see ,notes #eg1 #fg1 & o!rs74 ,& if 9 "o case ! in/ability ( a giv5 /ate ( equilibrium is express$ by its in/ability ) a *ange ( temp]ature or physical /ate1 !n 9 o!r cases x is express$ by ! facility ) :i* x decomposes "u ! influ5ce ( contact or ( ! *emical influ5ce ( o!r sub/ances4 ,besides ?is1 hydrog5 p]oxide pres5ts ano!r side ( ! subject :i* is n less important1 & is mu* cle>] & m g5]al4 ,hydrog5 unites ) oxyg5 9 two degrees ( oxidation3 wat] or hydrog5 oxide1 & oxyg5at$ wat] or hydrog5 p]oxide2 = a giv5 quantity ( hydrog51 ! p]oxide conta9s twice z mu* oxyg5 z does wat]4 ,?is is a fre% example confirm+ ! correctness ( ! law ( multiple proportions1 to :i* we h already ref]r$ 9 speak+ ( ! wat] ( cry/allisation ( salts4 ,we c n[ =mulate ?is law--! law ( multiple proportions4 ,if two sub/ances ,a & ,b 7ei!r simple or comp\nd71 unite toge!r to =m sev]al comp\nds1 ,an,bm1 ,aq,br 4441 !n hav+ express$ ! compositions ( all ^! comp\nds 9 su* a way t ! quantity 7by weight or volume7 ( "o ( ! compon5t p>ts w be a con/ant quantity ,a1 x w be obs]v$ t 9 all ! comp\nds ,,aba1 ,,abb 444 ! quantities ( ! o!r compon5t "p1 ,b1 w always be 9 comm5surable relation3 g5]ally 9 simple multiple proportion--t is1 t a 3 b 4441 or m_/n is to r_/q z :ole numb]s1 = in/ance z #b 3 #c or #c 3 #d4444 ,! analysis ( wat] %[s t 9 #ajj p>ts by weight x conta9s #aaaab p>ts by weight ( hydrog5 & #hhhhh ( oxyg51 & ! analysis ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 %[s t x conta9s #idaab p>ts ( oxyg5 to #ehhh p>ts ( hydrog54 ,9 ?is ! analysis is express$1 z analyses g5]ally are1 9 p]c5tages2 t is1 x gives ! am\nts ( ! elem5ts 9 a hundr$ p>ts by weight ( ! sub/ance4 ,! direct comp>ison ( ! p]c5tage compositions ( wat] & hydrog5 p]oxide does n give any simple relation4 ,b su* a relation is imm$iately app>5t if we calculate ! composition ( wat] & ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 hav+ tak5 ei!r ! quantity ( oxyg5 or ! quantity ( hydrog5 z a con/ant quantity--= in/ance1 z unity4 ,! mo/ simple proportions %[ t 9 wat] !re are conta9$ eight p>ts ( oxyg5 to "o "p ( hydrog51 & 9 hydrog5 p]oxide sixte5 p>ts ( oxyg5 to "o "p ( hydrog52 or "o-eigh? "p ( hydrog5 9 wat] & "o-sixte5? "p ( hydrog5 9 hydrog5 p]oxide to "o "p ( oxyg54 ,naturally1 ! analysis does n give ^! figures ) absolute exactness--x gives !m )9 a c]ta9 degree ( error--b !y approximate1 z ! error dim9i%es1 to t limit :i* is "h giv54 ,! comp>ison ( ! quantities ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ! two sub/ances above nam$1 tak+ "o ( ! compon5ts z a con/ant quantity1 gives an example ( ! application ( ! law ( multiple proportions1 because wat] conta9s eight p>ts & hydrog5 p]oxide sixte5 p>ts ( oxyg5 to "o "p ( hydrog51 & ^! figures are comm5surable & are 9 ! simple proportion ( #a 3 #b4 ,an exactly simil> multiple proportion is obs]v$ 9 ! composition ( all o!r well-inve/igat$ def9ite *emical comp\nds1#cj & !re=e ! law ( multiple proportions is accept$ 9 *emi/ry z ! />t+ po9t f :i* o!r consid]ations proce$4 #cj ,:51 = example1 any elem5t =ms sev]al oxides1 !y are subject to ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,= a giv5 quantity ( ! non-metal or metal ! quantities ( oxyg5 9 ! diff]5t degrees ( oxidation w /& z #a 3 #b1 or z #a 3 #c1 or z #b 3 #c1 or z #b 3 #g1 & s on4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 copp] comb9es ) oxyg5 9 at lea/ two proportions1 =m+ ! oxides f\nd 9 nature1 & call$ ! suboxide & ! oxide ( copp]1 ,cu#b,o & ,cu,o2 ! oxide conta9s twice z mu* oxyg5 z ! suboxide4 ,lead also pres5ts two degrees ( oxidation1 ! oxide & p]oxide1 & 9 ! latt] !re is twice z mu* oxyg5 z 9 ! =m]1 ,pb,o & ,pb,o#b4 ,:5 a base & an acid are capable ( =m+ sev]al k9ds ( salts1 normal1 acid1 basic1 & anhydro-1 x is f\nd t !y also cle>ly exemplify ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,?is 0 demon/rat$ by ,wolla/on soon aft] ! discov]y ( ! law 9 "q4 ,we saw 9 ! fir/ *apt] t salts %[ diff]5t degrees ( comb9ation ) wat] ( cry/allisation1 & t !y obey ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,&1 m ?an ?is1 ! indef9ite *emical comp\nds exi/+ z solutions may1 z we saw 9 ! same *apt]1 be br\ght "u ! law ( multiple proportions by ! hypo!sis t solutions are un/able hydrates =m$ accord+ to ! law ( multiple proportions1 b occurr+ 9 a /ate ( dissociation4 ,by means ( ?is hypo!sis ! law ( multiple proportions becomes /ill m g5]al1 & all ! aspects ( *emical comp\nds are subject to x4 ,! direction ( ! :ole contempor>y /ate ( *emi/ry 0 det]m9$ by ! discov]ies ( ,lavoisi] & ,dalton4 ,by endeav\r+ to prove t 9 solutions we h no?+ else ?an ! liquid products ( ! dissociation ( def9ite hydrates1 x is my aim to br+ also ?is category ( indef9ite comp\nds "u ! g5]al pr9ciple enunciat$ by ,dalton2 j z a/ronom]s h discov]$ a pro( & n a negation ( ! laws ( ,newton 9 p]turbations4 ,! law ( multiple proportions 0 discov]$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury by ,john ,dalton1 ( ,man*e/]1 9 inve/igat+ ! comp\nds ( c>bon ) hydrog54 ,x appe>$ t two gase\s comp\nds ( ^! sub/ances--m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 & olefiant gas1 ,c#b;,h#d1 conta9 = "o & ! same quantity ( hydrog51 quantities ( c>bon :i* /& 9 multiple proportion2 namely1 m>% gas conta9s relatively half z mu* c>bon z olefiant gas4 ,al?\gh ! analysis ( t "t 0 n exact1 /ill ! accuracy ( ?is law1 recognis$ by ,dalton1 0 fur!r confirm$ by m accurate inve/igations4 ,on e/abli%+ ! law ( multiple proportions1 ,dalton gave a hypo!tical explanation = x4 ,?is explanation is bas$ on ! atomic !ory ( matt]4 ,9 fact1 ! law ( multiple proportions may be v easily und]/ood by admitt+ ! atomic /ructure ( matt]4 ,! ess5ce ( ! atomic !ory is t matt] is suppos$ to consi/ ( an agglom]ation ( small & indivisible p>ts--atoms--:i* d n fill up ! :ole space occupi$ by a sub/ance1 b /& ap>t f ea* o!r1 z ! sun1 planets1 & />s d n fill up ! :ole space ( ! univ]se1 b are at a di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,! =m & prop]ties ( sub/ances are det]m9$ by ! position ( _! atoms 9 space & by _! /ate ( motion1 :il/ ! reactions accompli%$ by sub/ances are und]/ood z r$i/ributions ( ! relative positions ( atoms & *anges 9 _! motion4 ,! atomic repres5tation ( matt] arose 9 v anci5t times1#ca & up to rec5t times 0 at v>iance ) ! dynamical hypo!sis1 :i* consid]s matt] z only a manife/ation ( =ces4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 h[ev]1 ! majority ( sci5tific m5 uphold ! atomic hypo!sis1 al?\gh ! pres5t conception ( an atom is q diff]5t f t ( ! anci5t philosoph]s4 ,an atom at ! pres5t day is reg>d$ r z an individual or unit :i* is indivisible by physical#cb & *emical =ces1 :il/ ! atom ( ! anci5ts 0 actually me*anically & geometrically indivisible4 ,:5 ,dalton 7#ahjd7 discov]$ ! law ( multiple proportions1 he pron\nc$ himself 9 fav\r ( ! atomic doctr9e1 because x enables ?is law to be v easily und]/ood4 ,if ! divisibility ( e elem5t has a limit1 namely ! atom1 !n ! atoms ( elem5ts are ! extreme limits ( all divisibility1 & if !y diff] f ea* o!r 9 _! nature1 ! =mation ( a comp\nd f elem5t>y matt] mu/ consi/ 9 ! aggregation ( sev]al diff]5t atoms into "o :ole or sy/em ( atoms1 n[ t]m$ p>ticles or molecules4 ,z atoms c only comb9e 9 _! entire masses1 x is evid5t t n only ! law ( def9ite composition1 b also t ( multiple proportions1 mu/ apply to ! comb9ation ( atoms ) "o ano!r2 = "o atom ( a sub/ance c comb9e ) "o1 two1 or ?ree atoms ( ano!r sub/ance1 or 9 g5]al "o1 two1 ?ree atoms ( "o sub/ance are able to comb9e ) "o1 two1 or ?ree atoms ( ano!r2 ?is be+ ! ess5ce ( ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,*emical & physical data are v well expla9$ by ! aid ( ! atomic !ory4 ,! displacem5t ( "o elem5t by ano!r foll[s ! law ( equival5cy4 ,9 ?is case "o or sev]al atoms ( a giv5 elem5t take ! place ( "o or sev]al atoms ( ano!r elem5t 9 its comp\nds4 ,! atoms ( diff]5t sub/ances c be mix$ toge!r 9 ! same s5se z s& c be mix$ ) clay4 ,!y d n unite into "o :ole--i4e4 !re is n a p]fect bl5d+ 9 ! "o or o!r case1 b only a juxtaposition1 a homog5e\s :ole be+ =m$ f individual p>ts4 ,?is is ! fir/ & mo/ simple me?od ( apply+ ! atomic !ory to ! explanation ( *emical ph5om5a4#cc #ca ,leucippus1 ,democritus1 & especially ,lucretius1 9 ! classical ages1 repres5t$ matt] z made up ( atoms--t is1 ( p>ts incapable ( fur!r division4 ,! geometrical impossibility ( su* an admission1 z well z ! conclusions :i* 7 d$uc$ by ! anci5t atomi/s f _! fundam5tal propositions1 prev5t$ o!r philosoph]s f foll[+ !m1 & ! atomic doctr9e1 l v _m o!rs1 liv$1 )\t be+ ratifi$ by fact1 9 ! imag9ations ( its foll[]s4 ,betwe5 ! pres5t atomic !ory & ! doctr9e ( ! above-nam$ anci5t philosoph]s !re is naturally a remote hi/orical connection1 z betwe5 ! doctr9e ( ,py?agoras & ,cop]nicus1 b !y are ess5tially diff]5t4 ,= u ! atom is indivisible1 n 9 ! geometrical ab/ract s5se1 b only 9 a physical & *emical s5se4 ,x w\ld be bett] to call ! atoms indivisible individuals4 ,! ,greek atom ! ,lat9 individual1 bo? accord+ to ! etymology & orig9al s5se ( ! words1 b 9 c\rse ( "t ^! two words h acquir$ a diff]5t mean+4 ,! individual is me*anically & geometrically divisible1 & only indivisible 9 a special s5se4 ,! e>?1 ! sun1 a man or a fly are individuals1 al?\gh geometrically divisible4 ,?us ! 'atoms' ( contempor>y sci5ce1 indivisible 9 a *emical s5se1 =m ^? units ) :i* we are conc]n$ 9 ! inve/igation ( ! natural ph5om5a ( matt]1 j z a man is an indivisible unit 9 ! inve/igation ( social relations1 or z ! />s1 planets1 & lum9>ies s]ve z units 9 a/ronomy4 ,! =mation ( ! vortex hypo!sis1 9 :i*1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 atoms are entire :irls me*anically complex1 al?\gh physico-*emically indivisible1 cle>ly %[s t ! sci5tific m5 ( our "t 9 hold+ to ! atomic !ory h only borr[$ ! ^w & =m ( expression f ! anci5t philosoph]s1 & n ! ess5ce ( _! atomic doctr9e4 ,x is errone\s to imag9e t ! contempor>y conceptions ( ! atomi/s are no?+ b ! repetition ( ! metaphysical reason+s ( ! anci5ts4 ,to %[ ! true mean+ ( ! atomism ( ! anci5t philosoph]s1 & ! pr(\nd diff]5ce betwe5 _! po9ts ( argum5t & ^? ( contempor>y m5 ( sci5ce1 ,i cite ! foll[+ fundam5tal propositions ( ,democritus 7,b4,c4 #dgj-chj7 z ! be/ exp\nd] ( ! atomic doctr9e ( ! anci5ts3--7#a7 ,no?+ c proce$ f no?+1 no?+ t exi/s c disappe> or be de/roy$ 7& h5ce matt]71 & e *ange only consi/s ( a comb9ation or sep>ation4 7#b7 ,no?+ is accid5tal1 !re is a reason & necessity = ev]y?+4 7#c7 ,all except atoms & vacua is reason & n exi/5ce4 7#d7 ,! atoms1 :i* are inf9ite 9 numb] & =m1 con/itute ! visible univ]se by _! motion1 impact1 & consequ5t revolv+ motion4 7#e7 ,! v>iety ( objects dep5ds only ^u a diff]5ce 9 ! numb]1 =m1 & ord] ( ! atoms ( :i* !y are =m$1 & n ^u a qualitative diff]5ce ( _! atoms1 :i* only act ^u ea* o!r by pressure & impact4 7#f7 ,! _s1 l fire1 consi/s ( m9ute1 sph]ical1 smoo?1 & v mobile & all-p5etrat+ atoms1 ^: motion =ms ! ph5om5on ( life4 ,^! ,democritian1 *iefly metaphysical1 pr9ciples ( atomism are s ess5tially diff]5t f ! pr9ciples ( ! pres5t atomic doctr9e1 :i* is exclusively appli$ to expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( ! ext]nal _w1 t x may be useful to m5tion ! ess5ce ( ! atomic propositions ( ,boscovit*1 a ,slav :o liv$ 9 ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & :o is reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( ! mod]n atomic doctr9es :i*1 h[ev]1 did n take hold ^u ! m9ds ( sci5tific m51 & 7 r>ely appli$ prior to ,dalton--i4e4 until ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! doctr9e ( ,boscovit* 0 enunciat$ by him 9 #ageh-agfd 9 8 ',philosophi naturalis !oria r$ucta ad unicam legem virium 9 natura exi/5tium4' ,boscovit* consid]s matt] to be compos$ ( atoms1 & ! atoms to be ! po9ts or c5tres ( =ces 7j z ! />s & planets may be consid]$ z po9ts ( space71 act+ betwe5 bodies & _! p>ts4 ,^! =ces v>y ) ! di/ance1 s t beyond a c]ta9 v small di/ance all atoms1 & h5ce also _! aggregates1 are attract$ accord+ to ,newton's law1 b at less di/ances1 !re alt]nate wave-l sph]es ( gradually decreas+ attraction & increas+ 7z ! di/ance decreases7 repulsion1 until at la/ at a m9imum di/ance only ! repell5t action rema9s4 ,atoms1 !re=e1 _c m]ge into ea* o!r4 ,consequ5tly1 ! atoms are held at a c]ta9 di/ance f ea* o!r1 & !re=e occupy space4 ,boscovit* comp>es ! sph]e ( repulsion surr\nd+ ! atoms to ! sph]es ( action ( fir+ ( a deta*m5t ( soldi]s4 ,accord+ to 8 doctr9e1 atoms are inde/ructible1 d n m]ge into ea* o!r1 h mass1 are ev]la/+ & mobile "u ! action ( ! =ces prop] to !m4 ,maxwell rightly calls ?is hypo!sis ! 'extreme' among ^? exi/+ to expla9 matt]1 b _m aspects ( ,boscovit*'s doctr9e repeat !mselves 9 ! views ( our day1 ) ?is ess5tial diff]5ce1 t in/ead ( a ma!matical po9t furni%$ ) ! prop]ties ( mass1 ! atoms are end[$ ) a corporality1 j z ! />s & planets are corporal1 al?\gh 9 c]ta9 aspects ( _! int]action !y may be reg>d$ z ma!matical po9ts4 ,9 my op9ion1 ! atomism ( our day mu/ fir/ ( all be reg>d$ m]ely z a conv5i5t me?od = ! inve/igation ( pond]able matt]4 ,z a geometrician 9 reason+ ab\t curves repres5ts !m z =m$ ( a succession ( "r l9es1 because su* a me?od enables him to analyse ! subject "u inve/igation1 s ! sci5tific man applies ! atomic !ory z a me?od ( analys+ ! ph5om5a ( nature4 ,naturally !re are p n[1 z 9 anci5t times1 & z !re always w be1 :o apply reality to imag9ation1 & !re=e !re are to be f\nd atomi/s ( extreme views2 b x is n 9 _! _s t we %\ld ackn[l$ge ! great s]vices r5d]$ by ! atomic doctr9e to all sci5ce1 :i*1 :ile x has be5 ess5tially indep5d5tly develop$1 is1 if x be desir$ to r$uce all ideas to ! doctr9es ( ! anci5ts1 a union ( ! anci5t dynamical & atomic doctr9es4 #cb ,dalton & _m ( 8 successors di/+ui%$ ! atoms ( elem5ts & comp\nds1 9 :i* !y cle>ly symbolis$ ! diff]5ce ( _! op9ion f ! repres5tations ( ! anci5ts4 ,n[ only ! individuals ( ! elem5ts1 indivisible by physical & *emical =ces1 are t]m$ atoms1 & ! individuals ( comp\nds indivisible "u physical *anges are t]m$ molecules2 ^! are divisible into atoms by *emical =ces4 #cc ,9 ! pres5t condition ( sci5ce1 ei!r ! atomic or ! dynamical hypo!sis is inevitably oblig$ to admit ! exi/5ce ( an invisible & imp]ceptible motion 9 matt]1 )\t :i* x is impossible to und]/& ei!r light or heat1 or gase\s pressure1 or any ( ! me*anical1 physical1 or *emical ph5om5a4 ,! anci5ts saw vital motion 9 animals only1 b to u ! smalle/ p>ticle ( matt]1 endu$ ) vis viva1 or en]gy 9 "s degree or o!r1 is incompreh5sible )\t self-exi/5t motion4 ,?us motion has become a conception insep>ably knit ) ! conception ( matt]1 & ?is has prep>$ ! gr\nd = ! revival ( ! dynamical hypo!sis ( ! con/itution ( matt]4 ,9 ! atomic !ory !re has aris5 t g5]alis+ idea by :i* ! _w ( atoms is con/ruct$1 l ! univ]se ( heav5ly bodies1 ) its suns1 planets1 & meteors1 endu$ ) ev]la/+ =ce ( motion1 =m+ molecules z ! heav5ly bodies =m sy/ems1 l ! sol> sy/em1 :i* molecules are only relatively indivisible 9 ! same way z ! planets ( ! sol> sy/em are insep>able1 & /able & la/+ z ! sol> sy/em is la/+4 ,su* a repres5tation1 )\t necessitat+ ! absolute indivisibility ( atoms1 expresses all t sci5ce c require = an hypo!tical repres5tation ( ! con/itution ( matt]4 ,9 clos] proximity to ! dynamical hypo!sis ( ! con/itution ( matt] is ! (t-times reviv$ vortex hypo!sis4 ,desc>tes fir/ endeav\r$ to raise x2 ,helmholtz & ,?omson 7,"l ,kelv97 gave x a full] & m mod]n =m2 _m sci5tific m5 appli$ x to physics & *emi/ry4 ,! idea ( vortex r+s s]ves z ! />t+ po9t ( ?is hypo!sis2 ^! are famili> to all z ! r+s ( tobacco smoke1 & may be artificially obta9$ by giv+ a %>p bl[ to ! sides ( a c>dbo>d box hav+ a circul> orifice & fill$ ) smoke4 ,phosphurett$ hydrog51 z we %all see lat] on1 :5 bubbl+ f wat] always gives v p]fect vortex r+s 9 a /ill atmosph]e4 ,9 su* r+s x is easy to obs]ve a con/ant circul> motion ab\t _! axes1 & to notice ! /ability ! r+s possess 9 _! motion ( translation4 ,?is un*angeable mass1 endu$ ) a rapid int]nal motion1 is lik5$ to ! atom4 ,9 a m$ium depriv$ ( friction1 su* a r+1 z is %[n by !oretical consid]ations ( ! subject f a me*anical po9t ( view1 w\ld be p]petual & un*angeable4 ,! r+s are capable ( gr\p+ toge!r1 & 9 comb9+1 )\t be+ absolutely indivisible1 rema9 indivisible4 ,! vortex hypo!sis has be5 e/abli%$ 9 our times1 b x has n be5 fully develop$2 its application to *emical ph5om5a is n cle>1 al?\gh n impossible2 x does n satisfy a d\bt 9 respect to ! nature ( ! space exi/+ betwe5 ! r+s 7j z x is n cle> :at exi/s betwe5 atoms1 & betwe5 ! planets71 nei!r does x tell u :at is ! nature ( ! mov+ sub/ance ( ! r+1 & !re=e = ! pres5t x only pres5ts ! g]m ( an hypo!tical conception ( ! con/itution ( matt]2 consequ5tly1 ,i consid] t x w\ld be sup]flu\s to speak ( x 9 great] detail4 ,h[ev]1 ! ?\ghts ( inve/igators are n[ 7& naturally w be 9 ! future71 z !y 7 9 ! "t ( ,dalton1 (t5 turn$ to ! "q ( ! limitation ( ! me*anical division ( matt]1 & ! atomi/s h se>*$ = an answ] 9 ! mo/ div]se sph]es ( nature4 ,i select "o ( ! me?ods attempt$1 :i* does n 9 any way ref] to *emi/ry1 9 ord] to %[ h[ closely all ! prov9ces ( natural sci5ce are b\nd toge!r4 ,wolla/on propos$ ! inve/igation ( ! atmosph]e ( ! heav5ly bodies z a means = confirm+ ! exi/5ce ( atoms4 ,if ! divisibility ( matt] be inf9ite1 !n air mu/ ext5d ?r\gh\t ! entire space ( ! heav5s z x ext5ds all ov] ! e>? by its ela/icity & diffusion4 ,if ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt] be admitt$1 x is impossible t any portion ( ! :ole space ( ! univ]se c be entirely void ( ! compon5t p>ts ( our atmosph]e4 ,b if matt] be divisible up to a c]ta9 limit only--namely1 up to ! atom--!n !re c exi/ a heav5ly body void ( an atmosph]e2 & if su* a body be discov]$1 x w\ld s]ve z an important factor = ! acceptation ( ! validity ( ! atomic doctr9e4 ,! moon has long be5 consid]$ z su* a lum9>y & ?is circum/ance1 especially f its proximity to ! e>?1 has be5 cit$ z ! be/ pro( ( ! validity ( ! atomic doctr9e4 ,?is pro( is app>5tly 7,poisson7 depriv$ ( "s ( its =ce f ! possibility ( ! trans=mation ( ! compon5t p>ts ( our atmosph]e into a solid or liquid /ate at imm5se heights above ! e>?'s surface1 :]e ! temp]ature is exce$+ly l[2 b a s]ies ( rese>*es 7,p\illet7 has %[n t ! temp]ature ( ! heav5ly space is comp>atively n s v l[1 & is atta9able by exp]im5tal means1 s t at ! l[ exi/+ pressure ! liquefaction ( ! gases ( ! atmosph]e _c he expect$ ev5 on ! moon4 ,!re=e ! abs5ce ( an atmosph]e ab\t ! moon1 if x 7 n subject to d\bt1 w\ld be c\nt$ z a =cible pro( ( ! atomic !ory4 ,z a pro( ( ! abs5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e1 x is cit$ t ! moon1 9 its indep5d5t motion betwe5 ! />s1 :5 eclips+ a />--t is1 :5 pass+ betwe5 ! eye & ! />--does n %[ any signs ( refraction at its edge2 ! image ( ! /> does n alt] its position 9 ! heav5s on approa*+ ! moon's surface1 consequ5tly !re is no atmosph]e on ! moon's surface capable ( refract+ ! rays ( light4 ,su* is ! conclusion by :i* ! abs5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e is ackn[l$g$4 ,b ?is conclusion is mo/ feeble1 & !re are ev5 facts 9 exact contradiction to x1 by :i* ! exi/5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e may be prov$4 ,! entire surface ( ! moon is cov]$ ) a numb] ( m\nta9s1 hav+ 9 ! majority ( cases ! conical =m natural to volcanoes4 ,! volcanic "* ( ! lun> m\nta9s 0 confirm$ 9 ,octob] #ahff1 :5 a *ange 0 obs]v$ 9 ! =m ( "o ( !m 7! crat] ,l9nea74 ,^! m\nta9s mu/ be on ! edge ( ! lun> disc4 ,se5 9 pr(ile1 !y scre5 "o ano!r & int]f]e ) obs]vations on ! surface ( ! moon1 s t :5 look+ at ! edge ( ! lun> disc we are oblig$ to make our obs]vations n on ! moon's surface1 b at ! summits ( ! lun> m\nta9s4 ,^! m\nta9s are high] ?an ^? on our e>?1 & consequ5tly at _! summits ! lun> atmosph]e mu/ he exce$+ly r>efi$ ev5 if x possess an obs]vable d5sity at ! surface4 ,kn[+ ! mass ( ! moon to be eighty-two times less ?an ! mass ( ! e>?1 we are able to det]m9e approximately t our atmosph]e at ! moon's surface w\ld be ab\t tw5ty-eight times light] ?an x is on ! e>?1 & consequ5tly at ! v surface ( ! moon ! refraction ( light by ! lun> atmosph]e mu/ he v slight1 & at ! heights ( ! lun> m\nta9s x mu/ be imp]ceptible1 & w\ld be lo/ )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error4 ,!re=e ! abs5ce ( refraction ( light at ! edge ( ! moon's disc _c yet be urg$ 9 fav\r ( ! abs5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e4 ,!re is ev5 a s]ies ( obs]vations oblig+ u to admit ! exi/5ce ( ?is atmosph]e4 ,^! rese>*es are due to ,sir ,john ,h]s*el4 ,?is is :at he writes3 ',x has (t5 be5 rem>k$ t dur+ ! eclipse ( a /> by ! moon !re occurs a peculi> optical illusion2 x seems z if ! /> be=e disappe>+ pass$ ov] ! edge ( ! moon & is se5 ?r\gh ! lun> disc1 sometimes = a r long p]iod ( "t4 ,i myself h obs]v$ ?is ph5om5on1 & x has be5 witness$ by p]fectly tru/wor?y obs]v]s4 ,i ascribe x to optical illusion1 b x mu/ be admitt$ t ! /> might h be5 se5 on ! lun> disc ?r\gh "s deep rav9e on ! moon4' ,g5ill]1 9 ,belgium 7#ahef71 foll[+ ! op9ion ( ,cass9i1 ,eil]1 & o!rs1 gave an explanation ( ?is ph5om5on3 he consid]s x due to ! refraction ( light 9 ! valleys ( ! lun> m\nta9s :i* occur on ! edge ( ! lun> disc4 ,9 fact1 al?\gh ^! valleys d n probably pres5t ! =m ( /raight rav9es1 yet x may sometimes happ5 t ! light ( a /> is s refract$ t its image might he se51 not)/&+ ! abs5ce ( a direct pa? = ! light-rays4 ,he !n goes on to rem>k t ! d5sity ( ! lun> atmosph]e mu/ be v>iable 9 diff]5t p>ts1 ow+ to ! v long nights on ! moon4 ,on ! d>k1 or non-illum9at$ portion1 ow+ to ^! long nights1 :i* la/ ?irte5 ( our days & nights1 !re mu/ be excessive cold1 & h5ce a d5s] atmosph]e1 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 on ! illum9at$ portion ! atmosph]e mu/ be mu* m r>efi$4 ,?is v>iation 9 ! temp]ature ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! moon's surface expla9s also ! abs5ce ( cl\ds1 not)/&+ ! possible pres5ce ( air & aque\s vap\r1 on ! visible portion ( ! moon4 ,! pres5ce ( an atmosph]e r\nd ! sun & planets1 judg+ f a/ronomical obs]vations1 may be consid]$ z fully prov$4 ,on ,jupit] & ,m>s ev5 b&s ( cl\ds may be di/+ui%$4 ,?us ! atomic doctr9e1 admitt+ a f9ite me*anical divisibility only1 mu/ he1 z yet at lea/1 only accept$ z a means1 simil> to t means :i* a ma!matician employs :5 he breaks up a cont9u\s curvil9e> l9e into a numb] ( /raight l9es4 ,!re is a simplicity ( repres5tation 9 atoms1 b !re is no absolute necessity to h rec\rse to !m4 ,! conception ( ! individuality ( ! p>ts ( matt] exhibit$ 9 *emical elem5ts only is necess>y & tru/wor?y4 ,a c]ta9 numb] ( atoms n ( an elem5t ,a 9 comb9+ ) sev]al atoms m ( ano!r elem5t ,b give a comp\nd ,an ,bm1 ea* molecule ( :i* w conta9 ! atoms ( ! elem5ts ,a & ,b 9 ?is ratio1 & !re=e ! comp\nd w pres5t a def9ite composition1 express$ by ! =mula ,an,bm1 :]e ,a & ,b are ! weights ( ! atoms & n & m _! relative numb]4 ,if ! same elem5ts ,a & ,b1 9 addition to ,an,bm1 also yield ano!r comp\nd ,ar,bq1 !n by express+ ! composition ( ! fir/ comp\nd by ,anr,bmr 7& ?is is ! same composition z ,an,bm71 & ( ! second comp\nd by ,arn,bqn1 we h ! law ( multiple proportions1 because = a giv5 quantity ( ! fir/ elem5t1 ,arn1 !re occur quantities ( ! second elem5t be>+ ! same ratio to ea* o!r z mr is to qn2 & z m1 r1 q1 & n are :ole numb]s1 _! products are also :ole numb]s1 & ?is is express$ by ! law ( multiple proportion4 ,consequ5tly ! atomic !ory is 9 accordance ) & evokes ! fir/ laws ( def9ite *emical comp\nds3 ! law ( def9ite composition & ! law ( multiple proportions4 ,s1 also1 is ! relation ( ! atomic !ory to ! ?ird law ( def9ite *emical comp\nds1 ! law ( reciprocal comb9+ weights1 :i* is z foll[s3--,if a c]ta9 weight ( a sub/ance ,c comb9e ) a weight a ( a sub/ance ,a1 & ) a weight b ( a sub/ance ,b1 !n1 also1 ! sub/ances ,a & ,b w comb9e toge!r 9 quantities a & b 7or 9 multiples ( !m74 ,?is %\ld be ! case f ! conception ( atoms4 ,let ,a1 ,b1 & ,c be ! weights ( ! atoms ( ! ?ree sub/ances1 & = simplicity ( reason+ suppose t comb9ation takes place betwe5 s+le atoms4 ,x is evid5t t if ! sub/ance gives ,,ac & ,,bc1 !n ! sub/ances ,a & ,b w give a comp\nd ,,ab1 or _! multiple1 ,an,bm4 ,& s x is 9 reality 9 nature4 ,sulphur comb9es ) hydrog5 & ) oxyg54 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 conta9s ?irty-two p>ts by weight ( sulphur to two p>ts by weight ( hydrog52 ?is is express$ by ! =mula ,h#b,s4 ,sulphur dioxide1 ,,s#b1 conta9s ?irty-two p>ts ( sulphur & ?irty-two p>ts ( oxyg51 & !re=e we conclude1 f ! law ( comb9+ weights1 t oxyg5 & hydrog5 w comb9e 9 ! proportion ( two p>ts ( hydrog5 & ?irty-two p>ts ( oxyg51 or multiple numb]s ( !m4 ,& we h se5 ?is to be ! case4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide conta9s ?irty-two p>ts ( oxyg51 & wat] sixte5 p>ts1 to two p>ts ( hydrog52 & s x is 9 all o!r cases4 ,?is consequ5ce ( ! atomic !ory is 9 accordance ) nature1 ) ! results ( analysis1 & is "o ( ! mo/ important laws ( *emi/ry4 ,x is a law1 because x indicates ! relation betwe5 ! weights ( sub/ances ent]+ into *emical comb9ation4 ,fur!r1 x is an em95tly exact law1 & n an approximate "o4 ,! law ( comb9+ weights is a law ( nature1 & by no means an hypo!sis1 = ev5 if ! entire !ory ( atoms be refut$1 /ill ! laws ( multiple proportions & ( comb9+ weights w rema91 inasmu* z !y deal ) facts4 ,!y may be guess$ at f ! s5se ( ! atomic !ory1 & hi/orically ! law ( comb9+ weights is intimately connect$ ) ?is !ory2 b !y are n id5tical1 b only connect$1 ) x4 ,! law ( comb9+ weights is =mulat$ ) great ease1 & is an imm$iate consequ5ce ( ! atomic !ory2 )\t x1 x is ev5 difficult to und]/&4 ,data = its evolution exi/$ previ\sly1 b x 0 n =mulat$ until ^? data 7 int]pret$ by ! atomic !ory1 an hypo!sis :i* up to ! pres5t "t has contradict$ nei!r exp]im5t nor fact1 & is useful & ( g5]al application4 ,su* is ! nature ( hypo!ses4 ,!y are indisp5sable to sci5ce2 !y be/[ an ord] & simplicity :i* are difficultly atta9able )\t _! aid4 ,! :ole hi/ory ( sci5ce is a pro( ( ?is4 ,& !re=e x may be truly said t x is bett] to hold to an hypo!sis :i* may aft]w>ds prove untrue ?an to h none at all4 ,hypo!ses facilitate sci5tific "w & r5d] x consi/5t4 ,9 ! se>* = tru?1 l ! pl\gh ( ! husb&man1 !y help =w>d ! "w ( ! lab\r]4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,nitrog5 ,,& ,,air ,gase\s nitrog5 =ms ab\t f\r-fif?s 7by volume7 ( ! atmosph]e2 consequ5tly ! air conta9s an exce$+ly l>ge mass ( x4 ,:il/ ent]+ 9 s consid]able a quantity into ! composition ( air1 nitrog5 does n seem to play any active "p 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! *emical action ( :i* is ma9ly dep5d5t on ! oxyg5 x conta9s4 ,b ?is is n an entirely correct idea1 because animal life _c exi/ 9 pure oxyg51 9 :i* animals pass into an abnormal /ate & die2 & ! nitrog5 ( ! air1 al?\gh sl[ly1 =ms div]se comp\nds1 _m ( :i* play a mo/ important "p 9 nature1 especially 9 ! life ( organisms4 ,h[ev]1 nei!r plants#a nor animals directly absorb ! nitrog5 ( ! air1 b take x up f already prep>$ nitrog5\s comp\nds2 fur!r1 plants are n\ri%$ by ! nitrog5\s sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! soil & wat]1 & animals by ! nitrog5\s sub/ances conta9$ 9 plants & 9 o!r animals4 ,atmosph]ic electricity is capable ( aid+ ! passage ( gase\s nitrog5 into nitrog5\s comp\nds1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 & ! resultant sub/ances are c>ri$ to ! soil by ra91 :]e !y s]ve = ! n\ri%m5t ( plants4 ,pl5tiful h>ve/s1 f9e crops ( hay1 vigor\s gr[? ( trees--o!r conditions be+ equal--are only obta9$ :5 ! soil conta9s ready prep>$ nitrog5\s comp\nds1 consi/+ ei!r ( ^? :i* occur 9 air & wat]1 or ( ! residues ( ! decomposition ( o!r plants or animals 7z 9 manure74 ,! nitrog5\s sub/ances conta9$ 9 animals h _! orig9 9 ^? sub/ances :i* are =m$ 9 plants4 ,?us ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e is ! orig9 ( all ! nitrog5\s sub/ances occurr+ 9 animals & plants1 al?\gh n directly s1 b aft] fir/ comb9+ ) ! o!r elem5ts ( air4 #a ,see ,note #ae bis4 ,! nitrog5\s comp\nds :i* ent] into ! composition ( plants & animals are ( prim>y importance2 no vegetable or animal cell--t is1 ! elem5t>y =m ( organism--exi/s )\t conta9+ a nitrog5\s sub/ance1 & moreov] organic life manife/s itself prim>ily 9 ^! nitrog5\s sub/ances4 ,! g]ms1 se$s1 & ^? p>ts by :i* cells multiply !mselves ab\nd 9 nitrog5\s sub/ances2 ! sum total ( ! ph5om5a :i* are prop] to organisms dep5d prim>ily on ! *emical prop]ties ( ! nitrog5\s sub/ances :i* ent] into _! composition4 ,x w be suffici5t1 = in/ance1 to po9t out ! fact t vegetable & animal organisms1 cle>ly di/+ui%able z su*1 are *>act]is$ by a diff]5t degree ( en]gy 9 _! nature1 & at ! same "t by a diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( nitrog5\s sub/ances !y conta94 ,9 plants1 :i* comp>$ ) animals possess b little activity1 be+ incapable ( indep5d5t movem5t1 c41 ! am\nt ( nitrog5 is v mu* less ?an 9 animals1 ^: tissues are almo/ exclusively =m$ ( nitrog5\s sub/ances4 ,x is rem>kable t ! nitrog5\s p>ts ( plants1 *iefly ( ! l[] ord]s1 sometimes pres5t bo? =ms & prop]ties :i* approa* to ^? ( animal organisms2 = example1 ! zoospores ( sea-we$s1 or ^? p>ts by means ( :i* ! latt] multiply !mselves4 ,^! zoospores on leav+ ! sea-we$ 9 _m respects resemble ! l[] ord]s ( animal life1 hav+1 l ! latt]1 ! prop]ty ( mov+4 ,!y also approa* ! animal k+dom 9 _! composition1 _! out] coat+ conta9+ nitrog5\s matt]4 ,directly ! zoospore becomes cov]$ ) t non-nitrog5\s or cellul> coat+ :i* is prop] to all ! ord9>y cells ( plants1 x loses all resemblance to an animal organism & becomes a small plant4 ,x may be ?\ght f ?is t ! cause ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! vital processes ( animals & plants is ! diff]5t am\nt ( nitrog5\s sub/ances !y conta94 ,! nitrog5\s sub/ances :i* occur 9 plants & animals app]ta9 to a s]ies ( exce$+ly complex & v *angeable *emical comp\nds2 _! elem5t>y composition alone %[s ?is2 besides nitrog51 !y conta9 c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 & sulphur4 ,be+ di/+ui%$ by a v great in/ability "u _m conditions 9 :i* o!r comp\nds rema9 un*ang$1 ^! sub/ances are fitt$ = ^? p]petual *anges :i* =m ! fir/ condition ( vital activity4 ,^! complex & *angeable nitrog5\s sub/ances ( ! organism are call$ proted sub/ances4 ,! :ite ( eggs is a famili> example ( su* a sub/ance4 ,!y are also conta9$ 9 ! fle% ( animals1 ! curdy elem5ts ( milk1 ! glut9\s matt] ( :eat5 fl\r1 or s-call$ glut51 :i* =ms ! *ief compon5t ( mac>oni1 c4 ,nitrog5 occurs 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 9 comp\nds ei!r =m+ ! rema9s ( plants & animals1 or d]iv$ f ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e z a consequ5ce ( its comb9ation ) ! o!r compon5t p>ts ( ! air4 ,x is n f\nd 9 o!r =ms 9 ! e>?'s cru/2 s t nitrog5 mu/ be consid]$1 9 contradi/9ction to oxyg51 z an elem5t :i* is purely sup]ficial1 & does n ext5d to ! dep?s ( ! e>?4#a bis #a bis ,! reason :y !re are no o!r nitrog5\s sub/ances )9 ! e>?'s mass beyond ^? :i* h come !re ) ! rema9s ( organisms1 & f ! air ) ra9-wat]1 mu/ be look$ = 9 two circum/ances4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 9 ! in/ability ( _m nitrog5\s comp\nds1 :i* are liable to break up ) ! =mation ( gase\s nitrog52 & 9 ! second place 9 ! fact t ! salts ( nitric acid1 =m+ ! product ( ! action ( air on _m nitrog5\s & especially organic comp\nds1 are v soluble 9 wat]1 & on p5etrat+ into ! dep?s ( ! e>? 7) wat]7 give up _! oxyg54 ,! result ( ! *anges ( ! nitrog5\s organic sub/ances :i* fall into ! e>? is )\t d\bt frequ5tly1 if n inv>iably1 ! =mation ( gase\s nitrog54 ,?us ! gas evolv$ f coal always conta9s mu* nitrog5 7toge!r ) m>% gas1 c>bonic anhydride1 & o!r gases74 ,nitrog5 is lib]at$ 9 a free /ate 9 ! decomposition ( ! nitrog5\s organic sub/ances ent]+ into ! composition ( organisms--= in/ance1 on _! combu/ion4 ,all organic sub/ances burn :5 heat$ to r$ness ) oxyg5 7or sub/ances readily yield+ x1 su* z oxide ( copp]72 ! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! c>bon1 sulphur1 & hydrog51 & ! nitrog5 is evolv$ 9 a free /ate1 because at a high temp]ature x does n =m any /able comp\nd1 b rema9s uncomb9$4 ,c>bonic anhydride & wat] are =m$ f ! c>bon & hydrog5 respectively1 & !re=e to obta9 pure nitrog5 x is necess>y to remove ! c>bonic anhydride f ! gase\s products obta9$4 ,?is may be done v easily by ! action ( alkalis--= in/ance1 cau/ic soda4 ,! am\nt ( nitrog5 9 organic sub/ances is det]m9$ by a me?od f\nd$ on ?is4 ,x is also v easy to obta9 nitrog5 f air1 because oxyg5 comb9es ) _m sub/ances4 ,ei!r phosphorus or metallic copp] is usually employ$ = remov+ ! oxyg5 f air1 b1 naturally1 a numb] ( o!r sub/ances may also be us$4 ,if a small sauc] on :i* a piece ( phosphorus is laid be plac$ on a cork float+ on wat]1 & ! phosphorus be light$1 & ! :ole cov]$ ) a glass bell j>1 !n ! air "u ! j> w be depriv$ ( its oxyg51 & nitrog5 only w rema91 ow+ to :i*1 on cool+1 ! wat] w rise to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 ! bell j>4 ,! same object 7procur+ nitrog5 f air7 is atta9$ mu* m conv5i5tly & p]fectly by pass+ air ?r\gh a r$-hot tube conta9+ copp] fil+s4 ,at a r$ heat1 metallic copp] comb9es ) oxyg5 & gives a black p[d] ( copp] oxide4 ,if ! lay] ( copp] be suffici5tly long & ! curr5t ( air sl[1 all ! oxyg5 w be absorb$1 & nitrog5 alone w pass f ! tube4#b #b ,copp] 7be/ z turn+s1 :i* pres5t a l>ge surface7 absorbs oxyg51 =m+ ,cu,o1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 ! pres5ce ( solutions ( acids1 or1 bett] /ill1 9 ! pres5ce ( a solution ( ammonia1 :5 x =ms a blui%-violet solution ( oxide ( copp] 9 ammonia4 ,nitrog5 is v easily procur$ by ?is me?od4 ,a flask fill$ ) copp] turn+s is clos$ ) a cork furni%$ ) a funnel & /opcock4 ,a solution ( ammonia is p\r$ into ! funnel1 & caus$ to drop sl[ly ^u ! copp]4 ,if at ! same "t a curr5t ( air be sl[ly pass$ ?r\gh ! flask 7f a ga%old]71 !n all ! oxyg5 w be absorb$ f x & ! nitrog5 w pass f ! flask4 ,x %\ld be wa%$ ) wat] to reta9 any ammonia t may be c>ri$ (f ) x4 ,nitrog5 may also be procur$ f _m ( its comp\nds ) oxyg5#c & hydrog51#d b ! be/ fitt$ = ?is purpose is a sal9e mixture conta9+1 on ! "o h&1 a comp\nd ( nitrog5 ) oxyg51 t]m$ nitr\s anhydride1 ,n#b,o#c1 & on ! o!r h&1 ammonia1 ,,nh#c--t is1 a comp\nd ( nitrog5 ) hydrog54 ,by heat+ su* a mixture1 ! oxyg5 ( ! nitr\s anhydride comb9es ) ! hydrog5 ( ! ammonia1 =m+ wat]1 & gase\s nitrog5 is evolv$1 #b,,nh#c ,n#b,o#c #c;,h#b,o ,n#d4 ,nitrog5 is procur$ by ?is me?od 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,a solution ( cau/ic pota% is saturat$ ) nitr\s anhydride1 by :i* means potassium nitrite is =m$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a solution ( hydro*loric acid saturat$ ) ammonia is prep>$2 a sal9e sub/ance call$ sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 is ?us =m$ 9 ! solution4 ,! two solutions ?us prep>$ are mix$ toge!r & heat$4 ,reaction takes place accord+ to ! equation ,,kno#b ,,nh#d;,cl ,k,cl #b;,h#b,o ,n#b4 ,?is reaction proce$s 9 virtue ( ! fact t potassium nitrite & ammonium *loride are salts :i*1 on int]*ang+ _! metals1 give potassium *loride & ammonium nitrite1 ,,nh#d,,no#b1 :i* breaks up into wat] & nitrog54 ,?is reaction does n take place )\t ! aid ( heat1 b x proce$s v easily at a mod]ate temp]ature4 ,( ! resultant sub/ances1 ! nitrog5 only is gase\s4 ,pure nitrog5 may be obta9$ by dry+ ! resultant gas & pass+ x ?r\gh a solution ( sulphuric acid 7to absorb a c]ta9 quantity ( ammonia :i* is evolv$ 9 ! reaction74#d bis #c ,! oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog5 7= example1 ,n#b,o1 ,,no1 ,,no#b7 are decompos$ at a r$ heat by !mselves1 & "u ! action ( r$-hot copp]1 iron1 sodium1 c41 !y give up _! oxyg5 to ! metals1 leav+ ! nitrog5 free4 ,accord+ to ,mey] & ,lang] 7#ahhe71 nitr\s oxide1 ,n#b,o1 decomposes bel[ #ijj1 al?\gh n completely4 #d ,*lor9e & brom9e 79 excess71 z well z blea*+ p[d] 7hypo*lorites71 take up ! hydrog5 f ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 leav+ nitrog54 ,nitrog5 is be/ procur$ f ammonia by ! action ( a solution ( sodium hypobromite on solid sal-ammoniac4 #d bis ,"l ,rayleigh 9 #ahid1 :5 det]m9+ ! weight ( a volume ( c>efully purifi$ nitrog5 by weigh+ x 9 "o & ! same globe1 f\nd t ! gas obta9$ f air1 by ! action ( inc&esc5t copp] 7or iron or by remov+ ! oxyg5 by f]r\s oxide7 0 always #a_/bjj heavi] ?an ! nitrog5 obta9$ f its comp\nds1 = in/ance1 f ! oxide or suboxide ( nitrog51 decompos$ by inc&esc5t pulv]ul5t iron or f ! ammonia salt ( nitr\s acid4 ,= ! nitrog5 procur$ f air1 he obta9$1 at #j & #gfjd mm4 pressure1 a weight #bcaj grms41 :ile = ! nitrog5 obta9$ f its comp\nds1 #bbii grms4 ,?is diff]5ce ( ab\t #a_/bjj c\ld n be expla9$ by ! nitrog5 n hav+ be5 well purifi$1 or by inaccuracy ( exp]im5t1 & 0 ! means = ! rem>kable discov]y ( ! pres5ce ( a heavy gas 9 air1 :i* w be m5tion$ 9 ,note #af bis4 ,nitrog5 is a gase\s sub/ance :i* does n diff] mu* 9 physical prop]ties f air2 its d5sity1 ref]r$ to hydrog51 is approximately equal to #ad--t is1 x is slightly light] ?an air1 its d5sity ref]r$ to air be+ #jigb2 "o litre ( nitrog5 weighs #abeg gram4 ,nitrog5 mix$ ) oxyg51 :i* is slightly heavi] ?an air1 =ms air4 ,x is a gas :i*1 l oxyg5 & hydrog51 is liquefi$ ) difficulty1 & is b little soluble 9 wat] & o!r liquids4 ,its absolute boil+ po9t#e is ab\t -#adj2 above ?is temp]ature x is n liquefiable by pressure1 & at l[] temp]atures x rema9s a gas at a pressure ( #ej atmosph]es4 ,liquid nitrog5 boils at -#aic1 s t x may be employ$ z a s\rce ( great cold4 ,at ab\t -#bjc1 9 vaporis+ "u a decrease ( pressure1 nitrog5 solidifies into a col\rless sn[-l mass4 ,nitrog5 does n burn1#e bis does n support combu/ion1 is n absorb$ by any ( ! reag5ts us$ 9 gas analysis1 at lea/ at ! ord9>y temp]ature--9 a ^w1 x pres5ts a :ole s]ies ( negative *emical prop]ties2 ?is is express$ by say+ t ?is elem5t has no en]gy = comb9ation4 ,al?\gh x is capable ( =m+ comp\nds bo? ) oxyg5 & hydrog5 z well z ) c>bon1 yet ^! comp\nds are only =m$ "u p>ticul> circum/ances1 to :i* we w directly turn our att5tion4 ,at a r$ heat nitrog5 comb9es ) boron1 titanium1 & silicon1 b>ium1 magnesium1 c41 =m+ v /able nitrog5\s comp\nds1#f ^: prop]ties are entirely diff]5t f ^? ( nitrog5 ) hydrog51 oxyg5 & c>bon4 ,h[ev]1 ! comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) c>bon1 al?\gh x does n take place directly betwe5 ! elem5ts at a r$ heat1 yet proce$s ) comp>ative ease by heat+ a mixture ( *>coal ) an alkal9e c>bonate1 especially potassium c>bonate or b>ium c>bonate1 to r$ness1 c>bo-nitrides or cyanides ( ! metals be+ =m$2 = in/ance1 ,k#b;,,co#c #d;,c ,n#b #b,,kcn #c;,,co4#g #e ,see ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,note #bi4 #e bis ,see ,note #aa bis4 #f ,! comb9ation ( boron ) nitrog5 is accompani$ by ! evolution ( suffici5t heat to raise ! mass to r$ness2 titanium comb9es s easily ) nitrog5 t x is difficult to obta9 x free f t elem5t2 magnesium easily absorbs nitrog5 at a r$ heat4 ,x is a rem>kable & in/ructive fact t ^! comp\nds ( nitrog5 are v /able & non-volatile4 ,c>bon 7,c #ab7 ) nitrog5 gives cyanog51 ,c#b,n#b1 :i* is gase\s & v un/able1 & ^: molecule is n l>ge1 :il/ boron 7,b #aa7 =ms a nitrog5\s comp\nd :i* is solid1 non-volatile1 & v /able4 ,its composition1 ,,bn1 is simil> to t ( cyanog51 b its molecul> weight1 ,bn,nn1 is probably great]4 ,its composition1 l t ( ,n#b,mg#c1 ,n,na#c1 ,n#b;,hg#c & ( _m ( ! metallic nitrides1 corresponds to ammonia ) ! sub/itution ( all its hydrog5 by a metal4 ,9 my op9ion1 a detail$ /udy ( ! trans=mations ( ! nitrides n[ kn[n1 %\ld lead to ! discov]y ( _m facts 9 ! hi/ory ( nitrog54 #g ,?is reaction1 s f> z is kn[n1 does n proce$ beyond a c]ta9 limit1 probably because cyanog51 ,,cn1 itself breaks up into c>bon & nitrog54 ,nitrog5 is f\nd ) oxyg5 9 ! air1 b !y d n readily comb9e4 ,cav5di%1 h[ev]1 9 ! la/ c5tury1 %[$ t nitrog5 comb9es ) oxyg5 "u ! influ5ce ( a s]ies ( electric sp>ks4 ,electric sp>ks 9 pass+ ?r\gh a moi/#h mixture ( nitrog5 & oxyg5 cause ^! elem5ts to comb9e1 =m+ r$di%-br[n fumes ( oxides ( nitrog51#i :i* =m nitric acid1#aj ,,nho#c4 ,! pres5ce ( ! latt] is easily recognis$1 n only f its r$d5+ litmus pap]1 b also f its act+ z a p[]ful oxidis] ev5 ( m]cury4 ,conditions simil> to ^! occur 9 nature1 dur+ a ?und]/orm or 9 o!r electrical dis*>ges :i* take place 9 ! atmosph]e2 :5ce x may be tak5 = grant$ t air & ra9-wat] always conta9 traces ( nitric & nitr\s acids4#aa ,besides :i* ,crookes 7#ahib7 %[$ t "u c]ta9 circum/ances & :5 electricity ( high pot5tial#aa bis passes ?r\gh ! air1 ! comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) oxyg5 is accompani$ by ! =mation ( a true flame4 ,?is 0 also obs]v$ previ\sly 7#ahhj7 dur+ ! passage ( electrical dis*>ges ?r\gh ! air4 #h ,frmy & ,becqu]el took dry air1 & obs]v$ ! =mation ( br[n vap\rs ( oxides ( nitrog5 on ! passage ( sp>ks4 #i ,if a mixture ( "o volume ( nitrog5 & f\rte5 volumes ( hydrog5 be burnt1 !n wat] & a consid]able quantity ( nitric acid are =m$4 ,x may be p>tly due to ?is t a c]ta9 quantity ( nitric acid is produc$ 9 ! sl[ oxidation ( nitrog5\s sub/ances 9 an excess ( air4 ,?is is especially facilitat$ by ! pres5ce ( an alkali ) :i* ! nitric acid =m$ c comb9e4 ,if a galvanic curr5t be pass$ ?r\gh wat] conta9+ ! nitrog5 & oxyg5 ( ! air 9 solution1 !n ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 set free comb9e ) ! nitrog51 =m+ ammonia & nitric acid4 ,:5 copp] is oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( ! air at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonia1 oxyg5 is absorb$1 n only = comb9ation ) ! copp]1 b also = ! =mation ( nitric acid4 ,! comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) oxyg51 ev51 = example1 by ! action ( electric sp>ks1 is n accompani$ by an explosion or rapid comb9ation1 z 9 ! action ( a sp>k on a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,?is is expla9$ by ! fact t heat is n evolv$ 9 ! comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) oxyg51 b is absorb$--an exp5diture ( en]gy is requir$1 !re is no evolution ( en]gy4 ,9 fact1 !re w n be ! transmission ( heat f p>ticle to p>ticle :i* occurs 9 ! explosion ( detonat+ gas4 ,ea* sp>k w aid ! =mation ( a c]ta9 quantity ( ! comp\nd ( oxyg5 & nitrog51 b w n excite ! same 9 ! neighb\r+ p>ticles4 ,9 o!r words1 ! comb9ation ( hydrog5 ) oxyg5 is an exo!rmal reaction1 & ! comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) oxyg5 an endo!rmal reaction4 ,a condition p>ticul>ly fav\rable = ! oxidation ( nitrog5 is ! explosion ( detonat+ gas & air if ! =m] be 9 excess4 ,if a mixture ( two volumes ( detonat+ gas & "o volume ( air be explod$1 !n "o-t5? ( ! air is conv]t$ into nitric acid1 & consequ5tly aft] ! explosion has tak5 place !re rema9 only n9e-t5?s ( ! volume ( air orig9ally tak54 ,if a l>ge proportion ( air be tak5--= in/ance1 f\r volumes ( air to two volumes ( detonat+ gas--!n ! temp]ature ( ! explosion is l[]$1 ! volume ( air tak5 rema9s un*ang$1 & no nitric acid is =m$4 ,?is gives a rule to be obs]v$ 9 mak+ use ( ! eudiomet]--namely t to weak5 ! =ce ( ! explosion n less ?an an equal volume ( air %\ld be add$ to ! explosive mixture4 ,on ! o!r h& a l>ge excess mu/ n be tak5 z no explosion w\ld !n ensue 7see ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,note #cd74 ,probably 9 ! future means w be f\nd = obta9+ comp\nds ( nitrog5 on a l>ge indu/rial scale by ! aid ( electric dis*>ges1 & by mak+ use ( ! inexhau/ible mass ( nitrog5 9 ! atmosph]e4 #aj ,9 reality nitric oxide1 ,,no1 is fir/ =m$1 b ) oxyg5 & wat] x gives 7br[n fumes7 nitr\s anhydride1 :i*1 z we %all aft]w>ds le>n1 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] & oxyg5 gives nitric acid4 #aa ,! nitric acid conta9$ 9 ! soil1 riv] wat] 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #b71 wells1 c41 proce$s 7l c>bonic anhydride7 f ! oxidation ( organic comp\nds :i* h fall5 into wat]1 soil1 c4 #aa bis ,crookes employ$ a curr5t ( #ae ampres & #fe volts1 & pass$ x ?r\gh an induction coil ) #ccj vibrations p] second1 & obta9$ a flame betwe5 ! poles plac$ at a di/ance ( #df mm4 :i* aft] ! appe>ance ( ! arc & flame c\ld be increas$ to #bjj mm4 ,a plat9um wire fus$ 9 ! flame4 ,fur!r obs]vations %[$ t "u ! influ5ce ( electrical dis*>ges1#ab sil5t z well z ) sp>ks1 nitrog5 is able to ent] into _m reactions ) hydrog5 & ) _m hydroc>bons2 al?\gh ^! reactions _c be effect$ by exposure to a r$ heat4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 a s]ies ( electric sp>ks pass$ ?r\gh a mixture ( nitrog5 & hydrog5 causes !m to comb9e & =m ammonia#ac or nitrog5 hydride1 ,,nh#c1 compos$ ( "o volume ( nitrog5 & ?ree volumes ( hydrog54 ,?is comb9ation is limit$ to ! =mation ( #f p] c5t4 ( ammonia1 because ammonia is decompos$1 al?\gh n entirely 7#id_/ajj7 by electric sp>ks4 ,?is signifies t "u ! influ5ce ( an electrical dis*>ge ! reaction ,,nh#c ,n #c;,h is rev]sible1 consequ5tly x is a dissociation1 & 9 x a /ate ( equilibrium is arriv$ at4 ,! equilibrium may be de/roy$ by ! addition ( gase\s hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 because ) ammonia x =ms a solid sal9e comp\nd1 sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 :i* 7be+ =m$ f a gase\s mixture ( #c;,h1 ,n1 & ,h,cl7 fixes ! ammonia4 ,! rema9+ mass ( nitrog5 & hydrog51 "u ! action ( ! sp>ks1 aga9 =ms ammonia1 & 9 ?is mann] solid sal-ammoniac is obta9$ to ! end by ! action ( a s]ies ( electric sp>ks on a mixture ( gase\s ,n1 ,h#c1 & ,h,cl4#ad ,b]!lot 7#ahgf7 %[$ t "u ! action ( a sil5t dis*>ge _m non-nitrog5\s organic sub/ances 7b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 cellulose 9 ! =m ( pap]1 res91 glucose1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 & o!rs7 absorb nitrog5 & =m complex nitrog5\s comp\nds1 :i* are capable1 l album9\s sub/ances1 ( evolv+ _! nitrog5 z ammonia :5 heat$ ) alkalis4#ae #ab ,?is prop]ty ( nitrog51 :i* "u normal conditions is inactive1 leads to ! idea t "u ! influ5ce ( an electric dis*>ge gase\s nitrog5 *anges 9 its prop]ties2 if n p]man5tly l oxyg5 7electrolys$ oxyg5 or ozone does n react on nitrog51 accord+ to ,b]!lot71 x may be tempor>ily at ! mom5t ( ! action ( ! dis*>ge1 j z "s sub/ances "u ! action ( heat are p]man5tly affect$ 7t is1 :5 once *ang$ rema9 s--= in/ance1 :ite phosphorus passes into r$1 c471 :il/ o!rs are only tempor>ily alt]$ 7! dissociation ( ,s#f into ,s#b or ( sal-ammoniac into ammonia & hydro*loric acid74 ,su* a proposition is fav\r$ by ! fact t nitrog5 gives two k9ds ( spectra1 ) :i* we %all aft]w>ds become acqua9t$4 ,x may be t ! molecules ,n#b !n give less complex molecules1 ,n conta9+ "o atom1 or =m a complex molecule ,n#c1 l oxyg5 9 pass+ into ozone4 ,probably "u a sil5t dis*>ge ! molecules ( oxyg51 ,o#b1 are p>tly decompos$ & ! individual atoms ,o comb9e ) ,o#b1 =m+ ozone1 ,o#c4 #ac ,?is reaction1 discov]$ by ,*abri & inve/igat$ by ,?n>d1 0 only rightly und]/ood :5 ,deville appli$ ! pr9ciples ( dissociation to x4 #ad ,! action ( nitrog5 on acetyl5e 7,b]!lot7 resembles ?is reaction4 ,a mixture ( ^! gases "u ! influ5ce ( a sil5t dis*>ge gives hydrocyanic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b ,n#b #b;,,cnh4 ,?is reaction _c proce$ beyond a c]ta9 limit because x is rev]sible4 #ae ,b]!lot successfully employ$ electricity ( ev5 feeble pot5tial 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 :i* fact l$ him to ?9k t 9 nature1 :]e ! action ( electricity takes place v frequ5tly1 a "p ( ! complex nitrog5\s sub/ances may proce$ f ! gase\s nitrog5 ( ! air by ?is me?od4 ,z ! nitrog5\s sub/ances ( organisms play a v important "p 9 !m 7organic life _c exi/ )\t !m71 & z ! nitrog5\s sub/ances introduc$ into ! soil are capable ( invigorat+ its crops 7( c\rse 9 ! pres5ce ( ! o!r n\ri%+ pr9ciples requir$ by plants71 ! "q ( ! means ( conv]t+ ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 into ! nitrog5\s comp\nds ( ! soil1 or into assimilable nitrog5 capable ( be+ absorb$ by plants & ( =m+ complex 7album9\s7 sub/ances 9 !m1 is "o ( great !oretical & practical int]e/4 ,! artificial 7te*nical7 conv]sion ( ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 into nitrog5\s comp\nds1 not)/&+ repeat$ attempts1 _c yet be consid]$ z fulfill$ 9 a practical remun]ative mann] al?\gh its possibility is already evid5t4 ,electricity w probably aid 9 solv+ ?is v important practical problem4 ,:5 ! !oretical side ( ! "q is fur!r advanc$1 !n )\t d\bt an advantage\s means w be f\nd = ! manufacture ( nitrog5\s sub/ances f ! nitrog5 ( ! air2 & ?is is ne$$1 be=e all1 = ! agriculturi/1 to :om nitrog5\s f]tilis]s =m an exp5sive item1 & are m important ?an all o!r manures4 ,"o ?\s& tons ( f>my>d manure d n g5]ally conta9 m ?an f\r tons ( nitrog5 9 ! =m ( complex nitrog5\s sub/ances1 & ?is am\nt ( nitrog5 is conta9$ 9 tw5ty tons ( ammonium sulphate1 !re=e ! effect ( a mass ( f>my>d manure 9 respect to ! introduction ( nitrog5 may be produc$ by small quantities ( artificial nitrog5\s f]tilis]s 7see ,note #ae bis74 ,by su* indirect me?ods does ! gase\s nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e yield its prim>y comp\nds1 9 :i* =m x ent]s into plants1 & is elaborat$ 9 !m into complex album9\s sub/ances4#ae bis ,b1 />t+ f a giv5 comp\nd ( nitrog5 ) hydrog5 or oxyg51 we may1 )\t ! aid ( organisms1 obta91 z w aft]w>ds be p>tially indicat$1 mo/ div]se & complex nitrog5\s sub/ances1 :i* _c by any means be =m$ directly f gase\s nitrog54 ,9 ?is we see an example n only ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 an elem5t 9 ! free /ate & an intr9sic elem5t1 b also ( ^? circuit\s or indirect me?ods by :i* sub/ances are =m$ 9 nature4 ,! discov]y1 progno/ication1 &1 9 g5]al1 ! /udy ( su* indirect me?ods ( ! prep>ation & =mation ( sub/ances =ms "o ( ! exi/+ problems ( *emi/ry4 ,f ! fact t ,a does n act at all on ,b1 x mu/ n be conclud$ t a comp\nd ,,ab is n to be =m$4 ,! sub/ances ,a & ,b conta9 atoms :i* occur 9 ,,ab1 b _! /ate or ! nature ( _! motion may n be at all t :i* is requir$ = ! =mation ( ,,ab1 & 9 ?is sub/ance ! *emical /ate ( ! elem5ts may be z diff]5t z ! /ate ( ! atoms ( oxyg5 9 ozone & 9 wat]4 ,?us free nitrog5 is inactive2 b 9 its comp\nds x v easily ent]s into *anges & is di/+ui%$ by great activity4 ,an acqua9tance ) ! comp\nds ( nitrog5 confirms ?is4 ,b1 be=e ent]+ on ?is subject1 let u consid] air z a mass conta9+ free nitrog54 #ae bis ,al?\gh ! num]\s1 & z f> z possible accurate & v>i$ rese>*es made 9 ! physiology ( plants h prov$ t ! high] =ms ( plants are n capable ( directly absorb+ ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e & conv]t+ x into complex album9\s sub/ances1 /ill x has be5 long & repeat$ly obs]v$ t ! am\nt ( nitrog5\s sub/ances 9 ! soil is increas$ by ! cultivation ( plants ( ! bean 7legum9\s7 family su* z pea1 acacia1 c4 ,a clos] /udy ( ^! plants has %[n t ?is is connect$ ) ! =mation ( peculi> nodul> swell+s 9 _! roots caus$ by ! gr[? ( peculi> micro-organisms 7bact]ia7 :i* cohabit ! soil ) ! roots1 & are capable ( absorb+ nitrog5 f ! air1 i4e4 ( conv]t+ x into assimilat$ nitrog54 ,?is bran* ( plant physiology1 :i* =ms ano!r pro( ( ! important "p play$ by micro-organisms 9 nature1 _c be discuss$ 9 ?is "w1 b x %\ld be m5tion$1 s9ce x is ( great !oretical & practical int]e/1 &1 moreov]1 ph5om5a ( ?is k9d1 :i* h rec5tly be5 discov]$1 promise to expla91 to "s ext5t at lea/1 c]ta9 ( ! complex problems conc]n+ ! developm5t ( life on ! e>?4 ,judg+ f :at has be5 already /at$1 x w be evid5t t atmosph]ic air#af conta9s a mixture ( sev]al gases & vap\rs4 ,"s ( !m are met ) 9 x 9 ne>ly con/ant proportions1 :il/ o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 are v v>iable 9 _! am\nt4 ,! *ief compon5t p>ts ( air1 plac$ 9 ! ord] ( _! relative am\nts1 are ! foll[+3 nitrog51#af bis oxyg51 aque\s vap\r1 c>bonic anhydride1 nitric acid1 salts ( ammonia1 oxides ( nitrog51 & also ozone1 hydrog5 p]oxide1 & complex organic nitrog5\s sub/ances4 ,besides ^!1 air g5]ally conta9s wat]1 z spray1 drops1 & sn[1 & p>ticles ( solids1 p]haps ( cosmic orig9 9 c]ta9 in/ances1 b 9 ! majority ( cases proce$+ f ! me*anical translation ( solid p>ticles f "o locality to ano!r by ! w9d4 ,^! small solid & liquid p>ticles 7hav+ a l>ge surface 9 proportion to _! weight7 are susp5d$ 9 air z solid matt] is susp5d$ 9 turbid wat]2 !y (t5 settle on ! surface ( ! e>?1 b ! air is nev] entirely free f !m because !y are nev] 9 a /ate ( complete re/4 ,!n1 air n unfrequ5tly conta9s incid5tal traces ( v>i\s sub/ances z ev]yone kn[s by exp]i5ce4 ,^! incid5tal sub/ances sometimes belong to ! ord] ( ^? :i* act injuri\sly1 ! g]ms ( l[] organisms--= in/ance ( m\lds--& ! class ( c>ri]s ( infecti\s diseases4 #af ,"u ! "n ( atmosph]ic air ! *emi/ & physici/ und]/& ord9>y air conta9+ nitrog5 & oxyg5 only1 not)/&+ t ! o!r compon5t p>ts ( air h a v important influ5ce on ! liv+ matt] ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,t air is s repres5t$ 9 sci5ce is bas$ on ! fact t only ! two compon5ts above-nam$ are met ) 9 air 9 a con/ant quantity1 :il/ ! o!rs are v>iable4 ,! solid impurities may be sep>at$ f air requir$ = *emical or physical rese>* by simple filtration ?r\gh a long lay] ( cotton-wool plac$ 9 a tube4 ,organic impurities are remov$ by pass+ ! air ?r\gh a solution ( potassium p]manganate4 ,! c>bonic anhydride conta9$ 9 air is absorb$ by alkalis--be/ ( all1 soda-lime1 :i* 9 a dry /ate 9 por\s lumps absorbs x ) exce$+ rapidity & complet5ess4 ,aque\s vap\r is remov$ by pass+ ! air ov] calcium *loride1 /rong sulphuric acid1 or phosphoric anhydride4 ,air ?us purifi$ is accept$ z conta9+ only nitrog5 & oxyg51 al?\gh 9 reality x /ill conta9s a c]ta9 quantity ( hydrog5 & hydroc>bons1 f :i* x may be purifi$ by pass+ ov] copp] oxide heat$ to r$ness4 ,! copp] oxide !n oxidises ! hydrog5 & hydroc>bons--x burns !m1 =m+ wat] & c>bonic anhydride1 :i* may be remov$ z above describ$4 ,:5 x is said t 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! d5sity ( gases ! weight ( air is tak5 z unity1 x is und]/ood to be su* air1 conta9+ only nitrog5 & oxyg54 #af bis ,?anks to ! rem>kable discov]y made 9 ! summ] ( #ahid by ,"l ,rayleigh & ,pr(4 ,ramsay1 ! well-kn[n compon5t elem5ts ( air mu/ n[ he supplem5t$ by #a p4c4 7by volume7 ( a heavy gas 7d5sity ab\t #ai1 ,h #a71 inactive l nitrog51 :i* 0 discov]$ 9 ! rese>*es made by ,"l ,rayleigh on ! d5sity ( nitrog5 z m5tion$ 9 note #d bis4 ,up to ! pres5t "t ?is gas has be5 always det]m9$ toge!r ) nitrog51 because x comb9es ) nei!r ! hydrog5 9 ! eudiomet] nor ) ! copp] 9 ! gravimetric me?od ( det]m9+ ! composition ( air1 & !re=e has always rema9$ ) ! nitrog54 ,x has be5 possible to sep>ate x f nitrog5 s9ce magnesium absorbs nitrog5 at a r$ heat1 :ile ?is gas rema9s unabsorb$1 & 0 f\nd to h a d5sity ne>ly "o & a half "t great] ?an t ( nitrog5 7is x n a polym] ( nitrog51 ,n#c874 ,x is n[ kn[n also t ?is gas gives a lum9\s spectrum1 :i* conta9s ! bright blue l9e obs]v$ 9 ! spectrum ( nitrog54 ,ow+ to ! fact t x is an exce$+ly in]t sub/ance1 ev5 m s ?an nitrog51 x has be5 t]m$ ,argon4 ,fur!r ref]5ce w be made to x 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,9 ! air ( ! v>i\s c\ntries ( ! e>?1 at diff]5t longitudes & at diff]5t altitudes above its surface1 on ! ocean or on ! dry l&--9 a ^w1 9 ! air ( mo/ div]se localities ( ! e>?--! oxyg5 & nitrog5 are f\nd ev]y:]e to be 9 a con/ant ratio4 ,?is is1 moreov]1 self-evid5t f ! fact t ! air con/antly diffuses 7int]mixes by virtue ( ! int]nal motion ( ! gase\s p>ticles7 & is also put into motion & int]mix$ by ! w9d1 by :i* processes x is equalis$ 9 its composition ov] ! entire surface ( ! e>?4 ,9 ^? localities :]e ! air is subject to *ange1 & is 9 a m or less enclos$ space1 or1 at any rate1 9 an unv5tilat$ space1 x may alt] v consid]ably 9 its composition4 ,= ?is reason ! air 9 dwell+s1 cell>s1 & wells1 9 :i* !re are sub/ances absorb+ oxyg51 conta9s less ( ?is gas1 :il/ ! air on ! surface ( /&+ wat]1 :i* ab\nds 9 ! l[] ord]s ( plant life evolv+ oxyg51 conta9s an excess ( ?is gas4#ag ,! con/ant composition ( air ov] ! :ole surface ( ! e>? has be5 prov$ by a numb] ( mo/ c>eful rese>*es4#ah #ag ,z a fur!r pro( ( ! fact t c]ta9 circum/ances may *ange ! composition ( air1 x w be en\gh to po9t out t ! air conta9$ 9 ! cavities ( glaci]s conta9s only up to #aj p4c4 ( oxyg54 ,?is dep5ds on ! fact t at l[ temp]atures oxyg5 is mu* m soluble 9 sn[-wat] & sn[ ?an nitrog54 ,:5 %ak5 up ) wat] ! composition ( air %\ld *ange1 because ! wat] dissolves unequal quantities ( oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,we h already se5 7,*apt] ,i47 t ! air boil$ (f f wat] saturat$ at ab\t #j conta9s ab\t ?irty-five volumes ( oxyg5 & sixty-five volumes ( nitrog51 & we h consid]$ ! reason ( ?is4 #ah ,! analysis ( air by weight conduct$ by ,dumas & ,b\ss+ault 9 ,p>is1 :i* !y repeat$ _m times betwe5 ,april #bg & ,septemb] #bb1 #ahda1 "u v>i\s conditions ( wea!r1 %[$ t ! am\nt by weight ( oxyg5 only v>ies betwe5 #bbhi p4c4 & #bcjh p4c41 ! av]age am\nt be+ #bcjg p4c4 ,brunn]1 at ,b]n 9 ,switz]l&1 & ,bravais1 at ,faulhorn 9 ! ,b]nese ,alps1 at a height ( two kilometres above ! level ( ! sea1 ,m>ignac at ,g5eva1 ,lewy at ,cop5hag51 & ,/as at ,brussels1 h analys$ ! air by ! same me?ods1 & f\nd t its composition does n exce$ ! limits det]m9$ = ,p>is4 ,! mo/ rec5t det]m9ations 7) an accuracy ( #jje p4c47 confirm ! conclusion t ! composition ( ! atmosph]e is con/ant4 ,z !re are "s gr\nds 7:i* w be m5tion$ %ortly7 = consid]+ t ! composition ( ! air at great altitudes is slightly diff]5t f t at atta9able heights--namely1 t x is ri*] 9 ! light] nitrog5--sev]al fragm5t>y obs]vations made at ,muni* 7,jolly1 #ahhj7 gave reason = ?9k+ t 9 ! upw>d curr5ts 7t is 9 ! region ( m9imum b>ometric pressure or at ! c5tres ( meteorological cyclones7 ! air is ri*] 9 oxyg5 ?an 9 ! desc5d+ curr5ts ( air 79 ! regions ( anticyclones or ( b>ometric maxima72 b m c>efully conduct$ obs]vations %[$ ?is supposition to be incorrect4 ,improv$ me?ods = ! analysis ( air h %[n t c]ta9 slight v>iations 9 its composition d actually occur1 b 9 ! fir/ place !y dep5d on incid5tal local influ5ces 7on ! passage ( ! air ov] m\nta9s & l>ge surfaces ( wat]1 regions ( =e/ & h]bage1 & ! l71 & 9 ! second place are limit$ to quantities :i* are sc>cely di/+ui%able f possible errors 9 ! analyses4 ,! rese>*es made by ,kreisl] 9 ,g]many 7#ahhe7 are p>ticul>ly conv9c+4 ,! consid]ations :i* lead to ! supposition t ! atmosph]e at great altitudes conta9s less oxyg5 ?an at ! surface ( ! e>? are bas$ on ! law ( p>tial pressures 7,*apt] ,i47 ,accord+ to ?is law1 ! equilibrium ( ! oxyg5 9 ! /rata ( ! atmosph]e is n dep5d5t on ! equilibrium ( ! nitrog51 & ! v>iation 9 ! d5sities ( bo? gases ) ! height is det]m9$ by ! pressure ( ea* gas sep>ately4 ,details ( ! calculations & consid]ations "h involv$ are conta9$ 9 my "w ,on ,b>ometric ,levell+s1 #ahgf1 p4 #dh4 ,on ! basis ( ! law ( p>tial pressure & ( hypsometrical =mul1 express+ ! laws ( ! v>iation ( pressures at diff]5t altitudes1 ! conclusion may be d$uc$ t at ! upp] /rata ( ! atmosph]e ! proportion ( ! nitrog5 ) respect to ! oxyg5 increases1 b ! increase w n exce$ a fraction p] c5t41 ev5 at altitudes ( f\r & a half to six miles1 ! greate/ height )9 ! rea* ( m5 ei!r by climb+ m\nta9s or by means ( balloons4 ,?is conclusion is confirm$ by ! analyses ( air collect$ by ,wel* 9 ,engl& dur+ 8 aronautic asc5ts4 ,! analysis ( air is effect$ by conv]t+ ! oxyg5 into a non-gase\s comp\nd1 s z to sep>ate x f ! air4 ,! orig9al volume ( ! air is fir/ measur$1 & !n ! volume ( ! rema9+ nitrog54 ,! quantity ( oxyg5 is calculat$ ei!r f ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! volumes or by ! weight ( ! oxyg5 comp\nd =m$4 ,all ! volumetric measurem5ts h to be correct$ = pressure1 temp]ature1 & moi/ure 7,*apt]s ,i4 & ,,ii47 ,! m$ium employ$ = conv]t+ ! oxyg5 into a non-gase\s sub/ance %\ld enable x to be tak5 up f ! nitrog5 to ! v end )\t evolv+ any gase\s sub/ance4 ,s1 = in/ance1#ai a mixture ( pyrogallol1 ,c#f;,h#f,o#c1 ) a solution ( a cau/ic alkali absorbs oxyg5 ) great ease at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7! solution turns black71 b x is unsuit$ = accurate analysis because x requires an aque\s solution ( an alkali1 & x alt]s ! composition ( ! air by act+ on x z a solv5t4#bj ,h[ev]1 = approximate det]m9ations ?is simple me?od gives results :i* are entirely satisfactory4 #ai ,! complete absorption ( ! oxyg5 may be atta9$ by introduc+ moi/ phosphorus into a def9ite volume ( air2 ! occurr5ce ( ?is is recognis$ by ! fact ( ! phosphorus becom+ non-lum9\s 9 ! d>k4 ,! am\nt ( oxyg5 may be det]m9$ by measur+ ! volume ( nitrog5 rema9+4 ,?is me?od h[ev] _c give accurate results1 ow+ to a portion ( ! air be+ dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 to ! comb9ation ( "s ( ! nitrog5 ) oxyg5 & to ! necessity ( introduc+ & )draw+ ! phosphorus1 :i* _c be accompli%$ )\t introduc+ bubbles ( air4 #bj ,= rapid & approximate analyses 7te*nical & hygi5ic71 su* a mixture is v suitable = det]m9+ ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 mixtures ( gases f :i* ! sub/ances absorb$ by alkalis h fir/ be5 remov$4 ,accord+ to c]ta9 obs]v]s1 ?is mixture evolves a c]ta9 7small7 quantity ( c>bonic oxide aft] absorb+ oxyg54 ,! det]m9ations 9 a eudiomet] 7,*apt] ,,iii47 give m exact results1 if all ! necess>y corrections = *anges ( pressure1 temp]ature1 & moi/ure be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,?is det]m9ation is c>ri$ out ess5tially z foll[s3--,a c]ta9 am\nt ( air is introduc$ into ! eudiomet]1 & its volume is det]m9$4 ,ab\t an equal volume ( dry hydrog5 is !n pass$ into ! eudiomet]1 & ! volume aga9 det]m9$4 ,! mixture is !n explod$1 9 ! way describ$ = ! det]m9ation ( ! composition ( wat]4 ,! rema9+ volume ( ! gase\s mixture is aga9 measur$2 x w be less ?an ! second ( ! previ\sly measur$ volumes4 ,out ( ?ree volumes :i* h disappe>$1 "o belong$ to ! oxyg5 & two to ! hydrog51 consequ5tly "o-?ird ( ! loss ( volume indicates ! am\nt ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! air4#ba #ba ,details ( eudiometrical analysis mu/1 z 0 po9t$ out 9 ,*ap4 ,,iii41 ,note #cb1 be look$ = 9 works on analytical *emi/ry4 ,! same rem>k applies to ! o!r analytical me?ods m5tion$ 9 ?is "w4 ,!y are only describ$ = ! purpose ( %[+ ! div]sity ( ! me?ods ( *emical rese>*4 ,! mo/ complete me?od = ! analysis ( air1 & "o :i* is accompani$ by ! lea/ am\nt ( error1 consi/s 9 ! direct weigh+1 z f> z is possible1 ( ! oxyg51 nitrog51 wat]1 & c>bonic anhydride conta9$ 9 x4 ,= ?is purpose ! air is fir/ pass$ ?r\gh an app>atus = reta9+ ! moi/ure & c>bonic anhydride 7:i* w be consid]$ pres5tly71 & is !n l$ ?r\gh a tube :i* conta9s %av+s ( metallic copp] & has be5 previ\sly weigh$4 ,a long lay] ( su* copp] heat$ to r$ness absorbs all ! oxyg5 f ! air1 & leaves pure nitrog51 ^: weight mu/ be det]m9$4 ,?is is done by collect+ x 9 a weigh$ & exhau/$ globe1 :ile ! am\nt by weight ( oxyg5 is %[n by ! increase 9 weight ( ! tube ) ! copp] aft] ! exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,dumas & ,b\ss+ault's app>atus = ! analysis ( air by weight4 ,! globe ,b conta9s #aj-ae litres4 ,! air is fir/ pump$ out ( x1 & x is weigh$ empty4 ,! tube ,t connect$ ) x is fill$ ) copp]1 & is weigh$ empty ( air4 ,x is heat$ 9 a *>coal furnace4 ,:5 ! copp] has become r$-hot1 ! /opcock r 7ne> ,r7 is slightly op5$1 & ! air passes ?r\gh ! vessels ,l1 conta9+ a solution ( pota%1 f1 conta9+ solutions & pieces ( cau/ic pota%1 :i* remove ! c>bonic anhydride f ! air1 & !n ?r\gh o & t1 conta9+ sulphuric acid 7:i* has be5 previ\sly boil$ to expel dissolv$ air7 & pumice-/one1 :i* removes ! moi/ure f ! air4 ,! pure air !n gives up its oxyg5 to ! copp] 9 ,t4 ,:5 ! air passes into ,t ! /opcock ,r ( ! globe ,b is op5$1 & x becomes fill$ ) nitrog54 ,:5 ! air ceases to fl[ 91 ! /opcocks are clos$1 & ! globe ,b & tube ,t weigh$4 ,! nitrog5 is !n pump$ out ( ! tube & x is weigh$ aga94 ,! increase 9 weight ( ! tube %[s ! am\nt ( oxyg51 & ! diff]5ce ( ! second & ?ird weigh+s ( ! tube1 ) ! increase 9 weight ( ! globe1 gives ! weight ( ! nitrog54 ,air free f moi/ure & c>bonic anhydride#bb conta9s #bjie to #bjhhbc p>ts by volume ( oxyg52 ! mean am\nt ( oxyg5 w !re=e be #bjib #jje p] c5t4 ,tak+ ! d5sity ( air #a & ( oxyg5 #aaje & nitrog5 #jigb ! composition ( air by weight w be #bcab p] c5t4 ( oxyg5 & #gfhh p] c5t4 ( nitrog54#bd #bb ,air free f c>bonic anhydride indicates aft] explosion ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( c>bonic anhydride1 z ,de ,saussure rem>k$1 & air free f moi/ure1 aft] be+ pass$ ov] r$-hot copp] oxide1 appe>s inv>iably to conta9 a small quantity ( wat]1 z ,b\ss+ault has obs]v$4 ,^! obs]vations lead to ! assumption t air always conta9s a c]ta9 quantity ( gase\s hydroc>bons1 l m>% gas1 :i*1 z we %all aft]w>ds le>n1 is evolv$ f ! e>?1 m>%es1 c4 ,its am\nt1 h[ev]1 does n exce$ a few hundr$?s p] c5t4 #bc ,! analyses ( air are accompani$ by errors1 & !re are v>iations ( composition atta9+ hundr$?s p] c5t42 ! av]age normal composition ( air is !re=e only correct to ! fir/ decimal place4 #bd ,^! figures express ! mean composition ( air f an av]age ( ! mo/ accurate det]m9ations2 !y are accurate )9 #jje p4c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,app>atus = ! absorption & wa%+ ( gases1 kn[n z ,liebig's bulbs4 ,! gas ent]s m1 presses on ! absorptive liquid1 & passes f m into b1 c1 d1 & e consecutively1 & escapes ?r\gh f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,geisl]'s pota% bulbs4 ,! gas ent]s at a1 & passes ?r\gh a solution ( pota% 9 ! l[] bulbs1 :]e ! c>bonic anhydride is absorb$1 & ! gas escapes f b4 ,! l[] bulbs are arrang$ 9 a triangle1 s t ! app>atus c /& )\t support4 ,! possibility ( ! composition ( air be+ alt]$ by ! m]e action ( a solv5t v cle>ly %[s t ! compon5t p>ts ( air are 9 a /ate ( mixture1 9 :i* any gases may occur2 !y d n 9 ?is case =m a def9ite comp\nd1 al?\gh ! composition ( ! atmosph]e does appe> con/ant "u ord9>y conditions4 ,! fact t its composition v>ies "u diff]5t conditions confirms ! tru? ( ?is conclusion1 & !re=e ! con/ancy ( ! composition ( air mu/ n be consid]$ z 9 any way dep5d5t on ! nature ( ! gases ent]+ into its composition1 b only z proce$+ f cosmic ph5om5a co-op]at+ t[>ds ?is con/ancy4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 !re=e1 t ! processes evolv+ oxyg51 & *iefly ! processes ( ! respiration ( plants1 are ( equal =ce ) ^? processes :i* absorb oxyg5 ov] ! entire surface ( ! e>?4#be #be ,9 ,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #d1 an approximate calculation is made = ! det]m9ation ( ! balance ( oxyg5 9 ! entire atmosph]e2 x may !re=e he suppos$ t ! composition ( air w v>y f "t to "t1 ! relation betwe5 vegetation & ! oxyg5 absorb+ processes *anges2 b z ! atmosph]e ( ! e>? c h>dly h a def9ite limit & we h already se5 7,*apt] ,,iv41 ,note #cc7 t !re are obs]vations confirm+ ?is1 x foll[s t our atmosph]e %\ld v>y 9 its compon5t p>ts ) ! entire heav5ly space1 & !re=e x mu/ he suppos$ t any v>iation 9 ! composition by weight ( ! air c only take place exce$+ly sl[ly1 & 9 a mann] imp]ceptible by exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,tube = ! absorption ( c>bonic acid4 ,a plug ( cotton wool is plac$ 9 ! bulb to prev5t ! p[d] ( soda-lime be+ c>ri$ (f by ! gas4 ,! tube conta9s soda-lime & *loride ( calcium4 ,air always conta9s m or less moi/ure#bf & c>bonic anhydride produc$ by ! respiration ( animals & ! combu/ion ( c>bon & c>bonif]\s comp\nds4 ,! latt] %[s ! prop]ties ( an acid anhydride4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride 9 air1 sub/ances are employ$ :i* absorb x--namely1 alkalis ei!r 9 solution or solid4 ,a solution ( cau/ic pota%1 ,,kho1 is p\r$ into light glass vessels1 ?r\gh :i* ! air is pass$1 & ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride is det]m9$ by ! increase 9 weight ( ! vessel4 ,b x is be/ to take a solid por\s alkal9e mass su* z soda-lime4#bg ,) a sl[ curr5t ( air a lay] ( soda-lime #bj cm4 9 l5g? is suffici5t to completely deprive #a cubic metre ( air ( ! c>bonic anhydride x conta9s4 ,a s]ies ( tubes conta9+ calcium *loride = absorb+ ! moi/ure#bh is plac$ be=e ! app>atus = ! absorption ( ! c>bonic anhydride1 & a measur$ mass ( air is pass$ ?r\gh ! :ole app>atus by means ( an aspirator4 ,9 ?is mann] ! det]m9ation ( ! moi/ure is comb9$ ) ! absorption ( ! c>bonic anhydride4 ,! arrangem5t %[n 9 fig4 #ch is su* a comb9ation4 #bf ,! am\nt ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! air is consid]$ 9 great] detail 9 ! /udy ( physics & meteorology & ! subject has be5 m5tion$ above1 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #a1 :]e ! me?ods ( absorb+ moi/ure f gases 7 po9t$ out4 #bg ,soda-lime is prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,unslak$ lime is f9ely p[d]$ & mix$ ) a slightly w>m$ & v /rong solution ( cau/ic soda4 ,! mix+ %\ld be done 9 an iron di%1 & ! mat]ials %\ld be well /irr$ toge!r until ! lime beg9s to slake4 ,:5 ! mass becomes hot1 x boils1 swells up1 & solidifies1 =m+ a por\s mass v ri* 9 alkali & capable ( rapidly absorb+ c>bonic anhydride4 ,a lump ( cau/ic soda or pota% pres5ts a mu* small] surface = absorption & !re=e acts mu* less rapidly4 ,x is necess>y to place an app>atus = absorb+ wat] aft] ! app>atus = absorb+ ! c>bonic anhydride1 because ! alkali 9 absorb+ ! latt] gives (f wat]4 #bh ,x is evid5t t ! calcium *loride employ$ = absorb+ ! wat] %\ld be free f lime or o!r alkalis 9 ord] t x may n reta9 c>bonic anhydride4 ,su* calcium *loride may be prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,a p]fectly neutral solution ( calcium *loride is prep>$ f lime & hydro*loric acid2 x is !n c>efully evaporat$ fir/ on a wat]-ba? & !n on a s&-ba?4 ,:5 ! solution atta9s a c]ta9 /r5g? a scum is =m$1 :i* solidifies at ! surface4 ,?is scum is collect$1 & w be f\nd to be free f cau/ic alkalis4 ,x is necess>y 9 any case to te/ x be=e use1 z o!rwise a l>ge error may be introduc$ into ! results1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( free alkali 7lime74 ,x is be/ to pass c>bonic anhydride ?r\gh ! tube conta9+ ! calcium *loride = "s "t be=e ! exp]im5t1 9 ord] to saturate any free alkali t may rema9 f ! decomposition ( a portion ( ! calcium *loride by wat]1 ,ca,cl#b #b;,h#b,o ,ca,o,h#b,o #b;,h,cl4 ,! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride#bi 9 free air is incomp>ably m con/ant ?an ! am\nt ( moi/ure4 ,! av]age am\nt 9 #ajj volumes ( dry air is approximately #jjc volume--t is1 #aj1jjj volumes ( air conta9 ab\t ?ree volumes ( c>bonic anhydride1 mo/ frequ5tly ab\t #bie volumes4 ,z ! specific gravity ( c>bonic anhydride ref]r$ to air #aeb1 x foll[s t #ajj p>ts by weight ( air conta9 #jjde "p by weight ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,?is quantity v>ies accord+ to ! "t ( ye> 7m 9 w9t]71 ! altitude above ! level ( ! sea 7less at high altitudes71 ! proximity to =e/s & fields 7less7 or cities 7great]71 c4 ,b ! v>iation is small & r>ely exce$s ! limits ( #b-a_/b to #d t5-?\s&?s by volume4#cj ,z !re are _m natural local influ5ces :i* ei!r increase ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride 9 ! air 7respiration1 combu/ion1 decomposition1 volcanic eruptions1 c471 or dim9i% x 7absorption by plants & wat]71 ! reason ( ! great con/ancy 9 ! am\nt ( ?is gas 9 ! air mu/ be look$ =1 9 ! fir/ place1 9 ! fact t ! w9d mixes ! air ( v>i\s localities toge!r1 &1 9 ! second place1 9 ! fact t ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 hold+ c>bonic acid 9 solution1#ca =m an imm5se res]voir = regulat+ ! am\nt ( ?is gas 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,imm$iately ! p>tial pressure ( ! c>bonic anhydride 9 ! air decreases1 ! wat] evolves x1 & :5 ! p>tial pressure increases1 x absorbs x1 & ?us nature supplies ! conditions = a natural /ate ( mov+ equilibrium 9 ?is z 9 s _m o!r in/ances4#cb #bi ,rec\rse is _h to special me?ods :5 ! det]m9ation only takes note ( ! c>bonic anhydride ( ! air4 ,= in/ance1 x is absorb$ by an alkali :i* does n conta9 c>bonates 7by a solution ( b>yta or cau/ic soda mix$ ) b>yta71 & !n ! c>bonic anhydride is expell$ by an excess ( an acid1 & its am\nt det]m9$ by ! volume giv5 (f4 ,a rapid me?od ( det]m9+ ,,co#b 7= hygi5ic purposes7 is giv5 by ! fall ( t5sion produc$ by ! introduction ( an alkali 7! air hav+ be5 ei!r br\ght to dryness or saturat$ ) moi/ure74 ,dr4 ,s*idl(fsky's app>atus is bas$ ^u ?is pr9ciple4 ,! "q z to ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride pres5t 9 ! air has be5 submitt$ to _m volum9\s & exact rese>*es1 especially ^? ( ,reiset1 ,s*loes+1 ,mntz1 & ,aub91 :o %[$ t ! am\nt is n subject to su* v>iations z at fir/ ann\nc$ on ! basis ( incomplete & insuffici5tly accurate det]m9ations4 #cj ,x is a diff]5t case 9 enclos$ spaces1 9 dwell+s1 cell>s1 wells1 caves1 & m9es1 :]e ! r5ewal ( air is imp$$4 ,"u ^! circum/ances l>ge quantities ( c>bonic anhydride may accumulate4 ,9 cities1 :]e !re are _m conditions = ! evolution ( c>bonic anhydride 7respiration1 decomposition1 combu/ion71 its am\nt is great] ?an 9 free air1 yet ev5 9 /ill wea!r ! diff]5ce does n (t5 exce$ "o t5-?\s&? 7t is1 r>ely atta9s #d in/ead ( #bi vols4 9 #ajjjj vols4 ( air74 #ca ,9 ! sea z well z 9 fre% wat]1 c>bonic acid occurs 9 two =ms1 directly dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 & comb9$ ) lime z calcium bic>bonate 7h>d wat]s sometimes conta9 v mu* c>bonic acid 9 ?is =m74 ,! t5sion ( ! c>bonic anhydride 9 ! fir/ =m v>ies ) ! temp]ature1 & its am\nt ) ! p>tial pressure1 & t 9 ! =m ( acid salts is "u ! same conditions1 = direct exp]im5ts h %[n a simil> dep5d5ce 9 ?is case1 al?\gh ! quantitative relations are diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 #cb ,9 /udy+ ! ph5om5a ( nature ! conclusion is arriv$ at t ! univ]sally reign+ /ate ( mobile equilibrium =ms ! *ief reason = t h>moni\s ord] :i* impresses all obs]v]s4 ,x n unfrequ5tly happ5s t we d n see ! causes regulat+ ! ord] & h>mony2 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance ( c>bonic anhydride1 x is a /rik+ circum/ance t 9 ! fir/ in/ance a se>* 0 made = an h>moni\s & /rict uni=mity1 & 9 incid5tal 7insuffici5tly accurate & fragm5t>y7 obs]vations conditions 7 ev5 f\nd = conclud+ x to be abs5t4 ,:51 lat]1 ! rule ( ?is uni=mity 0 confirm$1 !n ! causes regulat+ su* ord] 7 also discov]$4 ,! rese>*es ( ,s*loes+ 7 ( ?is "*4 ,deville's idea ( ! dissociation ( ! acid c>bonates ( sea-wat] is sugge/$ 9 !m4 ,9 _m o!r cases also1 a correct int]pretation c only foll[ f a detail$ inve/igation4 ,besides nitrog51 oxyg51 moi/ure1 & c>bonic acid1 all ! o!r sub/ances occurr+ 9 air are f\nd 9 inf9itesimally small quantities by weight1 & !re=e ! weight ( a cubic measure ( air dep5ds1 to a s5sible degree1 on ! above-nam$ compon5ts alone4 ,we h already m5tion$ t at #j & #gfj mm4 pressure ! weight ( a cubic litre ( air is #abic gram4 ,?is weight v>ies ) ! accel]ation ( gravity1 g1 s t if g be express$ 9 metres ! weight ( a litre ( air1 e g #jacahdd gram4 ,= ,/4 ,pet]sburg g is ab\t #ihahh1 & !re=e e is ab\t #abidf1cc ! air be+ und]/ood to be dry & free f c>bonic anhydride4 ,tak+ ! am\nt ( ! latt] z #jjc p] #ajj volumes1 we obta9 a great] weight2 = example1 = ,/4 ,pet]sburg e #abidh in/ead ( #abidf gram4 ,! weight ( "o litre ( moi/ air 9 :i* ! t5sion#cd ( ! aque\s vap\r 7p>tial pressure7 f mm41 at a pressure 7total7 ( air ( ,h millimetres1 at a temp]ature t1 w be 7i4e41 if at #j & #gfj mm4 ! weight ( dry air e7 equal to e_/7#a #jjjcfgt7 7,h - #jch;f7_/#gfj4 ,= in/ance1 if ,h #gcj mm41 t #bj1 & f #aj mm4 7! moi/ure is !n slightly bel[ #fj p4c471 ! weight ( a litre ( air at ,/4 ,pet]sburg #aaebg gram4#ce #cc ,! diff]5ce ( ! weight ( a litre ( dry air 7free f c>bonic anhydride7 at #j & #gfj mm41 at diff]5t longitudes & altitudes1 dep5ds on ! fact t ! =ce ( gravity v>ies "u ^! conditions1 & ) x ! pressure ( ! b>ometrical column also v>ies4 ,?is is treat$ 9 detail 9 my works ,on ! ,ela/icity ( ,gases & ,on ,b>ometric ,levell+s1 & ',! ,publications ( ! ,weights & ,measures ,dep>tm5t' 7,j\rnal ( ! ,russian ,physico-,*emical ,society1 #ahid74 ,9 reality ! weight is n measur$ 9 absolute units ( weight 79 pressure--ref] to works on me*anics & physics71 b 9 relative units 7grams1 scale weights7 ^: mass is inv>iable1 & !re=e ! v>iation ( ! weight ( ! weights itself ) ! *ange ( gravity mu/ n be "h tak5 into acc\nt1 = we are "h deal+ ) weights proportional to masses1 s9ce ) a *ange ( locality ! weight ( ! weights v>ies z ! weight ( a giv5 volume ( air does4 ,9 o!r words3 ! mass ( a sub/ance always rema9s con/ant1 b ! pressure produc$ by x v>ies ) ! accel]ation ( gravity3 ! gram1 p\nd1 & o!r units ( weight are really units ( mass4 #cd ,! t5sion ( ! aque\s vap\r 9 ! air is det]m9$ by hygromet]s & o!r simil> me?ods4 ,x may also be det]m9$ by analysis 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #a74 #ce ,= rapid calculation ! weight ( a litre ( air 79 a room7 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 may "u ^! conditions 7,h1 t1 & f7 be obta9$ by ! =mula e #abjfga #jjjaf ,h#a-gee #bf7ah-t7 :]e ,h#a ,h-#jch;f4 ,9 det]m9+ ! weight ( small & heavy objects 7crucibles1 c4 9 analysis1 & 9 det]m9+ ! specific gravities ( liquids1 c47 a correction may be introduc$ = ! loss ( weight 9 ! air ( ! room1 by tak+ ! weight ( a litre ( air displac$ z #ab gram1 & consequ5tly #jjjab gram = e cubic c5timetre4 ,b if gases or1 9 g5]al1 l>ge vessels are weigh$1 & ! weigh+s require to be accurate1 x is necess>y to take into acc\nt all ! data = ! det]m9ation ( ! d5sity ( ! air 7t1 ,h1 & f71 because s5sitive balances c det]m9e ! possible v>iations ( ! weight ( air1 z 9 ! case ( a litre ! weight ( air v>ies 9 c5tigrams1 ev5 at a con/ant temp]ature1 ) v>iations ( ,h & f4 ,"s "t ago 7#ahei7 ,i propos$ ! foll[+ me?od & appli$ x = ?is purpose4 ,a l>ge light & clos$ vessel is tak51 & its volume & weight 9 a vacuum are accurately det]m9$1 & v]ifi$ f "t to "t4 ,on weigh+ x we obta9 ! weight 9 air ( a giv5 d5sity1 & by subtract+ ?is weight f its absolute weight & divid+ by its volume we obta9 ! d5sity ( ! air4 ,! pres5ce ( ammonia1 a comp\nd ( nitrog5 & hydrog51 9 ! air1 is indicat$ by ! fact t all acids expos$ to ! air absorb ammonia f x aft] a "t4 ,de ,saussure obs]v$ t alum9ium sulphate is conv]t$ by air into a d\ble sulphate ( ammonium & alum9ium1 or ! s-call$ ammonia alum4 ,quantitative det]m9ations h %[n t ! am\nt ( ammonia#cf conta9$ 9 air v>ies at diff]5t p]iods4 ,h[ev]1 x may be accept$ t #ajj cubic metres ( air d n conta9 less ?an #a or m ?an #e milligrams ( ammonia4 ,x is rem>kable t m\nta9 air conta9s m ammonia ?an ! air ( valleys4 ,! air 9 ^? places :]e animal sub/ances und]go+ *ange are accumulat$1 & especially t ( /ables1 g5]ally conta9s a mu* great] quantity ( ?is gas4 ,?is is ! reason ( ! peculi> pung5t smell notic$ 9 su* places4 ,moreov] ammonia1 z we %all le>n 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 comb9es ) acids1 & %\ld !re=e be f\nd 9 air 9 ! =m ( su* comb9ations1 s9ce air conta9s c>bonic & nitric acids4 #cf ,s*loes+ /udi$ ! equilibrium ( ! ammonia ( ! atmosph]e & ( ! riv]s1 seas1 c41 & %[$ t ! am\nt ( ! gas is int]*angeable betwe5 !m4 ,! ratio betwe5 ! am\nt ( ammonia 9 a cubic metre ( air & a litre ( wat] at #j #jjjd1 at #aj #jjaj1 at #be #jjdj to #a1 & !re=e 9 nature !re is a /ate ( equilibrium 9 ! am\nt ( ammonia 9 ! atmosph]e & wat]s4 ,! pres5ce ( nitric acid 9 air is prov$ )\t d\bt by ! fact t ra9-wat] conta9s an appreciable am\nt ( x4 ,fur!r 7z already m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv471 air conta9s ozone & hydrog5 p]oxide & nitr\s acid 7& its ammonia salt71 i4e4 sub/ances hav+ a direct oxidis+ action 7= in/ance1 ^u iodiz$ />*-pap]71 b !y are pres5t 9 v small quantities4#cg #cg ,:il/ =m$ 9 ! air ^! oxidis+ sub/ances 7,n#b,o#c1 ozone & hydrog5 p]oxide7 at ! same "t rapidly disappe> f x by oxidis+ ^? sub/ances :i* are capable ( be+ oxidis$4 ,ow+ to ?is in/ability _! am\nts v>y consid]ably1 &1 z w\ld be expect$1 !y are met ) to an appreciable am\nt 9 pure air1 :il/ _! am\nt decreases to z]o 9 ! air ( cities1 & especially 9 dwell+s :]e !re is a maximum ( sub/ances capable ( oxidisation & a m9imum ( conditions = ! =mation ( su* bodies4 ,!re is a causal connection betwe5 ! am\nt ( ^! sub/ances pres5t 9 ! air & its purity--t is1 ! am\nt ( =eign residues ( organic orig9 liable to oxidation pres5t 9 ! air4 ,:]e !re is mu* ( su* residues _! am\nt mu/ be small4 ,:5 !y are pres5t ! am\nt ( organic sub/ances mu/ be small1 z o!rwise !y w\ld be de/roy$4 ,= ?is reason ef=ts h be5 made to apply ozone = purify+ ! air by evolv+ x by artificial means 9 ! atmosph]e2 = in/ance1 by pass+ a s]ies ( electrical sp>ks ?r\gh ! v5tilat+ pipes convey+ air into a build+4 ,air ?us ozonis$ de/roys by oxidation--t is1 br+s ab\t ! combu/ion (--! organic residues pres5t 9 ! air1 & ?us w s]ve = purify+ x4 ,= ^! reasons ! air ( cities conta9s less ozone & su* l oxidis+ ag5ts ?an c\ntry air4 ,?is =ms ! di/+ui%+ feature ( c\ntry air4 ,h[ev]1 animal life _c exi/ 9 air conta9+ a comp>atively l>ge am\nt ( ozone4 ,besides sub/ances 9 a gase\s or vapor\s /ate1#ch !re is always f\nd a m or less consid]able quantity ( sub/ances :i* are n kn[n 9 a /ate ( vap\r4 ,^! sub/ances are pres5t 9 ! air z du/4 ,if a l95 surface1 moi/5$ ) an acid1 be plac$ 9 p]fectly pure air1 !n ! wa%+s are f\nd to conta9 sodium1 calcium1 iron1 & potassium4#ci ,l95 moi/5$ ) an alkali absorbs c>bonic1 sulphuric1 phosphoric1 & hydro*loric acids4 ,fur!r1 ! pres5ce ( organic sub/ances 9 air has be5 prov$ by a simil> exp]im5t4 ,if a glass globe be fill$ ) ice & plac$ 9 a room :]e are a numb] ( p1 !n ! pres5ce ( organic sub/ances1 l album9\s sub/ances1 may be prov$ 9 ! wat] :i* cond5ses on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,x may be t ! miasmas caus+ infection 9 m>%y localities1 hospitals1 & 9 c]ta9 epidemic illnesses proce$ f ! pres5ce ( su* sub/ances 9 ! air 7& especially 9 wat]1 :i* conta9s _m micro-organisms71 z well z f ! pres5ce ( g]ms ( l[] organisms 9 ! air z a m9ute du/4 ,pa/eur prov$ ! exi/5ce ( su* g]ms 9 ! air by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,he plac$ gun-cotton 7pyroxyl971 :i* has ! appe>ance ( ord9>y cotton1 9 a glass tube4 ,gun-cotton is soluble 9 a mixture ( e!r & alcohol1 =m+ ! s-call$ collodion4 ,a curr5t ( air 0 pass$ ?r\gh ! tube = a long p]iod ( "t1 & ! gun-cotton 0 !n dissolv$ 9 a mixture ( e!r & alcohol4 ,an insoluble residue 0 ?us obta9$ :i* actually conta9$ ! g]ms ( organisms1 z 0 %[n by microscopical obs]vations1 & by _! capacity to develop into organisms 7m\ld1 c47 "u fav\rable conditions4 ,! pres5ce ( ^! g]ms det]m9es ! prop]ty ( air ( br++ ab\t ! processes ( putrefaction & f]m5tation--t is ! fundam5tal alt]ation ( organic sub/ances1 :i* is accompani$ by an entire *ange 9 _! prop]ties4 ,! appe>ance ( l[] organisms1 bo? vegetable & animal1 is always to be rem>k$ 9 ^! processes4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 9 ! process ( f]m5tation1 :51 = example1 w9e is procur$ f ! sweet juice ( grapes1 a s$im5t sep>ates out :i* is kn[n "u ! "n ( lees1 & conta9s peculi> yea/ organisms4 ,g]ms are requir$ be=e ^! organisms c appe>4#dj ,!y are float+ 9 ! air1 & fall into ! sweet f]m5table liquid f x4 ,f9d+ !mselves "u fav\rable conditions1 ! g]ms develop into organisms2 !y are n\ri%$ at ! exp5se ( ! organic sub/ance1 & dur+ gr[? *ange & de/roy x1 & br+ ab\t f]m5tation & putrefaction4 ,?is is :y1 = in/ance1 ! juice ( ! grape :5 conta9$ 9 ! sk9 ( ! fruit1 :i* all[s access ( ! air b is imp5etrable to ! g]ms1 does n f]m5t1 does n alt] s long z ! sk9 rema9s intact4 ,?is is also ! reason :y animal sub/ances :5 kept f ! access ( air may be pres]v$ = a great l5g? ( "t4 ,pres]v$ foods = long sea voyages are kept 9 ?is way4#da ,h5ce x is evid5t t h[ev] inf9itesimal ! quantity ( g]ms c>ri$ 9 ! atmosph]e may be1 /ill !y h an imm5se significance 9 nature4#db #ch ,among/ !m we may m5tion iod9e & alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 :i* ,mntz f\nd to be always pres5t 9 air1 ! soil1 & wat]1 al?\gh 9 m9ute traces only4 #ci ,a portion ( ! atmosph]ic du/ is ( cosmic orig92 ?is is und\bt$ly prov$ by ! fact ( its conta9+ metallic iron z d meteorites4 ,nord5skild f\nd iron 9 ! du/ cov]+ sn[1 & ,tiss&i] 9 e k9d ( air1 al?\gh naturally 9 v small quantities4 #dj ,! idea ( ! spontane\s gr[? ( organisms 9 a suitable m$ium1 al?\gh /ill upheld by _m1 has s9ce ! "w ( ,pa/eur & 8 foll[]s 7& to a c]ta9 ext5t ( 8 pr$ecessors7 be5 disc>d$1 because x has be5 prov$ h[1 :51 & :5ce 7f ! air1 wat]1 c47 ! g]ms appe>2 t f]m5tation z well z infecti\s diseases _c take place )\t !m2 & *iefly because x has be5 %[n t any *ange accompani$ by ! developm5t ( ! organisms introduc$ may be br\ght ab\t at w by ! introduction ( ! g]ms into a suitable m$ium4 #da ,9 fur!r confirmation ( ! fact t putrefaction & f]m5tation dep5d on g]ms c>ri$ 9 ! air1 we may cite ! circum/ance t poison\s sub/ances de/roy+ ! life ( organisms /op or h9d] ! appe>ance ( ! above processes4 ,air :i* has be5 heat$ to r$ness or pass$ ?r\gh sulphuric acid no long] conta9s ! g]ms ( organisms1 & loses ! faculty ( produc+ f]m5tation & putrefaction4 #db ,_! pres5ce 9 ! air is naturally due to ! diffusion ( g]ms into ! atmosph]e1 & ow+ to _! microscopical dim5sions1 !y1 z x 71 hang 9 ! air 9 virtue ( _! l>ge surfaces comp>$ to _! weight4 ,9 ,p>is ! am\nt ( du/ susp5d$ 9 ! air equals f #f 7aft] ra97 to #bc grams p] #a1jjj c4m4 ( air4 ,?us we see t air conta9s a great v>iety ( sub/ances4 ,! nitrog51 :i* is f\nd 9 x 9 ! l>ge/ quantity1 has ! lea/ influ5ce on ^? processes :i* are accompli%$ by ! action ( air4 ,! oxyg51 :i* is met ) 9 a less] quantity ?an ! nitrog51 on ! contr>y takes a v important "p 9 a numb] ( reactions2 x supports combu/ion & respiration1 x br+s ab\t decomposition & e process ( sl[ oxidation4 ,! "p play$ by ! moi/ure ( air is well kn[n4 ,! c>bonic anhydride1 :i* is met ) 9 /ill small] quantities1 has an imm5se significance 9 nature1 inasmu* z x s]ves = ! n\ri%m5t ( plants4 ,! importance ( ! ammonia & nitric acid is v great1 because !y are ! s\rces ( ! nitrog5\s sub/ances compris+ an indisp5sable elem5t 9 all liv+ organisms4 ,&1 la/ly1 ! inf9itesimal quantity ( g]ms also h a great significance 9 a numb] ( processes4 ,?us x is n ! quantitative b ! qualitative relations ( ! compon5t p>ts ( ! atmosph]e :i* det]m9e its importance 9 nature4#dc #dc ,we see simil> cases ev]y:]e4 ,= example1 ! pr$om9at+ mass ( s& & clay 9 ! soil takes h>dly any *emical "p 9 ! economy ( ! soil 9 respect to ! n\ri%m5t ( plants4 ,! plants by _! roots se>* = sub/ances :i* are diffus$ 9 comp>atively small quantities 9 ! soil4 ,if a l>ge quantity ( ^! n\ri%+ sub/ances are remov$1 !n ! plants w n develop 9 ! soil1 j z animals die 9 oxyg54 ,air1 be+ a mixture ( v>i\s sub/ances1 may suff] consid]able *anges 9 consequ5ce ( incid5tal circum/ances4 ,x is p>ticul>ly necess>y to rem>k ^? *anges 9 ! composition ( air :i* take place 9 dwell+s & 9 v>i\s localities :]e human be+s h to rema9 dur+ a l5g?y p]iod ( "t4 ,! respiration ( human be+s & animals alt]s ! air4#dd ,a simil> det]ioration ( air is produc$ by ! influ5ce ( decompos+ organic sub/ances1 & especially ( sub/ances burn+ 9 x4#de ,h5ce x is necess>y to h reg>d to ! purification ( ! air ( dwell+s4 ,! r5ewal ( air1 ! replac+ ( respir$ by fre% air1 is t]m$ 'v5tilation1'#df & ! removal ( =eign & injuri\s admixtures f ! air is call$ 'dis9fection4'#dg ,! accumulation ( all k9ds ( impurities 9 ! air ( dwell+s & cities is ! reason :y ! air ( m\nta9s1 =e/s1 seas1 & non-m>%y localities1 cov]$ ) vegetation or sn[1 is di/+ui%$ = its fre%ness1 &1 9 all respects1 b5eficial action4 #dd ,a man 9 brea?+ burns ab\t #aj grams ( c>bon p] h\r--t is1 he produces ab\t #hhj grams1 or 7z #a cub4m4 ( c>bonic anhydride weighs ab\t #b1jjj grams7 ab\t #e_/ab c4m4 ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,! air com+ f ! lungs conta9s #d p4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride by volume4 ,! exhal$ air acts z a direct poison1 ow+ to ?is gas & to o!r impurities4 #de ,= ?is reason c&les1 lamps1 & gas *ange ! composition ( air almo/ 9 ! same way z respiration4 ,9 ! burn+ ( #a kilogram ( /e>9 c&les1 #ej cubic metres ( air are *ang$ z by respiration--t is1 #d p4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride w be =m$ 9 ?is volume ( air4 ,! respiration ( animals & exhalations f _! sk9s1 & especially f ! inte/9es & ! excrem5ts & ! trans=mations tak+ place 9 !m1 contam9ate ! air to a /ill great] ext5t1 because !y introduce o!r volatile sub/ances besides c>bonic anhydride into ! air4 ,at ! same "t t c>bonic anhydride is =m$ ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! air decreases1 & !re is notic$ ! appe>ance ( miasmata :i* occur 9 b small quantity1 b :i* are noticeable 9 pass+ f fre% air into a conf9$ space full ( su* adult]at$ air4 ,! rese>*es ( ,s*midt & ,leblanc & o!rs %[ t ev5 ) #bjf p4c4 ( oxyg5 7in/ead ( #bji p4c471 :5 ! dim9ution is due to respiration1 air becomes noticeably less fit = respiration1 & t ! heavy feel+ exp]i5c$ 9 su* air increases ) a less] p]c5tage ( oxyg54 ,x is difficult to rema9 = a few m9utes 9 air conta9+ #agb p4c4 ( oxyg54 ,^! obs]vations 7 *iefly obta9$ by obs]vations on ! air ( diff]5t m9es1 at diff]5t dep?s bel[ ! surface4 ,! air ( !atres & build+s full ( p also proves to conta9 less oxyg52 x 0 f\nd on "o occasion t at ! end ( a !atrical repres5tation ! air 9 ! /alls conta9$ #bjge p4c4 ( oxyg51 :il/ ! air at ! upp] "p ( ! !atre conta9$ only #bjcf p4c4 ,! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride 9 ! air may be tak5 z a measure ( its purity 7,pett5k(]74 ,:5 x rea*es #a p4c4 x is v difficult = human be+s to rema9 long 9 su* air1 & x is necess>y to set up a vigor\s v5tilation = ! removal ( ! adult]at$ air4 ,9 ord] to keep ! air 9 dwell+s 9 a uni=mly good /ate1 x is necess>y to introduce at lea/ #aj cubic metres ( fre% air p] h\r p] p]son4 ,we saw t a man exhales ab\t five-twelf?s ( a cubic metre ( c>bonic anhydride p] day4 ,accurate obs]vations h %[n t air conta9+ "o-t5? p4c4 ( exhal$ c>bonic anhydride 7& consequ5tly also a correspond+ am\nt ( ! o!r sub/ances evolv$ toge!r ) x7 is n felt to be oppressive2 & !re=e ! five-twelf? cubic metres ( c>bonic anhydride %\ld be dilut$ ) #dbj cubic metres ( fre% air if x be desir$ to keep n m ?an "o-t5? p4c4 7by volume7 ( c>bonic anhydride 9 ! air4 ,h5ce a man requires #dbj cubic metres ( air p] day1 or #ah cubic metres p] h\r4 ,) ! introduction ( only #aj cubic metres ( fre% air p] p]son1 ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride may rea* "o-fif? p4c41 & ! air w n !n be ( ! requisite fre%ness4 #df ,! v5tilation ( inhabit$ build+s is mo/ necess>y1 & is ev5 indisp5sable 9 hospitals1 s*ools1 & simil> build+s4 ,9 w9t] x is c>ri$ on by ! s-call$ calorifi]s or /oves heat+ ! air be=e x ent]s4 ,! be/ k9d ( calorifi]s 9 ?is respect are ^? 9 :i* ! fre% cold air is l$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( pipes heat$ by ! hot gases com+ f a /ove4 ,9 v5tilation1 p>ticul>ly dur+ w9t]1 c>e is tak5 t ! incom+ air %all be moi/1 because 9 w9t] ! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! air is v small4 ,v5tilation1 besides introduc+ fre% air into a dwell+-place1 mu/ also )draw ! air already spoilt by respiration & o!r causes--t is1 x is necess>y to con/ruct *annels = ! escape ( ! bad air1 besides ^? = ! introduction ( fre% air4 ,9 ord9>y dwell+-places1 :]e n _m p are congregat$1 ! v5tilation is conduct$ by natural means1 9 ! heat+ by fires1 ?r\gh crevices1 w9d[s1 & v>i\s orifices 9 walls1 doors1 & w9d[s4 ,9 m9es1 factories1 & workrooms v5tilation is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,animal vitality may /ill cont9ue = a p]iod ( sev]al m9utes 9 air conta9+ up to #cj p4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride1 if ! rema9+ #gj p4c4 consi/ ( ord9>y air2 b respiration ceases aft] a c]ta9 "t1 & dea? may ev5 ensue4 ,! flame ( a c&le is v easily ext+ui%$ 9 an atmosph]e conta9+ f #e to #f p4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride1 b animal vitality c be su/a9$ 9 x = a some:at long "t1 al?\gh ! effect ( su* air is exce$+ly pa9ful ev5 to ! l[] animals4 ,!re are m9es 9 :i* a light$ c&le easily goes out f ! excess ( c>bonic anhydride1 b 9 :i* ! m9]s h to rema9 = a long "t4 ,! pres5ce ( #a p4c4 ( c>bonic oxide is deadly ev5 to cold-blood$ animals4 ,! air 9 ! gall]ies ( a m9e :]e bla/+ has tak5 place1 is kn[n to produce a /ate ( ins5sibility resembl+ t produc$ by *>coal fumes4 ,deep wells & vaults n unfrequ5tly conta9 simil> sub/ances1 & _! atmosph]e (t5 causes suffocation4 ,! atmosph]es ( su* places _c be te/$ by l[]+ a light$ c&le into x1 z ^! poison\s gases w\ld n ext+ui% ! flame4 ,?is me?od only suffices to indicate ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,if a c&le keeps alight1 x signifies t !re is less ?an #f p4c4 ( ?is gas4 ,9 d\btful cases x is be/ to l[] a dog or o!r animal into ! air to be te/$4 ,if ,,co#b be v c>efully add$ to air1 ! flame ( a c&le is n ext+ui%$ 7al?\gh x becomes v mu* small]7 ev5 :5 ! gas am\nts to #ab p4c4 ( air4 ,rese>*es made by ,f4 ,cl[es 7#ahid7 %[ t ! flames 79 e case #c_/d 94 long7 ( diff]5t combu/ible sub/ances are ext+ui%$ by ! gradual addition ( diff]5t p]c5tages ( nitrog5 & c>bonic acid to ! air2 ! p]c5tage suffici5t to ext+ui% ! flame be+ z foll[s 7! p]c5tage ( oxyg5 is giv5 9 p>5!sis73 p4c4 ,,co#b p4c4 ,n4 ,absolute alcohol #ad 7#aha7 #ba 7#aff7 ,c&le #ad 7#aha7 #bb 7#afd7 ,hydrog5 #eh 7 #hh7 #gj 7 #fc7 ,coal gas #cc 7#ada7 #df 7#aac7 ,c>bonic oxide #bd 7#afj7 #bh 7#aea7 ,me?ane #aj 7#ahi7 #ag 7#agd7 ,! flames ( all solid & liquid sub/ances is ext+ui%$ by almo/ ! same p]c5tage ( ,,co#b or ,n#b1 b ! flames ( diff]5t gases v>y 9 ?is respect1 & hydrog5 cont9ues to burn 9 mixtures :i* are f> poor] 9 oxyg5 ?an ^? 9 :i* ! flames ( o!r combu/ible gases are ext+ui%$2 ! flame ( me?ane ,,*#d is ! mo/ easily ext+ui%$4 ,! p]c5tage ( nitrog5 may be great] ?an t ( ,,co#b4 ,?is1 toge!r ) ! fact t1 "u ! above circum/ances1 ! flame ( a gas be=e go+ out becomes fa9t] & increases 9 size1 seems to indicate t ! *ief reason = ! ext9ction ( ! flame is ! fall 9 its temp]ature4 #dg ,diff]5t s-call$ dis9fectants purify ! air1 & prev5t ! injuri\s action ( c]ta9 ( its compon5ts by *ang+ or de/roy+ !m4 ,dis9fection is especially necess>y 9 ^? places :]e a consid]able am\nt ( volatile sub/ances are evolv$ into ! air1 & :]e organic sub/ances are decompos$2 = in/ance1 9 hospitals1 closets1 c4 ,! num]\s dis9fectants are ( ! mo/ v>i$ nature4 ,!y may be divid$ into oxidis+1 antiseptic1 & absorb5t sub/ances4 ,to ! oxidis+ sub/ances us$ = dis9fection belong *lor9e1 & v>i\s sub/ances evolv+ x1 because *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] oxidises ! majority ( organic sub/ances1 & ?is is :y *lor9e is us$ z a dis9fectant = ,sib]ian plagues4 ,fur!r1 to ?is class belong ! p]manganates ( ! alkalis & p]oxide ( hydrog51 z sub/ances easily oxidis+ matt]s dissolv$ 9 wat]2 ^! salts are n volatile l *lor9e1 & !re=e act mu* m sl[ly1 & 9 a mu* m limit$ sph]e4 ,antiseptic sub/ances are ^? :i* conv]t organic sub/ances into su* z are little prone to *ange1 & prev5t putrefaction & f]m5tation4 ,!y mo/ probably kill ! g]ms ( organisms occurr+ 9 miasmata4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! sub/ances are creosote & ph5ol 7c>bolic acid71 :i* occur 9 t>1 & act 9 pres]v+ smok$ meat4 ,ph5ol is a sub/ance little soluble 9 wat]1 volatile1 oily1 & hav+ ! *>act]i/ic smell ( smok$ objects4 ,its action on animals 9 consid]able quantities is injuri\s1 b 9 small quantities1 us$ 9 ! =m ( a weak solution1 x prev5ts ! *ange ( animal matt]4 ,! smell ( privies1 :i* dep5ds on ! *ange ( excrem5tal matt]1 may be easily remov$ by means ( *lor9e or ph5ol4 ,salicylic acid1 ?ymol1 common t>1 & especially its solution 9 alkalis z propos$ by ,n5sky1 c41 are also sub/ances hav+ ! same prop]ty4 ,absorb5t sub/ances are ( no less importance1 especially z prev5tatives1 ?an ! prec$+ two classes ( dis9fectants1 inasmu* z !y are innocu\s4 ,!y are ^? sub/ances :i* absorb ! odorif]\s gases & vap\rs emitt$ dur+ putrefaction1 :i* are *iefly ammonia1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 & o!r volatile comp\nds4 ,to ?is class belong *>coal1 c]ta9 salts ( iron1 gypsum1 salts ( magnesia1 & simil> sub/ances1 z well z peat1 m\ld1 & clay4 ,que/ions ( dis9fection & v5tilation app]ta9 to ! mo/ s]i\s problems ( common life & hygi5e4 ,^! que/ions are s va/ t we are "h able only to give a %ort outl9e ( _! nature4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,nitrog5 ,,) ,,hydrog5 ,,& ,,oxyg5 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,! dry di/illation ( bones on a l>ge scale4 ,! bones are heat$ 9 ! v]tical cyl9d]s ,c 7ab\t #a-a_/b metre high & #cj c5timetres 9 diamet]74 ,! products ( di/illation pass ?r\gh ! tubes ,t1 into ! cond5s] ,b1 & receiv] ,f4 ,:5 ! di/illation is complet$ ! trap ,h is op5$1 & ! burnt bones are load$ into trucks ,v4 ,! ro( ,m is !n op5$1 & ! cyl9d]s are *>g$ ) a fre% quantity ( bones4 ,! ammonia wat] is pres]v$1 & goes to ! prep>ation ( ammoniacal salts1 z describ$ 9 ! foll[+ draw+4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] we saw t nitrog5 does n directly comb9e ) hydrog51 b t a mixture ( ^! gases 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid gas1 ,h,cl1 =ms ammonium *loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 on ! passage ( a s]ies ( electric sp>ks4#a ,9 ammonium *loride1 ,h,cl is comb9$ ) ,,nh#c1 consequ5tly ,n ) ,h#c =ms ammonia4#b ,almo/ all ! nitrog5\s sub/ances ( plants & animals evolve ammonia :5 heat$ ) an alkali4 ,b ev5 )\t ! pres5ce ( an alkali ! majority ( nitrog5\s sub/ances1 :5 decompos$ or heat$ ) a limit$ supply ( air1 evolve _! nitrog51 if n entirely1 at all ev5ts p>tially1 9 ! =m ( ammonia4 ,:5 animal sub/ances su* z sk9s1 bones1 fle%1 hair1 horns1 c41 are heat$ )\t access ( air 9 iron retorts--!y und]go :at is t]m$ dry di/illation4 ,a portion ( ! resultant sub/ances rema9s 9 ! retort & =ms a c>bonace\s residue1 :il/ ! o!r portion1 9 virtue ( its volatility1 escapes ?r\gh ! tube lead+ f ! retort4 ,! vap\rs giv5 (f1 on cool+1 =m a liquid :i* sep>ates into two lay]s2 ! "o1 :i* is oily1 is compos$ ( ! s-call$ animal oils 7oleum animale73 ! o!r1 an aque\s lay]1 conta9s a solution ( ammonia salts4 ,if ?is solution be mix$ ) lime & heat$1 ! lime takes up ! elem5ts ( c>bonic acid f ! ammonia salts1 & ammonia is evolv$ z a gas4#c ,9 anci5t times ammonia comp\nds 7 import$ into ,europe f ,egypt1 :]e !y 7 prep>$ f ! soot obta9$ 9 ! employm5t ( camels' dung z fuel 9 ! locality ( ! temple ( ,jupit] ,ammon 79 ,lybia71 & !re=e ! salt obta9$ 0 call$ 'sal-ammoniacale1' f :i* ! "n ( ammonia is d]iv$4 ,at ! pres5t "t ammonia is obta9$ exclusively1 on a l>ge scale1 ei!r f ! products ( ! dry di/illation ( animal or vegetable refuse1 f ur9e1 or f ! ammoniacal liquors collect$ 9 ! de/ructive di/illation ( coal = ! prep>ation ( coal gas4 ,?is ammoniacal liquor is plac$ 9 a retort ) lime & heat$2 ! ammonia is !n evolv$ toge!r ) /eam4#d ,9 ! arts1 only a small am\nt ( ammonia is us$ 9 a free /ate--t is1 9 an aque\s solution2 ! great] portion ( x is conv]t$ into diff]5t salts hav+ te*nical uses1 especially sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 & ammonium sulphate1 7,,nh#d7b,,s#d4 ,!y are sal9e sub/ances :i* are =m$ because ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 comb9es ) all acids1 ,,hx1 =m+ ammonia salts1 ,,nh#d,x4 ,sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 is a comp\nd ( ammonia ) hydro*loric acid4 ,x is prep>$ by pass+ ! vap\rs ( ammonia & wat]1 evolv$1 z above describ$1 f ammoniacal liquor1 into an aque\s solution ( hydro*loric acid1 & on evaporat+ ! solution sal-ammoniac is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( soluble cry/als#e resembl+ common salt 9 appe>ance & prop]ties4 ,ammonia may be v easily prep>$ f ?is sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 z f any o!r ammoniacal salt1 by heat+ x ) lime4 ,calcium hydroxide1 ,ca,h#b,o#b1 z an alkali takes up ! acid & sets free ! ammonia1 =m+ calcium *loride1 accord+ to ! equation #b,,nh#d;,cl ,ca,h#b,o#b #b;,h#b,o ,ca,cl#b #b,,nh#c4 ,9 ?is reaction ! ammonia is evolv$ z a gas4#f ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,me?od ( ab/ract+ ammonia1 on a l>ge scale1 f ammonia wat] obta9$ at gas works by ! dry di/illation ( coal1 or by ! f]m5tation ( ur9e1 c4 ,?is wat] is mix$ ) lime & p\r$ into ! boil] ,c1 & f !nce into ,c & ,c consecutively4 ,! la/ boil] is heat$ directly ov] a furnace1 & h5ce no ammonia rema9s 9 solution aft] ! liquid has be5 boil$ 9 x4 ,! liquid is !re=e !n ?r[n away4 ,! ammonia vap\r & /eam pass f ! boil] ,c1 ?r\gh ! tube ,t1 into ! boil] ,c1 & !n into ,c1 s t ! solution 9 ,c becomes /rong] ?an t 9 ,c1 & /ill /rong] 9 ,c4 ,! boil]s are furni%$ ) /irr]s ,a1 ,a1 & ,a to prev5t ! lime settl+4 ,f ,c ! ammonia & /eam pass ?r\gh ! tube ,t into worm cond5s]s surr\nd$ ) cold wat]1 !nce into ! ,w\lfe's bottle ,p1 :]e ! solution ( ammonia is collect$1 & f9ally ! /ill uncond5s$ ammonia vap\r is l$ into ! flat vessel ,r1 conta9+ acid :i* absorbs ! la/ traces ( ammonia4 #a ,! ammonia 9 ! air1 wat]1 & soil proce$s f ! decomposition ( ! nitrog5\s sub/ances ( plants & animals1 & also probably f ! r$uction ( nitrates4 ,ammonia is always =m$ 9 ! ru/+ ( iron4 ,its =mation 9 ?is case dep5ds 9 all probability on ! decomposition ( wat]1 & on ! action ( ! hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( its evolution on ! nitric acid conta9$ 9 ! air 7,cloez71 or on ! =mation ( ammonium nitrite1 :i* takes place "u _m circum/ances4 ,! evolution ( vap\rs ( ammonia comp\nds is sometimes obs]v$ 9 ! vic9ity ( volcanoes4 ,at a r$ heat nitrog5 comb9es directly ) ,b ,ca ,mg1 & ) _m o!r metals1 & ^! comp\nds1 :5 heat$ ) a cau/ic alkali1 or 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 give ammonia 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #ad1 & ,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #ab74 ,^! are examples ( ! indirect comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) hydrog54 #b ,if a sil5t dis*>ge or a s]ies ( electric sp>ks be pass$ ?r\gh ammonia gas1 x is decompos$ into nitrog5 & hydrog54 ,?is is a ph5om5on ( dissociation2 !re=e1 a s]ies ( sp>ks d n totally decompose ! ammonia1 b leave a c]ta9 portion undecompos$4 ,"o volume ( nitrog5 & ?ree volumes ( hydrog5 are obta9$ f two volumes ( ammonia decompos$4 ,ramsay & ,"y 7#ahhd7 inve/igat$ ! decomposition ( ,,nh#c "u ! action ( heat1 & %[$ t at #ejj1 #a-a_/b p4c4 is decompos$1 at #fjj ab\t #ah p4c41 at #hjj #fe p4c41 b ^! results 7 h>dly free f ! influ5ce ( 'contact4' ,! pres5ce ( free ammonia--t is1 ammonia n comb9$ ) acids--9 a gas or aque\s solution may be recognis$ by its *>act]i/ic smell4 ,b _m ammonia salts d n possess ?is smell4 ,h[ev]1 on ! addition ( an alkali 7= in/ance1 cau/ic lime1 pota%1 or soda71 !y evolve ammonia gas1 especially :5 heat$4 ,! pres5ce ( ammonia may be made visible by introduc+ a sub/ance moi/5$ ) /rong hydro*loric acid into its neighb\rhood4 ,a :ite cl\d1 or visible :ite vap\r1 !n makes its appe>ance4 ,?is dep5ds on ! fact t bo? ammonia & hydro*loric acid are volatile1 & on com+ into contact ) ea* o!r produce solid sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 :i* =ms a cl\d4 ,?is te/ is usually made by dipp+ a glass rod into hydro*loric acid1 & hold+ x ov] ! vessel f :i* ! ammonia is evolv$4 ,) small am\nts ( ammonia ?is te/ is1 h[ev]1 untru/wor?y1 z ! :ite vap\r is sc>cely obs]vable4 ,9 ?is case x is be/ to take pap] moi/5$ ) m]cur\s nitrate1 ,hg,n,o#c4 ,?is pap] turns black 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonia1 ow+ to ! =mation ( a black comp\nd ( ammonia ) m]cur\s oxide4 ,! smalle/ traces ( ammonia 7= in/ance1 9 riv] wat]7 may be detect$ by means ( ! s-call$ ,nessl]'s reag5t1 conta9+ a solution ( m]curic *loride & potassium iodide1 :i* =ms a br[n coloration or precipitate ) ! smalle/ quantities ( ammonia4 ,x w be useful "h to give ! !rmo*emical data 79 ?\s&s ( units ( heat1 accord+ to ,?oms571 or ! quantities ( heat evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( ammonia & its comp\nds 9 quantities express$ by _! =mul4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 7,n ,h#c7 #bfg indicates t #ad grams ( nitrog5 9 comb9+ ) #c grams ( hydrog5 develop suffici5t heat to raise ! temp]ature ( #bfg kilograms ( wat] #a4 7,,nh#c n,h#b,o7 #hd 7heat ( solution72 7,,nh#c1n,h#b,o ,h,cl1n,h#b,o7 #abc2 7,n ,h#d ,cl7 #ijf2 7,,nh#c ,h,cl7 #dai4 #c ,! same ammonia wat] is obta9$1 al?\gh 9 small] quantities1 9 ! dry di/illation ( plants & ( coal1 :i* consi/s ( ! rema9s ( fossil plants4 ,9 all ^! cases ! ammonia proce$s f ! de/ruction ( ! complex nitrog5\s sub/ances occurr+ 9 plants & animals4 ,! ammonia salts employ$ 9 ! arts are prep>$ by ?is me?od4 #d ,! te*nical me?ods = ! prep>ation ( ammonia wat]1 & = ! extraction ( ammonia f x1 are to a c]ta9 ext5t expla9$ 9 ! figures accompany+ ! text4 #e ,usually ^! cry/als are sublim$ by heat+ !m 9 crucibles or pots1 :5 ! vap\rs ( sal-ammoniac cond5se on ! cold cov]s z a cru/1 9 :i* =m ! salt comes into ! m>ket4 #f ,on a small scale ammonia may be prep>$ 9 a glass flask by mix+ equal p>ts by weight ( slak$ lime & f9ely-p[d]$ sal-ammoniac1 ! neck ( ! flask be+ connect$ ) an arrangem5t = dry+ ! gas obta9$4 ,9 ?is in/ance nei!r calcium *loride nor sulphuric acid c be us$ = dry+ ! gas1 s9ce bo? ^! sub/ances absorb ammonia1 & !re=e solid cau/ic pota%1 :i* is capable ( reta9+ ! wat]1 is employ$4 ,! gas-conduct+ tube lead+ f ! desiccat+ app>atus is introduc$ into a m]cury ba?1 if dry gase\s ammonia be requir$1 because wat] _c be employ$ 9 collect+ ammonia gas4 ,ammonia 0 fir/ obta9$ 9 ?is dry /ate by ,prie/ley1 & its composition 0 inve/igat$ by ,b]?ollet at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,oxide ( lead mix$ ) sal-ammoniac 7,isamb]t7 evolves ammonia ) /ill great] ease ?an lime4 ,! cause & process ( ! decomposition are almo/ ! same1 #b,pb,o #b,,nh#d;,cl ,pb#b,o,cl#b ,h#b,o #b,,nh#c4 ,lead oxy*loride is 7probably7 =m$4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t all ! complex nitrog5\s sub/ances ( plants1 animals1 & soils are decompos$ :5 heat$ ) an excess ( sulphuric acid1 ! :ole ( _! nitrog5 be+ conv]t$ into ammonium sulphate1 f :i* x may be lib]at$ by treatm5t ) an excess ( alkali4 ,?is reaction is s complete t x =ms ! basis ( ,kjeldahl's me?od = e/imat+ ! am\nt ( nitrog5 9 its comp\nds4 ,ammonia is a col\rless gas1 resembl+ ^? ) :i* we are already acqua9t$ 9 its outw>d appe>ance1 b cle>ly di/+ui%able f any o!r gas by its v *>act]i/ic & pung5t smell4 ,x irritates ! eyes1 & x is positively impossible to inhale x4 ,animals die 9 x4 ,its d5sity1 ref]r$ to hydrog51 is #he2 h5ce x is light] ?an air4 ,x belongs to ! class ( gases :i* are easily liquefi$4#g ,f>aday employ$ ! foll[+ me?od = liquefy+ ammonia4 ,ammonia :5 pass$ ov] dry silv] *loride1 ,ag,cl1 is absorb$ by x to a consid]able ext5t1 especially at l[ temp]atures4#h ,! solid comp\nd ,ag,cl1#c,,nh#c ?us obta9$ is introduc$ into a b5t tube 7fig4 #de71 ^: op5 end c is !n fus$ up4 ,! comp\nd is !n slightly heat$ at a1 & ! ammonia comes (f1 ow+ to ! easy dissociation ( ! comp\nd4 ,! o!r end ( ! tube is imm]s$ 9 a freez+ mixture4 ,! pressure ( ! gas com+ (f1 comb9$ ) ! l[ temp]ature at "o end ( ! tube1 causes ! ammonia evolv$ to cond5se into a liquid1 9 :i* =m x collects at ! cold end ( ! tube4 ,if ! heat+ be /opp$1 ! silv] *loride aga9 absorbs ! ammonia4 ,9 ?is mann] "o tube may s]ve = repeat$ exp]im5ts4 ,ammonia may also be liquefi$ by ! ord9>y me?ods--t is1 by means ( pump+ dry ammonia gas into a refrig]at$ space4 ,liquefi$ ammonia is a col\rless & v mobile liquid1#i ^: specific gravity at #j is #jfc 7,e4 ,&reff74 ,at ! temp]ature 7ab\t -#gj7 giv5 by a mixture ( liquid c>bonic anhydride & e!r1 liquid ammonia cry/allises1 & 9 ?is =m its od\r is feeble1 because at s l[ a temp]ature its vap\r t5sion is v inconsid]able4 ,! boil+ po9t 7at a pressure ( #gfj mm47 ( liquid ammonia is ab\t -#cb4 ,h5ce ?is temp]ature may be obta9$ at ! ord9>y pressure by ! evaporation ( liquefi$ ammonia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,! liquefaction ( ammonia 9 a ?ick b5t glass tube4 ,a comp\nd ( *loride ( silv] & ammonia is plac$ 9 ! end a1 & ! end c is !n seal$ up4 #g ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,c>r's app>atus4 ,describ$ 9 text4 ,?is is evid5t f ! fact t its absolute boil+ po9t lies at ab\t #acj 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bi74 ,x may !re=e be liquefi$ by pressure alone at ! ord9>y1 & ev5 at mu* high] temp]atures4 ,! lat5t heat ( evaporation ( #ag p>ts by weight ( ammonia equals #d1djj units ( heat1 & h5ce liquid ammonia may be employ$ = ! production ( cold4 ,/rong aque\s solutions ( ammonia1 :i* 9 p>t+ ) _! ammonia act 9 a simil> mann]1 are n unfrequ5tly employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,suppose a saturat$ solution ( ammonia to be conta9$ 9 a clos$ vessel furni%$ ) a receiv]4 ,if ! ammoniacal solution be heat$1 ! ammonia1 ) a small quantity ( wat]1 w pass (f f ! solution1 & 9 accumulat+ 9 ! app>atus w produce a consid]able pressure1 & w !re=e liquefy 9 ! cool] portions ( ! receiv]4 ,h5ce liquid ammonia w be obta9$ 9 ! receiv]4 ,! heat+ ( ! vessel conta9+ ! aque\s solution ( ammonia is !n /opp$4 ,aft] hav+ be5 heat$ x conta9s only wat]1 or a solution poor 9 ammonia4 ,:5 once x beg9s to cool ! ammonia vap\rs comm5ce dissolv+ 9 x1 ! space becomes r>efi$1 & a rapid vaporisation ( ! liquefi$ ammonia left 9 ! receiv] takes place4 ,9 evaporat+ 9 ! receiv] x w cause ! temp]ature 9 x to fall consid]ably1 & w itself pass into ! aque\s solution4 ,9 ! end1 ! same ammoniacal solution z orig9ally tak5 is re-obta9$4 ,?us1 9 ?is case1 on heat+ ! vessel ! pressure increases by itself1 & on cool+ x dim9i%es1 s t "h heat directly replaces me*anical "w4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple ( ! simple/ =ms ( ,c>r's ice-mak+ ma*9es1 %[n 9 fig4 #dd4 ,c is a vessel made ( boil] plates into :i* ! saturat$ solution ( ammonia is p\r$2 m is a tube conduct+ ! ammonia vap\r to ! receiv] ,a4 ,all p>ts ( ! app>atus %\ld be h]metically jo9$ toge!r1 & %\ld be able to )/& a pressure rea*+ t5 atmosph]es4 ,! app>atus %\ld be fre$ f air1 :i* w\ld o!rwise h9d] ! liquefaction ( ! ammonia4 ,! process is c>ri$ on z foll[s3--,! app>atus is fir/ s incl9$ t any liquid rema9+ 9 ,a may fl[ into ,c4 ,! vessel ,c is !n plac$ ^u a /ove ,f1 & heat$ until ! !rmomet] t indicates a temp]ature ( #acj ,c4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! ammonia has be5 expell$ f ,c1 & has liquefi$ 9 ,a4 ,9 ord] to facilitate ! liquefaction1 ! receiv] ,a %\ld be imm]s$ 9 a tank ( wat] ,r 7see ! left-h& draw+ 9 fig4 #dd74 ,aft] ab\t half an h\r1 :5 x may be suppos$ t ! ammonia has be5 expell$1 ! fire is remov$ f "u ,c1 & ?is is n[ imm]s$ 9 ! tank ( wat] ,r4 ,! app>atus is repres5t$ 9 ?is position 9 ! "r-h& draw+ ( fig4 #dd4 ,! liquefi$ ammonia !n evaporates1 & passes ov] into ! wat] 9 ,c4 ,?is causes ! temp]ature ( ,a to fall consid]ably4 ,! sub/ance to be refrig]at$ is plac$ 9 a vessel ,g1 9 ! cyl9drical space inside ! receiv] ,a4 ,! refrig]ation is also kept on = ab\t half an h\r1 & ) an app>atus ( ord9>y dim5sions 7conta9+ ab\t two litres ( ammonia solution71 five kilograms ( ice are produc$ by ! consumption ( "o kilogram ( coal4 ,9 indu/rial works m complicat$ types ( ,c>r's ma*9es are employ$4 #h ,bel[ #ae 7accord+ to ,isamb]t71 ! comp\nd ,ag,cl1#c,,nh#c is =m$1 & above #bj ! comp\nd #b;,ag,cl1#c,,nh#c4 ,! t5sion ( ! ammonia evolv$ f ! latt] sub/ance is equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure at #fh1 :il/ = ,ag,cl1#c,,nh#c ! pressures are equal at ab\t #bj2 consequ5tly1 at high] temp]atures x is great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 :il/ at l[] temp]atures ! ammonia is absorb$ & =ms ?is comp\nd4 ,consequ5tly1 all ! ph5om5a ( dissociation are "h cle>ly to be obs]v$4 ,joannis & ,croisi] 7#ahid7 inve/igat$ simil> comp\nds ) ,ag,br1 ,ag,i1 ,ag,c,n & ,ag,n,o#c1 & f\nd t !y all give def9ite comp\nds ) ,,nh#c1 = in/ance ,ag,br1#c,,nh#c1 #b;,ag,br1#c,,nh#c & ,ag,br1#b,,nh#c2 !y are all col\rless1 solid sub/ances :i* decompose "u ! atmosph]ic pressure at #ce1 #cd & #ea4 #i ,! liquefaction ( ammonia may be accompli%$ )\t an increase ( pressure1 by means ( refrig]ation alone1 9 a c>efully prep>$ mixture ( ice & calcium *loride 7because ! absolute boil+ po9t ( ,,nh#c is high1 ab\t #acj74 ,x may ev5 take place 9 ! sev]e fro/s ( a ,russian w9t]4 ,! application ( liquid ammonia z a motive p[] = eng9es =ms a problem :i* has to a c]ta9 ext5t be5 solv$ by ! ,fr5* eng9e] ,telli]4 ,ammonia1 conta9+1 z x does1 mu* hydrog51 is capable ( combu/ion2 x does n1 h[ev]1 burn /eadily1 & sometimes n at all1 9 ord9>y atmosph]ic air4 ,9 pure oxyg5 x burns ) a gre5i%-yell[ flame1#aj =m+ wat]1 :il/ ! nitrog5 set free gives its oxyg5 comp\nds--t is1 oxides ( nitrog54 ,! decomposition ( ammonia into hydrog5 & nitrog5 n only takes place at a r$ heat & "u ! action ( electric sp>ks1 b also by means ( _m oxidis+ sub/ances2 = in/ance1 by pass+ ammonia ?r\gh a tube conta9+ r$-hot copp] oxide4 ,! wat] ?us =m$ may be collect$ by sub/ances absorb+ x1 & ! quantity ( nitrog5 may be measur$ 9 a gase\s =m1 & ?us ! composition ( ammonia det]m9$4 ,9 ?is mann] x is v easy to prove t ammonia conta9s #c p>ts by weight ( hydrog5 to #ad p>ts by weight ( nitrog52 &1 by volume1 #c vols4 ( hydrog5 & #a vol4 ( nitrog5 =m #b vols4 ( ammonia4#aa #aj ,! combu/ion ( ammonia 9 oxyg5 may be effect$ by ! aid ( plat9um4 ,a small quantity ( an aque\s solution ( ammonia1 conta9+ ab\t #bj p4c4 ( ! gas1 is p\r$ into a wide-neck$ beak] ( ab\t "o litre capacity4 ,a gas-conduct+ tube ab\t #aj mm4 9 diamet]1 & supply+ oxyg51 is imm]s$ 9 ! aque\s solution ( ammonia4 ,b be=e introduc+ ! gas an inc&esc5t plat9um spiral is plac$ 9 ! beak]2 ! ammonia 9 ! pres5ce ( ! plat9um is oxidis$ & burns1 :il/ ! plat9um wire becomes /ill m inc&esc5t4 ,! solution ( ammonia is heat$1 & oxyg5 pass$ ?r\gh ! solution4 ,! oxyg51 z x bubbles (f f ! ammonia solution1 c>ries ) x a "p ( ! ammonia1 & ?is mixture explodes on com+ into contact ) ! inc&esc5t plat9um4 ,?is is foll[$ by a c]ta9 cool+ effect1 ow+ to ! combu/ion ceas+1 b aft] a %ort int]val ?is is r5ew$1 s t "o feeble explosion foll[s aft] ano!r4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( oxidation )\t explosion1 :ite vap\rs ( ammonium nitrite & r$-br[n vap\rs ( oxides ( nitrog5 make _! appe>ance1 :ile dur+ ! explosion !re is complete combu/ion & consequ5tly wat] & nitrog5 are =m$4 #aa ,?is may be v]ifi$ by _! d5sities4 ,nitrog5 is #ad times d5s] ?an hydrog51 & ammonia is #h-a_/b times4 ,if #c volumes ( hydrog5 ) #a volume ( nitrog5 gave #d volumes ( ammonia1 !n ^! #d volumes w\ld weigh #ag times z mu* z #a volume ( hydrog52 consequ5tly #a volume ( ammonia w\ld be #d-a_/d times heavi] ?an ! same volume ( hydrog54 ,b if ^! #d volumes only give #b volumes ( ammonia1 ! latt] w be #h-a_/b times z d5se z hydrog51 :i* is f\nd to be actually ! case4 ,ammonia is capable ( comb9+ ) a numb] ( sub/ances1 =m+1 l wat]1 sub/ances ( v>i\s degrees ( /ability4 ,x is m soluble ?an any ( ! gases yet describ$1 bo? 9 wat] & 9 _m aque\s solutions4 ,we h already se51 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 t "o volume ( wat]1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 dissolves ab\t #gjj vols4 ( ammonia gas4 ,! great solubility ( ammonia enables x to be always kept ready = use 9 ! =m ( an aque\s solution1#ab :i* is comm]cially kn[n z spirits ( h>t%orn4 ,ammonia wat] is cont9ually evolv+ ammoniacal vap\r1 & s has ! *>act]i/ic smell ( ammonia itself4 ,x is a v *>act]i/ic & important fact t ammonia has an alkal9e reaction1 & col\rs litmus pap] blue1 j l cau/ic pota% or lime2 x is !re=e sometimes call$ cau/ic ammonia 7volatile alkali74 ,acids may be saturat$ by ammonia wat] or gas 9 exactly ! same way z by any o!r alkali4 ,9 ?is process ammonia comb9es directly ) acids1 & ?is =ms ! mo/ ess5tial *emical reaction ( ?is sub/ance4 ,if sulphuric1 nitric1 acetic1 or any o!r acid be br\ght into contact ) ammonia x absorbs x1 & 9 s do+ evolves a l>ge am\nt ( heat & =ms a comp\nd hav+ all ! prop]ties ( a salt4 ,?us1 = example1 sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 9 absorb+ ammonia1 =ms 7on evaporat+ ! solution7 two salts1 accord+ to ! relative quantities ( ammonia & acid4 ,"o salt is =m$ f ,,nh#c ,h#b,,s#d1 & consequ5tly has ! composition ,,nh#e,,s#d1 & ! o!r is =m$ f #b,,nh#c ,h#b,,s#d1 & its composition is !re=e ,n#b;,h#h,,s#d4 ,! =m] has an acid reaction & ! latt] a neutral reaction1 & !y are call$ respectively acid ammonium sulphate 7ammonium hydrog5 sulphate71 & normal ammonium sulphate1 or simply ammonium sulphate4 ,! same takes place 9 ! action ( all o!r acids2 b c]ta9 ( !m are able to =m normal ammonium salts only1 :il/ o!rs give bo? acid & normal ammonium salts4 ,?is dep5ds on ! nature ( ! acid & n on ! ammonia1 z we %all aft]w>ds see4 ,ammonium salts are v simil> 9 appe>ance & 9 _m ( _! prop]ties to metallic salts2 = in/ance1 sodium *loride1 or table salt1 resembles sal-ammoniac1 or ammonium *loride1 n only 9 its outw>d appe>ance b ev5 9 cry/all9e =m1 9 its prop]ty ( giv+ precipitates ) silv] salts1 9 its solubility 9 wat]1 & 9 its evolv+ hydro*loric acid :5 heat$ ) sulphuric acid--9 a ^w1 a mo/ p]fect analogy is to be rem>k$ 9 an entire s]ies ( reactions4 ,an analogy 9 composition is se5 if sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 be comp>$ ) table salt1 ,na,cl2 & ! ammonium hydrog5 sulphate1 ,,nh#d;,,hso#d1 ) ! sodium hydrog5 sulphate1 ,na,h,s,o#d2 or ammonium nitrate1 ,,nh#d,,no#c1 ) sodium nitrate1 ,na,n,o#c4ac ,x is se51 on comp>+ ! above comp\nds1 t ! "p :i* sodium takes 9 ! sodium salts is play$ 9 ammonium salts by a gr\p ,,nh#d1 :i* is call$ ammonium4 ,if table salt be call$ 'sodium *loride1' !n sal-ammoniac %\ld be & is call$ 'ammonium *loride4' #ab ,aque\s solutions ( ammonia are light] ?an wat]1 & at #ae1 tak+ wat] at #d #aj1jjj1 _! specific gravity1 z dep5d5t on p1 or ! p]c5tage am\nt 7by weight7 ( ammonia1 is giv5 by ! expression s #i1iib-dbep #jbap#b2 = in/ance1 ) #aj p4c4 s #i1ehg4 ,if t repres5ts ! temp]ature betwe5 ! limits ( #aj & #bj1 !n ! expression 7#ae-t77#ae #jadp7 mu/ be add$ to ! =mula = ! specific gravity4 ,solutions conta9+ m ?an #bd p4c4 h n be5 suffici5tly inve/igat$ 9 respect to ! v>iation ( _! specific gravity4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 easy to obta9 m conc5trat$ solutions1 & at #j solutions approa*+ ,,nh#c1;,h#b,o 7#dhf p4c4 ,,nh#c7 9 _! composition1 & ( sp4 gr4 #jhe1 may be prep>$4 ,b su* solutions give up ! bulk ( _! ammonia at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 s t m ?an #bd p4c4 ,,nh#c is r>ely conta9$ 9 solution4 ,ammoniacal solutions conta9+ a consid]able am\nt ( ammonia give ice-l cry/als :i* seem to conta9 ammonia at temp]atures f> bel[ #j 7= in/ance1 an #h p4c4 solution at -#ad1 ! /ronge/ solutions at -#dh74 ,! :ole ( ! ammonia may be expell$ f a solution by heat+1 ev5 at a comp>atively l[ temp]ature2 h5ce on heat+ aque\s solutions conta9+ ammonia a v /rong solution ( ammonia is obta9$ 9 ! di/illate4 ,alcohol1 e!r1 & _m o!r liquids are also capable ( dissolv+ ammonia4 ,solutions ( ammonia1 :5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 give (f a "p ( _! ammonia 9 accordance ) ! laws ( ! solution ( gases 9 liquids1 :i* we h already consid]$4 ,b ! ammoniacal solutions at ! same "t absorb c>bonic anhydride f ! air1 & ammonium c>bonate rema9s 9 ! solution4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,app>atus = prep>+ solutions ( ammonia4 ,solutions ( ammonia are requir$ bo? = laboratory & factory op]ations1 & h !re=e to be frequ5tly prep>$4 ,= ?is purpose ! arrangem5t %[n 9 fig4 #df is employ$ 9 ! laboratory4 ,9 works ! same arrangem5t is us$1 only on a l>g] scale 7) e>!nw>e or metallic vessels74 ,! gas is prep>$ 9 ! retort1 f :5ce x is l$ into ! two-neck$ globe ,a1 & !n ?r\gh a s]ies ( ,w\lfe's bottles1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e4 ,! impurities spurt+ ov] collect 9 ,a1 & ! gas is dissolv$ 9 ,b1 b ! solution soon becomes saturat$1 & a pur] 7wa%$7 ammonia passes ov] into ! foll[+ vessels1 9 :i* only a pure solution is obta9$4 ,! b5t funnel tube 9 ! retort pres]ves ! app>atus f ! possibility bo? ( ! pressure ( ! gas evolv$ 9 x becom+ too great 7:5 ! gas escapes ?r\gh x into ! air71 & also f ! pressure incid5tally fall+ too l[ 7= in/ance1 ow+ to a cool+ effect1 or f ! reaction /opp+74 ,if ?is takes place1 ! air passes into ! retort1 o!rwise ! liquid f ,b w\ld be drawn into ,a4 ,! safety tubes 9 ea* ,w\lfe's bottle1 op5 at bo? ends1 & imm]s$ 9 ! liquid1 s]ve = ! same purpose4 ,)\t !m1 9 case ( an accid5tal /oppage 9 ! evolution ( s soluble a gas z ammonia1 ! solution w\ld be suck$ f "o vessel to ano!r--= in/ance1 f ,e into ,d1 c4 ,9 ord] to cle>ly see ! necessity = safety tubes 9 a gas app>atus1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! gase\s pressure 9 ! int]ior ( ! arrangem5t mu/ exce$ ! atmosph]ic pressure by ! height ( ! sum ( ! columns ( liquid ?r\gh :i* ! gas has to pass4 #ac ,! analogy betwe5 ! ammonium & sodium salts might seem to be de/roy$ by ! fact t ! latt] are =m$ f ! alkali or oxide & an acid1 ) ! sep>ation ( wat]1 :il/ ! ammonium salts are directly =m$ f ammonia & an acid1 )\t ! sep>ation ( wat]2 b ! analogy is re/or$ if we comp>e soda to ammonia wat]1 & lik5 cau/ic soda to a comp\nd ( ammonia ) wat]4 ,!n ! v prep>ation ( ammonium salts f su* a hydrate ( ammonia w completely resemble ! prep>ation ( sodium salts f soda4 ,we may cite z an example ! action ( hydro*loric acid on bo? sub/ances4 ,na,h,o ,h,cl ,h#b,o ,na,cl ,sodium hydroxide ,hydro*loric acid ,wat] ,table salt ,,nh#d;,,ho ,h,cl ,h#bj ,,nh#d;,cl ,ammonium hydroxide ,hydro*loric acid ,wat] ,sal-ammoniac ,j z 9 soda ! hydroxyl or aque\s radicle ,,oh is replac$ by *lor9e1 s x is 9 ammonia hydrate4 ,! hypo!sis t ammoniacal salts correspond ) a complex metal ammonium be>s ! "n ( ! ammonium !ory4 ,x 0 enunciat$ by ! fam\s ,sw$i% *emi/ ,b]zelius aft] ! proposition made by ,ampre4 ,! analogy admitt$ betwe5 ammonium & metals is probable1 ow+ to ! fact t m]cury is able to =m an amalgam ) ammonium simil> to t :i* x =ms ) sodium or _m o!r metals4 ,! only diff]5ce betwe5 ammonium amalgam & sodium amalgam consi/s 9 ! in/ability ( ! ammonium1 :i* easily decomposes into ammonia & hydrog54#ad ,ammonium amalgam may be prep>$ f sodium amalgam4 ,if ! latt] be %ak5 up ) a /rong solution ( sal-ammoniac1 ! m]cury swells up viol5tly & loses its mobility :il/ pres]v+ its metallic appe>ance4 ,9 s do+1 ! m]cury dissolves ammonium--t is1 ! sodium 9 ! m]cury is replac$ by ! ammonium1 & replaces x 9 ! sal-ammoniac1 =m+ sodium *loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl ,hg,na ,na,cl ,hg,n,h#d4 ,naturally1 ! =mation ( ammonium amalgam does n entirely prove ! exi/5ce ( ammonium itself 9 a sep>ate /ate2 b x %[s ! possibility ( ?is sub/ance exi/+1 & its analogy ) ! metals1 because only metals dissolve 9 m]cury4#ae ,ammonium amalgam cry/allises 9 cubes1 ?ree times heavi] ?an wat]2 x is only /able 9 ! cold1 & p>ticul>ly at v l[ temp]atures4 ,x beg9s to decompose at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 evolv+ ammonia & hydrog5 9 ! proportion ( two volumes ( ammonia & "o volume ( hydrog51 ,,nh#d ,,nh#c ,h4 ,by ! action ( wat]1 ammonium amalgam gives hydrog5 & ammonia wat]1 j z sodium amalgam gives hydrog5 & sodium hydroxide2 & !re=e1 9 accordance ) ! ammonium !ory1 ammonia wat] mu/ be look$ on z conta9+ ammonium hydroxide1 ,,nh#d,,oh1#af j z an aque\s solution ( sodium hydroxide1 conta9s ,na,o,h4 ,! ammonium hydroxide1 l ammonium itself1 is an un/able sub/ance1 :i* easily dissociates1 & c only exi/ 9 a free /ate at l[ temp]atures4#ag ,ord9>y solutions ( ammonia mu/ be look$ on z ! products ( ! dissociation ( ?is hydroxide1 inasmu* z ,,nh#d,,oh ,,nh#c ,h#b,o4 #ad ,weyl 7#ahfd7 by subject+ sodium to ! action ( ammonia at ! ord9>y temp]ature & "u consid]able pressures1 obta9$ a liquid1 :i* 0 subsequ5tly inve/igat$ by ,joannis 7#ahhi71 :o confirm$ ! results obta9$ by ,weyl4 ,at #j & ! atmosph]ic pressure ! composition ( ?is sub/ance is ,na #ec,,nh#c4 ,! removal 7at #j7 ( ammonia f ! liquid gives a solid copp]-r$ body hav+ ! composition ,,nh#c,na4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! molecul> weight ( ?is sub/ance by ! fall ( ! t5sion ( liquid ammonia gave ,n#b;,h#f,na#b4 ,x is1 !re=e1 free ammonium 9 :i* "o ,h is replac$ by ,na4 ,! comp\nd ) potassium1 obta9$ "u ! same conditions1 prov$ to h an analog\s composition4 ,by ! decomposition ( ,,nh#c,na at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ,joannis 7#ahia7 obta9$ hydrog5 & sodium-amide ,,nh#b,na 9 small col\rless cry/als :i* 7 soluble 9 wat]4 ,! addition ( liquid ammonia to metallic sodium & a saturat$ solution ( sodium *loride1 gives ,,nh#b,na#b;,cl1 & ?is sub/ance is sal-ammoniac1 9 :i* ,h#b is replac$ by ,na#b4 ,if pure oxyg5 be pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( ^! comp\nds 9 ammonia at a temp]ature ( ab\t -#ej1 x is se5 t ! gas is rapidly absorb$4 ,! liquid gradually loses its d>k r$ col\r & becomes light]1 & :5 x has become q col\rless a gelat9\s precipitate is ?r[n d[n4 ,aft] ! removal ( ! ammonia1 ?is precipitate dissolves easily 9 wat] ) a consid]able evolution ( heat1 b )\t giv+ (f any gase\s products4 ,! composition ( ! sodium comp\nd ?us obta9$ is ,,nh#b,na#b;,,ho1 :i* %[s t x is a hydrate ( bisodium-ammonium4 ,?us1 al?\gh free ammonium has n be5 obta9$1 /ill a sodium sub/itution product ( x is kn[n :i* corresponds to x z a salt to a hydrate4 ,ammonium amalgam 0 orig9ally obta9$ 9 exactly ! same way z sodium amalgam 7,davy72 namely1 a piece ( sal-ammoniac 0 tak51 & moi/5$ ) wat] 79 ord] to r5d] x a conductor ( electricity74 ,a cavity 0 made 9 x1 into :i* m]cury 0 p\r$1 & x 0 laid on a %eet ( plat9um connect$ ) ! positive pole ( a galvanic batt]y1 :ile ! negative pole 0 put into connection ) ! m]cury4 ,on pass+ a curr5t ! m]cury increas$ consid]ably 9 volume1 & became pla/ic1 :il/ pres]v+ its metallic appe>ance1 j z w\ld be ! case 7 ! sal-ammoniac replac$ by a lump ( a sodium salt or ( _m o!r metals4 ,9 ! analog\s decomposition ( common metallic salts1 ! metal conta9$ 9 a giv5 salt sep>ates out at ! negative pole1 imm]s$ 9 m]cury1 by :i* ! metal is dissolv$4 ,a simil> ph5om5on is obs]v$ 9 ! case ( sal-ammoniac2 ! elem5ts ( ammonium1 ,,nh#d1 9 ?is case are also collect$ 9 ! m]cury1 & are reta9$ by x = a c]ta9 "t4 #ae ,we may m5tion1 h[ev]1 t "u p>ticul> conditions hydrog5 is also capable ( =m+ an amalgam resembl+ ! amalgam ( ammonium4 ,if an amalgam ( z9c be %ak5 up ) an aque\s solution ( plat9um *loride1 )\t access ( air1 !n a spongy mass is =m$ :i* easily decomposes1 ) ! evolution ( hydrog54 #af ,we saw above t ! solubility ( ammonia 9 wat] at l[ temp]atures atta9s to ! molecul> ratio ,,nh#c ,h#b,o1 9 :i* ^! sub/ances are conta9$ 9 cau/ic ammonia1 & p]haps x may be possible at exce$+ly l[ temp]atures to obta9 ammonium hydroxide1 ,,nh#d;,,ho1 9 a solid =m4 ,reg>d+ solutions z dissociat$ def9ite comp\nds1 we %\ld see a confirmation ( ?is view 9 ! prop]ty %[n by ammonia ( be+ extremely soluble 9 wat]1 & 9 s do+ ( approa*+ to ! limit ,,nh#d;,,ho4 #ag ,9 confirmation ( ! tru? ( ?is conclusion we may cite ! rem>kable fact t !re exi/1 9 a free /ate & z comp>atively /able comp\nds1 a s]ies ( alkal9e hydroxides1 ,,nr#d;,,ho1 :i* are p]fectly analog\s to ammonium hydroxide1 & pres5t a /rik+ resemblance to x & to sodium hydroxide1 ) ! only diff]5ce t ! hydrog5 9 ,,nh#d;,,ho is replac$ by complex gr\ps1 ,r ,,*#c1 ,c#b;,h#e1 c41 = in/ance ,n7,,*#c7d;,,ho4 ,details w be f\nd 9 organic *emi/ry4 ,all ammoniacal salts decompose at a r$ heat into ammonia & an acid1 :i*1 on cool+ 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 re-comb9e toge!r4 ,if ! acid be non-volatile1 ! ammoniacal salt1 :5 heat$1 evolves ! ammonia1 leav+ ! non-volatile acid beh9d2 if ! acid be volatile1 !n1 on heat+1 bo? ! acid & ammonia volatilise toge!r1 & on cool+ re-comb9e into ! salt :i* orig9ally s]v$ = ! =mation ( _! vap\rs4#ah #ah ,! fact t ammoniacal salts are decompos$ :5 ignit$1 & n simply sublim$1 may be prov$ by a direct exp]im5t ) sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 :i* 9 a /ate ( vap\r is decompos$ into ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 & hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 z w be expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,! read9ess ) :i* ammonium salts decompose is se5 f ! fact t a solution ( ammonium oxalate is decompos$ ) ! evolution ( ammonia ev5 at -#a4 ,dilute solutions ( ammonium salts1 :5 boil$ give aque\s vap\r hav+ an alkal9e reaction1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( free ammonia giv5 (f f ! salt4 ,ammonia is n only capable ( comb9+ ) acids1 b also ) _m salts1 z 0 se5 f its =m+ def9ite comp\nds1 ,ag,cl1#c,,nh#c & #b;,ag,cl1#c,,nh#c1 ) silv] *loride4 ,j z ammonia is absorb$ by v>i\s oxyg5 salts ( ! metals1 s also is x absorb$ by ! *lor9e1 iod9e1 & brom9e comp\nds ( _m metals1 & 9 s do+ evolves heat4 ,c]ta9 ( ^! comp\nds "p ) _! ammonia ev5 :5 left expos$ to ! air1 b o!rs only d s at a r$ heat2 _m give up _! ammonia :5 dissolv$1 :il/ o!rs dissolve )\t decomposition1 & :5 evaporat$ sep>ate f _! solutions un*ang$4 ,all ^! facts only indicate t ammoniacal1 l aque\s1 comp\nds dissociate ) great] or less] facility4#ai ,c]ta9 metallic oxides also absorb ammonia & are dissolv$ 9 ammonia wat]4 ,su* are1 = in/ance1 ! oxides ( z9c1 nickel1 copp]1 & _m o!rs2 ! majority ( su* comp\nds are un/able4 ,! prop]ty ( ammonia ( comb9+ ) c]ta9 oxides expla9s its action on c]ta9 metals4#bj ,by reason ( su* action1 copp] vessels are n suitable = hold+ liquids conta9+ ammonia4 ,iron is n act$ on by su* liquids4 #ai ,isamb]t /udi$ ! dissociation ( ammoniacal comp\nds1 z we h se5 9 ,note #h1 & %[$ t at l[ temp]atures _m salts are able to comb9e ) a /ill great] am\nt ( ammonia1 :i* proves an entire analogy ) hydrates2 & z 9 ?is case x is easy to isolate ! def9ite comp\nds1 & z ! lea/ possible t5sion ( ammonia is great] ?an t ( wat]1 !re=e ! ammoniacal comp\nds pres5t a great & peculi> int]e/1 z a means = expla9+ ! nature ( aque\s solutions & z a confirmation ( ! hypo!sis ( ! =mation ( def9ite comp\nds 9 !m2 = ^! reasons we %all frequ5tly ref] to ^! comp\nds 9 ! fur!r exposition ( ?is "w4 #bj ,*apt] ,v41 ,note #b4 ,! simil>ity betwe5 ! relation ( ammonia & wat] to salts & o!r sub/ances is m especially m>k$ 9 ^? cases 9 :i* ! salt is capable ( comb9+ ) bo? ammonia & wat]4 ,take1 = example1 copp] sulphate1 ,cu,s,o#d4 ,z we saw 9 ,*apt] ,i41 x gives ) wat] blue cry/als1 ,cu,s,o#d1e;,h#b,o2 b x also absorbs ammonia 9 ! same molecul> proportion1 =m+ a blue sub/ance1 ,cu,s,o#d1e,,nh#c1 & !re=e ! ammonia comb9+ ) salts may be t]m$ ammonia ( cry/allisation4 ,su* are ! reactions ( comb9ation prop] to ammonia4 ,let u n[ turn our att5tion to ! reactions ( sub/itution prop] to ?is sub/ance4 ,if ammonia be pass$ ?r\gh a heat$ tube conta9+ metallic sodium1 hydrog5 is evolv$1 & a comp\nd is obta9$ conta9+ ammonia 9 :i* "o atom ( hydrog5 is replac$ by an atom ( sodium1 ,,nh#b,na 7accord+ to ! equation ,,nh#c ,na ,,nh#b,na ,h74 ,?is body is t]m$ sodium amide4 ,we %all aft]w>ds see t iod9e & *lor9e are also capable ( directly displac+ hydrog5 f ammonia1 & ( replac+ x4 ,9 fact1 ! hydrog5 ( ammonia may be replac$ 9 _m ways by diff]5t elem5ts4 ,if 9 ?is replacem5t ,,nh#b rema9s1 ! resultant sub/ances ,,nh#b,r are call$ amides1 :il/ ! sub/itution products1 ,,nhr#b1 9 :i* only ,,nh rema9s1 are call$ imides1#bj bis & ^? 9 :i* none ( ! ammoniacal hydrog5 rema9s1 ,,nr#c1 are kn[n z nitrides4 ,free amidog51 ,n#b;,h#d1 is n[ kn[n 9 a /ate ( hydration "u ! "n ( hydraz9e2#ba x comb9es ) acids & resembles ammonia 9 ?is respect4 ,9 ! action ( diff]5t sub/ances on ammonia x is ! hydrog5 t is sub/itut$1 :il/ ! nitrog5 rema9s 9 ! resultant comp\nd1 s to say1 unt\*$4 ,! same ph5om5on is to be obs]v$ 9 ! action ( v>i\s sub/ances on wat]4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! reactions ( wat] consi/ 9 ! hydrog5 be+ evolv$1 & 9 its be+ replac$ by diff]5t elem5ts4 ,?is also takes place1 z we h se51 9 acids 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is easily displac$ by metals4 ,?is *emical mobility ( hydrog5 is p]haps connect$ ) ! great lightness ( ! atoms ( ?is elem5t4 #bj bis ,imide1 ,,nh1 has n be5 obta9$ 9 a free /ate1 b its hydro*loric acid salt1 ,n,h,h,cl1 has app>5tly be5 obta9$ 7#ahij7 by ,maum5 by ignit+ ! d\ble bi*loride ( plat9um & ammonium *loride1 ,pt,cl#b,,nh#d;,cl ,pt #b;,h,cl ,n,h,h,cl4 ,x is soluble 9 wat]1 & cry/allises f its solution 9 hexagonal rhombic prisms4 ,x gives a d\ble salt ) ,fe,cl#c ( ! composition ,fe,cl#cc,n,h,h,cl4 ,! salt ,n,h,h,cl is simil> 7isom]ic7 ) ! fir/ possible product ( ! metalepsis ( ammonia1 ,,nh#b;,cl1 al?\gh x does n resemble x 9 any ( its prop]ties4 #ba ,free amidog5 or hydraz9e1 ,n#b;,h#d1 or #b,,nh#b1 0 prep>$ by ,curtius 7#ahhg7 by means ( e?yl diazoacetate1 or triazoacetic acid4 ,curtius & ,jay 7#ahhi7 %[$ t triazoacetic acid1 ,,*n#b4;,,cooh 7! =mula %\ld be tripl$71 :5 heat$ ) wat] or a m9]al acid1 gives 7quantitatively7 oxalic acid & amidog5 7hydraz9e71 ,,*n#b4;,,cooh #b;,h#b,o ,c#b,o#b7,,oh7#b ,n#b;,h#d--;i4e4 7empirically71 ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] replaces ! nitrog5 ( ! azoacetic acid4 ,! amidog5 is ?us obta9$ 9 ! =m ( a salt4 ,) acids1 amidog5 =ms v /able salts ( ! two types ,n#b;,h#d;,,hx & ,n#b;,h#d;,h#b,x#b1 z1 = example1 ) ,h,cl1 ,h#b,,s#d1 c4 ,^! salts are easily cry/allis$2 9 acid solutions !y act z p[]ful r$uc+ ag5ts1 evolv+ nitrog52 :5 ignit$ !y are decompos$ into ammoniacal salts1 nitrog51 & hydrog52 ) nitrites !y evolve nitrog54 ,! sulphate ,n#b;,h#d1;,h#b,,s#d is sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat] 7#c p>ts 9 #ajj ( wat]71 b is v soluble 9 hot wat]2 its specific gravity is #acgh1 x fuses at #bed ) decomposition4 ,! hydro*loride ,n#b;,h#d1b;,h,cl cry/allises 9 octah$ra1 is v soluble 9 wat]1 b n 9 alcohol2 x fuses at #aih1 evolv+ hydrog5 *loride & =m+ ! salt ,n#b;,h#d;,h,cl2 :5 rapidly heat$ x decomposes ) an explosion2 ) plat9ic *loride x imm$iately evolves nitrog51 =m+ plat9\s *loride4 ,by ! action ( alkalis ! salts ,n#b;,h#d1b;,,hx give hydrate ( amidog51 ,n#b;,h#d1;,h#b,o1 :i* is a fum+ liquid 7specific gravity #ajc71 boil+ at #aai1 almo/ )\t od\r1 & ^: aque\s solution corrodes glass & india-rubb]1 has an alkal9e ta/e & poison\s prop]ties4 ,! r$uc+ capacities ( ! hydrate are cle>ly se5 f ! fact t x r$uces ! metals plat9um & silv] f _! solutions4 ,) m]curic oxide x explodes4 ,x reacts directly ) ! aldehydes ,,ro1 =m+ ,n#b,r#b & wat]2 = example1 ) b5zaldehydes x gives ! v /able insoluble b5zalaz9e 7,c#f;,h#e;,,*n7#b ( a yell[ col\r4 ,we may add t hydraz9e (t5 =ms d\ble salts2 = example1 ,mg,s,o#d,n#b;,h#d;,h#b,,s#d or ,k,cl,n#b;,h#d;,h,cl1 & t x is also =m$ by ! action ( nitr\s acid ^u aldehyde-ammonia4 ,! products ( ! sub/itution ( ! hydrog5 9 hydraz9e by hydroc>bon gr\ps ,r 7,r ,,*#c1 ,c#b;,h#e1 ,c#f;,h#e1 c47 7 obta9$ be=e hydraz9e itself2 = example1 ,,nhrnh#b1 ,,nr#b,,nh#b1 & 7,,nrh7#b4 ,! heat ( solution ( ! sulphuric acid salt 7#a "p 9 #bjj & #cjj p>ts ( wat] at #ajh7 is equal to -#hg ,c4 ,accord+ to ,b]!lot & ,matigon 7#ahib71 ! heat ( neutralisation ( hydraz9e by sulphuric acid is #ee ,c & by hydro*loric acid #eb ,c4 ,?us hydraz9e is a v feeble base1 = its heat ( saturation is n only l[] ?an t ( ammonia 7#abd ,c4 = ,h,cl71 b ev5 bel[ t ( hydroxylam9e 7#ic ,c47 ,! heat ( =mation f ! elem5ts ( hydrat$ hydraz9e -#ie ,c 0 d$uc$ f ! heat ( combu/ion1 det]m9$ by burn+ ,n#b;,h#d;,h#b,,s#d 9 a calorimetric bomb1 #abgg ,c4 ,?us hydraz9e is an endo!rmal comp\nd2 its passage into ammonia by ! comb9ation ( hydrog5 is accompani$ by ! evolution ( #eae ,c4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( an acid ^! figures 7 great] by #add ,c4 ,h5ce ! direct conv]se passage f ammonia into hydraz9e is impossible4 ,z reg>ds ! passage ( hydroxylam9e into hydraz9e1 x w\ld be accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat 7#bae ,c47 9 an aque\s solution4 ,amidog5 mu/ be reg>d$ z a comp\nd :i* /&s to ammonia 9 ! same relation z hydrog5 p]oxide /&s to wat]4 ,wat]1 ,h7,,oh71 gives1 accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 z 0 cle>ly to be expect$1 7,,oh77,,oh7--t is1 p]oxide ( hydrog5 is ! free radicle ( wat] 7hydroxyl74 ,s also ammonia1 ,h7,,nh#b71 =ms hydraz9e1 7,,nh#b77,,nh#b7--t is1 ! free radicle ( ammonia1 ,,nh#b1 or amidog54 ,9 ! case ( phosphorus a simil> sub/ance1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 has long be5 kn[n "u ! "n ( liquid phosphurett$ hydrog51 ,p#b;,h#d4 ,9 practical *emi/ry#ba bis ammonia is (t5 employ$1 n only = saturat+ acids1 b also = effect+ reactions ( d\ble decomposition ) salts1 & especially = sep>at+ insoluble basic hydroxides f soluble salts4 ,let ,,mho /& = an insoluble basic hydroxide & ,,hx = an acid4 ,! salt =m$ by !m w h a composition ,,mho ,,xh-,h#b,o ,,mx4 ,if aque\s ammonia1 ,,nh#d,,oh1 be add$ to a solution ( ?is salt1 ! ammonia w *ange places ) ! metal ,m1 & ?us =m ! insoluble basic hydroxide1 or1 z x is said1 give a precipitate4 ,,mx ,,nh#d7,,oh7 ,,nh#d,x ,,mho ,salt ( ! metal4 ,aque\s ammonia4 ,ammonium salt4 ,basic hydrate4 ,9 solution ,9 solution ,9 solution ,z precipitate #ba bis ,9 practice1 ! applications ( ammonia are v v>i$4 ,! use ( ammonia z a /imulant1 9 ! =ms ( ! s-call$ 'smell+ salts' or ( spirits ( h>t%orn1 9 cases ( fa9tness1 c41 is kn[n to ev]yone4 ,! volatile c>bonate ( ammonium1 or a mixture ( an ammonium salt ) an alkali1 is also employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,ammonia also produces a well-kn[n /imulat+ effect :5 rubb$ on ! sk91 = :i* reason x is sometimes employ$ = ext]nal applications4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! well-kn[n volatile salve is prep>$ f any liquid oil %ak5 up ) a solution ( ammonia4 ,a portion ( ! oil is ?us trans=m$ into a soapy sub/ance4 ,! solubility ( greasy sub/ances 9 ammonia1 :i* proce$s f ! =mation bo? ( emulsions & soaps1 expla9s its use 9 extract+ grease spots4 ,x is also employ$ z an ext]nal application = /+s f insects1 & = bites f poison\s snakes1 & 9 g5]al 9 m$ic9e4 ,x is also rem>kable t 9 cases ( drunk5ness a few drops ( ammonia 9 wat] tak5 int]nally rapidly r5d]s a p]son sob]4 ,a l>ge quantity ( ammonia is us$ 9 dye+1 ei!r = ! solution ( c]ta9 dyes--= example1 c>m9e--or = *ang+ ! t9ts ( o!rs1 or else = neutralis+ ! action ( acids4 ,x is also employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( artificial pe>ls4 ,= ?is purpose ! small scales ( a peculi> small fi% are mix$ ) ammonia1 & ! liquid s obta9$ is bl[n into small holl[ glass beads %ap$ l pe>ls4 ,9 nature & ! arts1 h[ev]1 ammonium salts1 & n free ammonia1 are mo/ frequ5tly employ$4 ,9 ?is =m a portion ( t nitrog5 :i* is necess>y = ! =mation ( album9\s sub/ances is suppli$ to plants4 ,ow+ to ?is1 a l>ge quantity ( ammonium sulphate is n[ employ$ z a f]tilis+ sub/ance4 ,b ! same effect may be produc$ by nitre1 or by animal refuse1 :i* 9 decompos+ gives ammonia4 ,= ?is reason1 an ammoniacal 7hydrog57 comp\nd may be introduc$ into ! soil 9 ! spr+ :i* w be conv]t$ into a nitrate 7oxyg5 salt7 9 ! summ]4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 if aque\s ammonia is add$ to a solution ( a salt ( alum9ium1 !n alum9a hydrate is sep>at$ out z a col\rless gelat9\s precipitate4#bb #bb ,z c]ta9 basic hydrates =m peculi> comp\nds ) ammonia1 9 "s cases x happ5s t ! fir/ portions ( ammonia add$ to a solution ( a salt produce a precipitate1 :il/ ! addition ( a fre% quantity ( ammonia dissolves ?is precipitate if ! ammoniacal comp\nd ( ! base be soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is1 = example1 takes place ) ! copp] salts4 ,b alum9a does n dissolve "u ^! circum/ances4 ,9 ord] to grasp ! relation betwe5 ammonia & ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog5 x is necess>y to recognise ! g5]al law ( sub/itution1 applicable to all cases ( sub/itution betwe5 elem5ts1#bc & !re=e %[+ :at may be ! cases ( sub/itution betwe5 oxyg5 & hydrog5 z compon5t p>ts ( wat]4 ,! law ( sub/itution may be d$uc$ f me*anical pr9ciples if ! molecule be conceiv$ z a sy/em ( elem5t>y atoms occurr+ 9 a c]ta9 *emical & me*anical equilibrium4 ,by lik5+ ! molecule to a sy/em ( bodies 9 a /ate ( motion--= in/ance1 to ! sum total ( ! sun1 planets1 & satellites1 exi/+ 9 conditions ( mobile equilibrium--!n we %\ld expect ! action ( "o "p1 9 ?is sy/em1 to be equal & opposite to ! o!r1 accord+ to ,newton's ?ird law ( me*anics4 ,h5ce1 giv5 a molecule ( a comp\nd1 = in/ance1 ,h#b,o1 ,,nh#c1 ,na,cl1 ,h,cl1 c41 its e two p>ts mu/ 9 a *emical s5se repres5t two ?+s some:at alike 9 =ce & prop]ties1 & !re=e e two p>ts into :i* a molecule ( a comp\nd may be divid$ are capable ( replac+ ea* o!r4 ,9 ord] t ! application ( ! law %\ld become cle> x is evid5t t among comp\nds ! mo/ /able %\ld be *os54 ,we w !re=e take hydro*loric acid & wat] z ! mo/ /able comp\nds ( hydrog54#bd ,accord+ to ! above law ( sub/itution1 if ! elem5ts ,h & ,cl are able to =m a molecule1 ,h,cl1 & a /able "o1 !y are able to replace ea* o!r4 ,&1 inde$1 we %all aft]w>ds see 7,*apt] ,,xi47 t 9 a numb] ( in/ances a sub/itution betwe5 hydrog5 & *lor9e c take place4 ,giv5 ,,rh1 !n ,r,cl is possible1 because ,h,cl exi/s & is /able4 ,! molecule ( wat]1 ,h#b,o1 may be divid$ 9 two ways1 because x conta9s #c atoms3 into ,h & 7,,ho7 on ! "o h&1 & into ,h#b & ,o on ! o!r4 ,consequ5tly1 be+ giv5 ,,rh1 its sub/itution products w be ,r7,,ho7 accord+ to ! fir/ =m1 & ,r#b,o accord+ to ! second2 be+ giv5 ,,rh#b1 its correspond+ sub/itution products w be ,,rh7,,oh71 ,r7,,oh7#b1 ,,ro1 7,,rh7#b,o1 c4 ,! gr\p 7,,oh7 is ! same hydroxyl or aque\s radicle :i* we h already m5tion$ 9 ! ?ird *apt] z a compon5t "p ( hydroxides & alkalis--= in/ance1 ,na7,,oh71 ,ca7,,oh7#b1 c4 ,x is evid5t1 judg+ f ,h7,,ho7 & ,h,cl1 t 7,,oh7 c be sub/itut$ by ,cl1 because bo? are replaceable by ,h2 & ?is is ( common occurr5ce 9 *emi/ry1 because metallic *lorides--= example1 ,na,cl & ,,nh#d;,cl--correspond ) hydroxides ( ! alkalis ,na7,,oh7 or ,,nh#d7,,oh74 ,9 hydroc>bons--= in/ance1 ,c#b;,h#f--! hydrog5 is replaceable by *lor9e & by hydroxyl4 ,?us ord9>y alcohol is ,c#b;,h#f1 9 :i* "o atom ( ,h is replac$ by 7,,oh72 t is1 ,c#b;,h#e7,,oh74 ,x is evid5t t ! replacem5t ( hydrog5 by hydroxyl ess5tially =ms ! ph5om5on ( oxidation1 because ,,rh gives ,r7,,oh71 or ,,rho4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide may 9 ?is s5se be reg>d$ z wat] 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is replac$ by hydroxyl2 ,h7,,oh7 gives 7,,oh7#b or ,h#b,o#b4 ,! o!r =m ( sub/itution--namely1 t ( ,o 9 ! place ( ,h#b--;is also a common *emical ph5om5on4 ,?us alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 or ,c#b;,h#e7,,oh71 :5 oxidis+ 9 ! air1 gives acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b1 or ,c#b;,h#c,o7,,oh71 9 :i* ,h#b is replac$ by ,o4 #bc ,:5 ! elem5t *lor9e1 z we %all aft]w>ds m fully le>n1 replaces ! elem5t hydrog51 ! reaction by :i* su* an ex*ange is accompli%$ proce$s z a sub/itution1 ,,ah ,cl#b ,a,cl ,h,cl1 s t two sub/ances1 ,,ah & *lor9e1 react on ea* o!r1 & two sub/ances1 ,a,cl & ,h,cl1 are =m$2 & fur!r1 two molecules react on ea* o!r1 & two o!rs are =m$4 ,! reaction proce$s v easily1 b ! sub/itution ( "o elem5t1 ,a1 by ano!r1 ,x1 does n always proce$ ) su* ease1 cle>ness1 or simplicity4 ,! sub/itution betwe5 oxyg5 & hydrog5 is v r>ely accompli%$ by ! reaction ( ! free elem5ts1 b ! sub/itution betwe5 ^! elem5ts1 "o = ano!r1 =ms ! mo/ common case ( oxidation & r$uction4 ,9 speak+ ( ! law ( sub/itution1 ,i h 9 view ! sub/itution ( ! elem5ts "o by ano!r1 & n ! direct reaction ( sub/itution4 ,! law ( sub/itution det]m9es ! cycle ( ! comb9ations ( a giv5 elem5t1 if a few ( its comp\nds 7= in/ance1 ! hydrog5 comp\nds7 be kn[n4 ,a developm5t ( ! conceptions ( ! law ( sub/itution may be f\nd 9 my lecture giv5 at ! ,royal ,in/itution 9 ,london1 #ahhi4 #bd ,if hydrog5 p]oxide be tak5 z a />t+ po9t1 !n /ill high] =ms ( oxidation ?an ^? correspond+ ) wat] %\ld be look$ =4 ,!y %\ld possess ! prop]ties ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 especially t ( p>t+ ) _! oxyg5 ) extreme ease 7ev5 by contact74 ,su* comp\nds are kn[n4 ,p]nitric1 p]sulphuric1 & simil> acids pres5t ^! prop]ties1 z we %all see 9 describ+ !m4 ,9 ! fur!r c\rse ( ?is "w we %all h occasion to ref] to ! law ( sub/itution = expla9+ _m *emical ph5om5a & relations4 ,we w n[ apply ^! conceptions to ammonia 9 ord] to see its relation to ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog54 ,x is evid5t t _m sub/ances %\ld be obta9able f ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 or aque\s ammonia1 ,,nh#d7,,oh71 by sub/itut+ _! hydrog5 by hydroxyl1 or ,h#b by oxyg54 ,& su* is ! case4 ,! two extreme cases ( su* sub/itution w be z foll[s3 7#a7 ,"o atom ( ,h 9 ,,nh#c is sub/itut$ by 7,,oh71 & ,,nh#b7,,oh7 is produc$4 ,su* a sub/ance1 /ill conta9+ mu* hydrog51 %\ld h _m ( ! prop]ties ( ammonia4 ,x is kn[n "u ! "n ( hydroxylam9e1#be &1 9 fact1 is capable1 l ammonia1 ( giv+ salts ) acids2 = example1 ) hydro*loric acid1 ,,nh#c7,,oh7,cl--:i* is a sub/ance correspond+ to sal-ammoniac1 9 :i* "o atom ( hydrog5 is replac$ by hydroxyl4#be bis 7#b7 ,! o!r extreme case ( sub/itution is t giv5 by ammonium hydroxide1 ,,nh#d7,,oh71 :5 ! :ole ( ! hydrog5 ( ! ammonium is replac$ by oxyg52 &1 z ammonium conta9s #d atoms ( hydrog51 ! highe/ oxyg5 comp\nd %\ld be ,,no#b7,,oh71 or ,,nho#c1 z we f9d to be really ! case1 = ,,nho#c is nitric acid1 exhibit+ ! highe/ degree ( oxidation ( nitrog54#bf ,if in/ead ( ! two extreme aspects ( sub/itution we take an int]m$iate "o1 we obta9 ! int]m$iate oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog54 ,= in/ance1 ,n7,,oh7#c is or?onitr\s acid1#bg to :i* corresponds nitr\s acid1 ,,no7,,oh71 or ,,nho#b1 equal to ,n7,,oh7#c-;,h#b,o1 & nitr\s anhydride1 ,n#b,o#c #b,n7,,oh7#c-c;,h#b,o4 ,?us nitrog5 gives a s]ies ( oxyg5 comp\nds1 :i* we w proce$ to describe4 ,we w1 h[ev]1 fir/ %[ by two examples t 9 ! fir/ place ! passage ( ammonia into ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog5 up to nitric acid1 z well z ! conv]se prep>ation ( ammonia 7& consequ5tly ( ! int]m$iate comp\nds also7 f nitric acid1 are reactions :i* proce$ directly & easily "u _m circum/ances1 & 9 ! second place t ! above g5]al pr9ciple ( sub/itution gives ! possibility ( und]/&+ _m1 at fir/ sight unexpect$ & complex1 relations & trans=mations1 su* z ! prep>ation ( hydronitr\s acid1 ,,hn#c4 ,9 nature ! matt] is complicat$ by a numb] ( influ5ces & circum/ances1 b 9 ! law ! relations are pres5t$ 9 _! simple/ aspect4 #be ,! comp\nd ( hydroxylam9e ) hydro*loric acid has ! composition ,,nh#b7,,oh7,h,cl ,,nh#d;,cl,o--t is1 x is z x 7 oxidis$ sal-ammoniac4 ,x 0 prep>$ by ,loss5 9 #ahfe by ! action ( t9 & hydro*loric acid 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] on a sub/ance call$ e?yl nitrate1 9 :i* case ! hydrog5 lib]at$ f ! hydro*loric acid by ! t9 acts ^u ! elem5ts ( nitric acid-- ,c#b;,h#e,,no#c #f;,h ,h,cl ,,nh#d,o,cl ,h#b,o ,c#b;,h#e,,oh ,e?yl nitrate ,hydrog5 ,hydroxylam9e ,wat] ,alcohol f ,h,cl ,h,cl & ,sn ,?us 9 ?is case ! nitric acid is deoxidis$1 n directly into nitrog51 b into hydroxylam9e4 ,hydroxylam9e is also =m$ by pass+ nitric oxide1 ,,no1 into a mixture ( t9 & hydro*loric acid--t is1 by ! action ( ! hydrog5 evolv$ on ! nitric oxide1 ,,no #c;,h ,h,cl ,,nh#d,o,cl--& 9 _m o!r cases4 ,accord+ to ,loss5's me?od1 a mixture ( #cj p>ts ( e?yl nitrate1 #abj p>ts ( t91 & #dj p>ts ( a solution ( hydro*loric acid ( sp4 gr4 #ajf are tak54 ,aft] a c]ta9 "t ! reaction comm5ces spontane\sly4 ,:5 ! reaction has ceas$ ! t9 is sep>at$ by means ( hydrog5 sulphide1 ! solution is evaporat$1 & a l>ge am\nt ( sal-ammoniac is ?us obta9$ 7ow+ to ! fur!r action ( hydrog5 on ! hydroxylam9e comp\nd1 ! hydrog5 tak+ up oxyg5 f x & =m+ wat]72 a solution ultimately rema9s conta9+ ! hydroxylam9e salt2 ?is salt is dissolv$ 9 anhydr\s alcohol & purifi$ by ! addition ( plat9um *loride1 :i* precipitates any ammonium salt /ill rema9+ 9 ! solution4 ,aft] conc5trat+ ! alcoholic solution ! hydroxylam9e hydro*loride sep>ates 9 cry/als4 ,?is sub/ance melts at ab\t #aej1 & 9 s do+ decomposes into nitrog51 hydrog5 *loride1 wat]1 & sal-ammoniac4 ,a sulphuric acid comp\nd ( hydroxylam9e may be obta9$ by mix+ a solution ( ! above salt ) sulphuric acid4 ,! sulphate is also soluble 9 wat] l ! hydro*loride2 ?is %[s t hydroxylam9e1 l ammonia itself1 =ms a s]ies ( salts 9 :i* "o acid may be sub/itut$ = ano!r4 ,x might he expect$ t by mix+ a /rong solution ( a hydroxylam9e salt ) a solution ( a cau/ic alkali hydroxylam9e itself w\ld be lib]at$1 j z an ammonia salt "u ^! circum/ances evolves ammonia2 b ! lib]at$ hydroxylam9e is imm$iately decompos$ ) ! =mation ( nitrog5 & ammonia 7& probably nitr\s oxide71 #c,,nh#c,o ,,nh#c #c;,h#b,o ,n#b4 ,dilute solutions give ! same reaction1 al?\gh v sl[ly1 b by decompos+ a solution ( ! sulphate ) b>ium hydroxide a c]ta9 am\nt ( hydroxylam9e is obta9$ 9 solution 7x is p>tly decompos$74 ,hydroxylam9e 9 aque\s solution1 l ammonia1 precipitates basic hydrates1 & x deoxidises ! oxides ( copp]1 silv]1 & o!r metals4 ,free hydroxylam9e 0 obta9$ by ,lobry de ,bruyn 7#ahia74 ,x is a solid1 col\rless1 cry/all9e sub/ance1 )\t od\r1 :i* does n melt bel[ #bg4 ,x has ! prop]ty ( dissolv+ metallic salts2 = in/ance1 sodium *loride4 ,hydroxylam9e1 :5 rapidly heat$ ) plat9um1 decomposes ) a fla% & ! =mation ( a yell[ flame4 ,x is almo/ insoluble 9 ord9>y solv5ts l *lor(orm1 b5z9e1 acetic e!r1 & c>bon bisulphide4 ,its aque\s solutions are tol]ably /able1 conta9 up to #fj p] c5t4 7sp4 gr4 #aae at #bj71 & may be kept = _m weeks )\t und]go+ any *ange4 ,lobry de ,bruyn us$ ! hydro*loric salt to prep>e pure hydroxylam9e4 ,! salt 0 fir/ treat$ ) sodium me?ylate 7,,*#c,na,o71 & !n me?yl alcohol 0 add$ to ! mixture4 ,! precipitat$ sodium *loride 0 sep>at$ f ! solution by filtration4 7,! me?yl alcohol is add$ to prev5t ! precipitat$ *loride ( sodium f coat+ ! insoluble hydro*loric salt ( hydroxylam9e47 ,! me?yl alcohol 0 driv5 (f "u a pressure #aej-bjj mm41 & aft] extract+ a fur!r portion ( me?yl alcohol by e!r & sev]al fractional di/illations1 a solution 0 obta9$ conta9+ #gj p] c5t4 ( free hydroxylam9e1 #h p] c5t4 wat]1 #ii p] c5t4 *loride ( sodium1 & #aba p] c5t4 ( ! hydro*loric salt ( hydroxylam9e4 ,pure free hydroxylam9e1 ,,nh#c,o1 is obta9$ by di/ill+ "u a pressure ( #fj mm42 x !n boils at #gj1 & solidifies 9 a cond5s] cool$ to #j 9 ! =m ( long ne$les4 ,x melts at #cc1 boils at #eh "u a pressure ( #bb mm41 & has a sp4 gr4 ( ab\t #abce 7,brhl74 ,"u ! action ( ,na,h,o x gives ,,nh#c & ,,nho#b or ,n#b,o1 & =ms nitric acid 7,kolot(f1 #ahic7 "u ! action ( oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,hydroxylam9e is obta9$ 9 a great numb] ( cases1 = in/ance by ! action ( t9 on dilute nitric acid1 & also by ! action ( z9c on e?yl nitrate & dilute hydro*loric acid1 c4 ,! relation betwe5 hydroxylam9e1 ,,nh#b7,,oh71 & nitr\s acid1 ,,no7,,oh71 :i* is s cle> 9 ! s5se ( ! law ( sub/itutions1 becomes a reality 9 ^? cases :5 r$uc+ ag5ts act on salts ( nitr\s acid4 ,?us ,ras*ig 7#ahhh7 propos$ ! foll[+ me?od = ! prep>ation ( ! hydroxylam9e sulphate4 ,a mixture ( /rong solutions ( potassium nitrite1 ,,kno#b1 & hydroxide1 ,,kho1 9 molecul> proportions1 is prep>$ & cool$4 ,an excess ( sulphur\s anhydride is !n pass$ into ! mixture1 & ! solution boil$ = a long "t4 ,a mixture ( ! sulphates ( potassium & hydroxylam9e is ?us obta9$3 ,,kno#b ,,kho #b,,s#b #b;,h#b,o ,,nh#b7,,oh71,h#b,,s#d ,k#b,,s#d4 ,! salts may be sep>at$ f ea* o!r by cry/allisation4 #be bis ,9 ord] to illu/rate ! application ( ! law ( sub/itution to a giv5 case1 & to %[ ! connection betwe5 ammonia & ! oxides ( nitrog51 let u consid] ! possible products ( an oxyg5 & hydroxyl sub/itution 9 cau/ic ammonia1 ,,nh#d7,,oh74 ,x is evid5t t ! sub/itution ( ,h by ,,oh c give3 7#a7 ,,nh#c7,,oh7#b2 7#b7 ,,nh#b7,,oh7#c2 7#c7 ,,nh7,,oh7#d2 & 7#d7 ,n7,,oh7#e4 ,!y %\ld all1 l cau/ic ammonia itself1 easily "p ) wat] & =m products 7hydroxylic7 ( ! oxidation ( ammonia4 ,! fir/ ( !m is ! hydrate ( hydroxylam9e1 ,,nh#b7,,oh7 ,h#b,o2 ! second1 ,,nh7,,oh7#b ,h#b,o 7& also ! sub/ance ,,nh7,,oh7#d or ,,nh#c,o#b71 conta9+1 z x does1 bo? hydrog5 & oxyg51 is able to "p ) all its hydrog5 9 ! =m ( wat] 7:i* c\ld n be done by ! fir/ product1 s9ce x conta9$ too little oxyg571 =m+1 z ! ultimate product1 #b,,nh#b7,,oh7#c-e;,h#b,o ,n#b,o--t is1 x corresponds ) nitr\s oxide1 or ! l[] degree ( ! oxidation ( nitrog54 ,s1 also1 nitr\s anhydride corresponds ) ! ?ird ( ! above products1 #b,,nh7,,oh7#d-e;,h#b,o ,n#b,o#c1 & nitric anhydride ) ! f\r?1 #b,n7,,oh7#e-e;,h#b,o ,n#b,o#e4 ,z1 9 ^! ?ree equations1 two molecules ( ! sub/itution products 7-#e;,h#b,o7 are tak51 x is also possible to comb9e two diff]5t products 9 "o equation4 ,= in/ance1 ! ?ird & f\r? products3 ,,nh7,,oh7#d ,n7,,oh7#e-e;,h#b,o corresponds to ,n#b,o#d or #b,,no#b1 t is1 to p]oxide ( nitrog54 ,?us all ! five 7see lat]7 oxides ( nitrog51 ,n#b,o1 ,,no1 ,n#b,o#c1 ,,no#b1 & ,n#b,o#e1 may be d$uc$ f ammonia4 ,! above may be express$ 9 a g5]al =m by ! equation 7x %\ld be rem>k$ t ! composition ( all ! sub/itution products ( cau/ic ammonia may be express$ by ,,nh#c,o#e-;a1 :]e a v>ies betwe5 #j & #d73 ,,nh#e,o#e - a ,,nh#e,o#e - b - #e;,h#b,o ,n#b,o#e - 7a b71 :]e a b c evid5tly be n great] ?an #e2 :5 a b #e we h ,n#b--nitrog51 :5 #d we h ,n#b,o nitr\s oxide2 :5 a b #c we h ,n#b,o#b or ,,no--nitric oxide1 & s on to ,n#b,o#e1 :5 a b #j4 ,besides :i* x is evid5t t int]m$iate products may correspond ) 7& h5ce also break up into7 diff]5t />t+ po9ts2 = in/ance1 ,n#b,o is obta9$ :5 a b #b1 & ?is may occur ei!r :5 a #j 7nitric acid71 & b #b 7hydroxylam9e71 or :5 a b #a 7! ?ird ( ! above sub/itution products74 #bf ,nitric acid corresponds ) ! anhydride ,n#b,o#e1 :i* w aft]w>ds be describ$1 b :i* mu/ be reg>d$ z ! highe/ sal9e oxide ( nitrog51 j z ,na#b,o 7& ! hydroxide ,na,h,o7 9 ! case ( sodium1 al?\gh sodium =ms a p]oxide possess+ ! prop]ty ( p>t+ ) its oxyg5 ) ! same ease z hydrog5 p]oxide1 if n on heat+1 at all ev5ts 9 reactions--= in/ance1 ) acids4 ,s also nitric acid has its correspond+ p]oxide1 :i* may be call$ p]nitric acid4 ,its composition is n well kn[n--probably ,,nho#d--s t its correspond+ anhydride w\ld be ,n#b,o#g4 ,x is =m$ by ! action ( a sil5t dis*>ge on a mixture ( nitrog5 & oxyg51 s t a portion ( its oxyg5 is 9 a /ate simil> to t 9 ozone4 ,! in/ability ( ?is sub/ance 7obta9$ by ,hautefeuille1 ,*appuis1 & ,b]!lot71 :i* easily splits up ) ! =mation ( nitric p]oxide1 & its resemblance to p]sulphuric acid1 :i* we %all aft]w>ds describe1 w p]mit our pass+ ov] ! consid]ation ( ! little t is fur!r kn[n conc]n+ x4 #bg ,phosphorus 7,*apt] ,,xix47 gives ! hydride ,,ph#c1 correspond+ ) ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 & =ms phosphor\s acid1 ,,ph#c,o#c1 :i* is analog\s to nitr\s acid1 j z phosphoric acid is to nitric acid2 b phosphoric 7or1 bett]1 or?ophosphoric7 acid1 ,,ph#c,o#d1 is able to lose wat] & give pyro-& meta-phosphoric acids4 ,! latt] is equal to ! or?o-acid m9us wat] ,,pho#c1 & !re=e nitric acid1 ,,nho#c1 is really meta-nitric acid4 ,s also nitr\s acid1 ,,hno#b1 is meta-nitr\s 7anhydr\s7 acid1 & ?us ! or?o-acid is ,,nh#c,o#c ,n7,,oh7#c4 ,h5ce = nitric acid we %\ld expect to f9d1 besides ! ord9>y or meta-nitric acid1 ,,hno#c 7 #a_/b,n#b,o#c1;,h#b,o71 & or?o-nitric acid1 ,h#c,,no#d 7 #a_/b,n#b,o#c1c;,h#b,o71 an int]m$iate pyro-nitric acid1 ,n#b;,h#d,o#g1 correspond+ to pyrophosphoric acid1 ,p#b;,h#d,o#g4 ,we %all see 7= in/ance1 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #ba7 t 9 nitric acid !re is inde$ an incl9ation ( ! ord9>y salts 7( ! meta-acid71 ,,mno#c1 to comb9e ) bases ,m#b,o1 & to approximate to ! composition ( or?o-comp\nds :i* are equal to meta-comp\nd & bases 7,,mno#c ,m#b,o ,m#c,,no#d74 #a4 ,x is easy to prove ! possibility ( ! oxidation ( ammonia into nitric acid by pass+ a mixture ( ammonia & air ov] heat$ spongy plat9um4 ,?is causes ! oxidation ( ! ammonia1 nitric acid be+ =m$1 :i* p>tially comb9es ) ! excess ( ammonia4 ,! conv]se passage ( nitric acid into ammonia is effect$ by ! action ( hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( its evolution4#bh ,?us metallic alum9ium1 evolv+ hydrog5 f a solution ( cau/ic soda1 is able to completely conv]t nitric acid add$ to ! mixture 7z a salt1 because ! alkali gives a salt ) ! nitric acid7 into ammonia1 ,,nho#c #h;,h ,,nh#c #c;,h#b,o4 #b4 ,9 #ahij ,curtius 9 ,g]many obta9$ a gase\s sub/ance ( ! composition ,,hn#c 7hydrog5 tr9itride71 hav+ ! di/9ctive prop]ties ( an acid1 & giv+1 l hydro*loric acid1 salts2 = example1 a sodium salt1 ,na,n#c2 ammonium salt1 ,,nh#d,n#c ,n#d;,h#d2 b>ium salt1 ,ba7,n#c7b1 c41 :i* he !re=e nam$ hydronitr\s acid1 ,,hn#c4bh bis ,! extraord9>y composition ( ! comp\nd 7ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 conta9s "o ,n atom & ?ree ,h atoms2 9 ,,hn#c1 on ! contr>y1 !re are ?ree ,n atoms & "o ,h atom71 ! facile decomposition ( its salts ) an explosion1 & above all its di/9ctly acid "* 7an aque\s solution %[s a /rong acid reaction to litmus71 n only indicat$ ! importance ( ?is unexpect$ discov]y1 b at fir/ gave rise to "s p]plexity z to ! nature ( ! sub/ance obta9$1 = ! relations 9 :i* ,,hn#c /ood to o!r simple comp\nds ( nitrog5 :i* _h long be5 kn[n 0 n at all evid5t1 & ! sci5tific _s especially requires t !re %\ld be a di/9ct bond betwe5 e innovation1 e fre% discov]y1 & t :i* is already firmly e/abli%$ & kn[n1 = ^u ?is basis is f\nd$ t app>5tly p>adoxical union 9 sci5ce ( a cons]vative /ability ) an irresi/ible & nev]-ceas+ improvem5t4 ,?is miss+1 connection betwe5 ! newly discov]$ hydronitr\s acid1 ,,hn#c1 & ! long kn[n ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 & nitric acid1 ,,hno#c1 may be f\nd 9 ! law ( sub/itution1 />t+ f ! well-kn[n prop]ties & composition ( nitric acid & ammonia1 z ,i m5tion$ 9 ! ',j\rnal ( ! ,russian ,physico-,*emical ,society' 7#ahij74 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] lies 9 ! fact t to ! hydrate ( ammonium1 or cau/ic ammonia1 ,,nh#d,,oh1 !re %\ld correspond1 accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 an or?o-nitric acid 7see ,note #bg71 ,h#c,,no#d ,,no7,,oh7#c1 :i* equals ,,nh#d7,,oh7 ) ! sub/itution 9 x ( 7a7 two atoms ( hydrog5 by oxyg5 7,o--,h#b7 & 7b7 two atoms ( hydrog5 by ! aque\s radicle 7,,oh--,h74 ,ord9>y or meta-nitric acid is m]ely ?is or?o-nitric acid m9us wat]4 ,to or?o-nitric acid !re %\ld correspond ! ammoniacal salts3 mono-sub/itut$1 ,h#b,,nh#d,,no#d2 bi-sub/itut$1 ,h7,,nh#d7b,,no#d2 & tri-sub/itut$1 7,,nh#d7c,,no#d4 ,^! salts1 conta9+ z !y d hydrog5 & oxyg51 l _m simil> ammoniacal salts 7see1 = in/ance1 ,*apt] ,,ix4--,cyanides71 are able to "p ) !m 9 ! =m ( wat]4 ,!n f ! fir/ salt we h ,h#b,,nh#d,,no#d-d;,h#b,o ,n#b,o--nitr\s oxide1 & f ! second ,h7,,nh#d7b,,no#d-d;,h#b,o ,,hn#c--;hydronitr\s acid1 & f ! ?ird 7,,nh#d7c,,no-#d;,h#b,o ,n#d;,h#d--! ammonium salt ( ! same acid4 ,! composition ( ,,hn#c %\ld be ?us und]/ood1 :il/ its acid prop]ties are expla9$ by ! fact t ! wat] 7#d;,h#b,o7 f ,h7,,nh#d7b,n,o#d is =m$ at ! exp5se ( ! hydrog5 ( ! ammonium & oxyg5 ( ! nitric acid1 s t !re rema9s ! same hydrog5 z 9 nitric acid1 or t :i* may be replac$ by metals & give salts4 ,moreov]1 nitrog5 und\bt$ly belongs to t category ( metalloids :i* give acids1 l *lor9e & c>bon1 & !re=e1 "u ! influ5ce ( ?ree ( its atoms1 "o atom ( hydrog5 acquires ^? prop]ties :i* x has 9 acids1 j z 9 ,,hcn 7hydrocyanic acid7 ! hydrog5 has receiv$ ^! prop]ties "u ! influ5ce ( ! c>bon & nitrog5 7& ,,hn#c may be reg>d$ z ,,hcn :]e ,c has be5 replac$ by ,n#b74 ,moreov]1 besides expla9+ ! composition & acid prop]ties ( ,,hn#c1 ! above me?od gives ! possibility ( =etell+ ! clos5ess ( ! bond betwe5 hydronitr\s acid & nitr\s oxide1 = ,n#b,o ,,nh#c ,,hn#c ,h#b,o4 ,?is reaction1 :i* 0 =ese5 f ! above consid]ations1 0 accompli%$ by ,wislic5us 7#ahib7 by ! syn!sis ( ! sodium salt1 by tak+ ! amide ( sodium1 ,,nh#b,na 7obta9$ by heat+ ,na 9 a curr5t ( ,,nh#c71 & act+ ^u x 7:5 heat$7 ) nitr\s oxide1 ,n#b,o1 :5 #b,,nh#b,na ,n#b,o ,na,n#c ,na,h,o ,,nh#c4 ,! resultant salt1 ,na,n#c1 gives hydronitr\s acid :5 act$ ^u by sulphuric acid1 ,na,n#c ,h#b,,s#d ,na,h,s,o#d ,,hn#c4 ,! latt] gives1 ) ! correspond+ solutions ( _! salts1 ! insoluble 7& easily explosive7 salts ( silv]1 ,ag,n#c 7insoluble1 l ,ag,cl or ,ag,c,n71 & lead1 ,pb7,n#c7b4 #bh ,! =mation ( ammonia is obs]v$ 9 _m cases ( oxidation by means ( nitric acid4 ,?is sub/ance is ev5 =m$ 9 ! action ( nitric acid on t91 especially if dilute acid be employ$ 9 ! cold4 ,a /ill m consid]able am\nt ( ammonia is obta9$ if1 9 ! action ( nitric acid1 !re are conditions directly t5d+ to ! evolution ( hydrog51 :i* !n r$uces ! acid to ammonia2 = in/ance1 9 ! action ( z9c on a mixture ( nitric & sulphuric acids4 #bh bis ,curtius />t$ ) b5zoylhydraz9e1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,conhnh#b 7hydraz9e1 see ,note #bj bis74 7,?is sub/ance is obta9$ by ! action ( hydrat$ hydraz9e on ! comp\nd e!r ( b5zoic acid74 ,b5zoylhydraz9e "u ! action ( nitr\s acid gives b5zoylazoimide & wat]3 ,c#f;,h#e;,,conhnh#b ,,no#b;,h ,c#f;,h#e;,,con#c #b;,h#b,o4 ,b5zoylazoimide :5 treat$ ) sodium alcoholate gives ! sodium salt ( hydronitr\s acid3 ,c#f;,h#e;,,con#c ,c#b;,h#c,o,na ,c#f;,h#e,o#b;,c#b;,h#c ,na,n#c4 ,! addition ( e!r to ! resultant solution precipitates ! ,na,n#c1 & ?is salt :5 treat$ ) sulphuric acid gives gase\s hydronitr\s acid1 ,,hn#c4 ,x has an acrid smell1 & is easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,! aque\s solution exhibits a /rongly acid reaction4 ,metals dissolve 9 ?is solution & give ! correspond+ salts4 ,) hydronitr\s acid gase\s ammonia =ms a :ite cl\d1 consi/+ ( ! salt ( ammonium1 ,,nh#d,n#c4 ,?is salt sep>ates out f an alcoholic solution 9 ! =m ( :ite lu/r\s scales4 ,! salts ( hydronitr\s acid are obta9$ by a reaction ( sub/itution ) ! sodium or ammonium salts4 ,9 ?is mann] ,curtius obta9$ & /udi$ ! salts ( silv] 7,ag,n#c71 m]cury 7,hg,n#c71 lead 7,pb,n#f71 b>ium 7,ba,n#f74 ,) hydraz9e1 ,n#b;,h#d1 hydronitr\s acid =ms sal9e comp\nds 9 ! composition ( :i* !re are "o or two p>ticles ( ,n#c;,h p] "o p>ticle ( hydraz9e2 ?us ,n#e;,h#e & ,n#h;,h#f4 ,! fir/ 0 obta9$ 9 an almo/ pure =m4 ,x cry/allises f an aque\s solution 9 d5se1 volatile1 lu/r\s prisms 7up to #a 94 long71 :i* fuse at #ej1 & deliquesce 9 ! air2 f a solution 9 boil+ alcohol x sep>ates out 9 bright cry/all9e plates4 ,?is salt1 ,n#e;,h#e1 has ! same empirical composition1 ,,nh1 z ! ammonium salt ( hydronitr\s acid1 ,n#d;,h#d1 & imide2 b _! molecules & /ructure are diff]5t4 ,curtius also obta9$ 7#ahic7 hydronitr\s acid by pass+ ! vap\r ( ,n#b,o#e 7evolv$ by ! action ( ,,hno#c on ,z#b,o#c7 into a solution ( hydraz9e1 ,n#b;,h#d4 ,simil>ly ,angeli1 by act+ ^u a saturat$ solution ( silv] nitrite ) a /rong solution ( hydraz9e1 obta9$ ! explosive ,ag,n#c 9 ! =m ( a precipitate1 & ?is reaction1 :i* is bas$ ^u ! equation ,n#b;,h#d ,,nho#b ,,hn#c #b;,h#b,o1 proce$s s easily t x =ms an exp]im5t = ! lecture table4 ,a !rmal inve/igation ( hydronitr\s acid by ,b]!lot & ,matignon gave ! foll[+ figures = ! heat ( solution ( ! ammonium salt ,n#c;,,hnh#c 7#a grm4 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat]7-#gjh ,c41 & = ! heat ( neutralisation by b>ium hydrate #ajj ,c41 & by ammonia #hb ,c4 ,! heat ( combu/ion ( ,n#d;,h#d 7#afch ,c4 at a con/ant vol47 gives ! heat ( =mation ( ! salt ,n#d;,h#d 7solid7 z -#bec ,c4 & 7solution7-#cbc ,c42 ?is expla9s ! explosive nature ( ?is comp\nd4 ,9 its heat ( =mation f ! elem5ts ,n#c;,h -#fbf ,c41 ?is comp\nd diff]s f all ! hydrog5 comp\nds ( nitrog5 9 hav+ a maximum absorption ( heat1 :i* expla9s its in/ability4 ,! comp\nds ( nitrog5 ) oxyg5 pres5t an excell5t example ( ! law ( multiple proportions1 because !y conta91 = #ad p>ts by weight ( nitrog51 #h1 #af1 #bd1 #cb1 & #dj p>ts respectively by weight ( oxyg54 ,! composition ( ^! comp\nds is z foll[s3-- ,n#b,o1 nitr\s oxide2 hydrate ,,nho4 ,n#b,o#b1 nitric oxide1 ,,no4 ,n#b,o#c1 nitr\s anhydride2 hydrate ,,nho#b4 ,n#b,o#d1 p]oxide ( nitrog51 ,,no#b4 ,n#b,o#e1 nitric anhydride2 hydrate ,,nho#c4 ,( ^! comp\nds1#bi nitr\s & nitric oxides1 p]oxide ( nitrog51 & nitric acid1 ,,nho#c1 are *>act]is$ z be+ ! mo/ /able4 ,! l[] oxides1 :5 com+ into contact ) ! high]1 may give ! int]m$iate =ms2 = in/ance1 ,,no & ,,no#b =m ,n#b,o#c1 & ! int]m$iate oxides may1 9 splitt+ up1 give a high] & l[] oxide4 ,s ,n#b,o#d gives ,n#b,o#c & ,n#b,o#e1 or1 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 _! hydrates4 #bi ,accord+ to ! !rmo*emical det]m9ations ( ,favre1 ,?oms51 & m especially ( ,b]!lot1 x foll[s t1 9 ! =mation ( su* quantities ( ! oxides ( nitrog5 z express _! =mul1 if gase\s nitrog5 & oxyg5 be tak5 z ! />t+ po9ts1 & if ! comp\nds =m$ be also gase\s1 ! foll[+ am\nts ( heat1 express$ 9 ?\s&s ( heat units1 are absorb$ 7h5ce a m9us sign73-- ,n#b,o ,n#b,o#b ,n#b,o#c ,n#b,o#d ,n#b,o#e -#ba -#dc -#bb -#e -#a -#bb #ba #ag #d ,! diff]5ce is giv5 9 ! l[] l9e4 ,= example1 if ,n#b1 or #bh grams ( nitrog51 comb9e ) ,o--t is1 ) #af grams ( oxyg5--!n #ba1jjj units ( heat are absorb$1 t is1 suffici5t heat to raise #ba1jjj grams ( wat] ?r\gh #a4 ,naturally1 direct obs]vations are impossible 9 ?is case2 b if *>coal1 phosphorus1 or simil> sub/ances are burnt bo? 9 nitr\s oxide & 9 oxyg51 & ! heat evolv$ is obs]v$ 9 bo? cases1 !n ! diff]5ce 7m heat w be evolv$ 9 burn+ 9 nitr\s oxide7 gives ! figures requir$4 ,if ,n#b,o#b1 by comb9+ ) ,o#b1 gives ,n#b,o#d1 !n1 z is se5 f ! table1 heat %\ld be develop$1 namely1 #ch1jjj units ( heat1 or ,,no ,o #ai1jjj units ( heat4 ,! diff]5ces giv5 9 ! table %[ t ! maximum absorption ( heat corresponds ) nitric oxide1 & t ! high] oxides are =m$ f x ) evolution ( heat4 ,if liquid nitric acid1 ,,nho#c1 7 decompos$ into ,n ,o#c ,h1 !n #da1jjj heat units w\ld be requir$2 t is1 an evolution ( heat takes place 9 its =mation f ! gases4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! =mation ( ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 f ! gases ,n ,h#c evolves #abb ?\s& heat units4 ,we h already se5 t1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 nitrog5 comb9es ) oxyg51 & we "k t ammonia may he oxidis$4 ,9 ^! cases v>i\s oxidation products ( nitrog5 are =m$1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] & an excess ( oxyg5 !y always give nitric acid4 ,nitric acid1 z correspond+ ) ! highe/ oxide1 is able1 9 deoxidis+1 to give ! l[] oxides2 x is ! only nitrog5 acid ^: salts occur some:at widely 9 nature1 & x has _m te*nical uses1 = :i* reason we w beg9 ) x4 ,nitric acid1 ,,nho#c1 is likewise kn[n z aqua =tis4 ,9 a free /ate x is only met ) 9 nature 9 small quantities1 9 ! air & 9 ra9-wat] aft] /orms2 b ev5 9 ! atmosph]e nitric acid does n long rema9 free1 b comb9es ) ammonia1 traces ( :i* are always f\nd 9 air4 ,on fall+ on ! soil & into runn+ wat]1 c41 ! nitric acid ev]y:]e comes into contact ) bases 7or _! c>bonates71 :i* easily act on x1 & !re=e x is conv]t$ into ! nitrates ( ^! bases4 ,h5ce nitric acid is always met ) 9 ! =m ( salts 9 nature4 ,! soluble salts ( nitric acid are call$ nitres4 ,?is "n is d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 sal nitri4 ,! potassium salt1 ,,kno#c1 is common nitre1 & ! sodium salt1 ,na,n,o#c1 ,*ili saltpetre1 or cubic nitre4 ,nitres are =m$ 9 ! soil :5 a nitrog5\s sub/ance is sl[ly oxidis$ 9 ! pres5ce ( an alkali by means ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 nature !re are v frequ5t in/ances ( su* oxidation4 ,= ?is reason c]ta9 soils & rubbi% heaps--= in/ance1 lime rubbi% 79 ! pres5ce ( a base7--lime conta9 a m or less consid]able am\nt ( nitre4 ,"o ( ^! nitres--sodium nitrate--is extract$ f ! e>? 9 l>ge quantities 9 ,*ili1 :]e x 0 probably =m$ by ! oxidation ( animal refuse4 ,?is k9d ( nitre is employ$ 9 practice = ! manufacture ( nitric acid & ! o!r oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog54 ,nitric acid is obta9$ f ,*ili saltpetre by heat+ x ) sulphuric acid4 ,! hydrog5 ( ! sulphuric acid replaces ! sodium 9 ! nitre4 ,! sulphuric acid !n =ms ei!r an acid salt1 ,na,h,s,o#d1 or a normal salt1 ,na#b,,s#d1 :il/ nitric acid is =m$ f ! nitre & is volatilis$4 ,! decomposition is express$ by ! equations3 7#a7 ,na,n,o#c ,h#b,,s#d ,,hno#c ,na,h,s,o#d1 if ! acid salt be =m$1 & 7#b7 #b,na,n,o#c ,h#b,,s#d ,na#b,,s#d #b;,,hno#c1 if ! normal sodium sulphate is =m$4 ,) an excess ( sulphuric acid1 at a mod]ate heat1 & at ! comm5cem5t ( ! reaction1 ! decomposition proce$s accord+ to ! fir/ equation2 & on fur!r heat+ ) a suffici5t am\nt ( nitre accord+ to ! second1 because ! acid salt ,na,h,s,o#d itself acts l an acid 7its hydrog5 be+ replaceable z 9 acids71 accord+ to ! equation ,na,n,o#c ,na,h,s,o#d ,na#b,,s#d ,,hno#c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,me?od ( prep>+ nitric acid on a l>ge scale4 ,a ca/-iron retort1 ,c1 is fix$ into ! furnace1 & heat$ by ! fire1 ,b4 ,! flame & products ( combu/ion are at fir/ l$ along ! flue1 ,m 79 ord] to heat ! receiv]s71 & aft]w>ds into ,l4 ,! retort is *>g$ ) ,*ili saltpetre & sulphuric acid1 & ! cov] is lut$ on ) clay & gypsum4 ,a clay tube1 a1 is fix$ into ! neck ( ! retort 79 ord] to prev5t ! nitric acid f corrod+ ! ca/ iron71 & a b5t glass tube1 ,d1 is lut$ on to x4 ,?is tube c>ries ! vap\rs into a s]ies ( e>!nw>e receiv]s1 ,e4 ,nitric acid mix$ ) sulphuric acid collects 9 ! fir/4 ,! pure/ nitric acid is procur$ f ! second1 :il/ t :i* cond5ses 9 ! ?ird receiv] conta9s hydro*loric acid1 & t 9 ! f\r? nitr\s oxide4 ,wat] is p\r$ into ! la/ receiv] 9 ord] to cond5se ! residual vap\rs4 ,! sulphuric acid1 z x is said1 "h displaces ! nitric acid f its comp\nd ) ! base4#bi bis ,?us1 9 ! reaction ( sulphuric acid on nitre !re is =m$ a non-volatile salt ( sulphuric acid1 :i* rema9s1 toge!r ) an excess ( ?is acid1 9 ! di/ill+ app>atus1 & nitric acid1 :i* is conv]t$ into vap\r1 & may be cond5s$1 because x is a liquid & volatile sub/ance4 ,on a small scale1 ?is reaction may be c>ri$ on 9 a glass retort ) a glass cond5s]4 ,on a l>ge scale1 9 *emical works1 ! process is exactly simil>1 only iron retorts are employ$ = hold+ ! mixture ( nitre & sulphuric acid1 & e>!nw>e ?ree-neck$ bottles are us$ in/ead ( a cond5s]1#cj z %[n 9 fig4 #dg4 #bi bis ,?is (t5 gives rise to ! supposition t sulphuric acid possesses a consid]able degree ( aff9ity or en]gy comp>$ ) nitric acid1 b we %all aft]w>ds see t ! idea ( ! relative degree ( aff9ity ( acids & bases is1 9 _m cases1 exce$+ly unbiass$2 x ne$ n be accept$ s long z x is possible to expla9 ! obs]v$ ph5om5a )\t admitt+ any supposition :atev] ( ! degree ( ! =ce ( aff9ity1 because ! latt] _c be measur$4 ,! action ( sulphuric acid ^u nitre may be expla9$ by ! fact alone t ! resultant nitric acid is volatile4 ,! nitric acid is ! only "o ( all ! sub/ances p>tak+ 9 ! reaction :i* is able to pass into vap\r2 x alone is volatile1 :ile ! rema9d] are non-volatile1 or1 m /rictly speak+1 exce$+ly difficultly volatile sub/ances4 ,let u imag9e t ! sulphuric acid is only able to set free a small quantity ( nitric acid f its salt1 & ?is w suffice to expla9 ! decomposition ( ! :ole ( ! nitre by ! sulphuric acid1 because once ! nitric acid is sep>at$ x passes into vap\r :5 heat$1 & passes away f ! sph]e ( action ( ! rema9+ sub/ances2 !n ! free sulphuric acid w set free a fre% small quantity ( nitric acid1 & s on until x drives (f ! entire quantity4 ,x is evid5t t1 9 ?is explanation1 x is ess5tial t ! sulphuric acid %\ld be 9 excess 7al?\gh n greatly7 ?r\gh\t ! reaction2 accord+ to ! equation express+ ! reaction1 #ih p>ts ( sulphuric acid are requir$ p] #he p>ts ( ,*ili nitre2 b if ?is proportion be ma9ta9$ 9 practice ! nitric acid is n all dis5gag$ by ! sulphuric acid2 an excess ( ! latt] mu/ be tak51 & g5]ally #hj p>ts ( ,*ili nitre are tak5 p] #ih p>ts ( acid1 s t a portion ( ! sulphuric acid rema9s free to ! v end ( ! reaction4 #cj ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t sulphuric acid1 at lea/ :5 undilut$ 7#fj ,baum71 corrodes ca/ iron ) difficulty1 s t ! acid may be heat$ 9 ca/-iron retorts4 ,nev]!less1 bo? sulphuric & nitric acids h a c]ta9 action on ca/ iron1 & !re=e ! acid obta9$ w conta9 traces ( iron4 ,9 practice sodium nitrate 7,*ili saltpetre7 is usually employ$ because x is *eap]1 b 9 ! laboratory x is be/ to take potassium nitrate1 because x is pur] & does n fro? up s mu* z sodium nitrate :5 heat$ ) sulphuric acid4 ,9 ! action ( an excess ( sulphuric acid on nitre & nitric acid a portion ( ! latt] is decompos$1 =m+ l[] oxides ( nitrog51 :i* are dissolv$ 9 ! nitric acid4 ,a portion ( ! sulphuric acid itself is also c>ri$ ov] z spray by ! vap\rs ( ! nitric acid4 ,h5ce sulphuric acid occurs z an impurity 9 comm]cial nitric acid4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( hydro*loric acid w also be f\nd to be pres5t 9 x1 because sodium *loride is g5]ally f\nd z an impurity 9 nitre1 & "u ! action ( sulphuric acid x =ms hydro*loric acid4 ,comm]cial acid fur!r conta9s a consid]able excess ( wat] above t necess>y = ! =mation ( ! hydrate1 because wat] is fir/ p\r$ into ! e>!nw>e vessels employ$ = cond5s+ ! nitric acid 9 ord] to facilitate its cool+ & cond5sation4 ,fur!r1 ! acid ( composition ,,hno#c decomposes ) great ease1 ) ! evolution ( oxides ( nitrog54 ,?us ! comm]cial acid conta9s a great numb] ( impurities1 & is frequ5tly purifi$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,lead nitrate is fir/ add$ to ! acid because x =ms non-volatile & almo/ insoluble 7precipitat$7 sub/ances ) ! free sulphuric & hydro*loric acids1 & lib]ates nitric acid 9 s do+1 accord+ to ! equations ,pb7,,no#c7b #b;,h,cl ,pb,cl#b #b,,nho#c & ,pb7,,no#c7b ,h#b,,s#d ,pb,s,o#d #b,,nho#c4 ,potassium *romate is !n add$ to ! impure nitric acid1 by :i* means oxyg5 is lib]at$ f ! *romic acid1 & ?is oxyg51 at ! mom5t ( its evolution1 oxidises ! l[] oxides ( nitrog5 & conv]ts !m into nitric acid4 ,a pure nitric acid1 conta9+ no impurities o!r ?an wat]1 may be !n obta9$ by c>efully di/ill+ ! acid1 treat$ z above describ$1 & p>ticul>ly if only ! middle portions ( ! di/illate are collect$4 ,su* acid %\ld give no precipitate1 ei!r ) a solution ( b>ium *loride 7a precipitate %[s ! pres5ce ( sulphuric acid7 or ) a solution ( silv] nitrate 7a precipitate %[s ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid71 nor %\ld x1 aft] be+ dilut$ ) wat]1 give a coloration ) />* conta9+ potassium iodide 7a coloration %[s ! admixture ( o!r oxides ( nitrog574 ,! oxides ( nitrog5 may be mo/ easily remov$ f impure nitric acid by heat+ = a c]ta9 "t ) a small quantity ( pure *>coal4 ,by ! action ( nitric acid on ! *>coal c>bonic anhydride is evolv$1 :i* c>ries (f ! l[] oxides ( nitrog54 ,on r$i/ill+1 pure acid is obta9$4 ,! oxides ( nitrog5 occurr+ 9 solution may also be remov$ by pass+ air ?r\gh ! nitric acid4 ,nitric acid s obta9$ always conta9s wat]4 ,x is extremely difficult to deprive x ( all ! admix$ wat] )\t de/roy+ a portion ( ! acid itself & p>tially conv]t+ x into l[] oxides1 because )\t ! pres5ce ( an excess ( wat] x is v un/able4 ,:5 rapidly di/ill$ a portion is decompos$1 & !re are obta9$ free oxyg5 & l[] oxides ( nitrog51 :i*1 toge!r ) ! wat]1 rema9 9 solution ) ! nitric acid4 ,!re=e x is necess>y to "w ) great c>e 9 ord] to obta9 a pure hydrate ( nitric acid1 ,,hno#c1 & especially to mix ! nitric acid obta9$ f nitre1 z above describ$1 ) sulphuric acid1 :i* takes up ! wat]1 & to di/il x at ! l[e/ possible temp]ature--t is1 by plac+ ! retort hold+ ! mixture 9 a wat] or oil ba? & c>efully heat+ x4 ,! fir/ portion ( ! nitric acid ?us di/ill$ boils at #hf1 has a specific gravity at #ae ( #aebf1 & solidifies at -#ej2 x is v un/able at high] temp]atures4 ,?is is ! normal hydrate1 ,,hno#c1 :i* corresponds ) ! salts1 ,,nmo#c1 ( nitric acid4 ,:5 dilut$ ) wat] nitric acid pres5ts a high] boil+ po9t1 n only z comp>$ ) t ( ! nitric acid itself1 b also ) t ( wat]2 s t1 if v dilute nitric acid be di/ill$1 ! fir/ portions pass+ ov] w consi/ ( almo/ pure wat]1 until ! boil+ po9t 9 ! vap\rs rea*es #aba4 ,at ?is temp]ature a comp\nd ( nitric acid ) wat]1 conta9+ ab\t #gj p4c4 ( nitric acid1#ca di/ils ov]2 its specific gravity at #ae #adba4 ,if ! solution conta9 less ?an #be p4c4 ( wat]1 !n1 ! specific gravity ( ! solution be+ above #add1 ,,hno#c evaporates (f & fumes 9 ! air1 =m+ ! above hydrate1 ^: vap\r t5sion is less ?an t ( wat]4 ,su* solutions =m fum+ nitric acid4 ,on di/ill+ x gives monohydrat$ acid1#cb ,,hno#c2 x is a hydrate boil+ at #aba1 s t x is obta9$ f bo? weak & /rong solutions4 ,fum+ nitric acid1 "u ! action n only ( organic sub/ances1 b ev5 ( heat1 loses a portion ( its oxyg51 =m+ l[] oxides ( nitrog51 :i* imp>t a r$-br[n col\r to x2#cc ! pure acid is col\rless4 #ca ,dalton1 ,smi?1 ,b9eau1 & o!rs consid]$ t ! hydrate ( con/ant boil+ po9t 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #fj7 = nitric acid 0 ! comp\nd #b;,,hno#c1c;,h#b,o1 b ,roscoe %[$ t its composition *anges ) a v>iation ( ! pressure & temp]ature "u :i* ! di/illation proce$s4 ,?us1 at a pressure ( #a atmosph]e ! solution ( con/ant boil+ po9t conta9s #fhf p4c41 & at "o-t5? ( an atmosph]e #ffh p4c4 ,judg+ f :at has be5 said conc]n+ solutions ( hydro*loric acid1 & f ! v>iation ( specific gravity1 ,i ?9k t ! comp>atively l>ge decrease 9 ! t5sions ( ! vap\rs dep5ds on ! =mation ( a hydrate1 ,,nho#c1b;,h#b,o 7 #fcf p4c474 ,su* a hydrate may be express$ by ,n7,,ho7#e1 t is1 z ,,nh#d7;,,ho71 9 :i* all ! equival5ts ( hydrog5 are replac$ by hydroxyl4 ,! con/ant boil+ po9t w !n be ! temp]ature ( ! decomposition ( ?is hydrate4 ,! v>iation ( ! specific gravity at #ae f wat] 7p #j7 to ! hydrate ,,nho#c1e;,h#b,o 7#dab p4c4 ,,hno#c7 is express$ by s #iiib #egdp #jafp#b1 if wat] #aj1jjj at #d4 ,= example1 :5 p #cj p4c41 s #aa1hfj4 ,= m conc5trat$ solutions1 at lea/1 ! above-m5tion$ hydrate1 ,,hno#c1b;,h#b,o1 mu/ be tak51 up to :i* ! specific gravity s #iegj #hdahp-#jbdjp#b2 b p]haps 7s9ce ! results ( obs]vations ( ! specific gravity ( ! solutions are n 9 suffici5t agreem5t to arrive at a conclusion7 ! hydrate ,,hno#c1c;,h#b,o %\ld be recognis$1 z is indicat$ by _m nitrates 7,al1 ,mg1 ,co1 c471 :i* cry/allise ) ?is am\nt ( wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,f ,,hno#c1b;,h#b,o to ,,hno#c ! specific gravity ( ! solutions 7at #ae7 s #aj1feb #fbjhp-#jafjp#b4 ,! hydrate ,,hno#c1b;,h#b,o is recognis$ by ,b]!lot on ! basis ( ! !rmo*emical data = solutions ( nitric acid1 because on approa*+ to ?is composition !re is a rapid *ange 9 ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ by mix+ nitric acid ) wat]4 ,pick]+ 7#ahib7 by refrig]ation obta9$ ! cry/all9e hydrates3 ,,hno#c1;,h#b,o1 melt+ at -#cg & ,,hno#c1c;,h#b,o1 melt+ at -#ah4 ,a m detail$ /udy ( ! reactions ( hydrat$ nitric acid w\ld no d\bt %[ ! exi/5ce ( *ange 9 ! process & rapidity ( reaction 9 approa*+ ^! hydrates4 #cb ,! normal hydrate ,,hno#c1 correspond+ ) ! ord9>y salts1 may be t]m$ ! monohydrat$ acid1 because ! anhydride ,n#b,o#e ) wat] =ms ?is normal nitric acid4 ,9 ?is s5se ! hydrate ,,hno#c1b;,h#b,o is ! p5tahydrat$ acid4 #cc ,= te*nical & laboratory purposes rec\rse is frequ5tly _h to r$ fum+ nitric acid--t is1 ! normal nitric acid1 ,,hno#c1 conta9+ l[] oxides ( nitrog5 9 solution4 ,?is acid is prep>$ by decompos+ nitre ) half its weight ( /rong sulphuric acid1 or by di/ill+ nitric acid ) an excess ( sulphuric acid4 ,! normal nitric acid is fir/ obta9$1 b x p>tially decomposes1 & gives ! l[] oxidation products ( nitrog51 :i* are dissolv$ by ! nitric acid1 to :i* !y imp>t its usual pale-br[n or r$di% col\r4 ,?is acid fumes 9 ! air1 f :i* x attracts moi/ure1 =m+ a less volatile hydrate4 ,if c>bonic anhydride be pass$ ?r\gh ! r$-br[n fum+ nitric acid = a long p]iod ( "t1 especially if1 assi/$ by a mod]ate heat1 x expels all ! l[] oxides1 & leaves a col\rless acid free f ^! oxides4 ,x is necess>y1 9 ! prep>ation ( ! r$ acid1 t ! receiv]s %\ld be kept q cool1 because x is only :5 cold t nitric acid is able to dissolve a l>ge proportion ( ! oxides ( nitrog54 ,! /rong r$ fum+ acid has a specific gravity #aef at #bj1 & has a suffocat+ smell ( ! oxides ( nitrog54 ,:5 ! r$ acid is mix$ ) wat] x turns gre51 & !n ( a blui% col\r1 & ) an excess ( wat] ultimately becomes col\rless4 ,?is is ow+ to ! fact t ! oxides ( nitrog5 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] & nitric acid are *ang$1 & give col\r$ solutions4 ,m>kleffsky 7#ahib7 %[$ t ! gre5 solutions conta9 7besides ,,hno#c7 ,,hno#b & ,n#b,o#d1 :il/ ! blue solutions only conta9 ,,hno#b 7see ,note #dh74 ,! action ( r$ fum+ nitric acid 7or a mixture ) sulphuric acid7 is 9 _m cases v p[]ful & rapid1 & x sometimes acts diff]5tly f pure nitric acid4 ,?us iron becomes cov]$ ) a coat+ ( oxides1 & insoluble 9 acids2 x becomes1 z is said1 passive4 ,?us *romic acid 7& potassium di*romate7 gives oxide ( *romium 9 ?is r$ acid--t is1 x is deoxidis$4 ,?is is ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ! l[] oxides ( nitrog51 :i* are capable ( be+ oxidis$--t is1 ( pass+ into nitric acid l ! high] oxides4 ,b1 g5]ally1 ! action ( fum+ nitric acid1 bo? r$ & col\rless1 is p[]fully oxidis+4 ,nitric acid1 z an acid hydrate1 ent]s into reactions ( d\ble decomposition ) bases1 basic hydrates 7alkalis71 & ) salts4 ,9 all ^! cases a salt ( nitric acid is obta9$4 ,an alkali & nitric acid give wat] & a salt2 s1 also1 a basic oxide ) nitric acid gives a salt & wat]2 = in/ance1 lime1 ,ca,o #b;,,hno#c ,ca7,,no#c7b ,h#b,o4 ,_m ( ^! salts are t]m$ nitres4#cd ,! composition ( ! ord9>y salts ( nitric acid may be express$ by ! g5]al =mula ,m7,,no#c7n1 :]e ,m indicates a metal replac+ ! hydrog5 9 "o or sev]al 7n7 equival5ts ( nitric acid4 ,we %all f9d aft]w>ds t ! atoms ,m ( metals are equival5t to "o 7,k1 ,na1 ,ag7 atom ( hydrog51 or two 7,ca1 ,mg1 ,ba71 or ?ree 7,al1 ,971 or1 9 g5]al1 n atoms ( hydrog54 ,! salts ( nitric acid are especially *>act]is$ by be+ all soluble 9 wat]4#ce ,f ! prop]ty common to all ^! salts ( ent]+ into d\ble decompositions1 & ow+ to ! volatility ( nitric acid1 !y evolve nitric acid :5 heat$ ) sulphuric acid4 ,!y all1 l ! acid itself1 are capable ( evolv+ oxyg5 :5 heat$1 & consequ5tly ( act+ z oxidis+ sub/ances2 !y !re=e1 = in/ance1 deflagrate ) ignit$ c>bon1 ! c>bon burn+ at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! salt & =m+ gase\s products ( combu/ion4#cf #cd ,hydrog5 is n evolv$ 9 ! action ( nitric acid 7especially /rong7 on metals1 ev5 ) ^? metals :i* evolve hydrog5 "u ! action ( o!r acids4 ,?is is because ! hydrog5 at ! mom5t ( its sep>ation r$uces ! nitric acid1 ) =mation ( ! l[] oxides ( nitrog51 z we %all aft]w>ds see4 #ce ,c]ta9 basic salts ( nitric acid1 h[ev] 7= example1 ! basic salt ( bismu?71 are insoluble 9 wat]2 :il/1 on ! o!r h&1 all ! normal salts are soluble1 & ?is =ms an exceptional ph5om5on among acids1 because all ! ord9>y acids =m insoluble salts ) "o or ano!r base4 ,?us1 = sulphuric acid ! salts ( b>ium1 lead1 c41 = hydro*loric acid ! salts ( silv]1 c41 are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,h[ev]1 ! normal salts ( acetic & c]ta9 o!r acids are all soluble4 #cf ,ammonium nitrate1 ,,nh#d,,no#c1 is easily obta9$ by add+ a solution ( ammonia or ( ammonium c>bonate to nitric acid until x becomes neutral4 ,on evaporat+ ?is solution1 cry/als ( ! salt are =m$ :i* conta9 no wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,x cry/allises 9 prisms l ^? =m$ by common nitre1 & has a refre%+ ta/e2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at t dissolve #ed #jfat p>ts by weight ( ! salt4 ,x is soluble 9 alcohol1 melts at #afj1 & is decompos$ at ab\t #ahj1 =m+ wat] & nitr\s oxide1 ,,nh#d,,no#c #b;,h#b,o ,n#b,o4 ,if ammonium nitrate be mix$ ) sulphuric acid1 & ! mixture be heat$ to ab\t ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 !n nitric acid is evolv$1 & ammonium hydrog5 sulphate rema9s 9 solution2 b if ! mixture be heat$ rapidly to #af,o1 !n nitr\s oxide is evolv$4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! sulphuric acid takes up ammonia1 & 9 ! second place wat]4 ,ammonium nitrate is employ$ 9 practice = ! artificial production ( cold1 because 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] x l[]s ! temp]ature v consid]ably4 ,= ?is purpose x is be/ to take equal p>ts by weight ( ! salt & wat]4 ,! salt mu/ fir/ be r$uc$ to a p[d] & !n rapidly /irr$ up 9 ! wat]1 :5 ! temp]ature w fall f #ae to -#aj1 s t ! wat] freezes4 ,ammonium nitrate absorbs ammonia1 ) :i* x =ms un/able comp\nds resembl+ comp\nds conta9+ wat] ( cry/allisation4 7,div]s #ahgb1 ,ra\lt #ahgc47 ,at -#aj ,,nh#d,,no#c1b,,nh#c is =m$3 x is a liquid ( sp4 gr4 #aae1 :i* loses all its ammonia "u ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,at #bh ,,nh#d,,no#c1,,nh#c is =m$3 x is a solid :i* easily p>ts ) its ammonia :5 heat$1 especially 9 solution4 ,troo/ 7#ahhb7 inve/igat$ ! t5sion ( ! dissociation ( ! comp\nds =m$1 & came to ! conclusion t a def9ite comp\nd correspond+ to ! =mula #b,,nh#d,,no#c1c,,nh#c is =m$1 because ! t5sion ( dissociation rema9s con/ant 9 ! decomposition ( su* a comp\nd at #j4 ,y4 ,k\ril(f 7#ahic71 h[ev]1 consid]s t ! con/ancy ( ! t5sion ( ! ammonia evolv$ is due to ! decomposition ( a saturat$ solution1 & n ( a def9ite comp\nd4 ,dur+ decomposition ! sy/em is compos$ ( a liquid & a solid2 ! t5sion only becomes con/ant f ! mom5t ! solid falls d[n4 ,! composition #b,,nh#d,,no#c1c,,nh#c corresponds to a saturat$ solution at #j1 & ! solubility ( ,,nh#d,,no#c 9 ,,nh#c increases ) a rise ( temp]ature4 ,nitric acid also ent]s into d\ble decompositions ) a numb] ( hydroc>bons n 9 any way possess+ alkal9e *>act]s & n react+ ) o!r acids4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! nitric acid gives wat] & a new sub/ance t]m$ a nitro-comp\nd4 ,! *emical "* ( ! nitro-comp\nd is ! same z t ( ! orig9al sub/ance2 = example1 if an indiff]5t sub/ance be tak51 !n ! nitro comp\nd obta9$ f x w also be indiff]5t2 if an acid be tak51 !n an acid is obta9$ also4#cf bis ,b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 = in/ance1 acts accord+ to ! equation ,c#f;,h#f ,,hno#c ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b4 ,nitrob5z5e is produc$4 ,! sub/ance tak51 ,c#f;,h#f1 is a liquid hydroc>bon hav+ a fa9t t>ry smell1 boil+ at #hj1 & light] ?an wat]2 by ! action ( nitric acid nitrob5z5e is obta9$1 :i* is a sub/ance boil+ at ab\t #baj1 heavi] ?an wat]1 & hav+ an almond-l od\r3 x is employ$ 9 l>ge quantities = ! prep>ation ( anil9e & anil9e dyes4#cg ,z ! nitro-comp\nds conta9 bo? combu/ible elem5ts 7hydrog5 & c>bon71 z well z oxyg5 9 un/able comb9ation ) nitrog51 9 ! =m ( ! radicle ,,no#b ( nitric acid1 !y decompose ) an explosion :5 ignit$ or ev5 /ruck1 ow+ to ! pressure ( ! vap\rs & gases =m$--free nitrog51 c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 & aque\s vap\r4 ,9 ! explosion ( nitro comp\nds#cg bis mu* heat is evolv$1 z 9 ! combu/ion ( gunp[d] or detonat+ gas1 & 9 ?is case ! =ce ( explosion 9 a clos$ space is great1 because f a solid or liquid nitro-comp\nd occupy+ a small space !re proce$ vap\rs & gases ^: ela/icity is great n only f ! small space 9 :i* !y are =m$1 b ow+ to ! high temp]ature correspond+ to ! combu/ion ( ! nitro-comp\nd4#ch #cf bis ,?is is expla9$ by say+ t 9 true nitro-comp\nds ! residue ( nitric acid ,,no#b takes ! place ( ! hydrog5 9 ! hydroc>bon gr\p4 ,= example1 if ,c#f;,h#e,,oh be giv51 !n ,c#f;,h#d7,,no#b7,,oh w be a true nitro-comp\nd hav+ ! radical prop]ties ( ,c#f;,h#e,,oh4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,,no#b replace ! hydrog5 ( ! aque\s radicle 7,c#f;,h#e,,ono#b71 !n ! *emical "* v>ies1 z 9 ! passage ( ,,koh into ,,kono#b 7nitre7 7see ,note #cg & ,organic ,*emi/ry74 #cg ,! comp\nd e!rs ( nitric acid 9 :i* ! hydrog5 ( ! aque\s radicle 7,,oh7 is replac$ by ! residue ( nitric acid 7,,no#b7 are frequ5tly call$ nitro-comp\nds4 ,b 9 _! *emical "* !y diff] f true nitro-comp\nds 7= details see ,organic ,*emi/ry7 & d n burn l !m4 ,! action ( nitric acid on cellulose1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 is an example4 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* =ms ! out] coat+ ( all plant cells1 occurs 9 an almo/ pure /ate 9 cotton1 9 common writ+-pap]1 & 9 flax1 c42 "u ! action ( nitric acid x =ms wat] & nitrocellulose 7l wat] & ,,kno#c f ,,kho71 :i*1 al?\gh x has ! same appe>ance z ! cotton orig9ally tak51 diff]s f x entirely 9 prop]ties4 ,x explodes :5 /ruck1 bur/s into flame v easily "u ! action ( sp>ks1 & acts l gunp[d]1 :5ce its "n ( pyroxyl91 or gun-cotton4 ,! composition ( gun-cotton is ,c#f;,h#g,n#c,o#aa ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e #c,,nho#c-c;,h#b,o4 ,! proportion ( ! gr\p ,,no#b 9 nitrocellulose may be decreas$ by limit+ ! action ( ! nitric acid & comp\nds obta9$ ) diff]5t prop]ties2 = in/ance1 ! 7impure7 well-kn[n collodion cotton1 conta9+ f #aa to #ab p] c5t4 ( nitrog51 & pyro-collodion 7,m5deleff1 #ahij71 conta9+ #abd p] c5t4 ( nitrog54 ,bo? ^! products are soluble 9 a mixture ( alcohol & e!r 79 collodion a portion ( ! sub/ance is soluble 9 alcohol71 & ! solution :5 evaporat$ gives a transp>5t film1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,a solution ( collodion is employ$ 9 m$ic9e = cov]+ w\nds1 & 9 wet-plate photography = giv+ on glass an ev5 coat+ ( a sub/ance into :i* ! v>i\s reag5ts employ$ 9 ! process are introduc$4 ,extremely f9e ?reads 7obta9$ by =c+ a gelat9\s mixture ( collodion1 e!r1 & alcohol ?r\gh capill>y tubes 9 wat]7 ( collodion =m artificial silk4 #cg bis ,! prop]ty possess$ by nitroglyc]9 7occurr+ 9 dynamite71 nitrocellulose1 & ! o!r nitro-comp\nds1 ( burn+ ) an explosion1 & _! employm5t = smokeless p[d] & z explosives 9 g5]al1 dep5ds on ! reasons 9 virtue ( :i* a mixture ( nitre & *>coal deflagrates & explodes2 9 bo? cases ! elem5ts ( ! nitric acid occurr+ 9 ! comp\nd are decompos$1 ! oxyg5 9 burn+ unites ) ! c>bon1 & ! nitrog5 is set free2 ?us a v l>ge volume ( gase\s sub/ances 7nitrog5 & oxides ( c>bon7 is rapidly =m$ f ! solid sub/ances orig9ally tak54 ,^! gases occupy an incomp>ably l>g] volume ?an ! orig9al sub/ance1 & !re=e produce a p[]ful pressure & explosion4 ,x is evid5t t 9 explod+ ) ! developm5t ( heat 7t is1 9 decompos+1 n ) ! absorption ( en]gy1 z is g5]ally ! case1 b ) ! evolution ( en]gy7 ! nitro-comp\nds =m /ores ( en]gy :i* are easily set free1 & t consequ5tly _! elem5ts occur 9 a /ate ( p>ticul>ly en]getic motion1 :i* is especially /rong 9 ! gr\p ,,no#b3 ?is gr\p is common to all nitro-comp\nds1 & all ! oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog5 are un/able1 easily decomposable1 & 7,note #bi7 absorb heat 9 _! =mation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! nitro-comp\nds are in/ructive z an example & pro( ( ! fact t ! elem5ts & gr\ps =m+ comp\nds are unit$ 9 def9ite ord] 9 ! molecules ( a comp\nd4 ,a bl[1 concussion1 or rise ( temp]ature is necess>y to br+ ! combu/ible elem5ts ,c & ,h into ! mo/ intimate contact ) ,,no#b1 & to di/ribute ! elem5ts 9 a new ord] 9 new comp\nds4 ,z reg>ds ! composition ( ! nitro-comp\nds1 x w be se5 t ! hydrog5 ( a giv5 sub/ance is replac$ by ! complex gr\p ,,no#b ( ! nitric acid4 ,! same is obs]v$ 9 ! passage ( alkalis into nitrates1 s t ! reactions ( sub/itution ( nitric acid--t is1 ! =mation ( salts & nitro-comp\nds--may be express$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,9 ^! cases ! hydrog5 is replac$ by ! s-call$ radicle ( nitric acid ,,no#b1 z is evid5t f ! foll[+ table3-- ,cau/ic pota% ,,kho4 ,nitre ,k7,,no#b7,o4 ,hydrate ( lime ,ca,h#b,o#b4 ,calcium nitrate ,ca7,,no#b7b,o#b4 ,glyc]9 ,c#c;,h#e;,h#c,o#c4 ,nitroglyc]9 ,c#c;,h#e7,,no#b7c,o#c4 ,ph5ol ,c#f;,h#e,,oh4 ,picric acid ,c#f;,h#b7,,no#b7c,,oh1 c4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! salts =m$ by nitric acid & ! nitro-comp\nds consi/s 9 ! fact t nitric acid is v easily sep>at$ f ! salts ( nitric acid by means ( sulphuric acid 7t is1 by a me?od ( d\ble sal9e decomposition71 :il/ nitric acid is n displac$ by sulphuric acid f true nitro-comp\nds2 = in/ance1 nitrob5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b4 ,z nitro-comp\nds are =m$ exclusively f hydroc>bons1 !y are describ$ ) !m 9 organic *emi/ry4 ,! gr\p ,,no#b ( nitro-comp\nds 9 _m cases 7l all ! oxidis$ comp\nds ( nitrog57 passes into ! ammonia gr\p or into ! ammonia radicle ,,nh#b4 ,?is requires ! action ( r$uc+ sub/ances evolv+ hydrog53 ,,rno#b #f;,h ,,rnh#c #b;,h#b,o4 ,?us ,z99 conv]t$ nitrob5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b1 into anil9e1 ,c#f;,h#e,,nh#b1 by ! action ( hydrog5 sulphide4 ,admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( ! gr\p ,,no#b1 z replac+ hydrog5 9 v>i\s comp\nds1 !n nitric acid may be consid]$ z wat] 9 :i* half ! hydrog5 is replac$ by ! radical ( nitric acid4 ,9 ?is s5se nitric acid is nitro-wat]1 ,,no#b,,oh1 & its anhydride d9itro-wat]1 7,,no#b7b,o4 ,9 nitric acid ! radical ( nitric acid is comb9$ ) hydroxyl1 j z 9 nitrob5z5e x is comb9$ ) ! radical ( b5z5e4 ,x %\ld "h be rem>k$ t ! gr\p ,,no#c may be recognis$ 9 ! salts ( nitric acid1 because ! salts h ! composition ,m7,,no#c7n1 j z ! metallic *lorides h ! composition ,m,cln4 ,b ! gr\p ,,no#c does n =m any o!r comp\nds beyond ! salts1 & !re=e x %\ld he consid]$ z hydroxyl1 ,,ho1 9 :i* ,h is replac$ by ,,no#b4 #ch ,! nitro-comp\nds play a v important "p 9 m9+ & artill]y4 ,detail$ acc\nts ( !m mu/ be look$ = 9 special works1 among :i* ! works ( ,a4 ,r4 ,%ulia*5ke & ,t4 ,m4 ,*ellets(f occupy an important place 9 ! ,russian lit]ature on ?is subject1 al?\gh hi/orically ! sci5tific works ( ,abel 9 ,engl& & ,b]!lot 9 ,france /& pre-em95t4 ,! latt] elucidat$ mu* 9 connection ) explosive comp\nds by a s]ies ( bo? exp]im5tal & !oretical rese>*es4 ,among explosives a p>ticul>ly important place f a practical po9t ( view is occupi$ by ord9>y or black gunp[d] 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #af71 fulm9at+ m]cury 7,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #bf71 ! diff]5t =ms ( gun-cotton 7,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #cg71 & nitro-glyc]9e 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #de1 & ,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #cc74 ,! latt] :5 mix$ ) solid pulv]ul5t sub/ances1 l magnesia1 tripoli1 c41 =ms dynamite1 :i* is s l>gely us$ 9 qu>ries & m9es 9 driv+ tunnels1 c4 ,we may add t ! simple/ true nitro-comp\nd1 or m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 9 :i* all ! hydrog5s are replac$ by ,,no#b gr\ps has be5 obta9$ by ,l4 ,n4 ,%i%k(f1 ,c7,,no#b7d1 z well z nitr(orm1 ,,*7,,no#b7c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,! me?od ( decomposition ( nitr\s anhydride1 also applicable to ! o!r oxides ( nitrog51 & to _! analysis4 ,,no#b is g5]at$ f nitrate ( lead 9 ! retort ,a4 ,nitric acid & o!r less volatile products are cond5s$ 9 ,b4 ,! tube ,c ,c conta9s copp]1 & is heat$ f bel[4 ,undecompos$ volatile products 7if any are =m$7 are cond5s$ 9 ,d1 :i* is cool$4 ,if ! decomposition be incomplete1 br[n fumes make _! appe>ance 9 ?is receiv]4 ,! gase\s nitrog5 is collect$ 9 ! cyl9d] ,e4 ,if ! vap\r ( nitric acid is pass$ ?r\gh an ev5 mod]ately heat$ glass tube1 ! =mation ( d>k-br[n fumes ( ! l[] oxides ( nitrog5 & ! sep>ation ( free oxyg5 may be obs]v$1 #b,,nho#c ,h#b,o #b,,no#b ,o4 ,! decomposition is complete at a :ite heat--t is1 nitrog5 is =m$1 #b,,nho#c ,h#b,o ,n#b ,o#e4 ,h5ce x is easily und]/ood t nitric acid may "p ) its oxyg5 to a numb] ( sub/ances capable ( be+ oxidis$4#ci ,x is consequ5tly an oxidis+ ag5t4 ,*>coal1 z we h already se51 burns 9 nitric acid2 phosphorus1 sulphur1 iod9e1 & ! majority ( metals also decompose nitric acid1 "s on heat+ & o!rs ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature3 ! sub/ances tak5 are oxidis$ & ! nitric acid is deoxidis$1 yield+ comp\nds conta9+ less oxyg54 ,only a few metals1 su* z gold & plat9um1 d n act on nitric acid1 b ! majority decompose x2 9 s do+1 an oxide ( ! metal is =m$1 :i*1 if x has ! "* ( a base1 acts on ! rema9+ nitric acid2 h5ce1 ) ! majority ( metals ! result ( ! reaction is usually n an oxide ( ! metal1 b ! correspond+ salt ( nitric acid1 &1 at ! same "t1 "o ( ! l[] oxides ( nitrog54 ,! result+ salts ( ! metals are soluble1 & h5ce x is said t nitric acid dissolves ne>ly all metals4#dj ,?is case is t]m$ ! solution ( metals by acids1 al?\gh x is n a case ( simple solution1 b a complex *emical *ange ( ! sub/ances tak54 ,:5 treat$ ) ?is acid1 ^? metals ^: oxides d n comb9e ) nitric acid yield ! oxide itself1 & n a salt2 = example1 t9 acts 9 ?is mann] on nitric acid1 =m+ a hydrat$ oxide1 ,sn,h#b,o#c1 :i* is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( a :ite p[d]1 ,sn #d,,nho#c ,h#b,sn,o#c #d,,no#b ,h#b,o4 ,silv] is able to take up /ill m oxyg51 & to conv]t a l>ge portion ( nitric acid into nitr\s anhydride1 #d;,ag #f;,,hno#c #d;,ag,n,o#c ,n#b,o#c #c;,h#b,o4 ,copp] takes up /ill m oxyg5 f nitric acid1 conv]t+ x into nitric oxide1 &1 by ! action ( z9c1 nitric acid is able to give up a /ill fur!r quantity ( nitrog51 =m+ nitr\s oxide1 #d,zn #aj,,nho#c #d,zn7,,no#c7b ,n#b,o #e;,h#b,o4#da ,sometimes1 & especially ) dilute solutions ( nitric acid1 ! deoxidation proce$s z f> z ! =mation ( hydroxylam9e & ammonia1 & sometimes x leads to ! =mation ( nitrog5 itself4 ,! =mation ( "o or o!r nitrog5\s sub/ance f nitric acid is det]m9$1 n only by ! nature ( ! react+ sub/ances1 b also by ! relative mass ( wat] & nitric acid1 & also by ! temp]ature & pressure1 or ! sum total ( ! conditions ( reaction2 & z 9 a giv5 mixture ev5 ^! conditions v>y 7! temp]ature & ! relative mass v>y71 x n unfrequ5tly happ5s t a mixture ( diff]5t products ( ! deoxidation ( nitric acid is =m$4 #ci ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,decomposition ( nitr\s oxide by sodium4 ,nitric acid may be entirely decompos$ by pass+ its vap\r ov] highly inc&esc5t copp]1 because ! oxides ( nitrog5 fir/ =m$ give up _! oxyg5 to ! r$-hot metallic copp]1 s t wat] & nitrog5 gas alone are obta9$4 ,?is =ms a means = det]m9+ ! composition bo? ( nitric acid & ( all ! o!r comp\nds ( nitrog5 ) oxyg51 because by collect+ ! gase\s nitrog5 =m$ x is possible to calculate1 f its volume1 its weight & consequ5tly its am\nt 9 a giv5 quantity ( a nitrog5\s sub/ance1 & by weigh+ ! copp] be=e & aft] ! decomposition x is possible to det]m9e ! am\nt ( oxyg5 by ! increase 9 weight4 ,! complete decomposition ( nitric acid is also accompli%$ by pass+ a mixture ( hydrog5 & nitric acid vap\rs ?r\gh a r$-hot tube4 ,sodium also decomposes ! oxides ( nitrog5 at a r$-heat1 tak+ up all ! oxyg54 ,?is me?od is sometimes us$ = det]m9+ ! composition ( ! oxides ( nitrog54 #dj ,! application ( ?is acid = et*+ copp] or /eel 9 engrav+ is bas$ on ?is fact4 ,! copp] is cov]$ ) a coat+ ( wax1 res91 c4 7et*+ gr\nd71 on :i* nitric acid does n act1 & !n ! gr\nd is remov$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ) a ne$le1 & ! :ole is wa%$ 9 nitric acid4 ,! p>ts coat$ rema9 unt\*$1 :il/ ! uncov]$ portions are eat5 into by ! acid4 ,copp] plates = et*+s1 aquat9ts1 c41 are prep>$ 9 ?is mann]4 #da ,! =mation ( su* complex equations z ! above (t5 pres5ts "s difficulty to ! beg9n]4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t if ! react+ & resultant sub/ances be kn[n1 x is easy to =m an equation = ! reaction4 ,?us1 if we wi% to =m an equation express+ ! reaction t nitric acid act+ on z9c gives nitr\s oxide1 ,n#b,o1 & z9c nitrate1 ,zn7,,no#c7b1 we mu/ reason z foll[s3--,nitric acid conta9s hydrog51 :il/ ! salt & nitr\s oxide d n2 h5ce wat] is =m$1 & !re=e x is z ?\gh anhydr\s nitric acid1 ,n#b,o#e1 7 act+4 ,= its conv]sion into nitr\s oxide x p>ts ) f\r equival5ts ( oxyg51 & h5ce x is able to oxidise f\r equival5ts ( z9c & to conv]t x into z9c oxide1 ,zn,o4 ,^! f\r equival5ts ( z9c oxide require = _! conv]sion into ! salt f\r m equival5ts ( nitric anhydride2 consequ5tly five equival5ts 9 all ( ! latt] are requir$1 or t5 equival5ts ( nitric acid4 ,?us t5 equival5ts ( nitric acid are necess>y = f\r equival5ts ( z9c 9 ord] to express ! reaction 9 :ole equival5ts4 ,x mu/ n be =gott51 h[ev]1 t !re are v few su* reactions :i* c be entirely express$ by simple equations4 ,! majority ( equations ( reactions only express ! *ief & ultimate products ( reaction1 & ?us none ( ! ?ree prec$+ equations express all t 9 reality occurs 9 ! action ( metals on nitric acid4 ,9 no "o ( !m is only "o oxide ( nitrog5 =m$1 b always sev]al toge!r or consecutively--"o aft] ! o!r1 accord+ to ! temp]ature & /r5g? ( ! acid4 ,& ?is is easily intelligible4 ,! result+ oxide is itself capable ( act+ on metals & ( be+ deoxidis$1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( ! nitric acid x may *ange ! acid & be itself *ang$4 ,! equations giv5 mu/ be look$ on z a sy/ematic expression ( ! ma9 features ( reactions1 or z a limit t[>ds :i* !y t5d1 b to :i* !y only atta9 9 ! abs5ce ( di/urb+ influ5ces4 ,?us ! action ( nitric acid on metals consi/s 9 _! be+ oxidis$1 :il/ ! acid itself is conv]t$1 accord+ to ! temp]ature1 conc5tration 9 :i* x is tak51 & ! nature ( ! metal1 c41 into l[] oxides1 ammonia1 or ev5 into nitrog54#db ,_m comp\nds are oxidis$ by nitric acid l metals & o!r elem5ts2 = in/ance1 l[] oxides are conv]t$ into high] oxides4 ,?us1 ars5i\s acid is conv]t$ into ars5ic acid1 suboxide ( iron into oxide1 sulphur\s acid into sulphuric acid1 ! sulphides ( ! metals1 ,m#b,s1 into sulphates1 ,m#b,,s#d1 c42 9 a ^w1 nitric acid br+s ab\t oxidation1 its oxyg5 is tak5 up & transf]r$ to _m o!r sub/ances4 ,c]ta9 sub/ances are oxidis$ by /rong nitric acid s rapidly & ) s great an evolution ( heat t !y deflagrate & bur/ into flame4 ,?us turp5t9e1 ,c#aj;,h#af1 bur/s into flame :5 p\r$ into fum+ nitric acid4 ,9 virtue ( its oxidis+ prop]ty1 nitric acid removes ! hydrog5 f _m sub/ances4 ,?us x decomposes hydriodic acid1 sep>at+ ! iod9e & =m+ wat]2 & if fum+ nitric acid be p\r$ into a flask conta9+ gase\s hydriodic acid1 !n a rapid reaction takes place1 accompani$ by flame & ! sep>ation ( violet vap\rs ( iod9e & br[n fumes ( oxides ( nitrog54#dc #db ,montem>t9i endeav\rs to %[ t ! products evolv$ 9 ! action ( nitric acid ^u metals 7& _! am\nt7 is 9 direct connection ) bo? ! conc5tration ( ! acid & ! capacity ( ! metals to decompose wat]4 ,^? metals :i* only decompose wat] at a high temp]ature give1 "u ! action ( nitric acid1 ,,no#b1 ,n#b,o#d1 & ,,no2 :il/ ^? metals :i* decompose wat] at a l[] temp]ature give1 besides ! above products1 ,n#b,o1 ,n1 & ,,nh#c2 &1 la/ly1 ! metals :i* decompose wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature also evolve hydrog54 ,x is obs]v$ t conc5trat$ nitric acid oxidises _m metals ) mu* great] difficulty ?an :5 dilut$ ) wat]2 iron1 copp]1 & t9 are v easily oxidis$ by dilute nitric acid1 b rema9 unalt]$ "u ! influ5ce ( monohydrat$ nitric acid or ( ! pure hydrate ,,nho#c4 ,nitric acid dilut$ ) a l>ge quantity ( wat] does n oxidise copp]1 b x oxidises t92 dilute nitric acid also does n oxidise ei!r silv] or m]cury2 b1 on ! addition ( nitr\s acid1 ev5 dilute acid acts on ! above metals4 ,?is naturally dep5ds on ! small] /ability ( nitr\s acid1 & on ! fact t aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! action ! nitric acid is itself conv]t$ into nitr\s acid1 :i* cont9ues to act on ! silv] & m]cury4 ,veley 7,ox=d #ahia7 made detail$ rese>*es on ! action ( nitric acid ^u ,cu1 ,hg1 & ,bi1 & %[$ t nitric acid ( #cj p4c4 /r5g? does n act ^u ^! metals at ! ord9>y temp]ature if nitr\s acid 7traces are de/roy$ by urea7 & oxidis+ ag5ts su* z ,h#b,o#b1 ,k,cl,o#c1 c4 be entirely abs5t2 b 9 ! pres5ce ( ev5 a small am\nt ( nitr\s acid ! metals =m nitrites1 :i*1 ) ,,hno#c1 =m nitrates & ! oxides ( nitrog51 :i* re-=m ! nitr\s acid necess>y = />t+ ! reaction1 because ! reaction #b,,no ,,hno#c ,h#b,o #c;,,hno#b is rev]sible4 ,! above metals are quickly dissolv$ 9 a #a p4c4 solution ( nitr\s acid4 ,moreov]1 ,veley obs]v$ t nitric acid is p>tially conv]t$ into nitr\s acid by gase\s hydrog5 9 ! pres5ce ( ! nitrates ( ,cu & ,pb4 #dc ,:5 nitric acid acts on _m organic sub/ances x (t5 happ5s t n only is hydrog5 remov$1 b also oxyg5 is comb9$2 ?us1 = example1 nitric acid conv]ts tolu5e1 ,c#g;,h#h1 into b5zoic acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,o#b4 ,9 c]ta9 cases1 also1 a portion ( ! c>bon conta9$ 9 an organic sub/ance burns at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! nitric acid4 ,s1 = in/ance1 ph?alic acid1 ,c#h;,h#f,o#d1 is obta9$ f naph?al5e1 #aj;,h#h4 ,?us ! action ( nitric acid on ! hydroc>bons is (t5 mo/ complex2 n only does nitrification take place1 b also sep>ation ( c>bon1 displacem5t ( hydrog51 & comb9ation ( oxyg54 ,!re are few organic sub/ances :i* c )/& ! action ( nitric acid1 & x causes fundam5tal *anges 9 a numb] ( !m4 ,x leaves a yell[ /a9 on ! sk91 & 9 a l>ge quantity causes a w\nd & entirely eats away ! membranes ( ! body4 ,! membranes ( plants are eat5 into ) ! greate/ ease by /rong nitric acid 9 j ! same mann]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ durable blue vegetable dyes employ$ 9 dye+ tissues is indigo2 yet x is easily conv]t$ into a yell[ sub/ance by ! action ( nitric acid1 & small traces ( free nitric acid may be recognis$ by ?is means4 ,z nitric acid is v easily decompos$ ) ! sep>ation ( oxyg51 x 0 = a long "t suppos$ t x 0 n capable ( =m+ ! correspond+ nitric anhydride1 ,n#b,o#e2 b ,deville fir/ & subsequ5tly ,web] & o!rs1 discov]$ ! me?ods ( its =mation4 ,deville obta9$ nitric anhydride by decompos+ silv] nitrate by *lor9e "u ! influ5ce ( a mod]ate heat4 ,*lor9e acts on ! above salt at a temp]ature ( #ie 7#b;,ag,n,o#c ,cl#b #b;,ag,cl ,n#b,o#e ,o71 & :5 once ! reaction is />t$1 x cont9ues by itself )\t fur!r heat+4 ,br[n fumes are giv5 (f1 :i* are cond5s$ 9 a tube surr\nd$ by a freez+-mixture4 ,a portion cond5ses 9 ?is tube & a portion rema9s 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,! latt] conta9s free oxyg54 ,a cry/all9e mass & a liquid sub/ance are obta9$ 9 ! tube2 ! liquid is p\r$ (f1 & a curr5t ( dry c>bonic acid gas is pass$ ?r\gh ! app>atus 9 ord] to remove all traces ( volatile sub/ances 7liquid oxides ( nitrog57 adh]+ to ! cry/als ( nitric anhydride4 ,^! =m a volum9\s mass ( rhombic cry/als 7d5sity #afd71 :i* sometimes are ( r l>ge size2 !y melt at ab\t #cj & di/il at ab\t #dg4 ,9 di/ill+1 a portion ( ! sub/ance is decompos$4 ,) wat] ^! cry/als give nitric acid4 ,nitric anhydride is also obta9$ by ! action ( phosphoric anhydride1 ,p#b,o#e1 on cold pure nitric acid 7bel[ #j74 ,dur+ ! v c>eful di/illation ( equal p>ts by weight ( ^! two sub/ances a portion ( ! acid decomposes1 giv+ a liquid comp\nd1 ,h#b,o1#b,n#b,o#e ,n#b,o#e1b;,,hno#c1 :il/ ! great] "p ( ! nitric acid gives ! anhydride accord+ to ! equation #b,,nho#c ,p#b,o#e #b,,pho#c ,n#b,o#e4 ,on heat+1 nitric anhydride decomposes ) an explosion1 or gradually1 into nitric p]oxide & oxyg51 ,n#b,o#e ,n#b,o#d ,o4 ,nitrog5 p]oxide1 ,n#b,o#d1 & nitrog5 dioxide1 ,,no#b1 express "o & ! same composition1 b !y %\ld be di/+ui%$ l ord9>y oxyg5 & ozone1 al?\gh 9 ?is case _! mutual conv]sion is m easily effect$ & takes place on vaporisation2 also1 ,o#c loses heat 9 pass+ into ,o#b1 :il/ ,n#b,o#d absorbs heat 9 =m+ ,,no#b4 ,nitric acid 9 act+ on t9 & on _m organic sub/ances 7= example1 />*7 gives br[n vap\rs1 consi/+ ( a mixture ( ,n#b,o#c & ,,no#b4 ,a pur] product is obta9$ by ! decomposition ( lead nitrate by heat1 ,pb7,,no#c7b #b,,no#b ,o ,pb,o1 :5 non-volatile lead oxide1 oxyg5 gas1 & nitrog5 p]oxide are =m$4 ,! latt] cond5ses1 9 a well-cool$ vessel1 to a br[n liquid1 :i* boils at ab\t #bb4 ,! pure/ p]oxide ( nitrog51 solidify+ at -#i1 is obta9$ by mix+ dry oxyg5 9 a freez+-mixture ) twice its volume ( dry nitric oxide1 ,,no1 :5 transp>5t prisms ( nitrog5 p]oxide are =m$ 9 ! receiv]3 !y melt into a col\rless liquid at ab\t -#aj4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! receiv] is above -#i1 ! cry/als melt1#dd & at #j give a r$di% yell[ liquid1 l t obta9$ 9 ! decomposition ( lead nitrate4 ,! vap\rs ( nitrog5 p]oxide h a *>act]i/ic od\r1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature are ( a d>k-br[n col\r1 b at l[] temp]atures ! col\r ( ! vap\r is mu* fa9t]4 ,:5 heat$1 especially above #ej1 ! col\r becomes a v d>k br[n1 s t ! vap\rs almo/ lose _! transp>5cy4 #dd ,accord+ to c]ta9 inve/igations1 if a br[n liquid is =m$ f ! melt$ cry/als by beat+ above -#i1 !n !y no long] solidify at -#aj1 probably because a c]ta9 am\nt ( ,n#b,o#c 7& oxyg57 is =m$1 & ?is sub/ance rema9s liquid at -#cj1 or x may be t ! passage f #b,,no#b into ,n#b,o#d is n s easily accompli%$ z ! passage f ,n#b,o#d into #b,,no#b4 ,liquid nitrog5 p]oxide 7t is1 a mixture ( ,,no#b & ,n#b,o#d7 is employ$ 9 admixture ) hydroc>bons z an explosive4 ,! causes ( ^! peculi>ities ( nitrog5 p]oxide 7 n cle>ly und]/ood until ,deville & ,troo/ det]m9$ ! d5sity & dissociation ( ! vap\r ( ?is sub/ance at diff]5t temp]atures1 & %[$ t ! d5sity v>ies4 ,if ! d5sity be ref]r$ to t ( hydrog5 at ! same temp]ature & pressure1 !n x is f\nd to v>y f #ch at ! boil+ po9t1 or ab\t #bg1 to #bc at #ace1 aft] :i* ! d5sity rema9s con/ant up to ^? high temp]atures at :i* ! oxides ( nitrog5 are decompos$4 ,z on ! basis ( ! laws enunciat$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 ! d5sity #bc corresponds ) ! comp\nd ,,no#b 7because ! weight correspond+ ) ?is molecul> =mula #df1 & ! d5sity ref]r$ to hydrog5 z unity is equal to half ! molecul> weight72 !re=e at temp]atures above #ace ! exi/5ce ( nitrog5 dioxide only mu/ be recognis$4 ,x is ?is gas :i* is ( a br[n col\r4 ,at a l[] temp]ature x =ms nitrog5 p]oxide1 ,n#b,o#d1 ^: molecul> weight1 & !re=e d5sity1 is twice t ( ! dioxide4 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* is isom]ic ) nitrog5 dioxide1 z ozone is isom]ic ) oxyg51 & has twice z great a vap\r d5sity 7#df ref]r$ to hydrog571 is =m$ 9 great] quantity ! l[] ! temp]ature1 & cry/allises at -#aj4 ,! reasons bo? ( ! v>iation ( ! col\r ( ! gas 7,n#b,o#d gives col\rless & transp>5t vap\rs1 :il/ ^? ( ,,no#b are br[n & opaque7 & ! v>iation ( ! vap\r d5sity ) ! v>iation ( temp]ature are ?us made q cle>2 & z at ! boil+ po9t a d5sity #ch 0 obta9$1 !re=e at t temp]ature ! vap\rs consi/ ( a mixture ( #gi p>ts by weight ( ,n#b,o#d ) #ba p>ts by weight ( ,,no#b4de ,x is evid5t t a decomposition "h takes place ! peculi>ity ( :i* consi/s 9 ! fact t ! product ( decomposition1 ,,no#b1 is polym]is$ 7i4e4 becomes d5s]1 comb9es ) itself7 at a l[] temp]ature2 t is1 ! reaction ,n#b,o#d ,,no#b ,,no#b is a rev]sible reaction1 & consequ5tly ! :ole ph5om5on repres5ts a dissociation 9 a homog5e\s gase\s m$ium1 :]e ! orig9al sub/ance1 ,n#b,o#d1 & ! resultant1 ,,no#b1 are bo? gases4 ,! measure ( dissociation w be express$ if we f9d ! proportion ( ! quantity ( ! sub/ance decompos$ to ! :ole am\nt ( ! sub/ance4 ,at ! boil+ po9t1 !re=e1 ! measure ( ! decomposition ( nitrog5 p]oxide w be #ba p4c42 at #ace x #a1 & at #aj x #j2 t is1 ! ,n#b,o#d is n !n decomposable4 ,consequ5tly ! limits ( dissociation "h are -#aj & #ace at ! atmosph]ic pressure4#df ,)9 ! limits ( ^! temp]atures ! vap\rs ( nitrog5 p]oxide h n a con/ant d5sity1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 above & bel[ ^! limits def9ite sub/ances exi/4 ,?us above #ace ,n#b,o#d has ceas$ to exi/ & ,,no#b alone rema9s4 ,x is evid5t t at ! ord9>y temp]ature !re is a p>tially dissociat$ sy/em or mixture ( nitrog5 p]oxide1 ,n#b,o#d1 & nitrog5 dioxide1 ,,no#b4 ,9 ! br[n liquid boil+ at #bb probably a portion ( ! ,n#b,o#d has already pass$ into ,,no#b1 & x is only ! col\rless liquid & cry/all9e sub/ance at -#aj t c be consid]$ z pure nitrog5 p]oxide4#dg #de ,because if x equal ! am\nt by weight ( ,n#b,o#d1 its volume w x_/#df1 & ! am\nt ( ,,no#b w #ajj-x1 & consequ5tly its volume w 7#ajj-x7_/#bc4 ,b ! mixture1 hav+ a d5sity #ch1 w weigh #ajj2 consequ5tly its volume w #ajj_/ch4 ,h5ce x_/#df 7#ajj-x7_/#bc #ajj_/ch1 or x #gi,o4 #df ,! ph5om5a & laws ( dissociation1 :i* we %all consid] only 9 p>ticul> in/ances1 are discuss$ 9 detail 9 works on !oretical *emi/ry4 ,nev]!less1 9 respect to nitrog5 p]oxide1 z an hi/orically important example ( dissociation 9 a homog5e\s gase\s m$ium1 we w cite ! results ( ! c>eful inve/igations 7#ahhe-ahhj7 ( ,e4 & ,l4 ,natanson1 :o det]m9$ ! d5sities "u v>i\s conditions ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,! degree ( dissociation1 express$ z above 7x may also he express$ o!rwise--= example1 by ! ratio ( ! quantity ( sub/ance decompos$ to t unalt]$71 proves to increase at all temp]atures z ! pressure dim9i%es1 :i* w\ld he expect$ = a homog5e\s gase\s m$ium1 z a decreas+ pressure aids ! =mation ( ! lighte/ product ( dissociation 7t hav+ ! lea/ d5sity or l>ge/ volume74 ,?us1 9 ! ,natansons' exp]im5ts ! degree ( dissociation at #j increases f #aj p4c4 to #cj p4c41 ) a decrease ( pressure ( f #bea to #ch mm42 at #dig x increases f #di p4c4 to #ic p4c41 ) a fall ( pressure ( f #dih to #bg mm41 & at #ajj x increases f #hib p4c4 to #iig p4c41 ) a fall ( pressure ( f #gcbe to #aag mm4 ,at #acj & #aej ! decomposition is complete--t is1 only ,,no#b rema9s at ! l[ pressures 7less ?an ! atmosph]ic7 at :i* ! ,natansons made _! det]m9ations2 b x is probable t at high] pressures 7( sev]al atmosph]es7 molecules ( ,n#b,o#d w\ld /ill be =m$1 & x w\ld be exce$+ly int]e/+ to trace ! ph5om5a "u ! conditions ( bo? v consid]able pressures & ( relatively l>ge volumes4 #dg ,liquid nitrog5 p]oxide is said by ,geu!r to boil at #bb-bf1 & to h a sp4 gr4 at #j #adid & at #ae #adgd4 ,x is evid5t t1 9 ! liquid z 9 ! gase\s /ate1 ! v>iation ( d5sity ) ! temp]ature dep5ds1 n only on physical1 b also on *emical *anges1 z ! am\nt ( ,n#b,o#d decreases & ! am\nt ( ,,no#b increases ) ! temp]ature1 & !y 7z polym]ic sub/ances7 %\ld h diff]5t d5sities1 z we f9d1 = in/ance1 9 ! hydroc>bons ,c#e;,h#aj & ,c#aj;,h#bj4 ,x may n be sup]flu\s to m5tion "h t ! measurem5t ( ! specific heat ( a mixture ( ! vap\rs ( ,n#b,o#d & ,,no#b enabl$ ,b]!lot to det]m9e t ! trans=mation ( #b,,no#b into ,n#b,o#d is accompani$ by ! evolution ( ab\t #ac1jjj units ( heat1 & z ! reaction proce$s ) equal facility 9 ei!r direction1 x w be exo!rmal 9 ! "o direction & endo!rmal 9 ! o!r2 & ?is cle>ly demon/rates ! possibility ( reactions tak+ place 9 ei!r direction1 al?\gh1 z a rule1 reactions evolv+ heat proce$ ) great] ease4 ,! above expla9s ! action ( nitrog5 p]oxide on wat] at l[ temp]atures4 ,n#b,o#d !n acts on wat] l a mixture ( ! anhydrides ( nitr\s & nitric acids4 ,! fir/1 ,n#b,o#c1 may be look$ on z wat] 9 :i* ea* ( ! two atoms ( hydrog5 is replac$ by ! radicle ,,no1 :ile 9 ! second ea* hydrog5 is replac$ by ! radicle ,,no#b1 prop] to nitric acid2 & 9 nitrog5 p]oxide "o atom ( ! hydrog5 ( wat] is replac$ by ,,no & ! o!r by ,,no#b1 z is se5 f ! =mul-- ,h ,,no ,,no ,,no#b ,h ,o2 ,,no ,o2 ,,no#b ,o2 ,,no#b ,o2 or ,h#b,o2 ,n#b,o#c2 ,n#b,o#d2 ,n#b,o#e4 ,9 fact1 nitrog5 p]oxide at l[ temp]atures gives ) wat] 7ice7 bo? nitric1 ,,hno#c1 & nitr\s1 ,,hno#b1 acids4 ,! latt]1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 splits up into wat] & ! anhydride1 ,n#b,o#c4 ,if1 h[ev]1 w>m wat] act on nitrog5 p]oxide1 only nitric acid & monoxide ( nitrog5 are =m$3 #c,,no#b ,h#b,o ,,no #b,,nho#c4 ,al?\gh ,,no#b is n decompos$ into ,n & ,o ev5 at #ejj1 /ill 9 _m cases x acts z an oxidis+ ag5t4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 x oxidises m]cury1 conv]t+ x into m]cur\s nitrate1 #b,,no#b ,hg ,hg,n,o#c ,,no1 be+ itself deoxidis$ into nitric oxide1 into :i* ! dioxide 9 _m o!r in/ances passes1 & f :i* x is easily =m$4#dh #dh ,nitric acid ( sp4 gr4 #aea 9 dissolv+ nitrog5 p]oxide becomes br[n1 :il/ nitric acid ( sp4 gr4 #acb is col\r$ gre5i% blue1 & acid ( sp4 gr4 bel[ #aae rema9s col\rless aft] absorb+ nitrog5 p]oxide 7,note #cc74 ,nitr\s anhydride1 ,n#b,o#c1 corresponds#di to nitr\s acid1 ,,nho#b1 :i* =ms a s]ies ( salts1 ! nitrites--= example1 ! sodium salt ,na,n,o#b1 ! potassium salt ,,kno#b1 ! ammonium salt 7,,nh#d7,,no#b1ej ! silv] salt ,ag,n,o#b1ea c4 ,nei!r ! anhydride nor ! hydrate ( ! acid is kn[n 9 a p]fectly pure /ate4 ,! anhydride has only be5 obta9$ z a v un/able sub/ance1 & has n yet be5 fully inve/igat$2 & on attempt+ to obta9 ! acid ,,nho#b f its salts1 x always gives wat] & ! anhydride1 :il/ ! latt]1 z an int]m$iate oxide1 p>tially or :olly splits up into ,,no ,,no#b4 ,b ! salts ( nitr\s acid are di/+ui%$ = _! great /ability4 ,potassium nitrate1 ,,kno#c1 may be conv]t$ into potassium nitrite by depriv+ x ( a portion ( its oxyg52 = in/ance1 by fus+ x 7at n too high a temp]ature7 ) metals1 su* z lead1 ,,kno#c ,pb ,,kno#b ,pb,o4#ea bis ,! resultant salt is soluble 9 wat]1 :il/ ! oxide ( lead is insoluble4 ,) sulphuric & o!r acids ! solution ( potassium nitrite#eb imm$iately evolves a br[n gas1 nitr\s anhydride3 #b,,kno#b ,h#b,,s#d ,k#b,,s#d ,n#b,o#c ,h#b,o4 ,! same gas 7,n#b,o#c7 is obta9$ by pass+ nitric oxide at #j ?r\gh liquid p]oxide ( nitrog51#ec or by heat+ />* ) nitric acid ( sp4 gr4 #ac4 ,at a v l[ temp]ature x cond5ses into a blue liquid boil+ bel[ #j1ed b !n p>tially decompos+ into ,,no ,,no#b4 ,nitr\s anhydride possesses a rem>kable capacity = oxidis+4 ,ignit$ bodies burn 9 x1 nitric acid absorbs x1 & !n acquires ! prop]ty ( act+ on silv] & o!r metals1 ev5 :5 dilut$4 ,potassium iodide is oxidis$ by ?is gas j z x is by ozone 7& by p]oxide ( hydrog51 *romic & o!r acids1 b n by dilute nitric acid nor by sulphuric acid71 ) ! sep>ation ( iod9e4 ,?is iod9e may he recognis$ 7see ,ozone1 ,*apt] ,,iv47 by its turn+ />* blue4 ,v small traces ( nitrites may be easily detect$ by ?is me?od4 ,if1 = example1 />* & potassium iodide are add$ to a solution ( potassium nitrite 7at fir/ !re w be no *ange1 !re be+ no free nitr\s acid71 & !n sulphuric acid be add$1 ! nitr\s acid 7or its anhydride7 imm$iately set free lib]ates iod9e1 :i* produces a blue col\r ) ! />*4 ,nitric acid does n act 9 ?is mann]1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( z9c ! coloration takes place1 :i* proves ! =mation ( nitr\s acid 9 ! deoxidation ( nitric acid4#ee ,nitr\s acid acts directly on ammonia1 =m+ nitrog5 & wat]1 ,,hno#b ,,nh#c ,n#b #b;,h#b,o4#ef #di ,nitrog5 p]oxide z a mix$ sub/ance has no correspond+ indep5d5t salts1 b ,sabati] & ,s5d]5s 7#ahib7 %[$ t "u c]ta9 conditions ,,no#b comb9es directly ) "s metals--= in/ance1 copp] & cobalt--=m+ ,cu#b,,no#b & ,co,n,o#b z d>k br[n p[d]s1 :i* d n1 h[ev]1 exhibit ! reactions ( salts4 ,?us by pass+ gase\s nitrog5 dioxide ov] fre%ly r$uc$ 7f ! oxides by heat+ ) hydrog57 copp] at #be-cj1 ,cu#b,,no#b is directly =m$4 ,) wat] x p>tly gives (f ,,no#b & p>tly =ms nitrite ( copp]1 leav+ metallic copp] & its suboxide4 ,! nature ( ^! comp\nds has n yet be5 suffici5tly inve/igat$4 #ej ,ammonium nitrite may be easily obta9$ 9 solution by a simil> me?od ( d\ble decomposition 7= in/ance1 ( ! b>ium salt ) ammonium sulphate7 to ! o!r salts ( nitr\s acid1 b x decomposes ) great ease :5 evaporat$1 ) evolution ( gase\s nitrog51 z already m5tion$ 7,*apt] ,v47 ,if ! solution1 h[ev]1 be evaporat$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 a solid sal9e mass is obta9$1 :i* is easily decompos$ :5 heat$4 ,! dry salt ev5 decomposes ) an explosion :5 /ruck1 or :5 heat$ to ab\t #gj--,,nh#d,,no#b #b;,h#b,o ,n#b4 ,x is also =m$ by ! action ( aque\s ammonia on a mixture ( nitric oxide & oxyg51 or by ! action ( ozone on ammonia1 & 9 _m o!r in/ances4 ,zr5s5 7#ahid7 prep>$ ,,nh#d,,no#b by ! action ( a mixture ( ,n#b,o#c & o!r oxides ( nitrog5 on lumps ( ammonium c>bonate1 extract+ ! nitrite ( ammonium =m$ ) absolute alcohol1 & precipitat+ x f ?is solution by e!r4 ,?is salt is cry/all9e1 dissolves 9 wat] ) absorption ( heat1 & attracts moi/ure f ! air4 ,! solid salt & its conc5trat$ solutions decompose ) an explosion :5 heat$ to #ej-hj1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( traces ( =eign acids4 ,decomposition also proce$s at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b m sl[ly2 & 9 ord] to pres]ve ! salt x %\ld be cov]$ ) a lay] ( pure dry e!r4 #ea ,silv] nitrite1 ,ag,n,o#b1 is obta9$ z a v slightly soluble sub/ance1 z a precipitate1 on mix+ solutions ( silv] nitrate1 ,ag,n,o#c1 & potassium nitrite1 ,,kno#b4 ,x is soluble 9 a l>ge volume ( wat]1 & ?is is tak5 advantage ( to free x f silv] oxide1 :i* is also pres5t 9 ! precipitate1 ow+ to ! fact t potassium nitrite always conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( oxide1 :i* ) wat] gives ! hydroxide1 =m+ oxide ( silv] ) silv] nitrate4 ,! solution ( silv] nitrite gives1 by d\ble decomposition ) metallic *lorides 7= in/ance1 b>ium *loride71 insoluble silv] *loride & ! nitrite ( ! metal tak5 79 ?is case1 b>ium nitrite1 ,ba7,,no#b7b74 #ea bis ,l]oy 7#ahhi7 obta9$ ,,kno#b by mix+ p[d]$ ,,kno#c ) ,ba,s1 ignit+ ! mixture 9 a crucible & wa%+ ! fus$ salts2 ,ba,s,o#d is !n left z an insoluble residue1 & ,,kno#b passes into solution3 #d,,kno#c ,ba,s #d,,kno#b ,ba,s,o#d4 #eb ,probably potassium nitrite1 ,,kno#b1 :5 /rongly heat$1 especially ) metallic oxides1 evolves ,n & ,o1 & gives potassium oxide1 ,k#b,o1 because nitre is liable to su* a decomposition2 b x has1 z yet1 be5 b little inve/igat$4 #ec ,!re are _m rese>*es :i* lead to ! conclusion t ! reaction ,n#b,o#c ,,no#b-,,no is rev]sible1 i4e4 resembles ! conv]sion ( ,n#b,o#d into ,,no#b4 ,! br[n col\r ( ! fumes ( ,n#b,o#c is due to ! =mation ( ,,no#b4 ,if nitrog5 p]oxide be cool$ to -#bj1 & half its weight ( wat] be add$ to x drop by drop1 !n ! p]oxide is decompos$1 z we h already said1 into nitr\s & nitric acids2 ! =m] does n !n rema9 z a hydrate1 b /raightway passes into ! anhydride1 &1 h5ce1 if ! resultant liquid be slightly w>m$ vap\rs ( nitr\s anhydride1 ,n#b,o#c1 are evolv$1 & cond5se into a blue liquid1 z ,fritzs*e %[$4 ,?is me?od ( prep>+ nitr\s anhydride app>5tly gives ! pure/ product1 b x easily dissociates1 =m+ ,,no & ,,no#b 7& !re=e also nitric acid 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]74 #ed ,accord+ to ,?orpe1 ,n#b,o#c boils at #ah4 ,accord+ to ,geu!r1 at #ce1 & its sp4 gr4 at #j #addi4 #ee ,9 its oxidis+ action nitr\s anhydride gives nitric oxide1 ,n#b,o#c #b,,no ,o4 ,?us its analogy to ozone becomes /ill m m>k$1 because 9 ozone x is only "o-?ird ( ! oxyg5 t acts 9 oxidis+2 f ,o#c !re is obta9$ ,o1 :i* acts z an oxidis]1 & common oxyg5 ,o#b4 ,9 a physical aspect ! relation betwe5 ,n#b,o#c & ,o#c is reveal$ 9 ! fact t bo? sub/ances are ( a blue col\r :5 9 ! liquid /ate4 #ef ,?is reaction is tak5 advantage ( = conv]t+ ! amides1 ,,nh#b,r 7:]e ,r is an elem5t or a complex gr\p7 into hydroxides1 ,,rho4 ,9 ?is case ,,nh#b,r ,,nho#b =ms #b,n ,h#b,o ,,rho2 ,,nh#b1 is replac$ by ,,ho1 ! radicle ( ammonia by ! radicle ( wat]4 ,?is reaction is employ$ = trans=m+ _m nitrog5\s organic sub/ances hav+ ! prop]ties ( amides into _! correspond+ hydroxides4 ,?us anil9e1 ,c#f;,h#e,,nh#b1 :i* is obta9$ f nitrob5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#e,,no#b 7,note #cg71 is conv]t$ by nitr\s anhydride into ph5ol1 ,c#f;,h#e,,oh1 :i* occurs 9 ! creosote extract$ f coal t>4 ,?us ! ,h ( ! b5z5e is successively replac$ by ,,no#b1 ,,nh#b1 & ,,ho2 a me?od :i* is suitable = o!r cases also4 ,z nitr\s anhydride easily splits up into ,,no#b ,,no1 s1 l ,,no#b1 ) w>m wat] x gives nitric acid & nitric oxide1 accord+ to ! equation #c,n#b,o#c ,h#b,o #d,,no #b,,nho#c4 ,be+ 9 a l[] degree ( oxidation ?an nitric acid1 nitr\s acid & its anhydride are oxidis$ 9 solutions by _m oxidis+ sub/ances--= example1 by potassium p]manganate--into nitric acid4#eg #eg ,! action ( a solution ( potassium p]manganate1 ,k,mn,o#d1 on nitr\s acid 9 ! pres5ce ( sulphuric acid is det]m9$ by ! fact t ! high] oxide ( manganese1 ,mn#b,o#g1 conta9$ 9 ! p]manganate is conv]t$ into ! l[] oxide1 ,mn,o1 :i* z a base =ms manganese sulphate1 ,mn,s,o#d1 & ! oxyg5 s]ves = ! oxidation ( ! ,n#b,o#c into ,n#b,o#e1 or its hydrate4 ,z ! solution ( ! p]manganate is ( a r$ col\r1 :il/ t ( manganese sulphate is almo/ col\rless1 ?is reaction is cle>ly se51 & may be employ$ = ! detection & det]m9ation ( nitr\s acid & its salts4 ,nitric oxide1 ,,no4--,?is p]man5t gas#eh 7t is1 unliquefiable by pressure )\t ! aid ( cold7 may be obta9$ f all ! above-describ$ comp\nds ( nitrog5 ) oxyg54 ,! deoxidation ( nitric acid by metals is ! usual me?od employ$ = its prep>ation4 ,dilute nitric acid 7sp4 gr4 #aah1 b n /rong]1 z !n ,n#b,o#c & ,,no#b are produc$7 is p\r$ into a flask conta9+ metallic copp]4#ei ,! reaction comm5ces at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,m]cury & silv] also give nitric oxide ) nitric acid4 ,9 ^! reactions ) metals "o portion ( ! nitric acid is employ$ 9 ! oxidation ( ! metal1 :il/ ! o!r1 & by f> ! great]1 portion comb9es ) ! metallic oxide s obta9$1 ) =mation ( ! nitrate correspond+ ) ! metal tak54 ,! fir/ action ( ! copp] on ! nitric acid is ?us express$ by ! equation #b,,nho#c #c;,cu ,h#b,o #c;,cu,o #b,,no4 ,! second reaction consi/s 9 ! =mation ( copp] nitrate-- #f,,nho#c #c;,cu,o #c;,h#b,o #c;,cu7,,no#c7b4 #eh ,! absolute boil+ po9t -#ic 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bi74 #ei ,kamm]] propos$ prep>+ nitric oxide1 ,,no1 by p\r+ a solution ( sodium nitrate ov] copp] %av+s1 & add+ sulphuric acid drop by drop4 ,! oxidation ( f]r\s salts by nitric acid also gives ,,no4 ,"o "p ( /rong hydro*loric acid is tak5 & iron is dissolv$ 9 x 7,fe,cl#b71 & !n an equal quantity ( hydro*loric acid & nitre is add$ to ! solution4 ,on heat+1 nitric oxide is evolv$4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( sulphuric acid & m]cury ! conv]sion ( nitric acid into nitric oxide is complete 7t is1 ! reaction proce$s to ! end & ! nitric oxide is obta9$ )\t o!r products71 & ^u ?is is f\nd$ "o ( ! me?ods = det]m9+ nitric acid 79 nitromet]s ( v>i\s k9ds1 describ$ 9 text-books ( analytical *emi/ry71 z ! am\nt ( ,,no c be easily & accurately measur$ volumetrically4 ,! am\nt ( nitrog5 9 gun-cotton1 = in/ance1 is det]m9$ by dissolv+ x 9 sulphuric acid4 ,nitr\s acid acts 9 ! same mann]4 ,^u ?is prop]ty ,emi* 7#ahib7 f\nds 8 me?od = prep>+ pure ,,no4 ,he p\rs m]cury into a flask1 & !n cov]s x ) sulphuric acid1 9 :i* a c]ta9 am\nt ( ,na,n,o#b or o!r sub/ance correspond+ to ,,hno#b or ,,hno#c has be5 dissolv$4 ,! evolution ( ,,no proce$s at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 be+ m rapid z ! surface ( ! m]cury is increas$ 7if %ak51 ! reaction proce$s v rapidly74 ,if ! gas be pass$ ov] ,,kho1 x is obta9$ q pure1 because ,,kho does n act ^u ,,no at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7if heat$1 ,,kno#b & ,n#b,o or ,n#b1 are =m$74 ,nitric oxide is a col\rless gas :i* is only slightly soluble 9 wat] 7#a_/bj ( a volume at ! ord9>y temp]ature74 ,reactions ( d\ble decomposition 9 :i* nitric oxide readily takes "p are n kn[n--t is to say1 x is an indiff]5t1 n a sal9e1 oxide4 ,l ! o!r oxides ( nitrog51 x is decompos$ into its elem5ts at a r$ heat 7/>t+ f #ijj1 at #a1bjj #fj p] c5t4 give ,n#b & #b,n#b,o#c1 b complete decomposition into ,n#b & ,o#b only takes place at ! melt+ po9t ( plat9um1 ,emi* #ahib74 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( nitric oxide is its capacity = directly & easily comb9+ ) oxyg5 7ow+ to ! evolution ( heat 9 ! comb9ation74 ,) oxyg5 x =ms nitr\s anhydride & nitrog5 p]oxide1 #b,,no ,o ,n#b,o#c1 #b,,no ,o#b #b,,no#b4 ,if nitric oxide is mix$ ) oxyg5 & imm$iately %ak5 up ) cau/ic pota%1 x is almo/ entirely conv]t$ into potassium nitrite2 :il/ aft] a c]ta9 "t1 :5 ! =mation ( nitric p]oxide has already comm5c$1 a mixture ( potassium nitrite & nitrate is obta9$4 ,if oxyg5 is pass$ into a bell j> fill$ ) nitric oxide1 br[n fumes ( nitr\s anhydride & nitric p]oxide are =m$1 ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( moi/ure2 ^! 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] give1 z we already "k1 nitric acid & nitric oxide1 s t 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( wat] & oxyg5 ! :ole ( ! nitric oxide is easily & directly conv]t$ into nitric acid4 ,?is reaction ( ! re-=mation ( nitric acid f nitric oxide1 air1 & wat]1 #b,,no ,h#b,o ,o#c #b;,,hno#c1 is frequ5tly made use ( 9 practice4 ,! exp]im5t %[+ ! conv]sion ( nitric oxide into nitric acid is v /rik+ & in/ructive4 ,z ! int]mixture ( ! oxyg5 ) ! oxide ( nitrog5 proce$s1 ! nitric acid =m$ dissolves 9 wat]1 & if an excess ( oxyg5 has n be5 add$ ! :ole ( ! gas 7nitric oxide71 be+ conv]t$ into ,,hno#c1 is absorb$1 & ! wat] entirely fills ! bell j> previ\sly conta9+ ! gas4#fj ,x is evid5t t nitric oxide#fa 9 comb9+ ) oxyg5 has a /rong t5d5cy to give ! high] types ( nitrog5 comp\nds1 :i* we see 9 nitric acid1 ,,hno#c or ,,no#b7,,oh71 9 nitric anhydride1 ,n#b,o#e or 7,,no#b7b,o1 & 9 ammonium *loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,if ,x /& = an atom ( hydrog51 or its equival5ts1 *lor9e1 hydroxyl1 c41 & if ,o1 :i* is1 accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 equival5t to ,h#b1 be indicat$ by ,x#b1 !n ! ?ree comp\nds ( nitrog5 above nam$ %\ld be consid]$ z comp\nds ( ! type or =m ,,nx#e4 ,= example1 9 nitric acid ,x#e ,o#b 7,,oh71 :]e ,o#b ,x#d1 & ,,oh ,x2 :il/ nitric oxide is a comp\nd ( ! =m ,,nx#b4 ,h5ce ?is l[] =m1 l l[] =ms 9 g5]al1 /rives by comb9ation to atta9 to ! high] =ms prop] to ! comp\nds ( a giv5 elem5t4 ,,nx#b passes consecutively into ,,nx#c--namely1 into ,n#b,o#c & ,,nho#b1 ,,nx#d 7= in/ance ,,no#b7 & ,,nx#e4 #fj ,?is trans=mation ( ! p]man5t gases nitric oxide & oxyg5 into liquid nitric acid 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 & ) ! evolution ( heat1 pres5ts a mo/ /rik+ in/ance ( liquefaction produc$ by ! action ( *emical =ces4 ,!y p]=m ) ease ! "w :i* physical 7cool+7 & me*anical 7pressure7 =ces effect ) difficulty4 ,9 ?is ! motion1 :i* is s di/9ctively ! prop]ty ( ! gase\s molecules1 is app>5tly de/roy$4 ,9 o!r cases ( *emical action x is app>5tly creat$1 aris+1 no d\bt1 f lat5t en]gy--t is1 f ! int]nal motion ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules4 #fa ,nitric oxide is capable ( ent]+ into _m *>act]i/ic comb9ations2 x is absorb$ by ! solutions ( _m acids1 = in/ance1 t>t>ic1 acetic1 phosphoric1 sulphuric1 & metallic *lorides 7= example1 ,sb,cl#e1 ,bi,cl#c1 c41 ) :i* x =ms def9ite comp\nds2 ,besson #ahhi71 & also by ! solutions ( _m salts1 especially ^? =m$ by suboxide ( iron 7= in/ance1 f]r\s sulphate74 ,9 ?is case a br[n comp\nd is =m$ :i* is exce$+ly un/able1 l all ! analog\s comp\nds ( nitric oxide4 ,! am\nt ( nitric oxide comb9$ 9 ?is mann] is 9 atomic proportion ) ! am\nt ( ! sub/ance tak52 ?us f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d1 absorbs x 9 ! proportion ( ,,no to #b;,fe,s,o#d4 ,ammonia is obta9$ by ! action ( a cau/ic alkali on ! resultant comp\nd1 because ! oxyg5 ( ! nitric oxide & wat] are transf]r$ to ! f]r\s oxide1 =m+ f]ric oxide1 :il/ ! nitrog5 comb9es ) ! hydrog5 ( ! wat]4 ,accord+ to ! inve/igations ( ,gay 7#ahhe71 ! comp\nd is =m$ ) ! evolution ( a l>ge quantity ( heat1 & is easily dissociat$1 l a solution ( ammonia 9 wat]4 ,x is evid5t t oxidis+ sub/ances 7= example1 potassium p]manganate1 ,k,mn,o#d1 ,note #eg7 are able to conv]t x into nitric acid4 ,if ! pres5ce ( a radicle ,,no#b1 compos$ l nitrog5 p]oxide1 mu/ be recognis$ 9 ! comp\nds ( nitric acid1 !n a radicle ,,no1 hav+ ! composition ( nitric oxide1 may be admitt$ 9 ! comp\nds ( nitr\s acid4 ,! comp\nds 9 :i* ! radicle ,,no is recognis$ are call$ nitroso-comp\nds4 ,^! sub/ances are describ$ 9 ,pr(4 ,bunge's "w 7,kief1 #ahfh74 ,z ! decomposition ( nitric oxide beg9s at temp]atures above #ijj1 _m sub/ances burn 9 x2 ?us1 ignit$ phosphorus cont9ues to burn 9 nitric oxide1 b sulphur & *>coal are ext+ui%$ 9 x4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! heat evolv$ 9 ! combu/ion ( ^! two sub/ances is insuffici5t = ! decomposition ( ! nitric oxide1 :il/ ! heat develop$ by burn+ phosphorus suffices to produce ?is decomposition4 ,t nitric oxide really supports combu/ion1 ow+ to its be+ decompos$ by ! action ( heat1 is prov$ by ! fact t /rongly ignit$ *>coal cont9ues to burn 9 ! same nitric oxide#fb 9 :i* a feebly inc&esc5t piece ( *>coal is ext+ui%$4 #fb ,a mixture ( nitric oxide & hydrog5 is inflammable4 ,if a mixture ( ! two gases be pass$ ov] spongy plat9um ! nitrog5 & hydrog5 ev5 comb9e1 =m+ ammonia4 ,a mixture ( nitric oxide ) _m combu/ible vap\rs & gases is v inflammable4 ,a v *>act]i/ic flame is obta9$ 9 burn+ a mixture ( nitric oxide & ! vap\r ( ! combu/ible c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b4 ,! latt] sub/ance is v volatile1 s t x is suffici5t to pass ! nitric oxide ?r\gh a lay] ( ! c>bon bisulphide 7= in/ance1 9 a ,w\lfe's bottle7 9 ord] t ! gas escap+ %\ld conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( ! vap\rs ( ?is sub/ance4 ,?is mixture cont9ues to burn :5 ignit$1 & ! flame emits a l>ge quantity ( ! s-call$ ultra-violet rays1 :i* are capable ( induc+ *emical comb9ations & decompositions1 & !re=e ! flame may be employ$ 9 photography 9 ! abs5ce ( suffici5t daylight 7magnesium light & electric light h ! same prop]ty74 ,!re are _m gases 7= in/ance1 ammonia7 :i* :5 mix$ ) nitric oxide explode 9 a eudiomet]4 ,! comp\nds ( nitrog5 ) oxyg5 :i* we h s f> consid]$ may all be prep>$ f nitric oxide1 & may !mselves be conv]t$ into x4 ,?us nitric oxide /&s 9 intimate connection ) !m4#fc ,! passage ( nitric oxide into ! high] degrees ( oxidation & ! conv]se reaction is employ$ 9 practice z a means = transf]r+ ! oxyg5 ( ! air to sub/ances capable ( be+ oxidis$4 ,/>t+ ) nitric oxide1 x may easily be conv]t$1 ) ! aid ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e & wat]1 into nitric acid1 nitr\s anhydride1 & nitric p]oxide1 & by _! means employ$ to oxidise o!r sub/ances4 ,9 ?is oxidis+ action nitric oxide is aga9 =m$1 & x may aga9 be conv]t$ into nitric acid1 & s on cont9u\sly1 if only oxyg5 & wat] be pres5t4 ,h5ce ! fact1 :i* at fir/ appe>s to be a p>adox1 t by means ( a small quantity ( nitric oxide 9 ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 & wat] x is possible to oxidise an indef9itely l>ge quantity ( sub/ances :i* _c be directly oxidis$ ei!r by ! action ( ! atmosph]ic oxyg5 or by ! action ( nitric oxide itself4 ,! sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 :i* is obta9$ 9 ! combu/ion ( sulphur & 9 roa/+ _m metallic sulphides 9 ! air is an example ( ?is k9d4 ,9 practice ?is gas is obta9$ by burn+ sulphur or iron pyrites1 ! latt] be+ !reby conv]t$ into oxide ( iron & sulphur\s anhydride4 ,9 contact ) ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e ?is gas does n pass into ! high] degree ( oxidation1 sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 & if x does =m sulphuric acid ) wat] & ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e1 ,,s#b ,h#b,o ,o ,h#b,,s#d1 x does s v sl[ly4 ,) nitric acid 7& especially ) nitr\s acid1 b n ) nitrog5 p]oxide7 & wat]1 sulphur\s anhydride1 on ! contr>y1 v easily =ms sulphuric acid1 & especially s :5 slightly heat$ 7ab\t #dj71 ! nitric acid 7or1 bett] /ill1 nitr\s acid7 be+ conv]t$ into nitric oxide-- #c,,s#b #b,,nho#c #b;,h#b,o #b;,h#b,,s#d #b,,no4 #fc ,! oxides ( nitrog5 naturally d n proce$ directly f oxyg5 & nitrog5 by contact alone1 because _! =mation is accompani$ by ! absorption ( a l>ge quantity ( heat1 = 7see ,note #bi7 ab\t #ba1ejj heat units are absorb$ :5 #af p>ts ( oxyg5 & #ad p>ts ( nitrog5 comb9e2 consequ5tly ! decomposition ( nitric oxide into oxyg5 & nitrog5 is accompani$ by ! evolution ( ?is am\nt ( heat2 & !re=e ) nitric oxide1 z ) all explosive sub/ances & mixtures1 ! reaction once />t$ is able to proce$ by itself4 ,9 fact1 ,b]!lot rem>k$ ! decomposition ( nitric oxide 9 ! explosion ( fulm9ate ( m]cury4 ,?is decomposition does n take place spontane\sly2 sub/ances ev5 burn ) difficulty 9 nitric oxide1 probably because a c]ta9 portion ( ! nitric oxide 9 decompos+ gives oxyg51 :i* comb9es ) ano!r portion ( nitric oxide1 & =ms nitric p]oxide1 a some:at m /able comp\nd ( nitrog5 & oxyg54 ,! fur!r comb9ations ( nitric oxide ) oxyg5 all proce$ ) ! evolution ( heat1 & take place spontane\sly by contact ) air alone4 ,x is evid5t f ^! examples t ! application ( !rmo*emical data is limit$4 ,! pres5ce ( wat] is absolutely indisp5sable "h1 o!rwise sulphuric anhydride is =m$1 :i* comb9es ) ! oxides ( nitrog5 7nitr\s anhydride71 =m+ a cry/all9e sub/ance conta9+ oxides ( nitrog5 7*amb] cry/als1 :i* w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xx47 ,wat] de/roys ?is comp\nd1 =m+ sulphuric acid & sep>at+ ! oxides ( nitrog54 ,! wat] mu/ be tak5 9 a great] quantity ?an t requir$ = ! =mation ( ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1 because ! latt] absorbs oxides ( nitrog54 ,) an excess ( wat]1 h[ev]1 solution does n take place4 ,if1 9 ! above reaction1 only wat]1 sulphur\s anhydride1 & nitric or nitr\s acid be tak5 9 a def9ite quantity1 !n a def9ite quantity ( sulphuric acid & nitric oxide w be =m$1 accord+ to ! prec$+ equation2 b !re ! reaction ends & ! excess ( sulphur\s anhydride1 if !re be any1 w rema9 un*ang$4 ,b if we add air & wat]1 !n ! nitric oxide w unite ) ! oxyg5 to =m nitrog5 p]oxide1 & ! latt] ) wat] to =m nitric & nitr\s acids1 :i* aga9 give sulphuric acid f a fre% quantity ( sulphur\s anhydride4 ,nitric oxide is aga9 =m$1 :i* is able to />t ! oxidation afre% if !re be suffici5t air4 ,?us x is possible ) a def9ite quantity ( nitric oxide to conv]t an indef9itely l>ge quantity ( sulphur\s anhydride into sulphuric acid1 wat] & oxyg5 only be+ requir$4#fd ,?is may be easily demon/rat$ by an exp]im5t on a small scale1 if a c]ta9 quantity ( nitric oxide be fir/ introduc$ into a flask1 & sulphur\s anhydride1 /eam1 & oxyg5 be !n cont9ually pass$ 94 ,?us ! above-describ$ reaction may be express$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- n,,s#b n,o 7n m7,h#b,o ,,no n,h#b,,s#d1m,h#b,o ,,no if we consid] only ! orig9al sub/ances & ^? f9ally =m$4 ,9 ?is way a def9ite quantity ( nitric oxide may s]ve = ! conv]sion ( an indef9ite quantity ( sulphur\s anhydride1 oxyg51 & wat] into sulphuric acid4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 !re is a limit to ?is1 because air1 & n pure oxyg51 is employ$ = ! oxidation1 s t x is necess>y to remove ! nitrog5 ( ! air & to introduce a fre% quantity ( air4 ,a c]ta9 quantity ( nitric oxide w pass away ) ?is nitrog51 & w 9 ?is way be lo/4#fe #fd ,! in/ance ( ! action ( a small quantity ( ,,no 9 induc+ a def9ite *emical reaction betwe5 l>ge masses 7,,s#b ,o ,h#b,o ,h#b,,s#d7 is v in/ructive1 because ! p>ticul>s relat+ to x h be5 /udi$1 & %[ t int]m$iate =ms ( reaction may be discov]$ 9 ! s-call$ contact or catalytic ph5om5a4 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] "h is t ,a 7 ,,s#b7 reacts ^u ,b 7 ,o & ,h#b,o7 9 ! pres5ce ( ,c1 because x gives ,,bc1 a sub/ance :i* =ms ,,ab ) ,a1 & aga9 lib]ates ,c4 ,consequ5tly ,c is a m$ium1 a transf]r+ sub/ance1 )\t :i* ! reaction does n proce$4 ,_m simil> ph5om5a may be f\nd 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( life4 ,?us ! m]*ant is an indisp5sable m$ium betwe5 ! produc] & ! consum]2 exp]im5t is a m$ium betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( nature & ! cognisant faculties1 & language1 cu/oms1 & laws are m$ia :i* are z necess>y = ! ex*anges ( social int]c\rse z nitric oxide = ^? betwe5 sulphur\s anhydride & oxyg5 & wat]4 #fe ,if ! sulphur\s anhydride be prep>$ by roa/+ iron pyrites1 ,fe,s#b1 !n ea* equival5t ( pyrites 7equival5t ( iron1 #ef1 ( sulphur #cb1 ( pyrites #abj7 requires six equival5ts ( oxyg5 7t is #if p>ts7 = ! conv]sion ( its sulphur into sulphuric acid 7= =m+ #b;,h#b,,s#d ) wat]71 besides #a-a_/b equival5ts 7#bd p>ts7 = conv]t+ ! iron into oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c2 h5ce ! combu/ion ( ! pyrites = ! =mation ( sulphuric acid & f]ric oxide requires ! introduction ( an equal weight ( oxyg5 7#abj p>ts ( oxyg5 to #abj p>ts ( pyrites71 or five times its weight ( air1 :il/ f\r p>ts by weight ( nitrog5 w rema9 inactive1 & 9 ! removal ( ! exhau/$ air w c>ry (f ! rema9+ nitric oxide4 ,if n all1 at lea/ a l>ge portion ( ! nitric oxide may be collect$ by pass+ ! escap+ air1 /ill conta9+ "s oxyg51 ?r\gh sub/ances :i* absorb oxides ( nitrog54 ,sulphuric acid itself may be employ$ = ?is purpose if x be us$ 9 ! =m ( ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1 or conta9+ only a small am\nt ( wat]1 because su* sulphuric acid dissolves ! oxides ( nitrog54 ,!y may be easily expell$ f ?is solution by heat+ or by dilution ) wat]1 z !y are only slightly soluble 9 aque\s sulphuric acid4 ,besides :i*1 sulphur\s anhydride acts on su* sulphuric acid1 be+ oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( ! nitr\s anhydride1 & =m+ nitric oxide f x1 :i* aga9 ent]s into ! cycle ( action4 ,= ?is reason ! sulphuric acid :i* has absorb$ ! oxides ( nitrog5 escap+ f ! *amb]s 9 ! t[] ,k 7see fig4 #ej7 is l$ back into ! fir/ *amb]1 :]e x comes into contact ) sulphur\s anhydride1 by :i* means ! oxides ( nitrog5 are re9troduc$ into ! reaction :i* proce$s 9 ! *amb]s4 ,?is is ! use ( ! t[]s 7,gay-,lussac's & ,glov]'s7 :i* are erect$ at ei!r end ( ! *amb]s4 ,! prec$+ s]ies ( *anges s]ve z ! basis ( ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid or s-call$ *amb] acid4 ,?is acid is prep>$ on a v l>ge scale 9 *emical works because x is ! *eape/ acid ^: action c be appli$ 9 a great numb] ( cases4 ,x is !re=e us$ 9 imm5se quantities4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,section ( sulphuric acid *amb]s1 ! fir/ & la/ *amb]s only be+ repres5t$4 ,! t[] to ! left is call$ ! ,glov]'s t[]1 & t on ! "r ! ,gay-,lussac's t[]4 ,less ?an #a_/aj? ( ! natural size4 ,! process is c>ri$ on 9 a s]ies ( *amb]s 7or 9 "o divid$ by p>titions z 9 fig4 #ej1 :i* %[s ! beg9n+ & end ( a *amb]7 con/ruct$ ( %eet lead4 ,^! *amb]s are plac$ "o aga9/ ! o!r1 & communicate by tubes or special orifices s plac$ t ! inlet tubes are 9 ! upp] portion ( ! *amb]1 & ! outlet 9 ! l[] & opposite end4 ,! curr5t ( /eam & gases necess>y = ! prep>ation ( ! sulphuric acid passes ?r\gh ^! *amb]s & tubes4 ,! acid z x is =m$ falls to ! bottom ( ! *amb]s or runs d[n _! walls1 & fl[s f *amb] to *amb] 7f ! la/ t[>ds ! fir/71 to p]mit ( :i* ! p>titions d n rea* to ! bottom4 ,! floor & walls ( ! *amb]s %\ld !re=e be made ( a mat]ial on :i* ! sulphuric acid w n act4 ,among ! ord9>y metals lead is ! only "o suitable4#fe bis #fe bis ,o!r metals1 iron1 copp]1 z9c1 are corrod$ by x2 glass & *9a are n act$ ^u1 b !y crack f ! v>iations ( temp]ature tak+ place 9 ! *amb]s1 & besides !y are m difficult to jo9 prop]ly ?an lead2 wood1 c41 becomes *>r$4 ,= ! =mation ( ! sulphuric acid x is necess>y to introduce sulphur\s anhydride1 /eam1 air1 & nitric acid1 or "s oxide ( nitrog51 into ! *amb]s4 ,! sulphur\s anhydride is produc$ by burn+ sulphur or iron pyrites4 ,?is is c>ri$ on 9 ! furnace ) f\r he>?s to ! left ( ! draw+4 ,air is l$ into ! *amb]s & furnace ?r\gh orifices 9 ! furnace doors4 ,! curr5t ( air & oxyg5 is regulat$ by op5+ or clos+ ^! orifices to a great] or less ext5t4 ,! +o+ draught 9 ! *amb]s is br\ght ab\t by ! fact t heat$ gases & vap\rs pass into ! *amb]s1 ^: temp]ature is fur!r rais$ by ! reaction itself1 & also by ! rema9+ nitrog5 be+ cont9ually )drawn f ! outlet 7above ! t[] ,k7 by a tall *imney situat$ ne> ! *amb]s4 ,nitric acid is prep>$ f a mixture ( sulphuric acid & ,*ili saltpetre1 9 ! same furnaces 9 :i* ! sulphur\s anhydride is evolv$ 7or 9 special furnaces74 ,n m ?an #h p>ts ( nitre are tak5 to #ajj p>ts ( sulphur burnt4 ,on leav+ ! furnace ! vap\rs ( nitric acid & oxides ( nitrog5 mix$ ) air & sulphur\s anhydride fir/ pass along ! horizontal tubes ,t into ! receiv] ,b ,b1 :i* is p>tially cool$ by wat] fl[+ 9 on ! "r-h& side & runn+ out on ! left by o1 9 ord] to r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! gases ent]+ ! *amb]4 ,! gases !n pass up a t[] fill$ ) coke1 & %[n to ! left ( ! draw+4 ,9 ?is t[] are plac$ lumps ( coke 7! residue f ! dry di/illation ( coal71 ov] :i* sulphuric acid trickles f ! res]voir ,m4 ,?is acid has absorb$ 9 ! end t[] ,k ! oxides ( nitrog5 escap+ f ! *amb]4 ,?is end t[] is also fill$ ) coke1 ov] :i* a /ream ( /rong sulphuric acid trickles f ! res]voir ,m4 ,! acid spreads ov] ! coke1 &1 ow+ to ! l>ge surface (f]$ by ! latt]1 absorbs ! great] "p ( ! oxides ( nitrog5 escap+ f ! *amb]s4 ,! sulphuric acid 9 pass+ d[n ! t[] becomes saturat$ ) ! oxides ( nitrog51 & fl[s out at h into a special receiv] 79 ! draw+ situat$ by ! side ( ! furnaces71 f :i* x is =c$ up ! tubes h h by /eam pressure into ! res]voir ,m1 situat$ above ! fir/ t[]4 ,! gases pass+ ?r\gh ?is t[] 7hot7 f ! furnace on com+ into contact ) ! sulphuric acid take up ! oxides ( nitrog5 conta9$ 9 x1 & ^! are ?us return$ to ! *amb] & aga9 p>ticipate 9 ! reaction4 ,! sulphuric acid left aft] _! extraction fl[s into ! *amb]s4 ,?us1 on leav+ ! fir/ coke t[] ! sulphur\s anhydride1 air1 & vap\rs ( nitric acid & ( ! oxides ( nitrog5 pass ?r\gh ! upp] tube m into ! *amb]4 ,"h !y come into contact ) /eam introduc$ by lead tubes into v>i\s p>ts ( ! *amb]4 ,! reaction takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 ! sulphuric acid falls to ! bottom ( ! *amb]1 & ! same process takes place 9 ! foll[+ *amb]s until ! :ole ( ! sulphur\s anhydride is consum$4 ,a some:at great] proportion ( air ?an is /rictly necess>y is pass$ 91 9 ord] t no sulphur\s anhydride %\ld be left unalt]$ = want ( suffici5t oxyg54 ,! pres5ce ( an excess ( oxyg5 is %[n by ! col\r ( ! gases escap+ f ! la/ *amb]4 ,if !y be ( a pale col\r x indicates an insuffici5cy ( air 7& ! pres5ce ( sulphur\s anhydride71 z o!rwise p]oxide ( nitrog5 w\ld be =m$4 ,a v d>k col\r %[s an excess ( air1 :i* is also disadvantage\s1 because x increases ! inevitable loss ( nitric oxide by increas+ ! mass ( escap+ gases4#ff #ff ,by ?is means z mu* z #b1ejj1jjj kilograms ( *amb] acid1 conta9+ ab\t #fj p] c5t4 ( ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d & ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ( wat]1 may be manufactur$ p] ye> 9 "o plant ( #e1jjj cubic metres capacity 7)\t /oppages74 ,?is process has be5 br\ght to su* a degree ( p]fection t z mu* z #cjj p>ts ( ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d are obta9$ f #ajj p>ts ( sulphur1 :il/ ! !oretical am\nt is n great] ?an #cjf p>ts4 ,! acid p>ts ) its excess ( wat] on heat+4 ,= ?is purpose x is heat$ 9 lead vessels4 ,h[ev]1 ! acid conta9+ ab\t #ge p] c5t4 ( ! hydrate 7#fj ,baum7 already beg9s to act on ! lead :5 heat$1 & !re=e ! fur!r removal ( wat] is conduct$ by evaporat+ 9 glass or plat9um vessels1 z w he describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xx4 ,! aque\s acid 7#ej ,baum7 obta9$ 9 ! *amb]s is t]m$ *amb] acid4 ,! acid conc5trat$ to #fj ,baum is m g5]ally employ$1 & sometimes ! hydrate 7#ff ,baum7 t]m$ vitriol acid is also us$4 ,9 ,engl& alone m ?an #a1jjj million kilograms ( *amb] acid are produc$ by ?is me?od4 ,! =mation ( sulphuric acid by ! action ( nitric acid 0 discov]$ by ,drebbel1 & ! fir/ lead *amb] 0 erect$ by ,roebuck1 9 ,scotl&1 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,! ess5ce ( ! process 0 only br\ght to light at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury1 :5 _m improvem5ts 7 introduc$ into practice4 ,nitr\s oxide1 ,n#b,o1#fg is simil> to wat] 9 its volumetric composition4 ,two volumes ( nitr\s oxide are =m$ f two volumes ( nitrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg51 :i* may be %[n by ! ord9>y me?od = ! analysis ( ! oxides ( nitrog5 7by pass+ !m ov] r$-hot copp] or sodium74 ,9 contradi/9ction to ! o!r oxides ( nitrog51 x is n directly oxidis$ by oxyg51 b x may be obta9$ f ! high] oxides ( nitrog5 by ! action ( c]ta9 deoxidis+ sub/ances2 ?us1 = example1 a mixture ( two volumes ( nitric oxide & "o volume ( sulphur\s anhydride if left 9 contact ) wat] & spongy plat9um is conv]t$ into sulphuric acid & nitr\s oxide1 #b,,no ,,s#b ,h#b,o ,h#b,,s#d ,n#b,o4 ,nitric acid1 also1 "u ! action ( c]ta9 metals--= in/ance1 ( z9c#fh--;gives nitr\s oxide1 al?\gh 9 ?is case mix$ ) nitric oxide4 ,! usual me?od ( prep>+ nitr\s oxide consi/s 9 ! decomposition ( ammonium nitrate by ! aid ( heat1 because 9 ?is case only wat] & nitr\s oxide are =m$1 ,,nh#d,,no#c #b;,h#b,o ,n#b,o 7a mixture ( ,,nh#d;,cl & ,,kno#c is sometimes tak574 ,! decomposition#fi proce$s v easily 9 an app>atus l t us$ = ! prep>ation ( ammonia or oxyg5--t is1 9 a retort or flask ) a gas-conduct+ tube4 ,! decomposition mu/1 h[ev]1 be c>ri$ on c>efully1 z o!rwise nitrog5 is =m$ f ! decomposition ( ! nitr\s oxide4#gj #fg ,if ! hydrate ,,hno#c corresponds to ,n#b,o#d1 ! hydrate ,,hno1 hyponitr\s acid1 corresponds to ,n#b,o1 & 9 ?is s5se ,n#b,o is hyponitr\s anhydride4 ,hyponitr\s acid1 correspond+ ) nitr\s oxide 7z its anhydride71 is n kn[n 9 a pure /ate1 b its salts 7,div]s7 are kn[n4 ,!y are prep>$ by ! r$uction ( nitr\s 7& consequ5tly ( nitric7 salts by sodium amalgam4 ,if ?is amalgam he add$ to a cold solution ( an alkal9e nitrite until ! evolution ( gas ceases1 & ! excess ( alkali saturat$ ) acetic acid1 an insoluble yell[ precipitate ( silv] hyponitrite1 ,n,ag,o1 w he obta9$ on add+ a solution ( silv] nitrate4 ,?is hyponitrite is insoluble 9 cold acetic acid1 & decomposes :5 heat$1 ) ! evolution ( nitr\s oxide4 ,if rapidly heat$ x decomposes ) an explosion4 ,x is dissolv$ un*ang$ by weak m9]al acids1 :il/ ! /rong] acids 7= example1 sulphuric & hydro*loric acids7 decompose x1 ) ! evolution ( nitrog51 nitric & nitr\s acids rema9+ 9 solution4 ,among ! o!r salts ( hyponitr\s acid1 ,,hno1 ! salts ( lead1 copp]1 & m]cury are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,judg+ by ! bond betwe5 hyponitr\s acid & ! o!r comp\nds ( nitrog51 !re is reason = ?9k+ t its =mula %\ld he d\bl$1 ,n#b;,h#b,o#b4 ,= in/ance1 ,?\ne 7#ahic7 on gradually oxidis+ hydroxylam9e1 ,,nh#b7,,oh71 into nitr\s acid1 ,,no7,,oh7 7,note #be71 by means ( an alkal9e solution ( ,k,mn,o#d1 fir/ obta9$ hyponitr\s acid1 ,n#b;,h#b,o#b1 & !n a peculi> int]m$iate acid1 ,n#b;,h#b,o#c1 :i*1 by fur!r oxidation1 gave nitr\s acid4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,wislic5us 7#ahic7 %[$ t 9 ! action ( ! sulphuric acid salt ( hydroxylam9e ^u nitrite ( sodium1 !re is =m$1 besides1 nitr\s oxide 7accord+ to ,v4 ,mey]1 ,,nh#c,o1,h#b,,s#d ,na,n,o#b ,na,h,s,o#d #b;,h#b,o ,n#b,o71 a small am\nt ( hyponitr\s acid :i* may be precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( ! silv] salt2 & ?is reaction is mo/ simply express$ by tak+ ! d\bl$ =mula ( hyponitr\s acid1 ,,nh#b7,,oh7 ,,no7,,oh7 ,h#b,o ,n#b;,h#b,o#b4 ,! be/ argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! d\bl$ =mula is ! prop]ty possess$ by hyponitr\s acid ( =m+ acid salts1 ,h,na,n#b,o#b 7,zorn74 ,accord+ to ,?\ne1 ! foll[+ are ! prop]ties ( hyponitr\s acid4 ,:5 lib]at$ f ! dry silv] salt by ! action ( dry sulphurett$ hydrog51 hyponitr\s acid is un/able1 & easily explodes ev5 at l[ temp]atures4 ,b :5 dissolv$ 9 wat] 7hav+ be5 =m$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid ^u ! silv] salt71 x is /able ev5 :5 boil$ ) dilute acids & alkalis4 ,! solution is col\rless & has a /rongly acid reaction4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t1 h[ev]1 ! aque\s solution also decomposes into nitr\s oxide & wat]4 ,! complete oxidation by p]manganate ( pota% proce$s accord+ to ! foll[+ equation3 #e;,h#b,n#b,o#b #h,k,mn,o#d #ab;,h#b,,s#d #aj;,,hno#c #d,k#b,,s#d #h,mn,s,o#d #ab;,h#b,o4 ,9 an alkal9e solution1 ,k,mn,o#d only oxidises hyponitr\s acid into nitr\s & n into nitric acid4 ,nitr\s acid has a decompos+ action ^u hyponitr\s acid1 & if ! aque\s solutions ( ! two acids be mix$ toge!r !y imm$iately give (f oxides ( nitrog54 ,hyponitr\s acid does n lib]ate ,,co#b f its salts1 b on ! o!r h& x is n displac$ by ,,co#b4 #fh ,x is rem>kable t electro-deposit$ copp] p[d] gives nitr\s oxide ) a #aj p4c4 solution ( nitric acid1 :il/ ord9>y copp] gives nitric oxide4 ,x is "h evid5t t ! physical & me*anical /ructure ( ! sub/ance affects ! c\rse ( ! reaction--t is to say1 x is a case ( contact-action4 #fi ,?is decomposition is accompani$ by ! evolution ( ab\t #be1jjj calories p] molecul> quantity1 ,,nh#d,,no#c1 & !re=e takes place ) ease1 & sometimes ) an explosion4 #gj ,9 ord] to remove any nitric oxide t might be pres5t1 ! gas obta9$ is pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( f]r\s sulphate4 ,z nitr\s oxide is v soluble 9 cold wat] 7at #j1 #ajj volumes ( wat] dissolve #acj volumes ( ,n#b,o2 at #bj1 #fg volumes71 x mu/ be collect$ ov] w>m wat]4 ,! nitr\s oxide is mu* m soluble ?an nitric oxide1 :i* is 9 agreem5t ) ! fact t nitr\s oxide is mu* m easily liquefi$ ?an nitric oxide4 ,vill>d obta9$ a cry/allohydrate1 ,n#b,o1#f;,h#b,o1 :i* 0 tol]ably /able at #j4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,natt]]'s app>atus = ! prep>ation ( liquid nitr\s oxide & c>bonic anhydride4 ,! gas fir/ passes ?\gh ! vessel ,v1 = dry+1 & !n into ! pump 7a section ( ! upp] "p ( ! app>atus is giv5 on ! left74 ,! pi/on t ( ! =ce pump is mov$ by ! crank ,e & fly-:eel turn$ by h&4 ,! gas is pump$ into ! iron *amb] ,a1 :]e x is liquefi$4 ,! valve ,s all[s ! gas to ent] ,a1 b n to escape f x4 ,! *amb] & pump are cool$ by ! jacket ,b1 fill$ ) ice4 ,:5 ! gas is liquefi$ ! vessel ,a is unscrew$ f ! pump1 & ! liquid may be p\r$ f x by inv]t+ x & unscrew+ ! valve v1 :5 ! liquid runs out ( ! tube x4 ,nitr\s oxide is n a p]man5t gas 7absolute boil+ po9t #cf72 x is easily liquefi$ by ! action ( cold "u a high pressure2 at #ae x may be liquefi$ by a pressure ( ab\t #dj atmosph]es4 ,?is gas is usually liquefi$ by means ( ! =ce pump#ga %[n 9 fig4 #ea4 ,z x is liquefi$ ) comp>ative ease1 & z ! cold produc$ by its vaporisation is v consid]able1#gb x 7z also liquid c>bonic anhydride7 is (t5 employ$ 9 inve/igations requir+ a l[ temp]ature4 ,nitr\s oxide =ms a v mobile1 col\rless liquid1 :i* acts on ! sk91 & is incapable 9 a cold /ate ( oxidis+ ei!r metallic potassium1 phosphorus1 or c>bon2 its specific gravity is slightly less ?an t ( wat] 7#j #jiaj1 #aj #jhef1 #ce #jfj1 #ci #jde1 ,vill>d1 #ahid74 ,:5 evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 ! temp]ature falls to -#ajj1 & ! liquid solidifies into a sn[-l mass1 & p>tially =ms transp>5t cry/als4 ,bo? ^! sub/ances are solid nitr\s oxide4 ,m]cury is imm$iately solidifi$ 9 contact ) evaporat+ liquid nitr\s oxide4#gc #ga ,f>aday obta9$ liquid nitr\s oxide by ! same me?od z liquid ammonia1 by beat+ dry ammonium nitrate 9 a clos$ b5t tube1 "o arm ( :i* 0 imm]s$ 9 a freez+ mixture4 ,9 ?is case two lay]s ( liquid are obta9$ at ! cool$ end1 a l[] lay] ( wat] & an upp] lay] ( nitr\s oxide4 ,?is exp]im5t %\ld be conduct$ ) great c>e1 z ! pressure ( ! nitr\s oxide 9 a liquid /ate is consid]able1 namely 7accord+ to ,regnault71 at #aj #de atmosph]es1 at #j #cf atmosph]es1 at -#aj #bi atmosph]es1 & at -#bj #bc atmosph]es4 ,x boils at -#ib1 & ! pressure is !n !re=e #a atmosph]e 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bg74 #gb ,liquid nitr\s oxide1 9 vaporis+ at ! same pressure z liquid c>bonic anhydride1 gives rise to almo/ equal or ev5 slightly l[] temp]atures4 ,?us at a pressure ( #be mm4 c>bonic anhydride gives a temp]ature z l[ z -#aae1 & nitr\s oxide ( -#abe 7,dew>74 ,! simil>ity ( ^! prop]ties & ev5 ( ! absolute boil+ po9t 7,,co#b #cb1 ,n#b,o #cf7 is all ! m rem>kable because ^! gases h ! same molecul> weight #dd 7,*apt] ,,vii47 #gc ,a v *>act]i/ic exp]im5t ( simultane\s combu/ion & int5se cold may be p]=m$ by means ( liquid nitr\s oxide2 if liquid nitr\s oxide be p\r$ into a te/ tube conta9+ "s m]cury ! m]cury w solidify1 & if a piece ( r$-hot *>coal be ?r[n ^u ! surface ( ! nitr\s oxide x w cont9ue to burn v brilliantly1 giv+ rise to a high temp]ature4 ,:5 introduc$ into ! respiratory organs 7& consequ5tly into ! blood also7 nitr\s oxide produces a peculi> k9d ( intoxication accompani$ by spasmodic movem5ts1 & h5ce ?is gas1 discov]$ by ,prie/ley 9 #aggf1 receiv$ ! "n ( 'laugh+ gas4' ,on a prolong$ respiration x produces a /ate ( ins5sibility 7x is an an/hetic l *lor(orm71 & is !re=e employ$ 9 d5tal & surgical op]ations4 ,nitr\s oxide is easily decompos$ into nitrog5 & oxyg5 by ! action ( heat1 or a s]ies ( electric sp>ks2 & ?is expla9s :y a numb] ( sub/ances :i* _c burn 9 nitric oxide d s ) great ease 9 nitr\s oxide4 ,9 fact1 :5 nitric oxide gives "s oxyg5 on decomposition1 ?is oxyg5 imm$iately unites ) a fre% portion ( ! gas to =m nitric p]oxide1 :il/ nitr\s oxide does n possess ?is capacity = fur!r comb9ation ) oxyg54#gd ,a mixture ( nitr\s oxide ) hydrog5 explodes l detonat+ gas1 gase\s nitrog5 be+ =m$1 ,n#b,o ,h#b ,h#b,o ,n#b4 ,! volume ( ! rema9+ nitrog5 is equal to ! orig9al volume ( nitr\s oxide1 & is equal to ! volume ( hydrog5 ent]+ into comb9ation ) ! oxyg52 h5ce 9 ?is reaction equal volumes ( nitrog5 & hydrog5 replace ea* o!r4 ,nitr\s oxide is also v easily decompos$ by r$-hot metals2 & sulphur1 phosphorus1 & *>coal burn 9 x1 al?\gh n s brilliantly z 9 oxyg54 ,a sub/ance 9 burn+ 9 nitr\s oxide evolves m heat ?an an equal quantity burn+ 9 oxyg52 :i* mo/ cle>ly %[s t 9 ! =mation ( nitr\s oxide by ! comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) oxyg5 !re 0 n an evolution b an absorption ( heat1 !re be+ no o!r s\rce = ! excess ( heat 9 ! combu/ion ( sub/ances 9 nitr\s oxide 7see ,note #bi74 ,if a giv5 volume ( nitr\s oxide be decompos$ by a metal--= in/ance1 sodium--!n !re rema9s1 aft] cool+ & total decomposition1 a volume ( nitrog51 exactly equal to t ( ! nitr\s oxide tak52 consequ5tly ! oxyg5 is1 s to say1 di/ribut$ betwe5 ! atoms ( nitrog5 )\t produc+ an increase 9 ! volume ( ! nitrog54 #gd ,9 ! foll[+ *apt] we %all consid] ! volumetric composition ( ! oxides ( nitrog54 ,x expla9s ! diff]5ce betwe5 nitric & nitr\s oxide4 ,nitr\s oxide is =m$ ) a dim9ution ( volumes 7contraction71 nitric oxide )\t contraction1 its volume be+ equal to ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! nitrog5 & oxyg5 ( :i* x is compos$4 ,by oxidation1 if x c\ld be directly accompli%$1 two volumes ( nitr\s oxide & "o volume ( oxyg5 w\ld n give ?ree b f\r volumes ( nitric oxide4 ,^! facts mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 comp>+ ! calorific equival5ts ( =mation1 ! capacity = support+ combu/ion1 & o!r prop]ties ( nitr\s & nitric oxides1 ,n#b,o & ,,no4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,molecules ,,& ,,atoms4 ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,gay-,,lussac ,,& ,,avogadro-,,g]h>dt ,hydrog5 comb9es ) oxyg5 9 ! proportion ( two volumes to "o4 ,! composition by volume ( nitr\s oxide is exactly simil>--x is compos$ ( two volumes ( nitrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg54 ,by decompos+ ammonia by ! action ( an electric sp>k x is easy to prove t x conta9s "o volume ( nitrog5 to ?ree volumes ( hydrog54 ,s1 simil>ly1 x is f\nd1 :5ev] a comp\nd is decompos$ & ! volumes ( ! gases proce$+ f x are measur$1 t ! volumes ( ! gases or vap\rs ent]+ into comb9ation are 9 a v simple proportion to "o ano!r4 ,) wat]1 nitr\s oxide1 c41 ?is may be prov$ by direct obs]vation2 b 9 ! majority ( cases1 & especially ) sub/ances :i*1 al?\gh volatile--t is1 capable ( pass+ into a gase\s 7or vapor\s7 /ate--are liquid at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 su* a direct me?od ( obs]vation pres5ts _m difficulties4 ,b1 !n1 if ! d5sities ( ! vap\rs & gases be kn[n1 ! same simplicity 9 _! ratio is %[n by calculation4 ,! volume ( a sub/ance is proportional to its weight1 & inv]sely proportional to its d5sity1 & !re=e by divid+ ! am\nt by weight ( ea* sub/ance ent]+ into ! composition ( a comp\nd by its d5sity 9 ! gase\s or vapor\s /ate we %all obta9 factors :i* w be 9 ! same proportion z ! volumes ( ! sub/ances ent]+ into ! composition ( ! comp\nd4#a ,s1 = example1 wat] conta9s eight p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 to "o "p by weight ( hydrog51 & _! d5sities are #af & #a1 consequ5tly _! volumes 7or ! above-m5tion$ factors7 are #a & #a_/b1 & !re=e x is se5 )\t direct exp]im5t t wat] conta9s two volumes ( hydrog5 = e "o volume ( oxyg54 ,s also1 kn[+ t nitric oxide conta9s f\rte5 p>ts ( nitrog5 & sixte5 p>ts ( oxyg51 & kn[+ t ! specific gravities ( ^! la/ two gases are f\rte5 & sixte51 we f9d t ! volumes 9 :i* nitrog5 & oxyg5 comb9e = ! =mation ( nitric oxide are 9 ! proportion ( #a 3 #a4 ,we w cite ano!r example4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] we saw t ! d5sity ( ,,no#b only becomes con/ant & equal to tw5ty-?ree 7ref]r$ to hydrog57 above #ace1 & z a matt] ( fact a me?od ( direct obs]vation ( ! volumetric composition ( ?is sub/ance w\ld be v difficult at s high a temp]ature4 ,b x may be easily calculat$4 ,,no#b1 z is se5 f its =mula & analysis1 conta9s ?irty-two p>ts by weight ( oxyg5 to f\rte5 p>ts by weight ( nitrog51 =m+ =ty-six p>ts by weight ( ,,no#b1 & kn[+ ! d5sities ( ^! gases we f9d t "o volume ( nitrog5 ) two volumes ( oxyg5 gives two volumes ( nitrog5 p]oxide4 ,!re=e1 kn[+ ! am\nts by weight ( ! sub/ances p>ticipat+ 9 a reaction or =m+ a giv5 sub/ance1 & kn[+ ! d5sity ( ! gas or vap\r1#b ! volumetric relations ( ! sub/ances act+ 9 a reaction or ent]+ into ! composition ( a comp\nd1 may be also det]m9$4 #a ,if ! weight be indicat$ by ,p1 ! d5sity by ,d1 & ! volume by ,v1 !n ,p_/,d ,k,v :]e ,k is a coeffici5t dep5d+ on ! sy/em ( ! expressions ,p1 ,d1 & ,v4 ,if ,d be ! weight ( a cubic measure ( a sub/ance ref]r$ to ! weight ( ! same measure ( wat]--if1 z 9 ! metrical sy/em 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #i71 ! cubic measure ( "o "p by weight ( wat] be tak5 z a unit ( volume--!n ,k #a4 ,b1 :atev] x be1 x is cancell$ 9 deal+ ) ! comp>ison ( volumes1 because comp>ative & n absolute measures ( volumes are tak54 ,9 ?is *apt]1 z ?r\gh\t ! book1 ! weight ,p is giv5 9 grams 9 deal+ ) absolute weights2 & if comp>ative1 z 9 ! expression ( *emical composition1 !n ! weight ( an atom is tak5 z unity4 ,! d5sity ( gases1 ,d1 is also tak5 9 ref]5ce to ! d5sity ( hydrog51 & ! volume ,v 9 metrical units 7cubic c5timetres71 if x be a matt] ( absolute magnitudes ( volumes1 & if x be a matt] ( *emical trans=mations--t is1 ( relative volumes--!n ! volume ( an atom ( hydrog51 or ( "o "p by weight ( hydrog51 is tak5 z unity1 & all volumes are express$ accord+ to ^! units4 #b ,z ! volumetric relations ( vap\rs & gases1 next to ! relations ( sub/ances by weight1 =m ! mo/ important prov9ce ( *emi/ry1 & a mo/ important means = ! atta9m5t ( *emical conclusions1 & inasmu* z ^! volumetric relations are det]m9$ by ! d5sities ( gases & vap\rs1 necess>ily ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! d5sities ( vap\rs 7& also ( gases7 are important factors 9 *emical rese>*4 ,^! me?ods are describ$ 9 detail 9 works on physics & physical & analytical *emi/ry1 & !re=e we "h only t\* on ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! subject4 ,if we "k ! weight p & volume v1 occupi$ by ! vap\r ( a giv5 sub/ance at a temp]ature t & pressure h1 !n its d5sity may be directly obta9$ by divid+ p by ! weight ( a volume v ( hydrog5 7if ! d5sity be express$ accord+ to hydrog51 see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bc7 at t & h4 ,h5ce1 ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! d5sity ( vap\rs & gases are bas$ on ! det]m9ation ( p1 v1 t1 & h4 ,! two la/ data 7! temp]ature t & pressure h7 are giv5 by ! !rmomet] & b>omet] & ! heights ( m]cury or o!r liquid conf9+ ! gas1 & !re=e d n require fur!r explanation4 ,x ne$ only be rem>k$ t3 7#a7 ,9 ! case ( easily volatile liquids !re is no difficulty 9 procur+ a ba? ) a con/ant temp]ature1 b t x is nev]!less be/ 7especially consid]+ ! inaccuracy ( !rmomet]s7 to h a m$ium ( absolutely con/ant temp]ature1 & !re=e to take ei!r a ba? 9 :i* "s sub/ance is melt+--su* z melt+ ice at #j or cry/als ( sodium acetate1 melt+ at #ef--or1 z is m g5]ally practis$1 to place ! vessel conta9+ ! sub/ance to be exp]im5t$ ) 9 ! vap\r ( a liquid boil+ at a def9ite temp]ature1 & kn[+ ! pressure "u :i* x is boil+1 to det]m9e ! temp]ature ( ! vap\r4 ,= ?is purpose ! boil+ po9ts ( wat] at diff]5t pressures are giv5 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #aa1 & ! boil+ po9ts ( c]ta9 easily procurable liquids at v>i\s pressures are giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bg4 7#b7 ,) respect to temp]atures above #cjj 7bel[ :i* m]curial !rmomet]s may be conv5i5tly employ$71 !y are mo/ simply obta9$ con/ant 7to give "t = ! weight & volume ( a sub/ance be+ obs]v$ 9 a giv5 space1 & to all[ t space to atta9 ! calculat$ temp]ature t7 by means ( sub/ances boil+ at a high temp]ature4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 at ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure ! temp]ature t ( ! vap\r ( sulphur is ab\t #dde1 ( phosphorus p5tasulphide #eah1 ( t9 *loride #fjf1 ( cadmium #ggj1 ( z9c #icj 7accord+ to ,violle & o!rs71 or #ajdj 7accord+ to ,deville71 c4 7#c7 ,! indications ( ! hydrog5 !rmomet] mu/ be consid]$ z ! mo/ exact 7b z hydrog5 diffuses ?r\gh inc&esc5t plat9um1 nitrog5 is usually employ$74 7#d7 ,! temp]ature ( ! vap\rs us$ z ! ba? %\ld 9 e case be sev]al degrees high] ?an ! boil+ po9t ( ! liquid ^: d5sity is to be det]m9$1 9 ord] t no portion %\ld rema9 9 a liquid /ate4 ,b ev5 9 ?is case1 z is se5 f ! example ( nitric p]oxide 7,*apt] ,,vi471 ! vap\r d5sity does n always rema9 con/ant ) a *ange ( t1 z x %\ld 7 ! law ( ! expansion ( gases & vap\rs absolutely exact 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bf74 ,if v>iations ( a *emical & physical nature simil> to t :i* we saw 9 nitric p]oxide take place 9 ! vap\rs1 ! ma9 int]e/ is c5tr$ 9 con/ant d5sities1 :i* d n v>y ) t1 & !re=e ! possible effect ( t on ! d5sity mu/ always be kept 9 m9d 9 hav+ rec\rse to ?is means ( inve/igation4 7#e7 ,usually1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce ( obs]vation1 ! vap\r d5sity is det]m9$ at ! atmosph]ic pressure :i* is read on ! b>omet]2 b 9 ! case ( sub/ances :i* are volatilis$ ) difficulty1 & also ( sub/ances :i* decompose1 or1 9 g5]al1 v>y at temp]atures ne> _! boil+ po9ts1 x is be/ or ev5 indisp5sable to conduct ! det]m9ation at l[ pressures1 :il/ = sub/ances :i* decompose at l[ pressures ! obs]vations h to be conduct$ "u a m or less consid]ably increas$ pressure4 7#f7 ,9 _m cases x is conv5i5t to det]m9e ! vap\r d5sity ( a sub/ance 9 admixture ) o!r gases1 & consequ5tly "u ! p>tial pressure1 :i* may be calculat$ f ! volume ( ! mixture & t ( ! int]mix$ gas 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #a74 ,?is me?od is especially important = sub/ances :i* are easily decomposable1 because1 z %[n by ! ph5om5a ( dissociation1 a sub/ance is able to rema9 un*ang$ 9 ! atmosph]e ( "o ( its products ( decomposition4 ,?us1 ,wurtz det]m9$ ! d5sity ( phosphoric *loride1 ,p,cl#e1 9 admixture ) ! vap\r ( phosphor\s *loride1 ,p,cl#c4 7#g7 ,x is evid5t1 f ! example ( nitric p]oxide1 t a *ange ( pressure may alt] ! d5sity & aid decomposition1 & !re=e id5tical results are sometimes obta9$ 7if ! d5sity be v>iable7 by rais+ t & l[]+ h2 b if ! d5sity does n v>y "u ^! v>iable conditions 7at lea/1 to an ext5t appreciably exce$+ ! limits ( exp]im5tal error71 !n ?is con/ant d5sity indicates ! gase\s & inv>iable /ate ( a sub/ance4 ,! laws h]eaft] laid d[n ref] only to su* vap\r d5sities4 ,b ! majority ( volatile sub/ances %[ su* a con/ant d5sity at a c]ta9 degree above _! boil+ po9ts up to ! />t+ po9t ( decomposition4 ,?us1 ! d5sity ( aque\s vap\r does n v>y = t betwe5 ! ord9>y temp]ature & #ajjj 7!re are no tru/wor?y det]m9ations beyond ?is7 & = pressures v>y+ f fractions ( an atmosph]e up to sev]al atmosph]es4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! d5sity does v>y consid]ably ) a v>iation ( h & t1 ! fact may s]ve z a guide = ! inve/igation ( ! *emical *anges :i* are und]gone by ! sub/ance 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 or at lea/ z an indication ( a deviation f ! laws ( ,boyle1 ,m>iotte1 & ,gay-,lussac 7= ! expansion ( gases ) t74 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! sep>ation ( "o =m ( deviation f ! o!r may be expla9$ by special hypo!ses4 ,) respect to ! means ( det]m9+ p & v1 ) a view to f9d+ ! vap\r d5sity1 we may di/+ui% ?ree *ief me?ods3 7a7 by weight1 by asc]ta9+ ! weight ( a def9ite volume ( vap\r2 7b7 by volume1 by measur+ ! volume occupi$ by ! vap\r ( a def9ite weight ( a sub/ance2 & 7c7 by displacem5t4 ,! la/-m5tion$ is ess5tially volumetric1 because a kn[n weight ( a sub/ance is tak51 & ! volume ( ! air displac$ by ! vap\r at a giv5 t & h is det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,app>atus = det]m9+ ! vap\r d5sity by ,dumas' me?od4 ,a small quantity ( ! liquid ^: vap\r d5sity is to be det]m9$ is plac$ 9 ! glass globe1 & heat$ 9 a wat] or oil ba? to a temp]ature above ! boil+ po9t ( ! liquid4 ,:5 all ! liquid has be5 conv]t$ into vap\r & has displac$ all ! air f ! globe1 ! latt] is seal$ up & weigh$4 ,! capacity ( ! globe is !n measur$1 & 9 ?is mann] ! volume occupi$ by a kn[n weight ( vap\r at a kn[n temp]ature is det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,deville & ,troo/'s app>atus = det]m9+ ! vap\r d5sities1 accord+ to ,dumas' me?od1 ( sub/ances :i* boil at high temp]atures4 ,a porcela9 globe conta9+ ! sub/ance ^: vap\r d5sity is to be det]m9$ is heat$ 9 ! vap\r ( m]cury 7#cej71 sulphur 7#daj71 cadmium 7#hej71 or z9c 7#a1jdj74 ,! globe is seal$ up 9 an oxyhydrog5 flame4 ,! me?od by weight 7a7 is ! mo/ tru/wor?y & hi/orically important4 ,dumas' me?od is typical4 ,an ord9>y sph]ical glass or porcela9 vessel1 l ^? %[n respectively 9 figs4 #eb & #ec1 is tak51 & an excess ( ! sub/ance to be exp]im5t$ ^u is introduc$ into x4 ,! vessel is heat$ to a temp]ature t high] ?an ! boil+ po9t ( ! liquid3 ?is gives a vap\r :i* displaces ! air1 & fills ! sph]ical space4 ,:5 ! air & vap\r cease escap+ f ! sph]e1 x is fus$ up or clos$ by "s means2 & :5 cool1 ! weight ( ! vap\r rema9+ 9 ! sph]e is det]m9$ 7ei!r by direct weigh+ ( ! vessel ) ! vap\r & introduc+ ! necess>y corrections = ! weight ( ! air & ( ! vap\r itself1 or ! weight ( ! volatilis$ sub/ance is det]m9$ by *emical me?ods71 & ! volume ( ! vap\r at t & ! b>ometric pressure h are !n calculat$4 ,! volumetric me?od 7b7 orig9ally employ$ by ,gay-,lussac & !n modifi$ by ,h(mann & o!rs is bas$ on ! pr9ciple t a weigh$ quantity ( ! liquid to be exp]im5t$ ) 7plac$ 9 a small clos$ vessel1 :i* is sometimes fus$ up be=e weigh+1 &1 if q full ( ! liquid1 breaks :5 heat$ 9 a vacuum7 is introduc$ into a graduat$ cyl9d] heat$ to t1 or simply into a ,torricellian vacuum1 z %[n 9 fig4 #ed1 & ! numb] ( volumes occupi$ by ! vap\r not$ :5 ! space hold+ x is heat$ to ! desir$ temp]ature t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,h(mann's app>atus = det]m9+ vap\r d5sities4 ,! int]nal tube1 ab\t "o metre long1 :i* is calibrat$ & graduat$1 is fill$ ) m]cury & inv]t$ 9 a m]cury ba?4 ,a small bottle 7depict$ 9 its natural size on ! left7 conta9+ a weigh$ quantity ( ! liquid ^: vap\r d5sity is to be det]m9$1 is introduc$ into ! ,torricellian vacuum4 ,/eam1 or ! vap\r ( amyl alcohol1 c41 is pass$ ?r\gh ! out] tube1 & heats ! int]nal tube to ! temp]ature t1 at :i* ! volume ( vap\r is measur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,victor ,mey]'s app>atus = det]m9+ vap\r d5sities4 ,! tube b is heat$ 9 ! vap\r ( a liquid ( con/ant boil+ po9t4 ,a glass tube1 conta9+ ! liquid to be exp]im5t$ ^u1 is caus$ to fall f d4 ,! air displac$ is collect$ 9 ! cyl9d] e1 9 ! tr\gh f4 ,! me?od ( displacem5t 7c7 propos$ by ,victor ,mey] is bas$ on ! fact t a space b is heat$ to a con/ant temp]ature t 7by ! surr\nd+ vap\rs ( a liquid ( con/ant boil+ po9t71 & ! air 7or o!r gas enclos$ 9 ?is space7 is all[$ to atta9 ?is temp]ature1 & :5 x has done s a glass bulb conta9+ a weigh$ quantity ( ! sub/ance to be exp]im5t$ ) is dropp$ into ! space4 ,! sub/ance is imm$iately conv]t$ into vap\r1 & displaces ! air into ! graduat$ cyl9d] e4 ,! am\nt ( ?is air is calculat$ f its volume1 & h5ce ! volume at t1 & !re=e also ! volume occupi$ by ! vap\r1 is f\nd4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! app>atus is giv5 9 fig4 #ee4 ,su* an inve/igation 7ei!r direct1 or by calculation f ! d5sities & composition7 ( e *emical reaction1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( def9ite *emical comp\nds1 %[s t ! volumes ( ! react+ sub/ances 9 a gase\s or vapor\s /ate are ei!r equal or are 9 simple multiple proportion4#c ,?is =ms ! fir/ law ( ^? discov]$ by ,gay-,lussac4 ,x may be =mulat$ z foll[s3 ,! am\nts ( sub/ances ent]+ into *emical reaction occupy "u simil> physical conditions1 9 a gase\s or vapor\s /ate1 equal or simple multiple volumes4 ,?is law ref]s n only to elem5ts1 b also to comp\nds ent]+ into mutual *emical comb9ation2 ?us1 = example1 "o volume ( ammonia gas comb9es ) "o volume ( hydrog5 *loride4 ,= 9 ! =mation ( sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 !re ent] into reaction #ag p>ts by weight ( ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 :i* is #he times d5s] ?an hydrog51 & #cfe p>ts by weight ( hydrog5 *loride1 ^: vap\r d5sity is #ahbe times t ( hydrog51 z has be5 prov$ by direct exp]im5t4 ,by divid+ ! weights by ! respective d5sities we f9d t ! volume ( ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 is equal to two1 & s also ! volume ( hydrog5 *loride4 ,h5ce ! volumes ( ! comp\nds :i* "h comb9e toge!r are equal to ea* o!r4 ,tak+ into consid]ation t ! law ( ,gay-,lussac holds good1 n only = elem5ts1 b also = comp\nds1 x %\ld be express$ z foll[s3 ,sub/ances int]act ) "o ano!r 9 comm5surable volumes ( _! vap\rs4#d #c ,vap\rs & gases1 z already expla9$ 9 ! second *apt]1 are subject to ! same laws1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 only approximate4 ,x is evid5t t = ! d$uction ( ! laws :i* w pres5tly be enunciat$ x is only possible to take into consid]ation a p]fect gase\s /ate 7f> remov$ f ! liquid /ate7 & *emical inv>iability 9 :i* ! vap\r d5sity is con/ant--t is1 ! volume ( a giv5 gas or vap\r v>ies l a volume ( hydrog51 air1 or o!r gas1 ) ! pressure & temp]ature4 ,x is necess>y to make ?is /atem5t 9 ord] t x may be cle>ly se5 t ! laws ( gase\s volumes1 :i* we %all describe pres5tly1 are 9 ! mo/ intimate connection ) ! laws ( ! v>iations ( volumes ) pressure & temp]ature4 ,& z ^! latt] laws 7,*apt] ,,ii47 are n infallible1 b only approximately exact1 ! same1 !re=e1 applies to ! laws ab\t to be describ$4 ,& z x is possible to f9d m exact laws 7a second approximation7 = ! v>iation ( v ) p & t 7= example1 van d] ,waals' =mula1 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #cc71 s also a m exact expression ( ! relation betwe5 ! composition & ! d5sity ( vap\rs & gases is also possible4 ,b to prev5t any d\bt aris+ at ! v beg9n+ z to ! bread? & g5]al application ( ! laws ( volumes1 x w be suffici5t to m5tion t ! d5sity ( su* gases z oxyg51 nitrog51 & c>bonic anhydride is already kn[n to rema9 con/ant 7)9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error7 betwe5 ! ord9>y temp]ature & a :ite heat2 :il/1 judg+ f :at is said 9 my "w on ! ',t5sion ( ,gases' 7vol4 i4 p4 #i71 x may be said t1 z reg>ds pressure1 ! relative d5sity rema9s v con/ant1 ev5 :5 ! deviations f ,m>iotte's law are v consid]able4 ,h[ev]1 9 ?is respect ! numb] ( data is z yet too small to arrive at an exact conclusion4 #d ,we mu/ recollect t ?is law is only approximate1 l ,boyle & ,m>iotte's law1 & t1 !re=e1 l ! latt]1 a m exact expression may be f\nd = ! exceptions4 ,! law ( comb9+ volumes & ! law ( multiple proportion 7 discov]$ indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r--! "o 9 ,france by ,gay-,lussac1 ! o!r 9 ,engl& by ,dalton--almo/ simultane\sly4 ,9 ! language ( ! atomic hypo!sis x may be said t atomic quantities ( elem5ts occupy equal or multiple volumes4 ,! fir/ law ( ,gay-,lussac expresses ! relation betwe5 ! volumes ( ! compon5t p>ts ( a comp\nd4 ,let u n[ consid] ! relation exi/+ betwe5 ! volumes ( ! compon5t p>ts & ( ! comp\nds :i* proce$ f !m4 ,?is may sometimes be det]m9$ by direct obs]vation4 ,?us ! volume occupi$ by wat]1 =m$ by two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg51 may be det]m9$ by ! aid ( ! app>atus %[n 9 fig4 #ef4 ,! long glass tube is clos$ at ! top & op5 at ! bottom1 :i* is imm]s$ 9 a cyl9d] conta9+ m]cury4 ,! clos$ end is furni%$ ) wires l a eudiomet]4 ,! tube is fill$ ) m]cury1 & !n a c]ta9 volume ( detonat+ gas is introduc$4 ,?is gas is obta9$ f ! decomposition ( wat]1 & !re=e 9 e ?ree volumes conta9s two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg54 ,! tube is surr\nd$ by a second & wid] glass tube1 & ! vap\r ( a sub/ance boil+ above #ajj--t is1 ^: boil+ po9t is high] ?an t ( wat]--is pass$ ?r\gh ! annul> space betwe5 !m4 ,amyl alcohol1 ^: boil+ po9t is #acb1 may be tak5 = ?is purpose4 ,! amyl alcohol is boil$ 9 ! vessel to ! "r h& & its vap\r pass$ betwe5 ! walls ( ! two tubes4 ,9 ! case ( amyl alcohol ! out] glass tube %\ld be connect$ ) a cond5s] to prev5t ! escape into ! air ( ! unpleasant-smell+ vap\r4 ,! detonat+ gas is ?us heat$ up to a temp]ature ( #acb4 ,:5 its volume becomes con/ant x is measur$1 ! height ( ! column ( m]cury 9 ! tube above ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ! cyl9d] be+ not$4 ,let ?is volume equal v2 x w !re=e conta9 #a_/c v ( oxyg5 & #b_/c v ( hydrog54 ,! curr5t ( vap\r is !n /opp$1 & ! gas explod$2 wat] is =m$1 :i* cond5ses into a liquid4 ,! volume occupi$ by ! vap\r ( ! wat] =m$ has n[ to be det]m9$4 ,= ?is purpose ! vap\r ( ! amyl alcohol is aga9 pass$ betwe5 ! tubes1 & ?us ! :ole ( ! wat] =m$ is conv]t$ into vap\r at ! same temp]ature z t at :i* ! detonat+ gas 0 measur$2 & ! cyl9d] ( m]cury be+ rais$ until ! column ( m]cury 9 ! tube /&s at ! same height above ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! cyl9d] z x did be=e ! explosion1 x is f\nd t ! volume ( ! wat] =m$ is equal to #b_/c v--t is1 x is equal to ! volume ( ! hydrog5 conta9$ 9 x4 ,consequ5tly ! volumetric composition ( wat] is express$ 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,two volumes ( hydrog5 comb9e ) "o volume ( oxyg5 to =m two volumes ( aque\s vap\r4 ,= sub/ances :i* are gase\s at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ?is direct me?od ( obs]vation is sometimes v easily conduct$2 = in/ance1 ) ammonia1 nitric & nitr\s oxides4 ,?us to det]m9e ! composition by volume ( nitr\s oxide1 ! above-describ$ app>atus may be employ$4 ,nitr\s oxide is introduc$ into ! tube1 & aft] measur+ its volume electric sp>ks are pass$ ?r\gh ! gas2 x is !n f\nd t two volumes ( nitr\s oxide h giv5 ?ree volumes ( gases--namely1 two volumes ( nitrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg54 ,consequ5tly ! composition ( nitr\s oxide is simil> to t ( wat]2 two volumes ( nitrog5 & "o volume ( oxyg5 give two volumes ( nitr\s oxide4 ,by decompos+ ammonia x is f\nd to be compos$ 9 su* a mann] t two volumes give "o volume ( nitrog5 & ?ree volumes ( hydrog52 also two volumes ( nitric oxide are =m$ by ! union ( "o volume ( oxyg5 ) "o volume ( nitrog54 ,! same relations may be prov$ by calculation f ! vap\r d5sities1 z 0 describ$ above4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,app>atus = demon/rat+ ! volume occupi$ by ! /eam =m$ f ! explosion ( detonat+ gas4 ,comp>isons ( v>i\s results made by ! aid ( direct obs]vations or calculation1 an example ( :i* has j be5 cit$1 l$ ,gay-,lussac to ! conclusion t ! volume ( a comp\nd 9 a gase\s or vapor\s /ate is always 9 simple multiple proportion to ! volume ( ea* ( ! compon5t p>ts ( :i* x is =m$ 7& consequ5tly to ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! elem5ts ( :i* x is =m$74 ,?is is ! second law ( ,gay-,lussac2 x ext5ds ! simplicity ( ! volumetric relations to comp\nds1 & is ( ! same nature z t pres5t$ by ! elem5ts ent]+ into mutual comb9ation4 ,h5ce n only ! sub/ances =m+ a giv5 comp\nd1 b also ! sub/ances =m$1 exhibit a simple relation ( volume :5 measur$ z vap\r or gas4#e #e ,?is second law ( volumes may be consid]$ z a consequ5ce ( ! fir/ law4 ,! fir/ law requires simple ratios betwe5 ! volumes ( ! comb9+ sub/ances ,a & ,b4 ,a sub/ance ,,ab is produc$ by _! comb9ation4 ,x may1 accord+ to ! law ( multiple proportion1 comb9e1 n only ) sub/ances ,c1 ,d1 c41 b also ) ,a & ) ,b4 ,9 ?is new comb9ation ! volume ( ,,ab1 comb9+ ) ! volume ( ,a1 %\ld be 9 simple multiple proportion ) ! volume ( ,a2 h5ce ! volume ( ! comp\nd ,,ab is 9 simple proportion to ! volume ( its compon5t p>ts4 ,!re=e only "o law ( volumes ne$ be accept$4 ,we %all aft]w>ds see t !re is a ?ird law ( volumes embrac+ also ! two fir/ laws4 ,:5 a comp\nd is =m$ f two or m compon5ts1 !re may or may n be a contraction2 ! volume ( ! react+ sub/ances is 9 ?is case ei!r equal to or great] ?an ! volume ( ! resultant comp\nd4 ,! rev]se is naturally obs]v$ 9 ! case ( decompositions1 :5 f "o sub/ance !re are produc$ sev]al ( simpl] nature4 ,!re=e 9 ! future we %all t]m comb9ation a reaction 9 :i* a contraction is obs]v$--t is1 a dim9ution 9 ! volume ( ! compon5t bodies 9 a /ate ( vap\r or gas2 & we %all t]m decomposition a reaction 9 :i* an expansion is produc$2 :ile ^? reactions 9 :i* ! volumes 9 a gase\s or vapor\s /ate rema9 con/ant 7! volumes be+ naturally comp>$ at ! same temp]ature & pressure7 we %all t]m reactions ( sub/itution or ( d\ble decomposition4 ,?us ! transition ( oxyg5 into ozone is a reaction ( comb9ation1 ! =mation ( nitr\s oxide f oxyg5 & nitrog5 w also be a comb9ation1 ! =mation ( nitric oxide f ! same w be a reaction ( sub/itution1 ! action ( oxyg5 on nitric oxide a comb9ation1 & s on4 ,! degree ( contraction produc$ 9 ! =mation ( *emical comp\nds n unfrequ5tly leads to ! possibility ( di/+ui%+ ! degree ( *ange :i* takes place 9 ! *emical "* ( ! compon5ts :5 comb9$4 ,9 ^? cases 9 :i* a contraction occurs1 ! prop]ties ( ! resultant comp\nd are v diff]5t f ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ances ( :i* x is compos$4 ,?us ammonia be>s no resemblance 9 its physical or *emical prop]ties to ! elem5ts f :i* x is d]iv$2 a contraction takes place 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 indicat+ a proximation ( ! elem5ts--! di/ance betwe5 ! atoms is dim9i%$1 & f gase\s sub/ances !re is =m$ a liquid sub/ance1 or at any rate "o :i* is easily liquefi$4 ,= ?is reason nitr\s oxide =m$ by ! cond5sation ( two p]man5t gases is a sub/ance :i* is some:at easily conv]t$ into a liquid2 aga91 nitric acid1 :i* is =m$ f elem5ts :i* are p]man5t gases1 is a liquid1 :il/1 on ! contr>y1 nitric oxide1 :i* is =m$ )\t contraction & is decompos$ )\t expansion1 rema9s a gas :i* is z difficult to liquefy z nitrog5 & oxyg54 ,9 ord] to obta9 a /ill m complete idea ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! prop]ties ( a comp\nd on ! prop]ties ( ! compon5t sub/ances1 x is fur!r necess>y to "k ! quantity ( heat :i* is develop$ 9 ! =mation ( ! comp\nd4 ,if ?is quantity be l>ge--z1 = example1 9 ! =mation ( wat]--!n ! am\nt ( en]gy 9 ! resultant comp\nd w be consid]ably less ?an ! en]gy ( ! elem5ts ent]+ into its composition2 :il/1 on ! contr>y1 if ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( a comp\nd be small1 or if !re ev5 be an absorption ( heat1 z 9 ! =mation ( nitr\s oxide1 !n ! en]gy ( ! elem5ts is n de/roy$1 or is only alt]$ to a slight ext5t2 h5ce1 not)/&+ ! contraction 7compression7 involv$ 9 its =mation1 nitr\s oxide supports combu/ion4 ,! prec$+ laws 7 d$uc$ f purely exp]im5tal & empirical data & z su* evoke fur!r consequ5ces1 z ! law ( multiple proportions gave rise to ! atomic !ory & ! law ( equival5ts 7,*apt] ,,iv47 ,9 view ( ! atomic conception ( ! con/itution ( sub/ances1 ! "q naturally arises z to :at1 !n1 are ! relative volumes prop] to ^? physically indivisible molecules :i* *emically react on ea* o!r & consi/ ( ! atoms ( elem5ts4 ,! simple/ possible hypo!sis 9 ?is respect w\ld be t ! volumes ( ! molecules ( sub/ances are equal2 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 to suppose t equal volumes ( vap\rs & gases conta9 an equal numb] ( molecules4 ,?is proposition 0 fir/ enunciat$ by ! ,italian savant ,avogadro 9 #ahaj4 ,x 0 also admitt$ by ! ,fr5* physico-ma!matician ,ampre 7#ahae7 = ! sake ( simplify+ all k9ds ( physico-ma!matical conceptions respect+ gases4 ,b ,avogadro & ,ampre's propositions 7 n g5]ally receiv$ 9 sci5ce until ,g]h>dt 9 ! =ties _h appli$ !m to ! g5]alisation ( *emical reactions1 & _h demon/rat$1 by aid ( a s]ies ( ph5om5a1 t ! reactions ( sub/ances actually take place ) ! greate/ simplicity1 & m especially t su* reactions take place betwe5 ^? quantities ( sub/ances :i* occupy equal volumes1 & until he _h /at$ ! hypo!sis 9 an exact mann] & d$uc$ ! consequ5ces t necess>ily foll[ f x4 ,foll[+ ,g]h>dt1 ,clausius1 9 ! fifties1 plac$ ?is hypo!sis ( ! equality ( ! numb] ( molecules 9 equal volumes ( gases & vap\rs on ! basis ( ! k9etic !ory ( gases4 ,at ! pres5t day ! hypo!sis ( ,avogadro & ,g]h>dt lies at ! basis ( contempor>y physical1 me*anical1 & *emical conceptions2 ! consequ5ces aris+ f x h (t5 be5 subject to d\bt1 b 9 ! end h be5 v]ifi$ by ! mo/ div]se me?ods2 & n[1 :5 all ef=ts to refute ^? consequ5ces h prov$ fruitless1 ! hypo!sis mu/ be consid]$ z v]ifi$1#f & ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt mu/ be spok5 ( z fundam5tal1 & z ( great importance = ! compreh5sion ( ! ph5om5a ( nature4 ,! law may n[ be =mulat$ f two po9ts ( view4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 f a physical aspect3 equal volumes ( gases 7or vap\rs7 at equal temp]atures & pressures conta9 ! same numb] ( molecules--or ( p>ticles ( matt] :i* are nei!r me*anically nor physically divisible--previ\s to *emical *ange4 ,9 ! second place1 f a *emical aspect1 ! same law may be express$ ?us3 ! quantities ( sub/ances ent]+ into *emical reactions occupy1 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 equal volumes4 ,= our purpose ! *emical aspect is ! mo/ important1 & !re=e1 be=e develop+ ! law & its consequ5ces1 we w consid] ! *emical ph5om5a f :i* ! law is d$uc$ or :i* x s]ves to expla94 #f ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ,newton's law ( gravity 0 fir/ a hypo!sis1 b x became a tru/wor?y1 p]fect !ory1 & acquir$ ! qualities ( a fundam5tal law ow+ to ! concord betwe5 its d$uctions & actual facts4 ,all laws1 all !ories1 ( natural ph5om5a1 are at fir/ hypo!ses4 ,"s are rapidly e/abli%$ by _! consequ5ces exactly agree+ ) facts2 o!rs only take root by sl[ degrees2 & !re are _m :i* are de/9$ to be refut$ ow+ to _! consequ5ces be+ f\nd to be at v>iance ) facts4 ,:5 two isolat$ sub/ances int]act ) ea* o!r directly & easily--z1 = in/ance1 an alkali & an acid--!n x is f\nd t ! reaction is accompli%$ betwe5 quantities :i* 9 a gase\s /ate occupy equal volumes4 ,?us ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 reacts directly ) hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 =m+ sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 & 9 ?is case ! #ag p>ts by weight ( ammonia occupy ! same volume z ! #cfe p>ts by weight ( hydro*loric acid4#g ,e?yl5e1 ,c#b;,h#d1 comb9es ) *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 9 only "o proportion1 =m+ e?yl5e di*loride1 ,c#b;,h#d;,cl#b1 & ?is comb9ation proce$s directly & ) great facility1 ! react+ quantities occupy+ equal volumes4 ,*lor9e reacts ) hydrog5 9 only "o proportion1 =m+ hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 & 9 ?is case equal volumes int]act ) ea* o!r4 ,if an equality ( volumes is obs]v$ 9 cases ( comb9ation1 x %\ld be ev5 m frequ5tly enc\nt]$ 9 cases ( decomposition1 tak+ place 9 sub/ances :i* split up into two o!rs4 ,inde$1 acetic acid breaks up into m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 & c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 & 9 ! proportions 9 :i* !y are =m$ f acetic acid !y occupy equal volumes4 ,also f ph?alic acid1 ,c#h;,h#f,o#d1 !re may be obta9$ b5zoic acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,o#b1 & c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 & z all ! elem5ts ( ph?alic acid ent] into ! composition ( ^! sub/ances1 x foll[s t1 al?\gh !y _c re-=m x by _! direct action on ea* o!r 7! reaction is n rev]sible71 /ill !y =m ! direct products ( its decomposition1 & !y occupy equal volumes4 ,b b5zoic acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,o#b1 is itself compos$ ( b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 & c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 :i* also occupy equal volumes4#h ,!re is an imm5se numb] ( simil> examples among ^? organic sub/ances to ^: /udy ,g]h>dt consecrat$ 8 :ole life & "w1 & he did n all[ su* facts z ^! to escape 8 att5tion4 ,/ill m frequ5tly 9 ! ph5om5a ( sub/itution1 :5 two sub/ances react on "o ano!r1 & two are produc$ )\t a *ange ( volume1 x is f\nd t ! two sub/ances act+ on ea* o!r occupy equal volumes z well z ea* ( ! two resultant sub/ances4 ,?us1 9 g5]al1 reactions ( sub/itution take place betwe5 volatile acids1 ,,hx1 & volatile alcohols1 ,r7,,oh71 ) ! =mation ( e!real salts1 ,,rx1 & wat]1 ,h7,,oh71 & ! volume ( ! vap\r ( ! react+ quantities1 ,,hx1 ,r7,,oh71 & ,,rx1 is ! same z t ( wat] ,h7,,oh71 ^: weight1 correspond+ ) ! =mula1 #ah1 occupies #b volumes1 if #a "p by weight ( hydrog5 occupy #a volume & ! d5sity ( aque\s vap\r ref]r$ to hydrog5 is #i4 ,su* g5]al examples1 ( :i* !re are _m1#i %[ t ! reaction ( equal volumes =ms a *emical ph5om5on ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 indicat+ ! necessity = ackn[l$g+ ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4 #g ,?is is n only se5 f ! above calculations1 b may be prov$ by exp]im5t4 ,a glass tube1 divid$ 9 ! middle by a /opcock1 is tak5 & "o portion fill$ ) dry hydrog5 *loride 7! dryness ( ! gases is v necess>y1 because ammonia & hydrog5 *loride are bo? v soluble 9 wat]1 s t a small trace ( wat] may conta9 a l>ge am\nt ( ^! gases 9 solution7 & ! o!r ) dry ammonia1 "u ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,"o orifice 7= in/ance1 ( t portion :i* conta9s ! ammonia7 is firmly clos$1 & ! o!r is imm]s$ "u m]cury1 & ! cock is !n op5$4 ,solid sal-ammoniac is =m$1 b if ! volume ( "o gas be great] ?an t ( ! o!r1 "s ( ! fir/ gas w rema94 ,by imm]s+ ! tube 9 ! m]cury 9 ord] t ! int]nal pressure %all equal ! atmosph]ic pressure1 x may easily be %[n t ! volume ( ! rema9+ gas is equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! volumes ( ! two portions ( ! tube1 & t ?is rema9+ gas is "p ( t ^: volume 0 ! great]4 #h ,let u demon/rate ?is by figures4 ,f #abb grams ( b5zoic acid !re are obta9$ 7a7 #gh grams ( b5z5e1 ^: d5sity ref]r$ to hydrog5 #ci1 h5ce ! relative volume #b2 & 7b7 #dd grams ( c>bonic anhydride1 ^: d5sity #bb1 & h5ce ! volume #b4 ,x is ! same 9 o!r cases4 #i ,a l>ge numb] ( su* g5]alis$ reactions1 %[+ reaction by equal volumes1 occur 9 ! case ( ! hydroc>bon d]ivatives1 because _m ( ^! comp\nds are volatile4 ,! reactions ( alkalis on acids1 or anhydrides on wat]1 c41 :i* are s frequ5t betwe5 m9]al sub/ances1 pres5t b few su* examples1 because _m ( ^! sub/ances are n volatile & _! vap\r d5sities are unkn[n4 ,b ess5tially ! same is se5 9 ^! cases also2 = in/ance1 sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 breaks up into ! anhydride1 ,,s#c1 & wat]1 ,h#b,o1 :i* exhibit an equality ( volumes4 ,let u take ano!r example :]e ?ree sub/ances comb9e 9 equal volumes3 c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 & wat]1 ,h#b,o 7! volumes ( all are equal to #b71 =m acid ammonium c>bonate1 7,,nh#d7;,,hco#c4 ,b ! "q arises1 ,:at is ! relation ( volumes if ! reaction ( two sub/ances takes place 9 m ?an "o proportion1 accord+ to ! law ( multiple proportions8 ,a def9ite answ] c only be giv5 9 cases :i* h be5 v ?or\ghly /udi$4 ,?us *lor9e1 9 act+ on m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 =ms f\r comp\nds1 ,,*#c;,cl1 ,,*#b;,cl#b1 ,c,h,cl#c1 & ,c,cl#d1 & x may be e/abli%$ by direct exp]im5t t ! sub/ance ,,*#c;,cl 7me?ylic *loride7 prec$es ! rema9d]1 & t ! latt] proce$ f x by ! fur!r action ( *lor9e4 ,& ?is sub/ance1 ,,*#c;,cl1 is =m$ by ! reaction ( equal volumes ( m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 & *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 accord+ to ! equation ,,*#d ,cl#b ,,*#c;,cl ,h,cl4 ,a great numb] ( simil> cases are met ) among/ organic--t is1 c>bon--comp\nds4 ,g]h>dt 0 l$ to ! discov]y ( 8 law by inve/igat+ _m su* reactions1 & by obs]v+ t 9 !m ! reaction ( equal volumes prec$es all o!rs4 ,b if nitrog5 or hydrog5 give sev]al comp\nds ) oxyg51 ! "q propos$ above _c be answ]$ ) complete cle>ness1 because ! successive =mations ( ! diff]5t comb9ations _c be s /rictly def9$4 ,x may be suppos$1 b nei!r def9itely affirm$ nor exp]im5tally confirm$1 t nitrog5 & oxyg5 fir/ give nitric oxide1 ,,no1 & only subsequ5tly ! br[n vap\rs ,n#b,o#c & ,,no#b4 ,su* a sequ5ce 9 ! comb9ation ( nitrog5 ) oxyg5 c only be suppos$ on ! basis ( ! fact t ,,no =ms ,n#b,o#c & ,,no#b directly ) oxyg54 ,if x be admitt$ t ,,no 7& n ,n#b,o or ,,no#b7 be fir/ =m$1 !n ?is in/ance w\ld also confirm ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 because nitric oxide conta9s equal volumes ( nitrog5 & oxyg54 ,s1 also1 x may be admitt$ t1 9 ! comb9ation ( hydrog5 ) oxyg51 hydrog5 p]oxide is fir/ =m$ 7equal volumes ( hydrog5 & oxyg571 :i* is decompos$ by ! heat evolv$ into wat] & oxyg54 ,?is expla9s ! pres5ce ( traces ( hydrog5 p]oxide 7,*apt] ,,iv47 9 almo/ all cases ( ! combu/ion or oxidation ( hydrog5\s sub/ances2 = x _c be suppos$ t wat] is fir/ =m$ & !n ! p]oxide ( hydrog51 because up to n[ su* a reaction has n be5 obs]v$1 :il/ ! =mation ( ,h#b,o f ,h#b,o#b is v easily reproduc$4#aj #aj ,?is op9ion :i* ,i h always held 7s9ce ! fir/ editions ( ?is "w71 z to ! prim>y orig9 ( hydrog5 p]oxide & ( ! =mation ( wat] by means ( its decomposition1 has 9 latt] days become m g5]ally accept$1 ?anks m especially to ! "w ( ,traube4 ,probably x expla9s mo/ simply ! necessity = ! pres5ce ( traces ( wat] 9 _m reactions1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! explosion ( c>bonic oxide ) oxyg51 & p]haps ! !ory ( ! explosion ( detonat+ gas itself & ( ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 w ga9 9 cle>ness & tru? if we take into consid]ation ! prelim9>y =mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide & its decomposition4 ,we may "h po9t out ! fact t ,ett+5 7at ,dorpat1 #ahhh7 obs]v$ ! exi/5ce ( curr5ts & waves 9 ! explosion ( detonat+ gas by tak+ photographs1 :i* %[$ ! p]iods ( combu/ion & ! waves ( explosion1 :i* %\ld be tak5 into consid]ation 9 ! !ory ( ?is subject4 ,z ! =mation ( ,h#b,o#b f ,o#b & ,h#b corresponds ) a less am\nt ( heat ?an ! =mation ( wat] f ,h#b & ,o1 x may be t ! temp]ature ( ! flame ( detonat+ gas dep5ds on ! pre-=mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,?us a :ole s]ies ( ph5om5a %[ t ! *emical reaction ( sub/ances actually takes place1 z a rule1 betwe5 equal volumes1 b ?is does n preclude ! possibility ( ! frequ5t reaction ( unequal volumes1 al?\gh1 9 ?is case1 x is (t5 possible to discov] a prec$+ reaction betwe5 equal volumes4#aa #aa ,! possibility ( reactions betwe5 unequal volumes1 not)/&+ ! g5]al application ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 may1 9 addition to :at has be5 said above1 dep5d on ! fact t ! p>ticipat+ sub/ances1 at ! mom5t ( reaction1 und]go a prelim9>y modification1 decomposition1 isom]ic 7polym]ic7 trans=mation1 c4 ,?us1 if ,,no#b1 seems to proce$ f ,n#b,o#d1 if ,o#b is =m$ f ,o#c1 & ! conv]se1 !n x _c be d5i$ t ! production ( molecules conta9+ only "o atom is also possible--= in/ance1 ( oxyg5--z also ( high] polym]ic =ms--z ! molecule ,n f ,n#b1 or ,h#c f ,h#b4 ,9 ?is mann] x is obvi\sly possible1 by means ( a s]ies ( hypo!ses1 to expla9 ! cases ( ! =mation ( ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 f #c vols4 ( hydrog5 & #a vol4 ( nitrog54 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t p]haps our in=mation 9 simil> in/ances is1 z yet1 f> f be+ complete4 ,if hydraz9e or diamide ,n#b;,h#d 7,*apt] ,,vi4 ,note #bj bis7 is =m$ & ! imide ,n#b;,h#b 9 :i* #b vols4 ( hydrog5 are comb9$ ) #b vols4 ( nitrog51 !n ! reaction "h p]haps fir/ takes place betwe5 equal volumes4 ,if x be %[n t diamide gives nitrog5 & ammonia 7#c,n#b;,h#d ,n#b #d,,nh#c7 "u ! action ( sp>ks1 heat1 or ! sil5t dis*>ge1 c41 !n x w be possible to admit t x is =m$ be=e ammonia4 ,& p]haps ! /ill less /able imide ,n#b;,h#b1 :i* may also decompose ) ! =mation ( ammonia1 is produc$ be=e ! amide ,n#b;,h#d4 ,i m5tion ?is to %[ t ! fact ( app>5t exceptions exi/+ to ! law ( reactions betwe5 equal volumes does n prove ! impossibility ( _! be+ includ$ "u ! law on fur!r /udy ( ! subject4 ,hav+ put =w>d a c]ta9 law or hypo!sis1 consequ5ces mu/ be d$uc$ f x1 & if by _! means cle>ness & consi/5cy are atta9$--& especially1 if by _! means t :i* c\ld n o!rwise be kn[n c be pr$ict$--!n ! consequ5ces v]ify ! hypo!sis4 ,?is 0 ! case ) ! law n[ "u discussion4 ,! m]e simplicity ( ! d$uction ( ! weights prop] to ! atoms ( ! elem5ts1 or ! m]e fact t hav+ admitt$ ! law x foll[s 7z w aft]w>ds be %[n7 t ! vis viva ( ! molecules ( all gases is a con/ant quantity1 is q suffici5t reason = reta9+ ! hypo!sis1 if n = believ+ 9 x z a fact beyond d\bt4 ,& su* is ! :ole doctr9e ( atoms4 ,& s9ce by ! acceptance ( ! law x became possible to =etell ev5 ! prop]ties & atomic weights ( elem5ts :i* _h n yet be5 discov]$1 & ^! pr$ictions aft]w>ds prov$ to be 9 agreem5t ) ! actual facts1 x is evid5t t ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt p5etrates deeply into ! nature ( ! *emical relation ( sub/ances4 ,?is be+ grant$1 x is possible at ! pres5t "t to exhibit & d$uce ! tru? "u consid]ation 9 _m ways1 & 9 e case1 l all t is highe/ 9 sci5ce 7= example1 ! laws ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]1 ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 ( gravity1 c471 x proves to be n an empirical conclusion f direct obs]vation & exp]im5t1 n a direct result ( analysis1 b a creation1 or in/9ctive p5etration1 ( ! inquir+ m9d1 guid$ & direct$ by exp]im5t & obs]vation--a syn!sis ( :i* ! exact sci5ces are capable equally ) ! highe/ =ms ( art4 ,)\t su* a syn!tical process ( reason+1 sci5ce w\ld only be a mass ( disconnect$ results ( ardu\s lab\r1 & w\ld n be di/+ui%$ by t vitality ) :i* x is really end[$ :5 once x succe$s 9 atta9+ a syn!sis1 or concordance ( outw>d =m ) ! inn] nature ( ?+s1 )\t los+ sight ( ! div]sities ( individual p>ts2 9 %ort1 :5 x discov]s by means ( outw>d ph5om5a1 :i* are app>5t to ! s5se ( t\*1 to obs]vation1 & to ! common m9d1 ! int]nal signification ( ?+s--discov]+ simplicity 9 complexity & uni=mity 9 div]sity4 ,& ?is is ! highe/ problem ( sci5ce4 ,! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt may also be easily express$ 9 an algebraical =m4 ,if ! weight ( a molecule1 or ( t quantity ( a sub/ance :i* ent]s into *emical reaction & occupies 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 accord+ to ! law1 a volume equal to t occupi$ by ! molecules ( o!r bodies1 be indicat$ by ! lett]s ,m#a1 ,m#b 444 or1 9 g5]al1 ,m1 & if ! lett]s ,d#a1 ,d#b1 444 or1 9 g5]al1 ,d1 /& = ! d5sity or weight ( a giv5 volume ( ! gases or vap\rs ( ! correspond+ sub/ances "u c]ta9 def9ite conditions ( temp]ature & pressure1 !n ! law requires t ,m#a_/;,d#a ,m#b_/;,d#b 444 ,m_/,d ,c :]e ,c is a c]ta9 con/ant4 ,?is expression %[s directly t ! volumes correspond+ ) ! weights ,m#a1 ,m#b 444 ,m1 are equal to a c]ta9 con/ant1 because ! volume is proportional to ! weight & inv]sely proportional to ! d5sity4 ,! magnitude ( ,c is naturally condition$ by & dep5d5t on ! units tak5 = ! expression ( ! weights ( ! molecules & ! d5sities4 ,! weight ( a molecule 7equal to ! sum ( ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts =m+ x7 is usually express$ by tak+ ! weight ( an atom ( hydrog5 z unity1 & hydrog5 is n[ also *os5 z ! unit = ! expression ( ! d5sities ( gases & vap\rs2 x is !re=e only necess>y to f9d ! magnitude ( ! con/ant = any "o comp\nd1 z x w be ! same = all o!rs4 ,let u take wat]4 ,its react+ mass is express$ 7conditionally & relatively7 by ! =mula or molecule ,h#b,o1 = :i* ,m #ah1 if ,h #a1 z we already "k f ! composition ( wat]4 ,its vap\r d5sity1 or ,d1 comp>$ to hydrog5 #i1 & consequ5tly = wat] ,c #b1 & !re=e & 9 g5]al = ! molecules ( all sub/ances ,m_/,d #b4 ,consequ5tly ! weight ( a molecule is equal to twice its vap\r d5sity express$ 9 relation to hydrog51 & conv]sely ! d5sity ( a gas is equal to half ! molecul> weight ref]r$ to hydrog54 ,! tru? ( ?is may be se5 f a v l>ge numb] ( obs]v$ vap\r d5sities by comp>+ !m ) ! results obta9$ by calculation4 ,z an illu/ration1 we may po9t out t = ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 ! weight ( ! molecule or quantity ( ! react+ sub/ance1 z well z ! composition & weight correspond+ ) ! =mula1 is express$ by ! figures #ad #c #ag4 ,consequ5tly ,m #ag4 ,h5ce1 accord+ to ! law1 ,d #he4 ,& ?is result is also obta9$ by exp]im5t4 ,! d5sity1 accord+ to bo? =mula & exp]im5t1 ( nitr\s oxide1 ,n#b,o1 is #bb1 ( nitric acid #ae1 & ( nitric p]oxide #bc4 ,9 ! case ( nitr\s anhydride1 ,n#b,o#c1 z a sub/ance :i* dissociates into ,,no ,,no#b1 ! d5sity %\ld v>y betwe5 #ch 7s long z ! ,n#b,o#c rema9s un*ang$7 & #ai 7:5 ,,no ,,no#b is obta9$74 ,!re are no figures ( con/ant d5sity = ,h#b,o#b1 ,,nho#c1 ,n#b,o#d1 & _m simil> comp\nds :i* are ei!r :olly or p>tially decompos$ 9 pass+ into vap\r4 ,salts & simil> sub/ances ei!r h no vap\r d5sity because !y d n pass into vap\r 7= in/ance1 potassium nitrate1 ,,kno#c7 )\t decomposition1 or1 if !y pass into vap\r )\t decompos+1 _! vap\r d5sity is obs]v$ ) difficulty only at v high temp]atures4 ,! practical det]m9ation ( ! vap\r d5sity at ^! high temp]atures 7= example1 = sodium *loride1 f]r\s *loride1 /ann\s *loride1 c47 requires special me?ods :i* h be5 work$ out by ,sa9te-,claire ,deville1 ,crafts1 ,nilson & ,pett]sson1 ,mey]1 ,scott1 & o!rs4 ,hav+ ov]come ! difficulties ( exp]im5t1 x is f\nd t ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt holds good = su* salts z potassium iodide1 b]yllium *loride1 alum9ium *loride1 f]r\s *loride1 c4--t is1 ! d5sity obta9$ by exp]im5t proves to be equal to half ! molecul> weight--naturally )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error or ( possible deviation f ! law4 ,g]h>dt d$uc$ 8 law f a great numb] ( examples ( volatile c>bon comp\nds4 ,we %all become acqua9t$ ) c]ta9 ( !m 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s2 _! entire /udy1 f ! complexity ( ! subject1 & f long-e/abli%$ cu/om1 =ms ! subject ( a special bran* ( *emi/ry t]m$ 'organic' *emi/ry4 ,) all ^! sub/ances ! obs]v$ & calculat$ d5sities are v simil>4 ,:5 ! consequ5ces ( a law are v]ifi$ by a great numb] ( obs]vations1 x %\ld be consid]$ z confirm$ by exp]im5t4 ,b ?is does n exclude ! possibility ( app>5t deviations4 ,!y may evid5tly be ( two k9ds3 ! fraction ,m_/,d may be f\nd to be ei!r great] or less ?an #b--t is1 ! calculat$ d5sity may be ei!r great] or less ?an ! obs]v$ d5sity4 ,:5 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! results ( exp]im5t & calculation falls )9 ! possible errors ( exp]im5t 7= example1 equal to hundr$?s ( ! d5sity71 or )9 a possible error ow+ to ! laws ( gases hav+ an only approximate application 7z is se5 f ! deviations1 = in/ance1 f ! law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte71 !n ! fraction ,m_/,d proves b slightly diff]5t f #b 7betwe5 #ai & #bb71 & su* cases z ^! may be class$ among ^? :i* ought to be expect$ f ! nature ( ! subject4 ,x is a diff]5t matt] if ! quoti5t ( ,m_/,d be sev]al times1 & 9 g5]al a multiple1 great] or less ?an #b4 ,! application ( ! law mu/ !n be expla9$ or x mu/ be laid aside1 because ! laws ( nature admit ( no exceptions4 ,we w !re=e take two su* cases1 & fir/ "o 9 :i* ! quoti5t ,m_/,d is great] ?an #b1 or ! d5sity obta9$ by exp]im5t is less ?an is 9 accordance ) ! law4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 z a consequ5ce ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 t !re is a decomposition 9 ^? cases :]e ! volume ( ! vap\r correspond+ ) ! weight ( ! am\nt ( a sub/ance ent]+ into reaction is great] ?an ! volume ( two p>ts by weight ( hydrog54 ,suppose ! d5sity ( ! vap\r ( wat] to be det]m9$ at a temp]ature above t at :i* x is decompos$1 !n1 if n all1 at any rate a l>ge proportion ( ! wat] w be decompos$ into hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,! d5sity ( su* a mixture ( gases1 or ( detonat+ gas1 w be less ?an t ( aque\s vap\r2 x w be equal to #f 7comp>$ ) hydrog571 because #a volume ( oxyg5 weighs #af1 & #b volumes ( hydrog5 #b2 &1 consequ5tly1 #c volumes ( detonat+ gas weigh #ah & #a volume #f1 :ile ! d5sity ( aque\s vap\r #i4 ,h5ce1 if ! d5sity ( aque\s vap\r be det]m9$ aft] its decomposition1 ! quoti5t ,m_/,d w\ld be f\nd to be #c & n #b4 ,?is ph5om5on might be consid]$ z a deviation f ,g]h>dt's law1 b ?is w\ld n be correct1 because x may be %[n by means ( diffusion ?r\gh por\s sub/ances1 z describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 t wat] is decompos$ at su* high temp]atures4 ,9 ! case ( wat] itself !re c naturally be no d\bt1 because its vap\r d5sity agrees ) ! law at all temp]atures at :i* x has be5 det]m9$4#ab ,b !re are _m sub/ances :i* decompose ) great ease directly !y are volatilis$1 & !re=e only exi/ z solids or liquids1 & n 9 a /ate ( vap\r4 ,!re are1 = example1 _m salts ( ?is k9d1 besides all def9ite solutions hav+ a con/ant boil+ po9t1 all ! comp\nds ( ammonia = example1 all ammonium salts--c4 ,_! vap\r d5sities1 det]m9$ by ,b9eau1 ,deville1 & o!rs1 %[ t !y d n agree ) ,g]h>dt's law4 ,?us ! vap\r d5sity ( sal-ammoniac1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 is ne>ly #ad 7comp>$ ) hydrog571 :il/ its molecul> weight is n less ?an #ece1 :5ce ! vap\r d5sity %\ld be ne>ly #bg1 accord+ to ! law4 ,! molecule ( sal-ammoniac _c be less ?an ,,nh#d;,cl1 because x is =m$ f ! molecules ,,nh#c & ,h,cl1 & conta9s s+le atoms ( nitrog5 & *lor9e1 & !re=e _c be divid$2 x fur!r nev] ent]s into reactions ) ! molecules ( o!r sub/ances 7= in/ance1 potassium hydroxide1 or nitric acid7 9 quantities ( less ?an #ece p>ts by weight1 c4 ,! calculat$ d5sity 7ab\t #bg7 is "h d\ble ! obs]v$ d5sity 7ab\t #acd72 h5ce ,m_/,d #d & n #b4 ,= ?is reason ! vap\r d5sity ( sal-ammoniac = a long "t s]v$ z an argum5t = d\bt+ ! tru? ( ! law4 ,b x prov$ o!rwise1 aft] ! matt] _h be5 fully inve/igat$4 ,! l[ d5sity dep5ds on ! decomposition ( sal-ammoniac1 on volatilis+1 into ammonia & hydrog5 *loride4 ,! obs]v$ d5sity is n t ( sal-ammoniac1 b ( a mixture ( ,,nh#c & ,h,cl1 :i* %\ld be ne>ly #ad1 because ! d5sity ( ,,nh#c #he & ( ,h,cl #ahb1 & !re=e ! d5sity ( _! mixture 79 equal volumes7 %\ld be ab\t #acd4ac ,! actual decomposition ( ! vap\rs ( sal-ammoniac 0 demon/rat$ by ,pebal & ,?an by ! same me?od z ! decomposition ( wat]1 by pass+ ! vap\r ( sal-ammoniac ?r\gh a por\s sub/ance4 ,! exp]im5t demon/rat+ ! decomposition dur+ volatilisation ( sal-ammoniac may be made v easily1 & is a v in/ructive po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 because )\t its aid x w\ld nev] h be5 imag9$ t sal-ammoniac decompos$ 9 volatilis+1 z ?is decomposition be>s all ! signs ( simple sublimation2 consequ5tly ! k ( ! decomposition itself 0 =e/all$ by ! law4 ,! :ole aim & practical use ( ! discov]y ( ! laws ( nature consi/s 91 & is %[n by1 ! fact t !y enable ! unkn[n to be =etold1 ! unobs]v$ to be =ese54 ,! arrangem5t ( ! exp]im5t is bas$ on ! foll[+ reason+4#ad ,accord+ to ! law & to exp]im5t1 ! d5sity ( ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 is #h-a_/b1 & ( hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 #ah-a_/d1 if ! d5sity ( hydrog5 #a4 ,consequ5tly1 9 a mixture ( ,,nh#c & ,h,cl1 ! ammonia w p5etrate mu* m rapidly ?r\gh a por\s mass1 or a f9e orifice1 ?an ! heavi] hydro*loric acid1 j z 9 a =m] exp]im5t ! hydrog5 p5etrat$ m rapidly ?an ! oxyg54 ,!re=e1 if ! vap\r ( sal-ammoniac comes into contact ) a por\s mass1 ! ammonia w pass ?r\gh x 9 great] quantities ?an ! hydro*loric acid1 & ?is excess ( ammonia may be detect$ by means ( moi/ r$ litmus pap]1 :i* %\ld be turn$ blue4 ,if ! vap\r ( sal-ammoniac 7 n decompos$1 x w\ld pass ?r\gh ! por\s mass z a :ole1 & ! col\r ( ! litmus pap] w\ld n be alt]$1 because sal-ammoniac is a neutral salt4 ,?us1 by te/+ ) litmus ! sub/ances pass+ ?r\gh ! por\s mass1 x may be decid$ :e!r ! sal-ammoniac is decompos$ or n :5 pass+ into vap\r4 ,sal-ammoniac volatilises at s mod]ate a temp]ature t ! exp]im5t may be conduct$ 9 a glass tube heat$ by means ( a lamp1 an asbe/os plug be+ plac$ ne> ! c5tre ( ! tube4#ae ,! asbe/os =ms a por\s mass1 :i* is unalt]$ at a high temp]ature4 ,a piece ( dry sal-ammoniac is plac$ at "o side ( ! asbe/os plug1 & is heat$ by a ,buns5 burn]4 ,! vap\rs =m$ are driv5 by a curr5t ( air =c$ f a gasomet] or bag ?r\gh two tubes conta9+ pieces ( moi/ litmus pap]1 "o blue & "o r$ pap] 9 ea*4 ,if ! sal-ammoniac be heat$1 !n ! ammonia appe>s on ! opposite side ( ! asbe/os plug1 & ! litmus !re turns blue4 ,& z an excess ( hydro*loric acid rema9s on ! side :]e ! sal-ammoniac is heat$1 x turns ! litmus at t end r$4 ,?is proves t ! sal-ammoniac1 :5 conv]t$ into vap\r1 splits up into ammonia & hydro*loric acid1 & at ! same "t gives an in/ance ( ! possibility ( correctly conjectur+ a fact on ! basis ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4#ae bis #ab ,z ! d5sity ( aque\s vap\r rema9s con/ant )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal accuracy1 ev5 at #a1jjj1 :5 dissociation has c]ta9ly comm5c$1 x w\ld appe> t only a v small am\nt ( wat] is decompos$ at ^! temp]atures4 ,if ev5 #aj p4c4 ( wat] 7 decompos$1 ! d5sity w\ld be #heg & ! quoti5t ,m_/,d #ba1 b at ! high temp]atures "h conc]n$ ! error ( exp]im5t is n great] ?an ! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is quantity & #b4 ,& probably at #a1jjj ! dissociation is f> f be+ equal to #aj p4c4 ,h5ce ! v>iation 9 ! vap\r d5sity ( wat] does n give u ! means ( asc]ta9+ ! am\nt ( its dissociation4 #ac ,?is explanation ( ! vap\r d5sity ( sal-ammoniac1 sulphuric acid1 & simil> sub/ances :i* decompose 9 be+ di/ill$ 0 ! mo/ natural to resort to z soon z ! application ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt to *emical relations 0 begun2 x 01 = in/ance1 giv5 9 my "w on ,specific ,volumes1 #ahef1 p4 #ii4 ,! =mula1 ,m_/,d #b1 :i* 0 appli$ lat] by _m o!r inve/igators1 _h already be5 made use ( 9 t "w4 #ad ,! beg9n] mu/ rememb] t an exp]im5t & ! mode 9 :i* x is c>ri$ out mu/ be det]m9$ by ! pr9ciple or fact :i* x is int5d$ to illu/rate1 & n vice v]sa1 z "s suppose4 ,! idea :i* det]m9es ! necessity ( an exp]im5t is ! *ief consid]ation4 #ae ,x is important t ! tubes1 asbe/os1 & sal-ammoniac %\ld be dry1 z o!rwise ! moi/ure reta9s ! ammonia & hydrog5 *loride4 #ae bis ,bak] 7#ahid7 %[$ t ! decomposition ( ,,nh#d;,cl 9 ! act ( volatilis+ only takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 traces ( :i* are amply suffici5t1 b t 9 ! total abs5ce ( moi/ure 7atta9$ by c>efully dry+ ) ,p#b,o#e7 !re is no decomposition1 & ! vap\r d5sity ( ! sal-ammoniac is f\nd to be normal1 i4e41 ne>ly #bg4 ,x is n yet q cle> :at "p ! trace ( moi/ure plays "h1 & x mu/ be presum$ t ! ph5om5on belongs to ! category ( electrical & contact ph5om5a1 :i* h n yet be5 fully expla9$ 7see ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #bi74 ,s also ! fact ( a decomposition may be prov$ 9 ! o!r in/ances :]e ,m_/,d prov$ great] ?an #b1 & h5ce ! app>5t deviations appe> 9 reality z an excell5t pro( ( ! g5]al application & significance ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4 ,9 ^? cases :]e ! quoti5t ,m_/,d proves to be less ?an #b1 or ! obs]v$ d5sity great] ?an t calculat$1 by a multiple numb] ( times1 ! matt] is evid5tly m simple1 & ! fact obs]v$ only indicates t ! weight ( ! molecule is z _m times great] z t tak5 z ! quoti5t obta9$ is less ?an #b4 ,s1 = in/ance1 9 ! case ( e?yl5e1 ^: composition is express$ by ,,*#b1 ! d5sity 0 f\nd by exp]im5t to be #ad1 & 9 ! case ( amyl5e1 ^: composition is also ,,*#b1 ! d5sity prov$ to be #ce1 & consequ5tly ! quoti5t = e?yl5e #a1 & = amyl5e #b_/e4 ,if ! molecul> weight ( e?yl5e be tak51 n z #ad1 z might be imag9$ f its composition1 b z twice z great--namely1 z #bh--;& = amyl5e z five times great]--t is z #gj--!n ! molecul> composition ( ! fir/ w be ,c#b;,h#d1 & ( ! second ,c#e;,h#aj1 & = bo? ( !m ,m_/,d w be equal to #b4 ,?is application ( ! law1 :i* at fir/ sight may appe> p]fectly arbitr>y1 is nev]!less /rictly correct1 because ! am\nt ( e?yl5e :i* reacts--= example1 ) sulphuric & o!r acids--is n equal to #ad1 b to #bh p>ts by weight4 ,?us ) ,h#b,,s#d1 ,br#b1 or ,,hi1 c41 e?yl5e comb9es 9 a quantity ,c#b;,h#d1 & amyl5e 9 a quantity ,c#e;,h#aj1 & n ,,*#b4 ,on ! o!r h&1 e?yl5e is a gas :i* liquefies ) difficulty 7absolute boil+ po9t #aj71 :il/ amyl5e is a liquid boil+ at #ce 7absolute boil+ po9t #aib71 & by admitt+ ! great] d5sity ( ! molecules ( amyl5e 7,m #gj7 its diff]5ce f ! light] molecules ( e?yl5e 7,m #bh7 becomes cle>4 ,?us1 ! small] quoti5t ,m_/,d is an indication ( polym]isation1 z ! l>g] quoti5t is ( decomposition4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! d5sities ( oxyg5 & ozone is a case 9 po9t4 ,on turn+ to ! elem5ts1 x is f\nd 9 c]ta9 cases1 especially ) metals--= in/ance1 m]cury1 z9c1 & cadmium--t t weight ( ! atoms :i* mu/ be ackn[l$g$ 9 _! comp\nds 7( :i* m5tion w be aft]w>ds made7 appe>s to be also ! molecul> weight4 ,?us1 ! atomic weight ( m]cury mu/ be tak5 z #bjj1 b ! vap\r d5sity #ajj1 & ! quoti5t #b4 ,consequ5tly ! molecule ( m]cury conta9s "o atom1 ,hg4 ,x is ! same ) sodium1 cadmium1 & z9c4 ,?is is ! simple/ possible molecule1 :i* necess>ily is only possible 9 ! case ( elem5ts1 z ! molecule ( a comp\nd mu/ conta9 at lea/ two atoms4 ,h[ev]1 ! molecules ( _m ( ! elem5ts prove to be complex--= in/ance1 ! weight ( an atom ( oxyg5 #af1 & its d5sity #af1 s t its molecule mu/ conta9 two atoms1 ,o#b1 :i* might already be conclud$ by comp>+ its d5sity ) t ( ozone1 ^: molecule conta9s ,o#c 7,*apt] ,,iv47 ,s also ! molecule ( hydrog5 equals ,h#b1 ( *lor9e ,cl#b1 ( nitrog5 ,n#b1 c4 ,if *lor9e react ) hydrog51 ! volume rema9s unalt]$ aft] ! =mation ( hydro*loric acid1 ,h#b ,cl#b ,h,cl ,h,cl4 ,x is a case ( sub/itution betwe5 ! "o & ! o!r1 & !re=e ! volumes rema9 con/ant4 ,!re are elem5ts ^: molecules are mu* m complex--= in/ance1 sulphur1 ,s#f--;al?\gh1 by heat+1 ! d5sity is r$uc$ to a ?ird1 & ,s#b is =m$4 ,judg+ f ! vap\r d5sity ( phosphorus 7,d #fb7 ! molecule conta9s f\r atoms ,p#d4 ,h5ce _m elem5ts :5 polym]is$ appe> 9 molecules :i* are m complex ?an ! simple/ possible4 ,9 c>bon1 z we %all aft]w>ds f9d1 a v complex molecule mu/ be admitt$1 z o!rwise its non-volatility & o!r prop]ties _c be und]/ood4 ,& if comp\nds are decompos$ by a m or less p[]ful heat1 & if polym]ic sub/ances are depolym]is$ 7t is1 ! weight ( ! molecule dim9i%es7 by a rise ( temp]ature1 z ,n#b,o#d passes into ,,no#b1 or ozone1 ,o#c1 into ord9>y oxyg51 ,o#b1 !n we might expect to f9d ! splitt+-up ( ! complex molecules ( elem5ts into ! simple/ molecule conta9+ a s+le atom only--t is to say1 if ,o#b be obta9$ f ,o#c1 !n ! =mation ( ,o might also be look$ =4 ,! possibility b n pro( ( su* a proposition is indicat$ by ! vap\r ( iod9e4 ,its normal d5sity #abg 7,dumas1 ,deville1 & o!rs71 :i* corresponds ) ! molecule ,i#b4 ,at temp]atures above #hjj 7up to :i* ! d5sity rema9s almo/ con/ant71 ?is d5sity di/9ctly decreases1 z is se5 f ! v]ifi$ results obta9$ by ,victor ,mey]1 ,crafts1 & ,troo/4 ,at ! ord9>y pressure & #a1jjj x is ab\t #ajj1 at #a1bej ab\t #hj1 at #a1djj ab\t #ge1 & app>5tly x /rives to r$uce itself to "o-half--t is1 to #fc4 ,"u a r$uc$ pressure ?is splitt+-up1 or depolym]isation1 ( iod9e vap\r actually rea*es a d5sity#af ( #ff1 z ,crafts demon/rat$ by r$uc+ ! pressure to #ajj mm4 & rais+ ! temp]ature to #a1ejj4 ,f ?is x may be conclud$ t at high temp]atures & l[ pressures ! molecule ,i#b gradually passes into ! molecule ,i conta9+ "o atom l m]cury1 & t some?+ simil> occurs ) o!r elem5ts at a consid]able rise ( temp]ature1 :i* t5ds to br+ ab\t ! disunion ( comp\nds & ! decomposition ( complex molecules4#ag #af ,j z we saw 7,*apt] ,,vi4 ,note #df7 an increase ( ! dissociation ( ,n#b,o#d & ! =mation ( a l>ge proportion ( ,,no#b1 ) a decrease ( pressure4 ,! decomposition ( ,i#b into ,i ,i is a simil> dissociation4 #ag ,al?\gh at fir/ !re appe>$ to be a simil> ph5om5on 9 ! case ( *lor9e1 x 0 aft]w>ds prov$ t if !re is a decrease ( d5sity x is only a small "o4 ,9 ! case ( brom9e x is n mu* great]1 & is f> f be+ equal to t = iod9e4 ,z 9 g5]al we v (t5 involunt>ily confuse *emical processes ) physical1 x may be t a physical process ( *ange 9 ! coeffici5t ( expansion ) a *ange ( temp]ature p>ticipates ) a *ange 9 molecul> weight1 & p>tially1 if n :olly1 acc\nts = ! decrease ( ! d5sity ( *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e4 ,?us1 ,i h rem>k$ 7,comptes ,r5dus1 #ahgf7 t ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( gases increases ) _! molecul> weight1 & 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bf7 ! results ( direct exp]im5t %[ ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( hydrobromic acid 7,m #ha7 to be #jjjchf in/ead ( #jjjcfg1 :i* is t ( hydrog5 7,m #b74 ,h5ce1 9 ! case ( ! vap\r ( iod9e 7,m #bed7 a v l>ge coeffici5t ( expansion is to be expect$1 & f ?is cause alone ! relative d5sity w\ld fall4 ,z ! molecule ( *lor9e ,cl#b is light] 7 #ga7 ?an t ( brom9e 7 #afj71 :i* is light] ?an t ( iod9e 7 #bed71 we see t ! ord] 9 :i* ! decomposability ( ! vap\rs ( ^! haloids is obs]v$ corresponds ) ! expect$ rise 9 ! coeffici5t ( expansion4 ,tak+ ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( iod9e vap\r z #jjjd1 !n at #a1jjj its d5sity w\ld be #aaf4 ,!re=e ! dissociation ( iod9e may be only an app>5t ph5om5on4 ,h[ev]1 on ! o!r h&1 ! heavy vap\r ( m]cury 7,m #bjj1 ,d #ajj7 sc>cely decreases 9 d5sity at a temp]ature ( #a1ejj 7,d #ih1 accord+ to ,victor ,mey]72 b x mu/ n be =gott5 t ! molecule ( m]cury conta9s only "o atom1 :il/ t ( iod9e conta9s two1 & ?is is v important4 ,que/ions ( ?is k9d :i* are difficult to decide by exp]im5tal me?ods mu/ long rema9 )\t a c]ta9 explanation1 ow+ to ! difficulty1 & sometimes impossibility1 ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 physical & *emical *anges4 ,besides ^! cases ( app>5t discrepancy f ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt !re is yet a ?ird1 :i* is ! la/1 & is v in/ructive4 ,9 ! inve/igation ( sep>ate sub/ances !y h to be isolat$ 9 ! pure/ possible =m1 & _! *emical & physical prop]ties1 & among !m ! vap\r d5sity1 !n det]m9$4 ,if x be normal--t is1 if ,d ,m_/#b--;x (t5 s]ves z a pro( ( ! purity ( ! sub/ance1 i4e4 ( its fre$om f all =eign matt]4 ,if x be abnormal--t is1 if ,d be n equal to ,m_/#b--!n = ^? :o d n believe 9 ! law x appe>s z a new argum5t aga9/ x & no?+ m2 b to ^? :o h already grasp$ ! important significance ( ! law x becomes cle> t !re is "s error 9 ! obs]vation1 or t ! d5sity 0 det]m9$ "u conditions 9 :i* ! vap\r does n foll[ ! laws ( ,boyle or ,gay-,lussac1 or else t ! sub/ance has n be5 suffici5tly purifi$1 & conta9s o!r sub/ances4 ,! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt 9 t case furni%es conv9c+ evid5ce ( ! necessity ( a fre% & m exact rese>*4 ,& z yet ! causes ( error h always be5 f\nd4 ,!re are n a few examples 9 po9t 9 ! rec5t hi/ory ( *emi/ry4 ,we w cite "o in/ance4 ,9 ! case ( pyrosulphuryl *loride1 ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b1 ,m #bae1 & consequ5tly ,d %\ld #ajge1 in/ead ( :i* ,ogi] & o!rs obta9$ #ech--t is1 a d5sity half z great2 & fur!r1 ,ogi] 7#ahhb7 demon/rat$ cle>ly t ! sub/ance is n dissociat$ by di/illation into ,,s#c & ,,s#b;,cl#b1 or any o!r two products1 & ?us ! abnormal d5sity ( ,s#b,o#e;,cl#b rema9$ unexpla9$ until ,d4 ,p4 ,konoval(f 7#ahhe7 %[$ t ! previ\s inve/igators 7 work+ ) a mixture 7conta9+ ,,s#c;,h,cl71 & t pyrosulphuryl *loride has a normal d5sity ( approximately #ajg4 ,_h n ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt s]v$ z a guide1 ! impure liquid w\ld h /ill pass$ z pure2 ! m s s9ce ! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( *lor9e c\ld n aid 9 ! discov]y ( ! impurity4 ,?us1 by foll[+ a true law ( nature we are l$ to true d$uctions4 ,all cases :i* h be5 /udi$ confirm ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 & z by x a d$uction is obta9$1 f ! det]m9ation ( ! vap\r d5sity 7a purely physical prop]ty71 z to ! weight ( ! molecule or quantity ( a sub/ance ent]+ into *emical reaction1 ?is law l9ks toge!r ! two prov9ces ( le>n+--physics & *emi/ry--9 ! mo/ intimate mann]4 ,besides :i*1 ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt places ! conceptions ( molecules & atoms on a firm f\ndation1 :i* 0 previ\sly want+4 ,al?\gh s9ce ! days ( ,dalton x _h become evid5t t x 0 necess>y to admit ! exi/5ce ( ! elem5t>y atom 7! *emical individual indivisible by *emical or o!r =ces71 & ( ! gr\ps ( atoms 7or molecules7 ( comp\nds1 indivisible by me*anical & physical =ces2 /ill ! relative magnitude ( ! molecule & atom 0 n def9$ ) suffici5t cle>ness4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! atomic weight ( oxyg5 might be tak5 z #h or #af1 or any multiple ( ^! numb]s1 & no?+ indicat$ a reason = ! acceptation ( "o r ?an ano!r ( ^! magnitudes2#ah :il/ z reg>ds ! weights ( ! molecules ( elem5ts & comp\nds !re 0 no tru/wor?y k :atev]4 ,) ! e/abli%m5t ( ,g]h>dt's law ! idea ( ! molecule 0 fully def9$1 z well z ! relative magnitude ( ! elem5t>y atom4 #ah ,& s x 0 9 ! fifties4 ,"s took ,o #h1 o!rs ,o #af4 ,wat] 9 ! fir/ case w\ld be ,,ho & hydrog5 p]oxide ,,ho#b1 & 9 ! second case1 z is n[ g5]ally accept$1 wat] ,h#b,o & hydrog5 p]oxide ,h#b,o#b or ,,ho4 ,disagreem5t & confusion reign$4 ,9 #ahfj ! *emi/s ( ! :ole _w met at ,c>lsruhe = ! purpose ( arriv+ at "s agreem5t & uni=mity ( op9ion4 ,i 0 pres5t at ?is ,congress1 & well rememb] h[ great 0 ! diff]5ce ( op9ion1 & h[ a compromise 0 advocat$ ) great acum5 by _m sci5tific m51 & ) :at w>m? ! foll[]s ( ,g]h>dt1 at ^: head /ood ! ,italian pr(essor1 ,canizz>o1 foll[$ up ! consequ5ces ( ! law ( ,avogadro4 ,9 ! _s ( sci5tific fre$om1 )\t :i* sci5ce w\ld make no progress1 & w\ld rema9 petrifi$ z 9 ! middle ages1 & ) ! simultane\s necessity ( sci5tific cons]vatism1 )\t :i* ! roots ( pa/ /udy c\ld give no fruit1 a compromise 0 n arriv$ at1 nor ought x to h be51 b in/ead ( x tru?1 9 ! =m ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 receiv$ by means ( ! ,congress a wid] developm5t1 & soon aft]w>ds conqu]$ all m9ds4 ,!n ! new s-call$ ,g]h>dt atomic weights e/abli%$ !mselves1 & 9 ! sev5ties !y 7 already 9 g5]al use4 ,! *emical p>ticle or molecule mu/ be consid]$ z ! quantity ( a sub/ance :i* ent]s into *emical reaction ) o!r molecules1 & occupies 9 a /ate ( vap\r ! same volume z two p>ts by weight ( hydrog54 ,! molecul> weight 7:i* has be5 indicat$ by ,m7 ( a sub/ance is det]m9$ by its composition1 trans=mations1 & vap\r d5sity4 ,! molecule is n divisible by ! me*anical & physical *anges ( sub/ances1 b 9 *emical reaction x is ei!r alt]$ 9 its prop]ties1 or quantity1 or /ructure1 or 9 ! nature ( ! motion ( its p>ts4 ,an agglom]ation ( molecules1 :i* are alike 9 all *emical respects1 makes up ! masses ( homog5e\s sub/ances 9 all /ates4#ai #ai ,a bubble ( gas1 a drop ( liquid1 or ! smalle/ cry/al1 pres5ts an agglom]ation ( a numb] ( molecules1 9 a /ate ( cont9ual motion 7l ! />s ( ! ,milky ,way71 di/ribut+ !mselves ev5ly or =m+ new sy/ems4 ,if ! aggregation ( all k9ds ( het]og5e\s molecules be possible 9 a gase\s /ate1 :]e ! molecules are consid]ably remov$ f ea* o!r1 !n 9 a liquid /ate1 :]e !y are already close toge!r1 su* an aggregation becomes possible only 9 ! s5se ( ! mutual reaction betwe5 !m :i* results f _! *emical attraction1 & especially 9 ! aptitude ( het]og5e\s molecules = comb9+ toge!r4 ,solutions & o!r s-call$ indef9ite *emical comp\nds %\ld be reg>d$ 9 ?is light4 ,accord+ to ! pr9ciples develop$ 9 ?is "w we %\ld reg>d !m z conta9+ bo? ! comp\nds ( ! het]og5e\s molecules !mselves & ! products ( _! decomposition1 z 9 p]oxide ( nitrog51 ,n#b,o#d & ,,no#b4 ,& we mu/ consid] t ^? molecules ,a1 :i* at a giv5 mom5t are comb9$ ) ,b 9 ,,ab1 w 9 ! foll[+ mom5t become free 9 ord] to aga9 ent] into a comb9$ =m4 ,! laws ( *emical equilibrium prop] to dissociat$ sy/ems _c be reg>d$ 9 any o!r light4 ,molecules consi/ ( atoms 9 a c]ta9 /ate ( di/ribution & motion1 j z ! sol> sy/em#bj is made up ( insep>able p>ts 7! sun1 planets1 satellites1 comets1 c47 ,! great] ! numb] ( atoms 9 a molecule1 ! m complex is ! resultant sub/ance4 ,! equilibrium betwe5 ! dissimil> atoms may be m or less /able1 & may = ?is reason give m or less /able sub/ances4 ,physical & me*anical trans=mations alt] ! velocity ( ! motion & ! di/ances betwe5 ! individual molecules1 or ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules1 or ( _! sum total1 b !y d n alt] ! orig9al equilibrium ( ! sy/em2 :il/ *emical *anges1 on ! o!r h&1 alt] ! molecules !mselves1 t is1 ! velocity ( motion1 ! relative di/ribution1 & ! quality & quantity ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules4 #bj ,?is /r5g!ns ! fundam5tal idea ( ! unity & h>mony ( type ( all creation & is "o ( ^? ideas :i* impress !mselves on man 9 all ages1 & give rise to a hope ( arriv+ 9 "t1 by means ( a labori\s s]ies ( discov]ies1 obs]vations1 exp]im5ts1 laws1 hypo!ses1 & !ories1 at a compreh5sion ( ! int]nal & invisible /ructure ( concrete sub/ances ) t same degree ( cle>ness & exactitude :i* has be5 atta9$ 9 ! visible /ructure ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,x is n _m ye>s ago s9ce ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt took root 9 sci5ce4 ,x is )9 ! memory ( _m liv+ sci5tific m51 & ( m9e among/ o!rs4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t z yet little progress has be5 made 9 ! prov9ce ( molecul> me*anics2 b ! !ory ( gases alone1 :i* is intimately connect$ ) ! conception ( molecules1 %[s by its success t ! "t is approa*+ :5 our k ( ! int]nal /ructure ( matt] w be def9$ & e/abli%$4 ,atoms are ! smalle/ quantities or *emically indivisible masses ( ! elem5ts =m+ ! molecules ( elem5ts & comp\nds4 ,atoms h weight1 ! sum ( _! weights =ms ! weight ( ! molecule1 & ! sum ( ! weights ( ! molecules =ms ! weight ( masses1 & is ! cause ( gravity1 & ( all ! ph5om5a :i* dep5d on ! mass ( a sub/ance4 ,! elem5ts are *>act]is$1 n only by _! indep5d5t exi/5ce1 _! incapacity ( be+ conv]t$ into ea* o!r1 c41 b also by ! weight ( _! atoms4 ,*emical & physical prop]ties dep5d on ! weight1 composition1 & prop]ties ( ! molecules =m+ a sub/ance1 & on ! weight & prop]ties ( ! atoms =m+ ! molecules4 ,?is is ! sub/ance ( ^? pr9ciples ( molecul> me*anics :i* lie at ! basis ( all contempor>y physical & *emical con/ructions s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4 ,! fecundity ( ! pr9ciples enunciat$ is se5 at e /ep 9 all ! p>ticul> cases =m+ ! pres5t /ore ( *emical data4 ,we w "h cite a few examples ( ! application ( ! law4 ,z ! weight ( an atom mu/ be und]/ood z ! m9imum quantity ( an elem5t ent]+ into ! composition ( all ! molecules =m$ by x1 !re=e1 9 ord] to f9d ! weight ( an atom ( oxyg51 let u take ! molecules ( ^? ( its comp\nds :i* h already be5 describ$1 toge!r ) ! molecules ( c]ta9 ( ^? c>bon comp\nds :i* w be describ$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]3 ,molecul> ,am\nt ( ,molecul> ,am\nt ( ,weight ,oxyg5 ,weight ,oxyg5 ,h#b,o #ah #af ,,hno#c #fc #dh ,n#b,o #dd #af ,,co #bh #af ,,no #cj #af ,,co#b #dd #cb ,,no#b #df #cb ,! numb] ( sub/ances tak5 might be consid]ably increas$1 b ! result w\ld be ! same--t is1 ! molecules ( ! comp\nds ( oxyg5 w\ld nev] be f\nd to conta9 less ?an #af p>ts by weight ( ?is elem5t1 b always n#af1 :]e n is a :ole numb]4 ,! molecul> weights ( ! above comp\nds are f\nd ei!r directly f ! d5sity ( _! vap\r or gas1 or f _! reactions4 ,?us1 ! vap\r d5sity ( nitric acid 7z a sub/ance :i* easily decomposes above its boil+ po9t7 _c be accurately det]m9$1 b ! fact ( its conta9+ "o "p by weight ( hydrog51 & all its prop]ties & reactions1 indicate ! above molecul> composition & no o!r4 ,9 ?is mann] x is v easy to f9d ! atomic weight ( all ! elem5ts1 kn[+ ! molecul> weight & composition ( _! comp\nds4 ,x may1 = in/ance1 be easily prov$ t less ?an n#ab p>ts ( c>bon nev] ent]s into ! molecules ( c>bon comp\nds1 & !re=e ,c mu/ be tak5 z #ab1 & n z #f :i* 0 ! numb] 9 use be=e ,g]h>dt4 ,9 a simil> mann] ! atomic weights n[ accept$ = ! elem5ts oxyg51 nitrog51 c>bon1 *lor9e1 sulphur1 c41 7 f\nd & indubitably e/abli%$1 & !y are ev5 n[ t]m$ ! ,g]h>dt atomic weights4 ,z reg>ds ! metals1 _m ( :i* d n give a s+le volatile comp\nd1 we %all aft]w>ds see t !re are also me?ods by :i* _! atomic weights may be e/abli%$1 b nev]!less ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt is "h also ultimately resort$ to1 9 ord] to remove any d\bt :i* may be enc\nt]$4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 al?\gh mu* t 0 kn[n conc]n+ ! comp\nds ( b]yllium necessitat$ its atomic weight be+ tak5 z ,be #i--t is1 ! oxide z ,be,o & ! *loride ,be,cl#b--/ill c]ta9 analogies gave reason = consid]+ its atomic weight to be ,be #ace1 9 :i* case its oxide w\ld be express$ by ! composition ,be#b,o#c1 & ! *loride by ,be,cl#c4ba ,x 0 !n f\nd t ! vap\r d5sity ( b]yllium *loride 0 approximately #dj1 :5 x became q cle> t its molecul> weight 0 #hj1 & z ?is satisfies ! =mula ,be,cl#b1 b does n suit ! =mula ,be,cl#c1 x !re=e became necess>y to reg>d ! atomic weight ( ,be z #i & n z #ac-a_/b4 #ba ,if ,be #i1 & b]yllium *loride be ,be,cl#b1 !n = e #i p>ts ( b]yllium !re are #ga p>ts ( *lor9e1 & ! molecul> weight ( ,be,cl#b #hj2 h5ce ! vap\r d5sity %\ld be #dj or n#dj4 ,if ,be #ace1 & b]yllium *loride be ,be,cl#c1 !n to #ace ( b]yllium !re are #ajfe ( *lor9e2 h5ce ! molecul> weight w\ld be #abj1 & ! vap\r d5sity #fj or n#fj4 ,! composition is evid5tly ! same 9 bo? cases1 because #i 3 #ga 33 #ace 3 #ajfe4 ,?us1 if ! symbol ( an elem5t designate diff]5t atomic weights1 app>5tly v diff]5t =mul may equally well express bo? ! p]c5tage composition ( comp\nds1 & ^? prop]ties :i* are requir$ by ! laws ( multiple proportions & equival5ts4 ,! *emi/s ( =m] days accurately express$ ! composition ( sub/ances1 & accurately appli$ ,dalton's laws1 by tak+ ,h #a1 ,o #h1 ,c #f1 ,si #ad1 c4 ,! ,g]h>dt equival5ts are also satisfi$ by !m1 because ,o #af1 ,c #ab1 ,si #bh1 c41 are multiples ( !m4 ,! *oice ( "o or ! o!r multiple quantity = ! atomic weight is impossible )\t a firm & concrete conception ( ! molecule & atom1 & ?is is only obta9$ z a consequ5ce ( ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 & h5ce ! mod]n atomic weights are ! results ( ?is law 7see ,note #bh74 ,) ! e/abli%m5t ( a true conception ( molecules & atoms1 *emical =mul became direct expressions1 n only ( composition1#bb b also ( molecul> weight or vap\r d5sity1 & consequ5tly ( a s]ies ( fundam5tal *emical & physical data1 inasmu* z a numb] ( ! prop]ties ( sub/ances are dep5d5t on _! vap\r d5sity1 or molecul> weight & composition4 ,! vap\r d5sity ,d ,m_/#b4 ,= in/ance1 ! =mula ( e?yl e!r is ,c#d;,h#aj,o1 correspond+ ) ! molecul> weight #gd1 & ! vap\r d5sity #cg1 :i* is ! fact4 ,!re=e1 ! d5sity ( vap\rs & gases has ceas$ to be an empirical magnitude obta9$ by exp]im5t only1 & has acquir$ a rational mean+4 ,x is only necess>y to rememb] t #b grams ( hydrog51 or ! molecul> weight ( ?is prim>y gas 9 grams1 occupies1 at #j & #gfj mm4 pressure1 a volume ( #bbc litres 7or #bb1cjj cubic c5timetres71 9 ord] to directly det]m9e ! weights ( cubical measures ( gases & vap\rs f _! =mul1 because ! molecul> weights 9 grams ( all o!r vap\rs at #j & #gfj mm4 occupy ! same volume1 #bbc litres4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! case ( c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 ! molecul> weight ,m #dd1 h5ce #dd grams ( c>bonic anhydride at #j & #gfj mm4 occupy a volume ( #bbc litres--consequ5tly1 a litre weighs #aig gram4 ,by comb9+ ! laws ( gases--,gay-,lussac's1 ,m>iotte's1 & ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's--we obta9#bc a g5]al =mula = gases #fbjjs7#bgc t7 ,mp :]e s is ! weight 9 grams ( a cubic c5timetre ( a vap\r or gas at a temp]ature t & pressure p 7express$ 9 c5timetres ( m]cury7 if ! molecul> weight ( ! gas ,m4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 at #ajj & #gfj millimetres pressure 7i4e4 at ! atmosph]ic pressure7 ! weight ( a cubic c5timetre ( ! vap\r ( e!r 7,m #gd7 is s #jjjbd4bd #bb ,! p]c5tage am\nts ( ! elem5ts conta9$ 9 a giv5 comp\nd may be calculat$ f its =mula by a simple proportion4 ,?us1 = example1 to f9d ! p]c5tage am\nt ( hydrog5 9 hydro*loric acid we reason z foll[s3--,h,cl %[s t hydro*loric acid conta9s #cee ( *lor9e & #a "p ( hydrog54 ,h5ce1 9 #cfe p>ts ( hydro*loric acid !re is #a "p by weight ( hydrog51 consequ5tly #ajj p>ts by weight ( hydro*loric acid w conta9 z _m m units ( hydrog5 z #ajj is great] ?an #cfe2 !re=e1 ! proportion is z foll[s--x 3 #a 33 #ajj 3 #cfe or x #ajj_/cfe #bgci4 ,!re=e #ajj p>ts ( hydro*loric acid conta9 #bgci p>ts ( hydrog54 ,9 g5]al1 :5 x is requir$ to transf] a =mula into its p]c5tage composition1 we mu/ replace ! symbols by _! correspond+ atomic weights & f9d _! sum1 & kn[+ ! am\nt by weight ( a giv5 elem5t 9 x1 x is easy by proportion to f9d ! am\nt ( ?is elem5t 9 #ajj or any o!r quantity ( p>ts by weight4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 x be requir$ to f9d ! =mula f a giv5 p]c5tage composition1 we mu/ proce$ z foll[s3 ,divide ! p]c5tage am\nt ( ea* elem5t ent]+ into ! composition ( a sub/ance by its atomic weight1 & comp>e ! figures ?us obta9$--!y %\ld be 9 simple multiple proportion to ea* o!r4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 f ! p]c5tage composition ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 #ehh ( hydrog5 & #idab ( oxyg51 x is easy to f9d its =mula2 x is only necess>y to divide ! am\nt ( hydrog5 by unity & ! am\nt ( oxyg5 by #af4 ,! numb]s #ehh & #ehh are ?us obta9$1 :i* are 9 ! ratio #a 3 #a1 :i* means t 9 hydrog5 p]oxide !re is "o atom ( hydrog5 to "o atom ( oxyg54 ,! foll[+ is a pro( ( ! practical rule giv5 above t to f9d ! ratio ( ! numb] ( atoms f ! p]c5tage composition1 x is necess>y to divide ! p]c5tage am\nts by ! atomic weights ( ! correspond+ sub/ances1 & to f9d ! ratio :i* ^! numb]s be> to ea* o!r4 ,let u suppose t two radicles 7simple or comp\nd71 ^: symbols & comb9+ weights are ,a & ,b1 comb9e toge!r1 =m+ a comp\nd compos$ ( x atoms ( ,a & y atoms ( ,b4 ,! =mula ( ! sub/ance w be ,ax,by4 ,f ?is =mula we "k t our comp\nd conta9s x,a p>ts by weight ( ! fir/ elem5t1 & y,b ( ! second4 ,9 #ajj p>ts ( our comp\nd !re w be 7by proportion7 7#ajj4 x,a7_/7x,a y,b7 ( ! fir/ elem5t1 & 7#ajj4 y,b7_/7x,a y,b7 ( ! second4 ,let u divide ^! quantities1 express+ ! p]c5tage am\nts by ! correspond+ comb9+ weights2 we !n obta9 #ajjx_/7x,a y,b7 = ! fir/ elem5t & #ajjy_/7x,a y,b7 = ! second elem5t4 ,& ^! numb]s are 9 ! ratio x 3 y--t is1 9 ! ratio ( ! numb] ( atoms ( ! two sub/ances4 ,x may be fur!r obs]v$ t ev5 ! v language or nom5clature ( *emi/ry acquires a p>ticul> cle>ness & concis5ess by means ( ! conception ( molecules1 because !n ! names ( sub/ances may directly indicate _! composition4 ,?us ! t]m 'c>bon dioxide' tells m ab\t & expresses ,,co#b bett] ?an c>bonic acid gas1 or ev5 c>bonic anhydride4 ,su* nom5clature is already employ$ by _m4 ,b express+ ! composition )\t an indication or ev5 h9t z to ! prop]ties1 w\ld be neglect+ ! advantage\s side ( ! pres5t nom5clature4 ,sulphur dioxide1 ,,s#b1 expresses ! same z b>ium dioxide1 ,ba,o#b1 b sulphur\s anhydride indicates ! acid prop]ties ( ,,s#b4 ,probably 9 "t "o h>moni\s *emical language w succe$ 9 embrac+ bo? advantages4 #bc ,?is =mula 7:i* is giv5 9 my "w on ',! ,t5sion ( ,gases1' & 9 a some:at modifi$ =m 9 ! ',comptes ,r5dus1' ,feb4 #ahgf7 is d$uc$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,accord+ to ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt1 ,m #b;,d = all gases1 :]e ,m is ! molecul> weight & ,d ! d5sity ref]r$ to hydrog54 ,b x is equal to ! weight s#j ( a cubic c5timetre ( a gas 9 grams at #j & #gf cm4 pressure1 divid$ by #jjjjjhih1 = ?is is ! weight 9 grams ( a cubic c5timetre ( hydrog54 ,b ! weight s ( a cubic c5timetre ( a gas at a temp]ature t & "u a pressure p 79 c5timetres7 is equal to s#jp_/#gf7a at74 ,!re=e1 s#j s4#gf7a at7_/p2 h5ce ,d #gf4s7#a at7_/#jjjjjhihp1 :5ce ,m #aebs7#a at7_/#jjjjjhihp1 :i* gives ! above expression1 because #a_/;a #bgc1 & #aeb multipli$ by #bgc & divid$ by #jjjjjhih is ne>ly #fbjj4 ,9 place ( s1 m_/v may be tak51 :]e m is ! weight & v ! volume ( a vap\r4 #bd ,! above =mula may be directly appli$ 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! molecul> weight f ! data2 weight ( vap\r m grms41 its volume v c4c41 pressure p cm41 & temp]ature t2 = s ! weight ( vap\r m1 divid$ by ! volume v1 & consequ5tly ,m #f1bjjm7#bgc t7_/pv4 ,!re=e1 in/ead ( ! =mula 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #cd71 pv ,r7#bgc t71 :]e ,r v>ies ) ! mass & nature ( a gas1 we may apply ! =mula pv #f1bjj7m_/,m77#bgc t74 ,^! =mul simplify ! calculations 9 _m cases4 ,= example1 requir$ ! volume v occupi$ by #e grms4 ( aque\s vap\r at a temp]ature t #abg & "u a pressure p #gf cm4 ,accord+ to ! =mula ,m #f1bjjm7#bgc t7_/pv1 we f9d t v #i1jfd c4c41 z 9 ! case ( wat] ,m #ah1 m 9 ?is in/ance #e grms4 7,^! =mul1 h[ev]1 l ! laws ( gases1 are only approximate47 ,z ! molecules ( _m elem5ts 7hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 *lor9e1 brom9e1 sulphur--at lea/ at high temp]atures7 are ( uni=m composition1 ! =mul ( ! comp\nds =m$ by !m directly indicate ! composition by volume4 ,s1 = example1 ! =mula ,,hno#c directly %[s t 9 ! decomposition ( nitric acid !re is obta9$ #a vol4 ( hydrog51 #a vol4 ( nitrog51 & #c vols4 ( oxyg54 ,& s9ce a great numb] ( me*anical1 physical1 & *emical prop]ties are directly dep5d5t on ! elem5t>y & volumetric composition1 & on ! vap\r d5sity1 ! accept$ sy/em ( atoms & molecules gives ! possibility ( simplify+ a numb] ( mo/ complex relations4 ,= in/ance1 x may be easily demon/rat$ t ! vis viva ( ! molecules ( all vap\rs & gases is alike4 ,= x is prov$ by me*anics t ! vis viva ( a mov+ mass 7#a_/b7 mv#b1 :]e m is ! mass & v ! velocity4 ,= a molecule1 m ,m1 or ! molecul> weight1 & ! velocity ( ! motion ( gase\s molecules a con/ant :i* we w designate by ,c1 divid$ by ! squ>e root ( ! d5sity ( ! gas#be ,c_/sqrt,d1 & z ,d ,m_/#b1 ! vis viva ( molecules ,c#b--t is1 a con/ant = all molecules4 ,q4,e4,d4#bf ,! specific heat ( gases 7,*apt] ,,xiv471 & _m o!r ( _! prop]ties1 are det]m9$ by _! d5sity1 & consequ5tly by _! molecul> weight4 ,gases & vap\rs 9 pass+ into a liquid /ate evolve ! s-call$ lat5t heat1 :i* also proves to be 9 connection ) ! molecul> weight4 ,! obs]v$ lat5t heats ( c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b #ij1 ( e!r1 ,c#d;,h#aj,o1 #id1 ( b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 #aji1 ( alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#f,o1 #bjj1 ( *lor(orm1 ,c,h,cl#c1 #fg1 c41 %[ ! am\nt ( heat exp5d$ 9 conv]t+ "o "p by weight ( ! above sub/ances into vap\r4 ,a great uni=mity is obs]v$ if ! measure ( ?is heat he ref]r$ to ! weight ( ! molecule4 ,= c>bon bisulphide ! =mula ,,cs#b expresses a weight #gf1 h5ce ! lat5t heat ( evaporation ref]r$ to ! molecul> quantity ,,cs#b #gf x #ij #f1hdj1 = e!r #i1fef1 = b5z5e #h1ejb1 = alcohol #i1bjj1 = *lor(orm #h1jjg1 = wat] #i1fbj1 c4 ,t is1 = molecul> quantities1 ! lat5t heat v>ies comp>atively little1 f #g1jjj to #aj1jjj heat units1 :il/ = equal p>ts by weight x is t5 times great] = wat] ?an = *lor(orm & _m o!r sub/ances4#bg #be ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #cd4 #bf ,! velocity ( ! transmission ( s\nd ?r\gh gases & vap\rs closely be>s on ?is4 ,x sqrt7,kpg7_/,d7#a ,greek3 at71 :]e ,k is ! ratio betwe5 ! two specific heats 7x is approximately #ad = gases conta9+ two atoms 9 a molecule71 p ! pressure ( ! gas express$ by weight 7t is1 ! pressure express$ by ! height ( a column ( m]cury multipli$ by ! d5sity ( m]cury71 g ! accel]ation ( gravity1 ,d ! weight ( a cubic measure ( ! gas1 ,greek3 a #jjjcfg1 & t ! temp]ature4 ,h5ce1 if ,k be kn[n1 & z ,d c he f\nd f ! composition ( a gas1 we c calculate ! velocity ( ! transmission ( s\nd 9 t gas4 ,or if ?is velocity be kn[n1 we c f9d ,k4 ,! relative velocities ( s\nd 9 two gases c he easily det]m9$ 7,kundt74 ,if a horizontal glass tube 7ab\t #a metre long & clos$ at bo? ends7 be full ( a gas1 & be firmly fix$ at its middle po9t1 !n x is easy to br+ ! tube & gas into a /ate ( vibration1 by rubb+ x f c5tre to end ) a damp clo?4 ,! vibration ( ! gas is easily r5d]$ visible1 if ! int]ior ( ! tube be du/$ ) lycopodium 7! yell[ p[d]-du/ or spores ( ! lycopodium plant is (t5 employ$ 9 m$ic9e71 be=e ! gas is introduc$ & ! tube fus$ up4 ,! f9e lycopodium p[d] arranges itself 9 pat*es1 ^: numb] dep5ds on ! velocity ( s\nd 9 ! gas4 ,if !re be #aj pat*es1 !n ! velocity ( s\nd 9 ! gas is t5 times sl[] ?an 9 glass4 ,x is evid5t t ?is is an easy me?od ( comp>+ ! velocity ( s\nd 9 gases4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ by exp]im5t t ! velocity ( s\nd 9 oxyg5 is f\r times less ?an 9 hydrog51 & ! squ>e roots ( ! d5sities & molecul> weights ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 /& 9 ?is ratio4 #bg ,if ! conception ( ! molecul> weights ( sub/ances does n give an exact law :5 appli$ to ! lat5t heat ( evaporation1 at all ev5ts x br+s to light a c]ta9 uni=mity 9 figures1 :i* o!rwise only repres5t ! simple result ( obs]vation4 ,molecul> quantities ( liquids appe> to exp5d almo/ equal am\nts ( heat 9 _! evaporation4 ,x may be said t ! lat5t heat ( evaporation ( molecul> quantities is approximately con/ant1 because ! vis viva ( ! motion ( ! molecules is1 z we saw above1 a con/ant quantity4 ,accord+ to !rmodynamics ! lat5t heat ( evaporation is equal to 77t #bgc7_/;,e77n-n7dp_/d,t #acei1 :]e t is ! boil+ po9t1 n ! specific volume 7i4e4 ! volume ( a unit ( weight7 ( ! vap\r1 & n ! specific volume ( ! liquid1 dp_/d,t ! v>iation ( ! t5sion ) a rise ( temp]ature p] #a1 & #achi ! d5sity ( ! m]cury accord+ to :i* ! pressure is measur$4 ,?us ! lat5t heat ( evaporation increases n only ) a decrease 9 ! vap\r d5sity 7i4e4 ! molecul> weight71 b also ) an increase 9 ! boil+ po9t1 & !re=e dep5ds on diff]5t factors4 ,g5]alis+ f ! above1 ! weight ( ! molecule det]m9es ! prop]ties ( a sub/ance indep5d5tly ( its composition--i4e4 ( ! numb] & quality ( ! atoms ent]+ into ! molecule--:5ev] ! sub/ance is 9 a gase\s /ate 7= in/ance1 ! d5sity ( gases & vap\rs1 ! velocity ( s\nd 9 !m1 _! specific heat1 c471 or passes into t /ate1 z we see 9 ! lat5t heat ( evaporation4 ,?is is intelligible f ! po9t ( view ( ! atomic !ory 9 its pres5t =m1 =1 besides a rapid motion prop] to ! molecules ( gase\s bodies1 x is fur!r necess>y to po/ulate t ^! molecules are disp]s$ 9 space 7fill$ ?r\gh\t ) ! lum9if]\s e!r7 l ! heav5ly bodies di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! univ]se4 ,"h1 z !re1 x is only ! degree ( removal 7! di/ance7 & ! masses ( sub/ances :i* take effect1 :ile ^? peculi>ities ( a sub/ance :i* are express$ 9 *emical trans=mations1 & only come into action on ne> approa* or on contact1 are 9 abeyance by reason ( ! disp]sal4 ,h5ce x is at once obvi\s1 9 ! fir/ place1 t 9 ! case ( solids & liquids1 9 :i* ! molecules are clos] toge!r ?an 9 gases & vap\rs1 a great] complexity is to be expect$1 i4e4 a dep5d5ce ( all ! prop]ties n only ^u ! weight ( ! molecule b also ^u its composition & quality1 or ^u ! prop]ties ( ! individual *emical atoms =m+ ! molecule2 &1 9 ! second place1 t1 9 ! case ( a small numb] ( molecules ( any sub/ance be+ dissem9at$ ?r\gh a mass ( ano!r sub/ance--= example1 9 ! =mation ( weak 7dilute7 solutions 7al?\gh 9 ?is case !re is an act ( *emical reaction--i4e4 a comb9ation1 decomposition1 or sub/itution7--! disp]s$ molecules w alt] ! prop]ties ( ! m$ium 9 :i* !y are dissolv$1 almo/ 9 proportion to ! molecul> weight & almo/ indep5d5tly ( _! composition4 ,! great] ! numb] ( molecules dissem9at$--i4e4 ! /rong] ! solution--! m cle>ly def9$ w ^? prop]ties become :i* dep5d ^u ! composition ( ! dissolv$ sub/ance & its relation to ! molecules ( ! solv5t1 = ! di/ribution ( "o k9d ( molecules 9 ! sph]e ( attraction ( o!rs _c b be influ5c$ by _! mutual *emical reaction4 ,^! g5]al consid]ations give a />t+ po9t = expla9+ :y1 s9ce ! appe>ance ( ,van't ,h(f's memoir 7#ahhf71 ',! ,laws ( ,*emical ,equilibrium 9 a ,diffus$ ,gase\s or ,liquid ,/ate' 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ai71 x has be5 f\nd m & m t dilute 7weak7 solutions exhibit su* v>iations ( prop]ties z dep5d :olly ^u ! weight & numb] ( ! molecules & n ^u _! composition1 & ev5 give ! means ( det]m9+ ! weight ( molecules by /udy+ ! v>iations ( ! prop]ties ( a solv5t on ! introduction ( a small quantity ( a sub/ance pass+ into solution4 ,al?\gh ?is subject has be5 already p>tially consid]$ 9 ! fir/ *apt] 79 speak+ ( solutions71 & prop]ly belongs to a special 7physical7 bran* ( *emi/ry1 we t\* ^u x "h because ! mean+ & importance ( molecul> weights are se5 9 x 9 a new & peculi> light1 & because x gives a me?od = det]m9+ !m :5ev] x is possible to obta9 dilute solutions4 ,among ! num]\s prop]ties ( dilute solutions :i* h be5 inve/igat$ 7= in/ance1 ! osmotic pressure1 vap\r t5sion1 boil+ po9t1 int]nal friction1 capill>ity1 v>iation ) *ange ( temp]ature1 specific heat1 electroconductivity1 index ( refraction1 c47 we w select "o--! 'depression' or fall ( ! temp]ature ( freez+ 7,ra\lt's cryoscopic me?od71 n only because ?is me?od has be5 ! mo/ /udi$1 b also because x is ! mo/ easily c>ri$ out & mo/ frequ5tly appli$ = det]m9+ ! weight ( ! molecules ( sub/ances 9 solution1 al?\gh "h1 ow+ to ! novelty ( ! subject !re are also _m exp]im5tal discrepancies :i* _c z yet be expla9$ by !ory4#bg bis #bg bis ,! osmotic pressure1 vap\r t5sion ( ! solv5t1 & sev]al o!r means appli$ l ! cryoscopic me?od to dilute solutions = det]m9+ ! molecul> weight ( a sub/ance 9 solution1 are m difficult to c>ry out 9 practice1 & only ! me?od ( det]m9+ ! rise ( ! boil+ po9t ( dilute solutions c f its facility be plac$ p>allel ) ! cryoscopic me?od1 to :i* x be>s a /rong resemblance1 z 9 bo? ! solv5t *anges its /ate & is p>tially sep>at$4 ,9 ! boil+ po9t me?od x passes (f 9 ! =m ( a vap\r1 :ile 9 cryoscopic det]m9ations x sep>ates out 9 ! =m ( a solid body4 ,van't ,h(f1 />t+ f ! second law ( !rmodynamics1 %[$ t ! dep5d5ce ( ! rise ( pressure 7dp7 ^u a rise ( temp]ature 7d,t7 is det]m9$ by ! equation dp 7kmp_/#b,t#b7;d,t1 :]e k is ! lat5t heat ( evaporation ( ! solv5t1 m its molecul> weight1 p ! t5sion ( ! saturat$ vap\r ( ! solv5t at ,t1 & ,t ! absolute temp]ature 7,t #bgc t71 :ile ,ra\lt f\nd t ! quantity 7p-p7_/p 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ej7 or ! measure ( ! relative fall ( t5sion 7p ! t5sion ( ! solv5t or wat]1 & p ( ! solution7 is f\nd by ! ratio ( ! numb] ( molecules1 n ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 & ,n ( ! solv5t1 s t 7p-p7_/p ,cn_/7,n n7 :]e ,c is a con/ant4 ,) v dilute solutions p -p may be tak5 z equal to dp1 & ! fraction n_/7,n n7 z equal to n_/,n 7because 9 t case ! value ( ,n is v mu* great] ?an n71 & !n1 judg+ f exp]im5t1 ,c is ne>ly unity--h5ce3 dp_/p n_/,n or dp np_/,n1 & on sub/itut+ ?is 9 ! above equation we h 7kmp_/#b,t#b7;d,t np_/,n4 ,tak+ a weight ( ! solv5t m_/,n #ajj1 & ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ 7p] #ajj ( ! solv5t7 q1 :]e q evid5tly n,m1 if ,m be ! molecul> weight ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 we f9d t n_/,n qm_/#ajj,m1 & h5ce1 accord+ to ! prec$+ equation1 we h ,m 7#jjb,t#b_/k77q_/d,t71 t is1 by tak+ a solution ( q grms4 ( a sub/ance 9 #ajj grms4 ( a solv5t1 & det]m9+ by exp]im5t ! rise ( ! boil+ po9t d,t1 we f9d ! molecul> weight ,m ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 because ! fraction #jjb,t#b_/k is 7= a giv5 pressure & solv5t7 a con/ant2 = wat] at #ajj 7,t #cgc7 :5 k #ecd 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #aa71 x is ne>ly #eb1 = e!r ne>ly #ba1 = bisulphide ( c>bon ne>ly #bd1 = alcohol ne>ly #aae1 c4 ,z an example1 we w cite f ! det]m9ations made by ,pr(essor ,sakurai1 ( ,japan 7#ahic71 t :5 wat] 0 ! solv5t & ! sub/ance dissolv$1 corrosive sublimate1 ,hg,cl#b1 0 tak5 9 ! quantity q #high & #dbec grms41 ! rise 9 ! boil+ po9t d,t 0 ,o#agi & #jjhd1 :5ce ,m #bfa & #bfc1 & :5 alcohol 0 ! solv5t1 q #ajhgc & #hgfe & d,t #jdga & #jchj1 :5ce ,m #bff & #bfe1 :il/ ! actual molecul> weight ( corrosive sublimate #bga1 :i* is v ne> to t giv5 by ?is me?od4 ,9 ! same mann] = aque\s solutions ( sug> 7,m #cdb71 :5 q v>i$ f #ad to #bd1 & ! rise ( ! boil+ po9t f #jba to #jjce1 ,m 0 f\nd to v>y betwe5 #cci & #cfd4 ,= solutions ( iod9e ,i#b 9 e!r1 ! molecul> weight 0 f\nd by ?is me?od to be betwe5 #bee & #bfb1 & ,i#b #bed4 ,sakurai obta9$ simil> results 7betwe5 #bdg & #bfb7 = solutions ( iod9e 9 bisulphide ( c>bon4 ,we w "h rem>k t 9 det]m9+ ,m 7! molecul> weight ( ! sub/ance dissolv$7 at small b increas+ conc5trations 7p] #ajj grms4 ( wat]71 ! results obta9$ by ,julio ,b>oni 7#ahic7 %[ t ! value ( ,m f\nd by ! =mula may ei!r increase or decrease4 ,an increase1 = in/ance1 takes place 9 aque\s solutions ( ,hg,cl#b 7f #bee to #ccd in/ead ( #bga71 ,,kno#c 7#eg-ff in/ead ( #aja71 ,ag,n,o#c 7#ajd-ajg in/ead ( #agj71 ,k#b,,s#d 7#ee-hi in/ead ( #agd71 sug> 7#cbh-cdh in/ead ( #cdb71 c4 ,on ! contr>y ! calculat$ value ( ,m decreases z ! conc5tration increases1 = solutions ( ,k,cl 7#dj-ci in/ead ( #gde71 ,na,cl 7#cc-bh in/ead ( #ehe71 ,na,br 7#fj-di in/ead ( #ajc71 c4 ,9 ?is case 7z also = ,li,cl1 ,na,i1 ,c#b;,h#c,na,o#b1 c47 ! value ( i 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #di71 or ! ratio betwe5 ! actual molecul> weight & t f\nd by ! rise ( ! boil+ po9t1 0 f\nd to increase ) ! conc5tration1 i4e4 to be great] ?an #a1 & to diff] m & m f unity z ! /r5g? ( ! solution becomes great]4 ,= example1 accord+ to ,s*lamp 7#ahid71 = ,li,cl1 ) a v>iation ( f #aa to #fg grm4 ,li,cl p] #ajj ( wat]1 i v>ies f #afc to #ahi4 ,b = sub/ances ( ! fir/ s]ies 7,hg,cl#b1 c471 al?\gh 9 v dilute solutions i is great] ?an #a1 x approximates to #a z ! conc5tration increases1 & ?is is ! normal ph5om5on = solutions :i* d n conduct an electric curr5t1 z1 = in/ance1 ( sug>4 ,& ) c]ta9 electrolytes1 su* z ,hg,cl#b1 ,mg,s,o#d1 c41 i exhibits a simil> v>iation2 ?us1 = ,hg,cl#b ! value ( ,m is f\nd to v>y betwe5 #bee & #ccd2 t is1 i 7z ! molecul> weight #bga7 v>ies betwe5 #ajf & #jha4 ,h5ce ,i d n believe t ! diff]5ce betwe5 i & unity 7= in/ance1 = ,ca,cl#b1 i is ab\t #c1 = ,,ki ab\t #b1 & decreases ) ! conc5tration7 c at pres5t be plac$ at ! basis ( any g5]al *emical conclusions1 & x requires fur!r exp]im5tal rese>*4 ,among o!r me?ods by :i* ! value ( i is n[ det]m9$ = dilute solutions is ! /udy ( _! electroconductivity1 admitt+ t i #a a7k-#a71 :]e a ! ratio ( ! molecul> conductivity to ! limit+ conductivity correspond+ to an inf9itely l>ge dilution 7see ,physical ,*emi/ry71 & k is ! numb] ( ions into :i* ! sub/ance dissolv$ c split up4 ,)\t ent]+ ^u a criticism ( ?is me?od ( det]m9+ i1 ,i w only rem>k t x frequ5tly gives values ( i v close to ^? f\nd by ! depression ( ! freez+ po9t & rise ( ! boil+ po9t2 b t ?is accordance ( results is sometimes v d\btful4 ,?us = a solution conta9+ #efg grms4 ,ca,cl#b p] #ajj grms4 ( wat]1 i1 accord+ to ! vap\r t5sion #beb1 accord+ to ! boil+ po9t #bga1 accord+ to ! electroconductivity #bbh1 :ile = solutions 9 propyl alcohol 7,s*lamp #ahid7 i is ne> to #acc4 ,9 a ^w1 al?\gh ^! me?ods ( det]m9+ ! molecul> weight ( sub/ances 9 solution %[ an und\bt$ progress 9 ! g5]al *emical pr9ciples ( ! molecul> !ory1 !re are /ill _m po9ts :i* require explanation4 ,we w add c]ta9 g5]al relations :i* apply to ^! problems4 ,isotonic 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ai7 solutions exhibit n only simil> osmotic pressures1 b also ! same vap\r t5sion1 boil+ po9t & freez+ temp]ature4 ,! osmotic pressure be>s ! same relation to ! fall ( ! vap\r t5sion z ! specific gravity ( a solution does to ! specific gravity ( ! vap\r ( ! solv5t4 ,! g5]al =mul und]ly+ ! :ole doctr9e ( ! influ5ce ( ! molecul> weight ^u ! prop]ties ( solutions consid]$ above1 are3 #a4 ,ra\lt 9 #ahhf-ahij %[$ t 77p-p7_/p7 7#ajj_/;a7 7,m_/m7 a con/ant ,c :]e p & p are ! vap\r t5sions ( ! solv5t & sub/ance dissolv$1 a ! am\nt 9 grms4 ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ p] #ajj grms4 ( solv5t1 ,m & m ! molecul> weights ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ & solv5t4 #b4 ,ra\lt & ,rec\ra 9 #ahij %[$ t ! con/ant above ,c ! ratio ( ! actual vap\r d5sity d ( ! solv5t to ! !oretical d5sity d calculat$ accord+ to ! molecul> weight4 ,?is d$uction may n[ be consid]$ prov$1 because bo? ! fall ( t5sion & ! ratio ( ! vap\r d5sities d_/d give1 = wat] #ajc1 = alcohol #ajb1 = e!r #ajd1 = bisulphide ( c>bon #ajj1 = b5z5e #ajb1 = acetic acid #afc4 #c4 ,by apply+ ! pr9ciples ( !rmodynamics & call+ ,l#a ! lat5t heat ( fusion & ,t#a ! absolute 7 t #bgc7 temp]ature ( fusion ( ! solv5t1 & ,l#b & ,t#b ! correspond+ values = ! boil+ po9t1 ,van't ,h(f 9 #ahhf-ahij d$uc$3-- 7,depression ( freez+ po9t7_/7,rise ( boil+ po9t7 7,l#b_/,l#a7 7,t#ab_/,t#bb7 ,depression ( freez+ po9t 7,,at#ab;a7_/7,l#a,m#a7 ,rise ( boil+ po9t 7,,at#bb;a7_/7,l#b,m#a7 :]e ,a #jjaihh 7or ne>ly #jjb z we took x above71 a is ! weight 9 grms4 ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ p] #ajj grms4 ( ! solv5t1 ,m#a ! molecul> weight ( ! dissolv$ sub/ance 79 ! solution71 & ,m ! molecul> weight ( ?is sub/ance accord+ to its composition & vap\r d5sity1 !n i ,m_/,m#a4 ,! exp]im5tal data & !oretical consid]ations ^u :i* ^! =mul are bas$ w be f\nd 9 text-books ( physical & !oretical *emi/ry4 ,if #ajj gram-molecules ( wat]1 i4e4 #a1hjj grms1 be tak5 & n gram-molecules ( sug>1 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa1 i4e4 n #cdb grms41 be dissolv$ 9 !m1 !n ! depression d1 or fall 7c\nt+ f #j7 ( ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice w be 7accord+ to ,pick]+7 n #j #jjaj #jjbe #jajj #jbej #ajjj d #j #jjajc #jjbhj #jaaae #jbgeh #aadab :i* %[s t = high degrees ( dilution 7up to #jben7 d approximately 7e/imat+ ! possible errors ( exp]im5t at #jjje7 n#aaj1 because !n d #j1 #jjaaj1 #jjbge1 #jaajj1 #jbgej1 #aajjj1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! figures & ! results ( exp]im5t = v dilute solutions is less ?an ! possible errors ( exp]im5t 7= n #a ! diff]5ce is already great]7 & !re=e = dilute solutions ( sug> x may be said t n molecules ( sug> 9 dissolv+ 9 #ajj molecules ( wat] give a depression ( ab\t #aan4 ,simil> data = acetone 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #di7 give a depression ( #ajjfn = n molecules ( acetone p] #ajj molecules ( wat]4 ,& 9 g5]al1 = indiff]5t sub/ances 7! majority ( organic bodies7 ! depression p] #ajj;,h#b,o is ne>ly n#aa to n#aj 7e!r1 = in/ance1 gives ! la/ numb]71 & consequ5tly 9 dissolv+ 9 #ajj grms4 ( wat] x is ab\t #ahjn to #aijn1 tak+ ?is rule to apply to ! case ( a small numb] ( n 7n ov] #jbn74 ,if in/ead ( wat]1 o!r liquid or fus$ solv5ts 7= example1 b5z5e1 acetic acid1 acetone1 nitrob5z5e or molt5 naph?al9e1 metals1 c47 be tak5 & 9 ! proportion ( #ajj molecules ( ! solv5t to n molecules ( a dissolv$ indiff]5t 7nei!r acid nor sal9e7 sub/ance1 !n ! depression is f\nd to be equal to f #jfbn to #jfen & 9 g5]al ,kn4 ,if ! molecul> weight ( ! solv5t m1 !n #ajj gram-molecules w weigh #ajjm grms41 & ! depression w be approximately 7tak+ #jfcn7 equal to m#jfcn degrees = n molecules ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ 9 #ajj grms4 ( ! solv5t1 or 9 g5]al ! depression = #ajj grms4 ( a giv5 solv5t kn :]e k is almo/ a con/ant quantity 7= wat] ne>ly #ah1 = acetone ne>ly #cg1 c47 = all dilute solutions4 ,?us1 hav+ f\nd a conv5i5t solv5t = a giv5 sub/ance & prep>$ a def9ite 7by weight7 solution 7i4e4 kn[+ h[ _m grms4 r ( ! solv5t !re are to q grms4 ( ! sub/ance dissolv$7 & hav+ det]m9$ ! depression d--i4e4 ! fall 9 temp]ature ( freez+ = ! solv5t--x is possible to det]m9e ! molecul> weight ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 because d kn :]e d is f\nd by exp]im5t & k is det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! solv5t1 & !re=e n or ! numb] ( molecules ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ c be f\nd4 ,b if r grms4 ( ! solv5t & q grms4 ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ are tak51 !n !re are #ajjq_/r ( ! latt] p] #ajj grms4 ( ! =m]1 & ?is quantity n,x1 :]e n is f\nd f ! depression & d_/k & ,x is ! molecul> weight ( ! sub/ance dissolv$4 ,h5ce ,x #ajjqk_/rd1 :i* gives ! molecul> weight1 naturally only approximately1 b /ill ) suffici5t accuracy to easily indicate1 = in/ance1 :e!r 9 p]oxide ( hydrog5 ! molecule conta9s ,,ho or ,h#b,o#b or ,h#c,o#c1 c4 7,h#b,o#b is obta9$74 ,moreov]1 att5tion %\ld be drawn to ! fact t a great _m sub/ances tak5 z solv5ts give p] #ajj molecules a depression ( ab\t #jfcn1 :il/ wat] gives ab\t #ajen1 i4e4 a l>g] quantity1 z ?\gh ! molecules ( liquid wat] 7 m complex ?an is express$ by ! =mula ,h#b,o4#bh ,a simil> ph5om5on :i* repeats itself 9 ! osmotic pressure1 vap\r t5sion ( ! solv5t1 c4 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,notes #ai & #di71 i4e4 a v>iation ( ! con/ant 7k = #ajj grms4 ( ! solv5t or ,k = #ajj molecules ( x71 is also obs]v$ 9 pass+ f indiff]5t sub/ances to sal9e 7to acids1 alkalis & salts7 bo? 9 aque\s & o!r solutions z we w %[ 7accord+ to ,pick]+'s data #ahib7 = solutions ( ,na,cl & ,cu,s,o#d 9 wat]4 ,= n #jja #jjc #jje #ja #je molecules ( ,na,cl ! depression is d #jjagg #jjeih #jjiib #jaieh #jiedd :i* corresponds to a depression p] molecule ,k #agg #aif #aih #aif #aia i4e4 "h 9 ! mo/ dilute solutions 7:5 n is ne>ly #j7 d is obta9$ ab\t #agn1 :ile 9 ! case ( sug> x 0 ab\t #aan4 ,= ,cu,s,o#d = ! same values ( n1 exp]im5t gave3 d #jjafd #jjdea #jjfba #jacba #jebde ,k #afd #aej #add #acb #aje i4e4 "h aga9 d = v dilute solutions is ne>ly #agn1 b ! value ( ,k falls z ! solution becomes m conc5trat$1 :ile = ,na,cl x at fir/ increas$ & only fell = ! m conc5trat$ solutions4 ,! value ( ,k 9 ! solution ( n molecules ( a body 9 #ajj;,h#b,o1 :5 d ,kn1 = v dilute solutions ( ,ca,cl#b is ne>ly #bf1 = ,ca7,,no#c7b ne>ly #be1 = ,,hno#c1 ,,ki & ,,kho ne>ly #ai-b,o1 = borax ,na#b;,b#d,o#g ne>ly #cg1 c41 :ile = sug> & simil> sub/ances x is1 z has be5 already m5tion$1 ne>ly #aj-aa4 ,al?\gh ^! figures are v diff]5t#bh bis /ill k & ,k may be consid]$ con/ant = analog\s sub/ances1 & !re=e ! weight ( ! molecule ( ! body 9 solution c be f\nd f d4 ,& z ! vap\r t5sion ( solutions & _! boil+ po9ts 7see ,note #bg bis & ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ea7 v>y 9 ! same mann] z ! freez+ po9t depression1 s !y also may s]ve z means = det]m9+ ! molecul> weight ( a sub/ance 9 solution4#bi #bh ,a simil> conclusion respect+ ! molecul> weight ( liquid wat] 7i4e4 t its molecule 9 a liquid /ate is m complex ?an 9 a gase\s /ate1 or polym]iz$ into ,h#h,o#d1 ,h#f,o#c or 9 g5]al into n,h#b,o7 is frequ5tly met 9 *emico-physical lit]ature1 b z yet !re is no basis = its be+ fully admitt$1 al?\gh x is possible t a polym]ization or aggregation ( sev]al molecules into "o takes place 9 ! passage ( wat] into a liquid or solid /ate1 & t !re is a conv]se depolym]ization 9 ! act ( evaporation4 ,rec5tly1 p>ticul> att5tion has be5 drawn to ?is subject ow+ to ! rese>*es ( ,etvs 7#ahhf7 & ,ramsay & ,%ields 7#ahic7 on ! v>iation ( ! surface t5sion ,n ) ! temp]ature 7,n ! capill>y con/ant a#b multipli$ by ! specific gravity & divid$ by #b1 = example1 = wat] at #j & #ajj ! value ( a#b #aeda & #abeh sq4 mm41 & ! surface t5sion #gib & #fjd74 ,/>t+ f ! absolute boil+ po9t 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bi7 & add+ #f1 z 0 necess>y f all ! data obta9$1 & call+ ?is temp]ature ,t1 x is f\nd t ,,z k,t1 :]e ,s is ! surface ( a gram-molecule ( ! liquid 7if ,m is its weight 9 grams1 s its sp4 gr41 !n its sp4 volume ,m_/s1 & ! surface ,s #croot7,m_/s7#b71 ,a ! surface t5sion 7det]m9$ by exp]im5t at ,t71 & k a con/ant :i* is indep5d5t ( ! composition ( ! molecule4 ,! equation ,,z k,t is 9 complete agreem5t ) ! well-kn[n equation = gases vp ,,rt 7p4 #adj7 :i* s]ves = d$uc+ ! molecul> weight f ! vap\r d5sity4 ,ramsay's rese>*es l$ him to ! conclusion t ! liquid molecules ( ,,cs#b1 e!r1 b5z5e1 & ( _m o!r sub/ances1 h ! same value z 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 :il/ ) o!r liquids ?is is n ! case1 & t to obta9 an accordance1 t is1 t k %all be a con/ant1 x is necess>y to assume ! molecul> weight 9 ! liquid /ate to be n times z great4 ,= ! fatty alcohols & acids n v>ies f #a-a_/b to #c-a_/b1 = wat] f #b-a_/d to #d1 accord+ to ! temp]ature 7at :i* ! depolym]ization takes place74 ,h5ce1 al?\gh ?is subject (f]s a great !oretical int]e/1 x _c be reg>d$ z firmly e/abli%$1 ! m s s9ce ! fundam5tal obs]vations are difficult to make & n suffici5tly num]\s2 %\ld1 h[ev]1 fur!r exp]im5ts confirm ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 ?is w give ano!r me?od ( det]m9+ molecul> weights4 #bh bis ,_! v>iance is express$ 9 ! same mann] z 0 done by ,van't ,h(f 7,*apt] ,i41 ,notes #ai & #di7 by ! quantity i1 tak+ x z #a :5 k #aje1 9 t case = ,,ki1 i is ne>ly #b1 = borax ab\t #d1 c4 #bi ,we w cite "o m example1 %[+ ! direct dep5d5ce ( ! prop]ties ( a sub/ance on ! molecul> weight4 ,if "o molecul> "p by weight ( ! v>i\s *lorides--= in/ance1 ( sodium1 calcium1 b>ium1 c4--be dissolv$ 9 #bjj molecul> p>ts by weight ( wat] 7= in/ance1 9 #c1fjj grams7 !n x is f\nd t ! great] ! molecul> weight ( ! salt dissolv$1 ! great] is ! specific gravity ( ! resultant solution4 ,molecul> ,sp4 gr4 ,molecul> ,sp4 gr4 weight at #ae weight at #ae ,h,cl #cfe #ajjda ,ca,cl#b #aaa #ajbcf ,na,cl #ehe #ajajf ,ni,cl#b #acj #ajcbh ,k,cl #gde #ajaba ,zn,cl#b #acf #ajcca ,be,cl#b #hj #ajach ,ba,cl#b #bjh #ajdhi ,mg,cl#b #ie #ajbjc ,?us n only 9 vap\rs & gases1 b also 9 dilute solutions ( solid & liquid sub/ances1 we see t if n all1 /ill _m prop]ties are :olly dep5d5t ^u ! molecul> weight & n ^u ! quality ( a sub/ance1 & t ?is gives ! possibility ( det]m9+ ! weight ( molecules by /udy+ ^! prop]ties 7= in/ance1 ! vap\r d5sity1 depression ( ! freez+ po9t1 c47 ,x is app>5t f ! =ego+ t ! physical & ev5 m s ! *emical prop]ties ( homog5e\s sub/ances1 m especially solid & liquid1 d n dep5d exclusively ^u ! weights ( _! molecules1 b t _m are 9 def9ite 7see ,*apt] ,,xv47 dep5d5ce ^u ! weights ( ! atoms ( ! elem5ts ent]+ into _! composition1 & are det]m9$ by _! quantitative & individual peculi>ities4 ,?us ! d5sity ( solids & liquids 7z w aft]w>ds be %[n7 is *iefly det]m9$ by ! weights ( ! atoms ( ! elem5ts ent]+ into _! composition1 inasmu* z d5se elem5ts 79 a free /ate7 & comp\nds are only met ) among sub/ances conta9+ elem5ts ) l>ge atomic weights1 su* z gold1 plat9um1 & uranium4 ,& ^! elem5ts !mselves1 9 a free /ate1 are ! heavie/ ( all elem5ts4 ,sub/ances conta9+ su* light elem5ts z hydrog51 c>bon1 oxyg5 & nitrog5 7l _m organic sub/ances7 nev] h a high specific gravity2 9 ! majority ( cases x sc>cely exce$s t ( wat]4 ,! d5sity g5]ally decreases ) ! increase ( ! am\nt ( hydrog51 z ! lighte/ elem5t1 & a sub/ance is (t5 obta9$ light] ?an wat]4 ,! refractive p[] ( sub/ances also entirely dep5ds on ! composition & ! prop]ties ( ! compon5t elem5ts4#bi bis ,! hi/ory ( *emi/ry pres5ts a /rik+ example 9 po9t--,newton =esaw f ! high refractive index ( ! diamond t x w\ld conta9 a combu/ible sub/ance s9ce s _m combu/ible oils h a high refractive p[]4 ,we %all aft]w>ds see 7,*apt] ,,xv47 t _m ( ^? prop]ties ( sub/ances :i* are 9 direct dep5d5ce n ^u ! weight ( ! molecules b ^u _! composition1 or1 9 o!r words1 ^u ! prop]ties & quantities ( ! elem5ts ent]+ into !m1 /& 9 a peculi> 7p]iodic7 dep5d5ce ^u ! atomic weight ( ! elem5ts2 t is1 ! mass 7( molecules & atoms71 proportional to ! weight1 det]m9es ! prop]ties ( sub/ances z x also det]m9es 7) ! di/ance7 ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 #bi bis ,) respect to ! optical refractive p[] ( sub/ances1 x mu/ fir/ be obs]v$ t ! coeffici5t ( refraction is det]m9$ by two me?ods3 7a7 ei!r all ! data are ref]r$ to "o def9ite ray--= in/ance1 to ! ,fraunh(] 7sodium7 l9e ,d ( ! sol> spectrum--t is1 to a ray ( def9ite wave l5g?1 & (t5 to t r$ ray 7( ! hydrog5 spectrum7 ^: wave l5g? is #fef million?s ( a millimetre2 7b7 or ,cau*y's =mula is us$1 %[+ ! relation betwe5 ! coeffici5t ( refraction & disp]sion to ! wave l5g? n ,a 7,b_/7,greek3 l#b771 :]e ,a & ,b are two con/ants v>y+ = e sub/ance b con/ant = all rays ( ! spectrum1 & ,greek3 l is ! wave l5g? ( t ray ^: coeffici5t ( refraction is n4 ,9 ! latt] me?od ! inve/igation usually conc]ns ! magnitudes ( ,a1 :i* are indep5d5t ( disp]sion4 ,we %all aft]w>ds cite ! data1 inve/igat$ by ! fir/ me?od1 by :i* ,glad/one1 ,l&olt1 & o!rs e/abli%$ ! conception ( ! refraction equival5t4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t ! coeffici5t ( refraction n = a giv5 sub/ance decreases ) ! d5sity ( a sub/ance ,d1 s t ! magnitude 7n-#a7 ,d ,c is almo/ con/ant = a giv5 ray 7hav+ a def9ite wave l5g?7 & = a giv5 sub/ance4 ,?is con/ant is call$ ! refractive en]gy1 & its product ) ! atomic or molecul> weight ( a sub/ance ! refraction equival5t4 ,! coeffici5t ( refraction ( oxyg5 is #ajjjba1 ( hydrog5 #ajjjad1 _! d5sities 7ref]r$ to wat]7 are #jjjadc & #jjjjji1 & _! atomic weights1 ,o #af1 ,h #a2 h5ce _! refraction equival5ts are #c & #ae4 ,wat] conta9s ,h#b,o1 consequ5tly ! sum ( ! equival5ts ( refraction is 7#b #ae7 #c #f4 ,b z ! coeffici5t ( refraction ( wat] #acca1 its refraction equival5t #eieh1 or ne>ly #f4 ,comp>ison %[s t1 approximately1 ! sum ( ! refraction equival5ts ( ! atoms =m+ comp\nds 7or mixtures7 is equal to ! refraction equival5t ( ! comp\nd4 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,glad/one1 ,l&olt1 ,hag51 ,brhl & o!rs1 ! refraction equival5ts ( ! elem5ts are--,h #ac1 ,li #ch1 ,b #dj1 ,c #ej1 ,n #da 79 its highe/ /ate ( oxidation1 #ec71 ,o #bi1 ,f #ad1 ,na #dh1 ,mg #gj1 ,al #hd1 ,si #fh1 ,p #ahc1 ,s #afj1 ,cl #ii1 ,k #ha1 ,ca #ajd1 ,mn #abb1 ,fe #abj 79 ! salts ( its high] oxides1 #bja71 ,co #ajh1 ,cu #aaf1 ,zn #ajb1 ,z #aed1 ,bi #aec1 ,ag #aeg1 ,cd #acf1 ,i #bde1 ,pt #bfj1 ,hg #bjb1 ,pb #bdh1 c4 ,! refraction equival5ts ( _m elem5ts c\ld only be calculat$ f ! solutions ( _! comp\nds4 ,! composition ( a solution be+ kn[n x is possible to calculate ! refraction equival5t ( "o ( its compon5t p>ts1 ^? = all its o!r compon5ts be+ kn[n4 ,! results are f\nd$ on ! acceptance ( a law :i* _c be /rictly appli$4 ,nev]!less ! repres5tation ( ! refraction equival5ts gives an easy means = directly1 al?\gh only approximately1 obta9+ ! coeffici5t ( refraction f ! *emical composition ( a sub/ance4 ,= in/ance1 ! composition ( c>bon bisulphide is ,,cs#b #gf1 & f its d5sity1 #abg1 we f9d its coeffici5t ( refraction to be #afah 7because ! refraction equival5t #e #b #af #cg71 :i* is v ne> ! actual figure4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ! above repres5tation comp\nds are look$ on z simple mixtures ( atoms1 & ! physical prop]ties ( a comp\nd z ! sum ( ! prop]ties pres5t 9 ! elem5t>y atoms =m+ x4 ,if ?is repres5tation ( ! pres5ce ( simple atoms 9 comp\nds _h n exi/$1 ! idea ( comb9+ by a few figures a :ole mass ( data relat+ to ! coeffici5t ( refraction ( diff]5t sub/ances c\ld h>dly h aris54 ,= fur!r details on ?is subject1 see works on ,physical ,*emi/ry4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,c>bon ,,& ,,! ,,hydroc>bons ,x is necess>y to cle>ly di/+ui% betwe5 ! two closely-alli$ t]ms1 *>coal & c>bon4 ,*>coal is well kn[n to ev]ybody1 al?\gh x is no easy matt] to obta9 x 9 a *emically pure /ate4 ,pure *>coal is a simple1 insoluble1 infusible1 combu/ible sub/ance produc$ by heat+ organic matt]1 & has ! famili> aspect ( a black mass1 devoid ( any cry/all9e /ructure1 & completely insoluble4 ,*>coal is a sub/ance possess+ a peculi> comb9ation ( physical & *emical prop]ties4 ,?is sub/ance1 :il/ 9 a /ate ( ignition1 comb9es directly ) oxyg52 9 organic sub/ances x is f\nd 9 comb9ation ) hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & sulphur4 ,b 9 all ^! comb9ations !re is no real *>coal1 z 9 ! same s5se !re is no ice 9 /eam4 ,:at is f\nd 9 su* comb9ations is t]m$ 'c>bon'--t is1 an elem5t common to *>coal1 to ^? sub/ances :i* c be =m$ f x1 & also to ^? sub/ances f :i* x c be obta9$4 ,c>bon may take ! =m ( *>coal1 b occurs also z diamond & z graphite4 ,truly no o!r elem5t has su* a wide t]m9ology4 ,oxyg5 is always call$ 'oxyg51' :e!r x is 9 a free gase\s /ate1 or 9 ! =m ( ozone1 or oxyg5 9 wat]1 or 9 nitric acid or 9 c>bonic anhydride4 ,b "h !re is "s confusion4 ,9 wat] x is evid5t t !re is no oxyg5 9 a gase\s =m1 su* z c be obta9$ 9 a free /ate1 no oxyg5 9 ! =m ( ozone1 b a sub/ance :i* is capable ( produc+ bo? oxyg51 ozone1 & wat]4 ,z an elem5t1 oxyg5 possesses a kn[n *emical individuality1 & an influ5ce on ! prop]ties ( ^? comb9ations into :i* x ent]s4 ,hydrog5 gas is a sub/ance :i* reacts ) difficulty1 b ! elem5t hydrog5 repres5ts 9 its comb9ations an easily displaceable compon5t "p4 ,c>bon may be consid]$ z an atom ( c>bon matt]1 & *>coal z a collection ( su* atoms =m+ a :ole sub/ance1 or mass ( molecules ( ! sub/ance4 ,! accept$ atomic weight ( c>bon is #ab1 because t is ! lea/ quantity ( c>bon :i* ent]s into comb9ation 9 molecules ( its comp\nds2 b ! weight ( ! molecules ( *>coal is probably v mu* great]4 ,?is weight rema9s unkn[n because *>coal is capable ( b few direct reactions & ^? only at a high temp]ature 7:5 ! weight ( its molecules probably *anges1 z :5 ozone *anges into oxyg571 & x does n turn into vap\r4 ,c>bon exi/s 9 nature1 bo? 9 a free & comb9$ /ate1 9 mo/ v>i$ =ms & aspects4 ,c>bon 9 a free /ate is f\nd 9 at lea/ ?ree diff]5t =ms1 z *>coal1 graphite1 & ! diamond4 ,9 a comb9$ /ate x ent]s into ! composition ( :at are call$ organic sub/ances--a multitude ( sub/ances :i* are f\nd 9 all plants & animals4 ,x exi/s z c>bonic anhydride bo? 9 air & 9 wat]1 & 9 ! soil & cru/ ( ! e>? z salts ( c>bonic acid & z organic rema9s4 ,! v>iety ( ! sub/ances ( :i* ! /ructure ( plants & animals is built up is famili> to all4 ,wax1 oil1 turp5t9e1 & t>1 cotton & album91 ! tissue ( plants & ! muscul> fibre ( animals1 v9eg> & />*1 are all vegetable & animal matt]s1 & all c>bon comp\nds4#a ,! class ( c>bon comp\nds is s va/ t x =ms a sep>ate bran* ( *emi/ry1 kn[n "u ! "n ( organic *emi/ry--t is1 ! *emi/ry ( c>bon comp\nds1 or1 m /rictly1 ( ! hydroc>bons & _! d]ivatives4 #a ,wood is ! non-vital "p ( ligne\s plants3 ! vital "p ( ord9>y trees is situat$ betwe5 ! b>k & ! lign94 ,e ye> a lay] ( lign9 is deposit$ on ?is "p by ! juices :i* are absorb$ by ! roots & drawn up by ! leaves2 = ?is reason ! age ( trees may be det]m9$ by ! numb] ( lign9 lay]s deposit$4 ,! woody matt] consi/s pr9cipally ( fibr\s tissue on to :i* ! lign9 or s-call$ incru/+ matt] has be5 deposit$4 ,! tissue has ! composition ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 ! sub/ance deposit$ on x conta9s m c>bon & hydrog5 & less oxyg54 ,?is matt] is saturat$ ) moi/ure :5 ! wood is 9 a fre% /ate4 ,fre% bir* wood conta9s ab\t #ca p4c4 ( wat]1 lime wood #dg p4c41 oak #ce p4c41 p9e & fir ab\t #cg p4c4 ,:5 dri$ 9 ! air ! wood loses a consid]able quantity ( wat] & n m ?an #ai p4c4 rema9s4 ,by artificial means ?is loss ( wat] may be increas$4 ,if wat] be driv5 into ! pores ( wood ! latt] becomes heavi] ?an wat]1 z ! lign9 ( :i* x is compos$ has a d5sity ( ab\t #af4 ,"o cubic c5timetre ( bir* wood does n weigh m ?an #jija gram1 fir #jhid1 lime tree #jhag1 popl> #jgfe :5 9 a fre% /ate2 :5 9 a dry /ate bir* weighs #jfbb1 p9e #jeej1 fir #jcee1 lime #jdcj1 guaiacum #acdb1 ebony #abbf4 ,on "o hect>e 7#bg acres7 ( woodl& ! ye>ly gr[? av]ages ! am\nt ( #c1jjj kilograms 7or ab\t #c tons7 ( wood1 b r>ely rea*es z mu* z #e1jjj kilos4 ,! av]age *emical composition ( wood dri$ 9 air may be express$ z foll[s3--,hygroscopic wat] #ae p4c41 c>bon #db p4c41 hydrog5 #e p4c41 oxyg5 & nitrog5 #cg p4c41 a% #a p4c4 ,wood p>ts ) its hygroscopic wat] at #aej1 & decomposes at ab\t #cjj1 giv+ a br[n1 brittle1 s-call$ r$ *>coal2 above #cej black *>coal is produc$4 ,z ! hydrog5 conta9$ 9 wood requires = its combu/ion ab\t =ty p>ts by weight ( oxyg51 :i* is pres5t to ! am\nt ( ab\t #cf p4c41 all t burns ( ! wood is ! c>bon :i* x conta9s1 #ajj p>ts ( wood only giv+ out z mu* heat z =ty p>ts ( *>coal1 & !re=e x w\ld be f> m pr(itable to use *>coal = heat+ purposes ?an wood1 if x 7 possible to obta9 x 9 su* quantities z correspond ) its p]c5tage ratio--t is =ty p>ts p] #ajj p>ts ( wood4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! quantity produc$ is f> less1 n m ?an #cj p4c41 because "p ( ! c>bon is giv5 (f z gas1 t>1 c4 ,if wood has to be transport$ great di/ances1 or if x is necess>y to obta9 a v high temp]ature by burn+ x1 !n ev5 z little z #be p4c4 ( *>coal f #ajj p>ts ( wood may be advantage\s4 ,*>coal 7f wood7 develops on burn+ #h1jjj heat units1 :il/ wood dri$ 9 air does n develop m ?an #b1hjj units ( heat2 !re=e sev5 p>ts ( *>coal give z mu* heat z tw5ty p>ts ( wood4 ,z reg>ds ! temp]ature ( combu/ion1 x is f> high] ) *>coal ?an ) wood1 because tw5ty p>ts ( burn+ wood give1 besides ! c>bonic anhydride :i* is also =m$ toge!r ) *>coal1 elev5 p>ts ( wat]1 ! evaporation ( :i* requires a consid]able am\nt ( heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,app>atus = ! dry di/illation ( wood4 ,! retort a conta9+ ! wood is heat$ by ! flues c e4 ,! /eam & volatile products ( di/illation pass along ! tube g ?r\gh ! cond5s] m1 :]e !y are cond5s$4 ,! =m1 di/ribution1 & dim5sions ( ! app>atus v>y4 ,! composition ( ! gr[+ p>ts ( plants1 ! leaves1 "y bran*es1 %oots1 c41 diff]s f ! composition ( ! wood 9 t ^! vital p>ts conta9 a consid]able quantity ( sap :i* conta9s mu* nitrog5\s matt] 79 ! wood itself !re is v little71 m9]al salts1 & a l>ge am\nt ( wat]4 ,tak+1 = example1 ! composition ( clov] & pa/ure hay 9 ! gre5 & dry /ate2 9 #ajj p>ts ( gre5 clov] !re is ab\t #hj p4c4 ( wat] & #bj p4c4 ( dry matt]1 9 :i* !re are ab\t #ce p>ts ( nitrog5\s album9\s matt]1 ab\t #ie p>ts ( soluble & ab\t #e p>ts ( insoluble non-nitrog5\s matt]1 & ab\t #b p4c4 ( a%4 ,9 dry clov] or clov]-hay !re is ab\t #ae p4c4 ( wat]1 #ac p4c4 ( nitrog5\s matt]1 & #g p4c4 ( a%4 ,?is composition ( grassy sub/ances %[s t !y are capable ( =m+ ! same sort ( *>coal z wood itself4 ,x also %[s ! diff]5ce ( nutritive prop]ties exi/+ betwe5 wood & ! sub/ances m5tion$4 ,^! latt] s]ve z food = animals1 because !y conta9 ^? sub/ances :i* are capable ( be+ dissolv$ 7ent]+ into ! blood7 & =m+ ! body ( animals2 su* sub/ances are proteids1 />*1 c4 ,let u rem>k "h t ) a good h>ve/ an acre ( l& gives 9 ! =m ( grass z mu* organic sub/ance z x yields 9 ! =m ( wood4 ,"o hundr$ p>ts ( dry wood are capable ( giv+1 on dry di/illation1 besides #be p4c4 ( *>coal & #aj p4c4 or m ( t>1 #dj p4c4 ( wat]y liquid1 conta9+ acetic acid & wood _s1 & ab\t #be p4c4 ( gases1 :i* may be us$ = heat+ or light+ purposes1 because !y d n diff] f ord9>y illum9at+ gas1 :i* c inde$ be obta9$ f wood4 ,z wood-*>coal & t> are valuable products1 9 "s cases ! dry di/illation ( wood is c>ri$ on pr9cipally = produc+ !m4 ,= ?is purpose ^? k9ds ( woods are p>ticul>ly advantage\s :i* conta9 res9\s sub/ances1 especially conif]\s trees1 su* z fir1 p9e1 c42 bir*1 oak1 & a% give mu* less t>1 b on ! o!r h& !y yield m aque\s liquor4 ,! latt] is us$ = ! manufacture ( wood _s1 ,,*#d,o1 & acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b4 ,9 su* cases1 ! dry di/illation is c>ri$ on 9 /ills4 ,! /ills are no?+ m ?an horizontal or v]tical cyl9drical retorts1 made ( boil] plate1 heat$ ) fuel & hav+ ap]tures at ! top & sometimes also at ! bottom = ! exit ( ! light & heavy products ( di/illation4 ,! dry di/illation ( wood 9 /oves is c>ri$ on 9 two ways1 ei!r by burn+ a portion ( ! wood inside ! /ove 9 ord] to submit ! rema9d] to dry di/illation by means ( ! heat obta9$ 9 ?is mann]1 or by plac+ ! wood 9 a /ove ! ?9 sides ( :i* are surr\nd$ ) a flue lead+ f ! fuel1 plac$ 9 a space bel[4 ,! fir/ me?od does n give su* a l>ge am\nt ( liquid products ( ! dry di/illation z ! latt]4 ,9 ! latt] process !re is g5]ally an outlet bel[ = empty+ out ! *>coal at ! close ( ! op]ation4 ,= ! dry di/illation ( #ajj p>ts ( wood f =ty to tw5ty p>ts ( fuel are us$4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,russia wood is s pl5tiful & *eap t ?is locality is admirably fitt$ to become ! c5tre ( a g5]al trade 9 ! products ( its dry di/illation4 ,coal 7,note #f71 sea-we$1 turf1 animal sub/ances 7,*apt] ,,vi471 c41 are also submitt$ to ! process ( dry di/illation4 ,if any "o ( ^! organic comp\nds be /rongly heat$ )\t free access ( air--or1 bett] /ill1 9 a vacuum--x decomposes ) m or less facility4 ,if ! supply ( air be insuffici5t1 or ! temp]ature be too l[ = combu/ion 7see ,*apt] ,,iii471 & if ! fir/ volatile products ( trans=mation ( ! organic matt] are subject$ to cond5sation 7= example1 if ! door ( a /ove be op5$71 an imp]fect combu/ion takes place1 & smoke1 ) *>coal or soot1 is =m$4#b ,! nature ( ! ph5om5on1 & ! products aris+ f x1 are ! same z ^? produc$ by heat+ alone1 s9ce t "p :i* is 9 a /ate ( combu/ion s]ves to heat ! rema9d] ( ! fuel4 ,! decomposition :i* takes place on heat+ a comp\nd compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 is z foll[s3--,a "p ( ! hydrog5 is sep>at$ 9 a gase\s /ate1 ano!r "p 9 comb9ation ) oxyg51 & a ?ird "p sep>ates 9 comb9ation ) c>bon1 & sometimes 9 comb9ation ) c>bon & oxyg5 9 ! =m ( gase\s or volatile products1 or1 z !y are also call$1 ! products ( dry di/illation4 ,if ! vap\rs ( ^! products are pass$ ?r\gh a /rongly heat$ tube1 !y are *ang$ aga9 9 a simil> mann] & f9ally resolve !mselves into hydrog5 & *>coal4 ,altoge!r ^! v>i\s products ( decomposition conta9 a small] am\nt ( c>bon ?an ! orig9al organic matt]2 "p ( ! c>bon rema9s 9 a free /ate1 =m+ *>coal4#c ,x rema9s 9 t space :]e ! decomposition took place1 9 ! %ape ( ! black1 infusible1 non-volatile *>coal famili> to all4 ,! e>?y matt] & all non-volatile sub/ances 7a%7 =m+ a "p ( ! organic matt]1 rema9 beh9d ) ! *>coal4 ,! t>-l sub/ances1 :i* require a high temp]ature 9 ord] to decompose !m1 also rema9 mix$ ) *>coal4 ,if a volatile organic sub/ance1 su* z a gase\s comp\nd conta9+ oxyg5 & hydrog51 be tak51 ! c>bon sep>ates on pass+ ! vap\r ?r\gh a tube heat$ to a high temp]ature4 ,organic sub/ances :5 burn+ ) an insuffici5t supply ( air give (f soot--t is1 *>coal--proce$+ f c>bon comp\nds 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 ! hydrog5 ( :i* has1 by combu/ion1 be5 conv]t$ into wat]2 s1 = in/ance1 turp5t9e1 naph?al5e1 & o!r hydroc>bons :i* are ) difficulty decompos$ by heat1 easily yield c>bon 9 ! =m ( soot dur+ combu/ion4 ,*lor9e & o!r sub/ances :i*1 l oxyg51 are capable ( tak+ up hydrog51 & also sub/ances :i* are capable ( tak+ up wat]1 c also sep>ate c>bon f 7or *>7 mo/ organic sub/ances4 #b ,! result ( imp]fect combu/ion is n only ! loss ( a "p ( ! fuel & ! production ( smoke1 :i* 9 "s respects is inconv5i5t & injuri\s to heal?1 b also a l[ flame temp]ature1 :i* means t a less am\nt ( heat is transmitt$ to ! object heat$4 ,imp]fect combu/ion is n only always accompani$ by ! =mation ( soot or unburnt p>ticles ( *>coal1 b also by t ( c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 9 ! smoke 7,*apt] ,,ix47 :i* burns1 emitt+ mu* heat4 ,9 works & factories :]e l>ge quantities ( fuel are consum$1 _m appliances are adopt$ to ensure p]fect combu/ion1 & to combat aga9/ su* a ru9\s practice z ! imp]fect combu/ion ( fuel4 ,! mo/ effective & radical means consi/s 9 employ+ combu/ible gases 7produc] & wat] gases71 because by _! aid p]fect combu/ion c be easily realis$ )\t a loss ( heat-produc+ p[] & ! highe/ temp]ature c be rea*$4 ,:5 solid fuel is us$ 7su* z coal1 wood1 & turf71 imp]fect combu/ion is mo/ liable to occur :5 ! furnace doors are op5$ = ! introduction ( fre% fuel4 ,! /ep furnace may (t5 prove a rem$y = ?is defect4 ,9 ! ord9>y furnace fre% fuel is plac$ on ! burn+ fuel1 & ! products ( dry di/illation ( ! fre% fuel h to burn at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 rema9+ uncomb9$ ) ! burnt fuel4 ,imp]fect combu/ion is obs]v$ 9 ?is case also f ! fact t ! dry di/illation & evaporation ( ! wat] ( ! fre% fuel ly+ on ! top ( t burnt1 l[]s ! temp]ature ( ! flame1 because "p ( ! heat becomes lat5t4 ,on ?is acc\nt a l>ge am\nt ( smoke 7imp]fect combu/ion7 is obs]v$ :5 a fre% quantity ( fuel is introduc$ into ! furnace4 ,?is may be obviat$ by con/ruct+ ! furnace 7or manag+ ! /ok+7 9 su* a way t ! products ( di/illation pass ?r\gh ! r$-hot *>coal rema9+ f ! burnt fuel4 ,x is only necess>y 9 ord] to ensure ?is to all[ a suffici5t quantity ( air = p]fect combu/ion4 ,all ?is may be easily atta9$ by ! use ( /ep fire-b>s4 ,! fuel is f$ into a hopp] & falls on to ! fire-b>s1 :i* are arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a /aircase4 ,! burn+ *>coal is bel[1 & h5ce ! flame =m$ by ! fre% fuel is heat$ by ! contact ( ! r$-hot burn+ *>coal4 ,an air supply ?r\gh ! fire grate1 an equal di/ribution ( ! fuel on ! fire-b>s 7o!rwise ! air w bl[ ?r\gh empty spaces & l[] ! temp]ature71 a prop] proportion betwe5 ! supply ( air & ! *imney draught1 & a p]fect admixture ( air ) ! flame 7)\t an undue excess ( air71 are ! means by :i* we c cont5d aga9/ ! imp]fect combu/ion ( su* k9ds ( fuel z wood1 peat1 & ord9>y 7smoky7 coal4 ,coke1 *>coal1 an?racite1 burn )\t smoke1 because !y d n conta9 hydrog5\s sub/ances :i* furni% ! products ( dry di/illation1 b imp]fect combu/ion may occur ) !m also2 9 t case ! smoke conta9s c>bonic oxide4 #c ,"u ! action ( air1 organic sub/ances are capable ( oxidis+ to su* an ext5t t all ! c>bon & all ! hydrog5 !y conta9 w be trans=m$ into c>bonic anhydride & wat]4 ,! refuse ( plants & t ( animals are subject$ to su* a *ange :e!r !y sl[ly decompose & putrefy1 or rapidly burn ) direct access ( air4 ,b if ! supply ( air be limit$1 !re c be no complete trans=mation into wat] & c>bonic anhydride1 !re w be o!r volatile matt]s 7ri* 9 hydrog571 :ile *>coal mu/ rema9 z a non-volatile sub/ance4 ,all organic sub/ances are un/able1 !y d n resi/ heat1 & *ange ev5 at ord9>y temp]atures1 p>ticul>ly if wat] be pres5t4 ,x is !re=e easy to und]/& t *>coal may 9 _m cases be obta9$ ?r\gh ! trans=mation ( sub/ances ent]+ into ! composition ( organisms1 b t x is nev] f\nd 9 a pure /ate4 ,h[ev]1 wat] & c>bonic anhydride are n ! only products sep>at$ f organic sub/ances4 ,c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 are capable ( giv+ a multitude ( comp\nds2 "s ( ^! are volatile comp\nds1 gase\s1 soluble 9 wat]--!y are c>ri$ (f f organic matt]1 und]go+ *ange )\t access ( air4 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 are non-volatile1 ri* 9 c>bon1 unaffect$ by heat & o!r ag5ts4 ,! latt] rema9 9 admixture ) *>coal 9 ! place :]e ! decomposition takes place2 su*1 = example1 are t>ry sub/ances4 ,! quantity ( ^? bodies :i* are f\nd mix$ ) ! *>coal is v v>i$1 & dep5ds on ! en]gy & duration ( ! decompos+ ag5t4 ,! annex$ table %[s1 accord+ to ! data ( ,violette1 ^? *anges :i* wood und]goes at v>i\s temp]atures :5 submitt$ to dry di/illation by means ( sup]heat$ /eam3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,residue ,temp]ature f #ajj p>ts ,9 #ajj p>ts ( ! residual ( ald] wood *>coal ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,c ,h ,o & ,n ,a% #aej #ajjj #dge #fa #dfc #ja #cej #big #gff #da #ahd #jf #ajcb #ahg #hai #bc #ada #af #aejj #agc #iej #jg #ch #ag ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,wood *>coal is prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities 9 a simil> mann]--t is1 by ! p>tial combu/ion ( wood4#d ,9 nature a simil> process ( c>bonisation ( vegetable refuse takes place 9 its trans=mation "u wat]1 z %[n by ! m>%y vegetation :i* =ms peat4#e ,9 ?is mann] d\btless ! enorm\s masses ( coal 7 =m$#f :i*1 foll[+ ! example set by ,engl&1 are n[ utilis$ ev]y:]e z ! pr9cipal mat]ial = heat+ /eam boil]s1 & 9 g5]al = all purposes ( heat+ & burn+4#g ,russia possesses _m v ri* coalfields1 among/ :i* ! ,donetz di/rict is mo/ wor?y ( rem>k4#h #d ,! object ( produc+ *>coal f wood has be5 expla9$ 9 ,note #a4 ,wood *>coal is obta9$ 9 s-call$ /acks by p>tially burn+ ! wood1 or by means ( dry di/illation 7,note #a7 )\t ! access ( air4 ,x is pr9cipally manufactur$ = metallurgical processes1 especially = smelt+ & =g+ iron4 ,! prep>ation ( *>coal 9 /acks has "o advantage1 & t is t x may be done on any spot 9 ! =e/4 ,b 9 ?is way all ! products ( dry di/illation are lo/4 ,= *>coal burn+1 a pile or /ack is g5]ally built1 9 :i* ! logs are plac$ close toge!r1 ei!r horizontally1 v]tically1 or incl9$1 =m+ a /ack ( f six to fifty feet 9 diamet] & ev5 l>g]4 ,"u ! /ack are sev]al horizontal air passages1 & an op5+ 9 ! middle to let out ! smoke4 ,! surface ( ! /ack is cov]$ ) e>? & sods to a consid]able ?ickness1 especially ! upp] "p1 9 ord] to h9d] ! free passage ( air & to conc5trate ! heat inside4 ,:5 ! /ack is k9dl$1 ! pile beg9s to settle d[n by degrees1 & x is !n necess>y to look aft] ! turf cas+ & keep x 9 repair4 ,z ! combu/ion spreads ?r\gh\t ! :ole pile1 ! temp]ature rises & real dry di/illation comm5ces4 ,x is !n necess>y to /op ! air holes1 9 ord] z mu* z possible to prev5t unnecess>y combu/ion4 ,! nature ( ! process is1 t "p ( ! fuel burns & develops ! heat requir$ = subject+ ! rema9d] to dry di/illation4 ,! *>r+ is /opp$ :5 ! products ( dry di/illation1 :i* are emitt$1 no long] burn ) a brilliant flame1 b ! pale blue flame ( c>bonic oxide appe>s4 ,dry wood 9 /acks yields ab\t "o-f\r? ( its weight ( *>coal4 #e ,:5 dead vegetable matt] und]goes trans=mation 9 air1 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure & l[] organisms1 !re rema9s a sub/ance mu* ri*] 9 c>bon--namely1 humus1 black e>? or m\ld4 #ajj p>ts ( humus 9 a dry /ate conta9 ab\t #gj p4c4 ( c>bon4 ,! roots1 leaves1 & /ems ( plants :i* )] & fall to ! gr\nd =m a soil ri* 9 humus4 ,! non-vital vegetable sub/ances 7ligne\s tissue7 fir/ =m br[n matt] 7ulmic comp\nds71 & !n black matt] 7humic sub/ances71 :i* are bo? insoluble 9 wat]2 aft] ?is a br[n acid is produc$1 :i* is soluble 9 wat] 7apocr5ic acid71 & la/ly a col\rless acid also soluble 9 wat] 7cr5ic acid74 ,alkali dissolves a "p ( ! orig9al br[n & black sub/ances1 =m+ solutions ( a br[n t9t 7ulmic & humic acids7 :i* sometimes communicate _! col\r to spr+s & riv]s4 ,! proportion ( humus 9 soil g5]ally has a direct influ5ce on its f]tility2 fir/ly1 because putrefy+ plants develop c>bonic anhydride & ammonia1 & yield ! sub/ances =m+ ! a%es ( plants1 :i* are necess>y to vegetation2 secondly1 because humus is capable ( attract+ ! moi/ure ( ! air & ( absorb+ wat] 7twice its weight7 & 9 ?is way keeps ! soil 9 a damp condition1 :i* is indisp5sable = n\ri%m5t2 ?irdly1 humus r5d]s ! soil por\s1 &1 f\r?ly1 x r5d]s x m capable ( absorb+ ! heat ( ! sun's rays4 ,on ?is acc\nt black e>? is (t5 mo/ rem>kable = its f]tility4 ,"o object ( manur+ is to increase ! quantity ( humus 9 ! soil1 & any easily *angeable vegetable or any animal matt] 7compo/s7 may be us$4 ,! b\ndless tracts ( black e>? soil 9 ,russia are capable ( be/[+ c\ntless weal? on ! c\ntry4 ,! orig9 & ext5t ( black e>? soil are treat$ 9 detail 9 ,pr(essor ,dok\*aeff's works4 ,if ^? sub/ances :i* produce humus und]go decomposition "u wat]1 less c>bonic anhydride is =m$1 a quantity ( m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 is evolv$1 & ! solid residue =ms an acid humus f\nd 9 great quantities 9 m>%y places & call$ peat4 ,peat is especially abundant 9 ! l[l&s ( ,holl&1 ,nor? ,g]many1 ,irel&1 & ,bav>ia4 ,9 ,russia x is likewise f\nd 9 l>ge quantities1 especially 9 ! ,nor?-,we/ di/ricts4 ,! old h>d =ms ( peat resemble 9 composition & prop]ties br[n coal2 ! newe/ =mations1 z yet unh>d5$ by pressure1 =m v por\s masses :i* reta9 traces ( ! vegetable matt] f :i* !y h be5 =m$4 ,dri$ 7& sometimes press$7 peat is us$ z fuel4 ,! composition ( peat v>ies consid]ably ) ! locality 9 :i* x is f\nd4 ,:5 dri$ 9 air x does n conta9 less ?an #ae p4c4 ( wat] & #h p4c4 ( a%2 ! rema9d] consi/s ( #de p4c4 ( c>bon1 #d p4c4 ( hydrog51 #a p4c4 ( nitrog51 & #bh p4c4 ( oxyg54 ,its heat+ p[] is ab\t equival5t to t ( wood4 ,! br[n e>?y v>ieties ( coal 7 probably =m$ f peat4 ,9 o!r cases !y h a m>k$ woody /ructure1 & are !n kn[n z lignites4 ,! composition ( ! br[n sorts ( coal resembles 9 a m>k$ degree t ( peat--namely1 9 a dri$ /ate br[n coal conta9s on an av]age #fj p4c4 ( c>bon1 #e p4c4 ( hydrog51 #bf p4c4 ( oxyg5 & nitrog51 & #i p4c4 ( a%4 ,9 ,russia br[n coal is met ) 9 _m di/ricts ne> ,mosc[1 9 ! ,gov]nm5ts ( ,t\la & ,tv] & ! neighb\rhood2 x is v usually us$ z fuel1 p>ticul>ly :5 f\nd 9 ?ick seams4 ,! br[n coals usually burn ) a flame l wood & peat1 & are ak9 to !m 9 heat+ p[]1 :i* is half or a ?ird t ( ! be/ coal4 #f ,grass & wood1 ! vegetation ( primval seas & simil> refuse ( all geological p]iods1 mu/ h be5 9 _m cases subject$ to ! same *anges !y n[ und]go--t is1 "u wat] !y =m$ peat & lignites4 ,su* sub/ances1 pres]v$ or a long "t und]gr\nd1 subject$ to ! action ( wat]1 compress$ by ! new /rata =m$ above !m1 trans=m$ by ! sep>ation ( _! m volatile compon5t p>ts 7peat & lignites1 ev5 9 _! la/ condition1 /ill cont9ue to evolve nitrog51 c>bonic anhydride1 & m>% gases7 =m coal4 ,coal is a d5se homog5e\s mass1 black1 ) an oily or glassy lu/re1 or m r>ely dull )\t any evid5t vegetable /ructure2 ?is di/+ui%es x 9 appe>ance f ! majority ( lignites4 ,! d5sity ( coal 7n c\nt+ ! admixture ( pyrites1 c47 v>ies f #abe 7dry bitum9\s coal7 to #af 7an?racite1 flameless71 & ev5 rea*es #ai 9 ! v d5se v>iety ( coal f\nd 9 ! ,olonetzky gov]nm5t 7t]m$ %ungite71 :i* accord+ to ! inve/igations ( ,pr(essor ,ino/rantzeff may be reg>d$ z ! extreme memb] ( ! v>i\s =ms ( coal4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! =mation ( coal f vegetable matt]1 ,cagni>d de la ,t\r enclos$ pieces ( dri$ wood 9 a tube & heat$ !m to ! boil+ po9t ( m]cury1 :5 ! wood 0 *ang$ into a semi-liquid black mass f :i* a sub/ance exce$+ly l coal sep>at$4 ,9 ?is mann] "s k9ds ( wood =m$ coal :i* on be+ heat$ left cak+ coke1 o!rs non-cak+2 precisely z we f9d ) ! natural v>ieties ( coal4 ,violette repeat$ ^! exp]im5ts ) wood dri$ at #aej1 & %[$ t :5 wood is decompos$ 9 ?is way1 a gas1 an aque\s liquor1 & a residue are =m$4 ,! latt] at a temp]ature ( #bjj has ! prop]ties ( wood *>coal incompletely burnt2 at #cjj & high] a homog5e\s mass l coal is =m$ :i* at #cdj is d5se & )\t cavities4 ,at #djj ! residue resembles an?racite4 ,9 nature probably ! decomposition 0 9 r>e cases effect$ by heat alone2 m g5]ally x 0 effect$ by means ( wat] & heat1 b 9 ei!r case ! result ought to be almo/ ! same4 ,! av]age composition ( coal compil$ f _m analyses1 disreg>d+ ! a%1 is z foll[s3 #hd p>ts ( c>bon1 #e p>ts ( hydrog51 #a "p ( nitrog51 #h p>ts ( oxyg51 #b ( sulphur4 ,! quantity ( a% is on an av]age #e p4c41 b !re are coals :i* conta9 a l>g] quantity1 & naturally !y are n s advantage\s = use z fuel4 ,! am\nt ( wat] does n usually exce$ m ?an #aj p4c4 ,! an?racites =m a rem>kable v>iety ( coals1 !y d n give any volatile products1 or b a v small am\nt1 z !y conta9 b little hydrog5 comp>$ to oxyg54 ,9 ! av]age composition ( coal we saw t = #e p>ts ( hydrog5 !re 7 #h p>ts ( oxyg52 !re=e #d p>ts by weight ( hydrog5 are capable ( =m+ hydroc>bons1 because #a "p ( hydrog5 is necess>y 9 ord] to =m wat] ) ! #h p>ts ( oxyg54 ,^! #d p>ts by weight ( hydrog5 c conv]t #dh p>ts ( c>bon into volatile products1 because #a "p ( hydrog5 by weight 9 ^! sub/ances comb9es ) #ab p>ts ( c>bon4 ,! an?racites diff] ess5tially f ?is3 neglect+ ! a%1 _! av]age composition is z foll[s3 #id p>ts ( c>bon1 #c ( hydrog51 & #c ( oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,accord+ to ! analyses ( ,a4 ,a4 ,voskres5sky1 ! ,gr\%effsky an?racite 7,don di/rict7 conta9s3 ,c #ich1 ,h #ag1 a% #ae4 ,!re=e ! an?racites conta9 b little hydrog5 capable ( comb9+ ) ! c>bon to =m hydroc>bons :i* burn ) a flame4 ,an?racites are ! olde/ =ms ( coal4 ,! newe/ & lea/ trans=m$ coals1 :i* resemble "s ( ! br[n v>ieties1 are ! dry coals4 ,!y burn ) a flame l wood1 & leave a coke hav+ ! appe>ance ( lumps ( coal1 half _! compon5t p>ts be+ absorb$ by ! flame 7!y conta9 mu* hydrog5 & oxyg574 ,! rema9+ v>ieties ( coal 7gas coal1 smi?y coal1 cok+1 & an?racite7 accord+ to ,grn] 9 all respects =m connect+ l9ks betwe5 ! dry coals & ! an?racites4 ,^! coals burn ) a v smoky flame1 & on be+ heat$ leave coke1 :i* be>s ! same relation to coal t *>coal does to wood4 ,! quantity & quality ( coke v>y consid]ably ) ! diff]5t sorts ( coal f :i* x is =m$4 ,9 practice coals are mo/ (t5 di/+ui%$ by ! prop]ties & quantity ( ! coke :i* !y give4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> ! s-call$ bitum9\s coals are especially valuable1 z ev5 ! slack ( ?is k9d gives on dry di/illation l>ge spongy masses ( coke4 ,if l>ge pieces ( ^! k9ds ( coal are subject$ to dry di/illation1 !y1 z x 71 melt1 fl[ toge!r1 & =m cak+ masses ( coke4 ,! be/ cok+ coals give #fe p4c4 ( d5se cak+ coke4 ,su* coal is v valuable = metallurgical purposes 7see ,note #h74 ,besides coke1 ! dry di/illation ( coal produces gas 7see fur!r1 illum9at+ gas1 p4 #cfa71 coal-t> 7:i* gives b5z5e1 c>bolic acid1 naph?al5e1 t> = artificial asphalt1 c47 & also an aque\s alkal9e liquor 7) wood & lignites ! liquid is acid f acetic acid7 :i* conta9s ammonium c>bonate 7see ,note #f74 #g ,9 ,engl& 9 #ahej ! output ( coal 0 z mu* z #dh million tons1 & 9 latt] ye>s x has ris5 to ab\t #aij millions4 ,besides ?is o!r c\ntries contribute #cjj millions--,russia ab\t #f millions4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica come next to ,engl& ) an output ( #afj million tons1 !n ,g]many #ij millions2 ,france produces b little 7#be millions71 & takes ab\t #e million tons f ,engl&4 ,?us ! _w consumes ab\t #ejj million tons ( coal ye>ly4 ,besides h\sehold purposes1 coal is *iefly us$ z fuel = /eam-eng9es4 ,z e horse-p[] 7 #ge kilogrammetres p] second7 ( a /eam-eng9e exp5ds on ! av]age m ?an #be kilograms 9 #bd h\rs1 or 9 a ye> 7c\nt+ /oppages7 n less ?an #e tons p] horse-p[]1 & !re are n less ?an #dj million horse-p[] at "w 9 ! _w1 ! consumption ( coal = motive-p[] is at lea/ equal to half ! :ole production4 ,= ?is reason coal s]ves z a crit]ion ( ! indu/rial developm5t ( a c\ntry4 ,ab\t #ae p4c4 ( coal is us$ = ! manufacture ( ca/ iron1 wr\ght iron1 /eel1 & articles made ( !m4 #h ,! pr9cipal coal b$s ( ,russia "u exploitation are3 ,! ,don bas9 7#aej million poods p] annum1 #fb poods #a ton71 ! ,poli% bas9 7,dombrovo & o!rs #abj million poods p] annum71 ! ,t\la & ,riazan b$s ( ! ,mosc[ bas9 7up to #be million poods71 ! ,ural bas9 7#aj million poods71 ! ,caucasian 7,kvib\l1 ne> ,kutais71 ! ,khirjhis /eppes1 ! smi?y coal bas9 7,gov4 ( ,tomsk71 ! ,sahal9e1 c4 ,! ,poli% & ,mosc[ bas9s d n give any cok+ coals4 ,! pres5ce ( e v>iety ( coal 7f ! dry coal ne> ,lisi*ansk on ! ,donetz to ! an?racites ( ! entire s\?-ea/ bas971 ! great abundance ( excell5t metallurgical coal 7cok+1 see ,note #f7 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! bas91 its va/ ext5t 7z mu* z #be1jjj sq4 v]/s71 ! proximity ( ! seams to ! surface 7! %afts are n[ f #bj to #ajj fa?oms deep1 & 9 ,engl& & ,belgium z deep z #ejj fa?oms71 ! f]tility ( ! soil 7black e>?71 ! proximity ( ! sea 7ab\t #ajj v]/s f ! ,sea ( ,az(f7 & ( ! riv]s ,donetz1 ,don1 & ,dneip]1 ! mo/ abundant seams ( excell5t iron ore 7,korsan ,mogila1 ,krivoy ,rog1 ,s\l91 c41 c471 copp] ore1 m]cury ore 7ne> ,nikitovka1 9 ! ,bakhm\? di/rict ( ! ,ekat]9oslav ,gov471 & o!r ores1 ! ri*e/ probably 9 ! :ole _w1 ! b$s ( rock-salt 7ne> ! /ations ( ! ,/\pka & ,brianzovka7 ! excell5t clay ( all k9ds 7*9a1 fire-clay71 gypsum1 slate1 s&/one1 & o!r weal? ( ! ,don coal bas91 give complete assurance ( ! fact t ) ! gr[? ( indu/rial activity 9 ,russia ?is b\ntiful l& ( ! ,cossacks & ,new ,russia w become ! c5tre ( ! mo/ ext5sive productive ent]prise1 n = ! requirem5ts ( ,russia alone1 b ( ! :ole _w1 because 9 no o!r place c be f\nd su* a conc5tration ( fav\rable conditions4 ,! gr[? ( ent]prise & k1 toge!r ) ! ext9ction ( ! =e/s :i* compels ,russia to fo/] ! production ( coal1 w help to br+ ab\t ?is desir$ result4 ,engl& ) a :ole fleet ( m]*ant vessels exports annually ab\t #be million tons ( coal1 ! price ( :i* is high] ?an on ! ,donetz 7:]e a pood ( work$ coal co/s less ?an #e copecks on ! av]age71 :]e an?racites & semi-an?racites 7l ,c>diff or /eam coal1 :i* burns )\t smoke7 & cok+ & metallurgical coals are able bo? 9 quantity & quality to satisfy ! mo/ fa/idi\s requirem5ts ( ! indu/ry already exi/+ & rapidly increas+ ev]y:]e4 ,! coal m9es ( ,engl& & ,belgium are approa*+ a /ate ( exhau/ion1 :il/ 9 ^? ( ! ,don bas91 only at a dep? ( #ajj fa?oms1 #a1bjj1jjj million poods ( coal lie wait+ to be work$4 ,dur+ ! imp]fect combu/ion ( volatile sub/ances conta9+ c>bon & hydrog51 ! hydrog5 & "p ( ! c>bon fir/ burn1 & ! rema9d] ( ! c>bon =ms soot4 ,t>1 pit*1 & simil> sub/ances = ?is reason burn ) a smoky flame4 ,?us soot is f9ely-divid$ *>coal sep>at$ dur+ ! imp]fect combu/ion ( ! vap\rs & gases ( c>bonace\s sub/ances ri* 9 c>bon4 ,specially-prep>$ soot 7lampblack7 is v l>gely us$ z a black pa9t & a l>ge quantity goes = ! manufacture ( pr9t]s' ink4 ,x is prep>$ by burn+ t>1 oil1 natural gas1 naph?a1 c4 ,! quantity ( organic matt] rema9+ undecompos$ 9 ! *>coal dep5ds on ! temp]ature to :i* x has be5 submitt$4 ,*>coal prep>$ at ! l[e/ temp]ature /ill conta9s a consid]able quantity ( hydrog5 & oxyg5--ev5 z mu* z #d p4c4 ( hydrog5 & #bj p4c4 ( oxyg54 ,su* *>coal /ill pres]ves ! /ructure ( ! sub/ance f :i* x 0 obta9$4 ,ord9>y *>coal1 = in/ance1 9 :i* ! /ructure ( ! tree is /ill visible1 is ( ?is k9d4 ,on submitt+ x to fur!r heat+1 a fre% quantity ( hydrog5 ) c>bon & oxyg5 79 ! =m ( gases or volatile matt]7 may be sep>at$1 & ! pure/ *>coal w be obta9$ on submitt+ x to ! greate/ heat4#i ,if x be requir$ to prep>e pure *>coal f soot x is necess>y fir/ to wa% x ) alcohol & e!r 9 ord] to remove ! soluble t>ry products1 & !n submit x to a p[]ful heat to drive (f ! impurities conta9+ hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,*>coal h[ev] :5 completely purifi$ does n *ange 9 appe>ance4 ,its porosity1#aj bad conduct+ p[] = heat1 capability ( absorb+ ! lum9\s rays 7h5ce its blackness & opacity71 & _m o!r qualities1 are famili> f ev]yday exp]i5ce4#aa ,! specific gravity ( *>coal v>ies f #ad to #ai1 & t x floats on wat] is due to ! air conta9$ 9 its pores4 ,if *>coal is r$uc$ to a p[d] & moi/5$ ) _s1 x imm$iately s9ks 9 wat]4 ,x is infusible 9 ! furnace & ev5 at ! temp]ature ( ! oxyhydrog5 flame4 ,9 ! heat g5]at$ by means ( a p[]ful galvanic curr5t *>coal only s(t5s b does n completely melt1 & on cool+ x is f\nd to h und]gone a complete *ange bo? 9 prop]ties & appe>ance1 & is m or less trans=m$ into graphite4 ,! physical /ability ( *>coal is )\t d\bt alli$ to its *emical /ability4 ,x is evid5tly a sub/ance devoid ( en]gy1 = x is insoluble 9 all kn[n liquids1 & at an ord9>y temp]ature does n comb9e ) any?+2 x is an inactive sub/ance1 l nitrog54#ab ,b ^! prop]ties ( *>coal *ange ) a rise ( temp]ature2 ?us1 unlike nitrog51 *>coal1 at a high temp]ature1 comb9es directly ) oxyg54 ,?is is well kn[n1 z *>coal burns 9 air4 ,inde$1 n only does oxyg5 comb9e ) *>coal at a r$ heat1 b sulphur1 hydrog51 silicon1 & also iron & "s o!r metals#ab bis d s at a v high temp]ature--t is1 :5 ! molecules ( ! *>coal h rea*$ a /ate ( great in/ability--:il/ at ord9>y temp]atures nei!r oxyg51 sulphur1 nor metals act on *>coal 9 any way4 ,:5 burn+ 9 oxyg51 *>coal =ms c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 :il/ 9 ! vap\rs ( sulphur1 c>bon bisulphide1 ,,cs#b1 is =m$1 & wr\ght iron1 :5 act$ on by c>bon1 becomes ca/ iron4 ,at ! great heat obta9$ by pass+ ! galvanic curr5t ?r\gh c>bon electrodes1 *>coal comb9es ) hydrog51 =m+ acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b4 ,*>coal does n comb9e directly ) nitrog51 b 9 ! pres5ce ( metals & alkal9e oxides1 nitrog5 is absorb$1 =m+ a metallic cyanide1 z1 = in/ance1 potassium cyanide1 ,,kcn4 ,f ^! few direct comb9ations :i* *>coal is capable ( ent]+ into1 may be d]iv$ ^? num]\s c>bonace\s comp\nds :i* ent] into ! composition ( plants & animals1 & c be ?us obta9$ artificially4 ,c]ta9 sub/ances conta9+ oxyg5 give up a "p ( x to *>coal at a relatively l[ temp]ature4 ,= in/ance1 nitric acid :5 boil$ ) *>coal gives c>bonic anhydride & nitric p]oxide4 ,sulphuric acid is r$uc$ to sulphur\s anhydride :5 heat$ ) c>bon4 ,:5 heat$ to r$ness *>coal absorbs oxyg5 f a l>ge numb] ( ! oxides4 ,ev5 su* oxides z ^? ( sodium & potassium1 :5 heat$ to r$ness1 yield _! oxyg5 to *>coal al?\gh !y d n "p ) x to hydrog54 ,only a few ( ! oxides1 l silica 7oxide ( silicon7 & lime 7calcium oxide7 resi/ ! r$uc+ action ( *>coal4 ,*>coal is capable ( *ang+ its physical condition )\t und]go+ any alt]ation 9 its ess5tial *emical prop]ties--t is1 x passes into isom]ic or allotropic =ms4 ,! two o!r p>ticul> =ms 9 :i* c>bon appe>s are ! diamond & graphite4 ,! id5tity ( composition ( ^! ) *>coal is prov$ by burn+ an equal quantity ( all ?ree sep>ately 9 oxyg5 7at a v high temp]ature71 :5 ea* gives ! same quantity ( c>bonic anhydride--namely1 #ab p>ts ( *>coal1 diamond1 or graphite 9 a pure /ate1 yield on burn+ #dd p>ts by weight ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,! physical prop]ties pres5t a m>k$ contra/2 ! d5se/ sorts ( *>coal h a d5sity ( only #ai1 :il/ ! d5sity ( graphite is ab\t #bc1 & t ( ! diamond #ce4 ,a great _m o!r prop]ties dep5d on ! d5sity1 = in/ance combu/ibility4 ,! light] *>coal is1 ! m easily x burns2 graphite burns ) consid]able difficulty ev5 9 oxyg51 & ! diamond burns only 9 oxyg5 & at a v high temp]ature4 ,on burn+1 *>coal1 ! diamond1 & graphite develop diff]5t quantities ( heat4 ,"o "p by weight ( wood *>coal conv]t$ by burn+ into c>bonic anhydride develops #h1jhj heat units2 d5se *>coal sep>at$ 9 gas retorts develops #h1jej heat units2 natural graphite1 #g1hjj heat units2 & ! diamond #g1ggj4 ,! great] ! d5sity ! less ! heat evolv$ by ! combu/ion ( ! c>bon4#ac #i ,z x is difficult to sep>ate f ! *>coal ! admixture ( a%--t is1 ! e>?y matt] conta9$ 9 ! vegetable sub/ance us$ = produc+ *>coal--9 ord] to obta9 x 9 its pure/ condition x is necess>y to use su* organic sub/ances z d n conta9 any a%1 = example completely ref9$ or purifi$ cry/allis$ sug>1 cry/allis$ t>t>ic acid1 c4 #aj ,! cavities 9 *>coal are ! passages ?r\gh :i* ^? volatile products =m$ at ! same "t z ! *>coal h pass$4 ,! degree ( porosity ( *>coal v>ies consid]ably1 & has a te*nical significance1 9 diff]5t k9ds ( *>coal4 ,! mo/ por\s *>coal is v light2 a cubic metre ( wood *>coal weighs ab\t #bjj kilograms4 ,_m ( ! prop]ties ( *>coal :i* dep5d exclusively on its porosity are %>$ by _m o!r por\s sub/ances1 & v>y ) ! d5sity ( ! *>coal & dep5d on ! way x 0 prep>$4 ,! prop]ty :i* *>coal has ( absorb+ gases1 liquids1 & _m sub/ances 9 solution1 is a case 9 po9t4 ,! d5se/ k9d ( *>coal is =m$ by ! action ( great heat on sug> & o!r fusible sub/ances4 ,! lu/r\s grey d5se coke =m$ 9 gas retorts is also ( ?is "*4 ,?is d5se coke collects on ! int]nal walls ( ! retorts subject$ to great heat1 & is produc$ by ! vap\rs & gases sep>at$ f ! heat$ coal 9 ! retorts4 ,9 virtue ( its d5sity su* coke becomes a good conductor ( ! galvanic curr5t & approa*es graphite4 ,x is pr9cipally us$ 9 galvanic batt]ies4 ,coke1 or ! *>coal rema9+ f ! imp]fect combu/ion ( coal & t>ry sub/ances1 is also b slightly por\s1 brilliant1 does n soil or m>k pap]1 is d5se1 almo/ devoid ( ! faculty ( reta9+ liquids & solids1 & does n absorb gases4 ,! light sorts ( *>coal produc$ f *>r$ wood1 on ! o!r h&1 %[ ?is absorptive p[] 9 a mo/ m>k$ degree4 ,?is prop]ty is p>ticul>ly develop$ 9 t v f9e & friable *>coal prep>$ by heat+ animal sub/ances su* z hides & bones4 ,! absorptive p[] ( *>coal = gases is simil> to ! cond5sation ( gases 9 spongy plat9um4 ,"h evid5tly !re is a case ( ! adh]5ce ( gases to a solid1 precisely z liquids h ! prop]ty ( adh]+ to v>i\s solids4 ,"o volume ( *>coal w absorb ! foll[+ volumes ( gases 7*>coal is capable ( absorb+ an imm5se am\nt ( *lor9e1 almo/ equal to its own weight73-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,saussure4 ,favre4 ,heat emitt$ ,boxwood ,*>coal ,cocoanut ,*>coal p] gram ( gas ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,nh#c #ij #agb vols4 #did units ,,co#b #ce #ig #aeh ,n#b,o #dj #ii #afi ,h,cl #he #afe #bgd ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,! quantity ( gas absorb$ by ! *>coal increases ) ! pressure1 & is approximately proportional to x4 ,! quantity ( heat giv5 out by ! absorption ne>ly approa*es t set free on dissolv+1 or pass+ into a liquid condition4 ,*>coal absorbs n only gases1 b a numb] ( o!r sub/ances4 ,= in/ance1 alcohol :i* conta9s disagreeably smell+ fusel oil1 on be+ mix$ ) *>coal or filt]$ ?r\gh x1 loses mo/ ( ! fusel oil4 ,! practice ( filt]+ sub/ances ?r\gh *>coal 9 ord] to get rid ( =eign matt]s is (t5 appli$ 9 *emical & manufactur+ processes4 ,oils1 spirits1 v>i\s extracts1 & vegetable & o!r solutions are filt]$ ?r\gh *>coal 9 ord] to purify !m4 ,! blea*+ p[] ( *>coal may be te/$ by us+ v>i\s col\r$ solutions--su* z anil9e dyes1 litmus1 c4 ,*>coal1 :i* has absorb$ "o sub/ance to saturation is /ill capable ( absorb+ c]ta9 o!r sub/ances4 ,animal *>coal1 produc$ 9 a v f9ely-divid$ /ate1 especially by heat+ bones1 makes ! be/ sort = ! purposes ( absorption4 ,bone *>coal is us$ 9 l>ge quantities 9 sug> works = filt]+ syrups & all sac*>9e solutions1 9 ord] to purify !m1 n only f col\r+ & odor\s matt]1 b also f ! lime :i* is mix$ ) ! syrups 9 ord] to r5d] !m less un/able dur+ boil+4 ,! absorption ( lime by animal *>coal dep5ds1 9 all probability1 9 a great degree on ! m9]al compon5t p>ts ( bone *>coal4 #aa ,*>coal is a v bad conductor ( heat1 & !re=e =ms an excell5t insulator or pack+ to prev5t ! transmission ( heat4 ,a *>coal l9+ is (t5 us$ 9 crucibles = heat+ _m sub/ances1 z x does n melt & resi/s a f> great] heat ?an _m o!r sub/ances4 #ab ,! unalt]ability ( *>coal "u ! action ( atmosph]ic ag5cies1 :i* produce *anges 9 ! majority ( /ony & metallic sub/ances1 is (t5 made use ( 9 practice4 ,= example1 *>coal is frequ5tly /rewn 9 b\nd>y dit*es4 ,! surface ( wood is (t5 *>r$ to r5d] x durable 9 ^? places :]e ! soil is damp & wood itself w\ld soon rot4 ,! *amb]s 7or 9 "s works t[]s7 ?r\gh :i* acids pass 7= example1 sulphuric & hydro*loric7 9 ord] to br+ !m into contact ) gases or liquids1 are fill$ ) *>coal or coke1 because at ord9>y temp]atures x resi/s ! action ( ev5 ! /ronge/ acids4 #ab bis ,maqu5ne 7#ahib7 discov]$ t c>bon is capable ( comb9+ ) ! alkali metals4 ,a #bj p4c4 amalgam ( ! metals 0 heat$ to a r$ heat ) *>coal p[d] 9 a /ream ( hydrog54 ,! comp\nds s obta9$ possess$1 aft] ! m]cury _h be5 driv5 (f1 ! compositions ,ba,c#b1 ,sr,c#b1 ,ca,c#b4 ,all ^! comp\nds react ) wat] =m+ acetyl5e1 = example3 ,ba,c#b #b;,h#b,o ,c#b;,h#b ,ba7,,oh7#b ,maqu5ne proposes ! b>ium c>bide z a s\rce ( acetyl5e4 ,he obta9$ ?is comp\nd by heat+ c>bonate ( b>ium1 magnesium p[d]1 & retort c>bon 9 a ,p]reau furnace 7,ba,c,o#c #c,mg ,c #c,mg,o ,ba,c#b74 ,"o hundr$ grams ( ,ba,c#b evolve #e1bjj to #e1djj c4c4 ( acetyl5e1 mix$ ) ab\t #b-c p4c4 ( hydrog54 ,! relation ( acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b1 to ^! metallic c>bides is evid5t f ! fact t ^! metals 7,ca1 ,sr1 ,ba7 replace #b atoms ( hydrog51 & !re=e ,c#b;,ba corresponds to ,c#b;,h#b1 s t !y may be reg>d$ z metallic d]ivatives ( acetyl5e4 ,moissan 7#ahic7 obta9$ simil> c>bides directly f ! oxides by subject+ !m to ! action ( ! voltaic arc1 9 ! pres5ce ( c>bon1 = in/ance1 ,ba,o #c;,c ,,co ,c#b;,ba1 al?\gh at a furnace heat c>bon has no action on ! oxides ,ca,o1 ,ba,o1 ,sr,o4 ,conc]n+ ,al#d;,c#e1 see ,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,note #ch4 #ac ,:5 subject$ to pressure1 *>coal loses heat1 h5ce ! d5se/ =m /&s to ! less d5se z a solid to a liquid1 or z a comp\nd to an elem5t4 ,f ?is ! conclusion may be drawn t ! molecules ( graphite are m complex ?an ^? ( *>coal1 & ^? ( ! diamond /ill m s4 ,! specific heat %[s ! same v>iation1 & z we %all see fur!r on1 ! increas$ complexity ( a molecule leads to a dim9ution ( ! specific heat4 ,at ord9>y temp]atures ! specific heat ( *>coal is #jbd1 graphite #jbj1 ! diamond #jadg4 ,= retort c>bon ,le ,*ateli] 7#ahic7 f\nd t ! product ( ! sp4 heat & atomic weight v>ies1 betwe5 #j & #bej1 accord+ to ! =mula3 #aib #jjjggt1 & betwe5 #bej & #ajjj1 #ced #jjjbdft 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,note #d74 ,by means ( int5se heat *>coal may be trans=m$ into graphite4 ,if a *>coal rod #d mm4 9 diamet] & #e mm4 long be enclos$ 9 an exhau/$ receiv] & ! curr5t f #fjj ,buns5's elem5ts1 plac$ 9 p>allel s]ies ( #ajj1 be pass$ ?r\gh x1 ! *>coal becomes /rongly inc&esc5t1 p>tially volatilises1 & is deposit$ 9 ! =m ( graphite4 ,if sug> be plac$ 9 a *>coal crucible & a p[]ful galvanic curr5t pass$ ?r\gh x1 x is bak$ into a mass simil> to graphite4 ,if *>coal be mix$ ) wr\ght iron & heat$1 ca/ iron is =m$1 :i* conta9s z mu* z five p] c5t4 ( *>coal4 ,if molt5 ca/ iron be sudd5ly *ill$1 ! c>bon rema9s 9 comb9ation ) ! iron1 =m+ s call$ :ite ca/ iron2 b if ! cool+ proce$s sl[ly1 ! great] "p ( ! c>bon sep>ates 9 ! =m ( graphite1 & if su* ca/ iron 7s call$ grey ca/ iron7 be dissolv$ 9 acid1 ! c>bon rema9s 9 ! =m ( graphite4 ,graphite is met ) 9 nature1 sometimes 9 ! =m ( l>ge compact masses1 sometimes p]meat+ rocky =mations l ! s*i/s or slates1 & 9 fact is met ) 9 ^? places :i*1 9 all probability1 h be5 subject$ to ! action ( subt]ranean heat4#ad ,! graphite 9 ca/ iron1 & sometimes also natural graphite1 occasionally appe>s 9 a cry/all9e =m 9 ! %ape ( six-sid$ plates1 b m (t5 x occurs z a compact amorph\s mass hav+ ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! famili> black-lead p5cil4#ae #ad ,!re are places :]e an?racite gradually *anges into graphite z ! /rata s9k4 ,i myself _h ! opportunity ( obs]v+ ?is gradual trans=mation 9 ! valley ( ,ao/a4 #ae ,p5cils are made ( graphite work$ up into a homog5e\s mass by dis9tegrat+1 p[d]+1 & cleans+ x f e>?y impurities2 ! be/ k9ds are made ( completely homog5e\s graphite sawn up into ! requisite /icks4 ,graphite is f\nd 9 _m places4 ,9 ,russia ! s-call$ ,alib](fsky graphite is p>ticul>ly r5[n$2 x is f\nd 9 ! ,altai m\nta9s ne> ! ,*9ese fronti]2 9 _m places 9 ,f9l& & likewise on ! banks ( ! ,little ,tung\ska1 ,sidor(f also f\nd a consid]able quantity ( graphite4 ,:5 mix$ ) clay1 graphite is us$ = mak+ crucibles & pots = melt+ metals4 ,graphite1 l mo/ =ms ( *>coal1 /ill conta9s a c]ta9 quantity ( hydrog51 oxyg51 & a%1 s t 9 its natural /ate x does n conta9 m ?an #ih p4c4 ( c>bon4 ,9 practice1 graphite is purifi$ simply by wa%+ x :5 9 a f9ely-gr\nd /ate1 by :i* means ! bulk ( ! e>?y matt] may be sep>at$4 ,! foll[+ process1 propos$ by ,brodie1 consi/s 9 mix+ ! p[d]$ graphite ) #a_/ad "p ( its weight ( potassium *lorate4 ,! mixture is !n heat$ ) twice its weight ( /rong sulphuric acid until no m odorif]\s gases are emitt$2 on cool+1 ! mixture is ?r[n into wat] & wa%$2 ! graphite is !n dri$ & heat$ to a r$ heat2 aft] ?is x %r9ks consid]ably 9 volume & =ms a v f9e p[d]1 :i* is !n wa%$4 ,by act+ on graphite sev]al times ) a mixture ( potassium *lorate & nitric acid heat$ up to #fj1 ,brodie trans=m$ x into a yell[ insoluble acid sub/ance :i* he call$ graphitic acid1 ,c#aa;,h#d,o#e4 ,! diamond rema9s un*ang$ :5 subject$ to ?is treatm5t1 :il/ amorph\s *>coal is completely oxidis$4 ,avail+ himself ( ?is possibility ( di/+ui%+ graphite f ! diamond or amorph\s *>coal1 ,b]!lot %[$ t :5 comp\nds ( c>bon & hydrog5 are decompos$ by heat1 amorph\s *>coal is ma9ly =m$1 :il/ :5 comp\nds ( c>bon ) *lor9e1 sulphur1 & boron are decompos$1 graphite is pr9cipally deposit$4 ,! diamond is a cry/all9e & transp>5t =m ( c>bon4 ,x is ( r>e occurr5ce 9 nature1 & is f\nd 9 ! alluvial deposits ( ! diamond m9es ( ,brazil1 ,india1 ,s\? ,africa1 c4 ,x has also be5 f\nd 9 meteorites4#ae bis ,x cry/allises 9 octah$ra1 dodecah$ra1 cubes1 & o!r =ms ( ! regul> sy/em4#af ,! ef=ts :i* h be5 made to produce diamonds artificially1 al?\gh !y h n be5 fruitless1 h n z yet l$ to ! production ( l>ge-siz$ cry/als1 because ^? means by :i* cry/als are g5]ally =m$ are inapplicable to c>bon4 ,inde$1 c>bon 9 all its =ms be+ insoluble & infusible does n pass into a liquid condition by means ( :i* cry/allisation c\ld take place4 ,diamonds h sev]al times be5 successfully produc$ 9 ! %ape ( m9ute cry/als hav+ ! appe>ance ( a black p[d]1 b :5 view$ "u ! microscope appe>+ transp>5t1 & possess+ t h>dness :i* is ! peculi> *>act]i/ic ( ! diamond4 ,?is diamond p[d] is deposit$ on ! negative electrode1 :5 a weak galvanic curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh liquid *loride ( c>bon4#af bis #ae bis ,diamonds are f\nd 9 a p>ticul> d5se rock1 kn[n by ! "n ( itacolumite1 & are dug out ( ! dbris produc$ by ! de/ruction ( ! itacolumite by wat]4 ,:5 ! dbris is wa%$ ! diamonds rema9 beh9d2 !y are pr9cipally f\nd 9 ,brazil1 9 ! prov9ces ( ,rio & ,bahia1 & at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,! dbris gives ! black or amorph\s diamond1 c>bonado1 & ! ord9>y col\rless or yell[ transluc5t diamond4 ,z ! diamond possesses a v m>k$ cleavage1 ! fir/ op]ation consi/s 9 splitt+ x1 & !n r\ghly & f9ely poli%+ x ) diamond p[d]4 ,x is v rem>kable t ,pr(essors ,p4 ,a4 ,lat*9(f & ,er(eff f\nd 7#ahhg7 diamond p[d] 9 a meteoric /one :i* fell 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,p5za1 9 ! di/rict ( ,krasnoslobodsk1 ne> ! settlem5t ( ,novo ,urei 7,sept4 #aj1 #ahhf74 ,up to t "t *>coal & graphite 7a special v>iety1 cliftonite7 _h be5 f\nd 9 meteorites & ! diamond only conjectur$ to occur !re94 ,! ,novo ,urei meteorite 0 compos$ ( silice\s matt] & metallic iron 7) nickel7 l _m o!r meteorites4 #af ,diamonds are sometimes f\nd 9 ! %ape ( small balls1 & 9 t case x is impossible to cut !m because directly ! surface is gr\nd or brok5 !y fall into m9ute pieces4 ,sometimes m9ute diamond cry/als =m a d5se mass l sug>1 & ?is is g5]ally r$uc$ to diamond p[d] & us$ = gr9d+4 ,"s kn[n v>ieties ( ! diamond are almo/ opaque & ( a black col\r4 ,su* diamonds are z h>d z ! ord9>y ones1 & are us$ = poli%+ diamonds & o!r preci\s /ones1 & also = rock bor+ & tunnell+4 #af bis ,hannay1 9 #ahhj1 obta9$ diamonds by heat+ a mixture ( heavy liquid hydroc>bons 7p>aff9 oils7 ) magnesium 9 a ?ick iron tube4 ,?is inve/igation1 h[ev]1 0 n repeat$4 ,moissan 7,p>is1 #ahic7 produc$ diamonds artificially by means ( ! high temp]ature atta9$ 9 ! electrical furnace#ag by dissolv+ c>bon 9 molt5 ca/ iron1 & all[+ ! solution ) an excess ( c>bon1 to cool "u ! p[]ful pressure ex]t$ by rapidly cool+ ! metal4#ag bis ,k4 ,*r\/*(f atta9$ ! same end by means ( silv]1 :i* dissolves c>bon to ! ext5t ( #f p4c4 at a high temp]ature4 ,r\sseau1 = ! same purpose1 heat$ c>bide ( calcium 9 ! electric furnace4 ,!re is no d\bt t all ^! inve/igators obta9$ ! diamond z a transp>5t body1 :i* burnt into ,,co#b1 & possess$ an exceptional h>dness1 b only 9 ! =m ( a f9e p[d]4 #ag ,! electrical furnace is an inv5tion ( rec5t times1 & gives ! possibility ( obta9+ a temp]ature ( #c1ejj1 :i* is n only n obta9able 9 ord9>y furnaces1 b ev5 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame1 ^: temp]ature does n exce$ #b1jjj4 ,! electrical furnace consi/s ( two pieces ( lime1 laid "o on ! o!r4 ,a cavity is made 9 ! l[] piece = ! reception ( ! sub/ance to be melt$ betwe5 two ?ick electrodes ( d5se c>bon4 ,on pass+ a curr5t ( #gj volts & #dej ampres a temp]ature ( #c1jjj is easily obta9$4 ,at a temp]ature ( #b1ejj 7#ajj ampres & #dj volts7 n only d all metals melt1 b ev5 lime & magnesia 7:5 plac$ 9 ! space betwe5 ! c>bon electrodes1 i4e4 9 ! voltaic arc7 become s(t & cry/allise on cool+4 ,at #c1jjj lime becomes v fluid1 metallic calcium p>tially sep>ates out & a c>bon comp\nd1 :i* rema9s liquid = a long "t4 ,at ?is temp]ature oxide ( uranium is r$uc$ to ! suboxide & metal1 zirconia & rock cry/al fuse & p>tially volatilise1 z also does alum9a2 plat9um1 gold1 & ev5 c>bon di/9ctly volatilise2 ! majority ( ! metals =m c>bides4 ,at su* a temp]ature also ca/ iron & c>bon give graphite1 :ile accord+ to ,r\sseau1 betwe5 #b1jjj & #c1jjj ! diamond passes into graphite & conv]sely graphite into ! diamond1 s t ?is is a k9d ( rev]sible reaction4 #ag bis ,moissan fir/ inve/igat$ ! solution ( c>bon 9 molt5 metals 7& ! =mation ( ! c>bides7 su* z magnesium1 alum9ium1 iron1 manganese1 *romium1 uranium1 silv]1 plat9um1 & silicon4 ,at ! same "t ,fri$el1 ow+ to ! discov]y ( ! diamond 9 meteoric iron1 admitt$ t ! =mation ( ! diamond is dep5d5t ^u ! influ5ce ( iron & sulphur4 ,) ?is object1 t is to obta9 ! diamond1 ,fri$el caus$ sulphur to react ^u samples ( ca/ iron ri* 9 c>bon1 9 a clos$ vessel at a maximum temp]ature ( #ejj1 & aft] dissolv+ ! sulphide ( iron =m$1 he obta9$ a small quantity ( a black p[d] :i* scrat*$ corundum1 i4e4 diamond4 ,moissan's exp]im5ts 7#ahic7 7 m successful1 probably ow+ to 8 hav+ employ$ ! electrical furnace4 ,if iron be saturat$ ) c>bon at a temp]ature betwe5 #a1ajj & #c1jjj1 !n at #a1ajj-a1bjj a mixture ( amorph\s c>bon & graphite is =m$1 :ile at #c1jjj graphite alone is obta9$ 9 v beautiful cry/als4 ,?us "u ^! conditions ! diamond is n =m$1 & x c only be obta9$ if ! high temp]ature be aid$ by p[]ful pressures4 ,= ?is purpose ,moissan took advantage ( ! pressure produc$ 9 ! passage ( a mass ( molt5 ca/ iron f a liquid into a solid /ate4 ,he fir/ melt$ #aej-bjj grams ( iron 9 ! electrical furnace1 & quickly introduc$ a cyl9d] ( c>bon into ! molt5 iron4 ,he !n remov$ ! crucible ) ! molt5 iron f ! furnace & plung$ x into a res]voir conta9+ wat]4 ,aft] treat+ ) boil+ hydro*loric acid1 ?ree v>ieties ( c>bon 7 obta9$3 7#a7 a small am\nt ( graphite 7if ! cool+ be rapid72 7#b7 c>bon ( a *e/nut col\r 9 v f9e twi/$ ?reads1 %[+ t x _h be5 subject$ to a v high pressure 7a simil> v>iety 0 met ) 9 v>i\s samples ( ! ,canon ,diabolo71 & la/ly 7#c7 an inconsid]able quantity ( an exce$+ d5se mass :i* 0 fre$ f ! admixture ( ! light] modifications by treatm5t ) aqua regia1 sulphuric & hydr(luoric acids1 & f :i* ,moissan1 by means ( liquid brom(orm 7sp4 gr4 #bijj71 succe$$ 9 sep>at+ "s small pieces1 hav+ a great] d5sity ?an brom(orm1 :i* scrat*$ ! ruby & _h ! prop]ties ( ! diamond4 ,"s ( ^! pieces 7 black1 o!rs 7 transp>5t & refract$ light /rongly4 ,! d>k grey t9t ( ! =m] resembl$ t ( ! black diamonds 7c>bonado74 ,_! d5sity 0 betwe5 #c & #ce4 ,! transp>5t specim5s _h a greasy appe>ance & seem$ to be1 z x 71 surr\nd$ by an envelope ( c>bon4 ,at #a1jej !y did n burn entirely 9 a curr5t ( air1 s t ! imp]fectly burnt p>ticles1 & a peculi> =m ( gra9s ( a light o*re col\r1 :i* reta9$ _! cry/all9e =m1 c\ld be exam9$ "u ! microscope4 ,simil> gra9s also rema9 aft] ! imp]fect combu/ion ( ! ord9>y diamond4 ,moissan obta9$ ! same results by rapidly cool+ 9 a /ream ( coal gas a piece ( ca/ iron1 saturat$ ) c>bon obta9$ f sug> & fir/ heat$ to #b1jjj4 ,9 ?is in/ance he obta9$ small cry/als ( diamonds4 ,k4 ,*r\/*(f %[$ t at its boil+ po9t silv] dissolves #f p4c4 ( c>bon4 ,?is silv] 0 rapidly cool$1 s t a cru/ =m$ on ! surface & prev5t$ ! metal exp&+1 & s produc$ a p[]ful pressure4 ,a portion ( ! c>bon :i* sep>ates out "u ^! conditions exhibits ! prop]ties ( ! diamond4 ,judg+ f ! fact t c>bon =ms a numb] ( gase\s bodies 7c>bonic oxide1 c>bonic anhydride1 me?ane1 e?yl5e1 acetyl5e1 c47 & volatile sub/ances 7= example1 _m hydroc>bons & _! mo/ simple d]ivatives71 & consid]+ t ! atomic weight ( c>bon1 ,c #ab1 approa*es t ( nitrog51 ,n #ad1 & t ( oxyg51 ,o #af1 & t ! comp\nds ,,co 7c>bonic oxide7 & ,n#b;,c#b 7cyanog57 are gases1 x may be argu$ t if c>bon =m$ ! molecule ,c#b1 l ,n#b & ,o#b1 x w\ld be a gas4 ,& z ?r\gh polym]ism or ! comb9ation ( l molecules 7z ,o#b passes into ,o#c or ,,no#b into ,n#b,o#d7 ! temp]atures ( ebullition & fusion rise 7:i* is p>ticul>ly cle>ly prov$ ) ! hydroc>bons ( ! ,cn,h#bn s]ies71 x ought to be consid]$ t ! molecules ( *>coal1 graphite1 & ! diamond are v complex1 see+ t !y are insoluble1 non-volatile1 & infusible4 ,! aptitude :i* ! atoms ( c>bon %[ = comb9+ toge!r & =m+ complex molecules appe>s 9 all c>bon comp\nds4 ,among ! volatile comp\nds ( c>bon _m are well kn[n ! molecules ( :i* conta9 ,c#e 444 ,c#aj 444 ,c#bj 444 ,c#cj1 c41 9 g5]al ,cn :]e n may be v l>ge1 & 9 none ( ! o!r elem5ts is ?is faculty ( complexity s develop$ z 9 c>bon4#ah ,up to ! pres5t "t !re are no gr\nds = det]m9+ ! degree ( polym]ism ( ! *>coal1 graphite1 or diamond molecules1 & x c only be suppos$ t !y conta9 ,cn :]e n is a l>ge quantity4 ,*>coal & ^? complex non-volatile organic sub/ances :i* repres5t ! gradual transitions to *>coal#ai & =m ! pr9cipal solid sub/ances ( organisms1 conta9 a /ore or accumulation ( int]nal p[] 9 ! =m ( ! en]gy b9d+ ! atoms into complex molecules4 ,:5 *>coal or complex comp\nds ( c>bon burn1 ! en]gy ( ! c>bon & oxyg5 is turn$ into heat1 & ?is fact is tak5 advantage ( at e turn = ! g5]ation ( heat f fuel4#bj #ah ,! exi/5ce ( a molecule ,s#f is kn[n 7up to #fjj71 & x mu/ he beld t ?is acc\nts = ! =mation ( hydrog5 p]sulphide1 ,h#b,s#e4 ,phosphorus appe>s 9 ! molecule ,p#d & gives ,p#d;,h#b4 ,:5 exp\nd+ ! data on specific heat we %all h occasion to return to ! "q ( ! complexity ( ! c>bon molecule4 #ai ,! hydroc>bons poor 9 hydrog5 & conta9+ _m atoms ( c>bon1 l *rys5e & c>bopetroc5e1 c41 ,cn,h#b7n-m71 are solids1 & less fusible z n & m increase4 ,!y pres5t a m>k$ approa* to ! prop]ties ( ! diamond4 ,& 9 proportion to ! dim9ution ( ! wat] 9 ! c>bohydrates ,cn,h#bm,om--= example 9 ! humic comp\nds 7,note #e7--! transition ( complex organic sub/ances to *>coal is v evid5t4 ,t residue resembl+ *>coal & graphite :i* is obta9$ by ! sep>ation 7by means ( copp] sulphate & sodium *loride7 ( iron f :ite ca/-iron conta9+ c>bon *emically comb9$ ) ! iron1 also seems1 especially aft] ! rese>*es ( ,g4 ,a4 ,zab\dsky1 to be a complex sub/ance conta9+ ,c#ab;,h#f,o#c4 ,! endeav\rs :i* h be5 direct$ t[>ds det]m9+ ! measure ( complexity ( ! molecules ( *>coal1 graphite1 & ! diamond w probably at "s p]iod lead to ! solution ( ?is problem & w mo/ likely prove t ! v>i\s =ms ( *>coal1 graphite1 & ! diamond conta9 molecules ( diff]5t & v consid]able complexity4 ,! con/ancy ( ! gr\p+ ( b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 & ! wide diffusion & facility ( =mation ( ! c>bohydrates conta9+ ,c#f 7= example1 cellulose1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 glucose1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f7 give reason = ?9k+ t ! gr\p ,c#f is ! fir/ & simple/ ( ^? possible to free c>bon1 & x may be hop$ t "s "t or o!r x may be possible to get c>bon 9 ?is =m4 ,p]haps 9 ! diamond !re may be f\nd su* a relation betwe5 ! atoms z 9 ! b5z5e gr\p1 & 9 *>coal su* z 9 c>bohydrates4 #bj ,:5 *>coal burns1 ! complex molecule ,cn is resolv$ into ! simple molecules n,,co#b1 & !re=e "p ( ! heat--probably no small am\nt--is exp5d$ 9 ! de/ruction ( ! complex molecule ,cn4 ,p]haps by burn+ ! mo/ complex sub/ances1 :i* are ! poore/ z reg>ds hydrog51 x may be possible to =m an idea ( ! "w requir$ to split up ,cn into sep>ate atoms4 ,no o!r two elem5ts are capable ( comb9+ toge!r 9 su* v>iety z c>bon & hydrog54 ,! hydroc>bons ( ! ,cn,h#bm s]ies 9 _m cases diff] widely f ea* o!r1 al?\gh !y h "s prop]ties 9 common4 ,all hydroc>bons1 :e!r gase\s1 liquid or solid1 are combu/ible sub/ances sp>+ly soluble or insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! liquefi$ gase\s hydroc>bons1 z well z ^? :i* are liquid at ord9>y temp]atures1 & ^? solid hydroc>bons :i* h be5 liquefi$ by fusion1 h ! appe>ance & prop]ty ( oily liquors1 m or less viscid1 or fluid4#ba ,! solid hydroc>bons m or less resemble wax 9 _! prop]ties1 al?\gh ord9>y oils & wax g5]ally conta9 oxyg5 9 addition to c>bon & hydrog51 b 9 relatively small proportion4 ,!re are also _m hydroc>bons :i* h ! appe>ance ( t>--z1 = in/ance1 metac9nam5e & gutta-p]*a4 ,^? liquid hydroc>bons :i* boil at a high temp]ature are l oils1 & ^? :i* h a l[ boil+ po9t resemble e!r1 :il/ ! gase\s hydroc>bons 9 _m ( _! prop]ties are ak9 to hydrog54 ,all ?is t5ds to %[ t 9 hydroc>bons physically consid]$ ! prop]ties ( solid non-volatile *>coal are /rongly modifi$ & hidd51 :il/ ^? ( ! hydrog5 pr$om9ate4 ,all hydroc>bons are neutral sub/ances 7nei!r basic nor acid71 b "u c]ta9 conditions !y ent] into peculi> reactions4 ,x has be5 se5 9 ^? hydrog5 comp\nds :i* h be5 already consid]$ 7wat]1 nitric acid1 ammonia7 t ! hydrog5 9 almo/ all cases ent]s into reaction1 be+ displac$ by metals4 ,! hydrog5 ( ! hydroc>bons1 x may be said1 has no metallic "* t is to say1 x is n directly#bb displac$ by metals1 ev5 by su* z sodium & potassium4 ,on ! application ( m or less heat all hydroc>bons decompose#bc =m+ *>coal & hydrog54 ,! majority ( hydroc>bons d n comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air or oxidise at ord9>y temp]atures1 b "u ! action ( nitric acid & _m o!r oxidis+ sub/ances mo/ ( !m und]go oxidation1 9 :i* ei!r a portion ( ! hydrog5 & c>bon is sep>at$1 or ! oxyg5 ent]s into comb9ation1 or else ! elem5ts ( hydrog5 p]oxide ent] into comb9ation ) ! hydroc>bon4#bd ,:5 heat$ 9 air1 hydroc>bons burn1 &1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( c>bon !y conta91 _! combu/ion is att5d$ m or less ) a sep>ation ( soot--t is1 f9ely divid$ *>coal--:i* imp>ts great brilliancy to ! flame1 & on ?is acc\nt _m ( !m are us$ = ! purposes ( illum9ation--z1 = in/ance1 k]os5e1 coal gas1 oil ( turp5t9e4 ,z hydroc>bons conta9 r$uc+ elem5ts 7t is1 ^? capable ( comb9+ ) oxyg571 !y (t5 act z r$uc+ ag5ts--z1 = in/ance1 :5 heat$ ) oxide ( copp]1 !y burn1 =m+ c>bonic anhydride & wat]1 & leave metallic copp]4 ,g]h>dt prov$ t all hydroc>bons conta9 an ev5 numb] ( hydrog5 atoms4 ,!re=e1 ! g5]al =mula = all hydroc>bons is ,cn,h#bm :]e n & m are :ole numb]s4 ,?is fact is kn[n z ! law ( ev5 numb]s4 ,h5ce1 ! simple/ possible hydroc>bons ought to be3 ,,*#b1 ,,*#d1 ,,*#f 444 ,c#b;,h#b1 ,c#b;,h#d1 ,c#b;,h#f1 ,c#b;,h#h 444 b !y d n all exi/1 s9ce ! quantity ( ,h :i* c comb9e ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bon is limit$1 z we %all le>n directly4 #ba ,! viscosity1 or degree ( mobility1 ( liquids is det]m9$ by _! int]nal friction4 ,x is e/imat$ by pass+ ! liquids ?r\gh n>r[ 7capill>y7 tubes1 ! mobile liquids pass+ ?r\gh ) great] facility & spe$ ?an ! viscid ones4 ,! viscosity v>ies ) ! temp]ature & nature ( ! liquids1 & 9 ! case ( solutions *anges ) ! am\nt ( ! sub/ance dissolv$1 b is n proportional to x4 ,s t1 = example1 ) alcohol at #bj ! viscosity w be #fi1 & = a #ej p4c4 solution #afj1 ! viscosity ( wat] be+ tak5 z #ajj4 ,! volume ( ! liquid :i* passes ?r\gh by exp]im5t 7,poiseuille7 & !ory 7,/okes7 is proportional to ! "t1 ! pressure1 & ! f\r? p[] ( ! diamet] ( ! 7capill>y7 tube1 & inv]sely proportional to ! l5g? ( ! tube2 ?is r5d]s x possible to =m comp>ative e/imates ( ! coeffici5ts ( int]nal friction & viscosity4 ,z ! complexity ( ! molecules ( hydroc>bons & _! d]ivatives increases by ! addition ( c>bon 7or ,,*#b71 s does ! degree ( viscosity also rise4 ,! ext5sive s]ies ( inve/igations ref]r+ to ?is subject /ill await ! necess>y g5]alisation4 ,t connection :i* 7already p>tly obs]v$7 ought to exi/ betwe5 ! viscosity & ! o!r physical & *emical prop]ties1 =ces u to conclude t ! magnitude ( int]nal friction plays an important "p 9 molecul> me*anics4 ,9 inve/igat+ organic comp\nds & solutions1 simil> rese>*es ought to /& =emo/4 ,_m obs]vations h already be5 made1 b n mu* has yet be5 done ) !m2 ! b>e facts & "s me*anical data exi/1 b _! relation to molecul> me*anics has n be5 cle>$ up 9 ! requisite degree4 ,x has already be5 se5 f exi/+ data t ! viscosity at ! temp]ature ( ! absolute boil+ po9t becomes z small z 9 gases4 #bb ,9 a numb] ( hydroc>bons & _! d]ivatives su* a sub/itution ( metals = ! hydrog5 may be atta9$ by indirect means4 ,! prop]ty %[n by acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b1 & its analogues1 ( =m+ metallic d]ivatives is 9 ?is respect p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic4 ,judg+ f ! fact t c>bon is an acid elem5t 7t is1 gives an acid anhydride ) oxyg571 ?\gh comp>atively slightly acid 7= c>bonic acid is n at all a /rong acid & comp\nds ( *lor9e & c>bon1 ev5 ,c,cl#d1 are n decompos$ by wat] z is ! case ) phosphorus *loride & ev5 silicic *loride & boric *loride1 al?\gh !y correspond ) acids ( b little en]gy71 "o might expect to f9d 9 ! hydrog5 ( hydroc>bons ?is faculty = be+ sub/itut$ by metals4 ,! metallic comp\nds :i* correspond ) hydroc>bons are kn[n "u ! "n ( organo-metallic comp\nds4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is z9c e?yl1 ,zn7,c#b;,h#e7b1 :i* corresponds ) e?yl hydride or e?ane1 ,c#b;,h#f1 9 :i* two atoms ( hydrog5 h be5 ex*ang$ = "o ( z9c4 #bc ,gase\s & volatile hydroc>bons decompose :5 pass$ ?r\gh a heat$ tube4 ,:5 hydroc>bons are decompos$ by heat+1 ! prim>y products are g5]ally o!r m /able hydroc>bons1 among :i* are acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b1 b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 naph?al5e1 ,c#aj;,h#h1 c4 #bd ,wagn] 7#ahhh7 %[$ t :5 unsaturat$ hydroc>bons are %ak5 ) a weak 7#a p4c47 solution ( potassium p]manganate1 ,k,mn,o#d1 at ord9>y temp]atures1 !y =m glycols--= example1 ,c#b;,h#d yields ,c#b;,h#f,o#b4 ,"s ( ! hydroc>bons are capable ( comb9ation1 :il/ o!rs d n %[ t p[]4 ,^? :i* conta9 less hydrog5 belong to ! =m] category1 & ^? :i*1 = a giv5 quantity ( c>bon1 conta9 ! maximum am\nt ( hydrog51 belong to ! latt]4 ,! composition ( ^? la/ m5tion$ is express$ by ! g5]al =mula ,cn,h#bn #b4 ,^! s-call$ saturat$ hydroc>bons are incapable ( comb9ation4#be ,! hydroc>bons ,,*#f1 ,c#b;,h#h1 ,c#c;,h#aj1 c4444 d n exi/4 ,^? conta9+ ! maximum am\nt ( hydrog5 w be repres5t$ by ,,*#d 7n #a1 #bn #b #d71 ,c#b;,h#f 7n #b71 ,c#c;,h#h 7n #c71 ,c#d;,h#aj1 c4 ,?is may be t]m$ ! law ( limits4 ,plac+ ?is 9 juxtaposition ) ! law ( ev5 numb]s1 x is easy to p]ceive t ! possible hydroc>bons c be rang$ 9 s]ies1 ! t]ms ( :i* may be express$ by ! g5]al =mul ,cn,h#bn#b1 ,cn,h#bn1 ,cn,h#bn-#b1 c4444 ,^? hydroc>bons :i* belong to any "o ( ! s]ies expressible by a g5]al =mula are said to be homolog\s#j ) "o ano!r4 ,?us1 ! hydroc>bons ,,*#d1 ,c#b;,h#f1 ,c#c;,h#h1 ,c#d;,h#aj1 c4444 are memb]s ( ! limit+ 7saturat$7 homolog\s s]ies ,cn,h#bn#b4 ,t is1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! memb]s ( ! s]ies is ,,*#b4bf ,n only ! composition b also ! prop]ties ( ! memb]s ( a s]ies t5d to classification 9 "o gr\p4 ,= in/ance1 ! memb]s ( ! s]ies ,cn,h#bn#b are n capable ( =m+ additive comp\nds1 :il/ ^? ( ! s]ies ,cn,h#bn are capable ( comb9+ ) *lor9e1 sulphuric anhydride1 c42 & ! memb]s ( ! ,cn,h#bn-#f gr\p1 belong+ to ! coal t> s]ies1 are easily nitrat$ 7give nitro-comp\nds1 ,*apt] ,,vi471 & h o!r prop]ties 9 common4 ,! physical prop]ties ( ! memb]s ( a giv5 homolog\s s]ies v>y 9 "s su* mann] z ?is2 ! boil+ po9t g5]ally rises & ! int]nal friction increases z n increases#bg--t is1 ) an increase 9 ! relative am\nt ( c>bon & ! atomic weight2 ! specific gravity also regul>ly *anges z n becomes great]4#bh #be ,my article on ?is subject appe>$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 #ahfa4 ,up to t "t1 al?\gh _m additive comb9ations ) hydroc>bons & _! d]ivatives 7 kn[n1 !y _h n be5 g5]alis$1 & 7 ev5 cont9ually quot$ z cases ( sub/itution4 ,?us ! comb9ation ( e?yl5e1 ,c#b;,h#d1 ) *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 0 (t5 reg>d$ z a =mation ( ! products ( ! sub/itution ( ,c#b;,h#e;,cl & ,h,cl1 :i* x 0 suppos$ 7 held toge!r z ! wat] ( cry/allisation is 9 salts4 ,ev5 e>li] ?an ?is 7#aheg1 ,j\rnal ( ! ,petr(fsky ,academy7 ,i consid]$ simil> cases z true comp\nds4 ,9 g5]al1 accord+ to ! law ( limits1 an unsaturat$ hydroc>bon1 or its d]ivative1 on comb9+ ) r,x#b1 gives a sub/ance :i* is saturat$ or else approa*+ ! limit4 ,! inve/igations ( ,frankl& ) _m organo-metallic comp\nds cle>ly %[$ ! limit 9 ! case ( metallic comp\nds1 :i* we %all con/antly ref] to lat] on4 #bf ,! conception ( homology has be5 appli$ by ,g]h>dt to all organic comp\nds 9 8 classical "w1 ',trait de ,*imie ,organique1' f9i%$ 9 #ahee 7#d vols471 9 :i* he divid$ all organic comp\nds into fatty & aromatic1 :i* is 9 pr9ciple /ill adh]$ to at ! pres5t "t1 al?\gh ! latt] are m (t5 call$ b5z5e d]ivatives1 on acc\nt ( ! fact t ,kekul1 9 8 beautiful inve/igations on ! /ructure ( aromatic comp\nds1 %[$ ! pres5ce 9 !m all ( ! 'b5z5e nucleus1' ,c#f;,h#f4 #bg ,?is is always true = hydroc>bons1 b = d]ivatives ( ! l[] homologues ! law is sometimes diff]5t2 = in/ance1 9 ! s]ies ( saturat$ alcohols1 ,cn,h#bn#a7,,oh71 :5 n #j1 we obta9 wat]1 ,h7,,oh71 :i* boils at #ajj1 & ^: specific gravity at #ae #jiiib2 :5 n #a1 wood _s ,,*#c7,,oh71 :i* boils at #ff1 & at #ae has a specific gravity #jgifd2 :5 n #b1 ord9>y alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e7,,oh71 boil+ at #gh1 specific gravity at #ae #jgicf1 & ) fur!r increase ( ,,*#b ! specific gravity increases4 ,= ! glycols ,cn,h#bn7,,oh7#b ! ph5om5on ( a simil> k9d is /ill m /rik+2 at fir/ ! temp]ature ( ! boil+ po9t & ! d5sity increase1 & !n = high] 7m complex7 memb]s ( ! s]ies dim9i%4 ,! reason = ?is ph5om5on1 x is evid5t1 mu/ be s\ght = 9 ! influ5ce & prop]ties ( wat]1 & t /rong aff9ity :i*1 act+ betwe5 hydrog5 & oxyg51 det]m9es _m ( ! exceptional prop]ties ( wat] 7,*apt] ,i474 #bh ,z1 = example1 9 ! saturat$ s]ies ( hydroc>bons ,cn,h#bn#b1 ! l[e/ memb] 7n #j7 mu/ be tak5 z hydrog5 ,h#b1 a gas :i* 7t4c4 bel[ -#aij7 is liquefi$ ) great difficulty1 & :5 9 a liquid /ate has d\btless a v small d5sity4 ,:]e n #a1 #b1 #c1 ! hydroc>bons ,,*#d1 ,c#b;,h#f1 ,c#c;,h#h are gases1 m & m readily liquefiable4 ,! temp]ature ( ! absolute boil+ po9t = ,,*#d -#ajj1 & = e?ane ,c#b;,h#f1 & 9 ! high] memb]s x rises4 ,! hydroc>bon ,c#d;,h#aj1 liquefies at ab\t #j4 ,c#e;,h#ab 7!re are sev]al isom]s7 boils at f #i 7,lv(f7 to #cg1 ,c#f;,h#ad f #eh to #gh1 c4 ,! specific gravities 9 a liquid /ate at #ae are3-- ,c#e;,h#ab ,c#f;,h#ad ,c#g;,h#af ,c#aj;,h#bb ,c#af;,h#cd #jfc #jff #jgj #jge #jhe ,_m ( ! hydroc>bons met ) 9 nature are ! products ( organisms1 & d n belong to ! m9]al k+dom4 ,a /ill great] numb] are produc$ artificially4 ,^! are =m$ by :at is t]m$ ! comb9ation ( residues4 ,= in/ance1 if a mixture ( ! vap\rs ( hydrog5 sulphide & c>bon bisulphide be pass$ ?r\gh a tube 9 :i* copp] is heat$1 ?is latt] absorbs ! sulphur f bo? ! comp\nds1 & ! lib]at$ c>bon & hydrog5 comb9e to =m a hydroc>bon1 me?ane4 ,if c>bon be comb9$ ) any metal & ?is comp\nd ,,mcn be treat$ ) an acid ,,hx1 !n ! haloid ,x w give a salt ) ! metal & ! residual c>bon & hydrog5 w give a hydroc>bon4 ,?us ca/ iron :i* conta9s a comp\nd ( iron & c>bon gives liquid hydroc>bons l naph?a "u ! action ( acids4 ,if a mixture ( bromo-b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#e;,br1 & e?yl bromide1 ,c#b;,h#e;,br1 be heat$ ) metallic sodium1 ! sodium comb9es ) ! brom9e ( bo? comp\nds1 =m+ sodium bromide1 ,na,br4 ,f ! fir/ comb9ation ! gr\p ,c#f;,h#e rema9s1 & f ! second ,c#b;,h#e4 ,hav+ an odd numb] ( hydrog5 atoms1 !y1 9 virtue ( ! law ( ev5 numb]s1 _c exi/ alone1 & !re=e comb9e toge!r =m+ ! comp\nd ,c#f;,h#e4;,c#b;,h#e or ,c#h;,h#aj 7e?ylb5z5e74 ,hydroc>bons are also produc$ by ! break+ up ( m complex organic or hydroc>bon comp\nds1 especially by heat+--t is1 by dry di/illation4 ,= in/ance1 gum-b5zo9 conta9s an acid call$ b5zoic acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,o#b1 ! vap\rs ( :i*1 :5 pass$ ?r\gh a heat$ tube1 split up into c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 & b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f4 ,c>bon & hydrog5 only unite directly 9 "o ratio ( comb9ation--namely1 to =m acetyl5e1 hav+ ! composition ,c#b;,h#b1 :i*1 z comp>$ ) o!r hydroc>bons1 exhibits a v great /ability at a some:at high temp]ature4#bi #bi ,if1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7assum+ !re=e t ! wat] =m$ w be 9 a liquid /ate7 a gram molecule 7#bf grams7 ( acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b1 be burnt1 #caj ?\s& calories w be emitt$ 7,?oms571 & z #ab grams ( *>coal produce #ig ?\s& calories1 & #b grams ( hydrog5 #fi ?\s& calories1 x foll[s t1 if ! hydrog5 & c>bon ( ! acetyl5e 7 burnt !re w\ld be only #b #ig #fi1 or #bfc ?\s& calories produc$4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t acetyl5e 9 its =mation absorbs #caj-bfc1 or #dg ?\s& calories4 ,= consid]ations relative to ! combu/ion ( c>bon comp\nds1 we w fir/ enum]ate ! quantity ( heat sep>at$ by ! combu/ion ( def9ite *emical c>bon comp\nds1 & !n give a few figures be>+ on ! k9ds ( fuel us$ 9 practice4 ,= molecul> quantities 9 p]fect combu/ion ! foll[+ am\nts ( heat are giv5 out 7:5 gase\s c>bonic anhydride & liquid wat] are =m$71 accord+ to ,?oms5's data 7#a7 = gase\s ,cn,h#bn #b3 #ebh #aehhn ?\s& calories2 7#b7 = ,cn,h#bn3 #agg #aehan ?\s& calories2 7#c7 accord+ to ,/ohmann 7#ahhh7 = liquid saturat$ alcohols1 ,cn,h#bn #b,o3 #aah #aefcn1 & z ! lat5t heat ( evaporation ab\t #hb #jfn1 9 a gase\s /ate1 #bjj #aefin2 7#d7 = monobasic saturat$ liquid acids1 ,cn,h#bn,o#b3--iec #aedcn1 & z _! lat5t heat ( evaporation is ab\t #ej #abn1 9 a gase\s =m1 ab\t--#ij #aeen2 7#e7 = solid saturat$ bibasic acids1 ,cn,h#bn-#b,o#d3--bech #aebfn1 if !y are express$ z ,cn,h#bn,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 !n #ead #aebfn2 7#f7 = b5z5e & its liquid homologues 7/ill accord+ to ,/ohmann7 ,cn,h#bn-#f3--aehf #aefcn1 & 9 a gase\s =m ab\t--#aee #aegn2 7#g7 = ! gase\s homologues ( acetyl5e1 ,cn,h#bn-#b 7accord+ to ,?oms57--#e #aegn4 ,x is evid5t f ! prec$+ figures t ! gr\p ,,*#b1 or ,,*#c sub/itut$ = ,h1 on burn+ gives out f #aeb to #aei ?\s& calories4 ,?is is less ?an t giv5 out by ,c ,h#b1 :i* is #ig #fi or #aff ?\s&2 ! reason = ?is diff]5ce 7x w\ld be /ill great] if c>bon 7 gase\s7 is ! am\nt ( heat sep>at$ dur+ ! =mation ( ,,*#b4 ,accord+ to ,/ohmann1 = dextroglucose1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 x is #fgcg2 = common sug>1 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa1 #acbeg2 = cellulose1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e1 #fghj2 />*1 #fgge2 dextr91 #fffb2 glycol1 ,c#b;,h#f,o#b1 #bhag2 glyc]9e1 #cigb1 c4 ,! heat ( combu/ion ( ! foll[+ solids 7det]m9$ by ,/ohmann7 is express$ p] unit ( weight3 naph?al5e1 ,c#aj;,h#h1 #i1fba2 urea1 ,,cn#b;,h#d,o1 #b1dfe2 :ite ( egg1 #e1egi2 dry rye bread1 #d1dba2 :eat5 bread1 #d1cjb2 tall[1 #i1cfe2 butt]1 #i1aib2 l9se$ oil1 #i1cbc4 ,! mo/ complete collection ( ari?metical data = ! heats ( combu/ion w be f\nd 9 ,v4 ,f4 ,long99's "w1 ',description ( ! ,v>i\s ,me?ods ( ,det]m9+ ! ,heats ( ,combu/ion ( ,organic ,comp\nds' 7,mosc[1 #ahid74 ,! numb] ( units ( heat giv5 out by unit weight dur+ ! complete combu/ion & cool+ ( ! foll[+ ord9>y k9ds ( fuel 9 _! usual /ate ( dryness & purity are3--7#a7 = wood *>coal1 an?racite1 semi-an?racite1 bitum9\s coal & coke1 f #g1bjj to #h1bjj2 7#b7 dry1 long flam+ coals1 & ! be/ br[n coals1 f #f1bjj to #f1hjj2 7#c7 p]fectly dry wood1 #c1ejj2 h>dly dry1 #b1ejj2 7#d7 p]fectly dry peat1 be/ k9d1 #d1ejj2 compress$ & dri$1 #c1jjj2 7#e7 petroleum refuse & simil> liquid hydroc>bons1 ab\t #aa1jjj2 7#f7 illum9at+ gas ( ! ord9>y composition 7ab\t #de vols4 ,h1 #dj vols4 ,,*#d1 #e vols4 ,,co1 & #e vols4 ,n71 ab\t #ab1jjj2 7#g7 produc] gas 7see next ,*apt]71 conta9+ #b vols4 c>bonic anhydride1 #cj vols4 c>bonic oxide1 & #fh vols4 nitrog5 = "o "p by weight ( ! :ole c>bon burnt1 #e1cjj1 & = "o "p by weight ( ! gas1 #iaj1 units ( heat2 & 7#h7 wat] gas 7see next *apt]7 conta9+ #d vols4 c>bonic anhydride1 #h vols4 ,n#b1 #bd vols4 c>bonic oxide1 & #df vols4 ,h#b1 = "o "p by weight ( ! c>bon consum$ 9 ! g5]ator #aj1ijj1 & = "o "p by weight ( ! gas1 #c1fjj units ( heat4 ,9 ^! figures1 z 9 all calorimetric obs]vations1 ! wat] produc$ by ! combu/ion ( ! fuel is suppos$ to be liquid4 ,z reg>ds ! temp]ature rea*$ by ! fuel1 x is important to rem>k t = solid fuel x is indisp5sable to admit 7to ensure complete combu/ion7 twice ! am\nt ( air requir$1 b liquid1 or pulv]is$ fuel1 & especially gase\s fuel1 does n require an excess ( air2 !re=e1 a kilogram ( *>coal1 giv+ #h1jjj units ( heat1 requires ab\t #bd kilograms ( air 7#c kilograms ( air p] ?\s& calories7 & a kilogram ( produc] gas requires only #jgg kilogram ( air 7#jhe kilo4 ( air p] #a1jjj calories71 #a kilogram ( wat] gas ab\t #de ( air 7#abe kilo4 ( air p] #a1jjj calories74 ,!re is "o sub/ance kn[n among ! saturat$ hydroc>bons compos$ ( #a atom ( c>bon & #d atoms ( hydrog52 ?is is a comp\nd conta9+ ! highe/ p]c5tage ( hydrog5 7,,*#d conta9s #be p] c5t4 ( hydrog571 & at ! same "t x is ! only hydroc>bon ^: molecule conta9s b a s+le atom ( c>bon4 ,?is saturat$ hydroc>bon1 ,,*#d1 is call$ m>% gas or me?ane4 ,if vegetable or animal refuse suff]s decomposition 9 a space :]e ! air has n free access1 or no access at all1 !n ! decomposition is accompani$ ) ! =mation ( m>% gas1 & ?is ei!r at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 or at a comp>atively mu* high] "o4 ,on ?is acc\nt plants1 :5 decompos+ "u wat] 9 m>%es1 give out ?is gas4#bi bis ,x is well kn[n t if ! mud 9 bogs be /irr$ up1 ! act is accompani$ ) ! evolution ( a l>ge quantity ( gas bubbles2 ^! may1 al?\gh sl[ly1 also sep>ate ( _! own accord4 ,! gas :i* is evolv$ consi/s pr9cipally ( m>% gas4#cj ,if wood1 coal1 or _m o!r vegetable or animal sub/ances are decompos$ by ! action ( heat )\t access ( air--t is1 are subject$ to dry di/illation--!y1 9 addition to _m o!r gase\s products ( decomposition 7c>bonic anhydride1 hydrog51 & v>i\s o!r sub/ances71 evolve a great deal ( me?ane4 ,g5]ally ! gas :i* is us$ = light+ purposes is obta9$ by ?is means & !re=e always conta9s m>% gas1 mix$ ) dry hydrog5 & o!r vap\rs & gases1 al?\gh x is subsequ5tly purifi$ f _m ( !m4#ca ,z ! decomposition ( ! organic matt]1 :i* =ms coal1 is /ill go+ on und]gr\nd1 ! evolution ( l>ge quantities ( m>% gas frequ5tly occurs 9 coal-m9es4#cb ,:5 mix$ ) air x =ms an explosive mixture1 :i* =ms "o ( ! great dang]s ( coal m9+1 z subt]ranean "w has always to be c>ri$ on by lamp-light4 ,?is dang] is1 h[ev]1 ov]come by ! use ( ,humphry ,davy's safety lamp4#cc ,sir ,humphry ,davy obs]v$ t on introduc+ a piece ( wire gauze into a flame1 x absorbs s mu* heat t combu/ion does n proce$ beyond x 7! unburnt gases :i* pass ?r\gh x may be ignit$ on ! o!r side74 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 ! flame ( ! ,davy lamp is surr\nd$ ) a ?ick glass 7z %[n 9 ! draw+71 & has no communication :atev] ) ! explosive mixture except ?r\gh a wire gauze :i* prev5ts x ignit+ ! mixture ( ! m>%-gas issu+ f ! coal ) air4 ,9 "s di/ricts1 p>ticul>ly 9 ^? :]e petroleum is f\nd--z1 = in/ance1 ne> ,baku1 :]e a temple ( ! ,indian fire-wor%ipp]s 0 built1 & 9 ,p5nsylvania1 & o!r places--m>% gas 9 abundance issues f ! e>?1 & x is us$1 l coal gas1 = ! purposes ( light+ & w>m+4#cd ,tol]ably pure m>% gas#ce may be obta9$ by heat+ a mixture ( an acetate ) an alkali4 ,acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b1 on be+ heat$ is decompos$ into m>% gas & c>bonic anhydride1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b ,,*#d ,,co#b4 #bi bis ,manure :i* decomposes "u ! action ( bact]ia gives (f ,,co#b & ,,*#d4 #cj ,x is easy to collect ! gas :i* is evolv$ 9 m>%y places if a glass bottle be inv]t$ 9 ! wat] & a funnel put into x 7bo? fill$ ) wat]72 if ! mud ( ! bottom be n[ agitat$1 ! bubbles :i* rise may be easily caught by ! inv]t$ funnel4 #ca ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,g5]al view ( gas works4 ,b1 retorts2 f1 hydraulic ma92 ,h & ,i1 t> well2 i1 cond5s]s2 ,l1 purifi]s2 ,p1 ga%old]4 ,illum9at+ gas is g5]ally prep>$ by heat+ gas coal 7see ,note #f7 9 oval cyl9drical horizontal ca/-iron or clay retorts4 ,sev]al su* retorts ,,bb 7fig4 #eh7 are dispos$ 9 ! furnace ,a1 & heat$ toge!r4 ,:5 ! retorts are heat$ to a r$ heat1 lumps ( coal are ?r[n into !m1 & !y are !n clos$ ) a closely fitt+ cov]4 ,! illu/ration %[s ! furnace1 ) five retorts4 ,coke 7see ,note #a1 dry di/illation7 rema9s 9 ! retorts1 & ! volatile products 9 ! =m ( vap\rs & gases travel along ! pipe d1 ris+ f ea* retort4 ,^! pipes bran* above ! /ove1 & communicate ) ! receiv] f 7hydraulic ma97 plac$ above ! furnace4 ,^? products ( ! dry di/illation :i* mo/ easily pass f ! gase\s into ! liquid & solid /ates collect 9 ! hydraulic ma94 ,f ! hydraulic ma9 ! vap\rs & gases travel along ! pipe g & ! s]ies ( v]tical pipes j 7:i* are sometimes cool$ by wat] trickl+ ov] ! surface71 :]e ! vap\rs & gases cool f ! contact ( ! cold] surface1 & a fre% quantity ( vap\r cond5ses4 ,! cond5s$ liquids pass f ! pipes g & j & into ! tr\ghs ,h4 ,^! tr\ghs always conta9 liquid at a con/ant level 7! excess fl[+ away7 s t ! gas _c escape1 & ?us !y =m1 z x is t]m$1 a hydraulic jo9t4 ,9 ! /ate 9 :i* x leaves ! cond5s]s ! gas consi/s pr9cipally ( ! foll[+ vap\rs & gases3 7#a7 vap\r ( wat]1 7#b7 ammonium c>bonate1 7#c7 liquid hydroc>bons1 7#d7 hydrog5 sulphide1 ,h#b,s1 7#e7 c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b1 7#f7 c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 7#g7 sulphur\s anhydride1 ,,s#b1 b a great "p ( ! illum9at+ gas consi/s ( 7#h7 hydrog51 7#i7 m>% gas1 7#aj7 olefiant gas1 ,c#b;,h#d1 & o!r gase\s hydroc>bons4 ,! hydroc>bons 7#c1 #i1 & #aj71 ! hydrog51 & c>bonic oxide are capable ( combu/ion1 & are useful compon5t p>ts1 b ! c>bonic anhydride1 ! hydrog5 sulphide1 & sulphur\s anhydride1 z well z ! vap\rs ( ammonium c>bonate1 =m an injuri\s admixture1 because !y d n burn 7,,co#b1 ,,s#b7 & l[] ! temp]ature & brilliancy ( ! flame1 or else1 al?\gh capable ( burn+ 7= example1 ,h#b,s1 ,,cs#b1 & o!rs71 !y give out dur+ combu/ion sulphur\s anhydride :i* has a disagreeable smell1 is injuri\s :5 inhal$1 & spoils _m surr\nd+ objects4 ,9 ord] to sep>ate ! injuri\s products1 ! gas is wa%$ ) wat]1 a cyl9d] 7n %[n 9 ! illu/ration7 fill$ ) coke cont9ually moi/5$ ) wat] s]v+ = ?is purpose4 ,! wat] com+ into contact ) ! gas dissolves ! ammonium c>bonate2 hydrog5 sulphide1 c>bonic anhydride1 & sulphur\s anhydride1 be+ only p>tly soluble 9 wat]1 h to be got rid ( by a special means4 ,= ?is purpose ! gas is pass$ ?r\gh moi/ lime or o!r alkal9e liquid1 z ! above-m5tion$ gases h acid prop]ties & are !re=e reta9$ by ! alkali4 ,9 ! case ( lime1 calcium c>bonate1 sulphite & sulphide1 all solid sub/ances1 are =m$4 ,x is necess>y to r5ew ! purify+ mat]ial z its absorb+ p[] decreases4 ,a mixture ( lime & sulphate ( iron1 ,fe,s,o#d1 acts /ill bett]1 because ! latt]1 ) lime1 ,ca7,,ho7#b1 =ms f]r\s hydroxide1 ,fe7,,ho7#b & gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d4 ,! suboxide 7p>tly turn+ into oxide7 ( iron absorbs ,h#b,s1 =m+ ,fe,s & ,h#b,o1 & ! gypsum reta9s ! rema9d] ( ! ammonia1 ! excess ( lime absorb+ c>bonic anhydride & sulphuric anhydride4 ,9 ,engli% works a native hydrat$ f]ric hydroxide is us$ = remov+ hydrog5 sulphide4 ,?is purification ( ! gas takes place 9 ! app>atus ,l1 :]e ! gas passes ?r\gh p]=at$ trays m1 cov]$ ) sawdu/ mix$ ) lime & sulphate ( iron4 ,x is necess>y to rem>k t 9 ! manufacture ( gas x is indisp5sable to draw (f ! vap\rs f ! retorts1 s t !y %\ld n rema9 !re long 7o!rwise ! hydroc>bons w\ld 9 a consid]able degree be resolv$ into *>coal & hydrog571 & also to avoid a great pressure ( gas 9 ! app>atus1 o!rwise a quantity ( gas w\ld escape at all cracks su* z mu/ inevitably exi/ 9 su* a complicat$ arrangem5t4 ,= ?is purpose !re are special pumps 7exhau/]s7 s regulat$ t !y only pump (f ! quantity ( gas =m$ 7! pump is n %[n 9 ! illu/ration74 ,! purifi$ gas passes ?r\gh ! pipe n into ! gasomet] 7ga%old]7 ,p1 a dome made ( iron plate4 ,! edges ( ! dome dip into wat] p\r$ into a r+-%ap$ *annel g1 9 :i* ! sides ( ! dome rise & fall4 ,! gas is collect$ 9 ?is hold]1 & di/ribut$ to its de/9ation by pipes communicat+ ) ! pipe o1 issu+ f ! dome4 ,! pressure ( ! dome on ! gas enables x1 on issu+ f a long pipe1 to p5etrate ?r\gh ! small ap]ture ( ! burn]4 ,a hundr$ kilograms ( coal give ab\t #bj to #cj cubic metres ( gas1 hav+ a d5sity f f\r to n9e times great] ?an t ( hydrog54 ,a cubic metre 7#a1jjj litres7 ( hydrog5 weighs ab\t #hg grams2 !re=e #ajj kilograms ( coal give ab\t #ah kilograms ( gas1 or ab\t "o-six? ( its weight4 ,illum9at+ gas is g5]ally light] ?an m>% gas1 z x conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( hydrog51 & is only heavi] ?an m>% gas :5 x conta9s mu* ( ! heavi] hydroc>bons4 ,?us olefiant gas1 ,c#b;,h#d1 is f\rte5 times1 & ! vap\rs ( b5z5e ?irty-n9e times1 heavi] ?an hydrog51 & illum9at+ gas sometimes conta9s #ae p4c4 ( its volume ( !m4 ,! brilliancy ( ! flame ( ! gas increases ) ! quantity ( olefiant gas & simil> heavy hydroc>bons1 z x !n conta9s m c>bon = a giv5 volume & a great] numb] ( c>bon p>ticles are sep>at$4 ,gas usually conta9s f #ce to #fj p4c4 ( its volume ( m>% gas1 f #cj to #ej p4c4 ( hydrog51 f #c to #e p4c4 ( c>bonic oxide1 f #b to #aj p4c4 heavy hydroc>bons1 & f #c to #aj p4c4 ( nitrog54 ,wood gives almo/ ! same sort ( gas z coal & almo/ ! same quantity1 b ! wood gas conta9s a great deal ( c>bonic anhydride1 al?\gh on ! o!r h& !re is an almo/ complete abs5ce ( sulphur comp\nds4 ,t>1 oils1 naph?a1 & su* mat]ials furni% a l>ge quantity ( good illum9at+ gas4 ,an ord9>y burn] ( #h to #ab c&le-p[] burns #e to #f cubic feet ( coal gas p] h\r1 b only #a cubic foot ( naph?a gas4 ,"o pood 7#cf lbs4 ,eng47 ( naph?a gives #ejj cubic feet ( gas--t is1 "o kilogram ( naph?a produces ab\t "o cubic metre ( gas4 ,! =mation ( combu/ible gas by heat+ coal 0 discov]$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury1 b only put into practice t[>ds ! end by ,le-,bon 9 ,france & ,murdo* 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,murdo*1 toge!r ) ! r5[n$ ,watt1 built ! fir/ gas works 9 #ahje4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,bl[pipe4 ,air is bl[n 9 at ! trumpet-%ap$ m\?piece1 & escapes 9 a f9e /ream f ! plat9um jet plac$ at ! extremity ( ! side tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,davy safety-lamp4 ,mod]n =m4 ,9 practice illum9at+ gas is n only us$ = light+ 7electricity & k]os5e are *eap] 9 ,russia71 b also z ! motive p[] = gas eng9es 7see p4 #age71 :i* consume ab\t half a cubic metre p] horse-p[] p] h\r2 gas is also us$ 9 laboratories = heat+ purposes4 ,:5 x is necess>y to conc5trate ! heat1 ei!r ! ord9>y bl[pipe 7fig4 #ei7 is appli$1 plac+ ! end 9 ! flame & bl[+ ?r\gh ! m\?piece2 or1 9 o!r =ms1 gas is pass$ ?r\gh ! bl[pipe2 :5 a l>ge1 hot1 smokeless flame is requir$ = heat+ crucibles or glass-bl[+1 a foot-bl[] is us$4 ,high temp]atures1 :i* are (t5 requir$ = laboratory & manufactur+ purposes1 are mo/ easily atta9$ by ! use ( gase\s fuel 7illum9at+ gas1 produc] gas1 & wat] gas1 :i* w be treat$ ( 9 ! foll[+ *apt]71 because complete combu/ion may be effect$ )\t an access ( air4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ord] to obta9 high temp]atures means mu/ be tak5 to dim9i% ! loss ( heat by radiation1 & to ensure p]fect combu/ion4 #cb ,! gas :i* is set free 9 coal m9es conta9s a good deal ( nitrog51 "s c>bonic anhydride1 & a l>ge quantity ( m>% gas4 ,! be/ means ( avoid+ an explosion consi/s 9 effici5t v5tilation4 ,x is be/ to light coal m9es ) electric lamps4 #cc ,! ,davy lamp1 ( :i* an improv$ =m is repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ figure1 is us$ = light+ coal & o!r m9es :]e combu/ible gas is f\nd4 ,! wick ( ! lamp is enclos$ 9 a ?ick glass cyl9d] :i* is firmly held 9 a metallic hold]4 ,ov] ?is a metallic cyl9d] & ! wire gauze are plac$4 ,! products ( combu/ion pass ?r\gh ! gauze1 & ! air ent]s ?r\gh ! space betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! wire gauze4 ,to ensure great] safety ! lamp _c be op5$ )\t ext+ui%+ ! flame4 #cd ,9 ,p5nsylvania 7beyond ! ,alleghany m\nta9s7 _m ( ! %afts sunk = petroleum only emitt$ gas1 b _m useful applications = x 7 f\nd & x 0 conduct$ 9 metallic pipes to works hundr$s ( miles di/ant1 pr9cipally = metallurgical purposes4 #ce ,! pure/ gas is prep>$ by mix+ ! liquid sub/ance call$ z9c me?yl1 ,zn7,,*#c7b1 ) wat]1 :5 ! foll[+ reaction occurs3 ,zn7,,*#c7b #b;,,hoh ,zn7,,ho7#b #b;,,*#c;,h4 ,an alkali--= in/ance1 ,na,h,o--gives ) acetic acid a salt1 ,c#b;,h#c,na,o#b1 :i* on decomposition reta9s c>bonic anhydride1 =m+ a c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 & m>% gas is giv5 (f3 ,c#b;,h#c,na,o#b ,na,h,o ,na#b;,,co#c ,,*#d ,m>% gas is difficult to liquefy2 x is almo/ insoluble 9 wat]1 & is )\t ta/e or smell4 ,! mo/ important po9t 9 connection ) its *emical reactions is t x does n comb9e directly ) any?+1 :il/ ! o!r hydroc>bons :i* conta9 less hydrog5 ?an express$ by ! =mula ,cn,h#bn #b are capable ( comb9+ ) hydrog51 *lor9e1 c]ta9 acids1 c4 ,if ! law ( sub/itution gives a v simple explanation ( ! =mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide z a comp\nd conta9+ two aque\s residues 7,,oh77,,oh71 !n on ! basis ( ?is law all hydroc>bons ought to be d]iv$ f me?ane1 ,,*#d1 z be+ ! simple/ hydroc>bon4#cf ,! increase 9 complexity ( a molecule ( me?ane is br\ght ab\t by ! faculty ( mutual comb9ation :i* exi/s 9 ! atoms ( c>bon1 &1 z a consequ5ce ( ! mo/ detail$ /udy ( ! subject1 mu* t might h be5 =ese5 & conjectur$ f ! law ( sub/itution has be5 actually br\ght ab\t 9 su* a mann] z might h be5 pr$ict$1 & al?\gh ?is subject on acc\nt ( its magnitude really belongs1 z has be5 already /at$1 to ! sph]e ( organic *emi/ry1 x has be5 allud$ to "h 9 ord] to %[1 al?\gh only 9 "p1 ! be/ inve/igat$ example ( ! application ( ! law ( sub/itution4 ,accord+ to ?is law1 a molecule ( me?ane1 ,,*#d1 is capable ( und]go+ sub/itution 9 ! f\r foll[+ ways3--7#a7 ,me?yl sub/itution1 :5 ! radicle1 equival5t to hydrog51 call$ me?yl ,,*#c1 replaces hydrog54 ,9 ,,*#d ?is radicle is comb9$ ) ,h & !re=e c replace x1 z 7,,oh7 replaces ,h because ) x x gives wat]2 7#b7 me?yl5e sub/itution1 or ! ex*ange betwe5 ,h#b & ,,*#b 7?is radicle is call$ me?yl5e71 is f\nd$ on a simil> division ( ! molecule ,,*#d into two equival5t p>ts1 ,h#b & ,,*#b2 7#c7 acetyl5e sub/itution1 or ! ex*ange betwe5 ,,* on ! "o h& & ,h#c on ! o!r2 & 7#d7 c>bon sub/itution--t is1 ! sub/itution ( ,h#d by an atom ( c>bon ,c1 :i* is f\nd$ on ! law ( sub/itution j z is ! me?yl sub/itution4 ,^! f\r cases ( sub/itution r5d] x possible to und]/& ! pr9cipal relations ( ! hydroc>bons4 ,= in/ance1 ! law ( ev5 numb]s is se5 f ! fact t 9 all ! cases ( sub/itution m5tion$ ! hydrog5 atoms increase or decrease by an ev5 numb]2 b z 9 ,,*#d !y are likewise ev51 x foll[s t no matt] h[ _m sub/itutions are effect$ !re w always be obta9$ an ev5 numb] ( hydrog5 atoms4 ,:5 ,h is replac$ by ,,*#c !re is an increase ( ,,*#b2 :5 ,h#b is replac$ by ,,*#b !re is no increase ( hydrog52 9 ! acetyl5e sub/itution ,,* replaces ,h#c1 !re=e !re is an increase ( ,c & a decrease ( ,h#b2 9 ! c>bon sub/itution !re is a decrease ( ,h#d4 ,9 a simil> way ! law ( limit may be d$uc$ z a coroll>y ( ! law ( sub/itution4 ,= ! l>ge/ possible quantity ( hydrog5 is introduc$ by ! me?yl sub/itution1 s9ce x leads to ! addition ( ,,*#b2 />t+ f ,,*#d we obta9 ,c#b;,h#f1 ,c#c;,h#h1 & 9 g5]al1 ,cn,h#bn#b1 & ^! conta9 ! greate/ possible am\nt ( hydrog54 ,unsaturat$ hydroc>bons1 conta9+ less hydrog51 are evid5tly only =m$ :5 ! increase ( ! new molecule d]iv$ f me?ane proce$s f "o ( ! o!r =ms ( sub/itution4 ,:5 ! me?yl sub/itution alone takes place 9 me?ane1 ,,*#d1 x is evid5t t ! saturat$ hydroc>bon =m$ is ,c#b;,h#f or 7,,*#c77;,,*#c74cg ,?is is call$ e?ane4 ,by means ( ! me?yl5e sub/itution alone1 e?yl5e1 ,c#b;,h#d1 or 7,,*#b77;,,*#b7 may be directly obta9$ f ,,*#d1 & by ! acetyl5e sub/itution ,c#b;,h#b or 7,,*77,,*71 or acetyl5e1 bo? ! latt] be+ unsaturat$ hydroc>bons4 ,?us we h all ! possible hydroc>bons ) two atoms ( c>bon 9 ! molecule1 ,c#b;,h#f1 e?ane1 ,c#b;,h#d1 e?yl5e1 & ,c#b;,h#b1 acetyl5e4 ,b 9 !m1 accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 ! same =ms ( sub/itution may be repeat$--t is1 ! me?yl1 me?yl5e1 acetyl5e1 & ev5 c>bon sub/itutions 7because ,c#b;,h#f w /ill conta9 hydrog5 :5 ,c replaces ,h#d7 & !re=e fur!r sub/itutions w s]ve z a s\rce = ! production ( a fre% s]ies ( saturat$ & unsaturat$ hydroc>bons1 conta9+ m & m c>bon 9 ! molecule &1 9 ! case ( ! acetyl5e sub/itution & c>bon sub/itution1 conta9+ less & less hydrog54 ,?us by means ( ! law ( sub/itution we c =esee n only ! limit ,cn,h#bn#b1 b an unlimit$ numb] ( unsaturat$ hydroc>bons1 ,cn,h#bn1 ,cn,h#bn-#b 444 ,cn,h#b7n-m71 :]e m v>ies f #j to n-#a1ch & :]e n increases indef9itely4 ,f ^! facts n only does ! exi/5ce ( a multitude ( polym]ic hydroc>bons1 diff]+ 9 molecul> weight1 become intelligible1 b x is also se5 t !re is a possibility ( cases ( isom]ism ) ! same molecul> weight4 ,?is polym]ism s common to hydroc>bon comp\nds is already app>5t 9 ! fir/ unsaturat$ s]ies ,cn,h#bn1 because all ! t]ms ( ?is s]ies ,c#b;,h#d1 ,c#c;,h#f1 ,c#d;,h#h 444 ,c#cj;,h#fj 444 h "o & ! same composition ,,*#b1 b diff]5t molecul> weights1 z has be5 already expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,! diff]5ces 9 ! vap\r d5sity1 boil+ po9ts1 & melt+ po9ts1 ( ! quantities ent]+ into reactions1#ci & ! me?ods ( prep>ation#dj also s cle>ly tally ) ! conception ( polym]ism1 t ?is example w always be ! cle>e/ & mo/ conclusive = ! illu/ration ( polym]ism & molecul> weight4 ,su* a case is also met ) among o!r hydroc>bons4 ,?us b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 & c9nam5e1 ,c#h;,h#h1 correspond ) ! composition ( acetyl5e or to a comp\nd ( ! composition ,,*4#da ,! fir/ boils at #ha1 ! second at #add2 ! specific gravity ( ! fir/ is #jhii2 t ( ! second1 #jibe1 at #j--t is1 "h also ! boil+ po9t rises ) ! increase ( molecul> weight1 & s also1 z might be expect$1 does ! d5sity4 #cf ,me?yl5e1 ,,*#b1 does n exi/4 ,:5 attempts are made to obta9 x 7= example1 by remov+ ,x#b f ,,*#b,x#b71 ,c#b;,h#d or ,c#c;,h#f are produc$--t is to say1 x und]goes polym]isation4 #cg ,al?\gh ! me?ods ( =mation & ! reactions connect$ ) hydroc>bons are n describ$ 9 ?is "w1 because !y are dealt ) 9 organic *emi/ry1 yet 9 ord] to cle>ly %[ ! me*anism ( ^? trans=mations by :i* ! c>bon atoms are built up into ! molecules ( ! c>bon comp\nds1 we "h give a g5]al example ( reactions ( ?is k9d4 ,f m>% gas1 ,,*#d1 on ! "o h& ! sub/itution ( *lor9e or iod9e1 ,,*#c;,cl1 ,,*#c;,i1 = ! hydrog5 may be effect$1 & on ! o!r h& su* metals z sodium may be sub/itut$ = ! hydrog51 e4g4 ,,*#c,na4 ,^! & simil> products ( sub/itution s]ve z a means ( obta9+ o!r m complex sub/ances f giv5 c>bon comp\nds4 ,if we place ! two above-nam$ products ( sub/itution ( m>% gas 7metallic & haloid7 9 mutual contact1 ! metal comb9es ) ! halog51 =m+ a v /able comp\nd--namely1 common salt1 ,na,cl1 & ! c>bon gr\ps :i* 7 9 comb9ation ) !m sep>ate 9 mutual comb9ation1 z %[n by ! equation3 ,,*#c;,cl ,,*#c,na ,na,cl ,c#b;,h#f4 ,?is is ! mo/ simple example ( ! =mation ( a complex hydroc>bon f ^! radicles4 ,! cause ( ! reaction mu/ be s\ght = 9 ! prop]ty :i* ! haloid 7*lor9e7 & sodium h ( ent]+ into mutual comb9ation4 #ch ,:5 m n-#a1 we h ! s]ies ,cn,h#b4 ,! l[e/ memb] is acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b4 ,^! are hydroc>bons conta9+ a m9imum am\nt ( hydrog54 #ci ,= in/ance1 e?yl5e1 ,c#b;,h#d1 comb9es ) ,br#b1 ,,hi1 ,h#b,,s#d1 z a :ole molecule1 z also does amyl5e1 ,c#e;,h#aj1 &1 9 g5]al1 ,cn,h#bn4 #dj ,= in/ance1 e?yl5e is obta9$ by remov+ ! wat] f e?yl alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e7,,oh71 & amyl5e1 ,c#e;,h#aj1 f amyl alcohol1 ,c#e;,h#aa7,,oh71 or 9 g5]al ,cn,h#bn1 f ,cn,h#bn#a7,,oh74 #da ,acetyl5e & its polym]ides h an empirical composition ,,*1 e?yl5e & its homologues 7& polym]ides7 ,,*#b1 e?ane ,,*#c1 me?ane ,,*#d4 ,?is s]ies pres5ts a good example ( ! law ( multiple proportions1 b su* div]se proportions are met ) betwe5 ! numb] ( atoms ( ! c>bon & hydrog5 9 ! hydroc>bons already kn[n t ! accuracy ( ,dalton's law might be d\bt$4 ,?us ! sub/ances ,c#cj;,h#fb & ,c#cj;,h#fj diff] s slightly 9 _! composition by weight z to be )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error1 b _! reactions & prop]ties are s di/9ct t !y c be di/+ui%$ beyond a d\bt4 ,)\t ,dalton's law *emi/ry c\ld n h be5 br\ght to its pres5t condition1 b x _c alone express all ^? gradations :i* are q cle>ly und]/ood & pr$ict$ by ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4 ,cases ( isom]ism 9 ! re/rict$ s5se ( ! ^w--t is1 :5 ) an id5tity ( composition & ( molecul> weight1 ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ances are diff]5t--are v num]\s among ! hydroc>bons & _! d]ivatives4 ,su* cases are p>ticul>ly important = ! compreh5sion ( molecul> /ructure & !y also1 l ! polym]ides1 may be pr$ict$ f ! above-m5tion$ conceptions1 express+ ! pr9ciples ( ! /ructure ( ! c>bon comp\nds#db bas$ on ! law ( sub/itution4 ,accord+ to x1 = example1 x is evid5t t !re c be no isom]ism 9 ! cases ( ! saturat$ hydroc>bons ,c#b;,h#f & ,c#c;,h#h1 because ! =m] is ,,*#d1 9 :i* me?yl has tak5 ! place ( ,h1 & z all ! hydrog5 atoms ( me?ane mu/ be suppos$ to h ! same relation to ! c>bon1 x is all ! same :i* ( !m be subject$ to ! me?yl sub/itution--! result+ product c only be e?ane1 ,,*#c;,,*#c2dc ! same argum5t also applies 9 ! case ( propane1 ,,*#c;,,*#b;,,*#c1 :]e "o comp\nd only c be imag9$4 ,x is to be expect$1 h[ev]1 t !re %\ld be two butanes1 ,c#d;,h#aj1 & ?is is actually ! case4 ,9 "o1 me?yl may be consid]$ z replac+ ! hydrog5 ( "o ( ! me?yls1 ,,*#c;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#c2 & 9 ! o!r ,,*#c may be consid]$ z sub/itut$ = ,h 9 _/,,*#c ,,*#b1 & !re x w consi/ ( ,,*#c;,,*4 ,! latt] may ,,*#c also be reg>d$ z me?ane 9 :i* ?ree ( hydrog5 are ex*ang$ = ?ree ( me?yl4 ,on go+ fur!r 9 ! s]ies x is evid5t t ! numb] ( possible isom]ides w be /ill great]1 b we h limit$ ourselves to ! simple/ examples1 %[+ ! possibility & actual exi/5ce ( isom]ides4 ,c#b;,h#d & ,,*#b;,,*#b are1 x is evid5t1 id5tical2 b !re ought to be1 & are1 two hydroc>bons ( ! composition ,c#c;,h#f1 propyl5e & trime?yl5e2 ! fir/ is e?yl5e1 ,,*#b;,,*#b1 9 :i* "o atom ( hydrog5 is ex*ang$ = me?yl1 ,,*#b;,,**#c1 & trime?yl5e is e?ane1 ,,*#c;,,*#c1 ) ! sub/itution ( me?yl5e = two hydrog5 atoms f two me?yl gr\ps--t _/,,*#b is1 ,,*#b1dd :]e ! me?yl5e introduc$ is unit$ to bo? ,,*#b ! atoms ( c>bon 9 ,,*#c;,,*#c4 ,x is evid5t t ! cause ( isom]ism "h is1 on ! "o h&1 ! diff]5ce ( ! am\nt ( hydrog5 9 union ) ! p>ticul> atoms ( c>bon1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! diff]5t connection betwe5 ! sev]al atoms ( c>bon4 ,9 ! fir/ case !y may be said to be *a9$ toge!r 7m usually to =m an 'op5 *a9'71 & 9 ! second case1 to be lock$ toge!r 7to =m a 'clos$ *a9' or 'r+'74 ,"h also x is easily und]/ood t on increas+ ! quantity ( c>bon atoms ! numb] ( possible & exi/+ isom]ides w greatly increase4 ,if1 at ! same "t1 9 addition to ! sub/itution ( "o ( ! radicles ( me?ane = hydrog5 a fur!r ex*ange ( "p ( ! hydrog5 = "s ( ! o!r gr\ps ( elem5ts ,x1 ,y 444 occurs1 ! quantity ( possible isom]ides /ill fur!r increases 9 a consid]able degree4 ,= in/ance1 !re are ev5 two possible isom]ides = ! d]ivatives ( e?ane1 ,c#b;,h#f3 if two atoms ( ! hydrog5 be ex*ang$ = ,x#b1 "o w h ! e?yl5e /ructure1 ,,*#b,,x*#b,x1 & ! o!r an e?ylid5e /ructure1 ,,*#c;,,*x#b2 su* are1 = in/ance1 e?yl5e *loride1 ,,*#b;,cl,c,h#b;,cl1 & e?ylid5e *loride1 ,,*#c;,c,h,cl#b4 ,& z 9 ! place ( ! fir/ atom ( hydrog5 n only metals may be sub/itut$1 b ,cl1 ,br1 ,i1 ,,oh 7! wat] radicle71 ,,nh#b 7! ammonia radicle71 ,,no#b 7! radicle ( nitric acid71 c41 s also 9 ex*ange = two atoms ( hydrog5 ,o1 ,,nh1 ,s1 c41 may be sub/itut$2 h5ce x w be und]/ood t ! quantity ( isom]ides is sometimes v great4 ,x is impossible "h to describe h[ ! isom]ides are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 9 :at reactions !y occur1 h[ & :5 "o *anges into ano!r1 c42 = ?is1 tak5 toge!r ) ! description ( ! hydroc>bons already kn[n1 & _! d]ivatives1 =ms a v ext5sive & v ?or\ghly inve/igat$ bran* ( *emi/ry1 call$ organic *emi/ry4 ,enri*$ ) a mass ( closely obs]v$ ph5om5a & /rictly d$uc$ g5]alisations1 ?is bran* ( *emi/ry has be5 treat$ sep>ately = ! reason t 9 x ! hydroc>bon gr\ps are subject$ to trans=mations :i* are n met ) 9 su* quantity 9 deal+ ) any ( ! o!r elem5ts or _! hydrog5 comp\nds4 ,x 0 important = u to %[ t not)/&+ ! great v>iety ( ! hydroc>bons & _! products1#de !y are all ( !m gov]n$ by ! law ( sub/itution1 & ref]r+ our read]s = detail$ in=mation to works on organic *emi/ry1 we w limit ourselves to a %ort exposition ( ! prop]ties ( ! two simple/ unsaturat$ hydroc>bons3 e?yl5e1 ,,*#b;,,*#b1 & acetyl5e1 ,,**1 & a %ort acqua9tance ) petroleum z ! natural s\rce ( a mass ( hydroc>bons4 ,e?yl5e1 or olefiant gas1 ,c#b;,h#d1 is ! l[e/ kn[n memb] ( ! unsaturat$ hydroc>bon s]ies ( ! composition ,cn,h#bn4 ,z 9 composition x is equal to two molecules ( m>% gas depriv$ ( two molecules ( hydrog51 x is evid5t t x might be1 & x actually c be1 produc$1 al?\gh b 9 small quantities1 toge!r ) hydrog51 by heat+ m>% gas4 ,on be+ heat$1 h[ev]1 olefiant gas splits up1 fir/ into acetyl5e & me?ane 7#c;,c#b;,h#d #b;,c#b;,h#b #b;,,*#d1 ,lewes1 #ahid71 & at a high] temp]ature into c>bon & hydrog52 & !re=e 9 ^? cases :]e m>% gas is produc$ by heat+1 olefiant gas1 hydrog51 & *>coal w also be =m$1 al?\gh only 9 small quantities4 ,! l[] ! temp]ature at :i* complex organic sub/ances are heat$1 ! great] ! quantity ( olefiant gas f\nd 9 ! gases giv5 (f2 at a :ite heat x is entirely decompos$ into *>coal & m>% gas4 ,if coal1 wood1 & m p>ticul>ly petroleum1 t>s1 & fatty sub/ances1 are subject$ to dry di/illation1 !y give (f illum9at+ gas1 :i* conta9s m or less olefiant gas4 #db ,! conception ( ! /ructure ( c>bon comp\nds--t is1 ! expression ( ^? unions & correlations :i* _! atoms h 9 ! molecules--0 = a long "t limit$ to ! repres5tation t organic sub/ances conta9$ complex radicles 7= in/ance1 e?yl ,c#b;,h#e1 me?yl ,,*#c1 ph5yl ,c#f;,h#e1 c472 !n ab\t ! ye> #ahdj ! ph5om5a ( sub/itution & ! correspond5ce ( ! products ( sub/itution ) ! prim>y bodies 7nuclei & types7 7 obs]v$1 b x 0 n until ab\t ! ye> #ahfj & lat] :5 on ! "o h& ! tea*+ ( ,g]h>dt ab\t molecules 0 spread+1 & on ! o!r h& ! mat]ials _h accumulat$ = discuss+ ! trans=mations ( ! simple/ hydroc>bon comp\nds1 t conjectures began to appe> z to ! mutual connection ( ! atoms ( c>bon 9 ! molecules ( ! complex hydroc>bon comp\nds4 ,!n ,kekul & ,a4 ,m4 ,butl](f began to =mulate ! connection betwe5 ! sep>ate atoms ( c>bon1 reg>d+ x z a quadrival5t elem5t4 ,al?\gh 9 _! me?ods ( expression & 9 "s ( _! views !y diff] f ea* o!r & also f ! way 9 :i* ! subject is treat$ 9 ?is "w1 yet ! ess5ce ( ! matt]--namely1 ! compreh5sion ( ! causes ( isom]ism & ( ! union betwe5 ! sep>ate atoms ( c>bon--rema9s ! same4 ,9 addition to ?is1 />t+ f ! ye> #ahgj1 !re appe>s a t5d5cy :i* f ye> to ye> increases to discov] ! actual spacial di/ribution ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules4 ,?anks to ! endeav\rs ( ,le-,bel 7#ahgd71 ,van't ,h(f 7#ahgd71 & ,wislic5us 7#ahhg7 9 obs]v+ cases ( isom]ism--su* z ! effect ( diff]5t isom]ides on ! direction ( ! rotation ( ! plane ( pol>isation ( light--?is t5d5cy promises mu* = *emical me*anics1 b ! details ( ! /ill imp]fect k 9 relation to ?is matt] mu/ be s\ght = 9 special works devot$ to organic *emi/ry4 #dc ,direct exp]im5t %[s t h[ev] ,,*#c,x is prep>$ 7:]e ,x = in/ance ,cl1 c47 x is always "o & ! same sub/ance4 ,if1 = example1 9 ,,cx#d1 ,x is gradually replac$ by hydrog5 until ,,*#c,x is produc$1 or 9 ,,*#d1 ! hydrog5 by v>i\s means is replac$ by ,x1 or else1 = in/ance1 if ,,*#c,x be obta9$ by ! decomposition ( m complex comp\nds1 ! same product is always obta9$4 ,?is 0 %[n 9 ! ye> #ahfj1 or !reab\t1 by _m me?ods1 & is ! fundam5tal conception ( ! /ructure ( hydroc>bon comp\nds4 ,if ! atoms ( hydrog5 9 me?yl 7 n absolutely id5tical 9 value & position 7z !y are n1 = in/ance1 9 ,,*#c;,,*#b;,,*#c or ,,*#c;,,*#b,x71 !n !re w\ld be z _m diff]5t =ms ( ,,*#c,x z !re 7 div]sities 9 ! atoms ( hydrog5 9 ,,*#d4 ,! scope ( ?is "w does n p]mit ( a m detail$ acc\nt ( ?is matt]4 ,x is giv5 9 works on organic *emi/ry4 #dd ,! union ( c>bon atoms 9 clos$ *a9s or r+s 0 fir/ sugge/$ by ,kekul z an explanation ( ! /ructure & isom]ism ( ! d]ivatives ( b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 =m+ aromatic comp\nds 7,note #bf74 #de ,! foll[+ are ! mo/ g5]ally kn[n ( ! oxyg5is$ b non-nitrog5\s hydroc>bon d]ivatives4 7#a7 ! alcohols4 ,^! are hydroc>bons 9 :i* hydrog5 is ex*ang$ = hydroxyl 7,,oh74 ,! simple/ ( ^! is me?yl alcohol1 ,,*#c7,,oh71 or wood _s obta9$ by ! dry di/illation ( wood4 ,! common spirits ( w9e or e?yl alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#c7,,oh71 & glycol1 ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b1 correspond ) e?ane4 ,normal propyl alcohol1 ,,*#c;,,*#b;,,*#b7,,oh71 & isopropyl alcohol1 ,,*#c;,,*7,,oh7,,*#c1 propyl5e-glycol1 ,c#c;,h#f7,,oh7#b1 & glyc]ol1 ,c#c;,h#c7,,oh7#c 7:i*1 ) /e>ic & o!r acids1 =ms fatty sub/ances71 correspond ) propane1 ,c#c;,h#h4 ,all alcohols are capable ( =m+ wat] & e!real salts ) acids1 j z alkalis =m ord9>y salts4 7#b7 ,aldehydes are alcohols m9us hydrog52 = in/ance1 acetaldehyde1 ,c#b;,h#d,o1 corresponds ) e?yl alcohol4 7#c7 ,x is simple/ to reg>d organic acids z hydroc>bons 9 :i* hydrog5 has be5 ex*ang$ = c>boxyl 7,,co#b;,h71 z w be expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,!re are a numb] ( int]m$iate comp\nds2 = example1 ! aldehyde-alcohols1 alcohol-acids 7or hydroxy-acids71 c4 ,?us ! hydroxy-acids are hydroc>bons 9 :i* "s ( ! hydrog5 has be5 replac$ by hydroxyl1 & "s by c>boxyl2 = in/ance1 lactic acid corresponds ) ,c#b;,h#f1 & has ! con/itution ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh77,,co#b;,h74 ,if to ^! products we add ! haloid salts 7:]e ,h is replac$ by ,cl1 ,br1 ,i71 ! nitro-comp\nds conta9+ ,,no#b 9 place ( ,h1 ! amides1 cyanides1 ketones1 & o!r comp\nds1 x w be readily se5 :at an imm5se numb] ( organic comp\nds !re are & :at a v>iety ( prop]ties ^! sub/ances h2 ?is we see also f ! composition ( plants & animals4 ,olefiant gas1 almo/ free f o!r gases1#df may be obta9$ f ord9>y alcohol 7if possible1 free f wat]7 if x be mix$ ) five p>ts ( /rong sulphuric acid & ! mixture heat$ to slightly above #ajj4 ,"u ^! conditions1 ! sulphuric acid removes ! elem5ts ( wat] f ! alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e7,,oh71 & gives olefiant gas2 ,c#b;,h#f,o ,h#b,o ,c#b;,h#d4 ,! great] molecul> weight ( olefiant gas comp>$ ) m>% gas indicates t x may be comp>atively easily conv]t$ into a liquid by means ( pressure or great cold2 ?is may be effect$1 = example1 by ! evaporation ( liquid nitr\s oxide4 ,its absolute boil+ po9t is #aj1 x boils at -#ajc 7#a atmosph]e71 liquefies at #j1 at a pressure ( #dc atmosph]es1 & solidifies at -#afj4 ,e?yl5e is col\rless1 has a slight e!real smell1 is slightly soluble 9 wat]1 & some:at m soluble 9 alcohol & 9 e!r 79 five volumes ( _s & six volumes ( e!r74#dg #df ,e?yl5e bromide1 ,c#b;,h#d;,br#b1 :5 g5tly heat$ 9 alcoholic solution ) f9ely divid$ z9c1 yields pure e?yl5e1 ! z9c m]ely tak+ up ! brom9e 7,sabaneyeff74 #dg ,e?yl5e decomposes some:at easily "u ! influ5ce ( ! electric sp>k1 or a high temp]ature4 ,9 ?is case ! volume ( ! gas =m$ may rema9 ! same :5 olefiant gas is decompos$ into c>bon & m>% gas1 or may increase to d\ble its volume :5 hydrog5 & c>bon are =m$1 ,c#b;,h#d ,,*#d ,c #b;,c #b;,h#b4 ,a mixture ( olefiant gas & oxyg5 is highly explosive2 two volumes ( ?is gas require six volumes ( oxyg5 = its p]fect combu/ion4 ,! eight volumes ?us tak5 !n resolve !mselves into eight volumes ( ! products ( combu/ion1 a mixture ( wat] & c>bonic anhydride1 ,c#b;,h#d #c,o#b #b;,,co#b #b;,h#b,o4 ,on cool+ aft] ! explosion dim9ution ( volume occurs because ! wat] becomes liquid4 ,= two volumes ( ! olefiant gas tak51 ! dim9ution w be equal to f\r volumes1 & ! same = m>% gas4 ,! quantity ( c>bonic anhydride =m$ by bo? gases is n ! same4 ,two volumes ( m>% gas give only two volumes ( c>bonic anhydride1 & two volumes ( e?yl5e give f\r volumes ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,l o!r unsaturat$ hydroc>bons1 olefiant gas readily ent]s into comb9ation ) c]ta9 sub/ances1 su* z *lor9e1 brom9e1 iod9e1 fum+ sulphuric acid1 or sulphuric anhydride1 c4 ,if olefiant gas be seal$ up ) a small quantity ( sulphuric acid 9 a glass vessel1 & con/antly agitat$ 7z1 = in/ance1 by atta*+ x to ! mov+ "p ( a ma*9e71 ! prolong$ contact & repeat$ mix+ causes ! olefiant gas1 little by little1 to comb9e ) ! sulphuric acid1 =m+ ,c#b;,h#d;,h#b,,s#d4 ,if1 aft] ?is absorption1 ! sulphuric acid be dilut$ ) wat] & di/ill$1 alcohol sep>ates1 :i* is produc$ 9 ?is case by ! olefiant gas comb9+ ) ! elem5ts ( wat]1 ,c#b;,h#d ,h#b,o ,c#b;,h#f,o4 ,9 ?is reaction 7,b]!lot7 we see an excell5t example ( ! fact t if a giv5 sub/ance1 l olefiant gas1 is produc$ by ! decomposition ( ano!r1 !n 9 ! rev]se way ?is sub/ance1 ent]+ into comb9ation1 is capable ( =m+ ! orig9al sub/ance--9 our example1 alcohol4 ,9 comb9ation ) v>i\s molecules1 ,x#b1 e?yl5e gives saturat$ comp\nds1 ,c#b;,h#d,x#b or ,,*#b,,x*#b,x 7= example1 ,c#b;,h#d;,cl#b71 :i* correspond ) e?ane1 ,,*#c;,,*#c or ,c#b;,h#f4dh #dh ,! homologues ( e?yl5e1 ,cn,h#bn1 are also capable ( direct comb9ation ) halog5s1 c41 b ) v>i\s degrees ( facility4 ,! composition ( ^! homologues c be express$ ?us3 7,,*#c7x7,,*#b7y7,,*7z,cr1 :]e ! sum ( x z is always an ev5 numb]1 & ! sum ( x z r is equal to half ! sum ( #cx z1 :5ce z #br x2 by ?is means ! possible isom]ides are det]m9$4 ,= example1 = butyl5es1 ,c#d;,h#h1 7,,*#c7b7;,,*7#b1 7,,*#c7b7;,,*#b7;,c1 7,,*#b77;,,*#b7b;,,*1 & 7,,*#b7d are possible4 ,acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b ,,**1 is a gas2 x 0 fir/ prep>$ by ,b]!lot 7#aheg74 ,x has a v pung5t smell1 is *>act]is$ by its great /ability "u ! action ( heat1 & is obta9$ z ! only product ( ! direct comb9ation ( c>bon ) hydrog5 :5 a lum9\s arc 7voltaic7 is =m$ betwe5 c>bon electrodes4 ,?is arc conta9s p>ticles ( c>bon pass+ f "o pole to ! o!r4 ,if ! c>bons be surr\nd$ ) an atmosph]e ( hydrog51 ! c>bon 9 "p comb9es ) ! hydrog51 =m+ ,c#b;,h#b4dh bis ,acetyl5e may be =m$ f olefiant gas if two atoms ( hydrog5 be tak5 f x4 ,?is may be effect$ 9 ! foll[+ way3 ! olefiant gas is fir/ made to comb9e ) brom9e1 giv+ ,c#b;,h#d;,br#b2 f ?is ! hydrobromic acid is remov$ by means ( an alcoholic solution ( cau/ic pota%1 leav+ ! volatile product ,c#b;,h#c;,br2 & f ?is yet ano!r "p ( hydrobromic acid is )drawn by pass+ x ?r\gh anhydr\s alcohol 9 :i* metallic sodium has be5 dissolv$1 or by heat+ x ) a /rong alcoholic solution ( cau/ic pota%4 ,"u ^! circum/ances 7,b]!lot1 ,sawits*1 ,miasnik(f7 ! alkali takes up ! hydrobromic acid f ,cn,h#bn-#a;,br1 =m+ ,cn,h#bn-#b4 #dh bis ,see also me?od ( prep>+ ,c#b;,h#b 9 ,note #ab bis4 ,acetyl5e is also produc$ 9 all ^? cases :]e organic sub/ances are decompos$ by ! action ( a high temp]ature--= example1 by dry di/illation4 ,on ?is acc\nt a c]ta9 quantity is always f\nd 9 coal gas1 & gives to x1 at all ev5ts 9 "p1 its peculi> smell1 b ! quantity ( acetyl5e 9 coal gas is v small4 ,if ! vap\r ( alcohol be pass$ ?r\gh a heat$ tube a c]ta9 quantity ( acetyl5e is =m$4 ,x is also produc$ by ! imp]fect combu/ion ( olefiant & m>% gas--= example1 if ! flame ( coal gas has n free access to air4#di ,! inn] "p ( e flame conta9s gases 9 imp]fect combu/ion1 & 9 !m "s am\nt ( acetyl5e4 #di ,?is is easily accompli%$ ) ^? gas burn]s :i* are us$ 9 laboratories & m5tion$ 9 ! ,introduction4 ,9 ^! burn]s ! gas is fir/ mix$ ) air 9 a long tube1 above :i* x is k9dl$4 ,b if x be light$ inside ! pipe x does n burn completely1 b =ms acetyl5e1 on acc\nt ( ! cool+ effect ( ! walls ( ! metallic tube2 ?is is detect$ by ! smell1 & may be %[n by pass+ ! issu+ gas 7by aid ( an aspirator7 into an ammoniacal solution ( cupr\s *loride4 ,acetyl5e1 be+ fur!r remov$ ?an e?yl5e f ! limit ,cn,h#bn#b ( hydroc>bon comp\nds1 has a /ill great] faculty ( comb9ation ?an is %[n by olefiant gas1 & !re=e c be m readily sep>at$ f any mixture conta9+ x4 ,actually1 acetyl5e n only comb9es ) "o & two molecules ( ,i#b1 ,,hi1 ,h#b,,s#d1 ,cl#b1 ,br#b1 c4444 7_m o!r unsaturat$ hydroc>bons comb9e ) !m71 b also ) cupr\s *loride1 ,cu,cl1 =m+ a r$ precipitate4 ,if a gase\s mixture conta9+ acetyl5e be pass$ ?r\gh an ammoniacal solution ( cupr\s *loride 7or silv] nitrate71 ! o!r gases d n comb9e1 b ! acetyl5e gives a r$ precipitate 7or grey ) silv]71 :i* detonates :5 /ruck ) a hamm]4 ,?is r$ precipitate gives (f acetyl5e "u ! action ( acids4 ,9 ?is mann] pure acetyl5e may be obta9$4 ,acetyl5e & its homologues also readily react ) corrosive sublimate1 ,hg,cl#b 7,k\*](f1 ,favorsky74 ,acetyl5e burns ) a v brilliant flame1 :i* is acc\nt$ = by ! comp>atively l>ge am\nt ( c>bon x conta9s4#ej #ej ,among/ ! homologues ( acetyl5e ,cn,h#bn-#b1 ! l[e/ is ,c#c;,h#d2 allyl5e1 ,,*#c;,,c*1 & all5e1 ,,*#b;,,c*#b1 are kn[n1 b ! clos$ /ructure1 ,,*#b7;,,*7#b1 is little inve/igat$4 ,! =mation & exi/5ce 9 nature ( l>ge masses ( petroleum or a mixture ( liquid hydroc>bons1 pr9cipally ( ! s]ies ,cn,h#bn #b & ,cn,h#bn is 9 _m respects rem>kable4#ea ,9 "s m\nta9\s di/ricts--z1 = in/ance1 by ! slopes ( ! ,caucasian *a91 on incl9es ly+ 9 a direction p>allel to ! range--an oily liquid issues f ! e>? toge!r ) salt wat] & hot gases 7me?ane & o!rs72 x has a t>ry smell & d>k br[n col\r1 & is light] ?an wat]4 ,?is liquid is call$ naph?a or rock oil 7petroleum7 & is obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities by s9k+ wells & deep bore-holes 9 ^? places :]e traces ( naph?a are obs]v$1 ! naph?a be+ sometimes ?r[n up f ! wells 9 f\nta9s ( consid]able height4#eb ,! evolution ( naph?a is always accompani$ by salt wat] & m>% gas4 ,naph?a has f anci5t times be5 work$ 9 ,russia 9 ! ,ap%]on p59sula ne> ,baku1 & is also n[ work$ 9 ,burmah 7,india71 9 ,galicia ne> ! ,c>pa?ians1 & 9 ,am]ica1 especially 9 ,p5nsylvania & ,canada1 c4 ,naph?a does n consi/ ( "o def9ite hydroc>bon1 b ( a mixture ( sev]al1 & its d5sity1 ext]nal appe>ance1 & o!r qualities v>y ) ! am\nt ( ! diff]5t hydroc>bons ( :i* x is compos$4 ,! light k9ds ( naph?a h a specific gravity ab\t #jh & ! heavy k9ds up to #jih4 ,! =m] are v mobile liquids1 & m volatile2 ! latt] conta9 less ( ! volatile hydroc>bons & are less mobile4 ,:5 ! light k9ds ( naph?a are di/ill$1 ! boil+ po9t tak5 9 ! vap\rs con/antly *anges1 beg9n+ at #j & go+ up to above #cej4 ,t :i* passes ov] fir/ is a v mobile1 col\rless e!real liquid 7=m+ gazol5e1 ligro91 b5zol9e1 c471 f :i* ! hydroc>bons ^: boil+ po9ts />t f #j may be extract$--namely1 ! hydroc>bons ,c#d;,h#aj1 ,c#e;,h#ab 7:i* boils at #cj71 ,c#f;,h#ad 7boils at #fb71 ,c#g;,h#af 7boils ab\t #ij71 c4 ,^? fractions ( ! naph?a di/illate :i* boil above #acj1 & conta9 hydroc>bons ) ,c#i1 ,c#aj1 ,c#aa1 c41 ent] into ! composition ( ! oily sub/ance1 univ]sally us$ = light+1 call$ k]os5e or photog5 or photonaph?al5e1 & by o!r names4 ,! specific gravity ( k]os5e is f #jgh to #jhd1 & x smells l naph?a4 ,^? products ( ! di/illation ( naph?a :i* pass (f bel[ #acj & h a specific gravity bel[ #jge1 ent] into ! composition ( light petroleum 7b5zol9e1 ligro91 petroleum _s1 c472 :i* is us$ z a solv5t = india-rubb]1 = remov+ grease spots1 c4 ,^? portions ( naph?a 7:i* c only be di/ill$ )\t *ange by means ( sup]heat$ /eam1 o!rwise !y are l>gely decompos$7 :i* boil above #bge & up to #cjj & h a specific gravity high] ?an #jhe1 =m an excell5t oil1#ec safe z reg>ds inflammability 7:i* is v important z dim9i%+ ! risks ( fire71 & may be us$ 9 lamps z an effective sub/itute = k]os5e4#ed ,^? portions ( naph?a :i* pass ov] at a /ill high] temp]ature & h a high] specific gravity ?an #ji1 :i* are f\nd 9 abundance 7ab\t #cj p4c47 9 ! ,baku naph?a1 make excell5t lubricat+ or ma*9e oils4 ,naph?a has _m important applications1 & ! naph?a indu/ry is n[ ( great comm]cial importance1 especially z naph?a & its refuse may be us$ z fuel4#ee ,:e!r naph?a 0 =m$ f organic matt] is v d\btful1 z x is f\nd 9 ! mo/ anci5t ,silurian /rata :i* correspond ) epo*s ( ! e>?'s exi/5ce :5 !re 0 little organic matt]2 x c\ld n p5etrate f ! high] to ! l[] 7m anci5t7 /rata z x floats on wat] 7& wat] p5etrates ?r\gh all /rata74 ,x !re=e t5ds to rise to ! surface ( ! e>?1 & x is always f\nd 9 highl&s p>allel to ! direction ( ! m\nta9s4#ef ,mu* m probably its =mation may be attribut$ to ! action ( wat] p5etrat+ ?r\gh ! crevasses =m$ on ! m\nta9 slopes & rea*+ to ! he>t ( ! e>?1 to t k]nel ( heat$ metallic matt] :i* mu/ be accept$ z exi/+ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,& z meteoric iron (t5 conta9s c>bon 7l ca/ iron71 s1 accept+ ! exi/5ce ( su* c>burett$ iron at unatta9able dep?s 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 x may be suppos$ t naph?a 0 produc$ by ! action ( wat] p5etrat+ ?r\gh ! crevices ( ! /rata dur+ ! upheaval ( m\nta9 *a9s1#eg because wat] ) iron c>bide ought to give iron oxide & hydroc>bons4#eh ,direct exp]im5t proves t ! s-call$ spiegeleis5 7manganif]\s iron1 ri* 9 *emically comb9$ c>bon7 :5 treat$ ) acids gives liquid hydroc>bons#ei :i* 9 composition1 appe>ance1 & prop]ties are completely id5tical ) naph?a4#fj #ea ,! saturat$ hydroc>bons pr$om9ate 9 ,am]ican petroleum1 especially 9 its m volatile p>ts2 9 ,baku naph?a ! hydroc>bons ( ! composition ,cn,h#bn =m ! ma9 "p 7,lis5ko1 ,m>kovnik(f1 ,beil/e97 b d\btless 7,m5deleff7 x also conta9s saturat$ ones1 ,cn,h#bn#b4 ,! /ructure ( ! naph?a hydroc>bons is only kn[n = ! l[] homologues1 b d\btless ! di/9ction betwe5 ! hydroc>bons ( ! ,p5nsylvanian & ,baku naph?as1 boil+ at ! same temp]ature 7aft] ! requisite ref9+ by repeat$ fractional di/illation1 :i* c be v conv5i5tly done by means ( /eam rectification--t is1 by pass+ ! /eam ?r\gh ! d5se mass71 dep5ds n only on ! pr$om9ance ( saturat$ hydroc>bons 9 ! =m]1 & naph!nes1 ,cn,h#bn1 9 ! latt]1 b also on ! div]sity ( composition & /ructure ( ! correspond+ portions ( ! di/illation4 ,! products ( ! ,baku naph?a are ri*] 9 c>bon 7!re=e 9 a suitably con/ruct$ lamp !y ought to give a bright] light71 !y are ( great] specific gravity1 & h great] int]nal friction 7& are !re=e m suitable = lubricat+ ma*9]y7 ?an ! ,am]ican products collect$ at ! same temp]ature4 #eb ,! =mation ( naph?a f\nta9s 7:i* bur/ =? aft] ! high] clay /rata cov]+ ! lay]s ( s&s impregnat$ ) naph?a h be5 bor$ ?r\gh7 is )\t d\bt caus$ by ! pressure or t5sion ( ! combu/ible hydroc>bon gases :i* accompany ! naph?a1 & are soluble 9 x "u pressure4 ,sometimes ^! naph?a f\nta9s rea* a height ( #ajj metres--= in/ance1 ! f\nta9 ( #ahhg ne> ,baku4 ,naph?a f\nta9s g5]ally act p]iodically & _! =ce dim9i%es ) ! lapse ( "t1 :i* might be expect$1 because ! gases :i* cause ! f\nta9s f9d an outlet1 z ! naph?a issu+ f ! bore-hole c>ries away ! s& :i* 0 p>tially *ok+ x up4 #ec ,?is is a s-call$ int]m$iate oil 7betwe5 k]os5e & lubricat+ oils71 sol> oil1 or pyronaph?a4 ,lamps are already be+ manufactur$ = burn+ x b /ill require improvem5t4 ,above all1 h[ev]1 x requires a m ext5d$ m>ket1 & ?is at pres5t is want+1 ow+ to ! two foll[+ reasons3 7#a7 ,^? products ( ! ,am]ican petroleum :i* are ! mo/ widely spread & almo/ univ]sally consum$ conta9 b little ( ?is int]m$iate oil1 & :at !re is is divid$ betwe5 ! k]os5e & ! lubricat+ oils2 7#b7 ! ,baku naph?a1 :i* is capable ( yield+ a great deal 7up to #cj p4c47 ( int]m$iate oil1 is produc$ 9 enorm\s quantities1 ab\t #cjj million poods1 b has no regul> m>kets abroad1 & = ! consumption 9 ,russia 7ab\t #be million poods ( k]os5e p] annum7 & = ! limit$ export 7#fj million poods p] annum7 into ,we/]n ,europe 7by ! ,trans-,caucasian ,railway7 ^? volatile & m dang]\s p>ts ( ! naph?a :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! ,am]ican petroleum are suffici5t1 al?\gh ,baku naph?a yields ab\t #be p4c4 ( su* k]os5e4 ,= ?is reason pyronaph?a is n manufactur$ 9 suffici5t quantities1 & ! :ole _w is consum+ ! unsafe k]os5e4 ,:5 a pipe l9e has be5 laid f ,baku to ! ,black ,sea 79 ,am]ica !re are _m :i* c>ry ! raw naph?a to ! sea-%ore1 :]e x is made into k]os5e & o!r products7 !n ! :ole mass ( ! ,baku naph?a w furni% safe illum9at+ oils1 :i* )\t d\bt w f9d an imm5se application4 ,a mixture ( ! int]m$iate oil ) k]os5e or ,baku oil 7specific gravity #jhd to #jhe7 may be consid]$ 7on remov+ ! b5zol9e7 to be ! be/ illum9at+ oil1 because x is safe 7fla%+ po9t f #dj to #fj71 *eap] 7,baku naph?a gives z mu* z #fj p4c4 ( ,baku oil71 & burns p]fectly well 9 lamps diff]+ b little f ^? made = burn+ ,am]ican k]os5e 7unsafe1 fla%+ po9t #bj to #cj74 #ed ,! sub/itution ( ,baku pyronaph?a1 or int]m$iate oil1 or ,baku oil 7see ,note #ec71 w\ld n only be a great advantage z reg>ds safety f fire1 b w\ld also be highly economical4 ,a ton 7#fb poods7 ( ,am]ican crude petroleum co/s at ! coa/ consid]ably m ?an #bds4 7#ab r\bles71 & yields two-?irds ( a ton ( k]os5e suitable = ord9>y lamps4 ,a ton ( raw naph?a 9 ,baku co/s less ?an #ds4 7#a r\ble #hj copecks71 & ) a pipe l9e to ! %ore ( ! ,black ,sea w\ld n co/ m ?an #h r\bles1 or #afs4 ,moreov]1 a ton ( ,baku naph?a w yield z mu* z two-?irds ( a ton ( k]os5e1 ,baku oil1 & pyronaph?a suitable = illum9at+ purposes4 #ee ,naph?a has be5 appli$ = heat+ purposes on a l>ge scale 9 ,russia1 n only on acc\nt ( ! l[ co/ ( naph?a itself & ( ! residue f ! prep>ation ( k]os5e1 b also because ! products ( all ! ,baku naph?a d n f9d an outlet = g5]al consumption4 ,naph?a itself & its v>i\s residues =m excell5t fuel1 burn+ )\t smoke & giv+ a high temp]ature 7/eel & iron may be easily melt$ 9 ! flame74 ,a hundr$ poods ( good coal 7= in/ance1 ,don coal7 us$ z fuel = heat+ boil]s are equival5t to #cf cubic feet 7ab\t #bej poods7 ( dry wood1 :ile only #gj poods ( naph?a w be requir$2 & moreov] !re is no ne$ = /ok+1 z ! liquid c be readily & ev5ly suppli$ 9 ! requir$ quantity4 ,! economic & o!r que/ions relat+ to ,am]ican & ,baku petroleums h be5 discuss$ m 9 detail 9 "s sep>ate works ( m9e 7,d4 ,m5deleff73 7#a7 ',! ,naph?a ,indu/ry ( ,p5nsylvania & ! ,caucasus1' #ahgj2 7#b7 ',:]e to ,build ,naph?a ,works1' #ahhj2 7#c7 ',on ! ,naph?a ,"q1' #ahhc2 7#d7 ',! ,baku ,naph?a ,"q1' #ahhf2 7#e7 ! article on ! naph?a indu/ry 9 ! acc\nt ( ! ,russian indu/ries pr9t$ = ! ,*icago ,exhibition4 #ef ,z dur+ ! process ( ! dry di/illation ( wood1 sea-we$1 & simil> vegetable dbris1 & also :5 fats are decompos$ by ! action ( heat 79 clos$ vessels71 hydroc>bons simil> to ^? ( naph?a are =m$1 x 0 natural t ?is fact %\ld h be5 turn$ to acc\nt to expla9 ! =mation ( ! latt]4 ,b ! hypo!sis ( ! =mation ( naph?a f vegetable dbris inevitably assumes coal to be ! *ief elem5t ( decomposition1 & naph?a is met ) 9 ,p5nsylvania & ,canada1 9 ! ,silurian & ,devonian /rata1 :i* d n conta9 coal1 & correspond to an epo* n ab\nd+ 9 organic matt]4 ,coal 0 =m$ f ! vegetable dbris ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ,jurassic1 & o!r rec5t /rata1 b judg+ m f its composition & /ructure1 x has be5 subject$ to ! same k9d ( decomposition z peat2 nor c\ld liquid hydroc>bons h be5 ?us =m$ to su* an ext5t z we see 9 naph?a4 ,if we ascribe ! d]ivation ( naph?a to ! decomposition ( fat 7adipose1 animal fat7 we enc\nt] ?ree almo/ insup]able difficulties3 7#a7 ,animal rema9s w\ld furni% a great deal ( nitrog5\s matt]1 :il/ !re is b v little 9 naph?a2 7#b7 ! enorm\s quantity ( naph?a already discov]$ z comp>$ ) ! insignificant am\nt ( fat 9 ! animal c>case2 7#c7 ! s\rces ( naph?a always runn+ p>allel to m\nta9 *a9s is completely inexplicable4 ,be+ /ruck ) ?is la/-m5tion$ circum/ance 9 ,p5nsylvania1 & f9d+ t ! s\rces 9 ! ,caucasus surr\nd ! :ole ,caucasian range 7,baku1 ,tiflis1 ,g\ria1 ,k\ban1 ,tamman1 ,groznoe1 ,dage/an71 ,i develop$ 9 #ahgf ! hypo!sis ( ! m9]al orig9 ( naph?a exp\nd$ fur!r on4 #eg ,dur+ ! upheaval ( m\nta9 ranges crevasses w\ld be =m$ at ! peaks ) op5+s upw>ds1 & at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s ) op5+s d[nw>ds4 ,^! cracks 9 c\rse ( "t fill up1 b ! y\ng] ! m\nta9s ! fre%] ! cracks 7! ,alleghany m\nta9s are1 )\t d\bt1 m anci5t ?an ! ,caucasian1 :i* 7 =m$ dur+ ! t]ti>y epo*72 ?r\gh !m wat] mu/ ga9 access deep into ! recesses ( ! e>? to an ext5t t c\ld n occur on ! level 7on pla9s74 ,! situation ( naph?a at ! foot ( m\nta9 *a9s is ! pr9cipal argum5t 9 my hypo!sis4 ,ano!r fundam5tal reason is ! consid]ation ( ! mean d5sity ( ! e>?4 ,cav5di%1 ,airy1 ,cornu1 ,boys1 & _m o!rs :o h inve/igat$ ! subject by v>i\s me?ods1 f\nd t1 tak+ wat] #a1 ! mean d5sity ( ! e>? is ne>ly #ee4 ,z at ! surface wat] & all rocks 7s&1 clay1 lime/one1 granite1 c47 h a d5sity less ?an #c1 x is evid5t 7z solid sub/ances are b slightly compressible ev5 "u ! greate/ pressure7 t inside ! e>? !re are sub/ances ( a great] d5sity--inde$1 n less ?an #g or #h4 ,:at conclusion1 !n1 c be arriv$ at8 ,any?+ heavy conta9$ 9 ! bosom ( ! e>? mu/ be di/ribut$ n only on its surface1 b ?r\gh\t ! :ole sol> sy/em1 = ev]y?+ t5ds to %[ t ! sun & planets are =m$ f ! same mat]ial1 & accord+ to ! hypo!sis ( ,laplace & ,kant x is mo/ probable1 & inde$ mu/ necess>ily be held1 t ! e>? & planets are b fragm5ts ( ! sol> atmosph]e1 :i* h _h "t to cool consid]ably & become masses semi-liquid inside & solid outside1 =m+ bo? planets & satellites4 ,! sun among/ o!r heavy elem5ts conta9s a great deal ( iron1 z %[n by spectrum analysis4 ,!re is also mu* ( x 9 an oxidis$ condition on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,meteoric /ones1 c>ri$ z fragm5t>y planets 9 ! sol> sy/em & sometimes fall+ ^u ! e>?1 consi/+ ( silice\s rocks simil> to t]re/rial ones1 (t5 conta9 ei!r d5se masses ( iron 7= example1 ! ,pallosovo iron pres]v$ 9 ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy ( ,sci5ces7 or granul> masses 7= in/ance1 ! ,okhansk meteorite ( #ahhf74 ,x is !re=e possible t ! int]ior ( ! e>? conta9s mu* iron 9 a metallic /ate4 ,?is might be anticipat$ f ! hypo!sis ( ,laplace1 = ! iron mu/ h be5 compress$ into a liquid at t p]iod :5 ! o!r compon5t p>ts ( ! e>? 7 /ill /rongly heat$1 & oxides ( iron c\ld n !n h be5 =m$4 ,! iron 0 cov]$ ) slags 7mixtures ( silicates l glass fus$ ) rocky matt]7 :i* did n all[ x to burn at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e or ( wat]1 j at t "t :5 ! temp]ature ( ! e>? 0 v high4 ,c>bon 0 9 ! same /ate2 its oxides 7 also capable ( dissociation 7,deville72 x is also b slightly volatile1 & has an aff9ity = iron1 & iron c>bide is f\nd 9 meteoric /ones 7z well z c>bon & ev5 ! diamond74 ,?us ! supposition ( ! exi/5ce ( iron c>bides 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? 0 d]iv$ by me f _m indications1 :i* are to "s ext5t confirm$ by ! fact t granul> pieces ( iron h be5 f\nd 9 "s basalts 7anci5t lava7 z well z 9 meteoric /ones4 ,! occurr5ce ( iron 9 contact ) c>bon dur+ ! =mation ( ! e>? is all ! m probable because ^? elem5ts pr$om9ate 9 nature :i* h small atomic weights1 & among !m ! mo/ widely diffus$1 ! mo/ difficultly fusible1 & !re=e ! mo/ easily cond5s$ 7,*apt] ,,xv47 are c>bon & iron4 ,!y pass$ into ! liquid /ate :5 all comp\nds 7 at a temp]ature ( dissociation4 #eh ,! foll[+ is ! typical equation = ?is =mation3 #c;,fem,cn #dm,h#b,o m,fe#c,o#d 7magnetic oxide7 ,c#en,h#hm 7see ,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #ch74 #ei ,cloez inve/igat$ ! hydroc>bons =m$ :5 ca/-iron is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & f\nd ,cn,h#bn & o!rs4 ,i treat$ cry/all9e manganif]\s ca/-iron ) ! same acid1 & obta9$ a liquid mixture ( hydroc>bons exactly simil> to natural naph?a 9 ta/e1 smell1 & reaction4 #fj ,probably naph?a 0 produc$ dur+ ! upheaval ( all m\nta9 *a9s1 b only 9 "s cases 7 ! conditions fav\rable to its be+ pres]v$ und]gr\nd4 ,! wat] p5etrat+ bel[ =m$ !re a mixture ( naph?a & wat]y vap\rs1 & ?is mixture issu$ ?r\gh fissures to ! cold p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! naph?a vap\rs1 on cond5s+1 =m$ naph?a1 :i*1 if !re 7 no ob/acles1 appe>$ on ! surface ( l& & wat]4 ,"h "p ( x soak$ ?r\gh =mations 7possibly ! bitum9\s slates1 s*i/s1 dolomites1 c41 7 ?us =m$71 ano!r "p 0 c>ri$ away on ! wat]1 became oxidis$1 evaporat$1 & 0 driv5 to ! %ores 7! ,caucasian naph?a probably 9 ?is way1 dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ! ,aralo-,caspian sea1 0 c>ri$ z f> z ! ,sisran banks ( ! ,volga1 :]e _m /rata are impregnat$ ) naph?a & products ( its oxidation resembl+ asphalt & pit*72 a great "p ( x 0 burnt 9 "o way or ano!r--t is1 gave c>bonic anhydride & wat]4 ,if ! mixture ( vap\rs1 wat]1 & naph?a =m$ inside ! e>? _h no free outlet to ! surface1 x nev]!less w\ld f9d its way ?r\gh fissures to ! sup]ior & cold] /rata1 & !re become cond5s$4 ,"s ( ! =mations 7clays7 :i* d n absorb naph?a 7 only wa%$ away by ! w>m wat]1 & =m$ mud1 :i* we also n[ obs]ve issu+ f ! e>? 9 ! =m ( mud volcanoes4 ,! neighb\rhood ( ,baku & ! :ole ( ! ,caucasus ne> ! naph?a di/ricts are full ( su* volcanoes1 :i* f "t to "t are 9 a /ate ( eruption4 ,9 old naph?a b$s 7su* z ! ,p5nsylvanian7 ev5 ^! bl[-holes are clos$1 & ! mud volcanoes h _h "t to be wa%$ away4 ,! naph?a & ! gase\s hydroc>bons =m$ ) x "u ! pressure ( ! ov]ly+ e>? & wat] impregnat$ ! lay]s ( s&1 :i* are capable ( absorb+ a great quantity ( su* liquid1 & if above ?is !re 7 /rata imp]meable to naph?a 7d5se1 clayey1 damp /rata7 ! naph?a w\ld accumulate 9 !m4 ,x is ?us pres]v$ f remote geological p]iods up to ! pres5t day1 compress$ & dissolv$ "u ! pressure ( ! gases :i* bur/ out 9 places =m+ naph?a f\nta9s4 ,if ?is be grant$1 x may be ?\ght t 9 ! comp>atively new 7geologically speak+7 m\nta9 *a9s1 su* z ! ,caucasian1 naph?a is ev5 n[ be+ =m$4 ,su* a supposition may expla9 ! rem>kable fact t1 9 ,p5nsylvania1 localities :]e naph?a _h be5 rapidly work$ = five ye>s h become exhau/$1 & x becomes necess>y to con/antly h rec\rse to s9k+ new wells 9 fre% places4 ,?us1 f ! ye> #ahei1 ! work+s 7 gradually transf]r$ along a l9e runn+ p>allel to ! ,alleghany m\nta9s = a di/ance ( m ?an #bjj miles1 :il/ 9 ,baku ! indu/ry dates f "t immemorial 7! ,p]sians work$ ne> ! village ( ,ballaghana7 & up to ! pres5t "t keeps to "o & ! same place4 ,! am\nts ( ! ,p5nsylvanian & ,baku annual outputs are at pres5t equal--namely1 ab\t #bej million poods 7#d million tons74 ,x may be t ! ,baku b$s1 z be+ ( m rec5t geological =mation1 are n s exhau/$ by nature z ^? ( ,p5nsylvania1 & p]haps 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,baku naph?a is /ill be+ =m$1 :i* is p>tially indicat$ by ! cont9u$ activity ( ! mud volcanoes4 ,z _m v>ieties ( naph?a conta9 9 solution solid slightly volatile hydroc>bons l p>aff9 & m9]al wax1 ! production ( ozoc]ite1 or m\nta9 wax1 is acc\nt$ = 9 conjunction ) ! =mation ( naph?a4 ,ozoc]ite is f\nd 9 ,galicia1 also 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,novorossisk1 9 ! ,caucasus1 & on ! isl&s ( ! ,caspian ,sea 7p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,*ilek5 & ,holy ,isl&s72 x is met ) 9 l>ge masses1 & is us$ = ! production ( p>aff9 & c]es5e1 = ! manufacture ( c&les1 & simil> purposes4 ,z ! naph?a treasures ( ! ,caucasus h h>dly be5 exploit$ 7ne> ,baku & ne> ,k\ban & ,grosnyi71 & z naph?a f9ds num]\s uses1 ! subject pres5ts mo/ int]e/+ features to *emi/s & geologi/s1 & is wor?y ( ! close att5tion ( practical m54 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,c>bon ,,) ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,nitrog5 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,dumas & ,/as' app>atus = det]m9+ ! composition ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,c>bon1 graphite1 or a diamond is plac$ 9 ! tube ,e 9 ! furnace1 & heat$ 9 a /ream ( oxyg5 displac$ f ! bottle by wat] fl[+ f ,a4 ,! oxyg5 is purifi$ f c>bonic anhydride & wat] 9 ! tubes ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,c>bonic anhydride1 toge!r ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bon monoxide1 is =m$ 9 ,e4 ,! latt] is conv]t$ into c>bonic acid by pass+ ! products ( combu/ion ?r\gh a tube ,f1 conta9+ cupric oxide heat$ 9 a furnace4 ,! cupric oxide oxidises ?is ,,co into ,,co#b1 =m+ metallic copp]4 ,! pota% bulbs ,h & tubes ,i1 ,j1 ,k reta9 ! c>bonic anhydride4 ,?us1 kn[+ ! weight ( c>bon tak5 & ! weight ( ! resultant c>bonic anhydride 7by weigh+ ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t71 ! composition ( c>bonic anhydride & ! equival5t ( c>bon may be det]m9$4 ,c>bonic anhydride 7or c>bonic acid or c>bon dioxide1 ,,co#b7 0 ! fir/ ( all gases di/+ui%$ f atmosph]ic air4 ,p>acelsus & ,van ,helmont1 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 knew t on heat+ lime/one a p>ticul> gas sep>at$1 :i* is also =m$ dur+ ! alcoholic f]m5tation ( sac*>9e solutions 7= in/ance1 9 ! manufacture ( w9e72 !y knew t x 0 id5tical ) ! gas :i* is produc$ by ! combu/ion ( *>coal1 & t 9 "s cases x is f\nd 9 nature4 ,9 c\rse ( "t x 0 f\nd t ?is gas is absorb$ by alkali1 =m+ a salt :i*1 "u ! action ( acid1 aga9 yields ?is same gas4 ,prie/ley f\nd t ?is gas exi/s 9 air1 & ,lavoisi] det]m9$ its =mation dur+ respiration1 combu/ion1 putrefaction1 & dur+ ! r$uction ( ! oxides ( metals by *>coal2 he det]m9$ its composition1 & %[$ t x only conta9s oxyg5 & c>bon4 ,b]zelius1 ,dumas ) ,/as1 & ,roscoe1 det]m9$ its composition1 %[+ t x conta9s twelve p>ts ( c>bon to ?irty-two ( oxyg54 ,! composition by volume ( ?is gas is det]m9$ f ! fact t dur+ ! combu/ion ( *>coal 9 oxyg51 ! volume rema9s un*ang$2 t is to say1 c>bonic anhydride occupies ! same volume z ! oxyg5 :i* x conta9s--t is1 ! atoms ( ! c>bon are1 s to speak1 squeez$ 9 betwe5 ! atoms ( ! oxyg54 ,o#b occupies two volumes & is a molecule ( ord9>y oxyg52 ,,co#b likewise occupies two volumes1 & expresses ! composition & molecul> weight ( ! gas4 ,c>bonic anhydride exi/s 9 nature1 bo? 9 a free /ate & 9 ! mo/ v>i$ comp\nds4 ,9 a free /ate x is always conta9$ 7,*apt] ,v47 9 ! air1 & 9 solution is 9 all k9ds ( wat]4 ,x is evolv$ f volcanoes1 f m\nta9 fissures1 & 9 "s caves4 ,! well-kn[n ,dog grotto1 ne> ,agnano on ! bay ( ,bai1 ne> ,naples1 furni%es ! be/ kn[n example ( su* an evolution4 ,simil> s\rces ( c>bonic anhydride are also f\nd 9 o!r places4 ,9 ,france1 = in/ance1 !re is a well-kn[n poison\s f\nta9 9 ,auv]gne4 ,x is a r\nd hole1 surr\nd$ ) luxuri\s vegetation & con/antly evolv+ c>bonic anhydride4 ,9 ! woods surr\nd+ ! ,la*] ,see ne> ! ,rh9e1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ext9ct volcanoes1 !re is a depression con/antly fill$ ) ?is same gas4 ,! insects :i* fly to ?is place p]i%1 animals be+ unable to brea! ?is gas4 ,! birds *as+ ! insects also die1 & ?is is turn$ to pr(it by ! local peasantry4 ,_m m9]al spr+s c>ry into ! air enorm\s quantities ( ?is gas4 ,vi*y 9 ,france1 ,sprdel 9 ,g]many1 & ,n>zan 9 ,russia 79 ,kislovodsk ne> ,piatigorsk7 are kn[n = _! c>bonat$ gase\s wat]s4 ,mu* ( ?is gas is also evolv$ 9 m9es1 cell>s1 digg+s1 & wells4 ,p desc5d+ into su* places are suffocat$4 ,! combu/ion1 putrefaction1 & f]m5tation ( organic sub/ances give rise to ! =mation ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,x is also introduc$ into ! atmosph]e dur+ ! respiration ( animals at all times & dur+ ! respiration ( plants 9 d>kness & also dur+ _! gr[?4 ,v simple exp]im5ts prove ! =mation ( c>bonic anhydride "u ^! circum/ances2 ?us1 = example1 if ! air expell$ f ! lungs be pass$ ?r\gh a glass tube into a transp>5t solution ( lime 7or b>yta7 9 wat] a :ite precipitate w soon be =m$ consi/+ ( an insoluble comp\nd ( lime & c>bonic anhydride4 ,by all[+ ! se$s ( plants to gr[ "u a bell j>1 or 9 a clos$ vessel1 ! =mation ( c>bonic anhydride may be simil>ly confirm$4 ,by conf9+ an animal1 a m\se1 = in/ance1 "u a bell j>1 ! quantity ( c>bonic acid :i* x evolves may be exactly det]m9$1 & x w he f\nd to be _m grams p] day = a m\se4 ,su* exp]im5ts on ! respiration ( animals h be5 also made ) great exactitude ) l>ge animals1 su* z m51 bulls1 %eep1 c4 ,by means ( enorm\s h]metically clos$ bell receiv]s & ! analysis ( ! gases evolv$ dur+ respiration x 0 f\nd t a man expels ab\t #ijj grams 7m ?an two p\nds7 ( c>bonic anhydride p] diem1 & absorbs dur+ ?is "t #gjj grams ( oxyg54#a ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! c>bonic anhydride ( ! air con/itutes ! fundam5tal food ( plants 7,*apt]s ,,iii41 ,v41 & ,,viii47 ,c>bonic anhydride 9 a /ate ( comb9ation ) a v>iety ( o!r sub/ances is p]haps ev5 m widely di/ribut$ 9 nature ?an 9 a free /ate4 ,"s ( ^! sub/ances are v /able & =m a l>ge portion ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,= in/ance1 lime/ones1 calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o#c1 7 =m$ z precipitates 9 ! seas exi/+ previ\sly on ! e>?2 ?is is prov$ by _! /ratifi$ /ructure & ! numb] ( rema9s ( sea animals :i* !y frequ5tly conta94 ,*alk1 li?ographic /one1 lime/one1 m>ls 7a mixture ( lime/one & clay71 & _m o!r rocks are examples ( su* s$im5t>y =mations4 ,c>bonates ) v>i\s o!r bases--su* z1 = in/ance1 magnesia1 f]r\s oxide1 z9c oxide1 c4--are (t5 f\nd 9 nature4 ,! %ells ( molluscs also h ! composition ,ca,c,o#c & _m lime/ones 7 exclusively =m$ f ! %ells ( m9ute organisms4 ,z c>bonic anhydride 7toge!r ) wat]7 is produc$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( all organic comp\nds 9 a /ream ( oxyg5 or by heat+ !m ) sub/ances :i* readily "p ) _! oxyg5--= in/ance1 ) copp] oxide--?is me?od is employ$ = e/imat+ ! am\nt ( c>bon 9 organic comp\nds1 m especially z ! ,,co#b c be easily collect$ & ! am\nt ( c>bon calculat$ f its weight4 ,= ?is purpose a h>d glass tube1 clos$ at "o end1 is fill$ ) a mixture ( ! organic sub/ance 7ab\t #jb gram7 & copp] oxide4 ,! op5 end ( ! tube is fitt$ ) a cork & tube conta9+ calcium *loride = absorb+ ! wat] =m$ by ! oxidation ( ! sub/ance4 ,?is tube is h]metically connect$ 7by a ca\t*\c tube7 ) pota% bulbs or o!r weigh+ app>atus 7,*apt] ,v47 conta9+ alkali de/9$ to absorb ! c>bonic anhydride4 ,! increase 9 weight ( ?is app>atus %[s ! am\nts ( c>bonic anhydride =m$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( ! giv5 sub/ance1 & ! quantity ( c>bon may be det]m9$ f ?is1 because ?ree p>ts ( c>bon give elev5 p>ts ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4--#fb4 ,app>atus = ! combu/ion ( organic sub/ances by ignit+ !m ) oxide ( copp]4 #a ,! quantity ( c>bonic acid gas exhal$ by a man dur+ ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs is n ev5ly produc$2 dur+ ! night m oxyg5 is tak5 9 ?an dur+ ! day 7by night1 9 twelve h\rs1 ab\t #dej grams71 & m c>bonic anhydride is sep>at$ by day ?an dur+ night-"t & repose2 ?us1 ( ! #ijj grams produc$ dur+ ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs ab\t #cge are giv5 out dur+ ! night & #ebe by day4 ,?is dep5ds on ! =mation ( c>bonic anhydride dur+ ! "w p]=m$ by ! man 9 ! day4 ,e movem5t is ! result ( "s *ange ( matt]1 = =ce _c be self-creat$ 79 accordance ) ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy74 ,proportionally to ! am\nt ( c>bon consum$ an am\nt ( en]gy is /or$ up 9 ! organism & is consum$ 9 ! v>i\s movem5ts p]=m$ by animals4 ,?is is prov$ by ! fact t dur+ "w a man exhales #ebe grams ( c>bonic anhydride 9 twelve h\rs in/ead ( #cge1 absorb+ ! same am\nt ( oxyg5 z be=e4 ,aft] a work+ day a man exhales by night almo/ ! same am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride z aft] a day ( re/1 s t dur+ a total tw5ty-f\r h\rs a man exhales ab\t #ijj grams ( c>bonic anhydride & absorbs ab\t #ihj grams ( oxyg54 ,!re=e dur+ "w ! *ange ( matt] increases4 ,! c>bon exp5d$ on ! "w is obta9$ f ! food2 on ?is acc\nt ! food ( animals ought c]ta9ly to conta9 c>bonace\s sub/ances capable ( dissolv+ "u ! action ( ! dige/ive fluids1 & ( pass+ into ! blood1 or1 9 o!r words1 capable ( be+ dige/$4 ,su* food = man & all o!r animals is =m$ ( vegetable matt]1 or ( p>ts ( o!r animals4 ,! latt] 9 e case obta9 _! c>bonace\s matt] f plants1 9 :i* x is =m$ by ! sep>ation ( ! c>bon f ! c>bonic anhydride tak5 up dur+ ! day by ! respiration ( ! plants4 ,! volume ( ! oxyg5 exhal$ by plants is almo/ equal to ! volume ( ! c>bonic anhydride absorb$2 t is to say1 ne>ly all ! oxyg5 ent]+ into ! plant 9 ! =m ( c>bonic anhydride is lib]at$ 9 a free /ate1 :il/ ! c>bon f ! c>bonic anhydride rema9s 9 ! plant4 ,at ! same "t ! plant absorbs moi/ure by its leaves & roots4 ,by a process :i* is unkn[n to u1 ?is absorb$ moi/ure & ! c>bon obta9$ f ! c>bonic anhydride ent] into ! composition ( ! plants 9 ! =m ( s-call$ c>bohydrates1 compos+ ! great] "p ( ! vegetable tissues1 />* & cellulose ( ! composition ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e be+ repres5tatives ( !m4 ,!y may be consid]$ l all c>bohydrates z comp\nds ( c>bon & wat]1 #f;,c #e;,h#b,o4 ,9 ?is way a circulation ( ! c>bon goes on 9 nature by means ( vegetable & animal organisms1 9 :i* *anges ! pr9cipal factor is ! c>bonic anhydride ( ! air4 ,= ! prep>ation ( c>bonic anhydride 9 laboratories & (t5 9 manufactories1 v>i\s k9ds ( calcium c>bonate are us$1 be+ treat$ ) "s acid2 x is1 h[ev]1 mo/ usual to employ ! s-call$ muriatic acid--t is1 an aque\s solution ( hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl--because1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! sub/ance =m$1 calcium *loride4 ,ca,cl#b1 is soluble 9 wat] & does n h9d] ! fur!r action ( ! acid on ! calcium c>bonate1 & secondly because1 z we %all see fur!r on1 muriatic acid is a common product ( *emical works & "o ( ! *eape/4 ,= calcium c>bonate1 ei!r lime/one1 *alk1 or m>ble is us$4#b ,ca,c,o#c #b;,h,cl ,ca,cl#b ,h#b,o ,,co#b4 ,! nature ( ! reaction 9 ?is case is ! same z 9 ! decomposition ( nitre by sulphuric acid2 only 9 ! latt] case a hydrate is =m$1 & 9 ! =m] an anhydride ( ! acid1 because ! hydrate1 c>bonic acid1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 is un/able & z soon z x sep>ates decomposes into wat] & its own anhydride4 ,x is evid5t f ! explanation ( ! cause ( ! action ( sulphuric acid on nitre t n e acid c be employ$ = obta9+ c>bonic anhydride2 namely1 ^? w n set x free :i* *emically are b slightly en]getic1 or ^? :i* are insoluble 9 wat]1 or are !mselves z volatile z c>bonic anhydride4#c ,b z _m acids are soluble 9 wat] & are less volatile ?an c>bonic anhydride1 ! latt] is evolv$ by ! action ( mo/ acids on its salts1 & ?is reaction takes place at ord9>y temp]atures4#d #b ,o!r acids may be us$ in/ead ( hydro*loric2 = in/ance1 acetic1 or ev5 sulphuric1 al?\gh ?is latt] is n suitable1 because x =ms z a product insoluble calcium sulphate 7gypsum7 :i* surr\nds ! unt\*$ calcium c>bonate1 & ?us prev5ts a fur!r evolution ( gas4 ,b if por\s lime/one--= in/ance1 *alk--be treat$ ) sulphuric acid dilut$ ) an equal volume ( wat]1 ! liquid is absorb$ & act+ on ! mass ( ! salt1 ! evolution ( c>bonic anhydride cont9ues ev5ly = a long "t4 ,in/ead ( calcium c>bonate o!r c>bonates may ( c\rse be us$2 = in/ance1 wa%+-soda1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 :i* is (t5 *os5 :5 x is requir$ to produce a rapid /ream ( c>bonic anhydride 7= example1 = liquefy+ x74 ,b natural cry/all9e magnesium c>bonate & simil> salts are ) difficulty decompos$ by hydro*loric & sulphuric acids4 ,:5 = manufactur+ purposes--= in/ance1 9 precipitat+ lime 9 sug>-works--a l>ge quantity ( c>bonic acid gas is requir$1 x is g5]ally obta9$ by burn+ *>coal1 & ! products ( combu/ion1 ri* 9 c>bonic anhydride1 are pump$ into ! liquid conta9+ ! lime1 & ! c>bonic anhydride is ?us absorb$4 ,ano!r me?od is also practis$1 :i* consi/s 9 us+ ! c>bonic anhydride sep>at$ dur+ f]m5tation1 or t evolv$ f limekilns4 ,dur+ ! f]m5tation ( sweet-wort1 grape-juice1 & o!r simil> sac*>9e solutions1 ! glucose ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f *anges "u ! influ5ce ( ! yea/ organism1 =m+ alcohol 7#b;,c#b;,h#f,o71 & c>bonic anhydride 7#b;,,co#b7 :i* sep>ates 9 ! =m ( gas2 if ! f]m5tation proce$s 9 clos$ bottles sp>kl+ w9e is obta9$4 ,:5 c>bonic acid gas is prep>$ = saturat+ wat] & o!r bev]ages x is necess>y to use x 9 a pure /ate4 ,:il/ 9 ! /ate 9 :i* x is evolv$ f ord9>y lime/ones by ! aid ( acids x conta9s1 besides a c]ta9 quantity ( acid1 ! organic matt]s ( ! lime/one2 9 ord] to dim9i% ! quantity ( ^! sub/ances ! d5se/ k9ds ( dolomites are us$1 :i* conta9 less organic matt]1 & ! gas =m$ is pass$ ?r\gh v>i\s wa%+ app>atus1 & !n ?r\gh a solution ( potassium p]manganate1 :i* absorbs organic matt] & does n take up c>bonic anhydride4 #c ,hypo*lor\s acid1 ,h,cl,o1 & its anhydride1 ,cl#b,o1 d n displace c>bonic acid1 & hydrog5 sulphide has ! same relation to c>bonic acid z nitric acid to hydro*loric--an excess ( ei!r "o displaces ! o!r4 #d ,?us1 9 prep>+ ! ord9>y eff]vesc+ p[d]s1 sodium bic>bonate 7or acid c>bonate ( soda7 is us$1 & mix$ ) p[d]$ citric or t>t>ic acid4 ,9 a dry /ate ^! p[d]s d n evolve c>bonic anhydride1 b :5 mix$ ) wat] ! evolution takes place briskly1 :i* is due to ! sub/ances pass+ into solution4 ,! salts ( c>bonic acid may be recognis$ f ! fact t !y evolve c>bonic acid ) a hiss+ noise :5 treat$ ) acids4 ,if v9eg>1 :i* conta9s acetic acid1 be p\r$ ^u lime/one1 m>ble1 mala*ite 7conta9+ copp] c>bonate71 c41 c>bonic anhydride is evolv$ ) a hiss+ noise4 ,x is notewor?y t nei!r hydro*loric acid1 nor ev5 sulphuric acid nor acetic acid1 acts on lime/one except 9 pres5ce ( wat]4 ,we %all ref] to ?is lat] on4 ,= ! prep>ation ( c>bonic anhydride 9 laboratories1 m>ble is g5]ally us$4 ,x is plac$ 9 a ,w\lfe's bottle & treat$ ) hydro*loric acid 9 an app>atus simil> to ! "o us$ = ! production ( hydrog54 ,! gas evolv$ c>ries away ?r\gh ! tube "p ( ! volatile hydro*loric acid1 & x is !re=e necess>y to wa% ! gas by pass+ x ?r\gh ano!r ,w\lfe's bottle conta9+ wat]4 ,if x be necess>y to obta9 dry c>bonic anhydride1 x mu/ be pass$ ?r\gh *loride ( calcium4#e #e ,! direct obs]vations made 7#ahgf7 by ,messrs4 ,bog\ski & ,kay&] lead to ! conclusion t ! quantity ( c>bonic anhydride evolv$ by ! action ( acids on m>ble 7z homog5e\s z possible7 is directly proportional to ! "t ( action1 ! ext5t ( surface1 & ! degree ( conc5tration ( ! acid1 & inv]sely proportional to ! molecul> weight ( ! acid4 ,if ! surface ( a piece ( ,c>r>a m>ble be equal to "o decimetre1 ! "t ( action "o m9ute1 & "o cubic decimetre or litre conta9s "o gram ( hydro*loric acid1 !n ab\t #jjb gram ( c>bonic anhydride w be evolv$4 ,if ! litre conta9s n grams ( hydro*loric acid1 !n by exp]im5t ! am\nt w be n #jjb ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,!re=e1 if ! litre conta9s #cfe 7 ,h,cl7 grams1 ab\t #jgc gram ( c>bonic anhydride 7ab\t half a litre7 w\ld he evolv$ p] m9ute4 ,if nitric acid or hydrobromic acid be us$ in/ead ( hydro*loric1 !n1 ) a comb9+ proportion ( ! acid1 ! same quantity ( c>bonic anhydride w be evolv$2 ?us1 if ! litre conta9s #fc 7 ,,hno#c7 grams ( nitric acid1 or #ha 7 ,h,br7 grams ( hydrobromic acid1 ! quantity ( c>bonic anhydride evolv$ w /ill be #jgc gram4 ,spr+1 9 #ahij1 made a s]ies ( simil> det]m9ations4 ,c>bonic anhydride may also be prep>$ by heat+ _m ( ! salts ( c>bonic acid2 = in/ance1 by heat+ magnesium c>bonate1 ,mg,c,o#c 7e4g41 9 ! =m ( dolomite71 ! sep>ation is easily effect$1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! pres5ce ( ! vap\rs ( wat]4 ,! acid salts ( c>bonic acid 7= in/ance1 ,na,h,c,o#c1 see fur!r on7 readily & abundantly give c>bonic anhydride :5 heat$4 ,c>bonic anhydride is col\rless1 has a slight smell & a fa9t acid ta/e2 its d5sity 9 a gase\s /ate is tw5ty-two times z great z t ( hydrog51 because its molecul> weight is =ty-f\r4#f ,x is an example ( ^? gase\s sub/ances :i* h be5 long ago trans=m$ into all ! ?ree /ates4 ,9 ord] to obta9 liquid c>bonic anhydride1 ! gas mu/ be submitt$ to a pressure ( ?irty-six atmosph]es at #j4g ,its absolute boil+ po9t #cb4h ,liquid c>bonic anhydride is col\rless1 does n mix ) wat]1 b is soluble 9 alcohol1 e!r1 & oils2 at #j its specific gravity is #jhc4h bis ,! boil+ po9t ( ?is liquid lies at -#hj--t is to say1 ! pressure ( c>bonic acid gas at t temp]ature does n exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature ! liquid rema9s z su* = "s "t "u ord9>y pressure1 on acc\nt ( its requir+ a consid]able am\nt ( heat = its evaporation4 ,if ! evaporation takes place rapidly1 especially if ! liquid issues 9 a /ream1 su* a decrease ( temp]ature occurs t a "p ( ! c>bonic anhydride is trans=m$ into a solid sn[y mass4 ,wat]1 m]cury1 & _m o!r liquids freeze on com+ into contact ) sn[-l c>bonic anhydride4#i ,9 ?is =m c>bonic anhydride may be pres]v$ = a long "t 9 ! op5 air1 because x requires /ill m heat to turn x into a gas ?an :5 9 a liquid /ate4#i bis #f ,z c>bonic anhydride is "o & a half times heavi] ?an air1 x diffuses ) difficulty1 & !re=e does n easily mix ) air1 b s9ks 9 x4 ,?is may be %[n 9 v>i\s ways2 = in/ance1 ! gas may be c>efully p\r$ f "o vessel into ano!r conta9+ air4 ,if a light$ tap] be plung$ into ! vessel conta9+ c>bonic anhydride x is ext+ui%$1 & !n1 aft] p\r+ ! gas into ! o!r cyl9d]1 x w burn 9 ! =m] & be ext+ui%$ 9 ! latt]4 ,if a c]ta9 quantity ( c>bonic anhydride be p\r$ into a vessel conta9+ air1 & soap-bubbles be introduc$1 !y w only s9k z f> z ! /ratum :]e ! atmosph]e ( c>bonic anhydride comm5ces1 z ?is latt] is heavi] ?an ! soap-bubbles fill$ ) air4 ,naturally1 aft] a c]ta9 lapse ( "t1 ! c>bonic anhydride w be diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! vessel1 & =m a uni=m mixture ) ! air1 j z salt 9 wat]4 #g ,?is liquefaction 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,f>aday1 :o seal$ up 9 a tube a mixture ( a c>bonate & sulphuric acid4 ,aft]w>ds ?is me?od 0 v consid]ably improv$ by ,?ilori] & ,natt]]1 ^: app>atus is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 9 describ+ ,n#b,o4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to rem>k t ! prep>ation ( liquid c>bonic anhydride requires good liquefy+ app>atus1 con/ant cool+1 & a rapid prep>ation ( l>ge masses ( c>bonic anhydride4 #h ,c>bonic anhydride1 hav+ ! same molecul> weight z nitr\s oxide1 v mu* resembles x :5 9 a liquid /ate4 #h bis ,:5 p\r$ into a tube1 :i* is !n seal$ up1 liquefi$ c>bonic anhydride c be easily pres]v$1 because a ?ick tube easily supports ! pressure 7ab\t #ej atmosph]es7 ex]t$ by ! liquid at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 #i ,:5 a f9e /ream ( liquid c>bonic anhydride is dis*>g$ into a clos$ metallic vessel1 ab\t "o-?ird ( its mass solidifies & ! rema9d] evaporates4 ,9 employ+ solid c>bonic anhydride = mak+ exp]im5ts at l[ temp]atures1 x is be/ to use x mix$ ) e!r1 o!rwise !re w be few po9ts ( contact4 ,if a /ream ( air be bl[n ?r\gh a mixture ( liquid c>bonic anhydride & e!r1 ! evaporation proce$s rapidly1 & great cold is obta9$4 ,at pres5t 9 "s special manufactories 7& = mak+ artificial m9]al wat]s7 c>bonic anhydride is liquefi$ on ! l>ge scale1 fill$ into wr\ght-iron cyl9d]s provid$ ) a valve1 & 9 ?is mann] x c be transport$ & pres]v$ safely = a long "t4 ,x is us$1 = in/ance1 9 brew]ies4 #i bis ,solid c>bonic anhydride1 not)/&+ its v l[ temp]ature1 c be safely plac$ on ! h&1 because x cont9ually evolves gas :i* prev5ts its com+ into actual contact ) ! sk91 b if a piece be squeez$ betwe5 ! f+]s1 x produces a sev]e fro/ bite simil> to a burn4 ,if ! sn[-l solid be mix$ ) e!r1 a semi-liquid mass is obta9$1 :i* is employ$ = artificial refrig]ation4 ,?is mixture may be us$ = liquefy+ _m o!r gases--su* z *lor9e1 nitr\s oxide1 hydrog5 sulphide1 & o!rs4 ,! evaporation ( su* a mixture proce$s ) f> great] rapidity "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 & consequ5tly ! refrig]ation is m int5se4 ,by ?is means _m gases may be liquefi$ :i* resi/ o!r me?ods--namely1 olefiant gas1 hydro*loric acid gas1 & o!rs4 ,liquid c>bonic anhydride 9 ?is case congeals 9 ! tube into a glassy transp>5t mass4 ,pictet avail$ himself ( ?is me?od = liquefy+ _m p]man5t gases 7see ,*apt] ,,ii47 ,bleekrode1 by compress+ solid ,,co#b 9 a cyl9d] by means ( a pi/on1 obta9$ a semi-transp>5t /ick1 :i* conta9$ z mu* z #ac & ev5 #af gram ( ,,co#b p] cubic c5timetre4 ,9 ?is =m ! ,,co#b sl[ly evaporat$1 & c\ld be kept = a long "t4 ,! capacity :i* c>bonic anhydride has ( be+ liquefi$ /&s 9 connection ) its consid]able solubility 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & o!r liquids4 ,its solubility 9 wat] has be5 already spok5 ( 9 ! fir/ *apt]4 ,c>bonic anhydride is /ill m soluble 9 alcohol ?an 9 wat]1 namely at #j "o volume ( alcohol dissolves #dc volumes ( ?is gas1 & at #bj #bi volumes4 ,aque\s solutions ( c>bonic anhydride1 "u a pressure ( sev]al atmosph]es1 are n[ prep>$ artificially1 because wat] saturat$ ) ?is gas promotes dige/ion & qu5*es ?ir/4 ,= ?is purpose ! c>bonic anhydride is pump$ by means ( a =ce-pump into a clos$ vessel conta9+ ! liquid1 & !n bottl$ (f1 tak+ special means to ensure rapid & air-tight cork+4 ,v>i\s eff]vesc+ dr9ks & artificially eff]vesc+ w9es are ?us prep>$4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bonic anhydride has an important significance 9 nature1 because by its means wat] acquires ! prop]ty ( decompos+ & dissolv+ _m sub/ances :i* are n act$ on by pure wat]2 = in/ance1 calcium phosphates & c>bonates are soluble 9 wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid4 ,if ! wat] 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? is saturat$ ) c>bonic acid "u pressure1 ! quantity ( calcium c>bonate 9 solution may rea* ?ree grams p] litre1 & on issu+ at ! surface1 z ! c>bonic anhydride escapes1 ! calcium c>bonate w be deposit$4#aj ,wat] *>g$ ) c>bonic anhydride br+s ab\t ! de/ruction ( _m rocky =mations by remov+ ! lime1 alkali1 c41 f !m4 ,?is process has be5 go+ on & cont9ues on an enorm\s scale4 ,rocks conta9 silica & ! oxides ( v>i\s metals2 among/ o!rs1 ! oxides ( alum9ium1 calcium1 & sodium4 ,wat] *>g$ ) c>bonic acid dissolves bo? ! latt]1 trans=m+ !m into c>bonates4 ,! wat]s ( ! ocean ought1 z ! evolution ( ! c>bonic anhydride proce$s1 to precipitate salts ( lime2 ^! are actually f\nd ev]y:]e on ! surface ( ! gr\nd 9 ^? places :i* previ\sly =m$ ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bonic anhydride 9 solution 9 wat] is ess5tial to ! n\ri%m5t & gr[? ( wat] plants4 #aj ,if su* wat] trickles ?r\gh crevices & ent]s a cav]n1 ! evaporation w be sl[1 & !re=e 9 ^? places f :i* ! wat] drips gr[?s ( calcium c>bonate w be =m$1 j l ! icicles =m$ on ! ro(-gutt]s 9 w9t]-"t4 ,simil> conical & cyl9drical /ony gr[?s =m ! s-call$ /alactites or p5dants hang+ f above & /alagmites =m$ on ! bottom ( caves4 ,sometimes ^! two k9ds meet toge!r1 =m+ entire columns fill+ ! cave4 ,_m ( ^! caves are rem>kable = _! picturesqu5ess2 = in/ance1 ! cave ( ,antip>os1 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago4 ,?is same cause also =ms spongy masses ( calcium c>bonate 9 ^? places :]e ! spr+s come to ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,x is !re=e v evid5t t a calc>e\s solution is sometimes capable ( p5etrat+ plants & fill+ ! :ole ( _! mass ) calcium c>bonate4 ,?is is "o ( ! =ms ( petrifi$ plants4 ,calcium phosphate 9 solution 9 wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid plays an important "p 9 ! n\ri%m5t ( plants1 because all plants conta9 bo? lime & phosphoric acid4 ,al?\gh c>bonic anhydride is soluble 9 wat]1 yet no def9ite hydrate is =m$2#aa nev]!less an idea ( ! composition ( ?is hydrate may be =m$ f t ( ! salts ( c>bonic acid1 because a hydrate is no?+ b a salt 9 :i* ! metal is replac$ by hydrog54 ,z c>bonic anhydride =ms salts ( ! composition ,k#b;,,co#c1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 ,h,na,c,o#c1 c41 !re=e c>bonic acid ought to h ! composition ,h#b;,,co#c--t is1 x ought to conta9 ,,co#b ,h#b,o4 ,:5ev] ?is sub/ance is =m$1 x decomposes into its compon5t p>ts--t is1 into wat] & c>bonic anhydride4 ,! acid prop]ties ( c>bonic anhydride#aa bis are demon/rat$ by its be+ directly absorb$ by alkal9e solutions & =m+ salts ) !m4 ,9 di/9ction f nitric1 ,,hno#c1 & simil> monobasic acids :i* ) unival5t metals 7ex*ang+ "o atom = "o atom ( hydrog57 give salts su* z ^? ( potassium1 sodium1 & silv] conta9+ only "o atom ( ! metal 7,na,n,o#c1 ,ag,n,o#c71 & ) bival5t#ab metals 7su* z calcium1 b>ium1 lead7 salts conta9+ two acid gr\ps--= example1 ,ca7,,no#c7b1 ,pb7,,no#c7b--;c>bonic acid1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 is bibasic1 t is conta9s two atoms ( hydrog5 9 ! hydrate or two atoms ( unival5t metals 9 _! salts3 = example1 ,na#b;,,co#c is wa%+ soda1 a normal salt2 ,na,h,c,o#c is ! bic>bonate1 an acid salt4 ,!re=e1 if ,m be a unival5t metal1 its c>bonates 9 g5]al are ! normal c>bonate ,m#b;,,co#c & ! acid c>bonate1 ,m,,hco#c2 or if ,m be a bival5t metal 7replac+ ,h#b7 its normal c>bonate w be ,m,,co#c2 ^! metals d n usually =m acid salts1 z we %all see fur!r on4 ,! bibasic "* ( c>bonic acid is ak9 to t ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1ac b ! latt]1 9 di/9ction f ! =m]1 is an example ( ! en]getic or /rong acids 7su* z nitric or hydro*loric71 :il/ 9 c>bonic acid we obs]ve b feeble developm5t ( ! acid prop]ties2 h5ce c>bonic acid mu/ be consid]$ a weak acid4 ,?is conception mu/1 h[ev]1 be tak5 z only comp>ative1 z up to ?is "t !re is no def9itely e/abli%$ rule = measur+ ! en]gy#ad ( acids4 ,! feeble acid prop]ties ( c>bonic acid may1 h[ev]1 be judg$ f ! jo9t evid5ce ( _m prop]ties4 ,) su* en]getic alkalis z soda & pota%1 c>bonic acid =ms normal salts1 soluble 9 wat]1 b hav+ an alkal9e reaction & 9 _m cases !mselves act+ z alkalis4#ae ,! acid salts ( ^! alkalis1 ,na,h,c,o#c & ,,khco#c1 h a neutral reaction on litmus1 al?\gh !y1 l acids1 conta9 hydrog51 :i* may be ex*ang$ = metals4 ,! acid salts ( su* acids--z1 = in/ance1 ( sulphuric acid1 ,na,h,s,o#d--;h a cle>ly def9$ acid reaction1 & !re=e c>bonic acid is unable to neutralise ! p[]ful basic prop]ties ( su* alkalis z pota% or soda4 ,c>bonic acid does n ev5 comb9e at all ) feeble bases1 su* z alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 & !re=e if a /rong solution ( sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 be add$ to a /rong solution ( alum9ium sulphate1 ,al#b7,,s#d7c1 al?\gh accord+ to d\ble sal9e decompositions alum9ium c>bonate1 ,al#b7;,,co#c7c1 ought to be =m$1 ! c>bonic acid sep>ates1 = ?is salt splits up 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] into alum9ium hydroxide & c>bonic anhydride3 ,al#b7;,,co#c7c #c;,h#b,o ,al#b7,,oh7#f #c;,,co#b4 ,?us feeble bases are unable to reta9 c>bonic acid ev5 at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,= ! same reason1 9 ! case ( bases ( m$ium en]gy1 al?\gh !y =m c>bonates1 ! latt] are comp>atively easily decompos$ by heat+1 z is %[n by ! decomposition ( copp] c>bonate1 ,cu,c,o#c 7see ,introduction71 & ev5 ( calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o#c4 ,only ! normal 7n ! acid7 salts ( su* p[]ful bases z potassium & sodium are capable ( /&+ a r$ heat )\t decomposition4 ,! acid salts--= in/ance1 ,na,h,c,o#c--;decompose ev5 on heat+ _! solutions 7#b,na,h,c,o#c ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o ,,co#b71 evolv+ c>bonic anhydride4 ,! am\nt ( heat giv5 out by ! comb9ation ( c>bonic acid ) bases also %[s its feeble acid prop]ties1 be+ consid]ably less ?an ) en]getic acids4 ,?us if a weak solution ( =ty grams ( sodium hydroxide be saturat$ 7up to ! =mation ( a normal salt7 ) sulphuric or nitric acid or ano!r p[]ful acid1 f ?irte5 to fifte5 ?\s& calories are giv5 out1 b ) c>bonic acid only ab\t t5 ?\s& calories4#af ,! majority ( c>bonates are insoluble 9 wat]1 & !re=e su* solutions z sodium1 potassium1 or ammonium c>bonates =m 9 solutions ( mo/ o!r salts1 ,,mx or ,m,x#b1 insoluble precipitates ( c>bonates1 ,m#b;,,co#c or ,m,,co#c4 ,?us a solution ( b>ium *loride gives ) sodium c>bonate a precipitate ( b>ium c>bonate1 ,ba,c,o#c4 ,= ?is reason rocks1 especially ^? ( aque\s orig91 v (t5 conta9 c>bonates2 = example1 calcium1 f]r\s1 or magnesium c>bonates1 c4 #aa ,! cry/allohydrate1 ,,co#b1h;,h#b,o ( ,wroblewski 7,*apt] #a41 ,note #fg71 9 ! fir/ place1 is only =m$ "u special conditions2 9 ! second place1 its exi/5ce /ill requires confirmation2 & 9 ! ?ird place1 x does n correspond ) t hydrate ,h#b;,,co#c :i* %\ld occur1 judg+ f ! composition ( ! salts4 #aa bis ,x is easy to demon/rate ! acid prop]ties ( c>bonic anhydride by tak+ a long tube1 clos$ at "o end1 & fill+ x ) ?is gas2 a te/-tube is !n fill$ ) a solution ( an alkali 7= in/ance1 sodium hydroxide71 :i* is !n p\r$ into ! long tube & ! op5 end is cork$4 ,! solution is !n well %ak5 9 ! tube1 & ! cork$ end plung$ into wat]4 ,if ! cork be n[ )drawn "u wat]1 ! wat] w fill ! tube4 ,! vacuum obta9$ by ! absorption ( ! c>bonic anhydride by an alkali is s complete t ev5 an electric dis*>ge w n pass ?r\gh x4 ,?is me?od is (t5 appli$ to produce a vacuum4 #ab ,! reasons = di/+ui%+ ! uni-1 bi-1 tri-1 & quadrival5t metals w be expla9$ h]eaft] on pass+ f ! unival5t metals 7,na1 ,k1 ,li7 to ! bival5t 7,mg4 ,ca1 ,ba71 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 #ac ,up to ! ye> #ahdj1 or !reab\t1 acids 7 n di/+ui%$ by _! basicity4 ,graham1 :ile /udy+ phosphoric acid1 ,h#c,,po#d1 & ,liebig1 :ile /udy+ _m organic acids1 di/+ui%$ mono-1 bi-1 & tribasic acids4 ,g]h>dt & ,laur5t g5]alis$ ^! relations1 %[+ t ?is di/9ction ext5ds ov] _m reactions 7= in/ance1 to ! faculty ( bibasic acids ( =m+ acid salts ) alkalis1 ,,kho or ,na,h,o1 or ) alcohols1 ,,rho1 c472 b n[1 s9ce a def9ite conception z to atoms & molecules has be5 arriv$ at1 ! basicity ( an acid is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( hydrog5 atoms1 conta9$ 9 a molecule ( ! acid1 :i* c be ex*ang$ = metals4 ,if c>bonic acid =ms acid salts1 ,na,h,c,o#c1 & normal salts1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 x is evid5t t ! hydrate is ,h#b;,,co#c1 a bibasic acid4 ,o!rwise x is at pres5t impossible to acc\nt = ! composition ( ^! salts4 ,b :5 ,c #f & ,o #h 7 tak51 !n ! =mula ,,co#b express$ ! composition1 b n ! molecul> weight1 ( c>bonic anhydride2 & ! composition ( ! normal salt w\ld be ,na#b;,c#b,o#f or ,na,c,o#c1 !re=e c>bonic acid might h be5 consid]$ z a monobasic acid4 ,!n ! acid salt w\ld h be5 repres5t$ by ,na,c,o#c1;,,hco#c4 ,su* que/ions 7 ! cause ( mu* argum5t & diff]5ce ( op9ion among *emi/s ab\t =ty ye>s ago4 ,at pres5t !re _c be two op9ions on ! subject if ! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt & its consequ5ces be /rictly adh]$ to4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$ "h t ! monobasic acids ,r7,,oh7 7 = a long "t consid]$ to be incapable ( be+ decompos$ into wat] & anhydride1 & ?is prop]ty 0 ascrib$ to ! bibasic acids ,r7,,oh7#b z conta9+ ! elem5ts necess>y = ! sep>ation ( ! molecule ( wat]1 ,h#b,o4 ,?us ,h#b,,s#d or ,,s#b7,,oh7#b1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 or ,,co7,,oh7#b1 & o!r bibasic acids decompose into an anhydride1 ,,ro1 & wat]1 ,h#b,o4 ,b z nitr\s1 ,,hno#b1 iodic1 ,,hio#c1 hypo*lor\s1 ,h,cl,o1 & o!r monobasic acids easily give _! anhydrides ,n#b,o#c1 ,i#b,o#e1 ,cl#b,o1 c41 t me?od ( di/+ui%+ ! basicity ( acids1 al?\gh x fairly well satisfies ! requirem5ts ( organic *emi/ry1 _c be consid]$ correct4 ,x may also be rem>k$ t up to ! pres5t "t n "o ( ! bibasic acids has be5 f\nd to h ! faculty ( be+ di/ill$ )\t be+ decompos$ into anhydride & wat] 7ev5 ,h#b,,s#d1 on be+ evaporat$ & di/ill$1 gives ,,s#c ,h#b,o71 & ! decomposition ( acids into wat] & anhydride proce$s p>ticul>ly easily 9 deal+ ) feebly en]getic acids1 su* z c>bonic1 nitr\s1 boric1 & hypo*lor\s4 ,let u add t c>bonic acid1 z a hydrate correspond+ to m>% gas1 ,c7,,ho7#d ,,co#b #b;,h#b,o1 ought to be tetrabasic4 ,b 9 g5]al x does n =m su* salts4 ,basic salts1 h[ev]1 su* z ,cu,c,o#c;,cu,o1 may be reg>d$ 9 ?is s5se1 = ,c,cu#b,o#d corresponds ) ,,*#d,o#d1 z ,cu corresponds ) ,h#b4 ,among/ ! e!real salts 7alcoholic d]ivatives7 ( c>bonic acid correspond+ cases are1 h[ev]1 obs]v$2 = in/ance1 e?ylic or?oc>bonate1 ,c7,c#b;,h#e,o7#d 7obta9$ by ! action ( *loropicr91 ,c7,,no#b7;,cl#c1 on sodium e?oxide1 ,c#b;,h#e,o,na2 boil+ po9t #aeh2 specific gravity1 #jib74 ,! "n or?oc>bonic acid = ,,*#d,o#d is tak5 f or?ophosphoric acid1 ,,ph#c,o#d1 :i* corresponds ) ,,ph#c 7see ,*apt] on ,phosphorus74 #ad ,long ago endeav\rs 7 made to f9d a measure ( aff9ity ( acids & bases1 because "s ( ! acids1 su* z sulphuric or nitric1 =m comp>atively /able salts1 decompos$ ) difficulty by heat & wat]1 :il/ o!rs1 l c>bonic & hypo*lor\s acids1 d n comb9e ) feeble bases1 & ) mo/ ( ! o!r bases =m salts :i* are easily decompos$4 ,! same may be said ) reg>d to bases1 among :i* ^? ( potassium1 ,k#b,o1 sodium1 ,na#b,o1 & b>ium1 ,ba,o1 may s]ve z examples ( ! mo/ p[]ful1 because !y comb9e ) ! mo/ feeble acids & =m a mass ( salts ( great /ability1 :il/ z examples ( ! feeble/ bases alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 or bismu? oxide1 ,bi#b,o#c1 may be tak51 because !y =m salts easily decompos$ by wat] & by heat if ! acid be volatile4 ,su* a division ( acids & bases into ! feeble/ & mo/ p[]ful is ju/ifi$ by all evid5ce conc]n+ !m1 & is quot$ 9 ?is "w4 ,b ! tea*+ ( ?is subject 9 c]ta9 circles has acquir$ q a new tone1 :i*1 9 my op9ion1 _c be accept$ )\t c]ta9 res]vations & criticisms1 al?\gh x comprises _m int]e/+ features4 ,! fact is t ,?oms51 ,o/wald1 & o!rs propos$ to express ! measure ( aff9ity ( acids to bases by figures drawn f data ( ! measure ( displacem5t ( acids 9 aque\s solutions1 judg+ 7#a7 f ! am\nt ( heat develop$ by mix+ a solution ( ! salt ) a solution ( ano!r acid 7! avidity ( acids1 accord+ to ,?oms572 7#b7 f ! *ange ( ! volumes accompany+ su* a mutual action ( solutions 7,o/wald72 7#c7 f ! *ange ( ! index ( refraction ( solutions 7,o/wald71 c4 ,besides ?is !re are _m o!r me?ods :i* all[ u to =m an op9ion ab\t ! di/ribution ( bases among v>i\s acids 9 aque\s solutions4 ,"s ( ^! me?ods w be describ$ h]eaft]4 ,x ought1 h[ev]1 to be rem>k$ t 9 mak+ inve/igations 9 aque\s solutions ! aff9ity to wat] is g5]ally left out ( sight4 ,if a base ,n1 comb9+ ) acids ,x & ,y 9 pres5ce ( !m bo?1 divides 9 su* a way t "o-?ird ( x comb9es ) ,x & two-?irds ) ,y1 a conclusion is =m$ t ! aff9ity1 or p[] ( =m+ salts1 ( ! acid ,y is twice z great z t ( ,x4 ,b ! pres5ce ( ! wat] is n tak5 into acc\nt4 ,if ! acid ,x has an aff9ity = wat] & = ,n x w be di/ribut$ betwe5 !m2 & if ,x has a great] aff9ity = wat] ?an ,y1 !n less ( ,x w comb9e ) ,n ?an ( ,y4 ,if1 9 addition to ?is1 ! acid ,x is capable ( =m+ an acid salt ,,nx#b1 & ,y is n1 ! conclusion ( ! relative /r5g? ( ,x & ,y w be /ill m errone\s1 because ! ,x set free w =m su* a salt on ! addition ( ,y to ,,nx4 ,we %all see 9 ,*apt] ,x4 t :5 sulphuric & nitric acids 9 weak aque\s solution act on sodium1 !y are di/ribut$ exactly 9 ?is way3 namely1 "o-?ird ( ! sodium comb9es ) ! sulphuric & two-?irds ) ! nitric acid2 b1 9 my op9ion1 ?is does n %[ t sulphuric acid1 comp>$ ) nitric acid1 possesses b half ! degree ( aff9ity = bases l soda1 & only demon/rates ! great] aff9ity ( sulphuric acid = wat] comp>$ ) t ( nitric acid4 ,9 ?is way ! me?ods ( /udy+ ! di/ribution 9 aque\s solutions probably only %[s ! diff]5ce ( ! relation ( ! acid to a base & to wat]4 ,9 view ( ^! consid]ations1 al?\gh ! tea*+ ( ! di/ribution ( salt-=m+ elem5ts 9 aque\s solutions is an object ( great & indep5d5t int]e/1 x c h>dly s]ve to det]m9e ! measure ( aff9ity betwe5 bases & acids4 ,simil> consid]ations ought to be kept 9 view :5 det]m9+ ! en]gy ( acids by means ( ! electrical conductivity ( _! weak solutions4 ,?is me?od1 propos$ by ,arrh5ius 7#ahhd71 & appli$ on an ext5sive scale by ,o/wald 7:o develop$ x 9 great detail 9 8 ,lehrbu* d4 allgeme95 ,*emie1 v4 ii41 #ahhg71 is f\nd$ on ! fact t ! relation ( ! s-call$ molecul> electrical-conductivity ( weak solutions ( v>i\s acids 7,i7 co9cides ) ! relation 9 :i* ! same acids /& accord+ to ! di/ribution1 7,,ii7 f\nd by "o ( ! above-m5tion$ me?ods1 & ) ! relation d$uc$ = !m f obs]vations ^u ! velocity ( reaction1 7,,iii7 = in/ance1 accord+ to ! rate ( ! splitt+ up ( an e!real salt 7into alcohol & acid71 or f ! rate ( ! s-call$ inv]sion ( sug>--t is1 its trans=mation into glucose--z is se5 by comp>+ ! annex$ figures1 9 :i* ! en]gy ( hydro*loric acid is tak5 z equal to #ajj3-- ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl #ajj #ajj #ajj ,hydrobromic acid1 ,h,br #aja #ih #aje ,nitric acid1 ,,hno#c #ajj #ajj #if ,sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d #fe #di #gd ,=mic acid1 ,,*#b,o#b #b #d #a ,acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b #a #b #a ,oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d #bj #bd #ah ,phosphoric acid1 ,,ph#c,o#d #g -- #f ,! co9cid5ce ( ^! figures1 obta9$ by s _m v>i\s me?ods1 pres5ts a mo/ important & in/ructive relation betwe5 ph5om5a ( diff]5t k9ds1 b 9 my op9ion x does n p]mit u to ass]t t ! degree ( aff9ity exi/+ betwe5 bases & v>i\s acids is det]m9$ by all ^! v>i\s me?ods1 because ! influ5ce ( ! wat] mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 until ! !ory ( solution is m ?or\ghly work$ out1 ?is subject 7:i* = ! pres5t ought to be treat$ ( 9 special treatises on *emical me*anics7 mu/ be treat$ ) great caution4 ,b n[ we may hope to decide ?is "q guid$ by a /udy ( ! rate ( reaction1 ! influ5ce ( acids & bases ^u indicators1 c41 all ( :i* are treat$ fully 9 works on physical & !oretical *emi/ry4 #ae ,?us1 = in/ance1 9 ! wa%+ ( fabrics ! cau/ic alkalis1 su* z sodium hydroxide1 9 weak solutions1 act 9 remov+ ! fatty matt] j 9 ! same way z c>bonate solutions2 = in/ance1 a solution ( soda cry/als1 ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,soap acts 9 ! same way1 be+ compos$ ( feeble acids1 ei!r fatty or res9\s1 comb9$ ) alkali4 ,on ?is acc\nt all su* sub/ances are appli$ 9 manufactur+ processes1 & answ] equally well 9 practice = blea*+ & wa%+ fabrics4 ,soda cry/als or soap are pref]r$ to cau/ic alkali1 because an excess ( ! latt] may h a de/ructive effect on ! fabrics4 ,x may be suppos$ t 9 aque\s solutions ( soap or soda cry/als1 "p ( ! base w =m cau/ic alkali2 t is to say1 ! wat] w compete ) ! weak acids1 & ! alkali w be di/ribut$ betwe5 !m & ! wat]4 #af ,al?\gh c>bonic acid is reckon$ among ! feeble acids1 yet !re are evid5tly _m o!rs /ill feebl]--= in/ance1 prussic acid1 hypo*lor\s acid1 _m organic acids1 c4 ,bases l alum9a1 or su* feeble acids z silica1 :5 9 comb9ation ) alkalis1 are decompos$ 9 aque\s solutions by c>bonic acid1 b on fusion--t is1 )\t ! pres5ce ( wat]--!y displace x1 :i* cle>ly %[s 9 ph5om5a ( ?is k9d h[ mu* dep5ds ^u ! conditions ( reaction & ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ances =m$4 ,^! relations1 :i* at fir/ sight appe> complex1 may be be/ und]/ood if we repres5t t two salts1 ,,mx & ,,ny1 9 g5]al always give m or less ( two o!r salts1 ,,my & ,,nx1 & !n exam9e ! prop]ties ( ! d]iv$ sub/ances4 ,?us1 9 solution1 sodium silicate1 ,na#b,si,o#c1 ) c>bonic anhydride w to "s ext5t =m sodium c>bonate & silica1 ,si,o#b2 b ! latt]1 be+ colloid1 sep>ates1 & ! rema9+ mass ( sodium silicate is aga9 decompos$ by c>bonic anhydride1 s t f9ally silica sep>ates & sodium c>bonate is =m$4 ,9 a fus$ /ate ! case is diff]5t2 sodium c>bonate w react ) silica to =m c>bonic anhydride & sodium silicate1 b ! c>bonic anhydride w be sep>at$ z a gas1 & !re=e 9 ! residue ! same reaction w aga9 take place1 & ultimately ! c>bonic anhydride is entirely elim9at$ & sodium silicate rema9s4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 no?+ is remov$ f ! sph]e ( ! reaction1 di/ribution takes place4 ,!re=e1 al?\gh c>bonic anhydride is a feeble acid1 /ill n = ?is reason1 b only 9 virtue ( its gase\s =m1 d all soluble acids displace x 9 sal9e solutions 7see ,*apt] ,x47 ,c>bonic anhydride--:i*1 l wat]1 is =m$ ) ! developm5t ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat--is v /able4 ,only v few sub/ances are capable ( depriv+ x ( its oxyg54 ,h[ev]1 c]ta9 metals1 su* z magnesium1 potassium & ! l1 on be+ heat$1 burn 9 x1 deposit+ c>bon & =m+ oxides4 ,if a mixture ( c>bonic anhydride & hydrog5 be pass$ ?r\gh a heat$ tube1 ! =mation ( wat] & c>bonic oxide w be obs]v$2 ,,co#b ,h#b ,,co ,h#b,o4 ,b only a portion ( ! c>bonic acid gas und]goes ?is *ange1 & !re=e ! result w be a mixture ( c>bonic anhydride1 c>bonic oxide1 hydrog51 & wat]1 :i* does n suff] fur!r *ange "u ! action ( heat4#ag ,al?\gh1 l wat]1 c>bonic anhydride is exce$+ly /able1 /ill on be+ heat$ x p>tially decomposes into c>bonic oxide & oxyg54 ,deville %[$ t su* is ! case if c>bonic anhydride be pass$ ?r\gh a long tube conta9+ pieces ( porcela9 & heat$ to #a1cjj4 ,if ! products ( decomposition--namely1 ! c>bonic oxide & oxyg5--be sudd5ly cool$1 !y c be collect$ sep>ately1 al?\gh !y p>tly reunite toge!r4 ,a simil> decomposition ( c>bonic anhydride into c>bonic oxide & oxyg5 takes place on pass+ a s]ies ( electric sp>ks ?r\gh x 7= in/ance1 9 ! eudiomet]74 ,"u ^! conditions an increase ( volume occurs1 because two volumes ( ,,co#b give two volumes ( ,,co & "o volume ( ,o4 ,! decomposition rea*es a c]ta9 limit 7less ?an "o-?ird7 & does n proce$ fur!r1 s t ! result is a mixture ( c>bonic anhydride1 c>bonic oxide1 & oxyg51 :i* is n alt]$ 9 composition by ! cont9u$ action ( ! sp>ks4 ,?is is readily und]/ood1 z x is a rev]sible reaction4 ,if ! c>bonic anhydride be remov$1 !n ! mixture explodes :5 a sp>k is pass$ & =ms c>bonic anhydride4#ag bis ,if f an id5tical mixture ! oxyg5 7& n ! c>bonic anhydride7 be remov$1 & a s]ies ( sp>ks be aga9 pass$1 ! decomposition is r5ew$1 & t]m9ates ) ! complete dissociation ( ! c>bonic anhydride4 ,phosphorus is us$ 9 ord] to effect ! complete absorption ( ! oxyg54 ,9 ^! examples we see t a def9ite mixture ( *angeable sub/ances is capable ( arriv+ at a /ate ( /able equilibrium1 de/roy$1 h[ev]1 by ! removal ( "o ( ! sub/ances compos+ ! mixture4 ,?is is "o ( ! in/ances ( ! influ5ce ( mass4 #ag ,hydrog5 & c>bon are ne> ak9 to oxyg5 z reg>ds aff9ity1 b x ought to be consid]$ t ! aff9ity ( hydrog5 is slightly great] ?an t ( c>bon1 because dur+ ! combu/ion ( hydroc>bons ! hydrog5 burns fir/4 ,"s idea ( ?is simil>ity ( aff9ity may be =m$ by ! quantity ( heat evolv$4 ,gase\s hydrog51 ,h#b1 on comb9+ ) an atom ( oxyg51 ,o #af1 develops #fi1jjj heat-units if ! wat] =m$ be cond5s$ to a liquid /ate4 ,if ! wat] rema9s 9 ! =m ( a gas 7/eam7 ! lat5t heat ( evaporation mu/ be subtract$1 & !n #eh1jjj calories w be develop$4 ,c>bon1 ,c1 z a solid1 on comb9+ ) ,o#b #cb develops ab\t #ig1jjj calories1 =m+ gase\s ,,co#b4 ,if x 7 gase\s l hydrog51 & only conta9$ ,c#b 9 its molecule1 mu* m heat w\ld be develop$1 & judg+ by o!r sub/ances1 ^: molecules on pass+ f ! solid to ! gase\s /ate absorb ab\t #aj1jjj to #ae1jjj calories1 x mu/ be held t gase\s c>bon on =m+ gase\s c>bonic anhydride w\ld develop n less ?an #aaj1jjj calories--t is1 approximately twice z mu* z is develop$ 9 ! =mation ( wat]4 ,& s9ce !re is twice z mu* oxyg5 9 a molecule ( c>bonic anhydride z 9 a molecule ( wat]1 ! oxyg5 develops approximately ! same quantity ( heat on comb9+ ) hydrog5 z ) c>bon4 ,t is to say1 t "h we f9d ! same close aff9ity 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #g7 det]m9$ by ! quantity ( heat z betwe5 hydrog51 z9c1 & iron4 ,= ?is reason "h also1 z 9 ! case ( hydrog5 & iron1 we ought to expect an equal di/ribution ( oxyg5 betwe5 hydrog5 & c>bon1 if !y are bo? 9 excess comp>$ ) ! am\nt ( oxyg52 b if !re be an excess ( c>bon1 x w decompose wat]1 :il/ an excess ( hydrog5 w decompose c>bonic anhydride4 ,ev5 if ^! ph5om5a & simil> ones h be5 expla9$ 9 isolat$ cases1 a complete !ory ( ! :ole subject is /ill want+ 9 ! pres5t condition ( *emical k4 #ag bis ,! degree or relative magnitude ( ! dissociation ( ,,co#b v>ies ) ! temp]ature & pressure--t is1 x increases ) ! temp]ature & z ! pressure decreases4 ,deville f\nd t at a pressure ( #a atmosph]e 9 ! flame ( c>bonic oxide burn+ 9 oxyg51 ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ( ! ,,co#b1 is decompos$ :5 ! temp]ature is ab\t #c1jjj1 & at #a1ejj less ?an #a p] c5t4 7,krafts72 :il/ "u a pressure ( #aj atmosph]es ab\t #cd p] c5t4 is decompos$ at #c1cjj 7,mall>d & ,le ,*ateli]74 ,x foll[s !re=e t1 "u v small pressures1 ! dissociation ( ,,co#b w be consid]able ev5 at comp>atively mod]ate temp]atures1 b at ! temp]ature ( ord9>y furnaces 7ab\t #a1jjj7 ev5 "u ! small p>tial pressure ( ! c>bonic acid1 !re are only small traces ( decomposition :i* may be neglect$ 9 a practical e/imation ( ! combu/ion ( fuels4 ,we may "h cite ! molecul> specific heat ( ,,co#b 7i4e4 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise #dd units ( weight ( ,,co#b #a71 accord+ to ! det]m9ations & calculations ( ,mall>d & ,le ,*ateli]1 = a con/ant volume ,cv #fbf #jjjcgt2 = a con/ant pressure ,cp ,cv #b 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #g71 i4e4 ! specific heat ( ,,co#b increases rapidly ) a rise ( temp]ature3 = example1 at #j 7p] #a "p by weight71 x is1 at a con/ant pressure #jahh1 at #a1jjj #jbgb1 at #b1jjj1 ab\t #jcef4 ,a p]fectly di/9ct rise ( ! specific heat 7= example1 at #b1jjj1 #jdji71 is giv5 by a comp>ison ( obs]vations made by ! above-m5tion$ inve/igators & by ,b]!lot & ,vieille 7,k\rnak(f74 ,! cause ( ?is mu/ be look$ = 9 dissociation4 ,t4 ,m4 ,*eltz(f1 h[ev]1 consid]s ^u ! basis ( 8 rese>*es ^u explosives t x mu/ be admitt$ t a maximum is rea*$ at a c]ta9 temp]ature 7ab\t #b1ejj71 beyond :i* ! specific heat beg9s to fall4 ,al?\gh c>bonic anhydride is decompos$ on heat+1 yield+ oxyg51 x is nev]!less1 l wat]1 an un*angeable sub/ance at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,its decomposition1 z effect$ by plants1 is on ?is acc\nt all ! m rem>kable2 9 ?is case ! :ole ( ! oxyg5 ( ! c>bonic anhydride is sep>at$ 9 ! free /ate4 ,! me*anism ( ?is *ange is t ! heat & light absorb$ by ! plants are exp5d$ 9 ! decomposition ( ! c>bonic anhydride4 ,?is acc\nts = ! enorm\s influ5ce ( temp]ature & light on ! gr[? ( plants4 ,b x is at pres5t n cle>ly und]/ood h[ ?is takes place1 or by :at sep>ate int]m$iate reactions ! :ole process ( decomposition ( c>bonic anhydride 9 plants into oxyg5 & ! c>bohydrates 7,note #a7 rema9+ 9 !m1 takes place4 ,x is kn[n t sulphur\s anhydride 79 _m ways resembl+ c>bonic anhydride7 "u ! action ( light 7& also ( heat7 =ms sulphur & sulphuric anhydride1 ,,s#c1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 sulphuric acid4 ,b no simil> decomposition has be5 obta9$ directly ) c>bonic anhydride1 al?\gh x =ms an exce$+ly easily decomposable high] oxide--p]c>bonic acid2#ah & p]haps t is ! reason ! oxyg5 sep>ates4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is kn[n t plants always =m & conta9 organic acids1 & ^! mu/ be reg>d$ z d]ivatives ( c>bonic acid1 z is se5 by all _! reactions1 ( :i* we w %ortly treat4 ,= ?is reason x might be ?\ght t ! c>bonic acid absorb$ by ! plants fir/ =ms 7accord+ to ,baey]7 =mic aldehyde1 ,,*#b,o1 & f x organic acids1 & t ^! latt] 9 _! f9al trans=mation =m all ! o!r complex organic sub/ances ( ! plants4 ,_m organic acids are f\nd 9 plants 9 consid]able quantity2 = in/ance1 t>t>ic acid1 ,c#d;,h#f,o#f1 f\nd 9 grape-juice & 9 ! acid juice ( _m plants2 malic acid1 ,c#d;,h#f,o#e1 f\nd n only 9 unripe apples b 9 /ill l>g] quantities 9 m\nta9 a% b]ries2 citric acid1 ,c#f;,h#h,o#g1 f\nd 9 ! acid juice ( lemons1 9 gooseb]ries1 cranb]ries1 c42 oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 f\nd 9 wood-sorrel & _m o!r plants4 ,sometimes ^! acids exi/ 9 a free /ate 9 ! plants1 & sometimes 9 ! =m ( salts2 = in/ance1 t>t>ic acid is met ) 9 grapes z ! salt kn[n z cream ( t>t>1 b 9 ! impure /ate call$ argol1 or t>t>1 ,c#d;,h#e,,ko#f4 ,9 sorrel we f9d ! s-call$ salts ( sorrel1 or acid potassium oxalate1 ,c#b;,,hko#d4 ,!re is a v cle> connection betwe5 c>bonic anhydride & ! above-m5tion$ organic acids--namely1 !y all1 "u "o condition or ano!r1 yield c>bonic anhydride1 & c all be =m$ by means ( x f sub/ances de/itute ( acid prop]ties4 ,! foll[+ examples af=d ! be/ demon/ration ( ?is fact3 if acetic acid1 ,c#b;,h#d,o#b1 ! acid ( v9eg>1 be pass$ 9 ! =m ( vap\r ?r\gh a heat$ tube1 x splits up into c>bonic anhydride & m>% gas ,,co#b ,,*#d4 ,b conv]sely x c also be obta9$ f ^? compon5ts into :i* x decomposes4 ,if "o equival5t ( hydrog5 9 m>% gas be replac$ 7by indirect means7 by sodium1 & ! comp\nd ,,*#c,na is obta9$1 ?is directly absorbs c>bonic anhydride1 =m+ a salt ( acetic acid1 ,,*#c,na ,,co#b ,c#b;,h#c,na,o#b2 f ?is acetic acid itself may be easily obta9$4 ,?us acetic acid decomposes into m>% gas & c>bonic anhydride1 & conv]sely is obta9able f !m4 ,! hydrog5 ( m>% gas does n1 l t 9 acids1 %[ ! prop]ty ( be+ directly replac$ by metals2 i4e4 ,,*#d does n %[ any acid "* :atev]1 b on comb9+ ) ! elem5ts ( c>bonic anhydride x acquires ! prop]ties ( an acid4 ,! inve/igation ( all o!r organic acids %[s simil>ly t _! acid "* dep5ds on _! conta9+ ! elem5ts ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,= ?is reason !re is no organic acid conta9+ less oxyg5 9 its molecule ?an !re is 9 c>bonic anhydride2 e organic acid conta9s 9 its molecule at lea/ two atoms ( oxyg54 ,9 ord] to express ! relation betwe5 c>bonic acid1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 & organic acids1 & 9 ord] to und]/& ! reason ( ! acidity ( ^! latt]1 x is simple/ to turn to t law ( sub/itution :i* %[s 7,*apt] ,,vi47 ! relation betwe5 ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 comp\nds ( nitrog51 & p]mits u 7,*apt] ,,viii47 to reg>d all hydroc>bons z d]iv$ f me?ane4 ,if we h a giv5 organic comp\nd1 ,a1 :i* has n ! prop]ties ( an acid1 b conta9s hydrog5 connect$ to c>bon1 z 9 hydroc>bons1 !n ,,aco#b w be a monobasic organic acid1 ,a#b;,,co#b a bibasic1 ,a#c;,,co#b a tribasic1 & s on--t is1 ea* molecule ( ,,co#b trans=ms "o atom ( hydrog5 into t /ate 9 :i* x may be replac$ by metals1 z 9 acids4 ,?is furni%es a direct pro( t 9 organic acids x is necess>y to recognise ! gr\p ,,hco#b1 or c>boxyl4 ,if ! addition ( ,,co#b raises ! basicity1 ! removal ( ,,co#b l[]s x4 ,?us f ! bibasic oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 or ph?alic acid1 ,c#h;,h#f,o#d1 by elim9at+ ,,co#b 7easily effect$ exp]im5tally7 we obta9 ! monobasic =mic acid1 ,,*#b,o#b1 or b5zoic acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,o#b1 respectively4 ,! nature ( c>boxyl is directly expla9$ by ! law ( sub/itution4 ,judg+ f :at has be5 /at$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,vi4 & ,,viii4 conc]n+ ?is law1 x is evid5t t ,,co#b is ,,*#d ) ! ex*ange ( ,h#d = ,o#b1 & t ! hydrate ( c>bonic anhydride1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 is ,,co7,,oh7#b1 t is1 me?ane1 9 :i* two p>ts ( hydrog5 are replac$ by two p>ts ( ! wat] radical 7,,oh1 hydroxyl7 & ! o!r two by oxyg54 ,!re=e ! gr\p ,,co7,,oh71 or c>boxyl1 ,,hco#b1 is a "p ( c>bonic acid1 & is equival5t to 7,,oh71 & !re=e also to ,h4 ,t is1 x is a unival5t residue ( c>bonic acid capable ( replac+ "o atom ( hydrog54 ,c>bonic acid itself is a bibasic acid1 bo? hydrog5 atoms 9 x be+ replaceable by metals1 !re=e c>boxyl1 :i* conta9s "o ( ! hydrog5 atoms ( c>bonic acid1 repres5ts a gr\p 9 :i* ! hydrog5 is ex*angeable = metals4 ,& !re=e if #a1 #b 444 n atoms ( non-metallic hydrog5 are ex*ang$ #a1 #b 444 n times = c>boxyl1 we ought to obta9 #a1 #b 444 n-basic acids4 ,organic acids are ! products ( ! c>boxyl sub/itution 9 hydroc>bons4#ah bis ,if 9 ! saturat$ hydroc>bons1 ,cn,h#bn #b1 "o "p ( hydrog5 is replac$ by c>boxyl1 ! monobasic saturat$ 7or fatty7 acids1 ,cn,h#bn #a7;,,co#b;,h71 w be obta9$1 z1 = in/ance1 =mic acid1 ,,hco#b;,h1 acetic acid1 ,,*#b;,,co#b;,h1 444 /e>ic acid1 ,c#ag;,h#ce;,,co#b;,h1 c4 ,! d\ble sub/itution w give bibasic acids1 ,cn,h#bn7,,co#b;,h77,,co#b;,h72 = in/ance1 oxalic acid n #j1 malonic acid n #a1 succ9ic acid n #b1 c4 ,to b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f correspond b5zoic acid1 ,c#f;,h#e7;,,co#b;,h71 ph?alic acid 7& its isom]ides71 ,c#f;,h#d7;,,co#b;,h7#b1 up to mellitic acid1 ,c#f7;,,co#b;,h7#f1 9 all ( :i* ! basicity is equal to ! numb] ( c>boxyl gr\ps4 ,z _m isom]ides exi/ 9 hydroc>bons1 x is readily und]/ood n only t su* c exi/ also 9 organic acids1 b t _! numb] & /ructure may be =ese54 ,?is complex & mo/ int]e/+ bran* ( *emi/ry is treat$ sep>ately 9 organic *emi/ry4 #ah ,p]c>bonic acid1 ,h#b;,,co#d 7 ,h#b;,,co#c ,o7 is suppos$ by ,a4 ,ba* 7#ahic7 to be =m$ f c>bonic acid 9 ! action ( light ^u plants1 79 ! same mann] z1 accord+ to ! above s*eme1 sulphuric acid f sulphur\s7 ) ! =mation ( c>bon1 :i* rema9s 9 ! =m ( hydrates ( c>bon3 #c;,h#b;,,co#c #b;,h#b;,,co#d ,,*#b,o4 ,?is sub/ance ,,*#b,o expresses ! composition ( =mic aldehyde :i*1 accord+ to ,baey]1 by polym]isation & fur!r *anges1 gives o!r hydrates ( c>bon & =ms ! fir/ product :i* is =m$ 9 plants f ,,co#b4 ,& ,b]!lot 7#ahgb7 _h already1 at ! "t ( ! discov]y ( p]sulphuric 7,*apt] ,,xx47 & p]nitric 7,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #bf7 acids po9t$ out ! =mation ( ! un/able p]c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#c4 ,?us1 not)/&+ ! hypo!tical nature ( ! above equation1 x may be admitt$ all ! m z x expla9s ! comp>ative abundance ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 7,s*ne1 ,*apt] ,,iv47 9 ! air1 & ?is also at ! p]iod ( ! mo/ en]getic gr[? ( plants 79 ,july71 because p]c>bonic acid %\ld l all p]oxides easily give ,h#b,o#b4 ,besides :i* ,ba* 7#ahid7 %[$ t1 9 ! fir/ place1 traces ( =mic aldehyde & oxidis+ ag5ts 7,,co#c or ,h#b,o#b7 are =m$ "u ! simultane\s action ( ,,co#b & sunlight ^u a solution conta9+ a salt ( uranium 7:i* is oxidis$71 & die?ylanil9e 7:i* reacts ) ,,*#b,o71 & secondly1 t by subject+ ,ba,o#b1 %ak5 up 9 wat]1 to ! action ( a /ream ( ,,co#b 9 ! cold1 extract+ 7also 9 ! cold7 ) e!r1 & !n add+ an alcoholic solution ( ,na,h,o1 cry/all9e plates ( a sodium salt may be obta9$1 :i* ) wat] evolve oxyg5 & leave sodium c>bonate2 !y are !re=e probably ! p]-salt4 ,all ^! facts are ( great int]e/ & des]ve fur!r v]ification & elaboration4 #ah bis ,if ,,co#b is ! anhydride ( a bibasic acid1 & c>boxyl corresponds ) x1 replac+ ! hydrog5 ( hydroc>bons1 & giv+ !m ! "* ( comp>atively feeble acids1 !n ,,s#c is ! anhydride ( an en]getic bibasic acid1 & sulphoxyl1 ,,s#b7,,oh71 corresponds ) x1 be+ capable ( replac+ ! hydrog5 ( hydroc>bons1 & =m+ comp>atively en]getic sulphur oxyacids 7sulphonic acids72 = in/ance1 ,c#f;,h#e7;,,cooh71 b5zoic acid1 & ,c#f;,h#e7,,s#b,,oh71 b5z5esulphonic acid1 are d]iv$ f ,c#f;,h#f4 ,z ! ex*ange ( ,h = me?yl1 ,,*#c1 is equival5t to ! addition ( ,,*#b1 ! ex*ange ( c>boxyl1 ,,cooh1 is equival5t to ! addition ( ,,co#b2 s ! ex*ange ( ,h = sulphoxyl is equival5t to ! addition ( ,,s#c4 ,! latt] proce$s directly1 = in/ance3 ,c#f;,h#f ,,s#c ,c#f;,h#e7,,s#b,,oh74 ,z accord+d+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,?oms51 ! heat ( combu/ion ( ! vap\rs ( acids ,,rco#b is kn[n :]e ,r is a hydroc>bon1 & ! heat ( combu/ion ( ! hydroc>bons ,r !mselves1 x may be se5 t ! =mation ( acids1 ,,rco#b1 f ,r ,,co#b1 is always accompani$ by a small absorption or developm5t ( heat4 ,we give ! heats ( combu/ion 9 ?\s&s ( calories1 ref]r$ to ! molecul> weights ( ! sub/ances3-- ,r ,h#b ,,*#d ,c#b;,h#f ,c#f;,h#f #fhd #bab #cgj #ggg ,,rco#b #fid #bbe #chg #gff ,?us ,h#b1 corresponds ) =mic acid1 ,,*#b,o#b2 b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 ) b5zoic acid1 ,c#g;,h#f,o#b4 ,! data = ! latt] are tak5 f ,/ohmann1 & ref] to ! solid condition4 ,= =mic acid ,/ohmann gives ! heat ( combu/ion z #ei1jjj calories 9 a liquid /ate1 b 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 #fdf ?\s& units1 :i* is mu* less ?an accord+ to ,?oms54 ,c>bonic ,oxide4--,?is gas is =m$ :5ev] ! combu/ion ( organic sub/ances takes place 9 ! pres5ce ( a l>ge excess ( inc&esc5t *>coal2 ! air fir/ burns ! c>bon into c>bonic anhydride1 b ?is 9 p5etrat+ ?r\gh ! r$-hot *>coal is trans=m$ into c>bonic oxide1 ,,co#b ,c #b;,,co4 ,by ?is reaction c>bonic oxide is prep>$ by pass+ c>bonic anhydride ?r\gh *>coal at a r$ heat4 ,x may be sep>at$ f ! excess ( c>bonic anhydride by pass+ x ?r\gh a solution ( alkali1 :i* does n absorb c>bonic oxide4 ,?is r$uction ( c>bonic anhydride expla9s :y c>bonic oxide is =m$ 9 ord9>y cle> fires1 :]e ! incom+ air passes ov] a l>ge surface ( heat$ coal4 ,a blue flame is !n obs]v$ burn+ above ! coal2 ?is is ! burn+ c>bonic oxide4 ,:5 *>coal is burnt 9 /acks1 or :5 a ?ick lay] ( coal is burn+ 9 a brazi]1 & "u _m simil> circum/ances1 c>bonic oxide is also =m$4 ,9 metallurgical processes1 = in/ance :5 iron is smelt$ f ! ore1 v (t5 ! same process ( conv]sion ( c>bonic anhydride into c>bonic oxide occurs1 especially if ! combu/ion ( ! coal be effect$ 9 high1 s-call$ bla/1 furnaces & ov5s1 :]e ! air ent]s at ! l[] "p & is compell$ to pass ?r\gh a ?ick lay] ( inc&esc5t coal4 ,9 ?is way1 also1 combu/ion ) flame may be obta9$ f ^? k9ds ( fuel :i* "u ord9>y conditions burn )\t flame3 = in/ance1 an?racite1 coke1 *>coal4 ,heat+ by means ( a gas-produc]--t is1 an app>atus produc+ combu/ible c>bonic oxide f fuel--is c>ri$ on 9 ! same mann]4#ai ,9 trans=m+ "o "p ( *>coal into c>bonic oxide #b1dbj heat units are giv5 out1 & on burn+ to c>bonic anhydride #h1jhj heat units4 ,x is evid5t t on trans=m+ ! *>coal fir/ into c>bonic oxide we obta9 a gas :i* 9 burn+ is capable ( giv+ out #e1ffj heat units = "o "p ( *>coal4 ,?is prep>atory trans=mation ( fuel into c>bonic oxide1 or produc] gas conta9+ a mixture ( c>bonic oxide 7ab\t #a_/c by volume7 & nitrog5 7#b_/c volume71 9 _m cases pres5ts mo/ important advantages1 z x is easy to completely burn gase\s fuel )\t an excess ( air1 :i* w\ld l[] ! temp]ature4#bj ,9 /oves :]e solid fuel is burnt x is impossible to effect ! complete combu/ion ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( fuel )\t admitt+ an excess ( air4 ,gase\s fuel1 su* z c>bonic oxide1 is easily completely mix$ ) air & burnt )\t excess ( x4 ,if1 9 addition to ?is1 ! air & gas requir$ = ! combu/ion be previ\sly heat$ by means ( ! heat :i* w\ld o!rwise be uselessly c>ri$ (f 9 ! products ( combu/ion 7smoke7#ba x is easy to rea* a high temp]ature1 s high 7ab\t #a1hjj7 t plat9um may be melt$4 ,su* an arrangem5t is kn[n z a reg5]ative furnace4#bb ,by means ( ?is process n only may ! high temp]atures indisp5sable 9 _m indu/ries be obta9$ 7= in/ance1 glass-work+1 /eel-melt+1 c471 b great advantage also#bc is ga9$ z reg>ds ! quantity ( fuel1 because ! transmission ( heat to ! object to be heat$1 o!r conditions be+ equal1 is det]m9$ by ! diff]5ce ( temp]atures4 #ai ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,gas-produc] = ! =mation ( c>bon monoxide = heat+ purposes4 ,9 gas-produc]s all c>bonace\s fuels are trans=m$ into inflammable gas4 ,9 ^? :i* 7on acc\nt ( _! slight d5sity & l>ge am\nt ( wat]1 or incombu/ible admixtures :i* absorb heat7 are n z capable ( giv+ a high temp]ature 9 ord9>y furnaces--= in/ance1 fir cones1 peat1 ! l[] k9ds ( coal1 c4--! same gas is obta9$ z ) ! be/ k9ds ( coal1 because ! wat] cond5ses on cool+1 & ! a%es & e>?y matt] rema9 9 ! gas-produc]4 ,! con/ruction ( a gas-produc] is se5 f ! accompany+ draw+4 ,! fuel lies on ! fire-b>s ,o1 ! air ent]s ?r\gh !m & ! a%-hole 7drawn by ! draught ( ! *imney ( ! /ove :]e ! gas burns1 or else =c$ by a bl[+ app>atus71 ! quantity ( air be+ exactly regulat$ by means ( valves4 ,! gases =m$ are !n l$ by ! tube ,v1 provid$ ) a valve1 into ! gas ma9 ,u4 ,! addition ( fuel ought to proce$ 9 su* a way z to prev5t ! g5]at$ gas escap+2 h5ce ! space ,a is kept fill$ ) ! combu/ible mat]ial & cov]$ ) a lid4 #bj ,an excess ( air l[]s ! temp]ature ( combu/ion1 because x becomes heat$ itself1 z expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,9 ord9>y furnaces ! excess ( air is ?ree or f\r times great] ?an ! quantity requir$ = p]fect combu/ion4 ,9 ! be/ furnaces 7) fire-b>s1 regulat$ air supply1 & correspond+ *imney draught7 x is necess>y to introduce twice z mu* air z is necess>y1 o!rwise ! smoke conta9s mu* c>bonic oxide4 #ba ,if 9 manufactories x is necess>y1 = in/ance1 to ma9ta9 ! temp]ature 9 a furnace at #a1jjj1 ! flame passes out at ?is or a high] temp]ature1 & !re=e mu* fuel is lo/ 9 ! smoke4 ,= ! draught ( ! *imney a temp]ature ( #ajj to #aej is suffici5t1 & !re=e ! rema9+ heat ought to be utilis$4 ,= ?is purpose ! flues are c>ri$ "u boil]s or o!r heat+ app>atus4 ,! prep>atory heat+ ( ! air is ! be/ means ( utilisation :5 a high temp]ature is desir$ 7see ,note #bb74 #bb ,reg5]ative furnaces 7 introduc$ by ! ,bro!rs ,siem5s ab\t ! ye> #ahfj 9 _m indu/ries1 & m>k a mo/ important progress 9 ! use ( fuel1 especially 9 obta9+ high temp]atures4 ,! pr9ciple is z foll[s3 ,! products ( combu/ion f ! furnace are l$ into a *amb]1 ,i1 & heat up ! bricks 9 x1 & !n pass into ! outlet flue2 :5 ! bricks are at a r$ heat ! products ( combu/ion are pass$ 7by alt]+ ! valves7 into ano!r adjo9+ *amb]1 ,,ii1 & air requisite = ! combu/ion ( ! g5]ator gases is pass$ ?r\gh ,i4 ,9 pass+ r\nd ab\t ! inc&esc5t bricks ! air is heat$1 & ! bricks are cool$--t is1 ! heat ( ! smoke is return$ into ! furnace4 ,! air is !n pass$ ?r\gh ,,ii1 & ! smoke ?r\gh ,i4 ,! reg5]ative burn]s = illum9at+ gas are f\nd$ on ?is same pr9ciple1 ! products ( combu/ion heat ! incom+ air & gas1 ! temp]ature is high]1 ! light bright]1 & an economy ( gas is effect$4 ,absolute p]fection 9 ^! appliances has1 ( c\rse1 n yet be5 atta9$2 fur!r improvem5t is /ill possible1 b dissociation imposes a limit because at a c]ta9 high temp]ature comb9ations d n ensue1 possible temp]atures be+ limit$ by rev]se reactions4 ,"h1 z 9 a numb] ( o!r cases1 ! fur!r inve/igation ( ! matt] mu/ prove ( direct value f a practical po9t ( view4 #bc ,at fir/ sight x appe>s absurd1 useless1 & p>adoxical to lose ne>ly "o-?ird ( ! heat :i* fuel c develop1 by turn+ x into gas4 ,actually ! advantage is enorm\s1 especially = produc+ high temp]atures1 z is already se5 f ! fact t fuels ri* 9 oxyg5 7= in/ance1 wood7 :5 damp are unable1 ) any k9d ( he>? :atev]1 to give ! temp]ature requir$ = glass-melt+ or /eel-ca/+1 :il/ 9 ! gas-produc] !y furni% exactly ! same gas z ! drie/ & mo/ c>bonace\s fuel4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! pr9ciple :i* is "h involv$1 x is suffici5t to rememb] t a l>ge am\nt ( heat1 b hav+ a l[ temp]ature1 is 9 _m cases ( no use :atev]4 ,we are unable "h to ent] into all ! details ( ! complicat$ matt] ( ! application ( fuel1 & fur!r p>ticul>s mu/ be s\ght = 9 special te*nical treatises4 ,! foll[+ footnotes1 h[ev]1 conta9 c]ta9 fundam5tal figures = calculations conc]n+ combu/ion4 ,! trans=mation ( c>bonic anhydride1 by means ( *>coal1 into c>bonic oxide 7,c ,,co#b ,,co ,,co7 is consid]$ a rev]sible reaction1 because at a high temp]ature ! c>bonic oxide splits up into c>bon & c>bonic anhydride1 z ,sa9te-,claire ,deville %[$ by us+ ! me?od ( ! 'cold & hot tube4' ,inside a tube heat$ 9 a furnace ano!r ?9 metallic 7silv]$ copp]7 tube is fitt$1 ?r\gh :i* a con/ant /ream ( cold wat] fl[s4 ,! c>bonic oxide com+ into contact ) ! heat$ walls ( ! ext]ior tube =ms *>coal1 & its m9ute p>ticles settle 9 ! =m ( lampblack on ! l[] side ( ! cold tube1 &1 s9ce !y are cool$1 d n act fur!r on ! oxyg5 or c>bonic anhydride =m$4#bd ,a s]ies ( electric sp>ks also decomposes c>bonic oxide into c>bonic anhydride & c>bon1 & if ! c>bonic anhydride be remov$ by alkali complete decomposition may be obta9$ 7,deville74#bd bis ,aque\s vap\r1 :i* is s simil> to c>bonic anhydride 9 _m respects1 acts1 at a high temp]ature1 on *>coal 9 an exactly simil> way1 ,c ,h#b,o ,h#b ,,co4 ,f #b volumes ( c>bonic anhydride ) *>coal #d volumes ( c>bonic oxide 7#b molecules7 are obta9$1 & precisely ! same f #b volumes ( wat] vap\r ) *>coal #d volumes ( a gas consi/+ ( hydrog5 & c>bonic oxide 7,h#b ,,co7 are =m$4 ,?is mixture ( combu/ible gases is call$ wat] gas4#be ,b aque\s vap\r 7& only :5 /rongly sup]heat$1 o!rwise x cools ! *>coal7 only acts on *>coal to =m a l>ge am\nt ( c>bonic oxide at a v high temp]ature 7at :i* c>bonic anhydride dissociates72 x beg9s to react at ab\t #ejj1 =m+ c>bonic anhydride accord+ to ! equation ,c #b;,h#b,o ,,co#b #b;,h#b4 ,besides ?is1 c>bonic oxide on splitt+ up =ms c>bonic anhydride1 & !re=e wat] gas always conta9s a mixture#bf 9 :i* hydrog5 pr$om9ates1 ! volume ( c>bonic oxide be+ comp>atively less1 :il/ ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride increases z ! temp]ature ( ! reaction decreases 7g5]ally x is m ?an #c p] c5t47 #bd ,! fir/ product ( combu/ion ( *>coal is always c>bonic anhydride1 & n c>bonic oxide4 ,?is is se5 f ! fact t ) a %all[ lay] ( *>coal 7less ?an a decimetre if ! *>coal be closely pack$7 c>bonic oxide is n =m$ at all4 ,x is n ev5 produc$ ) a deep lay] ( *>coal if ! temp]ature is n above #ejj1 & ! curr5t ( air or oxyg5 is v sl[4 ,) a rapid curr5t ( air ! *>coal becomes r$-hot1 & ! temp]ature rises1 & !n c>bonic oxide appe>s 7,lang #ahhh74 ,ern/ 7#ahia7 f\nd t bel[ #iie c>bonic oxide is always accompani$ by ,,co#b1 & t ! =mation ( ,,co#b beg9s ab\t #djj4 ,naumann & ,pi/or det]m9$ t ! reaction ( c>bonic anhydride ) c>bon comm5ces at ab\t #eej1 & t betwe5 wat] & c>bon at ab\t #ejj4 ,at ! latt] temp]ature c>bonic anhydride is =m$1 & only ) a rise ( temp]ature is c>bonic oxide =m$ 7,lang7 f ! action ( ! c>bonic anhydride on ! c>bon1 & f ! reaction ,,co#b ,h#b ,,co ,h#b,o4 ,ra?ke 7#ahha7 %[$ t at no temp]ature :atev] is ! reaction z express$ by ! equation ,,co#b ,c #b;,,co#b1 complete2 a "p ( ! c>bonic anhydride rema9s1 & ,lang det]m9$ t at ab\t #a1jjj n less ?an #c p4c4 ( ! c>bonic anhydride rema9s untrans=m$ into c>bonic oxide1 ev5 aft] ! action has be5 cont9u$ = sev]al h\rs4 ,! endo!rmal reactions1 ,c #b;,h#b,o ,,co#b #b;,h#b1 & ,,co ,h#b,o ,,co#b ,h#b1 are j z incomplete4 ,?is is made cle> if we note t on ! "o h& ! above-m5tion$ reactions are all rev]sible1 & !re=e b\nd$ by a limit2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 t at ab\t #ejj oxyg5 beg9s to comb9e ) hydrog5 & c>bon1 & also t ! l[] limits ( dissociation ( wat]1 c>bonic anhydride1 & c>bonic oxide lie ne> "o ano!r betwe5 #ejj & #a1bjj4 ,= wat] & c>bonic oxide ! l[] limit ( ! comm5cem5t ( dissociation is unkn[n1 b judg+ f ! publi%$ data 7accord+ to ,le ,*ateli]1 #ahhh7 t ( c>bonic anhydride may be tak5 z ab\t #a1jej4 ,ev5 at ab\t #bjj half ! c>bonic anhydride dissociates if ! pressure be small1 ab\t #jjja atmosph]e4 ,at ! atmosph]ic pressure1 n m ?an #jje p4c4 ( ! c>bonic anhydride decomposes4 ,! reason ( ! influ5ce ( pressure is "h evid5tly t ! splitt+ up ( c>bonic anhydride into c>bonic oxide & oxyg5 is accompani$ by an increase 9 volume 7z 9 ! case ( ! dissociation ( nitric p]oxide4 ,see ,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #df74 ,z 9 /oves & lamps1 & also ) explosive sub/ances1 ! temp]ature is n high] ?an #b1jjj to #b1ejj1 x is evid5t t al?\gh ! p>tial pressure ( c>bonic anhydride is small1 /ill its dissociation _c "h be consid]able1 & probably does n exce$ #e p4c4 #bd bis ,besides :i* ,l4 ,mond 7#ahij7 %[$ t ! p[d] ( fre%ly r$uc$ metallic nickel 7obta9$ by heat+ ! oxide to r$ness 9 a /ream ( hydrog57 is able1 :5 heat$ ev5 to #cej1 to completely decompose c>bonic oxide into ,,co#b & c>bon1 :i* rema9s ) ! nickel & is easily remov$ f x by heat+ 9 a /ream ( air4 ,"h #b;,,co ,,co#b ,c4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$ t heat is evolv$ 9 ?is reaction 7,note #be71 & !re=e t ! influ5ce ( 'contact' may "h play a "p4 ,inde$1 ?is reaction mu/ be class$ among ! mo/ rem>kable in/ances ( ! influ5ce ( contact1 especially z metals analog\s to ,ni 7,fe & ,co7 d n effect ?is reaction 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #ag74 #be ,a molecul> weight ( ?is gas1 or #b volumes ,,co 7#bh grams71 on combu/ion 7=m+ ,,co#b7 gives out #fh1jjj heat units 7,?oms5 #fg1ifj calories74 ,a molecul> weight ( hydrog51 ,h#b 7or #b volumes71 develops on burn+ into liquid wat] #fi1jjj heat units 7accord+ to ,?oms5 #fh1cjj71 b if x =ms aque\s vap\r #eh1jjj heat units4 ,*>coal1 resolv+ itself by combu/ion into ! molecul> quantity ( ,,co#b 7#b volumes71 develops #ig1jjj heat units4 ,f ! data furni%$ by ^! exo!rmal reactions x foll[s3 7#a7 t ! oxidation ( *>coal into c>bonic oxide develops #bi1jjj heat units2 7#b7 t ! reaction ,c ,,co#b #b;,,co absorbs #ci1jjj heat units2 7#c7 ,c ,h#b,o ,h#b ,,co absorbs 7if ! wat] be 9 a /ate ( vap\r7 #bi1jjj calories1 b if ! wat] be liquid #dj1jjj calories 7almo/ z mu* z ,c ,,co#b72 7#d7 ,c ,h#b,o ,,co#b #b;,h#b absorbs 7if ! wat] be 9 a /ate ( vap\r7 #ai1jjj heat units2 7#e7 ! reaction ,,co ,h#b,o ,,co#b ,h#b develops #aj1jjj heat units if ! wat] be 9 ! /ate ( vap\r2 & 7#f7 ! decomposition express$ by ! equation #b;,,co ,c ,,co#b 7,note #bd bis7 is accompani$ by ! evolution ( #ci1jjj units ( heat4 ,h5ce x foll[s t #b volumes ( ,,co or ,h#b burn+ into ,,co#b or ,h#b,o develop almo/ ! same am\nt ( heat1 j z also ! heat effects correspond+ ) ! equations ,c ,h#b,o ,,co ,h#b ,c ,,co#b ,,co ,,co are ne>ly equal4 #bf ,wat] gas1 obta9$ f /eam & *>coal at a :ite heat1 conta9s ab\t #ej p4c4 ( hydrog51 ab\t #dj p4c4 ( c>bonic oxide1 ab\t #e p4c4 ( c>bonic anhydride1 ! rema9d] be+ nitrog5 f ! *>coal & air4 ,comp>$ ) produc] gas1 :i* conta9s mu* nitrog51 ?is is a gas mu* ri*] 9 combu/ible matt]1 & !re=e capable ( giv+ high temp]atures1 & is = ?is reason ( ! greate/ utility4 ,if c>bonic anhydride c\ld be z readily obta9$ 9 z pure a /ate z wat]1 !n ,,co might be prep>$ directly f ,,co#b ,c1 & 9 t case ! utilisation ( ! heat ( ! c>bon w\ld be ! same z 9 wat] gas1 because ,,co evolves z mu* heat z ,h#b1 & ev5 m if ! temp]ature ( ! smoke be ov] #ajj1 & ! wat] rema9s 9 ! =m ( vap\r 7,note #be74 ,b produc] gas conta9s a l>ge proportion ( nitrog51 s t its effective temp]ature is bel[ t giv5 by wat] gas2 !re=e 9 places :]e a p>ticul>ly high temp]ature is requir$ 7= in/ance1 = light+ by means ( inc&esc5t lime or magnesia1 or = /eel melt+1 c471 & :]e ! gas c be easily di/ribut$ ?r\gh pipes1 wat] gas is at pres5t held 9 high e/imation1 b :5 79 ord9>y furnaces1 re-heat+1 glass-melt+1 & o!r furnaces7 a v high temp]ature is n requir$1 & !re is no ne$ to convey ! gas 9 pipes1 produc] gas is g5]ally pref]r$ on acc\nt ( ! simplicity ( its prep>ation1 especially z = wat] gas su* a high temp]ature is requir$ t ! plant soon becomes damag$4 ,!re are num]\s sy/ems = mak+ wat] gas1 b ! ,am]ican pat5t ( ,t4 ,l[e is g5]ally us$4 ,! gas is prep>$ 9 a cyl9drical g5]ator1 into :i* hot air is introduc$1 9 ord] to raise ! coke 9 x to a :ite heat4 ,! products ( combu/ion conta9+ c>bonic oxide are utilis$ = sup]heat+ /eam1 :i* is !n pass$ ov] ! :ite hot coke4 ,wat] gas1 or a mixture ( hydrog5 & c>bonic oxide1 is ?us obta9$4 ,wat] gas is sometimes call$ '! fuel ( ! future1' because x is applicable to all purposes1 develops a high temp]ature1 & is !re=e available1 n only = dome/ic & indu/rial uses1 b also = gas-motors & = light+4 ,= ! latt] purpose plat9um1 lime1 magnesia1 zirconia1 & simil> sub/ances 7z 9 ! ,drummond light1 ,*apt] ,,iii471 are r5d]$ inc&esc5t 9 ! flame1 or else ! gas is c>burett$--t is1 mix$ ) ! vap\rs ( volatile hydroc>bons 7g5]ally b5z5e or naph?a1 naph?al5e1 or simply naph?a gas71 :i* communicate to ! pale flame ( c>bonic oxide & hydrog5 a great brilliancy1 ow+ to ! high temp]ature develop$ by ! combu/ion ( ! non-lum9\s gases4 ,z wat] gas1 possess+ ^! prop]ties1 may be prep>$ at c5tral works & convey$ 9 pipes to ! consum]s1 & z x may be produc$ f any k9d ( fuel1 & ought to be mu* *eap] ?an ord9>y gas1 x may z a matt] ( fact be expect$ t 9 c\rse ( "t 7:5 exp]i5ce %all h det]m9$ ! *eape/ & be/ way to prep>e x7 x w n only supplant ord9>y gas1 b w ) advantage ev]y:]e replace ! ord9>y =ms ( fuel1 :i* 9 _m respects are inconv5i5t4 ,at pres5t its consumption spreads pr9cipally = light+ purposes1 & = use 9 gas-eng9es in/ead ( ord9>y illum9at+ gas4 ,9 "s cases ,d[son gas is prep>$ 9 produc]s4 ,?is is a mixture ( wat] & produc] gases obta9$ by pass+ /eam into an ord9>y produc] 7,note #ai71 :5 ! temp]ature ( ! c>bon has become suffici5tly high = ! reaction ,c ,h#b,o ,,co ,h#b4 ,metals l iron & z9c :i* at a r$ heat are capable ( decompos+ wat] ) ! =mation ( hydrog51 also decompose c>bonic anhydride ) ! =mation ( c>bonic oxide2 s bo? ! ord9>y products ( complete combu/ion1 wat] & c>bonic anhydride1 are v simil> 9 _! reactions1 & we %all !re=e pres5tly comp>e hydrog5 & c>bonic oxide4 ,! metallic oxides ( ! above-m5tion$ metals1 :5 r$uc$ by *>coal1 also give c>bonic oxide4 ,prie/ley obta9$ x by heat+ *>coal ) z9c oxide4 ,z free c>bonic anhydride may be trans=m$ into c>bonic oxide1 s1 9 precisely ! same way1 may t c>bonic acid :i* is 9 a /ate ( comb9ation2 h5ce1 if magnesium or b>ium c>bonates 7,mg,c,o#c or ,ba,c,o#c7 be heat$ to r$ness ) *>coal1 or iron or z9c1 c>bonic oxide w be produc$--= in/ance1 x is obta9$ by heat+ an intimate mixture ( #i p>ts ( *alk & #a "p ( *>coal 9 a clay retort4 ,_m organic sub/ances#bg on be+ heat$1 or "u ! action ( v>i\s ag5ts1 yield c>bonic oxide2 among/ ^! are _m organic or c>boxylic acids4 ,! simple/ are =mic & oxalic acids4 ,=mic acid1 ,,*#b,o#b1 on be+ heat$ to #bjj1 easily decomposes into c>bonic oxide & wat]1 ,,*#b,o#b ,,co ,h#b,o4#bg bis ,usually1 h[ev]1 c>bonic oxide is prep>$ 9 laboratories1 n f =mic b f oxalic acid1 ,c#b;,h#b,o#d1 ! m s z =mic acid is itself prep>$ f oxalic acid4 ,! latt] acid is easily obta9$ by ! action ( nitric acid on />*1 sug>1 c42 x is also f\nd 9 nature4 ,oxalic acid is easily decompos$ by heat2 its cry/als fir/ lose wat]1 !n p>tly volatilise1 b ! great] "p is decompos$4 ,! decomposition is ( ! foll[+ nature3 x splits up into wat]1 c>bonic oxide1 & c>bonic anhydride1#bh ,c#b;,h#b,o#d ,h#b,o ,,co#b ,,co4 ,?is decomposition is g5]ally practically effect$ by mix+ oxalic acid ) /rong sulphuric acid1 because ! latt] assi/s ! decomposition by tak+ up ! wat]4 ,on heat+ a mixture ( oxalic & sulphuric acids a mixture ( c>bonic oxide & c>bonic anhydride is evolv$4 ,?is mixture is pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( an alkali 9 ord] to absorb ! c>bonic anhydride1 :il/ ! c>bonic oxide passes on4#bh bis #bg ,! s-call$ yell[ prussiate1 ,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f1 on be+ heat$ ) t5 p>ts ( /rong sulphuric acid =ms a consid]able quantity ( v pure c>bonic oxide q free f c>bonic anhydride4 #bg bis ,to p]=m ?is reaction1 ! =mic acid is mix$ ) glyc]9e1 because :5 heat$ alone x volatilises mu* bel[ its temp]ature ( decomposition4 ,:5 heat$ ) sulphuric acid ! salts ( =mic acid yield c>bonic oxide4 #bh ,! decomposition ( =mic & oxalic acids1 ) ! =mation ( c>bonic oxide1 consid]+ ^! acids z c>boxyl d]ivatives1 may be expla9$ z foll[s3--,! fir/ is ,h7,,cooh7 & ! second 7,,cooh7#b1 or ,h#b 9 :i* "o or bo? halves ( ! hydrog5 are ex*ang$ = c>boxyl2 !re=e !y are equal to ,h#b ,,co#b & ,h#b #b;,,co#b2 b ,h#b reacts ) ,,co#b1 z has be5 /at$ above1 =m+ ,,co & ,h#b,o4 ,f ?is x is also evid5t t oxalic acid on los+ ,,co#b =ms =mic acid1 & also t ! latt] may proce$ f ,,co ,h#b,o1 z we %all see fur!r on4 #bh bis ,gre%(f 7#ahhh7 %[$ t ) a solution ( nitrate ( silv]1 iod(orm1 ,,*i#c1 =ms ,,co accord+ to ! equation ,,*i#c #c;,ag,n,o#c ,h#b,o #c;,ag,i #c;,,hno#c ,,co4 ,! reaction is imm$iate & is complete4 ,9 its physical prop]ties c>bonic oxide resembles nitrog52 ?is is expla9$ by ! equality ( _! molecul> weights4 ,! abs5ce ( col\r & smell1 ! l[ temp]ature ( ! absolute boil+ po9t1 -#adj 7nitrog51 -#adf71 ! prop]ty ( solidify+ at -#bjj 7nitrog51 -#bjb71 ! boil+ po9t ( -#aij 7nitrog51 -#bjc71 & ! slight solubility 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #cj71 ( c>bonic oxide are almo/ ! same z 9 ^? ( nitrog54 ,! *emical prop]ties ( bo? gases are1 h[ev]1 v diff]5t1 & 9 ^! c>bonic oxide resembles hydrog54 ,c>bonic oxide burns ) a blue flame1 giv+ #b volumes ( c>bonic anhydride f #b volumes ( c>bonic oxide1 j z #b volumes ( hydrog5 give #b volumes ( aque\s vap\r4 ,x explodes ) oxyg51 9 ! eudiomet]1 l hydrog54#bi ,:5 brea!d x acts z a /rong poison1 be+ absorb$ by ! blood2#cj ?is expla9s ! action ( *>coal fumes1 ! products ( ! incomplete combu/ion ( *>coal & o!r c>bonace\s fuels4 ,ow+ to its faculty ( comb9+ ) oxyg51 c>bonic oxide acts z a p[]ful r$uc+ ag5t1 tak+ up ! oxyg5 f _m comp\nds at a r$ heat1 & be+ itself trans=m$ into c>bonic anhydride4 ,! r$uc+ action ( c>bonic oxide1 h[ev]1 is 7l t ( hydrog51 ,*apt] ,,ii47 naturally conf9$ to ^? oxides :i* easily "p ) _! oxyg5--z1 = in/ance1 copp] oxide--:il/ ! oxides ( magnesium or potassium are n r$uc$4 ,metallic iron itself is capable ( r$uc+ c>bonic anhydride to c>bonic oxide1 j z x lib]ates ! hydrog5 f wat]4 ,copp]1 :i* does n decompose wat]1 does n decompose c>bonic oxide4 ,if a plat9um wire heat$ to #cjj1 or spongy plat9um at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 be plung$ into a mixture ( c>bonic oxide & oxyg51 or ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 ! mixture explodes4 ,^! reactions are v simil> to ^? peculi> to hydrog54 ,! foll[+ important di/9ction1 h[ev]1 exi/s betwe5 !m--namely3 ! molecule ( hydrog5 is compos$ ( ,h#b1 a gr\p ( elem5ts divisible into two l p>ts1 :il/1 z ! molecule ( c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 conta9s unlike atoms ( c>bon & oxyg51 9 none ( its reactions ( comb9ation c x give two molecules ( matt] conta9+ its elem5ts4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 ! action ( *lor9e on hydrog5 & on c>bonic oxide respectively2 ) ! =m] *lor9e =ms hydrog5 *loride1 & ) ! latt] x produces ! s-call$ c>bonyl *loride1 ,c,o,cl#b3 t is to say1 ! molecule ( hydrog51 ,h#b1 "u ! action ( *lor9e divides1 =m+ two molecules ( hydro*loric acid1 :il/ ! molecule ( c>bonic oxide ent]s 9 its entirety into ! molecule ( c>bonyl *loride4 ,?is *>act]ises ! s-call$ diatomic or bival5t reactions ( radicles or residues4 ,h is a monatomic residue or radicle1 l ,k1 ,cl1 & o!rs1 :il/ c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 is an indivisible 7undecomposable7 bival5t radicle1 equival5t to ,h#b & n to ,h1 & !re=e comb9+ ) ,x#b & int]*angeable ) ,h#b4 ,?is di/9ction is evid5t f ! annex$ comp>ison3 ,,hh1 hydrog54 ,,co1 c>bonic oxide4 ,h,cl1 hydro*loric acid4 ,c,o,cl#b1 c>bonyl *loride4 ,,hko1 pota%4 ,,co7,,ko7#b1 potassium c>bonate4 ,,hnh#b1 ammonia4 ,,co7,,nh#b7b1 urea4 ,,h*#c1 me?ane4 ,,co7,,*#c7b1 acetone4 ,,hho1 wat]4 ,,co7,,ho7#b1 c>bonic acid4 #bi ,x is rem>kable t1 accord+ to ! inve/igations ( ,dixon1 p]fectly dry c>bonic oxide does n explode ) oxyg5 :5 a sp>k ( l[ int5sity is us$1 b an explosion takes place if !re is ! slighte/ admixture ( moi/ure4 ,l4 ,mey]1 h[ev]1 %[$ t sp>ks ( an electric dis*>ge ( consid]able int5sity produce an explosion4 ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f demon/rat$ t combu/ion proce$s & spreads sl[ly unless !re be p]fect dryness4 ,i ?9k t ?is may he expla9$ by ! fact t wat] ) c>bonic oxide gives c>bonic anhydride & hydrog51 b hydrog5 ) oxyg5 gives hydrog5 p]oxide 7,*apt] ,,vii471 :i* ) c>bonic oxide =ms c>bonic anhydride & wat]4 ,! wat]1 !re=e1 is r5ew$1 & aga9 s]ves ! same purpose4 ,b x may be t "h x is necess>y to ackn[l$ge a simple contact influ5ce4 ,aft] ,dixon _h %[n ! influ5ce ( traces ( moi/ure ^u ! reaction ,,co ,o1 _m rese>*es 7 made ( a simil> nature4 ,! fulle/ inve/igation into ! influ5ce ( moi/ure ^u ! c\rse ( _m *emical reactions 0 made by ,bak] 9 #ahid4 ,he %[$ t ) p]fect dryness1 _m *emical trans=mations 7= example1 ! =mation ( ozone f oxyg51 ! decomposition ( ,ag,o1 ,k,cl,o#c "u ! action ( heat1 c47 proce$s 9 exactly ! same mann] z 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure2 b t 9 _m cases traces ( moi/ure h an evid5t influ5ce4 ,we may m5tion ! foll[+ in/ances3 7#a7 ,dry ,,s#c does n act ^u dry ,ca,o or ,cu,o2 7#b7 p]fectly dry sal-ammoniac does n give ,,nh#c ) dry ,ca,o1 b simply volatilises2 7#c7 dry ,,no & ,o d n react2 7#d7 p]fectly dry ,,nh#c & ,h,cl d n comb9e2 7#e7 p]fectly dry sal-ammoniac does n dissociate at #cej 7,*apt] ,,vii41 ,note #ae bis72 & 7#f7 p]fectly dry *lor9e does n act ^u metals1 c4 #cj ,c>bonic oxide is v rapid 9 its action1 because x is absorb$ by ! blood 9 ! same way z oxyg54 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! absorption spectrum ( ! blood *anges s t by ! help ( blood x is easy to detect ! slighte/ traces ( c>bonic oxide 9 ! air4 ,m4 ,a4 ,kap\/9 f\nd t l9se$ oil & !re=e oil pa9ts1 are capable ( giv+ (f c>bonic oxide :ile dry+ 7absorb+ oxyg574 ,su* monatmic 7unival5t7 residues1 ,x1 z ,h1 ,cl1 ,na1 ,,no#b1 ,,nh#d1 ,,*#c1 ,,co#b;,h 7c>boxyl71 ,,oh1 & o!rs1 9 accordance ) ! law ( sub/itution1 comb9e toge!r1 =m+ comp\nds1 ,,xx'2 & ) oxyg51 or 9 g5]al ) diatomic 7bival5t7 residues1 ,y--= in/ance1 ,o1 ,,co1 ,,*#b1 ,s1 ,ca1 c4 =m+ comp\nds ,,xx,y2 b diatomic residues1 ,y1 sometimes capable ( exi/+ sep>ately may comb9e toge!r1 =m+ ,,yy & ) ,x#b or ,,xx1 z we see f ! transition ( ,,co into ,,co#b & ,c,o,cl#b4 ,?is comb9+ p[] ( c>bonic oxide appe>s 9 _m ( its reactions4 ,?us x is v easily absorb$ by cupr\s *loride1 ,cu,cl1 dissolv$ 9 fum+ hydro*loric acid1 =m+ a cry/all9e comp\nd1 ,c,o,cu#b;,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1 decomposable by wat]2 x comb9es directly ) potassium 7at #ij71 =m+ 7,,kco7n#ca ) plat9um di*loride1 ,pt,cl#b1 ) *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 c4 #ca ,! molecule ( metallic potassium 7,scott1 #ahhg71 l t ( m]cury1 conta9s only "o atom1 & x is probably 9 virtue ( ?is t ! molecules ,,co & ,k comb9e toge!r4 ,b z 9 ! majority ( cases potassium acts z a unival5t radicle1 ! polym]ide ,k#b;,c#b,o#b is =m$1 & probably ,k#aj;,c#aj,o#aj1 because products conta9+ ,c#aj are =m$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid4 ,! black mass =m$ by ! comb9ation ( c>bonic oxide ) potassium explodes ) great ease1 & oxidises 9 ! air4 ,al?\gh ,brodie1 ,l]*1 & ,joannis 7:o obta9$ x 9 #ahgc 9 a col\rless =m by means ( ,,nh#c,k1 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #ad7 h greatly ext5d$ our k ( ?is comp\nd1 mu* /ill rema9s unexpla9$4 ,x probably exi/s 9 v>i\s polym]ic & isom]ic =ms1 hav+ ! composition 7,,kco7n & 7,na,c,o7n4 ,b ! mo/ rem>kable comp\nds are 7#a7 ! comp\nd ( ,,co ) metallic nickel1 a col\rless volatile liquid1 ,ni7,,co7#d1 obta9$ by ,l4 ,mond 7describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxii47 & 7#b7 ! comp\nds ( c>bonic oxide ) ! alkalis1 = in/ance ) potassium or b>ium hydroxide1 c4--al?\gh x is n directly absorb$ by !m1 z x has no acid prop]ties4 ,b]!lot 7#ahfa7 %[$ t pota% 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] is capable ( absorb+ c>bonic oxide1 b ! absorption takes place sl[ly1 little by little1 & x is only aft] be+ heat$ = _m h\rs t ! :ole ( ! c>bonic oxide is absorb$ by ! pota%4 ,! salt ,,*ko#b is obta9$ by ?is absorption2 x corresponds ) an acid f\nd 9 nature--namely1 ! simple/ organic 7c>boxylic7 acid1 =mic acid1 ,,*#b,o#b4 ,x c be extract$ f ! potassium salt by means ( di/illation ) dilute sulphuric acid1 j z nitric acid is prep>$ f sodium nitrate4 ,! same acid is f\nd 9 ants & 9 nettles 7:5 ! /+s ( ! nettles puncture ! sk9 !y break1 & ! corrosive =mic acid ent]s into ! body72 x is also obta9$ dur+ ! action ( oxidis+ ag5ts on _m organic sub/ances2 x is =m$ f oxalic acid1 & "u _m conditions splits up into c>bonic oxide & wat]4 ,9 ! =mation ( =mic acid f c>bonic oxide we obs]ve an example ( ! syn!sis ( organic comp\nds1 su* z are n[ v num]\s1 & are treat$ ( 9 detail 9 works on organic *emi/ry4 ,=mic acid1 ,h7,,*o#b71 c>bonic acid1 ,,ho7,,*o#b71 & oxalic acid1 7,,*o#b7b1 are ! simple organic or c>boxylic acids1 ,r7,,*o#b7 correspond+ ) ,,hh & ,,hoh4 ,comm5c+ ) c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 ! =mation ( c>boxylic acids is cle>ly se5 f ! fact t ,,co is capable ( comb9+ ) ,x#b1 t is ( =m+ ,,cox#b4 ,if1 = in/ance1 "o ,x is an aque\s residue1 ,,oh 7hydroxyl71 & ! o!r ,x is hydrog51 !n ! simple/ organic acid--=mic acid1 ,h7,,cooh7--is obta9$4 ,z all hydroc>bons 7,*apt] ,,viii47 correspond ) ! simple/1 ,,*#d1 s all organic acids may be consid]$ to proce$ f =mic acid4 ,9 a simil> way x is easy to expla9 ! relation to o!r comp\nds ( c>bon ( ^? comp\nds :i* conta9 nitrog54 ,by way ( an example1 we w take "o ( ! c>boxyl acids1 ,r7,,co#b;,h71 :]e ,r is a hydroc>bon radicle 7residue74 ,su* an acid1 l all o!rs1 w give by comb9ation ) ,,nh#c an ammoniacal salt1 ,r7,,co#b,,nh#d74 ,?is salt conta9s ! elem5ts = ! =mation ( two molecules ( wat]1 & "u suitable conditions by ! action ( bodies capable ( tak+ x up1 wat] may 9 fact be sep>at$ f ,r7,,co#b,,nh#d71 =m+ by ! loss ( "o molecule ( wat]1 amides1 ,,rconh#b1 & by ! loss ( two molecules ( wat]1 nitriles1 ,,rcn1 o!rwise kn[n z cyanog5 comp\nds or cyanides4#cb ,if all ! c>boxyl acids are unit$ n only by _m common reactions b also by a mutual conv]sion into ea* o!r 7an in/ance ( :i* we saw above 9 ! conv]sion ( oxalic acid into =mic & c>bonic acids7 "o w\ld expect ! same = all ! cyanog5 comp\nds also4 ,! common "* ( _! reactions1 & ! reciprocity ( _! trans=mation1 7 long ago obs]v$ by ,gay-,lussac1 :o recognis$ a common gr\p or radicle 7residue7 cyanog51 ,,cn1 9 all ( !m4 ,! simple/ comp\nds are hydrocyanic or prussic acid1 ,,hcn1 cyanic acid1 ,,ohcn1 & free cyanog51 7,,cn7#b1 :i* correspond to ! ?ree simple/ c>boxyl acids3 =mic1 ,,hco#b;,h1 c>bonic1 ,,ohco#b;,h1 & oxalic1 7,,co#b;,h7#b4 ,cyanog51 l c>boxyl1 is evid5tly a monatomic residue & acid1 simil> to *lor9e4 ,z reg>ds ! amides ,,rconh#b1 correspond+ to ! c>boxyl acids1 !y conta9 ! ammoniacal residue ,,nh#b1 & =m a num]\s class ( organic comp\nds met ) 9 nature & obta9$ 9 _m ways1#cc b n di/+ui%$ by su* *>act]i/ic peculi>ities z ! cyanog5 comp\nds4 #cb ,! connection ( ! cyanog5 comp\nds ) ! re/ ( ! hydroc>bons by means ( c>boxyl 0 enunciat$ by me1 ab\t ! ye> #ahfj1 at ! fir/ ,annual ,meet+ ( ! ,russian ,naturali/s4 #cc ,?us1 = in/ance1 oxamide1 or ! amide ( oxalic acid1 7,,cnh#b,o7#b1 is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( an insoluble precipitate on add+ a solution ( ammonia to an alcoholic solution ( e?yl oxalate1 7,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e7b1 :i* is =m$ by ! action ( oxalic acid on alcohol3 7,,*o#b7b #b7;,c#b;,h#e7,,oh #b;,,hoh 7,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e7b4 ,z ! ne>e/ d]ivatives ( ammonia1 ! amides treat$ ) alkalis yield ammonia & =m ! salt ( ! acid4 ,! nitriles d n1 h[ev]1 give simil> reactions s readily4 ,! majority ( amides correspond+ to acids h a composition ,,rnh#b1 & !re=e recomb9e ) wat] ) great ease ev5 :5 simply boil$ ) x1 & ) /ill great] facility 9 pres5ce ( acids or alkalis4 ,"u ! action ( alkalis ! amides naturally give (f ammonia1 ?r\gh ! comb9ation ( wat] ) ! amide1 :5 a salt ( ! acid f :i* ! amide 0 d]iv$ is =m$3 ,,rnh#b ,,kho ,,rko ,,nh#c4 ,! same reaction takes place ) acids1 only an ammoniacal salt ( ! acid is ( c\rse =m$ :il/ ! acid held 9 ! amide is lib]at$3 ,,rnh#b ,h,cl ,h#b,o ,,rho ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,?us 9 ! majority ( cases amides easily pass into ammoniacal salts1 b !y diff] ess5tially f !m4 ,no ammoniacal salt sublimes or volatilises un*ang$1 & g5]ally :5 heat$ x gives (f wat] & yields an amide1 :il/ _m amides volatilise )\t alt]ation & frequ5tly are volatile cry/all9e sub/ances :i* may be easily sublim$4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ! amides ( b5zoic1 =mic1 & _m o!r organic acids4 ,! reactions & prop]ties ( ! amides & nitriles ( ! organic acids are describ$ 9 detail 9 books on organic *emi/ry2 we w "h only t\* ^u ! simple/ ( !m1 & to cle>ly expla9 ! d]ivative comp\nds w fir/ consid] ! ammoniacal salts & amides ( c>bonic acid4 ,z c>bonic acid is bibasic1 its ammonium salts ought to h ! foll[+ composition3 acid c>bonate ( ammonium1 ,h7,,nh#d7;,,co#c1 & normal c>bonate1 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c2 !y repres5t comp\nds ( "o or two molecules ( ammonia ) c>bonic acid4 ,! acid salt appe>s 9 ! =m ( a non-odorif]\s & 7:5 te/$ ) litmus7 neutral sub/ance1 soluble at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 six p>ts ( wat]1 insoluble 9 alcohol1 & obta9able 9 a cry/all9e =m ei!r )\t wat] ( cry/allisation or ) v>i\s proportions ( x4 ,if an aque\s solution ( ammonia be saturat$ ) an excess ( c>bonic anhydride1 & !n evaporat$ ov] sulphuric acid 9 ! bell j> ( an air-pump1 cry/als ( ?is salt are sep>at$4 ,solutions ( all o!r ammonium c>bonates1 :5 evaporat$ "u ! air-pump1 yield cry/als ( ?is salt4 ,a solution ( ?is salt1 ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 gives (f c>bonic anhydride1 z d all ! acid salts ( c>bonic acid 7= in/ance1 ,na,h,c,o#c71 & at #ch ! sep>ation ( c>bonic anhydride takes place ) great rapidity4 ,on los+ c>bonic anhydride & wat]1 ! acid salt is conv]t$ into ! normal salt1 #b7,,nh#d7;,,hco#c ,h#b,o ,,co#b 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c2 ! latt]1 h[ev]1 decomposes 9 solution1 & c !re=e only be obta9$ 9 cry/als1 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c1;,h#b,o1 at l[ temp]atures1 & f solutions conta9+ an excess ( ammonia z ! product ( dissociation ( ?is salt3 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c ,,nh#c 7,,nh#d7;,,hco#c4 ,b ! normal salt1#cd accord+ to ! g5]al type1 is capable ( decompos+ ) sep>ation ( wat]1 & =m+ ammonium c>bamate1 ,,nh#d,o7,,conh#b7 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c-;,h#b,o2 ?is /ill fur!r complicates ! *emical trans=mations ( ! c>bonates ( ammonium4 ,x is 9 fact evid5t t1 by *ang+ ! ratios ( wat]1 ammonia1 & c>bonic acid1 v>i\s int]m$iate salts w be =m$ conta9+ mixtures or comb9ations ( ^? m5tion$ above4 ,?us ! ord9>y comm]cial c>bonate ( ammonia is obta9$ by heat+ a mixture ( *alk & sulphate ( ammonia 7,*apt] ,,vi471 or sal-ammoniac1 #b,,nh#d;,cl ,ca,c,o#c ,ca,cl#b 7,,nh#d7b;,,co#c4 ,! normal salt1 h[ev]1 ?r\gh loss ( "p ( ! ammonia1 p>tly =ms ! acid salt1 &1 p>tly ?r\gh loss ( wat]1 =ms c>bamate1 & mo/ frequ5tly pres5ts ! composition ,,nh#d,o7,,conh#b7 #b,,oh7,,co#b,,nh#d7 #d,,nh#c #c;,,co#b #b;,h#b,o4 ,?is salt1 9 p>t+ "u v>i\s conditions ) ammonia1 c>bonic anhydride1 & wat]1 does n pres5t a con/ant composition1 & ought r to be reg>d$ z a mixture ( acid salt & amide salt4 ,! latt] mu/ be recognis$ z ent]+ into ! composition ( ! ord9>y c>bonate ( ammonia1 because x conta9s less wat] ?an is requir$ = ! normal or acid salt2#ce b on be+ dissolv$ 9 wat] ?is salt gives a mixture ( acid & normal salts4 #cd ,! acid salt1 7,,nh#d7;,,hco#c1 on los+ wat] ought to =m ! c>bamic acid1 ,,oh7,,cnh#b,o72 b x is n =m$1 :i* is acc\nt$ = by ! in/ability ( ! acid salt itself4 ,c>bonic anhydride is giv5 (f & ammonia is produc$1 :i* gives ammonium c>bamate4 #ce ,9 ! normal salt1 #b,,nh#c ,,co#b ,h#b,o1 9 ! acid salt1 ,,nh#c ,,co#b ,h#b,o1 b 9 ! comm]cial salt only #b;,h#b,o to #c;,,co#b4 ,ea* ( ! two ammoniacal salts ( c>bonic acid has its correspond+ amide4 ,t ( ! acid salt %\ld be acid1 if ! wat] giv5 (f takes up ! hydrog5 ( ! ammonia1 z x %\ld accord+ to ! common type ( =mation ( ! amides1 s t ,,ohconh#b1 or c>bamic acid1 is =m$ f ,,ohco#c,,nh#d4 ,?is acid is n kn[n 9 a free /ate1 b its correspond+ ammoniacal salt or ammonium c>bamate is kn[n4 ,! latt] is easily & imm$iately =m$ by mix+ #b volumes ( dry ammonia ) #a volume ( dry c>bonic anhydride1 #b,,nh#c ,,co#b ,,nh#d,o7,,conh#b72 x is a solid sub/ance1 smells /rongly ( ammonia1 attracts moi/ure f ! air1 & decomposes completely at #fj4 ,! fact ( ?is decomposition may be prov$#cf by ! d5sity ( its vap\r1 :i* #ac 7,h #a72 ?is exactly corresponds ) ! d5sity ( a mixture ( #b volumes ( ammonia & #a volume ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,x is easily und]/ood t su* a comb9ation w take place ) any ammonium c>bonate "u ! action ( salts :i* take up ! wat]--= in/ance1 sodium or potassium c>bonate#cg--;z 9 an anhydr\s /ate ammonia & c>bonic anhydride only =m "o comp\nd1 ,,co#bb,,nh#c4ch ,z ! normal ammonium c>bonate conta9s two ammonias1 & z ! amides are =m$ ) ! sep>ation ( wat] at ! exp5se ( ! hydrog5 ( ! ammonias1 s ?is salt has its symmetrical amide1 ,,co7,,nh#b7b4 ,?is mu/ be t]m$ c>bamide4 ,x is id5tical ) urea1 ,,cn#b;,h#d,o1 :i*1 conta9$ 9 ! ur9e 7ab\t #b p] c5t4 9 human ur9e71 is = ! high] animals 7especially ! c>nivor\s7 ! ord9>y product ( excretion#ci & oxidation ( ! nitrog5\s sub/ances f\nd 9 ! organism4 ,if ammonium c>bamate be heat$ to #adj 79 a seal$ tube1 ,baz>(f71 or if c>bonyl *loride1 ,c,o,cl#b1 be treat$ ) ammonia 7,natanson71 urea w be obta9$1 :i* %[s its direct connection ) c>bonic acid--t is1 ! pres5ce ( c>bonic acid & ammonia 9 x4 ,f ?is x w be und]/ood h[ urea dur+ ! putrefaction ( ur9e is conv]t$ into ammonium c>bonate1 ,,cn#b;,h#d,o ,h#b,o ,,co#b #b,,nh#c4 #cf ,naumann det]m9$ ! foll[+ dissociation t5sions ( ! vap\r ( ammonium c>bamate 79 millimetres ( m]cury73-- -#aj #j #aj #bj #cj #dj #ej #fj #e #ab #cj #fb #abd #bdh #dgj #ggj ,hor/mann & ,isamb]t /udi$ ! t5sions correspond+ to excess ( ,,nh#c or ,,co#b1 & f\nd1 z might h be5 expect$1 t ) su* excess ! mass ( ! salt =m$ 79 a solid /ate7 increases & ! decomposition 7transition into vap\r7 decreases4 #cg ,calcium *loride ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) ammonium c>bamate4 ,acids 7= in/ance1 sulphuric7 take up ammonia1 & set free c>bonic anhydride2 :il/ alkalis 7su* z pota%7 take up c>bonic anhydride & set free ammonia1 & !re=e1 9 ?is case = remov+ wat] only sodium or potassium c>bonate c be tak54 ,an aque\s solution ( ammonium c>bamate does n entirely precipitate a solution ( ,ca,cl#b1 probably because calcium c>bamate is soluble 9 wat]1 & all ! 7,,nh#c7b;,,co#b is n conv]t$ by dissolv+ into ! normal salt1 7,,nh#d,o7#b;,,co#c4 #ch ,x mu/ be imag9$ t ! reaction takes place at fir/ betwe5 equal volumes 7,*apt] ,,vii472 b !n c>bamic acid1 ,,ho7,,cnh#b,o71 is produc$1 :i*1 z an acid1 imm$iately comb9es ) ! ammonia1 =m+ ,,nh#d,o7,,cnh#b,o74 #ci ,urea is und\bt$ly a product ( ! oxidation ( complex nitrog5\s matt]s 7album97 ( ! animal body4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! blood4 ,x is absorb$ f ! blood by ! kidneys4 ,a man excretes ab\t #cj grams ( urea p] day4 ,z a d]ivative ( c>bonic anhydride1 into :i* x is readily conv]t$1 urea is 9 a s5se a product ( oxidation4 ,?us urea1 bo? by its orig9 & decomposition1 is an amide ( c>bonic acid4 ,repres5t+ z x does ammonia 7two molecules7 9 :i* hydrog5 7two atoms7 is replac$ by ! bival5t radicle ( c>bonic acid1 urea reta9s ! prop]ty ( ammonia ( ent]+ into comb9ation1 ) acids 7?us nitric acid =ms ,,cn#b;,h#d,o1,,hno#c71 ) bases 7= in/ance1 ) m]cury oxide71 & ) salts 7su* z sodium *loride1 ammonium *loride71 b conta9+ an acid residue x has no alkal9e prop]ties4 ,x is soluble 9 wat] )\t *ange1 b at a r$ heat loses ammonia & =ms cyanic acid1 ,,cnho1#ci bis :i* is a nitrile ( c>bonic acid--t is to say1 is a cyanog5 comp\nd1 correspond+ to ! acid ammonium c>bonate1 ,,oh7,,cnh#d,o#b71 :i* on p>t+ ) #b;,h#b,o ought to =m cyanic acid1 ,,cnoh4 ,liquid cyanic acid1 exce$+ly un/able at ! ord9>y temp]atures1 gives its /able solid polym] cyanuric acid1 ,o#c;,h#c;,c#c,n#c4 ,bo? h ! same composition1 & !y pass "o into ano!r at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,if cry/als ( cyanuric acid be heat$ to a temp]ature1 t1 !n ! vap\r t5sion1 p1 9 millimetres ( m]cury 7,troo/ & ,hautefeuille7 w be3 t4 #afj1 #agj1 #bjj1 #bej1 #cjj1 #cej p4 #ef1 #fh1 #acj1 #bbj1 #dcj1 #a1bjj ,! vap\r conta9s cyanic acid1 &1 if x be rapidly cool$1 x cond5ses into a mobile volatile liquid 7specific gravity at #j #aad74 ,if ! liquid cyanic acid be gradually heat$1 x passes into a new amorph\s polym]ide 7cyamelide71 :i*1 on be+ heat$1 l cyanuric acid1 =ms vap\rs ( cyanic acid4 ,if ^! fumes are heat$ above #aej !y pass directly into cyanuric acid4 ,?us at a temp]ature ( #cej1 ! pressure does n rise above #a1bjj mm4 on ! addition ( vap\rs ( cyanic acid1 because ! :ole excess is trans=m$ into cyanuric acid4 ,h5ce1 ! above-m5tion$ figures give ! t5sion ( dissociation ( cyanuric acid1 or ! greate/ pressure :i* ! vap\rs ( ,,hocn are able to atta9 at a giv5 temp]ature1 :il/ at a great] pressure1 or by ! introduction ( a l>g] mass ( ! sub/ance into a giv5 volume1 ! :ole ( ! excess is conv]t$ into cyanuric acid4 ,! prop]ties ( cyanic acid :i* we h describ$ 7 pr9cipally obs]v$ by ,whl]1 & cle>ly %[ ! faculty ( polym]isation ( cyanog5 comp\nds4 ,?is is obs]v$ 9 _m o!r cyanog5 d]ivatives1 & is to be reg>d$ z ! consequ5ce ( ! above-m5tion$ explanation ( _! nature4 ,all cyanog5 comp\nds are ammonium salts1 ,r7,,cnh#d,o#b71 depriv$ ( wat]1 #b;,h#b,o2 !re=e ! molecules1 ,,rcn1 ought to possess ! faculty ( comb9+ ) two molecules ( wat] or ) o!r molecules 9 ex*ange = x 7= in/ance1 ) ,h#b,s1 or ,h,cl1 or #b;,h#b1 c471 & are !re=e capable ( comb9+ toge!r4 ,! comb9ation ( molecules ( ! same k9d to =m m complex ones is :at is meant by polym]isation4#dj #ci bis ,its polym]1 ,c#c,n#c;,h#c,o#c1 is =m$ toge!r ) x4 ,cyanic acid is a v un/able1 easily *angeable liquid1 :ile cyanuric acid is a cry/all9e solid :i* is v /able at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 #dj ,j z ! aldehydes 7su* z ,c#b;,h#d,o7 are alcohols 7l ,c#b;,h#f,o7 :i* h lo/ hydrog5 & are also capable ( ent]+ into comb9ation ) _m sub/ances1 & ( polym]is+1 =m+ slightly volatile polym]ides1 :i* depolym]ise on heat+4 ,al?\gh !re are also _m simil> ph5om5a 7= in/ance1 ! trans=mation ( yell[ into r$ phosphorus1 ! transition ( c9nam5e into metac9nam5e1 c47 ( polym]isation1 9 no o!r case are !y s cle>ly & simply express$ z 9 cyanic acid4 ,! details relat+ to ?is mu/ be s\ght = 9 treatises on organic & !oretical *emi/ry4 ,if we t\* on c]ta9 sides ( ?is "q x is pr9cipally ) ! view ( %[+ ! ph5om5on ( polym]isation by typical examples1 = x is ( m frequ5t occurr5ce ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$ among comp\nds ( sev]al elem5ts4 ,besidea be+ a sub/ance v prone to =m polym]ides1 cyanic acid pres5ts _m o!r features ( int]e/1 exp\nd$ 9 great] detail 9 organic *emi/ry4 ,h[ev] we may m5tion "h ! production ( ! cyanates by ! oxidation ( ! metallic cyanides4 ,potassium cyanate1 ,,kcno1 is mo/ (t5 obta9$ 9 ?is way4 ,solutions ( cyanates by ! addition ( sulphuric acid yield cyanic acid1 :i*1 h[ev]1 imm$iately decomposes3 ,,cnho ,h#b,o ,,co#b ,,nh#c4 ,a solution ( ammonium cyanate1 ,,cn7,,nh#d7,o1 behaves 9 ! same mann]1 b only 9 ! cold4 ,on be+ heat$ x completely *anges because x is trans=m$ into urea4 ,! composition ( bo? sub/ances is id5tical1 ,,cn#b;,h#d,o1 b ! /ructure1 or disposition (1 & connection betwe51 ! elem5ts is diff]5t3 9 ! ammonium cyanate "o atom ( nitrog5 exi/s 9 ! =m ( cyanog51 ,,cn--t is1 unit$ ) c>bon--& ! o!r z ammonium1 ,,nh#d1 b1 z cyanic acid conta9s ! hydroxyl radicle ( c>bonic acid1 ,,oh7,,cn71 ! ammonium 9 ?is salt is unit$ ) oxyg54 ,! composition ( ?is salt is be/ express$ by suppos+ "o atom ( ! hydrog5 9 wat] to be replac$ by ammonium & ! o!r by cyanog5--i4e4 t its composition is n symmetrical--:il/ 9 urea bo? ! nitrog5 atoms are symmetrically & uni=mly dispos$ z reg>ds ! radicle ,,co ( c>bonic acid3 ,,co7,,nh#b7b4 ,= ?is reason1 urea is mu* m /able ?an ammonium cyanate1 & !re=e ! latt]1 on be+ slightly heat$ 9 solution1 is conv]t$ into urea4 ,?is rem>kable isom]ic trans=mation 0 discov]$ by ,whl] 9 #ahbh4da ,=mamide1 ,,hconh#b1 & hydrocyanic acid1 ,,hcn1 z a nitrile1 correspond ) =mic acid1 ,,hcooh1 & !re=e ammonium =mate1 ,,hcoonh#d1 & =mamide1 :5 act$ on by heat & by sub/ances :i* take up wat] 7phosphoric anhydride7 =m hydrocyanic acid1 ,,hcn1 :il/1 "u _m conditions 7= in/ance1 on comb9+ ) hydro*loric acid 9 pres5ce ( wat]71 ?is hydrocyanic acid =ms =mic acid & ammonia4 ,al?\gh conta9+ hydrog5 9 ! pres5ce ( two acid-=m+ elem5ts--namely1 c>bon & nitrog5#db--;hydrocyanic acid does n give an acid reaction ) litmus 7cyanic acid has v m>k$ acid prop]ties72 b x =ms salts1 ,,mcn1 ?us pres5t+ ! prop]ties ( a feeble acid1 & = ?is reason is call$ an acid4 ,! small am\nt ( en]gy :i* x has is %[n by ! fact t ! cyanides ( ! alkali metals--= in/ance1 potassium cyanide 7,,kho ,,hcn ,h#bj ,,kcn7 9 solution h a /rongly alkal9e reaction4#dc ,if ammonia be pass$ ov] *>coal at a r$ heat1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( an alkali1 or if gase\s nitrog5 be pass$ ?r\gh a mixture ( *>coal & an alkali 7especially pota%1 ,,kho71 & also if a mixture ( nitrog5\s organic sub/ances & alkali be heat$ to a r$ heat1 9 all ^! cases ! alkali metal comb9es ) ! c>bon & nitrog51 =m+ a metallic cyanide1 ,,mcn--= example1 ,,kcn4#dc bis ,potassium cyanide is mu* us$ 9 ! arts1 & is obta9$1 z above /at$1 "u _m circum/ances--z1 = in/ance1 9 iron smelt+1 especially ) ! assi/ance ( wood *>coal1 ! a% ( :i* conta9s mu* pota%4 ,! nitrog5 ( ! air1 ! alkali ( ! a%1 & ! *>coal are br\ght into contact at a high temp]ature dur+ iron smelt+1 & !re=e1 "u ^! conditions1 a consid]able quantity ( potassium cyanide is =m$4 ,9 practice x is n usual to prep>e potassium cyanide directly1 b a peculi> comp\nd ( x conta9+ potassium1 iron1 & cyanog54 ,?is comp\nd is potassium f]rocyanide1 & is also kn[n z yell[ prussiate ( pota%4 ,?is sal9e sub/ance 7see ,*apt] ,,xxii7 has ! composition ,k#d;,fe,c#f,n#f #b;,h#b,o4 ,! "n ( cyanog5 7,greek3 kuanos7 is d]iv$ f ! prop]ty :i* ?is yell[ prussiate possesses ( =m+1 ) a solution ( a f]ric salt1 ,fe,x#c1 ! famili> pigm5t ,prussian blue4 ,! yell[ prussiate is manufactur$ on a l>ge scale1 & is g5]ally us$ z ! s\rce ( ! o!r cyanog5 comp\nds4 #da ,x has an important hi/orical int]e/1 m especially z at t "t su* an easy prep>ation ( sub/ances occurr+ 9 organisms )\t ! aid ( organic life 0 q unexpect$1 = !y 7 suppos$ to be =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! =ces act+ 9 organisms1 & )\t ! latt] _! =mation 0 consid]$ impossible4 ,& 9 addition to de/roy+ ?is illusion1 ! easy transition ( ,,nh#d,,ocn into ,,co7,,nh#b7b is ! be/ example ( ! passage ( "o sy/em ( equilibrium ( atoms into ano!r m /able sy/em4 #db ,if ammonia & me?ane 7m>% gas7 d n %[ any acid prop]ties1 t is 9 all probability due to ! pres5ce ( a l>ge am\nt ( hydrog5 9 bo?2 b 9 hydrocyanic acid "o atom ( hydrog5 is "u ! influ5ce ( two acid-=m+ elem5ts4 ,acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b1 :i* conta9s b little hydrog51 pres5ts acid prop]ties 9 c]ta9 respects1 = its hydrog5 is easily replac$ by metals4 ,hydronitr\s acid1 ,,hn#c1 :i* conta9s little hydrog51 also has ! prop]ties ( an acid4 #dc ,solutions ( cyanides--= in/ance1 ^? ( potassium or b>ium--are decompos$ by c>bonic acid4 ,ev5 ! c>bonic anhydride ( ! air acts 9 a simil> way1 & = ?is reason ^! solutions d n keep1 because1 9 ! fir/ place1 free hydrocyanic acid itself decomposes & polym]ises1 &1 9 ! second place1 ) alkal9e liquids x =ms ammonia & =mic acid4 ,hydrocyanic acid does n lib]ate c>bonic anhydride f solutions ( sodium or potassium c>bonates4 ,b a mixture ( solutions ( potassium c>bonate & hydrocyanic acid yields c>bonic anhydride on ! addition ( oxides l z9c oxide1 m]curic oxide1 c4 ,?is is due to ! great incl9ation :i* ! cyanides exhibit ( =m+ d\ble salts4 ,= in/ance1 ,zn,k#b7;,,cn7#d is =m$1 :i* is a soluble d\ble salt4 #dc bis ,! conv]sion ( ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 into cyanog5 comp\nds1 al?\gh possible1 has n yet be5 c>ri$ out on a l>ge scale1 & "o ( ! problems = future rese>* %\ld be ! discov]y ( a practical & economical means ( conv]t+ ! atmosph]ic nitrog5 into metallic cyanides1 n only because potassium cyanide has f\nd a va/ & important use = ! extraction ( gold f ev5 ! poore/ ores1 b m especially because ! cyanides furni% ! means = effect+ ! syn!sis ( _m complex c>bon comp\nds1 & ! nitrog5 conta9$ 9 cyanog5 easily passes into o!r =ms ( comb9ation su* z ammonia1 :i* is ( great importance 9 agriculture4 ,if f\r p>ts ( yell[ prussiate be mix$ ) eight p>ts ( wat] & ?ree p>ts ( sulphuric acid1 & ! mixture be heat$1 x decomposes1 volatile hydrocyanic acid sep>at+4 ,?is 0 obta9$ = ! fir/ "t by ,s*eele 9 #aghb1 b x 0 only kn[n to him 9 solution4 ,9 #ahji ,ittn] prep>$ anhydr\s prussic acid1 & 9 #ahae ,gay-,lussac f9ally settl$ its prop]ties & %[$ t x conta9s only hydrog51 c>bon1 & nitrog51 ,,cnh4 ,if ! di/illate 7a weak solution ( ,,hcn7 be r$i/ill$1 & ! fir/ "p collect$1 ! anhydr\s acid may be prep>$ f ?is /rong] solution4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 pieces ( calcium *loride are add$ to ! conc5trat$ solution1 :5 ! anhydr\s acid floats z a sep>ate lay]1 because x is n soluble 9 an aque\s solution ( calcium *loride4 ,if ?is lay] be !n di/ill$ ov] a new portion ( calcium *loride at ! l[e/ temp]ature possible1 ! prussic acid may be obta9$ completely free f wat]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to use ! greate/ caution 9 "w ( ?is k9d1 because prussic acid1 besides be+ extremely poison\s1 is exce$+ly volatile4#dd #dd ,! mixture ( ! vap\rs ( wat] & hydrocyanic acid1 evolv$ on heat+ yell[ prussiate ) sulphuric acid1 may be pass$ directly ?r\gh vessels or tubes fill$ ) calcium *loride4 ,^! tubes mu/ be cool$1 because1 9 ! fir/ place1 hydrocyanic acid easily *anges on be+ heat$1 &1 9 ! second place1 ! calcium *loride :5 w>m w\ld absorb less wat]4 ,! mixture ( hydrocyanic acid & aque\s vap\r on pass+ ov] a long lay] ( calcium *loride gives up wat]1 & hydrocyanic acid alone rema9s 9 ! vap\r4 ,x ought to be cool$ z c>efully z possible 9 ord] to br+ x into a liquid condition4 ,! me?od :i* ,gay-,lussac employ$ = obta9+ pure hydrocyanic acid consi/$ 9 ! action ( hydro*loric acid gas on m]curic cyanide4 ,! latt] may he obta9$ 9 a pure /ate if a solution ( yell[ prussiate be boil$ ) a solution ( m]curic nitrate1 filt]$1 & cry/allis$ by cool+2 ! m]curic cyanide is !n obta9$ 9 ! =m ( col\rless cry/als1 ,hg7,,cn7#b4 ,if a /rong solution ( hydro*loric acid be p\r$ ^u ^! cry/als1 & ! mixture ( vap\rs evolv$1 consi/+ ( aque\s vap\r1 hydro*loric acid1 & hydrocyanic acid1 be pass$ ?r\gh a tube conta9+1 fir/1 m>ble 7= absorb+ ! hydro*loric acid71 & !n lumps ( calcium *loride1 on cool+ ! hydrocyanic acid w be cond5s$4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ! latt] 9 an anhydr\s =m1 ! decomposition ( heat$ m]cury cyanide by hydrog5 sulphide may be made use (4 ,"h ! sulphur & cyanog5 *ange places1 & hydrocyanic acid & m]cury sulphide are =m$3 ,hg7,,cn7#b ,h#b,s #b;,,hcn ,hg,s4 ,anhydr\s prussic acid is a v mobile & volatile liquid2 its specific gravity is #jfig at #ah2 at l[] temp]atures1 especially :5 mix$ ) a small quantity ( wat]1 x easily congeals2 x boils at #bf1 & !re=e v easily evaporates1 & at ord9>y temp]atures may be reg>d$ z a gas4 ,an insignificant am\nt1 :5 inhal$ or br\ght into contact ) ! sk91 causes dea?4 ,x is soluble 9 all proportions 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r3 weak aque\s solutions are us$ 9 m$ic9e4#de #de ,a weak 7up to #b p4c47 aque\s solution ( hydrocyanic acid is obta9$ by ! di/illation ( c]ta9 vegetable sub/ances4 ,! s-call$ laurel wat] 9 p>ticul> enjoys consid]able notoriety f its conta9+ hydrocyanic acid4 ,x is obta9$ by ! /eep+ & di/illation ( laurel leaves4 ,a simil> k9d ( wat] is =m$ by ! infusion & di/illation ( bitt] almonds4 ,x is well kn[n t bitt] almonds are poison\s1 & h a peculi> *>act]i/ic ta/e4 ,?is bitt] ta/e is due to ! pres5ce ( a c]ta9 sub/ance call$ amygdal91 :i* c be extract$ by alcohol4 ,?is amygdal9 decomposes 9 an infusion ( bruis$ almonds1 =m+ ! s-call$ bitt] almond oil1 glucose1 & hydrocyanic acid3 ,c#aj;,h#bg,,no#aa ,h#b,o ,c#g;,h#f,o ,,cnh #b;,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,amygdal9 9 ,wat] ,bitt] ,hydrocyanic ,glucose bitt] almonds almond acid oil ,if aft] ?is ! infusion ( bitt] almonds be di/ill$ ) wat]1 ! hydrocyanic acid & ! volatile bitt] almond oil are c>ri$ ov] ) ! aque\s vap\r4 ,! oil is insoluble 9 wat]1 or only sp>+ly soluble1 :ile ! hydrocyanic acid rema9s z an aque\s solution4 ,bitt] almond wat] is simil> to laurel wat]1 & is us$ l ! =m] 9 m$ic9e1 naturally only 9 small quantities because any consid]able am\nt has poison\s effects4 ,p]fectly pure anhydr\s hydrocyanic acid keeps )\t *ange1 j l ! weak solutions1 b ! /rong solutions only keep 9 ! pres5ce ( o!r acids4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( _m admixtures ^! solutions easily give a br[n polym]ic sub/ance1 :i* is also =m$ 9 a solution ( potassium cyanide4 ,! salts ,,mcn--= in/ance1 potassium1 sodium1 ammonium--z well z ! salts ,m7,,cn7#b--;= example1 b>ium1 calcium1 m]cury--are soluble 9 wat]1 b ! cyanides ( manganese1 z9c1 lead1 & _m o!rs are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,!y =m d\ble salts ) potassium cyanide & simil> metallic cyanides1 an example ( :i* we w consid] 9 a fur!r description ( ! yell[ prussiate4 ,n only are "s ( ! d\ble salts rem>kable = _! con/ancy & comp>ative /ability1 b s also are ! soluble salt ,hg,c#b,n#b1 ! insoluble silv] cyanide ,ag,c,n1 & ev5 potassium cyanide 9 ! abs5ce ( wat]4 ,! la/ salt1#df :5 fus$1 acts z a r$uc+ ag5t ) its elem5ts ,k & ,c1 & oxidises :5 fus$ ) lead oxide1 =m+ potassium cyanate1 ,,kocn1 :i* e/abli%es ! connection betwe5 ,,hcn & ,,ohcn--t is1 betwe5 ! nitriles ( =mic & c>bonic acids--& ?is connection is ! same z t betwe5 ! acids !mselves1 s9ce =mic acid1 on oxidation1 yields c>bonic acid4 ,free cyanog51 7,,cn7#b or ,,cncn1 corresponds to hydrocyanic acid 9 ! same mann] z free *lor9e1 ,cl#b or ,cl,cl1 corresponds to hydro*loric acid4 ,?is composition1 judg+ f :at has be5 already /at$1 exactly expresses t ( ! nitrile ( oxalic acid1 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 oxalate ( ammonia & ! amide correspond+ ) x 7oxamide1 ,note #cc71 on be+ heat$ ) phosphoric anhydride1 :i* takes up ! wat]1 yield cyanog51 7,,cn7#b4 ,?is sub/ance is also produc$ by simply heat+ "s ( ! metallic cyanides4 ,m]curic cyanide is p>ticul>ly adapt$ = ?is purpose1 because x is easily obta9$ 9 a pure /ate & is !n v /able4 ,if m]curic cyanide be heat$1 x decomposes1 9 l mann] to m]cury oxide1 into metallic m]cury & cyanog53 ,hg,c#b,n#b ,hg ,c#b,n#b4dg ,:5 cyanog5 is =m$1 "p ( x always polym]ises into a d>k br[n insoluble sub/ance call$ p>acyanog51 capable ( =m+ cyanog5 :5 heat$ to r$ness4#dh ,cyanog5 is a col\rless1 poison\s gas1 ) a peculi> smell & easily cond5s$ by cool+ into a col\rless liquid1 insoluble 9 wat] & hav+ a specific gravity ( #jhf4 ,x boils at ab\t -#ba1 & !re=e cyanog5 may be easily cond5s$ into a liquid by a /rong freez+ mixture4 ,at -#ce liquid cyanog5 solidifies4 ,! gas is soluble 9 wat] & 9 alcohol to a consid]able ext5t--namely1 #a volume ( wat] absorbs z mu* z #d-a_/b volumes1 & alcohol #bc volumes4 ,cyanog5 resi/s ! action ( a tol]ably high temp]ature )\t decompos+1 b "u ! action ( ! electric sp>k ! c>bon is sep>at$1 leav+ a volume ( nitrog5 equal to ! volume ( ! gas tak54 ,z x conta9s c>bon x burns1 & ! col\r ( ! flame is r$di%-violet1 :i* is due to ! pres5ce ( nitrog51 all comp\nds ( :i* imp>t m or less ( ?is r$di%-violet hue to ! flame4 ,dur+ ! combu/ion ( cyanog51 c>bonic anhydride & nitrog5 are =m$4 ,! same products are obta9$ 9 ! eudiomet] ) oxyg5 or by ! action ( cyanog5 on _m oxides at a r$ heat4 #df ,?is salt w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 #dg ,= ! prep>ation x is necess>y to take completely dry m]curic cyanide1 because :5 heat$ 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure x gives ammonia1 c>bonic anhydride1 & hydrocyanic acid4 ,in/ead ( m]curic cyanide1 a mixture ( p]fectly dry yell[ prussiate & m]curic *loride may be us$1 !n d\ble decomposition & ! =mation ( m]curic cyanide take place 9 ! retort4 ,silv] cyanide also dis5gages cyanog51 on be+ heat$4 #dg ,p>acyanog5 is a br[n sub/ance 7hav+ ! composition ( cyanog57 :i* is =m$ dur+ ! prep>ation ( cyanog5 by all me?ods1 & rema9s z a residue4 ,silv] cyanide1 on be+ slightly heat$1 fuses1 & on be+ fur!r heat$ evolves a gas2 a consid]able quantity ( p>acyanog5 rema9s 9 ! residue4 ,"h x is rem>kable t exactly half ! cyanog5 becomes gase\s1 & ! o!r half is trans=m$ into p>acyanog54 ,metallic silv] w be f\nd 9 ! residue ) ! p>acyanog52 x may be extract$ ) m]cury or nitric acid1 :i* does n act on p>acyanog54 ,if p>acyanog5 be heat$ 9 a vacuum x decomposes1 =m+ cyanog52 b "h ! pressure p = a giv5 temp]ature t _c exce$ a c]ta9 limit1 s t ! ph5om5on pres5ts all ! ext]nal appe>ance ( a physical trans=mation into vap\r2 b1 nev]!less1 x is a complete *ange 9 ! nature ( ! sub/ance1 ?\gh limit$ by ! pressure ( dissociation1 z we saw be=e 9 ! trans=mation ( cyanuric into hydrocyanic acid1 & z w\ld be expect$ f ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( dissociation4 ,troo/ & ,hautefeuille 7#ahfh7 f\nd t = p>acyanog51 t #ecj #eha #fjj #fce p #ij #adc #bif #a1jhi mm4 ,h[ev]1 ev5 at #eej "p ( ! cyanog5 decomposes into c>bon & nitrog54 ,! rev]se transition ( cyanog5 into p>acyanog5 comm5ces at #cej1 & at #fjj proce$s rapidly4 ,& if ! transition ( ! fir/ k9d is lik5$ to evaporation1 !n ! rev]se transition1 or polym]isation1 pres5ts a lik5ess to ! transition ( vap\rs into ! solid /ate4 ,! relation ( cyanog5 to ! metallic cyanides is se5 n only 9 ! fact t x is =m$ f m]curic cyanide1 b also by its =m+ cyanide ( sodium or potassium on be+ heat$ ) ei!r ( ^? metals1 ! sodium or potassium tak+ fire 9 ! cyanog54 ,on heat+ a mixture ( hydrog5 & cyanog5 to #ejj 7,b]!lot71#di or "u ! action ( ! sil5t dis*>ge 7,boilleau71 hydrocyanic acid is =m$1 s t ! reciprocity ( ! transitions does n leave any d\bt 9 ! matt] t all ! nitriles ( ! organic acids conta9 cyanog51 j z all ! organic acids conta9 c>boxyl & 9 x ! elem5ts ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,besides ! amides1#ej ! nitriles 7or cyanog5 comp\nds1 ,,rcn71 & nitro-comp\nds 7conta9+ ! radicle ( nitric acid1 ,,rno#b71 !re are a great numb] ( o!r sub/ances conta9+ at ! same "t c>bon & nitrog51 p>ticul>s ( :i* mu/ be s\ght = 9 special works on organic *emi/ry4 #di ,cyanog5 7l *lor9e7 is absorb$ by a solution ( sodium hydroxide1 sodium cyanide & cyanate be+ produc$3 ,c#b,n#b #b,na,h,o ,na,c,n ,c,n,na,o ,h#b,o4 ,b ! latt] salt decomposes relatively easily1 & moreov] "p ( ! cyanog5 lib]at$ by heat f its comp\nds und]goes a m complex trans=mation4 #ej ,if1 9 g5]al1 comp\nds conta9+ ! radicle ,,nh#b are call$ amides1 "s ( ! am9es ought to be rank$ ) !m2 namely1 ! hydroc>bons ,cn,h#bm1 9 :i* "p ( ! hydrog5 is replac$ by ,,nh#b2 = in/ance1 me?ylam9e1 ,,*#c,,nh#b1 anil9e1 ,c#f;,h#e,,nh#b1 c4 ,9 g5]al ! am9es may be repres5t$ z ammonia 9 :i* "p or all ( ! hydrog5 is replac$ by hydroc>bon radicles--z1 = example1 trime?ylam9e1 ,n7,,*#c7c4 ,!y1 l ammonia1 comb9e ) acids & =m cry/all9e salts4 ,analog\s sub/ances are sometimes met ) 9 nature1 & be> ! g5]al "n ( alkaloids2 su* are1 = in/ance1 qu99e 9 c9*ona b>k1 nicot9e 9 tobacco1 c4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,sodium ,,*loride--,,b]?ollet',s ,,laws--,,hydro*loric ,,acid ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s we h become acqua9t$ ) ! mo/ important prop]ties ( ! f\r elem5ts1 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & c>bon4 ,!y are sometimes t]m$ ! organog5s1 because !y ent] into ! composition ( organic sub/ances4 ,_! mutual comb9ations may s]ve z types = all o!r *emical comp\nds--t is1 !y pres5t ! same atomic relations 7types1 =ms1 or grades ( comb9ations7 z ^? 9 :i* ! o!r elem5ts also comb9e toge!r4 ,hydrog51 ,,hh1 or1 9 g5]al1 ,,hr4 ,wat]1 ,h#b,o1 ,h#b,r4 ,ammonia1 ,h#c,n1 ,h#c,r4 ,m>% gas1 ,h#d;,c1 ,h#d,r4 ,"o1 two1 ?ree1 & f\r atoms ( hydrog5 ent] into ^! molecules = "o atom ( ano!r elem5t4 ,no comp\nds ( "o atom ( oxyg5 ) ?ree or f\r atoms ( hydrog5 are kn[n2 h5ce ! atom ( oxyg5 does n possess c]ta9 prop]ties :i* are f\nd 9 ! atoms ( c>bon & nitrog54 ,! faculty ( an elem5t to =m a comp\nd ( def9ite composition ) hydrog5 7or an elem5t analog\s to x7 gives ! possibility ( =etell+ ! composition ( _m o!r ( its comp\nds4 ,?us1 if we "k t an elem5t1 ,m1 comb9es ) hydrog51 =m+1 by pref]5ce1 a gase\s sub/ance su* z ,,hm1 b n =m+ ,h#b,m1 ,h#c,m1 ,hn,mm1 !n we mu/ conclude1 on ! basis ( ! law ( sub/itution1 t ?is elem5t w give comp\nds ,m#b,o1 ,m#c,n1 ,,mho1 ,,mh#c;,c1 c4 ,*lor9e is an example ( ?is k9d4 ,if we "k t ano!r elem5t1 ,r1 l oxyg51 gives ) hydrog5 a molecule ,h#b,r1 !n we may expect t x w =m comp\nds simil> to hydrog5 p]oxide1 ! metallic oxides1 c>bonic anhydride1 or c>bonic oxide1 & o!rs4 ,sulphur is an in/ance ( ?is k9d4 ,h5ce ! elem5ts may be classifi$ accord+ to _! resemblance to hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & c>bon1 & 9 con=mity ) ?is analogy x is possible to =etell1 if n ! prop]ties 7= example1 ! acidity or basicity71 at any rate ! composition1#a ( "s ( _! comp\nds4 ,?is =ms ! sub/ance ( ! conception ( ! val5cy or atomicity ( ! elem5ts4 ,hydrog5 is tak5 z ! repres5tative ( ! unival5t elem5ts1 giv+ comp\nds1 ,,rh1 ,r7,,oh71 ,r#b,o1 ,r,cl1 ,r#c,n1 ,r#d;,c1 c4 ,oxyg51 9 t =m 9 :i* x gives wat]1 is ! repres5tative ( ! bival5t elem5ts1 =m+ ,,rh#b1 ,,ro1 ,r,cl#b1 ,r,h,cl1 ,r7,,oh7,cl1 ,r7,,oh7#b1 ,r#b;,c1 ,,rcn1 c4 ,nitrog5 9 ammonia is ! repres5tative ( ! trival5t elem5ts1 giv+ comp\nds ,,rh#c1 ,r#b,o#c1 ,r7,,oh7#c1 ,r,cl#c1 ,,rn1 ,,rhc1 c4 ,9 c>bon are exemplifi$ ! prop]ties ( ! quadrival5t elem5ts1 =m+ ,,rh#d1 ,,ro#b1 ,,ro7,,oh7#b1 ,r7,,oh7#d1 ,,rhn1 ,r,cl#d1 ,r,h,cl#c1 c4 ,we meet ) ^! =ms ( comb9ation1 or degrees ( union ( atoms1 9 all o!r elem5ts1 "s be+ analog\s to hydrog51 o!rs to oxyg51 & o!rs to nitrog5 or to c>bon4 ,b besides ^! quantitative analogies or resemblances1 :i* are =etold by ! law ( sub/itution 7,*apt] ,,vi471 !re exi/ among ! elem5ts qualitative analogies & relations :i* are n fully se5 9 ! comp\nds ( ! elem5ts :i* h be5 consid]$1 b are mo/ di/9ctly exhibit$ 9 ! =mation ( bases1 acids1 & salts ( diff]5t types & prop]ties4 ,!re=e1 = a complete /udy ( ! nature ( ! elem5ts & _! comp\nds x is especially important to become acqua9t$ ) ! salts1 z sub/ances ( a peculi> "*1 & ) ! correspond+ acids & bases4 ,common table salt1 or sodium *loride1 ,na,cl1 may 9 e respect be tak5 z a type ( salts 9 g5]al1 & we w !re=e pass to ! consid]ation ( ?is sub/ance1 & ( hydro*loric acid1 & ( ! base sodium hydroxide1 =m$ by ! non-metal *lor9e & ! metal sodium1 :i* correspond ) x4 #a ,b x is impossible to =etell all ! comp\nds =m$ by an elem5t f its atomicity or val5cy1 because ! atomicity ( ! elem5ts is v>iable1 & fur!rmore ?is v>iability is n id5tical = diff]5t elem5ts4 ,9 ,,co#b1 ,,cox#b1 ,,*#d1 & ! multitude ( c>bon comp\nds correspond+ ) !m1 ! ,c is quadrival5t1 b 9 ,,co ei!r ! c>bon mu/ be tak5 z bival5t or ! atomicity ( oxyg5 be acc\nt$ z v>iable4 ,moreov]1 c>bon is an example ( an elem5t :i* pres]ves its atomicity to a great] degree ?an mo/ ( ! o!r elem5ts4 ,nitrog5 9 ,,nh#c1 ,,nh#b7,,oh71 ,n#b,o#c1 & ev5 9 ,,cnh1 mu/ be consid]$ z trival5t1 b 9 ,,nh#d;,cl1 ,,no#b7,,oh71 & 9 all _! correspond+ comp\nds x is necess>ily p5taval5t4 ,9 ,n#b,o1 if ! atomicity ( oxyg5 #b1 nitrog5 has an unev5 atomicity 7#a1 #c1 #e71 :il/ 9 ,,no x is bival5t4 ,if sulphur be bival5t1 l oxyg51 9 _m ( its comp\nds 7= example1 ,h#b,s1 ,s,cl#b1 ,,khs1 c471 !n x c\ld n be =ese5 f ?is t x w\ld =m ,,s#b1 ,,s#c1 ,s,cl#d1 ,s,o,cl#b1 & a s]ies ( simil> comp\nds 9 :i* its atomicity mu/ be ackn[l$g$ z great] ?an #b4 ,?us ,,s#b1 sulphur\s anhydride1 has _m po9ts 9 common ) ,,co#b1 & if c>bon be quadrival5t !n ! ,s 9 ,,s#b is quadrival5t4 ,!re=e ! pr9ciple ( atomicity 7val5cy7 ( ! elem5ts _c be consid]$ e/abli%$ z ! basis = ! /udy ( ! elem5ts1 al?\gh x gives an easy me?od ( grasp+ _m analogies4 ,i consid] ! f\r foll[+ z ! *ief ob/acles to ackn[l$g+ ! atomicity ( ! elem5ts z a prim>y conception = ! consid]ation ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts3 #a4 ,su* unival5t elem5ts z ,h1 ,cl1 c41 appe> 9 a free /ate z molecules ,h#b1 ,cl#b1 c41 & are consequ5tly l ! unival5t radicles ,,*#c1 ,,oh1 ,,co#b;,h1 c41 :i*1 z might be expect$1 appe> z ,c#b;,h#f1 ,o#b;,h#b1 ,c#b,o#d;,h#b 7e?ane1 hydrog5 p]oxide1 oxalic acid71 :il/ on ! o!r h&1 potassium & sodium 7p]haps also iod9e at a high temp]ature7 conta9 only "o atom1 ,k1 ,na1 9 ! molecule 9 a free /ate4 ,h5ce x foll[s t free aff9ities may exi/4 ,grant+ ?is1 no?+ prev5ts ! assumption t free aff9ities exi/ 9 all unsaturat$ comp\nds2 = example1 two free aff9ities 9 ,,nh#c4 ,if su* in/ances ( free aff9ities be admitt$1 !n all ! possible advantages to be ga9$ by ! application ( ! doctr9e ( atomicity 7val5cy7 are lo/4 #b4 ,!re are in/ances--= example1 ,na#b;,h--:]e unival5t elem5ts are comb9$ 9 molecules :i* are m complex ?an ,r#b1 & =m molecules1 ,r#c1 ,r#d1 c42 ?is may aga9 be ei!r tak5 z evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( free aff9ities1 or else necessitates su* prim>y unival5t elem5ts z sodium & hydrog5 be+ consid]$ z v>iable 9 _! atomicity4 #c4 ,! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts1 ) :i* we %all aft]w>ds become acqua9t$1 %[s t !re is a law or rule = ! v>iation ( ! =ms ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 comp\nds2 *lor9e is unival5t ) respect to hydrog51 & septaval5t ) respect to oxyg52 sulphur is bival5t to hydrog51 & sexaval5t to oxyg52 phosphorus is trival5t to hydrog5 & p5taval5t 9 respect to oxyg5--! sum is 9 e case equal to #h4 ,only c>bon & its analogues 7= example1 silicon7 are quadrival5t to bo? hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,h5ce ! p[] ( ! elem5ts to *ange _! atomicity is an ess5tial "p ( _! nature1 & !re=e con/ant val5cy _c he consid]$ z a fundam5tal prop]ty4 #d4 ,cry/allo-hydrates 7= in/ance1 ,na,cl1#b;,h#b,o1 or ,na,br1#b;,h#b,o71 d\ble salts 7su* z ,pt,cl#d1b,k,cl1,h#b,si,f#f1 c471 & simil> complex comp\nds 7&1 accord+ to ,*ap4 ,i41 solutions also7 demon/rate ! capacity n only ( ! elem5ts !mselves1 b also ( _! saturat$ & limit+ comp\nds1 ( ent]+ into fur!r comb9ation4 ,!re=e ! admission ( a def9ite limit$ atomicity ( ! elem5ts includes 9 itself an admission ( limitation :i* is n 9 accordance ) ! nature ( *emical reactions4 ,sodium *loride1 ,na,cl1 ! famili> table salt1 occurs1 al?\gh 9 v small quantities1 9 all ! prim>y =mations ( ! e>?'s cru/1#b f :i* x is wa%$ away by ! atmosph]ic wat]s2 x is conta9$ 9 small quantities 9 all wat]s fl[+ ?r\gh ^! =mations1 & is 9 ?is mann] convey$ to ! oceans & seas4 ,! imm5se mass ( salt 9 ! oceans has be5 accumulat$ by ?is process f ! remote ages ( ! e>?'s creation1 because ! wat] has evaporat$ f !m :ile ! salt has rema9$ 9 solution4 ,! salt ( sea wat] s]ves z ! s\rce n only = its direct extraction1 b also = ! =mation ( o!r masses ( workable salt1 su* z rock salt1 & ( sal9e spr+s & lakes4#b bis #b ,! prim>y =mations are ^? :i* d n be> any di/9ct traces ( hav+ be5 deposit$ f wat] 7h n a /ratifi$ =mation & conta9 no rema9s ( animal or vegetable life71 occur "u ! s$im5t>y =mations ( ! e>?1 & are ev]y:]e uni=m 9 composition & /ructure1 ! latt] be+ g5]ally di/9ctly cry/all9e4 ,if x be assum$ t ! e>? 0 orig9ally 9 a molt5 condition1 ! fir/ prim>y =mations are ^? :i* =m$ ! fir/ solid cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,b ev5 ) ?is hypo!sis ( ! e>?'s orig91 x is necess>y to admit t ! fir/ aque\s deposits mu/ h caus$ a *ange 9 ! orig9al cru/ ( ! e>?1 & !re=e "u ! head ( prim>y =mations mu/ be und]/ood ! mo/ anci5t ( ! products ( decomposition 7mo/ly by atmosph]ic1 aque\s1 & organic ag5cy1 c471 f :i* all ! rocks & sub/ances ( ! e>?'s surface h aris54 ,9 speak+ ( ! orig9 ( "o or ano!r sub/ance1 we c only1 on ! basis ( facts1 desc5d to ! prim>y =mations1 ( :i* granite1 gneiss1 & tra*yte may be tak5 z examples4 #b bis ,*loride ( sodium has be5 f\nd to occur 9 ! atmosph]e 9 ! =m ( a f9e du/2 9 ! l[] /rata x is pres5t 9 l>g] quantities ?an 9 ! upp]1 s t ! ra9 wat] fall+ on m\nta9s conta9s less ,na,cl ?an t fall+ 9 valleys4 ,mntz 7#ahia7 f\nd t a litre ( ra9 wat] collect$ on ! summit ( ! ,pic du ,midi 7#b1hgg metres above ! sea level7 conta9$ #jcd milligram ( *loride ( sodium1 :ile a litre ( ra9 collect$ f ! valley conta9$ #be-gf milligrams4 ,! extraction ( salt f sea wat] is c>ri$ on 9 sev]al ways4 ,9 s\!rn climes1 especially on ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean & ! ,m$it]ranean & ,black ,seas1 ! summ] heats are tak5 advantage (4 ,a conv5i5t l[-ly+ sea %ore is *os51 & a :ole s]ies ( bas9s1 communicat+ ) ea* o!r1 are con/ruct$ along x4 ,! upp] ( ^! bas9s are fill$ ) sea wat] by pump+1 or else advantage is tak5 ( high tides4 ,^! bas9s are sometimes sep>at$ f ! sea by natural s&-banks 7limans7 or by artificial means1 & 9 spr+ ! wat] already beg9s to evaporate consid]ably4 ,z ! solution becomes m conc5trat$1 x is run into ! succe$+ bas9s1 & ! upp] ones are suppli$ ) a fre% quantity ( sea wat]1 or else an arrangem5t is made enabl+ ! salt wat] to fl[ by degrees ?r\gh ! s]ies ( bas9s4 ,x is evid5t t ! b$s ( ! bas9s %\ld be z f> z possible imp]vi\s to wat]1 & = ?is purpose !y are made ( beat5 clay4 ,! cry/als ( salt beg9 to sep>ate out :5 ! conc5tration atta9s #bh p4c4 ( salt 7:i* corresponds to #bh ( ,baum's hydromet]74 ,!y are rak$ (f1 & employ$ = all ^? purposes to :i* table salt is applicable4 ,9 ! majority ( cases only ! fir/ half ( ! sodium *loride :i* c be sep>at$ f ! sea wat] is extract$1 because ! second half has a bitt] ta/e f ! pres5ce ( magnesium salts :i* sep>ate out toge!r ) ! sodium salt4 ,b 9 c]ta9 localities--z1 = in/ance1 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,rhone1 on ! isl& ( ,cam>ga#c--! evaporation is c>ri$ on to ! v end1 9 ord] to obta9 ^? magnesium & potassium salts :i* sep>ate out at ! end ( ! evaporation ( sea wat]4 ,v>i\s salts are sep>at$ f sea wat] 9 its evaporation4 ,f #ajj p>ts ( sea wat] !re sep>ates out1 by natural & artificial evaporation1 ab\t "o "p ( tol]ably pure table salt at ! v comm5cem5t ( ! op]ation2 ! total am\nt held 9 solution be+ ab\t #b-a_/b p4c4 ,! rema9+ portion sep>ates out int]mix$ ) ! bitt] salts ( magnesium :i*1 ow+ to _! solubility & ! small am\nt 9 :i* !y are pres5t 7less ?an #a p4c471 only sep>ate out1 9 ! fir/ cry/allisations1 9 traces4 ,gypsum1 or calcium sulphate1 ,ca,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o1 because ( its sp>+ solubility1 sep>ates toge!r ) or ev5 be=e ! table salt4 ,:5 ab\t half ( ! latt] has sep>at$1 !n a mixture ( table salt & magnesium sulphate sep>ates out1 & on /ill fur!r evaporation ! *lorides ( potassium & magnesium beg9 to sep>ate 9 a /ate ( comb9ation1 =m+ ! d\ble salt ,k,mg,cl#c1f;,h#b,o1 :i* occurs 9 nature z c>nallite4#d ,aft] ! sep>ation ( ?is salt f sea wat]1 !re rema9s a "m liquor conta9+ a l>ge am\nt ( magnesium *loride 9 admixture ) v>i\s o!r salts4#e ,! extraction ( sea salt is usually c>ri$ on = ! purpose ( procur+ table salt1 & !re=e directly x beg9s to sep>ate mix$ ) a consid]able proportion#f ( magnesium salts 7:5 x acquires a bitt] ta/e7 ! rema9+ liquor is run back into ! sea4 #c ,! extraction ( ! potassium salts 7or s-call$ summ] salts7 0 c>ri$ on at ! ,isle ( ,cam>ga ab\t #ahgj1 :5 ,i _h occasion to visit t spot4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! deposits ( ,/assfurt provide a mu* *eap] salt1 ow+ to ! evaporation & sep>ation ( ! salt be+ c>ri$ on !re by natural means & only requir+ a treatm5t & ref9+1 :i* is also necess>y 9 addition = ! 'summ] salt' obta9$ f sea-wat]4 #d ,! d\ble salt ,k,cl1,mg,cl#b is a cry/allohydrate ( ,k,cl & ,mg,cl#b1 & is only =m$ f solutions conta9+ an excess ( magnesium *loride1 because wat] decomposes ?is d\ble salt1 extract+ ! m soluble magnesium *loride f x4 #e ,ow+ to ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( salts ( int]*ang+ _! metals1 x _c be said t sea wat] conta9s ?is or t salt1 b only t x conta9s c]ta9 am\nts ( c]ta9 metals ,m 7unival5t l ,na & ,k1 & bival5t l ,mg & ,ca71 & haloids ,x 7unival5t l ,cl1 ,br1 & bival5t l ,,s#d1 ,,co#c71 :i* are dispos$ 9 e possible k9d ( gr\p+2 = in/ance1 ,k z ,k,cl1 ,k,br1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,mg z ,mg,cl#b1 ,mg,br#b1 ,mg,s,o#d1 & s on = all ! o!r metals4 ,9 evaporation diff]5t salts sep>ate out consecutively only because !y rea* saturation4 ,a pro( ( ?is may be se5 9 ! fact t a solution ( a mixture ( sodium *loride & magnesium sulphate 7bo? ( :i* salts are obta9$ f sea wat]1 z 0 m5tion$ above71 :5 evaporat$1 deposits cry/als ( ^! salts1 b :5 refrig]at$ 7if ! solution be suffici5tly saturat$7 ! salt ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o is fir/ deposit$ because x is ! fir/ to arrive at saturation at l[ temp]atures4 ,consequ5tly ?is solution conta9s ,mg,cl#b & ,na#b,,s#d1 besides ,mg,s,o#d & ,na,cl4 ,s x is ) sea wat]4 #f ,! salt extract$ f wat] is pil$ up 9 heaps & left expos$ to ! action ( ra9 wat]1 :i* purifies x1 ow+ to ! wat] becom+ saturat$ ) sodium *loride & !n no long] dissolv+ x1 b wa%+ out ! impurities4 ,! same process :i* is employ$ = artificially obta9+ salt 9 a cry/all9e =m f sea wat] has be5 repeat$ly accompli%$ dur+ ! geological evolution ( ! e>? on a gigantic scale2 upheavals ( ! e>? h cut (f portions ( ! sea f ! rema9d] 7z ! ,dead ,sea 0 =m]ly a "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! ,sea ( ,aral ( ! ,caspian71 & _! wat] has evaporat$ & =m$ 7if ! mass ( ! infl[+ fre% wat] 7 less ?an t ( ! mass evaporat$7 deposits ( rock salt4 ,x is always accompani$ by gypsum1 because ! latt] is sep>at$ f sea wat] ) or be=e ! sodium *loride4 ,= ?is reason rock salt may always be look$ = 9 ^? localities :]e !re are deposits ( gypsum4 ,b inasmu* z ! gypsum rema9s on ! spot :]e x has be5 deposit$ 7z x is a sp>+ly soluble salt71 :il/ ! rock salt 7z "o :i* is v soluble7 may be wa%$ away by ra9 or fre% runn+ wat]1 x may sometimes happ5 t al?\gh gypsum is /ill f\nd !re may be no salt2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e !re is rock salt !re w always be gypsum4 ,z ! geological *anges ( ! e>?'s surface are /ill proce$+ at ! pres5t day1 s 9 ! mid/ ( ! dry l& salt lakes are met )1 :i* are sometimes scatt]$ ov] va/ di/ricts =m]ly cov]$ by seas n[ dri$ up4 ,su* is ! orig9 ( _m ( ! salt lakes ab\t ! l[] portions ( ! ,volga & 9 ! ,kirghiz /eppes1 :]e at a geological epo* prec$+ ! pres5t ! ,aralo-,caspian ,sea ext5d$4 ,su* are ! ,baskun*aksky 79 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,a/rakhan1 #aab squ>e kilometres sup]ficial area71 ! ,eltonsky 7#adj v]/s f ! left bank ( ! ,volga1 & #bjj squ>e kilometres 9 sup]ficial area71 & upw>d ( #gjj o!r salt lakes ly+ ab\t ! l[] portions ( ! ,volga4 ,9 ^? 9 :i* ! infl[ ( fre% wat] is less ?an t ye>ly evaporat$1 & 9 :i* ! conc5tration ( ! solution has rea*$ saturation1 ! self-deposit$ salt is f\nd already deposit$ on _! b$s1 or is be+ ye>ly deposit$ dur+ ! summ] mon?s4 ,c]ta9 limans1 or sea-side lakes1 ( ! ,az(f ,sea are ess5tially ( ! same "*--z1 = in/ance1 ^? 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,h5i*esk & ,b]diansk4 ,! sal9e soils ( c]ta9 ,c5tral ,asian /eppes1 :i* suff] f a want ( atmosph]ic fre% wat]1 are ( ! same orig94 ,_! salt orig9ally proce$$ f ! salt ( seas :i* previ\sly cov]$ ^! localities1 & has n yet be5 wa%$ away by fre% wat]4 ,! ma9 result ( ! above-describ$ process ( nature is ! =mation ( masses ( rock salt1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 be+ gradually wa%$ away by ! subsoil wat]s fl[+ 9 _! neighb\rhood1 & aft]w>ds ris+ to ! surface 9 c]ta9 places z sal9e spr+s1 :i* indicate ! pres5ce ( masses ( deposit$ rock salt 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>?4 ,if ! subsoil wat] fl[s along a /ratum ( salt = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t x becomes saturat$2 b 9 fl[+ 9 its fur!r c\rse along an imp]vi\s /ratum 7clay7 x becomes dilut$ by ! fre% wat] leak+ ?r\gh ! upp] soil1 & !re=e ! great] ! di/ance ( a sal9e spr+ f ! deposit ( rock salt1 ! poor] w x be 9 salt4 ,a p]fectly saturat$ br9e1 h[ev]1 may be procur$ f ! dep?s ( ! e>? by means ( bore-holes4 ,! deposits ( rock salt !mselves1 :i* are sometimes hidd5 at great dep?s bel[ ! e>?'s /rata1 may be discov]$ by ! guidance ( bore-holes & ! direction ( ! /rata ( ! di/rict4 ,deposits ( rock salt1 ab\t #ce metres ?ick & #bj metres bel[ ! surface1 7 discov]$ 9 ?is mann] 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,brian/*effky & ,dekon(fky1 9 ! ,bakhmut di/rict ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,ekat]9oslav4 ,l>ge quantities ( mo/ excell5t rock salt are n[ 7s9ce #ahhj7 obta9$ f ^! deposits1 ^: pres5ce 0 indicat$ by ! neighb\r+ salt spr+s 7ne> ,slaviansk & ,bakhmut7 & by bore-holes :i* _h be5 sunk 9 ^! localities = procur+ /rong 7saturat$7 br9es4 ,b ! ,/assfurt deposits ( rock salt ne> ,magdeburg 9 ,g]many are celebrat$ z be+ ! fir/ discov]$ 9 ?is mann]1 & = _! _m rem>kable peculi>ities4#g ,! pl5tiful di/ribution ( sal9e spr+s 9 ?is & ! neighb\r+ di/ricts sugge/$ ! pres5ce ( deposits ( rock salt 9 ! vic9ity4 ,deep bore-holes sunk 9 ?is locality did 9 fact give a ri*] br9e--ev5 q saturat$ ) salt4 ,on s9k+ to a /ill great] dep?1 ! deposits ( salt !mselves 7 at la/ arriv$ at4 ,b ! fir/ deposit :i* 0 met ) consi/$ ( a bitt] salt unfit = consumption1 & 0 !re=e call$ refuse salt 7,abraumsalz74 ,on s9k+ /ill deep] va/ b$s ( real rock salt 7 /ruck4 ,9 ?is in/ance ! pres5ce ( ^! upp] /rata conta9+ salts ( potassium1 magnesium1 & sodium is an excell5t pro( ( ! =mation ( rock salt f sea wat]4 ,x is v evid5t t n only a case ( evaporation to ! end--z f>1 = in/ance1 z ! sep>ation ( c>nallite--b also ! pres]vation ( su* soluble salts z sep>ate out f sea wat] aft] ! sodium *loride1 mu/ be a v exceptional ph5om5on1 :i* is n repeat$ 9 all deposits ( rock salt4 ,! ,/assfurt deposits !re=e are ( p>ticul> int]e/1 n only f a sci5tific po9t ( view1 b also because !y =m a ri* s\rce ( potassium salts :i* h _m practical uses4#g bis #g ,:5 ! ,g]man savants po9t$ out ! exact locality ( ! ,/assfurt salt-b$s & _! dep? bel[ ! surface1 on ! basis ( in=mation collect$ f v>i\s qu>t]s respect+ bore-holes & ! direction ( ! /rata1 & :5 ! bor+s1 conduct$ by ! ,gov]nm5t1 /ruck a salt-b$ :i* 0 bitt] & unfit = use1 !re 0 a great outcry aga9/ sci5ce1 & ! d\btful result ev5 caus$ ! cessation ( ! fur!r "w ( deep5+ ! %afts4 ,x requir$ a great ef=t to p]suade ! ,gov]nm5t to cont9ue ! "w4 ,n[1 :5 ! pure salt enc\nt]$ bel[ =ms "o ( ! important ri*es ( ,g]many1 & :5 ^? 'refuse salts' h prov$ to be mo/ valuable 7z a s\rce ( potassium & magnesium71 we %\ld see 9 ! utilisation ( ! ,/assfurt deposits "o ( ! conque/s ( sci5ce = ! common welf>e4 #g bis ,9 ,we/]n ,europe1 deposits ( rock salt h long be5 kn[n at ,wieliczka1 ne> ,crac[1 & at ,c>dona 9 ,spa94 ,9 ,russia ! foll[+ deposits are kn[n3 7a7 ! va/ masses ( rock salt 7#c squ>e kilometres area & up to #adj metres ?ick7 ly+ directly on ! surface ( ! e>? at ,iletzky ,za/*it1 on ! left bank ( ! riv] ,ural1 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,or5burg2 7b7 ! ,*+aksky deposit1 #ij v]/s f ! riv] ,volga1 9 ! ,enotaeffsky di/rict ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,a/rakhan2 7c7 ! ,kulep9sky 7& o!r7 deposits 7^: ?ickness atta9s #aej metres71 on ! ,araks1 9 ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,erivan 9 ! ,caucasus2 7d7 ! ,kat*iezmansky deposit 9 ! prov9ce ( ,k>s2 7e7 ! ,krasnovodsky deposit 9 ! ,trans-,caspian prov9ce2 & 7f7 ! ,b>dymkulsky salt m9es 9 ,kokh&4 ,a saturat$ br9e1 =m$ by ! cont9u$ contact ( subsoil wat] ) rock salt1 is extract$ by means ( bore-holes1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,gov]nm5ts ( ,p]m1 ,kh>k(f1 & ,ekat]9oslav4 ,sometimes1 z at ,b]*tesgad5 7& at ,halle97 9 ,au/ria1 spr+ wat] is run on to und]gr\nd b$s ( rock salt conta9+ mu* clay4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,graduator = ! evaporation ( ! wat] ( sal9e spr+s4 ,if a sal9e spr+1 or ! salt wat] pump$ f bore-holes1 conta9s b little salt1 !n ! fir/ conc5tration ( ! natural solution is n c>ri$ on by ! co/ly consumption ( fuel1 b by ! *eap] me?od ( evaporation by means ( ! w9d4 ,= ?is purpose s-call$ graduators are con/ruct$3 !y consi/ ( long & l(ty %$s1 :i* are sometimes sev]al v]/s long1 & g5]ally ext5d 9 a direction at "r angles to t ( ! usual c\rse ( ! w9d 9 ! di/rict4 ,^! %$s are op5 at ! sides1 & are fill$ ) bru%wood z %[n 9 fig4 #fd4 ,tr\ghs1 ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 into :i* ! salt wat] is pump$1 run along ! top4 ,on fl[+ f ^! tr\ghs1 ?r\gh ! op5+s1 a1 ! wat] spreads ov] ! bru%wood & di/ributes itself 9 a ?9 lay] ov] x1 s t x pres5ts a v l>ge surface = evaporation1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* x rapidly becomes conc5trat$ 9 w>m or w9dy wea!r4 ,aft] trickl+ ov] ! bru%wood1 ! solution collects 9 a res]voir "u ! graduator1 :5ce x is usually pump$ up by ! pumps ,p ,p1 & aga9 run a second & ?ird "t ?r\gh ! graduator1 until ! solution rea*es a degree ( conc5tration at :i* x becomes pr(itable to extract ! salt by direct heat+4 ,g5]ally ! evaporation 9 ! graduator is n c>ri$ beyond a conc5tration ( #ab to #ae p>ts ( salt 9 #ajj p>ts ( solution4 ,/rong natural solutions ( salt1 & also ! graduat$ solutions1 are evaporat$ 9 l>ge %all[ metallic vessels1 :i* are ei!r heat$ by ! direct action ( ! flame f bel[ or f above4 ,^! vessels are made ( boil] plate1 & are call$ salt-pans4 ,v>i\s means are employ$ = accel]at+ ! evaporation & = economis+ fuel1 :i* are ma9ly bas$ on an artificial draught to c>ry (f ! /eam z x is =m$1 & on subject+ ! sal9e solution to a prelim9>y heat+ by ! wa/e heat ( ! /eam & furnace gases4 ,fur!rmore1 ! fir/ portions ( ! salt :i* cry/allise out 9 ! salt-pans are inv>iably contam9at$ ) gypsum1 s9ce ! wat]s ( sal9e spr+s always conta9 ?is sub/ance4 ,x is only ! portions ( ! salt :i* sep>ate lat] t are di/+ui%$ by _! great purity4 ,! salt is ladl$ out z x is deposit$1 left to dra9 on incl9$ tables & !n dri$1 & 9 ?is mann] ! s-call$ bay salt is obta9$4 ,s9ce x has become possible to discov] ! sal9e deposits !mselves1 ! extraction ( table salt f ! wat] ( sal9e spr+s by evaporation1 :i* previ\sly 0 9 g5]al use1 has begun to be disus$1 & is only able to hold its gr\nd 9 places :]e fuel is *eap4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! full importance ( ! extraction ( salt1 x ne$ only be m5tion$ t on ! av]age #bj lbs4 ( table salt are consum$ ye>ly p] head ( population1 directly 9 food or = cattle4 ,9 ^? c\ntries :]e common salt is employ$ 9 te*nical processes1 & especially 9 ,engl&1 almo/ an equal quantity is consum$ 9 ! production ( sub/ances conta9+ *lor9e & sodium1 & especially 9 ! manufacture ( wa%+ soda1 c41 & ( *lor9e comp\nds 7blea*+ p[d] & hydro*loric acid74 ,! ye>ly production ( salt 9 ,europe am\nts to z mu* z #g-a_/b million tons4 ,al?\gh c]ta9 lumps ( rock salt & cry/als ( bay salt sometimes consi/ ( almo/ pure sodium *loride1 /ill ! ord9>y comm]cial salt conta9s v>i\s impurities1 ! mo/ common ( :i* are magnesium salts4 ,if ! salt be pure1 its solution gives no precipitate ) sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 %[+ ! abs5ce ( magnesium salts1 because magnesium c>bonate1 ,mg,c,o#c1 is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,rock salt1 :i* is gr\nd = use1 g5]ally conta9s also a consid]able admixture ( clay & o!r insoluble impurities4#h ,= ord9>y use ! bulk ( ! salt obta9$ c be employ$ directly )\t fur!r purification2 b "s salts are purifi$ by solution & cry/allisation ( ! solution aft] /&+1 9 :i* case ! evaporation is n c>ri$ on to dryness1 & ! impurities rema9 9 ! "m liquor or 9 ! s$im5t4 ,:5 p]fectly pure salt is requir$ = *emical purposes x is be/ obta9$ z foll[s3 a saturat$ solution ( table salt is prep>$1 & hydro*loric acid gas is pass$ ?r\gh x2 ?is precipitates ! sodium *loride 7:i* is n soluble 9 a /rong solution ( hydro*loric acid71 :ile ! impurities rema9 9 solution4 ,by repeat+ ! op]ation & fus+ ! salt 7:5 adh]+ hydro*loric acid is volatilis$7 a pure salt is obta9$1 :i* is aga9 cry/allis$ f its solution by evaporation4#i #h ,! fracture ( rock salt g5]ally %[s ! pres5ce ( int]lay]s ( impurities :i* are sometimes v small 9 weight1 b visible ow+ to _! refraction4 ,9 ! excell5tly laid out salt m9es ( ,briansk ,i c\nt$ 7#ahhh71 if my memory does n deceive me1 on an av]age t5 int]lay]s p] metre ( ?ickness1 betwe5 :i* ! salt 0 9 g5]al v pure1 & 9 places q transp>5t4 ,if ?is be ! case1 !n !re w\ld be #cej int]lay]s = ! :ole ?ickness 7ab\t #ce metres7 ( ! b$4 ,!y probably correspond ) ! ye>ly deposition ( ! salt4 ,9 ?is case ! deposition w\ld h ext5d$ ov] m ?an #cjj ye>s4 ,?is %\ld be obs]vable at ! pres5t day 9 lakes :]e ! salt is saturat$ & 9 c\rse ( deposition4 #i ,my own inve/igations h %[n t n only ! sulphates1 b also ! potassium salts1 are entirely remov$ by ?is me?od4 ,pure sodium *loride1 9 well-def9$ cry/als 7sl[ly deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! liquid7 or 9 compact masses 79 :i* =m rock salt is sometimes met )71 is a col\rless & transp>5t sub/ance resembl+1 b m brittle & less h>d ?an1 glass4#aj ,common salt always cry/allises 9 ! cubic sy/em1 mo/ frequ5tly 9 cubes1 & m r>ely 9 octah$ra4 ,l>ge transp>5t cubes ( common salt1 hav+ edges up to #aj c5timetres long1 are sometimes f\nd 9 masses ( rock salt4#aa ,:5 evaporat$ 9 ! op5 ! salt (t5 sep>ates out on ! surface#ab z cubes1 :i* gr[ on to ea* o!r 9 ! =m ( pyramidal squ>e funnels4 ,9 /ill wea!r1 ^! clu/]s are able to support !mselves on ! surface ( ! wat] = a long "t1 & sometimes g on increas+ to a consid]able ext5t1 b !y s9k directly ! wat] p5etrates inside !m4 ,salt fuses to a col\rless liquid 7sp4 gr4 #afjb1 accord+ to ,qu9cke7 at #hea 7,v4 ,mey]72 if pure x solidifies to a non-cry/all9e mass1 & if impure to an opaque mass ^: surface is n smoo?4 ,9 fus+1 sodium *loride comm5ces to volatilise 7its weight decreases7 & at a :ite heat x volatilises ) great ease & completely2 b at ! ord9>y temp]ature x may1 l all ord9>y salts1 be consid]$ z non-volatile1 al?\gh z yet no exact exp]im5ts h be5 made 9 ?is direction4 #aj ,accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,klodt1 ! ,briansk rock salt )/&s a pressure ( #cdj kilograms p] squ>e c5timetre1 :il/ glass )/&s #a1gjj kilos4 ,9 ?is respect salt is twice z secure z bricks1 & !re=e imm5se masses may be extract$ f und]gr\nd work+s ) p]fect safety1 )\t hav+ rec\rse to brickwork supports1 m]ely tak+ advantage ( ! prop]ties ( ! salt itself4 #aa ,to obta9 well-=m$ cry/als1 a saturat$ solution is mix$ ) f]ric *loride1 sev]al small cry/als ( sodium *loride are plac$ at ! bottom1 & ! solution is all[$ to evaporate sl[ly 9 a vessel ) a loose-fitt+ cov]4 ,octah$ral cry/als are obta9$ by ! addition ( borax1 urea1 c41 to ! solution4 ,v f9e cry/als are =m$ 9 a mass ( gelat9\s silica4 #ab ,if a solution ( sodium *loride be sl[ly heat$ f above1 :]e ! evaporation takes place1 !n ! upp] lay] w become saturat$ be=e ! l[] & cool] lay]s1 & !re=e cry/allisation w beg9 on ! surface1 & ! cry/als fir/ =m$ w float1 hav+ also dri$ f above1 on ! surface until !y become q soak$4 ,be+ heavi] ?an ! solution ! cry/als are p>tially imm]s$ "u x1 & ! foll[+ cry/allisation1 also proce$+ on ! surface1 w only =m cry/als along ! side ( ! orig9al cry/als4 ,a funnel is =m$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,x w be borne on ! surface l a boat 7if ! liquid be quiesc5t71 because x w gr[ m f ! upp] edges4 ,we c ?us und]/& ?is at fir/ sight /range funnel =m ( cry/allisation ( salt4 ,9 explanation :y ! cry/allisation "u ! above conditions beg9s at ! surface & n at ! l[] lay]s1 x mu/ be m5tion$ t ! specific gravity ( a cry/al ( sodium *loride #baf1 & t ( a solution saturat$ at #be conta9s #bfg p4c4 ( salt & has a specific gravity at #be_/d ( #abjjd2 at #ae a saturat$ solution conta9s #bfe p4c4 ( salt & has a sp4 gr4 #abjc at #ae_/d4 ,h5ce a solution saturat$ at a high] temp]ature is specifically light]1 not)/&+ ! great] am\nt ( salt x conta9s4 ,) _m sub/ances surface cry/allisation _c take place because _! solubility increases m rapidly ) ! temp]ature ?an _! specific gravity decreases4 ,9 ?is case ! saturat$ solution w always be 9 ! l[] lay]s1 :]e also ! cry/allisation w take place4 ,besides :i* x may be add$ t z a consequ5ce ( ! prop]ties ( wat] & solutions1 :5 !y are heat$ f above 7= in/ance1 by ! sun's rays71 ! w>m] lay]s be+ ! lighte/ rema9 above1 :il/ :5 heat$ f bel[ !y rise to ! top4 ,= ?is reason ! wat] at great dep?s bel[ ! surface is always cold1 :i* has long be5 kn[n4 ,^! circum/ances1 z well z ^? obs]v$ by ,soret 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ai71 expla9 ! great diff]5ces ( d5sity & temp]ature1 & 9 ! am\nt ( salts held 9 ! oceans at diff]5t latitudes 79 pol> & tropical climes7 & at v>i\s dep?s4 ,a saturat$#ac solution ( table salt 7conta9+ #bfd p4c47 has at ! ord9>y temp]ature a specific gravity ( ab\t #ab4 ,! specific gravity ( ! cry/als is #bafg 7#ag74 ,! salt :i* sep>ates out at ! ord9>y & high] temp]atures conta9s no wat] ( cry/allisation2#ad b if ! cry/als are =m$ at a l[ temp]ature1 especially f a saturat$ solution cool$ to -#ab1 !n !y pres5t a prismatic =m1 & conta9 two equival5ts ( wat]1 ,na,cl1#b;,h#b,o4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature ^! cry/als split up into sodium *loride & its solution4#ae ,unsaturat$ solutions ( table salt :5 cool$ bel[ #j give#af cry/als ( ice1 b :5 ! solution has a composition ,na,cl1#aj;,h#b,o x solidifies completely at a temp]ature ( -#bc4 ,a solution ( table salt saturat$ at its boil+ po9t boils at ab\t #aji1 & conta9s ab\t #db p>ts ( salt p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]4 #ac ,by comb9+ ! results ( ,poggiale1 ,mll]1 & ,k>/5 7!y are evid5tly m accurate ?an ^? ( ,gay-,lussac & o!rs7 ,i f\nd t a saturat$ solution at t1 f #j to #ajh1 conta9s #ceg #jjbdt #jjjjbt#b grams ( salt p] #ajj grams ( wat]4 ,?is =mula gives a solubility at #j #ceg grams 7 #bfc p4c471 :il/ accord+ to ,k>/5 x is #cfji1 ,poggiale #cee1 & ,mll] #cef grams4 #ad ,p]fectly pure fus$ salt is n hygroscopic1 accord+ to ,k>/51 :il/ ! cry/allis$ salt1 ev5 :5 q pure1 attracts z mu* z #jf p4c4 ( wat] f moi/ air1 accord+ to ,/as4 7,9 ! ,briansk m9es1 :]e ! temp]ature ?r\gh\t ! :ole ye> is ab\t #aj1 x may be obs]v$1 z ,b>on ,klodt in=m$ me1 t 9 ! summ] dur+ damp wea!r ! walls become moi/1 :ile 9 w9t] !y are dry74 ,if ! salt conta9 impurities--su* z magnesium sulphate1 c4--x is m hygroscopic4 ,if x conta9 any magnesium *loride1 x p>tially deliquesces 9 a damp atmosph]e4 ,! cry/allis$ & n p]fectly pure salt decrepitates :5 heat$1 ow+ to its conta9+ wat]4 ,! pure salt1 & also ! transp>5t rock salt1 or t :i* has be5 once fus$1 does n decrepitate4 ,fus$ sodium *loride %[s a fa9t alkal9e reaction to litmus1 :i* has be5 notic$ by _m obs]v]s1 & is due to ! pres5ce ( sodium oxide 7probably by ! action ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e74 ,accord+ to ,a4 ,/*]bak(f v s5sitive litmus 7wa%$ 9 alcohol & neutralis$ ) oxalic acid7 %[s an alkal9e reaction ev5 ) ! cry/allis$ salt4 ,x may be obs]v$ t rock salt sometimes conta9s cavities fill$ ) a col\rless liquid4 ,c]ta9 k9ds ( rock salt emit an od\r l t ( hydroc>bons4 ,^! ph5om5a h z yet receiv$ v little att5tion4 #ae ,by cool+ a solution ( table salt saturat$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature to -#ae1 ,i obta9$ fir/ ( all well-=m$ tabul> 7six-sid$7 cry/als1 :i* :5 w>m$ to ! ord9>y temp]ature dis9tegrat$ 7) ! sep>ation ( anhydr\s sodium *loride71 & !n prismatic ne$les up to #bj mm4 long 7 =m$ f ! same solution4 ,i h n yet inve/igat$ ! reason ( ! diff]5ce 9 cry/all9e =m4 ,x is kn[n 7,mits*]li*7 t ,na,i1#b;,h#b,o also cry/allises ei!r 9 plates or prisms4 ,sodium bromide also cry/allises ) #b;,h#b,o at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 #af ,not)/&+ ! great simplicity 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #di7 ( ! obs]vations on ! =mation ( ice f solution1 /ill ev5 = sodium *loride !y _c yet be consid]$ z suffici5tly h>moni\s4 ,accord+ to ,blagd5 & ,ra\lt1 ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice f a solution conta9+ c grams ( salt p] #ajj grams ( wat] -#jf;c to c #aj1 accord+ to ,rosetti -#jfdi;c to c #hg1 accord+ to ,de ,coppet 7to c #aj7 -#jee;c-#jjjf;c#b1 accord+ to ,k>/5 7to c #aj7-jgfb;c #jjjhd;c#b1 & accord+ to ,gu?rie a mu* l[] figure4 ,by tak+ ,rosetti's figure & apply+ ! rule giv5 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #di we obta9-- i - #jfdi #ehe_/ahe #bje4 ,pick]+ 7#ahic7 gives = c #a-jfjc1 = c #b-abbj2 t is 7c up to #bg7 ab\t -7#jfjj #jjje;c7c4 ,! data = /rong solutions are n less contradictory4 ,?us ) #bj p4c4 ( salt1 ice is =m$ at -#add accord+ to ,k>/51-#ag accord+ to ,gu?rie1-#agf accord+ to ,de ,coppet4 ,rdorff /ates t = /rong solutions ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice desc5ds 9 proportion to ! cont5ts ( ! comp\nd1 ,na,cl1#b;,h#b,o 7p] #ajj grams ( wat]7 by #jcdb p] #a gram ( salt1 & ,de ,coppet %[s t !re is no proportionality1 9 a /rict s5se1 = ei!r a p]c5tage ( ,na,cl or ( ,na,cl1#b;,h#b,o4 ,( all its physical prop]ties ! specific gravity ( solutions ( sodium *loride is ! "o :i* has be5 ! mo/ fully inve/igat$4 ,a comp>ison ( all ! exi/+ det]m9ations ( ! specific gravity ( solutions ( ,na,cl#ag at #ae 79 vacuo1 tak+ wat] at #d z #aj1jjj71 ) reg>d to p 7! p]c5tage am\nt ( ! salt 9 solution71 %[ t x is express$ by ! equation ,s#ae #iiiaf #gaagp #jbadjp#b4 ,= in/ance1 = a solution #bjj;,h#b,o ,na,cl1 9 :i* case p #af1 ,s#ae #ajajf4 ,x is se5 f ! =mula t ! addition ( wat] produces a contraction4#ah ,! specific gravity#ai at c]ta9 temp]atures & conc5trations 9 vacuo ref]r$ to wat] at #d #aj1jjjbj is "h giv5 = #j #ae #cj #ajj p #e #ajcgb #ajcec #ajcjg #iibb #aj #ajgfh #ajgbh #ajffi #ajbgh #ae #aaafd #aaajg #aajdc #ajfeb #bj #aaefh #aaeja #aadbi #aajdc ,x %\ld be rem>k$ t ,baum's hydromet] is graduat$ by tak+ a #aj p4c4 solution ( sodium *loride z #aj on ! scale1 & !re=e x gives approximately ! p]c5tage am\nt ( ! salt 9 a solution4 ,common salt is some:at soluble 9 alcohol1#ba b x is insoluble 9 e!r & 9 oils4 #ag ,a collection ( obs]vations on ! specific gravity ( solutions ( sodium *loride is giv5 9 my "w cit$ 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ej4 ,solutions ( common salt h also be5 frequ5tly inve/igat$ z reg>ds rate ( diffusion 7,*apt] ,i471 b z yet !re are no complete data 9 ?is respect4 ,x may be m5tion$ t ,graham & ,de ,vries demon/rat$ t diffusion 9 gelat9\s masses 7= in/ance1 gelat9 jelly1 or gelat9\s silica7 proce$s 9 ! same mann] z 9 wat]1 :i* may probably lead to a conv5i5t & accurate me?od = ! inve/igation ( ! ph5om5a ( diffusion4 ,n4 ,um(f 7,odessa1 #ahhh7 inve/igat$ ! diffusion ( common salt by means ( glass globules ( def9ite d5sity4 ,hav+ p\r$ wat] into a cyl9d] ov] a lay] ( a solution ( sodium *loride1 he obs]v$ dur+ a p]iod ( sev]al mon?s ! position 7height7 ( ! globules1 :i* float$ up high] & high] z ! salt p]meat$ upw>ds4 ,um(f f\nd t at a con/ant temp]ature ! di/ances ( ! globules 7t is1 ! l5g? ( a column limit$ by lay]s ( def9ite conc5tration7 rema9 con/ant2 t at a giv5 mom5t ( "t ! conc5tration1 q1 ( diff]5t lay]s situat$ at a dep? z is express$ by ! equation ,b-,kz log47,a-q71 :]e ,a1 ,b1 & ,k are con/ants2 t at a giv5 mom5t ! rate ( diffusion ( ! diff]5t lay]s is proportional to _! dep?1 c4 #ah ,if ,s#j be ! specific gravity ( wat]1 & ,s ! specific gravity ( a solution conta9+ p p4c4 ( salt1 !n by mix+ equal weights ( wat] & ! solution1 we %all obta9 a solution conta9+ #a_/bp ( ! salt1 & if x be =m$ )\t contraction1 !n its specific gravity x w be det]m9$ by ! equation #b_/x #a_/,s#j #a_/,s1 because ! volume is equal to ! weight divid$ by ! d5sity4 ,9 reality1 ! specific gravity is always f\nd to be great] ?an t calculat$ on ! supposition ( an abs5ce ( contraction4 #ai ,g5]ally ! specific gravity is obs]v$ by weigh+ 9 air & divid+ ! weight 9 grams by ! volume 9 cubic c5timetres1 ! latt] be+ f\nd f ! weight ( wat] displac$1 divid$ by its d5sity at ! temp]ature at :i* ! exp]im5t is c>ri$ out4 ,if we call ?is specific gravity ,s#a1 !n z a cubic c5timetre ( air "u ! usual conditions weighs ab\t #jjjab gram1 ! sp4 gr4 9 a vacuum ,s ,s#a #jjjab 7,s#a - #a71 if ! d5sity ( wat] #a4 #bj ,if ! sp4 gr4 ,s#b be f\nd directly by divid+ ! weight ( a solution by ! weight ( wat] at ! same temp]ature & 9 ! same volume1 !n ! true sp4 gr4 ,s ref]r$ to wat] at #d is f\nd by multiply+ ,s#b by ! sp4 gr4 ( wat] at ! temp]ature ( obs]vation4 #ba ,accord+ to ,s*iff #ajj grams ( alcohol1 conta9+ p p4c4 by weight ( ,c#b;,h#f,o1 dissolves at #ae-- p #aj #bj #dj #fj #hj #bhe #bbf #acb #ei #ab grams ,na,cl4 ,common salt gives v few comp\nds#bb 7d\ble salts7 & ^! are v readily decompos$3 x is also decompos$ ) great difficulty & its dissociation is unkn[n4#bc ,b x is easily decompos$1 bo? :5 fus$ & 9 solution1 by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t4 ,if ! dry salt be fus$ 9 a crucible & an electric curr5t be pass$ ?r\gh x by imm]s+ c>bon or plat9um electrodes 9 x 7! positive electrode is made ( c>bon & ! negative ( plat9um or m]cury71 x is decompos$3 ! suffocat+ gas1 *lor9e1 is lib]at$ at ! positive pole & metallic sodium at ! negative pole4 ,bo? ( !m act on ! excess ( wat] at ! mom5t ( _! evolution2 ! sodium evolves hydrog5 & =ms cau/ic soda1 & ! *lor9e evolves oxyg5 & =ms hydro*loric acid1 & !re=e on pass+ a curr5t ?r\gh a solution ( common salt metallic sodium w n be obta9$--b oxyg51 *lor9e1 & hydro*loric acid w appe> at ! positive pole1 & hydrog5 & cau/ic soda at ! negative pole4#bc bis ,?us salt1 l o!r salts1 is decompos$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t into a metal & a haloid 7,*apt] ,,iii47 ,naturally1 l all o!r salts1 x may be =m$ f ! correspond+ base & acid ) ! sep>ation ( wat]4 ,9 fact if we mix cau/ic soda 7base7 ) hydro*loric acid 7acid71 table salt is =m$1 ,na,h,o ,h,cl ,na,cl ,h#b,o4 #bb ,among/ ! d\ble salts =m$ by sodium *loride t obta9$ by ,ditte 7#ahgj7 by ! evaporation ( ! solution rema9+ aft] heat+ sodium iodate ) hydro*loric acid until *lor9e ceases to be lib]at$1 is a rem>kable "o4 ,its composition is ,na,i,o#c1,na,cl1#ad;,h#b,o4 ,rammelsb]g obta9$ a simil> 7p]haps ! same7 salt 9 well-=m$ cry/als by ! direct reaction ( bo? salts4 #bc ,b x gives sodium 9 ! flame ( a ,buns5's burn] 7see ,spectrum ,analysis71 d\btless "u ! r$uc+ action ( ! elem5ts c>bon & hydrog54 ,9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( hydro*loric acid 9 ! flame 7:5 ! sodium w\ld =m sodium *loride71 no sodium is =m$ 9 ! flame & ! salt does n communicate its usual coloration4 #bc bis ,!re is no d\bt1 h[ev]1 b t *loride ( sodium is also decompos$ 9 its aque\s solutions ) ! sep>ation ( sodium1 & t x does n simply ent] into d\ble decomposition ) ! wat] 7,na,cl ,h#b,o ,na,h,o ,h,cl74 ,?is is se5 f ! fact t :5 a saturat$ solution ( ,na,cl is rapidly decompos$ by an electric curr5t1 a l>ge am\nt ( *lor9e appe>s at ! anode & a sodium amalgam =ms at ! m]cury ca?ode1 :i* acts b sl[ly ^u ! /rong solution ( salt4 ,ca/n]'s process = ! electrolysis ( br9e into *lor9e & cau/ic soda is an application ( ?is me?od :i* has be5 already work$ 9 ,engl& on an indu/rial scale4 ,) resspect to ! d\ble decompositions ( sodium *loride x %\ld be obs]v$ t !y are mo/ v>i$1 & s]ve z means ( obta9+ ne>ly all ! o!r comp\nds ( sodium & *lor9e4 ,! d\ble decompositions ( sodium *loride are almo/ exclusively bas$ on ! possibility ( ! metal sodium be+ ex*ang$ = hydrog5 & o!r metals4 ,b nei!r hydrog5 nor any o!r metal c directly displace ! sodium f sodium *loride4 ,?is w\ld result 9 ! sep>ation ( metallic sodium1 :i* itself displaces hydrog5 & ! majority ( o!r metals f _! comp\nds1 & is n1 s f> z is kn[n1 ev] sep>at$ by !m4 ,! replacem5t ( ! sodium 9 sodium *loride by hydrog5 & v>i\s metals c only take place by ! transf]5ce ( ! sodium into "s o!r comb9ation4 ,if hydrog5 or a metal1 ,m1 be comb9$ ) an elem5t ,x1 !n ! d\ble decomposition ,na,cl ,,mx ,na,x ,m,cl takes place4 ,su* d\ble decompositions take place "u special conditions1 sometimes completely & sometimes only p>tially1 z we %all endeav\r to expla94 ,9 ord] to acqua9t ourselves ) ! d\ble decompositions ( sodium *loride1 we w foll[ ! me?ods actually employ$ 9 practice to procure comp\nds ( sodium & ( *lor9e f common salt4 ,= ?is purpose we w fir/ describe ! treatm5t ( sodium *loride ) sulphuric acid = ! prep>ation ( hydro*loric acid & sodium sulphate4 ,we w !n describe ! sub/ances obta9$ f hydro*loric acid & sodium sulphate4 ,*lor9e itself1 & ne>ly all ! comp\nds ( ?is elem5t1 may be procur$ f hydro*loric acid1 :il/ sodium c>bonate1 cau/ic soda1 metallic sodium itself & all its comp\nds1 may be obta9$ f sodium sulphate4 ,ev5 9 ! animal organism salt und]goes simil> *anges1 furni%+ ! sodium1 alkali1 & hydro*loric acid :i* take "p 9 ! processes ( animal life4 ,its necessity z a con/itu5t 9 ! food bo? ( human be+s & ( animals becomes evid5t :5 we consid] t bo? hydro*loric acid & salts ( sodium are f\nd 9 ! sub/ances :i* are sep>at$ out f ! blood into ! /oma* & inte/9es4 ,sodium salts are f\nd 9 ! blood & 9 ! bile :i* is elaborat$ 9 ! liv] & acts on ! food 9 ! alim5t>y canal1 :il/ hydro*loric acid is f\nd 9 ! acid juices ( ! /oma*4 ,*lorides ( ! metals are always f\nd 9 consid]able quantities 9 ! ur9e1 & if !y are excret$ !y mu/ be repl5i%$ 9 ! organism2 & = ! repl5i%m5t ( ! loss1 sub/ances conta9+ *lor9e comp\nds mu/ be tak5 9 food4 ,n only d animals consume ^? small am\nts ( sodium *loride :i* are f\nd 9 dr9k+ wat] or 9 plants or o!r animals1 b exp]i5ce has %[n t _m wild animals travel long di/ances 9 se>* ( salt spr+s1 & t dome/ic animals :i* 9 _! natural condition d n require salt1 will+ly take x1 & t ! functions ( _! organisms become mu* m regul> f _! do+ s4 ,! action ( sulphuric acid on sodium *loride4--,if sulphuric acid be p\r$ ov] common salt1 !n ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 z ,glaub] obs]v$1 an odor\s gas1 hydro*loric acid1 is evolv$4 ,! reaction :i* takes place consi/s 9 ! sodium ( ! salt & ! hydrog5 ( ! sulphuric acid *ang+ places4 ,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d ,h,cl ,na,h,s,o#d ,sodium ,sulphuric ,hydro*loric ,acid sodium *loride acid acid sulphate ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature ?is reaction is n complete1 b soon ceases4 ,:5 ! mixture is heat$1 ! decomposition proce$s until1 if !re be suffici5t salt pres5t1 all ! sulphuric acid tak5 is conv]t$ into acid sodium sulphate4 ,any excess ( acid w rema9 unalt]$4 ,if #b molecules ( sodium *loride 7#aag p>ts7 be tak5 p] molecule ( sulphuric acid 7#ih p>ts71 !n on heat+ ! mixture to a mod]ate temp]ature only "o-half 7#ehe7 ( ! salt w suff] *ange4 ,complete decomposition1 aft] :i* nei!r hydrog5 nor *lor9e is left 9 ! residue1 proce$s 7:5 #aag p>ts ( table salt are tak5 p] #ih p>ts ( sulphuric acid7 at a r$ heat only4 ,!n-- #b,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d #b;,h,cl ,na#b,,s#d ,table ,sulphuric ,hydro*loric ,sodium salt acid acid sulphate ,?is d\ble decomposition is ! result ( ! action ( ! acid salt1 ,na,h,s,o#d1 fir/ =m$1 on sodium *loride1 = ! acid salt1 s9ce x conta9s hydrog51 itself acts l an acid1 ,na,cl ,na,h,s,o#d ,h,cl ,na#b,,s#d4 ,by add+ ?is equation to ! fir/ we obta9 ! second1 :i* expresses ! ultimate reaction4 ,h5ce 9 ! above reaction1 non-volatile or sp>+ly volatile table salt & sp>+ly volatile sulphuric acid are tak51 & z ! result ( _! reaction1 aft] ! hydrog5 & sodium h ex*ang$ places1 !re is obta9$ non-volatile sodium sulphate & gase\s hydro*loric acid4 ,! fact ( ! latt] be+ a gase\s sub/ance =ms ! ma9 reason = ! reaction proce$+ to ! v end4 ,! me*anism ( ?is k9d ( d\ble decomposition1 & ! cause ( ! c\rse ( ! reaction1 are exactly ! same z ^? we saw 9 ! decomposition ( nitre 7,*apt] ,,vi47 by ! action ( sulphuric acid4 ,! sulphuric acid 9 ea* case displaces ! o!r1 volatile1 acid4 ,n only 9 ^! two in/ances1 b 9 e in/ance1 if a volatile acid c be =m$ by ! sub/itution ( ! hydrog5 ( sulphuric acid = a metal1 !n ?is volatile acid w be =m$4 ,f ?is x may be conclud$ t ! volatility ( ! acid %\ld be consid]$ z ! cause ( ! progress ( ! reaction2 & inde$ if ! acid be soluble b n volatile1 or if ! reaction take place 9 an enclos$ space :]e ! result+ acid _c volatilise1 or at ! ord9>y temp]ature :5 x does n pass into ! /ate ( ela/ic vap\r--!n ! decomposition does n proce$ to ! end1 b only up to a c]ta9 limit4 ,9 ?is respect ! explanations giv5 at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury by ! ,fr5* *emi/ ,b]?ollet 9 8 "w ',essai de ,/atique ,*imique' are v important4 ,! doctr9e ( ,b]?ollet />ts f ! supposition t ! *emical reaction ( sub/ances is det]m9$ n only by ! degrees ( aff9ity betwe5 ! diff]5t p>ts1 b also by ! relative masses ( ! react+ sub/ances & by ^? physical conditions "u :i* ! reaction takes place4 ,two sub/ances conta9+ ! elem5ts ,,mx & ,,ny1 be+ br\ght into contact ) ea* o!r1 =m by d\ble decomposition ! comp\nds ,,my & ,,nx2 b ! =mation ( ^! two new comp\nds w n proce$ to ! end unless "o ( !m is remov$ f ! sph]e ( action4 ,b x c only be remov$ if x possesses diff]5t physical prop]ties f ^? ( ! o!r sub/ances :i* are pres5t ) x4 ,ei!r x mu/ be a gas :ile ! o!rs are liquid or solid1 or an insoluble solid :ile ! o!rs are liquid or soluble4 ,! relative am\nts ( ! resultant sub/ances1 if no?+ sep>ates out f _! int]mixture1 dep5d only on ! relative quantities ( ! sub/ances ,,mx & ,,ny1 & ^u ! degrees ( attraction exi/+ betwe5 ! elem5ts ,m1 ,n1 ,x1 & ,y2 b h[ev] great _! mass may be1 & h[ev] consid]able ! attractions1 /ill 9 any case if no?+ sep>ates out f ! sph]e ( action ! decomposition w pres5tly cease1 a /ate ( equilibrium w be e/abli%$1 & in/ead ( two !re w rema9 f\r sub/ances 9 ! mass3 namely1 a portion ( ! orig9al bodies ,,mx & ,,ny1 & a c]ta9 quantity ( ! newly =m$ sub/ances ,,my & ,,nx1 if x be assum$ t nei!r ,,mn or ,,xy nor any o!r sub/ances are produc$1 & ?is may = ! pres5t#bd be admitt$ 9 ! case ( ! d\ble decomposition ( salts 9 :i* ,m & ,x are metals & ,x & ,y haloids4 ,z ! ord9>y d\ble decomposition "h consi/s m]ely 9 ! ex*ange ( metals1 ! above simplification is applicable4 ,! sum total ( exi/+ data conc]n+ ! d\ble decomposition ( salts leads to ! conclusion t f salts ,,mx ,,ny !re always arises a c]ta9 quantity ( ,,nx & ,,my1 z %\ld be ! case accord+ to ,b]?ollet's doctr9e4 ,a portion ( ! hi/orical data conc]n+ ?is subject w be aft]w>ds m5tion$1 b we w at once proce$ to po9t out ! obs]vations made by ,spr+ 7#ahhh7 :i* %[ t ev5 9 a solid /ate salts are subject to a simil> int]*ange ( metals if 9 a condition ( suffici5tly close contact 7x requires "t1 a f9ely divid$ /ate1 & intimate mixture74 ,spr+ took two non-hygroscopic salts1 potassium nitrate1 ,,kno#c1 & well-dri$ sodium acetate1 ,c#b;,h#c,na,o#b1 & left a mixture ( _! p[d]s = sev]al mon?s 9 a desiccator4 ,an int]*ange ( metals took place1 z 0 se5 f ! fact t ! resultant mass rapidly attract$ ! moi/ure ( ! air1 ow+ to ! =mation ( sodium nitrate1 ,na,n,o#c1 & potassium acetate1 ,c#b;,h#c,,ko#b1 bo? ( :i* are highly hygroscopic4#bd bis #bd ,if ,,mx & ,,ny repres5t ! molecules ( two salts1 & if !re be no ?ird sub/ance pres5t 7su* z wat] 9 a solution71 ! =mation ( ,,xy w\ld also be possible2 = in/ance1 cyanog51 iod9e1 c4 are capable ( comb9+ ) simple haloids1 z well z ) ! complex gr\ps :i* 9 c]ta9 salts play ! "p ( haloids4 ,besides :i* ! salts ,,mx & ,,ny or ,,my ) ,,nx may =m d\ble salts4 ,if ! numb] ( molecules be unequal1 or if ! val5cy ( ! elem5ts or gr\ps conta9$ 9 !m be diff]5t1 z 9 ,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d1 :]e ,cl is a unival5t haloid & ,,s#d is bival5t1 !n ! matt] may be complicat$ by ! =mation ( o!r comp\nds besides ,,my & ,,nx1 & :5 a solv5t p>ticipates 9 ! action1 & especially if pres5t 9 l>ge proportion1 ! ph5om5a mu/ evid5tly become /ill m complex2 & ?is is actually ! case 9 nature4 ,h5ce :ile plac+ be=e ! read] a c]ta9 portion ( ! exi/+ /ore ( k conc]n+ ! ph5om5a ( d\ble sal9e decompositions1 ,i _c consid] ! !ory ( ! subject z complete1 & h !re=e limit$ myself to a few data1 ! completion ( :i* mu/ be s\ght 9 m detail$ works on ! subject ( !oretical *emi/ry1 )\t los+ sight ( :at has be5 said above4 #bd bis ,:5 ! mixture ( potassium nitrate & sodium acetate 0 heat$ by ,spr+ to #ajj1 x 0 completely fus$ into "o mass1 al?\gh potassium nitrate fuses at ab\t #cdj & sodium nitrate at ab\t #cbj4 ,:5 ,b]?ollet enunciat$ 8 doctr9e ! pres5t views ( atoms & molecules _h yet to be develop$1 & x is n[ necess>y to submit ! matt] to exam9ation 9 ! light ( ^! conceptions2 we w !re=e consid] ! reaction ( salts1 tak+ ,m & ,n1 ,x & ,y z equival5t to ea* o!r--t is1 z capable ( replac+ ea* o!r '9 toto1' z ,na or ,k11 #a_/b;,ca or #a_/b,mg 7bival5t elem5ts7 replace hydrog54 ,& s9ce1 accord+ to ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 :5 m,,mx ( "o salt comes into contact ) n,,ny ( ano!r salt1 a c]ta9 quantity x,,my & x,,nx is =m$1 !re rema9s m-x ( ! salt ,,mx1 & n-x ( ! salt ,,ny4 ,if m be great] ?an n1 !n ! maximum int]*ange c\ld lead to x n1 :il/ f ! salts tak5 !re w\ld be =m$ n,,my n,,nx 7m-n7,,mx--t is1 a portion ( "o only ( ! salts tak5 w\ld rema9 un*ang$ because ! reaction c\ld only proce$ betwe5 n,,mx & n,,ny4 ,if x 7 actually equal to n1 ! mass ( ! salt ,,mx w\ld n h any influ5ce on ! modus op]&i ( ! reaction1 :i* is equally 9 accordance ) ! tea*+ ( ,b]gmann1 :o suppos$ d\ble reactions to be indep5d5t ( ! mass & det]m9$ by aff9ity only4 ,if ,m _h m aff9ity = ,x ?an = ,y1 & ,n m aff9ity = ,y ?an = ,x1 !n accord+ to ,b]gmann !re w\ld be no decomposition :atev]1 & x w\ld equal #j4 ,if ! aff9ity ( ,m = ,y & ( ,n = ,x 7 great] ?an ^? 9 ! orig9al gr\p+1 !n ! aff9ity ( ,m = ,x & ( ,n = ,y w\ld be ov]come1 &1 accord+ to ,b]gmann's doctr9e1 complete int]*ange w\ld take place--i4e4 x w\ld equal n4 ,accord+ to ,b]?ollet's tea*+1 a di/ribution ( ,m & ,n betwe5 ,x & ,y w take place 9 e case1 n only 9 proportion to ! degrees ( aff9ity1 b also 9 proportion to ! masses1 s t ) a small aff9ity & a l>ge mass ! same action c be produc$ z ) a l>ge aff9ity & a small mass4 ,!re=e1 7#a7 x w always be less ?an n & _! ratio x_/n less ?an unity--t is1 ! decomposition w be express$ by ! equation1 m,,mx n,,ny 7m-x7,,mx 7n-x7,,ny x,,my x,,nx2 7#b7 by increas+ ! mass m we increase ! decomposition--t is1 we increase x & ! ratio x_/7n-x71 until ) an inf9itely l>ge quantity m ! fraction x_/n w equal #a1 & ! decomposition w be complete1 h[ev] small ! aff9ities unit+ ,,my & ,,nx may be2 & 7#c7 if m n1 by tak+ ,,mx ,,ny or ,,my ,,nx we arrive at "o & ! same sy/em 9 ei!r case3 7n-x7,,mx 7n-x7,,ny x,,my x,,nx4 ,^! direct consequ5ces ( ,b]?ollet's tea*+ are v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce4 ,?us1 = example1 a mixture ( solutions ( sodium nitrate & potassium *loride 9 all cases has entirely ! same prop]ties z a mixture ( solutions ( potassium nitrate & sodium *loride1 ( c\rse on condition t ! mix$ solutions are ( id5tical elem5t>y composition4 ,b ?is id5tity ( prop]ties might ei!r proce$ f "o sy/em ( salts pass+ entirely into ! o!r 7,b]gmann's hypo!sis7 9 con=mity ) ! pr$om9at+ aff9ities 7= in/ance1 f ,k,cl ,na,n,o#c !re might arise ,,kno#c ,na,cl1 if x be admitt$ t ! aff9ities ( ! elem5ts z comb9$ 9 ! latt] sy/em are great] ?an 9 ! =m]72 or1 on ! o!r h&1 x might be because bo? sy/ems by ! int]*ange ( a portion ( _! elem5ts give "o & ! same /ate ( equilibrium1 z accord+ to ,b]?ollet's tea*+4 ,exp]im5t proves ! latt] hypo!sis to be ! true "o4 ,b be=e cit+ ! mo/ hi/orically important exp]im5ts v]ify+ ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 we mu/ /op to consid] ! conception ( ! mass ( ! react+ sub/ances4 ,b]?ollet und]/ood by mass ! actual relative quantity ( a sub/ance2 b n[ x is impossible to und]/& ?is t]m o!rwise ?an z ! numb] ( molecules1 = !y act z *emical units1 & 9 ! special case ( d\ble sal9e decompositions x is bett] to take x z ! numb] ( equival5ts4 ,?us 9 ! reaction ,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d ! salt is tak5 9 "o equival5t & ! acid 9 two4 ,if #b,na,cl ,h#b,,s#d act1 !n ! numb] ( equival5ts are equal1 & s on4 ,! influ5ce ( mass on ! am\nt ( decomposition x_/n =ms ! root ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 & !re=e we w fir/ ( all turn our att5tion to ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is pr9ciple 9 relation to ! d\ble decomposition ( salts4 ,ab\t #ahdj ,h4 ,rose#be %[$ t wat] decomposes metallic sulphides l calcium sulphide1 ,ca,s1 =m+ hydrog5 sulphide1 ,h#b,s1 not)/&+ ! fact t ! aff9ity ( hydrog5 sulphide1 z an acid1 = lime1 ,ca,h#b,o#b1 z a base1 causes !m to react on ea* o!r1 =m+ calcium sulphide & wat]1 ,ca,s #b;,h#b,o4 ,fur!rmore1 ,rose %[$ t ! great] ! am\nt ( wat] act+ on ! calcium sulphide1 ! m complete is ! decomposition4 ,! results ( ?is reaction are evid5t f ! fact t ! hydrog5 sulphide =m$ may be expell$ f ! solution by heat+1 & t ! result+ lime is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,rose cle>ly saw f ?is t su* feeble ag5ts1 9 a *emical s5se1 z c>bonic anhydride & wat]1 by act+ 9 a mass & = long p]iods ( "t 9 nature on ! durable rocks1 :i* resi/ ! action ( ! mo/ p[]ful acids1 are able to br+ ab\t *emical *ange--to extract1 = example1 f rocks ! bases1 lime1 soda1 pota%4 ,! influ5ce ( ! mass ( wat] on antimoni\s *loride1 bismu? nitrate1 c41 is ess5tially ( ! same "*4 ,^! sub/ances give up to ! wat] a quantity ( acid :i* is great] 9 proportion z ! mass ( ! wat] act+ on !m is great]4#be bis #be ,h4 ,rose is m especially kn[n = 8 hav+ c>efully /udi$ & p]fect$ sev]al me?ods = ! exact *emical analysis ( _m m9]al sub/ances4 ,8 pr$ecessor 9 ?is bran* ( rese>* 0 ,b]zelius1 & 8 successor ,fres5ius4 #be bis ,hi/orically ! influ5ce ( ! mass ( wat] 0 ! fir/ well-obs]v$ ph5om5on 9 support ( ,b]?ollet's tea*+1 & x %\ld n n[ be =gott54 ,9 d\ble decompositions tak+ place 9 dilute solutions :]e ! mass ( wat] is l>ge1 its influ5ce1 not)/&+ ! weakness ( aff9ities1 mu/ he great1 accord+ to ! v ess5ce ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e4 ,z expla9+ ! action ( ! mass ( wat]1 ! exp]im5ts ( ,pattison ,muir 7#ahgi7 are v in/ructive4 ,^! exp]im5ts demon/rate t ! decomposition ( bismu? *loride is ! m complete ! great] ! relative quantity ( wat]1 & ! less ! mass ( hydro*loric acid =m+ "o ( ! products ( ! reaction4 ,b>ium sulphate1 ,ba,s,o#d1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 :5 fus$ ) sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 gives1 b n completely1 b>ium c>bonate1 ,ba,c,o#c1 7also insoluble71 & sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d4 ,if a solution ( sodium c>bonate acts on precipitat$ b>ium sulphate1 ! same decomposition is also effect$ 7,dulong1 ,rose71 b x is re/rict$ by a limit & requires "t4 ,a mixture ( sodium c>bonate & sulphate is obta9$ 9 ! solution & a mixture ( b>ium c>bonate & sulphate 9 ! precipitate4 ,if ! solution be decant$ (f & a fre% solution ( sodium c>bonate be p\r$ ov] ! precipitate1 !n a fre% portion ( ! b>ium sulphate passes into b>ium c>bonate1 & s by increas+ ! mass ( sodium c>bonate x is possible to entirely conv]t ! b>ium sulphate into b>ium c>bonate4 ,if a def9ite quantity ( sodium sulphate be add$ to ! solution ( sodium c>bonate1 !n ! latt] w h no action :atev] on ! b>ium sulphate1 because !n a sy/em 9 equilibrium det]m9$ by ! rev]se action ( ! sodium sulphate on ! b>ium c>bonate & by ! pres5ce ( bo? sodium c>bonate & sulphate 9 ! solution1 is at once arriv$ at4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! mass ( ! sodium sulphate 9 ! solution be great1 !n ! b>ium c>bonate is reconv]t$ into sulphate until a def9ite /ate ( equilibrium is atta9$ betwe5 ! two opposite reactions1 produc+ b>ium c>bonate by ! action ( ! sodium c>bonate & b>ium sulphate by ! action ( ! sodium sulphate4 ,ano!r mo/ important pr9ciple ( ,b]?ollet's tea*+ is ! exi/5ce ( a limit ( ex*ange decomposition1 or ! atta9m5t ( a /ate ( equilibrium4 ,9 ?is respect ! det]m9ations ( ,malaguti 7#aheg7 are hi/orically ! mo/ important4 ,he took a mixture ( solutions ( equival5t quantities ( two salts1 ,,mx & ,,ny1 & judg$ ! am\nt ( ! result+ ex*ange f ! composition ( ! precipitate produc$ by ! addition ( alcohol4 ,:51 = example1 z9c sulphate & sodium *loride 7,zn,s,o#d & #b,na,cl7 7 tak51 !re 7 produc$ by ex*ange sodium sulphate & z9c *loride4 ,a mixture ( z9c sulphate & sodium sulphate 0 precipitat$ by an excess ( alcohol1 & x appe>$ f ! composition ( ! precipitate t #gb p] c5t4 ( ! salts tak5 _h be5 decompos$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 a mixture ( solutions ( sodium sulphate & z9c *loride 0 tak51 ! precipitate pres5t$ ! same composition z be=e--t is1 ab\t #bh p] c5t4 ( ! salts tak5 _h be5 subject$ to decomposition4 ,9 a simil> exp]im5t ) a mixture ( sodium *loride & magnesium sulphate1 #b,na,cl ,mg,s,o#d or ,mg,cl#b ,na#b,,s#d1 ab\t half ( ! metals und]w5t ! decomposition1 :i* may be express$ by ! equation #d,na,cl #b,mg,s,o#d #b,na,cl ,mg,s,o#d ,na#b,,s#d ,mg,cl#b #b,na#b,,s#d #b,mg,cl#b4 ,a no less cle> limit express$ itself 9 ano!r ( ,malaguti's rese>*es :5 he inve/igat$ ! above-m5tion$ rev]sible reactions ( ! insoluble salts ( b>ium4 ,:51 = example1 b>ium c>bonate & sodium sulphate 7,ba,c,o#c ,na#b,,s#d7 7 tak51 !n ab\t #gb p] c5t4 ( ! salts 7 decompos$1 t is1 7 conv]t$ into b>ium sulphate & sodium c>bonate4 ,b :5 ! two latt] salts 7 tak51 !n ab\t #ai p] c5t4 ( !m pass$ into b>ium c>bonate & sodium sulphate4 ,probably ! end ( ! reaction 0 n rea*$ 9 ei!r case1 because ?is w\ld require a consid]able "t & a uni=mity ( conditions atta9able ) difficulty4 ,glad/one 7#ahee7 took advantage ( ! col\r ( solutions ( diff]5t f]ric salts = det]m9+ ! measure ( ex*ange betwe5 metals4 ,?us a solution ( f]ric ?iocyanate has a mo/ int5se r$ col\r1 & by mak+ a comp>ison betwe5 ! col\r ( ! result+ solutions & ! col\r ( solutions ( kn[n /r5g? x 0 possible to judge to a c]ta9 degree ! quantity ( ! ?iocyanate =m$4 ,?is colorimetric me?od ( det]m9ation has an important significance z be+ ! fir/ 9 :i* a me?od 0 appli$ = det]m9+ ! composition ( a solution )\t ! removal ( any ( its compon5t p>ts4 ,:5 ,glad/one took equival5t quantities ( f]ric nitrate & potassium ?iocyanate--,fe7,,no#c7c #c,,kcns--only #ac p] c5t4 ( ! salts und]w5t decomposition4 ,on increas+ ! mass ( ! latt] salt ! quantity ( f]ric ?iocyanate =m$ increas$1 b ev5 :5 m ?an #cjj equival5ts ( potassium ?iocyanate 7 tak5 a portion ( ! iron /ill rema9$ z nitrate4 ,x is evid5t t ! aff9ity act+ betwe5 ,fe & ,,no#c & betwe5 ,k & ,,cns on ! "o h&1 is great] ?an ! aff9ity act+ betwe5 ,fe & ,,cns1 toge!r ) ! aff9ity ( ,k = ,,no#c1 on ! o!r h&4 ,! inve/igation ( ! v>iation ( ! fluoresc5ce ( qu99e sulphate1 z well z ! v>iation ( ! rotation ( ! plane ( pol>isation ( nicot9e1 gave 9 ! h&s ( ,glad/one _m pro(s ( ! entire applicability ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 & 9 p>ticul> demon/rat$ ! influ5ce ( mass :i* =ms ! *ief di/9ctive feature ( ! tea*+ ( ,b]?ollet1 tea*+ little appreciat$ 9 8 own "t4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #ahfj1 ! doctr9e ( ! limit ( reaction & ( ! influ5ce ( mass on ! process ( *emical trans=mations receiv$ a v important support 9 ! rese>*es ( ,b]!lot & ,p4 de ,sa9t-,gilles on ! =mation ( ! e!real salts ,,rx f ! alcohols ,,roh & acids ,,hx1 :5 wat] is also =m$4 ,?is conv]sion is ess5tially v simil> to ! =mation ( salts1 b diff]s 9 t x proce$s sl[ly at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ext5d+ ov] :ole ye>s1 & is n complete--t is1 x has a di/9ct limit det]m9$ by a rev]se reaction2 ?us an e!real salt ,,rx ) wat] gives an alcohol ,,roh & an acid ,,hx--up to t limit g5]ally correspond+ ) two-?irds ( ! alcohol tak51 if ! action proce$ betwe5 molecul> quantities ( alcohol & acid4 ,?us common alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh1 ) acetic acid1 ,,hc#b;,h#c,o#b1 gives ! foll[+ sy/em rapidly :5 heat$1 or sl[ly at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ,,roh ,,hx #b,,rx #b;,h#b,o1 :e!r we />t f #c,,rho #c;,,hx or f #c,,rx #c;,h#b,o4 ,! process & completion ( ! reaction 9 ?is in/ance are v easily obs]v$1 because ! quantity ( free acid is easily det]m9$ f ! am\nt ( alkali requisite = its saturation1 z nei!r alcohol nor e!real salt acts on litmus or o!r reag5t = acids4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( an increas$ mass ( alcohol ! reaction proce$s fur!r4 ,if two molecules ( alcohol1 ,,rho1 be tak5 = e "o molecule ( acetic acid1 ,,hx1 !n in/ead ( #ff p4c41 #hc p4c4 ( ! acid passes into e!real salt1 & ) fifty molecules ( ,,rho ne>ly all ! acid is e!ris$4 ,! rese>*es ( ,m5s*utk9 9 _! details t\*$ on _m important aspects ( ! same subject1 su* z ! influ5ce ( ! composition ( ! alcohol & acid on ! limit & rate ( ex*ange--b ^!1 z well z o!r details1 mu/ be look$ = 9 special treatises on organic & !oretical *emi/ry4 ,9 any case ! /udy ( e!rification has suppli$ *emical me*anics ) cle> & valuable data1 :i* directly confirm ! two fundam5tal propositions ( ,b]?ollet2 ! influ5ce ( mass1 & ! limit ( reaction--t is1 ! equilibrium betwe5 opposite reactions4 ,! /udy ( num]\s in/ances ( dissociation :i* we h already t\*$ on1 & %all aga9 meet ) on sev]al occasions1 gave ! same results4 ,) respect to d\ble sal9e decompositions1 x is also necess>y to m5tion ! rese>*es ( ,wi$emann on ! decompos+ action ( a mass ( wat] on ! f]ric salts1 :i* c\ld be det]m9$ by measur+ ! magnetism ( ! solutions1 because ! f]ric oxide 7soluble colloid7 set free by ! wat] is less magnetic ?an ! f]ric salts4 ,a v important epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e 0 atta9$ :51 9 #ahfg1 ! ,norwegian *emi/s1 ,guldb]g & ,waage1 express$ x z an algebraical =mula4 ,!y def9$ ! active mass z ! numb] ( molecules conta9$ 9 a giv5 volume1 & assum$1 z foll[s f ! _s ( ,b]?ollet's tea*+1 t ! action betwe5 ! sub/ances 0 equal to ! product ( ! masses ( ! react+ sub/ances4 ,h5ce if ! salts ,,mx & ,,ny be tak5 9 equival5t quantities 7m #a & n #a7 & ! salts ,,my & ,,nx are n add$ to ! mixture b proce$ f x1 !n if k repres5t ! coeffici5t ( ! rate ( ! action ( ,,mx on ,,ny & if k repres5t ! same coeffici5t = ! pair ,,my & ,,nx1 !n we %all h at ! mom5t :5 ! decomposition equals x a measure ( action = ! fir/ pair3 k7#a-x77#a-x7 & = ! second pair kxx1 & a /ate ( equilibrium or limit w be rea*$ :5 k7#a-x7#b kx#b1 :5ce ! ratio k_/k x_/7#a-x7#b4 ,!re=e 9 ! case ( ! action ( alcohol on an acid1 :5 x #b_/c1 ! magnitude k_/k #d1 t is1 ! reaction ( ! alcohol on ! acid is f\r times z fa/ z t ( ! e!real salt on wat]4 ,if ! ratio k_/k be kn[n1 !n ! influ5ce ( mass may be easily det]m9$ f x4 ,?us if in/ead ( "o molecule ( alcohol two be tak51 !n ! equation w be k7#b-x77#a-x7 kxx1 :5ce x #jhe or #he p]c5t41 :i* is close to ! result ( exp]im5t4 ,if #cjj molecules ( alcohol be tak51 !n x proves to be approximately #ajj p] c5t41 :i* is also f\nd to be ! case by exp]im5t4#bf #bf ,f ! above x foll[s t an excess ( acid %\ld influ5ce ! reaction l an excess ( alcohol4 ,x is 9 fact %[n by exp]im5t t if two molecules ( acetic acid be tak5 to "o molecule ( alcohol1 #hd p4c4 ( alcohol is e!rifi$4 ,if ) a l>ge prepond]ance ( acid or ( alcohol c]ta9 discrepancies are obs]v$1 _! cause mu/ be look$ = 9 ! incomplete correspond5ce ( ! conditions & ext]nal influ5ces4 ,b x is impossible to subject ! =mation ( salts to any process directly analog\s to t :i* is s conv5i5tly effect$ 9 e!rification4 ,_m ef=ts h1 h[ev]1 be5 made to solve ! problem ( ! measure ( reaction 9 ?is case also4 ,?us1 = example1 ,khi*9sky 7#ahff71 ,petrieff 7#ahhe71 & _m o!rs inve/igat$ ! di/ribution ( metals & haloid gr\ps 9 ! case ( "o metal & sev]al haloids tak5 9 excess1 z acids2 or conv]sely ) an excess ( bases1 ! di/ribution ( ^! bases ) relation to an acid2 9 cases :]e a portion ( ! sub/ances =ms a precipitate & a portion rema9s 9 solution4 ,b su* complex cases1 al?\gh !y 9 g5]al confirm ,b]?ollet's tea*+ 7= in/ance1 a solution ( silv] nitrate gives "s silv] oxide ) lead oxide1 & a solution ( nitrate ( lead precipitates "s lead oxide "u ! action ( silv] oxide1 z ,petrieff demon/rat$71 /ill1 ow+ to ! complexity ( ! ph5om5a 7= in/ance1 ! =mation ( basic & d\ble salts71 !y _c give simple results4 ,b mu* m in/ructive & complete are rese>*es l ^? made by ,pattison ,muir 7#ahgf71 :o took ! simple case ( ! precipitation ( calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o#c1 f ! mixture ( solutions ( calcium *loride & sodium or potassium c>bonate1 & f\nd 9 ?is case t n only 0 ! rate ( action 7= example1 9 ! case ( ,ca,cl#b ,na#b;,,co#c1 #ge p] c5t4 ( ,ca,c,o#c 0 precipitat$ 9 five m9utes1 #he p] c5t4 9 ?irty m9utes1 & #id p] c5t4 9 two days7 det]m9$ by ! temp]ature1 relative mass1 & am\nt ( wat] 7a l>ge mass ( wat] decreases ! rate71 b t ! limit ( decomposition 0 also dep5d5t on ^! influ5ces4 ,h[ev]1 ev5 9 rese>*es ( ?is k9d ! conditions ( reaction are complicat$ by ! non-uni=mity ( ! m$ia1 inasmu* z a portion ( ! sub/ance is obta9$ or rema9s 9 ! =m ( a precipitate1 s t ! sy/em is het]og5e\s4 ,! inve/igation ( d\ble sal9e decompositions (f]s _m difficulties :i* _c be consid]$ z yet entirely ov]come4 ,al?\gh _m ef=ts h long s9ce be5 made1 ! majority ( ! rese>*es 7 c>ri$ on 9 aque\s solutions1 & z wat] is itself a sal9e comp\nd & able to comb9e ) salts & ent] into d\ble decomposition ) !m1 su* reactions tak+ place 9 solutions 9 reality pres5t v complex cases4#bg ,9 ?is s5se ! reaction betwe5 alcohols & acids is mu* m simple1 & !re=e its significance 9 confirmation ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e is ( p>ticul> importance4 ,! only cases :i* c be comp>$ ) ^! reactions = simplicity are ^? ex*ange decompositions inve/igat$ by ,g4 ,g4 ,gu/avson1 :i* take place betwe5 ,c,cl#d & ,r,brn on ! "o h&1 & ,c,br#d & ,r,cln on ! o!r4 ,?is case is conv5i5t = inve/igation inasmu* z ! ,r,cln & ,r,brn tak5 7su* z ,b,cl#c1 ,si,cl#d1 ,ti,cl#d1 ,p,o,cl#c1 & ,sn,cl#d7 belong to ^? sub/ances :i* are decompos$ by wat]1 :il/ ,c,cl#d & ,c,br#d are n decompos$ by wat]2 & !re=e1 by heat+1 = in/ance1 a mixture ( ,c,cl#d ,si,br#d x is possible to arrive at a conclusion z to ! am\nt ( int]*ange by treat+ ! product ) wat]1 :i* decomposes ! ,si,br#d left un*ang$ & ! ,si,cl#d =m$ by ! ex*ange1 & !re=e by det]m9+ ! composition ( ! product act$ on by ! wat] x is possible to =m a conclusion z to ! am\nt ( decomposition4 ,! mixture 0 always =m$ ) equival5t quantities--= in/ance1 #d;,b,cl#c #c;,c,br#d4 ,x appe>$ t !re 0 no ex*ange :atev] on simple int]mixture1 b t x proce$$ sl[ly1 :5 ! mixture 0 heat$ 7= example1 ) ! mixture above m5tion$ at #abc #dhf p] c5t4 ( ,cl 0 replac$ by ,br aft] #ad days' heat+1 & #fhc p] c5t4 aft] #bh days1 & #ajab p] c5t4 :5 heat$ at #aej = #fj days74 ,a limit 0 always rea*$ :i* correspond$ ) t ( ! complem5tal sy/em2 9 ! giv5 in/ance ! sy/em #d;,b,br#c #c;,c,cl#d4 ,9 ?is la/ #hiig p] c5t4 ( brom9e 9 ! ,b,br#c 0 replac$ by *lor9e2 t is1 !re 7 obta9$ #hiig molecules ( ,b,cl#c & !re rema9$ #ajjb molecules ( ,b,br#c1 & !re=e ! same /ate ( equilibrium 0 rea*$ z t giv5 by ! sy/em #d;,b,cl#c #c;,c,br#d4 ,bo? sy/ems gave "o & ! same /ate ( equilibrium at ! limit1 :i* is 9 agreem5t ) ,b]?ollet's doctr9e4#bh #bg ,z an example two me?ods may be m5tion$1 ,?oms5's & ,o/wald's4 ,?oms5 7#ahfi7 appli$ a !rmo*emical me?od to exce$+ly dilute solutions )\t tak+ ! wat] into fur!r consid]ation4 ,he took solutions ( cau/ic soda conta9+ #ajj;,h#b,o p] ,na,h,o1 & sulphuric acid conta9+ #a_/b;,h#b,,s#d #ajj;,h#b,o4 ,9 ord] t ^! solutions may be mix$ 9 su* quantities t atomic proportions ( acid & alkali w\ld act1 = =ty grams ( cau/ic soda 7:i* answ]s to its equival5t7 !re %\ld be employ$ #di grams ( sulphuric acid1 & !n #ae1fhi heat units w\ld be evolv$4 ,if ! normal sodium sulphate s =m$ be mix$ ) n equival5ts ( sulphuric acid1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat is absorb$1 namely a quantity equal to 7n4#afej7_/7n #jh7 heat units4 ,an equival5t ( cau/ic soda1 9 comb9+ ) an equival5t ( nitric acid1 evolves #ac1fag units ( heat1 & ! augm5tation ( ! am\nt ( nitric acid entails an absorption ( heat = ea* equival5t equal to -#bg units2 s also 9 comb9+ ) hydro*loric acids #ac1gdj heat units are absorb$1 & = ea* equival5t ( hydro*loric acid beyond ?is am\nt !re are absorb$ -#cb heat units4 ,?oms5 mix$ ea* "o ( ?ree neutral salts1 sodium sulphate1 sodium *loride & sodium nitrate1 ) an acid :i* is n conta9$ 9 x2 = in/ance1 he mix$ a solution ( sodium sulphate ) a solution ( nitric acid & det]m9$ ! numb] ( heat units !n absorb$4 ,an absorption ( heat ensu$ because a normal salt 0 tak5 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & ! mixture ( all ! above normal salts ) acid produces an absorption ( heat4 ,! am\nt ( heat absorb$ enabl$ him to obta9 an insight into ! process tak+ place 9 ?is mixture1 = sulphuric acid add$ to sodium sulphate absorbs a consid]able quantity ( heat1 :il/ hydro*loric & nitric acids absorb a v small am\nt ( heat 9 ?is case4 ,by mix+ an equival5t ( sodium sulphate ) v>i\s numb]s ( equival5ts ( nitric acid1 ,?oms5 obs]v$ t ! am\nt ( heat absorb$ increas$ m & m z ! am\nt ( nitric acid 0 increas$2 ?us :5 ,,hno#c 0 tak5 p] #a_/b,na#b,,s#d1 #a1geb heat units 7 absorb$ p] equival5t ( soda conta9$ 9 ! sodium sulphate4 ,:5 twice z mu* nitric acid 0 tak51 #b1jbf heat units1 & :5 ?ree times z mu*1 #b1jej heat units 7 absorb$4 ,_h ! d\ble decomposition be5 complete 9 ! case :]e "o equival5t ( nitric acid 0 tak5 p] equival5t ( ,na#b,,s#d !n accord+ to calculation f simil> data !re %\ld h be5 absorb$ -#b1ihi units ( heat1 :ile 9 reality only -#a1geb units 7 absorb$4 ,h5ce ,?oms5 conclud$ t a displacem5t ( only ab\t two-?irds ( ! sulphuric acid _h tak5 place--t is1 ! ratio k 3 k = ! reaction #a_/b,na#b,,s#d ,,hno#c & ,na,n,o#c #a_/b;,h#b,,s#d is equal1 z = e!real salts1 to #d4 ,by tak+ ?is figure & admitt+ ! above supposition1 ,?oms5 f\nd t = all mixtures ( soda ) nitric acid1 & ( sodium nitrate ) sulphuric acid1 ! am\nts ( heat foll[$ ,guldb]g & ,waage's law2 t is1 ! limit ( decomposition rea*$ 0 great] ! great] ! mass ( acid add$4 ,! relation ( hydro*loric to sulphuric acid gave ! same results4 ,!re=e ! rese>*es ( ,?oms5 fully confirm ! hypo!ses ( ,guldb]g & ,waage & ! doctr9e ( ,b]?ollet4 ,?omson concludes 8 inve/igation ) ! words3 7a7 ',:5 equival5t quantities ( ,na,h,o1 ,,hno#c 7or ,h,cl7 & #a_/b;,h#b,,s#d react on "o ano!r 9 an aque\s solution1 !n two-?irds ( ! soda comb9es ) ! nitric & "o-?ird ) ! sulphuric acid2 7b7 ?is subdivision repeats itself1 :e!r ! soda be tak5 comb9$ ) nitric or ) sulphuric acid2 7c7 & !re=e nitric acid has d\ble ! t5d5cy to comb9e ) ! base t sulphuric acid has1 & h5ce 9 an aque\s solution x is a /rong] acid ?an ! latt]4' ',x is !re=e necess>y1' ,?oms5 aft]w>ds rem>ks1 'to h an expression indicat+ ! t5d5cy ( an acid = ! saturation ( bases4 ,?is idea _c be express$ by ! ^w aff9ity1 because by ?is t]m is mo/ (t5 und]/ood t =ce :i* x is necess>y to ov]come 9 ord] to decompose a sub/ance into its compon5t p>ts4 ,?is =ce %\ld !re=e be measur$ by ! am\nt ( "w or heat employ$ = ! decomposition ( ! sub/ance4 ,! above-m5tion$ ph5om5on is ( an entirely diff]5t nature1' & ,?oms5 introduces ! t]m avidity1 by :i* he designates ! t5d5cy ( acids = neutralisation4 ',!re=e ! avidity ( nitric acid ) respect to soda is twice z great z ! avidity ( sulphuric acid4 ,an exactly simil> result is obta9$ ) hydro*loric acid1 s t its avidity ) respect to soda is also d\ble ! avidity ( sulphuric acid4 ,exp]im5ts conduct$ ) o!r acids %[$ t n "o ( ! acids inve/igat$ _h s great an avidity z nitric acid2 "s _h a great] avidity ?an sulphuric acid1 o!rs less1 & 9 "s in/ances ! avidity #j4' ,! read] w naturally see cle>ly t ! pa? *os5 by ,?oms5 des]ves to be work$ out1 = 8 results conc]n important que/ions ( *emi/ry1 b great fai? _c be plac$ 9 ! d$uctions he has already arriv$ at1 because great complexity ( relations is to be se5 9 ! v me?od ( 8 inve/igation4 ,x is especially important to turn att5tion to ! fact t all ! reactions inve/igat$ are reactions ( d\ble decomposition4 ,9 !m ,a & ,b d n comb9e ) ,c & di/ribute !mselves accord+ to _! aff9ity or avidity = comb9ation1 b rev]sible reactions are induc$4 ,,mx & ,,ny give ,,my & ,,nx1 & conv]sely2 !re=e ! aff9ity or avidity = comb9ation is n "h directly det]m9$1 b only ! diff]5ce or relation ( ! aff9ities or avidities4 ,! aff9ity ( nitric acid n only = ! wat] ( con/itution1 b also = t s]v+ = solution1 is mu* less ?an t ( sulphuric acid4 ,?is is se5 f !rmal data4 ,! reaction ,n#b,o#e ,h#b,o gives #c1fjj heat units1 & ! solution ( ! resultant hydrate1 #b,,nho#c1 9 a l>ge excess ( wat] evolves #ad1ihf heat units4 ,! =mation ( ,,s#c ,h#b,o evolves #ba1cjh heat units1 & ! solution ( ,h#b,,s#d 9 an excess ( wat] #ag1hfj--t is1 sulphuric acid gives m heat 9 bo? cases4 ,! int]*ange betwe5 ,na#b,,s#d & #b;,,hno#c is n only accompli%$ at ! exp5se ( ! production ( ,na,n,o#c1 b also at ! exp5se ( ! =mation ( ,h#b,,s#d1 h5ce ! aff9ity ( sulphuric acid = wat] plays its "p 9 ! ph5om5a ( displacem5t4 ,!re=e 9 det]m9ations l ^? made by ,?oms5 ! wat] does n =m a m$ium :i* is pres5t )\t p>ticipat+ 9 ! process2 x also takes "p 9 ! reaction4 7,comp>e ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #ad47 ,:il/ reta9+ ess5tially ! me?ods ( ,?oms51 ,o/wald 7#ahgf7 det]m9$ ! v>iation ( ! sp4 gr4 7& aft]w>ds ( volume71 proce$+ 9 ! same dilute solutions1 on ! saturation ( acids by bases1 & 9 ! decomposition ( ! salts ( "o acid by ! o!r1 & arriv$ at conclusions ( j ! same nature z ,?oms5's4 ,o/wald's me?od w be cle>ly und]/ood f an example4 ,a solution ( cau/ic soda conta9+ an almo/ molecul> 7#dj grams7 weight p] litre _h a specific gravity ( #ajdjea4 ,! specific gravities ( solutions ( equal volume & equival5t composition ( sulphuric & nitric acids 7 #ajbigj & #ajcjhd respectively4 ,on mix+ ! solutions ( ,na,h,o & ,h#b,,s#d !re 0 =m$ a solution ( ,na#b,,s#d ( sp4 gr4 #ajbiei2 h5ce !re ensu$ a decrease ( specific gravity :i* we w t]m ,q1 equal to #ajdjea #ajbigj-b7ajbiei7 #jjaajc4 ,s also ! specific gravity aft] mixture ( ! solutions ( ,na,h,o & ,,hno#c 0 #ajbfcc1 & !re=e ,q #jjahfi4 ,:5 "o volume ( ! solution ( nitric acid 0 add$ to two volumes ( ! solution ( sodium sulphate1 a solution ( sp4 gr4 #ajbgha 0 obta9$1 & !re=e ! resultant decrease ( sp4 gr4 ,q#a #b7ajbiei7 #ajcjhd-c7ajbgha7 #jjjfei4 ,_h !re be5 no *emical reaction betwe5 ! salts1 !n accord+ to ,o/wald's reason+ ! specific gravity ( ! solutions w\ld n h *ang$1 & if ! nitric acid _h entirely displac$ ! sulphuric acid ,q#b w\ld be #jjahfi-jjaajc #jjjgff4 ,x is evid5t t a portion ( ! sulphuric acid 0 displac$ by ! nitric acid4 ,b ! measure ( displacem5t is n equal to ! ratio betwe5 ,q#a & ,q#b1 because a decrease ( sp4 gr4 also occurs on mix+ ! solution ( sodium sulphate ) sulphuric acid1 :il/ ! mix+ ( ! solutions ( sodium nitrate & nitric acid only produces a slight v>iation ( sp4 gr4 :i* falls )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error4 ,o/wald d$uces f simil> data ! same conclusions z ,?oms51 & ?us reconfirms ! =mula d$uc$ by ,guldb]g & ,waage1 & ! tea*+ ( ,b]?ollet4 ,! p>ticipation ( wat] is se5 /ill m cle>ly 9 ! me?ods adopt$ by ,o/wald ?an 9 ^? ( ,?oms51 because 9 ! saturation ( solutions ( acids by alkalis 7:i* ,krem]s1 ,re9hold1 & o!rs _h previ\sly /udi$7 !re is obs]v$1 n a contraction1 z might h be5 expect$ f ! quantity ( heat :i* is !n evolv$1 b an expansion1 ( volume 7a decrease ( specific gravity1 if we calculate z ,o/wald did 9 8 fir/ inve/igations74 ,?us by mix+ #a1hhj grams ( a solution ( sulphuric acid ( ! composition ,,s#c #ajj;,h#b,o1 occupy+ a volume ( #a1hae c4c41 ) a correspond+ quantity ( a solution #b7,na,h,o #e;,h#b,o71 ^: volume #a1gic c4c41 we obta9 n #c1fjh b #c1fcc c4c41 an expansion ( #be c4c4 p] gram molecule ( ! result+ salt1 ,na#b,,s#d4 ,x is ! same 9 o!r cases4 ,nitric & hydro*loric acids give a /ill great] expansion ?an sulphuric acid1 & potassium hydroxide ?an sodium hydroxide1 :il/ a solution ( ammonia gives a contraction4 ,! relation to wat] mu/ be consid]$ z ! cause ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,:5 sodium hydroxide & sulphuric acid dissolve 9 wat] !y develop heat & give a vigor\s contraction2 ! wat] is sep>at$ f su* solutions ) great difficulty4 ,aft] mutual saturation !y =m ! salt ,na#b,,s#d1 :i* reta9s ! wat] b feebly & evolves b little heat ) x1 i4e41 9 o!r words1 has little aff9ity = wat]4 ,9 ! saturation ( sulphuric acid by soda ! wat] is1 s to say1 displac$ f a /able comb9ation & passes into an un/able comb9ation2 h5ce an expansion 7decrease ( sp4 gr47 takes place4 ,x is n ! reaction ( ! acid on ! alkali1 b ! reaction ( wat]1 t produces ! ph5om5on by :i* ,o/wald desires to measure ! degree ( salt =mation4 ,! wat]1 :i* escap$ att5tion1 itself has aff9ity1 & influ5ces ^? ph5om5a :i* are be+ inve/igat$4 ,fur!rmore1 9 ! giv5 in/ance its influ5ce is v great because its mass is l>ge4 ,:5 x is n pres5t1 or only pres5t 9 small quantities1 ! attraction ( ! base to ! acid leads to contraction1 & n expansion4 ,na#b,o has a sp4 gr4 #bh1 h5ce its molecul> volume #bb2 ! sp4 gr4 ( ,,s#c is #ai & volume #da1 h5ce ! sum ( _! volumes is #fc2 = ,na#b,,s#d ! sp4 gr4 is #bfe & volume #ecf1 consequ5tly !re is a contraction ( #aj c4c4 p] gram-molecule ( salt4 ,! volume ( ,h#b,,s#d #ecc1 t ( #b,na,h,o #cgd2 !re is produc$ #b;,h#b,o1 volume #cf1 ,na#b,,s#d1 volume #ecf4 ,!re react #ijg c4c41 & on saturation !re result #hif c4c42 consequ5tly contraction aga9 ensues1 al?\gh less1 & al?\gh ?is reaction is "o ( sub/itution & n ( comb9ation4 ,consequ5tly ! ph5om5a /udi$ by ,o/wald dep5d b little on ! measure ( ! reaction ( ! salts1 & m on ! relations ( ! dissolv$ sub/ances to wat]4 ,9 sub/itutions1 = in/ance #b,na,n,o#c ,h#b,,s#d #b;,,hno#c ,na#b,,s#d1 ! volumes v>y b slightly3 9 ! above example !y are #b7chh7 #ecc & #b7dab7 #ecf2 h5ce #aca volumes act1 & #acf volumes are produc$4 ,x may be conclud$1 !re=e1 on ! basis ( :at has be5 said1 t on tak+ wat] into consid]ation ! ph5om5a /udi$ by ,?oms5 & ,o/wald are mu* m complex ?an !y at fir/ appe>1 & t ?is me?od c sc>cely lead to a correct int]pretation z to ! di/ribution ( acids betwe5 bases4 ,we may add t ,p4 ,d4 ,*r\/*eff 7#ahij7 introduc$ a new me?od = ?is class ( rese>*1 by inve/igat+ ! electro-conductivity ( solutions & _! mixtures1 & obta9$ rem>kable results 7= example1 t hydro*loric acid almo/ entirely displaces =mic acid & only #b_/c ( sulphuric acid71 b details ( ^! me?ods mu/ be look$ = 9 text-books ( !oretical *emi/ry4 #bh ,g4 ,g4 ,gu/avson's rese>*es1 :i* 7 conduct$ 9 ! laboratory ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,univ]sity 9 #ahga-gb1 are among ! fir/ 9 :i* ! measure ( ! aff9ity ( ! elem5ts = ! halog5s is recognis$ ) p]fect cle>ness 9 ! limit ( sub/itution & 9 ! rate ( reaction4 ,! rese>*es conduct$ by ,a4 ,l4 ,potilitz9 7( :i* m5tion w be made 9 ,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #ff7 9 ! same laboratory t\* on ano!r aspect ( ! same problem :i* has n yet made mu* progress1 not)/&+ its importance & ! fact t ! !oretical side ( ! subject 7?anks especially to ,guldb]g & ,van't ,h(f7 has s9ce be5 rapidly pu%$ =w>d4 ,if ! rese>*es ( ,gu/avson took acc\nt ( ! influ5ce ( mass1 & 7 m fully suppli$ ) data conc]n+ velocities & temp]atures1 !y w\ld be v important1 because ( ! great significance :i* ! case consid]$ has = ! und]/&+ ( d\ble sal9e decompositions 9 ! abs5ce ( wat]4 ,fur!rmore ,gu/avson %[$ t ! great] ! atomic weight ( ! elem5t 7,b1 ,si1 ,ti1 ,z1 ,sn7 comb9$ ) *lor9e ! great] ! am\nt ( *lor9e replac$ by brom9e by ! action ( ,c,br#d1 & consequ5tly ! less ! am\nt ( brom9e replac$ by *lor9e by ! action ( ,c,cl#d on brom9e comp\nds4 ,= in/ance1 = *lor9e comp\nds ! p]c5tage ( sub/itution 7at ! limit7 is-- ,b,cl#c ,si,cl#d ,ti,cl#d ,as,cl#c ,sn,cl#d #aja #abe #dcf #gah #gge ,x %\ld he obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ,?orpe1 on ! basis ( 8 exp]im5ts1 d5ies ! univ]sality ( ?is conclusion4 ,i may m5tion "o conclusion :i* x appe>s to me may be drawn f ! above-cit$ figures ( ,gu/avson1 if !y are subsequ5tly v]ifi$ ev5 )9 n>r[ limits4 ,if ,c,br#d be heat$ ) ,r,cl#d1 !n an ex*ange ( ! brom9e = *lor9e takes place4 ,b :at w\ld be ! result if x 7 mix$ ) ,c,cl#d8 ,judg+ by ! magnitude ( ! atomic weights1 ,b #aa1 ,c #ab1 ,si #bh1 ab\t #aa p4c4 ( ! *lor9e w\ld be replac$ by brom9e4 ,b to :at does ?is po9t8 ,i ?9k t ?is %[s ! exi/5ce ( a motion ( ! atoms 9 ! molecule4 ,! mixture ( ,c,cl#d & ,c,br#d does n rema9 9 a condition ( /atic equilibrium2 n only are ! molecules conta9$ 9 x 9 a /ate ( motion1 b also ! atoms 9 ! molecules1 & ! above figures %[ ! measure ( _! translation "u ^! conditions4 ,! brom9e 9 ! ,c,br#d is1 )9 ! limit1 sub/itut$ by ! *lor9e ( ! ,c,cl#d 9 a quantity ( ab\t #aa out ( #ajj3 t is1 a portion ( ! atoms ( brom9e previ\sly to ?is mom5t 9 comb9ation ) "o atom ( c>bon pass ov] to ! o!r atom ( c>bon1 & ! *lor9e passes ov] f ?is second atom ( c>bon to replace x4 ,!re=e1 also1 9 ! homog5e\s mass ,c,cl#d all ! atoms ( ,cl d n rema9 con/antly comb9$ ) ! same atoms ( c>bon1 & !re is on ex*ange ( atoms betwe5 diff]5t molecules 9 a homog5e\s m$ium also4 ,?is hypo!sis may 9 my op9ion expla9 c]ta9 ph5om5a ( dissociation1 b ?\gh m5tion+ x ,i d n consid] x wor? :ile to dwell ^u x4 ,i w only obs]ve t a simil> hypo!sis sugge/$ itself to me 9 my rese>*es on solutions1 & t ,pfaundl] enunciat$ an ess5tially simil> hypo!sis1 & 9 rec5t times a l view is beg9n+ to f9d fav\r ) respect to ! electrolysis ( sal9e solutions4 ,?us we n[ f9d ample confirmation f v>i\s qu>t]s = ! foll[+ rules ( ,b]?ollet1 apply+ !m to d\ble sal9e decompositions3 #a4 ,f two salts ,,mx & ,,ny conta9+ diff]5t haloids & metals !re result f _! reaction two o!rs1 ,,my & ,,nx1 b su* a sub/itution w n proce$ to ! end unless "o product passes f ! sph]e ( action4 #b4 ,?is reaction is limit$ by ! exi/5ce ( an equilibrium betwe5 ,,mx1 ,,ny1 ,,my1 & ,,nx1 because a rev]se reaction is q z possible z ! direct reaction4 #c4 ,?is limit is det]m9$ bo? by ! measure ( ! active aff9ities & by ! relative masses ( ! sub/ances z measur$ by ! numb] ( ! react+ molecules4 #d4 ,o!r conditions be+ con/ant1 ! *emical action is proportional to ! product ( ! *emical masses 9 action4#bi #bi ,b]?ollet's doctr9e is h>dly at all affect$ 9 pr9ciple by %[+ t !re are cases 9 :i* !re is no decomposition betwe5 salts1 because ! aff9ity may be s small t ev5 a l>ge mass w\ld /ill give no obs]vable displacem5ts4 ,! fundam5tal condition = ! application ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 z well z ,deville's doctr9e ( dissociation1 lies 9 ! rev]sibility ( reactions4 ,!re are practically irrev]sible reactions 7= in/ance1 ,c,cl#d #b;,h#b,o ,,co#b #d;,h,cl71 j z !re are non-volatile sub/ances4 ,b :ile accept+ ! doctr9e ( rev]sible reactions & reta9+ ! !ory ( ! evaporation ( liquids1 x is possible to admit ! exi/5ce ( non-volatile sub/ances1 & 9 j ! same way ( reactions1 )\t any visible con=mity to ,b]?ollet's doctr9e4 ,?is doctr9e evid5tly comes ne>] ?an ! opposite doctr9e ( ,b]gmann to solv+ ! complex problems ( *emical me*anics = ! successful solution ( :i* at ! pres5t "t ! mo/ valuable help is to be expect$ f ! work+ out ( data conc]n+ dissociation1 ! influ5ce ( mass1 & ! equilibrium & velocity ( reactions4 ,b x is evid5t t f ?is po9t ( view we mu/ n reg>d a solv5t z a non-p>ticipant space1 b mu/ take into consid]ation ! *emical reactions accompany+ solution1 or else br+ ab\t reactions )\t solution4 ,?us if ! salts ,,mx & ,,ny aft] reaction p>tly =m$ salts ,,my & ,,nx1 !n a /ate ( equilibrium is rea*$ & ! reaction ceases2 b if "o ( ! resultant comp\nds1 9 virtue ( its physical prop]ties1 passes f ! sph]e ( action ( ! rema9+ sub/ances1 !n ! reaction w cont9ue4 ,?is exit f ! sph]e ( action dep5ds on ! physical prop]ties ( ! sub/ance & on ! conditions "u :i* ! reaction takes place4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! salt ,,nx may1 9 ! case ( reaction betwe5 solutions1 sep>ate z a precipitate1 an insoluble sub/ance1 :ile ! o!r ?ree sub/ances rema9 9 solution1 or x may pass into vap\r1 & 9 ?is mann] also pass away f ! sph]e ( action ( ! rema9+ sub/ances4 ,let u n[ suppose t x passes away 9 "s =m or o!r f ! sph]e ( action ( ! rema9+ sub/ances--= in/ance1 t x is trans=m$ into a precipitate or vap\r--!n a fre% reaction w set 9 & a re-=mation ( ! salt ,,nx4 ,if ?is be remov$1 !n1 al?\gh ! quantity ( ! elem5ts ,n & ,x 9 ! mass w be dim9i%$1 /ill1 accord+ to ,b]?ollet's law1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( ,,nx %\ld be aga9 =m$4 ,:5 ?is sub/ance is aga9 =m$1 !n1 ow+ to its physical prop]ties1 x w aga9 pass away2 h5ce ! reaction1 9 consequ5ce ( ! physical prop]ties ( ! resultant sub/ances1 is able to proce$ to completion not)/&+ ! possible weakness ( ! attraction exi/+ betwe5 ! elem5ts ent]+ into ! composition ( ! resultant sub/ance ,,nx4 ,naturally1 if ! resultant sub/ance is =m$ ( elem5ts hav+ a consid]able degree ( aff9ity1 !n ! complete decomposition is consid]ably facilitat$4 ,su* a repres5tation ( ! modus op]&i ( *emical trans=mations is applicable ) great cle>ness to a numb] ( reactions /udi$ 9 *emi/ry1 &1 :at is especially important1 ! application ( ?is aspect ( ,b]?ollet's tea*+ does n 9 any way require ! det]m9ation ( ! measure ( aff9ity act+ betwe5 ! sub/ances pres5t4 ,= in/ance1 ! action ( ammonia on solutions ( salts2 ! displacem5t1 by its means1 ( basic hydrates insoluble 9 wat]2 ! sep>ation ( volatile nitric acid by ! aid ( non-volatile sulphuric acid1 z well z ! decomposition ( common salt by means ( sulphuric acid1 :5 gase\s hydro*loric acid is =m$--may be tak5 z examples ( reactions :i* proce$ to ! end1 inasmu* z "o ( ! resultant sub/ances is entirely remov$ f ! sph]e ( action1 b !y 9 no way indicate ! measure ( aff9ity4#cj #cj ,common salt n only ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) acids b also ) e salt4 ,h[ev]1 z cle>ly foll[s f ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 ?is =m ( decomposition w only 9 a few cases r5d] x possible = new metallic *lorides to be obta9$1 because ! decomposition w n be c>ri$ on to ! end unless ! metallic *loride =m$ sep>ates f ! mass ( ! active sub/ances4 ,?us1 = example1 if a solution ( common salt be mix$ ) a solution ( magnesium sulphate1 d\ble decomposition ensues1 b n completely1 because all ! sub/ances rema9 9 ! solution4 ,9 ?is case ! decomposition mu/ result 9 ! =mation ( sodium sulphate & magnesium *loride1 sub/ances :i* are soluble 9 wat]2 no?+ is dis5gag$1 & !re=e ! decomposition #b,na,cl ,mg,s,o#d ,mg,cl#b ,na#b,,s#d _c proce$ to ! end4 ,h[ev]1 ! sodium sulphate =m$ 9 ?is mann] may be sep>at$ by freez+ ! mixture4 ,! complete sep>ation ( ! sodium sulphate w naturally n take place1 ow+ to a portion ( ! salt rema9+ 9 ! solution4 ,nev]!less1 ?is k9d ( decomposition is made use ( = ! prep>ation ( sodium sulphate f ! residues left aft] ! evaporation ( sea-wat]1 :i* conta9 a mixture ( magnesium sulphate & common salt4 ,su* a mixture is f\nd at ,/assfurt 9 a natural =m4 ,x might be said t ?is =m ( d\ble decomposition is only accompli%$ ) a *ange ( temp]ature2 b ?is w\ld n be true1 z may be conclud$ f o!r analog\s cases4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 a solution ( copp] sulphate is ( a blue col\r1 :ile a solution ( copp] *loride is gre54 ,if we mix ! two salts toge!r ! gre5 t9t is di/9ctly visible1 s t by ?is means ! pres5ce ( ! copp] *loride 9 ! solution ( copp] sulphate is cle>ly se54 ,if n[ we add a solution ( common salt to a solution ( copp] sulphate1 a gre5 coloration is obta9$1 :i* indicates ! =mation ( copp] *loride4 ,9 ?is in/ance x is n sep>at$1 b x is imm$iately =m$ on ! addition ( common salt1 z x %\ld be accord+ to ,b]?ollet's doctr9e4 ,! complete =mation ( a metallic *loride f common salt c only occur1 judg+ f ! above1 :5 x sep>ates f ! sph]e ( action4 ,! salts ( silv] are in/ances 9 po9t1 because ! silv] *loride is insoluble 9 wat]2 & !re=e if we add a solution ( sodium *loride to a solution ( a silv] salt1 silv] *loride & ! sodium salt ( t acid :i* 0 9 ! silv] salt are =m$4 ,z a pro( t d\ble decompositions l ! above are actually accompli%$ 9 ! s5se ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 ! fact may be cit$ t common salt may be entirely decompos$ by nitric acid1 & nitre may be completely decompos$ by hydro*loric acid1 j z !y are decompos$ by sulphuric acid2 b ?is only takes place :51 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 an excess ( nitric acid is tak51 & 9 ! second in/ance1 an excess ( hydro*loric acid1 = a giv5 quantity ( ! sodium salt1 & :5 ! resultant acid passes (f4 ,if sodium *loride be put into a porcela9 evaporat+ bas91 nitric acid add$ to x1 & ! mixture heat$1 !n bo? hydro*loric & nitric acids are expell$ by ! heat4 ,?us ! nitric acid p>tially acts on ! sodium *loride1 b on heat+1 z bo? acids are volatile1 !y are bo? conv]t$ into vap\r2 & !re=e ! residue w conta9 a mixture ( a c]ta9 quantity ( ! sodium *loride tak5 & ( ! sodium nitrate =m$4 ,if a fre% quantity ( nitric acid be !n add$1 reaction w aga9 set 91 a c]ta9 portion ( hydro*loric acid is aga9 evolv$1 & on heat+ is expell$ toge!r ) nitric acid4 ,if ?is be repeat$ sev]al times1 x is possible to expel all ! hydro*loric acid1 & to obta9 sodium nitrate only 9 ! residue4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 we take sodium nitrate & add hydro*loric acid to x 9 an aque\s solution1 a c]ta9 quantity ( ! hydro*loric acid displaces a portion ( ! nitric acid1 & on heat+ ! excess ( hydro*loric acid passes away ) ! nitric acid =m$4 ,on repeat+ ?is process1 x is possible to displace ! nitric acid ) an excess ( hydro*loric acid1 j z x 0 possible to displace ! hydro*loric acid by an excess ( nitric acid4 ,! influ5ce ( ! mass ( ! sub/ance 9 action & ! influ5ce ( volatility are "h v di/9ctly se54 ,h5ce x may be affirm$ t sulphuric acid does n displace hydro*loric acid because ( an especially high degree ( aff9ity1 b t ?is reaction is only c>ri$ on to ! end because ! sulphuric acid is n volatile1 :il/ ! hydro*loric acid :i* is =m$ is volatile4 ,! prep>ation ( hydro*loric acid 9 ! laboratory & on a l>ge scale is bas$ ^u ^! data4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 an excess ( sulphuric acid is employ$ 9 ord] t ! reaction may proce$ easily at a l[ temp]ature1 :il/ on a l>ge scale1 :5 x is necess>y to economise e mat]ial1 equival5t quantities are tak5 9 ord] to obta9 ! normal salt ,na#b,,s#d & n ! acid salt1 :i* w\ld require twice z mu* acid4 ,! hydro*loric acid evolv$ is a gas :i* is v soluble 9 wat]4 ,x is mo/ frequ5tly us$ 9 practice 9 ?is /ate ( solution "u ! "n ( muriatic acid4#ca #ca ,! app>atus %[n 9 fig4 #df 7,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #ab7 is g5]ally employ$ = ! prep>ation ( small quantities ( hydro*loric acid4 ,common salt is plac$ 9 ! retort2 ! salt is g5]ally previ\sly fus$1 z x o!rwise fro?s & boils ov] 9 ! app>atus4 ,:5 ! app>atus is plac$ 9 ord] sulphuric acid mix$ ) wat] is p\r$ d[n ! ?i/le funnel into ! retort4 ,/rong sulphuric acid 7ab\t half z mu* aga9 z ! weight ( ! salt7 is usually tak51 & x is dilut$ ) a small quantity ( wat] 7half7 if x be desir$ to ret>d ! action1 z 9 us+ /rong sulphuric acid ! action imm$iately beg9s ) great vig\r4 ,! mixture1 at fir/ )\t ! aid ( heat & !n at a mod]ate temp]ature 79 a wat]-ba?71 evolves hydro*loric acid4 ,comm]cial hydro*loric acid conta9s _m impurities2 x is usually purifi$ by di/illation1 ! middle portions be+ collect$4 ,x is purifi$ f ars5ic by add+ ,fe,cl#b1 di/ill+1 & reject+ ! fir/ ?ird ( ! di/illate4 ,if free hydro*loric acid gas be requir$1 x is pass$ ?r\gh a vessel conta9+ /rong sulphuric acid to dry x1 & is collect$ ov] a m]cury ha?4 ,phosphoric anhydride absorbs hydrog5 *loride 7,bailey & ,f[l]1 #ahhh2 #b,p#b,o#c #c;,h,cl ,p,o,cl#c #c;,,hpo#c7 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & !re=e ! gas _c he dri$ by ?is sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,section ( a salt-cake furnace4 ,b1 pan 9 :i* ! sodium *loride & sulphuric acid are fir/ mix$ & heat$4 ,c1 muffle = ! ultimate decomposition4 ,9 *emical works ! decomposition ( sodium *loride by means ( sulphuric acid is c>ri$ on on a v l>ge scale1 *iefly ) a view to ! prep>ation ( normal sodium sulphate1 ! hydro*loric acid be+ a bye-product4#ca bis ,! furnace employ$ is t]m$ a salt cake furnace4 ,x is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fe1 & consi/s ( ! foll[+ two p>ts3 ! pan ,b & ! roa/] ,c1 or enclos$ space built up ( l>ge bricks a & envelop$ on all sides by ! smoke & flames f ! fire grate1 ,f4 ,! ultimate decomposition ( ! salt by ! sulphuric acid is accompli%$ 9 ! roa/]4 ,b ! fir/ decomposition ( sodium *loride by sulphuric acid does n require s high a temp]ature z ! ultimate decomposition1 & is !re=e c>ri$ on 9 ! front & cool] portion1 ,b1 ^: bottom is heat$ by gas flues4 ,:5 ! reaction 9 ?is portion ceases & ! evolution ( hydro*loric acid /ops1 !n ! mass1 :i* conta9s ab\t half ( ! sodium *loride /ill undecompos$1 & ! sulphuric acid 9 ! =m ( acid sodium sulphate1 is remov$ f ,b & ?r[n into ! roa/] ,c1 :]e ! action is complet$4 ,normal sodium sulphate1 :i* we %all aft]w>ds describe1 rema9s 9 ! roa/]4 ,x is employ$ bo? directly 9 ! manufacture ( glass1 & 9 ! prep>ation ( o!r sodium comp\nds--= in/ance1 9 ! prep>ation ( soda a%1 z w aft]w>ds be describ$4 ,= ! pres5t we w only turn our att5tion to ! hydro*loric acid evolv$ 9 ,b & ,c4 #ca bis ,9 *emical works :]e sulphuric acid ( #fj ,baum 7#bb p4c4 ( wat]7 is employ$1 #aag p>ts ( sodium *loride are tak5 to ab\t #abe p>ts ( sulphuric acid4 ,! hydro*loric acid gas evolv$ is subject$ to cond5sation by dissolv+ x 9 wat]4#cb ,if ! app>atus 9 :i* ! decomposition is accompli%$ 7 h]metically clos$1 & only pres5t$ "o outlet1 !n ! escape ( ! hydro*loric acid w\ld only proce$ ?r\gh ! escape pipe int5d$ = ?is purpose4 ,b z x is impossible to con/ruct a p]fectly h]metically clos$ furnace ( ?is k9d1 x is necess>y to increase ! draught by artificial means1 or to oblige ! hydro*loric acid gas to pass ?r\gh ^? arrangem5ts 9 :i* x is to be cond5s$4 ,?is is done by connect+ ! ends ( ! tubes ?r\gh :i* ! hydro*loric acid gas escapes f ! furnace ) high *imneys1 :]e a /rong draught is set up f ! combu/ion ( ! fuel4 ,?is causes a curr5t ( hydro*loric acid gas to pass ?r\gh ! absorb+ app>atus 9 a def9ite direction4 ,"h x enc\nt]s a curr5t ( wat] fl[+ 9 ! opposite direction1 by :i* x is absorb$4 ,x is n cu/om>y to cause ! acid to pass ?r\gh ! wat]1 b only to br+ x into contact ) ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! absorption app>atus consi/s ( l>ge e>!nw>e vessels hav+ f\r orifices1 two above & two lat]al ones 9 ! wide c5tral portion ( ea* vessel4 ,! upp] orifices s]ve = connect+ ! vessels toge!r1 & ! hydro*loric acid gas escap+ f ! furnace passes ?r\gh ^! tubes4 ,! wat] = absorb+ ! acid ent]s at ! upp]1 & fl[s out f ! l[]1 vessel1 pass+ ?r\gh ! lat]al orifices 9 ! vessels4 ,! wat] fl[s f ! *imney t[>ds ! furnace & x is !re=e evid5t t ! outfl[+ wat] w be ! mo/ saturat$ ) acid1 ( :i* x actually conta9s ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ,! absorption 9 ^! vessels is n complete4 ,! ultimate absorption ( ! hydro*loric acid is c>ri$ on 9 ! s-call$ coke t[]s1 :i* usually consi/ ( two adjac5t *imneys4 ,a lattice-"w ( bricks is laid on ! bottom ( ^! t[]s1 on :i* coke is pil$ up to ! top ( ! t[]4 ,wat]1 di/ribut+ itself ov] ! coke1 trickles d[n to ! bottom ( ! t[]1 & 9 s do+ absorbs ! hydro*loric acid gas ris+ upw>ds4 #cb ,z 9 works :i* treat common salt 9 ord] to obta9 sodium sulphate1 ! hydro*loric acid is sometimes held to be ( no value1 x might be all[$ to escape ) ! wa/e furnace gases into ! atmosph]e1 :i* w\ld greatly injure ! air ( ! neighb\rhood & de/roy all vegetation4 ,9 all c\ntries1 !re=e1 !re are laws =bidd+ ! factories to proce$ 9 ?is mann]1 & requir+ ! absorption ( ! hydro*loric acid by wat] at ! works !mselves1 & n p]mitt+ ! solution to be run into riv]s & /reams1 ^: wat]s x w\ld spoil4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! absorption ( hydro*loric acid pres5ts no p>ticul> difficulties 7! absorption ( sulphur\s acid is mu* m difficult7 because hydro*loric acid has a great aff9ity = wat] & gives a hydrate :i* boils above #ajj4 ,h5ce1 ev5 /eam & hot wat]1 z well z weak] solutions1 c be us$ = absorb+ ! acid4 ,h[ev]1 ,w>d] 7#ahhh7 %[$ t weak solutions ( composition ,h#b,o n,h,cl :5 boil$ 7! residue w be almo/ ,h,cl1#h;,h#b,o7 evolve 7n wat] b7 a solution ( ! composition ,h#b,o #dden#d;,h,cl2 = example1 on di/ill+ ,h,cl1#aj;,h#b,o1 ,h,cl1#bc;,h#b,o is fir/ obta9$ 9 ! di/illate4 ,z ! /r5g? ( ! residue becomes great]1 s also does t ( ! di/illate1 & !re=e 9 ord] to completely absorb hydro*loric acid x is necess>y 9 ! end to h rec\rse to wat]4 ,z 9 ,russia ! manufacture ( sodium sulphate f sodium *loride has n yet be5 suffici5tly develop$1 & z hydro*loric acid is requir$ = _m te*nical purposes 7= in/ance1 = ! prep>ation ( z9c *loride1 :i* is employ$ = soak+ railway sleep]s71 !re=e salt is (t5 treat$ ma9ly = ! manufacture ( hydro*loric acid4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t hydro*loric acid may be obta9$ f all o!r metallic *lorides4#cc ,x is frequ5tly =m$ 9 o!r reactions1 _m ( :i* we %all meet ) 9 ! fur!r c\rse ( ?is "w4 ,x is1 = in/ance1 =m$ by ! action ( wat] on sulphur *loride1 phosphorus *loride1 antimony *loride1 c4 #cc ,?us ! metallic *lorides1 :i* are decompos$ to a great] or less degree by wat]1 correspond ) feeble bases4 ,su* are1 = example1 ,mg,cl#b1 ,al,cl#c1 ,sb,cl#c1 ,bi,cl#c4 ,! decomposition ( magnesium *loride 7& also c>nallite7 by sulphuric acid proce$s at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 wat] decomposes ,mg,cl#b to ! ext5t ( #ej p4c4 :5 aid$ by heat1 & may be employ$ z a conv5i5t me?od = ! production ( hydro*loric acid4 ,hydro*loric acid is also produc$ by ! ignition ( c]ta9 metallic *lorides 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 especially ( ^? metals :i* are easily r$uc$ & difficultly oxidis$--= in/ance1 silv] *loride4 ,lead *loride1 :5 heat$ to r$ness 9 a curr5t ( /eam1 gives hydro*loric acid & lead oxide4 ,! multitude ( ! cases ( =mation ( hydro*loric acid are und]/ood f ! fact t x is a sub/ance :i* is comp>atively v /able1 resembl+ wat] 9 ?is respect1 & ev5 mo/ probably m /able ?an wat]1 because1 at a high temp]ature & ev5 "u ! action ( light1 *lor9e decomposes wat]1 ) ! =mation ( hydro*loric acid4 ,! comb9ation ( *lor9e & hydrog5 also proce$s by _! direct action1 z we %all aft]w>ds describe4 ,hydro*loric acid is a col\rless gas hav+ a pung5t suffocat+ od\r & an acid ta/e4 ,?is gas fumes 9 air & attracts moi/ure1 because x =ms vap\r conta9+ a comp\nd ( hydro*loric acid & wat]4 ,hydro*loric acid is liquefi$ by cold1 & "u a pressure ( #dj atmosph]es1 into a col\rless liquid ( sp4 gr4 #jijh at #j1cd boil+ po9t -#ce & absolute boil+ po9t #eb4 ,we h already se5 7,*apt] ,i47 t hydro*loric acid comb9es v en]getically ) wat]1 & 9 s do+ evolves a consid]able am\nt ( heat4 ,! solution saturat$ 9 ! cold atta9s a d5sity #abc4 ,on heat+ su* a solution conta9+ ab\t #de p>ts ( acid p] #ajj p>ts1 ! hydro*loric acid gas is expell$ ) only a slight admixture ( aque\s vap\r4 ,b x is impossible to entirely sep>ate ! :ole ( ! hydro*loric acid f ! wat] by ?is means1 z c\ld be done 9 ! case ( an ammoniacal solution4 ,! temp]ature requir$ = ! evolution ( ! gas rises & rea*es #aaj-aaa1 & aft] ?is rema9s con/ant--t is1 a solution hav+ a con/ant boil+ po9t is obta9$ 7z ) ,,hno#c71 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n 7,roscoe & ,dittm>7 pres5t a con/ant composition "u diff]5t pressures1 because ! hydrate is decompos$ 9 di/illation1 z is se5 f ! det]m9ations ( its vap\r d5sity 7,b9eau74 ,judg+ f ! facts 7#a7 t ) decrease ( ! pressure "u :i* ! di/illation proce$s ! solution ( con/ant boil+ po9t approa*es to a composition ( #be p4c4 ( hydro*loric acid1#ce 7#b7 t by pass+ a /ream ( dry air ?r\gh a solution ( hydro*loric acid !re is obta9$ 9 ! residue a solution :i* also approa*es to #be p4c4 ( acid1 & m ne>ly z ! temp]ature falls1#cf 7#c7 t _m ( ! prop]ties ( solutions ( hydro*loric acid v>y di/9ctly accord+ z !y conta9 m or less ?an #be p4c4 ( hydro*loric acid 7= in/ance1 antimoni\s sulphide gives hydrog5 sulphide ) a /rong] acid1 b is n act$ on by a weak] solution1 also a /rong] solution fumes 9 ! air1 c471 & 7#d7 t ! composition ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o corresponds ) #bebf p4c4 ,h,cl--judg+ f all ^! data1 & also f ! loss ( t5sion :i* occurs 9 ! comb9ation ( hydro*loric acid ) wat]1 x may be said t !y =m a def9ite hydrate ( ! composition ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o4 ,besides ?is hydrate !re exi/s also a cry/allo-hydrate1 ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o1#cg :i* is =m$ by ! absorption ( hydro*loric acid by a saturat$ solution at a temp]ature ( -#bc4 ,x cry/allises & melts at -#ah4ch #cd ,accord+ to ,ansdell 7#ahhj7 ! sp4 gr4 ( liquid hydro*loric acid at #j #jijh1 at #aafg #jhed1 at #bbg #jhjh1 at #cc #jgdh4 ,h5ce x is se5 t ! expansion ( ?is liquid is great] ?an t ( gases 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #cd74 #ce ,accord+ to ,roscoe & ,dittm> at a pressure ( ?ree atmosph]es ! solution ( con/ant boil+ po9t conta9s #ah p4c4 ( hydrog5 *loride1 & at a pressure ( "o-t5? atmosph]e #bc p4c4 ,! p]c5tage is int]m$iate at m$ium pressures4 #cf ,at #j #be p4c41 at #ajj #bjg p4c42 ,roscoe & ,dittm>4 #cg ,?is cry/allo-hydrate 7obta9$ by ,pi]re & ,pu*ot1 & inve/igat$ by ,roozeboom7 is analog\s to ,na,cl1#b;,h#b,o4 ,! cry/als ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o at -#bb h a specific gravity #adf2 ! vap\r t5sion 7"u dissociation7 ( ! solution hav+ a composition ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o at -#bd #gfj1 at -#ai #a1jaj1 at -#ah #a1jeg1 at -#ag #a1aab mm4 ( m]cury4 ,9 a solid /ate ! cry/allo-hydrate at -#agg has ! same t5sion1 :il/ at l[] temp]atures x is mu* less3 at -#bd ab\t #aej1 at -#ai ab\t #ehj mm4 ,a mixture ( fum+ hydro*loric acid ) sn[ r$uces ! temp]ature to -#ch4 ,if ano!r equival5t ( wat] be add$ to ! hydrate ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o at -#ah1 ! temp]ature ( solidification falls to -#be1 & ! hydrate ,h,cl1#c;,h#b,o is =m$ 7,pick]+1 #ahic74 #ch ,accord+ to ,roscoe at #j "o hundr$ grams ( wat] at a pressure p 79 millimetres ( m]cury7 dissolves-- p #ajj #bjj #cjj #ejj #gjj #a1jjj ,grams ,h,cl #feg #gjg #gch #ghb #hag #hef ,at a pressure ( #gfj millimetres & temp]ature t1 "o hundr$ grams ( wat] dissolves t #j #h #af #bd #dj #fj ,grams ,h,cl #hbe #ghc #gdb #gjj #fcc #efa ,roozeboom 7#ahhf7 %[$ t at t solutions conta9+ c grams ( hydrog5 *loride p] #ajj grams ( wat] may 7) ! v>iation ( ! pressure p7 be =m$ toge!r ) ! cry/allo-hydrate ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o3 t -#bhh -#ba -#ai -#ah -#agg c #hdb #hfh #ibf #ihd #ajad p -- #ccd #ehj #ijj #a1jgc mm4 ,! la/ comb9ation answ]s to ! melt$ cry/allo-hydrate ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o1 :i* splits up at temp]atures above -#agg1 & at a con/ant atmosph]ic pressure :5 !re are no cry/als-- t -#bd -#ba -#ah -#aj #j c #ajab #ihc #ieg #hih #hdb ,f ^! data x is se5 t ! hydrate ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o c exi/ 9 a liquid /ate1 :i* is n ! case = ! hydrates ( c>bonic & sulphur\s anhydrides1 *lor9e1 c4 ,accord+ to ,m>ignac1 ! specific heat c ( a solution ,h,cl m,h#b,o 7at ab\t #cj1 tak+ ! specific heat ( wat] #a7 is giv5 by ! expression-- ,c7#cfe m#ah7 #ahm - #bhci #adj_/m - #bfh_/m#b if m be n less ?an #fbe4 ,= example1 = ,h,cl #be;,h#b,o1 ,c #jhgg4 ,accord+ to ,?oms5's data1 ! am\nt ( heat ,q1 express$ 9 ?\s&s ( calories1 evolv$ 9 ! solution ( #cfe grams ( gase\s hydro*loric acid 9 m,h#b,o or #ahm grams ( wat] is equal to-- m #b #d #aj #ej #djj ,q #aad #adc #afb #aga #agc ,9 ^! quantities ! lat5t heat ( liquefaction is includ$1 :i* mu/ be tak5 z #e-i ?\s& calories p] molecul> quantity ( hydrog5 *loride4 ,! rese>*es ( ,s*eff] 7#ahhh7 on ! rate ( diffusion 79 wat]7 ( solutions ( hydro*loric acid %[ t ! coeffici5t ( diffusion k decreases ) ! am\nt ( wat] n1 if ! composition ( ! solution is ,h,cl1n,h#b,o at #j3-- n #e #fi #ih #ad #bga #abie k #bca #bjh #ahf #afg #aeb #aci ,x also appe>s t /rong solutions diffuse m rapidly into dilute solutions ?an into wat]4 ,! mean specific gravities at #ae1 tak+ wat] at its maximum d5sity 7#d7 z #aj1jjj1 = solutions conta9+ p p] c5t4 ( hydrog5 *loride are-- p ,s p ,s #e #aj1bdb #be #aa1bff #aj #aj1dij #cj #aa1ebb #ae #aj1gdd #ce #aa1ggc #bj #aa1jja #dj #aa1iig ,! =mula ,s #i1iiaf #didcp #jjegap#b1 up to p #bebf1 :i* answ]s to ! hydrate ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o m5tion$ above1 gives ! specific gravity4 ,above ?is p]c5tage ,s #i1ghea #feajp-#jbdjp#b4 ,! rise ( specific gravity ) an increase ( p]c5tage 7or ! diff]5tial ds_/dp7 rea*es a maximum at ab\t #be p4c4#ci ,! int]m$iate solution1 ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o1 is fur!r di/+ui%$ by ! fact t ! v>iation ( ! specific gravity ) ! v>iation ( temp]ature is a con/ant quantity1 s t ! specific gravity ( ?is solution is equal to #aa1cebg7a-jjjjddgt71 :]e #jjjjddg is ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( ! solution4#dj ,9 ! case ( m dilute solutions1 z ) wat]1 ! specific gravity p] #a 7or ! diff]5tial ds_/dt7 rises ) a rise ( temp]ature4#da p #j #e #aj #ae #bj ,s#j - ,s#ae #gb #bc #ch #eb #fd ,s#ae - ,s#cj #cda #db #ej #ei #fg ,:il/ = solutions :i* conta9 a great] proportion ( hydrog5 *loride ?an ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o1 ^! coeffici5ts decrease ) a rise ( temp]ature2 = in/ance1 = #cj p4c4 ( hydrog5 *loride ,s#j-,s#ae #hh & ,s#ae-,s#cj #hg 7accord+ to ,m>ignac's data74 ,9 ! case ( ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o ^! diff]5ces are con/ant1 & equal #gf4 #ci ,if x be admitt$ t ! maximum ( ! diff]5tial corresponds ) ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o1 !n x might be ?\ght t ! specific gravity is express$ by a p>abola ( ! ?ird ord]2 b su* an admission does n give expressions 9 accordance ) fact4 ,?is is all m fully consid]$ 9 my "w m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ai4 #dj ,z 9 wat]1 ! coeffici5t ( expansion 7or ! quantity k 9 ! expression ,st ,s#j-k,s#jt1 or ,vt #a_/7a-kt77 atta9s a magnitude #jjjjddg at ab\t #dh1 x might be ?\ght t at #dh all solutions ( hydro*loric acid w\ld h ! same coeffici5t ( expansion1 b 9 reality ?is is n ! case4 ,at l[ & at ! ord9>y temp]atures ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( aque\s solutions is great] ?an t ( wat]1 & increases ) ! am\nt ( sub/ance dissolv$4 #da ,! figures cit$ above may s]ve = ! direct det]m9ation ( t v>iation ( ! specific gravity ( solutions ( hydro*loric acid ) ! temp]ature4 ,?us1 kn[+ t at #ae ! specific gravity ( a #aj p4c4 solution ( hydro*loric acid #aj1dib1 we f9d t at t x #aj1ecj-t7#bac #jjbgt74 ,:5ce also may be f\nd ! coeffici5t ( expansion 7,note #dj74 ,?us ! =mation ( two def9ite hydrates1 ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o & ,h,cl1#f;,h#b,o1 betwe5 hydro*loric acid & wat] may be accept$ ^u ! basis ( _m facts4 ,b bo? ( !m1 if !y occur 9 a liquid /ate1 dissociate ) great facility into hydrog5 *loride & wat]1 & are completely decompos$ :5 di/ill$4 ,all solutions ( hydro*loric acid pres5t ! prop]ties ( an en]getic acid4 ,!y n only trans=m blue vegetable col\r+ matt] into r$1 & dis5gage c>bonic acid gas f c>bonates1 c41 b !y also entirely saturate bases1 ev5 su* en]getic ones z pota%1 lime1 c4 ,9 a dry /ate1 h[ev]1 hydro*loric acid does n alt] vegetable dyes1 & does n effect _m d\ble decompositions :i* easily take place 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,?is is expla9$ by ! fact t ! gaso-ela/ic /ate ( ! hydro*loric acid prev5ts its ent]+ into reaction4 ,h[ev]1 inc&esc5t iron1 z9c1 sodium1 c41 act on gase\s hydro*loric acid1 displac+ ! hydrog5 & leav+ half a volume ( hydrog5 = ea* volume ( hydro*loric acid gas2 ?is reaction may s]ve = det]m9+ ! composition ( hydro*loric acid4 ,comb9$ ) wat] hydro*loric acid acts z an acid mu* resembl+ nitric acid#db 9 its en]gy & 9 _m ( its reactions2 h[ev]1 ! latt] conta9s oxyg51 :i* is dis5gag$ ) great ease1 & s v frequ5tly acts z an oxidis]1 :i* hydro*loric acid is n capable ( do+4 ,! majority ( metals 7ev5 ^? :i* d n displace ! ,h f ,h#b,,s#d1 b :i*1 l copp]1 decompose x to ! limit ( ,,s#b7 displace ! hydrog5 f hydro*loric acid4 ,?us hydrog5 is dis5gag$ by ! action ( z9c1 & ev5 ( copp] & t94#db bis ,only a few metals )/& its action2 = example1 gold & plat9um4 ,lead 9 compact masses is only act$ on feebly1 because ! lead *loride =m$ is insoluble & prev5ts ! fur!r action ( ! acid on ! metal4 ,! same is to be rem>k$ ) respect to ! feeble action ( hydro*loric acid on m]cury & silv]1 because ! comp\nds ( ^! metals1 ,ag,cl & ,hg,cl1 are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,metallic *lorides are n only =m$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on ! metals1 b also by _m o!r me?ods2 = in/ance1 by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on ! c>bonates1 oxides1 & hydroxides1 & also by ! action ( *lor9e on metals & c]ta9 ( _! comp\nds4 ,metallic *lorides h a composition ,m,cl2 = example1 ,na,cl1 ,k,cl1 ,ag,cl1 ,hg,cl1 if ! metal replaces hydrog5 equival5t = equival5t1 or1 z x is said1 if x be monatomic or unival5t4 ,9 ! case ( bival5t metals1 !y h a composition ,m,cl#b2 = example1 ,ca,cl#b1 ,cu,cl#b1 ,pb,cl#b1 ,hg,cl#b1 ,fe,cl#b1 ,mn,cl#b4 ,! composition ( ! haloid salts ( o!r metals pres5ts a fur!r v>iation2 = example1 ,al,cl#c1 ,pt,cl#d1 c4 ,_m metals1 = in/ance ,fe1 give sev]al degrees ( comb9ation ) *lor9e 7,fe,cl#b1 ,fe,cl#c7 z ) hydrog54 ,9 _! composition ! metallic *lorides diff] f ! correspond+ oxides1 9 t ! ,o is replac$ by ,cl#b1 z %\ld foll[ f ! law ( sub/itution1 because oxyg5 gives ,,oh#b1 & is consequ5tly bival5t1 :il/ *lor9e =ms ,h,cl1 & is !re=e unival5t4 ,s1 = in/ance1 f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o1 corresponds ) f]r\s *loride1 ,fe,cl#b1 & ! oxide ,fe#b,o#c ) f]ric *loride1 :i* is also se5 f ! orig9 ( ^! comp\nds1 = ,fe,cl#b is obta9$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on f]r\s oxide or c>bonate & ,fe,cl#c by its action on f]ric oxide4 ,9 a ^w1 all ! typical prop]ties ( acids are %[n by hydro*loric acid1 & all ! typical prop]ties ( salts 9 ! metallic *lorides d]iv$ f x4 ,acids & salts compos$ l ,h,cl & ,mn,cl#bm )\t any oxyg5 be> ! "n ( haloid salts2 = in/ance1 ,h,cl is a haloid acid1 ,na,cl a haloid salt1 *lor9e a halog54 ,! capacity ( hydro*loric acid to give1 by its action on bases1 ,,mo1 a metallic *loride1 ,m,cl#b1 & wat]1 is limit$ at high temp]atures by ! rev]se reaction ,m,cl#b ,h#b,o ,,mo #b;,h,cl1 & ! m pron\nc$ are ! basic prop]ties ( ,,mo ! feebl] is ! rev]se action1 :ile = feebl] bases su* z ,al#b,o#c1 ,mg,o1 c41 ?is rev]se reaction proce$s ) ease4 ,metallic *lorides correspond+ ) ! p]oxides ei!r d n exi/1 or are easily decompos$ ) ! dis5gagem5t ( *lor9e4 ,?us !re is no comp\nd ,ba,cl#d correspond+ ) ! p]oxide ,ba,o#b4 ,metallic *lorides hav+ ! g5]al aspect ( salts1 l _! repres5tative sodium *loride1 are1 z a rule1 easily fusible1 m s ?an ! oxides 7= in/ance1 ,ca,o is infusible at a furnace heat1 :il/ ,ca,cl#b is easily fus$7 & _m o!r salts4 ,"u ! action ( heat _m *lorides are m /able ?an ! oxides1 "s c ev5 be conv]t$ into vap\r2 ?us corrosive sublimate1 ,hg,cl#b1 is p>ticul>ly volatile1 :il/ ! oxide ,hg,o decomposes at a r$ heat4 ,silv] *loride1 ,ag,cl1 is fusible & is decompos$ ) difficulty1 :il/ ,ag#b,o is easily decompos$4 ,! majority ( ! metallic *lorides are soluble 9 wat]1 b silv] *loride1 cupr\s *loride1 m]cur\s *loride1 & lead *loride are sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 & are !re=e easily obta9$ z precipitates :5 a solution ( ! salts ( ^! metals is mix$ ) a solution ( any *loride or ev5 ) hydro*loric acid4 ,! metal conta9$ 9 a haloid salt may (t5 be replac$ by ano!r metal1 or ev5 by hydrog51 j z is ! case ) a metal 9 an oxide4 ,?us copp] displaces m]cury f a solution ( m]curic *loride1 ,hg,cl#b ,cu ,cu,cl#b ,hg1 & hydrog5 at a r$ heat displaces silv] f silv] *loride1 #b;,ag,cl ,h#b ,ag#b #b;,h,cl4 ,^!1 & a :ole s]ies ( simil> reactions1 =m ! typical me?ods ( d\ble sal9e decompositions4 ,! measure ( decomposition & ! conditions "u :i* reactions ( d\ble sal9e decompositions proce$ 9 "o or 9 ! o!r direction are det]m9$ by ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nds :i* take "p 9 ! reaction1 & ( ^? capable ( =mation at ! temp]ature1 c41 z 0 %[n 9 ! prec$+ portions ( ?is *apt]1 & z w be frequ5tly f\nd h]eaft]4 #db ,?us1 = in/ance1 ) feeble bases !y evolve 9 dilute solutions 7,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #ec7 almo/ equal am\nts ( heat2 _! relation to sulphuric acid is q id5tical4 ,!y bo? =m fum+ solutions z well z hydrates2 !y bo? =m solutions ( con/ant boil+ po9t4 #db bis ,pybalk9 7#ahia7 f\nd t copp] beg9s to dis5gage hydrog5 at #ajj1 & t *loride ( copp] beg9s to give up its *lor9e to hydrog5 gas at #bcj2 = silv] ^! temp]atures are #aag & #bfj--t is1 !re is less diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,if hydro*loric acid ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) basic oxides & _! hydrates1 ?is is only due to its acid prop]ties2 & = ! same reason x r>ely ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) acids & acid anhydrides4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 x comb9es ) ! latt]1 z1 = in/ance1 ) ! anhydride ( sulphuric acid1 =m+ ! comp\nd ,,s#c;,h,cl2 & 9 o!r cases x acts on acids1 giv+ up its hydrog5 to _! oxyg5 & =m+ *lor9e1 z w be se5 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,hydro*loric acid1 z may already be conclud$ f ! composition ( its molecule1 belongs to ! monobasic acids1 & does n1 !re=e1 give true acid salts 7l ,h,na,s,o#d or ,h,na,c,o#c72 nev]!less _m metallic *lorides1 =m$ f p[]ful bases1 are capable ( comb9+ ) hydro*loric acid1 j z !y comb9e ) wat]1 or ) ammonia1 or z !y give d\ble salts4 ,comp\nds h long be5 kn[n ( hydro*loric acid ) auric1 plat9ic1 & antimoni\s *lorides1 & o!r simil> metallic *lorides correspond+ ) v feeble bases4 ,b ,b]!lot1 ,engel1 & o!rs h %[n t ! capacity ( ,h,cl = comb9+ ) ,mn,clm is mu* m frequ5tly enc\nt]$ ?an 0 previ\sly suppos$4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 dry hydro*loric acid :5 pass$ into a solution ( z9c *loride 7conta9+ an excess ( ! salt7 gives 9 ! cold 7#j7 a comp\nd ,h,cl1,zn,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature ,h,cl1#b,zn,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1 j z x is able at l[ temp]atures to =m ! cry/allo-hydrate ,zn,cl#b1c;,h#b,o 7,engel1 #ahhf74 ,simil> comp\nds are obta9$ ) ,cd,cl#b1;,cu,cl#b1 ,hg,cl#b1;,fe#b;,cl#f1 c4 7,b]!lot1 ,ditte1 ,*eltz(f1 ,la*9(f1 & o!rs74 ,^! comp\nds ) hydro*loric acid are g5]ally m soluble 9 wat] ?an ! metallic *lorides !mselves1 s t :il/ hydro*loric acid decreases ! solubility ( ,mn,clm1 correspond+ ) en]getic bases 7= in/ance1 sodium or b>ium *lorides71 x increases ! solubility ( ! metallic *lorides correspond+ ) feeble bases 7cadmium *loride1 f]ric *loride1 c47 ,silv] *loride1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 is soluble 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,hydro*loric acid also comb9es ) c]ta9 unsaturat$ hydroc>bons 7= in/ance1 ) turp5t9e1 ,c#aj;,h#af1b;,h,cl7 & _! d]ivatives4 ,sal-ammoniac1 or ammonia hydro*loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl ,,nh#c1;,h,cl1 also belongs to ?is class ( comp\nds4#dc ,if hydrog5 *loride gas be mix$ ) ammonia gas a solid comp\nd consi/+ ( equal volumes ( ea* is imm$iately =m$4 ,! same comp\nd is obta9$ on mix+ solutions ( ! two gases4 ,x is also produc$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on ammonium c>bonate4 ,sal-ammoniac is usually prep>$1 9 practice1 by ! la/ me?od4#dd ,! specific gravity ( sal-ammoniac is #aee4 ,we h already se5 7,*apt] ,,vi47 t sal-ammoniac1 l all o!r ammonium salts1 easily decomposes2 = in/ance1 by volatilisation ) alkalis1 & ev5 p>tially :5 its solution is boil$4 ,! o!r prop]ties & reactions ( sal-ammoniac1 especially 9 solution1 fully recall ^? already m5tion$ 9 speak+ ( sodium *loride4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ) silv] nitrate x gives a precipitate ( silv] *loride2 ) sulphuric acid x gives hydro*loric acid & ammonium sulphate1 & x =ms d\ble salts ) c]ta9 metallic *lorides & o!r salts4#de #dc ,:5 an unsaturat$ hydroc>bon1 or1 9 g5]al1 an unsaturat$ comp\nd1 assimilates to itself ! molecules ,cl#b1 ,h,cl1 ,,s#c1 ,h#b,,s#d1 c41 ! cause ( ! reaction is mo/ simple4 ,z nitrog51 besides ! type ,,nx#c to :i* ,,nh#c1 belongs1 gives comp\nds ( ! type ,,nx#e--;= example1 ,,no#b7,,oh7--! =mation ( ! salts ( ammonium %\ld be und]/ood 9 ?is way4 ,,nh#c gives ,,nh#d;,cl because ,,nx#c is capable ( giv+ ,,nx#e4 ,b z saturat$ comp\nds--= in/ance1 ,,s#c1;,h#b,o1 ,na,cl1 c4--are also capable ( comb9ation ev5 betwe5 !mselves1 x is impossible to d5y ! capacity ( ,h,cl also = comb9ation4 ,,s#c comb9es ) ,h#b,o1 & also ) ,h,cl & ! unsaturat$ hydroc>bons4 ,x is impossible to recognise ! di/9ction =m]ly s\ght to be e/abli%$ betwe5 atomic & molecul> comp\nds1 & reg>d+1 = in/ance1 ,p,cl#c z an atomic comp\nd & ,p,cl#e z a molecul> "o1 only because x easily splits up into molecules ,p,cl#c & ,cl#b4 #dd ,sal-ammoniac is prep>$ f ammonium c>bonate1 obta9$ 9 ! dry di/illation ( nitrog5\s sub/ances 7,*apt] ,,vi471 by saturat+ ! resultant solution ) hydro*loric acid4 ,a solution ( sal-ammoniac is ?us produc$1 :i* is evaporat$1 & 9 ! residue a mass is obta9$ conta9+ a mixture ( v>i\s o!r1 especially t>ry1 products ( dry di/illation4 ,! sal-ammoniac is g5]ally purifi$ by sublimation4 ,= ?is purpose iron vessels cov]$ ) hemisph]ical metallic cov]s are employ$1 or else simply clay crucibles cov]$ by o!r crucibles4 ,! upp] portion1 or head1 ( ! app>atus ( ?is k9d w h a l[] temp]ature ?an ! l[] portion1 :i* is "u ! direct action ( ! flame4 ,! sal-ammoniac volatilises :5 heat$1 & settles on ! cool] portion ( ! app>atus4 ,x is ?us fre$ f _m impurities1 & is obta9$ z a cry/all9e cru/1 g5]ally sev]al c5timetres ?ick1 9 :i* =m x is commonly sold4 ,! solubility ( sal-ammoniac rises rapidly ) ! temp]ature3 at #j1 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve ab\t #bh p>ts ( ,,nh#d;,cl1 at #ej ab\t #ej p>ts1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature ab\t #ce p>ts4 ,?is is sometimes tak5 advantage ( = sep>at+ ,,nh#d;,cl f solutions ( o!r salts4 #de ,! solubility ( sal-ammoniac 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] 7accord+ to ,allu>d7 is-- #j #aj #bj #cj #dj #fj #hj #ajj #aaj #bhdj #cbdh #cgbh #dagb #df #ee #fd #gc #gg ,a saturat$ solution boils at #aaeh4 ,! specific gravity at #ae_/d ( solutions ( sal-ammoniac 7wat] #d #aj1jjj7 #i1iiaf-cabfp-#jjhep#b1 :]e p is ! am\nt by weight ( ammonium *loride 9 #ajj p>ts ( solution4 ,) ! majority ( salts ! diff]5tial ds_/dp increases1 b "h x decreases ) ! increase ( p4 ,= 7unlike ! sodium & potassium salts7 a solution ( ! alkali plus a solution ( acid occupy a great] volume ?an t ( ! resultant ammonium salt4 ,9 ! solution ( solid ammonium *loride a contraction1 & n expansion1 g5]ally takes place4 ,x may fur!r be rem>k$ t solutions ( sal-ammoniac h an acid reaction ev5 :5 prep>$ f ! salt rema9+ aft] prolong$ wa%+ ( ! sublim$ salt ) wat] 7,a4 ,/*]bak(f74 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,halog5s3 ,,*lor9e1 ,,brom9e1 ,,iod9e1 ,,& ,,fluor9e ,al?\gh hydro*loric acid1 l wat]1 is "o ( ! mo/ /able sub/ances1 x is nev]!less decompos$ n only by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t1#a b also by a high temp]ature4 ,sa9te-,claire ,deville %[$ t decomposition already occurs at #a1cjj1 because a cold tube 7z ) ,,co1 ,*apt] ,,ix47 cov]$ ) an amalgam ( silv] absorbs *lor9e f hydro*loric acid 9 a r$-hot tube1 & ! escap+ gas conta9s hydrog54 ,v4 ,mey] & ,lang] 7#ahhe7 obs]v$ ! decomposition ( hydro*loric acid at #a1fij 9 a plat9um vessel2 ! decomposition 9 ?is in/ance 0 prov$ n only f ! fact t hydrog5 diffus$ ?r\gh ! plat9um 7p4 #adb71 ow+ to :i* ! volume 0 dim9i%$1 b also f *lor9e be+ obta9$ 9 ! residue 7! hydrog5 *loride 0 mix$ ) nitrog571 :i* lib]at$ iod9e f potassium iodide4#b ,! usual me?od = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e consi/s 9 ! ab/raction ( ! hydrog5 by oxidis+ ag5ts4#b bis #a ,! decomposition ( fus$ sodium *loride by an electric curr5t has be5 propos$ 9 ,am]ica & ,russia 7,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f7 z a means = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e & sodium4 ,a /rong solution ( hydro*loric acid is decompos$ into equal volumes ( *lor9e & hydrog5 by ! action ( an electric curr5t4 ,if sodium *loride & lead be melt$ 9 a crucible1 ! =m] be+ connect$ ) ! ca?ode & a c>bon anode imm]s$ 9 ! lead1 !n ! lead dissolves sodium & *lor9e is dis5gag$ z gas4 ,?is electrolytic me?od has n yet be5 practis$ on a l>ge scale1 probably because gase\s *lor9e has n _m applications1 & because ( ! difficulty !re is 9 deal+ ) x4 #b ,to obta9 s high a temp]ature 7at :i* ! be/ k9ds ( porcela9 s(t57 ,lang] & ,mey] employ$ ! d5se graphitoidal c>bon f gas retorts1 & a p[]ful bla/4 ,!y det]m9$ ! temp]ature by ! alt]ation ( ! volume ( nitrog5 9 ! plat9um vessel1 = ?is gas does n p]meate ?r\gh plat9um1 & is unalt]$ by heat4 #b bis ,! acid prop]ties ( hydro*loric acid 7 kn[n :5 ,lavoisi] po9t$ out ! =mation ( acids by ! comb9ation ( wat] ) ! oxides ( ! non-metals1 & !re=e !re 0 reason = ?9k+ t hydro*loric acid 0 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( wat] ) ! oxide ( "s elem5t4 ,h5ce :5 ,s*eele obta9$ *lor9e by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on manganese p]oxide he consid]$ x z ! acid conta9$ 9 common salt4 ,:5 x became kn[n t *lor9e gives hydro*loric acid ) hydrog51 ,lavoisi] & ,b]?ollet suppos$ x to be a comp\nd ) oxyg5 ( an anhydride conta9$ 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,!y suppos$ t hydro*loric acid conta9$ wat] & ! oxide ( a p>ticul> radicle1 & t *lor9e 0 a high] degree ( oxidation ( ?is radicle muvias 7f ! ,lat9 neme ( hydro*loric acid1 acidum muriaticum74 ,x 0 only 9 #ahaa t ,gay-,lussac & ,?n>d 9 ,france & ,davy 9 ,engl& arriv$ at ! conclusion t ! sub/ance obta9$ by ,s*eele does n conta9 oxyg51 nor "u any conditions give wat] ) hydrog51 & t !re is no wat] 9 hydro*loric acid gas1 & !re=e conclud$ t *lor9e is an elem5t>y sub/ance4 ,!y nam$ x '*lor9e' f ! ,greek ^w ,greek3 *lros1 signify+ a gre5 col\r1 because ( ! peculi> col\r by :i* ?is gas is *>act]is$4 ,an aque\s solution ( hydro*loric acid is g5]ally employ$ = t he evolution ( *lor9e4 ,! hydrog5 has to be ab/ract$ f ! hydro*loric acid4 ,?is is accompli%$ by ne>ly all oxidis+ sub/ances1 & especially by ^? :i* are able to evolve oxyg5 at a r$ heat 7besides bases1 su* z m]cury & silv] oxides1 :i* are able to give salts ) hydrog5 *loride72 = example1 manganese p]oxide1 potassium *lorate1 *romic acid1 c4 ,! decomposition ess5tially consi/s 9 ! oxyg5 ( ! oxidis+ sub/ance displac+ ! *lor9e f #b;,h,cl1 =m+ wat]1 ,h#b,o1 & sett+ ! *lor9e free1 #b;,h,cl ,o 7dis5gag$ by ! oxidis+ sub/ances7 ,h#b,o ,cl#b4 ,ev5 nitric acid p>tially produces a l reaction2 b z we %all aft]w>ds see its action is m complicat$1 & x is !re=e n suitable = ! prep>ation ( pure *lor9e4#c ,b o!r oxidis+ sub/ances :i* d n give any o!r volatile products ) hydro*loric acid may be employ$ = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$3 potassium *lorate1 acid potassium *romate1 sodium manganate1 manganese p]oxide1 c4 ,manganese p]oxide is commonly employ$ 9 ! laboratory1 & on a l>ge scale1 = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e4 ,! *emical process 9 ?is case may be repres5t$ z foll[s3 an ex*ange takes place betwe5 #d;,h,cl & ,mn,o#b1 9 :i* ! manganese takes ! place ( ! f\r atoms ( hydrog51 or ! *lor9e & oxyg5 ex*ange places--t is1 ,mn,cl#d & #b;,h#b,o are produc$4 ,! *lor9e comp\nd1 ,mn,cl#d1 obta9$ is v un/able2 x splits up into *lor9e1 :i* z a gas passes f ! sph]e ( action1 & a l[] comp\nd conta9+ less *lor9e ?an ! sub/ance fir/ =m$1 :i* rema9s 9 ! app>atus 9 :i* ! mixture is heat$1 ,mn,cl#d ,mn,cl#b ,cl#b4c bis ,! action ( hydro*loric acid requires a temp]ature ( ab\t #ajj4 ,9 ! laboratory ! prep>ation ( *lor9e is c>ri$ on 9 flasks1 heat$ ov] a wat]-ba?1 by act+ on manganese p]oxide ) hydro*loric acid or a mixture ( common salt & sulphuric acid#d & wa%+ ! gas ) wat] to remove hydro*loric acid4#e ,*lor9e _c be collect$ ov] m]cury1 because x comb9es ) x z ) _m o!r metals1 & x is soluble 9 wat]2 h[ev]1 x is b slightly soluble 9 hot wat] or br9e4 ,ow+ to its great weight1 *lor9e may be directly collect$ 9 a dry vessel by c>ry+ ! gas-conduct+ tube d[n to ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,! *lor9e w lie 9 a heavy lay] at ! bottom ( ! vessel1 displace ! air1 & ! ext5t to :i* x fills ! vessel may be foll[$ by its col\r4#f #c ,h[ev]1 nitric acid has be5 propos$ z a means = obta9+ *lor9e1 b by me?ods :i* h ! drawback ( be+ v complicat$ #c bis ,?is repres5tation ( ! process ( ! reaction is mo/ natural4 ,h[ev]1 ?is decomposition is g5]ally repres5t$ z if *lor9e gave only "o degree ( comb9ation ) manganese1 ,mn,cl#b1 & !re=e directly reacts 9 ! foll[+ mann]--,mn,o#b #d;,h,cl ,mn,cl#b #b;,h#b,o ,cl#b1 9 :i* case x is suppos$ t manganese p]oxide1 ,mn,o#b1 breaks up1 z x 71 into mangan\s oxide1 ,mn,o & oxyg51 bo? ( :i* react ) hydro*loric acid1 ! mangan\s oxide act+ ^u ,h,cl z a base1 giv+ ,mn,cl#b & at ! same "t #b;,h,cl ,o ,h#b,o ,cl#b4 ,9 reality1 a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydro*loric acid does give *lor9e at a r$ heat1 & ?is reaction may also take place at ! mom5t ( its evolution 9 ?is case4 ,all ! oxides ( manganese 7,mn#b,o#c1 ,mn,o#b1 ,mn,o#c1 ,mn#b,o#g71 ) ! exception ( mangan\s oxide1 ,mn,o1 dis5gage *lor9e f hydro*loric acid1 because mangan\s *loride1 ,mn,cl#b1 is ! only comp\nd ( *lor9e & manganese :i* exi/s z a /able comp\nd1 all ! high] *lorides ( manganese be+ un/able & evolv+ *lor9e4 ,h5ce we "h take note ( two sep>ate *anges3 7#a7 an ex*ange betwe5 oxyg5 & *lor9e1 & 7#b7 ! in/ability ( ! high] *lor9e comp\nds4 ,z 7accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution7 9 ! sub/itution ( oxyg5 by *lor9e1 ,cl#b takes ! place ( ,o1 ! *lor9e comp\nds w conta9 m atoms ?an ! correspond+ oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t c]ta9 ( ! *lor9e comp\nds correspond+ ) oxyg5 comp\nds d n exi/1 or if !y are =m$ are v un/able4 ,& fur!rmore1 an atom ( *lor9e is heavi] ?an an atom ( oxyg51 & !re=e a giv5 elem5t w\ld h to reta9 a l>ge mass ( *lor9e if 9 ! high] oxides ! oxyg5 7 replac$ by *lor9e4 ,= ?is reason equival5t comp\nds ( *lor9e d n exi/ = all oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,_m ( ! =m] are imm$iately decompos$1 :5 =m$1 ) ! evolution ( *lor9e4 ,f ?is x is evid5t t !re %\ld exi/ su* *lor9e comp\nds z w\ld evolve *lor9e z p]oxides evolve oxyg51 & inde$ a l>ge numb] ( su* comp\nds are kn[n4 ,among/ !m may be m5tion$ antimony p5ta*loride1 ,sb,cl#e1 :i* splits up into *lor9e & antimony tri*loride :5 heat$4 ,cupric *loride1 correspond+ ) copp] oxide1 & hav+ a composition ,cu,cl#b1 simil> to ,cu,o1 :5 heat$ p>ts ) half its *lor9e1 j z b>ium p]oxide evolves half its oxyg54 ,?is me?od may ev5 be tak5 advantage ( = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e & cupr\s *loride1 ,cu,cl4 ,! latt] attracts oxyg5 f ! atmosph]e1 & 9 s do+ is conv]t$ f a col\rless sub/ance into a gre5 comp\nd ^: composition is ,cu#b;,cl#b,o4 ,) hydro*loric acid ?is sub/ance gives cupric *loride 7,cu#b;,cl#b,o #b;,h,cl ,h#b,o #b;,cu,cl#b71 :i* has only to be dri$ & heat$ 9 ord] aga9 to obta9 *lor9e4 ,?us1 9 solution1 & at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ! comp\nd ,cu,cl#b is /able1 b :5 heat$ x splits up4 ,on ?is prop]ty is f\nd$ ,deacon's process = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e f hydro*loric acid ) ! aid ( air & copp] salts1 by pass+ a mixture ( air & hydro*loric acid at ab\t #ddj ov] bricks saturat$ ) a solution ( a copp] salt 7a mixture ( solutions ( ,cu,s,o#d & ,na#b,,s#d74 ,cu,cl#b is !n =m$ by ! d\ble decomposition ( ! salt ( copp] & ! hydro*loric acid2 ! ,cu,cl#b lib]ates *lor9e1 & ! ,cu,cl =ms ,cu#b;,cl#b,o ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 :i* aga9 gives ,cu,cl#b ) #b;,h,cl1 & s on4 ,magnesium *loride1 :i* is obta9$ f sea-wat]1 c>nallite1 c41 may s]ve n only z a means = ! prep>ation ( hydro*loric acid1 b also ( *lor9e1 because its basic salt 7magnesium oxy*loride7 :5 heat$ 9 ! air gives magnesium oxide & *lor9e 7,weldon-,pe*9ey's process1 #ahhh74 ,*lor9e is n[ prep>$ on a l>ge scale by ?is me?od4 ,sev]al new me?ods bas$ ^u ?is reaction h be5 propos$ = procur+ *lor9e f ! bye-products ( o!r *emical processes4 ,?us1 ,lyte & ,tatt>s 7#ahia7 obta9$ up to #fg p4c4 ( *lor9e f ,ca,cl#b 9 ?is mann]4 ,a solution ( ,ca,cl#b1 conta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( common salt1 is evaporat$ & oxide ( magnesium add$ to x4 ,:5 ! solution atta9s a d5sity ( #abdde 7at #ae71 x is treat$ ) c>bonic acid1 :i* precipitates c>bonate ( calcium1 :ile *loride ( magnesium rema9s 9 solution4 ,aft] add+ ammonium *loride1 ! solution is evaporat$ to dryness & ! d\ble *loride ( magnesium & ammonium =m$ is ignit$1 :i* drives (f ! *loride ( ammonium4 ,! *loride ( magnesium :i* rema9s beh9d is us$ 9 ! ,weldon-,pe*9ey process4 ,! ,de ,wilde-,rey*l] 7#ahib7 process = ! manufacture ( *lor9e consi/s 9 pass+ alt]nate curr5ts ( hot air & hydro*loric acid gas ?r\gh a cyl9d] conta9+ a mixture ( ! *lorides ( magnesium & manganese4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( sulphate ( magnesium :i* does n p>ticipate 9 any way 9 ! reaction1 is add$ to ! mixture to prev5t its fus+4 ,! reactions may be express$ by ! foll[+ equations3 7#a7 #c,mg,cl#b #c,mn,cl#b #h,o ,mg#c,mn#c,o#h #ab;,cl2 7#b7 ,mg#c,mn#c,o#h #af;,h,cl #c,mg,cl#b #c,mn,cl#b #h;,h#b,o #d;,cl4 ,z nitric acid is able to take up ! hydrog5 f hydro*loric acid1 a heat$ mixture ( ^! acids is also employ$ = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e4 ,! resultant mixture ( *lor9e & l[] oxides ( nitrog5 is mix$ ) air & /eam :i* reg5]ates ! ,,hno#c1 :ile ! *lor9e rema9s z a gas toge!r ) nitrog51 9 :i* =m x is q capable ( blea*+1 =m+ *loride ( lime1 c4 ,besides ^!1 ,solvay & ,mond's me?ods ( prep>+ *lor9e mu/ be m5tion$4 ,! fir/ is bas$ ^u ! reaction ,ca,cl#b ,si,o#b ,o7air7 ,ca,o,si,o#b ,cl#b1 ! second on ! action ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air 7heat$7 ^u ,mg,cl#b 7& c]ta9 simil> *lorides7 ,mg,cl#b ,o ,mg,o ,cl#b ,! rema9+ ,mg,o is treat$ ) sal-ammoniac to re-=m ,mg,cl#b 7,mg,o #b,,nh#d;,cl ,mg,cl#b ,h#b,o #b,,nh#c7 & ! resultant ,,nh#c aga9 conv]t$ into sal-ammoniac1 s t hydro*loric acid is ! only sub/ance consum$4 ,! latt] processes h n yet f\nd mu* application4 #d ,! foll[+ proportions are accord+ly tak5 by weight3 #e p>ts ( p[d]$ manganese p]oxide1 #aa p>ts ( salt 7be/ fus$1 to prev5t its fro?+71 & #ad p>ts ( sulphuric acid previ\sly mix$ ) an equal volume ( wat]4 ,! mixture is heat$ 9 a salt ba?1 s z to obta9 a temp]ature above #ajj4 ,! corks 9 ! app>atus mu/ be soak$ 9 p>aff9 7o!rwise !y are corrod$ by ! *lor9e71 & black india-rubb] tub+ sme>$ ) vasel9e mu/ be us$1 & n vulcanis$ rubb] 7:i* conta9s sulphur1 & becomes brittle "u ! action ( ! *lor9e74 ,! reaction :i* proce$s may be express$ ?us3 ,mn,o#b #b,na,cl #b;,h#b,,s#d ,mn,s,o#d ,na#b,,s#d #b;,h#b,o ,cl#b4 ,! me?od ( prep>ation ( ,cl#b f manganese p]oxide & hydro*loric acid 0 discov]$ by ,s*eele1 & f sodium *loride by ,b]?ollet4 #e ,! reaction ( hydro*loric acid ^u blea*+ p[d] gives *lor9e )\t ! aid ( heat1 ,ca,cl#b,o#b #d;,h,cl ,ca,cl#b #b;,h#b,o #b;,cl#b & is !re=e also us$ = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e4 ,?is reaction is v viol5t if all ! acid be add$ at once2 x %\ld be p\r$ 9 drop by drop 7,m]m1 ,kmm]]74 ,c4 ,w9kl] propos$ to mix blea*+ p[d] ) "o qu>t] ( burnt & p[d]$ gypsum1 & hav+ damp$ ! mixture ) wat]1 to press & cut x up into cubes & dry at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,^! cubes c be us$ = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e 9 ! same app>atus z t us$ = ! evolution ( hydrog5 & c>bonic anhydride--! dis5gagem5t ( ! *lor9e proce$s uni=mly4 ,a mixture ( potassium di*romate & hydro*loric acid evolves *lor9e p]fectly free f oxyg5 7,v4 ,mey] & ,lang]74 #f ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,clay retort = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e on a l>ge scale4 ,*lor9e is manufactur$ on a l>ge scale f manganese p]oxide & hydro*loric acid4 ,x is mo/ conv5i5tly prep>$ 9 ! app>atus %[n 9 fig4 #ff1 :i* consi/s ( a ?ree-neck$ e>!nw>e vessel ^: c5tral orifice is ! l>ge/4 ,a clay or lead funnel1 furni%$ ) a numb] ( orifices1 is plac$ 9 ! c5tral wide neck ( ! vessel4 ,r\ghly-gr\nd lumps ( natural manganese p]oxide are plac$ 9 ! funnel1 :i* is !n clos$ by ! cov] ,n1 & lut$ ) clay4 ,"o orifice is clos$ by a clay /opp]1 & is us$ = ! introduction ( ! hydro*loric acid & )drawal ( ! residues4 ,! *lor9e dis5gag$ passes along a lead5 gas-conduct+ tube plac$ 9 ! o!r orifice4 ,a r[ ( ^! vessels is surr\nd$ by a wat]-ba? to ensure _! be+ uni=mly heat$4 ,manganese *loride is f\nd 9 ! residue4 ,9 ,weldon's process lime is add$ to ! acid solution ( manganese *loride4 ,a d\ble decomposition takes place1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( mangan\s hydroxide & calcium *loride4 ,:5 ! insoluble mangan\s hydroxide has settl$1 a fur!r excess ( milk ( lime is add$ 7to make a mixture #b,mn7,,oh7#b ,ca,o x,ca,cl#b1 :i* is f\nd to be ! be/ proportion1 judg+ f exp]im5t71 & !n air is =c$ ?r\gh ! mixture4 ,! hydroxide is ?us conv]t$ f a col\rless to a br[n sub/ance1 conta9+ p]oxide1 ,mn,o#b1 & oxide ( manganese1 ,mn#b,o#c4 ,?is is due to ! mangan\s oxide absorb+ oxyg5 f ! air4 ,"u ! action ( hydro*loric acid ?is mixture evolves *lor9e1 because ( all ! comp\nds ( *lor9e & manganese ! *loride ,mn,cl#b is ! only "o :i* is /able 7see ,note #c74 ,?us "o & ! same mass ( manganese may be repeat$ly us$ = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e4 ,! same result is atta9$ 9 o!r ways4 ,if mangan\s oxide be subject$ to ! action ( oxides ( nitrog5 & air 7,coleman's process71 !n manganese nitrate is =m$1 :i* at a r$ heat gives oxides ( nitrog5 7:i* are aga9 us$ 9 ! process7 & manganese p]oxide1 :i* is ?us r5ew$ = ! fre% evolution ( *lor9e4 ,*lor9e is a gas ( a yell[i% gre5 col\r1 & has a v suffocat+ & *>act]i/ic od\r4 ,on l[]+ ! temp]ature to -#ej or increas+ ! pressure to six atmosph]es 7at #j7 *lor9e cond5ses#g into a liquid :i* has a yell[i%-gre5 col\r1 a d5sity ( #ac1 & boils at -#cd4 ,! d5sity & atomic weight ( *lor9e is #cee times great] ?an t ( hydrog51 h5ce ! molecule conta9s ,cl#bh4 ,at #j "o volume ( wat] dissolves ab\t #a-a_/b volume ( *lor9e1 at #aj ab\t #c volumes1 at #ej aga9 #a-a_/b volume4#i ,su* a solution ( *lor9e is t]m$ '*lor9e wat]2' & is employ$ 9 a dilut$ =m 9 m$ic9e & z a laboratory reag5t4 ,x is prep>$ by pass+ *lor9e ?r\gh a s]ies ( ,w\lfe's bottles or into an inv]t$ retort fill$ ) wat]4 ,"u ! action ( light1 *lor9e wat] gives oxyg5 & hydro*loric acid4 ,at #j a saturat$ solution ( *lor9e yields a cry/allo-hydrate1 ,cl#b1h;,h#b,o1 :i* easily splits up into *lor9e & wat] :5 heat$1 s t if x be seal$ up 9 a tube & heat$ to #ce1 two lay]s ( liquid are =m$--a l[] /ratum ( *lor9e conta9+ a small quantity ( wat]1 & an upp] /ratum ( wat] conta9+ a small quantity ( *lor9e4#aj #g ,davy & ,f>aday liquefi$ *lor9e 9 #ahbc by heat+ ! cry/allo-hydrate ,cl#bh;,h#b,o 9 a b5t tube 7z ) ,,nh#c71 surr\nd$ by w>m wat]1 :ile ! o!r end ( ! tube 0 imm]s$ 9 a freez+ mixture4 ,meselan cond5s$ *lor9e 9 fre%ly-burnt *>coal 7plac$ 9 a glass tube71 :i* :5 cold absorbs an equal weight ( *lor9e4 ,! tube 0 !n fus$ up1 ! b5t end cool$1 & ! *>coal heat$1 by :i* means ! *lor9e 0 expell$ f ! *>coal1 & ! pressure increas$4 #h ,judg+ f ,ludwig's obs]vations 7#ahfh71 & f ! fact t ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( gases increases ) _! molecul> weight 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bf1 = hydrog5 #jcfg1 c>bonic anhydride #jcgc1 hydrog5 bromide #jchf71 x might be expect$ t ! expansion ( *lor9e w\ld be great] ?an t ( air or ( ! gases compos+ x4 ,v4 ,mey] & ,lang] 7#ahhe7 hav+ rem>k$ t at #a1djj ! d5sity ( *lor9e 7tak+ its expansion z equal to t ( nitrog57 #bi1 consid] t ! molecules ( *lor9e split up & p>tially give molecules ,cl1 b x might be ma9ta9$ t ! decrease 9 d5sity obs]v$ only dep5ds on ! increase ( ! coeffici5t ( expansion4 #i ,inve/igations on ! solubility ( *lor9e 9 wat] 7! solutions evolve all _! *lor9e on boil+ & pass+ air ?r\gh !m7 %[ _m diff]5t peculi>ities4 ,fir/ ,gay-,lussac1 & subsequ5tly ,pel\ze1 det]m9$ t ! solubility increases betwe5 #j & #h-aj 7f #a-a_/b to #b vols4 ( *lor9e p] #ajj vols4 ( wat] at #j up to #c to #b-c_/d at #aj74 ,9 ! foll[+ note we %all see t ?is is n due to ! break+-up ( ! hydrate at ab\t #h to #aj1 b to its =mation bel[ #i4 ,roscoe obs]v$ an increase 9 ! solubility ( *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( hydrog5--ev5 9 ! d>k4 ,b]!lot det]m9$ an increase ( solubility ) ! progress ( "t4 ,s*nbe9 & o!rs suppose t *lor9e acts on wat]1 =m+ hypo*lor\s & hypo*loric acids1 7,h,cl,o ,h,cl74 ,! equilibrium betwe5 *lor9e & /eam z gases & betwe5 wat]1 liquid *lor9e1 ice1 & ! solid cry/allo-hydrate ( *lor9e is evid5tly v complex4 ,gibbs1 ,guldb]g 7#ahgj7 & o!rs gave a !ory = simil> /ates ( equilibrium1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds develop$ by ,roozeboom 7#ahhg71 b x w\ld be inopportune "h to ent] into its details4 ,x w be suffici5t 9 ! fir/ place to m5tion t !re is n[ no d\bt 7accord+ to ! !ory ( heat1 & ! direct obs]vations ( ,ramsay & ,"y7 t ! vap\r t5sions at "o & ! same temp]ature are diff]5t = ! liquid & solid /ates ( sub/ances2 secondly1 to call att5tion to ! foll[+ note2 &1 ?irdly1 to /ate t1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! cry/allo-hydrate1 wat] betwe5 ,o#bd & #bhg 7:5 ! hydrate & a solution may occur simultane\sly7 dissolves a diff]5t am\nt ( *lor9e ?an x does 9 ! abs5ce ( ! cry/allo-hydrate4 #aj ,accord+ to ,f>aday's data ! hydrate ( *lor9e conta9s ,cl#b1aj;,h#b,o1 b ,roozeboom 7#ahhe7 %[$ t x is poor] 9 wat] & ,cl#b1h;,h#b,o4 ,at fir/ small1 almo/ col\rless1 cry/als are obta9$1 b !y gradually =m 7if ! temp]ature be bel[ _! critical po9t #bhg1 above :i* !y d n exi/7 l>ge yell[ cry/als1 l ^? ( potassium *romate4 ,! specific gravity is #abc4 ,! hydrate is =m$ if !re be m *lor9e 9 a solution ?an x is able to dissolve "u ! dissociation pressure correspond+ ) a giv5 temp]ature4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( ! hydrate ! p]c5tage am\nt ( *lor9e at #j #je1 at #i #ji1 & at #bj #ahb4 ,at temp]atures bel[ #i ! solubility 7det]m9$ by ,gay-,lussac & ,pel\ze1 see ,note #i7 is dep5d5t on ! =mation ( ! hydrate2 :il/ at high] temp]atures "u ! ord9>y pressure ! hydrate _c be =m$1 & ! solubility ( *lor9e falls1 z x does = all gases 7,*apt] ,i474 ,if ! cry/allo-hydrate is n =m$1 !n bel[ #i ! solubility foll[s ! same rule 7#f #ajg p4c4 ,cl1 #i #jie p4c474 ,accord+ to ,roozeboom1 ! *lor9e evolv$ by ! hydrate pres5ts ! foll[+ t5sions ( dissociation3 at #j #bdi mm41 at #d #cih1 at #h #fbj1 at #aj #gig1 at #ad #a1djj mm4 ,9 ?is case a portion ( ! cry/allo-hydrate rema9s solid4 ,at #if ! t5sion ( dissociation is equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,at a high] pressure ! cry/allo-hydrate may =m at temp]atures above #i up to #bhg1 :5 ! vap\r t5sion ( ! hydrate equals ! t5sion ( ! *lor9e4 ,x is evid5t t ! equilibrium :i* is e/abli%$ is on ! "o h& a case ( a complex het]og5e\s sy/em1 & on ! o!r h& a case ( ! solution ( solid & gase\s sub/ances 9 wat]4 ,! cry/allo-hydrate or *lor9e wat] mu/ be kept 9 ! d>k1 or ! access ( light be prev5t$ by col\r$ glass1 o!rwise oxyg5 is evolv$ & hydro*loric acid =m$4 ,*lor9e explodes ) hydrog51 if a mixture ( equal volumes be expos$ to ! direct action ( ! sun's rays#aa or br\ght into contact ) spongy plat9um1 or a /rongly heat$ sub/ance1 or :5 subject$ to ! action ( an electric sp>k4 ,! explosion 9 ?is case takes place = exactly ! same reasons--i4e4 ! evolution ( heat & expansion ( ! resultant product--z 9 ! case ( detonat+ gas 7,*apt] ,,iii47 ,diffus$ light acts 9 ! same way1 b sl[ly1 :il/ direct sunlight causes an explosion4#ab ,! hydro*loric acid gas produc$ by ! reaction ( *lor9e on hydrog5 occupies 7at ! orig9al temp]ature & pressure7 a volume equal to ! sum ( ! orig9al volumes2 t is1 a reaction ( sub/itution "h takes place3 ,h#b ,cl#b ,h,cl ,h,cl4 ,9 ?is reaction tw5ty-two ?\s& heat units are evolv$ = "o "p by weight #a gram ( hydrog54#ac #aa ,! *emical action ( light on a mixture ( *lor9e & hydrog5 0 discov]$ by ,gay-,lussac & ,?n>d 7#ahji74 ,x has be5 inve/igat$ by _m savants1 & especially by ,drap]1 ,buns51 & ,roscoe4 ,electric or magnesium light1 or ! light emitt$ by ! combu/ion ( c>bon bisulphide 9 nitric oxide1 & act9ic light 9 g5]al1 acts 9 ! same mann] z sunlight1 9 proportion to its int5sity4 ,at temp]atures bel[ -#ab light no long] br+s ab\t reaction1 or at all ev5ts does n give an explosion4 ,x 0 long suppos$ t *lor9e t _h be5 subject$ to ! action ( light 0 aft]w>ds able to act on hydrog5 9 ! d>k1 b x 0 %[n t ?is only takes place ) moi/ *lor9e1 & dep5ds on ! =mation ( oxides ( *lor9e4 ,! pres5ce ( =eign gases1 & ev5 ( excess ( *lor9e or ( hydrog51 v mu* enfeebles ! explosion1 & !re=e ! exp]im5t is conduct$ ) a detonat+ mixture prep>$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t on a /rong solution 7sp4 gr4 #aae7 ( hydro*loric acid1 9 :i* case ! wat] is n decompos$--t is1 no oxyg5 becomes mix$ ) ! *lor9e4 #ab ,! quantity ( *lor9e & hydrog5 :i* comb9e is proportional to ! int5sity ( ! light--n ( all ! rays1 b only ^? s-t]m$ *emical 7act9ic7 rays :i* produce *emical action4 ,h5ce a mixture ( *lor9e & hydrog51 :5 expos$ to ! action ( light 9 vessels ( kn[n capacity & surface1 may be employ$ z an act9omet]--t is1 z a means = e/imat+ ! int5sity ( ! *emical rays1 ! influ5ce ( ! heat rays be+ previ\sly de/roy$1 :i* may be done by pass+ ! rays ?r\gh wat]4 ,inve/igations ( ?is k9d 7photo-*emical7 %[$ t *emical action is *iefly limit$ to ! violet end ( ! spectrum1 & t ev5 ! invisible ultra-violet rays produce ?is action4 ,a col\rless gas flame conta9s no *emically active rays2 ! flame col\r$ gre5 by a salt ( copp] ev9ces m *emical action ?an ! col\rless flame1 b ! flame brightly col\r$ yell[ by salts ( sodium has no m *emical action ?an t ( ! col\rless flame4 ,z ! *emical action ( light becomes evid5t 9 plants1 photography1 ! blea*+ ( tissues1 & ! fad+ ( col\rs 9 ! sunlight1 & z a means = /udy+ ! ph5om5on is giv5 9 ! reaction ( *lor9e on hydrog51 ?is subject has be5 ! mo/ fully inve/igat$ 9 photo-*emi/ry4 ,! rese>*es ( ,buns5 & ,roscoe 9 ! fifties & sixties are ! mo/ complete 9 ?is respect4 ,_! act9omet] conta9s hydrog5 & *lor9e1 & is surr\nd$ by a solution ( *lor9e 9 wat]4 ,! hydro*loric acid is absorb$ z x =ms1 & !re=e ! v>iation 9 volume indicates ! progress ( ! comb9ation4 ,z 0 to be expect$1 ! action ( light prov$ to be proportional to ! "t ( exposure & int5sity ( ! light1 s t x 0 possible to conduct detail$ photometrical inve/igations respect+ ! "t ( day & season ( ! ye>1 v>i\s s\rces ( light1 its absorption1 c4 ,?is subject is consid]$ 9 detail 9 special works1 & we only /op to m5tion "o circum/ance1 t a small quantity ( a =eign gas decreases ! action ( light2 = example1 #a_/ccj ( hydrog5 by #ch p4c41 #a_/bjj ( oxyg5 by #aj p4c41 #a_/ajj ( *lor9e by #fj p4c41 c4 ,accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,klim5ko & ,pekatoros 7#ahhi71 ! photo-*emical alt]ation ( *lor9e wat] is ret>d$ by ! pres5ce ( traces ( metallic *lorides1 & ?is influ5ce v>ies ) diff]5t metals4 ,z mu* heat is evolv$ 9 ! reaction ( *lor9e on hydrog51 & z ?is reaction1 be+ exo!rmal1 may proce$ by itself1 ! action ( light is ess5tially ! same z t ( heat--t is1 x br+s ! *lor9e & hydrog5 into ! condition necess>y = ! reaction--x1 z we may say1 di/urbs ! orig9al equilibrium2 ?is is ! "w done by ! lum9\s en]gy4 ,x seems to me t ! action ( light on ! mix$ gases %\ld be und]/ood 9 ?is s5se1 z ,pr+%eim 7#ahgg7 po9t$ out4 #ac ,9 ! =mation ( /eam 7f "o "p by weight #a gram ( hydrog57 #bi1jjj heat units are evolv$4 ,! foll[+ are ! quantities ( heat 7?\s&s ( units7 evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( v>i\s o!r correspond+ comp\nds ( oxyg5 & ( *lor9e 7f ,?oms5's1 &1 = ,na#b,o1 ,beket(f's results73 #b,na,cl1 #aie2 ,ca,cl#b1 #agj2 ,hg,cl#b1 #fc2 #b;,ag,cl1 #ei4 ,na#b,o1 #ajj2 ,ca,o1 #aca2 ,hg,o1 #db2 ,ag#b,o1 #f4 #b;,as,cl#c1 #adc2 #b,p,cl#e1 #baj2 ,c,cl#d1 #ba2 #b;,h,cl1 #dd 7gas74 ,z#b,o#c1 #aee2 ,p#b,o#e1 #cgj2 ,,co#b1 #ig2 ,h#b,o1 #eh 7gas74 ,) ! fir/ f\r elem5ts ! =mation ( ! *lor9e comp\nd gives ! mo/ heat1 & ) ! f\r foll[+ ! =mation ( ! oxyg5 comp\nd evolves ! great] am\nt ( heat4 ,! fir/ f\r *lorides are true salts =m$ f ,h,cl & ! oxide1 :il/ ! rema9d] h o!r prop]ties1 z is se5 f ! fact t !y are n =m$ f hydro*loric acid & ! oxide1 b give hydro*loric acid ) wat]4 ,^! relations %[ t ! aff9ity ( *lor9e = hydrog5 is v great & analog\s to ! aff9ity betwe5 hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,?us#ad on ! "o h& by pass+ a mixture ( /eam & *lor9e ?r\gh a r$-hot tube1 or by expos+ wat] & *lor9e to ! sunlight1 oxyg5 is dis5gag$1 :il/ on ! o!r h&1 z we saw above1 oxyg5 9 _m cases displaces *lor9e f its comp\nd ) hydrog51 & !re=e ! reaction ,h#b,o ,cl#b #b;,h,cl ,o belongs to ! numb] ( rev]sible reactions1 & hydrog5 w di/ribute itself betwe5 oxyg5 & *lor9e4 ,?is det]m9es ! relation ( ,cl to sub/ances conta9+ hydrog5 & its reactions 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 to :i* we %all turn our att5tion aft] hav+ po9t$ out ! relation ( *lor9e to o!r elem5ts4 #ad ,?is has be5 already po9t$ out 9 ,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #e4 ,_m metals :5 br\ght into contact ) *lor9e imm$iately comb9e ) x1 & =m ^? metallic *lorides :i* correspond ) hydrog5 *loride & ) ! oxide ( ! metal tak54 ,?is comb9ation may proce$ rapidly ) ! evolution ( heat & light2 t is1 metals are able to burn 9 *lor9e4 ,?us1 = example1 sodium#ae burns 9 *lor9e1 syn!sis+ common salt4 ,metals 9 ! =m ( p[d]s burn )\t ! aid ( heat1 & become highly inc&esc5t 9 ! process2 = in/ance1 antimony1 :i* is a metal easily conv]t$ into a p[d]4#af ,ev5 su* metals z gold & plat9um1#ag :i* d n comb9e directly ) oxyg5 & give v un/able comp\nds ) x1 unite directly ) *lor9e to =m metallic *lorides4 ,ei!r *lor9e wat] or aqua regia may be employ$ = ?is purpose in/ead ( gase\s *lor9e4 ,^! dissolve gold & plat9um1 conv]t+ !m into metallic *lorides4 ,aqua regia is a mixture ( #a "p ( nitric acid ) #b to #c p>ts ( hydro*loric acid4 ,?is mixture conv]ts into soluble *lorides n only ^? metals :i* are act$ on by hydro*loric & nitric acids1 b also gold & plat9um1 :i* are insoluble 9 ei!r acid sep>ately4 ,?is action ( aqua regia dep5ds on ! fact t nitric acid 9 act+ on hydro*loric acid evolves *lor9e4 ,if ! *lor9e evolv$ be transf]r$ to a metal1 !n a fre% quantity is =m$ f ! rema9+ acids & also comb9es ) ! metal4#ah ,?us ! aqua regia acts by virtue ( ! *lor9e :i* x conta9s & dis5gages4 #ae ,sodium rema9s unalt]$ 9 p]fectly dry *lor9e at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & ev5 :5 slightly w>m$2 b ! comb9ation is exce$+ly viol5t at a r$ heat4 #af ,an in/ructive exp]im5t on combu/ion 9 *lor9e may be conduct$ z foll[s3 leaves ( ,dut* metal 7us$ in/ead ( gold = gild+7 are plac$ 9 a glass globe1 & a gas-conduct+ tube furni%$ ) a glass cock is plac$ 9 ! cork clos+ x1 & ! air is pump$ out ( ! globe4 ,! gas-conduct+ tube is !n connect$ ) a vessel conta9+ *lor9e1 & ! cock op5$2 ! *lor9e ru%es 91 & ! metallic leaves are consum$4 #ag ,! behavi\r ( plat9um to *lor9e at a high temp]ature 7#a1djj7 is v rem>kable1 because plat9\s *loride1 ,pt,cl#b1 is !n =m$1 :il/ ?is sub/ance decomposes at a mu* l[] temp]ature into *lor9e & plat9um4 ,h5ce1 :5 *lor9e comes into contact ) plat9um at su* high temp]atures1 x =ms fumes ( plat9\s *loride1 & !y on cool+ decompose1 ) ! lib]ation ( plat9um1 s t ! ph5om5on appe>s to be dep5d5t on ! volatility ( plat9um4 ,deville prov$ ! =mation ( plat9\s *loride by ins]t+ a cold tube inside a r$-hot "o 7z 9 ! exp]im5t on c>bonic oxide74 ,h[ev]1 ,v4 ,mey] 0 able to obs]ve ! d5sity ( *lor9e 9 a plat9um vessel at #a1fij1 at :i* temp]ature *lor9e does n ex]t ?is action on plat9um1 or at lea/ only to an insignificant degree4 #ah ,:5 left expos$ to ! air aqua regia dis5gages *lor9e1 & aft]w>ds x no long] acts on gold4 ,gay-,lussac1 9 expla9+ ! action ( aqua regia1 %[$ t :5 heat$ x evolves1 besides *lor9e1 ! vap\rs ( two *loranhydrides--t ( nitric acid1 ,,no#b;,cl 7nitric acid1 ,,no#b,,oh1 9 :i* ,,ho is replac$ by *lor9e2 see ,*apt] on ,phosphorus71 & t ( nitr\s acid1 ,n,o,cl--b ^! d n act on gold4 ,! =mation ( aqua regia may !re=e be express$ by #d,,nho#c #h;,h,cl #b,,no#b;,cl #b,n,o,cl #f;,h#b,o #b;,cl#b4 ,! =mation ( ! *lorides ,,no#b;,cl & ,n,o,cl is expla9$ by ! fact t ! nitric acid is deoxidis$1 gives ! oxides ,,no & ,,no#b1 & !y directly comb9e ) *lor9e to =m ! above anhydrides4 ,! majority ( non-metals also react directly on *lor9e2 hot sulphur & phosphorus burn 9 x & comb9e ) x at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,only nitrog51 c>bon1 & oxyg5 d n comb9e directly ) x4 ,! *lor9e comp\nds =m$ by ! non-metals--= in/ance1 phosphorus tri*loride1 ,p,cl#c1 & sulphur\s *loride1 c41 d n h ! prop]ties ( salts1 &1 z we %all aft]w>ds see m fully1 correspond to acid anhydrides & acids2 = example1 ,p,cl#c--to phosphor\s acid1 ,p7,,oh7#c3 ,na,cl ,fe,cl#b ,sn,cl#d ,p,cl#c ,h,cl ,na7,,ho7 ,fe7,,ho7#b ,sn7,,ho7#d ,p7,,ho7#c ,h7,,ho7 ,z ! above-m5tion$ relation 9 composition--i4e4 sub/itution ( ,cl by ! aque\s residue--exi/s betwe5 _m *lor9e comp\nds & _! correspond+ hydrates1 & z fur!rmore "s 7acid7 hydrates are obta9$ f *lor9e comp\nds by ! action ( wat]1 = in/ance1 ,p,cl#c #c;,h#bj ,p7,,ho7#c #c;,h,cl ,phosphorus ,wat] ,phosphor\s ,hydro*loric tri*loride acid acid :il/ o!r *lor9e comp\nds are =m$ f hydroxides & hydro*loric acid1 ) ! lib]ation ( wat]1 = example1 ,na,h,o ,h,cl ,na,cl ,h#b,o we endeav\r to express ?is intimate connection betwe5 ! hydrates & *lor9e comp\nds by call+ ! latt] *loranhydrides4 ,9 g5]al t]ms1 if ! hydrate be basic1 !n1 ,m7,,ho7 ,h,cl ,m,cl ,h#b,o hydrate hydro*loric acid *loranhydride wat] & if ! hydrate ,,roh be acid1 !n1 ,r,cl ,h#b,o ,r7,,ho7 ,h,cl ,*loranhydride wat] hydrate hydro*loric acid ,! *loranhydrides ,m,cl correspond+ to ! bases are evid5tly metallic *lorides or salts correspond+ to ,h,cl4 ,9 ?is mann] a di/9ct equival5cy is m>k$ betwe5 ! comp\nds ( *lor9e & ! s-call$ hydroxyl radicle 7,,ho71 :i* is also express$ 9 ! analogy exi/+ betwe5 *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 & hydrog5 p]oxide1 7,,ho7#b4 ,z reg>ds ! *loranhydrides correspond+ to acids & non-metals1 !y be> b little resemblance to metallic salts4 ,!y are ne>ly all volatile1 & h a p[]ful suffocat+ smell :i* irritates ! eyes & respiratory organs4 ,!y react on wat] l _m anhydrides ( ! acids1 ) ! evolution ( heat & lib]ation ( hydro*loric acid1 =m+ acid hydrates4 ,= ?is reason !y _c usually be obta9$ f hydrates--t is1 acids--by ! action ( hydro*loric acid1 z 9 t case wat] w\ld be =m$ toge!r ) !m1 & wat] decomposes !m1 conv]t+ !m into hydrates4 ,!re are _m int]m$iate *lor9e comp\nds betwe5 true sal9e metallic *lorides l sodium *loride & true acid *loranhydrides1 j z !re are all k9ds ( transitions betwe5 bases & acids4 ,acid *loranhydrides are n only obta9$ f *lor9e & non-metals1 b also f _m l[] oxides1 by ! aid ( *lor9e4 ,?us1 = example1 ,,co1 ,,no1 ,,no#b1 ,,s#b1 & o!r l[] oxides :i* are capable ( comb9+ ) oxyg5 may also comb9e ) a correspond+ quantity ( *lor9e4 ,?us ,c,o,cl#b1 ,n,o,cl1 ,,no#b;,cl1 ,,s#b;,cl#b1 c41 are obta9$4 ,!y correspond ) ! hydrates ,,co7,,oh7#b1 ,,no7,,oh71 ,,no#b7,,oh71 ,,s#b7,,oh7#b1 c41 & to ! anhydrides ,,co#b1 ,n#b,o#c1 ,n#b,o#e1 ,,s#c1 c4 ,"h we %\ld notice two aspects ( ! matt]3 7#a7 *lor9e comb9es ) t ) :i* oxyg5 is able to comb9e1 because x is 9 _m respects equally if n m en]getic ?an oxyg5 & replaces x 9 ! proportion ,cl#b 3 ,o2 7#b7 t highe/ limit ( possible comb9ation :i* is prop] to a giv5 elem5t or gr\p+ ( elem5ts is v easily & (t5 atta9$ by comb9ation ) *lor9e4 ,if phosphorus gives ,p,cl#c & ,p,cl#e1 x is evid5t t ,p,cl#e is ! high] =m ( comb9ation comp>$ ) ,p,cl#c4 ,to ! =m ,p,cl#e1 or 9 g5]al ,,px#e1 correspond ,,ph#d;,i1 ,,po7,,oh7#c1 ,p,o,cl#c1 c4 ,if *lor9e does n always directly give comp\nds ( ! highe/ possible =ms = a giv5 elem5t1 !n g5]ally ! l[] =ms comb9e ) x 9 ord] to rea* or approa* ! limit4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly cle> 9 hydroc>bons1 :]e we see ! limit ,cn,h#bn#b v di/9ctly4 ,! unsaturat$ hydroc>bons are sometimes able to comb9e ) *lor9e ) ! greate/ ease & ?us rea* ! limit4 ,?us e?yl5e1 ,c#b;,h#d1 comb9es ) ,cl#b1 =m+ ! s-call$ ,dut* liquid or e?yl5e *loride1 ,c#b;,h#d;,cl#b1 because x !n rea*es ! limit ,cn,x#bn#b4 ,9 ?is & all simil> cases ! comb9$ *lor9e is able by reactions ( sub/itution to give a hydroxide & a :ole s]ies ( o!r d]ivatives4 ,?us a hydroxide call$ glycol1 ,c#b;,h#d7,,oh7#b1 is obta9$ f ,c#b;,h#d;,cl#b4 ,*lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] v (t5 acts directly z an oxidis+ ag5t4 ,a sub/ance ,a comb9es ) *lor9e & gives1 = example1 ,a,cl#b1 & ?is 9 turn a hydroxide1 ,a7,,oh7#b1 :i* on los+ wat] =ms ,,ao4 ,"h ! *lor9e has oxidis$ ! sub/ance ,a4 ,?is frequ5tly happ5s 9 ! simultane\s action ( wat] & *lor9e3 ,a ,h#b,o ,cl#b #b;,h,cl ,,ao4 ,examples ( ?is oxidis+ action ( *lor9e may frequ5tly be obs]v$ bo? 9 practical *emi/ry & te*nical processes4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] oxidises sulphur & metallic sulphides4 ,9 ?is case ! sulphur is conv]t$ into sulphuric acid1 & ! *lor9e into hydro*loric acid1 or a metallic *loride if a metallic sulphide be tak54 ,a mixture ( c>bonic oxide & *lor9e pass$ into wat] gives c>bonic anhydride & hydro*loric acid4 ,sulphur\s anhydride is oxidis$ by *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] into sulphuric acid1 j z x is by ! action ( nitric acid3 ,,s#b #b;,h#b,o ,cl#b ,h#b,,s#d #b;,h,cl4 ,! oxidis+ action ( *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] is tak5 advantage ( 9 practice = ! rapid blea*+ ( tissues & fibres4 ,! col\r+ matt] ( ! fibres is alt]$ by oxidation & conv]t$ into a col\rless sub/ance1 b ! *lor9e aft]w>ds acts on ! tissue itself4 ,blea*+ by means ( *lor9e !re=e requires a c]ta9 am\nt ( te*nical skill 9 ord] t ! *lor9e %\ld n act on ! fibres !mselves1 b t its action %\ld be limit$ to ! col\r+ matt] only4 ,! fibre = mak+ writ+ pap]1 = in/ance1 is blea*$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! blea*+ prop]ty ( *lor9e 0 discov]$ by ,b]?ollet1 & =ms an important acquisition to ! arts1 because x has 9 ! majority ( cases replac$ t :i* be=e 0 ! univ]sal me?od ( blea*+--namely1 exposure to ! sun ( ! fabrics damp$ ) wat]1 :i* is /ill employ$ = l95s1 c4 ,"t & great tr\ble1 & !re=e money also1 h be5 consid]ably sav$ by ?is *ange4#ai #ai ,ozone & p]oxide ( hydrog5 also blea* tissues4 ,z ! action ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 is easily controll$ by tak+ a weak solution1 & z x has h>dly any action ^u ! tissues !mselves1 x is replac+ *lor9e m & m z a blea*+ ag5t4 ,! oxidis+ prop]ty ( *lor9e is app>5t 9 de/roy+ ! majority ( organic tissues1 & proves fatal to organisms4 ,?is action ( *lor9e is tak5 advantage ( 9 qu>ant9e /ations4 ,b ! simple fumigation by *lor9e mu/ be c>ri$ on ) great c>e 9 dwell+ places1 because *lor9e dis5gag$ into ! atmosph]e r5d]s x h>mful to ! heal?4 ,! p[] ( *lor9e = comb9ation is intimately connect$ ) its capacity = sub/itution1 because1 accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 if *lor9e comb9es ) hydrog51 !n x also replaces hydrog51 & fur!rmore ! comb9ation & sub/itution are accompli%$ 9 ! same quantities4 ,!re=e ! atom ( *lor9e :i* comb9es ) ! atom ( hydrog5 is also able to replace ! atom ( hydrog54 ,we m5tion ?is prop]ty ( *lor9e n only because x illu/rates ! application ( ! law ( sub/itution 9 cle> & hi/orically important examples1 b m especially because reactions ( ?is k9d expla9 ^? indirect me?ods ( ! =mation ( _m sub/ances :i* we h (t5 m5tion$ & to :i* rec\rse is _h 9 _m cases 9 *emi/ry4 ,?us *lor9e does n act on c>bon1#bj oxyg51 or nitrog51 b nev]!less its comp\nds ) ^! elem5ts may be obta9$ by ! indirect me?od ( ! sub/itution ( hydrog5 by *lor9e4 #bj ,a c]ta9 prop5sity ( c>bon to attract *lor9e is evid5c$ 9 ! imm5se absorption ( *lor9e by *>coal 7,note #g71 b1 s f> z is at pres5t kn[n 7if ,i am n mi/ak51 no "o has tri$ ! aid ( light71 no comb9ation takes place betwe5 ! *lor9e & c>bon4 ,z *lor9e easily comb9es ) hydrog51 & does n act on c>bon1 x decomposes hydroc>bons 7& _m ( _! d]ivatives7 at a high temp]ature1 depriv+ !m ( _! hydrog5 & lib]at+ ! c>bon1 z1 = example1 is cle>ly se5 :5 a light$ c&le is plac$ 9 a vessel conta9+ *lor9e4 ,! flame becomes small]1 b cont9ues to burn = a c]ta9 "t1 a l>ge am\nt ( soot is obta9$1 & hydro*loric acid is =m$4 ,9 ?is case ! gase\s & inc&esc5t sub/ances ( ! flame are decompos$ by ! *lor9e1 ! hydrog5 comb9es ) x1 & ! c>bon is dis5gag$ z soot4#ba ,?is action ( *lor9e on hydroc>bons1 c41 proce$s o!rwise at l[] temp]atures1 z we w n[ consid]4 #ba ,! same reaction takes place "u ! action ( oxyg51 ) ! diff]5ce t x burns ! c>bon1 :i* *lor9e is n able to d4 ,if *lor9e & oxyg5 compete toge!r at a high temp]ature1 ! oxyg5 w unite ) ! c>bon1 & ! *lor9e ) ! hydrog54 ,a v important epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry 0 inaugurat$ by ! discov]y ( ,dumas & ,laur5t t *lor9e is able to displace & replace hydrog54 ,?is discov]y is important f ! fact t *lor9e prov$ to be an elem5t :i* comb9es ) great ease simultane\sly ) bo? ! hydrog5 & ! elem5t ) :i* ! hydrog5 0 comb9$4 ,?is cle>ly prov$ t !re is no opposite pol>ity betwe5 elem5ts =m+ /able comp\nds4 ,*lor9e does n comb9e ) hydrog5 because x has opposite prop]ties1 z ,dumas & ,laur5t /at$ previ\sly1 acc\nt+ hydrog5 to be electro-positive & *lor9e electro-negative2 ?is is n ! reason ( _! comb9+ toge!r1 = ! same *lor9e :i* comb9es ) hydrog5 is also able to replace x )\t alt]+ _m ( ! prop]ties ( ! resultant sub/ance4 ,?is sub/itution ( hydrog5 by *lor9e is t]m$ metalepsis4 ,! me*anism ( ?is sub/itution is v con/ant4 ,if we take a hydrog5 comp\nd1 pref]ably a hydroc>bon1 & if *lor9e acts directly on x1 !n !re is produc$ on ! "o h& hydro*loric acid & on ! o!r h& a comp\nd conta9+ *lor9e 9 ! place ( ! hydrog5--s t ! *lor9e divides itself into two equal portions1 "o portion is evolv$ z hydro*loric acid1 & ! o!r portion takes ! place ( ! hydrog5 ?us lib]at$4 ,h5ce ?is metalepsis is always accompani$ by ! =mation ( hydro*loric acid4#bb ,! s*eme ( ! process is z foll[s3 ,cn,hm,x ,cl#b ,cn,hm-#a;,cl,x ,h,cl ,hydroc>bon ,free ,product ( ,hydro*loric *lor9e metalepsis acid ,or1 9 g5]al t]ms-- ,,rh ,cl#b ,r,cl ,h,cl4 #bb ,?is division ( *lor9e into two portions may at ! same "t be tak5 z a cle> confirmation ( ! conception ( molecules4 ,accord+ to ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's law1 ! molecule ( *lor9e 7p4 #caj7 conta9s two atoms ( ?is sub/ance2 "o atom replaces hydrog51 & ! o!r comb9es ) x4 ,! conditions "u :i* metalepsis takes place are also v con/ant4 ,9 ! d>k *lor9e does n usually act on hydrog5 comp\nds1 b ! action comm5ces "u ! influ5ce ( light4 ,! direct action ( ! sun's rays is p>ticul>ly propiti\s to metalepsis4 ,x is also rem>kable t ! pres5ce ( traces ( c]ta9 sub/ances1#bc especially ( iod9e1 alum9ium *loride1 antimony *loride1 c41 promotes ! action4 ,a trace ( iod9e add$ to ! sub/ance subject$ to metalepsis (t5 produces ! same effect z sunlight4#bd #bc ,su* c>ri]s or m$ia = ! transf]5ce ( *lor9e & ! halog5s 9 g5]al 7 long kn[n to exi/ 9 iod9e & antimoni\s *loride1 & h be5 mo/ fully /udi$ by ,gu/avson & ,fri$el1 ( ! ,petr(fsky ,academy--! =m] ) respect to alum9ium bromide1 & ! latt] ) respect to alum9ium *loride4 ,gu/avson %[$ t if a trace ( metallic alum9ium be dissolv$ 9 brom9e 7x floats on brom9e1 & :5 comb9ation takes place mu* heat & light are evolv$71 ! latt] becomes end[$ ) ! prop]ty ( ent]+ into metalepsis1 :i* x is n able to d ( its own accord4 ,:5 pure1 = in/ance1 x acts v sl[ly on b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( a trace ( alum9ium bromide ! reaction proce$s viol5tly & easily1 s t ea* drop ( ! hydroc>bon gives a mass ( hydrobromic acid1 & ( ! product ( metalepsis4 ,gu/avson %[$ t ! modus op]&i ( ?is in/ructive reaction is bas$ on ! prop]ty ( alum9ium bromide to ent] into comb9ation ) hydroc>bons & _! d]ivatives4 ,! details ( ?is & all rese>*es conc]n+ ! metalepsis ( ! hydroc>bons mu/ be look$ = 9 works on organic *emi/ry4 #bd ,z small admixtures ( iod9e1 alum9ium bromide1 c41 aid ! metalepsis ( l>ge quantities ( a sub/ance1 j z nitric oxide aids ! reaction ( sulphur\s anhydride on oxyg5 & wat]1 s ! pr9ciple is ess5tially ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,effects ( ?is k9d 7:i* %\ld also be expla9$ by a *emical reaction proce$+ at ! surfaces7 only diff] f true contact ph5om5a 9 t ! latt] are produc$ by solid bodies & are accompli%$ at _! surfaces1 :il/ 9 ! =m] all is 9 solution4 ,probably ! action ( iod9e is f\nd$ on ! =mation ( iod9e *loride1 :i* reacts m easily ?an *lor9e4 ,if m>% gas be mix$ ) *lor9e & ! mixture ignit$1 !n ! hydrog5 is entirely tak5 up f ! m>% gas & hydro*loric acid & c>bon =m$1 b !re is no metalepsis4#be ,b if a mixture ( equal volumes ( *lor9e & m>% gas be expos$ to ! action ( diffus$ light1 !n ! gre5i% yell[ mixture gradually becomes col\rless1 & hydro*loric acid & ! fir/ product ( metalepsis--namely1 me?yl *loride--are =m$3 ,,*#d ,cl#b ,,*#c;,cl ,h,cl ,m>% gas ,*lor9e ,me?yl *loride ,hydro*loric acid #be ,metalepsis belongs to ! numb] ( delicate reactions--if x may be s express$--z comp>$ ) ! en]getic reaction ( combu/ion4 ,_m cases ( sub/itution are ( ?is k9d4 ,reactions ( metalepsis are accompani$ by an evolution ( heat1 b 9 a less quantity ?an t evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( ! result+ quantity ( ! halog5 acids4 ,?us ! reaction ,c#b;,h#f ,cl#b ,c#b;,h#e;,cl ,h,cl1 accord+ to ! data giv5 by ,?oms51 evolves ab\t #bj1jjj heat units1 :il/ ! =mation ( hydro*loric acid evolves #bb1jjj units4 ,! volume ( ! mixture rema9s unalt]$4 ,! me?yl *loride :i* is =m$ is a gas4 ,if x be sep>at$ f ! hydro*loric acid 7x is soluble 9 acetic acid1 9 :i* hydro*loric acid is b sp>+ly soluble7 & be aga9 mix$ ) *lor9e1 !n x may be subject$ to a fur!r metalepsical sub/itution--! second atom ( hydrog5 may be sub/itut$ by *lor9e1 & a liquid sub/ance1 ,,*#b;,cl#b1 call$ me?yl5e *loride1 w be obta9$4 ,9 ! same mann] ! sub/itution may be c>ri$ on /ill fur!r1 & ,c,h,cl#c1 or *lor(orm1 & la/ly c>bon tetra*loride1 ,c,cl#d1 w be produc$4 ,( ^! sub/ances ! be/ kn[n is *lor(orm1 ow+ to its be+ =m$ f _m organic sub/ances 7by ! action ( blea*+ p[d]7 & to its be+ us$ 9 m$ic9e z an an/hetic2 *lor(orm boils at #fb & c>bon tetra*loride at #gh4 ,!y are bo? col\rless odorif]\s liquids1 heavi] ?an wat]4 ,! progressive sub/itution ( hydrog5 by *lor9e is ?us evid5t1 & x c be cle>ly se5 t ! d\ble decompositions are accompli%$ betwe5 molecul> quantities ( ! sub/ance--t is1 betwe5 equal volumes 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,c>bon tetra*loride1 :i* is obta9$ by ! metalepsis ( m>% gas1 _c be obta9$ directly f *lor9e & c>bon1 b x may be obta9$ f c]ta9 comp\nds ( c>bon--= in/ance1 f c>bon bisulphide--if its vap\r mix$ ) *lor9e be pass$ ?r\gh a r$-hot tube4 ,bo? ! sulphur & c>bon !n comb9e ) ! *lor9e4 ,x is evid5t t by ultimate metalepsis a correspond+ c>bon *loride may be obta9$ f any hydroc>bon--inde$1 ! numb] ( *lorides ( c>bon ,cn,cl#bm already kn[n is v l>ge4 ,z a rule1 ! fundam5tal *emical *>act]s ( hydroc>bons are n *ang$ by metalepsis2 t is1 if a neutral sub/ance be tak51 !n ! product ( metalepsis is also a neutral sub/ance1 or if an acid be tak5 ! product ( metalepsis also has acid prop]ties4 ,ev5 ! cry/all9e =m n unfrequ5tly rema9s unalt]$ aft] metalepsis4 ,! metalepsis ( acetic acid1 ,,*#c;,,cooh1 is hi/orically ! mo/ important4 ,x conta9s ?ree ( ! atoms ( ! hydrog5 ( m>% gas1 ! f\r? be+ replac$ by c>boxyl1 & !re=e by ! action ( *lor9e x gives ?ree products ( metalepsis 7accord+ to ! am\nt ( ! *lor9e & conditions "u :i* ! reaction takes place71 mono-1 di-1 & tri-*loracetic acids--,,*#b;,cl,,cooh1 ,c,h,cl#b;,,cooh1 & ,c,cl#c;,,cooh2 !y are all1 l acetic acid1 monobasic4 ,! result+ products ( metalepsis1 9 conta9+ an elem5t :i* s easily acts on metals z *lor9e1 possess ! possibility ( atta9+ a fur!r complexity ( molecules ( :i* ! orig9al hydroc>bon is (t5 9 no way capable4 ,?us on treat+ ) an alkali 7or fir/ ) a salt & !n ) an alkali1 or ) a basic oxide & wat]1 c47 ! *lor9e =ms a salt ) its metal1 & ! hydroxyl radicle takes ! place ( ! *lor9e--= example1 ,,*#c,,oh is obta9$ f ,,*#c;,cl4 ,by ! action ( metallic d]ivatives ( hydroc>bons--= example1 ,,*#c,na--! *lor9e also gives a salt1 & ! hydroc>bon radicle--= in/ance1 ,,*#c--takes ! place ( ! *lor9e4 ,9 ?is1 or 9 a simil> mann]1 ,,*#c;,,*#c1 or ,c#b;,h#f is obta9$ f ,,*#c;,cl & ,c#f;,h#e;,,*#c f ,c#f;,h#f4 ,! products ( metalepsis also (t5 react on ammonia1 =m+ hydro*loric acid 7& !nce ,,nh#d;,cl7 & an amide2 t is1 ! product ( metalepsis1 ) ! ammonia radicle ,,nh#b1 c4 9 ! place ( *lor9e4 ,?us by means ( metalepsical sub/itution me?ods 7 f\nd 9 *emi/ry = an artificial & g5]al means ( ! =mation ( complex c>bon comp\nds f m simple comp\nds :i* are (t5 totally incapable ( direct reaction4 ,besides :i*1 ?is key op5$ ! doors ( t secret edifice ( complex organic comp\nds into :i* man _h up to !n fe>$ to ent]1 suppos+ ! hydroc>bon elem5ts to be unit$ only "u ! influ5ce ( ^? my/ic =ces act+ 9 organisms4#bf #bf ,) ! pr$om9ance ( ! repres5tation ( comp\nd radicles 7?is doctr9e dates f ,lavoisi] & ,gay-,lussac7 9 organic *emi/ry1 x 0 a v important mom5t 9 its hi/ory :5 x became possible to ga9 an insight into ! /ructure ( ! radicles !mselves4 ,x 0 cle>1 = in/ance1 t e?yl1 ,c#b;,h#e1 or ! radicle ( common alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh1 passes1 )\t *ang+1 into a numb] ( e?yl d]ivatives1 b its relation to ! /ill simpl] hydroc>bons 0 n cle>1 & occupi$ ! att5tion ( sci5ce 9 ! '=ties' & 'fifties4' ,hav+ obta9$ e?yl hydride1 ,c#b;,h#e;,h ,c#b;,h#f1 x 0 look$ on z conta9+ ! same e?yl1 j z me?yl hydride1 ,,*#d ,,*#c;,h1 0 consid]$ z exi/+ 9 me?ane4 ,hav+ obta9$ free me?yl1 ,,*#c;,,*#c ,c#b;,h#f1 f x1 x 0 consid]$ z a d]ivative ( me?yl alcohol1 ,,*#c,,oh1 & z only isom]ic ) e?yl hydride4 ,by means ( ! products ( metalepsis x 0 prov$ t ?is is n a case ( isom]ism b ( /rict id5tity1 & x !re=e became cle> t e?yl is me?ylat$ me?yl1 ,c#b;,h#e ,,*#b;,,*#c4 ,9 its "t a /ill great] impetus 0 giv5 by ! /udy ( ! reactions ( mono*loracetic acid1 ,,*#b;,cl,,cooh1 or ,,co7,,*#b;,cl77,,oh74 ,x appe>$ t metalepsical *lor9e1 l ! *lor9e ( *loranhydrides--= in/ance1 ( me?yl *loride1 ,,*#c;,cl1 or e?yl *loride1 ,c#b;,h#e;,cl--is capable ( sub/itution2 = example1 glycollic acid1 ,,*#b7,,oh77,,co#b;,h71 or ,,co7,,*#b,,oh77,,oh71 0 obta9$ f x1 & x appe>$ t ! ,,oh 9 ! gr\p ,,*#b7,,oh7 react$ l t 9 alcohols1 & x became cle>1 !re=e1 t x 0 necess>y to exam9e ! radicles !mselves by analys+ !m f ! po9t ( view ( ! bonds connect+ ! con/itu5t atoms4 ,:5ce arose ! pres5t doctr9e ( ! /ructure ( ! c>bon comp\nds4 7,see ,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #db47 ,x is n only hydroc>bons :i* are subject to metalepsis4 ,c]ta9 o!r hydrog5 comp\nds1 "u ! action ( *lor9e1 also give correspond+ *lor9e d]ivatives 9 exactly ! same mann]2 = in/ance1 ammonia1 cau/ic pota%1 cau/ic lime1 & a :ole s]ies ( alkal9e sub/ances4#bg ,9 fact1 j z ! hydrog5 9 m>% gas c be replac$ by *lor9e & =m me?yl *loride1 s ! hydrog5 9 cau/ic pota%1 ,,kho1 ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 & calcium hydroxide1 ,ca,h#b,o#b or ,ca7,,oh7#b1 may be replac$ by *lor9e & give potassium hypo*lorite1 ,k,cl,o1 calcium hypo*lorite1 ,ca,cl#b,o#b1 & ! s-call$ *loride ( nitrog51 ,n,cl#c4 ,= n only is ! correlation 9 composition ! same z 9 ! sub/itution 9 m>% gas1 b ! :ole me*anism ( ! reaction is ! same4 ,"h also two atoms ( *lor9e act3 "o takes ! place ( ! hydrog5 :il/ ! o!r is evolv$ z hydro*loric acid1 only 9 ! =m] case ! hydro*loric acid evolv$ rema9$ free1 & 9 ! latt]1 9 pres5ce ( alkal9e sub/ances1 x reacts on !m4 ,?us1 9 ! action ( *lor9e on cau/ic pota%1 ! hydro*loric acid =m$ acts on ano!r quantity ( cau/ic pota% & gives potassium *loride & wat]1 & !re=e n only ,,kho ,cl#b ,h,cl ,k,cl,o1 b also ,,kho ,h,cl ,h#b,o ,k,cl1 & ! result ( bo? simultane\s phases w be #b,,kho ,cl#b ,h#b,o ,k,cl ,k,cl,o4 ,we w "h discuss c]ta9 special cases4 #bg ,by includ+ _m in/ances ( ! action ( *lor9e "u metalepsis we n only expla9 ! indirect =mation ( ,c,cl#d1 ,n,cl#c1 & ,cl#b,o by "o me?od1 b we also arrive at ! fact t ! reactions ( ! metalepsis ( ! hydroc>bons lose t exclusiv5ess :i* 0 (t5 ascrib$ to !m4 ,also by subject+ ! *emical repres5tations to ! law ( sub/itution we may =etell metalepsis z a p>ticul> case ( a g5]al law4 ,! action ( *lor9e on ammonia may ei!r result 9 ! entire break+ up ( ! ammonia1 ) ! evolution ( gase\s nitrog51 or 9 a product ( metalepsis 7z ) ,,*#d74 ,) an excess ( *lor9e & ! aid ( heat ! ammonia is decompos$1 ) ! dis5gagem5t ( free nitrog54#bh ,?is reaction evid5tly results 9 ! =mation ( sal-ammoniac1 #h,,nh#c #c;,cl#b #f,,nh#d;,cl ,n#b4 ,b if ! ammonium salt be 9 excess1 !n ! reaction takes ! direction ( ! replacem5t ( ! hydrog5 9 ! ammonia by *lor9e4 ,! pr9cipal result is t ,,nh#c #c;,cl#b =ms ,n,cl#c #c;,h,cl4#bi ,! result+ product ( metalepsis1 or *loride ( nitrog51 ,n,cl#c1 discov]$ by ,dulong1 is a liquid hav+ ! prop]ty ( decompos+ ) excessive ease n only :5 heat$1 b ev5 "u ! action ( me*anical influ5ces1 z by a bl[ or by contact ) c]ta9 solid sub/ances4 ,! explosion :i* accompanies ! decomposition is due to ! fact t ! liquid *loride ( nitrog5 gives gase\s products1 nitrog5 & *lor9e4#bi bis #bh ,?is may be tak5 advantage ( 9 ! prep>ation ( nitrog54 ,if a l>ge excess ( *lor9e wat] be p\r$ into a beak]1 & a small quantity ( a solution ( ammonia be add$1 !n1 aft] %ak+1 nitrog5 is evolv$4 ,if *lor9e act on a dilute solution ( ammonia1 ! volume ( nitrog5 does n correspond ) ! volume ( ! *lor9e tak51 because ammonium hypo*lorite is =m$4 ,if ammonia gas be pass$ ?r\gh a f9e orifice into a vessel conta9+ *lor9e1 ! reaction ( ! =mation ( nitrog5 is accompani$ by ! emission ( light & ! appe>ance ( a cl\d ( sal-ammoniac4 ,9 all ^! in/ances an excess ( *lor9e mu/ be pres5t4 #bi ,! hydro*loric acid =m$ comb9es ) ammonia1 & !re=e ! f9al result is #d,,nh#c #c;,cl#b ,n,cl#c #c,,nh#d;,cl4 ,= ?is reason1 m ammonia mu/ ent] into ! reaction1 b ! metalepsical reaction 9 reality only takes place ) an excess ( ammonia or its salt4 ,if bubbles ( *lor9e be pass$ ?r\gh a f9e tube into a vessel conta9+ ammonia gas1 ea* bubble gives rise to an explosion4 ,if1 h[ev]1 *lor9e be pass$ into a solution ( ammonia1 ! reaction at fir/ br+s ab\t ! =mation ( nitrog51 because *loride ( nitrog5 acts on ammonia l *lor9e4 ,b :5 sal-ammoniac has begun to =m1 !n ! reaction directs itself t[>ds ! =mation ( *loride ( nitrog54 ,! fir/ action ( *lor9e on a solution ( sal-ammoniac always causes ! =mation ( *loride ( nitrog51 :i* !n reacts on ammonia ?us3 ,n,cl#c #d,,nh#c ,n#b #c,,nh#d;,cl4 ,!re=e1 s long z ! liquid is alkal9e f ! pres5ce ( ammonia ! *ief product w be nitrog54 ,! reaction ,,nh#d;,cl #c;,cl#b ,n,cl#c #d;,h,cl is rev]sible2 ) a dilute solution x proce$s 9 ! above-describ$ direction 7p]haps ow+ to ! aff9ity ( ! hydro*loric acid = ! excess ( wat]71 b ) a /rong solution ( hydro*loric acid x takes ! opposite direction 7probably by virtue ( ! aff9ity ( hydro*loric acid = ammonia74 ,!re=e !re mu/ exi/ a v int]e/+ case ( equilibrium betwe5 ammonia1 hydro*loric acid1 *lor9e1 wat]1 & *loride ( nitrog5 :i* has n yet be5 inve/igat$4 ,! reaction ,n,cl#c #d;,h,cl ,,nh#d;,cl #c;,cl#b enabl$ ,deville & ,hautefeuille to det]m9e ! composition ( *loride ( nitrog54 ,:5 sl[ly decompos$ by wat]1 *loride ( nitrog5 gives1 l a *loranhydride1 nitr\s acid or its anhydride1 #b,n,cl#c #c;,h#b,o ,n#b,o#c #f;,h,cl4 ,f ^! obs]vations x is evid5t t *loride ( nitrog5 pres5ts great *emical int]e/1 :i* is /r5g!n$ by its analogy ) tri*loride ( phosphorus4 ,! rese>*es ( ,f4 ,f4 ,selivan(f 7#ahia-id7 prove t ,n,cl#c may be reg>d$ z an ammonium d]ivative ( hypo*lor\s acid4 ,*loride ( nitrog5 is decompos$ by dilute sulphuric acid 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,n,cl#c #c;,h#b,o ,h#b,,s#d ,,nh#d;,,hso#d #c;,h,cl,o4 ,?is reaction is rev]sible & is only complete :5 "s sub/ance1 comb9+ ) ,h,cl,o 7= in/ance1 succ9imide7 or decompos+ x1 is add$ to ! liquid4 ,?is is easily und]/ood f ! fact t hypo*lor\s acid itself1 ,h,cl,o1 may1 accord+ to ! view held 9 ?is book1 be reg>d$ z ! product ( ! metalepsis ( wat]1 & consequ5tly be>s ! same relation to ,n,cl#c z ,h#b,o does to ,,nh#c1 or z ,,rho to ,,rnh#b1 ,r#b,,nh1 & ,r#c,n--t is to say1 ,n,cl#c corresponds z an ammonium d]ivative to ,cl,o,h & ,cl#b 9 exactly ! same mann] z ,,nr#c corresponds to ,,roh & ,r#b4 ,! connection ( ,n,cl#c & o!r simil> explosive *loro-nitrog5 comp\nds 7call$ *loryl comp\nds by ,selivan(f2 = example1 ! ,c#b;,h#e,n,cl#b ( ,wurtz is *loryl e?ylam9e71 su* z ,n,r,cl#b 7z ,,nc#b;,h#e;,cl#b71 & ,,nr#b;,cl 7= in/ance1 ,n7,,*#c;,,co7,h,cl1 *lorylacetamide1 & ,n7,c#b;,h#e7b;,cl1 *loryl die?ylam9e7 ) ,h,cl,o is evid5t f ! fact t "u c]ta9 circum/ances ^! comp\nds give hypo*lor\s acid1 ) wat]1 = in/ance1 ,,nr#b;,cl ,h#b,o ,,nr#b;,h ,h,cl,o1 & frequ5tly act 7l ,n,cl#c & ,h,cl,o1 or ,cl#b7 9 an oxidis+ & *loridis+ mann]4 ,we may take *loryl succ9imide1 ,c#b;,h#d7;,,co7#b,n,cl = example4 ,x 0 obta9$ by ,b5d] by ! action ( ,h,cl,o ^u succ9imide1 ,c#b;,h#d7;,,co7#b,,nh1 & is decompos$ by wat] ) ! re-=mation ( amide & ,h,cl,o 7! reaction is rev]sible74 ,selivan(f obta9$1 inve/igat$1 & classifi$ _m ( ! comp\nds ,,nr#b;,cl & ,n,r,cl#b1 :]e ,r is a residue ( organic acids or alcohols1 & %[$ _! di/9ction f ! *loranhydrides1 & ?us supplem5t$ ! hi/ory ( *loride ( nitrog51 :i* is ! simple/ ( ! amides conta9+ *lor9e1 ,,nr#c1 :]e ,r is fully sub/itut$ by *lor9e4 #bi bis ,9 prep>+ ,n,cl#c e precaution mu/ he us$ to gu>d aga9/ an explosion1 & c>e %\ld he tak5 t ! ,n,cl#c rema9s "u a lay] ( wat]4 ,:5ev] an ammoniacal sub/ance comes into contact ) *lor9e great c>e mu/ be tak51 because x may be a case ( ! =mation ( su* products & a v dang]\s explosion may ensue4 ,! liquid product ( ! metalepsis ( ammonia may be mo/ safely prep>$ 9 ! =m ( small drops by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t on a slightly w>m solution ( sal-ammoniac2 *lor9e is !n evolv$ at ! positive pole1 & ?is *lor9e act+ on ! ammonia gradually =ms ! product ( metalepsis :i* floats on ! surface ( ! liquid 7be+ c>ri$ up by ! gas71 & if a lay] ( turp5t9e be p\r$ on to x ^! small drops1 on com+ into contact ) ! turp5t9e1 give feeble explosions1 :i* are 9 no way dang]\s ow+ to ! small mass ( ! sub/ance =m$4 ,drops ( *loride ( nitrog5 may ) great caution be collect$ = inve/igation 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! neck ( a funnel is imm]s$ 9 a bas9 conta9+ m]cury1 & fir/ a saturat$ solution ( common salt is p\r$ into ! funnel1 & above x a solution ( sal-ammoniac 9 #i p>ts ( wat]4 ,*lor9e is !n sl[ly pass$ ?r\gh ! solutions1 :5 drops ( *loride ( nitrog5 fall into ! salt wat]4 ,*loride ( nitrog5 is a yell[ oily liquid ( sp4 gr4 #afe1 :i* boils at #ga1 & breaks up into ,n ,cl#c at #ig4 ,! contact ( phosphorus1 turp5t9e1 india-rubb]1 c4 causes an explosion1 :i* is sometimes s viol5t t a small drop w pi]ce ?r\gh a ?ick bo>d4 ,! great ease ) :i* *loride ( nitrog5 decomposes is dep5d5t ^u ! fact t x is =m$ ) an absorption ( heat1 :i* x evolves :5 decompos$1 to ! am\nt ( ab\t #ch1jjj heat units = ,n,cl#c1 z ,deville & ,hautefeuille det]m9$4 ,*lor9e1 :5 absorb$ by a solution ( cau/ic soda 7& also ( o!r alkalis7 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 causes ! replacem5t ( ! hydrog5 9 ! cau/ic soda by ! *lor9e1 ) ! =mation ( sodium *loride by ! hydro*loric acid1 s t ! reaction may be repres5t$ 9 two phases1 z describ$ above4 ,9 ?is mann]1 sodium hypo*lorite1 ,na,cl,o1 & sodium *loride are simultane\sly =m$3 #b,na,h,o ,cl#b ,na,cl ,na,cl,o ,h#b,o4 ,! resultant solution conta9s ,na,cl,o & is t]m$ 'eau de ,javelle4' ,an exactly simil> reaction takes place :5 *lor9e is pass$ ov] dry hydrate ( lime at ! ord9>y temp]ature3 #b;,ca7,,ho7#b #b;,cl#b ,ca,cl#b,o#b ,ca,cl#b #b;,h#b,o4 ,a mixture ( ! product ( metalepsis ) calcium *loride is obta9$4 ,?is mixture is employ$ 9 practice on a l>ge scale1 & is t]m$ 'blea*+ p[d]1' ow+ to its act+1 especially :5 mix$ ) acids1 z a blea*+ ag5t on tissues1 s t x resembles *lor9e 9 ?is respect4 ,x is h[ev] pref]able to *lor9e1 because ! de/ructive action ( ! *lor9e c be mod]at$ 9 ?is case1 & because x is mu* m conv5i5t to deal ) a solid sub/ance ?an ) gase\s *lor9e4 ,blea*+ p[d] is also call$ *loride ( lime1 because x is obta9$ f *lor9e & hydrate ( lime1 & conta9s#cj bo? ^! sub/ances4 ,x may be prep>$ 9 ! laboratory by pass+ a curr5t ( *lor9e ?r\gh a cold mixture ( wat] & lime 7milk ( lime74 ,! mixture mu/ be kept cold1 z o!rwise #c;,ca7,cl,o7#b passes into #b;,ca,cl#b ,ca7,cl,o#c7b4 ,9 ! manufacture ( blea*+ p[d] 9 l>ge quantities at *emical works1 ! pure/ possible slak$ lime is tak5 & laid 9 a ?9 lay] 9 l>ge flat *amb]s1 ,m 7^: walls are made ( ,york%ire flags or t>r$ wood1 on :i* *lor9e has no action71 & into :i* *lor9e gas is introduc$ by lead tubes4 ,! di/ribution ( ! plant is %[n 9 ! annex$ draw+ 7fig4 #fg74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,app>atus = ! manufacture ( blea*+ p[d] 7on a small scale7 by ! action ( *lor9e1 :i* is g5]at$ 9 ! vessels ,c1 on lime1 :i* is *>g$ into ,m4 #cj ,quicklime1 ,ca,o 7or calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o#c71 does n absorb *lor9e :5 cold1 b at a r$ heat1 9 a curr5t ( *lor9e1 x =ms calcium *loride1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg54 7,?is 0 confirm$ 9 #ahic by ,wells1 at ,ox=d47 ,?is reaction corresponds ) ! decompos+ action ( *lor9e on me?ane1 ammonia1 & wat]4 ,slak$ lime 7calcium hydroxide1 ,ca,h#b,o#b7 also1 :5 dry1 does n absorb *lor9e at #ajj4 ,! absorption proce$s at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7bel[ #dj74 ,! dry mass ?us obta9$ conta9s n less ?an ?ree equival5ts ( calcium hydroxide to f\r equival5ts ( *lor9e1 s t its composition is ,ca7,,ho7#be;,cl#d4 ,9 all probability a simple absorption ( *lor9e by ! lime at fir/ takes place 9 ?is case1 z may be se5 f ! fact t ev5 c>bonic anhydride1 :5 act+ on ! dry mass obta9$ z above1 dis5gages all ! *lor9e f x1 leav+ only calcium c>bonate4 ,b if ! blea*+ p[d] be obta9$ by a wet me?od1 or if x be dissolv$ 9 wat] 79 :i* x is v soluble71 & c>bonic anhydride be pass$ into x1 !n *lor9e is no long] dis5gag$1 b *lor9e oxide1 ,cl#b,o1 & only half ( ! *lor9e is conv]t$ into ?is oxide1 :ile ! o!r half rema9s 9 ! liquid z calcium *loride4 ,f ?is x may be inf]r$ t calcium *loride is =m$ by ! action ( wat] on blea*+ p[d]1 & ?is is prov$ to be ! case by ! fact t small quantities ( wat] extract a consid]able am\nt ( calcium *loride f blea*+ p[d]4 ,if a l>ge quantity ( wat] act on blea*+ p[d] an excess ( calcium hydroxide rema9s1 a portion ( :i* is n subject$ to *ange4 ,! action ( ! wat] may be express$ by ! foll[+ =mul3 ,f ! dry mass ,ca#c7;,,ho7#f;,cl#d !re is =m$ lime1 ,ca7,,ho7#b1 calcium *loride1 ,ca,cl#b1 & a sal9e sub/ance1 ,ca7,cl,o7#b4 ,ca#c;,h#f,o#f;,cl#d ,ca,h#b,o#b ,ca,cl#b,o#b ,ca,cl#b #b;,h#b,o4 ,! result+ sub/ances are n equally soluble2 wat] fir/ extracts ! calcium *loride1 :i* is ! mo/ soluble1 !n ! comp\nd ,ca7,cl,o7#b & ultimately calcium hydroxide is left4 ,a mixture ( calcium *loride & hypo*lorite passes into solution4 ,on evaporation !re rema9s ,ca#b,o#b;,cl#dc;,h#b,o4 ,! dry blea*+ p[d] does n absorb m *lor9e1 b ! solution is able to absorb x 9 consid]able quantity4 ,if ! liquid be boil$1 a consid]able am\nt ( *lor9e monoxide is evolv$4 ,aft] ?is calcium *loride alone rema9s 9 solution1 & ! decomposition may be express$ z foll[s3 ,ca,cl#b ,ca,cl#b,o#b #b;,cl#b #b;,ca,cl#b #b;,cl#b,o4 ,*lor9e monoxide may be prep>$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,x is sometimes said t blea*+ p[d] conta9s a sub/ance1 ,ca7,,oh7#b;,cl#b1 t is calcium p]oxide1 ,ca,o#b1 9 :i* "o atom ( oxyg5 is replac$ by 7,,oh7#b1 & ! o!r by ,cl#b2 b1 judg+ f :at has be5 said above1 ?is c only be ! case 9 ! dry /ate1 & n 9 solutions4 ,on be+ kept = "s "t1 blea*+ p[d] sometimes decomposes1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg5 7because ,ca,cl#b,o#b ,ca,cl#b ,o#b1 see p4 #afc72 ! same takes place :5 x is heat$4 ,! products ( ! metalepsis ( alkal9e hydrates1 ,na,cl,o & ,ca7,cl,o7#b1 :i* are pres5t 9 solutions ( ',javelle salt' & blea*+ p[d] 7!y are n obta9$ free f metallic *lorides71 mu/ be c\nt$ z salts1 because _! metals are capable ( sub/itution4 ,b ! hydrate ,h,cl,o correspond+ ) ^! salts1 or hypo*lor\s acid1 is n obta9$ 9 a free or pure /ate1 = two reasons3 9 ! fir/ place1 because ?is hydrate1 z a v feeble acid1 splits up 7l ,h#b;,,co#c or ,,hno#c7 into wat] & ! anhydride1 or *lor9e monoxide1 ,cl#b,o #b;,h,cl,o-,h#b,o2 &1 9 ! second place1 because1 9 a numb] ( in/ances1 x evolves oxyg5 ) great facility1 =m+ hydro*loric acid3 ,h,cl,o ,h,cl ,o4 ,bo? hypo*lor\s acid & *lor9e monoxide may be reg>d$ z products ( ! metalepsis ( wat]1 because ,,hoh corresponds ) ,cl,o,h & ,cl,o,cl4 ,h5ce 9 _m in/ances blea*+ salts 7a mixture ( hypo*lorites & *lorides7 break up1 ) ! evolution ( 7#a7 *lor9e1 "u ! action ( an excess ( a p[]ful acid capable ( evolv+ hydro*loric acid f sodium or calcium *lorides1 & ?is takes place mo/ simply "u ! action ( hydro*loric acid itself1 because 7p4 #dfb7 ,na,cl ,na,cl,o #c;,h,cl #b,na,cl ,h,cl ,cl#b ,h#b,o2 7#b7 oxyg51 z we saw 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,! blea*+ prop]ties &1 9 g5]al1 oxidis+ action ( blea*+ salts is bas$ on ?is evolution ( oxyg5 7or *lor9e72 oxyg5 is also dis5gag$ on heat+ ! dry salts--= in/ance1 ,na,cl ,na,cl,o #b,na,cl ,o2 7#c7 &1 la/ly1 *lor9e monoxide1 :i* conta9s bo? *lor9e & oxyg54 ,?us1 if a little sulphuric1 nitric1 or simil> acid 7n en\gh to lib]ate hydro*loric acid f ! ,ca,cl#b7 be add$ to a solution ( a blea*+ salt 7:i* has an alkal9e reaction1 ow+ ei!r to an excess ( alkali or to ! feeble acid prop]ties ( ,h,cl,o71 !n ! hypo*lor\s acid set free gives wat] & *lor9e monoxide4 ,if c>bonic anhydride 7or boracic or a simil> v feeble acid7 act on ! solution ( a blea*+ salt1 !n hydro*loric acid is n evolv$ f ! sodium or calcium *lorides1 b ! hypo*lor\s acid is displac$ & gives *lor9e monoxide1#ca because hypo*lor\s acid is "o ( ! mo/ feeble acids4 ,ano!r me?od = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e monoxide is bas$ on ^! feeble acid prop]ties ( hypo*lor\s acid4 ,z9c oxide & m]cury oxide1 "u ! action ( *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 d n give a salt ( hypo*lor\s acid1 b =m a *loride & hypo*lor\s acid1 :i* fact %[s ! incapacity ( ?is acid to comb9e ) ! bases m5tion$4 ,!re=e1 if su* oxides z ^? ( z9c or m]cury be %ak5 up 9 wat]1 & *lor9e be pass$ ?r\gh ! turbid liquid1#cb a reaction occurs :i* may be express$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 #b;,hg,o #b;,cl#b ,hg#b,o,cl#b ,cl#b,o4 ,9 ?is case1 a comp\nd ( m]cury oxide ) m]cury *loride1 or ! s-call$ m]cury oxy*loride1 is obta9$3 ,hg#b,o,cl#b ,hg,o ,hg,cl#b4 ,?is is insoluble 9 wat]1 & is n affect$ by hypo*lor\s anhydride1 s t ! solution w conta9 hypo*lor\s acid only1 b ! great] "p ( x splits up into ! anhydride & wat]4#cb bis #ca ,= ?is reason x is necess>y t 9 ! prep>ation ( blea*+ p[d] ! *lor9e %\ld be free f hydro*loric acid1 & ev5 ! lime f calcium *loride4 ,an excess ( *lor9e1 9 act+ on a solution ( blea*+ p[d]1 may also give *lor9e monoxide1 because calcium c>bonate also gives *lor9e monoxide "u ! action ( *lor9e4 ,?is reaction may be br\ght ab\t by treat+ fre%ly precipitat$ calcium c>bonate ) a /ream ( *lor9e 9 wat]3 #b;,cl#b ,ca,c,o#c ,,co#b ,ca,cl#b ,cl#b,o4 ,f ?is we may conclude t1 al?\gh c>bonic anhydride displaces hypo*lor\s anhydride1 x may be itself displac$ by an excess ( ! latt]4 #cb ,dry r$ m]cury oxide acts on *lor9e1 =m+ dry hypo*lor\s anhydride 7*lor9e monoxide7 7,bal>d72 :5 mix$ ) wat]1 r$ m]cury oxide acts feebly on *lor9e1 & :5 fre%ly precipitat$ x evolves oxyg5 & *lor9e4 ,an oxide ( m]cury :i* easily & abundantly evolves *lor9e monoxide "u ! action ( *lor9e 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] may be prep>$ z foll[s3 ! oxide ( m]cury1 precipitat$ f a m]curic salt by an alkali1 is heat$ to #cjj & cool$ 7,pel\ze74 ,if a salt1 ,m,cl,o1 be add$ to a solution ( m]curic salt1 ,hg,x#b1 m]curic oxide is lib]at$1 because ! hypo*lorite is decompos$4 #cb bis ,a solution ( hypo*lor\s anhydride is also obta9$ by ! action ( *lor9e on _m salts2 = example1 9 ! action ( *lor9e on a solution ( sodium sulphate ! foll[+ reaction takes place3 ,na#b,,s#d ,h#b,o ,cl#b ,na,cl ,h,cl,o ,na,h,s,o#d4 ,"h ! hypo*lor\s acid is =m$1 toge!r ) ,h,cl1 at ! exp5se ( *lor9e & wat]1 = ,cl#b ,h#b,o ,h,cl ,h,cl,o4 ,if ! cry/allo-hydrate ( *lor9e be mix$ ) m]cury oxide1 ! hydro*loric acid =m$ 9 ! reaction gives m]cury *loride1 & hypo*lor\s acid rema9s 9 solution4 ,a dilute solution ( hypo*lor\s acid or *lor9e monoxide may be conc5trat$ by di/illation1 & if a sub/ance :i* takes up wat] 7)\t de/roy+ ! acid7--= in/ance1 calcium nitrate--be add$ to ! /rong] solution1 !n ! anhydride ( hypo*lor\s acid--i4e4 *lor9e monoxide--is dis5gag$4 ,*lor9e monoxide1 :i* corresponds to blea*+ & hypo*lor\s salts1 conta9+ z x does ! two elem5ts oxyg5 & *lor9e1 =ms a *>act]i/ic example ( a comp\nd ( elem5ts :i*1 9 ! majority ( cases1 act *emically 9 an analog\s mann]4 ,*lor9e monoxide1 z prep>$ f an aque\s solution by ! ab/raction ( wat] or by ! action ( dry *lor9e on cold m]cury oxide1 is1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 a gas or vap\r :i* cond5ses into a r$ liquid boil+ at #bj & giv+ a vap\r ^: d5sity 7#dc ref]r$ to hydrog57 %[s t #b vols4 ( *lor9e & #a vol4 ( oxyg5 give #b vols4 ( *lor9e monoxide4 ,9 an anhydr\s =m ! gas or liquid easily explodes1 splitt+ up into *lor9e & oxyg54 ,?is explosiv5ess is det]m9$ by ! fact t heat is evolv$ 9 ! decomposition to ! am\nt ( ab\t #ae1jjj heat units = ,cl#b,o4#cc ,! explosion may ev5 take place spontane\sly1 & also 9 ! pres5ce ( _m oxidisable sub/ances 7= in/ance1 sulphur1 organic comp\nds1 c471 b ! solution1 al?\gh un/able & %[+ a /rong oxidis+ t5d5cy1 does n explode4#cd ,x is evid5t t ! pres5ce ( hypo*lor\s acid1 ,h,cl,o1 may be assum$ 9 an aque\s solution ( ,cl#b,o1 s9ce ,cl#b,o ,h#b,o #b;,h,cl,o4 #cc ,all explosive sub/ances are ( ?is k9d--ozone1 hydrog5 p]oxide1 *loride ( nitrog51 nitro-comp\nds1 c4 ,h5ce !y _c be =m$ directly f ! elem5ts or _! simple/ comp\nds1 b1 on ! contr>y1 decompose into !m4 ,9 a liquid /ate *lor9e monoxide explodes ev5 on contact ) p[d]y sub/ances1 or :5 rapidly agitat$--= in/ance1 if a file be rasp$ ov] ! vessel 9 :i* x is conta9$4 #cd ,a solution ( *lor9e monoxide1 or hypo*lor\s acid1 does n explode1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( ! mass ( wat]4 ,9 dissolv+1 *lor9e monoxide evolves ab\t #i1jjj heat units1 s t its /ore ( heat becomes less4 ,! capacity ( hypo*lor\s acid 7/udi$ by ,c>ius & o!rs7 = ent]+ into comb9ation ) ! unsaturat$ hydroc>bons is v (t5 tak5 advantage ( 9 organic *emi/ry4 ,?us its solution absorbs e?yl5e1 =m+ ! *lorhydr9 ,c#b;,h#d;,cl,o,h4 ,! oxidis+ action ( hypo*lor\s acid & its salts is n only appli$ to blea*+ b also to _m reactions ( oxidation4 ,?us x conv]ts ! l[] oxides ( manganese into ! p]oxide4 ,hypo*lor\s acid1 its salts1 & *lor9e monoxide s]ve z a transition betwe5 hydro*loric acid1 *lorides1 & *lor9e1 & a :ole s]ies ( comp\nds conta9+ ! same elem5ts comb9$ ) a /ill great] quantity ( oxyg54 ,! high] oxides ( *lor9e1 z _! orig9 indicates1 are closely connect$ ) hypo*lor\s acid & its salts3 ,cl#b1 ,na,cl1 ,h,cl1 hydro*loric acid4 ,cl#b,o1 ,na,cl,o1 ,h,cl,o1 hypo*lor\s acid4 ,cl#b,o#c1 ,na,cl,o#b1 ,h,cl,o#b1 *lor\s acid4#ce ,cl#b,o#e1 ,na,cl,o#c1 ,h,cl,o#c1 *loric acid4 ,cl#b,o#g1 ,na,cl,o#d1 ,h,cl,o#d1 p]*loric acid4 ,:5 heat$1 solutions ( hypo*lorites und]go a rem>kable *ange4 ,!mselves s un/able1 !y1 )\t any fur!r addition1 yield two fre% salts :i* are bo? mu* m /able2 "o conta9s m oxyg5 ?an ,m,cl,o1 ! o!r conta9s none at all4 #c,m,cl,o ,m,cl,o#c #b,m,cl hypo*lorite *lorate *loride #ce ,*lor\s acid1 ,h,cl,o#b 7accord+ to ! data giv5 by ,millon1 ,br&au1 & o!rs7 9 _m respects resembles hypo*lor\s acid1 ,h,cl,o1 :il/ !y bo? diff] f *loric & p]*loric acids 9 _! degree ( /ability1 :i* is express$1 = in/ance1 9 _! blea*+ prop]ties2 ! two high] acids d n blea*1 b bo? ! l[] ones d s 7oxidise at ! ord9>y temp]ature74 ,on ! o!r h&1 *lor\s acid is analog\s to nitr\s acid1 ,,hno#b4 ,! anhydride ( *lor\s acid1 ,cl#b,o#c1 is n kn[n 9 a pure /ate1 b x probably occurs 9 admixture ) *lor9e dioxide1 ,cl,o#b1 :i* is obta9$ by ! action ( nitric & sulphuric acids on a mixture ( potassium *lorate ) su* r$uc+ sub/ances z nitric oxide1 ars5i\s oxide1 sug>1 c4 ,all t is at pres5t kn[n is t pure *lor9e dioxide ,cl,o#b 7see ,notes #ci-dc7 is gradually conv]t$ into a mixture ( hypo*lor\s & *lor\s acids "u ! action ( wat] 7& alkalis72 t is1 x acts l nitric p]oxide1 ,,no#b 7giv+ ,,hno#c & ,,hno#b71 or z a mix$ anhydride1 #b;,cl,o#b ,h#b,o ,h,cl,o#c ,h,cl,o#b4 ,! silv] salt1 ,ag,cl,o#b1 is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,! inve/igations ( ,g>z>olli-,?urnlackh & o!rs seem to %[ t ! anhydride ,cl#b,o#c does n exi/ 9 a free /ate4 ,"p ( ! salt--namely1 two-?irds ( x--p>ts ) its oxyg5 9 ord] to oxidise ! rema9+ ?ird4#cf ,f an int]m$iate sub/ance1 ,,rx1 two extremes1 ,r & ,,rx#c are =m$1 j z nitr\s anhydride splits up into nitric oxide & nitric anhydride 7or nitric acid74 ,! result+ salt1 ,m,cl,o#c1 corresponds ) *loric acid & potassium *lorate1 ,k,cl,o#c4 ,x is evid5t t a simil> salt may be obta9$ directly by ! action ( *lor9e on an alkali if its solution be heat$1 because ,r,cl,o w be fir/ =m$1 & !n ,r,cl,o#c2 = example1 #f,,kho #c;,cl#b ,k,cl,o#c #e,k,cl #c;,h#b,o4 ,*lorates are s prep>$2 = in/ance1 potassium *lorate1 :i* is easily sep>at$ f potassium *loride1 be+ sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat]4#cg #cf ,hydro*loric acid1 :i* is an example ( comp\nds ( ?is k9d1 is a saturat$ sub/ance :i* does n comb9e directly ) oxyg51 b 9 :i*1 nev]!less1 a consid]able quantity ( oxyg5 may be ins]t$ betwe5 ! elem5ts =m+ x4 ,! same may be obs]v$ 9 a numb] ( o!r cases4 ,?us oxyg5 may be add$ or ins]t$ betwe5 ! elem5ts1 sometimes 9 consid]able quantities1 9 ! saturat$ hydroc>bons2 = in/ance1 9 ,c#c;,h#h1 ?ree atoms ( oxyg5 produce an alcohol1 glyc]9 or glyc]ol1 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c4 ,we %all meet ) simil> examples h]eaft]4 ,?is is g5]ally expla9$ by reg>d+ oxyg5 z a bival5t elem5t--t is1 z capable ( comb9+ ) two diff]5t elem5ts1 su* z *lor9e1 hydrog51 c4 ,on ! basis ( ?is view1 x may be ins]t$ betwe5 ea* pair ( comb9$ elem5ts2 ! oxyg5 w !n be comb9$ ) "o ( ! elem5ts by "o ( its aff9ities & ) ! o!r elem5t by its o!r aff9ity4 ,?is view does n1 h[ev]1 express ! entire tru? ( ! matt]1 ev5 :5 appli$ to ! comp\nds ( *lor9e4 ,hypo*lor\s acid1 ,h,o,cl--t is1 hydro*loric acid 9 :i* "o atom ( oxyg5 is ins]t$--is1 z we h already se51 a sub/ance ( small /ability2 x might !re=e be expect$ t on ! addition ( a fre% quantity ( oxyg51 a /ill less /able sub/ance w\ld be obta9$1 because1 accord+ to ! above view1 ! *lor9e & hydrog51 :i* =m su* a /able comp\nd toge!r1 are !n /ill fur!r remov$ f ea* o!r4 ,b x appe>s t *loric & p]*loric acid1 ,h,cl,o#c & ,h,cl,o#d1 are mu* m /able sub/ances4 ,fur!rmore1 ! addition ( oxyg5 has also its limit1 x c only be add$ to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,if ! above repres5tation 7 true & n m]ely hypo!tical1 !re w\ld be no limit to ! comb9ation ( oxyg51 & ! m x ent]$ into "o cont9u\s *a9 ! m un/able w\ld be ! resultant comp\nd4 ,b n m ?an f\r atoms ( oxyg5 c be add$ to hydrog5 sulphide1 nor to hydro*loric acid1 nor to hydrog5 phosphide4 ,?is peculi>ity mu/ lie 9 ! prop]ties ( oxyg5 itself2 f\r atoms ( oxyg5 seem to h ! p[] ( =m+ a k9d ( radicle :i* reta9s two or sev]al atoms ( v>i\s o!r sub/ances--= example1 *lor9e & hydrog51 hydrog5 & sulphur1 sodium & manganese1 phosphorus & metals1 c41 =m+ comp>atively /able comp\nds1 ,na,cl,o#d1 ,na#b,,s#d1 ,na,mn,o#d1 ,na#c,,po#d1 c4 ,see ,*apt] ,x4 ,note #a & ,*apt] ,,xv4 #cg ,if *lor9e be pass$ ?r\gh a cold solution ( pota%1 a blea*+ comp\nd1 potassium *loride & hypo*lorite1 ,k,cl ,k,cl,o1 is =m$1 b if x be pass$ ?r\gh a hot solution potassium *lorate is =m$4 ,z ?is is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 x *okes ! gas-conduct+ tube1 :i* %\ld !re=e be wid5$ out at ! end4 ,potassium *lorate is usually obta9$ on a l>ge scale f calcium *lorate1 :i* is prep>$ by pass+ *lor9e 7z long z x is absorb$7 into wat] conta9+ lime1 ! mixture be+ kept w>m4 ,a mixture ( calcium *lorate & *loride is ?us =m$ 9 ! solution4 ,potassium *loride is !n add$ to ! w>m solution1 & on cool+ a precipitate ( potassium *lorate is =m$ z a sub/ance :i* is sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat]1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( o!r salts4 ,! d\ble decomposition tak+ place is ,ca7,cl,o#c7b #b,k,cl ,ca,cl#b #b,k,cl,o#c4 ,on a small scale 9 ! laboratory potassium *lorate is be/ prep>$ f a /rong solution ( blea*+ p[d] by pass+ *lor9e ?r\gh x & !n add+ potassium *loride4 ,k,cl,o#c is always =m$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t on a solution ( ,k,cl1 especially at #hj 7,huss]mann & ,nas*old1 #ahid71 s t ?is me?od is n[ us$ on a l>ge scale4 ,potassium *lorate cry/allises easily 9 l>ge col\rless tabul> cry/als4 ,its solubility 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #j #c p>ts1 #bj #h p>ts1 #dj #ad p>ts1 #fj #be p>ts1 #hj #dj p>ts4 ,= comp>ison we w cite ! foll[+ figures %[+ ! solubility ( potassium *loride & p]*lorate 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat]3 potassium *loride at ,o #bh p>ts1 #bj #ce p>ts1 #dj #dj p>ts1 #ajj #eg p>ts2 potassium p]*lorate at #j ab\t #a "p1 #bj ab\t #a-c_/d "p1 #ajj ab\t #ah p>ts4 ,:5 heat$1 potassium *lorate melts 7! melt+ po9t has be5 giv5 z f #cce-cgf2 accord+ to ! late/ det]m9ation by ,c>nelley1 #cei7 & decomposes ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 potassium p]*lorate be+ at fir/ =m$1 z w aft]w>ds be describ$ 7see ,note #dg74 ,a mixture ( potassium *lorate & nitric & hydro*loric acids effects oxidation & *lor9ation 9 solutions4 ,x deflagrates :5 ?r[n ^u inc&esc5t c>bon1 & :5 mix$ ) sulphur 7#a_/c by weight7 x ignites x on be+ /ruck1 9 :i* case an explosion takes place4 ,! same occurs ) _m metallic sulphides & organic sub/ances4 ,su* mixtures are also ignit$ by a drop ( sulphuric acid4 ,all ^! effects are due to ! l>ge am\nt ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 potassium *lorate1 & to ! ease ) :i* x is evolv$4 ,a mixture ( two p>ts ( potassium *lorate1 "o "p ( sug>1 & "o "p ( yell[ prussiate ( pota% acts l gunp[d]1 b burns too rapidly1 & !re=e bur/s ! guns1 & x also has a v /rong oxidis+ action on _! metal4 ,! sodium salt1 ,na,cl,o#c1 is mu* m soluble ?an ! potassium salt1 & x is !re=e m difficult to free x f sodium *loride1 c4 ,! b>ium salt is also m soluble ?an ! potassium salt2 ,o #bd p>ts1 #bj #cg p>ts1 #hj #ih p>ts ( salt p] #ajj ( wat]4 ,if dilute sulphuric acid be add$ to a solution ( potassium *lorate1 *loric acid is lib]at$1 b x _c be sep>at$ by di/illation1 z x is decompos$ 9 ! process4 ,to obta9 ! free acid1 sulphuric acid mu/ be add$ to a solution ( b>ium *lorate4#ch ,! sulphuric acid gives a precipitate ( b>ium sulphate1 & free *loric acid rema9s 9 solution4 ,! solution may be evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump4 ,?is solution is col\rless1 has no smell1 & acts z a p[]ful acid 7x neutralises sodium hydroxide1 decomposes sodium c>bonate1 gives hydrog5 ) z9c1 c472 :5 heat$ above #dj1 h[ev]1 x decomposes1 =m+ *lor9e1 oxyg51 & p]*loric acid3 #d;,h,cl,o#c #b;,h,cl,o#d ,h#b,o ,cl#b ,o#c4 ,9 a conc5trat$ condition ! acid acts z an exce$+ly en]getic oxidis]1 s t organic sub/ances br\ght into contact ) x bur/ into flame4 ,iod9e1 sulphur\s acid1 & simil> oxidisable sub/ances =m high] oxidation products & r$uce ! *loric acid to hydro*loric acid4 ,hydro*loric acid gas gives *lor9e ) *loric acid 7& consequ5tly ) ,k,cl,o#c also7 act+ 9 ! same mann] z x acts on ! l[] acids3 ,h,cl,o#c #e;,h,cl #c;,h#b,o #c;,cl#b4 #ch ,b>ium *lorate1 ,ba7,cl,o#c7b1;,h#b,o1 is prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ way3 impure *loric acid is fir/ prep>$ & saturat$ ) b>yta1 & ! b>ium salt purifi$ by cry/allisation4 ,! impure free *loric acid is obta9$ by conv]t+ ! potassium 9 potassium *lorate into an insoluble salt4 ,?is is done by add+ t>t>ic or hydr(luosilicic acid to a solution ( potassium *lorate1 because potassium t>trate & potassium silic(luoride are v sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]4 ,*loric acid is easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,by cauti\sly act+ on potassium *lorate ) sulphuric acid1 ! dioxide 7*loric p]oxide71 ,cl,o#b1ci is obta9$ 7,davy1 ,millon74 ,?is gas is easily liquefi$ 9 a freez+ mixture1 & boils at #aj4 ,! vap\r d5sity 7ab\t #ce if ,h #a7 %[s t ! molecule ( ?is sub/ance is ,cl,o#b4dj ,9 a gase\s or liquid /ate x v easily explodes 7= in/ance1 at #fj1 or by contact ) organic comp\nds or f9ely divid$ sub/ances1 c471 =m+ ,cl & ,o#b1 & 9 _m in/ances#da !re=e x acts z an oxidis+ ag5t1 al?\gh 7l nitric p]oxide7 x may itself be fur!r oxidis$4#db ,9 dissolv+ 9 wat] or alkalis *loric p]oxide gives *lor\s & hypo*lor\s acids--#b;,cl,o#b #b,,kho ,k,cl,o#c ,k,cl,o#b ,h#b,o--& !re=e1 l nitric p]oxide1 ! dioxide may be reg>d$ z an int]m$iate oxide betwe5 ! 7unkn[n7 anhydrides ( *lor\s & *loric acids3 #d;,cl,o#b ,cl#b,o#c ,cl#b,o#c4dc #ci ,to prep>e ,cl,o#b #ajj grams ( sulphuric acid are cool$ 9 a mixture ( ice & salt1 & #ae grams ( p[d]$ potassium *lorate are gradually add$ to ! acid1 :i* is !n c>efully di/ill$ at #bj to #dj1 ! vap\r giv5 (f be+ cond5s$ 9 a freez+ mixture4 ,potassium p]*lorate is !n =m$3 #c,k,cl,o#c #b;,h#b,,s#d #b,,khso#d ,k,cl,o#d #b;,cl,o#b ,h#b,o4 ,! reaction may result 9 an explosion4 ,calv]t & ,davies obta9$ *loric p]oxide )\t ! lea/ dang] by heat+ a mixture ( oxalic acid & potassium *lorate 9 a te/ tube 9 a wat]-ba?4 ,9 ?is case #b,k,cl,o#c #c;,c#b;,h#b,o#d1b;,h#b,o #b;,c#b;,,hko#d #b;,,co#b #b;,cl,o#b #h;,h#b,o4 ,! reaction is /ill fur!r facilitat$ by ! addition ( a small quantity ( sulphuric acid4 ,if a solution ( ,h,cl acts ^u ,k,cl,o#c at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 a mixture ( ,cl#b & ,cl,o#b is =m$1 b if ! temp]ature be rais$ to #hj ! great] "p ( ! ,cl,o#b decomposes1 & :5 pass$ ?r\gh a hot solution ( ,mn,cl#b x oxidises x4 ,goo* & ,kreid] propos$ 7#ahid7 to employ ?is me?od = prep>+ small quantities ( *lor9e 9 ! laboratory4 #dj ,by analogy ) nitric p]oxide x might be expect$ t at l[ temp]atures a d\bl+ ( ! molecule into ,cl#b,o#d w\ld take place1 z ! reactions ( ,cl,o#b po9t to its be+ a mix$ anhydride ( ,h,cl,o#b & ,h,cl,o#c4 #da ,ow+ to ! =mation ( ?is *lor9e dioxide1 a mixture ( potassium *lorate & sug> is ignit$ by a drop ( sulphuric acid4 ,?is prop]ty 0 =m]ly made use ( = mak+ mat*es1 & is n[ sometimes employ$ = sett+ fire to explosive *>ges by means ( an arrangem5t 9 :i* ! acid is caus$ to fall on ! mixture at ! mom5t requir$4 ,an int]e/+ exp]im5t on ! combu/ion ( phosphorus "u wat] may be conduct$ ) *lor9e dioxide4 ,pieces ( phosphorus & ( potassium *lorate are plac$ "u wat]1 & sulphuric acid is p\r$ on to !m 7?r\gh a long funnel72 ! phosphorus !n burns at ! exp5se ( ! *lor9e dioxide4 #db ,potassium p]manganate oxidises *lor9e dioxide into *loric acid 7,fr/74 #dc ,! eu*lor9e obta9$ by ,davy by g5tly heat+ potassium *lorate ) hydro*loric acid is 7,pebal7 a mixture ( *lor9e dioxide & free *lor9e4 ,! liquid & gase\s *lor9e oxide 7,note #ce71 :i* ,millon consid]$ to be ,cl#b,o#c1 probably conta9s a mixture ( ,cl,o#b 7vap\r d5sity #ce71 ,cl#b,o#c 7^: vap\r d5sity %\ld be #ei71 & *lor9e 7vap\r d5sity #cee71 s9ce its vap\r d5sity 0 det]m9$ to be ab\t #dj4 ,z ! salts ( *loric acid1 ,h,cl,o#c1 are produc$ by ! splitt+ up ( ! salts ( hypo*lor\s acid1 s 9 ! same way ! salts ( p]*loric acid1 ,h,cl,o#d1 are produc$ f ! salts ( *loric acid1 ,h,cl,o#c4 ,b ?is is ! highe/ =m ( ! oxidation ( ,h,cl4 ,p]*loric acid1 ,h,cl,o#d1 is ! mo/ /able ( all ! acids ( *lor9e4 ,:5 fus$ potassium *lorate beg9s to swell up & solidify1 aft] hav+ p>t$ ) "o-?ird ( its oxyg51 potassium *loride & potassium p]*lorate h be5 =m$ accord+ to ! equation #b,k,cl,o#c ,k,cl,o#d ,k,cl ,o#b4 ,! =mation ( ?is salt is easily obs]v$ 9 ! prep>ation ( oxyg5 f potassium *lorate1 ow+ to ! fact t ! potassium p]*lorate fuses ) great] difficulty ?an ! *lorate1 & !re=e appe>s 9 ! molt5 salt z solid gra9s 7see ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,note #ab74 ,"u ! action ( c]ta9 acids--= in/ance1 sulphuric & nitric--potassium *lorate also gives potassium p]*lorate4 ,?is latt] may be easily purifi$1 because x is b sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 al?\gh all ! o!r salts ( p]*loric acid are v soluble & ev5 deliquesce 9 ! air4 ,! p]*lorates1 al?\gh !y conta9 m oxyg5 ?an ! *lorates1 are decompos$ ) great] difficulty1 & ev5 :5 ?r[n on ignit$ *>coal give a mu* feebl] deflagration ?an ! *lorates4 ,sulphuric acid 7at a temp]ature n bel[ #ajj7 evolves volatile & to a c]ta9 ext5t /able p]*loric acid f potassium p]*lorate4 ,nei!r sulphuric nor any o!r acid w fur!r decompose p]*loric acid z x decomposes *loric acid4 ,( all ! acids ( *lor9e1 p]*loric acid alone c be di/ill$4#dd ,! pure hydrate ,h,cl,o#dde is a col\rless & exce$+ly cau/ic sub/ance :i* fumes 9 ! air & has a specific gravity #agh at #ae 7sometimes1 aft] be+ kept = "s "t1 x decomposes ) a viol5t explosion74 ,x explodes viol5tly :5 br\ght into contact ) *>coal1 pap]1 wood1 & o!r organic sub/ances4 ,if a small quantity ( wat] be add$ to ?is hydrate1 & x be cool$1 a cry/allo-hydrate1 ,cl,h,o#d1;,h#b,o1 sep>ates out4 ,?is is mu* m /able1 b ! liquid hydrate ,h,cl,o#d1b;,h#b,o is /ill m s4 ,! acid dissolves 9 wat] 9 all proportions1 & its solutions are di/+ui%$ = _! /ability4#df ,:5 ignit$ bo? ! acid & its salts are decompos$1 ) ! evolution ( oxyg54#dg #dd ,if a solution ( *loric acid1 ,h,cl,o#c1 be fir/ conc5trat$ ov] sulphuric acid "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump & aft]w>ds di/ill$1 *lor9e & oxyg5 are evolv$ & p]*loric acid is =m$3 #d;,h,cl,o#c #b;,h,cl,o#d ,cl#b #c,o ,h#b,o4 ,roscoe accord+ly decompos$ directly a solution ( potassium *lorate by hydr(luosilicic acid1 decant$ x f ! precipitate ( potassium silic(luoride1 ,k#b,si,f#f1 conc5trat$ ! solution ( *loric acid1 & !n di/ill$ x1 p]*loric acid be+ !n obta9$ 7see foll[+ footnote74 ,t *loric acid is capable ( pass+ into p]*loric acid is also se5 f ! fact t potassium p]manganate is decoloris$1 al?\gh sl[ly1 by ! action ( a solution ( *loric acid4 ,on decompos+ a solution ( potassium *lorate by ! action ( an electric curr5t1 potassium p]*lorate is obta9$ at ! positive electrode 7:]e ! oxyg5 is evolv$74 ,p]*loric acid is also =m$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t on solutions ( *lor9e & *lor9e monoxide4 ,p]*loric acid 0 obta9$ by ,c\nt ,/adion & aft]w>ds by ,s]ullas1 & 0 /udi$ by ,roscoe & o!rs4 #de ,p]*loric acid1 :i* is obta9$ 9 a free /ate by ! action ( sulphuric acid on its salts1 may be sep>at$ f a solution v easily by di/illation1 be+ volatile1 al?\gh x is p>tially decompos$ by di/illation4 ,! solution obta9$ aft] di/illation may be conc5trat$ by evaporation 9 op5 vessels4 ,9 ! di/illation ! solution rea*es a temp]ature ( #bjj1 & !n a v con/ant liquid hydrate ( ! composition ,h,cl,o#d1b;,h#b,o is obta9$ 9 ! di/illate4 ,if ?is hydrate be mix$ ) sulphuric acid1 x beg9s to decompose at #ajj1 b nev]!less a portion ( ! acid passes ov] into ! receiv] )\t decompos+1 =m+ a cry/all9e hydrate ,h,cl,o#d1;,h#b,o :i* melts at #ej4 ,on c>efully heat+ ?is hydrate x breaks up into p]*loric acid1 :i* di/ills ov] bel[ #ajj1 & into ! liquid hydrate ,h,cl,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,! acid ,h,cl,o#d may also be obta9$ by add+ "o-f\r? "p ( /rong sulphuric acid to potassium *lorate1 c>efully di/ill+ & subject+ ! cry/als ( ! hydrate ,h,cl,o#d1;,h#b,o obta9$ 9 ! di/illate to a fre% di/illation4 ,p]*loric acid1 ,h,cl,o#d1 itself does n di/il1 & is decompos$ on di/illation until ! m /able hydrate ,h,cl,o#d1 ,h#b,o is =m$2 ?is decomposes into ,h,cl,o#d & ,h,cl,o#d1b;,h#b,o1 :i* latt] hydrate di/ils )\t decomposition4 ,?is =ms an excell5t example ( ! influ5ce ( wat] on /ability1 & ( ! prop]ty ( *lor9e ( giv+ comp\nds ( ! type ,cl,x#g1 ( :i* all ! above hydrates1 ,cl,o#c7,,oh71 ,cl,o#b7,,oh7#c1 & ,cl,o7,,oh7#e1 are memb]s4 ,probably fur!r rese>* w lead to ! discov]y ( a hydrate ,cl7,,oh7#g4 #df ,accord+ to ,roscoe ! specific gravity ( p]*loric acid #aghb & ( ! hydrate ,h,cl,o#d1;,h#b,o 9 a liquid /ate 7#ej7 #ahaa2 h5ce a consid]able contraction takes place 9 ! comb9ation ( ,h,cl,o#d ) ,h#b,o4 #dg ,! decomposition ( salts analog\s to potassium *lorate has be5 m fully /udi$ 9 rec5t ye>s by ,potilitz9 & ,p4 ,frankl&4 ,pr(essor ,potilitz91 by decompos+1 = example1 li?ium *lorate ,li,cl,o#c1 f\nd 7f ! quantity ( li?ium *loride & oxyg57 t at fir/ ! decomposition ( ! fus$ salt 7#cfh7 takes place accord+ to ! equation1 #c,li,cl,o#c #b,li,cl ,li,cl,o#d #e,o1 & t t[>ds ! end ! rema9+ salt is decompos$ ?us3 #e,li,cl,o#c #d,li,cl ,li,cl,o#d #aj,o4 ,! ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,potilitz9 oblig$ him to admit t li?ium p]*lorate is capable ( decompos+ simultane\sly ) li?ium *lorate1 ) ! =mation ( ! latt] salt & oxyg52 & ?is 0 confirm$ by direct exp]im5t1 :i* %[$ t li?ium *lorate is always =m$ 9 ! decomposition ( ! p]*lorate4 ,potilitz9 drew p>ticul> att5tion to ! fact t ! decomposition ( potassium *lorate & ( salts analog\s to x1 al?\gh exo!rmal 7,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #ab71 n only does n proce$ spontane\sly1 b requires "t & a rise ( temp]ature 9 ord] to atta9 completion1 :i* aga9 %[s t *emical equilibria are n det]m9$ by ! heat effects ( reactions only4 ,p4 ,frankl& & ,j4 ,d+wall 7#ahhg7 %[$ t at #ddh 79 ! vap\r ( sulphur7 a mixture ( potassium *lorate & p[d]$ glass is decompos$ almo/ 9 accordance ) ! equation #b,k,cl,o#c ,k,cl,o#d ,k,cl ,o#b1 :il/ ! salt by itself evolves ab\t half z mu* oxyg51 9 accordance ) ! equation1 #h,k,cl,o#c #e,k,cl,o#d #c,k,cl #b,o#b4 ,! decomposition ( potassium p]*lorate 9 admixture ) manganese p]oxide proce$s to completion1 ,k,cl,o#d ,k,cl #b,o#b4 ,b 9 decompos+ by itself ! salt at fir/ gives potassium *lorate1 approximately accord+ to ! equation #g,k,cl,o#d #b,k,cl,o#c #e,k,cl #aa,o#b4 ,?us !re is n[ no d\bt t :5 potassium *lorate is heat$1 ! p]*lorate is =m$1 & t ?is salt1 9 decompos+ ) evolution ( oxyg51 aga9 gives ! =m] salt4 ,9 ! decomposition ( b>ium hypo*lorite1 #ej p] c5t4 ( ! :ole am\nt passes into *lorate1 9 ! decomposition ( /rontium hypo*lorite 7,potilitz91 #ahij7 #abe p] c5t41 & ( calcium hypo*lorite ab\t #be p] c5t4 ,besides :i* ,potilitz9 %[$ t ! decomposition ( ! hypo*lorites & also ( ! *lorates is always accompani$ by ! =mation ( a c]ta9 quantity ( ! oxides & by ! evolution ( *lor9e1 ! *lor9e be+ displac$ by ! oxyg5 dis5gag$4 ,spr+ & ,pro/ 7#ahhi7 repres5t ! evolution ( oxyg5 f ,k,cl,o#c z due to ! salt fir/ splitt+ up into base & anhydride1 ?us 7#a7 #b,m,cl,o#c ,m#b,o ,cl#b,o#e2 7#b7 ,cl#b,o#e ,cl#b ,o#c2 & 7#c7 ,m#b,o ,cl #b,m,cl ,o4 ,i may fur!r rem>k t ! decomposition ( potassium *lorate z a reaction evolv+ heat easily l5ds itself = ?is v reason to ! contact action ( manganese p]oxide & o!r simil> admixtures2 = su* v feeble influ5ces z ^? ( contact may become evid5t ei!r 9 ^? cases 7= in/ance1 detonat+ gas1 hydrog5 p]oxide1 c471 :5 ! reaction is accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat1 or :5 7= in/ance1 ,h#b ,i#b1 c47 little heat is absorb$ or evolv$4 ,9 ^! cases x is evid5t t ! exi/+ equilibrium is n v /able1 & t a small alt]ation 9 ! conditions at ! surfaces ( contact may suffice to upset x4 ,9 ord] to conceive ! modus op]&i ( contact ph5om5a1 x is en\gh to imag9e1 = in/ance1 t at ! surface ( contact ! movem5t ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules *anges f a circul> to an elliptical pa?4 ,mom5t>y & transitory comp\nds may he =m$1 b _! =mation _c affect ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 ,on comp>+ *lor9e z an elem5t n only ) nitrog5 & c>bon b ) all ! o!r non-metallic elem5ts 7*lor9e has s little analogy ) ! metals t a comp>ison ) !m w\ld be sup]flu\s71 we f9d 9 x ! foll[+ fundam5tal prop]ties ( ! halog5s or salt-produc]s4 ,) metals *lor9e gives salts 7su* z sodium *loride1 c472 ) hydrog5 a v en]getic & monobasic acid ,h,cl1 & ! same quantity ( *lor9e is able by metalepsis to replace ! hydrog52 ) oxyg5 x =ms un/able oxides ( an acid "*4 ,^! prop]ties ( *lor9e are possess$ by ?ree o!r elem5ts1 brom9e1 iod9e1 & fluor9e4 ,!y are memb]s ( "o natural family4 ,ea* repres5tative has its peculi>ities1 its individual prop]ties & po9ts ( di/9ction1 9 comb9ation & 9 ! free /ate--o!rwise !y w\ld n be indep5d5t elem5ts2 b ! repetition 9 all ( !m ( ! same *ief *>act]i/ics ( ! family enables "o m quickly to grasp all _! v>i\s prop]ties & to classify ! elem5ts !mselves4 ,9 ord] to h a guid+ ?read 9 =m+ comp>isons betwe5 ! elem5ts1 att5tion mu/ h[ev] be turn$ n only to _! po9ts ( resemblance b also to ^? ( _! prop]ties & *>act]s 9 :i* !y diff] mo/ f ea* o!r4 ,& ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts mu/ be consid]$ z _! mo/ elem5t>y prop]ty1 s9ce ?is is a quantity :i* is mo/ firmly e/abli%$1 & mu/ be tak5 acc\nt ( 9 all ! reactions ( ! elem5t4 ,! halog5s h ! foll[+ atomic weights-- ,f #ai1 ,cl #cee1 ,br #hj1 ,i #abg4 ,all ! prop]ties1 physical & *emical1 ( ! elem5ts & _! correspond+ comp\nds mu/ evid5tly be 9 a c]ta9 dep5d5ce on ?is fundam5tal po9t1 if ! gr\p+ 9 "o family be natural4#dg bis ,& we f9d 9 reality t1 = in/ance1 ! prop]ties ( brom9e1 ^: atomic weight is almo/ ! mean betwe5 ^? ( iod9e & *lor9e1 occupy a mean position betwe5 ^? ( ^! two elem5ts4 ,! second measurable prop]ty ( ! elem5ts is _! equival5ce or _! capacity = =m+ comp\nds ( def9ite =ms4 ,?us c>bon or nitrog5 9 ?is respect diff]s widely f ! halog5s4 ,al?\gh ! =m ,cl,o#b corresponds ) ,,no#b & ,,co#b1 yet ! la/ is ! highe/ oxide ( c>bon1 :il/ t ( nitrog5 is ,n#b,o#e1 & = *lor9e1 if !re 7 an anhydride ( p]*loric acid1 its composition w\ld be ,cl#b,o#g1 :i* is q diff]5t f t ( c>bon4 ,9 respect to ! =ms ( _! comp\nds ! halog5s1 l all elem5ts ( "o family or gr\p1 are p]fectly analog\s to ea* o!r1 z is se5 f _! hydrog5 comp\nds3 ,,hf1 ,h,cl1 ,h,br1 ,,hi4 #dg bis ,see1 = example ! melt+ po9t ( ,na,cl1 ,na,br1 ,na,i 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,note #bg4 ,accord+ to ,f4 ,frey] & ,v4 ,mey] 7#ahib71 ! foll[+ are ! boil+ po9ts ( "s ( ! correspond+ comp\nds ( *lor9e & brom9e3 ,b,cl#e #ag ,b,br#c #ij ,si,cl#c #ei ,si,br#d #aec ,p,cl#c #gf ,p,br#c #age ,sb,cl#c #bbc ,sb,br#c #bge ,bi,cl#c #ddg ,bi,br#c #dec ,sn,cl#d #fjf ,sn,br#d #fai ,zn,cl#b #gcj ,zn,br#b #fej ,?us = all ! m volatile comp\nds ! replacem5t ( *lor9e by brom9e raises ! boil+ po9t1 b 9 ! ease ( ,zn,x#b x l[]s x 7,*apt] ,,xv4 ,note #ai74 ,_! oxyg5 comp\nds exhibit a simil> analogy4 ,only fluor9e does n give any oxyg5 comp\nds4 ,! iod9e & brom9e comp\nds correspond+ ) ,h,cl,o#c & ,h,cl,o#d are ,h,br,o#c & ,h,br,o#d1 ,,hio#c & ,,hio#d4 ,on comp>+ ! prop]ties ( ^! acids we c ev5 pr$ict t fluor9e w n =m any oxyg5 comp\nd4 ,= iod9e is easily oxidis$--= in/ance1 by nitric acid--:il/ *lor9e is n directly oxidis$4 ,! oxyg5 acids ( iod9e are comp>atively m /able ?an ^? ( *lor9e2 &1 g5]ally speak+1 ! aff9ity ( iod9e = oxyg5 is mu* great] ?an t ( *lor9e4 ,"h also brom9e occupies an int]m$iate position4 ,9 fluor9e we may !re=e expect a /ill small] aff9ity = oxyg5 ?an 9 *lor9e--& up to n[ x has n be5 comb9$ ) oxyg54 ,if any oxyg5 comp\nds ( fluor9e %\ld be obta9$1 !y w naturally be exce$+ly un/able4 ,! relation ( ^! elem5ts to hydrog5 is ! rev]se ( ! above4 ,fluor9e has s great an aff9ity = hydrog5 t x decomposes wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 :il/ iod9e has s little aff9ity = hydrog5 t hydriodic acid1 ,,hi1 is =m$ ) difficulty1 is easily decompos$1 & acts z a r$uc+ ag5t 9 a numb] ( cases4 ,f ! =m ( _! comp\nds ! halog5s are unival5t elem5ts ) respect to hydrog5 & septival5t ) respect to oxyg51 ,n be+ trival5t to hydrog5 7x gives ,,nh#c7 & qu9qui-val5t to oxyg5 7x gives ,n#b,o#e71 & ,c be+ quadrival5t to bo? ,h & ,o z x =ms ,,*#d & ,,co#b4 ,& z n only _! oxyg5 comp\nds1 b also _! hydrog5 comp\nds1 h acid prop]ties1 ! halog5s are elem5ts ( an exclusively acid "*4 ,su* metals z sodium1 potassium1 b>ium only give basic oxides4 ,9 ! case ( nitrog51 al?\gh x =ms acid oxides1 /ill 9 ammonia we f9d t capacity to give an alkali ) hydrog5 :i* indicates a less di/9ctly acid "* ?an 9 ! halog5s4 ,9 no o!r elem5ts is ! acid-giv+ prop]ty s /rongly develop$ z 9 ! halog5s4 ,9 describ+ c]ta9 peculi>ities *>act]is+ ! halog5s1 we %all at e /ep enc\nt] a confirmation ( ! above-m5tion$ g5]al relations4 ,z fluor9e decomposes wat] ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 ,f#b ,h#b,o #b;,,hf ,o1 = a long "t all ef=ts to obta9 x 9 free /ate by means ( me?ods simil> to ^? = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e prov$ fruitless4#dh ,?us by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid on manganese p]oxide1 or by decompos+ a solution ( hydr(luoric acid by an electric curr5t1 ei!r oxyg5 or a mixture ( oxyg5 & fluor9e 7 obta9$ in/ead ( fluor9e4 ,probably a c]ta9 quantity ( fluor9e#dh bis 0 set free by ! action ( oxyg5 or an electric curr5t on inc&esc5t & fus$ calcium fluoride1 b at a high temp]ature fluor9e acts ev5 on plat9um1 & !re=e x 0 n obta9$4 ,:5 *lor9e act$ on silv] fluoride1 ,ag,f1 9 a vessel ( natural fluor sp>1 ,ca,f#b1 fluor9e 0 also lib]at$2 b x 0 mix$ ) *lor9e1 & x 0 impossible to /udy ! prop]ties ( ! resultant gas4 ,braun] 7#ahha7 also obta9$ fluor9e by ignit+ c]ium fluoride1 #b;,ce,f#d #b;,ce,f#c ,f#b2 b ?is1 l all prec$+ ef=ts1 only %[$ fluor9e to be a gas :i* decomposes wat]1 & is capable ( act+ 9 a numb] ( in/ances l *lor9e1 b gave no possibility ( te/+ its prop]ties4 ,x 0 evid5t t x 0 necess>y to avoid z f> z possible ! pres5ce ( wat] & a rise ( temp]ature2 ?is ,moissan succe$$ 9 do+ 9 #ahhf4 ,he decompos$ anhydr\s hydr(luoric acid1 liquefi$ at a temp]ature ( -#bc & conta9$ 9 a ,u-%ap$ tube 7to :i* a small quantity ( potassium fluoride _h be5 add$ to make x a bett] conductor71 by ! action ( a p[]ful electric curr5t 7tw5ty ,buns5's elem5ts 9 s]ies74 ,hydrog5 0 !n evolv$ at ! negative pole1 & fluor9e appe>$ at ! positive pole 7( iridium plat9um7 z a pale gre5 gas :i* decompos$ wat] ) ! =mation ( ozone & hydr(luoric acid1 & comb9$ directly ) silicon 7=m+ silicon fluoride1 ,si,f#d71 boron 7=m+ ,,bf#c71 sulphur1 c4 ,its d5sity 7,h #a7 is #ah1 s t its molecule is ,f#b4 ,b ! action ( fluor9e on metals at ! ord9>y temp]ature is comp>atively feeble1 because ! metallic fluoride =m$ coats ! rema9+ mass ( ! metals2 x is1 h[ev]1 completely absorb$ by iron4 ,hydroc>bons 7su* z naph?a71 alcohol1 c41 imm$iately absorb fluor9e1 ) ! =mation ( hydr(luoric acid4 ,fluor9e :5 mix$ ) hydrog5 c easily be made to explode viol5tly1 =m+ hydr(luoric acid4#di #dh ,ev5 be=e free fluor9e 0 obta9$ 7#ahhf7 x 0 evid5t f exp]i5ce ga9$ 9 ! ef=ts made to obta9 x1 & f analogy1 t x w\ld decompose wat] 7see fir/ ,russian edition ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,*emi/ry74 #dh bis ,x is mo/ likely t 9 ?is exp]im5t ( ,fremy's1 :i* corresponds ) ! action ( oxyg5 on calcium *loride1 fluor9e 0 set free1 b t a conv]se reaction also proce$$1 ,ca,o ,f#b ,ca,f#b ,o--t is1 ! calcium di/ribut$ itself betwe5 ! oxyg5 & fluor9e4 ,mn,f#d1 :i* is capable ( splitt+ up into ,mn,f#b & ,f#b1 is )\t d\bt =m$ by ! action ( a /rong solution ( hydr(luoric acid on manganese p]oxide1 b "u ! action ( wat] ! fluor9e gives hydr(luoric acid1 & probably ?is is aid$ by ! aff9ity ( ! manganese fluoride & hydr(luoric acid4 ,9 all ! attempts made 7by ,davy1 ,knox1 ,l\get1 ,fremy1 ,gore1 & o!rs7 to decompose fluorides 7^? ( lead1 silv]1 calcium1 & o!rs7 by *lor9e1 !re 7 d\btless also cases ( di/ribution1 a portion ( ! metal comb9$ ) *lor9e & a portion ( ! fluor9e 0 evolv$2 b x is improbable t any decisive results 7 obta9$4 ,fremy probably obta9$ fluor9e1 b n 9 a pure /ate4 #di ,accord+ to ,moissan1 fluor9e is dis5gag$ by ! action ( an electric curr5t on fus$ hydrog5 potassium fluoride1 ,,khf#b4 ,! pres5t /ate ( *emical k is su* t ! k ( ! prop]ties ( an elem5t is mu* m g5]al ?an ! k ( ! free elem5t itself4 ,x is useful & satisfactory to le>n t ev5 fluor9e 9 ! free /ate has n succe$$ 9 elud+ exp]im5t & rese>*1 t ! ef=ts to isolate x h be5 cr[n$ ) success1 b ! sum total ( *emical data conc]n+ fluor9e z an elem5t ga9s b little by ?is a*ievem5t4 ,! ga9 w1 h[ev]1 be augm5t$ if x be n[ possible to subject fluor9e to a comp>ative /udy 9 relation to oxyg5 & *lor9e4 ,!re is p>ticul> int]e/ 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! di/ribution ( fluor9e & oxyg51 or fluor9e & *lor9e1 compet+ "u diff]5t conditions & relations4 ,we may add t ,moissan 7#ahib7 f\nd t free fluor9e decomposes ,h#b,s1 ,h,cl1 ,h,br1 ,,cs#b1 & ,,cnh ) a fla%2 x does n act ^u ,o#b1 ,n#b1 ,,co1 & ,,co#b2 ,mg1 ,al1 ,ag1 & ,ni1 :5 heat$1 burn 9 x1 z also d ,s1 ,se1 ,p 7=ms ,,pf#e72 x reacts ^u ,h#b ev5 9 ! d>k1 ) ! evolution ( #cffjj units ( heat4 ,at a temp]ature ( -#ie1 ,f#b /ill reta9s its gase\s /ate4 ,soot & c>bon 9 g5]al 7b n ! diamond7 :5 heat$ 9 gase\s fluor9e =m fluoride ( c>bon1 ,,cf#d 7,moissan1 #ahij72 ?is comp\nd is also =m$ at #cjj by ! d\ble decomposition ( ,c,cl#d & ,ag,f2 x is a gas :i* liquefies at #aj "u a pressure ( #e atmosph]es4 ,) an alcoholic solution ( ,,kho1 ,,cf#d gives ,k#b;,,co#c1 accord+ to ! equation ,,cf#d #f,,kho ,k#b;,,co#c #d,,kf #c;,h#b,o4 ,,cf#d is n soluble 9 wat]1 b x is easily soluble 9 ,c,cl#d & alcohol4 ,9 #ahid ,braun] obta9$ fluor9e directly by ignit+ ! easily =m$#di bis d\ble lead salt ,,hf1#c,,kf1,pb,f#d1 :i* fir/1 at #bcj1 decomposes ) ! evolution ( ,,hf1 & !n splits up =m+ #c,,kf1,pb,f#b & fluor9e ,f#b1 :i* is recognis$ by ! fact t x lib]ates iod9e f ,,ki & easily comb9es ) silicon1 =m+ ,si,f#d4 ,?is me?od gives *emically pure fluor9e1 & is bas$ ^u ! break+ up ( ! high] comp\nd--tetrafluoride ( lead1 ,pb,f#d1 correspond+ to ,pb,o#b1 into free fluor9e1 ,f#b1 & ! l[] m /able =m--bifluoride ( lead1 ,pb,f#b1 :i* corresponds to ,pb,o2 t is1 ?is me?od resembles ! ord9>y me?od ( obta9+ *lor9e by means ( ,mn,o#b1 z ,mn,cl#d "h breaks up into ,mn,cl#b & *lor9e1 j z ,pb,f#d splits up into ,pb,f#b & fluor9e4 #di bis ,t4 ,nikoluk9 7#ahhe7 & subsequ5tly ,fri$ri* & ,class5 obta9$ ,pb,cl#d & a d\ble ammonium salt ( tetra*loride ( lead 7/>t+ f ! b9oxide71 ,pb,cl#db,,nh#d;,cl2 ,hut*9son & ,pall>d obta9$ a simil> salt ( acetic acid 7#ahic7 correspond+ to ,pb,x#d by treat+ r$ lead ) /rong acetic acid2 ! composition ( ?is salt is ,pb7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7d2 x melts 7& decomposes7 at ab\t #age4 ,braun] 7#ahid7 obta9$ a salt correspond+ to tetrafluoride ( lead1 ,pb,f#d1 & ! acid correspond+ to x1 ,h#d,pb,f#h4 ,= example1 by treat+ potassium plumbate 7,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,note #ee7 ) /rong ,,hf1 & also ! above-m5tion$ tetra-acetate ) a solution ( ,,khf#b1 ,braun] obta9$ cry/all9e ,,hk#c,pb,f#h--;i4e4 ! salt f :i* he obta9$ fluor9e4 ,among ! comp\nds ( fluor9e1 calcium fluoride1 ,ca,f#b1 is some:at widely di/ribut$ 9 nature z fluor sp>1#ej :il/ cryolite1 or alum9ium sodium fluoride1 ,na#c;,al,f#f1 is f\nd m r>ely 79 l>ge masses 9 ,gre5l&74 ,cryolite1 l fluor sp>1 is also insoluble 9 wat]1 & gives hydr(luoric acid ) sulphuric acid4 ,small quantities ( fluor9e h also 9 a numb] ( cases be5 f\nd 9 ! bodies ( animals1 9 ! blood1 ur9e1 & bones4 ,if fluorides occur 9 ! bodies ( animals1 !y mu/ h be5 introduc$ 9 food1 & mu/ occur 9 plants & 9 wat]4 ,& z a matt] ( fact riv]1 & especially sea1 wat] always conta9s a c]ta91 al?\gh small1 quantity ( fluor9e comp\nds4 #ej ,x is call$ sp> because x v frequ5tly occurs z cry/als ( a cle>ly lam9> /ructure1 & is !re=e easily split up into pieces b\nd$ by planes4 ,x is call$ fluor sp> because :5 us$ z a flux x r5d]s ores fusible1 ow+ to its react+ ) silica1 ,si,o#b #b;,ca,f#b #b;,ca,o ,si,f#d2 ! silicon fluoride escapes z a gas & ! lime comb9es ) a fur!r quantity ( silica1 & gives a vitre\s slag4 ,fluor sp> occurs 9 m9]al ve9s & rocks1 sometimes 9 consid]able quantities4 ,x always cry/allises 9 ! cubic sy/em1 sometimes 9 v l>ge semi-transp>5t cubic cry/als1 :i* are col\rless or ( diff]5t col\rs4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,x melts "u ! action ( heat1 & cry/allises on cool+4 ,! specific gravity is #ca4 ,:5 /eam is pass$ ov] inc&esc5t fluor sp>1 lime & hydr(luoric acid are =m$3 ,ca,f#b ,h#b,o ,ca,o #b;,,hf4 ,a d\ble decomposition is also easily produc$ by fus+ fluor sp> ) sodium or potassium hydroxides1 or pota%1 or ev5 ) _! c>bonates2 ! fluor9e !n passes ov] to ! potassium or sodium1 & ! oxyg5 to ! calcium4 ,9 solutions--= example1 ,ca7,,no#c7b #b,,kf ,ca,f#b 7precipitate7 #b,,kno#c 79 solution7--! =mation ( calcium fluoride takes place1 ow+ to its v sp>+ solubility4 #bf1jjj p>ts ( wat] dissolve "o "p ( fluor sp>4 ,hydrifluoric acid1 ,,hf1 _c be obta9$ f fluor sp> 9 glass retorts1 because glass is act$ on by & de/roys ! acid4 ,x is prep>$ 9 lead vessels1 & :5 x is requir$ pure1 9 plat9um vessels1 because lead also acts on hydr(luoric acid1 al?\gh only v feebly on ! surface1 & :5 once a coat+ ( fluoride & sulphate ( lead is =m$ no fur!r action takes place4 ,p[d]$ fluor sp> & sulphuric acid evolve hydr(luoric acid 7:i* fumes 9 ! air7 ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ,ca,f#b ,h#b,,s#d ,ca,s,o#d #b;,,hf4 ,at #acj fluor sp> is completely decompos$ by sulphuric acid4 ,! acid is !n evolv$ z vap\r1 :i* may be cond5s$ by a freez+ mixture into an anhydr\s acid4 ,! cond5sation is aid$ by p\r+ wat] into ! receiv] ( ! cond5s]1 z ! acid is easily soluble 9 cold wat]4 ,9 ! liquid anhydr\s =m hydr(luoric acid boils at #ai1 & its specific gravity at #abh #jihdi4ea ,x dissolves 9 wat] ) ! evolution ( a consid]able am\nt ( heat1 & gives a solution ( con/ant boil+ po9t :i* di/ils ov] at #abj2 %[+ t ! acid is able to comb9e ) wat]4 ,! specific gravity ( ! comp\nd is #aae1 & its composition ,,hf1#b;,h#b,o4#eb ,) an excess ( wat] a dilute solution di/ils ov] fir/4 ,! aque\s solution & ! acid itself mu/ be kept 9 plat9um vessels1 b ! dilute acid may be conv5i5tly pres]v$ 9 vessels made ( v>i\s organic mat]ials1 su* z gutta-p]*a1 or ev5 9 glass vessels hav+ an int]ior coat+ ( p>aff94 ,hydr(luoric acid does n act on hydroc>bons & _m o!r sub/ances1 b x acts 9 a highly corrosive mann] on metals1 glass1 porcela91 & ! majority ( rock sub/ances4#ec ,x also attacks ! sk91 & is di/+ui%$ by its poison\s prop]ties1 s t 9 work+ ) ! acid a /rong draught mu/ be kept up1 to prev5t ! possibility ( ! fumes be+ inhal$4 ,! non-metals d n act on hydr(luoric acid1 b all metals--) ! exception ( m]cury1 silv]1 gold1 & plat9um1 &1 to a c]ta9 degree1 lead--decompose x ) ! evolution ( hydrog54 ,) bases x gives directly metallic fluorides1 & behaves 9 _m respects l hydro*loric acid4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al di/9ct individual diff]5ces1 :i* are fur!rmore mu* great] ?an ^? betwe5 hydro*loric1 hydrobromic1 & hydriodic acids4 ,?us ! silv] comp\nds ( ! latt] are insoluble 9 wat]1 :il/ silv] fluoride is soluble4 ,calcium fluoride1 on ! contr>y1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 :il/ calcium *loride1 bromide1 & iodide are n only soluble1 b attract wat] ) great en]gy4 ,nei!r hydro*loric1 hydrobromic1 nor hydriodic acid acts on s& & glass1 :il/ hydr(luoric acid corrodes !m1 =m+ gase\s silicon fluoride4 ,! o!r halog5 acids only =m normal salts1 ,k,cl1 ,na,cl1 ) ,na or ,k1 :il/ hydr(luoric acid gives acid salts1 = in/ance ,,hkf#b 7& by dissolv+ ,,kf 9 liquid ,,hf1 ,,khf#bb;,,hf is obta9$74 ,?is latt] prop]ty is 9 close connection ) ! fact t at ! ord9>y temp]ature ! vap\r d5sity ( hydr(luoric acid is ne>ly #bj1 :i* corresponds ) a =mula ,h#b;,f#b1 z ,mallet 7#ahha7 %[$2 b a depolym]isation occurs ) a rise ( temp]ature1 & ! d5sity approa*es #aj1 :i* answ]s to ! =mula ,,hf4#ed #ea ,accord+ to ,gore4 ,fremy obta9$ anhydr\s hydr(luoric acid by decompos+ lead fluoride at a r$ heat1 by hydrog51 or by beat+ ! d\ble salt ,,hkf#b1 :i* easily cry/allises 79 cubes7 f a solution ( hydr(luoric acid1 half ( :i* has be5 saturat$ ) potassium hydroxide4 ,its vap\r d5sity corresponds to ! =mula ,,hf4 #eb ,?is composition corresponds to ! cry/allo-hydrate ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o4 ,all ! prop]ties ( hydr(luoric acid recall ^? ( hydro*loric acid1 & !re=e ! comp>ative ease ) :i* hydr(luoric acid is liquefi$ 7x boils at #ai1 hydro*loric acid at -#ce7 mu/ be expla9$ by a polym]isation tak+ place at l[ temp]atures1 z w be aft]w>ds expla9$1 ,h#b;,f#b be+ =m$1 & !re=e 9 a liquid /ate x diff]s f hydro*loric acid1 9 :i* a ph5om5on ( a simil> k9d has n yet be5 obs]v$4 #ec ,! corrosive action ( hydr(luoric acid on glass & simil> silice\s comp\nds is bas$ ^u ! fact t x acts on silica1 ,si,o#b1 z we %all consid] m fully 9 describ+ t comp\nd1 =m+ gase\s silicon fluoride1 ,si,o#b #d;,,hf ,si,f#d #b;,h#b,o4 ,silica1 on ! o!r h&1 =ms ! b9d+ 7acid7 elem5t ( glass & ( ! mass ( m9]al sub/ances =m+ ! salts ( silica4 ,:5 x is remov$ ! cohesion is de/roy$4 ,?is is made use ( 9 ! arts1 & 9 ! laboratory1 = et*+ designs & scales1 c41 on glass4 ,9 engrav+ on glass ! surface is cov]$ ) a v>ni% compos$ ( f\r p>ts ( wax & "o "p ( turp5t9e4 ,?is v>ni% is n act$ on by hydr(luoric acid1 & x is s(t en\gh to all[ ( designs be+ drawn ^u x ^: l9es lay b>e ! glass4 ,! draw+ is made ) a /eel po9t1 & ! glass is aft]w>ds laid 9 a lead tr\gh 9 :i* a mixture ( fluor sp> & sulphuric acid is plac$4 ,! sulphuric acid mu/ be us$ 9 consid]able excess1 z o!rwise transp>5t l9es are obta9$ 7ow+ to ! =mation ( hydr(luosilicic acid74 ,aft] be+ expos$ = "s "t1 ! v>ni% is remov$ 7melt$7 & ! design drawn by ! /eel po9t is f\nd reproduc$ 9 dull l9es4 ,! draw+ may be also made by ! direct application ( a mixture ( a silic(luoride & sulphuric acid1 :i* =ms hydr(luoric acid4 #ed ,mallet 7#ahha7 det]m9$ ! d5sity at #cj & #ajj1 previ\s to :i* ,gore 7#ahfi7 _h det]m9$ ! vap\r d5sity at #ajj1 :il/ ,?orpe & ,hambly 7#ahhh7 made f\rte5 det]m9ations betwe5 #bf & #hh1 & %[$ t )9 ?is limit ( temp]ature ! d5sity gradually dim9i%es1 j l ! vap\r ( acetic acid1 nitrog5 dioxide1 & o!rs4 ,! t5d5cy ( ,,hf to polym]ise into ,h#b;,f#b is probably connect$ ) ! prop]ty ( _m fluorides ( =m+ acid salts--= example1 ,,khf#b & ,h#b,si,f#f4 ,we saw above t ,h,cl has ! same prop]ty 7=m+1 = in/ance1 ,h#b,pt,cl#f1 c41 p4 #deg71 & h5ce ?is prop]ty ( hydr(luoric acid does n /& isolat$ f ! prop]ties ( ! o!r halog5s4 ,! analogy betwe5 *lor9e & ! o!r two halog5s1 brom9e & iod9e1 is mu* m p]fect4 ,n only h _! hydrates or halog5 acids mu* 9 common1 b !y !mselves resemble *lor9e 9 _m respects1#ee & ev5 ! prop]ties ( ! correspond+ metallic comp\nds ( brom9e & iod9e are v mu* alike4 ,?us1 ! *lorides1 bromides1 & iodides ( sodium & potassium cry/allise 9 ! cubic sy/em1 & are soluble 9 wat]2 ! *lorides ( calcium1 alum9ium1 magnesium1 & b>ium are j z soluble 9 wat] z ! bromides & iodides ( ^! metals4 ,! iodides & bromides ( silv] & lead are sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 l ! *lorides ( ^! metals4 ,! oxyg5 comp\nds ( brom9e & iod9e also pres5t a v /rong analogy to ! correspond+ comp\nds ( *lor9e4 ,a hypobrom\s acid is kn[n correspond+ ) hypo*lor\s acid4 ,! salts ( ?is acid h ! same blea*+ prop]ty z ! salts ( hypo*lor\s acid4 ,iod9e 0 discov]$ 9 #ahaa by ,c\rtois 9 kelp1 & 0 %ortly aft]w>ds inve/igat$ by ,clem5t1 ,gay-,lussac1 & ,davy4 ,brom9e 0 discov]$ 9 #ahbf by ,bal>d 9 ! "m liquor ( sea wat]4 #ee ,= in/ance1 ! exp]im5t ) ,dut* metal foil 7,note #af7 may be made ) brom9e j z well z ) *lor9e4 ,a v in/ructive exp]im5t on ! direct comb9ation ( ! halog5s ) metals maybe made by ?r[+ a small piece 7a %av+7 ( alum9ium into a vessel conta9+ liquid brom9e2 ! alum9ium1 be+ light]1 floats on ! brom9e1 & aft] a c]ta9 "t reaction sets 9 accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat1 light1 & fumes ( brom9e4 ,! inc&esc5t piece ( metal moves rapidly ov] ! surface ( ! brom9e 9 :i* ! resultant alum9ium bromide dissolves4 ,= ! sake ( comp>ison we w proce$ to cite sev]al !rmo*emical data 7,?oms57 = analog\s actions ( 7#a7 *lor9e1 7#b7 brom9e1 & 7#c7 iod9e1 ) respect to metals2 ! halog5 be+ express$ by ! symbol ,x1 & ! plus sign connect+ ! react+ sub/ances4 ,all ! figures are giv5 9 ?\s&s ( calories1 & ref] to molecul> quantities 9 grams & to ! ord9>y temp]ature3-- #a #b #c ,k#b ,x#b #baa #aia #afj ,na#b ,x#b #aie #agb #ach ,ag#b ,x#b #ei #de #bh ,hg#b ,x#b #hc #fh #dh ,hg ,x#b #fc #ea #cd ,ca ,x#b #agj #ada -- ,ba ,x#b #aie #agj -- ,zn ,x#b #ig #gf #di ,pb ,x#b #hc #fd #dj ,al ,x#b #afa #abj #gj ,we may rem>k t ! lat5t heat ( vaporisation ( ! molecul> weight ,br#b is ab\t #gb1 & ( iod9e #fj ?\s& heat units1 :il/ ! lat5t heat ( fusion ( ,br#b is ab\t #jc1 & ( ,i#b ab\t #cj ?\s& heat units4 ,f ?is x is evid5t t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! am\nts ( heat evolv$ does n dep5d on ! diff]5ce 9 physical /ate4 ,= in/ance1 ! vap\r ( iod9e 9 comb9+ ) ,zn to =m ,zn,i#b w\ld give #dh #h #c1 or ab\t sixty ?\s& heat units1 or #a-a_/b times less ?an ,zn ,cl#b4 ,brom9e & iod9e1 l *lor9e1 occur 9 sea wat] 9 comb9ation ) metals4 ,h[ev]1 ! am\nt ( bromides1 & especially ( iodides1 9 sea wat] is s small t _! pres5ce c only be discov]$ by means ( s5sitive reactions4#ef ,9 ! extraction ( salt f sea wat] ! bromides rema9 9 ! "m liquor4 ,iod9e & brom9e also occur comb9$ ) silv]1 9 admixture ) silv] *loride1 z a r>e ore :i* is ma9ly f\nd 9 ,am]ica4 ,c]ta9 m9]al wat]s 7^? ( ,kreuzna* & ,/>o-rosssk7 conta9 metallic bromides & iodides1 always 9 admixture ) an excess ( sodium *loride4 ,^? upp] /rata ( ! ,/assfurt rock salt 7,*apt] ,x47 :i* are a s\rce ( potassium salts also conta9 metallic bromides1#eg :i* collect 9 ! "m liquors left aft] ! cry/allisation ( ! potassium salts2 & ?is n[ =ms ! *ief s\rce 7toge!r ) c]ta9 ,am]ican spr+s7 ( ! brom9e 9 common use4 ,brom9e may be easily lib]at$ f a mixture ( bromides & *lorides1 ow+ to ! fact t *lor9e displaces brom9e f its comp\nds ) sodium1 magnesium1 calcium1 c4 ,a col\rless solution ( bromides & *lorides turns an orange col\r aft] ! passage ( *lor9e1 ow+ to ! dis5gagem5t ( brom9e4#eh ,brom9e may be extract$ on a l>ge scale by a simil> me?od1 b x is simpl] to add a small quantity ( manganese p]oxide & sulphuric acid to ! "m liquid direct4 ,?is sets free a portion ( ! *lor9e1 & ?is *lor9e lib]ates ! brom9e4 #ef ,"o litre ( sea-wat] conta9s ab\t #bj grams ( *lor9e1 & ab\t #jjg gram ( brom9e4 ,! ,dead ,sea conta9s ab\t t5 times z mu* brom9e4 #eg ,b !re is no iod9e 9 ,/assfurt c>nallite4 #eh ,! *lor9e mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be 9 l>ge excess1 z o!rwise ! brom9e w\ld conta9 *lor9e4 ,comm]cial brom9e n unfrequ5tly conta9s *lor9e1 z brom9e *loride2 ?is is m soluble 9 wat] ?an brom9e1 f :i* x may ?us be fre$4 ,to obta9 pure brom9e ! comm]cial brom9e is wa%$ ) wat]1 dri$ by sulphuric acid1 & di/ill$1 ! portion com+ ov] at #eh be+ collect$2 ! great] "p is !n conv]t$ into potassium bromide & dissolv$1 & ! rema9d] is add$ to ! solution 9 ord] to sep>ate iod9e1 :i* is remov$ by %ak+ ) c>bon bisulphide4 ,by heat+ ! potassium bromide ?us obta9$ ) manganese p]oxide & sulphuric acid1 brom9e is obta9$ q free f iod9e1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is n pres5t 9 c]ta9 k9ds ( comm]cial brom9e 7! ,/assfurt1 = in/ance74 ,by treatm5t ) pota%1 ! brom9e is !n conv]t$ into a mixture ( potassium bromide & bromate1 & ! mixture 7:i* is 9 ! proportion giv5 9 ! equation7 is di/ill$ ) sulphuric acid1 brom9e be+ !n evolv$3 #e,k,br ,k,br,o#c #f;,h#b,,s#d #f,,khso#d #c;,h#b,o #c;,br#b4 ,aft] dissolv+ ! brom9e 9 a /rong solution ( calcium bromide & precipitat+ ) an excess ( wat]1 x loses all ! *lor9e x conta9$1 because *lor9e =ms calcium *loride ) ,ca,br#b4 ,brom9e is a d>k br[n liquid1 giv+ br[n fumes1 & hav+ a poison\s suffocat+ smell1 :5ce its "n 7f ! ,greek ,greek3 brmos1 signify+ evil smell+74 ,! vap\r d5sity ( brom9e %[s t its molecule is ,br#b4 ,9 ! cold brom9e freezes into br[n-grey scales l iod9e4 ,! melt+ po9t ( pure brom9e is -#gje4ei ,! d5sity ( liquid bromide at #j is #cahg1 & at #ae ab\t #cj4 ,! boil+ po9t ( brom9e is ab\t #ehg4 ,brom9e1 l *lor9e1 is soluble 9 wat]2 #a "p ( brom9e at #e requires #bg p>ts ( wat]1 & at #ae #bi p>ts ( wat]4 ,! aque\s solution ( brom9e is ( an orange col\r1 & :5 cool$ to -#b yields cry/als conta9+ #aj molecules ( wat] to #a molecule ( brom9e4#fj ,alcohol dissolves a great] quantity ( brom9e1 & e!r a /ill great] am\nt4 ,b aft] a c]ta9 "t products ( ! action ( ! brom9e on ^! organic sub/ances are =m$ 9 ! solutions4 ,aque\s solutions ( ! bromides also absorb a l>ge am\nt ( brom9e4 #ei ,!re has long exi/$ a diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! melt+ po9t ( pure brom9e4 ,by "s inve/igators 7,regnault1 ,pi]re7 x 0 giv5 z betwe5 -#g & -#h1 & by o!rs 7,bal>d1 ,liebig1 ,qu9cke1 ,baumhau]7 z betwe5 -#bj & -#be4 ,!re is n[ no d\bt1 ?anks m especially to ! rese>*es ( ,ramsay & ,"y 7#ahhe71 t pure brom9e melts at ab\t -#g4 ,?is figure is n only e/abli%$ by direct exp]im5t 7,van d] ,plaats confirm$ x71 b also by means ( ! det]m9ation ( ! vap\r t5sions4 ,= solid brom9e ! vap\r t5sion p 9 mm4 at t 0 f\nd to be-- p #bj #be #cj #ce #dj #de mm4 t -#aff -#ad -#ab -#aj -#he -#g ,= liquid brom9e-- p #ej #ajj #bjj #djj #fjj #gfj mm4 t -#ej #hb #bcd #djd #eai #ehg ,^! curves int]sect at -#gje4 ,besides :i*1 9 comp>+ ! vap\r t5sion ( _m liquids 7= example1 ^? giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #bg71 ,ramsay & ,"y obs]v$ t ! ratio ( ! absolute temp]atures 7t #bgc7 correspond+ ) equal t5sion v>ies = e pair ( sub/ances 9 rectil9e> proportion 9 dep5d5ce ^u t1 &1 !re=e1 = ! above pressure p1 ,ramsay & ,"y det]m9$ ! ratio ( t #bgc = wat] & brom9e1 & f\nd t ! /raight l9es express+ ^! ratios = liquid & solid brom9e int]sect also at #gje2 ?us1 = example1 = solid brom9e-- p #bj #be #cj #ce #dj #de #bgc t #befd #bei #bfa #bfc #bfdf #bff #bgc t #biec #bii #cjba #cjdh #cjgb #cjic c #aaeb #aaed #aaeg #aaei #aafa #aafc :]e t indicates ! temp]ature ( wat] correspond+ ) a vap\r t5sion p1 & :]e c is ! ratio ( #bgc t to #bgc t4 ,! magnitude ( c is evid5tly express$ ) great accuracy by ! /raight l9e c #aagjc #jjjaat4 ,9 exactly ! same way we f9d ! ratio = liquid brom9e & wat] to be c#a #aaehe #jjjjegt4 ,! int]section ( ^! /raight l9es 9 fact corresponds ) -#gjf1 :i* aga9 confirms ! melt+ po9t giv5 above = brom9e4 ,9 ?is mann] x is possible ) ! exi/+ /ore ( data to accurately e/abli% & v]ify ! melt+ po9t ( sub/ances4 ,ramsay & ,"y e/abli%$ ! !rmal con/ants ( iod9e by exactly ! same me?od4 #fj ,! obs]vations made by ,pat]no & ,nas9i 7by ,ra\lt's me?od1 ,*apt] ,i4 ,note #di7 on ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice 7-#aaae1 ) #acia gram ( brom9e 9 #ajj grams ( wat]7 9 an aque\s solution ( brom9e1 %[$ t brom9e is conta9$ 9 solutions z ! molecule ,br#b4 ,simil> exp]im5ts conduct$ on iod9e 7,klob\k(f #ahhi & ,beckmann #ahij7 %[ t 9 solution ! molecule is ,i#b4 ,b4 ,roozeboom inve/igat$ ! hydrate ( brom9e z completely z ! hydrate ( *lor9e 7,notes #i1 #aj74 ,! temp]ature ( ! complete decomposition ( ! hydrate is #fb2 ! d5sity ( ,br#b1aj;,h#b,o #adi4 ,) respect to iod9e1 x is almo/ exclusively extract$ f ! "m liquors aft] ! cry/allisation ( natural sodium nitrate 7,*ili saltpetre7 & f ! a%es ( ! sea-we$ ca/ ^u ! %ores ( ,france1 ,great ,brita91 & ,spa91 sometimes 9 consid]able quantities1 by ! high tides4 ,! majority ( ^! sea-we$s are ( ! g5]a ,fucus1 ,lam9>ia1 c4 ,! fus$ a%es ( ^! sea-we$s are call$ 'kelp' 9 ,scotl& & 'v>e*' 9 ,norm&y4 ,a some:at consid]able quantity ( iod9e is conta9$ 9 ^! sea-we$s4 ,aft] be+ burnt 7or subject$ to dry di/illation7 an a% is left :i* *iefly conta9s salts ( potassium1 sodium1 & calcium4 ,! metals occur 9 ! sea-we$ z salts ( organic acids4 ,on be+ burnt ^! organic salts are decompos$1 =m+ c>bonates ( potassium & sodium4 ,h5ce1 sodium c>bonate is f\nd 9 ! a% ( sea plants4 ,! a% is dissolv$ 9 hot wat]1 & on evaporation sodium c>bonate & o!r salts sep>ate1 b a portion ( ! sub/ances rema9s 9 solution4 ,^! "m liquors left aft] ! sep>ation ( ! sodium c>bonate conta9 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e 9 comb9ation ) metals1 ! *lor9e & iod9e be+ 9 excess ( ! brom9e4 #ac1jjj kilos ( kelp give ab\t #a1jjj kilos ( sodium c>bonate & #ae kilos ( iod9e4 ,! lib]ation ( ! iod9e f ! "m liquor is effect$ ) comp>ative ease1 because *lor9e dis5gages iod9e f potassium iodide & its o!r comb9ations ) ! metals4 ,n only *lor9e1 b also sulphuric acid1 lib]ates iod9e f sodium iodide4 ,sulphuric acid1 9 act+ on an iodide1 sets hydriodic acid free1 b ! latt] easily decomposes1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( sub/ances capable ( evolv+ oxyg51 su* z *romic acid1 nitr\s acid1 & ev5 f]ric salts4#fa ,ow+ to its sp>+ solubility 9 wat]1 ! iod9e lib]at$ sep>ates z a precipitate4 ,to obta9 pure iod9e x is suffici5t to di/il x1 & neglect ! fir/ & la/ portions ( ! di/illate1 ! middle portion only be+ collect$4 ,iod9e passes directly f a /ate ( vap\r into a cry/all9e =m1 & settles on ! cool portions ( ! app>atus 9 tabul> cry/als1 hav+ a black grey col\r & metallic lu/re4#fb #fa ,9 g5]al1 #b;,,hi ,o ,i#b ,h#b,o1 if ! oxyg5 proce$ f a sub/ance f :i* x is easily evolv$4 ,= ?is reason comp\nds correspond+ ) ! high] /ages ( oxidation or *lor9ation frequ5tly give a l[] /age :5 treat$ ) hydriodic acid4 ,f]ric oxide1 ,fe#b,o#c1 is a high] oxide1 & f]r\s oxide1 ,fe,o1 a l[] oxide2 ! =m] corresponds ) ,fe,x#c1 & ! latt] ) ,fe,x#b1 & ?is passage f ! high] to ! l[] takes place "u ! action ( hydriodic acid4 ,?us hydrog5 p]oxide & ozone 7,*apt] ,,iv47 are able to lib]ate iod9e f hydriodic acid4 ,comp\nds ( copp] oxide1 ,cu,o or ,cu,x#b1 give comp\nds ( ! suboxide ,cu#b,o1 or ,cu,x4 ,ev5 sulphuric acid1 :i* corresponds to ! high] /age ,,s#c1 is able to act ?us1 =m+ ! l[] oxide ,,s#b4 ,! lib]ation ( iod9e f hydriodic acid proce$s ) /ill great] ease "u ! action ( sub/ances capable ( dis5gag+ oxyg54 ,9 practice1 _m me?ods are employ$ = lib]at+ iod9e f acid liquids conta9+1 = example1 sulphuric acid & hydriodic acid4 ,! high] oxides ( nitrog5 are mo/ commonly us$2 !y !n pass into nitric oxide4 ,iod9e may ev5 be dis5gag$ f hydriodic acid by ! action ( iodic acid1 c4 ,b !re is a limit 9 ^! reactions ( ! oxidation ( hydriodic acid because1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 especially 9 dilute solutions1 ! iod9e set free is itself able to act z an oxidis+ ag5t--t is1 x exhibits ! "* ( *lor9e1 & ( ! halog5s 9 g5]al1 to :i* we %all aga9 h occasion to ref]4 ,9 ,*ili1 :]e a l>ge quantity ( iod9e is extract$ 9 ! manufacture ( ,*ili nitre1 :i* conta9s ,na,i,o#c1 x is mix$ ) ! acid & normal sulphites ( sodium 9 solution2 ! iod9e is !n precipitat$ accord+ to ! equation #b,na,i,o#c #c,na#b,,s#c #b,na,h,s,o#c #e,na#b,,s#d ,i#b ,h#b,o4 ,! iod9e ?us obta9$ is purifi$ by sublimation4 #fb ,= ! f9al purification ( iod9e1 ,/as dissolv$ x 9 a /rong solution ( potassium iodide1 & precipitat$ x by ! addition ( wat] 7see ,note #eh74 ,! specific gravity ( ! cry/als ( iod9e is #die4 ,x melts at #aad & boils at #ahd4 ,its vap\r is =m$ at a mu* l[] temp]ature1 & is ( a violet col\r1 :5ce iod9e receives its "n 7,greek3 ioeids1 violet74 ,! smell ( iod9e recalls ! *>act]i/ic smell ( hypo*lor\s acid2 x has a %>p s\r ta/e4 ,x de/roys ! sk9 & organs ( ! body1 & is !re=e frequ5tly employ$ = caut]is+ & z an irritant = ! sk94 ,9 small quantities x turns ! sk9 br[n1 b ! coloration disappe>s aft] a c]ta9 "t1 p>tly ow+ to ! volatility ( ! iod9e4 ,wat] dissolves only #a_/ejjj "p ( iod9e4 ,a br[n solution is ?us obta9$1 :i* blea*es1 b mu* m feebly ?an brom9e & *lor9e4 ,wat] :i* conta9s salts1 & especially iodides1 9 solution dissolves iod9e 9 consid]able quantities1 & ! resultant solution is ( a d>k br[n col\r4 ,pure alcohol dissolves a small am\nt ( iod9e1 & 9 s do+ acquires a br[n col\r1 b ! solubility ( iod9e is consid]ably increas$ by ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( an iod9e comp\nd--= in/ance1 e?yl iodide--9 ! alcohol4#fc ,e!r dissolves a l>g] am\nt ( iod9e ?an alcohol2 b iod9e is p>ticul>ly soluble 9 liquid hydroc>bons1 9 c>bon bisulphide1 & 9 *lor(orm4 ,a small quantity ( iod9e dissolv$ 9 c>bon bisulphide t9ts x rose-col\r1 b 9 a some:at l>g] am\nt x gives a violet col\r4 ,*lor(orm 7q free f alcohol7 is also t9t$ rose col\r by a small am\nt ( iod9e4 ,?is gives an easy means = detect+ ! pres5ce ( free iod9e 9 small quantities4 ,! blue coloration :i* free iod9e gives ) />* may also1 z has already be5 frequ5tly m5tion$ 7see ,*apt] ,,iv471 s]ve = ! detection ( iod9e4 #fc ,! solubility ( iod9e 9 solutions conta9+ iodides1 & comp\nds ( iod9e 9 g5]al1 may s]ve1 on ! "o h&1 z an indication t solution is due to a simil>ity betwe5 ! solv5t & dissolv$ sub/ance1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 z an indirect pro( ( t view z to solutions :i* 0 cit$ 9 ,*apt] ,i41 because 9 _m in/ances un/able highly iodis$ comp\nds1 resembl+ cry/allo-hydrates1 h be5 obta9$ f su* solutions4 ,?us iodide ( tetrame?ylammonium1 ,n7,,*#c7d;,i1 comb9es ) ,i#b1 & ,i#d4 ,ev5 a solution ( iod9e 9 a saturat$ solution ( potassium iodide pres5ts indications ( ! =mation ( a def9ite comp\nd ,,ki#c4 ,?us1 an alcoholic solution ( ,,ki#c does n give up iod9e to c>bon bisulphide1 al?\gh ?is solv5t takes up iod9e f an alcoholic solution ( iod9e itself 7,girault1 ,jrg5s51 & o!rs74 ,! in/ability ( ^! comp\nds resembles ! in/ability ( _m cry/allo-hydrates1 = in/ance ( ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o4 ,if we comp>e ! f\r elem5ts1 fluor9e1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e1 we see 9 !m an example ( analog\s sub/ances :i* arrange !mselves by _! physical prop]ties 9 ! same ord] z !y /& 9 respect to _! atomic & molecul> weights4 ,if ! weight ( ! molecule be l>ge1 ! sub/ance has a high] specific gravity1 a high] melt+ & boil+ po9t1 & a :ole s]ies ( prop]ties dep5d+ on ?is diff]5ce 9 its fundam5tal prop]ties4 ,*lor9e 9 a free /ate boils at ab\t -#ce1 brom9e boils at #fj1 & iod9e only above #ahj4 ,accord+ to ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's law1 ! vap\r d5sities ( ^! elem5ts 9 a gase\s /ate are proportional to _! atomic weights1 & "h1 at all ev5ts approximately1 ! d5sities 9 a liquid 7or solid7 /ate are also almo/ 9 ! ratio ( _! atomic weights4 ,divid+ ! atomic weight ( *lor9e 7#cee7 by its specific gravity 9 a liquid /ate 7#ac71 we obta9 a volume #bg1 = brom9e 7#hj_/ca7 #bf1 & = iod9e also 7#abg_/di7 #bf4fd #fd ,! equality ( ! atomic volumes ( ! halog5s !mselves is all ! m rem>kable because 9 all ! halog5 comp\nds ! volume augm5ts ) ! sub/itution ( fluor9e by *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e4 ,?us1 = example1 ! volume ( sodium fluoride 7obta9$ by divid+ ! weight express$ by its =mula by its specific gravity7 is ab\t #ae1 ( sodium *loride #bg1 ( sodium bromide #cb1 & ( sodium iodide #da4 ,! volume ( silicon *lor(orm1 ,si,h,cl#c1 is #hb1 & ^? ( ! correspond+ brom9e & iod9e comp\nds are #ajh & #abb respectively4 ,! same diff]5ce also exi/s 9 solutions2 = example1 ,na,cl #bjj;,h#b,o has a sp4 gr4 7at #ae_/d7 ( #ajajf1 consequ5tly ! volume ( ! solution #c1fehe_/ajajf #c1fbj1 h5ce ! volume ( sodium *loride 9 solution #c1fbj-c1fjc 7?is is ! volume ( #bjj ,h#b,o7 #ag1 & 9 simil> solutions1 ,na,br #bf & ,na,i #ce4 ,! metallic bromides & iodides are 9 ! majority ( cases1 9 mo/ respects analog\s to ! correspond+ *lorides1#fe b *lor9e displaces ! brom9e & iod9e f !m1 & brom9e lib]ates iod9e f iodides1 :i* is tak5 advantage ( 9 ! prep>ation ( ^! halog5s4 ,h[ev]1 ! rese>*es ( ,potilitz9 %[$ t a rev]se displacem5t ( *lor9e by brom9e may occur bo? 9 solutions & 9 ignit$ metallic *lorides 9 an atmosph]e ( brom9e vap\r--t is1 a di/ribution ( ! metal 7accord+ to ,b]?ollet's doctr9e7 takes place betwe5 ! halog5s1 al?\gh h[ev] ! l>g] portion1 /ill unites ) ! *lor9e1 :i* %[s its great] aff9ity = metals z comp>$ ) t ( brom9e & iod9e4#ff ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 sometimes behave ) respect to metallic oxides 9 exactly ! same mann] z *lor9e4 ,gay-,lussac1 by ignit+ potassium c>bonate 9 iod9e vap\r1 obta9$ 7z ) *lor9e7 an evolution ( oxyg5 & c>bonic anhydride1 ,k#b;,,co#c ,i#b #b,,ki ,,co#b ,o1 only ! reactions betwe5 ! halog5s & oxyg5 are m easily rev]sible ) brom9e & iod9e ?an ) *lor9e4 ,?us1 at a r$ heat oxyg5 displaces iod9e f b>ium iodide4 ,alum9ium iodide burns 9 a curr5t ( oxyg5 7,deville & ,troo/71 & a simil>1 al?\gh n s cle>ly m>k$1 relation exi/s = alum9ium *loride1 & %[s t ! halog5s h a di/9ctly small] aff9ity = ^? metals :i* only =m feeble bases4 ,?is is /ill m ! case ) ! non-metals1 :i* =m acids & evolve mu* m heat ) oxyg5 ?an ) ! halog5s 7,note #ac74 ,b 9 all ^! in/ances ! aff9ity 7& am\nt ( heat evolv$7 ( iod9e & brom9e is less ?an t ( *lor9e1 probably because ! atomic weights are great]4 ,! small] /ore ( en]gy 9 iod9e & brom9e is se5 /ill m cle>ly 9 ! relation ( ! halog5s to hydrog54 ,9 a gase\s /ate !y all ent]1 ) m or less ease1 into direct comb9ation ) gase\s hydrog5--= example1 9 ! pres5ce ( spongy plat9um1 =m+ halog5 acids1 ,,hx--b ! latt] are f> f be+ equally /able2 hydrog5 *loride is ! mo/ /able1 hydrog5 iodide ! lea/ s1 & hydrog5 bromide occupies an int]m$iate position4 ,a v high temp]ature is requir$ to decompose hydrog5 *loride ev5 p>tially1 :il/ hydrog5 iodide is decompos$ by light ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature & v easily by a r$ heat4 ,h5ce ! reaction ,i#b ,h#b ,,hi ,,hi is v easily rev]sible1 & consequ5tly has a limit1 & hydrog5 iodide easily dissociates4#fg ,judg+ by ! direct measurem5t ( ! heat evolv$ 7#bb1jjj heat units7 9 ! =mation ( ,h,cl1 ! conv]sion ( #b;,h,cl into ,h#b ,cl#b requires ! exp5diture ( #dd1jjj heat units4 ,! decomposition ( #b;,h,br into ,h#b ,br#b only requires1 if ! brom9e be obta9$ 9 a gase\s /ate1 a consumption ( ab\t #bd1jjj units1 :il/ 9 ! decomposition ( #b;,,hi into ,h#b ,i#b z vap\r ab\t #c1jjj heat units are evolv$2#fh ^! facts1 )\t d\bt1 /& 9 causal connection ) ! great /ability ( hydrog5 *loride1 ! easy decomposability ( hydrog5 iodide1 & ! int]m$iate prop]ties ( hydrog5 bromide4 ,f ?is x w\ld be expect$ t *lor9e is capable ( decompos+ wat] ) ! evolution ( oxyg51 :il/ iod9e has n ! en]gy to produce ?is dis5gagem5t1#fi al?\gh x is able to lib]ate ! oxyg5 f ! oxides ( potassium & sodium1 ! aff9ity ( ^! metals = ! halog5s be+ v consid]able4 ,= ?is reason oxyg51 especially 9 comp\nds f :i* x c be evolv$ readily 7= in/ance1 ,cl,h,o1 ,cr,o#c1 c471 easily decomposes hydrog5 iodide4 ,a mixture ( hydrog5 iodide & oxyg5 burns 9 ! pres5ce ( an ignit$ sub/ance1 =m+ wat] & iod9e4 ,drops ( nitric acid 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog5 iodide cause ! dis5gagem5t ( violet fumes ( iod9e & br[n fumes ( nitric p]oxide4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis & an excess ( wat]1 h[ev]1 iod9e is able to effect oxidation l *lor9e--t is1 x decomposes wat]2 ! action is "h aid$ by ! aff9ity ( hydrog5 iodide = ! alkali & wat]1 j z sulphuric acid helps z9c to decompose wat]4 ,b ! relative in/ability ( hydriodic acid is be/ se5 9 comp>+ ! acids 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,if ! halog5 acids be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 !y evolve s mu* heat t !y approa* mu* ne>] to ea* o!r 9 prop]ties4 ,?is is se5 f !rmo*emical data1 = 9 ! =mation ( ,,hx 9 solution 79 a l>ge excess ( wat]7 f ! gase\s elem5ts !re is evolv$ = ,h,cl #ci1jjj1 = ,h,br #cb1jjj1 & = ,,hi #ah1jjj heat units4#gj ,b x is especially evid5t f ! fact t solutions ( hydrog5 bromide & iodide 9 wat] h _m po9ts 9 common ) solutions ( hydrog5 *loride1 bo? 9 _! capacity to =m hydrates & fum+ solutions ( con/ant boil+ po9t1 & 9 _! capacity to =m haloid salts1 c4 by react+ on bases4 #fe ,b ! d5sity 7& also molecul> volume1 ,note #fd7 ( a brom9e comp\nd is always great] ?an t ( a *lor9e comp\nd1 :il/ t ( an iod9e comp\nd is /ill great]4 ,! ord] is ! same 9 _m o!r respects4 ,= example1 an iod9e comp\nd has a high] boil+ po9t ?an a brom9e comp\nd1 c4 #ff ,a4 ,l4 ,potilitz9 %[$ t 9 heat+ v>i\s metallic *lorides 9 a clos$ tube1 ) an equival5t quantity ( brom9e1 a di/ribution ( ! metal betwe5 ! halog5s always occurs1 & t ! am\nts ( *lor9e replac$ by ! brom9e 9 ! ultimate product are proportional to ! atomic weights ( ! metals tak5 & inv]sely proportional to _! equival5ce4 ,?us1 if ,na,cl ,br be tak51 !n out ( #ajj p>ts ( *lor9e1 #eed are replac$ by ! brom9e1 :il/ ) ,ag,cl ,br #bgbh p>ts are replac$4 ,^! figures are 9 ! ratio #a 3 #di1 & ! atomic weights ,na 3 ,ag #a 3 #dg4 ,9 g5]al t]ms1 if a *loride ,m,cln be tak51 x gives ) n,br a p]c5tage sub/itution #d,m_/n#b :]e ,m is ! atomic weight ( ! metal4 ,?is law 0 d$uc$ f obs]vations on ! *lorides ( ,li1 ,k1 ,na1 ,ag 7n #a71 ,ca1 ,sr1 ,ba1 ,co1 ,ni1 ,hg1 ,pb 7n #b71 ,bi 7n #c71 ,sn 7n #d71 & ,fe#b 7n #f74 ,9 ^! det]m9ations ( ,potilitz9 we see n only a brilliant confirmation ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 b also ! fir/ ef=t to directly det]m9e ! aff9ities ( elem5ts by means ( displacem5t4 ,! *ief object ( ^! rese>*es consi/$ 9 prov+ :e!r a displacem5t occurs 9 ^? cases :]e heat is absorb$1 & 9 ?is in/ance x %\ld be absorb$1 because ! =mation ( all metallic bromides is att5d$ ) ! evolution ( less heat ?an t ( ! *lorides1 z is se5 by ! figures giv5 9 ,note #ee4 ,if ! mass ( ! brom9e be increas$1 !n ! am\nt ( *lor9e displac$ also increases4 ,= example1 if masses ( brom9e ( #a & #d equival5ts act on a molecule ( sodium *loride1 !n ! p]c5tages ( ! *lor9e displac$ w be #fjh p4c4 & #abdf p4c42 9 ! action ( #a1 #d1 #be1 & #ajj molecules ( brom9e on a molecule ( b>ium *loride1 !re w be displac$ #gh1 #agf1 #cej1 & #dej p4c4 ( *lor9e4 ,if an equival5t quantity ( hydro*loric acid act on metallic bromides 9 clos$ tubes1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( wat] at a temp]ature ( #cjj1 !n ! p]c5tages ( ! sub/itution ( ! brom9e by ! *lor9e 9 ! d\ble decomposition tak+ place betwe5 unival5t metals are inv]sely proportional to _! atomic weights4 ,= example1 ,na,br ,h,cl gives at ! limit #ba p4c4 ( displacem5t1 ,k,cl #ab p4c4 & ,ag,cl #d-a_/d p4c4 ,ess5tially ! same action takes place 9 an aque\s solution1 al?\gh ! ph5om5on is complicat$ by ! p>ticipation ( ! wat]4 ,! reactions proce$ spontane\sly 9 "o or ! o!r direction at ! ord9>y temp]ature b at diff]5t rates4 ,9 ! action ( a dilute solution 7#a equival5t p] #e litres7 ( sodium *loride on silv] bromide at ! ord9>y temp]ature ! am\nt ( brom9e replac$ 9 six & a half days is #bjg p4c41 & ) potassium *loride #ae p4c4 ,) an excess ( ! *loride ! magnitude ( ! sub/itution increases4 ,^! conv]sions also proce$ ) ! absorption ( heat4 ,! rev]se reactions evolv+ heat proce$ incomp>ably m rapidly1 b also to a c]ta9 limit2 = example1 9 ! reaction ,ag,cl ,r,br ! foll[+ p]c5tages ( silv] bromide are =m$ 9 diff]5t times3 h\rs #b #c #bb #if #abj ,k #gihb #hgd #hhbb -- #idba ,na #hcfc #ijgd #iagj #iedi -- ,t is1 ! conv]sions :i* are accompani$ by an evolution ( heat proce$ ) v mu* great] rapidity ?an ! rev]se conv]sions4 #fg ,! dissociation ( hydriodic acid has be5 /udi$ 9 detail by ,hautefeuille & ,lemo9e1 f ^: rese>*es we extract ! foll[+ in=mation4 ,! decomposition ( hydriodic acid is decid$1 b proce$s sl[ly at #ahj2 ! rate & limit ( decomposition increase ) a rise ( temp]ature4 ,! rev]se action--t is1 ,i#b ,h#b #b;,,hi--proce$s n only "u ! influ5ce ( spongy plat9um 7,cor5w9d]71 :i* also accel]ates ! decomposition ( hydriodic acid1 b also by itself1 al?\gh sl[ly4 ,! limit ( ! rev]se reaction rema9s ! same ) or )\t spongy plat9um4 ,an increase ( pressure has a v p[]ful accel]ative effect on ! rate ( =mation ( hydriodic acid1 & !re=e spongy plat9um by cond5s+ gases has ! same effect z increase ( pressure4 ,at ! atmosph]ic pressure ! decomposition ( hydriodic acid rea*es ! limit at #bej 9 sev]al mon?s1 & at #ddj 9 sev]al h\rs4 ,! limit at #bej is ab\t #ah p4c4 ( decomposition--t is1 out ( #ajj p>ts ( hydrog5 previ\sly comb9$ 9 hydriodic acid1 ab\t #ah p4c4 may be dis5gag$ at ?is temp]ature 7?is hydrog5 may be easily measur$1 & ! measure ( dissociation det]m9$71 b n m2 ! limit at #ddj is ab\t #bf p4c4 ,if ! pressure "u :i* #b;,,hi passes into ,h#b ,i#b be #d-a_/b atmosph]es1 !n ! limit is #bd p4c42 "u a pressure ( #a_/e atmosph]e ! limit is #bi p4c4 ,! small influ5ce ( pressure on ! dissociation ( hydriodic acid 7comp>$ ) ,n#b,o#d1 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,note #df7 is due to ! fact t ! reaction #b;,,hi ,i#b ,h#b is n accompani$ by a *ange ( volume4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! influ5ce ( "t1 we w cite ! foll[+ figures ref]r+ to #cej3 7#a7 ,reaction ,h#b ,i#b2 aft] #c h\rs1 #hh p4c4 ( hydrog5 rema9$ free2 #h h\rs1 #fi p4c42 #cd h\rs1 #dh p4c42 #gf h\rs1 #bi p4c42 & #cbg h\rs1 #ahe p4c4 7#b7 ,! rev]se decomposition ( #b;,,hi2 aft] #i h\rs1 #c p4c4 ( hydrog5 0 set free1 & aft] #bej h\rs #ahf p4c4--t is1 ! limit 0 rea*$4 ,! addition ( extrane\s hydrog5 dim9i%es ! limit ( ! reaction ( decomposition1 or increases ! =mation ( hydriodic acid f iod9e & hydrog51 z w\ld be expect$ f ,b]?ollet's doctr9e 7,*apt] ,x474 ,?us at #ddj #bf p4c4 ( hydriodic acid is decompos$ if !re be no admixture ( hydrog51 :ile if ,h#b be add$1 !n at ! limit only half z l>ge a mass ( ,,hi is decompos$4 ,!re=e1 if an inf9ite mass ( hydrog5 be add$ !re w be no decomposition ( ! hydriodic acid4 ,light aids ! decomposition ( hydriodic acid v p[]fully4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature #hj p4c4 is decompos$ "u ! influ5ce ( light1 :il/ "u ! influ5ce ( heat alone ?is limit corresponds ) a v high temp]ature4 ,! di/9ct action ( light1 spongy plat9um1 & ( impurities 9 glass 7especially ( sodium sulphate1 :i* decomposes hydriodic acid71 n only r5d] ! inve/igations difficult1 b also %[ t 9 reactions l #b;,,hi ,i#b ,h#b1 :i* are accompani$ by slight heat effects1 all =eign & feeble influ5ces may /rongly affect ! progress ( ! action 7,note #dg74 #fh ,! !rmal det]m9ations ( ,?oms5 7at #ah7 gave 9 ?\s&s ( calories1 ,cl ,h #bb1 ,h,cl ,aq 7t is1 on dissolv+ ,h,cl 9 a l>ge am\nt ( wat]7 #agc1 & !re=e ,h ,cl ,aq #cic4 ,9 tak+ molecules1 all ^! figures mu/ be d\bl$4 ,br ,h #hd2 ,h,br ,aq #aii2 ,h ,br ,aq #bhc4 ,accord+ to ,b]!lot #gb are requir$ = ! vaporisation ( ,br#b1 h5ce ,br#b ,h#b #afh #gb #bd1 if ,br#b be tak5 z vap\r = comp>ison ) ,cl#b4 ,h ,i -#fj1 ,,hi ,aq #aib2 ,h ,i ,aq #acb1 &1 accord+ to ,b]!lot1 ! heat ( fusion ( ,i#b #cj1 & ( vaporisation #fj ?\s& heat units1 & !re=e ,i#b ,h#b -#b7fj7 #c #f -#cj1 if ! iod9e be tak5 z vap\r4 ,b]!lot1 on ! basis ( 8 det]m9ations1 gives1 h[ev]1 #jh ?\s& heat units4 ,simil> contradictory results are (t5 met ) 9 !rmo*emi/ry ow+ to ! imp]fection ( ! exi/+ me?ods1 & p>ticul>ly ! necessity ( dep5d+ on indirect me?ods = obta9+ ! fundam5tal figures4 ,?us ,?oms5 decompos$ a dilute solution ( potassium iodide by gase\s *lor9e2 ! reaction gave #bfb1 :5ce1 hav+ fir/ det]m9$ ! heat effects ( ! reactions ,,kho ,h,cl1 ,,kho ,,hi & ,cl ,h 9 aque\s solutions1 x 0 possible to f9d ,h ,i ,aq2 !n1 kn[+ ,,hi ,aq1 to f9d ,i ,h4 ,x is evid5t t unavoidable errors may accumulate4 #fi ,"o c believe1 h[ev]1 on ! basis ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 & ! obs]vations ( ,potilitz9 7,note #ff71 t a c]ta9 sl[ decomposition ( wat] by iod9e takes place4 ,on ?is view ! obs]vations ( ,dossios & ,wei? on ! fact t ! solubility ( iod9e 9 wat] increases aft] ! lapse ( sev]al mon?s w be compreh5sible4 ,hydriodic acid is !n =m$1 & x increases ! solubility4 ,if ! iod9e be extract$ f su* a solution by c>bon bisulphide1 !n1 z ! au?ors %[$1 aft] ! action ( nitr\s anhydride iod9e may be aga9 detect$ 9 ! solution by means ( />*4 ,x c easily be und]/ood t a numb] ( simil> reactions1 requir+ mu* "t & tak+ place 9 small quantities1 h up to n[ elud$ ! att5tion ( inve/igators1 :o ev5 /ill d\bt ! univ]sal application ( ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 or only see ! !rmo*emical side ( reactions1 or else neglect to pay att5tion to ! elem5t ( "t & ! influ5ce ( mass4 #gj ,on ! basis ( ! data 9 ,note #fh4 ,9 consequ5ce ( :at has be5 said above1 x foll[s t hydrobromic & hydriodic acids1 be+ sub/ances :i* are b slightly /able1 _c be evolv$ 9 a gase\s /ate "u _m ( ^? conditions "u :i* hydro*loric acid is =m$4 ,?us if sulphuric acid 9 solution acts on sodium iodide1 all ! same ph5om5a take place z ) sodium *loride 7a portion ( ! sodium iodide gives hydriodic acid1 & all rema9s 9 solution71 b if sodium iodide be mix$ ) /rong sulphuric acid1 !n ! oxyg5 ( ! latt] decomposes ! hydriodic acid set free1 ) lib]ation ( iod9e1 ,h#b,,s#d #b;,,hi #b;,h#b,o ,,s#b ,i#b4 ,?is reaction takes place 9 ! rev]se direction 9 ! pres5ce ( a l>ge quantity ( wat] 7#b1jjj p>ts ( wat] p] #a "p ( ,,s#b71 9 :i* case n only ! aff9ity ( hydriodic acid = wat] is br\ght to light b also ! action ( wat] 9 direct+ *emical reactions 9 :i* x p>ticipates4#ga ,!re=e1 ) a halog5 salt1 x is easy to obta9 gase\s hydro*loric acid by ! action ( sulphuric acid1 b nei!r hydrobromic nor hydriodic acid c be s obta9$ 9 ! free /ate 7z gases74#gb ,o!r me?ods h to be resort$ to = _! prep>ation1 & rec\rse mu/ n be _h to comp\nds ( oxyg51 :i* are s easily able to de/roy ^! acids4 ,!re=e hydrog5 sulphide1 phosphorus1 c41 :i* !mselves easily take up oxyg51 are introduc$ z means = ! conv]sion ( brom9e & iod9e into hydrobromic & hydriodic acids 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,= example1 9 ! action ( phosphorus ! ess5ce ( ! matt] is t ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] goes to ! phosphorus1 & ! union ( ! rema9+ elem5ts leads to ! =mation ( hydrobromic or hydriodic acid2 b ! matt] is complicat$ by ! rev]sibility ( ! reaction1 ! aff9ity = wat]1 & o!r circum/ances :i* are und]/ood by foll[+ ,b]?ollet's doctr9e4 ,*lor9e 7& brom9e also7 directly decomposes hydrog5 sulphide1 =m+ hydro*loric acid & lib]at+ sulphur1 bo? 9 a gase\s =m & 9 solutions1 :il/ iod9e only decomposes hydrog5 sulphide 9 weak solutions1 :5 its aff9ity = hydrog5 is aid$ by ! aff9ity ( hydrog5 iodide = wat]4 ,9 a gase\s /ate iod9e does n act on hydrog5 sulphide1#gc :il/ sulphur is able to decompose gase\s hydriodic acid1 =m+ hydrog5 sulphide & a comp\nd ( sulphur & iod9e :i* ) wat] =ms hydriodic acid4#gd #ga ,a numb] ( simil> cases confirm :at has be5 said 9 ,*apt] ,x4 #gb ,?is is prev5t$ by ! r$ucibility ( sulphuric acid4 ,if volatile acids be tak5 !y pass ov]1 toge!r ) ! hydrobromic & hydriodic acids1 :5 di/ill$2 :il/ _m non-volatile acids :i* are n r$uc$ by hydrobromic & hydriodic acids only act feebly 7l phosphoric acid71 or d n act at all 7l boric acid74 #gc ,?is is 9 agreem5t ) ! !rmo*emical data1 because if all ! sub/ances be tak5 9 ! gase\s /ate 7= sulphur ! heat ( fusion is #jc1 & ! heat ( vaporisation #bc7 we h ,h#b ,s #dg2 ,h#b ,cl#b #dd2 ,h#b ,br#b #bd1 & ,h#b ,i#b -#c ?\s& heat units2 h5ce ! =mation ( ,h#b,s gives less heat ?an t ( ,h,cl & ,h,br1 b m ?an t ( ,,hi4 ,9 dilute solutions ,h#b ,s ,aq #ic1 & consequ5tly less ?an ! =mation ( all ! halog5 acids1 z ,h#b,s evolves b little heat ) wat]1 & !re=e 9 dilute solutions *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e decompose hydrog5 sulphide4 #gd ,"h !re are ?ree elem5ts1 hydrog51 sulphur1 & iod9e1 ea* pair ( :i* is able to =m a comp\nd1 ,,hi1 ,h#b,s1 & ,,si1 besides :i* ! latt] may unite 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,! complexity ( *emical me*anics is se5 9 su* examples z ^!4 ,x is evid5t t only ! /udy ( ! simple/ cases c give ! key to ! m complex problems1 & on ! o!r h& x is evid5t f ! examples cit$ 9 ! la/ pages t1 )\t p5etrat+ into ! conditions ( *emical equilibria1 x w\ld be impossible to expla9 *emical ph5om5a4 ,by foll[+ ! foot/eps ( ,b]?ollet ! possibility ( unravell+ ! problems w be rea*$2 b "w 9 ?is direction has only be5 begun dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s1 & mu* rema9s to be done 9 collect+ exp]im5tal mat]ial1 = :i* occasions pres5t !mselves at e /ep4 ,9 speak+ ( ! halog5s ,i wi%$ to turn ! read]'s att5tion to problems ( ?is k9d4 ,if hydrog5 sulphide be pass$ ?r\gh wat] conta9+ iod9e1 ! reaction ,h#b,s ,i#b #b;,,hi ,s proce$s s long z ! solution is dilute1 b :5 ! mass ( free ,,hi increases ! reaction /ops1 because ! iod9e !n passes into solution4 ,a solution hav+ a composition approximat+ to #b;,,hi #d;,i#b #i;,h#b,o 7accord+ to ,b9eau7 does n react ) ,h#b,s1 not)/&+ ! quantity ( free iod9e4 ,!re=e only weak solutions ( hydriodic acid c be obta9$ by pass+ hydrog5 sulphide into wat] ) iod9e4#gd bis #gd bis ,! same ess5tially takes place :5 sulphur\s anhydride1 9 a dilute solution1 gives hydriodic acid & sulphuric acid ) iod9e4 ,on conc5tration a rev]se reaction takes place4 ,! equilibrat$ sy/ems & ! "p play$ by wat] are ev]y:]e di/9ctly se54 ,to obta9#ge gase\s hydrobromic & hydriodic acids x is mo/ conv5i5t to take advantage ( ! reactions betwe5 phosphorus1 ! halog5s1 & wat]1 ! latt] be+ pres5t 9 small quantity 7o!rwise ! halog5 acids =m$ are dissolv$ by x72 ! halog5 is gradually add$ to ! phosphorus moi/5$ ) wat]4 ,?us if r$ phosphorus be plac$ 9 a flask & moi/5$ ) wat]1 & brom9e be add$ drop by drop 7f a tap funnel71 hydrobromic acid is abundantly & uni=mly dis5gag$4#gf ,hydrog5 iodide is prep>$ by add+ #a "p ( common 7yell[7 dry phosphorus to #aj p>ts ( dry iod9e 9 a glass flask4 ,on %ak+ ! flask1 union proce$s quietly betwe5 !m 7light & heat be+ evolv$71 & :5 ! mass ( iodide ( phosphorus :i* is =m$ has cool$1 wat] is add$ drop by drop 7f a tap funnel7 & hydrog5 iodide is evolv$ directly )\t ! aid ( heat4 ,^! me?ods ( prep>ation w be at once und]/ood :5 x is rememb]$ 7p4 #dfh7 t phosphorus *loride gives hydrog5 *loride ) wat]4 ,x is exactly ! same "h--! oxyg5 ( ! wat] passes ov] to ! phosphorus1 & ! hydrog5 to ! iod9e1 ?us1 ,,pi#c #c;,h#b,o ,,ph#c,o#c #c;,,hi4#gg #ge ,me?ods ( =mation & prep>ation are no?+ m ?an p>ticul> cases ( *emical reaction4 ,if ! k ( *emical me*anics 7 m exact & complete ?an x n[ is x w\ld be possible to =etell all cases ( prep>ation ) e detail 7( ! quantity ( wat]1 temp]ature1 pressure1 mass1 c47 ,! /udy ( practical me?ods ( prep>ation is !re=e "o ( ! pa?s = ! /udy ( *emical me*anics4 ,! reaction ( iod9e on phosphorus & wat] is a case l t m5tion$ 9 ,note #gd1 & ! matt] is "h fur!r complicat$ by ! possibility ( ! =mation ( ! comp\nd ,,ph#c ) ,,hi1 z well z ! production ( ,,pi#b1 ,,pi#c1 & ! aff9ity ( hydriodic acid & ! acids ( phosphorus = wat]4 ,! !oretical int]e/ ( equilibria 9 all _! complexity is naturally v great1 b x falls into ! backgr\nd 9 pres5ce ( ! prim>y int]e/ ( discov]+ practical me?ods = ! isolation ( sub/ances1 & ! means ( employ+ !m = ! requirem5ts ( man4 ,x is only aft] ! satisfaction ( ^! requirem5ts t int]e/s ( ! o!r ord] arise1 :i* 9 _! turn mu/ ex]t an influ5ce on ! =m]4 ,= ^! reasons1 :il/ consid]+ x opportune to po9t out ! !oretical int]e/ ( *emical equilibria1 ! *ief att5tion ( ! read] is direct$ 9 ?is "w to que/ions ( practical importance4 #gf ,hydrobromic acid is also obta9$ by ! action ( brom9e on p>aff9 heat$ to #ahj4 ,gu/avson propos$ to prep>e x by ! action ( brom9e 7be/ add$ 9 drops toge!r ) traces ( alum9ium bromide7 on an?rac5e 7a solid hydroc>bon f coal t>74 ,bal>d prep>$ x by pass+ brom9e vap\r ov] moi/ pieces ( common phosphorus4 ,! liquid tribromide ( phosphorus1 directly obta9$ f phosphorus & brom9e1 also gives hydrobromic acid :5 treat$ ) wat]4 ,bromide ( potassium or sodium1 :5 treat$ ) sulphuric acid 9 ! pres5ce ( phosphorus1 also gives hydrobromic acid1 b hydriodic acid is decompos$ by ?is me?od4 ,9 ord] to free hydrobromic acid f brom9e vap\r x is pass$ ov] moi/ phosphorus & dri$ ei!r by phosphoric anhydride or calcium bromide 7calcium *loride _c be us$1 z hydro*loric acid w\ld be =m$74 ,nei!r hydrobromic nor hydriodic acids c be collect$ ov] m]cury1 on :i* !y act1 b !y may be directly collect$ 9 a dry vessel by lead+ ! gas-conduct+ tube to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 bo? gases be+ mu* heavi] ?an air4 ,m]z & ,holtzmann 7#ahhi7 propos$ to prep>e ,h,br directly f brom9e & hydrog54 ,= ?is purpose pure dry hydrog5 is pass$ ?r\gh a flask conta9+ boil+ brom9e4 ,! mixture ( gas & vap\r !n passes ?r\gh a tube provid$ ) "o or two bulbs1 :i* is heat$ mod]ately 9 ! middle4 ,hydrobromic acid is =m$ ) a s]ies ( fla%es at ! "p heat$4 ,! resultant ,h,br1 toge!r ) traces ( brom9e1 passes into a ,w\lfe's bottle into :i* hydrog5 is also introduc$1 & ! mixture is !n c>ri$ ?r\gh ano!r heat$ tube1 aft] :i* x is pass$ ?r\gh wat] :i* dissolves ! hydrobromic acid4 ,accord+ to ! me?od propos$ by ,new? 7#ahib7 a mixture ( brom9e & hydrog5 is l$ ?r\gh a tube conta9+ a plat9um spiral1 :i* is heat$ to r$ness aft] ! air has be5 displac$ f ! tube4 ,if ! vessel conta9+ ! brom9e be kept at #fj1 ! hydrog5 takes up almo/ ! !oretical am\nt ( brom9e requir$ = ! =mation ( ,h,br4 ,al?\gh ! flame :i* appe>s 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! plat9um spiral does n p5etrate into ! vessel conta9+ ! brom9e1 /ill1 = safety1 a tube fill$ ) cotton wool may be int]pos$4 ,hydroiodic acid is obta9$ 9 ! same mann] z hydrobromic4 ,! iod9e is heat$ 9 a small flask1 & its vap\r is c>ri$ ov] by hydrog5 into a /rongly heat$ tube1 ,! gas pass+ f ! tube is f\nd to conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( ,,hi1 toge!r ) "s free iod9e4 ,at a l[ r$ heat ab\t #ag p4c4 ( ! iod9e vap\r ent]s into comb9ation2 at a high] temp]ature1 #gh p4c4 to #gi p4c42 & at a /rong heat ab\t #hb p4c4 #gg ,b g5]ally m phosphorus is tak5 ?an is requir$ = ! =mation ( ,,pi#c1 because o!rwise a portion ( ! iod9e di/ils ov]4 ,if less ?an "o-t5? "p ( iod9e be tak51 mu* phosphonium iodide1 ,,ph#d;,i1 is =m$4 ,?is proportion 0 e/abli%$ by ,gay-,lussac & ,kolbe4 ,hydriodic acid is also prep>$ 9 _m o!r ways4 ,bann(f dissolves two p>ts ( iod9e 9 "o "p ( a previ\sly prep>$ /rong 7sp4 gr4 #afg7 solution ( hydriodic acid1 & p\rs x on to r$ phosphorus 9 a retort4 ,p]sonne takes a mixture ( fifte5 p>ts ( wat]1 t5 ( iod9e1 & "o ( r$ phosphorus1 :i*1 :5 heat$1 dis5gages hydriodic acid mix$ ) iod9e vap\r2 ! latt] is remov$ by pass+ x ov] moi/ phosphorus 7,note #gf74 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ h[ev] t rev]se reaction 7,opp5heim7 may take place betwe5 ! hydriodic acid & phosphorus1 9 :i* ! comp\nds ,,ph#d;,i & ,,pi#b are =m$4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! reaction betwe5 phosphorus1 iod9e & wat] mu/ be c>ri$ out 9 ! above proportions & ) caution1 z !y may react ) explosion4 ,) r$ phosphorus ! reaction proce$s quietly1 b nev]!less requires c>e4 ,l4 ,mey] %[$ t ) an excess ( iod9e ! reaction proce$s )\t ! =mation ( bye-products 7,,ph#d;,i71 accord+ to ! equation ,p #e;,i #d;,h#b,o ,,ph#c,o#d #e;,,hi4 ,= ?is purpose #ajj grams ( iod9e & #aj grams ( wat] are plac$ 9 a retort1 & a pa/e ( #e grams ( r$ phosphorus & #aj grams ( wat] is add$ little by little 7at fir/ ) great c>e74 ,! hydriodic acid may be obta9$ free f iod9e by direct+ ! neck ( ! retort upw>ds & caus+ ! gas to pass ?r\gh a %all[ lay] ( wat] 7respect+ ! =mation ( ,,hi1 see also ,note #ge74 ,9 a gase\s =m hydrobromic & hydriodic acids are closely analog\s to hydro*loric acid2 !y are liquefi$ by pressure & cold1 !y fume 9 ! air1 =m solutions & hydrates1 ( con/ant boil+ po9t1 & react on metals1 oxides & salts1 c4#gh ,only ! relatively easy decomposability ( hydrobromic acid & especially ( hydriodic acid1 cle>ly di/+ui% ^! acids f hydro*loric acid4 ,= ?is reason1 hydriodic acid acts 9 a numb] ( cases z a deoxidis] or r$uc]1 & frequ5tly ev5 s]ves z a means = ! transf]5ce ( hydrog54 ,?us ,b]!lot1 ,baey]1 ,wr$51 & o!rs1 by heat+ unsaturat$ hydroc>bons 9 a solution ( hydriodic acid1 obta9$ _! comp\nds ) hydrog5 ne>] to ! limit ,cn,h#bn #b or ev5 ! saturat$ comp\nds4 ,= example1 b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 :5 heat$ 9 a clos$ tube ) a /rong solution ( hydriodic acid1 gives hexyl5e1 ,c#f;,h#ab4 ,! easy decomposability ( hydriodic acid acc\nts = ! fact t iod9e does n act by metalepsis on hydroc>bons1 = ! hydrog5 iodide lib]at$ ) ! product ( metalepsis1 ,,ri1 =m$1 gives iod9e & ! hydrog5 comp\nd1 ,,rh1 back aga94 ,& !re=e1 to obta9 ! products ( iod9e sub/itution1 ei!r iodic acid1 ,,hio#c 7,kekul71 or m]cury oxide1 ,hg,o 7,weselsky71 is add$1 z !y imm$iately react on ! hydrog5 iodide1 ?us3 ,,hio#c #e;,,hi #c;,h#b,o #c;,i#b1 or1 ,hg,o #b;,,hi ,hg,i#b ,h#b,o4 ,f ^! consid]ations x w be readily und]/ood t iod9e acts l *lor9e 7or brom9e7 on ammonia & sodium hydroxide1 = 9 ^! cases ! hydriodic acid produc$ =ms ,,nh#d;,i & ,na,i4 ,) t9cture ( iod9e or ev5 ! solid elem5t1 a solution ( ammonia imm$iately =ms a highly-explosive solid black product ( metalepsis1 ,,nhi#b1 g5]ally kn[n z iodide ( nitrog51 al?\gh x /ill conta9s hydrog5 7?is 0 prov$ beyond d\bt by ,szuhay #ahic71 :i* may be replac$ by silv] 7) ! =mation ( ,n,ag,i#b73 #c,,nh#c #b;,i#b #b,,nh#d;,i ,,nhi#b4 ,h[ev]1 ! composition ( ! la/ product is v>iable1 & ) an excess ( wat] ,,ni#c seems to be =m$4 ,iodide ( nitrog5 is j z explosive z nitrog5 *loride4#gh bis ,9 ! action ( iod9e on sodium hydroxide no blea*+ comp\nd is =m$ 7:il/ brom9e gives "o71 b a direct reaction is always accompli%$ ) ! =mation ( an iodate1 #f,na,h,o #c;,i#b #e,na,i #c;,h#b,o ,na,i,o#c 7,gay-,lussac74 ,solutions ( o!r alkalis1 & ev5 a mixture ( wat] & oxide ( m]cury1 act 9 ! same mann]4#gi ,?is direct =mation ( iodic acid1 ,,hio#c ,,io#b7,,oh71 %[s ! prop5sity ( iod9e to give comp\nds ( ! type ,,ix#e4 ,inde$1 ?is capacity ( iod9e to =m comp\nds ( a high type emphasises itself 9 _m ways4 ,b x is mo/ important to turn att5tion to ! fact t iodic acid is easily & directly =m$ by ! action ( oxidis+ sub/ances on iod9e4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 /rong nitric acid directly conv]ts iod9e into iodic acid1 :il/ x has no oxidis+ action on *lor9e4#gi bis ,?is %[s a great] aff9ity 9 iod9e = oxyg5 ?an 9 *lor9e1 & ?is conclusion is confirm$ by ! fact t iod9e displaces *lor9e f its oxyg5 acids1#hj & t 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] *lor9e oxidises iod9e4#ha ,ev5 ozone or a sil5t dis*>ge pass$ ?r\gh a mixture ( oxyg5 & iod9e vap\r is able to directly oxidise iod9e#hb into iodic acid4 ,x is dis5gag$ f solutions z a hydrate1 ,,hio#c1 :i* loses wat] at #agj1 & gives an anhydride1 ,i#b,o#e4 ,bo? ^! sub/ances are cry/all9e 7sp4 gr4 ,i#b,o#e #ejcg1 ,,hio#c #dhfi at #j71 col\rless & soluble 9 wat]2#hc bo? decompose at a r$ heat into iod9e & oxyg51 are 9 _m cases p[]fully oxidis+--= in/ance1 !y oxidise sulphur\s anhydride1 hydrog5 sulphide1 c>bonic oxide1 c4--=m *loride ( iod9e & wat] ) hydro*loric acid1 & ) bases =m salts1 n only normal ,,mio#c1 b also acid2 = example1 ,,kio#c;,,hio#c1 ,,kio#cb;,,hio#c4hc bis ,) hydriodic acid iodic acid imm$iately reacts1 dis5gag+ iod9e1 ,,hio#c #e;,,hi #c;,h#b,o #c;,i#b4 #gh ,! specific gravities ( _! solutions z d$uc$ by me on ! basis ( ,topse & ,b]!lot's det]m9ations = #ae_/d are z foll[s3-- #aj #bj #cj #dj #ej #fj p4c4 ,h,br #ajga #aaef #abeh #acgd #aeje #afej ,,hi #ajge #aafd #abfg #acii #aefg #agfi ,hydrobromic acid =ms two hydrates1 ,h,br1#b;,h#b,o & ,h,br1,h#b,o1 :i* h be5 /udi$ by ,roozeboom ) z mu* complet5ess z ! hydrate ( hydro*loric acid 7,*apt] ,x4 ,note #cg74 ,) metallic silv]1 solutions ( hydriodic acid give hydrog5 ) great ease1 =m+ silv] iodide4 ,m]cury1 lead1 & o!r metals act 9 a simil> mann]4 #gh bis ,iodide ( nitrog51 ,,nhi#b is obta9$ z a br[n pulv]ul5t precipitate on add+ a solution ( iod9e 79 alcohol1 = in/ance7 to a solution ( ammonia4 ,if x be collect$ on a filt]-pap]1 x does n decompose s long z ! precipitate is moi/2 b :5 dry x explodes viol5tly1 s t x c only be exp]im5t$ ^u 9 small quantities4 ,usually ! filt]-pap] is torn into bits :ile moi/1 & ! pieces laid ^u a brick2 on dry+ an explosion proce$s n only f friction or a bl[1 b ev5 spontane\sly4 ,! m dilute ! solution ( ammonia1 ! great] is ! am\nt ( iod9e requir$ = ! =mation ( ! precipitate ( ,,nhi#b4 ,a l[ temp]ature facilitates its =mation4 ,,nhi#b dissolves 9 ammonia wat]1 & :5 heat$ ! solution =ms ,,hio#c & iod9e4 ,) ,,ki1 iodide ( nitrog5 gives iod9e1 ,,nh#c & ,,kho4 ,^! reactions 7,selivan(f7 are expla9$ by ! =mation ( ,,hio f ,,nhi#b #b;,h#b,o ,,nh#c #b;,,hio--& !n ,,ki ,,hio ,i#b ,,kho4 ,selivan(f 7see ,note #bi7 usually obs]v$ a tempor>y =mation ( hypoiod\s acid1 ,,hio1 9 ! reaction ( ammonia ^u iod9e1 s t "h ! =mation ( ,,nhi#b is prec$$ by t ( ,,hio--i4e4 fir/ ,i#b ,h#b,o ,,hio ,,hi1 & !n n only ! ,,hi comb9es ) ,,nh#c1 b also #b;,,hio ,,nh#c ,,nhi#b #b;,h#b,o4 ,) dilute sulphuric acid iodide ( nitrog5 7l ,n,cl#c7 =ms hypoiod\s acid1 b x imm$iately passes into iodic acid1 z is express$ by ! equation #e;,,hio #b;,i#b ,,hio#c #b;,h#b,o 7fir/ #c;,,hio ,,hio#c #b;,,hi1 & !n ,,hi ,,hio ,i#b ,h#b,o74 ,moreov]1 ,selivan(f f\nd t iodide ( nitrog51 ,,nhi#b1 dissolves 9 an excess ( ammonia wat]1 & t ) potassium iodide ! solution gives ! reaction = hypoiod\s acid 7! evolution ( iod9e 9 an alkal9e solution74 ,?is %[s t ,,hio p>ticipates 9 ! =mation & decomposition ( ,,nhi#b1 & !re=e ! condition ( ! iod9e 7its metaleptic position7 9 !m is analog\s1 & diff]s f ! condition ( ! halog5s 9 ! haloid-anhydrides 7= in/ance1 ,,no#b;,cl74 ,! latt] are tol]ably /able1 :ile 7! haloid be+ designat$ by ,x7 ,,nhx#b1 ,,nx#c1 ,,xoh1 ,,rxo 7see ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,note #dc71 c41 are un/able1 easily decompos$ ) ! evolution ( heat1 &1 "u ! action ( wat]1 ! haloid is easily replac$ by hydrog5 7,selivan(f71 z w\ld be expect$ 9 true products ( metalepsis4 #gi ,hypoiod\s acid1 ,,hio1 is n kn[n1 b organic comp\nds1 ,,rio1 ( ?is type are kn[n4 ,to illu/rate ! peculi>ities ( _! prop]ties we w m5tion "o ( ^! comp\nds1 namely1 iodosob5zol1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,io4 ,?is sub/ance 0 obta9$ by ,willg]odt 7#ahib71 & also by ,v4 ,mey]1 ,wa*t]1 & ,ask5asy1 by ! action ( cau/ic alkalis ^u ph5oldiiodo*loride1 ,c#f;,h#e;,i,cl#b 7accord+ to ! equation1 ,c#f;,h#e;,i,cl#b #b,,moh ,c#f;,h#e;,,io #b,m,cl ,h#b,o74 ,iodosob5zol is an amorph\s yell[ sub/ance1 ^: melt+ po9t c\ld n be det]m9$ because x explodes at #baj1 decompos+ ) ! evolution ( iod9e vap\r4 ,?is sub/ance dissolves 9 hot wat] & alcohol1 b is n soluble 9 ! majority ( o!r neutral organic solv5ts4 ,if acids d n oxidise ,c#f;,h#e;,,io1 !y give sal9e comp\nds 9 :i* iodosob5zol appe>s z a basic oxide ( a diatomic metal1 ,c#f;,h#e;,i4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 :5 an acetic acid solution ( iodosob5zol is treat$ ) a solution ( nitric acid1 x gives l>ge monocl9ic cry/als ( a nitric acid salt hav+ ! composition ,c#f;,h#e;,i7,,no#c7b 7l ,ca7,,no#c7b74 ,9 appe>+ z ! analogue ( basic oxides1 iodosob5zol displaces iod9e f potassium iodide 79 a solution acidulat$ ) acetic or hydro*loric acid7--i4e4 x acts ) its oxyg5 l ,h,cl,o4 ,! action ( p]oxide ( hydrog51 *romic acid1 & o!r simil> oxidis+ ag5ts gives iodoxyb5zol1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,io#b1 :i* is a neutral sub/ance--i4e4 incapable ( giv+ salts ) acids 7comp>e ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,note #dc74 #gi bis ,! oxidation ( iod9e by /rong nitric acid 0 discov]$ by ,connell2 ,millon %[$ t x is effect$1 al?\gh m sl[ly1 by ! action ( ! hydrates ( nitric acid up to ,,hno#c1;,h#b,o1 b t ! solution ,,hno#c1b;,h#b,o1 & weak] solutions1 d n oxidise1 b simply dissolve1 iod9e4 ,! p>ticipation ( wat] 9 reactions is se5 9 ?is in/ance4 ,x is also se51 = example1 9 ! fact t dry ammonia comb9es directly ) iod9e--= in/ance1 at #j =m+ ! comp\nd ,i#b1d,,nh#c--:il/ iodide ( nitrog5 is only =m$ 9 pres5ce ( wat]4 #hj ,brom9e also displaces *lor9e--= in/ance1 f *loric acid1 directly =m+ bromic acid4 ,if a solution ( potassium *lorate be tak5 7#ge p>ts p] #djj p>ts ( wat]71 & iod9e be add$ to x 7#hj p>ts71 & !n a small quantity ( nitric acid1 *lor9e is dis5gag$ on boil+1 & potassium iodate is =m$ 9 ! solution4 ,9 ?is in/ance ! nitric acid fir/ evolves a c]ta9 portion ( ! *loric acid1 & ! latt]1 ) ! iod9e1 evolves *lor9e4 ,! iodic acid ?us =m$ acts on a fur!r quantity ( ! potassium *lorate1 sets a portion ( ! *loric acid free1 & 9 ?is mann] ! action is kept up4 ,potilitz9 7#ahhg7 rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t n only d brom9e & iod9e displace ! *lor9e f *loric acid & potassium *lorate1 b also *lor9e displaces brom9e f sodium bromate1 &1 fur!rmore1 ! reaction does n proce$ z a direct sub/itution ( ! halog5s1 b is accompani$ by ! =mation ( free acids2 = example1 #e,na,cl,o#c #c;,br#b #c;,h#b,o #e,na,br #e;,h,cl,o#c ,h,br,o#c4 #ha ,if iod9e be /irr$ up 9 wat]1 & *lor9e pass$ ?r\gh ! mixture1 ! iod9e is dissolv$2 ! liquid becomes col\rless1 & conta9s1 accord+ to ! relative am\nts ( wat] & *lor9e1 ei!r ,i,h,cl#b1 or ,i,cl#c1 or ,,hio#c4 ,if !re be a small am\nt ( wat]1 !n ! iodic acid may sep>ate out directly z cry/als1 b a complete conv]sion 7,bornemann7 only occurs :5 n less ?an t5 p>ts ( wat] are tak5 to "o "p ( iod9e--,i,cl #c;,h#b,o #b;,cl#b ,,iho#c #e;,h,cl4 #hb ,s*nbe9 & ,ogi] prov$ ?is4 ,ogi] f\nd t at #de ozone imm$iately oxidises iod9e vap\r1 =m+ fir/ ( all ! oxide ,i#b,o#c1 :i* is decompos$ by wat] or on heat+ into iodic anhydride & iod9e4 ,iodic acid is =m$ at ! positive pole :5 a solution ( hydriodic acid is decompos$ by a galvanic curr5t 7,ri*e74 ,x is also =m$ 9 ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 mix$ ) a small quantity ( hydriodic acid 7,salet74 #hc ,kmm]] %[$ t a solution ( sp4 gr4 #babg at #ad1 conta9+ #b;,,hio#c1i;,h#b,o1 solidifi$ completely 9 ! cold4 ,on comp>+ solutions ,,hi m,h#b,o ) ,,hio#c m,h#b,o1 we f9d t ! specific gravity increases b ! volume decreases1 :il/ 9 ! passage ( solutions ,h,cl m,h#b,o to ,h,cl,o#c m,h#b,o bo? ! specific gravity & ! volume increase1 :i* is also obs]v$ 9 c]ta9 o!r cases 7= example1 ,h#c,,po#c & ,h#c,,po#d74 #hc bis ,ditte 7#ahij7 obta9$ _m iodates ( great v>iety4 ,a neutral salt1 #b7,li,i,o#c7;,h#b,o1 is obta9$ by saturat+ a solution ( li?ia ) iodic acid4 ,!re is an analog\s ammonium salt1 #b7,,nh#d;,,io#c7;,h#b,o4 ,he also obta9$ hydrates ( a m complex composition1 su* z #f7,,nh#d;,,io#c7;,h#b,o & #f7,,nh#d;,,io#c7b;,h#b,o4 ,salts ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 ,ba7,,io#c7b;,h#b,o & ,sr7,,io#c7b;,h#b,o1 may be obta9$ by a reaction ( d\ble decomposition f ! normal salts ( ! type #b7,me,i,o#c7;,h#b,o4 ,:5 evaporat$ at #gj to #hj ) nitric acid ^! salts lose wat]4 ,a mixture ( solutions ( nitrate ( z9c & an alkal9e iodate precipitates ,zn7,,io#c7bb;,h#b,o4 ,an anhydr\s salt is ?r[n out if nitric acid be add$ to ! solutions4 ,analog\s salts ( cadmium1 silv]1 & copp] give comp\nds ( ! type #b,me,,io#cd,,nh#c & ,me7,,io#c7bd,,nh#c1 ) gase\s ammonia 7,me & ,me be+ elem5ts ( ! fir/ 7,ag7 & second 7,cd1 ,zn1 ,cu7 gr\ps74 ,) an aque\s solution ( ammonia ! above salts give sub/ances ( a diff]5t composition1 su* z ,zn7,,io#c7b7,,nh#d7b,o1 ,cd7,,io#c7b7,,nh#d7b,o4 ,copp] gives ,cu7,,io#c7bd7,,nh#d7b,o & ,cu7,,io#c7b7,,nh#d7b,o4 ,^! salts may be reg>d$ z comp\nds ( ,i#b,o#e1 & ,me,o & 7,,nh#d7b,o2 = example1 ,zn7,,io#c7b7,,nh#d7b,o may be reg>d$ z ,zn,o7,,nh#d7b,,oi#b,o#e1 or1 z d]iv$ f ! hydrate1 ,i#b,o#eb;,h#b,o #b7;,,hio#c7;,h#b,o4 ,z ) *lor9e1 s ) iod9e1 a p]iodic acid1 ,,hio#d1 is =m$4 ,?is acid is produc$ 9 ! =m ( its salts1 by ! action ( *lor9e on alkal9e solutions ( iodates1 & also by ! action ( iod9e on *loric acid4#hd ,x cry/allises f solutions z a hydrate conta9+ #b;,h#b,o 7correspond+ ) ,h,cl,o#d1b;,h#b,o71 b z x =ms salts conta9+ up to #e atoms ( metals1 ?is wat] mu/ be c\nt$ z wat] ( con/itution4 ,!re=e ,,io7,,oh7#e ,,hio#d1b;,h#b,o corresponds ) ! highe/ =m ( halog5 comp\nds1 ,,ix#g4he ,9 decompos+ 7at #bjj7 or act+ z an oxidis]1 p]iodic acid fir/ gives iodic acid1 b x may also be ultimately decompos$4 #hd ,if sodium iodate be mix$ ) a solution ( sodium hydroxide1 heat$1 & *lor9e pass$ ?r\gh ! solution1 a sp>+ly soluble salt sep>ates out1 :i* corresponds ) p]iodic acid1 & has ! composition ,na#d;,i#b,o#i1c;,h#b,o4 #f,na,h,o #b,na,i,o#c #d;,cl #d,na,cl ,na#d;,i#b,o#i #c;,h#b,o4 ,?is comp\nd is sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 b dissolves easily 9 a v dilute solution ( nitric acid4 ,if silv] nitrate be add$ to ?is solution a precipitate is =m$ :i* conta9s ! correspond+ comp\nd ( silv]1 ,ag#d;,i#b,o#i1c;,h#b,o4 ,if ?is sp>+ly soluble silv] comp\nd be dissolv$ 9 hot nitric acid1 orange cry/als ( a salt hav+ ! composition ,ag,i,o#d sep>ate on evaporation4 ,?is salt is =m$ f ! prec$+ by ! nitric acid tak+ up silv] oxide--,ag#d;,i#b,o#i #b;,,hno#c #b;,ag,n,o#c #b;,ag,i,o#d ,h#b,o4 ,! silv] salt is decompos$ by wat]1 ) ! re-=mation ( ! prec$+ salt1 :il/ iodic acid rema9s 9 solution-- #d;,ag,i,o#d ,h#b,o ,ag#d;,i#b,o#i #b;,,hio#d4 ,! /ructure ( ! fir/ ( ^! salts1 ,na#d;,i#b,o#i1c;,h#b,o1 pres5ts itself 9 a simpl] =m if ! wat] ( cry/allisation is reg>d$ z an integral portion ( ! salt2 ! =mula is !n divid$ 9 two1 & takes ! =m ( ,,io7,,oh7#c7,o,na7#b--t is1 x answ]s to ! type ,,iox#e1 or ,,ix#g1 l ,ag,i,o#d :i* is ,,io#c7,o,ag74 ,! composition ( all ! salts ( p]iodic acids are express$ by ?is type ,,ix#g4 ,kimm9s 7#ahhi7 ref]s all ! salts ( p]iodic acid to f\r types--! meta-salts ( ,,hio#d 7salts ( ,ag1 ,cu1 ,pb71 ! meso-salts ( ,h#c;,,io#e 7,pb,h1 ,ag#b;,h1 ,cd,h71 ! p>a-salts ( ,h#e;,,io#f 7,na#b;,h#c1 ,na#c;,h#b71 & ! di-salts ( ,h#d;,i#b,o#i 7,k#d1 ,ag#d1 ,ni#b74 ,! ?ree fir/ are direct comp\nds ( ! type ,,ix#g1 namely1 ,,io#c7,,oh71 ,,io#b7,,oh7#c1 & ,,io7,,oh7#e1 & ! la/ are types ( dip]iodic salts1 :i* correspond ) ! type ( ! meso-salts1 z pyrophosphoric salts correspond ) or?ophosphoric salts--i4e4 #b;,h#c;,,io#e-;,h#b,o ,h#d;,i#b,o#i4 #he ,p]iodic acid1 discov]$ by ,magnus & ,amm]mll]1 & ^: salts 7 aft]w>ds /udi$ by ,langlois1 ,rammelsb]g1 & _m o!rs1 pres5ts an example ( hydrates 9 :i* x is evid5t t !re is n t di/9ction betwe5 ! wat] ( hydration & ( cry/allisation :i* 0 at fir/ consid]$ to be s cle>4 ,9 ,h,cl,o1#b;,h#b,o ! wat]1 #b;,h#b,o1 is n displac$ by bases1 & mu/ be reg>d$ z wat] ( cry/allisation1 :il/ 9 ,,hio#d1b;,h#b,o x mu/ be reg>d$ z wat] ( hydration4 ,we %all aft]w>ds see t ! sy/em ( ! elem5ts obliges u to consid] ! halog5s z sub/ances giv+ a highe/ sal9e type1 ,,gx#g1 :]e ,g signifies a halog51 & ,x oxyg5 7,o ,x#b71 ,,oh1 & o!r l elem5ts4 ,! hydrate ,,io7,,oh7#e correspond+ ) _m ( ! salts ( p]iodic acid 7= example1 ! salts ( b>ium1 /rontium1 m]cury7 does n exhau/ all ! possible =ms4 ,x is evid5t t v>i\s o!r pyro-1 meta-1 c41 =ms are possible by ! loss ( wat]1 z w be m fully expla9$ 9 speak+ ( phosphoric acid1 & z 0 po9t$ out 9 ! prec$+ note4 ,comp\nds =m$ betwe5 *lor9e & iod9e mu/ be class$ among ! mo/ int]e/+ halog5 bodies4#hf ,^! elem5ts comb9e toge!r directly ) evolution ( heat1 & =m iod9e mono*loride1 ,i,cl1 or iod9e tri*loride1 ,i,cl#c4hg ,z wat] reacts on ^! sub/ances1 =m+ iodic acid & iod9e1 !y h to be prep>$ f dry iod9e & *lor9e4#hh ,bo? sub/ances are =m$ 9 a numb] ( reactions2 = example1 by ! action ( aqua regia on iod9e1 ( *lor9e on hydriodic acid1 ( hydro*loric acid on p]iodic acid1 ( iod9e on potassium *lorate 7) ! aid ( heat1 c47 ,trapp obta9$ iod9e mono*loride1 9 beautiful r$ cry/als1 by pass+ a rapid curr5t ( *lor9e into molt5 iod9e4 ,! mono*loride !n di/ils ov] & solidifies1 melt+ at #bg4 ,by pass+ *lor9e ov] ! cry/als ( ! mono*loride1 x is easy to obta9 iod9e tri*loride 9 orange cry/als1 :i* melt at #cd & volatilise at #dg1 b 9 s do+ decompose 7into ,cl#b & ,cl,i74 ,! *emical prop]ties ( ^! *lorides entirely resemble ^? ( *lor9e & iod9e1 z w\ld be expect$1 because1 9 ?is in/ance1 a comb9ation ( simil> sub/ances has tak5 place z 9 ! =mation ( solutions or alloys4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! unsaturat$ hydroc>bons 7= example1 ,c#b;,h#d71 :i* are capable ( directly comb9+ ) *lor9e & iod9e1 also directly comb9e ) iod9e mono*loride4 #hf ,) respect to hydrog51 oxyg51 *lor9e1 & o!r elem5ts1 brom9e occupies an int]m$iate position betwe5 *lor9e & iod9e1 & !re=e !re is no p>ticul> ne$ = consid]+ at l5g? ! comp\nds ( brom9e4 ,?is is ! great advantage ( a natural gr\p+ ( ! elem5ts4 #hg ,!y 7 bo? obta9$ by ,gay-,lussac & _m o!rs4 ,rec5t data respect+ iod9e mono*loride1 ,i,cl1 entirely confirm ! num]\s obs]vations ( ,trapp 7#ahed71 & ev5 confirm 8 /atem5t z to ! exi/5ce ( two isom]ic 7liquid & cry/all9e7 =ms 7,/ort5bek]74 ,) a small excess ( iod9e1 iod9e mono*loride rema9s liquid1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( traces ( iod9e tri*loride x easily cry/allises4 ,tanat> 7#ahic7 %[$ t ( ! two modifications ( ,i,cl1 "o is /able1 & melts at #bg2 :ile ! o!r1 :i* easily passes into ! fir/1 & is =m$ 9 ! abs5ce ( ,i,cl#c1 melts at #ad4 ,s*tz5b]g] amplifi$ ! data conc]n+ ! action ( wat] on ! *lorides 7,note #hh71 & ,*ri/omanos gave ! fulle/ data reg>d+ ! tri*loride4 ,aft] be+ kept = "s "t1 ! liquid mono*loride ( iod9e yields r$ deliquesc5t octah$ra1 hav+ ! composition ,i,cl#d1 :i* are !re=e =m$ f ! mono*loride ) ! lib]ation ( free iod9e1 :i* dissolves 9 ! rema9+ quantity ( ! mono*loride4 ,?is sub/ance1 h[ev]1 judg+ by c]ta9 obs]vations1 is impure iod9e tri*loride4 ,if #a "p ( iod9e be /irr$ up 9 #bj p>ts ( wat]1 & *lor9e be pass$ ?r\gh ! liquid1 !n all ! iod9e is dissolv$1 & a col\rless liquid is ultimately obta9$ :i* conta9s a c]ta9 proportion ( *lor9e1 because ?is comp\nd gives a metallic *loride & iodate ) alkalis )\t evolv+ any free iod9e3 ,i,cl#e #f,,kho #e,k,cl ,,kio#c #c;,h#b,o4 ,! exi/5ce ( a p5ta*loride ,i,cl#e is1 h[ev]1 d5i$1 because ?is sub/ance has n be5 obta9$ 9 a free /ate4 ,/ort5bek] 7#ahhh7 inve/igat$ ! equilibrium ( ! sy/em conta9+ ! molecules ,i#b1 ,i,cl1 ,i,cl#c1 & ,cl#b1 9 ! same way t ,roozeboom 7,*apt] ,x4 ,note #ch7 exam9$ ! equilibrium ( ! molecules ,h,cl1 ,h,cl1#b;,h#b,o1 & ,h#b,o4 ,he f\nd t iod9e mono*loride appe>s 9 two /ates1 "o 7! ord9>y7 is /able & melts at #bgb1 :il/ ! o!r is obta9$ by rapid cool+1 & melts at #aci1 & easily passes into ! fir/ =m4 ,iod9e tri*loride melts at #aja only 9 a clos$ tube "u a pressure ( #af atmosph]es4 #hh ,by ! action ( wat] on iod9e mono*loride & tri*loride a comp\nd ,i,h,cl#b is obta9$1 :i* does n seem to be alt]$ by wat]4 ,besides ?is comp\nd1 iod9e & iodic acid are always =m$1 #aj;,i,cl #c;,h#b,o ,,hio#c #e;,i,h,cl#b #b;,i#b2 & 9 ?is respect iod9e tri*loride may be reg>d$ z a mixture1 ,i,cl ,i,cl#e #b;,i,cl#c1 b ,i,cl#e #c;,h#b,o ,,iho#c #e;,h,cl2 h5ce iodic acid1 iod9e1 ! comp\nd ,i,h,cl#b1 & hydro*loric acid are also =m$ by ! action ( wat]4 ,,*apt]r ,,xii ,,sodium ,! neutral salt1 sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1 obta9$ :5 a mixture ( sulphuric acid & common salt is /rongly heat$ 7,*apt] ,x471#a =ms a col\rless sal9e mass consi/+ ( f9e cry/als1 soluble 9 wat]4 ,x is ! product ( _m o!r d\ble decompositions1 sometimes c>ri$ out on a l>ge scale2 = example1 :5 ammonium sulphate is heat$ ) common salt1 9 :i* case ! sal-ammoniac is volatilis$1 c4 ,a simil> decomposition also takes place :51 = in/ance1 a mixture ( lead sulphate & common salt is heat$2 ?is mixture easily fuses1 & if ! temp]ature be fur!r rais$ heavy vap\rs ( lead *loride appe>4 ,:5 ! dis5gagem5t ( ^! vap\rs ceases1 ! rema9+ mass1 on be+ treat$ ) wat]1 yields a solution ( sodium sulphate mix$ ) a solution ( undecompos$ common salt4 ,a consid]able quantity1 h[ev]1 ( ! lead sulphate rema9s un*ang$ dur+ ?is reaction1 ,pb,s,o#d #b,na,cl ,pb,cl#b ,na#b,,s#d1 ! vap\rs w conta9 lead *loride1 & ! residue w conta9 ! mixture ( ! ?ree rema9+ salts4 ,! cause & nature ( ! reaction are j ! same z 7 po9t$ out :5 consid]+ ! action ( sulphuric acid ^u ,na,cl4 ,"h too x may be %[n t ! d\ble decomposition is det]m9$ by ! removal ( ,pb,cl#b f ! sph]e ( ! action ( ! rema9+ sub/ances4 ,?is is se5 f ! fact t sodium sulphate1 on be+ dissolv$ 9 wat] & mix$ ) a solution ( any lead salt 7& ev5 ) a solution ( lead *loride1 al?\gh ?is latt] is b sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]71 imm$iately gives a :ite precipitate ( lead sulphate4 ,9 ?is case ! lead takes up ! elem5ts ( sulphuric acid f ! sodium sulphate 9 ! solutions4 ,on heat+1 ! rev]se ph5om5on is obs]v$4 ,! reaction 9 ! solution dep5ds ^u ! insolubility ( ! lead sulphate1 & ! decomposition :i* takes place on heat+ is due to ! volatility ( ! lead *loride4 ,silv] sulphate1 ,ag#b,,s#d1 9 solution ) common salt1 gives silv] *loride1 because ! latt] is insoluble 9 wat]1 ,ag#b,,s#d #b,na,cl ,na#b,,s#d #b;,ag,cl4 ,sodium c>bonate1 mix$ 9 solution ) ! sulphates ( iron1 copp]1 manganese1 magnesium1 c41 gives 9 solution sodium sulphate1 & 9 ! precipitate a c>bonate ( ! correspond+ metal1 because ^! salts ( c>bonic acid are insoluble 9 wat]2 = in/ance1 ,mg,s,o#d ,na#b;,,co#c ,na#b,,s#d ,mg,c,o#c4 ,9 precisely ! same way sodium hydroxide acts on solutions ( ! majority ( ! salts ( sulphuric acid conta9+ metals1 ! hydroxides ( :i* are insoluble 9 wat]--= in/ance1 ,cu,s,o#d #b,na,h,o ,cu7,,ho7#b ,na#b,,s#d4 ,sulphate ( magnesium1 ,mg,s,o#d1 on be+ mix$ 9 solution ) common salt1 =ms1 al?\gh n completely1 *loride ( magnesium1 & sodium sulphate4 ,on cool+ ! mixture ( su* 7conc5trat$7 solutions sodium sulphate is deposit$1 z 0 %[n 9 ,*apt] ,x4 ,?is is made use ( = prep>+ x on ! l>ge scale 9 works :]e sea-wat] is treat$4 ,9 ?is case1 on cool+1 ! reaction #b,na,cl ,mg,s,o#d ,mg,cl#b ,na#b,,s#d takes place4 #a ,:il/ describ+ 9 "s detail ! prop]ties ( sodium *loride1 hydro*loric acid1 & sodium sulphate1 ,i wi% to imp>t1 by sep>ate examples1 an idea ( ! prop]ties ( sal9e sub/ances1 b ! dim5sions ( ?is "w & its purpose & aim d n p]mit ( ent]+ into p>ticul>s conc]n+ e salt1 acid1 or o!r sub/ance4 ,! fundam5tal object ( ?is "w--an acc\nt ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! elem5ts & an acqua9tance ) ! =ces act+ betwe5 atoms--has no?+ to ga9 f ! multiplication ( ! numb] ( z yet ung5]alis$ prop]ties & relations4 ,?us :]e sulphates & salts ( sodium are 9 contact1 x may be expect$ t sodium sulphate w be =m$ & sep>at$ if ! conditions are fav\rable2 = ?is reason x is n surpris+ t sodium sulphate is (t5 f\nd 9 ! native /ate4 ,"s ( ! spr+s & salt lakes 9 ! /eppes beyond ! ,volga1 & 9 ! ,caucasus1 conta9 a consid]able quantity ( sodium sulphate1 & yield x by simple evaporation ( ! solutions4 ,b$s ( ?is salt are also met )2 ?us at a dep? ( only #e feet1 ab\t #ch v]/s to ! ea/ ( ,tiflis1 at ! foot ( ! range ( ! ',wolf's mane' 7,volt*ia griva7 m\nta9s1 a deep /ratum ( v pure ,glaub]'s salt1 ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o1 has be5 f\nd4#b ,a lay] two metres ?ick ( ! same salt lies at ! bottom ( sev]al lakes 7an area ( ab\t #aj squ>e kilometres7 9 ! ,k\ban di/rict ne> ,batalpas*9sk1 & "h its work+ has be5 comm5c$ 7#ahhg74 ,9 ,spa91 ne> ,arang\lz & 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 m9]al sodium sulphate has likewise be5 f\nd1 & is already be+ work$4 #b ,anhydr\s 7ignit$7 sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1 is kn[n 9 trade z 'sulphate' or salt-cake1 9 m9]alogy !n>dite4 ,cry/all9e decahydrat$ salt is t]m$ 9 m9]alogy mirabilite1 & 9 trade ,glaub]'s salt4 ,on fus+ x1 ! monohydrate ,na#b,,s#d;,h#b,o is obta9$1 toge!r ) a sup]saturat$ solution4 ,! me?ods ( obta9+ salts by means ( d\ble decomposition f o!rs already prep>$ are s g5]al1 t 9 describ+ a giv5 salt !re is no necessity to enum]ate ! cases hi!rto obs]v$ ( its be+ =m$ ?r\gh v>i\s d\ble decompositions4#c ,! possibility ( ?is occurr5ce ought to be =ese5 accord+ to ,b]?ollet's doctr9e f ! prop]ties ( ! salt 9 "q4 ,on ?is acc\nt x is important to "k ! prop]ties ( salts2 all ! m s because up to ! pres5t "t ^? v prop]ties 7solubility1 =mation ( cry/allo-hydrates1 volatility1 c47 :i* may be made use ( = sep>at+ !m f o!r salts h n be5 g5]alis$4#d ,^! prop]ties z yet rema9 subjects = inve/igation1 & are r>ely to be =ese54 ,! cry/allo-hydrate ( ! normal sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o1 v easily p>ts ) wat]1 & may be obta9$ 9 an anhydr\s /ate if x be c>efully heat$ until ! weight rema9s con/ant2 b if heat$ fur!r1 x p>tly loses ! elem5ts ( sulphuric anhydride4 ,! normal salt fuses at #hdc 7r$ heat71 & volatilises to a slight ext5t :5 v /rongly heat$1 9 :i* case x naturally decomposes ) ! evolution ( ,,s#c4 ,at #j #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #e p>ts ( ! anhydr\s salt1 at #aj #i p>ts1 at #bj #aid1 at #cj #dj1 & at #cd #ee p>ts1 ! same be+ ! case 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( cry/als ( ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o4#e ,at #cd ! latt] fuses1 & ! solubility decreases at high] temp]atures4#f ,a conc5trat$ solution at #cd has a composition ne>ly approa*+ to ,na#b,,s#d #ad;,h#b,o1 & ! decahydrat$ salt conta9s #ghi ( ! anhydr\s salt comb9$ ) #ajj p>ts ( wat]4 ,f ! above figures x is se5 t ! decahydrat$ salt _c fuse )\t decompos+1#g l hydrate ( *lor9e1 ,cl#b1h;,h#b,o 7,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #aj74 ,n only ! fus$ decahydrat$ salt1 b also ! conc5trat$ solution at #cd 7n all at once1 b gradually71 yields ! monohydrat$ salt1 ,na#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o4 ,! heptahydrat$ salt1 ,na#b,,s#d1g;,h#b,o1 also splits up1 ev5 at l[ temp]atures1 ) ! =mation ( ?is monohydrat$ salt1 & !re=e f #ce ! solubility c be giv5 only = ! latt]4 ,= #ajj p>ts ( wat] ?is is z foll[s3 at #dj #dhh1 at #ej #dfg1 at #hj #dcg1 at #ajj #dbe p>ts ( ! anhydr\s salt4 ,if ! decahydrat$ salt be fus$1 & ! solution all[$ to cool 9 ! pres5ce ( ! monohydrat$ salt1 !n at #cj #ejd p>ts ( anhydr\s salt are reta9$ 9 ! solution1 & at #bj #ebh p>ts4 ,h5ce1 ) respect to ! anhydr\s & monohydrat$ salts1 ! solubility is id5tical1 & falls ) increas+ temp]ature1 :il/ ) respect to decahydrat$ salt1 ! solubility rises ) increas+ temp]ature4 ,s t if 9 contact ) a solution ( sodium sulphate !re are only cry/als ( t heptahydrat$ salt 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ed71 ,na#b,,s#d1g;,h#b,o1 :i* is =m$ f saturat$ solutions1 !n saturation sets 9 :5 ! solution has ! foll[+ composition p] #ajj p>ts ( salt3 at #j #aif1 at #aj #cje1 at #bj #ddg1 & at #be #ebi p>ts ( anhydr\s salt4 ,above #bg ! heptahydrat$ salt1 l ! decahydrat$ salt at #cd1 splits up into ! monohydrat$ salt & a saturat$ solution4 ,?us sodium sulphate has ?ree curves ( solubility3 "o = ,na#b,,s#d1g;,h#b,o 7f #j to #bf71 "o = ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o 7f #j to #cd71 & "o = ,na#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o 7a desc5d+ curve beg9n+ at #bf71 because !re are ?ree ( ^! cry/allo-hydrates1 & ! solubility ( a sub/ance only dep5ds ^u ! p>ticul> condition ( t portion ( x :i* has sep>at$ f ! solution or is pres5t 9 excess4#h #c ,! salts may be obta9$ n only by me?ods ( sub/itution ( v>i\s k9ds1 b also by _m o!r comb9ations4 ,?us sodium sulphate may be =m$ f sodium oxide & sulphuric anhydride1 by oxidis+ sodium sulphide1 ,na#b,s1 or sodium sulphite1 ,na#b,,s#c1 c4 ,:5 sodium *loride is heat$ 9 a mixture ( ! vap\rs ( wat]1 air1 & sulphur\s anhydride1 sodium sulphate is =m$4 ,accord+ to ?is me?od 7pat5t$ by ,h>greaves & ,rob9son71 sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1 is obta9$ f ,na,cl )\t ! prelim9>y manufacture ( ,h#b,,s#d4 ,lumps ( ,na,cl press$ into bricks are loosely pack$ into a cyl9d] & subject$1 at a r$ heat1 to ! action ( /eam1 air & ,,s#b4 ,"u ^! conditions1 ,h,cl1 sulphate1 & a c]ta9 am\nt ( unalt]$ ,na,cl are obta9$4 ,?is mixture is conv]t$ into soda by ,gossage's process 7see ,note #ae7 & may h "s practical value4 #d ,_m obs]vations h be5 made1 b little g5]al in=mation has be5 obta9$ f p>ticul> cases4 ,9 addition to :i*1 ! prop]ties ( a giv5 salt are *ang$ by ! pres5ce ( o!r salts4 ,?is takes place n only 9 virtue ( mutual decomposition or =mation ( d\ble salts capable ( sep>ate exi/5ce1 b is det]m9$ by ! influ5ce :i* "s salts ex]t on o!rs1 or by =ces simil> to ^? :i* act dur+ solution4 ,"h no?+ has be5 g5]alis$ to t ext5t :i* w\ld r5d] x possible to pr$ict )\t previ\s inve/igation1 if !re be no close analogy to help u4 ,let u /ate "o ( ^! num]\s cases3 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #bj dissolve #cd p>ts ( potassium nitrate b on ! addition ( sodium nitrate ! solubility ( potassium nitrate increases to #dh p>ts 9 #aj ( wat] 7,c>nelley & ,?omson74 ,9 g5]al1 9 all cases ( :i* !re are accurate obs]vations x appe>s t ! pres5ce ( =eign salts *anges ! prop]ties ( any giv5 salt4 #e ,! in=mation conc]n+ solubility 7,*apt] ,i47 is giv5 accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,gay-,lussac1 ,lovell1 & ,muld]4 #f ,9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #bd1 we h already se5 t ) _m o!r sulphates ! solubility also decreases aft] a c]ta9 temp]ature is pass$4 ,gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o1 lime1 & _m o!r comp\nds pres5t su* a ph5om5on4 ,an obs]vation ( ,tild5's 7#ahhd7 is mo/ in/ructive2 he %[$ t on rais+ ! temp]ature 79 clos$ vessels7 above #adj ! solubility ( sodium sulphate aga9 beg9s to increase4 ,at #ajj #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve ab\t #dc p>ts ( anhydr\s salt1 at #adj #db p>ts1 at #afj #dc p>ts1 at #ahj #dd p>ts1 at #bcj #df p>ts4 ,accord+ to t>d 7#ahib7 ! solubility ( #cj p>ts ( ,na#b,,s#d 9 #ajj ( solution 7or #dc p] #ajj ( wat]7 corresponds to #hj1 & above #bdj ! solubility aga9 falls1 & v rapidly1 s t at #cbj ! solution conta9s #ab p] #ajj ( solution 7ab\t #ad p] #ajj ( wat]7 & a fur!r rise ( temp]ature is foll[$ by a fur!r deposition ( ! salt4 ,x is evid5t t ! ph5om5on ( saturation1 det]m9$ by ! pres5ce ( an excess ( ! dissolv$ sub/ance1 is v complex1 & !re=e t = ! !ory ( solutions consid]$ z liquid indef9ite *emical comp\nds1 _m useful /atem5ts c h>dly be giv54 #g ,already ref]r$ to 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ef4 ,! example ( sodium sulphate is hi/orically v important = ! !ory ( solutions4 ,not)/&+ ! numb] ( inve/igations :i* h be5 made1 x is /ill insuffici5tly /udi$1 especially f ! po9t ( ! vap\r t5sion ( solutions & cry/allo-hydrates1 s t ^? processes _c be appli$ to x :i* ,guldb]g1 ,roozeboom1 ,van't ,h(f1 & o!rs appli$ to solutions & cry/allo-hydrates4 ,x w\ld also be mo/ important to inve/igate ! influ5ce ( pressure on ! v>i\s ph5om5a correspond+ ) ! comb9ations ( wat] & sodium sulphate1 because :5 cry/als are sep>at$--= in/ance1 ( ! decahydrat$ salt--an increase ( volume takes place1 z c be se5 f ! foll[+ data3--! sp4 gr4 ( ! anhydr\s salt is #bff1 t ( ! decahydrat$ salt #adf1 b ! sp4 gr4 ( solutions at #ae_/d #i1iib #ijbp #jcep#b :]e p repres5ts ! p]c5tage ( anhydr\s salt 9 ! solution1 & ! sp4 gr4 ( wat] at #d #aj1jjj4 ,h5ce = solutions conta9+ #bj p4c4 ( anhydr\s salt ! sp4 gr4 #aaicf2 !re=e ! volume ( #ajj grams ( ?is solution #hch c4c41 & ! volume ( anhydr\s salt conta9$ 9 x is equal to #bj_/bff1 or #ge c4c41 & ! volume ( wat] #hja c4c4 ,!re=e1 ! solution1 on decompos+ into anhydr\s salt & wat]1 increases 9 volume 7f #hch to #hgf72 b 9 ! same way #hch c4c4 ( #bj p4c4 solution are =m$ f 7#ded_/adf 7 #caa c4c4 ( ! decahydrat$ salt1 & #edf c4c4 ( wat]--t is to say1 t dur+ ! =mation ( a solution f #heg c4c41 #hch c4c4 are =m$4 #h ,f ?is example x is evid5t ! solution rema9s unalt]$ until f ! contact ( a solid x becomes ei!r saturat$ or sup]saturat$1 cry/allisation be+ det]m9$ by ! attraction to a solid1 z ! ph5om5on ( sup]saturation cle>ly demon/rates4 ,?is p>tially expla9s c]ta9 app>5tly contradictory det]m9ations ( solubility4 ,! be/ inve/igat$ example ( su* complex relations is cit$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #ej 7= ,ca,cl#b74 ,?us solutions ( sodium sulphate may give cry/allo-hydrates ( ?ree k9ds on cool+ ! saturat$ solution3 ! un/able heptahydrat$ salt is obta9$ at temp]atures bel[ #bf1 ! decahydrat$ salt =ms "u ord9>y conditions at temp]atures bel[ #cd1 & ! monohydrat$ salt at temp]atures above #cd4 ,bo? ! latt] cry/allo-hydrates pres5t a /able /ate ( equilibrium1 & ! heptahydrat$ salt decomposes into !m1 probably accord+ to ! equation #c,na#b,,s#d1g;,h#bj #b,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o ,na#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o4 ,! ord9>y decahydrat$ salt is call$ ,glaub]'s salt4 ,all =ms ( ^! cry/allo-hydrates lose _! wat] entirely1 & give ! anhydr\s salt :5 dri$ ov] sulphuric acid4#i #i ,accord+ to ,pick]+'s exp]im5ts 7#ahhf71 ! molecul> weight 9 grams 7t is1 #adb grams7 ( anhydr\s sodium sulphate1 on be+ dissolv$ 9 a l>ge mass ( wat]1 at #j absorbs 7h5ce !-sign7-#a1ajj heat units1 at #aj-gjj1 at #ae-bge1 at #bj gives out #be1 at #be #cjj calories4 ,= ! decahydrat$ salt1 ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o1 #e-d1bbe1 #aj-d1jjj1 #ae-c1egj1 #bj-c1afj1 #be-b1gge4 ,h5ce 7j z 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ef7 ! heat ( ! comb9ation ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o at #e #c1abe1 #aj #c1bej1 #bj #c1bjj1 & #be #c1jej4 ,x is evid5t t ! decahydrat$ salt dissolv+ 9 wat] gives a decrease ( temp]ature4 ,solutions 9 hydro*loric acid give a /ill great] decrease1 because !y conta9 ! wat] ( cry/allisation 9 a solid /ate--t is1 l ice--& ?is on melt+ absorbs heat4 ,a mixture ( #ae p>ts ( ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o & #ab p>ts ( /rong hydro*loric acid produces suffici5t cold to freeze wat]4 ,dur+ ! treatm5t ) hydro*loric acid a c]ta9 quantity ( sodium *loride is =m$4 ,sodium sulphate1 ,na#b,,s#d1 only ent]s into a few reactions ( comb9ation ) o!r salts1 & *iefly ) salts ( ! same acid1 =m+ d\ble sulphates4 ,?us1 = example1 if a solution ( sodium sulphate be mix$ ) a solution ( alum9ium1 magnesium1 or f]r\s sulphate1 x gives cry/als ( a d\ble salt :5 evaporat$4 ,sulphuric acid itself =ms a comp\nd ) sodium sulphate1 :i* is exactly l ^! d\ble salts4 ,x is =m$ ) great ease :5 sodium sulphate is dissolv$ 9 sulphuric acid & ! solution evaporat$4 ,on evaporation1 cry/als ( ! acid salt sep>ate1 ,na#b,,s#d ,h#b,,s#d #b,na,h,s,o#d4 ,?is sep>ates f hot solutions1 :il/ ! cry/allo-hydrate1 ,na,h,s,o#d1;,h#b,o1#aj sep>ates f cold solutions4 ,! cry/als :5 expos$ to damp air decompose into ,h#b,,s#d1 :i* deliquesces1 & ,na#b,,s#d 7,graham1 ,rose72 alcohol also extracts sulphuric acid f ! acid salt4 ,?is %[s ! feeble =ce :i* holds ! sulphuric acid to ! sodium sulphate4#aa ,bo? acid sodium sulphate & all mixtures ( ! normal salt & sulphuric acid lose wat] :5 heat$1 & are conv]t$ into sodium pyrosulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#g1 at a l[ r$ heat4#aa bis ,?is anhydr\s salt1 at a bright r$ heat1 p>ts ) ! elem5ts ( sulphuric anhydride1 ! normal sodium sulphate rema9+ beh9d--,na#b,s#b,o#g ,na#b,,s#d ,,s#c4 ,f ?is x is se5 t ! normal salt is able to comb9e ) wat]1 ) o!r sulphates1 & ) sulphuric anhydride or acid1 c4 #aj ,! v l>ge & well-=m$ cry/als ( ?is salt resemble ! hydrate ,h#b,,s#d1;,h#b,o1 or ,,s7,,oh7#d4 ,9 g5]al ! replacem5t ( hydrog5 by sodium modifies _m ( ! prop]ties ( acids less ?an its replacem5t by o!r metals4 ,?is mo/ probably dep5ds on ! volumes be+ ne>ly equal4 #aa ,9 solution 7,b]!lot7 ! acid salt 9 all probability decomposes mo/ 9 ! greate/ mass ( wat]4 ,! specific gravity 7accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( ,m>ignac7 ( solutions at #ae_/d #i1iib #ggibp #jbcap#b 7see ,note #g74 ,f ^! figures1 & f ! specific gravities ( sulphuric acid1 x is evid5t t on mix+ solutions ( ?is acid & sodium sulphate expansion w always take place2 = in/ance1 ,h#b,,s#d #be;,h#b,o ) ,na#b,,s#d #be;,h#b,o increases f #dhc volumes to #dhf4 ,9 addition to :i*1 9 weak solutions heat is absorb$1 z %[n 9 ,*apt] ,x41 ,note #bg4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 m acid salts may be =m$ & obta9$ 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,= in/ance1 on cool+ a solution ( #a "p ( sodium sulphate 9 #g p>ts ( sulphuric acid1 cry/als ( ! composition ,na,h,s,o#d1;,h#b,,s#d are sep>at$ 7,s*ultz1 #ahfh74 ,?is comp\nd fuses at ab\t #ajj2 ! ord9>y acid salt1 ,na,h,s,o#d1 at #adi4 #aa bis ,on decreas+ ! pressure1 sodium hydrog5 sulphate1 ,na,h,s,o#d1 dissociates mu* m easily ?an at ! ord9>y pressure2 x loses wat] & =ms ! pyrosulphate1 ,na#b,s#b,o#g2 ?is reaction is utilis$ 9 *emical works4 ,sodium sulphate may by d\ble decomposition be conv]t$ into a sodium salt ( any o!r acid1 by means ( heat & tak+ advantage ( ! volatility1 or by means ( solution & tak+ advantage ( ! diff]5t degree ( solubility ( ! diff]5t salts4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ow+ to ! insolubility ( b>ium sulphate1 sodium hydroxide or cau/ic soda may be prep>$ f sodium sulphate1 if b>ium hydroxide be add$ to its solution1 ,na#b,,s#d ,ba7,,ho7#b ,ba,s,o#d #b,na,h,o4 ,& by tak+ any salt ( b>ium1 ,ba,x#b1 ! correspond+ salt ( sodium may be obta9$1 ,na#b,,s#d ,ba,x#b ,ba,s,o#d #b,na,x4 ,b>ium sulphate ?us =m$1 be+ a v sp>+ly-soluble salt1 is obta9$ z a precipitate1 :il/ ! sodium hydroxide1 or salt1 ,na,x1 is obta9$ 9 solution1 because all salts ( sodium are soluble4 ,b]?ollet's doctr9e p]mits all su* cases to be =ese54 ,! reactions ( decomposition ( sodium sulphate are above all noticeable by ! sep>ation ( oxyg54 ,sodium sulphate by itself is v /able1 & x is only at a temp]ature suffici5t to melt iron t x is possible to sep>ate ! elem5ts ,,s#c f x1 & !n only p>tially4 ,h[ev]1 ! oxyg5 may be sep>at$ f sodium sulphate1 z f all o!r sulphates1 by means ( _m sub/ances :i* are able to comb9e ) oxyg51 su* z *>coal & sulphur1 b hydrog5 is n able to produce ?is action4 ,if sodium sulphate be heat$ ) *>coal1 !n c>bonic oxide & anhydride are evolv$1 & !re is produc$1 accord+ to ! circum/ances1 ei!r ! l[] oxyg5 comp\nd1 sodium sulphite1 ,na#b,,s#c 7= in/ance1 9 ! =mation ( glass72 or else ! decomposition proce$s fur!r1 & sodium sulphide1 ,na#b,s1 is =m$1 accord+ to ! equation ,na#b,,s#d #b;,c #b;,,co#b ,na#b,s4 ,on ! basis ( ?is reaction ! great] "p ( ! sulphate ( sodium prep>$ at *emical works is conv]t$ into soda a%--t is1 sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 :i* is us$ = _m purposes4 ,9 ! =m ( c>bonates1 ! metallic oxides behave 9 _m cases j z !y d 9 ! /ate ( oxides or hydroxides1 ow+ to ! feeble acid prop]ties ( c>bonic acid4 ,h[ev]1 ! majority ( ! salts ( c>bonic acid are insoluble1 :il/ sodium c>bonate is "o ( ! few soluble salts ( ?is acid1 & !re=e reacts ) facility4 ,h5ce sodium c>bonate is employ$ = _m purposes1 9 :i* its alkal9e prop]ties come into play4 ,?us1 ev5 "u ! action ( feeble organic acids x imm$iately p>ts ) its c>bonic acid1 & gives a sodium salt ( ! acid tak54 ,its solutions exhibit an alkal9e reaction on litmus4 ,x aids ! passage ( c]ta9 organic sub/ances 7t>1 acids7 into solution1 & is !re=e us$1 l cau/ic alkalis & soap 7:i* latt] also acts by virtue ( ! alkali x conta9s71 = ! removal ( c]ta9 organic sub/ances1 especially 9 blea*+ cotton & simil> fabrics4 ,besides :i* a consid]able quantity ( sodium c>bonate is us$ = ! prep>ation ( sodium hydroxide or cau/ic soda1 :i* has also a v wide application4 ,9 l>ge *emical works :]e sodium c>bonate is manufactur$ f ,na#b,,s#d1 x is usual fir/ to manufacture sulphuric acid1 & !n by its aid to conv]t common salt into sodium sulphate1 & la/ly to conv]t ! sodium sulphate ?us obta9$ into c>bonate & cau/ic soda4 ,h5ce ^! works prep>e bo? alkal9e sub/ances 7soda a% & cau/ic soda7 & acid sub/ances 7sulphuric & hydro*loric acids71 ! two classes ( *emical products :i* are di/+ui%$ = ! greate/ en]gy ( _! reactions & are !re=e mo/ frequ5tly appli$ to te*nical purposes4 ,factories manufactur+ soda are g5]ally call$ alkali works4 ,! process ( ! conv]sion ( sodium sulphate into sodium c>bonate consi/s 9 /rongly heat+ a mixture ( ! sulphate ) *>coal & calcium c>bonate4 ,! foll[+ reactions !n take place3 ! sodium sulphate is fir/ deoxidis$ by ! *>coal1 =m+ sodium sulphide & c>bonic anhydride1 ,na#b,,s#d #b;,c ,na#b,s #b;,,co#b4 ,! sodium sulphide ?us =m$ !n ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) ! calcium c>bonate tak51 & gives calcium sulphide & sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b,s ,ca,c,o#c ,na#b;,,co#c ,ca,s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,rev]b]atory furnace = ! manufacture ( sodium c>bonate4 ,f1 grate4 ,a1 bridge4 ,m1 he>? = ! ultimate calc9ation ( ! mixture ( sodium sulphate1 coal1 & calcium c>bonate1 :i* is *>g$ f above into ! "p ( ! furnace fur!/ remov$ f ! fire ,f4 ,p1 ,p1 doors = /irr+ & br++ ! mass t[>ds ! grate ,f by means ( /irr]s ,r4 ,at ! end ( ! op]ation ! semifus$ mass is *>g$ into trucks ,c4 ,besides :i*1 "u ! action ( ! heat1 a portion ( ! excess ( calcium c>bonate is decompos$ into lime & c>bonic anhydride1 ,ca,c,o#c ,ca,o ,,co#b1 & ! c>bonic anhydride ) ! excess ( *>coal =ms c>bon monoxide1 :i* t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation %[s itself by ! appe>ance ( a blue flame4 ,?us f a mass conta9+ sodium sulphate we obta9 a mass :i* includes sodium c>bonate1 calcium sulphide1 & calcium oxide1 b none ( ! sodium sulphide :i* 0 =m$ on fir/ heat+ ! mixture4 ,! entire process1 :i* proce$s at a high temp]ature1 may be express$ by a comb9ation ( ! ?ree above-m5tion$ =mul1 if x be consid]$ t ! product conta9s "o equival5t ( calcium oxide to two equival5ts ( calcium sulphide4#ab ,! sum ( ! reactions may !n be express$ ?us3 #b,na#b,,s#d #c;,ca,c,o#c #i;,c #b,na#b;,,co#c ,ca,o1#b;,ca,s #aj;,,co4 ,inde$1 ! quantities 9 :i* ! sub/ances are mix$ toge!r at *emical works approa*es to ! proportion requir$ by ?is equation4 ,! entire process ( decomposition is c>ri$ on 9 rev]b]atory furnaces1 into :i* a mixture ( #a1jjj p>ts ( sodium sulphate1 #a1jdj p>ts ( calcium c>bonate 7z a some:at por\s lime/one71 & #ejj p>ts ( small coal is introduc$ f above4 ,?is mixture is fir/ heat$ 9 ! portion ( ! furnace :i* is fur!/ remov$ f ! fire-grate2 x is !n br\ght to ! portion ne>e/ to ! fire-grate1 :5 x is /irr$ dur+ heat+4 ,! p>tially fus$ mass obta9$ at ! end ( ! process is cool$1 & !n subject$ to me?odical lixiviation#ac to extract ! sodium c>bonate1 ! mixture ( calcium oxide & sulphide =m+ ! s-call$ 'soda wa/e' or 'alkali wa/e4'#ad #ab ,calcium sulphide1 ,ca,s1 l _m metallic sulphides :i* are soluble 9 wat]1 is decompos$ by x 7,*apt] ,x471 ,ca,s ,h#b,o ,ca,o ,h#b,s1 because hydrog5 sulphide is a v feeble acid4 ,if calcium sulphide be act$ on by a l>ge mass ( wat]1 lime may be precipitat$1 & a /ate ( equilibrium w be rea*$1 :5 ! sy/em ,ca,o #b;,ca,s rema9s un*ang$4 ,lime1 be+ a product ( ! action ( wat] on ,ca,s1 limits ?is action4 ,!re=e1 if 9 black a% ! lime 7 n 9 excess1 a "p ( ! sulphide w\ld be 9 solution 7actually !re is b v little74 ,9 ?is mann] 9 ! manufacture ( sodium c>bonate ! conditions ( equilibrium :i* ent] into d\ble decompositions h be5 made use ( 7see above71 & ! aim is to =m directly ! un*angeable product ,ca,o1#b;,ca,s4 ,?is 0 fir/ reg>d$ z a special insoluble comp\nd1 b !re is no evid5ce ( its indep5d5t exi/5ce4 #ac ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,app>atus = ! me?odical lixiviation ( black a%1 c4 ,wat] fl[s into ! tanks f ! pipes r1 r1 & ! saturat$ liquid is drawn (f f c1 c4 ,me?odical lixiviation is ! extraction1 by means ( wat]1 ( a soluble sub/ance f ! mass conta9+ x4 ,x is c>ri$ on s z n to obta9 weak aque\s solutions1 & 9 su* a way t ! residue %all n conta9 any ( ! soluble sub/ance4 ,?is problem is practically ( great importance 9 _m indu/ries4 ,x is requir$ to extract f ! mass all t is soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is is easily effect$ if wat] be fir/ p\r$ on ! mass1 ! /rong solution ?us obta9$ decant$1 !n wat] aga9 p\r$ on1 "t be+ all[$ = x to act1 !n aga9 decant$1 & s on until fre% wat] does n take up any?+4 ,b !n f9ally su* weak solutions are obta9$ t x w\ld be v disadvantage\s to evaporate !m4 ,?is is avoid$ by p\r+ ! fre% hot wat] de/9$ = ! lixiviation1 n onto ! fre% mass1 b ^u a mass :i* has already be5 subject$ to a fir/ lixiviation by weak solutions4 ,9 ?is way ! fre% wat] gives a weak solution4 ,! /rong solution :i* goes to ! evaporat+ pan fl[s f ^? p>ts ( ! app>atus :i* conta9 ! fre%1 z yet unlixiviat$1 mass1 & ?us 9 ! latt] p>ts ! weak alkali =m$ 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! app>atus becomes saturat$ z f> z possible ) ! soluble sub/ance4 ,g5]ally sev]al int]communicat+ vessels are con/ruct$ 7/&+ at ! same level7 into :i* 9 turn ! fre% mass is *>g$ :i* is int5d$ = lixiviation2 ! wat] is p\r$ 91 ! alkali drawn (f1 & ! lixiviat$ residue remov$4 ,! illu/ration repres5ts su* an app>atus1 consi/+ ( f\r communicat+ vessels4 ,! wat] p\r$ into "o ( !m fl[s ?r\gh ! two ne>e/ & issues f ! ?ird4 ,! fre% mass be+ plac$ 9 "o ( ^! boxes or vessels1 ! /ream ( wat] pass+ ?r\gh ! app>atus is direct$ 9 su* a mann] z to f9ally issue f ?is vessel conta9+ ! fre% unlixiviat$ mass4 ,! fre% wat] is add$ to ! vessel conta9+ ! mat]ial :i* has be5 almo/ completely exhau/$4 ,pass+ ?r\gh ?is vessel x is convey$ by ! pipe 7syphon pass+ f ! bottom ( ! fir/ box to ! top ( ! second7 communicat+ ) ! second2 x f9ally passes 7also ?r\gh a syphon pipe7 into ! box 7! ?ird7 conta9+ ! fre% mat]ial4 ,! wat] w extract all t is soluble 9 ! fir/ vessel1 leav+ only an insoluble residue4 ,?is vessel is !n ready to be empti$1 & refill$ ) fre% mat]ial4 ,! levels ( ! liquids 9 ! v>i\s vessels w naturally be diff]5t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! v>i\s /r5g?s ( ! solutions :i* !y conta94 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be ?\ght t sodium c>bonate alone passes into ! solution2 !re is also a good deal ( cau/ic soda ) x1 =m$ by ! action ( lime on ! c>bonate ( sodium1 & !re are also c]ta9 sodium sulphur comp\nds ) :i* we %all p>tly become acqua9t$ h]eaft]4 ,! sodium c>bonate1 !re=e1 is n obta9$ 9 a v pure /ate4 ,! solution is conc5trat$ by evaporation4 ,?is is conduct$ by means ( ! wa/e heat f ! soda furnaces1 toge!r ) t ( ! gases giv5 (f4 ,! process 9 ! soda furnaces c only be c>ri$ on at a high temp]ature1 & !re=e ! smoke & gases issu+ f !m are necess>ily v hot4 ,if ! heat !y conta9 0 n made use ( !re w\ld be a great wa/e ( fuel2 consequ5tly 9 imm$iate proximity to ^! furnaces !re is g5]ally a s]ies ( pans or evaporat+ boil]s1 "u :i* ! gases pass1 & into :i* ! alkali solution is p\r$4 ,on evaporat+ ! solution1 fir/ ( all ! undecompos$ sodium sulphate sep>ates1 !n ! sodium c>bonate or soda cry/als4 ,^! cry/als z !y sep>ate are rak$ out & plac$ on planks1 :]e ! liquid dra9s away f !m4 ,cau/ic soda rema9s 9 ! residue1 & also any sodium *loride :i* 0 n decompos$ 9 ! =ego+ process4 ,"p ( ! sodium c>bonate is recry/allis$ 9 ord] to purify x m ?or\ghly4 ,9 ord] to d ?is a saturat$ solution is left to cry/allise at a temp]ature bel[ #cj 9 a curr5t ( air1 9 ord] to promote ! sep>ation ( ! wat] vap\r4 ,! l>ge transp>5t cry/als 7effloresc5t 9 air7 ( ,na#b;,,co#c1aj;,h#b,o are !n =m$ :i* h already be5 spok5 ( 7,*apt] ,i474 #ad ,! :ole ( ! sulphur us$ 9 ! production ( ! sulphuric acid employ$ 9 decompos+ ! common salt is conta9$ 9 ?is residue4 ,?is is ! great burd5 & exp5se ( ! soda works :i* use ,leblanc's me?od4 ,z an in/ructive example f a *emical po9t ( view1 x is wor? :ile m5tion+ "h two ( ! v>i\s me?ods ( recov]+ ! sulphur f ! soda wa/e4 ,*ance's process is treat$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #f4 ,kyna/on 7#ahhe7 treats ! soda wa/e ) a solution 7sp4 gr4 l#ba7 ( magnesium *loride1 :i* dis5gages sulphurett$ hydrog53 ,ca,s ,mg,cl#b #b;,h#b,o ,ca,cl#b ,mg7,,oh7#b ,h#b,s4 ,sulphur\s anhydride is pass$ ?r\gh ! residue 9 ord] to =m ! insoluble calcium sulphite3 ,ca,cl#b ,mg7,,oh7#b ,,s#b ,ca,s,o#c ,mg,cl#b ,h#b,o4 ,! solution ( magnesium *loride obta9$ is aga9 us$1 & ! wa%$ calcium sulphite is br\ght into contact at a l[ temp]ature ) hydro*loric acid 7a weak aque\s solution7 & hydrog5 sulphide1 ! :ole ( ! sulphur !n sep>at+3 ,ca,s,o#c #b;,h#b,s #b;,h,cl ,ca,cl#b #c;,h#b,o #c,s4 ,b mo/ ef=ts h be5 direct$ t[>ds avoid+ ! =mation ( soda wa/e4 ,! above-m5tion$ process = mak+ soda 0 discov]$ 9 ! ye> #ahjh by ! ,fr5* doctor ,leblanc1 & is kn[n z ! ,leblanc process4 ,! p>ticul>s ( ! discov]y are some:at rem>kable4 ,sodium c>bonate1 hav+ a consid]able application 9 indu/ry1 0 = a long "t prep>$ exclusively f ! a% ( m>9e plants 7,*apt] ,,xi41 page #dig74 ,ev5 up to ! pres5t "t ?is process is c>ri$ on 9 ,norm&y4 ,9 ,france1 :]e = a long "t ! manufacture ( l>ge quantities ( soap 7s-call$ ,m>seilles soap7 & v>i\s fabrics requir$ a l>ge am\nt ( soda1 ! quantity prep>$ at ! coa/ 0 insuffici5t to meet ! dem&4 ,= ?is reason dur+ ! w>s at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury1 :5 ! import ( =eign goods into ,france 0 int]dict$1 ! want ( sodium c>bonate 0 felt4 ,! ,fr5* ,academy (f]$ a prize = ! discov]y ( a pr(itable me?od ( prep>+ x f common salt4 ,leblanc !n propos$ ! above-m5tion$ process1 :i* is rem>kable = its great simplicity4#ae #ae ,among ! drawbacks ( ! ,leblanc process are ! accumulation ( 'soda wa/e' 7,note #ad7 ow+ to ! impossibility at ! comp>atively l[ price ( sulphur 7especially 9 ! =m ( pyrites7 ( f9d+ employm5t = ! sulphur & sulphur comp\nds = :i* ?is wa/e is sometimes treat$1 & also ! insuffici5t purity ( ! sodium c>bonate = _m purposes4 ,! advantages ( ! ,leblanc process1 besides its simplicity & *eapness1 are t almo/ ! :ole ( ! acids obta9$ z bye-products h a comm]cial value2 = *lor9e & blea*+ p[d] are produc$ f ! l>ge am\nt ( hydro*loric acid :i* appe>s z a bye-product2 cau/ic soda also is v easily made1 & ! dem& = x increases e ye>4 ,9 ^? places :]e salt1 pyrites1 *>coal1 & lime/one 7! mat]ials requir$ = alkali works7 are f\nd side by side--z1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,ural or ,don di/ricts--conditions are fav\rable to ! developm5t ( ! manufacture ( sodium c>bonate on an enorm\s scale2 & :]e1 z 9 ! ,caucasus1 sodium sulphate occurs naturally1 ! conditions are /ill m fav\rable4 ,a l>ge am\nt1 h[ev]1 ( ! latt] salt1 ev5 f soda works1 is us$ 9 mak+ glass4 ,! mo/ important soda works1 z reg>ds ! quantity ( products obta9$ f !m1 are ! ,engli% works4 ,z an example ( ! o!r num]\s & v>i$ me?ods ( manufactur+ soda f sodium *loride1 ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3 ,sodium *loride is decompos$ by oxide ( lead1 ,pb,o1 =m+ lead *loride & sodium oxide1 :i*1 ) c>bonic anhydride1 yields sodium c>bonate 7,s*eele's process74 ,9 ,cornu's me?od sodium *loride is treat$ ) lime1 & !n expos$ to ! air1 :5 x yields a small quantity ( sodium c>bonate4 ,9 ,e4 ,kopp's process sodium sulphate 7#abe p>ts7 is mix$ ) oxide ( iron 7#hj p>ts7 & *>coal 7#ee p>ts71 & ! mixture is heat$ 9 rev]b]atory furnaces4 ,"h a comp\nd1 ,na#f;,fe#d,s#c1 is =m$1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] absorbs oxyg5 & c>bonic anhydride1 & !n =ms sodium c>bonate & f]r\s sulphide2 ?is :5 roa/$ gives sulphur\s anhydride1 ! indisp5sable mat]ial = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 & f]ric oxide :i* is aga9 us$ 9 ! process4 ,9 ,grant's me?od sodium sulphate is trans=m$ into sodium sulphide1 & ! latt] is decompos$ by a /ream ( c>bonic anhydride & /eam1 :5 hydrog5 sulphide is dis5gag$ & sodium c>bonate =m$4 ,gossage prep>es ,na#b,s f ,na#b,,s#d 7by heat+ x ) c>bon71 dissolves x 9 wat] & subjects ! solution to ! action ( an excess ( ,,co#b 9 coke t[]s1 ?us obta9+ ,h#b,s 7a gas :i* gives ,,s#b "u p]fect combu/ion1 or sulphur :5 incompletely burnt1 ,*apt] ,,xx41 ,note #f7 & bic>bonate ( sodium2 ,na#b,s #b;,,co#b #b;,h#b,o ,h#b,s #b;,h,na,c,o#c4 ,! latt] gives soda & ,,co#b :5 ignit$4 ,?is process q elim9ates ! =mation ( soda-wa/e 7see ,note #c7 & %\ld 9 my op9ion be suitable = ! treatm5t ( native ,na#b,,s#d1 l t :i* is f\nd 9 ! ,caucasus1 all ! m s9ce ,h#b,s gives sulphur z a bye-product4 ,repeat$ ef=ts h be5 made 9 rec5t times to obta9 soda 7& *lor9e1 see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #a7 f /rong solutions ( salt 7,*apt] ,x41 ,note #bc bis7 by ! action ( an electric curr5t1 b until n[ ^! me?ods h n be5 work$ out suffici5tly = practical use1 probably p>tly ow+ to ! complicat$ app>atus ne$$1 & ! fact t ! *lor9e giv5 (f at ! anode corrodes ! electrodes & vessels & has b a limit$ indu/rial application4 ,we may m5tion t accord+ to ,hempel 7#ahij7 soda 9 cry/als is deposit$ :5 an electric curr5t & a /ream ( c>bonic acid gas are pass$ ?r\gh a saturat$ solution ( ,na,cl4 ,sodium c>bonate may likewise be obta9$ f cryolite 7,*apt] ,,xvii41 ,note #bc7 ! me?od ( treat+ ?is w be m5tion$ "u ,alum9ium4 ,( all o!r indu/rial processes = manufactur+ sodium c>bonate1 ! ammonia process is ! mo/ wor?y ( m5tion4#af ,9 ?is ! vap\rs ( ammonia1 & !n an excess ( c>bonic anhydride1 are directly introduc$ into a conc5trat$ solution ( sodium *loride 9 ord] to =m ! acid ammonium c>bonate1 ,,nh#d;,,hco#c4 ,!n1 by means ( ! d\ble sal9e decomposition ( ?is salt1 sodium *loride is decompos$1 & 9 virtue ( its slight solubility acid sodium c>bonate1 ,na,h,c,o#c1 is precipitat$ & ammonium *loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 is obta9$ 9 solution 7) a portion ( ! sodium *loride & acid sodium c>bonate74 ,! reaction proce$s 9 ! solution ow+ to ! sp>+ solubility ( ! ,na,h,c,o#c accord+ to ! equation ,na,cl ,,nh#d;,,hco#c ,,nh#d;,cl ,na,h,c,o#c4 ,! ammonia is recov]$ f ! solution by heat+ ) lime or magnesia1#af bis & ! precipitat$ acid sodium c>bonate is conv]t$ into ! normal salt by heat+4 ,x is ?us obta9$ 9 a v pure /ate4#ag #af ,?is process 7,*apt] ,,xvii47 0 fir/ po9t$ out by ,turck1 work$ out by ,s*loes+1 & f9ally appli$ indu/rially by ,solvay4 ,! fir/ 7#ahhc7 l>ge soda factories erect$ 9 ,russia = work+ ?is process are on ! banks ( ! ,kama at ,b]ezniak1 ne> ,ousolia1 & belong to ,lubim(f4 ,b ,russia1 :i* /ill imports f abroad a l>ge quantity ( blea*+ p[d] & exports a l>ge am\nt ( manganese ore1 mo/ ( all requires works c>ry+ on ! ,leblanc process4 ,9 #ahij a factory ( ?is k9d 0 erect$ by ,p4 ,k4 ,ou%k(f1 on ! ,kama1 ne> ,elag\bi4 #af bis ,mond 7see ,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #c bis7 sep>ates ! ,,nh#d;,cl f ! residual solutions by cool+ 7,*apt] ,x41 ,note #dd72 ignites ! sal-ammoniac & passes ! vap\r ov] ,mg,o1 & s re-obta9s ! ,,nh#c1 & =ms ,mg,cl#b3 ! =m] goes back = ! manufacture ( soda1 :ile ! latt] is employ$ ei!r = mak+ ,h,cl or ,cl#b4 #ag ,comm]cial soda a% 7calc9$1 anhydr\s7 is r>ely pure2 ! cry/allis$ soda is g5]ally pur]4 ,9 ord] to purify x fur!r1 x is be/ to boil a conc5trat$ solution ( soda a% until two-?irds ( ! liquid rema91 collect ! soda :i* settles1 wa% ) cold wat]1 & !n %ake up ) a /rong solution ( ammonia1 p\r (f ! residue1 & heat4 ,! impurities w !n rema9 9 ! "m liquors1 c4 ,"s num]ical data may be giv5 = sodium c>bonate4 ,! specific gravity ( ! anhydr\s salt is #bdh1 t ( ! decahydrat$ salt #adf4 ,two v>ieties are kn[n ( ! heptahydrat$ salt 7,lwel1 ,m>ignac1 ,rammelsb]g71 :i* are =m$ toge!r by all[+ a saturat$ solution to cool "u a lay] ( alcohol2 ! "o is less /able 7l ! correspond+ sulphate7 & at #j has a solubility ( #cb p>ts 7( anhydr\s salt7 9 #ajj wat]2 ! o!r is m /able1 & its solubility #bj p>ts 7( anhydr\s salt7 p] #ajj ( wat]4 ,! solubility ( ! decahydrat$ salt 9 #ajj wat] at #j1 #gj2 at #bj1 #bag2 at #cj1 #cgb p>ts 7( anhydr\s salt74 ,at #hj ! solubility is only #dfa1 at #ij #deg1 at #ajj1 #ded p>ts 7( anhydr\s salt74 ,t is1 x falls z ! temp]ature rises1 l ,na#b,,s#d4 ,! specific gravity 7,note #g7 ( ! solutions ( sodium c>bonate1 accord+ to ! data ( ,g]la* & ,kohlraus*1 at #ae_/d is express$ by ! =mula1 s #i1iib #ajdep #jafep#b4 ,weak solutions occupy a volume n only less ?an ! sum ( ! volumes ( ! anhydr\s salt & ! wat]1 b ev5 less ?an ! wat] conta9$ 9 !m4 ,= in/ance1 #a1jjj grams ( a #a p4c4 solution occupy 7at #ae7 a volume ( #iijd c4c4 7sp4 gr4 #ajjig71 b conta9 #iij grams ( wat]1 occupy+ at #ae a volume ( #iijh c4c4 ,a simil> case1 :i* is comp>atively r>e occurs also ) sodium hydroxide1 9 ^? dilute solutions = :i* ! factor ,a is great] ?an #ajj if ! sp4 gr4 ( wat] at #d #ajj1jjj1 & if ! sp4 gr4 ( ! solution be express$ by ! =mula ,s ,s#j ,ap ,bp#b1 :]e ,s#j is ! specific gravity ( ! wat]4 ,= #e p4c4 ! sp4 gr4 #ae_/d #ajebj2 = #aj p4c4 #aajeg2 = #ae p4c4 #aafjc4 ,! *anges 9 ! sp4 gr4 ) ! temp]ature are "h almo/ ! same z ) solutions ( sodium *loride ) an equal value ( p4 ,sodium c>bonate1 l sodium sulphate1 loses all its wat] on be+ heat$1 & :5 anhydr\s fuses at a bright-r$ heat 7#ajih74 ,a small quantity ( sodium c>bonate plac$ 9 ! loop ( a plat9um wire volatilises 9 ! heat ( a gas flame1 & !re=e 9 ! furnaces ( glass works "p ( ! soda is always trans=m$ into ! condition ( vap\r4 ,sodium c>bonate resembles sodium sulphate 9 its relation to wat]4#ah ,"h also ! greate/ solubility is at ! temp]ature ( #cg2 bo? salts1 on cry/allis+ at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 comb9e ) t5 molecules ( wat]1 & su* cry/als ( soda1 l cry/als ( ,glaub]'s salt1 fuse at #cd4 ,sodium c>bonate also =ms a sup]saturat$ solution1 &1 accord+ to ! conditions1 gives v>i\s comb9ations ) wat] ( cry/allisation 7m5tion$ on page #ajh71 c4 #ah ,! resemblance is s great t1 not)/&+ ! diff]5ce 9 ! molecul> composition ( ,na#b,,s#d & ,na#b;,,co#c1 !y ought to be class$ "u ! type 7,na,o7#b,r1 :]e ,r ,,s#b or ,,co4 ,_m o!r sodium salts also conta9 #aj mol4 ,h#b,o4 ,at a r$ heat sup]heat$ /eam lib]ates c>bonic anhydride f sodium c>bonate & =ms cau/ic soda1 ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o #b,na,h,o ,,co#b4 ,"h ! c>bonic anhydride is replac$ by wat]2 ?is dep5ds on ! feebly acid "* ( c>bonic anhydride4 ,by direct heat+1 sodium c>bonate is only slightly decompos$ into sodium oxide & c>bonic anhydride2 ?us1 :5 sodium c>bonate is fus$1 ab\t #a p] c5t4 ( c>bonic anhydride is dis5gag$4#ai ,! c>bonates ( _m o!r metals--= in/ance1 ( calcium1 copp]1 magnesium1 iron1 c4--on be+ heat$ lose all _! c>bonic anhydride4 ,?is %[s ! consid]able basic en]gy :i* sodium possesses4 ,) ! soluble salts ( mo/ metals1 sodium c>bonate gives precipitates ei!r ( insoluble c>bonates ( ! metals1 or else ( ! hydroxides 79 ?is latt] case c>bonic anhydride is dis5gag$72 = in/ance1 ) b>ium salts x precipitates an insoluble b>ium c>bonate 7,ba,cl#b ,na#b;,,co#c #b,na,cl ,ba,c,o#c7 & ) ! alum9ium salts x precipitates alum9ium hydroxide1 c>bonic anhydride be+ dis5gag$3 #c,na#b;,,co#c ,al#b7,,s#d7c #c;,h#b,o #c,na#b,,s#d #b;,al7,,oh7#c #c;,,co#b4 ,sodium c>bonate1 l all ! salts ( c>bonic acid1 evolves c>bonic anhydride on treatm5t ) all acids :i* are to any ext5t en]getic4 ,b if an acid dilut$ ) wat] be gradually add$ to a solution ( sodium c>bonate1 at fir/ su* an evolution does n take place1 because ! excess ( ! c>bonic anhydride =ms acid sodium c>bonate 7sodium bic>bonate71 ,na,h,c,o#c4bj ,! acid sodium c>bonate is an un/able salt4 ,n only :5 heat$ alone1 b ev5 on be+ slightly heat$ 9 solution1 & also at ! ord9>y temp]ature 9 damp air1 x loses c>bonic anhydride & =ms ! normal salt4 ,& at ! same "t x is easy to obta9 x 9 a pure cry/all9e =m1 if a /rong solution ( sodium c>bonate be cool$ & a /ream ( c>bonic anhydride gas pass$ ?r\gh x4 ,! acid salt is less soluble 9 wat] ?an ! normal1#ba & !re=e a /rong solution ( ! latt] gives cry/als ( ! acid salt if c>bonic anhydride be pass$ ?r\gh x4 ,! acid salt may be yet m conv5i5tly =m$ f effloresc$ cry/als ( sodium c>bonate1 :i*1 on be+ consid]ably heat$1 v easily absorb c>bonic anhydride4#bb ,! acid salt cry/allises well1 b n1 h[ev]1 9 su* l>ge cry/als z ! normal salt2 x has a bracki% & n an alkal9e ta/e l t ( ! normal salt2 its reaction is feebly alkal9e1 ne>ly neutral4 ,at #gj its solution beg9s to lose c>bonic anhydride1 & on boil+ ! evolution becomes v abundant4 ,f ! prec$+ rem>ks x is cle> t 9 mo/ reactions ?is salt1 especially :5 heat$1 acts simil>ly to ! normal salt1 b has1 naturally1 "s di/9ction f x4 ,?us1 = example1 if a solution ( sodium c>bonate be add$ to a normal magnesium salt1 a turbidity 7precipitate7 is =m$ ( magnesium c>bonate4 ,mg,c,o#c4 ,no su* precipitate is =m$ by ! acid salt1 because magnesium c>bonate is soluble 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( c>bonic anhydride4 #ai ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,pick]+4 ,accord+ to ,rose1 :5 solutions ( sodium c>bonate are boil$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride is dis5gag$4 #bj ,! composition ( ?is salt1 h[ev]1 may be also repres5t$ z a comb9ation ( c>bonic acid1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 ) ! normal salt1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 j z ! latt] also comb9es ) wat]4 ,su* a comb9ation is all ! m likely because 7#a7 !re exi/s ano!r salt1 ,na#b;,,co#c1b,na,h,c,o#c1b;,h#b,o 7sodium sesquic>bonate71 obta9$ by cool+ a boil+ solution ( sodium bic>bonate1 or by mix+ ?is salt ) ! normal salt2 b ! =mula ( ?is salt _c be d]iv$ f t ( normal c>bonic acid1 z ! =mula ( ! bic>bonate c4 ,at ! same "t ! sesqui-salt has all ! prop]ties ( a def9ite comp\nd2 x cry/allises 9 transp>5t cry/als1 has a con/ant composition1 its solubility 7at #j 9 #ajj ( wat]1 #abf ( anhydr\s salt7 diff]s f ! solubility ( ! normal & acid salts2 x is f\nd 9 nature1 & is kn[n by ! names ( trona & urao4 ,! obs]vations ( ,watts & ,ri*>ds %[$ 7#ahhf7 t on p\r+ a /rong solution ( ! acid salt into a solution ( ! normal salt saturat$ by heat+1 cry/als ( ! salt ,na,h,c,o#c1,na#b;,,co#c1b;,h#b,o may be easily obta9$1 z long z ! temp]ature is above #ce4 ,! natural urao 7,b\ss+ault7 has1 accord+ to ,laur5t1 ! same composition4 ,?is salt is v /able 9 air1 & may be us$ = purify+ sodium c>bonate on ! l>ge scale4 ,su* comp\nds h be5 little /udi$ f a !oretical po9t ( view1 al?\gh p>ticul>ly int]e/+1 s9ce 9 all probability !y correspond ) or?o-c>bonic acid1 ,c7,,oh7#d1 & at ! same "t correspond ) d\ble salts l a/rakhanite 7,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,note #be74 7#b7 ,wat] ( cry/allisation does n ent] into ! composition ( ! cry/als ( ! acid salt1 s t on its =mation 7occurr+ only at l[ temp]atures1 z 9 ! =mation ( cry/all9e comp\nds ) wat]7 ! wat] ( cry/allisation ( ! normal salt sep>ates & ! wat] is1 z x 71 replac$ by ! elem5ts ( c>bonic acid4 ,if anhydr\s sodium c>bonate be mix$ ) ! am\nt ( wat] requisite = ! =mation ( ,na#b;,,co#c1;,h#b,o1 ?is salt w1 :5 p[d]$1 absorb ,,co#b z easily at ! ord9>y temp]ature z x does wat]4 #ba #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #j dissolve #g p>ts ( ! acid salt1 :i* corresponds ) #dc p>ts ( ! anhydr\s normal salt1 b at #j #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #g p>ts ( ! latt]4 ,! solubility ( ! bi-or acid salt v>ies ) consid]able regul>ity2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolves at #ae #i p>ts ( ! salt1 at #cj #aa p>ts4 ,! ammonium1 & m especially ! calcium1 salt1 is mu* m soluble 9 wat]4 ,! ammonia process 7see p4 #ebd7 is f\nd$ ^u ?is4 ,ammonium bic>bonate 7acid c>bonate7 at #j has a solubility ( #ab p>ts 9 #ajj wat]1 at #cj ( #bg p>ts4 ,! solubility !re=e increases v rapidly ) ! temp]ature4 ,& its saturat$ solution is m /able ?an a solution ( sodium bic>bonate4 ,9 fact1 saturat$ solutions ( ^! salts h a gase\s t5sion l t ( a mixture ( c>bonic anhydride & wat]--namely1 at #ae & at #ej1 = ! sodium salt #abj & #gej millimetres1 = ! ammonium salt #abj & #efc millimetres4 ,^! data are ( great importance 9 und]/&+ ! ph5om5a connect$ ) ! ammonia process4 ,!y indicate t ) an increas$ pressure ! =mation ( ! sodium salt ought to increase if !re be an excess ( ammonium salt4 #bb ,cry/all9e sodium c>bonate 7brok5 into lumps7 also absorbs c>bonic anhydride1 b ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! cry/als is !n dis5gag$3 ,na#b;,,co#c1aj;,h#b,o ,,co#b ,na#b;,,co#c1;,h#b;,,co#c #i;,h#b,o1 & dissolves "p ( ! c>bonate2 !re=e "p ( ! sodium c>bonate passes into solution toge!r ) all ! impurities4 ,:5 x is requir$ to avoid ! =mation ( ?is solution1 a mixture ( ignit$ & cry/all9e sodium c>bonate is tak54 ,sodium bic>bonate is prep>$ *iefly = m$ic9al use1 & is !n (t5 t]m$ c>bonate ( soda1 also1 = in/ance1 9 ! s-call$ soda p[d]s1 = prep>+ c]ta9 artificial m9]al wat]s1 = ! manufacture ( dige/ive loz5ges l ^? made at ,ess5tuki1 ,vi*y1 c4 ,sodium c>bonate is us$ = ! prep>ation ( cau/ic soda#bc--t is1 ! hydrate ( sodium oxide1 or ! alkali :i* corresponds to sodium4 ,= ?is purpose ! action ( lime on a solution ( sodium c>bonate is g5]ally made use (4 ,! process is z foll[s3 a weak1 g5]ally #aj p] c5t41 solution ( sodium c>bonate is tak51#bd & boil$ 9 a ca/-iron1 wr\ght-iron1 or silv] boil] 7sodium hydroxide does n act on ^! metals71 & lime is add$1 little by little1 dur+ ! boil+4 ,?is latt] is soluble 9 wat]1 al?\gh b v slightly4 ,! cle> solution becomes turbid on ! addition ( ! lime because a precipitate is =m$2 ?is precipitate consi/s ( calcium c>bonate1 almo/ insoluble 9 wat]1 :il/ cau/ic soda is =m$ & rema9s 9 solution4 ,! decomposition is effect$ accord+ to ! equation3 ,na#b;,,co#c ,ca7,,ho7#b ,ca,c,o#c #b,na,h,o4 ,on cool+ ! solution ! calcium c>bonate easily settles z a precipitate1 & ! cle> solution or alkali above x conta9s ! easily soluble sodium hydroxide =m$ 9 ! reaction4#be ,aft] ! necess>y quantity ( lime has be5 add$1 ! solution is all[$ to /&1 & is !n decant$ (f & evaporat$ 9 ca/ or wr\ght iron boil]s1 or 9 silv] pans if a p]fectly pure product is requir$4#bf ,! evaporation _c be conduct$ 9 *9a1 glass1 or simil> vessels1 because cau/ic soda attacks ^! mat]ials1 al?\gh b slightly4 ,! solution does n cry/allise on evaporation1 because ! solubility ( cau/ic soda :5 hot is v great1 b cry/als conta9+ wat] ( cry/allisation may be obta9$ by cool+4 ,if ! evaporation ( ! alkali be conduct$ until ! specific gravity rea*es #ach1 & ! liquid is !n cool$ to #j1 transp>5t cry/als appe> conta9+ #b,na,h,o1#g;,h#b,o2 !y fuse at #f4bg ,if ! evaporation be conduct$ s long z wat] is dis5gag$1 :i* requires a consid]able am\nt ( heat1 !n1 on cool+1 ! hydroxide1 ,na,h,o1 solidifies 9 a semi-transp>5t cry/all9e mass1#bh :i* eag]ly absorbs moi/ure & c>bonic anhydride f ! air4#bi ,its specific gravity is #bac2cj x is easily soluble 9 wat]1 ) dis5gagem5t ( a consid]able quantity ( heat4#ca ,a saturat$ solution at ! ord9>y temp]ature has a specific gravity ( ab\t #ae1 conta9s ab\t #de p] c5t4 ( sodium hydroxide1 & boils at #acj2 at #ee wat] dissolves an equal weight ( x4#cb ,cau/ic soda is n only soluble 9 wat] b 9 alcohol1 & ev5 9 e!r4 ,dilute solutions ( sodium hydroxide produce a soapy feel+ on ! sk9 because ! active base ( soap consi/s ( cau/ic soda4#cc ,/rong solutions h a corrod+ action4 #bc ,9 *emi/ry1 sodium oxide is t]m$ 'soda1' :i* ^w mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! ^w sodium1 mean+ ! metal4 #bd ,) a small quantity ( wat]1 ! reaction ei!r does n take place1 or ev5 proce$s 9 ! rev]se way--t is1 sodium & potassium hydroxides remove c>bonic anhydride f calcium c>bonate 7,liebig1 ,watson1 ,mits*]li*1 & o!rs74 ,! influ5ce ( ! mass ( wat] is evid5t4 ,accord+ to ,g]b]ts1 h[ev]1 /rong solutions ( sodium c>bonate are decompos$ by lime1 :i* is v int]e/+ if confirm$ by fur!r inve/igation4 #be ,z long z any undecompos$ sodium c>bonate rema9s 9 solution1 excess ( acid add$ to ! solution dis5gages c>bonic anhydride1 & ! solution aft] dilution gives a :ite precipitate ) a b>ium salt soluble 9 acids1 %[+ ! pres5ce ( a c>bonate 9 solution 7if !re be sulphate pres5t1 x also =ms a :ite precipitate1 b ?is is insoluble 9 acids74 ,= ! decomposition ( sodium c>bonate1 milk ( lime--t is1 slak$ slime susp5d$ 9 wat]--is employ$4 ,=m]ly pure sodium hydroxide 0 prep>$ 7accord+ to ,b]?ollet's process7 by dissolv+ ! impure sub/ance 9 alcohol 7sodium c>bonate & sulphate are n soluble71 b n[ t metallic sodium has become *eap & is purifi$ by di/illation1 pure cau/ic soda is prep>$ by act+ on a small quantity ( wat] ) sodium4 ,p]fectly pure sodium hydroxide may also be obta9$ by all[+ /rong solutions to cry/allise 79 ! cold7 7,note #bg74 ,9 alkali works :]e ! ,leblanc process is us$1 cau/ic soda is prep>$ directly f ! alkali rema9+ 9 ! "m liquors aft] ! sep>ation ( ! sodium c>bonate by evaporation 7,note #ad74 ,if excess ( lime & *>coal h be5 us$1 mu* sodium hydroxide maybe obta9$4 ,aft] ! removal z mu* z possible ( ! sodium c>bonate1 a r$ liquid 7f iron oxide7 is left1 conta9+ sodium hydroxide mix$ ) comp\nds ( sulphur & ( cyanog5 7see ,*apt] ,,ix47 & also conta9+ iron4 ,?is r$ alkali is evaporat$ & air is bl[n ?r\gh x1 :i* oxidises ! impurities 7= ?is purpose sometimes sodium nitrate is add$1 or blea*+ p[d]1 c47 & leaves fus$ cau/ic soda4 ,! fus$ mass is all[$ to settle 9 ord] to sep>ate ! f]rug9\s precipitate1 & p\r$ into iron drums1 :]e ! sodium hydroxide solidifies4 ,su* cau/ic soda conta9s ab\t #aj p4c4 ( wat] 9 excess & "s sal9e impurities1 b :5 prop]ly manufactur$ is almo/ free f c>bonate & f iron4 ,! great] "p ( ! cau/ic soda1 :i* =ms s important an article ( comm]ce1 is manufactur$ 9 ?is mann]4 #bf ,lwig gave a me?od ( prep>+ sodium hydroxide f sodium c>bonate by heat+ x to a dull r$ heat ) an excess ( f]ric oxide4 ,c>bonic anhydride is giv5 (f1 & w>m wat] extracts ! cau/ic soda f ! rema9+ mass4 ,?is reaction1 z exp]im5t %[s1 proce$s v easily1 & is an example ( contact action simil> to t ( f]ric oxide on ! decomposition ( potassium *lorate4 ,! reason ( ?is may be t a small quantity ( ! sodium c>bonate ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) ! f]ric oxide1 & ! f]ric c>bonate produc$ is decompos$ into c>bonic anhydride & f]ric oxide1 ! action ( :i* is r5ew$4 ,simil> explanations express+ ! reason = a reaction really adds b little to t elem5t>y conception ( contact :i*1 accord+ to my op9ion1 consi/s 9 ! *ange ( motion ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules "u ! influ5ce ( ! sub/ance 9 contact4 ,9 ord] to repres5t ?is cle>ly x is suffici5t1 = in/ance1 to imag9e t 9 ! sodium c>bonate ! elem5ts ,,co#b move 9 a circle r\nd ! elem5ts ,na#b,o1 b at ! po9ts ( contact ) ,fe#b,o#c ! motion becomes elliptic ) a long axis1 & at "s di/ance f ,na#b,o ! elem5ts ( ,,co#b are p>t$1 n hav+ ! faculty ( atta*+ !mselves to ,fe#b,o#c4 #bg ,by all[+ /rong solutions ( sodium hydroxide to cry/allise 9 ! cold1 impurities--su* z1 = in/ance1 sodium sulphate--may be sep>at$ f !m4 ,! fus$ cry/allo-hydrate #b,na,h,o1#g;,h#b,o =ms a solution hav+ a specific gravity ( #adje 7,h]mes74 ,! cry/als on dissolv+ 9 wat] produce cold1 :ile ,na,h,o produces heat4 ,besides :i* ,pick]+ obta9$ hydrates ) #a1 #b1 #d1 #e1 & #g ,h#b,o4 #bh ,9 solid cau/ic soda !re is g5]ally an excess ( wat] beyond t requir$ by ! =mula ,na,h,o4 ,! cau/ic soda us$ 9 laboratories is g5]ally ca/ 9 /icks1 :i* are brok5 into pieces4 ,x mu/ be pres]v$ 9 c>efully clos$ vessels1 because x absorbs wat] & c>bonic anhydride f ! air4 #bi ,by ! way x *anges 9 air x is easy to di/+ui% cau/ic soda f cau/ic pota%1 :i* 9 g5]al resembles x4 ,bo? alkalis absorb wat] & c>bonic anhydride f ! air1 b cau/ic pota% =ms a deliquesc5t mass ( potassium c>bonate1 :il/ cau/ic soda =ms a dry p[d] ( effloresc5t salt4 #cj ,z ! molecul> weight ( ,na,h,o #dj1 ! volume ( its molecule #dj_/bac #ahe1 :i* v ne>ly approa*es ! volume ( a molecule ( wat]4 ,! same rule applies to ! comp\nds ( sodium 9 g5]al--= in/ance1 its salts h a molecul> volume approa*+ ! volume ( ! acids f :i* !y are d]iv$4 #ca ,! molecul> quantity ( sodium hydroxide 7#dj grams71 on be+ dissolv$ 9 a l>ge mass 7#bjj gram molecules7 ( wat]1 develops1 accord+ to ,b]!lot #i1ghj1 & accord+ to ,?oms5 #i1idj1 heat-units1 b at #ajj ab\t #ac1jjj 7,b]!lot74 ,solutions ( ,na,h,o n,h#b,o1 on be+ mix$ ) wat]1 evolve heat if !y conta9 less ?an #f;,h#b,o1 b if m !y absorb beat4 #cb ,! specific gravity ( solutions ( sodium hydroxide at #ae_/d is giv5 9 ! %ort table bel[3-- ,na,h,o1 p4c4 #e #aj #ae #bj #cj #dj ,sp4 gr4 #ajeg #aaac #aafi #abbd #acca #adcf #a1jjj grams ( a #e p4c4 solution occupies a volume ( #idf c4c42 t is1 less ?an ! wat] s]v+ to make ! solution 7see ,note #ah74 #cc ,sodium hydroxide & "s o!r alkalis are capable ( hydrolys+--saponify+1 z x is t]m$--! comp\nds ( acids ) alcohols4 ,if ,,rho 7or ,r7,,ho7n7 repres5t ! composition ( an alcohol--t is1 ( ! hydroxide ( a hydroc>bon radicle--& ,,qho an acid1 !n ! comp\nd ( ! acid ) ! alcohol or e!real salt ( ! giv5 acid w h ! composition ,,rqo4 ,e!real salts1 !re=e1 pres5t a lik5ess to metallic salts1 j z alcohols resemble basic hydroxides4 ,sodium hydroxide acts on e!real salts 9 ! same way t x acts on ! majority ( metallic salts--namely1 x lib]ates alcohol1 & =ms ! sodium salt ( t acid :i* 0 9 ! e!real salt4 ,! reaction takes place 9 ! foll[+ way3-- ,,rqo ,na,h,o ,na,q,o ,,rho ,e!real ,cau/ic ,sodium ,alcohol salt soda salt ,su* a decomposition is t]m$ saponification2 simil> reactions 7 kn[n v long ago = ! e!real salts correspond+ ) glyc]91 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c 7,*apt] ,,ix471 f\nd 9 animals & plants1 & compos+ :at are call$ fats or oils4 ,cau/ic soda1 act+ on fat & oil1 =ms glyc]91 & sodium salts ( ^? acids :i* 7 9 union ) ! glyc]9 9 ! fat1 z ,*evreul %[$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury4 ,! sodium salts ( ! fatty acids are commonly kn[n z soaps4 ,t is to say1 soap is made f fat & cau/ic soda1 glyc]9 be+ sep>at$ & a sodium salt or soap =m$4 ,z glyc]9 is usually f\nd 9 union ) c]ta9 acids1 s also are ! sodium salts ( ! same acids f\nd 9 soap4 ,! great] "p ( ! acids f\nd 9 conjunction ) glyc]9 9 fats are ! solid palmitic & /e>ic acids1 ,c#af;,h#cb,o#b & ,c#ah;,h#ch,o#b1 & ! liquid oleic acid1 ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b4 ,9 prep>+ soap ! fatty sub/ances are mix$ ) a solution ( cau/ic soda until an emulsion is =m$2 ! prop] quantity ( cau/ic soda is !n add$ 9 ord] to produce saponification on heat+1 ! soap be+ sep>at$ f ! solution ei!r by means ( an excess ( cau/ic soda or else by common salt1 :i* displaces ! soap f ! aque\s solution 7salt wat] does n dissolve soap1 nei!r does x =m a la!r74 ,wat] act+ on soap p>tly decomposes x 7because ! acids ( ! soap are feeble71 & ! alkali set free acts dur+ ! application ( soap4 ,h5ce x may be replac$ by a v feeble alkali4 ,/rong solutions ( alkali corrode ! sk9 & tissues4 ,!y are n =m$ f soap1 because ! reaction is rev]sible1 & ! alkali is only set free by ! excess ( wat]4 ,?us we see h[ ! tea*+ ( ,b]?ollet r5d]s x possible to und]/& _m ph5om5a :i* occur 9 e-day exp]i5ce 7see ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #ae74 ,! *emical reactions ( sodium hydroxide s]ve z a type = ^? ( a :ole class ( alkalis--t is1 ( soluble basic hydroxides1 ,,moh4 ,! solution ( sodium hydroxide is a v cau/ic liquid--t is to say1 x acts 9 a de/ructive way on mo/ sub/ances1 = in/ance on mo/ organic tissues--h5ce cau/ic soda1 l all soluble alkalis1 is a poison\s sub/ance2 acids1 = example hydro*loric1 s]ve z antidotes4 ,! action ( cau/ic soda on bones1 fat1 />*1 & simil> vegetable & animal sub/ances expla9s its action on organisms4 ,?us bones1 :5 plung$ into a weak solution ( cau/ic soda1 fall to p[d]1#cd & evolve a smell ( ammonia1 ow+ to ! cau/ic soda *ang+ ! gelat9\s organic sub/ance ( ! bones 7:i* conta9s c>bon1 hydrog51 nitrog51 oxyg51 & sulphur1 l album971 dissolv+ x & 9 "p de/roy+ x1 :5ce ammonia is dis5gag$4 ,fats1 tall[1 & oils become saponifi$ by a solution ( cau/ic soda--t is to say1 !y =m ) x soaps soluble 9 wat]1 or sodium salts ( ! organic acids conta9$ 9 ! fats4#ce ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic reactions ( sodium hydroxide are det]m9$ by ! fact t x saturates all acids1 =m+ salts ) !m1 :i* are almo/ all soluble 9 wat]1 & 9 ?is respect cau/ic soda is z *>act]i/ic among/ ! bases z nitric acid is among ! acids4 ,x is impossible to detect sodium by means ( ! =mation ( precipitates ( insoluble sodium salts1 z may be done ) o!r metals1 _m ( ^: salts are b slightly soluble4 ,! p[]ful alkal9e prop]ties ( cau/ic soda det]m9e its capacity = comb9+ ) ev5 ! feeble/ acids1 its prop]ty ( dis5gag+ ammonia f ammonium salts1 its faculty ( =m+ precipitates f solutions ( salts ^: bases are insoluble 9 wat]1 c4 ,if a solution ( ! salt ( almo/ any metal be mix$ ) cau/ic soda1 !n a soluble sodium salt w be =m$1 & an insoluble hydroxide ( ! metal w be sep>at$--= in/ance1 copp] nitrate yields copp] hydroxide1 ,cu7,,no#c7b #b,na,h,o ,cu7,,ho7#b #b,na,n,o#c4 ,ev5 _m basic oxides precipitat$ by cau/ic soda are capable ( comb9+ ) x & =m+ soluble comp\nds1 & !re=e cau/ic soda 9 ! pres5ce ( salts ( su* metals fir/ =ms a precipitate ( hydroxide1 & !n1 employ$ 9 excess1 dissolves ?is precipitate4 ,?is ph5om5on occurs1 = example1 :5 cau/ic soda is add$ to ! salts ( alum9ium4 ,?is %[s ! prop]ty ( su* an alkali z cau/ic soda ( comb9+ n only ) acids1 b also ) feeble basic oxides4 ,= ?is reason cau/ic soda acts on mo/ elem5ts :i* are capable ( =m+ acids or oxides simil> to !m2 ?us ! metal alum9ium gives hydrog5 ) cau/ic soda 9 consequ5ce ( ! =mation ( alum9a1 :i* comb9es ) ! cau/ic soda--t is1 9 ?is case1 ! cau/ic alkali acts on ! metal j z sulphuric acid does on ,fe or ,zn4 ,if cau/ic soda acts 9 ?is mann] on a metalloid capable ( comb9+ ) ! hydrog5 evolv$ 7alum9ium does n give a comp\nd ) hydrog571 !n x =ms su* a hydrog5 comp\nd4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 phosphorus acts 9 ?is way on cau/ic soda1 yield+ hydrog5 phosphide4 ,:5 ! hydrog5 comp\nd dis5gag$ is capable ( comb9+ ) ! alkali1 !n1 naturally1 a salt ( ! correspond+ acid is =m$4 ,= example1 *lor9e & sulphur act 9 ?is way on cau/ic soda4 ,*lor9e1 ) ! hydrog5 ( ! cau/ic soda1 =ms hydro*loric acid1 & ! latt] =ms common salt ) ! sodium hydroxide1 :il/ ! o!r atom 9 ! molecule ( *lor9e1 ,cl#b1 takes ! place ( ! hydrog51 & =ms ! hypo*lorite1 ,na,cl,o4 ,9 ! same way1 by ! action ( sodium hydroxide on sulphur1 hydrog5 sulphide is =m$1 :i* acts on ! soda =m+ sodium sulphide1 9 addition to :i* sodium ?iosulphate is =m$ 7see ,*apt] ,,xx47 ,by virtue ( su* reactions1 sodium hydroxide acts on _m metals & non-metals4 ,su* action is (t5 accel]at$ by ! pres5ce ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 z by ?is means ! =mation ( acids & oxides ri* 9 oxyg5 is facilitat$4 ,?us _m metals & _! l[] oxides1 9 ! pres5ce ( an alkali1 absorb oxyg5 & =m acids4 ,ev5 manganese p]oxide1 :5 mix$ ) cau/ic soda1 is capable ( absorb+ ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & =m+ sodium manganate4 ,organic acids :5 heat$ ) cau/ic soda give up to x ! elem5ts ( c>bonic anhydride1 =m+ sodium c>bonate1 & sep>at+ t hydroc>bon gr\p :i* exi/s1 9 comb9ation ) c>bonic anhydride1 9 ! organic acid4 #cd ,on ?is is f\nd$ ! process ( ,h5k(f & ,engelh>dt = treat+ bones4 ,! bones are mix$ ) a%es1 lime1 & wat]2 x is true t 9 ?is case m potassium hydroxide ?an sodium hydroxide is =m$1 b _! action is almo/ id5tical4 #ce ,z expla9$ 9 ,note #cc4 ,?us sodium hydroxide1 l ! soluble alkalis 9 g5]al1 ranks among/ ! mo/ active sub/ances 9 ! *emical s5se ( ! t]m1 & b few sub/ances are capable ( resi/+ x4 ,ev5 silice\s rocks1 z we %all see fur!r on1 are trans=m$ by x1 =m+ :5 fus$ ) x vitre\s slags4 ,sodium hydroxide 7l ammonium & potassium hydroxides71 z a typical example ( ! basic hydrates1 9 di/9ction f _m o!r basic oxides1 easily =ms acid salts ) acids 7= in/ance1 ,na,h,s,o#d1 ,na,h,c,o#c71 & does n =m any basic salts at all2 :il/ _m less en]getic bases1 su* z ! oxides ( copp] & lead1 easily =m basic salts1 b acid salts only ) difficulty4 ,?is capability ( =m+ acid salts1 p>ticul>ly ) polybasic acids1 may be expla9$ by ! en]getic basic prop]ties ( sodium hydroxide1 contra/$ ) ! small developm5t ( ^! prop]ties 9 ! bases :i* easily =m basic salts4 ,an en]getic base is capable ( reta9+ a consid]able quantity ( acid1 :i* a slightly en]getic base w\ld n h ! p[] ( do+4 ,also1 z w be %[n 9 ! subsequ5t *apt]s1 sodium belongs to ! unival5t metals1 be+ ex*angeable = hydrog5 atom = atom--t is1 among/ metals sodium may1 l *lor9e among/ ! non-metals1 s]ve z ! repres5tative ( ! unival5t prop]ties4 ,mo/ ( ! elem5ts :i* are n capable ( =m+ acid salts are bival5t4 ,:5ce x may be und]/ood t 9 a bibasic acid--= in/ance1 c>bonic1 ,h#b;,,co#c1 or sulphuric1 ,h#b,,s#d--! hydrog5 may be ex*ang$1 atom = atom1 = sodium1 & yield an acid salt by means ( ! fir/ sub/itution1 & a normal salt by means ( ! second--= in/ance1 ,na,h,s,o#d1 & ,na#b,,s#d1 :il/ su* bival5t metals z calcium & b>ium d n =m acid salts because "o ( _! atoms at once takes ! place ( bo? hydrog5 atoms1 =m+1 = example1 ,ca,c,o#c & ,ca,s,o#d4ce bis #ce bis ,x might be expect$1 f :at has be5 m5tion$ above1 t bival5t metals w\ld easily =m acid salts ) acids conta9+ m ?an two atoms ( hydrog5--= in/ance1 ) tribasic acids1 su* z phosphoric acid1 ,h#c,,po#d--;& actually su* salts d exi/2 b all su* relations are complicat$ by ! fact t ! "* ( ! base v (t5 *anges & becomes weak5$ ) ! increase ( val5cy & ! *ange ( atomic weight2 ! feebl] bases 7l silv] oxide71 al?\gh correspond+ ) unival5t metals1 d n =m acid salts1 :ile ! feeble/ bases 7,cu,o1 ,pb,o1 c47 easily =m basic salts1 & not)/&+ _! val5cy d n =m acid salts :i* are 9 any degree /able--t is1 :i* are undecomposable by wat]4 ,basic & acid salts ought to be reg>d$ r z comp\nds simil> to cry/allo-hydrates1 because su* acids z sulphuric =m ) sodium n only an acid & a normal salt1 z might be expect$ f ! val5cy ( sodium1 b also salts conta9+ a great] quantity ( acid4 ,9 sodium sesquic>bonate we saw an example ( su* comp\nds4 ,tak+ all ?is into consid]ation1 we mu/ say t ! prop]ty ( m or less easily =m+ acid salts dep5ds m ^u ! en]gy ( ! base ?an ^u its val5cy1 & ! be/ /atem5t is t ! capacity ( a base = =m+ acid & basic salts is *>act]i/ic1 j z ! faculty ( =m+ comp\nds ) hydrog5 is *>act]i/ic ( elem5ts4 ,we h se5 ! trans=mation ( common salt into sodium sulphate1 ( ?is latt] into sodium c>bonate1 & ( sodium c>bonate into cau/ic soda4 ,lavoisi] /ill reg>d$ sodium hydroxide z an elem5t1 because he 0 unacqua9t$ ) its decomposition ) ! =mation ( metallic sodium1 :i* sep>ates ! hydrog5 f wat]1 re=m+ cau/ic soda4 ,! prep>ation ( metallic sodium 0 "o ( ! greate/ discov]ies 9 *emi/ry1 n only because ?r\gh x ! conception ( elem5ts became broad] & m correct1 b especially because 9 sodium1 *emical prop]ties 7 obs]v$ :i* 7 b feebly %[n 9 ! o!r metals m famili>ly kn[n4 ,?is discov]y 0 made 9 #ahjg by ! ,engli% *emi/ ,davy by means ( ! galvanic curr5t4 ,by connect+ ) ! positive pole 7( copp] or c>bon7 a piece ( cau/ic soda 7moi/5$ 9 ord] to obta9 electrical conductivity71 & bor+ a hole 9 x fill$ ) m]cury connect$ ) ! negative pole ( a /rong ,volta's pile1 ,davy obs]v$ t on pass+ ! curr5t a peculi> metal dissolv$ 9 ! m]cury1 less volatile ?an m]cury1 & capable ( decompos+ wat]1 aga9 =m+ cau/ic soda4 ,9 ?is way 7by analysis & syn!sis7 ,davy demon/rat$ ! comp\nd nature ( alkalis4 ,on be+ decompos$ by ! galvanic curr5t1 cau/ic soda dis5gages hydrog5 & sodium at ! negative pole & oxyg5 at ! positive pole4 ,davy %[$ t ! metal =m$ volatilises at a r$ heat1 & ?is is its mo/ important physical prop]ty 9 relation to its extraction1 all lat] me?ods be+ f\nd$ on x4 ,besides ?is ,davy obs]v$ t sodium easily oxidises1 its vap\r tak+ fire 9 air1 & ! latt] circum/ance 0 = a long "t an ob/acle to ! easy prep>ation ( ?is metal4 ,! prop]ties ( sodium 7 subsequ5tly m ?or\ghly inve/igat$ by ,gay-,lussac & ,?n>d1 :o obs]v$ t metallic iron at a high temp]ature 0 capable ( r$uc+ cau/ic soda to sodium4#cf ,brunn] latt]ly discov]$ t n only iron1 b also *>coal1 has ?is prop]ty1 al?\gh hydrog5 has n4#cg ,b /ill ! me?ods ( extract+ sodium 7 v tr\blesome1 & consequ5tly x 0 a great r>ity4 ,! pr9cipal ob/acle to its production 0 t an endeav\r 0 made to cond5se ! easily-oxidis+ vap\rs ( sodium 9 vacuo 9 complicat$ app>atus4 ,= ?is reason1 :5 ,donny & ,m>esca1 hav+ ?or\ghly /udi$ ! matt]1 con/ruct$ a specially simple cond5s]1 ! production ( sodium 0 mu* facilitat$4 ,fur!rmore1 9 practice ! mo/ important epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( ! production ( sodium is compris$ 9 ! inve/igation ( ,sa9te-,claire ,deville1 :o avoid$ ! complex me?ods 9 vogue up to t "t1 & furni%$ ^? simple means by :i* ! production ( sodium is n[ r5d]$ feasible 9 *emical works4 #cf ,deville supposes t su* a decomposition ( sodium hydroxide by metallic iron dep5ds solely on ! dissociation ( ! alkali at a :ite heat into sodium1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,"h ! "p play$ by ! iron is only t x reta9s ! oxyg5 =m$1 o!rwise ! decompos$ elem5ts w\ld aga9 reunite ^u cool+1 z 9 o!r cases ( dissociation4 ,if x be suppos$ t ! temp]ature at ! comm5cem5t ( ! dissociation ( ! iron oxides is high] ?an t ( sodium oxide1 !n ! decomposition may be expla9$ by ,deville's hypo!sis4 ,deville demon/rates 8 views by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,an iron bottle1 fill$ ) iron bor+s1 0 heat$ 9 su* a way t ! upp] "p became r$ hot1 ! l[] "p rema9+ cool]2 sodium hydroxide 0 introduc$ into ! upp] "p4 ,! decomposition 0 !n effect$--t is1 sodium vap\rs 7 produc$ 7?is exp]im5t 0 really p]=m$ ) potassium hydroxide74 ,on op5+ ! bottle x 0 f\nd t ! iron 9 ! upp] "p 0 n oxidis$1 b only t 9 ! l[] "p4 ,?is may be expla9$ by ! decomposition ( ! alkali into sodium1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 tak+ place 9 ! upp] "p1 :il/ ! iron 9 ! l[] "p absorb$ ! oxyg5 set free4 ,if ! :ole bottle be subject$ to ! same mod]ate heat z ! l[] extremity1 no metallic vap\rs are =m$4 ,9 t case1 accord+ to ! hypo!sis1 ! temp]ature is insuffici5t = ! dissociation ( ! sodium hydroxide4 #cg ,x has be5 previ\sly rem>k$ 7,*apt] ,,ii4 ,note #i7 t ,beket(f %[$ ! displacem5t ( sodium by hydrog51 n f sodium hydroxide b f ! oxide ,na#b,o2 !n1 h[ev]1 only "o half is displac$1 ) ! =mation ( ,na,h,o4 ,= ! production ( sodium accord+ to ,deville's me?od1 a mixture ( anhydr\s sodium c>bonate 7#g p>ts71 *>coal 7two p>ts71 & lime or *alk 7#g p>ts7 is heat$4 ,?is latt] +r$i5t is only add$ 9 ord] t ! sodium c>bonate1 on fus+1 %all n sep>ate f ! *>coal4#ch ,! *alk on be+ heat$ loses c>bonic anhydride1 leav+ infusible lime1 :i* is p]meat$ by ! sodium c>bonate & =ms a ?ick mass1 9 :i* ! *>coal is intimately mix$ ) ! sodium c>bonate4 ,:5 ! *>coal is heat$ ) ! sodium c>bonate1 at a :ite heat1 c>bonic oxide & vap\rs ( sodium are dis5gag$1 accord+ to ! equation3 ,na#b;,,co#c #b;,c ,na#b #c;,,co #ch ,s9ce ! close ( ! eighties 9 ,engl&1 :]e ! prep>ation ( sodium is at pres5t c>ri$ out on a l>ge comm]cial scale 7f #ahfj to #ahgj x 0 only manufactur$ 9 a few works 9 ,france71 x has be5 ! practice to add to ,deville's mixture iron1 or iron oxide :i* ) ! *>coal gives metallic & c>burett$ iron1 :i* /ill fur!r facilitates ! decomposition4 ,at pres5t a kilogram ( sodium may be pur*as$ = ab\t ! same sum 7#b_/-7 z a gram co/ ?irty ye>s ago4 ,ca/n]1 9 ,engl&1 greatly improv$ ! manufacture ( sodium 9 l>ge quantities1 & s *eap5$ x z a r$uc+ ag5t 9 ! prep>ation ( metallic alum9ium4 ,he heat$ a mixture ( #dd p>ts ( ,na,h,o1 & #g p>ts ( c>bide ( iron 9 l>ge iron retorts at #a1jjj & obta9$ ab\t #f-a_/b p>ts ( metallic sodium4 ,! reaction proce$s m easily ?an ) c>bon or iron alone1 & ! decomposition ( ! ,na,h,o proce$s accord+ to ! equation3 #c,na,h,o ,c ,na#b;,,co#c #c;,h ,na4 ,subsequ5tly1 9 #ahia1 alum9ium 0 prep>$ by electrolysis 7see ,*apt] ,,xvii471 & metallic sodium f\nd two new uses2 7#a7 = ! manufacture ( p]oxide ( sodium 7see lat] on7 :i* is us$ 9 blea*+ works1 & 7#b7 9 ! manufacture ( potassium & sodium cyanide f yell[ prussiate 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #ab74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,manufacture ( sodium by ,deville's process4 ,a ,c1 iron tube conta9+ a mixture ( soda1 *>coal1 & *alk4 ,b1 cond5s]4 ,on cool+ ! vap\rs & gases dis5gag$1 ! vap\rs cond5se into molt5 metal 79 ?is =m sodium does n easily oxidise1 :il/ 9 vap\r x burns7 & ! c>bonic oxide rema9s z gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,donny & ,m>esca's sodium cond5s]1 consi/+ ( two ca/-iron plates screw$ toge!r4 ,9 sodium works an iron tube1 ab\t a metre long & a decimet] 9 diamet]1 is made out ( boil] plate4 ,! pipe is lut$ into a furnace hav+ a /rong draught1 capable ( giv+ a high temp]ature1 & ! tube is *>g$ ) ! mixture requir$ = ! prep>ation ( sodium4 ,"o end ( ! tube is clos$ ) a ca/-iron /opp] ,a ) clay lut+1 & ! o!r ) ! ca/-iron /opp] ,c provid$ ) an ap]ture4 ,on heat+1 fir/ ( all ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! v>i\s sub/ances is giv5 (f1 !n c>bonic anhydride & ! products ( ! dry di/illation ( ! *>coal1 !n ! latt] beg9s to act on ! sodium c>bonate1 & c>bonic oxide & vap\rs ( sodium appe>4 ,x is easy to obs]ve ! appe>ance ( ! latt]1 because on issu+ f ! ap]ture 9 ! /opp] ,c !y take fire spontane\sly & burn ) a v bright yell[ flame4 ,a pipe is !n introduc$ into ! ap]ture ,c1 compell+ ! vap\rs & gases =m$ to pass ?r\gh ! cond5s] ,b4 ,?is cond5s] consi/s ( two squ>e ca/-iron trays1 ,a & ,a1 fig4 #ga1 ) wide edges firmly screw$ toge!r4 ,betwe5 ^! two trays !re is a space 9 :i* ! cond5sation ( ! vap\rs ( sodium is effect$1 ! ?9 metallic walls ( ! cond5s] be+ cool$ by ! air b rema9+ hot en\gh to pres]ve ! sodium 9 a liquid /ate1 s t x does n *oke ! app>atus1 b cont9ually fl[s f x4 ,! vap\rs ( sodium1 cond5s+ 9 ! cool]1 fl[ 9 ! %ape ( liquid metal into a vessel conta9+ "s non-volatile naph?a or hydroc>bon4 ,?is is us$ 9 ord] to prev5t ! sodium oxidis+ z x issues f ! cond5s] at a some:at high temp]ature4 ,9 ord] to obta9 sodium ( a pure quality x is necess>y to di/il x once m1 :i* may ev5 be done 9 porcela9 retorts1 b ! di/illation mu/ be conduct$ 9 a /ream ( "s gas on :i* sodium does n act1 = in/ance 9 a /ream ( nitrog52 c>bonic anhydride is n applicable1 because sodium p>tially decomposes x1 absorb+ oxyg5 f x4 ,al?\gh ! above describ$ me?ods ( prep>+ sodium by *emical means h prov$ v conv5i5t 9 practice1 /ill x is n[ 7s9ce #ahic7 f\nd pr(itable 9 ,engl& to obta9 x 7to ! am\nt ( sev]al tons a week7 by ,davy's classical me?od1 i4e4 by ! action ( an electric curr5t at a mod]ately high temp]ature1 because ! means = produc+ an electric curr5t 7by motors & dynamos7 n[ r5d] ?is q feasible4 ,?is may be reg>d$ z a sign t 9 process ( "t _m o!r te*nical me?ods = produc+ v>i\s sub/ances by decomposition may be pr(itably c>ri$ on by electrolysis4 ,pure sodium is a lu/r\s metal1 :ite z silv]1 s(t z wax2 x becomes brittle 9 ! cold4 ,9 ord9>y moi/ air x quickly t>ni%es & becomes cov]$ ) a film ( hydroxide1 ,na,h,o1 =m$ at ! exp5se ( ! wat] 9 ! air4 ,9 p]fectly dry air sodium reta9s its lu/re = an indef9ite "t4 ,its d5sity at ! ord9>y temp]ature is equal to #jih1 s t x is light] ?an wat]2 x fuses v easily at a temp]ature ( #ie1 & di/ils at a bright r$ heat 7#gdb accord+ to ,p]man1 #ahhi74 ,scott 7#ahhg7 det]m9$ ! d5sity ( sodium vap\r & f\nd x to be ne>ly #ab 7if ,h #a74 ,?is %[s t its molecule conta9s "o atom 7l m]cury & cadmium7 ,na4#ch bis ,x =ms alloys ) mo/ metals1 comb9+ ) !m1 heat be+ sometimes evolv$ & sometimes absorb$4 ,?us1 if sodium 7hav+ a clean surface7 be ?r[n into m]cury1 especially :5 heat$1 !re is a fla%1 & su* a consid]able am\nt ( heat is evolv$ t "p ( ! m]cury is trans=m$ into vap\r4#ci ,comp\nds or solutions ( sodium 9 m]cury1 or amalgams ( sodium1 ev5 :5 conta9+ #b p>ts ( sodium to #ajj p>ts ( m]cury1 are solids4 ,only ^? amalgams :i* are ! v poore/ 9 sodium are liquid4 ,su* alloys ( sodium ) m]cury are (t5 us$ in/ead ( sodium 9 *emical inve/igations1 because 9 comb9ation ) m]cury sodium is n easily act$ on by air1 & is heavi] ?an wat]1 & !re=e m conv5i5t to h&le1 :il/ at ! same "t x reta9s ! pr9cipal prop]ties ( sodium1#dj = in/ance x decomposes wat]1 =m+ ,na,h,o4 #ch bis ,?is is also %[n by ! fall 9 ! temp]ature ( solidification ( t9 produc$ by ! addition ( sodium 7& also ,al & ,zn74 ,heycock & ,neville 7#ahhi74 #ci ,by dissolv+ sodium amalgams 9 wat] & acids1 & d$uct+ ! heat ( solution ( ! sodium1 ,b]!lot f\nd t = ea* atom ( ! sodium 9 amalgams conta9+ a l>g] am\nt ( m]cury ?an ,na,hg#e1 ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ increases1 aft] :i* ! heat ( =mation falls1 & ! heat evolv$ decreases4 ,9 ! =mation ( ,na,hg#e ab\t #ah1ejj calories are evolv$2 :5 ,na,hg#c is =m$1 ab\t #ad1jjj2 & = ,na,hg ab\t #aj1jjj calories4 ,kraft reg>d$ ! def9ite cry/all9e amalgam z hav+ ! composition ( ,na,hg#f1 b at ! pres5t "t1 9 accordance ) ,grimaldi's results1 x is ?\ght to be ,na,hg#e4 ,a simil> amalgam is v easily obta9$ if a #c p4c4 amalgam be left sev]al days 9 a solution ( sodium hydroxide until a cry/all9e mass is =m$1 f :i* ! m]cury may be remov$ by /rongly press+ 9 *amois lea!r4 ,?is amalgam ) a solution ( potassium hydroxide =ms a potassium amalgam1 ,k,hg#aj4 ,x may be m5tion$ "h t ! lat5t heat ( fusion 7( atomic quantities7 ( ,hg #cfj 7,p]sonne71 ,na #gcj 7,joannis71 & ,k #faj calories 7,joannis74 #dj ,alloys are s simil> to solutions 7exhibit+ su* complete p>allelism 9 prop]ties7 t !y are includ$ 9 ! same class ( s-call$ indef9ite comp\nds4 ,b 9 alloys1 z sub/ances pass+ f ! liquid to ! solid /ate1 x is easi] to discov] ! =mation ( def9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,besides ! alloys ( ,na ) ,hg1 ^? ) t9 7,bailey #ahib f\nd ,na#b,sn71 lead 7,na,pb71 bismu? 7,na#c;,bi71 c4 7,joannis #ahib & o!rs7 h be5 inve/igat$4 ,x is easy to =m an alloy ( m]cury & sodium hav+ a cry/all9e /ructure1 & a def9ite atomic composition1 ,na,hg#e4 ,! alloy ( sodium ) hydrog5 or sodium hydride1 ,na#b;,h1 :i* has ! ext]nal appe>ance ( a metal1#da is a mo/ in/ructive example ( ! *>act]i/ics ( alloys4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature sodium does n absorb hydrog51 b f #cjj to #dba ! absorption takes place at ! ord9>y pressure 7& at an increas$ pressure ev5 at high] temp]atures71 z %[n by ,troo/ & ,hautefeuille 7#ahgd74 ,"o volume ( sodium absorbs z mu* z #bch volumes ( hydrog54 ,! metal increases 9 volume1 & :5 once =m$ ! alloy c be pres]v$ = "s "t )\t *ange at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,! appe>ance ( sodium hydride resembles t ( sodium itself2 x is z s(t z ?is latt]1 :5 heat$ x becomes brittle1 & decomposes above #cjj1 evolv+ hydrog54 ,9 ?is decomposition all ! ph5om5a ( dissociation are v cle>ly %[n--t is1 ! hydrog5 gas evolv$ has a def9ite t5sion#db correspond+ ) ea* def9ite temp]ature4 ,?is confirms ! fact t ! =mation ( sub/ances capable ( dissociation c only be accompli%$ )9 ! dissociation limits4 ,sodium hydride melts m easily ?an sodium itself1 & !n does n und]go decomposition if x is 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog54 ,x oxidises easily 9 air1 b n s easily z potassium hydride4 ,! *emical reactions ( sodium are reta9$ 9 its hydride1 &1 if we may s express x1 !y are ev5 increas$ by ! addition ( hydrog54 ,at all ev5ts1 9 ! prop]ties ( sodium hydride#dc we see o!r prop]ties ?an 9 su* hydrog5 comp\nds z ,h,cl1 ,h#b,o1 ,h#c,n1 ,h#d;,c1 or ev5 9 ! gase\s metallic hydrides ,as,h#c1 ,te,h#b4 ,plat9um1 palladium1 nickel1 & iron1 9 absorb+ hydrog5 =m comp\nds 9 :i* hydrog5 is 9 a simil> /ate4 ,9 !m1 z 9 sodium hydride1 ! hydrog5 is compress$1 absorb$1 occlud$ 7,*apt] ,,ii47#dc bis #da ,potassium =ms a simil> comp\nd1 b li?ium1 "u ! same circum/ances1 does n4 #db ,! t5sion ( dissociation ( hydrog5 p1 9 millimetres ( m]cury1 is3-- t #ccj #cej #djj #dcj = ,na#b;,h p #bh #eg #ddg #iaj = ,k#b;,h #de #gb #edh #aajj #dc ,9 g5]al1 dur+ ! =mation ( alloys ! volumes *ange v slightly1 & !re=e f ! volume ( ,na#b;,h "s idea may be =m$ ( ! volume ( hydrog5 9 a solid or liquid /ate4 ,ev5 ,ar*im$es conclud$ t !re 0 gold 9 an alloy ( copp] & gold by reason ( its volume & d5sity4 ,f ! fact t ! d5sity ( ,na#b;,h is equal to #jiei1 x may be se5 t ! volume ( #dg grams 7! gram molecule7 ( ?is comp\nd #dij c4c4 ,! volume ( #df grams ( sodium conta9$ 9 ! ,na#b;,h 7! d5sity "u ! same conditions be+ #jig7 is equal to #dgd c4c4 ,!re=e ! volume ( #a gram ( hydrog5 9 ,na#b;,h is equal to #af c4c41 & consequ5tly ! d5sity ( metallic hydrog51 or ! weight ( #a c4c41 approa*es #jf gram4 ,?is d5sity is also prop] to ! hydrog5 alloy$ ) potassium & palladium4 ,judg+ f ! scanty in=mation :i* is at pres5t available1 liquid hydrog5 ne> its absolute boil+ po9t 7,*apt] ,,ii47 has a mu* l[] d5sity4 #dc bis ,we may rem>k t at l[ temp]atures ,na absorbs ,,nh#c & =ms 7,,nh#c,na7#b 7see ,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #ad72 ?is sub/ance absorbs ,,co & gives 7,na,c,o7n 7,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #ca71 al?\gh by itself ,na does n comb9e directly ) ,,co 7b ,k does74 ,! mo/ important *emical prop]ty ( sodium is its p[] ( easily decompos+ wat] & evolv+ hydrog5 f ! majority ( ! hydrog5 comp\nds1 & especially f all acids1 & hydrates 9 :i* hydroxyl mu/ be recognis$4 ,?is dep5ds on its p[] ( comb9+ ) ! elem5ts :i* are 9 comb9ation ) ! hydrog54 ,we already "k t sodium dis5gages hydrog51 n only f wat]1 hydro*loric acid1#dd & all o!r acids1 b also f ammonia1#dd bis ) ! =mation ( sodamide ,,nh#b,na1 al?\gh x does n displace hydrog5 f ! hydroc>bons4#de ,sodium burns bo? 9 *lor9e & 9 oxyg51 evolv+ mu* heat4 ,^! prop]ties are closely connect$ ) its p[] ( tak+ up oxyg51 *lor9e1 & simil> elem5ts f mo/ ( _! comp\nds4 ,j z x removes ! oxyg5 f ! oxides ( nitrog5 & f c>bonic anhydride1 s also does x decompose ! majority ( oxides at def9ite temp]atures4 ,"h ! action is ess5tially ! same z 9 ! decomposition ( wat]4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 :5 act+ on magnesium *loride ! sodium displaces ! magnesium1 & :5 act+ on alum9ium *loride x displaces metallic alum9ium4 ,sulphur1 phosphorus1 ars5ic & a :ole s]ies ( o!r elem5ts1 also comb9e ) sodium4#df #dd ,h4 ,a4 ,s*midt rem>k$ t p]fectly dry hydrog5 *loride is decompos$ ) great difficulty by sodium1 al?\gh ! decomposition proce$s easily ) potassium & ) sodium 9 moi/ hydrog5 *loride4 ,wanklyn also rem>k$ t sodium burns ) great difficulty 9 dry *lor9e4 ,probably ^! facts are relat$ to o!r ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,dixon1 :o f\nd t p]fectly dry c>bonic oxide does n explode ) oxyg5 on pass+ an electric sp>k4 #dd bis ,sodamide1 ,,nh#b,na1 7,*apt] ,,iv41 ,note #ad71 discov]$ by ,gay-,lussac & ,?n>d1 has =m$ ! object ( repeat$ rese>*1 b has be5 mo/ fully inve/igat$ by ,a4 ,w4 ,ti!rley 7#ahid74 ,until rec5tly ! foll[+ 0 all t 0 kn[n ab\t ?is comp\nd3-- ,by heat+ sodium 9 dry ammonia1 ,gay-,lussac & ,?n>d obta9$ an olive-gre51 easily-fusible mass1 sodamide1 ,,nh#b,na1 hydrog5 be+ sep>at$4 ,?is sub/ance ) wat] =ms sodium hydroxide & ammonia2 ) c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 x =ms sodium cyanide1 ,na,c,n1 & wat]1 ,h#b,o2 & ) dry hydrog5 *loride x =ms sodium & ammonium *lorides4 ,^! & o!r reactions ( sodamide %[ t ! metal 9 x pres]ves its en]getic prop]ties 9 reaction1 & t ?is comp\nd ( sodium is m /able ?an ! correspond+ *lor9e amide4 ,:5 heat$1 sodamide1 ,,nh#b,na1 only p>tially decomposes1 ) evolution ( hydrog51 ! pr9cipal "p ( x giv+ ammonia & sodium nitride1 ,na#c,n1 accord+ to ! equation #c,,nh#b,na #b,,nh#c ,n,na#c4 ,! latt] is an almo/ black p[d]y mass1 decompos$ by wat] into ammonia & sodium hydroxide4 ,ti!rley's rese>*es add$ ! foll[+ data3-- ,iron or silv] vessels %\ld be us$ 9 prep>+ ?is body1 because glass & porcela9 are corrod$ at #cjj-djj1 at :i* temp]ature ammonia gas acts ^u sodium & =ms ! amide ) ! evolution ( hydrog54 ,! reaction proce$s sl[ly1 b is complete if !re be an excess ( ,,nh#c4 ,pure ,,nh#b,na is col\rless 7its col\ration is due to v>i\s impurities71 semi-transp>5t1 %[s traces ( cry/allisation1 has a con*oidal fracture1 & melts at #ade4 ,judg+ f ! increase 9 weight ( ! sodium & ! quantity ( hydrog5 :i* is dis5gag$1 ! composition ( ! amide is exactly ,,nh#b,na4 ,x p>tially volatilises 7sublimes7 9 vacuo at #bjj1 & breaks up into #b,na ,n#b #b;,h#b at #ejj4 ,! same amide is =m$ :5 oxide ( sodium is heat$ 9 ,,nh#c3 ,na#b,o #b,,nh#c #b,na,h#b,n ,h#b,o4 ,na,h,o is also =m$ to "s ext5t by ! resultant ,h#b,o4 ,potassium & li?ium =m simil> amides4 ,) wat]1 alcohol1 & acids1 ,,nh#b,na gives ,,nh#c & ,na,h,o1 :i* react fur!r4 ,anhydr\s ,ca,o absorbs ,,nh#b,na :5 heat$ )\t decompos+ x4 ,:5 sodamide is heat$ ) ,si,o#b1 ,,nh#c is dis5gag$1 & silicon nitride =m$4 ,x acts /ill m readily ^u boric anhydride :5 heat$ ) x3 #b,,nh#b,na ,b#b,o#c #b;,,bn #b,na,h,o ,h#b,o4 ,:5 slightly heat$1 ,,nh#b,na ,n,o,cl ,na,cl ,n#b ,h#b,o 7,n,h,na#b & ,n,na#c are app>5tly n =m$ at a high] temp]ature74 ,! halog5 organic comp\nds react ) ! aid ( heat1 b ) s mu* en]gy t ! reaction frequ5tly leads to ! ultimate de/ruction ( ! organic gr\ps & production ( c>bon4 #de ,z sodium does n displace hydrog5 f ! hydroc>bons1 x may be pres]v$ 9 liquid hydroc>bons4 ,naph?a is g5]ally us$ = ?is purpose1 z x consi/s ( a mixture ( v>i\s liquid hydroc>bons4 ,h[ev]1 9 naph?a sodium usually becomes coat$ ) a cru/ compos$ ( matt] produc$ by ! action ( ! sodium on c]ta9 ( ! sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! mixture compos+ naph?a4 ,9 ord] t sodium may reta9 its lu/re 9 naph?a1 second>y octyl alcohol is add$4 7,?is alcohol is obta9$ by di/ill+ ca/or oil ) cau/ic pota%47 ,sodium keeps well 9 a mixture ( pure b5z5e & p>aff94 #df ,if sodium does n directly displace ! hydrog5 9 hydroc>bons1 /ill by indirect means comp\nds may be obta9$ :i* conta9 sodium & hydroc>bon gr\ps4 ,"s ( ^! comp\nds h be5 produc$1 al?\gh n 9 a pure /ate4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 z9c e?yl1 ,zn7,c#b;,h#e7b1 :5 treat$ ) sodium1 loses z9c & =ms sodium e?yl1 ,c#b;,h#e,na1 b ?is decomposition is n complete1 & ! comp\nd =m$ _c be sep>at$ by di/illation f ! rema9+ z9c e?yl4 ,9 ?is comp\nd ! en]gy ( ! sodium is cle>ly manife/1 = x reacts ) sub/ances conta9+ haloids1 oxyg51 c41 & directly absorbs c>bonic anhydride1 =m+ a salt ( a c>boxylic acid 7propionic74 ,) oxyg5 sodium unites 9 ?ree degrees ( comb9ation1 =m+ a suboxide ,na#d,o1#df bis an oxide1 ,na#b,o1 & a p]oxide1 ,na,o4 ,!y are ?us t]m$ because ,na#b,o is a /able basic oxide 7) wat] x =ms a basic hydroxide71 :il/ ,na#d,o & ,na,o d n =m correspond+ sal9e hydrates & salts4 ,! suboxide is a grey inflammable sub/ance :i* easily decomposes wat]1 dis5gag+ hydrog52 x is =m$ by ! sl[ oxidation ( sodium at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,! p]oxide is a gre5i% yell[ sub/ance1 fus+ at a bright r$ heat2 x is produc$ by burn+ sodium 9 an excess ( oxyg51 & x yields oxyg5 :5 treat$ ) wat]3 ,suboxide3 ,na#d,o #c;,h#b,o #d,na,h,o ,h#bdg ,oxide3 ,na#b,o ,h#b,o #b,na,h,o#dh ,p]oxide3 ,na#b,o#b ,h#b,o #b,na,h,o ,o#di ,all ?ree oxides =m sodium hydroxide ) wat]1 b only ! oxide ,na#b,o is directly trans=m$ into a hydrate4 ,! o!r oxides lib]ate ei!r hydrog5 or oxyg52 !y also pres5t a simil> di/9ction ) ref]5ce to _m o!r ag5ts4 ,?us c>bonic anhydride comb9es directly ) ! oxide ,na#b,o1 :i* :5 heat$ 9 ! gas burns1 =m+ sodium c>bonate1 :il/ ! p]oxide yields oxyg5 9 addition4 ,:5 treat$ ) acids1 sodium & all its oxides only =m ! salts correspond+ ) sodium oxide--t is1 ( ! =mula or type ,na,x4 ,?us ! oxide ( sodium1 ,na#b,o1 is ! only salt-=m+ oxide ( ?is metal1 z wat] is 9 ! case ( hydrog54 ,al?\gh ! p]oxide ,h#b,o#b is d]iv$ f hydrog51 & ,na#b,o#b f sodium1 yet !re are no correspond+ salts kn[n1 & if !y are =m$ !y are probably z un/able z hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,al?\gh c>bon =ms c>bonic oxide1 ,,co1 /ill x has only "o salt-=m+ oxide--c>bonic anhydride1 ,,co#b4 ,nitrog5 & *lor9e bo? give sev]al salt-=m+ oxides & types ( salts4 ,b ( ! oxides ( nitrog51 ,,no & ,,no#b d n =m salts1 z d ,n#b,o#c1 ,n#b,o#d1 & ,n#b,o#e1 al?\gh ,n#b,o#d does n =m special salts1 & ,n#b,o#e corresponds ) ! highe/ =m ( ! sal9e comp\nds ( nitrog54 ,su* di/9ctions betwe5 ! elem5ts1 accord+ to _! p[] ( giv+ "o or sev]al sal9e =ms1 is a radical prop]ty ( no less importance ?an ! basic or acid prop]ties ( _! oxides4 ,sodium z a typical metal does n =m any acid oxides1 :il/ *lor9e1 z a typical non-metal1 does n =m bases ) oxyg54 ,!re=e sodium z an elem5t may be ?us *>act]is$3 x =ms "o v /able salt-=m+ oxide1 ,na#b,o1 hav+ p[]ful basic prop]ties1 & its salts are ( ! g5]al =mula1 ,na,x1 !re=e 9 its comp\nds x is1 l hydrog51 a basic & unival5t elem5t4 #df bis ,x is ev5 d\btful :e!r ! suboxide exi/s 7see ,note #dg74 #dg ,a comp\nd1 ,na#b;,cl1 :i* corresponds ) ! suboxide1 is app>5tly =m$ :5 a galvanic curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh fus$ common salt2 ! sodium lib]at$ dissolves 9 ! common salt1 & does n sep>ate f ! comp\nd ei!r on cool+ or on treatm5t ) m]cury4 ,x is !re=e suppos$ to be ,na#b;,cl2 ! m s z ! mass obta9$ gives hydrog5 :5 treat$ ) wat]3 ,na#b;,cl ,h#b,o ,h ,na,h,o ,na,cl1 t is1 x acts l suboxide ( sodium4 ,if ,na#b;,cl really exi/s z a salt1 !n ! correspond+ base ,na#d,o1 accord+ to ! rule ) o!r bases ( ! composition ,m#d,o1 ought to be call$ a quat]n>y oxide4 ,accord+ to c]ta9 evid5ce1 a suboxide is =m$ :5 ?9 %eets or f9e drops ( sodium sl[ly oxidise 9 moi/ air4 #dh ,accord+ to obs]vations easily made1 sodium :5 fus$ 9 air oxidises b does n burn1 ! combu/ion only comm5c+ ) ! =mation ( vap\r--t is1 :5 consid]ably heat$4 ,davy & ,k>/5 obta9$ ! oxides ( potassium1 ,k#b,o1 & ( sodium1 ,na#b,o1 by heat+ ! metals ) _! hydroxides1 :5ce ,na,h,o ,na ,na#b,o ,h1 b ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f fail$ to obta9 oxides by ?is means4 ,he prep>$ !m by directly ignit+ ! metals 9 dry air1 & aft]w>ds heat+ ) ! metal 9 ord] to de/roy any p]oxide4 ,! oxide produc$1 ,na#b,o1 :5 heat$ 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog51 gave a mixture ( sodium & its hydroxide3 ,na#b,o ,h ,na,h,o ,na 7see ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #i74 ,if bo? ! obs]vations m5tion$ are accurate1 !n ! reaction is rev]sible4 ,sodium oxide ought to be =m$ dur+ ! decomposition ( sodium c>bonate by oxide ( iron 7see ,note #bf71 & dur+ ! decomposition ( sodium nitrite4 ,accord+ to ,k>/51 its specific gravity is #bh1 accord+ to ,beket(f #bc4 ,! difficulty 9 obta9+ x is ow+ to an excess ( sodium =m+ ! suboxide1 & an excess ( oxyg5 ! p]oxide4 ,! grey col\r peculi> to ! suboxide & oxide p]haps %[s t !y conta9 metallic sodium4 ,9 addition to ?is1 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] x may conta9 sodium hydride & ,na,h,o4 #di ,( ! oxides ( sodium1 t easie/ to =m is ! p]oxide1 ,na,o or ,na#b,o#b2 ?is is obta9$ :5 sodium is burnt 9 an excess ( oxyg54 ,if ,na,n,o#c be melt$1 x gives ,na#b,o#b ) metallic ,na4 ,9 a fus$ /ate ! p]oxide is r$di% yell[1 b x becomes almo/ col\rless :5 cold4 ,:5 heat$ ) iod9e vap\r1 x loses oxyg53 ,na#b,o#b ,i#b ,na#b,,oi#b ,o4 ,! comp\nd ,na#b,,oi#b is ak9 to ! comp\nd ,cu#b,o,cl#b obta9$ by oxidis+ ,cu,cl4 ,?is reaction is "o ( ! few 9 :i* iod9e directly displaces oxyg54 ,! sub/ance ,na#b,,oi#b is soluble 9 wat]1 & :5 acidifi$ gives free iod9e & a sodium salt4 ,c>bonic oxide is absorb$ by heat$ sodium p]oxide ) =mation ( sodium c>bonate3 ,na#b;,,co#c ,na#b,o#b ,,co1 :il/ c>bonic anhydride lib]ates oxyg5 f x4 ,) nitr\s oxide x reacts ?us3 ,na#b,o#b #b,n#b,o #b,na,n,o#b ,n#b2 ) nitric oxide x comb9es directly1 =m+ sodium nitrite1 ,na,o ,,no ,na,n,o#b4 ,sodium p]oxide1 :5 treat$ ) wat]1 does n give hydrog5 p]oxide1 because ! latt] 9 ! pres5ce ( ! alkali =m$ 7,na#b,o#b #b;,h#b,o #b,na,h,o ,h#b,o#b7 decomposes into wat] & oxyg54 ,9 ! pres5ce ( dilute sulphuric acid x =ms ,h#b,o#b 7,na#b,o#b ,h#b,,s#d ,na#b,,s#d ,h#b,o#b74 ,p]oxide ( sodium is n[ prep>$ on a l>ge scale 7by ! action ( air ^u ,na at #cjj7 = blea*+ wool1 silk c4 7:5 x acts 9 virtue ( ! ,h#b,o#b =m$74 ,! oxidis+ prop]ties ( ,na#b,o#b "u ! action ( heat are se51 = in/ance1 9 ! fact t :5 heat$ ) ,i x =ms sodium iodate2 ) ,pb,o1 ,na#b,pb,o#c2 ) pyrites1 sulphates1 c4 ,:5 p]oxide ( sodium comes into contact ) wat]1 x evolves mu* heat1 =m+ ,h#b,o#b1 & decompos+ ) ! dis5gagem5t ( oxyg52 b1 z a rule1 !re is no explosion4 ,b if ,na#b,o#b be plac$ 9 contact ) organic matt]1 su* z sawdu/1 cotton1 c41 x gives a viol5t explosion :5 heat$1 ignit$1 or act$ on by wat]4 ,p]oxide ( sodium =ms an excell5t oxidis+ ag5t = ! prep>ation ( ! high] product ( oxidation ( ,mn1 ,cr1 ,w1 c41 & also = oxidis+ ! metallic sulphides4 ,x %\ld !re=e f9d _m applications 9 *emical analysis4 ,to prep>e ,na#b,o#b on a l>ge scale1 ,ca/n] melts ,na 9 an alum9ium vessel1 & at #cjj passes fir/ air depriv$ ( a portion ( its oxyg5 7hav+ be5 already once us$71 & !n ord9>y dry air ov] x4 ,on comp>+ sodium & its analogues1 :i* w be describ$ lat] ) o!r metallic elem5ts1 x w be se5 t ^! prop]ties1 toge!r ) ! relative lightness ( ! metal itself & its comp\nds1 & ! magnitude ( its atomic weight comprise ! mo/ ess5tial prop]ties ( ?is elem5t1 cle>ly di/+ui%+ x f o!rs1 & enabl+ u easily to recognise its analogues4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,potassium1 ,,rubidium1 ,c,,sium1 ,,& ,,li?ium4 ,,spectrum ,,analysis ,j z ! s]ies ( halog5s1 fluor9e1 brom9e & iod9e correspond ) ! *lor9e conta9$ 9 common salt1 s also !re exi/s a correspond+ s]ies ( elem5ts3 li?ium1 ,li #g1 potassium1 ,k #ci1 rubidium1 ,rb #he1 & csium1 ,cs #acc1 :i* are analog\s to ! sodium 9 common salt4 ,^! elem5ts be> z great a resemblance to sodium1 ,na #bc1 z fluor9e1 ,f #ai1 brom9e1 ,br #hj1 & iod9e1 ,i #abg1 d to *lor9e1 ,cl #cee4 ,inde$1 9 a free /ate1 ^! elem5ts1 l sodium1 are s(t metals :i* rapidly oxidise 9 moi/ air & decompose wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 =m+ soluble hydroxides hav+ cle>ly-def9$ basic prop]ties & ! composition ,,rho1 l t ( cau/ic soda4 ,! resemblance betwe5 ^! metals is sometimes se5 ) /rik+ cle>ness1 especially 9 comp\nds su* z salts4#a ,! correspond+ salts ( nitric1 sulphuric1 c>bonic1 & ne>ly all acids ) ^! metals h _m po9ts 9 common4 ,! metals :i* resemble sodium s mu* 9 _! reactions are t]m$ ! metals ( ! alkalis4 #a ,tutton's rese>*es 7#ahid7 ^u ! analogy ( ! cry/all9e =ms ( ,k#b,,s#d1 ,rb#b,,s#d & ,cs#b,,s#d may be tak5 z a typical example ( ! comp>ison ( analog\s comp\nds4 ,we cite ! foll[+ data f ^! excell5t rese>*es3 ! sp4 gr4 at #bj_/d ( ,k#b,,s#d is #bffcc ( ,rb#b,,s#d1 #cfaac1 & ( ,cs#b,,s#d1 #dbdcd4 ,! coeffici5t ( cubical expansion 7! mean betwe5 #bj & #fj7 = ! ,k salt is #jjjec1 = ! ,rb salt #jjjeb1 = ! ,cs salt #jjjea4 ,! l9e> expansion 7! maximum = ! v]tical axis7 along ! axis ( cry/allisation is ! same = all ?ree salts1 )9 ! limits ( exp]im5tal error4 ,! replacem5t ( potassium by rubidium causes ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! molecules 9 ! direction ( ! ?ree axes ( cry/allisation to increase equally1 & less ?an ) ! replacem5t ( rubidium by csium4 ,! index ( refraction = all rays & = e cry/all9e pa? 7direction7 is great] = ! rubidium salt ?an = ! potassium salt1 & less ?an = ! csium salt1 & ! diff]5ces are ne>ly 9 ! ratio #b 3 #e4 ,! l5g?s ( ! rhombic cry/all9e axes = ,k#b,,s#d are 9 ! ratio #jegbg 3 #a 3 #jgdah1 = ,rb#b,,s#d1 #jegbc 3 #a 3 #jgdhe1 & = ,cs#b,,s#d1 #jegab 3 #a 3 #jgeba4 ,! developm5t ( ! basic & bra*y-p9acoids gradually increases 9 pass+ f ,k to ,rb & ,cs4 ,! optical prop]ties also foll[ ! same ord] bo? at ! ord9>y & at a high] temp]ature4 ,tutton draws ! g5]al conclusion t ! cry/allographic prop]ties ( ! isomorphic rhombic sulphates ,r#b,,s#d are a function ( ! atomic weight ( ! metals conta9$ 9 !m 7see ,*apt] ,,xv47 ,su* rese>*es z ^! %\ld d mu* t[>ds ha/5+ ! e/abli%m5t ( a true molecul> me*anics ( physico-*emical ph5om5a4 ,among ! metals ( ! alkalis1 ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 aft] sodium1 is potassium4 ,l sodium1 x does n appe> ei!r 9 a free /ate or z oxide or hydroxide1 b 9 ! =m ( salts1 :i* pres5t mu* 9 common ) ! salts ( sodium 9 ! mann] ( _! occurr5ce4 ,! comp\nds ( potassium & sodium 9 ! e>?'s cru/ occur z m9]al comp\nds ( silica4 ,) silica1 ,si,o#b1 potassium oxide1 l sodium oxide1 =ms sal9e m9]al sub/ances resembl+ glass4 ,if o!r oxides1 su* z lime1 ,ca,o1 & alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 comb9e ) ^! comp\nds1 glass is =m$1 a vitre\s /ony mass1 di/+ui%$ by its great /ability1 & its v slight v>iation "u ! action ( wat]4 ,x is su* complex silici\s comp\nds z ^! :i* conta9 pota% 7potassium oxide71 ,k#b,o1 or soda 7sodium oxide71 ,na#b,o1 & sometimes bo? toge!r1 silica1 ,si,o#b1 lime1 ,ca,o1 alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c1 & o!r oxides1 t =m ! *ief mass ( rocks1 out ( :i*1 judg+ by ! direction ( ! /rata1 ! *ief mass ( ! accessible cru/ 7envelope7 ( ! e>? is made up4 ,! prim>y rocks1 l granite1 porphyry1 c41#a bis are =m$ ( su* cry/all9e silici\s rocks z ^!4 ,! oxides ent]+ into ! composition ( ^! rocks d n =m a homog5e\s amorph\s mass l glass1 b are di/ribut$ 9 a s]ies ( peculi>1 & 9 ! majority ( cases cry/all9e1 comp\nds1 into :i* ! prim>y rocks may be divid$4 ,?us a felsp> 7or?oclase7 9 granite conta9s f #h to #ae p] c5t4 ( potassium1 :il/ ano!r v>iety 7plagioclase7 :i* also occurs 9 granite conta9s #ab to #f p] c5t4 ( potassium1 & #f to #ab p] c5t4 ( sodium4 ,! mica 9 granite conta9s #c to #aj p] c5t4 ( potassium4 ,z already m5tion$1 & fur!r expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xvii41 ! friable1 crumbl+1 & /ratifi$ =mations :i* 9 our times cov] a l>ge "p ( ! e>?'s surface h be5 =m$ f ^! prim>y rocks by ! action ( ! atmosph]e & ( wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ! *emical alt]ation ( ! prim>y rocks by ! action ( wat]1 ! comp\nds ( potassium1 z well z ! comp\nds ( sodium1 mu/ h be5 dissolv$ by ! wat] 7z !y are soluble 9 wat]71 & t !re=e ! comp\nds ( potassium mu/ be accumulat$ toge!r ) ^? ( sodium 9 sea wat]4 ,& inde$ comp\nds ( potassium are always f\nd 9 sea wat]1 z we h already po9t$ out 7,*apt]s ,i4 & ,x474 ,?is =ms "o ( ! s\rces f :i* !y are extract$4 ,aft] ! evaporation ( sea wat]1 !re rema9s a "m liquor1 :i* conta9s potassium *loride & a l>ge proportion ( magnesium *loride4 ,on cool+ ?is solution cry/als sep>ate out :i* conta9 *lorides ( magnesium & potassium4 ,a d\ble salt ( ?is k9d1 call$ c>nallite1 ,k,mg,cl#c1f;,h#b,o1 occurs at ,/assfurt4 ,?is c>nallite#b is n[ employ$ z a mat]ial = ! extraction ( potassium *loride1 & ( all ! comp\nds ( ?is elem5t4#c ,besides :i*1 potassium *loride itself is sometimes f\nd at ,/assfurt z sylv9e4#c bis ,by a me?od ( d\ble sal9e decomposition1 ! *loride ( potassium may be conv]t$ into all ! o!r potassium salts1#d "s ( :i* are ( practical use4 ,! potassium salts h1 h[ev]1 _! greate/ importance z an indisp5sable compon5t ( ! food ( plants4#e #a bis ,! orig9 ( ! prim>y rocks has be5 m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,x41 ,note #b4 #b ,c>nallite belongs to ! numb] ( d\ble salts :i* are directly decompos$ by wat]1 & x only cry/allises f solutions :i* conta9 an excess ( magnesium *loride4 ,x may be prep>$ artificially by mix+ /rong solutions ( potassium & magnesium *lorides1 :5 col\rless cry/als ( sp4 gr4 #afj sep>ate1 :il/ ! ,/assfurt salt is usually ( a r$di% t9t1 ow+ to traces ( iron4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature sixty-five p>ts ( c>nallite are soluble 9 "o hundr$ p>ts ( wat] 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( ! salt4 ,x deliquesces 9 ! air1 =m+ a solution ( magnesium *loride & leav+ potassium *loride4 ,! quantity ( c>nallite produc$ at ,/assfurt is n[ z mu* z #ajj1jjj tons a ye>4 #c ,! me?od ( sep>at+ sodium *loride f potassium *loride has be5 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,i4 ,on evaporation ( a mixture ( ! saturat$ solutions1 sodium *loride sep>ates2 & !n1 on cool+1 potassium *loride sep>ates1 ow+ to ! diff]5ce ( rate ( v>iation ( _! solubilities ) ! temp]ature4 ,! foll[+ are ! mo/ tru/wor?y figures = ! solubility ( potassium *loride 9 "o hundr$ p>ts ( wat] 7= sodium *loride1 see ,*apt] ,x41 ,note #ac73-- #aj #bj #dj #fj #ajj #cb #ce #dj #df #eg ,:5 mix$ ) solutions ( o!r salts ! solubility ( potassium *loride naturally v>ies1 b n to any great ext5t4 #c bis ,! specific gravity ( ! solid salt is #aii--t is1 less ?an t ( sodium *loride4 ,all ! salts ( sodium are specifically heavi] ?an ! correspond+ salts ( potassium1 z are also _! solutions = equal p]c5tage compositions4 ,if ! specific gravity ( wat] at #d #aj1jjj1 !n at #ae ! specific gravity ( a solution ( p p4c4 potassium *loride #i1iib #fcbip #jbbfp#b1 & !re=e = #aj p4c4 #ajfdg1 #bj p4c4 #aacdh1 c4 ,potassium *loride comb9es ) iod9e tri*loride to =m a comp\nd ,k,cl ,i,cl#c ,k,i,cl#d1 :i* has a yell[ col\r1 is fusible1 loses iod9e tri*loride at a r$ heat1 & gives potassium iodate & hydro*loric acid ) wat]4 ,x is n only =m$ by direct comb9ation1 b also by _m o!r me?ods2 = in/ance1 by pass+ *lor9e into a solution ( potassium iodide s long z ! gas is absorb$1 ,,ki #b;,cl#b ,k,cl1,i,cl#c4 ,potassium iodide1 :5 treat$ ) potassium *lorate & /rong hydro*loric acid1 also gives ?is comp\nd2 ano!r me?od = its =mation is giv5 by ! equation ,k,cl,o#c ,i #f;,h,cl ,k,cl1,i,cl#c #c;,cl #c;,h#b,o4 ,?is is a k9d ( salt correspond+ ) ,,kio#b 7unkn[n7 9 :i* ! oxyg5 is replac$ by *lor9e4 ,if val5cy be tak5 z ! />t+-po9t 9 ! /udy ( *emical comp\nds1 & ! elem5ts consid]$ z hav+ a con/ant atomicity 7numb] ( bonds7--t is1 if ,k1 ,cl1 & ,i be tak5 z unival5t elem5ts--!n x is impossible to expla9 ! =mation ( su* a comp\nd because1 accord+ to ?is view1 unival5t elem5ts are only able to =m dual comp\nds ) ea* o!r2 su* z1 ,k,cl1 ,cl,i1 ,,ki1 c41 :il/ "h !y are gr\p$ toge!r 9 ! molecule ,k,i,cl#d4 ,wells1 ,:eel]1 & ,p5field 7#ahib7 obta9$ a l>ge numb] ( su* poly-haloid salts4 ,!y may all be divid$ into two l>ge classes3 ! tri-haloid & ! p5ta-haloid salts4 ,!y h be5 obta9$ n only = ,k b also = ,rb & ,cs1 & p>tially also = ,na & ,li4 ,! g5]al me?od ( _! =mation consi/s 9 dissolv+ ! ord9>y halog5 salt ( ! metal 9 wat]1 & treat+ x ) ! requisite am\nt ( free halog54 ,! poly-haloid salt sep>ates out aft] evaporat+ ! solution at a m or less l[ temp]ature4 ,9 ?is mann]1 among ! tri-haloid salts1 may be obta9$3 ,,ki#c1 ,k,br#b;,i1 ,k,cl#b;,i1 & ! correspond+ salts ( rubidium & csium1 = in/ance1 ,cs,i#c1 ,cs,br,i#b1 ,cs,br#b;,i1 ,cs,cl,br,i1,cs,cl#b;,i1 ,cs,br#c1 ,cs,cl,br#b1 ,cs,cl#b;,br1 & 9 g5]al ,,mx#c :]e ,x is a halog54 ,! col\r ( ! cry/als v>ies accord+ to ! halog51 ?us ,cs,i#c is black1 ,cr,br#c yell[i% r$1 ,cr,br,i#b r$di% br[n1 ,cs,br#b;,i r$1 ,cs,cl#b;,br yell[4 ,! csium salts are ! mo/ /able1 & ^? ( potassium lea/ s1 z also ^? :i* conta9 ,br & ,i sep>ately or toge!r2 = csium no comp\nds conta9+ ,cl & ,i 7 obta9$4 ,! p5ta-haloid salts =m a small] class2 among ^! salts potassium =ms ,k,cl#d;,i1 rubidium ,rb,cl#d;,i1 csium ,cs,i#e1 ,cs,br1 ,cs,cl#d;,i1 li?ium ,li,cl#d;,i 7) #d;,h#b,o7 & sodium ,na,cl#d;,i 7) #b;,h#b,o74 ,! mo/ /able are ^? salts conta9+ ! metal ) ! greate/ atomic weight--csium 7see ,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #fc74 #d ,x is possible to extract ! comp\nds ( potassium directly f ! prim>y rocks :i* are s widely di/ribut$ ov] ! e>?'s surface & s abundant 9 "s localities4 ,f a *emical po9t ( view ?is problem pres5ts no difficulty2 = in/ance1 by fus+ p[d]$ or?oclase ) lime & fluor sp> 7,w>d's me?od7 & !n extract+ ! alkali ) wat] 7on fusion ! silica gives an insoluble comp\nd ) lime71 or by treat+ ! or?oclase ) hydr(luoric acid 79 :i* case silicon fluoride is evolv$ z a gas7 x is possible to transf] ! alkali ( ! or?oclase to an aque\s solution1 & to sep>ate x 9 ?is mann] f ! o!r insoluble oxides4 ,h[ev]1 z yet !re is no pr(it 91 nor necessity =1 rec\rse to ?is treatm5t1 z c>nallite & pota% =m abundant mat]ials = ! extraction ( potassium comp\nds by *eap] me?ods4 ,fur!rmore1 ! salts ( potassium are n[ 9 ! majority ( *emical reactions replac$ by salts ( sodium1 especially s9ce ! prep>ation ( sodium c>bonate has be5 facilitat$ by ! ,leblanc process4 ,! replacem5t ( potassium comp\nds by sodium comp\nds n only has ! advantage t ! salts ( sodium are 9 g5]al *eap] ?an ^? ( potassium1 b also t a small] quantity ( a sodium salt is ne$$ = a giv5 reaction ?an ( a potassium salt1 because ! comb9+ weight ( sodium 7#bc7 is less ?an t ( potassium 7#ci74 #e ,x has be5 %[n by direct exp]im5t on ! cultivation ( plants 9 artificial soils & 9 solutions t "u conditions 7physical1 *emical1 & physiological7 o!rwise id5tical plants are able to ?rive & become fully develop$ 9 ! entire abs5ce ( sodium salts1 b t _! developm5t is impossible )\t potassium salts4 ,! prim>y rocks conta9 an almo/ equal proportion ( potassium & sodium4 ,b 9 sea wat] ! comp\nds ( ! latt] metal pr$om9ate4 ,x may be ask$1 :at became ( ! comp\nds ( potassium 9 ! dis9tegration ( ! prim>y rocks1 if s small a quantity w5t to ! sea wat]8 ,!y rema9$ ) ! o!r products ( ! decomposition ( ! prim>y rocks4 ,:5 granite or any o!r simil> rock =mation is dis9tegrat$1 !re are =m$1 besides ! soluble sub/ances1 also insoluble sub/ances--s& & f9ely-divid$ clay1 conta9+ wat]1 alum9a1 & silica4 ,?is clay is c>ri$ away by ! wat]1 & is !n deposit$ 9 /rata4 ,x1 & especially its admixture ) vegetable rema9s1 reta9 comp\nds ( potassium 9 a great] quantity ?an ^? ( sodium4 ,?is has be5 prov$ ) absolute c]ta9ty to be ! case1 & is due to ! absorptive p[] ( ! soil4 ,if a dilute solution ( a potassium comp\nd be filt]$ ?r\gh common m\ld us$ = gr[+ plants1 conta9+ clay & ! rema9s ( vegetable decomposition1 ?is m\ld w be f\nd to h reta9$ a some:at consid]able p]c5tage ( ! potassium comp\nds4 ,if a salt ( potassium be tak51 !n dur+ ! filtration an equival5t quantity ( a salt ( calcium--:i* is also f\nd1 z a rule1 9 soils--is set free4 ,su* a process ( filtration ?r\gh f9ely divid$ e>?y sub/ances proce$s 9 nature1 & ! comp\nds ( potassium are ev]y:]e reta9$ by ! friable e>? 9 consid]able quantity4 ,?is expla9s ! pres5ce ( s small an am\nt ( potassium salts 9 ! wat] ( riv]s1 lakes1 /reams1 & oceans1 :]e ! lime & soda h accumulat$4 ,! comp\nds ( potassium reta9$ by ! friable mass ( ! e>? are absorb$ z an aque\s solution by ! roots ( plants4 ,plants1 z ev]yone kn[s1 :5 burnt leave an a%1 & ?is a%1 besides v>i\s o!r sub/ances1 )\t exception conta9s comp\nds ( potassium4 ,_m l& plants conta9 a v small am\nt ( sodium comp\nds1#f :il/ potassium & its comp\nds occur 9 all k9ds ( vegetable a%4 ,among ! g5]ally cultivat$ plants1 grass1 potatoes1 ! turnip1 & buck:eat are p>ticul>ly ri* 9 potassium comp\nds4 ,! a% ( plants1 & especially ( h]bace\s plants1 buck:eat /raw1 sunfl[] & potato leaves are us$ 9 practice = ! extraction ( potassium comp\nds4 ,!re is no d\bt t potassium occurs 9 ! plants !mselves 9 ! =m ( complex comp\nds1 & (t5 z salts ( organic acids4 ,9 c]ta9 cases su* salts ( potassium are ev5 extract$ f ! juice ( plants4 ,?us1 sorrel & oxalis1 = example1 conta9 9 _! juices ! acid oxalate ( potassium1 ,c#b;,,hko#d1 :i* is employ$ = remov+ ink /a9s4 ,grape juice conta9s ! s-call$ cream ( t>t>1 :i* is ! acid t>trate ( potassium1 ,c#d;,h#e,,ko#f4g ,?is salt also sep>ates z a s$im5t f w9e4 ,:5 ! plants1 conta9+ "o or m ( ! salts ( potassium1 are burnt1 ! c>bonace\s matt] is oxidis$1 & 9 consequ5ce ! potassium is obta9$ 9 ! a% z c>bonate1 ,k#b;,,co#c1 :i* is g5]ally kn[n z pota%es4 ,h5ce pota%es occur ready prep>$ 9 ! a% ( plants1 & !re=e ! a% ( l& plants is employ$ z a s\rce = ! extraction ( potassium comp\nds4 ,potassium c>bonate is extract$ by lixiviat+ ! a% ) wat]4#h ,potassium c>bonate may also be obta9$ f ! *loride by a me?od simil> to t by :i* sodium c>bonate is prep>$ f sodium *loride4#h bis ,!re is no difficulty 9 obta9+ any salt ( potassium--= example1 ! sulphate1#i bromide1 & iodide#aj--;by ! action ( ! correspond+ acid on ,k,cl & especially on ! c>bonate1 :il/ ! hydroxide1 cau/ic pota%1 ,,kho1 :i* is 9 _m respects analog\s to cau/ic soda1 is easily obta9$ by means ( lime 9 exactly ! same mann] 9 :i* sodium hydroxide is prep>$ f sodium c>bonate4#aa ,!re=e1 9 ord] to complete our k ( ! alkali metals1 we w only describe two salts ( potassium :i* are ( practical importance1 & ^: analogues h n be5 describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 potassium cyanide & potassium nitrate4 #f ,if h]bace\s plants conta9 mu* sodium salts1 x is evid5t t ^! salts ma9ly come f ! sodium comp\nds 9 ! wat] absorb$ by ! plants4 #g ,z plants always conta9 m9]al sub/ances & _c ?rive 9 a m$ium :i* does n conta9 !m1 m especially 9 "o :i* is free f ! salts ( ! f\r basic oxides1 ,k#b,o1 ,ca,o1 ,mg,o1 & ,fe#b,o#c1 & ( ! f\r acid oxides1 ,,co#b1 ,n#b,o#e1 ,p#b,o#e1 & ,,s#c1 & z ! am\nt ( a%-=m+ sub/ances 9 plants is small1 ! "q inevitably arises z to :at "p ^! play 9 ! developm5t ( plants4 ,) ! exi/+ *emical data only "o answ] is possible to ?is "q1 & x is /ill only a hypo!sis4 ,?is answ] 0 p>ticul>ly cle>ly express$ by ,pr(essor ,gu/avson ( ! ,petr(fsky ,agricultural ,academy4 ,/>t+ f ! fact 7,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #ee7 t a small quantity ( alum9ium r5d]s possible or facilitates ! reaction ( brom9e on hydroc>bons at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x is easy to arrive at ! conclusion1 :i* is v probable & 9 accordance ) _m data respect+ ! reactions ( organic comp\nds1 t ! addition ( m9]al sub/ances to organic comp\nds l[]s ! temp]ature ( reaction & 9 g5]al facilitates *emical reactions 9 plants1 & ?us aids ! conv]sion ( ! mo/ simple n\ri%+ sub/ances into ! complex compon5t p>ts ( ! plant organism4 ,! prov9ce ( *emical reactions proce$+ 9 organic sub/ances 9 ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( m9]al sub/ances has z yet be5 b little inve/igat$1 al?\gh !re are already sev]al disconnect$ data conc]n+ reactions ( ?is k9d1 & al?\gh a great deal is kn[n ) reg>d to su* reactions among inorganic comp\nds4 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] may be express$ ?us--two sub/ances1 ,a & ,b1 d n react on ea* o!r ( _! own accord1 b ! addition ( a small quantity ( a ?ird p>ticul>ly active sub/ance1 ,c1 produces ! reaction ( ,a on ,b1 because ,a comb9es ) ,c1 =m+ ,,ac1 & ,b reacts on ?is new comp\nd1 :i* has a diff]5t /ore ( *emical en]gy1 =m+ ! comp\nd ,,ab or its products1 & sett+ ,c free aga9 or reta9+ x4 ,x may "h be rem>k$ t all ! m9]al sub/ances necess>y = plants 7^? enum]at$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! note7 are ! highe/ sal9e comp\nds ( _! elem5ts1 t !y ent] into ! plants z salts1 t ! l[] =ms ( oxidation ( ! same elem5ts 7= in/ance1 sulphites & phosphites7 are h>mful to plants 7poison\s71 & t /rong solutions ( ! salts assimilat$ by plants 7_! osmotic pressure be+ great & contract+ ! cells1 z ,de ,vries %[$1 7see ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ai77 n only d n ent] into ! plants b kill !m 7poison !m74 #h ,besides :i*1 x w be und]/ood f ! prec$+ p>agraph t ! salts ( potassium may become exhau/$ f ! soil by long cultivation1 & t !re may !re=e be cases :5 ! direct f]tilisation by salts ( potassium may be pr(itable4 ,b manure & animal excrem5ts1 a%es1 &1 9 g5]al1 ne>ly all refuse :i* may s]ve = f]tilis+ ! soil1 conta9 a consid]able quantity ( potassium salts1 & !re=e1 z reg>ds ! natural salts ( potassium 7,/assfurt71 & especially potassium sulphate1 if !y (t5 improve ! crops1 x is 9 all probability due to _! action on ! prop]ties ( ! soil4 ,! agriculturi/ _c !re=e be advis$ to add potassium salts1 )\t mak+ special exp]im5ts %[+ ! advantage ( su* a f]tilis] on a giv5 k9d ( soil & plant4 ,! animal body also conta9s potassium comp\nds1 :i* is natural1 s9ce animals consume plants4 ,= example1 milk1 & especially human milk1 conta9s a some:at consid]able quantity ( potassium comp\nds4 ,c['s milk1 h[ev]1 does n conta9 mu* potassium salt4 ,sodium comp\nds g5]ally pr$om9ate 9 ! bodies ( animals4 ,! excrem5t ( animals1 & especially ( h]bivor\s animals1 on ! contr>y1 (t5 conta9s a l>ge proportion ( potassium salts4 ,?us %eep's dung is ri* 9 !m1 & 9 wa%+ %eep's wool salts ( potassium pass into ! wat]4 ,! a% ( tree /ems1 z ! already dormant portion ( ! plant 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #a71 conta9s little pota%4 ,= ! extraction ( pota%1 :i* 0 =m]ly c>ri$ on ext5sively 9 ! ea/ ( ,russia 7be=e ! discov]y ( ! ,/assfurt salt71 ! a% ( grasses1 & ! gre5 portions ( potatoes1 buck:eat1 c41 are tak5 & treat$ ) wat] 7lixiviat$71 ! solution is evaporat$1 & ! residue ignit$ 9 ord] to de/roy ! organic matt] pres5t 9 ! extract4 ,! residue ?us obta9$ is compos$ ( raw pota%4 ,x is ref9$ by a second dissolution 9 a small quantity ( wat]1 = ! pota% itself is v soluble 9 wat]1 :il/ ! impurities are sp>+ly soluble4 ,! solution ?us obta9$ is aga9 evaporat$1 & ! residue ignit$1 & ?is pota% is !n call$ ref9$ pota%1 or pe>la%4 ,?is me?od ( treatm5t _c give *emically pure potassium c>bonate4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( impurities rema94 ,to obta9 *emically pure potassium c>bonate1 "s o!r salt ( potassium is g5]ally tak5 & purifi$ by cry/allisation4 ,potassium c>bonate cry/allises ) difficulty1 & x _c !re=e be purifi$ by ?is means1 :il/ o!r salts1 su* z ! t>trate1 acid c>bonate1 sulphate1 or nitrate1 c41 cry/allise easily & may ?us be directly purifi$4 ,! t>trate is mo/ frequ5tly employ$1 s9ce x is prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities 7z a s$im5t f w9e7 = m$ic9al use "u ! "n ( cream ( t>t>4 ,:5 ignit$ )\t access ( air1 x leaves a mixture ( *>coal & potassium c>bonate4 ,! *>coal s obta9$ be+ 9 a f9ely-divid$ condition1 ! mixture 7call$ 'black flux'71 is sometimes us$ = r$uc+ metals f _! oxides ) ! aid ( heat4 ,a c]ta9 quantity ( nitre is add$ to burn ! *>coal =m$ by heat+ ! cream ( t>t>4 ,potassium c>bonate ?us prep>$ is fur!r purifi$ by conv]t+ x into ! acid salt1 by pass+ a curr5t ( c>bonic anhydride ?r\gh a /rong solution4 ,,khco#c is !n =m$1 :i* is less soluble ?an ! normal salt 7z is also ! case ) ! correspond+ sodium salts71 & !re=e cry/als ( ! acid salt sep>ate f ! solution on cool+4 ,:5 ignit$1 !y "p ) _! wat] & c>bonic anhydride1 & pure potassium c>bonate rema9s beh9d4 ,! physical prop]ties ( potassium c>bonate di/+ui% x suffici5tly f sodium c>bonate2 x is obta9$ f solutions z a p[d]y :ite mass1 hav+ an alkal9e ta/e & reaction1 &1 z a rule1 %[s only traces ( cry/allisation4 ,x also attracts ! moi/ure ( ! air ) great en]gy4 ,! cry/als d n conta9 wat]1 b absorb x f ! air1 deliquesc+ into a saturat$ solution4 ,x melts at a r$ heat 7#ajde71 & at a /ill high] temp]ature is ev5 conv]t$ into vap\r1 z has be5 obs]v$ at glass works :]e x is employ$4 ,x is v soluble4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 wat] dissolves an equal weight ( ! salt4 ,cry/als conta9+ two equival5ts ( wat] sep>ate f su* a saturat$ solution :5 /rongly cool$ 7,morel obta9$ ,k#b;,,co#cc;,h#b,o 9 well-=m$ cry/als at #aj74 ,!re is no necessity to describe its reactions1 because !y are all analog\s to ^? ( sodium c>bonate4 ,:5 manufactur$ sodium c>bonate 0 b little kn[n1 ! consumption ( potassium c>bonate 0 v consid]able1 & ev5 n[ wa%+ soda is frequ5tly replac$ = h\sehold purposes by 'lye'--i4e4 an aque\s solution obta9$ f a%es4 ,x conta9s potassium c>bonate1 :i* acts l ! sodium salt 9 wa%+ tissues1 l951 c4 ,a mixture ( potassium & sodium c>bonates fuses ) mu* great] ease ?an ! sep>ate salts1 & a mixture ( _! solutions gives well-cry/allis$ salts--= in/ance 7,m>gu]ite's salt71 ,k#b;,,co#c1f;,h#b,o1#b,na#b;,,co#c1f;,h #b,o4 ,cry/allisation also occurs 9 o!r multiple proportions ( ,k & ,na 79 ! above case #a 3 #b1 b #a 3 #a & #a 3 #c are kn[n71 & always ) #f mol4 ,h#b,o4 ,?is is evid5tly a comb9ation by simil>ity1 z 9 alloys1 solutions1 c4 #h bis ,ab\t #be1jjj tons ( pota% annually are n[ prep>$ f ,k,cl by ?is me?od at ,/assfurt4 #i ,potassium sulphate1 ,k#b,,s#d1 cry/allises f its solutions 9 an anhydr\s condition1 9 :i* respect x diff]s f ! correspond+ sodium salt1 j z potassium c>bonate diff]s f sodium c>bonate4 ,9 g5]al1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! majority ( sodium salts comb9e m easily ) wat] ( cry/allisation ?an ! potassium salts4 ,! solubility ( potassium sulphate does n %[ ! same peculi>ities z t ( sodium sulphate1 because x does n comb9e ) wat] ( cry/allisation2 at ! ord9>y temp]ature #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve ab\t #aj p>ts ( ! salt1 at #j #hc p>ts1 & at #ajj ab\t #bf p>ts4 ,! acid sulphate1 ,,khso#d1 obta9$ easily by heat+ cry/als ( ! normal salt ) sulphuric acid1 is frequ5tly employ$ 9 *emical practice4 ,on heat+ ! mixture ( acid & salt1 fumes ( sulphuric acid are at fir/ giv5 (f2 :5 !y cease to be evolv$1 ! acid salt is conta9$ 9 ! residue4 ,at a high] temp]ature 7( above #fjj7 ! acid salt p>ts ) all ! acid conta9$ 9 x1 ! normal salt be+ re-=m$4 ,! def9ite composition ( ?is acid salt1 & ! ease ) :i* x decomposes1 r5d] x exce$+ly valuable = c]ta9 *emical trans=mations accompli%$ by means ( sulphuric acid at a high temp]ature1 because x is possible to take1 9 ! =m ( ?is salt1 a /rictly def9ite quantity ( sulphuric acid1 & to cause x to act on a giv5 sub/ance at a high temp]ature1 :i* x is (t5 necess>y to d1 m especially 9 *emical analysis4 ,9 ?is case1 ! acid salt acts 9 exactly ! same mann] z sulphuric acid itself1 b ! latt] is ineffici5t at temp]atures above #djj1 because x all evaporates1 :ile at t temp]ature ! acid salt /ill rema9s 9 a fus$ /ate1 & acts ) ! elem5ts ( sulphuric acid on ! sub/ance tak54 ,h5ce by its means ! boil+-po9t ( sulphuric acid is rais$4 ,?us ! acid potassium sulphate is employ$1 :]e = conv]sion ( c]ta9 oxides1 su* z ^? ( iron1 alum9ium1 & *romium1 into salts1 a high temp]ature is requir$4 ,web]1 by heat+ potassium sulphate ) an excess ( sulphuric acid at #ajj1 obs]v$ ! =mation ( a l[] /ratum1 :i* 0 f\nd to conta9 a def9ite comp\nd conta9+ eight equival5ts ( ,,s#c p] equival5t ( ,k#b,o4 ,! salts ( rubidium1 csium1 & ?allium give a simil> result1 b ^? ( sodium & li?ium d n4 7,see ,note #a47 #aj ,! bromide & iodide ( potassium are us$1 l ! correspond+ sodium comp\nds1 9 m$ic9e & photography4 ,potassium iodide is easily obta9$ 9 a pure /ate by saturat+ a solution ( hydriodic acid ) cau/ic pota%4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 ?is me?od is r>ely _h rec\rse to1 o!r m simple processes be+ employ$ al?\gh !y d n give s pure a product4 ,!y aim at ! direct =mation ( hydriodic acid 9 ! liquid 9 ! pres5ce ( potassium hydroxide or c>bonate4 ,?us iod9e is ?r[n into a solution ( pure pota%1 & hydrog5 sulphide pass$ ?r\gh ! mixture1 ! iod9e be+ ?us conv]t$ into hydriodic acid4 ,or a solution is prep>$ f phosphorus1 iod9e1 & wat]1 conta9+ hydriodic & phosphoric acid2 lime is !n add$ to ?is solution1 :5 calcium iodide is obta9$ 9 solution1 & calcium phosphate z a precipitate4 ,! solution ( calcium iodide gives1 ) potassium c>bonate1 insoluble calcium c>bonate & a solution ( potassium iodide4 ,if iod9e is add$ to a slightly-heat$ solution ( cau/ic pota% 7free f c>bonate--t is1 fre%ly prep>$71 s long z ! solution is n col\r$ f ! pres5ce ( an excess ( iod9e1 !re is =m$ 7z 9 ! action ( *lor9e on a solution ( cau/ic pota%7 a mixture ( potassium iodide & iodate4 ,on evaporat+ ! solution ?us obta9$ & ignit+ ! residue1 ! iodate is de/roy$ & conv]t$ into iodide1 ! oxyg5 be+ dis5gag$1 & potassium iodide only is left beh9d4 ,on dissolv+ ! residue 9 wat] & !n evaporat+1 cubical cry/als ( ! anhydr\s salt are obta9$1 :i* are soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 & on fusion give an alkal9e reaction1 ow+ to ! fact t :5 ignit$ a portion ( ! salt decomposes1 =m+ potassium oxide4 ,! neutral salt may be obta9$ by add+ hydriodic acid to ?is alkal9e salt until x gives an acid reaction4 ,x is be/ to add "s f9ely-divid$ *>coal to ! mixture ( iodate & iodide be=e ignit+ x1 z ?is facilitates ! evolution ( ! oxyg5 f ! iodate4 ,! iodate may also be conv]t$ into iodide by ! action ( c]ta9 r$uc+ ag5ts1 su* z z9c amalgam1 :i* :5 boil$ ) a solution conta9+ an iodate conv]ts x into iodide4 ,potassium iodide may also be prep>$ by mix+ a solution ( f]r\s iodide 7x is be/ if ! solution conta9 an excess ( iod9e7 & potassium c>bonate1 9 :i* case f]r\s c>bonate ,fe,c,o#c1 is precipitat$ 7) an excess ( iod9e ! precipitate is granul>1 & conta9s a comp\nd ( ! suboxide & oxide ( iron71 :ile potassium iodide rema9s 9 solution4 ,f]r\s iodide1 ,fe,i#b1 is obta9$ by ! direct action ( iod9e on iron 9 wat]4 ,potassium iodide consid]ably l[]s ! temp]ature 7by #bd71 :5 x dissolves 9 wat]1 #ajj p>ts ( ! salt dissolve 9 #gce p>ts ( wat] at #abe1 9 #gj p>ts at #ah1 :il/ ! saturat$ solution :i* boils at #abj conta9s #ajj p>ts ( salt p] #de p>ts ( wat]4 ,solutions ( potassium iodide dissolve a consid]able am\nt ( iod9e2 /rong solutions ev5 dissolv+ z mu* or m iod9e ?an !y conta9 z potassium iodide 7see ,note #c bis & ,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #fd74 #aa ,cau/ic pota% is n only =m$ by ! action ( lime on dilute solutions ( potassium c>bonate 7z sodium hydroxide is prep>$ f sodium c>bonate71 b by ignit+ potassium nitrate ) f9ely-divid$ copp] 7see ,note #ae71 & also by mix+ solutions ( potassium sulphate 7or ev5 ( alum1 ,k,al,s#b,o#h7 & b>ium hydroxide1 ,ba,h#b,o#b4 ,x is sometimes purifi$ by dissolv+ x 9 alcohol 7! impurities1 = example1 potassium sulphate & c>bonate1 are n dissolv$7 & !n evaporat+ ! alcohol4 ,! specific gravity ( potassium hydroxide is #bjd1 b t ( its solutions 7see ,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #ah7 at #ae ,s #i1iib #ijdp #jbhp#b 7"h p#b is 1 & = sodium hydroxide x is-74 ,/rong solutions1 :5 cool$1 yield a cry/allo-hydrate1 ,,kho1#d;,h#b,o1 :i* dissolves 9 wat]1 produc+ cold 7l #b,na,h,o1#g;,h#b,o71 :il/ potassium hydroxide 9 solution develops a consid]able am\nt ( heat4 ,potassium cyanide1 :i* pres5ts 9 its *emical relations a c]ta9 analogy ) ! halog5 salts ( potassium1 is n only =m$ accord+ to ! equation1 ,,kho ,,hcn ,h#b,o ,,kcn1 b also :5ev] a nitrog5\s c>bon comp\nd--= in/ance1 animal matt]--is heat$ 9 ! pres5ce ( metallic potassium1 or ( a comp\nd ( potassium1 & ev5 :5 a mixture ( pota% & c>bon is heat$ 9 a /ream ( nitrog54 ,potassium cyanide is obta9$ f yell[ prussiate1 :i* has be5 already m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix41 & ^: prep>ation on a l>ge scale w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,if ! yell[ prussiate be gr\nd to a p[d] & dri$1 s t x loses its wat] ( cry/allisation1 x !n melts at a r$ heat1 & decomposes into c>bide ( iron1 nitrog51 & potassium cyanide1 ,fe,k#d;,c#f,n#f #d,,kcn ,fe,c#b ,n#b4 ,aft] ! decomposition x is f\nd t ! yell[ salt has be5 conv]t$ into a :ite mass ( potassium cyanide4 ,! c>bide ( iron =m$ collects at ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,if ! mass ?us obta9$ be treat$ ) wat]1 ! potassium cyanide is p>tially decompos$ by ! wat]1 b if x be treat$ ) alcohol1 !n ! cyanide is dissolv$1 & on cool+ sep>ates 9 a cry/all9e =m4#ab ,a solution ( potassium cyanide has a p[]fully alkal9e reaction1 a smell l t ( bitt] almonds1 peculi> to prussic acid1 & acts z a mo/ p[]ful poison4 ,al?\gh exce$+ly /able 9 a fus$ /ate1 potassium cyanide easily *anges :5 9 solution4 ,prussic acid is s v feebly en]getic t ev5 wat] decomposes potassium cyanide4 ,a solution ( ! salt1 ev5 )\t access ( air1 easily turns br[n & decomposes1 & :5 heat$ evolves ammonia & =ms potassium =mate2 ?is is easily compreh5sible f ! repres5tation ( ! cyanog5 comp\nds :i* 0 develop$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,,kcn #b;,h#b,o ,,*ko#b ,,nh#c4 ,fur!rmore1 z c>bonic anhydride acts on potassium cyanide ) evolution ( prussic acid1 & z potassium cyanate1 :i* is also un/able1 is =m$ by ! action ( air1 x w be easily se5 t solutions ( potassium cyanide are v un/able4 ,potassium cyanide1 conta9+ z x does c>bon & potassium1 is a sub/ance :i* c act 9 a v vigor\sly r$uc+ mann]1 especially :5 fus$2 x is !re=e us$ z a p[]ful r$uc+ ag5t at a r$ heat4#ac ,! prop]ty ( potassium cyanide ( giv+ d\ble salts ) o!r cyanides is v cle>ly %[n by ! fact t _m metals dissolve 9 a solution ( potassium cyanide1 ) ! evolution ( hydrog54 ,= example1 iron1 copp]1 & z9c act 9 ?is mann]4 ,?us-- #d,,kcn #b;,h#b,o ,zn ,k#b,zn,c#d,n#d #b,,kho ,h#b #ab ,:5 ! yell[ prussiate is heat$ to r$ness1 all ! cyanog5 :i* 0 9 comb9ation ) ! iron is decompos$ into nitrog51 :i* is evolv$ z gas1 & c>bon1 :i* comb9es ) ! iron4 ,9 ord] to avoid ?is1 potassium c>bonate is add$ to ! yell[ prussiate :ile x is be+ fus$4 ,a mixture ( #h p>ts ( anhydr\s yell[ prussiate & #c p>ts ( pure potassium c>bonate is g5]ally tak54 ,d\ble decomposition !n takes place1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( f]r\s c>bonate & potassium cyanide4 ,b by ?is me?od1 z by ! fir/1 a pure salt is n obta9$1 because a portion ( ! potassium cyanide is oxidis$ at ! exp5se ( ! iron c>bonate & =ms potassium cyanate1 ,fe,c,o#c ,,kcn ,,co#b ,fe ,,kcno2 & ! potassium cyanide v easily =ms oxide1 :i* acts on ! sides ( ! vessel 9 :i* ! mixture is heat$ 7to avoid ?is iron vessels %\ld be us$74 ,by add+ "o "p ( *>coal p[d] to ! mixture ( #h p>ts ( anhydr\s yell[ prussiate & #c p>ts ( potassium c>bonate a mass is obta9$ :i* is free f cyanate1 because ! c>bon absorbs ! oxyg51 b 9 t case x is impossible to obta9 a col\rless potassium cyanide by simple fusion1 al?\gh ?is may be easily done by dissolv+ x 9 alcohol4 ,cyanide ( potassium may also be obta9$ f potassium ?iocyanate1 :i* is =m$ f ammonium ?iocyanate obta9$ by ! action ( ammonia ^u bisulphide ( c>bon 7see works ^u ,organic ,*emi/ry74 ,potassium cyanide is n[ prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities f yell[ prussiate = gild+ & silv]+4 ,:5 fus$ 9 l>ge quantities ! action ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air is limit$1 & ) great c>e ! op]ation may be successfully conduct$1 & !re=e1 on a l>ge scale1 v pure salt is sometimes obta9$4 ,:5 sl[ly cool$1 ! fus$ salt sep>ates 9 cubical cry/als l potassium *loride4 ,pure ,,kcn is obta9$ by pass+ ,,cnh gas into an alcoholic solution ( ,,kho4 ,! l>ge am\nt ( potassium cyanide :i* is n[ requir$ = ! extraction ( gold f its ores1 is be+ replac$ by a mixture 7,rossl] & ,gasslak]1 #ahib7 ( ,,kcn & ,na,c,n1 prep>$ by heat+ p[d]$ & dri$ yell[ prussiate ) metallic sodium3 ,k#d;,fe7,,cn7#f #b,na #d,,kcn #b,na,c,n ,fe4 ,?is me?od (f]s two advantages ov] ! above me?ods3 7#a7 ! :ole ( ! cyanide is obta9$1 & does n decompose ) ! =mation ( ,n#b2 & 7#b7 no cyanates are =m$1 z is ! case :5 c>bonate ( pota% is heat$ ) ! prussiate4 #ac ,a consid]able quantity ( potassium cyanide is us$ 9 ! arts1 m p>ticul>ly = ! prep>ation ( metallic solutions :i* are decompos$ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t2 ?us x is v frequ5tly employ$ 9 electro-silv]+ & gild+4 ,an alkal9e solution is prep>$1 :i* is mod]ately /able ow+ to ! fact t potassium cyanide 9 ! =m ( c]ta9 d\ble salts--t is1 comb9$ ) o!r cyanides--is f> m /able ?an :5 alone 7yell[ prussiate1 :i* conta9s potassium cyanide 9 comb9ation ) f]r\s cyanide1 is an example ( ?is74 ,gold & silv] are soluble 9 potassium cyanide 9 ! pres5ce ( air1 9 :i* case ! hydrog51 :i* w\ld o!rwise be evolv$ 9 ! reaction1 comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 =m+ wat] 7,eissl]1 ,mac,laurin1 #ahic71 = example1 #d;,au #d,,kcn ,o ,h#b,o #b;,au,k,c#b,n#b #b,,kho1 :i* is tak5 advantage ( = extract+ gold f its ores 7,*apt] ,,xxiv474#ac bis ,plat9um1 m]cury1 & t9 are n dissolv$ 9 a solution ( potassium cyanide1 ev5 ) access ( air4 #ac bis ,a dilute solution ( ,,kcn is tak51 n conta9+ m ?an #a p] c5t4 ,,kcn4 ,mac,laurin expla9s ?is by ! fact t /rong solutions dissolve gold less rapidly1 ow+ to _! dissolv+ less air1 ^: oxyg5 is necess>y = ! reaction4 ,potassium nitrate1 or common nitre or saltpetre1 ,,kno#c1 is *iefly us$ z a compon5t "p ( gunp[d]1 9 :i* x _c be replac$ by ! sodium salt1 because ! latt] is deliquesc5t4 ,x is necess>y t ! nitre 9 gunp[d] %\ld be p]fectly pure1 z ev5 small traces ( sodium1 magnesium1 & calcium salts1 especially *lorides1 r5d] ! nitre & ! gunp[d] capable ( attract+ moi/ure4 ,nitre may easily be obta9$ pure1 ow+ to its great disposition to =m cry/als bo? l>ge & small1 :i* aids its sep>ation f o!r salts4 ,! consid]able diff]5ces betwe5 ! solubility ( nitre at diff]5t temp]atures aids ?is cry/allisation4 ,a solution ( nitre saturat$ at its boil+ po9t 7#aaf7 conta9s #cce p>ts ( nitre to #ajj p>ts ( wat]1 :il/ at ! ord9>y temp]ature--= in/ance1 #bj--! solution is only able to reta9 #cb p>ts ( ! salt4 ,!re=e1 9 ! prep>ation & ref9+ ( nitre1 its solution1 saturat$ at ! boil+ po9t1 is cool$1 & ne>ly all ! nitre is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( cry/als4 ,if ! solution be quietly & sl[ly cool$ 9 l>ge quantities !n l>ge cry/als are =m$1 b if x be rapidly cool$ & agitat$ !n small cry/als are obta9$4 ,9 ?is mann]1 if n all1 at all ev5ts ! majority1 ( ! impurities pres5t 9 small quantities rema9 9 ! "m liquor4 ,if an unsaturat$ solution ( nitre be rapidly cool$1 s z to prev5t ! =mation ( l>ge cry/als 79 ^: crevices ! "m liquor1 toge!r ) ! impurities1 w\ld rema971 ! v m9ute cry/als ( nitre kn[n z saltpetre fl\r are obta9$4 ,common nitre occurs 9 nature1 b only 9 small quantities 9 admixture ) o!r nitrates1 & especially ) sodium1 magnesium1 & calcium nitrates4 ,su* a mixture ( salts ( nitric acid is =m$ 9 nature 9 f]tile e>?1 & 9 ^? localities :]e1 z 9 ! soil1 nitrog5\s organic rema9s are decompos$ 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis or alkal9e bases ) free access ( air4 ,?is me?od ( ! =mation ( nitrates requires moi/ure1 besides ! free access ( air1 & takes place pr9cipally dur+ w>m wea!r4#ad ,9 w>m c\ntries1 & 9 temp]ate climates dur+ ! summ] mon?s1 f]tile soils produce a small quantity ( nitre4 ,9 ?is respect ,india is especially kn[n z af=d+ a consid]able supply ( nitre extract$ f ! soil4 ,! nitre-be>+ soil aft] ! ra9y season sometimes becomes cov]$ dur+ ! summ] ) cry/als ( nitre1 =m$ by ! evaporation ( ! wat] 9 :i* x 0 previ\sly dissolv$4 ,?is soil is collect$1 subject$ to repeat$ lixiviations1 & treat$ = nitre z w be pres5tly describ$4 ,9 temp]ate climates nitrates are obta9$ f ! lime rubbi% ( demoli%$ build+s :i* h /ood = _m ye>s1 & especially f ^? portions :i* h be5 9 contact ) ! gr\nd4 ,! conditions !re are v fav\rable = ! =mation ( nitre1 because ! lime us$ z a cem5t 9 build+s conta9s ! base necess>y = ! =mation ( nitrates1 :ile ! excrem5t1 ur9e1 & animal refuse are s\rces ( nitrog54 ,by ! me?odical lixiviation ( ?is k9d ( rubbi% a solution ( nitrog5\s salts is =m$ simil> to t obta9$ by ! lixiviation ( f]tile soil4 ,a simil> solution is also obta9$ by ! lixiviation ( ! s-call$ nitre plantations4 ,!y are compos$ ( manure int]laid ) bru%wood1 & /rewn ov] ) a%es1 lime1 & o!r alkal9e rubbi%4 ,^! nitre plantations are set up 9 ^? localities :]e ! manure is n requir$ = ! f]tilisation ( ! soil1 z1 = example1 9 ! s\?-ea/]n 'black e>?' ,gov]nm5ts ( ,russia4 ,! same process ( oxidation ( nitrog5\s matt] freely expos$ to air & moi/ure dur+ ! w>m season 9 ! pres5ce ( alkalis takes place 9 nitre plantations z 9 f]tile soil & 9 ! walls ( build+s4 ,f all ^! s\rces !re is obta9$ a solution conta9+ v>i\s salts ( nitric acid mix$ ) soluble organic matt]4 ,! simple/ me?od ( treat+ ?is impure solution ( nitre is to add a solution ( potassium c>bonate1 or to simply treat x ) a%es conta9+ ?is sub/ance4 ,! potassium c>bonate ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) ! calcium & magnesium salts1 =m+ insoluble c>bonates ( ^! bases & leav+ ! nitre 9 solution4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ,k#b;,,co#c ,ca7,,no#c7b #b,,kno#c ,ca,c,o#c4 ,bo? calcium & magnesium c>bonates are insoluble1 & !re=e aft] treatm5t ) potassium c>bonate ! solution no long] conta9s salts ( ^! metals b only ! salts ( sodium & potassium toge!r ) organic matt]4 ,! latt] p>tially sep>ates on heat+ 9 an insoluble =m1 & is entirely de/roy$ by heat+ ! nitre to a l[ r$ heat4 ,! nitre ?us obta9$ is easily purifi$ by repeat$ cry/allisation4 ,! great] "p ( ! nitre us$ = mak+ gunp[d] is n[ obta9$ f ! sodium salt ,*ili saltpetre or cubic nitre1 :i* occurs 9 nature1 z already m5tion$4 ,! conv]sion ( ?is salt into common nitre is also c>ri$ on by means ( a d\ble decomposition4 ,?is is done ei!r by add+ potassium c>bonate 7:51 on mix+ ! /rong & hot solutions1 sodium c>bonate is directly obta9$ z a precipitate71 or1 z is n[ mo/ frequ5t1 potassium *loride4 ,:5 a mixture ( /rong solutions ( potassium *loride & sodium nitrate is evaporat$1 sodium *loride fir/ sep>ates1 because ?is salt1 :i* is =m$ by ! d\ble decomposition ,k,cl ,na,n,o#c ,,kno#c ,na,cl1 is almo/ equally soluble 9 hot & cold wat]2 on cool+1 !re=e1 a l>ge am\nt ( potassium nitrate sep>ates f ! saturat$ solution1 :ile ! sodium *loride rema9s dissolv$4 ,! nitre is ultimately purifi$ by recry/allisation & by wa%+ ) a saturat$ solution ( nitre1 :i* _c dissolve a fur!r quantity ( nitre b only ! impurities4 #ad ,besides :i* ,s*loes+ & ,mntz1 by employ+ simil> me?ods to ,pa/eur1 %[$ t ! =mation ( nitre 9 ! decomposition ( nitrog5\s sub/ances is accompli%$ by ! aid ( peculi> micro-organisms 7f]m5ts71 )\t :i* ! simultane\s action ( ! o!r necess>y conditions 7alkalis1 moi/ure1 a temp]ature ( #cg1 air1 & nitrog5\s sub/ances7 _c give nitre4 ,nitre is a col\rless salt hav+ a peculi> cool ta/e4 ,x cry/allises easily 9 long /riat$ six-sid$ rhombic prisms t]m9at+ 9 rhombic pyramids4 ,its cry/als 7sp4 gr4 #aic7 d n conta9 wat]1 b _! cavities g5]ally conta9 a c]ta9 quantity ( ! solution f :i* !y h cry/allis$4 ,= ?is reason 9 ref9+ nitre1 ! production ( l>ge cry/als is prev5t$1 saltpetre fl\r be+ prep>$4 ,at a l[ r$ heat 7#cci7 nitre melts to a col\rless liquid4#ad bis ,potassium nitrate at ! ord9>y temp]ature & 9 a solid =m is inactive & /able1 b at a high temp]ature x acts z a p[]ful oxidis+ ag5t1 giv+ up a consid]able am\nt ( oxyg5 to sub/ances mix$ ) x4#ae ,:5 ?r[n on to inc&esc5t *>coal x br+s ab\t its rapid combu/ion1 & a me*anical mixture ( p[d]$ *>coal & nitre ignites :5 br\ght into contact ) a r$-hot sub/ance1 & cont9ues to burn by itself4 ,9 ?is action1 nitrog5 is evolv$1 & ! oxyg5 oxidises ! *>coal1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* potassium c>bonate & c>bonic anhydride are =m$3 #d,,kno#c #e;,c #b,k#b;,,co#c #c;,,co#b #b,n#b4 ,?is ph5om5on dep5ds on ! fact t oxyg5 9 comb9+ ) c>bon evolves m heat ?an x does 9 comb9+ ) nitrog54 ,h5ce1 :5 once ! combu/ion has be5 />t$ at ! exp5se ( ! nitre1 x is able to g on )\t requir+ ! aid ( ext]nal heat4 ,a simil> oxidation or combu/ion at ! exp5se ( ! conta9$ oxyg5 takes place :5 nitre is heat$ ) diff]5t combu/ible sub/ances4 ,if a mixture ( sulphur & nitre be ?r[n ^u a r$-hot surface1 ! sulphur burns1 =m+ potassium sulphate & sulphur\s anhydride4 ,9 ?is case1 also1 ! nitrog5 ( ! nitre is evolv$ z gas3 #b,,kno#c #b,s ,k#b,,s#d ,n#b ,,s#b4 ,a simil> ph5om5on occurs :5 nitre is heat$ ) _m metals4 ,! oxidation ( ^? metals :i* are able to =m acid oxides ) an excess ( oxyg5 is especially rem>kable4 ,9 ?is case !y rema9 9 comb9ation ) potassium oxide z potassium salts4 ,manganese1 antimony1 ars5ic1 iron1 *romium1 c4 are in/ances ( ?is k9d4 ,^! elem5ts1 l c>bon & sulphur1 displace free nitrog54 ,! l[] oxides ( ^! metals :5 fus$ ) nitre pass into ! high] oxides4 ,organic sub/ances are also oxidis$ :5 heat$ ) nitre--t is1 !y burn at ! exp5se ( ! nitre4 ,x w be readily und]/ood f ?is t nitre is frequ5tly us$ 9 practical *emi/ry & ! arts z an oxidis+ ag5t at high temp]atures4 ,its application 9 gunp[d] is bas$ on ?is prop]ty2 gunp[d] consi/s ( a me*anical mixture ( f9ely-gr\nd sulphur1 nitre1 & *>coal4 ,! relative proportion ( ^! sub/ances v>ies accord+ to ! de/9ation ( ! p[d] & to ! k9d ( *>coal employ$ 7a friable1 incompletely-burnt *>coal1 conta9+ !re=e hydrog5 & oxyg51 is employ$74 ,gases are =m$ 9 its combu/ion1 *iefly nitrog5 & c>bonic anhydride1 :i* create a consid]able pressure if _! escape be 9 any way imp$$4 ,?is action ( gunp[d] may be express$ by ! equation3 #b,,kno#c #c;,c ,s ,k#b,s #c;,,co#b ,n#b4 #ad bis ,be=e fus+1 ! cry/als ( potassium nitrate *ange _! =m1 & take ! same =m z sodium nitrate--t is1 !y *ange into rhomboh$ra4 ,nitre cry/allises f hot solutions1 & 9 g5]al "u ! influ5ce ( a rise ( temp]ature1 9 a diff]5t =m f t giv5 at ! ord9>y or l[] temp]atures4 ,fus$ nitre solidifies to a radiat$ cry/all9e mass2 b x does n exhibit ?is /ructure if metallic *lorides be pres5t1 s t ?is me?od may be tak5 advantage ( to det]m9e ! degree ( purity ( nitre4 ,c>nelley & ,?omson 7#ahhh7 det]m9$ ! fus+ po9t ( mixtures ( potassium & sodium nitrates4 ,! fir/ salt fuses at #cci & ! second at #caf1 & if p be ! p]c5tage am\nt ( potassium nitrate1 !n ! results obta9$ 7-- p #aj #bj #cj #dj #ej #fj #gj #hj #ij #bih #bhc #bfh #bdb #bca #bca #bdb #bhd #cjf :i* confirms ,%affgots*'s obs]vation 7#aheg7 t ! l[e/ fus+ po9t 7ab\t #bca7 is giv5 by mix+ molecul> quantities 7p #edc7 ( ! salts--t is1 9 ! =mation ( ! alloy1 ,,kno#c1,na,n,o#c4 ,a some:at simil> result 0 discov]$ by ! same obs]v]s = ! solubility ( mixtures ( ^! salts at #bj 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat]4 ,?us1 if p be ! weight ( potassium nitrate mix$ ) #ajj-p p>ts by weight ( sodium nitrate tak5 = solution1 & c be ! quantity ( ! mix$ salts :i* dissolves 9 #ajj1 ! solubility ( sodium nitrate be+ #he1 & ( potassium nitrate #cd1 p>ts 9 #ajj p>ts ( wat]1 !n-- p #aj #bj #cj #dj #ej #fj #gj #hj #ij c #aaj #acf #acf #ach #ajf #ha #gc #ed #da ,! maximum solubility prov$ n to correspond ) ! mo/ fusible mixture1 b to "o mu* ri*] 9 sodium nitrate4 ,bo? ^! ph5om5a %[ t 9 homog5e\s liquid mixtures ! *emical =ces t act betwe5 sub/ances are ! same z ^? t det]m9e ! molecul> weights ( sub/ances1 ev5 :5 ! mixture consi/s ( su* analog\s sub/ances z potassium & sodium nitrates1 betwe5 :i* !re is no direct *emical int]*ange4 ,x is in/ructive to note also t ! maximum solubility does n correspond ) ! m9imum fus+ po9t1 :i* naturally dep5ds on ! fact t 9 solution a ?ird sub/ance1 namely wat]1 plays a "p1 al?\gh an attraction betwe5 ! salts1 l t :i* exi/s betwe5 sodium & potassium c>bonates 7,note #h71 also p>tially acts4 #ae ,fus$ nitre1 ) a fur!r rise ( temp]ature1 dis5gages oxyg5 & !n nitrog54 ,! nitrite ,,kno#b is fir/ =m$ & !n potassium oxide4 ,! admixture ( c]ta9 metals--= example1 ( f9ely-divid$ copp]--aids ! la/ decomposition4 ,! oxyg5 9 ?is case naturally passes ov] to ! metal4 ,x is f\nd by ?is equation t gunp[d] %\ld conta9 ?irty-six p>ts ( *>coal 7#acc p4c471 & ?irty-two p>ts 7#aai p4c47 ( sulphur1 to #bjb p>ts 7#gdh p4c47 ( nitre1 :i* is v ne> to its actual composition4#af #af ,9 ,*9a1 :]e ! manufacture ( gunp[d] has long be5 c>ri$ on1 #geg p>ts ( nitre1 #add ( *>coal1 & #ii ( sulphur are us$4 ,ord9>y p[d] = sport+ purposes conta9s #hj p>ts ( nitre1 #ab ( *>coal1 & #h ( sulphur1 :il/ ! gunp[d] us$ 9 heavy ordnance conta9s #ge ( nitre1 #ae ( *>coal1 & #aj ( sulphur4 ,gunp[d] explodes :5 heat$ to #cjj1 :5 /ruck1 or by contact ) a sp>k4 ,a compact or f9ely-divid$ mass ( gunp[d] burns sl[ly & has b little disruptive action1 because x burns gradually4 ,to act prop]ly ! gunp[d] mu/ h a def9ite rate ( combu/ion1 s t ! pressure %\ld increase dur+ ! passage ( ! projectile along ! b>rel ( ! fire-arm4 ,?is is done by mak+ ! p[d] 9 l>ge granules or 9 ! %ape ( six-sid$ prisms ) holes ?r\gh !m 7prismatic p[d]74 ,! products ( combu/ion are ( two k9ds3 7#a7 gases :i* produce ! pressure & are ! cause ( ! dynamical action ( gunp[d]1 & 7#b7 a solid residue1 usually ( a black col\r ow+ to its conta9+ unburnt p>ticles ( *>coal4 ,besides *>coal1 ! residue g5]ally conta9s potassium sulphide1 ,k#b,s1 & a :ole s]ies ( o!r salts--= in/ance1 c>bonate & sulphate4 ,x is app>5t f ?is t ! combu/ion ( gunp[d] is n s simple z x appe>s to be f ! above =mula1 & h5ce ! weight ( ! residue is also great] ?an indicat$ by t =mula4 ,accord+ to ! =mula1 #bgj p>ts ( gunp[d] give #aaj p>ts ( residue--t is1 #ajj p>ts ( p[d] give #cgd p>ts ( residue1 ,k#b,s1 :il/ 9 reality ! weight ( ! residue v>ies f #dj p4c4 to #gj p4c4 7g5]ally #eb p4c474 ,?is diff]5ce dep5ds on ! fact t s mu* oxyg5 7( ! nitre7 rema9s 9 ! residue1 & x is evid5t t if ! residue v>ies ! composition ( ! gases evolv$ by ! p[d] w v>y also1 & !re=e ! entire process w be diff]5t 9 diff]5t cases4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! composition ( ! gases & residue dep5ds1 z ! rese>*es ( ,gay-,lussac1 ,%i%k(f & ,buns51 ,nobel & ,abel1 ,f$](f1 ,debus1 c41 %[1 on ! conditions "u :i* ! combu/ion ( ! p[d] proce$s4 ,:5 gunp[d] burns 9 an op5 space1 ! gase\s products :i* are =m$ d n rema9 9 contact ) ! residue1 & !n a consid]able portion ( ! *>coal ent]+ into ! composition ( ! p[d] rema9s unburnt1 because ! *>coal burns aft] ! sulphur at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 ( ! nitre4 ,9 ?is extreme case ! comm5cem5t ( ! combu/ion ( ! gunp[d] may be express$ by ! equation1 #b,,kno#c #c;,c ,s #b;,c ,k#b,,s#d ,,co#b ,n#b4 ,! residue 9 a blank c>tridge (t5 consi/s ( a mixture ( ,c1 ,k#b,,s#d1 ,k#b;,,co#c1 & ,k#b,s#b,o#c4 ,if ! combu/ion ( ! gunp[d] be imp$$--if x take place 9 a c>tridge 9 ! b>rel ( a gun--! quantity ( potassium sulphate w fir/ be dim9i%$1 !n ! am\nt ( sulphite1 :il/ ! am\nt ( c>bonic anhydride 9 ! gases & ! am\nt ( potassium sulphide 9 ! residue w increase4 ,! quantity ( *>coal ent]+ into ! action w !n be also increas$1 & h5ce ! am\nt 9 ! residue w decrease4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! weight ( ! residue w be less--= example1 #d,k#b;,,co#c #d,s ,k#b,,s#d #c,k#b,s #d;,,co#b4 ,besides :i*1 c>bonic oxide has be5 f\nd 9 ! gases1 & potassium bisulphide1 ,k#b,s#b1 9 ! residue ( gunp[d]4 ,! am\nt ( potassium sulphide1 ,k#b,s1 increases ) ! complet5ess ( ! combu/ion1 & is =m$ 9 ! residue at ! exp5se ( ! potassium sulphite4 ,9 rec5t times ! k ( ! action ( gunp[d] & o!r explosives has made mu* progress1 & has develop$ into a va/ prov9ce ( artill]y sci5ce1 :i*1 guid$ by ! discov]ies ( *emi/ry1 has work$ out a 'smokeless p[d]' :i* burns )\t leav+ a residue1 & does n !re=e give any 'p[d] smoke' 7to h9d] ! rapidity ( fir+ & aim+71 & at ! same "t dis5gages a great] volume ( gas & consequ5tly gives 7"u prop] conditions ( combu/ion7 ! possibility ( communicat+ to ! *>ge a great] initial velocity1 & !re=e great] di/ance1 =ce1 & accuracy ( aim4 ,su* 'smokeless p[d]' is prep>$ ei!r f ! v>ieties ( nitrocellulose 7,*apt] ,,vi41 ,note #cg7 or f a mixture ( !m ) nitro-glyc]9e 7ibid74 ,9 burn+ !y give1 besides /eam & nitrog51 g5]ally a l>ge am\nt ( oxide ( c>bon 7?is is a v s]i\s drawback 9 all ! pres5t =ms ( smokeless p[d]1 because c>bonic oxide is poison\s71 & also ,,co#b1 ,h#b1 c4 ,metallic potassium 0 obta9$ l sodium2 fir/ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t1 !n by r$uction ( ! hydroxide by means ( metallic iron1 & la/ly1 by ! action ( *>coal on ! c>bonate at a high temp]ature4 ,! behavi\r ( metallic potassium diff]s1 h[ev]1 f t ( sodium1 because x easily comb9es ) c>bonic oxide1 =m+ an explosive & inflammable mass4#ag #ag ,! sub/ances obta9$ 9 ?is case are m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #ca4 ,potassium is q z volatile z sodium1 if n m s4 ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature potassium is ev5 s(t] ?an sodium2 its fre%ly-cut surfaces pres5t a :it] col\r ?an sodium1 b1 l ! latt]1 & ) ev5 great] ease1 x oxidises 9 moi/ air4 ,x is brittle at l[ temp]atures1 b is q s(t at #be1 & melts at #eh4 ,at a l[ r$ heat 7#ffg1 ,p]k97 x di/ils )\t *ange1 =m+ a gre5 vap\r1 ^: d5sity1#ah accord+ to ,a4 ,scott 7#ahhg71 is equal to #ai 7if t ( hydrog5 #a74 ,?is %[s t ! molecule ( potassium 7l t ( sodium1 m]cury1 & z9c7 conta9s b "o atom4 ,?is is also ! case ) _m o!r metals1 judg+ by rec5t rese>*es4#ai ,! specific gravity ( potassium at #ae is #jhg1 & is !re=e less ?an t ( sodium1 z is also ! case ) all its comp\nds4#bj ,potassium decomposes wat] ) great ease at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 evolv+ #de1jjj heat units p] atomic weight 9 grams4 ,! heat evolv$ is suffici5t to inflame ! hydrog51 ! flame be+ col\r$ violet f ! pres5ce ( p>ticles ( potassium4#ba #ah ,a4 ,scott 7#ahhg7 det]m9$ ! vap\r d5sities ( _m ( ! alkali elem5ts & _! comp\nds 9 a plat9um vessel heat$ 9 a furnace & previ\sly fill$ ) nitrog54 ,b ^!1 ! fir/ data conc]n+ a subject ( great importance1 h n yet be5 suffici5tly fully describ$1 nor h !y receiv$ z mu* att5tion z c\ld be desir$4 ,tak+ ! d5sity ( hydrog5 z unity1 ,scott f\nd ! vap\r d5sities ( ! foll[+ sub/ances to be-- ,na #abge 7#aae74 ,,ki #ib 7#hd74 ,k #ai 7#aie74 ,rb,cl #gj 7#fj74 ,cs,cl #hie 7#hdb74 ,cs,i #acc 7#acj74 ,fe,cl#c #fh4 ,ag,cl #hj 7#gag74 ,9 brackets are giv5 ! d5sities correspond+ ) ! =mul1 accord+ to ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's law4 ,?is figure is n giv5 = ,fe,cl#c1 because 9 all probability "u ^! conditions 7! temp]ature at :i* x 0 det]m9$7 a portion ( ! ,fe,cl#c 0 decompos$4 ,if x 0 n decompos$1 !n a d5sity #ha w\ld correspond ) ! =mula ,fe,cl#c1 & if ! decomposition 7 ,fe#b;,cl#f #b;,fe,cl#b ,cl#b1 !n ! d5sity %\ld be #ed4 ,) reg>d to ! silv] *loride1 !re is reason to ?9k t ! plat9um decompos$ ?is salt4 ,! majority ( ,scott's results s closely correspond ) ! =mul t a bett] concord _c be expect$ 9 su* det]m9ations4 ,v4 ,mey] 7#ahhg7 gives #ic z ! d5sity ( ,,ki4 #ai ,! molecules ( non-metals are m complex--= in/ance1 ,h#b1 ,o#c1 ,cl#b1 c4 ,b ars5ic1 ^: sup]ficial appe>ance recalls t ( metals1 b ^: *emical prop]ties approa* m ne>ly to ! non-metals1 has a complex molecule conta9+ ,z#d4 #bj ,z ! atomic weight ( potassium is great] ?an t ( sodium1 ! volumes ( ! molecules1 or ! quoti5ts ( ! molecul> weight by ! specific gravity1 = potassium comp\nds are great] ?an ^? ( sodium comp\nds1 because bo? ! d5om9ator & num]ator ( ! fraction increase4 ,we cite = comp>ison ! volumes ( ! correspond+ comp\nds-- ,na #bd ,na,h,o #ah ,na,cl #bh ,na,n,o#c #cg ,na#b,,s#d #ed ,k #de ,,kho #bg ,k,cl #ci ,,kno#c #dh ,k#b,,s#d #ff #ba ,! same precautions mu/ be tak5 9 decompos+ wat] by potassium z h to be obs]v$ ) sodium 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #h74 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t potassium decomposes c>bonic anhydride & c>bonic oxide :5 heat$1 ! c>bon be+ lib]at$ & ! oxyg5 tak5 up by ! metal1 :il/ on ! o!r h& *>coal takes up oxyg5 f potassium1 z is se5 f ! prep>ation ( potassium by heat+ pota% ) *>coal1 h5ce ! reaction ,k#b,o ,c ,k#b ,,co is rev]sible & ! relation is ! same 9 ?is case z betwe5 hydrog5 & z9c4 ,) reg>d to ! relation ( potassium to hydrog5 & oxyg51 x is closely analog\s to sodium 9 ?is respect4 ,?us1 ) hydrog5 x =ms potassium hydride1 ,k#b;,h 7betwe5 #bjj & #daa71 & ) oxyg5 x gives a suboxide ,k#d,o1 oxide ,k#b,o1 & p]oxide1 only m oxyg5 ent]s into ! composition ( ! latt] ?an 9 sodium p]oxide2 potassium p]oxide conta9s ,,ko#b1 b x is probable t 9 ! combu/ion ( potassium an oxide ,,ko is also =m$4 ,potassium1 l sodium1 is soluble 9 m]cury4#bb ,9 a ^w1 ! relation betwe5 sodium & potassium is z close z t betwe5 *lor9e & brom9e1 or1 bett] /ill1 betwe5 fluor9e & *lor9e1 z ! atomic weight ( sodium1 #bc1 is z mu* great] ?an t ( fluor9e1 #ai1 z t ( potassium1 #ci1 is great] ?an t ( *lor9e1 #cee4 #bb ,potassium =ms alloys ) sodium 9 all proportions4 ,! alloys conta9+ #a & #c equival5ts ( potassium to "o equival5t ( sodium are liquids1 l m]cury at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,joannis1 by det]m9+ ! am\nt ( heat develop$ by ^! alloys 9 decompos+ wat]1 f\nd ! evolution = ,na#b,k1 ,na,k1 ,na,k#b & ,na,k#c to be #dde1 #dda1 #dch & #ddd ?\s& heat units respectively 7= ,na #dbf & = ,k #ded74 ,! =mation ( ! alloy ,na,k#b is !re=e accompani$ by ! developm5t ( heat1 :il/ ! o!r alloys may be reg>d$ z solutions ( potassium or sodium 9 ?is alloy4 ,9 any case a fall ( ! temp]ature ( fusion is evid5t 9 ?is in/ance z 9 ! alloys ( nitre 7,note #ad74 ,! liquid alloy ,na,k#b is n[ us$ = fill+ !rmomet]s employ$ = temp]atures above #cfj1 :5 m]cury boils4 ,! resemblance betwe5 potassium & sodium is s great t _! comp\nds c only be easily di/+ui%$ 9 ! =m ( c]ta9 ( _! salts4 ,= in/ance1 ! acid potassium t>trate1 ,c#d;,h#e,,ko#f 7cream ( t>t>71 is di/+ui%$ by its sp>+ solubility 9 wat] & 9 alcohol1 & 9 a solution ( t>t>ic acid1 :il/ ! correspond+ sodium salt is easily soluble4 ,!re=e1 if a solution ( t>t>ic acid be add$ 9 consid]able excess to ! solutions ( ! majority ( potassium salts1 a precipitate ( ! sp>+ly-soluble acid salt is =m$1 :i* does n occur ) salts ( sodium4 ,! *lorides ,k,cl & ,na,cl 9 solutions easily give d\ble salts ,k#b,pt,cl#f & ,na#b,pt,cl#f1 ) plat9ic *loride1 ,pt,cl#d1 & ! solubility ( ^! salts is v diff]5t1 especially 9 a mixture ( alcohol & e!r4 ,! sodium salt is easily soluble1 :il/ ! potassium salt is insoluble or almo/ s1 & !re=e ! reaction ) plat9ic *loride is t mo/ (t5 us$ = ! sep>ation ( potassium f sodium1 z is m fully describ$ 9 works on analytical *emi/ry4 ,x is possible to discov] ! lea/ traces ( ^! metals 9 admixture toge!r1 by means ( _! prop]ty ( imp>t+ diff]5t col\rs to a flame4 ,! pres5ce ( a salt ( sodium 9 a flame is recognis$ by a brilliant yell[ coloration1 & a pure potassium salt col\rs a col\rless flame violet4 ,h[ev]1 9 ! pres5ce ( a sodium salt ! pale violet coloration giv5 by a potassium salt is q undi/+ui%able1 & x is at fir/ sight impossible 9 ?is case to discov] ! potassium salt 9 ! pres5ce ( t ( sodium4 ,b by decompos+ ! light giv5 by a flame col\r$ by ^! metals or a mixture ( !m1 by means ( a prism1 !y are bo? easily di/+ui%able1 because ! yell[ light emitt$ by ! sodium salt dep5ds on a gr\p ( light rays hav+ a def9ite index ( refraction :i* corresponds ) ! yell[ portion ( ! sol> spectrum1 hav+ ! index ( refraction ( ! ,fraunh(] l9e 7/rictly speak+1 gr\p ( l9es7 ,d1 :il/ ! salts ( potassium give a light f :i* ^! rays are entirely abs5t1 b :i* conta9 rays ( a r$ & violet col\r4 ,!re=e1 if a potassium salt occur 9 a flame1 on decompos+ ! light 7aft] pass+ x ?r\gh a n>r[ slit7 by means ( a prism1 !re w be se5 r$ & violet b&s ( light situat$ at a consid]able di/ance f ea* o!r2 :il/ if a sodium salt be pres5t a yell[ l9e w also appe>4 ,if bo? metals simultane\sly occur 9 a flame & emit light1 ! spectrum l9es correspond+ to ! potassium & ! sodium w appe> simultane\sly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,spectroscope4 ,! prism & table are cov]$ ) an opaque cov]4 ,! spectrum obta9$ f ! flame col\r$ by a sub/ance introduc$ on ! wire is view$ ?r\gh ,b4 ,a light is plac$ be=e ! scale ,d 9 ord] to illum9ate ! image ( ! scale reflect$ ?r\gh ,b by ! side ( ! prism4 ,= conv5i5ce 9 c>ry+ on ?is k9d ( te/+1 spectroscopes 7fig4 #gb7 are con/ruct$1#bc consi/+ ( a refract+ prism & ?ree tubes plac$ 9 ! plane ( ! refract+ angle ( ! prism4 ,"o ( ! tubes1 ,c1 has a v]tical slit at ! end1 giv+ access to ! light to be te/$1 :i* !n passes into ! tube 7collimator71 conta9+ a l5s :i* gives ! rays a p>allel direction4 ,! rays ( light hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! slit1 & hav+ become p>allel1 are refract$ & disp]s$ 9 ! prism1 & ! spectrum =m$ is obs]v$ ?r\gh ! eye-piece ( ! o!r telescope ,b4 ,! ?ird tube ,d conta9s a horizontal transp>5t scale 7at ! out] end7 :i* is divid$ into equal divisions4 ,! light f a s\rce su* z a gas burn] or c&le plac$ be=e ?is tube1 passes ?r\gh ! scale1 & is reflect$ on t face ( ! prism :i* /&s be=e ! telescope ,b1 s t ! image ( ! scale is se5 ?r\gh ?is telescope simultane\sly ) ! spectrum giv5 by ! rays pass+ ?r\gh ! slit ( ! tube ,c4 ,9 ?is mann] ! image ( ! scale & ! spectrum giv5 by ! s\rce ( light "u inve/igation are se5 simultane\sly4 ,if ! sun's rays be direct$ ?r\gh ! slit ( ! tube ,c1 !n ! obs]v] look+ ?r\gh ! eye-piece ( ,b w see ! sol> spectrum1 & 7if ! ap]ture ( ! slit be n>r[ & ! app>atus correctly adju/$7 ! d>k ,fraunh(] l9es 9 x4#bd ,small-siz$ spectroscopes are usually s adju/$ t 7look+ ?r\gh ,b7 ! violet portion ( ! spectrum is se5 to ! "r & ! r$ portion to ! left1 & ! ,fraunh(] l9e ,d 79 ! bright yell[ portion ( ! spectrum7 is situat$ on ! #ej? division ( ! scale4#be ,if ! light emitt$ by an inc&esc5t solid--= example1 ! ,drummond light--be pass$ ?r\gh ! spectroscope1 !n all ! col\rs ( ! sol> spectrum are se51 b n ! ,fraunh(] l9es4 ,to obs]ve ! result giv5 by a flame col\r$ by v>i\s salts a ,buns5 gas burn] 7or ! pale flame ( hydrog5 gas issu+ f a plat9um orifice7 giv+ s pale a flame t its spectrum w be practically invisible is plac$ be=e ! slit4 ,if any comp\nd ( sodium be plac$ 9 ! flame ( ! gas burn] 7= :i* purpose a plat9um wire on ^: end sodium *loride is fus$ is fix$ to ! /&71 !n ! flame is col\r$ yell[1 & on look+ ?r\gh ! spectroscope ! obs]v] w see a bright yell[ l9e fall+ ^u ! #ej? division ( ! scale1 :i* is se5 toge!r ) ! spectrum 9 ! telescope4 ,no yell[ l9es ( o!r refractive index1 nor any rays ( any o!r col\r1 w be se51 &1 !re=e1 ! spectrum correspond+ ) sodium comp\nds consi/s ( yell[ rays ( t index ( refraction :i* belong to ! ,fraunh(] 7black7 l9e ,d ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,if a potassium salt be introduc$ into ! flame in/ead ( a sodium salt1 !n two b&s w be se5 :i* are mu* feebl] ?an ! bright sodium b&--namely1 "o r$ l9e ne> ! ,fraunh(] l9e ,a & ano!r violet l9e4 ,besides :i*1 a pale1 almo/ cont9u\s1 spectrum w be obs]v$ 9 ! c5tral portions ( ! scale4 ,if a mixture ( sodium & potassium salts be n[ introduc$ into ! flame1 ?ree l9es w be se5 simultane\sly--namely1 ! r$ & pale violet l9es ( potassium & ! yell[ l9e ( sodium4 ,9 ?is mann] x is possible1 by ! aid ( ! spectroscope1 to det]m9e ! relation betwe5 ! spectra ( metals & kn[n portions ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,! cont9uity ( ! latt] is int]rupt$ by d>k l9es 7t is1 by an abs5ce ( light ( a def9ite index ( refraction71 t]m$ ! ,fraunh(] l9es ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,x has be5 %[n by c>eful obs]vations 7by ,fraunh(]1 ,brew/]1 ,f\cault1 ng/rom1 ,kir*h(f1 ,cornu1 ,locky]1 ,dew>1 & o!rs7 t !re exi/s an exact agreem5t betwe5 ! spectra ( c]ta9 metals & c]ta9 ( ! ,fraunh(] l9es4 ,?us ! bright yell[ sodium l9e exactly corresponds ) ! d>k ,fraunh(] l9e ,d ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,a simil> agreem5t is obs]v$ 9 ! case ( _m o!r metals4 ,?is is n an approximate or *ance correlation4 ,9 fact1 if a spectroscope hav+ a l>ge numb] ( refract+ prisms & a high magnify+ p[] be us$1 x is se5 t ! d>k l9e ,d ( ! sol> spectrum consi/s ( an entire sy/em ( closely adjac5t b def9itely situat$ f9e & wide 7%>p1 di/9ct7 d>k l9es1#bf & an exactly simil> gr\p ( bright l9es is obta9$ :5 ! yell[ sodium l9e is exam9$ ?r\gh ! same app>atus1 s t ea* bright sodium l9e exactly corresponds ) a d>k l9e 9 ! sol> spectrum4#bf bis ,?is con=mity ( ! bright l9es =m$ by sodium ) ! d>k l9es ( ! sol> spectrum _c be accid5tal4 ,?is conclusion is fur!r confirm$ by ! fact t ! bright l9es ( o!r metals correspond ) d>k l9es ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,?us1 = example1 a s]ies ( sp>ks pass+ betwe5 ! iron electrodes ( a ,ruhmkorff coil gives #dej v di/9ct l9es *>act]is+ ?is metal4 ,all ^! #dej bright l9es1 con/itut+ ! :ole spectrum correspond+ ) iron1 are repeat$1 z ,kir*h(f %[$1 9 ! sol> spectrum z d>k ,fraunh(] l9es :i* occur 9 exactly ! same situations z ! bright l9es 9 ! iron spectrum1 j z ! sodium l9es correspond ) ! b& ,d 9 ! sol> spectrum4 ,_m obs]v]s h 9 ?is mann] /udi$ ! sol> spectrum & ! spectra ( diff]5t metals simultane\sly1 & discov]$ 9 ! =m] l9es :i* correspond n only ) sodium & iron1 b also ) _m o!r metals4#bg ,! spectra ( su* elem5ts z hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & o!r gases may be obs]v$ 9 ! s-call$ ,geissl]'s tubes--t is1 9 glass tubes conta9+ r>efi$ gases1 ?r\gh :i* ! dis*>ge ( a ,ruhmkorff's coil is pass$4 ,?us hydrog5 gives a spectrum compos$ ( ?ree l9es--a r$ l9e correspond+ ) ! ,fraunh(] l9e ,c1 a gre5 l9e correspond+ ) ! l9e ,f1 & a violet l9e correspond+ ) "o ( ! l9es betwe5 ,g & ,h4 ,( ^! rays ! r$ is ! brighte/1 & !re=e ! g5]al col\r ( lum9\s hydrog5 7) an electric dis*>ge ?r\gh a ,geissl] tube7 is r$di%4 #bc ,= accurate measurem5ts & comp>ative rese>*es m complicat$ spectroscopes are requir$ :i* give a great] disp]sion1 & are furni%$ = ?is purpose ) sev]al prisms--= example1 9 ,br[n+'s spectroscope ! light passes ?r\gh six prisms1 & !n1 hav+ und]gone an int]nal total reflection1 passes ?r\gh ! upp] portion ( ! same six prisms1 & aga9 by an int]nal total reflection passes into ! ocul> tube4 ,) su* a p[]ful disp]sion ! relative position ( ! spectral l9es may be det]m9$ ) accuracy4 ,= ! absolute & exact det]m9ation ( ! wave l5g?s x is p>ticul>ly important t ! spectroscope %\ld be furni%$ ) diffraction grat+s4 ,! con/ruction ( spectroscopes de/9$ = special purposes 7= example1 = inve/igat+ ! light ( />s1 or = det]m9+ ! absorption spectra 9 microscopic prep>ations1 c47 is exce$+ly v>i$4 ,details ( ! subject mu/ be look$ = 9 works on physics & on spectrum analysis4 ,among ! latt] ! be/ kn[n = _! complet5ess & m]it are ^? ( ,roscoe1 ,kays]1 ,vogel1 & ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran4 #bd ,! arrangem5t ( all ! p>ts ( ! app>atus s z to give ! cle>e/ possible vision & accuracy ( obs]vation mu/ evid5tly prec$e e k9d ( spectroscopic det]m9ation4 ,details conc]n+ ! practical use ( ! spectroscope mu/ be look$ = 9 special works on ! subject4 ,9 ?is treatise ! read] is suppos$ to h a c]ta9 k ( ! physical data respect+ ! refraction ( light1 & its disp]sion & diffraction1 & ! !ory ( light1 :i* all[s ( ! det]m9ation ( ! l5g? ( ! waves ( light 9 absolute measure on ! basis ( obs]vations ) diffraction grat+s1 ! di/ance betwe5 ^: divisions may be easily measur$ 9 fractions ( a millimetre2 by su* means x is possible to det]m9e ! wave-l5g? ( any giv5 ray ( light4 #be ,9 ord] to give an idea ( ! size ( ! scale1 we may obs]ve t ! ord9>y spectrum ext5ds f ! z]o ( ! scale 7:]e ! r$ portion is situat$7 to ! #agj? division 7:]e ! end ( ! visible violet portion ( ! spectrum is situat$71 & t ! ,fraunh(] l9e ,a 7! extreme prom95t l9e 9 ! r$7 corresponds ) ! #ag? division ( ! scale2 ! ,fraunh(] l9e ,f 7at ! beg9n+ ( ! blue1 ne> ! gre5 col\r7 is situat$ on ! #ij? division1 & ! l9e ,g1 :i* is cle>ly se5 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! violet portion ( ! spectrum1 corresponds ) ! #abg? division ( ! scale4 #bf ,! two mo/ di/9ct l9es ( ,d1 or ( sodium1 h wave-l5g?s ( #ehie & #ehhi million?s ( a millimet]1 besides :i* fa9t] & fa9t] l9es are se5 ^: wave-l5g?s 9 million?s ( a millimet] are #ehhg & #ehha1 #fafj & #faed1 #eaee & #eaeb1 #dihc & #dihb1 c41 accord+ to ,live+ & ,dew>4 #bf bis ,9 ! ord9>y spectroscopes :i* are usually employ$ 9 *emical rese>*1 "o yell[ b&1 :i* does n split up into ?9n] l9es1 is se5 in/ead ( ! sy/em ( sodium l9es1 ow+ to ! small disp]sive p[] ( ! prism & ! wid? ( ! slit ( ! object tube4 #bg ,! mo/ accurate inve/igations made 9 ?is respect are c>ri$ on ) spectra obta9$ by diffraction1 because 9 ?is case ! position ( ! d>k & bright l9es does n dep5d on ! index ( refraction ( ! mat]ial ( ! prism1 nor on ! disp]sive p[] ( ! app>atus4 ,! be/--t is1 ! mo/ g5]al & accurate--me?od ( express+ ! results ( su* det]m9ations consi/s 9 det]m9+ ! l5g?s ( ! waves correspond+ to ! rays ( a def9ite index ( refraction4 7,sometimes in/ead ( ?is ! fraction ( #a divid$ by ! squ>e ( ! wave-l5g? is giv547 ,we w express ?is wave-l5g? 9 million? p>ts ( a millimetre 7! t5-million? p>ts are already d\btful1 & fall )9 ! limits ( error74 ,9 ord] to illu/rate ! relation betwe5 ! wave-l5g?s & ! positions ( ! l9es ( ! spectrum1 we w cite ! wave-l5g?s correspond+ ) ! *ief ,fraunh(] l9es & col\rs ( ! spectrum4 ,fraunh(] l9e ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e b ,wave-l5g? #gfaj #fhge #feff #ehie-ehhi #ebgc #eahg ----------------- --------- ---- --- ,col\r r$ orange yell[ gre5 ,fraunh(] l9e ,f ,g ,h ,wave-l5g? #dhfe #dcaj #cigb ---------- ---- ,col\r blue violet ,9 ! foll[+ table are giv5 ! wave-l5g?s ( ! light rays 7! longe/ & mo/ di/9ct1 see lat]7 = c]ta9 elem5ts1 ^? 9 black type be+ ! mo/ cle>ly def9$ & di/9ct l9es1 :i* are easily obta9$ ei!r 9 ! flame ( a ,buns5's burn]1 or 9 ,geissl]'s tubes1 or 9 g5]al1 by an electric dis*>ge4 ,^! l9es ref] to ! elem5ts 7! l9es ( comp\nds are diff]5t1 z w be aft]w>ds expla9$1 b _m comp\nds are decompos$ by ! flame or by an electric dis*>ge71 & moreov] to ! elem5ts 9 an inc&esc5t & r>efi$ gase\s /ate1 = ! spectra sometimes v>y consid]ably ) a v>iation ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,x may be m5tion$ t ! r$ col\r corresponds ) l9es hav+ a wave-l5g? ( f #ghj 7) a great] wave-l5g? ! l9es are h>dly visible1 & are ultra r$7 to #fej1 ! orange f #fej to #eij1 ! yell[ f #eij to #ebj1 ! gre5 f #ebj to #dij1 ! blue f #dij to #dbj1 & ! violet f #dbj to #chj million? p>ts ( a millimetre4 ,beyond #chj ! l9es are sc>cely visible1 & belong to ! ultra-violet4 ,= fluor9e ,moissan f\nd z _m z #ac bright l9es f #gdd to #fbc4 ,9 ! table 7p4 #efe7 :i* is arrang$ 9 con=mity ) ! image ( ! spectrum z x is se5 7! r$ l9es on ! left-h& & ! violet on ! "r-h& side71 ! figures 9 black type correspond ) l9es :i* are s bright & di/9ctly visible t !y may easily be made use (1 bo? 9 det]m9+ ! relation betwe5 ! divisions ( ! scale & ! wave-l5g?s1 & 9 det]m9+ ! admixture ( a giv5 elem5t ) ano!r4 ,brackets jo9 ^? l9es betwe5 :i* sev]al o!r l9es are cle>ly visible if ! disp]sive p[] ( ! spectroscope p]mits di/+ui%+ ! neighb\r+ l9es4 ,9 ! ord9>y laboratory spectroscopes ) "o prism1 ev5 ) all possible precision ( arrangem5t & ) a brilliancy ( light p]mitt+ ! obs]vations be+ made ) a v n>r[ ap]ture1 ! l9es ^: wave-l5g?s only diff] by #b-c million?s ( a millimetre1 are blurr$ toge!r2 & ) a wide ap]ture a s]ies ( l9es diff]+ by ev5 z mu* z #bj million?s ( a millimetre appe> z "o wide l9e4 ,) a fa9t light 7t is1 ) a small quantity ( light ent]+ into ! spectroscope7 only ! mo/ brilliant l9es are cle>ly visible4 ,! l5g? ( ! l9es does n always correspond ) _! brilliancy4 ,accord+ to ,locky] ?is l5g? is det]m9$ by plac+ ! c>bon electrodes 7betwe5 :i* ! inc&esc5t vap\rs ( ! metals are =m$71 n horizontally to ! slit 7z !y are g5]ally plac$1 to give m light71 b v]tically to x4 ,!n c]ta9 l9es appe> long & o!rs %ort4 ,z a rule 7,locky]1 ,dew>1 ,cornu71 ! longe/ l9es are ^? ) :i* x is easie/ to obta9 rev]s$ spectra 7see lat]74 ,consequ5tly1 ^! l9es are ! mo/ *>act]i/ic4 ,only ! longe/ & mo/ brilliant are giv5 9 our table1 :i* is compos$ on ! basis ( a collection ( ! data at our disposal = bright spectra ( ! inc&esc5t & r>efi$ vap\rs ( ! elem5ts4 ,z ! spectra *ange ) great v>iations ( temp]ature & vap\r d5sity 7! fa9t l9es become brilliant :il/ ! bright l9es sometimes disappe>71 :i* is p>ticul>ly cle> f ,ciamician's rese>*es on ! halog5s1 until ! me?od ( obs]vation & ! !ory ( ! subject are enl>g$1 p>ticul> !oretical importance %\ld n be giv5 to ! wave-l5g?s %[+ ! maximum brilliancy1 :i* only possess a practical significance 9 ! common me?ods ( spectroscopic obs]vations4 ,9 g5]al ! spectra ( metals are simpl] ?an ^? ( ! halog5s1 & ! latt] are v>iable2 at an increas$ pressure all spectral l9es become broad]4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,n#b ,o#b ,cl#b ,br#b ,i#b ,pb ,sn ,tl ---------------------------------------- ---------------- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #ffb -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #fcb -- -- #fcf -- -- #fde -- #fbj #fae -- -- #fba -- -- -- #ehe -- -- -- #fac #fjeg #ehj -- #egd -- #edf -- #egi #efjg #eef -- #edd #edc #eci #edd #efj #eedg -- #edi #ece #ecc #ebh #ebc #ede #ecg -- #ece #ebg #eaf #eai #eag #ejf -- -- -- #eaf #die #did #dgi -- -- -- #dhi -- #did #dhj #dgj -- -- -- -- #deg #dgj -- #dfb -- -- #deb -- #ddb #dfe -- #ded #dde -- -- -- #dcf #ddg #dcf #dcg -- -- -- -- #dbf #dcb #dca -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #dba -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #dji -- -- -- -- #djf -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,9 ,ga ,al ,ba ,sr ,ca ,mg ,zn ,cd ,hg ---------------------------------------- ---------------- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #fdf -- -- -- -- -- -- #fbd #fdig #fda #fdd -- #fcf #fdch -- #fai -- #fbc #fad #fjf -- -- -- -- #fae -- -- -- -- -- #fab -- -- -- #egi -- -- #egb #eece -- -- -- -- -- #egg -- -- #egj #edi #edh #eei -- -- #ecgg #edf #ebe -- -- -- #ebd -- #eah -- #eccf -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #eaf #dib #ejhe -- -- -- -- #dicc -- -- -- #dha -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #dga #dgb #dgii -- #dea -- #dff #dee #dfj -- -- #dfh #dfgg -- -- -- -- -- -- #dde #ddh -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #ddb -- -- -- #dcf -- -- -- -- #dcj -- -- -- -- -- -- #dag -- -- #dba #dbc -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #dac -- -- -- -- -- -- #daj #djc #cif -- #djh #cig #chd -- -- #djd -- -- #cid -- -- #cic #chc - - -- -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,mn ,fe ,cu ,ag ,cs ,rb ,k ,na ,li ---------------------------------------- ---------------- -- -- -- -- -- #ghj #ggj -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #gff -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #fgjf -- #fdj -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #fjb -- -- -- #fbb #fbif -- -- #faj #fja #efa #egh -- #fjj -- #ehc #ehie -- #eea #edd #egj #edfd -- -- #egh #ehhi -- #ecd #ecg #ebb -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #ecb #eae #ebjh -- -- #ece -- -- -- #eba #eaa -- -- -- #ecb -- -- #dhb #dif -- -- -- -- -- -- #dig #dga #dhi -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #dei -- -- -- #dfjc -- #dda -- -- #def -- -- -- -- -- #dcj -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #dbg -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #dbd -- -- #dba -- #dbj -- -- -- #djc #djg -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #djd -- -- -- -- #djd -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ------- ,h#b ------- -- -- -- #fefb -- -- -- -- -- -- #dhfa -- -- -- #dcd -- -- -- -- -- ------- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,absorption spectrum 7,lecoq de ,boisbaudran7 ( salts ( didymium 9 conc5trat$ & dilute solutions4 ,! correlation ( ! ,fraunh(] l9es ) ! spectra ( metals dep5ds on ! ph5om5on ( ! s-call$ rev]sal ( ! spectrum4 ,?is ph5om5on consi/s 9 ?is1 t in/ead ( ! bright spectrum correspond+ ) a metal1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances a simil> d>k spectrum 9 ! =m ( ,fraunh(] l9es may be obta9$1 z w be expla9$ directly4 ,9 ord] to cle>ly und]/& ! ph5om5on ( rev]s$ spectra1 x mu/ be kn[n t :5 light passes ?r\gh c]ta9 transp>5t sub/ances ^! sub/ances reta9 rays ( a c]ta9 refrangibility4 ,! col\r ( solutions is a pro( ( ?is4 ,light :i* has pass$ ?r\gh a yell[ solution ( a uranium salt conta9s no violet rays1 & aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh a r$ solution ( a p]manganate1 does n conta9 _m rays 9 ! yell[1 blue1 & gre5 portions ( ! spectrum4 ,solutions ( copp] salts absorb ne>ly all r$ rays4 ,sometimes col\rless solutions also absorb rays ( c]ta9 def9ite refractive indexes1 & give absorption spectra4 ,?us solutions ( salts ( didymium absorb rays ( a c]ta9 refrangibility1 & !re=e an impression ( black l9es is receiv$1#bh z %[n 9 fig4 #gc4 ,_m vap\rs 7iod9e7 & gases 7nitric p]oxide7 give simil> spectra4 ,light :i* has pass$ ?r\gh a deep lay] ( aque\s vap\r1 oxyg51 or nitrog5 also gives an absorption spectrum4 ,= ?is reason ! peculi> 7w9t]7 d>k l9es discov]$ by ,brew/] are obs]v$ 9 sunlight1 especially 9 ! ev5+ & morn+1 :5 ! sun's rays pass ?r\gh ! atmosph]e 7conta9+ ^! sub/ances7 by a long] pa? ?an at mid-day4 ,x is evid5t t ! ,fraunh(] l9es may be ascrib$ to ! absorption ( c]ta9 rays ( light 9 its passage f ! lum9\s mass ( ! sun to ! e>?4 ,! rem>kable progress made 9 all spectroscopic rese>* dates f ! inve/igations made by ,kir*h(f 7#ahei7 on ! relation betwe5 absorption spectra & ! spectra ( lum9\s inc&esc5t gases4 ,x _h already be5 obs]v$ long be=e 7by ,fraunh(]1 ,f\cault1 ng/rom7 t ! bright spectrum ( ! sodium flame gives two bright l9es :i* are 9 exactly ! same position z two black l9es kn[n z ,d 9 ! sol> spectrum1 :i* evid5tly belong to an absorption spectrum4 ,:5 ,kir*h(f caus$ diffus$ sunlight to fall ^u ! slit ( a spectroscope1 & plac$ a sodium flame be=e x1 a p]fect sup]position 0 obs]v$--! bright sodium l9es completely cov]$ ! black l9es ,d ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,:5 fur!r ! cont9u\s spectrum ( a ,drummond light %[$ ! black l9e ,d on plac+ a sodium flame betwe5 x & ! slit ( ! spectroscope--t is1 :5 ! ,fraunh(] l9e ( ! sol> spectrum 0 artificially produc$--!n !re 0 no d\bt t its appe>ance 9 ! sol> spectrum 0 due to ! light pass+ some:]e ?r\gh inc&esc5t vap\rs ( sodium4 ,h5ce a new !ory ( rev]s$ spectra#bi arose--t is1 ( ! relation betwe5 ! waves ( light emitt$ & absorb$ by a sub/ance "u giv5 conditions ( temp]ature2 ?is is express$ by ,kir*h(f's law1 discov]$ by a c>eful analysis ( ! ph5om5a4 ,?is law may be =mulat$ 9 an elem5t>y way z foll[s3 ,at a giv5 temp]ature ! relation betwe5 ! int5sity ( ! light emitt$ 7( a def9ite wave-l5g?7 & ! absorptive capacity ) respect to ! same col\r 7( ! same wave-l5g?7 is a con/ant quantity4#cj ,z a black dull surface emits & also absorbs a consid]able quantity ( heat rays :il/ a poli%$ metallic surface bo? absorbs & emits b few1 s a flame col\r$ by sodium emits a consid]able quantity ( yell[ rays ( a def9ite refrangibility1 & has ! prop]ty ( absorb+ a consid]able quantity ( ! rays ( ! same refractive index4 ,9 g5]al1 ! m$ium :i* emits def9ite rays also absorbs !m4 #bh ,! me?od ( obs]v+ absorption spectra consi/s 9 tak+ a cont9u\s spectrum ( :ite light 7"o :i* does n %[ ei!r d>k l9es or p>ticul>ly bright lum9\s b&s--= in/ance1 ! light ( a c&le1 lamp1 or o!r s\rce74 ,! collimator 7t is1 ! tube ) ! slit7 is direct$ t[>ds ?is light1 & !n all ! col\rs ( ! spectrum are visible 9 ! ocul> tube4 ,a transp>5t absorptive m$ium--= in/ance1 a solution or tube conta9+ a gas--is !n plac$ betwe5 ! s\rce ( light & ! app>atus 7or any:]e inside ! app>atus itself 9 ! pa? ( ! rays74 ,9 ?is case ei!r ! entire spectrum is uni=mly fa9t]1 or absorption b&s appe> on ! bright field ( ! cont9u\s spectrum 9 def9ite positions along x4 ,^! b&s h diff]5t l5g?s & positions1 & di/9ctness & int5sity ( absorption1 accord+ to ! prop]ties ( ! absorptive m$ium4 ,l ! lum9\s spectra giv5 by inc&esc5t gases & vap\rs1 ! absorption spectra ( a numb] ( sub/ances h already be5 /udi$1 & "s ) great precision--z1 = example1 ! spectrum ( ! br[n vap\rs ( nitrog5 dioxide by ,hasselb]g 7at ,pulk[a71 ! spectra ( col\r+ matt]s 7,ed] & o!rs71 especially ( ^? appli$ to or?o*romatic photography1 ! spectra ( blood1 *lorophyll 7! gre5 con/itu5t ( leaves71 & o!r simil> sub/ances1 all ! m c>efully z by ! aid ( _! spectra ! pres5ce ( ^! sub/ances may be discov]$ 9 small quantities 7ev5 9 microscopical quantities1 by ! aid ( special appliances on ! microscope71 & ! *anges !y und]go inve/igat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,absorption spectra ( nitrog5 dioxide & iod9e4 ,! absorption spectra1 obta9$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature & prop] to sub/ances 9 all physical /ates1 (f] a mo/ ext5sive b z yet little /udi$ field1 bo? = ! g5]al !ory ( spectroscopy1 & = ga9+ an insight into ! /ructure ( sub/ances4 ,! inve/igation ( col\r+ matt]s has already %[n t 9 c]ta9 cases a def9ite *ange ( composition & /ructure entails n only a def9ite *ange ( ! col\rs b also a displacem5t ( ! absorption b&s by a def9ite numb] ( wave-l5g?s4 #bi ,a numb] ( me?ods h be5 inv5t$ to demon/rate ! rev]sibility ( spectra2 among ^! me?ods we w cite two :i* are v easily c>ri$ out4 ,9 ,buns5's me?od sodium *loride is put into an app>atus = evolv+ hydrog5 7! spray ( ! salt is !n c>ri$ (f by ! hydrog5 & col\rs ! flame ) ! yell[ sodium col\r71 & ! hydrog5 is ignit$ 9 two burn]s--9 "o l>ge "o ) a wide flame giv+ a bright yell[ sodium light1 & 9 ano!r ) a small f9e orifice ^: flame is pale3 ?is flame w ?r[ a d>k pat* on ! l>ge bright flame4 ,9 ,lad(fsky's me?od ! front tube 7p4 #efa7 is unscrew$ f a spectroscope direct$ t[>ds ! light ( a lamp 7a cont9u\s spectrum71 & ! flame ( a _s lamp col\r$ by a small quantity ( ,na,cl is plac$ betwe5 ! tube & ! prism2 a black b& correspond+ to sodium w !n be se5 on look+ ?r\gh ! ocul> tube4 ,?is exp]im5t is always successful if only !re be ! requisite relation betwe5 ! /r5g? ( light ( ! two lamps4 #cj ,! absorptive capacity is ! relation betwe5 ! int5sity ( ! light 7( a giv5 wave-l5g?7 fall+ ^u & reta9$ by a sub/ance4 ,buns5 & ,roscoe %[$ by direct exp]im5t t ?is ratio is a con/ant quantity = e sub/ance4 ,if ,a /& = ?is ratio = a giv5 sub/ance at a giv5 temp]ature--= in/ance1 = a flame col\r$ by sodium--& ,e be ! int5sity ( ! light ( ! same wave-l5g? emitt$ at ! same temp]ature by ! same sub/ance1 !n ,kir*h(f's law1 ! explanation & d$uction ( :i* mu/ be look$ = 9 text-books ( physics1 /ates t ! fraction ,a_/,e is a con/ant quantity dep5d+ on ! nature ( a sub/ance 7z ,a dep5ds on x7 & det]m9$ by ! temp]ature & wave-l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,bright spectra ( copp] comp\nds4 ,?us ! bright spectral rays *>act]i/ic ( a giv5 metal may be rev]s$--t is1 conv]t$ into d>k l9es--by pass+ light :i* gives a cont9u\s spectrum ?r\gh a space conta9+ ! heat$ vap\rs ( ! giv5 metal4 ,a simil> ph5om5on to t ?us artificially produc$ is obs]v$ 9 sunlight1 :i* %[s d>k l9es *>act]i/ic ( kn[n metals--t is1 ! ,fraunh(] l9es =m an absorption spectrum or dep5d on a rev]s$ spectrum2 x be+ presuppos$ t ! sun itself1 l all kn[n s\rces ( artificial light1 gives a cont9u\s spectrum )\t ,fraunh(] l9es4#ca ,we mu/ imag9e t ! sun1 ow+ to ! high temp]ature :i* is prop] to x1 emits a brilliant light :i* gives a cont9u\s spectrum1 & t ?is light1 be=e rea*+ our eyes1 passes ?r\gh a space full ( ! vap\rs ( diff]5t metals & _! comp\nds4 ,z ! e>?'s atmosph]e#cb conta9s v little1 or no1 metallic vap\rs1 & z !y _c be suppos$ to exi/ 9 ! cele/ial space1#cb bis ! only place 9 :i* ! exi/5ce ( su* vap\rs c be admitt$ is 9 ! atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! sun itself4 ,z ! cause ( ! sun's lum9osity mu/ be look$ = 9 its high temp]ature1 ! exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e conta9+ metallic vap\rs is readily und]/ood1 because at t high temp]ature su* metals z sodium1 & ev5 iron1 are sep>at$ f _! comp\nds & conv]t$ into vap\r4 ,! sun mu/ be imag9$ z surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e ( inc&esc5t vapor\s & gase\s matt]1#cc includ+ ^? elem5ts ^: rev]s$ spectra correspond ) ! ,fraunh(] l9es--namely1 sodium1 iron1 hydrog51 li?ium1 calcium1 magnesium1 c4 ,?us 9 spectrum analysis we f9d a means ( det]m9+ ! composition ( ! inaccessible heav5ly lum9>ies1 & mu* has be5 done 9 ?is respect s9ce ,kir*h(f's !ory 0 =mulat$4 ,by obs]vations on ! spectra ( _m heav5ly bodies1 *anges h be5 discov]$ go+ on 9 !m1#cd & _m ( ! elem5ts kn[n to u h be5 f\nd ) c]ta9ty 9 !m4#ce ,f ?is x mu/ be conclud$ t ! same elem5ts :i* exi/ on ! e>? occur ?r\gh\t ! :ole univ]se1 & t at t degree ( heat :i* is prop] to ! sun ^? simple sub/ances :i* we accept z ! elem5ts 9 *emi/ry are /ill undecompos$ & rema9 un*ang$4 ,a high temp]ature =ms "o ( ^? conditions "u :i* comp\nds mo/ easily decompose2 & if sodium or a simil> elem5t 7 a comp\nd1 9 all probability x w\ld be decompos$ into compon5t p>ts at ! high temp]ature ( ! sun4 ,?is may inde$ be conclud$ f ! fact t 9 ord9>y spectroscopic exp]im5ts ! spectra obta9$ (t5 belong to ! metals & n to ! comp\nds tak52 ?is dep5ds on ! decomposition ( ^! comp\nds 9 ! heat ( ! flame4 ,if common salt be introduc$ into ! flame ( a gas-burn]1 a portion ( x is decompos$1 fir/ =m+1 9 all probability1 ) wat]1 hydro*loric acid & sodium hydroxide1 & ! latt] !n becom+ p>tially decompos$ by ! hydroc>bons1 giv+ metallic sodium1 ^: inc&esc5t vap\r emits light ( a def9ite refrangibility4 ,?is conclusion is arriv$ at f ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,if hydro*loric acid gas be introduc$ into a flame col\r$ by sodium x is obs]v$ t ! sodium spectrum disappe>s1 ow+ to ! fact t metallic sodium _c rema9 9 ! flame 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( hydro*loric acid4 ,! same ?+ takes place on ! addition ( sal-ammoniac1 :i* 9 ! heat ( ! flame gives hydro*loric acid4 ,if a porcela9 tube conta9+ sodium *loride 7or sodium hydroxide or c>bonate71 & clos$ at bo? ends by glass plates1 be s p[]fully heat$ t ! salt volatilises1 !n ! sodium spectrum is n obs]vable2 b if ! salt be replac$ by sodium1 !n ei!r ! bright l9e or ! absorption spectra is obta9$1 accord+ to :e!r ! light emitt$ by ! inc&esc5t vap\r be obs]v$1 or light pass+ ?r\gh ! tube4 ,?us ! above spectrum is n giv5 by sodium *loride or o!r sodium comp\nd1 b is prop] to ! metal sodium itself4 ,?is is also ! case ) o!r analog\s metals4 ,! *lorides & o!r halog5 comp\nds ( b>ium1 calcium1 copp]1 c41 give indep5d5t spectra :i* diff] f ^? ( ! metals4 ,if b>ium *loride be introduc$ into a flame1 x gives a mix$ spectrum belong+ to metallic b>ium & b>ium *loride4 ,if besides b>ium *loride1 hydro*loric acid or sal-ammoniac be introduc$ into ! flame1 !n ! spectrum ( ! metal disappe>s1 & t ( ! *loride rema9s1 :i* diff]s di/9ctly f ! spectrum ( b>ium fluoride1 b>ium bromide1 or b>ium iodide4 ,a c]ta9 common resemblance & c]ta9 common l9es are obs]v$ 9 ! spectra ( two diff]5t comp\nds ( "o & ! same elem5t obta9$ 9 ! above-describ$ mann]1 & also 9 ! spectrum ( ! metal1 b !y all h _! peculi>ities4 ,! indep5d5t spectra ( ! comp\nds ( copp] are easily obs]v$ 7fig4 #ge74 ,?us c]ta9 comp\nds :i* exi/ 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 & are lum9\s at a high temp]ature1 give _! indep5d5t spectra4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! spectra ( comp\nds are compos$ ( indi/9ct lum9\s l9es & complete bright b&s1 :il/ metallic elem5ts g5]ally give a few cle>ly-def9$ spectral l9es4#cf ,!re is no reason = suppos+ t ! spectrum ( a comp\nd is equal to ! sum ( ! spectra ( its elem5ts--t is1 e comp\nd :i* is n decompos$ by heat has its own prop] spectrum4 ,?is is be/ prov$ by absorption spectra1 :i* are ess5tially only rev]s$ spectra obs]v$ at l[ temp]atures4 ,if e salt ( sodium1 li?ium1 & potassium gives "o & ! same spectrum1 ?is mu/ be ascrib$ to ! pres5ce 9 ! flame ( ! free metals lib]at$ by ! decomposition ( _! salts4 ,!re=e ! ph5om5a ( ! spectrum are det]m9$ by molecules1 & n by atoms--t is1 ! molecules ( ! metal sodium1 & n its atoms1 produce ^? p>ticul> vibrations :i* det]m9e ! spectrum ( a sodium salt4 ,:]e !re is no free metallic sodium !re is no sodium spectrum4 #ca ,heat$ metals beg9 to emit light 7only visible 9 ! d>k7 at ab\t #dbj 7v>y+ ) ! metal74 ,on fur!r heat+1 solids fir/ emit r$1 !n yell[1 & la/ly :ite light4 ,compress$ or heavy gases 7see ,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #dd71 :5 /rongly heat$1 also emit :ite light4 ,heat$ liquids 7= example1 molt5 /eel or plat9um7 also give a :ite comp\nd light4 ,?is is readily und]/ood4 ,9 a d5se mass ( matt] ! collisions ( ! molecules & atoms are s frequ5t t waves ( only a few def9ite l5g?s _c appe>2 ! rev]se is possible 9 r>efi$ gases or vap\rs4 #cb ,brew/]1 z is m5tion$ above1 fir/ di/+ui%$ ! atmosph]ic1 cosmical ,fraunh(] l9es f ! sol> l9es4 ,janss5 %[$ t ! spectrum ( ! atmosph]e conta9s l9es :i* dep5d on ! absorption produc$ by aque\s vap\r4 ,egoreff1 ,olszewski1 ,janss51 & ,live+ & ,dew> %[$ by a s]ies ( exp]im5ts t ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e gives rise to c]ta9 l9es ( ! sol> spectrum1 especially ! l9e ,a4 ,live+ & ,dew> took a lay] ( #afe c4m4 ( oxyg5 compress$ "u a pressure ( #he atmosph]es1 & det]m9$ its absorption spectrum1 & f\nd t1 besides ! ,fraunh(] l9es ,a & ,b1 x conta9$ ! foll[+ gr\ps3 #fcj-fbb1 #eha-efh1 #ece1 #dhj-dge4 ,! same l9es 7 f\nd = liquid oxyg54 #cb bis ,if ! mat]ial ( ! :ole heav5ly space =m$ ! absorb5t m$ium1 ! spectra ( ! />s w\ld be ! same z ! sol> spectrum2 b ,huygh5s1 ,locky]1 & o!rs %[$ n only t ?is is ! case = only a few />s1 b t ! majority ( />s give spectra ( a diff]5t "* ) d>k & bright l9es & b&s4 #cc ,eruptions1 l our volcanic eruptions1 b on an incomp>ably l>g] scale1 are ( frequ5t occurr5ce on ! sun4 ,!y are se5 z protub]ances visible dur+ a total eclipse ( ! sun1 9 ! =m ( vapor\s masses on ! edge ( ! sol> disc & emitt+ a fa9t light4 ,^! protub]ances ( ! sun are n[ obs]v$ at all times by means ( ! spectroscope 7,locky]'s me?od71 because !y conta9 lum9\s vap\rs 7giv+ bright l9es7 ( hydrog5 & o!r elem5ts4 #cd ,! great int]e/ & va/ness ( a/ro-physical obs]vations conc]n+ ! sun1 comets1 />s1 nebul1 c41 r5d] ?is new prov9ce ( natural sci5ce v important1 & necessitate ref]r+ ! read] to special works on ! subject4 ,! mo/ important a/ro-physical data s9ce ! "t ( ,kelln] are ^? ref]r+ to ! displacem5t ( ! l9es ( ! spectrum4 ,j z a musical note *anges its pit* ) ! approa* or )drawal ( ! resonant object or ! e>1 s ! pit* ( ! lum9\s note or wave-l5g? ( ! light v>ies if ! lum9\s 7or absorb5t7 vap\r & ! e>? f :i* we obs]ve x approa* or rec$e f ea* o!r2 ?is expresses itself 9 a visible displacem5t ( ! spectral l9es4 ,! sol> eruptions ev5 give brok5 l9es 9 ! spectrum1 because ! rapidly mov+ eruptive masses ( vap\r & gases ei!r travel 9 ! direction ( ! eye or fall back t[>ds ! sun4 ,z ! e>? travels ) ! sol> sy/em among ! />s1 s x is possible to det]m9e ! direction & velocity ) :i* ! sun travels 9 space by ! displacem5t ( ! spectral l9es & light ( ! />s4 ,! *anges proce$+ on ! sun 9 its mass1 :i* mu/ be pron\nc$ z vapor\s1 & 9 its atmosph]e1 are n[ /udi$ by means ( ! spectroscope4 ,= ?is purpose1 _m special a/ro-physical obs]vatories n[ exi/ :]e ^! inve/igations are c>ri$ on4 ,we may rem>k t if ! obs]v] or lum9\s object moves ) a velocity v1 ! ray1 ^: wave-l5g? is ,greek3 l1 has an app>5t wave-l5g? ,greek3 l7nv7_/n1 :]e n is ! velocity ( light4 ,?us ,tolon1 ,huygh5s1 & o!rs prov$ t ! /> ,aldeb>an approa*es ! sol> sy/em ) a velocity ( #cj kilometres p] second1 :ile ,arcturus is rec$+ ) a velocity ( #de kilometres4 ,! majority ( />s give a di/9ct hydrog5 spectrum1 besides :i* nebul also give ! spectrum ( nitrog54 ,locky] classes ! />s f _! spectra1 accord+ to _! p]iod ( =mation1 %[+ t "s />s are 9 a p]iod ( increas+ temp]ature 7( =mation or aggregation71 :il/ o!rs are 9 a p]iod ( cool+4 ,altoge!r1 9 ! a/ro-physical inve/igation ( ! spectra ( heav5ly bodies we f9d "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ subjects ( rec5t sci5ce4 #ce ,spectrum analysis has prov$ ! indubitable exi/5ce 9 ! sun & />s ( a numb] ( elem5ts kn[n 9 *emi/ry4 ,huygh5s1 ,sec*i1 ,locky]1 & o!rs h furni%$ a l>ge am\nt ( mat]ial ^u ?is subject4 ,a compilation ( exi/+ in=mation on x has be5 giv5 by ,pr(4 ,s4 ,a4 ,kleib]1 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,russian ,physico-*emical ,society = #ahhe 7vol4 xviii4 p4 #adf74 ,besides :i*1 a peculi> elem5t call$ helium has be5 discov]$1 :i* is *>act]is$ by a l9e 7^: wave-l5g? is #ehge1 situat$ ne> ,d71 :i* is se5 v brightly 9 ! projections 7protub]ances7 & spots ( ! sun1 b :i* does n belong to any kn[n elem5t1 & is n reproducible z a rev]s$1 d>k l9e4 ,?is may be a "r conclusion--t is to say1 x is possible t an elem5t may be discov]$ to :i* ! spectrum ( helium corresponds--b x may be t ! helium l9e belongs to "o ( ! kn[n elem5ts1 because spectra v>y 9 ! brilliancy & position ( _! l9es ) *anges ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ,locky] c\ld only see ! l9e #dbc1 at ! v end ( ! calcium spectrum1 at comp>atively l[ temp]atures1 :il/ ! l9es #cig & #cic appe> at a high] temp]ature1 & at a /ill high] temp]ature ! l9e #dbc becomes q invisible4 #cf ,spectroscopic obs]vations are /ill fur!r complicat$ by ! fact t "o & ! same sub/ance gives diff]5t spectra at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,?is is especially ! case ) gases ^: spectra are obta9$ by an electric dis*>ge 9 tubes4 ,plck]1 ,wlln]1 ,s*u/]1 & o!rs %[$ t at l[ temp]atures & pressures ! spectra ( iod9e1 sulphur1 nitrog51 oxyg51 c4 are q diff]5t f ! spectra ( ! same elem5ts at high temp]atures & pressures4 ,?is may ei!r dep5d on ! fact t ! elem5ts *ange _! molecul> /ructure ) a *ange ( temp]ature1 j z ozone is conv]t$ into oxyg5 7= in/ance1 f ,n#b molecules are obta9$ conta9+ only "o atom ( nitrog571 or else x may be because at l[ temp]ature c]ta9 rays h a great] relative int5sity ?an ^? :i* appe> at high] temp]atures4 ,if we suppose t ! molecules ( a gas are 9 cont9ual motion1 ) a velocity dep5d5t on ! temp]ature1 !n x mu/ be admitt$ t !y (t5 /rike aga9/ ea* o!r & reb\nd1 & ?us communicate peculi> motions to ea* o!r & ! suppos$ e!r1 :i* express !mselves 9 lum9if]\s ph5om5a4 ,a rise ( ! temp]ature or an increase 9 ! d5sity ( a gas mu/ h an influ5ce on ! collision ( its molecules & lum9if]\s motions ?us produc$1 & ?is may be ! cause ( ! diff]5ce ( ! spectra "u ^! circum/ances4 ,x has be5 %[n by direct exp]im5t t gases compress$ by pressure1 :5 ! collision ( ! molecules mu/ be frequ5t & v>i$1 exhibit a m complex spectrum on ! passage ( an electric sp>k ?an r>efi$ gases1 & t ev5 a cont9u\s spectrum appe>s4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! v>iability ( ! spectrum accord+ to ! circum/ances "u :i* x proce$s1 x may be m5tion$ t potassium sulphate fus$ on a plat9um wire gives1 on ! passage ( a s]ies ( sp>ks1 a di/9ct sy/em ( l9es1 #ehc-egh1 :il/ :5 a s]ies ( sp>ks is pass$ ?r\gh a solution ( ?is salt ?is sy/em ( l9es is fa9t1 & :5 ,roscoe & ,s*u/] obs]v$ ! absorption spectrum ( ! vap\r ( metallic potassium 7:i* is gre57 !y rem>k$ a numb] ( l9es ( ! same int5sity z ! above sy/em 9 ! r$1 orange1 & yell[ portions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,me?od ( %[+ ! spectrum ( sub/ances 9 solution4 ,! spectra ( solutions are be/ obs]v$ by means ( ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran's arrangem5t1 %[n 9 fig4 #gf4 ,a b5t capill>y tube1 ,d ,f1 inside :i* a plat9um wire1 ,a a 7f #jc to #je mm4 9 diamet]7 is fus$1 is imm]s$ 9 a n>r[ cyl9d]1 ,c 79 :i* x is firmly held by a cork74 ,! project+ end1 a1 ( ! wire is cov]$ by a f9e capill>y tube1 d1 :i* ext5ds #a-b mm4 beyond ! wire4 ,ano!r /raight capill>y tube1 ,e1 ) a plat9um wire1 ,b b1 ab\t #a mm4 9 diamet] 7a f9] wire soon becomes hot71 is held 7by a cork or 9 a /&7 above ! end ( ! tube1 ,d4 ,if ! wire ,a be n[ connect$ ) ! positive1 & ! wire ,b ) ! negative t]m9al ( a ,ruhmkorff's coil 7if ! wires be connect$ 9 ! opposite ord]1 ! spectrum ( air is obta9$71 a s]ies ( sp>ks rapidly foll[+ ea* o!r appe> betwe5 a & b1 & _! light may be exam9$ by plac+ ! app>atus 9 front ( ! slit ( a spectroscope4 ,! v>iations to :i* a spectrum is liable may easily be obs]v$ by increas+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! wires1 alt]+ ! direction ( ! curr5t or /r5g? ( ! solution1 c4 ,spectrum analysis has n only end[$ sci5ce ) a k ( ! composition ( di/ant heav5ly bodies 7( ! sun1 />s1 nebul1 comets1 c471 b has also giv5 a new me?od = /udy+ ! matt] ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,) its help ,buns5 discov]$ two new elem5ts belong+ to ! gr\p ( ! alkali metals1 & ?allium1 indium1 & gallium 7 aft]w>ds discov]$ by ! same means4 ,! spectroscope is employ$ 9 ! /udy ( r>e metals 7:i* 9 solution (t5 give di/9ct absorption spectra71 ( dyes1 & ( _m organic sub/ances1 c4#cg ,) respect to ! metals :i* are analog\s to sodium1 !y all give simil> v volatile salts & su* v *>act]i/ic spectra t ! lea/ traces ( !m#ch are discov]$ ) great ease by means ( ! spectroscope4 ,= in/ance1 li?ium gives a v brilliant r$ coloration to a flame & a v bright r$ spectral l9e 7wave-l5g?1 #fgj million?s mm471 :i* indicates ! pres5ce ( ?is metal 9 admixture ) comp\nds ( o!r alkali metals4 #cg ,! importance ( ! spectroscope = ! purpose ( *emical rese>* 0 already %[n by ,glad/one 9 #ahef1 b x did n become an accessory to ! laboratory until aft] ! discov]ies ( ,kir*h(f & ,buns54 ,x may be hop$ t 9 "t spectroscopic rese>*es w meet c]ta9 wants ( ! !oretical 7philosophical7 side ( *emi/ry1 b z yet all t has be5 done 9 ?is respect c only be reg>d$ z attempts :i* h n yet l$ to any tru/wor?y conclusions4 ,?us _m inve/igators1 by collat+ ! wave-l5g?s ( all ! light vibrations excit$ by a giv5 elem5t1 endeav\r to f9d ! law gov]n+ _! mutual relations2 o!rs 7especially ,h>tley & ,ciamician71 by comp>+ ! spectra ( analog\s elem5ts 7= in/ance1 *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e71 h succe$$ 9 notic+ def9ite features ( resemblance 9 !m1 :il/ o!rs 7,grnwald7 se>* = relations betwe5 ! spectra ( comp\nds & _! compon5t elem5ts1 c42 b--ow+ to ! multiplicity ( ! spectral l9es prop] to _m elem5ts1 & 7especially 9 ! ultra-r$ & ultra-violet ends ( ! spectrum7 ! exi/5ce ( l9es :i* are undi/+ui%able ow+ to _! fa9tness1 & also ow+ to ! comp>ative novelty ( spectroscopic rese>*--?is subject _c be consid]$ z 9 any way p]fect$4 ,nev]!less1 9 c]ta9 in/ances !re is evid5tly "s relation%ip betwe5 ! wave-l5g?s ( all ! spectral l9es =m$ by a giv5 elem5t4 ,?us1 9 ! hydrog5 spectrum ! wave-l5g? #cfdedb m#b_/7m#b-d71 if m v>ies z a s]ies ( :ole numb]s f #c to #ae 7,walm]1 ,hageba*1 & o!rs74 ,= example1 :5 m #c1 ! wave-l5g? ( "o ( ! brighte/ l9es ( ! hydrog5 spectrum is obta9$ 7#fefb71 :5 m #g1 "o ( ! visible violet l9es 7#cifh71 & :5 m is great] ?an #i1 ! ultra-violet l9es ( ! hydrog5 spectrum4 #ch ,9 ord] to %[ ! degree ( s5sitiv5ess ( spectroscopic reactions ! foll[+ obs]vation ( ,dr4 ,b5ce ,jones may be cit$3 ,if a solution ( #c gra9s ( a li?ium salt be inject$ "u ! sk9 ( a gu9ea-pig1 aft] ! lapse ( f\r m9utes1 li?ium c be discov]$ 9 ! bile & liquids ( ! eye1 &1 aft] t5 m9utes1 9 all p>ts ( ! animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,prep>ation ( li?ium by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t on fus$ li?ium *loride4 ,li?ium1 ,li1 is1 l potassium & sodium1 some:at widely spread 9 silice\s rocks1 b only occurs 9 small quantities & z m]e traces 9 consid]able masses ( potassium & sodium salts4 ,only a v few r r>e m9]als conta9 m ?an traces ( x1#ci = example1 spodum5e & li?ia mica4 ,_m comp\nds ( li?ium are 9 all respects closely analog\s to ! correspond+ comp\nds ( sodium & potassium2 b ! c>bonate is sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat]1 :i* fact is tak5 advantage ( = sep>at+ li?ium f potassium & sodium4 ,?is salt1 ,li#b;,,co#c1 is easily conv]t$ into ! o!r comp\nds ( li?ium4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! li?ium hydroxide1 ,li,h,o1 is obta9$ 9 exactly ! same way z cau/ic soda1 by ! action ( lime on ! c>bonate1 & x is soluble 9 wat] & cry/allises 7f its solution 9 alcohol7 z ,li,h,o1,h#b,o4 ,metallic li?ium is obta9$ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t on fus$ li?ium *loride2 = ?is purpose a ca/-iron crucible1 furni%$ ) a /\t cov]1 is fill$ ) li?ium *loride1 heat$ until ! latt] fuses1 & a /rong galvanic curr5t is !n pass$ ?r\gh ! molt5 mass4 ,! positive pole 7fig4 #gg7 consi/s ( a d5se c>bon rod ,c 7surr\nd$ by a porcela9 tube ,p fix$ 9 an iron tube ,,bb71 & ! negative pole ( an iron wire1 on :i* ! metal is deposit$ aft] ! curr5t has pass$ ?r\gh ! molt5 mass = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t4 ,*lor9e is evolv$ at ! positive pole4 ,:5 a some:at consid]able quantity ( ! metal has accumulat$ on ! wire x is )drawn1 ! metal is collect$ f x1 & ! exp]im5t is !n c>ri$ on z be=e4#ci bis ,li?ium is ! lighte/ ( all metals1 its specific gravity is #jei1 ow+ to :i* x floats ev5 on naph?a2 x melts at #ahj1 b does n volatilise at a r$ heat4 ,its appe>ance recalls t ( sodium1 &1 l x1 x has a yell[ t9t4 ,at #bjj x burns 9 air ) a v bright flame1 =m+ li?ium oxide4 ,9 decompos+ wat] x does n ignite ! hydrog54 ,! *>act]i/ic te/ = li?ium comp\nds is ! r$ coloration :i* !y imp>t to a col\rless flame4#dj #ci ,?us spodum5e conta9s up to #f p4c4 ( li?ium oxide1 & petolite1 & lepidolite or li?ia mica1 ab\t #c p4c4 ( li?ium oxide4 ,?is mica is met ) 9 c]ta9 granites 9 a some:at consid]able quantity1 & is !re=e mo/ frequ5tly employ$ = ! prep>ation ( li?ium comp\nds4 ,! treatm5t ( lepidolite is c>ri$ on on a l>ge scale1 because c]ta9 salts ( li?ium are employ$ 9 m$ic9e z a rem$y = c]ta9 diseases 7/one1 g\ty affections71 z !y h ! p[] ( dissolv+ ! insoluble uric acid :i* is !n deposit$4 ,lepidolite1 :i* is unact$ on by acids 9 its natural /ate1 decomposes "u ! action ( /rong hydro*loric acid aft] x has be5 fus$4 ,aft] be+ subject$ to ! action ( ! hydro*loric acid = sev]al h\rs all ! silica is obta9$ 9 an insoluble =m1 :il/ ! metallic oxides pass into solution z *lorides4 ,?is solution is mix$ ) nitric acid to conv]t ! f]r\s salts into f]ric1 & sodium c>bonate is !n add$ until ! liquid becomes neutral1 by :i* means a precipitate is =m$ ( ! oxides ( iron1 alum9a1 magnesia1 c41 z insoluble oxides & c>bonates4 ,! solution 7) an excess ( wat]7 !n conta9s ! *lorides ( ! alkal9e metals ,k,cl1 ,na,cl1 ,li,cl1 :i* d n give a precipitate ) sodium c>bonate 9 a dilute solution4 ,x is !n evaporat$1 & a /rong solution ( sodium c>bonate add$4 ,?is precipitates li?ium c>bonate1 :i*1 al?\gh soluble 9 wat]1 is mu* less s ?an sodium c>bonate1 & !re=e ! latt] precipitates li?ium f /rong solutions z c>bonate1 #b,li,cl ,na#b;,,co#c #b,na,cl ,li#b;,,co#c4 ,li?ium c>bonate1 :i* resembles sodium c>bonate 9 _m respects1 is a sub/ance :i* is v slightly soluble 9 cold wat] & is only mod]ately soluble 9 boil+ wat]4 ,9 ?is respect li?ium =ms a transition betwe5 ! metals ( ! alkalis & o!r metals1 especially ^? ( ! alkal9e e>?s 7magnesium1 b>ium71 ^: c>bonates are only sp>+ly soluble4 ,oxide ( li?ium1 ,li#b,o1 may be obta9$ by heat+ li?ium c>bonate ) *>coal4 ,li?ium oxide 9 dissolv+ gives 7p] gram-molecule7 #bf1jjj heat units2 b ! comb9ation ( ,li#b ) ,o evolves #adj1jjj calories--t is1 m ?an ,na#b,o 7#ajj1jjj calories7 & ,k#b,o 7#ig1jjj calories71 z %[n by ,beket(f 7#ahhg74 ,oeuvr>d 7#ahib7 heat$ li?ium to r$ness 9 nitrog51 & obs]v$ ! absorption ( ,n & =mation ( ,li#c,n1 l ,na#c,n 7see ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,note #ej74 ,li,cl1 ,li,br1 & ,li,i =m cry/allo-hydrates ) ,h#b,o1 #b;,h#b,o1 & #c;,h#b,o4 ,z a rule1 ,li,br1#b;,h#b,o cry/allises out1 b ,bogorodsky 7#ahid7 %[$ t a solution conta9+ ,li,br #cg;,h#b,o1 cool$ to -#fb1 sep>ates out cry/als ,li,br1#c;,h#b,o1 :i* decompose at #d ) ! sep>ation ( ,h#b,o4 ,li,f is b slightly soluble 79 #hjj p>ts7 9 wat] 7& /ill less s 9 a solution ( ,,nh#d;,f74 #ci bis ,guntz 7#ahic7 recomm5ds add+ ,k,cl to ! ,li,cl 9 prep>+ ,li by ?is me?od1 & to act ) a curr5t ( #aj ampres at #bj volts1 & n to heat above #dej1 s z to avoid ! =mation ( ,li#b;,cl4 #dj ,9 det]m9+ ! pres5ce ( li?ium 9 a giv5 comp\nd1 x is be/ to treat ! mat]ial "u inve/igation ) acid 79 ! case ( m9]al silicon comp\nds hydr(luoric acid mu/ be tak571 & to treat ! residue ) sulphuric acid1 evaporate to dryness1 & extract ) alcohol1 :i* dissolves a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! li?ium sulphate4 ,x is easy to discov] li?ium 9 su* an alcoholic solution by means ( ! coloration imp>t$ to ! flame on burn+ x1 & 9 case ( d\bt by inve/igat+ its light 9 a spectroscope1 because li?ium gives a r$ l9e1 :i* is v *>act]i/ic & is f\nd z a d>k l9e 9 ! sol> spectrum4 ,li?ium 0 fir/ discov]$ 9 #ahag 9 petolite by ,arfv$son4 ,buns5 9 #ahfj tri$ to det]m9e by means ( ! spectroscope :e!r any o!r z yet unkn[n metals might n occur 9 diff]5t natural products toge!r ) li?ium1 potassium1 & sodium1 & he soon discov]$ two new alkali metals %[+ indep5d5t spectra4 ,!y are nam$ aft] ! *>act]i/ic coloration :i* !y imp>t to ! flame4 ,"o :i* gives a r$ & violet b& is nam$ rubidium1 f rubidius 7d>k r$71 & ! o!r is call$ csium1 because x col\rs a pale flame sky blue1 :i* dep5ds on its conta9+ bright blue rays1 :i* appe> 9 ! spectrum ( csium z two blue b&s 7table on p4 #efe74 ,bo? metals accompany sodium1 potassium1 & li?ium1 b 9 small quantities2 rubidium occurs 9 l>g] quantity ?an csium4 ,! am\nt ( ! oxides ( csium & rubidium 9 lepidolite does n g5]ally exce$ "o-half p] c5t4 ,rubidium has also be5 f\nd 9 ! a%es ( _m plants1 :ile ! ,/assfurt c>nallite 7! "m-liquor obta9$ aft] hav+ be5 treat$ = ,k,cl7 =ms an abundant s\rce = rubidium & also p>tly = csium4 ,rubidium also occurs1 al?\gh 9 v small quantities1 9 ! majority ( m9]al wat]s4 ,9 a v few cases csium is n accompani$ by rubidium2 ?us1 9 a c]ta9 granite on ! ,isle ( ,elba1 csium has be5 discov]$1 b n rubidium4 ,?is granite conta9s a v r>e m9]al call$ pollux1 :i* conta9s z mu* z #cd p] c5t4 ( csium oxide4 ,guid$ by ! spectroscope1 & aid$ by ! fact t ! d\ble salts ( plat9ic *loride & rubidium & csium *lorides are /ill less soluble 9 wat] ?an ! correspond+ potassium salt1 ,k#b,pt,cl#f1da ,buns5 succe$$ 9 sep>at+ bo? metals f ea* o!r & f potassium1 & demon/rat$ ! great resemblance !y be> to ea* o!r4 ,! isolat$ metals1#db rubidium & csium1 h respectively ! specific gravities #aeb & #bcff1 & melt+ po9ts #ci & #bg z ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f %[$ 7#ahid71 he hav+ obta9$ csium by heat+ ,cs,al,o#b ) ,mg7#db bis74 #da ,! salts ( ! majority ( metals are precipitat$ z c>bonates on ! addition ( ammonium c>bonate--= in/ance1 ! salts ( calcium1 iron1 c4 ,! alkalis ^: c>bonates are soluble are n1 h[ev]1 precipitat$ 9 ?is case4 ,on evaporat+ ! resultant solution & ignit+ ! residue 7to remove ! ammonium salts71 we obta9 salts ( ! alkali metals4 ,!y may he sep>at$ by add+ hydro*loric acid toge!r ) a solution ( plat9ic *loride4 ,! *lorides ( li?ium & sodium give easily soluble d\ble salts ) plat9ic *loride1 :il/ ! *lorides ( potassium1 rubidium1 & csium =m d\ble salts :i* are sp>+ly soluble4 ,a hundr$ p>ts ( wat] at #j dissolve #jgd "p ( ! potassium plat9o*loride2 ! correspond+ rubidium plat9o*loride is only dissolv$ to ! am\nt ( #jacd "p1 & ! csium salt1 #jjbd "p2 at #ajj #eac p>ts ( potassium plat9o*loride1 ,k#b,pt,cl#f1 are dissolv$1 #jfcd "p ( rubidium plat9o*loride1 & #jagg "p ( csium plat9o*loride4 ,f ?is x is cle> h[ ! salts ( rubidium & csium may be isolat$4 ,! sep>ation ( csium f rubidium by ?is me?od is v t$i\s4 ,x c be bett] effect$ by tak+ advantage ( ! diff]5ce ( ! solubility ( _! c>bonates 9 alcohol2 csium c>bonate1 ,cs#b;,,co#c1 is soluble 9 alcohol1 :il/ ! correspond+ salts ( rubidium & potassium are almo/ insoluble4 ,sett]b]g sep>at$ ^! metals z alums1 b ! be/ me?od1 t giv5 by ,s*>ples1 is f\nd$ on ! fact t f a mixture ( ! *lorides ( potassium1 sodium1 csium1 & rubidium 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid1 /annic *loride precipitates a d\ble salt ( csium1 :i* is v slightly soluble4 ,! salts ( ,rb & ,cs are closely analog\s to ^? ( potassium4 #db ,buns5 obta9$ rubidium by di/ill+ a mixture ( ! t>trate ) soot1 & ,beket(f 7#ahhh7 by heat+ ! hydroxide ) alum9ium1 #b,rb,h,o ,al ,rb,al,o#b ,h#b ,rb4 ,by ! action ( #he grams ( rubidium on wat]1 #id1jjj heat units are evolv$4 ,sett]b]g obta9$ csium 7#ahhb7 by ! electrolysis ( a fus$ mixture ( cyanide ( csium & ( b>ium4 ,w9kl] 7#ahij7 %[$ t metallic magnesium r$uces ! hydrates & c>bonates ( ,rb & ,cs l ! o!r alkal9e metals4 ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f obta9$ !m ) alum9ium 7see foll[+ note74 #db bis ,beket(f 7#ahhh7 %[$ t metallic alum9ium r$uces ! hydrates ( ! alkal9e metals at a r$ heat 7!y %\ld be p]fectly dry7 ) ! =mation ( alum9ates 7,*apt] ,,xvii471 ,r,al,o#b--;= example1 #b,,kho ,al ,k,al,o#b ,k ,h#b4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ?is case only half ( ! alkal9e metal is obta9$ free4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,k4 ,w9kl] 7#ahhi7 %[$ t magnesium p[d] is also able to r$uce ! alkal9e metals f _! hydrates & c>bonates4 ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f & ,ts*]ba*eff 7#ahid7 prep>$ csium ^u ?is pr9ciple by heat+ its alum9ate ,cs,al,o#b ) magnesium p[d]4 ,9 ?is case alum9ate ( magnesium is =m$1 & ! :ole ( ! csium is obta9$ z metal3 #b;,cs,al,o#b ,mg ,mg,o,al#b,o#e #b;,cs4 ,a c]ta9 excess ( alum9a 0 tak5 79 ord] to obta9 a less hygroscopic mass ( alum9ate71 & magnesium p[d] 79 ord] to decompose ! la/ traces ( wat]72 ! ,cs,al,o#b 0 prep>$ by ! precipitation ( csium alums by cau/ic b>yta1 & evaporat+ ! resultant solution4 ,we may add t ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f 7#ahhg7 prep>$ oxide ( potassium1 ,k#b,o1 by heat+ ! p]oxide1 ,,ko1 9 ! vap\r ( potassium 7dis5gag$ f its alloy ) silv]71 & %[$ t 9 dissolv+ 9 an excess ( wat] x evolves 7= ! above-giv5 molecul> weight7 #fg1djj calories 7:ile #b,,kho 9 dissolv+ 9 wat] evolves #bd1ibj cal42 s t ,k#b,o ,h#b,o gives #db1dhj cal471 :5ce 7kn[+ t ,k#b ,o,h#b,o 9 an excess ( wat] evolves #afd1ejj7 x foll[s t ,k#b ,o evolves #ig1ajj cal4 ,?is quantity is some:at less ?an t 7#ajj1bfj cal47 :i* corresponds to sodium1 & ! en]gy ( ! action ( potassium ^u wat] is expla9$ by ! fact t ,k#b,o evolves m heat ?an ,na#b,o 9 comb9+ ) wat] 7see ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,note #i74 ,j z hydrog5 displaces half ! ,na f ,na#b,o =m+ ,na,h,o1 s also ,n4 ,n4 ,beket(f f\nd f exp]im5t & !rmo*emical reason+s t hydrog5 displaces half ! potassium f ,k#b,o =m+ ,,kho & evolv+ #g1aij calories4 ,oxide ( li?ium1 ,li#b,o1 :i* is easily =m$ by ignit+ ,li#b;,,co#c ) c>bon 7:5 ,li#b,o #b;,,co is =m$71 dis5gages #bf1jjj cals4 ) an excess ( wat]1 :ile ! reaction ,li#b ,o gives #aad1jjj cals4 & ! reaction ,li#b ,h#b,o gives only #ac1jjj cals41 & metallic li?ium _c be lib]at$ f oxide ( li?ium ) hydrog5 7nor ) c>bon74 ,?us 9 ! s]ies ,li1 ,na1 ,k1 ! =mation ( ,r#b,o gives mo/ heat ) ,li & lea/ ) ,k1 :ile ! =mation ( ,r,cl evolves mo/ heat ) ,k 7#aje1jjj cals47 & lea/ ( all ) ,li 7#ic1ejj cals474 ,rubidium1 9 =m+ ,rb#b,o1 gives #id1jjj cals4 7,beket(f74 ,csium1 9 act+ ^u an excess ( wat]1 evolves #ea1ejj cals41 & ! reaction ,cs#b ,o evolves ab\t #ajj1jjj cals4--i4e4 m ?an ,k & ,rb1 & almo/ z mu* z ,na--& oxide ( csium reacts ) hydrog5 7accord+ to ! equation ,cs#b,o ,h ,cs,h,o ,cs7 m easily ?an any ( ! oxides ( ! alkali metals1 & ?is reaction takes place at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7! hydrog5 is absorb$71 z ,beket(f %[$ 7#ahic74 ,he also obta9$ a mix$ oxide1 ,ag,cs,o1 :i* 0 easily =m$ 9 ! pres5ce ( silv]1 & absorb$ hydrog5 ) ! =mation ( ,cs,h,o4 ,judg+ by ! prop]ties ( ! free metals1 & ( _! correspond+ & ev5 v complex comp\nds1 li?ium1 sodium1 potassium1 rubidium1 & csium pres5t an indubitable *emical resemblance4 ,! fact t ! metals easily decompose wat]1 & t _! hydroxides ,,rho & c>bonates ,r#b;,,co#c are soluble 9 wat]1 :il/ ! hydroxides & c>bonates ( ne>ly all o!r metals are insoluble1 %[s t ^! metals =m a natural gr\p ( alkali metals4 ,! halog5s & ! alkali metals =m1 by _! "*1 ! two extremes ( ! elem5ts4 ,_m ( ! o!r elem5ts are metals approa*+ ! alkali metals1 bo? 9 _! capacity ( =m+ salts & 9 n =m+ acid comp\nds1 b are n s en]getic z ! alkali metals1 t is1 !y =m less en]getic bases4 ,su* are ! common metals1 silv]1 iron1 copp]1 c4 ,"s o!r elem5ts1 9 ! "* ( _! comp\nds1 approa* ! halog5s1 &1 l !m1 comb9e ) hydrog51 b ^! comp\nds d n %[ ! en]getic prop]ty ( ! halog5 acids2 9 a free /ate !y easily comb9e ) metals1 b !y d n !n =m su* sal9e comp\nds z ! halog5s d--9 a ^w1 ! halog5 prop]ties are less %>ply def9$ 9 !m ?an 9 ! halog5s !mselves4 ,sulphur1 phosphorus1 ars5ic1 c4 belong to ?is ord] ( elem5ts4 ,! cle>e/ di/9ction ( ! prop]ties ( ! halog5s & alkali metals is express$ 9 ! fact t ! =m] give acids & d n =m bases1 :il/ ! latt]1 on ! contr>y1 only give bases4 ,! fir/ are true acid elem5ts1 ! latt] cle>ly-def9$ basic or metallic elem5ts4 ,on comb9+ toge!r1 ! halog5s =m1 9 a *emical s5se1 un/able comp\nds1 & ! alkali metals alloys 9 :i* ! "* ( ! metals rema9s unalt]$1 j z 9 ! comp\nd ,i,cl ! "* ( ! halog5s rema9s undisguis$2 ?us bo? classes ( elem5ts on comb9+ ) memb]s ( _! own class =m non-*>act]i/ic comp\nds1 :i* h ! prop]ties ( _! compon5ts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! halog5s on comb9+ ) ! alkali metals =m comp\nds :i* are1 9 all respects1 /able1 & 9 :i* ! orig9al *>act]s ( ! halog5s & alkali metals h entirely disappe>$4 ,! =mation ( su* comp\nds is accompani$ by evolution ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat1 & by an entire *ange ( bo? ! physical & *emical prop]ties ( ! sub/ances orig9ally tak54 ,! alloy ( sodium & potassium1 al?\gh liquid at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 is p]fectly metallic1 l bo? its compon5ts4 ,! comp\nd ( sodium & *lor9e has nei!r ! appe>ance nor ! prop]ties ( ! orig9al elem5ts2 sodium *loride melts at a high] temp]ature1 & is m difficultly volatile1 ?an ei!r sodium or *lor9e4 ,) all ^! qualitative diff]5ces !re is1 h[ev]1 an important quantitative resemblance betwe5 ! halog5s & ! alkali metals4 ,?is resemblance is cle>ly express$ by /at+ t bo? ord]s ( elem5ts belong to ^? :i* are unival5t ) respect to hydrog54 ,x is ?us correct to say t bo? ! above-nam$ ord]s ( elem5ts replace hydrog5 atom = atom4 ,*lor9e is able to take ! place ( hydrog5 by metalepsis1 & ! alkali metals take ! place ( hydrog5 9 wat] & acids4 ,z x is possible to consecutively replace e equival5t ( hydrog5 9 a hydroc>bon by *lor9e1 s x is possible 9 an acid conta9+ sev]al equival5ts ( hydrog5 to replace ! hydrog5 consecutively equival5t aft] equival5t by an alkali metal2 h5ce an atom ( ^! elem5ts is analog\s to an atom ( hydrog51 :i* is tak51 9 all cases1 z ! unit = ! comp>ison ( ! o!r elem5ts4 ,9 ammonia1 & 9 wat]1 *lor9e & sodium are able to br+ ab\t a direct replacem5t4 ,accord+ to ! law ( sub/itution1 ! =mation ( sodium *loride1 ,na,cl1 at once %[s ! equival5ce ( ! atoms ( ! alkali metals & ! halog5s4 ,! halog5s & hydrog5 & ! alkali metals comb9e ) su* elem5ts z oxyg51 & x is easily prov$ t 9 su* comp\nds "o atom ( oxyg5 is able to reta9 two atoms ( ! halog5s1 ( hydrog51 & ( ! alkali metals4 ,= ?is purpose x is en\gh to comp>e ! comp\nds ,,kho1 ,k#b,o1 ,h,cl,o1 & ,cl#b,o1 ) wat]4 ,x mu/ n be =gott51 h[ev]1 t ! halog5s give1 ) oxyg51 besides comp\nds ( ! type ,r#b,o1 high] acid grades ( oxidation1 :i* ! alkali metals & hydrog5 are n capable ( =m+4 ,we %all soon see t ^! relations are also subject to a special law1 %[+ a gradual transition ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts f ! alkali metals to ! halog5s4#dc #dc ,we may "h obs]ve t ! halog5s1 & especially iod9e1 may play ! "p ( metals 7h5ce iod9e is m easily replac$ by metals ?an ! o!r halog5s1 & x approa*es ne>] to ! metals 9 its physical prop]ties ?an ! o!r halog5s74 ,s*tz5b]g] obta9$ a comp\nd ,c#b;,h#c,o7,o,cl71 :i* he call$ *lor9e acetate1 by act+ on acetic anhydride1 7,c#b;,h#c,o7#b,o1 ) *lor9e monoxide1 ,cl#b,o4 ,) iod9e ?is comp\nd gives (f *lor9e & =ms iod9e acetate1 ,c#b;,h#c,o7,,oi71 :i* also is =m$ by ! action ( iod9e *loride on sodium acetate1 ,c#b;,h#c,o7,o,na74 ,^! comp\nds are evid5tly no?+ else ?an mix$ anhydrides ( hypo*lor\s & hypoiod\s acids1 or ! products ( ! sub/itution ( hydrog5 9 ,,rho by a halog5 7see ,*apt] ,,xi41 ,notes #bi & #gh bis74 ,su* comp\nds are v un/able1 decompose ) an explosion :5 heat$1 & are *ang$ by ! action ( wat] & ( _m o!r reag5ts1 :i* is 9 accordance ) ! fact t !y conta9 v closely alli$ elem5ts1 z does ,cl#b,o itself1 or ,i,cl or ,k,na4 ,by ! action ( *lor9e monoxide on a mixture ( iod9e & acetic anhydride1 ,s*tz5b]g] also obta9$ ! comp\nd ,i7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7c1 :i* is analog\s to ,i,cl#c1 because ! gr\p ,c#b;,h#c,o#b is1 l ,cl1 a halog51 =m+ salts ) ! metals4 ,simil> prop]ties are f\nd 9 iodosob5z5e 7,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #gi74 ,! atomic weights ( ! alkali metals1 li?ium #g1 sodium #bc1 potassium #ci1 rubidium #he1 & csium #acc1 %[ t "h1 z 9 ! class ( halog5s1 ! elem5ts may be arrang$ accord+ to _! atomic weights 9 ord] to comp>e ! prop]ties ( ! analog\s comp\nds ( ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p4 ,?us1 = example1 ! plat9o*lorides ( li?ium & sodium are soluble 9 wat]2 ^? ( potassium1 rubidium1 & csium sp>+ly soluble1 & ! great] ! atomic weight ( ! metal ! less soluble is ! salt4 ,9 o!r cases ! rev]se is obs]v$--! great] ! atomic weight ! m soluble are ! correspond+ salts4 ,! v>iation ( prop]ties ) ! v>iation 9 atomic weights ev5 %[s itself 9 ! metals !mselves2 ?us li?ium volatilises ) difficulty1 :il/ sodium is obta9$ by di/illation1 potassium volatilises m easily ?an sodium1 & rubidium & csium z we h se51 are /ill m volatile4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,val5cy ,,& ,,specific ,,heat ,,( ,,! ,,metals4 ,,magnesium4 ,,calcium1 ,,/rontium1 ,,b>ium1 ,,& ,,b]yllium ,x is easy by inve/igat+ ! composition ( correspond+ comp\nds1 to e/abli% ! equival5t weights ( ! metals comp>$ ) hydrog5--t is1 ! quantity :i* replaces "o "p by weight ( hydrog54 ,if a metal decomposes acids directly1 ) ! evolution ( hydrog51 ! equival5t weight ( ! metal may be det]m9$ by tak+ a def9ite weight ( x & measur+ ! volume ( hydrog5 evolv$ by its action on an excess ( acid2 x is !n easy to calculate ! weight ( ! hydrog5 f its volume4#a ,! same result may be arriv$ at by det]m9+ ! composition ( ! normal salts ( ! metal2 = in/ance1 by f9d+ ! weight ( metal :i* comb9es ) #cee p>ts ( *lor9e or #hj p>ts ( brom9e4#b ,! equival5t ( a metal may be also asc]ta9$ by simultane\sly 7i4e4 9 "o circuit7 decompos+ an acid & a fus$ salt ( a giv5 metal by an electric curr5t & det]m9+ ! relation betwe5 ! am\nts ( hydrog5 & metal sep>at$1 because1 accord+ to ,f>aday's law1 electrolytes 7conductors ( ! second ord]7 are always decompos$ 9 equival5t quantities4#b bis ,! equival5t ( a metal may ev5 be f\nd by simply det]m9+ ! relation betwe5 its weight & t ( its salt-giv+ oxide1 z by ?is we "k ! quantity ( ! metal :i* comb9es ) #h p>ts by weight ( oxyg51 & ?is w be ! equival5t1 because #h p>ts ( oxyg5 comb9e ) #a "p by weight ( hydrog54 ,"o me?od is v]ifi$ by ano!r1 & all ! processes = ! accurate det]m9ation ( equival5ts require ! greate/ c>e to avoid ! absorption ( moi/ure1 fur!r oxidation1 volatility1 & o!r accid5tal influ5ces :i* affect exact weigh+s4 ,! description ( ! me?ods necess>y = ! atta9m5t ( exact results belongs to ! prov9ce ( analytical *emi/ry4 #a ,"u fav\rable circum/ances 7by tak+ all ! requisite precautions71 ! weight ( ! equival5t may be accurately det]m9$ by ?is me?od4 ,?us ,reynolds & ,ramsay 7#ahhg7 det]m9$ ! equival5t ( z9c to be #cbg by ?is me?od 7f ! av]age ( #bi exp]im5ts71 :il/ by o!r me?ods x has be5 fix$ 7by diff]5t obs]v]s7 betwe5 #cbee & #ccie4 ,! diff]5ces 9 _! equival5ts may be demon/rat$ by tak+ equal weights ( diff]5t metals1 & collect+ ! hydrog5 evolv$ by !m 7"u ! action ( an acid or alkali74 #b ,! mo/ accurate det]m9ations ( ?is k9d 7 c>ri$ on by ,/as1 & w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 #b bis ,! am\nt ( electricity 9 "o c\lomb accord+ to ! pres5t nom5clature ( electrical units 7see ,works on ,physics & ,electro-te*nology7 dis5gages #jjjjjajcf gram ( hydrog51 #jjjaab gram ( silv]1 #jjjjcbfc gram ( copp] f ! salts ( ! oxide1 & #jjjjfebf gram f ! salts ( ! suboxide1 c4 ,^! am\nts /& 9 ! same ratio z ! equival5ts1 i4e4 z ! quantities replac$ by "o "p by weight ( hydrog54 ,! intimate bond :i* is becom+ m & m m>k$ exi/+ betwe5 ! electrolytic & purely *emical relations ( sub/ances 7especially 9 solutions7 & ! application ( electrolysis to ! prep>ation ( num]\s sub/ances on a l>ge scale1 toge!r ) ! employm5t ( electricity = obta9+ high temp]atures1 c41 makes me regret t ! plan & dim5sions ( ?is book1 & ! impossibility ( giv+ a concise & objective exposition ( ! necess>y electrical facts1 prev5t my ent]+ ^u ?is prov9ce ( k1 al?\gh ,i consid] x my duty to recomm5d its /udy to all ^? :o desire to take "p 9 ! fur!r developm5t ( our sci5ce4 ,!re is only "o side ( ! subject respect+ ! direct correlation betwe5 !rmo*emical data & electro-motive =ce1 :i* ,i ?9k "r to m5tion "h1 z x ju/ifies ! g5]al conception1 enunciat$ by ,f>aday1 t ! galvanic curr5t is an aspect ( ! transf]5ce ( *emical motion or reaction along ! conductors4 ,f exp]im5ts conduct$ by ,favre1 ,?oms51 ,g>ni1 ,b]!lot1 ,*eltz(f1 & o!rs1 ^u ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 a clos$ circuit1 x foll[s t ! electro-motive =ce ( ! curr5t or its capacity to d a c]ta9 "w1 ,e1 is proportional to ! :ole am\nt ( heat1 ,q1 dis5gag$ by ! reaction =m+ ! s\rce ( ! curr5t4 ,if ,e be express$ 9 volts1 & ,q 9 ?\s&s ( units ( heat ref]r$ to equival5t weights1 !n ,e #jjdcf,q4 ,= example 9 a ,daniells batt]y ,e #aji bo? by exp]im5t & !ory1 because 9 x !re takes place ! decomposition ( ,cu,s,o#d into ,cu ,o toge!r ) ! =mation ( ,zn ,o & ,zn,o ,,s#c;,aq1 & ^! reactions correspond to ,q #bejf ?\s& units ( heat4 ,s also 9 all o!r prim>y batt]ies 7e4g4 ,buns5's1 ,pogg5dorff's1 c47 & second>y ones 7= in/ance1 ^? act+ accord+ to ! reaction ,pb ,h#b,,s#d ,pb,o#b1 z ,*eltz(f %[$7 ,e #jjdcf,q4 ,= unival5t metals1 l ^? ( ! alkalis1 ! weight ( ! equival5t is equal to ! weight ( ! atom4 ,= bival5t metals ! atomic weight is equal to ! weight ( two equival5ts1 = n-val5t metals x is equal to ! weight ( n equival5ts4 ,?us alum9ium1 ,al #bg1 is trival5t1 t is1 its equival5t #i2 magnesium1 ,mg #bd1 is bival5t1 & its equival5t #ab4 ,!re=e1 if potassium or sodium1 or 9 g5]al a unival5t metal1 ,m1 give comp\nds ,m#b,o1 ,,mho1 ,m,cl1 ,,mno#c1 ,m#b,,s#d1 c41 & 9 g5]al ,,mx1 !n = bival5t metals l magnesium or calcium ! correspond+ comp\nds w be ,mg,o1 ,mg7,,ho7#b1 ,mg,cl#b1 ,mg7,,no#c7b1 ,mg,s,o#d1 c41 or 9 g5]al ,,mx#b4 ,by :at are we to be guid$ 9 ascrib+ to "s metals unival5cy & to o!rs bi-1 t]-1 quadri-1 444 n-val5cy8 ,:at obliges u to make ?is diff]5ce8 ,:y are n all metals giv5 ! same val5cy--= in/ance1 :y is n magnesium consid]$ z unival5t8 ,if ?is be done1 tak+ ,mg #ab 7& n #bd z n[71 n only is a simplicity ( expression ( ! composition ( all ! comp\nds ( magnesium atta9$1 b we also ga9 ! advantage t _! composition w be ! same z ^? ( ! correspond+ comp\nds ( sodium & potassium4 ,^! comb9ations 7 s express$ =m]ly--:y has ?is s9ce be5 *ang$8 ,^! que/ions c\ld only be answ]$ aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! idea ( multiples ( ! atomic weights z ! m9imum quantities ( c]ta9 elem5ts comb9+ ) o!rs to =m comp\nds--9 a ^w1 s9ce ! "t ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's law 7,*apt] ,,vii474 ,by tak+ su* an elem5t z ars5ic1 :i* has _m volatile comp\nds1 x is easy to det]m9e ! d5sity ( ^! comp\nds1 & !re=e to e/abli% _! molecul> weights1 & h5ce to f9d ! indubitable atomic weight1 exactly z = oxyg51 nitrog51 *lor9e1 c>bon1 c4 ,x appe>s t ,z #ge1 & its comp\nds correspond1 l ! comp\nds ( nitrog51 ) ! =ms ,as,x#c1 & ,as,x#e2 = example1 ,as,h#c1 ,as,cl#c1 ,as,f#e1 ,z#b,o#e1 c4 ,x is evid5t t we are "h deal+ ) a metal 7or r elem5t7 ( two val5cies1 :i* moreov] is nev] unival5t1 b tri- or qu9qui-val5t4 ,?is example alone is suffici5t = ! recognition ( ! exi/5ce ( polyval5t atoms among ! metals4 ,& z antimony & bismu? are closely analog\s to ars5ic 9 all _! comp\nds1 7j z potassium is analog\s to rubidium & csium72 s1 al?\gh v few volatile comp\nds ( bismu? are kn[n1 x 0 necess>y to ascribe to !m =mul correspond+ ) ^? ascrib$ to ars5ic4 ,z we %all see 9 describ+ !m1 !re are also _m analog\s metals among ! bival5t elem5ts1 "s ( :i* also give volatile comp\nds4 ,= example1 z9c1 :i* is itself volatile1 gives sev]al volatile comp\nds 7= in/ance1 z9c e?yl1 ,zn,c#d;,h#aj1 :i* boils at #aah1 vap\r d5sity #fac71 & 9 ! molecules ( all ^! comp\nds !re is nev] less ?an #fe p>ts ( z9c1 :i* is equival5t to ,h#b1 because #fe p>ts ( z9c displace #b p>ts by weight ( hydrog52 s t z9c is j su* an example ( ! bival5t metals z oxyg51 ^: equival5t #h 7because ,h#b is replac$ by ,o #af71 is a repres5tative ( ! bival5t elem5ts1 or z ars5ic is ( ! tri- & qu9qui-val5t elem5ts4 ,&1 z we %all aft]w>ds see1 magnesium is 9 _m respects closely analog\s to z9c1 :i* fact obliges u to reg>d magnesium z a bival5t metal4 ,su* metals z m]cury & copp]1 :i* are able to give n "o b two bases1 are ( p>ticul> importance = di/+ui%+ unival5t & bival5t metals4 ,?us copp] gives ! suboxide ,cu#b,o & ! oxide ,cu,o--t is1 ! comp\nds ,cu,x correspond+ ) ! suboxide are analog\s 79 ! quantitative relations1 by _! composition7 to ,na,x or ,ag,x1 & ! comp\nds ( ! oxide ,cu,x#b1 to ,mg,x#b1 ,zn,x#b1 & 9 g5]al to ! bival5t metals4 ,x is cle> t 9 su* examples we mu/ make a di/9ction betwe5 atomic weights & equival5ts4 ,9 ?is mann] ! val5cy1 t is1 ! numb] ( equival5ts ent]+ into ! atom ( ! metals may 9 _m cases be e/abli%$ by means ( comp>atively few volatile metallic comp\nds1 ) ! aid ( a se>* into _! analogies 7conc]n+ :i* see ,*apt] ,,xv474 ,! law ( specific heats discov]$ by ,dulong & ,petit has frequ5tly be5 appli$ to ! same purpose#c 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry1 especially s9ce ! developm5t giv5 to ?is law by ! rese>*es ( ,regnault1 & s9ce ,cannizz>o 7#ahfj7 %[$ ! agreem5t betwe5 ! d$uctions ( ?is law & ! consequ5ces aris+ f ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's law4 #c ,! *ief means by :i* we det]m9e ! val5cy ( ! elem5ts1 or :at multiple ( ! equival5t %\ld be ascrib$ to ! atom1 are3 7#a7 ,! law ( ,avogadro-,g]h>dt4 ,?is me?od is ! mo/ g5]al & tru/wor?y1 & has already be5 appli$ to a great numb] ( elem5ts4 7#b7 ,! diff]5t grades ( oxidation & _! isomorphism or analogy 9 g5]al2 = example1 ,fe #ef because ! suboxide 7f]r\s oxide7 is isomorph\s ) magnesium oxide1 c41 & ! oxide 7f]ric oxide7 conta9s half z mu* oxyg5 aga9 z ! suboxide4 ,b]zelius1 ,m>ignac1 & o!rs took advantage ( ?is me?od = det]m9+ ! composition ( ! comp\nds ( _m elem5ts4 7#c7 ,! specific heat1 accord+ to ,dulong & ,petit's law4 ,regnault1 & m especially ,cannizz>o1 us$ ?is me?od to di/+ui% unival5t f bival5t metals4 7#d7 ,! p]iodic law 7see ,*apt] ,,xv47 has s]v$ z a means = ! det]m9ation ( ! atomic weights ( c]ium1 uranium1 yttrium1 c41 & m especially ( gallium1 sc&ium1 & g]manium4 ,! correction ( ! results ( "o me?od by ^? ( o!rs is g5]ally _h rec\rse to1 & is q necess>y1 because1 ph5om5a ( dissociation1 polym]isation1 c41 may complicate ! individual det]m9ations by ea* me?od4 ,x w be well to obs]ve t a numb] ( o!r me?ods1 especially f ! prov9ce ( ^? physical prop]ties :i* are cle>ly dep5d5t on ! magnitude ( ! atom 7or equival5t7 or ( ! molecule1 may lead to ! same result4 ,i may po9t out1 = in/ance1 t ev5 ! specific gravity ( solutions ( ! metallic *lorides may s]ve = ?is purpose4 ,?us1 if b]yllium he tak5 z trival5t--t is1 if ! composition ( its *loride be tak5 z ,be,cl#c 7or a polym]ide ( x71 !n ! specific gravity ( solutions ( b]yllium *loride w n fit into ! s]ies ( ! o!r metallic *lorides4 ,b by ascrib+ to x an atomic weight ,be #g1 or tak+ ,be z bival5t1 & ! composition ( its *loride z ,be,cl#b1 we arrive at ! g5]al rule giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,vii41 ,note #bh4 ,?us ,w4 ,g4 ,burdak(f det]m9$ 9 my laboratory t ! specific gravity at #ae_/d ( ! solution ,be,cl#b #bjj;,h#b,o #ajach--t is1 great] ?an ! correspond+ solution ,k,cl #bjj;,h#b,o 7 #ajaba71 & less ?an ! solution ,mg,cl#b #bjj;,h#b,o 7 #ajbjc71 z w\ld foll[ f ! magnitude ( ! molecul> weight ,be,cl#b #hj1 s9ce ,k,cl #gde & ,mg,cl#b #ie4 ,dulong & ,petit1 hav+ det]m9$ ! specific heat ( a numb] ( solid elem5t>y sub/ances1 obs]v$ t z ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts increase1 _! specific heats decrease1 & t ! product ( ! specific heat ,q into ! atomic weight ,a is an almo/ con/ant quantity4 ,?is means t to br+ diff]5t elem5ts into a kn[n !rmal /ate an equal am\nt ( "w is requir$ if atomic quantities ( ! elem5ts are tak52 t is1 ! am\nts ( heat exp5d$ 9 heat+ equal quantities by weight ( ! elem5ts are f> f equal1 b are 9 inv]se proportion to ! atomic weights4 ,= !rmal *anges ! atom is a unit2 all atoms1 not)/&+ ! diff]5ce ( weight & nature1 are equal4 ,?is is ! simple/ expression ( ! fact discov]$ by ,dulong & ,petit4 ,! specific heat measures t quantity ( heat :i* is requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o unit ( weight ( a sub/ance by "o degree4 ,if ! magnitude ( ! specific heat ( elem5ts be multipli$ by ! atomic weight1 !n we obta9 ! atomic heat--t is1 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( ! atomic weight ( an elem5t by "o degree4 ,x is ^! products :i* = ! majority ( ! elem5ts prove to be approximately1 if n q1 id5tical4 ,a complete id5tity _c be expect$1 because ! specific heat ( "o & ! same sub/ance v>ies ) ! temp]ature1 ) its passage f "o /ate into ano!r1 & frequ5tly ) ev5 a simple me*anical *ange ( d5sity 7= in/ance by hamm]+71 n to speak ( allotropic *anges1 c4 ,we w cite sev]al figures#d prov+ ! tru? ( ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,dulong & ,petit ) respect to solid elem5t>y bodies4 ,li ,na ,mg ,p ,a #g #bc #bd #ca ,q #jidjh #jbicd #jbde #jbjb ,,aq #fei #fge #ehh #fbf ,fe ,cu ,zn ,br ,a #ef #fc #fe #hj ,q #jaab #jjic #jjic #jjhdc ,,aq #fbg #ehf #fjd #fgd ,pd ,ag ,sn ,i ,a #ajf #ajh #aah #abg ,q #jjeib #jjef #jjee #jeda ,,aq #fbh #fje #fdi #fhg ,pt ,au ,hg ,pb ,a #aif #aih #bjj #bjf ,q #jjcbe #jjcbd #jjccc #jjcae ,,aq #fcg #fda #fff #fdi #d ,! specific heats "h giv5 ref] to diff]5t limits ( temp]ature1 b 9 ! majority ( cases betwe5 #j & #ajj2 only 9 ! case ( brom9e ! specific heat is tak5 7= ! solid /ate7 at a temp]ature bel[ -#g1 accord+ to ,regnault's det]m9ation4 ,! v>iation ( ! specific heat ) a *ange ( temp]ature is a v complex ph5om5on1 ! consid]ation ( :i* ,i ?9k w\ld "h be out ( place4 ,i w only cite a few figures z an example4 ,accord+ to ,by/rom1 ! specific heat ( iron at #j #jaaaf1 at #ajj #jaaad1 at #bjj #jaahh1 at #cjj #jabfg1 & at #a1djj #jdjca4 ,betwe5 ^! la/ limits ( temp]ature a *ange takes place 9 iron 7a spontane\s heat+1 recalesc5ce71 z we %all see 9 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,= qu>tz ,si,o#b ,pion*on gives ,q #jagcg #cidt#aj-f-bgt#baj-i up to #djj1 = metallic alum9ium 7,ri*>ds1 #ahib7 at #j #jbbb1 at #bj #jbbd1 at #ajj #jbcb2 consequ5tly1 z a rule1 ! specific heat v>ies slightly ) ! temp]ature4 ,/ill m rem>kable are ,h4 ,e4 ,web]'s obs]vations on ! great v>iation ( ! specific heat ( *>coal1 ! diamond & boron3 #j #ajj #bjj #fjj #ijj ,wood *>coal #jae #jbc #jbi #jdd #jdf ,diamond #jaj #jai #jbb #jdd #jde ,boron #jbb #jbi #jce -- -- ,^! det]m9ations1 :i* h be5 v]ifi$ by ,dew>1 ,le ,*ateli] 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #ac71 ,moissan1 & ,gau?i]1 ! latt] f9d+ = boron ,,aq #f at #djj1 are ( especial importance z confirm+ ! univ]sality ( ,dulong & ,petit's law1 because ! elem5ts m5tion$ above =m exceptions to ! g5]al rule :5 ! mean specific heat is tak5 = temp]atures betwe5 #j & #ajj4 ,?us 9 ! case ( ! diamond ! product ( ,a ,q at #j #ab1 & = boron #bd4 ,b if we take ! specific heat t[>ds :i* !re is evid5tly a t5d5cy ) a rise ( temp]ature1 we obta9 a product approa*+ to #f z ) o!r elem5ts4 ,?us ) ! diamond & *>coal1 x is evid5t t ! specific heat t5ds t[>ds #jdg1 :i* multipli$ by #ab gives #ef1 ! same z = magnesium & alum9ium4 ,i may "h direct ! read]'s att5tion to ! fact t = solid elem5ts hav+ a small atomic weight1 ! specific heat v>ies consid]ably if we take ! av]age figures = temp]atures #j to #ajj3 ,li #g ,be #i ,b #aa ,c #ab ,q #jid #jdb #jbd #jbj ,,aq #ff #ch #bf #bd ,x is !re=e cle> t ! specific heat ( b]yllium det]m9$ at a l[ temp]ature _c s]ve = e/abli%+ its atomicity4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! l[ atomic heat ( *>coal1 graphite1 & ! diamond1 boron1 c41 may p]haps dep5d on ! complexity ( ! molecules ( ^! elem5ts4 ,! necessity = ackn[l$g+ a great complexity ( ! molecules ( c>bon 0 expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,9 ! case ( sulphur ! molecule conta9s at lea/ ,s#f & its atomic heat #cb #jafc #ebb1 :i* is di/9ctly bel[ ! normal4 ,if a l>ge numb] ( atoms ( c>bon are conta9$ 9 ! molecule ( *>coal1 ?is w\ld to a c]ta9 ext5t acc\nt = its comp>atively small atomic heat4 ,) respect to ! specific heat ( comp\nds1 x w n be out ( place to m5tion "h ! conclusion arriv$ at by ,kopp1 t ! molecul> heat 7t is1 ! product ( ,,mq7 may be look$ on z ! sum ( ! atomic heats ( its compon5t elem5ts2 b z ?is rule is n a g5]al "o1 & c only be appli$ to give an approximate e/imate ( ! specific heats ( sub/ances1 ,i d n ?9k x necess>y to g into ! details ( ! conclusions describ$ 9 ,liebig's ',annal5 ,supplem5t-,b&1' #ahfd1 :i* includes a numb] ( det]m9ations made by ,kopp4 ,x is se5 f ?is t ! product ( ! specific heat ( ! elem5t into ! atomic weight is an almo/ con/ant quantity1 :i* is ne>ly #f4 ,h5ce x is possible to det]m9e ! val5cy by ! specific heats ( ! metals4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! specific heats ( li?ium1 sodium1 & potassium conv9ce u ( ! fact t _! atomic weights are inde$ ^? :i* we *ose1 because by multiply+ ! specific heats f\nd by exp]im5t by ! correspond+ atomic weights we obta9 ! foll[+ figures3 ,li1 #fei1 ,na1 #fge & ,k1 #fdg4 ,( ! alkal9e e>? metals ! specific heats h be5 det]m9$3 ( magnesium #jbde 7,regnault & ,kopp71 ( calcium #jagj 7,buns571 & ( b>ium #jje 7,m5deleff74 ,if ! same composition be ascrib$ to ! comp\nds ( magnesium z to ! correspond+ comp\nds ( potassium1 !n ! equival5t ( magnesium w be equal to #ab4 ,on multiply+ ?is atomic weight by ! specific heat ( magnesium1 we obta9 a figure #bid1 :i* is half t :i* is giv5 by ! o!r solid elem5ts & !re=e ! atomic weight ( magnesium mu/ be tak5 z equal to #bd & n to #ab4 ,!n ! atomic heat ( magnesium #bd #jbde #ei2 = calcium1 giv+ its comp\nds a composition ,ca,x#b--;= example ,ca,cl#b1 ,ca,s,o#d1 ,ca,o 7,ca #dj7--we obta9 an atomic heat #dj #jag #fh1 & = b>ium x is equal to #acg #jje #fh2 t is1 !y mu/ be c\nt$ z bival5t1 or t _! atom replaces ,h#b1 ,na#b1 or ,k#b4 ,?is conclusion may be confirm$ by a me?od ( analogy1 z we %all aft]w>ds see4 ,! application ( ! pr9ciple ( specific heats to ! det]m9ation ( ! magnitudes ( ! atomic weights ( ^? metals1 ! magnitude ( ^: atomic weights c\ld n be det]m9$ by ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's law1 0 made ab\t #ahfj by ! ,italian pr(essor ,cannizz>o4 ,exactly ! same conclusions respect+ ! bival5ce ( magnesium & its analogues are obta9$ by comp>+ ! specific heats ( _! comp\nds1 especially ( ! halog5 comp\nds z ! mo/ simple1 ) ! specific heats ( ! correspond+ alkali comp\nds4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! specific heats ( magnesium & calcium *lorides1 ,mg,cl#b & ,ca,cl#b1 are #jaid & #jafd1 & ( sodium & potassium *lorides1 ,na,cl & ,k,cl1 #jbad & #jagb1 & !re=e _! molecul> heats 7or ! products ,,qm1 :]e ,m is ! weight ( ! molecule7 are #ahd & #ahb1 #abe & #abh1 & h5ce ! atomic heats 7or ! quoti5t ( ,,qm by ! numb] ( atoms7 are all ne>ly #f1 z ) ! elem5ts4 ,:il/ if1 in/ead ( ! actual atomic weights ,mg #bd & ,ca #dj1 _! equival5ts #ab & #bj be tak51 !n ! atomic heats ( ! *lorides ( magnesium & calcium w\ld be ab\t #df1 :il/ ^? ( potassium & sodium *lorides are ab\t #fc4e ,we mu/ rem>k1 h[ev]1 t z ! specific heat or ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( a unit ( weight "o degree#f is a complex quantity--includ+ n only ! increase ( ! en]gy ( a sub/ance ) its rise 9 temp]ature1 b also ! ext]nal "w ( expansion#g & ! int]nal "w accompli%$ 9 ! molecules caus+ !m to decompose accord+ to ! rise ( temp]ature#h--!re=e x is impossible to expect 9 ! magnitude ( ! specific heat ! great simplicity ( relation to composition :i* we see1 = in/ance1 9 ! d5sity ( gase\s sub/ances4 ,h5ce1 al?\gh ! specific heat is "o ( ! important means = det]m9+ ! atomicity ( ! elem5ts1 /ill ! ma9/ay = a true judgm5t ( atomicity is only giv5 by ,avogadro-,g]h>dt's law1 i4e4 ?is o!r me?od c only be accessory or prelim9>y1 & :5 possible rec\rse %\ld be _h to ! det]m9ation ( ! vap\r d5sity4 #e ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t 9 ! case ( oxyg5 7& also hydrog5 & c>bon7 comp\nds ! quoti5t ( ,,mq_/n1 :]e n is ! numb] ( atoms 9 ! molecule1 is always less ?an #f = solids2 = example1 = ,mg,o #ej1 ,cu,o #ea1 ,mn,o#b #df1 ice 7,q #jejd7 #c1 ,si,o#b #ce1 c4 ,at pres5t x is impossible to say :e!r ?is dep5ds on ! small] specific heat ( ! atom ( oxyg5 9 its solid comp\nds 7,kopp1 ,note #d7 or on "s o!r cause2 b1 nev]!less1 tak+ into acc\nt ?is decrease dep5d+ on ! pres5ce ( oxyg51 a reflection ( ! atomicity ( ! elem5ts may to a c]ta9 ext5t be se5 9 ! specific heat ( ! oxides4 ,?us = alum9a1 ,al#b,o#c 7,q #jbag71 ,,mq #bbc1 & !re=e ! quoti5t ,,mq_/n #de1 :i* is ne>ly t giv5 by magnesium oxide1 ,mg,o4 ,b if we ascribe ! same composition to alum9a1 z to magnesia--t is1 if alum9ium 7 c\nt$ z dival5t--we %\ld obta9 ! figure #cg1 :i* is mu* less4 ,9 g5]al1 9 comp\nds ( id5tical atomic composition & ( analog\s *emical prop]ties ! molecul> heats ,,mq are ne>ly equal1 z _m inve/igators h long rem>k$4 ,= example1 ,zn,s #aag & ,hg,s #aah2 ,mg,s,o#d #bgj & ,zn,s,o#d #bhj1 c4 #f ,if ,w be ! am\nt ( heat conta9$ 9 a mass m ( a sub/ance at a temp]ature t1 & d,w ! am\nt exp5d$ 9 heat+ x f t to t dt1 !n ! specific heat ,q d,w7m dt74 ,! specific heat n only v>ies ) ! composition & complexity ( ! molecules ( a sub/ance1 b also ) ! temp]ature1 pressure1 & physical /ate ( a sub/ance4 ,ev5 = gases ! v>iation ( ,q ) t is to be obs]v$4 ,?us x is se5 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,regnault & ,wi$emann t ! specific heat ( c>bonic anhydride at #j #jai1 at #ajj #jbb1 & at #bjj #jbd4 ,b ! v>iation ( ! specific heat ( p]man5t gases ) ! temp]ature is1 z f> z we "k1 v inconsid]able4 ,accord+ to ,mall>d & ,le ,*ateli] x is #jjjjf_/,m p] #a1 :]e ,m is ! molecul> weight 7= in/ance1 = ,o#b1 ,m #cb74 ,!re=e ! specific heat ( ^? p]man5t gases :i* conta9 two atoms 9 ! molecule 7,h#b1 ,o#b1 ,n#b1 ,,co1 & ,,no7 may be1 z is %[n by exp]im5t1 tak5 z n v>y+ ) ! temp]ature4 ,! con/ancy ( ! specific heat ( p]fect gases =ms "o ( ! fundam5tal propositions ( ! :ole !ory ( heat & on x dep5ds ! det]m9ation ( temp]atures by means ( gas-!rmomet]s conta9+ hydrog51 nitrog51 or air4 ,le ,*ateli] 7#ahhg71 on ! basis ( exi/+ det]m9ations1 concludes t ! molecul> heat--t is1 ! product ,,mq--( all gases v>ies 9 proportion to ! temp]ature1 & t5ds to become equal 7 #fh7 at ! temp]ature ( absolute z]o 7t is1 at -#bgc72 & !re=e ,,mq #fh a7#bgc t71 :]e a is a con/ant quantity :i* increases ) ! complexity ( ! gase\s molecule & ,q is ! specific heat ( ! gas "u a con/ant pressure4 ,= p]man5t gases a almo/ #j1 & !re=e ,,mq #fh--t is1 ! atomic heat 7if ! molecule conta9s two atoms7 #cd1 z x is 9 fact 7,*apt] ,,ix41 ,note #ag bis74 ,z reg>ds liquids 7z well z ! vap\rs =m$ by !m71 ! specific heat always rises ) ! temp]ature4 ,?us = b5z5e x equals #jch #jjjadt4 ,r4 ,s*iff 7#ahhg7 %[$ t ! v>iation ( ! specific heat ( _m organic liquids is proportional to ! *ange ( temp]ature 7z 9 ! case ( gases1 accord+ to ,le ,*ateli]71 & r$uc$ ^! v>iations into dep5d5ce ) _! composition & absolute boil+ po9t4 ,x is v probable t ! !ory ( liquids w make use ( ^! simple relations :i* recall ! simplicity ( ! v>iation ( ! specific gravity 7,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #cd71 cohesion1 & o!r prop]ties ( liquids ) ! temp]ature4 ,!y are all express$ by ! l9e> function ( ! temp]ature1 a bt1 ) ! same degree ( proximity z ! prop]ty ( gases is express$ by ! equation pv ,rt4 ,z reg>ds ! relation betwe5 ! specific heats ( liquids 7or ( solids7 & ( _! vap\rs1 ! specific heat ( ! vap\r 7& also ( ! solid7 is always less ?an t ( ! liquid4 ,= example1 b5z5e vap\r #jbb1 liquid #jch2 *lor(orm vap\r #jac1 liquid #jbc2 /eam #jdge1 liquid wat] #aj4 ,b ! complexity ( ! relations exi/+ 9 specific heat is se5 f ! fact t ! specific heat ( ice #jejb is less ?an t ( liquid wat]4 ,accord+ to ,regnault1 9 ! case ( brom9e ! specific heat ( ! vap\r #jjee at 7#aej71 ( ! liquid #jajg 7at #cj71 & ( solid brom9e #jjhd 7at -#ae74 ,! specific heat ( solid b5zoic acid 7accord+ to exp]im5t & calculation1 ,hess1 #ahhh7 betwe5 #j & #ajj is #jca1 & ( liquid b5zoic acid #jej4 ,"o ( ! problems ( ! pres5t day is ! explanation ( ^? complex relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! composition & su* prop]ties z specific heat1 lat5t heat1 expansion by heat1 compression1 int]nal friction1 cohesion1 & s =?4 ,!y c only be connect$ by a complete !ory ( liquids1 :i* may n[ soon be expect$1 m especially z _m sides ( ! subject h already be5 p>tially expla9$4 #g ,accord+ to ! above reasons ! quantity ( heat1 ,q1 requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o "p by weight ( a sub/ance by "o degree may be express$ by ! sum ,q ,k ,b ,d1 :]e ,k is ! heat actually exp5d$ 9 heat+ ! sub/ance1 or :at is t]m$ ! absolute specific heat1 ,b ! am\nt ( heat exp5d$ 9 ! int]nal "w accompli%$ ) ! rise ( temp]ature1 & ,d ! am\nt ( heat exp5d$ 9 ext]nal "w4 ,9 ! case ( gases ! la/ quantity may be easily det]m9$1 kn[+ _! coeffici5t ( expansion1 :i* is approximately #jjjcfh4 ,by apply+ to ?is case ! same argum5t giv5 at ! end ( ,note #aa1 ,*apt] ,i41 we f9d t "o cubic metre ( a gas heat$ #a produces an ext]nal "w ( #ajccc #jjjcfh1 or #chjb kilogrammetres1 on :i* #chjb_/dbd or #jjhig heat units are exp5d$4 ,?is is ! heat exp5d$ = ! ext]nal "w produc$ by "o cubic metre ( a gas1 b ! specific heat ref]s to units ( weight1 & !re=e x is necess>y 9 ord] to "k ,d to r$uce ! above quantity to a unit ( weight4 ,"o cubic metre ( hydrog5 at #j & #gfj mm4 pressure weighs #jjhif kilo1 a gas ( molecul> weight ,m has a d5sity ,m_/#b1 consequ5tly a cubic metre weighs 7at #j & #gfj mm47 #jjddh,m kilo1 & !re=e #a kilogram ( ! gas occupies a volume #a_/jjddh,m cubic metres1 & h5ce ! ext]nal "w ,d 9 ! heat+ ( #a kilo ( ! giv5 gas ?r\gh #a #jjhif_/jjddh,m1 or ,d #b_/,m4 ,tak+ ! magnitude ( ! int]nal "w ,b = gases z negligible if p]man5t gases are tak51 & !re=e suppos+ ,b #j1 we f9d ! specific heat ( gases at a con/ant pressure ,q ,k #b ,m1 :]e ,k is ! specific heat at a con/ant volume1 or ! true specific heat1 & ,m ! molecul> weight4 ,h5ce ,k ,q-#b_/,m4 ,! magnitude ( ! specific heat ,q is giv5 by direct exp]im5t4 ,accord+ to ,regnault's exp]im5ts1 = oxyg5 x #jbage1 = hydrog5 #cdje1 = nitrog5 #jbdch2 ! molecul> weights ( ^! gases are #cb1 #b1 & #bh1 & !re=e = oxyg5 ,k #jbage-jjfbe #jaeej1 = hydrog5 ,k #cdjej-ajjj #bdjej1 & = nitrog5 ,k #jbdch-jjgad #jagbd4 ,^! true specific heats ( elem5ts are 9 inv]se proportion to _! atomic weights--t is1 _! product by ! atomic weight is a con/ant quantity4 ,9 fact1 = oxyg5 ?is product #jaee #af #bdh1 = hydrog5 #bdj1 = nitrog5 #jggbd #ad #bdad1 & !re=e if ,a /& = ! atomic weight we obta9 ! expression ,k ,a a con/ant1 :i* may be tak5 z #bde4 ,?is is ! true expression ( ,dulong & ,petit's law1 because ,k is ! true specific heat & ,a ! weight ( ! atom4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$1 moreov]1 t ! product ( ! obs]v$ specific heat ,q into ,a is also a con/ant quantity 7= oxyg5 #cdh1 = hydrog5 #cdj71 because ! ext]nal "w ,d is also inv]sely proportional to ! atomic weight4 ,9 ! case ( gases we di/+ui% ! specific heat at a con/ant pressure c 7we designat$ ?is quantity above by ,q71 & at a con/ant volume c4 ,x is evid5t t ! relation betwe5 ! two specific heats1 k1 judg+ f ! above1 is ! ratio ( ,q to ,k1 or equal to ! ratio ( #bden #b to #bden4 ,:5 n #a ?is ratio k #ah2 :5 n #b1 k #ad1 :5 n #c1 k #ac1 & ) an exce$+ly l>ge numb] n1 ( atoms 9 ! molecule1 k #a4 ,t is1 ! ratio betwe5 ! specific heats decreases f #ah to #aj z ! numb] ( atoms1 n1 conta9$ 9 ! molecule increases4 ,?is d$uction is v]ifi$ to a c]ta9 ext5t by direct exp]im5t4 ,= su* gases z hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 c>bonic oxide1 air1 & o!rs 9 :i* n #b1 ! magnitude ( k is det]m9$ by me?ods describ$ 9 works on physics 7= example1 by ! *ange ( temp]ature ) an alt]ation ( pressure1 by ! velocity ( s\nd1 c47 & is f\nd 9 reality to be ne>ly #ad1 & = su* gases z c>bonic anhydride1 nitric dioxide1 & o!rs x is ne>ly #ac4 ,kundt & ,w>burg 7#ahge71 by means ( ! approximate me?od m5tion$ 9 ,note #bi1 ,*apt] ,,vii41 det]m9$ k = m]cury vap\r :5 n #a1 & f\nd x to be #afg--t is1 a l>g] quantity ?an = air1 z w\ld be expect$ f ! above4 ,x may be admitt$ t ! true atomic heat ( gases #bdc1 only "u ! condition t !y are di/ant f a liquid /ate1 & d n und]go a *emical *ange :5 heat$--t is1 :5 no int]nal "w is produc$ 9 !m 7,b #j74 ,!re=e ?is "w may to a c]ta9 ext5t be judg$ by ! obs]v$ specific heat4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 = *lor9e 7,q #jab1 ,regnault2 k #acc1 accord+ to ,/rak] & ,m>t91 & !re=e ,k #jji1 ,,mk #fd71 ! atomic heat 7#cb7 is mu* great] ?an = o!r gases conta9+ two atoms 9 a molecule1 & x mu/ be assum$1 !re=e1 t :5 x is heat$ "s great int]nal "w is accompli%$4 ,9 ord] to g5]alise ! facts conc]n+ ! specific heat ( gases & solids1 x appe>s to me possible to accept ! foll[+ g5]al proposition3 ! atomic heat 7t is1 ,,aq or ,,qm_/n1 :]e ,m is ! molecul> weight & n ! numb] ( molecules7 is small] 79 solids x atta9s its highe/ value #fh & 9 gases #cd71 ! m complex ! molecule 7i4e4 ! great] ! numb] 7n7 ( atoms =m+ x7 & s mu* small]1 up to a c]ta9 po9t 79 simil> physical /ates7 ! small] ! mean atomic weight ,m_/n4 #h ,z an example1 x w be suffici5t to ref] to ! specific heat ( nitrog5 tetroxide1 ,n#b,o#d1 :i*1 :5 heat$1 gradually passes into ,,no#b--t is1 *emical "w ( decomposition proce$s1 :i* consumes heat4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 specific heat is a complex quantity1 9 :i* x is cle> t !rmal data 7= in/ance1 ! heat ( reaction7 alone _c give an idea ei!r ( *emical or ( physical *anges individually1 b always dep5d on an association ( ! "o & ! o!r4 ,if a sub/ance be heat$ f t#j to t#a x _c b suff] a *emical *ange 7t is1 ! /ate ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules *anges m or less 9 "o way or ano!r7 if dissociation sets 9 at a temp]ature t#a4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( ! elem5ts ^: molecules conta9 only "o atom1 a true *emical *ange is possible ) a rise ( temp]ature1 because m heat is evolv$ 9 *emical reactions ?an t quantity :i* p>ticipates 9 purely physical *anges4 ,"o gram ( hydrog5 7specific heat #cd at a con/ant pressure7 cool$ to ! temp]ature ( absolute z]o w evolve altoge!r ab\t "o ?\s& units ( heat1 #h grams ( oxyg5 half ?is am\nt1 :il/ 9 comb9+ toge!r !y evolve 9 ! =mation ( #i grams ( wat] m ?an ?irty times z mu* heat4 ,h5ce ! /ore ( *emical en]gy 7t is1 ( ! motion ( ! atoms1 vortex1 or o!r7 is mu* great] ?an ! physical /ore prop] to ! molecules1 b x is ! *ange accompli%$ by ! =m] t is ! cause ( *emical trans=mations4 ,"h we evid5tly t\* on ^? limits ( exi/+ k beyond :i* ! tea*+ ( sci5ce does n yet all[ u to pass4 ,_m new sci5tific discov]ies h /ill to be made be=e ?is is possible4 ,among ! bival5t metals ! fir/ place1 ) respect to _! di/ribution 9 nature1 is occupi$ by magnesium & calcium1 j z sodium & potassium /& fir/ among/ ! unival5t metals4 ,! relation :i* exi/s betwe5 ! atomic weights ( ^! f\r metals confirms ! above comp>ison4 ,9 fact1 ! comb9+ weight ( magnesium is equal to #bd1 & ( calcium #dj2 :il/ ! comb9+ weights ( sodium & potassium are #bc & #ci--t is1 ! latt] are "o unit less ?an ! =m]4#i ,!y all belong to ! numb] ( light metals1 z !y h b a small specific gravity1 9 :i* respect !y diff] f ! ord9>y1 g5]ally kn[n heavy1 or ore1 metals 7= in/ance1 iron1 copp]1 silv]1 & lead71 :i* are di/+ui%$ by a mu* great] specific gravity4 ,!re is no d\bt t _! l[ specific gravity has a significance1 n only z a simple po9t ( di/9ction1 b also z a prop]ty :i* det]m9es ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( ^! metals4 ,inde$1 all ! light metals h a s]ies ( po9ts ( resemblance ) ! metals ( ! alkalis2 ?us bo? magnesium & calcium1 l ! metals ( ! alkalis1 decompose wat] 7)\t ! addition ( acids71 al?\gh n s easily z ! latt] metals4 ,! process ( ! decomposition is ess5tially "o & ! same2 = example1 ,ca #b;,h#b,o ,ca,h#b,o#b ,h#b--t is1 hydrog5 is lib]at$ & a hydroxide ( ! metal =m$4 ,^! hydroxides are bases :i* neutralise ne>ly all acids4 ,h[ev]1 ! hydroxides ,,rh#b,o#b ( calcium & magnesium are 9 no respect s en]getic z ! hydroxides ( ! true metals ( ! alkalis2 ?us :5 heat$ !y lose wat]1 are n s soluble1 develop less heat ) acids1 & =m v>i\s salts1 :i* are less /able & m easily decompos$ by heat ?an ! correspond+ salts ( sodium & potassium4 ,?us calcium & magnesium c>bonates easily "p ) c>bonic anhydride :5 ignit$2 ! nitrates are also v easily decompos$ by heat1 calcium & magnesium oxides1 ,ca,o & ,mg,o1 be+ left beh9d4 ,! *lorides ( magnesium & calcium1 :5 heat$ ) wat]1 evolve hydrog5 *loride1 =m+ ! correspond+ hydroxides1 & :5 ignit$ ! oxides !mselves4 ,all ^! po9ts are evid5ce ( a weak5+ ( ! alkal9e prop]ties4 #i ,z if ,na,h ,mg & ,,kh ,ca1 :i* is 9 accordance ) _! val5cy4 ,,kh includes two monoval5t elem5ts1 & is a bival5t gr\p l ,ca4 ,^! metals h be5 t]m$ ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 because !y1 l ! alkali metals1 =m en]getic bases4 ,!y are call$ alkal9e e>?s because !y are met ) 9 nature 9 a /ate ( comb9ation1 =m+ ! insoluble mass ( ! e>?1 & because z oxides1 ,,ro1 !y !mselves h an e>?y appe>ance4 ,n a few salts ( ^! metals are kn[n :i* are insoluble 9 wat]1 :il/ ! correspond+ salts ( ! alkali metals are g5]ally soluble--= example1 ! c>bonates1 phosphates1 borates1 & o!r salts ( ! alkal9e e>? metals are ne>ly insoluble4 ,?is enables u to sep>ate ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s f ! metals ( ! alkalis4 ,= ?is purpose a solution ( ammonium c>bonate is add$ to a mix$ solution ( salts ( bo? k9ds ( metals1 :5 by a d\ble decomposition ! insoluble c>bonates ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s are =m$ & fall z a precipitate1 :il/ ! metals ( ! alkalis rema9 9 solution3 ,,rx#b ,na#b;,,co#c ,,rco#c #b,na,x4 ,we may "h rem>k t ! oxides ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s are frequ5tly call$ by special names3 ,mg,o is call$ magnesia or bitt] e>?2 ,ca,o1 lime2 ,sr,o1 /rontia2 & ,ba,o1 b>yta4 ,9 ! prim>y rocks ! oxides ( calcium & magnesium are comb9$ ) silica1 sometimes 9 v>iable quantities1 s t 9 "s cases ! lime pr$om9ates & 9 o!r cases ! magnesium4 ,! two oxides1 be+ analog\s to ea* o!r1 replace ea* o!r 9 equival5t quantities4 ,! v>i\s =ms ( augite1 hornbl5de1 or amphibole1 & ( simil> m9]als1 :i* ent] into ! composition ( ne>ly all rocks1 conta9 lime & magnesia & silica4 ,! majority ( ! prim>y rocks also conta9 alum9a1 pota%1 & soda4 ,^! rocks1 "u ! action ( wat] 7conta9+ c>bonic acid7 & air1 give up lime & magnesia to ! wat]1 & !re=e !y are conta9$ 9 all k9ds ( wat]1 & especially 9 sea-wat]4 ,! c>bonates ,ca,c,o#c & ,mg,c,o#c1 frequ5tly met ) 9 nature1 are soluble 9 an excess ( wat] saturat$ ) c>bonic anhydride1#aj & !re=e _m natural wat]s conta9 ^! salts1 & are able to yield !m :5 evaporat$4 ,h[ev]1 "o kilogram ( wat] saturat$ ) c>bonic anhydride does n dissolve m ?an ?ree grams ( calcium c>bonate4 ,by gradually expell+ ! c>bonic anhydride f su* wat]1 an insoluble precipitate ( calcium c>bonate sep>ates out4 ,x may confid5tly be /at$ t ! =mation ( ! v widely di/ribut$ /rata ( calcium & magnesium c>bonates 0 ( ?is nature1 because ^! /rata are ( a s$im5t>y "*--t is1 su* z w\ld be exhibit$ by a gradually accumulat+ deposit on ! bottom ( ! sea1 &1 moreov]1 frequ5tly conta9+ ! rema9s ( m>9e plants1 & animals1 %ells1 c4 ,x is v probable t ! pres5ce ( ^! organisms 9 ! sea has play$ ! *ief "p 9 ! precipitation ( ! c>bonates f ! sea wat]1 because ! plants absorb ,,co#b1 & _m ( ! organisms ,ca,c,o#c1 & aft] dea? give deposits ( c>bonate ( lime2 = in/ance1 *alk1 :i* is almo/ entirely compos$ ( ! m9ute rema9s ( ! calc>e\s %ields ( su* organisms4 ,^! deposits ( calcium & magnesium c>bonates are ! mo/ important s\rces ( ^! metals4 ,lime g5]ally pr$om9ates1 because x is pres5t 9 rocks & runn+ wat] 9 great] quantity ?an magnesia1 & 9 ?is case ^! s$im5t>y rocks are t]m$ lime/one4 ,"s common flag/ones us$ = pav+1 c41 & *alk may be tak5 z examples ( ?is k9d ( =mation4 ,^? lime/ones 9 :i* a consid]able portion ( ! calcium is replac$ by magnesium are t]m$ dolomites4 ,! dolomites are di/+ui%$ by _! h>dness1 & by _! n p>t+ ) ! :ole ( _! c>bonic anhydride s easily z ! lime/ones "u ! action ( acids4 ,dolomites#aa sometimes conta9 an equal numb] ( molecules ( calcium c>bonate & magnesium c>bonate1 & !y also sometimes appe> 9 a cry/all9e =m1 :i* is easily intelligible1 because calcium c>bonate itself is exce$+ly common 9 ?is =m 9 nature1 & is !n kn[n z calc sp>1 :il/ natural cry/all9e magnesium c>bonate is t]m$ magnesite4 ,! =mation ( ! cry/all9e v>ieties ( ! insoluble c>bonates is expla9$ by ! possibility ( a sl[ deposition f solutions conta9+ c>bonic acid4 ,besides :i* 7,*apt] ,x47 calcium & magnesium sulphates are obta9$ f sea wat]1 & !re=e !y are met ) bo? z deposits & 9 spr+s4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t magnesium is held 9 consid]able quantities 9 sea wat]1 because ! sulphate & *loride ( magnesium are v soluble 9 wat]1 :il/ calcium sulphate is b little soluble1 & is us$ 9 ! =mation ( %ells2 & !re=e if ! occurr5ce ( consid]able deposits ( magnesium sulphate _c be expect$ 9 nature1 /ill1 on ! o!r h&1 "o w\ld expect 7& !y d actually occur7 l>ge masses ( calcium sulphate or gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o4 ,gypsum sometimes =ms /rata ( imm5se size1 :i* ext5d ov] _m hectometres--= example1 9 ,russia on ! ,volga1 & 9 ! ,donetz & ,baltic prov9ces4 #aj ,sodium c>bonate & o!r c>bonates ( ! alkalis give acid salts :i* are less soluble ?an ! normal2 "h1 on ! contr>y1 ) an excess ( c>bonic anhydride1 a salt is =m$ :i* is m soluble ?an ! normal1 b ?is acid salt is m un/able ?an sodium hydrog5 c>bonate1 ,na,h,c,o#c4 #aa ,! =mation ( dolomite may be expla9$1 if only we imag9e t a solution ( a magnesium salt acts on calcium c>bonate4 ,magnesium c>bonate may be =m$ by d\ble decomposition1 & x mu/ be suppos$ t ?is process ceases at a c]ta9 limit 7,*apt] ,,xii471 :5 we %all obta9 a mixture ( ! c>bonates ( calcium & magnesium4 ,hait+] heat$ a mixture ( calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o#c1 ) a solution ( an equival5t quantity ( magnesium sulphate1 ,mg,s,o#d1 9 a clos$ tube at #bjj1 & !n a portion ( ! magnesia actually pass$ into ! /ate ( magnesium c>bonate1 ,mg,c,o#c1 & a portion ( ! lime 0 conv]t$ into gypsum1 ,ca,s,o#d4 ,lubav9 7#ahib7 %[$ t ,mg,c,o#c is m soluble ?an ,ca,c,o#c 9 salt wat]1 :i* is ( "s significance 9 expla9+ ! composition ( sea wat]4 ,lime & magnesia also1 b 9 mu* small] quantities 7only to ! am\nt ( sev]al fractions ( a p] c5t4 & r>ely m71 ent] into ! composition ( e f]tile soil1 & )\t ^! bases ! soil is unable to support vegetation4 ,lime is p>ticul>ly important 9 ?is respect1 & its pres5ce 9 a l>g] quantity g5]ally improves ! h>ve/1 al?\gh purely calc>e\s soils are z a rule inf]tile4 ,= ?is reason ! soil is f]tilis$ bo? ) lime#ab itself & ) m>l--t is1 ) clay mix$ ) a c]ta9 quantity ( calcium c>bonate1 /rata ( :i* are f\nd ne>ly ev]y:]e4 #ab ,! und\bt$ action ( lime 9 increas+ ! f]tility ( soils--if n 9 e case1 at all ev5ts1 ) ord9>y soils :i* h long be5 "u corn--is bas$ n s mu* on ! ne$ ( plants = ! lime itself z on ^? *emical & physical *anges :i* x produces 9 ! soil1 z a p>ticul>ly p[]ful base :i* aids ! alt]ation ( ! m9]al & organic elem5ts ( ! soil4 ,f ! soil ! lime & magnesia 79 a small] quantity7 pass into ! sub/ance ( plants1 :]e !y occur z salts4 ,c]ta9 ( ^! salts sep>ate 9 ! int]ior ( plants 9 a cry/all9e =m--= example1 calcium oxalate4 ,! lime occurr+ 9 plants s]ves z ! s\rce = ! =mation ( ! v>i\s calc>e\s secretions :i* are s common 9 animals ( all classes4 ,! bones ( ! highe/ animal ord]s1 ! %ells ( mollusca1 ! cov]+ ( ! sea-ur*91 & simil> solid secretions ( sea animals1 conta9 calcium salts2 namely1 ! %ells ma9ly calcium c>bonate1 & ! bones ma9ly calcium phosphate4 ,c]ta9 lime/ones are almo/ entirely =m$ ( su* deposits4 ,odessa is situat$ on a lime/one ( ?is k9d1 compos$ ( %ells4 ,?us magnesium & calcium occur ?r\gh\t ! entire realm ( nature1 b calcium pr$om9ates4 ,z lime & magnesia =m bases :i* are 9 _m respects analog\s1 !y 7 n di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r = a long "t4 ,magnesia 0 obta9$ = ! fir/ "t 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury f ,italy1 & us$ z a m$ic9e2 & x 0 only 9 ! la/ c5tury t ,black1 ,b]gmann1 & o!rs di/+ui%$ magnesia f lime4 ,metallic magnesium 7& calcium also7 is n obta9$ by heat+ magnesium oxide or ! c>bonate ) *>coal1 z ! alkali metals are obta9$1#ac b is lib]at$ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t on fus$ magnesium *loride 7be/ mix$ ) potassium *loride72 ,davy & ,bussy obta9$ metallic magnesium by act+ on magnesium *loride ) ! vap\rs ( potassium4 ,at ! pres5t "t 7,deville's process7 magnesium is prep>$ 9 r consid]able quantities by a simil> process1 only ! potassium is replac$ by sodium4 ,anhydr\s magnesium *loride1 toge!r ) sodium *loride & calcium fluoride1 is fus$ 9 a close crucible4 ,! latt] sub/ances only s]ve to facilitate ! =mation ( a fusible mass be=e & aft] ! reaction1 :i* is indisp5sable 9 ord] to prev5t ! access & action ( air4 ,"o "p ( f9ely divid$ sodium to five p>ts ( magnesium *loride is ?r[n into ! /rongly heat$ molt5 mass1 & aft] /irr+ ! reaction proce$s v quickly1 & magnesium sep>ates1 ,mg,cl#b ,na#b ,mg #b,na,cl4 ,9 work+ on a l>ge scale1 ! p[d]y metallic magnesium is !n subject$ to di/illation at a :ite heat4 ,! di/illation ( ! magnesium is necess>y1 because ! undi/ill$ metal is n homog5e\s#ad & burns unev5ly3 ! metal is prep>$ = ! purpose ( illum9ation4 ,magnesium is a :ite metal1 l silv]2 x is n s(t l ! alkali metals1 b is1 on ! contr>y1 h>d l ! majority ( ! ord9>y metals4 ,?is foll[s f ! fact t x melts at a some:at high temp]ature--namely1 ab\t #ejj--;& boils at ab\t #ajjj4 ,x is malleable & ductile1 l ! g5]ality ( metals1 s t x c be drawn into wires & roll$ into ribbon2 x is mo/ frequ5tly us$ = light+ purposes 9 ! latt] =m4 ,unlike ! alkali metals1 magnesium does n decompose ! atmosph]ic moi/ure at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 s t x is almo/ unact$ on by air2 x is n ev5 act$ on by wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 s t x may be wa%$ to free x f sodium *loride4 ,magnesium only decomposes wat] ) ! evolution ( hydrog5 at ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1#ae & m rapidly at /ill high] temp]atures4 ,?is is expla9$ by ! fact t 9 decompos+ wat] magnesium =ms an insoluble hydroxide1 ,mg,h#b,o#b1 :i* cov]s ! metal & h9d]s ! fur!r action ( ! wat]4 ,magnesium easily displaces hydrog5 f acids1 =m+ magnesium salts4 ,:5 ignit$ x burns1 n only 9 oxyg5 b 9 air 7& ev5 9 c>bonic anhydride71 =m+ a :ite p[d] ( magnesium oxide1 or magnesia2 9 burn+ x emits a :ite & exce$+ly brilliant light4 ,! /r5g? ( ?is light naturally dep5ds on ! fact t magnesium 7#bd p>ts by weight7 9 burn+ evolves ab\t #adj ?\s& heat units1 & t ! product ( combu/ion1 ,mg,o1 is infusible by heat2 s t ! vap\r ( ! burn+ magnesium conta9s an ignit$ p[d] ( non-volatile & infusible magnesia1 & consequ5tly pres5ts all ! conditions = ! production ( a brilliant light4 ,! light emitt$ by burn+ magnesium conta9s _m rays :i* act *emically1 & are situat$ 9 ! violet & ultra-violet p>ts ( ! spectrum4 ,= ?is reason burn+ magnesium may be employ$ = produc+ photographic images4#af #ac ,sodium & potassium only decompose magnesium oxide at a :ite heat & v feebly1 probably = two reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 because ! reaction ,mg ,o develops m heat 7ab\t #adj ?\s& calories7 ?an ,k#b ,o or ,na#b ,o 7ab\t #ajj ?\s& calories72 &1 9 ! second place1 because magnesia is n fusible at ! heat ( a furnace & _c act on ! *>coal1 sodium1 or potassium--t is1 x does n pass into t mobile /ate :i* is necess>y = reaction4 ,! fir/ reason alone is n suffici5t to expla9 ! abs5ce ( ! reaction betwe5 *>coal & magnesia1 because iron & *>coal 9 comb9+ ) oxyg5 evolve less heat ?an sodium or potassium1 yet1 nev]!less1 !y c displace !m4 ,) respect to magnesium *loride1 x acts on sodium & potassium1 n only because _! comb9ation ) *lor9e evolves m heat ?an ! comb9ation ( *lor9e & magnesium 7,mg ,cl#b gives #aej & ,na#b ,cl#b ab\t #aie ?\s& calories71 b also because a fusion1 bo? ( ! magnesium *loride & ( ! d\ble salt1 takes place "u ! action ( heat4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t a rev]se reaction w take place4 ,a rev]se reaction might probably be expect$1 & ,w9kl] 7#ahij7 %[$ t ,mg r$uces ! oxides ( ! alkali metals 7,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #db74 #ad ,comm]cial magnesium g5]ally conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( magnesium nitride 7,deville & ,c>on71 ,mg#c,n#b--t is1 a product ( sub/itution ( ammonia :i* is directly =m$ 7z is easily %[n by exp]im5t7 :5 magnesium is heat$ 9 nitrog54 ,x is a yell[i% gre5 p[d]1 :i* gives ammonia & magnesia ) wat]1 & cyanog5 :5 heat$ ) c>bonic anhydride4 ,pa%k(fsky 7#ahic7 %[$ t ,mg#c,n#b is easily =m$ & is ! sole product :5 ,mg is heat$ to r$ness 9 a curr5t ( ,,nh#c4 ,p]fectly pure magnesium may be obta9$ by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t4 #ae ,hydrog5 p]oxide 7,weltzi57 dissolves magnesium4 ,! reaction has n be5 inve/igat$4 #af ,a special =m ( app>atus is us$ = burn+ magnesium4 ,x is a clockwork arrangem5t 9 :i* a cyl9d] rotates1 r\nd :i* a ribbon or wire ( magnesium is w\nd4 ,! wire is subject$ to a uni=m unw9d+ & burn+ z ! cyl9d] rotates1 & 9 ?is mann] ! combu/ion may cont9ue uni=m = a c]ta9 "t4 ,! same is atta9$ 9 special lamps1 by caus+ a mixture ( s& & f9ely divid$ magnesium to fall f a funnel-%ap$ res]voir on to ! flame4 ,9 photography x is be/ to bl[ f9ely divid$ magnesium into a col\rless 7_s or gas7 flame1 & = in/antane\s photography to light a c>tridge ( a mixture ( magnesium & *lorate ( potassium by means ( a sp>k f a ,ruhmkorff's coil 7,d4 ,m5deleff1 #ahhi74 ,ow+ to its great aff9ity = oxyg51 magnesium r$uces _m metals 7z9c1 iron1 bismu?1 antimony1 cadmium1 t91 lead1 copp]1 silv]1 & o!rs7 f solutions ( _! salts at ! ord9>y temp]ature1#ag & at a r$ heat f9ely divid$ magnesium takes up ! oxyg5 f silica1 alum9a1 boric anhydride1 c42 s t silicon & simil> elem5ts may be obta9$ by directly heat+ a mixture ( p[d]$ silica & magnesium 9 an infusible glass tube4#ah #ag ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,maack1 ,comaille1 ,bttg]1 & o!rs4 ,! r$uction by heat m5tion$ fur!r on 0 po9t$ out by ,geu!r1 ,phipson1 ,p>k9son & ,gatt]mann4 #ah ,?is action ( metallic magnesium 9 all probability dep5ds1 al?\gh only p>tially 7see ,note #ac71 on its volatility1 & on ! fact t1 9 comb9+ ) a giv5 quantity ( oxyg51 x evolves m heat ?an alum9ium1 silicon1 potassium1 & o!r elem5ts4 ,! aff9ity ( magnesium = ! halog5s is mu* m feeble ?an = oxyg51#ai z is at once evid5t f ! fact t a solution ( iod9e acts feebly on magnesium2 /ill magnesium burns 9 ! vap\rs ( iod9e1 brom9e1 & *lor9e4 ,! "* ( magnesium is also se5 9 ! fact t all its salts1 especially 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 are decomposable at a comp>atively mod]ate temp]ature1 ! elem5ts ( ! acid be+ evolv$1 & ! magnesium oxide1 :i* is non-volatile & un*angeable by heat1 be+ left4 ,?is naturally ref]s to ^? acids :i* are !mselves volatilis$ by heat4 ,ev5 magnesium sulphate is completely decompos$ at ! temp]ature at :i* iron melts1 oxide ( magnesium rema9+ beh9d4 ,?is decomposition ( magnesium salts by heat proce$s mu* m easily ?an t ( calcium salts4 ,= example1 magnesium c>bonate is totally decompos$ at #agj1 magnesium oxide be+ left beh9d4 ,?is magnesia1 or magnesium oxide1 is met ) bo? 9 an anhydr\s & hydrat$ /ate 9 nature 7! anhydr\s magnesia z ! m9]al p]iclase1 ,mg,o1 & ! hydrat$ magnesia z brucite1 ,mg,h#b,o#b74 ,magnesia is a well-kn[n m$ic9e 7calc9$ magnesia--magnesia u/a74 ,x is a :ite1 extremely f9e1 & v volum9\s p[d]1 ( specific gravity #cd2 x is infusible by heat1 & only %r9ks or %rivels 9 an oxyhydrog5 flame4 ,aft] long contact ! anhydr\s magnesia comb9es ) wat]1 al?\gh v sl[ly1 =m+ ! hydroxide ,mg7,,ho7#b1 :i*1 h[ev]1 p>ts ) its wat] ) great ease :5 heat$ ev5 bel[ a r$ heat1 & aga9 yields anhydr\s magnesia4 ,?is hydroxide is obta9$ directly z a gelat9\s amorph\s sub/ance :5 a soluble alkali is mix$ ) a solution ( any magnesium salt1 ,mg,cl#b #b,,kho ,mg7,,ho7#b #b,k,cl4 ,?is decomposition is complete1 & ne>ly all ! magnesium passes into ! precipitate2 & ?is cle>ly %[s ! almo/ p]fect insolubility ( magnesia 9 wat]4 ,wat] dissolves a sc>cely p]ceptible quantity ( magnesium hydroxide--namely1 "o "p is dissolv$ by #ee1jjj p>ts ( wat]4 ,su* a solution1 h[ev]1 has an alkal9e reaction1 & gives1 ) a salt ( phosphoric acid1 a precipitate ( magnesium phosphate1 :i* is /ill m insoluble4 ,magnesia is n only dissolv$ by acids1 =m+ salts1 b x also displaces c]ta9 o!r bases--= example1 ammonia f ammonium salts :5 boil$2 & ! hydroxide also absorbs c>bonic anhydride f ! air4 ,! magnesium salts1 l ^? ( calcium1 potassium1 & sodium1 are col\rless if !y are =m$ f col\rless acids4 ,^? :i* are soluble h a bitt] ta/e1 :5ce magnesia has be5 t]m$ bitt]-e>?4 ,9 comp>ison ) ! alkalis magnesia is a feeble base1 inasmu* z x =ms some:at un/able salts1 easily gives basic salts1 =ms acid salts ) difficulty1 & is able to give d\ble salts ) ! salts ( ! alkalis1 :i* facts are *>act]i/ic ( feeble bases1 z we %all see 9 becom+ acqua9t$ ) ! diff]5t metals4 #ai ,davy1 on heat+ magnesia 9 *lor9e1 conclud$ t !re 0 a complete sub/itution1 because ! volume ( ! oxyg5 0 half ! volume ( ! *lor9e2 x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ow+ to ! =mation ( *lor9e oxide 7,*apt] ,,xi41 ,note #cj7 ! decomposition is n complete & is limit$ by a rev]se reaction4 ,! p[] ( magnesium salts to =m d\ble & basic salts is v frequ5tly %[n 9 reactions1 & is specially m>k$ z reg>ds ammonium salts4 ,if saturat$ solutions ( magnesium & ammonium sulphates are mix$ toge!r1 a cry/all9e d\ble salt ,mg7,,nh#d7b7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o1#bj is imm$iately precipitat$4 ,a /rong solution ( ord9>y ammonium c>bonate dissolves magnesium oxide or c>bonate1 & precipitates cry/als ( a d\ble salt1 ,mg7,,nh#d7b7;,,co#c7b1d;,h#b,o1 f :i* wat] extracts ! ammonium c>bonate4 ,) an excess ( an ammonium salt ! d\ble salt passes into solution1#ba & !re=e if a solution conta9 a magnesium salt & an excess ( an ammonium salt--= in/ance1 sal-ammoniac--!n sodium c>bonate w no long] precipitate magnesium c>bonate4 ,a mixture ( solutions ( magnesium & ammonium *lorides1 on evaporation or refrig]ation1 gives a d\ble salt1 ,mg7,,nh#d7;,cl#c1f;,h#b,o4#bb ,! salts ( potassium1 l ^? ( ammonium1 are able to ent] into comb9ation ) ! magnesium salts4#bc ,= in/ance1 ! d\ble salt1 ,mg,k,cl#c1f;,h#b,o1 :i* is kn[n z c>nallite1#bd & occurs 9 ! salt m9es ( ,/assfurt1 may be =m$ by freez+ a saturat$ solution ( potassium *loride ) an excess ( magnesium *loride4 ,a saturat$ solution ( magnesium sulphate dissolves potassium sulphate1 & solid magnesium sulphate is soluble 9 a saturat$ solution ( potassium sulphate4 ,a d\ble salt1 ,k#b,mg7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o1 :i* closely resembles ! above-m5tion$ ammonium salt1 cry/allises f ^! solutions4#be ,! ne>e/ analogues ( magnesium are able to give exactly simil> d\ble salts1 bo? 9 cry/all9e =m 7monocl9ic sy/em7 & composition2 !y1 l ?is salt 7see ,*apt] ,,xv471 are easily able 7at #adj7 to "p ) all _! wat] ( cry/allisation1 & correspond ) ! salts ( sulphuric acid1 ^: type may be tak5 z magnesium sulphate1 ,mg,s,o#d4bf ,x occurs at ,/assfurt z kies]ite1 ,mg,s,o#d1;,h#b,o1 & g5]ally sep>ates f solutions z a heptahydrat$ salt1 ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o1 & f sup]saturat$ solutions z a hexahydrat$ salt1 ,mg,s,o#d1f;,h#b,o2 at temp]atures bel[ #j x cry/allises out z a dodecahydrat$ salt1 ,mg,s,o#d1ab;,h#b,o1 & a solution ( ! composition ,mg,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o solidifies completely at -#e4bg ,?us betwe5 wat] & magnesium sulphate !re may exi/ sev]al def9ite & m or less /able degrees ( equilibrium2 ! d\ble salt ,mg,s,o#d,k#b,,s#d1f;,h#b,o may be reg>d$ z "o ( ^! equilibrat$ sy/ems1 ! m s s9ce x conta9s #f;,h#b,o1 :il/ ,mg,s,o#d =ms its mo/ /able sy/em ) #g;,h#b,o1 & ! d\ble salt may be consid]$ z ?is cry/allo-hydrate 9 :i* "o molecule ( wat] is replac$ by ! molecule ,k#b,,s#d4bh #bj ,ev5 a solution ( ammonium *loride gives ?is salt ) magnesium sulphate4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #agb2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #j dissolve #i1 at #bj #agi p>ts ( ! anhydr\s salt4 ,at ab\t #acj x loses all its wat]4 #ba ,?is is an example ( equilibrium & ( ! influ5ce ( mass2 ! d\ble salt is decompos$ by wat]1 b if in/ead ( wat] we take a solution ( t soluble "p :i* is =m$ 9 ! decomposition ( ! d\ble salt1 !n ! latt] dissolves z a :ole4 #bb ,if an excess ( ammonia be add$ to a solution ( magnesium *loride1 only half ! magnesium is ?r[n d[n 9 ! precipitate1 #b,mg,cl#b #b,,nh#d4,,oh ,mg7,,oh7#b ,mg4,,nh#d;,cl#c ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,a solution ( ammonium *loride reacts ) magnesia1 evolv+ ammonia & =m+ a solution ( ! same salt1 ,mg,o #c,,nh#d;,cl ,mg,n,h#d;,cl#c ,h#b,o #b,,nh#c4 ,among ! d\ble salts ( ammonium & magnesium1 ! phosphate1 ,mg,n,h#d,,po#d1f;,h#b,o1 is almo/ insoluble 9 wat] 7#jjg gram is soluble 9 a litre71 ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( ammonia4 ,magnesia is v frequ5tly precipitat$ z ?is salt f solutions 9 :i* x is held by ammonium salts4 ,z lime is n reta9$ 9 solution by ! pres5ce ( ammonium salts1 b is precipitat$ nev]!less by sodium c>bonate1 c41 x is v easy to sep>ate calcium f magnesium by tak+ advantage ( ^! prop]ties4 #bc ,9 ord] to see ! nature & cause ( =mation ( d\ble salts1 x is suffici5t 7al?\gh ?is does n embrace ! :ole ess5ce ( ! matt]7 to consid] t "o ( ! metals ( su* salts 7= in/ance1 potassium7 easily gives acid salts1 & ! o!r 79 ?is in/ance1 magnesium7 basic salts2 ! prop]ties ( di/9ctly basic elem5ts pr$om9ate 9 ! =m]1 :il/ 9 ! latt] ^! prop]ties are enfeebl$1 & ! salts =m$ by !m be> ! "* ( acids--= example1 ! salts ( alum9ium or magnesium act 9 _m cases l acids4 ,by _! mutual comb9ation ^! two opposite prop]ties ( ! salts are bo? satisfi$4 #bd ,c>nallite has be5 m5tion$ 9 ,*apt] ,x4 7,note #d7 & 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,^! deposits also conta9 mu* ka9ite1 ,k,mg,cl7,,s#d71c;,h#b,o 7sp4 gr4 #bac2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #gif p>ts at #ah74 ,?is d\ble salt conta9s two metals & two haloids4 ,feit 7#ahhi7 also obta9$ a bromide correspond+ to c>nallite4 #be ,! compon5t p>ts ( c]ta9 d\ble salts diffuse at diff]5t rates1 & z ! diffus$ solution conta9s a diff]5t proportion ( ! compon5t salts ?an ! solution tak5 ( ! d\ble salt1 x %[s t su* salts are decompos$ by wat]4 ,accord+ to ,rdorff1 ! d\ble salts1 l c>nallite1 ,mg,k#b7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o1 & ! alums1 all belong to ?is ord] 7#ahhh74 ,b su* salts z t>t> emetic1 ! d\ble oxalates1 & d\ble cyanides are n sep>at$ by diffusion1 :i* 9 all probability dep5ds bo? on ! relative rate ( ! diffusion ( ! compon5t salts & on ! degree ( aff9ity act+ betwe5 !m4 ,^? complex /ates ( equilibrium :i* exi/ betwe5 wat]1 ! individual salts ,,mx & ,,ny1 & ! d\ble salt ,,mnxy1 h be5 already p>tially analys$ 7z w be %[n h]eaft]7 9 t case :5 ! sy/em is het]og5e\s 7t is1 :5 some?+ sep>ates out 9 a solid /ate f ! liquid solution71 b 9 ! case ( equilibria 9 a homog5e\s liquid m$ium 79 a solution7 ! ph5om5on is n s cle>1 because x conc]ns t v !ory ( solution :i* _c yet be consid]$ z e/abli%$ 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #i1 & o!rs74 ,z reg>ds ! het]og5e\s decomposition ( d\ble salts1 x has long be5 kn[n t su* salts z c>nallite & ,k#b,mg7,,s#d7b give up ! m soluble salt if an insuffici5t quantity ( wat] = _! complete solution be tak54 ,! complete saturation ( #ajj p>ts ( wat] requires at #j #ada1 at #bj #be1 & at #fj #ejb p>ts ( ! latt] d\ble salt 7anhydr\s71 :ile #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #bg p>ts ( magnesium sulphate at #j1 #cf p>ts at #bj1 & #ee p>ts at #fj1 ( ! anhydr\s salt tak54 ,( all ! /ates ( equilibrium exhibit$ by d\ble salts ! mo/ fully inve/igat$ z yet is ! sy/em conta9+ wat]1 sodium sulphate1 magnesium sulphate1 & _! d\ble salt1 ,na#b,mg7,,s#d7b1 :i* cry/allises ) #d & #f mol4 ,,oh#b4 ,! fir/ cry/allo-hydrate1 ,mg,na#b7,,s#d7b1d;,h#b,o1 occurs at ,/assfurt1 & z a s$im5t>y deposit 9 _m ( ! salt lakes ne> ,a/rakhan1 & is !re=e call$ a/rakhanite4 ,! specific gravity ( ! monocl9ic prisms ( ?is salt is #bbb4 ,if ?is salt1 9 a f9ely divid$ /ate1 be mix$ ) ! necess>y quantity ( wat] 7accord+ to ! equation ,mg,na#b7,,s#d7b1d;,h#b,o #ac;,h#b,o ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o71 ! mixture solidifies l pla/] ( ,p>is into a homog5e\s mass if ! temp]ature be bel[ #bb 7,van't ,h(f und ,van ,dev5t]1 #ahhf2 ,bakhuis ,roozeboom1 #ahhg72 b if ! temp]ature be above ?is transition-po9t ! wat] & d\ble salt d n react on ea* o!r3 t is1 !y d n solidify or give a mixture ( sodium & magnesium sulphates4 ,if a mixture 79 equival5t quantities7 ( solutions ( ^! salts be evaporat$1 & cry/als ( a/rakhanite & ( ! individual salts capable ( proce$+ f x be add$ to ! conc5trat$ solution to avoid ! possibility ( a sup]saturat$ solution1 !n at temp]atures above #bb a/rakhanite is exclusively =m$ 7?is is ! me?od ( its production71 b at l[] temp]atures ! individual salts are alone produc$4 ,if equival5t am\nts ( ,glaub]'s salt & magnesium sulphate be mix$ toge!r 9 a solid /ate1 !re is no *ange at temp]atures bel[ #bb1 b at high] temp]atures a/rakhanite & wat] are =m$4 ,! volume occupi$ by ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o 9 grams #cbb_/adf #bbje cubic c5timetres1 & by ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o #bdf_/afh #adfd c4c42 h5ce _! mixture 9 equival5t quantities occupies a volume ( #cffi c4c4 ,! volume ( a/rakhanite #ccd_/bbb #aeje c4c41 & ! volume ( #ac;,h#b,o #bcd c4c41 h5ce _! sum #chje c4c41 & !re=e x is easy to foll[ ! =mation ( ! a/rakhanite 9 a suitable app>atus 7a k9d ( !rmomet] conta9+ oil & a p[d]$ mixture ( sodium & magnesium sulphates71 & to see by ! v>iation 9 volume t bel[ #bb x rema9s un*ang$1 & at high] temp]atures proce$s ! m quickly ! high] ! temp]ature4 ,at ! transition temp]ature ! solubility ( a/rakhanite & ( ! mixture ( ! compon5t salts is "o & ! same1 :il/ at high] temp]atures a solution :i* is saturat$ = a mixture ( ! individual salts w\ld be sup]saturat$ = a/rakhanite1 & at l[] temp]atures ! solution ( a/rakhanite w be sup]saturat$ = ! compon5t salts1 z has be5 %[n ) especial detail by ,k>/51 ,deacon1 & o!rs4 ,roozeboom %[$ t !re are two limits to ! composition ( ! solutions :i* c exi/ = a d\ble salt2 ^! limits are respectively obta9$ by dissolv+ a mixture ( ! d\ble salt ) ea* ( its compon5t simple salts4 ,van't ,h(f demon/rat$1 besides ?is1 t ! t5d5cy t[>ds ! =mation ( d\ble salts has a di/9ct influ5ce on ! progress ( d\ble decomposition1 = at temp]atures above #ca ! mixture #b,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o #b,na,cl passes into ,mg,na#b7,,s#d7b1d;,h#b,o ,mg,cl#b1f;,h#b,o #d;,h#b,o1 :il/ bel[ #ca !re is n ?is d\ble decomposition1 b x proce$s 9 ! opposite direction1 z may be demon/rat$ by ! above-describ$ me?ods4 ,van d] ,heyd obta9$ a potassium a/rakhanite1 ,k#b,,s#d,mg,s,o#d1d;,h#b,o1 f solutions ( ! compon5t salts at #ajj4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts on d\ble salts we see t !re is z close a dep5d5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature & ! =mation ( sub/ances z !re is betwe5 ! temp]ature & a *ange ( /ate4 ,x is a case ( ,deville's pr9ciples ( dissociation1 ext5d$ 9 ! direction ( ! passage ( a solid into a liquid4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we see "h h[ ess5tial a rle wat] plays 9 ! =mation ( comp\nds1 & h[ ! aff9ity = wat] ( cry/allisation is ess5tially analog\s to ! aff9ity betwe5 salts1 & h5ce also to ! aff9ity ( acids = bases1 because ! =mation ( d\ble salts does n diff] 9 any ess5tial po9t 7except ! degree ( aff9ity--t is1 f a quantitative aspect7 f ! =mation ( salts !mselves4 ,:5 sodium hydroxide ) nitric acid gives sodium nitrate & wat] ! ph5om5on is ess5tially ! same z 9 ! =mation ( a/rakhanite f ! salts ,na#b,,s#d1aj;,h#b,o & ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o4 ,wat] is dis5gag$ 9 bo? cases1 & h5ce ! volumes are alt]$4 #bf ,?is salt1 & especially its cry/allo-hydrate ) #g;,h#b,o1 is g5]ally kn[n z ,epsom salts4 ,x has long be5 us$ z a purgative4 ,x is easily obta9$ f magnesia & sulphuric acid1 & x sep>ates on ! evaporation ( sea wat] & ( _m sal9e spr+s4 ,:5 c>bonic anhydride is obta9$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid on magnesite1 magnesium sulphate rema9s 9 solution4 ,:5 dolomite--t is1 a mixture ( magnesium & calcium c>bonates--is subject$ to ! action ( a solution ( hydro*loric acid until ab\t half ( ! salt rema9s1 ! calcium c>bonate is mo/ly dissolv$ & magnesium c>bonate is left1 :i* by treatm5t ) sulphuric acid gives a solution ( magnesium sulphate4 #bg ,! anhydr\s salt1 ,mg,s,o#d 7sp4 gr4 #bfa71 attracts moi/ure 7#g mol4 ,h#b,o7 f moi/ air2 :5 heat$ 9 /eam or hydrog5 *loride x gives sulphuric acid1 & :5 heat$ ) c>bon x is decompos$ accord+ to ! equation #b,mg,s,o#d ,c #b,,s#b ,,co#b #b,mg,o4 ,! monohydrat$ salt 7kies]ite71 ,mg,s,o#d1;,h#b,o 7sp4 gr4 #bef71 dissolves 9 wat] ) difficulty2 x is =m$ by heat+ ! o!r cry/allo-hydrates to #ace4 ,! hexahydrat$ salt is dimorph\s4 ,if a solution1 saturat$ at ! boil+-po9t1 be prep>$1 & cool$ )\t access ( cry/als ( ! heptahydrat$ salt1 !n ,mg,s,o#d1f;,h#b,o cry/allises out 9 monocl9ic prisms 7,loewel1 ,m>ignac71 :i* are q z un/able z ! salt1 ,na#b,,s#d1g;,h#b,o2 b if prismatic cry/als ( ! cubic sy/em ( ! copp]-nickel salts ( ! composition ,,mso#d1f;,h#b,o be add$1 !n cry/als ( ,mg,s,o#d1f;,h#b,o are deposit$ on !m z prisms ( ! cubic sy/em 7,lecoq de ,boisbaudran74 ,! common cry/allo-hydrate1 ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o1 ,epsom salts1 belongs to ! rhombic sy/em1 & is obta9$ by cry/allisation bel[ #cj4 ,its specific gravity is #afi4 ,9 a vacuum1 or at #ajj1 x loses #e;,h#b,o1 at #acb #f;,h#b,o1 & at #baj all ! #g;,h#b,o 7,graham74 ,if cry/als ( f]r\s or cobaltic sulphate be plac$ 9 a saturat$ solution1 hexagonal cry/als ( ! heptahydrat$ salt are =m$ 7,lecoq de ,boisbaudran72 !y pres5t an un/able /ate ( equilibrium1 & soon become cl\dy1 probably ow+ to _! trans=mation into ! m /able common =m4 ,fritzs*e1 by cool+ saturat$ solutions bel[ #j1 obta9$ a mixture ( cry/als ( ice & ( a dodecahydrat$ salt1 :i* easily split up at temp]atures above #j4 ,gu?rie %[$ t dilute solutions ( magnesium sulphate1 :5 refrig]at$1 sep>ate ice until ! solution atta9s a composition ,mg,s,o#d1bd;,h#b,o1 :i* w completely freeze into a cry/allo-hydrate at -#ec4 ,accord+ to ,coppet & ,rdorff1 ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice falls by #jjgc = e "p by weight ( ! heptahydrat$ salt p] #ajj ( wat]4 ,?is figure gives 7,*apt] ,i41 ,note #di7 i #a = bo? ! heptahydrat$ & ! anhydr\s salt1 f :i* x is evid5t t x is impossible to judge ! /ate ( comb9ation 9 :i* a dissolv$ sub/ance occurs by ! temp]ature ( ! =mation ( ice4 ,! solubility ( ! diff]5t cry/allo-hydrates ( magnesium sulphate1 accord+ to ,loewel1 also v>ies1 l ^? ( sodium sulphate or c>bonate 7see ,*apt] ,,xii41 ,notes #g & #ah74 ,at #j #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolves #djge ,mg,s,o#d 9 ! pres5ce ( ! hexahydrat$ salt1 #cdfg ,mg,s,o#d 9 ! pres5ce ( ! hexagonal heptahydrat$ salt1 & only #bf p>ts ( ,mg,s,o#d 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ord9>y heptahydrat$ salt--t is1 solutions giv+ ! rema9+ cry/allo-hydrates w be sup]saturat$ = ! ord9>y heptahydrat$ salt4 ,all ?is %[s h[ _m div]se aspects ( m or less /able equilibria may exi/ betwe5 wat] & a sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x2 ?is has already be5 enl>g$ on 9 ,*apt] ,i4 ,c>efully purifi$ magnesium sulphate 9 its aque\s solution gives1 accord+ to ,/*]bak(f1 an alkal9e reaction ) litmus1 & an acid reaction ) ph5olph?ale94 ,! specific gravity ( solutions ( c]ta9 salts ( magnesium & calcium r$uc$ to #ae_/d 7see my "w cit$1 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #ai71 are1 if wat] at #d #aj1jjj1 ,mg,s,o#d3 s #i1iib #iihip #jeecp#b ,mg,cl#b3 s #i1iib #hacap #jcgbp#b ,ca,cl#b3 s #i1iib #hjbdp #jdgfp#b #bh ,graham ev5 di/+ui%$ ! la/ equival5t ( ! wat] ( cry/allisation ( ! heptahydrat$ salt z t :i* is replac$ by o!r salts1 po9t+ out t d\ble salts l ,mg,k#b7,,s#d7b1f;,h#b,o lose all _! wat] at #ace1 :il/ ,mg,s,o#d1g;,h#b,o only p>ts ) #f;,h#b,o4 ,! p[] ( =m+ basic salts is a v rem>kable peculi>ity ( magnesia & o!r feeble bases1 & especially ( ^? correspond+ ) polyval5t metals4 ,! v p[]ful bases correspond+ ) unival5t metals--l potassium & sodium--d n =m basic salts1 &1 inde$1 are m prone to give acid salts1 :il/ magnesium easily & frequ5tly =ms basic salts1 especially ) feeble acids1 al?\gh !re are "s oxides--z1 = example1 copp] & lead oxides--:i* /ill m frequ5tly give basic salts4 ,if a cold solution ( magnesium sulphate be mix$ ) a solution ( sodium c>bonate !re is =m$ a gelat9\s precipitate ( a basic salt1 ,mg7,,ho7#b1d,mg,c,o#c1i;,h#b,o2 b all ! magnesia is n precipitat$ 9 ?is case1 z a portion ( x rema9s 9 solution z an acid d\ble salt4 ,if sodium c>bonate be add$ to a boil+ solution ( magnesium sulphate a precipitate ( a /ill m basic salt is =m$1 #d,mg,s,o#d #d,na#b;,,co#c #d;,h#b,o #d,na#b,,s#d ,,co#b ,mg7,,oh7#b1c,mg,c,o#c1c;,h#b,o4 ,?is basic salt =ms ! ord9>y drug magnesia 7magnesia alba71 9 ! =m ( light por\s lumps4 ,o!r basic salts are =m$ "u c]ta9 modifications ( temp]ature & conditions ( decomposition4 ,b ! normal salt1 ,mg,c,o#c1 :i* occurs 9 nature z magnesite 9 ! =m ( rhomboh$ra ( specific gravity #cjef1 _c be obta9$ by su* a me?od ( precipitation4 ,9 fact1 ! =mation ( ! diff]5t basic salts %[s ! p[] ( wat] to decompose ! normal salt4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 to obta9 ?is salt bo? 9 an anhydr\s & hydrat$ /ate4 ,a solution ( magnesium c>bonate 9 wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid is tak5 = ?is purpose4 ,! reason = ?is is easily und]/ood--c>bonic anhydride is "o ( ! products ( ! decomposition ( magnesium c>bonate 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,if ?is solution be left to evaporate spontane\sly ! normal salt sep>ates 9 a hydrat$ =m1 b 9 ! evaporation ( a heat$ solution1 ?r\gh :i* a /ream ( c>bonic anhydride is pass$1 ! anhydr\s salt is =m$ z a cry/all9e mass1 :i* rema9s unalt]$ 9 ! air1 l ! natural m9]al4#bi ,! decompos+ influ5ce ( wat] on ! salts ( magnesium1 :i* is directly dep5d5t on ! feeble basic prop]ties ( magnesia1#cj is mo/ cle>ly se5 9 magnesium *loride1 ,mg,cl#b4 ,?is salt is conta9$#ca 9 ! la/ "m-liquors ( ! evaporation ( sea-wat]4 ,on cool+ a suffici5tly conc5trat$ solution1 ! cry/allo-hydrate1 ,mg,cl#b1f;,h#b,o1 sep>ates2#cb b if x be fur!r heat$ 7above #ajf7 to remove ! wat]1 !n hydro*loric acid passes (f toge!r ) ! latt]1 s t !re ultimately rema9s magnesia ) a small quantity ( magnesium *loride4#cc ,f :at has be5 said x is evid5t t anhydr\s magnesium *loride _c be obta9$ by simple evaporation4 ,b if sal-ammoniac or sodium *loride be add$ to a solution ( magnesium *loride1 !n ! evolution ( hydro*loric acid does n take place1 & aft] complete evaporation ! residue is p]fectly soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is r5d]s x possible to obta9 anhydr\s magnesium *loride f its aque\s solution4 ,inde$ ! mixture ) sal-ammoniac 79 excess7 may be dri$ 7! residue consi/s ( an anhydr\s d\ble salt1 ,mg,cl#b1b,,nh#d;,cl7 & !n ignit$ 7#dfj71 :5 ! sal-ammoniac is conv]t$ into vap\r & a fus$ mass ( anhydr\s magnesium *loride rema9s beh9d4 ,! anhydr\s *loride evolves a v consid]able am\nt ( heat on ! addition ( wat]1 :i* %[s ! great aff9ity ! salt has = wat]4#cd ,anhydr\s magnesium *loride is n only obta9$ by ! above me?od1 b is also =m$ by ! direct comb9ation ( *lor9e & magnesium1 & by ! action ( *lor9e on magnesium oxide1 oxyg5 be+ evolv$2 ?is proce$s /ill m easily by heat+ magnesia ) *>coal 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 :5 ! *>coal s]ves to take up ! oxyg54 ,?is latt] me?od is also employ$ = ! prep>ation ( *lorides :i* are =m$ 9 an anhydr\s condition ) /ill great] difficulty ?an magnesium *loride4 ,anhydr\s magnesium *loride =ms a col\rless1 transp>5t mass1 compos$ ( flexible cry/all9e plates ( a pe>ly lu/re4 ,x fuses at a l[ r$ heat 7#gjh7 into a col\rless liquid1 rema9s un*ang$ 9 a dry /ate1 b "u ! action ( moi/ure is p>tially decompos$ ev5 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 ) =mation ( hydro*loric acid4 ,:5 heat$ 9 ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 7air7 x gives *lor9e & ! basic salt1 :i* is =m$ ) ev5 great] facility "u ! action ( heat 9 ! pres5ce ( /eam1 :5 ,h,cl is =m$1 accord+ to ! equation #b,mg,cl#b ,h#b,o ,mg,o,mg,cl#b #b;,h,cl4#cd bis #bi ,! cry/all9e =m ( ! anhydr\s salt obta9$ 9 ?is mann] is n ! same z t ( ! natural salt4 ,! =m] gives rhomboh$ra1 l ^? 9 :i* calcium c>bonate appe>s z calc sp>1 :il/ ! natural salt appe>s z rhombic prisms1 l ^? sometimes pres5t$ by ! same c>bonate z aragonite1 :i* w %ortly be describ$4 #cj ,magnesium sulphate ent]s into c]ta9 reactions :i* are prop] to sulphuric acid itself4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 if a c>efully prep>$ mixture ( equival5t quantities ( hydrat$ magnesium sulphate & sodium *loride be heat$ to r$ness1 ! evolution ( hydro*loric acid is obs]v$ j z 9 ! action ( sulphuric acid on common salt1 ,mg,s,o#d #b,na,cl ,h#b,o ,na#b,,s#d ,mg,o #b;,h,cl4 ,magnesium sulphate acts 9 a simil> mann] on nitrates1 ) ! evolution ( nitric acid4 ,a mixture ( x ) common salt & manganese p]oxide gives *lor9e4 ,sulphuric acid is sometimes replac$ by magnesium sulphate 9 galvanic batt]ies--= example1 9 ! well-kn[n ,meid+] batt]y4 ,9 ! above-m5tion$ reactions we see a /rik+ example ( ! simil>ity ( ! reactions ( acids & salts1 especially ( salts :i* conta9 su* feeble bases z magnesia4 #ca ,z sea-wat] conta9s _m salts1 ,m,cl & ,mg,x#b1 x foll[s1 accord+ to ,b]?ollet's tea*+1 t ,mg,cl#b is also pres5t4 #cb ,z ! cry/allo-hydrates ( ! salts ( sodium (t5 conta9 #aj;,h#b,o1 s _m ( ! salts ( magnesium conta9 #f;,h#b,o4 #cc ,?is decomposition is mo/ simply def9$ z ! result ( ! two rev]se reactions1 ,mg,cl#b ,h#b,o ,mg,o #b;,h,cl & ,mg,o #b;,h,cl ,mg,cl#b ,h#b,o1 or z a di/ribution betwe5 ,o & ,cl#b on ! "o h& & ,h#b & ,mg on ! o!r4 7,) ,o1 ,mg,cl#b gives *lor9e1 see ,*apt] ,x41 ,note #cc1 & ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,note #c bis & o!rs1 :]e ! reactions & applications ( ,mg,cl#b are giv547 ,x is !n cle> t1 accord+ to ,b]?ollet's doctr9e1 ! mass ( ! hydro*loric acid conv]ts ! magnesium oxide into *loride1 & ! mass ( ! wat] conv]ts ! magnesium *loride into oxide4 ,! cry/allo-hydrate1 ,mg,cl#b1f;,h#b,o1 =ms ! limit ( ! rev]sibility4 ,b an int]m$iate /ate ( equilibrium may exi/ 9 ! =m ( basic salts4 ,on mix+ ignit$ magnesia ) a solution ( magnesium *loride ( specific gravity ab\t #ab1 a solid mass is obta9$ :i* is sc>cely decompos$ by wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature 7see ,*apt] ,,xvi41 ,note #d74 ,a simil> means is employ$ = cem5t+ sawdu/ into a solid mass1 call$ cylolite1 us$ = floor+1 c4 ,we may rem>k t ,mg,br#b cry/allises n only ) #f;,h#b,o 7temp]ature ( fusion #aeb71 b also ) #aj;,h#b,o 7temp]ature ( fusion #ab1 =m$ at -#ah74 7,panfil(f1 #ahid74 #cd ,accord+ to ,?oms51 ! comb9ation ( ,mg,cl#b ) #f;,h#b,o evolves #cc1jjj calories1 & its solution 9 an excess ( wat] #cf1jjj4 #cd bis ,h5ce ,mg,cl#b may be employ$ = ! prep>ation ( *lor9e & hydro*loric acid 7,*apt]s ,x4 & ,,xi474 ,9 g5]al magnesium *loride1 :i* is obta9$ 9 l>ge quantities f sea wat] & ,/assfurt c>nallite1 may f9d num]\s practical uses4 ,calcium 7or ! metal ( lime7 & its comp\nds 9 _m respects pres5t a great resemblance to magnesium comp\nds1 b are also cle>ly di/+ui%$ f !m by _m prop]ties4#ce ,9 g5]al1 calcium /&s to magnesium 9 ! same relation z potassium occupies 9 respect to sodium4 ,davy obta9$ metallic calcium1 l potassium1 z an amalgam by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t2 b nei!r *>coal nor iron decomposes calcium oxide1 & ev5 sodium decomposes calcium *loride#cf ) difficulty4 ,b a galvanic curr5t easily decomposes calcium *loride1 & metallic sodium some:at easily decomposes calcium iodide :5 heat$4 ,z 9 ! case ( hydrog51 potassium1 & magnesium1 ! aff9ity ( iod9e = calcium is feebl] ?an t ( *lor9e 7& oxyg571 & !re=e x is n surpris+ t calcium iodide may be subject$ to t decomposition1 :i* ! *loride & oxide und]go ) difficulty4#cg ,metallic calcium is ( a yell[ col\r1 & has a consid]able lu/re1 :i* x pres]ves 9 dry air4 ,its specific gravity is #aeh4 ,calcium is di/+ui%$ by its great ductility2 x melts at a r$ heat & !n burns 9 ! air ) a v brilliant flame2 ! brilliancy is due to ! =mation ( f9ely divid$ infusible calcium oxide4 ,judg+ f ! fact t calcium 9 burn+ gives a v l>ge flame1 x is probable t ?is metal is volatile4 ,calcium decomposes wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & is oxidis$ 9 moi/ air1 b n s rapidly z sodium4 ,9 burn+1 x gives its oxide or lime1 ,ca,o1 a sub/ance :i* is famili> to e "o1 & ( :i* we h already frequ5tly _h occasion to speak4 ,?is oxide is n met ) 9 nature 9 a free /ate1 because x is an en]getic base :i* ev]y:]e enc\nt]s acid sub/ances =m+ salts ) !m4 ,x is g5]ally comb9$ ) silica1 or occurs z calcium c>bonate or sulphate4 ,! c>bonate & nitrate are decompos$1 at a r$ heat1 ) ! =mation ( lime4 ,z a rule1 ! c>bonate1 :i* is s frequ5tly met ) 9 nature1 s]ves z ! s\rce ( ! calcium oxide1 bo? comm]cial & pure4 ,:5 heat$1 calcium c>bonate dissociates3 ,ca,c,o#c ,ca,o ,,co#b4 ,9 practice ! decomposition is conduct$ at a bright r$ heat1 9 ! pres5ce ( /eam1 or a curr5t ( a =eign gas1 9 heaps or 9 special kilns4#ch #ce ,!re are _m o!r me?ods ( sep>at+ calcium f magnesium besides t m5tion$ above 7,note #bb74 ,among !m x w be suffici5t to m5tion ! behavi\r ( ^! bases t[>ds a solution ( sug>2 hydrat$ lime is exce$+ly soluble 9 an aque\s solution ( sug>1 :il/ magnesia is b little soluble4 ,all ! lime may be extract$ f dolomite by burn+ x1 slak+ ! mixture ( oxides ?us obta9$1 & add+ a #aj p4c4 solution ( sug>4 ,c>bonic anhydride precipitates calcium c>bonate f ?is solution4 ,! addition ( sug> 7molasses7 to ! lime us$ = build+ purposes p[]fully increases ! b9d+ p[] ( ! mort>1 z ,i h myself f\nd4 ,i h be5 told t 9 ! ,ea/ 7,india1 ,japan7 ! addition ( sug> to cem5t has long be5 practis$4 #cf ,moreov] ,c>on obta9$ an alloy ( calcium & z9c by fus+ calcium *loride ) z9c & sodium4 ,! z9c di/ill$ f ?is alloy at a :ite heat1 leav+ calcium beh9d 7,note #ej74 #cg ,calcium iodide may be prep>$ by saturat+ lime ) hydriodic acid4 ,x is a v soluble salt 7at #bj "o "p ( ! salt requires #jdi "p & at #dc #jce "p ( wat] = solution71 is deliquesc5t 9 ! air1 & resembles calcium *loride 9 _m respects4 ,x *anges b little :5 evaporat$1 & l calcium *loride fuses :5 heat$1 & !re=e all ! wat] may be driv5 (f by heat4 ,if anhydr\s calcium iodide be heat$ ) an equival5t quantity ( sodium 9 a closely cov]$ iron crucible1 sodium iodide & metallic calcium are =m$ 7,lis-,bod>t74 ,dumas advises c>ry+ on ?is reaction 9 a clos$ space "u pressure4 #ch ,kilns :i* act ei!r int]mitt5tly or cont9u\sly are built = ?is purpose4 ,^? ( ! fir/ k9d are fill$ ) alt]nate lay]s ( fuel & lime/one2 ! fuel is light$1 & ! heat develop$ by its combu/ion s]ves = decompos+ ! lime/one4 ,:5 ! process is complet$ ! kiln is all[$ to cool some:at1 ! lime rak$ out1 & ! same process repeat$4 ,9 ! cont9u\sly act+ furnaces1 con/ruct$ l t %[n 9 fig4 #gh1 ! kiln itself only conta9s lime/one1 & !re are lat]al he>?s = burn+ ! fuel1 ^: flame passes ?r\gh ! lime/one & s]ves = its decomposition4 ,su* furnaces are able to "w cont9u\sly1 because ! unburnt lime/one may be *>g$ f above & ! burnt lime rak$ out f bel[4 ,x is n e lime/one t is suitable = ! prep>ation ( lime1 because _m conta9 impurities1 pr9cipally clay1 dolomite1 & s&4 ,su* lime/ones :5 burnt ei!r fuse p>tially or give an impure lime1 call$ poor lime 9 di/9ction f t obta9$ f pur] lime/one1 :i* is call$ ri* lime4 ,! latt] k9d is *>act]is$ by its dis9tegrat+ into a f9e p[d] :5 treat$ ) wat]1 & is suitable = ! majority ( uses to :i* lime is appli$1 & = :i* ! poor lime is sometimes q unfit4 ,h[ev]1 c]ta9 k9ds ( poor lime 7z we %all see 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii41 ,note #be7 are us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( hydraulic cem5ts1 :i* solidify into a h>d mass "u wat]4 ,9 ord] to obta9 p]fectly pure lime x is necess>y to take ! pure/ possible mat]ials4 ,9 ! laboratory1 m>ble or %ells are us$ = ?is purpose z a pure =m ( calcium c>bonate4 ,!y are fir/ burnt 9 a furnace1 !n put 9 a crucible & moi/5$ ) a small quantity ( wat]1 & f9ally /rongly ignit$1 by :i* means a pure lime is obta9$4 ,pure lime may be m rapidly prep>$ by tak+ calcium nitrate1 ,ca,n#b,o#f1 :i* is easily obta9$ by dissolv+ lime/one 9 nitric acid4 ,! solution obta9$ is boil$ ) a small quantity ( lime 9 ord] to precipitate ! =eign oxides :i* are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! oxides ( iron1 alum9ium1 c41 are precipitat$ by ?is means4 ,! salt is !n cry/allis$ & ignit$3 ,ca,n#b,o#f ,ca,o #b,,no#b ,o4 ,9 ! decomposition ( calcium c>bonate ! lime pres]ves ! =m ( ! lumps subject$ to ignition2 ?is is "o ( ! signs di/+ui%+ quicklime :5 x is fre%ly burnt & unalt]$ by air4 ,x attracts moi/ure f ! air & !n dis9tegrates to a p[d]2 if left long expos$ 9 ! air1 x also attracts c>bonic anhydride & increases 9 volume2 x does n entirely pass into c>bonate1 b =ms a comp\nd ( ! latt] ) cau/ic lime4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,cont9ually-act+ kiln = burn+ lime4 ,! lime is *>g$ f above & calc9$ by f\r lat]al grates1 ,r1 ,m4 ,d1 fire-b>s4 ,b1 space = )draw+ ! burnt lime4 ,k1 /oke-h\se4 ,m4 fire grate4 ,q1 ,r1 "u-grate4 ,calcium oxide--t is1 quicklime--is a sub/ance 7sp4 gr4 #cae7 :i* is unaffect$ by heat1#ci & may !re=e s]ve z a fire-resi/+ mat]ial1 & 0 employ$ by ,deville = ! con/ruction ( furnaces 9 :i* plat9um 0 melt$1 & silv] volatilis$ by ! action ( ! heat evolv$ by ! combu/ion ( detonat+ gas4 ,! hydrat$ lime1 slak$ lime1 or calcium hydroxide1 ,ca,h#b,o#b 7specific gravity #bjg7 is a mo/ common alkal9e sub/ance1 employ$ l>gely 9 build+ = mak+ mort>s or cem5ts1 9 :i* case its b9d+ prop]ty is ma9ly due to ! absorption ( c>bonic anhydride4#dj ,lime1 l o!r alkalis1 acts on _m animal & vegetable sub/ances1 & = ?is reason has _m practical uses--= example1 = remov+ fats1 & 9 agriculture = accel]at+ ! decomposition ( organic sub/ances 9 ! s-call$ compo/s or accumulations ( vegetable & animal rema9s us$ = f]tilis+ l&4 ,calcium hydroxide easily loses its wat] at a mod]ate heat 7#ecj71 b x does n "p ) wat] at #ajj4 ,:5 mix$ ) wat]1 lime =ms a pa/y mass kn[n z slak$ lime & 9 a m dilute =m z milk ( lime1 because :5 %ak5 up 9 wat] x rema9s susp5d$ 9 x = a long "t & pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a milky liquid4 ,b1 besides ?is1 lime is directly soluble 9 wat]1 n to any consid]able ext5t1 b /ill 9 su* a quantity t lime wat] is precipitat$ by c>bonic anhydride1 & has cle>ly di/+ui%able alkal9e prop]ties4 ,"o "p ( lime requires at ! ord9>y temp]ature ab\t #hjj p>ts ( wat] = solution4 ,at #ajj x requires ab\t #aejj p>ts ( wat]1 & !re=e lime-wat] becomes cl\dy :5 boil$4 ,if lime-wat] be evaporat$ 9 a vacuum1 calcium hydroxide sep>ates 9 six-sid$ cry/als4#da ,if lime-wat] be mix$ ) hydrog5 p]oxide m9ute cry/als ( calcium p]oxide1 ,ca,o#b1h;,h#b,o1 sep>ate2 ?is comp\nd is v un/able &1 l b>ium p]oxide1 is decompos$ by heat4 ,lime1 z a p[]ful base1 comb9es ) all acids1 & 9 ?is respect pres5ts a transition f ! true alkalis to magnesia4 ,_m ( ! salts ( calcium 7! c>bonate1 phosphate1 borate1 & oxalate7 are insoluble 9 wat]2 besides :i* ! sulphate is only sp>+ly soluble4 ,z a m en]getic base ?an magnesia1 lime =ms salts1 ,ca,x#b1 :i* are di/+ui%$ by _! /ability 9 comp>ison ) ! salts ,mg,x#b2 nei!r does lime s easily =m basic & d\ble salts z magnesia4 #ci ,lime1 :5 rais$ to a :ite heat 9 ! vap\r ( potassium1 gives calcium1 & 9 *lor9e x gives (f oxyg54 ,sulphur1 phosphorus1 c41 :5 heat$ ) lime1 are absorb$ by x4 #dj ,! great] quantity ( lime is us$ 9 mak+ mort> = b9d+ bricks or /ones toge!r1 9 ! =m ( lime or cem5t1 or ! s-call$ slak$ lime4 ,= ?is purpose ! lime is mix$ ) wat] & s&1 :i* s]ves to sep>ate ! p>ticles ( lime f ea* o!r4 ,if only lime pa/e 7 put betwe5 two bricks !y w\ld n hold firmly toge!r1 because aft] ! wat] _h evaporat$ ! lime w\ld occupy a small] space ?an be=e1 & !re=e cracks & p[d] w\ld =m 9 its mass1 s t x w\ld n at all produce t complete cem5tation ( ! bricks :i* x is desir$ to atta94 ,pieces ( /one--t is1 s&--mix$ ) ! lime h9d] ?is process ( dis9tegration1 because ! lime b9ds toge!r ! individual gra9s ( s& mix$ ) x1 & =ms "o concrete mass1 9 consequ5ce ( a process :i* proce$s aft] ! desiccation or removal ( ! wat]4 ,! process ( ! solidification ( lime1 tak5 z slak$ lime1 consi/s fir/ 9 ! direct evaporation ( ! wat] & cry/allisation ( ! hydrate1 s t ! lime b9ds ! /ones & s& mix$ ) x1 j z glue b9ds two pieces ( wood4 ,b ?is prelim9>y b9d+ action ( lime is feeble 7z is se5 by direct exp]im5t7 unless !re be fur!r alt]ation ( ! lime lead+ to ! =mation ( c>bonates1 silicates1 & o!r salts ( calcium :i* are di/+ui%$ by _! great cohesiv5ess4 ,) ! progress ( "t ! cem5t is p>tially subject$ to ! action ( ! c>bonic anhydride 9 ! air1 ow+ to :i* calcium c>bonate is =m$1 b n m ?an half ! lime is ?us conv]t$ into c>bonate4 ,besides :i*1 ! lime p>tially acts on ! silica ( ! bricks1 & x is ow+ to ^! new comb9ations simultane\sly =m+ 9 ! cem5t t x gradually becomes /rong] & /rong]4 ,h5ce ! b9d+ action ( ! lime becomes /rong] ) ! lapse ( "t4 ,?is is ! reason 7& n1 z is sometimes said1 because ! anci5ts knew h[ to build /rong] ?an we d7 :y build+s :i* h /ood = c5turies possess a v /rongly b9d+ cem5t4 ,hydraulic cem5ts w be describ$ lat] 7,*apt] ,,xviii41 ,note #be74 #da ,pr(essor ,gl9ka measur$ ! transp>5t bright cry/als ( calcium hydroxide :i* are =m$ 9 common hydraulic 7,portl&7 cem5t4 ,anhydr\s lime does n absorb dry c>bonic anhydride at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,?is 0 already kn[n by ,s*eele1 & ,pr(4 ,s*ulia*5ko %[$ t !re is no absorption ev5 at #cfj4 ,x only proce$s at a r$ heat1#db & !n only leads to ! =mation ( a mixture ( calcium oxide & c>bonate 7,rose74 ,b if ! lime be slak$ or dissolv$1 ! absorption ( c>bonic anhydride proce$s rapidly & completely4 ,^! ph5om5a are connect$ ) ! dissociation ( calcium c>bonate1 /udi$ by ,debray 7#ahfg7 "u ! influ5ce ( ! conceptions ( dissociation introduc$ into sci5ce by ,h5ri ,sa9t-,claire ,deville4 ,j z !re is no vap\r t5sion = non-volatile sub/ances1 s !re is no dissociation t5sion ( c>bonic anhydride = calcium c>bonate at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,j z e volatile sub/ance has a maximum possible vap\r t5sion = e temp]ature1 s also calcium c>bonate has its correspond+ dissociation t5sion2 ?is at #ggj 7! boil+ po9t ( cadmium7 is ab\t #he mm4 7( ! m]cury column71 & at #icj 7! boil+ po9t ( ,zn7 x is ab\t #ebj mm4 ,z1 if ! t5sion be great]1 !re w be no evaporation1 s also !re w he no decomposition4 ,debray took cry/als ( calc sp>1 & c\ld n obs]ve ! lea/ *ange 9 !m at ! boil+ po9t ( z9c 7#icj7 9 an atmosph]e ( c>bonic anhydride tak5 at ! atmosph]ic pressure 7#gfj mm471 :il/ on ! o!r h& calcium c>bonate may be completely decompos$ at a mu* l[] temp]ature if ! t5sion ( ! c>bonic anhydride be kept bel[ ! dissociation t5sion1 :i* may be done ei!r by directly pump+ away ! gas ) an air-pump1 or by mix+ x ) "s o!r gas--t is1 by dim9i%+ ! p>tial pressure ( ! c>bonic anhydride1#dc j z an object may be dri$ at ! ord9>y temp]ature by remov+ ! aque\s vap\r or by c>ry+ x (f 9 a /ream ( ano!r gas4 ,?us x is possible to obta9 calcium c>bonate f lime & c>bonic anhydride at a c]ta9 temp]ature above t at :i* dissociation beg9s1 & conv]sely to decompose calcium c>bonate at ! same temp]ature into lime & c>bonic anhydride4#dd ,at ! ord9>y temp]ature ! reaction ( ! fir/ ord] 7comb9ation7 _c proce$ because ! second 7decomposition1 dissociation7 _c take place1 & ?us all ! mo/ important ph5om5a ) respect to ! behavi\r ( lime t[>ds c>bonic anhydride are expla9$ by />t+ f "o common basis4#de #db ,! act ( heat+ br+s ! sub/ance into t /ate ( int]nal motion :i* is requir$ = reaction4 ,x %\ld be consid]$ t by ! act ( heat+ n only is ! bond betwe5 ! p>ts1 or cohesion ( ! molecules1 alt]$ 7g5]ally dim9i%$71 n only is ! motion or /ore ( en]gy ( ! :ole molecule increas$1 b also t 9 all probability ! motion ( ! atoms !mselves 9 molecules und]goes a *ange4 ,! same k9d ( *ange is accompli%$ by ! act ( solution1 or ( comb9ation 9 g5]al1 judg+ f ! fact t a dissolv$ or comb9$ sub/ance--= in/ance1 lime ) wat]--reacts on c>bonic anhydride z x does "u ! action ( heat4 ,= ! compreh5sion ( *emical ph5om5a x is exce$+ly useful to recognise cle>ly ?is p>allelism4 ,rose's obs]vation on ! =mation 7by ! sl[ diffusion ( solutions ( calcium *loride & sodium c>bonate7 ( aragonite f dilute1 & ( calc sp> f /rong1 solutions is easily und]/ood f ?is po9t ( view4 ,z aragonite is always =m$ f hot solutions1 x appe>s t dilution ) wat] acts l heat4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5t ( ,khlmann is p>ticul>ly in/ructive 9 ?is s5se4 ,anhydr\s 7p]fectly dry7 b>ium oxide does n react ) monohydrat$ sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d 7conta9+ nei!r free wat] nor anhydride1 ,,s#c74 ,b if ei!r an inc&esc5t object or a moi/ sub/ance is br\ght into contact ) ! mixture a viol5t reaction imm$iately beg9s 7x is ess5tially ! same z combu/ion71 & ! :ole mass reacts4 ,! influ5ce ( solution on ! process ( reaction is in/ructively illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,lime1 or b>ium oxide1 is plac$ 9 a flask or retort hav+ an upp] orifice & connect$ ) a tube imm]s$ 9 m]cury4 ,a funnel furni%$ ) a /opcock & fill$ ) wat] is fix$ into ! upp] orifice ( ! retort1 :i* is !n fill$ ) dry c>bonic anhydride4 ,!re is no absorption4 ,:5 a con/ant temp]ature is arriv$ at1 ! unslak$ oxide is made to absorb all ! c>bonic anhydride by c>efully admitt+ wat]4 ,a vacuum is =m$1 z is se5 by ! m]cury ris+ 9 ! neck ( ! retort4 ,) wat] ! absorption goes on to ! end1 :il/ "u ! action ( heat !re rema9s ! dissociat+ t5sion ( ! c>bonic anhydride4 ,fur!rmore1 we "h see t1 ) a c]ta9 resemblance1 !re is also a di/9ction1 dep5d+ on ! fact t at l[ temp]atures calcium c>bonate does n dissociate2 ?is det]m9es ! complete absorption ( ! c>bonic anhydride 9 ! aque\s solution4 #dc ,exp]i5ce has %[n t by moi/5+ p>tially-burnt lime ) wat] & reheat+ x1 x is easy to drive (f ! la/ traces ( c>bonic anhydride f x1 & t1 9 g5]al1 by bl[+ air or /eam ?r\gh ! lime1 & ev5 by us+ moi/ fuel1 x is possible to accel]ate ! decomposition ( ! calcium c>bonate4 ,! p>tial pressure is decreas$ by ^! means4 #dd ,be=e ! introduction ( ,deville's !ory ( dissociation1 ! modus op]&i ( decompositions l t "u consid]ation 0 und]/ood 9 ! s5se t decomposition />ts at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 & t x is accel]at$ by a rise ( temp]ature1 b x 0 n consid]$ possible t comb9ation c\ld proce$ at ! same temp]ature z t at :i* decomposition goes on4 ,b]?ollet & ,deville introduc$ ! conception ( equilibrium into *emical sci5ce1 & elucidat$ ! "q ( rev]sible reactions4 ,naturally ! subject is /ill f> f be+ cle>--! que/ions ( ! rate & complet5ess ( reaction1 ( contact1 c41 /ill intrude !mselves--b an important /ep has be5 made 9 *emical me*anics1 & we h />t$ on a new pa? :i* promises fur!r progress1 t[>ds :i* mu* has be5 done n only by ,deville himself1 b m especially by ! ,fr5* *emi/s ,debray1 ,troo/1 ,lemo9e1 ,hautefeuille1 ,le ,*ateli]1 & o!rs4 ,among o!r ?+s ^? inve/igators h %[n ! close resemblance betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( evaporation & dissociation1 & po9t$ out t ! am\nt ( heat absorb$ by a dissociat+ sub/ance may be calculat$ accord+ to ! law ( ! v>iation ( dissociation-pressure1 9 exactly ! same mann] z x is possible to calculate ! lat5t heat ( ! evaporation ( wat]1 kn[+ ! v>iation ( ! t5sion ) ! temp]ature1 on ! basis ( ! second law ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat4 ,details ( ?is subject mu/ be look$ = 9 special works on physical *emi/ry4 ,"o & ! same conception ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat is applicable to dissociation & evaporation4 #de ,b ! "q z to ! =mation ( a basic calcium c>bonate ) a rise ( temp]ature /ill rema9s undecid$4 ,! pres5ce ( wat] complicates all ! relations betwe5 lime & c>bonic anhydride1 all ! m z ! exi/5ce ( an attraction betwe5 calcium c>bonate & wat] is se5 f its be+ able to give a cry/allo-hydrate1 ,ca,c,o#c1e;,h#b,o 7,pel\ze71 :i* cry/allises 9 rhombic prisms ( sp4 gr4 ab\t #agg & loses its wat] at #bj4 ,^! cry/als are obta9$ :5 a solution ( lime 9 sug> & wat] is left long expos$ to ! air & sl[ly attracts c>bonic anhydride f x1 & also by ! evaporation ( su* a solution at a temp]ature ( ab\t #c4 ,on ! o!r b&1 x is probable t an acid salt1 ,ca,h#b7;,,co#c7b1 is =m$ 9 an aque\s solution1 n only because wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid dissolves calcium c>bonate1 b m especially 9 view ( ! rese>*es ( ,s*loes+ 7#ahgb71 :i* %[$ t at #af a litre ( wat] 9 an atmosph]e ( c>bonic anhydride 7pressure #jihd atmosph]e7 dissolves #ajhf gram ( calcium c>bonate & #aggh gram ( c>bonic anhydride1 :i* corresponds ) ! =mation ( calcium hydrog5 c>bonate1 & ! solution ( c>bonic anhydride 9 ! rema9+ wat]4 ,c>o %[$ t a litre ( wat] is able to dissolve z mu* z #c grams ( calcium c>bonate if ! pressure be increas$ to #d & m atmosph]es4 ,! calcium c>bonate is precipitat$ :5 ! c>bonic anhydride passes (f 9 ! air or 9 a curr5t ( ano!r gas2 ?is also takes place 9 _m natural spr+s4 ,tufa1 /alactites1 & o!r l =mations f wat]s conta9+ calcium c>bonate & c>bonic acid 9 solution are =m$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! solubility ( calcium c>bonate itself at ! ord9>y temp]ature does n exce$ #ac milligrams p] litre ( wat]4 ,calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o#c1 is sometimes met ) 9 nature 9 a cry/all9e =m1 & x =ms an example ( ! ph5om5on t]m$ dimorphism--t is1 x appe>s 9 two cry/all9e =ms4 ,:5 x exhibits comb9ations ( =ms belong+ to ! hexagonal sy/em 7six-sid$ prisms1 rhomboh$ra1 c47 x is call$ calc sp>4 ,calc sp> has a specific gravity ( #bg1 & is fur!r *>act]is$ by a di/9ct cleavage along ! planes ( ! fundam5tal rhomboh$ron hav+ an angle ( #aje4 ,p]fectly transp>5t ,icel& sp> pres5ts a cle> example ( d\ble refraction 7= :i* reason x is frequ5tly employ$ 9 physical app>atus74 ,! o!r =m ( calcium c>bonate occurs 9 cry/als belong+ to ! rhombic sy/em1 & x is !n call$ aragonite2 its specific gravity is #cj4 ,if calcium c>bonate be artificially produc$ by sl[ cry/allisation at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 x appe>s 9 ! rhomboh$ral =m1 b if ! cry/allisation be aid$ by heat x !n appe>s z aragonite4 ,x may !re=e be suppos$ t calc sp> pres5ts ! =m correspond+ ) a l[ temp]ature1 & aragonite ) a high] temp]ature dur+ cry/allisation4#df #df ,dimorph\s bodies diff] f true isom]s & polym]s 9 t !y d n diff] 9 _! *emical reactions1 :i* are det]m9$ by a diff]5ce 9 ! di/ribution 7motion7 ( ! atoms 9 ! molecules1 & !re=e dimorphism is usually ascrib$ to a diff]5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( simil> molecules1 build+ up a cry/al4 ,al?\gh su* a hypo!sis is q admissible 9 ! _s ( ! atomic & molecul> !ory1 yet1 z 9 su* a r$i/ribution ( ! molecules a p]fect cons]vation ( ! di/ribution ( ! atoms 9 !m _c be imag9$1 & 9 e ef=t ( *emical reaction !re mu/ take place a c]ta9 motion among ! atoms2 s 9 my op9ion !re is no firm basis = di/+ui%+ dimorphism f ! g5]al conception ( isom]ism1 "u :i* ! cases ( ^? organic bodies :i* are dextro & lvo rotatory 7) respect to pol>is$ light7 h rec5tly be5 br\ght ) su* brilliant success4 ,:5 calcium c>bonate sep>ates out f solutions1 x has at fir/ a gelat9\s appe>ance1 :i* leads to ! supposition t ?is salt appe>s 9 a colloidal /ate4 ,x only cry/allises ) ! progress ( "t4 ,! colloidal /ate ( calcium c>bonate is p>ticul>ly cle> f ! foll[+ obs]vations made by ,pr(4 ,fam9tz91 :o %[$ t :5 x sep>ates f solutions x is obta9$ "u c]ta9 conditions 9 ! =m ( gra9s hav+ ! peculi> pa/e-l /ructure prop] to />*1 :i* fact has n only an indep5d5t int]e/1 b pres5ts an example ( a m9]al sub/ance be+ obta9$ 9 a =m until !n only kn[n 9 ! organic sub/ances elaborat$ 9 plants4 ,?is %[s t ! =ms 7cells1 vessels1 c47 9 :i* vegetable & animal sub/ances occur 9 organisms d n pres5t 9 !mselves any?+ peculi> to organisms1 b are only ! result ( ^? p>ticul> conditions 9 :i* ^! sub/ances are =m$4 ,traube & aft]w>ds ,monni] & ,vogt 7#ahhb7 obta9$ =mations :i*1 "u ! microscope1 7 9 e respect id5tical 9 appe>ance ) vegetable cells1 by means ( a simil> sl[ =mation ( precipitates 7by react+ on sulphates ( diff]5t metals ) sodium silicate or c>bonate74 ,calcium sulphate 9 comb9ation ) two equival5ts ( wat]1 ,ca,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o1 is v widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 & is kn[n z gypsum4 ,gypsum loses "o & a half & two equival5ts ( wat] at a mod]ate temp]ature1#dg & anhydr\s or burnt gypsum is !n obta9$1 :i* is also kn[n z pla/] ( ,p>is1 & is employ$ 9 l>ge quantities = modell+4#dh ,?is use dep5ds on ! fact t burnt & f9ely-divid$ & sift$ gypsum =ms a pa/e :5 mix$ ) wat]2 aft] a c]ta9 "t ?is pa/e becomes slightly heat$ & solidifies1 ow+ to ! fact t ! anhydr\s calcium sulphate1 ,ca,s,o#d1 aga9 comb9es ) wat]4 ,:5 ! pla/] ( ,p>is & wat] are fir/ made into a pa/e !y =m a me*anical mixture1 b :5 ! mass solidifies1 !n a comp\nd ( ! calcium sulphate ) two molecules ( wat] is produc$2 & ?is may be reg>d$ z d]iv$ f ,s7,,oh7#f by ! sub/itution ( two atoms ( hydrog5 by "o atom ( bival5t calcium4 ,natural gypsum sometimes appe>s z p]fectly col\rless1 or v>iegat$1 m>ble-l1 masses1 & sometimes 9 p]fectly col\rless cry/als1 sel5ite1 ( specific gravity #bcc4 ,! semi-transp>5t gypsum1 or alaba/]1 is (t5 c>v$ into small /atues4 ,besides :i* an anhydr\s calcium sulphate1 ,ca,s,o#d1 call$ anhydrite 7specific gravity #big71 occurs 9 nature4 ,x sometimes occurs along ) gypsum4 ,x is no long] capable ( comb9+ directly ) wat]1 & diff]s 9 ?is respect f ! anhydr\s salt obta9$ by g5tly ignit+ gypsum4 ,if gypsum be v /rongly heat$ x %r9ks & loses its p[] ( comb9+ ) wat]4#dh bis ,"o "p ( calcium sulphate requires at #j #ebe p>ts ( wat] = solution1 at #ch #dff p>ts1 & at #ajj #ega p>ts ( wat]4 ,! maximum solubility ( gypsum is at ab\t #cf1 :i* is ne>ly ! same temp]ature z t at :i* sodium sulphate is mo/ soluble4#di #dg ,accord+ to ,le ,*ateli] 7#ahhh71 #a-a_/b;,h#b,o is lo/ at #abj--t is1 ,h#b,o1#b;,ca,s,o#d is =m$1 b at #aid all ! wat] is expell$4 ,accord+ to ,%5/one & ,cundall 7#ahhh7 gypsum beg9s to lose wat] at #gj 9 dry air4 ,! semi-hydrat$ comp\nd ,h#b,o1#b;,ca,s,o#d is also =m$ :5 gypsum is heat$ ) wat] 9 a clos$ vessel at #aej 7,hoppe-,seyl]74 #dh ,= /ucco-"w x is usual to add lime & s&1 z ! mass is !n h>d] & does n solidify s quickly4 ,= imitat+ m>ble1 glue is add$ to ! pla/]1 & ! mass is poli%$ :5 ?or\ghly dry4 ,re-burnt gypsum _c be us$ ov] aga91 z t :i* has once solidifi$ is1 l ! natural anhydride1 n able to recomb9e ) wat]4 ,x is evid5t t ! /ructure ( ! molecules 9 ! cry/allis$ mass1 or 9 g5]al 9 any d5se mass1 ex]ts an influ5ce on ! *emical action1 :i* is m p>ticul>ly evid5t 9 metals 9 _! diff]5t =ms 7p[d]1 cry/all9e1 roll$1 c47 #dh bis ,accord+ to ,mac,coleb1 gypsum dehydrat$ at #bjj has a specific gravity #begg1 & heat$ to its po9t ( fusion1 #bfed4 ,potilitz9 7#ahid7 also admits ! two above-nam$ modifications ( anhydr\s gypsum1 :i*1 moreov]1 always conta9 ! semi-hydrat$ hydrate 7,note #dg71 & he expla9s by _! relation to wat] ! ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ! solidification ( a mixture ( burnt gypsum & wat]4 #di ,z ,m>ignac %[$1 gypsum1 especially :5 desiccat$ at #abj1 easily gives sup]saturat$ solutions ) respect to ,ca,s,o#d1b;,h#b,o1 :i* conta9 z mu* z #a "p ( ,ca,s,o#d to #aaj p>ts ( wat]4 ,boil+ dilute hydro*loric acid dissolves gypsum1 =m+ calcium *loride4 ,! behavi\r ( gypsum t[>ds ! alkal9e c>bonates has be5 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,x4 ,alcohol precipitates gypsum f its aque\s solutions1 because1 l ! sulphates 9 g5]al1 x is sp>+ly soluble 9 alcohol4 ,gypsum1 l all ! sulphates1 :5 heat$ ) *>coal1 gives up its oxyg51 =m+ ! sulphide1 ,ca,s4 ,calcium ulphate1 l magnesium sulphate1 is capable ( =m+ d\ble salts1 b ) difficulty1 & !y are *emically less /able4 ,!y conta91 z is always ! case ) d\ble salts1 less wat] ( cry/allisation ?an ! compon5t salts4 ,rose1 ,/ruv1 & o!rs obta9$ ! salt ,ca,k#b7,,s#d7b1;,h#b,o2 a mixture ( gypsum ) an equival5t am\nt ( potassium sulphate & wat] solidifies into a homog5e\s mass4 ,fritzs*e obta9$ ! correspond+ sodium salt 9 a hydrat$ & anhydr\s /ate1 by heat+ a mixture ( gypsum ) a saturat$ solution ( sodium sulphate4 ,! anhydr\s salt occurs 9 nature z glaub]ite4 ,fritzs*e also obta9$ gaylussite1 ,na#b;,ca7,,co#c7b1e;,h#b,o1 by p\r+ a saturat$ solution ( sodium c>bonate on to fre%ly-precipitat$ calcium c>bonate4 ,calcium also =ms basic salts1 b only a few4 ,ve]5 7#ahib7 obta9$ ,ca7,,no#c7b;,ca7,,oh7#b1b-a_/b;,h#b,o by leav+ p[d]$ cau/ic lime 9 a saturat$ solution ( ,ca7,,no#c7b until x solidifi$4 ,?is salt is decompos$ by wat]4 ,z lime is a m en]getic base ?an magnesia1 s calcium *loride1 ,ca,cl#b1 is n s easily decompos$ by wat]1 & its solutions only dis5gage a small quantity ( hydro*loric acid :5 evaporat$1 & :5 ! evaporation is conduct$ 9 a /ream ( hydro*loric acid x easily gives an anhydr\s salt :i* fuses at #gai2 o!rwise an aque\s solution yields a cry/allo-hydrate1 ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o1 :i* melts at #cj4ej #ej ,calcium *loride has a specific gravity #bbj1 or1 :5 fus$1 #bab1 & ! sp4 gr4 ( ! cry/allis$ salt ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o is #afi4 ,if ! volume ( ! cry/als at #j #a1 !n at #bi x is #ajbj1 & ! volume ( ! fus$ mass at ! same temp]ature is #aaah 7,kopp7 7specific gravity ( solutions1 see ,note #bg74 ,! solution conta9+ #ej p4c4 ,ca,cl#b boils at #acj1 #gj p4c4 at #aeh4 ,sup]heat$ /eam decomposes calcium *loride ) m difficulty ?an magnesium *loride & ) great] ease ?an b>ium *loride 7,kuhnheim74 ,sodium does n decompose fus$ calcium *loride ev5 on prolong$ heat+ 7,lis-,bod>t71 b an alloy ( sodium ) z9c1 lead1 & bismu? decomposes x1 =m+ an alloy ( calcium ) "o ( ! above-nam$ metals 7,c>on74 ,! z9c alloy may be obta9$ ) z mu* z #ae p4c4 ( calcium4 ,calcium *loride is soluble 9 alcohol & absorbs ammonia4 ,a gram molecul> weight ( calcium *loride 9 dissolv+ 9 an excess ( wat] evolves #ah1gbc calories1 & 9 dissolv+ 9 alcohol #ag1eee units ( heat1 accord+ to ,pick]+4 ,roozeboom made detail$ rese>*es on ! cry/allo-hydrates ( calcium *loride 7#ahhi71 & f\nd t ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o melts at #cjb1 & is =m$ at l[ temp]atures f solutions conta9+ n m ?an #ajc p>ts ( calcium *loride p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]2 if ! am\nt ( salt 7always to #ajj p>ts ( wat]7 rea*es #abj p>ts1 !n tabul> cry/als ( ,ca,cl#b1d;,h#b,o,greek3 b are =m$1 :i* at temp]atures above #chd are conv]t$ into ! cry/allo-hydrates ,ca,cl#b1b;,h#b,o1 :il/ at temp]atures bel[ #ah ! ,greek3 b v>iety passes into ! m /able ,ca,cl#b1d;,h#b,o,greek3 a1 :i* process is aid$ by me*anical friction4 ,h5ce1 z is ! case ) magnesium sulphate 7,note #bg71 "o & ! same cry/allo-hydrate appe>s 9 two =ms--! ,greek3 b1 :i* is easily produc$ b is un/able1 & ! ,greek3 a1 :i* is /able4 ,! solubility ( ! above-m5tion$ hydrates ( *loride ( calcium1 or am\nt ( calcium *loride p] #ajj p>ts ( wat]1 is z foll[s3-- #j #bj #cj #dj #fj ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o #fj #ge #ajj 7#ajbh7 ,ca,cl#b1d;,h#b,o,greek3 a -- #ij #aja #aag 7#aedb7 ,ca,cl#b1d;,h#b,o,greek3 b -- #ajd #aad -- ,ca,cl#b1b;,h#b,o -- -- 7#cjhc7 #abh #acg ,! am\nt ( calcium *loride to #ajj p>ts ( wat] 9 ! cry/allo-hydrate is giv5 9 brackets4 ,! po9t ( int]section ( ! curves ( solubility lies at ab\t #cj = ! fir/ two salts & ab\t #de = ! salts ) #d;,h#b,o & #b;,h#b,o4 ,! cry/als ,ca,cl#b1b;,h#b,o may1 h[ev]1 be obta9$ 7,ditte7 at ! ord9>y temp]ature f solutions conta9+ hydro*loric acid4 ,! vap\r t5sion ( ?is cry/allo-hydrate equals ! atmosph]ic at #afe1 & !re=e ! cry/als may be dri$ 9 an atmosph]e ( /eam & obta9$ )\t a "m liquor1 ^: vap\r t5sion is great]4 ,?is cry/allo-hydrate decomposes at ab\t #age into ,ca,cl#b1;,h#b,o & a solution2 ?is is easily br\ght ab\t 9 a clos$ vessel :5 ! pressure is great] ?an ! atmosph]e4 ,?is cry/allo-hydrate is de/roy$ at temp]atures above #bfj1 anhydr\s calcium *loride be+ =m$4 ,neglect+ ! un/able modification ,ca,cl#b1d;,h#b,o,greek3 b1 we w give ! temp]atures t at :i* ! passage ( "o hydrate into ano!r takes place & at :i* ! solution ,ca,cl#b n,h#b,o1 ! two solids ,a & ,b & aque\s vap\r1 ^: t5sion is giv5 z p 9 millimetres1 are able to exi/ toge!r 9 /able equilibrium1 accord+ to ,roozeboom's det]m9ations3 t n ,a ,b p -#ee #ade ice ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o #j #bih #fa ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o ,ca,cl#b1d;,h#b,o #fh #dec #dg ,ca,cl#b1d;,h#b,o ,ca,cl#b1b;,h#b,o #aah #agee #ba ,ca,cl#b1b;,h#b,o ,ca,cl#b1;,h#b,o #hdb #bfj #ah ,ca,cl#b1;,h#b,o ,ca,cl#b ,sev]al atmosph]es ,solutions ( calcium *loride may s]ve z a conv5i5t example = ! /udy ( ! sup]saturat$ /ate1 :i* 9 ?is case easily occurs1 because diff]5t hydrates are =m$4 ,?us at #be solutions conta9+ m ?an #hc p>ts ( anhydr\s calcium *loride p] #ajj ( wat] w be sup]saturat$ = ! hydrate ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,hamm]l %[$ t solutions ( calcium *loride1 :5 froz51 deposit ice if !y conta9 less ?an #dc p>ts ( salt p] #ajj ( wat]1 & if m ! cry/allo-hydrate ,ca,cl#b1f;,h#b,o sep>ates1 & t a solution ( ! above composition 7,ca,cl#b1ad;,h#b,o requires #ddj p>ts calcium *loride p] #ajj ( wat]7 solidifies z a cryohydrate at ab\t -#ee4 ,j z = potassium1 ,k #ci 7& sodium1 ,na #bc71 !re are ! ne> analogues1 ,rb #he & ,cs #acc1 & also ano!r1 ,li #g1 s 9 exactly ! same mann] = calcium1 ,ca #dj 7& magnesium1 ,mg #bd71 !re is ano!r analogue ( light] atomic weight1 b]yllium1 ,be #i1 besides ! ne> analogues /rontium1 ,sr #hg1 & b>ium1 ,ba #acg4 ,z rubidium & csium are m r>ely met ) 9 nature ?an potassium1 s also /rontium & b>ium are r>] ?an calcium 79 ! same way t brom9e & iod9e are r>] ?an *lor9e74 ,s9ce !y exhibit _m po9ts ( resemblance ) calcium1 /rontium & b>ium may be *>act]is$ aft] a v %ort acqua9tance ) _! *ief comp\nds2 ?is %[s ! important advantages ga9$ by di/ribut+ ! elem5ts accord+ to _! natural gr\ps1 to :i* matt] we %all turn our att5tion 9 ! next *apt]4 ,among ! comp\nds ( b>ium met ) 9 nature ! commone/ is ! sulphate1 ,ba,s,o#d1 :i* =ms anhydr\s cry/als ( ! rhombic sy/em1 :i* are id5tical 9 _! cry/all9e =m ) anhydrite1 & g5]ally occur z transp>5t & semi-transp>5t masses ( tabul> cry/als hav+ a high specific gravity1 namely #dde1 = :i* reason ?is salt be>s ! "n ( heavy sp> or b>ytes4 ,analog\s to x is cele/9e1 ,sr,s,o#d1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 m r>ely met )4 ,heavy sp> frequ5tly =ms ! gangue sep>at$ on dress+ metallic ores f ! ve9 /uff2 ?is m9]al is ! s\rce ( all o!r b>ium comp\nds2 = ! c>bonate1 al?\gh m easily trans=m$ into ! o!r comp\nds 7because acids act directly on x1 evolv+ c>bonic anhydride71 is a comp>atively r>e m9]al 7,ba,c,o#c =ms ! m9]al )]ite2 ,sr,c,o#c1 /rontianite2 bo? are r>e1 ! latt] is f\nd at ,etna74 ,! treatm5t ( b>ium sulphate is r5d]$ difficult f ! fact t x is insoluble bo? 9 wat] & acids1 & has !re=e to be treat$ by a me?od ( r$uction4#ea ,l sodium sulphate & calcium sulphate1 heavy sp> :5 heat$ ) *>coal p>ts ) its oxyg5 & =ms b>ium sulphide1 ,ba,s4 ,= ?is purpose a pa/y mixture ( p[d]$ heavy sp>1 *>coal1 & t> is subject$ to ! action ( a /rong heat1 :5 ,ba,s,o#d #d;,c ,ba,s #d;,,co4 ,! residue is !n treat$ ) wat]1 9 :i* ! b>ium sulphide is soluble4#eb ,:5 boil$ ) hydro*loric acid1 b>ium *loride1 ,ba,cl#b1 is obta9$ 9 solution1 & ! sulphur is dis5gag$ z gase\s sulphurett$ hydrog51 ,ba,s #b;,h,cl ,ba,cl#b ,h#b,s4 ,9 ?is mann] b>ium sulphate is conv]t$ into b>ium *loride1#ec & ! latt] by d\ble decomposition ) /rong nitric acid or nitre gives ! less soluble b>ium nitrate1 ,ba7,,no#c7b1ed or ) sodium c>bonate a precipitate ( b>ium c>bonate1 ,ba,c,o#c4 ,bo? ^! salts are able to give b>ium oxide1 or b>yta1 ,ba,o1 & ! hydroxide1 ,ba7,,ho7#b1 :i* diff]s f lime by its great solubility 9 wat]1#ee & by ! ease ) :i* x =ms a cry/allo-hydrate1 ,ba,h#b,o#b1h;,h#b,o1 f its solutions4 ,ow+ to its solubility1 b>yta is frequ5tly employ$ 9 manufactures & 9 practical *emi/ry z an alkali :i* has ! v important prop]ty t x may be always entirely remov$ f solution by ! addition ( sulphuric acid1 :i* entirely sep>ates x z ! insoluble b>ium sulphate1 ,ba,s,o#d4 ,x may also be remov$ :il/ x rema9s 9 an alkal9e /ate 7= example1 ! excess :i* may rema9 :5 x is us$ = saturat+ acids7 by means ( c>bonic anhydride1 :i* also completely precipitates b>yta z a sp>+ly soluble1 col\rless1 & p[d]y c>bonate4 ,bo? ^! reactions %[ t b>yta has su* prop]ties z w\ld v greatly ext5d its use 7 its comp\nds z widely di/ribut$ z ^? ( sodium & calcium1 & 7 its soluble comp\nds n poison\s4 ,b>ium nitrate is directly decompos$ by ! action ( heat1 b>ium oxide be+ left beh9d4 ,! same takes place ) b>ium c>bonate1 especially t =m ( x precipitat$ f solutions1 & :5 mix$ ) *>coal or ignit$ 9 an atmosph]e ( /eam4 ,b>ium oxide comb9es ) wat] ) ! developm5t ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat1 & ! resultant hydroxide is v /able 9 its ret5tion ( ! wat]1 al?\gh x p>ts ) x :5 /rongly ignit$4#ee bis ,) oxyg5 ! anhydr\s oxide gives1 z already m5tion$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,iii4 & ,,iv41 a p]oxide1 ,ba,o#b4ef ,nei!r calcium nor /rontium oxides are able to give su* a p]oxide directly1 b !y =m p]oxides "u ! action ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 #ea ,! action ( b>ium sulphate on sodium & potassium c>bonates is giv5 on p4 #dcg4 #eb ,b>ium sulphide is decompos$ by wat]1 ,ba,s #b;,h#b,o ,h#b,s ,ba7,,oh7#b 7! reaction is rev]sible71 b bo? sub/ances are soluble 9 wat]1 & _! sep>ation is complicat$ by ! fact t b>ium sulphide absorbs oxyg5 & gives insoluble b>ium sulphate4 ,! hydrog5 sulphide is sometimes remov$ f ! solution by boil+ ) ! oxides ( copp] or z9c4 ,if sug> be add$ to a solution ( b>ium sulphide1 b>ium sac*>ate is precipitat$ on heat+2 x is decompos$ by c>bonic anhydride1 s t b>ium c>bonate is =m$4 ,an equival5t mixture ( sodium sulphate ) b>ium or /rontium sulphates :5 ignit$ ) *>coal gives a mixture ( sodium sulphide & b>ium or /rontium sulphide1 & if ?is mixture be dissolv$ 9 wat] & ! solution evaporat$1 b>ium or /rontium hydroxide cry/allises out on cool+1 & sodium hydrosulphide1 ,na,h,s1 is obta9$ 9 solution4 ,! hydroxides ,ba,h#b,o#b & ,sr,h#b,o#b are prep>$ on a l>ge scale1 be+ appli$ to _m reactions2 = example1 /rontium hydroxide is prep>$ = sug> works = extract+ cry/allisable sug> f molasses4 ,we may rem>k t ,b\ss+ault1 by ignit+ b>ium sulphate 9 hydro*loric acid gas1 obta9$ a complete decomposition1 ) ! =mation ( b>ium *loride4 ,att5tion %\ld also be turn$ to ! fact t ,gr\v51 by beat+ a mixture ( *>coal & /rontium sulphate ) magnesium & potassium sulphates1 %[$ ! easy decomposability dep5d+ on ! =mation ( d\ble salts1 su* z ,sr,s1,k#b,s1 :i* are easily soluble 9 wat]1 & give a precipitate ( /rontium c>bonate ) c>bonic anhydride4 ,9 su* examples z ^! we see t ! =ce :i* b9ds d\ble salts may play a "p 9 direct+ ! c\rse ( reactions1 & ! numb] ( d\ble salts ( silica on ! e>?'s surface %[s t nature takes advantage ( ^! =ces 9 h] *emical processes4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t ,bu*n] 7#ahic71 by mix+ a #dj p] c5t4 solution ( b>ium acetate ) a #fj p] c5t4 solution ( sulphate ( alum9a1 obta9$ a ?ick glut9\s mass1 :i* only gave a precipitate ( ,ba,s,o#d aft] be+ dilut$ ) wat]4 #ec ,b>ium sulphate is sometimes conv]t$ into b>ium *loride 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 f9ely-gr\nd b>ium sulphate is heat$ ) coal & manganese *loride 7! residue f ! manufacture ( *lor9e74 ,! mass becomes semi-liquid1 & :5 x evolves c>bonic oxide ! heat+ is /opp$4 ,! foll[+ d\ble decompositions proce$ dur+ ?is op]ation3 fir/ ! c>bon takes up ! oxyg5 f ! b>ium sulphate1 & gives sulphide1 ,ba,s1 :i* ent]s into d\ble decomposition ) ! *loride ( manganese1 ,mn,cl#b1 =m+ manganese sulphide1 ,mn,s1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 & soluble b>ium *loride4 ,?is solution is easily obta9$ pure because _m =eign impurities1 su* z iron1 rema9 9 ! insoluble portion ) ! manganese4 ,! solution ( b>ium *loride is *iefly us$ = ! prep>ation ( b>ium sulphate1 :i* is precipitat$ by sulphuric acid1 by :i* means b>ium sulphate is re-=m$ z a p[d]4 ,?is salt is *>act]is$ by ! fact t x is unact$ on by ! majority ( *emical reag5ts1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 & is n dissolv$ by acids4 ,ow+ to ?is1 artificial b>ium sulphate =ms a p]man5t :ite pa9t :i* is us$ in/ead ( 7& mix$ )7 :ite lead1 & has be5 t]m$ 'blanc fix' or 'p]man5t :ite4' ,! solution ( "o "p ( calcium *loride at #bj requires #acf "p ( wat]1 ! solution ( "o "p ( /rontium *loride requires #ahh "p ( wat] at ! same temp]ature1 & ! solution ( b>ium *loride #bhh p>ts ( wat]4 ,! solubility ( ! bromides & iodides v>ies 9 ! same proportion4 ,! *lorides ( b>ium & /rontium cry/allise out f solution ) great ease 9 comb9ation ) wat]2 !y =m ,ba,cl#b1b;,h#b,o & ,sr,cl#b1f;,h#b,o4 ,! latt] 7:i* sep>ates out at #dj7 resembles ! salts ( ,ca & ,mg 9 composition1 & t>d 7#ahib7 obta9$ ,sr,cl#b1b;,h#b,o f solutions at #ij-acj4 ,we may also obs]ve t ! cry/allo-hydrates ,ba,br#b1;,h#b,o & ,ba,i#b1g;,h#b,o are kn[n4 #ed ,! nitrates ,sr7,,no#c7b 79 ! cold its solutions give a cry/allo-hydrate conta9+ #d;,h#b,o7 & ,ba7,,no#c7b are s v sp>+ly soluble 9 wat] t !y sep>ate 9 consid]able quantities :5 a solution ( sodium nitrate is add$ to a /rong solution ( ei!r b>ium or /rontium *loride4 ,!y are obta9$ by ! action ( nitric acid on ! c>bonates or oxides4 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #ae dissolve #fe p>ts ( /rontium nitrate & #hb p>ts ( b>ium nitrate1 :il/ m ?an #cjj p>ts ( calcium nitrate are soluble at ! same temp]ature4 ,/rontium nitrate communicates a crimson coloration to ! flame ( burn+ sub/ances1 & is !re=e frequ5tly us$ = ,b5gal fire1 fireworks1 & signal lights1 = :i* purpose ! salts ( li?ium are /ill bett] fitt$4 ,calcium nitrate is exce$+ly hygroscopic4 ,b>ium nitrate1 on ! contr>y1 does n %[ ?is prop]ty 9 ! lea/ degree1 & 9 ?is respect x resembles potassium nitrate1 & is !re=e us$ in/ead ( ! latt] = ! prep>ation ( a gunp[d] :i* is call$ 'saxifrag9 p[d]' 7#gf p>ts ( b>ium nitrate1 #b p>ts ( nitre1 & #bb p>ts ( *>coal74 #ee ,! dissociation ( ! cry/allo-hydrate ( b>yta is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,i41 ,note #fe4 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #j #bj #dj #fj #hj ,ba,o #ae #ce #gd #ahh #ijh ,sr,o #jc #jg #ad #c #i ,sup]saturat$ solutions are easily =m$4 ,! anhydr\s oxide ,ba,o fuses 9 ! oxyhydrog5 flame4 ,:5 ignit$ 9 ! vap\r ( potassium1 ! latt] takes up ! oxyg52 :il/ 9 *lor9e1 oxyg5 is sep>at$ & b>ium *loride =m$4 #ee bis ,brugellmann1 by heat+ ,ba,h#b,o#b 9 a graphite or clay crucible1 obta9$ ,ba,o 9 ne$les1 sp4 gr4 #ecb1 & by heat+ 9 a plat9um crucible--9 cry/als belong+ to ! cubical sy/em1 sp4 gr4 #egd4 ,sr,o is obta9$ 9 ! latt] =m f ! nitrate4 ,! foll[+ are ! specific gravities ( ! oxides f diff]5t s\rces3-- ,mg,o ,ca,o ,sr,o f ,,rn#b,o#f #cch #cbe #dge ,,rco#c #cdh #cbf #dde ,,rh#b,o#b #cda #cbe #deg #ef ,! prop]ty ( b>ium oxide ( absorb+ oxyg5 :5 heat$1 & giv+ ! p]oxide1 ,ba,o#b1 is v *>act]i/ic = ?is oxide 7see ,*apt] ,,iii41 ,note #g74 ,x only belongs to ! anhydr\s oxide4 ,! hydroxide does n absorb oxyg54 ,p]oxides ( calcium & /rontium may be obta9$ by means ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,b>ium p]oxide is insoluble 9 wat]1 b is able to =m a hydrate ) x1 & also to comb9e ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 =m+ a v un/able comp\nd hav+ ! composition ,ba,h#b,o#d 7obta9$ by ,pr(essor ,s*ne71 :i* 9 c\rse ( "t evolves oxyg5 7,*apt] ,,iv41 ,note #ba74 ,b>ium oxide is decompos$ :5 heat$ ) potassium2 fus$ b>ium *loride is decompos$1 z ,davy %[$1 by ! action ( a galvanic curr5t1 =m+ metallic b>ium2 & ,crookes 7#ahfb7 obta9$ an amalgam ( b>ium f :i* ! m]cury c\ld easily be driv5 (f1 by heat+ sodium amalgam 9 a saturat$ solution ( b>ium *loride4 ,/rontium is obta9$ by ! same processes4 ,bo? metals are soluble 9 m]cury1 & seem to be non-volatile or only v slightly volatile4 ,!y are bo? heavi] ?an wat]2 ! specific gravity ( b>ium is #cf1 & ( /rontium #be4 ,!y bo? decompose wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 l ! metals ( ! alkalis4 ,b>ium & /rontium z sal9e elem5ts are *>act]is$ by _! p[]ful basic prop]ties1 s t !y =m acid salts ) difficulty1 & sc>cely =m basic salts4 ,on comp>+ !m toge!r & ) calcium1 x is evid5t t ! alkal9e prop]ties 9 ?is gr\p 7z 9 ! gr\p potassium1 rubidium1 csium7 increase ) ! atomic weight1 & ?is succession cle>ly %[s itself 9 _m ( _! correspond+ comp\nds4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! solubility ( ! hydroxides ,,rh#b,o#b & ! specific gravity#eg rise 9 pass+ f calcium to /rontium & b>ium1 :ile ! solubility ( ! sulphates decreases1#eh & !re=e 9 ! case ( magnesium & b]yllium1 z metals ^: atomic weights are /ill less1 we %\ld expect ! solubility ( ! sulphates to be great]1 & ?is is 9 reality ! case4 #eg ,ev5 9 solutions a gradual progression 9 ! increase ( ! specific gravity %[s itself1 n only = equival5t solutions 7= in/ance1 ,r,cl#b #bjj;,h#b,o71 b ev5 ) an equal p]c5tage composition1 z is se5 f ! curves giv+ ! specific gravity 7wat] #d #aj1jjj7 at #ae 7= b>ium *loride1 accord+ to ,b\rdiak(f's det]m9ations73 ,be,cl#b 3 ,s #i1iib #fgbap #jaaap#b ,ca,cl#b 3 ,s #i1iib #hjbdp #jdgfp#b ,sr,cl#b 3 ,s #i1iib #heegp #jgccp#b ,ba,cl#b 3 ,s #i1iib #hfefp #jhacp#b #eh ,"o "p ( calcium sulphate at ! ord9>y temp]ature requires ab\t #ejj p>ts ( wat] = solution1 /rontium sulphate ab\t #g1jjj p>ts1 b>ium sulphate ab\t #djj1jjj p>ts1 :il/ b]yllium sulphate is easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,j z 9 ! s]ies ( ! alkali metals we saw ! metals potassium1 rubidium1 & csium approa*+ ne> to ea* o!r 9 _! prop]ties1 & alli$ to !m two metals hav+ small] comb9+ weights--namely1 sodium1 & ! lighte/ ( all1 li?ium1 :i* all exhibit$ c]ta9 peculi> *>act]i/ic prop]ties--s also 9 ! case ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s we f9d1 besides calcium1 b>ium1 & /rontium1 ! metal magnesium & also b]yllium or gluc9um4 ,9 respect to ! magnitude ( its atomic weight1 ?is la/ occupies ! same position 9 ! s]ies ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s z li?ium does 9 ! s]ies ( ! alkali metals1 = ! comb9+ weight ( b]yllium1 ,be or ,gl #i4 ,?is comb9+ weight is great] ?an t ( li?ium 7#g71 z ! comb9+ weight ( magnesium 7#bd7 is great] ?an t ( sodium 7#bc71 & z t ( calcium 7#dj7 is great] ?an t ( potassium 7#ci71 c4#ei ,b]yllium 0 s nam$ because x occurs 9 ! m9]al b]yl4 ,! metal is also call$ gluc9um 7f ! ,greek ^w ,greek3 glykys1 'sweet'71 because its salts h a sweet ta/e4 ,x occurs 9 b]yl1 aquam>9e1 ! em]ald1 & o!r m9]als1 :i* are g5]ally ( a gre5 col\r2 !y are sometimes f\nd 9 consid]able masses1 b z a rule are comp>atively r>e &1 z transp>5t cry/als1 =m preci\s /ones4 ,! composition ( b]yl & ( ! em]ald is z foll[s3 ,al#b,o#c1c;,be,o1#f,si,o#b4 ,! ,sib]ian & ,brazilian b]yls are ! be/ kn[n4 ,! specific gravity ( b]yl is ab\t #bg4 ,b]yllium oxide1 f ! feebl5ess ( its basic prop]ties1 pres5ts an analogy to alum9ium oxide 9 ! same way t li?ium oxide is analog\s to magnesium oxide4#fj ,ow+ to its r>e occurr5ce 9 nature1 to ! abs5ce ( any especially di/9ct individual prop]ties1 & to ! possibility ( =etell+ !m to a c]ta9 ext5t on ! basis ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts giv5 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 & ow+ to ! brevity ( ?is treatise1 we w n discuss at any l5g? ! comp\nds ( b]yllium1 & w only obs]ve t _! individuality 0 po9t$ out 9 #agih by ,vauquel91 & t metallic b]yllium 0 obta9$ by ,whl] & ,bussy4 ,whl] obta9$ metallic b]yllium 7l magnesium7 by act+ on b]yllium *loride1 ,be,cl#b1 ) potassium 7x is be/ prep>$ by fus+ ,k#b;,be,f#d ) ,na74 ,metallic b]yllium has a specific gravity #afd 7,nilson & ,pett]sson74 ,x is v infusible1 melt+ at ne>ly ! same temp]ature z silv]1 :i* x resembles 9 its :ite col\r & lu/re4 ,x is *>act]is$ by ! fact t x is v difficultly oxidis$1 & ev5 9 ! oxidis+ flame ( ! bl[pipe is only sup]ficially cov]$ by a coat+ ( oxide2 x does n burn 9 pure oxyg51 & does n decompose wat] at ! ord9>y temp]ature or at a r$ heat1 b gase\s hydro*loric acid is decompos$ by x :5 slightly heat$1 ) evolution ( hydrog5 & developm5t ( a consid]able am\nt ( heat4 ,ev5 dilute hydro*loric acid acts 9 ! same mann] at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,b]yllium also acts easily on sulphuric acid1 b x is rem>kable t nei!r dilute nor /rong nitric acid acts on b]yllium1 :i* seems especially able to resi/ oxidis+ ag5ts4 ,potassium hydroxide acts on b]yllium z on alum9ium1 hydrog5 be+ dis5gag$ & ! metal dissolv$1 b ammonia has no action on x4 ,^! prop]ties ( metallic b]yllium seem to isolate x f ! s]ies ( ! o!r metals describ$ 9 ?is *apt]1 b if we comp>e ! prop]ties ( calcium1 magnesium1 & b]yllium we %all see t magnesium occupies a position int]m$iate betwe5 ! o!r two4 ,:il/ calcium decomposes wat] ) great ease1 magnesium does s ) difficulty1 & b]yllium n at all4 ,! peculi>ities ( b]yllium among ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s recall ! fact t 9 ! s]ies ( ! halog5s we saw t fluor9e diff]$ f ! o!r halog5s 9 _m ( its prop]ties & _h ! smalle/ atomic weight4 ,! same is ! case ) reg>d to b]yllium among ! o!r metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 #ei ,we ref] b]yllium to ! class ( ! bival5t metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s--t is1 we ascribe to its oxide ! =mula ,be,o1 & d n consid] x z trival5t 7,be #ace1 ,*apt] ,,vii41 ,note #ba71 al?\gh t view has be5 upheld by _m *emi/s4 ,! true atomic composition ( b]yllium oxide 0 fir/ giv5 by ! ,russian *emi/1 ,avdeff 7#ahai71 9 8 rese>*es on ! comp\nds ( ?is metal4 ,he comp>$ ! comp\nds ( b]yllium to ^? ( magnesium1 & refut$ ! notion preval5t at ! "t1 ( ! resemblance betwe5 ! oxides ( b]yllium & alum9ium1 by prov+ t b]yllium sulphate pres5ts a great] resemblance to magnesium sulphate ?an to alum9ium sulphate4 ,x 0 especially notic$ t ! analogues ( alum9a give alums1 :il/ b]yllium oxide1 al?\gh x is a feeble base1 easily giv+1 l magnesia1 basic & d\ble salts1 does n =m true alums4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ! p]iodic sy/em ( ! elem5ts 7#ahfi71 consid]$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 imm$iately indicat$ t ,avdeff's view correspond$ ) ! tru?--t is1 t b]yllium is bival5t1 :i* !re=e necessitat$ ! d5ial ( its trival5cy4 ,?is sci5tific controv]sy result$ 9 a long s]ies ( rese>*es 7#ahgj-hj7 conc]n+ ?is elem5t1 & end$ 9 ,nilson & ,pett]sson--two ( ! *ief advocates ( ! trival5cy ( b]yllium--det]m9+ ! vap\r d5sity ( ,be,cl#b #dj1 7,*apt] ,,vii41 ,note #ba71 :i* gave an und\bt$ pro( ( its bival5cy 7see also ,note #c74 #fj ,b]yllium oxide1 l alum9ium oxide1 is precipitat$ f solutions ( its salts by alkalis z a gelat9\s hydroxide1 ,be,h#b,o#b1 :i*1 l alum9a1 is soluble 9 an excess ( cau/ic pota% or soda4 ,?is reaction may be tak5 advantage ( = di/+ui%+ & sep>at+ b]yllium f alum9ium1 because :5 ! alkal9e solution is dilut$ ) wat] & boil$1 b]yllium hydroxide is precipitat$1 :il/ ! alum9a rema9s 9 solution4 ,! solubility ( ! b]yllium oxide at once cle>ly indicates its feeble basic prop]ties1 &1 z x 71 sep>ates ?is oxide f ! class ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,b on arrang+ ! oxides ( ! above-describ$ metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s accord+ to _! decreas+ atomic weights we h ! s]ies ,ba,o1 ,sr,o1 ,ca,o1 ,mg,o1 ,be,o1 9 :i* ! basic prop]ties & solubility ( ! oxides consecutively & di/9ctly decrease until we rea* a po9t :51 _h we n kn[n ( ! exi/5ce ( ! b]yllium oxide1 we %\ld expect to f9d 9 its place an oxide insoluble 9 wat] & ( feeble basic prop]ties4 ,if an alcoholic solution ( cau/ic pota% be saturat$ ) ! hydrate ( ,be,o1 & evaporat$ "u ! receiv] ( an air pump1 x =ms silky cry/als ,be,k#b,o#b4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic ( ! salts ( b]yllium is t !y give ) aque\s ammonia a gelat9\s precipitate :i* is soluble 9 an excess ( ammonium c>bonate l ! precipitate ( magnesia2 9 ?is b]yllium oxide diff]s f ! oxide ( alum9ium4 ,b]yllium oxide easily =ms a c>bonate :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 & resembles magnesium c>bonate 9 _m respects4 ,b]yllium sulphate is di/+ui%$ by its consid]able solubility 9 wat]--?us1 at ! ord9>y temp]ature x dissolves 9 an equal weight ( wat]2 x cry/allises out f its solutions 9 well-=m$ cry/als1 :i* d n *ange 9 ! air1 & conta9 ,be,s,o#d1d;,h#b,o4 ,:5 ignit$ x leaves b]yllium oxide1 b ?is oxide1 aft] prolong$ ignition1 is re-dissolv$ by sulphuric acid1 :il/ alum9ium sulphate1 aft] a simil> treatm5t1 leaves alum9ium oxide1 :i* is no long] soluble 9 acids4 ,) a few exceptions1 ! salts ( b]yllium cry/allise ) great difficulty1 & to a consid]able ext5t resemble ! salts ( magnesium2 ?us1 = in/ance1 b]yllium *loride is analog\s to magnesium *loride4 ,x is volatile 9 an anhydr\s /ate1 & 9 a hydrat$ /ate x decomposes1 ) ! evolution ( hydro*loric acid4 ,9 addition to ! above *>act]i/ics ( ! comp\nds ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 we mu/ add t !y1 l ! alkali metals1 comb9e ) nitrog5 & hydrog51 & :ile sodium nitride 7obta9$ by ignit+ ! amide ( sodium1 ,*apt] ,,xii41 ,note #dd bis7 & li?ium nitride 7obta9$ by heat+ li?ium 9 nitrog51 ,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,note #ci7 h ! composition ,r#c,n1 s ! nitrides ( magnesium 7,note #ad71 calcium1 /rontium1 & b>ium h ! composition ,r#c,n#b1 = example1 ,ba#c,n#b1 z might be expect$ f ! diatomicity ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s & f ! relation ( ! nitrides to ammonia1 :i* is obta9$ f all ( ^! comp\nds by ! action ( wat]4 ,! nitrides ( ,ca1 ,sr1 & ,ba are =m$ directly 7,maqu5ne1 #ahib7 by heat+ ! metals 9 nitrog54 ,!y all h ! appe>ance ( an amorph\s p[d] ( d>k col\r2 z reg>ds _! reactions1 x is kn[n t besides dis5gag+ ammonia ) wat]1 !y =m cyanides :5 heat$ ) c>bonic oxide2 = in/ance1 ,ba#c,n#b #b;,,co ,ba7,,cn7#b #b;,ba,o4#fa #fa ,?us 9 ! nitrides ( ! metals we h sub/ances by means ( :i* we c easily obta9 f ! nitrog5 ( ! air1 n only ammonia1 b also ) ! aid ( ,,co1 by syn!sis1 a :ole s]ies ( complex c>bon & nitrog5 comp\nds4 ,! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 j l ,na & ,k1 absorb hydrog5 "u c]ta9 conditions1 & =m pulv]ul5t easily oxidisable metallic hydrides1 ^: composition corresponds exactly to t ( ,na#b;,h & ,k#b;,h1 ) ! sub/itution ( ,k#b & ,na#b by ! atoms ,be1 ,mg1 ,ca1 ,sr1 & ,ba4 ,! hydrides ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s 7 discov]$ by ,c4 ,w9kl] 7#ahia7 9 inve/igat+ ! r$ucibility ( ^! metals by magnesium4 ,9 r$uc+ _! oxides by heat+ !m ) magnesium p[d] 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 ,w9kl] obs]v$ t ! hydrog5 0 absorb$ 7b v sl[ly71 i4e4 at ! mom5t ( _! sep>ation all ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s comb9e ) hydrog54 ,?is absorptive p[] increases 9 pass+ f ,be to ,mg1 ,ca1 ,sr1 & ,ba1 & ! resultant hydrides reta9 ! comb9$ hydrog5#fb :5 heat$1 s t ^! hydrides are di/+ui%$ = _! consid]able /ability "u heat1 b !y oxidise v easily4#fc #fb ,z ! hydrides ( calcium1 magnesium1 c4 are v /able "u ! action ( heat1 & ^! metals & hydrog5 occur 9 ! sun1 x is likely t ! =mation ( _! hydrides may take place !re4 7,private communication f ,pr(4 ,w9kl]1 #ahid47 ,x is probable t 9 ! free metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s hi!rto obta9$ a portion 0 frequ5tly 9 comb9ation ) nitrog5 & hydrog54 #fc ,?us1 = in/ance1 a mixture ( #ef p>ts ( ,ca,o & #bd p>ts ( magnesium p[d] is heat$ 9 an iron pipe 7plac$ ov] a r[ ( gas burn]s z 9 ! combu/ion furnace us$ = organic analysis7 9 a /ream ( hydrog54 ,aft] be+ heat$ = #a_/b h\r ! mixture is f\nd to absorb hydrog5 7x no long] passes ov] ! mixture1 b is reta9$ by x74 ,! product1 :i* is light grey1 & slightly coh]5t1 dis5gages a mass ( hydrog5 :5 wat] is p\r$ ov] x1 & burns :5 heat$ 9 air4 ,! resultant mass conta9s #cc p] c5t4 ,ca,h1 ab\t #bh p] c5t4 ,ca,o1 & ab\t #ch p] c5t4 ,mg,o4 ,nei!r ,ca,h nor any o!r ,,mh has yet be5 obta9$ 9 a pure /ate4 ,! acetyl5e d]ivatives ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s ,c#b,m 7,*apt] ,,viii41 ,note #ab bis71 = in/ance1 ,c#b;,ba1 obta9$ by ,maqu5ne & ,moissan1 belong to ! same class ( analog\s comp\nds4 ,x mu/ "h be rem>k$ t ! oxides ,,mo ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 al?\gh n r$ucible by c>bon at a furnace heat1 yet "u ! action ( ! heat atta9$ 9 electrical furnaces1 n only give up _! oxyg5 to c>bon 7probably p>tly ow+ to ! action ( ! curr5t71 b also comb9e ) c>bon4 ,! resultant comp\nds1 ,c#b,m1 evolve acetyl5e1 ,c#b;,h#b1 ) ,h,cl1 j z ,n#b,m#c give ammonia4 ,we may rem>k moreov] t ! s]ies ( comp\nds ( ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s ) hydrog51 nitrog5 & c>bon is a discov]y ( rec5t ye>s1 & t probably fur!r rese>* w give rise to simil> unexpect$ comp\nds1 & by ext5d+ our k ( _! reactions prove to be ( great int]e/4 ,?us ! analogies & correlation ( ! metals ( ^! two gr\ps are n[ cle>ly m>k$1 n only 9 _! behavi\r t[>ds oxyg51 *lor9e1 acids1 c41 b also 9 _! capability ( comb9+ ) nitrog5 & hydrog54 99 99 99 99 99 ,,end ,,( ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,& ,,co41 ,,new-,,/reet ,,squ>e ,,london 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,classifi$ ,,catalogue ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,works ,,publi%$ ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,co4 ,,london3 #ci ,,pat]no/] ,,r[1 ,e4,c4 ,,new ,,york3 #ia #ic ,,fif? ,,av5ue4 ,,bombay3 #cb ,,hornby ,,road4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,advanc$ ,,sci5ce ,,manuals #cj ,,agriculture #bg ,,a/ronomy #ad ,,bact]iology #be ,,biology #be ,,botany #bf ,,build+ ,,con/ruction #aj ,,*emi/ry #b ,,dynamics #f ,,electricity #aa ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,manuals #cj ,,eng9e]+ #ab ,,geology #ag ,,heal? ,,& ,,hygi5e #ag ,,heat #h ,,hydro/atics #f ,,light #h ,,london ,,sci5ce ,,class-,,books #cb ,,longmans' ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies #ac ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design #ac ,,magnetism #aa ,,manufactures #ag ,,me*anics #f ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,surg]y #ai ,,metallurgy #ad ,,m9]alogy #ad ,,natural ,,hi/ory #ah ,,navigation #ad ,,optics #h ,,photography #h ,,physics #e ,,physiography #ag ,,physiology #be ,,practical ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,s]ies #cb ,,proctor',s 7,r4 ,a47 ,,works #ae ,,s\nd #h ,,/atics #f ,,/eam1 ,,oil1 ,,& ,,gas ,,eng9es #i ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials #ab ,,te*nology #ag ,,telegraphy #ab ,,telephone #ab ,,text-,,books ,,( ,,sci5ce #bi ,,!rmodynamics #h ,,tyndall',s 7,,john7 ,,works #bh ,,vet]9>y ,,m$ic9e1 ,,etc4 #bd ,,work%op ,,appliances #ad ,,zoology #be ,,*emi/ry4 ,,corni%4--,,practical ,,pro(s ,,( ,,*emical ,,laws3 ,a ,c\rse ( ,exp]im5ts ^u ! ,comb9+ ,proportions ( ! ,*emical ,elem5ts4 ,by ,,vaughan ,,corni%1 ,m4,sc41 ,associate ( ! ,ow5s ,college1 ,man*e/]4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,crookes4--,,select ,,me?ods ,,9 ,,*emical ,,analysis1 *iefly ,inorganic4 ,by ,sir ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4 ,?ird ,edition1 ,rewritt5 & ,enl>g$4 ,) #fg ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #bas4 net4 ,,furneaux4--,,elem5t>y ,,*emi/ry1 ,inorganic & ,organic4 ,by ,w4 ,,furneaux1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry1 ,london ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,) #fe ,illu/rations & #aee ,exp]im5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,g>rett ,,& ,,h>d54--,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,c\rse ,,( ,,practical ,,organic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,f4 ,c4 ,,g>rett1 ,m4,sc4 7,vict4 et ,dunelm471 ,assi/ant ,lectur] & ,demon/rator 9 ,*emi/ry1 ! ,durham ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,newca/le-on-,tyne2 & ,,ar?ur ,,h>d51 ,m4,sc4 7,vict471 ,ph4,d41 ,assi/ant ,lectur] & ,demon/rator 9 ,*emi/ry1 ! ,ow5s ,college1 ,man*e/]4 ,,hjelt4--,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,g5]al ,,organic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,,hjelt1 ( ,hels+=s4 ,translat$ f ! ,g]man by ,j4 ,,bi%op ,,t+le1 ,ph4,d41 ,assi/ant 9 ! ,laboratory ( ! ,h]iot ,watt ,college1 ,ed9burgh4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,jago4--,works by ,w4 ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,) an ,introduction to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,*emical ,analysis1 ,inorganic & ,organic4 ,) #fc ,woodcuts & num]\s ,que/ions & ,ex]cises4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,practical ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #gh ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,kolbe4--,a ,,%ort ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,dr4 ,,h]mann ,,kolbe4 ,translat$ & ,edit$ by ,t4 ,s4 ,,humpidge1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #ff ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,m5del,,eff4--,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,d4 ,,m5del,,eff4 ,translat$ f ! ,russian 7,six? ,edition7 by ,,george ,,kam5sky1 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ( ! ,imp]ial ,m9t1 ,/4 ,pet]sburg2 & ,edit$ by ,t4 ,a4 ,,lawson1 ,b4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,fell[ ( ! ,in/itute ( ,*emi/ry4 ,) #if ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 #b vols4 #hvo41 #cfs4 ,,mey]4--,,outl9es ,,( ,,!oretical ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,lo?> ,,mey]1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,tb+54 ,translat$ by ,pr(essors ,p4 ,,phillips ,,b$son1 ,d4,sc41 & ,w4 ,,c>leton ,,williams1 ,b4,sc4 #hvo41 #is4 ,,mill]4--,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,w4 ,,all5 ,,mill]1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,) #ga ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,muir4--,works by ,m4 ,m4 ,p4 ,,muir1 ,m4,a41 ,fell[ & ,prlector 9 ,*emi/ry ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,practical ,,*emi/ry4 7#c ,p>ts47 ,"p ,i41 ,elem5t>y4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,tables ,,& ,,directions ,,= ,,! ,,qualitative ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,mod]ately ,,complex ,,mixtures ,,( ,,salts4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,new?4--,works by ,g4 ,s4 ,,new?1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,demon/rator 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london2 ,assi/ant ,exam9] 9 ,*emi/ry1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,,*emical ,,lecture ,,exp]im5ts4 ,) #bbd ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,) #adf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,*emi/ry3 a ,laboratory ,manual = ,use 9 ,organis$ ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,) #ajh ,illu/rations & #bed ,exp]im5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,o/wald4--,,solutions4 ,by ,w4 ,,o/wald1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig4 ,be+ ! ,f\r? ,book1 ) "s additions1 ( ! ,second ,edition ( ,oswald's ',lehrbu* d] allgeme95 ,*emie'4 ,translat$ by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,fell[ & ,prlector 9 ,*emi/ry ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,pay54--,,indu/rial ,,*emi/ry4 ,a ,manual = use 9 ,te*nical ,colleges & ,s*ools1 bas$ ^u a ,translation ( ,/ohmann & ,engl]'s ,g]man ,edition ( ,,pay5',s ,prcis de ,*imie ,indu/rielle4 ,edit$ by ,b4 ,h4 ,,paul1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #fih ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #dbs4 ,,reynolds4--,,exp]im5tal ,,*emi/ry ,,= ,,junior ,,/ud5ts4 ,by ,j4 ,,em]son ,,reynolds1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry1 ,univ]sity ( ,dubl92 ,exam9] 9 ,*emi/ry1 ,univ]sity ( ,london4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 ) num]\s ,woodcuts4 ,"p ,i4 ,introductory4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,non-,metals1 ) an ,app5dix on ,sy/ematic ,te/+ = ,acids4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,metals1 & ,alli$ ,bodies4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,iv4 ,c>bon ,comp\nds4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 ,,%5/one4--,works by ,w4 ,a4 ,,%5/one1 ,lectur] on ,*emi/ry 9 ,clifton ,college4 ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,glass-,,bl[+4 ,= ! use ( ,physical & ,*emical ,/ud5ts4 ,) #db ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,a ,,practical ,,introduction ,,to ,,*emi/ry4 ,int5d$ to give a ,practical acqua9tance ) ! ,elem5t>y ,facts & ,pr9ciples ( ,*emi/ry4 ,) #be ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,?orpe4--,works by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,b4,sc4 7,vict471 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,s\? ,k5s+ton4 ,assi/$ by ,em95t ,contributors4 ,a ,,diction>y ,,( ,,appli$ ,,*emi/ry4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii41 #dbs4 ea*4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 #fcs4 ,,quantitative ,,*emical ,,analysis4 ,) #hh ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,?orpe ,,& ,,muir4--,,qualitative ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,& ,,laboratory ,,practice4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #eg ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,tild54--,works by ,,william ,a4 ,,tild51 ,d4,sc4 ,london1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,s\? ,k5s+ton4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,*emical ,,philosophy4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,!oretical & ,sy/ematic ,*emi/ry4 ,) #e ,woodcuts4 ,) or )\t ! ,,answ]s ( ,problems4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,*emi/ry4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,qualitative ,analysis4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,h9ts ,,on ,,! ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,*emi/ry ,,9 ,,s*ools ,,& ,,sci5ce ,,classes4 ,) #g ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,watts' 7,h47 ,,diction>y ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,revis$ & entirely ,re-writt5 by ,h4 ,,=/] ,,morley1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 ,fell[ (1 & lately ,assi/ant-,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 91 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london2 & ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,fell[1 & ,prlector 9 ,*emi/ry1 ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,assi/$ by ,em95t ,contributors4 #d vols4 #hvo4 ,vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii41 #dbs4 ea*4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 #ejs4 ,vol4 ,,iv41 #fcs4 ,,:iteley4--,works by ,r4 ,,lloyd ,,:iteley1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,pr9cipal ( ! ,municipal ,sci5ce ,s*ool1 ,we/ ,bromwi*4 ,,*emical ,,calculations4 ,) ,explanatory ,notes1 ,problems & ,answ]s1 specially adapt$ = use 9 ,colleges & ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,) a ,preface by ,pr(essor ,f4 ,,cl[es1 ,d4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry3 ! ,fatty ,comp\nds4 ,) #de ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,physics1 ,,etc4 ,,e>l4--,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,laboratory ,,"w3 a ,c\rse ( ,natural ,sci5ce4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,,e>l1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,c4,s41 late ,s*ol> ( ,*ri/'s ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,) #eg ,diagrams & num]\s ,ex]cises & ,que/ions4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,ganot4--,works by ,,pr(essor ,,ganot4 ,translat$ & ,edit$ by ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,elem5t>y ,,treatise ,,on ,,physics1 ,exp]im5tal & ,appli$4 ,) #i ,col\r$ ,plates & ,maps1 & #ajbh ,woodcuts1 & ,app5dix ( ,problems & ,examples ) ,answ]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #aes4 ,,natural ,,philosophy ,,= ,,g5]al ,,read]s ,,& ,,"y ,,p]sons2 ,) #g ,plates1 #fbd ,woodcuts1 & an ,app5dix ( ,que/ions4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,glazebrook ,,& ,,%aw4--,,practical ,,physics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,w4 ,n4 ,,%aw1 ,m4,a4 ,) #acd ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,gu?rie4--,,molecul> ,,physics ,,& ,,s\nd4 ,by ,f4 ,,gu?rie1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #ia ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,h5d]son4--,,elem5t>y ,,physics4 ,by ,,john ,,h5d]son1 ,b4,sc4 7,ed9471 ,a4,i4,e4,e41 ,lectur] 9 ,physics1 ,man*e/] ,municipal ,te*nical ,s*ool4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,helmholtz4--,,popul> ,,lectures ,,on ,,sci5tific ,,subjects4 ,by ,,h]mann ,,von ,,helmholtz4 ,translat$ by ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,c4,s41 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce1 ,/aff ,college4 ,) #fh ,illu/rations4 #b vols41 cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ea*4 ,,cont5ts4--,vol4 ,i4--,! ,relation ( ,natural ,sci5ce to ,sci5ce 9 ,g5]al--,goe!'s ,sci5tific ,rese>*es--,! ,physiological ,causes ( ,h>mony 9 ,music--,ice & ,glaci]s--,! ,int]action ( ! ,natural ,=ces--,! ,rec5t ,progress ( ! ,!ory ( ,vision--,! ,cons]vation ( ,=ce--,! ,aim & ,progress ( ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,,cont5ts4--,vol4 ,,ii4--,gu/av ,magnus4 ,9 ,memoriam--,! ,orig9 & ,significance ( ,geometrical ,axioms--,! ,relation ( ,optics to ,pa9t+--,! ,orig9 ( ! ,planet>y ,sy/em--,?\ght 9 ,m$ic9e--,academic ,fre$om 9 ,g]man ,univ]sities--,h]mann ,von ,helmholtz--,an ,autobiographical ,sket*4 ,,van ,t',,h(f4--,,! ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,atoms ,,9 ,,space4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,van ,t',,h(f4 ,second1 ,revis$1 & ,enl>g$ ,edition4 ,) a ,preface by ,,johannes ,,wislic5us1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig2 & an ,app5dix ',/]eo-*emi/ry among ,inorganic ,sub/ances1' by ,,alfr$ ,,w]n]1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ! ,univ]sity ( ,zri*4 ,translat$ & ,edit$ by ,,arnold ,,eilo>t4 ,,watson4--,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,physics3 a ,laboratory ,manual = ,use 9 ,organis$ ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,by ,w4 ,,watson1 ,b4,sc4 ,demon/rator 9 ,physics 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,london2 ,assi/ant ,exam9] 9 ,physics1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) #aii ,illu/rations & #aic ,ex]cises4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,wor?+ton4--,a ,,fir/ ,,c\rse ,,( ,,physical ,,laboratory ,,practice4 ,conta9+ #bfd ,exp]im5ts4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,wor?+ton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,wright4--,,elem5t>y ,,physics4 ,by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright1 ,pr(essor ( ,normal ,education1 ,durham ,college ( ,sci5ce4 ,) #bdb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,me*anics1 ,,dynamics1 ,,/atics1 ,,hydro/atics1 ,,etc4 ,,ball4--,a ,,class-,,book ,,( ,,me*anics4 ,by ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d4 #hi ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,geld>d4--,,/atics ,,& ,,dynamics4 ,by ,c4 ,,geld>d1 ,m4,a41 =m]ly ,s*ol> ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,goodeve4--,works by ,t4 ,m4 ,,goodeve1 ,m4,a41 =m]ly ,pr(essor ( ,me*anics at ! ,normal ,s*ool ( ,sci5ce1 & ! ,royal ,s*ool ( ,m9es4 ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,me*anism4 ,) #ceg ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,me*anics4 ,) #bec ,woodcuts & num]\s ,examples4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,me*anics3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book = ,/ud5ts ( ,appli$ ,me*anics4 ,) #ach ,illu/rations & ,diagrams1 & #ahh ,examples tak5 f ! ,sci5ce ,dep>tm5t ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 ) ,answ]s4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,grieve4--,,lessons ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,me*anics4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,grieve1 late ,eng9e]1 ,r4,n41 ,sci5ce ,demon/rator = ! ,london ,s*ool ,bo>d1 etc4 ,/age #a4 ,) #afe ,illu/rations & a l>ge numb] ( ,examples4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,/age #b4 ,) #abb ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,/age #c4 ,) #ajc ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,magnus4--,works by ,,sir ,,philip ,,magnus1 ,b4,sc41 ,b4,a4 ,,lessons ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,me*anics4 ,introductory to ! /udy ( ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,design$ = ! ,use ( ,s*ools1 & ( ,c&idates = ! ,london ,matriculation & o!r ,exam9ations4 ,) num]\s ,ex]cises1 ,examples1 ,exam9ation ,que/ions1 & ,solutions1 etc41 f #ahgj-ahie4 ,) ,answ]s1 & #aca ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,key = ! use ( ,tea*]s only1 price #es4 #c-a_/b;d4 ,,hydro/atics ,,& ,,pneumatics4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d42 or1 ) ,answ]s1 #bs4 ,! ,work$ ,solutions ( ! ,problems1 #bs4 ,,rob9son4--,,elem5ts ,,( ,,dynamics 7,k9etics & ,/atics74 ,) num]\s ,ex]cises4 ,a ,text-book = ,junior ,/ud5ts4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,rob9son1 ,b4,a4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,smi?4--,works by ,j4 ,,hambl9 ,,smi?1 ,m4,a4 ,,elem5t>y ,,/atics4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,elem5t>y ,,hydro/atics4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,key ,,to ,,/atics ,,& ,,hydro/atics4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,tate4--,,ex]cises ,,on ,,me*anics ,,& ,,natural ,,philosophy4 ,by ,,?omas ,,tate1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 ,key1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,taylor4--,works by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,head ,ma/] ( ! ,c5tral ,high] ,grade & ,sci5ce ,s*ool1 ,%effield4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics1 includ+ ,hydro/atics & ,pneumatics4 ,) #age ,diagrams & ,illu/rations1 & #ebb ,exam9ation ,que/ions & ,answ]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics--,,solids4 ,) #afc ,illu/rations1 #abj ,work$ ,examples & ov] #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4--,,fluids4 ,) #abb ,illu/rations1 num]\s ,work$ ,examples1 & ab\t #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,?ornton4--,,!oretical ,,me*anics--,,solids4 ,includ+ ,k9ematics1 ,/atics1 & ,k9etics4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,) #bjj ,illu/rations1 #acj ,work$ ,examples1 & ov] #ijj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,twisd54--,works by ! ,rev4 ,,john ,f4 ,,twisd51 ,m4,a4 ,,practical ,,me*anics2 an ,elem5t>y ,introduction to _! ,/udy4 ,) #hee ,ex]cises1 & #ahd ,figures & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4 ,) #agb ,examples1 num]\s ,ex]cises1 & #aed ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,williamson4--,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,ma!matical ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,/ress ,,& ,,/ra9 ,,( ,,ela/ic ,,solids4 ,by ,,b5jam9 ,,williamson1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,williamson ,,& ,,t>leton4--,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,treatise ,,on ,,dynamics4 ,conta9+ ,applications to ,!rmodynamics1 ) num]\s ,examples4 ,by ,,b5jam9 ,,williamson1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,,francis ,a4 ,,t>leton1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,wor?+ton4--,,dynamics ,,( ,,rotation3 an ,elem5t>y introduction to ,rigid ,dynamics4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,wor?+ton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,optics ,,& ,,photography4 ,,abney4--,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,photography4 ,by ,capta9 ,w4 ,,de ,,wiveleslie ,,abney1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director = ,sci5ce 9 ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,) #aae ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,glazebrook4--,,physical ,,optics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fell[ & ,lectur] ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,demon/rator ( ,physics at ! ,cav5di% ,laboratory1 ,cambridge4 ,) #ahc ,woodcuts ( ,app>atus1 etc4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,wright4--,,optical ,,projection3 a ,treatise on ! ,use ( ! ,lant]n 9 ,exhibition & ,sci5tific ,demon/ration4 ,by ,,lewis ,,wright1 ,au?or ( ',light3 a ,c\rse ( ,exp]im5tal ,optics'4 ,) #bcb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,s\nd1 ,,light1 ,,heat1 ,,& ,,!rmodynamics4 ,,cumm+4--,,heat ,,treat$ ,,exp]im5tally4 ,by ,,l9n,,u ,,cumm+1 ,m4,a4 ,) #aib ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,day4--,,num]ical ,,examples ,,9 ,,heat4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,,day1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,emtage4--,,light4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,a4 ,,emtage1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bcb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,helmholtz4--,,on ,,! ,,s5sations ,,( ,,tone ,,z ,a ,,physiological ,,basis ,,= ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,music4 ,by ,,h]mann ,,von ,,helmholtz4 ,royal #hvo41 #bhs4 ,,madan4--,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,heat4 ,= ! ,use ( ,s*ools4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,madan1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,fell[ ( ,que5's ,college1 ,ox=d2 late ,assi/ant ,ma/] at ,eton ,college4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #is4 ,,maxwell4--,,!ory ,,( ,,heat4 ,by ,j4 ,,cl]k ,,maxwell1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,,ss41 ,l4 & ,e4 ,) ,corrections & ,additions by ,"l ,,rayleigh4 ,) #ch ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,smi?4--,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,heat4 ,by ,j4 ,,hambl9 ,,smi?1 ,m4,a41 ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,tyndall4--,works by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,see p4 #bg4 ,,wormell4--,a ,,class-,,book ,,( ,,!rmodynamics4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,wormell1 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,wright4--,works by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright1 ,hon4 ,int]4 ,b4,sc41 ,london4 ,,s\nd1 ,,light1 ,,& ,,heat4 ,) #afj ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,heat4 ,) #acf ,diagrams & num]\s ,examples & ,exam9ation ,pap]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,/eam1 ,,oil1 ,,& ,,gas ,,eng9es4 ,,bale4--,a ,,h&book ,,= ,,/eam ,,us]s2 be+ ,rules = ,eng9e ,driv]s & ,boil] ,att5dants1 ) ,notes on ,/eam ,eng9e & ,boil] ,managem5t & ,/eam ,boil] ,explosions4 ,by ,m4 ,,p[is ,,bale1 ,m4,i4,m4,e41 ,a4,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,bolton4--,,motive ,,p[]s ,,& ,,_! ,,practical ,,selection4 ,by ,,reg9ald ,,bolton1 ,associate ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,cl]k4--,,! ,,gas ,,& ,,oil ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,dugald ,,cl]k1 ,associate ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s1 ,fell[ ( ! ,*emical ,society1 ,memb] ( ! ,royal ,in/itution1 ,fell[ ( ! ,in/itute ( ,pat5t ,ag5ts4 #hvo41 #aes4 ,,holmes4--,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,george ,c4 ,v4 ,,holmes1 ,:itwor? ,s*ol>1 ,secret>y ( ! ,in/itution ( ,naval ,ar*itects4 ,) #bab ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,norris4--,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ',,otto' ,,cycle ,,gas ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,william ,,norris1 ,m4,i4,me*4,e4 ,) #bjg ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,ripp]4--,works by ,,william ,,ripp]1 ,pr(essor ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]+ 9 ! ,%effield ,te*nical ,s*ool4 ,,/eam4 ,) #adb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,/eam ,,eng9e]+4 ,9 ! press4 ,,s5nett4--,,! ,,m>9e ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,a ,treatise = ! ,use ( ,eng9e]+ ,/ud5ts & ,(fic]s ( ! ,royal ,navy4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,s5nett1 ,r4,n41 late ,eng9e]-9-,*ief ( ! ,royal ,navy4 ,) #bfa ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,/romey]4--,,m>9e ,,boil] ,,managem5t ,,& ,,con/ruction4 ,be+ a ,treatise on ,boil] ,tr\bles & ,repairs1 ,corrosion1 ,fuels1 & ,heat1 on ! prop]ties ( ,iron & ,/eel1 on ,boil] ,me*anics1 ,work%op ,practices1 & ,boil] ,design4 ,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,/romey]1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itute ( ,naval ,ar*itects1 etc4 #hvo41 #ahs4 net4 ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,,advanc$ ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ! ,au?or ( ',riv+tons' ,notes on ,build+ ,con/ruction4 ,) #che ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,burrell4--,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,edw>d ,j4 ,,burrell1 ,second ,ma/] ( ! ,p's ,palace ,te*nical ,s*ool1 ,london4 ,) #cjc ,work+ ,draw+s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,s$don4--,,build]',s ,,"w ,,& ,,! ,,build+ ,,trades4 ,by ,col4 ,h4 ,c4 ,,s$don1 ,r4,e41 ,sup]9t5d+ ,eng9e]1 ,h4,m4's ,docky>d1 ,portsm\?2 ,exam9] 9 ,build+ ,con/ruction1 ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t1 ,s\? ,k5s+ton2 ) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #afs4 ,,riv+tons' ,,c\rse ,,( ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,,notes ,,on ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,arrang$ to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! syllabus ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,committee ( ,c\ncil on ,education1 ,s\? ,k5s+ton4 ,m$ium #hvo4 ,"p ,i4 ,fir/ ,/age1 or ,elem5t>y ,c\rse4 ,) #eeb ,woodcuts1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,comm5cem5t ( ,second ,/age1 or ,advanc$ ,c\rse4 ,) #dgi ,woodcuts1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,mat]ials4 ,advanc$ ,c\rse1 & ,c\rse = ,hon\rs4 ,) #ahh ,woodcuts1 #bas4 ,"p ,,iv4 ,calculations = ,build+ ,/ructures4 ,c\rse = ,hon\rs4 ,) #eig ,woodcuts1 #aes4 ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,,cumm+4--,,electricity ,,treat$ ,,exp]im5tally4 ,= ! ,use ( ,s*ools & ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,,l9n,,u ,,cumm+1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bdb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,day4--,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,electrical ,,& ,,magnetic ,,measurem5ts1 ) ,answ]s4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,,day4 #abmo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,du ,,bois4--,,! ,,magnetic ,,circuit ,,9 ,,!ory ,,& ,,practice4 ,by ,dr4 ,h4 ,,du ,,bois1 ,privatdoc5t 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l94 ,translat$ by ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #id ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,eb]t4--,,magnetic ,,fields ,,( ,,=ce3 an ,exposition ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ,magnetism1 ,electro-,magnetism & ,induction1 bas$ on ! ,conception ( ,l9es ( ,=ce4 ,by ,h4 ,,eb]t1 ,pr(essor ( ,physics 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,kiel4 ,translat$ by ,c4 ,v4 ,,burton1 ,d4,sc4 ,"p ,i4 ,) #ic ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,gore4--,,! ,,art ,,( ,,electro-,,metallurgy1 includ+ all kn[n ,processes ( ,electro-,deposition4 ,by ,g4 ,,gore1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ef ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,j5k94--,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,by ,,fleem+ ,,j5k91 ,f4,r4,s4,s41 ,l4 & ,e41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #agg ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,j\b]t4--,,elem5t>y ,,treatise ,,on ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,f\nd$ on ,,j\b]t',s ',trait lm5tair d',electricit'4 ,by ,g4 ,c4 ,,fo/]1 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,e4 ,,atk9son1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #cha ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,joyce4--,,examples ,,9 ,,electrical ,,eng9e]+4 ,by ,,samuel ,,joyce1 ,a4,i4,e4,e4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,l>d54--,,electricity ,,= ,,public ,,s*ools ,,& ,,colleges4 ,by ,w4 ,,l>d51 ,m4,a4 ,) #bae ,illu/rations1 & a ,s]ies ( ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 ) ,answ]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,m]rifield4--,,magnetism ,,& ,,deviation ,,( ,,! ,,compass4 ,= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts 9 ,navigation & ,sci5ce ,s*ools4 ,by ,,john ,,m]rifield1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 #ahmo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,poys]4--,works by ,a4 ,w4 ,,poys]1 ,m4,a41 ,gramm> ,s*ool1 ,wisbe*4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electricity4 ,) #bce ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,) #cag ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,sl+o ,,& ,,brook]4--,works by ,w4 ,,sl+o & ,a4 ,,brook]4 ,,electrical ,,eng9e]+ ,,= ,,electric ,,light ,,artisans ,,& ,,/ud5ts4 ,) #cdf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 ,,problems ,,& ,,solutions ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,embrac+ a ,complete ,set ( ,answ]s to ! ,s\? ,k5s+ton ,pap]s = ! ye>s #ahhe-ahid1 & a ,s]ies ( ,orig9al ,que/ions4 ,) #fg ,orig9al ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,tyndall4--,works by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,see p4 #bg4 ,,telegraphy ,,& ,,! ,,telephone4 ,,b5nett4--,,! ,,telephone ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,cont95tal ,,europe4 ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,,b5nett1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itute ( ,electrical ,eng9e]s2 late ,g5]al ,manag] 9 ,scotl& ( ! ,national ,telephone ,company1 & ,g5]al ,manag] & ,electrician ( ! ,mutual & ,new ,telephone ,companies4 ,) #afi ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #aes4 ,,culley4--,a ,,h&book ,,( ,,practical ,,telegraphy4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,,culley1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 late ,eng9e]-9-,*ief ( ,telegraphs to ! ,po/ ,(fice4 ,) #ace ,woodcuts & #ag ,plates4 #hvo41 #afs4 ,,preece ,,& ,,sivewright4--,,telegraphy4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,preece1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,v4,p4,in/41 ,c4,e41 etc41 ,eng9e]-9-,*ief & ,electrician ,po/ ,(fice ,telegraphs2 & ,sir ,j4 ,,sivewright1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,g5]al ,manag]1 ,s\? ,african ,telegraphs4 ,) #beh ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,eng9e]+1 ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials1 ,,etc4 ,,&]son4--,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,/ructures3 ! ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials z dep5d+ on _! ,quality & z asc]ta9$ by ,te/+ ,app>atus4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,,&]son1 ,c4,e41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,) #ff ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,b>ry4--,,railway ,,appliances3 a ,description ( ,details ( ,railway ,con/ruction subsequ5t to ! completion ( ! ,e>?works & ,/ructures4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,,wolfe ,,b>ry1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #bah ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,smi?4--,,graphics1 or ! ,art ( ,calculation by ,draw+ ,l9es1 appli$ especially to ,me*anical ,eng9e]+4 ,by ,,rob]t ,h4 ,,smi?1 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+1 ,mason ,college1 ,birm+ham4 ,"p ,i4 ,) sep>ate ,atlas ( #bi ,plates conta9+ #ig ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #aes4 ,,/oney4--,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,/resses ,,on ,,gird]s ,,& ,,simil> ,,/ructures4 ,) ,practical ,obs]vations on ! ,/r5g? & o!r ,prop]ties ( ,mat]ials4 ,by ,,b9don ,b4 ,,/oney1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #e ,plates & #adc ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,royal #hvo41 #cfs4 ,,unw94--,works by ,,william ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,f4,r4,s41 ,b4,s4,c4 ,,! ,,te/+ ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,con/ruction4 ,embrac+ ! description ( ,te/+ ,ma*9]y & ,app>atus ,auxili>y to ,me*anical ,te/+1 & an ,acc\nt ( ! mo/ ,important ,rese>*es on ! ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials4 ,) #ada ,woodcuts & #e ,fold+-out ,plates4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,on ,,! ,,developm5t ,,& ,,transmission ,,( ,,p[] ,,f ,,c5tral ,,/ations3 be+ ! ,h[>d ,lectures deliv]$ at ! ,society ( ,arts 9 #ahic4 ,) #ha ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #ajs4 net4 ,,w>r54--,,eng9e]+ ,,con/ruction ,,9 ,,iron1 ,,/eel1 ,,& ,,timb]4 ,by ,,william ,,h5ry ,,w>r51 ,*allis ,pr(essor ( ,civil & ,me*anical ,eng9e]+1 ,univ]sity ( ,sydney4 ,) #ac ,fold+ ,plates1 & #cge ,diagrams4 ,royal #hvo41 #afs4 net4 ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,,l[ ,,& ,,bevis4--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[ 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>71 ,m4,i4,me*4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+1 ,ea/ ,london ,te*nical ,college1 ,p's ,palace1 ,london2 & ,,alfr$ ,,william ,,bevis 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>71 ,m4,i4,me*4,e41 ,director ( ,manual ,tra9+ to ! ,birm+ham ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,) #gjj ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,l[4--,works by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[1 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+1 ,ea/ ,london ,te*nical ,college4 ,,improv$ ,,draw+ ,,scales4 #d;d4 9 case4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,) #ig ,illu/rations & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,me*anical ,,eng9e]',s ,,pocket-,,book4 ,9 ! press4 ,,unw94--,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,design4 ,by ,w4 ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+ at ! ,c5tral ,in/itute ( ! ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute4 ,"p ,i4 ,g5]al ,pr9ciples1 ,fa/5+s1 & ,transmissive ,ma*9]y4 ,) #cjd ,diagrams1 etc4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,*iefly on ,eng9e ,details4 ,) #agd ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,longmans' ,,civil ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies4 ,edit$ by ! ,au?or ( ',notes on ,build+ ,con/ruction'4 ,,tidal ,,riv]s3 _! 7#a7 ,hydraulics1 7#b7 ,improvem5t1 7#c7 ,navigation4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,:eel]1 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 au?or ( ',! ,dra9age ( ,f5s & ,l[ ,l&s by ,gravitation & ,/eam ,p[]'4 ,) #ge ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #afs4 net4 ,,notes ,,on ,,docks ,,& ,,dock ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,c4 ,,colson1 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 ,assi/ant ,director ( ,works1 ,admiralty4 ,) #cfe ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #bas4 net4 ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,h>b\r ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,william ,,%ield1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 & ,executive ,eng9e]1 ,national ,h>b\r ( ,refuge1 ,pet]head1 ,n4,b4 ,) #ig ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #aes4 net4 ,,calculations ,,= ,,eng9e]+ ,,/ructures4 ,by ,t4 ,,claxton ,,fidl]1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,eng9e]+ 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,dundee2 ,au?or ( ',a ,practical ,treatise on ,bridge ,con/ruction'4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,civil ,,eng9e]+4 ,by ,l4 ,f4 ,,v]non-,,h>c\rt1 ,m4,in/4,c4,e41 ,pr(essor ( ,civil ,eng9e]+ at ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,railway ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,mills1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,eng9e]-9-,*ief1 ,great ,nor!rn ,railway1 ,irel&4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,work%op ,,appliances1 ,,etc4 ,,nor?cott4--,,la!s ,,& ,,turn+1 ,simple1 ,me*anical & ,ornam5tal4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,nor?cott4 ,) #cch ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,%elley4--,,work%op ,,appliances1 includ+ ,descriptions ( "s ( ! ,gaug+ & ,measur+ ,in/rum5ts1 ,h&-cutt+ ,tools1 ,la!s1 ,drill+1 ,pla9+1 & o!r ,ma*9e ,tools us$ by ,eng9e]s4 ,by ,c4 ,p4 ,b4 ,,%elley1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) an additional ,*apt] on ,mill+ by ,r4 ,r4 ,,li/]4 ,) #cbc ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,m9]alogy1 ,,metallurgy1 ,,etc4 ,,bau]man4--,works by ,,hil>y ,,bau]man1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,sy/ematic ,,m9]alogy4 ,) #cgc ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,descriptive ,,m9]alogy4 ,) #bcf ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,gore4--,,! ,,art ,,( ,,electro-,,metallurgy1 includ+ all kn[n ,processes ( ,electro-,deposition4 ,by ,g4 ,,gore1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ef ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,hunt+ton ,,& ,m',,millan4--,,metals3 _! ,prop]ties & ,treatm5t4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,,hunt+ton1 ,pr(essor ( ,metallurgy 9 ,k+'s ,college1 ,london1 & ,w4 ,g4 ,m',,millan1 ,lectur] on ,metallurgy 9 ,mason's ,college1 ,birm+ham4 ,) #abb ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,rhead4--,,metallurgy4 ,an ,elem5t>y ,text ,book4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,,rhead1 ,lectur] on ,metallurgy at ! ,municipal ,te*nical ,s*ool1 ,man*e/]4 ,) #id ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,rutley4--,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,rocks3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-book ( ,petrology4 ,by ,f4 ,,rutley1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) #f ,plates & #hh ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,a/ronomy1 ,,navigation1 ,,etc4 ,,abbott4--,,elem5t>y ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,tides3 ! ,fundam5tal ,!orems ,demon/rat$ )\t ,ma!matics & ! ,influ5ce on ! ,l5g? ( ! ,day ,discuss$4 ,by ,t4 ,k4 ,,abbott1 ,b4,d41 ,fell[ & ,tutor1 ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,ball4--,works by ,sir ,,rob]t ,s4 ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,) #acj ,figures & ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,class-,,book ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,) #da ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,cl]ke4--,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,! ,,/>s4 ,by ,,agnes ,m4 ,,cl]ke4 ,) #f ,plates1 & num]\s ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,goodw94--,,azimu? ,,tables ,,= ,,! ,,high] ,,decl9ations4 7,limits ( ,decl9ation #bd to #cj1 bo? inclusive47 ,betwe5 ! ,p>allels ( ,latitude #j & #fj4 ,) ,examples ( ! ,use ( ! ,tables 9 ,engli% & ,fr5*4 ,by ,h4 ,b4 ,,goodw91 ,naval ,in/ructor1 ,royal ,navy4 ,royal #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,h]s*el4--,,outl9es ,,( ,,a/ronomy4--,by ,sir ,,john ,f4 ,w4 ,,h]s*el1 ,b>t41 ,k4 ,h41 etc4 ,) #i ,plates1 & num]\s ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,,l[ell4--,,m>s4 ,by ,,p]cival ,,l[ell1 ,fell[ ,am]ican ,academy1 ,memb] ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 etc4 ,) #bd ,plates4 #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,m>t94--,,navigation ,,& ,,nautical ,,a/ronomy4 ,compil$ by ,/aff ,comm&] ,w4 ,r4 ,,m>t91 ,r4,n4 ,royal #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,m]rifield4--,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,navigation4 ,= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,j4 ,,m]rifield1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,f4,m4,s4 ,) ,*>ts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,p>k]4--,,elem5ts ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,) ,num]\s ,examples & ,exam9ation ,pap]s4 ,by ,,george ,w4 ,,p>k]1 ,m4,a41 ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 ,) #hd ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #es4 net4 ,,webb4--,,cele/ial ,,objects ,,= ,,common ,,telescopes4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,t4 ,w4 ,webb1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,fif? ,edition1 ,revis$ & greatly ,enl>g$ by ! ,rev4 ,t4 ,e4 ,,esp91 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 7,two ,volumes47 ,vol4 ,i41 ) ,portrait & a ,rem9isc5ce ( ! ,au?or1 #b ,plates1 & num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,works ,,by ,,ri*>d ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,,old ,,& ,,new ,,a/ronomy4 ,) #ba ,plates & #dgb ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 #dto41 #bas4 ,,! ,,moon3 ,h] ,motions1 ,aspect1 ,sc5]y1 & ,physical ,condition4 ,) _m ,plates & ,*>ts1 ,wood ,engrav+s1 & #b ,lun> ,photographs4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,univ]se ,,( ,,/>s3 ,rese>*es into1 & ,new ,views respect+ ! ,con/itution ( ! ,heav5s4 ,) #bb ,*>ts 7#d ,col\r$71 & #bb ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,o!r ,,worlds ,,?an ,,ours3 ! ,plurality ( ,worlds ,/udi$ ,"u ! ,light ( ,rec5t ,sci5tific ,rese>*es4 ,) #ad ,illu/rations2 ,map1 ,*>ts1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,our ,,place ,,among ,,inf9ities3 a ,s]ies ( ,essays contra/+ our ,little ,abode 9 ,space & ,"t ) ! ,inf9ities ar\nd u4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,my?s ,,& ,,m>vels ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,light ,,sci5ce ,,= ,,leisure ,,h\rs3 ,famili> ,essays on ,sci5tific ,subjects4 ,natural ,ph5om5a1 etc4 #c vols41 cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ea*4 ,,! ,,orbs ,,ar\nd ,,u2 ,essays on ! ,moon & ,planets1 ,meteors & ,comets1 ! ,sun & ,col\r$ ,pairs ( ,suns4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,expanse ,,( ,,heav53 ,essays on ! ,wond]s ( ! ,firmam5t4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,o!r ,,suns ,,?an ,,ours3 a ,s]ies ( ,essays on ,suns--,old1 ,"y1 & ,dead4 ,) o!r ,sci5ce ,glean+s4 ,two ,essays on ,:i/1 & ,correspond5ce ) ,sir ,john ,h]s*el4 ,) #i ,/>-,maps & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,half-,,h\rs ,,) ,,! ,,telescope3 a ,popul> ,guide to ! ,use ( ! ,telescope z a means ( ,amusem5t & ,in/ruction4 ,) #g ,plates4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,new ,,/> ,,atlas ,,= ,,! ,,libr>y1 ! ,s*ool1 & ! ,obs]vatory1 9 ,twelve ,circul> ,maps 7) ,two ,index-,plates74 ,) an ,introduction on ! ,/udy ( ! ,/>s4 ,illu/rat$ by #i ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,! ,,s\!rn ,,skies3 a ,pla9 & ,easy ,guide to ! ,con/ellations ( ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,%[+ 9 #ab ,maps ! position ( ! pr9cipal ,/>-,gr\ps night aft] night ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,) an ,introduction & a sep>ate ,explanation ( ea* ,map4 ,true = e ,ye>4 #dto41 #es4 ,,half-,,h\rs ,,) ,,! ,,/>s3 a ,pla9 & ,easy ,guide to ! ,k ( ! ,con/ellations4 ,%[+ 9 #ab ,maps ! position ( ! pr9cipal ,/>-,gr\ps night aft] night ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,) ,introduction & a sep>ate ,explanation ( ea* ,map4 ,true = e ,ye>4 #dto41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,l>g] ,,/> ,,atlas ,,= ,,obs]v]s ,,& ,,/ud5ts4 ,9 ,twelve ,circul> ,maps1 %[+ #fjjj ,/>s1 #aejj ,d\ble ,/>s1 ,nebul1 etc4 ,) #b ,index-,plates4 ,folio1 #aes4 ,,! ,,/>s ,,9 ,,_! ,,seasons3 an ,easy ,guide to a ,k ( ! ,/>-,gr\ps4 ,9 #ab ,l>ge ,maps4 ,imp]ial #hvo41 #es4 ,,r\gh ,,ways ,,made ,,smoo?4 ,famili> ,essays on ,sci5tific ,subjects4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,pleasant ,,ways ,,9 ,,sci5ce4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,nature ,,/udies4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,,grant ,,all51 ,a4 ,,wilson1 ,t4 ,,fo/]1 & ,e4 ,,clodd4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,leisure ,,read+s4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,e4 ,,clodd1 ,a4 ,,wilson1 ,t4 ,,fo/]1 & ,a4 ,c4 ,,rany>d4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,manufactures1 ,,te*nology1 ,,etc4 ,,bell4--,,jacqu>d ,,weav+ ,,& ,,design+4 ,by ,f4 ,t4 ,,bell1 ,m$alli/ 9 ,hon\rs & ,c]tificat$ ,tea*] 9 ',l95 ,manufactur+' & 9 ',weav+ & ,patt]n ,design+1' ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute4 ,) #aii ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,lupton4--,,m9+4 ,an ,elem5t>y ,treatise on ! ,gett+ ( ,m9]als4 ,by ,,arnold ,,lupton1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 etc4 ,) #eif ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #is4 net4 ,,morris ,,& ,,wilk9son4--,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,cotton ,,sp9n+4 ,by ,,john ,,morris & ,f4 ,,wilk9son4 ,) a ,preface by ,sir ,b4 ,a4 ,,dobson1 ,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,m4,e4 ,) #afi ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,%>p4--,,bicycles ,,& ,,tricycles3 an ,elem5t>y ,treatise on _! ,design & ,con/ruction4 ,) ,examples & ,tables4 ,by ,,ar*ibald ,,%>p1 ,b4,sc41 ,:itwor? ,s*ol>2 ,associate ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,civil ,eng9e]s4 ,) #efe ,illu/rations & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #aes4 ,,taylor4--,,cotton ,,weav+ ,,& ,,design+4 ,by ,,john ,t4 ,,taylor4 ,) #cgc ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,watts4--,,an ,,introductory ,,manual ,,= ,,sug> ,,gr[]s4 ,by ,,francis ,,watts1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) #bj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,physiography ,,& ,,geology4 ,,bird4--,works by ,,*>les ,,bird1 ,b4,a4 ,,elem5t>y ,,geology4 ,) ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,geology4 ,a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes & = ,g5]al ,read]s4 ,) ov] #cjj ,illu/rations1 a ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isles 7col\r$71 & a set ( ,que/ions = ,exam9ation4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,?ornton4--,works by ,j4 ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,physiography 7= ,section ,i4 ( ! ,new ,syllabus ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t74 ,) #bae ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,physiography3 an ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,nature4 ,) #ab ,maps & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,) ,app5dix on ,a/ronomical ,in/rum5ts & ,measurem5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,physiography4 ,) #f ,maps & #bjc ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,heal? ,,& ,,hygi5e4 ,,brodribb4--,,manual ,,( ,,heal? ,,& ,,temp]ance4 ,by ,t4 ,,brodribb1 ,m4,a4 ,) ,extracts f ,g\gh's ',temp]ance ,orations'4 ,revis$ & ,edit$ by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,,ru?v5 ,,pym1 ,m4,a41 ,memb] ( ! ,%effield ,s*ool ,bo>d4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,buckton4--,,heal? ,,9 ,,! ,,h\se2 ,tw5ty-five ,lectures on ,elem5t>y ,physiology4 ,by ,mrs4 ,c4 ,m4 ,,buckton4 ,) #da ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,corfield4--,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,heal?4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,corfield1 ,m4,a44 ,m4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,nott] ,,& ,,fir?4--,works by ,j4 ,l4 ,,nott]1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 & ,r4 ,h4 ,,fir?1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,,hygi5e4 ,) #ie ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,dome/ic ,,hygi5e4 ,) #hc ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,poore4--,works by ,,george ,,vivian ,,poore1 ,m4,d4 ,,essays ,,on ,,rural ,,hygi5e4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,dwell+-,,h\se4 ,) #cf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,wilson4--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,heal?-,,sci5ce3 adapt$ = use 9 ,s*ools & ,colleges4 ,by ,,&rew ,,wilson1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,l4,s41 etc4 ,) #gd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,natural ,,hi/ory4 ,,furneaux4--,works by ,,william ,s4 ,,furneaux1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,,! ,,outdoor ,,_w2 or1 ,! ,"y ,collector's ,h&book4 ,) #ah ,plates1 #af ( :i* are col\r$1 & #edi ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,life ,,9 ,,ponds ,,& ,,/reams4 ,) #h ,col\r$ ,plates & #cca ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,butt]flies ,,& ,,mo?s 7,briti%74 ,) #ab ,col\r$ ,plates & #bda ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,hudson4--,,briti% ,,birds4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson1 ,c4,m4,z4,s4 ,) #h ,col\r$ ,plates f ,orig9al ,draw+s by ,a4 ,,?orburn1 & #h ,plates & #ajj ,figures by ,c4 ,e4 ,,lodge1 & #c ,illu/rations f ,photographs4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,/anley4--,a ,,famili> ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,birds4 ,by ,e4 ,,/anley1 ,d4,d41 =m]ly ,bi%op ( ,norwi*4 ,) #afj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,surg]y4 ,,a%by4--,,notes ,,on ,,physiology ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,/ud5ts ,,prep>+ ,,= ,,exam9ation4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,a%by1 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,physician to ! ,g5]al ,hospital = ,sick ,*ildr51 ,man*e/]2 =m]ly ,demon/rator ( ,physiology1 ,liv]pool ,s*ool ( ,m$ic9e4 ,six? ,edition1 ?or\ghly ,revis$4 ,) #ada ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,a%by ,,& ,,wright4--,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,*ildr51 ,,m$ical ,,& ,,surgical4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,a%by1 ,m4,d41 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,physician to ! ,g5]al ,hospital = ,sick ,*ildr51 ,man*e/]2 & ,g4 ,a4 ,,wright1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,b4 ,oxon41 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,eng41 ,assi/ant ,surgeon to ! ,man*e/] ,royal ,infirm>y1 & ,surgeon to ! ,*ildr5's ,hospital4 ,enl>g$ & ,improv$ ,edition4 ,) #aib ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bes4 ,,b5nett4--,works by ,,william ,h4 ,,b5nett1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,surgeon to ,/4 ,george's ,hospital2 ,memb] ( ! ,bo>d ( ,exam9]s1 ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons ( ,engl&4 ,,cl9ical ,,lectures ,,on ,,v>icose ,,ve9s ,,( ,,! ,,l[] ,,extremities4 ,) #c ,plates4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,on ,,v>icocele2 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise4 ,) #d ,tables & a ,diagram4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,cl9ical ,,lectures ,,on ,,abdom9al ,,h]nia3 *iefly 9 relation to ,treatm5t1 includ+ ! ,radical ,cure4 ,) #ab ,diagrams 9 ! ,text4 #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,b5tley4--,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,organic ,,mat]ia ,,m$ica4 ,compris+ a ,description ( ! ,vegetable & ,animal ,drugs ( ! ,briti% ,ph>macopoeia1 ) "s o!rs 9 common use4 ,arrang$ ,sy/ematically1 & ,especially ,design$ = ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,b5tley1 ,m4,r4,c4,s4 ,eng41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #fb ,illu/rations on ,wood4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,brodie4--,,! ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,physiology4 ,= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,,brodie1 ,m4,d41 ,lectur] on ,physiology1 ,/4 ,?omas's ,hospital ,m$ical ,s*ool4 ,9 ! press4 ,,cabot4--,a ,,guide ,,to ,,! ,,cl9ical ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,blood ,,= ,,diagno/ic ,,purposes4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,c4 ,,cabot1 ,m4,d4 ,) #c ,col\r$ ,plates & #bh ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 #hvo41 #afs4 ,,cl>ke4--,works by ,j4 ,,jackson ,,cl>ke1 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,assi/ant ,surgeon at ! ,nor?-we/ ,london & ,city ,or?opdic ,hospitals1 late ,s5ior ,demon/rator ( ,anatomy1 ,demon/rator ( ,bact]iology1 & ,curator ( ! ,museum 9 ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital ,m$ical ,s*ool1 & ,pa?ologi/ to ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital4 ,,surgical ,,pa?ology ,,& ,,pr9ciples4 ,) #aid ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,po/-,,mortem ,,exam9ations ,,9 ,,m$ico-,,legal ,,& ,,ord9>y ,,cases4 ,) ,special ,*apt]s on ! ,legal ,aspects ( ,po/ ,mortems1 & on ,c]tificates ( ,dea?4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,coats4--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,pa?ology4 ,by ,,joseph ,,coats1 ,m4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,pa?ology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,revis$ ?r\gh\t4 ,) #ejg ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #cas4 #f;d4 ,,cooke4--,works by ,,?omas ,,cooke1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,eng41 ,b4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,d41 ,p>is1 ,s5ior ,assi/ant ,surgeon to ! ,we/m9/] ,hospital4 ,,aphorisms ,,9 ,,appli$ ,,anatomy ,,& ,,op]ative ,,surg]y4 ,includ+ #ajj ,typical viv voce ,que/ions on ,surface ,m>k+1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,dissection ,,guides4 ,aim+ at ,ext5d+ & ,facilitat+ su* ,practical "w 9 ,anatomy z w be specially useful 9 connection ) an ord9>y ,hospital ,curriculum4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,dak94--,a ,,h&book ,,( ,,midwif]y4 ,by ,,william ,,rad=d ,,dak91 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,ob/etric ,physician & ,lectur] on ,midwif]y at ,/4 ,george's ,hospital1 etc4 ,) #cid ,illu/rations4 ,l>ge cr[n #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,dick9son4--,works by ,w4 ,,h[%ip ,,dick9son1 ,m4,d4 ,cantab41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,physician to1 & ,lectur] on ,m$ic9e at1 ,/4 ,george's ,hospital1 ,consult+ ,physician to ! ,hospital = ,sick ,*ildr54 ,,on ,,r5al ,,& ,,ur9>y ,,affections4 ,) #ab ,plates & #abb ,woodcuts4 ,?ree ,p>ts4 #hvo41 #c #ds4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,tongue ,,z ,,an ,,indication ,,( ,,disease2 be+ ! ,lumleian ,lectures deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians 9 ,m>*1 #ahhh4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,occasional ,,pap]s ,,on ,,m$ical ,,subjects1 #ahee-ahif4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,,duckwor?4--,,! ,,sequels ,,( ,,disease3 be+ ! ,lumleian ,lectures deliv]$ 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians1 #ahif4 ,toge!r ) ,obs]vations on ,prognosis 9 ,disease4 ,by ,sir ,,dyce ,,duckwor?1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,fell[ & ,treasur] ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians1 etc4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,eri*s54--,,! ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,art ,,( ,,surg]y2 a ,treatise on ,surgical ,injuries1 ,diseases1 & ,op]ations4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,,eric ,,eri*s51 ,b>t41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,ll4,d4 ,ed941 ,hon4 ,m4,*4 & ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,irel&1 late ,surgeon ,extraord9>y to ,h4,m4 ! ,que54 ,illu/rat$ by ne>ly #ajjj ,engrav+s on ,wood4 #b vols4 ,royal #hvo41 #dhs4 ,,f[l] ,,& ,,goodlee4--,,! ,,diseases ,,& ,,injuries ,,( ,,! ,,lungs ,,& ,,pleura4 ,by ,,james ,,k+/on ,,f[l]1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,b41 ,physician & ,lectur] on ,pa?ological ,anatomy1 ,middlesex ,hospital1 etc42 & ,,rickman ,j4 ,,goodlee1 ,b4,a4 ,lond41 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 etc4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,9 ! press4 ,,g>rod4--,works by ,,sir ,,alfr$ ,,b>+ ,,g>rod1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 etc41 ,physician ,extraord9>y to ,h4,m4 ! ,que52 ,consult+ ,physician to ,k+'s ,college ,hospital2 late ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,g\t ,,& ,,rheumatic ,,g\t 7,,rheumatoid ,,ar?ritis74 ,?ird ,edition1 ?or\ghly ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 ,) #f ,plates1 compris+ #ba ,figures 7#ad ,col\r$71 & #bg ,illu/rations engrav$ on ,wood4 #hvo41 #bas4 ,,! ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,mat]ia ,,m$ica ,,& ,,!rapeutics4 ,! ,?irte5? ,edition1 ,revis$ & ,edit$1 "u ! sup]vision ( ! ,au?or1 by ,,ne/or ,,tir>d1 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,pr(essor ( ,mat]ia ,m$ica & ,!rapeutics 9 ,k+'s ,college1 ,london1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,gray4--,,anatomy1 ,,descriptive ,,& ,,surgical4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,gray1 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,lectur] on ,anatomy at ,/4 ,george's ,hospital4 ,! ,f\rte5? ,edition1 re-edit$ by ,t4 ,,pick]+ ,,pick1 ,surgeon to ,/4 ,george's ,hospital1 ,inspector ( ,anatomy 9 ,engl& & ,wales1 late ,memb] ( ! ,c\rt ( ,exam9]s1 ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons ( ,engl&4 ,) #gje l>ge ,woodcut ,illu/rations1 a l>ge proportion ( :i* are ,col\r$1 ! ,art]ies be+ col\r$ r$1 ! ,ve9s blue1 & ! ,n]ves yell[4 ,! atta*m5ts ( ! muscles to ! bones1 9 ! section on ,o/eology1 are also %[n 9 col\r$ outl9e4 ,royal #hvo41 #cfs4 ,,hal=d4--,,! ,,life ,,( ,,sir ,,h5ry ,,hal=d1 ,b>t41 ,g4,c4,h41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians1 ,physician to ,george ,,iii41 ,george ,,iv41 ,william ,,iv41 & to ,h] ,maje/y ,que5 ,victoria4 ,by ,,william ,,munk1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,fell[ & late ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicans ( ,london4 ,) #b ,portraits4 #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,halliburton4--,works by ,w4 ,d4 ,,halliburton1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,r4,c4,p41 ,pr(essor ( ,physiology 9 ,k+'s ,college1 ,london2 ,lectur] on ,physiology at ! ,london ,s*ool ( ,m$ic9e = ,wom54 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,*emical ,,physiology ,,& ,,pa?ology4 ,) #ajd ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bhs4 ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,*emical ,,physiology4 #hvo41 #es4 999999 ,?is is a book suitable = m$ical /ud5ts4 ,x treats ( ! subject 9 ! same way z ,pr(4 ,,s*af]',s ,ess5tials treats ( ,hi/ology4 ,x conta9s a numb] ( elem5t>y & advanc$ practical lessons1 foll[$ 9 ea* case by a brief descriptive acc\nt ( ! facts relat$ to ! ex]cises :i* are int5d$ to be p]=m$ by ea* memb] ( ! class4 ,,lang4--,,! ,,me?odical ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,eye4 ,be+ ,"p ,i4 ( a ,guide to ! ,practice ( ,oph?almology = ,/ud5ts & ,practition]s4 ,by ,,william ,,lang1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,eng41 ,surgeon to ! ,royal ,london ,oph?almic ,hospital1 ,moorfields1 etc4 ,) #ae ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,live+4--,,h&book ,,on ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,sk94 ,) especial ref]5ce to ,diagnosis & ,treatm5t4 ,by ,,rob]t ,,live+1 ,m4,a4 & ,m4,d41 ,cantab41 ,f4,r4,c4,p4 ,lond41 etc41 ,physician to ! ,dep>tm5t = ,diseases ( ! ,sk9 at ! ,middlesex ,hospital1 etc4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,longmore4--,works by ,surgeon-,g5]al ,sir ,t4 ,,longmore ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 late ,pr(essor ( ,milit>y ,surg]y 9 ! ,army ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,(fic] ( ! ,legion ( ,hon\r4 ,,! ,,illu/rat$ ,,optical ,,manual2 ,,or1 ,,h&book ,,( ,,in/ructions ,,= ,,! ,,guidance ,,( ,,surgeons ,,9 ,,te/+ ,,quality ,,& ,,range ,,( ,,vision1 ,,& ,,9 ,,di/+ui%+ ,,& ,,deal+ ,,) ,,optical ,,defects ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,illu/rat$ by #gd ,draw+s & ,diagrams by ,inspector-,g5]al ,dr4 ,,macdonald1 ,r4,n41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,c4,b4 ,f\r? ,edition4 #hvo41 #ads4 ,,gun%ot ,,injuries4 ,_! ,hi/ory1 ,*>act]i/ic ,features1 ,complications1 & ,g5]al ,treatm5t2 ) ,/ati/ics conc]n+ !m z !y h be5 met ) 9 ,w>f>e4 ,) #gh ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #cas4 #f;d4 ,,luff4--,,text-,,book ,,( ,,=5sic ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,toxicology4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,p4 ,,luff1 ,m4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,physician 9 ,*>ge ( ,out-,pati5ts & ,lectur] on ,m$ical ,jurisprud5ce & ,toxicology 9 ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital2 ,exam9] 9 ,=5sic ,m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,london2 ,ext]nal ,exam9] 9 ,=5sic ,m$ic9e 9 ! ,victoria ,univ]sity2 ,(ficial ,analy/ to ! ,home ,(fice4 ,) #ac full-page ,plates 7#a 9 col\rs7 & #cc ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text4 #b vols4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bds4 ,,newman4--,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,kidney ,,am5able ,,to ,,surgical ,,treatm5t4 ,lectures to ,practition]s4 ,by ,,david ,,newman1 ,m4,d41 ,surgeon to ! ,we/]n ,infirm>y ,out-,door ,dep>tm5t2 ,pa?ologi/ & ,lectur] on ,pa?ology at ! ,glasg[ ,royal ,infirm>y2 ,exam9] 9 ,pa?ology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[2 ,vice-,presid5t ,glasg[ ,pa?ological & ,cl9ical ,society4 #hvo41 #hs4 ,,ow54--,a ,,manual ,,( ,,anatomy ,,= ,,s5ior ,,/ud5ts4 ,by ,,edmund ,,ow51 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4,c41 ,s5ior ,surgeon to ! ,hospital = ,sick ,*ildr51 ,great ,ormond ,/reet1 ,surgeon to ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital1 ,london1 & co-,lectur] on ,surg]y1 late ,lectur] on ,anatomy 9 its ,m$ical ,s*ool4 ,) #baj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,poole4--,,cook]y ,,= ,,! ,,diabetic4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 & ,mrs4 ,,poole4 ,) ,preface by ,dr4 ,,pavy4 ,fcap4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,qua94--,a ,,diction>y ,,( ,,m$ic9e2 ,includ+ ,g5]al ,pa?ology1 ,g5]al ,!rapeutics1 ,hygi5e1 & ! ,diseases ( ,wom5 & ,*ildr54 ,by ,v>i\s ,writ]s4 ,edit$ by ,,ri*>d ,,qua91 ,b>t41 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,,ll4,d4 ,ed94 7,hon47 ,f4,r4,s41 ,physician ,extraord9>y to ,h4,m4 ! ,que51 ,presid5t ( ! ,g5]al ,m$ical ,c\ncil1 ,memb] ( ! ,s5ate ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 etc4 ,assi/$ by ,,fr$]ick ,,?omas ,,rob]ts1 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,b4,sc41 ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians1 ,fell[ ( ,univ]sity ,college1 ,pr(essor ( ,mat]ia ,m$ica & ,!rapeutics1 ,univ]sity ,college1 c42 & ,j4 ,,mit*ell ,,bruce1 ,m4,a4 ,abdn41 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians ( ,london1 ,physician & ,lectur] on ! ,pr9ciples & ,practice ( ,m$ic9e1 ,*>+ ,cross ,hospital1 c4 ,new ,edition1 ,revis$ ?r\gh\t & ,enl>g$4 #b ,vols4 ,m$ium #hvo41 #djs4 net4 ,,qua94--,,qua9',s 7,,jones7 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,anatomy4 ,! ,t5? ,edition4 ,edit$ by ,,edw>d ,,alb]t ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,physiology & ,hi/ology 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london2 & ,,george ,,danc] ,,?ane1 ,pr(essor ( ,anatomy 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london4 999999 ,! sev]al p>ts ( ?is "w =m ,,complete ,,text-,,books ,,( ,,_! ,,respective ,,subjects4 ,,vol4 ,i41 ,,"p ,i4 ,,embryology4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bjj ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,i41 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,g5]al ,,anatomy ,,or ,,hi/ology4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bia ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,vol4 ,,ii41 ,,"p ,i4 ,,o/eology4 ,by ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane4 ,) #afh ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,,ii41 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,ar?rology--,,myology--,,angeiology4 ,by ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane4 ,) #bee ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,vol4 ,,iii41 ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,sp9al ,,cord ,,& ,,bra94 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #aci ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,! ,,n]ves4 ,by ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane4 ,) #ajb ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,,iii41 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,! ,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,s5ses4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #agh ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #is4 ,,vol4 ,,iii41 ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,splan*nology4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,,johnson ,,sym+ton1 ,m4,d4 ,) #ccg ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #afs4 ,,app5dix4 ,,sup]ficial ,,& ,,surgical ,,anatomy4 ,by ,pr(essor ,g4 ,d4 ,,?ane & ,pr(essor ,r4 ,j4 ,,godlee1 ,m4,s4 ,) #bi ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,ri*>dson4--,,vita ,,m$ica3 ,*apt]s ( ,m$ical ,life & ,"w4 ,by ,sir ,b4 ,w4 ,,ri*>dson1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #hvo41 #afs4 ,,s*,,f]4--,,! ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,hi/ology4 ,descriptive & ,practical4 ,= ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts4 ,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,s*,,f]1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,jodrell ,pr(essor ( ,physiology 9 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london2 ,editor ( ! ,hi/ological ,portion ( ,qua9's ',anatomy'4 ,illu/rat$ by m ?an #cjj ,figures1 _m ( :i* are new4 ,f\r? ,edition1 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 7,int]leav$1 #ajs47 ,,s*5k4--,,manual ,,( ,,bact]iology4 ,= ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 ,) especial ref]5ce to ,practical ,me?ods4 ,by ,dr4 ,s4 ,l4 ,,s*5k1 ,pr(essor 7,extraord9>y7 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,vi5na4 ,translat$ f ! ,g]man1 ) an ,app5dix1 by ,w4 ,r4 ,,dawson1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,univ4 ,dub42 late ,univ]sity ,travell+ ,prizeman 9 ,m$ic9e4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations1 "s ( :i* are col\r$4 #hvo41 #ajs4 net4 ,,smale ,,& ,,coly]4 ,,diseases ,,& ,,injuries ,,( ,,! ,,tee?1 includ+ ,pa?ology & ,treatm5t3 a ,manual ( ,practical ,d5ti/ry = ,/ud5ts & ,practition]s4 ,by ,,morton ,,smale1 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,l4,s4,a41 ,l4,d4,s41 ,d5tal ,surgeon to ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital1 ,dean ( ! ,s*ool1 ,d5tal ,hospital ( ,london1 etc42 & ,j4 ,f4 ,,coly]1 ,l4,r4,c4,p41 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,l4 ,d4,s41 ,assi/ant ,d5tal ,surgeon to ,*>+ ,cross ,hospital1 & ,assi/ant ,d5tal ,surgeon to ! ,d5tal ,hospital ( ,london4 ,) #ccd ,illu/rations4 ,l>ge ,cr[n #hvo41 #aes4 ,,smi? 7,h4 ,f474 ,,! ,,h&book ,,= ,,midwives4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,fly ,,smi?1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,b4 ,oxon41 ,m4,r4,c4,s4 ,second ,edition4 ,) #da ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,/ev5son4--,,w\nds ,,9 ,,w>3 ! ,me*anism ( _! ,production & _! ,treatm5t4 ,by ,surgeon-,colonel ,w4 ,f4 ,,/ev5son 7,army ,m$ical ,/aff71 ,a4,b41 ,m4,b41 ,m4,*4 ,dubl9 ,univ]sity1 ,pr(essor ( ,milit>y ,surg]y1 ,army ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,netley4 ,) #hf ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,tir>d4--,,diph!ria ,,& ,,antitox94 ,by ,,ne/or ,,tir>d1 ,m4,d4 ,lond41 ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians2 ,fell[ ( ,k+'s ,college1 ,london2 ,pr(essor ( ,mat]ia ,m$ica & ,!rapeutics at ,k+'s ,college2 ,physician to ,k+'s ,college ,hospital2 & ,s5ior ,physician to ! ,evel9a ,hospital = ,sick ,*ildr54 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,wakley4--,,! ,,life ,,& ,,times ,,( ,,?omas ,,wakley1 ,f\nd] & ,fir/ ,editor ( ! ,lancet1 ,memb] ( ,p>liam5t = ,f9sbury1 & ,coron] = ,we/ ,middlesex4 ,by ,,squire ,,sprigge1 ,m4,b4 ,cantab4 ,) #b ,portraits4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,wall]4--,works by ,,augu/us ,d4 ,,wall]1 ,m4,d41 ,lectur] on ,physiology at ,/4 ,m>y's ,hospital ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,london2 late ,ext]nal ,exam9] at ! ,victorian ,univ]sity4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,human ,,physiology4 ,?ird ,edition1 ,revis$4 ,) #cad ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,physiology4 ,fir/ ,s]ies4 ,on ,animal ,electricity4 #hvo41 #es4 net4 ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,practical ,,physiology4 ,"p ,i4 ,elem5t>y ,physiological ,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,augu/us ,d4 ,,wall] & ,w4 ,,legge ,,symes4 #hvo41 #as4 net4 ,"p ,,ii4 9 ! press4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,physiology ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em2 ,electro-,physiology4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,wei*selbaum4--,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,pa?ological ,,hi/ology4 ,) ,special ,ref]5ce to ,practical ,me?ods4 ,by ,dr4 ,,anton ,,wei*selbaum1 ,pr(essor ( ,pa?ology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,vi5na4 ,translat$ by ,w4 ,r4 ,,dawson1 ,m4,d4 7,dub471 ,demon/rator ( ,pa?ology 9 ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons1 ,irel&1 late ,m$ical ,travell+ ,prizeman ( ,dubl9 ,univ]sity1 etc4 ,) #bba ,figures1 p>tly 9 ,col\rs1 a ,cromo-li?ographic ,plate1 & #g ,photographic ,plates4 ,royal #hvo41 #bas4 net4 ,,wilks ,,& ,,moxon4--,,lectures ,,on ,,pa?ological ,,anatomy4 ,by ,sir ,,samuel ,,wilks1 ,b>t41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,physicians1 & ,physician ,extraord9>y to ,h4,m4 ! ,que51 & ! late ,,walt] ,,moxon1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,physician to1 & "s "t ,lectur] on ,pa?ology at1 ,guy's ,hospital4 ,?ird ,edition1 ?or\ghly ,revis$4 ,by ,sir ,,samuel ,,wilks1 ,b>t41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #hvo41 #ahs4 ,,vet]9>y ,,m$ic9e1 ,,etc4 ,,/eel4--,works by ,,john ,,h5ry ,,/eel1 ,f4,r4,c4,v4,s41 ,f4,z4,s41 ,a4,v4,d41 late ,pr(essor ( ,vet]9>y ,sci5ce & ,pr9cipal ( ,bombay ,vet]9>y ,college4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,dog2 be+ a ,manual ( ,can9e ,pa?ology4 ,especially adapt$ = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 ,) #hh ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,ox2 be+ a ,manual ( ,bov9e ,pa?ology4 ,especially adapt$ = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 ,) #b ,plates & #aag ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #aes4 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,%eep2 be+ a ,manual ( ,ov9e ,pa?ology = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts4 ,) ,col\r$ ,plate & #ii ,woodcuts4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,,outl9es ,,( ,,equ9e ,,anatomy2 a ,manual = ! use ( ,vet]9>y ,/ud5ts 9 ! ,dissect+ ,room4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,fitzwygram4--,,horses ,,& ,,/ables4 ,by ,major-,g5]al ,sir ,f4 ,,fitzwygram1 ,b>t4 ,) #ef pages ( ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,s*re9]4--,,! ,,angora ,,goat 7publi%$ "u ! auspices ( ! ,s\? ,african ,angora ,goat ,bre$]s' ,association71 & a ,pap] on ! ,o/ri* 7repr9t$ f ! ,zoologi/ = ,m>*1 #ahig74 ,by ,s4 ,c4 ,,cronwright ,,s*re9]4 #hvo4 ',,/oneh5ge4'--,,! ,,dog ,,9 ,,heal? ,,& ,,disease4 ,by ',,/oneh5ge'4 ,) #gh ,wood ,engrav+s4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,y\att4--,works by ,,william ,,y\att4 ,,! ,,horse4 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$ by ,w4 ,,watson1 ,m4,r4,c4,v4,s4 ,) #eb ,wood ,engrav+s4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,dog4 ,revis$ & ,enl>g$4 ,) #cc ,wood ,engrav+s4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,physiology1 ,,biology1 ,,bact]iology1 ,,& ,,zoology4 7,& see ,,m$ic9e ,,& ,,surg]y47 ,,a%by4--,,notes ,,on ,,physiology1 = ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts ,prep>+ = ,exam9ation4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,a%by1 ,m4,d4 ,) #ada ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,b>nett4--,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,! ,,body3 a ,*ildr5's ,book on ,anatomy & ,physiology1 = ,s*ool & ,home ,use4 ,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,b>nett4 ,) #aac ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #i;d4 ,,bidgood4--,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,practical ,,elem5t>y ,,biology4 ,by ,,john ,,bidgood1 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #bbf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,bray4--,,physiology ,,& ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,heal?1 9 ,easy ,lessons = ,s*ools4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,*>les ,,bray4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 ,,curtis4--,,ess5tials ,,( ,,practical ,,bact]iology4 ,by ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,curtis1 ,m4,d4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,9 ! press4 ,,frankl&4--,,micro-,,organisms ,,9 ,,wat]4 ,toge!r ) an ,acc\nt ( ! ,bact]iological ,me?ods involv$ 9 _! ,inve/igation4 ,specially design$ = ! use ( ^? connect$ ) ! ,sanit>y ,aspects ( ,wat]-,supply4 ,by ,,p]cy ,,frankl&1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,mrs4 ,,p]cy ,,frankl&4 ,) #b ,plates & ,num]\s ,diagrams4 #hvo41 #afs4 net4 ,,furneaux4--,,human ,,physiology4 ,by ,w4 ,,furneaux1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,) #bah ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,hudson ,,& ,,gosse4--,,! ,,rotif]a1 or ',,:eel-,,animacules'4 ,by ,c4 ,t4 ,,hudson1 ,,ll4,d41 & ,p4 ,h4 ,,gosse1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #cj ,col\r$ & #d ,uncol\r$ ,plates4 ,9 #f ,p>ts4 #dto41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ea* ,supplem5t #abs4 #f;d4 ,complete 9 #b vols41 ) ,supplem5t1 #dto41 #d #ds4 ,,leumann4--,,notes ,,on ,,micro-,,organisms ,,pa?og5ic ,,to ,,man4 ,by ,surgeon-,capta9 ,b4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,leumann1 ,m4,b41 ,indian ,m$ical ,s]vice4 #hvo41 #cs4 ,,macali/]4--,works by ,,alex&] ,,macali/]1 ,m4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy & ,zoology1 ,univ]sity ( ,dubl94 ,) #da ,diagrams4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,sy/ematic ,,zoology ,,& ,,morphology ,,( ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,inv]tebrate ,,animals4 ,) #ei ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 ,) #gg ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,morgan4--,,animal ,,biology3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book4 ,by ,c4 ,,lloyd ,,morgan4 ,) #ajc ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,s*5k4--,,manual ,,( ,,bact]iology1 = ,practition]s & ,/ud5ts1 ) ,especial ,ref]5ce to ,practical ,me?ods4 ,by ,dr4 ,s4 ,l4 ,,s*5k4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations1 "s ,col\r$4 #hvo41 #ajs4 net4 ,,?ornton4--,,human ,,physiology4 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bfg ,illu/rations1 "s ,col\r$4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,botany4 ,,aitk54--,,elem5t>y ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,botany4 ,by ,,edi? ,,aitk51 late ,s*ol> ( ,girton ,college4 ,) #djj ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,b5nett ,,& ,,murray4--,,h&book ,,( ,,cryptogamic ,,botany4 ,by ,,alfr$ ,w4 ,,b5nett1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,lectur] on ,botany at ,/4 ,?omas's ,hospital2 & ,,george ,,murray1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,keep] ( ,botany1 ,briti% ,museum4 ,) #cgh ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #afs4 ,,cross ,,& ,,bevan4--,,cellulose3 an ,outl9e ( ! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,/ructural ,elem5ts ( ,plants4 ,) ,ref]5ce to _! ,natural ,hi/ory & ,indu/rial ,uses4 ,by ,,cross & ,,bevan 7,c4 ,f4 ,cross1 ,e4 ,j4 ,bevan1 & ,c4 ,beadle74 ,) #ad ,plates4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,curtis4--,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,g5]al ,,botany4 ,by ,,c>lton ,c4 ,,curtis1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d41 ,tutor 9 ,botany 9 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,) #hg ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #abs4 net4 ,,edmonds4--,works by ,,h5ry ,,edmonds1 ,b4,sc41 ,london4 ,,elem5t>y ,,botany1 ,!oretical & ,practical4 ,) #cai ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,botany ,,= ,,beg9n]s4 ,) #he ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,kit*5]4--,a ,,ye>',s ,,botany4 ,adapt$ to ,home & ,s*ool ,use4 ,by ,,frances ,a4 ,,kit*5]4 ,) #aie ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,l9dley ,,& ,,moore4--,,! ,,treasury ,,( ,,botany4 ,edit$ by ,j4 ,,l9dley1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,t4 ,,moore1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #bj ,/eel ,plates & num]\s ,woodcuts4 ,two p>ts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #abs4 ,mc,n,a,b4--,,class-,,book ,,( ,,botany4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,mcnab4 ,two ,p>ts4 ,,morphology ,,& ,,physiology4 ,) #db ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,classification ,,( ,,plants4 ,) #aah ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,sorau]4--,a ,,popul> ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,physiology ,,( ,,plants4 ,= ! use ( ,g>d5]s1 or = ,/ud5ts ( ,horticulture & ( ,agriculture4 ,by ,dr4 ,,paul ,,sorau]4 ,translat$ by ,f4 ,e4 ,,weiss1 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #cc ,illu/rations4 #hvo41 #is4 net4 ,,?om ,,& ,,b5nett4--,,/ructural ,,& ,,physiological ,,botany4 ,by ,,otto ,,wilhelm ,,?om & by ,,alfr$ ,w4 ,,b5nett1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) ,col\r$ ,map & #fjj ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,tubeuf4--,,diseases ,,( ,,plants ,,induc$ ,,by ,,cryptogamic ,,p>asites4 ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,pa?og5ic ,fungi1 ,slime ,fungi1 ,bact]ia & ,alg4 ,by ,dr4 ,,k>l ,,freih]r ,,von ,,tubeuf1 ,privatdoc5t 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,muni*4 ,engli% ,edition by ,,william ,g4 ,,smi?1 ,b4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,lectur] on ,plant ,physiology1 ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh4 ,) #ccj ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo41 #ahs4 net4 ,,watts4--,a ,,s*ool ,,flora4 ,= ! use ( ,elem5t>y ,botanical ,classes4 ,by ,w4 ,,m>%all ,,watts1 ,d4,sc4 ,lond4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture4 ,,addyman4--,,agricultural ,,analysis4 ,a ,manual ( ,quantitative ,analysis = ,/ud5ts ( ,agriculture4 ,by ,,frank ,t4 ,,addyman1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) #di ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 net4 ,,coleman ,,& ,,addyman4--,,practical ,,agricultural ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,j4 ,,b]n>d ,,coleman1 ,a4,r4,c4,sc41 ,f4,i4,c41 & ,,frank ,t4 ,,addyman1 ,b4,sc4 7,lond471 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) #bd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,,cooke4--,,! ,,f\ndations ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,agriculture4 ,by ,,samuel ,,cooke1 ,a4,m41 ,a4,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,cor4,m4,r4,h4,s41 ,pr9cipal & ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry & ,geology1 ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,poona4 ,) #he ,illu/rations & a ,s]ies ( ,exam9ation ,que/ions4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,webb4--,works by ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,webb1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond472 late ,pr9cipal ( ! ,agricultural ,college1 ,aspatria4 ,,elem5t>y ,,agriculture4 ,a ,text-,book specially adapt$ to ! requirem5ts ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t1 ! ,junior ,exam9ation ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 & o!r ,elem5t>y ,exam9ations4 ,) #cd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture4 ,a ,manual = ,advanc$ ,sci5ce ,/ud5ts4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,works ,,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,fragm5ts ,,( ,,sci5ce3 a ,s]ies ( ,deta*$ ,essays1 ,addresses1 & ,reviews4 #b vols4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #afs4 ,vol4 ,i4--,! ,con/itution ( ,nature--,radiation--,on ,radiant ,heat 9 ,relation to ! ,col\r & ,*emical ,con/itution ( ,bodies--,new ,*emical ,reactions produc$ by ,light--,on ,du/ & ,disease--,voyage to ,alg]ia to obs]ve ! ,eclipse--,niag>a--,! ,p>allel ,roads ( ,gl5 ,roy--,alp9e ,sculpture--,rec5t ,exp]im5ts on ,fog-,signals--,on ! ,/udy ( ,physics--,on ,cry/all9e & ,slaty ,cleavage--,on ,p>amagnetic & ,diamagnetic ,=ces--,physical ,basis ( ,sol> ,*emi/ry--,elem5t>y ,magnetism--,on ,=ce--,contributions to ,molecul> ,physics--,life & ,lett]s ( ,,f>aday--,! ,copley ,m$alli/ ( #ahgj--,! ,copley ,m$alli/ ( #ahga--;,dea? by ,lightn+--,sci5ce & ! ,spirits4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,reflections on ,pray] & ,natural ,law--,miracles & ,special ,provid5ces--,on ,pray] z a ,=m ( ,physical ,en]gy--,vitality--,matt] & ,=ce--,sci5tific ,mat]ialism--,an ,address to ,/ud5ts--,sci5tific ,use ( ! ,imag9ation--,! ,belfa/ ,address--,apology = ! ,belfa/ ,address--,! ,rev4 ,,james ,,m>t9eau & ! ,belfa/ ,address--,f]m5tation1 & its ,be>+s on ,surg]y & ,m$ic9e--,spontane\s ,g5]ation--,sci5ce & ,man--,pr(essor ,,vir*[ & ,evolution--,! ,electric ,light4 ,,new ,,fragm5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,cont5ts4--,! ,sabba?--,goe!'s ',f>b5lehre'--,atoms1 ,molecules1 & ,e!r ,waves--,c\nt ,rum=d--,l\is ,pa/eur1 8 ,life & ,lab\rs--,! ,ra9b[ & its ,cong5]s--,address deliv]$ at ! ,birkbeck ,in/itution on ,octob] #bb1 #ahhd--,?omas ,"y--,life 9 ! ,alps--,ab\t ,common ,wat]--,p]sonal ,recollections ( ,?omas ,c>lyle--,on ,unveil+ ! ,/atue ( ,?omas ,c>lyle--,on ! ,orig91 ,propagation1 & ,prev5tion ( ,ph?isis--,old ,alp9e ,jott+s--,a ,morn+ on ,alp ,lusg54 ,,lectures ,,on ,,s\nd4 ,) ,frontispiece ( ,fog-,syr51 & #bjc o!r ,woodcuts & ,diagrams 9 ! ,text4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,heat1 ,a ,,mode ,,( ,,motion4 ,) #abe ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,light ,,deliv]$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,9 #ahgb ,,& #ahgc4 ,) ,portrait1 ,li?ographic ,plate1 & #ei ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #es4 ,,essays ,,on ,,! ,,float+ ,,matt] ,,( ,,! ,,air ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,putrefaction ,,& ,,infection4 ,) #bd ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,rese>*es ,,on ,,diamagnetism ,,& ,,magnecry/allic ,,action2 includ+ ! ,"q ( ,diamagnetic ,pol>ity4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #abs4 ,,notes ,,( ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,n9e ,,lectures ,,on ,,light1 deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita91 #ahfi4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,notes ,,( ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,sev5 ,,lectures ,,on ,,electrical ,,ph5om5a ,,& ,,!ories1 deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itution ( ,great ,brita91 #ahgj4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,lessons ,,9 ,,electricity ,,at ,,! ,,royal ,,in/itution #ahge-ahgf4 ,) #eh ,woodcuts & ,diagrams4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d44 ,,! ,,glaci]s ,,( ,,! ,,alps3 be+ a ,n>rative ( ,excursions & ,asc5ts4 ,an ,acc\nt ( ! ,orig9 & ,ph5om5a ( ,glaci]s1 & an ,exposition ( ! ,physical ,pr9ciples to :i* !y are relat$4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,f>aday ,,z ,a ,,discov]]4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,text-,,books ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,,photography4 ,by ,capta9 ,w4 ,,de ,,wiveleslie ,,abney1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #aje ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ial ,,& ,,/ructures4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,,&]son1 ,c4,e41 etc4 ,) #ff ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,railway ,,appliances4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,,wolfe ,,b>ry1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #bah ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,william ,,all5 ,,mill]1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #gb ,illu/rations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,quantitative ,,*emical ,,analysis4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,ph4,d4 ,) #hh ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,qualitative ,,analysis ,,& ,,laboratory ,,practice4 ,by ,t4 ,e4 ,,?orpe1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,m4,a4 & ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #eg ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,*emical ,,philosophy4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,tild51 ,d4,sc41 ,london1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #e ,illu/rations4 ,) or )\t ,answ]s to ,problems4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,by ,sir ,r4 ,s4 ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #acj ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,sy/ematic ,,m9]alogy4 ,by ,,hil>y ,,bau]man1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) #cgc ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,descriptive ,,m9]alogy4 ,by ,,hil>y ,,bau]man1 ,f4,g4,s41 etc4 ,) #bcf ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,metals3 ,,_! ,,prop]ties ,,& ,,treatm5t4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,,hunt+ton & ,w4 ,g4 ,,mcmillan4 ,) #abb ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,heat4 ,by ,j4 ,,cl]k ,,maxwell1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,ed941 ,f4,r4,,ss41 ,l4 ,e4 ,) #ch ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,physics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 & ,w4 ,n4 ,,%aw1 ,m4,a4 ,) #acd ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,prelim9>y ,,survey ,,& ,,e/imates4 ,by ,,!odore ,,graham ,,gribble1 ,civil ,eng9e]4 ,includ+ ,elem5t>y ,a/ronomy1 ,r\te ,survey+1 ,ta*eometry1 ,curve-rang+1 ,graphic ,m5suration1 ,e/imates1 ,hydrography & ,in/rum5ts4 ,) #acc ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,algebra ,,& ,,trigonometry4 ,by ,,william ,,na?aniel ,,griff91 ,b4,d4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,notes on1 ) ,solutions ( ! m difficult ,que/ions4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,by ,,george ,c4 ,v4 ,,holmes1 ,secret>y ( ! ,in/itution ( ,naval ,ar*itects4 ,) #bab ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,by ,,fleem+ ,,j5k91 ,f4,r4,,ss41 ,l4 ,e4 ,) #agg ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,electro-,,metallurgy4 ,by ,g4 ,,gore1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ef ,illus4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,telegraphy4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,preece1 ,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 & ,sir ,j4 ,,sivewright1 ,m4,a41 ,k4,c4,m4,g4 ,) #bee ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,physical ,,optics4 ,by ,r4 ,t4 ,,glazebrook1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ahc ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,te*nical ,,ari?metic ,,& ,,m5suration4 ,by ,,*>les ,w4 ,,m]riefield1 ,f4,r4,s4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,key1 by ! ,rev4 ,,john ,,hunt]1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,rocks4 ,by ,,frank ,,rutley1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) #f ,plates & #hh ,illu/rations 9 ! ,text1 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,work%op ,,appliances1 includ+ ,descriptions ( "s ( ! ,ma*9e ,tools us$ by ,eng9e]s4 ,by ,c4 ,p4 ,b4 ,,%elley1 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,) #cbc ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #es4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,ma*9e ,,design4 ,by ,w4 ,,caw?orne ,,unw91 ,f4,r4,s41 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,i4,c4,e4 ,,"p ,i4 ,g5]al ,pr9ciples1 ,fa/5+s & ,transmissive ,ma*9]y4 ,) #cjd ,illu/rations4 #fs4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,*iefly on ,eng9e ,details4 ,) #agd ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,/ructural ,,& ,,physiological ,,botany4 ,by ,,otto ,,wilhelm ,,?om1 & ,a4 ,w4 ,,b5nett1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #fjj ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,plane ,,& ,,solid ,,geometry4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,,watson1 ,m4,a4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,advanc$ ,,sci5ce ,,manuals4 999999 ,writt5 specially to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! ,,advanc$ ,,/age ( ,sci5ce ,subjects z laid d[n 9 ! ,syllabus ( ! ,directory ( ! ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,art ,,dep>tm5t1 ,,s\? ,,k5s+ton4 ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ! ,au?or ( ',riv+ton's ,notes on ,build+ ,con/ruction'4 ,) #che ,illu/rations & an ,app5dix ( ,exam9ation ,que/ions4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4 ,solids1 includ+ ,k9ematics1 ,/atics1 & ,k9etics4 ,by ,a4 ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,) #bbj ,illu/rations1 #acj ,work$ ,examples1 & ov] #ijj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,heat4 ,by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright1 ,hon4 ,int]4 ,b4,sc4 7,lond474 ,) #acf ,illu/rations & num]\s ,examples & ,exam9ation ,pap]s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,light4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,a4 ,,emtage1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bcb ,illu/rations4 ,cr4 #hvo41 #fs4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electricity4 ,by ,,ar?ur ,,william ,,poys]1 ,m4,a4 ,) #cag ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,by ,,william ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) ,plate ( ,spectra & #gh ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,geology3 a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 ,advanc$ ,classes & = ,g5]al ,read]s4 ,by ,,*>les ,,bird1 ,b4,a4 7,lond471 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) ov] #cjj ,illu/rations1 a ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isles 7col\r$71 & a set ( ,que/ions = ,exam9ation4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,human ,,physiology3 a ,manual = ,/ud5ts 9 advanc$ ,classes ( ! ,sci5ce & ,art ,dep>tm5t4 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bfh ,illu/rations1 "s ( :i* are ,col\r$1 & a set ( ,que/ions = ,exam9ation4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #fs4 ,,physiography4 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #f ,maps1 #bjc ,illu/rations1 & ,col\r$ ,plate ( ,spectra4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture4 ,by ,dr4 ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,webb1 ,ph4,d41 ,b4,sc4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hygi5e4 ,by ,j4 ,,lane ,,nott]1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,hygi5e 9 ! ,army ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,netley1 ,surgeon-,colonel1 ,army ,m$ical ,/aff2 & ,r4 ,h4 ,,fir?1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,assi/ant ,pr(essor ( ,hygi5e 9 ! ,army ,m$ical ,s*ool1 ,netley1 ,surgeon-,major1 ,army ,m$ical ,/aff4 ,) #ie ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,manuals4 999999 ,writt5 specially to meet ! requirem5ts ( ! ,,elem5t>y ,,/age ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,subjects z laid d[n 9 ! ,syllabus ( ! ,directory ( ! ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,art ,,dep>tm5t4 ,,practical1 ,,plane1 ,,& ,,solid ,,geometry1 includ+ ,graphic ,ari?metic4 ,by ,i4 ,h4 ,,morris4 ,fully ,illu/rat$ ) ,draw+s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,geometrical ,,draw+ ,,= ,,art ,,/ud5ts4 ,embrac+ ,plane ,geometry & its ,applications1 ! ,use ( ,scales1 & ! ,plans & ,elevations ( ,solids1 z requir$ 9 ,section ,i4 ( ,sci5ce ,subject ,i4 ,by ,i4 ,h4 ,,morris4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,practical1 ,,solid1 ,,or ,,descriptive ,,geometry4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[ 7,:itwor? ,s*ol>74 ,"p ,i4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,ma*9e ,,draw+ ,,& ,,design4 ,by ,,david ,,allan ,,l[4 ,) #ig ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,build+ ,,con/ruction4 ,by ,,edw>d ,j4 ,,burrell4 ,) #cjh ,illu/rations & ,work+ ,draw+s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,elem5t>y ,,c\rse ,,( ,,ma!matics4 ,conta9+ ,ari?metic2 ,euclid 7,book ,i41 ) ,d$uctions & ,ex]cises72 & ,algebra4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics4 ,includ+ ,hydro/atics & ,pneumatics4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 ,) num]\s ,examples & ,answ]s1 & #age ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics--,,solids4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond474 ,) #afc ,illu/rations1 #abj ,work$ ,examples1 & ov] #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,!oretical ,,me*anics--,,fluids4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond474 ,) #abb ,illu/rations1 num]\s ,work$ ,examples1 & ab\t #ejj ,examples f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 etc4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,me*anics4 ,) #ach ,illu/rations & ,diagrams1 & #ahh ,examples tak5 f ,exam9ation ,pap]s1 ) ,answ]s4 ,by ,t4 ,m4 ,,goodeve1 ,m4,a4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,s\nd1 ,,light1 ,,& ,,heat4 ,by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright4 ,) #afj ,diagrams & ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,metallurgy3 an ,elem5t>y ,text-,book4 ,by ,e4 ,l4 ,,rhead4 ,) #id ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,physics4 ,alt]native ,c\rse4 ,by ,,m>k ,r4 ,,wright4 ,) #bdb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,problems ,,& ,,solutions ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,electricity ,,& ,,magnetism4 ,by ,w4 ,,sl+o & ,a4 ,,brook]4 ,) #fg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 ,,magnetism ,,& ,,electricity4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,,poys]1 ,m4,a4 ,) #bce ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,organic ,,*emi/ry3 ! ,fatty ,comp\nds4 ,by ,r4 ,,lloyd ,,:iteley1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,) #de ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,by ,,william ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) #fc ,illu/rations & num]\s ,que/ions & ,ex]cises4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,practical ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry4 ,by ,,william ,,jago1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,*emi/ry3 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,qualitative ,analysis4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,tild51 ,d4,sc4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,inorganic ,,*emi/ry1 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,furneaux1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,geology4 ,by ,,*>les ,,bird1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) ,col\r$ ,geological ,map ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,human ,,physiology4 ,by ,,william ,s4 ,,furneaux1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,) #bah ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,c\rse ,,( ,,practical ,,elem5t>y ,,biology4 ,by ,j4 ,,bidgood1 ,b4,sc4 ,) #bbf ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,botany1 ,,!oretical ,,& ,,practical4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,edmonds1 ,b4,sc4 ,) #cai ,woodcuts4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,/eam4 ,by ,,william ,,ripp]1 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itution ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s4 ,) #adb ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,elem5t>y ,,physiography4 ,by ,j4 ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a4 ,) #ab ,maps & #bdg ,illu/rations4 ,) ,app5dix on ,a/ronomical ,in/rum5ts & ,measurem5ts4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,agriculture4 ,by ,,h5ry ,j4 ,,webb1 ,ph4,d4 ,) #cd ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,london ,,sci5ce ,,class-,,books4 ,edit$ by ,g4 ,,c>ey ,,fo/]1 ,f4,r4,s41 & by ,sir ,,philip ,,magnus1 ,b4,sc41 ,b4,a41 ( ! ,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute4 ,,a/ronomy4 ,by ,sir ,,rob]t ,,/awell ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #da ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,me*anics4 ,by ,sir ,,rob]t ,,/awell ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #hi ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,heal?4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,corfield1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p4 ,) #bb ,illu/rations4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,molecul> ,,physics ,,& ,,s\nd4 ,by ,,fr$]ick ,,gu?rie1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ia ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,geometry1 ,,congru5t ,,figures4 ,by ,o4 ,,h5rici1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #ada ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,inv]tebrate ,,animals4 ,by ,,alex&] ,,macali/]1 ,m4,d4 ,) #ei ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,zoology ,,( ,,! ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 ,by ,,alex&] ,,macali/]1 ,m4,d4 ,) #gg ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,hydro/atics ,,& ,,pneumatics4 ,by ,sir ,,philip ,,magnus1 ,b4,sc41 ,b4,a4 ,) #gi ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 7,to be _h also ) ,answ]s1 #bs47 ,! ,work$ ,solutions ( ! ,problems4 #bs4 ,,botany4 ,outl9es ( ! ,classification ( ,plants4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,mcnab1 ,m4,d4 ,) #aah ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,botany4 ,outl9es ( ,morphology & ,physiology4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,mcnab1 ,m4,d4 ,) #db ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,!rmodynamics4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,wormell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc4 ,) #da ,diagrams4 ,fcp4 #hvo41 #as4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,s]ies4 ,,elem5t>y ,,practical ,,physiography4 7,section ,i47 ,by ,,john ,,?ornton1 ,m4,a41 ,head ,ma/] ( ! ,c5tral ,high] ,grade ,s*ool1 ,bolton4 ,) #bae ,illu/rations & a ,col\r$ ,spectrum4 ,cr[n #hvo41 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,practical ,,dome/ic ,,hygi5e4 ,by ,j4 ,,lane ,,nott]1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,pr(essor ( ,hygi5e 9 ! 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