,! ,cambridge ,manuals ( ,sci5ce & ,lit]ature ,,electricity ,,9 ,,locomotion ,,cambridge ,,univ]sity ,,press ,london3 ,,fett] ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manag] ,illu/ration ,ed9burgh3 #ajj1 ,,pr9ces ,,/reet ,london3 ,h4 ,k4 ,,lewis1 #acf1 ,,g[] ,,/reet1 ,w4,c4 ,b]l93 ,a4 ,,a%] ,,& ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay & ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,all rights res]v$ ,,electricity ,,9 ,,locomotion ,,an ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,its ,,me*anism1 ,,its ,,a*ievem5ts1 ,,& ,,its ,,prospects ,,by ,,adam ,,g[ans ,,:yte1 ,b4,sc4 ,editor ( ,electrical ,indu/ries & ,electrics ,cambridge3 at ! ,univ]sity ,press #aiaa ,,to ,,emile ,,g>cke ,) ! exception ( ! coat ( arms at ! foot1 ! design on ! title page is a reproduction ( "o us$ by ! e>lie/ kn[n ,cambridge pr9t]1 ,john ,sib]*1 #aeba4 ,,preface ,9 ! foll[+ pages an attempt is made to give a cle> picture ( ! "p :i* electricity has tak5 & w cont9ue to take 9 ! developm5t ( locomotion4 ,"s ( ! aspects ( electric traction are highly te*nical2 o!rs are purely f9ancial4 ,x is impossible to und]/& ! a*ievem5ts & possibilities ( electricity 9 locomotion )\t a c]ta9 am\nt ( discussion ( bo? ^! po9ts ( view2 b x is n necess>y to g deeply into ei!r 9 ord] to cat* "s ( ! en?usiasm :i* inspires ! electrical eng9e] 9 8 ef=ts to ext5d electric traction ev]y:]e on road & rail4 ,! hopes ( electrical conque/ ext5d1 inde$1 to locomotion on ! sea & 9 ! air z well z on ! l&4 ,at ! root ( ^! hopes !re lies a firm fai? 9 ! sup]ior economies & flexibility ( electricity z a mode ( motion4 ,9 ! explanations :i* are giv5 ( electric tramways1 electric railways1 electric automobiles1 electric propulsion on %ips1 & ! o!r phases ( electric traction1 no?+ b ! mo/ elem5t>y k ( electricity is presuppos$4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( te*nical description is unavoidable1 b ,i h re/rict$ x z f> z possible to ess5tial matt]s :i* ?r[ light ^u ! mean+ ( ! v>i\s sy/ems ( electric traction & expla9 ! economic & physical reasons = _! adoption4 ,anyone :o glances ov] ! hi/ory ( electric traction w be /ruck by ! abs5ce ( out/&+ names4 ,!re is no man :o occupies ! same position 9 ! sph]e ( electric locomotion z ,watt does 9 ! _w ( /eam1 or ,/eph5son 9 ! _w ( railways4 ,z a pione]1 ,dr4 ,w]nh] von ,siem5s p]haps des]ves m hon\r ?an any o!r4 ,b ! lead+ ideas embodi$ 9 electric traction sy/ems 7 contribut$ by eng9e]s :o work$ 9 ! g5]al field ( electrical eng9e]+2 & !y h be5 appli$ & develop$ by a num]\s b& ( m5 :o h add$ "o brick ( exp]i5ce & +5uity to ano!r until ! impos+ /ructure 0 made visible to ! _w4 ,nev]!less1 ,i hope ! /ory z told briefly 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s w n be f\nd devoid ( human int]e/4 ,x has ! advantage1 at any rate1 ( ! attraction :i* any?+ p]ta9+ to electricity holds = all sections ( ! public4 ,?is attraction deep5s ^u clos] acqua9tance ) ! me*anism & ! hi/ory ( electricity 9 action2 & if any ( ! descriptions & =eca/s are f\nd to be prejudic$ 9 fav\r ( a s+le in/rum5t ( locomotion1 ! fault may be consid]$ to re/ ) ! spell :i* electricity ?r[s ^u ev]yone :o is conc]n$ 9 any way ) its applications 9 ! s]vice ( man4 ,i h to ackn[l$ge ! k9d assi/ance ( ,mr4 ,frank ,broadb5t1 ,m4,i4,e4,e41 9 look+ ov] ! pro(s ( ?is volume4 ,a4 ,g4 ,w4 #ba ,april #aiaa ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,preface vi ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,! ,:eel & ! ,public #a ,,ii4 ,e>ly ,tramroads & ,railways #d ,,iii4 ,! ,bir? ( ,electric ,traction #ab ,,iv4 ,! ,ess5tial ,advantages ( ,electric ,traction on ,tramways #ai ,v4 ,! ,me*anism ( an ,electric ,tramc>3 ! ,ov]head ,sy/em #bi ,,vi4 ,conduit & ,surface-,contact ,tramway ,sy/ems #cg ,,vii4 ,! ,backw>dness ( ,electric ,traction 9 ,great ,brita9 #df ,,viii4 ,electric ,tramway ,/agnation4 ,! ,trolley ,omnibus #ee ,,ix4 ,reg5]ative ,control #fg ,x4 ,accumulator ,electric ,traction4 ,! ,electric ,automobile #gj ,,xi4 ,petrol-,electric ,vehicles & ma9 ,m>9e ,propulsion by ,electricity #hb ,,xii4 ,! ,pione] ,electric ,railways #ib ,,xiii4 ,electric ,railways f ! ,eng9e]+ ,po9t ( ,view #ajg ,,xiv4 ,electric ,traction on ,ma9 ,l9e ,railways #aaf ,,xv4 ,curiosities ( ,electric ,traction #abd ,,xvi4 ,! ,future #ach ,,index #adb ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,:eel ,,& ,,! ,,public ,"o ( ! greate/ ( unkn[n m5 ( g5ius 0 ! inv5tor ( ! :eel4 ,probably--z 9 ! case ( mo/ inv5tions--he %>es ! cr$it ) o!rs :o prep>$ ! way = him by discov]+ t heavy weights c\ld be m easily roll$ ?an dragg$4 ,b1 :atev] ! orig9 ( ! :eel & axle1 ! comb9ation 0 s admirable t x rema9$ un*ang$ 9 its ess5tial features = c5turies & /ill =ms ! prim>y elem5t 9 locomotion4 ,"s ( ! e>lie/ =ms ( vehicle c be f\nd co-exi/+ ) ! v late/4 ,9 ,oporto1 = in/ance1 !re are electric tramways1 b !re are also ox wagons :i* seem to belong to ! *ildhood ( ! _w4 ,! :eels are rigidly fix$ to rotat+ axles 7! olde/ kn[n arrangem5t7 & ! supports ( bo? ! front & ! back axles are rigidly fix$ to ! wagon4 ,! result is t ! vehicle _c '/e]' & mu/ be dragg$ r\nd corn]s4 ,"s "t ago ! au?orities1 realis+ at la/ t ?is dragg+ 0 ru9\s to ! road surfaces1 made a regulation t all wagons %\ld h _! front axles pivot$4 ,?is attempt at improvem5t caus$ m agitation ?an ! ,revolution itself4 ,! own]s ( wagons argu$--) p]fect ju/ice--t ! rigid wagon _h s]v$ = innum]able g5]ations2 & !y refus$1 9 ! face ( f9es1 to make ! *ange4 ,_! resi/ance 0 s g5]al & s dogg$ t ! law became a dead lett]1 & ! p rev]t$ ) great cont5t to ! anci5t sy/em :i* divid$ ! bus9ess ( local transport betwe5 yok$ ox5 & wom5 :o _h be5 tra9$ f girlhood to c>ry heavy loads ^u _! heads4 ,?is example ( cons]vatism1 ?\gh extreme1 is *>act]i/ic ( ! attitude ( ! g5]al public t[>ds innovations 9 locomotion4 ,until me*anical p[] came to be us$1 !re 0--= _m c5turies--no?+ :i* c\ld be describ$ z a radical innovation 9 transport4 ,roads 7 multipli$ & improv$2 "s advance 0 made 9 ! design & con/ruction ( c>riages2 & ! organisation ( po/+ & /age-coa* s]vices 0 develop$4 ,b little m 0 done4 ,comp>$ ) ^! sup]ficial *anges1 ! idea ( us+ /eam p[] on ! highway or on a railroad 0 s dra/ic a *ange t x r\s$ trem5d\s opposition4 ,! railway companies f\ght ?is opposition & ov]came x1 b ! use ( /eam c>riages on ord9>y roads 0 po/pon$ until ! appe>ance ( ! petrol motor enc\rag$ a movem5t--once m aga9/ /rong prejudice--= ! repeal ( ! legislation :i* re/rict$ ! use ( me*anically-propell$ vehicles on ! roads4 ,9 a simil> way horse tramways 7 viol5tly attack$2 & _! conv]sion to electric traction 0 oppos$ by a det]m9$ m9ority 9 e t[n4 ,m rec5tly1 !re 0 a vigor\s agitation aga9/ ! sub/itution ( motor omnibuses = horse omnibuses 9 ,london & else:]e4 ,to "s ext5t ?is recurr5t opposition 0 reasonable en\gh4 ,! new =ms ( locomotion _h dang]s ( _! own2 !y 7 g5]ally noisy & sometimes dirty2 & occasionally1 z 9 ! case ( e>ly tramways1 !y 7 a nuisance to exi/+ traffic4 ,b x may be not$ t electricity claims to provide a means ( locomotion n only m rapid & m effici5t 79 mo/ cases7 ?an any o!r1 b free f _m ( ! drawbacks :i* gave cons]vatism an excuse = oppos+ ! introduction ( /eam & o!r =ms ( locomotion4 ,9 ! foll[+ pages ,i hope to give a cle> acc\nt ( ! a*ievem5ts ( electricity 9 ! field ( locomotion & also to indicate "s ( its m imm$iate pot5tialities4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,e>ly ,,tramroads ,,& ,,railways ,x has sometimes be5 rem>k$1 by unfri5dly critics1 t tramways are an apology = bad roads4 ,t is to say1 if road surfaces 7 p]fect1 !re w\ld be no ne$ to lay rails 9 ord] to all[ vehicles to run easily4 ,al?\gh ?is view ( ! case may be no bett] ?an a qu>t]-tru?1 x is ju/ifi$ to ! ext5t t tramways 71 z a matt] ( fact1 ! outcome ( an attempt to escape f bad road surfaces4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( m9+1 coals 7 tak5 by hors$rawn wagons f ! pits to ! h>b\rs4 ,! passage & re-passage ( heavy vehicles on ! same roadway l$ to ! =mation ( deep ruts2 & ! fir/ /ep t[>ds bo? ! tramway & ! railway 0 tak5 :5 logs ( wood or 'trams' 7 laid 9 ! ruts to facilitate transport4 ,! next /ep 0 to make ! upp] surface ( ! log r\nd & ! rims ( ! :eels holl[1 s t !y fitt$ ov] ! rails & kept ! wagons on ! track4 ,ow+ to ! upp] "p ( ! rails we>+ away quickly1 ?9 plates ( iron 7 9 "s cases nail$ to !m4 ,?is improvem5t l$ to ! adoption ( a ca/-iron rail1 fa/5$ to wood5 sleep]s4 ,! e>lie/ ca/-iron railway 0 laid d[n be=e ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ab\t "o hundr$ ye>s aft] ! fir/ wood5 'tram-ways4' ,half a c5tury lat] we f9d ! fir/ rail-&-:eel comb9ation z we "k x on mod]n tramways & railways1 :]e ! :eel c>ries an inn] flange & runs ^u ! head ( a n>r[ metal rail4 ,?is is ! =m :i* exp]i5ce has prov$ to be be/ adapt$ = safety1 spe$1 & economy 9 p[]4 ,! improvem5ts made s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury h be5 9 matt]s ( detail4 ,_m miles ( colli]y tramroads 7 9 exi/5ce :5--at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury--! idea ( us+ ! /eam eng9e 9 place ( ! horse 0 tak5 up by eng9e]s4 ,!y 7 conc]n$ at fir/ solely ) ! c>riage ( coal2 ! idea ( convey+ pass5g]s arose at a lat] date1 aft] ! /eam automobile _h be5 tri$ & ab&on$ = ! "t be+4 ,george ,/eph5son1 = in/ance1 ran 8 fir/ locomotives on colli]y tramroads2 & ! fir/ railway--betwe5 ,/ockton & ,d>l+ton--0 us$ = pass5g]s m]ely z an aft]?\ght4 ,x 01 9 fact1 design$ to be a tramroad = ! use ( ! public 9 g5]al transport by horse traction4 ,! mo/ curi\s feature ( ?is /age 9 ! evolution ( locomotion 0 t1 al?\gh ,/eph5son's locomotives _h be5 at "w = sev]al ye>s & al?\gh sev]al s*emes ( iron roads _h be5 project$1 v few p _h any conception ( ! developm5t await+ ! locomotive & iron road 9 comb9ation4 ,!y did n ev5 appreciate ! prov$ fact t ! locomotive 0 a m effici5t means ( transport ?an ! horse4 ,an imm5se am\nt ( pione]+ "w _h to be done be=e ! impression ( a new era c\ld be borne 9 ^u ! public m9d4 ,^! 7 ! days :5 ! ,qu>t]ly ,review back$ 'old ,fa!r ,?ames aga9/ ! ,woolwi* ,railway = any sum' & :5 a witness be=e a ,p>liam5t>y ,committee 7on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway ,bill1 9 #ahbe7 ?\ght himself safe 9 sugge/+ t a /eam locomotive c\ld n />t aga9/ a gale ( w9d4 ,:5 ^! prejudices 7 ov]come1 _m ye>s _h to pass be=e ! objections ( l&[n]s & citiz5s 7 worn d[n4 ,railway eng9e]s sp5t mo/ ( _! "t 9 a =m ( diplomatic w>f>e ) oppon5ts to _! s*emes2 huge sums--"p ( :i* /ill l+]s 9 ! capital acc\nts ( railway companies--7 sp5t 9 ,p>liam5t>y proce$+s ov] ,railway ,bills4 ,?is b>r5 process _h to be repeat$ :5 electric traction made its appe>ance2 b happily ! electrical fight 0 n ^u q s ext5sive a scale1 nor 0 ! p]iod ( prep>ation foll[$ by any?+ comp>able to ! ,railway ,mania ( #ahde1 :5 ! public made up = its e>ly contempt ( railway ent]prise by tumbl+ ov] itself to get %>es 9 "s ( ! mo/ crazy s*emes :i* 7 ev] put into %ape by unscrupul\s company promot]s4 ,! e>ly hi/ory ( ! /eam railway is int]e/+ 9 connection ) electrical locomotion = two reasons4 ,x %[s t ! railroad prop] evolv$ out ( ! tramroad or 'light railway1' z x w\ld n[ be call$--a type ( l9e :i* is specially suit$ to electrical op]ation4 ,x also includes a controv]sy betwe5 ?ree modes ( traction2 & ?is controv]sy =ms a v good introduction to a discussion ( ! reasons :y electricity is s economical 9 locomotion4 ,^! ?ree modes 7 7#a7 /ation>y eng9es3 7#b7 locomotives3 7#c7 ! device kn[n z ! 'atmosph]ic railway4' ,9 bo? ! fir/ & ?ird1 eng9e h\ses 7 plac$ close to ! l9e at conv5i5t int]vals4 ,9 ! fir/1 ea* /eam eng9e op]at$ an endless rope to :i* ! tra9 ( c>riages 0 atta*$4 ,! sy/em is /ill 9 use = colli]y work+ & is also employ$ 79 an improv$ =m1 ( c\rse7 = funicul> railways4 ,george ,/eph5son himself employ$ x to assi/ locomotives up heavy gradi5ts4 ,9 ! atmosph]ic railway ! /ation>y eng9es 7 us$ to exhau/ ! air f a l5g? ( ca/-iron pip+ laid close to ! railway4 ,! pr9ciple is ! same z t ( ! 'pneumatic tube' :i* ! ,po/ ,(fice uses = s5d+ pap]s ov] %ort di/ances4 ,! pap]s are plac$ 9 a cyl9d] :i* fits ! int]ior ( ! tube2 & :5 ! air is exhau/$ f ! tube 9 front ( ! cyl9d]1 ! pressure ( ! air beh9d x drives ! cyl9d] =w>d4 ,n[adays x is difficult to realise t su* a sy/em 0 s]i\sly propos$ = railway "w & actually adopt$ by an eng9e] ( su* em95ce z ,brunel4 ,b 9 po9t ( fact x 0 recomm5d$ by two ,bo>d ( ,trade exp]ts 9 #ahdb & by a ,select ,committee appo9t$ 9 #ahde to consid] sev]al ,bills = atmosph]ic railways4 ,x 0 tri$ at ,dalkey & ,croydon1 & x 0 in/all$ "u ,brunel's sup]vision on a six-mile l9e 9 ,devon4 ,! c>ri] 9 ! tube 0 connect$ to ! tra9 ?r\gh a longitud9al slit at ! top ( ! tube4 ,! slit 0 clos$ by a lea!r flap1 except :5 mom5t>ily lift$ by ! passage ( ! tra94 ,a great deal ( +5uity 0 exhau/$ 9 attempt+ to make ?is 'longitud9al valve' effici5t1 b x 0 f\nd t heat1 moi/ure1 & fro/ made ! lea!r det]iorate s rapidly z to r5d] x hopelessly ineffective 9 a %ort "t4 ,aft] a s]ies ( mis=tunes ! atmosph]ic railway became a m]e curiosity 9 ! hi/ory ( inv5tion4 ,/eph5son 0 "r 9 reg>d+ ! atmosph]ic railway z 'only ! fix$ eng9e & ropes ov] aga91 9 ano!r =m4' ,he 0 also "r 9 8 belief t ! /eam locomotive 0 m economical ?an ei!r ( its rivals4 ,b ! /ation>y eng9e idea _h ! g]m ( an ev5 s\nd] pr9ciple ?an t ( ! locomotive4 ,bo? 9 electric tramways & electric railways ! p[] is obta9$ f /ation>y eng9es4 ,! ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 ! electric sy/em & ! old rope & atmosph]ic sy/ems lies 9 ! sup]ior economy ) :i* ! p[] is convey$ electrically to ! tra9s4 ,!re are o!r important diff]5ces2 b ! ess5tial po9t is t bo? rope traction & pneumatic propulsion wa/$ s mu* p[] betwe5 ! eng9e & ! tra9 t _! o!r advantages 7 annull$1 & x 0 f\nd *eap] to put ! eng9e on :eels & make x drag itself z well z ! tra94 ,brunel's reasons = 8 fai? 9 ! atmosph]ic railway are well wor? quot+ = ! light !y ?r[ indirectly ^u ! advantages ( electric traction4 ,he argu$ t /ation>y p[]1 if fre$ f incumbrances su* z ! friction & dead weight ( a rope1 0 sup]ior to locomotive p[]1 on ! foll[+ gr\nds3 7a7 ,a giv5 am\nt ( p[] may be suppli$ by a /ation>y eng9e at a less co/ ?an if suppli$ by a locomotive4 7b7 ,! dead weight ( a locomotive =ms a l>ge proportion ( ! :ole travell+ load1 & ?us inh]5tly involves a proportionate wa/e ( p[]--a wa/e :i* is enhanc$ by ! /eepness ( ! gradi5ts & ! spe$ ( ! tra9s4 ,exp]i5ce has prov$ ! s\ndness ( ^! pr9ciples4 ,!re has be5 a /eady improvem5t 9 ! p[] & effici5cy ( locomotives1 b progress has rea*$ a po9t at :i* fur!r increases 9 spe$ & accel]at+ p[] 7a v important matt]7 are n atta9able )\t a prohibitive increase 9 ! consumption ( coal & a co/ly /r5g!n+ ( ! railway track to /& ! /ra9 ( heavi] eng9es p\nd+ along at v high spe$s4 ,electric traction1 :i* is a rev]sion 9 "p to ! /ation>y eng9e sy/em1 (f]s a means ( escape f ! limitations ( ! locomotive4 ,!re is /ill "s d\bt 9 ! m9ds ( railway eng9e]s :e!r electric traction is really sup]ior to ! /eam locomotive on ! ma9 railway l9es1 :]e di/ances are great & tra9 loads heavy4 ,b ! sup]iority is admitt$ on suburban l9es & also on tramways1 :]e electricity has almo/ completely supplant$ bo? horse & /eam traction4 ,if ,brunel _h =ese5 h[ economical electricity w\ld be 9 ! transmission ( p[] betwe5 eng9e & tra91 he w\ld h felt /ill m confid5t 9 8 def5ce ( ! /ation>y eng9e4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,bir? ,,( ,,electric ,,traction ,! /ory ( electric traction really beg9s 9 ! laboratory ( ,f>aday4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to produce me*anical rotation by electrical means2 &1 al?\gh he _h no practical end 9 view1 8 inve/igations produc$ ! g]m ( ! comm]cial dynamo & !nce ( ! comm]cial electric motor4 ,t g]m1 h[ev]1 took ab\t half a c5tury to develop4 ,x is true t 9 #ahcg 7ab\t t5 ye>s aft] ,f>aday's discov]y7 ,rob]t ,davidson exp]im5t$ ) an electric locomotive on ! ,ed9burgh & ,glasg[ ,railway2 x is also true t ,jacobi1 two ye>s lat]1 propell$ a boat on ! ,neva ) electric p[]4 ,b ^! e>ly attempts 7 n on a comm]cial scale4 ,n only 0 ! motor a crude contrivance1 b ! me?od ( produc+ ! electric p[] 0 hopelessly extravagant4 ,at t p]iod ! 'prim>y batt]y'--simil> 9 "* to ^? /ill us$ = laboratory purposes1 r++ electric bells1 & s on--0 ! be/ available s\rce ( electricity4 ,su* batt]ies g5]ate curr5t by ! *emical consumption ( z9c4 ,9 ord] to obta9 suffici5t p[] to move a boat1 a l>ge numb] ( batt]ies _h to be c\pl$ toge!r4 ,!y 7 exp5sive 9 fir/ co/1 exp5sive 9 ! z9c :i* 0 _! 'fuel'2 & !y became rapidly exhau/$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dynamo ,,motor ,fig4 #a4 ,diagram to illu/rate ! ess5tial id5tity ( ! dynamo & ! motor4 ,! dynamo g5]ates electricity :5 ! armature or gr\p ( coils is =cibly revolv$ close to magnets1 ?us conv]t+ me*anical en]gy into electrical en]gy4 ,! motor causes its armature to revolve =cibly :5 curr5t is suppli$ to x f ! dynamo4 ,?us ! motor conv]ts electrical en]gy into me*anical en]gy4 ,! ess5tial /ep t[>ds ! comm]cial plane 0 tak5 :5 an effici5t means 0 devis$ = trans=m+ me*anical into electrical en]gy on a l>ge scale4 ,! fir/ 'dynamo-electric' ma*9es1 inv5t$ ab\t ! middle ( la/ c5tury1 7 m]ely h& ma*9es4 ,_! p[] 0 limit$ by ! /r5g? ( ! p]man5t magnets employ$ 9 _! con/ruction2 & al?\gh an increase 9 p[] 0 obta9$ by multiply+ ! numb] ( magnets & driv+ by /eam p[]1 x 0 n suffici5t = comm]cial purposes4 ,9 #ahfg electro-magnets 7 fir/ employ$ by ,siem5s & ,:eat/one2 & f ?is application !re 0 develop$ a ma*9e ^: p[] z a g5]ator ( electricity 0 limit$ only by its size & ! spe$ at :i* x 0 run4 ,x is unnecess>y = our pres5t purpose to ent] into ! te*nical details ( ! mod]n electric g5]ator & ! mod]n electric motor4 ,! pr9ciples und]ly+ !m are q simple1 al?\gh ! !ory ( _! design & ! practice ( _! con/ruction & op]ation are almo/ a sci5ce 9 !mselves4 ,a dynamo or electric g5]ator is a ma*9e = trans=m+ me*anical into electrical en]gy2 an electric motor is a ma*9e = trans=m+ electrical en]gy into me*anical en]gy4 ,if1 !re=e1 we place an electric motor ^u a vehicle & supply x cont9u\sly ) curr5t f a dynamo1 ! motor w rotate & c be us$ to propel ! vehicle4 ,t is ! ess5tial me*anism ( electric traction4 ,! simplicity ( ! arrangem5t is enhanc$ by ! fact t ! dynamo & ! motor are virtually ! same ma*9e4 ,9 ! dynamo1 a cyl9drical 'armature' ( coils is =c$ to rotate close to ! poles ( electro-magnets2 ! en]gy ex]t$ 9 turn+ ! armature aga9/ ! influ5ce ( ! electro-magnets is trans=m$ into ! en]gy ( electric curr5ts 9 ! coils ( ! armature4 ,9 ! motor1 :i* also consi/s ( an armature close to ! poles ( electro-magnets1 ! process is rev]s$4 ,:5 a curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh ! coils ( ! armature1 ! reaction betwe5 ^! curr5ts & ! electro-magnets causes ! armature to revolve4 ,?is rev]sibility ( ! dynamo 01 accord+ to a /ory frequ5tly repeat$1 fir/ discov]$ q by accid5t4 ,9 a ,p>is exhibition a numb] ( ,gramme dynamos--or dynamo-electric ma*9es1 z !y 7 !n call$--7 be+ sep>ately connect$ to lamps & o!r devices = %[+ ! effect ( electric curr5ts2 & :5 "o 0 />t$ up x 0 f\nd t ano!r 0 be+ driv5 at a rapid rate4 ,inve/igation %[$ t ! second "o _h be5 c\pl$ up to ! fir/ by mi/ake & 0 !re=e be+ work$ z a motor by x4 ,?is 0 9 ! ye> #ahgi2 & ! /ory ( ! incid5t s]v$ to draw g5]al att5tion to ! discov]y ( a new & effici5t means ( transmitt+ p[]4 ,eng9e]s recognis$ t 9 ! /eam-driv5 dynamo !y _h ! means ( produc+ p[]ful electric curr5ts1 :ile 9 ! electric motor1 connect$ by wires to ! dynamo1 !y _h ! means ( reproduc+ ! p[] 9 me*anical =m at a di/ance4 ,!re 71 ( c\rse1 losses ( en]gy 9 ! process4 ,a c]ta9 p]c5tage 0 lo/ 9 ! dynamo itself1 "s 9 ! transmitt+ wires1 & "s 9 ! motor4 ,b ! all-r\nd effici5cy ( ! arrangem5t 0 mu* high] ?an t ( any o!r sy/em ( transmitt+ p[] f "o po9t to ano!r sev]al miles di/ant4 ,9 ord] to apply ?is sy/em to propell+ vehicles x 0 only necess>y to devise a cont9u\s connection betwe5 ! motor on ! vehicle & ! /ation>y dynamo4 ,?is 0 done on ! fir/ electric railway by means ( a '?ird rail1' sub/antially 9 ! same way z is n[ famili> on und]gr\nd & o!r electric l9es4 ,! ?ird rail 0 a metal conductor support$ on insulators & connect$ to ! dynamo4 ,! vehicle or c> 0 furni%$ ) a metal bru% or skate :i* rubb$ along ! ?ird rail z ! c> mov$ =w>d4 ,! curr5t ?us collect$ 0 l$ ?r\gh ! motor 7:i* drove ! axle ( ! c> ?r\gh too!d :eels7 & !nce to ! track rails1 :i* convey$ ! curr5t back to ! dynamo & s complet$ ! electrical circuit4 ,messrs ,siem5s & ,halske exhibit$ ! fir/ electric railway ( ?is type at ! ,b]l9 ,indu/rial ,exhibition ( #ahgi4 ,ano!r me?od ( collect+ ! curr5t 0 tri$ soon aft]w>ds & =m$ ! direct =]unn] ( ! electric tramway on ! n[ /&>d 'ov]head' sy/em4 ,! disadvantage ( ! ?ird rail sy/em is t x involves an expos$ 'live' conductor close to ! gr\nd4 ,x is !re=e q unsuit$ = use on /reets4 ,consequ5tly ! next /ep t[>ds ! electric tramway 0 to c>ry ! electrical conductors ov]head by support+ !m on poles erect$ at ! side ( ! track4 ,! fir/ in/allation ( ?is k9d 0 laid d[n at ! ,p>is ,exhibition ( #ahha4 ,9 t case ! conductor 0 an iron tube ) a slot along its l[] side2 & inside ! tube 0 a 'boat' :i* slid along & 0 connect$ to ! c> by means ( a flexible wire4 ,a second tube1 also ) a boat & connect+ wire1 0 provid$ to c>ry ! return curr5t4 ,we %all see lat] h[ ?is arrangem5t evolv$ into ! famili> 'trolley' sy/em4 ,! m5tion ( a slott$ tube recalls ! atmosph]ic sy/em &1 9 s do+1 emphasises ! sup]iority ( ! electric sy/em 9 simplicity1 flexibility1 reliability1 & economy4 ,brunel's fai? 9 ! advantages ( /ation>y eng9es & ! transmission ( p[] !refrom to mov+ tra9s w\ld h be5 ju/ifi$ by ! ev5t if ! pneumatic sy/em ( p[] transmission _h be5 z practicable z ! electric sy/em4 ,b !re is an obvi\s contra/ betwe5 ! huge pipe ( ! atmosph]ic railway1 ) its impossible 'longitud9al valve1' & ! small tube ( ! fir/ ov]head electric l9e or ! ?ird rail ( ! fir/ electric railway4 ,!re is also a pa!tic contra/ betwe5 ! prolong$ /ruggles :i* ,brunel & ! inv5tors ( ! atmosph]ic sy/em und]w5t be=e !y 7 =c$ to ackn[l$ge failure1 & ! rapid ease ) :i* electric traction ent]$ into its k+dom :5 ! comm]cial dynamo & motor 7 fir/ produc$4 ,! intr9sic difficulties :i* electric traction eng9e]s _h to meet 7 n s]i\s4 ,design]s pass$1 /ep by /ep1 f ! model electric railway at ! ,b]l9 ,exhibition to public l9es on a l>g] scale1 & f ! model electric ov]head tramway to ! '/reet railway' or tramway :i* gradually supplant$ ! horse tramway4 ,ea* /ep consi/$ 9 an ext5sion ( ! di/ance cov]$ & an increase 9 ! p[] requir$1 co9cid5t ) a gradual improvem5t 9 ! details ( motors1 dynamos1 & transmission equipm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,ess5tial ,,advantages ,,( ,,electric ,,traction ,,on ,,tramways ,a railway j\rnal once committ$ itself to ! /atem5t t horse traction 0 sup]ior to electric traction on roads because ! horse possess$ ! 'vital pr9ciple' ( en]gy 9 its con/itution4 ,x is di/9ctly curi\s to f9d an au?ority on locomotion describ+ ! ess5tial drawback ( horse traction z its di/+ui%+ advantage4 ,! 'vital pr9ciple1' un=tunately1 ne$s food & re/ to ma9ta9 x n only dur+ work+ h\rs b dur+ ! h\rs ( inactivity z well4 ,9 actual practice f\r horses out ( e five 9 a tramway /ud are 9 ! /ables :ile ! fif? is at "w4 ,moreov]1 ! same /ud has to be kept up1 at a practically uni=m co/1 :e!r ! daily traffic be light or heavy4 ,?irdly1 ! 'vital pr9ciple' has only a limit$ numb] ( ye>s dur+ :i*--ap>t f sickness & disease--x is effective = traction purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a typical electric tramway on ! ov]head sy/em4--,! trolley /&>d c>ries ! wires = supply+ curr5t to ! c>s on bo? ! up & d[n tracks4 ,! driv] has 8 left h& on ! controll] h&le & 8 "r h& on ! brake h&le4 7,photograph reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,dick1 ,k]r & ,company1 ,limit$47 ,ano!r disadvantage is t ! pull :i* a horse c actually ex]cise on a c> is /rictly limit$ & is only a small fraction ( ! total p[] repres5t$ by ! fodd] :i* ! horse consumes4 ,! /ra9 ^u a horse 9 />t+ a c> or omnibus is s great t a 'lov] ( animals' us$ to supply ,london omnibuses ) appeals to pass5g]s n to /op ! omnibus m (t5 ?an 0 necess>y1 especially on an incl9e4 ,?is 0 a recognition ( ! fact t ! horse _c cope easily ) ! heavy /ra9 at />t+1 & t he requires assi/ance on heavy gradi5ts4 ,x 0 n surpris+1 !re=e1 t on horse tramway sy/ems ! spe$ 0 l[1 ! c>s ( limit$ capacity1 & ! f>es comp>atively high4 ,! %ortness ( ! j\rney :i* a tramway horse 0 able to cov] )\t fatigue also t5d$ to limit ! l5g? ( r\tes4 ,on all ^! po9ts electric traction 0 soon f\nd to be di/9ctly sup]ior to horse traction4 ,x 0 m economical 9 p[]2 x 0 able to ma9ta9 high] spe$s ) l>g] & m commodi\s c>s2 & !re 0 no n>r[ limit to ! l5g? ( r\tes or ! gradi5ts :i* c\ld be surm\nt$4 ,consequ5tly electric traction (f]$ ! public an improv$ s]vice at l[] f>es4 ,! :ole ( ! p[]-produc+ plant = a typical electric tramway sy/em is conc5trat$ at a g5]at+ /ation plac$ 7if possible7 ne> ! c5tre ( ! sy/em4 ,f ?is /ation runs a network ( electric ma9s to fe$ ! l9es ) curr5t at conv5i5t po9ts4 ,?is conc5tration is a b5efit on sev]al gr\nds4 ,a l>ge g5]at+ equipm5t is *eap] 9 fir/ co/ ?an a multitude ( small p[]-produc+ plants1 & x is mu* m economical 9 op]ation4 ,if e c> _h its own p[] equipm5t1 t equipm5t w\ld ne$ to be p[]ful en\gh to haul itself & ! load$ c> up ! /eepe/ gradi5t on ! r\te4 ,t is to say1 ! sum ( ! c> capacities w\ld be equal to ! sum ( ! maximum dem&s4 ,b :5 ! p[] is obta9$ f a s+le /ation>y s\rce we d away ) ! dead weight ( ! p[] equipm5t on ! c>1 & secure ! v vital advantage t ! capacity ( ! /ation>y s\rce ne$ n be s great z ! sum ( ! maximum dem&s4 ,9 actual work+ x nev] happ5s t all ! c>s are full ( pass5g]s & asc5d+ ! /eepe/ gradi5ts simultane\sly4 ,:ile "s are runn+ up-hill1 o!rs are go+ d[n-hill2 :ile "s are full1 o!rs are half full or almo/ empty4 ,! result is t ! total dem& = p[] at any "t is always v mu* less ?an ! total ( ! maximum dem&s made by ea* c>2 & ! capacity ( ! g5]at+ /ation ne$ be suffici5t to cope only ) ! small] am\nt4 ,?is advantage r$uces ! exp5diture necess>y ^u boil]s1 eng9es1 & dynamos at ! tramway g5]at+ /ation4 ,& x is enhanc$ by two valuable capabilities ( ! electric motor4 ,! fir/ is its p[] ( tak+ a heavy ov]load = a limit$ p]iod )\t injury4 ,!re is no difficulty ab\t mak+ an electric motor1 ^: normal capacity is #bj horse p[]1 give #dj horse p[] mom5t>ily1 #cj horse p[] = sev]al m9utes1 & #be horse p[] dur+ ! be/ "p ( an h\r4 ,appli$ to tramway "w1 ?is advantage means t ! rat$ capacity ( ! motor equipm5t ( a c> may be less ?an :at is requir$ to haul a load$ c> at an adequate spe$ up ! /eepe/ gradi5t on ! sy/em4 ,su* maximum dem&s1 :i* only occur at int]vals ) ea* c>1 c be met by ! read9ess ( ! electric motor = ov]work4 ,! motors may !re=e be r$uc$ 9 size1 sav+ money 9 fir/ co/ & 9 ! curr5t consum$4 ,! second valuable peculi>ity ( ! electric motor is t x gives its 'maximum torque' at />t+4 ,t is to say1 x ex]cises ! highe/ propulsive ef=t at ! precise mom5t :5 x is requir$4 ,:5 horses are employ$1 !y h to endure an abnormal /ra9 9 ov]com+ ! in]tia ( a /ation>y vehicle2 ev]yone mu/ h notic$ h[ horses h to /ruggle to />t a c> :i* !y c keep go+ at an easy trot once x has got up spe$4 ,! electric motor--to use an app>5t p>adox--gives ?is abnormal pull z "p ( its normal action4 ,z ! in]tia ( ! c> is gradually ov]come1 ! spe$ ( rotation ( ! motor increases & its torque decreases1 automatically & precisely 9 accordance ) ! dem&s ( ! case4 ,! />t+ torque ( a motor is su* an emphatic ph5om5on t ! driv] ( an electric c> may1 if he is c>eless & swit*es ! curr5t on too sudd5ly1 j]k any /&+ pass5g] (f 8 feet1 ev5 ?\gh ! total weight ( ! c> may be t5 tons or m4 ,prop]ly employ$1 h[ev]1 ! electric motor gives an ev5 & rapid accel]ation4 ,?is is a f> m important po9t 9 tramway economics ?an x appe>s to be at fir/ sight4 ,! sup]iority ( ! electric tramway ov] ! horse tramway dep5ds less ^u high] spe$ ?an ^u ! fact t less "t is wa/$ 9 /opp+ to pick up & set d[n pass5g]s4 ,"t is ! vital elem5t 9 all transport1 & x is especially vital 9 connection ) tramways1 :i* h to /op ) great frequ5cy4 ,if ! "t :i* elapses betwe5 putt+ on ! brakes at ea* /op & gett+ up to full spe$ aga9 c be mat]ially %ort5$1 !n ! av]age spe$ ( ! tramway j\rney c be mat]ially rais$4 ,x is easy1 by means ( p[]ful brakes1 to br+ a c> to re/ quickly2 ! electric motor enables spe$ to be rega9$ quickly4 ,9 ?is way a high av]age spe$ may be ma9ta9$ 9 spite ( num]\s /ops2 &1 ) l>g] c>s1 ! electric tramway is able to h&le a l>g] volume ( traffic 9 a %ort] space ( "t ?an ! horse tramway4 ,! "t lo/ 9 /opp+ is ( s mu* consequ5ce t1 :5 electric tramways 7 introduc$1 ! old cu/om ( /opp+ ! c>s at any desir$ po9t 0 ab&on$4 ,/opp+ places 7 arrang$ at conv5i5t po9ts along ! r\te1 "s ( !m be+ regul> /ops & o!rs optional at a signal f pass5g]s desir+ to alight or to bo>d ! c>4 ,! public soon got us$ to walk+ a %ort di/ance to a /opp+ place1 al?\gh !y did n1 p]haps1 appreciate h[ mu* ! collection ( traffic at a r$uc$ numb] ( po9ts t5d$ to improve ! g5]al tramway s]vice4 ,a high av]age spe$ ) num]\s /ops 01 h[ev]1 only "o ( ! improvem5ts :i* ! public d]iv$ f electric traction4 ,tramway pass5g]s expect to f9d a c> n only at a conv5i5t po9t b )9 a conv5i5t p]iod ( wait+4 ,) electric traction ! s]vice became mu* m frequ5t ?an ) horse traction4 ,x is q possible to run a horse tramway s]vice pr(itably ) c>s at int]vals ( fifte5 to ?irty m9utes1 if ! pass5g]s are pati5t en\gh to wait & fill ea* vehicle4 ,b ) electric traction ! ma9 item is ! co/ ( ! /&+ equipm5t--! p[] h\se1 ma9s1 & ov]head l9es--& unless t equipm5t is adequately utilis$ ! rev5ue w n cov] ! /&+ *>ges4 ,a fifte5-m9ute s]vice is1 g5]ally speak+1 ! l[e/ economic limit on an electric tramway4 ,e tramway manag] tries to attract suffici5t pass5g]s = a m frequ5t s]vice2 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 x 0 f\nd t :]e !re 0 suffici5t population ! provision ( a frequ5t & rapid s]vice enc\rag$ tramway travell+ s mu* t c>s _h to be run at f> %ort] int]vals ?an _h be5 cu/om>y on horse tramways4 ,! increase ( traffic br\ght ) x ! dem& = l>g] z well z spe$i] c>s ) a %ort] 'headway' or int]val betwe5 "o c> & ano!r4 ,! capacity ( a horse c> is limit$ by ! fact t x is n conv5i5t to h>ness m ?an two horses to a s+le vehicle4 ,b ) electric c>s !re is no extrane\s limitation to c>ry+ capacity4 ,l>ge d\ble-deck$ c>s ) seats = sev5ty pass5g]s are n[ q common4 ,9 ,am]ica x is a frequ5t practice to atta* 'trail]s' to ! c>s1 mak+ a %ort tramway tra94 ,exp]im5ts h rec5tly be5 arrang$ on simil> l9es 9 ,london1 = ! h&l+ ( ! heavy traffic at ru% h\rs4 ,^! in/ances %[ t electric tramway capacity is flexible & may be adju/$ to ! d5sity & ! fluctuat+ "* ( ! dem&4 ,f9ally1 x falls to be not$ t ! p[] consum$ by a tramc> is1 r\ghly1 proportional to ! useful "w :i* ! c> p]=ms4 ,z already m5tion$1 x co/s ab\t z mu* to "w a horse tramway :5 ! c>s are empty z :5 !y are full1 s9ce ! ma9 item is ! ma9t5ance ( ! 'vital pr9ciple' ( a c]ta9 numb] ( horses indep5d5tly ( ! traffic4 ,b ) electric traction ! motors require less p[] :5 ! c>s are runn+ light4 ,& less curr5t = ! motors means less curr5t g5]at$ at ! p[] /ation--t is to say1 less /eam1 less oil1 less coal1 less we> & te>4 ,if m curr5t is dem&$1 x is because m pass5g]s are be+ c>ri$ & m rev5ue e>n$4 ,review+ ! subject broadly1 x is app>5t t ! adoption ( electric traction on a tramway is n s mu* a /ep 9 advance z a b5efic5t revolution4 ,! high] spe$s ) m frequ5t1 m com=table1 & m commodi\s c>s h creat$ a volume ( traffic f> beyond :at c\ld h be5 h&l$ ) horse traction4 ,! *ange also l$ to a great increase 9 ! l5g? ( tramway r\tes & to ! con/ruction ( new tramway sy/ems4 ,9 #ahih1 :5 ! electric tramway movem5t began 9 e>ne/1 !re 7 #ajfd miles ( tramway 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,n[ !re are #befb miles1 & ! numb] ( tramway pass5g]s is m ?an d\ble ! total ( ?ird class pass5g]s on ! :ole sy/em ( ,briti% railways4 ,! numb] ( tramway pass5g]s c>ri$ dur+ #aiji-aj 7! la/ p]iod cov]$ by ! publi%$ (ficial returns7 0 equal to ab\t #fb times ! e/imat$ population ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,:ile ! traffic has multipli$ 9 ?is rem>kable fa%ion1 !re has be5 a heavy r$uction 9 ! f>es *>g$4 ,?is has be5 made possible by ! economical features ( electric traction4 ,9 ! old days a horse tramway _h to sp5d ab\t #hj to e>n #ajj2 an electric tramway ne$ sp5d only ab\t #fj4 ,) ?is r$uction 9 ! proportion ( exp5ses to receipts1 & ) ! great] volume ( bus9ess1 x became feasible to /imulate traffic /ill fur!r by giv+ pass5g]s mu* long] di/ances = _! money4 ,9 fact1 electric traction prov$ s economical t p began to imag9e t !re 0 no limit to ! r$uctions :i* might be made ) f9ancial safety4 ,h[ev]1 !re is pl5ty ( evid5ce t a limit exi/s4 ,9 _m cases x has be5 t\*$1 if n pass$1 b ! public cont9ues to clam\r = all sorts ( concessions4 ,^! dem&s are a great complim5t to electric traction1 b !y are a decid$ emb>rassm5t to ! tramway manag] :o believes 9 a reasonable m>g9 betwe5 8 total exp5ses & 8 total rev5ue4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,me*anism ,,( ,,an ,,electric ,,tramc>3 ,,! ,,ov]head ,,sy/em ,a r\gh idea has already be5 giv5 ( ! elem5t>y me*anism ( electric traction--! comb9ation ( g5]at+ /ation1 ( c>s fitt$ ) electric motors1 & ( a slid+ contact betwe5 ! two4 ,x is 9 connection ) ! slid+ contact t ! +5uity ( tramway eng9e]s has be5 ma9ly ex]cis$4 ,?ree di/9ct solutions 7 evolv$ = tramway "w1 giv+ rise to ?ree sy/ems--7#a7 ! ov]head or trolley sy/em2 7#b7 ! conduit sy/em2 & 7#c7 ! surface-contact sy/em4 ,! fir/ sy/em is n[ almo/ univ]sal 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,"p ( ! ,london sy/em is equipp$ on ! conduit sy/em2 & ! tramways at ,l9coln & ,wolv]hampton are con/ruct$ on ! surface-contact sy/em4 ,beyond ^! cases ! trolley holds ! field4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & on ! ,cont95t !re is a l>g] proportion ( conduit "w1 b f a practical po9t ( view x w\ld h>dly be necess>y to m5tion ei!r conduit or surface-contact if x 7 n = ! great eng9e]+ int]e/ :i* !y possess & = ! controv]sies to :i* !y h giv5 rise4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,diagrammatic illu/ration ( ! g5]al arrangem5t ( an electric tramway on ! ov]head sy/em4 ,at ! foot is %[n ! g5]at+ /ation :i* supplies alt]nat+ curr5t at high-pressure 7= economy 9 transmission7 to a sub-/ation :]e x is 'trans=m$' to l[ pressure & 'conv]t$' 9 a motor-g5]ator to cont9u\s curr5t = di/ribution to ! trolley wire f :i* ea* c> takes its curr5t4 ,! c\rse ( ! curr5t ?r\gh ! trolley pole & controll] & !nce to ! motors & back by ! rails is indicat$ by arr[s4 ,! ov]head sy/em has conqu]$ because x is *eape/ 9 fir/ co/1 *eape/ to ma9ta91 mo/ economical 9 curr5t1 & mo/ reliable 9 action4 ,lat] developm5ts 9 surface-contact traction h run x v close on "s ( ^! po9ts1 b h n--= reasons :i* w be expla9$--affect$ ! e/abli%$ position ( ! ov]head sy/em4 ,9 its ess5tial features ! ov]head sy/em has n alt]$ v mu* f ! exp]im5tal l9e erect$ at ! ,p>is ,exhibition ( #ahha4 ,! slott$ tube has be5 replac$ by a solid copp] wire2 & ! 'boat' slid+ )9 x has be5 replac$ by a :eel or a b[ press$ aga9/ ! l[] side ( ! wire by means ( a pivot$ arm controll$ by spr+s4 ,! slid+ b[ is common on ! ,cont95t1 b x has be5 adopt$ on only "o ,briti% tramway--t at ,%e]ness4 ,its use = electric traction on railways w be m5tion$ lat]1 b z f> z ,briti% tramways are conc]n$ ! b[ is ! exception :i* proves ! trolley :eel rule4 ,! function ( ! trolley :eel is to collect curr5t f ! wire along :i* x rolls4 ,?is curr5t passes ?r\gh insulat$ wires d[n ! trolley arm to ! controll]1 :i* ! driv] ( ! c> op]ates by means ( a h&le4 ,! controll]1 :i* is really a s]ies ( electrical resi/ances1 is analog\s to a wat] tap4 ,by its means ! curr5t may be completely %ut (f f ! motors1 or all[$ to fl[ 9 v>y+ degree z requir$ by ! spe$ ( ! c>4 ,9 />t+ a c>1 ! driv] moves ! controll] h&le not* by not*1 s z to get a uni=m rise 9 spe$ until ! full curr5t is all[$ to pass ?r\gh ! motors4 ,) su* a me*anism1 supplem5t$ by brakes1 ! driv] has ! movem5ts ( ! c> "u control4 ,9 a f\r-:eel$ c>1 ea* axle is driv5 by a motor4 ,9 a bogie c> 7"o ) a set ( f\r :eels at ea* end7 ! axles ( ! l>g] :eels ( ! bogie are ea* driv5 by a motor2 b n directly4 ,consid]ations ( space make x necess>y to keep ! motor z small z possible1 b if a motor is to be small & also p[]ful x mu/ rotate at a high spe$4 ,on ! tramc>1 !re=e1 ! motor drives a small too!d :eel :i* drives a l>ge too!d :eel fix$ to ! axle1 ?us effect+ a r$uction ( spe$ betwe5 ! motor & ! :eel4 ,! same consid]ations ( space jo9 ) o!rs 9 mak+ two motors on ea* c> ! g5]al rule4 ,& ! use ( two motors enabl$ ! tramway eng9e] to introduce a ref9em5t into ! me?od ( control4 ,?is ref9em5t is kn[n z ! 's]ies-p>allel sy/em4' ,"o ( its objects is to give a l>ge '/>t+ torque' & s enable ! c> to ga9 spe$ quickly4 ,:5 ! curr5t is fir/ swit*$ on by ! controll] x passes ?r\gh ! motors 9 t&em or 9 's]ies1' ?us divid+ ! pressure ( ! curr5t 7analog\s to a 'head' ( wat]7 betwe5 !m4 ,! />t+ torque ( a tramway motor 7or ! turn+ mom5t :i* x ex]ts :5 curr5t is fir/ pass$ ?r\gh x7 is dep5d5t on ! curr5t b indep5d5t ( ! pressure4 ,?us ! t&em or 's]ies' arrangem5t1 :i* passes ! full curr5t ?r\gh ea* motor1 gives ! maximum />t+ torque )\t an undue consumption ( curr5t4 ,aft] ! c> is well />t$1 ! next movem5t ( ! controll] puts ! motors 9 'p>allel1' op5+ up two pa?s = ! curr5t in/ead ( "o1 s t ea* motor receives ! full pressure4 ,! practical result is t !re is a v rapid accel]ation at />t+1 ) m>k$ economy 9 curr5t4 ,if ! motors 7 kept 9 'p>allel' "r ?r\gh1 twice z mu* curr5t w\ld be requir$ to get ! same />t+ torque4 ,x w be se5 lat] h[ valuable ?is arrangem5t = gett+ a rapid />t1 )\t excessive curr5t consumption1 may be 9 improv+ ! physical & economic conditions ( a tramway or tra9 s]vice4 ,aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! motors & done its "w1 ! curr5t is l$ to ! :eels ( ! c> & returns by way ( ! rails1 :i* are l9k$ toge!r by copp] bonds s z to =m a cont9u\s conductor4 ,! passage ( ! curr5t f ! :eel to ! rail is indicat$ by sp>ks :5 ! rails are r\gh or v dry & dirty4 ,al?\gh ! rails1 l ! ov]head wires1 are ?us c>ry+ curr5t1 !re is no dang] ( %ock f !m1 z ! electrical pressure 9 !m is only a few volts1 at ! outside1 :ile ! pressure 9 ! ov]head wires is #ejj volts4 ,x is ?is diff]5ce ( pressure :i*--l ! 'head' ( wat] 9 a turb9e--supplies ! motive p[] = ! c>4 ,ea* c> on a tramway sy/em may ?us be reg>d$ z a bridge :i* completes an electrical circuit4 ,:5 ! driv] moves 8 controll]1 curr5t fl[s f ! g5]at+ /ation at a high pressure1 passes ?r\gh ! controll]1 op]ates ! motors1 & returns to ! g5]at+ /ation at a l[ pressure4 ,?is typical circuit is complet$ ?r\gh e c>1 s t ! dem& on ! g5]at+ /ation at any mom5t is ! sum ( ! dem&s ( ! c>s at t mom5t4 ,! bus9ess ( ! eng9e] at ! g5]at+ /ation is to ma9ta9 ! electrical pressure 9 ! ov]head wire at ! normal level ( #ejj volts2 & 9 ord] to d ?is on an ord9>y tramway sy/em x is f\nd conv5i5t to divide ! ov]head wire into half-mile sections1 ea* ( :i* has a sep>ate ma9 or 'fe$]' f ! g5]at+ /ation4 ,! pass5g] c detect ! *ange f "o section to ano!r by ! click ( ! trolley :eel across ! gap :i* insulates "o half-mile section f ano!r4 ,at ! same spot he c see ! %ort squ>e 'fe$]-pill>' at ! roadside 7conta9+ ! swit*es by :i* curr5t c be turn$ (f f t section7 & ! cables :i* pass along ! arm ( ! trolley /&>d & t]m9ate 9 ! ov]head wire4 ,on an ext5sive tramway sy/em ! p[]-supply arrangem5ts become m complicat$4 ,! c5tral g5]at+ /ation rema9s ! prim>y s\rce ( p[]1 b sub-/ations are erect$ at conv5i5t po9ts betwe5 ! c5tral /ation & ! outskirts ( ! tramway area4 ,^! sub-/ations are second>y /ations = ! di/ribution ( electricity4 ,!y receive p[] at extra-high pressure 7#ejjj volts or m7 f ! c5tral /ation2 !y conta9 special ma*9]y = r$uc+ ! pressure to #ejj volts = di/ribution to ! v>i\s tramway fe$]s4 ,! object ( ?is arrangem5t is p>tly te*nical b ma9ly economical4 ,electric p[] c be transmitt$ at a l[] co/ 9 ma9s & ) less loss ( en]gy at high pressures ?an at l[4 ,consequ5tly :5 ! t]m9i ( tramway r\tes are sev]al miles f ! g5]at+ c5tre1 great] all-r\nd effici5cy is secur$ by transmitt+ curr5t at high pressure to a numb] ( well select$ sub-/ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,photograph ( a c> on a conduit section ( ! ,london ,c\nty ,c\ncil tramways4 ,! c5tre l9e on ! vacant track indicates ! slot rail ?r\gh :i* ! 'pl\gh' on ! c> passes to make contact ) ! conductors 9 ! und]gr\nd conduit4 7,photograph reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,dick1 ,k]r & ,company1 ,ltd47 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,conduit ,,& ,,surface-,,contact ,,tramway ,,sy/ems ,r\ghly speak+1 ! arrangem5ts = g5]at+ electricity1 di/ribut+ x1 & utilis+ x on ! c>1 rema9 ! same 9 conduit tramways & surface-contact tramways z on ! ov]head sy/em4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ! ?ree sy/ems are1 z already indicat$1 conf9$ to ! means ( collect+ ! curr5t = ea* c>4 ,bo? ! conduit & ! surface-contact sy/em 7 sugge/$ z a means ( escape f ! ma9 objection to ! ov]head sy/em--! exposure ( 'live' wires 9 ! /reet4 ,! cable tramway1 ) its concrete tr\gh & slot1 gave an obvi\s h9t4 ,!re w\ld be no difficulty1 app>5tly1 9 c>ry+ wires on insulators 9 ! tr\gh or conduit1 & utilis+ ! slot = a 'pl\gh' :i* w\ld slide along inside ! conduit1 keep+ contact ) ! wires1 & s convey+ ! curr5t to ! c>4 ,?is 0 tri$ = ! fir/ "t 9 ,blackpool1 :]e--9 #ahhd--;a l5g? ( conduit tramway 0 laid along ! front /reet ( ! t[n4 ,! conditions c\ld h>dly h be5 less fav\rable = ! sy/em1 z ! sea frequ5tly wa%$ ov] ! roadway1 flood+ ! conduit ) wat] & s&4 ,fur!r1 ! conduit 0 s %all[ t *ildr5 7 able to get at ! conductors ) _! metal spades4 ,z ! conduit c>ri$ ! return wire1 ! effect ( a metallic contact betwe5 ! two conductors 0 to cause a '%ort circuit1' ) v ent]ta9+ fireworks b ) no amus+ results = ! tramway eng9e]4 ,aft] a h]oic trial1 ! sy/em _h to be ab&on$4 ,b\rnem\? 0 ! next ,briti% t[n to adopt ! conduit4 ,x did s z a tok5 ( its exceptional civic pride4 ,?ree times1 9 fact1 ! ,b\rnem\? ,corporation decl>$ t x did n want tramways ( any k9d :atev] )9 its gates4 ,& :5 ! pressure ( public op9ion =c$ its cons5t1 ! arrangem5t 0 made t no ov]head wires %\ld appe> 9 ! c5tral di/rict ( ! t[n4 ,sev]al miles ( conduit tramway 7 !re=e con/ruct$ 7! trolley sy/em be+ us$ = ! out] tramway r\tes72 & z by t "t a good deal ( exp]i5ce _h be5 ga9$ 9 conduit "w bo? 9 ,am]ica & on ! ,cont95t1 ! contractors 7 able to give ! ,corporation a conduit sy/em built to endure4 ,at fir/ ! ,corporation 0 reconcil$ to ! fact t ! conduit sections _h co/ ab\t twice z mu* p] mile z ! trolley l9es1 b z ye>s w5t on1 & z ! f9ancial results ( ! sy/em cont9u$ to prove unsatisfactory1 ! ,corporation's cont5tm5t became modifi$4 ,an exam9ation ( ! acc\nts %[$ t ! conduit sections c\ld be recon/ruct$ on ! ov]head sy/em at a co/ equal to ! annual exp5se ( ma9ta9+ ^! sections 9 good work+ ord]4 ,s9ce ! public _h got us$ to ! ov]head wires on ! o!r sections1 & s9ce !y _h n got us$ to own+ tramways :i* produc$ a heavy loss1 ! decision 0 made to ab&on ! conduit sy/em altoge!r4 ,9 ,london ! conduit sy/em 0 adopt$ by ! ,london ,c\nty ,c\ncil = v>i\s reasons4 ,"o 0 t ! ,c\ncil felt t ,london ought to h ! be/1 ! v be/1 & no?+ b ! be/4 ,ano!r 0 t ! /reets 7 s conge/$ ) traffic1 lamp /&>ds1 telegraph & telephone poles1 & o!r ob/ructions1 t trolley wires & trolley /&>ds w\ld be a great nuisance & a s]i\s dang]4 ,ae/hetic reasons 7 also advanc$1 b x is difficult to realise t !y _h mu* weight 9 connection ) ! majority ( metropolitan /reets4 ,trolley wires 71 9 fact1 freely erect$ 9 suburban /reets :]e !re 0 a c]ta9 am\nt ( beauty wor? pres]v+4 ,! ma9 und]ly+ reason1 no d\bt1 0 ! feel+ t ,london c\ld af=d ! mo/ co/ly sy/em4 ,9 any ord9>y city 7& p]haps 9 ,london z well7 ! conduit mu/ be reg>d$ z a luxury4 ,x involves a cont9u\s road excavation s deep t a great deal ( incid5tal "w has frequ5tly to be done 9 mov+ gas1 wat]1 & dra9 pipes out ( ! way4 ,! conduit itself is a ?ick *annel ( concrete1 /r5g!n$ at int]vals ( a few feet ) heavy ca/ iron 'yokes' :i* support ! 'rails' =m+ ! lips ( ! slot ?r\gh :i* ! 'pl\gh' ( ! c> passes4 ,elaborate arrangem5ts h to be made = dra9+ ! conduit1 z any accumulation ( mud or wat] 9 contact ) ! conductors1 or ! special insulators support+ !m1 w\ld be fatal to ! work+ ( ! sy/em4 ,& 9 practice ! ord9>y dra9age has to be assi/$ by cont9ual scrap+ ( ! conduit ) special bru%es & by repeat$ flu%+ dur+ ! h\rs :5 ! c>s are n runn+4 ,heavy ra9s & sn[/orms are !re=e liable to upset ! work+ ( ! sy/em2 & ! tramway manag] has to employ q an army ( m5 simply to keep ! conduit 9 work+ ord]4 ,tr\ble is also apt to be caus$ by purely me*anical means4 ,on "o occasion a *ild's hoop fell ?r\gh ! slot & caus$ a %ort circuit4 ,z ! ord9>y scrap]s slipp$ ov] ! hoop1 its pres5ce 0 n detect$ = a consid]able "t1 dur+ :i* ! tramway s]vice 0 at a /&/ill4 ,altoge!r !re is a great] liability to int]ruption on ! conduit sy/em ?an on ! ov]head sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,! upp] portion ( ! illu/ration %[s a section ( a typical conduit sy/em ( electric tramway traction4 ,?is section is tak5 at "o ( ! ca/-iron 'yokes' :i* support ! rails =m+ ! slot ?r\gh :i* ! 'pl\gh' passes f ! c> to make contact ) ! conductor rails4 ,! l[] illu/ration gives a longitud9al & transv]se section ( ! ',g-,b4' sy/em ( surface-contact tramway traction4 ,! rope-l cable c>ries ! curr5t & is support$ on insulators4 ,:5 ! collector on ! c> cov]s ! /ud1 ! action ( ! magnet draws ! l[] "p ( ! /ud into contact ) ! cable1 ?us supply+ curr5t to ! c>4 ,aft] ! c> has pass$1 ! l[] "p ( ! /ud rises by ! action ( a spr+ &1 break+ contact ) ! 'live' cable1 becomes dead4 7,9 actual practice contact w\ld be made "u ! conditions %[n 9 ! left-h& diagram47 ,exp]i5ce ( ^! drawbacks l$ ! ,london ,c\nty ,c\ncil to seek an alt]native to ! conduit :5 con/ruct+ electric l9es 9 ! nor? ( ,london4 ,_m ( ! bor\gh c\ncils1 foll[+ ! ,c\nty ,c\ncil's own previ\s argum5ts1 w\ld n li/5 to ! sugge/ion ( ! ov]head sy/em2 & a fre%ly-elect$ ,c\ncil1 pl$g$ to a policy ( economy1 det]m9$ to try ! surface-contact sy/em4 ,h[ ?is trial gave rise to a viol5t political controv]sy1 lead+ to ! ab&onm5t ( ! project & culm9at+ 9 important libel actions1 =ms a picturesque /ory :i* ne$ n be told 9 detail "h4 ,its ma9 int]e/ lies1 = ! mom5t1 9 ! emphasis :i* ! incid5ts give to a *>act]i/ic ( ! surface-contact sy/em--its s5sitiv5ess to m9ute alt]ations 9 detail4 ,! surface-contact or '/ud' sy/em is really a modification ( ! conduit sy/em4 ,x has1 9 fact1 be5 call$ ! 'clos$ conduit4' ,! electric wires are aga9 plac$ 9 a *annel or pipe und]gr\nd1 b in/ead ( be+ accessible ?r\gh a slot1 contact c be made ) !m only ?r\gh metal /uds plac$ at int]vals flu% ) ! roadway4 ,by special electro-me*anical devices 9 ! /ud & on ! c>1 ! /ud is br\ght into contact ) ! 'live' und]gr\nd wire only :5 ! c> is ov] x4 ,t is to say1 ! /uds cov]$ & protect$ by ! c> w be 'live' & supply+ p[] to ! c> ?r\gh a slid+ bru% or 'skate1' :ile ^? n s protect$ w be 'dead' & !re=e ( no dang] to ! public4 ,an imm5se am\nt ( +5uity has be5 exp5d$ by _m eng9e]s 9 devis+ /uds to act ) absolute c]ta9ty "u all conditions4 ,9 ! laboratory or ! work%op1 & ev5 on an exp]im5tal track1 x 0 simple en\gh to arrange a me*anism :i* w\ld 'make' & 'break' contact ) admirable regul>ity4 ,b :5 x came to putt+ ! me*anism d[n on an ord9>y roadway1 to be cov]$ ) mud1 p\nd$ by heavy traffic1 & subject$ to ! action ( damp1 fro/1 heat1 & all sorts ( unexpect$ influ5ces1 mu* less satisfactory results 7 obta9$4 ,"t & aga9 ! hopes ( eng9e]s 7 da%$ by a succession ( petty tr\bles--"s ( !m obscure1 mo/ ( !m un=ese54 ,! weak po9ts 9 ne>ly all ! sy/ems 7 ! insulation ( electrical p>ts & ! road con/ruction "w4 ,lack ( simplicity & rigidity l$ to ! introduction ( moi/ure & to ! %ift+ ( p>ts s t /uds jamm$ & rema9$ 'alive' aft] ! c> _h pass$ ov] !m4 ,b ev5 aft] ! practical elim9ation ( ^! tr\bles ! success ( ! surface-contact sy/em seem$ z s5sitive z ! sy/em itself4 ,"o sy/em 0 tri$ at ,torquay1 & discont9u$ aft] a protract$ trial on a l>ge scale4 ,ano!r sy/em--! ,lora9 sy/em--0 in/all$ at ,wolv]hampton & is /ill 9 op]ation1 b )\t imitators4 ,a ?ird sy/em--! ,griffi?s-,b$ell or ,g-,b4 sy/em--0 in/all$ 9 #aije at ,l9coln1 ) satisfactory results4 ,x 0 ! ,g-,b4 sy/em :i* 0 (f]$ to ! metropolitan bor\gh c\ncils z an alt]native to ! conduit & ! trolley4 ,a trial section 0 laid d[n 9 #ahih 9 ! ,b[ ,road1 & a c]ta9 am\nt ( tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$ ) live /uds & ) v>i\s p>ts ( ! equipm5t4 ,ow+ to ! /ud sy/em hav+ be5 sugge/$ by ! ,mod]ate ,p>ty1 ! exp]im5tal difficulties 7 ext5sively adv]tis$ by memb]s ( ! ,progressive ,p>ty1 :o condemn$ ! sy/em z dang]\s & unworkable4 ,public feel+ 0 work$ up to su* a pit* t1 9 ! face ( exp]t advice 9 fav\r ( ! sy/em 9 a some:at modifi$ =m1 ! ,c\ncil decid$ to ab&on ! exp]im5t4 ,libel actions by ! own]s ( ! ',g-,b4' pat5ts foll[$1 "p ( ! pla9tiffs' case be+ t ! sy/em z laid d[n 0 alt]$ 9 a numb] ( small b vitally important details by ! ,c\ncil's (fic]s & 0 !re=e n ! ',g-,b4' sy/em prop]4 ,! results ) ! ',g-,b4' sy/em at ,l9coln prove t x is possible to con/ruct surface-contact tramways at a co/ ab\t #aj p] c5t4 m ?an t ( trolley tramways1 & to op]ate !m1 safely & ) reliability1 at a co/ n appreciably m ?an ! g5]al work+ exp5ses ( an ov]head l9e4 ,b ?is pro( has n only be5 enfeebl$ = ! special reasons j describ$1 b x came at a "t :5 ! public _h got q accu/om$ to ! trolley & also :5 mo/ t[ns _h already be5 equipp$ ) electric traction4 ,t5 or fifte5 ye>s e>li]1 su* a pro( might h *ang$ ! c\rse ( tramway developm5t2 n[ x c h no great mat]ial effect4 ,! up%ot ( ! conte/ betwe5 ! ?ree sy/ems has1 !re=e1 be5 ! survival ( ! "o :i* 0 mo/ despis$ at ! outset4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,backw>dness ,,( ,,electric ,,traction ,,9 ,,great ,,brita9 ,popul> objections to ! ov]head sy/em are n1 ( c\rse1 q dead4 ,e tramway proposal 9 di/ricts :]e ! trolley has n already p5etrat$ is /ill oppos$ on ! gr\nd ( disfigurem5t & dang]4 ,?is opposition s]ves z an index to ! sev]ity ( ! /ruggle :i* ! advocates ( ! trolley sy/em _h to enc\nt] be=e !y made x almo/ univ]sal 9 l>ge cities4 ,b ! dislike ( ! public = a que/ionable novelty 0 n ! sole reason :y electric tramway ent]prise 0 backw>d 9 ,great ,brita94 ,x is n /rictly accurate to say t electric tramway ent]prise 0 backw>d4 ,! ent]prise 0 !re1 9 _s1 b circum/ances 7 v mu* aga9/ x4 ,tramway s*emes are controll$ by special legislation :i* 0 pass$ be=e electric traction 0 contemplat$2 & ?is legislation has n be5 am5d$ 9 any mat]ial degree to suit ! alt]$ conditions br\ght ab\t by ! use ( electricity4 ,! ,tramways ,act1 #ahgj--:i* is ! ma/] ,act ( ! situation--0 fram$ at a "t ( reaction aga9/ public monopolies4 ,be=e t "t1 gas1 wat]1 railway1 & o!r companies _h be5 grant$ /atutory p[]s 9 p]petuity2 & :5 a local au?ority want$ to take ! supply ( gas or wat] into its own h&s1 x _h to buy ! exi/+ und]tak+s at ! valuation put ^u !m by ! own]s !mselves4 ,!re 7 frequ5t compla9ts ab\t excessive pur*ase t]ms1 & also ab\t extortionate rates *>g$ by ! monopoli/ companies4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 horse tramways came on ! sc5e1 ! legislature det]m9$ to put ! new 'monopoly' on q a diff]5t basis4 ,! ,tramways ,act provid$1 fir/1 t no application = tramway p[]s w\ld be s mu* z consid]$ if x did n ga9 ! cons5t ( ! local au?orities int]e/$2 second1 t ! p]iod ( t5ure %\ld be limit$ to tw5ty-"o ye>s2 & ?ird1 t ! local au?orities %\ld h ! option1 at ! end ( ! p]iod or at sev5-ye> int]vals aft]w>ds1 ( buy+ ! tramway und]tak+ at ! '!n value' ( ! plant 7rails1 horses1 c>s1 depots1 etc47 )\t any all[ance = compulsory pur*ase1 goodwill1 future pr(its or any o!r consid]ation :atsoev]4 ,?is ,act 0 pass$ ) ! v be/ ( int5tions4 ,x _h ! advantage ( sub/itut+1 = ! co/ly & clumsy proc$ure by ,private ,bill1 ! simple & *eap process ( apply+ to ! ,bo>d ( ,trade = a ',provisional ,ord]' :i* w\ld acquire ! full =ce ( an ,act :5 ratifi$ 79 a m or less automatic way7 by ,p>liam5t4 ,b 9 spite ( its good int5tions x prov$ a s]i\s /umbl+-block1 especially :5 electric traction 0 propos$4 ,! effect ( ! limit$ t5ure sy/em1 ) compulsory expropriation on :at 7 call$ 'scrap-iron' t]ms1 0 to make ! companies v reluctant to sp5d "o p5ny m ?an 0 absolutely necess>y dur+ ! conclud+ ye>s4 ,capital exp5diture on improvem5ts 9 equipm5t 0 reg>d$ z out ( ! "q1 s9ce !re 0 n suffici5t "t to rec\p ! diff]5ce betwe5 fir/ co/ & ! '!n value' at ! pur*ase p]iod4 ,money 0 grudg$ = ! upkeep ( track1 ! repair & pa9t+ ( c>s1 & ! hundr$ & "o items ( exp5se :i* are ess5tial to a well-conduct$ tramway4 ,sy/em aft] sy/em fell into a /ate ( %abby g5tility1 ho>d+ money aga9/ its inevitable end4 ,?is 0 ! condition :51 9 ! middle eighties1 electric traction 0 sugge/$4 ,! public1 suff]+ f ! decay ( ! tramway s]vice1 b n realis+ t ! cause lay ) an ,act devis$ = ! public b5efit1 expect$ ! tramway companies to adopt ! new mode ( propulsion4 ,b z ! conv]sion to electric work+ involv$ track-"w co/+ sev]al ?\s&s ( p\nds p] mile1 & new c>s co/+ sev]al hundr$s ea*1 toge!r ) a l>ge g5]at+ plant & new c> depots1 ! *ange 0 comm]cially impossible to companies :i* 7 =c$ to reta9 _! old horse equipm5t 9 ord] to realise some?+ = ! %>ehold]s 9 ! day ( expropriation4 ,f ^! causes !re arose a dem& t ! municipalities %\ld take ov] ! tramway sy/ems & d :at ! companies appe>$ too sl[ to und]take4 ,?us a /rong impetus 0 giv5 to municipal tramway ent]prise4 ,b ?is impetus did n remove ! causes ( delay4 ,! local au?orities _h good economic reasons = wait+ until ! exi/+ tramway leases ran out & s enabl$ pur*ase to be made ^u ! mo/ advantage\s t]ms4 ,!y 7 also oblig$ to move v cauti\sly 9 adopt+ s radical & s novel a *ange z electric traction4 ,municipalities are n speculative trad]s1 :o are ready to take risks aft] a rapid exp]t inve/igation ( a new policy4 ,fur!r1 no municipality likes to accept ! decision ( ano!r z valid = its own di/rict4 ,! consequ5ce 0 t ea* municipality ?\ght x necess>y to get its own exp]t report on ! subject &1 9 _m cases1 to s5d its own deputation to inspect ,cont95tal tramway sy/ems4 ,^! prelim9>y /udies1 ) debates 9 ,c\ncil *amb]s & newspap] columns1 ) public meet+s ( enc\ragem5t or prote/1 & ) ! erection ( exp]im5tal l9es1 took up s mu* "t t little ( a sub/antial nature 0 done until sev]al ye>s aft] eng9e]s 7 ready & will+ to c>ry out ! conv]sion ( l>ge sy/ems ( horse tramways to electric work+4 ,! municipalities1 h[ev]1 7 n ! only =ces at "w4 ,t[>ds ! ye> #ahif1 :5 a l>ge numb] ( tramway leases 7 runn+ out1 a consid]able am\nt ( bus9ess 0 done by private capital 9 buy+ up horse tramways ) a view to conv]sion & also to ext5sion f> beyond ! limits ( ! exi/+ r\tes4 ,! ess5tial condition ( ! success ( su* ent]prise 01 ( c\rse1 ! r5ewal ( ! t5ure ( ! tramways = at lea/ ano!r tw5ty-"o ye>s4 ,"h--& 9 ! accompany+ applications = ext5sions ( r\te--! true inw>dness ( ! ,tramways ,act 0 %[n4 ,ev]y?+ 0 9 ! h&s ( ! local au?orities4 ,!y _h only to )hold _! cons5t1 & no?+ c\ld be done4 ,& ?is p[] ( veto enabl$ !m to drive any b>ga9 !y pleas$ ) ! promot]s ( tramway s*emes4 ,mo/ electric tramway proposals cov]$ ! areas ( sev]al local au?orities1 s t negotiations _h to be ent]$ into ) ea* 9 turn4 ,! municipalities1 be+ ! gu>dians ( ! public int]e/s1 consid]$ x _! duty to impose ! heavie/ conditions :i* ! promot]s c\ld be induc$ to accept1 r ?an ab&on ! ent]prise4 ,x 0 a case ( ,hobson's *oice 9 e p>i%4 ,9 "s in/ances direct paym5ts = wayleaves 7 dem&$4 ,9 o!rs ! promot]s 7 =c$ to be> ! co/ ( /reet wid5+s & o!r 'public improvem5ts' :i* 7 n always necess>y = tramway purposes4 ,9 ne>ly e t[n ! f>es & /ages 7 det]m9$ by ! local au?ority--on ! /r5g? ( ! veto1 n on comm]cial pr9ciples4 ,! co/ ( con/ruction 0 frequ5tly increas$ by on]\s conditions reg>d+ ! /&>d ( ov]head wire & track "w4 ,"u ! ,tramways ,act1 tramway companies 7 compell$ to ma9ta9 ! roadway betwe5 ! rails & also outside = a space ( eighte5 in*es--a provision :i* 0 s5sible en\gh :5 horses 7 us$4 ,b ! condition 0 n only en=c$ )9 ^! /atutory limits :5 ! promot]s 7 ab\t to use a =m ( traction :i* sp>$ ! road surface2 x 0 ext5d$ 9 num]\s cases to an obligation to pave ! entire roadway & to ma9ta9 x--(t5 ) exp5sive wood pav+ :]e macadam _h previ\sly be5 consid]$ q good en\gh = ! traffic4 ,"o effect ( ?is /ate ( affairs 0 delay4 ,! prelim9>y negotiations ) local au?orities--! int]views ) mayors1 ald]m51 c\ncillors1 t[n cl]ks1 & bor\gh surveyors1 to say no?+ ( ! 'frontag]s' along ! l9e ( r\te--usually occupi$ f> m "t ?an ! actual con/ruction ( ! tramways4 ,!y 7 also mu* m tr\blesome1 s9ce x 0 )9 ! p[] ( a s+le local au?ority 9 a c5tral position to 'hold up' a complete s*eme1 :ile mo/ di/ricts _h /rong local patriotism & want$ a municipal sy/em to !mselves4 ,v little is kn[n by ! g5]al public ( ! anxiety1 difficulty1 & exp5se att5d+ su* negotiations ) local bodies divid$ into p>ties or cliques & furni%$ ) an absolute p[] ( veto4 ,look+ back on ! hi/ory ( electric traction1 x really seems extraord9>y t eng9e]s & f9anci]s _h ! pati5ce to und]take ?is "w & c>ry x ?r\gh4 ,_! rew>d1 z w be se51 0 n great 9 a pecuni>y s5se2 &1 z reg>ds reputation1 !y are g5]ally accus$ ( be+ extravagant1 av>ici\s1 & want+ 9 ent]prise4 ,! ultimate effect 0 t ! actual co/ ( electric tramways exce$$ ! e/imates prep>$ on ! basis ( ,cont95tal & ,am]ican exp]i5ce4 ,! m prolong$ & difficult ! negotiations prelim9>y to a s*eme became1 ! great] ! exp5se4 ,& ! conditions impos$ by local au?orities z ! price ( _! cons5t load$ ! capital acc\nt ( electric tramway und]tak+s ) items :i* _h no direct conc]n ) ! tramway4 ,! ,bo>d ( ,trade assi/$ ! increase 9 co/ by prescrib+ a /&>d ( con/ruction :i* 0 high] ?an t all[$ 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,! net result has be5 t :ile electric tramways 7 expect$ to co/ ab\t #iejj p] mile1 !y h actually co/ ov] #ab1jjj p] mile4 ,! rev5ue side ( ! acc\nt has also be5 affect$ by ! p[] ( veto4 ,a local au?ority has no hesitation 9 impos+ l[ f>es & long /ages 7) high wages & %ort h\rs = employees7 ^u a tramway company seek+ its cons5t4 ,! /&>d usually adopt$ is t ( l>ge urban sy/ems ) d5se traffic1 s t sy/ems 9 scatt]$ di/ricts are (t5 unfairly treat$4 ,9 municipal sy/ems !mselves ! f>es are apt to be det]m9$ by ! promises ( c\ncillors at election times r ?an by ! simple consid]ation ( a fair price = improv$ traffic facilities4 ,workm5's f>es1 = in/ance1 are a dead loss on practically e tramway sy/em4 ,e n[ & aga9 !re is an agitation = halfp5ny f>es1 = ! ext5sion ( /ages1 = *eap rates = s*ool *ildr51 = free transport = ! bl9d1 & s on4 ,a lead+ municipal tramway manag] once rem>k$ t x 0 almo/ impossible = m5 9 8 position to resi/ ! pressure = su* concessions1 especially at local election p]iods4 ,! *airman ( ! ,highways ,committee ( ! ,london ,c\nty ,c\ncil rec5tly /at$ t nev] a day passes )\t "s appeal = concessions 9 tramway f>es4 ,mo/ ( ! l>ge urban sy/ems are "u municipal control1 & !re=e !y h ! rates 9 res]ve1 z well z ! mo/ fav\rable traffic conditions1 to enc\rage !m 9 giv+ ! public m & m = less money4 ,b ! tramway companies1 work+ = ! great] "p 9 less ?ickly populat$ areas1 ) no extrane\s means ( mak+ up losses1 are put 9 a difficult position :5 simil> concessions are =c$ ^u !m4 ,! up%ot is t ! av]age return on ! capital ( electric traction companies am\nts to only #cda p] c5t4 ,bett] pr(its 71 9 fact1 made 9 ! horse tramway days2 & ! electric traction indu/ry is a f9e example ( ! way 9 :i* ! ent]prise ( eng9e]s & capitali/s may br+ little com=t to !mselves b enorm\s b5efit to ! public1 :i* %[s its gratitude by ask+ = great] bless+s at _! exp5se4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,electric ,,tramway ,,/agnation4 ,,! ,,trolley ,,omnibus ,! rev5ue ( a tramway is built up ( p5nies2 & a m9ute increase 9 ! av]age e>n+s p] pass5g] w !re=e h a l>ge effect on ! total receipts4 ,= in/ance1 x 0 calculat$ 79 #aijg7 t an increase ( "o-t5? ( a p5ny 9 ! av]age f>e on ! sixty sy/ems "u ! control ( ! ,briti% ,electric ,traction ,company w\ld mean an increase ( ov] #bjj1jjj 9 ! rev5ue4 ,simil>ly1 a fractional decrease 9 "o ( ! op]at+ exp5ses--say1 ! co/ ( electric curr5t--might trans=m a %aky und]tak+ into a s\nd "o4 ,tramway f9ance1 9 fact1 is a "q ( inf9itesimals4 ,s long z f>es are det]m9$ by arbitr>y conditions1 little c be done to increase ! rev5ue on an electric tramway sy/em4 ,su* matt]s z ! wea!r & ! ext5t ( build+ op]ations h f> m influ5ce on tramway traffic ?an any?+ ! tramway manag] c d to assi/ x4 ,ap>t f ! developm5t ( p>cels traffic1 8 be/ opportunities lie 9 ! skilful adju/m5t ( ! s]vice to ! v>y+ ne$s ( ! public1 s t ! 'ru%' h\rs f9d an adequate supply ( c>s1 :ile ! quiet] h\rs f9d no 'wa/e c> mileage' 9 ! =m ( empty c>s4 ,he c also d a good deal 9 ! way ( induc+ ! driv]s n to wa/e curr5t4 ,by putt+ an electricity met] on ea* c> x is possible to *eck ! curr5t consumption &1 by a sy/em ( bonuses1 to enc\rage ! economical driv]4 ,!re are _m o!r directions 9 :i* small f9ancial leakages may be arre/$1 giv+ an aggregate sav+ :i* is well wor? ! tr\ble4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,photograph ( an electric trolley omnibus built by ! ,railless ,electric ,traction ,company ,ltd4 9 #aiji & op]at$ at ,h5don = exp]im5tal purposes4 ,lat] c>s built by ?is company are ( a light] & simpl] design1 b ! illu/ration %[s cle>ly ! arrangem5t ( a d\ble trolley = supply+ curr5t to a vehicle :i* '/e]s' l an ord9>y motor omnibus4 ,! fact rema9s1 h[ev]1 t on ! :ole ! electric tramway bus9ess dep5ds ^u too n>r[ a m>g9 betwe5 co/s & receipts4 ,! recognition ( ?is fact1 c\pl$ ) ! legislative difficulties already describ$1 l$ to ! practical cessation ( tramway developm5t 9 ,great ,brita9 at a po9t f> %ort ( :at 0 once expect$4 ,at "o /age1 no d\bt1 p 7 a little too en?usia/ic ab\t electric traction4 ,!y imag9$ t electric traction w\ld create pr(itable traffic along ! mo/ des]t$ ( side /reets4 ,act+ on t !ory1 municipalities con/ruct$--or =c$ tramway companies to con/ruct--l9es along roads :i* c\ld nev] supply en\gh traffic to ju/ify ! exp5diture involv$4 ,! int]e/ on capital & o!r /&+ *>ges = an electric tramway r\te are s sub/antial t a c]ta9 m9imum ( traffic d5sity mu/ exi/ be=e any pr(it at all c be e>n$4 ,h[ev]1 aft] e all[ance is made = su* local excesses ( en?usiasm1 ! "u-develop$ condition ( electric traction 9 ,great ,brita9 rema9s conspicu\s en\gh4 ,a s5sible relaxation ( legislative re/rictions w\ld g a long way to improve matt]s--if1 t is to say1 f9anci]s c\ld be induc$ to re-ent] a field 9 :i* !y h _h _m disappo9tm5ts4 ,great hopes ( improvem5t 7 ent]ta9$ :5 ! ,light ,railways ,act1 #ahif1 0 pass$4 ,! prim>y object ( ?is ,act 0 to enc\rage ! build+ ( *eap railways = agricultural & fi%]y purposes1 b x 0 draft$ on l9es broad en\gh to include electric tramways4 ,arrangem5ts 7 made = ,/ate & local contributions to ! co/ ( su* s*emes1 9 cases :]e subsidies appe>$ to be ju/ifiable4 ,! proc$ure 9 obta9+ p[]s 0 made z simple & z economical z possible4 ,applications = ',light ,railway ,ord]s' _h to be made to ! ,light ,railway ,commission1 "o ( ^: memb]s !n arrang$ to hold a local inquiry into ! proposal4 ,if sanction$1 ! s*eme 0 pass$ on to ! ,bo>d ( ,trade = approval1 & ! ,ord]1 if confirm$1 ?us secur$ ! validity ( a ,private ,act ( ,p>liam5t4 ,no?+ 0 said 9 ?is ,act ab\t ! cons5t ( local au?orities1 or ab\t limit$ t5ure1 or ab\t expropriation ^u scrap-iron t]ms4 ,b ! ,light ,railway ,commission]s *ose to int]pret ! ,act 9 t]ms ( ! ,tramways ,act1 ) ! result t1 :5 !re 0 any opposition on ! "p ( local au?orities1 ! tramway promot] us+ ! ,light ,railways ,act 0 n mu* bett] (f ?an be=e4 ,he _h to face a new difficulty 9 a clause ( ! ,light ,railways ,act1 :i* provid$ t :5 ! propos$ light railway 0 ( suffici5t magnitude & 9 su* a position t x (f]$ competition ) an exi/+ railway1 ! s*eme %\ld be submitt$ to ,p>liam5t z a ,private ,bill--t is to say1 %\ld face ! mo/ co/ly & cumb]some proc$ure ( all4 ,! ,light ,railways ,act ?us prov$ a great disappo9tm5t4 ,its failure to af=d relief seems to h tak5 away ! tramway promot]'s la/ hope ( g5u9e legislative bett]m5t4 ,he has resign$ himself to ?+s z !y are2 & ! utmo/ he does is to ass]t1 :5 occasion (f]s1 t !re are _m di/ricts :i* might enjoy ! b5efits ( electric traction if means 7 provid$ = br++ e s*eme directly be=e an indep5d5t tribunal = consid]ation on its m]its alone2 if arrangem5ts 7 made = obta9+ wayleaves & l& on fav\rable t]ms1 & if he 7 all[$ to con/ruct & equip ! l9e on a less co/ly basis ?an ! ,bo>d ( ,trade n[ dem&s1 ev5 9 rural di/ricts4 ,p5d+ t revolution1 tramway au?orities are seek+ to develop a *eap] means ( electric traction ?an ! tramway4 ,at ! pres5t /age1 urban tramways h spread ?r\gh suburbs t[>ds villages & small t[ns :i* are anxi\s = bett] transport facilities b h n suffici5t population to ju/ify a tramway ext5sion4 ,int]-urban tramway sy/ems--^? connect+ t[ns ) a network ( l9es--are also adjac5t to su* m9or c5tres ( traffic4 ,f "t to "t attempts h be5 made to meet ! dem& by means ( petrol omnibuses1 b !y h r>ely be5 successful--p>tly1 no d\bt1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( work+ a limit$ petrol omnibus s]vice economically at ! extremities ( an electric tramway sy/em4 ,! late/ solution ( ! problem is ! 'trackless trolley' or1 m correctly1 ! 'trolley omnibus4' ,9 ! #aiaa session ov] a doz5 tramway au?orities appli$ = p[]s to use ?is device2 &1 if ! f9ancial results ( ! fir/ attempts are successful1 !re w probably be a consid]able gr[? 9 ?is type ( electric traction4 ,! trolley omnibus is a hybrid betwe5 ! trolley tramc> & ! omnibus4 ,x is ak9 to ! fir/1 because x d]ives its p[] f an ov]head wire ?r\gh a flexible trolley pole4 ,x is ak9 to ! second1 because x does n run on rails b is fitt$ ) solid rubb] tyres & uses ! surface ( ! road 9 ! usual way4 ,r\ghly speak+1 its electrical equipm5t is simil> to t ( a tramc>4 ,! trolley pole conveys ! electric curr5t to ! controll]1 :i* admits x to motors ge>$ on to ! back axles4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "o or two important diff]5ces4 ,! abs5ce ( a rail :i* might act z a return conductor necessitates ! provision ( a second ov]head wire & a second trolley-pole to connect ) x4 ,?us ! electrical circuit is f ! p[] /ation1 along ! fir/ ov]head wire1 d[n ! fir/ trolley-pole1 ?r\gh ! controll] & motors1 up ! second trolley-pole1 & back by ! second ov]head wire to ! p[] /ation4 ,ow+ to ! vehicle be+ a /e]able "o1 ! trolley-poles h to be specially design$ to give pl5ty ( free play sideways4 ,! vehicle itself is simil> 9 appe>ance to a s+le-deck$ motor omnibus1 & x runs on solid rubb] tyres or spr+ :eels4 ,! fir/ ?+ :i* /rikes "o ab\t ! trolley omnibus 9 comp>ison ) ! electric tramc> is ! *eapness 9 fir/ co/4 ,all ! exp5se ( concrete f\ndations1 heavy rails1 & granite pav+ is avoid$4 ,on ord9>y roads ! ov]head con/ruction is mu* less co/ly1 z a s+le l9e ( poles support+ two wires is suffici5t = ! up & d[n s]vices4 ,e/imates %[ t ! equipm5t ( a mile ( roadway on ?is sy/em w co/ only f "o-f\r? to "o-?ird ( ! correspond+ tramway sy/em4 ,foll[+ on ?is economy !re is ! sav+ 9 ! co/ ( ma9t5ance & repairs--a s]i\s item on ! ord9>y tramway4 ,9 actual work+1 ! sy/em has ! advantage t ! vehicles c /e] pa/ sl[-go+ traffic1 ?us avoid+ ! delay caus$ on tramway sy/ems ?r\gh c>ts hav+ to draw out1 away f ! track1 :5 ov]tak5 by c>s4 ,?is /e]+ or 'ov]tak+' p[] enables a trolley omnibus s]vice to be ma9ta9$ )\t ob/ruction on a n>r[ roadway :i* w\ld be badly conge/$ by tramc>s runn+ on a rigid track4 ,:5 !re is only "o pair ( wires1 two trolley omnibuses may pass ea* o!r 7:e!r go+ 9 ! same or opposite directions7 by ! simple process ( pull+ d[n ! trolley poles ( "o c> & sw++ !m out ( ! way = a few seconds4 ,on a s+le-l9e tramway x is necess>y to provide loops at int]vals = cross+ purposes & also to arrange ! s]vice s t c>s arrive at ! loops simultane\sly4 ,! o!r side ( ! picture is %[n :5 we come to look into ! co/s ( work+4 ,no matt] h[ good ! road surface may be or h[ excell5t ! design ( ! :eel1 ! tractive ef=t requir$ = a trolley omnibus mu/ be relatively great] ?an t requir$ = a tramc>4 ,no?+ dem&s a l[] tractive ef=t ?an a /eel :eel runn+ on a /eel rail4 ,consequ5tly ! trolley omnibus takes m p[] p] ton mov$ ?an ! tramc>4 ,:5 ! road surface is wet or unev51 or muddy or loose1 ?is diff]5ce is ( c\rse multipli$4 ,ano!r addition to ! work+ co/ is produc$ by ! tyres1 :i*1 if ( rubb]1 may we> away at ! rate ( #a-a_/b;d4 or #b;d4 p] mile p] vehicle4 ,ow+ to ! uni=m control ( spe$ af=d$ by ! electric sy/em1 !re is less j]k+ at />t+ or /opp+ ?an is g5]al ) a petrol-driv5 omnibus2 b 9 spite ( t advantage1 tyre we> on a trolley omnibus mu/ rema9 an important item4 ,some?+ mu/ also be all[$ = ! effect ( vibration ^u ! c> body & electrical equipm5t--an effect :i* is ( c\rse mu* less pron\nc$ :5 a vehicle runs on rails4 ,! balance betwe5 ^! advantages & disadvantages is n easy to /rike1 ev5 on a g5]al basis4 ,& x v>ies s mu* "u local conditions t tramway eng9e]s debat$ a long "t be=e !y decid$ 9 c]ta9 cases to try ! trolley omnibus 9 ext5d+ _! traffic facilities4 ,all !y _h to g ^u 0 ! exp]i5ce ga9$ on c]ta9 ,cont95tal r\tes1 :]e trolley omnibuses h be5 runn+ = sev]al ye>s4 ,t exp]i5ce enc\rag$ ! hope t trolley omnibuses might be a pr(itable means ( develop+ traffic 9 conjunction ) a tramway sy/em1 & along r\tes :i* w\ld n provide suffici5t bus9ess = a regul> tramway4 ,! simultane\s adoption ( ! trolley omnibus on a numb] ( tramway 'fe$]s' gave rise to an impression t tramway au?orities _h discov]$ ! :eel-on-rail sy/em to be less effici5t ?an ! tyre-on-road sy/em4 ,z a g5]al proposition1 no?+ c\ld be fur!r f ! tru?4 ,tramway au?orities h adopt$ ! new sy/em 9 c]ta9 cases :]e ! possible traffic is comp>atively small1 n z a sub/itute = tramways1 b z an alt]native to self-propell$ omnibuses4 ,! c>ry+ capacity ( a trolley omnibus is ab\t tw5ty1 :ile t ( a tramc> is frequ5tly z high z sev5ty4 ,! spe$ ( a tramc> runs up to tw5ty miles an h\r1 :ile twelve miles an h\r is z mu* z is com=table 7to say ! lea/7 ) a vehicle runn+ ) solid tyres on an ord9>y road4 ,!re=e1 :]e l>ge volumes ( traffic h to be h&l$ swiftly1 ! tramway w rema94 ,b :]e a tw5ty-m9ute or half-h\rly s]vice ( small vehicles is suffici5t = ! available pass5g]s1 a sy/em :i* is mu* *eap] 9 fir/ co/ is cle>ly m suitable1 ev5 ?\gh x may n rea* ! /&>d ( economy 9 work+ set by ! l>ge urban tramway4 ,t is to say1 ! *oice betwe5 ! two sy/ems dep5ds entirely ^u local circum/ances4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,! 'auto-trolley' sy/em ( electric traction appli$ to ! haulage ( goods 9 a ,g]man qu>ry4 7,f ,electrical ,indu/ries47 ,z an emphasis ^u ?is /atem5t1 x is significant t _m tramway eng9e]s reg>d ! trolley omnibus m]ely z ! =]unn] ( a tramway4 ,= ?is reason !y fav\r ! adoption ( ! p>ticul> trolley omnibus sy/em :]e ! ov]head equipm5t is adaptable ) trifl+ *anges to tramway purposes4 ,!y argue t1 9 ! case ( a village ( a few ?\s& inhabitants1 situat$ a mile or s beyond ! t]m9us ( a tramway r\te1 a trolley omnibus s]vice w n only be suffici5t = ! exi/+ traffic1 b w %[ :e!r ! traffic is likely to increase 7?r\gh ! /imulation ( build+ ent]prise7 up to ! po9t :]e x w\ld make ! lay+ ( rails wor? :ile4 ,:5 t po9t is rea*$1 ! rails w be laid & ! trolley omnibus vehicles put on "s o!r r\te :i* is at "o & ! same "t a tramway 'fe$]' & a tramway 'feel]4' ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,reg5]ative ,,control ,be=e go+ on to discuss ! 'accumulator' or '/orage batt]y' sy/em ( electric traction1 ref]5ce %\ld be made to an inv5tion :i* holds ! g]m ( great economies 9 electric traction4 ,?is inv5tion is kn[n "u ! "n ( 'reg5]ative control4' ,x has already be5 expla9$ t ! dynamo is rev]sible--t is to say1 a dynamo may act z a motor1 or a motor z a dynamo4 ,?is fact is usefully appli$ 9 brak+ tramc>s4 ,:5 a c> has ga9$ spe$1 its mom5tum repres5ts a c]ta9 am\nt ( /or$ en]gy4 ,9 /opp+ ! c>1 ?is en]gy has to be absorb$ or dissipat$ 9 "s way or o!r4 ,"o me?od is to utilise ! friction ( brake blocks on ! :eels1 or ( skids on ! rails !mselves4 ,) ! electric c>1 h[ev]1 x is possible to absorb ! en]gy by mak+ x drive ! motors z if !y 7 dynamos4 ,! mov+ c> drives ! :eels1 :i* 9 turn drive ! motors2 & ! curr5t s g5]at$ may ei!r be absorb$ 9 electrical 'resi/ances' or l$ to electro-magnets :i* are s plac$ t !y ex]cise a ret>d+ pull on ! rails4 ,9 any ( ^! cases a c> :i* is be+ /opp$1 or is be+ 'held back' by ! brakes :5 go+ d[n-hill1 is wa/+ p[]4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t a great deal ( p[] c\ld be sav$ if ! curr5t g5]at$ by ! motors 9 ret>d+ c\ld be pump$ back1 z x 71 into ! electrical circuit4 ,?is is ! problem ( 'reg5]ation' :i* has fasc9at$ _m electrical eng9e]s4 ,! practical difficulties und]ly+ x are v great2 & p]haps ! only man to get )9 measurable di/ance ( surm\nt+ !m 0 ,mr ,j4 ,s4 ,rawor?1 ^: sy/em ( reg5]ative control 0 tri$ on a numb] ( tramway sy/ems & in/all$ on ! ,raw/5/all tramways 9 #aiji4 ,x _c be said ) confid5ce t all ! difficulties h be5 ov]come2 on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld be ra% to say t !y are insurm\ntable4 ,mr ,rawor?1 at any rate1 reta9s 8 fai? 9 ultimate victory2 & ! !oretical beauty ( ! sy/em is s complete t x is b\nd to reta9 its fasc9ation4 ,! practical result ( reg5]ation is to elim9ate ! effect ( hills4 ,a reg5]ative c> 9 desc5d+ a hill gives back to ! g5]at+ /ation "s ( ! excess en]gy requir$ to take x up ! hill4 ,9 ! same way ea* c>1 9 com+ to a /&/ill1 gives back a portion ( ! en]gy requir$ to />t x4 ,a reg5]ative tramway may ?us be repres5t$1 f ! en]gy po9t ( view1 z "o 9 :i* all ! c>s are runn+ at normal spe$s on level roads4 ,incid5tally ! reg5]ative sy/em gives a v p]fect control ( ! spe$ ( ! c> on all gradi5ts1 ow+ to ! reg5]ation :i* beg9s automatically :5 ! motors />t 'coa/+4' ,x is a p[]-sav] & a brake 9 "o2 & its efficacy z a means ( control is s great t1 if its incid5tal drawbacks c\ld be avoid$1 x w\ld be wor? adopt+ = ?is purpose alone1 bo? on electric tramways & on electric railways4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,accumulator ,,electric ,,traction4 ,,! ,,electric ,,automobile ,! use ( ! accumulator or /orage batt]y 9 electric traction af=ds a v good example ( h[ a means ( propulsion may fail 9 "o set ( circum/ances & contrive to succe$ 9 ano!r4 ,its hi/ory s]ves to rem9d u t ! problem ( *eap transport is really a gr\p ( problems1 ea* "o ( :i* dem&s a p>ticul> solution4 ,! accumulator is a device = /or+ electrical en]gy 9 ! =m ( *emical en]gy4 ,its action dep5ds ^u ! effect ( curr5ts ( electricity on lead plates 9 a ba? ( sulphuric acid4 ,! passage ( ! curr5t ?r\gh ! batt]y produces *emical *anges :i* enable ! batt]y to give out curr5t :5 requir$4 ,z ! batt]y may rema9 '*>g$' = sev]al days1 & may be dis*>g$ sl[ly or quickly1 x provides a means ( '/or+' electrical en]gy4 ,9 practice1 & "u fav\rable conditions1 ! effici5cy ( ! /orage batt]y is ab\t #hj p] c5t4 ,t is to say1 !re is a loss ( ab\t #bj p] c5t4 9 ! process ( conv]sion & re-conv]sion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,a mod]n electric automobile4--,! electric batt]y is plac$ "u ! front half ( ! c>1 & ! motors drive ! back axle ?r\gh *a9s4 7,briti% ,electric ,automobile ,co41 ,ltd47 ,great hopes 7 once ent]ta9$ ( accumulator traction on tramways4 ,! /orage batt]y (f]$ a means ( escape f all ! difficulty & exp5se ( c>ry+ electric ma9s ov]head or und]gr\nd4 ,by fitt+ ea* c> ) a /orage batt]y1 x c\ld be made an indep5d5t self-conta9$ locomotive1 capable ( runn+ a c]ta9 numb] ( miles until ! batt]y 0 approa*+ exhau/ion4 ,by provid+ c5tres :]e ! batt]ies c\ld be re-*>g$--or1 to save "t1 replac$ by batt]ies previ\sly *>g$--a cont9u\s s]vice c\ld be ma9ta9$ on a tramway sy/em4 ,! advantages ( accumulator traction1 ap>t f ! sav+ 9 fir/ co/1 are ! abs5ce ( ob/ruction & dang] f ov]head wires1 & ( ! risk ( a g5]al /oppage ( ! s]vice :5 ! curr5t at ! g5]at+ /ation fails f any accid5tal cause4 ,:5 accumulators are us$1 ! conv]sion ( a horse tramway to an electric tramway becomes a v simple matt]4 ,all t is requir$ is to erect a g5]at+ /ation & provide ea* c> ) a /orage batt]y & electrical equipm5t4 ,?is equipm5t1 x may be m5tion$1 is sub/antially ! same z ) ord9>y electric c>s4 ,! curr5t fl[s f ! accumulator ?r\gh ! controll] & ! motors back to ! accumulator4 ,_m trials 7 made ) ?is sy/em 9 ! e>ly days ( electric traction1 b !re are no survivals4 ,! failures 7 due 9 "p to weaknesses 9 ! batt]ies & to ! difficulty ( h&l+ !m ) prop] c>e "u ! r\gh & ready conditions ( tramway s]vice4 ,! ma9 cause1 h[ev]1 0 ! inh]5t drawback ( all locomotive sy/ems--! fact t ! tractor has to haul its own dead weight 9 addition to ! weight ( ! c> & pass5g]s4 ,lead be+ "o ( ! heavie/ ( metals1 ?is dead weight 0 a v s]i\s item on accumulator tramc>s4 ,x prov$ to be a fatal item :5 ! attempt 0 made to run l>ge c>s on heavy gradi5ts4 ,! ru% ( curr5t dem&$ 9 />t+ su* c>s up-hill 0 9 itself too sev]e a tax on ! delicate /ructure ( ! batt]ies4 ,9 practice1 moreov]1 ! necessity ( br++ ea* c> back to ! depot = re-*>g+1 aft] a limit$ j\rney1 prov$ v tr\blesome4 ,! m ext5sive ! sy/em & ! m frequ5t ! s]vice1 ! m tr\blesome ?is necessity became4 ,ev5 ! mo/ en?usia/ic advocate ( ! /orage batt]y 0 at la/ =c$ to admit t x 0 n applicable to a sy/em ( transport1 :i* dem&$ comp>atively high spe$s ) l>ge c>s on all gradi5ts & ov] a range ( sev]al miles f ! c5tre ( p[]4 ,aft] ! admitt$ failure ( accumulator tramways1 ! /orage batt]y 0 = "s "t us$ only on riv] laun*es & small private vehicles4 ,! conditions 9 bo? cases--& especially 9 ! =m]--are v fav\rable to its op]ation4 ,on a riv] laun* ! weight ( ! batt]y is n a s]i\s item1 z x s]ves to "s ext5t 9 ! place ( balla/4 ,laun*es1 moreov]1 are g5]ally requir$ = trips ( a limit$ numb] ( miles up & d[n ! riv] f ! boa?\se or *>g+ /ation ( ! own]4 ,9 contra/ ) ! tramway1 !re is no dem& = rapid accel]ation at />t+ or = abnormal p[] at int]vals4 ,! batt]ies dis*>ge sl[ly & fairly ev5ly1 & are n subject$ to s]i\s vibration4 ,! electrical equipm5t is extremely simple1 z ! motor is fix$ on to ! propell] %aft & op]at$ by a controll] on ! deck close to ! /e]+ :eel4 ,h[ev]1 if economy 7 ! only consid]ation1 x is d\btful :e!r ! electric laun* w\ld h surviv$ aga9/ ! competition ( /eam & petrol laun*es4 ,x has surviv$ because ! simplicity ( ! equipm5t1 its sil5t runn+1 & ! abs5ce ( heat1 smoke & fumes1 make x ! ideal ?+ = riv] "w4 ,! hire ( an electric laun* on ! ,?ames co/s m ?an t ( a /eam laun*1 b pl5ty ( p are will+ to pay ! additional *>ge to avoid ! drawbacks ( /eam propulsion on a small vessel4 ,simil> consid]ations und]lie ! ext5sive use ( electric br\ghams 9 cities4 ,su* vehicles are requir$ only = travel )9 a re/rict$ area & on /reets :]e ! gradi5ts are seldom sev]e4 ,_! c>ry+ capacity is g5]ally limit$ to two or f\r pass5g]s1 s t ! batt]ies d n require to be unduly heavy4 ,a maximum spe$ ( #ab miles an h\r is q suffici5t = city /reets2 & ) c>eful treatm5t ! batt]ies c be v economically us$ & w n det]iorate ne>ly s rapidly z !y w\ld "u tramway conditions4 ,consid]ations ( economy1 on ! o!r h&1 d n weigh v heavily ) ! class ( p :o use private electric br\ghams4 ,!y are prep>$ to pay = ! be/ available2 & ! electric br\gham1 ) its noiselessness1 its easy runn+1 its abs5ce ( smell or o!r nuisance1 is reg>d$ z ! ideal :i* o!r modes ( city transport mu/ d _! be/ to approa*4 ,9 ,london a c]ta9 am\nt ( bus9ess has be5 done = "s ye>s 9 hir+ electric br\ghams = v>i\s p]iods on t]ms :i* include curr5t1 ma9t5ance1 g>age facilities1 driv]'s wages1 & all o!r *>ges4 ,! conv5i5ce ( su* an arrangem5t to ! hir] ne$ n be emphasis$1 s9ce :at is want$ 9 ?is case is a vehicle :i* is always ready at a telephone call4 ,b ! sy/em has ano!r important advantage1 :i* be>s ^u ! economic prospects ( accumulator traction4 ,by reta9+ ! vehicles "u its control ! hir+ company n only c5tralises ! arrangem5ts = /or+ & re-*>g+1 b x is able to take c>e t ! batt]ies are prop]ly treat$4 ,j z ! success ( ! surface-contact sy/em dep5ds on m9utiae ( design1 s ! success ( accumulator traction dep5ds ^u m9utiae ( treatm5t4 ,c>elessness 9 driv+ ! vehicles & 9 h&l+ ! batt]ies at ! g>age may trans=m a p]fectly satisfactory mode ( city transport into an extravagant nuisance4 ,consequ5tly ! success ( ?is class ( bus9ess dep5ds ^u an organisation :i* p]mits ( con/ant sup]vision ov] e vehicle & e driv]4 ,a good deal ( +5uity has be5 ex]cis$ ^u ! electrical equipm5t ( br\ghams2 & x is probable t fur!r improvem5ts w be made4 ,9 "s cases ! front axle is driv5 by ! motor2 9 "s cases ! back axle4 ,! e>lie/ c>s us$ too!d-:eel ge>+ 9 ord] to r$uce ! spe$ ( ! small fa/-runn+ motor4 ,improv$ types on ?is pr9ciple /ill exi/1 b !re are "s int]e/+ =ms 9 :i* ! motors are plac$ "r at ! hub ( ! :eels & effect spe$ r$uction & control by electrical means1 )\t any int]m$iate ge>+4 ,9 addition to ^! improvem5ts1 ! /orage batt]y itself has made a di/9ct advance 9 design & con/ruction4 ,x is m effici5t1 m durable1 & m reliable n[ ?an ev] x 0 be=e4 ,! clos] att5tion giv5 to its treatm5t t5ds 9 ! same direction2 & ! result is t /orage-batt]y mak]s & eng9e]s h a v accurate k ( :at ! accumulator w d at a c]ta9 co/ "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,! conditions be+ ! v>iable factors 9 ! problem1 & be+ 9 l>ge measure det]m9able by *oice1 x is r rem>kable t ! eng9e]s & f9anci]s %\ld h select$1 at ! outset1 ! v conditions :i* 7 lea/ suit$ to ! peculi>ities ( ! accumulator4 ,! attempt to adapt batt]y traction to tramway "w is a conspicu\s case 9 po9t1 b x is n p]haps s conspicu\s 9 ! public memory z ! ef=ts to organise electric cab & electric omnibus s]vices 9 ,london & else:]e4 ,^! ef=ts h be5 made s (t5 & fail$ s regul>ly t !y h made x difficult to obta9 capital = any =m ( electric batt]y propulsion4 ,! electric omnibus has _m ( ! drawbacks ( ! /orage-batt]y tramc>1 b !y are n s s]i\s 9 ! case ( an urban s]vice1 adequately met by small c>s runn+ at mod]ate spe$s on %ort r\tes ) mod]ate gradi5ts4 ,x is possible t if rec5t metropolitan electric omnibus ent]prises _h be5 z happy 9 _! f9ance z 9 _! eng9e]+1 !y w\ld h succe$$ well en\gh4 ,b ev5 9 _! eng9e]+ !y _h to meet great difficulties4 ,!y s\ght to protect !mselves aga9/ excessive co/s by ent]+ into ma9t5ance agreem5ts ) ! mak]s ( ! batt]ies2 & al?\gh ! t]ms ( ^! agreem5ts 7 satisfactory en\gh1 _! validity dep5d$ on c>eful treatm5t ( ! batt]ies by ! driv]s ( ! c>s--a matt] :i* x is r difficult to gu>antee4 ,moreov]1 ! numb] ( omnibuses put on ! road 0 s small t ! g>age co/s & o!r /&+ *>ges 7 proportionally v heavy4 ,) a l>g] fleet & ) effici5t organisation1 mu* bett] results might h be5 a*iev$ 9 spite ( ! inh]5t difficulties ( ! situation4 ,al?\gh ! electric cab has ! advantage ( be+ a small] vehicle & !re=e m adapt$ to economical propulsion by /orage batt]ies1 ! conditions ( ! cab s]vice are n at all fav\rable to ! sy/em4 ,! ess5tial feature ( a cab is t x %\ld be available any:]e1 to g any:]e at a mom5t's notice4 ,an accumulator-driv5 vehicle1 on ! o!r h&1 is ti$ by an invisible cord to ! *>g+ /ation4 ,ev5 if *>g+ /ations 7 multipli$ enorm\sly1 ! electric cab w\ld h no real fre$om ( action1 s9ce sev]al h\rs are requir$ = ! process ( re-*>g+4 ,we h only to comp>e ! limitations ( ! electric cab ) ! fre$om ( ! petrol cab 7:i* c r5ew its supply ( petrol 9 a m9ute or two at any motor depot7 to realise t ! rov+ commission is n at all suit$ to ! =m]4 ,9 #ahii a v bold ef=t 0 made to e/abli% an electric cab s]vice 9 ,london4 ,to inaugurate ! s]vice a procession ( ! cabs 0 =m$1 b x excit$ m ridicule ?an s]i\s int]e/4 ,! clumsy appe>ance ( ! cabs 0 aga9/ !m2 & _! behavi\r 0 n satisfactory en\gh--z to spe$ & reliability--to ov]come ! fir/ unfav\rable impressions4 ,!y soon disappe>$1 to add ano!r failure to ! long li/ ( disappo9tm5ts 9 connection ) accumulator traction4 ,! private electric automobile rema9s1 h[ev]1 because x has be5 organis$ "u conditions :i* suit ! peculi>ities ( ! /orage batt]y4 ,its survival1 9 conjunction ) ! failure ( a simil> means ( transit = tramway1 omnibus1 & public cab s]vices1 has po9t$ to ano!r direction 9 :i* ! electric automobile %\ld be a comm]cial possibility4 ,t is1 9 connection ) ! local di/ribution ( goods f l>ge /ores & o!r c5tres4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates h giv5 a v di/9ct lead 9 ?is matt]4 ,9 ,new ,york1 ,*icago1 ,wa%+ton1 & o!r l>ge cities ! electric automobile = private use is highly develop$ & !re is also an ext5sive s]vice ( electric vehicles rang+ 9 size f a small p>cels van to a l>ge lorry capable ( c>ry+ loads up to sev]al tons4 ,no d\bt ! local co/ ( o!r means ( transport has some?+ to d ) ?is ,am]ican developm5t1 :i* has1 moreov]1 be5 /rongly support$ by ! companies :i* supply electricity to ! public4 ,b ! fundam5tal reason lies 9 ! special "* ( ! s]vice dem&$4 ,! vans belong+ to a l>ge /ore all />t f a c]ta9 po9t & return to x aft] j\rneys ( limit$ range4 ,ow+ to ! p]iod occupi$ 9 load+ up1 & also to ! pre-det]m9$ h\rs ( mo/ ( ! deliv]ies1 !re is no difficulty ab\t af=d+ ! "t requir$ = re-*>g+ ! batt]ies1 or 9 arrang+ ea* j\rney s t ! vehicle returns be=e ! batt]ies are exhau/$4 ,) a /&>dis$ fleet ( vehicles1 x is possible to remove ! dis*>g$ batt]ies & replace !m ) *>g$ ones 9 a few m9utes4 ,! :ole arrangem5t1 9 fact1 is l a private automobile g>age1 ) ! advantage t ! probable dem& c be =eca/ ) a some:at great] degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,/eam & petrol-driv5 wagons run mo/ economically on long /eady j\rneys at fairly high spe$s1 & ! electric automobile does n attempt to compete ) !m on ^! l9es4 ,b x (f]s competition )9 city limits = door-to-door deliv]y2 & its prospects are p>ticul>ly good = light p>cel s]vice1 :]e ! horse is /ill ma9ta9+ its position aga9/ ! petrol vehicle4 ,! advantages ( ! electric vehicle 9 neatness & noiselessness w c]ta9ly secure its success if ! co/ c be prov$ to be n appreciably great] ?an t ( its rivals4 ,ap>t f ! necessity ( c>eful organisation1 ! ma9 ess5tial ( success 9 electric automobile "w is a supply ( *eap electricity4 ,own]s ( private electric laun*es h to pay any?+ f #h;d4 to #bs4 #f;d4 p] unit = re-*>g+ _! batt]ies1 b ^! high prices are due to ! int]mitt5t "* ( ! dem& & also 79 "s cases7 to ! co/ ( provid+ ma*9]y to supply curr5t at special pressures = p>ticul> laun*es4 ,an electric automobile g>age1 situat$ close to a public g5]at+ /ation & (f]+ a l>g] & m regul> dem&1 w ( c\rse obta9 curr5t mu* *eap]4 ,& x is possible t arrangem5ts may be made = supply+ electricity to automobiles at a mu* l[] rate ev5 ?an t cu/om>y = g5]al p[] dem&s4 ,9 ! metropolitan bor\gh ( ,m>ylebone1 = in/ance1 an electric g>age may obta9 curr5t dur+ ! small h\rs ( ! night at #a_/b;d4 p] unit1 :i* is half ! /&>d rate = p[] purposes4 ,?is l[ price is (f]$ because !re is o!rwise practically no dem& at all = electricity dur+ ^! h\rs4 ,if1 !re=e1 a g>age arranges--& ! arrangem5t is q feasible--to *>ge its batt]ies ov]night1 ! p[] bill may be divid$ by two4 ,! electric automobile has be5 us$ to "s ext5t z a t\r+ c>1 b al?\gh j\rneys up to #ajj miles h be5 p]=m$ on a s+le *>ge1 ! "t occupi$ 9 re-*>g+1 & ! difficulty ( f9d+ conv5i5t *>g+ /ations1 are fatal to any developm5t 9 ?is field4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,petrol-,,electric ,,vehicles ,,& ,,ma9 ,,m>9e ,,propulsion ,,by ,,electricity ,betwe5 ! petrol-driv5 vehicle & ! electric automobile !re is an int]e/+ s]ies ( l9ks provid$ by 'petrol-electric' sy/ems4 ,at "o end ( ! *a91 electricity plays an important "p 9 supply+ p[] to drive ! c>4 ,at ! o!r end1 electrical app>atus is introduc$ m]ely z a =m ( transmission ge> betwe5 ! petrol eng9e & ! driv+ axle4 ,! reason = attempt+ ! petrol-electric comb9ation w be mo/ readily und]/ood by consid]+ ! latt] arrangem5t fir/4 ,! petrol eng9e is a high-spe$ eng9e1 capable ( work+ mo/ satisfactorily :5 x runs at a uni=m rate ) a con/ant load4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! spe$ ( ! driv+ axle ( a c> v>ies f a v mu* l[] spe$ d[n to z]o4 ,x is !re=e necess>y1 :5 driv+ a vehicle ) a petrol eng9e1 to arrange "s =ms ( v>iable spe$-r$uc+ transmission ge> betwe5 ! eng9e & ! driv+ axle4 ,! problem is fur!r complicat$ by ! fact t ! petrol eng9e is irrev]sible1 has practically no '/>t+ torque1' & has a v slight ov]load capacity4 ,x has to be />t$ runn+ 'light' & !n swit*$ on to a l[ ge> :i* gives suffici5t p[] to ov]come ! in]tia ( ! c>4 ,z ! spe$ ( ! c> rises1 !re h to be successive *anges ( ge>4 ,^! difficulties are1 ( c\rse1 acc5tuat$ :5 deal+ ) ! heavy weight ( an omnibus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,elevation & plan ( a petrol-electric motor omnibus equipp$ by ,w4 ,a4 ,/ev5s1 ,ltd4 ,directly beh9d ! front :eels is ! petrol eng9e1 driv+ a dynamo ?r\gh a flexible c\pl+4 ,! dynamo supplies curr5t to ! motor directly beh9d x2 & ! motor drives ! re> :eels ?r\gh a c>dan %aft4 ,! transmission ( p[] betwe5 ! eng9e & ! %aft is electrical at all spe$s4 ,practically all ! tr\bles ) petrol motor omnibuses h resid$ 9 ! ge>2 & ev5 ! mo/ ard5t en?usia/ = ! all-electric fai? mu/ admit t ! motor eng9e] has ov]come ^! tr\bles 79 great "p if n :olly7 ) rem>kable skill & +5uity4 ,b ! complications ( an adju/able me*anical bridge betwe5 a high-spe$ eng9e & a v>y+ l[-spe$ axle are s great t an electrical bridge 0 propos$ z a sub/itute4 ,by c\pl+ ! eng9e direct to a dynamo & by us+ ! curr5t s g5]at$ to drive v>iable-spe$ motors ge>$ to ! driv+ axle1 ! electrical eng9e] hop$ to get bett] work+ results f ! petrol motor ?an c\ld be obta9$ ) any me*anical transmission ge>4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s advantage1 ap>t f ! quietness ( runn+ at all spe$s1 lies 9 ! ease & smoo?ness ) :i* ! petrol-electric motor c />t & ga9 spe$4 ,9 ?is respect ! comb9ation sy/em is practically on ! same level z 7or ev5 sup]ior to7 ! electric tramc> or ! electric automobile4 ,!re is an entire abs5ce ( ! j]ks & j>r+ noises :i* usually accompany ! />t+ ( a motor omnibus4 ,! same facility ( control is ( advantage 9 adju/+ spe$ to suit ! o!r traffic on ! road1 & also 9 negotiat+ hills4 ,9 "o class ( petrol-electric vehicles ! electric transmission ge> is cont9u\sly us$4 ,9 ano!r1 x is us$ at all spe$s except ! highe/1 :5 ! eng9e is c\pl$ directly 7by a magnetic clut*7 to a me*anical driv+ ge>4 ,9 a ?ird class ! arrangem5t is m complicat$1 z x involves ! use ( /orage batt]ies z an auxili>y to ! p[] provid$ directly by ! petrol eng9e4 ,! ,fis*] type ( petrol-electric vehicle uses electric transmission solely & has a fairly l>ge batt]y to supplem5t ! eng9e-produc$ curr5t :5 /eep hills are be+ negotiat$4 ,at ord9>y spe$s on level roads ! surplus p[] produc$ by ! eng9e goes to *>ge ! batt]y4 ,! ',automixte' type is peculi> 9 us+ ! me*anical transmission ge> all ! "t4 ,! dynamo c\pl$ to ! eng9e supplies curr5t to a small batt]y :5 surplus p[] is available2 ! same dynamo may be driv5 z a motor by curr5t f ! batt]y :5 su* assi/ance is want$ at />t+ or on /eep hills4 ,! electric "p ( ! equipm5t ?us acts fir/ z a g5]ator & !n z a motor1 ! *ange tak+ place automatically4 ,^! diff]5t petrol-electric devices are v attractive f ! eng9e]+ po9t ( view1 b at ! pres5t "t x is unc]ta9 :e!r !y w realise ! hopes ( _! inv5tors4 ,! additional weight ( ! electric equipm5t is aga9/ !m2 & 9 "s cases !re appe>s to be a l[] all-r\nd effici5cy4 ,s t ! motor-omnibus _w1 z a :ole1 cont9ues to fix its fai? ^u ! improv$ =ms ( me*anical transmission4 ,! und]ly+ idea ( ! petrol-electric sy/em has1 h[ev]1 be5 sugge/$ = m>9e propulsion ) a some:at bett] prospect ( success4 ,!re is a p>tial analogy betwe5 ! conditions ( motor omnibus work+ & ( %ip propulsion ) turb9es4 ,! /eam turb9e is1 l ! petrol eng9e1 ess5tially a high-spe$ ma*9e4 ,! screw propell]1 on ! o!r h&1 works mo/ effici5tly at l[ spe$s4 ,!re=e ! m>9e eng9e] has to try & f9d "s common d5om9ator betwe5 an eng9e :i* runs mo/ effici5tly at high spe$s & a propell] :i* is at its be/ :5 revolv+ comp>atively sl[ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,diagrammatic section ( a /eam%ip :i* has be5 'conv]t$' f ! ord9>y me?od ( propulsion to ! ',p>agon' sy/em ( electric ma9 m>9e propulsion4 ,! reciprocat+ eng9e has be5 replac$ by a /eam turb9e1 c\pl$ direct to an electric g5]ator :i* supplies curr5t to a motor atta*$ to ! propell] %aft4 ,! te/s c>ri$ out ) ?is vessel w indicate ! advantages ( ! electric me?od ( propulsion ev5 ) ! usual long l5g? ( %aft4 ,! vessel has a gross tonnage ( #abda1 & its spe$ is #i knots4 ,! eng9es replac$ ran at #gh revolutions p] m9ute & gave #ejj brake horse p[]4 ,! turb9e n[ in/all$ runs at #bejj r4p4m41 & develops #fcj brake horse p[]4 7,illu/ration reproduc$ by c\rtesy ( ,! ,electrician47 ,! gulf betwe5 ! two has be5 n>r[$ by ! improv$ design ( propell]s4 ,"s eng9e]s ass]t t cont9u$ improvem5ts w bridge ! gulf completely4 ,o!rs h s\ght ! solution 9 ! same way z ! motor eng9e]--by ! use ( me*anical *ange-spe$ ge>s4 ,! sugge/ion has also be5 made to employ hydraulic ge> z an int]m$i>y2 & 9 "s rec5t vessels reciprocat+ eng9es ) comp>atively l[-spe$ turb9es driv5 by exhau/ /eam h be5 adopt$4 ,9 ! electric sy/em ! turb9e is c\pl$ direct to an electric g5]ator & may run cont9u\sly at ! highe/ economical spe$4 ,! propell] %aft may be q %ort & is driv5 by a sl[ spe$ motor connect$ by cables to ! g5]ator4 ,v>i\s arrangem5ts = controll+ ! supply ( curr5t to ! motor 7) appropriate design ( g5]ator & motor7 h be5 devis$ by ,mr ,durtnall1 ,mr ,mavor1 & o!r work]s 9 ?is field2 b :atev] ! details ( ^! arrangem5ts may be1 !y all give a wide range ( spe$ bo? ahead & a/]n4 ,! direct drive ) ! /eam turb9e has really only "o spe$--full spe$ ahead2 & z ! turb9e is irrev]sible1 'a/]n' turb9es h to be in/all$ 9 addition4 ,^! limitations & complications are remov$ entirely :5 electrical transmission is adopt$4 ,moreov]1 ! electric sy/em c be s arrang$ t ! control ge> may be op]at$ f ! bridge itself4 ,! facility 9 manoeuvr+ is1 9 fact1 s m>k$ t x w\ld recomm5d electric m>9e propulsion ev5 if t sy/em (f]$ no advantages on ! score ( economy 9 weight1 space1 & /eam consumption ov] ! exi/+ sy/ems4 ,! /eam turb9e1 x may be not$1 has be5 adopt$ s f> only 9 high-spe$ vessels2 & x is g5]ally recognis$ t its ext5sion to vessels :i* run at #ab or #af knots dep5ds ^u its adaptation to sl[-spe$ propell]s4 ,advocates ( electric m>9e propulsion claim t !y hold ! mo/ effici5t solution ( ?is problem4 ,x may also be po9t$ out t a consid]able section ( m>9e eng9e]s look =w>d to ! use ( int]nal combu/ion eng9es 7driv5 by oil or gas7 on bo>d %ip4 ,= naval purposes especially x w\ld be a great advantage to d away ) funnels & s leave ! decks m free = gun m\nt+s4 ,z int]nal combu/ion eng9es are irrev]sible1 ! electric sy/em (f]s a means ( escape f a fundam5tal drawback to _! use at sea4 ,"h aga9 ! p]fection ( manoeuvr+ p[]1 especially ) tw9 screws 7ei!r ( :i* may be controll$ f ! bridge ?r\gh a wide range ( spe$ ahead or a/]n71 gives ! electric sy/em a /rong claim = consid]ation by ! naval au?orities4 ,x is h>dly necess>y1 except z a matt] ( curiosity1 to ref] to ! sugge/ions made1 f "t to "t1 ( accumulator-driv5 ocean /eam%ips4 ,"s wond]ful pictures h be5 publi%$ ( l>ge vessels ) tons ( balla/ 9 ! =m ( /orage batt]ies4 ,!y are likely to rema9 9 ?is ideal condition1 = al?\gh ! driv+ ( a l>ge vessel by /or$ electricity is q possible1 x is also ab\t ! mo/ exp5sive me?od :i* has ev] be5 propos$4 ,electric p[] f /orage batt]ies has be5 us$ z an auxili>y 9 ! propulsion & manoeuvr+ ( subm>9es4 ,9 a]ial navigation electricity has s f> be5 employ$ to a v limit$ ext5t4 ,small air%ips h be5 design$ to c>ry electric accumulators connect$ ) v>i\s motor-driv5 propell]s = rais+1 l[]+1 go+ ahead or a/]n1 & /e]+4 ,! swit*es :i* control ! passage ( ! curr5t to ^! propell]s are connect$ ) a wireless telegraph receiv]1 s t ea* op]ation may be />t$ or /opp$ by a p>ticul> e!r wave or s]ies ( waves4 ,demon/rations ( su* 'wireless-controll$' air%ips h be5 giv5 9 !atres2 _! field ( usefulness1 if any1 is 9 connection ) w> on l& or sea4 ,:e!r !y w h any bett] fate ?an o!r devices = dropp+ bombs ov] ! enemy's camps or %ips rema9s to be se54 ,"o inv5tor has1 ,i believe1 sugge/$ a means ( direct electrical propulsion = a]oplanes1 ! curr5t be+ d]iv$ f a petrol-driv5 g5]ator & c>ri$ to motors atta*$ to propell]s s arrang$ z to give c]ta9 advantages 9 /ability & manoeuvr+4 ,z yet1 h[ev]1 ! probability ( electricity be+ appli$ to locomotion 9 ! air z well z on l& & on sea is some:at remote4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,pione] ,,electric ,,railways ,electric tramways h rea*$ a p]iod ( middle age 9 :i* !y are m conc]n$ ab\t _! int]nal economy ?an ! prospect ( ent]prise 9 new directions4 ,su* developm5t z !y feel capable ( mak+ "u pres5t legislative conditions is only by proxy & t5tatively1 ) ! aid ( ! trolley omnibus4 ,electric railways1 h[ev]1 h /ill _m worlds to conqu]4 ,!y are n[ 9 mu* ! same position z electric tramways held ab\t ! ye> #ahif4 ,t is to say1 !y h already giv5 practical pro( ( _! capabilities & enabl$ eng9e]s to po9t out ! directions along :i* !y are c]ta9 to develop4 ,9 ! railway _w !re is a gr[+ conviction t ! adoption ( electric traction on all suburban & int]-urban railways mu/ be simply a matt] ( "t4 ,= ma9 l9e traffic ! possibilities ( us+ electricity are z yet only an article ( fai? among electrical eng9e]s4 ,al?\gh ! e>lie/ exp]im5ts 9 electric traction 7 made 9 ! railway =m1 ! fir/ electric l9es c\ld h>dly be reg>d$ z railways 9 ! ord9>y s5se4 ,!y 7 really light railways1 9 :i* ! traffic conditions approximat$ to ^? ( tramways4 ,! r\tes 7 %ort1 ! c>s small1 & ! traffic ( mode/ dim5sions4 ,!y conta9$ ! g]m ( bo? ! tramway & ! railway2 b1 9 ! case ( ! railway1 _m ye>s ( te*nical developm5t _h to pass be=e ! problem ( apply+ electricity to ! h&l+ ( l>ge masses ( traffic "u /&>d railway conditions 0 solv$4 ,! fact t ! fir/ electric railway 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom 0 con/ruct$ at ! ,giant's ,causeway 79 #ahhc7 is significant4 ,! ,giant's ,causeway is "o ( ! few places 9 our isl&s :]e wat] p[] is available close to a di/rict ) a dem& = traffic facilities4 ,9 #ahhe ano!r electric railway d]iv+ its en]gy f wat]-driv5 turb9es 0 built betwe5 ,bessbrook & ,newry4 ,at t p]iod x 0 consid]$ t wat]falls provid$ ! only really feasible s\rce ( *eap electricity on a l>ge scale4 ,ev5 yet ! impression survives t electric p[] /ations us+ /eam _c produce curr5t s *eaply z ^? :i* 'h>ness' wat]falls4 ,_m p1 9 fact1 are incl9$ to attribute ! comp>ative backw>dness ( electrical developm5t 9 ,great ,brita91 n to legislative conditions1 b to ! lack ( l>ge wat]falls4 ,!re might h be5 m active progress 9 ! pione]+ days if ! pres5ce ( wat] p[] at conv5i5t po9ts _h enc\rag$ electrical eng9e]s to repeat ! exp]im5ts at ,portru% & ,bessbrook4 ,b at an e>ly /age 9 electrical hi/ory x became cle> to eng9e]s t coal 0 j z feasible a s\rce ( *eap p[] z wat]4 ,! idea t a wat]fall provides p[] '= no?+' is "o ( ^? sup]ficial conceptions :i* make ! h>die/ ( fallacies4 ,to 'h>ness' a wat]fall requires a heavy exp5diture ( capital on conduits1 pipe-l9es1 dams1 & o!r works4 ,! int]e/ ^u t capital is a heavy item1 ap>t f ! co/ ( ma9t5ance & repairs4 ,wat]falls are situat$ 9 m\nta9\s c\ntry1 g5]ally remote f ! c5tres ( indu/ry2 ! wat]-p[] /ation1 !re=e1 has to face ! co/ ( transmission ma9s & ! loss ( en]gy involv$ 9 convey+ ! p[] to ! place :]e x is want$4 ,fur!r1 wat]falls & ! adjac5t gr\nd belong ei!r to individuals or to ! ,/ate2 & paym5t is g5]ally exact$ = ! "r to use !m4 ,all ^! items h to be cov]$ 9 ! price *>g$ = curr5t to ! public or to railway und]tak+s4 ,nature may provide ! 'head' ( wat] 'free1' b man has to sp5d money 9 utilis+ x1 j z he has to d 9 m9+ & 9 obta9+ heat f ! coal :i* is also provid$ 'free4' ,any?+ :i* is obta9$ '= no?+' is g5]ally wor? no?+4 ,! full economies ( g5]at+ electricity by /eam p[] are n1 h[ev]1 realis$ until bus9ess is done on a l>ge scale4 ,z ! fir/ ess5tial ( a successful electric railway is a pl5tiful supply ( *eap p[]1 developm5t f ! exp]im5tal /age ( ,portru% _h to wait until eng9e]s ma/]$ ! art ( produc+ electricity f l>ge g5]ators4 ,!y ga9$ ! necess>y exp]i5ce ) electric tramways & 9 electric light+4 ,we h se5 h[1 z reg>ds tramways1 legislation delay$ & hamp]$ progress4 ,a simil> cause 0 at "w 9 connection ) electric light+4 ,9 #ahhb an ,act 0 pass$ regulat+ electric light+ on l9es modell$ ^u ! pr9ciples ( ! ,tramways ,act1 #ahgj4 ,capitali/s decl9$ to "w "u ?is ,act2 & x 0 n until aft] #ahhh1 :5 ! ,act 0 am5d$1 t any money c\ld be f\nd 9 ,great ,brita9 = electric light+ s*emes4 ,?is delay 0 a s]i\s h&icap n only to electric light+ b to ! bus9ess ( ,briti% electrical manufactur+1 z !re 01 comp>atively speak+1 no dem& = electrical plant = ov] six ye>s4 ,mean:ile1 matt]s _h be5 advanc+ on normal l9es 9 o!r c\ntries2 & :5 ! dem& came at la/1 ! manufactur]s on ! ,cont95t & 9 ,am]ica 7 ! only ones organis$ & ready to meet x4 ,^! po9ts mu/ be t\*$ ^u 9 ord] to und]/& :y s long a p]iod elaps$ betwe5 ! pione] electric railways & ! real electric railway movem5t z we "k x to-day4 ,!y also s]ve to expla9 ! prom95t "p :i* ,am]ican & ,g]man firms took 9 electrical developm5ts "h4 ,eng9e]+ & legislative conditions comb9$ to ret>d electric railway ent]prise s t x did n beg9 to take firm root 9 ,great ,brita9 until ab\t #ahij1 & did n atta9 to any conspicu\s gr[? until ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,until aft] #ahij ! only electric railways 9 ,great ,brita9 tak+ p[] f /eam dynamos 7 ^? at ,brighton ,bea*1 ,ryde ,pi] 7,isle ( ,wight7 & ,s\!nd ,pi]1 op5$ 9 #ahhc1 #ahhf & #ahij respectively4 ,^! 7 all1 ( c\rse1 ( %ort l5g?4 ,! ,brighton ,bea* railway1 design$ & con/ruct$ by ,mr ,magnus ,volk1 0 a unique piece ( "w4 ,! rails 7 laid on heavy concrete blocks bel[ high-wat] m>k2 & ! c>s 7 plat=ms rais$ on a light iron /ructure4 ,p[] 0 convey$ to ! c>s f wires hung on po/s l ! /&>ds ( a tramway on ! trolley sy/em4 ,! unusual s5sation ( travell+ ov] ! wat] 0 enjoy$ by hundr$s ( p until ! difficulty ( ma9ta9+ ! track 7ow+ to ! erosive action ( ! waves7 l$ to ! railway be+ ab&on$ & ano!r l9e ( m ord9>y "* be+ laid on ! level ( ! und]cliff roadway4 ,! fir/ indication ( ! g5u9e electric railway movem5t 0 giv5 9 #ahic1 :5 ! ,liv]pool ,ov]head ,railway 0 op5$4 ,?is l9e 0 con/ruct$ to af=d communication along ! l9e ( docks fr++ ! ,m]sey4 ,! track 0 c>ri$ on a cont9u\s bridge 9 ord] to avoid ob/ruction betwe5 ! docks & ! /reets beh9d2 & be+ ov]head1 !re 7 s]i\s disadvantages atta*$ to ! use ( /eam locomotives4 ,electric locomotives 7 !re=e employ$4 ,9 ?is case1 x %\ld be not$1 electricity 0 n adopt$ because x 0 m economical or effici5t ?an /eam4 ,! reason lay ) ! peculi> situation ( ! railway4 ,a simil> reason decid$ ! promot]s ( ! ,city & ,s\? ,london ,railway to try electric locomotives on _! l9e4 ,?is railway1 :i* 0 op5$ 9 #ahij1 0 ! fir/ deep level or 'tube' railway 9 ! _w4 ,moreov]1 x 0 con/ruct$ & equipp$ ?r\gh\t by ,briti% eng9e]s1 & at a "t :5 ! art ( tunnell+ 0 mu* less advanc$ ?an x is n[4 ,9 ! lat] & m impos+ developm5t ( tube railways 9 ,london1 ! =esight & ent]prise display$ by ! pione]s ( ! ,city & ,s\? ,london ,railway are apt to be ov]look$4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ! success ( ! orig9al l9e f ! ,monum5t to ,clapham :i* made x possible to raise capital = ! ,c5tral ,london ,railway 7op5$ 9 #aijj7 & = ! ext5sive tube railway sy/em organis$ by ! ,und]gr\nd ,electric ,railways ,company ( ,london4 ,on a deep-level railway1 /eam is1 ( c\rse1 out ( ! "q4 ,ev5 on ! old ',und]gr\nd1' built close to ! surface & furni%$ ) frequ5t op5+s at ! /ations1 & by means ( v5tilat+ %afts1 ! atmosph]ic conditions 7 abom9able4 ,! sulphur\s fumes 7 inde$ recomm5d$ = a/hma & o!r compla9ts1 b on a tube railway !y w\ld h be5 suffici5t to cure e human ailm5t4 ,!re=e ! *oice lay betwe5 electric traction & haulage by cables1 compress$ air1 or "s o!r innocu\s sy/em4 ,)9 ^! limits electricity 0 *os5 on its m]its4 ,! fir/ railway 9 ,great ,brita9 to und]take conv]sion 0 "o 9 :i* bo? ! physical & economic tr\bles 7 exceptionally s]i\s4 ,! ,m]sey ,railway is little m ?an a tunnel "u ! riv]1 & x is di/+ui%$ by heavy gradi5ts & by ! cont9u\s necessity ( pump+ out ! wat] :i* dra9s into x4 ,) /eam traction ! difficulty ( v5tilat+ ! tunnel 0 an add$ tr\ble4 ,ow+ to ^! v>i\s causes ! work+ exp5ses 7 abnormally heavy1 & l$ ultimately to a receiv]%ip4 ,electric traction 0 adopt$ z ! only possible cure4 ,! pump+ & v5tilation arrangem5ts 7 bo? reorganis$ = electric p[]2 & ! tra9s 7 equipp$ ) electric traction on ! 'multiple-unit' sy/em1 an arrangem5t--to be describ$ 9 ! next *apt]--:i* is well suit$ to ! economical h&l+ ( /eep gradi5ts4 ,! practical result 0 a great increase 9 traffic1 ) a m>k$ decrease 9 ! proportion ( exp5ses to receipts4 ,no o!r ,briti% railways1 happily1 7 9 s desp]ate a condition z ! ,m]sey l9e1 b all ( !m 71 at ! end ( la/ c5tury1 feel+ ! effect ( c]ta9 disquiet+ t5d5cies4 ,^! t5d5cies 7 mo/ m>k$ 9 connection ) suburban & %ort-di/ance int]-urban traffic1 :i* is q di/9ct 9 "* f ! ma9-l9e traffic4 ,we talk glibly en\gh ( railway traffic z if x 7 a unity1 b x is cle> t v diff]5t consid]ations gov]n ! traffic on a ma9 l9e betwe51 say1 ,london & ,glasg[1 & ^? :i* control ! traffic on ,london suburban r\tes or on a railway connect+ ! adjac5t t[ns ( ! ,pott]ies4 ,"s railways h to deal ) all ?ree classes at ! same "t & occasionally on ! same l9es ( rails4 ,electric traction has1 s f>1 made itself felt only :]e ! suburban or simil> int]-urban traffic has be5 sep>able f ! ma9 l9e traffic4 ,! gr[? :i* took place 9 suburban traffic be=e & aft] ! end ( ! c5tury ought to h br\ght increas$ prosp]ity to ! railway companies1 b x did n always d s4 ,competition betwe5 ! v>i\s companies l$ to a r$uction 9 f>es2 ,p>liam5t1 by e/abli%+ workm5's f>es1 =c$ ! companies to c>ry an ev]-increas+ numb] ( pass5g]s at a loss1 or at lea/ )\t pr(it2 wages t5d$ to increase & h\rs ( work+ to decrease--bo? affect+ ! co/ ( op]ation2 rates & taxes became heavi] & heavi] ) ! gr[? ( municipal exp5diture2 & a high] /&>d ( com=t & effici5cy 0 dem&$ by ! public4 ,9 "s in/ances ! situation 0 aggravat$ by ! competition ( electric tramways along r\tes p>allel to ! railways4 ,?is competition 0 limit$ to po9t-to-po9t traffic1 its maximum range be+ ab\t ?ree miles2 b x 0 a grievance aga9/ :i* ! railway companies prote/$ v l\dly1 especially :5 ! tramways 7 own$ by local au?orities to :i* ! railways paid l>ge sums 9 rates4 ,! g5]al effect ( all ^! factors 0 to r$uce ! m>g9 ( pr(it on :i* ! railways 7 work+4 ,we h se51 9 ! case ( tramways1 h[ easy x is = a slight *ange 9 a frequ5tly-recurr+ exp5se to h a s]i\s effect 9 ! aggregate4 ,railways are 9 mu* ! same position2 & ! v>i\s influ5ces at "w ^u ! suburban traffic br\ght !m face to face ) ! importance1 if n ! necessity1 ( f9d+ "s means ( deal+ ) l>g] volumes ( traffic on a basis m economical ?an t provid$ by /eam locomotives4 ,?is means !y f\nd 9 electric traction2 b x may be not$ t ev5 railway eng9e]s took "s "t to realise exactly :at electric traction (f]$ !m4 ,!y 7 look+ = some?+ to r$uce _! annual exp5ses2 & :5 !y made calculations ab\t electric traction !y f\nd t1 :5 ! exp5se ( provid+ ! electrical equipm5t 0 tak5 into acc\nt1 ! total co/ ( haul+ ! tra9s electrically on ! exi/+ s*$ule might be great] in/ead ( less ?an ! co/ ( /eam haulage4 ,!y 7 !re=e incl9$ to look ^u ! economic b5efits ( electric traction z an illusion4 ,9 c\rse ( "t1 h[ev]1 x came to be recognis$ t ! function ( electricity is n to act l a blue p5cil on ! debit side ( ! rev5ue acc\nt4 ,its ess5tial purpose is to increase ! volume ( traffic4 ,f ! public po9t ( view ?is is v mu* m valuable4 ,pass5g]s are n directly conc]n$ ) means ( r$uc+ work+ exp5ses1 b !y are closely int]e/$ 9 ! improvem5t ( ! frequ5cy & spe$ ( ! s]vice4 ,! adoption ( electricity on suburban l9es has really be5 dictat$ by ! dem& = increas$ facilities4 ,at ! 'ru%' h\rs ( ! morn+ & ev5+1 :5 ! great tide ( work]s fl[s & ebbs1 ! capacity ( ! /eam l9es 0 tax$ to ! utmo/4 ,& ) ! gr[? ( population ! difficulty ( runn+ suffici5tly frequ5t tra9s became almo/ insup]able4 ,ap>t f ^! p>ticul> necessities1 ! g5]al features ( railway economics po9t to ! supreme advantage ( increas+ ! volume ( traffic 9 e possible way4 ,9 a railway1 z 9 a tramway1 ! prepond]at+ item is ! co/ ( con/ruction & ma9t5ance2 & unless a c]ta9 m9imum ( traffic is c>ri$1 ! mo/ economical work+ 9 ! _w w n secure a pr(it4 ,! /&+ *>ges fall ^u ! idle h\rs z well z ^u ! busy2 = e m9ute t a l9e ( rails /&s empty !re is a loss ( money4 ,railway progress dep5ds ^u r$uc+ ! proportion ( idle h\rs2 & t c only be done :]e !re is scope = ! gr[? ( traffic1 & :]e !re is means--su* z electric traction--( deal+ ) t gr[? on an economical basis4 ,9 ! succe$+ *apt] x is expla9$ h[ electric traction enables a m frequ5t s]vice to be run ) advantage ev5 on sy/ems :i* 7 work$ to ! maximum limit possible "u /eam conditions4 ,b 9 ! meantime x w be int]e/+ to trace ! effect itself on a railway :i* soon foll[$ ! ,m]sey ,railway 9 mak+ ! *ange f /eam to electricity--! ,metropolitan ,di/rict ,railway4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,an electric tra9 on ! ,metropolitan ,di/rict ,railway1 equipp$ by ! ,briti% ,?omson ,h\/on ,company4 ,! front & re> c>s & "o int]m$iate c> are equipp$ ) electric motors1 all controll$ f ! 'cab' at ! end ( ! tra94 ,! controll] h&le may be se5 close to ! ne>e/ w9d[ ( ! fir/ c>4 ,! rail imm$iately 9 front ( ! foot ( ! gu>d is ! conductor rail :i* conveys ! curr5t to ! tra94 ,! rail betwe5 ! track rails c>ries ! return curr5t4 ,?r\gh\t ! /eam age ! f9ance ( ! ,di/rict ,railway ,company 0 z unattractive z ! physical conditions ( ! railway itself4 ,no divid5d 0 ev] paid on ! ord9>y %>es2 & ev5 ) ! gr[? ( ,london !re 0 little prospect ( any divid5d ev] be+ paid4 ,:5--ab\t t5 ye>s ago--! late ,mr ,c4 ,t4 ,y]kes came ov] f ,am]ica & obta9$ a controll+ int]e/ 9 ! ,di/rict ,railway ,company ) a view to conv]t+ x to electric traction1 he 0 reg>d$ z a philan?ropic en?usia/4 ,_m ( ! %>ehold]s !mselves 7 reluctant to give _! ass5t to ! *ange2 !y pref]r$ to be> ! ills !y knew ?an fly to o!rs :i* might be introduc$ by an ,am]ican f9anci]4 ,b ,mr ,y]kes & ^? :o work$ ) him _h some?+ m 9 view ?an ! improvem5t ( traffic on ! ,di/rict ,railway4 ,!y acquir$ control ( sev]al tube railway s*emes & obta9$ p[]s = new l9es1 s z to organise a compreh5sive sy/em ( und]gr\nd electric transport 9 ,london4 ,!y _h suffici5t fai? 9 ! traffic possibilities ( ,london to f9d ! enorm\s capital requir$ to con/ruct ^! tube railways & also to conv]t ! :ole ,di/rict ,railway to electric traction4 ,! con/ructional "w occupi$ sev]al ye>s2 & aft] ! l9es 7 op5$ "o by "o1 arrangem5ts _h to be develop$ = ?r\gh-book+s among ! v>i\s l9es & betwe5 !m all & ! exi/+ und]gr\nd railways l ! ,c5tral ,london ,railway1 ! ,metropolitan ,railway 7closely l9k$ ) ! ,metropolitan ,di/rict7 & ! ,city & ,s\? ,london ,railway4 ,a sy/ematic attempt 0 also made to develop ! travell+ habit 9 ,london by p]si/5t adv]tis+ ( ! railway s]vices & by increas+ ! frequ5cy & rapidity ( ! tra9s4 ,f ^! po9ts ( view ! organisation ( ! network ( l9es compreh5sively kn[n by ! title ( ',und]gr\nd' is c]ta9ly unsurpass$4 ,! difficulties :i* _h to be ov]come 9 ?is great "w 7 enorm\s1 b !re has be5 no break 9 ! ?read ( progress4 ,! 'tubes' are pay+ divid5ds :i*1 ?\gh mode/1 are an enc\ragem5t to fur!r developm5ts4 ,! f9ance ( ! ,di/rict ,railway has lo/ its elem5t ( *ronic despair4 ,consid]$ z a :ole1 ! results prove t :]e !re is ! pot5tiality ( l>ge traffic1 electricity is ! in/rum5t :i* mu/ be appli$4 ,dur+ ! /eam days1 ! mo/ cr[d$ "p ( ! ,di/rict ,railway 7! ',inn] ,circle'7 c>ri$ a maximum ( #af tra9s p] h\r4 ,) electric traction t figure has be5 rais$ to #dj tra9s p] h\r4 ,& ! rem>kable ?+ is t ) ea* increase 9 ! s]vice ! traffic gr[s4 ,_m p welcom$ ! electrification ( ! ,di/rict z a measure ( relief f ! ov]cr[d+ on ! /eam tra9s dur+ ! busy h\rs4 ,b ) a s]vice ( tra9s m ?an d\bl$ 9 frequ5cy & also increas$ 9 capacity p] tra91 ov]cr[d+ cont9ues & ! '/raphang]' has become an e/abli%$ in/itution4 ,x may be accept$ z sub/antially prov$ t1 on suburban & int]-urban railways 9 popul\s di/ricts1 electric traction is a means ( increas+ traffic & dim9i%+ ! proportion ( work+ co/s4 ,moreov]1 ^! results h be5 a*iev$ 9 conjunction ) sub/antial r$uctions 9 f>es & ) m>k$ improvem5ts 9 ! com=t ( travell+4 ,! eng9e]+ aspect ( ^! *anges has n[ to be consid]$4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,electric ,,railways ,,f ,,! ,,eng9e]+ ,,po9t ,,( ,,view ,:5 electric railways 7 fir/ consid]$1 ! natural t5d5cy ( eng9e]s 0 to foll[ ! exi/+ model & m]ely sub/itute electric locomotives = /eam locomotives4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 h[ev]1 ! eng9e]+ me?od n[ adopt$ is an evolution f ! tramway model1 n f t ( ! typical railway4 ,a c]ta9 advantage 01 ( c\rse1 to be ga9$ by replac+ /eam locomotives by electric ones4 ,! great] '/>t+ torque' ( ! electric locomotive enables x to get a tra9 up to full spe$ m quickly2 & ! capacity ( ! electric motor = tak+ heavy ov]loads assi/s ! electric tra9 9 surm\nt+ heavy gradi5ts4 ,"s advantage 0 also ga9$ by produc+ all ! p[] at a c5tral s\rce1 in/ead ( hav+ a l>ge numb] ( /eam locomotives1 :i* are really p[] /ations on :eels4 ,b ! electric locomotive _h /ill to be made heavy en\gh to get suffici5t grip ( ! rails2 x _h to haul its own dead weight2 & x _h to be made p[]ful en\gh to tackle a full-siz$ tra9 on ! /eepe/ gradi5t ) its complem5t ( pass5g]s1 al?\gh ! g5]al dem& ^u x might be consid]ably less ?an t maximum4 ,! electric locomotive1 9 %ort1 0 an advance ^u ! /eam locomotive1 b x did n get pa/ ! ess5tial drawbacks ( ! locomotive sy/em4 ,a locomotive is mo/ economical :5 haul+ full tra9s = long di/ances at a uni=m spe$2 x is ess5tially a long-di/ance ma*9e4 ,! fir/ dem& = electrification came1 h[ev]1 f suburban railways1 :]e ! /ations are close toge!r & :]e1 !re=e1 ! spe$ is con/antly v>y+ f z]o up to a maximum & back to z]o aga94 ,! traffic also fluctuates betwe5 extreme limits2 & !re is obvi\s wa/e 9 hav+ to run heavy locomotives & tra9s backw>ds & =w>ds dur+ ! slack h\rs4 ,!re 0 !re=e a dem& = "s me?od ( propulsion :i* w\ld enable ! l5g? ( tra9s & ! consumption ( p[] to be adju/$ m closely to ! v>iations 9 ! traffic4 ,a /ep 9 ! "r direction 0 tak5 :5 ! locomotive equipm5t 0 plac$ on a c>1 ?us utilis+ ! weight ( ! pass5g]s to increase ! adhesion on ! rails4 ,b ! full advantages ( electric traction 7 n realis$ until :at is kn[n z ! 'multiple-unit' sy/em 0 adopt$4 ,! idea und]ly+ ?is sy/em is q simple4 ,if1 in/ead ( conc5trat+ ! motive p[] on a s+le locomotive or driv+ unit1 we di/ribute x among ! c>s =m+ a tra91 we get ! multiple-unit sy/em4 ,an electric tramc> & a trail] atta*$ to ano!r tramc> & trail]1 ) a ?ird tramc> beh9d1 w\ld =m a model = a multiple-unit tra94 ,by connect+ ! electrical equipm5ts on ! ?ree tramc>s--front1 middle1 & re>--x w\ld be possible to control ! tra9 f ei!r end or f ! middle4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple ^u :i* all ! electric railways 9 ,great ,brita9 are n[ work$1 ) ! exception ( ! ,city & ,s\? ,london ,railway1 :]e locomotives are /ill us$ & :]e ! tra9s are comp>atively %ort & light4 ,x w be se5 t ea* multiple-unit tra9 is readily divisible4 ,a s+le motor c> may be run1 or a c> ) "o or two trail]s1 or a long tra9 made up ( z _m motor c>s & trail]s z ! plat=ms w accommodate4 ,& :e!r ! tra9s are long or %ort1 ! p[] absorb$ is 9 proportion to ! l5g? ( ! tra9 & ! load ( pass5g]s4 ,by ?is simple means p[] is economis$1 & ! railway eng9e] is able to r$uce ! proportion ( idle roll+ /ock4 ,! adju/m5t ( ! l5g? ( tra9s to ! fluctuations ( ! s]vice is made easi] by ! abs5ce1 9 ! multiple-unit sy/em1 ( ! necessity ( %unt+ at ! t]m9i4 ,z a multiple-unit tra9 c be controll$ f ei!r end1 a m frequ5t z well z a m flexible s]vice c be run4 ,) /eam traction ! numb] ( tra9s :i* may ent] or leave a t]m9us is limit$ by ! "t occupi$ 9 %unt+ & by ! necessity ( leav+ l9es ( rails free = t op]ation4 ,) an electric tra9 on ! multiple-unit sy/em1 no m "t is lo/ ?an ! few seconds necess>y = ! driv] to walk f ! front ( ! tra9 to ! re>1 :i* !n becomes ! 'front4' ,no l9es h to be kept op5 = %unt+ locomotives1 s t ! available accommodation = tra9s is consid]ably increas$4 ,"s ( ! ,london railway companies h sp5t enorm\s sums 9 enl>g+ _! t]m9al accommodation & h f\nd t x is /ill inadequate to ! dem&s ( ! 'ru%' traffic4 ,electric traction !re=e (f]s !m an improvem5t ( enorm\s value )\t ! exp5diture ( a p5ny on /ation alt]ations4 ,! cr[n+ advantage ( electric traction lies1 h[ev]1 9 ! m rapid accel]ation :i* x af=ds4 ,we h already se5 h[ important ?is item is on tramways4 ,x is /ill m important on suburban railways1 :]e a high av]age spe$1 9 spite ( frequ5t /ops1 is a vital matt]4 ,on ! ,di/rict ,railway ! rate ( accel]ation 9 ! old /eam days 0 ab\t #f in*es p] second p] second4 ,x 01 9 fact1 s l[ t ! tra9s c\ld n rea* a fair spe$ be=e ! brakes _h to be appli$ to br+ ! tra9 to a /op at ! next /ation4 ,) electric traction ! rate ( accel]ation has ris5 to ab\t #ah in*es p] second p] second4 ,on ! ,liv]pool ,ov]head ,railway a rate ( #cf in*es p] second p] second 0 rea*$ 9 c]ta9 te/s4 ,heavy />t+ curr5ts are1 ( c\rse1 necess>y to br+ a tra9 f re/ to full spe$ at su* a rapid rate1 b x is q possible = ! electrical eng9e]1 )\t be+ unduly extravagant 9 curr5t1 to accel]ate a tra9 m quickly ?an ! pass5g]s w\ld f9d com=table4 ,! practical result ( rapid accel]ation 7comb9$ ) rapid brak+7 is n only to give a high] av]age spe$ b also to enable a m frequ5t s]vice to be run4 ,ow+ to ! block sy/em on railways x is impossible = tra9s to foll[ ea* o!r closely 9 ! mann] ( tramc>s2 & x is !re=e ( c>d9al importance t no tra9 %\ld occupy a block = "o second m ?an is necess>y4 ,rapid accel]ation becomes all ! m important 9 ?is respect because ( ! difficulty ( sett+ d[n & pick+ up pass5g]s quickly4 ,?is difficulty is ov]come 9 "p by us+ saloon c>riages ) middle & end doors1 9 place ( comp>tm5t c>riages4 ,at fir/ ! ,di/rict ,railway tri$ to help matt]s by op]at+ ^! doors pneumatically1 b ! me*anism became unpopul> aft] a numb] ( late-com]s _h be5 p9*$ by clos+ doors4 ,! managem5t has rev]t$ to h& op]ation2 & x has probably a*iev$ m by educat+ ! public to move quickly ?an x w\ld h ga9$ ) its too-p]fect me*anical sy/em4 ,london travell]s h become s accu/om$ to ent]+ & leav+ tra9s quickly t x is possible = an obs]v] to di/+ui% /rang]s by _! sl[] movem5ts on an und]gr\nd railway4 ,?us ! pass5g]1 z well z ! s]vice1 has be5 'spe$$-up4' ,! m frequ5t s]vice ( tra9s ) a high] av]age spe$ w\ld n h be5 possible1 h[ev]1 )\t an improvem5t ^u ! old me?ods ( signall+4 ,!re is no ne$ to dwell ^u ! weakness ( ! human elem5t 9 railway signall+2 & x w be cle> ev5 to ! layman t ! /ra9 ( h&l+ traffic ) a headway ( "o m9ute & a half1 or less1 w\ld be m ?an m5 c\ld /&4 ,automatic signall+ _h !re=e to be adopt$ to obviate ! risk ( disa/]4 ,ea* tra91 z x leaves a block or section1 'cle>s' ! signals = t block2 & :5 any tra9 attempts to ent] a block aga9/ signals1 ! curr5t is automatically swit*$ (f & ! brakes appli$4 ,! sy/em is s p]fect t1 9 spite ( ! enorm\s traffic work$ "u x1 !re has be5 no failure & no accid5t4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 co/ly to in/all2 & its co/ c be ju/ifi$ 7f9ancially7 only :5 ! traffic is v heavy--t is to say1 :5 ! conditions make x almo/ a necessity4 ,! supply ( electric p[] to electric railways is organis$ on practically ! same l9es z 9 ! case ( tramways4 ,t is to say1 curr5t is g5]at$ at a c5tral /ation1 transmitt$ at high pressure to v>i\s sub-/ations1 & suppli$ f !re at work+ pressure ?r\gh 'fe$]s' to ea* section ( ! sy/em4 ,9 ! case ( ! ',und]gr\nd' sy/em1 mo/ ( ! p[] is tak5 f a s+le huge electric /ation at ,*elsea4 ,curr5t f t /ation drives tra9s z f> we/ z ,wimbl$on1 ,h\nsl[1 & ,eal+1 z f> nor? z ,highgate & ,gold]'s ,gre51 & z f> ea/ z ,b>k+4 ,?is is a magnific5t example ( ! conc5tration :i* gives economy4 ,if ea* ( ! und]gr\nd railways =m+ ! sy/em _h erect$ its own g5]at+ /ation1 ! total initial outlay1 on l&1 build+s1 & ma*9]y1 w\ld h be5 great]1 & ! co/ ( curr5t w\ld h be5 high]1 ow+ to ! small] output & ! m irregul> dem& :i* a s+le railway af=ds4 ,! ideal electric p[] /ation is "o :i* is con/ruct$ ) ! l>ge/ g5]at+ units & produces curr5t at its maximum capacity ?r\gh\t ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs ( ea* day4 ,! ,*elsea p[] /ation is ne>] ! ideal ?an a small] "o supply+ a %ort railway c\ld be4 ,& a /ation ( ! latt] class is1 x may be not$1 ne>] ! ideal ?an ! arrangem5ts on a /eam railway1 :]e ! s\rces ( p[] are scatt]$ 9 hundr$s ( locomotives4 ,! conc5tration ( p[] is !re=e "o ( ! _m factors :i* h enabl$ electric railways to give a va/ly improv$ s]vice at l[] f>es4 ,) two exceptions--to be consid]$ 9 ! next *apt]--! electric railways ( ,great ,brita9 are con/ruct$ on ! '?ird-rail' sy/em4 ,!y are ?us a rev]sion to--or1 r1 a survival (--! orig9al type adopt$ by ,siem5s 9 #ahgi4 ,! '?ird-rail' is c>ri$ on insulators a few in*es outside ! track rail2 & ! motor c>s are provid$ ) a 'bru%' or '%oe' :i* slides along x & collects ! curr5t4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! track !re is g5]ally a second insulat$ rail to c>ry ! return curr5t1 z x is m conv5i5t1 "u railway conditions1 to h a conductor indep5d5t ( ! track rails ?an to foll[ ! tramway plan ( us+ ! rails 'bond$' toge!r4 ,9 /ations & at cross+s ! ?ird or 'live' rail is protect$ by a wood5 bo>d 9 ord] to r$uce ! risk ( %ock to anyone fall+ on ! l9e or walk+ ^u x4 ,! bo>d is plac$ high en\gh ov] ! rail to all[ ! %oe to pass freely4 ,z reg>ds ! motor equipm5t on ! c>s1 tramway models h be5 foll[$ v closely4 ,! 's]ies-p>allel' sy/em ( control is aga9 adopt$ 9 ord] to get ! high />t+ torque :i* gives rapid accel]ation ) mod]ate curr5t consumption4 ,! c\rse ( ! curr5t is aga9 f ! live rail1 ?r\gh ! controll]1 ?r\gh ! motors1 & !nce to ! return rail4 ,! controll] itself is m or less on ! tramway pr9ciple2 & ! ma9 modification 9 x is ! arrangem5t :i* enables all ! motors on a multiple-unit tra9 to be op]at$ by a s+le controll]4 ,?is is done by connect+ ! controll]s electrically & us+ electric p[] s t !y all "w 9 unison4 ,"s companies use1 = ?is purpose1 compress$ air controll$ by electricity in/ead ( electric p[] alone1 b 9 bo? cases ! pr9ciple is ess5tially ! same4 ,consid]$ z a :ole1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 a tramway & an electric railway on ! ?ird-rail sy/em is a diff]5ce 9 degree1 n 9 k9d4 ,! traffic is great] & ! spe$s high]1 b bo? s]ve ! purposes ( comp>atively %ort-di/ance transit4 ,inde$1 )9 c]ta9 limits !y compete ) ea* o!r4 ,!re rema9s to be consid]$ ano!r type ( ,briti% electric railway :i* po9ts ! way to ! ext5sion ( ! new mode ( traction to ma9 l9e railways4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,electric ,,traction ,,on ,,ma9 ,,l9e ,,railways ,on tramways1 automobiles1 & '?ird-rail' l9es1 ! electric curr5t us$ belongs to ! type describ$ z 'cont9u\s' or 'direct1' because ! fl[ is always 9 ! same direction4 ,! o!r type ( curr5t is kn[n z 'alt]nat+1' z x fl[s backw>ds & =w>ds _m times p] second4 ,!re are sev]al k9ds ( alt]nat+ curr5t--s+le-phase1 two-phase1 ?ree-phase1 & polyphase--ea* produc$ f g5]ators design$ 9 a p>ticul> way4 ,x is n possible to give any adequate acc\nt ( ^! diff]5t k9ds ( alt]nat+ curr5t )\t go+ r deeply into ! !ory ( electricity4 ,! ultimate practical po9t is t 9 transmitt+ alt]nat+ curr5ts ! circuits increase 9 numb] ) ! phases4 ,?us1 ?ree-phase curr5t requires ?ree wires1 two-phase curr5t ?ree or f\r wires1 & s+le-phase curr5t a s+le circuit l t ( cont9u\s curr5t#a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,photograph ( a tra9 on ! electrifi$ section ( ! ,london1 ,brighton & ,s\? ,coa/ ,railway4 ,! ov]head wire is susp5d$ f cables /ret*$ betwe5 insulators1 & curr5t is convey$ f x to ! tra9s ?r\gh a 'b[' :i* slides along its l[] side4 ,! photograph is tak5 f ! re> "p ( ! tra94 ,! front & re> c>s are bo? equipp$ ) electric motors4 ,:]e curr5t has to be convey$ economically ov] long di/ances1 x is g5]ally done 9 ! =m ( alt]nat+ curr5t at high pressure4 ,= in/ance1 ! transmission f a tramway p[] /ation to ! sub-/ations is almo/ uni=mly by ?ree-phase curr5t at1 say1 #ejjj volts4 ,:5 x rea*es ! sub-/ation1 x is 'trans=m$' d[n to ! work+ pressure ( #ejj volts & 'conv]t$' f alt]nat+ to cont9u\s curr5t by means ( rot>y ma*9]y4 ,! trans=m+ is done by a /ation>y piece ( app>atus simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! famili> induction coil4 ,an induction coil takes curr5t at a few volts f a batt]y into its prim>y circuit & trans=ms x1 by induction 9 ! second>y circuit1 into curr5t ( high en\gh voltage to give a long sp>k4 ,a trans=m] c be design$ to '/ep-up' or '/ep-d[n' ! pressure accord+ to ! requirem5ts ( ! case4 ,s mu* explanation is necess>y to give "s acc\nt ( ! alt]nat+ curr5t railways on ! ,cont95t & !nce ( ! s+le-phase sy/em on ! ,london1 ,brighton & ,s\? ,coa/ ,railway4 ,! ,morecambe & ,hey%am section ( ! ,midl& ,railway is also equipp$ on ! s+le-phase sy/em4 ,mo/ ( ! e>lie/ electric railways on ! ,cont95t d]iv$ _! p[] f wat]falls & _h to transmit x = a consid]able di/ance4 ,?ree-phase curr5t at high pressure be+ adopt$ = ?is purpose1 ! ,cont95tal eng9e]s set to "w to f9d "s means ( utilis+ ! high-pressure ?ree-phase curr5t directly4 ,!y did ?is by c>ry+ ! ?ree wires on poles alongside ! railway track1 & us+ ?ree 'b[' collectors 79 place ( trolley :eels7 to convey ! curr5t to trans=m]s on ! motor c>s or locomotives4 ,9 ^! trans=m]s ! curr5t 0 br\ght d[n to work+ pressure & !n l$ to motors design$ = ?ree-phase curr5t4 ,an imm5se am\nt ( te*nical +5uity 0 ex]cis$ 9 develop+ ?is sy/em2 & :5 ! ,metropolitan ,railway decid$ to foll[ ! ,di/rict 9 electrify+ its l9es1 a ?ree-phase sy/em 0 propos$4 ,z ! ,metropolitan & ,metropolitan ,di/rict companies %>e ! work+ ( ! ,inn] ,circle1 x 0 necess>y t bo? %\ld adopt ! same sy/em4 ,! result 0 t ! "q betwe5 ?ree-phase & cont9u\s curr5t work+ _h to g to arbitration4 ,aft] a long discussion ( masses ( te*nical evid5ce1 ,mr ,lyttelton1 ! arbitrator1 decid$ t ! direct curr5t sy/em 0 bett] suit$ to ! conditions ( traffic on an und]gr\nd railway 9 ,london4 ,! wisdom ( t decision w n be que/ion$ n[4 ,?ree-phase motors d n give ! rapid accel]ation :i* is s urg5tly requir$ on suburban l9es2 !re are complications 9 spe$ control2 & ! necessity ( hav+ ?ree ov]head conductors is also a s]i\s drawback4 ,= comp>atively long-di/ance traffic ) few /ops1 h[ev]1 ! ?ree-phase sy/em is q suitable4 ,t is to say1 x is a possible solution ( ! ma9 l9e problem4 ,! great simplicity & flexibility ( ! p[] supply arrangem5ts 9 ! case ( alt]nat+ curr5t traction enc\rag$ eng9e]s to f9d some?+ bett] adapt$ to ord9>y railway conditions ?an ! ?ree-phase motor4 ,_! problem 0 to f9d an arrangem5t :i* requir$ "o ov]head conductor in/ead ( ?ree1 & also provid$ a motor ) ! high />t+ torque & easy spe$ control ( ! cont9u\s-curr5t motor4 ,aft] mu* !oretical & exp]im5tal "w1 !y f\nd x 9 ! s+le-phase sy/em1 us+ a motor :i* is simil> 9 _m respects to ! cont9u\s-curr5t motor b capable ( be+ op]at$ by alt]nat+ curr5t4 ,on ! advice ( ,mr ,philip ,dawson1 ! ,london1 ,brighton & ,s\? ,coa/ ,railway ,company decid$ to exp]im5t ) ?is sy/em on ! d\ble l9e connect+ ,london ,bridge & ,victoria /ations1 ab\t #i miles long4 ,p[] is suppli$ to ea* track by a s+le ov]head conductor c>ry+ curr5t at #fjjj volts4 ,trans=m]s are plac$ on ! tra9s to br+ ! pressure d[n to #cjj volts2 ! curr5t is !n l$ ?r\gh controll]s to s+le-phase motors 9 mu* ! usual way4 ,! reason = us+ s high a pressure on ! ov]head l9e is n only economy 9 transmission4 ,if l[] pressures 7 us$1 ! heavy curr5ts requir$ = tra9 propulsion w\ld require a ?ick] conductor & correspond+ly heavi] supports4 ,at #fjjj volts x is possible = two d\ble slid+ b[s to collect suffici5t curr5t = a heavy tra9 f a wire :i* is comp>able 9 ?ickness to ! ord9>y trolley wire ( a tramway4 ,! p[] di/ribution arrangem5ts1 x w be notic$1 are v mu* simpl] ?an ) cont9u\s curr5t on ! ?ird-rail sy/em4 ,!re are no sub-/ations ) rot>y ma*9]y4 ,p[] is suppli$ direct f ! g5]at+ /ation to ! ov]head l9e & is trans=m$ d[n by /ation>y plant on ! tra9 itself4 ,s+le-phase traction repres5ts1 9 fact1 p[] transmission = railway purposes r$uc$ to its simple/ elem5ts4 ,! ov]head con/ruction diff]s1 h[ev]1 9 "s important po9ts f ! tramway /&>d4 ,! supports1 :i* are 9 bo? bridge & bracket =m1 are /rong]2 ! insulators are1 ow+ to ! mu* high] pressure employ$1 m massive2 & a diff]5t means ( susp5sion has be5 adopt$4 ,ea* conductor is hung by l9ks f two /eel cables /ret*$ *a9-wise betwe5 ! supports4 ,?is me?od ( 'cat5>y susp5sion' enables ! b[ to slide along ! wire )\t ! jolts :i* are noticeable ) a tramway trolley4 ,su* smoo? runn+ keeps ! b[ cont9u\sly at an ev5 pressure on ! wire--an advantage :i* is ( great importance at high spe$s4 ,! tra9s are arrang$ on ! multiple-unit sy/em4 ,! full f9ancial results obta9$ on ?is railway h n s f> be5 made public2 b x is suffici5t = our purpose to note t ! ,company1 aft] m ?an a ye>'s full trial1 ext5d$ ! sy/em to ! ,cry/al ,palace & to ,croydon4 ,fur!r ext5sions are1 x is und]/ood1 contemplat$ ov] ! suburban l9es to ,sutton & else:]e2 & 9 c\rse ( "t ! conv]sion ( ! ma9 l9e to ,brighton w be und]tak54 ,"h we t\* ^u ! mo/ int]e/+ aspect ( ?is demon/ration ( electric traction on ! s+le-phase sy/em4 ,! sy/em 0 adopt$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance because ! ?ird-rail sy/em w\ld lead to complications & dang]s :i* c\ld n be p]mitt$ at cr[d$ railway t]m9i %>$ by all k9ds ( traffic1 suburban & ma9 l9e4 ,b ! advis]s ( ! ,company _h also 9 view ! possibility ( developm5t beyond ! range ( suburban traffic4 ,!y !re=e s\ght a sy/em :i*1 :ile comp>able to ! ?ird-rail cont9u\s curr5t 9 ! h&l+ ( suburban bus9ess1 w\ld be adaptable to ma9 l9e conditions1 :]e infrequ5t /ops & long runs at high spe$s are ! rule4 ,! adoption ( electric traction on su* a r\te z ! ,brighton ma9 l9e w\ld be a b5efit 9 sev]al ways4 ,x w\ld lead to a fa/] express s]vice1 z ! high ov]load capacity ( ! electric motor enables x to take small acc\nt ( gradi5ts4 ,x w\ld also lead to a m frequ5t s]vice1 z ! electric sy/em is free f ! conditions :i* =ce a /eam railway to try to conc5trate traffic on a limit$ numb] ( long tra9s4 ,fur!r1 x w\ld1 by r$uc+ ! "t lo/ 9 /opp+ & />t+1 br+ ! av]age spe$ ( /opp+ tra9s mu* clos] to t ( express tra9s4 ,all ^! improvem5ts--assi/$1 probably1 by l[] f>es--%\ld lead to a great increase 9 ! volume ( traffic1 ?us reproduc+ ! *>act]i/ic results ( electric traction on suburban l9es4 ,footnote #a3 ,an admirable explanation ( alt]nat+ curr5ts w be f\nd 9 ,mr ,frank ,broadb5t's ,*ats on ,electricity4 7,w]n] ,laurie1 #aiaj47 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,curiosities ,,( ,,electric ,,traction ,l _m o!r indu/ries1 electric traction has _h its hi/ory bright5$ & made picturesque by curiosities ( inv5tion4 ,locomotion has1 9 fact1 be5 a fav\rite field = ! freak inv5tor2 & "s ( 8 ef=ts ) electric c>s h be5 z weird & z fatu\s z ! mo/ rem>kable ( p]petual motion devices4 ,"o ( ^! electrical mon/rosities 01 inde$1 a k9d ( p]petual motion arrangem5t4 ,x 0 inv5t$ ab\t ! ye> #ahij & consi/$ ( a c> equipp$ ) accumulators :i* suppli$ p[] to a motor :i* drove a hydraulic pump1 :i* 9 turn work$ a dynamo supply+ curr5t to motors driv+ ! axles ( ! c>1 & also to ! accumulator = re-*>g+ purposes4 ,! inv5tor 0 s sure t he _h got ! bett] ( ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy t he provid$ 8 c> ) po9t$ ends1 fitt$ ) revolv+ fans to break d[n ! air-pressure1 9 ord] t a spe$ ( #abe miles p] h\r might be a*iev$4 ,8 "n 0 ,am52 & x provides a fitt+ comm5t ^u 8 s*eme4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illu/ration ( ,elb]feld-,b>m5 hang+ electric railway4 ,f ,! ,electrical ,indu/ry 7,books on ,bus9ess71 publi%$ by ,messrs ,me?u54 ,sev]al electric fly+-ma*9e ideas f\nd _! way on to ! pat5t records4 ,9 #ahic a ,fr5*man regi/]$ a design = an air-%ip ) a cig>-%ap$ body & electrically-driv5 propell]s4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 m orig9ality 9 an ,am]ican idea t ! progress ( tra9s on ! ov]head railway might be assi/$ by ! action ( balloons 9 tak+ ! weight ( ! c>s (f ! rails4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 o!r orig9al inv5tors tri$ to get ! opposite effect1 by devis+ magnetic arrangem5ts to increase ! adhesion ( ! :eels to ! rails4 ,m plausible =ms ( sup]-+5uity h be5 ex]cis$ 9 connection ) e/abli%$ modes ( electric traction4 ,= ! conduit sy/em "o inv5tor sugge/$ a k9d ( rev]sion to ! 'cont9u\s valve' ( ! old atmosph]ic railway4 ,! slot ( ! conduit 0 clos$ by a cont9u\s s]ies ( spr+s :i* w\ld be op5$ 9 succession by ! pl\gh z x pass$ along4 ,?is arrangem5t 0 actually tri$ on an exp]im5tal track 9 ,london4 ,ano!r inv5tor propos$ a novel plan = keep+ ! conductor 9 a conduit free f damp4 ,! conductor 0 to be made holl[1 s t hot air c\ld be pump$ ?r\gh x to dry (f any accumulat$ moi/ure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,! ,heilmann electric locomotive--a g5]at+ /ation on :eels4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( ?is locomotive %\ld be comp>$ ) t ( ! mod]n electric turbo-locomotive describ$ on p4 #acj & illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ae4 ,! mo/ ent]ta9+ freak 9 connection ) ! trolley sy/em 0 a device to enable two l9es ( c> to use a s+le trolley wire4 ,c>s go+ 9 "o direction 7 to c>ry a d\ble-end$ incl9$ plane :i* w\ld lift ! trolley :eels ( pass+ c>s (f ! wire & let !m slip back aga94 ,! only drawback to ?is arrangem5t 0 t x w\ld n "w4 ,ano!r inv5tor :o 0 app>5tly impress$ ) ! noise ( trolley :eels on ! wires design$ a trolley head fitt$ ) a pneumatic tyre4 ,if he c\ld h p]suad$ indi>ubb] to be any?+ b "o ( ! be/ ( insulators1 he w\ld h be5 completely successful4 ,"o ( ! be/ kn[n ( electrical freaks--! ,heilmann locomotive 7,fig4 #ad7--;is a v good example ( ! way 9 :i* an inv5tion may be tri$ ) en?usiasm1 reject$ ) contumely1 & reviv$ at a mu* lat] date 9 an improv$ & m promis+ =m4 ,! ,heilmann locomotive 0 practically a g5]at+ /ation on :eels4 ,x c>ri$ a boil] & eng9es1 :i* drove a dynamo1 ! curr5t f :i* 0 l$ ?r\gh controll]s to motors c\pl$ to ! :eel axles4 ,x 0 an enorm\s affair1 ov] #ah metres long & runn+ on sixte5 :eels2 ext5sive trials 7 made ) x on ! ,we/]n ,railway ( ,france 9 ! e>ly n9eties4 ,"s advantage 0 ga9$ 9 smoo?ness ( runn+1 ease & uni=mity ( control1 & improv$ accel]ation2 b its great weight1 co/1 & complexity 7 aga9/ x4 ,9 spite ( ! cordial support giv5 to x by railway eng9e]s1 x 0 soon relegat$ to ! scrap-heap4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,electro-turbo-locomotive built by ! ,nor? ,briti% ,locomotive ,company = exp]im5tal purposes4 ,?is locomotive is a 'g5]at+ /ation on :eels4' ,x c>ries a /eam turb9e driv+ a dynamo :i* supplies curr5t ?r\gh a controll] to motors ge>$ to ! axles4 ,! ,heilmann locomotive1 x w be notic$1 is simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! petrol-electric sy/ems ( propulsion n[ 9 use = road traction4 ,b x is probable t ! idea w\ld nev] h be5 he>d ( aga9 9 connection ) railway "w _h x n be5 = ! appe>ance ( ! /eam turb9e4 ,x 0 natural t ! locomotive eng9e] %\ld consid] h[ ! turb9e c\ld be appli$ to 8 purposes2 & ! fir/ /ep 9 ?is inquiry made x pla9 t "s electric me?od ( control 0 necess>y betwe5 ! high-spe$ turb9e & ! driv+ axle4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 ! eng9e]s ( ! ,nor? ,briti% ,locomotive ,company set to "w 9 #aiji to design an 'electric turbo-locomotive1' !y produc$ some?+ n at all unlike ! ,heilmann locomotive4 ,! equipm5t consi/s ( a /eam turb9e1 ) elaborate cond5s+ plant1 a g5]ator1 & a gr\p ( driv+ motors 7,fig4 #ae74 ,! turb9e runs at #cjjj revolutions p] m9ute & drives a cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo1 ! curr5t f :i* passes ?r\gh controll]s to f\r motors :i* c be run 9 s]ies1 or two 9 s]ies & two 9 p>allel1 or all 9 p>allel1 accord+ to ! draw-b> pull requir$4 ,trials ) ?is locomotive 7 begun e>ly 9 #aiaj1 b x is yet too e>ly to say :e!r x w be m =tunate ?an ! ,heilmann locomotive1 & :e!r x is likely to delay ! advance ( ! electric locomotive prop]1 f$ ) p[] by ov]head wires f a c5tral p[] /ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,diagrammatic sections ( ! ,behr electric mono-rail c>4 ,! c> is balanc$ on ! summit ( a cont9u\s tre/le & is design$ = spe$s up to #abj miles p] h\r4 ,! possibilities ( high spe$ on a mono-railway1 & especially an electric mono-railway1 h act$ l a w-o'-!-wisp to ! imag9ations ( _m eng9e]s4 ,( ! v>i\s sy/ems sugge/$1 only "o--! gyroscopic mono-railway inv5t$ by ,mr ,br5nan--seems likely to survive2 & ev5 9 t case victory "u practical conditions is n yet c]ta94 ,at ,ballybunnion !re is a /eam mono-railway :i* has be5 at "w s9ce #ahhh4 ,x has _h1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 no imitators2 b its eng9e]1 ,mr ,behr1 reta9$ s mu* fai? 9 ! pr9ciple t he decid$ to apply x to ! problem ( high-spe$ electric traction4 ,dur+ ! #aijj session he promot$ a ,bill = ! con/ruction ( a mono-railway betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]4 ,!re 0 trem5d\s opposition f ! exi/+ railway companies1 :i* br\ght exp]ts to prove t ,mr ,behr 0 a va9 dream]2 b ! ,bill succe$$4 ,! promot]s1 h[ev]1 f\nd x mu* h>d] "w to raise capital = ! project4 ,!y ne$$ close ^u #c1jjj1jjj1 b ! public response to ! fir/ invitation 0 s small t ! s*eme 0 ab&on$4 ,! l9e1 z project$1 0 ne>ly #ce miles long2 & a spe$ ( #ajj miles p] h\r 0 int5d$1 r$uc+ ! "t ( ! ,liv]pool-,man*e/] j\rney to tw5ty m9utes4 ,at ea* end ( ! l9e 7:i* 0 a d\ble "o7 a /eep gradi5t 0 arrang$ to facilitate />t+ & /opp+--an arrangem5t1 by ! way1 :i* is adopt$ to a c]ta9 ext5t on ,london tubes4 ,! track itself 0 %ap$ l an inv]t$ ,v1 & practically ! :ole ( ! weight ( ! c>s 0 borne ^u a rail at ! top4 ,! :eels1 !re=e1 7 "r 9 ! c5tre ( ! c>1 :i* balanc$ itself on ! tre/le ) its c5tre ( gravity bel[ ! rail4 ,ea* side ( ! tre/le c>ri$ two guide-rails :i* bore aga9/ free-runn+ horizontal :eels on ! c> to prev5t any undue lat]al movem5t4 ,ea* c> 0 design$ to c>ry f\r motors ) a total normal capacity ( #afj horse p[] & an ov]load capacity up to #cbj horse p[]4 ,! rails = c>ry+ ! curr5t 7 plac$ on ! track 9 v mu* ! same position z ! ord9>y rails occupy on a normal railway4 ,9 ano!r =m ( mono-railway--! ,ke>ney high-spe$ railway--! :eels are plac$ bel[ ! c> & run on a s+le rail laid direct on sleep]s4 ,! c>s are held upright by flang$ :eels on ! top1 runn+ on a rail fix$ to ! ro( ( tunnels or to /&>ds n unlike ^? ( an ov]head trolley4 ,?is railway has be5 exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( a model4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,! ,br5nan gyroscopic mono-railway4--,! c> is electrically driv51 & its equilibrium is ma9ta9$ by ! action ( two gyroscopes1 also electrically driv54 ,mr ,br5nan's gyroscopic mono-railway 0 fir/ %[n1 9 a small size1 at a conv]sazione ( ! ,royal ,society 9 #aijg4 ,full-siz$ c>s 7 con/ruct$ lat]1 & "o 0 se5 at "w dur+ ! ,japan-,briti% ,exhibition ( #aiaj4 ,! di/+ui%+ feature ( ! vehicle is ! use ( two gyroscopes 7electrically driv571 "o horizontal & ! o!r v]tical1 to ma9ta9 ! c> upright on a s+le rail1 ev5 :5 load$ unev5ly & runn+ at a fair spe$ r\nd %>p curves4 ,f "o po9t ( view1 ! gyroscopic c> is no m wond]ful ?an a sp9n+ top1 b ! spectacle ( a vehicle runn+ /eadily on a s+le rail 0 s extraord9>y t ! int]e/ ( ! :ole _w 0 imm$iately ar\s$4 ,support 0 giv5 to ,mr ,br5nan's exp]im5ts by ! ,india ,(fice & ! ,colonial ,(fice1 on ! gr\nd t a railway :i* requir$ only "o rail1 & 0 m or less indep5d5t ( bo? curves & gradi5ts1 w\ld be ( great value 9 di/ricts :]e ! ord9>y two-track railway might be bo? inconv5i5t & too co/ly4 ,"o drawback to ! arrangem5t is ! necessity ( fitt+ ea* vehicle ) gyroscopes1 :i* are exp5sive & delicate pieces ( app>atus4 ,b ! +5uity ( ! inv5tion is s great t ,mr ,br5nan ought to reap ! rew>d ( see+ a gyroscopic railway 9 full op]ation be=e long4 ,! only electric mono-railway actually at "w is ! 'hang+ railway' at ,elb]feld 9 ,g]many 7,fig4 #ac74 ,?is railway is an evolution f ! sy/em ( 'telph]age' :i* 0 devis$ 9 ! v infancy ( electric traction = ! transport ( goods4 ,! root idea is to make ! ov]head wire c>ry+ ! curr5t ! track rail z well1 ! :ole contrivance--rails & c>s--be+ susp5d$ f gird]s or cables support$ by a s]ies ( /&>ds or bridges4 ,at ,elb]feld ! c>s pass ov] /reets & also ov] canals4 ,!re are no signs1 h[ev]1 t ! 'hang+ railway' w h any imitators4 ,9 appe>ance & 9 co/ ( con/ruction & op]ation x does n seem to h any conspicu\s advantages ov] a d\ble-track ov]head railway4 ,! sy/em ( telph]age is !re=e likely to be conf9$ to ! c>riage ( goods f "o "p ( a factory to ano!r1 & 79 ! =m ( cable-ways7 to ! h&l+ ( mat]ials 9 m9es & o!r ext5sive eng9e]+ works4 ,= su* purposes x is hav+ an increas+ly ext5d$ application4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,! ',telph]' sy/em ( electrical locomotion adapt$ to ! transport ( mat]ials 9 a factory4 ,! 'c>' is susp5d$ f a gird] & is op]at$ by ! driv] 9 ! same way z an electric c>4 7,f ,electrics47 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,future ,no?+ irritates an electrical eng9e] m readily ?an ! repetition ( ! phrase1 ',electricity is 9 its infancy4' ,! words h be5 us$ by c\ntless mayors & ald]m5 :ile 'inaugurat+' tramway or electric light+ s*emes2 !y h be5 e*o$ by innum]able j\rnali/s :o p]si/ 9 ma9ta9+ a ,jules-,v]ne attitude t[>ds ! electrical indu/ry4 ,& :at di/urbs ! electrical eng9e] is n only ! banality ( ! phrase b ! use ( x z a comm5t ^u ! a*ievem5ts to :i* he has devot$ 8 life4 ,nev]!less x w be admitt$1 f ! rapid survey :i* we h tak5 ( electric traction1 t ! pot5tialities ( electricity 9 locomotion make an ev5 /rong] appeal ?an ! actualities4 ,except 9 "o field--! tramway field--eng9e]s h only t\*$ ! fr+e ( possible developm5ts 9 electric locomotion4 ,ev5 9 tramway "w we may1 if legislative conditions improve & if curr5t becomes mu* *eap]1 see a consid]able developm5t 9 pass5g] & also 9 agricultural l9es4 ,mean:ile ! trolley omnibus (f]s a prospect ( ext5sion 9 electric road traction2 & !re is a great deal yet to be done ) petrol-electric vehicles & ) electric automobiles 9 c]ta9 classes ( transport4 ,! great field1 h[ev]1 lies 9 railway traction4 ,!re are #bjj miles ( electric railway 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom2 & !re are ne>ly #ac1jjj miles ( /eam railway4 ,n ev5 ! mo/ sangu9e electrical mission>y w believe t ?is diff]5ce c be mat]ially alt]$ )9 ! next decade1 b !re is ample gr\nd = fai? 9 ! /eady increase ( ! electrical figure4 ,if ! advance ( electric traction on railways mu/ be sl[1 x is because f9ancial & n eng9e]+ consid]ations gov]n ! spe$ ( conv]sion4 ,no railway company c take a /ep involv+ hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( p\nds1 & a revolution 9 work+ me?ods1 )\t prolong$ consid]ation & elaborate prep>ation4 ,on roads1 on tramways1 & on railroads1 ! future lies ) electricity--:olly on railroads & tramways1 p]haps n :olly on roads4 ,!re is scope = x also at sea2 & if our canals are wor? ! co/ ( recon/ruction on mod]n l9es1 electric haulage w be us$ !re on ! model ( ! canal haulage in/allations :i* exi/ "h & !re on ! ,cont95t4 ,= m>9e "w ! advantages ( electricity h yet to be confirm$ by practical exp]i5ce2 b on l& x has already prov$ t x supplies a means ( locomotion :i* is m effici5t1 clean] & m attractive1 & m closely adapt$ to ! ne$s & di/ribution ( mod]n population ?an any o!r4 ,! fa%ion = devis+ ,utopias is n s popul> z x us$ to be1 b 9 e ideal _w :i* is m ?an a spiritual vision1 & 9 e intellig5t =eca/ ( an advanc$ civilisation1 univ]sal electric transport is tak5 = grant$4 ,electrical eng9e]s are ready to prove t ?is /&>d elem5t 9 ,utopia is available at ! pres5t day on ! basis :i* is ! ultimate ju/ification ( all eng9e]+ projects 9 ?is workaday _w--! basis ( pr(it4 ,_! confid5ce w be int5sifi$ :5 we approa* ! 'all-electric' age prophesi$ by ,mr ,f]ranti 9 8 ,presid5tial ,address to ! ,in/itution ( ,electrical ,eng9e]s 9 #aiaj4 ,mr ,f]ranti looks =w>d to a national s*eme = ! supply & di/ribution ( electric p[]4 ,"u ?is s*eme1 ! production ( electricity w\ld be conc5trat$ 9 "o hundr$ huge p[] /ations1 us+ eng9es ( enorm\s capacity & act+ z :olesale suppli]s ( electrical en]gy to t[ns1 railways1 tramways1 & factories4 ,! price ( electricity w\ld !n be a fraction ( :at x is n[2 & all ! economies ( electricity 9 action w\ld be multipli$ accord+ly4 ,te*nically1 ! s*eme is q feasible2 & x c\ld be realis$ 9 ! ne> future if capitali/s & ! ,gov]nm5t c\ld be br\ght to appreciate ! trem5d\s /imulus x w\ld (f] to indu/rial activity & ! effect x w\ld h 9 cons]v+ ! p[] :i* is lat5t 9 our coal measures4 ,,index ,accel]ation1 #bc et seq4 on electric railways1 #ajg1 #aaj ,accumulators1 #gj on air %ips1 #ij on %ips1 #ij ,a]oplanes1 #ij ,alt]nat+ curr5t1 #cj1 #aae ,automixte 7petrol-electric71 #he ,automobiles 7electric71 #gj et seq4 advantages (1 #hj hir+ (1 #ge 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #gi ,batt]ies 7electric71 #ac ,behr1 ,f4 ,b41 #aca ,blackpool1 #cg ,b\rnem\?1 #ch ,brak+1 #fg ,br5nan1 ,l41 #acb1 #acd ,brighton l9e electrification1 #aag ,broadb5t1 ,f41 vii1 #aaf ,brunel1 #h1 #aa1 #ag ,cab 7electric71 #gh ,city & ,s\? ,london ,railway1 #ig ,conduit sy/em1 #bh1 #cg1 #abf ,cont9u\s curr5t1 #aaf ,di/rict ,railway1 #ajc1 #aai ,durtnall1 ,w4 ,p41 #hh ,dynamo1 #ac rev]sibility (1 #ae1 #fg ,elb]feld-,b>m5 ,railway1 #abe1 #ace ,electric traction advantages (1 #ai et seq4 automobiles1 #gj et seq4 backw>dness (1 #df et seq4 on ma9 l9e railways1 #aaf1 #abb ,f>aday1 #ac ,f]ranti1 #adj ,fis*] 7petrol-electric71 #he ,giant's ,causeway1 #ic ,griffi?s-,b$ell 7,g-,b47 sy/em1 #dd ,gyroscopic railways1 #acb ,hang+ railway1 #abe1 #ace ,heilmann locomotive1 #abh ,ke>ney1 ,e4 ,w4 ,c41 #acc ,laun*es 7electric71 #gc ,light ,railways ,act1 #eh ,liv]pool ,ov]head ,railway1 #ig1 #aaa ,locomotive 7electric71 #ab1 #ig1 #ajh ,heilmann1 #abh turbo-electric1 #abi ,london electric cabs 91 #gi electric railways 91 #ig1 #ajc tramways 91 #ci1 #ec ,lora9 sy/em1 #dd ,lyttelton1 ,a41 #aai ,m>ylebone1 #ha ,mavor1 ,h41 #hh ,m]sey railway1 #ig ,mono-railways1 #aca et seq4 gyroscopic1 #acb ,motor 7electric71 #ad ,multiple-unit sy/em1 #ii1 #ajh ,omnibus 7electric71 #gg petrol-electric1 #hc ,ov]head sy/em1 #ag1 #abh ',p>agon' sy/em 7%ip propulsion71 #hg ,petrol-electric sy/em1 #hb et seq4 ,provisional ,ord]s 7,tramways71 #dh ,railless traction 7see trolley omnibus7 ,railways atmosph]ic1 #g *eap p[] =1 #aac exp]im5tal electric1 #af f9ance (1 #ajj opposition to1 #f pione] electric1 #ib1 #if rope1 #g ,rawor?1 ,j4 ,s41 #fh ,reg5]ative control1 #fg ,s]ies-p>allel sy/em1 #cb1 #aae ,%ip propulsion1 #hh ,siem5s1 vii1 #ad1 #af1 #aad ,signall+ 7automatic71 #aab ,s+le-phase sy/em1 #abj ,/>t+ torque1 #bc 7see also accel]ation7 ,/eph5son1 vii1 #e1 #i ,/orage batt]ies1 #gj et seq4 ',/ud' sy/em1 #db ,telph] sy/em1 #acf ,?ird rail1 #af ,?ree-phase sy/em1 #aah ,torquay1 #dd ,trackless trolley 7see trolley omnibus7 ,trail]s1 #bf ,tramc>s equipm5t (1 #ca ,tramroads e>ly1 #d ,tramways accumulators on1 #bj conduit1 #bh1 #cg1 #abf co/ (1 #ec g5]at+ equipm5t =1 #bb int]-urban1 #ej legislation =1 #dg municipal1 #di ov]head sy/em on1 #ag1 #abh /ati/ics1 #bg1 #bh surface-contact1 #bh1 #db ,tramways ,act 7#ahgj71 #ie ,trolley omnibus1 #ef1 #fj et seq4 9 relation to tramways1 #fe ,trolley sy/em #ag1 #bi et seq4 b[1 #ca ,tube railways1 #ig ,turbo-electric locomotive1 #abi ,veto 7tramway71 #dg1 #ea ,wat]falls electric p[] f1 #id ,watt1 vii ,:eat/one1 #ad ,wolv]hampton1 #dd ,workm5's f>es1 #ec ,y]kes1 ,c4 ,t41 #ajd ,cambridge3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,italics are indicat$ by und]scores4 ,bolds are indicat$ by equal signs4 ,small capitals h be5 r5d]$ 9 full capitals4 ,footnote is plac$ to ! end ( *apt]4 ,a numb] ( m9or spell+ errors h be5 correct$ )\t note4