,,the ,,art ,,of ,,bookbinding4 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise4 ,,by ,,joseph ,w4 ,,zaehnsdorf4 ,,technological ,,handbooks4 ,,art ,,of ,,bookbinding4 ,,technological ,,handbooks4 #a4 ,,dyeing ,,and ,,tissue-,,printing4 ,by ,william ,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,v4,p4,c4,s4 #es4 #b4 ,,glass ,,manufacture4 ,,introductory ,,essay1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,powell1 ,b4,a4 7,whitefriars ,glass ,works72 ,,crown ,,and ,,sheet ,,glass1 by ,henry ,chance1 ,m4,a4 7,chance ,bros41 ,birmingham72 ,,plate ,,glass1 by ,h4 ,g4 ,harris1 ,assoc4 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 #cs4 #f;d4 #c4 ,,cotton ,,spinning2 ,its ,development1 ,principles1 and ,practice4 ,by ,r4 ,marsden1 ,editor of the 8,textile ,mercury40 ,with an ,appendix on ,steam ,engines and ,boilers4 #crd edition1 revised1 #fs4 #f;d4 #d4 ,,coal-,,tar ,,colours1 ,the ,chemistry of4 ,with special reference to their application to ,dyeing1 c4 ,by ,dr4 ,r4 ,benedikt4 ,translated from the ,german by ,e4 ,knecht1 ,ph4,d4 #bnd edition1 enlarged1 #fs4 #f;d4 #e4 ,,woollen ,,and ,,worsted ,,cloth ,,manufacture4 ,by ,professor ,roberts ,beaumont4 #bnd edition1 revised4 #gs4 #f;d4 #f4 ,,printing4 ,by ,c4 ,t4 ,jacobi1 ,manager of the ,chiswick ,press4 #es4 #g4 ,,bookbinding4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,zaehnsdorf4 #i4 ,,cotton ,,weaving4 ,by ,r4 ,marsden4 ,in preparation4 ,illustration3 ,,florentine4 ,small folio4 ,,technological ,,handbooks4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,bookbinding4 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise4 ,,by ,,joseph ,w4 ,,zaehnsdorf4 ,,with ,,plates ,,and ,,diagrams4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,bell ,,and ,,sons1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 #ahij4 ,,chiswick ,,press3--,c4 ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co41 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane4 ,,dedicated ,,to ,,hugh ,,owen1 ,,esq41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,,as ,a ,,slight ,,acknowledgment ,,of ,,his ,,counsel ,,and ,,friendship1 ,,and ,,in ,,admiration ,,of ,,his ,,knowledge ,,of ,,bookbinding4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,the first edition of this book was written for the use of amateurs1 but ,i found that amongst the members of the trade my little volume had a large sale1 and in a short time the edition became exhausted4 ,repeated applications for the book have induced me to issue this second edition4 ,i have adhered to the arrangement of the first1 but a great deal of fresh matter has been added1 which ,i trust will be found useful4 ,should any of my fellow-workmen find anything new to them ,i shall be satisfied1 knowing that ,i have done my duty in spreading such knowledge as may contribute towards the advancement of the beautiful art of bookbinding4 ,i have to record my obligations to those gentlemen who have assisted me by courteously describing the various machines of their invention with which the book is illustrated4 ,the object1 however1 of illustrating this work with engravings of machines is simply to recognize the fact that books are bound by machinery4 ,to a mechanical worker must be left the task of describing the processes used in this method4 ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,florentine ''' ,frontispiece ,,grolier ''' xiv ,,gascon ''' xvi ,,renaissance ''' #aaj ,,antique ,,with ,,gold ,,line ''' #aab ,,derome ''' #aad ,,grolier ''' #acb ,,maioli ''' #acd ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4--,,forwarding4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,folding3 ,refolding -- ,machines -- ,gathering ''' #c-h ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,beating and ,rolling3 ,machines ''' #i-ab ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,collating3 ,interleaving ''' #ac-ai ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,marking up and ,sawing in ''' #bj-bc ,,chapter ,v4 ,sewing3 ,flexible -- ,ordinary ''' #bc-cb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,forwarding3 ,end ,papers -- ,cobb ,paper -- ,surface ,paper -- ,marbled ,paper -- ,printed and other ,fancy ,paper -- ,coloured ,paste ,paper ''' #cc-cf ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,pasting up ''' #cf-cg ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,putting on the ,end ,papers ''' #ch-da ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,trimming ''' #da-dd ,,chapter ,x4 ,gluing up ''' #de-df ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,rounding ''' #df-dh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,backing ''' #dh-ea ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,mill-boards ''' #ea-eg ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,drawing-in and ,pressing ''' #eg-ei ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,cutting ''' #ei-ff ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,colouring the ,edges3 ,sprinkled ,edges -- ,colours for ,sprinkling -- ,plain ,colouring -- ,marbled ,edges -- ,spot ,marble -- ,comb or ,nonpareil ,marble -- ,spanish ,marble -- ,edges -- ,sizing ''' #fg-gg ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,gilt ,edges3 ,the ,gold ,cushion -- ,gold ,knife -- ,burnishers -- ,glaire ,water or ,size -- ,scrapers -- ,the ,gold ,leaf -- ,gilt on ,red -- ,tooled ,edges -- ,painted ,edges ''' #gh-hc ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,head-,banding ''' #hc-hf ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,preparing for ,covering3 lining up ''' #hg-ij ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,covering3 ,russia -- ,calf -- ,vellum or ,parchment -- ,roan -- ,cloth -- ,velvet -- ,silk and ,satin -- ,half-bound ,work ''' #ij-ig ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,pasting ,down3 ,joints -- ,calf1 ,russia1 etc4 ''' #ig-ajj ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,calf ,colouring3 ,black -- ,brown -- ,yellow -- ,sprinkles -- ,marbles -- ,tree-marbles -- ,dabs ''' #ajj-ajh ,,part ,,ii4 -- ,,finishing4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,finishing3 ,tools and ,materials required for ,finishing -- ,polishing ,irons -- ,gold-rag -- ,india-rubber -- ,gold-cushion -- ,gold ,leaf -- ,sponges -- ,glaire -- ,cotton ,wool -- ,varnish -- ,finishing -- ,morocco -- ,gold ,work -- ,inlaid ,work -- ,porous -- ,full ,gilt ,back -- ,run-up -- ,mitred ,back -- ,pressing -- ,graining -- ,finishing with ,dry ,preparation -- ,velvet -- ,silk -- ,vellum -- ,blocking ''' #aaa-aec ,,general ,,information4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,washing and ,cleaning3 ,requisites -- ,manipulation -- ,dust -- ,water ,stains -- ,damp ,stains -- ,mud -- ,fox-marks -- ,finger-marks1 commonly called 8,thumb-marks0 -- ,blood ,stains -- ,ink ,stains 7writing7 -- ,ink ,stains 7,marking ,ink1 ,silver7 -- ,fat ,stains -- ,ink -- ,reviving ,old ,writings -- ,to ,restore ,writing effaced by ,chlorine -- ,to ,restore ,,mss4 faded by time -- ,to ,preserve ,drawings or ,manuscripts -- ,to fix ,drawings or ,pencil ,marks -- ,to render ,paper ,waterproof -- ,to render ,paper ,incombustible -- ,deciphering ,burnt ,documents -- ,insects -- ,glue -- ,rice ,glue or ,paste -- ,paste -- ,photographs -- ,albumen -- ,to ,prevent ,tools1 ,machines1 etc41 from ,rusting -- ,to ,clean ,silver ,mountings -- ,to ,clean ,sponges ''' #aeg-agb ,,glossary ''' #agc ,,index ''' #aha ,,introduction4 ,bookbinding carries us back to the time when leaden tablets with inscribed hieroglyphics were fastened together with rings1 which formed what to us would be the binding of the volumes4 ,we might go even still further back1 when tiles of baked clay with cuneiform characters were incased one within the other1 so that if the cover of one were broken or otherwise damaged there still remained another1 and yet another covering2 by which care history has been handed down from generation to generation4 ,the binding in the former would consist of the rings which bound the leaden tablets together1 and in the latter1 the simple covering formed the binding which preserved the contents4 ,we must pass on from these1 and make another pause1 when vellum strips were attached together in one continuous length with a roller at each end4 ,the reader unrolled the one1 and rolled the other as he perused the work4 ,books1 prized either for their rarity1 sacred character1 or costliness1 would be kept in a round box or case1 so that the appearance of a library in ,ancient ,jerusalem would seem to us as if it were a collection of canisters4 ,the next step was the fastening of separate leaves together1 thus making a back1 and covering the whole as a protection in a most simple form2 the only object being to keep the several leaves in connected sequence4 ,i believe the most ancient form of books xii formed of separate leaves1 will be found in the sacred books of ,ceylon which were formed of palm leaves1 written on with a metal style1 and the binding was merely a silken string tied through one end so loosely as to admit of each leaf being laid down flat when turned over4 ,when the mode of preserving ,,ms4 on animal membrane or vellum in separate leaves came into use1 the binding was at first only a simple piece of leather wrapped round the book and tied with a thong4 ,these books were not kept on their edges1 but were laid down flat on the shelves1 and had small cedar tablets hanging from them upon which their titles were inscribed4 ,the ordinary books for general use were only fastened strongly at the back1 with wooden boards for the sides1 and simply a piece of leather up the back4 ,in the sixth century1 bookbinding had already taken its place as an 8,art10 for we have the 8,byzantine coatings10 as they are called4 ,they are of metal1 gold1 silver or copper gilt1 and sometimes they are enriched with precious stones4 ,the monks1 during this century1 took advantage of the immense thickness of the wooden boards and frequently hollowed them out to secrete their relics in the cavities4 ,bookbinding was then confined entirely to the monks who were the literati of the period4 ,then the art was neglected for some centuries1 owing to the plunder and pillage that overran ,europe1 and books were destroyed to get at the jewels that were supposed to be hidden in the different parts of the covering1 so that few now remain to show how bookbinding was then accomplished and to what extent4 ,we must now pass on to the middle ages1 when samples of binding were brought from the ,east by the crusaders1 and these may well be prized by their owners for their delicacy of finish4 ,the monks1 who still held the ,art of ,bookbinding in their hands1 improved upon these ,eastern xiii specimens4 ,each one devoted himself to a different branch3 one planed the oaken boards to a proper size1 another stretched and coloured the leather2 and the work was thus divided into branches1 as it is now4 ,the task was one of great difficulty1 seeing how rude were the implements then in use4 ,illustration3 ,monastic4 ,illustration3 ,venetian4 ,the art of printing gave new life to our trade1 and1 during the fifteenth century bookbinding made great progress on account of the greater facility and cheapness with which books were produced4 ,the printer was then his own binder2 but as books increased in number1 bookbinding became a separate art-trade of itself4 ,this was a step decidedly in the right direction4 ,the art improved so much1 that in the sixteenth century some of the finest samples of bookbinding were executed4 ,morocco having been introduced1 and fine delicate tools cut1 the art was encouraged by great families1 who1 liking the ,venetian patterns1 had their books bound in that style4 ,the annexed xiv woodcut will give a fair idea of a ,venetian tool4 ,during this period the ,french had bookbinding almost entirely in their hands1 and ,mons4 ,grolier1 who loved the art1 had his books bound under his own supervision in the most costly manner4 ,his designs consisted of bold gold lines arranged geometrically with great accuracy1 crossing one another and intermixed with small leaves or sprays4 ,these were in outlines shaded or filled up with closely worked cross lines4 ,not1 however1 satisfied with these simple traceries1 he embellished them still more by staining or painting them black1 green1 red1 and even with silver1 so that they formed bands interlacing each other in a most graceful manner4 ,opposite is a centre block of ,grolier4 ,it will be seen how these lines entwine1 and how the small tools are shaded with lines4 ,if the reader has had the good fortune to see one of these specimens1 has he not wondered at the taste displayed8 ,to the ,french must certainly be given the honour of bringing the art to such a perfection4 ,francis ,i4 and the succeeding monarchs1 with the ,french nobility1 xv placed the art on such a high eminence1 that even now we are compelled to look to these great masterpieces as models of style4 ,not only was the exterior elaborate in ornament1 but the edges were gilded and tooled2 and even painted4 ,we must wonder at the excellence of the materials and the careful workmanship which has preserved the bindings1 even to the colour of the leather1 in perfect condition to the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,grolier4 ,royal folio ,illustration3 ,grolier4 ,there is little doubt that the first examples of the style now known as 8,grolier0 were produced in ,venice1 under the eye of ,grolier himself1 and according to his own designs2 and that workmen in ,france1 soon rivalled and excelled the early attempts4 ,the work of ,maioli may be distinctly traced by the bold simplicity and purity of his designs2 and more especially by the broader gold lines which margin the coloured bands of geometric and arabesque ornamentation4 ,all books1 it must be understood1 were not bound in so costly a manner1 for we find pigskin1 vellum and calf in xvi use4 ,the latter was especially preferred on account of its peculiar softness1 smooth surface1 and great aptitude for receiving impressions of dumb or blind tooling4 ,it was only towards the latter part of the sixteenth century that the ,english binders began to employ delicate or fine tooling4 ,during the seventeenth century the names of ,du ,sueil and ,le ,gascon were known for the delicacy and extreme minuteness of their finishing4 ,not disdaining the bindings of the ,italian school1 they took from them new ideas2 for whilst the ,grolier bindings were bold1 the ,du ,sueil and ,le ,gascon more resembled fine lace work of intricate design1 with harmonizing flowers and other objects1 from which we may obtain a great variety of artistic character4 ,during this period embroidered velvet was much in use4 ,then a change took place and a style was adopted which by some people would be preferred to the gorgeous bindings of the sixteenth century4 ,the sides were finished quite plainly with only a line round the edge of the boards 7and in some instances not even that7 with a coat of arms or some badge in the centre4 ,towards the end of the seventeenth century bookbinding began to improve1 particularly with regard to forwarding4 ,the joints were true and square1 and the back was made to open more freely4 ,in the eighteenth century the names of ,derome1 ,roger ,payne1 and others are prominent as masters of the craft1 and the ,harleian style was introduced4 ,the plate facing may be fairly estimated as a good specimen of ,derome4 ,notice the extreme simplicity and yet the symmetry of the design2 its characteristic feature being the boldness of the corners and the gradual diminishing of the scroll work as it nears the centre of the panel4 ,morocco and calf were the leathers used for this binding4 ,illustration3 ,,gascon4 #hvo ,t4 ,way1 ,photo-lith4 ,hand coloured calf was at this period at its height1 and xvii the ,cambridge calf may be named as a pattern of one of the various styles1 and one that is approved of by many at the present day--the calf was sprinkled all over1 save a square panel left uncoloured in the centre of the boards4 ,illustration3 ,harleian4 ,illustration3 ,roger ,payne4 ,the ,harleian style took its name from ,harley1 ,earl of ,oxford4 ,it was red morocco with a broad tooled border and centre panels4 ,we have the names of various masters who pushed the art forward to very great excellence during this century4 ,baumgarten and ,benedict1 two ,germans of considerable note in ,london2 ,mackinly1 from whose house also fine work was sent out1 and by whom good workmen were educated whose specimens almost equal the work of their master4 ,there were two other ,germans1 ,kalthoeber and ,staggemeier1 each having his own peculiar style4 ,kalthoeber is credited with having first introduced painting on the edges4 ,this ,i must dispute1 as it was done in the sixteenth century4 ,to him1 however1 must certainly be given the credit of having discovered the secret1 if ever lost1 and renewing it on his best work4 ,we must now xviii pass on to ,roger ,payne1 that unfortunate and erring man but clever workman1 who lived during the latter part of the eighteenth century4 ,his taste may be seen from the woodcut4 ,he generally used small tools1 and by combining them formed a variety of beautiful designs4 ,he cut most of these tools himself1 either because he could not find a tool cutter of sufficient skill1 or that he found it difficult to pay the cost4 ,we are told by anecdote1 that he drank much and lived recklessly2 but notwithstanding all his irregular habits1 his name ought to be respected for the work he executed4 ,his backs were firm1 and his forwarding excellent2 and he introduced a class of finishing that was always in accordance with the character or subject of the book4 ,his only fault was the peculiar coloured paper with which he made his end papers4 xix ,coloured or fancy calf has now taken the place of the hand-coloured4 ,coloured cloth has come so much into use1 that this branch of the trade alone monopolizes nearly three-fourths of the workmen and females employed in bookbinding4 ,many other substitutes for leather have been introduced1 and a number of imitations of morocco and calf are in the market2 this1 with the use of machinery1 has made so great a revolution in the trade1 that it is now divided into two distinct branches--cloth work and extra work4 ,i have endeavoured in the foregoing remarks to raise the emulation of my fellow craftsmen by naming the most famous artists of past days2 men whose works are most worthy of study and imitation4 ,i have refrained from any notice or criticism of the work of my contemporaries2 but ,i may venture to assure the lover of good bookbinding that as good and sound work1 and as careful finish1 may be obtained in a first-rate house in ,london as in any city in the world4 ,in the succeeding chapters1 ,i will endeavour in as plain and simple a way as ,i can to give instructions to the unskilled workman how to bind a book4 ,,part ,i4 ,,forwarding4 #c ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,bookbinding4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,folding4 ,we commence with folding4 ,it is generally the first thing the binder has to do with a book4 ,the sheets are either supplied by the publisher or printer 7mostly the printer72 should the amateur wish to have his books in sheets1 he may generally get them by asking his bookseller for them4 ,it is necessary that they be carefully folded1 for unless they are perfectly even1 it is impossible that the margins 7the blank space round the print7 can be uniform when the book is cut4 ,where the margin is small1 as in very small prayer books1 a very great risk of cutting into the print is incurred2 besides1 it is rather annoying to see a book which has the folio or paging on one leaf nearly at the top1 and on the next1 the print touching the bottom2 to remedy such an evil1 the printer having done his duty by placing his margins quite true1 it remains with the binder to perfect and bring the sheet into proper form by folding4 ,the best bound book may be spoilt by having the sheets badly folded1 and the binder is perfectly justified in rejecting any sheets that may be badly printed1 that is1 not in register4 #d ,the sheets are laid upon a table with the signatures 7the letters or numbers that are at the foot of the first page of each sheet when folded7 facing downwards on the left hand side4 ,a folding-stick is held in the right hand1 and the sheet is brought over from right to left1 the folios being carefully placed together2 if the paper is held up to the light1 and is not too thick1 it can be easily seen through4 ,holding the two together and laying them on the table the folder is drawn across the sheet1 creasing the centre2 then1 holding the sheet down with the folder on the line to be creased1 the top part is brought over and downwards till the folios or the bottom of the letterpress or print is again even4 ,the folder is then drawn across1 and so by bringing each folio together the sheet is completed4 ,the process is extremely simple4 ,the octavo sheet is generally folded into #d folds1 thus giving #h leaves or #af pages2 a quarto1 into #b1 giving #d leaves or #h pages1 and the sheets properly folded1 will have their signatures outside at the foot of the first page4 ,if the signature is not on the outside1 one may be certain that the sheet has been wrongly folded4 ,i say generally2 at one time the water or wire mark on the paper and the number of folds gave the size of the book4 ,there are numerous other sizes1 but it is not necessary to give them all2 the process of folding is in nearly all cases the same2 here are however1 a few of the sizes given in inches4 ,foolscap #hvo4 #f-e_/h #d-a_/h ,demy #abmo4 #g-c_/h #d-c_/h ,crown #hvo4 #g-a_/b #e ,post #hvo4 #h #e ,demy #hvo4 #i #e-a_/b ,medium #hvo4 #i-e_/h #e-c_/d ,small ,royal #hvo4 #aj #f-a_/d ,large ,royal #hvo4 #aj-a_/b #f-c_/d #e ,imperial #hvo4 #aa #g-a_/b ,demy #dto4 #aa #i ,medium #dto4 #aa-c_/d #i-e_/h ,royal #dto4 #ab-a_/b #aj ,imperial #dto4 #ae #aa ,crown ,folio4 #ae #aj ,demy ,folio #ah #aa ,as a final caution1 the first and last sheets must be carefully examined2 very often the sheet has to be cut up or divided1 and the leaf or leaves placed in various positions in the book4 ,it is also advisable to cut the head of the sheets1 using the folding-stick1 cutting just beyond the back or middle fold2 this prevents the sheet running into a side crease when pressing or rolling4 ,should such a crease occur the leaf or sheet must be damped by placing it between wet paper and subjecting it to pressure2 no other method is likely to erase the break4 ,refolding4--,with regard to books that have been issued in numbers1 they must be pulled to pieces or divided4 ,the parts being arranged in consecutive order1 so that not so much difficulty will be felt in collating the sheets1 the outside wrapper is torn away1 and each sheet pulled singly from its neighbour1 care being taken to see if any thread used in sewing is in the centre of the sheet at the back2 if so1 it must be cut with a knife or it will tear the paper4 ,as the sheets are pulled they must be laid on the left hand side1 each sheet being placed face downwards2 should they be placed face upwards the first sheet will be the last and the whole will require rearranging4 ,all advertisements may be placed away from the sheets into a pile2 these will be found very handy for lining boards1 pasting on1 or as waste4 ,the title and contents will generally be found in the last part2 place them in their proper places4 ,the sheets must now be refolded1 if improperly folded in the first instance4 #f ,turn the whole pile 7or book now7 over1 and again go through each sheet2 alter by refolding any sheet that may require it4 ,very often the sheets are already cut1 and in this case the section must be dissected and each leaf refolded and reinserted in proper sequence1 and placed carefully head-line to head-line4 ,great care must be exercised1 as the previous creasings render the paper liable to be torn in the process4 ,illustration3 ,knocking-down ,iron screwed into ,press4 ,books that have been bound and cut would be rendered often worse by refolding1 and as a general rule they are left alone4 ,bound books are pulled to pieces in the same manner1 always taking care that the thread is cut or loose before tearing the sheet away2 should trouble arise through the glue1 etc41 not coming away easily1 the back may be damped with a sponge lightly charged with water1 or perhaps a better method is to place the book or books in a press1 screw up tightly1 and soak the backs with thin paste1 leaving them soaking for an hour or two2 they will want repasting two or three times during the period2 the whole of the paper1 glue1 and leather can then be easily scraped away with a blunt knife2 a handful of shavings rubbed over the back will make it quite clean1 and no difficulty will be met with if the sections are taken apart while damp4 ,the sections must1 as pulled1 be placed evenly one on #g the other1 as the paper at back retains sufficient glue to cause them to stick together if laid across one another2 the whole must then be left to dry4 ,when dry the groove should be knocked down on a flat surface1 and for this the knocking-down iron screwed up in the lying press is perhaps the best thing to use4 ,the groove is the projecting part of the book close to the back1 caused by the backing1 and is the groove for the back edge of the mill-board to work in by a hinge2 this hinge is technically called the 8joint40 ,illustration3 ,martini's ,folding ,machine4 ,machines4--,there are many folding machines made by the various machinists2 the working of them1 however1 is in nearly all cases identical4 ,the machine is generally #h fed by a girl1 who places the sheet to points1 the arm lifting up at given periods to allow placing the sheet4 ,another arm carrying a long thin blade descends1 taking the sheet through a slot in the table1 where it is passed between rollers2 another set of rollers at right angles creases it again4 ,the rollers are arranged for two1 three1 or more creasings or folds4 ,the sheets are delivered at the side into a box1 from which they are taken from time to time4 ,the cut is one of ,martini's1 and is probably the most advanced4 ,gathering4--,a gathering machine has been patented which is of a simple but ingenious contrivance for the quick gathering of sheets4 ,the usual way to gather1 is by laying piles of sheets upon a long table1 and for the gatherer to take from each pile a sheet in succession4 ,by the new method a round table is made to revolve by machinery1 and upon it are placed the piles of sheets4 ,as the table revolves the gatherer takes a sheet from each pile as it passes him4 ,it will at once be seen that not only is space saved1 but that a number of gatherers may be placed at the table2 and that there is no possibility of the gatherers shirking their work1 as the machine is made to register the revolutions4 ,by comparing the number of sheets with the revolutions of the table1 the amount of work done can be checked4 ,illustration #i ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,beating ,,and ,,rolling4 ,the object of beating or rolling is to make the book as solid as possible4 ,for beating1 a stone or iron slab1 used as a bed1 and a heavy hammer1 are necessary4 ,the stone or iron must be perfectly smooth1 and should be bedded with great solidity4 ,i have in use an iron bed about two feet square1 fitted into a strongly-made box1 filled with sand1 with a wooden cover to the iron when not in use4 ,the hammer should be somewhat bell-shaped1 and weigh about ten pounds1 with a short handle1 made to fit the hand4 ,the face of the hammer and stone 7it is called a beating-stone whether it be stone or iron71 must be kept perfectly clean1 and it is advisable always to have a piece of paper at the top and bottom of the sections when beating1 or the repeated concussion will glaze them4 ,illustration3 ,beating ,hammer4 ,the book should be divided into lots or sections of about half an inch thick1 that will be about fifteen to twenty sheets1 according to the thickness of paper4 ,a section is now to be held on the stone between the fingers and thumb of the left hand2 then the hammer1 grasped firmly in the right hand1 is raised1 and brought down with rather more than its own weight on the sheets1 which must be continually moved round1 turned over and changed about1 in order that they may be equally beaten all over4 #aj ,by passing the section between the finger and thumb1 it can be felt at once1 if it has been beaten properly and evenly4 ,great care must be taken that in each blow of the hammer it shall have the face fairly on the body of the section1 for if the hammer is so used that the greatest portion of the weight should fall outside the edge of the sheets the concussion will break away the paper as if cut with a knife4 ,it is perhaps better for a beginner to practise on some waste paper before attempting to beat a book2 and he should always rest when the wrist becomes tired4 ,when each section has been beaten1 supposing a book has been divided into four sections1 the whole four should be beaten again1 but together4 ,i do not profess a preference to beating over rolling because ,i have placed it first4 ,the rolling machine is one of the greatest improvements in the trade1 but all books should not be rolled1 and a bookbinder1 ,i mean a practical bookbinder1 not one who has been nearly the whole of his lifetime upon a cutting machine1 or at a blocking press1 and who calls himself one1 but a competent bookbinder1 should know how and when to use the beating hammer and when the rolling machine4 ,there are some books1 old ones for instance1 that should on no account be rolled4 ,the clumsy presses used in printing at an early date gave such an amount of pressure on the type that the paper round their margins has sometimes two or three times the thickness of the printed portion4 ,at the present time each sheet after having been printed is pressed1 and thus the leaf is made flat or nearly so1 and for such work the rolling machine is certainly better than the hammer4 ,to roll a book1 it is divided into sections as in beating1 only not so many sheets are taken--from six upwards1 according to the quality of the work to be executed4 ,the sheets are then placed between tins1 and the whole passed #aa between the rollers1 which are regulated by a screw1 according to the thickness of sections and power required4 ,the workman1 technically called 8,roller10 has to be very careful in passing his books through1 that his hand be not drawn in as well1 for accidents have from time to time occurred through the inattention of the ,roller himself1 or of the individual who has the pleasure of applying his strength to turning the handle4 ,illustration3 ,rolling ,machine4 ,i never pass or hear a rolling machine revolving very rapidly without having vividly brought to my mind a very serious accident that happened to my father4 ,he was feeling for a flaw on one of the rollers1 and whilst his hands #ab were at the edge of the rollers the man turned the handle1 drawing the whole hand between the heavy cylinders4 ,the accident cost him many months in the hospital1 and he never regained complete use of his right hand4 ,great care must be used not to pass too many sheets through the machine at one time2 the same applies to the regulating screw4 ,the amount of damage that can be done to the paper by too heavy a pressure is astonishing1 as the paper becomes quite brittle1 and may perhaps even be cut as with a knife4 ,another caution respecting new work4 ,recently printed books1 if submitted to heavy pressure1 either by the beating hammer or machine1 are very likely to 8set off10 that is1 the ink from one side of the page will be imprinted to its opposite neighbour2 indeed1 under very heavy pressure1 some ink1 perhaps many years old1 will 8set off20 this is due in a great measure to the ink not being properly prepared4 ,machines4--,of the many rolling machines in the market the principle is in all the same4 ,a powerful frame1 carrying two heavy rollers or cylinders1 which are set in motion1 revolving in the same direction1 by means of steam or by hand4 ,in many1 extra power is supplied by the use of extra cog-wheels2 the power is1 however1 gained at an expense of speed4 ,the pressure is regulated by screws at the top4 ,illustration #ac ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,collating4 ,to collate1 is to ensure that each sheet or leaf is in its proper sequence4 ,putting the sheets together and placing plates or maps requires great attention4 ,the sheets must run in proper order by the signatures3 letters are mostly used1 but numbers are sometimes substituted4 ,when letters are used1 the alphabet is repeated as often as necessary1 doubling the letter as often as a new alphabet is used1 as ,b1 ,c1 with the first alphabet1#a and ,,aa1 ,,bb1 ,,cc or ,aa1 ,bb1 ,cc1 with the second repetition1 and three letters with the third1 generally leaving out ,j1 ,v1 ,w4 ,plates must be trimmed or cut to the proper size before being placed in the book1 and maps that are to be folded must be put on guards4 ,by mounting a map on a guard the size of the page1 it may be kept open on the table beside the book1 which may be opened at any part without concealing the map3 by this method the map will remain convenient for constant reference4 ,this is technically called 8throwing out0 a map4 #a ,the text of a book always commences with ,b1 the title and preliminary matter being reckoned as ,a4 ,to collate a book1 it is to be held in the right hand1 at the right top corner1 then1 with a turn of the wrist1 the back must be brought to the front4 ,fan the sections out1 then with the left hand the sheets must be brought back to an angle1 which will cause them when released to spring forward1 so that the letter on the right bottom #ad corner of each sheet is seen1 and then released1 and the next brought into view4 ,when a work is completed in more than one volume1 the number of the volume is indicated at the left hand bottom corner of each sheet4 ,i need hardly mention that the title should come first1 then the dedication 7if one71 preface1 contents1 then the text1 and finally the index4 ,the number on the pages will1 however1 always direct the binder as to the placing of the sheets4 ,the book should always be beaten or rolled before placing plates or maps1 especially coloured ones4 ,illustration ,presuming that we have a book with half a dozen plates1 the first thing after ascertaining that the letter-press is perfect1 is to see that all the plates are there1 by looking to the 8,list of ,plates10 printed generally after the contents4 ,the plates should then be squared or cut truly1 using a sharp knife and straight edge4 ,when the plates are printed on paper larger than the book1 they must be cut down to the proper size1 leaving a somewhat less margin at the back than there will be at the foredge when the book is cut4 ,some plates have to face to the left1 #ae some to the right1 the frontispiece for instance2 but as a general rule1 plates should be placed on the right hand1 so that on opening the book they all face upwards4 ,when plates consist of subjects that are at a right angle with the text1 such as views and landscapes1 the inscription should always be placed to the right hand1 whether the plate face to the right or to the left page4 ,if the plates are on thick paper they should be guarded1 either by adding a piece of paper of the same thickness or by cutting a piece from the plate and then joining the two again together with a piece of linen1 so that the plate moves on the linen hinge3 the space between the guard and plate should be more than equal to the thickness of the paper4 ,if the plate is almost a cardboard1 it is better and stronger if linen be placed both back and front4 ,should the book consist of plates only1 sections may be made by placing two plates and two guards together1 and sewing through the centre between the guards1 leaving of course a space between the two guards1 which will form the back4 ,with regard to maps that have to be mounted1 it is better to mount them on the finest linen1 as it takes up the least room in the thickness of the book4 ,the linen should be cut a little larger than the map itself1 with a further piece left1 on which to mount the extra piece of paper1 so that the map may be thrown out as before described4 ,the map should first be trimmed at its back1 then pasted with rather thin paste2 the linen should then be laid carefully on1 and gently rubbed down and turned over1 so that the map comes uppermost2 the pasted guard should then be placed a little away from the map1 and the whole well rubbed down1 and finally laid out flat to dry4 ,to do this work1 the paste must be clean1 free from all lumps1 and used very evenly and not too thickly1 or when dry every mark of the brush will be visible4 ,when the map is dry it should be trimmed all round and folded to its proper #af size1 viz4--a trifle smaller than the book will be when cut4 ,if it is left larger the folds will naturally be cut away1 and the only remedy will be a new map1 which means a new copy of the work4 ,for all folded maps or plates a corresponding thickness must be placed in the backs where the maps go1 or the foredge will be thicker than the back4 ,pieces of paper called guards1 are folded from #a_/d inch to #a inch in width1 according to the size of the book1 and placed in the back1 and sewn through as a section4 ,great care must be taken that these guards are not folded too large1 so as to overlap the folds of the map1 if they do so1 the object of their being placed there to make the thickness of the back and foredge equal will be defeated4 ,illustration3 ,shewing ,book with ,map thrown out4 ,in a great measure1 the whole beauty of the inside work rests in properly collating the book1 in guarding maps1 and in placing the plates4 ,when pasting in any single leaves or plates1 a piece of waste paper should always be placed on the leaf or plate the required distance from the edge to be pasted1 so that the leaf is pasted straight4 ,it takes no longer to lay the plate down upon the edge of a board with a paper on the plate1 than it does to hold the plate in the left hand1 and apply the paste with the right hand middle finger2 by the former method a proper amount of paste is deposited evenly on the plate and it is pasted in a straight line2 by the latter method1 it is pasted in some #ag places thickly1 and in some places none at all4 ,i have often seen books with the plates fastened to the book nearly half way up to its foredge1 and thus spoilt1 only through the slovenly way of pasting4 ,after having placed the plates1 the collater should go through them again when dry1 to see if they adhere properly1 and break or fold them over up to the pasting1 with a folding stick1 so that they will lie flat when the book is open4 ,i must again call attention to coloured plates4 ,they should be looked to during the whole of binding1 especially after pressing4 ,the amount of gum that is put on the surface1 which is very easily seen by the gloss1 causes them to stick to the letter-press3 should they so stick1 do not try to tear them apart1 but warm a polishing iron and pass it over the plate and letter-press1 placing a piece of paper between the iron and the book to avoid dirt4 ,the heat and moisture will soften the gum1 and the surfaces can then be very easily separated4 ,by rubbing a little powdered ,french chalk over the coloured plates before sticking them in1 these ill effects will be avoided4 ,it sometimes happens that the whole of a book is composed of single leaves1 as the 8,art ,journal40 ,such a book should be collated properly1 and the plates placed to their respective places1 squared and broken over1 by placing a straight edge or runner about half an inch from its back edge1 and running a folder under the plate1 thus lifting it to the edge of the runner4 ,the whole book should then be pressed for a few hours1 taken out1 and the back glued up2 the back having been previously roughed with the side edge of the saw4 ,to glue such a back1 the book is placed in the lying press between boards1 with the back projecting about an eighth of an inch1 the saw is then drawn over it1 with its side edge1 so that the paper is as it were rasped4 ,the back is then sawn in properly1 as explained in the next chapter1 and the whole back is glued4 ,when dry1 the #ah book is separated into divisions or sections of four1 six1 or eight leaves1 according to the thickness of the paper1 and each section is then overcast or over sewn along its whole length1 the thread being fastened at the head and tail 7or top and bottom72 thus each section is made independent of its neighbour4 ,the sections should then be gently struck along the back edge with a hammer against a knocking-down iron1 so as to imbed the thread into the paper1 or the back will be too thick4 ,the thread should not be struck so hard as to cut the paper1 or break the thread1 but very gently4 ,two or three sections may be taken at a time4 ,after having placed the plates1 the book should be put into the press 7standing or otherwise7 for a few hours4 ,a standing press is used in all good bookbinding shops4 ,the ,paris houses have a curious way of pressing their books4 ,the books are placed in the standing press2 the top and bottom boards are very thick1 having a groove cut in them in which a strong thin rope is placed4 ,the press is screwed down tightly1 when1 after some few minutes has elapsed1 the cord or rope is drawn together and fastened4 ,the pressure of the screw is released1 the whole taken out en bloc1 and allowed to remain for some hours1 during which time a number of other batches are passed through the same press4 ,when taken out of the press the book is ready for 8marking up0 if for flexible sewing1 or for being sawn in if for ordinary work4 ,interleaving4--,it is sometimes required to place a piece of writing paper between each leaf of letter-press1 either for notes or for a translation3 in such a case1 the book must be properly beaten or rolled1 and each leaf cut up with a hand-knife1 both head and foredge2 the writing paper having been chosen1 must be folded to the size of the book and pressed4 ,a single leaf of writing paper is now to be fastened in the centre of each section1 and a folded leaf #ai placed to every folded letter-press leaf1 by inserting the one within the other1 a folded writing paper being left outside every other section1 and all being put level with the head2 the whole book should then be well pressed4 ,if by any chance there should be one sheet in duplicate and another missing1 by returning the one to the publisher of the book the missing sheet is generally replaced2 this1 of course1 has reference only to books of a recent date4 ,illustration3 ,boomer ,press4 ,there is a new press of ,american invention that has come under my notice4 ,it will be seen that it acts on an entirely new principle1 having two horizontal screws instead of one perpendicular4 ,the power is first applied by hand and finally by a lever and ratchet-wheel in the centre4 ,a pressure guage is affixed to each press1 so that the actual power exerted may be ascertained as the operation proceeds4 ,the press can be had from ,messrs4 ,ladd and ,co41 #aaf1 ,queen ,victoria ,street1 ,e4,c42 and they claim that it gives a pressure equal to the hydraulic press1 without any of the hydraulic complications4 ,illustration #bj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,marking ,,up ,,and ,,sawing ,,in4 ,the books having been in the press a sufficient time1 say for a night1 they are taken out1 and run through again 7collated7 to make sure that they are all correct4 ,a book is then taken and knocked straight both head and back and put in the lying press between boards1 projecting from them about #a_/h inch2 some binders prefer cutting boards1 ,i prefer pressing boards1 and ,i should advise the use of them1 as the whole can be knocked up together4 ,they should be held between the fingers of each hand1 and the back and head knocked alternately on the cheek of the press4 ,the boards are then drawn back the required distance from the back of the book3 the book and boards must now be held tightly with the left hand1 and the whole carefully lowered into the press2 the right hand regulating the screws1 which should then be screwed up tightly4 ,the book is now quite straight1 and firmly fixed in the press1 and we have to decide if it is to be sewn flexibly or not4 ,if for flexible binding the book is not to be sawn in1 but marked2 the difference being1 that with the latter the cord is outside the sheets2 with the former the cord is imbedded in the back1 in the cut or groove made by the saw4 ,we will take the flexible first1 and suppose that the book before us is an ordinary #hvo4 volume1 and that it is to be cut all round4 ,the back should be divided into six equal portions1 leaving the bottom1 or tail1 half an inch longer than the rest1 simply because of a curious optical illusion1 by which1 #ba if the spaces were all equal in width1 the bottom one would appear to be the smallest1 although accurately of the same width as the rest4 ,this curious effect may be tested on any framed or mounted print4 ,a square is now to be laid upon the back exactly to the marks1 and marked pretty black with a lead pencil2 the head and tail must now be sawn in to imbed the chain of the kettle stitch1 at a distance sufficient to prevent the thread being divided by accident in cutting4 ,in flexible work great accuracy is absolutely necessary throughout the whole of the work1 especially in the marking up1 as the form of the bands will be visible when covered4 ,it will be easily seen if the book has been knocked up straight by laying the square at the head when the book is in the press1 and if it is not straight1 it must be taken out and corrected4 ,if the book is very small1 as for instance a small prayer book1 it is usually marked up for five bands1 but only sewed on three2 the other two being fastened on as false bands when the book is ready for covering4 ,there would be no gain in strength by sewing a small book on five bands4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,saw marks for catch-up stitch4 ,when the book is to be 8sawn in10 it is marked up as for flexible work1 but the back is sawn1 both for the bands and kettle stitch1 with a tennon saw4 ,in choosing the saw1 it should be one with the teeth not spread out too much2 and it is advisable to have two of different widths4 ,care must be taken that the saw does not enter too deeply1 and one #bb must1 in all cases1 be guided in the depth by the thickness of the cord to be used4 ,the size of the book should determine the thickness of the cord1 as the larger the book1 the stronger and thicker must be the cord4 ,suitable cord is to be purchased at all the bookbinder's material shops1 and it is known by the size of the book1 such as #abmo41 #hvo41 #dto4 cord4 ,illustration3 ,sawing-in ,machine4 ,i think nothing looks worse than a book with great holes in the back1 sometimes to be seen when the book is opened1 which are due to the inattention of the workmen4 ,besides1 it causes great inconvenience to the forwarder if the cords are loose1 and the only thing he can do in such a case is to cram a lot of glue into the grooves to keep the cord in its place4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the saw cuts are #bc not deep enough1 the cord will stand out from the back1 and be distinctly seen when the book is finished1 if not remedied by extra strips of leather or paper between the bands when lining up4 ,it is better to use double thin cord instead of one thick one for large books1 because the two cords will lie and imbed themselves in the back1 whereas one large one will not1 unless very deep and wide saw cuts be made4 ,large folios should be sawn on six or seven bands1 but five for an #hvo4 is the right number1 from which all other sizes can be regulated4 ,saw benches have been introduced by various firms4 ,they can be driven either by steam or foot4 ,it will be seen that the saws are circular1 and can be shifted on the spindle to suit the various sized books4 ,as the books themselves are slid along the table on the saws1 the advantage is very great in a large shop where much work of one size is done at a time4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,sewing4 ,flexible ,work4--,the 8sewing press0 consists of a bed1 two screws1 and a beam or cross bar1 round which are fastened five or more cords1 called lay cords4 ,five pieces of cord cut from the ball1 in length1 about four times the thickness of the book1 are fastened to the lay cords by slip knots2 the other ends being fastened to small pieces of metal called keys1 by twisting the ends round twice and then a half hitch4 ,the keys are then passed through the slot in the bed of the 8press10 and the beam screwed up rather tightly2 but loose enough to allow the lay cords to move freely #bd backwards or forwards4 ,having the book on the bed of the press with the back towards the sewer1 a few sheets 7better than only one7 are laid against the cords1 and they are arranged exactly to the marks made on the back of the sections4 ,when quite true and perpendicular1 they should be made tight by screwing the beam up4 ,it will be better if the cords are a little to the right of the press1 so that the sewer may get her or his left arm to rest better on the press4 ,illustration3 ,sewing ,press4 ,if when the press is tightened one of the cords is loose1 as will sometimes happen1 a pencil1 folding-stick or other object slipped under the lay cord on the top of the beam will tighten the band sufficiently4 ,the foreign sewing presses have screws with a hook at the end to hold the bands1 the screws running in a slot in the beam3 in practice they are very convenient4 ,illustration3 ,ordinary sewing4 #b sheets on #b bands4 ,ordinary sewing4 #b sheets on #c bands4 ,ordinary sewing4 #b sheets on #e bands4 ,the thick lines shewing the direction of the thread4 ,the first and last sections are overcast usually with cotton or very fine thread4 ,the first sheet is now to be laid against the bands1 and the needle introduced through the kettle stitch hole on the right of the book1 which is the #be head4 ,the left hand being within the centre of the sheet1 the needle is taken with it1 and thrust out on the left of the mark made for the first band2 the needle being taken with the right hand1 is again introduced on the right of the same band1 thus making a complete circle round it4 ,this is repeated with each band in succession1 and the needle brought out of the kettle stitch hole on the left or tail of the sheet4 ,a new sheet is now placed on the top1 and treated in a similar way1 by introducing the needle at the left end or tail2 and when taken out at the right end or top1 the thread must be fastened by a knot to the end1 hanging from the first sheet1 which is left long enough for the purpose4 ,a third sheet having been sewn in like manner1#b the needle must be brought out at the kettle stitch1 thrust between the two sheets first sewn1 and drawn round the thread1 thus fastening each sheet to its neighbour by a kind of chain stitch4 ,i believe the term 8kettle stitch0 is only a corruption of 8catch-up stitch10 as it catches each section as sewn in succession4 ,this class of work must be done very neatly and evenly1 but it is easily done with a little practice and patience4 ,this is the strongest sewing executed at the present day1 but it is very seldom done1 as it takes three or four times as long as the ordinary sewing4 ,the thread must be drawn tightly each time it is passed round the band1 and at the end properly fastened off at the kettle stitch1 or the sections will work loose in course of time4 ,old books were always sewn in this manner1 and when two or double bands were used1 the thread was twisted twice round one on sewing one section1 and twice round the other on sewing the next1 or once round each cord4 ,in some cases even the 8head-band0 was worked at #bg the same time1 by fastening other pieces of leather for the head and tail1 and making it the catch-up stitch as well4 ,when the head-band was worked in sewing1 the book was1 of course1 not afterwards cut at the edges4 ,when this was done1 wooden boards were used instead of mill boards1 and twisted leather instead of cord1 and when the book was covered1 a groove was made between each double band4 ,this way is still imitated by sticking a second band or cord alongside the one made in sewing1 before the book is covered4 ,the cord for flexible work is called a 8flexible cord10 and is twisted tighter and is stronger than any other4 ,in all kinds of sewing ,i advise the use of ,hayes' ,royal ,irish thread1 not because there is no other of good manufacture1 but because ,i have tried several kinds1 and ,hayes' has proved to be the best4 ,the thickness of the cord must always be in proportion to the size and thickness of the book1 and the thickness of the thread must depend on the sheets1 whether they be half sheets or whole sheets4 ,if too thick a thread is used1 the swelling 7the rising caused in the back by the thread7 will be too much1 and it will be impossible to make a proper rounding or get a right size 8groove0 in backing4 ,if the sections are thick or few1 a thick thread must be used to give the thickness necessary to produce a good groove4 #b ,as each thread is terminated1 another must be joined thereto1 so that one length of thread is1 as it were1 used for a book4 ,the knots must be made very neatly1 and the ends cut off1 or they will be visible in the sheet by their bulk4 ,illustration3 ,flexible sewing4 ,if the book is of moderate thickness1 the sections may be knocked down by occasionally tapping them with a piece #bh of wood loaded at one end with lead1 or a thick folding-stick may be used as a substitute4 ,i must again call particular attention to the kettle stitch4 ,the thread must not be drawn too tight in making the chain1 or the thread will break in backing2 but still a proper tension must be kept or the sheets will wear loose4 ,the last sheet should be fastened with a double knot round the kettle stitch two or three sections down1 and that section must be sewn all along4 ,the next style of sewing1 and most generally used throughout the trade1 is the ordinary method4 ,ordinary ,sewing is somewhat different1 inasmuch as the thread is not twisted round the cord1 as in flexible work1 when the cord is outside the section4 ,in this method the cord fits into the saw cuts4 ,the thread is simply passed over the cord1 not round it1 otherwise the principle of sewing is the same1 that is1 the thread is passed right along the section1 out of the holes made1 and into them again2 the kettle stitch being made in the same way4 ,this style of work has one advantage over flexible work1 because the back of the book can be better gilt4 ,in flexible work1 the leather is attached with paste to the back1 and is flexed1 and bent1 each time the book is opened1 and there is great risk of the gold splitting away or being detached from the leather in wear4 ,books sewn in the ordinary method are made with a hollow or loose back1 and when the book is opened1 the crease in the back is independent of the leather covering2 the lining of the back only is creased1 and the leather keeps its perfect form1 by reason of the lining giving it a spring outwards4 ,morocco is generally used for flexible work2 calf1 being without a grain1 is not suitable1 as it would show all the creases in the back made by the opening4 ,this class of sewing is excellent for books that do not require so much strength1 such as library bindings1#c but for a dictionary or the like1 where constant #bi reference or daily use is required1 ,i should sew a book flexibly4 ,some binders sew their books in the ordinary way1 and paste the leather directly to the back1 and thus pass it for flexible work2 but ,i do not think any respectable house would do so4 ,a book that has been sewed flexibly will not have any saw cut in the back1 so that on examination1 by opening it wide1 it will at once be seen if it is a real flexible binding or not4 #c ,this is not to be confounded with public library bindings4 ,intelligence must1 however1 be used2 a book that has already been cased 7or bound and sewn on cords7 must of necessity have the saw cuts or holes1 and such a book would show the cuts4 ,there is another mode called 8flexible not to show40 ,the book is marked up in the usual way as for flexible1 and is also slightly scratched on the band marks with the saw2 but not deep enough to go through the sections4 ,a thin cord is then taken doubled for each band1 and the book is sewn the ordinary flexible way2 the cord is knocked into the back in forwarding1 and the leather may be stuck on a hollow back with bands1 or it may be fastened to the back itself without bands4#d #d ,see chapter on ,lining up4 ,however simple it may appear in description to sew a book1 it requires great judgment to keep down the swelling of the book to the proper amount necessary to form a good backing groove and no more4 ,in order to do this1 the sheets must from time to time be gently tapped down with a piece of wood or a heavy folding-stick1 and great care must be observed to avoid drawing the fastening of the kettle stitch too tight1 or the head and tail of the book will be thinner than the middle2 this fault once committed has no remedy4 ,if the sections are very thin1 or in half sheets1 they may1 if the book is very thick1 be sewn 8two sheets on40 ,the needle is passed from the kettle stitch to the first band of #cj the first sheet and out1 then another sheet is placed on the top1 and the needle inserted at the first band and brought out at band ,no4 #b1 the needle is again inserted in the first sheet and in at the second band and out at ,no4 #c1 thus treating the two sections as one2 in this way it is obvious that only half as much thread will be in the back4 ,with regard to books that have had the heads cut1 it will be necessary to open each sheet carefully up to the back before it is placed on the press1 otherwise the centre may not be caught1 and two or more leaves will be detached after the book is bound4 ,the first and last sections of every book should be overcast for strength4 ,with regard to books that are composed of single leaves1 they are treated of in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,they are to be overcast1 and each section treated as a section of an ordinary book1 the only difference being1 that a strong lining of paper should be given to the back before covering1 so that it cannot 8throw up40 ,when a book is sewn1 it is taken from the sewing press by slackening the screws which tighten the beam1 so that the cord may be easily detached from the keys and lay cords4 ,the cord may be left at its full length until the end papers are about to be put on1 when it must be reduced to about three inches4 ,brehmer's patent wire book and pamphlet sewing machine is an introduction well adapted to the use of the stationer1 where thick and hand-made paper will bear such a method4 ,it will not1 in my opinion1 ever be found eligible for library or standard books4 ,its high price will debar it from the trade generally2 but it is to be feared that a sufficient number of really good books may be sewn with it to cause embarrassment to the first-rate binder1 who will be baffled in making good work of books which may have been damaged by the invention of sewing books with wire4 #ca ,illustration3 ,smythe's ,sewing ,machine4 ,the novelty of this machine is1 that the book is sewn with wire instead of thread4 ,the machine is fed with wire from spools by small steel rollers1 which at each revolution supply exactly the length of wire required to form little staples with two legs4 ,of these staples1 the machine makes at every revolution as many as are required #cb for each sheet of the book that is being sewn--generally two or three1 or more1 as necessary4 ,these wires or staples are forced through the sections from the inside of the folds2 and as the tapes are stretched1 and held by clasps exactly opposite to each staple-forming and inserting apparatus1 the legs of each staple penetrate the tapes1 and project through them to a sufficient distance to allow of their being bent inwards towards each other1 and pressed firmly against the tapes4 ,with pamphlets1 copy-books1 catalogues1 c41 no tape is used1 the staples themselves being sufficient4 ,about two thousand pamphlets or sheets can be sewn in one hour4 ,another machine1 and ,i believe the latest1 is the 8,smythe40 ,the sewer sits in front of the machine and places the sheets1 one at a time1 on radial arms which project from a vertical rod4 ,these arms rotate1 rise1 and adjust the sheets1 so as to bring them in their proper position under the curved needles4 ,as each arm rises1 small holes are pierced1 by means of punches in the sheets1 from the inside1 to facilitate the entrance and egress of the needles4 ,the loopers then receive a lateral movement to tighten the stitch1 and this movement is made adjustable1 in order that books may be sewn tight or loose1 as required4 ,about #bj1jjj sheets can be sewn in a day1 and no previous sawing is required4 ,thread is used with this machine4 ,illustration #cc ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,forwarding4 ,end ,papers4--,the end papers should always be made1 that is1 the coloured paper pasted to a white one2 the style of binding must decide what kind of ends are to be used4 ,i give a slight idea of the kinds of papers used and the method of making them4 ,cobb ,paper is a paper used generally for half-calf bindings1 with a sprinkled edge1 or as a change1 half-calf1 gilt top4 ,the paper is stained various shades and colours in the making1 and ,i think derives its name from a binder who first used it4 ,being liked by the trade1 they have distinguished the paper by calling it 8,cobb paper10 which name it has kept4 ,surface ,paper4--,this is a paper1 one side of which is prepared with a layer of colour1 laid on with a brush very evenly4 ,some kinds are left dull and others are glazed4 ,the darker colours of this paper are generally chosen for ,bibles or books of a religious character1 and the lighter colours for the cloth or case work4 ,there are many other shades which may be put into extra bindings with very good effect1 and will exercise the taste of the workman4 ,for example1 a good cream1 when of fine colour and good quality1 will look very well in a morocco book with either cloth or morocco joints4 ,marbled ,paper4--,this paper has the colour disposed upon it in imitation of marble2 hence its name4 ,it is produced by sprinkling properly prepared colours upon the surface of a size1 made either of a vegetable emulsion1 #cd or of a solution of resinous gum4 ,it is necessary1 in either preparing an original design or in matching an example1 to remember that the veins are the first splashes of colour thrown on the size1 and assume that form in consequence of being driven back by the successive colours employed4 ,we have it on the authority of ,mr4 ,woolnough1#e that the old ,dutch paper was wrapped round toys in order to evade the duty imposed upon it4 ,after being carefully smoothed out1 it was sold to bookbinders at a very high price1 who used it upon their extra bindings1 and if the paper was not large enough they were compelled to join it4 ,after a time the manufacture was introduced into ,england1 but either the colours are not prepared the same way1 or the paper itself may not be so suitable1 the colours are not brought out with such vigour and beauty1 nor do they stand so well1 as on the old ,dutch paper4 ,some secret of the art has been lost1 and it baffles our ablest marblers of the present day to reproduce many of the beautiful examples that may be seen in some of the old books4 #e 8,the ,whole ,art of ,marbling as applied to ,paper40 ,c4 ,w4 ,woolnough4 ,bell and ,sons1 #ahha4 ,for further remarks on marbled paper and marbling see chapter on colouring edges4 ,printed and other ,fancy ,paper may be bought at fancy stationers2 the variety is so great that description is impossible1 but good taste and judgment should always be used by studying the style and colour of binding4 ,of late years a few firms have paid some attention to this branch1 and have placed in the market some very pretty patterns in various tints4 ,the foreign binders are very fond of papers printed in bronze1 and some are certainly of a most elaborate and gorgeous description4 ,many houses have their own favourite pattern and style4 ,all papers having bronze on #ce them should be carefully selected and the cheaper kinds eschewed1 the bronze in a short time going black4 ,coloured ,paste ,paper4--,this kind the binder can easily make for himself4 ,some colour should be mixed with paste and a little soap1 until it is a little thicker than cream4 ,it should then be spread upon two sheets of paper with a paste brush4 ,the sheets must then be laid together with their coloured surfaces facing each other1 and when separated they will have a curious wavy pattern on them4 ,the paper should then be hung up to dry on a string stretched across the room1 and when dry glazed with a hot iron4 ,a great deal of it is used in ,germany for covering books4 ,green1 reds1 and blues have a very good effect4 ,there are many other kinds of paper that may be used1 but the above five different varieties will give a very good idea and serve as points to work from4 ,the many bookbinders' material dealers send out pattern books1 and in them some hundreds of patterns are to be found4 ,before leaving the subject of ends1 it may be as well to mention that morocco1 calf1 russia1 silk1 etc41 are often used on whole bound work2 these must1 however1 be placed in the book when has been covered4 ,after having decided upon what kind of paper is to be used1 two pieces are cut and folded to the size of the book1 leaving them a trifle larger1 especially if the book has been already cut4 ,two pieces of white paper must be prepared in the same way4 ,having them ready1 a white paper is laid down1 folded1 on a pasting board 7any old mill-board kept for this purpose71 and pasted with moderately thin paste very evenly2 the two fancy papers are laid on the top quite even with the back or folded edge2 the top fancy paper is now to be pasted1 and the other white laid on that3 they must now be taken from the board1 and after a squeeze in the press between pressing boards1 taken out1 and hung up separately to dry4 ,this will cause one half of the white #cf to adhere to one half of the marble or fancy paper4 ,when they are dry1 they should be refolded in the old folds and pressed for about a quarter of an hour4 ,when there are more than one pair of ends to make1 they need not be made one pair at a time1 but ten or fifteen pairs may be done at once1 by commencing with the one white1 then two fancy1 two white1 and so on1 until a sufficient number have been made1 always pressing them to ensure the surfaces adhering properly2 then hang them up to dry4 ,when dry press again1 to make them quite flat4 ,as this is the first time ,i speak about pasting1 a few hints or remarks on the proper way will not be out of place here4 ,always draw the brush well over the paper and away from the centre1 towards the edges of the paper4 ,do not have too much paste in the brush1 but just enough to make it slide well4 ,be careful that the whole surface is pasted2 remove all hairs or lumps from the paper1 or they will mark the book4 ,finally1 never attempt to take up the brush from the paper before it is well drawn over the edge of the paper1 or the paper will stick to the brush and turn over1 with the risk of the under side being pasted4 ,while the ends are pressing we will proceed with further forwarding our book4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,pasting ,,up4 ,the first and last sheet of every book must be pasted up or down1--it is called by both terms2 and if the book has too much swelling1 it must be tapped down gently with a hammer4 ,hold the book tightly at the foredge with the left hand1 knuckles down2 rest the back on the press1 and hit #cg the back with the hammer to the required thickness4 ,if the book is not held tightly1 a portion of the back will slip in and the hollow will always be visible2 so ,i advise that the back be knocked flat on the 8lying press0 and placed in it without boards1 so that the back projects4 ,screw the press up tightly1 so that the sheets cannot slip4 ,a knocking-down iron should then be placed against the book on its left side1 and the back hammered against it2 the 8slips0 or cords must be pulled tight1 each one being pulled with the right hand1 the left holding the slips tightly against the book so that they cannot be pulled through4 ,should it happen that a slip is pulled out1 nothing remains but to re-sew the book1 unless it is a thin one1 when it may possibly be re-inserted with a large needle4 ,but this will not do the book any good4 ,the slips being pulled tight1 the first and last section should be pasted to those next them4 ,to do this1 lay the book on the edge of the press and throw the top section back2 lay a piece of waste paper upon the next section about #a_/h or #a_/d inch from the back1 according to the size of the book1 and paste the space between the back and the waste paper1 using generally the second finger of the right hand1 holding the paper down with the left4 ,when pasted1 the waste paper is removed1 and the back of the section put evenly with the back of the book1 which is now turned over carefully that it may not shift2 the other end is treated in the same manner4 ,a weight should then be put on the top1 or if more than a single book1 one should lie on the top of the other1 back and foredge alternately1 each book to be half an inch within the foredge of the book next to it1 with a few pressing boards on the top one4 ,when dry the end papers are to be pasted on4 ,illustration #ch ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,putting ,,on ,,the ,,end ,,papers4 ,two single leaves of white paper1 somewhat thicker than the paper used for making the ends1 are to be cut1 one for each side of the book4 ,the end papers are to be laid down on a board1 or on a piece of paper on the press to keep them clean1 with the pasted or made side uppermost1 the single leaves on the top4 ,they should then be fanned out evenly to a proper width1 about a quarter of an inch for an #hvo41 a piece of waste paper put on the top1 and their edges pasted4 ,the slips or cords thrown back1 the white fly is put on the book1 a little away from the back1 and the made ends on the top even with the back1 and again left to dry with the weight of a few boards on the top4 ,if1 however1 the book or books are very heavy or large1 they should have 8joints0 of either bookbinders' cloth or of leather of the same colour as the leather with which the book is to be covered4 ,morocco is mostly used for the leather joints4 ,if the joints are to be of cloth1 it may be added either when the ends are being put on1 or when the book is ready for pasting down4 ,if the cloth joint is to be put on now1 the cloth is cut from #a to #c inches1 according to the size of book1 and folded quite evenly1 the side of the cloth which has to go on the book being left the width intended to be glued2 that is1 a width of #a inch should be folded #c_/d one side1 leaving #a_/d the other1 the latter to be put on the book4 ,the smallest fold is now glued1 the white fly put on1 and the fancy paper on the top2 the difference being1 that the paper instead of being made double or folded is single1 or instead of taking a paper double the #ci size of the book and folding it1 it is cut to the size of the book and pasted all over4 ,it will be better if the marble paper be pasted and the white put on and well rubbed down1 and then the whole laid between mill-boards to dry4 ,a piece of waste or brown paper should be slightly fastened at the back over the whole1 7turning the cloth down on the book7 to keep it clean and prevent it from getting damaged4 ,the strongest manner is to overcast the ends and cloth joint to the first and last section of the book1 as it is then almost impossible either for the cloth or ends to pull away from the book4 ,if1 however1 the cloth joint is to be put on after the book is covered1 the flys and ends are only edged on with paste to the book just sufficient to hold them while it is being bound2 and when the book is to be pasted down1 the ends are lifted from the book by placing a thin folding-stick between the ends and book and running it along1 when they will come away quite easily4 ,the cloth is then cut and folded as before and fastened on1 and the ends and flys properly pasted in the back4 ,morocco joints are usually put in after the book is covered1 but ,i prefer that if joints of any kind are to go in the book they should be put in at the same time as the ends4 ,take great care that the ends are quite dry after being made before attaching them1 or the dampness will affect the beginning and end of the book and cause the first few leaves to wrinkle4 ,when the ends are quite dry the slips should be unravelled and scraped1 a bodkin being used for the unravelling1 and the back of a knife for the scraping4 ,the object of this is1 that they may with greater ease be passed through the holes in the mill-board1 and the bulk of the cord be more evenly distributed and beaten down1 so as not to be seen after the book has been covered4 #da ,illustration3 ,method of sewing ,ends on to ,book that cannot tear away4 ,first and last sheet are not overcasted when treated in this manner4 ,many houses cut away the slip entirely1 in order that the work may look better4 ,this should never be done2 with large and heavy books it is better to allow the bulk of the cord to be seen rather than sacrifice strength4 ,to a certain extent this may be avoided by cutting a small portion of the mill-board away to allow the cord to lodge in4 ,there is another way of putting on the end papers1 that is1 to sew the ends on with the book when sewing4 ,the paper is folded at the back with a small fold1 the sheet placed in the fold1 and the whole sewn through4 ,it is at once apparent that under no circumstances can there be any strain on the ends1 and that there is hardly any possibility of the ends breaking away from the sheets4 ,for books subjected to very hard wear 7school books1 public library books1 etc47 this method of placing the ends is by far the best4 ,see opposite page4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,trimming4 ,is the book to have a gilt top8 marbled or gilt edges8 or is it to be left uncut8 ,these questions must be settled before anything further is done4 ,if the book is to be uncut or have a gilt top1 the rough edges should be taken away with a very sharp knife or shears3 this process is called 8trimming40 ,the book having been knocked up straight1 is laid on a piece of wood planed smooth and kept for this purpose1 called a 8trimming board40 ,it is then compassed from the back1 a straight edge laid to the compass holes1 and the foredge cut with a very sharp knife4 ,if the knife is not #db sharp the paper will yield to the slight pressure required and will not be cut4 ,it is therefore absolutely necessary that a good edge be given to the blade1 and1 if possible1 to keep a special knife for the purpose4 ,such knives1 called trimming knives1 are sold1 the probable cost being about two shillings4 ,they have a very broad blade4 ,the object of trimming is to make the edges true2 the amount taken off must be only the rough and dirty edges1 the book being thus left as large as possible4 ,the ,french put their books in the press between boards and rasp the edges1 but this method has not only the disadvantage of showing all the marks of the rasp1 but also of leaving a roughness which catches and retains the dust in proportion to the soft or hard qualities of the paper4 ,illustration3 ,cardboard ,machine used for trimming4 ,another method is to put the book into the cutting press1 and cut the overplus off with a plough1 having a circular knife1 called a 8round plough40 ,this is used when a number of books are being done together4 ,i prefer to use the straight edge and knife for the foredge and tail1 and to cut the top when the book is in boards4 ,it is1 however1 not necessary to go to the expense of a round plough1 it is only advisable to have one when 8plough trimming0 is of daily occurrence2 an ordinary plough knife1 ground to a circular edge1 will answer in most cases4 ,another excellent plan is to set the gauge of the #dc mill-board machine1 or a card-cutting machine1 and to cut or trim each section1 foredge and tail1 by the machine knife4 ,in a large number of books this plan is to be recommended2 the whole is cut more even and in less time2 trimming by this method must1 however1 be done before sewing4 ,this method is also adopted by some ,french houses4 ,before leaving the subject of trimming1 ,i will insert a few lines from that well-known paper the 8,athenum10 as to how a book should be trimmed2 and so much do ,i agree with its writer1 that ,i have the quotation1 in large type1 hung up in my shop as a constant caution and instruction to the workmen3-- 7,no4 #bach1 ,oct4 #agth1 #ahfh47 8,mr4 ,,editor1--,if you think that the #8,athenum' is read or seen by any members of that class of ruthless binders1 who delight in destroying the appearance of every pamphlet and book that comes into their hands1 by trimming or ploughing its edges to the quick 7and almost always crookedly71 ,i beg you to insert this appeal to the monsters ,i have named1 to desist from their barbarous practices1 to learn to reverence the margin of a book1 and never to take from it a hair's breadth more than is absolutely needful4 ,the brutality with which the fair margins of one's loved volumes are treated by these mangling wretches with their awful plough knives is shocking to behold4 ,the curses of book lovers are daily heaped on their backs1 but they go on running-a-muck1 heedless of remonstrance1 remorseless1 ever sacrificing fresh victims4 ,had we a paternal government1 one might hope for due punishment of some of these offenders3 one at least might be ploughed up the back1 another up the front1 as an example and a terror to the trade2 but as this wholesome correction cannot unhappily be administered1 will you give expression to the indignation of one amongst a million sufferers for years from these #dd trimmers' savageries1 and let them know what feelings their reckless cruelty awakens in many breasts8 ,one of the largest houses in ,london has just sent me home fifty copies of an essay1 intended as a present for a friend4 ,they have been trimmed1 and been ruined4 ,would that ,i could have the trimming of their trimmer's hair and ears2 also his nose6 ,i don't think his best friend would know him when ,i had done with him4 8,but1 ,sir1 we live in a philanthropic age1 and are bound to forgive our enemies and try to reform the worst criminals4 ,i therefore propose a practical measure to win these book trimmers from their enormities2 namely1 that fifty at least of your readers1 who care for book margins1 should subscribe a guinea each for a challenge cup1 to be competed for yearly1 and held by that firm which1 on producing copies of all books and pamphlets trimmed by it during the year1 shall be adjudged to have disfigured them least4 ,i ask you1 ,sir1 if you will receive subscriptions for this challenge cup8 ,if you will1 ,i shall be glad to send you mine4 8,m4 ,a4 8,p4,s4--,any one who will cut out this letter1 and get it pasted up in any binder's or printer's trimming room1 will confer a favour on the writer40 ,a very good trimming machine has been invented by ,messrs4 ,richmond and ,co41 of ,kirby ,street1 ,hatton ,garden4 ,the bed rises and falls1 with the books upon it1 instead of the knife descending upon the work1 as in the cutting machines2 and the gauges are so arranged1 that the foredge of one pile of books1 and the tails of another1 can be cut at one operation1 and it is guaranteed by the makers that the knife will leave a clean and perfectly trimmed edge4 #de ,,chapter ,x4 ,,glueing ,,up4 ,the book must now be glued up2 that is1 glue must be applied to the back to hold the sections together1 and make the back firm during the rounding and backing4 ,knock the book perfectly true at its back and head1 and put it into the lying press between two pieces of old mill-board2 expose the back and let it project from the boards a little1 the object being to hold the book firm and to keep the slips close to the sides1 so that no glue shall get on them2 then with glue1 not too thick1 but hot1 glue the back1 rubbing it in with the brush1 and take the overplus off again with the brush4 ,in some shops1 a handful of shavings is used to rub the glue in1 and to take the refuse away1 but ,i consider this to be a bad plan1 as a great quantity of glue is wasted4 ,the ,germans rub the glue into the back with the back of a hammer1 and take away the overplus with the brush2 this is certainly better than using shavings4 ,the back must not be allowed to get too dry before it is rounded1 or it will have to be damped with a sponge1 to give to the glue the elasticity required1 but it should not be wet1 this being worse than letting it get too dry4 ,the book should be left for about an hour1 or till it no longer feels tacky to the touch1 but still retains its flexibility4 ,a flexible bound book should first be rounded1 a backing board being used to bring the sheets round instead of a hammer1 then the back glued1 and a piece of tape tied round the book to prevent its going back flat4 #df ,but all books are not glued up in the press2 some workmen knock up a number of books1 and1 allowing them to project a little over their press1 glue the lot up at once2 others again1 by holding the book in the left hand and drawing the brush up and down the back4 ,these last methods are1 however1 only practised in cloth shops1 where books are bound or cased at very low prices4 ,the proper way1 as ,i have explained1 is to put the book in the lying press4 ,the book is then laid on its side to dry1 and if more than one1 they should be laid alternately back and foredge1 with the back projecting about half an inch1 and allowed to dry spontaneously1 and on no account to be dried by the heat of a fire4 ,all artificial heat in drying in any process of bookbinding is injurious to the work4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,rounding4 ,the word 8rounding0 applies to the back of the book1 and is preliminary to backing4 ,in rounding the back1 the book is to be laid on the press before the workman with the foredge towards him2 the book is then to be held with the left hand by placing the thumb on the foredge and fingers on the top of the book pointing towards the back1 so that by drawing the fingers towards the thumb1 or by pressing fingers and thumb together1 the back is drawn towards the workman at an angle4 ,in this position the back is struck with the face of the hammer1 beginning in the centre1 still drawing the back over with the left hand4 ,the book is then to be turned over1 and the other side treated in the same way1 and continually #dg changed or turned from one side to the other until it has its proper form1 which should be a part of a circle4 ,when sufficiently rounded1 it should be examined to see if one side be perfectly level with the other1 by holding the book up and glancing down its back1 and gently tapping the places where uneven1 until it is perfectly true or uniform4 ,the thicker the book the more difficult it will be found to round it2 and some papers will be found more obstinate than others1 so that great care must be exercised both in rounding and backing1 as the foredge when cut will have exactly the same form as the back4 ,nothing can be more annoying than to see books lop-sided1 pig-backed1 and with sundry other ailments1 inherent to cheap bookbinding4 #dh ,illustration3 ,rounding ,machine4 ,the back when properly rounded should be about a third of a circle1 according to the present mode1 but in olden times they were made almost flat4 ,they were not rounded as now done1 but the swelling caused by the thread used made quite enough rounding when put in the press for backing4 ,flat back books have a certain charm about them1 the more so if in other respects they are properly forwarded4 ,the theory is altogether averse to practical binding4 ,i have always been given to understand that we round our books in order to counteract the tendency of a book to sink in and assume a convex back4 ,any old well-used book bound with a flat back will show at once this defect4 ,messrs4 ,hopkinson and ,cope1 of ,farringdon ,road1 ,london1 manufacture a rounding machine4 ,they claim that this machine will round #fjj books per hour1 and that any desired 8round0 may be given to the book with great uniformity4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,backing4 ,the boards required for backing1 called backing boards1 should always be the same length as the book4 ,they are made somewhat thicker than cutting boards1 and have their tops planed at an angle1 so that the sheets may fall well over4 ,illustration3 ,backing ,hammer4 ,illustration3 ,before ,backing4 ,after ,backing4 ,hold the book in the left hand1 lay a board on one side1 a little away from the back1 taking the edge of the top sheet as a guide1 the distance to be a trifle more than the thickness of the boards intended to be used4 ,then #di turn over the book1 with the backing board1 holding the board to the book by the thumb1 so that it does not shift1 and lay the other board at exactly the same distance on the other side4 ,the whole is now to be held tightly by the left hand and lowered into the press4 ,the boards may possibly have shifted a little during the process1 and any correction may now be made whilst the press holds the book before screwing up tight1 such as a slight tap with the hammer to one end of a board that may not be quite straight4 ,should the boards however be not quite true1 it will be better to take the whole out and readjust them1 rather than lose time in trying to rectify the irregularity by any other method4 ,if the rounding is not quite true it will be seen at once1 and the learner must not be disheartened if he has to take his book out of the press two or three times to correct any slight imperfection4 ,the book and boards having been lowered flush with the cheeks of the press1 screw it up as tightly as possible with the iron hand-pin4 ,the back of the book must now be gently struck with the back of the hammer1 holding it slanting and beating the sheets well over towards the backing boards4 ,commence from the centre of the back and do #ej not hit too hard1 or the dent made by the hammer will show after the book has been covered4 ,the back is to be finished with the face of the hammer1 the sheets being brought well over on the boards so that a good and solid groove may be made4 ,each side must be treated in the same way1 and have the same amount of weight and beating4 ,the back must have a gradual hammering1 and the sheets1 when knocked one way1 must not be knocked back again4 ,the hammer should be swung with a circular motion1 always away from the centre of the back4 ,the book1 when opened after backing1 should be entirely without wrinkles2 their presence being a sign that the workman did not know his business1 or that it was carelessly done4 ,backing and cutting constitute the chief work in forwarding1 and if these two are not done properly the book cannot be square and solid--two great essentials in bookbinding4 ,backing flexible work will be found a little more difficult1 as the slips are tighter2 but otherwise the process is exactly the same1 only care must be taken not to hammer the cord too much1 and to bring over the sections very gently1 in order not to break the sewing thread4 ,the backing boards may be replaned from time to time1 as they become used1 but boards may be had having a double face of steel to them2 these may be used from either side4 ,the edges of the steel must not be sharp1 or they will cut the paper when backing4 ,the ordinary boards may also have a face of steel screwed to them1 but ,i prefer to use the wood--one can get a firmer back without fear of cutting the sheets4 ,illustration3 ,two-edged ,backing ,boards4 ,there are several backing machines by different makers but they are all of similar plan4 ,the book being first rounded is put between the cheeks1 and the roller at the #ea top presses the sheets over4 ,i am sorry to say that a great number of sheets get cut by this process1 especially when a careless man has charge of the machine4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,mill-,,boards4 ,there is no occasion to wait for the book to be advanced as far as the backing before the workman sees to his boards2 but he should take advantage of the period of drying to prepare them1 to look out the proper thickness of the board1 and to line them with paper either on one side or on both4 ,there are now so many kinds of mill-boards made that a few words about them may not be out of place4 ,the best boards are made of old rope1 and cost about #cj per ton4 ,the various mills make each a different quality1 the prices ranging down to #ad per ton2 about this price the straw boards may be said to commence1 they going as low as #g1 and even less4 ,a new board has lately appeared called leather board2 it is exceedingly hard and durable4 ,i made several experiments with this board1 but up to the present have not succeeded in getting it to lay flat on the book4 ,boards are made to the various sizes in sheets varying from pott 7#ag-a_/d #ad-a_/d inches7 to double elephant 7#dj #bh inches74 ,the thickness is known as #f;d41 #g;d41 #h;d42 #hx1 or eightpenny one cross2 #hxx1 eightpenny two cross2 ,x for tenpenny4 ,here is a list in full of all the boards likely to be used3--#eb ,,key ,,to ,,table4 ,a8inches402 ,b8,dozens in a ,bundle402 ,c8,weight ,per ,bundle1 lb40 ,,description4 ,,size4 #f;d4 #g;d4 #h;d4 #hx4 #hxx4 ,x4 ,a ,b ,c ,b ,c ,b ,c ,b ,c ,b ,c ,b ,c ,pott #ag-a_/d #ad-a_/d #f #bh #f #dj #e #dh #e #ef #d #fj #c #eh ,foolscap #ah-a_/b #ad-a_/b #f #cb #f #dd #e #ej #e #eh #d #fb #c #eh ,crown #bj #af-a_/d #f #cf #f #ej #e #fb #e #gb #d #gd #c #gb ,small ,half ,royal #bj-a_/d #ac #f #cj #f #dd #e #ej #e #fj #d #fb #c #eh ,large ,half ,royal #ba #ad #f #cj #f #dh #e #fj #e #fb #d #gj #c #gb ,short #ba #ag #f #ch #f #ee #e #gj #e #gh #d #gh #c #gh ,sm4 ,half ,imperial #bb-a_/d #ae #f #cf #f #ej #e #fd #d #gj #c #fb #b #fj ,half ,imperial #bc-a_/b #af-a_/b #f #dj #f #fj #e #ff #d #gj #c #ff #b #fd ,mdle4 or ,sm4,demy #bb-a_/b #ah-a_/b #f #de #f #fj #e #ff #d #gd #c #gb #b #ff ,large ,middle or ,large ,demy #bc-c_/d #ah-a_/b #f #dh #f #fh #e #ff #d #gf #c #gd #b #fj ,large or ,medium #bd #ai #f #dh #f #gj #e #fe #d #gf #c #gd #b #fj ,small ,royal #be-a_/b #ai-a_/b #f #eb #f #gh #e #gh #d #hd #c #hd #b #fh ,large ,royal #bf-c_/d #bj-c_/d #f #eb #f #gh #d #fh #c #gf #b #fh #b #hf ,extra ,royal #bh-a_/b #ba-a_/b #f #ef #f #hb #d #gd #c #hj #b #gd #b #ib ,imperial #cb #bb-a_/b #f #gb #d #gb #c #gb #b #gb #b #if #b #abj ,illustration3 ,mill-board ,shears4 ,having chosen the board1 it is necessary to cut it up to the size wanted4 ,if the book is #hvo41 the board is cut into eight pieces2 if #dto41 into four2 using a demy board for a demy book1 or a royal for a royal book4 ,to cut up the board1 first mark up1 as a guide for the mill-board shears4 ,these are very large shears1 in shape somewhat like an enlarged tin shears4 ,to use the shears1 screw up one arm in the laying press1 hold the board by the left hand1 using the right to work the upper arm1 the left hand meanwhile guiding the board4 ,some little tact is required #ec to cut heavy boards4 ,it will be found that it is necessary to press the lower arm away with the thigh1 and bring the upper arm towards the operator whilst cutting4 ,illustration3 ,mill-board ,machine4 ,a mill-board cutting machine is now in all large shops4 ,the cut fairly well explains itself2 the long blade descending cuts the boards1 which are held fast on the table by the clamp4 ,the gauges are set either on the table or in front4 ,the board is put on the table and held tight by pressure of the foot on the treadle2 the knife descending upon the exposed board cuts after the principle of the guillotine blade4 ,another kind1 introduced by ,messrs4 ,richmond1 of ,kirby ,street1 ,hatton ,garden1 is made for steam work1 and is no doubt one of the best that can be made4 ,instead of a knife to descend1 a number of circular cutters are made to revolve on two spindles1 the one cutter working against the other 7see woodcut72 but ,i give ,messrs4 ,richmond's own description1 it being more explicit than any ,i could #ed possibly give3 8,the machine accomplishes a surprising amount of superior work in a very short time1 and the best description of the ordinary lever mill-board cutting machine cannot be compared with it4 ,the machine is very strongly and accurately constructed4 ,it is furnished with an iron table having a planed surface1 and is also provided with a self-acting feed gauge4 ,the gear wheels are engine cut1 and the circular cutters1 which are of the best cast steel1 being turned and ground 8dead true10 clean and accurate cutting is insured4 ,the machine will therefore be found to be a most profitable acquisition to any bookbinding establishment in which large quantities of mill-board are used up40 ,illustration3 ,steam ,mill-board ,cutting ,machine4 ,the boards being cut1 square the edge which is to go to the back of the book4 ,this must be done in the cutting press1 using a cutting board for one side termed a 8runner10 and another called a 8cut-against0 for the other side4 #ee ,these are simply to save the press from being cut2 and a piece of old mill-board is generally placed on the cut-against1 so that the plough knife does not cut or use up the cut-against too quickly4 ,the boards are now1 if for whole-binding1 to be lined on both sides with paper2 if for half-binding only on one side4 ,the reason for lining them is to make the boards curve inwards towards the book4 ,the various pastings would cause the board to curve the contrary way if it were not lined4 ,if the boards are to be lined both sides1 paper should be cut double the size of the boards2 if only one side1 the paper cut a little wider than the boards1 so that a portion of the paper may be turned over on to the other side about a quarter of an inch4 ,the paper is now pasted with not too thick paste1 and the board laid on the paper with the cut edge towards the portion to be turned over4 ,it is now taken up with the paper adhering1 and laid down on the press with the paper side upwards1 and rubbed well down2 it is then again turned over and the paper drawn over the other side4 ,it is advisable to press the boards to make more certain of the paper adhering1 remembering always that the paper must be pasted all over very evenly1 for it cannot be expected to adhere if it is not pasted properly4 ,when the books are very thick1 two boards must be pasted together1 not only to get the proper thickness1 but for strength1 for a made board is always stronger than a single one4 ,if a board has to be made1 a thick and a somewhat thinner board should be fastened together with paste4 ,paste both boards and put them in the standing press for the night4 ,great pressure should not be put on at first1 but after allowing them to set for a few minutes1 pull down the press as tight as possible4 ,when placing made boards to the book1 the thinner one should always be next the book4 ,it may be taken as a general rule that a thinner board when pasted will always draw a thicker one4 #ef ,when boards are lined on one side only it is usual to turn half an inch of the paper over the square or cut edge1 and the lined side must be placed next the book4 ,many binders line the mill-board all over with paper before cutting2 this may save time1 but the edge of the board at the joint is liable to be abraised1 and the resulting joint uneven4 ,the boards when lined should be laid about or stood up to dry1 and when dry1 cut to the proper and exact size for the book4 ,as a fact1 the black boards now sold are much too new or green to be used direct by the binder1 they should be stocked for some months4 ,the requisite width is obtained by extending the compass from the back of the book to the edge of the smallest bolt or fold in the foredge4 ,it is advisable not to measure less than this point1 but to leave a leaf or two in order to show that the book is not cut down4 ,the compasses being fixed by means of the side screw1 the boards are to be knocked up even1 compassed up1 and placed in the lying press1 in which they are cut1 using1 as before1 the 8cut-against10 and placing the runner exactly to the compass holes4 ,when cut they are to be tested by turning one round and putting them together again2 if they are the least out of truth it will be apparent at once4 ,the head or top of the boards is next to be cut by placing a square against the back and marking the head or top with a bodkin or point of a knife4 ,the boards being quite straight are again put into the press and cut1 and when taken out should be again proved by reversing them as before1 and if not true they must be recut4 ,the length is now taken from the head of the book to the tail1 and in this some judgment must be used4 ,if the book has already been cut the measure must be somewhat larger than the book1 allowing only such an amount of paper to be cut off as will make the edge smooth4 ,if1 however1 the book is to #eg be entirely uncut1 the size of the book is measured1 and in addition the portion called squares must be added4 ,when a book has not been cut1 the amount that is to be cut off the head will give the head or top square1 and the book being measured from the head1 another square or projection must be added to it1 and the compass set to one of the shortest leaves in the book4 ,bearing in mind the article on trimming1 enough of the book only should be cut to give the edge solidity for either gilding or marbling4 ,a few leaves should always be left not cut with the plough1 to show that the book has not been cut down4 ,these few leaves are called proof1 and are always a mark of careful work4 ,about twenty years ago it was the mode to square the foredge of the boards1 then lace or draw them in1 and to cut the head and tail of the boards and book together1 then to turn up and cut the foredge of the book4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,drawing-,,in ,,and ,,pressing4 ,the boards having been squared1 they are to be attached to the book by lacing the ends of the cord through holes made in the board4 ,the boards are to be laid on the book with their backs in the groove and level with the head2 they must then be marked either with a lead pencil or the point of a bodkin exactly in a line with the slips1 about half an inch down the board4 ,on a piece of wood the mill-board is placed1 and holes are pierced by hammering a short bodkin through on the line made1 at a distance from the edge in accordance with the size of the book4 ,about half an inch away from the back is the right distance for an #eh octavo4 ,the board is then to be turned over1 and a second hole made about half an inch away from the first ones4 ,the boards having been holed1 the slips must be scraped1 pasted slightly1 and tapered or pointed4 ,draw them tightly through the hole first made and back through the second4 ,tap them slightly when the board is down to prevent them from slipping and getting loose4 ,when the cords are drawn through1 cut the ends close to the board with a knife1 and well hammer them down on the knocking-down iron to make the board close on the slips and hold them tight4 ,the slips should be well and carefully hammered1 as any projection will be seen with great distinctness when the book is covered4 ,the hammer must be held perfectly even1 for the slips will be cut by the edge of it if used carelessly4 ,the book is now to be examined1 and any little alteration may be made before putting it into the standing press4 ,with all books1 a tin should be placed between the mill-board and book1 to flatten the slips1 and prevent their adherence4 ,the tin is placed right up to the groove1 and serves also as a guide for the pressing board4 ,pressing boards1 the same size as the book1 should be put flush with the groove1 using the pressing tin as guide1 and the book or books placed in the centre of the press directly under the screw1 which is to be tightened as much as possible4 ,in pressing books of various sizes1 the largest book must always be put at the bottom of the press1 with a block or a few pressing boards between the various sizes1 in order to get equal pressure on the whole1 and to allow the screw to come exactly on the centre of the books4 ,the backs of the books are now to be pasted1 and allowed to stand for a few minutes to soften the glue4 ,then with a piece of wood or iron1 called a cleaning-off stick 7wood is preferable71 the glue is rubbed off1 and the backs are well rubbed with a handful of shavings and left to dry4 ,leave them as long as possible in the press1 and if the volume is #ei rather a thick one a coat of paste or thin glue should be applied to the back4 ,paste is preferable4 ,if the book is very thick a piece of thin calico may be pasted to the back and allowed to dry1 the surplus being taken away afterwards4 ,in flexible work care must be taken that the cleaning-off stick is not forced too hard against the bands1 or the thread being moist will break1 or the paper being wet will tear1 or the bands may become shifted4 ,the cleaning-off stick may be made of any piece of wood2 an old octavo cutting board is as good as anything else1 but a good workman will always have one suitable and at hand when required for use4 ,when the volumes have been pressed enough 7a day's pressing is none too much7 they are to be taken out1 and the tins and pressing boards put away4 ,the book is then ready for cutting4 ,of the numerous presses1 excepting the hydraulic1 ,gregory's ,patent ,compound ,action ,screw ,press is to my mind the best1 and ,i believe it to be one of the most powerful presses yet invented2 sixty tons pressure can be obtained by it4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,cutting4 ,in olden times1 when our present work-tools did not exist and material aids were scarce1 a sharp knife and straight edge formed the only implements used in cutting4 ,now we have the plough and cutting machine1 which have superseded the knife and straight edge2 and the cutting machine is now fast doing away with the plough4 ,there are very few shops at the present moment where a cutting #fj machine is not in use1 in fact ,i may say that1 without speaking only of cloth books1 for they must always be cut by machinery owing to the price not allowing them to be done otherwise1 there are very few books1 not even excepting extra books1 that have escaped the cutting machine4 ,illustration3 ,cutting ,press and ,plough4 ,illustration3 ,sliding ,knife4 ,all cutting 8presses0 are used in the same way4 ,the plough running over the press1 its left cheek running between two guides fastened on the left cheek of the press4 ,by turning the screw of the plough the right cheek is advanced towards the left2 the knife fixed on the right of the plough is advanced1 and with the point cuts gradually through the boards or paper secured in the press1 as already described in preparing the boards4 ,there are two kinds of ploughs in use--in one the knife is bolted1 in the other the knife slides in a dovetail groove--termed respectively #fa 8bolt knife0 and 8slide knife40 ,the forwarder will find that the latter is preferable1 on account of its facility of action1 as any length of knife can be exposed for cutting4 ,but with a bolt knife1 being fastened to the shoe of the plough1 it is necessarily a fixture1 and must be worn down by cutting or squaring mill-boards1 or such work1 before it can be used with the truth necessary for paper4 ,illustration3 ,bolt ,knife4 ,to cut a book properly it must be quite straight1 and the knife must be sharp and perfectly true4 ,having this in mind1 the book may be cut by placing the front board the requisite distance from the head that is to be cut off4 ,a piece of thin mill-board or trindle is put between the hind board and book1 so that the knife when through the book may not cut the board4 ,the book is now to be lowered into the cutting press1 with the back towards the workman1 until the front board is exactly on a level with the press4 ,the head of the book is now horizontal with the press1 and the amount to be cut off exposed above it4 ,both sides should be looked to1 as the book is very liable to get a twist in being put in the press4 ,when it is quite square the press is to be screwed up tightly and evenly4 ,each end should be screwed up to exactly the same tightness1 for if one end is loose the paper will be jagged or torn instead of being cut cleanly4 ,the book is cut by drawing the plough gently to and fro2 each time it is brought towards the workman a slight amount of turn is given to the screw of the plough4 ,if too much turn is given to the screw1 the knife will bite too deeply into the paper and will tear instead of cutting it4 ,if the knife has not been properly sharpened1 or has a burr #fb upon its edge1 it will be certain to cause ridges on the paper4 ,the top edge being cut1 the book is taken out of the press and the tail cut4 ,a mark is made on the top of the hind or back board just double the size of the square1 and the board is lowered until the mark is on a level with the cut top4 ,the book is again put into the press1 with the back towards the workman1 until the board is flush with the cheek of the press2 this will expose above the press the amount to be taken off from the tail1 as before described1 and the left hand board will be1 if put level with the cut top1 exactly the same distance above the press as the right band board is below the cut top4 ,the tail is cut in the same way as the top edge4 ,to cut a book properly requires great care4 ,it will be of great importance to acquire a methodical exactness in working the different branches1 cutting especially4 ,always lay a book down one way and take it up another1 and in cutting always work with the back of the book towards you1 and cut from you4 ,give the turn to the screw of the plough as it is thrust from you1 or you will pull away a part of the back instead of cutting it4 ,illustration3 ,section of ,book and ,press1 book partly cut4 ,in cutting the foredge1 to which we must now come1 always have the head of the book towards you1 so that if not cut straight you know exactly where the fault lies4 ,the foredge is marked both back and front of the book by placing a cutting board under the first two or three leaves as a support2 the mill-board is then pressed firmly into the groove and a line is drawn or a hole is pierced head and tail1 the foredge of the board being used as a guide4 ,the book is now knocked with its back on the press quite flat1 and trindles 7flat pieces of steel in the shape of an elongated ,u1 about #a-a_/b inch wide and #c or #d inches long1 with a slot nearly the whole length7 are placed between the boards and book by letting the boards fall back from the book and then passing one trindle at the head1 the other at #fc tail1 allowing the top and bottom slip to go in the grooves of the trindles4 ,the object of this is to force the back up quite flat1 and by holding the book when the cut-against and runner is on it1 supported by the other hand under the boards1 it can be at once seen if the book is straight or not4 ,the cut-against must be put quite flush with the holes on the left of the book1 and the runner the distance under the holes that the amount of square is intended to be4 ,the book being lowered into the press1 the runner is put flush with the cheek of the press and the cut-against just the same distance above the press as the runner is below the holes4 ,the trindles must be taken out from the book when #fd the cutting boards are in their proper place1 and the mill-boards will then fall down4 ,the book and cutting boards must be held very tightly or they will slip and1 if the book has been lowered into the press accurately1 everything will be quite square4 ,the press must now be screwed up tightly1 and the foredge ploughed2 when the book is taken out of the press it will resume its original rounding1 the foredge will have the same curve as the back1 and if cut truly there will be a proper square all round the edges4 ,this method is known as 8cutting in boards40 ,if the amateur or workman has a set of some good work which he wishes to bind uniformly1 but which has already been cut to different sizes1 and he does not wish to cut the large ones down to the smaller size1 he must not draw the small ones in1 as he may possibly not be able to pull the boards down the required depth to cut the book1 but he must leave the boards loose1 cut the head and tail1 then draw the boards in1 and turn up and cut the foredge4 8,cutting out of boards0 is by a different method4 ,the foredge is cut before gluing up1 if for casing1 taking the size from the case1 from the back to the edge of the board in the foredge4 ,the book is then glued up1 rounded1 and put into the press for half an hour1 just to set it4 ,the size is again taken from the case1 allowing for squares head and tail4 ,the book having been marked is cut1 and then backed4 ,cloth cases are made for most periodicals1 and may be procured from their publishers at a trifling cost1 which varies according to the size of the book and the amount of blocking that is upon them4 ,this method of cutting out of boards is adopted in many of the cheap shops 7even leather shops74 ,it is a method1 however1 not to be commended4 ,to test if the book be cut true it is only necessary to turn the top leaf back level to the back of the book and #fe even at the head2 if it be the slightest bit untrue it will at once be seen4 ,illustration3 ,cutting ,machine4 ,a few words about the various cutting machines that are in the market4 ,each maker professes his machine the best4 ,in some the knife moves with a diagonal motion1 in others with a horizontal motion4 ,the principle of all these machines is the same3 the books are placed to a gauge1 the top is lowered and clamps #ff the book1 and1 on the machine being started1 the knife descends and cuts through the paper4 ,illustration3 ,registered ,cutting ,machine4 ,another machine by ,harrild and ,son1 called a registered cutting machine1 is here illustrated4 ,its operation is on the same principle as a lying press1 the difference being1 that this has a table upon which the work is placed2 a gauge is placed at the back so that the work may be placed against it for accuracy1 the top beam is then screwed down and the paper ploughed4 ,a great amount of work may be accomplished with this machine1 and to anyone that cannot afford an ordinary cutting machine this will be found invaluable4 #fg ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,colouring ,,the ,,edges4 ,the edges of every book must be in keeping with the binding4 ,a half roan book should not have an expensive edge1 neither a whole bound morocco book a sprinkled edge4 ,still1 no rule has been laid down in this particular1 and taste should regulate this as it must in other branches4 ,the taste of the public is so changeable that it is impossible to lay down any rule1 and ,i leave my reader to his own discretion4 ,here are various ways in which the edges may be coloured4 ,sprinkled ,edges4--,most shops have a colour always ready1 usually a reddish brown1 which they use for the whole of their sprinkled edge books4 ,the colour can be purchased at any oil shop4 ,a mixture of burnt umber and red ochre is generally used4 ,the two powders must be well mixed together in a mortar with paste1 a few drops of sweet oil1 and water4 ,the colour may be tested by sprinkling some on a piece of white paper1 allowing it to dry1 and then burnishing it4 ,if the colour powders or rubs1 it is either too thick1 or has not enough paste in it4 ,if the former1 some water must be added2 if the latter1 more paste3 and it will perhaps be better if the whole is passed through a cloth to rid it of any coarse particles4 ,the books may be sprinkled so as to resemble a kind of marble by using two or three different colours4 ,for instance1 the book is put in the lying press and a little sand is strewn upon the edge in small mounds4 ,then with a green colour a moderate #fh sprinkle is given4 ,after allowing it to dry1 more sand is put on in various places1 a dark sprinkle of brown is put on1 and the whole allowed to dry4 ,when the sand is shaken off1 the edge will be white where the first sand was dropped1 green where the second1 and the rest brown4 ,a colour of two shades may be made by using sand1 then a moderately dark brown sprinkled1 then more sand1 and lastly a deeper shade of same colour4 ,illustration3 ,sprinkling ,brush and ,sieve4 ,there are a few of the 8,old ,binders0 who still use what is called the 8finger brush10 a small brush about the size of a shaving brush1 made of stiff bristles cut squarely4 ,they dip it into the colour1 and then by drawing the finger across it jerk the colour over the edge4 ,another method is to use a larger brush1 which being dipped in the colour is beaten on a stick or press-pin until the desired amount of sprinkle is obtained4 ,but the best plan is to use a nail brush and a common wire cinder sifter4 ,dip the brush in the colour and rub it in a circular direction over the cinder sifter4 ,this mode has the satisfactory result of doing the work quicker1 finer1 and more uniformly4 ,the head1 foredge and tail must be of exactly the same shade1 and one end must not have more sprinkle on it than the other1 and a set of books should have their edges precisely alike in tone and colour4 ,colours for ,sprinkling4--,to give an account of how the various colours are made that were formerly used would be only waste of time1 as so many dyes and colours that #fi answer all purposes may be purchased ready for instant use4 ,i may with safety recommend ,judson's dyes diluted with water4 ,plain ,colouring4--,the colour having been well ground is to be mixed with paste and a little oil1 or what is perhaps better1 glaire and oil4 ,then with a sponge or with a brush colour the whole of the edge4 ,in colouring the foredge the book should be drawn back so as to form a slope of the edge1 so that when the book is opened a certain amount of colour will still be seen4 ,it is often necessary to give the edges two coats of colour1 but the first must be quite dry before the second is applied4 ,a very good effect may be produced by first colouring the edge yellow1 and when dry1 after throwing on rice1 seeds1 pieces of thread1 fern leaves1 or anything else according to fancy1 then sprinkling with some other dark colour4 ,for this class of work body sprinkling colour should always be used4 ,it may be varied in many different ways4 ,marbled ,edges4--,the edges of marbled books should in almost every instance correspond with their marbled ends4 ,in ,london very few binders marble their own work1 but send it out of the house to the ,marblers1 who do nothing else but make marbled edges and paper4 ,one cannot do better than send one's books to be marbled2 it will cost only a few pence1 which will be well spent in avoiding the trouble and dirt that marbling occasions2 nevertheless ,i will endeavour to explain2 it is1 however1 a process that may seem very easy1 but is very difficult to execute properly4 ,the requisites are a long square wooden or zinc trough about #b inches deep to hold the size for the colours to float on2 the dimensions to be regulated by the work to be done4 ,about #af to #bj inches long and #f to #h inches wide will probably be large enough4 ,various colours are used1 such as lake1 rose1 vermilion1 king's yellow1 yellow ochre1 #gj ,prussian blue1 indigo1 some green1 flake white1 and lamp black4 ,the brushes for the various colours should be of moderate size1 and each pot of colour must have its own brush4 ,small stone jars are convenient for the colours1 and a slab of marble and muller to grind them must be provided4 ,the combs may be made with pieces of brass wire about two inches long1 inserted into a piece of wood2 several of these will be required with the teeth at different distances1 according to the width of the pattern required to be produced4 ,several different sized burnishers1 flat and round1 will be required for giving a gloss to the work4 ,illustration3 ,marbling ,trough4 ,the first process in marbling is the preparation of the size on which the colours are to be floated4 ,this is a solution of gum tragacanth1 or as it is commonly called1 gum dragon4 ,if the gum is placed over night in the quantity of water necessary it will generally be found dissolved by the morning4 ,the quantity of gum necessary to give proper consistency to the size is simply to be learned by experience1 and cannot be described2 and the solution must always be filtered through muslin or a linen cloth before use4 ,the colours must be ground on the marble slab with a little water1 as fine as possible2 move the colour from time to time into the centre of the marble with a palette knife1 and as the water evaporates add a little more4 ,about one oz4 of colour will suffice to grind at once1 and it will take about two hours to do it properly4 ,having everything at hand and ready1 with the size in #ga the trough1 and water near1 the top of the size is to be carefully taken off with a piece of wood the exact width of the trough1 and the colour being well mixed with water and a few drops of ox gall1 a little is taken in the brush1 and a few very fine spots are thrown on4 ,if the colour does not spread out1 but rather sinks down1 a few more drops of gall must be carefully added and well mixed up4 ,the top of the size must be taken off as before described1 and the colour again thrown on4 ,if it does not then spread out1 the ground or size is of too thick consistency1 and some clean water must be added1 and the whole well mixed4 ,if the colour again thrown on spreads out1 but looks rather greyish or spotty1 then the colour is too thick1 and a little water must be added1 but very carefully1 lest it be made too thin4 ,if the colour still assumes a greyish appearance when thrown on1 then the fault lies in the grinding1 and it must be dried and again ground4 ,when the colour1 on being thrown on1 spreads out in very large spots1 the ground or size is too thin and a little thicker size should be added4 ,now1 if the consistency or the amount of gum water be noticed1 by always using the same quantity the marbler cannot fail to be right4 ,if the colours appear all right on the trough1 and when taken off on a slip of paper adhere to it1 the size and colours are in perfect working order4 ,the top of the size must always be taken off with the piece of wood before commencing work1 so that it be kept clean1 and the colours must always be well shaken out of the brush into the pot before sprinkling1 so that the spots may not be too large4 ,the marbler must always be guided by the pattern he wishes to produce1 and by a little thought he will get over many difficulties that appear of greater magnitude than they really are4 ,spot ,marble4--,the size is first to be sprinkled with a #gb dark colour1 and this is always termed the 8ground colour10 then the other colours2 bearing in mind that the colour that has the most gall will spread or push the others away1 and this colour should in spot marbling be put on last4 ,with very little variation all the other kinds of marbling are done2 but in every case where there are more books or sheets of paper to be done of the same pattern than the trough will take at once1 the same order of colours must be kept1 and the same proportion of each1 or one book will be of one colour and the second entirely different4 ,comb or ,nonpareil ,marble4--,the colours are to be thrown on as before1 but as fine as possible4 ,then if a piece of wood or wire be drawn backwards and forwards across the trough1 the colours1 through the disturbance of the size1 will follow the motion of the stick4 ,a comb is then to be drawn the whole length of the trough in a contrary direction4 ,the wire in the comb will draw the colour1 and thus will be produced what is termed comb or nonpareil marble4 ,the size or width of the teeth of the comb will vary the size of the marble4 ,spanish ,marble4--,the ground colour is to be thrown on rather heavily1 the others lighter1 and the wavy appearance is caused by gently drawing the paper in jerks over the marble1 thus causing the colour to form small ripples4 ,a few drops of turpentine put in the colours will give them a different effect1 viz41--causing the small white spots that appear on the shell marble4 ,there are various patterns1 each being known by name3 old ,dutch1 nonpareil1 antique1 curl1 ,spanish1 shell4 ,an apprentice would do well to go to some respectable shop and ask for a sheet or two of the various kinds mentioned1 and as each pattern is given to him1 write the name on the back1 and always keep it as a pattern for future use and reference4 #gc ,edges are marbled1 after making the desired pattern on the trough by holding the book firmly1 pressing the edge on the colour and lifting it up sharply4 ,the foredge must be made flat by knocking the book on its back1 but the marbler had better tie his book between a pair of backing boards1 so that it may not slip1 especially with large books4 ,care must be taken with books that have many plates1 or if the paper is at all of a spongy nature or unsized4 ,if a little cold water be thrown on the edges it will cause the colours to set better4 ,in marbling writing paper1 a sponge with a little alum water should be used to take off the gloss or shine from the edge1 occasioned by the cutting knife1 and to assist the marbling colour to take better4 ,paper is marbled in the same way by holding it at two corners2 then gently putting it on the colour and pressing it evenly1 but gently all over1 so that the colour may take on every part4 ,it must be lifted carefully1 as the least shake by disturbing the size will spoil the regularity of the pattern4 ,paper should be damped over night and left with a weight on the top4 ,when the paper has been marbled and is dry1 a rag with a little bee's wax or soap should be rubbed over it1 so that the burnisher may not stick1 and may give a finer gloss2 this applies also to the edges in burnishing4 ,marble paper manufacturers burnish the paper with a piece of polished flint or glass fixed in a long pole working in a socket at the top1 the other end resting on a table which is slightly hollowed1 so that the segment of the circle which the flint takes is exactly that of the hollow table4 ,the paper is laid on the hollow table1 and the burnisher is worked backwards and forwards until the desired gloss is attained4 ,by the best and latest method1 the paper is passed between highly polished cylinders4 ,it is more expensive1 on account of the cost of the machinery1 but insures superior effect4 ,a great deal of paper is now being made by means of a #gd mechanical process4 ,it has a very high gloss2 it is used on very cheap work4 ,sizing4--,paper should be always sized after being marbled4 ,the size is made by dissolving one pound of best glue in five gallons of water with half a pound of best white soap4 ,this is put into a copper over night1 and on a low fire the next morning1 keeping it constantly stirred to prevent burning4 ,when quite dissolved and hot it is passed through a cloth into a trough1 and each sheet passed through the liquor and hung up to dry2 when dry1 burnish as above4 ,but it will be far cheaper to buy the paper1 rather than make it at the cost of more time than will be profitable4 ,the charge for demy size is at the rate of #bjs4 to #ies4 per ream1 according to the quality and colour2 but to those to whom money is no object1 and who would prefer to make their own marbled paper1 ,i hope the foregoing explanation will be explicit enough4 ,the 8,english ,mechanic10 ,march #agth1 #ahga1 has the following method of transferring the pattern from ordinary marble paper to the edges of books3-- 8,ring the book up tightly in the press1 the edge to be as flat as possible2 cut strips of the best marble paper about one inch longer than the edge1 make a pad of old paper larger than the edge of the book1 and about a quarter inch thick2 then get a piece of blotting paper and a sponge with a little water in2 now pour on a plate sufficient spirits of salts 7muriatic acid7 to saturate the paper1 which must be placed marble side downwards on the spirit 7not dipped in it72 when soaked put it on the edge 7which has been previously damped with a sponge71 lay your blot paper on it1 then your pad1 now rap it smartly all over1 take off the pad and blot1 and look if the work is right1 if so1 take the book out and shake the marble paper off2 when dry burnish40 ,at a lecture delivered at the ,society of ,arts1 ,january1 #ge #ahgh1 by ,mr4 ,woolnough1 a practical marbler1 the whole process of marbling was explained4 ,mr4 ,woolnough has since published an enlarged treatise on marbling1#f and one that should command the attention of the trade4 ,a copy of the ,society's journal can be had1 describing the process1 ,no4 #a1cad1 vol4 ,,xxvi41 and will be of great service to any reader1 but his work is more exhaustive4 #f ,george ,bell and ,sons1 ,york ,street1 ,covent ,garden4 ,illustration3 ,leo's ,mechanical ,marblers4 ,a transfer marble paper may now be had1 and from examples sent me the process seems fairly workable4 ,the following is the method of working sent by the importers of the paper3-- 8,place the book in the press4 ,the book edge which is to be marbled has to be rubbed with pure spirits of wine2 the dry strip of transfer marble is then to be put on the edge4 ,the white back or reverse side1 whilst being pressed hard against the book edge1 is to be moistened carefully with boiling water1 by dabbing a saturated sponge on it2 this dabbing process to be continued so long till the colour will show through the white back--a proof that it is loosened from the paper4 ,then remove the white paper1 and let the edge dry slowly4 ,when quite dry burnish40 ,illustration3 ,leo's ,mechanical ,marblers4 ,another invention is to marble the edges by means of one or more rollers4 ,the top roller or rollers holds the colour1 which is distributed on the under rollers2 these1 in turn1 ink the edge on being passed over it4 ,the books are naturally held in the press whilst this is being done4 #gf ,illustration3 ,cut from ,book 8,school of ,arts10 #agej4 ,from a book1 the 8,school of ,arts10 third edition1 #agej1 which has a chapter on marbling1 the following1 with cut1 is taken3-- 8,when thus you have your colours and all things in good order1 then take a pencil1 or the end of a feather1 and sprinkle or put first your red colour2 then the blue1 yellow1 green1 etc4 ,begin your red from ,no4 #a1 and go along your trough to ,no4 #b1 also the blue from ,no4 #c1 all along to ,no4 #d2 the yellow and green put here and there in the vacant places4 ,then with a bodkin or a small skewer draw a sort of a serpentine figure through the colours1 beginning from ,no4 #a to ,no4 #b2 when this is done1 then take your comb and draw the same straight along from #gg ,no4 #a to ,no4 #b4 ,if you have some turnings or snail work on your paper1 then with a bodkin give the colours what turns you please4 7,see the plate47 ,illustration3 ,leo's ,marbling ,set4 8,thus far you are ready in order to lay on your paper1 which must be moistened the day before1 in the same manner as book-printers do their paper for printing2 take a sheet at a time1 lay it gently upon your colours in the trough1 press it slightly with your finger down in such places where you find the paper lies hollow2 this done1 take hold at one end of the paper1 and draw it up at the other end of the trough2 hang it up to dry on a cord2 when dry1 glaze it1 and it is done4 ,you may also embellish your paper with streaks of gold1 by applying mussel gold or silver1 tempered with gum water1 among the rest of the colours40 ,this last paragraph shows that the gold vein which is now in such demand is really over #aej years old4 ,messrs4 ,leo1 of ,stuttgart1 have put together a complete marbling apparatus1 containing colours1 gall1 cups1 combs1 sticks1 filter1 brushes1 etc41 the whole in a box4 ,to a small country bookbinder this is indispensable4 #gh ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,gilt ,,edges4 ,a gilt edge is the most elegant of all modes of ornamenting edges1 and this branch of bookbinding has from time to time been so greatly extended1 that at the present day there are many ways in which a book may have the edges gilt2 but some methods are not pursued1 either from ignorance on the binder's part1 or with a view to save expense4 ,first we have the 8plain gilt10 then 8gilt in the round02 then again some colour under the gold1 for instance1 8gilt on red10 or whatever the colour may be1 red being mostly used1 especially for religious books4 ,some edges are 8tooled10 and some have a gilt edge with landscape or scene appropriate to the book painted on the edge1 only to be seen when the book is opened4 8,marbling under gilt0 may also be used with good effect2 but still better 8marbling on gilt40 ,the room where gilt edge work is done should be neither dirty nor draughty1 and the necessary materials are3-- #ast4 ,the ,gold ,cushion4--,this may be purchased ready for use1 or if the binder wishes to make one1 it may be done by covering a piece of wood1 about #ab inches by #f1 with a piece of white calf1 the rough side outwards1 and padding it with blotting paper and cloth4 ,the pieces underneath should be cut a little smaller than the upper one1 so that it will form a bevel at the edge1 but quite flat on the top4 ,the calf to be neatly nailed all round the edge4 ,if the pile of the leather is too rough1 it can be reduced with a piece of pumice stone1 by rubbing the stone on the calf with a circular motion4 #gi #bnd4 ,gold ,knife4--,this should be a long knife of thin steel1 the blade about one to one and a half inch wide4 #crd4 ,burnishers4--,these are made of agate stone1 and can be purchased of any size4 ,a flat one1 and two or three round ones1 will be found sufficient4 ,they should have a very high polish4 #dth4 ,glaire ,water or ,size4--,the white of an egg and a tea-cup full of water are well beaten together1 until the albumen is perfectly dissolved4 ,it must then be allowed to stand for some hours to settle1 after which it should be strained through a piece of linen which has been washed2 old linen is therefore preferred to new4 #eth4 ,scrapers4--,pieces of steel with the edge or burr made to turn up by rubbing the edge flat over a bodkin or other steel instrument1 so that when applied to the edge a thin shaving of paper is taken off4 ,the beauty of gilding depends greatly on proper and even scraping4 #fth4 ,the ,gold ,leaf4--,this is bought in books1 the price according to quality2 most of the cheap gold comes from ,germany4 ,i recommend the use of the best gold that can be had2 it being in the end the cheapest1 as cheap gold turns black by the action of the atmosphere in course of time4 ,the method of preparing the gold#g is by making an alloy3 gold with silver or copper4 ,it is drawn out into a wire of about six inches in length1 and by being passed again between steel rollers is made into a ribbon4 ,this ribbon is then cut into squares and placed between vellum leaves1 about four or five inches square1 and beaten with a hammer somewhat like our beating hammer1 until the gold has expanded to the size of the vellum4 ,the gold is again cut up into squares of about one inch1 and again #hj interleaved2 but gold-beaters' skin is now used instead of vellum2 and so by continual beating and cutting up1 the proper thickness is arrived at4 ,if the gold is held up to the light1 it will be found to be beaten so thin that it is nearly transparent1 although when laid on any object it is of sufficient thickness to hide the surface underneath4 ,it has been estimated that the thickness of the gold leaf is only #a_/bhjjjj of an inch4 #g ,although this has practically nothing to do with the art of bookbinding1 it is always advisable for a workman to know something about the tools and materials he uses4 ,to gild the edges1 the book should be put into the press straight and on a level with the cheeks of the press between cutting boards1 the boards of the book being thrown back4 ,the press should be screwed up very tightly1 and any projection of the cutting boards should be taken away with a chisel4 ,if the paper is unsized or at all spongy1 the edge should be sized and left to dry4 ,this may be ascertained by wetting a leaf with the tongue3 if spongy1 the moisture will sink through as in blotting paper4 ,the edge should be scraped quite flat and perfectly even1 care being taken to scrape every part equally1 or one part of the edge will be hollow or perhaps one side scraped down1 and this will make one square larger than the other4 ,when scraped quite smoothly and evenly1 a mixture of black lead and thin glaire water is painted over the edge1 and with a hard brush it is well brushed until dry4 ,the gold should now be cut on the gold cushion4 ,lift a leaf out of the book with the gold knife1 lay it on the gold cushion1 and breathe gently on the centre of the leaf to lay it flat2 it can then be cut with perfect ease to any size4 ,the edge is now to be glaired evenly1 and the gold taken up with a piece of paper previously greased by drawing it over the head4 ,the gold is then gently laid on the edge1 which has been previously glaired4 ,the whole edge or end being done1 it is allowed to get perfectly dry1 which will occupy some two hours4 ,illustration3 ,book-edge ,burnishers4 ,before using the burnisher on the gold itself1 some gilders #ha lay a piece of fine paper on the gold and gently flatten it with the burnisher4 ,books are often treated in this manner1 they then become 8dull gilt40 ,when intended to be bright1 a waxed cloth should be gently rubbed over the surface two or three times before using the burnisher4 ,the beauty of burnishing depends upon the edge presenting a solid and uniform metallic surface1 without any marks of the burnisher4 ,the manner of burnishing is to hold a flat burnisher1 where the surface is flat1 firmly in the right hand with the end of the handle on the shoulder1 to get better leverage4 ,work the burnisher backwards and forwards with a perfectly even pressure on every part4 ,when both ends are finished1 the foredge is to be proceeded with1 by making it perfectly flat4 ,it is better to tie the book1 to prevent it slipping back4 ,the foredge is to be gilt exactly in the same manner as the ends2 it will of course return to its proper round when released from the press4 ,this is done with all books in the ordinary way1 but if the book is to have an extra edge1 it is done 8solid0 or 8in the round40 ,for this way the book must be put into the press with its proper round1 without flattening it1 and scraped in that position with scrapers corresponding with the rounding4 ,the greatest care must be taken in this kind of scraping that the sides #hb are not scraped away1 or the squares will be made either too large or lop-sided4 ,gilt on ,red4--,the edges are coloured by fanning them out as explained in colouring edges1 and when dry1 gilt in the usual way2 not quite such a strong size will be wanted1 through there being a ground in the colour2 nor must any black lead be used4 ,the edges should in this process be scraped first1 then coloured and gilt in the usual way4 ,tooled ,edges4--,the book is to be gilt as usual1 then while in the press stamped or worked over with tools that are of some open character2 those of fine work being preferable4 ,some design should be followed out according to the fancy of the workman4 ,the tools must be warmed slightly so that the impression may be firm2 the foredge should be done first4 ,another method is to tool the edge before burnishing1 or the different portions of the tooling may be so managed in burnishing that some parts will be left bright and standing in relief on the unburnished or dead surface4 ,painted ,edges4--,the edge is to fanned out and tied between boards1 and whilst in that position some landscape or other scene1 either taken from the book itself or appropriate to the subject of it1 painted on the foredge1 and when quite dry it is gilt on the flat in the usual manner4 ,this work of course requires an artist well skilled in water-colour drawing4 ,the colours used must be more of a stain than body colour1 and the edges should be scraped first4 ,after the edges have been gilt by any of the foregoing methods1 the rounding must be examined and corrected2 and the book should be put into the standing press for two or three hours1 to set it4 ,the whole of the edges should be wrapped up with paper to keep them clean during the remainder of the process of binding4 ,this is called 8capping up40 #hc ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,head-,,banding4 ,few binders work their own head-bands in these times of competition and strikes for higher wages4 ,it takes some time and pains to teach a female hand the perfection of head-band working1 and but too often1 since gratitude is not universal1 the opportunity of earning a few more pence per week is seized without regard to those at whose expense the power of earning anything was gained1 and the baffled employer is wearied by constant changes4 ,owing to this1 most bookbinders use the machine-made head-band4 ,these can be purchased of any size or colour1 at a moderate price4 ,head-banding done by hand is really only a twist of different coloured cotton or silk round a piece of vellum or cat-gut fastened to the back every half dozen sections4 ,if the head-band is to be square or straight1 the vellum should be made by sticking with paste two or three pieces together4 ,damp the vellum previously and put it under a weight for a few hours to get soft4 ,vellum from old ledgers and other vellum bound books is mostly used4 ,the vellum when quite dry and flat is to be cut into strips just a little under the width of the squares of the books1 so that when the book is covered1 the amount of leather above the head-band and the head-band itself will be just the size or height of the square4 ,if1 however1 a round head-band is chosen1 cat-gut is taken on the same principle with regard to size1 and this is further advanced by using two pieces of cat-gut1 the one #hd being generally smaller than the other1 and making with the beading three rows4 ,the round head-band is the original head-band1 and cord was used instead of cat-gut4 ,the cords were fastened to lay-cords on the sewing press1 and placed at head and tail1 and the head-band was worked at the same time that the book was sewn4 ,i am now speaking of books bound about the #aeth century2 and in pulling one of these old bindings to pieces1 it will compensate for the time occupied and the trouble taken1 if the book be examined to see how the head-band was worked1 and how the head-band then formed the catch-up stitch2 the head-band cords were drawn in through the boards1 and thus gave greater strength to the book than the method used at the present day4 ,to explain how the head-band is worked is rather a difficult task2 yet the process is a very simple one4 ,the great difficulty is to get the silks to lie close together1 which they will not do if the twist or beading is not evenly worked4 ,this requires time and patience to accomplish4 ,the hands must be clean or the silk will get soiled2 fingers must be smooth or the silk will be frayed4 ,illustration3 ,head-banding4 ,suppose1 for instance1 a book is to be done in two colours1 red and white4 ,the head-band is cut to size1 the #he book is1 for convenience1 held in a press1 or a plough with the knife taken out1 so that the end to be head-banded is raised to a convenient height4 ,the ends of the silk or cotton are to be joined together1 and one1 say the red1 threaded through a strong needle4 ,this is then passed through the back of the book1 at about the centre of the second section1 commencing on the left of the book4 ,this must be passed through twice1 and a loop left4 ,the vellum is put in this loop and the silk drawn tightly1 the vellum will then be held fast4 ,the white is now to be twisted round the red once1 and round the head-band twice2 the red is now to be taken in hand and twisted round the white once1 and the head-band twice2 and this is to be done until the whole vellum is covered4 ,the needle must be passed through the back at about every eight sections to secure the head-band4 ,the beading is the effect of one thread being twisted over the other1 and the hand must be kept exactly at the same tightness or tension1 for if pulled too tightly the beading will go underneath1 or be irregular4 ,the fastening off is to be done by passing the needle through the back twice1 the white is then passed round the red and under the vellum1 and the ends are to be tied together4 ,three ,colours ,plain4--,this is to be commenced in the same way as with two1 but great care must be taken that the silks are worked in rotation so as not to mix or entangle them4 ,the silks must be kept in the left hand1 while the right twists the colour over or round1 and as each is twisted round the vellum it is passed to be twisted round the other two4 ,in fastening off1 both colours must be passed round under the vellum and fastened as with the two colour pattern4 ,the head-bands may be worked intermixed with gold or silver thread1 or the one colour may be worked a number of times round the vellum1 before the second colour has #hf been twisted1 giving it the appearance of ribbons going round the head-band4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with regard to stuck-on head-bands1 the binder may make them at little expense1 by using striped calico for the purpose4 ,a narrow stripe is to be preferred of some bright colour4 ,the material must be cut into lengths of about one-and-a-half inch wide1 with the stripes across4 ,cords of different thickness are then to be cut somewhat longer than the calico1 and a piece of the cord is to be fastened by a nail at one end on a board of sufficient length4 ,the calico is then to be pasted and laid down on the board under the cord1 and the cord being held tightly may be easily covered with the striped calico1 and rubbed with a folder into a groove4 ,when this is dry1 the head and tail of the book is glued and the proper piece of the head-band is put on4 ,or the head-band may be purchased1 as before stated1 worked with either silk or cotton ready for fastening on1 from about #bs4 #c;d4 to #ds4 #f;d4 a piece of twelve yards1 according to the size required3 it has1 however1 the disadvantage of not looking so even as a head-band worked on the book4 ,i have lately seen some specimens of as good imitations of hand-worked ones as it is possible for machinery to manufacture4 ,after the head-band has been put on or worked1 the book is to be 8lined up0 or 8made ready for covering40 #hg ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,preparing ,,for ,,covering4 ,nearly all modern books are bound with hollow backs1 except where the books are sewn for flexible work or otherwise meant to have tight backs4 ,much of the paper used at the present day is so hard1 that the binder is almost forced to make a hollow back1 in order that the book may open4 ,the head-band is first set with glue1 if worked1 by gluing the head and tail1 and with a folder the head-band is made to take the same form as the back4 ,this is to be done by holding the book in the left hand with its back on the press1 then a pointed folder held in the right hand is run round the beading two or three times to form it2 the silk on the back is then rubbed down as much as possible to make all level and even1 and the book is allowed to dry4 ,when dry it is put into the lying press to hold it1 and the back is well glued all over2 some paper1 usually brown1 is now taken1 the same length as the book1 put on the back1 and rubbed down well with a thick folder3 a good sized bone from the ribs of beef is as good as anything4 ,the overplus of the paper is now to be cut away from the back1 except the part projecting head and tail4 ,a second coat of glue is now put on the top of the brown paper and another piece is put on that1 but not quite up to the edge on the left hand side4 ,when this is well rubbed down it is folded evenly from the edge on the right side over to the left1 the small amount of glued space left will be found sufficient to hold it down2 the top is again glued #hh and again folded over from left to right1 and cut off level by folding it back and running a sharp knife down the fold4 ,this is what is generally termed 8two on and two off10 being of course two thicknesses of paper on the back and two for the hollow2 but thin or small books need only have one on the back and two for the hollow4 ,thick or large books should have more paper used in proportion to their size4 ,books that have been over-cast in the sewing should have rather a strong lining-up1 so that there be not such a strain when the book is opened4 ,when the whole is dry1 the overplus of the paper1 head and tail1 is to be cut off close to the head-band4 ,i need hardly say that the better the paper used the more easy will be the working of it4 ,old writing or copy-book paper will be found to be as good as any1 but good brown paper is1 as ,i have said before1 mostly used4 ,the book is now ready for putting the bands on4 ,these are prepared beforehand by sticking with glue two or three pieces of leather together or on a piece of paper1 well pressing it1 and then allowing it to dry under pressure4 ,the paper must then be glued twice1 allowing each coat to dry before gluing again4 ,it should then be put on one side for future use1 and when wanted1 the proper thickness is chosen and cut into strips of a width to correspond with the size of the book4 ,the book is now to be marked up1 five bands being the number generally used1 leaving the tail a little longer than the other portions4 ,the strips of band are then to be moistened with a little hot water to cause the glue upon the paper to melt4 ,each piece is then to be fixed upon the back just under the holes made with the compasses in marking-up4 ,this will be found to be a far better plan than to first cut the strips and then to glue them4 ,by the latter plan the glue is liable to spread upon the side1 where it is not wanted1 and if the book has to be covered with light calf1 it will certainly be stained black3 #hi so the coverer must be careful that all glue is removed from the back and sides before he attempts to cover any of his books with calf4 ,it is rather provoking to find some favourite colour when dry1 having a tortoiseshell appearance1 which no amount of washing will take out4 ,when dry the ends of the bands are to be cut off with a bevel1 and a little piece of the boards from the corners nearest the back also taken off on the bevel1 that there may not be a sharp point to fret through the leather when the book is opened4 ,this is also necessary so that the head-band may be properly set4 ,a sharp knife should be inserted between the hollow and should separate it from the back at head and tail on each side so far as to allow the leather to be turned in4 ,morocco may have the back glued1 as it will not show through1 and will facilitate the adhesion of the leather4 ,flexible ,work4--,this class of work is not lined up4 ,the leather is fastened directly upon the book2 the head-band is set as before explained1 and held tight by gluing a piece of fine linen against it1 and when quite dry1 the overplus is to be cut away1 and the back made quite smooth4 ,the bands are then knocked up gently with a blunt chisel to make them perfectly straight1 being first damped and made soft with a little paste to facilitate the working and to prevent the thread from being cut4 ,any holes caused by sawing-in1 in previous binding1 must be filled up with a piece of frayed cord1 pasted4 ,any holes thus filled up must be made quite smooth when dry1 as the least unevenness will show when the book is covered4 ,in 8throw up0 backs1 or in 8flexible not to show10 a piece of thin linen 7muslin7 or staff called mull is glued on the back first1 and one piece of paper on the top4 ,for the hollow1 three1 four1 or even five pieces are stuck one on the other1 so that it may be firm2 whilst the book itself will be as if it had a flexible back4 ,the bands1 if any1 are then #ij to be fastened on1 and the corners of the boards cut off4 ,it is then ready for covering4 8,mock flexible0 has generally one piece of paper glued on the back1 and when marked-up1 the bands are put on as before1 and the book covered4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,covering4 ,books are covered according to the fancy of the binder or customer4 ,the materials used at the present day1 are--leather of all sorts1 parchment or vellum1 bookbinder's cloth1 velvet1 needle-work1 and imitation leather1 of which various kinds are manufactured1 such as leatherette and feltine4 ,each kind requires a different manner of working or manipulation4 ,for instance1 a calf book must not be covered in the same manner as a velvet one3 ,i will take each in the above order and explain how they are managed4 ,under the class of leather1 we have moroccos of all kinds2 russia2 calf1 coloured1 smooth1 and imitation2 roan1 sheep1 and imitation morocco4 ,illustration3 ,french ,paring ,knife4 ,illustration3 ,method of ,holding ,french ,knife4 ,illustration3 ,german ,paring ,knife4 ,the morocco cover1 indeed any leather cover1 is to be cut out by laying the skin out on a flat board1 and having chosen the part or piece of the skin to be used1 the book is laid on it and the skin is cut with a sharp knife round the book1 leaving a space of about #c_/d of an inch for an #hvo1 and more or less according to the size of the book and thickness of board for turning in4 ,the morocco #ia cover should now have marked upon it with a pencil the exact size of the book itself1 by laying the book on the cover1 and running the point of a black lead pencil all round it4 ,the leather must then be 8pared10 or shaved round the edges1 using the pencil marks as a guide4 ,this paring process is not so difficult1 especially if a ,french knife is used1 such as may now be purchased at most material dealers4 ,the chief point being that a very sharp edge is to be kept on the knife1 and that the burr is on the cutting edge4 ,the knife is to be held in the right hand1 placing two fingers on the top with the thumb underneath4 ,the leather must be placed on a piece of marble1 lithographic stone1 or thick glass1 and held tightly strained between finger and thumb of the left hand4 ,then by a series of pushes from the right hand1 the knife takes off more or less according to the angle given4 ,the burr causes the knife to enter the leather2 if the burr is turned up the knife will not cut but run off4 ,if the knife is held too much at an angle it will go right through the leather1 a rather unpleasant experience1 and one to be carefully avoided4 ,the leather should from time to time be examined1 by turning it over1 to see if any unevenness appears1 for every cut will show4 ,especial attention should be given to where the edges of the board go4 ,the turning in at the head and tail should be pared off as thin as possible1 as there will be twice as much thickness of leather on the back where turned in1 the object of this care being1 that it must not be seen4 ,the morocco #ib cover should now be wetted well1 and grained up by using either the hand or a flat piece of cork4 ,this is to be done by gently curling it up in all directions2 and when the grain has been brought up properly and sufficiently1 the leather should be pasted on the flesh side with thin paste1 and hung up to dry4 ,should the leather be 8straight grain10 it must only be creased in the one direction of the grain1 or if it is required to imitate any old book that has no grain1 the leather should be wetted as much as possible1 and the whole of the grain rubbed out by using a rolling pin with even pressure4 ,illustration3 ,method of ,holding ,ordinary ,knife4 ,the ,morocco leather first brought from that country1 had a peculiar grain1 and was dyed with very bright colours4 ,it is now largely manufactured in ,london and ,paris2 the ,french manufacture is the finest4 ,russia and calf require no setting up of the grain1 but russia should be well rolled out with the rolling pin4 ,when the cover 7morocco7 is dry1 it is to be well pasted1 the squares of the book set1 so that each side has its proper portion of board projecting4 ,the book is then laid down evenly on the cover1 which must be gently drawn on2 the back is drawn tight by placing the book on its foredge and drawing the skin well down over it4 ,the sides are next drawn tight1 and the bands pinched well up with a pair of band nippers4 ,the four corners of the leather #ic are cut off with a sharp knife in a slanting direction1 a little paste put on the cut edge1 and the operation of turning in may be commenced4 ,the book must be held on its edge1 either head or tail1 with a small piece of paper put close to the head-band to prevent any paste soiling the edge or head-band1 and with the boards extended1 the hollow is pulled a little away from the back and the leather neatly tucked in4 ,the leather is next to be tightly brought over the boards and well rubbed down1 both on the edge and inside1 with a folding stick1 but on no account must the outside be rubbed1 or the grain will be taken away4 ,the foredge is to be treated in like manner1 by tucking the corners in for strength4 ,the head-band is now to be set1 by tying a piece of thread round the book between the back and the boards in the slots cut out from the corners of the boards2 this thread must be tied in a knot4 ,the book being held in the left hand1 resting on its end1 the leather is drawn with a pointed folding-stick1 as it were1 towards the foredge1 and flattened on the top of the head-band4 ,when this is done properly it should be exactly even with the boards1 and yet cover the head-band1 leaving that part of the head-band at right angles with the edge exposed4 ,with a little practice the novice may be able to ascertain what amount of leather is to be left out from the turning-in1 so that the head-band can be neatly covered4 ,the perfection in covering a book depends upon the leather being worked sharp round the boards1 but with the grain almost untouched4 ,illustration3 ,band ,nippers4 ,paste should be always used for morocco1 calf1 russia and vellum1 in fact for all kinds of leather2 but in my humble opinion1 all leather with an artificial grain should be glued2 the turning-in may be with paste4 ,the glue gives more #id body to the leather1 and thus preserves the grain4 ,white morocco should be covered with paste made without any alum1 which causes it to turn yellow1 and if the leather is washed with lemon juice instead of vinegar when finishing1 the colour will be much improved4 ,russia is to be pared in the same way as morocco4 ,it should be damped1 and rolled with a rolling-pin before covering1 or stretched out with a thick folding-stick4 ,calf1 either coloured or white1 need be pared only round the head-band4 ,calf should be covered with paste and the book washed when covered with a clean damp sponge4 ,in putting two books together1 when bound in calf of two different colours1 a piece of paper should be placed between1 as most colours stain each other1 especially green4 ,care should be taken to handle calf as little as possible whilst wet1 and touching it with iron tools1 such as knives and band nippers1 will cause a black stain4 ,morocco will bear as much handling as you like1 but the more tenderly calf is treated the better4 ,vellum or ,parchment4--,the boards should be covered with white paper1 to avoid any darkness of the board showing through4 ,the vellum or parchment should be pared head and tail1 and the whole well pasted and allowed to stand for a short time so that it be well soaked and soft4 ,the book should then be covered1 but the vellum must not on any account be stretched much1 or it will1 when dry1 draw the boards up to a most remarkable extent4 ,it will perhaps be better if the book be pressed1 to make the vellum adhere better4 ,the old binders took great pains in covering their white vellum books4 ,the vellum was lined carefully with white paper and dried before covering3 this in some degree prevented the vellum from shrinking so much in drying1 and enabled the workman to give the boards a thin and even coat of glue1 which was allowed to dry before putting on the covering4 #ie ,roan should be covered with glue and turned in with paste4 ,head and tail only need be pared round the head-band4 ,cloth is covered by gluing the cover all over and turning in at once3 gluing one cover at a time1 and finishing the covering of each book before touching the next4 ,smooth cloth1 cloth with no grain1 may be covered with paste3 great care must be taken that no paste be on the fingers1 or the cloth will be marked very badly when dry4 ,velvet should be covered with clean glue not too thick2 first glue the back of the book and let that set before the sides are put down4 ,the sides of the book should next be glued1 and the velvet laid down1 and turned in with glue4 ,the corners should be very carefully cut or they will not meet1 or cover properly when dry4 ,when the whole is dry the pile may be raised1 should it be finger marked1 by holding the book over steam1 and if necessary by carefully using a brush4 ,silk and ,satin should be lined first with a piece of thin paper cut to the size of the book4 ,the paper must be glued with thin clean glue1 rubbed down well on to the silk1 and allowed to get dry1 before covering the book4 ,when dry1 cover it as with velvet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dr4 ,dibdin1 whose knowledge of libraries and great book collectors must stamp him as an authority1 says that3-- 8,the general appearance of one's library is by no means a matter of mere foppery or indifference3 it is a sort of cardinal point1 to which the tasteful collector does well to attend4 ,you have a right to consider books1 as to their outsides1 with the eye of a painter2 because this does not militate against the proper use of the contents4 4 4 4 4 ,be sparing of red morocco or vellum1 they have each so #if distinct1 or what painters call spotty1 an appearance1 that they should be introduced but circumspectly40 ,i cannot agree entirely with the ,doctor with regard to being sparing with the red morocco4 ,a library without colour is dark1 dreary1 and repulsive4 ,the library should be one of the most inviting and cheery rooms in a house1 and even if one cannot aspire to a room entirely devoted to literature and study1 let the bookcase1 whatever its position or however humble1 be made as cheerful and inviting as possible4 ,what colour will do this so well as red8 ,but it should be judiciously dispersed with other colours4 ,if some standard colour were chosen for each subject1 one might recognize from some little distance the nature of the book by its colour4 ,for instance1 all books relating to ,military matters might be in bright red2 ,naval affairs in blue2 ,botany in green2 ,history in dark red2 ,poetry in some fancy colour1 such as orange1 light blue1 light green1 or olive1 according to its subject2 ,divinity in dark brown2 ,archology in dull red1 and ,law in white as at present4 ,this would give a pleasing variety1 and a light and cheerful appearance to a library4 ,an imitation russia leather is imported from ,america1 of far greater strength than the real4 ,it is made from buffalo skins1 and tanned in the same way as the russia hides4 ,this fact1 combined with the price1 has doubtless caused this material to be received with favour in the ,english market4 ,it is to be had from nearly all leather sellers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,half-bound ,work4--,the title speaks for itself1 the book has its back1 a part of the sides1 and the corners covered with leather4 ,the sides are1 after the leather is perfectly dry1 covered either with cloth or paper according to fancy1 turned over the boards as with leather4 ,the book is then to be pasted down4 ,before the paper is put on the sides1 #ig all unevenness of the leather is to be pared away4 ,this style has gained its reputation very much on account of its economy2 the amount of leather required is less1 and the work is as strong and serviceable as in a whole-bound book4 ,it will be better if the back be finished before the corners are put on1 as there is great likelihood that the corners may get damaged to some extent during the process of finishing4 ,the outside paper may either match the colour of the leather1 or be the same as the edge or end papers4 ,this1 like many other rules in bookbinding1 is quite a matter of taste4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,pasting ,,down4 ,this is to cover up the inside board by pasting down the end papers to the boards4 ,the white or waste leaf1 that has till this process protected the end papers1 must now be taken away or torn out4 ,the joint of the board must be cleaned of any paste or glue that may have accumulated there during the course of either gluing up or covering1 by passing the point of a sharp knife along it1 so that when the end is pasted down1 the joint will be quite straight and perfectly square4 ,morocco books should be filled in with a smooth board or thick paper1 the exact substance of the leather4 ,this thickness must be carefully chosen1 and one edge be cut off straight1 and fastened to the inside of the board very slightly1 in fact only touching it in the centre with a little glue or paste1 just sufficient to hold it temporarily4 ,it must be #ih flush with the back-edge of the board4 ,when dry1 this paper or board is to be marked with a compass about half an inch round1 and both paper and leather cut through at the same cut with a sharp knife4 ,the overplus board will fall off and the outside of the leather may be easily detached by lifting it up with a knife4 ,the paper or board1 which will now fit in exactly1 should be glued and well rubbed down with a folding stick1 or it may be pressed in the standing press if the grain of the morocco is to be polished1 but not otherwise4 ,as morocco books only have morocco joints1 ,i may as well explain at once how they are made4 ,morocco of the same colour is cut into strips the same length as the book1 and about one inch and a half in breadth for #hvo42 a line is drawn or marked down each strip about half an inch from one edge1 either with a pencil or folder1 as a guide4 ,the leather is now to be pared from the mark made to a thin edge on the half inch side1 and the other side pared as thin as the leather turned in round the board1 so that there will be two distinct thicknesses on each piece1 the larger half going on the board to correspond with the leather round the three sides1 and the smaller and thinly pared half going in the joint and edge on to the book4 ,the end papers1 only held in with a little paste1 are to be lifted out from the book1 and the leather well pasted is to be put on the board1 so that the place where the division is made in the leather by paring will come exactly to the edge of the board2 the thin part should then be well rubbed down in the joint1 and the small thin feather edge allowed to go on the book4 ,great care must be taken to rub the whole down well1 that it may adhere properly2 the grain need not be heeded4 ,with regard to the overplus at the head and tail1 there are two ways of disposing of it3 first1 by cutting both leathers slanting through at once1 and making the two #ii meet2 or1 secondly1 by cutting the cover away in a slant and doing the same to the joint1 so that the two slant cuts cover each other exactly4 ,this requires very nice paring1 or it will be seen in the finishing4 ,the book should be left till quite dry1 which will take some five or six hours4 ,the boards are then to be filled in by the same method as above described1 and the end papers fastened in again properly4 ,cloth ,joints4--,if the cloth has been fastened in when the ends were made1 after cleaning all unevenness from the joints1 the boards are to be filled in as above1 and the cloth joint stuck down with thin glue1 and rubbed down well4 ,the marble paper may now be put on the board by cutting it to a size a little larger than the filling in of the board1 so that it may be well covered4 ,when cloth joints are put in1 the board paper is generally brought up almost close to the joint2 but with morocco joints1 the space left all round should be even4 ,calf1 ,russia1 etc4--,after having cleaned the joint1 the leather must be marked all round a trifle larger than the size intended for the end papers to cover4 ,then with a knife1 the leather is cut through in a slanting direction by holding the knife slanting4 ,the boards should be thrown back to protect the leather1 and the book placed on a board of proper size1 so that both book and board may be moved together1 when turning round4 ,when the leather is cut1 a piece of paper should be pasted on the board to fill up to the thickness of the leather1 and to curve or swing the board back2 the boards otherwise are sure to curve the contrary way1 especially with calf4 ,when this lining is dry1 the end papers may be pasted down4 ,as there are two methods of doing this1 ,i give the most exact but longest first4 ,the paper is to be pasted all over1 and being held in the left hand1 is to be well rubbed down1 particularly in the joint4 ,the paper is then marked all round--the head1 foredge1 #ajj and tail1 with a pair of compasses to the width required for finishing inside the board4 ,with a very sharp knife the paper is to be cut through to the depth of the paper only1 by laying the straight edge on the marks made by the compasses4 ,this has the advantage of procuring an exact margin round the board1 but it must be done quickly or the paper will stick to the leather round the board from the paste getting dry1 the leather absorbing the watery particles in the paste4 ,the other way is to lay the paper back1 and down on the board1 and then to mark it4 ,a tin is then to be placed between the book and paper1 and the paper cut to the marks made4 ,the paper is then pasted down as above4 ,when pasted down1 the book should be left standing on its end1 with boards left open until thoroughly dry1 which will be about six hours4 ,a tin should be kept especially for cutting on1 and the knife must be as sharp as possible4 ,this latter method is used for all half bindings4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,calf ,,colouring4 ,although coloured calf-skins may be bought almost as cheaply as smooth calf 7the term given to uncoloured ones71 yet there are so many reasons why coloured calf should not be used1 that ,i give such instructions as will enable any one to colour1 sprinkle1 and marble his own leather4 ,the skins may1 however1 be procured already sprinkled or marbled at most leather shops4 ,this plan of sprinkling and marbling the whole skin is good enough for cheap or #aja half-bound work1 but for extra work it is far better to sprinkle1 marble1 or otherwise colour the leather when on the book4 ,hand-colouring is coming again into use1 and by degrees getting known more and more throughout the trade2 but a great many secrets in the art have been lost4 ,before giving the names of the chemicals to be used1 ,i must give a general caution1 that if any acid be used on the leather1 it is essential to wash as much as possible of it out with water immediately after it has done its work1 or after a few months the surface of the leather will be found to be eaten away and destroyed4 ,it is a fault of some of our binders at the present day1 that if they use any chemical1 either on their leather or on their paper1 they are not satisfied to use their acid weak1 and allow it to do its work slowly1 and when the proper moment has arrived stop its further action1 they frequently use the acids as strong as possible1 and1 either to save time or through ignorance of their chemical properties1 do not wash out the residue4 ,the consequence is1 the leather or the paper rots4 ,in order to avoid this1 ,i will not recommend any chemicals that will destroy the leather1 but give instructions for harmless preparations1 by the use of which as great a variety of different styles may be executed as will1 ,i trust1 satisfy any reasonable expectation4 ,black4--,sulphate of iron or copperas is the chief ingredient in colouring calf black4 ,used by itself1 it gives a greyish tint1 but if a coat of salts of tartar or other alkali be previously used it strikes immediately a rich purple black4 ,the name copperas is probably from the old and mistaken idea that the crystals contain copper4 ,they have a pale greenish blue colour4 ,it can be purchased at the rate of one penny per pound from any drysalter4 #a4 ,into a quart of boiling water1 throw a #a_/d-lb4 of sulphate of iron1 let it re-boil1 and stand to settle1 and then bottle the clear liquid for use4 #ajb #b4 ,boil a quart of vinegar with a quantity of old iron nails or steel filings for a few minutes4 ,keep this in a stone jar1 and use the clear liquid4 ,this can from time to time be boiled again with fresh vinegar4 ,an old iron pot must be kept for boiling the black4 ,brown4--#a4 ,dissolve a #a_/d-lb4 of salts of tartar in a quart of boiling water1 and bottle it for use4 ,this liquid is mostly used for colouring2 it has a very mellow tone1 and is always used before the black when a strong or deep colour is required4 ,it is poisonous1 and must not be used too strong on the calf or it will corrode it4 #b4 ,for a plain brown dye1 the green shells of walnuts may be used4 ,they should be broken as much as possible1 mixed with water1 and allowed to ferment4 ,this liquid should then be strained and bottled for use4 ,a pinch of salt thrown in will help to keep it4 ,this does not in any way corrode the leather1 and produces the best uniform tint4 ,yellow4--#a4 ,picric acid dissolved in water forms one of the sharpest yellows4 ,it is a pale yellow of an intense bitter taste4 ,it must not be mixed with any alkali in a dry state1 as it forms a very powerful explosive compound4 ,it is a dangerous chemical and should be carefully used4 ,it may be bottled for use4 #b4 ,into a bottle put some turmeric powder1 and mix well with methylated spirit2 the mixture must be shaken occasionally for a few days until the whole of the colour is extracted4 ,this is a very warm yellow1 and produces a very good shade when used after salts of tartar4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for all the following1 a preparation or ground of paste-water must be put on the calf1 that the liquids may not sink through too much4 ,the calf must be paste-washed all over equally1 and allowed to get thoroughly dry4 ,it will then be ready for the various methods4 ,perhaps to wash it over night and let it stand till next morning will #ajc be the best and surest plan4 ,it matters very little whether the calf is on the book or in the skin4 ,sprinkles4--,there are so many sprinkles1 that it would be useless for me to enumerate a number1 they are all worked in the same manner1 by throwing the colour on finely or coarsely1 as it may be wanted light or dark4 ,presuming that the paste or ground-wash be thoroughly dry1 take liquid salts of tartar and dilute with cold water1 one part salts to two of water1 in a basin2 wash the calf with this liquid evenly1 using a soft sponge4 ,the calf will require the wash to be applied two or three times1 until a proper and uniform tint be obtained4 ,each successive wash must be allowed to get thoroughly dry before the next be applied4 ,the next process will be to sprinkle the book1 with the boards extended or open4 ,two pieces of flat wood1 about three feet long1 four inches in width1 and half an inch thick1 will be found very useful for supporting the book4 ,these rods must be supported at each end1 so that the book may be suspended between them1 with the boards resting on the rods nearly horizontally4 ,now put into a round pan some of the copperas fluid1 and into another some of the solution of salts of tartar4 ,use a pretty large brush for each pan1 which brush must be kept each for its own fluid4 ,the sprinkling may be commenced4 ,the brushes being well soaked in the fluids1 should be well beaten out1 using a piece of broomstick or a hand pin to beat on before beating over the book1 unless a coarse sprinkle is desired4 ,whilst beating over the book1 the hands should be held up high1 and also moved about1 so that a fine and equal spray may be distributed2 and this should be continued until the desired depth of colour is attained4 ,this may be varied by putting some geometrical design1 cut out of thin mill-board1 on the cover2 or if the book is on any special subject1 the subject itself put on the cover #ajd will have a very pretty effect1 and may be made emblematical4 ,a fern or other leaf for botanical work as an instance4 ,the sprinkle must in these cases be very fine and dark for the better effect4 ,the leaf or design being lifted from the cover when the sprinkle is dry1 will leave the ground dark sprinkle with a light brown leaf or design4 ,cambridge calf is done in this way by cutting a square panel of mill-board out and laying it on the sides4 ,the square on the cover may be left brown or may be dabbed with a sponge4 ,marbles4--,as the success of marbling depends upon the quickness with which it is executed1 it is important that the colours1 sponges1 brushes and water1 should be previously disposed in order and at hand1 so that any of them can be taken up instantly4 ,another point to which attention must be directed is the amount of colour to be thrown on1 and consequently the amount that each brush should contain4 ,if too much colour 7black7 is thrown on1 the result will be an invisible marble1 or1 as ,i once heard it expressed by a workman1 8it could not be seen on account of the fog20 if too little1 no matter how nicely the marble is formed1 it will be weak and feeble4 ,marbling on leather is produced by small drops of colouring liquids1 drawn1 by the flowing of water down an inclined plane1 into veins and spread into fantastic forms resembling foliage--hence1 often called tree-marble4 ,it is a process that requires great dexterity of hand and perfect coolness and decision1 as the least hurry or want of judgment will ruin the most elaborate preparation4 ,to prepare the book paste-wash it evenly all over1 and to further equalize the paste-water1 pass the palm of the hand over the board after washing it4 ,when dry1 wash over with a solution of salts of tartar two or three times to get the desired tint4 ,when dry1 glaire the whole as even as possible1 and to diminish the froth that the sponge may #aje occasion1 put a few drops of milk into the glaire4 ,again allow it to dry thoroughly4 ,put some fresh copperas into a pan1 and some solution of salts of tartar into another1 and soak each brush in its liquid4 ,place the book upon the rods1 the boards extending over and the book hanging between4 ,should it be desired to let the marble run from back to foredge the back must be elevated a little1 and the rods supporting the boards must be level from end to end4 ,if the marble is to run from head to tail1 elevate the ends of the rods nearest to the head of the book4 ,the elevation must be very slight or the water will run off too quickly4 ,place a pail of water close at hand1 in it a sponge to wash off2 and a bunch of birch to throw the water with4 ,a little soda should be added to soften the water4 ,charge each brush well1 and knock out the superfluous colour until a fine spray comes from it4 ,a little oil rubbed in the palm of the hand1 and the brush well rubbed into it1 will greatly assist the flow of colour from the brush1 and also prevent the black colour from frothing4 ,throw some water over the cover in blotches with the birch1 just sufficient to make them unite and flow downwards together4 ,now sprinkle some black by beating the black brush on a press pin1 as evenly and as finely as possible4 ,when sufficient has been thrown on1 beat the brown in like manner over the extended boards4 ,when the veins are well struck into the leather1 sponge the whole well with clean water4 ,have no fear in doing this as it will not wash off4 ,then set the book up to dry4 ,tree-marbles4--,the cover is to be prepared and sprinkled in the same manner as stated in marbling2 the boards1 however1 must be bent a little1 and a little water applied by a sponge in the centre of each board to give the necessary flow of water2 when the water is thrown on1 it will flow towards the centre or lowest part of the boards1 and when the sprinkle is thrown on1 a tree1 as it were1 will be #ajf formed4 ,the centre being white forms the stem1 and from it branches will be formed by the gradual flow of the streams of water as they run down4 ,for marbling1 every thing must be ready at hand before any water is thrown on1 so that the water may not have time to run off before the colour is applied4 ,the water must run at the same time that the spray is falling1 or a failure will be the result4 ,it has been said that marbling was discovered by an accident2 that a country bookbinder was sprinkling some books1 when a bird1 which was hung up in the shop1 threw or splashed some water down on his books2 the water running1 took some of the colour with it and formed veins4 ,liking the form it gave1 the workman improved upon it and thus invented marbling4 ,there is1 however1 no doubt that it had its origin in ,germany4 ,tree calf seems to be coming into general use again1 and to meet the demand for cheapness1 a wood block has been cut resembling as closely as possible one done by the water process1 and blocked in black on the calf2 but1 as might have been expected1 it has not found much favour4 ,dabs4--,this is a process with a sponge1 charged with the black or the brown liquid1 dabbed on the calf either all over the cover or in successive order4 ,give the proper preparation to the calf1 and be very careful that the ground tint of brown be very even4 ,take a sponge of an open nature1 so that the grain is pleasant to the eye2 fill it with black and squeeze out again1 now dab it carefully over the calf4 ,repeat the operation with another sponge charged with brown4 ,cat's paw1 ,french dab1 and other various named operations all emanate from the sponge4 ,when done properly this has a very good effect1 and gives great relief to the eye when placed with a number of other books4 ,all these marbles and sprinkles require practice1 so that #ajg a first failure must not be regarded with discouragement4 ,when one's hand has got into the method with these two or three colours it is astonishing how many different styles may be produced4 ,in all this manipulation a better effect is obtained if a yellow tint be washed over the leather after the sprinkle or marble has been produced4 ,again1 by taking coloured calf and treating it in the same manner as white1 some very pleasant effects are brought out2 and when the colours are well chosen the result is very good4 ,take for instance a green calf and marble a tree upon it1 or take a light slate colour and dab it all over with black and brown4 ,in all operations with the copperas care must be taken that it does not get on the clothes1 as it leaves an iron stain that cannot be easily got rid of4 ,keep a bason for each colour1 and when done with wash it out with clean water4 ,the same with the sponges3 keep them as clean as possible2 have a sponge for each colour1 and use it only for that colour4 ,a piece of glass to put the sponges on will be of great use1 and prevent the work-table or board from catching any of the colour4 ,a damp book or damp paper laid on a board that has been so stained will most probably be damaged1 even though it has waste paper between the work-board and book4 ,no amount of washing will ever take away such a stain4 ,when the book has been coloured1 the edges and inside are to be blacked or browned according to taste1 or in keeping with the outside4 ,the book is then ready for finishing4 ,some very good results may be obtained if the binder1 using coloured calf of a light brown1 treats it as if it were white calf1 marbling with the usual colours2 or a yellow calf1 splashing it all over with salts of tartar only1 the boards being placed in a slanting direction to allow the colour to gently run down4 #ajh ,or the whole of a cover may be blacked with tartar and copperas1 then with a diluted solution of acid it may be sprinkled1 this will give grey-white spots on black or slate ground3 if1 after washing1 the cover be sponged over with some colouring liquid1 such as analine dyes1 the spots will be of the colour used4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i do not give many methods or receipts for producing colours for calf1 because1 as before stated1 the introduction of fancy calf has rendered obsolete the old-fashioned way of boiling and preparing the different woods for making colours1 and the above will be found useful for colouring calf in many different ways4 ,illustration ,,part ,,ii4 ,,finishing4 ,illustration3 ,,renaissance4 ,roy folio4 ,t4 ,way1 ,photo-,lith4 #aaa ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,finishing4 ,finishing is the art of embellishing the covers of books with different designs4 ,finishing comprises the embellishment of the covers either with blind work1 gold1 silver or platina leaf1 or with metal ornaments fastened through the boards1 or by only a lettering on the back of the book4 ,the art of finishing does not comprise any embellishment done with the 8blocking press40 ,therein the art is more that of the block or tool cutter1 who1 working in concert with the artist who drew the design1 cuts the metal accordingly4 ,the binder's use of these blocks is mechanical only4 ,the monks who cultivated all the arts1 and enriched their ,hours and their ,missals with marvellous miniatures1 gave great zeal to the occupation of binding4 ,so charmingly were the bindings ornamented with tools and small blocks reproduced from the text1 that we must regret that so few of these monastic bindings are now left to us4 ,a great number of these books were executed in ,germany1 where this mode of decoration remained a long time in use2 and we find that other countries borrowed from the printer this primitive mode of decoration4 ,as the art progressed the binder's mark was impressed on the cover as an ornament1 or as a distinction1 such as we find at the present day at the end or after the title of books to denote by what printer the work was executed4 ,later on1 when the ,renaissance shone in all its glory and beauty1 we find that it freed itself from this limited practice4 ,a new mode #aab of decoration came into use1 which we may well study1 even at the present day2 a style at once rich and varied4 ,if we follow the bold interlacing lines which form the skeletons of those infinite and varied designs1 we catch the imaginative caprices of their authors2 and the details of their transformation gives us a guide to the different schools and art of their time4 ,the execution of these linear designs is extremely difficult4 ,it can be easily seen that they have not been done by a block engraved in one piece1 but with small segments4#h ,the art of putting together these small pieces1 so as to form one complete and artistic pattern1 is the skill of the finisher4 ,many books are now finished by means of the blocking press2 but on close examination1 these imitations may be readily distinguished4 ,a blocked cover never has the life and spirit that a hand-finished one has4 ,of blocking ,i must speak in subsequent pages4 #h ,there are a few exceptions to this on a few old books of #abmo4 size4 ,one may now and then see such designs worked in one piece certainly by a block4 ,illustration3 ,monastic ,tools4 ,illustration3 ,,antique ,,with ,,gold ,,line4 ,imperial #hvo4 ,t4 ,way1 ,photo ,lith4 ,illustration3 ,venetian4 ,illustration3 ,grolier4 ,these intrinsic designs were very much used by the #aac binders contemporary with ,grolier1 and the use of lined or azur tools are a distinctive mark of the period4 ,this is the connecting link with the ,italian bindings4 ,it will be observed that the ,italian or ,venetian tools are solid1 while in the other style the tools1 although of the same shape1 are lined or azur4 ,a little later on other artists1 not satisfied with this modification1 dispensed with the #aad fine cross lines1 and retained their outlines only4 ,france1 during the reign of ,henry ,,ii41 left ,italy far behind1 and executed those grand compositions of ,diane bindings4 ,they are marvellous subjects1 and are sometimes imitated at the present day1 but are never surpassed in their wonderful originality4 ,illustration3 ,le ,gascon4 ,illustration3 ,,derome4 #dto ,t4 ,way1 ,photo-lith4 ,after these masterpieces we find the curious bindings of ,henry ,,iii41 which instantly mark a distinct transformation4 ,the interlacings are less bold and free1 but more geometrically traced4 ,the absence of filling in with small tools gives a coldness1 which is increased by a heavy coat of arms on the sides4 ,this form of decoration exercised a great influence1 and from this epoch another school sprung up4 ,later on in time these interlacings served as a ground plan only for the brilliant fantasies of ,le ,gascon1 a master who no doubt has had the least number of imitators4 ,although he followed and to a certain extent kept the shapes1 the aspect of his bindings was very much changed by the application of pointed tools4 ,le ,gascon rests for ever as the most renowned master of the #afth century4 ,the number of tools necessary for the execution of a composition like one of ,le ,gascon's is large2 and when one considers that these tools are repeated1 perhaps a thousand #aae times on each side of the book1 a fair idea may be formed of the magnitude of such a work4 ,i am of opinion that ,le ,gascon brought bookbinding to its highest point of richness and finish4 ,his drawings are always pure and correct2 his squares1 lozenges1 triangles1 and ovals are so brought together as to form a series of compartments interlacing the one within the other1 with an incomparable boldness and perfect harmony2 above all1 one must remark with what richness the compartments are filled4 ,there is no doubt the ground work of the style was ,grolier1 but he never filled his panels with such richness or with such taste as that displayed by ,le ,gascon4 ,the difficulty of adapting such designs to the different sizes of books has no doubt deterred the various masters from imitating such works1 so that we see less of ,le ,gascon's style than of any other ancient master4 ,illustration3 ,derome4 ,from ,le ,gascon's period the tools became thicker and thicker1 until we have the heavy tools of ,derome1 which are much in keeping for books of a serious character4 ,they are original in shape1 but their employment was only in borders1 leaving the centre of the book free from ornament4 #aaf ,i do not pretend to give a history of the various masters1 but rather a practical description of the art of bookbinding4 ,much has already been written about the various works executed by these grand old masters2 my endeavour has been to show1 that whilst the various masters of the art of bookbinding worked with tools but little altered from their original forms1 they so modified and changed them in their character and use1 as to form a distinctive mark of style for each artist1 by which his work may be recognized4 ,a pamphlet1 published in ,paris1 #ahgh1 says3 8,one of the branches of artistic industry in which ,france possesses unquestionable superiority is certainly bookbinding2 the ,international ,exhibitions1 and still more the sales of private or other collections1 have each day given evident proof of this4 ,italy1 which initiated herself so perfectly in the ,renaissance style1 and ,holland1 once her rival in the #agth century1 have long ceased to produce any work worthy of remark2 everywhere books are being bound1 but the #8art' of bookbinding is practised only in ,france40 ,i cannot agree with its authors that one must go to ,france now to have a book bound properly4 ,the method of bookbinding is quite differently managed and worked there than it is here4 ,i have witnessed both methods1 and prefer the ,english one as being more substantial4 ,,hand-,,finishing4--,we were first taught to work the gold leaf on books by a method not now employed1 except1 perhaps1 by a novice1 who wishes to get his books done before his glaire has dried4 ,this method was to damp the cover well with water1 either with a wet sponge or by other means4 ,the gold leaf was then laid on1 and the tool worked rather warm on the gold4 ,through the heat or steam generated the gold was burnt in1 and the overplus washed off with a damp sponge or rag1 the gold being left only in the impressions4 ,if1 however1 any block or centre #aag was used1 it was impressed with heat upon the side in a small lying press in use at the period4 ,this press was known then as an arming press1 because used commonly for impressing armorial bearings and monograms on the sides4 ,the term arming press is still used for the lighter kinds of blocking presses4 ,hand-finishing1 as before stated1 is really an art4 ,the finisher should be able to draw1 or at least have some knowledge of composition1 and also know something about the harmony of colours4 ,the workman not having any knowledge of drawing cannot expect to be a good finisher2 because he cannot possibly produce any good designs1 or by a combination of the small tools form a perfect and correct pattern4 ,taste has no small influence in the success of the workman in this branch of the art4 ,it is better to finish books plainly1 rather than put on the least portion of gold more than is necessary4 ,if the intentions of the books' owner is to put some special style or design into his bookcase1 it will be well to think over the various styles before deciding upon any particular one4 ,before going thoroughly into the working details a few preliminary words may be permitted4 ,let the tools be always in keeping with the book1 both in size and character4 ,large ones should be used only on a large book1 and those of less size for smaller works4 ,a book on ,natural ,history should have a bird1 insect1 shell1 or other tool indicative of the contents4 ,a flower should be used on works on ,botany1 and all other works be treated in the same emblematical manner2 so that the nature of the book may be understood by a glance at the back4 ,in lettering1 see that the letters are of a size proportionate to the book--legible1 but not too bold4 ,they should neither be so large as to prevent the whole of the title being read at one view1 nor so small as to present a difficulty in ascertaining the subject of a book when on the shelf4 #aah ,amongst a large number of books there should be an agreeable variety of styles1 so that the effect may be in harmony with the colours around1 and produce as pleasing a contrast as possible4 ,illustration3 ,type-holder4 ,illustration3 ,pallet4 ,illustration3 ,fillet4 ,tools and ,materials required for ,finishing4--,rolls1 fillets1 pallets1 centre and corner tools of every possible class and character2 type of various sizes for the lettering of books or labels4 ,the type may be either of brass or of the usual printer's metal2 if the latter be chosen1 care must be taken that it be not left at the fire too long1 or it will melt4 ,type-holders to hold the type1 which are made to fit the respective sizes are necessary1 but one or two with a spring side1 adjusted by screw at the side1 will be found convenient for any sized type4 ,in ,england it is the custom to letter books with hand letters1 each letter being separate and fixed in a handle4 ,i have1 however1 little doubt that these will in time be laid aside1 and that the type and type case will be found in every bookbinder's shop4 ,polishing irons4 ,of these two are necessary--one for the sides and one for the backs4 ,there is generally a third #aai kept for polishing the board end papers when pasted down1 which should be kept for this purpose only4 ,illustration3 ,polishing ,iron4 ,a gold-rag1 to wipe off the surplus gold from the back or side of a book4 ,it should have a little oil well worked into it1 so that when it has been wiped over the back or side the gold may adhere and remain in it4 ,this rag when full of gold will be of a dirty yellow1 and may then be melted down by any of the gold-refiners and the waste gold recovered4 ,india-rubber1 cut up very small--the smaller the better--and steeped in turpentine1 so as to render it as soft as possible1 to be used for clearing away any gold not taken off by the gold-rag4 ,this should also be melted down when full4#i #i ,messrs4 ,cow and ,co41 ,cheapside1 have lately prepared my rubber ready for use4 ,i find it of great convenience4 ,gold-cushion1 for use as explained in ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,gold leaf4 ,the best should be used1 it keeps its colour better1 and is much more easy to work than the commoner metal usually sold4 ,sponges1 both large and small--the large ones for paste-washing1 the smaller for glairing and sizing4 ,glaire may be purchased already prepared1 or it may be made from the white of egg1 which must be very carefully beaten up to a froth with an egg whisk4 ,in breaking the egg care must be taken not to let any of the yolk get amongst the white4 ,a little vinegar should be mixed with the white before beating up1 and a drop of ammonia1 or a grain or two of common table salt1 or a small piece of camphor1 will in some measure prevent it from turning putrid1 #abj as it is liable to do4 ,some workmen always have a stock of 8good old glaire10 as they term it1 by them1 fancying that it produces better work1 but this is a mistaken notion1 often productive of annoyance1 and destructive to the comfort of the workmen4 ,i advise the finisher to beat his glaire from an egg as he may require it4 ,when well beaten1 allow it to stand for some hours1 and then pour the clear liquid into a bottle for use4 ,i have had some dried albumen sent me1 but its working has not given me such satisfaction as that freshly prepared2 it may answer the purpose in other hands1 but with me the gold appears to have been burnt in4 ,cotton wool1 for taking up the gold leaf and pressing it firmly on the leather4 ,varnish should always be used on that part where glaire has been applied1 after it has been polished2 the object being to retain the brilliancy1 and to preserve the leather from the ravages of flies and other insects which are attracted by the glaire2 these pests do great damage to the covers of books which have been prepared with glaire1 by eating it off4 ,they also take away the surface of the leather and spoil the good appearance of the books4 ,varnish may be purchased at all prices3 use only the best1 and be very sparing with it4 ,a small pair of spring dividers1 some lard1 sweet oil1 and lastly1 but most important1 the finishing stove4 ,before gas was introduced the finishing stove in use was the now almost extinct charcoal fire4 ,a bookbinder's gas stove can now be purchased at almost any gas-fitter's shop or bookbinders' material dealers4 ,the price varies according to size4 ,illustration3 ,leo's ,oil ,finishing ,stove4 ,a stove burning paraffin oil may now be had from ,leo of #aba ,stuttgart1 which he guarantees smokeless and free from soot2 where gas is not obtainable1 this will be found very handy4 ,illustration3 ,finishing ,press4 ,the reverse side is quite flat1 used when sides of books are being finished4 ,many still prefer the charcoal fire4 ,to such a stove a pipe should be fixed to conduct the fumes away into the open air or up a chimney4 ,to make such a stove any old tin may be utilized4 ,make a number of large holes through the sides2 fill it with some live charcoal1 and place a perforated tin plate on the top4 ,it will keep alight for hours1 and impart quite enough heat for any purpose required4 ,this primitive stove1 however1 must be placed on a stand or on a piece of thick iron1 lest it become dangerous4 ,a finishing press is a small press1 having two sides of solid wood with wooden screws at each end1 the cheeks should be of width enough to allow the sides of a book to be finished comfortably when the boards are extended1 the book itself being held by the press which is screwed up tightly4 ,the press should1 however1 be light enough to enable the finisher to easily turn it round1 as it frequently must be1 while finishing a book4 ,mr4 ,leo has a press 7patented7 which he claims gives more freedom for finishing a book1 but with it one can only finish the back of a book2 there are1 however1 many good points that our ,english makers may well study4 #abb ,finishing is divided into two classes--blind or antique1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 monastic and gold-finished4 ,the term antique is mostly known in the trade2 and when morocco antique or calf antique is mentioned1 it means that the whole of the finishing is to be done in blind tooling4 ,not only this1 but that the boards should be very thick and bevelled1 and the edges either dull gilt or red1 or gilt over red4 ,this class of work is used extensively for religious books4 ,a gold line introduced and intermixed with blind work gives a great relief to any class of antique work4 ,it is not necessary that a special set of tools be kept for antique work1 although some would look quite out of keeping if worked in gold4 ,as a general rule antique tools are bold and solid1 such as ,venetian tools1 whilst those for gold work are cut finer and are well shaded4 ,the greater number work equally well in gold and in blind1 but when a special style has to be followed the various tools and their adaptation to that style must be studied4 ,illustration3 ,leo's ,finishing ,press4 ,the general colour of the blind work is dark brown1 and the proper way of working these antique tools is to take them warm and work them on the damp leather a number of times1 thus singeing or burning as it were the surface only1 until it has assumed its proper degree of colour4 #abc ,antique work1 as a decoration1 requires quite as much dexterity and care as gold work4 ,every line must be straight1 and the tools must be worked properly on the leather1 both in colour and depth2 and as the tools have to be worked many times on the same spot1 it requires a very steady hand and great care not to double them4 ,some consider blind work as preparatory to gold work1 and that it gives experience in the method of handling and working the various tools1 and the degree of heat required for different leathers without burning them through4 ,the leather on which this work is mostly executed is morocco and calf4 ,illustration3 ,antique ,stamps4 ,in finishing the back of a book it must always be held tightly in the 8finishing press40 ,when in the press1 mark the head and tail as a guide for the pallets by running a folding-stick along the edge of a piece of parchment or vellum held by the finger and thumb of the left hand against the sides of the volume across the back at the proper place4 ,when two or more books of the same character and size are to range together1 the backs must be compassed up so that the lines head and tail may run continuous when finished4 ,in using the pallet1 hold it firmly in the right hand1 and let the working motion proceed from the wrist only1 as if it were a pivot4 ,it will be #abd found rather difficult at first to work the pallets straight over the back and even to the sides of the bands1 but after a little practice it will become easy to accomplish4 ,morocco4 ,flexible work1 as a rule1 has blind lines1 a broad and a narrow one1 worked close to the bands4 ,damp the back with a sponge and clean water1 and work the moisture evenly into the leather with a hard clean brush4 ,take a pallet of a size suitable to the book1 warm it over the stove1 and work it firmly over the back4 ,as the leather dries1 make the pallet hotter2 this will generally be found sufficient to produce the required dark lines4 ,sometimes it will be necessary to damp the different places two or three times in order to get the proper colour in the blind tooling4 ,the tools may have a tendency to stick to the leather and possibly burn it4 ,to obviate this1 take #a-a_/d oz4 of white wax and #a oz4 of deer fat or lard1 place them in a pipkin over a fire or in a warm place1 so that they may be well mixed together2 when mixed allow them to cool4 ,rub some of this mixture upon the rough or fleshy side of a piece of waste morocco1 and when working any tools in blind1 rub them occasionally over the prepared surface4 ,this mixture will be found of great service in getting the tools to slip or come away from the leather in working4 ,lard alone is sometimes used1 but this mixture will be found of greater service to any finisher1 and the advantage of adding the wax will be apparent4 ,the lines impressed on the back must now have their gloss given to them4 ,this is done by giggering the pallets over them4 ,make the pallet rather hot1 rub it over the greased piece of leather1 and work it backwards and forwards in the impression previously made4 ,great care must be taken that the pallet be kept steadily in the impressions already made1 or they will be doubled4 ,the back is now ready for lettering4 ,this will be found further on1 classed under gold work4 #abe ,to blind tool the side of a book it must be marked with a folder and straight edge1 according to the pattern to be produced1 and as a guide for the rolls and tools to be used4 ,these lines form the ground plan for any design that has to be worked4 ,damp the whole of the side with a sponge1 and brush it as before directed2 then work the fillets along the lines marked4 ,run them over the same line two or three times4 ,when dry1 make the fillet immovable by driving a wooden wedge between the roll and fork1 and gigger it backwards and forwards to produce the gloss4 ,if tools are to be worked1 make them slightly warm1 and as the leather dries make the tool hotter and hotter4 ,this must be repeated as often as is necessary1 until the desired depth of colour and gloss is obtained4 ,in using a roll that has a running or continuous pattern1 a mark should be made upon the side with a file1 at the exact point that first comes in contact with the leather1 so that the same flower1 scroll1 or other design1 may always fall in the same place in the repeated workings4 ,it is impossible for a roll to be cut so exactly that it may be worked from any point in the circumference without doubling the design4 ,all blind work is done in the same manner1 whether in using a small or a large tool1 viz41 the leather must be damped and repeatedly worked until the depth of colour is obtained4 ,it is then allowed to dry1 and re-worked to produce the gloss4 ,the beauty of blind work consists in making the whole of the finishing of one uniform colour1 in other words1 avoiding the fault of having any portion of the work of lighter tint than the rest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,gold ,work is far more complicated than blind or antique work1 so that it will be better if one practises upon some spare pieces of roan1 calf1 or morocco before one attempts to finish a book4 ,gold work is not more difficult than blind tooling1 it is only more complicated4 ,the #abf different kinds of leather require such different degrees of heat1 that what would fail to make the gold adhere upon one leather would burn through another4 ,the various colours each require their different degrees of heat2 as a rule1 light fancy colours require less heat than dark ones4 ,the finisher has not only to contend with these difficulties1 but he must also become an adept in handling the gold leaf and in using the proper medium by which the gold is made to adhere to the leather4 ,this medium is used in two ways--wet and dry4 ,the wet is used for leather1 the dry for velvet1 satin1 silk1 and paper4 ,the wet medium is again divided into two classes1 one for non-porous and another for porous leather4 ,morocco is the principal of the non-porous leathers1 with roan and all other imitation morocco4 ,the porous varieties consist of calf of all kinds1 russia1 and sheep4 ,the non-porous leathers need only be washed with thin paste-water or vinegar1 and glaired once2 but if the glaire be thin or weak it will be necessary to give them a second coat4 ,the porous varieties must be paste-washed carefully1 sized all over very evenly1 and glaired once or twice2 care being taken that the size and glaire be laid on as evenly as possible4 ,all this1 although apparently so simple1 must be well kept in mind1 because the great difficulty that apprentices have to contend with is1 that they do not know the proper medium for the various leathers1 and one book may be prepared too much1 while another may have a deficiency1 and as a consequence1 one book will be spoilt by the preparation cracking1 and the gold not adhere to the other4 ,by following the directions here given the finisher will find that his gold will adhere without much trouble1 beyond the practice necessary in becoming accustomed to an accurate use of the various tools4 #abg ,suppose that a half morocco book is before us to be neatly finished and lettered4 ,take a broad and narrow pallet of a suitable and proper size1 and work it against the bands in blind as a guide for finishing in gold4 ,as the impression need be but very slight1 warm the pallet on the gas stove but very little4 ,choose some suitable tool as a centre piece to go between the bands4 ,work this also lightly on the back exactly in the centre of each panel4 ,this must be worked as truly as possible and perfectly straight4 ,a line made previously with a folding-stick along the centre of the back will greatly assist in the working of a tool in its proper position4 ,now wash the back with vinegar1 and brush it well with a hard brush to disperse the moisture and drive it equally into the leather2 some use paste-water for this purpose instead of vinegar4 ,paste-water has a tendency to turn grey in the course of time1 and this is avoided in using vinegar2 vinegar also imparts freshness to the morocco1 and keeps it moist a longer time1 which is very desirable when finishing morocco4 ,the impressions made by the broad and narrow pallet and the centre tool are now to be pencilled in with glaire2 when dry1 pencil in another coat2 allow this again to dry1 then rub them very slightly with a piece of oiled cotton wool4 ,take a leaf of gold from the book and spread it out evenly on the gold cushion2 cut it as nearly to the various shapes and sizes of the tools as possible4 ,now take up one of the pieces of gold upon a large pad of cotton wool1 previously greased slightly by drawing it over the head4 7,there is always a sufficient amount of natural grease in the hair to cause the gold to adhere to the cotton when so treated47 ,lay the gold gently but firmly on the impressed leather4 ,see that the whole of the impression is covered1 and that the gold is not broken4 ,should it be necessary to put on another piece of gold leaf1 gently breathing on the first will make the second adhere4 ,when all the impressions are covered #abh with gold leaf1 take one of the tools heated to such a degree that when a drop of water is applied it does not hiss but dries instantly2 work it exactly in the blind impressions4 ,repeat this to the whole of the impressions1 and wipe the overplus of gold off with the gold rag4 ,the impressions are now supposed to be worked properly in gold2 but if there are any parts where the gold does not adhere1 they must be re-glaired and worked in again4 ,a saucer should be placed near at hand1 with water and a piece of rag or a sponge in it1 to cool any tool and reduce it to its proper heat before using4 ,if the tool be used too hot1 the gold impression will be dull2 if too cold1 the gold will not adhere4 ,to use all tools of the exact degree of heat required is one of the experiences of the skilled workman4 ,the back is now ready for the title4 ,set up the proper words in a type-case1 of a type sufficiently large and suitable to the book4 ,the chief word of the title should be in somewhat larger size than the rest1 the others diminishing1 so that a pleasant arrangement of form be attained4 ,in order to adjust the length of the words1 it may be necessary to space some of them--that is1 to put between each letter a small piece of metal called a space4 ,square the type1 or make the face of the letters perfectly level1 by pressing the face of them against a flat surface before tightening the screw4 ,they must be exactly level one with another1 or in the working some of them will be invisible4 ,screw up the type-case1 warm it over the finishing stove1 and work the letters carefully in blind as a guide4 ,damp the whole of the lettering space with vinegar4 ,when dry1 pencil the impressions in twice with glaire4 ,then lay the gold on and work them in gold4 ,but with lead type and a spring type-case 7a method more suitable for some binders on account of its relative cheapness and the convenience of the case fitting itself to the different sizes of the type1 of which the binder will want #abi a selection of various sizes71 the type-case must be warmed before the type is put in4 ,the heat of the case should impart sufficient heat for the type to be worked properly4 ,if the case and type be put on the stove1 the type will probably be melted if not watched very narrowly4 ,hand letters are letters fixed in handles1 each used as a single tool4 ,the letters should be arranged in alphabetical order round the finishing stove1 and as each letter is wanted it is taken from the order1 worked1 and replaced4 ,they are still very much used in ,england1 but where two or more books are to have the same lettering1 brass type is very much better4 ,it does its work more uniformly than hand letters1 however skillfully used4 ,illustration3 ,showing progressive ,stages of ,finishing4 ,pallets4 ,panel entirely finished4 ,band4 ,panel mitred in gold1 with title and small corners4 ,band4 ,panel mitred and cornered with centre tool4 ,band4 ,panel mitred and cornered4 ,band4 ,panel mitred4 ,band4 ,panel marked out in blind for finishing4 ,small tail panel with date4 ,pallet4 ,illustration3 ,cut showing the use of ,mitrepiece4 ,when this simple finishing can be executed properly and with ease1 a more difficult task of finishing may be attempted1 such as a full gilt back4 ,this is done in two ways1 a 8run-up0 back and a 8mitred0 back4 ,as a general rule morocco is always mitred4 ,place the book on its side1 lift up the mill-board1 and make a mark head and tail on the back1 a little away from the hinge of the back4 ,then with a folder and straight edge mark the whole length of the back3 this is to be done on both sides4 ,make another line the whole length down the exact centre of the back4 ,with a pair of dividers take the measurement of the spaces between the bands1 and mark the size1 head and tail1 for the panels from the top and bottom band2 with a folder and strip of parchment make a line across the back1 head and tail1 at the mark made by the dividers4 ,work a thin broad and narrow pallet alongside the bands in blind4 ,prepare the whole of the back with vinegar and glaire1 as above described1 but lay the glaire on with a sponge4 ,when dry1 lay the gold on1 covering the whole of the back with it1 mending any breaks4 ,for mitreing1 take a two-line pallet that has the ends cut at an angle of #de1 so that the joint at that angle may be perfect4 ,work this on the side at the #aca mark made up the back1 and up to the line made in blind across the back4 ,repeat this to each panel4 ,the two-line pallet must be worked across the back and up to the lines made in gold2 the cutting of the pallet at the angle will allow of the union or mitre1 so that each panel is independent of the other4 ,there will be a space left1 head and tail1 which may be filled up with any fancy pallet or repetition of tools4 ,the corners should be in keeping with the centre1 and large enough to fit the panel4 ,work these from the sides of the square made1 or from the centre of the panel1 as will be found most convenient1 according to the thickness of the book and style of finishing1 and then fill in any small stops4 ,when the whole is done1 rub the gold off with the gold-rag1 and use the india-rubber if necessary4 ,the title has now to be put on1 which is done in the same manner as before described4 ,it is not always necessary that the finishing be done in blind first4 ,i have explained it1 and advocate its being so worked first as easier for a learner4 ,one who is accustomed to finishing finds that a few lines marked previously with a folding-stick is all that is required4 ,when working the title1 a thread of silk drawn tightly across the gold produces a line sufficient1 and is the only guide that an experienced workman requires4 ,to finish a side1 make a mark with the folder and straight edge as a guide for any rolls or fillets4 ,prepare the leather as before described where the ornamentation is to come2 but if the pattern is elaborate it must be worked first in blind4 ,as a greater facility1 take a piece of paper of good quality and well sized4 ,draw the pattern you wish to produce on the paper1 and if any tools are to be used1 hold them over the flame of gas2 this will smoke them so that #acb they may be worked on the paper in black4 ,when the pattern is complete in every detail1 tip the four corners of the paper with a little paste1 then work the pattern through the paper on to the leather1 using the various sized gouges as the scrolls require1 and a single line fillet where there are lines4 ,work thus the complete pattern in blind4 ,this being done completely1 take the paper off from the four corners1 place it on the other side1 and work it in the same way4 ,prepare the leather with vinegar1 and pencil out with glaire the whole of the pattern4 ,if the whole side be glaired with a sponge it will leave a glossy appearance that is very undesirable4 ,the whole of the side is now to be laid on with gold1 and the pattern worked again with the warm tools1 in the previous or blind impressions4 ,the inside of a book is generally finished before the outside4 ,this should be done as neatly as possible1 carefully mitreing the corners when any lines are used4 ,most frequently a roll is used1 thus saving a great deal of time4 ,a style was introduced in ,france called 8doubl10 the inside of the board being covered with a coloured morocco different to the outside1 instead of having board papers4 ,this inside leather was very elaborately finished2 generally with a 8dentelle0 border1 while the outside had only a line or two in blind4 ,it is a style which1 although very good in itself1 is not now in great request1 many prefer to have the finishing outside rather than to have it covered up and not seen when the book is shut4 ,illustration3 ,,grolier4 ,demy folio4 ,the edges of the boards and the headbands must be finished either in gold or blind1 according to fancy1 but in keeping with the rest of the embellishment4 ,a fine line worked on the centre of the edge of the board by means of a fillet looks better1 and of course requires more pains than simply running a roll over it4 ,if it is to be in gold1 simply glairing the edge is sufficient4 ,lay on the gold and work the fillet carefully4 ,place the book on its ends in the #acc finishing press to keep it steady1 or it will shake and throw the fillet off4 ,if a roll is used1 take the gold up on the roll1 but grease it first a little1 by rubbing the gold rag over the edge to make the gold adhere4 ,then run the roll along the edge of the boards3 the roll generally used for this purpose is called a bar roll--that is1 one having a series of lines running at right angles with the edge of the roll4 ,imitation morocco is generally used for publishers' bindings1 where books are in large numbers and small in price1 and the finishing is all done with the blocking press3 ,to finish this leather by hand1 it is advisable to wash it with paste-water and glaire twice4 ,roan is generally used for circulating library work1 and is very seldom finished with more than a few lines and the title across the back4 ,this leather is prepared with paste-wash and glaire1 and1 when complete1 varnished over the whole surface4 ,inlaid ,work4--,inlaid1 or mosaic work1 is used only in the higher branches of bookbinding4 ,formerly books were not inlaid1 but painted with various colours4 ,grolier used a great deal of black1 white1 and green4 ,mr4 ,tuckett1 the late binder to the ,british ,museum1 took out a patent for extracting one colour from leather and substituting another by chemical action4 ,this method1 however1 was in use and known long before he turned his attention to the subject1 although he improved greatly upon the old practice4 ,as the patent has long expired1 it may not be out of place to give an extract from the specification3 8,take dark chocolate colour1 and after the design has been traced thereon1 it is then to be picked out or pencilled in with suitable chemicals1 say diluted nitric acid2 this will change the chocolate1 leaving the design a bright red on a chocolate ground40 ,but to lay on the various colours with leather is1 no doubt1 by far the better plan4 ,paint has a tendency in time to crack1 and1 if acids are used1 they will1 to a certain #acd extent1 rot or destroy the leather2 but if leather is used it will always retain both colour and texture4 ,to choose the proper colours that will harmonize with the ground1 give tone1 and produce a pleasing effect1 requires a certain amount of study4 ,morocco is the leather generally used1 but in ,vienna calf has been used with very good results4 ,if the pattern to be inlaid be very small1 steel punches of the exact shape of the tools are used to punch or cut out the patterns required4 ,to do this1 work the pattern in blind on the side of the book2 take morocco of a different colour to the ground it is required to decorate1 and pare it down as thin as possible4 ,lay it on a slab of lead4 ,lead is better than anything else on account of its softness2 the marks made by the punch can always be beaten out again1 and when quite used up it may be re-melted and run out anew4 ,now take the steel punch of an exact facsimile of the tool used that is to be inlaid1 and punch out from the leather the required number4 ,these are to be pasted and laid very carefully on the exact spot made by the blind-tooling2 press each down well into the leather1 either with a folding-stick or the fingers1 so that it adheres properly4 ,when dry1 the book should be pressed between polished plates1 in order that the pieces that have been laid on1 may be pressed well into the ground leather4 ,when it has been pressed1 the whole of the leather must be prepared as for morocco1 and finished in gold4 ,the tools in the working will hide all the edges of the various inlaid pieces1 provided they are laid on exactly4 ,illustration3 ,,maioli4 ,royal folio4 ,t4 ,way1 ,photo ,lith4 ,if interlacing bands are to be of various colours1 the bands must be cut out4 ,pare the leather thin1 and after working the pattern through the paper on to the sides of the book1 lay it on the thinly pared leather2 with a very sharp and pointed knife cut through the paper and leather together on a soft board4 ,or the design may be worked or drawn on a thin board1 and the various bands cut out #ace of the board as patterns4 ,lay these on the thin leather and cut round them4 ,keep these board templates for any future use of the same patterns4 ,the various pieces are to be well pasted1 carefully adjusted in their places1 and well rubbed down4 ,the leather is then to be prepared and worked off in gold4 ,another method is to work the pattern in blind on the sides4 ,pare the morocco thin1 and while damp place it upon the portion of the pattern to be inlaid1 and press it well with the fingers1 so that the design is impressed into it4 ,lay the leather carefully on some soft board1 and cut round the lines made visible by the pressure with a very sharp knife4 ,when cut out1 paste and lay them on the book and prepare as before1 and finish in gold4 ,i do not recommend this last method as being of much value2 ,i give it only because it is sometimes chosen2 but for any good work1 where accuracy is required1 either of the plans mentioned previously are to be preferred4 ,the ,viennese work their calf in quite a different manner1 in fact1 in the same way that the cabinet-makers inlay their woodwork4 ,with a very sharp and thin knife they cut right through two leathers laid the one on the other4 ,the bottom one is then lifted out and replaced by the top one4 ,by this method the one fits exactly into the other1 so that1 if properly done1 the junctions are so neatly made that no finishing is required to cover the line where the two colours meet4 ,the frontispiece to this treatise is a copy of a book bound by my father for one of the ,exhibitions4 ,the ground is of red morocco1 inlaid with green1 brown1 and black morocco4 ,the pattern may be called 8,renaissance40 ,the inside of the boards are 8,grolier10 inlaid as elaborately as the outside4 ,seven months' labour was expended on the outside decoration of this volume4 ,porous4--,calf1 as before described1 requires more and #acf different preparation than morocco1 on account of its soft and absorbing nature4 ,as a foundation or groundwork1 paste of different degrees of strength is used1 according to the various work required4 ,calf books have generally a morocco lettering piece of a different colour to the calf on the back for the title4 ,this is1 however1 optional1 and may or may not be used1 according to taste4 ,leather lettering pieces have a great tendency to peel off1 especially if the book be exposed to a hot atmosphere1 or if the paste has been badly made1 so that it is perhaps better if the calf itself be lettered4 ,there is no doubt that a better effect is produced in a bookcase when a good assortment of coloured lettering pieces are placed on the variously coloured backs1 and the titles can be more easily read than if they were upon light or sprinkled calf2 but where wear and tear have to be studied1 as in public libraries1 a volume should not have any lettering pieces4 ,all such books should be lettered on their natural ground4 ,for lettering pieces1 take morocco#aj of any colour1 according to fancy1 and having wetted it to facilitate the work1 pare it down as thin and as evenly as possible4 ,cut it to size of the panel or space it is intended to fit4 ,when cut truly1 pare the edges all round1 paste it well1 put it on the place and rub well down4 ,should the book require two pieces--or one for the title1 and one for the volume or contents--it is better to vary the colours4 ,i must caution the workman not to allow the leather to come over on to the joint1 as by the frequent opening or moving of the boards the edge of the leather will become loose4 ,a very good plan as a substitute for lettering pieces is to colour the calf either dark brown or black1 thus saving the leather at the expense of a little more time4 ,when the lettering #acg pieces are dry1 mark the back1 head and tail1 for the pallets or other tools with a folding-stick4 ,apply with a brush paste all over the back4 ,with a thick folding-stick1 or with the handle of an old tooth brush1 which is better1 rub the paste into the back4 ,before it has time to dry1 take the overplus off with rather a hard sponge1 dipped in thin paste-water4 ,the learner will perhaps wonder why paste of full strength should be used for the back1 and only paste-water for the sides4 ,the reason is1 that through the stretching of the leather over the back in covering1 the pores are more open1 and consequently require more filling up to make a firm ground4 ,much depends upon the groundwork being properly applied2 and a general caution with regard to the working in general may not be here amiss4 ,finishing1 above all other departments1 demands perfect cleanliness4 ,a book may have the most graceful designs1 the tools be worked perfectly and clearly1 but be spoiled by having a dirty appearance4 ,see that everything is clean--paste-water1 size1 glaire1 sponges1 and brushes4 ,do not lay any gold on until the preparation be perfectly dry1 or the gold will adhere and cause a dirty yellow stain where wiped off4 #aj ,other leathers are often used instead of morocco1 even paper2 in fact a specially prepared paper is largely sold in ,germany for this purpose4 ,should the calf book be intended to have only a pallet alongside the bands1 it is only necessary1 when the paste-wash is quite dry1 to glaire that portion which is to be gilt3 this is usually done with a camel's hair brush1 by laying on two coats4 ,when dry1 cut the gold into strips1 and take one up on the pallet and work it on the calf4 ,this is what is termed calf neat4 ,the band on each side is gilt1 leaving the rest of the leather in its natural state4 ,some binders polish their backs instead of leaving them dead or dull4 ,this1 however1 is entirely according to taste1 whether so large a space be left polished only4 ,illustration3 ,samples of ,backs suitable for ,calf ,work4 ,full ,gilt ,back4--,run-up4 ,make a mark up the back on both sides a little away from the joint with a folder and #aci straight edge4 ,put on lettering piece4 ,when dry1 paste and paste-wash the back4 ,when again dry1 take some of ,young's patent size1 melt it in a pipkin with a little water and apply it with a sponge4 ,lay this on very evenly with a very soft sponge1 and be particular that it is perfectly clean1 so that no stains be left4 ,when the size is done with1 put it on one side for future use4 ,this size should not be taken its full strength1 and when warmed again some more water should be added to make up for evaporation4 ,when the coat of size has dried1 apply two coats of glaire4 ,the first must be dry before the second is applied1 and great care must be taken that the sponge is not passed over the same place twice1 or the previous preparation will be taken off4 ,it is now ready for finishing4 ,cut the gold to proper size2 rub a little lard over the whole of the back with a little cotton wool4 ,this requires great attention4 ,very little must be put on light or green calf1 as these colours are stained very readily4 ,take the gold up on a cotton pad2 lay it carefully down on the back2 breathe on the gold1 and press down again4 ,if there be any places where the gold is broken1 they must be mended4 ,now take a two-line fillet2 heat it so that it hisses when placed in the cooling pan or the saucer with the wet rag in it1 and run it the whole length of the back on the line made before paste-washing4 ,do this on both sides1 and rub the gold off with the gold-rag up to the line on the outside4 ,take a two-line pallet1 and work it on each side of the bands4 ,work the morocco lettering piece last1 as it requires less heat4 ,the centre piece of each panel must now be worked4 ,impress the tools firmly but quickly4 ,the corner tools next2 work them from the centre or sides1 using the right hand corners as a guide1 and judging the distance by the left ones4 ,the press must be turned when it is required to bring the left side to the right hand in working the corners4 ,the requisite pallets may now be worked to finish the book #adj head and tail4 ,as a rule these are worked when the two-line pallet is imprinted4 ,calf requires very quick working4 ,the tools should not be held over the various places too long1 or the heat will destroy the adherent properties of the albumen4 ,with morocco time does not signify so much1 as the heat used is not so great4 ,mitred back must be prepared the same way as for 8run-up back10 and the mitreing is to be done as explained in working morocco4 ,as before stated1 this is superior work and requires more skill2 takes longer1 but looks much better3 each panel should be an exact facsimile of the rest4 ,if the tools do not occupy precisely similar places in each panel1 the result will be very unsatisfactory1 and an evidence of a want of skill4 ,when the backs are finished1 rub the gold off with the gold-rag1 and clear off any residue with the india-rubber4 ,be very careful that every particle of the surplus gold be cleaned off1 or the delicate lines of the ornaments will be obscure and ragged in appearance4 ,the book is now ready for lettering4 ,set the type up in the case1 and work it carefully in a perfectly straight line over the back4 ,the whole of the back is now to be polished with the polishing iron1 which must be perfectly clean and bright before it is used4 ,prepare a board from an old calf binding1 by rubbing some fine emery or charcoal and lard over the leather side of it4 ,by rubbing the iron over this prepared surface it will acquire a bright polish4 ,it must be used over the back by holding it lightly1 and giving it an oblong circular motion4 ,go over every portion of the back with very even pressure1 so that no part may be made more glossy than another4 ,the polishing iron should be used rather warmer than the tools4 ,if the iron be too hot the glaire will turn white2 if too cold the polish will be dull4 ,the grease upon the leather will be quite sufficient to make #ada the polisher glide easily over the surface1 but the operation must be rapidly and evenly done4 ,all light and green calf require less heat than any other kinds4 ,these will turn black if the iron be in the least degree too hot4 ,it is in finishing the sides that the workman can show his good taste and skill4 ,the sides should be always in keeping with the back2 or1 more strictly speaking1 the back should be in keeping with the sides4 ,before the sides can be finished1 the inside of the boards must occupy our attention4 ,with a 8run-up0 back1 the edge of the leather round the end papers is to be worked either in blind or have a roll round it in gold4 ,in any case it should be paste-washed4 ,if for blind1 the roll is to be heated and worked round it2 if for gold1 it must be glaired twice4 ,the gold1 cut into strips1 is to be taken up on the roll and worked1 and the overplus taken off with the gold-rag as before directed4 ,extra work1 such as mitred work1 should have some lines1 or other neat design impressed4 ,paste-wash the leather1 and when dry glaire twice4 ,when again dry lay on the gold all round1 and work the roll or other fillets1 or such other tool that may be in keeping with the exterior work4 ,when the gold has been wiped off1 the leather should be polished with the polishing iron4 ,the outside must now be finished4 ,are the sides to be polished1 or left plain8 ,if they are not to be polished1 paste-wash the whole of the side up to the edge of the back carefully1 then glaire only that portion which is to be gilt4 ,generally a two-line fillet only is used round the edge1 so that the width of the fillet or roll must determine the width to be glaired4 ,when glaired twice and dry1 take up the gold on the fillet or roll and work it evenly and straightly round the edge4 ,the corners where the lines meet are next to be stopped by working a small rosette or small star on them4 ,clean off any gold that may be on the side1 and #adb work a small dotted or pin-head roll at the edge of the glaire4 ,this will cover and conceal the edge4 ,extra calf books generally have the sides polished4 ,paste-wash the sides all over1 and when dry size them4 ,hold the book1 if small1 in the left hand1 if large1 lay it on the press and work the sponge over the side in a circular direction1 so that the size may be laid on as evenly as possible4 ,be very careful that it does not froth2 should it do so1 squeeze the sponge out as dry as possible1 and fill it anew with fresh size4 ,some workmen work the sponge up and down the book1 but if this be not done very evenly it produces streaks4 ,the finisher will find he can lay a more even coating on by using the sponge in a circular direction4 ,allow this to dry by leaving the book with boards extended4 ,when perfectly dry glaire once4 ,this will be found sufficient1 as the size gives body to the glaire4 ,when sizeing and glairing1 be assured that the book be laid down with the boards extended on a level surface2 if the book be not level1 the size or glaire will run down to the lowest portion of the surface1 and become unequally distributed4 ,the gold is now to be laid on the respective places1 either broad or narrow1 according to the nature of the finishing or width of the rolls4 ,as a general rule1 the sides of the better class of calf books have nothing more than a three-line round the edge and mitred in the corners4 ,this is1 however1 quite a matter of taste4 ,some have a border of fancy rolls1 but never any elaborate pattern as in morocco work4 ,to finish the sides1 place the book in the finishing press with the boards extended1 so that they may rest on the press4 ,this will afford greater facility for working the fillets1 rolls1 and tools necessary to complete the design on each side4 ,the finishing press being a small one1 can be easily turned round as each edge of the border is finished4 ,to polish the sides1 place the book on its side on some #adc soft surface1 such as a board covered with baize1 and kept for the purpose4 ,use the large and heavy polishing iron1 hot and clean4 ,rub or work the iron quickly and firmly over the sides1 first from the groove towards the foredge1 and then in a contrary direction1 from the tail to the head1 by turning the volume4 ,the oil or grease applied to the cover previous to laying on the gold will be sufficient to allow the polisher to glide easily over the surface4 ,polishing has also the effect of smoothing down the burr formed on the leather by the gilding tools1 and bringing the impressions slightly to the surface4 ,the iron must be held very evenly1 so that the centre of the iron may be the working portion4 ,if held sideways the edge of the iron will indent the leather4 ,the heat must be sufficient to give a polish4 ,it must be remembered that if the iron is too hot it will cause the glaire to turn white4 ,the temperature must be well tested before it be applied to the cover4 ,a practised finisher can generally tell the proper heat on holding the iron at some little distance from his face1 by the heat radiated from the iron4 ,calf books should be pressed1 whether polished or not4 ,pressing4--,plates of japanned tin or polished horn are proper for this purpose4 ,put pressing tins between the book and the mill-boards3 the tins must be up to the joint4 ,now place one of the japanned plates on the side level with the groove2 turn book and japanned plate over carefully together1 so that neither shifts2 place another of the polished plates on the top of the book1 thus placing the book between two polished surfaces4 ,put the book into the standing press1 and screw down tightly4 ,leave in for some hours4 ,when pressed sufficiently1 take the book out1 and if the sides be polished1 varnish them4 ,make a little pad of cotton wool1 saturate the lower portion with varnish2 rub it on a piece of waste paper to equalize the varnish1 then work the pad over the side as #add quickly as possible in a circular direction4 ,renew the wool with varnish for the other side4 ,enough must be taken on the pad to varnish the whole side1 or the delay caused by renewing the varnish on the cotton will cause a streaked surface4 ,when the varnish is perfectly dry--a few minutes will suffice--the book must be again pressed4 ,to do this1 rub the gold-rag1 which is greased1 over the sides1 this will prevent the sides from sticking to the polished plates4 ,place the book between the plates as before1 leaving out the pressing tins1 and place in the standing press4 ,only little pressure must now be given2 if the press be screwed down too tightly the plates will stick to the book4 ,the varnish must be of good quality1 and perfectly dry1 or the result will be the same4 ,half an hour in the press will be found quite long enough4 ,should the plates stick1 there is no other remedy than washing off the varnish with spirits of wine1 and the glaire and size with warm water1 and carefully re-preparing the surface as before4 ,this is1 however1 an accident that cannot happen if due care and judgment be exercised4 ,graining4--,graining is now used very much on calf books4 ,it may be properly considered as a blind ornament4 ,it is done by means of wooden1 or1 better still1 copper plates cut out in various patterns1 so as to form small squares1 scales of fish1 or an imitation of morocco4 ,place the volume between two of these plates1 level to the groove of the back1 in the standing press2 screw down tightly4 ,the pressure should be equal over the whole surface4 ,nothing looks worse than a bold impression in one place and a slight one in another1 so that it is rather important that it be evenly pressed2 a second application of the plates is impracticable4 ,graining has the advantage of hiding any finger-marks that may accidentally be on the calf1 and also partly conceals any imperfections in the leather4 #ade ,the state of the weather must in a great measure guide the finisher as to the proper number of volumes he ought to prepare at one time4 ,the leather should always be a little moist1 or1 in other words1 rather fresh4 ,in winter double the number of books may be prepared1 and the gold laid on1 than the dryness of a summer's day will permit4 ,if books are laid on over night the tools must be used very hot in working them the next morning1 or the gold will not adhere4 ,during summer1 flies will eat the glaire from various places while the book is lying or standing out to dry1 so that constant vigilance must be kept to avoid these pests4 ,russia is prepared in the same way as calf1 but is usually worked with more blind tools than gold1 and the sides are not as a rule polished1 so that the size and glaire are dispensed with1 except on those parts where it is to be finished in gold2 those portions need be only paste-washed and glaired once1 without any size4 ,finishing with ,dry ,preparation4--,the dry preparation is used for silk1 velvet1 paper1 or any other material that would be stained by the employment of the wet process4 ,there are a number of receipts in the trade and in use4 ,take the white of eggs1 and dry by spreading it somewhat thickly over glass plates1 taking care to preserve it from dust4 ,when dry it will chip off readily1 if the glass has been previously very slightly oiled or greased4 ,it must not be exposed to more heat than #dj ,reaum41 or the quality of the albumen will be destroyed4 ,the dried mass is to be well powdered in a porcelain mortar4 ,or1 take equal portions of gum mastic1 gum sandrac1 gum arabic1 and powder them well in a mortar4 ,this powder1 if good work be desired1 must be ground into an impalpable powder4 ,when powdered put it into a box or bottle1 and tie three or four thicknesses of fine muslin over the mouth4 ,by tapping the inverted box1 or shaking #adf it over the lines or letters1 the dust will fall through in a fine shower4 ,the powder should fall only on the part to be gilt4 ,cut the gold into strips1 take it up upon the tool1 and work rather hot4 ,the overplus of the powder can be brushed away when the finishing is completed4 ,finishing powder is now sold commercially4 ,velvet is very seldom finished beyond having the title put on1 and this should be worked in blind first and with moderately large letters1 or the pile will hide them4 ,silk is finished more easily1 and can1 if care be taken1 have rather elaborate work put upon it4 ,in such a case1 the lines or tools1 which must be blinded-in first1 may be glaired4 ,for this purpose the glaire must be put in a saucer or plate in the free air for a day or two1 so that a certain amount of water or moisture of the glaire may be evaporated2 but it must not be too stiff so as to prevent the brush going freely over the stuff4 ,great care1 however1 must be taken1 or the glaire will spread and cause a stain4 ,a thin coat of paste-water will give silk a body and keep the glaire from spreading to a certain extent1 but ,i think the best medium for silk is the dry one1 and it is always ready for instant use4 ,in using glaire the gold is laid on the silk1 but on no account must any oil or lard be rubbed on it for the temporary holding of the gold4 ,rub the parts intended for the gold with the finger 7passed through the hair71 or with a clean rag lightly oiled1 and when the tools are re-impressed a clean piece of flannel should be used to wipe off the superfluous gold4 ,blocking has been used lately on silk with some success in ,germany4 ,the blocking plate is taken out of the press1 and the gold is laid on it1 and then replaced in the press4 ,the finishing powder is freely distributed over the silk side1 which is laid on the bed of the press4 ,on pulling the lever over1 the block descends and imprints the design in gold on the silk4 ,this process may be applied to velvet1 #adg but velvet never takes the sharpness of the design on account of the pile1 so that as a rule it is left in its natural state4 ,vellum4--,the ,dutch1 as a nation1 appear to have been the first to bind books in vellum4 ,it was then a simple kind of casing1 with hollow backs4 ,a later improvement of theirs was that of sewing the book on double raised cords1 and making the book with a tight back1 similar to the way in which our flexible books are now done1 showing the raised bands4 ,the ornamentation was entirely in blind1 both on the back and sides1 and the tools used were of a very solid character4 ,this art of binding in vellum seems to be entirely lost at the present day2 its imperishable nature is indeed its only recommendation4 ,it has little beauty2 is exceedingly harsh2 and little variety can be produced even in the finishing4 ,there are two or three kinds of vellum prepared from calf skins at the present day1 thanks to the progress of invention4 ,first1 we have the prepared or artist's vellum1 with a very white artificial surface2 then the ,oxford vellum1 the surface of which is left in its natural state2 the ,roman vellum1 which has a darker appearance4 ,parchment is an inferior animal membrane prepared from sheepskins after the manner of vellum1 and this is very successfully imitated by vegetable parchment1 made by immersing unsized paper for a few seconds in a bath of diluted oil of vitriol4 ,this preparation resembles the animal parchment so closely that it is not easy to distinguish the difference4 ,it is used very extensively in ,france for wrappering the better class of literature1 instead of issuing them in cloth as is the custom here4 ,the method of finishing vellum is altogether different to leather4 ,on account of its very hard and compact nature1 it requires no other ground or preparation than glaire for gold work4 #adh ,the cover should be very carefully washed with a soft sponge and clean water1 to clean off any dirt or finger-marks1 and to make the book look as fresh as possible4 ,this washing must be very carefully done by going over the surface as few times as possible4 ,this caution applies particularly to the prepared or artist vellum1 as each washing will take off a certain amount of the surface1 so that the more it is damped and rubbed the more the surface will be disturbed and the beauty destroyed4 ,it requires some experience to distinguish the flesh and leather surfaces of prepared vellum1 but this experience must be acquired1 because it is absolutely necessary that the leather side should be outward when the book is covered1 for two reasons3 the flesh side is more fibrous1 and adheres better to the boards than the leather side1 and the leather side is less liable to have its surface disturbed in the process of washing4 ,the parts that are to be gilt must be glaired1 but as the glaire will show its presence1 or1 more strictly speaking1 leave rather a dirty mark1 the tools should first be worked in blind1 and the glaire laid on carefully up to their outer edge4 ,when dry1 lay the gold on and work the tool in4 ,let the tools be only moderately warm2 if too hot they will go through to the mill-board1 leaving their mark as if they had been cut out with a knife4 ,as a rule no very heavy tooling is ever put on vellum1 the beauty lies in keeping the vellum as clean as possible4 ,the tooling being1 comparatively speaking1 on the surface1 owing to the thinness of the skin1 requires a very competent and clean workman to produce anything like good work on vellum4 ,vellum is of so greasy a nature that1 if a title-piece of leather has to be put on1 it will be found that there is a great difficulty in making it adhere properly unless some special precaution be taken4 ,the best plan is to scrape #adi the surface where the leather is intended to be placed with the edge of a knife4 ,this will produce a rough and fibrous ground on which to place the pasted leather4 ,this leather1 when dry1 must be prepared with paste-water and glaire1 in the same manner as with other books4 ,in the foregoing instructions for finishing a book1 the most that can be looked for towards teaching either the apprentice or the unskilled workman is to give him an idea how it is accomplished by practised hands4 ,pure taste1 a correct eye1 and a steady hand1 are not given to all in common4 ,the most minute instructions1 detail by detail1 cannot make a workman if ,nature has denied these gifts4 ,i have known men whose skill in working a design could not be excelled1 but who could not be trusted to gild a back without instructions4 ,others1 whose ideas of design were not contemptible1 could not tool two panels of a back in perfect uniformity4 ,some also have so little idea of harmony of colour1 that without strict supervision they would give every volume the coat of a harlequin4 ,in a word1 a first-rate bookbinder is nascitur non fit1 and although the hints and instructions ,i have penned may not be sufficient to make a workman1 ,i trust they will be found of some value to the skilled as well as to the less practised craftsman4 ,blocking4--,the growing demand for books that were at once cheap and pretty1 became so strong1 that mechanical appliances were invented to facilitate their ornamentation2 and thus we have the introduction of the present blocking press4 ,i will not follow too closely the various improvements introduced at different periods1 but roughly describe the blocking press1 without which cheap bookbinding cannot be done at the present day4 ,there can be no doubt that this press owes its extensive use to the introduction of publishers' cloth work4 ,formerly1 when the covers of books were blocked1 a #aej small lying or other press was used4 ,the block1 previously heated1 was placed on the book1 and the screw or screws turned to get a sufficient pressure4 ,it often happened that the pressure was either too much or too little3 the block either by the one accident sank into the leather too deeply1 or by the other the gold failed to adhere1 and it required a good workman to work a block properly4 ,the first press to be noticed is a ,balancier1 having a moveable bed1 a heating box1 heated by means of red-hot irons1 two side pillars to guide the box in a true line1 and attached to it a screw connected at the top with a bar or arm1 having at each extremity an iron ball4 ,the block1 having been fixed to a plate at the bottom of the heated box1 the side of the book was laid down on the bed1 and by swinging the arm round the block descended upon the book4 ,the arm was then swung back1 and the next book put into place4 ,it will be seen that this incurred a great loss of time4 ,the next improvement consisted in having a press that only moved a quarter circle1 with almost instantaneous action2 and another improvement connected with the bed was1 that by means of screws and gauges1 when the block was once set1 a boy or an inexperienced hand might with ease finish off hundreds of copies1 all with equal pressure4 ,by referring to the woodcut opposite1 the press and its action will be seen and understood4 ,the box may be heated with gas1 and kept at a constant and regulated temperature the whole time of working4 ,it can be adjusted to any amount of pressure1 as it is regulated by the bed underneath4 ,the next step in progress was the introduction of printing in different colours upon the cloth1 and intermixing them with gold4 ,messrs4 ,hopkinson and ,cope's machines may be mentioned4 ,they are made to be driven by steam1 and will print and emboss from #ejj to #fjj covers per #aea hour1 and are heated by steam or gas4 ,the inking apparatus is placed at the back of the press1 so that while the workman is placing another cover1 the ink roller1 by automatic action1 inks the block ready for the next impression4 ,the inking or printing of the covers is done without heat1 so1 to avoid loss of time1 an arrangement is made that the heating box can be cooled immediately by a stream of water passed through it4 ,illustration ,messrs4 ,kampe and ,co4 have just brought out a blocking machine1 which they claim to be superior to any in the trade4 ,it will block at the rate of #gjj to #hjj covers per hour4 ,the pressure is obtained by one of the most powerful of mechanical appliances1 and it can be adjusted to block either paper or leather4 ,the tools required for blocking are called blocks or stamps4 ,these may be composed of very small pieces1 or may be of one block cut to the size of the book4 ,in any case1 the block has to be fastened to the moveable plate at the bottom of the heating box4 ,to block the sides of a book1 take a stout piece of paper and glue it upon a moveable plate4#aa ,then take the book1 and having set the blocks upon the side in exact position1 place the side or board upon which are placed the blocks upon the bed of the blocking press1 leaving the volume hanging down in front of the press4 ,the bed is now to be fixed1 so that the centre of the board is exactly under and in the centre of the heating box4 ,when quite true1 the sides and back gauges are fixed by screws4 ,pull the lever so that a slight pressure upon the plate be given3 release #aeb the press1 and take out the book and examine if all be correct4 ,some of the blocks may require a small piece of paper as a pad1 so as to increase the pressure1 others to be shifted a little4 ,now glue the back of the stamps and replace them in their respective places4 ,place the whole under the top plate in the press1 heat the box1 and pull the lever over2 and let the book remain for some little time to set the glue4 ,take out the book1 examine if perfectly square and correct1 but replace it with a soft mill-board under the stamps1 and pull down the press4 ,the lever must remain over1 and the blocks be under pressure until the glue is hardened4 #aa ,the moveable plate is also called the platen4 ,another method is to glue upon the plate a piece of thick paper and mark upon it the exact size of the book to be blocked4 ,strike upon the plate from the size the centre1 and from that any other lines that may assist in placing the blocks4 ,arrange the blocks upon the plate so as to form the design2 when correct1 paste the blocks on their backs and replace them on the plate4 ,when the paste adheres a little1 turn the plate over and put it into the press4 ,apply heat to the box2 pull the lever over1 and when the paste is set1 regulate the bed and gauges4 ,when the press is properly heated1 throw back the lever2 take out the mill-board from under the stamp1 and regulate the degree of pressure required by the side-screw under or over the bed4 ,place upon the bed the side to be stamped1 hold it firmly against the guides with the left hand1 and with the right draw the lever quickly to the front4 ,this straightens the toggels and forces down the heating box1 causing a sharp impression of the stamp upon the leather or other material4 ,throw or let the lever go back sharply1 and take out the book4 ,if the block be of such a design that it must not be inverted1 the whole of the covers must be blocked on one side first1 and the block turned round for the other side1 or the design will be upside down4 #aec ,work for blocking in gold does not require so much body or preparation as if it were gilt by hand4 ,morocco can be worked by merely washing the whole surface with a little urine or weak ammonia1 but it is safer to use a coat of glaire and water mixed in proportion of one of the former to three of the latter4 ,the heat should not be great1 and slowly worked4 ,calf should have a coat of milk and water or thin paste-water as a ground1 and when dry another of glaire4 ,both should be laid on as evenly as possible2 but if only portions are to be gilt1 such as a centre-piece1 and the rest dead1 the centre-piece or other design should be pencilled in with great care4 ,the design should be first slightly blocked in blind as a guide for the glairing4 ,the edge of the glaire generally leaves a black or dark stain4 ,the heat required for calf is greater than for morocco1 and the working must be done more quickly4 ,cloth requires no preparation whatever1 the glue beneath and the coloured matter on the cloth gives quite enough adhesiveness when the hot plate comes down for the gold to adhere4 ,a great deal of taste may be displayed in the formation of patterns in this branch1 but as publishers find that books that are tawdrily gilt are better liked by the public1 they are1 of course1 very well satisfied if their books are well covered with gold4 ,it would be well if those who have the principal charge of this work would strive1 by the cultivation of elegant design1 to correct the vitiated taste of the public1 and seek by a study of classic ornamentation to please the eye and satisfy the judgment rather than to attract the vulgar by glitter and gaudy decoration4 ,however1 of late years a great advancement has been made with publishers' block work2 the samples given in the trade paper 78,the ,bookbinder0 now 8,bookmaker07 will prove this4 ,illustration ,,general ,,information4 #aeg ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,washing ,,and ,,cleaning4 ,the binder is often called upon to clean books2 to many he is a sort of ,aladdin1 who makes old books into new2 the consequence is that he often has placed in his hands a lot of dirty1 miserable-looking books1 and is expected to turn them into first-class copies4 ,to renovate such books requires time and experience1 and unfortunately very little is known among binders as a body about cleaning4 ,outside the trade1 ,i am sorry to say1 even less is known1 for if a book be received from a binder bleached1 it seems to satisfy the owner1 and to be all that is desired4 ,by such treatment of bleaching a quantity of lime is generally left in the paper1 the goodness is destroyed1 and naturally the paper must suffer in a short time4 ,to test such treatment one has only to apply the tongue to the paper1 it will at once absorb any moisture1 as blotting paper does1 and often the lime can be distinctly tasted4 ,but books are often washed and given out to the binder to rebind in this state4 ,in such a case it remains with the binder not to associate himself with the book2 for if he rebinds such a book the stigma will attach itself to him when the period of rotting1 falling to pieces1 and other misfortunes has arrived4 ,it is the practice of many who profess to wash books or prints to use chlorine at every washing2 this is not necessary2 often a simple bath of hot water1 with perhaps the #aeh addition of a little alum1 is all that is required4 ,an important thing is to know the different kinds of stains when looking through the book2 there may be many in one book1 each from a different cause4 ,in such a case it will be best to go for the majority1 and to use the bath that will move them4 ,often the one bath is sufficient1 but should there be any stains that are not touched1 these leaves must be treated again4 ,when there are stains of different character in the one book1 such as oil stains on a few leaves1 and1 say1 coffee stains in other parts1 the oil must be first removed2 the one bath will not touch both stains4 ,often when the bath is used wrongly it will fix the stain in the paper1 and not remove it1 the chemical used acting as a mordant4 ,it is impossible for me to describe the various stains1 the intelligence of the workman must be brought to bear on the subject2 and ,i advise a small memo4 book be used to jot down the difficulties that may occur from time to time1 and so to act as a guide for future work2 to the use of such a book ,i am enabled to lay before my readers the methods of working with the various receipts collected in ,france and ,germany1 and used by me in my business4 ,to wash a book it is absolutely necessary to pull it to pieces4 ,should there be much glue on the back1 and difficulty arise in the pulling1 the book may be treated as given in ,chapter ,,ii43 or sections of six or eight sheets may be left together2 the hot water and soaking to which the book will be subjected in the washing will dissolve the glue or paste that may be on the back1 and the sheets will readily part whilst in the solution4 ,washing must be conducted with great care2 the handling of the wet sheets will demand the most delicate touch1 for one can reasonably understand that paper left in water for twelve or more hours is likely to be very tender4 ,in nearly every case when a book has been washed it will be found necessary to size it3 the size #aei gives back the body or goodness that the hot water and chemical has extracted4 ,often the virtue is extracted by damp1 through the book being left in some damp situation1 or by imperfect sizing the paper has first received2 in such cases1 although the book may not require washing1 sizing will be of benefit4 ,requisites4--,the necessary articles required for washing1 etc41 are dishes4 ,those of porcelain are perhaps the best2 they may be bought at any photographic material dealers4 ,if much work is done1 it is advantageous to have a set or sets of two or three sizes4 ,in using the various dishes1 ample room should be given to allow the hands to enter the water and pick up the sheets or leaves without any danger of tearing4 ,should the pans be of such a size as to be too heavy to move when full of water1 they may be emptied by means of a syphon1 the short end of the syphon placed1 in preference1 at one of the corners of the dish1 so as not to touch the sheets4 ,the dishes may also be made of wood1 lined with zinc or lead3 for very large work these must be used1 the porcelain are not made above a certain size4 ,a kettle for boiling water in4 ,a gas-stove1 or substitute1 for heating purposes4 ,a peel1 made of wood1 to hang the sheets on the lines4 ,the sheets are placed on the peel1 from which they are transferred to the lines4 ,chloride of lime for solution of chloride of lime4--,make a saturated solution of chloride of lime by mixing intimately the lime with water in a large jar4 ,when clear the solution may be used4 ,to every gallon of hot water take from this stock solution two or three ounces4 ,,note4--,chlorine bleaches all vegetable matter4 ,hydrochloric acid1 also known as muriatic acid or spirits of salts 7poison74 ,oxalic acid 7poison74 ,powdered alum4 #afj ,a hair sieve4 ,this is not absolutely necessary1 as a fine piece of linen will answer as well4 ,size3-- 7#a47 #a quart of water4 #a_/b ounce of powdered alum4 #a ounce of isinglass4 #a scruple of soap4 ,simmer the whole for about one hour1 then pass through a fine hair sieve or piece of linen4 ,use this whilst warm4 7#b47 #a gallon of water4 #a_/b lb4 of best glue4 #b ounces of powdered alum4 ,simmer and use as above4 7#c74 #a quart of water4 #b-a_/b ounces of isinglass4 #b drachms of alum4 ,simmer the whole for about one hour1 strain as above4 ,it must be remembered that a size too strong in glue or isinglass is liable to make the paper too brittle2 again1 some papers require a stronger size than others4 7#d74 ,a size that may be used cold1 and is recommended in ,france1 to keep at hand and to use when only a single leaf requires sizing1 such as when a name has been erased from a title-page1 is as follows3--,boil about a quart of water in a saucepan4 ,whilst boiling1 add about two oz4 of shellac and #a_/b oz4 of borax2 the borax will dissolve the shellac1 which will be held in suspension2 the whole must then be passed through a fine hair sieve1 or piece of linen1 to rid it of all pieces or impurities4 ,this will keep a very long time1 and may be used over and over again4 ,great care must be exercised that not too much shellac is used1 or the paper will be rendered transparent4 #afa ,,manipulation4 ,dust4--,the careful application of india-rubber or bread will generally take away all dust4 ,in using india-rubber1 hold the sheet or leaf down by the left hand1 and rub gently away from it4 ,if the rubber is used in a to and fro motion1 there is great danger of the sheet doubling back and breaking4 ,the bread may be used in a circular motion2 and if a book be cleaned from dust by this means without pulling to pieces1 all crumbs must be brushed away from the back very carefully before closing the book4 ,water stains4--,if the stains be from water1 the application of boiling water and alum will take them out4 ,this stain is the one most usually found in books1 it may be distinguished from other stains by leaving a mark having a sharp edge4 ,to take such a stain away1 pull the book to pieces1 strew on the bottom of the pan a handful of powdered alum1 on this pour a quantity of boiling water4 ,immerse each section leaf by leaf in the liquid1 and allow to remain for some hours4 ,it may be found rather difficult to get the sheets to go under the water2 and as one cannot press them under by hand1 on account of the heat1 make a substitute by wrapping strips of linen on the end of a piece of wood2 keep this handy1 it will be found very useful2 being round at the end1 and soft1 it does not tear or go through the paper1 as will anything sharp4 ,the alum water will1 after a time1 become very discoloured2 this is only the stain and other dirt extracted from the paper2 throw this away by tipping the dish1 or by the use of the syphon2 add fresh water1 either warm or cold1 but preferably warm1 to dissolve any excess of alum that may have soaked into the paper1 and to further clear it4 ,after a time the whole book may be taken out1 placed between pressing boards1 and excess of water pressed away by the laying #afb press4 ,the sections are then carefully opened1 and hung upon lines or cords stretched across the workshop to dry4 ,when dry1 should the paper require it1 pass the whole book1 section by section1 or leaf by leaf1 through a size1 press1 and again hang up to dry4 ,when dry1 it will be ready for re-binding4 ,it may happen that only a single leaf is stained2 do not cut this out as is usually done1 but wet a piece of fine string1 which lay on the leaf as far in the back as possible2 close the book and allow to remain a few minutes2 the leaf may then be readily drawn out1 the moisture of the string having made the paper soft where it was placed4 ,it may then be cleaned1 and when dry and pressed1 replaced4 ,damp stains may be treated as for water stains1 but1 as a rule1 a book damaged by damp has little or no chance of being made good again4 ,a book so damaged can only be strengthened by re-sizing or some artificial means4 ,to re-size leaves that cannot be plunged into the solution1 the sizing may be done with a soft brush4 ,place the leaf on a piece of glass or marble1 and use the brush to the leaf as one would do in pasting2 when sized1 lift the leaf up very gently and lay it out on paper to dry2 when dry1 the reverse side is treated in like manner2 or a thin paper of a transparent character may be pasted over the pages1 either on one or both sides4 ,mud4--,luckily a book stained with mud is not of frequent occurrence4 ,mud seems to be a combination of all that is objectionable1 generally it is a mixture of iron and grease4 ,wash the leaf well in cold water1 then in a weak solution of muriatic acid1 after which1 plunge in a weak solution of chloride of lime4 ,rinse well1 dry1 and size4 ,sometimes it will be necessary to wash the leaf with soap water4 ,make a soap solution1 and gently go over the whole sheet with a soft brush1 a shaving brush for instance2 this may be done by laying the leaf on a slab of glass3 use great care with #afc the brush1 or the surface of the paper will be abraised2 after which1 rinse well with water4 ,very often such stains1 if fresh1 will disappear if a fine jet of water be allowed to play on the parts dirtied1 the water being ejected through a fine rose jet4 ,fox-marks4--,books so stained may generally be cleaned by immersing the leaves into a weak solution of hydrochloric acid2 one must not make the bath too strong1 #a_/b ounce of the acid to #a pint of water1 using the bath hot1 will be found about right4 ,should the marks not give to this treatment1 plunge the book1 sheet by sheet1 into a weak bath of chlorine water4 ,the book may be left in for some hours1 taken out and replaced in the hydrochloric bath2 after a half hour it may be rinsed with cold water1 hung up to dry1 and sized4 ,finger-marks1 commonly called 8thumb-marks40--,these are the most difficult to erase1 the dirt being generally of a greasy nature1 and forced into the fibres of the paper4 ,make a jelly of white or curd soap1 apply to the stain1 and leave it on for some time1 then wash away gently by means of a soft brush while the leaf is in cold water2 this will1 as a rule1 take all1 or nearly all1 away4 ,a slight rinsing in very weak acid water1 again with cold water1 and when dry size4 ,blood stains4--,the leaves stained must be plunged into cold water2 when thoroughly soaked1 the stains may be washed with a soft brush charged with soap1 then well rinsed with water again4 ,dry4 ,if hot water be used1 the heat renders the albumen of the blood insoluble1 and the stain will be difficult to erase4 ,ink stains 7writing74--,some inks are more difficult to erase than others4 ,as a rule ink gives way if the writing be treated with a solution of oxalic acid1 and afterwards to a weak solution of chloride of lime4 ,it is perhaps better to immerse the whole leaf in the solution1 as the lime is likely to bleach and leave a mark2 the leaf should in any #afd case be plunged in warm water afterwards1 to wash away the lime and acid1 and1 after drying1 it should be sized4 ,ink stains 7marking ink1 silver7 may be removed by a solution of tincture of iodine2 nitrate of silver1 the basis of the ink1 is changed into iodide of silver1 this is then treated with a solution of cyanide of potassium4 ,it may perhaps be necessary to repeat this two or three times2 when quite dissolved out1 it must be well washed4 ,as the cyanide is a deadly poison1 one may substitute hyposulphite of sodium4 ,fat stains4--7#a47 ,place a piece of blotting-paper on each side of the stain1 apply a hot polishing iron very carefully to the paper2 this will1 in most cases1 melt the fat1 which will be absorbed by the blotting-paper4 7#b47 ,scrape pipe clay1 or ,french chalk1 which place on the stain1 then use the hot iron4 ,the iron must not be used too hot1 or the paper will be scorched2 a piece of paper should always be placed between the iron and the leaf stained4 ,the powder may be afterwards brushed away4 7#c47 ,may be removed by washing the leaf with ether1 or benzoline1 placing a pad of blotting-paper under and over the leaf1 dabbing the benzoline or ether on the spot with a piece of cotton wool4 ,this process must not be conducted near a flame1 both are highly inflammable4 7#d47 ,a mixture of #a part nitric acid1 #aj parts water1 is useful in many instances for oil stains4 ,when erased1 plunge the whole sheet or leaf into water1 changing the water several times4 ,dry and size4 ,ink4--,when the writing-paper has been made from inferior rags bleached with excess of chlorine the best ink becomes discoloured4 ,reviving old writings4--7#a47 ,brush the paper over carefully with a solution of sulpho-cyanide of potassium 7#a in #bj74 ,then1 while still damp1 hold over a dish containing hot muriatic acid2 the writing will develop deep red4 #afe 7#b47 ,wash the writing with a very weak solution of hydrochloric acid1 then carefully apply infusion of galls4 7#c47 ,for letters that have been in sea water1 wash with warm water to remove the salt1 then soak in weak solution of gallic acid1 about #c grains to the ounce4 ,if this does not make the writing legible enough1 wash thoroughly in clean water1 and soak in a solution of protosulphate of iron1 #aj grains to the ounce4 ,to restore writing effaced by chlorine4--7#a47 ,expose the writing to the vapour of sulphuret of ammonia1 or dip it into a solution of the sulphuret4 7#b47 ,ferro-cyanide of potassium1 #e parts4 ,water1 #he parts4 ,dissolve and immerse the paper in the fluid1 then slightly acidulate the solution with sulphuric acid4 ,guitaud discovered that sulphuret of ammonia and prussiate of potash revives writing effaced by oxymuriatic acid4 ,to restore ,,mss4 faded by time4--,a moderately concentrated solution of tannin washed over the paper4 ,the ,,ms4 to be carefully dried4 ,to preserve drawings or manuscripts4--,mix with every #ajj parts of collodion #b parts of sterine4 ,place the paper in question on a perfectly level and even surface1 such as a marble table or large slab of glass4 ,give the paper a thin coat of this collodion1 and in about twenty minutes it will be protected by a transparent1 brilliant1 and imperishable envelope4 ,to fix drawings or pencil marks4--,pass the paper through a bath of thin size1 made either from gelatine or isinglass2 or a bath of skim milk4 ,to render paper waterproof4--,take of borax #ajj parts1 water #b1bej parts2 boil1 and while stirring1 gradually add powdered shellac #cjj parts4 ,when the whole is dissolved1 strain through muslin4 ,this will keep a long time and may be bottled4 #aff ,to render paper incombustible4--,pass the paper through a strong solution of alum1 and hang up to dry4 ,the following1 taken from the 8,english ,mechanic10 ,june #aith1 #ahgd1 is1 ,i think1 of great use to the professional restorer of old books1 and will give the binder an idea of what has to be done sometimes3-- 8,,deciphering ,,burnt ,,documents4 8,m4 ,rathelot1 an officer of the ,paris ,law ,courts1 has succeeded in an ingenious manner in transcribing a number of the registers which were burnt during the ,commune4 ,these registers had remained so long in the fire that each of them seemed to have become a homogeneous block1 more like a slab of charcoal than anything else2 and when an attempt was made to detach a leaf it fell away into powder4 8,he first cut off the back of the book2 he then steeped the book in water1 and afterwards exposed it1 all wet as it was1 to the heat at the mouth of a warming pipe 7calorifre74 ,the water as it evaporated raised the leaves one by one1 and they could be separated1 but with extraordinary precaution4 ,each sheet was then deciphered and transcribed4 ,the appearance of the pages was very curious--the writing appeared of a dull black1 while the paper was of a lustrous black1 something like velvet decorations on a black satin ground1 so that the entries were not difficult to decipher40 ,insects4--,a library has generally three kinds of enemies to be guarded against1 viz43 insects1 dampness1 and rats or mice4#ab #ab ,blades1 in his 8,enemies of ,books10 includes bookbinders4 ,everyone is supposed to know how to guard against dampness and rats or mice4 ,several means are known how to keep insects at a distance4 ,the first consists in the #afg proper choice of woods for the book-case3 these are cedar1 cypress1 mahogany1 sandal1 or very dry and sound oak4 ,all these are compact or of very strong aroma1 and are such as insects do not like to pierce4 ,another source of danger is the use of chemicals in the binding of books4 ,the insects that make ravages in books multiply very rapidly1 and very few libraries are free from them4 ,the microscopic eggs that are left by the female give birth to a small grub1 which pierces the leather boards and book for its nourishment1 and to get to the air4 ,these are familiarly called bookworms1 but by the scientific world they are known as hypothenemus eruditus which eats the leather1 and anobium striatum which bores through the paper4 ,the larv of the dermestes also attack wood as well as books4 ,an instance of how these insects were once managed3--,m4 ,fabbroni1 ,director of the ,museum of ,florence1 who possessed a magnificent library1 found1 after a year's absence1 in the wood and furniture1 great havoc made by insects1 and his books spoilt by the larv1 so much so that it gave a fair promise of the total destruction of the whole1 unless he could find a method to exterminate the pests4 ,he first painted the holes over with wax1 but shortly after he found new worms which killed every particle of wood they touched4 ,he plunged the ordinary wood in arsenic and oil1 and other portions he anointed once every month with olive oil1 in which he had boiled arsenic1 until the colour and odour announced that the solution was perfect4 ,the number then diminished4 ,but a similar method could not be employed for books4 ,m4 ,fabbroni resolved to anoint the back and sides with aquafortis2 in an instant the dermestes abandoned their habitation1 and wandered to the wood2 the oil having evaporized they commenced to develop again1 and again began their attacks on the newly bound books4 ,he saw amongst the many spoilt books one #afh remaining intact1 and on inquiry found that turpentine had been used in the paste4 ,he then ordered that for the future all paste should be mixed with some such poison4 ,this precaution had the beneficial result4 ,it is not only in ,europe that these worms make such ravages in libraries4 ,in the warmer climes they appear to be even more dangerous4 ,and it is a fact that certain libraries are almost a mass of dust1 by the books 7and valuable ones7 falling to pieces4 ,nearly all authors on this subject agree that the paste which is used is the first cause1 or a great help1 to all the waste committed by these dangerous bibliophobes4 ,then something must be put into the paste which will resist all these insects and keep them at a distance4 ,the most suitable for this is a mineral salt1 such as alum or vitriol2 vegetable salts1 such as potash1 dissolve readily in a moist air and make marks or spots in the books4 ,from experience1 it is most desirable to banish everything that may encourage worms1 and as it is very rare that persons who occupy themselves with books are not in want of paste1 for some repairs or other1 either to the bindings or to the books1 subjoined is a method of preserving the paste and keeping it moist and free from insects4 ,alum1 as employed by binders1 is not an absolute preservative1 although it contributes greatly to the preservation of the leather4 ,resin as used by shoemakers is preferable1 and in effect works in the same way2 but oil of turpentine has a greater effect4 ,anything of strong odour1 like aniseed1 bergamot1 mixed perfectly but in small quantities1 preserves the paste during an unlimited time4 ,or1 make the paste with flour1 throw in a small quantity of ground sugar and a portion of corrosive sublimate4 ,the sugar makes it pliant and prevents the formation of crust on the top4 ,the sublimate prevents insects and fermentation4 ,this salt does not prevent moisture1 but as two or #afi three drops of oil are sufficient to prevent it1 all causes of destruction are thus guarded against4 ,this paste exposed to the air hardens without decomposition4 ,if it is kept in an air-tight pot or jar1 it will be always ready1 without any other preparation4 ,books placed in a library should be thoroughly dusted two or three times a year1 not only to keep them in all their freshness1 but also to prevent any development of insects and to examine for signs of dampness4 ,the interior of a book also asks that care1 which unfortunately is neglected very often4 ,after having taken a book from the shelves it should not be opened before ascertaining if the top edge be dusty4 ,if it is a book that has had the edge cut1 the dust should be removed with a soft duster1 or simply blown off4 ,if it is a book which has uncut edges it should be brushed with rather a hard brush4 ,by this method in opening the volume one need not be afraid that the dirt will enter between the leaves and soil them4 ,glue4--,the best glue may be known by its paleness1 but ,french glue is now manufactured of inferior quality1 made pale by the use of acid1 but which on boiling turns almost black4 ,good glue immersed in water for a day will not dissolve1 but swell1 while inferior will partly or wholly do so1 according to quality4 ,in preparing glue1 a few cakes should be broken into pieces and placed in water for twelve hours1 then boiled and turned out into a pan to get cold2 when cold1 pieces may be cut out and placed in the glue-pot as wanted4 ,this naturally refers to when large quantities are used1 but small portions may be boiled in the glue-pot after soaking in water4 ,glue loses a great deal of its strength by frequent re-melting4 ,it should always be used as hot as possible4 ,rice glue or paste4--,by mixing rice flour intimately with #agj cold water1 and then gently boiling it1 a beautifully white and strong paste is made4 ,it dries almost transparent1 and is a most useful paste for fine or delicate work4 ,paste4--,for ordinary purposes paste consists simply of flour made into a thin cream with water and boiled4 ,it then forms a stiffish mass1 which may be diluted with water so as to bring it to any required condition4 ,it is sometimes of advantage to add a little common glue to the paste4 ,where paste is kept for a long time1 various ingredients may be added to prevent souring and moulding4 ,a few cloves form perhaps the best preservative for small quantities2 on the larger scale carbolic acid may be used2 salicylic acid is also a good preservative1 a few grains added to the freshly prepared paste will entirely prevent souring and moulding4 ,paste is now made on a commercial scale by various ,paste ,cos41 who send it out to all parts4 ,the paste is exceedingly good1 and keeps a long time4 ,photographs4--,a few words respecting the treatment of photographs may not be out of place here4 ,to remove a photograph from an old or dirty mount1 the surplus of the mount should be cut away2 it should then be put into a plate of cold water and be allowed to float off4 ,a little warm water will assist in its coming away more easily1 but should it not do so1 the photograph has probably been mounted with a solution of india-rubber1 and in that case1 by holding it near the fire1 the rubber will soften1 and the print may easily be peeled off4 ,very hot water is likely to set up a reaction if the prints were not well washed by the photographer when first sent out4 ,in mounting photographs1 white boards should1 as a rule1 be avoided1 because the colour of the boards is more pure than the lights of the photograph1 and deaden the effect4 ,a toned or tinted board is more suitable4 #aga ,they should be damped1 and evenly trimmed and pasted all over with thin best glue or starch1 and well rubbed down with a piece of clean paper over the print4 ,if any of the glue or starch oozes out from the sides1 it should be wiped off with a clean damp sponge4 ,as photographs lose their gloss in mounting1 they must be rolled afterwards in order to restore it4 ,a special machine is used for this4 ,but it may be wished to introduce the silver print without mounting on a board4 ,to do so1 and to keep the print straight1 paste a very thin paper on the back1 stretching the paper well2 this will counteract the pulling power albumen has1 and the print will1 if this be done properly1 remain perfectly straight and not curl up4 ,albumen4--,desiccated egg-albumen is now well known in the market in the form of powder4 ,three teaspoonfuls of cold water added to every #a_/b teaspoonful of powder represents the normal consistency of egg-albumen4#ac #ac ,see ,chapter on ,finishing--8,albumen40 ,the manufacture of egg-albumen in the neighbourhood of ,moscow is carried on in the houses of the country people4 ,the albumen however is generally roughly prepared and of bad appearance1 and often spoils4 ,but egg-albumen is also produced on a manufacturing scale in the neighbourhood of ,korotscha1 the largest establishment there numbering sixty to seventy workwomen1 using about eight million eggs yearly1 other establishments using less in proportion4 ,albumen is also largely manufactured from blood2 #e oxen or #bj sheep or #cd calves are said to yield the same quantity of dry albumen1 viz41 #b lbs4 ,in producing blood-albumen for commerce1 the objects borne in mind are the attainment of a substance whose solution is free from colour1 possesses coagulation1 and which is cheap4 ,to prevent tools1 machines1 etc41 from rusting4--,boiled linseed oil1 if allowed to dry on polished tools1 will keep them #agb from rusting2 the oil forms a coat over them which excludes contact from air4 ,dissolve #a_/b oz4 of camphor in #a lb4 of lard2 take off the scum1 and mix as much blacklead as will give the mixture an iron colour4 ,all kinds of machinery1 iron or steel1 if rubbed over with this mixture1 and left on for #bd hours1 and then rubbed with a linen cloth1 will keep clean for months4 ,to clean silver mountings4--,to restore the colour of tarnished silver clasps1 etc41 boil the goods1 either silver or plated1 in enough water to cover them4 ,for every pint of water put into it #b ounces of carbonate of potash and a #a_/d lb4 of whiting4 ,after boiling them for about a quarter of an hour1 clean with a leather1 brush1 and whiting4 ,they will then look as good as new4 ,to clean sponges4--,soak the sponge well in diluted muriatic acid for twelve hours4 ,wash well1 then immerse in a solution of hyposulphate of soda to which a few drops of muriatic acid has been added a few moments before4 ,when sufficiently bleached1 wash well1 and dry in a current of air4 #agc ,,glossary ,,of ,,the ,,technical ,,terms ,,and ,,implements ,,used ,,in ,,bookbinding4 ,,all-,,along4--,when a volume is sewed1 and the thread passes from kettle-stitch to kettle-stitch1 or from end to end in each sheet1 it is said to be sewed 8all-along40 ,,arming ,,press4--,a species of blocking press used by hand2 so called from the use of it to impress armorial bearings on the sides of books4 ,,asterisk4--,a star used by printers at the bottom of the pages meant to supply the places of those cancelled 7see also ,,cancel74 ,,backing ,,boards4--,used when backing and for forming the groove4 ,they are made of very hard wood1 and sometimes faced with iron2 are thicker on the edge intended to form the groove than upon the edge that goes towards the foredge1 so that the whole power of the lying press may be directed towards the back4 ,,backing ,,hammer4--,the hammer used for backing and rounding2 it has a broad flat face similar to a shoemaker's hammer4 ,,backing ,,machine4--,a machine for backing cheap work4 ,,bands4--,the cord whereon the sheets of a volume are sewn4 ,when a book is sewn 8flexible0 the bands appear upon the back4 ,when the back is sewn so as to imbed the cord in the back1 the appearance of raised bands is produced by gluing narrow strips of leather across the back before the volume is covered4 ,,band ,,driver4--,a blunt chisel used in forwarding1 to correct any irregularities in the bands of flexible backs4 ,,band ,,nippers4--,flat pincers used for nipping up the band in covering4 ,,beading4--,the small twist formed when twisting the silk or cotton in head-banding4 ,,beating ,,hammer4--,the heavy short-handled hammer used in beating 7generally about #aj lbs474 ,,beating ,,stone4--,the bed on which books are beaten4 ,,bevelled ,,boards4--,very heavy boards with bevelled edges2 used for antique work4 ,,bleed4--,when a book has been cut down into the print it is said to have been bled4 ,,blind-,,tooled4--,when a book has been impressed with tools #agd without being gilt1 it is said to be 8blind-tooled0 or 8antique40 ,,blocking ,,press4--,another and more general term for the arming press2 one of the chief implements used in cloth work4 ,used for finishing the side of a cover by a mechanical process4 ,,blocks ,,or ,,blocking ,,tools4--,an engraved stamp used for finishing by means of the blocking press4 ,,boards4--,are of various kinds1 each denoting the work it is intended for1 such as pressing boards1 backing1 cutting1 burnishing1 gilding1 etc4 ,,bodkin4--,a strong and short point of steel fixed in a wooden handle1 for making the holes through the mill-boards4 ,the slips upon the back of the book are laced through the holes for attaching the mill-board to the book4 ,,bole4--,a red earthy mineral1 resembling clay in character1 used in the preparation for gilding edges4 ,,bolt4--,the fold in the head and foredge of the sheets4 ,the iron bar with a screw and nut which secures the knife to the plough4 ,,bosses4--,brass or other metal ornamentations fastened upon the boards of books2 for ornament or preservation4 ,,broken ,,over4--,when plates are turned over or folded a short distance from the back edge1 before they are placed in the volume1 so as to facilitate their being turned easily or laid flat1 they are said to be broken over4 ,when a leaf has been turned down the paper is broken4 ,,burnish4--,the gloss produced by the application of the burnisher to the edges4 ,,burnishers4--,pieces of agate or bloodstone affixed to convenient handles4 ,,cancels4--,leaves containing errors which are to be cut out and replaced by corrected pages 7see ,,asterisk74 ,,cap4--,the envelope of paper used to protect the edges while the volume is being covered and finished4 ,,case-,,work4--,when the cover is made independent of the book1 the book being afterwards fastened into it4 ,refers principally to cloth and bible work4 ,,catch-,,word4--,a word used and seen in early printed books at the bottom of the page1 which word is the first on the following page4 ,to denote the first and last word in an encyclopdia or other book of reference4 ,,centre ,,tools4--,independent tools cut for the ornamentation of the centre of panels and sides4 ,,clasp4--,the hook or catch used for fastening the boards together when the book is closed2 used formerly on almost every book4 ,,clearing-,,out4--,removing the waste-paper1 and paring away any superfluous leather upon the inside1 preparatory to pasting down the end-papers4 ,,cloth4--,prepared calico1 sometimes embossed with different patterns1 used for cloth bindings4 ,,collating4--,examining the sheets by the signatures after the volume has been folded1 #age to ascertain if they be in correct sequence4 ,,combs4--,instruments with wire teeth used in marbling4 ,,corners4--,the triangular tools used in finishing backs and sides4 ,the leather or material covering the corners of half-bound books4 ,the metal ornaments used usually in keeping with clasps4 ,,cropped4--,when a book has been cut down too much it is said to be cropped4 ,,cut ,,down4--,when a plough-knife dips downward out of the level it is said to 8cut down02 on the contrary1 if the point is out of the level upwards it is said to 8cut up40 ,,cut ,,up4--,same as the last explanation4 ,,divinity ,,calf4--,a dark brown calf used generally for religious books1 and worked in blind or antique4 ,,dentelle4--,as the word expresses4 ,a style resembling lace work1 finished with very finely cut tools4 ,,doubled4--,when in working a tool a second time it is inadvertently not placed exactly in the previous impression1 it is said to be 8doubled40 ,,edge-,,rolled4--,when the edges of the boards are rolled1 either in blind or in gold4 ,,end-,,papers4--,the papers placed at each end of the volume and pasted down upon the boards4 ,,fillet4--,a cylindrical tool used in finishing1 upon which a line or lines are engraved4 ,,finishing4--,the department that receives the volumes after they are put in leather4 ,the ornaments placed on the volume4 ,the person who works at this branch is termed a finisher4 ,,finishing ,,press4--,a small press1 used for holding books when being finished4 ,,finishing ,,stove4--,a heating box or fire used for warming the various tools used in finishing4 ,,flexible4--,when a book is sewn on raised bands1 and the thread is passed entirely round each band4 ,it is the strongest sewing done at the present time4 ,this term is often misused for limp work1 because the boards are limp or flexible4 ,,folder4--,a flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding sheets1 and in many other manipulations2 called also a folding stick4 ,a female engaged in folding sheets4 ,,folding ,,machine4--,a machine invented to fold sheets1 generally used in newspaper offices4 ,,foredge4--,the front edge of a book4 ,,forwarding4--,the branch that takes the books after they are sewed1 and advances them until they are put into leather ready for the finisher4 ,the one who works at this branch is called a forwarder4 ,,full-,,bound4--,when the sides and back of a volume are covered with leather it is said to be full-bound4 ,,gathering4--,collecting the various sheets from piles when folded1 so that the #agf arrangement follows the sequence of the signature4 ,,gilt4--,applies to both the edges and to the ornaments in finishing4 ,,glaire4--,the white of eggs beaten up4 ,,gold ,,cushion4--,a cushion for cutting the gold leaf on4 ,,gold ,,knife4--,the knife for cutting the gold2 long and quite straight4 ,,gouge4--,a tool used in finishing2 it is a line forming the segment of a circle4 ,,graining ,,boards4--,boards used for producing a grain on calf and russia books4 ,grain of various form is cut in wood1 and by pressure the leather upon which the boards are laid receives the impression4 ,,graining ,,plates4--,metal plates same as above4 ,,guards4--,strips of paper inserted in the backs or books intended for the insertion of plates1 to prevent the book being uneven when filled2 also the strips upon which plates are mounted4 ,,guides4--,the groove in which the plough moves upon the face of the cutting press4 ,,guillotine4--,a machine used for cutting paper4 ,,guinea-,,edge4--,a roll with a pattern similar to the edge of an old guinea4 ,,half-,,bound4--,when a volume is covered with leather upon the back and corners2 and the sides with paper or cloth4 ,,hand-,,letters4--,letters fixed in handles2 used singly for lettering4 ,,head ,,and ,,tail4--,the top and bottom of a book4 ,,head-,,band4--,the silk or cotton ornament worked at the head and tail of a volume1 as a finish and to make the back even with the boards4 ,,imperfections4--,sheets rejected on account of being in some respect imperfect1 and for which others are required to make the work complete4 ,,in ,,boards4--,when a volume is cut after the mill-boards are attached1 it is said to be cut in boards4 ,,inset4--,the inner pages of a sheet1 cut off in folding certain sizes2 to be inset in the centre of the sheet4 ,,joints4--,the projection formed in backing to admit the mill-boards4 ,the leather or cloth placed from the projection on to the mill-board is called a joint4 ,,kettle-,,stitch4--,the chain-stitch which the sewer makes at the head and tail of a book4 ,a corruption of either chain-stitch1 or catch-up stitch4 ,,keys4--,little metal instruments used to secure the bands to the sewing press4 ,,knocking-,,down ,,iron4--,a piece of iron having a small leg in the centre by which it is secured in the lying press4 ,when fastened there it is used to pound or beat with a hammer the slips into the boards after they are laced in1 so that they do not show when the book is covered4 ,,laced ,,in4--,when the mill-boards are attached to the volume by means of the slips being passed through holes #agg made in the boards1 they are said to be laced in or drawn in4 ,,law ,,calf4--,law books are usually bound in calf left wholly uncoloured1 hence the term for white calf4 ,,lettering ,,block4--,a piece of wood1 the upper surface being slightly rounded1 upon which side labels are lettered4 ,,lettering ,,box4--,a wooden box in which hand-letters are kept 7see ,,hand-,,letters74 ,,lining-,,papers4--,the coloured or marbled paper at each end of the volume4 ,called also end-papers4 ,,marbler4--,one who marbles the edges of books and paper4 ,,marbling4--,the art of floating various colours on a size1 from which it is transferred to paper or book edges4 ,to stain or vein leather like marble4 ,,marking-,,up4--,when the back of a book is being marked for flexible sewing4 ,,mill-,,board4--,the boards that are attached to the book4 ,various kinds are in use now2 the most common is made of straw1 the best of old naval cordage4 ,,mitred4--,when the lines in finishing meet each other at right angles without overrunning each other1 they are said to be mitred4 ,joined at an angle of #de4 ,,mutton-,,thumping4--,a term used in bygone days1 indicating the common binding of school books in sheep-skin4 ,,mutton-,,thumper4--,an old term indicating a bad workman4 ,,off-,,set4--,the impression made by the print against the opposite page1 when a book has been rolled or beaten before the ink be dried4 7,also ,,set-,,off47 ,,out ,,of ,,boards4--,when a volume is cut before the boards are affixed1 it is done out of boards4 ,nearly the whole of common work is done out of boards4 ,,out ,,of ,,truth4--,when a book is not cut square4 ,,overcasting4--,an operation in sewing1 when the work consists of single leaves or plates4 ,over-sewing4 ,,pallet4--,the tools used for finishing across backs4 ,,panel4--,the space between the bands4 ,,papering-,,up4--,covering the edges after they are gilt1 to protect them while the volume is being covered and finished 7see ,,cap74 ,,paring4--,reducing the edges of the leather by forming a gradual slope4 ,,paring ,,knife4--,the knife used for paring4 ,,paste-,,wash4--,paste diluted with water4 ,,peel4--,a wooden instrument used to hang up damp sheets for drying4 ,,pencil4--,a small brush of camel's hair used for glairing4 ,,pieced4--,any space that has another leather upon it1 as a lettering piece4 ,,plough4--,the instrument used for cutting the edges when the book is in the lying press4 ,,plough ,,knife4--,the knife attached to the plough4 #agh ,,polisher4--,a steel instrument for giving a gloss to the leather after finishing4 ,,press4--,of various kinds1 viz43 lying1 cutting1 standing1 blocking1 finishing1 etc4 ,,press ,,pin4--,a bar of iron used as a lever for standing presses2 a smaller kind for lying presses4 ,,pressing ,,blocks4--,blocks of wood used for filling up a standing press when there are not enough books4 ,,pressing ,,boards4--,boards used for pressing books between4 ,,proof4--,the rough edges of certain leaves left uncut by the plough1 are 8proof0 that the book is not cut down 7see also ,,witness74 ,,rasped4--,the sharp edge taken off mill-boards4 ,,register4--,the ribbon placed in a volume for a marker4 ,a list of signatures attached to the end of early-printed books for the use of the binder4 ,in printing--when on looking through a leaf the print on the recto and verso is not exactly opposite1 it is said to be out of register4 ,,rolling ,,machine4--,a machine introduced to save the labour of beating1 the sheets being passed between two revolving cylinders4 ,,rolls4--,cylindrical ornamental tools used in finishing4 ,,runner4--,the front board used in cutting edges4 ,,run-,,up4--,when the back has a fillet ran from head to tail without being mitred at each band1 it is said to be 8run-up40 ,,sawing-,,in4--,when the back is sawn for the reception of the cord in sewing4 ,,sawing ,,machine4--,a machine for sawing the backs of books quickly4 ,,setting ,,the ,,head-,,band4--,adjusting the leather in covering so as to form a kind of cap to the head-band4 ,,sewer4--,the person who sews the sheets together on the sewing press--generally a female4 ,,sewing ,,machine4--,a recent invention for the sewing of books with wire and thread4 ,,shaving ,,tub4--,the paper cut from the edges of a volume are called shavings4 ,the receptacle into which they fall while the forwarder is cutting is termed the shaving tub4 ,,shears4--,large scissors used for cutting up mill-boards4 ,,sheep4--,an old term for all common work covered in sheep-skin4 ,,signature4--,the letter or figure under the footline of the first page of each sheet1 to indicate the order of arrangement in the volume4 ,,size4--,a preparation used in finishing and gilding1 formerly made with vellum1 but can now be bought ready for use4 ,when used on paper a thin solution of glue4 ,,slips4--,the pieces of twine that project beyond the back of the volume after it is sewn4 ,,squares4--,the portions of the boards that project beyond the edges after the book is cut4 ,,stabbing4--,the term used formerly for piercing the boards with a bodkin for the slips to pass through2 more generally #agi known now as 8holeing40 ,the operation of piercing pamphlets for the purpose of stitching4 ,,stabbing ,,machine4--,a small machine used for making the holes through the backs of pamphlets4 ,,standing ,,press4--,a fixed heavy press with a perpendicular screw over the centre4 ,,start4--,when any of the leaves are not properly secured in the back1 and they project beyond the others1 they are said to have started4 ,when the back has been broken by forcing the leaves they start4 ,,stiffener4--,a thin mill-board used for various purposes4 ,,stitching4--,the operation of passing the thread through a pamphlet for the purpose of securing the sheets together4 ,,straight-,,edge4--,a small board having one edge perfectly straight4 ,,stops4--,small circular tools1 adapted to 8stop0 a fillet when it intersects at right angles2 used to save the time mitringmitreing would occupy4 ,,tenon ,,saw4--,a small saw used by bookbinders for sawing the books for sewing4 ,more strictly speaking a carpenter's tool4 ,,title4--,the space between the bands upon which the lettering is placed4 ,the leaf in the beginning of a book describing the subject4 ,,tools4--,applied particularly to the hand stamps and tools used in finishing4 ,,trimming4--,shaving the rough edge of the leaves of a book that is not to be cut4 ,,trindle4--,a thin strip of wood or iron4 ,,turning-,,up4--,the process of cutting the foredge in such a manner as to throw the round out of the back until the edge is cut4 ,all books that are cut in boards have a pair of trindles thrust between the boards and across the back to assist the operation4 ,,tying-,,up4--,the tying of a volume after the cover has been drawn on1 so as to make the leather adhere better to the sides of the bands2 also for setting the head-band4 ,,type4--,metal letters used in printing and lettering4 ,,type-,,holder4--,an instrument for holding the type when used for lettering4 ,,varnish4--,used as a protection to the glaire when polished on the covers of books4 ,,whipping4--,another term for overcasting1 but when longer stitches are made4 ,,witness4--,when a volume is cut so as to show that it has not been so cut down1 but that some of the leaves have still rough edges4 ,these uncut leaves are called 8,witness0 7see ,,proof74 ,,wrinkle4--,the uneven surface in a volume1 caused by not being properly pressed or by dampness1 also caused by improper backing4 #aha ,,index4 ,acids1 effect of1 on leather1 #acc4 ,advantage1 comparative1 of paste and glue1 #ic4 ---- of flexible binding1 #bh4 ---- of graining calf1 #add4 ---- of vinegar over paste water when finishing1 #abg4 ,albumen1 #aga4 ,antique finishing1 #abb4 ---- tools1 method of working1 #abb4 ,arming press1 #aag4 ,artificial heat1 #df4 ,artists' vellum1 #adg4 ,athenum letter on trimming1 #dc4 ,azur tools1 #aac4 ,back1 calf1 polishing a1 #adj4 ---- finishing a 7cut71 #acj4 ---- full gilt1 #abi4 ---- mitred1 #abi-aci4 ---- run up1 #abi-adj4 ,backs1 flat1 #dh4 ---- suitable for calf work 7cut71 #ach4 ,backing1 #dh4 ---- 7cut71 #di4 ---- boards 7cut71 #dh1 #ej4 ---- flexible work1 #ej4 ---- hammer 7cut71 #di4 ---- machines1 #ej4 ,band nippers 7cut71 #ic4 ,bands1 putting on1 #hh4 ,bar roll1 #acc4 ,bath1 effect upon stains of wrong1 #aeh4 ,beating1 #i4 ---- hammer 7cut71 #i4 ---- gold books1 #aj4 ,beating stone1 #i4 ,bibles1 etc41 edges of1 #abb4 ---- end papers for1 #cc4 ---- finishing of1 #abb4 ,bindings1 monastic1 #aaa4 ,blind finishing1 #abb4 ---- ---- beauty of1 #abe4 ---- ---- colour of1 #abb4 ,blocking1 #adi4 ---- calf1 #aec4 ---- cloth1 #aec4 ---- in gold1 #aec4 ---- morocco1 #aec4 ---- old method of1 #aaf4 ---- press1 #aej4 ---- sides1 #aea4 ---- silk1 #adf4 ---- velvet1 #adf4 ,blocks1 #aea4 ,blood stains1 removing1 #afc4 ,board1 backing1 #dh4 ---- cutting1 #ed4 ---- trimming1 #da4 ,boards1 cutting in1 #fd4 ---- cutting out of1 #fd4 ---- made1 #ee4 ---- for photographs1 #agj4 ,bolt knife 7cut71 #fa4 ,books1 enemies of1 #aff4 ,book-worms1 #afg4 ---- to keep away1 #afh4 ,brass type1 #abi4 ,bread1 cleaning with1 #afa4 ,bronze end paper1 #cd4 ,brush1 finger1 #fh4 ---- sprinkling1 #fh4 ,burnishers1 #gi4 ---- edge 7cuts71 #ha4 ,burnishing edges1 #ha4 ---- marbled paper1 #gc4 ,burnt documents1 deciphering1 #aff4 ,burr on knife1 #gi4 ,calf1 back polishing1 #acg4 ---- blocking1 #aec4 ---- ,cambridge1 #ajd4 ---- colouring1 #ajj4 ---- colouring1 preparing for1 #ajb4 ---- colouring1 black1 #aja4 ---- colouring1 brown1 #ajb4 ---- colouring1 yellow1 #ajb4 ---- covering in1 #id4 ---- dabbing1 #ajf4 ---- effect of glue on1 #hi4 ---- extra1 #adb4 ---- finishing1 #ace4 ---- graining1 #add4 ---- graining1 advantage of1 #add4 ---- green and light1 #aci-ada4 ---- handling1 #id4 ---- lettering1 #adj4 ---- marbling1 #aje4 ---- marbling1 preparing for1 #ajd4 ---- neat1 #acg4 ---- pasting down1 #ii4 ---- sides1 finishing1 #ada4 ---- sides1 polishing1 #adb4 ---- work1 backs suitable for 7cut71 #ach4 ---- sprinkling1 #ajc4 ---- sprinkling1 emblematic1 #ajc4 ---- sprinkling1 preparing for1 #ajc4 ,cambridge calf1 #ajd4 ,capping up edges1 #hb4 ,cat's paw1 #ajf4 ,charcoal fire for finishing1 #aba4 ,chemical colouring of leather1 #acc4 ,chloride of lime solution1 #aei4 ,chlorine1 restoring writing effaced by1 #afe4 ,cleaning1 #aeg4 ---- off stick1 #eh-ei4 ---- removing single leaf for1 #afb4 ,cleaning silver mountings1 #agb4 ---- sponges1 #agb4 ---- with india-rubber1 #afa4 ---- with bread1 #afa4 ,cloth blocking1 #aec4 ---- covering with1 #ie4 ---- joints1 #ch4 ---- smooth1 #ie4 ,cobb paper1 #cc4 ,collating1 #ac4 ,colour of blind work1 #abb4 ,colours for books1 suggested1 #if4 ---- for marbling1 #fi4 ---- for sprinkling1 #fh4 ,coloured edges1 fancy1 #fi4 ---- paste paper1 #ce4 ---- plates1 #ag4 ,colouring calf1 #ajj4 ---- calf preparing for1 #ajb4 ---- calf1 black1 #aja4 ---- calf1 brown1 #ajb4 ---- yellow1 #ajb4 ,colouring edges1 #fg4 ---- of leather1 chemical1 #acc4 ---- plain1 for edges1 #fi4 ,comb marble1 #gb4 ,cord1 sizes of1 #bb4 ,cords1 lay1 #bc4 ,cotton wool1 #abj4 ,covers1 cutting leather1 #ij4 ,covering1 #ij4 ---- half bound work1 #if4 ---- preparing for1 #hg4 ---- with calf1 #id4 ---- with cloth1 #ie4 ---- with morocco1 #ij4 ---- with parchment1 #id4 ---- with roan1 #ie4 ---- with russia1 #id4 ---- with satin1 #ie4 ---- with silk1 #ie4 ---- with vellum1 #id4 ---- with velvet1 #ie4 ,cut against1 #ed4 ---- true1 to tell if boards are1 #ef4 ---- to tell if book is1 #fd4 ,cushion1 gold1 #gh4 ,cutting1 #ei4 ---- in boards1 #fd4 ---- out of boards1 #fd4 ---- board1 #ed4 ---- foredge1 #fb4 ---- gold leaf1 #hj4 ---- head1 #fa4 ---- leather covers1 #ij4 ---- machines 7cuts71 #fe1 #ff4 ---- mill-board1 #eb4 ---- press and plough 7cut71 #fj4 ---- tail1 #fb4 ,dabbing calf1 #ajf4 ,damp stains1 #afb4 ---- repairing books damaged by1 #afb4 ,deciphering burnt documents1 #aff4 ,dentelle border1 #acb4 ,derome tools 7cuts71 #aae4 ,dibdin1 ,dr1 #ie4 ,disadvantage of backing machines1 #ea4 ---- flat backs1 #dh4 ---- lettering pieces1 #acf4 ---- wire sewing1 #cj4 ,dishes for washing1 #aei4 ,documents1 deciphering burnt1 #aff4 ,doubl1 #acb4 ,down1 pasting1 #ig4 ,dragon1 gum1 #gj4 ,drawing in1 #eg4 ,drawings1 fixing1 #afe4 ---- preserving1 #afe4 ,dry preparation1 #ade4 ---- making1 #ade4 ,drying1 artificial heat in1 #df4 ,duplicate sheets1 #ai4 ,dust1 removing1 #afa4 ,dutch marble paper1 #cd4 ,edge burnishers 7cuts71 #ha4 ,edges of bibles and religious books1 #abb4 ---- of boards1 finishing1 #acb4 ---- burnishing1 #ha4 ---- capping up1 #hb4 ---- coloured1 fancy1 #fi4 ---- coloured1 plain1 #fi4 ---- colouring1 #fg4 ---- gilding1 #hj4 ---- gilt1 #gh4 ---- gilt1 dull1 #ha4 ---- gilt1 painted1 #hb4 ---- gilt1 on red1 #hb4 ---- gilt1 in the round1 #ha4 ---- gilt1 solid1 #ha4 ---- gilt1 tooled1 #hb4 ---- marbled1 #fi4 ---- marbled1 paper1 transferring to1 #gd-ge4 ---- marbling1 #gc4 ---- marbled1 on gilt1 #gh4 ---- marbled1 under gilt1 #gh4 ---- sprinkled1 #fg4 ---- sprinkled marble1 #fg4 ---- transferring marbled paper to1 #gd-ge4 ---- uncut1 #da4 ,effaced by chlorine1 restoring writing1 #afe4 ---- by oxymuriatic acid1 restoring writing1 #afe4 ,emblematic sprinkling1 #ajc4 ---- tooling1 #aag4 ,end papers1 #cc4 ---- papers1 bronze1 #cd4 ---- papers1 cobb1 #cc4 ---- papers1 coloured paste1 #ce4 ---- papers1 making1 #ce4 ---- papers1 marbled1 #cc4 ---- papers1 printed and fancy1 #cd4 ---- papers1 putting on1 #ch4 ---- papers1 surface1 #cc4 ---- papers1 for bibles1 etc41 #cc4 ---- papers1 for school and public library books1 #da4 ,ends1 sewing 7cut71 #dj4 ,enemies of books1 #aff4 ,extra1 calf1 #adb4 ,faded ,,mss41 restoring1 #afe4 ---- writing1 restoring1 #afe4 ,fat stains1 removing1 #afd4 ,fillet 7cut71 #aah4 ,filling up1 #acg4 ---- up1 saw cuts1 #hi4 ,finger brush1 #fh4 ,finger-marks1 #afc4 ---- removing1 #afc4 ,finishing1 #aaa4 ---- ancient1 #aag4 ---- a back 7cut71 #acj4 ---- a back1 calf1 #ace4 ---- a back1 full gilt1 #acg4 ---- a back1 run up1 #aci4 ---- blind1 antique or monastic1 #abb4 ---- blind1 tools for1 #abb4 ---- calf sides1 #ada4 ---- charcoal fire for1 #aba4 ---- edges of boards1 #acb4 ---- extra calf sides1 #adb4 ---- flexible work1 #abd4 ---- gold1 #abe4 ---- gold1 tools for1 #abb4 ---- half morocco book1 #abg4 ---- inside of a book1 #acb-ada4 ---- medium1 #abf4 ---- medium1 importance of proper1 #abf4 ---- morocco sides1 #aca4 ---- morocco imitation1 #acc4 ---- paper1 #add4 ---- press 7cuts71 #aba-abb4 ---- religious books1 #abb4 ---- roan1 #acc4 ---- russia1 #ade4 ---- sides calf1 #ace4 ---- sides calf extra1 #adb4 ---- sides morocco1 #aca4 ---- sides1 morocco imitation1 #acc4 ---- silk1 #adf4 ---- stove 7cuts71 #abj4 ---- taste in1 #aag4 ---- tools1 #aah-abb4 ---- tools1 heat for1 #abh4 ---- vellum1 #adg4 ---- velvet1 #adf4 ---- with dry preparation1 #ade4 ,fixing drawings1 #afe4 ,flat backs1 #dh4 ,flexible binding1 advantages of1 #bh4 ---- how to tell1 #bi4 ---- not to show1 #bi1 #hi4 ,flexible work1 backing1 #ej4 ---- work1 cleaning off1 #ei4 ---- work1 covering1 preparing for1 #hi4 ---- work1 finishing1 #abd4 ---- work1 gluing up1 #de4 ---- work1 marking up1 #bj4 ---- work1 mock1 #ij4 ---- work1 sewing1 #bc4 ---- work1 sewing 7cut71 #bg4 ,folding1 #c4 ---- stick1 #d4 ---- machine 7cut71 #g4 ---- maps1 #ae4 ,folio1 #d4 ,foredge1 cutting1 #fb4 ,forwarding1 #cc4 ,fox-marks1 #afc4 ---- marks1 removing1 #afc4 ,french1 dab1 #ajf4 ---- method of pressing1 #ai4 ---- method of trimming1 #db4 ---- paring knife 7cut71 #ij4 ---- paring knife1 method of using 7cut71 #ia4 ,full gilt back1 finishing1 #acg4 ,gall1 ox1 for marbling1 #ga4 ,gascon1 #aae4 ---- tools 7cuts71 #aad4 ,gathering1 #h4 ---- machine1 #h4 ,german1 method of gluing up1 #de4 ---- paring knife 7cut71 #ia4 ---- paring knife1 method of using 7cut71 #ia4 ,giggering1 #abd4 ,gilding edges1 #hj4 ,gilt back1 full1 #abi4 ---- edges1 #gh4 ---- edges1 dull1 #ha4 ---- edges1 painted1 #hb4 ---- edges1 solid1 #ha4 ---- edges1 tooled1 #hb4 ---- in the round1 #ha4 ---- marbling on1 #gh4 ---- marbling under1 #gh4 ---- on red1 #hb4 ---- top1 #da4 ,glaire1 #aai4 ---- how to make1 #aai4 ---- water1 #gi4 ,glue1 #afi4 ---- comparative advantages of paste and1 #ic4 ---- effect on calf of1 #hi4 ---- rice1 #afi4 ---- to tell good1 #afi4 ,gluing up1 #de4 ---- up flexible work1 #de4 ---- up1 ,german method of1 #de4 ,gold1 blocking in1 #aec4 ---- cushion1 #gh4 ---- finishing1 #abe4 ---- finishing1 tools for1 #abh4 ---- knife1 #gi4 ---- leaf1 #gi-aai4 ---- leaf1 cutting1 #hj4 ,grain1 treatment of straight1 #ib4 ---- treatment of leather with no1 #ib4 ,graining calf1 #add4 ---- advantage of1 #add4 ,graining up1 #ib4 ,grolier tools 7cuts71 #aac4 ,groove1 #g4 ,guarding plates1 etc41 #ae4 ,guards1 object of1 #af4 ,gum ,tragacanth 7,gum ,dragon71 #gj4 ,half binding1 #if4 ---- binding1 covering1 #if4 ---- binding1 lining for1 #ec4 ---- binding1 pasting down1 #ajj4 ,hammer1 beating 7cut71 #i4 ,hand finishing1 #aaf4 ---- letters1 #aah4 ,handling calf1 #id4 ,head band1 setting1 #ic4 ---- bands1 stuck on1 #hj4 ---- banding1 #hc4 ---- banding 7cut71 #hd4 ---- banding on old books1 #hd4 ---- of book cutting1 #fa4 ,heat1 artificial1 #df4 ---- for finishing tools1 #abh4 ---- for polishing tools1 #adj4 ,henry ,,iii41 bindings of1 #aad4 ,holes in back1 filling up1 #hi4 ,hollow backs1 #hg4 ,imitation morocco1 finishing1 #acc4 ,importance of proper finishing medium1 #abf4 ,incombustible1 to render paper1 #aff4 ,india rubber1 #aai4 ---- rubber1 how to use1 #afa4 ,ink stains1 removing1 #afc4 ---- stains1 marking1 #afd4 ,inlaid work1 #acc4 ,inlaying1 #acd4 ---- ,viennese method of1 #ace4 ,insects1 #aff4 ---- poison for1 #afh4 ,inside of book1 finishing1 #acb-ada4 ,interleaving1 #ah4 ,iron1 knocking-down 7cut71 #f4 ---- polishing 7cut71 #aai4 ,joint1 #g4 ,joints1 cloth1 #ch-ii4 ---- morocco1 #ih4 ,kettle stitch1 #be-bh4 ,keys 7sewing71 #bc4 ,knife1 bolt 7cut71 #fa4 ---- burr on1 #gi4 ---- gold1 #gi4 ---- paring1 ,french 7cut71 #ij4 ---- paring1 method of holding1 7cut71 #ia4 ---- paring1 ,german 7cut71 #ia4 ---- paring1 ,german1 method of holding 7cut71 #ib4 ---- sliding 7cut71 #fj4 ---- trimming1 #db4 ,knocking down iron 7cut71 #f4 ,lard1 #abd4 ,lay cords1 #bc4 ,lead type1 #abi4 ,leaf1 gold1 #gi4 ---- gold1 cutting1 #hj4 ---- gold1 thickness of1 #hj4 ---- removing single1 #afb4 ,leather covers1 cutting1 #ij4 ---- kinds of1 #ij4 ---- non-porous1 #abf4 ---- porous1 #abf4 ,leaves1 re-sizing1 #afb4 ,lettering1 #aag4 ---- calf1 #adj4 ---- pieces1 #acf4 ---- pieces1 disadvantages of1 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,,chancery ,,lane4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,original printed spelling and grammar are retained1 with a few exceptions noted below4 ,small caps are changed to all capital letters4 ,italics look like this4 ,many illustrations have been moved from their original locations to nearby places between paragraphs4 ,original printed page numbers look like this3 8#ha04 ,page #ba4 ,in 8by sewing a small book on fine bands01 changed 8fine0 to 8five04 ,page #df4 ,changed 8spontanenusly0 to 8spontaneously04 ,page #eb4 ,a new ,,key has been added to the table1 so that the table can be displayed properly in this ebook edition4 ,furthermore1 each pair of columns with headings 8#f;d401 8#g;d401 8#h;d401 8#hx401 8#hxx401 and 8,x40 was originally printed with an illustration of a black rectangle showing the relative size referred to4 ,these illustrations are included in the html and epub editions4 ,page #ajg4 ,changed 8bason0 to 8basin04 ,page #aba4 ,a new paragraph break was inserted between 8become dangerous0 and 8,a finishing press is04 ,page #afd4 ,changed 8subsitute0 to 8substitute04 ,page #agi1 ,glossary1 ,entry 8,stops04 ,changed 8mitring0 to 8mitreing04 ,page #ahb1 ,index1 ,entry 8,covering04 ,in 8preparing f r1 #hg01 changed 8f r0 to 8for04