file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #eajcd-;h4htm or #eajcd-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#eajcd_/pg#eajcd-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#ea jcd_/eajcd-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/inventio nofprint#jj;deviuoft ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,original small capital letters have been replaced by all capitals4 ,text originally printed in boldface is rendered as all capitals in this edition4 ,the first page of each chapter includes a chapter heading and an epigraph4 ,both were originally printed in ,gothic blackletter scripts1 perhaps similar to textura script4 ,both are rendered as unmarked plain text in this edition4 ,images of the blackletter are included in the html and epub editions4 ,in other places1 as for example in the note on page #acc1 or in the text body on page #bja1 text originally printed in blackletter is enclosed by f and _/f tags 7example3 f,a ,collection of ,facts and ,opinions_/f74 ,original page numbers are shown like this3 p#jbc4 ,illustrations have been moved from within paragraphs to nearby places between paragraphs4 ,this results in some missing page numbers1 since illustration pages and even blank pages were numbered4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing4 ,illustration3 ,,thorwaldsen',s ,,statue ,,of ,,john ,,gutenberg4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing4 ,a ,collection of ,facts and ,opinions ,descriptive of ,early ,prints and ,playing ,cards1 the ,block-,books of the ,fifteenth ,century1 the ,legend of ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster1 of ,haarlem1 and the ,work of ,john ,gutenberg and ,his ,associates4 ,illustrated with ,fac-,similes of ,early ,types and ,wood-,cuts4 by ,,theo4 ,l4 ,,de ,,vinne4 99 99 f,hereby tongues are knowne1 knowledge groweth1 judgement encreaseth1 books are dispersed1 the ,scripture is seene1 the doctors be read1 stories be opened1 times compared1 truth discerned1 falshood detected1 and with finger pointed1 and all1 as ,i said1 through the benefit of ,printing4_/f ,fox's ,acts and ,monuments4 ,new-,york3 ,francis ,hart ,co4 #ab #ad ,college ,place4 #ahgf4 ,entered1 ,according to ,act of ,congress1 in the ,year #ahgf1 by ,theodore ,l4 ,de ,vinne1 in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress at ,washington4 ,,to ,,david ,,wolfe ,,bruce1 ,,in ,,acknowledgment ,,of ,,instruction ,,about ,,types1 ,,not ,,to ,,be ,,had ,,by ,,reading1 ,,of ,,assistance ,,in ,,studies1 ,,not ,,to ,,be ,,found ,,in ,,public ,,libraries1 ,,of ,,companionship ,,more ,,pleasant ,,than ,,books1 ,,this ,,work ,,is ,,dedicated ,,by ,,his ,,friend1 ,,theo4 ,l4 ,,de ,,vinne4 ,,contents4 ,i ,,the ,,different ,,methods ,,of ,,printing 4 4 4 #ag ,,ii ,,antique ,,methods ,,of ,,impression ,,and ,,their ,,failure 4 4 4 #bi ,,iii ,,the ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,typography 4 4 4 #di ,,iv ,,the ,,image ,,prints ,,of ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century 4 4 4 #fi ,v ,,printed ,,and ,,stenciled ,,playing ,,cards 4 4 4 #hh ,,vi ,,the ,,chinese ,,method ,,of ,,printing 4 4 4 #aji ,,vii ,,the ,,early ,,printing ,,of ,,italy 4 4 4 #abb ,,viii ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,paper ,,in ,,europe 4 4 4 #acc ,,ix ,,the ,,book-,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages 4 4 4 #adf ,x ,,the ,,preparations ,,for ,,printing 4 4 4 #aga ,,xi ,,block-,,books ,,of ,,images ,,without ,,text 4 4 4 #aic ,,xii ,,block-,,books ,,of ,,images ,,with ,,text 4 4 4 #bcj ,,xiii ,,the ,,donatus1 ,,or ,,boy',s ,,latin ,,grammar 4 4 4 #bed ,,xiv ,,the ,,speculum ,,salutis1 ,,or ,,mirror ,,of ,,salvation 4 4 4 #bfd ,,xv ,,the ,,works ,,and ,,workmanship ,,of ,,an ,,unknown ,,printer 4 4 4 #bhb ,,xvi ,,the ,,period ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,speculum ,,was ,,printed 4 4 4 #cjh ,,xvii ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,lourens ,,janszoon ,,coster 4 4 4 #cbf ,,xviii ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,legend 4 4 4 #cdg ,,xix ,,the ,,downfall ,,of ,,the ,,legend 4 4 4 #cfj ,,xx ,,john ,,gutenberg ,,at ,,strasburg 4 4 4 #cge ,,xxi ,,gutenberg ,,and ,,his ,,earlier ,,work ,,at ,,mentz 4 4 4 #djc ,,xxii ,,the ,,later ,,work ,,of ,,gutenberg 4 4 4 #dca ,,xxiii ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,peter ,,sch,,ffer ,,and ,,john ,,fust 4 4 4 #ddi ,,xxiv ,,alleged ,,inventors ,,of ,,printing 4 4 4 #dhj ,,xxv ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,printing 4 4 4 #dib ,,xxvi ,,the ,,tools ,,and ,,usages ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,printers 4 4 4 #ead ,,authorities ,,consulted 4 4 4 #edc ,,index 4 4 4 #edg ,,illustrations4 ,statue of ,john ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,frontispiece4 ,surface ,exposed to ,impression by ,copper-plate method 4 4 4 #ba ,surface ,inked and ,exposed to ,impression by ,typographic method 4 4 4 #ba ,surface ,exposed to ,impression by ,lithographic method 4 4 4 #ba ,face of a large ,type1 showing how the ,letter is placed on the body 4 4 4 #bd ,side view of ,canon body 4 4 4 #be ,small ,pica1 ,agate and ,diamond body 4 4 4 #be ,view of body inclined to show the face 4 4 4 #be ,stamped ,brick from ,babylon 4 4 4 #cj ,fac-simile of ,impression on brick 4 4 4 #ca ,egyptian ,stamp for impressing bricks 4 4 4 #cb ,assyrian ,cylinder 4 4 4 #cd ,old ,roman ,stamps 4 4 4 #cg ,roman ,stamps 4 4 4 #ch ,roman ,scrinium and rolls of papyrus 4 4 4 #dc ,types of ,irregular ,body 4 4 4 #eb ,punch 4 4 4 #ee ,matrix 4 4 4 #ee ,illustrations of ,type-bodies 4 4 4 #ef ,type-,mould1 without matrix 4 4 4 #eg ,one-half of the ,mould 4 4 4 #eg ,the other half of the ,mould 4 4 4 #eg ,type-casting as practised in #afhc 4 4 4 #ei ,type-casting as practised in #aefd 4 4 4 #fb ,print of ,st4 ,christopher 4 4 4 #gj ,print of the ,annunciation 4 4 4 #gb ,print of ,st4 ,bridget 4 4 4 #gd ,flemish ,indulgence ,print 4 4 4 #gf ,brussels ,print 4 4 4 #gi ,berlin ,print 4 4 4 #ha ,playing ,card of the fifteenth century 4 4 4 #ic ,print ,colorer 4 4 4 #id ,engraver on ,wood 4 4 4 #ie ,chinese ,playing ,cards 4 4 4 #ii ,early ,french ,playing ,cards 4 4 4 #ajc ,french and ,german ,playing ,cards of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries 4 4 4 #aje ,fac-simile of part of a ,chinese ,book 4 4 4 #aag ,chinese ,types made in ,london 4 4 4 #aag ,mark of ,jacobus ,arnoldus1 #acde 4 4 4 #abc ,mark of ,johannes ,meynersen1 #adce 4 4 4 #abc ,mark of ,adam de ,walsokne1 #acdi 4 4 4 #abe ,mark of ,edmund ,pepyr1 #adhc 4 4 4 #abe ,mark of an unknown person 4 4 4 #abe ,japanese ,method of ,making ,paper 4 4 4 #ace ,paper-,mill of the sixteenth century 4 4 4 #adj ,scriptorium of the middle ages 4 4 4 #adi ,penmanship of the ninth century 4 4 4 #aej ,manuscript of the fifteenth century 4 4 4 #aeb ,medieval ,bookbinding 4 4 4 #aec ,medieval ,illuminator 4 4 4 #aed ,sumptuously ,bound ,book 4 4 4 #aef ,medieval ,book with covers of oak 4 4 4 #aeg ,book ,cover in ,ivory1 ,byzantine style 4 4 4 #aeh ,seal of the ,university of ,paris 4 4 4 #afa ,english ,horn-,book 4 4 4 #agd ,english ,clog 4 4 4 #age ,holbein's ,dance of ,death 4 4 4 #ahc ,dance of ,death1 as shown in the ,nuremberg ,chronicle 4 4 4 #ahe ,last page of the ,bible of the ,poor 4 4 4 #aig ,first page of the ,bible of the ,poor1 as made by ,walther and ,hurning 4 4 4 #bji ,first page of the ,apocalypse 4 4 4 #bac ,first page of the ,canticles 4 4 4 #bag ,story of the ,blessed ,virgin 4 4 4 #bba ,exercise on the ,lord's ,prayer 4 4 4 #bbc ,illustration from the ,book of ,kings 4 4 4 #bbe ,letter ,k of ,grotesque ,alphabet 4 4 4 #bbg ,page from the ,apostles' ,creed 4 4 4 #bbh ,page from the ,eight ,rogueries 4 4 4 #bbi ,page from the ,antichrist 4 4 4 #bcb ,page from the ,ars ,memorandi 4 4 4 #bcd ,page from the ,ars ,moriendi 4 4 4 #bcg ,chiromancy of ,doctor ,hartlieb 4 4 4 #bdj ,calendar of ,john of ,gamundia 4 4 4 #bdb ,page from the ,wonders of ,rome 4 4 4 #bdc ,pomerium ,spirituale 4 4 4 #bdd ,temptations of the ,devil 4 4 4 #bde ,life of ,st4 ,meinrat 4 4 4 #bdf ,heidelberg ,dance of ,death 4 4 4 #bdg ,german ,donatus1 from a block in the ,national ,library at ,paris 4 4 4 #beh ,fragment of an early ,donatus 4 4 4 #bei ,early ,dutch ,horarium 4 4 4 #bfj ,imprint of ,conrad ,dinckmut 4 4 4 #bfb ,first page of ,speculum ,salutis 4 4 4 #bff ,last page of ,speculum ,salutis 4 4 4 #bfh ,types of ,speculum ,salutis 4 4 4 #bgg ,types in third edition of ,speculum 4 4 4 #bhe ,types of ,fables of ,lorenzo ,valla 4 4 4 #bhf ,types of ,peculiarities of ,criminal ,law 4 4 4 #bhg ,types of ,epitaphs of ,pope ,pius ,,ii 4 4 4 #bhh ,the ,ensched ,abecedarium 4 4 4 #bij ,experimental ,letters drawn on wood 4 4 4 #bid ,types from ,experimental ,letters 4 4 4 #bie ,frisket1 ,tympan and ,bed of an early ,european ,printing ,press 4 4 4 #cjg ,paper-marks3 seven illustrations 4 4 4 #cji1 #caj ,types of ,jacob ,bellaert 4 4 4 #cai ,types of ,john ,brito 4 4 4 #cba ,map of the ,netherlands 4 4 4 #cbc ,scriverius' ,portrait of ,coster 4 4 4 #ccc ,statue of ,coster in ,doctors' ,garden 4 4 4 #cea ,medals in honor of ,coster 4 4 4 #cec1 #ced ,statue of ,coster on the monument 4 4 4 #cei ,autograph of ,laurens ,janszoon 4 4 4 #cfa ,house of ,coster 4 4 4 #cgj ,portrait of ,laurens ,janszoon ,coster 4 4 4 #cga ,spurious ,portrait by ,van den ,berg 4 4 4 #cgb ,portrait attributed to ,van ,oudewater 4 4 4 #cgb ,the ,laurens ,janszoon of ,meerman 4 4 4 #cgc ,medieval ,press 4 4 4 #cie ,type-mould of ,claude ,garamond 4 4 4 #cii ,types of the ,donatus attributed to ,gutenberg at ,strasburg 4 4 4 #dja ,types of ,donatus of #adea 4 4 4 #dje ,de la ,borde's ,illustration of ,types 4 4 4 #djf ,holbein's ,satire on the ,indulgences 4 4 4 #djg ,letter of ,indulgence dated #aded 4 4 4 #dji ,types of ,bible of #cf ,lines 4 4 4 #dac ,abbreviations of ,bible of #cf ,lines 4 4 4 #dad ,portrait of ,john ,fust 4 4 4 #dag ,types of ,bible of #db ,lines 4 4 4 #dbc ,portrait of ,john ,gutenberg 4 4 4 #dbi ,types of ,letter of ,indulgence of #adfa 4 4 4 #dcc ,types of ,catholicon of #adfj 4 4 4 #dce ,types of ,celebration of the ,mass 4 4 4 #dcg ,types of ,mirror of the ,clergy 4 4 4 #dch ,colophon written by ,peter ,schffer 4 4 4 #dej ,types of the ,psalter of #adeg 4 4 4 #dec ,colophon of the ,psalter of #adeg 4 4 4 #dee ,types of the ,rationale ,durandi 4 4 4 #dfa ,types of the ,bible of #adfb 4 4 4 #dfb ,trade-mark of ,fust and ,schffer 4 4 4 #dfb ,types of ,constitutions of ,clement ,v 4 4 4 #dfc ,portrait of ,peter ,schffer 4 4 4 #dfi ,types of the ,grammar of #adfh 4 4 4 #dgj ,illustration from the ,book of ,fables 4 4 4 #dhc ,arms of the ,typothet 4 4 4 #dhi ,part of ,koburger's ,map of ,europe 4 4 4 #dif ,the ,birth of ,eve1 ,zainer's 4 4 4 #dig ,statue of ,gutenberg at ,strasburg 4 4 4 #eji ,type of the fifteenth century 4 4 4 #ebj ,printing ,office of sixteenth century 4 4 4 #ebc ,hand ,press of ,jodocus ,badius 4 4 4 #ebh ,inking ,balls of sixteenth century 4 4 4 #ecj ,large wood-cut of fifteenth century 4 4 4 #ece ,the ,fall of ,lucifer1 ,zainer's 4 4 4 #ecg ,a ,print of #adge 4 4 4 #eci ,,preface4 ,the ,invention of ,printing has always been recognized by educated men as a subject of importance3 there is no mechanical art1 nor are there any of the fine arts1 about whose early history so many books have been written4 ,the subject is as mysterious as it is inviting4 ,there is an unusual degree of obscurity about the origin of the first printed books and the lives and works of the early printers4 ,there are records and traditions which cannot be reconciled of at least three distinct inventions of printing4 ,its early history is entangled with a controversy about rival inventors which has lasted for more than three centuries1 and is not yet fully determined4 ,in the management of this controversy1 a subject intrinsically attractive has been made repulsive4 ,the history of the invention of printing has been written to please national pride4 ,german authors assert the claims of ,gutenberg1 and discredit traditions about ,coster4 ,dutch authors insist on the priority of ,coster1 and charge ,gutenberg with stealing the invention4 ,partisans on each side say that their opponents have perverted the records and suppressed the truth4 ,the quarrel has spread4 ,english and ,french authors1 who had no national prejudices to gratify1 and who should have considered the question without passion1 have wrangled over the subject with all the bitterness of ,germans or ,hollanders4 ,in this1 as in other quarrels1 there are amusing features1 but to the general reader the controversy seems unfortunate and is certainly wearisome4 ,it is a greater misfortune that all the early chronicles of printing were written in a dead language4 ,wolf's collection p#jaj of ,typographic ,monuments1 which includes nearly every paper of value written before #agdj1 is in ,latin2 the valuable books of ,meerman1 ,maittaire1 and ,schoepflin are also in ,latin4 ,to the general reader these are sealed books3 to the student1 who seeks exact knowledge of the methods of the first printers1 they are tiresome books4 ,written for the information of librarians rather than of printers1 it is but proper that these books should devote the largest space to a review of the controversy or to a description of early editions2 but it is strange that they should so imperfectly describe the construction and appearance of early types and the usages of the early printers4 ,the mechanical features of typography were1 apparently1 neglected as of little importance1 and beneath the dignity of history4 ,a failure to present accurate illustrations of early printing is not the fault of modern authorities4 ,many of them are full of fac-similes bearing the marks of minute and conscientious care2 but they are in foreign languages1 and are seldom found in our largest ,american libraries4 ,there are1 it is true1 a few books in ,english on early printing which have accurate fac-similes2 but high prices and limited editions put them out of the reach of the ordinary book-buyer4 ,they were written by and for librarians only4 ,valuable as all these books are1 they disappoint the printer4 ,some of them1 though presenting fac-similes in profusion1 are not accompanied with proper explanations in the text3 others are devoted to one branch only of early printing1 such as block-books1 or the printed work of one nation only4 ,two of them are untrustworthy as authorities4 ,neither from one book1 nor from all the books1 can a printer get a clear description of the mechanical development of typography4 ,this incompleteness was frankly acknowledged by ,dr4 ,dibdin1 when he said that there was no work in the ,english language which deserved to be considered as a complete general history of printing4 ,this was an old complaint4 ,nearly a hundred years before1 ,prosper ,marchand had said that the history of printing1 voluminous as it then seemed1 was but history in fragments4 p#jaa ,the first attempt to supply this great deficiency was made by ,august ,bernard1 in the disquisition published at ,paris1 in the year #ahec1 under the title1 ,de l'origine et des debuts de l'imprimerie en ,europe4 ,his was the first book in which the printed work attributed to ,coster and ,gutenberg was critically examined from a typographic point of view4 ,to readers who were not content with the vague descriptions of popular books of typography1 the explanations of ,bernard were of peculiar value4 ,i had reason to think that a translation of the history of this eminent printer would be received by ,american printers with some measure of the favor which the original had met with in ,europe4 ,impressed with this belief ,i began the work4 ,i found it necessary to consult many of ,bernard's authorities4 ,my admiration of the superior method and forcible style of ,bernard1 an admiration still unabated1 was increased by the reading of the new books2 but the esteem in which ,i hold his valuable work does not prevent the regret that1 in his entire neglect of the block-books1 he should have overlooked the most significant feature of early printing4 ,the fac-similes of early prints1 subsequently shown in ,the ,infancy of ,book ,printing of ,weigel and in ,the ,typographic ,monuments of ,holtrop1 convinced me that the earliest practice of typography had its beginning in a still earlier practice of printing from blocks1 and that a description of block-books should precede a description of the invention of types4 ,since these books were written1 all the old theories about the origin of typography have been examined with increased interest1 and discussed with superior critical ability1 by many eminent ,european scholars4 ,discoveries of great importance have been made2 old facts have been set forth in new lights2 traditions accepted as truthful history for three hundred years have been demolished4 ,of the many able men who have been engaged in this task of separating truth from fiction1 no one has done more efficient service than ,dr4 ,a4 ,van der ,linde of ,the ,hague1 whose papers on the traditions of typography are masterpieces of acute and scholarly criticism4 ,his researches p#jab and reasoning convinced me that it would be unwise to offer a translation of any previously published book as a fair exponent of modern knowledge about early typography4 ,the newly discovered facts were opposed to early teachings2 there could be no sewing of the new cloth on the old garment4 ,i was led away from my first purpose of translation1 and1 almost unconsciously1 began to collect the materials for the present volume4 ,until recently1 the invention of printing has been regarded as a subject belonging almost entirely to bibliographers4 ,the opinions of type-founders and printers who had examined old books have been set aside as of no value1 whenever they were opposed to favorite theories or legends4 ,this partial treatment of the subject is no longer approved3 a new school of criticism invites experts to examine the books1 and pays respect to their conclusions4 ,it claims that the internal evidences of old books are of higher authority than legends1 and that these evidences are conclusive1 not to be ignored nor accommodated to the statements of the early chroniclers4 ,european critics do not hesitate to say that the confusing and contradictory descriptions of the origin of printing are largely due to the improper deference heretofore paid to the statements of men who tried to describe processes which they did not understand4 ,they say1 also1 that too little attention has been paid to the types and mechanics of early printing4 ,criticisms of this character led me to indulge the hope that ,i might find gleanings of value in the old field1 and that it would be practicable to present them1 with the newly discovered facts1 in a form which would be acceptable to the printer and the general reader4 ,in this belief1 and for this purpose1 this book was written4 ,i would not have begun this work1 if ,i had not felt assured that a thorough revision of the subject was needed4 ,the books and papers on typography which are most popular1 and are still accepted as authoritative by the ordinary reader1 repeat legends which have recently been proved untrue2 they narrate1 as established facts of history1 methods of printing which are not only incorrect but impossible4 ,it is time that the results of p#jac the more recent researches should be published in the ,english language4 ,but ,i offer them only as the compiler of accredited facts3 ,i have no original discoveries to announce1 no speculative theories to uphold4 ,nor shall ,i invade the proper field of librarians and bibliographers4 ,i propose to describe old types1 prints and books as they are seen by a printer1 and with reference to the needs of printers and the general reader1 avoiding1 as far as ,i can1 all controversies about matters which are of interest to book-collectors only4 ,the historical part of the record will be devoted chiefly to the printed work of the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,it will begin with descriptions of the earliest forms of printing1 as shown in image prints1 playing cards and block-books2 it will end with the establishment of typography in ,germany4 ,believing that a verbal description of old books and prints1 without pictorial illustrations1 would be unsatisfactory1 ,i have provided many fac-similes of early printing4 ,no part of this work will more fully repay examination than its illustrations1 which have been carefully selected from approved authorities1 or from originals4 ,reproduced by the new process of photo-engraving1 they are accurate copies of the originals1 even when of reduced size4 ,as they are printed with the descriptive text by the same method of typographic presswork1 it is believed that they will more clearly illustrate the subject than lithographed fac-similes on straggling leaves4 ,in trying to make plain whatever may be obscure about the mechanics of printing1 ,i have thought proper to begin the explanation with a description of its different methods4 ,an introduction of this nature is not an unwarrantable digression4 ,it is important that the reader should have an understanding of the radical differences between typography and xylography on the one side1 and lithographic and copper-plate printing on the other1 as well as some knowledge of the construction and uses of the more common tools of type-founders4 ,i do not propose to give any extended quotations in foreign languages4 ,wherever an approved translation in ,english has p#jad been found1 it has been substituted for the original text2 where translations have not been approved1 they have been made anew4 ,writing for the general reader1 ,i have assumed that he would prefer1 as ,i do1 in every book to be read and not studied1 a version in ,english rather than the original text4 ,believing that the frequent citation of authorities1 especially in instances where the facts are undisputed1 or where the books are inaccessible1 is an annoyance1 ,i have refrained from the presentation of foot-notes which refer to books only4 ,i have1 in a few cases1 deviated from this course where the matters stated were of a character which seemed to require the specification of authority4 ,one of the greatest impediments ,i encountered when about to begin the compilation of this work was the difficulty of access to books of authority4 ,i do not mention this in disparagement of the management of our public libraries1 for ,i know that old books are liable to injury in the hands of the merely curious1 and that librarians have little encouragement to collect scarce books on typography4 ,to prove that there is small inquiry for treatises of this character1 it is enough to say that ,i have had to cut open the leaves of valuable books after their rest for many years on the shelves of one of the largest libraries of this city4 ,but if these books were ever so abundant1 the proper restrictions placed on their use were a hindrance to one whose chief opportunity for consulting them is at night4 ,here ,i am pleased to acknowledge my indebtedness to ,mr4 ,david ,wolfe ,bruce4 ,he has not only accompanied and aided me in repeated examinations of his very valuable collection of fifteenth century books1 but has lent me all the books ,i desired1 and has freely given me unlimited time for their study4 ,this collection--replete with all the books of authority ,i needed1 with specimens of types1 wood-cuts1 and curiosities of type-founding1 which illustrate the growth of printing from its infancy--was more admirably adapted to my needs than that of any library on this ,continent4 ,deprived of ,mr4 ,bruce's generous assistance1 my work would have been greatly restricted in its scope1 and shorn of its best features of illustration4 p#jae ,i began this work intending to describe only the mechanical development of early printing1 but ,i could not keep the matter strictly within this limit4 ,hedged in this narrow space1 the story would be but half told4 ,the true origin of typography is not in types1 nor in block-books nor image prints4 ,these were consequences1 not causes4 ,the condition of society at the close of the middle ages2 the growth of commerce and manufactures2 the enlarged sense of personal liberty2 the brawls of ecclesiastics in high station1 and their unworthy behavior2 the revolt of the people against the authority of church and state2 the neglect of duty by the self-elected teachers of the people in their monopoly of books and knowledge2 the barrenness of the education then given in the schools2 the eagerness of all people for the mental diversion offered in the new game of playing cards2 the unsatisfied religious appetite which hungered for image prints and devotional books2 the facilities for self-education afforded by the introduction of paper1--these were among the influences which produced the invention of printing4 ,they are causes which cannot be overlooked4 ,my inability to describe them with the fullness which they deserve would not justify their total neglect4 ,i have devoted more space to them than is customary in treatises on early printing1 but ,i have to admit1 with regret1 that they have been too curtly treated4 ,i have done but little more than record a few of the more noticeable facts--enough1 perhaps1 to show that the state of education and society1 in its relation to the invention of printing1 deserves a more extended description than it has hitherto received4 ,if ,i can succeed in awakening the attention of printers1 and those who look on a knowledge of printing as a proper accomplishment of the scholar1 to the nature and extent of these influences1 to the curiosities of literature hidden in apparently dry books of bibliography1 and to the value of the lesson of patient industry and fixed purpose taught by the life of ,john ,gutenberg1 the object of this book will have been accomplished4 p#jag ,i ,the ,different ,methods of ,printing4 ,impression is used in many ,arts 4 4 4 ,printing implies the use of ,ink and ,paper 4 4 4 ,four ,methods of ,printing 4 4 4 ,steel-plate or ,copper-plate1 the artistic method 4 4 4 ,lithography1 the scientific method 4 4 4 ,typography1 the useful method 4 4 4 ,xylography1 the primitive method 4 4 4 ,illustrations of ,copper-plate and ,lithographic ,printing ,surfaces 4 4 4 ,process of ,copper-plate ,printing 4 4 4 ,its ,merits and its ,defects 4 4 4 ,process of ,lithographic ,printing 4 4 4 ,its ,advantages and ,limitations 4 4 4 ,theory of ,typography1 with ,illustrations of the ,face and ,body of ,types 4 4 4 ,superiority of ,movable ,types over ,engraved ,letters 4 4 4 ,stereotype 4 4 4 ,superiority of the ,typographic ,method in its ,presses and its ,process of ,inking 4 4 4 ,xylography 4 4 4 ,period when each ,method was ,introduced 4 4 4 ,a ,meaning in their almost ,simultaneous ,introduction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,printing1 the act1 art1 or practice of impressing letters1 characters1 or figures on paper1 cloth1 or other material2 the business of a printer2 typography4 ,typography1 the art of printing1 or the operation of impressing letters and words on forms of types4 ,webster4 ,printing1 the business of a printer2 the art or process of impressing letters or words2 typography2 the process of staining linen with figures4 ,typography1 the art of printing4 ,worcester4 ,print1 to press1 mark1 stamp or infix letters1 characters1 forms1 or figures4 ,richardson4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these definitions of printing are based on its derivation from the ,latin1 premo1 to press1 and on the supposition that its most characteristic feature is impression4 ,from a technical point of view1 the definitions are incomplete2 for printing and typography are made synonymous1 while many leading1 but totally different1 methods of impressing letters1 characters and figures1 are not even noticed4 ,impression is employed in the manufacture of calico1 paper-hangings1 oilcloth1 figured crockery1 and in many other arts which have no connection with each other4 ,under right conditions1 the p#jah action or the impress of light makes a photograph4 ,under different conditions1 the pressure of the breath makes hollow glassware4 ,moulding1 coining1 stamping and embossing are other methods of impression2 but the men who practise these methods are not known as printers4 ,the word printing has acquired a conventional meaning not entirely warranted by its derivation4 ,it means much more than impression4 ,it is commonly understood as a process in which paper and ink are employed in conjunction with impression4 ,printing and typography are not strictly synonymous1 as may be inferred from the definitions4 ,typography1 although the most useful1 is not the only form of printing4 ,printing on paper with ink is done by four methods4 ,each method is1 practically1 a separate art1 distinct from its rivals in its theory1 its process1 and its application4 ,these methods are3 ,steel-plate or ,copper-plate printing1 in which the subject is printed from an etching or engraving below the surface of a plate of steel or of copper4 ,lithography1 in which the subject is printed from a transferred engraving on the surface of a prepared stone4 ,typography1 in which the subject is printed from a combination of movable metal types cast in high relief4 ,xylography1 in which the subject is printed from a design engraved on a block of wood in high relief4 ,the distinct nature of the substances in use for printing surfaces by the four methods should be enough to teach us that the methods are entirely different4 ,but the manner in which the letters1 designs or figures of each method are put on the respective printing surfaces will show the differences more noticeably4 ,in typographic and xylographic work1 the matter to be printed is cast or cut in high relief1 or above the surface2 in lithographic work1 it is put on the smooth surface of the stone1 in relief so slight that it is almost level with the surface2 in steel and copper-plate1 it is cut below the surface which receives the impression4 ,the illustration on the next page shows1 but in an exaggerated form1 the appearance of a p#jai single line1 cut across1 or in a vertical direction1 when it has been prepared for printing by each of the different methods4 ,it will be seen that the line prepared for printing by the typographic or xylographic method can be inked with facility1 and that1 when compared with a similar line in lithographic or copper-plate work1 it presents but a small surface and a slighter resistance to impression4 ,illustration3 ,typography or ,xylography4 ,a4 ,elevated line2 the only part of a typographic or of a xylographic surface which receives the ink and impression4 ,b4 ,the shoulder of the type1 or the field of the block2 it receives neither ink nor impression4 ,illustration3 ,lithography4 ,c4 ,transferred surface line2 the only part of the surface which receives ink and repels moisture4 ,d4 ,the surface of the stone1 that imbibes moisture and repels greasy ink2 it receives the full force of impression in every part4 ,illustration3 ,copper-plate or ,steel-plate4 ,e4 ,the line printed1 which is engraved below the surface of the plate1 and is filled with ink4 ,f4 ,the smooth face of the plate1 which makes no mark on the paper1 but which receives the full force of impression4 ,the process of copper-plate printing begins with heating the plate1 and rolling it with ink1 until the incised lines have been filled4 ,the face of the plate is then wiped clean1 care being taken that the ink in the incised lines is not removed4 ,a moistened sheet of paper is then laid on the plate1 and an impression is taken by forcing it under the cylinder of a rolling press4 ,under this pressure1 the paper is forced in the sunken lines filled with ink1 and the ink sticks to the paper4 ,copper-plate printing is1 in all points1 the reverse of typographic printing4 ,the engraved lines1 cut below the surface1 are filled with ink in a compact body1 and not in a thin film1 liable to spread under pressure1 as it may on a type or on a wood-cut2 the ink from a copper-plate is pressed in such a way that it re-appears on the paper in a low relief--it is not squeezed on and flatted out1 but stands up with sharper line and shows a greater depth of color4 ,the slenderness of the incised lines1 the fineness and hardness of the metal1 and the peculiar method by which the ink is laid on the plate and fixed to the paper1 give to prints from engravings on steel or p#jbj on copper a sharpness of line1 a brilliancy of color1 a delicacy of tone1 and a receding in perspective1 which have always won for this branch of printing the preference of artists4 ,yet it is a slow and expensive process4 ,a steel-plate engraver may be engaged for many months upon a large plate1 from which but forty perfect impressions can be taken in a day4 ,on ordinary work on a large plate1 three hundred impressions per day is the average performance of a copper-plate press4 ,steel and copper-plate printing is largely used for bank-notes1 portraits1 fine book illustrations1 revenue and postage stamps1 and sometimes for commercial formularies1 but it is in every way unfitted for the printing of books4 ,it has not been much improved since its invention4 ,steel plates may be duplicated by means of electrotyping1 or by the process of transfer to soft steel1 but these duplicates cannot be made so cheaply as typographic stereotype plates1 nor so promptly as transfers by lithography4 ,the inking and cleansing of the plate1 always dirty and disagreeable work1 has hitherto been done only by hand4 ,all the manipulations of copper-plate work are slow and difficult3 they present many obstacles to the use of labor-saving machinery4 ,in lithography the design to be printed1 which may be engraved on stone or copper1 or written with pen on paper1 is transferred by a greasy ink upon the smooth surface of a stone of peculiar fineness and firmness4 ,this stone1 which is found in its best state only in ,bavaria1 where the art was invented1 is a variety of slate1 which faithfully responds in printing to the slightest touch of a graver or a crayon1 and permits the use of fine shades and tints which cannot be produced on wood or on copper4 ,the transferred lines of the design cling to and dry upon the surface of the stone1 which is then subjected to the action of a weak acid1 which hardens the ink in the transferred lines1 while it slightly etches and lowers the surface where it is unprotected4 ,the process of printing begins by dampening the stone with a moist sponge1 the water in which is absorbed by the p#jbb unprotected face of the stone1 while it is repelled by the hard greasy matter in the transferred lines4 ,the inking roller is then applied to the stone with a contrary result2 the moistened surface repels the greasy ink1 but the transferred lines attract and retain it4 ,when an impression on paper is taken1 the only part of the paper which receives ink is that part which touches the transferred lines4 ,the theory of lithography is based upon the repulsion between grease and water4 ,lithographic printing is chemical printing4 ,illustration3 ,surface ,exposed to ,impression by the ,copper-plate ,method4 ,the entire surface of the plate is covered with ink until the white lines are filled4 ,the surface around the figures is wiped clean before the impression is taken4 ,illustration3 ,surface ,inked and ,exposed to ,impression by the ,typographic ,method4 ,illustration3 ,surface ,exposed to ,impression by the ,lithographic ,method4 ,this surface is rolled twice3 once with water1 which is absorbed only by the surface here shown in dull black tint2 once with ink1 which is retained only on the figures4 ,lithography is the most scientific and the most flexible of all methods of printing4 ,it can imitate fairly1 and it often reproduces with accuracy1 a line engraving on steel1 a drawing in crayon1 the manuscript of a penman1 or the painting in oil of an artist4 ,by the aid of photography1 it can repeat1 in an enlarged or diminished size1 any kind of printed work4 ,it has many advantages over copper-plate and xylography4 ,for some kinds of work1 like autograph letters and rude diagrams1 engraving is unnecessary2 the design may be written with oily ink on paper1 and can then be transferred direct from the written copy to a stone without the aid of a graver4 ,the transferring process is another peculiarity of this art which allows the lithographer to duplicate small designs with greater facility and economy than a similar duplication could be effected by the stereotyper of types4 ,these advantages are counterbalanced by one great defect3 lithography is not a quick method of printing4 ,the usual performance of the lithographic hand press when applied to ordinary work1 is about four hundred impressions per day2 on the steam press1 the performance is about five thousand impressions per day4 ,the arts of lithography and copper-plate are useful and beautiful methods of printing1 but they do not make books and newspapers4#a ,the necessity which compels them to p#jbc make a new engraving for every new subject restricts them almost exclusively to the field of art and ornament4 ,if no other method of printing were known1 encyclopedias and newspapers would be impossibilities4 8,the art preservative of all arts0 is not the art of lithography nor of copper-plate4 ,this distinction rightfully belongs to ,typography only4 ,the theory upon which this method is based is that of the independence of each character1 and of the mutual dependence of all its characters4 ,every character is a separate and movable type1 so made that it can be arranged with others in an endless variety of combinations4 ,the types used for this page are used for other pages in this book2 they can be re-arranged for use in the printing of many other books or pamphlets2 they cease to serve only when they are worn out4 ,all other methods of printing require1 at the outset1 the engraving on one piece of wood or metal of all the letters or parts of a design1 which1 when once combined1 cannot be separated2 they can be applied only to the object for which they were first made4 ,typography is most successful when it is applied to the letters of the alphabet4 ,it fails totally when applied to maps1 or to any kind of printed work requiring irregularly varying lines4 ,it is only partially successful in the representation of combined ornaments and the characters of music4 ,its true field is in the representation of words and thoughts1 and here it is supreme4 ,there is no other method of printing which can do this work so perfectly4 ,typography has a great advantage over other branches of printing in the cheapness of its materials4 ,type-metal is cheaper by weight than copper or steel1 or the finer quality of lithographic stone3 by measurement1 it is cheaper than the box-wood used by engravers4 ,types are cheaper than engraved letters4 ,a pound of the types by which this page is printed contains about #cbj pieces of metal1 the cost of which is but #dh cents4 ,types are made of many forms or faces1 but they are always of uniform height1 and are always p#jbd truly square as to body1 so that they can be fitted to each other with precision1 and can be interchanged with facility4 ,the expense of combining types in words is trivial1 as compared with the cost of engraving for lithographic or for copper-plate printing4 ,an employing printer's price for the composition of a page like this would be1 at the high rates of ,new-,york city1 #a4aj4 ,the engraving of such a page1 by any method1 would cost at least three times as much as the types and their composition4 ,if never so carefully done1 the engraved letters would not be so uniform1 nor so satisfactory to the general reader1 as the types4 ,the engraved letters would cost more1 but they could be used only for the work for which they were made4 ,in typographic printing1 there is no such restriction as to use1 and no such loss of labor4 ,it is only the labor of composition which need be lost2 the types remain1 but little more worn1 or little less perfect1 than when they were first put in use4 ,illustration3 ,letter ,h1 from a ,em1 or full square ,face of the letter as it type of ,canon body4 of ,canon body4 appears on the body4 ,the ,face of a ,large ,type1 showing the manner in which the ,letter is placed on the ,body4#b ,the labor of composition is not always lost4 ,a page of movable types can be used for a mould1 from which can be made a stereotype plate of immovable letters4 ,stereotyping is a cheap process4 ,a plate of this page of type can be had for about one-half the cost of the composition4 ,the stereotype plate has all the advantages pertaining to an engraving on a lithographic stone1 and it is more durable and portable4 p#jbe ,typography has a marked advantage in the greater ease with which printing types are inked4 ,in the copper-plate process1 the plate must be first blackened over the entire surface1 and then cleansed with even greater care1 before an impression can be taken4 ,this labor cannot be intrusted to machinery1 but must be done by a practised workman4 ,the inking of a lithographic stone is as difficult3 the stone must be moistened before the inking roller can be applied4 ,this double operation of inking and cleansing1 or of inking and moistening1 is required for every impression4 ,the inking of types is done by a much simpler method2 one passage1 to and fro1 of a gang of rollers over the surface is sufficient to coat them with ink4 ,the types need no previous nor after application4 ,illustration3 ,side view of ,small-pica ,agate ,diamond ,view of body ,canon body4 body4 body4 body4 inclined to show the face4 ,bodies of ,types4 ,the impression by which typographic surfaces are printed is comparatively slight4 ,the sunken lines of a copper plate or the transferred lines of a lithographic stone can be reproduced on paper only by means of violent impression1 which is obtained by forcing the plate or the stone under an iron cylinder or scraper4 ,only a part of the surface is printed1 but the entire surface must receive impression1 which is1 of necessity1 gradually applied4 ,a direct vertical pressure1 at the same instant1 over every part of the surface1 would crush the stone or flatten the plate4 ,in printing types of ordinary form1 the area of impression surface is exactly the reverse of that of the lithographic stone or the copper plate4 ,it is only the part which is printed that receives the ink and the p#jbf impression4 ,this printed part is the raised surface1 which is rarely ever more than one-sixth of the area occupied by the types1 and is often less than one-twelfth4 ,the resistance to impression of types as compared with stones or plates is1 at least1 in the proportion of one to six4 ,as relief plates or types are more quickly coated with ink1 and need less impression than lithographic stones or copper plates1 the typographic process is1 consequently1 better fitted to receive the help of labor-saving machinery4 ,the daily performance of the typographic hand press on plain work has been1 almost from its earliest employment1 about fifteen hundred impressions1 which is about four times greater than that of the hand lithographic press4 ,by the use of steam and of improved machinery1 this inequality is put almost beyond comparison4 ,the typographic single-cylinder type-printing machine can print fifteen hundred impressions in an hour1 and the new newspaper perfecting press can print fifteen thousand perfect sheets in an hour4 ,the feature which gives to typography its precedence in usefulness over all other branches of the graphic arts is not so much its superior adaptation to impression as its superior facility for combining letters4 ,its merit is in the mobility of its types and their construction for combination4 ,printing is ,typography4 ,the printing which disseminates knowledge is not the art that makes prints or pictures2 it is1 as ,bernard has defined it1 8the art that makes books40 ,the definition is not scientifically exact1 but it gives a clear idea of the great breadth of the art4 ,in its perfect adaptation to this great object1 the broad generalization of the definition in the dictionaries may be justified4 ,the method of printing which is most useful may rightfully claim the generic name4 ,xylography is the scientific word for the art of making engravings on a single block of wood1 in high relief1 for use on the typographic printing press4 ,a xylographic block may be an engraving of letters only1 of pictures only1 or of both letters and pictures1 but in all cases the engraving is fixed on p#jbg the block4 ,the fixedness of the design on the block is the great feature which separates xylography#c from typography4 ,the printing surfaces of the two methods are alike4 ,types and xylographic engravings are printed together1 by the same process1 and on the same press4 ,printing with ink1 not as an experiment1 but as a practical business1 is comparatively a modern art4 ,lithography1 the most recent method1 was discovered by ,alois ,senefelder1 an actor of ,munich1 in #agih4 ,unlike other methods of printing1 it was1 in every detail1 an entirely original invention4 ,the introduction of copper-plate printing is attributed to ,maso ,finiguerra1 a goldsmith of ,florence1 who is supposed to have made his first print about the year #adeb4 ,it cannot be proved that ,finiguerra was the inventor1 for prints by this method were made in ,germany as early as #addf4 ,the period of the invention of typography may be placed between the years #adch and #adej4 ,there have been many claimants for the honor of the invention4 ,each of the following fifteen cities or towns--,augsburg1 ,basle1 ,bologna1 ,dordrecht1 ,feltre1 ,florence1 ,haarlem1 ,lubeck1 ,mentz1 ,nuremberg1 ,rome1 ,russemburg1 ,strasburg1 ,schelestadt and ,venice--has been specified by as many different authors as the true birthplace of typography4 ,the names of the alleged inventors are1 ,castaldi1 ,coster1 ,fust1 ,gensfleisch1 ,gresmund1 ,gutenberg1 ,hahn1 ,mentel1 ,jenson1 ,regiomontanus1 ,schffer1 ,pannartz and ,sweinheym1 and ,louis de ,vaelbaeske4 ,the evidences in favor of each claimant have been fully examined1 and the more foolish pretensions have been so completely suppressed that it is unnecessary to review them4 ,the limits of the controversy have been greatly contracted3 but four of the alleged inventors of types1 ,castaldi1 ,coster1 ,gutenberg and ,schffer1 have living defenders4 ,the legend of an invention of types p#jbh by ,castaldi1 of ,feltre1 has never been accepted beyond ,italy1 and barely deserves respectful consideration4 ,the evidences in favor of ,schffer are more plausible1 but they are not admitted by the writers who have carefully investigated the documents upon which this pretension is based4 ,the real controversy is between ,lourens ,coster of ,haarlem and ,john ,gutenberg of ,mentz4 ,there is no record1 nor even any tradition1 concerning an invention of xylography4 ,it is admitted by all authorities1 that xylographic prints were made during the first quarter of the fifteenth century1 and that xylographic books were in use before typography was introduced4 ,three of the four methods of printing here named were invented or developed within a period of fifty years4 ,if the statements of some historians could be accepted1 this period should be contracted to thirty years4 ,there is no disagreement1 however1 as to the order of their introduction4 ,xylography1 the rudest method1 was the first in use2 typography1 a more useful method1 soon followed2 copper-plate printing1 the artistic method1 was the proper culmination4 ,the order of invention was that of progressive development from an imperfect to a perfect method4 ,the introduction of three distinct methods of printing1 by different persons and in different places1 but during the same period1 shows that a general need of books or of printed matter had given a strong impulse to the inventive spirit of the fifteenth century4 ,it may also be inferred that the inventors of printing had been benefited1 in some way1 by recent improvements or developments in the mechanical processes of which printing is composed4 p#jbi ,,ii ,antique ,methods of ,impression and their ,failure4 ,transfer of ,form by ,impression one of the ,oldest ,arts 4 4 4 ,the ,stamped ,bricks of ,assyria and ,egypt 4 4 4 ,assyrian ,cylinders of ,clay 4 4 4 ,greek ,maps 4 4 4 ,roman ,theories about ,combinations of ,letters 4 4 4 ,roman ,stamps 4 4 4 ,the ,brands and ,stamps of the ,middle ,ages 4 4 4 ,english ,brands 4 4 4 ,stamping is not ,printing 4 4 4 ,ink then used was ,unsuitable for ,printing 4 4 4 ,printing ,waited for ,discovery of ,ink and ,paper 4 4 4 ,romans did not ,need ,printing 4 4 4 ,printing ,depends on a multitude of ,readers 4 4 4 ,readers were few in the ,dark ,ages 4 4 4 ,invention of ,printing was ,not purely ,mechanical 4 4 4 ,printing needs many ,supports 4 4 4 ,telegraph 4 4 4 ,schools 4 4 4 ,libraries 4 4 4 ,expresses 4 4 4 ,post-,offices 4 4 4 ,a ,premature ,invention would have been ,fruitless4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the stamps of the ancients1 and the impressions from the seals of metal1 found in deeds and conveyances of the lower ages1 prove nothing more than that mankind walked for many centuries upon the borders of the two great inventions of typography and chalcography1 without having the luck to discover either of them1 and appear neither to have had any influence on the origin of these arts1 nor to merit any place in their history4 ,lanzi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some notice of the material and moral elements needed for the development of typography should precede a description of the work of the early printers4 ,we shall form incorrect notions about the invention of printing unless we know something about the state of the arts of paper-making1 ink-making and engraving at the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,we should also know something about the books and the book-makers of the middle ages4 ,nor will it be out of place to review the mechanical processes which have been used1 almost from the beginning1 for the preservation of written language4 ,the review will show us what elements the inventor of typography found at his hand ready for use2 what he combined from the inventions of others1 and what he invented anew4 p#jcj ,illustration3 ,a ,stamped ,brick from the ,ruins of ,babylon4 ,from ,hansard4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,impression on the ,brick4 ,from ,hansard4 ,illustration3 ,an ,egyptian ,stamp for ,impressing ,bricks4 ,from ,jackson4 ,engraving must be regarded as the first process in every method of printing4 ,the impression of engraved forms on metal and wax1 for the purpose of making coins and seals1 is of great antiquity1 having been practised more than three thousand years ago1 and1 by some people1 with a skill which cannot now be surpassed4 ,there are old ,egyptian seals with faces of such minute delicacy that the fineness of the workmanship can be fully perceived only by the aid of a magnifying glass4 ,there are coins of ,macedonia which are stamped in a relief as bold as that of the best pieces of modern mints4 ,in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 engraved forms were printed or stamped on clay specially prepared for this purpose4 ,in the ruins of the ancient edifices of these primeval nations there is scarcely a stone or a kiln-burnt brick without an inscription or a stamp upon it4 ,the inscriptions on stone appear to have been cut with a chisel1 after the usual method of stone-cutters2 but the stamps on the bricks were made from engravings on wood1 or by the separate impressions of some pointed instrument4 ,the preceding illustration is that of a stamped brick taken many years ago from the ruins of ancient ,babylon4 ,when in perfect condition1 it was thirteen inches square and three inches thick4 ,the inscription1 which is in the cuneiform or arrow-headed character1 is irregularly placed on the surface1 but the letters or words are arranged in parallel rows1 and are obviously made to be read from top to bottom4 ,the characters of this inscription were not cut upon the brick1 nor were they separately impressed4 ,that they were made p#jcb on the plastic clay by the sudden pressure of a xylographic block1 is seen by the oblique position of the square inscription on the brick1#d in the nicety of the engraving and its uniform depth1 in the bulging up of the clay on the side1 where it was forced outward and upward by the impression4 ,in old ,egypt1 bricks were impressed by the same method of stamping1 but not to such an extent as they were in old ,assyria4 ,the cuts annexed represent the face and back of an old ,egyptian stamp discovered in a tomb of ,thebes4 ,the stamp is five inches long1 two and one-quarter inches broad1 and half an inch thick1 and is fitted to an arched handle4 ,the characters are engraved below the surface of the wood1 so that an impression taken from the stamp on the clay would show the engraved characters in relief4 ,the inscription on the stamp p#jcc has been translated1 ,amenoph1 beloved of truth4 ,amenoph is supposed1 by some authorities1 to have been the king of ,egypt at the period of the exodus of the ,israelites4 ,the characters on the ,egyptian and ,babylonian bricks are much more neatly executed than would seem necessary for inscriptions on so common a material as clay4 ,but they are really coarse1 when compared with the inscriptions upon the small cylinders of clay which were used by the ,assyrians for the preservation of their public documents4 ,layard mentions a small six-sided ,assyrian cylinder that contains sixty lines of minute characters which could be read only by the aid of a magnifying glass4 ,antiquaries are not yet perfectly agreed as to the method by which the cylinders were made4 ,layard1 who says that the ,babylonian bricks were stamped1 thinks that the inscriptions on the cylinders were cut on the clay4 ,but there are many cylinders which show the clearest indications of impression4 ,it is probable that they were made by both methods4 ,the clay was prepared for writing as well as for stamping4 ,ezekiel1 who prophesied by the river ,chebar in ,assyria1 was commanded to take a tile1 and portray upon it the city of ,jerusalem4 ,the ,chaldean priests informed ,callisthenes that they kept their astronomical observations on tiles that were subsequently baked in the furnace4 ,four large piles of tablets of unburned clay were found by ,layard in the library or hall of records of ,assurbanipal4 ,some of the tablets are the grammars and primers of the language2 some are records of agreements to sell property or slaves2 some are filled with astronomical or astrological predictions4 ,on one of them was inscribed the ,assyrian version of the deluge4 ,the cylinders contained the memorials which were then considered as of most value1 such as the proclamations of the king1 or the laws of the empire4 ,in the museum of the ,east ,india ,company is the fragment of a clay cylinder which contains a portion of the decrees or annals of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,for perpetuating records of this nature1 the cylinders were admirably adapted4 p#jcd ,they were convenient for reference1 and their legibility1 after so long an exposure1 shows that they were perfectly durable4 ,we do not know by what considerations ,assyrian rulers were governed when about to choose between engraving or writing on clay2 but it is not unreasonable to assume that the inscription was written or cut on the clay1 when one copy only of a record was wanted2 if numerous copies were wanted1 a die or an engraving on wood was manufactured1 from which these copies were moulded4 ,no surer method of securing exact copies of an original could have been devised among a people that did not use ink and paper4 ,these cylinders are examples of printing in its most elementary form4 ,illustration3 ,an ,assyrian ,cylinder4 ,from ,hansard4 ,the accompanying illustration1 copied from ,hansard's ,typographia1 represents an ,assyrian cylinder which presents the same indications of impression which have been noticed upon the bricks4 ,this cylinder1 which is seven inches wide at each end1 was so thoroughly baked in a furnace that it is partially vitrified4 ,around its largest circumference is a ragged and bulging line1 about a quarter of an inch wide1 which seems p#jce to have been made by the imperfect meeting of two moulding stamps4 ,if the inscription had been cut on the clay1 this defect would not appear2 the vertical lines would have been connected1 and the ragged white line would have been made smooth4 ,this method of printing in clay was rude and imperfect1 but1 to some extent1 it did the work of modern typography4 ,writings were published at small expense1 and records were preserved for ages without the aid of ink or paper4 ,the modern printer may wonder that this skill in printing was not developed4 ,the engraving that was used to impress clay could have been coated with ink and stamped on parchment4 ,simple as this application of the engraving may appear1 it was never made4 ,so far from receiving any improvement1 the art of printing in clay gradually fell into disuse4 ,it has been neglected for more than twenty-five centuries on the soil where it probably originated4 ,for ,layard tells us that an ,assyrian six-sided cylinder was used as a candlestick by a reputable ,turcoman family living in the village where it was found4 ,a hole in the centre of one of the ends received the tallow candle4 ,there is a practical irony in this base application of what may have been a praise of 8the great king10 which has never been surpassed by ,solomon or ,shakspeare in their reflections on the vanity of human greatness4 ,engraving was used by the ancient ,greeks in a manner which should have suggested the feasibility of printing with ink4 ,some of the maps of the ,athenians were engraved on smooth metal plates1 with lines cut below the surface1 after the method of copper-plate printers1 from which impressions on vellum1 or even on papyrus1 could have been taken4 ,but1 so far as we know1 the impressions were not taken3 for every new map there was a new engraving4 ,the ,assyrian method of engraving stamps for impressing clay was practised by the old ,roman potters1 who marked their manufactures with the names of the owners or with the contents of the vessel4 ,the potters clearly understood the p#jcf value of movable types4 ,on some of their lamps of clay1 the inscriptions were made by impressing1 consecutively1 the type of each letter4 ,these types must have been movable1 and1 in appearance1 somewhat like the punches or the model letters of type-founders4 ,there were some men in ancient ,rome who had a clear perception of the ease with which engraved letters could be combined4 ,cicero1 in an argument against the hypothesis of logical results from illogical causes1 has intimated that it would be absurd to look for an intelligible sentence from a careless mixing up of the engraved letters of the alphabet4#e ,the phrase by which he describes the assembled letters1 form literarum1 was used by the early printers to describe types4 ,his argument implies1 conversely1 that if proper care were exercised1 it would be easy to arrange the letters in readable sentences4 ,but the speculation of ,cicero did not go beyond the idea of combination4 ,it does not appear that he thought that the letters could be used for printing4 ,quintilian had speculations about engraved letters4 ,he recommended to teachers the use of a thin stencil plate of wood1 on which should be cut the letters that a boy might be required to copy when learning to write4 ,the boy who traced the characters with his writing implement would have his hand guided and formed by the outlines of the perforated letters4 ,the curt manner in which stencil plates are noticed should lead us to think that they were then in common use4 ,we can see that stencils of this nature could have been used1 at least as an aid1 in the mechanical manufacture of books2 but it is not probable that they were so used4 p#jcg ,we have some evidences that the old ,romans practised1 at least experimentally1 the art of printing with ink4 ,the ,british ,museum has a stamp with letters engraved in relief1 that was found near ,rome1 and which seems to have been made for the purpose of printing the signature of its owner4 ,the stamp is a brass plate1 about two inches long and not quite one inch wide4 ,a brass ring is attached to the back of the plate which may have been used as a socket for the finger1 or as a support when it was suspended from a chain or girdle4 ,on the face of the stamp are engraved two lines of capital letters1 huddled together in the usual style of all old ,roman inscriptions1 cut the reverse way1 as it would now be done for printing1 and enclosed by a border line4 ,an impression taken from this stamp would produce the letters in the accompanying illustration1 which may be translated1 the signature of ,cecilius ,hermias4 ,of ,cecilius ,hermias we know nothing4 ,he may have been a civic official who used this stamp to exempt himself from the trouble of writing1 or a citizen who tried to hide his inability to write4 ,illustration ,if this stamp should be impressed in wax1 the impression would produce letters sunk below the surface of the wax in a manner that is unlike the impressions of seals4 ,the raised surface on the wax would be rough where it should be flat and smooth4 ,this peculiarity is significant4 ,as this rough field unfitted it for a neat impression on any plastic surface1 the stamp should have been used for printing with ink4 ,illustration3 ,an ,old ,roman ,stamp4 ,from ,jackson4 ,the accompanying illustration is that of a brass printing stamp in the ,british ,museum1 which is preserved as a specimen of old ,roman workmanship4#f ,the letters were cut in relief1 in reverse order1 and with a rough counter or field4 ,this roughness proves that it could not have been used to impress wax4 p#jch ,brass stamps of similar construction and of undetermined age have been frequently found in ,france and ,italy4 ,all of them are of small size1 and contain names of persons only4 ,illustration3 ,roman ,stamps4 ,from ,jackson4 ,the illustrations annexed1 of two engraved brass stamps of eccentric shapes1 were also copied from the originals in the ,british ,museum4 ,as the letters are roughly sunk in the metal1 and are not fitted for stamping in wax1 it is supposed that the stamps were made for impression with ink4 ,they are regarded as ,roman antiquities1 of undoubted authenticity1 but the meaning of the inscriptions1 the special purposes for which they were made1 and the period in which they were employed1 are unknown4 ,the difficulty connected with the proper fixing of ink upon these stamps of brass1 of which a subsequent notice will be made1 is one of many causes which prevented the development of this experimental form of printing4 ,a favorite method of making impressions was that of branding4 ,virgil1 in the third book of the ,georgics1 tells us of its application to cattle4 ,the old laws of many ,european states tell us of its application to human beings4 ,the cruel practice was kept up long after the invention of typography4 ,during the reign of ,edward ,,vi1 of ,england 7#aedg-aeec71 it was enacted that1 8whosoever1 man or woman1 not being lame or impotent1 nor so aged or diseased that he or she could not work1 should be convicted of loitering or idle wandering by the highwayside1 or in the streets1 like a servant wanting a master1 or a beggar1 he or she was to be marked with a hot p#jci iron upon the breast with the letter ,v for vagabond1 and adjudged to the person bringing him or her before a justice1 to be his slave for two years2 and if such adjudged slave should run away1 he or she1 upon being taken and convicted1 was to be marked upon the forehead1 or upon the ball of the cheek1 with the letter ,s for slave1 and adjudged to be the said master's slave forever40 ,with these evidences before us of long continued practice in various methods of engraving and stamping1 and of a fair knowledge of some of the advantages of movable letters1 the question may be asked1 ,why did the world have to wait so long for the invention of typography8 ,this question is based on the assumption1 that the civilization of antiquity was capable of making and preserving the invention which was missed through accident or neglect4 ,here is a grave error4 ,the elements of an invention are like those of a chemical mixture4 ,all the constituents but one may be there1 exact in quantity and quality1 but1 for the lack of that one1 the mixing of the whole in a new form cannot be accomplished4 ,failure in one point is entire failure4 ,the ancients failed in many points4 ,they were destitute of several materials which we regard as indispensable in the practice of printing4 ,they had no ink suitable for the work4 ,pliny and ,dioscorides have given the formulas for the writing ink that was used by ,greek and ,roman scribes during the first century4 ,pliny says that the ink of book-writers was made of soot1 charcoal and gum4 ,he does not say what fluid was used to mix these materials1 but he does allude to an occasional use of acid1 to give the ink encaustic property and to make it bite in the papyrus4 ,dioscorides is more specific as to the quantities4 ,he says that one ounce of gum should be mixed with three ounces of soot4 ,another formula is1 one-half pound of smoke-black made from burned resin1 one-half ounce each of copperas and ox-glue4 ,dioscorides further says that the latter mixture 8is a good application in cases of gangrene1 and is useful in scalds1 if a little thickened1 and p#jdj employed as a salve40 ,from this crude recipe one may form a correct opinion of the quality of the scientific knowledge then applied to medicine and the mechanical arts4 ,these mixtures1 which are more like liquid shoe blacking than writing fluid1 were used1 with immaterial modifications1 by the scribes of the dark ages4 ,useful as they may have been for their methods of writing1 they could not have been applied to the inking of a metal surface engraved in relief4 ,if the brass stamps described on a previous page had been brushed over never so carefully with these watery inks1 the metal surface would not be covered with a smooth film of color4 ,the ink would collect in spots and blotches4 ,when stamped on paper or vellum1 the ink thereupon impressed would be of irregular blackness1 illegible in spots1 and easily effaced4 ,writing ink1 thickened with gum1 has but a feeble encaustic property4 ,it will not be absorbed1 unless it is laid on in little pools1 and unless the writing surface is scratched by a pen to aid the desired absorption4 ,the flat impression of a smooth metal stamp could not make a fluid or a gummy ink penetrate below the writing surface4 ,it was1 no doubt1 by reason of the inferior appearance of impressions of this nature that the brass stamps described on a previous page found so limited a use4 ,an unsuitable ink may seem but a trifling impediment to the development of printing1 but if there had been no other1 this would have been an insurmountable obstacle4 ,the modern printer1 who sees that the chief ingredients of printing ink are the well-known materials smoke-black and oil1 may think that an ignorance of this mixture1 or an inability to discover it1 is ridiculous and inexcusable4 ,modern printing ink is but one of many inventions which could be named as illustrating the real simplicity of a long delayed improvement4 ,simple as it may seem1 the mixing of color with oil was a great invention which wrought a revolution in the art of painting4 ,this invention1 attributed by some authors to unknown ,italian painters of the fourteenth century1 and by others to p#jda ,hubert ,van ,eyck of ,holland1 at or about the beginning of the fifteenth century1 immediately preceded the invention of types4 ,the early typographic printers1 who could not use the ink of the copyists1 succeeded only when they mixed their black with oil4 ,after four centuries of experience in the use of printing ink made with oil1 and after repeated experimentation with impracticable substitutes1 it may be confidently asserted that an invention of typography would have failed1 if this use of oil had not been understood4 ,the invention of types had to wait for the invention of ink4 ,typography had to wait for the invention of paper1 the only material that is mechanically adapted for printing1 the only material that supplies the wants of the reader in his requirements for strength1 cheapness1 compactness and durability4 ,paper was known in civilized ,europe for at least two centuries before typography was invented1 but it was not produced in sufficient quantity nor of a proper quality until the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,the old ,romans had no substitute for paper that could have been devoted to printing or book-making4 ,the papyrus which they used was so brittle that it could not be folded1 creased and sewed like modern rag paper4 ,it could not be bound up in books2 it could not be rolled up1 unsupported1 like a sheet of parchment4 ,it was secure only when it had been carefully wound around a wooden roller4 ,the scribes of ,rome and the book copyists of the middle ages preferred vellum4 ,it was preferred by illuminators after printing had been invented4 ,but vellum was never a favorite material among printers4 ,in its dry state1 it is harsh1 and wears types2 it is greasy1 and resists ink2 in its moistened state1 it is flabby1 treacherous and unmanageable4 ,the early books on vellum are not so neatly printed as those on paper4 ,but these faults were trivial as compared with the graver fault of inordinate price4 ,when we consider that the skins of more than three hundred sheep were used in every copy of the first printed ,bible1 it is clear that typography would have been a failure p#jdb if it had depended on a liberal supply of vellum4 ,even if the restricted size of vellum could have been conformed to1 there were not enough sheep at the end of the fifteenth century to supply the demands of printing presses for a week4 ,if the idea of printing books from movable types had been entertained by an ancient ,roman bookseller1 or by a copyist1 during the earlier part of the dark ages1 it may be doubted whether he could have devised the mechanism that is needed in the making of types4 ,for types that are accurate as to body1 and economical as to cost1 can be made by one method only4 ,it is1 in the highest degree1 improbable1 that the scientific method of making types by mechanism could have been invented at an earlier date than the fifteenth century4 ,there was mechanical skill enough for the production of any kind of ingenious hand work1 but the spirit that prompted men to construct machines and labor-saving apparatus was deficient or but feebly exercised4 ,there was no more of true science in mechanics than there was in chemistry4 ,the construction of a suitable type-mould1 with its appurtenances1 during the dark ages1 would have been as premature as an invention of the steam engine in the same period4 ,the civilization of ancient ,rome did not require printing4 ,if all the processes of typography had been revealed to its scholars the art would not have been used4 ,the wants of readers and writers were abundantly supplied by the pen4 ,papyrus paper was cheap1 and scribes were numerous2 ,rome had more booksellers than it needed1 and books were made faster than they could be sold4 ,the professional scribes were educated slaves1 who1 fed and clothed at nominal expense1 and organized under the direction of wealthy publishers1 were made so efficient in the production of books1 that typography1 in an open competition1 could have offered few advantages4 ,our knowledge of the ,roman organization of labor in the field of book-making is not as precise as could be wished2 but the frequent notices of books1 copyists and publishers1 made by many authors during the first century1 teach us that p#jdc books were plentiful4 ,horace1 the elegant and fastidious man of letters1 complained that his books were too common1 and that they were sometimes found in the hands of vulgar snobs for whose entertainment they were not written4 ,martial1 the jovial man of the world1 boasted that his books of stinging epigrams were to be found in everybody's hands or pockets4 ,books were read not only in the libraries1 but at the baths1 in the porticoes of houses1 at private dinners and in mixed assemblies4 ,the business of book-making was practised by too many people1 and some were incompetent4 ,lucian1 who had a keen perception of pretense in every form1 ridicules the publishers as ignoramuses4 ,strabo1 who probably wrote illegibly1 says that the books of booksellers were incorrect4 ,illustration3 ,tablet with ,waxed ,surface4 ,manuscript ,roll1 with ,title on ,scrinium or ,case for ,manuscripts4 the ,ticket4 ,papyrus ,manuscript partially ,unrolled4 ,roman ,scrinium1 with ,rolls of ,papyrus4 ,the prices of books made by slave labor were necessarily low4 ,martial says that his first book of epigrams was sold in plain binding for six sesterces1 about twenty-four cents of ,american money2 the same book in sumptuous binding was valued at five denarii1 about eighty cents4 ,he subsequently complained that his thirteenth book was sold for only four sesterces1 about sixteen cents4 ,he frankly admits that half of this sum was profit1 but intimates1 somewhat ungraciously1 that the publisher ,tryphon gave him too small a share4 ,of the merits of this old disagreement between the author and publisher1 we have not enough of facts to justify an opinion4 ,we learn that some publishers1 like ,tryphon and the brothers p#jdd ,sosii1 acquired wealth1 but there are many indications that publishing was then1 as it is now1 one of the most speculative kinds of business4 ,one writer chuckles over the unkind fate that sent so many of the unsold books of rival authors from the warehouses of the publisher1 to the shops of grocers and bakers1 where they were used to wrap up pastry and spices2 another writer says that the unsold stock of a bookseller was sometimes bought by butchers and trunk-makers4 ,the ,romans not only had plenty of books but they had a manuscript daily newspaper1 the ,acta ,diurna1 which seems to have been a record of the proceedings of the senate4 ,we do not know how it was written1 nor how it was published1 but it was frequently mentioned by contemporary writers as the regular official medium for transmitting intelligence4 ,it was sent to subscribers in distant cities1 and was1 sometimes1 read to an assembled army4 ,cicero mentions the ,acta as a sheet in which he expected to find the city news and gossip about marriages and divorces4 ,in the sixth century the business of book-making had fallen into hopeless decay4 ,ignorance pervaded all ranks of society4#g ,the books that had been written were neglected1 and the number of readers and scholars diminished with every succeeding generation4#h ,the treasures of literature at ,rome1 ,constantinople and ,alexandria which were destroyed by fire or by barbaric invasion were not replaced4 ,books were so scarce at the close of the seventh century1 that ,pope ,martin requested one of his bishops to supply them1 if possible1 from ,germany4 ,the ignorance of ecclesiastics in high station was p#jde alarming4 ,during this century1 and for centuries afterward1 there were many bishops and archbishops of the church who could not sign their names4 ,it was asserted at a council of the church held in the year #iib1 that scarcely a single person was to be found in ,rome itself who knew the first element of letters4 ,hallam says1 8,to sum up the account of ignorance in a word1 it was rare for a layman of any rank to know how to sign his name40 ,charlemagne could not write1 and ,frederic ,barbarossa could not read2 ,john1 king of ,bohemia1 and ,philip the ,hardy1 king of ,france1 were ignorant of both accomplishments4#i ,the graces of literature were tolerated only in the ranks of the clergy2 the layman who preferred letters to arms was regarded as a man of mean spirit4 ,when the crusaders took ,constantinople1 in #abjd1 they exposed to public ridicule the pens and inkstands that they found in the conquered city as the ignoble arms of a contemptible race of students4 ,during this period of intellectual darkness1 which lasted from the fifth until the fifteenth century1 a period sometimes described1 and not improperly1 as the dark ages1 there was no need for any improvement in the old method of making books4 ,the world was not then ready for typography4 ,the invention waited for readers more than it did for types2 the multitude of book-buyers upon which its success depended had to be created4 ,books were needed as well as readers4 ,the treatises of the old ,roman sophists and rhetoricians1 the dialectics of ,aristotle and the schoolmen1 and the commentaries on ecclesiastical law of the fathers of the church1 were the works which engrossed the attention of men of letters for many centuries before the invention of typography4 ,useful as these books may have been to the small class of readers for whose benefit they were written1 they were of no benefit to a people who required the elements of knowledge4 ,we may imagine the probable fate of a premature and unappreciated invention of typography by thinking of results that might have been and have not been accomplished by printing among a people who were not prepared to use it as p#jdf it should be used4 ,printing has been practised in ,china for many centuries1 but there can be no comparison between the fruits of printing in ,china and in ,europe4 ,the remarkable inefficiency of the ,chinese method is the result not so much of clumsiness of the process1 as of the perverseness of a people who are unable to improve it1 and unwilling to accept the improvements of ,europeans4 ,the first printing press brought to the ,new ,world was set up in the ,city of ,mexico about one hundred years before a printing office was established in ,massachusetts4 ,books were printed in ,constantinople1 perhaps as early as #adij1 certainly before types were thought of in ,scotland4 ,and now ,scotland sends types and books to ,turkey1 and ,boston sends printing paper and presses to ,mexico4 ,if the people of ,turkey and ,mexico are receiving benefits from printing1 the benefits have been derived from the practice of the art abroad and not at home4 ,in making an estimate of the service that printing has done for the world1 we frequently overlook the supports by which it has been upheld4 ,it is a common belief that the diffusion of knowledge which was so clearly manifested in the fifteenth century was due to the invention of printing4 ,this belief reverses the proper order1 and substitutes the effect for the cause4 ,it was the broader diffusion of knowledge that made smooth the way for the development of typography4 ,in its infancy1 the invention was indebted for its existence to improvements in liberal and mechanical arts2 in its maturity1 it is largely indebted for its success to discoveries in science1 and to reforms in government4 ,the magnetic telegraph is the most recent discovery1 and of the most importance1 in its services to the daily newspaper press4 ,the circulation of leading ,american daily newspapers has more than trebled since the invention of the telegraph4 ,the free public schools of ,america have done much to promote the growth of printing4 ,if the ,state did not offer free books and free education1 a large portion of the people would grow up in ignorance4 ,every scholar in a public school p#jdg becomes for life a reader1 and to some extent1 a purchaser of books4 ,the value of the school-books manufactured in the ,united ,states annually1 has been estimated at fifteen million dollars4 ,of ,webster's ,spelling-,book alone1 thirty-five million copies have been sold1 and a million copies are printed every year4 ,if printing were deprived of the support it receives from public schools1 there would at once follow a noticeable decrease in the production of printed matter1 and a corresponding decrease in the number of readers and book-buyers4 ,to foster the tastes which have been cultivated by public schools and newspapers1 some ,states have established public libraries in every school district4 ,there are1 also1 a great many valuable libraries which have been established by voluntary association or by individual bequest4 ,these libraries create books as well as readers4 ,railroads1 steamboats and package expresses are aids of as great importance4 ,the ,new-,york daily newspaper1 printed early in the morning1 is sold within a radius of three hundred miles before sunset of the same day4 ,newspapers now find hundreds of eager purchasers in places where they would not have found one in the days of stage-coaches4 ,the benefits of cheap and quick transportation are also favorable to the sale of books4 ,a bookseller's package1 weighing one hundred pounds1 will be carried from ,new ,york to ,st4 ,louis1 on the ,mississippi1 within sixty-five hours1 at an average expense of three dollars4 ,when there was no railroad from ,st4 ,louis to ,san ,francisco1 the overland charges on one hundred pounds of books were one hundred dollars4 ,the long delays and great expenses of stage-coach transportation would operate almost as a prohibition to the sale of periodicals and new books4 ,the greatest legislative aid that printing has received is through the facilities which are furnished by post-offices and mails4 ,they create readers4 ,weekly newspapers are now sent1 for one year1 for twenty cents1 to subscribers in the most remote corner of the ,union4 ,books are sent three thousand miles at the rate of one cent per ounce4 ,the improvement p#jdh of postal facilities has increased the number of readers and purchasers of newspapers to an amount unforeseen by the most sanguine projector4 ,all these aids are1 comparatively1 of recent introduction4 ,the beginnings of the telegraph1 the railroad and the express are within the memory of the men of the present generation4 ,the systematic establishment of free schools and libraries is the work of the present century4 ,public mails and post-offices were introduced in #aecj1 but it is only within the past forty years that their management has been more liberal for the benefit of the people4 ,it is by aids like these1 and not by its intrinsic merits alone1 that printing has received its recent development4 ,it was for the want of these aids that printing languished for many years after its invention4 ,one has but to consider the many supports printing has received to see that its premature invention would have been fruitless4 ,if1 even now1 when books and readers and literary tastes are as common as they were infrequent1 it is necessary to the success of printing that there shall be schools and libraries1 cheap and rapid methods of travel1 generous postal facilities1 a liberal government and a broad toleration of the greatest differences in opinion1 what but failure could have been expected when the world was destitute of nearly all8 ,printing not only had to wait many centuries for improvements in mechanical appliances1 without which it would have been worthless2 it had to wait for a greater number of readers1 for liberal governments1 for instructive writers1 for suitable books4 ,it came at the proper time1 not too soon1 not too late4 8,not the man1 the age invents40 p#jdi ,,iii ,the ,key to the ,invention of ,typography4 ,conflicting ,theories about the ,invention of ,typography 4 4 4 ,was it an ,invention or a ,combination8 4 4 4 ,errors of ,superficial ,observers 4 4 4 ,merit of the ,invention is not in ,impression 4 4 4 ,not altogether in ,types or ,composition 4 4 4 ,types of no value unless they are ,accurate 4 4 4 ,hand-made ,types ,impracticable 4 4 4 ,merit of ,invention is in the ,method of ,making ,types 4 4 4 ,is but ,one ,method 4 4 4 ,description 4 4 4 ,counter-,punch 4 4 4 ,punch 4 4 4 ,matrix 4 4 4 ,mould 4 4 4 ,illustrations 4 4 4 ,type-,making as ,illustrated by ,moxon in #afhc 4 4 4 ,as ,illustrated by ,amman in #aefd 4 4 4 ,notices of ,type-,making by ,earlier ,authors 4 4 4 ,type-,mould the ,symbol of ,typography 4 4 4 ,inventor of the ,type-,mould the ,inventor of ,typography 4 4 4 ,a ,great ,invention1 but ,original only in the ,type-,mould4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the character of typography is not pressing and printing but mobilization4 ,the winged ,a is its symbol4 ,the elements unchained1 the letters freed from every bond in which the pen or chisel of calligrapher or xylographer held them entangled2 the cut character risen from the tomb of the solitary tablet into the substantive life of the cast types--that is the invention of printing4 ,van der ,linde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is a wide-spread belief that typography was1 in all its details1 a purely original invention4 ,a popular version of its origin1 hereafter to be related1 says that it was the result of an accidental discovery2 a conflicting version says that it was the result of more than thirteen years of secret experiment4 ,each version teaches us that there was no perceptible unfolding of the invention2 that the alleged inventor created all that he needed1 that he made his types1 ink and presses1 that he derived nothing of value from the labors of earlier printers4 ,if typography was invented by ,gutenberg1 it was fitly introduced by the sudden appearance of the printed ,bible in two folio volumes2 if invented by ,coster1 by the unheralded publication of a thin folio of large p#jej wood-cuts with descriptive text of type4 ,if either of these versions is accepted in the form in which it is usually told1 we must also believe that printing1 in the form of perfected typography1 leaped1 ,minerva-like1 fully equipped1 from the brain of the inventor4 ,there is another belief1 which is strongly maintained by a few scholars1 that typography was not an original invention1 that it was nothing more than a new application of the old theories and methods of impression which have already been described4 ,according to this view1 the practice of engraving is at least as old as the oldest ,egyptian seal2 the publication of written language can be traced to the ,babylonish bricks2 printing with ink1 as indicated by old ,roman hand stamps1 was practised as early as the fifth century2 the combinations of movable letters were suggested by ,cicero and ,st4 ,jerome4 ,all that was needed for the full development of typography was the invention of paper4 ,supplied with paper1 the so-called inventor of typography did no more than combine the old theories and processes1 and give them a new application4 ,he really invented nothing4 ,in this conflict of opinion1 the critical reader will note an inability to perceive the difference between impression and typography4 ,those who believe in the entire originality of typography ascribe its merit to the mind that first thought of the combinations of types2 those who deny its originality find its vital element in pressure4 ,with one class1 the merit of the invention is in the idea of types2 with the other1 it is in the impression of types4 ,neither view is entirely correct4 ,a printer may see how these errors could be developed4 ,the unreflecting observer1 who1 for the first time1 surveys the operations of a printing office1 finds in the fast presses the true vital principle of printing4 ,with him1 presswork is printing2 type-setting and type-making are only adjuncts4 ,he was the inventor of the modern art of printing who built the first press1 and printed the first book4 ,the conclusion is illogical1 as will be shown on another page4 ,if a radical p#jea improvement had not been made in the earliest method of printing books1 the art would have been as unproductive in ,europe as it has been in ,china4 ,the fast press may do its work admirably1 but its only functions are those of inking and impressing1 and impression is not typography4 ,the thoughtful observer will perceive that the merit of modern printing is not in impression2 that there would be neither fast presses1 nor great books1 nor daily newspapers1 if there were no types4 ,with him1 whatever of greatness there is in printing is due to the mind that first imagined the utility of types4 ,the grandness of the results that have been achieved by typography seem all the grander when he thinks that these results have been accomplished with such simple tools as little cubes of metal4 ,the making of these tools he regards as a matter of minor importance4 ,for in these types are visible no intricacy of mechanism as in the power loom1 no indications of a mysterious agency as in the magnetic telegraph1 no evidences of scientific skill as in photographic apparatus4 ,there are in types1 apparently1 no more evidences of genius or science than there are in pins or needles4 ,the grotesque types of the fifteenth century are rated by him1 and even by many mechanics1 as rude workmanship which could have been done by a carver in wood or a founder in metal4 ,he who could imagine them could make them4 ,to think was to do4 ,the merit of the invention of typography is accordingly adjudged1 not to the inventive spirit which constructed the mould by which the types were made1 but to the genius which first thought of the utility of types4 ,this is a grave error4 ,speculations like these1 which assign all the merit of the invention of typography to him who first conceived the idea of types1 are opposed to many facts and probabilities4 ,cicero and ,jerome could not have been the only men who thought of the combinations of engraved letters2 nor were the old ,roman lamp-makers and branders of cattle the only men who used types4 ,the idea of stamping with detached letters p#jeb could have been entertained1 and practised1 by hundreds of experimenters of whom there is no tradition4 ,it is probable that there was such a practice1 but the stamping of single types by hand pressure was not typography1 nor did it lead to its subsequent invention4 ,experimental types like these1 which had been cut by hand1 were of no practical value1 for they could not have been used on any extensive scale4 ,illustration3 ,illustration of ,types of ,irregular ,body4 ,there is something more in types than is apparent at the first glance4 ,simple as they may seem1 they are evidences of notable mechanical skill in the matter of accuracy4 ,the page before the reader was composed with more than #b1jjj pieces of metal2 the large page of a daily paper may contain more than #aej1jjj of these little pieces4 ,whether the page is large or small1 the types are always closely fitted to each other2 they stand accurately in line1 and the page is truly square4 ,if the types of one character1 as of the letter a1 should be made the merest trifle larger or smaller than its fellows in the same font1 all the types1 when composed1 will show the consequences of the defect4 ,the irregularity of line that is scarcely perceptible in the first row will be offensively distinct in the second4 ,it will increase with each succeeding row1 until the types become a heap of confusion which cannot be handled by the printer4 ,advantages which might be secured from movable types are made of no effect by an irregularity so slight that it would be passed unnoticed in the workmanship of ordinary trades4 ,the illustration proves that it is not enough for types to be movable2 they must be accurate as to body2 they must fit each other with geometrical precision4 ,the accuracy of modern printing types is due more to the nice mechanisms employed by the type-founder than to his personal skill4 ,he could cut types by hand1 but the cost of hand-cut types would be enormous1 and they would be vastly p#jec inferior to types made by the type-casting machine4 ,he could make types by a variety of mechanical methods1 but they would be imperfect and unsatisfactory4 ,a careful survey of the impracticable inventions in type-founding1 recorded in the patent offices of this country and ,great ,britain1 proves that there is1 virtually1 but one method of making types4 ,the requirements of accuracy and cheapness can be met only by making them of metal1 and casting them in a mould of metal4#aj ,although it is clearly understood1 by all persons who have a practical knowledge of the subject1 that practical types can be made only by casting1 many popular books repeat the old story that the first typographic books were printed with types which had been cut by hand out of wood or metal4 ,whether the mechanics of the middle ages could have done what modern mechanics cannot do1--cut types with bodies of satisfactory accuracy--need not now be considered4 ,the stories about hand-made types--about types that were sawed out of wood blocks--about types that were cut out of wooden rods1 and skewered together with iron wires--about types that were engraved on the ends of cubes of metal--will be examined at greater length on an advanced page4 ,even if these doubtful stories were verified1 it would still remain to be proved that the cut types had advantages over letters engraved on wood4 ,it would be difficult to give reasons for their introduction4 ,books composed with cut types could not be neatly printed2 they would be inferior to good manuscripts in appearance1 but not inferior in price4 ,cut types p#jed were as impracticable in the infancy of the art as they are now4 ,there is no trustworthy evidence that they were ever used for any other purpose than that of experiment4 ,every method for making merchantable types1 save that of casting1 is a failure4 ,typography would be a great failure1 if its types were not cast by scientific methods4 ,this understood1 we can see that the most meritorious feature in the invention does not belong to him who first thought of the advantages of types1 nor even to him who first made them by impracticable methods4 ,its honors are really due to the man to whose sagacity and patience in experiment we are indebted for the type-mould1 for he was the first to make types which could be used with advantage4 ,illustration ,it will now be necessary to explain the scientific method of making types which is practised by every type-founder4 ,the first process is the making of model letters4 ,the work begins with the cutting on steel of a tool which is known as the ,counter-punch4 ,the illustration represents the face of a counter-punch for the letter ,h1 of the size usually known among type-founders as ,double-,english4 ,this counter-punch is an engraving1 in high relief1 of the hollow or the counter of that interior part of the letter ,h which does not show black in the printed impression4 ,it has apparently1 no resemblance to the letter for which it is made4 ,when the proportions of the counter-punch have been duly approved1 it is stamped or impressed to a proper depth on the end of a short bar of soft steel4 ,properly stamped1 the counter-punch finishes by one quick stroke the interior part of the model letter1 and does it more quickly and neatly than it could be done by cutting tools4 ,illustration3 ,punch4 ,illustration3 ,matrix4#aa ,the short bar of soft steel is known as a ,punch4 ,when it has received the impress of the counter-punch1 the punch cutter1 for so the engraver of letters is called in type-foundries1 cuts away the outer edges until the model letter is pronounced perfect4 ,this is work of great exactness1 for the millions of types that may be made by means of the punch p#jee will reproduce all its peculiarities1 whether of merit or defect4 ,the steel of the punch is then hardened until it has sufficient strength to penetrate prepared copper4 ,it is then punched1 by quick and strong pressure1 on the flat side of a narrow bar of cold rolled copper4 ,this operation makes a reversed or sunken imprint of the letter on the punch4 ,in this condition1 the punched copper bar is known among type-founders as a ,drive1 or a ,strike1 or an ,unjustified ,matrix4 ,it becomes the ,matrix proper1 only after it has been carefully fitted-up to suit the mould4 ,the exterior surface of the drive must be made truly flat1 and this flatness must be parallel with the face of the stamped or sunken letter in the interior4 ,the sides of the drive must be squared1 so that the interior letter shall be at a fixed distance from the sides4 ,the depth of the stamped letter1 and its distance from the sides1 must be made absolutely uniform in all the matrices required for a font or a complete assortment of letters4 ,the object of this nicety is to secure a uniform height to all the types1 and to facilitate the frequent changes of matrix on the mould4 ,the justifying and fitting of matrices to moulds is one of the most exact operations in the art of type-founding4 ,for every character or letter really required in a full working assortment of types1 the type-founder cuts a separate punch and fits up a separate matrix2 but for all the characters or letters which are made to be used together1 there is but one mould4 ,types are of no use1 as has been shown1 if they cannot be arranged and handled with facility1 and printed in lines that are truly parallel4 ,however unlike they may be in face1 they must be exactly alike in body4 ,this uniformity of body1 which is as p#jef essential as variety of face1 can be most certainly secured by casting all the types in one mould4 ,all the matrices are1 consequently1 made with a view to being fitted to one mould4 ,the mould forms the body1 and the matrix forms the face of the type4 ,with nearly every change of matrix there must be a new adjustment of the mould4 ,the word ,body1 as used by printers and type-founders1 means the measurement of a type in one direction only--in a direction at a right angle with the regular lines or rows of printed matter4 ,the types of the accompanying illustration are of the same height1 but they are of different bodies4 ,illustration3 ,pica ,small-pica ,long-primer ,bourgeois ,brevier ,minion ,nonpareil body4 body4 body4 body4 body4 body4 body4 7,see also page #ah47 ,exactness of body could be secured with little difficulty if all the types belonging to the same font were of the same width1 and could be cast in one fixed and unalterable mould4 ,but types of the same font and same body are of all widths4 ,they vary1 in the letters from the l to the ,w2 in the spaces or blanks used to separate the words1 from the hair space to the three-em quadrat4 ,the spaces in the following illustrations are of the same body1 but they are of different widths1 to suit the peculiarities of different kinds of printed matter4 ,illustration3 ,six-in-em ,five-in-em ,four-in-em ,three-in-em space4 space4 space4 space4 ,en ,em ,two-em ,three-em quadrat4 quadrat4 quadrat4 quadrat4 ,it is not practicable to make a mould for each character2 the cost would be enormous1 and the multiplicity of moulds p#jeg would lead to fatal faults in inaccuracy of body4 ,exactness of body can be had only by casting all the characters in one mould1 but this mould must be made to suit all the matrices4 ,the matrices must be frequently changed1 but with such nicety that the types of every letter shall be uniform in height1 in line1 and truly square4 ,any mechanic will see that the construction of an adjustable mould is work of difficulty1 and that the fitting-up of a set of matrices for one mould is a very nice operation4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4 ,type-,mould1 without ,matrix and with a ,type in the ,mould4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4 ,one ,half of the ,mould4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4 ,the ,other ,half of the ,mould4 ,the ,type-,mould of modern type-founders consists of two firmly screwed combinations of a number of pieces of steel1 making right and left halves4 ,in the first illustration of the mould1 ,figure #a1 the halves are properly connected4 ,in this form it is not practicable to represent the interior1 but it may be understood that the interior faces fit each other snugly in every part but the centre1 in which provision is made for a small opening which can be increased or diminished in a lateral direction only4 ,one end of this opening is closed by the matrix2 the other end is the jet1 or the mouth-piece through which the melted metal is injected4 ,in this opening1 which is indicated by the letter ,h in the cut1 the body of type is cast4 ,the matrix which forms the face of the type is snugly fitted between the jaws on p#jeh either side of this letter ,h4 ,it does not appear in the cut2 for the matrices1 although indispensable parts1 are always looked upon by founders as attachments to the mould4 ,figures #b and #c represent the interior sides of the mould4 ,for the purpose of clearer illustration1 the half of the mould1 ,figure #b1 is shown reversed1 or upside down2 but when this half is connected with its mate1 the two halves appear as they do in ,figure #a4 ,these two halves differ from each other only in a few minor features4 ,they are so constructed that1 when joined1 the sides which determine the body of the types are in exact parallel1 and at a-fixed and unalterable distance from each other4 ,in ,figure #b1 the ridges which make the nicks are noticeable2 in ,figure #c the cast type is shown as it appears before it is thrown from the mould1 with jet attached4#ab ,although the two sides of the mould are fixed so as to be immovable in the direction which determines the body of the type1 they have great freedom of motion and nicety of adjustment in the direction which determines its width4 ,they can be brought close together1 so as to make a hair space1 or can be fixed wide apart1 so as to cast a three-em quadrat1 but they always slide on broad and solid bearings1 between guides which keep them from getting out of square4 ,in the construction of the mould and adjustment of the matrices1 every care is taken to insure exactness of body4 ,the illustration on page #eb may be again referred to as an example of the necessity for minute accuracy4 ,we there see that the feasibility of typography depends upon the geometrical exactness of its tools1 and that types are of no practical use1 if they cannot be readily combined and interchanged4 ,the casting or founding of types1 in a mould constructed like that of the engraving1 is now accomplished by a complex machine1 the invention of ,mr4 ,david ,bruce1 ,jr41 of ,new-,york city1 and by him patented in the year #ahch4 ,before this date p#jei all types were cast by hand1 from a hand-mould1 and by a process which received no noticeable improvement for two centuries4 ,the following illustration1 taken from an engraving published by an early ,english type-founder1#ac can be offered as a substantially correct representation of the method of casting which was practised by all type-founders in the first quarter of this century4 ,illustration3 ,type-,casting as ,practised in #afhc4 ,from ,moxon4 ,the type-caster took in his left hand the mould1 which was imbedded in a wood frame1 and shielded about the jet1 p#jfj to protect him from accidental splashes of melted metal4 ,then1 with his right hand1 he took from the melting pot a spoonful of the hot metal1 which he quickly poured into the jet or mouth of the mould4 ,at the same instant1 with a sudden jerk1 he threw up his left hand1 so as to aid the melted metal in making a forcible splash against the matrix at the bottom of the mould4 ,this sudden jerk or throw was needed1 in the casting of small letters1 to make a good face to the type4 ,if it was not done1 the metal would cool too quickly1 and would not penetrate the finer lines of the matrix4 ,long practice enabled the type-caster to do this work with apparent carelessness2 but the trick of making this throw or cast with the left hand1 at the right time and in the right manner1 was slowly acquired--by some strong men1 never acquired at all4 ,in all cases1 hand-casting was hard work4 ,to face types1 writes ,august ,bernard1 the type-caster must make the contortions of a maniac4 ,it was slow work4 ,fournier the younger1 writing in #agfd1 says that the performance of the type-caster of ordinary book types would vary from two thousand to three thousand types per day4 ,when this throw was made1 the type-caster removed the matrix with his right hand1 and1 giving the mould a toss1 threw out the type4 ,the matrix was then replaced on the mould1 and the operations which have been described were repeated in the casting of every subsequent type4 ,it must be confessed that this method of making types is not simple4 ,it is too circuitous in its processes1 and too complex in its machinery1 to be regarded as the fruit of the first lucky thought of the inventor4 ,it is a scientific process1 manifestly the result of thought and protracted experiment4 ,in its series of impressions1 it is an emblem of the art which it has created4 ,the counter-punch impresses the punch1 the punch impresses the matrix1 the melted metal impresses the matrix and mould4 ,one model letter on the punch is the instrument by which millions of types are made2 one letter on a type may serve in the printing of millions of words4 p#jfa ,the punch1 matrix and mould are old inventions1 but they are still in use in all type-foundries4 ,they have not been changed in any important feature since they were explicitly described and illustrated for the first time1 by ,joseph ,moxon4 ,as ,moxon did not claim these implements as his own invention--as we find in the writings of the authors who preceded him notices of the art of cutting letters1 and mention of tools 8which they called matrices10 and of 8making types in brass0 matrices or moulds1 we have some reason for the belief that there has never been any radical change in the processes of type-making4 ,unfortunately1 we have no minute description of the art of type-making as it was practised before ,moxon4 ,those who were competent to describe the work1 refrained from description1 either because they thought that the subject was trivial or technical1 or because they intended to conceal the process4 ,the authors who did undertake to describe the art were incompetent2 they did not thoroughly understand the subject1 and have treated it slightingly and incorrectly4 ,but we are not entirely in the dark4 ,our most authentic information is contained in a queer little book by ,jost ,amman1 which is known to modern book-collectors as ,the ,book of ,trades1#ad and which was published at ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 in the year #aefd4 ,the title of the book1 with text in ,german1 describes it as ,hans ,sachs' ,correct ,description of all ,arts1 ,ranks and ,trades1 with printed p#jfb illustrations4 ,the descriptions1 so called1 which were written in verse1 by ,hans ,sachs1 the cobbler poet1 are of no value for this inquiry3 they describe nothing4 ,to men seeking trustworthy information about art or manufactures1 all the merit of the book is in its numerous engravings on wood1 which may be accepted as faithful illustrations of the methods and usages observed during the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,type-,casting as ,practised in #aefd4 ,from ,jost ,amman4 ,among the illustrations is the schriftgiesser1 or the type-founder1 with the accessories of his art about him4 ,we see the furnace for melting the metal1 the bellows1 the tongs and the basket of charcoal4 ,that the man is founding types is apparent1 not only from the bowl of cast types on the floor before the stool1 but from his position with spoon in hand4 ,here we begin to note differences4 ,the type-caster of #afhc stands up to his work2 the schriftgiesser of ,amman is sitting down4 ,the mould of #afhc1 like the hand moulds that were in use forty years ago1 is provided with a wire spring1 to keep the matrix firmly in position2 the mould of ,amman has no spring of iron wire and it is nested in a pyramid-shaped box1 which seems to be used as a protection to the hand4 ,how the mould was nested in the box1 how the matrix was attached to the mould1 how the cast types were dislodged from the mould1 is not shown in the engraving4 ,we have to regret p#jfc that the wood-cut is so small1 and that ,amman's engraving is so coarse4 ,there are some indications that1 in its more important features1 the mould of ,amman was like that of ,moxon4 ,the little opening in the side of the mould which rests on the shelf may have been an opening for the insertion of matrices4 ,that metal matrices were used is dimly shown by the three little bars resting on the top of a small nest of drawers1 which has the appearance of a chest for punches and matrices4 ,the pyramidal box was not only the nest of the mould1 but served also as a support for the matrix4 ,the sitting position of the caster permitted him to give the box a throw or jerk2 with his right hand at liberty1 he could pull out the mould and dislodge the type in the usual manner4 ,there are other features in ,amman's wood-cut requiring notice4 ,upon the lower shelf are two crucibles1 which were put in use1 probably1 when making the alloy of type-metal4 ,the use of the sieves is not apparent2 they may have been needed to sift the sand for the sand moulds1 in which bars of type-metal were made1 and in which large initial types were cast4 ,the crucibles1 the furnace1 the mould1 the position of the type-caster1 and the single types with jets attached1 are enough to prove that types were cast1 one by one1 by the process subsequently described by ,moxon4 ,it is plain that the elementary principles of type-founding were as clearly understood in #aefd as they are at this day4 ,the most obscure feature in this wood-cut is the matrix4 ,the three little bits resting on the chest of drawers are too rudely cut to enable us to decide positively that they are matrices4 ,we infer that they are from their surroundings and from the apparent necessity for such implements2 but it would be more satisfactory to know1 and not infer1 that the early type-founders used matrices of hard metal4 ,there are no engravings of type-founding of earlier date than this cut of ,amman's1 but we have some evidences which point to a very early use of moulds of hard metal4 ,we find in many of the books of the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries p#jfd occasional allusions to type-making4 ,considered separately1 they are of little importance2 considered together1 they are ample proof that types were made of fluid metal in moulds and matrices of brass1 not less than one hundred years before ,amman made his wood-cuts4 ,in #aejg1 ,ivo ,wittig put up a stone to the memory of ,john ,gutenberg1 on which he had engraved that ,gutenberg was the first to make printing letters in brass4 ,we do not find in any record of authority that ,gutenberg printed books by types cut out of brass4 ,there are difficulties connected with the cutting and use of brass types which would make such an assertion incredible4 ,if we accept the literal translation of the ,latin epitaph1 and supplement it with a little knowledge of type-founding1 we shall then understand what ,wittig meant--that ,gutenberg1 by using melted metal1 made types in brass moulds4 ,trithemius1 writing in #aead1 observes that ,gutenberg and ,fust 8discovered a method of founding the forms of all the letters1 which they called matrices1 from which they cast metal types40 ,the statement of the bishop is somewhat confused1 and his specification of ,fust as an inventor is1 probably1 incorrect1 but every typographer who reads his description cannot fail to see that he has endeavored to describe the established method of making types--the method in use to this day4 ,peter ,schffer1 in a book printed by him in #adff1 makes the book metaphorically say1 8,i am cast at ,mentz40 ,he says the types were cast1 although he elsewhere praises himself as a more skillful cutter of letters than ,fust or ,gutenberg4 ,bernard ,cennini1 writing at ,florence in #adga1 says that the letters of his book were first cut and then cast4 ,nicholas ,jenson1 who calls himself a cutter of books1 says in one of them1 published in #adhe1 that the book1 meaning the types of the book1 was cut and cast by a divine art4 ,husner of ,strasburg1 in the imprint of a book made by him in #adgc1 says 7translating his language literally7 that it was printed 8with sculptured letters from brass10 or1 as it p#jfe could be more clearly construed1 with letters in high relief1 made from brass matrices4 ,that ,husner did not mean to say that his printing types were cut out of brass1 is more clearly shown in the imprint of another book printed by him in #adgf1 in which he says1 literally1 that it was printed1 8without doubt1 with sculptured letters1 scientifically begun in brass40#ae ,that the cutting1 so frequently mentioned by the early printers1 was the cutting of punches1 is apparent to every modern typographer who knows that1 in the manufacture of types1 punch-cutting is not only the first process in order of time1 but first in order of artistic importance4 ,that the types said to be made of brass were made in brass moulds and matrices could1 in the absence of other proof1 be inferred from the appearance of the books of the fifteenth century4 ,these types often show varieties of the same letter and have other peculiarities disagreeable to modern tastes1 but there is strict uniformity in each variety1 and an accuracy of body which could have been secured by no other method than p#jff that of casting them in moulds and matrices of hard metal4 ,there is other evidence which is even more direct4 ,in the ,magliabechi library at ,florence is preserved the original ,cost ,book of the ,directors of the ,ripoli ,press of that city1 for the interval between the years #adgd and #adhc4af ,in this book may be found1 among other papers of value1 a list of the prices which were then paid for the supplies or materials used in the type-foundry connected with the ,ripoli ,press4 ,in this list we see the names of the metals that are used in all modern type-foundries4 ,there can be no question of the statement that the types of this foundry were cast in metal moulds4 ,,prices ,,of ,,material ,,for ,,the ,,type-,,foundry4 ,materials4 ,tuscan ,american ,currency ,currency per pound4 per pound4 ,steel1 lir4 #b #h #j #b4ah ,metal1 7,antimony87 #aa #j 4#ej ,brass1 #ab #j 4#ed ,copper1 #f #h 4#cj ,tin1 #h #j 4#cf ,lead1 #b #d 4#aj-a_/b ,iron ,wire1 #h #j 4#cf ,it would not be difficult to present additional evidence tending to prove that the punch1 the matrix and the mould of hard metal were used by the earliest typographers1 but this evidence will be given with more propriety in another chapter4 ,on this page1 it is enough to record1 as the result of the future inquiry1 that printing types have always been made by one method4 ,the significance of this fact should not be overlooked4 ,it has been shown that printing1 as we now use it1 could not exist without types1 and that there would be no types if we did not know how to make them in adjustable type-moulds4 ,in this type-mould we find the key to the invention of typography4 ,it is not the press1 nor the types1 but the type-mould that must be accepted as the origin and the symbol of the art4 ,he was the inventor of p#jfg typography1 and the founder of modern printing1 who made the first adjustable type-mould4 ,it is a curious circumstance1 and not creditable to the sagacity of the historians of typography1 that the importance of this implement1 upon which the existence of typography depends1 has never been fully appreciated4 ,that the type-mould was first made by the inventor of typography need not be discussed4 ,we have no knowledge that any method of founding different sizes and forms from an adjustable mould was attempted before the fifteenth century4 ,there was no need for such a mould in any other art4 ,but we have indirect evidences in abundance that the early printers considered their method of making types as a meritorious and original invention4 ,peter ,schffer described it as a new and unheard-of art2 ,bishop ,trithemius said that it was found out only through the good providence of ,god2 ,jenson said it was a divine art2 ,husner said it was a scientific method2 ,wittig said that the inventor has deserved well of the wide world4 ,it would be useless to attempt to add anything to these tributes--quite as useless to attempt to break their force4 ,typography1 made practicable and perfect by means of the type-mould1 was an original and a great invention4 ,if the inventor had produced nothing more than the type-mould1 this would be enough to entitle him to the highest honor4 ,it is tribute enough to acknowledge that the inventor of the type-mould was the inventor of typography4 ,it is not logical nor truthful to attribute to him the introduction or the rediscovery of the simple elements of relief printing4 ,it is not derogatory to his honor to confess that his labors were materially lightened by the services of men who had gone before him and had prepared materials for his use4 ,the inventor of the type-mould did not invent paper1 for that had been known for two centuries before2 he did not originate engraving on wood1 nor impressions from relief surfaces1 for both processes were known before paper was made2 he was not the first to print upon paper1 for printed matter1 in the p#jfh forms of playing cards and prints of pictures1 was a merchantable commodity before he was born4 ,he was not the first to make printed books2 it is not certain that he made the first printing press2 it is not probable that he was the first to think of movable types4 ,his merits rest on a securer basis4 ,while others dreamed and thought1 and1 no doubt1 made experiments1 he was the first to do practical and useful work--the first to make types that could be used--the first to demonstrate the utility of typography4 ,the first practical typographer1 but not the first printer1 he was really at the end of a long line of unknown workmen whose knowledge and experience in ruder forms of printing were important contributions toward the invention of the perfect method4 ,the contributions made by the men who practised ruder forms of printing demand a fuller description4 ,the merit of printing with types cannot be fully appreciated until it has been contrasted with the printing that preceded types4 ,it will be an instructive lesson to trace the origin of a great art to its sources4 p#jfi ,,iv ,the ,image ,prints of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,were ,engraved on ,wood 4 4 4 ,print of ,st4 ,christopher 4 4 4 ,print of ,annunciation 4 4 4 ,print of ,st4 ,bridget 4 4 4 ,other ,german ,engravings on ,wood 4 4 4 ,flemish ,indulgence ,print 4 4 4 ,the ,brussels ,print 4 4 4 ,the ,berlin ,print 4 4 4 ,all ,image ,prints from ,germany or the ,netherlands 4 4 4 ,how were they ,printed8 4 4 4 ,not by the ,frotton 4 4 4 ,methods of taking ,proof now used by ,engravers and ,printers 4 4 4 ,images copied from ,illustrated ,manuscripts 4 4 4 ,not made by ,monks 4 4 4 ,images highly prized by the ,people 4 4 4 ,the ,beginning of ,dissent in the ,church 4 4 4 ,preceded by ,ruder ,prints4 99 99 99 99 99 ,book printing and picture printing have both the same inner cause for their origin1 namely1 the impulse to make each mental gain a common blessing4 ,not merely princes and rich nobles were to have the privilege of adorning their private chapels and apartments with beautiful religious pictures2 the poorest man was also to have his delight in that which the artist had devised and produced4 ,it was not sufficient for him when it stood in the church as an altar shrine1 visible to him and to the congregation from afar4 ,he desired to have it as his own1 to carry it about with him1 to bring it into his own home4 ,the grand importance of wood engraving and copper-plate is not sufficiently estimated in historical investigations4 ,they were not alone of use in the advance of art2 they form an epoch in the entire life of mind and culture4 ,the idea embodied and multiplied in pictures became like that embodied in the printed word1 the herald of every intellectual movement1 and conquered the world4 ,woltmann4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,the ,print of ,st4 ,christopher4 ,size of original1 #h-a_/h by #aa-a_/d inches4 ,one of the purposes to which early printing was applied was the manufacture of engraved and colored pictures of sacred personages4 ,these pictures1 or image prints1 as they are called by bibliographers1 were made of many sizes2 some of them are but little larger than the palm of the hand1 others are of the size of a half sheet of foolscap4 ,in a few prints there are peculiarities of texture which have provoked the thought that they may have been printed from plates of p#jgj soft metal like lead or pewter2 but this conjecture has never been verified4 ,we find in many of the prints the clearest indications that they were taken from engravings on wood4 ,with a few exceptions1 these prints were colored2 some were painted1 but more were colored by means of stenciling1 as is abundantly proved by the mechanical irregularities which are always produced by the occasional slipping of the stencil4 ,the colors are gross1 glaring1 and so inartistically applied that the true outlines of the figures are frequently obscured4 ,the quality of the engraving is unequal2 some prints are neatly1 and others are rudely cut1 but in nearly all of them the engraving is in simple outline4 ,we seldom see any shading tints1 or any cross-hatchings1 rarely ever any attempt to produce a perspective by the use of fine or faint lines4 ,the absence of shading lines is not entirely due to the imperfect skill of the engravers4 ,the engravings seem to have been cut for no other purpose than that of showing the colors of the stencil painter to advantage1 by giving a definite edge to masses of color4 ,the taste for prints in black and white had not then been developed4 ,to the print-buyer of the fifteenth century1 the attraction of the image print was not in its drawing1 but in its vivid color1 and its supposed resemblance to the paintings that adorned p#jga the walls of churches and monasteries4 ,the image print of the fifteenth century was the prototype of the modern chromo4 ,the ,st4 ,christopher1 a bold and rude engraving on wood1 which represents the saint in the act of carrying the infant ,saviour across a river1 is one of the most remarkable of the image prints4 ,this print was discovered in the cover of an old manuscript volume of #adag1 among the books of one of the most ancient convents of ,germany1 the ,chartreuse at ,buxheim1 near ,memmingen1 in ,suabia4#ag ,the monks said that the volume was given to the convent by ,anna1 canoness of ,buchau1 who is known to have been living in #adbg4 ,the name of the engraver is unknown4 ,this convent is about fifty miles from ,augsburg1 a city which seems to have been the abode of some of the early engravers on wood4 ,the date is obscurely given in ,roman numerals at the foot of the picture4 f,christoferi faciem die quacunque tueris1 ,millesimo cccc4_/f f,illa nempe die morte mala non morieris4 rr tertio4_/f ,in whatsoever day thou seest the likeness of ,st4 ,christopher1 ,in that same day thou wilt at least from death no evil blow incur4 #adbc4 ,the date #adbc is evidence only so far as it shows that the block was engraved in that year4 ,the printing could have been done at a later date4 ,as it is printed in an ink that is almost black 7in which feature it differs from other early image prints1 that are almost invariably in a dull or faded brown ink71 there is reason to believe that this print was made some time after the engraving1 when the method of making prints with permanent black ink was more common4 p#jgb ,this engraving has its merits as well as its absurdities4 ,chatto says that the design is better than any he has found in the earlier type-printed books2 that the figure of the saint and that of the youthful ,christ are1 with the exception of the extremities1 designed in such a style that they would scarcely discredit ,albert ,durer himself4 ,the accessories are grotesquely treated4 ,one peasant is driving an ass with a loaded sack to a water-mill2 another is toiling with a bag of grain up a steep hill to his house2 another1 to the right1 holds a lantern4 ,the relative proportions of these figures are but a little less absurd than those made famous in ,hogarth's ironical study of false perspective4 ,illustration3 ,the ,annunciation4 ,these faults of drawing are counterbalanced by real merits of engraving4 ,there is a noticeable thickening and tapering of lines in proper places1 a bold and a free marking of the folds of drapery1 and a general neatness and cleverness of cutting that indicate the hand of a practised and judicious engraver4 ,this engraving of ,st4 ,christopher is obviously not the first experiment of an amateur or an untaught inventor4 ,in the book which contained this print of the ,st4 ,christopher was also found1 pasted down within the cover1 another p#jgc engraving on wood1 that is now known as the ,annunciation4 ,it is of about the same size as the print of ,st4 ,christopher4 ,it is printed on the same kind of paper1 with the same dull black ink4 ,there is some warrant for the general belief that both engravings were executed at or about the same time1 but they are so unlike that they cannot be considered as the work of the same designer nor of the same engraver4 ,the lines of the ,annunciation are more sharply cut2 the drawing has more of detail2 there are no glaring faults of perspective4 ,the ,virgin is represented as receiving the salutation of the angel ,gabriel2 the ,holy ,spirit descends in the shape of a dove proceeding from a part of the print which has been destroyed1 and in which was some symbol of the ,almighty4 ,the black field in the centre of the print was left unrouted by the engraver1 apparently for no other purpose than that of lightening the work of the colorist1 who would otherwise have been required to paint it black4 ,this method of producing the full blacks of a colored print was practised by many of the early engravers4 ,full black shoes on the feet of human figures may be noticed in many of ,caxton's wood-cuts while other portions of the print are in outline4 ,there are portions of this print in which the practical engraver will note an absence of shading where shades seem to be needed4 ,the body of the ,virgin appears as naked1 except where it is covered by her mantle4 ,it was intended that an inner garment should be indicated by the brush of the colorist4 ,what the early engravers on wood could not do with the graver1 they afterward did with the brush4 ,they not only printed but colored their prints1 and the colored work was usually done in a free and careless manner4 ,these prints do not contain internal evidences of their origin4 ,they were found in ,germany1 but there is nothing in the designs1 nor yet in their treatment1 that is distinctively ,german4 ,the faces and costumes reveal to us no national characteristics2 the legends are in ,latin2 the architecture of the ,annunciation is decidedly ,italian4 p#jgd ,but there is a print known as the ,st4 ,bridget1 a print supposed to be of nearly the same age as the ,st4 ,christopher1 which gives us at least an indication of the people by whom it was purchased and of the country in which it was printed4 ,illustration3 ,st4 ,bridget4 ,saint ,bridget of ,sweden1 born #acjb1 died #acgc1 was one of the chosen saints of ,germany4 ,the print represents her as writing in a book while the ,virgin and the infant ,christ look down approvingly4 ,the letters ,s4 ,p4 ,q4 ,r4 on the shield1 and the pilgrim's hat1 staff and scrip are supposed to indicate her pilgrimages to ,rome and ,jerusalem4 ,the armorial shield has the arms of ,sweden4 ,the legend1 if it can be so called1 at the top of the print is in ,german3 ,o ,brigita bit got fr uns--,o1 ,bridget1 pray to ,god for us4 ,the letters ,m4 ,i4 ,chrs at the bottom of the print have been construed as1 ,mother of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the lines of this print are of a dull brown color4 ,the face and hands are of flesh color1 the gown1 hat and scrip are dark grey2 the desk1 the staff1 letters1 lion and crown1 as well as the glory or nimbus about the head1 are yellow4 ,the ground is green1 and the whole cut is surrounded with a border of shining lake or mulberry color4 ,this harsh p#jge arrangement of the colors is a proper illustration of the inferiority of the workmanship of the colorist to that of the designer4 ,other prints in ,european libraries have been attributed to unknown engravers of ,germany1 who are supposed to have practised their art between the years #adjj and #adej4 ,one of these prints1 to which is attached a short prayer and the date of #adcg1 and which was discovered in a monastery in the ,black ,forest near the border of ,suabia1#ah represents the martyrdom of ,st4 ,sebastian4 ,these prints are rare3 of the ,st4 ,christopher only three copies are known2#ai of the ,st4 ,bridget and ,annunciation there is but one copy each4 ,all of them were discovered in ,german religious houses1 in which places it seems that they have been preserved ever since they were printed4 ,they were found in a part of ,germany that is famous as the abode of early engravers on wood1 and as the birthplace of several great ,german artists4 ,prints of a similar nature were subsequently made in ,germany in greater quantity than in any other part of ,europe4 ,the legend of ,st4 ,bridget is in ,german2 the costumes of the archers in ,st4 ,sebastian are ,german4 ,they are trustworthy evidences in favor of the hypothesis that engraving on wood was first practised in ,germany4 ,this hypothesis has been disputed4 ,it is opposed by several contradictory theories1 which may be stated in the following words3 7#a7 that engraving on wood was applied to the manufacture of playing cards in ,france at the end of the fourteenth century2 7#b7 that it was derived from ,china2 7#c7 that it was invented in ,italy2 7#d7 that it was practised in the ,netherlands before it was known in ,germany4 ,as the theories of ,french1 ,chinese and ,italian origin have no early p#jgf prints of images to offer1 they need not be considered in this chapter4 ,the argument in favor of a very early practice of engraving in the ,netherlands is based on its prints of images4 p#jgg ,illustration3 ,the ,flemish ,indulgence ,print4 ,the illustration on the opposite page is the reduced fac-simile of an old print once known as the ,indulgence ,print of #adaj1 and then considered as of greater age than the print of ,saint ,christopher4 ,the inscription at the foot of the indulgence2 which is in old ,dutch or ,flemish1 is to this effect3 8,whoever1 regarding the sufferings of our ,lord1 shall truly repent of his sins1 and shall thrice repeat the ,pater ,noster and the ,ave ,maria1 shall be entitled to seventeen thousand years of indulgence1 which have been granted to him by ,pope ,gregory1 as well as by two other popes and by forty bishops4 ,this has been done so that the rich as well as the poor may try to secure this indulgence40 ,that this print was made in ,flanders is apparent from the language1 as well as from the peculiar shape of the letter t at the end of words4 ,the perpendicular bar dropping from the top of this t was so seldom used in ,germany that it may be regarded as a very old ,flemish mannerism4 ,that the print was engraved in #adaj is extremely improbable4 ,the ,pope ,gregory here mentioned is undoubtedly ,pope ,gregory xii1 who reigned from #adjf to #adae4 ,it was once believed that the two other popes mentioned in the indulgence were the rivals of ,gregory1 the anti-popes ,benedict ,,xii and ,john ,,xxii4 ,it was supposed that this print was published during this period1#bj and for this reason1 it has sometimes been called the ,indulgence ,print of #adaj4 p#jgh ,m4 ,wetter1 a learned ,german critic1 has pointed out the absurdity of the belief that three popes at enmity with each other should unite in the promulgation of this document4#ba ,it is now understood that the two other popes mentioned in the indulgence are ,pope ,nicholas ,v1 who reigned from #addg to #adee1 and ,pope ,calixtus ,,iii1 who reigned from #adee to #adeh4 ,the publication of the indulgence is therefore placed between the years #adee and #adga4 ,consequently1 the print is of no value as an evidence of ,flemish priority1 for it was made more than thirty years after the ,st4 ,christopher4 ,a much more satisfactory evidence of the great age of ,flemish engraving on wood is afforded by the ,brussels ,print1 which was discovered in #ahdh by an innkeeper1 pasted down on the inside of an old chest4 ,it was bought by an architect of the town of ,mechlin1 who sold it for five hundred francs to the ,royal ,library of ,brussels1 where it is now preserved4 ,this print bears the date #adah1 but the validity of the date has been challenged4 ,it was alleged that the numerals that form the date had been repaired with a lead pencil in such a manner as to provoke doubts of its genuineness2 that the true date is #adfh1 instead of #adah2 that an alteration was made1 by scratching out the ,l from the middle of the numerals thus1 ,,mcccc7,l7,,xviii and by substituting a period--a fraud that puts the date backward fifty years4 ,the charge of fraud has been denied with ability1 and seemingly with justice4 ,the print has passed the ordeal of hostile criticism1 and is now accepted as a genuine print of #adah4 ,it represents the ,virgin and infant ,saviour1 when surrounded by ,st4 ,barbara1 ,st4 ,catharine1 ,st4 ,veronica and ,st4 ,margaret4 ,the design is somewhat stiff and mechanical1 but the composition is not devoid of merit4 ,the lines of the engraving were purposely broken1 for it was intended that the print should be more fully developed by the bright colors p#jgi of the stencil painter4 ,the fac-simile is taken from ,holtrop's ,monuments typographiques4 ,holtrop says that the fac-simile is slightly reduced in height4 ,the size of the block1 as he represents it1 is #i-g_/h by #ac-c_/d ,american inches4 p#jhj ,illustration3 ,the ,brussels ,print4 ,the ,flemish origin of the ,brussels ,print is established by an image1 in the ,cabinet of ,engravings at ,berlin1 now known as the ,berlin ,print4 ,it is of the same size as the ,brussels ,print1 and is1 apparently1 the work of the same designer1 for in these prints a remarkable similarity of treatment in designing and engraving may be noticed in the wings of the angels1 in the figure and position of the angel who crowns the ,virgin1 in the crowns of ,st ,catharine and the ,virgin1 in the flowing hair of the three saints1 and that of the ,virgin1 and in the collars on the doves4 ,this print represents the ,virgin as carrying in her arms the infant ,saviour4 ,it is described in the catalogue as an early xylographic engraving1 printed by friction about the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,it is without date or name of artist4 ,the language of the legend is ,flemish4 ,the ,virgin holds in her right arm the infant ,jesus1 and in her left hand an apple4 ,the child caresses the chin of his mother with one hand1 while he drops a rose from the other4 ,the ,virgin1 enshrined in an aureole of glory1 encircled by four angels and four doves1 placidly stands upon a crescent4 ,the legend in the four corners is in metre1 and is an exhortation to the reader to serve the ,virgin1 and imitate her example4 ,who is this queen who is thus exalted8 ,she is the consolation of the world4 ,what is her name8 tell me1 ,i pray6 ,mary1 blessed ,mother and ,virgin4 ,how did she attain this exaltation8 ,by love1 humility and charity4 ,who will be uplifted with her1 on high8 ,whoever knows her best in life4 ,connoisseurs in prints disagree as to the age and merit of this print4 ,passavant says that the ,berlin ,print1 which he describes as of fine execution1 is undoubtedly of ,dutch origin1 but he thinks it is the design of a ,german artist4 ,he places its date in the same period as that of the ,brussels ,print1 which1 according to him1 is #adfh4 ,renouvier says that the outlines of the ,berlin ,print are in the style of well-known ,dutch or ,flemish prints4 ,he hazards no conjecture as to p#jha the exact date of its publication1 but intimates that it may properly be classified with the older prints of the ,netherlands4 ,illustration3 ,the ,berlin ,print4 ,holtrop says that the language of the legend in the ,berlin print decides its origin2 the design is of the p#jhb ,netherlandish school2 the language is ,flemish1 and not ,dutch4 ,he further says3 8,these two prints 7of ,berlin and ,brussels7 complement each other2 the print of ,berlin shows their common origin2 the print of ,brussels indicates their date4 ,it may be said that they were engraved in the ,netherlands1 probably in ,flanders1 and perhaps in ,bruges1 at the beginning of the fifteenth century40 ,the prints herein described are the earliest prints with dates1 but they are not1 necessarily1 the earliest of all4 ,there are prints known to collectors as the ,crucifixion1 the ,last ,judgment and the ,st4 ,jerome1 which are regarded by many bibliographers as the work of unknown engravers at or about #adjj4 ,there is a print of ,st4 ,george which competent judges say was done in the thirteenth century4 ,none of the prints contain the name or the place of the engravers1 but it is plain that they were made in the ,southern ,netherlands1 as well as in ,southern ,germany4 ,it would be premature to assume that they were made nowhere else2 but it must be acknowledged that there are no image prints on paper which can be ascribed to any engraver in ,france1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,holland or ,england1 during the first fifty years of the fifteenth century4 ,there is a plausible statement on record1 which will be reviewed on another page1 that artistic engravings on wood were made in ,italy before this period4 ,we find1 also1 a more questionable statement1 that engraving on wood was practised in ,france before the year #adjj--;a statement based entirely on a print in the public library of the city of ,lyons1 with a printed date which has been represented as that of the year #achd4 ,the age of this print has been denied4 ,it is alleged1 with every appearance of probability1 that there is mistake or fraud in the numerals1 for the costumes of the figures prove that the print should have been made in the sixteenth century4 ,the question whether image prints were first made in the ,netherlands or in ,suabia need not now be considered4 ,it is enough to say that1 although the ,brussels print bears the earliest date1 the manufacture of these image prints was more p#jhc common in ,germany1 not only in the first but in the latter half of the fifteenth century4 ,that these few accidentally discovered prints represent the half1 or even one-tenth1 of the images then published1 is not at all probable4 ,we have good reason for the belief that they were as abundant in ,southern ,germany during the year #adej as cheap lithographs were in the ,united ,states during the year #ahcj4 ,that the greater part of these image prints have been destroyed and forgotten may be explained by the improved taste of the succeeding generation4 ,the artistic copper-plate prints which came in fashion soon after swept away as rubbish the once admired image prints1 just as the chromos of this period have supplanted the painted lithographic prints of #ahcj4 ,how were these images printed8 ,almost every author who has written on printing has said that they were printed by friction1 with a tool known as the frotton1 which has been described as a small cushion of cloth stuffed with wool4 ,it is said that when the block had been inked1 and the sheet of paper had been laid on the block1 the frotton was rubbed over the back of the sheet until the ink was transferred to the paper4 ,we are also told that the paper was not dampened1 but was used in its dry state4 ,the shining appearance on the back of the paper is offered as evidence of friction4 ,this explanation of the method used by the printers of engraved blocks has been accepted1 not as a conjecture1 but as the description of a known fact4 ,i know of no good authority for it4 ,i know no author who professes to have seen the process4 ,i know no engraver who has taken impressions with a cloth frotton4 ,i doubt the feasibility of the method4 ,the reasons for this doubt will be apparent when this conjectural method is contrasted with the methods used by modern printers and engravers for taking proofs off of press4 ,the modern engraver on wood takes his proofs on thin ,india paper4 ,he uses a stuffed cushion to apply the ink to the cut4 ,the ink1 which is sticky1 serves to make thin paper adhere to the block4 ,he gets an impression by rubbing the p#jhd back of the paper after it is laid on the block1 with an ivory burnisher4 ,if he is careful1 he can take with a burnisher a neater proof than he could get from a press4 ,but the only point of similarity between the imaginary old process and the present process is in the method of rubbing or friction4 ,the materials are different3 the modern paper is thin and soft1 the old was coarse and harsh2 modern ink is glutinous1 medieval ink was watery2 the burnisher is hard1 the frotton was very elastic2 the burnisher will give a shining appearance to the back1 the soft frotton will not4 ,if the modern engraver should attempt to use coarse1 thick1 dry paper1 fluid ink1 and a cloth frotton1 he could not keep the sheet in place on the block during the slow process of rubbing4 ,no care could prevent it from slipping when rubbed with an elastic cushion4 ,the least slip would produce a distorted impression4 ,the modern printer takes his proof on dampened paper with a tool known as the proof-planer4 ,this proof-planer is a small thick block of wood1 one side of which is perfectly flat and covered with thick cloth4 ,when the paper1 which must be dampened1 has been laid on the inked type or engraving1 the printer places the planer carefully on the paper1 holding it firmly with his left hand2 with a mallet1 held in his right hand1 he strikes a strong hard blow on the planer4 ,he then lifts his planer carefully and places it over the nearest unprinted surface and repeats the blow4 ,in like manner he repeats the blow until every part of the type surface has been printed4 ,rude as this method may seem1 a skillful workman can obtain a fair print with the planer4 ,although the wet paper clings to the type1 and the ink is sticky1 great care is needed to prevent the slipping of the sheet1 and the doubling of the impression4 ,the back of a thick sheet printed in this manner often shows a shining appearance in the places where the blow was resisted by the face of the type or by the engraved lines4 ,it will be seen that the printer's method of taking proof differs in all its details from the supposititious method of the p#jhe early engravers4 ,we have soft1 damp paper1 sticky ink1 and a sudden flat pressure against a hard surface shielded with cloth1 in opposition to fluid ink1 dry paper1 rubbing pressure and an elastic printing tool4 ,as we can find no positive knowledge of the method of printing which was adopted by the early printers of engravings on wood1 it is somewhat hazardous to offer conjectures in place of facts4 ,it is begging the question to assume that they were not printed by a press4 ,the presswork of early prints is coarse and harsh1 and could have been done with simple mechanism1 with rude applications of the screw or of the lever1 that could have been devised by any intelligent workman4 ,it is more reasonable to assume that the early prints were made by a press1 or with some practicable tool like a proof-planer1 rather than with the impracticable frotton4 ,one cannot resist the suspicion that the chronicler of early block printing who first described the frotton attempted to describe what he did not thoroughly understand--that he mistook the engraver's inking cushion for the tool by which he got the impression4 ,it should be noticed that all these old prints are of a religious character4 ,portraits of remarkable men or women1 landscapes1 representations of cities or buildings1 caricatures1 illustrations of history or mythology--none of these are to be found in any collection of the earliest prints4 ,the early engravers were completely under the domination of religious ideas4 ,their prints seem to have been made with the permission1 and possibly under the direction1 of proper clerical authority4 ,the designs are of much greater merit than any that could have been created by amateurs in the art of engraving on wood4 ,they were1 undoubtedly1 copied from the illuminated books of piety which were then to be found in all large monasteries4 ,ecclesiastics of this period were careful of their books and jealous of their privileges1 and not disposed to allow either to become cheap or common1 but they must have favored an art that multiplied the images of p#jhf patron saints4 ,it was an age of great disbelief1 and the image prints were of service as reminders of religious duty4 ,there is no evidence that these prints were made by the monks themselves4 ,there is a statement current in ,german books of bibliography that one ,luger1 a ,franciscan monk in ,nordlingen1 engraved on wood at the end of the fourteenth century4 ,but this statement needs verification4 ,it is not at all certain that the word which is here translated engraver on wood was written with clear intention to convey this meaning4 ,the earliest typographers were not monks1 nor were they favored with the patronage of the church4#bb ,it is not probable that any monk who had been educated for the work of a copyist or an illuminator1 would forsake his profession for the practice of engraving on wood or printing4 ,prints1 as then made1 were coarse1 mechanical copies of meritorious originals4 ,the artistic scribe rightfully felt that engraving was beneath him4 ,he must have looked on the people who bought image prints with the same pitying scorn that a true artist feels for the uneducated taste of those who now buy glaring lithographs of sacred personages1 and he must have felt as little inducement to engage in their manufacture4 ,and yet the multitude received them gladly4 ,wealthy laymen who could afford to buy gorgeous missals1 and priests who daily saw and handled manuscript works of art1 might put the prints aside as rubbish2 but poor men and women1 whose work-day lives were unceasing rounds of poverty and drudgery1 unrelieved by art1 ideality or sentiment1 must have hailed with gladness the images in their own houses which shadowed ever so dimly the glories of the church and the rewards of the righteous4 ,the putting-up of the image print on the wall of the hut or the cabin was the first step toward p#jhg bringing one of the attractions of the ,catholic church within the domestic circle4 ,it was the erection of a private shrine1 an act of rivalry1 pitiable enough in its beginning1 but of great importance in its consequences4 ,for it was the initiation of the right of private judgment1 and of the independence of thought which1 in the next century1 made itself felt in the formidable dissent known in all ,protestant countries as the ,great ,reformation4 ,our knowledge of the origin of engraving on wood has not been materially increased by the recent discovery of the ,berlin and ,brussels ,prints4 ,we see that wood-cuts of merit were made during the first quarter of the fifteenth century1 but we see also that they could not have been the first productions of a recently discovered or newly revived art4 ,they present indications of a skill in engraving which could have been acquired only through experience4 ,one has but to compare them with wood-cuts made by amateurs in typographic printing in ,italy1 ,germany and ,holland between the years #adfj and #aejj1 to perceive that the manufacturers of the image prints were much more skillful as engravers4 ,if there were no other evidences1 we could confidently assume that this skill could have been acquired only by practice on ruder and earlier engravings4 ,of this preliminary practice-work we find clear traces in the stenciled and printed playing cards which were popular in many parts of ,europe before the introduction of images4 p#jhh ,v ,printed and ,stenciled ,playing ,cards4 ,playing ,cards not made by the ,frotton 4 4 4 ,their ,manufacture an ,industry of ,importance 4 4 4 ,decree of the ,senate of ,venice prohibiting the ,importation of ,cards 4 4 4 ,early ,notices of ,card-,making in ,germany 4 4 4 ,probable ,method of ,manufacture 4 4 4 ,illustrations of a ,playing ,card of the ,fifteenth ,century 4 4 4 ,jost ,amman's ,illustrations of a ,print ,colorer and an ,engraver on ,wood 4 4 4 ,playing ,cards made from ,engraved ,blocks 4 4 4 ,early ,notices of ,card ,playing in ,france 4 4 4 ,cards ,prohibited to the ,people in ,france and ,spain 4 4 4 ,introduced in ,italy in #acgi 4 4 4 ,not ,invented in ,germany 4 4 4 ,an ,oriental ,game 4 4 4 ,illustrations of ,chinese ,cards 4 4 4 ,originated in ,hindostan 4 4 4 ,transmitted to ,europe through the ,saracens 4 4 4 ,popularity of ,cards in ,europe 4 4 4 ,cards ,denounced by the ,clergy 4 4 4 ,new ,forms and ,new ,games of ,cards1 with ,illustrations 4 4 4 ,unsuccessful ,attempts to make ,cards a ,means of ,instruction 4 4 4 ,cards not an ,unmixed ,evil 4 4 4 ,induced ,respect for ,letters and ,education 4 4 4 ,cards probably made before ,images 4 4 4 ,made by ,block-,printing 4 4 4 ,most largely made by this process in ,germany4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after innumerable experiments and disappointments1 the art so eagerly sought and so sorely needed was at last discovered4 ,and what is strange1 although in accordance with the capriciousness of invention1 this art that had eluded all the efforts and aspirations of intelligence1 was discovered by makers of cards4 ,it was by them1 and for the peculiar requirements of their work1 that xylography was invented4 ,bibliophile ,jacob4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the hypothesis1 for it is nothing more1 that all the early prints were produced by the frotton does not satisfactorily explain the large production of merchantable printed matter during the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,friction would have served then1 as it does now1 for trial proofs or experiments1 but it was a method altogether too slow and uncertain to meet the requirements of an extended business4 ,the playing cards and prints so common during this period must have been made by a quicker method4 ,that there was an established international trade in playing cards and in other kinds of printed work1 as early as the year #adda1 may be inferred from the following decree of the senate of ,venice3 p#jhi #adda1 ,oct #aa4 ,whereas1 the art and mystery of making cards and printed figures1 which is in use at ,venice1 has fallen to decay1 and this in consequence of the great quantity of printed playing cards and colored figures which are made out of ,venice1 to which evil it is necessary to apply some remedy1 in order that the said artists1 who are a great many in family1 may find encouragement rather than foreigners3 ,let it be ordained and established1 according to the petition that the said masters have supplicated1 that from this time in future1 no work of the said art that is printed or painted on cloth or paper-that is to say1 altar-pieces1 or images1 or playing cards1 or any other thing that may be made by the said art1 either by painting or by printing-shall be allowed to be brought or imported into this city1 under pain of forfeiting the work so imported1 and thirty livres and twelve soldi1 of which fine one-third shall go to the state1 one-third to ,giustizieri ,vecchi1 to whom this affair is committed1 and one-third to the accuser4 ,with this condition1 however1 that the artists who make the said works in this city shall not expose the said works for sale in any other place but their own shops1 under the penalty aforesaid1 except on the day of ,wednesday at ,s4 ,paolo1 and on ,saturday at ,s4 ,marco4#bc ,the engraved images here noticed were probably prints of saints or sacred personages like those of which engraved illustrations have been given on previous pages4 ,the altar-pieces were prints upon cotton or linen cloth1 of a similar character1 but of much larger size4#bd ,playing cards1 which are twice mentioned in the decree1 seem to have been considered as of equal importance with images and altar-pieces4 ,the specification of three distinct kinds of printed work1 coupled as it is with the allusion to 8any other thing that may be made by the said art10 is an intimation that the manufacturers1 8who were a great many p#jij in family10 were even then applying the art of printing and colored stenciling to many other purposes4 ,the decree says that the art had fallen to decay4 ,when it was in its most prosperous condition in ,venice cannot be ascertained from the record1 nor from any other source4 ,the author#be who found this document says that he had fragments of coarse engravings on wood which represented some parts of the city of ,venice as they appeared before the year #adjj4 ,he thinks these rude engravings must have been cut in the latter part of the fourteenth century4 ,that they could have been made at this time is not improbable1 but the direct evidence is wanting4 ,there are1 however1 abundant reasons for the belief that engravings on wood were made in ,venice1 not experimentally1 but in the way of business1 many years before the decree of #adda4 ,and they must have been made elsewhere4 ,the printers of playing cards and colored figures must have been many in family beyond as well as in ,venice4 ,if the foreign printers had not been formidable competitors1 there would have been no request for the prohibitory decree4 ,nothing is said in the decree about the nationality of the foreign competitors1 but we may get this knowledge from another source4 ,an authentic record of the town of ,ulm in ,germany contains a brief entry which tells us that playing cards in barrels were sent from that city to ,sicily and ,italy1 to be bartered for delicacies and general merchandise4#bf p#jia ,the same book contains a defense of the game of playing cards under the date of #acig4 ,another old ,german record1 the ,burgher ,book of ,augsburg for the year #adah1 specifically notices card-makers4 ,the ,tax ,book of ,nuremberg1 for the years #adcc and #adce1 names ,eliza1 a card-maker4 ,the same book1 for the year #adch1 mentions ,margaret1 the card-painter4 ,the words kartenmacherin1 card-maker1 and kartenmalerin1 card-painter1 which are found in these books1 do not clearly specify the process4 ,it has been suggested that these cards could have been drawn and painted by means of stencil plates4 ,the word formschneider1 form-cutter1 the word now used in ,germany as the equivalent of engraver on wood1 appears for the first time in the year #addi1 in the books of the city of ,nuremberg4 ,the same records mention one ,wilhelm ,kegler1 briftrucker1 or card-printer1 under the date of #adbj4 ,they also mention one ,hans ,formansneider1 in the year #acig1 but ,formansneider should not be construed as engraver on wood4 ,it should be read ,hans ,forman1 schneider or tailor4 ,in this1 as in some other cases1 it will be seen that the facility of the ,german language for making new words by the compounding of old ones1 is attended with peculiar disadvantages4 ,the manufactured words are susceptible of different meanings4 ,these notices of card-making are not enough to prove that the process employed was that of xylography4 ,they prove only that card-making was an industry of note in the towns of ,ulm1 ,augsburg and ,nuremberg4 ,but when these notices of early card-making are considered in connection with early ,german prints1 like the ,st4 ,christopher of #adbc1 which were discovered in the vicinity of these towns1 there is no room for doubt4 ,if prints of saints were made by engraving on wood1 cards should have been made by the same art4 ,the connection of cards and image prints in the decree of the ,senate of ,venice is evidence that they were made by the same persons and by the same process4 ,it may seem strange that the little town of ,ulm1 in the heart of ,germany1 should establish by a long sea route a trade p#jib in playing cards with cities on the ,mediterranean and the ,adriatic4 ,it is but one of many evidences of the growing spirit of commercial enterprise which pervaded all the cities of ,germany4 ,it is not more strange than the fact that1 in #aeje1 merchants of ,augsburg1 a city at a great distance from navigable waters1 joined with the ,portuguese in an extensive traffic with the eastern coast of ,africa4 ,playing cards may have been made at as early dates in other countries besides ,germany and ,italy4 ,we shall soon see that they were in common use in many parts of ,europe at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 but we have no certain knowledge that they were made from engraved blocks in other places4 ,our knowledge of the fact that they were printed in ,italy and ,germany is based entirely on occasional notices in old manuscript records4 ,we have indications that they were printed1 but we lack the proof4 ,there are no cards in existence which can be offered1 with any degree of confidence1 as specimens of the block-printing of #addj4 ,the xylographic cards of which fac-similes are most common in books which treat of pastimes1 are of the sixteenth century2 the copper-plate cards described and illustrated by ,weigel and ,breitkopf were made either during the latter half of the fifteenth or in the sixteenth century4 ,the engraving on the following page is a fac-simile of one of a set of forty-eight playing cards now preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,the entire set1 printed on six separate sheets of paper1 eight cards to each sheet1 was found in that great hiding-place of discarded sheets1 the inner lining of a book cover1 for which1 to adopt the bookbinder's phrase1 it served as a stiffener4 ,the sheets may have been rejected for imperfections1 and put in the book cover because they were unsalable4 ,the book in which they were found was printed and bound by some unknown or undescribed printer before the year #aejj4bg ,if rudeness of engraving could be considered p#jic as sufficient proof of superior antiquity1 this card should be rated as one of the oldest pieces of engraving on wood4 ,the cutting of this block could have been done by any carver on wood1 or even by a carpenter4 ,but the quality of the engraving is not a proper criterion of the condition of the art of engraving on wood during the period in which it was made4 ,it is obviously a cheap card1 made for the uses of people who could pay but a small price4 ,there may have been other reasons for the rudeness of the work4 ,the stiff and conventional manner of drawing the figures may have been as popular then as a similar method of designing playing cards is at this day4 ,illustration3 ,a ,playing ,card of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,from ,singer4 ,dull red and dark green were the only colors used in illuminating this set of cards4 ,they were laid on with brush and stencil4 ,the stencil is one of the oldest forms of labor-saving contrivance for abridging the labor of writing or drawing4 ,it was used1 as has been stated1 in the sixth century by a ,roman emperor who could not write2 it was used for the same purpose by ,theodoric1 king of the ,ostrogoths1 and by the emperor ,charlemagne4 ,it is used to this day by merchants who mark boxes1 in preference to writing1 printing1 branding1 or painting4 ,it has advantages of cheapness and simplicity that commend it to all manufacturers4 ,it is even used by publishers of books for tinting maps1 fashion plates1 and illuminated pamphlet covers4 ,jost ,amman1 in his ,book of ,trades1 has presented us a representation of the print stenciler1 as he practised his work p#jid in #aefd4 ,the method here shown is1 probably1 the method in general use in #addj1 for the coloring of playing cards and image prints4 ,we see the bowls that contain different colors1 with their proper brushes1 on top of the chest4 ,the colorer is sweeping the brush over the perforated metal plate1 and filling up the outlines of the print4 ,the neat pile of sheets before him and near his right hand shows that he is working with precision and with system4 ,stencil painting was work of care and neatness1 but it was so simple that we can clearly understand that it could have been done by women in ,nuremberg as effectively as it is done now4#bh ,illustration3 ,the ,print ,colorer4 ,from ,jost ,amman4 ,the illustration of the engraver on wood which appears in the same ,book of ,trades puts before us a man in a richer dress1 plainly a workman of higher grade than the stencil painter4 ,he seems to be tracing outlines on the block4 ,the technical accessories about this engraver are the same as those in use at this day--the graver1 the whetstone1 and1 possibly1 a water globe lens in the corner near the window casement4#bi p#jie ,playing cards and engraving on wood bear to each other a curious relation4 ,the introduction of the cards in ,europe was soon followed by the revival1 or as ,bibliophile ,jacob of ,paris characterizes it1 by the invention1 of engraving on wood4 ,whatever differences of opinion may exist as to whether the art was revived or invented1 it is certain that playing cards were the means by which early printing was made popular4 ,cards were the only kind of printed work which promised to repay the labor of engraving4 ,people who could neither read nor write1 and who had no desire to be taught either accomplishment1 derived great pleasure from them4 ,there was no other kind of printed matter1 not even the image prints1 which found so many buyers in every condition of society4 ,the fixing of the earliest practice as a regular business of engraving on wood in ,europe depends1 in some degree1 on the fixing of the date of the first introduction of playing cards4 ,the determination of this date has been made a national question1 and the theme of books containing much curious information4 ,illustration3 ,the ,engraver on ,wood4 ,from ,jost ,amman4 ,ambrose ,firmin ,didot#cj quotes a scrap of poetry from a ,french romance of #acbh1 which alludes to the folly of games of dice1 checkers and cards4 ,other ,french writers maintain that playing cards were in use in ,france as early as #acej4 p#jif ,bullet says that playing cards were used in ,france in the year #acgf4 ,but the testimony in confirmation of these dates is ambiguous and insufficient4 ,the first unequivocal notice of playing cards in ,france is to be found in an account book for the year #acib1 kept by one ,charles ,poupart1 treasurer to ,charles ,,vi4 ,in this book is an entry to this effect3 8,paid to ,jacquemin ,gringonneur1 painter1 for three packs of cards1 gilded1 colored1 and ornamented with various designs1 for the amusement of our lord the king1 #ef sols of ,paris40 ,the mind of ,charles ,,vi had been seriously affected by sunstroke1 and these cards were provided for his lucid intervals during which he suffered from melancholy4 ,we are not told how these cards were made--whether they were first drawn by hand1 or whether they were printed from cut blocks before they were painted4 ,the price paid was not small3 fifty-six sols of ,paris in #acic would be equivalent to one hundred and fifty francs in #ahgd4 ,in #aded1 a pack of cards purchased for the ,dauphin of ,france cost but five sous of ,tours1 the equivalent of twelve or thirteen francs of modern ,french money4#ca ,the difference in these prices is some indication of a cheapened manufacture4 ,the earliest and most convincing evidence of the popularity of playing cards in ,paris is contained in an order of the provost of that city1 under the date of #acig1 in which order he forbids working people from indulging in games of tennis1 bowls1 dice1 cards1 or nine-pins on working days4 ,that the game was then comparatively new is inferred from the omission of playing cards in an ordinance of the city of ,paris1 for the year #acfi1 in which other popular games were minutely specified4 ,the ,cabinet of ,prints attached to the ,national ,library at ,paris contains seventeen cards which are supposed to be the relics of the three packs made for ,charles ,,vi by ,gringonneur2 but these cards were1 without doubt1 drawn by hand4 ,this cabinet has no printed cards which can be attributed to the p#jig fourteenth century4 ,its oldest relics of this kind are eighteen printed cards which may have been made in ,france during the reign of ,charles ,,vii1 or between the years #addb and #adfa4cb ,playing cards seem to have been popular in ,spain before they were known in ,france4 ,they were supposed to be so demoralizing to the people1 that ,john ,i1 king of ,castile1 in the year #achg1 thought it necessary1 to prohibit them entirely4 ,to have acquired this popularity1 the cards should have been made by some process as economical as that of printing4 ,we have1 however1 no knowledge that the cards were printed4 ,they could have been made by stencils4 ,chatto says that the relics of playing cards which he thought were the oldest were made exclusively with stencils4 ,cards were known in ,italy as early as #acgi4 ,an old manuscript history of the town of ,viterbo1 which states this fact1 says that 8,in this year1 a year of great distress occasioned by the war between the anti-pope ,clement ,,vii and the pope ,urban ,,vi1 was brought into ,viterbo1 the game of cards1 which came from the land of the ,saracens1 and by them is called ,naib40 p#jih ,many ,german authors claim that playing cards were in common use throughout ,germany at a much earlier period4 ,breitkopf quotes the following passage from a book called the ,golden ,mirror1 said to have been written about the middle of the fifteenth century by a ,dominican friar of the name of ,ingold3 8,the game is right deceitful1 and1 as ,i have read1 was first brought in ,germany in the year #acjj40cc ,another writer quotes an old chronicle1 that describes the emperor ,rudolph as amusing himself with cards in the old town of ,augsburg at some undefined time before his death in #abia4 ,it cannot be proved that the cards here mentioned were true playing cards4 ,it is more probable that the amusement noticed was the game of king and queen1 which was forbidden to the clergy by the synod of ,worcester in #abdj1 and which has sometimes been erroneously understood as a game of cards4 ,the notices of card-makers and card-printers in the town books of ,nuremberg and ,augsburg should be regarded as the earliest records of the use of playing cards in ,germany4#cd ,illustration3 ,chinese ,playing ,cards4 ,from ,breitkopf4 ,a review of the dates proves that playing cards were not popular in any part of ,europe before the last quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,the ,italian record which attributes their derivation to the land of the ,saracens is fully corroborated by other testimony of authority4 ,students of oriental literature assure us that the ,saracens were taught the uses of playing cards by the inhabitants of ,hindostan1 in which country they were invented4#ce ,playing cards were made in ,china from printed blocks long before the game was known in ,europe4 p#jii ,the introduction of this oriental pastime in civilized ,europe has been attributed to the ,moors of ,spain1 to eastern ,jews who traded on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 to ,gypsies who made their appearance in ,germany at the beginning p#ajj of the fifteenth century4 ,whether they were introduced by ,moor1 ,christian1 ,jew or ,gypsy is of minor importance4 ,it concerns us more to know how they were received4 ,we have abundant evidence that the cards supplied a universal want1 and that they soon became as popular with the poor and ignorant as they had been with the rich and noble4 ,while the ,duke of ,milan found amusement1 as he did in #adae1 with a suite of cards elaborately painted by artists of renown on plates of ivory1 at a cost of fifteen hundred crowns1 and while ,flemish nobles were playing at games of hazard with cards engraved on silver plates1 the working people of ,france and ,spain1 soldiers in ,italy1 and traveling mechanics in ,germany were diverting themselves in wine-shops and public gardens1 in huts and by the road-side1 with similar games1 played with greasy cards which had been printed or stenciled on coarse paper4 ,the cards were adapted to all tastes1 and there was a fascination in them which made men neglectful of duty4 ,the evil results of this infatuation were soon perceived4 ,playing cards were denounced not only by kings and the provosts of cities1 but by the more zealous and conscientious priests of the church4 ,at the synod of ,langres held in #adjd1 the fathers of the church forbid all games of playing cards to the clergy4 ,on the fifth day of ,may1 in the year #adbc1 ,st4 ,bernard of ,sienna preached against playing cards from the steps of the ,church of ,st4 ,peter1 with such effect1 that his hearers ran to their houses1 and brought therefrom all the games of hazard that they owned--cards1 dice and checkers--and burnt them in the public square4 ,one card-maker1 who felt that his business had been ruined by the sermon1 went in tears to the saint1 and said1 8,father1 ,i am a card maker1 and know no other trade4 ,you have forbidden me to make cards and have consequently condemned me to die from starvation40 ,whereupon the ready priest said1 8,if you know how to paint1 paint this image0--showing him the figure of ,christ1 with the monogram ,i4 ,h4 ,s4 in the centre of a halo of glory4 ,the card-maker1 we are told1 followed the p#aja judicious advice4 ,the proper sequel is not wanting3 virtue had proper reward2 the converted image-maker soon became rich4 ,in #adeb1 the monk ,john ,capistan preached for three hours in ,nuremberg with a similar result4 ,the conscience-stricken people brought into the market-place 8#gf jousting sledges1 #c1fdj backgammon boards1 #dj1jjj dice1 and cards innumerable10 and burnt them in the market-place4 ,the attacks of the clergy had no permanent effect4 ,at the end of the fifteenth century1 playing cards were more popular than ever4 ,other games were invented1 and new forms of cards of quainter or of more graceful patterns were produced4 ,sometimes they were engraved on copper plates1 and were painted with all the delicacy of fine miniatures4 ,despairing of success in their attempts to entirely abolish the practice1 moralists undertook to divert cards from their first purpose1 and to make them a means of instruction as well as of amusement4 ,of this character is an old pack of fifty cards engraved on copper plates1 and supposed to be the work of ,finiguerra1 which has been preserved in an ,italian library4 ,one of the cards bears the printed date1 #adhe4 ,the pack is divided in five suites3 the first suite contains cards that represent1 by figures and words in the ,venetian dialect1 the various conditions of men from the pope to the beggar2 the second suite contains the names and figures of the nine muses1 with ,apollo added to make the complement2 the third illustrates branches of polite learning from grammar to theology2 the fourth exhibits cardinal virtues1 like justice and prudence2 the fifth1 displays the heavenly bodies1 the ,moon1 ,saturn1 the stars1 ,chaos and the ,first ,cause4 ,this game1 obviously made up for the benefit of young collegians1 was1 probably1 no more popular with them than the scientific story books of #ahbj-cj were with the boys of that period4 ,the combination of abstruse sciences with a frivolous amusement may rightfully be considered a problem of despair4 ,the illustration on the next leaf is the reduced fac-simile of a suite of twenty-two playing cards1 intended1 apparently1 p#ajb to convey solemn religious truths in the form of a game of life and death4 ,we do not know how the game was played3 we have to accept the figures upon the cards as their own explanation and commentary4 ,in the figures of ,jupiter and of the ,devil1 we see the powers which shape the destinies of men4 ,the ,wheel of ,fortune is emblematic of the fate which assigns to one man the condition of a ,hermit1 and to another that of an ,emperor4 ,the virtues of ,temperance1 ,justice and ,strength which man opposes to ,fate1 the frivolity of the ,fool1 the happiness of the ,lover 7if he can be happy who is cajoled by two women71 and the pride of the ,empress1 are all dominated by the central card bearing an image of the skeleton ,death--,death which precedes the ,last ,judgment and opens to the righteous the ,house of ,god4 ,in these cards we have a pictorial representation of scenes from one of the curious spectacle plays of the middle ages1 which were often enacted in the open air to the accompaniments of dance and music4 ,the union of fearful mysteries with ridiculous accessories1 and the ghastly suggestion of the fate of all men1 as shown in the card of ,death the reaper--these were the features which gave point and character to the series of strange cartoons popular for many centuries in all parts of civilized ,europe under the title of the ,dance of ,death4 ,this was but one of the many innovations proposed as substitutes for the older oriental games4 ,in the latter part of the fifteenth century1 playing cards were made in ,italy with figures which represented the four great monarchies of the ancient world1 with which a childish game was played in imitation of war and conquest4 ,suitable marks on the cards designated the four different classes of society2 hearts were the symbol of the clergy2 spades 7from the ,italian spada1 a sword7 were for the nobility2 clubs stood for the peasantry2 and diamonds represented the citizens or burghers4 ,illustration3 #a ,the ,juggler4 #ab ,the ,hanged4 #b ,juno4 #ac ,death4 #c ,the ,empress4 #ad ,temperance4 #d ,the ,emperor4 #ae ,the ,devil4 #e ,jupiter4 #af ,the ,house of ,god4 #f ,the ,lovers4 #ag ,the ,stars4 #g ,the ,chariot4 #ah ,the ,moon4 #h ,justice4 #ai ,the ,sun4 #i ,the ,hermit #bj ,the ,last ,judgment4 #aj ,the ,wheel of ,fortune4 #ba ,the ,world4 #aa ,strength4 #bb ,the ,fool4 ,reduced ,fac-,simile of ,french ,copper-plate ,playing ,cards of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,from ,breitkopf4 ,thomas ,murner1 a professor of philosophy at ,cracow in #aejg1 undertook to make use of playing cards for teaching high scholastic science4 ,he published a book which he called p#ajd ,logical ,playing ,cards1 or ,logic ,realized and ,made ,comprehensible through ,pleasant ,exercises with ,pictures4 ,the cards were filled with mysterious symbols intended as keys to the entire art of reasoning4 ,the difficult science was adapted to the meanest capacity1 by puerile methods which subsequently provoked the contempt of ,erasmus4 ,each card had some pedantic name like ,proposition1 ,predicate or ,syllogism4 ,could there be a more unattractive game8 ,eminent ,german artists--among them ,martin ,schongauer and the ,master of #adff--undertook to supplant the stiff and barbarous figures that had been used on playing cards1 with designs of merit4 ,they drew and engraved new face figures of most extraordinary character1 in which satirical and poetic fancies were strangely blended4 ,the amorousness of the monks and the coquetry of the ladies1 the quarrels of termagants among the peasantry1 the revenge of hares who are roasting their enemy man and his friend the dog1 are the subjects of some cards4 ,on other ,german cards of this period are represented1 in startling contrast1 the sweet and saintly faces of pure women1 heroic men riding in triumph1 and filthy sows with their litters4 ,jost ,amman#cf designed1 and perhaps engraved1 a full pack of cards which was published in book form with explanatory verses in ,latin and ,german4 ,rejecting the established forms of hearts1 clubs1 spades and diamonds for the designation of the suites1 he substituted books1 printers' inking balls1 wine pots and drinking cups4 ,the moral that he endeavored to inculcate was the advantages of industry and learning over idleness and drunkenness4 ,but the intended moral is not as clear as it should be4 ,some of the figures are exceedingly gross1 although they are drawn with admirable skill and spirit4 ,illustration3 ,french ,card of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,illustration3 ,german ,card of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,illustration3 ,german ,card of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,illustration3 ,german ,card of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,from ,breitkopf4 ,these innovations had but a transient popularity4 ,the people played cards1 not for instruction in art1 science or p#ajf morality1 but for amusement1 and they would not suffer the games to be diverted from their first purpose of the pleasure of hazard4 ,the old games and the old figures were deeply rooted in their memories and habits4 ,they would have no changes1 and there have been none of any importance4 ,the hard conventional figures of king1 queen and jack which are to be found on the oldest playing cards have been repeated almost without alteration in the popular cards of every succeeding century4 ,we can readily understand the reasons why the scholastic and scientific games were rejected1 but it would be difficult to account for the preference always manifested for coarse outlines and clumsy drawing in the figures4 ,although playing cards led to gambling1 and to forms of dissipation which required restraint1#cg their general use was not an unmixed evil4 ,to the common people1 they were a means of education2 a circuitous and a dangerous means1 no doubt1 but not the less effectual4 ,the medieval churl whose ignorance was so dense that he failed to see the advantages of education1 and who would have refused to learn his letters by any persuasion1 did perceive that there was amusement in playing cards1 and did take the trouble to learn the games4 ,with him1 as with little children1 the course of instruction began with bright-colored little pictures and the explanation of hidden meanings in absurd-looking little spots or symbols4 ,in the playing of the game1 his dull mind was trained to a new and a freer exercise of his reasoning faculties1 and he must have been inspired with more of respect for the dimly seen utility of painted or printed symbols4 ,to the multitude of early card players1 cards were of no other and no greater benefit as a means of mental discipline4 ,to men of thought and purpose1 they taught a more impressive lesson of the value of paper and letters4 ,they induced inquiries that led p#ajg to important resolves4 ,if a few arbitrarily arranged signs on bits of paper could greatly amuse a party of friends during a long evening1 would not the letters of the alphabet as they were combined in books1 furnish a still greater and an unfailing source of amusement8 ,the meagre notices of card-makers and card-painters in old town-books of ,germany and in the decree of ,venice do not tell us whether cards were made before or after image prints4 ,those who have written most learnedly on this subject1#ch tell us that the cards were made before the images2 that at first they were drawn and painted by hand2 that they were afterward colored by stencils2 that when this method was found too slow1 blocks were engraved and printed2 and that the image prints were subsequently introduced for the purpose of counteracting the evil influences of cards4 ,these propositions are ingenious1 but it must be confessed that we have no certain knowledge that the improvement was made in this order4 ,this theory of gradual development is based on conjecture1 and its best support is derived from a consideration of the fact that cards were in common use before we have any indications of the existence of image prints4 ,that the cards should have been made by engraving before the images seems reasonable when we consider that the workmanship of the cards was of a much ruder nature4 ,the experimenting amateur who knew that he was unable to cut a block like that of the ,st4 ,christopher1 would readily undertake to engrave the spots and face figures of the earlier cards4 ,breitkopf1 an expert type-founder and a writer of authority1 stands almost alone in his opinion that playing cards were p#ajh made after the image prints4 ,he says that the engravers who made cards also made images1 and he adds the curious fact that in some places cards and images were called by the same name4#ci ,the curt and careless manner in which the business of card-making is mentioned in the old records is an indication that the process used was not novel4 ,we do not find in the writings of any author of the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries a statement that the earliest playing cards were made by a new art4 ,that they were made by block-printing at the beginning of the fifteenth century in ,italy and ,germany seems clearly established4 ,that they were made at a corresponding period in ,spain and ,france1 where cards were as common1 cannot be proved4 ,it is probable that the ,germans derived their knowledge of cards from ,italy1 but the evidences of an early manufacture by printing are decidedly in favor of southern ,germany1 a district in which the most famous image prints have been found1 and which1 at a later period1 was the birthplace of many eminent engravers on wood4 p#aji ,,vi ,the ,chinese ,method of ,printing4 ,antiquity of ,printing among the ,chinese 4 4 4 ,statement of ,du ,halde 4 4 4 ,its ,perversion 4 4 4 ,first ,chinese ,method1 the ,gouging of ,letters 4 4 4 ,didot's ,hypothesis 4 4 4 ,second ,method1 of ,xylography 4 4 4 ,third ,method1 a ,combination of ,xylography and ,typography 4 4 4 ,a ,peculiarly ,chinese ,invention 4 4 4 ,method now used 4 4 4 ,its ,advantages over ,types 4 4 4 ,chinese ,paper 4 4 4 ,performance of ,pressmen 4 4 4 ,curious ,method of ,binding 4 4 4 ,expense of ,engraving no hindrance to ,chinese ,printing 4 4 4 ,the ,xylographic ,method necessary 4 4 4 ,chinese ,practice in ,typography 4 4 4 ,cheapness of ,chinese ,books 4 4 4 ,similarity between the ,chinese and the ,european ,methods of ,block-,printing 4 4 4 ,the ,hypothesis of its ,transmission to ,europe through ,marco ,polo1 or other ,venetian ,travelers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in both arts1 writing and printing alike1 the ,chinese have remained stiff1 stolid1 and immovable at the first step1 ,with the characteristic unchangeability of the yellow races of ,eastern ,asia4 ,d4 ,f4 ,bacon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,many eminent authors are of the opinion that we are indebted to ,china not only for playing cards1 but for the means of making them4 ,they tell us that playing cards could not have been popular1 as they were at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 if they had not been made by a cheaper process than drawing by hand4 ,the inference attempted is that block-printing and playing cards were brought to ,europe together4 ,the reasons presented in support of this opinion are far from conclusive1 but they are based on many curious facts which deserve consideration4 ,the ,chinese claims for priority in the practice of block printing have been disallowed by some critics1 chiefly because they have been presented in the form of perverted translations4 ,that oriental people practised printing before this art was applied to any useful purpose in ,europe is admitted by all who have studied their history4 ,du ,halde1 a learned ,jesuit father1 who traveled in ,china during the earlier part of the p#aaj eighteenth century1 was the first author who furnished ,europeans with a description of ,chinese printing4 ,he quotes the following extract from a ,chinese book1 supposed to have been written in the reign of the emperor ,wu-,wong1 who was living #aabj ,b4 ,c4 8,as the stone me 7,chinese for blacking71 which is used to blacken the engraved characters1 can never become white1 so a heart blackened by vices will always retain its blackness40#dj ,this is an allusion to some primitive method of blackening incised characters1 for the purpose of making them more legible4 ,it is a method which is still observed in the inscriptions on memorial stones in churches and graveyards4 ,but it is an allusion to engraving and blackening only4 ,there is no mention of printing ink1 and no suggestion of printing4 ,du ,halde quoted it only to show the antiquity of engraving1 yet it has been used by many authors as a warrant for the assertion that printing was practised in ,china eleven hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,if we could accept this statement1 we should have to believe that printing was invented in ,china but a few years after the siege of ,troy1 before ,rome was founded1 before ,homer wrote and ,solomon reigned4 ,du ,halde's words do not warrant this statement4 ,he says1 with due caution1 8,in printing1 it seemeth that ,china ought to have the precedence of other nations1 for1 according to their books1 the ,chinese have made use of this art for sixteen hundred years10 or since the first century4 ,the practice of blackening characters was not printing1 but it may have led to its development4 ,du ,halde says that the ,chinese printed not only on wood blocks1 but on tables of 8stone of a proper and particular kind40 ,the writing or design to be printed1 while it was still wet with ink1 was transferred by pressure from the paper upon which it was written to the smooth surface of a slab of stone4 ,when the p#aaa black lines of the writing or design were firmly set on the stone1 the paper was peeled off4 ,the black transferred lines were then cut out1 or cut below the surface1 as they are now done in the copper-plate process4 ,the surface was inked1 paper was laid on the stone1 and an impression was taken4 ,the result was1 the appearance on the paper of the writing or design in white on a field of solid black4 ,this method of cutting out the lines1 so that they should appear white in the printed impression1 is the simplest form of engraving4 ,it is like that of the boy who cuts his name in the bark of a tree4 ,he finds it easier to gouge out the letters than it is to raise them in high relief4 ,reasoning from probability1 we should say that it should have been the earliest of the methods4 ,didot believes that it was known to the old ,romans4#da ,du ,halde says that this method of printing on stone was used chiefly for 8epitaphs1 pictures1 trees1 mountains and such like things40 ,he does not fix the date of its invention1 but it was probably the earlier method4 ,didot says that he had in his p#aab library the portraits of four ,chinese emperors of a dynasty which began ,a4 ,d4 #fah1 and ended during the ninth century1 and also some fac-similes of the imperial writings1 which were made by the same process4#db ,sir ,john ,francis ,davis1 for many years ,british ,minister to ,china1 and author of two valuable books on that country1 places the invention of block-printing in ,china in the tenth century of the ,christian era4 ,he attributes the discovery of the art to ,foong-,taou1 the ,chinese minister of state1 who had been greatly hindered in the discharge of his duties by his inability to procure exact copies of his writings4 ,after many trials and failures1 he dampened a written sheet of paper1 and pressed it on a smooth surface of wood until he had produced a fair transfer4 ,he then cut away every part of the surface that did not show the transferred lines1 and thus produced a block in relief4 ,the lines in relief were next brushed with ink2 a sheet of paper was laid on the block1 and impression was applied4 ,the result was1 a true fac-simile of his writing1 and the birth of block-printing4 ,there was another ,chinese method1 which1 paradoxical as it may seem1 was a combination of xylography and typography4 ,it was invented ,a4 ,d4 #ajda1 by an ingenious ,chinese blacksmith1 named ,pi-,ching1 whose process is thus described by ,davis4 ,the inventor first made a thick paste of porcelain clay1 and moulded or cut it in little oblong cubes of proper size4 ,on these cubes he carved the ,chinese characters that were most frequently used1 thereby making movable types4 ,the next process was to bake them in an oven until they were hardened4 ,but the types so made were irregular as to height and as to body4 ,in printers' phrase1 they would not stand together3 some would be larger than the standard1 others would be too high to paper1 and all would be crooked4 ,this difficulty could be remedied only by fixing the types firmly on a surface or bed-plate of unequal elevation4 ,this surface was formed by pouring a melted mixture of wax1 lime and p#aac resin on a plate of iron4 ,pi-,ching then took a stout frame of the size of the page he proposed to print1 filled with iron wires in narrow parallels1 and placed it on the prepared bed-plate4 ,the types of clay were next forced between the iron wires on the mixture1 and pressed close together4 ,then the plate was put on a furnace and heated until the composition became soft4 ,a planer was put upon the face of the types1 to force them down in the composition until they were firmly secured at a uniform height4 ,so treated1 the composed types were made as solid as a xylographic block or a stereotype plate4 ,the form was then ready for printing4 ,the method of printing was like that subsequently used for printing blocks engraved on wood1 a method that will be described hereafter4 ,when the form had been printed1 heat was again applied2 the types were withdrawn from the composition1 cleaned of ink and adhering composition by the aid of a brush1 and put back into a case for future use4 ,signs and unusual characters not in constant use were wrapped up in paper4 ,there is nothing incredible in this curious story3 on the contrary1 it bears internal evidences of its probability4 ,the selection1 for printing purposes1 of so unpromising a material as clay1 the patient labor given to each character before it reached the condition of a type1 the sagacity that foresaw and evaded the difficulty of irregular bodies and heights by the use of iron parallels1 and a yielding bed-plate--all these are characteristic of the eccentricities of ,chinese invention4 ,the process was ingenious1 but it was not entirely practical4 ,it depended for its success more on the zeal and ability of ,pi-,ching than it did on its own merits4 ,when ,pi-,ching died1 his process died with him4 ,his friends preserved his types as mementos of his ability1 but none of them were able to use his method with success4 ,the present ,chinese method is1 practically1 the method originally used by ,foong-,taou4 ,for the purpose of block-printing1 ,chinese printers select the wood of the pear-tree1 which has close fibres that yield readily and sharply to the p#aad touch of the graver4 ,contrary to western usage1 the blocks are cut from wood sawed in boards1 or sawed parallel with the fibres4 ,the thickness of the boards or blocks is about a half-inch1 but1 in the ,chinese method1 it is not important that the blocks be made of uniform thickness4#dc ,each block is cut large enough to contain two pages1 and is carefully planed and truly squared4 ,the surface is then sized with a thick solution of boiled rice1 which saturates the pores of the wood4 ,when the sizing is hard1 the block is ready for the engraver4 ,the writing or design to be engraved is neatly drawn or written on thin1 strong1 transparent paper1 and is transferred1 face downward1 to the surface of the block4 ,the rubbing of the back of the paper permanently transfers the writing in its inverted position to the block4 ,the engraver then cuts away the field1 leaving the transferred lines in high relief4 ,if the graver slips and spoils a letter1 the defective part is cut out2 the vacant space is plugged with new wood1 on which plug the letter is redrawn and cut4 ,labor is cheap1 and skill is abundant3 the cutting of a block of ,chinese characters which conveys as many ideas as a page of large ,roman book types costs no more1 often less1 than the composition of the types4 ,the block has advantages over metal types or stereotypes4 ,it is1 practically1 a stereotype3 correct to copy1 it needs no proof-reading2 light1 portable1 and not so liable to damage as the stereotype1 it can be used for printing copies as they are needed from time to time4 ,for printing the block1 a press is not needed4 ,the block is adjusted upon a level table1 before which the printer stands1 with a bowl of fluid ink on one side1 and a pile of paper1 cut to proper size1 on the other4 ,in his right hand the printer holds two flat-faced brushes1 fixed on the opposite ends of the same handle4 ,one brush is occasionally dipped into the ink1 p#aae and afterward swept over the face of the block4 ,this done1 the printer places a sheet on the block2 he then reverses the position of the wet brush1 and sweeps the paper lightly1 but firmly1 with the dry brush at the other end of the handle4 ,this light impression of the brush is all that is needed to fasten the ink on the paper4 ,the success of this operation depends largely on the quality of the paper1 which is soft1 thin1 pliable1 and a quick absorbent of fluid ink4#dd ,if ,american book papers were substituted for ,chinese paper1 the process of printing by the brush and with fluid ink would be found impracticable3 the sheet would not adhere to the block2 the ink would smear on the paper2 the brush would not give enough pressure to transfer the ink4 ,chinese presswork is done with rapidity4 ,du ,halde said that a printer could perfect1 without exertion1 ten thousand sheets within one day4 ,as this performance1 about thirteen impressions in a minute1 for a working day of twelve hours1 is really greater than that of ordinary book-printing machines in modern printing offices1 this part of the description of ,du ,halde may be rejected as entirely untrustworthy4 ,we must believe that the good father did not count the work1 and that his credulity was imposed upon by some ,chinese braggart4 ,davis1 with more reason1 says that the usual performance of the ,chinese printer is two thousand sheets per day1 which is about one-fourth more than the daily task of an ,american hand-pressman4 ,the simple nature of the work favors speed4 ,the sheets are printed on one side only1 and the printer is not delayed by the setting-off1 or smearing of the ink1 on the back of the white paper4 ,although the ,chinese book is printed on paper of the size of two leaves1 in pairs of two pages1 it is not stitched through the back or centre of the double leaf4 ,the paper is folded between the pages1 and the fold is made the outer edge of the book2 the cut edges are the back of the book1 p#aaf through which the stitching is done4 ,clumsy as this method of binding may seem to our standards of propriety1 it is done in ,china with a neatness and thoroughness which are almost beyond criticism4#de ,the labor of engraving separate blocks for every work1 which would be regarded as an insuperable difficulty in the ,western ,world1 is esteemed but lightly by the patient and plodding ,chinese1 and is no hindrance to a very broad development of printing4 ,a daily newspaper1 known to ,european residents as the ,peking ,gazette1 has been printed in ,peking for centuries4 ,this paper1 which is made up chiefly of the orders of the emperor and the proceedings and papers of his general council1 is printed from a composition of hard wax1 which can be more quickly engraved or indented than wood4 ,the presswork1 as might be expected1 is inferior to that done from engraved wooden blocks4 ,the cost1 in ,china1 of engraving a full page1 about twice the size of the fac-simile opposite1 would be about forty-five cents2 a careful imitation of the same page by a competent engraver on wood in ,new-,york would cost about thirty-five dollars4 ,adherence to old usages1 in neglect of improved methods1 is a true oriental trait1 but the preference of the ,chinese for block-printing is not altogether unreasonable4 ,their written language is an almost insurmountable obstacle to the employment of types4 ,chinese characters do not stand for letters or sounds2 they represent complete words or ideas4 ,as their vocabulary contains a great many of these words1 estimated by some at #hj1jjj1 and by others at #bdj1jjj1 it is impracticable1 by reason of its expense1 to cut punches for all these characters4 ,european type-founders1 at various times1 have made up an assortment of ,chinese characters for printing the ,new ,testament1 and for other books requiring a limited p#aag number of words1 but a complete collection has never been attempted beyond the ,chinese ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,fac-,simile of part of a ,page from a ,chinese ,book4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,types ,made in ,london4 ,furnished by ,mr4 ,john ,f4 ,marthens of ,pittsburgh4 ,the type-foundry attached to the ,national ,printing ,office at ,paris1 which founded types for #dc1jjj distinct characters1 has1 probably1 reached the highest practicable number2 but this performance was accomplished only by repeated alterations of punches and matrices4 ,the punches were cut on wood1 and pressed in prepared plaster4 ,the matrices so made were broken when a sufficient quantity of types had been cast from them4 ,by shortening or cutting off a line or lines1 the old punches were altered to form new characters4 ,the matrices1 also1 after they had received the prints of these punches1 were sometimes altered by the p#aah separate prints of dots1 lines1 or angles1 which gave them a different meaning4 ,the imperfection of the process is obvious1 for it required the destruction of many matrices and punches4 ,the difficulties in the way of using types1 if they could be made with advantage1 are too great to be overlooked3 they could not be classified nor handled with economy4 ,the ,american compositor picks types from cases with boxes for #aeb characters1 and covering an area of #ajhh square inches2 but experts in type-setting say that the ,american case is too large1 and that the speed of the compositor would be much increased by reducing the area of the case4 ,the performance of the compositor decreases with an increase in the size of case and in the number of characters4 ,to provide for #hj1jjj ,chinese characters1 cases covering an area of #eej1jjj square inches would be required4 ,in other words1 the ,chinese compositor would need the room occupied by five hundred cases2 he would unavoidably waste the largest portion of his time walking through alleys in search of types1 and vainly trying to recollect the places where he had distributed them4 ,the ,chinese are not entirely insensible to the advantages of ,european typography4 ,there is a story current in books on printing1 that ,jesuit missionaries1 during the latter part of the seventeenth century1 cast #bej1jjj ,chinese characters in the form of movable types4#df ,here is an obvious error3 if we consider the work done afterward with these types1 the quantity stated is altogether too small for the types and too large for the punches4 ,it is further said that the ,jesuit missionaries1 with the permission of the reigning emperor1 p#aai printed a collection of ancient and standard works in six thousand octavo volumes4 ,of this edition1 there are now in ,paris1 the ,history of ,music in sixty volumes1 the ,history of the ,chinese ,language in eighty volumes1 and the ,history of ,foreign ,peoples in seventy-five volumes4#dg ,a printing office1 in which movable types of cast metal are used1 has been in operation in ,peking since the year #aggf4 ,the types of this office are of home manufacture1 made from punches of hard wood and matrices of baked porcelain4 ,there may be other instances of an occasional use of types for special purposes1 but they are exceptions to the general practice4 ,ever since their invention of the art1 the largest part of ,chinese printed work has been done1 as it is now done1 by xylography4 ,so long as they continue to use these peculiar characters1 this simple method of printing must be preferred for its great cheapness and simplicity4 ,we may smile at the clumsiness of the method1 but we should not overlook the fact that it is efficient4 8,every one10 ,du ,halde says1 8hath the liberty to print what he pleaseth1 without the supervising1 censure or licence of any one1 and with so small charge1 that for every hundred letters perfectly engraved in the manner above said1 they pay four pence half-penny1 yet every letter consists of many strokes40 ,in no country are books so cheap and so abundant as they are in ,china4 ,the ,american book or pamphlet in paper cover1 sometimes sold for seventy-five cents1 more frequently for one dollar1 seems of exorbitantly high price when contrasted with a ,chinese book of similar size1 which can be had in ,china for the equivalent of eight or ten cents4 ,if the ,chinese have not derived great benefits from printing1 it is obvious that their failure has not been produced by the high price of printed work4 ,there are many points of similarity between the ,chinese method of printing and the early ,european practice of the art4 ,the preliminary writing or drawing in ink of a design on paper2 the transfer of lines from the paper upon the wood1 p#abj and the cutting away of the field2 the use of a fluid writing ink2 the fashion of printing upon one side only of the sheet3 these were features in use by both peoples4 ,if we had a more thorough knowledge of the processes of the early ,european engravers on wood1 other points of similarity might be found4 ,these resemblances seem still more significant when they are considered with the fact that playing cards1 supposed to be of oriental origin1 were among the earliest productions of ,european engravers on wood4 ,they have been regarded as a sufficient warrant for the hypothesis that our knowledge of engraving on wood must have been taken from ,china4 ,it is the belief of many that block-printing was introduced in ,europe by ,venetian travelers of the thirteenth century1 who had acquired a full knowledge of all the details of printing through long residence in ,china4 ,this is a specious proposition1 but it will not bear close examination4 ,venice took the lead of all ,european cities in the establishment of commercial intercourse with ,china4 ,venetian merchants1 in #aahi1 occupied an allotted street in ,constantinople1 from which port they sent vessels through the ,black ,sea1 with bales of merchandise1 which accompanying agents introduced into ,thibet1 ,tartary and ,china4 ,to promote this traffic1 ,venice sent to the courts of the ,eastern potentates some of her most reputable citizens as diplomatic and commercial agents4 ,marco ,polo1 the most distinguished of these embassadors1 resided more than twenty years in the great empire of ,cathay1 or ,china1 in high favor with the emperor1 and provided with every facility for acquiring a knowledge of the arts and industry of the country4 ,soon after his return to ,venice1 in #abie1 he dictated a narrative of his travels1 but his statements were received with general disbelief1 and they have usually been considered as extravagant and improbable4 ,of late years1 the travels of ,marco ,polo have been defended as substantially truthful1 but his most zealous defenders have to confess that he was remarkably credulous4 ,it is a noteworthy circumstance that he does not describe printing or p#aba printed books1 although he does mention the paper money of ,china1 formally stamped in red ink with the imperial seal4 ,this paper money must have been printed1 but he does not say anything about the printing4#dh ,the commercial relations between ,venice and ,china were continued many years1 and it is possible that other travelers may have acquired some knowledge of the peculiarities of ,chinese printing1 and may have communicated this knowledge2 but it was a communication of details only1 and not of the principle of printing4 ,printing could not have been a novelty1 for we have many evidences that it was practised in ,italy before ,marco ,polo was born4 ,the mechanics of ,europe had nothing to learn of the theory1 and but little of the practice1 of the art of xylography4 ,all they needed was something to print1 and something to print on4 ,they were waiting for paper and for playing cards4 p#abb ,,vii ,the ,early ,printing of ,italy4 ,printing with ,ink in ,italy during the ,twelfth ,century 4 4 4 ,printed ,initials in ,manuscripts 4 4 4 ,printed ,signatures and ,monograms1 with ,illustrations 4 4 4 ,medieval ,trade-,marks1 with ,illustrations 4 4 4 ,engraved ,initials probably made by ,copyists who could not draw 4 4 4 ,texts of ,books printed from ,engraved ,letters 4 4 4 ,the ,codex ,argenteus of ,sweden 4 4 4 ,weigel's ,fac-,similes of ,printing on ,silk and ,linen ,cloth 4 4 4 ,probable ,method of ,printing 4 4 4 ,printed ,fabrics made in ,spain1 ,sicily and ,italy 4 4 4 ,art not derived from ,china 4 4 4 ,antiquity of ,stained ,cloths 4 4 4 ,no ,connecting ,link between ,hand-,stamping and ,card-,printing 4 4 4 ,no ,early ,italian ,image ,prints 4 4 4 ,story about the ,two ,cunios 4 4 4 ,its ,improbability 4 4 4 ,no ,early ,notices of ,engraving on ,wood 4 4 4 ,not considered a ,new ,art1 nor a ,great ,art 4 4 4 ,its ,productions of ,paltry ,nature 4 4 4 ,early ,engravers had nothing to print on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,nor is it any proof or strong argument against the antiquity of printing1 that authentic specimens of wood engraving of those early times are not to be found4 ,their merits as works of art were not such as to render their preservation at all probable4 ,ottley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 a student of old ,italian books called the attention of bibliographers to the strange uniformity of the initial letters in many old manuscripts1#di some of which had been made as early as the ninth century4 ,each ornamental letter1 wherever found or however often repeated in the same book1 was of the same form4 ,he reached the conclusion that this uniformity had been produced by engraved stamps4 ,the announcement of this discovery induced other persons to make similar examinations1 the result of which confirmed the original statement4 p#abc ,it was proved that there was a uniformity in the shapes of the letters which could not have been made by drawing4 ,illustration3 ,the ,mark of ,the ,mark of ,jacobus ,arnoldus1 #acde4 ,johannes ,meynersen1 #adce4 ,from ,jackson4 ,from ,jackson4 ,the statement that a rude method of printing had been practised three centuries before its supposed invention1 was received by the bibliographers with incredulity4 ,authors who had advocated theories of a ,chinese1 a ,german or a ,netherlandish discovery of printing would not admit that printing with ink could have been done at an earlier period4 ,they said that the initials were made by stenciling1 or by tracings taken from a model letter4 ,but they had a peculiarity which could not have been produced by stenciling1 for they showed the marks of hard indentation in the parchment4 ,papillon1 a practical engraver on wood1 accepted the indented letters as the impressions of wood-cuts2 ,lanzi1 the historian of ,italian fine arts1 said that the initials were certainly printed4 ,signatures which show all the mechanical peculiarities of impressions from engravings on wood have also been found on ,italian documents of the twelfth century4 ,printed p#abd signatures or monograms of notaries1 which seem to have been made to serve the double purpose of signature and seal1 in imitation of the kingly practice of affixing the signet1 were frequently used in ,italy1 ,spain and ,germany from the ninth to the fourteenth century4 ,it was customary1 also1 for the manufacturer or merchant#ej to stamp or brand merchandise with a sign or mark through which its origin could be traced4 ,it does not appear that merchants made use of these trade-marks instead of signatures on paper or parchment1 but many of them could neither read nor write4 ,yet there was an active trade between ,italy and the ,levant1 between ,england and ,germany1 between ,spain and the ,netherlands1 which could not have been carried on without accounts1 correspondence1 and the employment of duly authenticated signatures4 ,it may be supposed that the use of stamped or printed signatures would not be confined to the notaries and copyists1 and that this printing would be practised by merchants1 as much for reasons of necessity as of convenience4 ,the merchant who knew the advantages derived from branding boxes or cattle1 and the respect paid to the stamp of a notary1 would also see the utility of an engraved and stamped signature on a letter of credit or a bill of lading4 ,the initials printed in manuscripts were probably made for scribes who could write1 but could not draw the floriated initials then placed in all books of value4 ,they may have been cut by calligraphers1 who tried to expedite their work1 or may have been made to the order of copyists who desired to free themselves from their dependence on the calligrapher4 ,in either case there would have been sufficient reason for the engraving4 ,these initials are1 for the most part1 of unusually intricate design1 but they were engraved in outline only1 so p#abe that they could be filled in with bright color1 by hand-painting or by stenciling4 ,they were printed with a fluid writing ink1 which may have been black1 but is now of a dingy brown4 ,a recent ,italian author1 ,d4 ,vincenzo ,requeno1 who has published an essay on this subject1 tells us that the employment of engraved letters by the ,italian book-makers of the middle ages was not confined to floriated initials4 ,he says that they were sometimes used for the texts of books1 and that many so-called manuscripts were printed by stamping cut letters one after another upon the page4 ,this method of printing a book1 letter by letter1 could have been made a quicker process than that of careful writing4 ,not more than sixty-six engraved characters would have been required for the copying of any ordinary manuscript4 ,a skillful workman1 who had the characters before him1 fitted up as hand-stamps1 lettered so that he could select them at a glance1 resting on a surface which kept them coated with ink1 could take them up one after another1 and produce on paper the impressions of letters faster than they could be produced by the penman who was obliged to carefully draw each letter and to paint or fill in its outlines with ink4#ea ,illustration3 ,mark of ,adam de ,mark of ,edmund ,pepyr1 ,mark of an unknown ,walsokne1 who died who died #adhc4 person from a tomb in #acdi4 ,from ,jackson4 ,lynn4 ,in a library at ,upsal1 ,sweden1 is a volume known as the ,codex ,argenteus1 or the ,silvered ,book1 which seems to have been made exclusively by this method of stamping one letter p#abf after another4 ,the book is so called because the letters are in silver1 and present a brilliant appearance1 like the glittering letters of bookbinders1 on their leaves of purple vellum4 ,the ,codex ,argenteus presents many indications of hand-printing3 the letters are depressed on one side of the leaf1 and raised on the other1 as if made by indentation4 ,under the letters that have been too rudely pressed with the stamp1 the vellum is thin2 in some parts the leaf has been broken by pressure and patched with bits of vellum4 ,occasionally1 letters are found turned upside down--an error possible to a hand-printer1 but not to a penman4 ,john ,ihre1 who described the book1 in a pamphlet published at ,upsal in #agee1 says the silver leaf of the letters was affixed to the vellum by means of sizing1 and that the letters were produced by stamping on the leaf with engraved punches of hard metal1 which had been heated and used as bookbinders now use gilding tools4 ,the use of heat has not been proved1 but the blemishes of the work are most satisfactorily explained by the hypothesis that the book was printed letter by letter4#eb ,this explanation of the method by which the book was made has not been generally accepted4 ,it was said that silver letters are found in medieval books made entirely by writing4 ,but this is negative evidence1 for these books do not present the mechanical imperfections of the ,codex ,argenteus4 ,there has1 evidently1 been a vague apprehension that the admission of an early use of single types for printing would invalidate all subsequent claims to the invention of typography4 ,one can hardly imagine a grosser error1 for the hand-printing of single types is not typography4 ,it is even farther removed from it than the printing of letters on engraved blocks4 p#abg ,the doubts that once existed as to the genuineness of the printed initials in manuscript books have been dissipated by recent investigation in another direction4 ,it has been conclusively proved that woven fabrics of silk and of linen1 ornamented with designs printed in bright colors1 not unlike those of modern chintzes and calicoes1 were produced between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries4 ,the designs or patterns were printed in ink from engraved blocks of wood1 by the tedious process of hand-stamping4 ,of this curious primitive printed work1 there are1 in several ,european collections1 fragments of images1 priests' robes1 altar cloths1 and ecclesiastic apparel of like nature4 ,the genuineness of these relics of early printing1 and the process by which the printing was done1 have been established in the most satisfactory manner4 ,weigel1 in his valuable work on the ,infancy of ,printing1 has illustrated this part of his subject with fac-similes of these fragments which prove that ,italian workmen not only knew how to print1 but that they printed in colors with great precision4 ,the modern printer who fairly appreciates the difficulties of printing colors in register1 and the force required to secure a good impression from a large1 flat surface1 may be puzzled by the neatness of this early printing4 ,his experience tells him that these designs should have been printed upon strong and accurately adjusted presses1 and from large surfaces1 in sections or forms of two or more square feet4 ,but the method of the ,italian printers was quite different2 the designs were engraved on many pieces of wood of small size1 made to fit each other with accuracy1 and each piece was separately inked and struck by hand1 or by a mallet1 on the fabric4 ,a careful workman could readily connect the different impressions of different blocks1 keeping the colors in true register1 and could pursue the pattern in a neat manner over any surface1 however large4 ,the work was tedious1 but not more so than that of finishing1 or gilding by hand tools1 in ornamental bookbinding1 which is now done by a similar method4 ,slow as it may seem when compared with the rapidity of modern p#abh calico-printing1 it was an improvement on all methods then known1 and much quicker and more exact than any form of stenciling or hand-painting4 ,the fragment adjudged by ,weigel the oldest of the ten specimens illustrated in the book1 is a bit of red silk1 woven and printed during the last ten years of the twelfth century4 ,he says that we must search for its origin where silk fabrics were most extensively manufactured2 that it must have been made by ,moorish artisans of ,almeria1 ,grenada and ,seville in ,southern ,spain1 or by ,saracens in ,sicily in the rich manufacturing cities of ,palermo#ec and ,messina4 ,printed fabrics of silk1 cotton1 linen1 and woolen stuffs were subsequently made in ,lucca1 in ,genoa1 and the free cities of ,northern ,italy4 ,the art of staining cloth with colors is older than history4 ,homer writes about the magnificent colored cloths of ,sidon2 ,herodotus mentions the garments of the people of ,caucasus1 which he says were covered with figures of animals2 ,pliny describes the decorated linens of the old ,egyptians4#ed ,the ,spanish invaders of ,mexico brought back statements that all the people of the ,new ,world were clothed in cotton cloths p#abi of brilliant colors1 which ,stephens says were certainly printed4 ,cook1 the discoverer of islands in the ,pacific1 says that the ,polynesians beautified their garments by a method of stamping4 ,it is not even necessary to attribute the early ,italian practice of printing upon woven fabrics to the ,saracens of ,sicily2 the ,italian practice may have been the revival of a disused but unforgotten ,roman art--a revival made possible through the growth of commerce and manufactures4 ,there is no connecting link between the ,italian hand-stamps of the thirteenth and the ,venetian playing cards of the fifteenth century4 ,there are no ,italian prints of images1 and no ,italian block-books1 which can be attributed to this period4 ,papillon1 the author of a treatise on engraving1 is the only person who has attempted to supply this deficiency in the record4 ,he gives a description of eight large prints1 which he thinks were made at ,ravenna1 in the year #abhf1 by a twin brother and sister1 known as the two ,cunios3 ,when ,i was a young man1 and employed by my father almost every week-day in different places1 to paste or arrange our papers for the hanging of rooms1 it happened that1 in #agai or #agbj1 ,i was sent to the village of ,bagneux1 near ,mount ,rouge1 to a ,mr4 ,de ,greder1 a ,swiss captain1 who there possessed a very pretty house4 ,after ,i had papered a closet for him1 he employed me to paste certain papers in imitation of mosaic upon the shelves of his library4 ,one day after dinner1 he found me reading in one of his books1 and was1 in consequence1 induced to show me two or three very ancient volumes which had been lent to him by a ,swiss officer1 one of his friends1 that he might examine them at his leisure4 ,we conversed together about the prints contained in them1 and concerning the antiquity of engraving on wood4 ,i will now give the description of these ancient volumes1 such as ,i wrote in his presence1 and as he had the goodness to dictate to me3 8,upon a cartouche1 or frontispiece1 decorated with fanciful ornaments1 which1 although ,gothic1 are far from disagreeable1 and measuring about nine inches in width by six inches in height1 with the arms1 no doubt1 of the family of ,cunio at the top of it1 are rudely engraved the following words1 in bad ,latin1 or ancient ,gothic ,italian1 with many abbreviations3 8,the ,heroic ,actions1 represented in ,figures1 of the great and magnanimous ,macedonian ,king1 the bold and valiant ,alexander1 p#acj dedicated1 presented1 and humbly offered to the most holy father ,pope ,honorius ,,ii1 the glory and support of the ,church1 and to our illustrious and generous father and mother--by us1 ,allessandro ,alberico ,cunio1 cavalier1 and ,isabella ,cunio1 twin brother and sister--first reduced1 imagined1 and attempted to be executed in relief1 with a small knife1 on blocks of wood1 and made even and polished by this dear sister1 and continued and finished by us together1 at ,ravenna1 from eight pictures of our invention1 painted six times larger than here represented1 engraved and explained by verses1 and thus marked upon the paper1 to perpetuate the number of them1 and to enable us to present them to our relatives and friends1 in testimony of gratitude1 friendship and affection4 ,all this was done and finished by us when only sixteen years of age40#ee ,the book was1 apparently1 in its original binding of thin plates of wood1 covered with leather1 but without any gilding1 ornamented only by crossed divisions marked with a heated iron4 ,papillon says that the engravings were cut in a crude1 experimental manner1 and that they appear to have been printed by rubbing the palm of the hand or a frotton many times over the paper4 ,the tint of the ink was a pale1 faded blue1 mixed as water color4 ,the field of the engravings was badly routed out2 projections that soiled the paper appeared in several places1 obscuring words1 which had subsequently been written on the margin4 ,neither the engravings1 nor the memoir bound with them1 furnish us with dates2 but there can be no doubt as to the period in which the engravings were ostensibly made1 for ,pope ,honorius occupied the papal chair only between ,april #b1 #abhe1 and ,april #c1 #abhg4 ,there is nothing improbable in the statement that prints like these could have been made in #abhe4 ,there may be a substratum of truth under the exaggerations raised by family pride and a love for the marvelous2 but the memoir of the lives of the two ,cunios1 and the details furnished by ,papillon about the appearance of the engravings1 are altogether unsatisfactory4#a ,whatever opinion may be formed of the credibility p#aca of the story of the two ,cunios1#ef it must be admitted that their prints had no known influence in the development of engraving on wood4 ,they were not imitated4 ,the interval between the years #abhe and #addj is almost an absolute blank in the annals of ,italian engraving3 it furnishes us neither trace nor tradition of engravings on wood4 ,the oldest authentic ,italian engravings on wood are in ,the ,meditations of ,john of ,turrecremata1 a book printed at ,rome in #adfg2 but these engravings cannot be claimed as illustrations of the development of the ,italian practice of the art1 for they were designed and cut by or for ,ulric ,hahn1 a ,german printer4 ,this silence of the early chroniclers should not be construed as evidence that there was no engraving on wood2 it is evidence only of the trivial nature of the work done4 ,to specify the work is to justify the neglect4 ,it consisted1 so far as we know1 only of stamps for the use of notaries1 autographs for those who did not write1 trade-marks for merchants' packages1 outlined initials for inexpert scribes1 and engraved blocks for manufacturers of textile fabrics4 ,this paltry work seems specially inappropriate for the initiation of a great art destined to make a revolution in literature4 ,engraving on wood was not considered as a great art by the earlier engravers4 ,as it appeared to them1 it was but a makeshift1 a mechanical method of evading the labor of difficult drawing or of abridging its drudgery4 ,to the chroniclers of this period1 engraving was entirely unworthy of notice4 ,no one could see that it had any marked merit4 ,so far from deserving praise1 the art of engraving and printing letters was p#acb regarded as a confessed acknowledgment of inability to draw1 more deserving of censure than of praise4 ,there were in the thirteenth century workmen1 now unknown1 who produced exquisite workmanship in the carving of wood and stone1 in the chasing of gold and silver1 and in the copying of manuscripts4 ,if these men were thought unworthy of notice1 the rude engravers on wood would be entirely forgotten4 ,the paltriness of the printed matter1 and the perishable nature of the substances on which the printing was done1 will account for the disappearance of most of the early prints4 ,nobody cared to preserve a bit of printed cotton cloth as evidence of the method of printing then in fashion4 ,nobody could foresee that it would be of any interest4 ,the trivial nature of the work cannot be considered as an evidence of the incompetency of the engravers to do work of merit4 ,they left us no printing of permanent value1 because they knew of no proper substance to print upon4 ,the only materials available were parchment1 papyrus and stiff cotton paper1 all of which were unsuitable4 ,printing can be done to advantage only on paper1 but paper was sparingly used in the fourteenth century4 ,when paper came1 printing followed4 p#acc ,,viii ,the ,introduction of ,paper in ,europe4 ,paper ,invented in ,china in the ,first ,century 4 4 4 ,paper-,making in ,japan1 with ,illustration 4 4 4 ,description of ,process 4 4 4 ,an ,illustration of ,oriental ,book-,making 4 4 4 ,the ,european ,process like the ,oriental 4 4 4 ,paper known in ,europe in the ,fifth ,century 4 4 4 ,not used for ,writing 4 4 4 ,made of ,cotton 4 4 4 ,earliest ,notice of ,linen ,paper 4 4 4 ,differences of ,opinion concerning its ,introduction 4 4 4 ,different ,methods of ,preparing ,pulp 4 4 4 ,early ,european ,paper-,mills 4 4 4 ,illustration of ,paper-,mill by ,jost ,amman 4 4 4 ,mills in ,spain1 ,france1 ,sicily and ,italy 4 4 4 ,possible ,antiquity of the ,european ,process 4 4 4 ,paper not used by ,copyists 4 4 4 ,its ,inferiority 4 4 4 ,vellum ,preferred 4 4 4 ,palimpsests 4 4 4 ,government ,interference with ,manufacturers of ,paper 4 4 4 ,changes of ,fashion in ,paper 4 4 4 ,paper came in ,proper ,time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is peculiarly characteristic of all the pretended discoveries of the middle ages1 that when the historians mention them for the first time1 they treat them as things in general use4 ,neither gunpowder1 nor the compass1 nor the ,arabic numerals1 nor paper1 are anywhere spoken of as discoveries1 and yet they must have wrought a total change in war1 in navigation1 in science and in education4 ,sismendi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,according to ,chinese chronology1 paper was invented in ,china at the close of the first century1 or one hundred and forty-five years#eg after the ,chinese invention of printing4 ,all the printing that had been done before the invention of paper was on sheets or leaves of cotton or silk4 ,this version of the antiquity of the ,chinese invention is in some degree corroborated by a ,japanese chronicle1 which says that paper was exported from the ,corea to ,japan between the years #bhj and #faj ,a4 ,d4 ,in time1 the ,japanese paper was made so superior to the ,chinese1 that there was no further need for importation4 ,this superiority has been maintained to this day4 ,in some branches of paper-making1 the ,japanese are p#acd without rivals in either the eastern or western world4 ,two hundred and sixty-three kinds of paper are now made in ,yeddo4 ,some of them may have their origin in reasons of habit1 caprice or fashion1 but most of them are made for specific uses4 ,papers are manufactured not only for writing and printing1 but for hats1 umbrellas1 lanterns1 clothing1 dolls' dresses1 twine1 candle-wick1 and an endless variety of useful or ceremonious purposes4 ,an anonymous author has wisely remarked3 8,when a people contrive to make saucepans that are used over charcoal fires1 fine pocket-handkerchiefs1 and sailors' water-proof overcoats out of paper1 they may be considered as having pretty thoroughly mastered the subject40 ,the illustration on the opposite page is the reduced fac-simile of the engraving of a ,japanese artist who has attempted to show how paper was made in his country in the eighteenth century4 ,the grim old man who may be seen at the upper part of the illustration1 with a leg in one page1 and with head and body in another1 is beating paper stock to a pulp4#eh ,his only tool is a forked club1 with which he pounds on the stone1 and macerates the leaves and inner bark of various trees that have been previously saturated in an adjoining tub that is supposed to contain a solution of caustic alkali4 ,how the stock could be reduced to the requisite smoothness for paper pulp by this rough manipulation is a problem that no ,american paper-maker will undertake to solve4 ,we only know that it is done and well done4 ,the long tank in the centre of the left-hand page contains the pulp dissolved in water4 ,two men are taking out the pulp upon paper-moulds1 or sieves of bamboo splints which have been wire-drawn and boiled in oil4 ,the water taken up with the pulp is drained through the holes in the sieve1 leaving upon the woven splints a thin and flabby web of paper pulp4 ,the web is then couched on p#acf a surface of cloth or felt1 or of some substitute of similar nature1 on which1 in turn1 another layer of felt and pulp is placed4 ,when the pile is of sufficient height it is pressed1 until all the water that can be expelled by pressure is removed4 ,the two attendants on the paper-makers near the tank are engaged in the work of interleaving the web and carrying it to be pressed4 ,this done1 the sheet is firm enough to be handled4 ,it is then laid upon a smooth board where it stays until it is dry4 ,the operation of surfacing or polishing the sheet of paper1 by burnishing it with a smooth shell1 is not shown in the engraving4 ,but this finish was not given to all papers4 ,the neatly corded bales show that paper was made in large quantities4 ,illustration3 ,the ,japanese ,method of ,making ,paper4 ,from ,breitkopf4 ,this engraving is of service as an illustration of oriental book-making4 ,these two pages were engraved and printed together on one side of the paper4 ,the sheet was then folded through the centre3 the folded edge was made the outer edge1 while the two cut or raw edges were neatly stitched together and made the back of the book4 ,this method of sewing through the cut edges1 instead of through the fold1 began with the use of the cut leaves of silk or cotton1 which were used in printing the earliest ,chinese books before paper was made4 ,if the cut edges of silk or cotton were made the outer edges of the book1 the leaves would soon fray or ravel out in threads2 if they were made the inner edges1 the integrity of the leaf would necessarily be more secure4 ,like other habits and fashions1 this curious mode of binding has been continued when the necessity for it has ceased to exist4 ,although this engraving was made in the eighteenth century1 it may be accepted as a correct representation of paper-making as it has always been practised in ,china and ,japan4 ,rude as this process may seem1 it is1 in its more important features1 excepting that of pulp-beating1 the process that was used in ,europe until the invention of the cylinder and ,fourdrinier paper-making machines4 ,nor is this process entirely out of fashion4 ,there are paper-makers yet living who have p#acg taken pulp out of the vats with hand moulds and deckle1 and have couched it on felts1 substantially by the same method that was in use in ,asia fifteen hundred years ago4 ,oriental paper-makers do not use rags nor raw cotton for making their pulp4 ,they select different kinds of bamboo1 and the bark and leaves of various trees1 which they combine in unequal proportions1 so as to produce for different kinds of paper the different qualities of strength1 smoothness and flexibility4 ,these materials are saturated in lime water1 and are sometimes boiled to free them from useless matter4 ,barks are sometimes triturated with pestles in a mortar4 ,while the greatest care is taken to prevent the cutting of the fibres in too short lengths1 every expedient is made use of to split up the fibres in the finest threads4 ,the result of this care is the production of papers of wonderful strength and flexibility4 ,it is admitted by all historians that the early ,european practice of paper-making was derived from ,asia4 ,how the knowledge of the art was transmitted to us from ,china1 ,persia or ,india1 and where and when paper was first made in ,europe are questions of controversy4 ,the difficulty we encounter in an inquiry concerning its derivation is aggravated by the discovery that two kinds of paper--one1 said to be made of cotton1 and another1 said to be made of linen or rags--were used in ,europe at a very early period--a period in which we find no traces of the existence of a ,european paper-mill4 ,proteaux says that a thick card or card-like paper came in use during the fifth century1#ei when the manufacture of papyrus was declining4 ,but its first use was not as a substitute for papyrus or parchment4 ,it was called charta damascena1 the card of ,damascus2 charta gossypina1 or the cotton card2 charta bombycina1 or the silk-like card2 serica1 or the silky fabric4 ,it was usually mentioned as a card2 for it was so thick1 and so unlike papyrus1 that it was regarded as a different thing1 and p#ach was defined by a different name4 ,this cotton card or cotton paper was thick1 coarse1 woolly1 yellow and somewhat fragile4 ,it was so inferior to papyrus1 parchment or linen paper as a writing surface1 and was so generally neglected by professional copyists1 that all the earlier chroniclers of paper-making have passed it by as unworthy of notice4 ,the linen paper1 so called1 came in use at a much later period1 but there is great disagreement among authorities as to the date4 ,meerman1 the author of a learned book on the origin of printing1 offered a reward for the earliest manuscript on linen paper1 which1 he decided1 could not have been used in ,europe before #abgj4 ,montfaucon1 a learned antiquary1 says that he could find no book nor leaf of linen paper of earlier date1 but he thinks that it was known and used in ,europe to a limited extent before #abgj4 ,gibbon1 citing the authority of ,arabian historians1 says that a linen paper was made in ,samarcand in the eighth century1 and leaves his reader to form the inference that not long after1 paper found its way to ,europe4 ,casiri1 a ,spanish author1 who made a catalogue of the ,arabian manuscripts in the ,escurial1 says that in this collection are many old manuscripts of the twelfth century on linen paper1 including one of the year #aajj4 ,but we are not told that this paper was made in ,spain2 it may have been brought from the ,east4 ,tiraboschi1 an ,italian historian1 says that linen paper is the invention of an ,italian1 ,pace de ,fabiano of ,treviso1 who flourished about the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,but ,peter ,mauritius1 abbot of a ,french monastery at ,cluny1 in a treatise written by him in #aabj against the ,jews1 says1 8,the books we read every day are made of the skins of sheep1 goats and calves parchment1 of oriental plants papyrus1 or of the scrapings of old rags1 or of any other compacted refuse material40#fj ,it would be a hopeless task to attempt to gather from these discordant p#aci statements a satisfactory explanation of the origin or of the introduction of paper in ,europe4 ,the modern paper-maker1 who produces paper pulp from mixtures in variable proportions of all kinds of textile rubbish1 will doubt the ability of any antiquary to distinguish linen from cotton paper1 especially when ,tiraboschi admits that cotton paper was made in ,italy during the fourteenth century so closely resembling linen paper that only a paper-maker could perceive the difference4 ,the microscope that enables the educated investigator to detect the characteristic features of every kind of vegetable fibre is really the only safe test#fa for determining the constituents of paper2 but it does not appear that this instrument was ever used by the authors who have undertaken to discriminate between linen and cotton paper4 ,the explanation of these contradictory statements must be sought in another quarter4 ,the peculiarities of the so-called linen and cotton papers are due more to their distinct methods of manufacture than to the material used4 ,the earliest notice of the manufacture of paper in ,europe clearly specifies the practice of two unlike methods4 ,we are told that1 in the year #ajhe1 a paper-mill at ,toledo1 which had been operated by the ,moors1 passed into the hands of ,christians1 probably ,spaniards1 who made great improvements in the manufacture4 ,the ,moors made paper pulp by grinding the raw cotton1 a process which hastened the work1 but it shortened and weakened the fibres1 making a paper that was tender and woolly4 ,the ,spaniards stamped the cotton and rags into a pulp1 by pestles or stamps driven by water power1 a method which preserved the long fibres that gave the fabric its strength4 ,this paper1 now known as linen paper1 was then known as parchment cloth4 ,the cotton paper of the antiquarians is1 apparently1 the paper that had its fibres cut by grinding2 the linen paper was the paper made from pulp that had been beaten4 p#adj ,the first ,european paper-mills seem to have been established by the ,moors or ,saracens who had direct intercourse with the ,east4 ,paper was made at ,xativa1 ,valencia1 and at other towns of ,spain1 by ,moors and ,spaniards1 and the paper made at ,xativa was much commended for its whiteness4 ,we find mention1 also1 of a family of paper-makers in the island of ,sicily in the year #aajb4 ,for many years the ,moors were not only the largest manufacturers1 but the largest consumers4 ,in various cities of ,spain1 seventy libraries were opened for the instruction of the public1 during a period when all the rest of ,europe1 without books1 without learning and without cultivation1 was plunged in the most disgraceful ignorance4#fb ,illustration3 ,paper-,mill of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,from ,jost ,amman4 ,in this illustration1 which was first published by ,jost ,amman in his ,book of ,trades1 we see something of the mechanism always used for preparing the pulp for paper4 ,large water-wheels1 partially seen through the window1 set in motion a wooden cylinder evenly spiked with projections4 ,as the cylinder revolved1 these projections tilted up1 and then dropped heavy stampers of hard wood that beat against the torn and well-soaked rags lying within the tank4 ,the stamping was continued until the macerated rags were of the consistency of cream4 ,the stuff thus made was then transferred to tubs1 at one of which a p#ada paper-maker is at work4 ,the dipping out of the pulp with hand mould and deckle1 the couching of the web on interleaving felts1 and its transfer to be pressed by the brisk little boy1 are the same processes in all points as those that have been described in the ,japanese engraving4 ,the processes of sorting and washing the rags1 and of bleaching the half-made stuff are not shown in the cut1 but they were not neglected4 ,the screw press behind the paper-moulder is the only innovation of importance4 ,the development of paper-making in ,europe cannot be traced with any degree of certainty4 ,there are ,italian authors who assert that linen paper was made in ,lombardy and ,tuscany as early as the year #acjj1 and that the ,italian knowledge of the art was derived not from ,spain or ,sicily1 but through the ,greeks at ,constantinople1 who had been taught how to make paper by the ,saracens4 ,the earliest authentic mention of an ,italian paper-mill is that concerning the mill of ,fabiano1 which had been in operation for some years before #acdj1 and which produced at that time nothing but the cotton card-paper4 ,there is no record of paper-mills in the ,netherlands during the fourteenth century4 ,paper was made at ,troyes1 ,france1 in the year #acdj4 ,in the ,british ,islands there was no paper-mill before that of ,john ,tate1 who is supposed to have established it in the year #adih4 ,in ,germany1 a paper-mill was established at ,nuremberg by ,ulman ,stromer about the year #acij4fc ,but the different paper-marks in the home-made paper of ,german manuscripts of this period are indications that there were paper-mills in many ,german towns4 p#adb ,the gradual development of paper-making in ,europe is but imperfectly presented through these fragmentary facts4 ,paper may have been made for many years before it found chroniclers who thought the manufacture worthy of notice4 ,the ,spanish paper-mills of ,toledo which were at work in the year #ajhe1 and an ancient family of paper-makers which was honored with marked favor by the king of ,sicily in the year #aajb1 are carelessly mentioned by contemporary writers as if paper-making was an old and established business4 ,it does not appear that paper was a novelty at a much earlier period4 ,the bulls of the popes of the eighth and ninth centuries were written on cotton card or cotton paper1 but no writer called attention to this card1 or described it as a new material4 ,it has been supposed that this paper was made in ,asia1 but it could have been made in ,europe4 ,a paper-like fabric1 made from the barks of trees1 was used for writing by the ,longobards in the seventh century1 and a coarse imitation of the ,egyptian papyrus1 in the form of a strong brown paper1 had been made by the ,romans as early as the third century4 ,the art of compacting in a web the macerated fibres of plants seems to have been known and practised to some extent in ,southern ,europe long before the establishment of ,moorish paper-mills4 ,the ,moors brought to ,spain and ,sicily not an entirely new invention1 but an improved method of making paper1 and what was more important1 a culture and civilization that kept this method in constant exercise4 ,it was chiefly for the lack of ability and lack of disposition to put paper to proper use that the earlier ,european knowledge of paper-making was so barren of results4 ,the art of book-making as it was then practised was made subservient to the spirit of luxury more than to the desire for knowledge4 ,vellum was regarded by the copyists as the only substance fit for writing on1 even when it was so scarce that it could be used only for the most expensive books4 ,the card-like cotton paper once made by the ,saracens was certainly known in ,europe for many years p#adc before its utility was recognized4 ,hallam says that the use of this cotton paper was by no means general or frequent1 except in ,spain or ,italy1 and perhaps in the ,south of ,france1 until the end of the fourteenth century4 ,nor was it much used in ,italy for books4#fd ,paper came before its time and had to wait for recognition4 ,it was sorely needed4 ,the ,egyptian manufacture of papyrus1 which was in a state of decay in the seventh century1 ceased entirely in the ninth or tenth4 ,not many books were written during this period1 but there was then1 and for at least three centuries afterward1 an unsatisfied demand for something to write upon4 ,parchment was so scarce that reckless copyists frequently resorted to the desperate expedient of effacing the writing on old and lightly esteemed manuscripts4 ,it was not a difficult task4 ,the writing ink then used was usually made of lamp-black1 gum1 and vinegar2 it had but a feeble encaustic property1 and it did not bite in or penetrate the parchment4 ,the work of effacing this ink was accomplished by moistening the parchment with a weak alkaline solution and by rubbing it with pumice-stone4 ,this treatment did not entirely obliterate the writing1 but made it so indistinct that the parchment could be written over the second time4 ,manuscripts so treated are now known as palimpsests4 ,all the large ,european public libraries have copies of the palimpsests which are melancholy illustrations of the literary tastes of many writers or book-makers during the middle ages4 ,more convincingly than by argument1 they show the utility of paper4 ,manuscripts of the ,gospels1 of the ,iliad1 and of works of the highest merit1 often of great beauty and accuracy1 are dimly seen underneath stupid sermons1 and theological writings of a nature so paltry p#add that no man living cares to read them4 ,in some instances the first writing has been so thoroughly scrubbed out that its meaning is irretrievably lost4 ,much as paper was needed1 it was not at all popular with copyists4 ,their prejudice was not altogether unreasonable1 for it was thick1 coarse1 knotty1 and in every way unfitted for the display of ornamental penmanship or illumination4 ,the cheaper quality1 then known as cotton paper1 was especially objectionable4 ,it seems to have been so badly made as to need governmental interference4 ,frederick ,,ii of ,germany1 in the year #abba1 foreseeing evils that might arise from bad paper1 made a decree by which he made invalid all public documents that should be put on cotton paper1 and ordered them within two years to be transcribed upon parchment4 ,peter ,,ii1 of ,spain1 in the year #acch1 publicly commanded the paper-makers of ,valencia and ,xativa to make their paper of a better quality and equal to that of an earlier period4 ,the better quality of paper1 now known as linen paper1 had the merits of strength1 flexibility and durability in a high degree1 but it was set aside by the copyists because the fabric was too thick and the surface was too rough4 ,the art of calendering or polishing papers until they were of a smooth1 glossy surface1 which was then practised by the ,persians1 was unknown to1 or at least unpractised by1 the early ,european makers4 ,the changes of fashion in the selection of writing papers are worthy of passing notice4 ,the rough hand-made papers so heartily despised by the copyists of the thirteenth century are now preferred by neat penmen and draughtsmen4 ,the imitations of medieval paper1 thick1 harsh1 and dingy1 and showing the marks of the wires upon which the fabric was couched1 are preferred by men of letters for books and correspondence1 while highly polished modern plate papers1 with surfaces much more glossy than any preparation of vellum1 are now rejected by them as finical and effeminate4 ,there is a popular notion that the so-called inventions of paper and xylographic printing were gladly welcomed by p#ade men of letters1 and that the new fabric and the new art were immediately pressed into service4 ,the facts about to be presented in succeeding chapters will lead to a different conclusion4 ,we shall see that the makers of playing cards and of image prints were the men who first made extended use of printing1 and that self-taught and unprofessional copyists were the men who gave encouragement to the manufacture of paper4 ,the more liberal use of paper at the beginning of the fifteenth century by this newly created class of readers and book-buyers marks the period of transition and of mental and mechanical development for which the crude arts of paper-making and of block-printing had been waiting for centuries4 ,we shall also see that if paper had been ever so cheap and common during the middle ages1 it would have worked no changes in education or literature2 it could not have been used by the people1 for they were too illiterate2 it would not have been used by the professional copyists1 for they preferred vellum and despised the substitute4 p#adf ,,ix ,the ,book-,makers of the ,middle ,ages4 ,education controlled by the ,church 4 4 4 ,all ,books in ,latin 4 4 4 ,ecclesiastics the only ,scholars and ,book-,makers 4 4 4 ,copyists in ,constantinople 4 4 4 ,in ,ireland 4 4 4 ,charlemagne's ,educational ,policy 4 4 4 ,copyists of ,france and their ,work 4 4 4 ,the ,scriptoriums of ,monasteries 4 4 4 ,errors of ,copyists 4 4 4 ,illuminators of ,books 4 4 4 ,bookbinders 4 4 4 ,profuse ,ornamentation of ,books 4 4 4 ,neglect of ,books and ,copying by ,monks 4 4 4 ,copyists and ,book-,makers appear among the ,laity 4 4 4 ,regulations of the ,university of ,paris about ,copyists 4 4 4 ,character of ,medieval ,books 4 4 4 ,universal ,appreciation of ,pictures 4 4 4 ,general ,use of ,abbreviations 4 4 4 ,paper ,used only for ,inferior ,books 4 4 4 ,rise of the ,romance ,literature 4 4 4 ,its ,luxurious ,books 4 4 4 ,book-,collecting a ,princely ,pastime 4 4 4 ,high ,prices paid for ,books of ,merit 4 4 4 ,fondness for ,expensive ,books retarded the ,development of ,printing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with that of the boke losende were the claspis3 ,the margent ,was illumynid all ,with golded railles ,and byse1 enpicturid with gressoppes and waspis1 ,with butterflyis and freshe pecocke taylis1 ,enflorid ,with flowris and slymy snaylis2 ,enuyuid picturis well towchid and quikly2 ,it wolde haue made a man hole that had be ryght sekely1 ,to beholde how it was garnyschyd and bounde1 ,encouerde ouer with gold of tisseu fyne2 ,the claspis and bullyons were worth a thousande pounde2 ,with balassis and charbuncles the borders did shyne2 ,with aurum mosaicum every other lyne ,was wrytin4 ,skelton4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the sixth to the thirteenth century1 the ecclesiastics of the ,roman ,catholic church held all the keys of scholastic knowledge4 ,they wrote the books1 kept the libraries1 and taught the schools4 ,during this period there was no literature worthy of the name that was not in the dead language ,latin1 and but little of any kind that did not treat of theology4 ,a liberal education was of no value to any one who did not propose to be a monk or priest4 ,science1 as we p#adg now understand the word1 and classical literature1 were sadly neglected4 ,scholastic theology and metaphysical philosophy were the studies which took precedence of all others4 ,the knowledge derived through these narrow channels may have been imperfect1 but it was a power4 ,the church kept it to and for itself2 hedging it in with difficulty and mystery1 and making it inaccessible to poor people4 ,the study of ,latin would have been neglected1 and its literature forgotten1 if this dead language had not been the language of the ,scriptures1 of the canons and liturgies of the church1 and of the writings of the fathers4 ,ecclesiastics were required1 by virtue of their position1 to study ,latin1 but there were many in high station1 even as late as the fourteenth century1 who were barely able to read1#fe and many more who could not write4 ,the manufacture by professional copyists of the books of devotion required for the services of the church1 which had died of neglect in ,rome1 and which had been driven out of ,constantinople by the hostility of the iconoclastic emperors1 re-appeared in ,ireland1 with unprecedented elegance of workmanship4 ,it does not appear that the diligence of the monks at ,iona was of any permanent benefit to ,ireland1 but it was of great value to the corrupted religion and waning civilization of ,western ,europe4 ,irish missionaries founded schools and monasteries in ,england1 and taught their ,anglo-,saxon converts to ornament books after a fashion now known and described as the ,saxon style4 ,books of great beauty1 p#adh admirably#ff written by unknown ,irish copyists1 are still preserved in ,germany1 ,france and ,switzerland1 to which countries ,irish missionaries were sent from ,iona between the sixth and ninth centuries4 ,these missionaries revived the taste for letters4 ,flaccus ,alcuin1 an ,englishman and a graduate of ,anglo-,saxon schools1 the teacher and adviser of ,charlemagne1 was authorized by the great emperor to institute a policy which would multiply books and disseminate knowledge4 ,it was ordered that every abbot1 bishop and count should keep in permanent employment a qualified copyist who must write correctly1 using ,roman letters only1 and that every monastic institution should maintain a room known as the scriptorium1 fitted up with desks and furnished with all the implements for writing4 ,the work of copying manuscripts and increasing libraries was made a life-long business4 ,alcuin earnestly entreated the monks to zealousness in the discharge of this duty4 8,it is10 he writes1 8a most meritorious work1 more beneficial to the health than working in the fields1 which profits only a man's body1 whilst the labor of the copyist profits his soul40 ,on another occasion1 ,alcuin exhorted the monks who could not write neatly to learn to bind books4 p#adi ,illustration3 ,the ,scriptorium4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,the copyists of the middle ages may be properly divided in two classes3 the class that considered copying an irksome duty and that did its work mechanically and badly2 the class that treated book-making as a purely artistic occupation1 and gave the most time and care to ornamentation4 ,the book-makers who made search for authentic copies1 comparing the different texts of books and correcting their errors1 did not appear until after the invention of printing4 ,the mechanical drudges1 who were always most numerous1 not only repeated the errors of their faulty copies1 but added to them4 ,errors became so frequent that some of the more careful and conscientious copyists thought it necessary to repeat at the end of every book the solemn adjuration of ,irenus3 ,i adjure thee who shall transcribe this book1 by our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and by his glorious coming to judge the quick and dead1 p#aej that thou compare what thou transcribest1 and correct it carefully according to the copy from which thou transcribest1 and that thou also annex a copy of this adjuration to what thou hast written4 ,the illustration annexed1 the fac-simile of a few lines from a ,latin ,bible written in the ninth century1 is a fair example of the carelessness of many mechanical copyists4 ,the words ,in illo tempore are not to be found in correct copies of the ,vulgate2#fg the very awkward writing1 the running together of words1 the unnecessary contractions1 and the misuse of capital letters1 are flagrant blemishes that call for no comment4 ,illustration3 ,the ,penmanship of a ,copyist of the ,ninth ,century4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,the letters of this book are of the ,roman form1 as had been commanded by ,charlemagne2 but this form of writing gradually went out of use1 not only in ,france1 but even in ,italy and ,spain4 ,the unskillful writers who could not properly produce the plain lines and true curves of ,roman letters1 tried to hide the ungainliness of their awkwardly constructed characters by repeated touches of the pen1 which made them bristle with angles4 ,in the golden age of pointed architecture and superfluous ornamentation1 this fault became a fashion4 ,the pointed letters became known as ecclesiastic letters1 and then there seemed to be a special propriety in putting finials and crockets on the letters of books of piety4 ,it is to the failing skill and bad taste of inexpert copyists more than to their desire to construct an improved form of writing1 that p#aea we may trace the origin of the ,black or ,gothic letter1#fh which1 under a great many names and modifications1 was employed in all books until supplanted by the ,roman types of ,jenson4 ,the copyists and calligraphers were stimulated to do their best by the religious zeal of wealthy laymen who frequently gave to religious houses large sums of money for the copying and ornamentation of books4 ,it was taught that the gift of an illuminated book1 or of the means to make it1 was an act of piety which would be held in perpetual remembrance4 ,for the medieval books of luxury thus made to order1 the finest vellum was selected4 ,the size most in fashion was that now known as demy folio1 of which the leaf is about ten inches wide and fifteen inches long1 but smaller sizes were often made4 ,the space to be occupied by the written text was mapped out with faint lines1 so that the writer could keep his letters on a line1 at even distance from each other and within the prescribed margin4 ,each letter was carefully drawn1 and filled in or painted with repeated touches of the pen4 ,with good taste1 black ink was most frequently selected for the text2 red ink was used only for the more prominent words1 and the catch-letters1 then known as the rubricated letters4 ,sometimes texts were written in blue1 green1 purple1 gold or silver inks1 but it was soon discovered that texts in bright color were not so readable as texts in black4 ,illustration3 ,a ,french ,manuscript of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,when the copyist had finished his sheet1 he passed it to the designer1 who sketched the border1 pictures and initials4 ,the sheet was then given to the illuminator1 who painted it4 p#aeb ,the ornamentation of a medieval book of the first class is beyond description by words or by wood-cuts4 ,every inch of space was used4 ,its broad margins were filled with quaint ornaments1 sometimes of high merit1 admirably painted in vivid colors4 ,grotesque initials1 which1 with their flourishes1 often spanned the full height of the page1 or broad bands of floriated tracery that occupied its entire width1 were the only indications of the changes of chapter or of subject4 ,in printers' phrase1 the composition was 8close-up and solid0 to the extreme degree of compactness4 ,the uncommonly free use of red ink for the smaller initials was not altogether a matter of taste2 if the page had been written entirely in black ink1 it would have been unreadable through its blackness4 ,this nicety in writing consumed much time1 but the medieval copyist was seldom governed by considerations of time or expense4 ,it was of little consequence whether the book he transcribed would be finished in one or in ten years4 ,it was required only that he should keep at his work steadily and do his best4 ,his skill is more to be commended than his taste4 ,many of his initials and borders were outrageously inappropriate for the text for which they were designed4 ,the gravest truths were hedged in with the most childish conceits4 ,angels1 butterflies1 p#aec goblins1 clowns1 birds1 snails and monkeys1 sometimes in artistic1 but much oftener in grotesque1 and sometimes in highly offensive positions1 are to be found in the illuminated borders of copies of the gospels and the writings of the fathers4 ,illustration3 ,medieval ,bookbinding4 ,from ,jost ,amman4 ,the book was bound by the forwarder1 who sewed the leaves and put them in a cover of leather or velvet2 by the finisher1 who ornamented the cover with gilding and enamel4 ,the annexed illustration of bookbinding1 published by ,amman in his ,book of ,trades1 puts before us many of the implements still in use4 ,the forwarder1 with his customary apron of leather1 is in the foreground1 making use of a plow-knife for trimming the edges of a book4 ,the lying-press which rests obliquely against the block before him contains a book that has received the operation of backing-up from a queer-shaped hammer lying upon the floor4 ,the workman at the end of the room is sewing together the sections of a book1 for sewing was properly regarded as a man's work1 and a scientific operation altogether beyond the capacity of the raw seamstress4 ,the work of the finisher is not represented1 but the brushes1 the burnishers1 the sprinklers and the wheel-shaped gilding tools hanging against the wall leave us in no doubt as to their use4 ,there is an air of antiquity about everything connected with this bookbindery which suggests the thought that its tools p#aed and usages are much older than those of printing4 ,chevillier says that seventeen professional bookbinders found regular employment in making up books for the ,university of ,paris1 as early as #abgb4 ,wherever books were produced in quantities1 bookbinding was set apart as a business distinct from that of copying4 ,illustration3 ,the ,medieval ,illuminator4 ,from ,jost ,amman4 ,the poor students who copied books for their own use were also obliged to bind them1 which they did in a simple but efficient manner1 by sewing together the folded sheets1 attaching them to narrow parchment bands1 the ends of which were made to pass through a cover of stout parchment1 at the joint near the back4 ,the ends of the bands were then pasted down under the stiffening sheet of the cover1 and the book was pressed4 ,sometimes the cover was made flexible by the omission of the stiffening sheet2 sometimes the edges of the leaves were protected by flexible and overhanging flaps which were made to project over the covers2 or by the insertion in the covers of stout leather strings with which the two covers were tied together4 ,ornamentation was entirely neglected1 for a book of this character was made for use and not for show4 ,these methods of binding were mostly applied to small books intended for the pocket3 the workmanship was rough1 but the binding was strong and serviceable4 p#aee ,books of larger size1 made for the lecturn1 were bound up in boards--not an amalgamation of hard-pressed oakum1 tar1 and paper-pulp1 but veritable boards of planed wood1 which were never less than one-quarter inch1 and sometimes were two inches in thickness4#fi ,the sheets encased in these boards were gathered in sections usually of five double leaves4 ,the sections were sewed on rounded raw-hide bands protected from cutting or cracking by a braided casing of thread4 ,a well-bound medieval book is a model of careful sewing3 the thread1 repeatedly passed in and out of the sections and around the bands1 sometimes diagonally from one corner of the book to the other1 is caught up and locked in a worked head at the top and bottom of the back4 ,the bands1 often fan-tailed at their ends1 were pasted and sometimes riveted in the boards4 ,the joints were protected against cracking by broad linings of parchment4 ,for a book that might receive rough usage1 and that did not require a high ornamental finish1 hog-skin was selected as the strongest and most suitable covering for the boards4 ,the covers and the back were decorated by marking them with fanciful patterns1 lightly burnt in the leather by heated rolls or stamps1 from patterns and by processes substantially the same as those used in manufacturing modern accountbooks4 ,for a book intended to receive an ornamentation of gilded work1 calf and goat-skin leathers were preferred4 ,the gilding was done with care1 elaborately1 artistically1 with an excess of minute decoration that is really bewildering1 when one considers the sparsity and simplicity of the tools in use4 ,to protect the gilding on the sides1 the boards were often paneled or sunk in the centre1 and the corners1 and sometimes the entire outer edges of the cover1 were shielded with thick projecting plates of brass or copper4 ,a large boss of p#aef brass in the centre1 with smaller bosses or buttons upon the corners1 was also used to protect the gilding from abrasion4 ,on the cheaper books1 bound in hog-skin1 iron corners and a closely set studding of round-headed iron nails were used for the same purpose4 ,to prevent the covers from warping outward1 two clasps of brass were attached to the covers4 ,illustration3 ,a ,sumptuously ,bound ,book4#gj ,from ,chambers4 ,the book thus bound was too weighty to be held in the hand2 it was so full of angles and knobs that it could not be placed upon a flat table without danger of scratching it4 ,for the safety of the book and the convenience of the reader1 it was necessary that the book should be laid on an inclined desk or a revolving lecturn1 provided with a ledge for holding it up and with holdfasts for keeping down the leaves4 ,the lecturn was really required for the protection of the reader4 ,petrarch1 when reading an unwieldy volume of the ,epistles of ,cicero1 which he held in his hands1 and in which he was p#aeg profoundly interested1 repeatedly let the book slip and fall1 and so bruised his left leg that he feared1 for some time1 that he would have to submit to its amputation4 ,when the book was not in use1 it was laid sidewise on the shelf with the flat side fully exposed1 showing to best advantage the beauty of the binding4 ,its metal-studded sides prevented it from being stood upright on the shelf4 ,the book made for common use was frequently covered with oak boards banded with iron4 ,when exposed in church1 it was secured to a post or pillar with a chain4 ,illustration3 ,a ,medieval ,book with ,covers of ,oak4 ,from ,chambers4 ,the mortise in the cover to the left was for the insertion of the hand when the book was held up for reading4 ,the ornamented cover of the sumptuous book was even more resplendent than its illuminated text4 ,gilders1 jewelers1 silversmiths1 engravers1 and painters took up the work which the binder had left1 and lavished upon it all the resources of their arts4 ,a copy of the ,evangelists presented by ,charlemagne to a church in ,france1 was covered with plates of gold and silver1 and studded with gems4 ,to another church the pious sister of ,charlemagne gave a book glittering with precious stones1 and with appropriate engraving upon a great agate in the centre of the cover4 ,we read of another book of devotion covered with plates of selected ivory1 upon which was sculptured1 in high relief1 with questionable propriety1 an illustration of the ,feast of ,bacchus4 ,the ,cluny ,museum at ,paris contains two book-covers of enameled brass1 one of which has on the cover a very elaborate engraving of the ,adoration of the ,wise ,men4 ,books like these called for the display of a higher degree of p#aeh skill than could be found in monasteries4 ,the mechanics who were called in to perfect the work of the copyists soon became familiar with all the details of book-making4 ,little by little they encroached on the province of the copyist1 and in time became competent to do all his work4 ,illustration3 ,book-,cover in ,ivory1 ,byzantine ,style4 ,from ,berjeau4 ,during the twelfth century the ecclesiastical monopoly of book-making began to give way4 ,literary work had grown irksome4 ,the church had secured a position of supremacy in temporal as well as spiritual matters2 it had grown rich1 and showed disregard for the spiritual and educational means by which its successes had been made4 ,it began to enjoy its prosperity4 ,the neglect of books by many of the priests of the thirteenth century was authorized by the example and precepts of ,francis d',assisi1 who suffered none of his followers to have ,bible1 breviary or psalter4 ,this new form of asceticism culminated in the establishment of the order of the ,mendicant ,friars1 which1 in its earlier days1 was wonderfully popular4 ,founded for the purpose of supplying the spiritual administrations which had been sadly neglected by the beneficed clergy1 who were not only ignorant but corrupt1#ga the new order ultimately p#aei became even more neglectful of duty1 more ignorant and more immoral4 ,the leaders of the friars were men of piety1 and some of them1 disregarding the precept of the zealous founder of the order1 were students and collectors of books2 but the inferior clergy1 with few exceptions1 were extremely ignorant4 ,they not only exerted a mischievous influence upon the people1 but they showed to priests of other orders that the knowledge to be had from books was not really necessary4 ,the class of monks who had devoted their lives to the copying1 binding and ornamenting of books1 imitated as far as they could the example set by the pleasure-loving1 ignorant friars1 and sought opportunities for relaxation4#gb ,the care of libraries was neglected for pleasures of a grosser nature4 ,the duties of copyists and librarians passed1 gradually and almost imperceptibly1 into the hands of the laity4 ,the business of selling books1 which had been given up during the decline of the ,roman empire1 re-appeared in the latter part of the twelfth century in the neighborhood of the new ,italian universities of ,padua and ,bologna4 ,to have the privilege of selling books to the students1 the booksellers were p#afj obliged to submit to a stringent discipline4 ,the restrictive legislation of the ,university of ,paris1 for four centuries the greatest school of theology and the most renowned of the ,european universities1 may be offered as a suitable illustration of the spirit shown to booksellers by all the schools of the middle ages4 ,through its clerical teachers1 the church claimed the right to control the making1 buying and selling of books4 ,it extended its authority over parchment-makers1 bookbinders1 and every other class of mechanics that contributed in any way to their manufacture4 ,the rules made by this university reveal many curious facts concerning book-making1 and teach us1 as a recent imperialist author has truly said1 that the censorship of books is older than printing4 ,we command that the stationers1#gc vulgarly called booksellers1 shall each year1 or every other year1 as may be required by the university1 take oath to behave themselves honestly and faithfully in all matters concerning the buying1 keeping or selling of books4 ,in the year #acdb1 they were required1 touching the price of books1 to tell the truth1 pure and simple1 and without deceit or lying4 ,no bookseller could buy a book for the purpose of sale1 until it had been exposed for five days in the ,hall of the ,university1 and its purchase had been declined by all the teachers and scholars4 ,the prices of books sold by the booksellers were fixed by four master booksellers appointed by the university4 ,any attempt to get a higher price entailed a penalty4 ,no one could buy or sell books1 or lend money on them1 without a special permit from the university4 ,the profit of the bookseller upon the sale of a book was fixed at four deniers when sold to a teacher or scholar1 and six deniers when sold to the public4 ,no pots-de-vin1 or drink-money1 nor gratuities of any kind1 were to be exacted by the bookseller in addition to the fixed price4 ,books should be made correct to copy1 and be sold as correct in good faith4 ,the bookseller should be required to make an oath as to their entire accuracy4 ,whoever sold incorrect books would be obliged to make the corrections1 and would be otherwise punished4 p#afa ,no bookseller should refuse to lend a book to the student who wished to make a new copy from it1 and who offered security and complied with the terms fixed by the university4#gd ,illustration3 ,seal of the ,masters and ,scholars of the ,university of ,paris4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,before any newly written book could be offered for sale1 it must be submitted to the rector of the university1 who had the power to suppress it1#ge or correct it1 and who1 if it was approved1 fixed its price4 p#afb ,it does not surprise us to learn that the stationers did not thrive4 ,under the hard pressure of taxation and censorship1 the imposition of arbitrary prices and compulsory loans1 they found it very difficult to earn a living4 ,they were obliged to add another business to that of book-publishing4 ,a few became notaries2 some sold furs1 while their wives in the same shop sold 8fripperies and like haberdashery02 others became the dressers of parchments and binders of books4 ,against these innovations the regents of the university made unavailing protest1 severely censuring the base booksellers who 8did not uphold the dignity of their profession1 but who mixed it up with vile trades40 ,but the necessities of the half-starved booksellers compelled the university to overlook the offense4 ,the best and largest books of the stationers were always of a theological nature4 ,in a list given by ,chevillier of the books sold in the fourteenth century by the booksellers to the university1 are found in the foremost place1 books on the ,canon ,law1 the ,homilies of ,st4 ,gregory1 the ,book of ,sacraments1 the ,confessions of ,st4 ,augustine1 the ,homilies of ,st4 ,augustine1 the ,compendium of ,thomas ,aquinas1#gf and ,st4 ,thomas on ,metaphysics1 on ,physics1 on ,heaven and ,earth1 on the ,soul4 ,copies of the ,gospels or the ,scriptures1 or even of the works of classical authors1 were not in high request4 ,the most popular books were elementary works on grammar and philosophy1 for the use of students1 and devotional works like creeds1 catechisms1 and prayers1 which were largely bought by the more pious part of the people that were able to read4 ,the copyists made books for the more ignorant priests1 books containing a synopsis of ,christian faith and doctrine1 or descriptions of important events recorded in the ,scriptures4 ,as an additional refreshment of the memory1 and to make them more enticing to the buyer1 these books were profusely illustrated with pen-and-ink drawings4 ,the ,bible of the ,poor1 and the ,mirror of ,man's ,redemption1 afterward popular as p#afc printed books1 are favorable specimens of a class of illustrated manuscripts in common use among the inferior clergy as far back as the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,they were sold to the unlearned of the laity and to friars who could not read1 but who could understand the allegories taught through the pictures4 ,an increasing fondness for ornamentation and for pictorial illustration may be noticed among both learned and unlearned4 ,manuscripts of every description were adorned with pictures4#gg ,abstruse theological writings and treatises on geometry and philosophy were often decked out with floriated borders and gaudily painted illustrations which would now be considered as suitable only for children4 ,it would seem that it was through the pictorial attractions of a book1 more than through its text1 that men were led to admire literature4 ,the copyists made books of small size which were sold to students for trifling sums4 ,psalters1 with leaves no larger than the palm of the hand1 were sold for a sol4 ,elementary school-books1 like the ,logic of ,boethius1 were sometimes copied in a minute style of penmanship1 and were still further contracted with abbreviations until the writing had the appearance of microscopic stenography4 ,the minute penmanship may be regarded as evidence of the great scarcity of parchment1 and the abbreviations as indications of the weariness of the writer4 ,the arbitrary order of the university1 which compelled the booksellers to lend their books to scholars1 shows that it was customary for a student or a poor man of letters to copy the books he needed4 ,the little books sold for a sol were manifestly made for readers who could not even buy the vellum p#afd required for a book of the usual size4 ,it was necessary that books sold at this price should be of the cheapest materials1 and that the text should be abbreviated by contractions#gh so that it would occupy but little space4 ,the despised fabric of paper1 and the remnants of vellum rejected by professional copyists after the skin had been cut up for leaves of folio or of quarto size1 were cheerfully accepted by readers who valued a book more for its contents than for its appearance4 ,the scarcity of vellum in one century1 and its abundance in another1 are indicated by the size of written papers during the same periods4 ,before the sixth century1 legal documents were usually written upon one side only2 in the tenth century the practice of writing upon both sides of the vellum became common4 ,during the thirteenth century1 valuable documents were often written upon strips two inches wide and but three and a half inches long4 ,at the end of the fourteenth century these strips went out of fashion4 ,the more general use of paper had diminished the demand for vellum and increased the supply4 ,in the fifteenth century1 legal documents on rolls of sewed vellum twenty feet in length were not uncommon4 ,all the valuable books of the fourteenth century were written on vellum4 ,in the library of the ,louvre the manuscripts on p#afe paper1 compared to those on vellum1 were as one to twenty-eight2 in the library of the ,dukes of ,burgundy1 one-fifth of the books were of paper4 ,the increase in the proportion of paper books is a fair indication of the increasing popularity of paper2 but it is obvious that vellum was even then considered as the more suitable substance for a book of value4 ,the esteem with which books were regarded by priests and scholars during the fourteenth century was shared by men of wealth1 who coveted books1 not so much for their contents as for their pictures1 and as evidences of wealth and culture4 ,a remarkable impulse had been given to literature and to the making of books by the troubadours of ,southern ,france4 ,their songs of love and devotion to women1 their encomiums of chivalry1 and stories of battle and adventure1 which were of their own age1 fresh and full of life1 and untainted by the influence of withered classical models1 had most unbounded popularity in every grade of society4 ,uncultivated people1 who would have yawned over the reading of ,homer or the ,odes of ,horace1 would listen with a keen delight to the songs of a ,provenal minstrel1 or to the reading of romances about ,charlemagne and his ,paladins1 about ,arthur and ,merlin1 and the ,knights of the ,round ,table4 ,to men who had regarded books only as dull treatises about theology1 these romances were revelations of an unsuspected attractiveness in literature4 ,how much these romances increased the respect for books1 and led to the making of new copies1 and to a more general knowledge of reading and writing1 cannot be exactly stated2 but their influence on the people was vastly greater than that of the books of the schools4 ,during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 books about love and chivalry constituted the greater part of the secular literature of ,europe4 ,the most popular books of ,caxton1 the first ,english printer1 and of the early printers of ,paris1 were of this character4 ,to the ladies of ,france1 the books of love and song were especially attractive4 ,it was largely through their admiration that the workmanship of a new order of book-makers came in fashion4 p#aff ,to please their dainty tastes1 copies were made with refinements of calligraphy never before attempted2 the unwieldy sizes of folio and quarto were supplanted by small and handy duodecimos1 and bindings of a more delicate character were introduced4 ,the nature of the new literature1 and the effeminate taste of the newly made class of readers1 seemed to call for changes in the old methods of making books4 ,it was necessary that the massiveness and barbaric splendor of the monastic books should be supplanted by workmanship combining elegance1 lightness and delicacy4 ,it was necessary that the illustrations made for the lady's missal1 or for a book of romance1 should be designed1 not by some grim old monk whose imagination had been cramped by his solitary life1 and whose narrowness and severity were visible in all his workmanship1 but by a courtier1 an artist1 and man of fashion1 who knew the world1 who knew how to please it1 and how to paint it4 ,to this class of men1 the forerunners of courtly artists like ,durer1 ,holbein and ,rubens1 the manufacture of the new books was intrusted4 ,the new artists in book-making organized a nicer division of labor1 and supervised and directed the work at every stage of its progress4 ,a copyist selected for his skill wrote the text in prescribed places on the sheets1 and1 by the uniformity of his penmanship1 gave character and connection to the work2 one designer sketched the borders1 and another outlined the initials2 an illuminator filled in the outlines with gold-leaf and bright colors4 ,then came the artist1 or miniaturist1 who drew the illustrations and painted the fine pictures which gave the book its great charm4 ,the artists were called miniaturists because their illustrations were miniature pictures1 as artistically designed1 and always more carefully painted than larger paintings made for the adornment of churches1 halls and picture galleries4 ,avoiding the hard outlines and glaring pigments of the illuminator1 the miniaturist painted in low tints1 and with the nicest attention to harmony of color4 ,the beauty of the work1 which has been but little affected p#afg by time1 is recognized to this day4 ,the sheets which had been so artistically painted were as elegantly bound4 ,they were covered with silk1 velvet1 satin1 or bright-colored leather1 embroidered with gold and pearls1 studded with buttons of gold1 banded on the corners with shields1 and secured with clasps of precious metals engraved and enameled in the very finest style of decorative art4 ,admirable as the books are1 they do not give us a high opinion of the intelligence of the artists1 nor of the culture of their owners1 for they are full of anachronisms and absurdities in the pictures and in the text4 ,this taste for elegant books1 which began in the thirteenth century1 became a princely amusement4 ,in #acgc1 ,charles ,v of ,france was the owner of more than nine hundred#gi books1 most of which were written on fine vellum1 superbly bound1 and adorned with precious stones and clasps of silver or gold4 ,his brothers fostered the same taste4 ,philip the ,bold1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 gathered around him artists1 authors1 copyists1 and bookbinders1 and established a great library4 ,his son1 ,john the ,fearless1 largely increased it1 but the most costly additions were made by ,philip the ,good1 who1 at the middle of the fifteenth century1 enjoyed the distinction of possessing the most magnificent books in ,western ,europe4 ,books of equal beauty were also made in ,italy1 but there was no part of ,europe where calligraphers1 miniaturists and ornamental bookbinders found a higher appreciation of their skill than in ,burgundy and the ,netherlands4 ,nor did this taste for fine p#afh books soon go out of fashion4 ,the business of making fine manuscript books was not entirely destroyed by the invention of printing4 ,lacroix1 a ,french antiquary1#hj has shown us that copyists1 illuminators1 designers and painters found employment in the embellishment of books even as late as the last quarter of the seventeenth century4 ,during the middle ages1 books of merit were everywhere sold at enormous prices4 ,illustrated and illuminated volumes in elegant bindings seem specially exorbitant1 when we consider the greater purchasing capacity of money4 ,daunou says1 that in a computation of the value of a large library of the fourteenth century1 the average price of each manuscript book should be fixed at about #dej francs4 ,didot says that1 of three hundred books contained in the library at ,ratisbon1 during the year #abca1 the average price of each book was #fjj francs4 ,what proportion should be allowed for binding and illumination is not stated1 but it can be proved that copying could not have been the labor of greatest expense4 ,in the fourteenth century the price of copying a ,bible at ,bologna1 exclusive of the value of binding1 parchment and illumination1 was #hj ,bolognese livres4 ,in the fifteenth century1 the price of copying was steadily declining1 while the prices of illuminating and binding were increasing4 ,books were expensive1 not so much through the labor of the copyist1 who did the simplest and cheapest part of the work1 but through the extravagant ornamentation put on p#afi them by the illuminator and the binder4 ,the true office of the book was perverted4 ,it was regarded1 not as a medium of instruction1 but as a means for the display of wealth and artistic tastes4 ,the reader was really taught to value it more for its dress than for its substance2 the book-maker was most appreciated when he made books so expensive that they were out of the reach of ordinary buyers4 ,to the modern book-buyer1 the prices asked for books of size and merit during the middle ages seem excessive1 and especially so when they are contrasted with the prices then paid for food or labor4#ha ,at the end of the fourteenth century1 books of instruction were larger1 more ornamental1 and1 to the unschooled reader1 more pedantic and more forbidding than ever4 ,we do not find in them any valuable contributions to knowledge1 nor do we discover in the writers or teachers of the day any disposition to make knowledge easy to be acquired4 ,the love of great books during this period1 frequently noticed as one of the evidences of a true revival of literature1 is1 when critically examined1 evidence only of the artistic tastes of book-buyers and of the exclusiveness of scholars4 ,so far from paving the way for the introduction of printing1 this trifling with p#agj literature was one of the most formidable impediments in its path4 ,it made despicable even the thought of an attempt to produce books by the simpler method of printing1 then in its first stage of practical development4 ,the princely patrons of literature1 the learned doctors of the universities1 the copyists and stationers1 the illuminators and miniaturists1 must have seen the playing cards and prints then sold in all large cities1 and1 to some extent1 must have known the process by which they were made4 ,but they looked on them with a pitying contempt for the coarse tastes which could be satisfied with such rude workmanship4 ,the distance in degrees of merit between printed playing cards and finely illuminated manuscript books seemed infinite4 ,if the cards conveyed a suggestion of the possibility of printed books1 the suggestion was rejected4 ,to the dainty tastes of book-makers printing was a barbarous trade2 to the wealthy book-buyer1 a printed book would have been the degradation of art and literature4 ,one may look in vain among the book-makers and scholars of the fourteenth century for any sign that heralded the coming of printing4 ,makers and buyers of books seem to have been fully satisfied with things as they were--with the established methods of book-making1 with the organization of society and the state of education4 ,and the professed patrons of literature would have been forever satisfied with this state of affairs4 ,under their exclusive patronage1 books would have been made more and more sumptuously1 and put more and more out of the reach of the people4 p#aga ,x ,the ,preparations for ,printing4 ,imperfect ,preparation of the ,people of ,southern ,europe 4 4 4 ,repression of ,education in ,england4 ,early ,gropings after ,knowledge by ,english ,people 4 4 4 ,the ,horn-,book and ,clog 4 4 4 ,injurious ,effects of the ,use of ,latin in ,books 4 4 4 ,beginnings of ,common ,schools 4 4 4 ,their ,usefulness in ,germany and ,flanders 4 4 4 ,indications of ,mental ,activity in the ,arts 4 4 4 ,favorable ,condition of ,germany as ,compared with other ,states 4 4 4 ,profligacy of the ,clergy 4 4 4 ,growth of ,heresy 4 4 4 ,early ,translations of the ,bible 4 4 4 ,appreciation of ,pictures by the ,illiterate 4 4 4 ,the ,dance of ,death4 ,neglect of the ,people by their ,constituted ,teachers 4 4 4 ,growing use of ,paper 4 4 4 ,increase of ,self-taught ,copyists 4 4 4 ,guilds of ,book-,makers in the ,north of ,europe 4 4 4 ,printing as an ,aid to ,writing 4 4 4 ,printing ,delayed by ,considerations of ,expense 4 4 4 ,could not be ,introduced until there were a ,multitude of ,readers 4 4 4 ,books of ,pictures preceded ,books of ,letters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,no great fact1 no social state1 makes its appearance complete and at once2 it is formed slowly1 successively2 it is the result of a multitude of different facts of different dates and origins1 which modify and combine themselves in a thousand ways before constituting a whole1 presenting itself in a clear and a systematic form1 receiving a special name1 and standing through a long life4 ,guizot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the careless observer of the growth of learning and the state of the mechanical arts at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 ,italy might be regarded as the nation best prepared to receive and maintain any new method of book-making4 ,the neatly engraved initial letters in manuscript books1 the designs printed in many colors on woven fabrics1 and the extended manufacture of images and playing cards1 prove that the ,italians knew how to print from blocks1 and that they had mechanical skill in abundance4 ,in spite of her civil wars1 ,italy was rich and prosperous1 and famous all over the world1 not only for her universities and learned men1 but p#agb for the cultured tastes of her people4 ,it would appear that all the conditions for the coming of block-book printing had been filled1 and that its introduction should have followed as a consequence4 ,but the conditions were only partly met4 ,to be ultimately successful1 it was requisite that printing should begin with the plainest work1 and that it should be adapted to the demands of very plain people2 but the tastes of ,italians were refined1 and they could not tolerate rudeness in any form4 ,with all its skill1 wealth and culture1 there was in ,italy no true middle class1 and1 consequently1 no suitable basis for the upholding of an art like xylography4 ,the spirit which ,woltmann has specified as the basis of printing1--8the impulse to make each mental gain a common blessing10--was entirely wanting4 ,as the professional book-makers1 who were of the people1 did nothing for the advancement of their order1 the development of ,italian printing had to stop with printed cards1 cloths and images4 ,the skill of ,italian engravers culminated1 not1 as it did in ,germany1 in popular block-books1 but in the more artistic and exclusive branch of copper-plate printing4 ,the efforts of ,italian scholars to revive the study of classical authors1 however useful they may have been to the people of other countries1 ended in ,italy with a widening of the gulf that separated the ignorant from the educated4 ,for the benefits of printed books1 ,italy is indebted to the skill of ,german printers1 whose early productions had been excluded from ,venice at the petition of her querulous card-makers4 ,it may seem equally strange that block-book printing was not invented in ,spain1 where textile fabrics were printed1 and where paper was more largely made and used than in any portion of ,europe4 ,we there find schools1 libraries1 and signs of great mental activity4 ,in poetry1 architecture1 music and other fine arts1 the people of ,spain were as advanced as the ,french or ,italians4 ,but the love of books1 and the culture that comes only from their study1 were not firmly rooted in the life and habits of common people4 ,the education and social elevation of the few had been secured at the expense p#agc of the many1 and literature and the literary arts had been so refined that they were in decay4 ,nothing seems to have been done to pave the way for the introduction of xylographic printing by attempts to educate the people4 ,the intellectual development of ,france resembled that of ,italy and ,spain--it was a development of the literature of the church1 and of effeminate tastes among the wealthy1 but from these the people derived no benefit4 ,france was then passing through the horrors of what ,french historians call the 8,hundred ,years' ,war0 with ,england1 during which her population decreased at an alarming rate1 and many of her arts and industries were irreparably injured4 ,the princes and nobles were waging against each other a war of treason and assassination2 the peasantry1 on whom feudal laws pressed more severely than they did on any other people1 broke out in the insurrection of the ,jacquerie4 ,in #adjg1 the pope laid the kingdom under interdict1 and the withdrawal of the ministrations of the church were added to the horrors of civil and servile war and the miseries of foreign invasion4 ,it was not a time for cultivating the arts of peace4 ,there is1 therefore1 no block-book of the fifteenth century in the ,french language1 and there is no reason to believe that any block-book printer ever attempted to establish his business on ,french territory4 ,of all the states of ,western ,europe1 ,england seems to have been most unfitted for the reception of printing4 ,there were a few ecclesiastics who saw the importance of books1 and who tried to found libraries1 but the greater part of the clergy were very ignorant4 ,they would not learn1 nor would they allow common people to be taught4 ,it was unlawful1 even as late as #adab1 for laborers1 farmers and mechanics to send their children to school4 ,a great opportunity for popular education was presented in ,wickliffe's translation of the ,bible1 which could have been made an effective means for diffusing the knowledge of letters among a religious people4 ,but in #adae it was enacted that they who read the ,scriptures in the mother tongue should be hanged for treason1 and burned for heresy4 p#agd ,illustration3 ,an ,english ,horn-,book4 ,from ,chambers4 ,in spite of all these impediments1 there was a slow but positive diffusion of knowledge among ,english people4 ,how the knowledge was communicated is not clear1 for notices of common schools in ,england1 and indeed on the ,continent1 are infrequent and unsatisfactory4 ,we have1 however1 some curious relics of the substitutes for books used by the people4 ,one of them is the ,horn-,book1#hb by which the children were taught their letters and the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,the engraving annexed represents a book that is of no earlier date than the reign of ,charles ,i1 but it is a trustworthy illustration of the construction1 if not of the matter1 of the horn-books in use in the fifteenth century4 ,another of these substitutes is the ,clog1 a rude contrivance for marking the order of coming days1 which may be considered as the forerunner of the printed almanac4 p#age ,illustration3 ,the ,clog4#hc ,from ,chambers4 ,the standard of ,english education was low1 even in the universities4 ,an eminent ,italian man of letters1 in ,england in #adbj1 complains of the scarcity of good books1 and is not at all respectful to ,english scholars4#hd ,the ,universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge had been established rather more than three hundred years1 but they taught bad ,latin4 ,there were few books of merit in the ,english language3 ,wickliffe's translation of the ,bible1 and the poems of ,chaucer1 ,lydgate and ,gower1 are all that deserve any notice4 ,there was1 as yet1 no universally spoken ,english language3 ,french was the language of the ,english nobility and of ,english courts and books of law1 as late as the year #acfb2 merchants and mercantile companies kept their books in ,french2 boys at school were required to translate p#agf ,latin into ,french4#he ,the habitual employment of ,french as the language of the nobility1 and of ,latin as the language of literature1 shut the doors of knowledge on those who spoke ,english only4 ,in all countries the elementary text books of the schools were in ,latin4 ,to learn arithmetic1 grammar or geography1 the scholar must begin with the study of ,latin4 ,the dead language was the path to all knowledge3 it was a circuitous and a wearisome path1 but it was traveled by every student destined for the church1 or for the profession of law or medicine4 ,at a very early period the bishops of the ,catholic church tried to establish schools for children1 but not so much for the teaching of secular as of religious knowledge4 ,in the year #hjj a synod at ,mentz ordered that parochial priests should establish schools in all towns and villages to teach letters to children4 ,these orders were repeated by other councils1 but they could be enforced only in the larger cities4 ,in many rural districts common schools were entirely unknown4 ,as the clergy grew corrupt1 they were neglected in cities4#hf ,the primary schools were not always taught by ecclesiastics1 but the church claimed the right to supervise them1 and made sure that its doctrines and dogmas should be fully taught4 p#agg ,these schools seem to have been most useful where they were not overshadowed by great institutions of learning4 ,in the ,german countries that bordered on the ,rhine1 and more especially in the ,netherlands1 where there were no universities1 and where the people had a large measure of personal liberty1 we find many evidences of a steady progress in education1#hg and of improvement in social condition4 ,the simple teachings of the schools were received by a plain but utilitarian people who put the knowledge to practical use4 ,the newly developed mental activity did not run to waste1 as it did in the universities1 in unprofitable metaphysical speculations2 it was at once applied to the varied requirements of art1 trade and manufactures4 ,when printing came1 the common people were fully prepared for it1 prepared not only to read books1 but to make them4 ,the invention was developed in proper order1 and was preceded by improvements in mechanical arts4 ,as illustrations of this mental activity1 it is not out of place to mention some of the many inventions of the men who had studied books only to aid them in studying things4 ,we find gunpowder and fire-arms1 glass windows and mirrors1 clocks and watches1 and numerous contrivances that add to the comforts of social life1 some of which1 like the tinning of iron1 and the putting of chimneys to fireplaces1 have seemed too paltry to deserve notice4 ,trivial as they may seem1 when in contrast with the steam engine and railroad1 the chimney and window were of the highest service as aids in bringing men from a qualified barbarism to civilization4 ,it cannot be p#agh proved that these contrivances were invented in ,germany1 but it is certain that they were there appreciated and used when they were entirely unknown in parts of ,europe then supposed to be much more enlightened4#hh ,the ,germans and ,flemings were regarded as a boorish people by the more polished ,italians4 ,in the artistic education that can be acquired only from intimate association with men of genius and works of art1 the ,northern people were deficient2 but in the knowledge of useful arts1 in originality of invention1 in patience and thoroughness as manufacturers1 they were superior4 ,the ,germans made linen1 glass1 carved wooden-ware1 and useful articles of all kinds needed in home life4 ,in the construction of fine mechanisms1 like clocks and curious automatons1 they had no rivals4 ,the ,flemings were celebrated as weavers1 cutlers1 goldsmiths1 armorers1 engravers of silver-ware1 and as carvers of wood and stone4 ,they were more than skillful mechanics4#hi ,hubert and ,john ,van ,eyck1 founders of the ,flemish school of painting1 and instructors of eminent ,italian artists1 may be regarded as representatives of the practical ,flemish character1 for they considered no branch of the arts of design as unworthy their attention2 they painted on glass as well as on wood or canvas2 they illuminated missals1 and1 as many bibliographers believe1 made designs on wood for the engravers of block-books4 p#agi ,the steady progress made by the people of ,flanders and ,germany in arts and manufactures was largely due to their liberty4 ,they were not altogether exempt from the bondage of feudalism3 there was some discord in ,germany1 and never-ceasing strife between the nobles and middle class1 but the ,german burgher maintained his independence and lived in comfort4#ij ,the need of peace and personal liberty as preparations for the introduction of printing may be more clearly perceived in a glance at the social condition of the people4 ,the discontent of common people at their treatment by constituted authorities was never greater than during the last twenty years of the fourteenth century4 ,southern ,europe was afflicted by sanguinary wars1 into which the rulers of the people dragged their unwilling peasantry4#ia ,armed bands of p#ahj discharged soldiers roamed about1 robbing and murdering at will4 ,nobles secure in their castles sent out soldiers to make forays in adjacent districts1 with no more pretext of law than is claimed by pirates4 ,outside of large cities there was no safety for life or property4 ,to add to the general misery1 famine desolated the most fruitful countries1 and in some districts1 the awful pestilence of the black death swept away half the population4 ,where the suffering was greatest1 the people rebelled1 but to no purpose4 ,in ,france1 the insurgents of the ,jacquerie1 in #aceh1 were massacred with savage ingenuity in cruelty2#ib in ,england1 the ,wat ,tyler revolt of #ache was put down with violence1 and the people were remanded to the old villeinage4#ic ,in countries where there was no outbreak1 a sullen resentment grew up against all authority1 but more especially against that of the established church4 ,the exactions and scandalous manners of the superior clergy afforded a sufficient provocation4 ,there were two popes--one at ,rome and one at ,avignon2 in many dioceses were rival bishops1 holding authority under the rival popes4 ,the heads of the church were at enmity with each other1 and they ruled over ,god's heritage with the weapons and the spirit of temporal princes4 ,the tribute of money which had been delayed or refused by recusant bishops1 and the tribute of homage which had been denied by excommunicated kings or emperors1 were paid in the misery and blood of the people4 ,in the prolonged disputes between pope and king1 and pope and anti-pope1 the pious and loyal1 who had been taught to honor those who were in authority1 were unable to discern which of the two contestants was the true and which the false pope or bishop4 p#aha ,from the teachings of each pretender the good turned away4 ,the religious sentiment which had been shocked at the outrageous behavior of the anointed teachers forsook the old altars4 ,it sought out new faiths and founded new sects4#id ,the teachers of the new sects were unwittingly preparing the people for the coming of printing by enforcing the duty of more careful reading and study of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,in the year #achj1 ,wickliffe completed a translation in ,english of the entire ,bible4 ,at the beginning of the thirteenth century1 copies of a translation of the ,scriptures in ,provenal ,french1 made by or under the direction of ,peter ,waldo1 a wealthy merchant of ,lyons1 and the founder of the ,waldenses1 were circulated in ,burgundy and upon the borders of the ,rhine4 ,there were many new translations1 or at least of the gospels and psalms1 in other ,european languages4#ie ,men and women p#ahb gathered together in secret places to hear them read4#if ,the timid and irresolute1 alienated from the church1 and deterred from frequenting prohibited associations1 set up altars of the most unpretentious character within their own houses4 ,too poor to buy books1 and perhaps too ignorant to read them1 they sought from the formschneiders and image-makers the emblems they needed as visible symbols of their faith4 ,in this hungering after the instruction or consolation afforded by religious pictures1 we see the origin of the block-books4 ,a growing fondness for pictures is a marked peculiarity in the intellectual development of the age4 ,it was not confined to the buyers of printed images3 it was manifested in the paintings on the walls and windows of magnificent churches1 in the pictorial playing cards then in the hands of all people1 gentle and simple1 and more than all in the fearful pictures of the ,dance of ,death upon the walls of convents1 in the arcades of burying-grounds1 and in market-places and town halls4 ,in these hideous paintings1 the saint saw the necessity of preparation for death2 the sinner interpreted them as an assertion of the equality of all men and the final punishment of the p#ahd unjust4 ,in the inexorable impartiality of the grinning and stalking skeleton who rudely dragged away the resisting noble and protesting priest1 there was a ghastly irony which was keenly appreciated even by the illiterate4 ,illustration3 ,the ,abbot4 ,death despoils the ,abbot of his mitre and crozier1 and drags him away4 ,the ,abbot resists1 and is about to throw his breviary at his adversary4 ,the ,mendicant ,friar4 ,he is about to enter his convent with his money-box and wallet1 when ,death seizes him by the cowl1 and compels him to leave the world4 ,the ,preacher4 ,death1 with a stole about his neck1 stands behind the ,preacher1 and holds a jaw-bone over his head1 intimating that he is the more forcible teacher4 ,the ,knight4 ,after escaping perils in numerous combats1 the ,knight ineffectually resists the onset of ,death1 and is vanquished by one thrust of the spear4 ,holbein's ,illustrations of the ,dance of ,death4 ,from ,douce4 ,the signs of awakening intelligence1 as manifested in the general appreciation of pictures1 images1 playing cards and books1 were entirely disregarded by the authorized teachers of the age1 who could have used the method of xylographic printing by which images and playing cards were made1 and could have led people from the contemplation of images and allegories of the ,dance of ,death1#ig to the study of books and letters4 ,they had all the means within reach4 ,there were engravers and printers in ,venice in #adjj2 there is an obscure notice of image-cutters or engravers on wood in the records of the fraternity of ,st4 ,luke in ,paris#ih for the year #acia4 ,but p#ahe neither the doctors of the universities nor the book-makers of ,paris ever attempted to print books or pictures4 ,nor can it be shown that any one of the many persons laboring for the revival of literature at the beginning of the fifteenth century had anything to do with printing4 ,the significance of this fact should be fairly considered1 for it is the proper explanation of the curious and childish literature of the block-books which followed the printed images4 ,illustration3 ,reduced ,fac-simile of the ,dance of ,death1 as shown in the ,nuremberg ,chronicle4 ,photographed from ,mr4 ,bruce's ,copy4 ,early printed work was the outgrowth1 not of scholarship1 but of comparative ignorance4 ,the first block-printers were men outside the pale of literature1 and not indebted to any school or scholar for the suggestion of printing4 ,the first merchantable products of printing on paper were not books1 but playing cards and images4 ,the earliest purchasers of p#ahf printing were men who could neither read nor write4 ,the card-makers1 who labored for the amusement of boyish tastes1 were the ignorant nurses of an art which has preserved the learning of the world4 ,they have had grand success4 ,the once despised fabric of paper has displaced vellum2 types do the work of reed and pen1 and the work of perpetuating the literature of the world is done by mechanics4#ii ,nor has this great revolution been restricted to mechanical processes in book-making4 ,medieval books are more than out of date3 they are dead1 beyond all revival4 ,they are known to book-lovers chiefly by reputation4 ,the writings of ,anselm1 ,dun ,scotus1 ,abelard1 ,peter ,lombard1 ,albertus ,magnus1 ,thomas ,aquinas and ,ockham1 are read only through curiosity2 they are as obsolete as the works of the old ,greek philosophers4#ajj ,although much had been done to prepare ,germany and ,flanders for the reception of printing1 one thing was lacking4 ,printing waited for a wise appreciation of the utility of paper4 ,for centuries paper had been regarded as a plebeian writing surface1 unfitted for books1 but good enough for shopkeepers1 mechanics1 and children who had or sought a smattering of education4 ,it was necessary that the prejudices in favor of vellum should be uprooted1 and that the practical superiority of paper should be recognized by men of higher authority than card-printers or poor scholars4 ,this change in fashion was effectually made by the rich merchants of ,flanders and ,germany4 ,the paper rejected of professional book-makers was not so strong nor so attractive as parchment1 but it was flexible1 durable1 and much cheaper4 ,there was no legislative intermeddling with its sale#aja as there had been with parchment4 p#ahg ,everybody was free to buy and use it at his pleasure4 ,the consequences of this contemptuous abandonment of paper to the people1 who were supposed to be almost unfit to use it1 were unexpected4 ,those who knew how to read and write found in paper a ready means of communicating their knowledge4 ,the number of readers grew4 ,with this increase of readers came also an increase of self-taught copyists and of unprofessional book-makers4 ,in the commercial cities1 where copyists were not subjected to the censorship of the universities1 the practice of making books became as common as it had been exclusive4 ,book-making became a distinct trade1 and shops were established for the sale of alphabets1 primers1 prayer books1 creeds1 and elementary text books for schools1 all adapted1 both in price and in subject1 to the very humblest readers4#ajb ,the names of some nooks and corners in ,london1 ,paternoster ,row1 ,creed ,lane1 ,amen ,corner1 ,ave ,maria ,lane1 show that these were the places in that city where manuscripts of a religious character were largely made and sold4 ,as the sale of these books and tracts increased1 ,northern copyists combined with each other for purposes of mutual protection1 after the usage of all the tradesmen of the middle ages4 ,we find a mention of the existence of the ,company of ,stationers of ,london in #adje4 ,there were guilds of book-makers at ,augsburg in #adah1 at ,nordlingen in #adbh1 at ,ulm in #adda1 at ,antwerp in #adda1 at ,bruges in #aded4 ,these are the years in which the guilds were first mentioned2 but it is probable they were incorporated at earlier dates4 ,the p#ahh book-making fraternities of ,st4 ,luke1 in ,venice and in ,paris1 were constituted of copyists1 calligraphers1 illuminators and bookbinders2 but the more practical ,northern guilds admitted to membership printers and engravers1 and every worker1 however humble his work1 who contributed to the making of a book4 ,but this combination of copyists with engravers and printers did not at once lead to the printing of books4 ,it did no more than pave the way for its introduction1 by making people familiar with paper and printing4 ,for a long time the workmanship of the rival arts was kept distinct2 the copyist transcribed books1 while the printers made images4 ,but the time came when the copyist had to ask help from the printer4 ,the printing of books began1 not as an independent art1 but as an aid to the art of writing4 ,a publisher#ajc of ,london recently described and offered for sale a curious old book1 partly printed and partly written1 which illustrates the close alliance of labor once maintained between the copyist and the engraver4 ,he describes the book as a folio of #ag leaves of vellum1 on which are printed #fi engravings1 twelve of them bearing legends1 8representing scenes of ,christian mythology1 figures of patriarchs1 saints1 devils1 and other dignitaries of the church1 all colored and illuminated with oxidized gold1 impressed in the midst of a manuscript text in ,german40 ,the engravings of this book are small1 about #c inches long and #b-a_/d inches broad4 ,they are enclosed by a double border of black lines1 and are printed on the left side of the page4 ,the designer of the illustrations was obviously an inexpert1 not accustomed to drawing the letters of the inscriptions in reverse order on the block1 for some of the letters are turned the wrong way4 ,the engravings were printed before the descriptive text was written4 ,the language of the text1 old ,high ,german1 contains obsolete words which were out of use before typography was invented4 ,quaritch attributes this p#ahi book to unknown monks of ,southern ,germany1 8about the year #adjj40 ,this copy of the ,weekly ,meditations is a favorable specimen of the combined workmanship of the copyist and the printer2 but it is not the only one4 ,copies or fragments of manuscript books#ajd with printed illustrations are in the ,british ,museum1 and in many ,european libraries4 ,these specimens of book-making during the period of its transition from writing to printing1 give us some notions of the estimation in which the process of printing was held by the men who manufactured chap-books4 ,it does not appear that they made use of printing because they thought it was a labor-saving process4 ,they used it mainly1 if not entirely1 to supplement the deficient skill of the copyist4 ,it was then as it is now--many could write1 but few could draw4 ,if the copyist who wrote the text had been competent to draw1 the pictures would not have been engraved4 ,nor would these engravings have been made for one nor even for one dozen copies4 ,we may properly suppose that enough copies were printed to justify the expense of engraving4 ,while it was expedient to engrave the pictures1 it was inexpedient to engrave the text of a book4 ,in many books1 the letters constituted the largest part of the work1 and to the engraver it was the more difficult part--the expense of engraving would more than offset all the advantages that might have been gained from printing4 ,a full suite of blocks for the text would cost more than the writing of a hundred copies4 ,to the stationer who could sell but few books1 xylographic printing was not an economical process3 the preliminary cost of engraving was too great4 ,it would be an extravagant estimate to assume that the writer of the ,weekly ,meditations made one hundred copies of this book2 but one p#aij hundred copies would have been an edition much too small to justify the engraving of its text of seventeen pages4 ,we must accept this as the reason why printing was so sparingly used by the early book-makers4 ,they did not engrave blocks and print books1 because there were not enough book-buyers to warrant the expense4 ,this feature of printing--its entire dependence upon a very large number of book-buyers--may require a more extended explanation4 ,the small prices for which all popular modern books and newspapers are sold lead many into the error that printing is1 necessarily and under all circumstances1 a much cheaper method of making books than that of writing4 ,as compared with writing1 presswork1 or the operation of impressing the types on the sheet1 is much the quicker and cheaper process2 but presswork is not the main branch of the art of printing4 ,before one impression can be taken1 or one copy be made1 types must be composed or blocks engraved at very great expense4 ,the composition and stereotyping of the pages of an ordinary duodecimo book may be worth six hundred dollars4 ,on an edition of ten copies the cost of such a book would be1 for making plates only1 sixty dollars per copy4 ,if there were but one hundred copies1 the expense of the plates would be six dollars per copy4 ,under these conditions few books would be published4 ,but if an edition of one thousand copies should be printed1 the cost of the plates would be only sixty cents a copy4 ,in this instance1 printing would be much cheaper than writing1 but this reduced rate would not necessarily justify the expenses of printing4 ,the risk of sale must be hazarded4 ,no publisher would undertake at his own risk to print even one thousand copies1--much less a smaller number1--if he did not fully believe that the edition could be promptly sold4 ,but the early book-maker did not have this confident belief in large and speedy sale4 ,there were1 comparatively1 few book-buyers1 and the publication of a book by the method of engraving and printing must have seemed very hazardous speculation4 p#aia ,it can be clearly seen that the cost of printing a book is in inverse ratio with the number printed4 ,when the number is small1 the cost per copy is great2 when the number is great1 the cost per copy is small4 ,printing is an economical process only for books of many copies4 ,if there were not a very great number of book-readers and book-buyers1 printing could not be practised to advantage4 ,in the fourteenth century this multitude of book-readers had not been created4 ,one hundred copies would have been considered a great edition1 and the engravers or printers who took such a hazard would have waited many years for purchasers4 ,their unwillingness to take an unwise risk has been often regarded as an evidence1 not of their sagacity1 but of their stupidity4 ,there are writers who have taught that the project of a printed book was a grand conception1 not to be imagined by any but a great inventor--an idea far above the capacity of any printer of playing cards or images2 but the legends in the image prints teach us that the early engravers knew how to engrave the letters1 and that they could have engraved entire books of letters if they had thought it expedient4 ,the advantages or disadvantages of engraving books were considered by them as they would be by publishers of our own time1 purely as an economical question4 ,the early engravers decided that books of letters could be appreciated1 and would be purchased1 only by the educated1 a class too small to reward the labor of the engraver4 ,for the making of books1 printing was not regarded as an economical process1 and books were consequently made by the cheaper process of writing4 ,while it was unprofitable to engrave letters for books1 it was profitable to engrave designs for printed fabrics1 images and playing cards4 ,on work of this character1 the relations of cost and sale were completely reversed4 ,the expenses for engraving one design1 one image1 or one suite of cards1 was small2 but the sale of the work printed from the blocks was generally very large4 ,fabrics that could be worn1 cards that p#aib could amuse1 and images that would serve as decorations or as aids to devotion1 had attractions for all people1 and especially for the poor and illiterate4 ,whoever printed merchandise of this nature could rightfully expect that it would be sold in such large quantities that the cost of engraving would be inappreciable4 ,the world was not ready at the beginning of the fifteenth century to apply its knowledge of printing with ink to the making of books4 ,it was regarded as too expensive a process4 ,it bided its time1 waiting for more readers and book-buyers1 for paper in greater supply and of better quality1 for higher skill on the part of the engravers1 printers and ink-makers4 ,if there were no other evidences than those afforded by the partly printed and written books1 it could be safely assumed that when the early engravers did begin to print books1 they would be1 not books of letters1 but books of pictures4 p#aic ,,xi ,block-,books of ,images without ,text4 ,general ,appreciation of ,pictures 4 4 4 ,beginning of the ,block-,books 4 4 4 ,popularity during the ,fifteenth ,century 4 4 4 ,neglected afterward 4 4 4 ,childish in ,character 4 4 4 ,the ,bible of the ,poor 4 4 4 ,its ,age as a ,manuscript 4 4 4 ,its ,popularity 4 4 4 ,the ,first ,edition 4 4 4 ,its ,designs and ,engravings 4 4 4 ,explanations of ,fac-similes 4 4 4 ,description of ,printing 4 4 4 ,not ,printed by the ,frotton 4 4 4 ,anachronisms in ,design 4 4 4 ,dissimilarity of the ,copies 4 4 4 ,blocks destroyed in #adhh 4 4 4 ,price of ,copies 4 4 4 ,description of ,german ,edition of #adgj 4 4 4 ,the ,apocalypse 4 4 4 ,description of ,illustrations 4 4 4 ,probably of ,german ,origin 4 4 4 ,the ,canticles 4 4 4 ,description of ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,its ,anachronisms 4 4 4 ,its object 4 4 4 ,quality of ,engraving 4 4 4 ,the ,story of the ,blessed ,virgin 4 4 4 ,its ,object 4 4 4 ,description of ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,its ,absurdities 4 4 4 ,exercise on the ,lord's ,prayer 4 4 4 ,description of ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,singular ,perversion of the ,prayer 4 4 4 ,the ,book of ,kings 4 4 4 ,description and ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,the ,grotesque ,alphabet 4 4 4 ,a ,mysterious ,book 4 4 4 ,the ,apostles' ,creed 4 4 4 ,the ,eight ,rogueries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i presume that nothing is in this life more useful to a man than to acknowledge his ,creator1 his condition1 his own being4 ,scholars may learn this from the ,scriptures1 and the laymen shall be taught by the books of the laymen1 that is by the pictures4 ,wherefore ,i have thought fit1 with the help of ,god1 to compile this book for laymen to the glory of ,god1 and as an instruction for the unlearned1 in order that it may be a lesson both to clerks and to laymen4 ,preface to the ,speculum ,salutis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sumptuary laws of the middle ages1 which were made to restrain common people from imitating the dress and equipage of the nobility1 were not extended to the making of books4 ,the copyist or calligrapher was at liberty to decorate books according to his own fancy4 ,there was no occasion for restrictive legislation4 ,the admirable romances and books of prayer upon which the miniaturist had lavished his talents were beyond the skill of the vulgar copyist and beyond the means of the plebeian book-buyer4 ,only an artist could paint them2 only a prince or patrician could buy them4 ,but these books1 although far removed from the multitude by price and rarity1 were not above the capacity of the ordinary reader4 ,the illiterate man who could find no attraction in a book of letters would readily acknowledge the charm of the pictures p#aid in a book like the ,bedford ,missal4 ,in this universal appreciation of pictures1 some of the early engravers of cards and images saw an opportunity4 ,men who would not buy books of letters would buy books of pictures4 ,books of the latter class were not only sure of sale1 but they could be engraved on blocks at a comparatively small expense4 ,they could be printed in quantities much more cheaply1 and1 above all1 with more accuracy and uniformity than they could be drawn by hand4 ,they could be painted or illuminated by stencil plates1 and made acceptable to men of simple tastes4 ,here was the beginning of the block-books4 ,the term ,block-,book is used to define the book printed entirely from engraved blocks1 in contradistinction to the book printed from movable types4 ,bibliographers divide the block-books in two distinct classes3 books of pictures without text1 in which words descriptive of the picture are engraved at the foot of the page1 or in cartouches proceeding from the mouths of the principal figures2 and books of pictures with text1 in which the explanations of the pictures are given in the form of a full page of text1 which was commonly printed on the page opposite the picture4 ,it is admitted by all writers on typography that block-books of both classes were made before and after the invention of typography4 ,that they were manufactured in large quantities by many printers1 and in many cities or towns1 during the fifteenth century1 does not admit of doubt4 ,it is claimed by one bibliographer that there are eight editions of the ,ars ,moriendi2 by others1 that there are six editions each of the ,bible of the ,poor and of the ,apocalypse1 and four of the ,mirror of ,man's ,redemption4 ,in some instances1 the so-called later editions are reprintings1 with slight alterations1 of the same blocks that were used for the first edition2 in other instances1 the later editions were printed from blocks newly engraved4 ,the number and variety of the editions are proof that there must have been a very large demand for the books2 the alterations in the engravings are presumptive evidence of p#aie repairs to blocks badly worn by long use2 the newly engraved blocks are evidently the replacement of a suite completely worn out2 an edition different from the others in design may be accepted as the work of a rival or competing printer4 ,the few block-books known in the seventeenth century were regarded by bibliographers as prejudicial to the claims of contestants for the honor of the invention of typography4 ,they were annoying facts which could neither be rejected nor accepted without hurt to favorite theories4 ,there was a disposition on all sides to belittle them in number as well as in importance4 ,the first writer who called attention to their value as relics could describe but nine block-books4 ,sotheby1 writing about them in #aheh1 described in the ,principia ,typographica twenty-one block-books--not different editions of a few books1 but twenty-one distinct works4 ,even with these additions1 the list cannot be considered complete3 it is possible that more will yet be found1 but it is certain that many have been irretrievably lost4 ,the neglect of the block-books by early librarians seems almost justifiable when we consider their great inferiority to the typographic books that followed them4 ,from a literary point of view1 they were of no importance as works of instruction or authority4 ,they were published during the fifteenth century1 but they really belong to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 during which period most of them were composed4 ,the legends that explain their illustrations were written in ,latin1 but they are adapted to readers in a child-like state of development4 ,it is not strange that they should have been put aside by the world when it had outgrown them4 ,childish as these books are1 they are of high value to those who wish to note the growth of printing4 ,they indicate the attainments of their authors and readers1 and the artistic abilities of their designers and engravers4 ,they show the quality of the paper1 ink1 and workmanship of the period4 ,they prove that the art of printing from blocks was practised by many persons during the second and third quarters of the fifteenth century4 p#aih ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,last ,page of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,,the ,,biblia ,,pauperum1 ,,or ,,bible ,,of ,,the ,,poor4 ,this is the most famous and the most creditable specimen of the early block-book4#aje ,the title1 ,bible of the ,poor1 seems to have been used at an early period to distinguish it from the ,bible proper1 a fair manuscript copy of which was sold in ,france1 in the year #adfj1 for five hundred crowns of gold4 ,the ,bible proper1 as then made1 in two or more stout folio volumes of fine vellum1 was the ,bible of the rich2 its epitome1 in the shape of the book of forty pages of engravings1 about to be described1 was the ,bible of the poor4 ,the author of the ,bible of the ,poor is unknown1 but the designer of the illustrations was not the writer of the texts that explained the designs4 ,there are frequent incongruities between the words and the pictures1 which fully show that the author did not always understand the intent of the artist4 ,it is probable that the illustrations were made first1 and that1 in the beginning1 the ,bible of the ,poor was a book of pictures only4#ajf ,some ,german antiquarians say that the book1 in its p#aii original form1 was designed and explained by a monk named ,wernher1 who was living in #aahj1 and was famous during his lifetime both as a painter and a poet4 ,other ,german authorities put the origin of the first manuscript as far back as the ninth century1 attributing the work to ,saint ,ansgarius1 first bishop of ,hamburg4 ,it seems to have been a popular manuscript1 for copies written before the fifteenth century have been found in many old monasteries4 ,these copies are not alike4 ,nearly every transcriber has made more or less alterations and innovations of his own2 but the general plan of the book--the contrasting of apostles with prophets1 and of the patriarchs of the ,old ,testament with the saints of the ,christian ,church--has been preserved in all the copies4 ,at least four distinct xylographic editions--two in ,latin and two in ,german--of the ,bible of the ,poor have been discovered4 ,three of them were printed in ,germany after the invention of typography4#ajg ,the edition acknowledged as the first1#ajh and supposed to have been printed before the invention of types1 is in ,latin1 without date1 place1 or name of printer4 ,those who favor the theory of a ,german invention of printing say that it was printed in ,germany between the years #addj and #adfj4 ,those who believe in the priority of ,dutch printing say that it must be regarded as the work of some printer of ,holland4 ,this is the opinion of ,berjeau1 who republished the book in fac-simile4 ,he says that the designs for the original editions must have been made in the ,netherlands1 probably by ,van ,eyck1 between #adaj and #adbj4 p#bjj ,the illustration on the preceding page1 which is the exact size of the original1 gives a faithful representation of the last page of the first edition of this curious book4 ,unlike most of the block-books1 the ,bible of the ,poor was designed with architectural symmetry4 ,an open frame-work divides each page in nine distinct panels or partitions1 five of which are devoted to pictorial illustrations1 and four to their explanation in words4 ,the three large panels in the middle of the page illustrate historical subjects drawn from the ,bible1 of which the central panel is1 in theological phrase1 the type1 and is taken from the ,new ,testament4 ,the pictures on either side are known as the antitypes1 and are oftenest taken from the ,old ,testament4 ,the texts that explain the pictures are placed in the corners of the page1 or in scrolls near the figures4 ,to most readers the explanatory text is undecipherable4 ,the obscurity is not only that of a dead language3 a trained ,latin scholar will always grope and often stumble in attempting to make a translation4 ,all the letters are carelessly drawn and cut2 the words are badly spaced1 and are deformed with abbreviations4 ,these faults appear more noticeable when the letters are contrasted with the designs4 ,whoever designed the figures on the wood drew with the bold and free hand of an artist who had proper confidence in his ability4 ,whoever engraved the figures cut the clean firm line that can be made only by an expert4 ,but the cutting of the letters1 although probably done by the engraver of the figures1 is really barbarous4 ,it is obvious that the designer1 skillful as he was with figures1 had no experience in drawing letters1 and that the engraver was equally unsuccessful at a new kind of work4 ,the text and translation appended are the version of ,dr4 ,horne1 author of the ,introduction to the ,study of ,bibliography1 who has corrected the contractions of the original ,latin4 ,it is copied from the ,typographia of ,hansard4 ,each page contains four busts--two at the top1 and two lower down2 together with three historical subjects4 ,the two upper busts represent certain prophets1 or other eminent persons1 whose names are p#bja added beneath them4 ,of the three historical subjects1 the chief type1 or principal piece1 is taken from the ,new ,testament1 and occupies the centre of the page1 between the two antitypes1 or subordinate subjects1 which are allusive to it4 ,the two busts1 placed in the middle of the upper part of the page1 represent ,david and ,isaiah between two texts of the ,bible1 with brief explanations4 ,the former of these1 on the left of the ,prophets1 is from the ,song of ,solomon1 ,chapter iv1 #g3 f,legitur in ,cantico ,canticorum1 quarto capite1 quod sponsus alloquitur sponsam1 et eam sumendo dixit3 ,tota pulchra es1 amica mea1 et macula non est in te4 ,veni1 amica mea1 veni1 coronabere4 ,sponsus verus iste est ,christus1 qui in assumendo eam sponsam1 qu est anima sine macula omnis peccati1 et introducit eam in requiem ternam2 et coronat cum corona immortalitatis4_/f ,in the fourth chapter of the ,song of ,solomon it is read1 ,that the bridegroom addresses the bride1 and receiving her1 says1 ,thou art all fair1 my love1 and in thee is no spot4 ,come1 my love2 come1 thou shalt be crowned4 ,the real bridegroom is ,christ1 who1 in receiving the bride1 which is the soul without spot of sin1 also conducts her to eternal rest1 and crowns her with the crown of immortality4 ,the second passage1 on the right of ,david and ,isaiah1 is partly taken from the ,book of ,revelation1 and runs thus3 f,legitur in ,apocalypsi xxi capite1 quod angelus ,dei apprehendit ,jhoannem ,evangelistam cum esset in ,spiritu1 et volens sibi ostendere archana ,dei1 dixit ad eum1 ,veni1 et ostendam tibi sponsam1 uxorem agni4 ,angelus loquitur ad omnem generationem ut veniant ad auscultandum in sponsum1 agnum innocentem ,christum animas innocentes coronantem4_/f ,in the twenty-first chapter of the ,revelation it is read1 ,that the ,angel of ,god took ,john the ,evangelist when he was in the ,spirit1 and willing to show him the mysteries of ,god1 said to him1 ,come1 and ,i will show thee the bride1 the wife of the ,lamb4 ,the ,angel speaks to every generation1 that they come and hearken to the bridegroom1 the pure ,lamb ,christ1 crowning innocent souls4 ,under the bust of ,david1 which is indicated by his name1 is a scroll proceeding from his hand1 inscribed3 f,enim tamquam sponsus dominus procedens de thalamo suo4_/f ,even as a bridegroom cometh out of his chamber4 ,ps4 ,,xix1 #e4 ,beneath the corresponding compartment containing a bust of ,isaiah1 is the word ,ysaye1 and also the ordinal number ,,lxi1 referring to the sixty-first chapter of that prophet2 and from the hand of the figure proceeds a label containing3 f,tamquam sponsus decoravit me corona4_/f ,as a bridegroom1 he hath adorned me with a crown4 ,,lxi1 #aj4 ,toward the bottom of the plate are two other busts1 similar to those at the top1 and which represent the ,prophets ,ezekiel and p#bjb ,hosea4 ,from the figure that occupies the left-hand compartment extends a scroll1 at one end of which is the word zeciel1 with a number referring to the twenty-fourth chapter2 and in the other part are the words3 f,corona tua capite ligata fiet1 et calciamenta in pedibus4_/f ,thy tire shall be bound upon thine head1 and thy shoes upon thy feet4 ,,xxiv1 #ag4 ,the corresponding scroll1 attached to the other figure1 contains1 at one end1 ,ozee1 with a reference to the second chapter2 and in the other part are the words3 f,sponsabo te mihi in sempiternum4_/f ,i will betroth thee unto me forever4 ,,ii1 #ai4 ,in the central compartment1 between the upper and lower busts1 is depicted the ,type1 or principal subject4 ,it represents the reward of righteousness in heaven2 the designer having introduced the ,redeemer as bestowing the ,crown of ,life upon one of the elect ,spirits4 ,the antitype1 on the left1 is the ,daughter of ,zion crowned by her spouse1 with the following leonine verse underneath3 f,laus anime vere1_/f f,sponsum bene sensit habere4_/f ,o soul divine6 it rightly knew1 ,to have the spouse was glory true4 ,the other antitype1 on the right1 represents an ,angel addressing ,st4 ,john1 having beneath it this verse3 f,sponsus amat sponsam1_/f f,christus nimis et speciosam4_/f ,and ,christ1 the bridegroom1 far above ,conception1 the fair bride doth love4 ,and in the bottom space is this verse3 ,tunc gaudent anime sibi quando bonum datur omne4 ,then souls rejoice with great delight1 ,when given is the diadem bright4 ,the first edition of the book contains forty engravings on wood1 printed on one side only of the leaf4 ,the prints face each other2 two pages of illustrations are always followed by two pages of blank paper4 ,the book was put together in sections of two leaves1 a method of making a book contrary to prevailing usage4 ,manuscript books of that period were usually made up in sections of four double leaves1 which were nested together in one section4 ,this deviation from established usage was1 apparently1 caused through the error of the engraver1 who cut1 on the same block1 the two pages which faced each other4 ,it was1 consequently1 impossible to nest p#bjc the leaves1 or make them up in thick sections4 ,cracks in the wood block1 which have made open seams or white gaps in the print1 and which extend in straight lines over both pages1 show conclusively that two pages were engraved on one block4 ,the book is without folios or paging figures to guide the reader1 and also without signatures to guide the binder4 ,the proper order of the pages was made manifest by engraving on each page a letter of the alphabet4 ,pages #a to #bj are marked in alphabetical order from a to v2 pages #ba to #dj have the same letters1 but with a dot before and after each1 4a4 to 4v4 ,the paper of the fifteen known copies of this edition of the book is of variable quality4 ,of itself1 this variability is not sufficient indication that the paper was made by different makers1 and printed at different times1 but the different designs of the paper-marks lead directly to such a conclusion4 ,some copies have but one kind of paper-mark2 others have two and three kinds2 taking all copies together1 there are at least fourteen distinct paper-marks4 ,if each decided variation of the same design could be considered the mark of a different maker1 the number could be doubled4 ,that the substance used for these engravings was wood1 is clearly indicated by the occasional feathering or flatting out of border-lines1 which1 when crushed1 show the fibres of wood in the impression4 ,it seems that the engravings were cut on flat plates or blocks1 that had been sawed or split on a line parallel with the fibres4 ,the ink is of a dull or rusty-brown color2 on some pages light1 and on others of darker tint1 rarely ever of uniform tint on the same page4 ,it has the appearance of a paste or a thick water color4 ,this unevenness in color was produced by some imperfect method of inking the block--possibly by a hard-faced brush which shed color irregularly4 ,the shining appearance of the backs of the prints1 in all places where the raised lines of the wood-cut have indented the paper1 has been considered as sufficient evidence that the impressions were taken1 not by a press1 but by means of a p#bjd frotton1 or by friction1 or by rubbing in some form or other4 ,one writer of rare simplicity has hazarded the opinion that the back of the paper1 or the frotton1 may have been soaped to facilitate the work4 ,but these methods of printing books are imaginary and entirely impracticable4 ,the shining appearance on the back of the paper does not prove that the prints were made by friction4 ,the gloss could have been produced by any press which gave a hard impression against a harder surface4 ,it could have been produced by rubbing or smoothing down with a burnisher the indentations of the lines on the back of the paper1 as is sometimes done by pressmen of this day when they take too hard an impression4 ,some copies of the book show the results of hard impression4 ,two of the four copies of the ,bible of the ,poor in the possession of the ,british ,museum present lines deeply sunk in the paper1 as if they had been printed from a press4 ,jackson1 a practical engraver on wood1 who had large experience in proving wood-cuts1 has unwillingly accepted the unauthorized tradition of presswork by friction1 but he has candidly stated its difficulties4 8,considering the thickness of the paper on which the block-books are printed--if ,i may apply this term to them--and the thin-bodied ink which has been used1 ,i am at a loss to conceive how the early wood engravers have contrived to take off their impressions so correctly2 for in all the block-books which ,i have seen1 where friction has evidently been the means employed to obtain the impression1 ,i have noticed only two subjects in which the lines appear double in consequence of the shifting of the paper4 ,from the want of body in the ink1 which appears in the ,apocalypse to have been little more than water color1 it is not likely that the paper could be used in a damp state1 otherwise the ink would run or spread2 and even if this did not exist1 the paper in a damp state could not have borne the excessive rubbing which it appears to have received in order to obtain the impression4 ,even with such printer's ink as is used in the present day--which1 being tenacious1 renders the paper in taking an impression by means of friction1 much less liable to slip or shift--it would be difficult to obtain clear impressions on thick paper from blocks the size of those which form each page of the ,apocalypse1 or the ,history of the ,virgin4 444 ,a block containing only two pages of the ,history of the ,virgin1 a block of smaller size than that used for the p#bje ,bible of the ,poor would be about seventeen inches by ten1 allowing for inner margins2 and to obtain clear impressions from it by means of friction1 on dry thick paper1 and with mere water color ink1 would be a task of such difficulty that ,i cannot conceive how it could be performed4 ,no traces of points1 by which the paper might be kept steady on the block1 are perceptible2 and ,i unhesitatingly assert1 that no wood engraver of the present day could1 by means of friction1 take clear impressions from such a block on equally thick paper1 and using mere distemper1 instead of printer's ink4 ,as the impressions in the ,history of the ,virgin have unquestionably been taken by means of friction1 it is evident to me that if the blocks were of the size that ,mr4 ,ottley supposes1 the old wood engravers1 who did not use a press1 must have resorted to some contrivance to keep the paper steady with which we are unacquainted40#aji ,this last hypothesis of an imaginary contrivance that kept the paper steady1 is as untenable as the proposition that blocks were unquestionably printed by friction4 ,the feat which is impossible now was impossible then4 ,there is nothing in the appearance of the presswork of the block-books really inconsistent with the theory1 that the books were printed under a rude press which was deficient in many attachments that are needed by the printer4 ,the peculiar appearance of the presswork of this and of other block-books will be most satisfactorily explained by the hypothesis that they were printed on a press4 ,the hypothesis of printing by friction is a conjecture for which there is no good authority4 ,it seems to have been invented for a purpose4 ,if the early chroniclers of printing had not been so anxious to magnify the merits of the early typographers1 and to belittle the printers of block-books1 we should have heard nothing of printing by friction4 ,the designs of the first edition have more merit than those of the earlier manuscript copies--more than those of subsequent editions printed by imitators4 ,neither the rudeness of the engravings1 nor the flagrant anachronisms in architecture and in the costumes of the figures1 are gross enough to conceal the ability of the designer1 whose skill in grouping figures is manifest on almost every page4 p#bjf ,the illustrations have merit1 but they are in the realistic and commonplace style of the designers of ,germany and of ,flanders during the fifteenth century4 ,the want of ideality is painful4 ,the designer certainly had no thought of irreverence1 but many of the designs are really ludicrous4 ,some of the anachronisms are3 ,gideon arrayed in plate armor1 with medieval helmet and visor and ,turkish scimitar2 ,david and ,solomon in rakish1 wide-brimmed hats bearing high conical crowns2 the translation of ,elijah in a four-wheeled vehicle resembling the modern farmer's hay-wagon4 ,slouched hats1 puffed doublets1 tight-legged breeches and pointed shoes are seen in the apparel of the ,israelites who are not represented as priests or soldiers4 ,some houses have ,italian towers and some have ,moorish minarets1 but in none of the pictures is there an exhibition of pointed ,gothic architecture4 ,the old ,dutch stair-like gable is often delineated1 and so is the round arch and latticed window of the ,flemish house of the fourteenth century4 ,with all its absurdities1 this edition of the ,bible of the ,poor commanded the respectful attention of great artists like ,albert ,durer and ,lucas von ,leyden1 who did not scruple to appropriate many of its designs4 ,one of the most puzzling peculiarities of the first edition of the ,bible of the ,poor is the dissimilarity of the copies4 ,in some copies the dissimilarity is in the details of the frame-work2 in others1 it is in the foliage of trees1 but it is1 for the most part1 confined to a few immaterial points4 ,these differences seem to warrant the opinion stated by ,sotheby that there were six distinct editions1 each printed from a separate set of blocks2 but this opinion cannot be reasonably defended4 ,in all important features the copies are alike4 ,the pages of the so-called different editions have the marks1 even in little blemishes1 of impressions from the same block--a uniformity which could not have been produced if each block had been re-engraved for each new edition4 ,why the various copies of the book should be alike in important1 and unlike in minor features1 cannot be explained4 ,it has been suggested that the p#bjg dissimilarities are the evidences of accident and repair2 that when the block was injured1 it was plugged1 as is frequently done with wood-cuts in our own day1 and the newly inserted plug was re-engraved with a new design4 ,the explanation is not plausible4 ,the differences generally appear in the same relative position on every page1 and there are too many of them to be attributed to accident2 they seem to have been made for some unknown purpose4 ,irregularities of like nature have been noticed in copies of the typographic books of the fifteenth century which are known to be of the same edition4 ,we do not certainly know when and where these blocks were engraved1 but we do know when they were destroyed4 ,two books1 published by ,peter ,van ,os of ,zwoll1 in ,holland1 in #adhh and #adhi1 contain seventy-seven engravings on wood which were certainly cut from the blocks that had been used to print the original edition of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,to get the little cuts he needed to illustrate texts of movable type1 ,van ,os must have partly destroyed the original blocks4 ,in this act of destruction1 we have a fact and a date which give a clue to the origin of the book4 ,copies of the first edition in folio form must have been printed before #adhh4 ,at this date1 and perhaps for some time before1 the blocks in folio form had no mercantile value2 there was no longer any demand for the book in the neighborhood in which it had been made4 ,that the country in which this first edition was printed and sold was ,holland1 seems probable when we find that the blocks were used for the last time1 and in a mutilated form1 in a town of ,holland4 ,this opinion is strengthened by the facts that the ,bible of the ,poor in folio form was then1 and afterward1 a salable book in ,germany and in other countries1 but it was not subsequently reprinted in the ,netherlands in any form4 ,the ,dutch and ,flemish architectural features in the designs1 and the legends which attribute the work to ,dutch engravers and printers1 are of themselves unsatisfactory evidences of the origin of the book2 but they cannot be entirely overlooked4 ,they lead to the conclusion that the book was printed in p#bjh ,holland1 but they do not fix the date of printing1 which may have been as early as the year #adbe1 or as late as #adej4aaj ,the illustration on the following page is a fac-simile1 but reduced in size1 of the first page of the edition published in the year #adgj1 at ,nordlingen1 by ,walther and ,hurning4 ,the panel in the centre of this fac-simile represents the ,annunciation2 on the left is the ,temptation of ,eve2 on the right is ,gideon with the ,fleece4 ,the busts at the top are those of ,isaiah and ,david2 at the foot1 ,hezekiah and ,jeremiah4 ,this edition1 like the one previously noticed1 was printed in rusty brown ink upon one side of the paper4 ,the adherence of the printers to a rough method of printing seems strange when we consider that typographic books1 printed with black ink and on both sides of the paper1 were then known and sold in every part of civilized ,europe4 ,walther and ,hurning were1 probably1 printers of cards and images who tried to compete with typography4#aaa ,incompetent to practise the new art1 and unable to make fine books1 they made a ,german translation of the ,bible of the ,poor1 and tried to sell it to ,german people4 ,the ,nordlingen edition is an obvious imitation of the ,latin edition previously described1 but it is a very feeble imitation4 ,the designer was incompetent to his task1 and the engraver was clumsy4 ,the workmanship of this book is one of many p#baj evidences which might be offered to prove that coarseness of engraving in undated block-books is by no means proof of their greater age4 ,the facts point the other way4 ,the block-books which contain engravings of high merit are1 as a rule1 the oldest2 those made in the third or fourth quarter of the fifteenth century show decided decline in skill4 ,mean as this book is1 it does not fully show the degradation that printing subsequently suffered from the hands of unskillful engravers4 ,illustration3 ,first ,page of the ,bible of the ,poor as made by ,walther and ,hurning of ,nordlingen1 #adgj4 ,the size of this print1 in the original1 is #g by #aj-a_/h ,american inches4 ,from ,heineken4 ,,the ,,apocalypse ,,of ,,st4 ,,john4 ,this is the name of an early block-book almost as famous as the ,bible of the ,poor1 and of which there are at least six distinct xylographic editions4 ,some of them have fifty1 and others have forty-eight leaves1 printed upon one side only of the leaf4 ,the dissimilarities in the designs and the engraving of these editions are decided and unmistakable3 they are1 no doubt1 impressions from different suites of blocks1 and each edition may be regarded as the work of a different printer4 ,as a literary production1 the ,apocalypse has small merit4 ,it is not1 as might be supposed1 the text or an abridgment of the ,book of ,revelation4 ,it is1 in fact1 only a book of pictures1 and these pictures in many points border very closely on the ridiculous4 ,one cannot shut his eyes to the ludicrous points1 but neither can he overlook the fact that the designs of the book are not the work of an ignorant artist4 ,rudely as they have been cut1 and badly as they were printed1 there is strong character in the faces1 and much artistic skill in the grouping of the figures4 ,the designs are vigorous1 but they are unlike the works of ,van ,eyck1 or of the ,german artists of the period4 ,there is nothing in the costumes or architecture which can be rated as decidedly ,german or ,dutch4 ,chatto says the designs were probably intended to represent ,mahomet as the ,antichrist of the ,book of ,revelation1 and that they may have been made by an exiled ,byzantine artist who had been driven out of ,constantinople after the taking of that city by the ,turks in #adec4 ,but this conjecture is not p#baa approved by careful bibliographers4 ,it is generally supposed that the designs are of an earlier period4 ,maittaire1 who says that it is the oldest#aab of all block-books1 calls attention to the singular simplicity of the engraving1 which is in almost plain outline4 ,in this particular the ,apocalypse is much inferior to the ,bible of the ,poor1 for we see no attempt to give appearance of roundness to the limbs by curved shading lines1 nor are there proper marks to indicate the shadows and folds in a dress4 ,but the ruder workmanship of the engraver is more clearly shown in the letters4 ,it may be that they were badly drawn upon the block1 but it is plain that the engraver has frequently broken connecting lines4 ,bad presswork and bad ink have materially aggravated the fault2 as printed1 the lines of the engraver appear thicker than they were cut4 ,each page has two illustrations with explanatory legends4 ,some of these illustrations represent the visions of ,st4 ,john1 but the designer has drawn them with the same disregard of time and place which may be noticed in the wood-cuts of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,the architecture is that of ,germany in the fourteenth century2 the men wear breeches and coats1 conical1 flat-topped and broad-brimmed hats2 the soldiers are in chain or in plate armor1 with the helmets and battle-axes of the middle ages4 ,nor do the improprieties stop here3 many of the illustrations represent events in the life of the apostle which the artist did not find in the ,new ,testament4 ,the illustration on page #bac1 which is a reduced copy of the first page in one edition of the ,apocalypse1 seems to have been derived from the fabulous life of ,st4 ,john1 supposed to have been written by ,abdias1 bishop of ,babylon4 ,drusiana1 a p#bab married lady of ,ephesus1 and one of the many converts of ,st4 ,john1 is an important personage in this fabulous life and in the illustration annexed4 ,in the upper picture1 ,st4 ,john is represented as preaching to a magnate1 whose robe or mantle is held by two attendants4 ,drusiana stands behind them4 ,this picture is described in the legend3 f,conversi ab idolis per predicacionem beati ,johannis ,drusiana et cetera4_/f ,through the preaching of ,st4 ,john1 ,i have turned from idols ,drusiana and others4 ,in the lower picture1 ,st4 ,john is represented as baptizing ,drusiana in the ,christian temple of ,ephesus4 ,drusiana is judiciously abbreviated to suit the size of the baptismal font4 ,six armed men are before the barred door1 endeavoring1 by violence1 to gain entrance1 or to witness the ceremony4 ,the picture is explained by the words3 f,sts ,johannes baptisans ,drusiana4_/f f,cultores ydolorum explorantes facta ejus4_/f ,st4 ,john baptizing ,drusiana4 ,the worshipers of idols watching his ,st4 ,john's proceedings4 ,the edition of the ,apocalypse named by ,heineken as the first was planned by a practical book-maker1 and was made up in sections of eight double leaves4 ,the first and last pages of each section were probably engraved together on one block4 ,they were certainly printed together by the following plan3 #a--af #c--ad #e--ab #g--aj #b--ae #d--ac #f--aa #h--i ,page #a was engraved on the right1 and page #af on the left end of the block4 ,page #b was on the left1 and #ae on the right4 ,this alternation was maintained on all sheets of the section4#aac ,the printed sheets1 #a1 #c1 #e and #g were folded with the printed work on the inside2 while sheets #b1 #d1 #f and #h were folded with the printed work on the outside4 ,when the sheets were properly collected1 two printed pages faced each other1 and were followed by two pages of blanks4 ,this method of making p#bad up the book must have given the printer and the binder a great deal of trouble1 but it was an efficient method1 and the only one that should have been employed4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,first ,page of the ,apocalypse4 ,engraving in the original print is #g-g_/h by #aj-a_/c ,american inches4 ,from ,heineken4 ,in most editions of the book1 the ink is of the same rusty brown color that has been observed in the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,in some copies it is almost gray2 in others1 nearly black4 ,the first edition has engravings of the greatest merit1 but it is badly printed4 ,the paper-mark is a bunch of grapes1 similar in design to that of a print in the collection of ,m4 ,weigel1 entitled ,the ,adoration of the ,three ,kings1 which1 it is claimed1 was printed about the year #adbe4 ,but paper-marks are misleading evidences4 ,we do not certainly know the date nor the country in which any edition of the book was printed4 ,german bibliographers say that it was printed in ,southern ,germany2 ,dutch bibliographers say that it was printed in the ,netherlands1 probably by ,coster of ,haarlem2 but all evidences that have been adduced to establish a certain date for the earlier editions of the book1 or to prove that they were done at any time or by any printer1 are unsatisfactory4 ,some copies of the book are interleaved with manuscript explanations1 which are sometimes in the ,dutch1 and sometimes in the ,german language4 ,the greater part of the copies have been found in ,germany1 and it is the opinion of the most eminent bibliographers that the first edition of the book1 and most of the editions1 were printed in ,germany4 ,the catalogue of the library of ,dr4 ,kloss contains the following note under the specification of a ragged copy of the ,apocalypse3 8,at the end of this volume is a short note1 written by ,pope ,martin ,v1 who occupied the papal chair from #adag to #adca40 ,this indirect attestation to the age of the book has never been considered as trustworthy4 ,another copy of the book1 known as the ,spencer copy1 is bound up with a copy of the ,bible of the ,poor1 and has on the binding an inscription to this effect3 8,bound in the year of our ,lord #adfg by me1 ,john ,reichenbach1 in ,gyllingen40 ,the inscription is undoubtedly authentic4 p#bae ,dibdin#aad alludes to an ,english clergyman who said that he was once the owner of one copy each of the ,apocalypse1 the ,bible of the ,poor1 and the ,ars ,moriendi1 all bound in one volume1 on the cover of which was stamped an inscription certifying that 8this volume was bound for the curate of the church in #adb--40 ,the last figure the clergyman had forgotten1 but he was sure that the book was in its original binding1 and that it must have been bound1 and consequently printed1 before #adcj4 ,the testimony is unsatisfactory4 ,,the ,,canticles4 ,this is a block-book#aae of sixteen pages1 of small folio size4 ,it is one of the few block-books which may be unhesitatingly pronounced as of ,netherlandish origin4 ,in general appearance it closely resembles the books previously noticed4 ,the impressions are in brown ink1 and on one side of the sheet2 there are two illustrations on each page1 and the two printed pages face each other2 the explanations of the designs are in ,latin1 and are engraved in scrolls that surround the figures4 ,according to some bibliographers1 there are three editions of the book2 according to others1 the trifling variations which have been seized upon to justify the existence of a second and a third edition are only alterations or repairs that have been sustained by the original block4 ,one edition contains at the head of the first page an engraved line1 in the low ,dutch or ,flemish language1 which may be translated thus3 8,this is the ,prefiguration of ,mary1 the ,mother of ,god1 which1 in ,latin1 is called ,the ,canticles40 ,explanatory titles in block-books1 and even in the earlier typographic books1 are unusual4 ,for this reason the genuineness of the inscription has been challenged1 but it has been generally accepted as a true part of the original block4 p#baf ,the illustration opposite is the fac-simile1 reduced in size1 of the first page of the ,canticles4 ,the design is imperfectly explained by the legends in the engraving4 f,osculetur me osculo oris sui2 quia ,let him kiss me with the meliora sunt ubera tua vino4_/f kisses of his mouth1 for thy love is better than wine4 f,veni in hortum meum1 soror mea sponsa ,i am come into my garden1 my messui myrrham meum cum aromatibus sister1 my spouse3 ,i have meis4_/f gathered my myrrh with my spice4 f,caput tuum ut ,carmelus2 collum tuum ,thine head is like ,carmel2 sicut turris eburnea4_/f thy neck is like a tower of ivory4 f,nigra sum1 sed formosa1 fili ,i am black but comely1 ,o ye ,jerusalem1 sicut tabernacula cedar1 daughters of ,jerusalem2 ,as sicut pelles ,solomonis4_/f the tents of ,kedar1 as the curtains of ,solomon4 ,the agriculturists of the upper illustration are in monastic habits3 some are cutting and threshing grain2 one is pounding the grain in a mortar and another is grinding it in a hand mill4 ,in the open little house before the monk with a pestle1 is a desk with two books4 ,in this combination of agricultural work with the emblem or suggestion of study1 ,harzen sees an illustration of the daily work of the ,brethren of the ,life-in-,common1 to whom he attributes the engraving and printing of this book4 ,the brethren of this order were eminent as students and copyists of books1 and had some distinction in the last quarter of the fifteenth century as printers1 but their connection with this book cannot be established4#aaf ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,first ,page of the ,canticles4 ,engraving in the original print is #g-a_/d by #aj-a_/b ,american inches4 ,from ,heineken4 ,the words at the top of one of the cuts are not the only ,dutch feature in the book3 the style of design is that of the ,netherlandish school of art4 ,the blocks have been drawn and engraved with much more care than those of the ,apocalypse1 or the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,there is more of grace in the attitudes and draperies of the female figures of the ,canticles1 and less of that gross and unimaginative treatment of sacred personages which borders both on the ludicrous and the profane4 ,but p#bah the designer of the book presents the oriental love story to his readers with ,dutch accessories4 ,the bride of the ,song of ,solomon wanders about the streets of a city supposed to be ,jerusalem1 but the dwellings have high-peaked roofs1 ,dutch gables1 and overhanging upper stories2 she is assaulted by an armed and helmeted cavalier who carries on his shield the heraldic black eagle of some unknown ,german potentate2 the pope1 two cardinals and a bishop1 with drawn swords in their hands and shields on their arms1 look with great composure over ,gothic battlements on the assault below4 ,writers who are skilled in heraldry say that there is a peculiar significance in the presentation of the devices and the arms on shields which are found in many places in the book4 ,some ,german authors see in these devices the arms of the ,german ,empire1 of ,wittemburg and of minor ,german principalities4 ,those who believe that the book was printed in the ,netherlands1 see in the shields the arms of ,burgundy1 of ,alsace1 and of ,flemish towns and cities4 ,from these trivial evidences1 the conclusion has been drawn by one class of partisans that the designer must have been a ,german1 and1 by another class1 that he must have been a ,hollander4#aag p#bai ,the engraved letters of this book are much more legible than those of the ,apocalypse or the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,the ,dutch final t is frequently introduced4 ,the paper-marks most frequently observed are the unicorn1 the bull's head1 and the letter ,p2 but no information of value can be derived from the paper-marks1 and but little from the designs and engravings4 ,although we do not know whether the ,canticles was printed in the second or third quarter of the fifteenth century1 it may be admitted that it was printed in the ,netherlands4 ,we see the last trace of the blocks in the hands of the same printer who destroyed the engravings of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,a book1 bearing the imprint of ,peter ,van ,os1 of ,zwoll1 #adid1 has for its frontispiece the upper half of the first plate4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,blessed ,,virgin4 ,this is the bibliographic title#aah of a block-book which may be offered as a proper specimen of the popular religious literature of the fifteenth century4 ,sotheby mentions four distinct editions of the work4 ,the one that has been most frequently described 7whether first or last1 is not known7 consists of sixteen leaves1 with four illustrations on each leaf1 and a brief explanatory text in ,latin4 ,the designs have no artistic merit2 the engraving is coarse1 and evidently the work of a novice2 the letters are legible1 but they betray great inexperience in the use of the graver1 and they do not1 in any feature1 resemble those of the block-books previously described4 ,some of them have mannerisms like those of ,gutenberg's ,bible4 ,it is possible that the letters of one edition of the book are those of movable types1 or that they were engraved on wood from a transfer taken from an impression of movable types4 ,in all editions the letters have ,german peculiarities1 but there is no edition which has the appearance of a first experiment in p#bbj printing4 ,it is probable that all the editions were printed in ,germany1 and after the invention of typography4 ,the edition from which the annexed illustration was taken was roughly printed on one side of the paper1 but in a very black ink4 ,in other editions1 which were printed from entirely different blocks1 differing both in the size of the block and in the positions of the figures1 the ink is of the customary rusty brown4 ,the copy in black is supposed to have been printed on a press1 and at a later date4 ,the object of the book is to show the reasonableness of the story of the ,incarnation1 and to defend the dogma of the ,immaculate ,conception4 ,the bad taste of the author is more signally shown in the text than in the pictures4 ,arguments in support of the dogma are wrested from sacred history and heathen mythology1 and the writings of the fathers of the church4 ,the book is a curious compend of piety and unconscious irreverence1 of high scholarship and gross stupidity1 as will be more clearly shown by the following translation of the legends that explain the pictures on the opposite page4 ,temple of ,venus1 with a man ,a man gazing at water that gazing at a lamp4 ,if the reflects the moon4 ,if light at the temple of ,venus ,seleucus in ,persia finds cannot be extinguished1 why reflected light from should not the ,virgin generate the moon1 why should not without the seed of ,venus8 the ,virgin1 pregnant by a ,augustine de ,civitate ,dei1 beautiful star1 generate8 ,,xxi1 #g4 ,augustine de ,civitate ,dei1 ,,xx1 #f4 ,two ,human ,figures and a ,two men sawing a stone on ,statue4 ,if a human being can which appear two human heads4 be changed into stone1 why1 by ,if man can be painted on divine power1 should not the stone by the power of heaven1 ,virgin generate8 ,albertus de why should not the ,virgin ,minoralium1 ,i1 in generate by the assistance of fine4 the ,holy ,spirit8 ,albertus de ,minoralium1 ,,ii1 ,i4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a page of the ,story of the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,engraving in the original print is #g-c_/h by #aj-a_/b ,american inches4 ,from ,heineken4 ,the book begins with representations of ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,st4 ,jerome1 ,st4 ,gregory and ,st4 ,augustine4 ,st4 ,ambrose1 who is duly quoted from his ,hexameron1 book ,,ii1 chapter #da1 assigns reasons for the ,immaculate ,conception1 by illogical reference to a bird without a mate4 ,st4 ,augustine1 who is represented as seated at a table1 reading from his work1 ,de ,mirabilibus1 book ,,iii1 chapter #ab1 asserts the ,immaculate ,conception because many animals are produced without mating4 ,st4 ,jerome and p#bbb ,st4 ,gregory expound the same doctrine4 ,fifty-four illustrations follow1 each explained by a proposition that enunciates with great formality some of the marvels of natural science4 ,we are told of bees without fathers1 of birds impregnated by the bill1 of geese born from trees1 of asbestos that burns forever1 of pearls made fruitful by the dew1 of the phnix restored by fire1 and of many other absurdities4 ,the authorities cited seem to have been selected with a truly catholic spirit3 we find among them ,valerius ,maximus1 ,peter ,comestor1 ,terence1 ,boethius1 ,job1 ,livy1 and ,isidore4 ,one edition of this work contains an imprint in sprawling and almost unreadable characters1 which bibliographers interpret as the letters ,f4 ,w4 #adgj4 ,the letters ,f4 ,w4 were no doubt the initials of ,frederich ,walther of ,nordlingen4 ,the quality of the science taught in this ,history of the ,blessed ,virgin enables us to form a just idea of the real value of the scholastic philosophy then regarded as the perfection of wisdom4 ,the silly speculations set forth in the book were the husks upon which a devout people were fed4 ,,an ,,exercise ,,on ,,the ,,lord',s ,,prayer4 ,this is the translated title of a thin block-book of ten leaves1 which was intended to explain the ,lord's ,prayer by illustration4 ,the blocks are printed in brown ink on one side of the paper4 ,the ,exercise is in the popular form of dialogue4 ,in the illustration ,no4 #a1 the monk ,frater begs the angel ,oratio to teach him the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,and these are the lessons that are taught3 #b4 ,our ,father who art in ,heaven4 ,christ1 the ,monk1 and the ,angel kneel4 #c4 ,hallowed be thy name4 ,the ,monk1 the ,angel1 ,christ1 and the ,church represented by a female figure1 are kneeling4 ,on the right the ,virgin and ,holy ,child4 #d4 ,thy kingdom come4 ,a representation of ,purgatory3 in the upper part1 the wicked surrounded by flames2 in the lower part1 ,jews and ,pagans in the fiery lake4 #e4 ,thy will be done4 ,the ,almighty in the clouds1 and before him the ,angel and the ,monk kneeling4 ,on the right1 a good ,christian and an ,angel4 ,in the centre1 two bad men who are rejecting the ,eucharist4 ,in the foreground1 the ,jews and ,pagans throw down the cup and are pouring out its contents4 ,scroll in ,no4 #e4 ,frater and ,oratio kneeling before ,god4 f,fiat voluntas tua sicut in clo et in terra4_/f ,let ,thy will be done in ,heaven as on earth4 4 4 4 ,the ,angel to the right4 f,qui stat videat ne cadat4_/f ,let him who may stand take heed lest he fall 4 4 4 ,the ,good ,christian4 p#bbc f,gratia ,dei sum id quod sum4_/f ,thanks to ,god that ,i am what ,i am4 4 4 4 ,the ,jews4 f,quis est ,jesus filius fabri8_/f ,who is ,jesus but the son of the carpenter8 ,the ,pagans4 f,quis noster dominus est8_/f ,who is our ,lord8 4 4 4 4 ,the ,bad ,christians4 f,ducamus in bonis dies nostros4_/f ,we guide ourselves to salvation4 #f4 ,give us this day our daily bread4 ,in the centre1 three loaves of bread on a table1 around which is ,charity1 robed as a queen1 with three other figures4 ,on one side the ,monk and ,angel kneeling2 on the other1 a ,knight in armor4 #g4 ,forgive us our trespasses4 ,christ standing on the altar1 the blood pouring from his side in a basin1 from which several persons fill their cups4 #h4 ,lead us not into temptation4 ,the disobedient1 proud1 gluttonous and avaricious surround a table4 ,death carries away the foremost4 #i4 ,deliver us from evil4 ,a representation of ,hell4 ,the disobedient man in the power of the ,devil4 ,the damned making supplication to the ,almighty4 #aj4 ,amen4 ,a view of ,paradise1 with the happiness of the blessed4 p#bbd ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,fifth ,illustration of the ,exercise on the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,engraving in the original print is #g-a_/h by #g-a_/b ,american inches4 ,from ,holtrop4 ,santander says that the book bears all the marks of the highest antiquity4 ,holtrop says that there is one copy of this work in which the ,latin text is translated1 and explained by engraved lines in ,flemish at the bottom of each cut4 ,guichard describes a series of engravings on wood1 consisting of eight designs like those just described1 with a manuscript text in ,flemish4 ,it is1 without doubt1 a ,flemish book4 ,of the many extraordinary commentaries which have been made on the ,lord's ,prayer1 this1 surely1 is the most singular perversion4 ,the prayer which begins with a recognition of the brotherhood of mankind1 which tells us to believe in the all-embracing love of the ,father1 which teaches lessons of dependence1 forgiveness and protection1 is made the text for a denunciation of ,jews and ,pagans1 and for the teaching of doctrinal notions about the ,eucharist4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,kings4 ,in this book1 two separate illustrations1 with their explanatory text1 are printed together on each page4 ,the ,book of ,kings might1 therefore1 be classified among the block-books without separate pages of text1 but it really has a text of unusual length for a book of this class4 ,in other features1 it resembles the block-books previously described2 its twenty pages are printed on one side of the leaf2 the illustrations face each other1 and are in the customary brown ink4 ,the designs are rudely drawn1 and are as full of anachronisms in architecture as the illustrations of the ,bible of the ,poor1 but the architecture most frequently shown is in the pointed ,gothic style4 ,the engraving is coarse2 every object is cut in bold and heavy outline2 tints and shading lines are timidly used1 and always in a crude manner4 ,it was obviously intended that the illustrations should be developed by painting or by stenciling4 ,the letters are drawn and engraved with more care than the pictures1 but they are irregular in size and form4 ,one of the peculiarities of the lettering is the final cross given to the small letter t1 a peculiarity which is frequently p#bbf noticed in some of the typographic work of ,dutch printers4 ,the leaves were not nested in sections one within another as was customary3 each sheet of two leaves was engraved1 printed and folded separately1 so as to make a book of ten sections4 ,illustration3 ,an ,illustration from the ,book of ,kings4 ,original is #g by #h-c_/d inches4 ,from ,sotheby4 ,the book was intended to illustrate the more important events of the life of ,david as recorded in the books of ,samuel1 and in the ,first and ,second ,books of ,kings4 ,the fac-simile on the preceding page illustrates ,hannah presenting ,samuel to the priests in the house of the ,lord1 and ,samuel called by the ,lord out of sleep4 ,sotheby classifies it with the block-books of ,holland1 but ,falkenstein attributes it to ,germany4 ,,the ,,grotesque ,,alphabet4 ,this is a curious block-book of twenty-four pages1 of the original edition of which not one perfect copy is known4 ,the leaves of the copy now on the shelves of the ,british ,museum are #c-c_/d inches wide and #f inches high4 ,sotheby1 who has carefully examined its construction1 says that the twenty-four pages were printed in sections of eight pages on three sheets of paper1 with a thin watery ink of a sepia tint4 ,the margins and blanks have been written on with an ink of nearly the same color as that of the printed cuts4 ,another copy of this work has been found at ,basle1 in which1 on the letter ,a 7not found in the ,london copy71 may be seen the date #adfd4 ,another copy1 in a library at ,dresden1 has the same date4 ,renouvier says that these copies1 by ,german engravers1 and of inferior execution1 are transfers of the original1 which was engraved in the ,netherlands4 ,the history of the book in the ,british ,museum is unknown1 but it has many evidences of long use in ,english hands4 ,the cover or binding consists of a double fold of thick parchment1 upon the inside of which1 between the folds1 is written in large ,english characters1 8,edwardus ,lowes40 ,on one side of the last leaf is the rough draft of a letter in the ,english language4 ,the writing1 which is found in scraps all over the book1 is of p#bbg the period of ,henry ,,viii4 ,upon a sword-blade in the cut of the letter ,l is written in small characters the word ,london4 ,in another place in the same cut are letters which are read by some as ,westmistre--by others as ,bethemsted4 ,it is full of ,english writing1 but it has not been proved that the cuts are the work of an ,english engraver4 ,chatto says of them3 ,illustration3 ,letter ,k of ,grotesque ,alphabet4 ,original is #c-a_/b by #d-e_/h inches4 ,from ,holtrop4 ----,they were neither designed nor engraved by the artists who designed and engraved the cuts in the ,apocalypse1 the ,history of the ,virgin and the ,poor ,preachers' ,bible4 4 4 4 ,with respect to drawing1 engraving and expression1 the cuts of the ,alphabet are decidedly superior to those of every block-book1 and generally to all wood engravings executed before the year #aejj1 with the exception of such as are by ,albert ,durer1 and those contained in the ,hypnerotomachia1 printed by ,aldus at ,venice in #adii4 4 4 4 ,i perceive nothing in them to induce me to suppose that they were the work of a ,dutch artist2 and ,i am as little inclined to ascribe them to a ,german4 ,the style of the drawing is not unlike what we see in illuminated ,french manuscripts of the middle of the fifteenth century2 and as the only two engraved words which occur in the volume are in ,french1 ,i am rather inclined to suppose that the artist who made the designs was a native of ,france4 ,the costume of the female to whom the words are addressed appears to be ,french2 and the action of the lover kneeling seems almost characteristic of the nation4 ,no ,dutchman p#bbh certainly ever addressed his mistress with such an air4 ,he holds what appears to be a ring as gracefully as a modern ,frenchman holds a snuff-box1 and upon the scroll before him are engraved a heart1 and the words which he may be supposed to utter3 ,mon ame--,my soul4#aai ,the real object of this book is not apparent4 ,the figures were not engraved for the purpose of teaching the alphabet1 for the designs are quaint1 elaborate1 and above the comprehension of young children4 ,when the book was first made1 the letters had a significance which seems to have been forgotten4 ,,the ,,apostles' ,,creed4 ,illustration3 ,a ,page from the ,apostles' ,creed4 ,original is #e-c_/h by #h-a_/h inches4 ,from ,dibdin4 ,this is the title given to a lost block-book1 of which only seven leaves remain4 ,the annexed illustration is a reduced fac-simile of the page that tells the story of the ,resurrection4 ,the four angels about the circle are sounding the last trump1 and the dead are coming forth from their graves4 ,the figures in the lower corners are those of ,zacharias and ,judas4 ,in this book1 and in nearly all the block-books1 the subjects most frequently presented are those that illustrate the marvelous and terrible4 ,the designs have merit1 but the letters are badly engraved4 ,the pictures are explained by a few lines in ,german4 ,the p#bbi copy of the book described by ,dibdin has on the fly-leaf the written memorandum ,v4 ,w4 #adga1 but it is not probable that this writing has any reference to the date of printing4 ,,the ,,eight ,,rogueries4 ,illustration3 ,a ,page from the ,eight ,rogueries4 ,original is #d by #e-c_/h inches4 ,from ,falkenstein4 ,this is a small block-book of eight leaves4 ,weigel places it among the earliest specimens of engraving on wood4 ,the language in which the pictures are explained is ,high ,german4 ,the pictures illustrate the ,go-between1 the ,liar1 the ,cheat1 the ,counterfeit ,goldsmith1 the ,cheating ,merchant1 the ,church ,robber1 the ,cheating ,rope-maker1 the ,blacksmith that sells iron for steel4 ,the designs are rude1 but they are full of spirit and character1 and the cutting of the figures has been done with ability and intelligence4 ,the paper was printed on one side only and in dull brown ink4 ,this book was found in the neglected library of an old ,south ,german monastery1 in the heart of the neighborhood in which we find the earliest notices of printers and painters of images4 ,as it is the only block-book of a decidedly non-religious character1 it may be ascribed to some maker of playing cards1 who practised the art of engraving before it was placed under the control of the ,church4 p#bcj ,,xii ,block-,books of ,images with ,text4 ,the ,antichrist1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,how to ,remember the ,evangelists1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,how to ,die ,becomingly1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,other ,editions of this ,work 4 4 4 ,chiromancy of ,doctor ,hartleib1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,german ,planetarium and ,calendar1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,wonders of ,rome1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,pomerium ,spirituale1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,temptations of the ,devil1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,life of ,st4 ,meinrat1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,dance of ,death1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,mechanical ,peculiarities of the ,block-,books 4 4 4 ,all of ,religious ,character 4 4 4 ,made for ,priests1 but seen by the ,people 4 4 4 ,not ,adapted to the ,needs of the ,people 4 4 4 ,the ,period of the ,block-,books 4 4 4 ,made in ,germany and the ,netherlands 4 4 4 ,dates and ,printers of the ,books ,unknown 4 4 4 ,probably ,made in the ,first ,quarter of the ,fifteenth ,century 4 4 4 ,an ,established ,business before the ,invention of ,typography4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this1 that is written in this little book1 ought the priests to learn and teach to their parishes3 and it is also necessary for simple priests that understand not the ,scriptures1 and it is made for simple people 4 4 4 4 by cause that for to hear examples stirreth and moveth the people that ben simple more to devotion than great authority of science4 ,caxton's ,preface to the ,doctrinal of ,sapyence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,der ,endkrist1 or the ,antichrist4 ,this book seems to have been written to warn men against the snares of heresy4 ,two distinct editions are known2 each was printed from a different suite of blocks and by a different printer4 ,the copy about to be described has thirty-eight leaves1 twenty-six of which are devoted to the life of ,antichrist1 and eleven to a separate treatise known as the ,fifteen ,signs1 which was bound up with the ,antichrist1 and of which it seems to be the proper sequel4 ,the book is printed on one side of the leaf1 in brown ink1 and the illustrations face each other4 ,the text begins with the words1 8,here beginneth of ,antichrist1 taken and drawn out of many books1 how and of whom he p#bca shall be born40 ,after a half-page wood-cut1 which represents with needless grossness the birth of ,antichrist1 follow other engravings illustrating the more notable events of his life4#abj ,the fac-simile on the following page gives a correct notion of the lawlessness of the designs#aba of the book4 ,it is obvious that they were not made by the artist who drew the illustrations for the ,bible of the ,poor or for the ,canticles4 ,the text which explains the wood-cuts is in the ,german language1 but it is in a very careless form of ,german writing4 p#bcc ,illustration3 ,fac-simile1 reduced1 of a ,page of the ,antichrist4 ,from ,heineken4 ,the thirty-eight leaves of one edition are made up in one section4 ,this bungling method of making up a book is sufficient evidence that the printer or engraver who placed these pages together had no education in practical book-making4 ,but the bad method shown in the plan does not prove that the book is of great age4 ,the copy under notice contains1 in the ,german language1 the imprint of ,junghannis1 priffmaler1 or painter of cards1 ,nuremberg1 #adgb4 ,whether this ,junghannis was the designer1 printer or engraver is not known4 ,,how ,,to ,,remember ,,the ,,evangelists4 ,this block-book#abb was1 no doubt1 intended for men1 but a modern observer would say that it had been made for children4 ,the time-honored method1 still used for the child's alphabet1 ,a was an apple1 is the method of the ,ars ,memorandi4 ,compared with the block-books previously noticed1 it is a book of high merit4 ,it is a thin folio of thirty pages1 fifteen of which contain a text of very large1 clumsily drawn and compactly arranged letters within a rule-bordered frame2 the remaining fifteen pages have full-page illustrations4 ,the edition from which the annexed illustration was copied is in brown ink4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a ,page of the ,ars ,memorandi4 ,engraving in the original print is #f-c_/d by #i-a_/d ,american inches4 ,from ,heineken4 ,the designs are more eccentric than those of any known block-book1 but the designer has shown no artistic ability in the grouping of his figures4 ,the four ,evangelists are symbolized--,st4 ,john by an eagle1 ,st4 ,matthew by an angel1 ,st4 ,luke by a bull1 ,st4 ,mark by a lion--but they are presented to us in uncouth attitudes1 and are surrounded or overlaid by some of the familiar objects frequently mentioned in the ,gospels4 ,these objects are numbered with ,arabic figures referring to explanations in the text4 ,the dove1 for it must be so considered1 although it looks like an owl1 perched on the head of the symbolized ,st4 ,john1 may be accepted as the emblem of the ,deity4 ,the two heads beside the eagle are to be understood as those of ,moses and of ,christ4 ,the musical instruments1 a lute and three bells1 on the breast of the eagle1 indicate the contents p#bce of the second chapter1 the marriage at ,cana4 ,the fish recalls the pool of ,bethesda4 ,the numeral #c points to the conversation with ,nicodemus2 the water-bucket and the crown refer to the woman of ,samaria at the well2 the five loaves and the two small fishes to the feeding of the multitude4 ,the cross in the circle is the consecrated wafer of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,the letters in the pages of text are unusually large2 they are clearly cut1 but are so compactly arranged that they frequently interfere with each other4 ,the descriptive text is in ,latin1 but of very objectionable grammar and orthography4 ,the knowledge it conveys of the ,gospel is imperfect to the last degree1 as may be more clearly seen in the following literal translation of the text provided for this illustration4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john has twenty-one chapters4 ,first ,chapter4 ,in the beginning was the ,word1 from the eternity of the ,word and the ,trinity4 ,second ,chapter4 ,nuptials were made in ,cana of ,galilee1 and how ,christ overturned the tables of all the money-changers4 ,third ,chapter4 ,but there was a man among the ,pharisees named ,nicodemus4 ,fourth ,chapter4 ,how ,jesus asked the ,samaritan woman to give him to drink near the well of ,jacob1 and about the law4 ,fifth ,chapter4 ,about the miracle in the fish pool1 when ,jesus told the lame man1 ,take up thy bed and walk4 ,sixth ,chapter4 ,about the feeding with five loaves and two fishes1 and about the ,eucharist4 ,the ,ars ,memorandi is considered by ,schelhorn as one of the oldest of block-books1 8if not the first1 among the first40 ,von ,aretin says that 8it is worthy of observation that this book1 one of the earliest of its kind1 should be devoted to the improvement of the memory1 when it was to be rendered of little consequence by the art of printing40 ,,how ,,to ,,die ,,becomingly4#abc ,at least ten distinct xylographic editions of this popular block-book have been identified1 seven of which are in ,latin and three in ,german4 ,the text of the book is substantially the same in all editions1 but the designs are dissimilar1 and the engraving and printing are of unequal merit4 ,some copies are in black and others in brown ink2 some are printed on p#bcf one side and others on both sides of the paper4 ,the origin of the book is not known1 but it was a popular work long after types had been invented2 before the year #aejj1 it had been printed either from types or from blocks1 in ,nuremberg1 ,paris1 ,rome1 ,florence1 ,verona1 ,lyons1 ,utrecht1 ,delft and ,zwoll4 ,the edition about to be described1 which ,heineken names as the fourth1 is a folio of twenty-four leaves4 ,it is printed in brown ink1 on one side1 with printed pages facing each other4 ,eleven pages have illustrations1 and thirteen pages are given to the text4 ,the book is made up in workmanlike manner1 in four sections of six leaves4 ,the illustrations are crowded2 the figures are grouped inartistically2 the engraving is coarse4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a ,page of the ,ars ,moriendi4 ,engraving in the original print is #f-a_/b by #h-c_/d ,american inches4 ,from ,heineken4 ,the object of the book is to present the temptations that beset the dying4 ,the first illustration represents the dying man as tempted by devils concerning his faith4 ,the next illustration shows the good angels who enable him to remain steadfast4 ,in like manner he is tempted by devils to despair1 to impatience 7in which the moribund is vigorously kicking an attendant71 to vainglory1 and to avarice2 but through help of the angels1 he triumphs over all his adversaries4 ,the ninth illustration1 which is reproduced on the following page1 shows the dying man as resisting the last assaults of three emissaries of the devil4 ,the vigorous action of these hideous goblins is in marked contrast with the composure of the relatives1 who stand at a respectful distance4 ,the horse and hostler show that the man on the death-bed was rich4 ,the moral of the design is the vanity of riches4 ,one of the devils1 the one at the head of the bed1 maliciously suggests1 ,provideas amicis--you should provide for your friends4 ,another devil1 pointing to the house1 calls out with grim irony--,intende thesauro--pay attention to your treasures4 ,this illustration is followed by another in which a ministering angel exhorts the dying man to discard the devil's advice1 and not leave his property to his relatives1 but to give it to the church4 ,in the last illustration1 the spirit of the dying man exhales from his mouth in the shape of a manikin1 which is received by the angels4 ,the p#bch baffled devils make some frightful contortions and then depart4 ,it is not a pleasant book4 ,but the hideousness of the devils in the illustrations is not so revolting as the craftiness of the author who devised these ghastly scarecrows4 ,the ostensible purpose of the book was the preparation of men for another world2 its real object was the aggrandizement of the church1 and for this purpose the writer of the book recommended the sacrifice of the desire to provide for one's family4 ,it does not increase our respect for the piety or intelligence of the people to learn that this book was popular for more than a century4 ,the xylographic editions of this work which contain the names of the printers are in the ,german language4 ,one of them has these words1 ,hans ,sporer1 #adgc2 another has the imprint of ,j4 ,w4 ,presbrm1 of ,nuremberg2 another is dated ,leipsic1 #adif4 ,one of the typographic editions1 dated #adgc1 is attributed to ,john ,gensberg1 of ,rome2 another1 dated #adgh1 bears the imprint of ,ratdolt1 of ,venice4 ,an edition with a typographic text was printed in #adhh by ,peter ,van ,os1 of ,zwoll1 the same printer who last owned the blocks of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,in this edition the words in the scrolls are in the ,flemish language1 and the text is in ,latin4 ,the use of ,flemish in the engraved blocks seems to warrant the belief that there must have been an earlier edition1 entirely xylographic1 but no such edition has been discovered4 ,,the ,,chiromancy ,,of ,,doctor ,,hartlieb4 ,this is a folio of fifty-two pages1 badly printed1 in dark gray ink1 on both sides of the paper4 ,the designs are puerile and the engraving is coarse4 ,the text of the book is in the ,german language4 ,some copies of the book contain at the foot of one page and outside of the border the name fjorg chapff zu augpurg_/f ,other copies of the book have1 in the same position1 the name firog capff zu augpurg_/f4 ,the spelling is different1 p#bci and the shapes of the letters are different4 ,no satisfactory explanation can be offered for these differences in books that are supposed to be printed from the same blocks4 ,it may be that the name1 inserted in a very exposed place1 broke down under impression1 and was carelessly re-engraved4 ,this variation is a specimen of some of the perplexing changes to be found not only in block-books but even in early typographic books4 ,the name is usually read as ,george ,schapff1 of ,augsburg1 who is supposed to have been the engraver and printer of the book in #addh4 ,the workmanship is not to his credit3 ,chatto says 8more wretched cuts were never chiseled out by a printer's apprentice as a head-piece to a half-penny ballad40 ,the matter is worthy of the manner4 ,the book professes to teach the science of palmistry1 or the telling of fortunes by wrinkles in the palm of the hand4 ,the first page contains the title1 in large letters1 over a piece of ornamental border and lattice-work4 ,the page that follows contains this dedication3 8,the hereinafter written ,book of the ,hand was made ,german by ,doctor ,hartlieb1 through the ,prayer and ,bidding of the serene high-born ,princess ,dame ,anna1 ne ,brunswick1 and ,wife of the virtuous1 blessed ,prince1 ,duke ,albert1 ,duke of ,bavaria and ,count of ,voburg4 ,this has come to pass on the ,friday after the ,conception of ,mary1 the most glorious ,virgin4 #addh40 ,the language is not clear3 the date here given may be that of the translation1 or of the engraving1 or of the printing4 ,the rudeness of design and engraving might lead an ordinary observer to the conclusion that the book was printed at an earlier date than #addh2 but the insertion of a separate title-page1 the printing of the pages on both sides of the paper1 and the method of gathering the book in sections of eight leaves1 teach us that the book should have been printed at a later date1 when these improvements were in general use4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a part of a ,page of the ,chiromancy of ,doctor ,hartlieb4 ,from ,heineken4 ,doctor ,hartlieb apprises his readers that he foretells the destiny of man by his right1 and that of woman by her left hand4 ,for this purpose he furnishes1 on as many pages1 forty-four large illustrations of the human hand1 each covered with p#bda mystical characters1 that are almost illegible by reason of bad printing4 ,the illustration annexed1 which is the first in the book1 is intended to represent events that happen to people who have certain marks upon the palms of their hands4 ,at one end of the picture are hanging and murder2 at the other end1 a kind deity is showering gold on the head of a bewildered peasant4 ,the childish book is an illustration of the intelligence of the ordinary reader of the period4 ,it may be that the restrictive phrase1 ordinary reader1 is not warranted1 for ,doctor ,john ,hartlieb was probably an honored graduate from a medieval university1 and the ,princess ,anna1 no doubt1 was more carefully educated than the ladies of her court4 ,chiromancy was considered a science4 ,adrien ,sicler dedicated a book on this subject to ,camille de ,neuf-,ville1 ,archbishop of ,lyons and ,primate of ,france4 ,books on chiromancy were printed at ,lyons in #adib1 at ,strasburg in #aecd1 and at ,bologna in #aejd4 ,the church tolerated the books of palmistry which did not interfere with the doctrine of moral responsibility1 and which did not teach astrology or magic arts4 ,,german ,,planetarium ,,and ,,calendar4 ,illustration3 ,an ,illustration from the ,calendar of ,john of ,gamundia4 ,from ,berjeau4 ,these are two distinct works1 which were often printed and bound together4 ,the ,planetarium1 which is in ,german1 describes1 through a text in rhyme and by engraved illustrations1 the influence of the planets on the destinies of mankind4 ,the ,calendar1 which is in ,latin1 occupies but four pages1 and contains at the end of the month of ,february the inscription1 ,magister ,johannes ,gamundia4#abd ,on another page is found the p#bdb date #adfh4 ,there is a copy of the ,german ,planetarium in the ,british ,museum which contains only twelve printed pages4 ,berjeau describes it as a small quarto1 and says1 that although it is printed on both sides of the paper1 it presents the appearance of impression by the frotton4 ,the fac-simile illustration that is given underneath represents the influences of the planet ,mercury4 ,the artist before the easel is painting a ,madonna2 his servant is mixing colors with a muller2 in the middle of the print is an organ-maker2 to the right is a copyist2 at his back are two gourmands2 in the foreground is a sculptor at work on a statue2 to the left is a goldsmith before his anvil4 ,the descriptions of these works that have been given by the early ,german bibliographers are not clear4 ,they represent the book as consisting of twenty-six pages printed on one p#bdc side of the sheet1 with the blank pages pasted together4 ,the size of the page1 the color of the ink1 and the method used in gathering the sheets are not stated4 ,it seems that there were at least two editions of each work1 one in ,german and one in ,latin1 and that portions of the different editions were sometimes bound up in one book4 ,von der ,hagen says that the first page of the copy examined by him contained an imperfect impression of one of the pages of the ,antichrist4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,rome4 ,illustration3 ,a ,page from the ,wonders of ,rome4 ,original is #c-a_/d by #e-e_/h inches4 ,from ,sotheby4 ,this small quarto of one hundred and eighty-four engraved pages is an example of patience in obscure letter-cutting that is more characteristic of ,china than of ,europe4 ,the text is in ,german1 and is fairly printed in black ink on both sides of the paper4 ,the book is enlivened by a few illustrations which have small merit as designs4 ,the ,wonders of ,rome is an ecclesiastic's description of the more important shrines of the holy city1 with their consecrated relics4 ,the first page of the book contains an engraving of the handkerchief of ,saint ,veronica1 which1 according to the legend1 was placed on the face of ,christ to wipe away the blood that dripped from the crown p#bdd of thorns1 and received therefrom the impress of his features4 ,under this design the papal arms and the triple crown1 the crossed keys1 and the letters ,s4 ,p4 ,q4 ,r4 ,the arms of the pope are those of ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv1 who occupied the papal chair from #adga to #adhd1 within which period it is supposed that the book was engraved and published for ,german readers4 ,,pomerium ,,spirituale1 ,,or ,,spiritual ,,nursery4 ,illustration3 ,an ,illustration from the ,pomerium ,spirituale4 ,original is #d-g_/h by #e inches4 ,from ,holtrop4 ,the rightful place of this work is among the manuscripts that are partly written and partly printed1 for its pictures were engraved and its text was written4 ,the book contains p#bde twenty-six leaves of small folio1 made up in one section4 ,at the beginning of each of its twelve written chapters is the impression of an engraving on wood4 ,the date #addj is found in two of the engravings4 ,the only known copy of this book is held by the ,royal ,library of ,brussels4 ,it is a curious circumstance that this copy1 possibly in its original binding1 which contains a printed date earlier than that of any other block-book1 should also contain two printed leaves of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,holtrop says that the book was composed by ,henry ,bogaert1 canon of a monastery near ,brussels1 who was born in #achb and died in #adfi4 ,he was the author of many small religious books1 of which the ,exercise on the ,lord's ,prayer is one4 ,the illustrations of this book and of the ,pomerium ,spirituale were probably made at the same time and by the same engraver4 ,,the ,,temptations ,,of ,,the ,,devil4 ,illustration3 ,a ,fragment of the ,temptations of the ,devil4 ,original is #aj inches wide4 ,from ,koning4 ,this is not a book1 but a print on a single sheet eleven inches wide and sixteen inches high4 ,it differs from the image prints in the pettiness of its cuts and the abundance of its text1 for which reason it may properly be described among the block-books with text4 ,the nature of the work is clearly set forth in the preface1 ,the ,temptations of the ,devil1 as he tempteth men to the ,seven ,mortal ,sins4 ,the ,devil1 who1 with a claw-hook in his hand1 stands in the corner to the left1 has beneath him the list of these seven sins4 ,the tempted man is p#bdf the monk near the centre of the print1 who supplicates the aid of the angel1 who hastens to his rescue4 ,below the angel are appropriate quotations from the ,scriptures1 which show that this print is but a medieval paraphrase of the story of ,christ tempted by the ,devil1 as related by ,st4 ,matthew4 ,it was engraved and printed in the form of a placard1 that it might be fastened against a wall for the contemplation of the devout4 ,the illustration shows only a portion of the upper part of this curious print1 of which the ,british ,museum has the only known copy4 ,it is supposed to have been printed in the ,netherlands4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,st4 ,,meinrat4 ,illustration3 ,a ,page from the ,life of ,st4 ,meinrat4 ,original is #c-a_/h by #e-g_/h inches4 ,from ,dibdin4 ,this book1 which has an introduction of two pages in ,german1 and forty-eight pages of illustrations1 with brief descriptions below the pictures1 tells the story of two bad men who murdered ,st4 ,meinrat1 and who were immediately thereafter pursued by two crows4 ,the illustration here presented represents the murderers on their way to execution1 accompanied by the unrelenting crows4 ,on the pages that follow are engravings of the murderers suffering under torture2 it is shown how they were dragged at the heels of horses1 and were broken and burnt on the wheel4 ,the moral p#bdg of this story is unmistakable3 it is an awful crime to kill an ecclesiastic4 ,the publication of so large a book to enforce so plain a truism is an intimation that some of the laity needed forcible illustrations of the danger of abusing the clergy4 ,,the ,,dance ,,of ,,death4 ,illustration3 ,a ,page from the ,heidelberg ,dance of ,death4 ,original is #e-a_/b by #h-a_/d inches4 ,from ,dibdin4 ,of this block-book of twenty-seven large pages1 only two copies are known2 one of them1 which is in the ,heidelberg library1 is entirely xylographic1 with a text in ,german2 the other copy1 in a ,munich library1 has also a text in ,german1 but it is in manuscript4 ,for each edition a different suite of blocks was used4 ,nothing is known about the printer of either book1 nor about the date of its execution4 ,the designs are really meritorious1 and the engraving is obviously the work of a man who had experience in his art1 but the merit of the work has been overshadowed by the superior designs of ,holbein and the more masterly engravings of ,lutzelberger4 ,the characters or personages in this block-book are the same as those in the famous painting once at ,basle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these descriptions of the more famous block-books may be sufficient to show their paltriness from a literary point of view1 and their rudeness as specimens of printing1 but the p#bdh books described are not enough in number to give us a correct notion of the activity of the early block-printers4 ,it is probable that many books have been lost and forgotten2 but we have1 however1 enough to warrant the belief that block-printing was an industry of some repute even as early as #adcj4 ,one mechanical peculiarity of the block-books deserves a specific notice3 all the block-books were printed on paper4 ,the printers soon discovered that vellum was an intractable material1 and they preferred paper as much for its convenience as for its cheapness4 ,an apparent dislike of black ink is equally noticeable2 the color in different books varies from a blackish gray to a dingy brown4 ,but their most characteristic feature is the method of printing upon one side of the sheet4 ,one chronicler says that the leaves were so printed that the blank sides might be pasted together4 ,that this is not the true reason is apparent when we discover that very few of the books have pasted leaves4 ,it is more reasonable to suppose that the earlier block-printers could not print on both sides of the paper4 ,it is plain that they could not produce a neat impression even on one side--could not regulate the force of the impression1 which was so harsh and violent that it sometimes spread the ink1 and deeply indented the paper4 ,as the margins are uneven1 we have to infer that the printers could not place the sheets with uniform accuracy upon the blocks4 ,consequently1 they could not print in register1 and place the second page truly on the back of the first4 ,some authorities say that the paper was printed dry1 but this is only a conjecture1 made to suit the theory of printing by the frotton4 ,the paper must have been dampened1 for it was very thick1 and as strong and as coarse as modern manila wrapping2 it could not have been legibly printed until it had been softened4 ,with few exceptions1 the block-books are of a religious character2 but the religion taught is dogmatic and doctrinal more than devotional4 ,we may safely assume that they were written by ecclesiastics in high station for the instruction of the ignorant monks1 mendicant friars1 and 8unable curates40 p#bdi ,illiterate priests1 to whom the descriptions or the legends of the pictures had been read1 must have understood their historical and spiritual meaning1 and must have found the pictures an aid to the memory1 and suggestive of topics for preaching4 ,although made for priests1 they were not beyond the reach of the people4 ,as far back as the twelfth century1 an ,english abbot sternly forbade1 under penalty of excommunication1 the lending of any books1 8neither the large books with pictures1 nor the small books without pictures40 ,but the mandate was disregarded4 ,sooner or later1 the books found their way to the hands of laymen1 whose ignorance of ,latin did not prevent them from admiring the pictures2 and this admiration must have inspired many a reader with the desire to learn the strange language and to own the coveted book4 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,meinrat is the only book which seems to have been written especially for the people4 ,there are two1 the ,antichrist and the ,exercise on the ,lord's ,prayer1 which were1 apparently1 written to furnish suggestions to preachers against heresy4 ,there was need for books of this character4 ,the church was fermenting with dissent2 a very large portion of the people had abandoned the old faith1 and there was a general complaint among all priests that the churches were neglected4 ,to recover this lost allegiance1 and as an antidote to infidelity and heresy1#abe the church gave its assent to the circulation of image prints and block-books among the laity4 ,the poverty of the spiritual diet prepared for men who hungered for instruction and who leaned to heresy cannot be passed by without notice4 ,it is strange that1 in an age of p#bej growing disbelief1 nothing was written for the people which can now be considered as of importance4 ,we look in vain over the earlier block-books for a copy1 in any language that the common people could read1 of a book containing appropriate selections from the ,scriptures4 ,the ,lord's ,prayer was published but once1 published in ,latin1 and strangely perverted from its true purpose4 ,the ,ten ,commandments1 in block-book form1 were printed in ,german1 but not before the last quarter of the sixteenth century4 ,we find no selections from the ,psalms or ,evangelists4 ,the stories of the ,bible1 always with a ,latin text1 were obviously prepared1 not to teach lessons of piety to the people1 but to instruct the priests in the mysteries of dogmatic theology4 ,all are orthodox3 there is no block-book that has the slightest taint of heresy4 ,it does not appear that any of these block-books were made by monks4 ,the block-printers of a later period were laymen1 and men of no note1 and it seems probable that the earlier books1 without names1 places or dates1 were also made by laymen1 by the printers of cards and images4 ,it is possible that they were made at the instance1 and perhaps under the direction1 of the ecclesiastics4 ,but we find no evidences that they were printed in monasteries2 the lazy habits and coarse tastes of the monks1 and their general avoidance of every form of mechanical labor as beneath their sacred calling1 make this conjecture inadmissible4#abf ,the literary merit of the block-books was small1 and their shabby mechanical execution made them contemptible4 ,to readers accustomed to handle great books of tinted vellum1 admirably written in letters that are yet as sharp and legible as modern types1 these miserable little pamphlets on dingy paper1 and with muddy letters1 scarcely deserved the name of books4 ,by the educated readers of the fifteenth century they p#bea were rated as literary rubbish4 ,professors in the universities looked on them with the same contemptuous spirit which men of letters afterward manifested toward early newspapers4 ,the attempts of early printers to furnish these poor substitutes for books to common people1 so far from receiving any encouragement from scholars1 met with their disdainful neglect4 ,there were1 indeed1 a few praiseworthy exceptions1 but the scholarship of the middle ages took sides with rank1 in upholding all the conventional distinctions of society4 ,they wished illiterate people to understand that books were the right of the educated only4#abg ,the period in which block-books were printed cannot be fixed within exact limits4 ,they did not go out of fashion when types were invented3 the illustrated block-book ,opera ,nova ,contemplativa1 the ,italian adaptation of the ,bible of the ,poor1 was printed in ,venice about #aeab2 but block-books of inferior merit were made after this date4 ,berjeau describes one1 the ,innocentia ,victrix1 probably engraved in ,china at the order of the ,jesuits1 which was printed in #afga4 ,but these books are really the last specimens of a dying art2 in the sixteenth century1 they were practically obsolete4 ,the period of their greatest popularity may be fixed between the years p#beb #addj and #adge4 ,as we approach the latter date1 we find block-books containing the names and places of the printers4 ,we see that they were made at ,ulm1 ,nuremberg1 and ,augsburg1--the towns which have the earliest records of manufacturers of playing cards1--in the district in which old image prints like the ,st4 ,christopher have been oftenest discovered4 ,it is probable that block-books were printed in ,southern ,germany at or near the time when the ,st4 ,christopher was printed1 but we have no positive proof that any block-book was printed in #adbc4 ,the ,german book with earliest printed date is the ,chiromancy1 but its date of #addh is not certainly the date of printing4 ,the evidences in favor of an early practice of block-book printing in the ,netherlands are1 in some features1 even more incomplete4 ,no early ,dutch or ,flemish block-book reveals the name of its printer4 ,there are not many notices in old ,flemish town-books concerning card-makers1 or printers or painters of images4 ,yet there was1 without doubt1 an early practice of block-printing in the ,netherlands4 ,the ,dutch traditions about early printing are more circumstantial than those of ,germany2 the ,brussels ,print dated #adah is older by five years than the print of ,st4 ,christopher2 the date of #addj as printed in the wood-cuts of the ,exercise on the ,lord's ,prayer is eight years earlier than the date of the ,chiromancy4 ,the books themselves do not tell us1 neither directly nor indirectly1 whether they were first printed in ,flanders or in ,germany4 ,they have been critically examined by many able men1 but the unbiased reader will not fail to note that most inquirers have found only what they wanted to find4 ,to the ,german critic1 all the early block-books are ,german2 to the ,dutch critic1 they are surely ,dutch4 ,to recite the arguments advanced by partisans1 or even to state the facts wrested to the support of the arguments1 would provide a tedious task for the reader4 ,nor would the fullest presentation of the facts lead to certain knowledge4 ,the language oftenest found in the block-books is ,latin1 the language of the ,church and of p#bec scholars in all countries during the middle ages1 and it gives us no clue to the place where they were printed4 ,the paper-marks have been carefully scrutinized1 in the hope that they would reveal the manufacture of the paper at some date or in some place1 but reasonings made from paper-marks are now regarded as uncertain and of no practical value4 ,we learn nothing through the study of the shapes or fashion of the engraved letters1 for ,german-like characters have been found in block-books known to be ,dutch1 and peculiarities supposed to be ,dutch have been found in ,german books4 ,nor can we glean anything of real value from a critical examination of the designs1 which could have been copied from manuscripts1 or drawn in one country and printed in another4 ,the only mechanical feature which leads to positive conclusions as to age is the manner in which they were printed4 ,the books printed in black ink and on both sides of the paper were certainly printed after the invention of typography1 and by typographic apparatus4 ,the books in brown ink and on one side of the paper are of an earlier period4 ,there is a peculiar rudeness about the books in brown ink which is not to be found in typographic work1 a rudeness which we know began with the makers of cards or printers of images4 ,if we consider1 as we must1 that the block-books are only collections of image prints1 which were put in the form of books as soon as paper became cheap and popular1 we may conclude with confidence that they could have been made1 and probably were made1 in the first quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,the great popularity of the block-books even after #adej1 when types had been invented1 proves that the business of making them was then firmly established1 and that it was not checked by the superior advantages offered by types4 ,it is obvious that the block-printers of #adej had long practice in the older method1 that they were firmly attached to it1 and would not abandon it in favor of the new invention4 ,their preference for the older method of xylography is very plainly shown by the numerous editions of the ,donatus4 p#bed ,,xiii ,the ,donatus1 or ,boy's ,latin ,grammar4 ,a ,very ,old ,book 4 4 4 ,a ,favorite with the ,early ,xylographers 4 4 4 ,frequently ,printed 4 4 4 ,scarcity of ,fragments 4 4 4 ,printed by ,typographic ,process 4 4 4 ,printed before and after ,invention of ,typography 4 4 4 ,testimony of the ,cologne ,chronicle 4 4 4 ,of ,accursius 4 4 4 ,of ,scaliger 4 4 4 ,of ,sweinheim and ,pannartz 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of a ,german ,donatus 4 4 4 ,of a ,dutch ,donatus 4 4 4 ,the ,arrangement of ,words in the ,donatus 4 4 4 ,obscurity of the ,letters 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of a ,dutch ,horarium 4 4 4 ,xylographic ,editions are ,imitations of ,typographic ,editions 4 4 4 ,irregularities of ,engraved ,letters 4 4 4 ,the ,donatus a ,relic of the ,past 4 4 4 ,shows the ,retrogressive ,tendencies of the ,teachers of the ,period 4 4 4 ,the ,pettiness of all ,block-,books 4 4 4 ,an ,evidence of the ,limitations of ,xylography4 99 99 99 99 99 ,although the art of printing1 as has been said1 was discovered at ,mentz1 in the manner as it is now generally used1 yet the first prefiguration was found in ,holland1 in the ,donatuses which were printed there before that time4 ,and from these ,donatuses the beginning of the art was taken4 ,cologne ,chronicle of #adii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the only block-book without pictures of which we have any knowledge is the ,donatus1#abh or ,boy's ,latin ,grammar4 ,it received its name from its author1 lius ,donatus1 a ,roman grammarian of the fourth century1 and one of the instructors of ,st4 ,jerome4 ,the block-book is but an abridgment of the old grammar3 as it was usually printed in the form of a thin quarto1 it could1 with propriety1 be classified among primers rather than with books4 ,when printed in the largest letters1 it occupied but thirty-four pages2 when letters of small size were used1 it was compressed within nine pages4 ,as the most popular of small works1 and one constantly needed in every p#bee preparatory school1 it met the conditions then required by the early publisher3 it could be engraved at little cost1 and the printed copies could be sold in very large quantities4 ,how many xylographic editions of the book were printed has never been ascertained1 but we are led to believe that the number was large when we learn that more than fifty editions were printed from types before the year #aejj4 ,fragments of the xylographic ,donatus are scarce1 and they are1 for the most part1 in a shabby condition4 ,many of them are the remnants of badly printed leaves which were rejected as spoiled by the printer4 ,if it had not been for the frugal habits of the binders1 who used them as stiffeners in the covers of books1 we should have few specimens of this book4 ,these waste leaves were put to this use because they were printed on parchment and had more strength than paper4 ,and here we have to notice a remarkable difference between the block-books of images and the xylographic ,donatus4 ,all the block-books are printed on paper1 and the greater part are printed on one side of the sheet in brown ink4 ,all copies of the xylographic ,donatus are printed on parchment1 on both sides of the leaf1 and in black ink4 ,parchment was1 no doubt1 selected to adapt the book to the hard usage it would receive from careless school-boys1 but the method of printing in black ink and on both sides is the typographic method1 which was not in use1 so far as we can learn1 before the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,we have to conclude that all copies of the ,donatus printed in this manner were printed after the invention of types4 ,the most trustworthy authorities say that there is no known fragment of an engraved ,donatus that can be attributed to the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,in the manufacture of this grammar1 the block-book printers competed successfully with type-printers for many years4 ,but typography improved while xylography declined2 at the end of the fifteenth century1 the copies made from type were decidedly superior4 ,the engraved copies of the book were gradually cast aside as rubbish1 for they contained no pictures1 p#bef and had no features to justify their preservation4 ,we cannot wonder that copies of the engraved ,donatus are scarce1 but we must not infer from their present scarcity that they were not common before the year #adej4 ,it is probable that more copies were printed of this than of any pictorial block-book2 although we find no copies1 we have trustworthy evidences that the ,donatus was printed before types were made4 ,that the ,donatus was engraved and printed before the invention of typography is distinctly stated in the book now known as the ,cologne ,chronicle1 which was published in that city by ,john ,koelhoff1 in the year #adii4 ,the name of the author is unknown1 but he writes with the confidence of a clear-minded thinker and a candid chronicler4 ,he says that the following statement was communicated to him1 by word of mouth1 8by ,master ,ulric ,zell1 of ,hanau1 now a printer in ,cologne1 through whom the art was brought to ,cologne40 ,although the art of printing1 as has been said1 was discovered at ,mentz1 in the manner as it is now generally used1 yet the first prefiguration was found in ,holland1 in the ,donatuses which were printed there before that time4 ,from these ,donatuses the beginning of the said art was taken1 and it was invented in a manner much more masterly and subtle than this1 and became more and more ingenious4#abi ,mariangelus ,accursius1 a learned ,italian of the fifteenth century1 made a similar acknowledgment of the indebtedness of the men whom he regarded as the inventors of typography to the unknown printers of the ,donatus in ,holland4 ,he says3 ,john ,fust1 a citizen of ,mentz1 and the maternal grandfather of ,john ,schffer1 was the first who devised the art of printing with types from brass1 which he subsequently invented in lead4 ,peter ,schffer1 his son1 added many improvements to the art4 ,the ,donatus and ,confessionalia were printed first of all1 in the year #adej4 ,but the suggestion of typography was certainly made by the ,donatuses that had been printed before in ,holland1 from wooden blocks4 ,this extract first appeared in an ,appendix to the ,library of the ,vatican1 which was written by ,angelo ,rocca1 and p#beg published at ,rome in #aeia4 ,rocca says that this statement is in the handwriting of ,mariangelus ,accursius1 who affixed his name to it4 ,on this page it is not necessary to point out the many errors of ,accursius about the origin of the invention at ,mentz2 it is enough to show that he believed that the ,donatus was printed in ,holland before types were made in ,germany4 ,it is not known1 however1 whether he acquired this information from the ,cologne ,chronicle or from another source4 ,joseph ,justus ,scaliger1 an eminent scholar of the sixteenth century1 says that printing was invented in ,holland1 and that the first block-book with text was a breviary or manual of devotion4 ,it seems that this book was like the ,horarium1 of which a fac-simile will be shown on an advanced page4 ,printing was invented at ,dordrecht1 by engraving on blocks1 and the letters were run together as in writing4 ,my grandmother had a psalter printed after this fashion with a cover two fingers thick4 ,inside of this cover was a little recess in which was placed a little crucifix of silver4 ,the first book that was printed was a breviary or manual1 and one would have thought that it had been written by hand4 ,it belonged to the grandmother of ,julius ,csar ,scaliger4 ,a little dog destroyed it1 much to his vexation1 for the letters were conjoined1 and had been printed from a block of wood1 upon which the letters were so engraved that they could be used for this book and for no other4 ,afterward was invented a method of using the letters separately4 ,this record is of interest for its specification of ,dordrecht in ,holland as the birthplace of block-books1 but it does not give any date1 nor the name of the first printer4 ,as it has not been corroborated by the testimony of any other chronicler1 it is now regarded by the historians of typography as imperfect evidence--incorrect1 probably1 in its assertion of the priority of the breviary1 but trustworthy so far as it shows that this learned antiquarian had some really valuable evidences concerning a very early practice of block-printing in ,holland4 ,sweinheym and ,pannartz1 the ,german printers1 who introduced typography in ,rome1 and published more books than they could sell1 in the year #adgb petitioned ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv p#beh for relief4 ,in the catalogue accompanying their petition they describe this ,donatus as the 8,donatus for ,boys1 from which we have taken the beginning of printing40 ,their language is not clear1 for it may be interpreted as the first book printed by ,sweinheym and ,pannartz1 or as the first book made by the art of printing4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of part of a ,block of the ,donatus in the ,national ,library at ,paris4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,the ,national ,library at ,paris has two very old xylographic blocks#acj of this book1 which some bibliographers suppose were made about the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,the letters on these blocks were more carefully drawn and sharply engraved than the letters of any known block-book4 ,the wood is worm-eaten1 but the letters are neat and clear1 and do not show any evidences of wear from impression4 ,one of these blocks has been attributed to ,john ,gutenberg1 for its letters resemble those of the ,mazarin ,bible4 ,it p#bei has been conjectured that this block may have been one of ,gutenberg's earlier experiments in printing4 ,apart from the similarity of the characters1 there is no warrant for this conjecture4 ,this similarity is entirely insufficient as evidence2 it is not even proof of age4 ,the block was probably engraved during the last quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,fragment of an early ,donatus4 ,from ,koning4 ,koning1 author of a treatise on early printing in ,holland1 has given in his book the fac-simile1 which is here copied1 of a fragment of a leaf from a xylographic ,donatus4 ,it was taken from the cover of a book printed by ,gerard ,leeu1 of ,antwerp1 in #adij4 ,koning says that the fashion of the letters in this book is like that of letters in the manuscripts of ,holland during the fifteenth century1 and that they closely resemble the engraved letters of one edition of the ,ars ,moriendi4 ,holtrop gives a fac-simile of the entire page of a xylographic ,donatus with similar letters1 which he claims as a piece of early ,dutch printing4 ,the arrangement of words in ,koning's fac-simile of this fragment cannot be passed by without notice4 ,the words are more readable than those of many block-books1 but ,i have reset a small portion in modern type1 that they might be more clearly contrasted with the modern method of composition4 ,the words that do not appear in the mutilated fragment given by ,koning are restored from the perfect copy of ,holtrop4 ,,the ,,old ,,method4 f,lego legis legit4 plr legim'_/f flegitis legu't ,ptito ipfco legeba'_/f flegebas legebat1 plrlegebam'_/f flegebatis legeba't_/f ,,the ,,modern ,,method4 ,present ,tense4 ,imperfect ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,lego1 ,legimus1 ,legebam1 ,legebamus ,legis1 ,legitis1 ,legebas1 ,legebatis1 ,legit1 ,legunt1 ,legebat1 ,legebant4 p#bfj ,this fac-simile gives an imperfect notion of the abbreviations1 the blackness and obscurity of a page of the ,donatus1 but it is a fair specimen of the forbidding appearance of all the printed work of the fifteenth century4 ,the illustration of the modern method of arranging the same letters shows the superior perspicuity of modern types and of modern typographic method4 ,not every reader of this age has a just idea of the extent of his obligation to what may be called the minor improvements of typography4 ,it may be safely said that many men owe much of their scholastic knowledge to the systematic arrangement and the inviting appearance of modern types and books4 ,the school-boy who glances over this fac-simile will quickly see the depth of the quagmire from which he has been delivered by the invention of types4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of an early ,dutch ,horarium4 ,from ,koning4 ,to support his theory that this fragment of the ,donatus is but a part of one of the many copies of the book which were printed in ,holland before the invention of typography1 ,koning submits the fac-simile of a page from an old ,horarium1 or manual of devotion1 which was copied by him from the original block4 ,he says that this block once belonged to ,adrien ,rooman1 a ,haarlem printer of the seventeenth century1 who had received it from one of the descendants of ,coster4 ,that ,coster engraved or printed this block is highly improbable1 but it is1 without doubt1 a p#bfa very old piece of engraving4 ,it can be fairly attributed to the fifteenth century1 but no good evidence has been adduced to show that it was made before the invention of types4 ,the block is practically worn out3 the letters have been so flattened by impression that many of them are illegible4 ,it must here be noticed that the letters of this ,horarium do not interlock1 as they do in many of the block-books4 ,a ruled line drawn between the printed lines will show only a few and unimportant interferences of letters4 ,this evenness in lining1 which is properly regarded as one of the peculiarities of typography1 seems out of place in an early block-book4 ,but it is not confined to the ,horarium4 ,there are copies of the xylographic ,donatus that closely resemble typographic editions of the same period4 ,they agree1 line with line1 page with page1 and almost letter for letter1 with the typographic model4 ,that these xylographic copies were made from the engraved transfers of some typographic model is proved not only by the uniformity and parallelism of the letters1 but by the square outline to the right of every page4 ,these peculiarities are never produced in the workmanship of men who draw letters on a block4 ,it is not strange that the block-book printers should have imitated the work and the mannerisms of the typographers4 ,it was easier to transfer the letters than to draw them2 easier to cut the letters for a book of twenty or thirty pages than to cut the punches1 make the moulds1 and cast and compose the types4 ,the blocks having been engraved1 the block-printer had the superior advantage4 ,his blocks1 like modern stereotype plates1 were always ready for use4 ,he could print a large or small edition at pleasure4 ,and what was of much more importance1 he could print more legibly from his smooth plates of wood than the amateur typographer could from his uneven surface of lead4 ,the significance of the fact that letters were engraved by block-printers after typographic models will be more plainly seen when we examine the editions of the ,speculum ,salutis1 p#bfb a book which has been claimed by ,dutch historians as the first production of the newly invented art of typography4 ,the irregular manner in which all the early xylographers drew and engraved letters on the block is fairly shown in this fac-simile of the imprint of ,conrad ,dinckmut1 of ,ulm1 who affixed it to a ,donatus printed by him in #adhj4 ,it will be seen that parallel lines ruled between the printed lines would interfere with almost every ascending or descending letter4 ,illustration3 ,reduced ,fac-simile of the ,imprint of ,conrad ,dinckmut4 ,from ,de la ,borde4 ,the ,donatus clearly shows the retrogressive tendencies of the teachers of that age4 ,it was originally written for scholars who spoke in ,latin1 and who1 when the book was first placed in their hands1 knew the meaning of almost every word4 ,in the fifteenth century ,latin was a dead language1 but the book that had been written a thousand years before received no modification adapting it to the capacities of the ,german or ,dutch boys1 to whom ,latin was as strange as ,chinese4#aca ,the p#bfc rules and the explanations1 as well as the text1 were in ,latin4 ,the boy who began to study the book was compelled to translate the words and rules before he knew the simplest elements of the language4 ,the difficulty of the task will be understood if we imagine an ,american boy beginning the study of ,german1 not with a ,german grammar in which the explanations are in ,english1 but with the grammar that is now used in the schools of ,germany4 ,we find no trace of any other school-book in the form of a block-book4 ,there was no other book of equal popularity4 ,to the scholar of the middle ages there was no science that could be compared with ,latin2 there was no knowledge like that of the words of the dead language4 ,words were held of more value than facts4 ,the teachers of the fifteenth century clung to this obsolete book1 and compelled their pupils to go through the same barren course of study that had been used in the fifth century4 ,in this fixed purpose we see something more than the force of habit3 there was a general unwillingness to make the acquisition of knowledge in any way attractive4 ,the limitations of xylography are plainly set forth in this review of the more famous block-books4 ,during the first half of the fifteenth century1 labor was cheap1 skill in engraving was not rare1 paper was in abundant supply1 the art of block-printing was known all over civilized ,europe1 and there was a growing demand for printed work1 but this rude art of block-printing was limited to the production of pictures4 ,it was never applied to the production of books of size or merit4 ,the ,wonders of ,rome1 with its text of one hundred and sixty-eight pages1 is its most ambitious attempt2 but large as this work may seem when it is put in contrast with other block-books1 it is really insignificant when compared with the works of the first typographers4 p#bfd ,,xiv ,the ,speculum ,salutis1 or the ,mirror of ,salvation4 ,its ,popularity as a ,manuscript ,book 4 4 4 ,made for ,mendicant ,friars 4 4 4 ,description of the ,text 4 4 4 ,fac-similes of ,wood-cuts on ,first and ,last ,pages 4 4 4 ,its ,curious ,theology 4 4 4 ,four ,editions of the ,book 4 4 4 ,their ,peculiarities 4 4 4 ,twenty ,engraved ,pages in one ,edition 4 4 4 ,strange ,blemishes 4 4 4 ,opinions of ,bibliographers concerning the ,date and ,printer 4 4 4 ,text of the ,book ,printed from ,types 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,types 4 4 4 ,different ,bodies of ,types in ,different ,editions 4 4 4 ,engraved ,pages were ,transferred from ,types 4 4 4 ,book ,printed in ,four ,kinds of ,ink 4 4 4 ,by ,two ,methods of ,impression 4 4 4 ,types and ,cuts could not be ,printed together 4 4 4 ,opinions about the ,quality of the ,presswork 4 4 4 ,strange ,faults of ,presswork 4 4 4 ,all ,editions were ,printed in ,holland 4 4 4 ,wood-cuts used for the last time by ,veldener in #adhc 4 4 4 ,not ,probable that ,veldener ,printed the ,earlier ,editions 4 4 4 ,veldener did not use the ,types 4 4 4 ,the ,speculum is the ,work of an ,unknown ,printer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,everything about the book is uncertain4 ,it may be that the book was printed from engraved blocks4 ,there are persons who say that it was engraved2 there is a librarian who says that it was written by hand4 4 4 4 4 ,i submitted the book to a type-founder1 to an engraver1 and to a printer1 who decided that the book was printed with movable metal types that had been cast in a mould4 ,andr ,chevillier4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,speculum ,salutis#acb was popular as a manuscript for at least two centuries before the invention of typography4 ,heineken describes a copy in the imperial library of ,vienna1 which he attributes to the twelfth century4 ,he says1 such was the popularity of the work with the ,benedictines that almost every monastery possessed a copy of it4 ,of the four manuscript copies owned by the ,british ,museum1 one is supposed to have been written in the thirteenth century1 another copy is in the ,flemish writing of the fifteenth century4 ,the printed p#bfe book contains forty-five chapters of barbarous ,latin rhymes1 the literary merit of which is clearly enough set before us in ,chatto's faithful translation of four lines of the preface3 f,predictum prohemium huius libri de contentis compilaui_/f f,et propter pauperes predicatores hoc apponere curaui_/f f,qui si forte nequierunt totum libri sibi comparare_/f f,possunt ex ipso prohemio si sciunt historias predicare4_/f ,this preface of contents1 stating what this book's about1 ,for the sake of all poor preachers ,i have fairly written out4 ,if the purchase of the book entire should be above their reach1 ,this preface yet may serve them1 if they know but how to preach4#acc ,in many features1 the ,speculum resembles the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,as the designs are in the same style1 and as the engravings show the same mannerisms1 it has been supposed that both books were made by the same printer2 but this conjecture is opposed by many facts and probabilities4 ,the illustration at the beginning of this chapter is a fac-simile of the upper part of the first pictorial page4 ,in the compartment to the right may be seen the ,fall of ,lucifer4 ,the rebellious angels having been transformed into devils1 and by swords and spears thrust over the battlements of ,heaven1 are falling into the jaws of ,hell1 which is here represented1 in the conventional style of medieval designers1 as the mouth of a hideous monster filled with forks of flame4 ,in the next compartment is the ,creation of ,eve in the garden of ,eden4 ,here we see that the designer has modified the biblical narrative to suit his own notions3 ,eve is not formed from the rib of ,adam1 but is emerging from his side4 ,at the bottom of this picture is this legend in abbreviated ,latin1 ,god created man after his own image and likeness4 p#bfg ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,upper ,part of the ,first ,pictorial ,page of the ,speculum ,salutis4 ,from ,heineken4 ,an illustration on the last page of the book represents the ,parable of the ,ten ,virgins1 to which is added the legend1 ,the ,kingdom of ,heaven is likened unto ,ten ,virgins4 ,the five foolish virgins are sadly descending into the mouth of the monster that represents ,hell4 ,another illustration represents the prophet ,daniel interpreting the writing on the wall4 ,hessel's free translation of a large portion of the preface is really needed to show the theological teachings of the book4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,upper ,part of the ,last ,page of the ,speculum ,salutis4 ,from ,heineken4 ,this is the preface of the ,spieghel onser behoudenisse1 which will teach many people righteousness1 and to shine as the stars in eternal eternities4 ,it is for this reason that ,i have thought of compiling1 as an instruction for many1 this book1 from which those who read it will give and receive instruction4 ,i presume that nothing is in this life more useful to a man than to acknowledge his ,creator1 his condition1 his own being4 ,scholars may learn this from the ,scriptures1 and the layman shall be taught by the books of the laymen1 that is by the pictures4 ,wherefore ,i have thought fit1 with the help of ,god1 to compile this book for laymen to the glory of ,god1 and as an instruction for the unlearned1 in order that it may be a lesson both to clerks and to laymen4 ,it will be sufficient to explain the matter briefly4 ,i mean first to show the fall of ,lucifer and the angels4 ,then the fall of our first parents and their posterity4 ,thereupon1 how ,god delivered us by his assuming flesh1 and with what figures he whilom prefigured this assuming4 ,it is to be observed that many histories are given in this work1 which could not be explained from word to word1 for a teacher does not want to explain more of the histories than he thinks necessary for their meaning4 ,and in order that this may be seen better and clearer1 ,i give this parable4 4 4 4 4 ,there was an abbey1 in which stood a large oak1 which1 on account of the narrowness and smallness of the town1 they were compelled to cut down4 ,when it was cut down1 the workmen came together1 and each of them chose whatever he thought would suit his trade4 ,the smith cut off the undermost block1 which he thought suitable for a forge2 the shoemaker took the bark for making leather2 the swineherd1 the acorns for feeding pigs2 the carpenter1 the straight wood for a roof2 the shipwright1 the crooked wood2 the miller digs the roots up1 as they are fit1 on account of their solidity1 for the mill2 the baker uses the thin twigs for his oven2 the sexton of the church1 the leaves for decorating the church at festivals2 the butler1 the branches for barrels and mugs2 the cook1 the chips for the kitchen4 4 4 4 4 ,just now1 as here every one chose his liking from the hewn tree1 so they do with ,holy ,writ4 ,the same method has been followed regarding the histories which will be explained4 ,every teacher collects from them what he thinks proper and useful4 ,i shall follow the same way with regard to this work1 leaving out altogether some part of the histories1 that it may not offend those who will hear and read it4 ,let us also observe that ,holy ,writ is like soft wax1 which assumes the shape of all forms impressed upon it4 ,does1 for instance1 the stamp contain a lion8 the soft wax will contain the same2 and if it bears an ear1 the soft wax will bear the same figure4 ,so one thing signifies1 sometimes the ,devil1 and sometimes ,christ4 ,however1 we ought not to be astonished at this manner of the ,scriptures1 for divers significations may be ascribed to the divers performances of a thing or a person4 ,when ,david1 the king1 committed both adultery and p#bfi man-slaughter1 he represented not ,christ but the ,devil4 ,and when he loved his enemies1 and did them good1 he bore within him the figure of ,christ and not of the ,devil4 4 4 4 4 ,this is why ,i have noticed these remarkable things here1 for ,i thought it useful to those who study the ,holy ,scriptures1 that they should not judge me1 if they happened to find such things in this book1 for the manner of translation and exposition is so4 ,o good ,jesus1 give me works and a ,christian devotion which may please thee4 99 99 99 99 99 ,equally curious is the explanation of the marriage of the mother of ,god with ,joseph4 ,it appears from this1 that it was not thought superfluous to justify a fact somewhat strange in regard to the doctrine of the supernatural incarnation of the second person of the ,godhead4 ,the author of the ,speculum assigns eight reasons for this marriage4 ,the first was1 that ,mary should not be suspected of unchastity2 the second1 that she might want the help of a man during her travels as well as elsewhere2 the third1 that the ,devil might not become aware of the incarnation of ,christ2 the fourth1 that ,mary could have a witness of her purity2 the fifth1 that ,god wished that his mother should be married2 the sixth1 to prove the sanctity of marriage2 the seventh1 to prove that marriage is no impediment to blessing2 the last1 that married people should not despair of their salvation4 ,catholicism had already brought the world to the possibility of that despair4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend of the ,invention of ,printing1 p4 #d4 ,the ,speculum was printed at different times and places during the fifteenth century1#acd but the copies of greatest value are those which belong to four correlated editions--two in ,latin1 and two in ,dutch--all without date1 name1 or place of printer4 ,in these four editions the illustrations are obviously impressions from the same blocks2 but each edition exhibits some new peculiarity in the shape or disposition of the letters4 ,those who favor the theory of an invention of typography in ,holland maintain that these letters are the impressions of the first movable types1 and that the curious workmanship of the book marks the development of printing at the great turning-point in its progress when it was passing from xylography to typography4 ,as important conclusions have been drawn from the peculiarities of each edition1 it is necessary that they should be described with precision4 ,the order in which the four editions were actually printed is not certainly known4 ,six eminent bibliographers have arranged them in as many different orders4 ,the order assigned to them here p#bgj is purely conjectural1 but it is based on the supposition that that should be the first edition in which the wood-cuts show the sharpest lines1 and that the last in which the types and wood-cuts show the strongest marks of wear4 ,the ,first ,edition is in ,latin4 ,each copy of the book is made up of sixty-three leaves of small folio printed upon one side of the paper1 but with printed pages facing each other1 after the style of the block-books4 ,the space occupied by the printed page is about #g-c_/d inches wide1 and #aj-a_/d inches high4 ,the preface1 in rhyme1 is composed in broad measure1 and occupies five pages4 ,the fifty-eight pages of text that follow are also in rhyme2 but they are made up with two columns to the page4 ,at the top of each page is an engraving on wood1 containing1 on one block1 two distinct designs1 separated from each other by the pillar of an architectural frame-work4 ,at the bottom of each design1 and engraved upon the same block1 is a line in ,latin1 which explains the design1 and which serves as the text for the verses underneath4 ,the letters of the preface and the text are impressions from ,pointed ,gothic types of the ,flemish style4 ,every line of verse begins with a capital letter4 ,the only mark of punctuation is the period1 but it is rarely used4 ,the book is without title1 paging-figures1 signatures1 or catch-words4 ,the wood-cuts are in brown1 and the types in black ink4 ,the brown ink is a water color which can be partially effaced by rubbing with a moist sponge2 the black ink is an oil color1 for it has stained the paper with the pale greenish tinge of badly prepared oil4 ,as the back of every printed wood-cut is smooth and shining1 while the back of every type-printed page is rough and deeply indented1 it is obvious that the types of the text were not only printed with a different ink1 but by a separate impression1 and1 perhaps1 by a process different from that employed in printing the pictures4 ,the two pages that appear on the same sheet were printed together1 as may be inferred from their irregularities2 if one page is out of register1 or out of square1 its mated page is out of register to the same degree4 ,the engravings were printed p#bga before the types1 as is clearly proved by the discovery that on some pages the types slightly overlap the cuts4#ace ,the ,second ,edition is in ,latin1 and is like the first1 with this odd exception3 twenty pages of the text are printed from engraved blocks of wood4 ,these xylographic pages are distributed in irregular order1 as if by accident1 as will be shown by the italic figures1 which represent these pages1 in the following table4 ,first ,second ,third ,fourth ,fifth ,section ,section of ,section of ,section of ,section of of ,six ,fourteen ,fourteen ,fourteen ,sixteen ,leaves4 ,leaves4 ,leaves4 ,leaves4 ,leaves4 -#e 4 #f-ai4 #bj-cc #cd-dg #dh-fc #a-d 4 #g-ah4 4#ba-cb4 #ce-df #di-fb #b-c #h-ag 4#bb-ca4 #cf-de #ej-fa 4 #i-af4 #bc-cj #cg-dd 4#ea-fj4 4#aj-ae4 #bd-bi #ch-dc #eb-ei 4#aa-bd4 #be-bh #ci-db #ec-eh 4#ab-ac4 4#bf-bg4 #dj-da #ed-eg #ee-ef ,it should be noticed that the xylographic pages1 as well as the typographic pages1 are always found in couples4 ,the types are those of the first edition1 but there are p#bgb variations in the composition and spelling of words1 which prove that they must have been recomposed for this edition4 ,the ,third ,edition is in ,dutch prose4 ,the types are like those of the previous editions1 with the exception of pages #di and #fj1 which are printed in types of a smaller body4 ,the face of the smaller types has all the peculiarities of the types of the earlier editions1 and is apparently the work of the same letter-cutter4 ,in the few known copies of this edition there are differences in typographic arrangement which show that types were altered between the first and the last impression4 ,the ,fourth ,edition is also in ,dutch prose4 ,all known copies of this edition are so badly printed that they have the appearance of spoiled or discarded sheets4 ,many authors have supposed that this must have been the first edition1 and1 perhaps1 the first experiment with types2 but a closer examination proves that the bad printing is owing1 not so much to ignorance and to inexperience as to worn types and careless presswork--that this edition is really the last4 ,the copy that is preserved by the city of ,haarlem shows1 in the handwriting of the sixteenth century1 this inscription in ,dutch3 8,the ,speculum ,salutis1 the earliest production of ,lourens ,coster1 the inventor of typography1 who printed at ,haarlem about the year #addj40 ,between the second and the third leaf has been inserted a portrait of ,lourens ,coster1 8engraved by ,vandervelde after ,van ,campen10 with the words1 in ,latin1 8,lourens ,coster1 of ,haarlem1 first inventor of the typographic art about the year #addj40 ,underneath this inscription is a ,latin verse by ,scriverius1 in which he extols ,coster as indisputably the inventor of typography4 ,as the writing1 the portrait1 and the inscription were added a long time after the book had been printed1 these additions cannot1 consequently1 be accepted as evidences of any real value4 ,junius1 the historian of ,holland1 writing in #aefh1 was the first to call attention to the ,speculum4 ,he noticed but one edition3 it is not probable that he knew of the others4 ,he said it was made by ,coster from types of wood1 in ,haarlem1 p#bgc before the year #addj4 ,scriverius1 a ,dutch author1 writing in #afbh1 said that it was printed by ,coster from founded or cast types in or about #adbh4 ,heineken1 a ,german bibliographer1 intimates that the blocks of the ,speculum were engraved1 and that the two ,latin editions were printed in ,germany after the invention of typography2 but he concedes1 rather grudgingly1 that the ,dutch editions were printed in ,holland4 ,santander says that the book was printed in the ,netherlands1 but not before the year #adhj4 ,the disagreements of bibliographers concerning this book have not been restricted to controversies about its date and printer4 ,some have said that there were no types in any of the editions1 and that the letters1 like the pictures1 were cut on solid blocks of wood4 ,this error is almost pardonable4 ,the superficial observer of our own time will say that the characters of this book are not types1 but badly engraved letters4 ,they seem to lack the most distinguishing feature of types4 ,the letters are not at all alike1 as may be seen in the accompanying fac-simile4 ,the variations in the shapes of the letters are so frequent that a modern printer would at once decide that the dissimilar letters could not have been cast in the same matrix4 ,this is a curious defect1 but it can be shown that the letters are types1 and founded types4 8,the existence of a positive fact10 says ,chatto1 8can never be affected by any arguments which are grounded on the difficulty of accounting for it40 ,it is plain1 however1 that the types of the book were carelessly made by an inexpert type-maker1 and perhaps by a clumsy method now out of use4 ,instead of making all the types of one character from one punch or original1 the printer of this book made them from two1 four1 or six punches or originals4 ,at this point it is not necessary to consider why so many punches were made4 ,it is enough to say that there is real uniformity in the midst of all this diversity--that each letter is a duplicate1 more or less faithful according to the wear it has received1 of its own original4 ,careful tracings on transparent paper have been repeatedly made of a selected letter p#bgd for the purpose of testing its agreement or disagreement with letters of the same kind on other pages1 and the comparison establishes the fact that the letters are founded types4#acf ,the errors of the ,speculum are those of types4 ,they show the inversion of letters in positions which preclude the possibility that they could have been formed upon engraved blocks4 ,the occasional occurrence of a c for an e1 of an n for a u1 of an for an f1 and the 8turning upside down0 of other letters1 are examples of errors which can be made only by compositors4 ,the unequal perspicuity of the letters in the ,speculum is that of unequally worn types4 ,of two adjoining letters1 one will be distinct1 black1 and deeply indented in the paper2 the other will be of dull color1 and of indistinct outlines4 ,the distinct letter is a new and high type1 which has received the full force of impression2 the indistinct letter is an old and worn type which has been touched but feebly by impression4 ,if all the letters had been engraved on one plate1 they would have been of equal height1 and should have been equally legible1 or nearly so1 under impression4 ,the four editions of the ,speculum are1 of themselves1 presumptive evidence that each edition was printed from types4 ,it is improbable that the printer would re-engrave blocks for a second edition when those of the first were in existence4 ,if the first edition had been printed from types1 and the types had been distributed1 as is customary1 the printer was obliged to reset them in order to make the second edition4 ,these four editions were certainly the work of the same printing office1 and1 without doubt1 of the same printer1 for p#bge the engravings are the same1 and the types1 ink1 paper1 and workmanship have similar defects and peculiarities4 ,the first edition shows pages of types only2 the next edition has types and blocks1 but the types are like those of the first2 then comes a third edition in the same types1 but with two pages of types differing somewhat as to body and face2 lastly an edition entirely in the old types1 in a worn condition4 ,each edition has more or less connection with the others4#acg ,illustration3 ,english4 ,two-line ,brevier4 ,the body or dimension of the types used in the ,speculum approximates the size known to all ,british and ,american printers as ,english2 but it is rather larger than any of the modern standards4 ,it is really intermediate between the body ,english and the little-used body of ,two-line brevier or ,columbian4#ach ,the appearance of twenty engraved pages in the second edition of the ,speculum cannot be explained with satisfaction4 ,bernard thinks that these pages are the relics of an earlier edition engraved1 or at least attempted1 on wood1 which1 for some unknown reason1 were temporarily substituted for types4 p#bgf ,no trace of this imaginary edition has been discovered4 ,it has been claimed that the engraver of these xylographic blocks was the probable inventor of typography4 ,it is supposed that he matured the ideas he had cherished about movable types when he was engraving and printing the first edition of the book2 that when he became fully convinced of their feasibility1 he stopped the engraving of the blocks1 and finished the work with types which were made for the purpose4 ,this hypothesis is not reasonable4 ,if the printer of the book suddenly abandoned blocks for types1 the change would be abruptly marked in his work4 ,the twenty pages at the beginning of the book would be xylographic1 and all following would be typographic4 ,but it will be perceived that the twenty pages are scattered1 without any order1 throughout the book4 ,instead of being the relics of an earlier edition1 it is demonstrable that these xylographic blocks were cut from transfers obtained from a typographic edition4 ,a traced drawing upon transparent paper1 taken with accuracy from the first edition of the ,speculum1 and carefully laid over a corresponding xylographic page in the second edition1 will show an agreement in the length of lines1 in the abbreviation of words1 and in the copying of little errors or blemishes1 which could have been produced only by means of transferred drawing4#aci ,with this fact before us1 the supposition of the priority of an engraved edition of the book is untenable4 ,dutch authors say that these xylographic blocks corroborate a ,hollandish legend1 in which it is stated that the materials of the printer of the ,speculum were stolen4 ,they suppose that the first typographer was obliged to engrave p#bgh these twenty blocks to complete his imperfect edition4 ,this hypothesis does not accord with other facts3 the appearance of three successive editions of the book1 each with a text of types1 proves that the practice of typography was continued4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of part of a ,page of the ,speculum ,salutis4 ,the provision of black ink for the types and brown ink for the cuts seems unnecessary1 but ,van der ,linde's explanation of this peculiarity is plausible4 ,he says that the oily black ink used on the types may have been rejected for the cuts because its greasy surface interfered with the brush of the colorist4 ,it does not appear that the inquiry has ever been made1 whether the brown ink of block-books was always brown4 ,it is probable that this brown ink was once black4 ,the variability of the color1 so frequently remarked in all block-books1 is the certain indication of a faded black writing ink4 ,it was the fluidity of this writing ink that prevented its use on the types of the ,speculum2 the fluid collected in globules on the metal1 spreading under impression1 and blotting the paper4 ,oily ink was required for a surface of metal4 ,the unequal indentation of the letters indicates that the types were not of a uniform height4 ,nor is it probable that the engravings at the head of every page were always truly flat and of precisely the same height as the types4 ,they were pieces of flat boards1 which must have warped with every change from heat to cold1 or from dampness to dryness4#adj ,in these irregularities we find the probable reason for the employment of two distinct methods of impression4 ,two impressions were needed as much as two kinds of ink4 p#bgi ,the types required strong1 and the wood-cuts weak impression4 ,if the impression had been graduated to suit the wood-cuts1 the print of the types would not have been visible2 if enough impression had been given to face the types1 the wood-cuts1 if in the same form1 would have been crushed4 ,the quality of the presswork of the ,speculum has been strangely misrepresented4 ,sotheby1 who tries to establish the priority of ,dutch printing1 says that the ink in one edition is brilliant2 that its types have great beauty and sharpness2 that its presswork is equal in clearness to that of ,gutenberg's ,bible4 ,in this high praise no other author joins3 most critics say it is but a shabby piece of presswork4 ,the ,dutch authors1 who wish to show the imperfections of typography in its infancy1 call especial attention to the illegibility of the fourth edition in ,dutch1 which they claim as the first1 and for that reason they rate it as an unusually clumsy piece of printing4 ,van der ,linde says that the presswork of the ,speculum does not differ materially from that of many books printed in the ,netherlands during the last quarter of the fifteenth century4#ada ,the wood-cuts were printed by the unknown process then made use of by all block-printers2 the types were printed on a press which was fitted with at least one of the appliances of a well-made printing press2 but the two editions in ,latin1 which are in verse1 with lines of irregular length1 show typographical blemishes of an extraordinary nature4 ,in the blank spaces at the ends of the short lines are found impressions of letters never intended to be seen or read--of letters that do p#bhj not belong to the text--of letters not printed with ink1 but embossed or jammed in the paper4 ,on some pages entire words are found4 ,these words and letters1 which are always found within the square of the printed page1 and in line with the types printed in black1 are1 undeniably1 embossings of types from the same font4 ,the printer who critically examines these embossed letters will be convinced that the types making them were used as bearers at the ends of the short lines1 to shield adjacent types from hard impression3 he will also know that they were printed on a press provided with a frisket4#adb ,the period in which the early editions of the ,speculum were printed will be the subject of the next chapter1 but it may here be told when the wood-cuts were destroyed4 ,in the year #adhc1 one ,john ,veldener1 then a printer at ,culembourg1 printed two editions of the ,speculum1 in the ,dutch language1 and in small quarto form4 ,one edition contained #aaf and another #abh illustrations1 printed from the wood-cuts that had been previously used in the four notable editions4 ,to make these broad wood-cuts1 which had been designed for pages in folio1 serve for pages in quarto1 ,veldener cut away the architectural frame-work surrounding each illustration1 and then sawed each block in two pieces4 ,mutilated in this fashion1 it was impossible afterward for any printer to use these blocks in the production of an edition in folio like any of those that have been previously described4 ,veldener's editions were not made by the method used by the printer of the earlier editions3 the types and the wood-cuts were printed together1 p#bha in black ink and upon both sides of the leaf4 ,the blocks were badly worn before they were mutilated3 the finer lines of the engraving are flattened out1 and retain too much ink1 producing an effect of blackness and muddiness not shown in the impressions of the earlier editions4 ,the fault is certainly in the cuts1 and not in the presswork1 for ,veldener was an able printer4 ,the wood-cuts printed by him in other books1 at ,louvain and at ,utrecht1 show neater presswork1 although they are of feeble design and meanly engraved4#adc ,although ,veldener made use of the wood-cuts1 he did not use any of the types of the ,speculum4 ,his book types are well known3 as they are of different bodies and faces1 they may be regarded as conclusive evidence that ,veldener was not the printer of the early editions4 ,it is probable that he bought from the printer of the first editions1 or from his successors1 the wood-cuts only4 ,we may suppose that the types were worn out1 and that the punches and matrices were also worn out or obsolete1 for we find no traces of them in the books of any later printer4 ,we have1 therefore1 to attribute all the books in which these types are found to a printer who preceded ,veldener4 ,we do not know the name of this printer1 nor can we fix the date when he began to print1 but it is evident that he was one of the earliest if not the first typographic printer in the ,netherlands4 p#bhb ,,xv ,the ,works and ,workmanship of an ,unknown ,printer4 ,the ,speculum not the ,work of an ,experimenter 4 4 4 ,improbable that this was his only ,typographic ,book 4 4 4 ,twelve ,books1 ,eight ,faces of ,types and ,forty-two ,editions attributed to him or his ,successors 4 4 4 ,hessel's ,classification of these ,types 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,speculum 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,fables of ,lorenzo ,valla 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,peculiarities of ,criminal ,law 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,epitaphs of ,pope ,pius ,,ii 4 4 4 ,the ,donatus 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,abecedarium 4 4 4 ,the ,eight ,faces of ,types were made by the same ,printer 4 4 4 ,an ,indication that he ,wore out ,types rapidly 4 4 4 ,that he ,sold many ,books 4 4 4 ,trivial ,character of the ,books 4 4 4 ,his ,types not ,made of ,wood 4 4 4 ,illustrations of ,types of ,wood 4 4 4 ,their ,impracticability ,demonstrated 4 4 4 ,books not made from ,cut ,types 4 4 4 ,cause of the ,dissimilar ,appearance of the ,types 4 4 4 ,were ,founded 4 4 4 ,the ,press of the ,unknown ,printer 4 4 4 ,its ,defects 4 4 4 ,indications of the ,use of a ,frisket4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if any shall suggest1 that some of the ,enquiries here insisted upon 7as particularly those about the ,letters of the ,alphabet7 do seem too minute and trivial for any prudent man to bestow his serious thoughts and time about1 such persons may know that the discovery of the true nature and cause of any the most minute thing doth promote real knowledge1 and therefore cannot be unfit for any ,man's endeavours4 ,bishop ,wilkins1 #affh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if the printer of the ,speculum was the rightful inventor of typography1 his workmanship1 as shown in the different editions of the book1 clearly proves that he had passed the shoals of experiment1 and was on the broad sea of successful practice4 ,we can see1 even without the help of the legends or chronicles1 that he cut punches1 made moulds and founded types of different faces and bodies2 that he compounded ink in a proper manner1 and printed his types upon a press constructed for the needs of his work2 that he was successful both as a publisher and a printer4 ,he practised printing not for amusement1 nor in the way of scientific experiment1 but as a business4 ,rude as his workmanship may appear1 it fairly included all departments of the art3 it was not experimental1 but practical typography4 p#bhc ,with these facts before us1 it would seem proper to pass at once to the examination of the statements that have been made about the supposed printer of the book4 ,but an examination at this point would be premature1 for we have not1 as yet1 all the facts that are required4 ,the four editions of the ,speculum do not furnish enough evidence4 ,it is not reasonable to suppose that two or three distinct fonts of type were made for no other purpose than the printing of four editions of this book4 ,it is probable that the printer printed other books4 ,but the early chronicles of ,dutch printing tell us very little about these books4 ,they are not only meagre in their recital of the more important facts connected with the invention1 but are notoriously incorrect in their description of the minor details4 ,they are unsafe guides4 ,the books themselves1 which reveal1 to some extent1 the process by which they were printed1 are now regarded as of higher authority4 ,we can accept the chronicles only so far as they corroborate the internal evidences of the books4 ,it is proper that the books should be examined first4 ,the number of these books is greater than has been supposed1 even by those who have favored the ,dutch version of the invention of typography4 ,forty-three editions of twelve different works1 printed from eight faces of types1 are now attributed to the unknown printer of the ,speculum or to his successors4 ,in eleven works1 the types resemble those of the ,speculum1 but the books are different as to character4 ,they are in the form of small quarto or octavo1 and are entirely destitute of illustrations4 ,they are without name or place of printer1 and1 with one exception1 are without date2 they have no literary and no historical value2 they differ but little1 in a mechanical point of view1 from numerous undated works of similar nature that have been assigned by bibliographers to the latter part of the fifteenth century4 ,the places where these books or their fragments were found1 and some of their peculiarities of workmanship1 furnish evidences of value in an inquiry concerning their printer4 p#bhd ,these books have been carefully classified according to their types1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,hessels1 the translator in ,english of ,van der ,linde's ,haarlem ,legend1 from which work the classification following has been copied4 ,the types have been specified by numbers1 and have been arranged according to the order in which they are described by ,holtrop in his ,monuments typographiques4 ,it is not pretended that the order of these numbers indicates the order in which the types were made2 numbers have been assigned to them only for convenience in reference and for the purpose of accurate classification4 ,,type ,i4 ,in this character#add the four notable editions of the ,speculum were printed4 ,in the same character were found the relics of six editions of the ,donatus4 ,the single leaf by which one edition of this book was identified1 was pasted in a volume which once belonged to ,sion ,convent1 at ,cologne1 and which contained several treatises printed by ,ulric ,zell1 of ,cologne4 ,one of these treatises is dated #adfg4 ,another leaf1 now in the city hall of the city of ,haarlem1 was found in the original binding of an account book for the year #adgd1 which book was kept in the cathedral of that city4 ,the account books of this church for the years #adgf1 #adhe and #aead1 contain cuttings of leaves from the same edition4 ,the first entry in the record of #adgd is to this effect3 8,item4 ,i have paid six ,rhine florins to ,cornelis the binder1 for the binding of books40#ade ,fragments of other little books printed in the types of the ,speculum have been found3 ,an abridgment of the ,liturgy1 then known as the ,little ,book of the ,mass1#adf a small quarto1 with pages of twelve lines4 p#bhe ,a ,dutch version of the ,seven ,penitential ,psalms1 in the form of a very small quarto1 containing but eleven lines to the page1 printed on vellum1 on one side only of the leaf4 ,the only known copy of this work was found in ,brussels4 ,fragments on vellum of three editions of the ,doctrinal of ,alexander ,gallus1 a ,latin grammar in rhyme1 noticed by ,van der ,linde as the shabby compilation1 by a priest of ,brittany who lived in the thirteenth century1 of the old ,latin grammar of ,priscianus4 ,one of these fragments was found within the lining of a book printed at ,deventer in #adie4 ,four leaves of the ,couplets of ,cato1 a small quarto which was then very popular in the schools4 ,illustration3 ,type ,,ii4 ,fac-simile of the ,small ,types in the ,third ,edition of the ,speculum4 ,from ,holtrop4 ,,type ,,ii4 ,the ,dutch edition of the ,speculum1 which is described in this book as the third1 contains1 on pages #di and #fj1 types which resemble those of other editions1 and which seem to be the workmanship of the same letter-cutter4 ,as these types are of a smaller face and body1 they must have been founded in another mould4 ,no fragments of any book in this smaller type have been found4 ,illustration3 ,type ,,iii4 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,fables of ,lorenzo ,valla4 ,from ,koning4 ,,type ,,iii4 ,the types of this face are newer1 but they resemble those of ,type ,,ii2 some capitals are identical1 but others have differences which establish it as a distinct face4 ,as it is of a larger body1 it must have been founded in a p#bhf different mould4 ,a book which contains the ,fables of ,lorenzo ,valla and the ,witty ,speeches of ,great ,men1 two little works of some popularity in the fifteenth century1 is the only known specimen of this type4 ,the paper of this book1 which is like that of the ,speculum1 contains many of the strange blemishes1 previously described1 of useless letters embossed in the white lines and near the margins4 ,as the written preface of the author is dated ,may1 #adch1 it is apparent that the book must have been printed subsequently to this date4 ,illustration3 ,type ,,iv4 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,peculiarities of ,criminal ,law4 ,from ,koning4 ,,type ,,iv4 ,of this face1 the fragments of four copies1 and presumably of four distinct editions1 of the ,donatus have been found4 ,this type1 which does not closely resemble the faces previously described1 was founded on a body a little larger than ,paragon4 ,the largest book in this type is a treatise on the ,roman ,law1 apparently an abridgment of the fifth book of the ,pandects of ,justinian4 ,it is described in the preface as ,the ,peculiarities of ,criminal ,law1 by ,lewis of ,rome4 ,this treatise1 which consists of forty-four pages1 is printed in the form of small folio1 twenty-six lines to the page4 ,it was the largest book and contains the largest type of the unknown printer4 p#bhg ,,type ,v4 ,the forty-fifth page and all subsequent pages of the book previously described are devoted to a ,treatise and ,epitaphs by ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 and a ,eulogy on ,lorenzo ,valla4 ,in these names we find sure indications of the probable age of the book3 ,cardinal ,piccolomini or neas ,sylvius was made ,pope ,pius ,,ii in the year #adeh2 ,lorenzo ,valla died in #adeg4 ,the book must have been written and printed after these dates4 ,the workmanship of this part of the book is of superior character3 the types were fairly founded on a body about the size of ,great-primer2 they were decently printed in good black ink and on both sides of the paper1 but the remarkable defect of embossed letters which has been noticed as one of the blemishes of the ,speculum is also noticeable in this book4 ,this ,type ,v seems to have been more frequently used than any other type in the list1 but it was always on petty books or pamphlets4 ,one book printed in it has only twenty-four pages1 but it is made up of four distinct tracts3 ,william of ,saliceto on the ,health of the ,body2 ,torquemada on the ,health of the ,soul2 ,a ,treatise on ,love1 etc41 by ,pope ,pius ,,ii2 ,the ,iliad of ,homer1 or more definitely1 a commendation of the ,iliad4 ,two editions of this book have been discovered4 ,a fragment of one edition was found in the binding of a work printed by ,jan ,andrieszoon1 of ,haarlem1 in the year p#bhh #adhf4 ,another book in the same type1 which consists of ten leaves1 contains an abridgment or an epitome of the ,iliad1 with a preface by ,pius ,,ii in praise of ,homer4 ,of this book two editions were printed4 ,six editions of the ,donatus1 four editions of the ,doctrinal of ,alexander ,gallus1 and one edition of the ,couplets of ,cato were also printed in this type4 ,illustration3 ,type ,v4 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,epitaphs of ,pope ,pius ,,ii4 ,from ,koning4 ,,type ,,vi4 ,an edition of the ,donatus1 twenty-seven lines to the page1 is the only known book in this type1 which was founded on ,great-primer body4 ,,type ,,vii4 ,four leaves of a ,donatus on vellum1 taken from the binding of a book printed in ,strasburg in the year #adic1 and belonging to a convent in ,north ,brabant1 are all that is known of this type1 which closely resembles the character described as ,type ,v4 ,,type ,,viii4#adg ,impressions from this face of type have been found in the fragments of only two books4 ,two broad bands of parchment printed upon one side only with the text of a p#bhi ,donatus1 which were discovered in the cover linings of a manual of devotion1 printed at ,delft in #adhd1 are the only known relics of one of these books4 ,the types are barbarous1 of singularly ungraceful cut1 of uneven height and out of line1 evidently founded by a man who had no skill in type-founding4 ,they are printed in pale ink which is readily removed by the application of water4 ,the presswork is as slovenly as the type-founding1 but the composition was done with some care and intelligence4 ,the lines of type are nearly even as to length1 and the words1 when broken1 are properly divided in syllables4 ,it is evident that the compositor knew how to space and divide words1 but the font of type that he used was not provided with hyphens or marks of punctuation4 ,the fashion of the letter is in the ,dutch style as may be seen in the final t with the perpendicular bar4 ,the other fragment in this type is a little pamphlet of eight pages1 printed on parchment and upon one side only4 ,it is described by some as a ,horarium1 or a little book of prayers2 by others as an ,abecedarium1 or a child's primer4 ,it contains the ,alphabet 7all the small letters but not the capitals71 the ,lord's ,prayer1 the ,ave ,maria1 the ,apostles' ,creed1 and two prayers4 ,the ,alphabet has the k1 a letter that was not used in the ,latin language2 it has no w1 this letter being formed by the union of the two characters v4 ,holtrop says that the types seem to have been made for the ,dutch language4 ,the 8turning upside down0 of four letters on the second page of this little work proves that the letters are impressions from movable types4 ,line #b4 ,paue should be ,pane4 ,line #c4 ,cotidiaun should be ,cotidianu4 ,line #e4 uobis should be nobis4 ,line #f4 uostra should be nostra4 ,this little tract was discovered in #agea by the celebrated type-founder ,ensched1 of ,haarlem1 in a manuscript breviary of the fifteenth century1 among the books of the descendants of ,john ,van ,zuren1 a printer of ,haarlem in #aefa4 ,if barbarous type-founding and shabby printing could be accepted as conclusive evidence of the superior antiquity of p#bij the book in which these faults occur1 the ,abecedarium should be the oldest piece of printed matter4 ,one cannot imagine a printed book with more slovenly workmanship4 ,its types present all the irregularities of the ,donatus previously described4 ,the pages have but nine lines of types to each page1 yet they are very crooked4 ,this crookedness was partially produced by an unskillful fastening1 or locking-up of the types1 but it is plain that the types were of irregular size as to body1 and that the letters were badly adjusted upon the bodies4 ,some types are high and others low to paper1 and there are types that are legible at one end of the face and not at the other4 ,the presswork is wretched3 we see the evidences of too weak and badly distributed ink and of uneven impression4 ,the text shows many faults of composition in the division of syllables4 ,to the observer who is not an expert in typography1 the workmanship of the book seems that of a man who had no experience in any department of printing3 the faults do not appear to be those of a badly taught printer1 but those of an experimenter4 ,illustration3 ,first ,page4 ,the ,ensched ,abecedarium4 ,from ,holtrop4 ,illustration3 ,second ,page4 ,the ,ensched ,abecedarium4 ,from ,holtrop4 ,for this reason the ,abecedarium has been claimed by the ,dutch historians of typography as the first production of the inventor of the art4 ,they say that it was printed before any edition of the ,speculum1 and probably in the first quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,a closer p#bia examination of the book does not lead to this conclusion3 the printer of the book was1 no doubt1 a careless workman1 but he had been taught the trade4 ,the fragments of the tract are in four pieces1 but they were printed in one form of eight pages1 and by one impression4 ,this artificial arrangement of the pages1 in the arbitrary position which allows them to be folded together in regular order1 reveals an expertness in little technicalities on the part of this early printer which is somewhat unexpected4 ,the method of printing sheets imposed in forms of eight pages was not in fashion before it was adopted by ,aldus ,manutius1 of ,venice1 in his edition of ,virgil dated #aeja4 ,it is not an invention of the first1 but of the last quarter of the fifteenth century1 to which period this book belongs4#adh ,the types of the book were not set up by an experimenter or ignoramus4 ,the comparatively even outline to the right of every page shows that the compositor tried to space out his lines and to give every page an appearance of uniform squareness4 ,as full and even-spaced lines are not to be found in any edition of the ,speculum1 nor in any of the first books of the early printers1 we may conclude that the ,abecedarium was printed at a later date1 when this improvement had been adopted by all printers4 ,it has been maintained that the book must be very old1 because it is printed on one side only1 after the fashion of the block-printers4 ,this is an improper inference1 for each fragment has the appearance of a spoiled impression which was rejected before the sheet had been perfected by printing on the other side4 ,the unfilled space for the initial letter shows that the work on the sheet was never completed4 p#bib ,the eight faces of types show their relation to each other1 not only by common features1 but by the occasional appearance of two faces in one book4 ,that they were never used by any printer of ,germany1 nor by any known printer of the ,netherlands1 is acknowledged even by those who dispute their age4 ,that they were founded and used in the ,netherlands1 and probably in ,holland1 may rightfully be inferred from the language of two editions of the same book1 from the ,dutch fashion of the letters in all the books1 and from the fact that all existing copies or fragments of works in these types have been discovered in the ,netherlands4 ,that they were the work of one printer1 or of the successors of that printer1 is highly probable4 ,but this admission involves difficulties4 ,these eight faces of types were founded on as many different bodies3 four of these faces are on bodies nearly the size of ,english2 two of them are on bodies about the size of ,great-primer4 ,the modern printer is at a loss to imagine why his unknown predecessor should have cut so many punches and made so many fonts of types with faces closely resembling each other1 yet so unlike that they could not be used together4 ,his perplexity is increased when he discovers1 after careful measurement1 that each face on ,english body and each face on ,great-primer body was cast in a new or different mould4 ,it would seem that the unknown printer of the ,speculum not only incurred the needless expense of cutting new punches and making new moulds for every new font of types1 but that he intentionally introduced in his printing office bodies so nearly alike that they could not1 in the shape of single types1 be distinguished apart4 ,the questions at once arise1 ,why were so many faces and bodies of types that could be readily mistaken for each other1 and were so liable to be mixed together1 allowed in one office8 ,why were so many punches cut for such trivial differences of face1 and so many moulds made for such slight differences of body8 ,these questions can be answered only by conjectures fairly derived from the remarkable workmanship of the books4 p#bic ,the harsh indentation of the types in the paper shows very clearly that the types were roughly used1 and that they wore out rapidly4 ,we can see1 also1 that the method of making types was as imperfect as the method of obtaining impression4 ,it is possible that the matrices and moulds wore out as fast as the types1 but they could not have been renewed if they had not been made by a much quicker and cheaper method than that of modern type-founders4 ,it is not at all probable that these different types were in use together4 ,we may suppose that as soon as a font of types was worn out1 it was replaced by another font1 which may have been cast from new matrices and a new adjustment of mould4 ,a new font made in imitation of the old one1 but made without scientific method1 and without regard to exact accuracy1 would show the difference in face and body which seems so strange to the modern printer4 ,these eight fonts of type seem all the more unnecessary when we consider the trivial nature of the unknown printer's works4#adi ,the ,speculum is the only book of respectable size2 the others are so diminutive that they could be classified as pamphlets4 ,they were cheaply made1 adapted1 apparently1 to the wants of school-boys1 and were probably sold for small sums4 ,it is evident that the books met with ready sale4 ,we find four editions of the ,speculum in two faces of type and in two languages2 nineteen editions of the ,donatus in six faces of type2 six editions of the ,doctrinal in two faces2 and twelve editions of other books4 ,from the character of the books1 one might judge that they had been printed for the use of some school1 and at the suggestion1 or under the direction1 of the authorities of the church4 ,the ,abecedarium was a primer for small children4 ,the books most frequently published1 the ,donatus and the ,doctrinal1 were those most needed by very young scholars4 p#bid ,the ,couplets of ,cato1 the curt treatise on the ,roman ,law1 and the ,praise of the ,iliad1 are1 in size and subject1 the books that would be suitable for a boy's school in the middle ages4 ,the ,treatises of ,saliceto and ,torquemada1 the ,witty ,sayings of ,great ,men and the ,eulogy of ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 may also be included in the list of books that were intended to be used in schools for the teaching of morals4 ,the character of these works is more juvenile than that of any other typographic printer of that century4 ,whoever compares them with the ponderous theological works that were printed by ,mentel1 ,gutenberg and ,schffer1 and by numerous printers in ,germany1 and subsequently in the ,netherlands1 will at once see that this unknown printer made books for boys where other printers made books for men4 ,probably he could secure no other buyers4 ,his workmanship was so rude that it could not be sold to an intelligent or critical reader4 ,his process was suitable only for the cheapest work and the simplest tastes4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,experimental ,letters ,drawn on ,wood4 ,from ,de la ,borde4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,experimental ,letters ,drawn on ,wood4 ,from ,de la ,borde4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,types made from the ,experimental ,letters4#aej ,from ,de la ,borde4 ,it is unnecessary to prove that the types of these books1 like the types of the ,speculum1 were founded in a mould4 ,they show the same features1 and must have been made by the same process4 ,it is1 however1 necessary to show that neither these types1 nor p#bie any types made in the infancy of the art1 could have been cut on wood or metal4 ,there is a tradition1 which has found its way in many popular treatises on typography1 and even in encyclopdias1 that the first types were cut or sawed out of wood4 ,we are told that separate letters1 drawn at graduated distances1 were engraved on blocks of wood1 and that a saw cutting through the intervening spaces separated the fixed letters and made movable types4 ,according to ,meerman1 the uncouthness of the types of the ,abecedarium is fully explained by the acceptance of this tradition4 ,it is necessary1 at the outset1 to show the impracticability of these imaginary types of wood4 ,this can be done in no better way than by presenting the illustrations of ,leon ,de la ,borde1 one of the most eminent defenders of the theory4 ,in these engravings1 we see how the letters were drawn on the blocks1 how lines were marked out to guide the saw that cut them apart1 and how the dissected letters were recombined in new positions4 ,but this illustration really proves the reverse of what was intended3 it proves that types may be cut out of wood1 but that they cannot be used after they have been cut4 ,in this third illustration1 the lines of type are separated by leads1#aea but the types stand more unevenly in line than the letters of any xylographic book4 ,it is obvious to every printer that they could not have been printed at all1 if they had not been p#bif leaded4 ,as an imitation1 the illustration is of no value1 for it illustrates a method of arranging types which was never practised by the unknown printer1 whose types were always composed without leads4 ,this pretended demonstration must be put aside as a complete failure4#aeb ,those who have written in defense of types of wood have failed to see that the cutting of the faces is the least difficult part of the work4 ,the real difficulty is in the cutting of the bodies--in making bodies so accurate that they can be interchanged with facility1 in all kinds of combinations1 without showing distortion in the line of the face4 ,in small types made of wood this accuracy is not possible4 ,even if it were possible to cut them1 it would be impossible to use them4 ,no care could keep them from warping4 ,types must be wet with ink1 and they must be cleansed with lye or water2 they must be exposed to changes from heat to cold1 from dampness to dryness4 ,under these influences1 the little skewers of wood1 for so they must be regarded1 would soon be twisted out of shape1 and unfitted for future service4 ,it is in this liability to warp that types of wood fail most signally4 ,it is not enough that they can be made to serve for one experiment2 the only demonstration of practicability that a printer can accept is p#big that of repeated distribution and recomposition1 a feat which has never been done4 ,that types of wood were tried by the inventor of typography is probable2 that single leaves were printed1 experimentally1 is possible2 but the statement that any printer used them repeatedly in the printing of books1 cannot be admitted4 ,no book was ever printed in ,europe with small types of wood4 ,it is time1 says ,van der ,linde1 that criticism made a bonfire of these imaginary types4#aec ,the hypothesis of types of wood has been given up reluctantly4 ,it was considered that the singular variety of letters1 so noticeable in all the books of the unknown printer1 and so contrary to the usage of the modern type-founder1 could have been produced only by engraving the types4 ,a demonstration of the impracticability of bodies of wood seemed to p#bih destroy with it the only reasonable explanation of the greatest peculiarity of these types4 ,to place this imaginary method of making types on unassailable ground1 ,meerman offered a modification of the theory4 ,he supposed that the first printers of ,germany founded little cubes of metal1 with truly squared bodies1 upon one end of which the faces were subsequently engraved4 ,the misconstruction of the language of a chronicler of the sixteenth century--who1 in trying to explain the process of making types1 carelessly placed the cutting of the punch after the founding of the type--seemed a full warrant for this conjecture4 ,it is1 however1 but a conjecture3 there is no credible authority for the statement that the printers first cast the bodies and then cut the faces4 ,cut types1 if made at all1 were made only in the way of preliminary experiment4 ,the method is as impracticable as it is absurd4 8,he must have been an imbecile10 says ,bernard1 8who could not see that the process of founding in a mould which made the body would also make the face40 ,the allusions to letter-cutting that are so frequent in all the earlier notices of type-making can be readily explained4 ,the cutting is not that of types used for printing1 but of the punches by which the printing types were made4 ,the types of the early printers were made by two classes of workmen3 he who poured the melted metal was the founder2 he who made the model letters was the cutter4 ,performing the more artistic and the more difficult part of the work1 the punch-cutter was properly regarded as the maker of the types4 ,the variety of faces in the types of the unknown printer can be explained in a much more satisfactory manner than by attributing them to the accidental slips or deviation of the graving tool4 ,the letters of the manuscript books of that century were not uniform2 it was not necessary that printed letters should be uniform4 ,the fashion of the day did not require it4 ,on the contrary1 it did seem desirable that the letters should be printed with the variety of shapes to which readers were accustomed4 ,whether this variety of shape in p#bii type was the result of design1 of accident1 or of necessity need not now be considered2 in this place it is enough to say that all the early printers made many varieties of the letters which they most frequently used4#aed ,it should1 however1 be noticed that this apparent taste for variety of form was confined to the small or lower-case letters4 ,two forms of a capital letter are rarely found in the same book1 but the same form of capital is occasionally used with two faces of lower-case types that are decidedly different4 ,the dissimilarity of the small types has been made greater by faults of type-founding and of presswork4 ,in all copies of the ,speculum the careful observer will see the impressions of types with imperfect faces4 ,there are many half-formed letters1 with little peculiarities of appearance which can be satisfactorily explained only by the conjecture that the types in leaving the mould1 carried with them the impress of defects in the matrices4 ,we can see that the types were unequal in height1 and that the over-high types have been flattened out under impression4 ,this flattening-out of the soft metal has produced a strange appearance of compactness1 making letters that were really separate seem connected4 ,the ink1 which p#cjj was sometimes thin and gray and sometimes thick and strong black1 was applied by an imperfect method which has filled the counters of some letters until they are almost illegible1 while it has not fairly covered the faces of other letters4 ,the singular irregularities of a collection of types1 apparently new on one page and worn-out on another1 which have provoked the astonishment of many critics1 are chargeable1 not to the condition of the types1 but to faulty methods of inking and impression4 ,few persons have a proper notion of the changes that can be given to the appearance of the best modern types by substituting wet for dry paper1 hard for light impression1 and thin for thick ink4#aee ,how the types of these and of other early books were founded cannot be learned from the vague descriptions of the early chroniclers of typography4 ,we have to conjecture the process from the workmanship of the books4 ,the discrepancies in the bodies and the imperfections of the faces indicate that the process was rude and unscientific1 and that the mould was not of metal4 ,it is possible that the maker of these types followed the example of other founders in metals1 and made types in moulds of sand4#aef ,there are some peculiarities in his types which almost confirm this conjecture4 ,the difficulty encountered in fitting matrices to these moulds1 or in adjusting the mould of the face of the letter in proper position on the body1 a difficulty that calls for no explanation1 may be the reason why the types are so often out of line1 crookedly set on body and of irregular height to paper4 ,the feebleness of the sand mould1 its liability to damage1 and the necessity for its frequent renewal are1 possibly1 the reasons why we find in the p#cja impressions of the unknown printer types of so many bodies1 and with such singular defects4#aeg ,the rounded edges1 spotted stems and deficient lines of many of the letters seem the faults of types unskillfully founded in moulds of sand1 from metal insufficiently hot1 poured in without the force that is needed to make it penetrate all the finer lines of the matrix4#aeh ,koning1 the author of a prize essay on the invention of typography by ,coster1 expresses his belief in the theory that the types of the ,speculum were made from punches of wood and were founded in matrices of lead4 ,his belief in the use of these rude implements is based on the well known fact that matrices of lead were frequently used by the earlier ,german and ,dutch printers4 ,ensched of ,haarlem had in his type-foundry matrices of lead1 which he claimed were used by ,peter ,schffer in the fifteenth century4 ,firmin-,didot1 the eminent p#cjb type-founder of ,paris1 says that punches of wood and matrices of lead were used in his type-foundry for the casting of large ornamental types even as late as the beginning of the present century4 ,his description is as curious as it is instructive4 4 4 4 ,i have often made use of this process1 4 4 4 which is to sink in lead1 a character cut on wood1 at the instant when1 melted by heat1 the lead is about to harden4 ,matrices of lead made by this process are subsequently justified for height and for lining1 like other matrices4 ,then1 by the ordinary process of stereotyping1 one may take from this matrix1 a duplicate in metal1 which1 after having been dressed1 is replaced in the matrix in lead1 and fitted up to a mould4 ,the melted metal poured in this mould1 not only makes the body of the type1 but at the same time solders itself to the stereotype nested in the matrix which makes the face of the type4 ,by this process one may take from a matrix in lead1 a type as perfect as that which is obtained in the ordinary manner4 ,but these matrices in lead will only make a limited number of stereotypes4 4 4 4 ,by taking the precaution to cool occasionally a matrix in lead1 one can obtain from sixty to eighty types1 without being obliged to re-enter the old matrix with the punch of wood1 or to make a new matrix from the same punch4 ,for vowels1 and for the letters that are more frequently used1 it is necessary to increase the number of matrices4 ,but whenever the punch re-enters the matrix1 the form of the punch undergoes some alteration from the effects of the pressure and the heat4 ,it often happens that the punch is burned during the little time that it is buried in the hot metal4 ,it then becomes necessary to re-engrave the punch4 ,these are the reasons why differences in shape are to be found in the letters that are most frequently used4#aei ,whether the types of the unknown printer were founded entirely in sand1 or in matrices of lead1 cannot be positively determined from the appearance of the letters1 for it seems that either method of founding would produce types showing similar defects4 ,it is probable that the punches were cut on wood1 and sunk in hot metal as described by ,didot1 and that the types of the ,speculum were not only cast in lead matrices1 but that the matrices were sometimes conjoined1 and that two or more letters were cast together on one body4 ,there is a closeness of fitting in some of the words which cannot be p#cjc explained with entire satisfaction by the hypothesis that this closeness is the result of flattening out under pressure4 ,one is strengthened in this belief when he discovers that it was not an uncommon practice in the type-foundries of the fifteenth century to join the matrices4 ,six of the matrices owned by ,ensched1 and by him attributed to ,schffer1 were made to be combined4 ,these leaden matrices were pierced through their sides with a gimlet-hole1 in which an iron wire was inserted to bind them together1 and keep them securely on the mould4 ,the method was faulty1 for it could not keep the matrices in proper position2 it could not produce types uniform as to height and true as to line4#afj ,the thick faces and flattened lines of the types in many of the unknown printer's books show that his types were of very soft metal1 probably of pure lead4 ,to satisfy his doubts on this subject1 ,ensched cast in some of his antique moulds types composed almost entirely of lead4 ,the experiment succeeded3 he was convinced that practical types of lead could be founded in matrices of lead4#afa ,blades carried this experiment to a more successful conclusion1 for he put the types to practical use4 ,he had cast for him a collection of types in p#cjd 8unmixed lead10 with which he printed five hundred impressions on rough and dry paper4 ,he says that the types showed no appreciable wear2 but this is not surprising1 for we have evidences that they were printed by an expert pressman on an iron press provided with every appliance requisite for a nice adjustment of the impression4 ,it is not at all probable that the press of the unknown printer had these handy appliances4 ,all the printing presses made before the nineteenth century had wooden frames1 with beds of slate or stone1 and platens or pressing surfaces of wood4 ,impression was given by the direct action of a screw1 the force applied being regulated only by the discretion of the pressman4 ,knight1 in his essay on ,caxton1 says the press of that printer was a modification of the cheese-press1 provided with an attachment that permitted the form of types to be moved in and out of the press4 ,german authors say that the first printing press was a modification of the wine-press4 ,bernard says it was1 probably1 an improved form of coining or stamping press4 ,but these are only conjectures4 ,we can find no engraving nor any verbal description of the form of the printing press in use during the fifteenth century4 ,the general neglect by all artists and writers of this important auxiliary to printing is an indication that no importance was attached either to the mechanism of the press or to the principle of impression4 ,it seems to have been generally understood that1 whatever merit there might have been in the invention of printing1 no noteworthy inventive skill had been shown in the construction of the press4 ,it was not only a rude but an old contrivance4 ,we have many evidences that the press of the unknown printer was of the rudest construction4 ,some pages have the marks of strong pressure in one corner and of weak impression in another--manifestly the result of the printer's inability to regulate or control the force he exerted4 ,the margins of the ,speculum are of unequal width2 the type-work is rarely ever parallel with the engraving at the head or at a proper p#cje distance from it4 ,on some pages1 the types overlap or bite on the wood-cuts2 on other pages they are too near or too far from them4 ,one of the reasons why the ,speculum was printed on one side only was the deficiency in this press of any contrivance for determining the proper position of the sheet before the impression was taken4 ,the pressman could not print one page truly and squarely on the back of another page4 ,koning says that the printer did not have the least idea of the means to be used for accomplishing this result4#afb ,this defect of the press can be seen in the pages of the small books without illustrations3 they were printed on both sides1 but the modern printer would condemn the work as seriously out of register4 ,the most remarkable peculiarity in the presswork of the ,speculum is the embossed letters at the ends of the short lines4#afc ,they are most noticeable in the two ,latin editions1 which contain lines of unequal length4 ,to the modern printer the purpose to be accomplished by the use of the old and worn types that produced these embossed letters is apparent at a glance4 ,they served as bearers or guards to shield newer and better types in exposed positions from an impression which p#cjf could not be regulated4 ,this exposed position was at the ends of the long lines2 the types that projected beyond their fellows received the hardest impression1 and the printer knew no better method of shielding them than by the insertion of worn types at the ends of the shorter lines above and below4#afd ,this expedient was insufficient4 ,on the margins of many copies of the ,speculum can be detected 7for the grain of wood is unmistakable7 the marks of impressions against wood4 ,it seems that the pages of types were fastened in a mortised block of wood of the same height as the types4 ,this block of wood not only served as a chase to hold the types1 but as a bearer to shield the types from uneven impression4 ,it steadied the descent of the platen1 and diffused the impression equally over the entire surface4 ,these bearers shielded the types from undue impression1 but they made a new difficulty1 for they were of the same height as the types4 ,the inking of a form so constructed must have blackened with equal impartiality the types of the text1 the worn types used as bearers1 and the wooden chase4 ,to lay a sheet of white paper over such a form would smear and blacken it at the ends of short lines and in the margins where no color was required4 ,it became necessary to put a mask over these bearers1 so that the ink on the bearers would not be transferred to the paper4 ,this mask was substantially the same contrivance which modern printers call the frisket4 ,it shielded the white sheet from contact with ink where ink was not required1 but could not shield it from impression4 ,it really strengthened and deepened the impression1 producing the embossed letters in the short lines and the marks of wood in the margins4 ,on p#cjg some pages the slipping or displacement of this paper mask caused the false letters to be printed in black2 on one other page the mask slipped so trivially that one-half of the false types was printed in black1 while the other half was embossed in white2 on another page the mask slipped over the text type1 and obscured the end of the line4 ,these were exceptional errors2 the general execution of this part of the work shows that the printer was a man of some intelligence1 and that with imperfect materials he performed a very difficult task4 ,illustration3 ,the ,frisket1 ,tympan and ,bed of a ,european ,hand ,printing ,press4 ,a ,c ,the ,frisket4 ,c ,b ,the ,tympan4 ,b ,d ,the ,bed4 ,the operation of presswork begins with inking the form on the bed of the press1 which1 in this illustration1 is supposed to contain a form not unlike that of the ,speculum1 nested in a chase type-high4 ,the sheet is laid on the tympan against guides that keep it in place4 ,the frisket1 containing the paper masks cut out to sink the irregularities of the form1 is folded down in the line ,a ,b1 partially covering the paper on the tympan4 ,the tympan is then folded over on the line ,c ,d1 which operation brings the paper down on the face of the form1 ready to receive the impression4 ,these are the appliances of a modern press4 ,the frisket of the unknown printer was of much simpler construction1 probably nothing more than a mask of paper laid on the form of types by hand4 p#cjh ,,xvi ,the ,period in which the ,speculum was ,printed4 ,the ,paper-,marks of the ,speculum1 with ,fac-similes 4 4 4 ,not ,evidence of ,age 4 4 4 ,the ,earliest ,dated ,annotation 4 4 4 ,earliest ,known ,manuscript copy in ,dutch 4 4 4 ,indications that the ,book was ,printed at ,utrecht 4 4 4 ,probably ,printed in the ,last ,half of the ,fifteenth ,century 4 4 4 ,review of the ,evidences 4 4 4 ,the ,cambray ,record 4 4 4 ,printers of the ,fraternity of ,st4 ,john at ,bruges 4 4 4 ,testimony of ,zell in the ,cologne ,chronicle 4 4 4 ,all ,unsatisfactory 4 4 4 ,discordant ,opinions 4 4 4 ,dutch ,printing probably ,xylographic 4 4 4 ,no ,evidence of an ,early ,use of ,types in ,holland 4 4 4 ,early ,printing in ,haarlem 4 4 4 ,jacob ,bellaert 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of his ,types 4 4 4 ,his ,successors 4 4 4 ,brito of ,bruges1 with ,fac-simile of his ,types 4 4 4 ,was not an ,inventor 4 4 4 ,netherlandish ,knowledge of ,printing came from ,cologne 4 4 4 ,map of the ,netherlands 4 4 4 ,not probable that ,types were ,used there before #adfc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the utility and charm of historical researches do not depend upon the exactness of their results4 ,inasmuch as error is misfortune1 so examination is profitable1 even that which does no more than declare as evident the opinion which had been regarded as plausible4 ,daunou4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the paper-marks#afe of the ,speculum and of other works of the unknown printer have been repeatedly examined in the belief that they would reveal the place where and the time when the paper was manufactured4 ,a ,dutch author has said that these marks enable us to determine when the books in which they are to be seen were printed4 ,an ,english author1 p#cji who devoted the larger part of a folio volume to a review of the paper-marks of the block-books1 undertook to prove from them that the ,speculum must have been printed before #addj4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,all known copies of the ,speculum contain a variety of dissimilar paper-marks4 ,among them are the hand1 the dolphin1 the lily1 the unicorn1 bulls' heads1 the letter ,p1 the letter ,y1 the letters ,m ,a1 the spurred wheel1 and the papal keys4 ,many of these marks are found in the paper of the ,canticles and the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,it is evident that papers bearing so great a variety of paper-marks were not made at one mill1 and probably not in the same district4 ,they were not made in ,holland1 at least not during the first half of the fifteenth century1 for there were then no paper-mills in that country4 ,the early records of the treasury of the city of ,haarlem1 which are written on papers containing paper-marks like those of the ,speculum1 show that the paper was bought at ,antwerp4 ,koning thinks that the ,speculum1 and the block-books which are printed on the same paper1 must have been printed between #adbj and #addj2 that the paper of the books was made in ,brabant2 and that many of the paper-marks are the initials or arms of the house of ,burgundy4 ,according to ,koning1 the letter ,p stands for ,philip the ,good1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 who reigned from #adai to #adfg2 the letter ,y stands for ,ysabella of ,portugal1 who married ,philip in #adcj2 ,m ,a stand for ,margaret1 who was countess of ,holland before that state was ceded to ,philip in #adcc4 ,these are very confident assumptions2 they require a careful examination4 ,a closer investigation has elicited these facts3 the letter ,p has been found in the accounts of the ,count of ,holland at the ,hague for the year #achg2 paper bearing the same ,p was used by many printers of the ,netherlands1 by one printer in ,paris1 and by several printers in ,germany in the last quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,it is found in paper made before and p#caj after the reign of ,philip1 and in cities over which ,philip never ruled4 ,paper containing the letter ,y was used in #acie1 before ,ysabella was born2 it was in use for many years after she was dead2 paper with the letters ,m ,a joined to the arms of ,bavaria must have been made before her daughter ,jacqueline was married1 or1 in other words1 before #adbb1 an earlier date than can be claimed for any typographic book4 ,the rude paper-mark of the bull's head was in frequent use between the years #acgj and #aebc in the ,netherlands and in ,germany2 it is found in the great ,bible of ,gutenberg4 ,it is1 therefore1 of no value in an inquiry concerning the date of any book in which it has been found4 ,the paper-mark of the lily was used even in the fourteenth century2 in the fifteenth it was as common as the bull's head4 ,it is found in books that were printed in ,cologne and in ,paris1 in ,utrecht1 ,gouda1 ,delft1 ,louvain and ,deventer4 ,paper marked with the unicorn was frequently used by the later ,netherlandish printers4 ,it did not go out of use until #afbj4 ,it is found in so many shapes that it is impossible to determine by it the date1 or the printer1 of any book on which it was used4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,when we find that these marks were used in manuscripts before the fifteenth century1 and in printed books at the end of the fifteenth century1 we have to conclude that they are almost worthless as evidence#aff in an inquiry concerning the printer of the ,speculum4 ,instead of proving that the ,speculum must have been printed between #adbj and #addj1 they really show1 so far as paper is connected with the question1 that the various editions of the book could have been printed in the third1 and perhaps in the fourth1 quarter of the century4 p#caa ,we have a clearer indication of the period of the unknown printer in the fragments of his work that have been discovered in the cover linings of manuscript and printed books bound in the latter part of the fifteenth century4 ,it is obvious that the fragments are older than the bindings1 but it is not probable that they are much older1 for no fragment has been found in any book made before the year #adfg4 ,the larger portion came from bindings made after #adgj4 ,a copy of ,william of ,saliceto on the ,health of the ,body contains a written memorandum or annotation to this effect3 8,this book was bought by ,lord ,conrad1 abbot of this place1 ,,xxxiiii 81 who died in the year #adgd40 ,conrad du ,moulin was abbot between the years #adga and #adgd only4 ,another inscription in the same book states that it once belonged to the ,convent of ,st4 ,james at ,lille4#afg ,these inscriptions have been cited to show that the unknown printer preceded every other typographic printer in the ,netherlands2 but the precedence claimed is unimportant1 for we know that ,ketelaer and ,de ,leempt printed books at ,utrecht in #adgc4 ,in a public library at ,haarlem is a manuscript copy of a version of the ,speculum in the ,dutch language--an admirably illustrated book of #bij leaves of vellum--which contains these inscriptions3 8,this book was finished in the year of our ,lord #adfd1 on the #afth day of ,july4 4 4 4 ,an ,ave ,maria to ,god for the writer4 4 4 4 4 ,this book belongs to ,cayman ,janszoen of ,zierikzee1 living with the ,carthusians near ,utrecht40#afh ,van der ,linde says that the text of the two editions in ,dutch described on a previous page1 is really an abridgment of the text of this ,utrecht manuscript of #adfd4 ,this fact established1 the claim that the ,dutch editions of the book were printed before this date becomes untenable4 ,nor is there positive evidence that the book was printed anywhere out of ,utrecht4 ,utrecht was the residence of ,david1 a prince of ,burgundy and a notable patron of literature2 it was also the residence of the bishop of the diocese2 it had a p#cab gymnasium 7as the high school of the time was then designated7 of some reputation2 it was a favorable location for an early printer2 it was in ,utrecht that the mutilated blocks of the ,speculum were printed by ,john ,veldener in #adhc4 ,the book containing the ,eulogy on ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 which must have been printed after the year #adei1 and the ,abecedarium1 with its evenly spaced lines and its arrangement in octavo1 are specimens of the typography1 not of the second1 but of the third1 quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,the ,latin editions of the ,speculum were1 no doubt1 printed before the ,dutch editions2 but when we consider the activity of nearly all the early printers1 and their frequent publication of popular books1 it is hazardous to concede to the ,latin editions a priority of more than five years4 ,but ,dutch bibliographers claim that the earlier editions of the book were printed at least thirty-three1 perhaps fifty1 years before the arrival of ,german printers in the ,netherlands4 ,to support this claim1 they refer to passages or annotations in old manuscript books1 which seem to show that printed books were common in the ,netherlands during the middle of the century4 ,these passages and annotations demand critical examination4 ,there is an entry in an old diary which1 on its first reading1 produces the impression that printed books were sold in ,bruges as ordinary merchandise in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,this entry was made by one ,jean le ,robert1 abbot of ,st4 ,aubert in ,cambray1 then a city of ,burgundy4 ,item4 ,for a doctrinal gett en molle1 which ,i sent to ,bruges for in the month of ,january1 #adde1 from ,marquart1 the first copyist at ,valenciennes1 for ,jacquart1 twenty sous1 currency of ,tours4 ,little ,alexander had a similar copy for which the church paid4 ,item4 ,procured at ,arras a doctrinal for the instruction of the ,lord ,gerard1 which had been bought at ,valenciennes1 and which was jettez en molle1 and which cost twenty-four groots4 ,he ,lord ,gerard returned to me this doctrinal on ,all ,saints' ,day1 in the year '#ea1 saying that he set no value on it1 and that it was altogether faulty4 ,he had bought another copy in paper for ten patards4#afi p#cac ,the importance of this document depends entirely upon the construction of these words1 gett en molle4 ,bernard says that they have always been regarded in ,france as the equivalent of printing1 or of printed letters4#agj ,the literal meaning of the words is1 cast in mould4 ,so construed1 no words could more clearly define founded types4 ,this construction of the phrase would prove the existence of a typographic printer in ,bruges at least as early as #adde4 ,the dry1 matter-of-fact way in which the words were used would show that books of this description were not novelties2 that they were sold in ,arras and in ,bruges2 that book-buyers were critical about their workmanship1 and knew how they were made4 ,this construction of the phrase has been keenly disputed4 ,van der ,linde says that the books were printed1 but not from types--from blocks that had been gett en molle1 or put into form1 or put into readable shape1 by the art of engraving4 ,he cites authorities showing that the word molle or mould had been applied to forms of manuscript4#aga ,dr4 ,van ,meurs proposes a new construction--that gett en molle has nothing to do either with types or blocks4 8,who does not perceive1 while reading the ,cambray document1 that in #adea1 the term gett en molle is used in contradistinction to in paper8 ,do not these terms make us rather think of books in loose sheets as opposed to sheets that are bound8 ,what can molle mean but form8 ,what is a book gett en molle but a book brought together in a form1 or in a binding1 in p#cad opposition to another book in paper1 or in a paper cover80 ,this conjecture is reasonable4 ,no one knows of an early edition of this book from engraved blocks4 ,as the seller of one copy was a copyist we may conclude that both copies were written4 ,equally unsatisfactory to an unprejudiced reader is the misconstruction of the word printer in the list of the different arts or trades embraced by the ,confraternity of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 at ,bruges4 ,it has been inferred that the printers here noticed were printers of types1 and that typographic printing was done in #aded1 when the following list was written3#agb ,librariers en boeckverkopers1 or booksellers4 ,vinghettemakers1 or painters in miniature4 ,scrivers en boucscrivers1 or scriveners and copyists of books4 ,scoolemeesters1 or schoolmasters4 ,prentervercoopers1 or image sellers4 ,verlichters1 or illuminators4 ,prenters1 or printers4 ,boucbinders1 or bookbinders4 ,riemmakers1 or curriers who prepare skins for parchment-makers4 ,perkementmakers en fransynmakers1 or makers of parchment4 ,guispelsniders1 or makers of decorations for bound books4 ,scoolevrowen1 or schoolmistresses4 ,lettersnyders1 or engravers of letters4 ,scilders1 or painters4 ,drochscherrers1 or shearers of cloth4 ,beeldemakers1 or makers of images4#agc ,we have here a careful and1 probably1 a complete specification of all trades contributing to the manufacture of books1 but there is no mention of type-makers nor of typographers4 p#cae ,in #addb there was an organized society of book-makers in the city of ,antwerp1 known as the ,fraternity of ,saint ,luke4 ,like the association of ,bruges1 it comprised every trade that contributed to the making of books4 ,the trade of printer is in their list1 as it is in that of the ,confraternity of ,saint ,john of ,bruges2 but in this list there is no mention of the makers or printers of types4 ,the printers of the fraternities were1 no doubt1 the printers of playing cards1 images and block-books4#agd ,the earliest notice of book-printing in the ,netherlands is that of the ,cologne ,chronicle of #adii1 which is to this effect3 ,this highly valuable art was discovered first of all in ,germany1 at ,mentz on the ,rhine4 ,and it is a great honor to the ,german nation that such ingenious men are found among them4 ,and it took place about the year of our ,lord #addj1 and from this time until the year #adej1 the art1 and what is connected with it1 was being investigated4 ,and in the year of our ,lord #adej it was a golden year jubilee1 and they began to print1 and the first book they printed was the ,bible in ,latin2 it was printed in a large letter1 resembling the letter with which at present missals are printed4 ,although the art as has been said was discovered at ,mentz1 in the manner as it is now generally used1 yet the first prefiguration die erste vurbyldung was found in ,holland the ,netherlands1 in the ,donatuses1 which were printed there before that time4 ,and from these ,donatuses the beginning of the said art was taken1 and it was invented in a manner much more masterly and subtile than this1 and became more and more ingenious4 ,one named ,omnibonus1 wrote in a preface to the book called ,quinctilianus1 and in some other books too1 that a ,walloon from ,france1 named ,nicol4 ,jenson1 discovered first of all this masterly art2 but that is untrue1 for p#caf there are those still alive who testify that books were printed at ,venice before ,nicol4 ,jenson came there and began to cut and make letters4 ,but the first inventor of printing was a citizen of ,mentz1 born at ,strasburg1 and named ,junker ,johan ,gutenberg4 ,from ,mentz the art was introduced first of all into ,cologne1 then into ,strasburg1 and afterward into ,venice4 ,the origin and progress of the art was told me verbally by the honorable master ,ulrich ,zell1 of ,hanau1 still printer at ,cologne1 anno #adii1 and by whom the said art came to ,cologne4#age ,ulrich ,zell is a candid and a competent witness1 yet he narrates not what he had seen1 but what he had heard4 ,he was but a mere child1 possibly unborn1 when ,gutenberg began to experiment with types at ,strasburg about the year #adcf1 or sixty-three years before this chronicle was printed4 ,zell's statement is the earliest acknowledgment of the priority of book-printing in ,holland1 but it is an incomplete and unsatisfactory acknowledgment4 ,he names ,gutenberg1 but he does not name the printer of the ,donatus4 ,he specifies the period between #addj and #adej as the time1 and ,mentz as the place1 and the great ,latin ,bible as the first product1 of the ,german invention2 but he does not specify the year nor the city in which the ,donatus was first printed4 ,the only specifications are--in ,holland1#agf before ,gutenberg1 and by an inferior method4 ,it is apparent that ,zell did not have exact knowledge of the details of early ,dutch printing1 and that he could not describe its origin nor its peculiarities with accuracy4 ,we cannot supplement ,zell's imperfect description of early ,dutch printing with knowledge or with inferences that might p#cag be derived from a critical examination of the ,dutch ,donatuses4 ,these books1 described by him as the prefiguration of typography1 have been destroyed4 ,there is no known copy of the ,donatus1 neither typographic nor xylographic1 which can be attributed to a period before that of ,gutenberg's first experiments in ,strasburg4 ,the early typographic copies have the full-spaced lines1 which were not in use before #adfj in any book2 the xylographic copies are about as old1 and1 for the most part1 are imitations of the typographic editions4 ,guided by these facts we have to conclude that it is not probable that the ,donatuses of ,zell were printed from types4 ,the frequent repetition of the statement that the art was invented in ,germany shows there was no confusion in the mind of the writer concerning the relative importance of the ,german and the ,dutch method of printing4 ,he clearly perceived1 although he obscurely described1 two distinct methods of book-printing3 the first1 the method used for printing the ,donatus1 which method was imperfect and but a prefiguration2 the second1 the method that was more masterly and subtile1 the method that now is used4 ,the second method was1 without doubt1 the making of accurate types in metal moulds1 and the printing of great books4 ,it was not the second invention1 but the invention1 inasmuch as it was the only invention that had a practical value4 ,the ,donatus was printed1 but it was not printed by the art4 ,it was the art as it is now used1 the only practical art of making types and books1 of which ,gutenberg was the first inventor4 ,according to ,german historians1 the first method was xylography4 ,they say that it was the sight of some lost or now unknown copy of an engraved ,donatus1 which gave to ,gutenberg the suggestion of the more subtile invention of movable types2 that this ,donatus was not taken as a model for imitation--it served only as the suggestion of an entirely new method4 ,dutch historians say that it is unreasonable to assume that this ,donatus was engraved on wood4 ,there is force in the argument that it is not probable that ,ulrich ,zell1 p#cah the printer1 who furnished the writer of the chronicle with his facts1 and who1 as a ,german1 was proud that typography was a ,german invention1 would have ascribed the first rude practice of printing to ,holland1 if this practice had been nothing but xylography4 ,it cannot be supposed that ,gutenberg was so ignorant of the productions of ,german formschneiders that he believed xylographic printing was done only in ,holland4 ,they say that the suggestive ,donatus which was made in ,holland should have been a typographic book1 printed as the ,speculum was printed1 from types founded by an inferior method--a method that was never imitated4 ,it will be seen that the statement of the ,cologne chronicler is so ambiguous that it can be wrested to the benefit of either side of the question4 ,it can be used to support the hypothesis that there were two inventions of typography--one ,dutch1 one ,german--one of little and the other of great merit--both alike in theory1 but unlike in process and in result4 ,but it is not worth while to consider the probability of a very early invention of typography in ,holland until we can find the evidences which will compensate for the deficiencies of ,zell4 ,this evidence is wanting4 ,the statement attributed to ,ulrich ,zell is the only acknowledgment made by any writer1 ,dutch or ,german1 during the fifteenth century4 ,in view of the pretensions subsequently made1 the silence of the earliest ,dutch writers and printers seems unaccountable4 ,many of the printers were learned and patriotic men1 proud of their art and of their country1 but in none of their books do we find any claim for ,holland as the birthplace of typography4 ,nor was this claim made by any of the great men of ,holland4 ,erasmus1 the scholar1 the guest and corrector of the press for ,john ,froben1 the friend and correspondent of ,thierry ,martens1 first scholarly printer in the ,netherlands1 should have known something of the introduction of typography in his native country2 but the only mention that he made of the origin of the art was to attribute its invention to ,germany4 ,before the year #adhj1 three chronicles of the events of the century had been p#cai printed in ,holland1 but in none of them is any notice made of early printing in ,holland4 ,the printers of ,holland who followed their business in other cities never claimed ,haarlem as the birthplace of typography4 ,before the year #aejj1 there were ,dutch printers who put on record1 in imprints attached to their books1#agg their belief in the statement that printing had been invented in ,germany4 ,it does not appear that there was then any knowledge of the legend of ,haarlem4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the types of ,jacob ,bellaert4 ,from ,holtrop4 ,at this point it may be proper to record what is exactly known about the old printing offices of this town4 ,the first ,haarlem book with a printed date is of the year #adhc4 ,it is a little religious book that contains thirty-two wood-cuts and a peculiar face of type that had been used the year before by one ,gerard ,leeu of ,gouda4 ,the printer's name is not given1 but a colophon at the end of the book distinctly says that it was printed at 8haerlem in hollant40 ,from the same press1 by the same printer1 and with the same types1 seven other books were printed before the year #adhf4 ,in one of these books1 dated #adhd1 is printed the name of the printer1 ,jacob ,bellaert of ,zierikzee4 ,there is no evidence that he had been taught typography in ,haarlem1 nor that he succeeded to any old printing office in that town4 ,bellaert was from ,zierikzee2 his types and his wood-cuts had been procured from ,gerard ,leeu of ,gouda4 ,the types are of a condensed form1 superior to those of the ,speculum1 fairly lined1 obviously cast in moulds p#cbj of metal1 entirely unlike those of the unknown printer4 ,the engravings have many peculiarities of design and cut which are not to be found in any known block-book4 ,jan ,andrieszoon was the second printer of ,haarlem4 ,in #adhe he opened a printing office with a stock of old and worn types1 printed seven books1 four with and three without a date4 ,there is no evidence whatever that connects him or his works with the unknown printer4 ,the competition of two rival printers in a small town produced the usual result4 ,as no book can be found with the imprint of either printer after #adhf1 we have to infer that the printers closed their offices and abandoned typography4 ,the imprint of ,haarlem does not again appear on any book before #aejg4 ,the name of the third printer is supposed to be ,hasback1 who1 in #aejf1 had an office in ,amsterdam1 which he removed to ,haarlem4 ,his enterprise was unsuccessful1 for no book of a later date can be attributed to him4 ,there is neither record nor tradition of any typographic printer in ,haarlem between the years #aejg and #aefa4 ,the account books of the treasury of the town contain entries which show that its typographic work was done at ,leyden4 ,coornhert and ,van ,zuren1 8sworn book-printers at ,haarlem10 were also unsuccessful1 for we have no evidences of their work after the year #aefb4 ,in #aeha1 ,anthonis ,ketel was in possession of a printing office in ,haarlem1 but typography cannot be considered as securely established in that town before #aehg1 in which year one ,gillis ,rooman began to print4 ,he continued to work as printer until #afaa1 when he was succeeded by ,adrien ,rooman4 ,there is nothing in this list of unsuccessful printers which assures us that typography had been invented or cherished in ,haarlem4 ,nor is there even any recorded evidence of an early printing of block-books4 ,there was1 at an early date1 in ,haarlem a guild composed of painters1 goldsmiths1 sculptors1 and of other artisans2 but we can find no engraver on wood1 no prenter or figuersnyder among the members4 8,the harvest p#cba of history10 writes ,dr4 ,van der ,linde1 concerning ,haarlem1 8on the field of typography may be scanty2 on the field of xylography it does not yield anything40 ,this recital of the names and the fortunes of the earlier printers of ,haarlem is not altogether irrelevant2 it furnishes a proper introduction to the legend of ,haarlem4 ,the first printer in ,haarlem1 ,jacob ,bellaert1 whose art must have been a wonder to simple people1 closed his office after two or three years of unsuccessful labor1 and probably went to some other place4 ,the printers who followed him at long intervals were equally unsuccessful4 ,van der ,linde thinks that it is around the first printing office of ,haarlem that the vague traditions have clustered4 ,in none of the notices of early ,netherlandish printing do we find any mention of ,coster of ,haarlem1 or any description of printing by types4 ,there is extant1 however1 an allusion1 which cannot be passed by unnoticed1 to the printed work of one ,brito of ,bruges1 who1 about #adha1 printed a little book entitled ,the ,book of ,doctrine for the ,instruction of ,christians4 ,the first page of this book says that it is a copy of two great tablets in the ,church of ,our ,lady of ,terouanne2 the last page has this inscription in six lines of faulty ,latin rhyme3 p#cbb ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of ,john ,brito4#agh ,from ,holtrop4 ,brito was a member of the ,fraternity of ,saint ,john the ,baptist1 between the years #aded and #adid1 but he was not industrious as a printer1 for ,campbell can attribute but four books to him4 ,van ,praet#agi says that he was engaged by the bishop of the church to paint or to affix this ,book of ,doctrine on the great tablets1 which he did by the wonderful art of stenciling1 with the very astonishing instruments of perforated letters1 nobody having instructed him4 ,proud of his work1 he attached this inscription4 ,when he printed the composition in the form of a book he repeated the inscription4 ,it is not possible that ,brito intended to convey the notion that he had invented typography4 ,so far from inventing types1 ,brito did not even make the types that he used in this book4 ,they are the types of ,veldener of ,utrecht4#ahj ,from the early records we can glean nothing which will demonstrate that typography was practised in any part of the ,netherlands before #adgb4 ,the workmanship of all known ,netherlandish printers after this date is of every degree of merit and of demerit1 but in all their books it shows the impressions of types founded in moulds of hard metal1 and properly printed on a press1 on both sides of the paper1 and in black ink4 ,as it is a style of workmanship entirely unlike that of the unknown printer1 it is a proper inference that typography came into the ,netherlands1 as it did into all other countries1 through the pupils and by the method of ,gutenberg4 ,the table annexed will show how late was the beginning of typography in the ,netherlands4 ,it also shows that printing 8by the art that is now used10 was introduced almost simultaneously in three different towns of the ,netherlands4 ,in the year #adgc1 ,john of ,westphalia was first printer at ,alost2 p#cbd the partners ,ketelaer and ,de ,leempt were at ,utrecht2 and ,veldener was at ,louvain4 ,ketelaer and ,de ,leempt were ,netherlanders1 but there is no evidence to confirm the conjecture that they had been instructed by the unknown printer4 ,veldener of ,wurtzburg1 ,john of ,westphalia1 ,colard ,mansion1 ,william ,caxton1 ,arnold ,ter ,hoorne1 ,conrad of ,westphalia1 ,richard ,paffroed1 ,conrad ,braem1 and ,hermann of ,nassau were graduates from printing offices at ,cologne4#aha ,it is possible that ,thierry ,martens also was taught typography in the same city4 ,we have many evidences that ,cologne was the school of typography for the ,netherlands4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,towns ,,and ,,cities ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands ,,in ,,which ,,printing ,,offices ,,were ,,established ,,during ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,from ,holtrop4 ,utrecht ,nicholas ,ketelaer1 ,gerard de ,leempt1 #adgc-adgd4 ,william ,hees #adge4 ,john ,veldener #adgh-adha4 ,alost ,john of ,westphalia #adgc-adgd4 ,thierry ,martens #adgd-adij4 ,louvain ,john ,veldener #adgc-adgg4 ,john of ,westphalia #adgd-adif4 ,conrad ,braem #adge-adha4 ,conrad of ,westphalia #adgf4 ,hermann of ,nassau1 ,rud4 ,loeffs1 #adhc4 ,egidius van der ,heerstraten #adhe-adhh4 ,louis de ,ravescot #adhh4 ,thierry ,martens #adih-aejj4 ,brussels ,brotherhood of the ,life-in-,common1 #adgf-adhg4 ,gouda ,gerard ,leeu #adgg-adhd4 ,godfrey de ,os #adhf4 ,godfrey de ,ghemen ,unnamed ,printer #adhf4 ,bruges ,colard ,mansion #adge-adhd4 ,john ,brito ,deventer ,richard ,paffroed #adgg-aejj4 ,jacques de ,breda #adhe-aejj4 ,delft ,jacob ,jacobzoon #adgg-adgi4 ,j4 ,van der ,meer #adhj-adhg4 ,unnamed ,printer #adhh-adid4 ,st4 ,maartensdyk ,werrecoren #adgh4 ,nimeguen ,gerard ,leempt #adgi4 ,zwoll ,unknown ,printer #adgi4 ,peter von ,os #adhj-aejj4 ,audenarde ,arn4 l',empereur #adhj-adhb4 ,hasselt ,pereg4 ,bermentlo #adhj-adha4 ,antwerp ,matt4 ,van der ,goes #adhb-adia4 ,gerard ,leeu #adhd-adic4 ,thierry ,martens #adic-adig4 ,leyden ,henry ,henry #adhc-adhd4 ,gand ,arnold l',empereur #adhc-adhi4 ,culenburg ,john ,veldener #adhc-adhd4 ,bois-le-,duc ,gerard ,leempt #adhd-adhg4 ,schoonhoven ,brotherhood #adie-aejj4 ,schiedam ,unnamed ,printer #adih-aejj4 ,haarlem ,jacob ,bellaert #adhc-adhf4 ,we have no evidences that the unknown printer acquired his poor knowledge of typography through any other channel4 ,his unequal workmanship is an indication that his instruction was imperfect2 the neat presswork of his wood-cuts is that of an expert printer of block-books1 who1 no doubt1 had abundant practice in this field before he undertook to print with types2 the rudeness of his typographic work is that of one who had never received regular instruction in typography4 ,it is possible that he received only a verbal explanation of the processes of the art1#ahb and that he tried1 unaided1 to graft the new into the old method4 ,his workmanship seems to be that of an imitator1 a curious mixture of skill and of ignorance1 but its inferiority to the workmanship of other printers of his time is not proof of its greater age or of his originality2 it proves only his imperfect instruction or greater incapacity4 ,so far from showing the first steps in an immature invention1 his books truly show the degradation of a perfect method4 ,they show the ignorance of a badly taught typographic printer1 and p#cbe the prejudices of an old block-printer who had adopted the newer method with reluctance4 ,we have seen that ,walther's edition of the ,bible of the ,poor is every way inferior to the first edition1 and have drawn from it the conclusion that there was a wonderful degradation of the art of engraving on wood4 ,when we establish a comparison between the great ,bible of ,gutenberg and the ,speculum of the unknown printer we have similar premises1 and have to form the similar conclusion1 that the arts do not always improve with age1 and that the pupil or the imitator is often inferior to the master4 ,the evidences in favor of the priority of the unknown printer are very slight4 ,it may be conceded that he was the first printer of the ,netherlands1 but it has not been proved1 nor is it probable1 that he printed with types earlier than the year #adfc4 ,still more improbable is the assumption that he was an independent inventor of printing4 ,we have to judge of the merits of this pretended invention as we do of every other--by its fruits4 ,it had no fruit4 ,the facts that this unknown printer made no mark on his age--that he left no work worthy of his alleged invention--that neither he nor his printed work was noticed by any of the chroniclers of his day--that he had no pupils1 no successors1 no imitators--should be sufficient to prove that he was not an inventor but an imitator4 ,by many authors the question of his possible priority has been decided1 not from an examination of known and proved facts1 but from the assertions of prejudiced and untrustworthy witnesses4 ,the frequent presentation of the statement of the ,cologne ,chronicle1 and of the legends that find their support in it1 has not been without effect4 ,there is a general belief in the tradition that types were first made in ,haarlem by ,coster1 and that the ,german method was the outgrowth of the ,dutch method4 ,this proposition has been repeated so frequently and so confidently that it becomes necessary to give a critical examination to the legend of printing in ,haarlem4 p#cbf ,,xvii ,the ,legend of ,loureus ,janszoon ,coster4 ,coornhert's ,notice of ,printing in ,haarlem 4 4 4 ,notice by ,van ,zuren 4 4 4 ,by ,guicciardini 4 4 4 ,the ,statement of ,junius 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of ,scriverius's ,portrait of ,coster 4 4 4 ,sketch of ,junius's life and ,works 4 4 4 ,examination of his ,statement 4 4 4 ,vagueness of the ,date 4 4 4 ,junius's ,story is ,incredible 4 4 4 ,wood ,types could not be ,used 4 4 4 ,metal ,types made too soon 4 4 4 ,this story an ,imitation of a ,spurious ,german ,story 4 4 4 ,fust was not the ,thief 4 4 4 ,absurdity of the ,accusation 4 4 4 ,evidence of ,cornelis 4 4 4 ,our knowledge of ,cornelis from other ,sources 4 4 4 ,cornelis not an ,eye-,witness 4 4 4 ,talesius not a ,satisfactory ,witness 4 4 4 ,disappearance of the ,art more ,wonderful than its ,invention 4 4 4 ,legend ,cherished for ,patriotic ,reasons 4 4 4 ,its ,growth and its ,exaggerations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,he who is satisfied1 as regards a fact like that of the invention of typography1 with the simple assertion of people who talk of things which are said to have happened more than a century before their time1 is destitute of scientific morality3 he is ignorant of the passion of truth2 in short1 he belongs to the plebeians4 ,we have not only the right to reject the fable fabricated by ,junius1 4 4 4 but as honest men we are bound to do it4 ,van der ,linde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the year #aefa1 ,jan ,van ,zuren and ,dierick ,coornhert1 with other partners1 set up a printing office in ,haarlem4 ,van ,zuren was a native and burgomaster of the town of ,amsterdam2 ,coornhert1 who was a notary and an engraver1 is said to have been the instructor of the famous engraver ,goltzius4 ,their first book was an edition of ,cicero de ,officiis1 to which they prefixed the following quaint dedication3 ,to the burgomaster1 sheriffs and councilors of the town of ,haarlem1 ,d4 ,v4 ,coornhert wishes as his honorable and commanding masters1 salvation to soul and body4 8,i was often told1 in good faith1 honorable1 wise1 and prudent gentlemen1 that the useful art of printing books was invented first of all here at ,haarlem1 although in a very crude way1 as it is easier to improve on an invention than to invent2 which art having been p#cbg brought to ,mentz by an unfaithful servant1 was very much improved there1 whereby this town1 on account of its first having spread it1 gained such a reputation for the invention of this art1 that our fellow-citizens find very little credence when they ascribe this honor to the true inventor1 as it is believed by many here on incontestable information1 and is undoubtedly known to the elder citizens4 ,nor am ,i ignorant that this fame of ,mentz has taken so deeply root in the opinion of all1 by the heedless carelessness of our forefathers1 that no proof1 however apparent1 however clear1 however blameless it may be1 would be capable of removing this inveterate impression from the hearts of the people4 ,but--for truth is no less truth when known only to a few1 and because ,i implicitly believe what ,i have said before1 on account of the trustworthy evidence of very old1 dignified1 and grey heads1 who often told me not only the family of the inventor1 but also his name and surname1 and explained the first crude way of printing1 and pointed with their finger the house of the first printer out to me--,i could not help mentioning this in few words1 not as an envier of another's glory1 but as a lover of truth1 and to the promotion of the honor of this town2 which proper and just ambition seems to have also been the cause for the re-establishment and recommencement of this printing office 7as a shoot from the root of an old tree74 ,for it often happened1 when the citizens talked to each other about this case1 that they complained that others enjoyed this glory unjustly1 and 7as they said7 without anybody contradicting them1 because no one exercised printing in this town40#ahc ,the claim of ,haarlem to the invention of printing is confidently stated1 but ,coornhert has neglected to give the name or describe the process of the inventor1 to fix the date of the invention1 or to specify any of its products4 ,he and his venerable informants1 the 8honorable1 wise and prudent gentlemen10 knew all these matters1 but ,coornhert prudently kept silence4 ,it is worthy of notice that ,coornhert admits that1 in #aefa1 8the fame of ,mentz0 had taken so deep a root in the minds of many people that no proof could remove it4 ,a full notice of the details of early printing might have been considered out of place in the preface to a classic text book1 but it would have been pertinent in a 8,dialogue on the ,first ,invention of the ,typographic ,art10 which was the title of a book said to have been written by ,jan ,van ,zuren4 ,of p#cbh this dialogue nothing is known but the introduction4 ,whether the author grew weary of his task1 and abandoned it before completion1 or whether the manuscript was destroyed1 as is alleged1 during the siege of ,haarlem in #aegc1 cannot now be ascertained4 ,all we know of this manuscript is through ,peter ,scriverius1 who1 diligently gleaning every scrap of history that favors the ,haarlem invention1 has preserved the preface4 ,it is too long and rambling for a literal translation2 this is the substance1 which ,van ,zuren approached with great delicacy3 ,he does not wish to deprive ,mentz of its rightful honors1 but he will see that the honors of ,haarlem are not altogether lost4 ,the town of ,mentz1 so justly lauded1 first introduced this art1 received from us1 in public life4 ,the first crude foundations of this excellent art were laid in our town of ,haarlem4 ,here the art of printing was born4 ,no doubt it was here carefully cultivated and improved2 here it remained during many years1 until at last it accompanied a foreigner and made1 at last1 its public appearance at ,mentz4 ,here again is a noticeable absence of names1 dates1 books1 evidences and authorities4#ahd ,from beginning to end there is nothing in this statement but naked assertion4 ,one fact of real value may be gleaned from the preface of ,van ,zuren and the dedication of ,coornhert4 ,there was even then in ,haarlem a strong prejudice against ,mentz2 there was a wavering belief among some of the townsfolk that printing had been invented in ,haarlem1 and that the pretension of p#cbi ,mentz was unfounded4 ,whether this prejudice had been fostered by the obscure language of ,zell1 or whether it took its rise in the conceit of the simple people of the town1 who may have thought that ,ballaert1 the first printer at ,haarlem1 was also the first printer in the world1 cannot now be ascertained4 ,there was a prejudice1 and ,van ,zuren and ,coornhert thought that it would be to their interest as printers to propitiate it4 ,the publication of these mysterious allusions to an early printer in ,haarlem strengthened the belief of ,hollanders in the legend4 ,it was imposed as veritable history on intelligent foreigners who were unable to disprove it4 ,luigi ,guicciardini1 a ,florentine nobleman1 for many years resident of ,antwerp1 and who there wrote and published1 in #aefg1 a ,description of the ,low ,countries1 was the first author of distinction who gave a world-wide publicity to the legend4 ,in his book he says3 ,according to the common tradition of the inhabitants and the assertion of other natives of ,holland1 as well as the testimony of certain authors and records1 it appears that the art of printing and stamping letters and characters on paper in the manner now used1 was first invented in this place ,haarlem4 ,but the author of the invention happening to die before the art was brought to perfection and had acquired repute1 his servant1 they say1 went to reside at ,mentz1 where1 giving proofs of his knowledge in that science1 he was joyfully received1 and where1 having applied himself to the business with unremitting diligence1 it became at length generally known1 and was brought to entire perfection1 in consequence of which the fame afterward spread abroad and became general that the art and science of printing originated in that city4 ,what is really the truth ,i am not able1 nor will ,i take upon me to decide1 it sufficing me to have said these few words that ,i might not be guilty of injustice toward this town and this country4#ahe ,the story is told as it had been heard1 without comment1 and without hearty belief4 ,it will be noticed that no really important fact has been added to supplement the previous story4 ,we are still in the dark as to the name of the printer1 the date of the invention1 and the titles of his books4 ,the authors mentioned by ,guicciardini were probably ,coornhert p#ccj and ,van ,zuren2 the inhabitants who gave him information were probably the same men who had previously given it to these printers4 ,guicciardini's story differs from theirs in one point only4 ,his description of the translation of typography from ,haarlem to ,mentz does not impute dishonesty to the workman who carried it thither4 ,the insinuated accusation of theft was not repeated by the scrupulous ,italian4 ,guicciardini's book1 which was of marked merit1 was published in an age of credulity4 ,it was translated and reprinted in many languages4 ,this legend of an unnamed inventor at ,haarlem was taken up by other writers4 ,it was published as valid history by ,george ,braunius of ,cologne1 in his geography1 dated #aegj-hh2 by ,michael ,eytzinger of ,cologne1 in a book on the ,netherlands1 dated #aehd2 by ,matthew ,quade of ,cologne1 in a compend of history and geography dated #afjj2 by ,noel ,conti of ,venice1 in a universal history1 dated #aegb4 ,these authors have been frequently quoted as men who had examined and confirmed the legend2 but it is obvious that they copied the statements of ,guicciardini without investigation4 ,their approval of the legend must be considered as an exhibition of credulity rather than of knowledge4 ,the specification of the name of the alleged proto-typographer of ,haarlem was made for the first time in a book now known as ,batavia1 which was published in #aehh1 and of which ,hadrianus ,junius or ,adrien de ,jonghe was the author4 ,the story of the invention1 as here related1 is far from complete1 but it is positive and definite3 it gives the time1 the place1 the book and the man4 ,it can be fairly presented only in an unabridged translation of the author's words3 ,about one hundred and twenty-eight years ago1 there dwelt in a house of some magnificence 7as may be verified by inspection1 for it stands intact to this day7 in ,haarlem1 near to the market1 and opposite the royal palace1 ,laurentius ,joannes1 surnamed ditus or ,custos1 by reason of this lucrative and honorable office1 which by hereditary right appertained to the distinguished family of this name4 ,to this man should revert the wrested honor of the invention of the typographic art1 which has been wrongfully enjoyed by others4 ,a just judgment p#cca should give to him before all others1 the laurel which he has deserved as the most successful contestant4 ,when strolling in the woods near the city1 as citizens who enjoyed ease were accustomed to do after dinner and on holidays1 it happened that he undertook as an experiment to fashion the bark of a beech tree in the form of letters4 ,the letters so made he impressed the reverse way1 consecutively1 upon a leaf of paper1 in little lines of one kind and another1 and the kindness of his nature induced him to give them1 as a keepsake1 to the grandchildren of his son-in-law ,thomas ,pieterzoon4 ,he had succeeded so happily in this that he aspired to greater things1 as became a man of cultivated and enlarged capacities4 ,by the aid of his son-in-law1 ,thomas ,pieterzoon1 to whom were left four children1 most of whom attained the dignity of burgomaster 7,i say this that all the world may know that this art was invented in a reputable and honorable family1 and not among plebeians71 he invented1 first of all1 an ink thicker and more viscid than that of the scribes1 for he found that the common ink spread or blotted4 ,thereupon he made1 by the addition of letters1 explanations for pictures engraved on wood4 ,of this kind of printing ,i myself have seen some stamped block-books1 the first essays of the art1 printed on one side only1 with the printed pages facing each other1 and not upon both sides of the leaf4 ,among them was a book in the vernacular1 written by an unknown author1 bearing the title of ,spieghel onzer behoudenis the edition in ,dutch of the ,speculum ,salutis4 ,this book was among the a b c s of the art--for an art is never perfected at its inception--and the blank sides of the leaf were united by paste1 to hide the uncouthness of the unprinted pages4 ,he subsequently changed the beech-wood letters for those of lead1 and these again for letters of tin1 because tin was a less flexible material1 harder1 and more durable4 ,to this day may be seen in the very house itself1 looking over on the market-place as ,i have said 7inhabited afterward by his great-grandchild1 ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 who departed this life but a few years since1 and whom ,i mention only to honor71 some very old wine flagons1 which were made from the melting down of the remnants of these very types4 ,the new invention met with favor from the public1 as it deserved1 and the new merchandise1 never before seen1 attracted purchasers from every direction1 and produced abundant profit4 ,as the admiration of the art increased1 the work increased4 ,he added assistants to his band of workmen2 and here may be found the cause of his troubles4 ,among these workmen was a certain ,john4 ,whether or not1 as suspicion alleges1 he was ,faust#ahf--;inauspicious name for one who was p#ccb equally unfortunate and unfaithful to his master--or whether he was another of the same name1 ,i shall not trouble myself to ascertain--for1 ,i am unwilling to disturb the shades of the dead1 inasmuch as they#ahg must have suffered from the reproaches of conscience as long as they lived4 ,this man1 although bound by oath to preserving the secrets of the typographic art1 when he knew himself to be perfectly skilled in the operations of type-setting1 in the knowledge of type-founding1 and in every other detail appertaining to the work1 seized the first favorable opportunity--and he could not have found a time more favorable1 for it was on the night of the anniversary of the nativity of ,christ1 when all1 without distinction1 are accustomed to assist at divine service--and flew into the closet of the types1 and packed up the instruments used in making them that belonged to his master1 and which had been made with his own hands1 and immediately after slunk away from the house with the thief4 ,he went first to ,amsterdam1 thence to ,cologne1 and finally regained ,mentz1 as it were to an altar of safety so it is said1 and as if beyond all possibility of a recapture1 where1 having opened his office1 he reaped an abundant reward from the fruits of his theft4 ,that is to say1 within the space of a year1 or about #addb1 it is well known that he published by the aid of the same types which ,laurentius had used in ,haarlem1 the ,doctrinal of ,alexander ,gallus1 the most popular grammar then in use1 and also the ,treatises of ,peter of ,spain1 which were his first publications4 ,these are the facts4 ,nearly all of them are from old men worthy of belief1 who1 each in turn1 have accepted and transmitted them1 as they would pass a lighted torch from hand to hand4 ,i knew these facts long time ago1 and have positive knowledge from other sources which have attested and confirmed them4 ,i remember that ,nicholas ,gallius1 the preceptor of my boyhood1 a man of tenacious memory1 and venerable with gray hairs1 narrated these circumstances to me4 ,he1 when a boy1 had more than once heard ,cornelis1 an old bookbinder and an under workman in the same printing office1 when not an octogenarian and bowed down with years1 recite all these details as he had received them from his master1 embracing the inception of the enterprise1 the growth and cultivation of the rude art1 and other transactions connected therewith4 ,but as often as he made mention of the theft1 he involuntarily would burst into tears at the recollection of the infamy of the sequel2 and then the anger of the old man p#ccd would flash up1 as he thought of the glory of the invention that had been stolen with the other theft2 and he wished1 if his life had been spared1 that he might have been able to set forth the thief in irons1 ready to be pronounced a subject for the executioner2 and then again he was wont to consign his sacrilegious head to the direst punishment1 and to curse and execrate the nights which he had passed upon the same bed for many months with that villain4 ,these details do not disagree with the words of ,quirinius ,talesius1 burgomaster2 for ,i acknowledge that a long time ago ,i received nearly the same story from him as was received from the mouth of the bookbinder4#ahh ,illustration3 ,scriverius' ,portrait of ,coster4 ,from ,moxon4 ,the story of ,junius is the real foundation of the modern legend of ,haarlem4 ,all that had been written before is of little value2 all that has been written since is but in explanation of its obscurer features4 ,before any criticism is given p#cce to this important document1 the capability and credibility of the learned author of ,batavia should be considered4 ,the learning of ,junius cannot be questioned2 but ,junius must be judged not by his dead reputation1 but by his living performance4 ,batavia1 although written in unexceptionable classical ,latin1 is not a valuable1 nor even a mediocre book4 ,the author was not above the pedantry and the bad taste of his age4 ,his book is full of classical allusions1 lugged in1 not to illustrate the subject1 but to display the author's omnivorous reading2#ahi his style is rhetorical1 and his arrangement of facts is bewildering4 ,these faults would be overlooked1 if we could be sure of his so-called facts2 but one cannot read many pages of ,batavia without being convinced of the credulity of the author1 and of the thorough untrustworthiness of many of his p#ccf descriptions4 ,his defenders must confess that the book would have been of higher authority1 if he had been more chary of rhetoric and more exact in description4#aij ,the fixing of the period in which the inventor lived seems to have been made with a studied carelessness and intended obscurity4 ,if we deduct the #abh years from the year #aefh1 the year in which the manuscript of ,batavia was completed1 we have the date #addj4 ,in this year ,coster lived4 ,when he was born1 when he died1 and how long he had been occupied with the practice of printing1 is not related4 ,if we infer that ,junius intended that this year #addj should be considered as the year of ,coster's death1 the inference is purely conjectural4 ,he does not say so4 ,it may be supposed1 but it is not said1 that ,coster printed with types before #addj4 ,whatever may have been the intention of ,junius1 the year #addj was at first accepted by the authorities of ,haarlem as the true date of the p#ccg invention of typography4#aia ,it was thought that the fixing of the invention within this year would sufficiently establish the priority of ,coster1 for the year #addb was the date then assigned to the rival invention in ,germany4 ,the authority of ,junius for the year #addj was1 no doubt1 a pedigree of the ,coster family1 of which he makes no mention4 ,there are troublesome entanglements connected with this date of #addj4 ,subsequent defenders of the legend1 who tried to supply the deficiencies and correct the errors of ,junius1 made discoveries which compelled them to acknowledge that ,lourens ,janszoon 7supposed by them to be ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster7 died in the year #adci4 ,if he died in #adci1 and if we believe that the invention was made in #addj1 then he did his typographic work in the year after his death4#aib ,the absurdity of this date was clearly perceived when it was afterward discovered that ,gutenberg had been engaged as early as #adcf in experiments with printing4 ,to preserve the appearance of probability1 the date of the invention was removed to #adbc1 so as to allow ,coster time for experiment and for the perfection of his invention4 ,the name of the inventor is as uncertain as the date of the invention4 ,junius names him ,laurentius ,johannes1 surnamed dituus1 or ,custos4 ,in the pedigree1 the name was p#cch written ,lourens ,janssoens ,coster4 ,surnames were not then in common use2 the son was identified through a name which described him in words as the son of his father4 ,lourens ,janssoen ,coster is literally1 ,lourens1 son of ,john1 the keeper1 or the sexton4#aic ,he is most widely known in typographical literature by the name of ,coster4 ,by the record1 it appears that ,coster was both a printer and a publisher4 ,he cut blocks and made types1 he mixed printing inks1 he printed books1 he employed many workmen1 he had an honorable reputation as a printer1 he reaped abundant profit from the sale of his merchandise4 ,these statements are inconsistent with the eulogy which represents him as an idle man who experimented with types for amusement4#aid ,that ,coster knew nothing whatever about printing when he took his walk in the wood may be properly inferred from a careful reading of the story4 ,his experiments with bark seem to have surprised and amused him as much as they did his p#cci grandchildren4 ,there is nothing unreasonable in this part of the legend1 but faith fails us when ,junius says that ,coster printed his book with types of wood4#aie ,the statement must be put aside as entirely unworthy of belief1 for it has been shown that types of wood are impracticable1 and that the types of every known edition of the ,speculum were made of founded metal4 ,no part of ,junius's statement is more incredible than his description of the ease with which ,coster solved the problem of typography4 ,coster knew nothing of printing2 but having carved a few letters on bark1 and having cherished the idea that books could be printed from single types1 he undertook to make--not types1 but wood-cuts4 ,eager to realize his idea of typography1 he began work with a formidable task of engraving4 ,here is an absurdity4 ,to design1 engrave1 and print the illustrations of the ,speculum was a task almost as great as that of making the types4 ,if the engravings were not in the possession of ,coster before he made this experiment 7and ,junius does not authorize this hypothesis71 it is not possible that he could have added to his task by attempting so many large wood-cuts4 ,what follows is equally incredible4 ,he passed from the work of cutting letters and pictures to that of making types without hesitation or experimentation2 p#cdj he struck out the correct method of making the types at the outset4 ,his only mistake with types was in the selection of materials2 wood was laid aside for lead1 and tin supplanted lead2 his greatest difficulty was encountered in the manufacture of the ink4 ,if this story is true1 then typography was invented through inspiration1 for its origin was unlike that of all great mechanical inventions4 ,junius describes this pretended invention of typography1 not as he knew it was done1 but as he thought it should have been done4 ,ignorant of the necessity for that strict accuracy of body1 which is the vital principle of typography1 and which can be secured only by the most ingenious mechanism1 he thought1 as thousands have thought1 that the merit of the invention consisted in the conception of the idea4 ,the construction of the mechanism he has skipped over as a little matter of mechanical detail entirely unworthy of notice4 ,he tells us nothing about it4 ,he shows the extent of his reading and the weakness of his judgment1 by treading in the footsteps of ,german authors who attempted to describe the ,german invention of typography1 not from positive knowledge1 but through the exercise of a lively imagination4 ,he makes ,coster follow the road which they say was taken by ,gutenberg3 first1 the types of wood2 then1 engraved letters on blocks of wood2 next1 types of lead2 lastly1 types of tin4#aif ,the artful insinuation that ,john ,fust was the false workman is discreditable4 ,junius does not unequivocally say that ,fust was the thief1 but his language authorizes the calumny4 ,that ,john ,fust of ,mentz could not have stolen the implements of ,coster will be positively established by records of p#cda the highest authority4 ,the ,dutch historians of typography who defend the story of ,junius1 say that ,junius did not know the name of the real thief1 but that the name of ,fust is properly inserted1 because ,fust was honored as the inventor of typography in ,mentz2 that there was1 probably1 a complicity between ,fust and the false workman1 and that ,fust was1 for that reason1 properly mentioned as the real offender4#aig ,the determination of ,junius to fasten this theft on ,fust is shown in his statement that the thief regained or returned to ,mentz1 as to 8the altar of safety40 ,at that time ,paris1 ,rome and ,venice had more schools and scholars1 more book-readers and buyers than ,mentz1 and offered greater inducements for the founding of a printing office4 ,these were the cities to which printers from ,mentz subsequently went1 and to which a thievish printer from ,haarlem should have gone4 ,but ,junius finds it necessary to send him to ,mentz to explain the introduction of typography in ,germany4 ,the charge of theft is not corroborated by the discoveries of bibliographers4 ,the two books which ,junius says were printed in ,mentz in #addb1 with the types of ,coster1 cannot be traced to ,mentz4 ,fragments of a copy of the ,doctrinal of ,alexander ,gallus1 the work of some unknown printer1 have been found1 not in ,mentz1 but in the ,netherlands4 ,the types p#cdb of this book resemble those of the ,speculum1 but they are sufficiently unlike to establish the fact that they could not have been cast from the matrices used for the ,speculum4 ,this edition of the ,doctrinal could not have been printed at ,mentz4 ,the zealous indignation of ,cornelis does not compensate us for his mysterious concealment of the name of the thief4#aih ,his evidence is extremely unsatisfactory4 ,cornelis1 who was in the employ of ,coster when the theft was made1 who knew the process1 who bound the printed work1 who was an old resident of ,haarlem1 who had business relations with every printer that succeeded ,coster1 of all men1 should have been the one most p#cdc competent to describe the work of ,coster4 ,but the information that he has furnished through ,junius is ridiculously trivial1 scanty as to facts and dates1 inconsistent1 and1 in some points1 entirely untrue4 ,before we accept all that ,junius has said about ,cornelis1 it will be well to learn what we can about him from other sources4 ,the first entry in an account book of the cathedral of ,haarlem for the year #adgd is to this effect3 8,item4 4 4 4 ,i have paid to ,cornelis1 the binder1#aii six ,rhine florins for binding books40 ,similar items1 describing ,cornelis as a bookbinder1 are found in similar account books between the years #adhe and #aeae4 ,payments were also recorded to ,cornelis for coloring the initial letters of the 8bulls of the indulgences40 ,after the year #aeae his name appears no longer as a bookbinder2 in #aeag another binder did the work of the church4 ,seiz mentions an old book1 printed by ,jacob ,bellaert of ,haarlem in #adhe1 on the last leaf of which was written3 8,bought at ,haarlem in the ,cruysstraet1 of ,cornelis the bookbinder1 in ,may1 #adib40 ,the register for the year #aebb contains this entry3 8,cornelis the bookbinder was buried in the church4 ,for the making of his grave1 twenty pence40 ,there can be no doubt that there was a bookbinder ,cornelis at ,haarlem1 and that the ,cornelis of ,junius is the ,cornelis of the church record4 ,the dates in these records will enable us to test the accuracy of one portion of the chronology of the legend4 ,junius said that ,cornelis told his story before he was an octogenarian4 ,eighty years might properly be considered as the limit of his life1 which1 according to the record1 ended in #aebb4 ,if1 to ascertain the date of the birth of ,cornelis1 we deduct eighty years from #aebb1 the result would show that he must have been born in #addb4 ,but this was at least one year1 perhaps two years1 after the alleged theft4 ,if ,cornelis lived to the age of ninety years1 the allowance of ten years more would not reconcile the discrepancy4 ,cornelis would have p#cdd been a child of eight years of age2 but the story of ,junius requires1 not a child1 nor even a boy1 but a man1 an under-workman1 the associate and room-mate of the false workman4 ,to call it by the mildest name1 here is a grievous blunder4 ,the blunder is not in the record of the church1 in which the chronology is consistent1 for it represents ,cornelis as beginning to work for the church when he was about thirty-two years of age4 ,it would be a waste of time to show that the chronology of ,junius is impossible3 it is enough to say that the first link in the attempted chain is broken1 and that ,cornelis could not have been an eye-witness of the facts4#bjj ,it is a suspicious circumstance that the testimony of ,cornelis should be recorded for the first time nearly half a century after his death4 ,hasback1 ,andrieszoon and ,bellaert1 the early printers of ,haarlem1 should have heard from ,cornelis this story about ,coster and his invention4 ,the people of ,haarlem1 we are told1 were proud of ,coster1 and envious of the honors conceded to ,gutenberg4 ,why the printers and the people of ,haarlem allowed the important testimony of ,cornelis to remain unpublished for so long a time is a question that cannot be answered4 ,at this late day1 it is impossible to discover the kernel of truth that may be concealed in the heart of so great a husk of fiction4 ,it may be that ,cornelis1 who seems to have been a simple-minded man1 and who appears as a binder in the church record about nine years before ,bellaert opened his printing office1 imagined that this first printing office in ,haarlem was the first printing office on the globe4 ,there may have been a theft of types and of secrets from the office of ,jacob ,bellaert at or about #adhe4 ,cornelis blundered about dates1 and his inaccuracies have been exaggerated by the gossip of the next generation4 ,these are possible conjectures4 p#cde ,but we must remember that this story of ,cornelis is not told by himself1 but by ,junius4 ,one of the authorities referred to by ,junius is ,talesius1 burgomaster of ,haarlem when ,junius was writing ,batavia4 ,in referring to him1 ,junius is careful in his choice of words4 8,my account does not disagree with that of ,talesius4 4 4 4 ,i recollect that ,i have heard from him nearly the same story40 ,this is a timid assertion--one that ,talesius could have modified in some of its features4 ,talesius himself has not spoken4 ,talesius was1 in his youth1 the secretary1 and1 in mature age1 the intimate friend of ,erasmus1 to whom he must have spoken about the legend1 but he did not make ,erasmus believe it4#bja ,the mysterious disappearance of the practice of the art from ,haarlem is even more wonderful than its introduction4 ,the tools may have been stolen1 but the knowledge of the art must have remained4 ,coster may have died immediately after the theft1 but his son-in-law ,thomas ,pieterzoon1 and the workmen1 who knew all about the details of typography1 were living1 and able to go on with the work4#bjb ,the making of books may have been temporarily suspended1 but the curious p#cdf public who clamored for them should have persuaded ,coster's successors to fill their wants4 ,the new art of printing which found so many admirers should not have been completely forgotten fifty years afterward4 ,there is nothing in the story of ,junius to satisfy these doubts4 ,if we accept his account of the invention1 we must rest contented with the belief that typography in ,haarlem died as suddenly as it was born1 leaving behind as its only relics one edition of the ,speculum and the old wine-flagons of ,thomaszoon4 ,the same strange fatality followed the alleged thief ,john who fled to ,mentz and printed two books in #addb4 ,immediately after1 his types1 his peculiar process and his printed books disappear forever4 ,the improbable features of this legend were not seen in the uncritical age in which ,batavia was written4 ,patriotic ,dutchmen did not wish to see them4 ,holland1 at the close of the sixteenth century1 was flushed with pride at her successful resistance to the power of ,spain4 ,grateful to the men who had made her famous1 she exaggerated the services of all her eminent sons4 ,coster was not forgotten4 ,the name of ,junius gave authority to the ,haarlem legend1 and the story of ,coster was read and believed throughout the ,netherlands4 ,there were dramatic features connected with it which pleased the imagination and fastened themselves to the memory4 ,to people who had no opportunity to examine the evidences1 the legend of ,haarlem soon became an article of national faith1 to disbelieve which was to be disloyal and unpatriotic4 ,but this enthusiasm would have subsided if it had not been nourished4 ,if subsequent writers had added nothing to this legend of ,junius1 it would not be necessary to write more about it4 ,long ago it would have been put aside as untrue4 ,but the legend has grown3 it has been almost hidden under the additions that have been made to it4 ,the snow-ball has become a snow-heap4 ,it is necessary to expose the falsity of the additions as well as of the legend1 and to show how recklessly this chapter of the history of typography has been written4 p#cdg ,,xviii ,the ,growth of the ,legend4 ,perversion by ,bertius 4 4 4 ,romance of ,scriverius 4 4 4 ,date of ,invention removed to #adbh 4 4 4 ,illustration of ,first ,statue to ,coster 4 4 4 ,date of #adbj given by ,boxhorn 4 4 4 ,rooman's ,date of #adcj 4 4 4 ,history and ,chronology of ,seiz 4 4 4 ,doubts of ,hollanders 4 4 4 ,discrepancies in the ,dates on ,medals 4 4 4 ,meerman and his ,unsatisfactory ,system 4 4 4 ,fac-similes of ,medals 4 4 4 ,koning and his ,prize ,essay 4 4 4 ,dr4 ,de ,vries's ,theory 4 4 4 ,radical ,disagreements of the ,authors 4 4 4 ,all ,versions ,enlargements of the ,legend as given by ,junius 4 4 4 ,an ,article of ,patriotic ,faith in ,holland 4 4 4 ,monuments to ,coster 4 4 4 ,illustration of ,last ,statue4 99 99 99 99 99 ,who is there that has not opinions planted in him by education time out of mind1 which by that means came to be as the municipal laws of the country1 which must not be questioned1 but are to be looked on with reverence 4 4 4 when these opinions are but the traditional grave talk of those who receive them from hand to hand without ever examining them8 ,locke4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the end of the sixteenth century1 the legend had two strong supports--the authority of an eminent scholar1 and the patriotic pride of the ,hollanders1 who accepted it as truthful history4 ,it did not1 however1 pass the ordeal of criticism unharmed3 the weaker points of the legend were exposed by many ,german authors1 and the weight of their objections compelled ,dutch writers to attempt new explanations4 ,bertius1#bjc writing in #afjj1 and evidently perplexed by the carelessness with which ,junius had noticed ,coster's first experiments1 says1 but without producing any proof1 that 8,coster invented the art of printing with engraved blocks or xylography 4 4 4 4 the three-fold villain ,john ,faust stole the invention40 ,here we see the unavoidable result of ,junius's p#cdh malignant innuendo3 ,bertius does not hesitate1 as ,junius did1 to name ,fust as the false workman who stole ,coster's tools4 ,peter ,scriverius thought it necessary1 in #afbh1 to enlarge and embellish the story of ,junius4 ,he wrote a new version of the invention1 which appeared with a curious poem called the ,laurecrans4#bjd ,this1 says ,scriverius1 was the manner of it3 ,in the year #adbh1 ,laurens ,coster1 then a sheriff of ,haarlem1 strolled in the ,haarlem wood4 ,he took up the branch of an oak-tree1 cut a few letters in relief on the wood1 and after a while wrapped them up in paper4 ,he then fell asleep1 but while he slept1 rain descended and soaked the paper4 ,awakened by a clap of thunder1 he took up the sheet1 and1 to his astonishment1 discovered that the rain had transferred to it the impress of the letters4 ,here was the suggestion of xylography1 which he at once followed to a successful conclusion4 ,he printed a great many block-books and a ,donatus1 but finding to his surprise that letters cut upon a solid block could not be used for other work1 he thereupon invented typography4 ,john ,gutenberg1 who had been employed as a workman1 stole the tools and the secret4 ,disheartened with this misfortune1 ,coster abandoned printing and died4 ,he proceeds3 ,it is my opinion that the art was first invented ten or twelve years before the year of our ,lord #addj 7in which the most trustworthy authors agree71 in ,holland1 at ,haarlem4 ,junius has told its beginning and progress before us4 ,and although he discovered some particulars about the invention1 yet he has 7,i may be allowed to say it without disturbing his ashes7 his errors1 and may not be pronounced free from inadvertence4 ,to-day 7,a4 ,d4 #afbh7 is just two centuries since the p#cdi excellent and valuable art of printing made its appearance 7,a4 ,d4 #adbh74 ,not in the manner that is used now1 with letters cast of lead and tin4 ,no1 it did not go on like that2 but a book was cut1 leaf for leaf1 on wooden blocks 4 4 4 4 ,we must not think that every letter was cut separately on wood1 and that these letters were collected and put together to a line1 and in a certain number of lines4 4 4 4 4 ,our acute ,laurens first cut the letters1 twisted and close to each other1 in the manner of writing on wood or tin2 but afterward1 when he was so successful1 he changed his method of working1 and1 having invented the matrices1 cast his letters4 767 ,i will not say further how the noble art of engraving and printing of engravings is connected with the invention of printing1 which arose afterward4 ,but just as the dexterous ,jan ,fuyst imitated the appropriate art of printing1 so the excellent and talented printers and designers1 who also handled the artistic chisel and knife1 contrived to multiply and publish their engravings1 cut after the printing of the ,haarlem figures4 ,and all have been instructed by1 and got their first experience from1 our clever and talented ,laurens ,koster4#bje ,scriverius has given dates and new details1 but he has not thrown any clear light on the subject4 ,he has not made the story of ,junius more credible1 but he has exposed himself as a romancer and a fabricator4 ,in trying to mend the legend1 he has destroyed it4 ,if the story of ,scriverius is true1 then that of ,junius is false1 for they contradict each other4 ,the statements of ,junius were based on the pedigree and the gossip of the old men of ,haarlem2 the statements of ,scriverius were based on nothing1 for he had no authorities which the most lenient critic could accept4 ,scriverius said that ,lourens ,janszoen or ,laurens ,koster was the inventor of xylography as well as of types4 ,after an examination of the ,speculum1 he had wit enough to see what ,junius did not1 that the printer of the book must have had practice with blocks1 and that printing on blocks necessarily preceded printing with types4 ,his description of the growth of the new art is not at all satisfactory4 ,the careless manner in which he skips over the invention of matrices and the making of the moulds is that of a man who knows nothing p#cej about type-founding1 neither from instruction nor observation4 ,encouraged by the praise which ,scriverius had received for his performance1 ,marcus ,zuerius ,boxhorn undertook to place the date of the invention eight years earlier4 ,in his ,dissertation on the ,invention of ,typography1 printed by ,vogel at ,leyden in the year #afdj1bjf ,boxhorn says that the invention was made in #adbj4 ,here we encounter a curious fact4 ,the story of ,junius had been published less than fifty years1 yet the writers disagreed concerning the date of the invention4 ,believers in the legend had been taught by one teacher that typography was invented in #addj--;by another1 in #adbh--;by another1 in #adbj4 ,and it is a noticeable circumstance that the authors farthest removed from the date of the invention were the most positive in their statements4 ,the later writers1 who knew the least1 give us the earlier dates4 ,adrien ,rooman1 a printer of ,haarlem1 and apparently a conservative and conciliatory man1 thought that these differences could be most satisfactorily adjusted by fixing the date midway between the extremes4 ,he was not in the possession of any newly discovered facts1 and had no authority for the arbitrary selection1 but this incompetency did not prevent him from publishing a portrait of ,coster1 with an inscription which made the year #adcj the date of the invention4 ,to the thinking men of ,haarlem the assumptions of ,boxhorn were as unsatisfactory as those of ,junius and ,scriverius4 ,there was an air of improbability1 or at least of uncertainty1 about the statements of all the authorities1 which filled their minds with doubts as to the truth of the legend4 ,the statue to ,coster1 which was soon after put up in the ,doctors' ,garden1 had no date of invention on the pedestal4 ,to remove these doubts1 ,seiz#bjg undertook1 in #agdb1 to furnish 8a true and rational account of the invention0 by ,coster4 ,the truth and reason of this new description of the invention of ,coster are most strikingly illustrated in its chronology4 p#ceb ,illustration3 ,the ,statue of ,coster in the ,doctors' ,garden4 ,from ,seiz4 #adbh ,laurens ,coster engraved a few letters upon the bark of a tree4 #adbi ,he gave one year to experimental engraving on wood4 #adca ,he printed the ,temptations of ,demons or ,ars ,moriendi4 #adcb ,printed the ,bible of the ,poor4 #adce ,he began to engrave and print an edition of the ,donatus4 #adcf ,he cut separate letters or single types out of lead4 #adcg ,after prolonged experiment1 he abandoned this method4 #adch ,he invented a method of casting types of lead4 #adci ,he began to print an edition of the ,donatus1 and the ,dutch edition of the ,speculum4 ,in this year ,gutenberg took service with ,coster1 and began to print for him1 by which he earned the title of the ,book-printer of ,haarlem4 767 #addj ,gutenberg absconded with some knowledge of the invention4 ,he was able to cut1 but not to cast types4 767 #adda ,he established a printing office in ,mentz4 #addb ,gutenberg printed an ,a b c book1 the ,doctrinal of ,alexander ,gallus and the ,treatise of ,peter of ,spain4 ,by this time ,coster had repaired the damages of the theft4 #addc ,coster printed the second edition of the ,speculum in ,dutch4 #addd ,coster printed a ,latin edition of the ,speculum4 #addf ,gutenberg also induced ,gensfleisch1 called afterward ,faust1 767 and ,meydenbach to join him in printing a ,latin ,bible4 #adeg ,coster's art was well known1 and excited the envy of the ,archbishop of ,canterbury and of ,king ,henry ,,vi of ,england4 #adeg ,the ,archbishop persuaded the king to get a knowledge of the art from ,gutenberg1 the first book printer of ,haarlem4 767 #adei ,turnour and ,caxton1 who were sent on this mission1 bribed ,frederick ,corsellis1 a workman of ,coster1 to run away from ,haarlem in disguise4 ,to prevent his escape1 ,corsellis was taken to ,oxford1 in which town he began to print in #adfh4 #adfg ,coster died1 about the same time that ,gutenberg and ,faust died4 767 ,his printing office ceased to exist4#bjh ,seiz has not told us where he obtained this curious information1 but we shall make no mistake if we attribute it to an imagination disordered by national pride4 ,his chronology is so absurd that serious criticism would be a waste of time4 ,notwithstanding the strong efforts of ,seiz to remove the impression created by the contradictory accounts of his predecessors1 the citizens of ,haarlem seemed to be involved in p#cec greater doubts than ever about the chronology of the invention4 ,for1 in #agdj1 upon the occasion of the third jubilee of ,coster's invention1 two silver medals were struck1 with legends curiously unlike4 ,we here see that the name of the inventor is printed in different forms2 one medal bears the date #addj1 and the other contains the date #adbh4 ,these irregularities prepare us for what is to follow4 ,illustration3 ,medals in ,honor of ,coster4 ,from ,seiz4 ,in #ageg1 ,gerard ,meerman1 subsequently a distinguished champion of the ,haarlem legend1 wrote 8that the pretentious assertion of the invention of printing by ,laurens ,coster begins to lose credit more and more4 ,the particulars that have been related by ,seiz are mere suppositions1 and the chronology of ,coster's invention and enterprise is a romantic fiction40 ,but1 in the year #agfj1 ,daniel ,schoepflin1 an eminent scholar of ,strasburg1 wrote a valuable contribution to the history of typography1 under the title of ,vindici ,typographic4 ,meerman was provoked to emulation4 ,he had not believed in the legend1 but he thought that he could construct a theory of the invention1 which would1 to some extent1 concede the claims of the rival cities of ,haarlem1 ,strasburg and ,mentz4 ,in this illogical manner1 by the construction of a theory before p#ced he was in possession of the facts1 he began to write the ,origines ,typographic4 ,the entire book was published in #agfe1 with a portrait of ,lourens ,coster by the eminent ,dutch engraver ,houbraken1 and a portrait of ,meerman himself by ,daull4 ,in the matter of scholarship1 ,meerman was thoroughly qualified for his task4 ,he wrote in a clear style and with admirable method4 ,but he knew nothing of the mechanics of printing nor of type-founding1 and1 unfortunately1 he was too conceited to accept correction or instruction even from the hands of experts like ,ensched1 ,fournier and others4 ,in trying to make facts suit theories1 he went so far as to order the engraver of a fac-simile to stretch the vellum of a ,donatus so that the types used upon this ,donatus should appear to be the same as the types of the ,speculum4 ,illustration3 ,medals in ,honor of ,coster4 ,from ,seiz4 ,these are the conclusions submitted by ,meerman as the result of his study of1 and reflection on1 the legend of ,haarlem3 ,typography was invented by ,louwerijs ,janszoen1 also known as ,laurens ,coster1 who1 at various times between #adbb and #adcd1 filled the office of sheriff1 treasurer and sacristan4 ,he was of noble blood1 but a bastard of one of the p#cee ,brederodes4 ,he died sometime between #adcd and #addj4 ,he invented typography about #adbh or #adcj1 using only movable types of wood4 ,all that ,junius has written about an invention of lead and tin types by ,coster is incorrect4 ,he thinks it useless to consider the engraving of letters upon solid wood-blocks1 for this is not typography1 and is not printing as we now understand it4 ,laurens was robbed on ,christmas night1 #addj1 by ,johan ,gensfleisch the elder1 who carried the art to ,mentz4 ,the son-in-law and heirs of ,coster continued his business for some time after his death1 but with little appreciation1 as they were overshadowed by the superior invention of ,gutenberg and ,schffer4 ,coster printed but one edition of the ,speculum from types of wood4 ,his successors printed the other ,dutch edition and the two ,latin editions from engraved metal types4 ,the contributions of different inventors toward the perfect invention are acknowledged in this manner3 ,laurens ,coster was the first to demonstrate the feasibility of typography by his use of wood types2 ,john ,gensfleisch was the first to make cut or engraved metal types2 ,peter ,schoeffer was the inventor of cast or founded metal types2 ,john ,gutenberg and ,john ,fust were printers who invented nothing4 ,meerman had fair warning from the type-founder and printer ,john ,ensched that his theories of wood types#bji and of cut metal types were preposterous4 ,he did not heed the warning4 ,he wrote1 not for printers1 but for bibliographers who believed in the practicability of wood types1 and he did not mistake his readers4 ,the bibliographers1 who knew little or nothing of the theory or practice of type-making1 were not competent to criticise the mechanical part of his theory4 ,he hoped to disarm the prejudices of ,german authors by his frank acknowledgment of the contributions of ,schffer and ,gensfleisch as co-inventors4 ,the novelty of his theory1 the p#cef judicial equity with which he decreed to ,coster1 ,gensfleisch and ,schffer what he said was their share in the honors of the invention1 the temperate tone and calm philosophic spirit in which the book was written1 the breadth of scholarship displayed in exact quotations from a great number of authors1 won admirers in all countries4 ,the theory of ,meerman about a contributive invention need not be examined here3 it has been entirely refuted by many ,french and ,german authors2 it was abandoned even by ,hollanders#baj at the beginning of the present century4 ,the authority of the book is at an end4 ,the conviction that all previously written defences of the legend were untenable1 caused a scientific society of ,holland to offer a prize for the best treatise on the invention4 ,jacobus ,koning was the successful competitor4 ,in #ahaf1 he published1 under the sanction of the society1 the essay that had won the prize1 under the title of 8,the ,origin1 ,invention and ,development of ,printing40 ,it was an inquiry of more than ordinary merit--the first book on the subject which showed evidences of original research4 ,koning tried to supplement the many deficiencies of ,junius1 with extracts from the records of the old church and town of ,haarlem1 which he had studied with diligence4 ,he brought to light a great deal of information about one ,laurens ,janszoon1 whom he confounded1 as ,meerman had done1 with ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster4 ,this is the substance of his discoveries and of his conclusions therefrom3 ,koning describes the inventor as ,laurens ,janszoon ,koster1 and not as ,lourens ,janszoon4 ,he says that ,koster was born about #acgj2 that there are no records of his early life1 and that his name does not appear on any of the registers of ,haarlem1 municipal or ecclesiastical1 until he became a man of middle age4 ,after this period of his life1 notices are frequent4 ,he was the sacristan of a church from #adba to #adcc4 ,he was1 at different times1 alderman and presiding alderman1 treasurer of the town1 lender of money to the city1 officer in the citizens' guard1 member of the grand council1 and deputy to a p#ceg convocation of the ,states--clearly a man of wealth and distinction4 ,there was a great pestilence in ,haarlem in the latter part of the year #adci1 and ,koning says it seems probable that ,koster was one of its many victims4 ,koster's only child was a daughter named ,lucette1 who married ,thomas1 the son of ,pieter ,pieterzoon--the ,peter mentioned by ,junius4 ,pieterzoon had three children1 but with them the family name was lost4 ,this ,laurens ,janszoon ,koster invented xylography and typography4 ,he experimented with types of wood1 but did not use them for practical work4 ,his types were founded in matrices of lead1 and in moulds of metal2 he invented printing ink1 and printed his books with inking balls on a press4 ,his materials were rude1 but the process was substantially the same as that of modern printers4 ,he printed the first edition of the ,speculum in #adcj1 and sixteen other books before his death4 ,his business as a printer was continued for some years1 but in a feeble manner1 by his grandsons4 ,the thief of ,koster's process was ,frielo ,gensfleisch4 ,in the town records ,koster is not noticed as a printer1 but ,koning described his method of printing1 his punches1 moulds1 matrices1 presses1 inking balls1 ink1 types1 and printing office furniture1 with as much boldness as if he had been eye-witness to the entire process4 ,nor was this his only error4 ,it has since been proved that he willfully suppressed many important facts in the records which are of great importance in an examination of the life and services of ,coster4 ,it is plain that he was more intent on pleasing the national pride than on revealing the truth4 ,the speculations of ,koning were destroyed by the keen criticisms of the authors who followed him4 ,dr4 ,abraham ,de ,vries#baa set aside impatiently nearly all the ingenious theories devised by former commentators4 ,he repudiated the statement that ,coster had been a sexton or sacristan1 or that he invented engraving on wood4 ,warned by the failures of his predecessors1 he advanced no new theory about the peculiarities of ,coster's typographic process2 he professed to be satisfied with the bald statement of ,junius1 and dogmatically maintained that ,coster 8was the inventor of typography1 of the proper art of printing1 the first who invented and practised p#ceh the art of printing with movable and cast letters1 and so gave the example to ,mentz4 4 4 4 ,in the beginning1 the art was secretly practised as a trade in manuscripts1 not only during the lifetime of the inventor1 but by his successors after his death40 ,de ,vries placed the invention about #adbc4 ,it is not necessary to protract this review of the different versions of the legend1 nor yet to point out the fatal disagreements and inaccuracies of these versions4 ,it is plain that all the authors who have maintained the claims of ,coster have taken their leading facts from ,junius4 ,it is equally plain that they have been dissatisfied with his statements and have tried to fill up the gaps in the evidence with conjectures4 ,but they have not made the legend any more credible4 ,the exact nature and date of the invention1 the name of the inventor1 his method of making types1 the books he printed1 the thief who stole his process1 the fate of his printing office1 the total disappearance of the knowledge of the new art--these and other features of the positive statement first made by ,junius are enveloped in as complete a mystery as they were when ,batavia was written4 ,with all its inconsistencies and improbabilities1 the legend has been accepted as essentially truthful by many eminent bibliographers in ,france and ,england4 ,of late years it has encountered but feeble opposition from ,german writers4 ,in many modern books on printing1 ,coster has been recognized either as the inventor or as one of the co-inventors of the art4 ,there has been a general belief that1 however absurd the legend might be in some minor matters of detail1 it had a nucleus of truth4 ,coster's place in typographical history1 at the middle of the present century1 seemed almost as firmly fixed as that of ,gutenberg4 ,in ,holland1 this legend of the invention of printing by ,coster was an article of national faith which only the bold man dared to deny4 ,it has produced results which could never have been foreseen by the vain old man ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 in whose conceit the fable originated4 ,haarlem is dotted with p#cei monuments to the memory of ,coster4 ,certain days in ,june and ,july are observed as festivals in commemoration of the invention4 ,in the ,hout1 or ,haarlem ,wood1 where ,coster is said to have received his first suggestion of types1 an imposing cenotaph has been placed4 ,carved on this stone are the arms of the sheriff ,laurens ,janszoon1 and the year #adbc1 which is offered as the date of this suggestion4 ,an acknowledgment of ,coster as the inventor of typography may be seen in the ancient cathedral of ,haarlem1 on a black marble tablet1 which was put in place during the month of ,june1 #ahbd1 by ,king ,william ,i4 ,in almost every well appointed public office or private house of ,haarlem is some pictorial recognition of ,coster as the inventor of printing4 ,illustration3 ,the ,statue on the ,new ,monument to ,coster4 ,from ,noordziek4 ,in the year #ahea1 an association of patriotic ,hollanders placed in front of the rebuilt ,coster house a memorial stone with this inscription3 8,the house of ,coster3 the birthplace of typography40 ,the date of this birth is judiciously omitted4 ,the tablet of the old ,coster house contained an inscription in honor of 8,laurens ,coster1 sheriff1 of ,haarlem1 inventor of typography about the year #adcj40 ,the vitality of the legend has also been preserved by the issue of a great many medals1 prints and papers1 and by the repeated assertion of the civic authorities that ,coster was the original and unquestionable inventor of typography4 p#cfj ,,xix ,the ,downfall of the ,legend4 ,the ,vague ,inscription on the ,last ,monument 4 4 4 ,relics in the ,costerian ,museum 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of ,janszoon's ,autograph 4 4 4 ,the ,coster ,pedigree 4 4 4 ,made by ,gerrit ,thomaszoon 4 4 4 ,legend began with the ,pedigree 4 4 4 ,pedigree has been ,falsified1 and is of ,no ,authority 4 4 4 ,search by ,van der ,linde for ,records concerning ,coster 4 4 4 ,archives of the ,town and ,church of ,haarlem represent ,coster as a ,tallow-,chandler and ,innkeeper 4 4 4 ,coster living at ,haarlem in #adhc 4 4 4 ,the ,record of the ,chair-,book 4 4 4 ,no ,evidence that ,coster was a ,printer 4 4 4 ,lourens ,coster has been ,confounded with ,laurens ,janszoon 4 4 4 ,illustration of the ,house of ,coster 4 4 4 ,other ,fac-similes of ,portraits of ,coster 4 4 4 ,their ,curious ,dissimilarity 4 4 4 ,absurdity of the ,legend4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we see in a square at ,haarlem the monument of the fictitious personage ,laurens ,coster4 ,it presents a sad figure4 ,behind this statue1 sneering in mockery1 is another colossal monument1 which dominates and belittles it--a statue visible to us1 but to ,hollanders invisible--the statue of ,ridicule4 ,helbig4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the year #ahef1 on the sixteenth day of ,july1 the day accepted as the anniversary of the invention1 a statue of ,coster was put up in ,haarlem4 ,the tablets of the pedestal bear inscriptions which are thus translated by ,hessels3 ,,lourens ,,janszoon ,,coster4 ,,homage ,,of ,,the ,,netherland ,,nation4 ,,mdccclvi4 ,,inventor ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,printing ,,with ,,movable ,,letters ,,cast ,,of ,,metal4 ,the date of the invention and the profession or position of the inventor are omitted4 ,we cannot ascertain from the monument whether ,coster was a sheriff or a sexton1 whether he invented printing in #adbc or #addj4 ,it may be inferred that there had been disagreements among the eminent men who erected this work of patriotism1 and that they could not p#cfa heartily accept the date of any version of the legend4 ,on this great occasion the ,costerian ,museum#bab of ,haarlem was enriched with a pedigree of the ,thomaszoon family1 an old document frequently referred to by some defenders of the legend as an incontestable evidence of its truth4 ,the pedigree was1 without doubt1 a genuine relic4 ,its dingy vellum surface1 written over in many handwritings1 was surrounded by an embroidered border blackened with age4 ,its history could be traced through three centuries4 ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 the aged descendant of ,coster mentioned by ,junius with such marked respect1 was the person by or for whom this pedigree was made in or about the year #aeej4bac ,this ,gerrit ,thomaszoon had kept an inn in the house once occupied by ,coster1 and it is supposed that the pedigree was one of the decorations of a wall in his house4 ,there is a special significance in this date of #aeej4 ,illustration3 ,autograph of ,laurens ,janszoon4 ,from ,koning4 ,this pedigree1 which describes ,coster as the inventor of printing1 was written at least one hundred years after the discovery of the invention and the death of the inventor4 ,it was written when ,cornelis1 the only eye-witness known to p#cfb history1 had been dead nearly thirty years4 ,it is1 however1 and too much stress cannot be laid on this fact1 the oldest document in which mention is made of ,coster as a printer4 ,there are valid reasons for the belief that ,coster's merit as an inventor had never been recognized in any way before the record was made on this pedigree4 ,when we consider the order of the dates1 it is obvious that it was from this much suspected document that ,coornhert derived the information he published in #aefa4 8,the old1 dignified and grey heads0 described by ,van ,zuren in #aefa1 8the aged and respectable citizens0 of ,guicciardini 7#aeff7 and ,junius 7#aefh71 were ,gerrit ,thomaszoon and his friends1 among whom we may properly include ,gallius and ,talesius4 ,and it may be added that the more circumstantial story of ,junius was first published when ,gallius and ,talesius were dead1 and when there was no man living who could controvert or modify any part of his story4 ,there can be no doubt that the legend began with this pedigree4 ,it is not at all probable that the vain old man ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 who was proud of the ancestor in whose house he lived1 kept his friends in ignorance of it4 ,it was not unknown to ,junius4 ,there is a similarity of uncertainty between an ambiguous date 7#addj or #addf7 on this pedigree and the mysterious circumlocution of ,junius in his use of the words 8about one hundred and twenty-eight years ago10 or #addj1 which is enough to show that ,junius had not only seen the pedigree1 but that he took it as an authority for this date4 ,whether ,scriverius saw it cannot be confidently maintained2 he does not mention it4 ,gerard ,meerman knew of its existence1 but he did not reprint it4 ,he made use of it1 however1 in the construction of a new genealogy of the ,coster family1 in which he added and altered items in the most unwarrantable manner4 ,koning studied it with diligence3 he frequently alluded to it as a document of the highest importance1 but he did not reprint it1 nor even describe it in general terms4 ,the withholding of this pedigree from public examination1 and the evasion of its description by the authors who had p#cfc examined it1 are suspicious circumstances4 ,we see that men who wrote hundreds of pages of speculations to support the claims of ,coster--men who translated and reprinted many columns of irrelevant chaff for the sake of one little kernel of grain--willfully suppressed what they maintained was a most convincing evidence of the truth of the legend4 ,it was not suppressed because it was too long3 the entire pedigree can be printed in two pages4 ,the reasons for withholding the pedigree were apparent when it was put in the ,museum4 ,the reading of the words in the first row at once produced the impression that its importance had been vastly overrated2 that its information was of little value2 that it was almost worthless as evidence of the priority of ,dutch typography4 ,dr4 ,van der ,linde1 who made a critical examination of the writing soon after it was placed in the ,museum1 revealed the astonishing fact that the most important entry had been falsified4 ,this entry1 which contains the only portion of any interest in an inquiry concerning the invention of printing by ,coster1 consists of the following lines3 8,sijn tweede wijff was ,lourens 8,his ,thomas ,pieterzoon's second ,janssoens ,costers dochter die wife was ,lourens ,janssoen's deerste print in die werlt ,coster's daughter who brought brocht ,anno #addf40 the first print in the world in the year #addf40 ,the date first written was #addf1 but in this column1 and in others1 objectionable entries have been effaced and falsifications have been attempted4 ,the figure #f has been partially rubbed out2 it has been replaced by a #j1 so that the careless reader will construe the date as #addj4 ,there can be no hesitation whatever on this point2 the figures first written surely were #addf4 8,we see here a fable arise before our very eyes4 ,a ,haarlem citizen has a pedigree made for him1 probably to put it up in his inn4 4 4 4 4 4 ,but the frame wants lustre1 and so the pedigree is linked by the probably totally fictitious ,lucye1 the second wife1 to a ,haarlemer--to a ,haarlemer who 7the awkwardness and navet of the expression may not surprise p#cfd us at all in such a product of family vanity7 brought the first print in the world40#bad ,we may waive all criticism of the faulty grammar of the pedigree and proceed to more important matters4 ,it may be conceded that the pedigree was written by an ignorant man who intended to say that it was ,coster1 and not his daughter1 who brought the first print in the world4 ,by the word print ,thomaszoon may have meant a playing card1 the engraved figure of a saint1 a block-book1 or a book made from movable types4 ,if he meant any product of xylographic printing1 the statement is totally false1 and deserves no consideration4 ,if he meant typography1 his failure to express that meaning is unfortunate4 ,but his intention is really of but little importance4 ,a bald statement on a pedigree1 written by an ignorant and conceited man1 about one hundred years after the great event he professed to record1 of the details of which he obviously knew nothing1 cannot be used to overthrow established facts in the history of typography4 ,it is unsatisfactory in other points4 ,the alteration of the date1 and the unexplained erasures have destroyed whatever validity the document may have had4 ,it may be put aside2 as an authority it is worthless4 ,its obscure notice of the invention of printing is but a frail foundation for the colossal superstructure which ,junius erected4 ,it is plain that ,junius must have been conscious of its weakness as a basis for the legend2 he had doubts of its accuracy1 and dared not refer to it4 ,he preferred the oral testimony of the dead ,cornelis4 ,the discovery of this falsification induced ,dr4 ,van der ,linde to make1 8with a zeal and patience worthy of a better cause and of a better reward10 a laborious investigation in the archives of the town and church of ,haarlem for authentic p#cfe information concerning ,coster4 ,he had cause to think that history had been falsified by other historians of the legend4 ,through the study of the archives1 ,van der ,linde ascertained that there lived in ,haarlem1 in the fifteenth century1 a citizen whose name was ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster1 the son of one ,jan ,coster who died in #adcf4 ,the results of the search were as curious as they were unexpected1 as will be fully understood after an examination of this translation of the originals3 #adda 4 4 ,on the evening of the #acth1 settled with lou koster for #ae pounds and #ab pounds of oil1 each pound an ancient butdrager1 and #cd pence for soap and tallow candles1 together #bb guilders #c pence4 #adda 4 4 ,louwerijs ,janssoen1 for #gb pounds of candles1 which have been burnt by the guards in the town hall during the year--for each pound an ancient butdrager4 #adda 4 4 ,louwerijs ,jans1 aforesaid1 for the candles burnt in the tower in honor of ,our ,lady1 during this year1 as was agreed with him4 #addb 4 4 ,lourijs ,coster1 paid for having repaired the lantern of ,our ,lady in the tower4 #addb 4 4 ,lourijs ,coster1 for #dj pounds of tallow candles which the guards in the town hall burnt2 cost each pound an ancient butdrager4 #addb 4 4 ,paid to lou coster #h guilders for oil and soap4 #addb 4 4 ,to lou coster for soap1 candles and other things1 #ae pence4 #addg 4 4 ,on the #adth day of ,march1 paid to ,louwerijs ,coster for #e pounds of candles burnt in the tower in honor of ,our ,lady4 ,there can be no mistake about the business of this man4 ,the ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster described on the old pedigree as the famous man who brought the first print in the world1 and in ,batavia as a wealthy citizen1 a man of leisure and of enlarged mind1 and the inventor of engraving on wood and typography1 was certainly an obscure tallow-chandler1 who sold oil and candles4#bae ,the anti-climax is sufficiently absurd1 but worse remains4 ,the archives give us more than a clue to the origin of ,coster's wine-flagons4 ,it seems that1 some time p#cff after #addg1 this ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster gave up the business of chandler in favor of his sister ,ghertruit ,jan ,costersdochter1 and that he chose for his new occupation the duties of a tavern-keeper4 ,van der ,linde found this fact clearly stated in the treasury accounts of the town of ,haarlem4 #adea 4 4 ,lou coster#baf paid1 for two menghelen of wine which were sent to the burgomaster a year ago4 #aded 4 4 ,a dinner was offered to the count of ,oostervant on the #hth day of ,october1 #adec1 at lou coster's2 indebted to him for it ,,xvii guilders4 #adfh 4 4 ,louris ,coster and other citizens are summoned to the ,hague4 #adgd 4 4 ,louris ,janszoon ,coster pays war taxes4 #adge 4 4 ,louris ,janszoon ,coster pays a fine for 8buyten drincken0 7to drink beyond the premises74 #adhc 4 4 ,received of ,louris ,janszoon ,coster for ferry toll for his goods when he left the town1 #h rex guilders4 ,we here see that the name of ,louris ,janszoon ,coster was recorded in the town-book for the last time under the date of #adhc1 when he paid ferry toll for his goods1 and was allowed to leave the town4 ,it is not known where he went or where he died1 but it is plain that the story of his death in #adci1 as related by ,meerman and ,koning1 must be untrue4 ,there might have been a doubt as to the identity of the chandler with the innkeeper1 if ,van der ,linde had not investigated in another direction1 and made gleanings from the books of an old association1 whose records are as trustworthy as those of the archives of the town and the church4 ,this association1 which still exists1 under the name of the ,holy ,christmas ,corporation1 is thus described by ,van der ,linde3 ,it is one of those fraternities which had the lofty aim of eating and drinking4 ,this corporation is already very old1 for it celebrated its third jubilee in #afjf4 ,its fifty-four brethren and sisters preserved each a chair for their meetings4 ,according to these statutes1 these chairs1 if they were not disposed of by a last will1 were inherited by p#cfg the eldest and nearest blood relation in the branch from which they came 4 4 4 4 ,the corporation remaining in existence1 the right of property in the chairs continued1 by uninterrupted transmission1 until our time4 ,in the register of the names of the occupants of the chairs are found the following entries under the heading of chair #bi3 #adba 4 4 ,jan ,coster1 by 4 4 4 4 #adcf 4 4 ,lourijs ,coster1 by inheritance4 #adhd 4 4 ,frans ,thomas ,thomasz1 by 4 4 4 4#bag #adig 4 4 ,gerret ,thomas ,pieterz1 by inheritance from his father4 #aefd 4 4 ,cornelis ,gerritz1 by inheritance from his father4 #aehi 4 4 ,anna ,gerritsdr41 by purchase from her cousin4 ,the names of the successive owners of chair #bi are continued in the book1 but they are of no interest in this inquiry4 ,the archives of the church and town of ,haarlem contain the names of other ,costers1 but there is no other ,coster who will answer the description of ,junius and ,thomaszoon4 ,the ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster of the pedigree1 the ,louwerijs ,janssoen 7so called only after the year #adda7 or ,lourijs ,coster of the archives1 and the ,lourijs ,coster of the chair-book are1 without doubt1 the different names of the same man4 ,this is the man who1 according to ,thomaszoon and ,junius1 brought the first print in the world4 ,but he appears as a printer only in the pedigree4 ,the archives and the chair-book do not so describe him2 they tell us nothing of his invention1 nor of the alleged stealing of his types1 nor of his death in #adci4 ,the town-book says that he was living in #adhc4 ,in none of these documents does he appear as sheriff1 sexton1 or treasurer4 ,it is obvious that the legend of ,coster the printer rests entirely upon the pedigree and its amplifications by ,junius4 p#cfh ,but the pedigree is of no authority4 ,its information is not confirmed by the records2 its falsifications and its suspected history compel every candid reader to reject its evidence altogether4 ,we have to accept in preference the testimony of the archives1 and have to admit that there is no credible evidence that ,coster printed anything at any time4 ,the ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster of typographical history is as fictitious a personage as the ,cadmus of ,greek mythology4 ,he is really more fictitious1 for he is the representative of two men4 ,the revelations of ,dr4 ,van der ,linde show that ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster has been confounded with ,laurens ,janszoon or ,louwerijs ,janszoon1#bah who was a man of some distinction1 a wine merchant1 innkeeper1 councilor1 sheriff1 treasurer and governor of the hospital4 ,he is the man of civic offices1 of wealth and high social position1 who has been described by ,koning4 ,he is the man whom ,meerman represented as an p#cfi unrecognized member of the noble family of ,brederodes4 ,but he is1 certainly1 not the man described on the pedigree as the ,coster who brought the first print in the world4 ,he is not the man described by ,junius who lived 8about one hundred and twenty-eight years ago10 or in #addj1 for the records of the church of ,st4 ,bavo prove that ,laurens ,janszoon died and was buried in #adci4 ,it is not at all probable that ,thomaszoon or ,junius made any mistake in the name1 and that it was this ,louwerijs ,janszoon who brought the first print in the world4 ,there is no more evidence in favor of ,janszoon as an inventor of printing than there is in favor of ,coster4 ,the most careful searching of the records fails to bring to light any evidence that he was engaged in the practice of printing4 ,that ,lourens ,coster kept a tavern may also be inferred from the fact that the house he lived in was always known as a tavern4 ,the engraving of this house on the following page shows how the edifice appeared in #agdj4 ,junius said that it was a house of some pretension in #aefh1 and that it stood on the market-place near the royal palace2 but ,van ,zuren had previously noticed it as a house falling to decay4 ,in #afbh1 ,scriverius said that the house had been 8changed and was divided among three masters30 the part supposed to be the ,coster residence was called ,the ,golden ,bunch of ,grapes1 and it was even then used as a tavern4 ,when ,john ,bagford first saw the house1 in #agjf1 it was a cheese shop4 ,in #agfa1 ,moses ,van ,hulkenroy1 a printer1 lived in part of it1 and the other part was occupied as an inn1 then known as ,the ,golden ,fleece4 ,in #ahac1 the centre building was used as a public house4 ,it fell into ruins on the #acth of ,may1 #ahah1 but it has since been rebuilt1 and a tablet inserted in memory of ,coster4 ,it is probable that this house was an inn when ,junius wrote ,batavia1 and that he refrained from mentioning this circumstance lest it might degrade ,coster4 ,but we now know that ,coster1 and ,pieter ,thomaszoon1 his son-in-law1 who succeeded him in business1 and that ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 the author of the pedigree1 were all innkeepers4 ,the wine-flagons1 to which p#cga ,junius points so triumphantly1 were a proper portion of the furnishings of an inn4 ,to the modern reader1 who has been informed that a part of this house has always been a drinking tavern for the refreshment of the men of ,haarlem1 these pewter mugs1 or flagons1 as ,junius names them1 are not1 as he would have us believe1 indisputable evidence that their first owner must have been a printer4 ,illustration3 ,the ,house of ,coster4 ,from ,seiz4 ,illustration3 ,laurens ,janszoon ,coster4 ,from ,maittaire4 ,the falsity of the legend is abundantly established by the dissimilarity of the many engraved likenesses1 which from time to time have been presented as portraits of ,coster4 ,the earliest representation of the alleged inventor was published by ,scriverius1#bai not quite two centuries after ,coster is said to have died4 ,the only attest to the accuracy of the portrait is ,scriverius himself1 and it need not be said that he is not a trustworthy witness4 ,there have been many variations of this well-known engraving4 ,van der ,linde suggests that this engraving by ,scriverius may be a portrait of ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 appropriated for the exigency4 ,there is a peculiarity in the engraving which plainly proves that the portrait could not have been painted during the lifetime of ,coster4 ,the 8true effigies of ,laurenz0 carries in his right hand a matrix of the letter ,a of the ,roman form1 but letters of ,roman form were not used at ,haarlem in #addj4 ,books attributed to ,coster have letters in the ,gothic style4 p#cgb ,in #afcj1 a new portrait of ,coster was published by ,adrien ,rooman1 with ,latin and ,dutch verses attached4 ,boxhorn mentioned this engraving in such a manner that strangers were led to believe it was a statue that had been erected to ,coster4 ,illustration3 ,a ,spurious ,portrait by ,van den ,berg4 ,from ,koning4 ,illustration3 ,a ,portrait attributed to ,van ,oudewater4 ,from ,koning4 ,jacob ,van ,campen was induced to make another painting of the grim features in a more truly artistic style4 ,his idealized head of ,coster was engraved by ,cornelis ,koning1 whose reproduction of the painter's fancy has ever since been accepted as an authentic portrait4#bbj ,the round cap1 the furred p#cgc robe1 and the matrix in the extended hand1 are the features of the ,scriverius portrait2 but the head is that of another man4 ,the stony face which ,scriverius presented as the image of ,coster was somewhat softened by the pencil of ,van ,campen1 but after he had exhausted upon it all the resources of his art1 it still remained a grim and unsatisfactory head1 a head without any expression of genius or even of culture--the head of a hard innkeeper1 but not of an inventor4 ,it was a biting satire upon the story of ,junius1 all the more offensive because the portrait had as strong claim to authenticity as the legend4 ,illustration3 ,the ,laurens ,janszoon of ,meerman4 ,from ,meerman4 ,meerman refused to accept this head as a faithful portrait4 ,he produced a new likeness of the inventor1 and claimed for it a superior truthfulness4 ,in the same year1 #agfe1 ,van ,osten de ,bruyn published an engraving of the same head1 with this explanation3 8,laurens ,janszoon1 sheriff1 of the town of ,haarlem1 inventor of the noble art of printing 4 4 4 after an old picture bought from ,william ,corneliszoon ,croon1 the last descendant of ,laurens ,janszoon1 who died1 unmarried1 at ,haarlem in #agbd40 ,we find no vouchers for the authenticity of this portrait4 ,croon was the man by p#cgd or for whom the vellum pedigree was continued4 ,he was equally interested with the originator of the pedigree1 ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 in upholding the legend4 ,whether ,croon was ignorant of the fact that ,laurens ,janszoon1 the sheriff1 was not ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster1 is not so clear2 but it is clear that the portrait submitted by ,croon does not resemble the portrait furnished by ,scriverius4 ,gockinga asserts that the engraving made by ,meerman 7after ,croon's portrait7 is like the engraved head of ,sir ,thomas ,more of ,england4 ,van der ,linde says that the ,coster of ,meerman closely resembles the engraved portrait of a once celebrated inquisitor1 one ,ruard ,tapper of ,enkhuizen4#bba ,the ,coster of ,scriverius and the ,coster of ,meerman are certainly different men4 ,everywhere but in ,holland#bbb and ,belgium1 ,dr4 ,van der ,linde's exposure of the spuriousness of the legend has been accepted as the end of all debate4 ,coster must hereafter be regarded as one of the heroes of fiction and not of history4 ,with the downfall of ,coster1 fall also all the speculations concerning an early invention of printing#bbc in the ,netherlands by an unknown or unnamed printer4 p#cge ,,xx ,john ,gutenberg at ,strasburg4 ,gutenberg's ,place as an ,inventor 4 4 4 ,his ,birth at ,mentz 4 4 4 ,subsequent ,residence in ,strasburg 4 4 4 ,early ,suits at ,law 4 4 4 ,his ,probable ,marriage 4 4 4 ,is ,sued by ,claus ,dritzehen 4 4 4 ,the ,judge's ,statement 4 4 4 ,testimony of the ,witnesses 4 4 4 ,gutenberg the ,chief of an ,association 4 4 4 ,engaged in a ,secret ,art 4 4 4 ,notices of a ,press and of a ,mysterious ,tool of ,four ,pieces 4 4 4 ,notices of ,forms that were ,melted1 and of ,printing 4 4 4 ,decision of the ,judge 4 4 4 ,gutenberg's ,reputation for ,knowledge of ,curious ,arts 4 4 4 ,polishing ,stones 4 4 4 ,making ,mirrors 4 4 4 ,the ,secret ,art was ,printing with ,founded ,types 4 4 4 ,secret was not in the ,press 4 4 4 ,illustration of ,old ,screw ,press 4 4 4 ,testimony of the ,earlier ,authors 4 4 4 ,tool of ,four ,pieces was a ,type-,mould 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of ,garamond's ,mould 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of an ,early ,donatus 4 4 4 ,gutenberg's ,financial ,embarrassments and ,failure4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but whoever were the inventers of this ,art1 or1 7as some ,authors will have it17 ,science1 nay1 ,science of ,sciences 7say they71 certain it is1 that in all its ,branches it can be deemed little less than a ,science4 4 4 for my part1 ,i weighed it well in my thoughts1 and ,i find 4 4 4 that a ,typographer ought to be a man of ,science4 ,by a ,typographer1 ,i do not mean a ,printer 4 4 4 ,i mean such a one1 who by his own ,judgment from solid reasoning with himself1 can either perform1 or direct others to perform1 from the beginning to the end1 all the ,handy-works and all the ,physical ,operations relating to ,typographie4 ,such a ,scientifick man was doubtless he who was the first ,inventer of ,typographie4 ,joseph ,moxon1 #afhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,moxon did not overrate the rank of typography among the arts4 ,it is a science1 and1 like all sciences1 is the fruit of the knowledge which comes only by study4 ,like all sciences1 it came in the fullness of time1 when the world had been prepared for it1 but it came only to him who had qualified himself for its handiworks from beginning to end4 ,in the description of the work of ,john ,gutenberg about to be related1 imperfect as it must be by reason of our ignorance of his thoughts and plans1 we shall clearly see that the invention of typography was not1 as ,junius would have us believe1 the result of a happy thought or of a flash of inspiration4 ,it p#cgf was not born in a day4 ,to use the sound language of an old chronicler1 it was thought out and wrought out4 ,the work of ,gutenberg will require a treatment different from that given to the work of ,coster4 ,it is not necessary to introduce the subject by a description of his books1 by proof of his existence from writings made a century after his death1 and1 by a train of fine speculative reasoning1 to show that he should have been the printer of the books ascribed to him by conjecture4 ,our knowledge of ,gutenberg is incomplete1 but it is positive as far as it goes4 ,he did not put his name on any book1 but he certainly printed many books2 it does not appear that he ever boasted that he was the inventor of typography1 but this honor was conceded to him by many printers soon after his death4 ,his antagonists in courts of law1 as well as the friends who put up tablets to his memory1 have told us1 as plainly as could be desired1 that he was a master of many curious arts1 and that he had made a broad and unmistakable mark on his time4 ,there is no record of the birth of ,gutenberg1#bbd but it is the belief of his ,german biographers that he was born at ,mentz about #acih or #acii4 ,his parents were1 ,frielo ,gensfleisch and ,else ,gutenberg4 ,their two#bbe children were1 ,john ,gutenberg1#bbf named after his mother1 and ,frielo ,gensfleisch4 ,frielo junior was always called ,gensfleisch1 but ,john1 whose relation to the ,gensfleisch family must have been well known1 was sometimes described as ,john ,gensfleisch1 junior4 ,a legal document of p#cgg the city of ,strasburg names him ,john1 called ,gensfleisch1 alias ,gutenberg1 of ,mentz4#bbg ,the infancy and youth of ,gutenberg were passed amid scenes of strife4 ,in ,mentz1 as in many other cities of ,germany1 the burghers made persistent encroachments on the privileges of the noblemen1 and met with as persistent resistance4 ,the municipal disorder which followed their frequent collisions was seriously aggravated by the disputes of the rival archbishops who held office under rival popes4 ,the burghers1 as the larger body1 claimed the larger share of the city offices1 and the right to take the lead on occasions of ceremony and in the administration of affairs4 ,in the year #adbj1 the burghers of ,mentz made preparation for the entertainment of the ,emperor1 on the occasion of his visit to the city4 ,circumvented by the action of the noblemen1 who greeted the ,emperor first1 the burghers retaliated by the destruction of the houses and goods of the more obnoxious nobles4 ,in their rage1 they demanded of them humiliating guarantees1 and put them under restrictions so galling1 that ,frielo ,gensfleisch and many others preferred to go in exile4#bbh p#cgh ,it is not known where the ,gensfleisch family took refuge4 ,it is supposed that ,strasburg was the city selected1 for this is the city in which we find the earliest notice of ,gutenberg4 ,in #adcj1 the ,elector ,conrad ,,iii granted a full amnesty to many of the exiled citizens of ,mentz1 and summoned them to return4 ,johan ,gutenberg was specifically named in the proclamation1 but he continued to dwell abroad4 ,during this year1 his mother ,else1 then a widow1 negotiated1 through her son1 for her pension of fourteen guilders which had been allowed to her by the magistrates of ,mentz4 ,in #adcb1 he visited ,mentz1 probably on business relating to this pension4 ,these are the only known records of his early manhood4 ,nothing is known about his education4 ,some writers have represented him as an engraver on wood or a printer of cards or of block-books at an early age4 ,it is possible that he may have received instruction in the arts of block-printing and engraving1 and that he may have traveled far and wide in quest of greater knowledge1#bbi as was and is customary with ,german artisans2 but we have no evidence on this point4 ,it must be confessed that the first thirty years of his life are virtually blank4 ,the most important actions of his after life would have been obscured quite as thoroughly1 if it had not been his fate to appear many times1 either as complainant or defendant1 before the courts of his country4 ,it is from the records of these courts that we glean the story of his life4 ,he first appears as complainant in a suit at law which shows his high p#cgi spirit and audacity4 ,the magistrates of ,mentz had neglected or refused to pay to ,gutenberg the sum of money which he claimed as his due4 ,gutenberg1 waiting for his opportunity1 caused to be arrested the clerk or recorder of the city of ,mentz1 who happened to be in ,strasburg4 ,this sudden arrest seems to have been a great annoyance to the magistrates of ,strasburg1 who feared that it would endanger the friendly relations of the two cities4 ,at their request he consented to relax his hold on the unfortunate clerk4#bcj ,this is the first plain proof we have of his residence in ,strasburg in #adcd4 ,in the same year he formally authorized his mother to act for him in the adjustment of some business between him and his brother ,frielo4 ,this authorization1 which is recorded in the city books of ,mentz and of ,frankfort1 would imply that he was1 or intended to be1 absent4 ,in #adcf he appeared as defendant before the tribunal of ,strasburg4 ,anne1 called ,zur ,isernen ,thur 7,anne of the ,iron ,gate71 sued ,gutenberg for a breach of promise of marriage4 ,the judgment of the court is not given4 ,most writers on the subject believe that the suit was withdrawn1 and that the case was closed by marriage4 ,after this suit1 the name of ,ennel ,gutenberg1 who1 according to ,schoepflin1 is none other than this ,anne1 appears on the tax-roll of the city of ,strasburg4 ,it does not appear that ,anne had any noticeable influence p#chj over his subsequent life2 she did not follow him to ,mentz2 it is not certain that she was living in #addd4 ,in the year #adci1 ,john ,gutenberg again comes before the court1 and again as defendant4 ,the testimony brought out on this trial reveals ,gutenberg to us as an experimenter and inventor4 ,the official record#bca is long1 and full of matter that seems irrelevant1 but it presents a curious picture of the time1 which deserves study4 ,this is the judge's statement of the case1 as delivered by him on the #abth day of ,december1 #adci3 ,we1#bcb ,cune ,nope1 master and counselor at ,strasburg1 hereby make known to all who shall see this writing1 or shall hear the reading thereof1 that ,george ,dritzehen1 our fellow-citizen1 has appeared before us in proper person1 and with a full power of attorney for his brother ,claus ,dritzehen1 and has cited ,john ,gensfleisch1 of ,mentz1 called ,gutenberg1 our fellow-resident1 and has deposed that the late ,andrew ,dritzehen1 his brother1 had inherited from his deceased father valuable effects1 which he had used as security1 and from which he had realized a considerable sum of money2 that he had entered into copartnership with ,john ,gutenberg and others1 and with them had formed a company or association1 and that he had paid over his money to ,gutenberg the chief of this association2 and that for a certain period of time they had carried on and practised together their business1 from which they had reaped a good profit2 but that1 in consequence of the speculations of the association1 ,andrew ,dritzehen had made himself personally liable1 in one way and another1 for the lead and other materials which he had purchased1 and which were necessary in this art1 or trade1 and which he ,george would also have been responsible p#cha for and would have paid2 but inasmuch as in this interval ,andrew had died1 he ,george and his brother ,claus had requested with importunity of ,john ,gutenberg that he should receive them in the association in the place of their late brother1 or else1 that he should account to them for the money that he ,andrew had put in the association2 but that he ,gutenberg was unwilling to comply with their request1 alleging1 as an excuse1 that ,andrew ,dritzehen had not1 as yet1 paid his proper quota into the association4 ,now he1 ,george ,dritzehen1 believed that he was abundantly able to prove that this agreement was just as he had represented3 he had pleaded that ,gutenberg should take him and his brother ,claus in the association1 in place of their late brother1 for they were his lawful heirs1 or that ,gutenberg should return the money which their late brother had invested1 or that he should at least give the reason why he would not accede to their demand4 ,in answer1 ,john ,gutenberg had replied that the complaint of ,george ,dritzehen seemed to him very unjust1 inasmuch as he could sufficiently establish through many notes and writings 7the nature of which ,george and his brother ,claus could have learned after the death of ,andrew ,dritzehen71 under what rules the association was formed4 ,in truth1 ,andrew ,dritzehen came to him many years ago1 and had asked him to communicate and to teach to the said ,andrew many secrets3 it was for this reason1 and to comply with his request1 that he had taught him how to polish stones1 from which art ,andrew ,dritzehen had derived a good profit4 ,afterward1 after a long interval of time1 he ,gutenberg had made agreement with ,hans ,riffe1 mayor of ,litchtenau1 to work up a secret for the fair at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 and they were associated together after this fashion3 ,gutenberg was to have two shares of the business1 and ,hans ,riffe one share4 ,this agreement came to the knowledge of ,andrew ,dritzehen1 who begged ,gutenberg to communicate and teach him this secret also1 for which ,andrew ,dritzehen promised to be his debtor1 on ,gutenberg's own terms4 ,in the meantime1 the elder ,anthony ,heilmann had made the same request in favor of his brother ,andrew ,heilmann2 whereupon he ,gutenberg had considered these two applications1 and he had promised1 at their solicitation1 to make known to them the secret1 and also to give and grant to them the half of the profits1 in this wise3 that they two should have one share1 ,hans ,riffe one share and he ,gutenberg one share2 but that1 as a consideration1 the two should give to him ,gutenberg #afj guilders for the trouble that he would have in teaching them1 and for the communication of the secret1 and that they should1 afterward1 each give him #hj guilders additional4 ,at the time when they were determining their agreement it was p#chb understood that the fair would be held that same year1 but when they were all ready1 and prepared to work out the secret i4 e4 to manufacture the merchandise intended for the fair the fair was postponed to the following year4 ,thereupon1 they ,anthony and ,andrew had made request that ,gutenberg would hide nothing from them which he knew or would discover of secrets and inventions1 and they at once proposed to him to name his terms2 and it was then agreed that they should add to the sum first named #bej guilders1 making in all #daj guilders2 and that they should at once pay #ajj guilders in cash--of which sum1 at that time1 ,andrew ,heilmann paid #ej1 and ,andrew ,dritzehen paid #dj--so that ,andrew ,dritzehen remained a debtor to the amount of #aj guilders4 ,it was also understood that the two partners should pay the #ge guilders due and unpaid1 at three different dates which were stipulated2 but before the expiration of these dates ,andrew ,dritzehen had died1 still in debt to ,gutenberg4 ,at the time when the agreement was made1 it had been decided that the accomplishment of their secret the duration of copartnership should occupy five entire years3 in the event of the death of any one of the four partners1 during this five years1 all the implements pertaining to the secret1 and all the merchandise that had been manufactured1 should be vested in the remaining partners1 and that the heirs of the partner who had died should receive1 at the end of five years1 #ajj guilders4 ,consequently1 and because the contract1 which is expressed in these very terms1 and which contract was found at the house of ,andrew ,dritzehen1 fully set forth all these stipulations1 and those that preceded it1 as he ,john ,gutenberg hopes to prove by good witnesses1 he demands that ,george ,dritzehen and his brother ,claus should deduct the #he guilders which were still due to him from their late brother1 from the #ajj guilders1 and then he would consent to return to them the #ae guilders1 although he was still fairly entitled1 according to the terms of the contract1 to several years1 before this money should be payable4 ,as to the declaration made by ,george ,dritzehen that the late ,andrew ,dritzehen1 his brother1 had taken much money by the pledge of his goods and of his inheritance from his father1 he did not think it worth consideration1 for he ,gutenberg had not received from the goods or inheritance anything more than he had before first stated1 except a half-omen of wine1 a basket of pears1 and a half-fuder of wine1 which ,andrew ,dritzehen and ,andrew ,heilmann had given to him2 that1 moreover1 the two men had consumed the equivalent of this and more besides at his house1 for which they had never been asked to pay anything4 ,moreover1 when he1 ,george ,dritzehen1 demanded to be admitted in the partnership as an heir1 he knew very well that this claim was no better founded than any other2 p#chc and that ,andrew ,dritzehen had never been security for him1 neither for lead1 nor for any other matter1 except on one occasion before ,fritz von ,seckingen2 but he had1 after his death1 satisfied this obligation2 and it is for the purpose of establishing the truth of these assertions that he demands that the depositions should be heard4 ,the depositions contain the most curious portions of the pleadings1 for it will be noticed that ,gutenberg and ,dritzehen have not described the secret4 ,gutenberg did not wish to divulge it1 and ,dritzehen probably hoped to discover it in the evidence1 which begins mysteriously and dramatically4 ,barbel von ,zabern1 the mercer1 testified that on a certain night she had talked with ,andrew ,dritzehen about various matters1 and that she had said to him3 8,but will you not stop work1 so that you can get some sleep80 ,he replied to her1 8,it is necessary that ,i first finish this work40 ,then the witness said1 8,but1 ,god help me1 what a great sum of money you are spending6 ,that has1 at least1 cost you #aj guilders40 ,he answered1 8,you are a goose2 you think this cost but #aj guilders4 ,look here6 if you had the money which this has cost over and above #cjj guilders1 you would have enough for all your life2 this has cost me at least #ejj guilders4 ,it is but a trifle to what ,i will have to expend4 ,it is for this that ,i have mortgaged my goods and my inheritance40 8,but10 continued the witness1 8if this does not succeed1 what will you do then80 ,he answered1 8,it is not possible that we can fail2 before another year is over1 we shall have recovered our capital1 and shall be prosperous3 that is1 providing ,god does not intend to afflict us40 ,this dialogue puts two of the partners in a clear light3 the domination of ,gutenberg and the faith of ,dritzehen are perfect4 ,unmoved by the cold distrust of shrewd ,madame ,zabern1 ,dritzehen persists in his work1 trusting confidently in the genius of ,gutenberg and the success of the process4 8,it is not possible that we can fail40 ,in the testimony of the next witness we find the first clue to the secret4 ,dame ,ennel ,dritzehen1 the wife of ,hans ,schultheiss1 dealer in wood1 testified that ,lorentz ,beildeck personal servant to ,gutenberg came on a certain day to her house1 where ,claus ,dritzehen1 her cousin1 happened to be1 and said to the latter1 8,dear ,claus ,dritzehen1 the late ,andrew ,dritzehen had four pieces lying in a press1 and ,gutenberg begs that you will take them away from the press1 and that you will separate them1 so that no one can see what it the tool or implement made of four pieces is1 for he does not wish that anyone should see it40 ,this witness also testified that when she was with ,andrew ,dritzehen1 her cousin1 she had assisted him night and day when he was on this work4 ,she also said that she knew very well that ,andrew ,dritzehen1 her cousin1 had1 during this period1 mortgaged his capital2 but as to how much of it he had devoted to this work1 she knew nothing4 p#chd ,the nature or the purpose of this tool of four pieces lying in the press is not explained by any of the witnesses4 ,it seems that ,gutenberg feared that it would1 when fitted together1 be readily understood1 and would reveal the secret4 ,his inquietude about it is also set forth by ,hans ,schultheiss4 ,hans ,schultheiss testified that ,lorentz ,beildick came one day to his house with ,claus ,dritzehen1 where this witness had conducted him4 ,it was at or about the time of the death of ,andrew ,dritzehen2 ,lorentz ,beildick said1 8,your late brother1 ,andrew ,dritzehen1 has four pieces lying down in or underneath a press1 and ,gutenberg begs that you will take them out and separate them1 so that no one will be able to see what it is40 ,claus ,dritzehen searched for the pieces1 but could not find them4 ,this witness heard1 a long time ago1 from ,andrew ,dritzehen that the work had cost him more than #cjj guilders4 ,it is obvious that these four pieces were not a part of the press4 ,properly put together1 they constituted one tool4 ,another witness repeats the story1 describing this tool as it4 ,conrad ,sahspach testified that ,andrew ,heilmann came to him one day when he was in the market square and said3 8,dear ,conrad1 ,andrew ,dritzehen is dead1 and as you are the man who made the press1 and know all about the matter1 go there1 and take the pieces out of the press1 and separate them1 so that nobody can know what it is40 ,but when this witness went to look after the press 7it was on ,st4 ,stephen's day last7 the thing it had disappeared4 ,this witness said that ,andrew ,dritzehen had once borrowed money from him1 which he used for the work4 ,he knew that he had mortgaged his property4 ,it does not appear that there was any secret about the construction of the press4 ,sahspach1 who was not one of the partners1 was authorized1 not to disjoint the press1 but to remove and disconnect the form of four pieces in the press1 which seems to have been the key to the secret4 ,the poverty and the subsequent despondency of ,andrew ,dritzehen are described by ,hans ,sidenneger1 who testified that ,andrew had mortgaged all his property4 ,his honesty is acknowledged by ,werner ,smalriem1 who testified that he had lent him money and had been repaid4 ,his anxiety about his debts1 and his death1 which seems to have been the result of overwork1 are briefly related by ,mydehart ,stocker4 ,mydehart ,stocker deposed that the late ,andrew ,dritzehen fell sick on ,st4 ,john's ,day1 or about ,christmas time4 ,when he fell sick1 he was laid upon a bed in the room of this witness4 ,and this witness went to him and said1 8,andrew1 how are you80 ,and he answered1 8,i believe that ,i am on my death-bed4 p#che ,if ,i am about to die1 ,i wish that ,i had never been connected with the association40 ,witness said1 8,why so80 ,he responded1 8,because ,i know very well that my brothers will never agree with ,gutenberg40 ,witness said1 8,is not your partnership governed by a written agreement8 ,are there not evidences of the nature of your obligations80 ,andrew said1 8,yes4 ,everything has been done properly by writing40 ,witness then asked how the association had been formed4 ,dritzehen then told him how ,andrew ,heilmann1 ,hans ,riffe1 ,gutenberg and himself1 had formed a partnership1 to which ,andrew ,heilmann and himself had brought #hj guilders1 at least1 so far as he recollected4 ,when the partnership had been made1 ,andrew ,heilmann and himself went one day to the house of ,gutenberg at ,saint ,arbogastus4 ,when there1 they discovered that ,gutenberg had concealed many secrets which he had not obligated himself to teach to them4 ,this did not please them4 ,thereupon they dissolved the old partnership1 and formed a new one4 ,here follows a repetition1 substantially1 of the statement made by ,gutenberg1 concerning the indebtedness of each partner4 ,the insolvency of ,andrew ,dritzehen is set forth in the testimony of the priest who attended him before his death4 ,herr ,peter ,eckhart1 curate of ,st4 ,martin1 said as a priest1 he was not sworn1 that the late ,andrew ,dritzehen sent for him during ,christmas week that he might have his confession4 ,when he came to his home1 he found him ready to confess4 ,he the priest asked him if there was debt due by him to any person1 or if any person owed him1 or if he had given or done anything which it was necessary that he should reveal4 ,then ,andrew ,dritzehen told him that he was in partnership with many persons1 with ,andrew ,heilmann and others1 and that he had incurred an obligation in an enterprise to the amount of #bjj or #cjj guilders1 and that1 at that time1 he was not worth a stiver4 ,gutenberg's need of money1 and ,dritzehen's liability for money lent to the association1 are proved by another witness4 ,thomas ,steinbach deposed that ,hesse1 the broker1 once came to him1 asking him if he knew where he could place some money1 with little risk of loss4 ,witness had recommended him to ,john ,gutenberg1 ,andrew ,dritzehen and ,anthony ,heilmann1 who needed money4 ,witness took up for them #ad lutzelbergers1 but he really lost #ab-a_/b guilders by the transaction4 ,fritz von ,seckingen was their surety1 and his name was inscribed as endorser on the books of the house of commerce probably some kind of banking-house4 ,the most explicit evidence concerning this form of four pieces is given by ,lorentz ,beildick1 the servant of ,gutenberg4 ,lorentz ,beildick testified that ,john ,gutenberg1 on a certain day1 sent him to the house of ,claus ,dritzehen1 after the death of ,andrew1 his brother1 with this message--that he should not show to any person the press in his care4 ,witness did so4 ,gutenberg had instructed him minutely1 and told him that ,claus should go to the press and should turn two buttons1 so that the pieces would be detached one from the other2 that these pieces should be afterward placed in the press or on the press2 that when this had been done1 no one could comprehend its purpose4 ,gutenberg also requested ,claus ,dritzehen1 if he should leave his house1 that he should at once repair to his house ,john ,gutenberg's1 who had p#chf some things to tell to him in person4 ,this witness remembers perfectly that ,john ,gutenberg was not indebted to the late ,andrew1 but that1 on the contrary1 ,andrew was indebted to ,john ,gutenberg4 ,witness also testified that he had never been present at any of their meetings since ,christmas last4 ,witness had often seen ,andrew ,dritzehen dining at the house of ,john ,gutenberg1 but he had never seen him give to ,gutenberg as much as a stiver4 ,the bold manner in which ,beildick denied the payment of money by ,andrew ,dritzehen1 seems to have greatly exasperated ,george ,dritzehen1 who threatened him with a prosecution for false evidence1 or perjury4 ,there was a scene in the court4 ,george ,dritzehen cried out1 sarcastically1 8,witness1 tell the truth1 even if it takes us both to the gallows40 ,beildick complained to the judge of this intimidation1 but it does not appear that the affair had further consequences4 ,reimboldt1 of ,ehenheim1 testified that he was at the house of ,andrew before ,christmas1 and asked him what he intended to do with the nice things with which he was busy4 ,andrew told him that they had already cost him more than #ejj guilders1 but that he hoped1 when the work was perfected1 to make a great deal of money1 with which he would pay witness1 and would also receive a proper reward for his labor4 ,witness lent him #h guilders1 for he was then very needy4 ,witness's wife had also lent money to ,andrew4 ,andrew once came to her with a ring1 which he valued at #cj guilders1 and which he had pawned to the ,jews at ,ehenheim for #e guilders4 ,witness further said that he knew very well that ,dritzehen had prepared two large barrels of sweet wine1 of which he gave one-half omen to ,gutenberg1 and one-half omen to ,mydehart4 ,he had also given ,gutenberg some pears4 ,on a certain occasion ,andrew had requested witness to buy for him two half-barrels of wine1 and ,dritzehen and ,heilmann1 jointly1 had given one of these half-barrels to ,gutenberg4 ,that the work on which ,dritzehen was engaged was of a novel nature may be inferred from the fact that his visitors could not give names to his tools or his workmanship4 ,they speak of it1 that thing1 the nice things1 the form of four pieces1 etc4 ,madame ,zabern is surprised at the cost of that thing2 ,reimboldt wonders what he intends to do with these nice things4 ,it is obvious that this mysterious work is not that of polishing stones or gems1 nor the making of mirrors1 for it cannot be supposed that these witnesses1 and one of them a woman1 would be ignorant of the purpose of a mirror1 or would grossly underrate the value of gems1 or polished stones4 ,but there is one witness who testifies that ,dritzehen said his enterprise was that of making mirrors4 p#chg ,hans ,niger von ,bischoviszheim testified that ,andrew ,dritzehen came to him and told him that he was in great need of money1 for he was deep in an enterprise which taxed his resources to the utmost4 ,witness asked him what he was doing4 ,dritzehen then informed him that he was making mirrors4 ,when witness threshed his grain1 he took it to market at ,molsheim and ,ehenheim1 and sold it1 and gave ,dritzehen the money4 ,this witness also corroborated the testimony of ,reimboldt as to the giving of wine to ,john ,gutenberg4 ,he took the wine in his own cart to ,gutenberg1 who was then at ,saint ,arbogastus4 ,it may be inferred from this testimony that ,dritzehen was still deriving some profit from the old work of making mirrors4 ,fritz von ,seckingen testified that ,gutenberg had borrowed money of him1 and that ,anthony ,heilmann was on his bond4 ,andrew ,dritzehen1 who should have done so1 evaded this obligation1 and never signed the bond at all4 ,gutenberg paid up the entire sum at the time of the last fair during ,mid-,lent4 ,gutenberg's partner gives some curious details about the partnership1 and intimates that the forms were of metal4 ,anthony ,heilmann testified that1 when he learned that ,gutenberg wished to take ,andrew ,dritzehen as a third partner in the company formed for the sale of mirrors at the fair of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 he begged him with importunity to take also his brother ,andrew1 if he wished to do a great favor to him1 ,anthony4 ,but ,gutenberg told him that he feared that the friends of ,andrew would pretend that this business or secret was that of sorcery1 an imputation he wished to avoid4 ,heilmann persisted in his request1 and finally obtained a document1 which he was obliged to show to the two future partners1 and about which they found it necessary to have a consultation4 ,gutenberg took the document to them1 and they decided that they would comply with its terms1 and in this way the affair of partnership was settled4 ,in the midst of these negotiations1 ,andrew ,dritzehen begged this witness ,anthony ,heilmann to lend him some money1 and he then said that he would willingly oblige him1 if he would give good security4 ,and he lent ,dritzehen #ij pounds1 which ,dritzehen took to ,gutenberg1 at ,saint ,arbogastus4 4 4 4 4 ,the witness asked him1 8,what do you wish to do with so much money8 ,you do not need more than #hj guilders40 ,dritzehen replied that he had need for more money2 that it was but two or three days before the vigil of ,annunciation 7,march #be71 on which day he was bound to give #hj guilders to ,gutenberg4 ,here follows an elaborate explanation of the financial standing and the rights of each partner4 ,after that1 ,gutenberg said to this witness that it was necessary that he should draw his attention to an essential point in the agreement1 which was1 that all the partners were on a footing of equality1 and that there should be a mutual understanding that each should conceal nothing from the others2 and that this arrangement would be for the common benefit4 ,the witness was content with this proposition1 and communicated it with praises to the other two4 ,some time after this1 ,gutenberg repeated his words1 and the witness responded with the same protestations as before1 and said that he intended to be worthy of the trust4 ,after this1 ,gutenberg drew up an agreement as the expression of this proposition1 and said to this witness3 8,consult well among yourselves1 and see that you are agreed on this matter40 ,they did so consult1 and they discussed for a long time on this point1 and even sought the advice of ,gutenberg1 who1 on one occasion1 said3 8,there are here now p#chh many things ready for use1 and there are many more in progress2 the goods you acquire are almost equal to your investment in money4 ,in addition to all this1 you get the knowledge of the secret art40 ,so they soon came to an agreement1 and it was decided that the heirs of the deceased partner should have for that partner's investment1 for the forms1 and for all the materials1 #ajj guilders2 but they should have it only after the five years4 ,gutenberg said that this provision would be of great advantage to them1 for1 if he chanced to die1 he would abandon to them everything to which he was entitled1 as his share of the property2 and yet they would be obliged to give to his heirs only the #ajj guilders1 as they proposed to do with each other4 ,it was also decided that in case of the death of any one of the partners1 the others should not in any wise be obliged to teach1 to show1 or to reveal the secret to his heirs4 ,it was a provision as favorable to one as to another4 4 4 4 ,this witness also testified that ,gutenberg1 a little while before ,christmas1 sent his servant to the two ,andrews1 to fetch all the forms4 ,these forms were melted before his eyes1 which he regretted on account of several forms4 ,when ,andrew ,dritzehen died1 there were people who would have willingly examined the press4 ,he told ,gutenberg to send and prevent it from being examined4 ,gutenberg1 in effect1 did send his servant to put it in disorder1 and to tell the witness that1 when he had the time1 he wished to talk with him4 ,the testimony of the last witness is the shortest1 and it is remarkable as the only testimony which defines the work4 ,hans ,dnne1 the goldsmith1 testified to this effect3 within the past two or three years he had received from ,john ,gutenberg about #ajj guilders1 which sum had been paid to him exclusively for work connected with printing4 ,the testimony of eighteen other witnesses was taken1#bcc but1 according to ,schoepflin1 ,dnne's is the last testimony on the official record4 ,the judge gave the following decision3 ,we1 master and counselor1 after having heard the complaint and answer of the parties1 the depositions and the testimony 4 4 4 and after having examined the contract and the agreement4 4 4 ,considering that there is a contract which fully establishes the manner in which these arrangements were projected and carried out3 ,we do command that ,hans ,riffe1 ,andrew ,heilmann and ,hans ,gutenberg shall make an oath before ,god that the matters that have transpired are warranted by the contract that has been cited2 and that this contract had but one supplementary agreement1 under seal1 which would have been p#chi agreed to by ,andrew ,dritzehen if now living2 and that ,hans ,gutenberg shall also take oath that the #he guilders have not been paid to him by ,andrew ,dritzehen2 and from this time this amount of #he guilders shall be deducted from the sum of #ajj guilders1 about which there has been controversy2 and he ,gutenberg shall pay to ,george and ,claus ,dritzehen #ae guilders2 and1 in this manner1 the #ajj guilders will be paid in conformity to the contract that has been cited4 ,the oath1 according to this form1 has been taken before us by ,hans ,riffe1 ,andrew ,heilmann and ,hans ,gutenberg1 with this qualification on the part of ,hans ,riffe1 that he was not present at the first meeting of the partners2 but that1 as soon as he did meet with them1 he had approved of their action or agreement4 ,the taking of this oath1 and the payment of the fifteen guilders by ,john ,gutenberg1 terminated the suit in his favor4 ,the record is enough to give us a clear idea of the character and position1 if not of the process1 of ,john ,gutenberg4 ,at this time1 ,december1 #adci1 and for some time previous1 ,gutenberg was neither in poverty nor in obscurity4 ,he had already acquired a local reputation for scientific knowledge4 ,he did not seek for partners or pupils2 they came to him4 ,among the number we find ,hans ,riffe1 the mayor of ,lichtenau1 whose confidence in ,gutenberg1 after three years of partnership1 is implied in his testimony4 ,anthony ,heilmann1 the lender of money1 seems to have been equally satisfied with his brother partner4 ,the action of the judge1 in accepting ,gutenberg's oath as conclusive1 proves that he was a man of established character4 ,the deference paid to him by all the witnesses shows that he was not merely a mechanic or an inventor1 but a man of activity and energy1 a born leader1 with a presence and a power of persuasion that enabled him to secure ready assistance in the execution of his plans4 ,his reputation had been made by success4 ,george ,dritzehen said that his brother had received a good profit from his connection with ,gutenberg4 ,the eagerness and the faith of ,andrew1 the pertinacity with which his brothers pressed their claim to be admitted as partners1 the solicitation of ,heilmann on behalf of his brother1 are indications that the men were sanguine as p#cij to the success of ,gutenberg's new invention4 ,the expected profit was attractive1 but it was not the only advantage4 ,in that century it was not an easy matter to learn an art or a trade of value3 no one could enter the ranks of mechanics even as a pupil1 without the payment of a premium in money2 no one could practise any trade unless he had served a long period of apprenticeship4 ,these exactions hopelessly shut out many who wished to learn2 but men who had complied with all the conditions were often unwilling to teach1 or to allow others to practise4 ,many trades were monopolies4 ,in some cases they were protected by legislative enactments1 like that accorded to the ,venetian makers of playing cards4 ,so far as it could be done1 every detail of mechanics was kept secret1 as may be inferred from the old phrase 8art and mystery10 still retained in indentures of apprenticeship in all countries4 ,one of the consequences of this exclusiveness was that many mechanical arts were invested with unusual dignity4#bcd ,the sharply defined line which1 in our day1 separates art from trade and mechanics did not then exist4 ,the testimony shows that ,gutenberg had a knowledge of three distinct arts4 ,the one earliest practised1 from which ,dritzehen derived a good profit1 was the polishing of stones or gems4 ,the second1 was that of making mirrors4 ,gutenberg was not the inventor of this art1 but he was one of the p#cia first to practise it4#bce ,the early ,german mirrors were small1 but they had broad frames1 and were richly gilt and adorned with carved or moulded work in high relief4 ,ottley thinks that the press was used for pressing mouldings for the frames of mirrors1 and that the lead was used for the metallic face4 ,the third art is imperfectly described4 ,if ,dnne's testimony had been lost1 it would not appear that this art was printing1 for there is no mention of books1 paper1 ink1 types1 or wood-cuts4 ,the lead1 the press1 and the goldsmith's work on things relating to printing1 could be regarded as materials required in the art of mirror-making4 ,but 8the thing10 and 8the nice things10 which provoked exclamations of surprise at their great cost1 could not have been looking-glasses4 ,dnne said1 very plainly1 that this art was printing2 but ,dnne's testimony could be set aside1 and ,gutenberg's connection with typography at the period of this trial could be inferred from other evidence4 ,the thoroughness of the workmanship in the books printed by ,gutenberg after #adej is a thoroughness which could have been acquired only by practice4 ,before he began this practice he must have devoted much time to experiment and to the making of the tools he needed4 ,no inventor1 no printer can believe that the skill p#cib he subsequently showed as a printer could have been attained by the labor of a few months or years4 ,if it is also considered that ,gutenberg was poor1 and that he collected the money he needed with great delay and difficulty1 the doubt may assume the form of denial4 ,it is a marvel that he was so well prepared at the end of the ten years which ,zell says were given up to investigation4 ,it would be gratifying to know the form in which the idea of typography first presented itself to ,gutenberg2 but there is in this case1 no story like that of ,franklin and the kite1 or of ,newton and the apple4 ,zell1 in the ,cologne ,chronicle1 says that the first prefiguration of ,gutenberg's method was found in the ,donatuses published in ,holland before #addj4 ,that the xylographic ,donatus1 the only block-book without cuts1 was the forerunner of all typographic books1 may not be denied4 ,that some stray copy of a now lost edition of the book may have suggested to ,gutenberg the superior utility of typography is possible1 but the suggestion was that of the feasibility of a grander result by an entirely different process4 ,for1 although typography took its beginnings in an earlier practice of xylography1 it was not the outgrowth#bcf of that practice4 ,it took up the art of printing at a point p#cic where xylography had failed1 and developed it by new ideas and new methods4 ,typography was an invention pure and simple4 ,in the theory and practice of block-printing1 there was nothing that could have been improved until it reached the discovery of the only proper method of making types4 ,it may have been from his experience in the melting and pouring of lead1 in the engraving of designs for the frames of his mirrors1 in the use of a press for the moulding of the designs for these frames1 that ,gutenberg derived his first practical ideas of the true method of making types4 ,whatever the external impulse which led ,gutenberg to printing1 it was so strong that it compelled him to abandon the practice of all other arts4 ,after this trial we hear no more of him as a maker of mirrors1 or a polisher of gems4 ,the record of the trial before ,cune ,nope is not the only evidence we have that ,gutenberg's unknown art was that of typography4 ,wimpheling1 one of the most learned men of his age1 and nearly contemporary with ,gutenberg1 gives the following testimony concerning early printing in ,strasburg3#bcg ,in the year of our ,lord #addj1 under the reign of ,frederic ,,iii1 ,emperor of the ,romans1 ,john ,gutenberg1 of ,strasburg1 discovered a new method of writing1 which is a great good1 and almost a divine benefit to the world4 ,he was the first in the city of ,strasburg who invented that art of impressing which the ,latin peoples call printing4 ,he afterward went to ,mentz1 and happily perfected his invention4 ,in another book1 in which ,wimpheling pays compliment to the intelligence of the people of ,strasburg1 he writes3 ,your city is acknowledged to excel most other cities by its origination of the art of printing1 which was afterward perfected in ,mentz4 ,the ,chronicle of ,cologne#bch is as explicit as to date1 but not as to place4 ,it specifies #addj as the date of the discovery of printing 8in the manner that is now generally used40 p#cid ,the evidence of the witnesses on the trial agrees with the testimony afforded by the chronicles3 it is plain that ,gutenberg had not perfected his invention in #adci4 ,from his lonely room in the ruined monastery of ,saint ,arbogastus1 to which he retreated for the sake of secrecy1 ,gutenberg gave work to ,dnne1 the goldsmith1 to ,saspach1 the joiner1 and to ,dritzehen1 his old workman4 ,it would seem that they were not producing work for sale1 but were making tools which required a great deal of labor4 ,dritzehen worked night and day1 ,madame ,schultheiss helping him4 ,at the death of ,dritzehen1 the work expended on the art had cost a great deal of money1 but it was still incomplete4 ,the testimony shows that it had been intended that the salable work to be produced by the partnership should be exposed for sale at the great fair of ,aix-la-,chapelle in the summer of #adci4 ,the postponement of this fair#bci to the year #addj was a grave disappointment4 ,if the object of the partnership was the making of popular books of devotion1 we can understand the reasonableness of the hopes of great profit when the books should be laid before the pious pilgrims4 ,the sudden death of ,andrew ,dritzehen was the occasion of more delay4 ,gutenberg1 fearing that the public1 or ,george ,dritzehen1 would get possession of the secret1 melted the forms and suspended the work4 ,then followed a litigation which lasted nearly one year1 during which period it seems no work was done4 ,illustration3 ,a ,medieval ,press4 ,from ,duverger4 ,there are many conflicting opinions about the character of the printing so obscurely mentioned in the testimony of the witnesses4 ,schoepflin says it was block-printing4 ,in the four pieces lying in the press1 he sees four pages of engraved p#cie blocks2 in the two buttons1 which ,dr4 ,van der ,linde says are improperly translated by him as two screws1 he finds a screw chase that held the four pages together4 ,this conjecture is in every way improbable4 ,all the processes of block-printing should have been as well known at that time in ,strasburg as they were in ,venice1 ,augsburg and ,nuremberg4 ,something more novel than this form of printing would have been required to secure the coperation of shrewd men like ,riffe and ,heilmann4 ,the enthusiasm of ,dritzehen1 and the eagerness of all parties to learn the new art1 and to have a share in its profits1 cannot be satisfactorily explained by the conjecture that this art was simple block-printing4#bdj p#cif ,gutenberg may have begun his experiments in typography by the use of engraved types or punches of wood2#bda but he must have soon discovered the defects and limitations of xylography and have reached the unalterable conclusion that useful types could be made of metal only4 ,there is no plausibility in the theory of ,fischer1 that the thing of four pieces was a form of four pages or columns of types of wood4 ,nor is there any evidence that ,gutenberg had then done any practical work4 ,the practice of printing in ,dritzehen's house cannot be inferred from the presence of a press1 for there is no notice of paper1 printed sheets or books4 ,it does not seem that there was a mystery about the press4 ,it was not the press1 but what was in it1 concerning which the people were curious4 ,it was the imperfectly described implement of four pieces which gave the partners anxiety4 p#cig ,nor was the tool of four pieces the only object of value4 ,gutenberg assured the partners that the things had cost him nearly as much as he asked of them for their shares in the enterprise1 but more were to be made4 ,in the event of the death of a partner1 his heirs were to be paid their claim on the forms and tools4 ,when ,dritzehen died1 ,gutenberg sent for all the forms1 which were melted before his eyes1#bdb which act he subsequently regretted on account of the forms4 ,it was a rash act1 but ,gutenberg's fears were aroused1 and he preferred to destroy the tools rather than allow ,george ,dritzehen to get a knowledge of his secret4 ,in the practice of printing1 the word form means a collection of composed types1 arranged in readable order1 secured together as one piece1 in an iron band or chase1 and prepared to receive impression4#bdc ,in all printing offices it has this meaning4 ,that the forms so frequently mentioned in this record of the trial were of metal is clearly implied in the statement p#cih that ,gutenberg melted them4 ,these forms1 or formens1 were1 without doubt1 implements connected with typography2 but whether they were types1 or matrices1 or moulds1 or a collection of types1 is not so clear4 ,if they were types1 it will seem strange that they were not accurately described as letters of metal by some of the witnesses who saw them4 ,if we regard them as matrices1 they may have been 8the nice things0 alluded to by ,reimbolt1 the use of which he did not understand4#bdd ,it is possible that ,dritzehen was making matrices and fitting them to the mould4 ,if the forms were matrices1 they and the punches could have cost five hundred guilders4 ,if the 8nice things0 were matrices1 there must have been a type-mould1 and it was this mould which was the key to the invention4 ,the mould was the only implement connected with typography which would at once lay open to an intelligent observer the secret of making types4 ,of all his tools1 this was the one that had received the greatest amount of care and labor1 and it should have been the one that ,gutenberg would be anxious to conceal4 ,it may be supposed that the thing of four pieces that was opened by two buttons was the mould4#bde ,why it should have been kept in or under the press cannot be explained4 ,but if ,dritzehen was fitting up matrices1 it was proper that he should have the mould at hand4 ,the conjecture that the thing of four pieces was a type-mould1 is not free from difficulties1 but it seems the only one that makes intelligible the action of the witnesses4 p#cii ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,type-mould of ,claude ,garamond4 a4 ,the place where the body of the type was cast4 b4 c4 ,the mouth-piece in which the fluid metal was poured4 d4 ,the type as cast1 with the metal formed in the mouth-piece adhering to it4 ,from ,duverger4 ,the gravest difficulty in the way of this conjecture is1 that the type-mould of modern type-founders has1 including the matrix1 but three detachable pieces4 ,as this mould is substantially of the same form as that known to have been used by ,claude ,garamond1 the eminent type-founder of ,paris1 in #aedj1 it has been supposed1 and properly1 that this mould of three pieces must have been used before ,garamond1 by all the early printers4 ,but it was not the only form of mould4 ,at the beginning of this century every type-founder found it expedient to use at times1 a type-mould somewhat different in its construction--a mould which1 with the matrix1 consisted of four detachable pieces4 ,the merit of this mould was its adaptability1 within limits1 to any size of body4 ,its disadvantages were its difficulty of nice adjustment and its liability to inaccuracy--faults which have obliged all ,american type-founders of this day to discontinue its use entirely4 ,it is1 without doubt1 a very old form of mould1 but it was never a popular one1 having been used chiefly for casting bodies of irregular size4#bdf ,mr4 ,bruce has showed me one of these early moulds--a mould long out of use1 preserved only as one of the earlier relics of his old type-foundry4 ,its construction is p#djj too complex for description by words1 or even by engraving2 but it may be sufficient to say that1 with the matrix1 it consisted of four pieces1 and was so constructed as to allow of an enlargement and nice adjustment in either direction of the space provided for casting the body of the type4 ,the pieces were held together by stiff springs1 but buttons could have been used for the same purpose4 ,when these pieces were connected it would be plain to any mechanic that it was a mould2 disconnected1 its purpose would be a riddle4 ,this peculiarity1 coupled with the well known fact that ,gutenberg subsequently made at ,mentz1 three fonts of types on bodies of different size1 but closely approximating each other1 lead me to the belief that this tool of four pieces should have been some kind of an adjustable type-mould4 ,the only book which can be offered with plausibility as the work of ,gutenberg in ,strasburg is a ,donatus1 of which four leaves are now preserved in the ,national ,library at ,paris4 ,this ,donatus is a small quarto1 containing twenty-seven lines to the page4 ,the similarity of the types of this book1 both in face and body1 to those of the ,bible of #db lines1 suggests the thought that both books were the work of the same printer2 but the cut of the letters1 the founding of the types and the printing of the book are vastly inferior4 ,it is possible that ,gutenberg may have printed some books at ,strasburg1 but we do not know anything about them4 ,there were many difficulties connected with the proper development of typography1 and he may have labored over them many years without any satisfactory result4#bdg ,his earlier experience could not have been materially different from that of other inventors3 he may have been kept for years on the threshold of success1 vainly trying to remove some obstruction which blocked up his way4 ,if we suppose that ,gutenberg p#dja began1 as a novice would probably begin1 by founding types of soft lead in moulds of sand1 the printer will understand why he would condemn the types made by this method4 ,if he afterward made a mould of hard metal1 and founded types in matrices of brass1 we can understand that1 in the beginning1 he had abundant reason to reject his first types for inaccuracies of body and irregularities of height and lining4 ,to him as to all true inventors1 there could be no patching up of defects in plan or in construction4 ,it was necessary to throw away all the defective work and to begin anew4 ,experiments like these consume a great deal of time and quite as much of money4 ,the testimony shows that the money contributed by some of the partners in the association had been collected with difficulty4 ,we may suppose that when this had been spent to no purpose1 they were unable or unwilling to contribute any more4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of a ,donatus attributed to ,gutenberg at ,strasburg4 ,from ,bernard4 ,it may be that the failure of the ,strasburg associates was due solely to the audacity of ,gutenberg1 whose plans were always beyond his pecuniary ability4 ,even then he may have purposed the printing of the great ,bible of #cf lines in three volumes1 which he afterward completed in an admirable manner4 ,in trying to accomplish much1 he may have failed to do anything of p#djb value4 ,whatever the reason1 it is certain that his partners abandoned ,gutenberg and his invention4 ,we read no more of ,riffe and ,heilmann in connection with typography4 ,there is evidence that ,gutenberg was financially embarrassed after the trial4 ,on the second day of ,january1 #adda1 ,gutenberg and the knight ,luthold von ,ramstein gave security for the annual payment of five pounds to the ,chapter of ,st4 ,thomas at ,strasburg1 in consideration of the present sum of one hundred pounds paid by the chapter to ,gutenberg4 ,on the fifteenth day of ,december1 #addb1 ,john ,gutenberg and ,martin ,brether sold to the same corporation for the present sum of eighty pounds1 an annual income of four pounds1 from the revenues of the town of ,mentz4 ,gutenberg had inherited this income from his uncle1 ,johan ,lehheimer1 secular judge of that city4 ,the tax-book of the city shows that he was in arrear for taxes between the years #adcf and #addj4 ,in the tax-book for #addc1 it is plainly recorded that ,gutenberg's tax was paid by the ,ennel ,gutenbergen who is supposed to have been his wife4 ,gutenberg had reason to be disheartened4 ,he had spent all his money2 had alienated his partners2 had apparently wasted a great deal of time in fruitless experiments2 had damaged his reputation as a man of business1 and seemed further from success than when he revealed his plans to his partners4 ,it is the common belief that ,gutenberg went direct from ,strasburg to ,mentz4 ,winaricky1 on the contrary1 says that he forsook ,strasburg for the ,university of ,prague1 at which institution he took the degree of bachelor of arts in #adde1 and in which city he resided1 until it was besieged1 and he was obliged to leave1 in #addh4 ,there is no trustworthy authority for either statement4 ,the period in his life between #addb and #addh is blank1 but it is not probable that he was idle4 p#djc ,,xxi ,gutenberg and his ,earlier ,work at ,mentz4 ,gutenberg appears in ,mentz as a ,borrower of ,money 4 4 4 ,was then ,ready to ,begin as a ,printer 4 4 4 ,donatus of #adea 4 4 4 ,letters of ,indulgence of #aded and #adee 4 4 4 ,made from ,founded ,types 4 4 4 ,circumstances attending their sale 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of ,holbein's ,satire 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,letter dated #aded1 with a ,translation 4 4 4 ,almanac of #adee 4 4 4 ,gutenberg's two ,bibles 4 4 4 ,dates of ,publication ,uncertain 4 4 4 ,bible of #cf lines1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,evidences of its probable ,priority 4 4 4 ,apparently an ,unsuccessful ,book 4 4 4 ,john ,fust1 with ,portrait 4 4 4 ,fust's ,contract with ,gutenberg in #adej 4 4 4 ,probable ,beginning of the ,bible of #db lines 4 4 4 ,description of ,book1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,colophon of the ,illuminator 4 4 4 ,must have been ,printed before #adef 4 4 4 ,fust brings ,suit against ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,official ,record of the ,trial 4 4 4 ,gutenberg's ,inability to pay his debt 4 4 4 ,suit was a ,surprise 4 4 4 ,portrait of ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,fust deposes ,gutenberg and installs ,schffer at the head of the ,office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is material in this event for an affecting drama3 a genial inventor1 indefatigably occupied in realizing an idea1 an usurious and crafty money-lender1 abusing the financial carelessness of a genius1 to get him more and more into his power2 a clever servant courting the daughter of the usurer1 and conspiring with him against the great master2 the inventor robbed of all the fruit of his exertions during many years1 at the moment that it was ripe to be gathered4 ,van der ,linde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,gutenberg's last act upon record in ,strasburg was the selling out of the last remnant of his inheritance4 ,the first evidence we have of his return to ,mentz is an entry1 on the sixth day of ,october1 #addh1 in a record of legal contracts1 in which he appears as a borrower of money4 ,it seems that ,gutenberg had persuaded his kinsman1 ,arnold ,gelthus1 to borrow from ,rynhard ,brmser and ,john ,rodenstein1 the sum of #aej guilders1 for the use of which ,gutenberg promised to pay the yearly interest of #h-a_/b guilders4 ,gutenberg had no securities to offer2 ,gelthus had to pledge the rents of some houses for this purpose4 ,how this money was to be used is not stated1 but it may be presumed that ,gutenberg needed it for the development of his grand invention4 ,his plans1 p#djd whatever they were1 met with the approbation of his uncle ,john ,gensfleisch1 by whose permission he occupied the leased house#bdh ,zum ,jungen1 which he used not only for a dwelling1 but as a printing office4 ,at this time ,gutenberg was1 no doubt1 nearly perfect in his knowledge of the correct theory of type-founding1 and had also acquired fair practice as a printer4 ,helbig thinks that he had ready the types of the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,madden says that he was then1 or very soon after1 engaged in printing a small edition of this book4 ,there is evidence that these types were in use at least as early as #adea4 ,two leaves of an early typographic edition of the ,donatus1 #bg lines to the page1 printed on vellum from the types of the ,bible of #cf lines1 have been discovered near ,mentz1 in the original binding of an old account book of #adea4bdi ,in one word the letter i is reversed1 a positive proof that it was printed from types1 and not from blocks4 ,the ink is still very black1 but ,fischer says that it will not resist water4#bej ,as this fragment shows the large types of the ,bible of #cf lines in their most primitive form1 it authorizes the belief that it should have been printed by ,gutenberg soon after his return to ,mentz4 ,during the interval between #addj and #adea1 about which history records so little1 ,gutenberg may have printed many trifles4 ,he could not have been always unsuccessful3 he could not have borrowed money for more than ten years1 without p#dje a demonstration of his ability to print and to sell printed work4 ,it is probable that he had to postpone his grand plans1 and that his necessities compelled him to begin the practice of his new art with the printing of trivial work4 ,there is evidence that the branch of typography which is now known as job printing is as old as1 if not older than1 book printing4 ,this evidence is furnished in the ,letters of ,indulgence1 which have distinction as the first works with type-printed dates4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,donatus of #adea4 ,from ,fischer4 ,three distinct editions of the ,letters of ,indulgence are known4 ,the copies are dated #aded or #adee1 but are more clearly defined by the number of the lines in each edition1 as ,letters of #cj1 or #ca1 or #cb lines4 ,each ,letter is printed from movable types1 in black ink1 upon one side of a stout piece of parchment1 about nine inches high and thirteen inches wide4 ,the form of words is substantially the same in all editions1 and all copies present the same general typographical features1 as if they were the work of the same printing office4 ,in all copies1 the presswork is good2 they seem to have been printed by a properly constructed press on damp vellum with ink mixed in oil4 ,the types p#djf of the three editions have a general resemblance1#bea yet they differ seriously as to face and body4 ,they were certainly cast from different matrices and adjustments of the mould1#beb and were composed by different compositors4 ,in the edition of #cj lines1 the types of the text are on a body smaller than ,english1 and those of the large lines are on ,paragon body2 in the edition of #ca lines the types of the text are on ,english body1 and those of the large lines approximate ,double-pica body4 ,illustration3 ,paragon ,body4 ,illustration3 ,pica ,body4 ,illustration3 ,english body4 ,illustration3 ,double-pica ,body4 ,illustration3 from ,de la ,borde4 ,the types on ,double-pica body are those of the ,donatus of #adea and the ,bible of #cf lines2 the types on ,paragon body are those of the ,bible of #db lines4 ,the appearance of these types in the ,bibles is presumptive evidence that the printer of the ,bibles was the printer of the ,letters4 ,the small types are unique2 they were never used1 so far as we know1 for any other work4 ,the large initials may have been engraved on wood1 but the text and the display lines were founded p#djg types4 ,the illustration on the previous page shows that although the matrices were fitted with closeness1 each type was founded on a square body4 ,the circumstances connected with the publication of the ,letters require more than a passing notice1 for they present the first specific indication of a demand for printing4 ,these circumstances give us a glimmer of the corruption of some of the men who sold the indulgences--a corruption which1 in the next century1 brought down upon the sellers and the system the scorn of ,holbein and the wrath of ,luther4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of ,holbein's ,satire on the ,sale of ,indulgences4 ,from ,woltmann4 ,the canon at the right absolves the kneeling young man1 but points significantly to the huge money-chest into which the widow puts her mite4 ,three ,dominicans1 seated at the table1 are preparing and selling indulgences3 one of them1 holding back the letter1 greedily counts the money as it is paid down2 another pauses in his writing1 to repulse the penitent but penniless cripple2 another is leering at the woman whose letter he delays4 ,the pope1 enthroned in the nave1 and surrounded by cardinals1 is giving a commission for the sale of the letters4 ,on the twelfth day of ,april1 #adea1 a plenary indulgence of three years was accorded by ,pope ,nicholas ,v to all who1 from ,may #a1 #adeb1 to ,may #a1 #adee1 should properly contribute with money to the aid of the alarmed king of ,cyprus1 then threatened by the ,turks4 ,paul ,zappe1 an ambassador of the king of ,cyprus1 selected ,john de ,castro as chief commissioner for the sale of the indulgences in ,germany4 ,theodoric1 archbishop of ,mentz1 gave him full permission to sell them1 but p#djh held the commissioner accountable for the moneys collected4 ,the precaution was justified4 ,when the dreaded news of the capture of ,constantinople 7,may #bi1 #adec7 was received1 ,john de ,castro1 thinking that ,cyprus had also been taken1 squandered the money he had collected4 ,de ,castro was arrested1 convicted and sent to prison1 but the scandal that had been created by the embezzlement greatly injured the sale of the indulgences4 ,as the permission to sell indulgences expired by limitation on ,may #a1 #adee1 ,zappe1 the chief commissioner1 made renewed and more vigorous efforts to promote the sale4 ,it was found that1 in the limited time allowed for sale1 the customary process of copying was entirely too slow4 ,there was1 also1 the liability that a hurried copyist would produce inexact copies2 that an unscrupulous copyist or seller would issue spurious copies4 ,these seem to have been the reasons that led ,zappe to have the documents printed1 which was accordingly done1 with blank spaces for the insertion of the name of the buyer and the signature of the seller4 ,the typography of this ,letter of #ca lines is much better than that of the ,donatus1 but it has many blemishes4 ,the text is deformed with abbreviations2 the lines are not evenly spaced out2 the capital letters of the text are rudely drawn and carelessly cut4 ,the white space below the sixteenth line1 and the space and the crookedness in the three lines at the foot1 are evidences that the types were not securely fastened in the chase4 ,these faults provoke notice1 but it must be admitted that the types were fairly fitted and stand in decent line4 ,they were obviously cast in moulds of metal2 it would be impracticable to make types so small in moulds of sand4 ,illustration3 ,reduced ,fac-simile of a ,letter of ,indulgence1 dated #aded4 ,from ,de la ,borde4 ,translation4 ,to all the faithful followers of ,christ who may read this letter1 ,paul ,zappe1 counselor1 ambassador1 and administrator-general of his gracious majesty1 the king of ,cyprus1 sends greeting3 ,whereas the ,most ,holy ,father in ,christ1 our ,lord1 ,nicholas ,v1 by divine grace1 pope1 mercifully compassionating the afflictions of the kingdom of ,cyprus from those most treacherous enemies of the ,cross of ,christ1 the ,turks and ,saracens1 in an earnest exhortation1 by the sprinkling of the blood of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 freely granted to all those faithful followers of ,christ1 wheresoever established1 who1 within three years from the first day of ,may1 in the year of our ,lord #adeb1 should piously contribute1 according to their ability1 more or less1 as it should seem good to their own consciences1 to the procurators1 or their deputies1 for the defense of the ,catholic religion and the aforementioned kingdom1--that confessors1 secular and regular1 chosen by themselves1 having heard their confessions for excesses1 crimes1 and faults1 however great1 even for those hitherto reserved exclusively for the apostolic see to remit1 should be licensed to pronounce due absolution upon them1 and enjoin salutary penance2 and1 also1 that they might absolve those persons1 if they should humbly beseech it1 who1 perchance might be suffering excommunication1 suspension1 and other sentences1 censures1 and ecclesiastical punishments1 instituted by canon law1 or promulgated by man1--salutary penance being required1 or other satisfaction which might be enjoined by canon law1 varying according to the nature of the offence2 and1 also1 that they might be empowered by apostolic authority to grant to those who were truly penitent1 and confessed their guilt1 or if perchance1 on account of the loss of speech1 they could not confess1 those who gave outward demonstrations of contrition--the fullest indulgence of all their sins1 and a full remission1 as well during life as in the hour of death--reparation being made by them if they should survive1 or by their heirs if they should then die3 ,and the penance required after the granting of the indulgence is this--that they should fast throughout a whole year on every ,friday1 or some other day of the week1 the lawful hindrances to performance being prescribed by the regular usage of the ,church1 a vow or any other thing not standing in the way of it2 and as for those prevented from so doing in the stated year1 or any part of it1 they should fast in the following year1 or in any year they can2 and if they should not be able conveniently to fulfill the required fast in any of the years1 or any part of them1 the confessor1 for that purpose shall be at liberty to commute it for other acts of charity1 which they should be equally bound to do3 ,and all this1 so that they presume not1 which ,god forbid1 to sin from the assurance of remission of this kind1 for otherwise1 that which is called concession1 whereby they are admitted to full remission in the hour of death1 and remission1 which1 as it is promised1 leads them to sin with assurance1 would be of no weight and validity3 ,and whereas the devout ,judocus ,ott von ,apspach1 in order to obtain the promised indulgence1 according to his ability hath piously contributed to the above-named laudable purpose1 he is entitled to enjoy the benefit of indulgence1 of this nature4 ,in witness of the truth of the above concession1 the seal ordained for this purpose is affixed4 ,given at ,mentz in the year of our ,lord #aded1 on the last day of ,december4 ,,the ,,fullest ,,form ,,of ,,absolution ,,and ,,remission ,,during ,,life3 ,may our ,lord ,jesus ,christ bestow on thee his most holy and gracious mercy2 may he absolve thee1 both by his own authority and that of the blessed ,peter and ,paul1 ,his apostles2 and by the authority apostolic committed unto me1 and conceded on thy behalf1 ,i absolve thee from all thy sins repented for with contrition1 confessed and forgotten1 as also from all carnal sins1 excesses1 crimes and delinquencies ever so grievous1 and whose cognizance is reserved to the ,holy ,see1 as well as from any ecclesiastical judgment1 censure1 and punishment1 promulgated either by law or by man1 if thou hast incurred any1--giving thee plenary indulgence and remission of all thy sins1 inasmuch as in this matter the keys of the ,holy ,mother ,church do avail4 ,in the name of the ,father1 and the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost4 ,amen4 ,,the ,,plenary ,,form ,,of ,,remission ,,at ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,death3 ,may our ,lord as above4 ,i absolve thee from all thy sins1 with contrition repented for1 confessed and forgotten1 restoring thee to the unity of the faithful1 and the partaking of the sacraments of the ,church1 releasing thee from the torments of purgatory1 which thou hast incurred1 by giving thee plenary remission of all thy sins1 inasmuch as in this matter the keys of the ,mother ,church do avail4 ,in the name of the ,father1 and the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost4 ,amen4 ,joseph1 abbot of the ,monastery of ,saint ,burckard1 ,duly qualified to make this engagement4 ,eighteen copies of these ,letters of ,indulgence are known1 all bearing the printed date of #aded or of #adee4 ,the places where they were sold having been written on the document by the seller1 we discover that they must have been sold over a large territory1 for one was issued at ,copenhagen1 another at ,nuremberg1 and another at ,cologne4 ,the large number of copies preserved is evidence that many copies must have p#daj been printed4 ,it is probable that ,gutenberg was required to compose and print the form at three different times2 but we do not know why he found it necessary to make a new face of text type for the second and third editions1#bec for it is very plain that the types of the first edition were not worn out4 ,the ,appeal of ,christianity against the ,turks1 sometimes called the ,almanac of #adee1 is another small work attributed to ,gutenberg4 ,it is a little quarto of six printed leaves1 in ,german verse1 in the large type of the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,as it contains a calendar for the year #adee1 it is supposed that it was printed at the close of #aded4 ,its typographical appearance is curious3 the type was large1 the page was narrow1 and the compositor run the lines together as in prose1 marking the beginning of every verse with a capital1 and its ending by a fanciful arrangement 3 of four full points4 ,it is the first typographic work in ,german1 and the first work in that language which can be attributed to ,gutenberg4 ,but one copy of this book is known4 ,gutenberg's fame as a great printer is more justly based on his two editions in folio of the ,holy ,bible in ,latin4 ,the breadth of his mind1 and his faith in the comprehensiveness of his invention1 are more fully set forth by his selection of a book of so formidable a nature4 ,there was an admirable propriety in his determination that his new art should be fairly introduced to the reading world by the book known p#daa throughout ,christendom as ,the ,book4 ,these two editions of the ,bible are most clearly defined by the specification of the number of lines to the page in the columns of each book3 one is the ,bible of #db lines1#bed in types of ,paragon body1 usually bound in two volumes2 the other is the ,bible of #cf lines1#bee in types of ,double-pica body1 usually bound in three volumes4 ,it is not certainly known which was printed first4 ,each edition was published without printed date1 and1 like all other works by ,gutenberg1 without name or place of printer4 ,they were not accurately described by any contemporary author4 ,in the sixteenth century they were obsolete1 and the tradition that they had been printed by ,gutenberg was entirely lost4 ,when a copy of the ,bible of #db lines was discovered in the library of ,cardinal ,mazarin1 and was identified as the work of ,john ,gutenberg1 it was not known that there was another edition4 ,the ,bible of #db lines was consequently regarded as the first--as the book described by ,zell1 which1 he says1 was printed in #adej4 ,this belief was strengthened by the subsequent discovery1 in another copy of this edition1 of the certificate of an illuminator that1 in the year #adef1 he had finished his task of illumination in the book4 ,more than twenty copies of this edition 7seven of which are on vellum7 have been found1 and they have generally been sold and bought as copies of the first edition4 ,the ,bible of #cf lines was definitely described for the first time by the bibliographer ,schwartz1 who1 in #agbh1 discovered a copy in the library of a monastery near ,mentz4 ,in the old manuscript catalogue of this library was a note1 stating that this book had been given to the monastery by ,john p#dab ,gutenberg and his associates4 ,schwartz said that this must have been the first edition4 ,a still more exact description of this edition was published by ,schelhorn in #agfj1 under the title of ,the ,oldest ,edition of the ,latin ,bible4 ,he said that this must have been the edition described by ,zell4 ,the ,bible of #cf lines is a large demy folio of #agfd pages1 made up1 for the most part1 in sections of ten leaves1 and usually bound in three volumes4 ,each page has two columns of #cf lines each4 ,in some sections1 a leaf torn out1 possibly on account of some error1 has been replaced by the insertion of a single leaf or a half sheet4 ,the workmanship of the first section is inferior3 the indentation of paper by too hard pressure is very strongly marked2 the pages are sadly out of register2 on one page the margins and white space between the columns show the marks of a wooden chase and bearers1 which were used to equalize impressions and prevent undue wear of types4 ,this section has the appearance of experimental or unpractised workmanship4 ,it is apparent1 almost at a glance1 that the printer did not use a proper chase and bearers1 nor a frisket1 nor points for making register4#bef ,all other sections were printed with the proper appliances1 with uncommon neatness of presswork1 in black ink1 with exact register1 and with a nicely graduated impression1 which shows the sharp edges of the types with clearness4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,bible of #cf ,lines1 with the ,rubricator's ,marks on the ,capitals4 ,verses #ag to #bb of the ,sixth ,chapter of the ,book of ,wisdom4 ,photographed from a ,fragment of the ,original in the ,collection of ,mr4 ,david ,wolfe ,bruce4 ,the types of this book closely resemble1 in face and body1 many letters being identically the same1 the types of the display line in the ,letter of ,indulgence of #ca lines1 and of the ,donatus of #adea4 ,in some features they resemble the types of the ,bible of #db lines4 ,it is possible that the types of each edition were designed and made by the same letter cutter1 and that they were made for and used by the same printer4 ,this opinion is strengthened after an inspection of the mannerisms of the composition1 which are those of the ,bible of #db lines4 ,the colon1 period1 and hyphen are the only marks of punctuation4 ,the lines of the text are always full3 the hyphen p#dad is frequently seen projecting beyond the letters4 ,a blank space was left for every large initial which1 it was expected1 would be inserted by the calligrapher4 ,red ink was not used by the printer2 the rubricated letters were dabbed over with a stroke from the brush of the illuminator4 ,illustration3 ,some of the ,abbreviations of the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,from ,duverger4 ,one copy of the book contains a written annotation dated #adfa4 ,an account book of the ,abbey of ,saint ,michael of ,bamberg1 which begins with the date ,march #ba1 #adfj1 has in its original binding some of the waste leaves of this ,bible4 ,these1 the earliest evidences of date1 prove that this edition could not have been printed later than #adei4 ,that it was done in #adej1 as asserted by ,madden1 has not been decisively proved1 but the evidence favoring this conclusion deserves consideration4 ,ulric ,zell's testimony that the first ,bible was printed in #adej from missal-like types1#beg points with directness to the ,bible of #cf lines1 for there is no other printed ,bible to which ,zell's description can be applied4 ,its close imitation of the large and generous style in which the choicer manuscripts of that period are written marks the period of transition between the old and the new style of book-making4 ,the prodigality in the use of paper seems the work of a man who had not counted the cost1 or who thought that he was obliged to disregard the expense4 ,as not more than half a dozen copies are known1 it is probable that the number printed was small4 ,nearly all the copies and leaves of this edition were found in the neighborhood of ,bamberg4 ,this curious circumstance may be explained by the supposition that the entire edition1 probably small1 had been printed at the order of1 or p#dae had been mortgaged to1 one of the many ecclesiastical bodies of that town4 ,there is evidence that ,gutenberg frequently borrowed money from wealthy monasteries4 ,the imperfect workmanship of the first section is1 apparently1 the work of a printer in the beginning of his practice1 when he had not discovered all the tools and implements which he afterward used with so much success4#beh ,the ,bible of #cf lines should have been in press a long time1 for it cannot be supposed that ,gutenberg had the means to do this work with regularity4 ,his office was destitute of composing sticks and rules1 iron chases1 galleys1 and imposing stones4 ,deprived of these and other labor-saving tools1 without the expertness acquired by practice1 frequently delayed by the corrections of the reader1 the failures of the type-founder and the errors of pressmen1 it is not probable that the compositor perfected more than one page a day4 ,he may have done less4 ,even if1 as ,madden supposes1 two or more compositors were engaged on this1 as they were upon other early work1 the ,bible of #cf lines should have been in press about three years4#bei ,the newness of the types seems to favor the opinion that this must be the earlier edition4 ,the same types1 or types cast from the same matrices1 were frequently used in little books printed between the years #adea and #adfb1 but they always appear with worn and blunted faces1 as if they had p#daf been rounded under the long-continued pressure of a press1 or had been founded in old and clogged matrices4 ,gutenberg deceived himself as much as he did his ,strasburg partners1 in his over-sanguine estimate of the profits of printing and the difficulties connected with its practice4 ,his printed work did not meet with the rapid sale he had anticipated1 or the cost of doing the work was very much in excess of the price he received4 ,the great success which ,andrew ,dritzehen hoped to have within one year1 or in #addj1 had not been attained in #adej4 ,during this year ,gutenberg comes before us again as the borrower of money4 ,if he had been only an ordinary dreamer about great inventions1 he would have abandoned an enterprise so hedged in with mechanical and financial difficulties4 ,but he was an inventor in the full sense of the word1 an inventor of means as well as of ends1 as resolute in bending indifferent men as he was in fashioning obdurate metal4 ,after spending1 ineffectually1 all the money he had acquired from his industry1 from his partners1 from his inheritance1 from his friends1--still unable to forego his great project1--he went1 as a last resort1 to one of the professional money-lenders of ,mentz4 8,heaven or hell10 says ,lacroix1 8sent him the partner ,john ,fust40#bfj ,the character and services of ,john ,fust have been put p#dag before us in strange lights4 ,by some of the earlier writers he was most untruly represented as the inventor of typography1 as the instructor1 as well as the partner1 of ,gutenberg4 ,by another class of authors he has been regarded as the patron and benefactor of ,gutenberg1 a man of public spirit1 who had the wit to see the great value of ,gutenberg's new art1 and the courage to unite his fortunes with those of the needy inventor4 ,this latter view has been popular3 to this day1 ,fust is thoroughly identified with all the honors of the invention4 ,the unreasonableness of this pretension has sent other writers to the opposite extreme4 ,during the present century1 ,fust has been frequently painted as a greedy and crafty speculator1 who took a mean advantage of the needs of ,gutenberg1 and basely robbed him of the fruits of his invention4#bfa ,illustration3 ,john ,fust4 ,from ,maittaire4 ,it is possible that ,gutenberg knew ,john ,fust1 the money-lender1 through business relations with ,fust's brother1 ,james1 the goldsmith2 for we have seen that1 during his experiments in ,strasburg1 ,gutenberg had work done by two goldsmiths4 ,what projects ,gutenberg unfolded to ,john ,fust1 and what allurements he set forth1 are not known2 but the wary money-lender would not have hazarded a guilder on ,gutenberg's invention1 if he had not been convinced of its value and of ,gutenberg's ability4 ,john ,fust knew that there was some risk in the enterprise1 for it is probable that he had heard of p#dah the losses of ,dritzehen1 ,riffe and ,heilmann4 ,in making an alliance with the inventor1 ,fust neglected none of the precautions of a money-lender4 ,he really added to them1 insisting on terms through which he expected to receive all the advantages of a partnership without its liabilities4#bfb ,the terms were hard4 ,but ,gutenberg had the firmest faith in the success of his invention3 in his view it was not only to be successful1 but so enormously profitable that he could well afford to pay all the exactions of the money-lender4 ,the object of the partnership is not explicitly stated1 but it was1 without doubt1 the business of printing and publishing text books1 and1 more especially1 the production of a grand edition of the ,bible1 the price of a fair manuscript copy of which1 at that time1 was five hundred guilders4 ,the expense that would be made in printing a large edition of this work seemed trivial in comparison with the sum which ,gutenberg dreamed would be readily paid for the new books4 ,but the expected profit was not the only allurement4 ,gutenberg was1 no doubt1 completely dominated by the idea that necessity was laid on him--that he must demonstrate the utility and grandeur of his invention1--and this must be done whether the demonstration beggared or enriched him4 ,after sixteen years of labor1 almost if not entirely fruitless1 he snatched at the partnership with ,fust as the only means by which he could realize the great purpose of his life4 ,the overruling power of the money-lender was shown in the p#dai begining of the partnership4 ,gutenberg had ready the types of the ,bible of #cf lines1 and had1 perhaps1 printed a few copies of the work--too few to supply the demand4 ,another edition could have been printed without delay1 but it was decided that this new edition should be in a smaller type and in two volumes4 ,it was intended that the cost of the new edition should be about one-third less than that of the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,gutenberg was1 consequently1 obliged to cut a new face and found a new font of types1 which1 by the terms of the agreement1 were to be mortgaged to ,fust4 ,fust did not assist ,gutenberg as he should have done4 ,instead of paying the #hjj guilders at once1 as was implied in the agreement1 he allowed two years to pass before this amount was fully paid4 ,the equipment of the printing office with new types was sadly delayed4 ,at the end of the two years1 when ,gutenberg was ready to print1 he needed for the next year's expenses1 and for the paper and vellum for the entire edition1 more than the #cjj guilders allowed to him by the agreement of #adej4 ,fust1 perceiving the need of ,gutenberg1 saw also his opportunity for a stroke in finance1 which would assist him in the designs which he seems to have entertained from the beginning4 ,he proposed a modification of the contract--to commute the annual payment of #cjj guilders for the three successive years by the immediate payment of #hjj guilders4 ,as an offset to the loss ,gutenberg would sustain by this departure from the contract1 ,fust proposed to remit his claim to interest on the #hjj guilders that had been paid4 ,gutenberg1 eager for the money1 and credulous1 assented to these modifications4 ,the delays and difficulties which ,gutenberg encountered in the printing of this edition were great1 but no part of the work was done hastily or unadvisedly4 ,he may not have received practical education as a book-maker1 but he had the rare good sense to accept instruction from those who had4 ,the ,bible of #db lines was obviously planned by an adept in all the book-making skill of his time4 ,it was laid out in #ff p#dbj sections1 for the most part of #aj leaves each4 ,to facilitate the division of the book in parts 7so that it could be bound1 if necessary for the convenience of the reader1 in ten thin volumes71 some of the sections have but #d1 some #aa1 and some #ab leaves4 ,the book proper1 without the summary of contents1 consists of #abhb printed pages1 #b columns to the page1 and1 for the most part1 with #db lines to the column4#bfc ,a wide margin was allowed for the ornamental borders1 without which no book of that time was complete1 and large spaces were also left in the text for the great initial letters4 ,it was expected that the purchaser of the book would have the margins and spaces covered with the fanciful designs and bright colors of the illuminator4 ,in some copies1 this work of illumination was admirably done2 in others it was badly done or entirely neglected4 ,the rubrics were roughly made by dabbing a brush filled with red ink over a letter printed in black4 ,on the pages of #dj lines1 the summaries of chapters were printed in red ink2 on other pages the summaries were written1 sometimes in red and sometimes in black ink4 p#dba ,it would seem that it was ,gutenberg's original intention to print all the summaries in red ink1 and that he was obliged1 for some unknown reason1 to have them written in4 ,the general effect of the typography is that of excessive blackness1--an effect which seems to have been made of set purpose1 for the designer of the types made but sparing use of hair lines4 ,it may be that the avoidance of hair lines was caused by difficulties of type-founding4 ,the type-founding was properly done3 the types have solid faces and stand in line4 ,the letters are not only black but condensed1 and are so closely connected that they seem to have been spread by pressure4 ,double letters and abbreviations were freely used4 ,judged by modern standards1 the types are ungraceful2 the text letters are too dense and black1 and the capitals are of rude form1 obscure1 and too small for the text4 ,the presswork is unequal3 on some vellum copies1 the types are clearly and sharply printed2 on other copies1 they show muddily from excess of ink4 ,on the paper copies1 the ink is usually of a full black1 but there are pages on paper and on vellum1 in which1 for lack of ink and impression1#bfd the color is of a grimy gray-black4 ,van der ,linde and others say that the ink will not resist water1 but the ink on the fragments of vellum belonging to ,mr4 ,bruce stood a severe test by water1 without any weakening of color4 ,the register on the paper copies is very good2 on the vellum copies it is offensively irregular1 a plain proof that the vellum had been dampened1 and had shrunk or twisted before the second side was printed4 ,it has been said that this ,bible of #db lines was printed with intent to cheat purchasers1 so that it might be sold as a manuscript4 ,there is a legend that ,fust did attempt the cheat at ,paris1 but there is no good authority for the libel1 which scarcely deserves examination4 ,there were1 no doubt1 during the fifteenth century1 many who could not perceive p#dbb the dissimilarities between manuscript and printed books1 but these men were not book-buyers4 ,to the intelligent book-buyer1 the features of dissimilarity were conspicuous4#bfe ,it is not at all probable that ,gutenberg entertained any thought of deception3 he imitated his manuscript copy only because it was in an approved style of book-making4 ,although the types of this ,bible are obsolete1 there is something pleasing in their boldness and solidity to a reader who is wearied with the small trim letters1 light lines and apparently paler ink of modern books4 ,the effect of rugged strength is relieved by the flowing lines1 vivid colors and complex ornamentation of the odd borders and initials which have been added by designer and illuminator4 ,how much of the pleasure derived from an inspection of the work is due to the skill of the printer1 and how much to the art of the illuminator1 has not always been judicially weighed by those who represent the book as a specimen of perfect printing4 ,it cannot be denied that the most attractive features of the book are those made1 not by printing1 but by illumination1 but it is plain that the designs and ornamentation are not of a character appropriate to the text4 ,they would not be allowed in any modern edition of the book4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,bible of #db ,lines1 with the ,rubricator's ,marks on the ,capitals4 ,verses #aj to #bj of the ,fifteenth ,chapter of the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,photographed from a ,fragment of the ,original in the ,collection of ,mr4 ,david ,wolfe ,bruce4 ,the workmanship of the printer in his own proper field is wonderful when we regard the circumstances under which it was done1 but it would not satisfy the requirements of a modern publisher or book-buyer4 ,it is of its own time1 with the faults of that time1 in manner and matter4 ,the promise of legibility1 which seems warranted by the bold and black types1 is delusive4 ,the ordinary ,latin scholar cannot read the book1 nor refer to any passage in it1 with satisfaction4 ,it is without title and paging figures4 ,the blank spaces which indicate changes of subject1 and give relief to the eye1 were seized by the illuminator4 ,verse follows verse1 and chapter follows chapter1 and one line chases another with a p#dbd grudging of white space and of true relief which is not atoned for by the dabs of red in the rubrics1 nor by the profuse wealth of ornamentation in the centre column and margins4 ,the composition is noticeably irregular3 the lines are not always of uniform length4 ,when a word was divided1 the hyphen was allowed to project and give to the right side of the column a ragged appearance4 ,when there were too many letters for the line1 words were abbreviated4 ,the measure was narrow1 and it was only through the liberal use of abbreviations that the spacing of words could be regulated4 ,the period1 colon and hyphen were the only points of punctuation4 ,the manuscript taken for copy was not strictly accurate1 and the errors of the scribe were repeated by the compositor4 ,the liberties taken by scribe and compositor in the making of abbreviations1 and in the spelling out of abbreviations1 were a prolific source of error4 ,it was quite as much on account of the frequency of these errors1 as the obsoleteness of the types1 that this famous edition was so soon laid aside and was so quickly forgotten4 ,it was supplanted by the editions of the more scholarly printers of the sixteenth century1 who collated a great many manuscript and printed copies before they prepared a new copy for the printer4 ,it is unfortunate that ,gutenberg did not1 as was customary with the book-makers of that time1 put his name and the date of printing on the book4 ,the omission was partially supplied by an illuminator who suffixed the following colophons or subscriptions to his copy of the book3 ,first ,volume4 ,here endeth the ,first ,part of the ,old ,testament of the ,holy ,bible1 which was illuminated1 rubricated and bound by ,henry ,albech1 or ,cremer1 on ,saint ,bartholomew's ,day 7,august #bd71 in the year of our ,lord #adef4 ,thanks be to ,god4 ,hallelujah4 ,second ,volume4 ,this ,book was illuminated1 bound and perfected by ,henry ,cremer1 vicar of the ,collegiate ,church of ,saint ,stephen in ,mentz1 on the ,feast of the ,assumption of the ,blessed ,virgin 7,august #ae71 in the year of our ,lord #adef4 ,thanks be to ,god4 ,hallelujah4 ,as the second volume was illuminated nine days before the first volume1 it may be supposed that1 on this copy1 the p#dbe work of illumination was started on the sheets1 as soon as they had been printed and before they were bound4 ,it is possible that the last sheet was printed in #adef1 but it is a more general belief that the work was completed in #adee4 ,there is no tradition about the number printed4 ,at the close of the century1 three hundred copies were regarded by printers of ,italy as a proper number for an edition in folio4 ,it is not probable that ,gutenberg printed so large a number4 ,unbound copies were sold at different times and places1 not long after publication1 for various sums ranging from twelve guilders to sixty crowns4#bff ,it does not appear that the books provoked any enthusiasm3 no chronicler of that time thought it worth while to give them even a passing mention4 ,we have to suppose that they attracted no more attention than the books of a copyist4 ,it appears1 also1 that the ,bible of #db lines1 from a mercantile point of view1 was a very unsuccessful enterprise4 ,this is the evidence4 ,on the sixth day of ,november1 #adee1 ,fust brought a suit for the recovery of the money advanced to ,gutenberg4 ,as ,gutenberg was unable to pay the demand1 we may suppose that the ,bible had not been completed1 or1 had not met with a ready sale4 ,the suit of ,john ,fust has been the occasion of discordant criticism4 ,dibdin fully justifies his action1 and intimates that ,gutenberg was really a trickster1 who would have defrauded ,fust if he had not resorted to summary proceedings4 ,the defenders of ,fust1 who are few1 have to admit that he here appears as a keen man of business1 destitute of sentiment1 and of ungenerous disposition4 ,sympathizers with ,gutenberg denounce ,fust as a cunning schemer1 who had made the terms of the partnership rigorous with the secret determination to get possession of the invention through ,gutenberg's inability to keep his contract4 ,this is the record of the proceedings before the court3 p#dbf ,,instrument of a certain day1 when ,fust produced an account and confirmed it by an oath4 ,in the name of ,god4 ,amen4 ,be it known to all who shall see this public document or hear it read1 that1 in the year of our ,lord #adee1 on ,thursday1 the #fth of ,november1 between eleven and twelve at noon1 at ,mentz1 in the large dining-hall 7refectorium7 of the convent of bare-footed friars1 appeared before me1 notary1 and the witnesses to be mentioned hereafter1 the honorable and prudent man ,jacob ,fust1 citizen of ,mentz1 and has1 in behalf of ,johan ,fust his brother1 also present1 shewn1 said and exposed1 that to the said ,johan ,fust on the one side and ,johan ,gutenberg on the other1 should be administered the oath1 according to judgment passed on both the parties1 and for which this day and this hour had been fixed and the hall of the convent assigned4 ,in order that the friars of the said convent1 who were still assembled in the hall1 should not be disturbed1 the said ,jacob ,fust did ask through his messenger1 whether ,johan ,gutenberg1 or any one for him1 were present in the convent1 in order to finish the matter4 ,at this message came into the said refectorium the reverend ,heinrich ,gunther1 pastor of ,st4 ,christopher's at ,mentz1 ,heinrich ,keffer1 and ,bertolf von ,hanau1 a servant of ,johan ,gutenberg1 and when they had been asked by ,johan ,fust whether they had been authorized by ,johan ,gutenberg1 they answered that they had been sent by ,junker ,johan ,gutenberg to hear and see what should happen in this case4 ,thereupon ,johan ,fust begged leave to conform to the stipulations of the verdict1 after he had waited for ,johan ,gutenberg till twelve o'clock1 and was still waiting for him4 ,he reads the sentence passed on the first article of his claim1 from word to word1 with its pretension and response1 which runs as follows3 ,first1 that he1 according to the written agreement1 should lend ,johan ,gutenberg about #hjj florins in gold1 with which he was to finish the work1 and whether it would cost more or less was no matter to ,fust2 and that ,johan ,gutenberg was to pay six per cent4 interest for this money4 ,he had indeed lent him these #hjj guilders on a bond1 but ,gutenberg was not satisfied1 but complained that he had not yet received the #hjj guilders4 ,for that reason1 ,fust1 being desirous of doing him some service1 lent him #hjj guilders more than he was bound by his contract to do1 for which #hjj guilders ,fust had to pay forty guilders as interest4 ,and1 although ,gutenberg had bound himself by contract to pay six per cent4 interest on the first #hjj guilders1 yet he had not done so for a single year1 but ,fust had to pay this interest himself to the amount of #bej guilders4 ,for1 at present1 ,gutenberg having never paid interest1 and ,fust having been obliged to borrow this interest from ,christians and ,jews1 for which he had paid about thirty-six florins1 his payments1 together with the capital1 p#dbg amount to about #b1jbj guilders1 of which he demands reimbursement4 ,thereupon1 ,johan ,gutenberg answered that ,johan ,fust had agreed to lend him #hjj guilders1 with which money he was to arrange and make his tools1 and that these tools should remain as security for ,fust4 ,but ,fust had moreover agreed to give him every year #cjj guilders for expenses1 and to advance also wages1 house-rent1 ,,vellum1 ,,paper1 ,,ink1 etc4 ,if1 afterward1 they did not agree1 ,gutenberg should then pay the #hjj guilders back1 and the tools should be free from mortgage2 it should be understood1 that with the #hjj guilders he had to make the machine1 which was to be a pledge4 ,he hopes not that any one shall pretend that he was obliged to spend these #hjj guilders on the work of the books i4 e41 on vellum1 paper1 etc4 ,and1 although it is said in the contract that ,gutenberg was to pay six per cent4 interest1 ,fust had told him that he had no intention of accepting this interest from him4 ,moreover1 he had not received the #hjj guilders in full and at once according to agreement1 as ,fust had pretended in the first article of his claim2 and as for the second #hjj guilders1 he is ready to give an account of them1 but declines to give him interest or usury for them1 and hopes that he is not bound by law to pay them4 ,we pass1 therefore1 sentence according to pretension and response3 ,when ,johan ,gutenberg has submitted an account of all receipts and disbursements spent on the work to their common profit i4 e41 printing1 this work shall be added to the #hjj guilders2 if he has spent more than the #hjj guilders1 which did not belong to their common profit1 he should pay it back2 if ,fust is able to prove1 on oath or by witnesses1 that he has borrowed the money on interest1 and did not lend it out of his own resources1 then ,gutenberg is bound by contract to pay it4 ,now1 after this sentence had been read in presence of the aforesaid witnesses1 ,johan ,fust has1 with raised fingers1 in the hands of me1 public notary1 taken the oath by all the saints1 that everything was comprised according to truth and sentence1 in an act which he placed in my hands4 ,he confirmed it on oath1 as truly as ,god and the saints may help him2 and the contents of this document were as follows3 ,i1 ,johan ,fust1 have borrowed #a1eej guilders1 which have been received by ,johan ,gutenberg1 and spent on our common work1 for which ,i have paid an annual interest1 and still owe a part of it4 ,therefore1 ,i count for every hundred guilders which ,i have borrowed in this way1 six guilders per annum2 and for the money spent on our common work1 ,i demand the interest according to judgment passed4 ,the said ,johan ,fust demands from me1 public notary1 one or more public acts of this matter1 as many and as often as he should want them2 and all these matters recorded here1 happened in the year1 indiction1 day1 hour1 papacy1 month1 and town aforesaid1 in the p#dbh presence of the honest men1 ,peter ,grauss1 ,johan ,kist1 ,johan ,knoff1 ,johan ,yseneck1 ,jacob ,fust1 citizens of ,mentz2 ,peter ,gernsheim and ,johan ,bone1 clerks of the city and diocese of ,mentz1 asked and summoned as witnesses4 ,and ,i1 ,ulrich ,helmasperger1 clerk of the diocese of ,bamberg1 by imperial authority1 public clerk of the ,holy ,see at ,mentz1 sworn notary1 have been present at all the aforesaid transactions and articles with the witnesses mentioned4 ,therefore1 being requested to do so1 ,i have signed with my hand1 and sealed with my common seal1 this public act1 written by another1 as testimony and true record of all the aforesaid matters4#bfg ,,ulricus ,,helmasperger1 ,notary4 ,the suit brought by ,fust was1 apparently1 a surprise1 for it cannot be supposed that ,gutenberg would have been so completely unprepared to meet his obligation if he had not been led to believe that ,fust would postpone the collection of his claim4 ,the enforcement of this claim before the book was published1 or at least before money had been derived from its sale--taken in connection with the facts that the delay in the publication of the book1 and ,gutenberg's inability to pay his debt1 were largely due to the delay of ,fust in furnishing the money as he had promised--seems to warrant the charge that ,fust meditated the despoilment of ,gutenberg at the formation of the partnership4 ,gutenberg's defense before the court was very feeble3 it is that of a man who knew he had no hope of success4 ,he did not appear in person1 but trusted his case to his workmen4 ,fust was more adroit2 he was voluble and positive1 and his relative1 ,jacob ,fust1 was one of the judges4 ,but the fates were against ,gutenberg3 the hard terms of the contract he had signed compelled an adverse decision4 ,illustration3 ,john ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,from an ,old ,print in the ,national ,library at ,paris4 ,from ,lacroix4 ,that ,fust did ,gutenberg a grievous wrong is very plain2 that ,gutenberg had managed the business of the partnership with economy and intelligence is not so clear4 ,at no period of his life did the great inventor show any talent for financial administration4 ,he was certainly deficient in many qualities that should be possessed by a man of business1 and ,fust may have thought that he was fully justified in placing his money p#dbi interests in the hands of a more careful manager4 ,this1 a copy of the oldest engraving known of ,gutenberg1 presents him to us as a man of decided character1 not to be cajoled or managed by a partner in business4 ,the thin curving lip and pointed nose1 the strongly marked lines on the forehead1 the bold eyes and arrogant bearing of the head reveal to us a man of genius p#dcj and of force1 a man born to rule1 impatient of restraint1 and of inflexible resolution4 ,we have but to look at the portrait of ,fust to see that he1 also1 was accustomed to having his own way1 and that he and ,gutenberg were not at all adapted to each other as partners4 ,but ,fust would not have broken with ,gutenberg if he had not been prepared to put a competent successor in his place4 ,in ,peter ,schffer1 a young man twenty-six years old1 who had been employed in the printing office1 ,fust discerned an intelligent workman who gave promise of ability as a manager4 ,schffer1 who then hoped to win the hand of ,fust's daughter ,christina1 was1 no doubt1 more complaisant than the irascible ,gutenberg4 ,as he was afterward married to her1 it may be thought that she approved his suit in its beginning1 and that her influence with her father was used to its utmost in favor of the removal of ,gutenberg and the advancement of ,schffer4 ,it was fully understood by the three conspirators that ,gutenberg could make no proper defense2 it was determined that he should be expelled from his place in the partnership and that ,schffer should succeed him in the management of the printing office4 ,when every thing had been arranged1 ,gutenberg was summoned to appear before the court4 ,the plot was successful in all points4 ,fust won the suit almost without a struggle3 under the forms of law1 he took possession of all the materials made by ,gutenberg for the common profit1 and removed them to his own house4 ,with the types1 presses and books went also many of the skilled workmen1 and ,peter ,schffer was at their head4 ,from an equitable point of view1 ,fust was amply recompensed1 ,he got the printing office that he coveted1 and1 with it1 the right to use the newly discovered art of ,gutenberg4 ,it appears that he was content4 ,there is no evidence that he afterward made any attempt to collect the claim which was1 legally1 unsatisfied even after the surrender of ,gutenberg's printing materials and the printed books4 p#dca ,,xxii ,the ,later ,work of ,gutenberg4 ,establishes a ,new ,printing ,office 4 4 4 ,calendar of #adeg 4 4 4 ,not probable that the ,bible of #cf lines was printed at this time 4 4 4 ,gutenberg ,embarrassed by ,debts 4 4 4 ,letter of ,indulgence of #adfa1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,catholicon of #adfj1 with ,fac-simile and ,colophon 4 4 4 ,indifference of ,gutenberg to ,fame 4 4 4 ,pamphlets attributed to ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,celebration of the ,mass1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,mirror of the ,clergy1 with ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,the ,war between the ,rival ,archbishops 4 4 4 ,the ,siege and ,sack of ,mentz 4 4 4 ,gutenberg's ,office removed to ,eltvill 4 4 4 ,gutenberg made a ,gentleman of ,adolph's ,court 4 4 4 ,end of ,gutenberg's ,labors 4 4 4 ,his ,death in #adfh 4 4 4 ,disposition of his ,types 4 4 4 ,his ,services not fully ,appreciated 4 4 4 ,true ,nature of his ,invention 4 4 4 ,his ,merit acknowledged by ,writers of his ,time 4 4 4 ,tablets of ,gelthus and ,wittig 4 4 4 ,permanency of ,gutenberg's ,invention4 99 99 99 99 99 ,why should we talk about monuments of bronze or marble to commemorate the services of ,gutenberg8 ,his is a monument which1 more frail than any other1 will survive them all3 it is the ,book4 ,madden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,gutenberg had been legally deprived of his printing office and of the exclusive right to his great invention1 but he was not left friendless and utterly impoverished4 ,nor was his spirit broken by this great calamity4 ,the reflection that ,fust was owner of the materials made for printing the ,bible of #db lines1 and was about to enjoy all the emoluments of the new art1 aroused ,gutenberg to rivalry4 ,he was nearly sixty years of age1 but he was vigorous in mind1 if not in body1 and evidently retained all his old power of persuasion4 ,when he determined to found a new printing office1 he found helpers3 ,conrad ,humery1 a physician1 and also clerk of the town of ,mentz1 provided him with the means1 and some of his old workmen came over to join his fortunes4 ,gutenberg had some materials toward the equipment of a new office4 ,fust's mortgage covered only the materials p#dcb made with ,fust's money for the common profit2 it did not cover the large types on ,double-pica body1 which were used upon the ,bible of #cf lines1 and other materials which might have been made in ,strasburg4 ,as these types were subsequently used in several little books which may be attributed to ,gutenberg1 we may conclude that he retained the punches and matrices in his own possession4 ,we have indirect evidence that the new printing office of ,gutenberg was in operation at the close of the year #adef4 ,with the types of ,double-pica body he printed on one side of the paper1 obviously made to be pasted on a wall1 a broad-side1 now known as the ,calendar of #adeg4 ,of this curious document1 only the half of a copy has been found--a fragment which contains the festivals and notable days for six months4 ,it is fairly printed in black ink on coarse paper4 ,it is the belief of several historians that ,gutenberg1 hot with anger at the bad faith of ,fust1 in wresting from him the honor of printing the first ,bible1 immediately undertook in his new office to publish a rival edition of the same book1 or the edition herein described as the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,the annotation in one copy of the book of the year #adei1 which is supposed to be the date of publication1 accords with the conjecture that the book begun in #adef could have been finished in three years4 ,but there is no evidence that it was begun in #adef1 while there are many indications that it was done or should have been done in #adej4 ,gutenberg had earned fame as a printer#bfh in #adeh1 but no writer of that time has said that he was then at work on the ,bible of #cf lines4 p#dcc ,we have evidence1 also1 that he was embarrassed by his debts4 ,after the year #adeg he was unable to pay the four pounds annually to the chapter of ,st4 ,thomas at ,strasburg1 as he had agreed to do in #addb4 ,the chapter summoned him to appear before a court at ,rottweil in ,suabia1 in #adfa1 but to no purpose1 for he was unable to satisfy this debt4 ,his printing materials were owned by ,conrad ,humery1 and not liable to seizure4 ,it is by no means clearly established that he was1 even then1 carrying on business in his own name4 ,helbig thinks it was the fear of legal proceedings1 if he had made himself very conspicuous1 that prevented him from putting his name on his books4 ,this omission has made it difficult to specify the books and pamphlets which are supposed to have been printed by him about this time4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,letter of ,indulgence of #adfa4 ,from ,bernard4 ,one of these works is ,the ,letter of ,indulgence of #adfa1 an indulgence granted by ,pope ,pius ,,ii to all who should contribute to the restoration of a church at ,neuhausen4 ,it is printed in a new face of type1 which should have been made before #adfj4 ,the types of this indulgence resemble those of the ,letters of ,indulgence of #cj lines and of #ca lines1 but they were cast from different matrices and in a different p#dcd mould4 ,they seem to be the production of an incompetent punch-cutter2 the letters were rudely cut1 the matrices were not properly fitted up1 and the types do not line4 ,the presswork1 upon new types1 is good4 ,in the same face of type1 but upon a body a little larger1 ,gutenberg printed the ,catholicon#bfi of #adfj1 a great folio of #gdh pages of double columns1 with #ff lines to each column4 ,in some copies of the ,catholicon1 the summary of contents is printed in red ink1 and ornamented with an engraving which fills one side of the first page4 ,the composition is as rude as that of the ,bibles2 the right side of each column is always ragged from careless spacing4 ,the colophon annexed states that the book was printed at ,mentz in #adfj1 but it does not give the name#bgj of the printer4 ,the silence of ,gutenberg concerning his services is remarkable1 all the more so1 when this silence is contrasted with the silly chatterings of several printers during the last quarter of the fifteenth century1--of whom ,peter ,schffer may be considered as the first1 and ,trechsel of ,lyons the last1--each insisting that he1 whatever others might have done before him1 was the true perfecter of printing4 ,there is no other instance in modern history1 excepting possibly that of ,shakespere1 of a man who did so much and who said so little about it4 ,this colophon is the only passage in this book1 and1 indeed1 in any of his works1 which can be attributed to ,gutenberg3 p#dce ,by the assistance of the most ,high1 at whose will the tongues of children become eloquent1 and who often reveals to babes what ,he hides from the wise1 this renowned book1 the ,catholicon1 was printed and perfected in the year of ,incarnation #adfj1 in the beloved city of ,mentz 7which belongs to the illustrious ,german nation1 and which ,god has consented to prefer and to raise with such an exalted light of the mind and of free grace1 above the other nations of the earth71 not by means of pen1 or pencil1 or stencil plate1 but by the admirable proportion1 harmony and connection of the punches and matrices4#bga ,wherefore to thee1 ,divine ,father1 ,son and ,holy ,ghost1 triune and only ,god1 let praise and honor be given1 and let those who never forget to praise the ,virgin ,mary1 join also through this book in the universal anthem of the ,church4 ,god be praised4 p#dcf ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,catholicon of #adfj4 ,from ,bernard4 ,the dignified and reverential language of this colophon1 so unlike the vainglorious imprints of ,fust and ,schffer and the commonplace subscriptions of ,pfister1 is almost enough of itself to show that the printer of the ,catholicon was ,john ,gutenberg4 ,that he should attribute the invention to the assistance and favor of the ,almighty1 might be expected from a man thoroughly imbued with religious sentiment1 but why ,gutenberg should1 in this and in all other books1 neglect to mention himself as the man through whom the invention was accomplished is an irregularity which cannot be explained4 ,this neglect is strange1 for ,fust and ,schffer had boasted1 in an imprint to the ,psalter of #adeg1 of their skill as printers4 ,five little pamphlets with texts in a new face of ,round ,gothic on ,english body1 and with chapter headings in types resembling the text types of the ,bible of #db lines1 have been attributed to ,gutenberg4 ,they are3 ,a ,treatise on the ,celebration of the ,mass1#bgb a book of #cj leaves2 ,a ,calendar1 or ,an ,almanac for #adfj1 in ,latin1 a quarto of #f leaves2 ,the ,mirror of the ,clergy1 by ,hermann of ,saldis1 8happily perfected and printed at ,mentz10 a quarto of #af leaves2 ,a ,treatise on the ,necessity of ,councils1 etc41 a quarto of #bd leaves2 ,a ,dialogue between ,cato1 ,hugo and ,oliver about ,ecclesiastical ,liberty1 p#dcg a quarto of #bj leaves4#bgc ,it is possible1 but not certain1 that ,gutenberg printed these books4 ,a ,treatise on ,reason and ,conscience1#bgd by ,matthew of ,cracow1 a small quarto of #bb leaves1 and ,a ,summary of the ,articles of ,faith1 by ,thomas ,aquinas1 a quarto of #ab leaves1 printed in the types of the ,catholicon1 may be confidently accepted as the work of ,gutenberg4 ,but one copy or fragment of some of these works is known4 ,gutenberg may have printed many other works which have been destroyed and forgotten4#bge ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,treatise on the ,celebration of the ,mass4 ,from ,fischer4 ,the existing copies or fragments of pamphlets and books printed before #adfb are enough to prove that printing met p#dch with a qualified degree of appreciation4 ,gutenberg and ,fust must have given employment to many presses and workmen3 there was a demand for printed work of all kinds from almanacs to dictionaries1 and the printers had reason to believe that they would be amply rewarded for their labor4 ,their hopes were destroyed by the sack of ,mentz in #adfb4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of ,the ,mirror of the ,clergy4 ,from ,bernard4 ,the city of ,mentz then held the first place in the league of the free cities of the ,rhine1 but her prosperity#bgf was declining4 ,unceasing civil strifes had driven away the more feeble part of her population4 ,in #adfa1 it was the wreck of its earlier greatness3 it had but #ej1jjj inhabitants and was burdened with debt4 ,diether1 ,count of ,isenburg1 was then archbishop and elector of the city1 by the consent of the majority of the inhabitants2 but the rival archbishop1 ,adolph ,,ii1 ,count of ,nassau1 supported by ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 claimed the archbishopric1 and made war upon ,diether4 ,the consequences of the war1 which nearly ruined the city1 are forcibly stated by ,schaab4 p#dci ,this enmity between two archbishops was the cause of one of the most terrible days to the town of ,mentz4 ,it was the #bhth of ,october1 #adfb1 the day on which ,christianity celebrated the anniversary of the apostles ,simon and ,judas4 ,mentz had remained faithful to the archbishop ,diether4 ,adolph therefore tried to conquer it by stratagem and treason4 ,traitors were gained over in the town1 who entailed upon a half thousand of their fellow-citizens death1 and endless misery on many more4 ,by the treachery of some wicked persons the town was assaulted during the night between the #bgth and #bhth of ,october1 #adfb1 by the followers of ,adolph2 its noblest citizens were murdered1 the most of them robbed of their possessions1 and driven from the town4 ,all kinds of mischief were committed toward those who remained behind4 ,neither age1 rank1 nor sex was exempted4 ,the booty was sold publicly in the cattle-market1 and the money divided between the soldiers4#bgg ,of the expelled citizens only a few gradually returned in secret to their relations4 ,but the town1 so populous before1 remained empty1 and all industry was destroyed4 ,the elector ,adolph ,,ii found it necessary1 on the ,saturday after ,st4 ,thomas's day of the same year1 to issue a proclamation whereby he promised to all who wished to trade or to exercise a profession in ,mentz1 protection for their persons and possessions1 to induce a few to return4 ,a town1 a short time before flourishing with commerce and industry1 had been robbed in a few days of its privileges and utterly destroyed4#bgh ,in the general sack of the city1 the house of ,fust was burned1 and his printing materials were destroyed4 ,during the three years that followed no books of value were printed in ,mentz4 ,we do not know how ,gutenberg was affected3 we find no authoritative statement that his printing office was destroyed2 it is not even certain that his office was then in the city of ,mentz4 ,in the year #adff1 the printing office which contained his types was in active operation at ,eltvill1 a village not far from the city4 ,as this was the place where ,gutenberg's mother was born1 and where she had an estate1 it is probable that ,gutenberg found some advantage in making it his residence1 soon after his separation from ,fust4 ,eltvill was also p#ddj the place which ,adolph ,,ii had selected for his residence before he made his attack on ,diether4 ,it may be presumed that ,eltvill was the place where ,adolph first knew of ,gutenberg and his works4 ,in #adfe1 ,adolph ,,ii made ,gutenberg one of the gentlemen of his court for 8agreeable and voluntary service rendered to us and our bishopric40 ,the nature of the service is not defined4 ,gutenberg was certainly not a soldier4 ,his ,german biographers do not believe that1 as diplomatist or politician1 he had favored the cause of the destroyer of the liberties of his native city4 ,helbig thinks the words used are purely conventional1 and that this distinction was conferred on ,gutenberg because he was connected with the old nobility of the city4 ,it is a more common and a more reasonable belief that ,adolph recognized1 to some extent1 the utility of ,gutenberg's invention1 and took this method to honor the inventor4 ,,we1 ,adolph1 elected and confirmed archbishop of ,mentz1 acknowledge that we have considered the agreeable and voluntary service which our dear and faithful ,johan ,gutenberg has rendered to us and our bishopric1 and have appointed and accepted him as our servant and courtier4 ,nor shall we remove him from our service as long as he lives2 and in order that he may enjoy it the more1 we will clothe him every year1 when we clothe our ordinary suite 7unsern gemeinen hoffgesind71 always like our noblemen1 and give him our court dress2 also every year twenty mout of corn and two voer of wine for the use of his house1 free of duty1 as long as he lives1 but on condition that he shall not sell it or give it away4 ,which has been promised us in good faith by ,johan ,gutenberg4 ,eltvill1 ,thursday after ,st4 ,antony1 #adfe4bgi p#dda ,the man who had invented an art which promised to renew the literature of the world1 who had printed two great ,bibles1 a ,latin ,dictionary1 and many minor works relating to religion1 had surely rendered service to the first ecclesiastical dignitary of ,germany4 ,here ,gutenberg's work ends4 ,if not disqualified by the infirmities of age from the management of his printing office1 his position as courtier must have compelled his attendance at the court of the archbishop4 ,possibly1 the rules of the court required ,gutenberg to withdraw from business4 ,whatever the reason1 we see that the printing office at ,eltvill passed into the hands of his relatives by marriage1 the brothers ,henry and ,nicholas ,bechtermntz4 ,it does not appear that these men had been formally instructed as printers in ,mentz4 ,as they acquired no rights of proprietorship in this office1 as they were men of middle age1 rich1 of noble birth and of high civic position1 it may be supposed that they took charge of the office to oblige ,gutenberg and the archbishop1 and1 perhaps1 from a pure love of the new art4 ,in the year #adfg1 this printing office at ,eltvill produced a book now known as the ,vocabularium ex quo1 called so because these first words of the work serve to distinguish it from other vocabularies4 ,it is an abbreviation of the ,catholicon1 and for that reason is described in the colophon as an opusculum1 or a little work2 but it is a heavy quarto of #ccj pages4 ,it is printed with the types of the ,catholicon1 and shows the same peculiarities of composition4 ,the colophon says that 8this little book was made1 not by reed1 nor pen1 nor stencil plate1 but by a certain new and subtile invention 4 4 4 by ,henry ,bechtermntz1 of blessed memory4#bhj 4 4 4 ,nicholas ,bechtermntz1 and ,wygand ,spyess of ,orthenburg40#bha ,gutenberg could not have abandoned his printing office with much regret4 ,he had abundantly demonstrated the p#ddb utility of his invention and his own ability as a printer by the publication of two great books and many pamphlets4 ,his art had been adopted in five ,german cities3 it was then making its entry in ,rome2 it was eagerly sought for by the king of ,france4 ,a future of unbounded popularity and usefulness was before it4 ,the young men to whom ,gutenberg had taught the practice of printing had so improved that they were his equals and superiors1 and the old man of quite seventy years could not cope with these competitors4 ,his ambition for pre-eminence in his own art1 or for the wealth that should have been derived from its practice1 if he ever had such aspirations1 had to be given up4 ,it was time that he should quit the stage4 ,gutenberg did not long enjoy the leisure or the honors of a courtier4 ,in ,february1 #adfh1 he was dead4 ,nothing is known of the cause or the circumstances of his death1 nor is there any mention of a surviving family4 ,we have to conclude that ,john ,gutenberg1 the inventor of the greatest of modern arts1 died1 weighed down by debts1 and unattended by wife or child4 ,the disposition of his printing office is stated in the following document3#bhb ,i1 ,,the undersigned1 ,conrad ,humery1 doctor1 acknowledge by this writing1 that his eminence the prince1 my gracious and dear lord ,adolphus1 archbishop of ,mentz1 has generously delivered to me certain formen matrices or moulds1 characters types1 instruments1 utensils1 and other implements connected with printing1 which ,john ,gutenberg left after his death1 which materials belonged and still belong to me3#bhc but1 for the honor and the satisfaction of his eminence ,i am bound1 and ,i pledge myself1 by this document1 never to put them to use but in the city of ,mentz1 and further1 to sell them1 at a fair price1 to a citizen of ,mentz in preference to any other4 ,in testimony whereof1 ,i have put my seal to these presents1 which have been made in the year of our ,lord #adfh1 on the ,friday after ,saint ,matthew's day #bfth of ,february4 p#ddc ,in this strange document we again find the word formen1 and the formen are specified first1 as if they were the most valuable tools4 ,as types are specifically described1 it is plain that these formen must have been matrices or moulds4 ,humery kept his word4 ,the types and tools of ,gutenberg remained with ,nicholas ,bechtermntz until his death4 ,they were then transferred to the custody or the possession of the ,brothers of the ,life-in-,common1 who had a printing office at ,marienthal1 near ,eltvill1 as early as #adfh4 ,that this place was regarded as a part of ,mentz may be inferred from the imprint they put on their first book1 which is to this effect3 ,dated in our city of ,mentz on the last day of ,august1 #adfh4 ,eltvill was the chosen residence of the archbishop1 and under his jurisdiction1 and might properly be considered as a dependency or a part of the city of ,mentz4 ,for some unknown reason these ,brothers of the ,life-in-,common made no use of the types of ,gutenberg4 ,in the year #aejh1 they were sold to ,frederic ,hauman of ,nuremberg1 who established a printing office in ,mentz1 and who used these types in many of his books4#bhd ,the house that had been occupied by ,hauman as a printing office was subsequently used for the same purpose by ,albinus1 a printer of p#ddd the seventeenth century4 ,the types of ,gutenberg were in this house at the end of the sixteenth century1 for ,serarius1 in his ,history of ,mentz1 says that he had seen them there4#bhe ,humery's promise that1 in the sale of the printing materials then contemplated1 he would give preference to a citizen of ,mentz1 was obviously made at the request of the archbishop4 ,it follows that the types of the dead printer were then regarded as relics of value of which the city should be proud4 ,this request1 which would not have been made without occasion1 seems to confirm the conjecture that ,gutenberg had previously sold the types1 or at least the matrices1 of the ,bible of #cf lines to ,albert ,pfister1 of the monastic town of ,bamberg4 ,it is not probable that the deed of gift would have been clogged with this stipulation1 if there had been no sale4 ,this request of the archbishop is the only evidence we have that ,gutenberg's work was appreciated1 but the appreciation came when he was dead4 ,no contemporary writer noticed the ,bible of #db lines1 and no one during his lifetime suitably honored ,gutenberg as a great inventor4 ,the archbishop1 who knew the merit of the man1 and pitied his misfortunes1 had not a word to say in the document that made him a courtier of his services as an inventor or printer4 ,this indifference or want of perception seems inexcusable1 but it was not altogether without cause4 ,the readers of that time were somewhat familiar with printed impressions in the form of block-books1 and the ,bible of #db lines may have seemed to them but a block-book of larger size and of higher order4 ,knowing that engraving1 ink1 paper1 and impression upon surfaces in relief1 were used in both processes1 the ordinary book-buyer could have inferred that type-printing was the natural outgrowth of the older and well-known art of block-printing4 ,according to this view1 ,gutenberg invented little or nothing2 he did but little more than combine some old and well-known processes2 he distinguished himself more by the great size of his books than by the novelty or merit p#dde of his process4 ,it is but proper to expose this sophistry1 for it is perpetuated to this day in several books on typography4 ,this grave error did not originate with the first printers1 who knew the full difference between type and block-printing4 ,they knew that ,gutenberg was indebted to the earlier block-printers for a great deal of his knowledge1 but they knew as well that his system of printing was a great and an original invention1 for they clearly understood1 what the ordinary book-reader did not1 the value of its characteristic feature4 ,and here it may be repeated1 for the error is common and it is necessary to be emphatic1 that the merit of ,gutenberg as an inventor is not based upon his supposed discovery of the advantages of movable types1 but upon the system by which he made the movable types4 ,all the printers of that period recognized the fact that ,gutenberg's method of making the types1 or the type-mould1 with its connections1 was the proper basis or starting-point of the invention4 ,schffer1 who first printed a notice of the new art1 speaks of it as the 8masterly invention of printing and also of type-making10 implying that the art of printing was inseparably connected with that of type-making4 ,john ,gutenberg1 in the ,catholicon1 has not a word to say about isolated types1 nor about a combination of types3 the admiration which he invokes for the masterly invention should1 in his view of the matter1 be bestowed on its system of making the types1 or on the 8admirable proportion1 connection and harmony of the punches and matrices40 ,gutenberg made no effort to secure for himself his rightful honors as the inventor of printing1 but his friends who knew the nature and value of his services were not neglectful4 ,we have abundant evidence that ,gutenberg was the man1 and ,mentz the place1 where printing was invented4 ,trithemius1 from information furnished by ,peter ,schffer1 said1 in a book written before #adij1 8,about this time 7#adej71 the admirable and then unheard-of art of composing and printing books1 by means of types1 was conceived and invented at ,mentz1 by a citizen of ,mentz1 named ,john ,gutenberg40 p#ddf ,matthias ,palmer1 in #adgd1 said that ,john ,gutenberg1 a knight of ,mentz1 had invented the art of printing books4 ,ulric ,zell's testimony1 given in #adii1 is equally explicit4#bhf ,polydore ,virgil1 in his treatise on ,inventions1 says1 in the first edition1 that printing was invented by one ,peter probably ,peter ,schffer1 but in the second edition of #aeag1 he corrected the error1 and attributed the invention to ,gutenberg4 ,wimpheling1 in #adii1 wrote and published at ,heidelberg some verses praising ,gutenberg1 in which he said1 8,blessed ,gensfleisch6 through you ,germany is famous everywhere4 ,assisted by ,omniscience1 you ,john1 first of all1 printed with letters in metal4 ,religion1 the wisdom of ,greece1 and the language of the ,latins1 are forever indebted to you40 ,two professors at ,heidelberg1 at an earlier date 7#adid71 had written panegyrics on ,gutenberg as the inventor of typography1 in which he is honored above all the great men of antiquity4#bhg ,two friends of ,gutenberg who1 no doubt1 knew all about his invention1 put up tablets to his memory1 in which his merit as an inventor is distinctly acknowledged4 ,the inscriptions on these tablets have not received the attention which they merit4 ,the tablet first placed was put up not long after his death by his relative1 ,adam ,gelthus1 near his tomb in the church of ,st4 ,francis4 ,this is a translation of the inscription3 ,to ,john ,genszfleisch1 inventor of the art of printing1 and deserver of the highest honors from every nation and tongue1 ,adam ,gelthus places this tablet1 in perpetual commemoration of his name4 ,his remains peacefully repose in the church of ,st4 ,francis of ,mentz4#bhh p#ddg ,gelthus properly describes ,gutenberg's invention as the art of printing4 ,in a practical view1 there was no other4 ,equally instructive is the pithy inscription on the second tablet1 which was put up by ,ivo ,wittig1#bhi in the court of the house of the ,gensfleisch family1 where ,gutenberg is supposed to have died1#bij and which was then used as a law school4 ,to ,john ,gutenberg1 of ,mentz1 who1 first of all1 invented printing letters in brass matrices and moulds1 and by this art has deserved honor from the whole world1 ,ivo ,wittig places this stone in commemoration1 #aejh4bia ,ivo ,wittig1 who had probably known ,gutenberg1 and who clearly understood his process1 is not content with a paraphrase of the ,gelthus inscription4 ,in plain words1 he specifies the key of the invention3 ,gutenberg1 first of all1 made types in brass moulds and matrices4 ,in other words1 it was only through the invention of the type-mould and matrices in brass that printing became a great art4 ,this inscription shows that p#ddh ,wittig1 then professor of history in the ,university1 and probably the most learned man in ,mentz1 regarded ,john ,gutenberg as the true inventor of printing4 ,considered from a mechanical point of view1 the merit of ,gutenberg's invention may be inferred from its permanency4 ,his type-mould was not merely the first2 it is the only practical mechanism for making types4 ,for more than four hundred years this mould has been under critical examination1 and many attempts have been made to supplant it4 ,contrivances have been invented for casting fifty or more types at one operation2 for swaging types1 like nails1 out of cold metal2 for stamping types from cylindrical steel dies upon the ends of thin copper rods--but experience has shown that these and like inventions in the department of type-making machinery are impracticable4 ,there is no better method than ,gutenberg's4 ,modern type-casting machines have moulds attached to them which are more exact and more carefully finished1 and which have many little attachments of which ,gutenberg never dreamed1 but in principle and in all the more important features1 the modern moulds may be regarded as the moulds of ,gutenberg4 ,gutenberg's merit as an original inventor1 although never properly recognized during his life1 was never denied4 ,but this merit was disallowed and set aside after his death by the sons and friends of ,peter ,schffer4 ,they said that printing was only half invented by ,gutenberg1 and that the complete invention is really due to ,gutenberg's assistant and successor4 ,as this claim has been repeated by many authors1 it is necessary1 for the vindication of ,gutenberg1 to review the work and workmanship of ,peter ,schffer and ,john ,fust4 p#ddi ,,xxiii ,the ,work of ,peter ,schffer and ,john ,fust4 ,schffer a ,copyist at ,paris in #addi 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of his ,writing 4 4 4 ,enters the ,service of ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,psalter of #adeg1 with ,fac-simile of ,types and ,initials in ,colors 4 4 4 ,accurate ,register of ,initial made by ,painting the ,cut 4 4 4 ,evidences of ,painting 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of ,colophon in ,colors 4 4 4 ,different ,theories concerning the ,method of ,printing 4 4 4 ,schffer's ,first ,claim as an ,inventor 4 4 4 ,psalter probably ,planned by ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,fac-similes of the ,types of the ,rationale ,durandi and of the ,bible of #adfb 4 4 4 ,trade-,mark of ,fust and ,schffer 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,constitutions 4 4 4 ,jenson's ,mission to ,mentz 4 4 4 ,printing not a ,secret 4 4 4 ,death of ,fust 4 4 4 ,partnership of ,schffer and ,conrad ,fust 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of ,types of #adfh 4 4 4 ,schffer becomes a ,judge 4 4 4 ,schffer's ,claim to the ,invention of ,matrices 4 4 4 ,statements of ,john ,schffer and of ,trithemius 4 4 4 ,their ,improbability 4 4 4 ,statement of ,jo4 ,frid4 ,faustus 4 4 4 ,its ,untrustworthiness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the man who enters the service of ,gutenberg and ,fust at ,mentz after #adej1 when the invention was completed1 and has yet the courage to declare in #adfh1 that he1 ,petrus1 entered first of all the sanctuary of the art1 is1 notwithstanding all his technical ability as a typographer1 a bragger1 against whose information we ought to be on our guard4 ,van der ,linde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,peter ,schffer was born at ,gernszheim1 a little village situated on the ,rhine1 near ,mentz1 about the year #adcj4 ,before he was twenty years of age1 he was copying books at ,paris1 as is clearly enough shown in the colophon of an old manuscript book1 which says that 8this book was completed by me1 ,peter1 of ,gernszheym1 or of ,mentz1 during the year #addi1 in the most glorious ,university of ,paris40 ,this isolated fact is the only authority for the assertion that ,schffer was a calligrapher1 engaged by ,gutenberg to design the letters and ornaments of the ,bible of #db lines4 ,he may have been qualified for this service1 but the thin letters and angular ornaments of his colophon are not like the thick types and flowing lines of ,gutenberg's ,bible4 ,like all poor students p#dej of his time1 ,schffer was a copyist1 but we have no evidence that he was a calligrapher or an illuminator4 ,as a student of the ,university of ,paris1 he was qualified to read and correct the proofs of a ,bible in ,latin1 and this may have been the duty for which he was engaged4 ,if so1 he was not really needed in the printing office until the types were founded1 or until #adec2 but whether he came then or before1 it is obvious that he entered the printing office as a boy from school1 and that all he knew of printing was taught him by ,gutenberg4 ,he proved an apt scholar4 ,fust's confidence in his ability is enough to show that he had added skill to his knowledge1 and that1 when ,gutenberg departed1 he was competent to supervise and manage all the departments of the printing office4 ,illustration3 ,reduced ,fac-simile of a ,colophon written by ,schffer4 ,from ,madden4 ,bernard thinks that ,schffer's first work in his new place was to change the appearance of the ,bible of #db lines#bib by the cancellation of eight pages of #db lines1 and the substitution of pages of #dj lines1 with summaries printed in red ink4 ,the extraordinary licence then enjoyed by copyists allowed the compositor to abbreviate the words of a manuscript copy p#dea of #db lines1 until they were crowded into the space of #dj lines4 ,the page was made of full length by leading out1 or by widening the lines with bands of stout parchment4 ,the first book published by ,fust1 after his separation from ,gutenberg1 was the ,psalter#bic of #adeg1 a folio of #age leaves1 which is almost as famous as the ,bible of #db lines4 ,only seven fair copies of the edition of #adeg are known1 and all of them are on vellum4 ,the leaves of this book are nearly square1 smaller in size than those of the ,bible of #db lines1 but1 like that book1 they are made up1 for the most part1 in sections of ten nested leaves4 ,the size of the printed page is irregular1 but most pages are about #h inches wide and #ab inches high4 ,the ,psalms are printed in types of ,double-paragon body1 and the introductory or connecting text in types of ,double-great-primer body4#bid ,as the cut or fashion of these types is like that of the ,bibles of ,gutenberg1 it is possible that they were designed by the same hand4 ,the leaf was not broad enough for the large-sized types1 but a very large portion of it was given up to the initial letters and their pendants1 which are of unusual dimensions4 ,the space allotted to the print is small3 but a few lines of the large types could be put on a page1 and on many pages it was necessary to use small types4 ,the fault of uneven or ragged outline on the right side of the page1 which has been noticed in the ,bible of #db lines1 is repeated more strikingly in the ,psalter4 ,here and there spaces were made for plain chant notes of music1 parts of which appear in printing ink1 while other parts seem to have been retraced with a pen4 ,it is obviously an imitation not only of the copyist's but of the illuminator's work upon a fine manuscript4 ,it was intended that the book should show the full capacity of the newly discovered art4 ,letters and lines in red ink are to p#deb be found on every page1 and there are many very large and profusely ornamented initials in red and blue inks4 ,to the young reader who is accustomed to the severe and colorless style of modern printing1 the boldness and blackness of the stately text types of this ,psalter1 the brightness of its rubrics1 and the graceful forms of its two-colored initials1 are really bewildering4 ,they lead him to the belief that the workmanship of the book is of the highest order4 ,this has been the opinion of many eminent authors2#bie the ,psalter of #adeg has been called the perfection of printing4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of ,part of the ,first ,page of the ,psalter of #adeg4 ,from ,humphreys4 ,the initial letter ,b1 the largest in the book1 which is at the beginning of the first ,psalm1 ,beatus vir1 has been often reproduced1 and commended as an example of skillful engraving1 brilliant color and faultless register4 ,the design is beautiful1 and admirably fitted for relief printing1 but it is not in the ,gothic or ,german style3 the palm-leaf fillet-work is oriental1 and was probably copied from some ,spanish manuscript1 the illuminator of which had been taught in the ,moorish schools4 ,in a few copies1 the letter is red and the ornament is blue2 in other copies1 the colors are reversed4 ,in all copies the thin white line which separates the red from the blue is always of uniform thickness3 there is no overlapping or meeting of the adjacent colors4 ,the register is without fault in all the copies4 ,the quality of the ink has been greatly praised3 we are told p#ded that the black of the text is very deep and glossy1 that the red has a vividness of color1 and the blue a delicacy of tint1 not to be found in the productions of any modern printer4 ,it has been asserted that this ,psalter is more neatly printed than any modern book2 that ,schffer1 with rudely made types1 a rough press of wood1 and with small experience in1 or scientific knowledge of1 ink-making1 succeeded in producing presswork that has never been excelled on modern presses4 ,these bold assertions require careful examination4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile1 slightly reduced1 of the ,colophon of the ,psalter of #adeg4 ,from ,falkenstein4 ,the few experts in printing who have examined copies of this book have been so cowed by the rulings of eminent bibliographers that they have not1 apparently1 dared to trust their own observation4 ,savage was the first to refuse the dictum of authorities and tell us what he saw with his own eyes4 ,he distinctly says that the blackness of some notes of music was made by retracing with a pen#bif the faded lines of a paler printed color4 ,bernard#big and ,humphreys#bih plainly say that in the fine copy of the ,mentz ,psalter at the ,british ,museum1 some lines of text have been written in by hand4 ,humphreys thinks that this filling in of lines may have been done when the book was published4 ,we have here trusty evidence that the printing of the ,psalter was imperfect3 that in some places the ink was too weak1#bii and that the deeper p#def color was produced by painting the letters with a pen4 ,the brilliancy of the black ink has consequently been unwisely praised1 for it is a triumph not of printing1 but of painting4 ,the same observation may be applied to the colored ink of the great initials4 ,savage denies the statement of ,papillon that the red ink is of the most perfect beauty3 he says that 8it is a very heavy brick-dust color40 ,heineken says it is a dull red4 ,a closer examination of the book revealed the fact to ,savage that the initials also had been retraced or painted4 ,i could not avoid expressing my astonishment at seeing in some pages two distinct red inks3 one1 the dull color before spoken of1 and the other1 a red which1 in printing1 might fairly be called of the most perfect beauty2 and ,i had nearly left it with the belief that there were two inks1 red and blue1 used in the printing of the book1 which1 for brilliancy of color1 would set at defiance all the efforts of the present day to equal them4 ,some accidental circumstance caused me to view the book in a different light1 when ,i discovered that the beautiful red was not printed but written in1 so exactly like the type that it could only be ascertained by the want of indentation in the paper1 which is invariably produced by pressure in the process of printing4 ,by the same means1 ,i also ascertained that the fine delicate blue was painted4 ,thus the colors produced by printing in the capital letters are reduced to two1 namely1 dull blue and dull red4#cjj ,it is not difficult to explain this curious circumstance4 ,the red and blue printing inks first used by ,schffer were so dull and faded that he would not suffer them to be compared with the brighter colors of fair manuscripts4 ,he was compelled to brighten the colors by painting4 ,although sold as a printed book1 the ,psalter was the joint work of the printer and the illuminator1 and the features which the modern bibliographer most admires are those made by the illuminator4 ,the process employed by the printer of the ,psalter for securing an exact register of the colors was just as irregular4 ,it is an error to assume that the two-colored initials were printed as similar work is now printed1 by two impressions4 ,bernard says that the red and the blue blocks of the initials1 p#deg each engraved on a separate piece of wood1 were made to fit each other1 so that the red block should fit accurately in the mortised blue block4 ,in the process of printing1 each block was separately inked1 but the red block was dropped in the mortise of the blue block before impression was taken4#cja ,after these painstaking preparations1 exact register was inevitable4 ,blades does not accept this explanation4 ,he thinks that the engraving for the red and the blue ink was done on one block1 which was not printed with ink1 but was embossed in the paper as a guide to the colorist4 ,he says that his examination of the two-colored initial letters of a ,bible made by ,sweynheim and ,pannartz in #adfg proves that they were not printed1 but embossed1 in the white paper2 that the paper mask on the frisket was left uncut over the engraving1 so as to shield the white paper from the ink1 and to deepen the indentation of the engraved lines2 and that the illuminator made use of this indentation1 as he would of a pencil drawing1 to guide his pen or brush when laying on the colors4 ,he further says#cjb that a similar operation was carelessly done in parts of the ,psalter of #adeg2 that some of the spiral lines1 finials and ornaments were left uncolored1 but that the process was plainly exposed by the indentation of the engraved lines4 ,it is not necessary to accept ,blades' opinion that the coloring was done entirely with pen or brush3 the few uncolored lines in the initials of the ,mentz ,psalter may be regarded as blemishes occasioned by an accidental overlapping of the mask on the frisket4 ,savage's statement that the blocks were printed with ink is too positive to be disputed4 ,nor is it necessary to accept the hypothesis of ,bernard that the blocks were engraved in two pieces and mortised1 that they might be printed by one impression4 ,we may rightfully suppose p#deh that ,schffer tried to imitate the work of the illuminator by the imitation of his method4 ,to engrave the initial and the ornament around it on one block1 to paint the letter in one color and the ornament in another1 and to print both colors by one impression1 seemed the surest way to do the work4 ,that this was the intention of the designer of the letters is evident from the manner in which the colors are divided4 ,contrary to the usage of the illuminators1 who were fond of interweaving colors1 each color was kept apart in a mass1 that it might be inked with greater facility4 ,and this inking was probably done with a brush4 ,blue ink was painted on the letter1 and red ink on the ornament1 at a great sacrifice of time1 but with neatness and without any interference of the colors4#cjc ,it should not surprise us that exact register was secured1 but it was more a feat of painting than of printing4#cjd ,setting aside the colors1 the workmanship of the ,psalter is not neater than that of the ,bible of #db lines4 ,the right side of every page is much more ragged#cje through bad spacing2 typographical errors#cjf are more frequent2 the lines are often bowed or bent in the centre from careless locking up4 ,the presswork is not good2 the pages are dark and light from uneven inking1 and the types have a grimy appearance1 as if p#dei they had been inked with foul balls and printed on over-wet vellum4 ,the colophon or imprint attached to this book says3 ,this book of ,psalms1 decorated with antique initials1 and sufficiently emphasized with rubricated letters1 has been thus made by the masterly invention of printing and also of type-making1 without the writing of a pen1 and is consummated to the service of ,god1 through the industry of ,johan ,fust1 citizen of ,mentz1 and ,peter ,schffer of ,gernszheim1 in the year of our ,lord #adeg1 on the eve of the ,assumption ,august #ad4 ,this imprint is ingeniously worded4 ,fust and ,schffer do not say1 in plain words1 that they were the inventors of printing2 they invite attention to the red ink and the two-colored initials which were here used in printing1 with fine effect4 ,they speak of rubricated printing and of the invention of printing as if they were inseparable4 ,they suppress the name of ,gutenberg1 and induce the reader to believe that ,fust and ,schffer were not only the first to print with letters in red ink1 but the first to discover and use the masterly invention4 ,this insinuated pretense had the effect which was1 no doubt1 intended4 ,by many readers of that century1 ,peter ,schffer was regarded as the man who planned and printed the ,psalter1 the man who made the types1 not only of this book1 but of the ,bible of #db lines4 ,made bold by the silence of ,gutenberg1 ,schffer allowed1 if he did not positively authorize1 the statement to be made by his friends1 that he was the true inventor of printing2 that he took up the art where ,gutenberg left it incomplete1 and perfected it4 ,before this assertion can be examined1 it will be proper to consider the date of #adeg in the imprint of the ,psalter4 ,if ,schffer planned and printed the book1 he did all the work in the twenty-one months following ,gutenberg's expulsion from the partnership4 ,this is an unreasonable proposition1 for the book should have been in press or in preparation as long as the ,bible of #db lines4 ,it is quite probable that the ,psalter was planned and left incomplete by ,gutenberg4 ,the types1 which are like those of ,gutenberg's ,bible1 are unlike any types p#dfj subsequently made by ,schffer4 ,the great initials in colors are of the same design as the initials of the ,donatuses shown by ,fischer1 and by him attributed to ,gutenberg4 ,the careful manner in which they were engraved indicates experience as well as skill on the part of the engraver2 but it is not possible that the engraver was ,schffer1 or any workmen attached to his office1 for ,schffer never after printed any engravings on wood of equal merit4#cjg ,the sumptuous style of the ,psalter is unlike that of any book afterward made by ,schffer2 it is in a style which he did not originate1 and could not sustain4 ,he reprinted it in #adei1 in #adij1 and in #aejb1 but the later editions were not printed so well as the first4#cjh ,the inferiority of the later workmanship is evidence that the master mind who planned the work was not at the head of the printing office4 ,on the sixth day of ,october1 #adei1 ,fust published the ,rationale ,durandi1 or the exposition1 by ,durandus1 of the services of the church4 ,it is a folio of #afj leaves1 #b columns to the page1 in types on ,english body1 #fc lines to the column4 ,it has many rubricated letters and lines1 and ends with a colophon1 in red ink1 worded like the ,psalter of #adeg1 but with the addition of the words1 8clerk of the diocese of ,mentz10 after the name of ,peter ,schffer4 ,the statement in the colophon1 that it was made without the writing of a pen1 is not entirely true4 ,there are two kinds of copies3 one has printed capitals like those of the ,psalter1 the other has illuminated initials4 ,to provide suitable spaces for these written initials1 which are of large size1 the types were overrun and re-arranged4 ,if ,schffer had been an able calligrapher1 he would have p#dfa demonstrated his ability by the production of types of finer proportions than those of ,gutenberg4 ,if he was an expert type-founder1 and the inventor of the type-mould1 he should have proved his skill by casting types of neater finish4 ,the first types made by him or by his order after his separation from ,gutenberg are exhibited in the ,rationale ,durandi1 but they do not warrant the opinion that he was a very skillful designer or an ingenious type-founder4 ,the combination of ,gothic and ,roman which he there exhibited is evidently an imitation of the ,round ,gothic face used by ,gutenberg in the ,letters of ,indulgence and the ,catholicon4 ,schffer's types present no features of superiority3 they show mannerisms of engraving so like those of ,gutenberg's types as to lead to the opinion that both were made by the same punch-cutter4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,text ,types of the ,rationale ,durandi4 ,from ,bernard4 ,in the following year 7#adfj71 ,schffer and ,fust finished a stout folio1 which was printed in a ,round ,gothic face on the larger body of ,great-primer4 ,this book1 the ,constitutions 7or ,body of ,divinity7 of ,pope ,clement ,v1 with the ,commentaries of ,bishop ,john ,andrew1 has been much admired by bibliographers for its composition4 ,the fac-simile on a following page shows the text of the pope nested in the commentaries of the bishop--truly 8a rivulet of text in a meadow of notes40 ,in some pages the text occupies about one-third1 in other pages about one-sixth1 of the space assigned to the print4 p#dfb ,the composition of pages so unevenly balanced must have taxed the ingenuity of the compositor1 but he was materially aided by the licence permitting frequent use of abbreviations4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,bible of #adfb4 ,from ,bernard4 ,these types are cast in evener line than the types of the ,rationale1 but the face is not of neater cut4 ,the presswork is not good4 ,the colophon1 which is like that of the ,psalter1 states that the red letters have been printed by the masterly invention of type-making2 but the red letters are the ones interspersed in the text4 ,the great initials were not printed2 the blank space left for them was filled up by the illuminator4 ,this book was even more popular than the ,psalter2 it was reprinted four times1 but always in the same form4 ,illustration3 ,the ,mark of ,fust and ,schffer4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of a part of a ,page of the ,constitutions of ,pope ,clement ,v4 ,the paragraph marks were written in red ink4 ,from ,humphreys4 ,in #adfb ,schffer printed a new edition of the ,latin ,bible1 in the ,great-primer types of the ,constitutions1 in folio form1 two columns to the page1 and #dh lines to the column4 ,it is the first ,bible with printed date4 ,according to modern taste1 ,schffer's change from ,pointed ,gothic to ,round ,gothic was not happy1 for the new face is inferior in design and execution4 ,but the ,round ,gothic permitted the compression of the book within fewer pages1 and was a more economical letter for the printer4 ,the second volume has1 in some copies1 a colophon worded like that of the p#dfd ,psalter of #adeg1 setting forth that 8this little book was made by the masterly invention of printing and of type-making1 without any writing of a pen20 in other copies1 obviously of the same edition1 this clause does not appear4 ,this is but one of many variations in this book which can be satisfactorily explained only by ,madden's theory of a double composition4 ,the war between ,diether and ,adolph for the possession of the electorate of ,mentz was the occasion of some curious proclamations which were printed in the types of ,schffer4#cji ,two editions1 one in ,latin1 one in ,german1 of a ,bull of ,pope ,pius ,,ii against the ,turks1 dated ,october #bb1 #adfc1 have also been attributed to ,schffer4 ,the capture and sack of ,mentz brought great misfortune to ,fust and ,schffer4 ,we are told that the house and materials of ,fust were burned2 but it is plain that he saved his punches and matrices1 for we see that the old faces of type were used in all the later books of ,fust and ,schffer4 ,the printed proclamations of ,adolph show that ,fust soon refurnished his office1 and began to print4 ,with his fellow-citizens1 he suffered from the paralysis to industry inflicted by the war4 ,there was no encouragement for enterprise4 ,there is no book bearing the imprint of ,fust and ,schffer between the years #adfb and #adfd4 ,the unemployed workmen of ,fust and p#dfe ,schffer were obliged to leave the city4 ,in leaving it1 they carried with them the knowledge of the new art1 which1 in a few years1 they established in all the larger cities of ,europe4 ,the ,bible of #adfb found few purchasers in ,mentz4 ,the demand in the city had already been supplied with the ,bibles of #cf lines and of #db lines1 and buyers from abroad shunned a city subject to siege and to civil war4 ,leaving ,schffer to take care of the business of the printing office1 ,fust took the unsold ,bibles to ,paris1 where he believed they would find a more generous appreciation4 ,for it seems that1 in #adeh1 the king of ,france had sent ,nicholas ,jenson to ,mentz to get a knowledge of the practice of typography1 the fame of which had then reached ,france1 and it is supposed that ,jenson gave to ,fust the information that there was a demand for printing in ,paris4 ,this is the official record of the proposed mission4#caj ,on the third day of ,october1 #adeh1 the king ,charles ,,vii1 having learned that ,messire ,guthemburg1 chevalier1 a resident of ,mentz in ,germany1 a man dexterous in engraving and in types and punches1 had perfected the invention of printing with types and punches1 curious concerning this mystery1 the king ordered the chiefs of the mint to nominate some persons of proper experience in engraving of a similar nature1 so that he could secretly send them to the said place1 to obtain information about the said form type-mould and invention1 there to hear1 to consider1 and to learn the art4 ,this mandate of the king was obeyed1 and it was directed that ,nicholas ,jenson should make the journey1 by means of which the knowledge of the art and its establishment should be achieved in this realm1 and it should be his 7,jenson's7 duty to first give the art of printing to the said realm4#caa p#dff ,the description of printing here given is singularly exact4 ,it is not surprising that the existence of the new art was then known in ,paris1 for the colophon to the ,psalter of #adeg had announced the masterly invention2 but it is strange that this document specified its characteristic features--the formen1 or the matrices and type-mould1 the types1 punches and engraving4 ,we see that the secret was revealed2 that ,frenchmen in #adeh had a correct idea of the vital principle of printing1 and that all they required was a knowledge of its manipulations4 ,eager to prevent the threatened rivalry of ,jenson1 ,fust appeared in ,paris1 in #adfb1 with copies of the ,bible1#cab while ,jenson was ineffectually soliciting the new king to aid him4 ,so far from being persecuted in ,paris1 ,fust was received with high consideration1 not only by the king1 but by the leading men of the city4 ,he was encouraged to establish in ,paris a store for the sale of his books1 and to repeat his visit4 ,in #adfe1 ,schffer printed the ,decretals of ,boniface ,,viii1 a folio of #ada leaves1 each page containing a text in large types1 surrounded by notes in small types4 ,red letters and lines are introduced1 but there are no engravings1 and the presswork is in no point better than that of the ,bible of #adfb4 ,the colophon exhibits an unscrupulous appropriation of the p#dfg words of the colophon of the ,catholicon of #adfj2cac but1 unlike the printer of that book1 ,fust and ,schffer here advertise themselves as the men most intimately connected with the great invention4 ,we can plainly see their strong desire to be regarded as the first printers1 but there is as yet no clear statement that ,schffer was the real inventor of printing4 ,in the same year was printed by ,fust and ,schffer an edition of ,the ,offices of ,cicero1 a small quarto of #hh leaves1 in their smaller size of ,round ,gothic types4 ,to make the book of proper thickness1 and perhaps to improve the appearance of the types1 which show signs of wear1 ,schffer put thick leads1 about one-tenth of an inch thick1 between the lines4 ,as it is the first book in which leads of perceptible thickness were used1 this real improvement in printing may be attributed to ,schffer4 ,this edition of ,cicero is also distinguished as the first book in which ,greek letters were printed2 but these letters were not types--they were engraved on wood in a rude manner4#cad ,this edition of ,cicero has the following colophon3 ,this very celebrated work of ,marcus ,tullius1 ,i1 ,john ,fust1 a citizen of ,mentz1 have happily completed1 through the hands of ,peter1 my son1 not with writing ink1 nor with pen1 nor yet in brass1#cae but with a certain art exceedingly beautiful4 ,dated #adfe4caf ,the ,cicero was reprinted on ,february #d1 #adff4 ,soon after its publication1 ,fust made another ,journey to ,paris4#cag ,before he could perfect his arrangements for the sale of his books1 ,paris was depopulated by the plague1 and it is the common p#dfh belief that ,fust was one of its victims4 ,this is not certainly known1 but he was dead on the thirtieth day of ,october1 #adff1 the date of the first mass instituted for him at the ,church of ,saint ,victor at ,paris1 where his body was buried4#cah ,after ,fust's death1 ,peter ,schffer took his place at the head of the printing house4 ,it seems1 however1 that he had a partner1 one ,conrad ,fust1 or ,conrad ,hanequis1 who was1 no doubt1 the ,henlif mentioned in the record of the ,church of ,saint ,victor4#cai ,a book belonging to the ,church of ,saint ,peter of ,mentz contains the following record of their application for the manuscript of a book to which they wished to refer3 ,on ,tuesday evening1 ,january #ad1 #adfh1 the dean and the canons of the chapter being assembled in the court of ,rhingrave1 the discreet man1 ,conrad ,fust1 citizen of ,mentz1 respectfully requested of their reverences that they would be pleased to lend to him1 and also to ,peter1 the husband of his daughter1 a book from the library of our church1 to be used as a copy1 namely3 the ,saint ,thomas of ,aquinas1 entitled ,liber super quarto sententiarum1 and of which they wish to make many copies4 ,the canons1 considering that this request was just and pious1 and that it would be productive of good1 consented to the request1 on condition1 however1 that he should replace this book1 together with the ,decretals of ,boniface1 and further1 that he should give proper security to the canons4 ,it was so done4#cbj p#dfi ,soon after ,gutenberg's death1 ,schffer put forth this artful claim for recognition as one of the inventors of the new art3 ,illustration3 ,portrait of ,peter ,schffer4 ,from ,dahl4 ,moses1 in the plan of the tabernacle1 and ,solomon1 in the plan of the temple1 did nothing more than imagine a meritorious work4 ,the merit of constructing the temple was greater than ,solomon's thought4 ,hiram and ,beselehel1 greater than ,solomon1 improved on the plans of ,solomon and ,moses4 ,he who is pleased to endow mighty men with knowledge has given us two distinguished masters in the art of engraving1 both bearing the name of ,john1 both living in the city of ,mentz1 and both illustrious as the first printers of books4 ,in company with these masters1 ,peter hastened toward the same end4#cba ,the last to leave1 he was the first to arrive2 for he excelled in the science of engraving1 through the grace of ,him only who can give genius and inspiration4 ,hereafter every nation may procure proper types of its own characters1 for he excels in the engraving of all kinds of types4 ,it would be almost incredible were ,i to specify the great sums which he pays to the wise men who correct his editions4 ,he has in his employ1 the professor ,francis1 the grammarian1 whose methodical science is admired all over the world4 ,i1 also1 am attached to him1 not by any greed of filthy lucre1 but by my love for the general good1 and for the honor of my country4 ,oh that they who set the types and they who read the proofs would free their texts from errors6 ,the lovers of literature would certainly reward them with crowns of honor when with their books1 they come to aid the students in thousands of schools4#cbb p#dgj ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the ,types of the ,latin ,grammar of #adfh4 ,a bold-faced ,round ,gothic on ,english ,body4 ,from ,bernard4 ,in this colophon1 ,schffer claims superior skill as a letter-cutter4 ,this pretension must be tested by his works4 ,his first types1 on ,english body1 appeared in #adei1 at least four years after ,gutenberg's expulsion from the partnership2 his next types1 on ,great-primer body1 appeared in #adfb2 his last types1 a very bold-faced ,round ,gothic on ,english body1 were first shown in #adfb1 and this new face is but a font of small letters fitted to the capitals of the ,english of #adei4cbc ,these are the only types made by ,schffer4 ,if we compare them with the types of ,gutenberg1 it will be perceived that they are fewer in number and of inferior design and execution4 ,it is absurd for ,schffer to claim even equal merit with ,gutenberg either as letter-cutter or type-founder4 ,schffer's real merit is to be found in his eminence as a man of business4 ,he was1 no doubt1 chosen as ,gutenberg's successor1 for his presumed ability as a manager and a sharp financier4 ,this presumption was warrantable4 ,his subsequent management of the printing office shows that he was a thorough man of business--a born trader4 ,he has not shown that he was a mechanic or an inventor4 ,like ,john ,fust1 he practised printing1 not because he loved it for its own sake1 but because he loved its excitement and its promised rewards4 p#dga ,schffer established agencies for the sale of his books in ,lubec#cbd and ,frankfort1#cbe and probably in other cities4 ,he sold not only his own books1 but those of other printers4#cbf ,we have many evidences that he was unwearied in the prosecution of his business1 which seems to have been attended with much risk of loss4#cbg ,his prosperity was at its highest point in #adgf1 in which year he printed four large books4 ,after #adhj1 his interest in the printing office began to decline4 ,between #adij and #aejb1 but six books were issued from his office4 ,it is worthy of note that his last book was the fourth edition of the ,psalter1 the book with which he began his typographical career4 ,during his later years1 ,schffer was made a judge4 ,his official duties prevented him from giving close attention to his printing office2 but printing was neglected by him because it had almost ceased to be profitable4 ,he had competitors1 not only in ,rome1 ,paris and ,venice1 but in all the larger cities of ,germany1 and even in ,mentz and ,strasburg--competitors who were more skillful as printers and more shrewd as publishers4 ,they had perceived that the art of printing would be of little advantage to them1 and of little service to the world1 if its practice was confined to the servile imitation of manuscript books1 or if it expected to derive a generous support exclusively from the rich1 or from men of taste and men of letters4 ,the younger printers saw that it was necessary that books p#dgb should be made more cheaply1 and in more convenient forms4 ,with this end in view1 they introduced the cheaper size of octavo1 which was much handier than the unwieldy folio or quarto4 ,the rubricated letters and lines were supplanted by initials and borders engraved on wood and printed with the types in black ink4 ,the fashion of surrounding a text with notes1 and of making notes and text in measures of different width and length on every page1 was abandoned3 the text was put at the top and the notes at the bottom4 ,signatures1 catch-words1 paging-figures1 blank spaces between chapters1 and the division of matter in paragraphs1 were introduced4 ,but the greatest innovation was in the letters themselves4 ,when ,nicholas ,jenson introduced ,roman types1 and proved the superior legibility of light and simple lines1 the popularity of the sombre ,gothic in ,southern ,europe came to an end4 ,the new fashions were adopted by many printers in ,germany1 but they were not approved by ,schffer1 who resisted them till his death4 ,in his judgment1 the only model for a printed book was the ,gothic manuscript copy1 and he copied it as closely as he could1 with all its imperfections4#cbh ,this curt review of the works and workmanship of ,peter ,schffer should be enough to show that his reputation as the father of letter-founders1 and the inventor of matrices and the type-mould1 is entirely undeserved4 ,his types show that he had no skill as a letter-cutter or mechanic4 ,it is not possible that a man who has shown such feeble evidences of mechanical ability could have been the first inventor of the matrices and the type-mould4 ,while ,gutenberg and ,fust were living1 ,schffer never made the claim that he was the inventor1 or even a co-inventor1 of printing4 ,but when they were buried1 he claimed that he was superior to both1 and that he was really the first to enter the sanctuary of the art4 ,in #adfh1 he p#dgc falsely said that although ,gutenberg was the first inventor1 he was the man who perfected the art4 ,it seems that he must have told his friends many things about his pretended services which he was unwilling to print4 ,in #aejc1 ,john ,schffer said in his first book that he was a descendant of the inventor of the almost divine art of printing4 ,in #aeji1 he says in another book that his grandfather was the first inventor of printing4 ,in #aeae1cbi he printed this extraordinary statement3 ,the printing of this chronicle was completed in the year of our ,lord #aeae1 in the vigil of the ,virgin ,margaret1 in the noble and famous city of ,mentz1 where the art of printing was first developed1 by ,john ,schffer1 descendant of the honest man1 ,john ,fust1 citizen of ,mentz1 and inventor of the before-mentioned art4 ,it was in the year #adej1 in the #acth indiction1 under the reign of the very illustrious ,roman ,emperor ,frederic ,,iii1 the very reverend father in ,christ1 ,lord ,theodoric1 grand cup-bearer of ,erpach1 prince elector1 occupying the archiepiscopal chair in ,mentz1 that this ,john ,fust began to devise1 and finally invented1 solely through his own genius1 the art of printing4 ,aided by divine favor1 in the year #adeb1 he had so far improved and developed his art1 that he was able to print2 in which work1 however1 he was indebted for many improvements to the ingenuity of ,peter ,schffer of ,gernszheim1 his workman and his adopted son1 to whom1 in acknowledgment of his many services and his skill1 he gave the hand of his daughter1 ,christina ,fust4 ,these two men1 ,john ,fust and ,peter ,schffer1 carefully retained to their own advantage the secrets of the art2 and for this purpose1 they demanded from their workmen and servants an oath that they should not in any way divulge the process4 ,notwithstanding this precaution1 in the year #adfb the knowledge of the art was carried by their workmen to distant countries1 and printing thereby secured a wide development4 p#dgd ,the thorough dishonesty of this statement is abundantly proved by its suppression of the name and services of ,gutenberg4 ,it is also evident that the writer could not1 or dared not1 point out the improvements which he alleges were made by ,schffer4 ,this deficiency was soon supplied by a more credulous writer4 ,about #aead1 ,trithemius1#ccj one of the most learned men of that century1 wrote the following description of the invention1 which he says he had from ,peter ,schffer himself3 ,it was at this period 7#adej7 in ,mentz1 a city of ,germany on the ,rhine1 and not in ,italy1 as some people have falsely asserted1 that this admirable1 and till then unheard-of1 art of printing books by the aid of types was planned and invented by ,john ,gutenberg1 a citizen of ,mentz4 ,when he had spent all his property in his search after this art1 and was almost overwhelmed with difficulties1 unable to find relief from any quarter1 and meditating the abandonment of his project1 ,gutenberg was enabled by the counsel and by the money of ,john ,fust1 also a citizen of ,mentz1 to finish the work which he had begun4 ,they first printed1 with engravings of letters on blocks of wood1 arranged in proper order in the manner of ordinary manuscripts1 the vocabulary then called the ,catholicon2 but with the letters on these blocks they were not able to print anything else1 for the letters were not movable1 but fixed and unalterable upon the blocks1 as has been stated4 ,to this invention succeeded another much more ingenious4 ,they discovered a method of founding the forms of all the letters of the ,latin alphabet1 which they called matrices1 from which matrices they again founded types1 either in tin or in brass1 strong enough for any pressure1 which types8 before this had been cut by hand4 ,in right earnest1 ,i was told1 nearly thirty years ago1 by ,peter ,schffer of ,gernszheim1 citizen of ,mentz1 the son-in-law of the first inventor1 that this art of printing had encountered1 in its first essays1 great difficulties4 ,for1 when they were printing the ,bible1 they were obliged to expend more than #d1jjj florins before they had printed three sections sixty pages4 ,but the ,peter ,schffer already mentioned1 at that time a workman1 but afterward son-in-law1 as has been said1 of the first inventor1 ,john ,fust1 a man skillful and ingenious1 devised a more easy method of founding types1 and thus gave the art its present perfection4 ,and the three men kept secret among themselves1 for a while1 this method of printing1 up to the time when their workmen were deprived of the work1 without which they were unable to practise their trade1 by whom it was divulged1 first in ,strasburg1 and afterward in other cities4 p#dge ,there are many inaccuracies in this statement4 ,gutenberg and ,fust are represented as foolishly squandering money in vain efforts to invent xylography1 a method of printing then in common use in many cities of ,germany1 ,italy and ,holland4 ,the ,catholicon1 which is mentioned as one of the productions of block-printing1 was printed from metal types in #adfj4 ,in the beginning1 ,gutenberg is acknowledged as the inventor of printing1 yet1 a few lines further1 we are told that ,fust was the first inventor4 ,and it seems that ,gutenberg could do nothing with his invention until helped by the advice1 as well as the money1 of ,john ,fust4 ,after the improved invention1#cca ,gutenberg and ,fust fell in hopeless difficulties1 having spent four thousand florins before they had completed sixty pages of the ,bible4 ,from these difficulties they were extricated by ,peter ,schffer1 8son-in-law of the first inventor10 who invented a more easy method of making types1 and who gave the art its present perfection1 and without whose aid the earlier inventions would have been of little value4 ,the intention of the writer is plain3 ,gutenberg1 ,fust and ,schffer may be regarded as co-inventors1 but ,schffer did the most effective service4 ,it is a curious fact that this paper1 which has been so often quoted as evidence in favor of ,schffer's invention of matrices1 p#dgf positively says that matrices had already been used by ,fust and ,gutenberg4 ,before ,schffer's name is mentioned1 it is said that 8they0 ,fust and ,gutenberg discovered a method of making matrices4 ,trithemius says that ,schffer's contribution to the invention was 8a more easy method of founding types1 by which he gave the art its present perfection40 ,he does not explain this easy method4 ,we do not know whether his claimed improvement was in the mould or matrix1 in its construction or in its manipulation2 but it was not origination or invention1 it was improvement only4 ,the passage which seems to say that the first types were cut by hand does not require much comment4 ,trithemius may have misunderstood1 and incorrectly reported1 what he heard1 or ,schffer may have misrepresented the facts4 ,it is evident that ,trithemius is in error2 for cut types1 cut either as to body or as to face1 never were1 never could have been used4 ,the most trustworthy evidences tell us that the earliest types were cast in a mould4#ccb ,if the word formen1 which is found in the record of the trial of ,strasburg1 be construed as the same word must be construed in the colophon to the ,catholicon of #adfj1 in the acknowledgment of ,dr4 ,humery in #adfh1 and in the order of the ,king of ,france in #adeh1 then we have the most complete evidence that the matrices and the accompanying type-mould were used by ,gutenberg long before he knew ,schffer4 ,it was not necessary that ,trithemius should have told us that he derived this curious information from ,peter ,schffer4 ,in these perversions of truth we may see the vanity of the man who had already boasted that he was the first to enter the sanctuary of the art4 ,the unreasonableness of his claim p#dgg to the invention of matrices1 or to the perfection of printing1 may be inferred from the fact that1 although he was a judge1 a man of distinction1 and a successful publisher for more than forty years1 during the period when the value of printing was fully appreciated1 he was never noticed in any way as a great benefactor4 ,neither the emperor nor elector gave him any distinction as the founder of a great art2 no one put up a stone to his memory1 honoring him as an inventor2 no printer of that century regarded him as aught more than a thrifty publisher4 ,his reputation has been created entirely by his own boasts and those of his family2 and it is a most damaging circumstance that these boasts were not made until ,gutenberg and ,fust were dead1 and that the statement written by ,trithemius was not published until all the witnesses to the invention were dead1 and there could be no contradiction4 ,there are many facts which show the falsity of ,schffer's claim4 ,setting aside the evidences in favor of the probable priority of the types of the ,bible of #cf lines1 the record of the lawsuit between ,gutenberg and ,fust virtually tells us that the types of the ,bible of #db lines had been made1 perhaps in #adeb1 but not later than #adec4 ,that these types were founded in matrices1 were of neater cut1 more exact as to body1 and better founded than any afterward made by ,schffer1 is apparent at a glance4 ,they prove that the true method of type-making had already been found4 ,if ,schffer invented the matrices from which these types were made1 he should have perfected this invention in #adea4 ,but ,schffer was a copyist at ,paris in #addi1 and it is not certain that he was with ,gutenberg before #adec4 ,here we encounter an impossibility4 ,it cannot be supposed that a young collegian1 fresh from books1 without experience in mechanics1 could invent1 off-hand1 a complicated method of type-making1 upon which ,gutenberg had been working for many years4 ,there is still another version of this invention of matrices by ,schffer1 the version of ,jo4 ,frid4 ,faustus1 which has been often paraded as conclusive testimony in ,schffer's favor4 p#dgh ,john ,fust1 of ,mentz1 was the first to perceive the losses suffered by scholars through the scarcity of books4 ,he labored diligently to invent some new method of multiplying them1 so that they could be furnished to readers at reduced and reasonable prices4 ,high ,heaven1 kindly favoring his sincere prayers and his most laudable intention1 revealed to this excellent man the most approved form and mainstay of his invention4 ,in the beginning1 he cut the letters of the alphabet for children1 on a block of wood1 in high relief4 ,with much loss of time and labor1 he waited for the invention of a more suitable ink2 for writing ink blotted and made the printed letters unintelligible4 ,he experimented with soot from a candle1 with which he was able to print1 but the impression would not adhere to the paper4 ,at last he invented an ink which was black1 adhesive and permanent4 ,then he began to print on a press and to publish little books for children1 which everybody bought1 for the price was trivial1 and buyers praised the printer4 ,fust was stimulated to attempt larger work1 and he thereupon printed the ,donatus in exactly the same manner4 ,but the engraved pages of this book1 cut out of the solid block1 displayed many imperfect letters1 and many copies were worthless4 ,it then occurred to the inventor1 at the right time1 that he might print books with separate types1 and that it was not at all necessary that the letters should always be cut on solid blocks4 ,whereupon he cut up the wood blocks1 and saving all the types that had escaped injury1 he made new combinations with them4 ,this is the true origin of the composition of movable types4 ,this new method of making types called for a great expenditure of time and labor2 it delayed the work1 hindered the development of the new art1 and made many miserable difficulties for the inventor4 ,fust had many workmen1 who assisted him in making ink and types1 and in other work4 ,among them was ,peter ,schffer of ,gernszheim1 who1 when he perceived the difficulties and delays of his master1 was seized with an ardent desire to accomplish the success of the new art4 ,through the special inspiration of ,god1 he discovered the secret by which types of the matrix1 as they are called1 could be cut1 and types could be founded from them1 which1 for this purpose1 could be composed in frequent combinations1 and not be singly cut as they had been before4 ,schffer secretly cut matrices of the alphabet1 and showed types cast therefrom to his master1 ,john ,fust1 who was so greatly pleased with them1 and rejoiced so greatly1 that he immediately promised to him his only daughter1 and soon after he gave her to him in marriage4 ,but even with this kind of type1 great difficulty was experienced4 ,the metal was soft and did not withstand pressure1 until they invented an alloy which gave it proper strength4 p#dgi ,as they had happily succeeded in this undertaking1 ,fust and ,schffer bound their workmen by oath to conceal the process with the greatest secrecy2 but they showed to friends1 whenever it pleased them1 the first experimental types of wood1 which they tied up with a string and preserved4 ,my uncle1 ,doctor ,john ,fust1 testified that he had seen1 with the manuscripts which were bequeathed by the inventor1 these experimental types of wood1 and that he had held in his hands the first part of his edition of the ,donatus4#ccc ,the unknown author further says that ,john ,gutenberg was one of the friends to whom ,fust and ,schffer showed the wood types2 that ,gutenberg1 professing to admire their ingenuity1 took a great interest in their enterprise1 and lent ,fust and ,schffer money1 thereby entangling them in an agreement1 from which they could not extricate themselves until ,gutenberg had acquired a right to use the invention1 by which use he wrongfully enjoys the honor of first inventor4 ,here we may stop4 ,it would be a waste of time to expose1 one by one1 the falsehoods of a statement so flatly contradicted by many unimpeachable evidences4 ,it is very clear that the writer had no new facts to tell us about the invention4 ,he has told us not how it was made1 but how he wished it had been made that it might redound to the honor of the ,fusts4 ,what later writers have said about the value of ,schffer's services need not be considered1 for they also have produced no new facts3 they have based their opinions entirely on the incorrect information of ,faustus1 ,trithemius and ,schffer4 ,we may pass1 without further delay1 to the examination of the claims made for other alleged inventors of printing4 p#dhj ,,xxiv ,alleged ,inventors of ,printing4 ,discovery of the ,book of ,four ,stories1 with ,imprint of ,albert ,pfister 4 4 4 ,its ,types the same as those of the ,bible of #cf lines 4 4 4 ,pfister regarded as an ,inventor of ,printing 4 4 4 ,description of ,book of ,four ,stories 4 4 4 ,its ,colophon 4 4 4 ,book of ,fables 4 4 4 ,colophon and ,fac-simile 4 4 4 ,other ,books by ,pfister 4 4 4 ,pfister not a ,type-founder 4 4 4 ,probably an ,engraver on ,wood 4 4 4 ,could not have ,printed the ,bible of #cf lines 4 4 4 ,pfister probably got his ,knowledge of ,printing from ,gutenberg 4 4 4 ,paul of ,prague's ,notice of ,printing at ,bamberg 4 4 4 ,sebastian ,pfister 4 4 4 ,pamphilo ,castaldi 4 4 4 ,absurdity of the ,legend 4 4 4 ,john ,mentel and his ,epitaph 4 4 4 ,gebwiler's ,statement 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of the ,arms of the ,typothet 4 4 4 ,specklin's ,statement 4 4 4 ,plain ,falsifications of ,history 4 4 4 ,known ,facts about ,mentel and his partner ,henry ,eggestein4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is1 perhaps1 possible to show of all inventions that somewhere somebody must have been very near to it4 ,to assert of any invention whatever1 that it could or should have been invented long ago1 is nothing but chicane3 we are to prove1 incontrovertibly1 that it was really invented1 or else be silent4 ,lessing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,schelhorn's opinion that the ,bible of #cf lines was the ,bible described by ,zell--the book printed by ,gutenberg in #adej--;did not meet with the approval of those who had copies of the ,bible of #db lines4 ,men who had paid very large prices for the copies of an edition supposed to be the first1 were loth to have it degraded to the inferior place of a second edition4 ,the testimony of ,zell was unceremoniously set aside2 the written date of #adfj in one copy of the ,bible of #cf lines was regarded as indicating the date of printing1 and the book was declared the work of ,gutenberg between #adee and #adfj4 ,another hypothesis was soon presented4 ,in #agib1 ,steiner1 a clergyman at ,augsburg1 announced the discovery of the ,book of ,four ,stories with the imprint of ,albert p#dha ,pfister1 ,bamberg1 #adfb4 ,soon after1 ,camus read before the ,national ,institute at ,paris1 a critical description of the book1 in which he proved the identity of its types with those of the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,thereupon1 incautious readers rushed to the hasty inference that1 as ,pfister had made use of the types of the ,bible of #cf lines1 the ,bible must have been printed by ,pfister4 ,critics of authority did not hesitate to say that ,albert ,pfister1 a printer unknown for three centuries1 and of whom there is no tradition1 might have been an inventor of printing1 the rival1 and perhaps the predecessor and teacher1 of ,john ,gutenberg4 ,as we know ,pfister only through his books1 it will be proper to examine their workmanship before this hypothesis can be considered4 ,they are not numerous3 sixteen books and pamphlets have been attributed to him1 but his claim to eight has been disproved4#ccd ,the ,book of ,four ,stories1 a thin folio of #fj leaves--a version made for childish readers of the biblical descriptions of ,joseph1 ,daniel1 ,esther and ,judith--may be offered as the most characteristic specimen of ,pfister's style4 ,the types of this book are those of the ,bible of #cf lines1 but they are much worn4 ,if they were not the identical characters1 they were cast in the mould and matrices that had been used for the types of the ,bible1 for the types of both books agree in face and in body4 ,the ,book of ,four ,stories has fifty-five engravings on wood1 six of which are repeated1 each occupying the space of about eleven lines1 or #b-c_/d inches1 of the text4 ,the engravings are coarse2 they have no artistic merit1 and are in every way inferior to those of the ,bible of the ,poor or the ,speculum ,salutis2 they abound in puerile absurdities1 and seem to be the work of a maker of cards or images4 ,the text of the book is in ,german rhyme1 but the lines follow each other1 without break1 as in a text of prose4 ,a capital p#dhb letter indicates the beginning of each line of poetry1 and a lozenge-shaped period denotes its ending4 ,the presswork is decidedly inferior3 the deeply indented paper shows that the printer could not regulate the pressure on the types2 the muddiness of the letters comes from the use of a thin ink1 and the faulty register from a shackly press4 ,the colophon or subscription of this book1 a translation of which is submitted1 specifies the date1 the place of printing and the printer3 ,every man1 in his heart1 desires to be learned and well read4 ,without books and without teacher1 this cannot be4 ,if it were otherwise1 all of us would know ,latin4 ,these reflections have engaged me for a long time4 ,to good purpose have ,i sought out and gathered the four stories of ,joseph1 ,daniel1 ,judith1 and also of ,esther4 ,god granted protection to these four personages1 as ,he always does to the good4 ,this little book1 which is intended to teach us how to amend our lives1 was completed in ,bamberg1 in which city ,albert ,pfister printed it1 in the year which is numbered one thousand four hundred and sixty-two1--which is the truth1--soon after the day of ,saint ,walpurgis1 who is able to obtain for us grace abundant1 peace1 and everlasting life4 ,may ,god give them to all of us4 ,amen4 ,the ,book of ,fables1 a folio of #hh leaves1 printed with the types of the ,bible of #cf lines1 is another work which fairly exhibits the style of ,pfister4 ,it contains eighty-five fables1 each illustrated with a coarse engraving on wood1 in which monkeys represent men4 ,the text is in rhyme1 but the lines follow each other without break4 ,the colophon says3 ,at ,bamberg this little book was finished1 after the ,nativity of ,jesus ,christ1 as one counts1 one thousand four hundred years and sixty and one1--such is the truth1--on the day of ,saint ,valentine4 ,god save us from ,his sufferings4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of an ,illustration in the ,book of ,fables by ,albert ,pfister4 ,from ,heineken4 ,another book attributed to ,pfister is known as ,belial1 or the ,consolation of the ,sinner4 ,it is a folio of #ie leaves1 which exhibits on the last leaf the words ,albrecht ,pfister su ,bamberg4 ,pfister also printed two editions of the ,bible of the ,poor1 one in ,latin and one in ,german1 each containing eighteen engravings4 ,his treatment of the old block-book is that of a mechanic and not of an artist3 the designing1 p#dhc engraving and printing are of the lowest order4 ,he also printed the ,complaint against ,death1 and the ,judgment of ,man after ,death4 ,all were printed with the types of the ,bible of #cf lines1 and they were1 apparently1 his only types4 p#dhd ,that ,pfister was not a type-founder seems clearly enough established through the fact that he did all his typographic work with only one size and face of type4 ,in all his books1 the letters of the ,latin alphabet appear old and worn1 but the w1 k1 and z1 characters of the ,german alphabet1 are new and sharp4 ,the types had evidently been used before for books in ,latin1 but not by ,pfister1 for the ,bible of the ,poor seems to have been the only book he printed in that language4 ,the ,book of ,fables bearing the date of #adfa seems the earliest of ,pfister's books1 but it was published without any explanation stating that it was made by a new art4 ,it may therefore be presumed that he began to print with types before #adfa4 ,the profusion of wood-cuts in his books is an indication that he was an engraver on wood--probably a maker of playing cards1 images1 and block-books1 who had profited by an early opportunity to perceive the advantages of types4 ,as a seller and maker of chap-books1 he would prefer the types because they explained his pictures more cheaply than the slower process of engraving letter by letter2 but his persistent use of types which other printers would have condemned as worn out1 shows that he did not make and could not renew them4 ,it is not probable that a man who seems to have rated his wretched wood-cuts as the most meritorious feature of his books could have invented types4 ,it is possible1 however1 that an image printer of low aims and slender ability could have perceived the economical advantages of types1 and may have purchased a discarded font for the sole purpose of printing explanations to his engravings4 ,and this seems the only conjecture that will explain ,pfister's ownership of the types of the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,the conjecture that ,pfister printed the ,bible of #cf lines will not bear a critical examination4 ,it is not enough to show that our first positive knowledge of the types and the copies of this book begins with ,pfister and ,bamberg4 ,it still remains to be proved that ,pfister made the types and printed the copies4 ,the proof is wanting and the probabilities are p#dhe strongly adverse4 ,the ,bible of #cf lines is unlike any book of ,pfister's in size1 character1 and workmanship4 ,it is not possible that the man who began his career as a printer with an admirable edition of the ,latin ,bible in three volumes folio1 could have ended it with the publication of shabby little books in ,german1 intended for children4 ,a declension like this is without a parallel in typographical history4 ,it has been supposed that ,pfister got his types and his imperfect knowledge of typography from ,gutenberg after the dissolution of the partnership between ,fust and ,gutenberg1 but ,pfister could have gotten them before4 ,there is a blank in ,gutenberg's history between the years #addb and #addh1 about which we know nothing4 ,that he was then at work on his problem2 that he must have communicated more or less of his secrets to the many unknown workmen and associates who succeeded ,dritzehen1 ,saspach1 ,heilmann and ,dnne2 that he may have been induced to try his fortunes at ,bamberg before he went to ,mentz2 that ,albert ,pfister may have been one of his workmen who followed him to ,mentz and acquired some skill in the art1--these are conjectures that deserve consideration4 ,but they are conjectures only3 we have no exact knowledge concerning the introduction of typography in ,bamberg4 ,it is plain1 however1 that the appearance at ,bamberg1 in #adfa1--;a year before the sack of ,mentz1 the date usually fixed on as that of the dispersion of the printers1 and the general divulgement of the secret1--of a book printed in the worn types of the ,bible of #cf lines1 and the subsequent discovery near this city of many copies of this book1 which could not have been printed by ,pfister1 are indications that ,gutenberg must have had business relations with ,bamberg which are of importance in the history of printing4 ,the only documentary evidence which seems to favor the hypothesis that ,pfister might have printed the ,bible of #cf lines is the following curious notice of early printing1 which was written about #adfc1 by ,paul of ,prague1 for a contemplated but unfinished encyclopedia of arts and sciences3 p#dhf ,the libripagus#cce is an artisan who skillfully engraves on plates of copper1 iron1 hard wood1 or other substances1 images1 writing1 or anything he fancies1 and afterward quickly prints them on paper1 or on a wall1 or on a smooth board4 ,he cuts whatever he pleases1 and is a man who can apply his art to pictures4 ,when ,i was at ,bamberg1 a man engraved the whole ,bible upon plates1 and in four weeks skillfully preserved this engraving of the whole ,bible on thin parchment4 ,pfister's name is not mentioned1 but he was1 probably1 the libripagus here noticed4 ,the story is not credible4 ,the whole ,bible was not printed in four weeks1 neither at ,bamberg nor elsewhere2 nor was it ever engraved upon plates4 ,the only book of ,pfister's to which this statement could be applied1 is his edition of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,we do not know when ,pfister died2 his last dated work is of the year #adfb4 ,sebastian ,pfister1 who is supposed to be ,albert's son1 was at the head of a printing office at ,bamberg in the year #adgj1 and then printed a little book which seems to have been his first and last venture in printing4 ,pamphilo ,castaldi of ,feltre1 ,italy1 to whom a statue was erected in #ahfh1 has also received the undeserved honor of an inventor of printing4 ,this commemoration of the man by the people of a great nation seems to require in this book at least a statement of the legend on which his claims are based4 ,this is the legend1 abridged from a long panegyric on ,castaldi's services by one of his countrymen3 ,pamphilo ,castaldi was born in ,feltre1 of noble parents1 at the end of the fourteenth century4 ,he was highly educated and intelligent4 ,although a poet and a lawyer of good reputation1 his love for literature induced him to open a school for polite learning1 which soon became famous1 and attracted students from foreign countries4 ,none of his pupils acquired greater fame than ,john ,fust1 who is called by the historians of ,feltre1 ,fausto ,comesburgo4 ,this ,faust resided with p#dhg ,castaldi in ,feltre as early as #aded4 ,in the year #addb1 ,castaldi had seen a proof of ,gutenberg's attempts at the invention of typography4 ,gutenberg at that time 7#addb7 was supported by the money of ,faust and the skill of ,schffer1 his partners4 ,after ten years of experiment1 ,gutenberg had done nothing more than print from blocks of wood and with metallic characters4 ,he had not yet invented movable types1 for the ,bible of #adef should be classified with the block-books4 ,castaldi1 more ingenious or more fortunate1 had already discovered movable types before the arrival of ,faust in ,feltre4 ,it is well known that1 a century before the publication of the ,mentz ,psalter of #adeg1 initial letters and capital letters formed of glass were manufactured at ,murano1 and used in ,italy4 ,these glass letters were1 probably1 the invention of ,pietro de ,natali1 bishop of ,equilo4 ,castaldi had noticed that these letters were of advantage to the scribes1 who printed them in their manuscript books4 ,he at once saw that it would be possible to print entire books1 instead of occasional letters1 with movable types4 ,the facility with which this discovery had been made caused him to undervalue its importance4 ,he gave the idea to ,faust1 who1 returning to his partners in #adef1 or a little before1 enabled them to appropriate the invention of ,castaldi4 ,they greedily adopted this invention1 and1 in #adeg1 they produced the ,psalter1 the first book printed with movable characters of wood4#ccf ,the only portion of this absurd story which has any claim to respect is that about the early use in ,italy by copyists of engraved or moulded initial letters4 ,that they were1 or could have been1 made by the glass-blowers of ,murano1 and that ,castaldi may have amused himself with experiments in stamping consecutive letters or lines1 is possible4 ,all else is pure fiction4 ,it does not appear that ,castaldi printed anything of value3 we have no relics of his experiments in the form of a book1 or even of a leaf1 a line1 or a letter4 ,nor did his dreams or teachings about the possible value of types ever incite any of his ,italian pupils to make and use types4 ,to those who think that the merit of the invention of printing is in the conception of the idea of movable types1 this legend about ,castaldi is instructive4 ,it reveals to us a man who is represented as having a very clear idea of the p#dhh importance of types1 who did nothing with his great discovery4 ,his discovery1 if it can be so called1 was useless4 ,he cannot be rated as an inventor of printing1 for he printed nothing4 ,john ,mentel1 of ,strasburg1 who died in ,december1 #adgh1 and was buried in the great cathedral of that city1 has there a tablet to his memory1 which contains the following inscription3 ,here ,i rest3 ,i1 ,john ,mentel1 who1 by the grace of ,god1 was the first to invent1 in ,strasburg1 the characters of typography1 and to develop this art of printing1 which should be perpetuated to the end of the world1 to such a degree of perfection that a man can now write as much in a day as another could have done in a year4 ,it is but just that thanks should be rendered to ,god1 and without vanity1 to me myself2 but as this homage could not otherwise be rendered in a proper manner1 ,god has ordained1 as the reward for my invention1 that the stones of this cathedral should serve for my mausoleum4#ccg ,the claim that ,mentel was the inventor of typography was first made in #aebj by ,john ,schott1#cch son of ,martin ,schott1 who had married ,mentel's daughter and inherited his business4 p#dhi ,in the year #aeba1 ,jerome ,gebwiler1 misled by the assertions of ,schott1 undertook to controvert the pretensions of ,fust and ,schffer as the first printers4 ,he writes that printing was practised in ,strasburg by ,john ,mentel1 who had obtained the new art of chalcography1 or of making books with tin pens 7types7 about the year #addg2 that ,mentel1 and ,eggestein1 his partner1 made an agreement that they should keep secret the new art2 that ,john ,schott1 whom he praises1 showed him a manuscript book1 without date1 written by ,mentel1 in which were drawings of typographic instruments1 and observations on the manufacture of printing ink4 ,it was by similar methods that ,john ,schott induced ,james ,spiegel to declare1 in a book printed in #aeca1 that ,john ,mentel invented printing in ,strasburg in the year #addd4cci ,john ,schott is also the authority for the following version of the invention which was found in an old manuscript chronicle attributed to ,daniel ,specklin4 ,illustration3 ,the ,arms of the ,typothet4 ,from ,hansard4 ,in the year #addj1 the admirable art of printing was discovered in ,strasburg by ,john ,mentel4 ,his son-in-law1 ,peter ,schoiffer1 and ,martin ,flach at once made use of the discovery2 but a servant of ,mentel1 called ,john ,gensfleisch1 after stealing the secret1 fled to ,mentz1 where he soon established the new art1 through the help of ,gutenberg1 a very rich man4 ,mentel was so affected with grief by this perfidy that it caused his death4 ,in honor of the art1 he was buried in the monastery or cathedral church1 and a representation of his press was cut on his tombstone4 ,god swiftly punished the servant ,gensfleisch1 by striking him with blindness for the remnant of his life4 ,i have seen the first press 7of ,mentel7 and the types cut on wood1 which were of syllables and words4 ,they were pierced through the sides1 that they could be conjoined by a wire and kept in line4 ,it is to be regretted that these types1 the first of the kind1 should have been lost4#cdj p#dij ,these impudent falsifications of history would have been soon forgotten if they had not been renewed in the seventeenth century1 by one ,james ,mentel1 a physician of ,paris1 the supposed descendant of ,john ,mentel1 who published two little books on the history of printing1 in which he enlarged and distorted the versions of ,gebwiler1 ,spiegel and ,specklin4 ,to support his claim1 he did not scruple to alter the text and pervert the meaning of the authors from whom he pretended to quote4#cda ,it was a useless work1 for no impartial critic can accept the statements of ,mentel or of his predecessors4 ,for these statements1 like those in behalf of ,coster1 ,castaldi and ,schffer1 were made1 for the first time1 long after the invention had been perfected1 by men who had the desire and the temptation to misrepresent the facts4 ,all of them are tainted with the same calumny--the accusation that ,gutenberg stole his knowledge of the invention--and all of them are contradicted by public records of undoubted authority4 ,neither ,mentel's books nor the records of ,strasburg give any warrant to the hypothesis that ,mentel was an inventor of printing4 ,his name appears for the first time on the tax list of the city of ,strasburg1 in the year #addg4 ,he is called a goltschriber1 and is enrolled with the goldsmiths4 ,in another record of the city1 for the same year1 his name appears in a list of artists and painters1 but he is not described as a printer4 ,the earliest notice of him as a printer was made by ,philip de ,lignamine of ,rome1 who said1 in #adgd1 that ,john ,mentel of ,strasburg1 since #adeh1 had there a printing office1 in which he printed three hundred sheets a day1 8after the manner of ,fust and ,gutenberg40 ,by this statement we may suppose that ,mentel practised printing soon after the dissolution of the partnership between ,fust and ,gutenberg4 ,it was1 no doubt1 from ,mentz that he got a knowledge of typography1 for it cannot be shown that he was taught the art by any of ,gutenberg's early associates in ,strasburg1 nor is there any reason to believe that he was an independent inventor4 ,we p#dia have no evidence that he experimented with types1 or that he printed anything in ,strasburg between #adci and #adeg4 ,it is not even established that ,mentel was the first practical printer in ,strasburg1 for there is evidence that he began to print there in partnership with one ,henry ,eggestein1 who was a man of superior ability and of greater distinction1 a master of arts and philosophy4#cdb ,mentel did not affix his name to any of his books before #adgc1 but he had then printed many large theological works4#cdc ,schpflin says that he soon made himself rich by his industry and his sagacity in the selection of salable books4 ,he was a shrewd publisher1 the first who issued a descriptive catalogue1 and employed agents for the sale of his works4 p#dib ,,xxv ,the ,spread of ,printing4 ,first ,printers of ,germany 4 4 4 ,mentel at ,strasburg 4 4 4 ,zell at ,cologne 4 4 4 ,keffer and ,koburger at ,nuremberg 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of a part of ,koburger's ,map 4 4 4 ,zainer at ,augsburg 4 4 4 ,fac-simile of ,zainer's ,birth of ,eve 4 4 4 ,john of ,westphalia and ,martens at ,louvain 4 4 4 ,mansion at ,bruges 4 4 4 ,gerard ,leeu at ,antwerp 4 4 4 ,first ,printers of ,italy 4 4 4 ,sweinheym and ,pannartz at ,rome 4 4 4 ,de ,spira at ,venice 4 4 4 ,jenson's ,types 4 4 4 ,venice famous for ,printing 4 4 4 ,cennini at ,florence 4 4 4 ,the ,ripoli ,press 4 4 4 ,zarot at ,milan 4 4 4 ,appearance of ,publishers 4 4 4 ,first ,printers of ,france 4 4 4 ,gering1 ,crantz and ,friburger at ,paris 4 4 4 ,the ,printers of ,elegant ,books 4 4 4 ,first ,printers in ,spain and ,portugal 4 4 4 ,in ,england 4 4 4 ,caxton at ,westminster 4 4 4 ,printing did not find a general ,welcome 4 4 4 ,made ,popular by the ,cheapness of ,books 4 4 4 ,injudicious ,selection of ,books for ,publication 4 4 4 ,demand for ,books in the ,vernacular 4 4 4 ,first ,check on the ,liberty of the ,press4 99 99 99 99 99 ,about this time1 the crafte of ,enpryntyng was fyrste founde in magounce in ,almayne1 which crafte is multiplyed through the world in many places1 and bookes ben had grete chepe and in grete nombre by cause of the same crafte4 ,caxton1 #adhb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,central ,,and ,,northern ,,europe4 ,when two rival printing offices had been established at ,mentz it was no longer possible to keep secret the processes4 ,every printer who handled the types and every goldsmith who helped to make the tools must have felt a weakening of the obligation of secrecy4 ,the sack of ,mentz was a greater misfortune1 for it dissolved all obligations and sent the printers to other cities to found new offices4 ,not one of these printers has told us when and how he began to print on his own account4 ,all we know about the introduction of printing in many of the large cities has been gathered from the dates of books and the chance allusions of early chroniclers4 ,it is from these imperfect evidences p#dic that the following tables of the spread of printing have been made up4 ,they are based on the chronological arrangement of ,santander's ,dictionary1 but the names and dates have been collated with those of ,cotton's ,typographical ,gazetteer1 and other works of authority1 and some alterations have been made4 ,place4 ,printer4 ,date4 ,mentz ,john ,gutenberg #adej ,bamberg ,albert ,pfister -- ,strasburg ,mentel and ,eggestein #adeh ,cologne ,ulric ,zell #adfb ,augsburg ,gunther ,zainer #adfh ,nuremberg ,henry ,keffer #adfi ,munster in ,argau ,helyas ,helye #adgj ,spire ,peter ,drach #adga ,ulm ,john ,zainer #adgc ,buda 7,hungary7 ,andrew ,hess #adgc ,mersburg ,lucas ,brandis #adgc ,laugingen #adgc ,esslingen ,conrad ,fyner #adgc ,marienthal ,bros4 of ,life-in-,com #adgd ,lubec ,lucas ,brandis #adge ,burgdorf -- #adge ,blaubeuren ,conrad ,mancz #adge ,pilsen -- #adge ,rostock ,bros4 of ,life-in-,com4 #adgf ,geneva ,ad4 ,steynschauer #adgh ,prague -- #adgh ,eichstadt ,m4 and ,g4 ,reyser #adgh ,wurtzburg ,dold1 ,ryser1 et al4 #adgi ,leipsic ,marcus ,brand #adha ,aurach ,conrad ,fyner #adha ,erfurt ,wider de ,hornbach #adhb ,memmingen ,albert de ,duderstadt4 #adhb ,passau ,stahl1 ,mayer1 et al4 #adhb ,reutlingen ,john ,ottmar #adhb ,vienna ,john ,winterburg #adhb ,magdeburg ,rauenstein et al4 #adhc ,stockholm ,john ,snell #adhc ,winterberg ,john ,alacraw #adhd ,heidelberg ,fred4 ,misch #adhe ,ratisbon ,john ,sensenschmidt #adhe ,brinn ,stahl ,preinlein #adhf ,munster ,john ,limburg #adhf ,sleswick ,stephen ,arndes #adhf ,frisia -- #adhh ,kuttenberg ,von ,tischniowa #adhi ,ingolstadt ,john ,kachelofen #adij ,hamburg ,j4 and ,t4 ,borchard #adia ,wadstein -- #adia ,czernigov ,tzernoevic #adib ,zinna -- #adib ,fribourg ,kilianus ,piscator #adic ,luneburg ,john ,luce #adic ,copenhagen ,gothof4 de ,ghemen #adic ,oppenheim -- #adid ,freisingen ,john ,schffler #adie ,offenburg -- #adif ,tubingen ,john ,ottmar #adih ,cracow ,john ,haller #aejj ,munich ,john ,schobser #aejj ,olmutz ,de ,baumgarten #aejj ,pfortzheim ,thomas ,anselmus #aejj ,this is but a brief list for the vast and populous country north of ,italy and east of ,france and the ,netherlands4#cdd ,not less remarkable is the fact that some cities now deservedly famous for their printing were among the last to acquire a knowledge of the art1 and those that gave it feeble support4 ,the master printers at ,mentz before #aejj1 not previously named1 were3 ,erhardus ,reuwich1 whose first book was dated #adhf2 ,frederic ,misch1 who began after #adij2 ,jacob ,meydenbach 7a witness at the trial of #adee71 between #adia and #adif2 and ,peter ,friedburg1 between #adid and #adig4 ,there may p#did have been others1 whose names are lost1 but the printers are few2 they cannot be compared1 either in number or in influence1 with those of many smaller cities during the same period4 ,long before ,schffer died1#cde ,mentz had ceased to be a great school and centre of printing4 ,,strasburg4 ,the statement of ,lignamine1 that ,mentel printed at ,strasburg after #adeh1 has been corroborated by the recent discovery in the ,freiburg library of a ,latin ,bible in two volumes folio1 which is known to have been printed by ,mentel1 and which contains the subscriptions of the illuminator and the written dates1 in one volume of #adfj1 in the other of #adfa4cdf ,as this book should have been in press at least two years1 it may be regarded as evidence that printing was practised here as early as in ,bamberg4 ,strasburg gave greater encouragement to printers than ,mentz1 for sixteen master printers were working there before #aejj4 ,,cologne4 ,the first printer at ,cologne was ,ulric ,zell4 ,he was an industrious printer for more than forty years1 but he never printed a book in ,german1 nor did he adopt any of the improvements of the printers of ,italy4 ,he adhered rigidly to the severe style of his master1 ,schffer1 printing all his books from three sizes of a rude face of ,round ,gothic types4 ,he was not a skillful nor even a correct printer1 but he was a shrewd publisher1 and accumulated a large property4 ,madden supposes that he went to ,cologne in #adfb1 and p#die was engaged by the ,brotherhood of the ,life-in-,common at ,weidenbach1 near that city1 to assist them with his new art of printing in their pious task of making books4#cdg ,his name appears for the first time in a book dated #adff1 which date may be accepted as indicative of the time when he left the monastery and began to print on his own account in the city4 ,at the close of the fifteenth century1 twenty-two printing offices had been established at ,cologne4 ,among them was that of ,arnold ,ter ,hoorne1 who1 despite his occasional bad presswork1 deserves special notice as one of the first printers who made use of ,arabic figures4 ,illustration3 ,fac-simile1 reduced1 of part of ,koburger's ,map of ,europe4 ,photographed from ,mr4 ,bruce's copy of the ,nuremberg ,chronicle4 ,,nuremberg4 ,henry ,keffer1 who appeared as a witness for ,gutenberg in the suit at law in #adee1 is supposed to have established himself as a printer at ,nuremberg about #adfi4 ,his name appears1 for the first time1 in the imprint of a book dated #adgc1 from which it seems that he was hired by ,john ,sensenschmidt1 a wealthy man of that city1#cdh who aspired to be a publisher4 ,in #adgc1 ,anthony ,koburger began to print at ,nuremberg4 ,in a few years he acquired great reputation as printer and publisher3 he had twenty-four presses at ,nuremberg and offices at ,basle and at ,lyons4 ,lichtenberger says that he printed twelve editions of the ,bible in ,latin and one in ,german4 ,that he merited his honors is implied by the testimony of ,jodocus ,badius1 his rival at ,paris1 who frankly said he was an honest merchant and the prince of printers4 ,the success of ,koburger did not materially interfere with the p#dif prosperity of his rivals1 for there were seventeen master type-printers and many block-printers at ,nuremberg before #aejj4 ,koburger's most curious book is the ,nuremberg ,chronicle of #adic1 a large and thick folio1 edited or compiled by ,hartmann ,schedel1 as a summary of the history1 geography and wonders of the world4 ,it contains more than two thousand p#dig impressions#cdi of wood-cuts1 8made by ,wolgemuth and ,pleydenwurff1 mathematical men1 and cunning as designers40 ,illustration3 ,the ,birth of ,eve1 from ,zainer's ,edition of the ,speculum ,salutis4 ,from ,heineken4 ,,augsburg4 ,the practice of typography was brought to ,augsburg in #adfh by ,gunther ,zainer of ,reutlingen1 who is supposed to have been taught at ,strasburg4 ,he was the first printer in ,germany who printed a book in ,roman characters4 p#dih ,he and his rivals1 ,bamler1 ,schssler and ,sorg1#cej illustrated their books so freely with wood-cuts as to provoke the remonstrance of the fraternity of block-printers of ,augsburg4#cea ,this opposition may have caused ,zainer's retirement from business in #adge1 but it did not check the business of the others4#ceb ,there were twenty master printers at ,augsburg before #aejj4 ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,,utrecht4 ,it is probable that the unknown printer of the four notable editions of the ,speculum was at ,utrecht before the arrival of ,ketelaer and ,de ,leempt in #adgc4cec ,,louvain4 ,john of ,westphalia came to ,louvain in #adgb1 with some matrices of ,round ,gothic and ,roman types which he had acquired in ,venice1 and began to fit up a printing office4 ,in #adgc1 he published his first book4 ,during the twenty-two years he was in business1 he printed #abj works4 ,many were editions of the classics1 and all were selected with reference to the requirements of the ,university1 from which he received the honorary title of ,master of ,printing4 ,john ,veldener1 who began to print at ,louvain in #adgc1 received a similar title4 ,he boasted that he was expert in all branches of the graphic arts1 but his skill was that of a mechanic4 ,as p#dii a publisher1 he could not compete with ,john of ,westphalia4#ced ,thierry ,martens1 of ,alost1 was employed by ,john of ,westphalia1 probably as editor1 soon after he arrived at ,louvain4 ,after receiving suitable instruction1 ,martens was allowed to print some little books at ,alost in #adgc4 ,he began to print at ,alost in his own name in #adhg4 ,necessity or the love of change compelled him to move his printing office many times between ,louvain and ,antwerp4 ,in #aebi1 he forsook printing and retired to ,alost1 where he died in #aecd1 at the age of eighty-eight years4 ,in his business life of almost sixty years he printed1 beside many other works1 about #aej books in ,greek1 ,hebrew and ,latin4 ,he had a critical knowledge of six languages1 and his ability as an editor was acknowledged by many scholars who were his friends and correspondents4 ,erasmus wrote his epitaph1 and the town of ,alost has put up a statue to commemorate his worth4 ,,bruges4 ,the name of ,colard ,mansion1 a calligrapher of high merit and afterward the first typographer at ,bruges1 is found in the records of a corporation of book-makers1 between the years #aded and #adgc4 ,as his name does not re-appear before #adhb1cee it is supposed that he abandoned the guild and learned printing4 ,in #adgf1 he printed a little book in a new face of type in the ,french style4 ,he was a skillful but not a prosperous printer1 for he was obliged to eke out his scant income as a printer by occasional jobs of illumination4 ,soon after #adhd1 he left ,bruges4 ,it is not known where he went or when he died4 ,john ,brito1 who succeeded ,mansion1 was for many years the only typographic printer at ,bruges4 ,this neglect of printing in a city renowned for the elegance of its manuscripts and the skill of its calligraphers shows that the professional book-makers regarded printing as an inartistic and mechanical method of making books4 p#ejj ,,gouda and ,,antwerp4 ,gerard ,leeu1 the most industrious#cef printer of his time1 began to print at ,gouda in #adgg1 but he went to ,antwerp in #adhd1 where he continued to print until his death in #adic4 ,imitating ,verard of ,paris1 he gave his later years to the translation and printing of romances and popular books4 ,in #adic1 he began to print ,caxton's ,chronicle of ,england1 in ,english and obviously for sale in ,england1 but he died before the work was finished4#ceg ,,in ,,italy4 ,this is the order in which printing was established in ,italy3 ,place4 ,printer4 ,date4 ,subiaco ,sweinheym ,pannartz #adfe ,rome ,sweinheym ,pannartz #adfg ,venice ,john de ,spira #adfi ,milan ,anthony ,zarot #adgj ,foligno ,john ,nummeister #adgj ,trevi ,john ,reynard #adgj ,verona ,john of ,verona #adgj ,treviso ,gerard de ,lisa #adga ,bologna ,balthazar ,azzoguidi #adga ,ferrara ,andrew ,belfort #adga ,naples ,sixtus ,riessinger #adga ,pavia ,antonio de ,carcano #adga ,florence ,bernard ,cennini #adga ,fivizano ,jacobus and others #adgb ,padua ,balt4 de ,valdezochio #adgb ,mantua ,pietro ,adam de ,michael #adgb ,mondovi ,antonio ,mathiae1 et al4 #adgb ,jesi ,frederic ,veronensis #adgb ,cremona ,paravisinus1 et al4 #adgb ,parma ,andrew ,portiglia #adgc ,brescia ,thomas ,ferrandus #adgc ,messina ,henry ,alding #adgc ,vicenza ,john de ,reno #adgc ,como ,de ,orcho1 et al4 #adgd ,turin ,fabri and ,john de ,petro #adgd ,genoa ,matthew ,moravus1 et al4 #adgd ,modena ,john ,vurster #adge ,trent ,hermann ,schindeleyp #adgf ,palermo ,andrew de ,wormatia #adgg ,ascoli ,william de ,linis #adgg ,lucca ,bart4 de ,civitali #adgg ,casal ,william de ,canepa #adha ,cotton1 in his ,typographical ,gazetteer1 specifies thirty-seven other places in ,italy in which printing was done before #aejj4 p#eja ,,subiaco and ,,rome4 ,conrad ,sweinheym and ,arnold ,pannartz1 two printers from ,germany1 set up a press in the monastery of ,subiaco1 near ,rome1 and there produced in #adfe the books first printed from types in ,italy4 ,to please the tastes of their ,roman readers they made a new font of ,roman types4 ,it was not a successful effort1 for the traces of ,gothic mannerisms are noticeable in almost every letter4 ,not meeting with the encouragement they desired1 the two printers removed to ,rome in #adfg4 ,they began to print on a grand scale1 making new fonts of ,roman1 ,greek and ,round ,gothic types1 enlisting the services of ,bishop ,john ,andrew as reader and corrector1 and undertaking the publication of many large classical works4 ,they did not prosper4 ,in the year #adgb1 they petitioned the pope for relief1 setting forth that they had printed #aa1dge copies of twenty-eight works1 a very large portion of which had not been sold1 and that they were in great distress4 ,in #adgc1 ,sweinheym withdrew from the partnership1 and began to engrave on copper maps for an edition of ,ptolemy's ,geography4 ,he died before the book was published1 in #adgh4 ,pannartz died in #adgf4 ,ulrich ,hahn1 a printer of ,bavaria1 went to ,rome in #adfe1 and began to print there in #adfg4 ,his first book was in ,round ,gothic types1 but his ,italian readers induced him to make for his second book a rude form of ,roman types4 ,he employed ,campanus1 an eminent scholar1 as reader and corrector1 and associated himself with ,simon ,nicholas de ,lucca1 who acted as editor and publisher of his books4 ,at this time there were in ,rome many printing offices1 and the number increased1 notwithstanding the complaints of ,sweinheym and ,pannartz1 and also of ,philip de ,lignamine1 that more books were printed than could be sold4 ,before the year #aejj1 there were or had been thirty-seven master printers at ,rome4 ,,venice4 ,john de ,spira1 so called from ,spire1 the city in which he was born1 was the first typographer at ,venice4 ,he began in #adfi1 by the publication of the ,letters of ,cicero in types of ,roman form4 ,soon after1 he published an edition in p#ejb folio of the ,national ,history of ,pliny1 which is regarded as one of the finest specimens of the printing of the fifteenth century4 ,proud of his fine work1 but fearing competition1 ,de ,spira solicited and obtained from the senate1 ,september #ahth1 #adfi1 exclusive rights as a printer in ,venice for five years4 ,the privileges seem to have been forfeited by his death in #adgj2 but his printing office was managed with ability by his brother ,vindelin1 who succeeded to the business4 ,nicholas ,jenson1 the 8man skilled in engraving10 who had been sent to ,mentz in #adeh1 and who1 according to ,madden1 had thoroughly qualified himself in the monastery of ,weidenbach1 seems to have been the first of several printers who hastened to ,venice to profit by the forfeiture of ,de ,spira's privilege4 ,in #adga1 he published his first book1#ceh the ,decor ,puellarum1 in neat light-faced ,roman types on ,great-primer body4 ,his experience at the mint of ,tours as an engraver gave him a decided advantage over all his rivals4 ,roman types had been made before by ,sweinheym1 ,de ,spira and ,hahn1 but never before had punches been so scientifically engraved1 nor types so truly aligned4 ,it is not surprising that the efforts of his predecessors should pass for naught1 and that ,jenson has ever since been regarded as the introducer of ,roman types4 ,but ,jenson discovered1 as ,hahn and ,de ,spira had done1 that1 to secure buyers in ,germany1 it was necessary to print books in ,gothic characters4 ,with this object in view1 he cut several fonts of ,round ,gothic1 one on ,bourgeois and one on ,brevier body1 the smallest sizes of types made in the fifteenth century4 ,as a printer1 ,jenson is entitled to high praise4 ,none of his competitors showed so much taste and skill in the details of book-making4 ,it is noticeable in every feature--in the tint and texture of his paper1 in the glossy blackness of his ink1 in the clearness and solidity of his impressions1 in the p#ejc uniformity of register and of color on every page4 ,jenson's merits were recognized by ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv1 who1 in addition to other marks of favor1 bestowed upon him the title of count palatine4 ,he died in #adha4 ,his printing office passed into the hands of an association of which ,andrew ,torresani of ,asola was the manager4 ,in time1 ,aldus ,manutius1 a partner in this association1 married a daughter of ,torresani1 and got control of the office1 the reputation of which he increased by his scholarship1 by his numerous editions of the classics1 and by his introduction of ,italic types1 but not by superior skill as a typographer4 ,as a type-founder1 printer and ink-maker1 ,jenson had no rival and left no proper successor4 ,at the close of the fifteenth century1 ,venice took the lead of all cities1 not only in the number of its printing offices1 but in the beauty of its types and printing4 ,printers in other countries knew that they would secure for their types the highest commendation by announcing them as the true ,venetian characters4 ,santander specifies #bja master printers who had been in business at ,venice before #aejj4 ,bernard estimates the number of books then and there printed at two million volumes4 ,,florence4 ,bernard ,cennini1 an eminent goldsmith of ,florence1 began to print with types at that city in the year #adga4 ,he said that he and his sons ,peter and ,dominic made the tools and types and did all the work without instruction1 but the exact manner in which ,cennini describes the cutting of punches and the founding of types makes this statement doubtful4 ,cennini never earned any reputation as a typographer1 for it does not appear that he printed any book after #adga4 ,santander names twenty-two master printers at ,florence before #aejj4 ,the most noticeable of the number is ,dominic de ,pistoia1 an ecclesiastic who founded a printing office in #adgd1 which is known in history as the ,ripoli ,press4 ,dominic was the abbot of a monastery1 but he proved an active and intelligent publisher4 ,he deserves notice chiefly for his care in keeping his accounts1 which give us our most p#ejd trustworthy information concerning the materials and usages of the early printers4#cei ,,milan4 ,anthony ,zarot began to print at ,milan in #adgj or #adga1 having been hired by ,philip de ,lavagna1 who seems to have been a capitalist and a publisher4 ,in #adgb1 ,zarot persuaded four citizens of ,milan to unite with him in a new association for the printing and publishing of books4 ,the articles of agreement are curious1 and deserve preservation4#cfj ,the association seems to have been remarkably prosperous1 for in #adgb it had seven presses at work4 ,in #adgc1 the p#eje publisher ,philip de ,lavagna and his new partner ,montanus made an agreement with ,christopher ,valdarfer1 another printer at ,milan1 for the exclusive use of two presses4#cfa ,there was no part of ,europe in which so great an enthusiasm was shown for printing as in ,italy4#cfb ,the only open opposition which the new art encountered was made in #adgb1 by the copyists of ,genoa1 who complained that the typographers were greedy1 and that they deprived the copyists of their livelihood by undertaking to print little books4 ,,in ,,france4 ,place4 ,printer4 ,date4 ,paris ,ulrich ,gering1 et al #adfi ,lyons ,buyer and ,le ,roy #adgf ,angers ,de ,turre and ,morelli #adgg ,chablis ,pierre le ,rouge #adgh ,poitiers ,j4 ,boyer and ,g4 ,bouchet #adgi ,toulouse -- #adgi ,caen ,ferrandus and ,quijone #adhj ,vienne ,pierre ,schenck #adha ,promentour ,loys ,guerbin #adhb ,troyes ,guillaume le ,rouge #adhc ,chambery ,antonius ,neyret #adhd ,brand-,loudhac ,r4 ,foucquet #adhd ,rennes ,pierre ,belleescule #adhd ,abbeville ,dupr and ,gerard #adhf ,rouen ,guillaume le ,talleur #adhg ,besanon -- #adhg ,hagenau ,henry ,grau #adhi ,dol ,peter ,metlinger #adij ,grenoble -- #adij ,orleans ,matthieu ,vivian #adij ,dijon ,peter ,metlinger #adia ,angoulme -- #adia ,cluny ,michael ,wenssler #adic ,nantes ,etienne ,larcher #adic ,limoges ,john ,berton #adie ,provins ,g4 ,tavernier #adif ,tours ,matthieu ,lateron #adif ,avignon ,nicol ,lepe #adig ,treguier -- #adii ,guienne -- #aejj ,perpignan ,j4 ,rosembach #aejj ,,paris4 ,about the close of the year #adfi1 ,ulrich ,gering1 ,michael ,friburger and ,martin ,crantz began to print at ,paris4 ,to please the classic tastes of the doctors of the university who had invited them1 their first book appeared in types of ,roman form4 ,they were not skillful printers1 for ,chevillier says that letters half formed and half printed are noticeable p#ejf in their earlier works1 but they were industrious publishers4 ,like ,jenson1 they found it expedient to cut and cast types of the ,round ,gothic fashion1 for the ,roman character was most admired by scholars4 ,in #adgg1 ,crantz and ,friburger abandoned printing1 but ,gering continued to print until his death in #aeaj4 ,he willed a large property to the university4 ,in #adgc1 ,peter ,keyser and ,john ,stol1 after a three years' service with ,gering1 set up a rival printing office1 the result of which was a reduction in the price of books4#cfc ,this competition did not prevent other printers from founding offices in ,paris1 but it did compel some to improve the quality of their work1 and to seek a new class of readers4 ,antoine ,verard in #adhj1 and ,phillipe ,pigouchet in #adhd1 founded a new school of printing1 when they undertook to make prayer-books and romances in imitation of the style of the miniaturists4#cfd ,thielmann ,kerver1 who commenced to print in #adig1 was almost as famous as a printer of ornamental books4 ,the growing taste for fine books did not prevent the publication of solid literature4 ,in #adie1 ,jodocus ,badius1 a printer of great learning1 who had been proof-reader for his father-in-law1 ,trechsel of ,lyons1 established an office at ,paris1 and began to print for men of education4 ,in the following year came the famous ,henry ,stephens1 first of a long line of printers eminent for their scholarship and diligence as editors and publishers of classical and critical text books4 ,before the year #aejj1 there were1 or had been1 sixty-nine master printers in ,paris4 ,,lyons4 ,lyons must have offered unusual inducements to master printers1 for there were forty printing offices in that city before the year #aejj4 ,the printers of ,lyons were busy p#ejg publishers1 and their competitors in ,italy complained with reason of their piratical editions4 ,they made liberal use of engravings on wood and copper-plate illustrations4 ,they were also the first printers to sell cheap books in showy bindings4 ,,in ,,spain ,,and ,,portugal4 ,place4 ,printer4 ,date4 ,barcelona ,n4 ,spindeler #adgc or #adgh ,valencia ,cordova and ,palomar #adgd ,saragossa ,matthew ,flandrus #adge ,seville ,a4 ,martinez1 et al4 #adgf ,segorbe -- #adgi ,tolosa ,henry ,mayer #adhj ,burgos ,de ,basilea #adhe ,salamanca -- #adhe ,soria ,eliezar ben ,alanta #adhe ,xerica -- #adhe ,toledo ,john ,vasquez #adhf ,murcia ,juan de ,roca #adhg ,tarragona ,john ,rosembach #adhh ,lerida -- #adhh ,san ,cucufute des ,valles -- #adhi ,lisbon ,r4 ,samuel ,zorba #adhi ,pampeluna -- #adhi ,zamora -- #adij ,leiria ,abraham ,dortas #adib ,grenada ,meynard ,ungut #adif ,madrid -- #adii ,montserrat ,john ,luchner #adii ,,in ,,great ,,britain4 ,the first book printed in ,english1 the ,recuyell of the ,historyes of ,troye1 a stout folio of #cea leaves1 does not contain the date of printing1 nor the name and place of the printer1 but it appears from the introduction that it was translated from the ,french by ,william ,caxton between the years #adfi and #adga4 ,when and where it was printed is a vexed question4#cfe ,the monogram which was exhibited by ,caxton in his later books--fs ,w4 #gd4 ,c4 c_/f--is interpreted by ,madden as ,william ,caxton1 #adgd1 ,sancta ,colonia4 ,it is an indication that a notable event in his life was represented by the year #adgd and the city of ,cologne1 and it seems to authorize the conjecture that at this time and place he published his first book4 ,in #adge1 ,caxton printed1 in the office of ,mansion at p#ejh ,bruges1 ,the ,game and ,playe of the ,chesse4 ,in #adgg1 he was 8in the abbey of ,westminster1 by ,london10 and then and there published ,the ,dictes and ,sayings of ,philosophers4 ,he was then a very old man1 but he did good service as a printer before his death in #adia4 ,blades estimates the entire product of his press at #ah1jjj pages1 nearly all of which were of folio size4 ,compared with his great rivals on the ,continent1 ,caxton cannot be accorded high rank as editor or publisher1 but there was no printer of his time who labored more diligently4 ,in #adhj1 ,lettou and ,machlinia began to print at ,london4 ,wynken de ,worde1 ,richard ,pynson1 ,julian ,notary and ,william ,faques were also printers of that city before #aejj4 ,in #adhj1 ,theodoric ,rood1 of ,cologne1 printed at ,oxford4 ,in the same year1 an unnamed printer1 known to bibliographers as ,the ,school-master of ,st4 ,albans1 was at ,saint ,albans4 ,the first printing press in ,scotland was put up at ,edinburgh in #aejg2 the first in ,ireland at ,dublin in #aeea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,printing was first practised in the ,new ,world in the city of ,mexico1 by ,juan ,cromberger1 or his agent ,pablos1 between #aecf and #aedj4cff ,the second printing press in ,north ,america was put up by ,stephen ,daye at ,cambridge1 in #afch1 and the first work printed on it1 the ,freeman's ,oath1 was dated #afci4 ,illustration3 ,statue of ,gutenberg at ,strasburg4 ,from ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,the ,german origin of printing is fairly shown by the names1 unquestionably ,german1 of nearly all the men who introduced printing in ,southern ,europe4 ,the workmanship of these men leads to the same conclusion1 for the expert will see in their books evidences of the use of the punch1 p#eaj mould1 press1 and frisket4 ,whether done well or ill1 printing was done with the tools and by the methods of ,gutenberg4 ,printing did not meet with general welcome1 but the neglect or opposition it encountered did not come largely from the copyists4 ,the business of the copyist of cheap books was injured1 but the only complaint that ,i have met came from the copyists of ,genoa4 ,the calligrapher was indifferent to the growth of the new art1 for his skill was never in higher request nor more handsomely rewarded than at the close of the fifteenth century4 ,so far from injuring the business of the calligrapher1 printing really improved it1 for it largely increased the production of books intended for illumination4 ,the neglect of literary men to note the ,bible of #db lines and the ,catholicon of ,gutenberg1 the delayed establishment of a printing office at ,paris1 the indifference shown to printing in the great book-making town of ,bruges1 and the insufficient patronage bestowed on the early printers at ,rome1 are evidences that there was1 in the beginning1 a prejudice against printed books much more powerful than that of the copyists4 ,the bibliophiles of the time looked on printed books as the productions of an inartistic trade4 ,the admiration which has been recently invoked for the ,bible of #db lines as a book of nearly perfect workmanship was not expressed by any early book-buyer4 ,it does not appear that any book-lover of that period regarded this work1 or the art by which it was made1 as of high merit4 ,the error seems pardonable1 for the printed book was not as attractive as the manuscript1 and no one foresaw the future of printing4 ,gutenberg may have had a clearer idea than any man living of its capabilities1 but it is not probable that he foresaw the wheels within wheels which his types would put in motion1 or heard the clash and roar of the innumerable presses for which there should be no night and scarcely a ,sunday of rest1 or dreamed that books1 schools1 libraries1 newspapers and readers were yet to appear in a world then undiscovered1 in numbers so great that they could not be counted4 p#eaa ,the activity of the early printers is remarkable4 ,the task of preserving the literature of the world was fairly done at a very early date4 ,there were not many books that promised to be salable and profitable1 and some of them were scarce1 and copies were obtained with difficulty--but nearly every valuable book was found and printed4 ,naud1 the librarian of ,cardinal ,mazarin1 said that1 before the year #adgd1 all the good books1 however bulky1 had been printed two or three times1 to say nothing of many worthless works which should have been burned4 ,the same work was often printed in the same year1 by four or five rival printers in as many different cities4 ,the catalogue of ,hain very minutely describes #af1bij editions1 which1 at the low estimate of #cjj copies for each edition1 represents a total production of #d1hhg1jjj books4#cfg ,the attention of the literary world was first arrested1 not by the possibilities of future usefulness in printing1 but by the growing cheapness of books4 ,the early printers offered their books at less than the market prices of manuscripts1 but in a few years they were obliged to reduce the prices still lower4 ,the market was soon glutted1 and the prices fell rapidly and irretrievably4 ,chevillier says that1 at the close of the century1 the price of many books had been reduced by four-fifths4 ,in the preface to a book printed at ,rome in #adgj1 ,john ,andrew1 the bishop of ,aleria1 addressing ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 says3 8,it reflects no small glory on the reign of your holiness that a tolerably correct copy of such a work as formerly cost more than a hundred crowns may now be purchased for twenty2 those that were worth twenty1 for four at most4 ,it is a great thing1 holy father1 to say1 that in your time the most estimable authors are attainable at a price little exceeding that of blank parchment or paper40 p#eab ,the failure of many early printers to make their business profitable was largely caused by their injudicious selection for publication of bulky theological writings which cost a great deal of money to print1 and were salable only to a small class4 ,it was unwisely supposed that printing would receive its great support from the ecclesiastics4 ,with this object in view1 the first printers printed almost exclusively in ,latin1 and generally in the expensive shape of folio1 the books which could be read only by the learned1 and bought only by the wealthy4#cfh ,the printers' hopes of profit were rarely ever realized4 ,only a few like ,zell1 ,mentel and ,schffer became successful merchants of books on dogmatic theology4 ,it was soon discovered that printing could not be supported by ecclesiastics4 ,the printers who had been induced to set up presses in monasteries did not long remain there1 nor did the printing and publishing offices which they left prosper for many years4 ,books of devotion were never in greater request1 but books published by the church did not fully meet the popular want4 ,nearly all the books printed by ,gutenberg and ,schffer were in the ,latin language4 ,whether they overlooked the fact that there was an actual need for books in ,german1 or whether they were restrained in an attempt to print in ,german1 cannot be decided4 ,other publishers saw the need1 and disregarded the restraint1 if there was any1 to the great inquietude of ecclesiastics1 who seem to have had forewarning of the mischief that would be made by types4 ,on the fourth p#eac day of ,january1 #adhf1 ,berthold1 the archbishop of ,mentz1 issued a mandate in which he forbade all persons from printing1 publishing1 buying or selling books translated from the ,greek or ,latin1 or any other language1 before the written translation had been approved by a committee which should be appointed for the purpose from the faculty of the ,university of ,mentz4 ,the penalties were excommunication1 confiscation of the books1 and a fine of #ajj florins of gold4#cfi ,in ,italy the revival of classical literature opened a new field for the publisher1 but the demand for ,latin authors was limited4 ,in this country1 and in others1 eagerness for books in the native language was manifested2 for books that plain people could read2 for books that represented the life and thoughts of the living and not of the dead4 ,the world was getting ready for new teachers and for a new literature--for ,luther and ,bacon1 for ,galileo and ,shakespeare4 p#ead ,,xxvi ,the ,tools and ,usages of the ,early ,printers4 ,punches made by ,goldsmiths 4 4 4 ,styles of ,types imitated from ,manuscripts 4 4 4 ,popularity of the ,gothic 4 4 4 ,moulded ,matrices 4 4 4 ,types made without any ,system 4 4 4 ,from an ,adjustable ,mould 4 4 4 ,appearance of ,early ,types 4 4 4 ,large ,fonts made 4 4 4 ,importance of ,mould 4 4 4 ,rudeness of ,early ,composition 4 4 4 ,method of ,dictation 4 4 4 ,faults of ,compositors 4 4 4 ,slowness of ,improvement 4 4 4 ,construction of the ,hand-,press1 with illustration 4 4 4 ,inking ,balls1 with illustration 4 4 4 ,slowness of ,pressmen 4 4 4 ,printing in ,colors 4 4 4 ,printing ,ink 4 4 4 ,ingredients used by the ,ripoli ,press 4 4 4 ,moxon's ,complaints about ,ink 4 4 4 ,neglect of ,engraving on ,wood 4 4 4 ,peculiarities of ,paper 4 4 4 ,the ,degradation of ,engraving 4 4 4 ,proof-reading at ,weidenbach 4 4 4 ,faults of ,first ,editions 4 4 4 ,superiority of ,printed as compared with ,manuscript ,books 4 4 4 ,permanence of ,gutenberg's ,method4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all invention is progressive4 4 4 4 ,when a new machine is produced1 we do not say1 ,why1 it only consists of a number of wheels and cylinders1 therefore1 surely there is nothing new in it6 ,all the parts may be old1 and yet the combination be quite new4 ,to analyse an invention into its several parts1 would be equivalent to finding that a poem was only composed of the letters of the alphabet1 or the words in a dictionary4 ,dircks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first processes in the practice of typography--the cutting of punches and making of moulds--demanded a degree of skill in the handling of tools and of experience in the working of metal rarely found in any man who undertook to learn the art of printing4 ,they were never regarded as proper branches of the printer's trade1 but were1 from the beginning1 set aside as kinds of work which could be properly done by the goldsmith only4 ,jenson1 ,cennini1 ,sweinheym and ,veldener seem to have been the only printers of the fifteenth century who had the preliminary education that would warrant them in attempting to cut punches with their own hands4 p#eae ,not every goldsmith#cgj could do this work with neatness1 and for this reason1 as well as for the sake of economy1 many beginners bought their matrices from the printers who owned punches4 ,in some cases the types were bought outright1 but matrices which gave the means of renewing a worn-out font must have been preferred4 ,that there was a trade in matrices before type-foundries for the trade were established is shown by the appearance of the same face of type in many offices4 ,the ,round ,gothic types cut by ,jenson were frequently used by printers in ,france and ,germany4 ,certain faces of types used by ,caxton and by ,van der ,goes1 by ,leeu and ,bellaert1 by ,machlinia and ,veldener1 are identically the same1 and must have been cast from matrices struck from the same punches4 ,the styles of the early types were not invented by printer or punch-cutter4 ,the ,pointed ,gothic letters of ,gutenberg's ,bibles and of the ,psalter of #adeg are like those of the choice ecclesiastical manuscripts of that period4 ,the ,round ,gothic letters of the ,catholicon and of the ,letters of ,indulgence are of the form then used by ,german copyists in popular books4 ,in ,italy1 the first types were cut in imitation of the popular form of ,roman letters1 or in the southern fashion of ,round ,gothic2 in the ,netherlands1 they present the peculiarities of ,flemish writing2 in ,france and ,burgundy1 they were1 for the most part1 in the favorite ,french style of ,btarde ancienne4 ,in no instance did the printer invent a new style3 he did p#eaf no more than direct his punch-cutter to imitate1 as closely as he could1 the letters of a meritorious manuscript4 ,in this matter1 as well as in the arrangement of types1 he followed the fashion set by an approved copyist or calligrapher4 ,the peculiar characters#cga of different languages were produced as they were required1 somewhat slowly and of unequal merit1 by different printers4 ,the limitations of typography were not fully perceived1 and many unsuccessful attempts were made to produce types and sectional wood-cuts that could be used in the construction of maps1 ornaments and pictures4#cgb ,the ,gothic character was more popular than the ,roman1 but there were mechanical reasons why many printers preferred it4 ,it was not so quickly cut1 but its broad face1 free from hair-lines1 was more readily founded4 ,it could be inked with facility and printed with more evenness of color1 and it would not show wear as soon as the ,roman4 ,early printers1 who had no ,roman1 were loud in their praises of the ,gothic4#cgc ,it was preferred by ,verard1 ,pigouchet1 ,kerver1 and nearly all ,french and ,flemish printers4 ,it did not entirely go out of fashion in ,southern ,europe nor in ,france until the close p#eag of the sixteenth century4 ,it might have been supplanted by ,roman characters in ,germany1 if there had not been at this time a strong prejudice against ,roman customs and fashions of all kinds4 ,attempts at change were frequently made1 but they were always unsuccessful4 ,the steel bought for the type-foundry of the ,ripoli ,press was probably intended for punches4 ,the use of this metal in other type-foundries may be inferred from the sharpness1 when new1 of many fonts of early types4 ,that the moulds were of brass is indicated by the allusions of early writers and printers to types made in brass4 ,the matrices were of copper1 but it is not probable that they were struck in cold metal1 for it required great force and still greater discretion to strike the punch truly1 and the risk of breaking it had to be hazarded4 ,for the matrices of the large types of ,gutenberg's ,bibles and the ,psalter of #adeg1 copper softened by heat#cgd should have been1 and probably was1 provided4 ,when the secrets of type-making had been divulged1 the printers who found difficulties in making or buying matrices tried to evade its necessary conditions and cheapen its processes4 ,the types of wood with holes for wire1 described by ,specklin and others1 must have been punches of wood which had been made in the belief that it would be cheaper to cast words than to cast and compose single letters4 ,the matrices of lead noticed by ,ensched were probably made by striking the punch of wood in half-melted metal1 after the process described by ,didot4 ,the punch of wood1 burned by contact with hot metal1 was repaired1 altered and renewed2 the matrix of lead1#cge clogged by the adhesion of metal1 became defaced1 and was soon worn out4 ,every change in punch or matrix produced a corresponding change in the cast type4 p#eah ,the types of the fifteenth century were made without system4 ,the dimensions of each body and the peculiarities of each face were determined chiefly by the manuscript copy which had been selected as the model4 ,no printer had any idea of the advantages to be derived from a series of regularly graduated sizes1 nor of the beauty of a series of uniform faces1 nor of the great evils they would impose on themselves and their successors by the use of irregular bodies4#cgf ,a classification by scale of the types of any printer of this period will show that there are often wide gaps between the larger1 and confusing proximities between the smaller1 bodies4#cgg ,as the size of every body is determined by the mould in which it is cast1 it would seem that there must have been a separate mould for every distinct body4#cgh ,but this inference is encumbered with fatal objections4 ,the type-mould of hard metal is1 and always has been1 a very expensive tool1 and it cannot be supposed that any early printer made two or four moulds for one body when one mould would have served4 ,it p#eai is much more probable that he tried to make one mould serve for two or more bodies4 ,the inventor of the mould may have thought that it should be constructed with adjustments1 so that it should cast different bodies as well as different widths of types4 ,the practicability of a mould of this description is properly demonstrated by the old-fashioned adjustable mould for irregular bodies1 or by the mould used for casting leads1 which can be so enlarged or diminished that it will cast many bodies or thicknesses4 ,if we suppose that this mould was used by ,gutenberg for casting the two bodies of the ,letters of ,indulgence1 and by the unknown printer of the ,netherlands for his four bodies of ,english1 and that it was1 of necessity1 newly set or adjusted each time a new font was cast1 we shall at once have a precise explanation of irregularities which are unaccountable under any other hypothesis4 ,casting types without the system1 standards and gauges which modern type-founders use1 it is not surprising that the first printers made types with differences of body4 ,it was the impracticability of casting in this primitive mould1 at different times1 types of uniform body1 that compelled later type-founders to discard it1 and to use instead a mould for each body4 ,illustration3 ,a ,type of the ,fifteenth ,century4#cgi ,from ,madden4 ,the casting of the types1 which was always done in the printing office1 was then adjudged a proper part of a printer's trade4 ,the earlier chroniclers said the first types were made of lead and tin4 ,the ,cost ,book of the ,ripoli ,press specifies these metals1 and obscurely mentions another which seems to have been one of the constituents of type-metal4 ,if this conjecture can be accepted1 types were probably made in the fifteenth century1 as they are now1 of lead1 tin and antimony4#chj ,not one of the millions of types founded during the fifteenth p#ebj century has been preserved1 nor is there in any old book an engraving or a description of a type4 ,this neglected information has been unwittingly furnished by a careless pressman in the office of ,conrad ,winters1 who printed at ,cologne in #adgf4 ,this pressman1 or his mate1 when inking a slackly justified form1 permitted the inking ball to pull out a thin-bodied type1 which dropped sideways on the face of the form4 ,the accident was not noticed2 the tympan closed upon the form1 and the bed was drawn under the platen4 ,down came the screw and platen1 jamming the unfortunate type in the form1 and embossing it strongly in the fibres of the thick wet paper1 in a manner which reveals to us the shape of ,winters' types more truthfully than it could have been done even by special engraving4 ,the height#cha of this type is a trifle less than one ,american inch4 ,the sloping shoulder1 or the beard1 as it was once called1 was made to prevent the blackening of the paper1 for it would have been blackened if the shoulder had been high and square4#chb ,the circular mark1 about p#eba one-tenth of an inch diameter1 on the side of the type1 was firmly depressed in the metal1 but did not perforate it4 ,as this type had no nick on the body1 it is apparent that the circular mark was cast there to guide the compositor4 ,when the type was put in the stick with the mark facing outward1 the compositor knew1 without looking at the face1 that it was rightly placed4 ,there is no groove at the foot4 ,duverger says that the early types had no jet or breaking-piece2 that the superfluous metal was cut off1 and the type made of proper height by sawing4#chc ,these details may seem trifling1 but they are of importance3 they show that1 in the more important features1 the types of the early printers closely resembled ours4 ,there is a disagreement among bibliographers about the quantity of types ordinarily cast for a font by the early printers4 ,some1 judging from appearances which show that one page only was printed at an impression1 say that they cast types for two or three pages only2 others maintain that they must have had very large fonts4 ,that the latter view is correct seems fully established after a survey of the books known to have been printed by ,zell1 ,koburger1 ,leeu1 and others4 ,it would have been impossible to print these books in the short period in which we know they were done1 if the printer had not been provided with abundance of types4#chd ,as the types were made in the printing office1 by a quick method1 from an alloy which could be used repeatedly for the same purpose1 the supply was rarely limited by fear of expense4 ,the trades of compositor and pressman1 and possibly that of type-caster1 were kept about as distinct then as they are now4 ,there were more compositors than pressmen1 and the p#ebb compositors1 says ,madden1 in the heroic age of printing1 were not boys1 but men of education and intelligence4 ,the early printers who were taught the business that they might become masters had to pay a premium for their education4#che ,in the brief time that they gave to the work1 their education must have been more theoretical than practical4 ,as the branch of composition required the largest number of workmen1 and more intelligence1 and less manual labor than any other1 it was usually selected by the pupil for practice4 ,of type-casting and presswork he learned no more than was sufficient to enable him to direct the labors of his future workmen4 ,the knowledge of the trade which the pupil coveted was the ability to practise it on his own account1 and this knowledge was1 in most instances1 satisfactorily acquired when he got a theoretical knowledge of its secret processes4 ,the frequent specification of the formen in the earliest notices of printing shows that the mould1 with its accompanying matrices1 was regarded as the key to the knowledge and practice of the art4 ,as the moulds were made by master mechanics1 not bound to secrecy1 and as the earlier compositors had some knowledge of the process of type-casting1 it was not difficult for a journeyman to become a master printer4 ,when he had bought a type-mould and matrices1 he could go to any city and begin to print books4 ,he could cast types and mix ink as he needed them2 he could buy paper and the constituents of type-metal in any large town2 properly instructed1 any joiner could make the press4#chf ,illustration3 ,presswork and ,composition as done in #aefd4 ,from ,jost ,amman4 ,the annexed illustration1 a fac-simile of one of ,amman's engravings of a printing office1 is from his book dated #aefd4 p#ebc ,the case for the type is of one piece and is resting on a rude frame4 ,all the boxes are represented as of the same size1 but this is probably an error1 for it is an error which is frequently made by designers of this day4#chg ,in this1 and in many other early illustrations of type-setting1 the compositors are seated on stools4 ,in ,italy and in ,paris1 women were employed as compositors4 ,in the wood-cut used by ,jodocus ,badius#chh for a trade-mark1 we see a hard-featured dame before a narrow case1 composing types with judicial deliberation4 ,she has in her left hand a narrow composing stick1 made to hold but two or three lines of small types4 ,the early stick was not like the neatly finished iron tool of our time1 with steel composing rule and an adjustable screw and knee adapting it to any measure4 ,it was a real stick of wood1 a home-made strip of deal1 with the side and end-piece tacked on4 ,for every measure a new stick or a retacking of the movable piece was required4 ,the date of the introduction of the stick cannot be fixed1 but it was used1 without alteration for many years1 by the printers of all countries4 ,it is possible that some of the early printers p#ebd had no sticks4 ,the peculiar workmanship of the unknown printer and of ,albert ,pfister shows that the types were taken direct from the case and wedged in the mortised blocks of wood which served for chases4 ,blades attributes the uneven spacing and irregular endings of lines in the early printed books of ,caxton and of other printers1 to their ignorance of the advantages of a composing rule1 without which types could not be readily moved to and fro1 and adjusted4#chi ,in the following illustration1 the compositor has the copy before her in the shape of a book1 but ,conrad ,zeltner1 a learned printer of the seventeenth century1 said that this was not the early usage2 that it was customary to employ a reader to read aloud to the compositors1 who set the types from dictation1 not seeing the copy4 ,he also says that the reader could dictate from as many different pages or copies to three or four compositors working together4#cij ,when the compositors were educated1 the method of dictation may have been practised with some success2 when they were ignorant1 it was sure to produce many errors4 ,zeltner said that he preferred the old method1 but he admits that it had to be abandoned1 on account of the increasing ignorance of the compositors4 p#ebe ,no feature of early printing is more unworkmanlike than that of composition4 ,imitating the style of the manuscript copy1 the compositor huddled together words and paragraphs in solid columns of dismal blackness1 and sent his forms to press without title1 running-titles1 chapter-heads and paging-figures4 ,the space for the ornamental borders and letters of the illuminator seems extravagant when contrasted with the pinched spaces between lines and words4 ,the printer trusted to the bright colors of the illuminator to give relief to the blackness of the types1 not knowing that a purer relief and greater perspicuity would have been secured by a wider spacing of the words and lines4 ,the obscurity produced by huddled and over-black types was increased by the neglect of simple orthographical rules4 ,proper names were printed with or without capitals1 apparently to suit the whim of the compositor4 ,the comma1 colon and period1 the only points of punctuation in general use1 were employed capriciously and illogically4 ,crooked and unevenly spaced lines and errors of arrangement or making-up were common4 ,madden has pointed out several gross blunders1 caused by the transposition of lines and pages and an erroneous calculation of the space that should be occupied by print4 ,words were mangled in division1 and in the display of lines in capital letters1 in a manner that seems inexcusable4 ,but no usage of the early compositor is more annoying than his lawless use of abbreviations4 ,imitating the example of ,procrustes1 he made the words fit1 chopping them off on any letter or in any position1 indifferent to the wants of the reader or to the proprieties of language4#cia ,whatever opinion may be entertained concerning p#ebf the deterioration of printing in other branches1 it is1 beyond all cavil1 certain that in the art of arranging types so that the meaning of the author shall be made lucid1 the modern compositor is much the more intelligent mechanic4 ,improvements were made slowly4 ,the method of spacing out lines so as to produce a regular outline at the right side of every page had been practised before1 but it was not in general use even as late as #adgh4 ,arabic figures1 instead of ,roman numerals1 were first used by ,ter ,hoorne of ,cologne1 and by ,helye of ,munster in #adgj4 ,signatures to guide the binder in putting together in order the different sheets of a book were first used in printed books by ,zarot of ,milan in #adgj4 ,as the alphabetical letters of these signatures often had to be doubled1 and sometimes quadrupled in thick books1 it became necessary to print a full list of the signatures at the end of every book as an additional guide to the binder4 ,this list1 registrum chartarum1 seems to have been first used by ,colonna at ,venice in #adge4 ,the clumsiness of doubled alphabetical letters should have led to the use of ,arabic figures for signatures1 and should have suggested paging1 but these reforms were not adopted for many years afterward4#cib ,a table of errata1 two pages folio1 was exhibited by ,gabriel ,peter of ,venice in #adgh4 ,the first full title1 if a few lines in compact capital letters can be so called1 was made by ,ratdolt of ,venice in #adgg1 but his example was not rapidly followed by rival printers4 ,running-titles and open chapter-headings are innovations of the next century4 ,the printers of the fifteenth century who wished to free themselves from dependence on the illuminator filled up the white spaces about chapter-headings with bits of engraving on wood or metal4 p#ebg ,galleys1 or trays of wood to keep in place the composed types1 were not known2 the types were placed line after line1 perhaps letter by letter1 in the mortised block of wood which served for the chase4 ,nice justification was impossible4 ,if two pages were put in one mortise1 one of these pages would often be out of square--an irregularity which has led some bibliographers to think that each page was separately printed from a separate form4 ,the locking-up or tightening of the types1 which was roughly done1 often made the types crooked1 springing them off their feet and making the spaces work up4#cic ,the neglect of the early printers to praise their presses is remarkable when contrasted with their frequent praises of the marvelous art of type-making4 ,it is inferential evidence that the press was then regarded as an old contrivance1 and not worthy of notice1 but this conclusion cannot be unreservedly accepted4 ,the principle of pressure was old1 and for that reason1 was undervalued by printers1 but the mechanism of the press was new4 ,that the printing press was an invention of merit will be perceived at a glance when it is compared with the screw press which is supposed to have served as the basis of construction4#cid ,that a proper method of doing presswork was devised in the infancy of the art may be inferred1 not only from the permanency of the primitive form of press1 all the important features of which are still preserved in the modern hand-press1 but from the meritorious presswork of the first books4 ,the ,bibles of ,gutenberg were certainly printed on a press which quickly gave and quickly released its pressure1 and which had the attachments of a movable bed1 tympan and frisket1 and contrivances for neatly inking the types and for keeping the paper in position4 ,illustration3 ,presswork and ,composition as done in #aebj4 ,from ,blades' fac-simile of the print of ,badius4 ,two upright beams1 or cheeks1 supporting a thick cross-piece1 or cap1 made the frame-work4 ,the cap held in place the screw and spindle which gave the impression1 and the descent of the spindle was steadied by the large square collar1 or till1 which was supported by the cheeks4 ,the point of the spindle pressed against the impressing surface1 or platen1 which was held in place by iron rods connecting it with the collar4 ,the bed of the press and the form of types are concealed by the tympan drawer1 which1 with tympan and frisket1 have been folded down and run under the platen4 ,see illustration on page #cjg1 and explanation on page #bhj1 for the uses of these parts4 ,the bed was of stone1 but every other large piece was of wood4 ,iron was used only for the spindle1 the core of the bar-handle1 for nuts and bolts1 and the minor pieces for which no other material would serve4 ,jodocus ,badius of ,paris was the first printer who published engravings of the printing press4 ,it cannot be asserted p#ebh that they are minutely accurate representations of the press then in use1 but they will serve to show its general construction4 ,two features provoke hostile comment4 ,contrary to modern usage1 the piles of white paper and printed paper are unhandily placed on the off-side of the press1 and the stalwart pressman pulls home the bar with both arms4 ,the platen p#ebi seems altogether too small when contrasted with the great screw1 the heavy frame1 and the two-handed pull of the pressman4 ,the smallness of this platen was not an error of the designer4 ,moxon1 who has minutely described the press of his time1 says that the platen of an ordinary press should be of the size #i by #ad inches1 and that the coffin1 or trough in which the bed was placed1 should be #bh inches long and #bb inches wide4 ,in other words1 the platen was purposely made so that it could impress less than half the surface of the bed2 it could print only one-half of one side of the sheet4#cie ,small as this platen may seem1 it was large enough for the frame-work of wood4 ,it gave great resistance under pull1 and severely taxed the strength of the pressman4 ,a platen of double size would have defied the pressman2 it would have sprung under pressure and have broken the bed of stone4 ,the types were inked by balls1 an appliance which is not more than fifty years out of fashion4 ,these balls were made of untanned sheepskin1 stuffed hard with wool1 and mounted with handles4 ,the gluey ink was evenly distributed by forcibly rocking their curved surfaces against each other4 ,this done1 the balls were then beaten upon the types in the form4 ,when we learn that the early presses were made almost entirely of wood1 and put together by ordinary joiners1 we may infer that many were unscientifically built1#cif and shackly4 p#ecj ,all the materials for presswork were imperfect4 ,the types1 cut to length by a saw1 were of uneven height2 the paper was usually of very rough surface and of irregular thickness2 the platen of wood1 rarely ever truly flat1 must have given unequal pressure at different corners4 ,it was necessary that some substance should be put between the platen and the white sheet which would compensate for these irregularities4 ,this substance was a woolen blanket1 in two or more thicknesses1 which spread or diffused the impression4 ,the wetting of the paper1 which made it soft and pliable1 materially aided the pressman1 but his great reliance seems to have been on strong impression4 ,all the old cuts of presses represent the pressman tugging at the bar with a force which seems out of all proportion to the size of the form4 ,illustration3 ,early ,inking ,balls4 ,from a ,playing ,card of ,sixteenth ,century4 ,the early press was rude1 and the method of printing was unscientific1 but in many offices the pressman was superior to his press and his method4 ,by doing his work slowly and carefully he often did it admirably4 ,it was always done slowly1 with a waste of time which1 if allowed in the modern practice of printing1 would make books of excessive price4 ,some notion of this waste may be had after an examination of the letters of the ,psalter of #adeg1 in which exact work was produced by painting1 not by printing proper4 ,that the performance of the press even on ordinary black work was slow1 is indicated by the great number of presses used by the early printers1 and is proved by the plain statement of ,philip de ,lignamine1 p#eca who said that the printers of ,mentz printed three hundred sheets a day4 ,this seems a small performance4#cig ,the accurate register of the first books was produced by placing the white sheet on four fixed points which perforated the four corners of the leaf when the first side was printed4 ,in printing the back of the page1 the half-printed sheet was hung on the same points1 from the same point-holes1 and was impressed in the same position4 ,blades notices the four point-holes in some of ,caxton's books1 and it is probable that the mysterious pin-holes in other books are the marks of points4 ,it was soon discovered that register could be had with two points1 which were placed in the centre of the sheet where the marks would be hidden by the binder4#cih p#ecb ,the printing ink of the fifteenth century1 as we now see it1 is of unequal merit4 ,in the books of ,jenson it appears as an intense1 velvety1 glossy black2 in the ,bibles of ,gutenberg it is a strong1 permanent black1 without gloss2 in the ,psalter of #adeg it appears in some places as a glossy black1 and in others as a faded color which had to be retouched with the pen2 in the works of the unknown printer it is a dingy and smearing black2 in the book of some printers it is a paste color which can be rubbed off with a sponge2 in nearly all1 it is uneven1 over-black on one page and gray on another4#cii ,the general impression that early printing ink is blacker and brighter than modern ink is not always correct4 ,early ink seems blacker1 because it is shown in greater quantity1 for the early types were larger1 of broader face1 without hair lines1 and could be over-colored without disadvantage4#djj ,the same ink applied to the small thin ,roman types of our time1 p#ecc would seem dull and gray4 ,the microscopic examination of any early ink will show that the black is not fine and not thoroughly mixed with proper drying oil4 ,but this imperfection is comparatively unimportant4 ,it is a graver fault in some early inks that they are not firmly fixed to the paper4#dja ,there is no trustworthy account of the invention of printing ink1 but the types and the inks were undoubtedly invented together4 ,one was the proper complement of the other4 ,it may be supposed that ,gutenberg acquired the knowledge of the newly found properties of boiled linseed oil#djb from ,german painters4 ,it is certain that he used oil as the basis of his ink1 and that it was also used by his pupils and successors4 ,and it has been in use ever since1 for there is no substitute4 ,,ingredients ,,of ,,printing ,,ink ,,used ,,by ,,the ,,ripoli ,,press4 ,ingredients4 ,tuscan ,american ,currency4 ,currency4 ,linseed ,oil1 bbl4 lir4 #c #aj #j #c4ag ,turpentine1 lb4 #d #j 4#ah ,pitch1 ,greek #d #j 4#ah ,pitch1 ,black #a #h #g-a_/b ,marcassite #c #j 4#ac-a_/b ,vermilion #e #j 4#bb-c_/d ,rosin #c #j 4#ac-a_/b ,varnish1 hard #h #j 4#cf ,varnish1 liquid #ab #j 4#ed ,nutgalls #d #j 4#ah ,vitriol #d #j 4#ah ,shellac #c #j 4#ac-a_/b ,we have not been told how the ink was compounded4 ,our nearest approach to this knowledge is through the ,cost ,book of the ,ripoli ,press for #adha1 which specifies and prices the materials4 ,as no p#ecd mention is made of smoke-black1 we have to infer that pitch was burnt to make this black4 ,linseed oil1 as the most bulky ingredient1 very properly occupies the first place4 ,the real value of nutgalls and vitriol is not so apparent3 they were important ingredients in writing ink1 and the ,italian printer may have thought them indispensable in printing ink4 ,shellac and liquid varnish were used to give a glossy surface4 ,printers soon discovered that printing was an art of too many details1 and that the manufacture of printing ink was its most objectionable duty4 ,there was risk of fire in the boiling of linseed oil2 there was discomfort and dirt connected with the manipulation of the ingredients2 and in inexpert hands there was waste and often entire failure4 ,in all large cities1 ink-making was set apart and practised as a distinct trade4 ,as a necessary consequence1 the quality deteriorated through the competition that followed4 ,moxon's criticism of ink made in ,england in #afhc could be applied without any injustice to much of the ink of the fifteenth century4#djc p#ece ,illustration3 ,reduced ,fac-simile of a large ,wood-cut1 said to be of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,from ,jackson4 ,gutenberg1 ,schffer1 ,zell1 ,mentel and many early printers of ,france and ,italy neglected engraving on wood4#djd ,it may be that this neglect originated in the difficulties of printing types and wood-cuts together1#dje or in a despisal of the rude productions of the block-printers1#djf and in the intention of the p#ecf typographers to make emphatic the superiority of their branch4 ,wood-cuts were freely used by typographers in the heart of ,germany and in the ,netherlands1 the districts where we find the earliest notices of block-printing1 but they are generally of a low order4 ,many of them are barbarous1 as faulty in cutting as in drawing1 and pleasing only to uncultivated tastes4 ,it is probable that1 about this time1 many of the more skillful engravers and designers#djg abandoned the practice of xylography1 attracted1 no doubt1 by the superior advantages offered by the newly invented art of copper-plate printing4 ,the art of engraving on wood1 although it afterward enlisted the services of artists like ,durer and ,holbein1 could not compete with this formidable rival4 ,it suffered a long eclipse1 from which it did not emerge until the days of ,bewick4 ,the quality of the paper in early books is as unequal as the printing4 ,in the ,bible of #cf lines1 the paper is thick and strong1 of coarse fibre1 yellowish1 apparently made from sun-bleached flax2 in the books of ,schffer1 and of the later ,german printers1 the paper is thinner1 but dingy and harsh2 in the books of the ,venetian printers1 it is often very thin1 usually of smooth surface and a creamy white tint that seems to have been unchanged by time4 ,different qualities are often noticeable in the same book4 ,there were many paper-mills from which the printers drew their supplies1 and every mill made different qualities4 ,blades says that it was the practice to sort the paper before printing1 separating the rough from the smooth1 and the thin from the thick1 and to print and bind together sheets of similar quality4 ,the sizes required by printers were small4 ,the books first made were printed on sheets about #af by #ba inches1 one leaf of which was as large as could be printed by one pull of the press4 ,the sizes #ae by #bj1 #ad by #ah and #ab by #ae inches were common1 and p#ecg in request for quartos and octavos4 ,the largest size seems to have been royal1 about #bj by #be inches4 ,the ,cost ,book of the ,ripoli ,press gives names and prices to nine distinct qualities or sizes of paper1 but it does not define the weights and measurements4 ,the smallest size and cheapest quality1 possibly a pot foolscap1 was put down at the price of #b lire #h soldi 7about #b4ah7 per ream2 the largest and best1 probably royal1 at #f lire #h soldi 7about #e4hj7 per ream4#djh ,illustration3 ,the ,fall of ,lucifer1 as shown in ,zainer's ,edition of the ,speculum ,salutis4 ,an ,illustration of the ,degradation of ,engraving on ,wood4 ,from ,heineken4 ,the paper made for the ,bibles of ,gutenberg and for the earlier books was the ordinary writing paper of the period4 ,made from linen rags that had not been weakened by caustic alkalies or by steam-boiling and gas-bleaching processes1 and strongly sized by the dipping of each sheet in a tub p#ech containing a thin solution of glue1 it was strong and of hard surface4 ,but the qualities which commended the paper to the copyist were objectionable to the printer4 ,the hard surface caused harsh impression1 and strong sizing made the damp sheets stick together4 ,it was soon discovered that unsized paper1 which1 according to ,madden1 was about half the price of the sized1 was easier to print4 ,it would take a clearer impression1 and more thoroughly imbibe the oily ink4 ,these advantages could not be overlooked1 and1 consequently1 hard-sized papers went out of fashion4 ,by far the largest part of the books printed during the last quarter of the fifteenth century were of unsized or half-sized paper4 ,the early printer tried to gratify luxurious tastes by printing copies on vellum1 but its inordinate price1 and the great difficulties then encountered in printing1 obliged him to give it up as an impracticable material4 ,when book-lovers found that able printers like ,kerver and ,pigouchet printed paper more neatly and evenly in color1 vellum#dji went out of fashion4 ,illustration3 ,a ,print of #adge1 probably the work of an amateur engraver4 ,from ,heineken4 ,we do not know what system or method was observed in early proof-reading4 ,madden has pointed out many curious errors in three distinct copies of a book printed at ,weidenbach about #adfd1 which seem to show that the compositor of each copy read the proof of his own work1 and read it badly4 ,possibly this was the method of many of the amateur printers of that century1 whose books1 according to ,schelhorn1 bristle with horrid and squalid errors4 ,it could not have been the method of ,gutenberg1 whose ,bibles1 although not free from faults1 were obviously read with care4 ,nor was it the method of careful printers1 for there is evidence that many of them p#eci enlisted the services of eminent scholars as proof-readers or correctors of the press4#daj ,these correctors did a double duty2 they corrected the errors of the compositors and those of the manuscript copy4#daa ,from the frequency and earnestness of the complaints then made concerning faulty manuscript texts1 p#edj it seems that the copyists needed correction more than the compositors4 ,but the correctors were not always equal to the task4 ,some of them were grossly incompetent1 and still further corrupted the texts they undertook to improve4#dab ,considering the difficulties the early printers encountered in getting correct copies and competent readers1 it is surprising that their books are not more full of faults4 ,the errors of early printed books have been frequently commented on1 but the remarks of ,prosper ,marchand are1 perhaps1 the most emphatic3 ,it is a prejudice altogether too common1 a prejudice which dealers in old books have kept alive and profited from1 to think that the editions of the fifteenth century are more accurate because they were printed from manuscript copies4 ,many of these editions were printed from faulty texts1 picked up by chance1 or selected without judgment by printers who were unable to see their faults1 and were still further corrupted by the ignorance and rashness of their editors and correctors4 ,i know that this is a kind of literary blasphemy1 but it is warranted by respectable authority4 4 4 4 ,they are deceived who think that books are accurate in proportion to their age4 ,for the most part1 the older they are1 the more inaccurate they are4#dac p#eda ,inaccurate as early printed books may have been1 they were more correct than those of the copyists4 ,the errors of a faulty first edition were soon discovered and the faulty editions were supplanted by the perfect4 ,it is not the least of the many benefits of printing that it has effectually prevented the accidental or intentional debasement of texts4 ,the inferiority of the tools of the early printing office could be plainly exhibited by contrasting them with those of our time--the early hand-press with the modern cylinder printing machine--the entire collection of types made in the fifteenth century with the specimen book of any reputable modern type-founder4 ,but the pride of the young printer in improvements which have been most largely made by the men of this century should be modified by the reflection that there has been no change in the theory1 and but few changes in the elementary processes of printing4 ,the punch1 matrix and mould1 the tympan1 frisket and points1 the use of damp paper and oily ink1 of curved surfaces for applying the ink1 and of blankets for diffusing the impression1 are still in fashion4 ,printing is done quicker1 cheaper1 with more neatness and accuracy1 with more regard for the convenience of the reader1 with many new features of artistic merit1 and in varieties and quantities so vast that there can be no comparison between early and modern productions--but it is the same kind of work it was in the beginning4 ,it has not been made obsolete by lithography or photography1 nor by any other invention of our time4 ,the method invented by ,gutenberg still keeps its place at the head of the graphic arts4 p#edc ,,authorities ,,consulted4 ,,beckmann ,,john4 ,a ,history of ,inventions1 ,discoveries and ,origins4 ,translated by ,william ,johnston4 #abmo4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahdf4 ,,berjeau ,j4 ,,ph4 ,biblia ,pauperum4 ,reproduced in ,fac-simile 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 with an ,historical and ,bibliographical ,introduction4 ,folio4 ,london1 #ahei4 ---- ---- ,le ,bibliophile ,illustr for #ahfa4 ,imperial #hvo4 ,london1 #ahfb4 ---- ---- ,book-worm for #ahff4 ,imperial #hvo4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,,bernard ,,aug4 ,de l'origine et des dbuts de l'imprimerie en ,europe4 #hvo4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahec4 ,,bibliophile ,,belge ,,bulletin ,,du4 #hvo4 ,vols4 ,i to ,,ix4 ,brussels1 #ahde-aheb4 ,,blades ,,william4 ,the ,life and ,typography of ,william ,caxton1 ,england's ,first ,printer1 etc4 ,royal #dto4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahfa-ahfc4 ,,breitkopf ,,joh4 ,,gottl4 ,,imman4 ,versuch den ,ursprung der ,spielkarten1 die ,einfhrung des ,leinenpapieres1 und den ,anfang der ,holzschneidekunst in ,europa4 #dto4 #b vols4 in one4 ,leipsic1 #aghd4 ,,campbell ,m4-,f4-,a4-,g4 ,annales de la typographie ,nerlandaise au ,x,ve sicle4 #hvo4 ,la ,haye1 #ahgd4 ,,camus4 ,notice d'un livre imprim ,bamberg en #adfb4 #dto4 ,paris1 an ,,vii4 ,,crapelet ,g4-,a4 tudes pratiques et littraires sur la typographie4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahcg4 ,,daunou ----4 ,analyse des opinions diverses sur l'origine de l'imprimerie4 #hvo4 ,paris1 an ,,xi4 ,,de ,,la ,,borde ,l,,on4 ,dbuts de l'imprimerie ,strasbourg1 ou recherches sur les travaux mystrieux de ,gutenberg dans cette ville1 et sur le procs qui lui fut intent en #adci cette occasion4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahdj4 ---- ---- ,dbuts de l'imprimerie ,mayence et ,bamberg1 ou description des lettres d'indulgence du pape ,nicholas ,v pro regno ,cypri1 imprimes en #aded4 ,royal #dto4 ,paris1 #ahdj4 ,,de ,,vries ,a4 claircissemens sur l'histoire de l'invention de l'imprimerie4 #hvo4 ,la ,haye1 #ahdc4 ,,didot ,m4 ,,ambroise ,,firmin4 ,essai sur la typographie4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahea4 ,,douce ,,francis4 ,holbein's ,dance of ,death 4 4 4 with a ,dissertation1 etc4 #abmo4 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,,falkenstein ,,karl4 ,geschichte der ,buchdruckerkunst in ihrer ,entstehung und ,ausbildung4 #dto4 ,leipsic1 #ahdj4 ,,fischer ,,gotthelf4 ,essai sur les monuments typographiques de ,jean ,gutenberg1 mayenais1 inventeur de l'imprimerie4 #dto4 ,mayence1 an ,x4 ,,fournier le jeune ,p4 ,s4 ,manuel typographique4 #afmo4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #agfd-agff4 ,,gresswell ,,william ,,parr4 ,annals of ,parisian ,typography1 etc4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahah4 ,,hain ,l4 ,repertorium ,bibliographicum1 in quo ,libri ,omnes ab ,arte ,typographica ,inventa usque ad ,annum ,,md4 typis expressi1 etc4 #hvo4 #b vols4 ,stuttgardt1 #ahbf-ahch4 ,,hallam ,,henry4 ,introduction to the ,literature of ,europe in the ,fifteenth1 ,sixteenth and ,seventeenth ,centuries4 #hvo4 #b vols4 ,new-,york1 #ahda4 ---- ---- ,view of the ,state of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages4 #hvo4 #c vols4 ,boston1 #ahec4 ,,hansard ,t4 ,c4 ,typographia3 an ,historical ,sketch of the ,origin and ,progress of the ,art of ,printing1 etc4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,,heineken ,c4 ,h4 ,ide gnrale d'une collection complette d'estampes1 avec une dissertation sur l'origine de la gravure et sur les premiers livres d'images4 #hvo4 ,leipsic and ,vienna1 #agga4 ,,helbig ,,henri4 ,une ,dcouverte pour l'histoire de l'imprimerie4 ,pamphlet1 #hvo4 ,brussels1 #ahee4 ---- ---- ,notes et dissertations relatives l'histoire de l'imprimerie4 ,pamphlet1 #hvo4 ,brussels1 without date4 7,from ,vol4 ,,xviii of the ,bibliophile ,belge47 ,,holtrop ,,joh4 ,,guil4 ,catalogus ,librorum ,sculo ,,xv ,impressorum1 quotquot in ,bibliotheca ,regia ,hagana asservantur4 #hvo4 ,hagae-,comitum1 #ahef4 ---- ---- ,monuments typographiques des ,pays-,bas au quinzime sicle4 ,folio4 ,la ,haye1 #ahfh4 ,,humphreys ,h4 ,,noel4 ,a ,history of the ,art of ,printing from its ,invention1 etc4 ,folio4 ,second ,issue4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,,jackson ,,john and ,,chatto ,w4 ,a4 ,a ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 etc4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,,jacob ,p4 ,l4 7,lacroix47 ,curiosits de l'histoire des arts4 #afmo4 ,paris1 #aheh4 ,,johnson ,j4 ,typographia1 or the ,printers' ,instructor1 including an ,account of the ,origin of ,printing4 #bdmo4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahbd4 ,,koning ,,jacques4 ,dissertation sur l'origine1 l'invention1 et le perfectionnement de l'imprimerie4 #hvo4 ,amsterdam1 #ahai4 ,,lacroix ,,paul 7,bibliophile ,jacob71 ,e4 ,,fournier et ,f4 ,,ser4 ,histoire de l'imprimerie et des arts et professions1 etc4 ,imperial #hvo4 ,paris1 #aheb4 ,,la ,,caille ,,jean ,,de4 ,histoire de l'imprimerie et de la librarie o l'on voit son origine et son progrs jusqu'en #afhi4 #dto4 ,paris1 #afhi4 ,,lambinet ,p4 ,recherches historiques1 littraires et critiques sur l'origine de l'imprimerie4 #hvo4 ,brussels1 an ,,vii4 ,,lanzi ,,abate ,,luigi4 ,the ,history of ,painting in ,italy1 etc4 ,translated by ,thomas ,roscoe4 #abmo4 #c vols4 ,london1 #aheb4 ,,madden ,j4-,p4-,a4 ,lettres d'un bibliographe4 ,series ,i to ,,iv4 ,royal #hvo4 ,versailles and ,paris1 #ahfh-ahge4 ,,maittaire ,m4 ,annales ,typographici ab ,artis ,invent ,origine ad annum ,,mdclxiv4 #dto4 #e vols4 ,hagae-,comitum1 #agai-agda4 ,,marchand ,,prosper4 ,histoire de l'origine et des prmiers progrs de l'imprimerie4 #dto4 ,la ,haye1 #agdj4 ,,meerman ,g4 ,origines ,typographic4 #dto4 #b vols4 ,hagae-,comitum1 #agfe4 ,,merlin ,r4 ,origine des cartes jouer1 etc4 #dto4 ,paris1 without date4 ,,moxon ,,joseph4 ,mechanick ,exercises3 or the ,doctrine of ,handy-,works4 ,applied to the ,art of ,printing4 ,small #dto4 ,london1 #afhc4 ,,munsell ,,joel4 ,a ,chronology of ,paper and ,paper ,making4 #hvo4 ,albany1 #ahgj4 ,,nichols ----4 ,the ,origin of ,printing1 etc4 #hvo4 ,london1 #aggd4 ,,ottley ,,william ,,young4 ,an ,inquiry into the ,origin and ,early ,history of ,engraving upon ,copper and on ,wood4 #b vols4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahaf4 ---- ---- ,an ,inquiry concerning the ,invention of ,printing1 etc41 with an ,introduction by ,j4 ,ph4 ,berjeau4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,,passavant ,j4 ,d4 ,le ,peintre-,graveur4 #hvo4 #f vols4 ,leipsic1 #ahfj4 ,,ringwalt ,j4 ,,luther4 ,american ,encyclopdia of ,printing4 ,imperial #hvo4 ,philadelphia1 #ahga4 ,,santander ,,serna ,,de ,,la4 ,dictionnaire bibliographique choisi du quinzime sicle4 #hvo4 #c vols4 ,brussels1 #ahje-ahjg4 ,,savage ,,william4 ,practical ,hints on ,decorative ,printing4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,,schoepflin ,,jo4 ,,daniel4 ,vindici ,typographic4 #dto4 ,strasburg1 #agfj4 ,,seiz ,j4 ,c4 ,annus ,tertius ,scularis ,invent ,artis ,typographic4 #hvo4 ,haarlem1 #agdc4 ,,sismondi ,j4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,simonde ,,de4 ,historical ,view of the ,literature of the ,south of ,europe4 #abmo4 #b vols4 ,new-,york1 #ahfj4 ,,sotheby ,s4 ,,leigh4 ,the ,typography of the ,fifteenth ,century1 etc41 exemplified in a ,collection of ,fac-similes4 ,folio4 ,london1 #ahde4 ---- ---- ,principia ,typographica4 ,the ,block-,books1 or ,xylographic ,delineations1 etc4 ,folio1 #c vols4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,,skeen ,,william4 ,early ,typography4 #hvo4 ,colombo1 ,ceylon1 #ahgb4 ,,thomas ,,isaiah4 ,history of ,printing in ,america1 etc4 4 4 4 with a concise view of the discovery of the art4 #hvo4 #b vols4 ,worcester1 #ahaj4 ,,timperley ,c4 ,h4 ,a ,dictionary of ,printers and ,printing1 etc4 ,royal #hvo4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,,tymms ,w4 ,r4 and ,,wyatt1 ,m4 ,d4 ,the ,art of ,illumination as ,practised in ,europe from the ,earliest ,times4 ,royal #hvo4 ,london1 without date4 ,,van ,,der ,,meersch ,p4 ,c4 ,recherches sur la vie et les travaux des imprimeurs ,belges et ,nerlandais1 etc4 ,royal #hvo4 ,gand et ,paris1 #ahef4 ,,van ,,der ,,linde4 ,the ,haarlem ,legend of the ,invention of ,printing by ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster ,critically ,examined4 ,from the ,dutch by ,j4 ,a4 ,hessels1 with an ,introduction1 etc4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,,weigel ,t4 ,o4 and ,,zesterman4 ,die ,anfnge der ,druckerkunst in ,bild und ,schrift1 etc4 ,imperial #dto4 #b vols4 ,leipsic1 #ahff4 ,,wetter ,j4 ,kritische ,geschichte der ,erfindung der ,buchdruckerkunst durch ,johann ,gutenberg zu ,mainz4 #hvo4 #ahcf4 ,,woltmann ,,alfred4 ,holbein and ,his ,time4 ,translated by ,f4 ,e4 ,bunntt1 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,,wolf ,,jo4 ,,christian4 ,monumenta ,typographica1 qv ,artis hujus prstantissim ,originem1 ,laudem et ,abusum posteris produnt1 etc4 #afmo4 #b vols4 ,hamburg1 #agdj4 p#edg ,,index ,abbreviations1 excessive use of1 #afd1 #ebe -- of ,bible of #cf lines1 #dad ,abecedarium of ,ensched1 #bhi1 #bij ,accuracy in types1 importance of1 #eb ,accursius ,mariangelus1 #bef ,acta ,diurna of old ,rome1 #dd ,adolph1 count of ,nassau1 #dch -- his patronage of ,gutenberg1 #ddj neas ,sylvius1 ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 #bhg ,aix-la-,chapelle1 fair of1 #cid ,aldus ,manutius1 #bia1 #ejc1 #edj ,amman ,jost1 the artist1 #fa ,anachronisms1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bah1 #dig ,andrieszoon ,jan1 of ,haarlem1 #cbj ,annunciation1 print of1 #gb ,antichrist1 the block-book1 #bca ,antimony1 probable use of1 #ff1 #eai ,antwerp1 early type-printing at1 #ejj -- first block-printer at1 #cad ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john1 block-book1 #baj -- evidences of its age1 #bad -- prices paid for1 #baa ,apostles' ,creed1 the block-book1 #bbh ,appeal against the ,turks1 #daj ,arabic figures1 first use of1 #ebf ,ars ,memorandi1 the block-book1 #bcc ,ars ,moriendi1 the block-book1 #bce ,association of printers at ,milan1 #ejd -- -- -- at ,strasburg1 #cha ,assyrian ,cylinders1 #cc ,augsburg1 early printing at1 #dig ,babylon1 bricks of1 #cc ,badius ,jodocus1 of ,paris1 #ejf ,bamberg1 ,bible of1 see ,bible of #cf lines4 -- early printing at1 #dhe -- ,missal1 #die ,batavia of ,adrian ,junius1 #cce -- its authority considered1 #ccf ,bearers of early printing press1 #cjf ,bechtermntz1 ,henry and ,nicholas1 #dda ,beildick ,lorentz1 testimony of1 #che ,bellaert ,jacob1 of ,zierikzee1 #cai ,berlin print1 #hj ,bernard ,august1 history of1 #aa ,bible1 early translations of1 #aha -- first with wood-cuts1 #dih -- reading of prohibited1 #ahb ,bible1 ,mazarin1 see ,bible of #db lines4 ,bible of #adfb 7#dh lines71 #dfb ,bibles of ,mentel at ,strasburg1 #dia ,bible of #cf lines1 description of1 #dab -- -- -- -- its discovery1 #daa -- -- -- -- not printed by ,pfister1 #dhd -- -- -- -- peculiarities of1 #dad -- -- -- -- possibly the first1 #dab -- -- -- -- ,schelhorn's view of1 #dhj -- -- -- -- speculations about1 #dcb -- -- -- -- when printed1 #dae ,bible of #db lines1 description of1 #dai -- -- -- -- annotations in1 #dbd -- -- -- -- cost of1 #dgd -- -- -- -- defects of1 #dbb -- -- -- -- ornamentation of1 #dbb -- -- -- -- prices paid for1 #dbe -- -- -- -- probably of slow sale1 #dbe -- -- -- -- two kinds of copies1 #dej -- -- -- -- workmanship of1 #dba ,bible of the ,poor1 editions from types1 #bjh -- -- -- -- xylographic editions of1 #aii -- -- -- -- description of1 #bjj -- -- -- -- ,nordlingen edition1 #bjh -- -- -- -- prices paid for1 #bjh -- -- -- -- printing of1 #bjc ,blemishes in books1 how corrected1 #bga ,block-books1 ,antichrist1 #bcj -- ,apocalypse1 #baj -- ,apostles' ,creed1 #bbh -- ,ars ,memorandi1 #bcc -- ,ars ,moriendi1 #bce -- ,bible of the ,poor1 #aih -- ,book of ,kings1 #bbd -- ,canticles1 #bae -- ,chiromancy of ,hartlieb1 #bci -- ,dance of ,death1 #bdg -- ,donatus1 #bed -- ,eight ,rogueries1 #bbi -- ,exercise ,lord's ,prayer1 #bbb -- ,german ,planetarium1 #bda -- ,grotesque ,alphabet1 #bbf -- ,life of ,st4 ,meinrat1 #bdf -- ,pomerium ,spirituale1 #bdd -- ,story of the ,virgin1 #bai -- ,temptations of ,devil1 #bde -- ,wonders of ,rome1 #bdc -- absurdities in1 #bbb -- advantages of1 #bfa -- definition of1 #aid -- disregarded by scholar1 #bea -- earliest date in1 #bde ,block-books1 great number of1 #aid1 #bdh -- inferiority of1 #aie -- literary merit of1 #bej -- made for priests1 #bdh -- obscurity of1 #bfj -- period of1 #bea -- permitted to people1 #bdi -- popularity of1 #bch1 #bdi -- where made1 #beb ,block-printers1 many in number1 #bdh -- faulty work of1 #bdh -- unknown1 #beb ,block-printing an established trade1 #bec -- early notices of1 #ia -- in ,holland1 #bef -- not ,gutenberg's secret1 #cie -- process of1 #hc -- slighted1 #hf1 #ahd ,blocks used for engraving1 #aad ,bodies1 irregularities of1 explained1 #eai ,bodies of types1 cuts of1 #be1 #ef1 #bge1 #djf -- -- -- in ,speculum1 #bge -- -- -- not made by rule1 #eah -- -- -- of ,caxton1 #bic -- -- -- of unknown printer1 #bib ,bodman's spurious documents1 #dcf ,book of ,kings1 #bbd ,book of ,trades1 #fa ,book-binding1 ,chinese1 #aaf -- of middle ages1 #aec -- prices paid for1 #afh -- sumptuous forms of1 #aef ,book-collecting1 a princely hobby1 #afg ,book-making1 as done in old ,rome1 #db -- an ecclesiastical art1 #adh -- becomes a trade1 #ahg -- given up to copyists1 #aei -- in ,ireland1 #adg -- in monasteries1 #adh -- oriental method of1 #acf ,book of ,four ,stories1 #dha ,book of ,fables1 #dhb ,books1 printed1 changes in style of1 #dgb -- ,chinese1 cheapness of1 #aai -- common in old ,rome1 #dc -- demand for cheapness in1 #ahg -- early printed1 cheapness of1 #eaa -- early printed1 prices of1 #eab -- medieval1 #aej -- -- character of1 #afb -- -- cheap forms of1 #aed1 #afc -- -- large size of1 #aef -- -- made by artists1 #aff -- -- made for the rich1 #agj -- -- neglected by clergy1 #aei -- -- obsoleteness of1 #ahf -- -- of romance1 #afe -- -- sale of regulated1 #afj -- -- sumptuousness of1 #afh -- of dark ages1 #de -- of monasteries1 #baf -- of pictures1 #afc -- of unknown printer1 #bhd -- number printed before #aejj1 #eaa -- the right of the educated1 #bea -- injudiciously selected1 #eab -- written and printed1 #ahh ,book-sellers of ,paris1 #afj ,book-selling restricted1 #afb ,boxhorn1 ,marcus ,zuerius1 #cej ,branding in middle ages1 #ch ,brass moulds or matrices1 #fa ,brass stamps of middle ages1 #ch ,brass types impracticable1 #fe ,brethren of ,life-in-,common1 #agg1 #bej1 #ddc ,bricks1 stamped1 antiquity of1 #cj ,brito ,john1 of ,bruges1 #cba ,brotherhood of the ,life-in-,common at ,weidenbach1 #bej1 #die ,bruges1 early printing at1 #dii -- guild of book-makers at1 #cad ,brussels print1 #gh ,bull of ,pope ,pius ,,ii against the ,turks1 #dfd ,burnisher of engravers1 #hd ,calendar of #adeg1 #dcb ,calendar or ,almanac of #adfj1 #dcf ,calico-printing1 early1 #abg ,calligraphy1 early1 #adh1 #aff ,cambray1 record of1 #cab ,canticles1 the block-book1 #bae ,card-makers1 early1 #ia ,case of early compositors1 #ebc ,castaldi ,pamphilo1 #bh1 #dhf ,catholicon of #adfj1 #dcd ,caxton ,william1 of ,england1 #ejg ,celebration of the ,mass1 #dcf ,cennini ,bernard1 #ejc ,chases of wood1 #cjf1 #ebg ,chinese printing1 early method of1 #aaa -- language not fit for types1 #aaf -- paper1 invention of1 #acc ,chiromancy of ,dr4 ,hartlieb1 #bch ,cicero1 his speculations on types1 #cf ,clog of ,england1 #age ,codex ,argenteus1 #abe ,cologne as a school for printers1 #cbd1 #die ,cologne ,chronicle of #adii1 #cae ,cologne1 early printing at1 #did ,color work of ,peter ,schffer1 #def ,complaint against ,death1 #dhc ,composing rules1 early ignorance of1 #ebd ,composition as done in #aefd1 #ebc -- by dictation1 #ebd -- double1 indications of1 #dfd -- in imitation of writing1 #ebe -- imperfections of1 #ebe ,composition of types in ,china1 #aah -- -- -- a test of age1 #cab -- -- -- cost of1 #bd ,compositors often men of education1 #ebb -- sometimes women1 #ebc ,condition of medieval society1 #agi ,confraternity of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 #cad ,consolation of the ,sinner1 #dhb ,constitutions of ,pope ,clement ,v1 #dfa ,coornhert and ,van ,zuren1 #cbj ,copper-plate printing1 process of1 #ai -- -- invention of1 #bg ,copyists1 faults of1 #eci -- fond of pictures1 #afc -- of middle ages1 #adi -- of old ,rome1 #db -- of ,paris1 #afb ,cornelis1 the binder1 #bhd1 #ccb1 #cdc ,correctors of the press1 #edj ,coster1 ,lourens ,janszoon1 #cbf ,coster1 as described by ,junius1 #cca -- -- -- by ,koning1 #cef -- -- -- in archives1 #cfe -- -- -- in chair book1 #cfg -- -- -- in treasury book1 #cff -- as a printer1 #cci -- as a sexton1 #cch -- as a tallow-chandler1 #cfe -- as a tavern keeper1 #cfi -- confounded with ,janszoon1 #cfh -- alleged descendants of1 #cde -- portraits of1 #cga1 #cgd -- statues of1 #cea1 #cei -- tablets to1 #cei1 #cfj ,costerian ,museum1 #cfa ,counter-punch1 use of1 #ed ,couplets of ,cato #bhe1 #bhh ,cuneiform inscriptions1 #cj ,cunio1 the story of the two1 #abi ,cylinders of ,assyria1 #cd ,dance of ,death1 ,holbein's designs1 #ahc -- -- -- in ,nuremberg ,chronicle1 #ahe -- -- -- popularity of1 #ahd -- -- -- the block-book1 #bdg ,decretals of ,boniface ,,viii1 #dff ,desroches1 his story about ,ludwig1 #cae ,de ,vries ,abraham1 on ,coster1 #ceg ,dialogue between ,cato1 ,hugo1 et al41 #dcf ,dictation1 ,madden's theory of1 #dej1 #ebd ,diether1 ,count of ,isenburg1 #dch ,dissertation on ,invention1 ,boxhorn's1 #cej ,doctor ,hartlieb1 ,chiromancy of1 #bch ,doctrinal of ,alexander ,gallus1 #bhe1 #bhh -- of ,cambray1 #cab ,donatus noticed by ,zell1 #bef1 #cae -- ascribed to ,gutenberg1 #beh1 #dja -- imitations of type-work1 #bfa -- of ,gutenberg at ,mentz1 #djd -- of ,koning1 #bei -- suggested typography1 #cib -- of ,sweinheym1 #beg -- of unknown printer1 #bhd -- popularity of the book1 #bed ,dordrecht1 tradition of printing at1 #beg ,dritzehen ,claus1 complaint of1 #chj -- ,andrew1 death of1 #chd -- -- services of1 #chg -- ,ennel1 testimony of1 #chc -- ,george1 #chf ,dnne ,hans1 testimony of1 #chh ,education1 state of in ,x,i,vth century1 #agb ,education of schools in middle ages1 #agf -- afforded by block-books1 #bdi -- early1 made difficult1 #bfc -- modern1 aided by types1 #bfj ,eggestein ,henry1 of ,strasburg1 #dia ,eight ,rogueries1 the block-book1 #bbi ,eltvill1 printing done at1 #dci -- a suburb of ,mentz1 #ddc ,embossed types of unknown printer1 #bhj -- -- of ,codex ,argenteus1 #abf ,endkrist1 the block-book1 #bcj ,engravers1 early1 jealousy of1 #dih ,engravers on wood1 early1 notices of1 #ahd ,engraving an aid to the invention1 #cif ,engraving decadence of1 #ecf -- large blocks of1 #ecf -- often done on metal1 #ece -- of ,pfister1 #dhd -- at ,augsburg1 #dih -- at ,nuremberg1 #dif -- not mother of typography1 #cib -- not practised at ,haarlem1 #cba -- of playing cards1 #ia -- of punches1 #fe1 #ead -- on wood1 by the ,cunios1 #acj -- -- -- ,chinese practice1 #aaf -- -- -- early forms of1 #acb -- -- -- rudeness of1 #bci1 #ecf -- -- -- ,italian practice of1 #aca -- -- -- merit of early work1 #ga -- -- -- neglect of1 #bgh1 #ece -- -- -- of letters1 #bjj -- -- -- origin considered1 #ge -- -- -- used by copyists1 #abd ,ensched on wood types1 #big1 #cee ,epitaphs of ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 #bhg ,erasmus1 his version of the invention1 #cde -- as a corrector1 #edj ,errata1 first appearance of1 #ebf ,errors of early books1 #edj -- typographical1 frequency of1 #deh1 #ebe ,eulogy on ,lorenzo ,valla1 #bhg ,exercise on the ,lord's ,prayer1 #bbb ,fables1 ,book of1 by ,pfister1 #dhb ,fables of ,lorenzo ,valla1 #bhf ,faust ,john1 as described by ,junius1 #cca ,faustus ,jo4 ,frid41 testimony of1 #dgh ,finiguerra ,maso1 #bg ,flanders1 early importance of1 #agh ,flemings1 their skill in the arts1 #agh ,flemish block-printing1 #bae1 #beb1 #cad ,florence1 early printing at1 #ejc ,form1 ambiguity of the word1 #cig ,formen1 #cig1 #ddc1 #dff1 #dgf1 #ebb ,forms of metal1 notices of1 #chg -- melted by ,gutenberg1 #cig -- were probably matrices1 #cih1 #ddc ,four pieces1 the tool of1 #cih ,fraternity of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 #cad -- of ,st4 ,luke1 #cae ,friction1 press-work by1 #bjd ,frisket1 early use of1 #bhj ,frotton of engravers on wood1 #hc -- not used by block-printers1 #bjd ,fust ,john1 conflicting views about1 #dag -- -- death of1 #dfh -- -- his suit against ,gutenberg1 #dbe -- -- his victory over ,gutenberg1 #dcj -- -- was not ,faust1 #daf -- ,conrad1 #dfh -- ,jacob1 the judge1 #dbh ,fust's sale of ,bible in ,paris1 #dff ,gebwiler1 testimony of1 #dhi ,gelthus ,adam1 tablet of1 #ddf ,gensfleisch ,john1 not a printer1 #djd -- family of1 #cgg ,gering ,ulrich1 #eje ,german ,planetarium and ,calendar1 #bda ,germany1 its progress in education1 #agg -- -- -- in useful arts1 #agh ,gett en molle1 meaning of the term1 #cac ,goldsmiths as punch-cutters1 #ead ,gothic character1 popularity of1 #eaf ,gothic letters1 origin of1 #aej -- -- popularity of1 #eaf -- -- varieties of1 #djf -- -- ,petrarch's dislike of1 #aea ,grotesque ,alphabet1 the block-book1 #bbg ,guilds of middle ages1 #ahf1 #cij -- of book-makers1 #ahg ,gutenberg1 family of1 #cgf ,gutenberg ,john1 early life of1 #cgg -- as a book-maker1 #dai -- as a courtier1 #ddj -- as a financier1 #cgi -- as an engraver1 #cie1 #cif -- as an inventor1 #cha1 #daf1 #ddh -- as an organizer1 #chi -- books printed by1 #dcc -- careless of fame1 #dcd -- ,catholicon of1 #dce -- courage of1 #dca -- death of1 #ddb -- experiments of1 #djb -- memorials of1 #ddf1 #ddg -- partnership of1 at ,strasburg1 #chg -- partnership of1 at ,mentz1 #dah -- planned the ,psalter1 #dei -- poverty of1 #che1 #djb1 #dcc -- probable marriage of1 #cgi -- supplanted by ,schffer1 #dcj -- trials of1 at ,strasburg1 #cgi1 #chj -- -- -- at ,mentz1 #dbe -- unknown work of1 #dcg ,gutenberg's types1 history of1 #ddc -- defense against ,fust1 #dbg -- idea of typography1 #dde -- place in history1 #ddh ,haarlem1 first notice of legend of1 #cbg -- known printers at1 #cai -- neglected printing1 #cde1 #cce ,hahn ,ulrich1 #eja ,hanequis ,conrad1 #dfh ,hanseatic ,league1 #agi ,hasback of ,haarlem1 #cbj ,hauman ,frederic1 #ddc ,heilmann ,anthony1 testimony of1 #chg ,hessels ,j4 ,h41 writings of1 #bhd ,holland1 early printing of1 #cae1 #bef -- confounded with ,netherlands1 #caf -- not the birthplace of invention1 #cah ,horarium of ,scaliger1 #beg -- of ,adrien ,rooman1 #bfj ,horn-book of ,england1 #agd ,how to ,die ,becomingly1 #bce ,how to ,remember the ,evangelists1 #bcc ,humery ,conrad1 friend to ,gutenberg1 #dca -- -- acknowledgment of1 #ddb ,ignorance1 prevalence of in dark ages1 #de -- of ecclesiastics1 #adg ,iliad of ,homer1 the school-book1 #bhg1 #bhh ,illuminated books of middle ages1 #aeb ,illuminators and calligraphers1 #aff ,impression by different methods1 #bf -- doubling of1 #bgh -- not typography1 #ej -- on bricks1 #cj ,impression on early hand press1 #cjf1 #ecj -- on paper and vellum1 #ech -- on textile fabrics1 #abg ,image prints all devotional1 #he -- -- ,annunciation1 #gb -- -- ,berlin print1 #hj -- -- ,brussels print1 #gh -- -- ,indulgence print1 #gg -- -- ,st4 ,christopher1 #ga -- -- preceded books1 #fi -- -- how printed1 #hc -- -- made for stenciling1 #gj -- -- merit of1 #hg -- -- not done by friction1 #hd -- -- not made by monks1 #hf -- -- origin of1 #fi -- -- popularity of1 #hf -- -- where made1 #hb ,impositions of eight pages1 #bia ,initial letters of ,italy1 #abb1 #dhg -- -- of early printers1 #eaf ,inking balls1 how made1 #ebi ,inking of printing surfaces1 #be ,ink ,printing1 affected by paper1 #ecb -- -- deterioration of1 #ecd -- -- early1 faults of1 #ded -- -- early1 unstableness of1 #ecc -- -- inequality of1 #ecb -- -- ,moxon's criticism of1 #ecd -- -- of ,bible of #db lines1 #dba -- -- of ,donatus of ,mentz1 #djd -- -- of ,jenson1 #ecb -- -- of ,psalter of ,mentz1 #def -- -- of the block-printers1 #bjc -- -- of the ,psalter of #adeg1 #deb -- -- of the ,ripoli press1 #ecc -- -- of unknown printer1 #bgj1 #bgh -- -- the complement of types1 #ecc ,ink writing1 antiquity of1 #ci -- -- useless in printing1 #dj ,invention1 merit of1 not in idea1 #dde1 #dhg ,inventions not the work of experts1 #cie ,invention of paper in ,china1 #acc ,invention of press1 not noticed1 #cjd -- -- -- why neglected1 #ebg ,invention of ,printing1 -- -- -- early notices of1 #ddf -- -- -- a great discovery1 #fg -- -- -- came at the right time1 #de -- -- -- different methods of1 #bh -- -- -- key of in the type-mould1 #fg -- -- -- merit of1 not in the idea1 #ea -- -- -- -- -- in the type-mould1 #dde -- -- -- not perfect in #adci1 #cid -- -- -- probable causes of1 #ae1 #bh -- -- -- waited for readers1 #de -- -- -- version of ,bertius1 #cdg -- -- -- -- -- ,coornhert1 #cbg -- -- -- -- -- ,de ,vries1 #ceg -- -- -- -- -- ,erasmus1 #cah1 #cde -- -- -- -- -- ,guicciardini1 #cbi -- -- -- -- -- ,jo4 ,frid4 ,faustus1 #dgh -- -- -- -- -- ,junius1 #ccj -- -- -- -- -- ,koning1 #cef -- -- -- -- -- ,meerman1 #cec1 #ced -- -- -- -- -- ,scaliger1 #beg -- -- -- -- -- ,john ,schffer1 #dgc -- -- -- -- -- ,scriverius1 #cdh -- -- -- -- -- ,seiz1 #ceb -- -- -- -- -- ,trithemius1 #dde1 #dgd -- -- -- -- -- ,van ,zuren1 #cbh -- -- -- -- -- ,wimpheling1 #cic -- -- -- -- -- ,zell1 #cae ,invention of printing ink1 #dj1 #cca1 #ecc ,inventions of the middle ages1 #agg ,invention of types1 not boasted of1 #dce -- -- -- alleged thefts of1 #ccb1 #cdb ,ireland1 the book-makers of1 #adg ,italy1 early printers of1 #ejj -- its enthusiasm for the art1 #eje ,jan1 the printer at ,antwerp1 #cad ,janszoon not ,janszoon ,coster1 #cef1 #cfh ,japan1 paper of1 #acc ,jenson ,nicholas1 #dfe -- -- as a type founder1 #ejb ,john of ,gamundia1 calendar of1 #bda ,john of ,westphalia1 as a publisher1 #dih ,judgment of ,man after ,death1 #dhc ,junius ,hadrian1 sketch of his life1 #ccd -- -- credulousness of1 #ccf -- -- history of1 #cce ,kepfer 7or ,keffer7 ,henry1 #dcg1 #die ,ketel ,anthonis1 of ,haarlem1 #cbj ,ketelaer and ,de ,leempt1 #dih ,kerver ,thielman1 of ,paris1 #ejf ,keyser ,peter1 of ,paris1 #ejf ,knowledge1 acquisition of1 difficult1 #bfc ,knowledge a monopoly1 #adf1 #bea ,koburger ,anthony1 of ,nuremberg1 #die ,koning's book on the invention1 #cef ,koster ,lourens ,janszoon1 see ,coster4 ,labor1 division of1 by printers1 #eba ,latin language1 why preserved1 #adg -- -- abbreviations of1 #afd -- -- key to all knowledge1 #agf ,laurecrans of ,scriverius1 #cdh ,lead used by ,gutenberg1 #chj ,leads first used by ,schffer1 #dfg ,lecturn of the middle ages1 #aef ,leeu ,gerard1 industry of1 #ejj ,legend of ,haarlem1 #cbf -- -- -- began with pedigree1 #cfb -- -- -- contradictions of1 #ceh -- -- -- early meagreness of1 #cbh -- -- -- echo of false history1 #cdj -- -- -- exposure of1 #cfc -- -- -- improbability of1 #cdf -- -- -- unfixed dates of1 #cej1 #ceg ,legend of ,walchius about the sale of first printed books at ,paris1 #dff ,letters engraved1 peculiarities of1 #bfb -- -- imperfections of1 #bjj ,lettres de somme or ,round ,gothic1 #cac -- de forme or ,pointed ,gothic1 #cac ,letter of ,indulgence of #adfa1 #dcc ,letters of ,indulgence of #aded1 #dje -- -- -- ,holbein's satire on1 #djg -- -- -- popularity of1 #djh -- -- -- translation of1 #dji ,libraries1 early1 neglect of1 #aei -- in ,france and ,burgundy1 #afg ,life of ,st4 ,meinrat1 #bdf ,literature1 decline of in old ,rome1 #dd -- neglect of by the ,church1 #adg -- of popular books1 #ahg -- of the romance books1 #afe -- revolutionized by printing1 #ahf -- the privilege of a class1 #agj1 #bea ,lithography1 process of1 #bj -- invention of1 #bg ,little ,book of the ,mass1 #bhd ,london1 early printing at1 #ejh ,louvain1 early printing at1 #dih ,lyons1 early printing at1 #ejf ,making-up badly done1 #ebe ,mansion ,colard1 of ,bruges1 #dii ,manuscripts1 faultiness of1 #edj ,manutius ,aldus1 #ejc -- as an editor1 #edj ,marco ,polo does not notice printing1 #abj ,marks of notaries1 #abc ,martens ,thierry1 #dii ,master printers1 changes of1 #ebb ,mastery of printing1 how acquired1 #ebb ,materials early1 imperfections of1 #ecj ,matrices1 as described by ,trithemius1 #dge ,matrices of lead1 #cja1 #cjc1 #eag -- of copper1 #eag -- conjoined1 #cjc -- early method of making1 #eag -- early trade in1 #eae -- made of soft metal1 #cjb1 #dge ,matrix1 description of1 #ee -- early use of1 #fc ,mechanics in middle ages1 #agh ,medals in honor of ,coster1 #cec1 #ced ,meerman ,gerard1 book of1 #cec ,memorials to ,coster1 #cei -- -- ,gutenberg1 #ddf1 #ddg ,mendicant friars1 #aeh ,mentel ,john1 memorial to1 #dhh -- -- alleged invention of1 #dhi -- -- as a printer1 #dij -- ,james1 #dij ,mentz1 revolt of burghers at1 #cgg -- capture and sack of1 #dci ,methods of printing1 #ah1 #cag ,mexico1 first printers of1 #ejh ,milan1 early printing at1 #ejd ,miniaturists of middle ages1 #aff ,mirror-making in ,germany1 #cia ,mirror of ,salvation1 #bfd ,mirror of the ,clergy1 #dcf ,mould1 modern1 description of1 #eg -- adjustable1 notice of1 #cii1 #eah -- early1 description of1 #fb -- of ,gutenberg1 #cih1 #ddg ,music1 types for1 #dea1 #eaf ,neglect of early printing1 #ddd ,netherlands1 block-printers of1 #cad1 #cae -- type-printers of1 #bha1 #cbc1 #dih -- block-printing of1 #beb ,newspapers of old ,rome1 #dd -- -- ,china1 #aaf ,nope ,cune1 decision of1 #chh ,nummeister1 ,john1 #dcf1 #ejj ,nuremberg1 early printing at1 #die ,nuremberg1 ,chronicle of1 #dif ,offices of ,cicero1 #dfg ,order of ,king of ,france to ,jenson1 #dfe ,origines ,typographic1 #ced ,ornamentation of manuscript books1 #aeb ,painting of printed letters1 #def ,palimpsests1 #adc ,pandects of ,justinian1 #bhf ,paper approved by the people1 #ahg -- as made in ,japan1 #acd -- -- -- in middle ages1 #adj -- -- -- in ,spain1 #aci -- came before its time1 #adc -- disliked by calligraphers1 #add -- earliest notices of1 #acg1 #adb -- early1 badly made1 #add -- great price of1 #ecg -- linen and cotton1 #ach -- made of many qualities1 #ecf -- neglected by copyists1 #add1 #ahf -- of early typographic printers1 #ecg -- preceded printing1 #da -- preferred to vellum by printers1 #ech -- selected for block-books1 #bdh -- sizes of1 #ecg ,paper-making1 growth of1 #ada ,paper-marks not a guide to age1 #caj -- of unknown printer1 #cjh -- why made1 #cji ,paper-mills1 early notices of1 #ada ,paper money of ,china1 #aba ,papillon's story of the ,cunios1 #abi ,papyrus not fit for printing1 #da ,parchment1 how made1 #ech ,paris1 reception of printing at1 #dff -- first printers at1 #eje ,paul of ,prague1 testimony of1 #dhf ,peculiarities of ,criminal ,law1 #bhf ,pedigree of ,coster family1 #cfa -- -- -- -- its exposure1 #cfc -- -- -- -- its forgery1 #cfd -- -- -- -- its insufficiency1 #cfc ,pfister ,albert1 our first knowledge of1 #dha -- -- as a block-printer1 #dhd -- -- as an inventor1 #dhd -- ,sebastian1 #dhf ,pi-,ching1 an early ,chinese printer1 #aab ,pictures came before books1 #fi -- general fondness for1 #ahb1 #bdi ,pigouchet ,phillipe1 of ,paris1 #ejf ,platen1 smallness of1 #ebi ,playing ,cards1 ,chinese1 #ih -- -- date of introduction1 #ii1 #ajh -- -- denounced by clergy1 #ajj -- -- early1 cost of1 #if1 #ajj -- -- early forms of1 #ajd -- -- early notices of1 #ia1 #ie -- -- manufacture of1 #hi -- -- of ,france and ,italy1 #if1 #ig -- -- of ,germany1 #ia -- -- popularity of1 #ie -- -- preceded image prints1 #ajg -- -- rudely made1 #ajg -- -- strange games of1 #aja -- -- suggestive of printing1 #ajf ,pliny's notice of portraits in books1 #aaa ,points for making register1 #eca ,polishing of gems taught by ,gutenberg1 #cij ,pomerium ,spirituale1 #bdd ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 treatises of1 #bhg ,presswork1 early method of1 #ebi -- alters appearance of types1 #cjj -- as done in ,china1 #aad -- daily performance of1 #aae1 #eca -- early1 in colors1 #eca -- early practice of1 #ecj -- imperfections of1 #ebi -- of block-books1 #bdh -- of ,colard ,mansion1 #deh -- of early type printers1 #ecj -- of ,gutenberg1 #dab1 #dba1 #dcd -- of ,schffer1 #ded1 #dfb -- of unknown printer1 #cje -- on textile fabrics of ,italy1 #abg -- process of1 #cjg ,prices of manuscript books in old ,rome1 #dc -- of medieval books1 #afi -- of printed books1 #eab -- paid for printing1 #ejd1 #eje ,print-coloring1 early practice of1 #id ,printers1 early1 activity of1 #eaa ,printers1 early names for1 #dhf -- armorial shield of1 #dhh -- at ,mentz before #aejj1 #dic -- earliest in ,germany1 #dic -- -- -- ,central ,europe1 #dic -- -- -- ,great ,britain1 #ejg -- -- -- ,france1 #eje -- -- -- ,italy1 #ejj -- -- -- ,new ,world1 #ejh -- -- -- ,spain1 etc1 #ejg ,printing1 ambiguity of the word1 #ag1 #cae -- aided by painting1 #def -- by friction1 #hc -- -- -- difficulties of1 #bjd -- ,chinese method of1 #aae -- depends on other aids1 #dg -- derivation of from ,china1 #abj -- different methods of1 #ah -- early1 in ,netherlands1 #cad -- early prejudices against1 #dej1 #eaj -- from engraved stamps1 #cg -- ,german origin of1 #ejh -- in clay1 #cd -- not always economical1 #aij -- not generally welcomed1 #eaj -- of ,psalter of #adeg1 #deb -- on one side1 reason of1 #bdh1 #bia -- on textile fabrics1 #abh -- permanence of the art1 #eda -- benefit from1 #eda -- waited for readers1 #agb1 #aia -- with a brush1 #aae ,printing ,press1 construction of1 #ebh -- -- ,lignamine's notice of1 #ecj -- -- operation of1 #ebi ,printing ,presses1 cost of1 #dih ,proof-planer1 use of1 #hd ,proof-reading1 early notice of1 #dfi -- how done1 #eci ,psalter of #adeg1 beauty of1 #deb -- -- -- colophon of1 #dei -- -- -- editions of1 #dfj -- -- -- the designer of1 #dei ,publishers of old ,rome1 #dc -- in ,italy1 #eje ,punch1 description of1 #ee ,punch-cutters were goldsmiths1 #ead ,punch-cutting not done by printers1 #ead -- importance of1 #ed ,punches of steel1 #eag -- of wood1 #cja -- of ,gutenberg1 #dce ,quadrats1 substitutes for1 #bhj -- proper use of1 #cje ,quintilian's notice of stencils1 #cf ,rationale ,durandi1 #dfj ,register1 means used for making1 #eca -- of colors1 how done1 #def1 #eca -- -- -- in ,psalter of1 #adeg #deh ,register of pages1 early1 how done1 #eca ,registrum chartarum1 #ebf ,reimboldt1 testimony of1 #chf ,religious dissensions1 #ahj ,ripoli ,press at ,florence1 #ejc -- -- materials used by1 #ff1 #ecc ,rome1 early printing at1 #eja ,rooman ,gillis and ,adrien1 #cbj ,rubricated books of middle ages1 #aeb -- -- of early printers1 #eca ,sahspach ,conrad1 testimony of1 #chd ,sand moulds1 #cja1 #eah ,savage on the ,psalter of1 #adeg #def ,scaliger ,j4 ,j41 about ,horarium1 #beg ,schffer ,peter1 as a copyist1 #ddi -- as a judge1 #dga -- as a printer1 #deh -- as a punch-cutter1 #dfa1 #dgj -- as a trader1 #dgj -- as a type-founder1 #dfa -- as an inventor1 #dfi1 #dgg -- borrows a book1 #dfh -- descendants of1 #did -- false claims of1 #dfi1 #dgb -- memory of1 neglected1 #dgg -- pupil of ,gutenberg1 #dej -- succeeds ,gutenberg1 #dcj -- vanity of1 #dfi ,schffer ,john1 testimony of1 #dgc ,schoepflin ,daniel1 #cec ,schott ,john1 claims of1 #dhh ,school books of middle ages1 #ahg ,schools of the middle ages1 #agg ,schultheiss ,hans1 testimony of1 #chd ,scriptorium of monasteries1 #adh ,scriverius ,peter1 #cdh ,secrets of printing stolen1 #ccb1 #cdb ,section1 definition of term1 #bab ,seiz and his book1 #cej ,senefelder ,alois1 the lithographer1 #bg ,sensenschmidt ,john1 #die ,seven ,penitential ,psalms1 #bhe ,sewing of books1 #aed ,sidenneger ,hans1 testimony of1 #chd ,signatures1 early use of1 #ebf ,spacing out of lines1 #bia1 #ebf ,specklin ,daniel1 #dhi ,speculum ,salutis1 a ,dutch book1 #bge -- -- as noticed by ,junius1 #cca -- -- blocks of destroyed1 #bhj -- -- description of1 #bfd -- -- translation of1 #caa -- -- editions of1 #bfi -- -- its workmanship1 #bgj -- -- not an experiment1 #bhb -- -- printed from types1 #bgd -- -- probably printed at ,utrecht1 #caa -- -- teachings of the book1 #bfg -- -- variable letters of1 #bgc -- -- when printed1 #caa ,spira ,john de1 of ,venice1 #eja ,spyess ,wygand1 #dda ,stamping of single letters1 #abf -- on textile fabrics1 #abg ,stamps of ,babylon and ,assyria1 #cj -- -- copyists1 #abe -- -- ,egypt1 #cb -- -- middle ages1 #ch -- -- ,romans1 #cg -- -- printers of textile fabrics1 #abg ,stationers of ,paris1 #afj ,st4 ,bridget1 print of1 #gd ,st4 ,christopher1 print of1 #gj ,steel-plate printing1 process of1 #ah ,steinbach ,thomas1 testimony of1 #che ,stencil-plates of old ,romans1 #ic -- of card-makers1 #id ,stereotype moulds1 #cjj ,stereotyping1 its advantages1 #bd ,stick of early compositors1 #ebc ,stocker ,mydehart1 testimony of1 #chd ,story of the ,blessed ,virgin1 #bai ,strasburg1 early printing at1 #dij1 #did ,st4 ,thomas of ,aquinas1 book of1 #dfh ,suabia1 abode of early engravers1 #ge ,surfaces1 varieties of in printing1 #ah ,sweinheym and ,pannartz1 #eja ,temptations of the ,devil1 #bde ,thomaszoon ,gerrit1 #cfa1 #cfg ,title-page1 first appearance of1 #ebf ,tool of four pieces1 mysterious1 #chd -- -- -- -- not a press1 #cig -- -- -- -- not types nor pages1 #cih -- -- -- -- probably a mould1 #cii ,torquemada on ,health of ,soul1 #bhg ,torresani ,andrew1 #ejc ,trade-marks of middle ages1 #abd ,trades early1 secrecy of1 #cij ,transferring1 by ,chinese method1 #aab ,transferring1 process of1 #bgf ,treatise on ,celebration of ,mass1 #dcf -- on ,love1 #bhg -- on ,necessity of ,councils1 #dcf -- on ,reason and ,conscience1 #dcg ,trial of ,gutenberg at ,strasburg1 #chj ,trial of ,gutenberg at ,mentz1 #dbe ,trithemius1 testimony of1 #dgd ,two pages printed in one form1 #bgj ,tympan of hand press1 #cjg ,type-casting1 as done in #aefd1 #fb -- as done in #afhc1 #ei -- modern1 by machine1 #eh -- slowness of hand-work1 #fj ,type-founding1 relation of ,trithemius1 #dgd -- -- of ,faustus1 #dgh -- an art of slow growth1 #eaf -- in sand moulds1 #cja -- as done by ,didot1 #cjb -- as done by ,franklin1 #cjc -- by novices1 #cbd1 #eag -- early notices of1 #dce1 #dei ,type-making a secret art1 #fa -- in ,china1 #aac1 #aah ,type-metal1 ingredients of1 #ff1 #eai ,type-mould1 the key to the invention1 #fg ,type-mould1 adjustable1 #cii1 #eai -- made by goldsmiths1 #ead -- of early printers1 #ei1 #eag -- of ,garamond1 #cii -- of ,gutenberg1 #dja -- of sand1 #cjj ,types of wood1 ,junius's description of1 #cci -- -- -- as made in ,japan1 #ec ,types of wood1 experimental1 #dgi1 #dhi -- -- -- ,de la ,borde's theory of1 #bie -- -- -- limitations of1 #ec -- -- -- ,specklin's description of1 #dhi -- as made by ,conrad ,winters1 #ebj -- ,chinese1 early forms of1 #aab -- -- modern -- --1 #aag -- early1 cast and not cut1 #bih1 #dgf -- early faces of1 #eae -- early speculations about1 #cf -- engraved1 impracticable1 #ec1 #bie -- ,gothic1 popularity of1 #eaf -- how made1 #eba -- of ,jenson1 #ejb -- made by one method only1 #ec -- made in sand moulds1 #cja -- must be accurate1 #eb -- not made with system1 #eah -- of brass1 notices of1 #fe -- of glass1 #dhg -- of ,gutenberg1 #ddc -- of lead1 as made by ,blades1 #cjj -- -- -- -- -- -- ,coster1 #cci -- of porcelain1 #aab -- of ,schffer1 #dgj -- quantity of usually cast1 #eba -- smallest sizes in #aeth century1 #eah -- unknown printer1 #bhd -- variations of form explained1 #bih ,typography1 advantages of1 #bc1 #bf -- cheapness of method1 #bc -- ,chinese method of1 #aac -- claimants of invention1 #bg -- depends on other aids1 #dg -- erroneous ideas about1 #di -- is a science1 #cge -- not fruit of engraving1 #cie -- period of its invention1 #bg -- why it was delayed1 #ci ,typothet1 arms of1 #dhh ,uneven spacing in early printing1 #dea ,university of ,paris1 #afj ,unknown printer of ,netherlands1 #bhb -- -- period of1 #cbe ,unknown printer1 workmanship of1 #cbd ,utrecht1 early printing of1 #dih -- ,speculum traced to1 #caa ,valdarfer ,christopher1 #eje ,van der ,linde's ,haarlem ,legend1 #aa -- -- -- exposure of fraud1 #cgd ,van ,eyck ,hubert1 #da ,veldener ,john1 #bhj1 #bha1 #dih ,vellum1 how made1 #ech -- early scarcity of1 #afd -- not suitable for printing1 #da1 #ech ,venice1 early printing in1 #eja -- famous for printing1 #ejc -- playing cards of1 #hi -- relations of with ,china1 #abj -- the school of typography1 #ejc ,verard of ,paris1 #ejf ,vindici ,typographic1 #cec ,vocabularium ex quo1 #dda ,von ,bischoviszheim1 testimony of1 #chg ,von ,seckingen1 testimony of1 #chg ,von ,zabern ,barbel1 testimony of1 #chc ,weidenbach1 printing at1 #die ,william of ,saliceto1 ,treatise of1 #bhg ,wimpheling1 testimony of1 #cic ,winaricky's book on ,gutenberg1 #cgh ,wine-flagons of ,coster1 #cdj ,witnesses on trial at ,strasburg1 #chh ,wittig ,ivo1 tablet of1 #ddg ,witty ,speeches of ,great ,men1 #bhf ,wonders of ,rome1 the block-book1 #bdc ,wood-cuts1 early1 merit of1 #fh -- difficult to print with types1 #bgh -- dissimilarities of1 #bjf1 #bci -- early1 designed by artists1 #bbg -- later1 inferiority of1 #ecf -- liability to warp1 #ece -- mutilations of1 #bjg1 #bai1 #bhj -- neglected by early printers1 #ece -- not printed with types1 #bga ,wood types1 impracticability of1 #bie -- -- ,ensched's remarks on1 #big -- -- experiments with1 #bie ,wood used by early engravers1 #bjc ,xylography1 limitations of1 #bf1 #bfc -- ,chinese method of1 #aad -- first method of1 #cag -- not applicable to books1 #bfc -- not ,gutenberg's art1 #cif -- not practised at ,haarlem1 #cbj ,zainer ,gunther1 #dig ,zappe ,paul1 the ambassador1 #djg ,zarot ,anthony1 #ejd ,zell ,ulric1 about the ,donatus1 #cae1 #bef -- -- as a printer1 #did p#eee ,,additional ,,notes ,,and ,,corrections4 ,,page #bd4 ,in the second line of foot-note1 change two-thirds to four-ninths4 #bg4 ,the exact date of the complete invention of copper-plate printing is unfixed4 ,vasari says that ,finiguerra's discovery was made in #adej1 but that the ,italian practice of making plate prints began about #adfj4 ,it is obvious that the alleged discovery in #adej of the fact that the blacking placed in incised lines could be transferred to paper by pressure was not the complete invention of copper-plate printing4 ,much more had to be done4 ,the earliest dated ,italian print by this method is of the year #adfe4 ,the earliest authentic ,german print is dated #addf4 ,there are others attributed to the years #adbb1 #adcj1 #addj1 but they are not accepted as genuine by ,passavant4 ,see ,peintre-,graveur1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aib-aig4 ,senefelder's first suggestion of lithography was entertained in #agif1 but his vague notions about printing from stone did not assume a practical shape before #agih4 ,he did not receive1 and perhaps was not entitled to1 his patent before #ahjj4 #cd4 ,the exact size of the ,assyrian cylinder illustrated on this page is seven inches high and three inches wide at each end4 #fd4 ,on page #ddg1 the date of the erection of this stone by ,wittig is put down at #aejh1 which is the date given by ,bernard and by many others4 ,but ,wetter1 from whose book this statement was taken1 knowing that ,wittig was dead in #aejg1 altered the date to #aejg4 ,helbig does not accept either date4 ,he thinks that it should be #aejd4 ,notes et dissertations1 pp4 #aj1 #aa4 #fe4 ,in foot-note1 change exculptis to exsculptis4 #gg4 ,i have followed ,de la ,borde's translation of this indulgence1 which makes the time seventeen thousand years1 but ,holtrop's translation is fourteen thousand years4 ,the popes supposed to be associated with ,gregory in the promulgation of this indulgence were the ,anti-pope ,benedict ,,xiii at ,avignon1 and ,pope ,john ,,xxiii4 ,holtrop does not regard this as a print of #adah2 he places it between #adee and #adgj4 #hb4 ,it is possible that engraving on wood was done in ,england in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,ottley1 in his ,inquiry concerning the ,invention of ,printing1 page #aih1 describes an ,english print of the crucifixion1 with legend in ,english1 which he says may be as old as the ,st4 ,christopher4 ,this is the legend3 8,seynt ,gregor4 with oyer other popes bysshoppes yn seer1 ,haue graunted of pardon ,,xxvi4 mill yeer4 ,to yeym yat befor yis fygur on yeir knees ,devoutly say 4v4 pater noster 44v4 ,auees40 ,weigel has given other fac-similes of early ,english engraving4 #if4 ,chatto says that ,gringonneur was paid #ef sols about #acic4 ,passavant says #ej sols4 ,lacroix says #acib1 and estimates the value of #ef sols in modern money at #ahj francs4 #ih4 ,in third line of second paragraph1 change fifteenth to fourteenth4 #ajd4 ,in third line of foot-note1 change printers to painters4 #aaa4 ,in foot-note1 last line of small type1 change chap4 ,i to chap4 ,,ii4 #aej4 ,change ,john ,i1 #c1 to ,john ,,iii1 #a4 #aej4 ,lacroix gives the date of #abib for the employment of the seventeen book-binders at the ,university of ,paris4 #agg4 ,in sixth line of note1 change #adce to #adcj1 and the word double to thrice4 #ahj4 ,in eleventh line1 change #ache to #acha4 #bah4 ,the date of the termination of the ,great ,schism is usually put at #addg1 but it was not fully ended until ,pope ,felix ,v abdicated the papal chair in #addi1 and ordered the church to submit to ,nicholas ,v4 #bej4 ,passavant 7vol4 ,i1 p4 #ej7 says that there is in the library at ,heidelberg a copy of a xylographic edition of the ,lord's ,prayer1 a block-book of ten leaves1 which may be attributed to the fifteenth century4 #bii4 ,in last line but two of note1 change #chj to #bhj4 #cai4 ,holtrop says that ,bellaert's name is first mentioned in #adhe1 as it appears in the fac-simile4 #cgh4 ,a document has been recently discovered at ,strasburg which proves that ,frielo ,gensfleisch1 the elder brother of ,john ,gutenberg1 was in ,strasburg in #adbi4 ,this document is the signature of ,frielo to a receipt for #bf florins due him on an annuity4 ,see ,book ,worm for ,january1 #ahfh4 #cig4 ,it is not probable that this tool of four pieces was the press4 ,ottley1 who thinks that ,gutenberg's secret was not that of printing 7,inquiry concerning ,invention1 p4 #da71 says1 8there can be no doubt that presses of different kinds were known long before the invention of typography0 7p4 #cg71 and that 8five of the witnesses1 none of whom were partners1 knew all about the press0 7p4 #dj74 ,it may also be added that the repetition by different witnesses of the order to separate the four pieces and put them in a disjointed form in the press or on or under the press1 is evidence that the four pieces did not constitute the press nor any part of it4 ,nor can it be supposed that ,gutenberg had sent to his home a bulky press to have1 as has been asserted1 its 8joinings renewed40 ,this work should have been done by ,sahspach1 the joiner who built it4 ,although ,i believe that ,gutenberg afterward invented the printing press1 ,i think that the press here mentioned was nothing more than the screw press of the carpenter--the wooden vise or press of a workman who needed it when using a file4 ,a printing press would not be needed until the types were made1 which it appears were not even then ready4 ,the fact that ,gutenberg1 ,dritzehen1 ,dnne1 and ,sahspach worked apart is proof that the proposed printing office was not furnished--that the men were making tools1 and the tools were probably moulds and matrices4 ,i have accepted ,van der ,linde's translation of zurlossen as melting1 for it is warranted by many evidences that the tool of four pieces and the formen were of metal4 ,ottley's translation1 making zurlossen mean a loosening or unjointing1 or breaking-up1 with a view to renewal or reconstruction1 could also be accepted4 #dje4 ,bernard questions the accuracy of the date of the ,donatus of #adea1 but it is the belief of ,fischer and of many others that it was printed in #adea4 #dab4 ,in the last line of text1 insert the word not before always4 #dac4 ,compare the spacing in the ,bibles of ,gutenberg with that of the ,psalter of #adeg1 as shown in pages #dec and #dee4 ,in ,gutenberg's ,bibles1 there are some evidences of attempts to keep the lines even2 in the ,psalter1 the nicety of full lines or of even spacing was disregarded4 #dea4 ,madden admits that ,schffer was a copyist at ,paris1 but doubts the inference that he was a student of the ,university4 ,his doubt seems to be based on the faulty ,latin of the colophon4 #dee4 ,i am not entirely satisfied with the fac-simile of types on this page4 ,it is a copy of the fac-simile made by ,falkenstein1 the only one accessible to me of the edition of #adeg4 ,it is1 no doubt1 a correct representation of form and of general appearance1 but the outlines of the letters are suspiciously sharp4 ,they do not accord in this feature with the types shown on page #dec4 ,in ,falkenstein's fac-simile1 the ornamental work about the letter ,p is a dull bluish purple1 so made by printing deep blue over lines previously printed in dull red4 ,i have not attempted to imitate this dull purple color 7of which ,i find no notice save in the book of ,papillon71 for ,i believe that this use of purple was exceptional4 ,it was probably caused by an imperfect cleansing of the red block1 the after application of the blue and the mixing on the block of both colors1 forming a dull purple4 #dfe4 ,madden doubts the genuineness of the record of the proposed mission of ,jenson to ,mentz4 #dfg4 ,i have accepted the statement of ,bernard that leads were first used in #adfe in the ,offices of ,cicero1 but a re-examination of the fac-simile in ,sotheby's ,typography 7,no4 #ij7 of the ,treatise on ,reason and ,conscience convinces me that the types of this work were leaded4 ,as ,gutenberg abandoned printing in #adfe1 it is probable that the ,treatise is really older than the ,offices4 ,if so1 ,gutenberg was the first to use leads4 #dih4 ,many bibliographers regard ,martens as the predecessor of ,john of ,westphalia1 and as a graduate of one of the typographical schools at ,cologne4 ,holtrop thinks that ,martens was the pupil of ,john of ,westphalia1 his corrector and associate1 but not his partner or predecessor4 #ejf4 ,la ,caille and ,santander say that ,gering died in #aeaj2 ,van der ,meersch says #aebj4 #ebi4 ,the weakness of the early press is abundantly proved by the smallness of the forms and the absence of large and black wood-cuts in all books printed before #ahjj4 ,the inability of the hand-press 7even when made of iron1 as it was in #ahbd7 is set forth by ,johnson in his ,typographia1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #edh4 ,it is there stated that an engraver who had been at work for three years on a wood-cut #aa-a_/b by #ae inches1 was dismayed by the discovery1 after a fair trial1 that his block was too large to be properly printed on any variety of ,english press then in common use4 ,the ,clymer press1 just introduced1 was then tested4 ,by lengthening the bar1 and getting two men to pull1 a few fair impressions were obtained1 but the block soon broke under pressure4 ,this wood-cut was only about half the size of the two-page cuts which are now regularly and easily printed for the popular illustrated papers on machines at the rate of #a1jjj an hour4 #ecj4 ,the most admirable feature of the best early printing is its simplicity4 ,the types were uncouth1 but they were made with single purpose1 to be easily read1 not to show the skill of the punch-cutter4 ,this object would have been fully accomplished if the compositor had refrained from abbreviations and had spaced his words with intelligence4 ,the pressman did his part of the work fairly1 and honestly impressed the types on the paper with unexceptionable firmness and solidity4 ,the readable method of doing presswork is1 unfortunately1 out of fashion4 ,a perverted taste requires the modern printer to use thin types1 dry glossy paper1 as little ink and as weak an impression as is consistent with passable legibility4 ,this general fondness for delicacy is not at all favorable to the production of readable books4 ,,notes3 #a ,the ,daily ,graphic of ,new ,york1 may be offered as an exception to this assertion1 but this newspaper really confirms its correctness4 ,it is the illustrated side only of this paper which is done by lithography4 ,the side which gives it value as a newspaper is printed with ordinary printing types1 and this result could be accomplished by no other method4 #b ,this body of ,canon type occupies about two-thirds of an ,american square inch4 ,a square inch of the ,small-pica type1 in which this text is composed1 contains about #dd ems to the square inch2 a square inch of ,agate1 or of small advertising type1 contains #agg ems to the square inch4 ,there are types so small that #ddg ems can be put in a square inch4 #c ,the word xylography is little used by printers or engravers1 with whom the art of making engravings in relief is usually known as engraving on wood4 ,it is most frequently used by bibliographers to distinguish early printed work3 books printed from types are now defined as typographic1 and those printed from engraved blocks as xylographic4 #d ,the accompanying translation of a tablet taken from the record room of the second ,assurbanipal 7according to some original scholars1 the ,sardanapalus of the ,greeks71 king of ,assyria1 ,b4 ,c4 #ffg1 will give an idea of one purpose for which the impressions were made3 ,assurbanipal1 the great king1 the powerful king1 king of nations1 king of ,assyria1 son of ,esarhaddon1 king of ,assyria1 son of ,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria2 according to the documents and old tablets of ,assyria1 and ,sumri and ,akkadi1 this tablet in the collection of tablets ,i wrote1 ,i studied1 ,i explained1 and for the inspection of my kingdom within my palace ,i placed4 ,whoever my written records defaces1 and his own records shall write1 may ,nabu all the written tablets of his records deface4 ,mr4 ,smith of the ,british ,museum is translating some of these tablets4 #e ,balbus1 the stoic1 in replying to ,vellejus1 the epicurean1 opposes his atheistical argument that the world was made by chance1 and says3 ,he who fancies that a number of solid and invisible bodies could be kept together by weight gravitation81 and that a world full of order and beauty could be formed by their accidental juxtaposition--from such a man ,i cannot understand why he should not also believe that if he threw together1 pell-mell1 a great number of the twenty-one letters1 either of gold or of some other material1 the ,annals of ,ennius could be legibly put together from the forms scattered on the ground4 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 book ,,ii1 chap4 #bj4 #f ,jackson and ,chatto1 ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 p4 #ab4 #g ,the emperor ,justin 7#eah-ebg7 could not write1 and was obliged to sign state papers with a stencil4 #h ,when ,latin ceased to be a living language1 the whole treasury of knowledge was locked up from the eyes of the people4 ,the few who might have imbibed a taste for literature1 if books had been accessible to them1 were reduced to abandon pursuits that could only be cultivated through a kind of education not easily within their reach4 ,schools confined to cathedrals and monasteries1 and exclusively designed for the purposes of religion1 afforded no encouragement or opportunities to the laity4 ,hallam1 ,middle ,ages4 #i ,hallam1 ,middle ,ages1 vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bhf1 #bhg4 #aj ,these observations apply only to the types used for the text letters of books and newspapers4 ,the large types made for the display lines of posters are cut on wood1 but these types of wood are used only for printing single lines2 they are not combined with the compactness of book types1 and do not require their precision of body4 ,the wood types of ,japan are1 probably1 the smallest wood types in practical use2 but they are much larger than our book types2 they are printed in smaller pages2 they are not obliged to stand truly in line1 nor to conform to the standards of ,european and ,american printers4 ,the cheapness of types which have been cast1 as compared with letters which have been engraved1 has been explained on page #bc of this work4 #aa ,the characters ,d1 ,e1 #a are the private reference marks of the type-founder4 ,in this position they cannot be reproduced on the cast type4 #ab ,the superfluous metal which adheres to the cast type1 and is afterward broken off1 is also called the ,jet4 ,the finishing of the types is comparatively simple work which does not require explanation4 #ac ,mechanick ,exercises1 or the ,doctrine of ,handy-,works1 applied to the ,art of ,printing4 ,by ,joseph ,moxon1 ,member of the ,royal ,society1 and ,hydrographer to the ,king1 etc4 ,london1 #afhc4 #ad ,the ,book of ,trades was popular4 ,two editions in ,latin verse were published1 one in #aefh1 and another in #aegd1 with descriptions by ,hartmann ,schopper4 ,chatto says3 ,this is1 perhaps1 the most curious and interesting series of cuts1 exhibiting the various ranks and employments of men1 that ever was published4 ,among the higher orders 4 4 4 4 4 4 are the ,pope1 ,emperor1 ,king1 ,princes1 ,nobles1 ,priests and ,lawyers2 while almost every branch of labor or trade then known in ,germany1 from agriculture to pin-making1 has its representative4 ,there are also not a few which it would be difficult to reduce to any distinct class1 as they are neither trades nor honest professions4 ,of these heteroclytes is the ,meretricum procurator1 or1 as ,captain ,dugald ,dalgetty says1 the captain of the queans4 ,jackson and ,chatto1 ,a ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 p4 #dji4 ,jost ,amman was one of the many famous ,german designers on wood4 ,the publishers of ,nuremberg and ,frankfort esteemed his ability highly and gave him constant employment4 #ae ,the text of the ,speculum ,durandi1 the book of #adgc1 is exculptis re litteris2 the text of the ,prceptorum ,nideri1 the book of #adgf1 is litteris exculptis artificiali certe conatu ex re4 ,the language is plain and cannot be construed to mean cut types4 ,when these books were printed1 the arts of typography and copper-plate printing were new and had not yet received distinctive names4 ,the reading public knew nothing of the theory or practice of either process1 and confounded the productions of one art with those of the other4 ,the early printers had to define the respective arts as they best could1 with words made from ,latin4 ,a close examination of the words selected by ,husner will show their propriety4 ,the word exculptis1 sculptured1 or cut out in high relief1 is here used in contradistinction to inculptis1 sculptured in1 or cut in1 as in an engraving on copper-plate4 ,it defines typographic work from copper-plate printing4 ,the phrase artificiali certe conatu ex re1 means something more than skillful engraving2 it suggests the use of mechanism1 and of a beginning of the work in brass1 which can be clearly understood only by construing ex re1 from or in a brass mould4 ,the phrase here translated in brass has been rendered of brass1 but the language will not bear this construction4 ,the phrase ex re1 in1 or out of1 or from brass1 was frequently used by many early printers4 ,i have rarely met the form ris1 of brass4 ,to represent that early types were of brass is as much a violation of history as it is of grammar4 #af ,this book was edited and republished in the form of an octavo pamphlet of fifty-six pages1 by ,signor ,p4 ,vincenzo ,fineschi1 at ,florence1 in #agha4 ,the equivalent in ,american currency of the ,tuscan lira is calculated from a formula given with great minuteness by ,blades in his ,life and ,typography of ,william ,caxton1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 xx4 #ag ,heineken1 ,ide gnrale d'une collection complette d'estampesavec une dissertation1 etc41 p4 #bej4 ,according to the legend1 it was the occupation of ,saint ,christopher to carry people across the stream on the banks of which he lived4 ,he is accordingly represented as a man of gigantic stature and strength4 ,one evening a child presented himself to be carried over the stream4 ,at first his weight was what might be expected from his infant years2 but presently it began to increase1 and kept increasing1 until the ferryman staggered under his burden4 ,then the child said1 8,wonder not1 my friend2 ,i am ,jesus1 and you have the weight of the sins of the whole world on your back40 ,st4 ,christopher was thus regarded as a symbol of the church4 #ah ,the ,suabia of the fifteenth century was separated by the ,rhine from ,switzerland and ,france on the south and west2 its eastern boundary was ,bavaria2 its northern boundary1 ,franconia and the ,palatinate of the ,rhine4 #ai ,as these three copies have never been compared side by side1 it has not been proven that they are impressions from the same block4 ,the copy described on a preceding page has some peculiarities not found in the others4 #bj ,a book printed at ,delft in #adhj1 says that when ,st4 ,gregory was pope1 he celebrated mass in the church ,porta ,crucis4 ,as he was consecrating the bread and wine1 ,christ appeared to him as represented in the engraving1 with all the accessories to his passion4 ,robert of ,cologne1 who wrote a treatise on indulgences1 published at ,zutphen in #aeah1 adds1 that ,pope ,gregory kindly granted #ad1jjj years of indulgence2 that ,pope ,nicholas ,v doubled them2 that ,pope ,calixtus1 after requiring the repetition five times of the prayers1 again doubled the years of indulgence2 that ,pope ,innocent ,,viii1 after adding seven more prayers1 two other prayers1 and two more of the ,pater ,noster and the ,ave ,maria1 again doubled the length of indulgence--so that the sum total amounted to at least #gj1jjj years3 according to other computations1 to #ib1jjj years1 or #aab1jjj years4 ,holtrop1 ,monuments typographiques1 p4 #ac4 ,there is but one copy of this print1 which recently belonged to the collection of ,theodor ,o4 ,weigel of ,leipsic1 who published a fac-simile of it in colors1 in his great work1 ,the ,infancy of ,printing1 plate #aac1 vol4 ,i4 #ba ,wetter says that all letters of indulgence for thousands of years are spurious2 that they were made by monks and ignorant traveling priests for no other purpose than to allure simple people to church4 #bb ,sweinheym and ,pannartz1 who were invited1 in #adfd1 to establish a printing office in the monastery of ,subiaco near ,rome1 were the first printers connected with any ecclesiastical institution4 ,it may be remarked1 that they did not thrive under clerical favor1 for they soon found it expedient to remove to the city of ,rome1 where they were equally unfortunate in their efforts to find purchasers for their books4 #bc ,i have used the translation as ,i find it in ,ottley's ,inquiry into the ,origin and ,early ,history of ,engraving1 vol4 #a1 p4 #dg4 ,the original is given by ,temanza1 ,lettere ,pittoriche1 vol4 v1 p4 #cba4 ,temanza found this decree in an old book of regulations which belonged to a fraternity of ,venetian printers4 #bd ,weigel1 in his ,infancy of ,printing1 plate #aj1 presents the fac-simile of an old printed altar-piece1 about eight inches wide and twenty inches long1 which contains a representation of the ,virgin and the infant ,christ4 ,the engraving is in outline only4 ,the interior was colored by stencils1 like the image prints4 #be ,temanza had some old ,venetian playing cards of unknown date1 which he believed were made at or about the time of the publication of this decree4 ,they were of large size1 on thick paper1 and elaborately decorated with gold and colors4 ,the early ,venetian playing cards were1 probably1 more expensively made1 and were offered at higher prices than the ,german cards4 ,in the field of art and ornament1 and even in the trades which called for a higher degree of skill1 the ,venetians surpassed all their competitors4 ,this pre-eminence was maintained many years after the invention of typography4 ,the earlier books of ,venice are famous for the whiteness of their paper and the beauty of their types1 as well as for admirable presswork and solid bindings4 #bf ,heineken1 ,ide gnrale1 page #bde4 ,he does not give the date4 ,the record from which he quotes1 the ,red ,book of ,ulm1 so called because the initials were in that color1 ends with the year #adgd4 #bg ,singer's ,researches into the ,history of ,playing ,cards4 ,this book abounds in curious information and has many valuable fac-similes4 #bh ,breitkopf says that the stencil painting of prints was done with great rapidity by the medieval colorist4 ,he alludes to an old ,german saying of 8painting the twelve apostles with one stroke10 which1 no doubt1 refers to the expeditious painting of a once popular image print1 of which there is now no fragment in existence4 #bi ,some antiquarians say that this print is a representation of ,amman4 #cj ,didot1 ,essai sur la typographie1 p4 #efd4 #ca ,bibliophile ,jacob1 ,curiosits de l'histoire des arts1 etc41 p4 #dh4 #cb ,one of the cards bears the name of the maker1 ,f4 ,clerc4 ,the costumes of the figures are ,french1 and of the fashion of the court of ,charles ,,vii4 ,one of the queens is a rude copy of the well known portrait of the queen ,marie of ,anjou2 another queen is from an authentic portrait of the king's mistress1 ,grarde ,cassinel4 ,the robe of one of the kings is plentifully sprinkled with the fleur-de-lis2 the figure of another king is that of a hairy savage with a torch in his hand4 ,these singular cards illustrate a frightful accident which made a profound impression on the people of ,france4 ,to divert the half-crazed king ,charles ,,vi1 a masquerade was planned for a ball given by ,queen ,blanche1 on the #bith of ,january1 #acib1 in which masquerade the king and five of the gentlemen of the court took the parts of savages4 ,the costumes were made by encasing the actors in tight-fitting linen garments1 covered with warm pitch and tow4 ,in this uncouth attire1 and linked together with clanking chains1 they danced in the ball-room to the amusement of the men and the terror of the ladies4 ,wishing to discover one of the maskers1 the ,duke of ,orleans snatched a torch from the hand of a servant1 and thrust it too near an unhappy masker's face4 ,in a moment he was covered with a blaze which quickly spread to his fellows4 ,the king was rescued in time1 but four of the masqueraders were burned to death4 #cc ,breitkopf1 ,versuch den ,ursprung der ,spielkarten1 p4 #i1 note g4 ,the fac-similes of playing cards in this book are exceedingly grotesque4 #cd ,cards are not mentioned in a specification of popular games in the ,stadtholdt ,book of ,augsburg for the year #abgd4 ,the ordinances of the town of ,nuremberg for the period between the years #abhf and #abii prohibit gambling1 but they do not mention cards4 ,for the period between #achj and #achd1 they are both mentioned and permitted4 #ce ,in ,singer's ,researches into the ,history of ,playing ,cards may be found many fac-similes of early ,hindostanee cards1 some of which1 we are told1 were engraved on plates of ivory4 ,these fac-similes show that the primitive game was a modification of the old ,indian game of chess4 #cf ,the industry of ,jost ,amman was as remarkable as his skill4 ,the old historian of early printers1 ,sandraart1 says1 on the authority of his pupil ,george ,keller1 that during the four years in which ,keller lived with him1 ,amman produced designs enough to load a wagon4 #cg ,the ordinances of ,nuremberg between the years #achj and #achd permitted gambling and betting1 but in moderation3 8,always excepting horse-racing1 shooting with cross-bows1 cards1 shovel boards1 tric-trac and bowls1 at which a man may bet from two pence to a groat40 ,von ,murr1 as quoted by ,chatto1 ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 p4 #db4 #ch ,having visited many convents in ,franconia1 ,suabia1 ,bavaria1 and the ,austrian ,states1 ,i everywhere discovered in their libraries many image prints engraved on wood and pasted either in the beginning or the end of old volumes of the fifteenth century4 ,these facts taken together confirm me in the opinion that the next step of the engraver on wood1 after playing cards1 was the engraving of figures of saints1 which1 distributed and lost among the laity1 were carefully preserved by the monks1 who pasted them on the inner covers of the books with which they furnished their libraries4 ,after the engravers had succeeded in making prints of saints1 they found it very easy to engrave historical subjects1 with explanations in words4 ,heineken1 ,ide gnrale1 etc41 p4 #bea4 #ci ,wood-cuts of sacred subjects were known to the common people of ,suabia1 and the adjacent districts1 by the name of ,halgen or ,halglein1 saints or little saints1 a word which1 in course of time1 was also applied to prints of all kinds4 ,in ,france also1 the earliest prints were known as dominos1 or lords1 a word which was intended to convey the same meaning4 ,the maker of prints was known as a dominotier1 whether he made profane cards or pious images4 ,in time the word so far declined from its first meaning that it was applied not only to printers of cards and images1 but to the makers of fancifully colored wall-papers4 ,versuch der ,ursprung der ,spielkarten1 etc41 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #agd4 #dj ,this method is still in use in many parts of the ,east ,indies4 ,a dried leaf is written on with a pointed steel which scratches the smooth surface4 ,a bit of charcoal is then rubbed over the leaf2 the places scratched are filled with atoms of charcoal1 which make the writing as legible as it would have been if written with fluid ink4 #da ,in support of this opinion he quotes the following from ,pliny3 ,it would be improper to omit the notice of a new invention4 ,we have been accustomed to preserve in our libraries1 in gold1 silver1 or bronze1 the personages whose immortal spirits speak to us from distances of leagues and centuries4 ,we create statues of those who are no longer living4 ,our regrets invest them with features which have not been given to us by tradition1 as1 for example1 is shown in the bust of ,homer4 ,the idea of making a collection of these portraits is due to ,asinius ,pollio1 who was the first to throw open his library1 and to make these men of genius the property of the public4 ,that the love for portraits has always existed is sufficiently proven by ,atticus1 the friend of ,cicero1 who published a book on the subject1 and also by ,marcus ,varro1 who had the enlarged idea of inserting in his numerous books not only the names1 but1 by the aid of a certain invention1 the images of seven hundred illustrious persons4 ,varro wished to save their features from oblivion1 so that the length of centuries would not prevail against them4 ,as the inventor of a benefit which will fill even the gods with jealousy1 he has clothed these persons with immortality4 ,he has made them known over the wide world1 so that everywhere one can see them as if they were present4 ,pliny1 book ,,xxxv1 chap4 ,i4 ,this invention has never been clearly explained4 ,a new invention1 which exhibited in books the features of seven hundred men1 which multiplied them so that they were known over the wide world1 and preserved them for posterity1 should have been the invention of printing4 ,pliny speaks of it as a well-known fact1 but no other writer of his age makes any mention of it4 ,why did not ,pliny describe the new art instead of praising it8 #db ,didot1 ,essai sur la typographie1 p4 #efc4 #dc ,american engravers on wood use box which has been cut across the fibres in flat disks1 ninety-two hundredths of an inch thick4 ,wood so cut1 with its fibres like columns1 perpendicular to the touch of the graver and to the line of impression1 can be engraved with more delicacy1 and1 for printing1 has more strength than wood cut in line with the fibres4 #dd ,the buff-tinted wrappers around fire-crackers and ,chinese silks will fairly represent the quality of the paper used for ,chinese books4 #de ,i have before me a thick ,chinese pamphlet which is bound in this style4 ,in the essential points of strength1 flexibility and convenience1 this binding is much superior to that of ,american or ,european sewed pamphlets4 ,the most famous bookbinder would be justly proud of the combination of firmness and elasticity in the sewing4 #df ,to this description of ,chinese typography is usually added the untrue statement that the types were made of copper4 ,why the ,jesuit missionaries1 who were amateurs in type-founding1 should add to their labors by the use of such a troublesome and slowly melted metal as copper1 when ,european type-founders preferred lead1 tin and antimony1 cannot be explained4 ,i cannot find a copy of the original statement1 which was1 no doubt1 in ,latin4 ,the phrase1 types of copper1 is1 probably1 an incorrect translation1 a repetition of the error explained in a note on page #fe of this book4 ,the missionaries intended to say1 and no doubt did say1 that they made types in copper1 or in copper matrices4 #dg ,american ,encyclopdia of ,printing1 p4 #ajd4 #dh ,polo was more deeply interested in the simplicity of the financial method by which the ,emperor filled his impoverished treasury4 ,he transferred the bark of the mulberry-tree into something resembling sheets of paper1 and these into money1 which cost him nothing at all3 so that you might say he had the secret of alchemy to perfection4 ,and these pieces of paper he made to pass current universally over all his kingdoms and provinces and territories1 and whithersoever his power and sovereignty extended4 ,and nobody1 however important he thought himself1 durst refuse them on pain of death4 ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 the ,venetian4 ,translated and edited by ,henry ,vale1 ,london1 #ahga4 ,with all his power1 the ,great ,khan met the fate which comes to every financier who tries to fill up a depleted treasury by the issue of paper money4 ,in a very short time the notes were worth but one-half of their original value4 ,but the ,emperor was equal to the emergency3 when the notes fell to one-fifth of the nominal value1 he called them in1 and exchanged five old for one new note of the same denomination4 #di ,papillon1 ,trait historique et pratique de la gravure en bois1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gf1 #gg4 ,papillon does not name this student4 ,lanzi describes him as the ecclesiastic ,padre della ,valla4 ,passavant 7,le peintre-graveur1 p4 #ah7 says that the initials of like character which have been found in ,german manuscript books of the twelfth century1 were printed4 #ej4 4 4 ,if he was a wool-stapler1 he stamped it on his packs2 or if a fish-curer1 it was branded on the end of his casks4 ,if he built himself a new house1 his mark was frequently placed between his initials over the principal doorway1 or over the fireplace of the hall2 if he made a gift to a church or a chapel1 his mark was emblazoned on the windows1 beside the knight's or the nobleman's shield of arms2 and when he died1 his mark was cut upon his tomb4 ,jackson and ,chatto1 ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 pp4 #ag1 #ah4 #ea ,the letters in the most meritorious manuscript books of the middle ages were not made with running hand1 closely connected1 like the letters of modern penmanship4 ,the form of writing most in fashion was a spurred or pointed ,gothic of remarkable blackness4 ,each letter was separate1 carefully drawn1 angled and painted1 by many strokes of the reed4 #eb ,the text of the ,codex is a translation of the four ,gospels1 written in the ,gothic character1 by ,ulphilas1 bishop of the ,goths1 about the year #cgj4 ,this book1 which is supposed to have been made not later than the sixth century1 was discovered in the year #aehg1 in an abbey in ,westphalia1 and was taken to ,prague4 ,when that city was captured by the ,swedes in #afdh1 the book was sent as one of the trophies of war to ,queen ,christina4 ,it has ever since been regarded as a great curiosity4 #ec ,moorish authors tell us that in the days of the last ,norman kings of ,sicily1 ten thousand silk looms were in active operation in ,palermo2 but this statement is an oriental exaggeration of a fact that required no embellishment4 ,others say that ,jewish and ,italian traders carried these silks to ,italy1 ,germany1 and the ,north of ,europe4 ,the earliest silk-weavers of ,palermo were the captured inhabitants of ,greece who had been taken there in #aadg4 #ed ,pliny says that the colors were produced by dyeing1 but the garments described by ,herodotus could not have been made by this process4 ,we have to infer that they used some form of impression4 ,breitkopf tells us that the colored cloths of the ,egyptians were made by printing4 ,his conclusions seem reasonable when we consider how largely engraved stamps were used by the ,egyptians for printing upon clay1 and how short was the step from printing on clay to printing on cloth4 ,the art of staining1 printing or stenciling cloth with bright colors by different processes1 has been practised in ,hindostan from a very early period4 ,the antiquity of the ,indian manufacture may be inferred from the ,european adoption of ,indian names4 ,the ,english word chintz1 and its ,german synonym zitz1 are derived from a ,hindostanee word that means both a colored printed cloth and a flower4 ,the word calico is from ,calicut1 the town on the ,malabar coast from which calico was first exported to ,europe4 #ee ,papillon1 ,trait historique et pratique de la gravure en bois1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #hi4 ,his description is very prolix and full of irrelevant matter4 ,i have made use of the translation of ,ottley1 but have abridged it4 #ef ,this version of the origin of block-printing in ,europe has been accepted by many authors1 who find in it1 or profess to find in it1 the evidence that printing was derived from ,china and was first used in ,italy4 ,the wisest judgment passed upon its merits is that of ,lanzi1 who merely recites the legend1 and concludes that 8it is safest to say nothing about it40 ,but ,humphreys 7,history of the ,art of ,printing1 second issue1 page #bji7 submits the substance of a letter from a ,russian book-collector1 who asserts that1 in #ahfa1 he had seen1 in the possession of a ,mr4 ,herdegen of ,nuremberg1 seven prints which agreed precisely with those described by ,papillon4 ,i find no other description of these prints4 #eg ,du ,halde1 as quoted by ,ottley in his ,inquiry into the ,origin of ,engraving1 p4 #i4 ,there is another version placing the date at #agj ,b4 ,c4 #eh ,the artist was not restricted by the scant space that allowed him to show only the leg of the pulp-beater on the first page4 ,he does this1 and then1 with an amusing unconsciousness of its impropriety1 proceeds to draw the head and body on the following page1 which1 in the ,japanese book from which this was taken1 is the other side of the leaf4 #ei ,proteaux1 ,practical ,guide for the ,manufacture of ,paper1 ,paine's translation1 p4 #ag4 ,he does not name his authority for fixing the date in the fifth century1 but it is not at all improbable that a card-like paper was then made for some other purpose than that of writing4 #fj ,the phrase ex rasuris veterum pannorum1 here translated as the scrapings of old rags1 has been construed by many authors as linen paper1 in opposition to the 8compacted refuse material10 which is supposed to be cotton1 or1 at least1 a mixture of cotton and cordage4 #fa ,see ,the ,american ,encyclopedia of ,printing1 p4 #cbi1 for engravings of microscopic enlargements of some of the fibres used for paper4 #fb ,sismondi1 ,literature of the ,south of ,europe1 chap4 #b4 #fc ,the jealousy with which trades were then guarded is illustrated by the policy of ,stromer4 ,he obliged all his workmen to take an oath that they would not reveal the process1 nor practise it on their own account4 ,he had two rollers and eighteen stampers1 and was about to put in another roller1 when he was opposed by his ,italian workmen1 who probably thought that this extension of the works would give him a monopoly1 and would deprive them of all opportunity of obtaining work from any rival manufacturer4 ,the mutineers were brought before the magistrates and sent to prison4 ,they afterward submitted and returned to work1 but were allowed to renounce their oath of obligation4 #fd ,paper1 whenever or wherever invented1 was very sparingly used1 and especially in manuscript books1 among the ,french1 ,germans or ,english1 or linen paper even among the ,italians1 until near the close of the fourteenth century4 ,upon the study of the sciences it could as yet have had very little effect4 ,the vast importance of the invention was just beginning to be discovered4 ,it is to be added that the earliest linen paper was of very good manufacture1 strong and handsome1 though perhaps too much like card for general convenience4 ,literature of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 chap4 ,i1 sec4 #fe4 #fe ,lewis ,beaumont1 an illiterate ,french nobleman1 made bishop of ,durham in #accj1 was so inexpert at reading1 that he could not read the bulls written for his people at his consecration4 ,the word metropolitic occurred3 the bishop paused1 tried in vain to repeat it1 and at last said1 8,let us suppose that read40 ,then he came to the word nigmate1 before which he stopped in a fine wrath1 and said1 8,by ,st4 ,lewis1 he was no gentleman who wrote this stuff404 4 4 4 ,at an entertainment given at ,rome1 during the same century1 by the bishop of ,murray1 the papal legate from ,scotland1 the bishop so blundered in his ,latin when he was saying grace1 that his holiness and the cardinals could not refrain from laughing4 ,the disconcerted bishop testily concluded in ,scotch-,english1 by wishing 8all the false carles to the devil10 to which the company1 who did not understand the dialect1 unwittingly responded1 ,amen4 #ff ,at a period when the fine arts may be said to have been almost extinct in ,italy and in other parts of the ,continent1 namely1 from the fifth to the end of the eighth century1 a style of art had been established and cultivated in ,ireland absolutely distinct from that of all other parts of the civilized world4 ,in the sixth and seventh centuries the art of ornamenting manuscripts of the sacred scriptures1 and more especially of the gospels1 had attained a perfection in ,ireland almost marvelous4 ,westwood1 ,palographia ,sacra ,pictoria1 ,book of ,kells1 page #a4 ,westwood further says1 that in delicacy of handling1 and minute but faultless execution1 the whole range of palography offers nothing that can be compared to these early ,irish manuscripts1 and those that were produced by their pupils in ,england4 ,wyatt1 in a curt description of the famous ,book of ,kells1 says that he tried to make a copy of some of its ornaments1 but broke down in despair4 8,in one space of about a quarter of an inch superficial1 he counted1 with a magnifying glass1 no less than one hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a very slender ribbon pattern1 formed of white lines1 edged by black ones1 upon a black ground40 ,in this book1 which he studied for hours1 he never detected a false line or an irregular interlacement4 ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 a learned ,welsh ecclesiastic of the twelfth century1 who had carefully examined some of the ,irish manuscripts at ,kildare1 says that the writer of this ,book of ,kells made the drawings from designs furnished by angels through the intercession of ,st4 ,bridget4 ,timms and ,wyatt1 ,art of ,illumination1 p4 #ad4 #fg ,the text as it now appears in authorized copies of the ,vulgate is3 ,erat autem homo ex ,pharisis1 ,nicodemus nomine1 princeps ,judorum4 ,hic venit ad ,jesum nocte1 et dixit ei4 ,john #a1 #c4 #fh ,petrarch's detestation of pointed letters and their admirers is amusing4 ,after complaining of the difficulty he met in getting a fair copy of his writings1 he commends the workmanship of a copyist to whom he applied1 a penman who wrote ,roman letters with great neatness4 ,his writing is not labored and tortured4 ,it is suitable for our age1 and1 indeed1 for all ages4 ,young people1 always giddy1 admirers of frivolity1 despisers of useful things1 have adopted the fashion of writing in bristling and undecipherable letters1 of which accomplishment they are very proud4 ,to me1 these medleys and jumbles of angled letters1 riding one on another1 make nothing but a mess of confusion which the writer himself must read with difficulty4 ,whoever buys work of this character1 buys not a book1 but an unreadable farrago of letters4 #fi ,these boards were sometimes paneled from the inside of the cover4 ,scaliger tells us that his grandmother had a printed psalter1 the cover of which was two fingers thick1 containing in an interior panel a silver crucifix4 ,hansard says that he had seen an old book which contained in a similar recess a human toe1 obviously a sacred relic of value4 #gj ,this is one of the finest existing specimens of antique bookbinding in the ,national ,library at ,paris4 ,it is a work of the eleventh century1 and encases a book of prayers in a mass of gold1 jewels and enamels4 ,the central object is sunk like a framed picture1 and represents the ,crucifixion1 the ,virgin and ,st4 ,john on each side of the cross1 and above it the veiled busts of ,apollo and ,diana2 thus exhibiting the influence of the older ,byzantine school1 which is1 indeed1 visible throughout the entire design4 ,this subject is executed on a thin sheet of gold1 beaten up from behind into high relief1 and chased upon its surface4 ,a rich frame of jeweled ornament surrounds this object1 portions of the decoration being further enriched with colored enamels2 the angles are filled in with enameled emblems of the evangelists2 the ground of the whole design enriched by threads and foliations of delicate gold wire4 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days4 #ga ,wickliffe says that1 in #achj1 there were in ,england many 8unable curates that kunnen not the ten commandments1 ne read their sauter1 ne understand a verse of it40 ,the author of the ,plowman's ,tale accuses the clergy of faults worse than that of ignorance4 #gb ,boccaccio1 one of the enthusiasts of the fourteenth century in the labor of collecting the forgotten manuscripts of classical authors1 has told the following characteristic story about the neglect of libraries and the abuse of books by the constituted conservators of literature4 ,when traveling in ,apulia1 ,boccaccio was induced to visit the convent of ,mount ,cassino and its then celebrated library4 ,he respectfully addressed a monk who seemed the most approachable1 begging that he would open to him the library4 ,but the monk1 pointing to a high staircase1 said1 in a harsh voice1 8,go up2 the library is open40 ,ascending the staircase with gladness1 ,boccaccio came to a hall1 to which there was neither door nor bar to protect the treasures of the library4 ,what was his astonishment when he saw that the windows were obstructed with plants which had germinated in the crevices1 and that all the books and all the shelves were thickly covered with dust4 ,with still greater astonishment1 he took up book after book1 and discovered that in a large number of classical manuscripts entire sections had been torn out4 ,other books had their broad1 white margins cut away to the edges of the text4 ,full of grief1 and with eyes filled with tears1 at this sad spectacle of the destruction of the works of wise and famous men1 he descended the staircase4 ,meeting a monk in a cloister1 he asked why the books were so mutilated4 ,the monk answered1 8,this is the work of some of the monks3 to earn a few sous1 they tear out the leaves and make little psalters1 which they sell to the children4 ,with the white margins they make mass-books1 which they sell to the women40 ,benvenuto da ,immola1 as quoted by ,didot1 ,essai sur la typographie1 p4 #efg4 #gc ,the word stationer which has been adopted in the ,english language has lost its first meaning in the ,french4 ,it is here used to define a trader who sold books and all kinds of writing materials in a station1 shop or store1 in contradistinction to a class of peddlers or clerks who had no store or place of business1 but who acted as couriers or agents between the buyer and maker4 #gd ,the prices allowed to stationers in #acjc for the use of their copies seem pitiably small4 ,a treatise on the ,gospel of ,matthew1 #cg pages1 was priced at #a sol2 ,gospel of ,mark1 #bj pages1 at #ag deniers2 ,st4 ,thomas on ,metaphysics1 #ec pages1 at #c sols2 a treatise on ,canon ,law1 #abj pages1 at #g sols2 ,st4 ,thomas on the ,soul1 #ai pages1 at #ac deniers4 #ge ,if the book was objectionable1 it was burned and the author was imprisoned4 ,according to the ,roman law1 the condemnation of death attached not only to the author and buyer of a proscribed book1 but to him who chanced to find it and did not burn it4 ,in #acbh1 ,pope ,john ,,xxii condemned two authors who had written a book in eight chapters1 full of grievous heresies--for they had undertaken to prove that the ,emperor ,louis of ,bavaria had the right to discipline1 install or depose the pope at his own pleasure1 and that all the property of the church was held by it through the sufferance of the ,emperor4 ,lacroix1 ,histoire de l'imprimerie1 p4 #bf4 #gf ,erasmus1 caustically1 but truthfully1 said of this huge book1 8,no man can carry it about with him1 nor even get it in his head40 #gg ,the ,national ,library at ,paris possesses two manuscript ,bibles1 of which one volume contains #e1abb pictures4 ,each picture is explained by two lines1 one in ,latin and one in ,french2 each line is decorated by an initial and a finial in gold and bright colors4 ,if the cost of each picture with its lines be estimated at sixteen francs 7,didot's valuation71 the value of this book would be #hb1jjj francs1 exclusive of the cost of parchment1 binding and copying4 ,by the same estimate1 the value of the second volume would be #ej1jjj francs4 ,didot pertinently asks the question3 ,where can we find1 in the printed work of our day1 an equal prodigality in illustration8 ,essai sur la typographie1 p4 #gae4 #gh ,abbreviations which deformed written language to such an extent that it is almost undecipherable to modern readers1 were once esteemed a positive merit4 ,the habit of making them was continued after printing was invented4 ,in #adge1 a printer of ,lubec said1 in commendation of one of his own books1 that he had made free use of abbreviations1 to get the whole work in one volume instead of two--a procedure1 he thought1 that deserved special praise1 for he said that the contractions made the book more readable4 ,the modern reader will be of a different opinion4 ,the ,logic of ,ockham1 in folio1 printed at ,paris in #adhh1 by ,clos-,bruneau1 contains1 among other abbreviations1 this bewildering passage3 7,the text as printed47 f,sic hic e fal sm qd ad simplr a e pducible a ,deo g a et silr hic a n g a n e pducible a ,do4_/f 7,with words in full47 ,sicut hic est fallacia secundum quid ad simpliciter4 ,a est producibile a ,deo4 ,ergo ,a est4 ,et similiter hic4 ,a non est4 ,ergo ,a non est producibile a ,deo4 ,in #adih1 ,john ,petit1 of ,paris1 published a dictionary which professed to be ,a ,guide to the ,reading of ,abbreviations4 ,it was not published too soon1 for the practice of making contractions had increased to such an extent that books with abbreviations were legible only to experts4 #gi ,from a catalogue still extant1 it appears that this library was composed chiefly of romances1 legends1 histories1 and treatises on astrology1 geometry and chiromancy4 ,it was then valued at #b1bbc ,french livres1 rather more than the same number of pounds sterling4 ,at this time1 the price of a cow was about eight shillings1 and of a horse about twenty shillings4--,it is difficult to ascertain the real value of the money of the middle ages4 ,coins were frequently clipped to light weight by knavish traders1 and were oftener debased at the mint when the royal treasury was low4 ,sellers everywhere knew that the value of a coin was not in its stamp1 but in its quantity of silver1 and they altered prices to meet the altered value of coin4 ,but even in its most debased form1 the silver coin of the middle ages had a very high purchasing capacity4 #hj ,he has given an extract from an ecclesiastical account book in which are found the items of expense for the making1 binding1 and presentation of the manuscript book ,royal ,chants to ,princess ,louise of ,savoy4 ,to ,jacques ,plastel1 for sketching the designs for forty-eight pictures1 #de livres2 to ,jehan ,pichou1 illuminator1 for coloring the designs1 #hj livres2 to workmen of ,jehan ,pichou1 #ej sols1 and for vin du march 7in colloquial ,english1 treating or drink money7 with illuminator ,pichou1 #bd sols2 to ,jean de ,bguines1 priest1 for engraving the ballads1 #ab livres2 to ,guy-le-,flamenc1 for illuminating the large initial letters1 #ac livres1 #c sols2 for vellum1 #c livres1 #ab sols2 for the binding1 expenses of presentation to ,louise of ,savoy1 and the journey to ,amboise1 #fh livres1 #h sols4 ,sum total1 #cff livres4 ,lacroix1 ,histoire de l'imprimerie1 p4 #dg4 #ha ,stow says that a ,bible 8fairly written0 was sold in #abgd1 in ,england1 for #ej marks1 equal to about #cc pounds4 ,at this time a laborer's wages were #a-a_/b;d4 per day1 and a sheep could be had for a shilling4--,roger ,bacon1 who died in #abib1 said that he had spent more than #b1jjj pounds for books4 ,at this time the annual income of an ,english curate was #c #fs4 #h;d4--,in #acje1 the priory of ,bolton gave #cj shillings for ,the ,book of ,sentences1 by ,peter ,lombard4 ,hallam says that the accounts of the priory show that the jolly monks bought but three books in forty years4 ,he estimates the equivalent in modern money of this #cj shillings at near #dj pounds4--,the ,mirror of ,history1 a work in four volumes1 was sold at ,paris in #accb1 with great formalities1 for #dj livres of ,paris4--,in #aceg1 ,the ,scholastic ,history was sold to the ,earl of ,salisbury for #ajj marks1 or about #fg pounds4 ,at this time the pay of the king's surgeon was fixed at #e #acs4 #d;d4 per annum and a shilling a day besides4--,wickliffe's translation of the ,new ,testament was sold in #achj for #d marks and #dj pence4--,pierre ,plaont bequeathed1 in #adae1 to the regents of the ,university of ,paris1 a big quarto ,bible1 which he said was worth #ae pounds4 ,chevillier says that a printed ,bible of the same size in the seventeenth century could be had for #f francs4 #hb ,the horn-book was the primer of our ancestors1 established by common use4 ,it consisted of a single leaf1 containing on one side the alphabet1 large and small1 in black letter or in ,roman1 with1 perhaps1 a small regiment of monosyllables1 and the words of the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,this leaf was usually set in a frame of wood1 with a slice of diaphanous horn in front--hence the name horn-book4 ,generally1 there was a handle to hold it by1 and this handle had usually a hole for a string1 whereby the horn-book was slung to the girdle of the scholar4 ,it was frequently noticed by early chroniclers4 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days4 #hc ,it was a square stick of hard wood1 and about eight inches long4 ,the entire series of days constituting the year was represented by notches running along the angles of the square block1 each side and angle thus presenting three months2 the first day of a month was marked by a notch having a patulous stroke turned up from it1 and each ,sunday was distinguished by a notch somewhat broader than usual4 ,the feasts were denoted by symbols resembling hieroglyphics4 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days4 #hd ,men given up to sensuality we may find in abundance1 but very few lovers of learning1 and those barbarous1 skilled more in quibbles and sophisms than in literature4 ,poggio1 as quoted by ,hallam4 #he ,an entry in the books of the ,brewers' ,company during the reign of ,henry ,v 7#adae-adcj71 states the reasons why this change was made from ,french to ,english4 ,whereas our mother tongue1 to wit1 the ,english language1 hath in modern days begun to be honorably enlarged and adorned1 for that our most excellent ,king ,henry ,v hath1 in his letters missive1 and in divers affairs1 touching his own person1 more willingly chosen to declare the secrets of his will2 and1 for the better understanding of the people1 hath1 with a diligent mind1 procured the common idiom1 setting aside others1 to be commended by the exercise of writing2 and there are many of our craft of brewers who have the knowledge of writing and reading in the same ,english idiom1 but in others1 to wit1 the ,latin and ,french1 before these times used1 they do not in any wise understand2 for which causes1 with many others1 it being considered how that the greater part of the lords and trusty commons have begun to make their matters to be noted down in our mother tongue1 so we also1 in our own craft1 following in some manner their steps1 have decreed in future to commit to memory the needful things which concern us4 #hf ,in #addf1 a petition was presented to the ,english parliament1 to consider the great number of grammar schools that sometime were in divers parts of this realm1 besides those that were in ,london1 and how few there are in these days4 ,knight1 ,the ,old ,printer and ,modern ,press4 #hg ,in the ,netherlands we find the earliest development of the high school4 ,the schools of the ,brethren of the ,life-in-,common1 founded by ,gerard ,groot of ,deventer1 in #ache1 which were forty-five in number in #adce1 and double that number in #adfj1 were the first nurseries of literature in ,germany4 ,the fruits of this attention to education were freely gathered in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,the entire ,bible was printed in the ,flemish or ,dutch language within the first thirty-six years of the sixteenth century in fifteen editions4 4 4 4 ,thirty-four editions of the ,new ,testament in that language alone appeared within the same period4 4 4 4 4 ,there can be no sort of comparison between the number of these editions1 and consequently the eagerness of the people of the ,low ,countries for biblical knowledge1 considering the limited extent of their language1 and anything that could be found in the ,protestant ,states of the ,german ,empire4 ,hallam1 ,literature of ,europe1 chap4 ,,vi1 sec4 #ch4 #hh neas ,sylvius 7subsequently ,pope ,pius ,,ii71 writing near the middle of the fifteenth century1 said that the kings of ,scotland would rejoice to be as comfortably lodged as the second class of citizens of ,nuremberg4 ,hallam says that ,pope ,pius also praised their well-furnished and splendid dwellings1 their easy mode of living1 the security of their rights and the just equality of their laws4 #hi ,flanders1 during the fifteenth century1 was the richest and most densely populated part of ,europe4 ,it was famous for the extent of its foreign trade and the variety of its industry4 ,it was not uncommon for one hundred and fifty ships in one day to enter the port of ,bruges1 in which city were mercantile agents from seventeen different nations4 ,flanders was full of industries1 but its great business was the making of cloth4 ,all the world1 wrote an enthusiastic chronicler of the period1 is clothed by ,flanders4 ,ghent had fifteen thousand workmen employed on stuffs of wool2 ,ypres had four thousand makers of cloth2 ,courtray had six thousand drapers4 #ij ,as early as the twelfth century1 the emperor ,henry ,v undertook to curb the exactions of feudalism by the establishment of free cities1 and by the grant of extraordinary privileges to mechanics and manufacturers4 ,to the nobility and petty princes of ,germany these privileges were a constant offense1 and the occasion of many local strifes2 but the burghers were industrious and public-spirited1 and took care of their rights4 ,to protect their trade from the rapacity of the princes on the ,elbe and the coast1 the cities of ,germany1 in the year #abdi1 established a mercantile organization1 known as the ,hanseatic ,league4 ,in the fifteenth century1 this league was constituted of traders from all parts of the ,netherlands and ,germany4 ,it was so powerful that it monopolized the trade of ,northern ,europe3 by threat of war it compelled ,edward ,,vi of ,england to grant extraordinary concessions2 it made successful war against ,sweden1 ,norway and ,denmark4 ,the ,hanseatic ,league is a wonderful example of the sudden development of successful legislative and executive ability among men of little or no culture1 who till then had been excluded from every position of honor in the state4 #ia ,peasants could not claim exemption from arbitrary arrest or military servitude4 ,they had no liberty to choose a residence1 to learn a trade1 to travel1 to go to school1 to marry1 to keep property1 to transact business1 or to associate with others in any peaceable enterprise4 ,practically1 they were but little better than slaves4 ,beaumanoir1 a ,french jurist of the thirteenth century1 defines the nature of their servitude in the plainest words4 ,he says that3 ,the third estate of man is that of such as are not free2 and these are not all of one condition1 for some are so subject to their lord1 that he may take all they have1 alive or dead1 and imprison them whenever he pleases1 being accountable to none but ,god2 from others the lord can take nothing but the customary payments1 though at their death all they have escheats to him4 #ib ,the determination to keep the peasants enslaved was stronger than all enmities4 ,during the insurrection of the ,jacquerie1 the ,english knights who accompanied ,king ,edward ,,iii in his invasion of ,france made truce with the ,french nobles1 and joined them in putting down this rebellion4 ,froissart1 the chronicler of chivalry1 admired this exhibition of magnanimity4 ,for the sufferings of the peasants he has no sympathy4 #ic 8,villeins you have been1 villeins you are1 and shall be10--said ,king ,richard to the miserable peasantry of ,essex1 after the killing of ,wat ,tyler1--8not as before1 but in a bondage much more bitter40 #id ,the ecclesiastical history of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 says ,hallam1 teems with sectaries and schismatics1 various in their aberrations of opinion1 but all concurring in detestation of the established church4 ,the heresy which began during the twelfth century1 or earlier1 with the ,manichees of ,bulgaria1 was made more and more formidable by the ,albigenses of ,languedoc1 by the ,waldenses of ,france and ,germany1 by the ,vaudois of the ,alps1 by the ,lollards of the ,netherlands and ,england1 and afterward by the disciples of ,john ,huss of ,bohemia1 until the faith of the mass of the people was uprooted from its foundation4 ,in ,germany1 enthusiastic but mystical priests like ,eckhardt1 ,tauler and ,suso1 keeping themselves within the pale of the church1 weakened its rigid discipline by preaching against the arrogant prerogatives of the clergy1 and by commanding a higher worship of the heart and life4 #ie ,the ,british ,museum contains a ,bible in ,flemish verse1 known as the ,rym ,bible1 written by ,jacob von ,maerlandt of ,damne1 near ,bruges in ,flanders4 ,it is a manuscript of the fifteenth century1 upon vellum1 with ornamented capitals1 and is one of many copies of a version of the ,scriptures made in the year #abgj4 ,except the ,waldensian translation in the ,provenal language1 this version is1 consequently1 the most ancient in existence1 in the vernacular1 and must have preceded by a century the versions of ,raoul de ,presles1 of ,john ,trevisa or the ,hermit of ,hampole4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,british ,museum had another manuscript in prose1 of parts of a ,bible in ,flemish1 written in the fifteenth century4 ,it is part of a translation made in the early part of the fourteenth century1 and was the text used for the ,bible printed in ,delft in #adgg4 ,sotheby1 ,principia ,typographica1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #abc4 ,the ,british ,museum has1 also1 a manuscript in ,flemish of five books of the ,old ,testament1 made in the fourteenth century4 #if ,it is a noteworthy fact that the first complaint of an unauthorized reading of the ,bible came from the city where the ,bible was first printed4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iii1 alarmed at the consequences of this innovation1 and writing at the beginning of the thirteenth century1 says he had been informed by the bishop of ,mentz that3 ,no small multitude of laymen and women1 having procured the translation of the ,gospels1 ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 the ,psalter1 ,job and other books of ,scripture to be made for them into ,french1 meet in secret conventicles to hear them read and to preach to each other1 and having been reprimanded for this by some of their parish priests1 have withstood them1 alleging reasons from the ,scriptures why they should not be so forbidden4 ,some of them1 too1 deride the ignorance of their ministers1 and maintain that their own books teach them more than they can learn from the pulpit1 and that they can express it better4 ,although1 ,innocent proceeds1 the desire of reading the ,scriptures is rather praiseworthy than reprehensible1 yet they are to be blamed for frequenting secret assemblies1 for usurping the office of preaching1 for deriding their own ministers1 and for scorning the company of those who do not concur in their novelties4 ,he presses the bishop and chapter to discover the author of this translation1 which could not have been made without a knowledge of letters4 ,he wished to know what were his intentions1 and what degree of orthodoxy and respect for the holy see those who used it possessed4 ,in another letter ,innocent complains that some of the members of this association continued refractory1 and refused to obey either the bishop or the pope4 ,hallam1 ,middle ,ages4 #ig ,at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 paintings of the ,dance of ,death were in all the large cities of ,europe4 ,woltmann has distinctly stated the causes which gave popularity to these horrible compositions4 ,the misery and unhappiness which at this period more than any other visited the nations of the ,west1 increased more and more the ascetic views on the subject of death4 ,the great aims and ideas of medieval life had passed away1 and the ideas of the new period were now fast beginning to form themselves4 4 4 4 4 ,licentiousness prevailed in all lands2 immoderate festivity and boundless excesses of sensuality gained more and more the upper hand4 4 4 4 4 ,upon this life of self-will and self-indulgence1 of riot and revelry1 the terrors of death burst all the more fearfully4 ,in addition to the constant wars1 the acts of violence and the shedding of blood which prevailed among men1 we find the most various alarms in nature4 ,famine and desolating pestilences1 and in the middle of the fourteenth century the ,black ,death1 made their fearful and triumphal progress through ,europe4 ,to escape the dread and thought of this misery1 men gave themselves up on the one side all the more passionately to the intoxication of the senses2 but on the other they believed themselves struck by the vengeance of ,god1 and sought for safety in contrition and repentance1 which often led them into the most repulsive forms of ecstasy4 ,but the most forcible sermons exhorting to repentance1 the sermons that spoke to the people in the most intelligible form1 were the figurative representations which proclaimed the almighty power of death4 ,holbein and his ,time 7,bunnt's translation71 p4 #bdh4 #ih ,tailleres ymagiers1 the words of the record1 may be construed as engravers on wood1 or as carvers of wooden statuettes2 but the tailleres were1 probably1 engravers4 ,the fraternity of ,st4 ,luke consisted chiefly of men who made or contributed to the making of books3 an engraver would properly belong to the guild4 ,the words tailleres ymagiers suggest engraving quite as clearly as formschneider does in ,german4 #ii ,laborde1 a brilliant ,french writer on early printing1 who traces the origin of printing to playing cards1 acknowledges its very ignoble origin with evident mortification3--8,what a mother for such a son60 #ajj ,the history of literature1 like that of ,empire1 is full of revolutions2 our public libraries are cemeteries of departed reputation2 the dust accumulating upon these untouched volumes speaks as forcibly as the grass that waves over the ruins of ,babylon4 ,hallam1 ,middle ,ages4 #aja ,the ,university of ,paris made no opposition to the free sale of paper4 ,it was not subjected to taxes or duties in ,france1 not even when oppressive taxes were levied on most manufactures4 ,didot1 ,essai sur la typographie1 p4 #gcj4 #ajb ,a school ordinance of ,bautzen in ,saxony1 dated #adah1 gives the names and prices of some of these books4 ,for an ,a ,b ,c and ,pater ,noster1 etc41 #a groschen2 for a good ,donatus1 or child's grammar1 #aj groschen2 for a complete ,doctrinal1 #a half-mark2 for the ,first ,part1 #h groschen4 ,there has also been preserved the advertisement of one ,dypold ,lauber1 a teacher and copyist of books at ,hagenau in ,germany1 who lived during the middle of the fifteenth century1 from which we may gather a clear notion of the books that were most salable among the people4 ,his catalogue begins with the ,deeds of the ,romans1 with illustrations4 ,then follow poetical works1 romances of chivalry1 biblical and legendary works1 edifying books1 religious books1 books for the people1 fortune-telling books1 and other works of like character4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend of the ,invention of ,printing1 pp4 #b1 #c4 #ajc ,bernard ,quaritch1 ,catalogue of ,block-,books1 #hvo4 ,october1 #ahgc1 pp4 #acgc-acge4 ,the title of the book1 as he gives it1 is ,ein ,vorrede das ,puch haist wochenlich ,andach zu ,seligkayt der weltlichen ,menschen4 #ajd ,they were common during the first quarter of the fifteenth century4 ,bernard1 ,de l'origine de l'imprimerie1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ajb4 ,fournier1 ,de l'origine et des productions de l'imprimerie1 p4 #agf4 ,papillon1 ,trait historique et pratique de la gravure sur bois1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #aja4 ,guichard1 ,notice sur le ,speculum1 p4 #aah4 ,they have been noticed also by ,passavant4 ,it is plain that copyists everywhere recognized the utility of engraving4 #aje ,the engraver or the printer of the book published it1 as all other books of this kind were published1 without a printed title4 ,it has been described by different authors under these titles3 ,types and ,antitypes of the ,old and the ,new ,testament2 ,the ,histories and the ,prophecies of the ,old ,testament2 ,the ,typical ,harmony of the ,bible2 ,typical ,illustrations of the ,old ,testament1 and ,antitypical ,illustrations of the ,new1 or the ,story of ,jesus ,christ as told by ,engravers4 ,chatto calls it the ,bible for ,poor ,preachers1 and claims that it was written especially for their use4 ,he objects to the title1 ,bible of the ,poor1 as leading to the erroneous opinion that the book was bought by the poor of the laity1 who1 he says1 were unable to read in their own language1 much less in ,latin4 ,this observation is true1 yet ,chatto's addition to the old title is not really needed4 ,he overlooks the fact that the charm of the book was in its pictures1 which could be appreciated by the poor of the laity as well as by poor preachers4 ,in this sense1 it was truly the ,bible of the ,poor4 #ajf ,the ,british ,museum has a ,french manuscript1 entitled ,figures de la ,bible1 in which the illustrations occupy nearly all the page1 leaving room for little more than the text that describes the cuts4 ,the same library has two copies in ,latin verse of an abridgment of the ,bible1 in which the text occupies nearly all the page1 while the illustrations are in miniature4 ,these manuscripts of the fourteenth century are not ,bibles of the ,poor1 but they show the fondness for books with biblical pictures4 #ajg #a4 ,an edition in ,latin1 of fifty pages1 and supposed to have been engraved and printed by ,melchior ,wohlgemuth of ,nuremberg1 between the years #adej and #adfj4 ,only one copy of this book is known4 #b4 ,an edition in ,german1 of forty pages1 by ,friedrich ,walther and ,hans ,hrning1 at ,nordlingen1 #adgj4 #c4 ,an edition in ,german1 attributed to ,sporer1 at ,erfurth1 in #adge4 #ajh ,fifteen copies are known of the edition here specified as the first4 ,heineken1 noticing little dissimilarities of design and engraving in many of these copies1 says that they prove the existence of five distinct editions4 ,for similar reasons1 ,sotheby says that there are six editions4 ,the weight of authority favors the classification of these fifteen copies in one edition4 #aji ,jackson and ,chatto1 ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 pp4 #gh-hj4 #aaj ,the ,bible of the ,poor has always been considered as one of the most valuable of block-books1 but copies have been sold at widely varying prices1 as may be seen in the annexed statement1 compiled from ,sotheby's ,principia ,typographica3 ,willet copy1 #ahac #bde guineas4 ,inglis copy1 #ahbf #cfl4 #aes4 ,willet copy1 #ahcc #cfl4 #aes4 ,lucca copy1 #ahdh #hil4 #es4 ,stevens copy1 #ahdi #aal4 #abs4 ,sykes copy1 #ahbd #ahl4 #ags4 #f;d4 ,rendorp copy1 #ahbe #agl4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,devonshire copy1 #ahae #bajl4 #aaa ,three typographic editions of the ,bible of the ,poor have been printed3--#a4 ,an edition by ,albert ,pfister1 at ,bamberg1 in #adfa4 ,in this edition1 the engravings are small and coarsely cut4 #b4 ,an edition by ,anthoine ,vrard1 in ,paris1 about #aejj4 ,this edition is a close imitation1 beautifully printed1 of the first xylographic edition1 with explanations in ,french on the back of the engraved pages and on supplementary leaves4 #c4 ,an edition of very different arrangement1 having #aah small wood-cuts1 printed by ,giovanni ,andrea ,vavassore detto ,vadagnino of ,venice1 between #aeae and #aebj4 ,berjeau1 ,biblia ,pauperum1 p4 #ag4 #aab ,the great prices paid for copies of the book seem to show that this is a very general belief4 ,sotheby has wisely put some of them on record in his ,principia ,typographica4 ,gaignat copy #cjj francs4 ,la ,vallire copy #hjj francs4 ,crevenna copy #eaj florins4 ,wilks copy1 #ahdg #gdl4 ,brienne-,laire copy #fjj francs4 ,lang copy1 #ahbh #del4 ,verdussen copy #bdj florins4 ,corser copy1 #ahgc 7,quaritch7 #eejl4 ,inglis copy #dgl4 #es4 ,british ,museum copy1 #ahde #afjl4 ,quaritch's1 #ahgc #bjjl4 ,stowe copy1 #ahdi #ial4 #aac ,a section consists of two or more sheets folded together1 so that one leaf will be within another1 as sheets of folded letter paper are nested4 ,if five quarter quires of letter paper were sewed together1 and bound1 the book so bound1 in binders' phrase1 would have five sections4 #aad ,bibliotheca ,spenceriana1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #d1 as quoted by ,ottley1 p4 #ii4 #aae ,this book is sometimes described as ,the ,history of the ,virgin ,mary1 or ,the ,prefiguration of the ,virgin ,mary from the ,song of ,songs4 #aaf ,it is probable that the cowled farmers represent the lay brothers1 then very numerous in nearly every thrifty monastery4 ,the farmers1 butchers1 bakers1 carpenters and useful mechanics were often permitted to wear the dress and share some of the privileges of the monks1 on condition that they should do the servile work1 and accept as a full reward the rich blessings of monastic prayers and masses4 #aag ,these devices give us no certain clue to the engraver or printer of the book1 but they are of value in assisting us to ascertain the purpose for which the book was made4 ,there are no old manuscript copies of the book1 but there are many evidences that it was designed and produced for the first time in the fifteenth century4 ,it would seem that this pictorial version of the ,canticles was designed1 not so much to illustrate the prefiguration of the ,virgin ,mary1 as the termination of a great schism which had divided the ,catholic church between the years #acgh and #addi4 ,christendom had been scandalized by the rule of two1 and1 for a short period1 of three rival popes4 ,it was believed that this schism in the church would have been closed by the action of the ,council of ,constance1 which terminated in #adah2 but this result was not accomplished until #addi1 when ,nicholas ,v became the only pope4 ,the designer of the pictures has treated the return of ,christendom to the rule of one pope as the reconciliation of ,christ with the church4 ,to give special significance to the subject1 he has introduced the armorial shields of the magnates at the councils4 ,it may be that the engravings were made in #adbj1 but it could be maintained with plausibility that they were made after the dissolution of the ,council of ,basle in #addh4 #aah ,the full title of the book is1 as given by ,heineken1 ,the ,story of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary1 collected from the ,evangelists and the ,fathers1 and ,illustrated by ,engravings4 ,dibdin calls it1 ,the ,defense of the ,immaculate ,conception of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary4 #aai ,the reading should be1 ,mon cur avez1--you have my heart1--the word heart being represented not by letters1 but by a drawing4 #abj ,the following synopsis of the work is condensed from the translation of the text of the book1 as given by ,sotheby in his ,principia ,typographica1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ch-de3 ,antichrist is born in ,babylon4 ,he yields himself to lust of women at ,bethsaida4 ,he is circumcised1 and announces himself as the ,messiah4 ,he is instructed in magic and all sorts of evil4 ,elias and ,enoch come down from ,heaven and preach against him4 ,antichrist deceives the world by superior eloquence2 he performs miracles2 his apostles preach to the kings of ,lybia and ,ethiopia1 and 8the queen of the ,amazons1 and the ,red ,jews40 ,all the kings of the world are converted to ,antichrist2 he condemns unbelievers to strange tortures2 he kills ,elias and ,enoch4 ,he repeats the history of the resurrection2 he bids the whole world witness his ascent to ,heaven from the ,mount of ,olives4 ,the ,almighty then gives the order--8,michael1 strike him dead2 ,i will no longer bear with the unjust40 ,antichrist is carried to ,hell1 where he is received by the ,devil and his allies4 ,antichrist being dead1 princes and people become ,christians1 and there is only one faith4 ,but the people fear the ,day of ,judgment4 ,these are some of the signs of the great and terrible day3 ,the sea shall rise forty ells above the mountains2 it shall then sink away and vanish4 ,the sea shall burn4 ,trees and plants shall sweat blood4 ,there will be earthquakes4 ,buildings and trees shall fall down in hopeless ruin4 ,stones shall fly up in the air4 ,wild beasts grow tame with fright1 and run to men for help4 ,the dead arise4 ,stars fall from ,heaven4 ,heaven and earth are burnt up and chaos comes again4 ,at this point the imagination of the designer was exhausted3 he had done his best4 ,the page following1 which should have been filled with an illustration1 is judiciously left blank4 ,the last engraving is that of the resurrection of the blessed4 #aba ,the central figure in the lower illustration1 the meek and priestly personage who1 surrounded by gamboling devils1 and with a monkey perched upon his back1 walks with measured pace and uplifted eyes1 is the ,antichrist4 ,this is the introduction to the explanatory text3 ,antichrist is instructed by adepts1 who teach him to make gold1 the art of magic1 and all sorts of evil4 ,and this takes place at the city named ,corosaym4 ,and this stands also written in the ,compendium ,theologi4 ,and our ,lord curses the said city in his gospel1 and says thus3 8,woe to thee1 ,corosaym60 ,here1 we see ,antichrist goes from ,capernaum to ,jerusalem1 and he there announces himself as holy4 ,and hereof is also written in the book ,compendium ,theologi4 ,and our ,lord1 in the gospel1 also curses this city1 and speaks thus concerning it3 8,woe to thee1 ,capernaum60 #abb ,the ,latin title is ,ars ,memorandi1 notabilis per figuras evangelistarum4 #abc ,the bibliographic title is ,ars ,moriendi1 or1 literally1 ,the ,art of ,dying1 but the work is more clearly described by the paraphrase ,how to ,die ,becomingly4 ,it is also known as ,the ,temptations of ,demons4 #abd ,john of ,gamundia was a mathematician and professor of astronomy4 ,at his death1 in the year #addb1 he was chancellor of the ,university of ,vienna4 ,the calendars made by him were highly esteemed1 and were engraved and printed for many years after his death4 ,in his researches after old prints1 the late ,r4 ,z4 ,becker1 of ,gotha1 discovered one of the original blocks of a placard or poster edition of the ,calendar of ,john of ,gamundia4 ,he describes it as about #aj-c_/d inches wide1 #ae-a_/d inches long and #a-a_/b inches thick4 ,the block was engraved on both sides4 #abe ,chatto says that the practice of distributing pictures or prints of a religious character at monasteries and shrines to those who visit them is not yet extinct in ,europe4 ,in ,belgium it is still continued1 and1 ,i believe1 also in ,france1 ,germany and ,italy4 ,the figures1 however1 are not generally impressions from wood blocks1 but are1 for the most part1 wholly executed by means of stencils4 ,one of the latter class1 representing the shrine of ,notre ,dame de ,hal1 colored in the most wretched taste with brick-dust red and shining green1 is now lying before me4 ,it was given to a gentleman who visited ,halle1 near ,brussels1 in #ahbi4 ,it is nearly of the same size as many of the old devotional wood-cuts of ,germany1 being about four inches high by two and three-quarters wide4 ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 pp4 #eg1 #eh4 #abf ,the ,brotherhood of the ,life-in-,common may1 perhaps1 be regarded as an exception4 ,madden in his ,lettres d'un bibliographe has shown that this fraternity were much interested in the production of books1 and that they had a printing office in a monastery at ,cologne2 but he has not yet made it appear that they did the manual labor4 #abg ,southey says that1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 many educated men complained that the reputation of learning1 its privileges and rewards1 were lowered when it was thrown open to all men4 ,it was seriously proposed in ,italy to prohibit the publication of any book costing less than three soldi4 ,the amusing insolence manifested by authors1 scholars and readers toward the early development of literature in any new field1 or by a new method1 is a subject that could be amply illustrated4 ,the city of ,new-,york furnishes a comparatively recent example in the field of journalism4 ,the daily newspapers of #ahce1 which were then sold for six cents each1 refused to recognize the rightful existence of the new daily then sold for one cent4 ,so strong a prejudice was created against 8the penny paper10 that many timid men were afraid to be seen with the despised sheet in their hands3 the six-penny papers were respectable1 and the penny paper was vulgar4 ,the same contemptuousness was manifested when duodecimos supplanted the folios and quartos--when books bound in cloth took the place of books bound in leather4 ,the despised forms of printing have had their revenge4 ,the rod of ,aaron has swallowed its rivals4 #abh ,the full title of the book is ,donatus de octibus partibus orationis1 or ,donatus on the ,eight ,parts of ,speech4 ,it is sometimes designated as ,donatus pro puerilis1 or the ,donatus for ,little ,boys4 #abi ,this extract is from the chapter entitled1 8,when1 where1 and by whom was found out the unspeakably useful art of printing books80 ,it contains statements of value1 which will be quoted at greater length on an advanced page4 #acj ,there can be no doubt whatever about the genuineness of these blocks4 ,they were bought in ,germany1 about two hundred years ago1 by ,foucault1 the minister of ,louis ,,xiv of ,france4 #aca ,van der ,linde says that the ,donatus and ,abecedarium1 a religious primer hereafter to be noticed1 are used in all the religious schools of ,italy to this day4 ,i look with melancholy respect at an ,abecedarium1 a little octavo of four leaves1 ,il ,sillabario1 printed in our time in #ahfb1 at ,asti4 ,beneath the heading1 ,jesus ,maria1 the ,alphabet follows1 and after that the ,pater noster1 ,ave1 and ,credo4 ,beside the ,sillabario1 ,i have a little grammar entitled ,donato ad uso delle scuolle secondarie4 ,nuova editione accresciuta e riformata4 ,pinerola1 c41 #ahfe4 4 4 4 ,the esteem in which these ,catholic school-books1 those foul springs from which1 for instance1 ,erasmus drew the first elements of ,latin1 were held1 was so great that the first efforts of the humanists to improve them were regarded as heresy1 and heaven and earth were moved against such dangerous destroyers4 4 4 4 ,donatuses were printed in every place where schools were established1 and where the art of printing was introduced4 ,the ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #c4 #acb ,sometimes described under the title of ,speculum ,human ,salvationis4 #acc ,jackson and ,chatto1 ,treatise on ,wood ,engraving1 p4 #hc4 ,the book was written for the instruction of the traveling mendicant friars who had1 since the thirteenth century1 gradually monopolized preaching and the pastoral work of the settled clergy4 ,provided with nothing but a little ,church ,latin1 and therefore too ignorant to derive their discourses from original sources1 they felt the want of homiletic and catechetical assistance as an aid to their understanding and memory4 ,picture books1 with a brief explanatory text1 were the best means of supplying this want4 ,hence originated representations of the mystic relation between the ,old and the ,new ,testament1 of which the ,biblia ,pauperum is the first fruit4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #c4 #acd ,there is an edition1 with a text in ,latin and in ,german1 which was printed at ,augsburg in #adga2 there are many editions in ,german only1 some without dates1 and others with dates of #adgf1 #adib1 and #aejj2 a ,flemish edition by ,veldener in #adhc2 and various editions in ,french4 #ace ,there are two copies of the book which exhibit the blemish of a leaf made up of two distinct pieces of paper1 each piece printed by a different impression1 but so pasted together as to constitute one perfect page4 ,we do not certainly know the cause that made this patchwork necessary1 but it would seem that a gross blunder had been made in the printing-office2 perhaps a transposition of lines by the compositor1 or illegible presswork by the pressman4 ,it was necessary that the sheet containing the error should be canceled and replaced4 ,but the frugal printer refused to destroy the entire page for an error confined to but half a page4 ,he tore off the lower half of the leaf1 and replaced it by attaching a piece of white paper to the bottom of the upper half1 which contained the engraving in brown ink4 ,on this pasted piece of white paper1 he took a corrected or perfect impression from the types4 ,in this copy1 the impression1 which deeply indented the paper in the double thickness where it was pasted1 proves that the types were printed after the engravings4 ,there is another copy in which the illustration on the upper half of the sheet was canceled1 and replaced by the same method4 #acf ,ottley1 selecting one letter for examination from a great number of letters of the same kind1 found that it was always the same where-ever it occurred1 not only in the first1 but in the second edition4 ,koning and ,enched1 pursuing a badly cast or defective letter1 found that the peculiar blemishes of this letter re-appeared in other letters on many pages4 ,this precision of form is the peculiarity of typography3 it proves that the letters of unvarying uniformity could not have been made by any engraver on wood1 but must have been produced by a mould4 #acg ,the ,latin and ,dutch editions of the ,speculum maintain such a remarkable conformity with each other in the engravings1 in the types1 in the quality of the paper1 in the presswork1 and in every typographic feature1 that it is evident that the four editions were published in the same country and by the same printer4 ,as all bibliographers1 whatever theory they may have concerning the origin of printing1 attribute1 without hesitation1 the ,dutch edition of the ,speculum to ,holland1 the ,latin editions should also be attributed to ,holland4 ,guichard1 ,notice sur le ,speculum1 pp4 #aah and #aai4 ,this is the opinion of all bibliographers except ,heineken4 #ach ,the fac-simile given by ,holtrop in his ,monuments typographiques presents the following measurements1 in ,american inches3 ,in the ,latin edition1 described in this book as the first1 #be lines measure #e-a_/b inches4 ,in the ,dutch edition1 here described as the third1 #bg lines measure #e-a_/b inches4 ,in the ,dutch edition1 here described as the fourth1 #bf lines measure #e-a_/b inches4 ,as we find no indication of the use of leads or thin blanks to increase the distance between lines1 it would seem that the types of the three editions were cast in different moulds4 ,sotheby's fac-similes1 which seem to have been made with equal care1 do not exactly agree with those taken from ,holtrop's book4 ,there are1 no doubt1 differences of size1 not only in the fac-similes1 but in the original copies of the book4 ,allowance must be also made for the unequal shrinkage on different leaves of the very thick paper1 which may have been unequally dampened1 and unequally extended before printing4 #aci ,when a new engraving on wood1 in imitation of an old one1 is desired1 the modern engraver does not redraw1 but transfers the subject1 substantially by the following process3 ,the back of the print to be copied is moistened with a solution of alkali1 or of benzine1 which1 soaking through the paper1 forms a new combination with the oil in the ink4 ,the black of the ink is thereby liberated1 so that it can be completely removed by firm pressure4 ,the print so treated is then laid1 face downward1 on the block1 and the free black is transferred to the block by the pressure of a burnisher1 or of a press4 ,the black re-appears on the block1 but in a properly reversed position1 ready for the tool of the engraver4 #adj ,the neglect of engraving on wood by the early typographers has frequently been noticed as a strange fact4 ,it was1 no doubt1 induced by the difficulties encountered in trying to print wood-cuts with types4 ,the blocks would warp and crack in spite of all precautions4 ,the evil was but partially checked by diminishing the size of the blocks4 ,to evade the annoyance produced by warped blocks1 some printers engraved large illustrations on separate pieces of wood1 which were roughly fitted to each other1 but not conjoined4 ,other printers printed the wood-cuts of their books by a separate impression4 ,as these illustrations were printed in the same black ink which was used for the text1 the double impression is rarely ever noticed1 not even by the practical printer4 #ada ,the ,dutch folio of ,jan de ,mandeville1 placed by ,holtrop about #adgj1 as a work of printing1 is so bad that the earliest editions of the ,speculum are masterpieces by the side of it4 ,the work of an unknown ,schiedam printer of the latter part of the fifteenth century is equally bad4 ,the ,brussels incunabula of the ,brotherhood of the ,life-in-,common are bad2 those of ,arnold ter ,hoorne at ,cologne 7#adga-hc7 are sometimes barbarous4 ,heineken mentions a book printed in ,augsburg in #aeeg1 and says3 8,if the name of the engraver on wood and the date had not been found1 one might think that this was the oldest book in the world40 ,in the series of the different ,dutch incunabula of this kind1 the ,speculum presents itself very favorably2 it is not badly1 but well printed2 it is not a first experiment1 but the fruit of practice4 ,dr4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend of the ,invention of ,printing1 p4 #cg4 #adb ,the frisket of the modern hand-press is a light frame-work of iron1 which is covered like a kite1 with a sheet of paper pasted to the edges4 ,just before the act of impression1 this frisket is placed between the form of inked types and the sheet of paper prepared to receive the impression4 ,the office of the frisket is to prevent the sheet from being blackened by anything but the face of the types4 ,for this purpose1 every part of the page to be printed is neatly cut out of the paper mask pasted on the frisket4 ,every part of the sheet that should remain unprinted is masked or covered by the uncut paper of the frisket4 ,when the impression is taken1 the sheet receives only the impression from the type1 and is unsoiled by the ink that accumulates about the types and their fixtures4 #adc ,veldener1 who was a ,german1 and1 probably1 a pupil of ,ulric ,zell of ,cologne1 began to print at ,louvain in #adgc4 ,like many printers of the ,netherlands1 he moved his printing office from place to place4 ,he printed at ,louvain in #adgc2 at ,utrecht in #adgh2 at ,culemburg in #adhc4 ,the last book bearing his imprint is dated #adhd4 #add ,for a fac-simile 7from ,holtrop7 of this face of type see page #bgg4 #ade ,a fuller notice of ,cornelis the binder will be given in the chapter on the ,legend of ,coster1 in which his relations to early printing will be described4 ,attention may be called to the significance of the fact that no fragments of any book in the types of the ,speculum have been found in the covers or binding of any manuscript book of earlier date than #adfg4 #adf ,this work was in use as late as the reign of ,charles ,v4 ,it was enjoined by him that a printer should furnish without alteration 8the little book commencing with the alphabet1 the little book which directs how to bless the table 7grace at meals71 and the little book which directs how to answer at the holy mass40 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #b4 #adg ,hessels does not describe this as ,type ,,viii1 but as the ,type of the ,ensched ,abecedarium4 ,he thought it 8advisable to separate these two little works the ,donatus and the ,abecedarium1 which are printed in this face1 to a certain extent1 from the others0 but he admits that the types of these books bear the family likeness and cannot be omitted4 #adh ,berjeau1 who accepts this ,abecedarium as one of the first products of the invention1 says that impositions of eight pages seem more complex than they really are--that the printer had but to fold a sheet1 to mark the pages and then unfold the sheet1 to see the method at a glance4 ,this reasoning is specious1 but it is inconclusive4 ,it was the argument of the courtiers with ,columbus after he had stood the egg on its end4 ,anybody can do it4 ,simple as the process may seem1 the imposition of eight pages of type in one form was not done by any of the early printers1 and we have to infer that they did not know how to do it4 #adi ,caxton1 who printed thousands of pages in folio1 made use of but eight fonts4 ,blades1 ,life and ,typography of ,caxton1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 xxvii4 ,gutenberg1 who practised printing for thirty years1 did his work with not more than six fonts of type4 ,schffer1 who was a printer and publisher for forty-three years1 made use of but six fonts4 #aej ,leon ,de la ,borde1 ,debut de l'imprimerie ,strasbourg1 pp4 #gj1 #gb4 #aea ,leads are very thin pieces of metal which are inserted between the lines of types to increase the distance between the lines1 and to give the printed page a more open and inviting appearance4 #aeb ,this apparently easy method of demonstrating the practicability of types of wood has been attempted by many writers4 ,wetter1 the author of a valuable history of printing1 published in his book a page printed from types of wood1 which he offered as conclusive evidence that types of wood could have been made and were made by the early printers4 ,but his types of wood are larger than those of the ,speculum1 and they are also provided with leads to keep them in line4 ,notwithstanding these precautions1 they are more out of line than the types of the ,speculum4 ,meerman1 in his ,origines ,typographic1 printed a few words from types of wood with a similar result2 but he showed a practical disbelief in his own theory1 by engraving all the fac-similes of the alleged types of wood upon plates of copper4 ,the substitution of copper for wood was1 virtually1 an acknowledgment of the impracticability of wood types4 ,schinkel1 a ,dutch printer1 was more successful than either ,meerman or ,wetter in obtaining a good impression from small types of wood1 but he subsequently admitted that his success was but a trick1 and that it did not prove that they could be used in the ordinary practice of printing4 ,lon ,de la ,borde afterward conceded that types of wood would be impracticable4 #aec ,the impracticability of types of wood is cleverly stated by ,ensched3 8,i have exercised printing for about fifty years1 and ,i have cut letters and figures for my father's and my own printing office in wood of palm1 pear1 and medlar trees2 ,i have now been a type-founder for upwards of thirty years2 but to do such things as those learned gentlemen ,junius and ,meerman pretend that ,laurens ,coster and his heirs have done1 neither ,i nor ,papillon the most clever wood-engraver of ,france are able to understand1 nor the artists ,albrecht ,durer1 ,de ,gray1 and ,iz4 ,van der ,vinne either2 but such learned men who dream about wooden movable letters make ,laurens ,janzoon ,coster use witchcraft1 for the hands of men are not able to do it4 ,to print a book with capitals of the size of a thumb1 as on placards1 ,house and ,ground1 which are cut in wood1 and which ,i have cut myself by hundreds1 would be ridiculous2 to do it with wooden letters of the size of a pin's head is impossible4 ,i have made experiments with a few of a somewhat larger size4 ,i made a wooden slip of ,text ,corpus a body about the size of ,long-primer1 and drew the letters on the wood or slip2 thereupon ,i cut the letters4 ,i had left a space of about the size of a saw between each letter on purpose1 and ,i had no want of fine and good tools2 the only question now was to saw the letters mathematically square off the slip4 ,i used a very fine little saw1 made of a very thin spring of ,english steel1 so cleverly made that ,i doubt whether our ,laurens ,janszoon had a saw half as good2 ,i did all ,i could to saw the letters straight and parallel1 but it was impossible2 there was not a single letter which could stand the test of being mathematically square4 ,what now to do8 ,it was impossible to polish or file them4 ,i tried it1 but it could not be done by our type-founder's whetstones1 as it would have injured the letters4 ,in short1 ,i saw no chance1 and ,i feel sure that no engraver is able to cut separate letters in wood1 in such a manner that they retain their quadrature1 for that is the most important part of the work of type-casting4 ,if1 however1 ,i wished to give my trouble and time to it1 ,i should be able to execute the three words1 ,spiegel onzer ,behoudinis1 better than the ,rotterdam artist has done in the ,latin works of ,m4 ,meerman2 but it is impossible1 ridiculous1 and merely chimerical1 to print books in this manner40 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 pp4 #gb1 #gc4 #aed ,this taste for variety in the shape of letters was more clearly exhibited in ,greek and ,german than in ,roman types4 ,the ,greek types of the sixteenth century are so full of ligatures and variants1 that they are undecipherable to the scholar who has been taught the language only in modern text books4 ,so far from trying to make letters readable1 the literati of that period tried to make them obscure3 they were evidently determined not to make the acquisition of the language easy for their successors4 ,when ,francis ,i of ,france established the royal printing office1 he engaged a skillful ,greek penman to design additional varieties of contractions4 ,two centuries afterward1 ,pierre ,fournier1 the younger1 a type-founder of ,paris1 commended the ,greek types of his own manufacture as much less complicated than any ,greek types then in use4 ,but ,i count #ggf characters in the font4 ,more than #cjj of ,fournier's contractions1 once esteemed as admirable graces1 have been rejected by modern type-founders4 ,blades1 who has made a careful analysis of the characters used by ,caxton1 shows that in the face described by him as #a there are at least #afg distinct characters4 ,but #bd of these are capitals and #ha are double letters4 ,in faces #b and #b99 there are #chj characters1 exclusive of figures1 spaces and marks of punctuation4 #aee ,blades1 in his ,life and ,typography of ,william ,caxton1 has given a practical illustration of these changes in ,plate ,,ix ,b1 which also illustrates the feasibility of types of pure lead1 for a notice of which see next page4 #aef ,the most approved process in the modern art of stereotyping is that in which the mould is made of calcined gypsum or plaster4 ,the same material is used by type-founders in the manufacture of the largest types of metal4 ,the cheapness of sand1 and the ease with which it can be worked1 make it the most serviceable of materials for all founders who wish to produce cheap castings4 #aeg ,to satisfy his own doubts as to the feasibility of casting small types in moulds of sand1 ,bernard1 of ,paris1 gave to a brass-founder the types of a few ,roman capital letters as the models from which he requested founded duplicates4 ,he charged the founder not to dress nor finish the face of the founded letters1 nor to give them more than ordinary care4 ,the founded letters so made were printed by ,bernard in his history as practical illustrations of the feasibility of sand moulds4 ,they lack the finish of types made by the professional type-founder2 they look like badly worn types1 but they are legible4 ,the brass-founder assured ,bernard that a workman could make one thousand similar types in one working day4 ,bernard then gave to this founder separate types of a word in ,gothic letters and requested him to furnish duplicates of these types founded on one body4 ,the duplicates returned showed the very defects of the types of the ,speculum2 the thick lines were spotted1 and the letters were out of line4 ,bernard's impression shows that the movable types which made the word were jostled or trivially disturbed at the instant of moulding4 ,a disturbance of this nature would explain the irregularity of line and the rounding of the edges4 ,the spotted and ragged edges of the founded word were probably caused by the roughness of the moulding sand1 or by the sticking fast to the mould of bits of metal4 ,it is a proper inference that in both cases the defects were the imperfections of the same process4 ,the experiment of ,bernard fully proved the feasibility of making small types in sand moulds4 #aeh ,in the sand mould1 the hot metal is poured in2 in the metal mould1 whether worked by hand or machine1 the hot metal is forced or cast in4 ,the phrase 8casting type10 which implies a sudden throw or violent jerk1 has entirely supplanted the older phrase of 8founding type40 #aei ,didot1 ,essai sur la typographie1 p4 #fjg4 #afj ,the process seems impracticable1 but whoever carefully studies the ,british and ,american patent reports1 will find specifications of inventions in typography that are much more absurd4 ,there can be no doubt of their use4 ,koning cites one ,m4 ,fleischman1 who had not only seen conjoined matrices in the type-foundry of ,c4 ,hardwich1 of ,nuremberg1 but had experimentally cast types from them in an old mould that appears to have been made for this express purpose4 ,speckelinus1 ,paul ,pater1 ,meerman1 ,schoepflin1 ,spiegel1 and other early chroniclers1 have specifically mentioned types pierced with a hole1 and bound together with wire4 ,these so-called types were either punches or matrices4 ,koning1 l',origine1 etc41 de l'imprimerie1 p4 #ab4 #afa ,benjamin ,franklin1 in his autobiography1 has given a curious description of his attempt to supply his defective printing office with types cast in matrices of lead3 8,our printing house often wanted sorts1 and there was no letter-foundry in ,america2 ,i had seen types cast at ,james's in ,london1 but without much attention to the matter2 however1 ,i contrived a mould1 and made use of the letters we had as puncheons1 struck the matrices in lead1 and thus supplied in a pretty tolerable way all deficiencies4 ,i also engraved several things on occasion2 made the ink2 ,i was warehouse-man1 and1 in short1 quite a factotum40 #afb ,dissertation sur l'origine1 l'invention1 etc41 de l'imprimerie1 p4 #ah4 #afc ,it has been shown that book types must be on square bodies4 ,as a necessary consequence every form of types must be squared4 ,if the lines of types in any page are not of uniform length in the metal1 and the page is not truly squared1 the form cannot be handled nor printed4 ,but although the lines are of uniform length in the metal1 they do not always appear so in print4 ,the last line of a paragraph is frequently short2 lines of poetry are always of an irregular length4 ,to make the form square1 and yet produce this desired irregularity at the end of every short line1 the compositor inserts metal blanks1 technically known as quadrats4 ,as these blanks are about one-third shorter than the letters1 they are not touched by the inking roller2 they receive no ink and take no impression1 and are consequently invisible to the reader4 ,quadrats are now regarded as an indispensable part of every font of types1 but the appearance of the ,speculum shows that the printer of the book had to do his work without them4 ,that he knew the utility of quadrats is apparent1 for he used low types as spaces between words4 ,his imperfect press compelled him to reject quadrats at the end of short lines1 and to fill the blanks with bearers4 #afd ,to protect types in places similarly exposed1 stereotypers insert at the extreme ends of short lines types of flat face expressly designed for this object1 which are usually known as guards4 ,when the plates have been made perfect in other points1 the guards are no longer needed1 and are cut away4 ,when books were printed on hand presses during the first half of this century1 pressmen sometimes pasted on or tacked on thin strips of wood around the forms of types to shield the ends of lines from injury4 ,it is a strange surprise to encounter this modern method of protecting types from injury in one of the earliest books4 #afe ,a paper-mark is an opaque design on the web of the paper1 placed there to enable the buyer to identify a particular manufacture4 ,it is made by bending the wires on which the moist pulp is couched in some peculiar shape which leaves its impression on the paper when it is perfected4 ,certain sizes of paper are even now known by the names of marks that are no longer used4 ,foolscap once bore the mark of a fool's head with cap and bells2 ,post once had the mark of a post-boy's horn4 ,paper-marks are now made chiefly for the finer qualities of writing papers4 ,the illustrations of old paper-marks1 on the following pages1 were taken from ,koning1 and are about one-eighth of the original size4 #aff ,water-marks have much less weight in bibliography than some writers have attributed to them4 ,in very few instances can a prime limit be fixed for their use2 and1 as the marks might be repeated1 and the paper itself kept for any length of time1 and imported to any place1 they cannot be used as evidence either of the date when1 or place where1 they passed through the press4 ,blades1 ,william ,caxton1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 ,,xviii4--,the results of the examination of the paper-marks are1 for the present1 mostly negative4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #hf4 #afg ,hessels1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 xvii4 #afh ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #ce4 #afi ,bernard1 ,de l'origine et des dbuts de l'imprimerie1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ig and #ih4 #agj ,bernard1 ,de l'origine et des dbuts de l'imprimerie1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ih4 #aga ,the phrase could be applied to the forms of the letters in the books1 without regard to the quality or any peculiarity of the printing or the binding4 ,two forms of writing were then in use3 one1 a black angular1 and somewhat condensed form of ,gothic character1 which is defined in ,fournier's ,manuel typographique as lettres de forme1 or letters of precision2 the other1 a round1 light-faced1 more careless and more popular form of letters1 named by him as lettres de somme4 ,to this day1 carefully written but disconnected letters1 whether upright or inclined1 are colloquially known as print letters4 ,the doctrinal which was put in form may have been written in lettres de forme4 ,the phrase gett en molle could have been fairly applied to these precise letters1 in contradistinction to the more careless shapes of the lettres de somme4 #agb ,leon de ,bubure1 in a paper published in the ,bulletins de l'acadmie royale de ,belgique1 #b;d series1 vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #aa1 shows that printing was practised at ,antwerp as early as #adag4 ,he submits an extract from the records of the city in which it appears that one ,jan the printer publicly acknowledged1 ,august #eth1 #adag1 that he was indebted to ,william ,tserneels1 manufacturer of parchment1 in the sum of #b pounds #ab shillings #d pence1 for which he bound himself and his chattels4 ,it seems that this ,jan the printer received a very liberal credit1 for there are other acknowledgments of obligations for larger amounts1 all incurred in #adag4 ,after this date his name does not again appear on the record4 #agc ,van der ,meersch1 ,imprimeurs ,belges et ,nerlandais1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ib4 #agd ,some of the evidences that have been adduced to prove the priority of typographic printing in the ,netherlands are really ludicrous4 ,in #aggg1 ,desroches1 a member of the ,academy of ,brussels1 published a pamphlet1 in which he undertook to prove that the art of printing books was practised in ,flanders in the beginning of the fourteenth century4 ,his authority was an old rhymed chronicle of ,brabant1 written by ,nicholas1 clerk of the city of ,antwerp4 ,in that part of the chronicle which narrated events before #acac1 it is stated of one ,ludwig1 that 8,he was one of the first who discovered the method of ,stamping which is in use to this day40 ,desroches construed the word ,stampien as printing4 ,but the context shows that this ,ludwig was a fiddler1 and that he had invented nothing more than a method of beating time by stamping with the foot4 ,in other examples which might be adduced1 it is plain that the word translated as printing does not mean printing with ink4 ,this word has been made to serve in notices of embossing1 stamping1 stenciling and moulding4 #age ,hessel's translation1 as given in ,the ,haarlem ,legend of ,van der ,linde1 p4 #h4 #agf ,van der ,linde takes exception to this part of the chronicle4 ,he says that ,zell's knowledge of geography was confused1 and that he wrote ,holland where he should have written the ,netherlands4 ,his reasons for suggesting this correction are1 that the manufacture of block-books and the prints of images1 and the cultivation of literature and of literary arts1 during the first half of the fifteenth century1 were in their most flourishing condition in the cities of ,bruges1 ,antwerp1 ,brussels and ,louvain1 all of the ,southern ,netherlands1 while they were comparatively neglected in ,haarlem1 ,leyden1 ,delft and ,utrecht1 of the ,northern ,netherlands4 ,at that period ,holland had not taken its place as the foremost state of ,europe1 in its championship of liberty and civilization4 #agg ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #ff4 #agh ,behold what favor is due to the writing6 ,compare work with work and examine copy with copy i4 e4 notice the uniformity of the letters4 ,consider how clearly1 how neatly1 how handsomely1 ,john ,brito1 a citizen of ,bruges1 prints these works1 having discovered a very wonderful art1 nobody having instructed him1 and the very astonishing implements also1 not less praiseworthy4 #agi ,van ,praet says that the word imprimit1 or printed1 was frequently used by the scribes and copyists of that period as the equivalent of scripsit1 or wrote4 ,it was also used to describe painting by stencils4 ,notice sur ,colard ,mansion1 p4 #aa4 #ahj ,the same face of types was used by ,machlinia of ,london4 ,it would seem that ,veldener was not only working as a printer1 but that1 even at this date1 he was doing business1 to some extent1 as a manufacturer of types for the trade4 #aha ,the date usually assigned for the introduction of printing in ,cologne is #adff1 but some authors suppose1 and ,hessels and ,madden say it is probable1 that ,ulric ,zell began to print there as early as #adfb4 #ahb ,we have in this country two remarkable illustrations of attempts to make types by men who had no experience in type-founding4 ,benjamin ,franklin's experiment is mentioned in the note on page #cjc4 ,in #agid1 ,wing and ,white of ,hartford1 men entirely ignorant of type-founding1 undertook to make type1 never having seen a type-mould4 #ahc ,hessel's translation as given in the ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #ej4 #ahd ,the comments of a modern critic on the strange omissions of this positive statement are to the point3 8,this forgetfulness of ,coornhert has always seemed to me one of the most striking peculiarities of the ,haarlem legend4 ,how can it be6 ,here is a man1 very learned1 very patriotic1 who appreciates the importance of the discovery1 who contends with zeal to establish for his country the honor of being the cradle of the greatest of modern inventions4 ,he knows the name1 the family name and the family of the inventor1 and he does not divulge them to his fellow-citizens6 ,this surpasses belief4 ,and what shall we say of the burgomaster ,van ,zuren8 ,he writes a special treatise to retrieve the glory of the invention to the honor of the city of which he is a magistrate1 but it never occurs to him that he should honor the memory of the inventor--,i will not say by a monument of some kind1 for that might be demanding altogether too much--but at least by a mention1 by some souvenir1 by giving his name to some street1 or still less1 by a simple record in a book4 ,it is not possible to find another example of a forgetfulness so incredible40 ,c4 ,ruelens1 ,bibliophile ,belge1 vol4 ,,iii1 #ahfh4 #ahe ,ottley's translation as quoted in ,johnson's ,typographia1 vol4 ,i1 #ab4 #ahf ,an attempted play or pun on the ,latin faustus1 happy4 ,but the ,german printer's name was not ,faust1 but ,fust4 ,this pun was the origin of the error4 #ahg ,in ,junius's description of the thief1 there is a strange confusion of singular and plural4 ,beginning with the specification of one ,john as the thief1 the story ends with an intimation that there were two thieves4 ,this substitution of they for he is not a typographical error1 nor is it a slip of the pen4 ,it seems to have been intended to sustain the insinuation of the complicity of ,fust in this theft4 #ahh ,the full title of the book from which this translation was made is ,hadriani ,ivnii ,hornani1 ,medici ,batavia4 ,in qua prter gentis insul antiquitatem1 originem1 decora1 mores1 aliaque1 ad eam historiam pertinantia1 declaratur qu fuerit vetus ,batavia4 ,ex4 offic4 ,plantiniana1 #aehh1 #dto4 ,hadrianus ,junius was born at ,hoorn1 in the year #aeaa4 ,his education1 as a boy1 was received at a grammar school in ,haarlem2 as a young man at the university of ,louvain4 ,in #aecg1 with one ,martin ,costerus1 he made a tour in foreign countries4 ,in #aedj he obtained from the university of ,bologna the degree of doctor of medicine4 ,two years afterward he was living in ,paris4 ,in #aedc he went to ,england1 and for six years succeeding1 he was employed as physician to the duke of ,norfolk4 ,soon after the death of the duke1 he published in ,london a ,greek lexicon1 which enhanced his reputation as a scholar1 but did not mend his fortunes4 ,in #aeei he returned to ,haarlem1 where he married a lady of wealth4 ,three years after his marriage he accepted the appointment of tutor to the crown prince of ,denmark1 but finding finding that the position or the climate was disagreeable1 he resigned the office4 ,in #aefc he was appointed town physician1 and rector of the ,latin grammar school at ,haarlem1 which appointments he held until #aefi4 ,about this period he wrote ,nomenclator1 a lexicon in eight languages1 and ,batavia1 a description of ,holland4 ,at various times he was formally invited to enter the service of the kings of ,hungary1 ,poland and ,denmark4 ,william of ,orange sent front ,delft for his services as a physican3 at a meeting of the deputies from the ,states1 he nominated ,junius as the historian of ,holland4 ,in #aegd he was made town physican at ,middleburg1 with a liberal salary and a free living4 ,when ,haarlem was captured in #aegc by the ,spaniards1 the library of ,junius was plundered1 and many of his manuscripts were destroyed4 ,he took this calamity greatly to heart1 and died at ,arnemuiden in #aege4 ,justus ,lipsius said he was the most learned ,netherlander after ,erasmus4 #ahi ,the publication of ,batavia1 the work upon which the fame of ,junius rests1 seems to have been suggested to ,william of ,orange by ,junius himself1 who expected to receive from the ,states a salary for his services as historian4 ,in #aefe1 the question of salary1 first named at #bjj pounds of #dj groots1 was put to vote4 ,the prudence of the ,dutch character is shown in the deliberations of the deputies4 ,haarlem1 ,delft1 ,leyden1 and ,gouda assented2 ,dordrecht and ,amsterdam requested time for its consideration4 ,dordrecht afterward consented1 but on condition that the money should be paid out of the taxes2 that ,junius should publish a volume every year2 and that he should publish nothing without the approval of the ,states4 ,in the meantime other ,states receded from their action1 saying that the publication was ill-timed during a period of general distress4 ,after some influences had been used1 the ,states gave a grudging and qualified assent4 ,in #aegj1 ,junius petitioned for the payment of #bjj guilders1 as he had then finished the first book of the history4 ,the petition was not favorably received1 and its consideration was postponed for one year1 at which time it was finally decided by the deputies to pay ,junius #cjj guilders1 to prohibit him from publishing the first volume of the book with a dedication to the ,states1 and to release him from all obligation to continue the work4 ,this disparaging treatment of the author prevented the publication of the book with the completeness and at the time ,junius had proposed4 ,after his death the manuscripts of ,batavia were collected and transcribed by his son ,peter1 who1 with ,peter ,douza1 undertook the publication4 ,the book was published during #aehh1 from the office of ,christopher ,plantin1 at ,antwerp4 ,the selection of a printer in a neighboring city shows that there was then no competent printer at ,haarlem4 ,it is another evidence of the indifference of the people of ,haarlem toward typography4 #aij ,he relates not as a legend1 but as veritable history1 that the virgin ,soter1 who possessed but three pennies1 gave them for the building of a church in ,dordrecht4 ,other three pennies were miraculously and regularly found in her purse1 and were as regularly bestowed1 until the church was built4 ,he repeats1 with simplicity1 the story of the eleven thousand virgins of ,cologne1 who came from ,england to the now unknown port of ,verona in ,holland4 ,he says that a certain stone in a church in ,leyden was once a loaf of bread1 and that the transubstantiation was made by a curse4 ,he formally records the delivery by one ,margaret1 countess of ,hennenberg1 of #cfe babies--a miracle1 writes ,van der ,linde1 8that makes you think of an upset pot of shrimps40 ,junius adds that this would be a miracle beyond belief1 if it had not been attested by the authority of public monuments 4 4 4 4 but he accepts the common belief4 ,these examples of the credulousness of the author of ,batavia warn us not to accept his criticisms on other traditions4 ,junius begins his description of printing at ,haarlem with a solemn declaration of his intention to tell the truth4 ,the declaration of candor is not needed3 what the reader of ,batavia does need is1 not the protestation of the intention of the author to tell the truth1 but some convincing evidence of his ability to distinguish the true from the false4 ,his preface is long1 pedantic1 and in every way irrelevant1 as may be inferred from a glance at the following classical names which he has sprinkled in the first paragraph3 ,carneades1 the ,daughter of ,time1 ,democritus1 ,phnicians and ,egyptians1 ,cadmus1 ,athenians1 ,greeks and ,thebans1 ,cecrops1 ,philostratus1 ,linus1 ,tacitus1 ,palamedes1 ,hyginus1 ,carmenta1 ,evander1 ,crassus1 ,scvola and ,plutarch6 #aia ,in the year #afcj1 ,adrien ,rooman1 of ,haarlem1 published a print which contained the engraved representation of a printing office1 to which he put the words--8,invented at ,haarlem about #adcj20--;but 8,the magistrates and citizens of ,haarlem1 in everlasting remembrance of the event and the man10 erected a monument in front of the ,coster house1 with an inscription on it1 which fixed the date at #addj4 #aib ,lambinet caustically observes that the romance of ,junius obeys the dramatic law of unity1 in time1 place1 and hero2 the typographic art is invented complete in one day4 ,the vague language of ,junius has been used as a proper warrant for a very liberal construction of the date4 ,when ,van ,lennep objected1 in #ahbc1 to the chimerical year of the invention1 #adbc1 fixed upon by a ,haarlem committee1 the synod enjoined him3 8,if he will again carefully read the account of ,junius1 and not forsake1 out of his prejudice1 all common sense1 he will plainly see himself1 and be obliged to acknowledge1 that ,junius said not a single word about the time of the invention40 ,van der ,linde1 ,the ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #fh4 #aic ,there has been much dispute concerning the functions of this keeper4 ,junius says that this ,lourens ,janszoon was the keeper of a church2 that this keepership was an honorary office which belonged to ,coster's family by hereditary right4 ,the duties of the office seem to have been those of a church trustee4 ,some writers say that this custos was nothing more than a sexton1 but it is of no moment whether custos means sexton or trustee4 ,the care with which ,junius introduces evidences of the respectability of ,coster's house and the dignity of his family implies his fear that there might be1 on the part of a heedless reader1 some doubt concerning the social position of a custos4 ,nothing is said of the ancestors of ,coster4 ,probably1 there was reason for this omission4 ,coster's distinction in ,haarlem was not that of patrician blood4 ,his wealth was not1 so far as we can learn1 derived from any inheritance1 nor could it have been acquired through the emoluments of a custos1 which was an honorary but not a lucrative office4 ,he had been engaged in some occupation which ,junius considered derogatory to his dignity4 ,of this occupation we shall hear more hereafter4 #aid ,the assurances of his wealth1 leisure and respectability seem to have been provoked by the published statements1 with which ,junius was familiar1 that ,gutenberg1 the rival ,german inventor1 was of noble birth4 ,it is not the only instance in which the ,dutch legend is the echo of the ,german history4 ,the first coincidence is that ,coster1 like ,fust1 was indebted to his son-in-law for valuable assistance in perfecting typography4 ,and both sons-in-law were named ,peter4 #aie ,if ,junius had not said that ,coster changed the characters of wood for letters of lead and of tin1 and that the false workman was expert in composing letters and in founding types1 there might be some doubt whether these characters of wood were made disconnected or conjoined4 ,his language is obscure1 for he has used the words form and character as the equivalent of type1 where these words could be applied with equal propriety to a letter engraved on a block4 ,this obscurity was not caused by the poverty of the ,latin language1 for he afterward described types with clearness4 ,there was obviously some confusion in the mind of ,junius4 ,it is not certain that he clearly understood the broad difference between typography and xylography2 it is certain that he intended to convey the idea that ,coster was the inventor of printing in its broadest sense--the inventor of printing from blocks as well as from movable types4 ,the absurdity of this broad claim must be obvious to all who have read about early image prints and playing cards and the printed fabrics of ,italy and ,sicily4 #aif ,the wine-flagons of ,thomaszoon may have had some features which carried conviction to the observer of the seventeenth century1 but the modern reader of the story will fail to see that they should have been made of worn-out types4 ,but the tin wine-flagons and the noticeable house on the market-place are not to be despised4 ,useless as proofs of the credibility of the legend of ,junius1 they illustrate to some extent the pedigree of the ,coster family1 a pedigree with which ,junius was well acquainted1 but for which he could find no place in his legend4 ,these wine-flagons were the pewter pots of a tavern about a century old4 #aig ,there were many ,johns among the early printers of ,mentz3 ,john ,fust1 ,john ,gutenberg1 ,john ,petersheim1 ,john ,meydenbach4 ,when it was thought proper to acquit ,fust of this accusation1 ,john ,gutenberg was selected as the man2 but the discovery of records which proved that ,gutenberg was making experiments in typography at ,strasburg during the year #adcf1 compelled the withdrawal also of this accusation4 ,meerman1 with a skill in casuistry equal to the occasion1 then undertook to prove that there were two ,gutenbergs--brothers1 but with different surnames--,johan ,gensfleisch1 the elder1 and ,johan ,gutenberg1 the younger2 and that it was the elder brother who betrayed ,coster and revealed the secret to ,john ,gutenberg4 ,it was a weak artifice4 ,german historians have fully proved that ,gutenberg's brother ,frielo had nothing to do with typography2 that ,john ,gensfleisch1 the elder1 was an uncle1 not a brother1--old1 rich and blind--of all men1 most incapable of any attempt at the purloining or practising of an intricate art like printing4 ,there is no evidence to inculpate ,petersheim or ,meydenbach4 #aih ,the story of theft is not only improbable1 but it is unsupported by external evidence4 ,jacobus ,koning1 a diligent searcher in the archives of ,haarlem1 discovered that1 on and after ,christmas day1 #addj1 the constabulary of ,haarlem were often sent to ,amsterdam upon important business4 ,the inference attempted is that the constables were in search of the workman who stole ,coster's implements4 ,the records do not say that they were sent for a thief4 ,their business was of another nature4 ,there had been a great mortality in ,haarlem1 and the officers of the town had left it while the pestilence was raging4 ,the journeys of the constables were made to the temporary residences of the magistrates who1 from a more healthy city1 sent directions for the government of the town4 ,koning knew this fact but suppressed it4 ,the accusation of unfair practice1 is frequently made by men who have been defeated in a fair contest4 ,whenever such an accusation is accompanied1 as it was in this instance1 with dramatic details1 it effects a lodgment in the popular belief1 from which it is not easily removed4 ,junius was not the first1 nor the last1 to use this discreditable but effective method of making-up a case4 ,there is an old ,french record which narrates how ,nicholas ,jenson was sent from ,paris to ,mentz in the year #adeh to get a knowledge of the ,german invention4 ,jenson did acquire this knowledge1 and became an eminent printer4 ,his detractors say that he stole the secret2 his eulogists say that he learned nothing1 that he was the real inventor4--,the story of ,richard ,atkyns about the ,english theft is too full of absurdities for criticism4--,sometime between #aebj and #aegj1 ,daniel ,specklin wrote a chronicle of ,strasburg1 in which he relates that printing was invented at that city in the year #addj1 by ,john ,mentel2 that ,mentel's unfaithful servant1 one ,john ,gensfleisch1 stole the secret1 not the punches1 and took it to ,mentz4--,there is a popular legend in ,italy that ,pamphilo ,castaldi invented printing types at ,feltre in the year #adej2 that ,john ,fust1 who happened to be in the town1 abstracted the knowledge of the invention1 carried it to ,mentz1 and arrogated all the honors of the rightful inventor4 #aii ,it was on the inner cover or binding of this account book that the fragment of a typographical ,donatus was found4 ,see page #bei4 #bjj ,lambinet had reason to speak of the aged witnesses1 ,cornelis1 ,gallius and ,talesius1 as 8walking and talking centuries40 ,van der ,linde characteristically describes the story of ,junius as 8a story in which all the authorities hear the principal facts in their infancy1 but only to communicate them to each other in their second childhood40 #bja ,erasmus says3 8,all those who apply themselves to the sciences are under no small obligations toward the excellent town of ,mentz1 on account of the excellent and almost divine invention of printing books with tin letters1 which1 as they assure us1 was born there40 #bjb ,to satisfy these doubts1 and to bridge the chasm between ,coster of #addj and ,bellaert of #adhc1 ,meerman undertook to show that ,coster's three grandsons1 ,peter1 ,andrew and ,thomas1 continued the practice of typography and printed many small works4 ,dr4 ,de ,vries maintained that 8there was after ,coster's death1 until about #adgj1 an uninterrupted1 carefully concealed practice of printing4 4 4 4 ,that there existed in ,holland for many years a seminary of the practicers of the art is confirmed by many and strong evidences40 ,but ,de ,vries offers conjectures for evidences4 ,history is silent about the printing office that was conducted by the sons of ,coster4 ,this office and these printers were really created by ,meerman to fill a disagreeable gap in the story of ,junius--a gap not seen by any of his numerous commentators from ,scriverius to ,seiz4 ,there is no book that bears their names2 there is no record that mentions them as printers2 there is not even a tradition that they had anything to do with printing4 ,if their names had not appeared upon the pedigree of ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 we should know nothing of them4 ,the typographical successors of ,coster are as fictitious as their progenitor4 #bjc ,wolf1 ,monumenta ,typographica1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #aic and #fba4 #bjd ,laurecrans voor ,laurens ,coster von ,haarlem1 eerste ,vinder von de ,boeck-druckery1 etc4 ,haarlem1 #afbh4 ,reprinted in ,dutch1 with description in ,latin1 in ,wolf's ,monumenta ,typographica1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #bji-dea4 ,the poetry of ,scriverius is as whimsical as his prose4 ,here is his charge of theft against ,john ,gutenberg3 ,ah1 rascal6 ah1 are you there8 is it you ,hans ,gutenberger8 ,why does this name become you8 ,yes1 two-fold rascal1 and worse6 ,notorious by theft1 oh shameless man6 ,this word is still too mild for your villainy4 ,because you concealed ,laurens' good and carried it away1 ,and stole it falsely3 so hear we now speak ,of ,goedenbergher's praise2 however they disguise it1 ,by the ,goeden-berg they betray the ,guyten-7rogue7berg4 #bje ,condensed from ,hessels' translation in ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #aac-ad4 #bjf ,wolf1 ,monumenta ,typographica1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #hac-hfh4 #bjg ,seiz1 ,annus ,tertius ,sculoris ,invent ,artis1 etc4 ,haarlem1 #agdb4 #bjh ,condensed from ,hessels' translation in ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #abc4 #bji ,john ,ensched then said that 8,jansen ,koster used no wooden movable letters1 as later1 and still living scholars ,meerman assert--scholars who know nothing of the mechanism of type-founding--and who1 therefore1 gently swerve from the path of simple truth40 ,meerman's reason for rating this ,dutch edition of the ,speculum as first of all was the inferior appearance of the types and the printing1 which inferiority1 he maintained1 had been produced by wood types and want of experience in presswork4 ,fournier told him truly that the types of his alleged first edition were metal types2 that the printing of the book was inferior because the types were worn out2 that his first edition had all the signs of a last edition--but ,meerman refused this explanation4 #baj ,dr4 ,de ,vries1 the most eminent defender of the legend in this century1 said3 8,the work of the learned but not very judicious ,meerman had done more injury to the cause of ,haarlem than the writings of all other antagonists40 #baa claircissemens sur l'histoire de l'invention de l'imprimerie4 #ahdc4 #bab ,this ,museum then contained1 among other relics1 copies of the ,apocalypse1 the ,ars ,moriendi1 the ,canticles1 the ,donatus1 the ,speculum1 the ,temptations of ,demons1 and other printed works that have here been noticed in the chapter on ,the ,works and ,workmanship of an ,unknown ,printer1 most of which were claimed as the work of ,coster's office4 ,the wood block of the ,horarium 7see page #bfj71 some official documents1 some autographs of the sheriff ,louwerijs ,janszoon1 a picture said to be a likeness of ,coster1 several engravings of ,coster 7curiously dissimilar1 and one of which is an undeniable forgery71 are also contained in this ,museum4 ,van der ,linde denounced the ,museum as a municipal show-booth4 ,the ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #afd4 #bac ,gerrit ,thomaszoon died about #aefc or #aefd4 ,in the year #afaa1 the pedigree belonged to ,adrien ,rooman1 the town printer at ,haarlem4 ,at his death it fell into the hands of ,dr4 ,john ,vlasveld4 ,for nearly two centuries it was unknown to the public4 ,in #ahji1 it was sold at auction1 ,jacobus ,koning paying for it1 and for an old wood-cut1 supposed to be the work of ,coster1 four hundred guilders4 #bad ,van der ,linde1 ,the ,haarlem ,legend of the ,invention of ,printing1 p4 #db4 ,in the singular words 8who brought the first print in the world0 we may find the cause of that mysterious indefiniteness of description which may be observed in all the authorities4 ,it is more than an indication that the story of ,junius is based on the pedigree and on information derived from ,thomaszoon and his friends4 #bae ,there is1 of course1 no reason why a chandler could not have invented typography1 but we have no evidence that this chandler invented anything4 ,our knowledge of the tastes of the man1 as shown in his selection of a new business1 is enough to prove that he was not at all like the later chandler1 ,benjamin ,franklin1 with a leaning to types and letters4 #baf ,the variable orthography of the name of ,coster1 which is here copied literally from the records1 is a sufficient explanation of the irregularities in the spelling of his name which are to be found in all the authorities4 ,i have adopted the orthography as ,i find it in the book of ,van der ,linde4 #bag ,the exact nature of the relationship between ,laurens ,janszoon ,coster and ,gerrit ,thomaszoon is not clearly defined1 but the archives of the town and the vellum pedigree corroborate each other in establishing the existence--of ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster 7son of ,jan ,coster71 tallow chandler and innkeeper1 who left ,haarlem in #adhc--of ,thomas ,pieterszoon 7probably the son-in-law of ,coster71 sheriff1 who died in #adib--of ,gerrit ,thomaszoon 7according to the pedigree1 a great-great-grandson of ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster71 a sheriff and an innkeeper4 ,he was1 also1 a sacristan or church-warden4 #bah ,for this unwarrantable confusion of the names and deeds of the two men ,junius and ,scriverius are responsible4 ,junius1 who wrote in ,latin1 caught at the word ,coster1 which he found in the pedigree1 as a subject for the display of his critical ability4 ,he explains and expounds it3 8,lourens ,janszoon1 surnamed ,coster1 by reason of the office which belonged to the family by hereditary right40 ,there was no need for this absurd expansion of the meaning of the word custos4 ,this attribution of an honorable office to an insignificant man was purposely made to give him a dignified position4 ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 who knew that ,coster was a man of no note1 gave him only the distinction of the first printer4 ,this was not enough for ,junius1 who thought that he would be deficient in patriotism if he did not make ,coster as reputable as his rival ,gutenberg1 who was represented as of noble blood4 ,the word ,coster was his opportunity1 and he made the most of it4 ,it is not probable that ,junius studied the archives of ,haarlem for the purpose of getting exact information about ,coster1 but it is possible that he had read or heard of ,lourens ,janszoon1 the wealthy man1 and that he confounded him with ,coster1 the chandler4 ,whether he made this confusion with intent or in ignorance cannot now be ascertained1 but we can see that the wealth and respectability of ,janszoon were attributed to ,coster4 ,scriverius perpetuated the blunder4 ,he found a document signed by ,louwerijs ,janszoon1 as sheriff1 in #adca4 ,without further research1 he leaped to the conclusion that this man who died in #adci1 who had nothing in common with ,coster but similarity of name and similarity of occupation as innkeeper1 was the very ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster who1 according to ,junius1 invented types and practised printing in #addj4 #bai ,moxon's copy of this engraving is shown on page #ccc of this book4 #bbj ,van der ,linde tells a curious story about ,hollandish credulity3 ,the most amusing imitation was that of an amateur artist of the last century1 ,c4 ,van den ,berg1 who wished to play the collector ,j4 ,marcus a trick4 ,he engraved a small wood-cut after the portrait of ,van ,campen1 with the name ,laur' ,jassoe1 in old-fashioned style1 underneath4 ,with a little soot and dirt1 he gave the copies an antique appearance1 and made ,marcus happy for a few weeks4 ,the poet ,langendijk1 the type-founder ,ensched1 and other amateurs1 each got a copy4 ,van den ,berg was too honest to mean anything more than fun2 he told afterward to ,marcus himself the value of that antique wood-cut4 ,although every investigator could and ought to have known these things1 yet ,jacobus ,koning was bold enough1 in the second nomenclature of his collection of rare books and manuscripts1 to describe a copy of this portrait as 8printed by1 or at the time of1 ,lourens ,janszoon ,koster40 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,haarlem painter ,l4 ,van der ,vinne1 in his youth1 painted1 in the beginning of the former century1 a study1 after a drawing of ,van ,campen4 ,but lo6 in #agfb1 this picture is offered for sale by ,van ,damme at ,amsterdam 7the same who produced the false inscriptions respecting the imaginary ,corsellis of ,oxford71 provided at the back with a very old inscription1 ,lours ,jans to ,harlem ,,mccccxxxiii1 and the monogram ,a ,o1 which was explained to mean ,albert ,van ,oudewater4 ,excellent discovery6 ,here was a genuine contemporaneous portrait by a painter of the fifteenth century6 ,a trifle1 however1 was wanted to make the joy perfect4 ,albert ,van ,oudewater1 who had painted the celebrated inventor of printing in #adcc1 was born in #addd6 ,this history is full of despairing irony from beginning to end4 ,just as the sheriff ,lourens ,janszoon invents the art of printing after his death2 just as ,cornelis works at ,donatuses before his birth2 just as the chandler ,lourens ,janszoon ,koster entirely forgets his invention during his lifetime2 so the painter ,albert ,van ,oudewater becomes a zealous ,costerian 8long before he was born40 ,van der ,linde1 ,the ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #ade4 #bba ,the striking dissimilarity between the calm philosophic face of the ,coster of ,meerman and the sour look and misanthropic features of the ,coster of ,scriverius is neatly explained by ,dr4 ,abr4 ,de ,vries3 ,the portrait given by ,scriverius was painted from a sketch or study made after ,coster's death1 and was1 necessarily1 gloomy and cadaverous2 but no portrait1 however beautiful1 unless it was a true and genuine likeness1 could satisfy the truth-loving ,scriverius4 ,the truth was to be well founded if he endorsed it4 ,the cadaverous hue and the marks of death in ,van ,campen's picture are strong evidences for the genuineness and faithfulness both of the original representation and of ,van ,campen's copy6 #bbb ,in ,holland1 ,dr4 ,van der ,linde's book has been denounced as impolitic and unpatriotic1 but it has not1 as yet1 met with a suitable answer4 ,the indignation manifested toward the author has been so violent that he1 a native ,hollander1 has found it expedient to remove to ,germany4 #bbc ,the only positive evidence which seems to give a color of probability to the assertion that typography was first practised in the ,netherlands is the fact that an unknown printer had printed there some little books before the arrival of ,ketelaer and ,de ,leempt1 in #adgc4 ,whoever this printer may have been1 it still remains to be proved that he did any typographic work before #adfc4 #bbd ,there is no known authentic autograph of ,gutenberg4 ,in his day the name was written by other persons1 ,guttemburg1 ,gudenburch1 ,goodenberger1 ,guthembergius1 ,gudenbergh1 ,kuttenberg1 and in many other ways4 ,the form of spelling used in this book is the one that is preferred by the ,german bibliographers4 ,gensfleisch1 in ,german1 is goose-flesh2 ,gutenberg is good hill4 #bbe ,bodmann1 a librarian at ,mentz1 said that he had discovered two old documents which set forth that ,gutenberg had a brother1 ,conrad1 and two sisters1 ,hebele and ,bertha4 ,helbig says that these documents1 as reprinted by ,fischer1 are spurious4 #bbf ,it seems that ,else ,gutenberg was the last surviving member of her family4 ,according to a ,german custom prevailing at that time1 a son was1 under certain circumstances1 permitted to take the name of his mother when it was feared that her family name might become extinct4 #bbg ,the name of the brother of ,frielo ,gensfleisch1 senior1 was ,john ,gensfleisch1 senior4 ,he is the man improperly described by ,meerman as the elder brother of ,john ,gutenberg4 ,the identity of his baptismal name with that of the inventor of printing has been the occasion of many mistakes4 ,the uncle has been confounded with the nephew4 ,the family was wealthy3 it had1 in or near ,mentz1 three houses or estates1 known as ,zum ,gudenberg1 ,zum ,jungen and ,zum ,gensfleisch4 ,the members of the family were sometimes called ,sulgeloch or ,sorgenloch1 from a property on which they resided outside of ,mentz4 #bbh ,this is the version of chroniclers in the interest of the nobles4 ,the childish dispute about precedence seems an insufficient cause for the quarrel4 ,it was1 probably1 the occasion1 but not the cause4 ,it was the spark which set on fire the stifled resentment of the burghers against a long course of neglect and of misgovernment4 ,the ,gensfleisch families seem to have been always prominent in the civil disturbances of ,mentz4 ,gutenberg's great-great grandfather took sides with one of the rival archbishops1 and1 in #accb1 aided him in burning some convents1 for which he was put under ban by the ,emperor ,louis4 ,in the same year1 he and other noblemen made themselves so offensive to the burghers that they were obliged to flee for their lives4 #bbi ,charles ,winaricky1 a learned ,bohemian1 wrote a dissertation on the birthplace of ,gutenberg--,jean ,guttenberg1 n en #adab a ,kuttenberg en ,bohme1 #abmo4 ,brussels1 #ahdg--;in which he tried to prove3 that ,gutenberg was born in the year #adab1 in the town of ,kuttenberg in ,bohemia1 from which town he derived his name2 that he was a graduate of the university of ,prague2 that he acquired his knowledge of metallurgy from the metal workers of that old mining town2 and that his proficiency in many curious arts was the result of his ,bohemian education4 ,winaricky's book abounds with curious information1 but his reasoning is largely based on conjecture4 ,it cannot be used to discredit the positive dates and facts of many ,german records4 #bcj ,this is the form of complaint3 8,i1 ,johan ,gensfleisch1 the younger1 also called ,gutenberg1 declare by this letter1 that the worshipful sage burgomaster and the council of the town of ,mentz owe me every year a certain interest1 according to the contents of letters which contain1 among other things1 that1 if they do not pay me1 ,i am at liberty to seize and imprison them4 ,as ,i have now to claim much rent in arrears from the said town1 which they were hitherto not able to pay me1 ,i caused ,m4 ,nicolaus1 secretary of ,mentz1 to be seized1 whereupon he promised me and swore to give me #caj valid ,rguilders1 to be paid at ,oppenheim1 before the following ,whitsuntide4 ,i acknowledge1 by this letter1 that the burgomaster and council of ,strasburg have induced me to relieve of my own free will1 in honor and love of them1 the said ,m4 ,nicolaus from his imprisonment1 and from the payment of the #caj guilders4 ,given on ,sunday 7#abth of ,march71 #adcd40 ,the ease with which ,gutenberg relinquishes his monetary claim1 and which at once shows him to be a better knight than financier1 exhibits a trait of character which explains much in his later fate4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #ac4 #bca ,for more than three hundred years this important document1 with other records of the courts of ,strasburg1 rested unknown and undisturbed in the old tower ,pfennigthurm1 in which place it was discovered by ,wenkler1 the keeper of the records4 ,he communicated this fact to ,schoepflin1 who1 perceiving its value1 made it the great feature of the ,vindici ,typographic4 ,the record is imperfect1 for it does not contain all the testimony of all the witnesses4 ,whether this deficiency is due to the neglect of the recorder1 or to the decay or mutilation of the record1 has not been fully explained4 ,schoepflin1 who says it is written in an almost obsolete ,german dialect hard to be understood1 reprinted it in full1 accompanied with a translation in ,latin1 which has been censured as inaccurate4 ,dr4 ,dibdin1 and a few carping bibliographers1 who looked with disfavor on all newly discovered documents which obliged them to revise their own theories1 have tried to throw discredit on this record1 but its authenticity is now recognized as beyond controversy4 ,the records were placed in the ,library of ,strasburg for safety1 but they were destroyed by the ,prussians during the siege of that city in #ahgj4 #bcb ,conventionally used for ,i4 #bcc ,the eighteen witnesses were ,master ,hirtz1 ,jacob ,imerle1 ,midhart ,honwe1 ,heinrich ,bisinger1 ,wilhelm von ,schutter1 the wife of ,lorentz ,beildick1 ,m4 ,jerge ,saltzmtter1 ,stsser ,nese von ,ehenheim1 ,martin ,verwer1 ,henrich ,seidenneger1 ,m4 ,gosse ,sturm1 of ,saint ,arbogastus1 ,hans ,ross1 the goldsmith1 and his wife1 ,andrew ,heilmann1 ,claus ,heilmann1 ,heinrich ,olse1 ,hans ,riffe and ,johan ,dritzehen4 ,their testimony is not on the record4 ,it is unfortunate that we have lost the testimony of ,m4 ,gosse ,sturm1 of ,saint ,arbogastus1 and ,ross1 the goldsmith4 ,it is probable that these men1 who had intimate relations with ,gutenberg1 could have described this secret art with greater clearness4 #bcd ,after the development of the towns1 all members of the nobility did not seek their occupation exclusively in deeds of knighthood4 ,industry1 art1 and the refinement of town life gradually superseded the warlike spirit of the nobility1 to whom the town offered distinguished dignities and situations1 while enterprises of commerce and industry gave them distinction and riches4 ,the privilege of coining money1 especially1 was often farmed out to an association of ancient families4 ,at ,mentz this association consisted of twelve families 7,mnzer-,hausgenossen71 among whom was also the family of ,gensfleisch4 ,they possessed1 moreover1 the privileges of the valuation of coin1 of the assize of weights and measures1 or offices for the exchange of money and of the sale of gold and silver staves to the mint4 ,such employment brought them chiefly in connection with the goldsmiths1 whose work consisted1 at that time1 of one of the most considerable trades1 which comprised mechanics and chemistry1 nay1 the whole dominion of plastic and graphic art1 in its application to metals1 whether separate or in conjunction with diamonds and other precious materials4 ,they were mostly patricians who established powder-mills1 paper-mills and similar new manufactories4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #ag4 #bce ,glass mirrors1 almost unknown in the fourteenth century1 were regarded as novelties in the fifteenth4 ,it seems that they were first made in ,germany4 ,winaricky lays great stress on the fact that the ,bohemians were the earliest and the most skillful workers in glass1 and that they also excelled as lapidaries and metallurgists4 ,he says1 but without proof1 that the art of polishing stones and making mirrors was acquired by ,gutenberg in ,bohemia4 ,the learned ,beckmann says that 8,early ,german mirrors were made by pouring melted lead or tin over a glass plate while yet hot as it came from the furnace4 ,in and around ,nuremberg1 convex mirrors were made by blowing with the pipe in the glass bubble while it was still hot a metallic mixture with a little salts of tartar4 ,when the bubble had been covered and cooled1 it was cut in small round mirrors4 ,these small convex mirrors were called ochsenaugen1 or ox-eyes4 ,they were set in a round board1 and had a very broad border or margin4 ,one of them in my possession is two and a half inches in diameter4 4 4 4 ,this art is an old ,german invention1 for it is described by ,porta and ,ganzoni1 who both lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century1 and who both expressly say that the art was then common in ,germany4 ,curious foreigners often attempted to learn it1 and imagined that ,germans kept it a secret40 #bcf ,the most common prejudice is the supposition1 priori1 legitimated strictly scientifically by nothing1 that printing with movable types was only an improvement on that with wooden blocks on which the letters were cut2 that it was a development of it1 an extension1 a fortunate application1 the highest step of the ladder1 consisting of playing cards1 images of saints1 pictures with super1 sub and other scriptions1 texts without pictures4 ,in short1 xylography1 in a technical1 logical and reformatorical sense1 would be the mother of typography4 ,but it is such only in the sense of an external impulse1 of an external push to meditating on quite another means than wood or metal engraving1 or another mode of obtaining books4 ,zell finds that push in the block-,donatuses1 but the inspiration of genius1 the first invention of a quite independent art1 of a totally new principle1 which has nothing in common with wood and metal engraving1 he ascribes 4 4 4 to ,gutenberg4 ,in ,gutenberg's mind1 the grand idea arose that all words1 all writing1 all language1 all human thoughts1 could be expressed by a small number1 a score of different letters1 arranged according to the requirements2 that1 with a large quantity of those different letters1 united as one whole1 a whole page of text could be printed at once1 and1 repeating this process continually1 large manuscripts could be swiftly multiplied4 4 4 4 ,this thought1 this idea1 begot the invention of typography4 4 4 4 ,every other explanation is at once unhistorical and unpsychological4 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #aa4 #bcg ,wolf1 ,monumenta ,typographica1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ehf4 #bch ,see page #cae of this book4 ,the chronicler is in error in specifying ,mentz as the place where the art was discovered1 but the specification of the period between #addj and #adej as that in which 8the art was being investigated0 by ,john ,gutenberg is sustained by other testimonies4 #bci ,the pilgrimage to ancient ,aix-la-,chapelle took place every seventh year1 and1 commencing on the #ajth of ,july1 lasted fourteen days1 during which time the ordinary service in the church did not take place1 but a free market was held4 ,the concourse of people was uncommonly great on that occasion1 so that1 for instance in the year #adif1 #adb1jjj pilgrims were counted in the town1 and #hj1jjj guilders in the offering boxes on one day4 ,aix-la-,chapelle possessed relics of the first rank1 as the swaddling-clothes of ,christ1 his body-cloth at the ,crucifixion1 the dress worn by ,mary at his birth1 and the cloth on which ,st4 ,john the ,baptist was beheaded4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #ah4 #bdj ,there is no evidence that ,gutenberg had been taught xylography1 or any of the many branches of book-making4 ,he was not1 for that reason1 incompetent to invent an entirely new branch4 ,the history of great inventions shows that many inventors never received a thorough technical instruction in the arts or trades which they undertook to reconstruct4 ,jacquard1 inventor of the automatic loom1 was1 in his boyhood1 a bookbinder and a type-founder4 ,arkwright1 inventor of the spinning jenny1 was a barber until he was thirty years of age4 ,stephenson1 inventor of the locomotive1 tended a steam boiler1 but had not served time as a machinist nor as a carriage-builder4 ,fulton1 inventor of the steamboat1 was not a sailor1 machinist nor ship-builder4 ,morse1 inventor of the electric telegraph1 was an artist1 not a mechanician1 nor even a man of science4 ,koning1 inventor of the cylinder printing machine1 was not a printer4 ,the greatest inventions have been made by men not within1 but without1 the arts they improved4 ,it would seem that a thorough technical education in any art or trade cramps the inventive faculties1 disqualifying the expert from making any attempt at radical changes1 permitting him to attempt improvement in the details only4 #bda ,some authors will not admit that ,gutenberg derived any benefit from xylography4 ,bernard treats block-printing as an art so paltry1 that he refused to describe the block-books1 or to admit that xylography had any noticeable influence1 direct or indirect1 on the invention of types4 ,van der ,linde says that history knows nothing of ,gutenberg as a xylographer--that there is no documentary evidence that he ever cut or printed a block4 ,these disclaimers--obviously provoked by the absurd statements of other authors that ,gutenberg invented xylography1 that he printed with types of wood1 that typography is the natural outgrowth of xylography--cannot be accepted without qualification4 ,the fact remains that ,gutenberg1 his associates and pupils1 were benefited by the highest technical skill of that time in all the processes of engraving in relief1 in the compounding of inks1 in the construction and use of presses1 and in the manipulation of paper4 ,compared with the invention of the type-mould1 these may seem trivial matters1 but the success of ,gutenberg's new ideas about printing depended upon his attention to every process that promised aid4 ,it is not probable that the man who hired joiners and goldsmiths could have neglected to avail himself of whatever skill the block-printers possessed4 ,the experience in printing acquired by the block-printers was far from contemptible1 but the educating influences they had exerted over the book-buying public were of great importance4 ,it was ,gutenberg's discernment of the fact that the block-printers had created a demand for printed work which could never be satisfied by the method of xylography1 which gave him the impulse to seek for a more scientific method4 ,block-printing1 although in no sense the mother of typography1 was its forerunner1 and for that reason alone demands respectful consideration4 #bdb ,this passage has been translated by ,ottley3 ,gutenberg sent 8to fetch all the forms that they might be loosened1 and that he might see it done1 and that the joinings of some of the four pieces might be renewed40 ,this translation makes the action of ,gutenberg unintelligible4 ,bernard's translation is3 8,gutenberg sent to get the forms1 so that he could be sure that they had been separated2 these forms had given him a great deal of solicitude40 ,this is obviously a very free and evasive translation4 ,wetter1 who interprets the passage as descriptive of block-printing1 says that 8the words are too obscure for us to infer anything definite from them4 ,we are in no case to understand by the word formen separate letters1 but whole blocks40 ,this is an unwarrantable assumption1 and in contradiction to the statement that the forms were melted4 ,van der ,linde says that 8the words are plain4 ,translators have stopped at the words zurlossen and ruwete4 ,zurlossen1 or zerlassen1 means melting1 and ruwete is dialect for reuete1 repented40 #bdc ,the commonest meaning of the word form1 in most ,european languages1 is a shape or figure prepared by carving2 but it has also been applied1 colloquially1 to the mould made from this carved shape1 and also to the article made from the mould4 ,a type-founder's punch is the form of a letter2 the mould in which the type is cast is the form or former of the letter2 the types prepared for printing are also known as the form4 ,on a future page it will be shown that the word formen as used in the trial1 was also used at a later date to describe the most important tools in ,gutenberg's printing office at ,eltvill4 #bdd ,here we may recall the surprise of ,madame ,zabern at the cost of the work4 ,she would not have hazarded the low estimate of ten guilders1 if ,dritzehen had been surrounded by many types or printed sheets4 ,the only tools appertaining to typography1 which have a value out of all proportion to their apparent cost1 are the punches1 matrices and moulds4 ,the modern inexpert would underrate the value of a similar collection as grossly as did ,madame ,zabern4 #bde ,it could not have been four pages of metal types1 for types disconnected and put in disorder1 in or under the press1 would have betrayed the secret almost as plainly as if they had been in order4 ,nor could it have been any attachment to a press like the frisket or tympan4 ,it is impossible to name any jointed or buttoned tool of four pieces1 connected with composition or presswork1 which would suggest to an inexpert the secret of typography4 #bdf ,bernard gives this form of type-mould a passing notice4 ,he says3 ,m4 de ,berny showed me one of these primitive mechanisms in his own foundry4 ,this mould1 which is still #ahec in use1 is constructed with two kinds of knees or squares enabling the type-maker to adjust it in various ways so as to cast any body desired4 ,de l'origine1 etc4 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dd1 note4 #bdg ,the inability to produce any book printed by ,gutenberg at ,strasburg was the occasion of the following pithy answer3 ,koch had asserted before the ,institute1 that ,strasburg was the cradle of printing4 ,schaab interrupted him1 8,yes1 but it is a cradle without a baby40 #bdh ,schaab says that there is on record in ,mentz a document which proves that ,john ,gensfleisch leased this house in ,october1 #addc4 ,reasoning from the two disconnected facts1 that this house was used by ,gutenberg for a printing office1 and that it had been leased by ,gensfleisch in #addc1 careless readers have assumed that ,john ,gensfleisch was the first printer in ,mentz1 and that he was either the true inventor of printing1 or the unfaithful workman who stole the invention of ,coster or of ,mentel4 ,it is not necessary to repeat what has been written concerning the impossibility of a theft from the fictitious ,coster1 nor about the absurdity of representing the uncle as a printer4 #bdi ,fischer1 ,essai sur les monuments typographiques1 p4 #gj4 #bej ,bernard refuses this statement4 ,he says that the fragments of other editions of the ,donatus in this type1 supposed to be of the same period1 which he inspected in the ,british ,museum1 show ink that is permanent4 #bea ,the text letters are of the form known to librarians as lettres de somme1 or letters of account1 which may be understood as the carelessly made letters then used in books of account4 ,the letters of the large lines are of the form known as lettres de forme1 or letters of precision1 the angular and carefully made letters of fine books4 ,the lettres de somme will be defined in this book under the name of ,round ,gothic2 the lettres de forme1 under the name of ,pointed ,gothic4 #beb ,deceived by the close fitting-up of the matrices1 earlier writers said that the letters were xylographic4 ,the comments of ,dr4 ,van der ,linde on this error are pertinent3 4 4 4 4 ,it was thought necessary to find the wooden letters of the imagination1 and hence bibliography presents the dismal spectacle that almost all monuments of the excellent invention1 that fruit of a vigorous mind1 of a simple1 but ample and grand idea1 have been declared by would-be connoisseurs one by one to be xylographic4 ,this caused the double trouble of first making out1 with much verbosity and an air of perspicuity1 incontrovertibly typographical masterpieces to be wood1 and then afterward putting aside this pedantry and returning to the simple truth4 ,the origin of typography presents nowhere anything narrow-minded1 worthless1 or trifling1 for it belongs to the grand facts of history1 but trifling minds have soiled it with their own littleness4 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #gg4 #bec ,it is possible that other books1 now lost and forgotten1 may have been printed in the small types1 but ,helbig thinks that the types were made expressly for the ,letters of ,indulgence1 as bank-notes are now made1 with the intention that the copies of each edition should be exactly alike in appearance1 and that they should be difficult of imitation4 ,bernard dissents from the belief that the ,letters of ,indulgence were printed by ,gutenberg4 ,he attributes them to some printer of unknown name in ,mentz1 supposed by him to have been either the false workman described by ,junius1 or some graduate or seceding malcontent of ,gutenberg's printing office4 ,but we have no evidence of a typographical printer before ,gutenberg4 ,jck has endeavored to prove that two ,letters were printed by ,pfister of ,bamberg4 ,de la ,borde thinks one of the faces of type used in the ,letters was cut by ,schffer in a friendly competition with ,gutenberg4 ,these conjectures cannot be made plausible4 #bed ,it is sometimes described as the ,mazarin ,bible1 and sometimes as ,gutenberg's ,first ,bible4 #bee ,this is known as the ,bamberg ,bible1 because nearly all the known copies of this edition were found in the neighborhood of the town of ,bamberg2 as ,pfister's ,bible1 because it has been attributed1 incorrectly1 to ,albert ,pfister1 a printer of ,bamberg2 as the ,schelhorn ,bible1 because it was fully described by the bibliographer of that name2 as ,gutenberg's ,second ,bible1 because it is the belief of many authors that it should have been printed by ,gutenberg about #adei1 after his rupture with ,john ,fust4 #bef ,bernard1 ,de l'origine et des debuts de l'imprimerie1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cj4 #beg ,in the year of our ,lord #adej1 they began to print1 and the first book they printed was the ,bible in ,latin3 it was printed in a large letter1 resembling the letter with which1 at present1 missals are printed4 ,cologne ,chronicle of #adii4 #beh ,in the first essays of printing1 great difficulties were encountered4 ,for when they the first printers were printing the ,bible1 they were obliged to expend more than four thousand florins before they had printed three sections4 ,trithemius1 as reprinted by ,wolf1 ,monumenta ,typographica1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fed4 #bei ,these evidences1 which seem to favor the theory of the priority of the ,bible of #cf lines1 combine many features of probability1 but they are not free from objections4 ,too little is known about the book to warrant a positive statement as to its age4 ,in nearly all the popular treatises on printing1 the ,bible of #db lines is specified as the first book of ,gutenberg1 but it is the belief of many of the most learned bibliographers1 from ,zapf to ,didot and ,madden1 that the ,bible of #cf lines is the older edition4 ,the theory that it must have been printed by ,gutenberg between #adeg and #adei1 and the proposition that it may have been printed by ,albert ,pfister of ,bamberg at or soon after that time1 will be examined on an advanced page4 #bfj ,his name is often improperly written as ,faust4 ,in all the books subsequently printed by ,fust and his partner1 ,schffer1 the name appears as ,fust4 ,it was so written and printed by all his contemporaries1 and is so seen1 wherever it occurs1 in the record of the famous trial he instituted4 ,it is so spelt in the church record of his burial4 ,during his lifetime1 and for at least thirty years after his death1 the name is always given as ,fust4 ,the notorious reputation subsequently made by ,dr4 ,john ,faust1 who was born in ,wurtemberg in #adhj 7several years after the death of ,fust71 who studied magic in ,cracow1 and1 by his learning and wickedness1 horrified wise men like ,luther and ,melancthon2 whose life1 deeds and death are involved in a mystery that dramatists have turned to such good account1 has been transferred by carelessness to ,john ,fust1 the printer4 ,the confusion has been perpetuated by a legend4 ,the fable1 not yet weeded out of treatises on printing1 that ,fust was arrested in ,paris for selling bibles1 supposed to have been manufactured at the instigation of the devil1 has served to foster the error4 #bfa ,those who favor this view of ,fust's character1 find a peculiar significance in the radical meaning of his name1 ,fust--in ,german1 fist1 the symbol of all that is hard1 close1 grasping1 and aggressive4 #bfb ,these were the terms of the contract1 made in ,august1 #adej3 ,the partnership between ,gutenberg and ,fust should be for five years1 in which time the work projected by ,gutenberg should be completed4--,for the purposes of this partnership1 not specified1 ,fust should advance to ,gutenberg #hjj guilders1 at #f per cent4 interest4 ,the tools and materials made by ,gutenberg for the uses of the partnership should remain mortgaged to ,fust1 as security for this loan of #hjj guilders1 until the whole sum should be paid4--,when the aforesaid tools and materials should be made1 ,fust should1 every year1 furnish ,gutenberg with #cjj guilders to provide for the payment of the paper1 vellum1 ink1 wages and the other materials that would be required for the execution of the work4--,for these advances ,fust should have one-half of the profits made from the sale of the products of the partnership4--,fust should be exempted from the performance of any work or service connected with the partnership1 and should not be held responsible for any of its debts4 #bfc ,there are two kinds of copies1 with differences which seem to justify the opinion that they belong to two distinct editions4 ,in one kind1 all the copies have #db lines to the column1 and all the summaries of chapters are written and not printed4 ,in the other kind1 the first eight pages of the first section have #dj lines to the column2 the ninth page has #da lines2 the tenth and all other pages 7except two #dj-line pages in the book of ,maccabees7 have #db lines2 and the pages of #dj and #da lines have their five summaries printed in red ink4 ,the same face of type is used in both kinds of copies1 but the pages of #dj and #da lines occupy the same space as the pages of #db lines1 begining and ending1 for the most part1 with the same words4 ,bernard says that the #dj-line pages were reset by ,peter ,schffer after ,fust had acquired the unsold copies of the ,bible1 with intent to lead the purchaser of the book to form the belief that it was an entirely new edition4 ,other writers suggest that a portion of the first section may have been spoiled1 and replaced by a subsequent reprinting4 ,but the differences are not confined to the first section4 ,in many other sections there are differences in the spelling and abbreviation of words which clearly prove that the two kinds of copies were printed from separately composed and distinct forms4 ,the double composition of every page for the same edition seems a ridiculous waste of labor1 but the proofs of this double labor are unmistakable4 #bfd ,bernard says that over-colored and under-colored pages are by no means rare4 ,he attributes this unequal blackness to imperfections in the inking implements4 ,de l'origine de l'imprimerie1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahb4 #bfe ,see the fac-similes of ,sotheby and ,humphreys4 ,the written summaries of this ,bible1 as they present them1 are unlike the printed text4 #bff ,at the sale of the ,perkins library near ,london1 ,june #f1 #ahgc1 a copy of the ,bible of #db lines1 on vellum1 was sold for #c1djj1 and a copy on paper for #b1fij--more than the first printers got for all the copies4 #bfg ,hessels' translation1 as printed in the ,haarlem ,legend1 pp4 #bd and #be4 #bfh ,philip de ,lignamine1 in a book entitled ,a ,continuation of the ,chronicles of the ,popes1 which he printed in ,rome in #adgd1 writes concerning the year #adeh3 8,jacob ,gutenberg of ,strasburg1 and another called ,fust1 very skillful in the art of printing with characters of metal on parchment1 each printed three hundred leaves daily at ,mentz40 ,jacob is an error of memory or of typography1 and the mention of ,strasburg as ,gutenberg's birthplace is incorrect1 but the statement that he printed in #adeh is1 no doubt1 true4 ,it seems the testimony of a printer1 whose knowledge of the facts had been derived either from personal observation1 or from the reports of workmen once employed at ,mentz4 #bfi ,this ,catholicon was written1 or edited1 as the title informs us1 by ,john of ,genoa1 of the fraternity of preachers1 or mendicant friars4 ,it contains an elaborate ,latin grammar and an etymological dictionary in five divisions4 ,it was a text book of authority in the higher schools4 #bgj ,van ,praet says that ,gutenberg1 as a noble1 dared not advertise his connection with a mechanical art4 ,this is absurd1 for ,gutenberg's connection with printing in ,mentz had been known for at least ten years1 and printing was not then regarded as a business derogatory to the standing of a noble4 ,wetter says that ,gutenberg was humiliated by the superior workmanship of ,fust and ,schffer4 ,but the work of these printers was not of such unquestionable superiority4 ,helbig's conjecture seems most plausible1 but ,gutenberg may have been so intent on the personal satisfaction he derived from the realization of his ideas1 that he was comparatively indifferent to the gratification derived from notoriety4 #bga ,in ,germany1 the punch or the model letter is known as the patrice1 a word obviously derived from the root of the ,latin patronarum of the text4 ,the reversed duplicates of punches1 here translated as matrices1 are noticed in the text as formarum1 a variation of the word form1 which we find so often in the record of the ,strasburg trial4 8,the admirable proportion1 harmony and connection of the punches and matrices10 should be understood1 not as a commendation of the beauty of the printed letters1 but as a specification by the inventor of what he conceived was the great feature of typography1 the making of types of different faces and thickness on bodies of absolute uniformity1 so that they could be combined with ease4 ,it should be noticed that the invention or the use of isolated letters or types is not boasted of2 it was the method of making the types which the inventor regarded as the most admirable feature of his invention4 #bgb ,this work is attributed to ,gutenberg1 chiefly on the authority of this inscription1 which was found in a copy in the possession of the ,carthusian ,friars at ,mentz3 ,the ,carthusian ,friars near ,mentz1 through the liberality of ,john ,gutenberg1 own this book1 which was made by his wonderful art1 and by the skill of ,john ,nummeister1 clerk4 ,in the year of our ,lord #adfc1 on the #acth calend of ,july ,june #ai4 ,helbig doubts the genuineness of this annotation1 and intimates that it may be the work of ,bodmann1 a librarian at ,mentz1 who has been suspected of attempts to foist spurious documents on those who were eager to know more of the life and labors of ,gutenberg4 ,in his treatise on the ,typographic ,monuments of ,gutenberg1 ,fischer1 on the authority of ,bodmann1 printed the copy of a verbose document which set forth that ,john ,gutenberg and ,frielo ,gensfleisch assented to the action of their sister ,hebele in conveying to the ,convent of ,saint ,clare1 of which she was then a nun1 her share in the paternal inheritance4 ,it also recites that ,john ,gutenberg will give to the convent a copy of every book to be printed by him4 ,this document1 which is dated #adei1 is not accepted as genuine by discreet bibliographers4 #bgc ,bernard says that some of these works were probably printed by an unknown printer at ,mentz 7not the printer of the ,indulgence of #ca lines72 but this conjecture of two printing offices1 about which history and tradition are silent1 which never produced any work of value1 cannot be accepted4 #bgd ,a copy of this book in the ,national ,library at ,paris has an annotation which sets forth that 8,henry ,kepfer of ,mentz put this book in pledge for twelve days1 and has not reclaimed it4 4 4 40 ,henry ,kepfer was one of ,gutenberg's workmen who appeared for him on the trial4 #bge ,fischer says that a library at ,mentz once contained several pamphlets printed by ,gutenberg in the large types of the ,bible of #cf lines4 ,he gives fac-similes of the illuminated initials in one of these pamphlets1 which closely resemble those of the ,psalter of #adeg4 ,this similarity is more than an indication that the letters of this ,psalter were made by ,gutenberg4 #bgf ,in the tenth and eleventh centuries1 ,mentz1 then the capital of ,germany1 contained a population of about #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,it was the most powerful city of the empire1 the great city where the emperors were crowned4 ,in the fourteenth century1 it was so strong that it could send out of its walls #aj1jjj armed citizens to destroy the strongholds of the noble robbers who had ravaged its commerce4 #bgg ,helbig says that all the larger houses that had not been destroyed by fire were confiscated4 ,the booty was divided in three parts3 ,adolph took the first and the best part1 the nobles of his army claimed the second2 the soldiers1 8a band of mercenary savages10 took the remainder4 ,notes et dissertations1 p4 #eb4 #bgh ,hessels' translation4 #bgi ,schaab says that an aristocratic appointment at the court procured this nobleman a comfortable life4 ,voluntarily he followed the princely court1 where he had a free table and fodder for his horses4 ,even for his dress he received cloth in the court colors1 and generally wore a kind of mantle1 called ,tabard4 ,it was in accordance with the morals of that time to carouse at court4 ,they went there with empty cups and returned with full ones4 ,the princes tried not before the sixteenth century to put a check to this excess by special orders4 ,the elector ,johan ,schweikard von ,kronenberg ordered1 even in the year #afje1 to leave the grossen ,saumagen--this was the name of the cups then used--for the future at home 4 4 4 4 ,however comfortable and ,german-like all this may look1 miserable were these court-wages1 this dress1 these alms presented to the inventor of typography4 ,but no1 it is perfectly in harmony with the general course of earthly things4 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #bi4 #bhj ,henry ,bechtermntz had died before the book was finished4 #bha ,the ,vocabularium ex quo was reprinted by ,nicholas ,bechtermntz1 in the same types and in the same form1 in the years #adfi1 #adgb1 and #adgg4 ,only one copy is known of the first edition of the book4 #bhb ,from the preface to a curious and little-known poem entitled ,encomion ,chalcographi1 by ,arnold ,bergellanus1 as reprinted by ,wolf in his ,monumenta ,typographica1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #e4 #bhc ,it appears from this1 that ,humery1 who owned the printing office1 had neglected to properly record or establish his title4 ,it was through the grace of the archbishop1 who understood the matter1 that he was spared the trouble of re-establishing his right by legal process4 #bhd ,one day when ,i was reading this interesting passage of ,bodmann1 concerning the types of ,gutenberg1 the idea presented itself to me that it would be well to examine with care a certain volume printed by ,frederic ,hauman1 which was in a neglected corner of my library4 ,i took it up1 not thinking that ,i should make any discovery4 ,i knew that the last productions of the presses of ,nicholas ,bechtermntz were printed with other types than those of ,gutenberg1 and that1 among the known impressions of the ,brothers of the ,life-in-,common at ,marienthal1 none were executed with these characters4 ,but judge of my astonishment1 of my joy1 perhaps1 when ,i recognized in this neglected book not only the types of the ,catholicon of #adfj1 the only ones appertaining to ,gutenberg that could have been employed in the books that proceeded from the presses of ,eltvill1 but also the types that had been used in the ,letters of ,indulgence of #aded and #adee1 in the ,appeal against the ,turks of #adee1 the ,calendar of #adeg described by ,fischer1 the ,bible of #cf lines1 and all the characters of ,albert ,pfister--or1 to be brief1--when ,i recognized the most ancient types of ,john ,gutenberg4 ,helbig1 ,une dcouverte pour l'histoire de l'imprimerie1 p4 #d4 ,helbig gives a list of seven books1 of little value1 printed by ,hauman1 in these types of ,gutenberg4 ,he expresses his astonishment that they had not before been identified1 but he offers no explanation of the singular fact that these types were not used by any printer between #adfi and #aejf4 #bhe ,helbig1 ,une dcouverte pour l'histoire de l'imprimerie1 p4 #d1 note4 #bhf ,see pages #cae and #caf of this book4 #bhg ,many authors who do not mention ,gutenberg speak of ,mentz as the city in which printing was first practised4 ,van ,laar1 at ,cologne1 in #adgh2 ,caxton1 at ,westminster1 in #adhb2 the archbishop ,berthold of ,mentz in #adhf2 ,meydenbach of ,mentz in #adid--these are a few of the many writers who have certified to this fact4 ,a cloud of witnesses1 says ,van der ,linde1 join in the song of ,celtes3 8,you wind yourself1 already1 ,o broad-waved ,rhine6 to the town of ,mentz1 which first of all printed with metal letters40 ,van der ,linde1 ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 #cb4 #bhh ,in the year #agdb1 the ,jesuits1 who then had control of the church of ,saint ,francis1 tore it down in order to rebuild another edifice upon the same ground4 ,the tablet and the tomb of ,gutenberg were destroyed4 ,the inscription on this tablet was published for the first time in a book printed by ,peter ,friedburg at ,mentz in the year #adii4 ,helbig1 ,notes et dissertations1 p4 #aj4 #bhi ,ivo ,wittig was an ecclesiastic of eminence1 chancellor and grand rector of the ,university of ,mentz1 to which he gave his large library of books and manuscripts4 ,when the ,swedes approached ,mentz1 this precious library was removed4 ,unfortunately1 it was put on a boat of the ,rhine which was wrecked1 and his rare collection of books was lost4 ,helbig says it is an irreparable loss1 for ,wittig was deeply interested in printing1 and his collection1 no doubt1 contained materials of the highest importance concerning its history4 #bij ,this is an error4 ,this house is not connected with the history of printing in any other way than in being the residence of ,gutenberg when a child4 ,when the ,gensfleisch family were sent or went in exile1 their houses were confiscated4 ,it is not probable that ,gutenberg died in the house bearing his name4 #bia ,the ,jesuit ,serarius says that he saw this tablet one hundred years after it was erected4 ,between #afcb and #afcf1 when the ,swedes were in ,mentz1 this house was sacked1 but the tablet was spared4 ,in #agda1 it was taken down and placed in the wall in the court of a house belonging to the ,university4 ,but this monument1 which escaped the barbarity of the ,swedish soldiers1 was destroyed by the conscripts of the ,french republic1 who were lodged in this house between the years #agic and #agig4 ,helbig says it is probable that these ruffians suspected ,john ,gutenberg of aristocratic tendencies4 ,they did not know that the old citizen of ,mentz was1 unwittingly1 the leader of all democrats1 revolutionists and reformers1 the man above all others1 who1 by his invention1 had paved the way for the ,french revolution4 #bib ,bernard's conjectures as to the reason for this change are plausible4 ,he says3 ,the sales of the ,bible had not been so great as ,fust had expected4 ,envious copyists had probably fostered a prejudice against the printed ,bible as purely mechanical copying1 and for that reason1 or on account of its known errors1 inferior to the ordinary manuscript4 ,fust hoped to remove these objections1 and to attract purchasers by giving the unsold copies the appearance of a new edition4 ,madden does not accept this hypothesis4 ,he thinks that the two kinds of copies were composed at the same time by different compositors1 who1 setting their types from dictation1 not seeing the manuscript copy1 made their abbreviations without uniformity1 and1 as a necessary consequence1 produced pages of unequal length4 ,this explanation is quite as reasonable4 #bic ,it could1 with more propriety1 be called a ritual4 ,the psalms are followed by prayers1 collects1 litanies1 the service for the dead1 hymns1 etc4 ,but it is always described as a psalter4 #bid ,the rubricated capital letters on the larger body1 which are very large and square1 might be regarded as another incomplete font1 for which small letters had not been provided4 #bie ,savage said1 before he had critically examined the ink of the book3 ,it is a curious fact that1 under ,fust and ,gutenberg1 the process of printing in colors should be carried nearly to perfection2 for some of the works they printed1 both in the quality of the ink and in the workmanship1 are so excellent that it would require all the skill of our best printers1 even at the present day1 to surpass them in all respects3 and ,i do not hesitate to say1 that1 in a few years after1 the printers were actually superior to us in the use of red ink1 both as to color and as to the inserting of a great number of single capital letters in their proper places in a sheet1 with a degree of accuracy and sharpness of impression that ,i have never seen equaled in modern workmanship4 ,decorative ,printing1 ,london1 #ahbb1 pp4 #f and #g4 ,after a closer inspection1 ,savage discovered that the red was painted4 ,papillon declared that the red ink was of the most perfect beauty4 ,chatto said that this earliest known production of the press of ,fust and ,schffer remains to the present day unimpaired as a specimen of skill in ornamental printing4 ,the art of printing was perfected by ,fust and ,schffer4 ,jackson and ,chatto1 ,wood ,engraving1 p4 #afh4 #bif ,he says the ink was dull yellow3 ,on some of the leaves where music is given there is an appearance as if the oil in the ink had penetrated through the vellum and tinged the opposite side of the leaf with a dingy yellow4 ,this had been supposed to be the case1 but ,i find that the original tune had been printed with a dull yellow ink1 and that subsequently a different one had been written in over the first1 with black ink to match the color of the text2 and so exactly is this effect produced that1 if it were not for the remains of the printing of the original tune1 it might pass unsuspected of being any other than the production of the press4 ,practical ,hints on ,decorative ,printing1 pp4 #di and #ea4 #big ,de l'origine1 etc41 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bbe4 #bih ,history of ,printing1 p4 #he4 #bii ,some writers say that the earliest printing inks were gum-water colors1 which could be washed off the vellum with a wet sponge4 ,but the ink of the ,psalter was a true printing ink1 a smoke-black mixed with oil4 ,the modern pressman1 who has ineffectually tried to make ordinary printing ink stick to parchment imperfectly cleansed of oily matter1 will at once attribute this failure of the printer of the ,psalter to the oiliness of the vellum and the weakness of his printing ink4 #cjj ,practical ,hints on ,decorative ,printing1 p4 #ej4 #cja ,this method of printing in colors was patented by ,solomon ,henry of ,great ,britain in #aghf1 and in another form by ,sir ,william ,congreve in #ahai1 and by him applied to the printing of maps4 ,abridgment of ,specifications relating to ,printing1 ,london1 #ahei4 ,improvements in machine presses have put out of use these methods of printing in colors4 #cjb ,life and ,typography of ,william ,caxton1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 liii1 note4 #cjc ,blades shows fac-similes of the printed work of ,colard ,mansion1 in which we see that his red and black were printed by the same impression4 ,life and ,typography of ,william ,caxton1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #dc4 ,also1 plates ,,iii and ,,viii4 #cjd ,the modern printer who may regard this method of color-printing as puerile and wasteful of time1 must be reminded that1 slow as it may now seem1 it was a quicker method than that of hand-drawing and painting4 ,the difference between the old and the modern process of printing in colors will be fully stated1 by saying that ,schffer printed1 probably1 but forty copies of this initial in one day1 and that the modern pressman on a machine press would be required to produce1 from two impressions1 about twenty-five hundred copies in one day4 ,far from being a specimen of the skill of the early printers1 this initial ,b is a flagrant example of their inexperience and the rudeness of their methods4 #cje ,see fac-simile1 plate #ae1 ,humphrey's ,history of ,printing4 #cjf ,see fac-simile on page #dee for the frequent transposition of the letters t and c4 ,also in first line of same fac-simile1 ,presen spalmorum for ,presens psalmorum4 #cjg ,fournier thinks that all the letters of the ,psalter were cut on wood4 ,de l'origine1 etc41 de l'imprimerie1 p4 #bca4 ,but ,bernard says3 8,after a careful study of many copies1 ,i declare that this book is certainly printed with types of founded metal1 and founded1 too1 with admirable precision40 ,de l'origine et des dbuts1 etc41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bbd4 #cjh ,the last edition of the book1 printed by his son1 ,john ,schffer1 in #aeaf1 shows the great initial ,b entirely in red ink4 ,it proves that the letter previously printed in two colors was engraved on one block4 ,it proves also that the original method of painting the letter in two colors had been found expensive and impracticable4 #cji ,the one first printed is dated ,april #fth1 #adfb3 it is a manifesto1 from ,diether1 notifying all people that he is the lawful ruler1 and that ,adolph is the usurper4 ,this document1 which is in ,german1 contains #ajf lines of ,great-primer type1 and is printed on a sheet of the size #ab-a_/b by #ag-a_/d inches4 ,but when ,adolph captured ,mentz1 he issued counter proclamations4 ,first of all was a proclamation dated ,august #h1 #adfa1 from the ,emperor ,frederic ,,iii1 announcing the deposal of ,diether4 ,it was printed on a half sheet1 in ,german1 and in the types of the ,bible of #adfb4 ,the other proclamations were bulls or briefs in ,latin1 against ,diether1 from ,pope ,pius ,,ii1 dated at ,tivoli4 ,all of them are in ,round ,gothic types on ,english body4 ,the first bull warns the people to shun ,diether as they would a pestilent beast2 the second is the warrant for the installation of ,adolph2 the third orders the clergy to obey ,adolph2 the fourth orders the people to obey ,adolph1 and releases them from allegiance to ,diether4 ,the fifth bull relates to a different matter3 it sets forth the unsuccessful mission of ,cardinal ,bessarion to the ,turks4 ,bernard1 ,de l'origine1 etc41 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bdb4 #caj ,bernard1 ,de l'origine1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgc4 #caa ,we do not know whether ,jenson acquired his knowledge of printing secretly or openly--in the office of ,gutenberg or ,schffer1 or elsewhere1 but he succeeded in his undertaking4 ,nor is the date of his return to ,paris known4 ,madden thinks that ,jenson was taught the art not in ,mentz1 but in ,cologne4 ,during his absence1 ,charles ,,vii died4 ,on the #aeth ,august1 #adfa1 ,louis ,,xi1 his son1 was crowned at ,rheims4 ,a lover of books1 and the founder of the great ,national ,library1 the king should have been deeply interested in the mission of ,jenson1 but he had formed a strong dislike to all the officers that had been appointed by his father1 and began his reign by dismissing the court favorites4 ,jenson was treated as one of their number4 ,all his efforts to get a suitable recompense for what he had done1 and money to establish an office in ,paris1 were unavailing1 and he was obliged to abandon ,paris4 ,he went to ,venice1 and made himself famous by his new design of ,roman letter1 and by the admirable presswork of his books4 #cab ,these ,bibles have been the occasion of an incredible legend which was first told by one ,john ,walchius4 ,it would not deserve repetition here if it had not so often appeared in modern literature4 ,he says that ,fust offered one copy of this ,bible to the king for sixty crowns1 and another copy to the archbishop for fifty crowns4 ,to tempt indifferent purchasers1 he abated his price until it was but forty crowns1 a price so small and so insufficient as to excite the greatest wonder4 ,the purchasers of different copies1 fearing trickery1 compared their copies4 ,instead of discovering imperfection1 they found an unvarying uniformity which was unaccountable4 ,meanwhile ,fust was still offering for sale other copies1 and all were exactly alike4 ,as it was clearly impossible that any copyist could write so many books with this precision1 it was obvious that ,fust was in league with the ,devil1 and that the ,bibles were their joint production4 ,the logical process by which this conclusion was reached is not stated2 but we are told that complaint was made1 that ,fust was arrested1 and thrown in prison1 from which he was not released until he had revealed the secret4 ,the absurdity of the story is transparent4 ,bernard has shown that it rests on no valid authority4 #cac ,see page #dce of this book4 #cad ,in this year ,conrad ,sweinheym and ,arnold ,pannartz1 who had established a printing office in the monastery of ,subiaco1 near ,rome1 printed an edition of ,lactantius1 in which ,greek types were used4 #cae ,the phrase1 neque rea1 must be understood as1 not by engraving in brass or copper plates1 or not by the process then employed by the copper-plate printers4 #caf ,the use of the words1 ,peter1 my son1 may be understood as the first acknowledgment by ,fust of the marriage of his daughter to ,schffer4 #cag ,the ,library of ,geneva has a copy of this edition of ,cicero1 which contains1 in his own handwriting1 the acknowledgment of ,louis de ,lavernade1 first president of ,languedoc1 that the book had been presented to him in ,paris1 by ,john ,fust1 in ,july1 #adff4 #cah ,the record of this church says that the mass was instituted to ,john ,fust1 printer of books1 8by ,peter ,scofer and ,conrad ,henlif10 who gave to the church the ,epistles of ,saint ,jerome1 printed on parchment1 and valued at #ab crowns of gold4 ,in #adgc1 ,schffer established another mass for ,fust and his wife ,margaret1 with the ,dominicans at ,mentz1 for which he gave a copy of the ,epistles of ,jerome and of the ,constitutions of ,pope ,clement ,v4 ,as two books were here required1 it shows that the price of books was rapidly depreciating4 #cai ,bernard says that this ,conrad was the son of ,john ,fust1 and that ,christina ,fust1 who married ,schffer1 was ,conrad's daughter4 ,the only evidence that this ,christina was ,conrad's daughter is the statement in the application1 which is printed above4 ,but this statement is not enough to overturn the contradictory statements of other writers of that day1 who had better knowledge of the true relationship of all the parties4 ,wetter thinks that ,conrad was another son-in-law to ,fust4 ,we know very little about him4 ,it does not appear that he had any thing to do with printing before the death of ,fust1 nor did he exercise any known influence as a printer4 ,his name is not to be found in any of ,schffer's books4 ,it is not known when he died4 #cbj ,this manuscript was returned1 as had been agreed4 ,it was probably used to collate the text of their edition of this book1 a big folio of #edh double-columned pages in types on ,english body1 which was completed by ,schffer and ,conrad ,fust1 ,june #acth1 #adfi4 #cba ,this passage is an allusion to the running of the disciples to the sepulchre where ,christ had been laid4 8,so they ran both together2 and the other disciple did outrun ,peter1 and came first to the sepulchre 4 4 4 4 yet went he not in 4 4 4 4 ,then cometh ,simon ,peter following him1 and went into the sepulchre40 ,st4 ,john1 ,,xx1 #d1 #f4 #cbb ,institutes of ,justinian1 #adfh4 #cbc ,it seems that this was done to avoid the expense of making a new mould1 and to save the labor of cutting new capital letters--an evasion of duty not at all creditable to the alleged inventor of the type-mould4 ,gutenberg made four sizes of ,pointed ,gothic--the ,paragon of the ,bible of #db lines1 the ,double-pica of the ,bible of #cf lines1 the ,double-great-primer and ,meridian of the ,psalter of #adeg--;and three sizes of ,round ,gothic1 the large ,english of the ,letter of ,indulgence of #ca lines1 the small ,english of the ,letter of ,indulgence of #cj lines1 and the ,pica of the ,catholicon of #adfj4 ,they were cast on seven distinct bodies4 ,schffer's three faces of types1 one of them imperfect1 were cast on two bodies4 #cbd ,he consigned his books to one ,hans ,bitz of ,lubec1 who died1 leaving the debt unpaid4 #cbe ,to become a freeman of the city of ,frankfort1 ,schffer paid a tax of #aj pounds #d shillings4 #cbf ,there is in ,paris a treatise by ,dun ,scotus1 printed by ,anthony ,koburger of ,nuremberg in #adgd1 which contains a bill of sale written by ,peter ,schffer1 which states that the book was sold to one ,john ,henry for three crowns of gold4 #cbg ,his agent in ,paris was ,hermann ,stathoen1 who died there in #adgd1 before he had been made a citizen4 ,according to the ,french law1 all his effects reverted to the crown4 ,the books of ,schffer were seized by the king's commissioners1 and were scattered and sold before his partner ,conrad ,fust1 or ,henlif1 could make a reclamation4 ,he appealed to the king1 ,louis ,,xi1 who ordered that ,schffer should be recompensed by the payment of #b1dbe crowns4 ,this was a large sum for that day3 it was nearly four times as large as the sum fixed on in a valuation of all the books in the ,louvre in #adei4 #cbh ,his son1 ,john ,schffer1 who had some control over the printing office before his father's death1 timidly and tardily introduced paging-figures1 but they were not regularly used in his later works4 ,we may suppose that the father disliked the innovation4 ,the invention of leads is the only improvement that can be attributed to ,schffer4 #cbi ,ten years before1 ,john ,schffer had conceded full justice to ,gutenberg1 and had told the story with more truth4 ,in the dedication of an edition of ,livy1 printed by him in #aeje1 ,john ,schffer uses this language3 8,will your ,majesty addressing the ,emperor ,maximilian deign to accept this book1 printed in ,mentz1 the city in which the admirable art of typography was invented1 in the year #adej1 by the ingenious ,john ,gutenberg1 and was afterward perfected at the cost and by the work of ,john ,fust and of ,peter ,schffer 4 4 4 0 ,this acknowledgment did not prevent the ,emperor from making a subsequent official declaration1 in the privilege or copyright for a grand edition of ,livy1 published by the same printer1 and dated ,december #i1 #aeah1 that the grandfather of ,john ,schffer had invented printing chalcographia4 ,so much for the strength of audacious falsehood6 ,bernard1 ,de l'origine et des dbuts1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #cji4 #ccj ,annales ,hirsaugienses1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dba4 #cca ,the description of the more ingenious method of 8founding the forms of all the letters of the ,latin alphabet1 which they called matrices1 from which matrices they again founded types1 either in tin or in brass10 has been denounced by many writers on typography as the confused statement of a man who did not thoroughly understand what he related1 and who has reversed the proper order of the process of type-making4 ,a more careful reading will show that ,trithemius attempted to describe the process of matrix-making1 which is set forth in page #cjb of this book4 ,he says the types were made either of brass or of tin1 for his memory failed him1 and he could not recollect that it was the matrix which should have been of brass1 and the type of tin4 ,the characters 8which before this had been cut by hand0 may be regarded not as types1 but as punches of soft metal4 ,they would necessarily be damaged by pressure in the semi-fluid metal selected for making the matrices4 ,the tools which ,trithemius vainly tried to describe were the punch of steel and the mould and matrices of brass4 ,that punches and matrices of wood or of soft metal unequal to hard pressure were used by the earlier printers is proved by the variable shapes of their types4 #ccb ,the impressions of ,gutenberg1 which clearly show that his types were cast and not cut1 should outweigh the statements of all the chroniclers2 but it may be proper to call attention to the fact that the types of the ,bible of #db lines were used by ,schffer in #adgf1 and that the types of the ,letters of ,indulgence and of the ,bible of #cf lines were in use by ,hauman at the end of the fifteenth century4 ,if these types had been cut1 they would have been soon worn out4 ,the reappearance of these faces fifty years after they were first used shows that the types of ,hauman must have been cast from the matrices of ,gutenberg4 #ccc ,this version is found in ,wolf's ,monumenta ,typographica1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dff and #dfi1 under the heading of ,the ,statement of an ,unknown ,author1 and is attributed by ,wolf to one ,jo4 ,frid4 ,faustus of ,aschaffenburg 7who died in #afbj71 or to his son4 ,wolf admits 7p4 #deb1 note7 that the identity of the author is not clearly established4 ,it is probable that the statement was written by a descendant of ,john ,fust1 who was predisposed to magnify his services and those of his partner4 ,van der ,linde calls the writer an arch liar4 ,bernard rejects the entire statement as unworthy of credit1 or even of notice4 #ccd ,five of the disputed works are the ,donatus of #adea1 the ,bible of #cf lines1 the ,letters of ,indulgence of #adee1 the ,calendar of #adeg and the ,almanac of #adee4 ,the chief reason for attributing these works to ,pfister is that they exhibit the types of the ,bible of #cf lines4 #cce ,there is no ,english equivalent for libripagus1 which means a workman who is an engraver1 a printer1 and a stenciler4 ,like other writers of his day1 ,paul of ,prague had to coin a word to define printers1 who for many years after were called typographi1 typothet1 chalcographi1 excusores and protocharagmatici4 ,most writers called printers impressores1 or impressors1 from the process of impressing types4 ,this word1 which was finally accepted in all ,european languages1 has served to foster the error that the vital principle of printing is impression4 #ccf ,ticozzi1 ,stefano1 ,storia del letterati e degli artisti del dipartimento della ,piave1 ,belluno1 #ahac4 ,see1 also1 ,l'imprimerie1 ,no4 #eh1 ,october1 #ahfh4 #ccg ,bernard1 ,de l'origine1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #id4 ,this vain and scandalous inscription was probably made by one of ,mentel's descendants4 ,it is not stated when this tablet was erected4 ,bernard supposes that it is a second tablet1 which was put up in place of one made soon after his burial4 #cch ,it was probably provoked by the false assertion of ,john ,schffer1 that ,peter ,schffer1 his father1 and ,john ,fust1 his grandfather1 were the proper inventors1 to the exclusion of ,gutenberg4 ,schott1 knowing that ,mentel's claims as an inventor were as valid as those of ,fust or ,schffer1 placed on his books1 after #aebj1 an armorial shield containing a crowned lion1 with this inscription3 8,arms of the ,schott family1 granted by the ,emperor ,frederic ,,iii to ,john ,mentel1 the first inventor of typography1 and to his heirs1 in the year #adff40 ,there are doubts concerning this patent of nobility4 ,when it was demanded many years afterward1 it could not be produced ,de l'origine1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fi4 ,it may have been granted to ,mentel1 not as the first printer1 but as the first printer in ,strasburg4 ,schpflin1 who speaks of this document as if he had seen the original1 denies that it gave to ,mentel the title of inventor of printing ,vindici ,typographic1 p4 #ih1 note4 ,there was a tradition that the ,emperor ,frederic ,,iii had given to a corporation of master printers known as the ,typothet1 an heraldic shield1 representing an eagle holding in one claw a composing-stick1 and in the other claw a copy-guide1 surmounted by a griffin distributing ink with two balls4 ,but these are not the arms displayed by ,schott1 nor did ,mentel1 nor his successor ,flach1 make any display of them in their books4 #cci ,in another book ,spiegel says #addb4 #cdj ,meerman1 ,origines ,typographic1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aii4 ,it is not clearly proved that ,specklin1 who was a magistrate of ,strasburg at the close of the sixteenth century1 is the author of this statement4 ,bernard says that this version contains about as many errors as words4 #cda ,lichtenberger1 ,initia ,typographica1 p4 #ef4 #cdb ,the first book printed at ,strasburg with a date was a copy of the ,decretals of ,gratianus1 a folio in two volumes1 which bears this imprint3 8,by the venerable ,henry ,eggestein1 master of liberal arts1 and citizen of the renowned city of ,strasburg1 in the year #adga40 ,this was not his first book1 for in another book printed in the same year1 he tells the reader that he has printed 8innumerable volumes of law1 philosophy and divinity40 ,he printed two or three editions of the ,bible in ,latin1 and one in ,german1 and many other books in folio4 ,the types of these books are unlike those used by ,mentel4 ,eggestein was recorded in the tax list among the city officers1 and was afterward bishop's chancellor in the court of ,strasburg4 ,the partnership between ,mentel and ,eggestein was of short duration4 ,the date of ,eggestein's death is not known3 his name is not found in any books printed with his types after #adgb4 #cdc ,it is supposed that he printed the ,bible in ,german and in ,latin1 ,questions of ,conscience1 ,a ,concordance of the ,bible1 ,the ,epistles of ,saint ,jerome1,the ,city of ,god1 ,the ,specula of ,vincent of ,beauvais4 ,all these books are thick folios--many of them in types on ,english body4 ,some are in two1 and the last named in eight1 volumes4 ,other works have been attributed to him1 but ,madden says that some of them 7books with a curious form of the letter ,r--which others say were the work of ,zell7 were printed at the ,monastery of ,weidenbach4 #cdd ,for a table of the chronological order in which printing was established in the ,netherlands1 see page #cbc of this book4 #cde ,the high reputation of ,schffer's office was fairly sustained by his son ,john1 who died in #aeca4 ,peter ,schffer1 junior1 another son1 was equally able1 for he printed books in ,hebrew1 ,latin1 ,german and ,english4 ,he found no proper encouragement at ,mentz1 and had to establish his office successively at ,worms1 ,strasburg and ,venice4 ,his last known work1 with date #aedb1 was printed at ,venice1 where it is supposed he died4 ,ives ,schffer1 son of ,peter1 junior1 who succeeded ,john ,schffer in the management of the office at ,mentz1 was an industrious publisher from #aeca to #aeeb1 the supposed year of his death4 ,victor1 the son of ,ives1 gave up the business1 and the name of ,schffer disappeared from the roll of printers at ,mentz4 ,helbig1 ,notes et dissertations1 etc41 p4 #dg-ej4 #cdf ,a description of this ,bible1 with other particulars of importance1 was given by ,dr4 ,dziatzko1 the librarian at ,freiburg1 in a letter to ,hessels1 and by him printed in the introduction to the ,haarlem ,legend1 p4 ,,xxii4 #cdg ,the ,brotherhood were forbidden by the vows they had taken to ask for alms or accept gifts1 and were required to live by the labor of their hands4 ,they devoted themselves to the duties of teaching school and copying books4 ,at ,weidenbach they were remarkably successful4 ,they built a church in #adij with the money they had made from the sale of manuscript and printed books4 ,madden says that the monastery of ,weidenbach was not only a publishing house1 but a prominent school of typography1 and that there are reasons for believing that it gave instruction to ,caxton1 ,jenson1 ,mansion and other eminent printers4 #cdh ,this ,john ,sensenschmidt subsequently went to ,bamberg1 and in #adha there published the ,bamberg ,missal1 with a text in ,pointed ,gothic types of five-line pica body1 probably the largest text types ever used in a book4 ,it was admirably printed and rubricated4 #cdi ,these two thousand impressions were taken from about three hundred cuts--for the cut that served for the portrait of ,paris of ,troy was used for ,odofredus of ,germany and the poet ,dante of ,italy4 ,wood-cuts professing to represent cities and battles in ,greece and ,syria were repeated for battles and cities in ,france and ,germany1 with an indifference to the anachronisms and a cool disregard of the incredulity of the reader that are amazing4 ,the author had a keen relish for the marvelous--for men with one eye1 with immense ears1 with enormous legs1 and like monstrosities4 ,the ,dance of ,death1 which is reproduced on page #ahe of this book1 is one of the most meritorious designs1 but most of them are of small value4 ,the fac-simile of ,koburger's map on the opposite page should be contrasted with the map of ,germany in any modern atlas4 ,it is presented as an illustration of the medieval notion of geography1 and as one of the first attempts at map-printing4 #cej ,in #adgg1 ,sorg printed the first illustrated edition of the whole ,bible2 in #adhc1 a description of the council of ,constance1 containing nearly one thousand engravings4 #cea ,representing that the use of wood-cuts by typographers was an infringement on the vested rights of the guild1 the block-printers induced the magistrates to pass a law commanding printers not to use wood-cuts4 ,not deriving the benefits they expected from this restriction1 the block-printers proposed to concede to the typographers the right to use as many cuts as they pleased1 providing they would agree to use only the wood-cuts made by regular engravers4 #ceb ,in #adgb1 ,melchior of ,stanheim1 abbot of the monastery of ,st4 ,ulric at ,augsburg1 established a printing office in his monastery1 buying types and tools from other printers4 ,he bought five presses of ,schssler for #gc florins1 and had five other presses made for him by a joiner of ,augsburg4 ,the equipment of his office cost #gjb florins1 which was then regarded as a large sum4 #cec ,see chapter ,,xv and pages #cbb-cbe of this book for a fuller description of the works of this printer4 #ced ,see notes on pages #bha and #cbb4 #cee ,many bibliographers say that he went to ,cologne in #adgc4 ,madden regards him as a pupil of the monastery at ,weidenbach4 ,blades thinks that he was self-taught1 or taught by some unknown printer1 and that1 as early as #adgb1 he began his typographic work at ,bruges1 in which he was assisted by ,william ,caxton4 #cef ,he printed eight books in #adgh2 seven in #adgi2 nine in #adhj2 ten in #adhb4 ,in fifteen days he printed three books1 one of #he1 and another of #cje leaves4 ,during the seventeen years he was in business he printed #aej books4 ,his last book at ,gouda was dated ,june #bc1 #adhd2 on the #ahth of ,september1 #adhd1 he published at ,antwerp1 a book of #djj pages4 ,fifteen days after1 he completed another book4 ,during the first six months of #adhe1 he published one volume each month4 ,one of these books had #cd1 and another #gf engravings specially cut for the work4 #ceg ,the colophon of this book is a queer piece of mysterious ,english3 4 4 4 ,enprentyd in the duchye of ,braband1 in the town of ,andewarpe1 in the yere of our ,lord ,m4 ,,cccc4 ,,xciiii4 ,by maistir ,gerard de ,leew1 a man of grete wysedom in all maner of kunyng3 whych nowe is come from ,lyfe unto the doth1 which is grete harme for many of poure man4 ,on whas sowle ,god almythy for hys hygh grace haue mercy4 ,amen4 ,van der ,meersch4 ,imprimeurs ,belges et ,nerlandais1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #aai4 #ceh ,the printed date of this book is ,m4,,cccc4,,lxi4 ,it is a curious circumstance that this exact printer should begin with an error which makes his first publication appear ten years earlier than it was4 #cei ,in #adgi1 ,dominic made this contract for printing a book4 ,the publisher ,boniface should furnish the paper1 and should pay #aj livres for #bjj copies of a book of #bc or #bd leaves of royal octavo or ordinary quarto4 ,if he printed more than #bjj copies1 he should forfeit all claims for work done4 ,in another contract1 made in #adhj1 ,dominic agreed to print #ajj copies of a book of #ajj or #abj pages for #d florins in gold4 ,the prices for printing seem insufficient1 but the cost of labor was small4 ,the compositors of the ,ripoli ,press were the sisters of a convent4 #cfj ,the partnership should be for three years4 ,zarot bound himself to furnish all the types1 ,latin and ,greek1 ,roman and ,gothic1 and to make all the ink4 ,the four associates were to furnish the money4 ,one of them1 ,de ,burgo1 should advance #ajj ducats as soon as they could keep four presses steadily at work4 ,if any partner should obstruct the business1 he should lose all his rights4 ,rent should be paid out of the general fund4 ,profits should be divided in three parts1 of which ,zarot should have one part1 and the four associates1 two parts4 ,zarot should pay the associates one third the actual cost of the presses and other implements1 which should become his property at the termination of the partnership4 ,current expenses should be paid out of the general fund from the profits of sales4 ,the priest ,gabriel 7a partner7 should be the agent1 treasurer and general manager4 ,he should have one copy of every book printed4 ,books for publication should be selected at a general meeting of all partners4 ,the corrector and the copyists should be paid in printed books4 ,every workman should be bound by oath to keep the secrets of the partners1 and was forbid to give any book to any other master printer of the city4 ,if any partner wished to print a book on his own account1 and could not agree with his associates1 he would be permitted to have it done elsewhere4--,peter and ,nicholas de ,burgo immediately asked for the use of three presses or more1 for works on common and civil law and medicine1 they providing and paying for the presses and for working them1 and half the current expenses of the office4 ,they also agreed to give one-fourth of the profits1 to pay a bonus of #be ducats1 and one copy of each book1 provided the society would not sell it under price4 #cfa ,it will be seen that the business of publishing is almost as old as that of printing4 ,valdarfer agreed to set up the types of the books produced at the rate of #bd imperials 787 for every #bj pages4 ,the wary publishers took the precaution to specify in the agreement that the blank pages should not be counted4 #cfb ,the ,senate of ,lucca1 by a vote of #ch to #i1 voted to pay the priest ,clement1 a professional calligrapher and bookbinder 7who had applied for the means to go to ,venice and get a knowledge of the art71 a subvention of two florins monthly1 on condition that he should practise his art as a public officer1 teaching all who wished to learn4 ,clement declined the offer4 #cfc ,gering reprinted the books of ,keyser and ,stol as soon as he could procure copies4 ,each house boasted of the superior accuracy and greater cheapness of its own publications4 #cfd ,in this style the pages were surrounded by narrow pictorial borders in pieces of irregular length4 ,these pieces were repeatedly used on different pages1 but always in new combinations1 so as to present some feature of novelty4 ,the ground-works of the borders were generally stippled4 ,the large illustrations in the text were in outline1 obviously intended for coloring4 ,red letters were often printed on every page1 but the larger initials were painted4 #cfe ,blades thinks that it was printed at ,bruges by ,colard ,mansion and ,william ,caxton1 about #adgb4 ,madden thinks it was printed at the monastery of ,weidenbach by ,mansion and ,caxton1 who went there about #adgd to learn practical typography4 ,other bibliographers say that it was printed by ,zell at ,cologne4 ,the types of this ,recuyell are thoroughly ,french1 and are like the larger types used by ,mansion4 ,bernard thinks that these types were made and first used at ,cologne1 by the order of the ,duke of ,burgundy for the ,french edition of the same work4 #cff ,thomas1 in his ,history of ,printing1 said that printing was done in ,mexico before #aefi4 ,the subsequent discovery of ,mexican books with earlier imprints has compelled a gradual putting back of the date to #aedj1 which is that of the earliest existing book4 ,there is a tradition about a ,mexican book said to be printed in #aecf1 but the book is not in existence1 and the correctness of this date has not been proved4 ,harrisse quotes an author who says that printing was taken to ,mexico in #aecb1 by the ,viceroy ,mendoza1 and that ,pablos was the first printer4 ,but ,mendoza did not go to ,mexico until #aece4 ,pablos was the foreman of ,cromberger1 who had one office in ,seville and one in ,mexico4 #cfg ,this is ,hallam's enumeration of the hooks printed in large cities before #aejj3 ,florence #cjj ,milan #fbi ,bologna #bih ,rome #ibe ,venice #bhce ,london #acj ,paris #gea ,cologne #ecj ,nuremberg #chb ,leipsic #cea ,basle #cbj ,strasburg #ebf ,augsburg #bef ,louvain #aaf ,mentz #acd ,deventer #afa ,if allowance be made for the books that are lost1 these numbers are too small1 but the list will give a correct idea of the comparative activity of the early printers at different places4 ,during this period were published #bia editions of ,cicero1 #ie of ,virgil1 #eg of ,horace1 #ia of the ,latin ,bible and many hundreds of the decretals and digests of canon law4 #cfh ,the ,bishop of ,angers in #adgj paid #dj crowns of gold for a copy of the ,bible of #adfb4 ,the ,catholicon of ,gutenberg sold for #da crowns of gold in #adfe4 ,a copy of ,mansion's edition of the ,consolation of ,philosophy by ,boethius1 brought #dj crowns in #adha4 ,a missal was sold in #adha for #ah gold florins4 ,bernard notes a sale in which a printed copy brought a higher price than a manuscript4 ,a copy on vellum of the ,summary of ,st4 ,thomas by ,schffer1 was sold at ,paris for #ae crowns of gold4 ,a manuscript of similar size was sold for #aj crowns4 ,it is difficult to form just conclusions from these prices1 for the bindings of the books have not been described4 ,hallam says that the florin was worth about four francs of present money1 equivalent1 perhaps1 to twenty-four in commodities1 and that the crown was worth rather more4 ,another estimate allows to the money of the fifteenth century eight times its present purchasing power4 #cfi ,the mandate is too long for an unabridged translation1 but the following extracts will fairly set forth the reasons for his action3 ,although1 by a certain divine art of printing1 abundant and easy access is obtained to books in every science 4 4 4 yet we have perceived that certain men1 led by the desire of vainglory or money1 do abuse this art2 and that which was given for the instruction of human life is perverted to purposes of mischief and calamity4 ,for1 to the dishonoring of religion1 we have seen in the hands of the vulgar certain books of the divine offices and the writings of our religion translated from the ,latin into the ,german tongue4 4 4 4 ,some volumes on this subject1 certain rash unlearned simpletons have dared to translate into the vulgar tongue1 whose translation 4 4 4 many learned men have declared unintelligible1 in consequence of the very great misapplication and abuse of words4 4 4 4 ,let such translators1 if they pay any regard to truth1 say whether the ,german language be capable of expressing that which excellent writers in ,greek and in ,latin have most accurately and argumentatively written on the sublime speculations of the ,christian religion and the knowledge of things4 ,they must acknowledge that the poverty of our idiom renders it insufficient1 4 4 4 they must corrupt the sense of the truth in the sacred writings 4 4 4 which1 from the greatness of the danger attendant upon it1 we greatly dread2 for who would leave it to ignorant and unlearned men and to the female sex1 into whose hands copies of the ,holy ,scriptures may have fallen1 to find out the true meaning of them8 ,this was not the first restriction imposed on the liberty of the printers1 for the ,university of ,cologne in #adgi had assumed the right to control the printing of books by ,quentell and ,winters4 #cgj ,gutenberg's employment of the goldsmith ,dnne at ,strasburg1 and the payment to him of a big sum for work connected with printing1 can be most satisfactorily explained by the conjecture that ,dnne was hired to cut punches and make a mould4 ,i find no mention of punch-cutting or mould-making at ,mentz1 but there is1 in the accounts of the ,ripoli ,press1 an unequivocal notice of one ,john ,peter of ,mentz1 who was selling matrices to the printers of ,florence in #adgf4 ,it is evident that this ,john ,peter had experience in this branch of typography4 ,the ,ripoli ,press bought of him1 in #adgg1 the matrices of a full font of ,roman1 for #aj florins in gold4 ,john ,peter was not the only punch-cutter4 ,in #adgh1 the ,ripoli ,press paid the goldsmith ,benvenuto #aaj livres for the punches of three fonts--two of which were of ,roman and one of ,gothic face4 ,in #adha1 another goldsmith1 ,banco1 made a sale to the manager of the ,ripoli ,press1 of 8#ajj little letters1 #c big letters1 and #c vignettes on copper40 #cga ,square notes of music1 partly written1 partly printed1 are seen in the ,psalter of #adeg4 ,greek letters were made by ,schffer and ,sweinheym1 but the first book in ,greek was printed by ,paravisinus at ,milan in #adgf4 ,hebrew types were made at ,soncino in #adhh4 ,at the close of the century1 a ,german printer at ,paris made an imitation of writing1 but the letters were not connected1 and the only penmanlike features were in the capitals4 ,about #aejj1 ,manutius had the engraver ,francis of ,bologna cut punches for ,italic types1 in imitation of the handwriting of ,petrarch4 #cgb ,jacob ,bellaert of ,haarlem combined isolated engravings1 cut for the purpose1 in the belief that each combination would seem a new engraving4 ,kerver tried to give variety to his pages by varying combinations of detached pictorial borders4 ,but it was quickly demonstrated that typography could deal successfully with letters only4 ,the large ornamental initial letters of books were not cast1 but cut1 sometimes on wood1 oftener on metal4 ,small and ornamented capital letters were cast by ,mentel of ,strasburg1 and by ,ratdolt of ,venice in #adgg4 #cgc ,colonna and ,manthen at ,venice said that their ,gothic was a 8sublime letter40 ,john ,herbort1 in #adhc1 said his was 8a most captivating letter1 unquestionably excelling all others40 ,nicholas ,prevost said his book was printed 8in types the most beautiful and most becoming for polite literature40 ,chevalon said his ,gothic was 8the polite and fashionable letter40 #cgd ,in ,france1 the punches are struck in hot copper to prevent their breakage4 #cge ,i know by experience that the ordinary metal used for types can be cast in a matrix of lead to the number of #abe or #aej types before the matrix will be destroyed4 ,after #ej or #fj castings1 there will be an alteration in the mould2 the finer lines will disappear and ruder lines be presented4 ,this will account for the differences that the same letters present on every page4 ,magazin ,encyclop4 de ,millin1 #ahjf1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #gd1 as quoted by ,bernard1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bii4 #cgf ,gutenberg's larger bodies were irregularly graduated and of ,pointed ,gothic face2 his smaller bodies were not separated at proper distances1 and were of ,round ,gothic face4 ,the unknown printer had four faces and four bodies of the size ,english4 ,caxton had two faces and two bodies each of the sizes ,paragon1 ,great-primer and ,english4 ,the types of many printers at ,paris and ,venice show irregularities of body which seem remarkable and inexplicable to the modern printer4 #cgg ,the smallest sizes which ,i have met in any book of the fifteenth century are in the ,decretals of ,gregory1 printed in black and red by ,andrew ,torresani at ,venice in #adih1 in which book the text is in ,bourgeois and the surrounding notes are in ,brevier4 ,nonpareil was first made by ,garamond of ,paris about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,diamond was made by ,jannon of ,sedan about #afbe4 ,nothing smaller was attempted until #ahbg1 when ,henry ,didot1 then #ff years old1 cut a font on the ,french body of #b-a_/b points--a body known to ,american printers as ,brilliant1 or ,half-nonpareil--about twenty-five lines to the ,american inch4 #cgh ,it has been suggested that these distinct bodies were founded in sand moulds2 that a new pattern for the body was made every time a new font was cast2 and that the irregularities in body are the results of unintended or undetected variations in the pattern4 ,but this hypothesis cannot be accepted4 ,the small bodies1 the sharp edges1 close fitting-up and even lining of the types1 are peculiarities which could not have been produced by a sand mould1 nor by a mould of any plastic material4 #cgi ,lettres d'un bibliographe1 #dth series1 p4 #bca4 #chj ,see page #ff of this book4 ,was this obscure metal antimony8 ,the text books say that antimony was1 for the first time1 set apart as a distinct metal in #adij1 by ,basil ,valentine1 a monk of ,erfurt4 ,but ,madden says that a book supposed to have been printed at ,cologne1 before the year #adgc1 plainly describes antimony as a metal frequently used and much abused by many monks of the thirteenth century in their pharmaceutical preparations4 ,lettres d'un bibliographe1 #dth series1 p4 #aae4 #cha ,it agrees exactly with the old ,french standard 7of #agbc7 for height of type1 which was #aj-a_/b geometric lines1 or1 by modern ,french measure1 #bd millimetres4 ,fournier1 ,manuel typographique1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #abe4 #chb ,the sloping shoulder1 which was in general use in the first quarter of this century1 was discarded to meet the requirements of the new art of stereotyping4 ,it was found that these sloping shoulders made projections in the plaster mould1 which imperiled the making of an accurate cast4 ,the blackening of the sheet from square shoulders was prevented by altering the mould and placing the shoulder lower on the body4 #chc ,see page #cii of this book4 #chd ,bernard believes that ,gutenberg cast for the ,bible of #db lines at least #abj1jjj types1 or enough for two sections1 or forty pages4 ,he supposes that twenty pages were perfected1 and ready for press or under press1 while the succeeding twenty pages were in the compositor's hands4 ,this would be the method adopted by the modern printer1 and it may have been the method of ,gutenberg1 but it is probable that the difficulties connected with the new art compelled him to print the book more slowly1 and with imperfect system4 ,but the printers who followed him certainly used quick methods4 #che ,caxton said that he had 8practysed learned at his grete charge and dispense to ordeyne this said booke in prynte40 #chf ,many of the early master printers practised their trade for a few years in one place1 and a few years in another1 roving about from town to town with a seeming indifference to change which seems unaccountable to the modern printer1 who knows how expensive it is to move a printing office4 ,the roving habits of the masters will not seem so strange when it is known that the equipment of the early office was simple1 and that the more expensive tools could be carried with little difficulty4 #chg ,the engravings of cases shown by ,moxon have boxes of unequal size4 ,no doubt1 they were so made from the beginning1 for a day's experience would teach any compositor that his case must have a larger box for the letter e than for the letter x4 #chh ,see page #ebh4 #chi ,bernard says that sticks of wood were used by ,christopher ,plantin1 8king of printers40 ,it is characteristic of the taste of his time1 that ,plantin had sticks of wood1 although he boasted that some of his types were cast in matrices of silver4 #cij ,madden1 in his first collection of ,lettres d'un bibliographe1--the most curious piece of analytical criticism that has appeared in typographical literature--has demonstrated that the method of dictation was practised in the office at ,weidenbach4 ,in this series of letters he critically examines three books1 printed at this office with the same types1 and at the same time1 and points out the peculiar errors of three different compositors1 who1 not seeing the copy1 were misled by their misapprehension of the dictated words4 ,he claims that these books were the practice work of three amateur compositors who were then learning the trade4 ,each compositor had copies of his own workmanship printed as evidences of his skill1 or as a memento of his errors4 ,novel as they may seem1 ,i am inclined to accept the conclusions of ,madden4 ,many copies of early printed books1 known to be of the same edition1 or done at the same time1 show variations in the typographical arrangement which cannot be explained by any other hypothesis than that of a double composition by compositors working from dictation4 #cia ,the composition of ,schffer's edition of the ,decretals has been injudiciously praised by ,bernard4 ,in the fac-simile on page #dfc1 it will be noticed that the page is crooked1 and that the justification and making-up are very faulty4 ,in a copy of ,torresani's edition of the ,decretals1 the frequent contractions make the work almost unreadable4 ,this book has been highly commended for its even spacing2 but it is a sufficient answer to say that any printer could space admirably1 even in the narrowest measure1 if allowed to mangle words to suit his convenience4 #cib ,the statement made by ,lacroix that one book was paged in #adfi does not prove that this was the usage4 ,in some books printed at ,venice during the last ten years of the fifteenth century1 the leaves 7not the pages7 are numbered on every odd page4 ,but this was not the common practice4 ,in the ,statius of ,aldus1 printed at ,venice in #aejb1 and in the ,italian translation of the ,commentaries of ,julius ,csar1 printed by ,bernard ,venetus of that city in #aeag1 neither leaves nor pages are numbered4 #cic ,some early chases held their types not with quoins1 but by the pressure of screws4 ,a ,german printer's hand-book1 dated ,leipsic1 #agdc1 has diagrams of imposition in which the pages are fastened by screws perforating the chase4 ,quoins and bevels were not an early invention4 #cid ,see page #cie for illustration of primitive screw press4 #cie ,mechanick ,exercises1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eb1 #fi4 ,to the printer who has seen only the press in which the platen covers the bed this may seem an absurd method1 but it was a method in general use even as late as the beginning of this century4 ,men are yet living who have printed books by the method shown in the cut--pulling down the bar when one-half of the form was under the platen--releasing the pressure--running the other half of the bed under the platen--and finishing the presswork of the other half of the sheet by a second pull4 #cif ,there should have been a gradual improvement in the construction of the press1 as there was in the making of the types1 but there was no decided change for two centuries4 ,moxon1 in #afhc1 commending the 8new fashion0 presses of ,blaew1 denounced the 8old fashion presses as make-shift1 slovenly contrivances practised in the minority of this art40 ,nor was ,blaew's press perfect4 ,to insure proper register1 ,jackson 7who undertook1 at ,venice in #agde1 to print wood-cuts in colors7 was obliged to reconstruct the press of ,blaew4 #cig ,it must also be remembered that on the early printing press two pressmen were required for the work--one to beat or to ink1 and one to pull or to print4 ,the ordinary task of the hand-pressman of ,new-,york in #ahdj was rated at #aejj impressions1 but these impressions were made by one man 7working an inking machine7 and one pull on forms of large size4 ,considering the surface printed1 the performance of one hand-pressman in #ahdj was about eight times more than that of one pressman in #adeh4 #cih ,words and lines were sometimes printed in red in a text of black1 with a nicety of register rarely equaled by any printer during the first years of this century4 ,the early method of printing red with black1 has been described by ,moxon4 ,the black form was first printed with quadrats in the places that should be occupied by the red words or lines4 ,this done1 the form remaining on press1 the quadrats were taken out and the vacant space partially filled with 8underlays0 of reglet1 about one-sixth inch thick4 ,on these underlays the types to be printed in red were placed1 which adjusting made them about one-sixth of an inch higher than the types of the black form4 ,the bearers were then raised1 the impression was readjusted1 a new frisket was put on1 and the pressman was ready to print red as he had printed the black4 ,this method of printing red with black1 a clumsy method at best1 which can be practised only on small forms on the hand-press1 has been out of fashion for many years4--,the color work of the early printers has been overpraised4 ,superior1 no doubt1 to that of printers of the last century1 who tried to do more work in less time1 it cannot be compared with the color work of our time4 ,the rubricated ,book of ,common ,prayer printed by ,welch1 ,bigelow ,co4 of ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 the ,specimen ,book of ,charles ,derriey of ,paris1 the ,french-,english ,dictionary of ,george ,bellows of ,gloucester1 ,england1 may be offered as specimens of modern color presswork which show an exactness of register and a purity of color and of impression not to be found in any early book4 #cii ,this unevenness does not prove the use of two distinct inks4 ,in some instances1 it was caused by the negligence of the pressman who applied an unequal quantity of ink upon different pages4 ,in many instances1 it was produced by the variable qualities or conditions of the paper or vellum4 ,if the paper laid out for one form differed from that used for other forms in being too coarse or too dry1 or over-wet1 or if the vellum had been polished too much or too little1 or had not been entirely freed from lime and grease1 it would take up from the types1 during each condition1 a variable quantity of color1 and produce prints of a different degree of blackness4 ,these variations in color are most noticeable in books of vellum4 ,in a prayer book printed by ,kerver in #aejg1 the ink is black wherever the vellum is smooth1 and gray where it is rough4 ,in another edition of the same book on paper1 printed by ,kerver in #aebb1 the ink is not so black as it appears on the smooth vellum1 but the color is more uniform4 ,equal carefulness seems to have been taken with each book1 and the ink was1 no doubt1 substantially the same4 ,some of the early printers sorted their sheets after printing1 separating the under-colored from the over-colored and binding each together4 #djj ,in trying to avoid the gloominess of early printing1 modern printers have gone too far in the opposite direction4 ,the fault of imperfect blackness which is justly censurable in many modern books is largely due to what ,hansard calls the 8razor-edged0 hair lines and thin stems of modern types which give the printer no opportunity to show black color4 ,readers have been taught to prefer a feminine elegance in types1 a weak and useless imitation of copper-plate effects1 to the masculine boldness1 solidity and readableness of the old-style letter of the last century4 #dja ,mr4 ,ticheborne1 a recent contributor to ,chambers' ,journal1 says that the older printing inks are more easily saponified and washed off by alkalies than those of the last century4 ,some of the old inks he found so sensitive1 that on introducing them to a weak solution of ammonia1 the printed characters instantly floated off the surface of the pages4 ,his explanation1 that the oil had not been properly prepared by boiling1 and was not changed into an insoluble varnish1 and 8resinfied10 is1 no doubt1 correct4 ,a practical ink-maker1 in a series of papers to ,l'imprimerie 7vol4 ,i1 p4 #abi71 says that in many books of the fifteenth century1 the adhesion of the color to the paper is very weak1 and that the ink can be made pale or washed off with a moist sponge4 #djb ,lanzi refers to an ,italian manuscript of #adcg in which it is asserted that the new method of painting in oil1 as practised by the ,germans1 must begin with the process of boiling linseed oil4 ,history of ,painting in ,italy4 ,bohn's edition1 #aheb1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #hf4 #djc ,our ,inck-makers to save charges1 mingle many times ,trane-,oyl among theirs and a great deal of ,rosin2 which ,trane-,oyl by its grossness ,furs and ,choaks up a ,form1 and by its fatness hinders the ,inck from drying2 so that when the ,work comes to the ,binders1 it ,sets-off2 and besides is dull1 smeary and unpleasant to the eye4 ,and the ,rosin1 if too great a quantity be put in1 and the ,form be not very ,lean-,beaten1 makes the ,inck turn yellow3 ,and the same does the ,new ,linseed-,oyl4----,secondly4 ,they seldom ,boyl or ,burn it to that consistence the ,hollanders do1 because they not only save labour and ,fewel1 but have a greater weight of ,inck out of the same quantity of ,oyl when less ,burnt away than when more ,burnt away2 which want of ,burning makes the ,inck also1 though made of good old ,linseed-,oyl1 ,fat and ,smeary1 and hinders its ,drying2 so that when it comes to the ,binders it also ,sets-off4----,thirdly4 ,they do not use that way of clearing their ,inck the ,hollanders do1 or indeed any other way than meer ,burning it1 whereby the ,inck remains more ,oyly and ,greasie than if it were well clarified4----,fourthly4 ,they1 to save the ,press-man the labour of ,rubbing the ,blacking into ,varnish on the ,inck-,block1 ,boyl the ,blacking in the ,varnish1 or at least put the ,blacking in whilst the ,varnish is yet ,boyling-hot1 which so ,burns and ,rubifies the ,blacking1 that it loses much of its brisk and vivid black complection4----,fifthly4 ,because ,blacking is dear1 and adds little to the weight of the ,inck1 they stint themselves to a quantity which they exceed not2 so that sometimes the ,inck proves so unsufferable ,pale1 that the ,press-man is forced to ,rub in more ,blacking upon the ,block2 yet this he is often so loth to do1 that he will rather hazard the ,content1 the ,colour shall give1 than take the pains to amend it3 satisfying himself that he can lay the blame upon the ,inck-maker4 ,moxon1 ,mechanick ,exercises1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gf1 #gg4 #djd ,no exception need be made for the initial letters of the ,psalter of #adeg4 ,the thin curved lines of the ornamental portions of these letters could not have been cut on the flat boards then used by all engravers on wood4 ,the absence of cracks and broken lines1 after long service1 in every print taken from these cuts is presumptive evidence that they were cut on metal4 ,the ornamentation is unlike that of the professional engravers of block-books and at once suggests the thought that they were cut on brass or type-metal by the hand that cut the types of the text4 #dje ,that the early printers did encounter serious difficulties in the use of wood-cuts in type forms is proved by their selection of blocks of smaller size4 ,full-page cuts are rare in the books of ,koburger1 ,leeu and ,veldener4 ,von ,os of ,zwoll cut up the blocks of the ,bible of the ,poor4 ,blades says that ,colard ,mansion printed the types and wood-cuts that appeared on the same page by two impressions4 ,sad experience in the warping and cracking of blocks of wood in forms of types was1 no doubt1 the reason for this extra labor4 ,this difficulty seems to have been avoided by ,pigouchet1 ,kerver and the printers of ornamental books1 whose cuts have all the mannerisms of engraving on metal4 #djf ,the disconnection between the arts of engraving on wood and typography is fairly indicated by the quarrel between the type-printers and block-printers of ,augsburg4 #djg ,some engravers on wood who would not work with typographers undertook a new branch of printing--the making of prints1 thirty or forty inches long1 for the decoration of interior walls4 ,becker has published a collection of these large prints1 taken from the original blocks1 some of which he says were made before #aejj4 ,see cut on page #ece4 #djh ,if ,florentine money had eight times the purchasing power of its ,american equivalent1 these were high prices4 ,they justify the observation of ,keyser and ,stol1 printers at ,paris in #adhf1 that the price of paper was out of all proportion to the price of printed books4 #dji ,vellum was made out of the dressed skins of very young kids and lambs2 parchment from the skins of sheep and goats4 ,the vellum was very thin1 flexible and highly polished2 the parchment was thick and horn-like2 but each substance was prepared by nearly the same process4 ,the skin1 when freed from hair1 was put in a lime-pit1 until it was deprived of its fat4 ,it was then stretched on a frame1 pared with a knife1 rubbed with lime and pumice-stone1 and repeatedly dried and wet1 and rubbed and stretched1 until the surface was made faultlessly smooth4 #daj ,see page #dfi for the testimony of ,schoeffer's proof-reader4 #daa ,the copyists1 underpaid by the stationers1 did their work recklessly1 abbreviating words so freely that it was often impossible to discover the meaning of the author4 ,the faults of the calligrapher1 who preferred beauty to accuracy1 and of the young scholar1 who rashly undertook to correct errors--tended to the same result4 ,fichet1 a professor of the ,university of ,paris1 who seems to have been the first man of letters who esteemed printing1 said1 in a complimentary letter to ,gering1 ,crantz and ,friburger1 that books were becoming barbarous through the faults of the copyists4 ,bouhier1 a later president of the ,university1 said that the books of the copyists were monstrous1 and often unintelligible4 #dab ,marchand quotes at length an author who says that ,john ,andrew1 the corrector for ,sweinheym and ,pannartz1 was a very presumptuous meddler with texts4 ,when he met a word he did not understand1 he printed it in ,latin1 or put in words at a venture1 often making the text more unintelligible than ever4 ,another ecclesiastical reader1 ,bishop ,nicholas ,perotti1 was quite as great an offender4 #dac ,marchand1 ,histoire de l'imprimerie1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ig-ajc1 and notes4 ,in support of this assertion he cites the opinions of ,schelhorn1 ,maittaire1 ,naud1 and other eminent bibliographers1 and gives many specifications of the inaccuracies of the early printers from ,fust and ,schffer to ,froben4 ,not even ,aldus ,manutius escapes1 for ,marchand quotes at length the accusation of ,erasmus that the ,homer1 ,cicero1 and ,plutarch of ,aldus were depravatissima4 ,this criticism is hardly warranted by the errors of these editions1 and is decidedly unjust in its reflection on a printer whose industry and carefulness as an editor have never been surpassed1 and who1 in his edition of ,plato of #aeac1 offered a gold coin for every mistake that should be discovered4 ,this damaging accusation would probably never have been made if ,erasmus had not quarreled with ,aldus1 and had not thought it necessary to deny with much asperity that he had served as a corrector of the press in the ,aldine office4 ,as a corrector1 ,erasmus was not beyond reproach1 as will be more clearly seen in his reading of the ,greek ,testament4 ,froben's lamentation over the two pages of errata in this book 7published by him1 but corrected by ,erasmus7 shows how much easier it is to discover errors after commission than it is to correct them in time4 ,stung by the taunts of critics1 ,erasmus said that if the ,devil did not preside over typography1 there must have been a diabolical malice on the part of the compositors4 ,transcriber's note3 ,original printed spelling and grammar are retained1 with a few exceptions noted below4 ,for example1 ,gernszheim1 ,gernszheym1 and ,gernsheim are all retained4 ,foot-notes have been renumbered #a-dac and moved to the end of book4 ,large curly brackets #8' used to combine information on multiple lines have been eliminated1 by minimally changing the text to retain the original meaning4 ,the original ,index employed ditto marks and white space extensively to indicate topics related by a word or phrase4 ,these marks1 sometimes of dubious scope1 have been replaced by em dashes1 one for each word to be regarded as repeated4 ,for example1 under the topic heading 8,bible of #cf lines1 4 4 4 01 several topics started with two ditto marks and sufficient white space to indicate the four-word phrase2 herein 8-- -- -- --04 ,page #ai4 ,in the sentence ending with 8 4 4 4 when it has been prepared for printing by each of the different methods301 the colon was changed to full stop4 ,page #abe4 ,changed the first that to than1 in 8quicker process that that of careful writing04 ,page #abg4 ,added full stop after 8 4 4 4 have been established in the most satisfactory manner04 ,page #bjg4 ,full stop added after 8but they cannot be entirely overlooked04 ,page #bie4 8,abcedarium0 changed to 8,abecedarium04 ,page #cjb4 ,second comma in 8and for lining1 like other matrices10 changed to full stop4 ,page #cac note4 ,changed gette en molle to gett en molle4 ,page #cef4 ,the comma in 8,koning tried to supplement the many deficiencies of ,junius1 with extracts 4 4 40 looked more like a fly-speck1 but was present in both #ast and #bnd editions1 and seems plausible4 ,page #ceg note4 ,changed 8,eclaircissemens0 to 8claircissemens04 ,page #cgb note4 ,added a left double quotation mark to #8long before he was born40'1 although this placement is perhaps questionable4 ,page #daj4 ,there was a symbol that looks similar to the poorly supported ,unicode glyph ,u#gjj ,,syriac ,,end ,,of ,,paragraph4 ,this has been represented in this edition like this3 8304 ,page #edh4 ,changed 8,bechtermuntz0 to 8,bechtermntz04 ,page #eee--;,additional ,notes and ,corrections4 ,none of the corrections recommended in this section have been applied4 ,hyperlinks are provided in the html and epub editions only4 ,there are two notes in the ,additional ,notes and ,corrections section that refer to page #aej4 ,the second one seems to be a mistake1 however1 and really refers to page #aed4 ,similarly1 the note that refers to page #dea seems to fit better page #dej4