,transcriber ,notes ,text emphasis displayed as ,italics and ,bold4 ,whole and fractional parts displayed as #ai-d_/ab4 ,,the ,,international ,,scientific ,,series ,,volume ,,lxi ,,the ,,international ,,scientific ,,series4 ------------------- ,each book complete in ,one ,volume1 #abmo1 and bound in ,cloth4 ------------------- #a4 ,,forms ,,of ,,water3 ,a ,familiar ,exposition of the ,origin and ,phenomena of ,glaciers4 ,by ,j4 ,tyndall1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,with #be ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #b4 ,,physics ,,and ,,politics2 ,or1 ,thoughts on the ,application of the ,principles of ,natural ,selection and ,inheritance to ,political ,society4 ,by ,walter ,bagehot4 #a4ej4 #c4 ,,foods4 ,by ,edward ,smith1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,b41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #a4ge4 #d4 ,,mind ,,and ,,body3 ,the ,theories of their ,relation4 ,by ,alexander ,bain1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with #d ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #e4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,sociology4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 #a4ej4 #f4 ,,the ,,new ,,chemistry4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,p4 ,cooke1 of ,harvard ,university4 ,with #ca ,illustrations4 #b4jj4 #g4 ,,on ,,the ,,conservation ,,of ,,energy4 ,by ,balfour ,stewart1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,with #ad ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #h4 ,,animal ,,locomotion2 or1 ,walking1 ,swimming1 and ,flying4 ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,pettigrew1 ,m4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 etc4 ,with #acj ,illustrations4 #a4ge4 #i4 ,,responsibility ,,in ,,mental ,,disease4 ,by ,henry ,maudsley1 ,m4,d4 #a4ej4 #aj4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,law4 ,by ,professor ,sheldon ,amos4 #a4ge4 #aa4 ,,animal ,,mechanism3 ,a ,treatise on ,terrestrial and ,arial ,locomotion1 ,by ,professor ,e4 ,j4 ,marey4 ,with #aag ,illustrations4 #a #ge4 #ab4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,conflict ,,between ,,religion ,,and ,,science4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d4 #a4ge4 #ac4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,descent ,,and ,,darwinism4 ,by ,professor ,oscar ,schmidt 7,strasburg ,university74 ,with #bf ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #ad4 ,,the ,,chemical ,,effects ,,of ,,light ,,and ,,photography4 ,by ,dr4 ,hermann ,vogel 7,polytechnic ,academy of ,berlin74 ,translation thoroughly revised4 ,with #ajj ,illustrations4 #b4jj4 #ae4 ,,fungi3 ,their ,nature1 ,influences1 ,uses1 etc4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,cooke1 ,m4 ,a41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,berkeley1 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4,l4 ,s4 ,with #aji ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #af4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,language4 ,by ,professor ,william ,dwight ,whitney1 of ,yale ,college4 #a4ej4 #ag4 ,,money ,,and ,,the ,,mechanism ,,of ,,exchange4 ,by ,w4 ,stanley ,jevons1 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 #a4ge4 #ah4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,light1 with a ,general ,account of ,physical ,optics4 ,by ,dr4 ,eugene ,lommel4 ,with #ahh ,illustrations and a ,table of ,spectra in ,chromo-lithography4 #b4jj4 #ai4 ,,animal ,,parasites ,,and ,,messmates4 ,by ,monsieur ,van ,beneden4 ,with #hc ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #bj4 ,,fermentation4 ,by ,professor ,schtzenberger4 ,with #bh ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #ba4 ,,the ,,five ,,senses ,,of ,,man4 ,by ,professor ,bernstein4 ,with #ia ,illustrations4 #a4ge4 #bb4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,sound ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,music4 ,by ,professor ,pietro ,blaserna4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #bc4 ,,studies ,,in ,,spectrum ,,analysis4 ,by ,j4 ,norman ,lockyer1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,with #f ,photographic ,illustrations of ,spectra1 and numerous ,engravings on ,wood4 #b4ej4 #bd4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,steam-,,engine4 ,by ,professor ,r4 ,h4 ,thurston4 ,with #afc ,illustrations4 #b4ej4 #be4 ,,education ,,as ,a ,,science4 ,by ,alexander ,bain1 ,,ll4,d4 #a4ge4 #bf4 ,,students' ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,color2 ,or1 ,modern ,chromatics4 ,with ,applications to ,art and ,industry4 ,by ,professor ,ogden ,n4 ,rood1 ,columbia ,college4 ,new edition4 ,with #acj ,illustrations4 #b4jj4 #bg4 ,,the ,,human ,,species4 ,by ,professor ,a4 de ,quatrefages1 ,membre de l',institut4 #b4jj4 #bh4 ,,the ,,crayfish3 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,zology4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,with #hb ,illustrations4 #a4ge4 #bi4 ,,the ,,atomic ,,theory4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,wurtz4 ,translated by ,e4 ,cleminshaw1 ,f4 ,c4 ,s4 #a4ej4 #cj4 ,,animal ,,life ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,the ,,natural ,,conditions ,,of ,,existence4 ,by ,karl ,semper4 ,with #b ,maps and #ajf ,woodcuts4 #b4jj4 #ca4 ,,sight3 ,an ,exposition of the ,principles of ,monocular and ,binocular ,vision4 ,by ,joseph ,le ,conte1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with #acb ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #cb4 ,,general ,,physiology ,,of ,,muscles ,,and ,,nerves4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,rosenthal4 ,with #ge ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #cc4 ,,illusions3 ,a ,psychological ,study4 ,by ,james ,sully4 #a4ej4 #cd4 ,,the ,,sun4 ,by ,c4 ,a4 ,young1 ,professor of ,astronomy in the ,college of ,new ,jersey4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #b4jj4 #ce4 ,,volcanoes3 ,what they ,are and what they ,teach4 ,by ,john ,w4 ,judd1 ,f4,r4 ,s41 ,professor of ,geology in the ,royal ,school of ,mines4 ,with #if ,illustrations4 #b4jj4 #cf4 ,,suicide3 ,an ,essay in ,comparative ,moral ,statistics4 ,by ,henry ,morselli1 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,psychological ,medicine1 ,royal ,university1 ,turin4 #a4ge4 #cg4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,vegetable ,,mould1 ,,through ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,worms4 ,with ,observations on their ,habits4 ,by ,charles ,darwin1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,with ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #ch4 ,,the ,,concepts ,,and ,,theories ,,of ,,modern ,,physics4 ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,stallo4 #a4ge4 #ci4 ,,the ,,brain ,,and ,,its ,,functions4 ,by ,j4 ,luys4 #a4ej4 #dj4 ,,myth ,,and ,,science4 ,by ,tito ,vignoli4 #a4ej4 #da4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,memory3 ,an ,essay in the ,positive ,psychology4 ,by ,th4 ,ribot1 author of ,heredity4 #a4ej4 #db4 ,,ants1 ,,bees1 ,,and ,,wasps4 ,a ,record of ,observations of the ,habits of the ,social ,hymenoptera4 ,by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,bart41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,d4 ,c4 ,l41 ,,ll4 ,d41 etc4 #b4jj4 #dc4 ,,science ,,of ,,politics4 ,by ,sheldon ,amos4 #a4ge4 #dd4 ,,animal ,,intelligence4 ,by ,george ,j4 ,romanes4 #a4ge4 #de4 ,,man ,,before ,,metals4 ,by ,n4 ,joly1 ,correspondent of the ,institute4 ,with #adh ,illustrations4 #a4ge4 #df4 ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,speech ,,and ,,their ,,application ,,in ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,articulate ,,sounds4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 von ,meyer1 ,professor in ,ordinary of ,anatomy at the ,university of ,zurich4 ,with #dg ,woodcuts4 #a4ge4 #dg4 ,,fallacies3 ,a ,view of ,logic from the ,practical ,side4 ,by ,alfred ,sidgwick1 ,b4,a41 ,oxon4 #a4ge4 #dh4 ,,origin ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,by ,alphonse de ,candolle4 #b4jj4 #di4 ,,jelly-,,fish1 ,,star-,,fish1 ,,and ,,sea-,,urchins4 ,being a ,research on ,primitive ,nervous ,systems4 ,by ,george ,j4 ,romanes4 #a4ge4 #ej4 ,,the ,,common ,,sense ,,of ,,the ,,exact ,,sciences4 ,by the late ,william ,kingdon ,clifford4 #a4ej4 #ea4 ,,physical ,,expression3 ,its ,modes and ,principles4 ,by ,francis ,warner1 ,m4,d41 ,assistant ,physician1 and ,lecturer on ,botany to the ,london ,hospital1 etc4 ,with #ea ,illustrations4 #a4ge4 #eb4 ,,anthropoid ,,apes4 ,by ,robert ,hartmann1 ,professor in the ,university of ,berlin4 ,with #fc ,illustrations4 #a4ge4 #ec4 ,,the ,,mammalia ,,in ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,primeval ,,times4 ,by ,oscar ,schmidt4 #a4ej4 #ed4 ,,comparative ,,literature4 ,by ,hutcheson ,macaulay ,posnett1 ,m4 ,a41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,l4 ,s41 ,barrister-at-,law2 ,professor of ,classics and ,english ,literature1 ,university ,college1 ,auckland1 ,new ,zealand2 author of ,the ,historical ,method1 etc4 #a4ge4 #ee4 ,,earthquakes ,,and ,,other ,,earth ,,movements4 ,by ,john ,milne1 ,professor of ,mining and ,geology in the ,imperial ,college of ,engineering1 ,tokio1 ,japan4 ,with #ch ,figures4 #a4ge4 #ef4 ,,microbes1 ,,ferments1 ,,and ,,moulds4 ,by ,e4 ,l4 ,trouessart4 ,with #ajg ,illustrations4 #a4ej4 #eg4 ,,the ,,geographical ,,and ,,geological ,,distribution ,,of ,,animals4 ,by ,angelo ,heilprin4 #b4jj4 #eh4 ,,weather4 ,a ,popular ,exposition of the ,nature of ,weather ,changes from ,day to ,day4 ,by ,hon4 ,ralph ,abercromby4 #a4ge4 #ei4 ,,animal ,,magnetism4 ,by ,alfred ,binet and ,charles ,fr1 ,assistant ,physician at the ,salptrire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,plants ,,in ,,geological ,,time4 7,adapted from ,ward47 ,,the ,,international ,,scientific ,,series ,,the ,,geological ,,history ,,of ,,plants ,,by ,,sir ,j4 ,,william ,,dawson ,c4 ,m4 ,g41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 c4 ,,with ,,illustrations ,,new ,,york ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahhh ,copyright1 #ahhh1 ,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,preface4 ,the object of this work is to give1 in a connected form1 a summary of the development of the vegetable kingdom in geological time4 ,to the geologist and botanist the subject is one of importance with reference to their special pursuits1 and one on which it has not been easy to find any convenient manual of information4 ,it is hoped that its treatment in the present volume will also be found sufficiently simple and popular to be attractive to the general reader4 ,in a work of so limited dimensions1 detailed descriptions cannot be given1 except occasionally by way of illustration2 but references to authorities will be made in foot-notes1 and certain details1 which may be useful to collectors and students1 will be placed in notes appended to the chapters1 so as not to encumber the text4 ,the illustrations of this work are for the most part original2 but some of them have previously appeared in special papers of the author4 ,j4 ,w4 ,d4 ,february1 #ahhh4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,preliminary ,ideas of ,geological ,chronology and of the ,classification of ,plants #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,vegetation of the ,laurentian and ,early ,paleozoic--,questions as to ,alg #h ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,erian or ,devonian ,forests--,origin of ,petroleum--,the ,age of ,acrogens and ,gymnosperms #de ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,carboniferous ,flora--,culmination of the ,acrogens--,formation of ,coal #aaj ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,flora of the ,early ,mesozoic--,reign of ,pines and ,cycads #age ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,reign of ,angiosperms in the ,later ,cretaceous and ,early ,tertiary or ,kainozoic #aia ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,plants from the ,tertiary to the ,modern ,period #bai ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,general ,laws of ,origin and ,migrations of ,plants--,relations of ,recent and ,fossil ,floras #bcg ,,appendix4 ,i4 ,comparative ,view of ,paleozoic ,floras #bgc ,,ii4 ,heer's ,latest ,statements on the ,greenland ,flora #bha ,,iii4 ,mineralisation of ,fossil ,plants #bhd ,,iv4 ,general ,works on ,palobotany #bhf ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,table of ,chronology of ,plants 7,frontispiece47 ,protannularia ,harknessii #ba ,nematophyton ,logani 7three ,figures7 #bb1 #bc ,trail of ,king-,crab #bh ,trail of ,carboniferous ,crustacean #bh ,rusichnites #bi ,palophycus #cj ,astropolithon #ca ,carboniferous ,rill-mark #cc ,cast of ,shrinkage ,cracks #cd ,cone-in-cone #cf ,buthotrephis #cg ,silurian ,vegetation #dj ,erian ,plants #di ,protosalvinia #ed ,ptilophyton 7two ,figures7 #fb1 #fc ,psilophyton 7two ,figures7 #fd1 #ff ,sphenophyllum #fe ,lepidodendron #ff ,various ,ferns #gb1 #gc ,archopteris #gd ,caulopteris #ge ,megalopteris #gf ,calamites #gg ,asterophyllites #gh ,dadoxylon #gi ,cordaites #ha ,erian ,fruits #hb ,foliage from the ,coal-formation #aaa ,sigillari 7five ,figures7 #aab-aad ,stigmari 7two ,figures7 #aae ,vegetable ,tissues #aag ,coals and ,erect ,trees 7two ,figures7 #aah1 #aai ,lepidodendron #abj ,lepidophloios #aba ,asterophyllites1 c4 #abb ,calamites 7five ,figures7 #abc-abe ,ferns of the ,coal-formation 7six ,figures7 #abf-abi ,noeggerathia dispar #acj ,cordaites #aca ,fruits of ,cordaites1 c4 #acb ,conifers of the ,coal-formation 7four ,species7 #ace ,trigonocarpum #acf ,sternbergia #acg ,walchia imbricatula #ach ,foliage of the ,jurassic ,period #agg ,podozamites #agh ,salisburia #ahj ,sequoia #aha ,populus primva #aia ,stercalia and ,laurophyllum #aid ,vegetation of the ,cretaceous ,period #aie ,platanus #aih ,protophyllum #aii ,magnolia #bjj ,liriodendron 7two ,figures7 #bja ,brasenia #bjg ,gaylussaccia resinosa #bbh ,populus balsamifera #bbi ,fucus #bcj ,,the ,,geological ,,history ,,of ,,plants4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,preliminary ,,ideas ,,of ,,geological ,,chronology ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,plants4 ,the knowledge of fossil plants and of the history of the vegetable kingdom has1 until recently1 been so fragmentary that it seemed hopeless to attempt a detailed treatment of the subject of this little book4 ,our stores of knowledge have1 however1 been rapidly accumulating in recent years1 and we have now arrived at a stage when every new discovery serves to render useful and intelligible a vast number of facts previously fragmentary and of uncertain import4 ,the writer of this work1 born in a district rich in fossil plants1 began to collect and work at these as a boy1 in connection with botanical and geological pursuits4 ,he has thus been engaged in the study of fossil plants for nearly half a century1 and1 while he has published much on the subject1 has endeavoured carefully to keep within the sphere of ascertained facts1 and has made it a specialty to collect1 as far as possible1 what has been published by others4 ,he has also enjoyed opportunities of correspondence or personal intercourse with most of the more eminent workers in the subject4 ,now1 in the evening of his days1 he thinks it right to endeavour to place before the world a summary of facts and of his own matured conclusions--feeling1 however1 that nothing can be final in this matter2 and that he can only hope to sketch the present aspect of the subject1 and to point the way to new developments1 which must go on long after he shall have passed away4 ,the subject is one which has the disadvantage of presupposing some knowledge of the geological history of the earth1 and of the classification and structures of modern plants2 and in order that all who may please to read the following pages may be placed1 as nearly as possible1 on the same level1 this introductory chapter will be devoted to a short statement of the general facts of geological chronology1 and of the natural divisions of the vegetable kingdom in their relations to that chronology4 ,the crust of the earth1 as we somewhat modestly term that portion of its outer shell which is open to our observation1 consists of many beds of rock superimposed on each other1 and which must have been deposited successively1 beginning with the lowest4 ,this is proved by the structure of the beds themselves1 by the markings on their surfaces1 and by the remains of animals and plants which they contain2 all these appearances indicating that each successive bed must have been the surface before it was covered by the next4 ,as these beds of rock were mostly formed under water1 and of material derived from the waste of land1 they are not universal1 but occur in those places where there were extensive areas of water receiving detritus from the land4 ,further1 as the distinction of land and water arises primarily from the shrinkage of the mass of the earth1 and from the consequent collapse of the crust in some places and ridging of it up in others1 it follows that there have1 from the earliest geological periods1 been deep ocean-basins1 ridges of elevated land1 and broad plateaus intervening between the ridges1 and which were at some times under water1 and at other times land1 with many intermediate phases4 ,the settlement and crumpling of the crust were not continuous1 but took place at intervals2 and each such settlement produced not only a ridging up along certain lines1 but also an emergence of the plains or plateaus4 ,thus at all times there have been ridges of folded rock constituting mountain-ranges1 flat expansions of continental plateau1 sometimes dry and sometimes submerged1 and deep ocean-basins1 never except in some of their shallower portions elevated into land4 ,by the study of the successive beds1 more especially of those deposited in the times of continental submergence1 we obtain a table of geological chronology which expresses the several stages of the formation of the earth's crust1 from that early time when a solid shell first formed on our nascent planet to the present day4 ,by collecting the fossil remains embedded in the several layers and placing these in chronological order1 we obtain in like manner histories of animal and plant life parallel to the physical changes indicated by the beds themselves4 ,the facts as to the sequence we obtain from the study of exposures in cliffs1 cuttings1 quarries1 and mines2 and by correlating these local sections in a great number of places1 we obtain our general table of succession2 though it is to be observed that in some single exposures or series of exposures1 like those in the great canons of ,colorado1 or on the coasts of ,great ,britain1 we can often in one locality see nearly the whole sequence of beds4 ,let us observe here also that1 though we can trace these series of deposits over the whole of the surfaces of the continents1 yet if the series could be seen in one spot1 say in one shaft sunk through the whole thickness of the earth's crust1 this would be sufficient for our purpose1 so far as the history of life is concerned4 ,the evidence is similar to that obtained by ,schliemann on the site of ,troy1 where1 in digging through successive layers of dbris1 he found the objects deposited by successive occupants of the site1 from the time of the ,roman ,empire back to the earliest tribes1 whose flint weapons and the ashes of their fires rest on the original surface of the ground4 ,let us now tabulate the whole geological succession with the history of animals and plants associated with it3 ,,animals4 ,,systems ,,of ,,formations4 ,,plants4 ,age of ,man and ,mammalia4 ,kainozoic4 ,modern1 ,pleistocene1 ,angiosperms and ,pliocene1 ,palms dominant4 ,miocene1 ,eocene4 ,age of ,reptiles4 ,mesozoic4 ,cretaceous1 ,cycads and ,pines ,jurassic1 dominant4 ,triassic4 ,age of ,amphibians and ,fishes4 ,age of ,invertebrates4 ,palozoic4 ,permian1 ,acrogens and ,carboniferous1 ,gymnosperms ,erian1 dominant4 ,silurian1 ,ordovician1 ,cambrian1 ,huronian 7,upper74 ,age of ,protozoa4 ,eozoic4 ,huronian 7,lower71 ,protogens and ,alg4 ,upper ,laurentian1 ,middle ,laurentian1 ,lower ,laurentian4 ,it will be observed1 since only the latest of the systems of formations in this table belongs to the period of human history1 that the whole lapse of time embraced in the table must be enormous4 ,if we suppose the modern period to have continued for say ten thousand years1 and each of the others to have been equal to it1 we shall require two hundred thousand years for the whole4 ,there is1 however1 reason to believe1 from the great thickness of the formations and the slowness of the deposition of many of them in the older systems1 that they must have required vastly greater time4 ,taking these criteria into account1 it has been estimated that the time-ratios for the first three great ages may be as one for the ,kainozoic to three for the ,mesozoic and twelve for the ,palozoic1 with as much for the ,eozoic as for the ,palozoic4 ,this is ,dana's estimate4 ,another1 by ,hull and ,houghton1 gives the following ratios3 ,azoic1 #cdc per cent42 ,palozoic1 #dbe per cent42 ,mesozoic and ,kainozoic1 #bcb per cent4 ,it is further held that the modern period is much shorter than the other periods of the ,kainozoic1 so that our geological table may have to be measured by millions of years instead of thousands4 ,we cannot1 however1 attach any certain and definite value in years to geological time1 but must content ourselves with the general statement that it has been vastly long in comparison to that covered by human history4 ,bearing in mind this great duration of geological time1 and the fact that it probably extends from a period when the earth was intensely heated1 its crust thin1 and its continents as yet unformed1 it will be evident that the conditions of life in the earlier geologic periods may have been very different from those which obtained later4 ,when we further take into account the vicissitudes of land and water which have occurred1 we shall see that such changes must have produced very great differences of climate4 ,the warm equatorial waters have in all periods1 as superficial oceanic currents1 been main agents in the diffusion of heat over the surface of the earth1 and their distribution to north and south must have been determined mainly by the extent and direction of land1 though it may also have been modified by the changes in the astronomical relations and period of the earth1 and the form of its orbit4,a ,we know by the evidence of fossil plants that changes of this kind have occurred so great as1 on the one hand1 to permit the plants of warm temperate regions to exist within the ,arctic ,circle2 and1 on the other1 to drive these plants into the tropics and to replace them by ,arctic forms4 ,it is evident also that in those periods when the continental areas were largely submerged1 there might be an excessive amount of moisture in the atmosphere1 greatly modifying the climate1 in so far as plants are concerned4 ,a ,croll1 ,climate and ,time4 ,let us now consider the history of the vegetable kingdom as indicated in the few notes in the right-hand column of the table4 ,the most general subdivision of plants is into the two great series of ,cryptogams1 or those which have no manifest flowers1 and produce minute spores instead of seeds2 and ,phnogams1 or those which possess flowers and produce seeds containing an embryo of the future plant4 ,the ,cryptogams may be subdivided into the following three groups3 #a4 ,thallogens1 cellular plants not distinctly distinguishable into stem and leaf4 ,these are the ,fungi1 the ,lichens1 and the ,alg1 or sea-weeds4 #b4 ,anogens1 having stem and foliage1 but wholly cellular4 ,these are the ,mosses and ,liverworts4 #c4 ,acrogens1 which have long tubular fibres as well as cells in their composition1 and thus have the capacity of attaining a more considerable magnitude4 ,these are the ,ferns 7,filices71 the ,mare's-tails 7,equisetace71 and the ,club-mosses 7,lycopodiace71 and a curious little group of aquatic plants called ,rhizocarps 7,rhizocarpe74 ,the ,phnogams are all vascular1 but they differ much in the simplicity or complexity of their flowers or seeds4 ,on this ground they admit of a twofold division3 #a4 ,gymnosperms1 or those which bear naked seeds not enclosed in fruits4 ,they are the ,pines and their allies1 and the ,cycads4 #b4 ,angiosperms1 which produce true fruits enclosing the seeds4 ,in this group there are two well-marked subdivisions differing in the structure of the seed and stem4 ,they are the ,endogens1 or inside growers1 with seeds having one seed-leaf only1 as the grasses and the palms2 and the ,exogens1 having outside-growing woody stems1 and seeds with two seed-leaves4 ,most of the ordinary forest-trees of temperate climates belong to this group4 ,on referring to the geological table1 it will be seen that there is a certain rough correspondence between the order of rank of plants and the order of their appearance in time4 ,the oldest plants that we certainly know are ,alg1 and with these there are plants apparently with the structures of ,thallophytes but the habit of trees1 and which1 for want of a better name1 ,i may call ,protogens4 ,plants akin to the ,rhizocarps also appear very early4 ,next in order we find forests in which gigantic ,ferns and ,lycopods and ,mare's-tails predominate1 and are associated with pines4 ,succeeding these we have a reign of ,gymnosperms1 and in the later formations we find the higher ,phnogams dominant4 ,thus there is an advance in elevation and complexity along with the advance in geological time1 but connected with the remarkable fact that in earlier times low groups attain to an elevation unexampled in later times1 when their places are occupied with plants of higher type4 ,it is this historical development that we have to trace in the following pages1 and it will be the most simple and at the same time the most instructive method to consider it in the order of time4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,vegetation ,,of ,,the ,,laurentian ,,and ,,early ,,pal,,ozoic--,,questions ,,as ,,to ,,alg4 ,oldest of all the formations known to geologists1 and representing perhaps the earliest rocks produced after our earth had ceased to be a molten mass1 are the hard1 crystalline1 and much-contorted rocks named by the late ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan ,laurentian1 and which are largely developed in the northern parts of ,north ,america and ,europe1 and in many other regions4 ,so numerous and extensive1 indeed1 are the exposures of these rocks1 that we have good reason to believe that they underlie all the other formations of our continents1 and are even world-wide in their distribution4 ,in the lower part of this great system of rocks which1 in some places at least1 is thirty thousand feet in thickness1 we find no traces of the existence of any living thing on the earth4 ,but1 in the middle portion of the ,laurentian1 rocks are found which indicate that there were already land and water1 and that the waters and possibly the land were already tenanted by living beings4 ,the great beds of limestone which exist in this part of the system furnish one indication of this4 ,in the later geological formations the limestones are mostly organic--that is1 they consist of accumulated remains of shells1 corals1 and other hard parts of marine animals1 which are composed of calcium carbonate1 which the animals obtain directly from their food1 and indirectly from the calcareous matter dissolved in the sea-water4 ,in like manner great beds of iron-ore exist in the ,laurentian2 but in later formations the determining cause of the accumulation of such beds is the partial deoxidation and solution of the peroxide of iron by the agency of organic matter4 ,besides this1 certain forms known as ,eozoon ,canadense have been recognised in the ,laurentian limestones1 which indicate the presence at least of one of the lower types of marine animals4 ,where animal life is1 we may fairly infer the existence of vegetable life as well1 since the plant is the only producer of food for the animal4 ,but we are not left merely to this inference4 ,great quantities of carbon or charcoal in the form of the substance known as graphite or plumbago exist in the ,laurentian4 ,now1 in more recent formations we have deposits of coal and bituminous matter1 and we know that these have arisen from the accumulation and slow putrefaction of masses of vegetable matter4 ,further1 in places where igneous action has affected the beds1 we find that ordinary coal has been changed into anthracite and graphite1 that bituminous shales have been converted into graphitic shales1 and that cracks filled with soft bituminous matter have ultimately become changed into veins of graphite4 ,when1 therefore1 we find in the ,laurentian thick beds of graphite and beds of limestone charged with detached grains and crystals of this substance1 and graphitic gneisses and schists and veins of graphite traversing the beds1 we recognise the same phenomena that are apparent in later formations containing vegetable dbris4 ,the carbon thus occurring in the ,laurentian is not to be regarded as exceptional or rare1 but is widely distributed and of large amount4 ,in ,canada more especially the deposits are very considerable4 ,the graphite of the ,laurentian of ,canada occurs both in beds and in veins1 and in such a manner as to show that its origin and deposition are contemporaneous with those of the containing rock4 ,sir ,william ,logan states,b that the deposits of plumbago generally occur in the limestones or in their immediate vicinity1 and granular varieties of the rock often contain large crystalline plates of plumbago4 ,at other times this mineral is so finely disseminated as to give a bluish-grey colour to the limestone1 and the distribution of bands thus coloured seems to mark the stratification of the rock4 ,he further states3 ,the plumbago is not confined to the limestones2 large crystalline scales of it are occasionally disseminated in pyroxene rock1 and sometimes in quartzite and in feldspathic rocks1 or even in magnetic oxide of iron4 ,in addition to these bedded forms1 there are also true veins in which graphite occurs associated with calcite1 quartz1 orthoclase1 or pyroxene1 and either in disseminated scales1 in detached masses1 or in bands or layers separated from each other and from the wall-rock by feldspar1 pyroxene1 and quartz4 ,dr4 ,hunt also mentions the occurrence of finely granular varieties1 and of that peculiarly waved and corrugated variety simulating fossil wood1 though really a mere form of laminated structure1 which also occurs at ,warrensburg1 ,new ,york1 and at the ,marinski mine in ,siberia4 ,many of the veins are not true fissures1 but rather constitute a network of shrinkage cracks or segregation veins traversing in countless numbers the containing rock1 and most irregular in their dimensions1 so that they often resemble strings of nodular masses4 ,it is most probable that the graphite of the veins was originally introduced as a liquid or plastic hydrocarbon2 but in whatever way introduced1 the character of the veins indicates that in the case of the greater number of them the carbonaceous material must have been derived from the bedded rocks traversed by these veins1 to which it bears the same relation with the veins of bitumen found in the bituminous shales of the ,carboniferous and ,silurian rocks4 ,nor can there be any doubt that the graphite found in the beds has been deposited along with the calcareous matter or muddy and sandy sediment of which these beds were originally composed4,c ,b ,geology of ,canada1 #ahfc4 ,c ,paper by the author on ,laurentian ,graphite1 ,journal of ,london ,geological ,society1 #ahgf4 ,the quantity of graphite in the ,lower ,laurentian series is enormous4 ,some years ago1 in the township of ,buckingham1 on the ,ottawa ,river1 ,i examined a band of limestone believed to be a continuation of that described by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan as the ,green ,lake limestone4 ,it was estimated to amount1 with some thin interstratified bands of gneiss1 to a thickness of six hundred feet or more1 and was found to be filled with disseminated crystals of graphite and veins of the mineral to such an extent as to constitute in some places one-fourth of the whole2 and1 making every allowance for the poorer portions1 this band cannot contain in all a less vertical thickness of pure graphite than from twenty to thirty feet4 ,in the adjoining township of ,lochaber ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan notices a band from twenty-five to thirty feet thick1 reticulated with graphite veins to such an extent as to be mined with profit for the mineral4 ,at another place in the same district a bed of graphite from ten to twelve feet thick1 and yielding #bj per cent1 of the pure material1 is worked4 ,as it appears in the excavation made by the quarrymen1 it resembled a bed of coal2 and a block from this bed1 about four feet thick1 was a prominent object in the ,canadian department of the ,colonial ,exhibition of #ahhf4 ,when it is considered that graphite occurs in similar abundance at several other horizons1 in beds of limestone which have been ascertained by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan to have an aggregate thickness of thirty-five hundred feet1 it is scarcely an exaggeration to maintain that the quantity of carbon in the ,laurentian is equal to that in similar areas of the ,carboniferous system4 ,it is also to be observed that an immense area in ,canada appears to be occupied by these graphitic and ,eozoon limestones1 and that rich graphitic deposits exist in the continuation of this system in the ,state of ,new ,york1 while in rocks believed to be of this age near ,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick1 there is a very thick bed of graphitic limestone1 and associated with it three regular beds of graphite1 having an aggregate thickness of about five feet4,d ,d ,matthew in ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 xxi41 p4 #dbc4 ,acadian ,geology1 p4 #ffb4 ,it may fairly be assumed that in the present world1 and in those geological periods with whose organic remains we are more familiar than with those of the ,laurentian1 there is no other source of unoxidized carbon in rocks than that furnished by organic matter1 and that this has obtained its carbon in all cases1 in the first instance1 from the deoxidation of carbonic acid by living plants4 ,no other source of carbon can1 ,i believe1 be imagined in the ,laurentian period4 ,we may1 however1 suppose either that the graphitic matter of the ,laurentian has been accumulated in beds like those of coal1 or that it has consisted of diffused bituminous matter similar to that in more modern bituminous shales and bituminous and oil-bearing limestones4 ,the beds of graphite near ,st4 ,john1 some of those in the gneiss at ,ticonderoga in ,new ,york1 and at ,lochaber and ,buckingham1 and elsewhere in ,canada1 are so pure and regular that one might fairly compare them with the graphitic coal of ,rhode ,island4 ,these instances1 however1 are exceptional1 and the greater part of the disseminated and vein graphite might rather be likened in its mode of occurrence to the bituminous matter in bituminous shales and limestones4 ,we may compare the disseminated graphite to that which we find in those districts of ,canada in which ,silurian and ,devonian bituminous shales and limestones have been metamorphosed and converted into graphitic rocks not very dissimilar to those in the less altered portions of the ,laurentian4,e ,in like manner it seems probable that the numerous reticulating veins of graphite may have been formed by the segregation of bituminous matter into fissures and planes of least resistance1 in the manner in which such veins occur in modern bituminous limestones and shales4 ,such bituminous veins occur in the ,lower ,carboniferous limestone and shale of ,dorchester and ,hillsborough1 ,new ,brunswick1 with an arrangement very similar to that of the veins of graphite2 and in the ,quebec rocks of ,point ,levi1 veins attaining to a thickness of more than a foot1 are filled with a coaly matter having a transverse columnar structure1 and regarded by ,logan and ,hunt as an altered bitumen4 ,these palozoic analogies would lead us to infer that the larger part of the ,laurentian graphite falls under the second class of deposits above mentioned1 and that1 if of vegetable origin1 the organic matter must have been thoroughly disintegrated and bituminised before it was changed into graphite4 ,this would also give a probability that the vegetation implied was aquatic1 or at least that it was accumulated under water4 ,e ,granby1 ,melbourne1 ,owl's ,head1 c41 ,geology of ,canada1 #ahfc1 p4 #eii4 ,dr4 ,hunt has1 however1 observed an indication of terrestrial vegetation1 or at least of subarial decay1 in the great beds of ,laurentian iron-ore4 ,these1 if formed in the same manner as more modern deposits of this kind1 would imply the reducing and solvent action of substances produced in the decay of plants4 ,in this case such great ore-beds as that of ,hull1 on the ,ottawa1 seventy feet thick1 or that near ,newborough1 two hundred feet thick1,f must represent a corresponding quantity of vegetable matter which has totally disappeared4 ,it may be added that similar demands on vegetable matter as a deoxidising agent are made by the beds and veins of metallic sulphides of the ,laurentian1 though some of the latter are no doubt of later date than the ,laurentian rocks themselves4 ,f ,geology of ,canada1 #ahfc4 ,it would be very desirable to confirm such conclusions as those above deduced by the evidence of actual microscopic structure4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that when1 in more modern sediments1 ,alg have been converted into bituminous matter1 we cannot ordinarily obtain any structural evidence of the origin of such bitumen1 and in the graphitic slates and limestones derived from the metamorphosis of such rocks no organic structure remains4 ,it is true that1 in certain bituminous shales and limestones of the ,silurian system1 shreds of organic tissue can sometimes be detected1 and in some cases1 as in the ,lower ,silurian limestone of the ,la ,cloche ,mountains in ,canada1 the pores of brachiopodous shells and the cells of corals have been penetrated by black bituminous matter1 forming what may be regarded as natural injections1 sometimes of much beauty4 ,in correspondence with this1 while in some ,laurentian graphitic rocks1 as1 for instance1 in the compact graphite of ,clarendon1 the carbon presents a curdled appearance due to segregation1 and precisely similar to that of the bitumen in more modern bituminous rocks1 ,i can detect in the graphitic limestones occasional fibrous structures which may be remains of plants1 and in some specimens vermicular lines1 which ,i believe to be tubes of ,eozoon penetrated by matter once bituminous1 but now in the state of graphite4 ,when palozoic land-plants have been converted into graphite1 they sometimes perfectly retain their structure4 ,mineral charcoal1 with structure1 exists in the graphitic coal of ,rhode ,island4 ,the fronds of ferns1 with their minutest veins perfect1 are preserved in the ,devonian shales of ,st4 ,john1 in the state of graphite2 and in the same formation there are trunks of ,conifers 7,dadoxylon ,ouangondianum7 in which the material of the cell-walls has been converted into graphite1 while their cavities have been filled with calcareous spar and quartz1 the finest structures being preserved quite as well as in comparatively unaltered specimens from the coal-formation4,g ,no structures so perfect have as yet been detected in the ,laurentian1 though in the largest of the three graphitic beds at ,st4 ,john there appear to be fibrous structures1 which ,i believe may indicate the existence of land-plants4 ,this graphite is composed of contorted and slickensided lamin1 much like those of some bituminous shales and coarse coals2 and in these are occasional small pyritous masses which show hollow carbonaceous fibres1 in some cases presenting obscure indications of lateral pores4 ,i regard these indications1 however1 as uncertain2 and it is not as yet fully ascertained that these beds at ,st4 ,john are on the same geological horizon with the ,lower ,laurentian of ,canada1 though they certainly underlie the ,primordial series of the ,acadian group1 and are separated from it by beds having the character of the ,huronian4 ,g ,acadian ,geology1 p4 #ece4 ,in calcined specimens the structures remain in the graphite after decalcification by an acid4 ,there is thus no absolute impossibility that distinct organic tissues may be found in the ,laurentian graphite1 if formed from land-plants1 more especially if any plants existed at that time having true woody or vascular tissues2 but it cannot with certainty be affirmed that such tissues have been found4 ,it is possible1 however1 that in the ,laurentian period the vegetation of the land may have consisted wholly of cellular plants1 as1 for example1 mosses and lichens2 and if so1 there would be comparatively little hope of the distinct preservation of their forms or tissues1 or of our being able to distinguish the remains of land-plants from those of ,alg4 ,we may sum up these facts and considerations in the following statements3 ,first1 that somewhat obscure traces of organic structure can be detected in the ,laurentian graphite2 secondly1 that the general arrangement and microscopic structure of the substance corresponds with that of the carbonaceous and bituminous matters in marine formations of more modern date2 thirdly1 that if the ,laurentian graphite has been derived from vegetable matter1 it has only undergone a metamorphosis similar in kind to that which organic matter in metamorphosed sediments of later age has experienced2 fourthly1 that the association of the graphitic matter with organic limestone1 beds of iron-ore1 and metallic sulphides greatly strengthens the probability of its vegetable origin2 fifthly1 that when we consider the immense thickness and extent of the ,eozoonal and graphitic limestones and iron-ore deposits of the ,laurentian1 if we admit the organic origin of the limestone and graphite1 we must be prepared to believe that the life of that early period1 though it may have existed under low forms1 was most copiously developed1 and that it equalled1 perhaps surpassed1 in its results1 in the way of geological accumulation1 that of any subsequent period4 ,many years ago1 at the meeting of the ,american ,association in ,albany1 the writer was carrying into the room of the ,geological ,section a mass of fossil wood from the ,devonian of ,gasp1 when he met the late ,professor ,agassiz1 and remarked that the specimen was the remains of a ,devonian tree contemporaneous with his fishes of that age4 ,how ,i wish ,i could sit under its shade6 was the smiling reply of the great zologist2 and when we think of the great accumulations of ,laurentian carbon1 and that we are entirely ignorant of the forms and structures of the vegetation which produced it1 we can scarcely suppress a feeling of disappointment4 ,some things1 however1 we can safely infer from the facts that are known1 and these it may be well to mention4 ,the climate and atmosphere of the ,laurentian may have been well adapted for the sustenance of vegetable life4 ,we can scarcely doubt that the internal heat of the earth still warmed the waters of the sea1 and these warm waters must have diffused great quantities of mists and vapours over the land1 giving a moist and equable if not a very clear atmosphere4 ,the vast quantities of carbon dioxide afterwards sealed up in limestones and carbonaceous beds must also have still floated in the atmosphere and must have supplied abundance of the carbon1 which constitutes the largest ingredient in vegetable tissues4 ,under these circumstances the whole world must have resembled a damp1 warm greenhouse1 and plants loving such an atmosphere could have grown luxuriantly4 ,in these circumstances the lower forms of aquatic vegetation and those that love damp1 warm air and wet soil would have been at home4 ,if we ask more particularly what kinds of plants might be expected to be introduced in such circumstances1 we may obtain some information from the vegetation of the succeeding ,palozoic age1 when such conditions still continued to a modified extent4 ,in this period the club-mosses1 ferns1 and mare's-tails engrossed the world and grew to sizes and attained degrees of complexity of structure not known in modern times4 ,in the previous ,laurentian age something similar may have happened to ,alg1 to ,fungi1 to ,lichens1 to ,liverworts1 and ,mosses4 ,the ,alg may have attained to gigantic dimensions1 and may have even ascended out of the water in some of their forms4 ,these comparatively simple cellular and tubular structures1 now degraded to the humble position of flat lichens or soft or corky fungi1 or slender cellular mosses1 may have been so strengthened and modified as to constitute forest-trees4 ,this would be quite in harmony with what is observed in the development of other plants in primitive geological times2 and a little later in this history we shall see that there is evidence in the flora of the ,silurian of a survival of such forms4 ,it may be that no geologist or botanist will ever be able to realise these dreams of the past4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is quite possible that some fortunate chance may have somewhere preserved specimens of ,laurentian plants showing their structure4 ,in any case we have here presented to us the strange and startling fact that the remarkable arrangement of protoplasmic matter and chlorophyll1 which enables the vegetable cell to perform1 with the aid of solar light1 the miracle of decomposing carbon dioxide and water1 and forming with them woody and corky tissues1 had already been introduced upon the earth4 ,it has been well said that no amount of study of inorganic nature would ever have enabled any one to anticipate the possibility of the construction of an apparatus having the chemical powers of the living vegetable cell4 ,yet this most marvellous structure seems to have been introduced in the full plenitude of its powers in the ,laurentian age4 ,whether this early ,laurentian vegetation was the means of sustaining any animal life other than marine ,protozoa1 we do not know4 ,it may have existed for its own sake alone1 or merely as a purifier of the atmosphere1 in preparation for the future introduction of land-animals4 ,the fact that there have existed1 even in modern times1 oceanic islands rich in vegetation1 yet untenanted by the higher forms of animal life1 prepares us to believe that such conditions may have been general or universal in the primeval times we are here considering4 ,if we ask to what extent the carbon extracted from the atmosphere and stored up in the earth has been1 or is likely to be1 useful to man1 the answer must be that it is not in a state to enable it to be used as mineral fuel4 ,it has1 however1 important uses in the arts1 though at present the supply seems rather in excess of the demand1 and it may well be that there are uses of graphite still undiscovered1 and to which it will yet be applied4 ,finally1 it is deserving of notice that1 if ,laurentian graphite indicates vegetable life1 it indicates this in vast profusion4 ,that incalculable quantities of vegetable matter have been oxidised and have disappeared we may believe on the evidence of the vast beds of iron-ore2 and1 in regard to that preserved as graphite1 it is certain that every inch of that mineral must indicate many feet of crude vegetable matter4 ,it is remarkable that1 in ascending from the ,laurentian1 we do not at first appear to advance in evidences of plant-life4 ,the ,huronian age1 which succeeded the ,laurentian1 seems to have been a disturbed and unquiet time1 and1 except in certain bands of iron-ore and some dark slates coloured with carbonaceous matter1 we find in it no evidence of vegetation4 ,in the ,cambrian a great subsidence of our continents began1 which went on1 though with local intermissions and reversals1 all through the ,siluro-,cambrian or ,ordovician time4 ,these times were1 for this reason1 remarkable for the great abundance and increase of marine animals rather than of land-plants4 ,still1 there are some traces of land vegetation1 and we may sketch first the facts of this kind which are known1 and then advert to some points relating to the earlier ,alg1 or sea-weeds4 ,an eminent ,swedish geologist1 ,linnarsson1 has described1 under the name of ,eophyton1 certain impressions on old ,cambrian rocks in ,sweden1 and which certainly present very plant-like forms4 ,they want1 however1 any trace of carbonaceous matter1 and seem rather to be grooves or marks cut in clay by the limbs or tails of some aquatic animal1 and afterwards filled up and preserved by succeeding deposits4 ,after examining large series of these specimens from ,sweden1 and from rocks of similar age in ,canada1 ,i confess that ,i have no faith in their vegetable nature4 ,the oldest plants known to me1 and likely to have been of higher grade than ,alg1 are specimens kindly presented to me by ,dr4 ,alleyne ,nicholson1 of ,aberdeen1 and which he had named ,buthotrephis ,harknessii,h and ,b4 radiata4 ,they are from the ,skiddaw rocks of ,cumberland4 ,on examining these specimens1 and others subsequently collected in the same locality by ,dr4 ,gr4 ,m4 ,dawson1 while convinced by their form and carbonaceous character that they are really plants1 ,i am inclined to refer them not to ,alg1 but probably to ,rhizocarps4 ,they consist of slender branching stems1 with whorls of elongate and pointed leaves1 resembling the genus ,annularia of the coal formation4 ,i am inclined to believe that both of ,nicholson's species are parts of one plant1 and for this ,i have proposed the generic name ,protannularia 7,fig4 #a74 ,somewhat higher in the ,siluro-,cambrian1 in the ,cincinnati group of ,america1 ,lesquereux has found some minute radiated leaves1 referred by him to the genus ,sphenophyllum1,i which is also allied to ,rhizocarps4 ,still more remarkable is the discovery in the same beds of a stem with rhombic areoles or leaf-bases1 to which the name ,protostigma has been given4,j ,if a plant1 this may have been allied to the club-mosses4 ,this seems to be all that we at present know of land-vegetation in the ,siluro-,cambrian4 ,so far as the remains go1 they indicate the presence of the families of ,rhizocarps and of ,lycopods4 ,h ,geological ,magazine1 #ahfi4 ,i ,see figure in next chapter4 ,j ,protostigma sigillarioides1 ,lesquereux4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,protannularia ,harknessii 7,nicholson71 a probable ,rhizocarp of the ,ordovician period4 ,if we ascend into the ,upper ,silurian1 or ,silurian proper1 the evidences of land vegetation somewhat increase4 ,in #ahei ,i described1 in ,the ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 a remarkable tree from the ,lower ,erian of ,gasp1 under the name ,prototaxites1 but for which ,i now prefer the name ,nematophyton4 ,when in ,london1 in #ahgj1 ,i obtained permission to examine certain specimens of spore-cases or seeds from the ,upper ,ludlow 7,silurian7 formation of ,england1 and which had been described by ,sir ,joseph ,hooker under the name ,pachytheca4 ,in the same slabs with these ,i found fragments of fossil wood identical with those of the ,gasp plant4 ,still later ,i recognised similar fragments associated also with ,pachytheca in the ,silurian of ,cape ,bon ,ami1 ,new ,brunswick4 ,lastly1 ,dr4 ,hicks has discovered similar wood1 and also similar fruits1 in the ,denbighshire grits1 at the base of the ,silurian4,k ,k ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 ,august1 #ahha4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,nematophyton ,logani 7magnified74 ,vertical section4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,nematophyton ,logani 7magnified74 ,horizontal section1 showing part of one of the radial spaces1 with tubes passing into it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,nematophyton ,logani 7magnified74 ,restoration4,l ,l ,figs4 #b1 #c1 and #d are drawn from nature by ,prof4 ,penhallow1 of ,mc,gill ,college4 ,from comparison of this singular wood1 the structure of which is represented in ,figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 with the dbris of fossil taxine woods1 mineralised after long maceration in water1 ,i was inclined to regard ,prototaxites1 or1 as ,i have more recently named it1 ,nematophyton1 as a primeval gymnosperm allied to those trees which ,unger had described from the ,erian of ,thuringia1 under the name ,aporoxylon4,m ,later examples of more lax tissues from branches or young stems1 and the elaborate examinations kindly undertaken for me by ,professor ,penhallow and referred to in a note to this chapter1 have induced me to modify this view1 and to hold that the tissues of these singular trees1 which seem to have existed from the beginning of the ,silurian age and to have finally disappeared in the early ,erian1 are altogether distinct from any form of vegetation hitherto known1 and are possibly survivors of that prototypal flora to which ,i have already referred4 ,they are trees of large size1 with a coaly bark and large spreading roots1 having the surface of the stem smooth or irregularly ribbed1 but with a nodose or jointed appearance4 ,internally1 they show a tissue of long1 cylindrical tubes1 traversed by a complex network of horizontal tubes thinner walled and of smaller size4 ,the tubes are arranged in concentric zones1 which1 if annual rings1 would in some specimens indicate an age of one hundred and fifty years4 ,there are also radiating spaces1 which ,i was at first disposed to regard as true medullary rays1 or which at least indicate a radiating arrangement of the tissue4 ,they now seem to be spaces extending from the centre towards the circumference of the stem1 and to have contained bundles of tubes gathered from the general tissue and extending outward perhaps to organs or appendages on the surface4 ,carruthers has suggested a resemblance to ,alg1 and has even proposed to change the name to ,nematophycus1 or thread-sea-weed2 but the resemblance is by no means clear1 and it would be quite as reasonable to compare the tissue to that of some ,fungi or ,lichens1 or even to suppose that a plant composed of cylindrical tubes has been penetrated by the mycelium or spawn of a dry-rot fungus4 ,but the tissues are too constant and too manifestly connected with each other to justify this last supposition4 ,that the plant grew on land ,i cannot doubt1 from its mode of occurrence2 that it was of durable and resisting character is shown by its state of preservation2 and the structure of the seeds called ,pachytheca1 with their constant association with these trees1 give countenance to the belief that they are the fruit of ,nematophyton4 ,of the foliage or fronds of these strange plants we unfortunately know nothing4 ,they seem1 however1 to realise the idea of arboreal plants having structures akin to those of thallophytes1 but with seeds so large and complex that they can scarcely be regarded as mere spores4 ,they should perhaps constitute a separate class or order to which the name ,nematodendre may be given1 and of which ,nematophyton will constitute one genus and ,aporoxylon of ,unger another4,n ,m ,palontologie des ,thuringer ,waldes1 #ahef4 ,n ,see report by the author on ,erian ,flora of ,canada1 #ahga and #ahhb1 for full description of these fossils4 ,another question arises as to the possible relation of these plants to other trees known by their external forms4 ,the ,protostigma of ,lesquereux has already been referred to1 and ,claypole has described a tree from the ,clinton group of the ,united ,states1 with large ovate leaf-bases1 to which he has given the name ,glyptodendron4,o ,if the markings on these plants are really leaf-bases1 they can scarcely have been connected with ,nematophyton1 because that tree shows no such surface-markings1 though1 as we have seen1 it had bundles of tubes passing diagonally to the surface4 ,these plants were more probably trees with an axis of barred vessels and thick1 cellular bark1 like the ,lepidodendron of later periods1 to be noticed in the sequel4 ,dr4 ,hicks has also described from the same series of beds which afforded the fragments of ,nematophyton certain carbonised dichotomous stems1 which he has named ,berwynia4 ,it is just possible that these plants may have belonged to the ,nematodendre4 ,the thick and dense coaly matter which they show resembles the bark of these trees1 the longitudinal striation in some of them may represent the fibrous structure1 and the lateral projections which have been compared to leaves or leaf-bases may correspond with the superficial eminences of ,nematophyton1 and the spirally arranged punctures which it shows on its surface4 ,in this case ,i should be disposed to regard the supposed stigmaria-like roots as really stems1 and the supposed rootlets as short1 spine-like rudimentary leaves4 ,all such comparisons must1 however1 in the mean time be regarded as conjectural4 ,we seem1 however1 to have here a type of tree very dissimilar to any even of the later ,palozoic age1 which existed throughout the ,silurian1 and probably further back1 which ceased to exist early in the ,erian age1 and before the appearance of the ordinary coniferous and lepidodendroid trees4 ,may it not have been a survivor of an old arboreal flora extending back even to the ,laurentian itself8 ,o ,american ,journal of ,science1 #ahgh4 ,multitudes of markings occurring on the surfaces of the older rocks have been referred to the ,alg or sea-weeds1 and indeed this group has been a sort of refuge for the destitute to which palontologists have been accustomed to refer any anomalous or inexplicable form which1 while probably organic1 could not be definitely referred to the animal kingdom4 ,there can be no question that some of these are truly marine plants2 and that plants of this kind occur in formations older than those in which we first find land-plants1 and that they have continued to inhabit the sea down to the present time4 ,it is also true that the oldest of these ,alg closely resemble in form plants of this kind still existing2 and1 since their simple cellular structures and soft tissues are scarcely ever preserved1 their general forms are all that we can know1 so that their exact resemblance to or difference from modern types can rarely be determined4 ,for the same reasons it has proved difficult clearly to distinguish them from mere inorganic markings or the traces of animals1 and the greatest divergence of opinion has occurred in recent times on these subjects1 as any one can readily understand who consults the voluminous and well-illustrated memoirs of ,nathorst1 ,williamson1 ,saporta1 and ,delgado4 ,the author of this work has given much attention to these remains1 and has not been disposed to claim for the vegetable kingdom so many of them as some of his contemporaries4,p ,the considerations which seem most important in making such distinctions are the following3 #a4 ,the presence or absence of carbonaceous matter4 ,true ,alg not infrequently present at least a thin film of carbon representing their organic matter1 and this is the more likely to occur in their case1 as organic matters buried in marine deposits and not exposed to atmospheric oxidation are very likely to be preserved4 #b4 ,in the absence of organic matter1 the staining of the containing rock1 the disappearance or deoxidation of its ferruginous colouring matter1 or the presence of iron pyrite may indicate the removal of organic matter by decay4 #c4 ,when organic matter and indications of it are altogether absent1 and form alone remains1 we have to distinguish from ,alg1 trails and burrows similar to those of aquatic animals1 casts of shrinkage-cracks1 water-marks1 and rill-marks widely diffused over the surfaces of beds4 #d4 ,markings depressed on the upper surfaces of beds1 and filled with the material of the succeeding layer1 are usually mere impressions4 ,the cases of possible exceptions to this are very rare4 ,on the contrary1 there are not infrequently forms in relief on the surfaces of rocks which are not ,alg1 but may be shallow burrows arched upward on top1 or castings of worms thrown up upon the surface4 ,sometimes1 however1 they may have been left by denudation of the surrounding material1 just as footprints on dry snow remain in relief after the surrounding loose material has been drifted away by the wind2 the portion consolidated by pressure being better able to resist the denuding agency4 ,p ,impressions and ,footprints of ,aquatic ,animals1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 #ahgc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,trail of a modern king-crab1 to illustrate imitations of plants sometimes named ,bilobites4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,trail of ,carboniferous crustacean 7,rusichnites ,acadicus71 ,nova ,scotia1 to illustrate supposed ,alg4 ,the footprints from the ,potsdam sandstone in ,canada1 for which the name ,protichnites was proposed by ,owen1 and which were by him referred to crustaceans probably resembling ,limulus1 were shown by the writer1 in #ahfb1,q to correspond precisely with those of the ,american ,limulus 7,polyphemus ,occidentalis7 7,fig4 #e74 ,i proved by experiment with the modern animal that the recurring series of groups of markings were produced by the toes of the large posterior thoracic feet1 the irregular scratches seen in ,protichnites lineatus by the ordinary feet1 and the central furrow by the tail4 ,it was also shown that when the ,limulus uses its swimming-feet it produces impressions of the character of those named ,climactichnites1 from the same beds which afford ,protichnites4 ,the principal difference between ,protichnites and their modern representatives is that the latter have two lateral furrows produced by the sides of the carapace1 which are wanting in the former4 ,q ,canadian ,naturalist1 vol4 vii4 ,i subsequently applied the same explanation to several other ancient forms now known under the general name ,bilobites 7,figs4 #f and #g74,r ,r ,the name ,bilobites was originally proposed by ,de ,kay for a bivalve shell 7,conocardium74 ,its application to supposed ,alg was an error1 but this is of the less consequence1 as these are not true plants but only animal trails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,rusophycus 7,rusichnites7 ,grenvillensis1 an animal burrow of the ,siluro-,cambrian1 probably of a crustacean1 a1 ,track connected with it4 ,the tuberculated impressions known as ,phymatoderma and ,caulerpites may1 as ,zeiller has shown1 be made by the burrowing of the mole-cricket1 and fine examples occurring in the ,clinton formation of ,canada are probably the work of ,crustacea4 ,it is probable1 however1 that some of the later forms referred to these genera are really ,alg related to ,caulerpa1 or even branches of ,conifers of the genus ,brachyphyllum4 ,nereites and ,planulites are tracks and burrows of worms1 with or without marks of set1 and some of the markings referred to ,palochorda1 ,palophycus1 and ,scolithus have their places here4 ,many examples highly illustrative of the manner of formation of the impressions are afforded by ,canadian rocks 7,fig4 #h74 ,branching forms referred to ,licrophycus of ,billings1 and some of those referred to ,buthotrephis1 ,hall1 as well as radiating markings referable to ,scotolithus1 ,gyrophyllites1 and ,asterophycus1 are explained by the branching burrows of worms illustrated by ,nathorst and the author4 ,astropolithon1 a singular radiating marking of the ,canadian ,cambrian1,s seems to be something organic1 but of what nature is uncertain 7,fig4 #i74 ,s ,supplement to ,acadian ,geology4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,palophycus ,beverlyensis 7,billings71 a supposed ,cambrian ,fucoid1 but probably an animal trail4 ,rhabdichnites and ,eophyton belong to impressions explicable by the trails of drifting sea-weeds1 the tail-markings of ,crustacea1 and the ruts ploughed by bivalve mollusks1 and occurring in the ,silurian1 ,erian1 and ,carboniferous rocks4,t ,among these are the singular bilobate forms described as ,rusophycus by ,hall1 and which are probably burrows or resting-places of crustaceans4 ,the tracks of such animals1 when walking1 are the jointed impressions known as ,arthrophycus and ,crusiana4 ,i have shown by the mode of occurrence of these1 and ,nathorst has confirmed this conclusion by elaborate experiments on living animals1 that these forms are really trails impressed on soft sediments by animals and mostly by crustaceans4 ,t ,canadian ,naturalist1 #ahfd4 ,i agree with ,dr4 ,williamson,u in believing that all or nearly all the forms referred to ,crossochorda of ,schimper are really animal impressions allied to ,nereites1 and due either to worms or1 as ,nathorst has shown to be possible1 to small crustaceans4 ,many impressions of this kind occur in the ,silurian beds of the ,clinton series in ,canada and ,new ,york1 and are undoubtedly mere markings4 ,u ,tracks from ,yoredale ,rocks1 ,manchester ,literary and ,philosophical ,society1 #ahhe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,astropolithon ,hindii1 an organism of the ,lower ,cambrian of ,nova ,scotia1 possibly vegetable4 ,it is worthy of note that these markings strikingly resemble the so-called ,eophyton1 described by ,torell from the ,primordial of ,sweden1 and by ,billings from that of ,newfoundland2 and which also occur abundantly in the ,primordial of ,new ,brunswick4 ,after examining a series of these markings from ,sweden shown to me by ,mr4 ,carruthers in ,london1 and also specimens from ,newfoundland and a large number in situ at ,st4 ,john1 ,i am convinced that they cannot be plants1 but must be markings of the nature of ,rhabdichnites4 ,this conclusion is based on the absence of carbonaceous matter1 the intimate union of the markings with the surface of the stone1 their indefinite forms1 their want of nodes or appendages1 and their markings being always of such a nature as could be produced by scratches of a sharp instrument4 ,since1 however1 fishes are yet unknown in beds of this age1 they may possibly be referred to the feet or spinous tails of swimming crustaceans4 ,salter has already suggested this origin for some scratches of somewhat different form found in the ,primordial of ,great ,britain4 ,he supposed them to have been the work of species of ,hymenocaris4 ,these marks may1 however1 indicate the existence of some free-swimming animals of the ,primordial seas as yet unknown to us4 ,three other suggestions merit consideration in this connection4 ,one is that ,alg and also land-plants1 drifting with tides or currents1 often make the most remarkable and fantastic trails4 ,a marking of this kind has been observed by ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson to be produced by a drifted ,laminaria1 and in complexity it resembled the extraordinary nigmichnus multiformis of ,hitchcock from the ,connecticut sandstones4 ,much more simple markings of this kind would suffice to give species of ,eophyton4 ,another is furnished by a fact stated to the author by ,prof4 ,morse1 namely1 that ,lingul1 when dislodged from their burrows1 trail themselves over the bottom like worms1 by means of their cirri4 ,colonies of these creatures1 so abundant in the ,primordial1 may1 when obliged to remove1 have covered the surfaces of beds of mud with vermicular markings4 ,the third is that the ,rhabdichnite-markings resemble some of the grooves in ,silurian rocks which have been referred to trails of ,gasteropods1 as1 for instance1 those from the ,clinton group1 described by ,hall4 ,another kind of markings not even organic1 but altogether depending on physical causes1 are the beautiful branching rill-marks produced by the oozing of water out of mud and sand-banks left by the tide1 and which sometimes cover great surfaces with the most elaborate tracery1 on the modern tidal shores as well as in some of the most ancient rocks4 ,dendrophycus,v of ,lesquereux seems to be an example of rill-mark1 as well as ,aristophycus1 ,cloephycus1 and ,zygopliycus1 of ,miller and ,dyer1 from the ,lower ,silurian4 ,v ,coal ,flora of ,pennsylvania1 vol4 iii41 ,plate #hh4 ,rill-marks occur in very old rocks1,w but are perhaps most beautifully preserved in the ,carboniferous shales and argillaceous sandstones1 and even more elaborately on the modern mud-banks of the ,bay of ,fundy4,x ,some of these simulate ferns and fronds of ,laminari1 and others resemble roots1 fucoids allied to ,buthotrephis1 or the radiating worm-burrows already referred to 7,fig4 #aj74 ,w ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 xii41 p4 #bea4 ,x ,acadian ,geology1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,carboniferous rill-mark 7,nova ,scotia71 reduced1 to illustrate pretended ,alg4 ,shrinkage-cracks are also abundant in some of the ,carboniferous beds1 and are sometimes accompanied with impressions of rain-drops4 ,when finely reticulated they might be mistaken for the venation of leaves1 and1 when complicated with little rill-marks tributary to their sides1 they precisely resemble the ,dictyolites of ,hall from the ,medina sandstone 7,fig4 #aa74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,cast of shrinkage cracks 7,carboniferous1 ,nova ,scotia71 illustrating pretended ,alg4 ,an entirely different kind of shrinkage-crack is that which occurs in certain carbonised and flattened plants1 and which sometimes communicates to them a marvellous resemblance to the netted under surface of an exogenous leaf4 ,flattened stems of plants and layers of cortical matter1 when carbonised1 shrink in such a manner as to produce minute reticulated cracks4 ,these become filled with mineral matter before the coaly substance has been completely consolidated4 ,a further compression occurs1 causing the coaly substance to collapse1 leaving the little veins of harder mineral matter projecting4 ,these impress their form upon the clay or shale above and below1 and thus when the mass is broken open we have a carbonaceous film or thin layer covered with a network of raised lines1 and corresponding minute depressed lines on the shale in contact with it4 ,the reticulations are generally irregular1 but sometimes they very closely resemble the veins of a reticulately veined leaf4 ,one of the most curious specimens in my possession was collected by ,mr4 ,elder in the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,horton ,bluff4 ,the little veins which form the projecting network are in this case white calcite2 but at the surface their projecting edges are blackened with a carbonaceous film4 ,slickensided bodies1 resembling the fossil fruits described by ,geinitz as ,gulielmites1 and the objects believed by ,fleming and ,carruthers,y to be casts of cavities filled with fluid1 abound in the shales of the ,carboniferous and ,devonian4 ,they are1 no doubt1 in most cases the results of the pressure and consolidation of the clay around small solid bodies1 whether organic1 fragmentary1 or concretionary4 ,they are1 in short1 local slickensides precisely similar to those found so plentifully in the coal under-clays1 and which1 as ,i have elsewhere,z shown1 resulted from the internal giving way and slipping of the mass as the roots of ,stigmaria decayed within it4 ,most collectors of fossil plants in the older formations must1 ,i presume1 be familiar with appearances of this kind in connection with small stems1 petioles1 fragments of wood1 and carpolites4 ,i have in my collection petioles of ferns and fruits of the genus ,trigonocarpum partially slickensided in this way1 and which if wholly covered by this kind of marking could scarcely have been recognised4 ,i have figured bodies of this kind in my report on the ,devonian and ,upper ,silurian plants of ,canada1 believing them1 owing to their carbonaceous covering1 to be probably slickensided fruits1 though of uncertain nature4 ,in every case ,i think these bodies must have had a solid nucleus of some sort1 as the severe pressure implied in slickensiding is quite incompatible with a mere fluid-cavity1 even supposing this to have existed4 ,y ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 ,june1 #ahga4 ,z ,ibid41 vol4 x41 p4 #ad4 ,prof4 ,marsh has well explained another phase of the influence of hard bodies in producing partial slickensides1 in his paper on ,stylolites1 read before the ,american ,association in #ahfg1 and the application of the combined forces of concretionary action and slickensiding to the production of the cone-in-cone concretions1 which occur in the coal-formation and as low as the ,primordial4 ,i have figured a very perfect and beautiful form of this kind from the coal-formation of ,nova ,scotia1 which is described in ,acadian ,geology,,aa 7,fig4 #ab74 ,i have referred to these facts here because they are relatively more important in that older period1 which may be named the age of ,alg1 and because their settlement now will enable us to dispense with discussions of this kind further on4 ,the able memoirs of ,nathorst and ,williamson should be studied by those who desire further information4 ,,aa ,appendix1 p4 #fgf1 edition of #ahgh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,cone-in-cone concretion 7,carboniferous1 ,nova ,scotia71 illustrating pretended ,alg4 ,but it may be asked1 ,are there no real examples of fossil ,alg8 ,i believe there are many such1 but the difficulty is to distinguish them4 ,confining ourselves to the older rocks1 the following may be noted3 ,the genus ,buthotrephis of ,hall1 which is characterised as having stems1 sub-cylindric or compressed1 with numerous branches1 which are divaricating and sometimes leaf-like1 contains some true ,alg4 ,hall's ,b4 gracilis1 from the ,siluro-,cambrian1 is one of these4 ,similar plants1 referred to the same species1 occur in the ,clinton and ,niagara formations1 and a beautiful species1 collected by ,col4 ,grant1 of ,hamilton1 and now in the ,mc,gill ,college collection1 represents a broader and more frondose type of distinctly carbonaceous character4 ,it may be described as follows3 ,buthotrephis ,grantii1 ,s4 ,n4 7,fig4 #ac74--,stems and fronds smooth and slightly striate longitudinally1 with curved and interrupted stri4 ,stem thick1 bifurcating1 the divisions terminating in irregularly pinnate fronds1 apparently truncate at the extremities4 ,the quantity of carbonaceous matter present would indicate thick1 though perhaps flattened1 stems and dense fleshy fronds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,buthotrephis ,grantii1 a genuine ,alga from the ,silurian1 ,canada4 ,the species ,buthotrephis subnodosa and ,b4 flexuosa1 from the ,utica shale1 are also certainly plants1 though it is possible1 if their structures and fruit were known1 some of these might be referred to different genera4 ,all of these plants have either carbonaceous matter or produce organic stains on the matrix4 ,the organism with diverging wedge-shaped fronds1 described by ,hall as ,sphenothallus angustifolius1 is also a plant4 ,fine specimens1 in the collection of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 show distinct evidence of the organic character of the wedge-shaped fronds4 ,it is from the ,utica shale1 and elsewhere in the ,siluro-,cambrian4 ,it is just possible1 as suggested by ,hall1 that this plant may be of higher rank than the ,alg4 ,the genus ,palophycus of ,hall includes a great variety of uncertain objects1 of which only a few are probably true ,alg4 ,i have specimens of fragments similar to his ,p4 virgatus1 which show distinct carbonaceous films1 and others from the ,quebec group1 which seem to be cylindrical tubes now flattened1 and which have contained spindle-shaped sporangia of large size4 ,tortuous and curved flattened stems1 or fronds1 from the ,upper ,silurian limestone of ,gasp1 also show organic matter4 ,respecting the forms referred to ,licrophycus by ,billings1 containing stems or semi-cylindrical markings springing from a common base1 ,i have been in great doubt4 ,i have not seen any specimens containing unequivocal organic matter1 and am inclined to think that most of them1 if not the whole1 are casts of worm-burrows1 with trails radiating from them4 ,though ,i have confined myself in this notice to plants1 or supposed plants1 of the ,lower ,palozoic1 it may be well to mention the remarkable ,cauda-,galli fucoids1 referred by ,hall to the genus ,spirophyton1 and which are characteristic of the oldest ,erian beds4 ,the specimens which ,i have seen from ,new ,york1 from ,gasp1 and from ,brazil1 leave no doubt in my mind that these were really marine plants1 and that the form of a spiral frond1 assigned to them by ,hall1 is perfectly correct4 ,they must have been very abundant and very graceful plants of the early ,erian1 immediately after the close of the ,silurian period4 ,we come now to notice certain organisms referred to ,alg1 and which are either of animal origin1 or are of higher grade than the sea-weeds4 ,we have already discussed the questions relating to ,prototaxites4 ,drepanophycus1 of ,goeppert1,,ab ,i suspect1 is only a badly preserved branch or stem of the ,erian land-plant known as ,arthrostigma4 ,in like manner1 ,haliserites ,dechenianus1,,ac of ,goeppert1 is evidently the land-plant known as ,psilophyton4 ,sphrococcites dentatus and ,s4 serra--the ,fucoides dentatus and serra of ,brongniart1 from ,quebec--are graptolites of two species quite common there4,,ad ,dictyophyton and ,uphantenia1 as described by ,hall and the author1 are now known to be sponges4 ,they have become ,dictyospongi4 ,the curious and very ancient2 fossils referred by ,forbes to the genus ,oldhamia are perhaps still subject to doubt1 but are usually regarded as ,zophytes1 though it is quite possible they may be plants4 ,though ,i have not seen the specimens1 ,i have no doubt whatever that the plants1 or the greater part of them1 from the ,silurian of ,bohemia1 described by ,stur as ,alg and ,charace1,,ae are really land-plants1 some of them of the genus ,psilophyton4 ,i may say in this connection that specimens of flattened ,psilophyton and ,arthrostigma1 in the ,upper ,silurian and ,erian of ,gasp1 would probably have been referred to ,alg1 but for the fact that in some of them the axis of barred vessels is preserved4 ,,ab ,fossile ,flora1 #aheb1 p4 #ib1 ,table xli4 ,,ac ,ibid41 p4 #hh1 ,table ii4 ,,ad ,brongniart1 ,vegeteaux ,fossiles1 ,plate vi41 ,figs4 #g to #ab4 ,,ae ,proceedings of the ,vienna ,academy1 #ahha4 ,hostinella1 of this author1 is almost certainly ,psilophyton1 and his ,barrandiana seems to include ,arthrostigma1 and perhaps leafy branches of ,berwynia4 ,these curious plants should be re-examined4 ,it is not surprising that great difficulties have occurred in the determination of fossil ,alg4 ,enough1 however1 remains certain to prove that the old ,cambrian and ,silurian seas were tenanted with sea-weeds not very dissimilar from those of the present time4 ,it is further probable that some of the graphitic1 carbonaceous1 and bituminous shales and limestones of the ,silurian owe their carbonaceous matters to the decomposition of ,alg1 though possibly some of it may have been derived from ,graptolites and other corneous ,zophytes4 ,in any case1 such microscopic examinations of these shales as ,i have made1 have not produced any evidence of the existence of plants of higher grade1 while those of the ,erian and ,carboniferous periods1 similar to the naked eye1 abound in such evidence4 ,it is also to be observed that1 on the surfaces of beds of sandstone in the ,upper ,cambrian1 carbonaceous dbris1 which seems to be the remains of either aquatic or land plants1 is locally not infrequent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,silurian vegetation restored4 ,protannularia1 ,berwynia1 ,nematophyton1 ,sphenophyllum1 ,arthrostigma1 ,psilophyton4 ,referring to the land vegetation of the older rocks1 it is difficult to picture its nature and appearance4 ,we may imagine the shallow waters filled with aquatic or amphibious ,rhizocarpean plants1 vast meadows or brakes of the delicate ,psilophyton and the starry ,protannularia and some tall trees1 perhaps looking like gigantic club-mosses1 or possibly with broad1 flabby leaves1 mostly cellular in texture1 and resembling ,alg transferred to the air4 ,imagination can1 however1 scarcely realise this strange and grotesque vegetation1 which1 though possibly copious and luxuriant1 must have been simple and monotonous in aspect1 and1 though it must have produced spores and seeds and even fruits1 these were probably all of the types seen in the modern acrogens and gymnosperms4 ,in garments green1 indistinct in the twilight1 ,they stand like ,druids of old1 with voices sad and prophetic4 ,prophetic they truly were1 as we shall find1 of the more varied forests of succeeding times1 and they may also help us to realise the aspect of that still older vegetation1 which is fossilised in the ,laurentian graphite2 though it is not impossible that this last may have been of higher and more varied types1 and that the ,cambrian and ,silurian may have been times of depression in the vegetable world1 as they certainly were in the submergence of much of the land4 ,these primeval woods served at least to clothe the nakedness of the new-born land1 and they may have sheltered and nourished forms of land-life still unknown to us1 as we find as yet only a few insects and scorpions in the ,silurian4 ,they possibly also served to abstract from the atmosphere some portion of its superabundant carbonic acid harmful to animal life1 and they stored up supplies of graphite1 of petroleum1 and of illuminating gas1 useful to man at the present day4 ,we may write of them and draw their forms with1 the carbon which they themselves supplied4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note ,,to ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,examination of ,prototaxites 7,nematophyton71 by ,prof4 ,penhallow1 of ,mc,gill ,university4 ,prof4 ,penhallow1 having kindly consented to re-examine my specimens1 has furnished me with elaborate notes of his facts and conclusions1 of which the following is a summary1 but which it is hoped will be published in full3 #a4 ,concentric ,layers4--,the inner face of each of these is composed of relatively large tubes1 having diameters from #acf to #cdf micro-millimetres4 ,the outer face has tubes ranging from #ach to #bgf mm4 ,the average diameter in the lower surface approaches to #cd1 that in the outer to #ach4 ,there is1 however1 no abrupt termination to the surface of the layers1 though in some specimens they separate easily1 with shining surfaces4 #b4 ,minute ,structure4--,in longitudinal sections the principal part of the structure consists of longitudinal tubes of indeterminate length1 and round in cross-section4 ,they are approximately parallel1 but in some cases may be seen to bend sinuously1 and are not in direct contact4 ,finer myceloid tubes1 #ecc mm4 in diameter1 traverse the structure in all directions1 and are believed to branch off from the larger tubes4 ,in a small specimen supposed to be a branch or small stem1 and in which the vertical tubes are somewhat distant from one another1 this horizontal system is very largely developed2 but is less manifest in the older stems4 ,the tubes themselves show no structure4 ,the ray-like openings in the substance of the tissue are evidently original parts of the structure1 but not of the nature of medullary rays4 ,they are radiating spaces running outward in an interrupted manner or so tortuously that they appear to be interrupted in their course from the centre towards the surface4 ,they show tubes turning into them1 branching into them1 and approximately horizontal1 but tortuous4 ,on the external surface of some specimens these radial spaces are represented by minute pits irregularly or spirally arranged4 ,the transverse swellings of the stem show no difference of structure1 except that the tubes or cells may be a little more tortuous1 and a transverse film of coaly matter extends from the outer coaly envelope inwardly4 ,this may perhaps be caused by some accident of preservation4 ,the outer coaly layer shows tubes similar to those of the stem4,,af ,the horizontal or oblique flexures of the large tubes seem to be mainly in the vicinity of the radial openings1 and it is in entering these that they have been seen to branch4 ,,af ,it is possible that these tubes may be merely part of the stem attached to the bark1 which seems to me to indicate the same dense cellular structure seen in the bark of ,lepidodendra1 etc4 ,the conclusions arrived at by ,prof4 ,penhallow are as follows3 #a4 ,the plant was not truly exogenous1 and the appearance of rings is independent of the causes which determine the layers of growth in exogenous plants4 #b4 ,the plant was possessed of no true bark4 ,whatever cortical layer was present was in all probability a modification of the general structure1,,ag ,,ag ,on these points ,i would reserve the considerations3 #a4 ,that there must have been some relation between the mode of growth of these great stems and their concentric rings2 and1 #b4 ,that the evidence of a bark is as strong as in the case of any ,palozoic tree in which the bark is1 as usual1 carbonised4 #c4 ,an intimate relation exists between the large tubular cells and the myceloid filaments1 the latter being a system of small branches from the former2 the branching being determined chiefly in certain special openings which simulate medullary rays4 #d4 ,the specimens examined exhibit no evidence of special decay1 and the structure throughout is of a normal character4 #e4 ,the primary structure consists of large tubular cells without apparent terminations1 and devoid of structural markings1 with which is associated a secondary structure of myceloid filaments arising from the former4 #f4 ,the structure of ,nematophyton as a whole is unique2 at least there is no plant of modern type with which it is comparable4 ,nevertheless1 the loose character of the entire structure2 the interminable cells2 their interlacing2 and1 finally1 their branching into a secondary series of smaller filaments1 point with considerable force to the true relationship of the stem as being with ,alg or other ,thallophytes rather than with ,grymnosperms4 ,a more recent examination of a laminated resinous substance found associated with the plant shows that it is wholly amorphous1 and1 as indicated by distinct lines of flow1 that it must have been in a plastic state at a former period4 ,the only evidence of structure was found in certain well-defined mycelia1 which may have been derived from associated vegetable matter upon which they were growing1 and over which the plastic matrix flowed4 ,i have only to add to this description that when we consider that ,nematophyton ,logani was a large tree1 sometimes attaining a diameter of more than two feet1 and a stature of at least twenty before branching2 that it had great roots1 and gave off large branches2 that it was an arial plant1 probably flourishing in the same swampy flats with ,psilophyton1 ,arthrostigma1 and ,leptophleum2 that the peculiar bodies known as ,pachytheca were not unlikely its fruit--we have evidence that there were1 in the early ,palozoic period1 plants scarcely dreamt of by modern botany4 ,only when the appendages of these plants are more fully known can we hope to understand them4 ,in the mean time1 ,i may state that there were probably different species of these trees1 indicated more particularly by the stems ,i have described as ,nematoxylon and ,celluloxylon,,ah ,there were1 ,i think1 some indications that the plants described by ,carruthers as ,berwynia1 may also be found to have been generically the same4 ,the resinous matter mentioned by ,prof4 ,penhallow is found in great abundance in the beds containing ,nematophyton1 and must1 ,i think1 have been an exudation from its bark4 ,,ah ,journal ,geol4 ,society of ,london1 #ahfc1 #ahha4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,erian ,,of ,,devonian ,,forests--,,origin ,,of ,,petroleum--,,the ,,age ,,of ,,acrogens ,,and ,,gymnosperms4 ,in the last chapter we were occupied with the comparatively few and obscure remains of plants entombed in the oldest geological formations4 ,we now ascend to a higher plane1 that of the ,erian or ,devonian period1 in which1 for the first time1 we find varied and widely distributed forests4 ,the growth of knowledge with respect to this flora has been somewhat rapid1 and it may be interesting to note its principal stages1 as an encouragement to the hope that we may yet learn something more satisfactory respecting the older floras we have just discussed4 ,in ,goeppert's memoir on the flora of the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,lower ,carboniferous rocks1 published in #ahfj1;,,ai he enumerates twenty species as ,silurian1 but these are all admitted to be ,alg1 and several of them are remains which may be fairly claimed by the zoologists as zoophytes1 or trails of worms and mollusks4 ,in the ,lower ,devonian he knows but six species1 five of which are ,alg1 and the remaining one a ,sigillaria1 but this is of very doubtful nature4 ,in the ,middle ,devonian he gives but one species1 a land-plant of the genus ,lepidodendron4 ,in the ,upper ,devonian the number rises to fifty-seven1 of which all but seven are terrestrial plants1 representing a large number of the genera occurring in the succeeding ,carboniferous system4 ,,ai ,jena1 #ahfj4 ,goeppert does not include in his enumeration the plants from the ,devonian of ,gasp1 described by the author in #ahei1;,,aj having seen only an abstract of the paper at the time of writing his memoir1 nor does he appear to have any knowledge of the plants of this age described by ,lesquereux in ,roger's ,pennsylvania4 ,these might have added ten or twelve species to his list1 some of them probably from the ,lower ,devonian4 ,it is further to be observed that a few additional species had also been recognised by ,peach in the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland4 ,,aj ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 also ,canadian ,naturalist4 ,but from #ahfj to the present time a rich harvest of specimens has been gathered from the ,gasp sandstones1 from the shales of southern ,new ,brunswick1 from the sandstones of ,perry in ,maine1 and from the wide-spread ,erian areas of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,ohio4 ,nearly all these specimens have passed through my hands1 and ,i am now able to catalogue about a hundred species1 representing more than thirty genera1 and including all the great types of vascular ,cryptogams1 the ,gymnosperms1 and even one 7still doubtful7 ,angiosperm4 ,many new forms have also been described from the ,devonian of ,scotland and of the ,continent of ,europe4 ,before describing these plants in detail1 we may refer to ,north ,america for illustration of the physical conditions of the time4 ,in a physical point of view the northern hemisphere presented a great change in the ,erian period4 ,there were vast foldings of the crust of the earth1 and great emissions of volcanic rock on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,in ,north ,america1 while at one time the whole interior area of the continent1 as far north as the ,great ,lakes1 was occupied by a vast inland sea1 studded with coral islands1 the long ,appalachian ridge had begun to assume1 along with the old ,laurentian land1 something of the form of our present continent1 and on the margins of this ,appalachian belt there were wide1 swampy flats and shallow-water areas1 which1 under the mild climate that seems to have characterised this period1 were admirably suited to nourish a luxuriant vegetation4 ,under this mild climate1 also1 it would seem that new forms of plants were first introduced in the far north1 where the long continuance of summer sunlight1 along with great warm th1 seems to have aided in their introduction and early extension1 and thence made their way to the southward1 a process which1 as ,gray and others have shown1 has also occurred in later geological times4 ,the ,america of this ,erian age consisted during the greater part of the period of a more or less extensive belt of land in the north with two long tongues descending from it1 one along the ,appalachian line in the east1 the other in the region west of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,on the seaward sides of these there were low lands covered with vegetation1 while on the inland side the great interior sea1 with its verdant and wooded islands1 realised1 though probably with shallower water1 the conditions of the modern archipelagoes of the ,pacific4 ,europe presented conditions somewhat similar1 having in the earlier and middle portions of the period great sea areas with insular patches of land1 and later wide tracts of shallow and in part enclosed water areas1 swarming with fishes1 and having an abundant vegetation on their shores4 ,these were the conditions of the ,eifel and ,devonshire limestones1 and of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland1 and the ,kiltorcan beds of ,ireland4 ,in ,europe also1 as in ,america1 there were in the ,erian age great ejections of igneous rock4 ,on both sides of the ,atlantic there were somewhat varied and changing conditions of land and water1 and a mild and equable climate1 permitting the existence of a rich vegetation in high northern latitudes4 ,of this latter fact a remarkable example is afforded by the beds holding plants of this age in ,spitzbergen and ,bear ,island1 in its vicinity4 ,here there seem to be two series of plant-bearing strata1 one with the vegetation of the ,upper ,erian1 the other with that of the ,lower ,carboniferous1 though both have been united by ,heer under his so-called ,ursa ,stage in which he has grouped the characteristic plants of two distinct periods4 ,this has recently been fully established by the researches of ,nathorst1 though the author had already suggested it as the probable explanation of the strange union of species in the ,ursa group of ,heer4 ,in studying the vegetation of this remarkable period1 we must take merely some of the more important forms as examples1 since it would be impossible to notice all the species1 and some of them may be better treated in the ,carboniferous1 where they have their headquarters4 7,fig4 #ae47 ,i may first refer to a family which seems to have culminated in the ,erian age1 and ever since to have occupied a less important place4 ,it is that of the curious aquatic plants known as ,rhizocarps1,,ak and referred to in the last chapter4 ,,ak ,or1 as they have recently been named by some botanists1 ,heterosporous ,filices1 though they are certainly not ferns in any ordinary sense of that term4 ,my attention was first directed to these organisms by the late ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan in #ahfi4 ,he had obtained from the ,upper ,erian shale of ,kettle ,point1 ,lake ,huron1 specimens filled with minute circular discs1 to which he referred1 in his report of #ahfc1 as microscopic orbicular bodies4 ,recognising them to be macrospores1 or spore-cases1 ,i introduced them into the report on the ,erian flora1 which ,i was then preparing1 and which was published in #ahga1 under the name ,sporangites ,huronensis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,vegetation of the ,devonian period1 restored4 ,calamites1 ,psilophyton1 ,leptophleum1 ,lepidodendron1 ,cordaites1 ,sigillaria1 ,dadoxylon1 ,asterophyllites1 ,platyphyllum4 ,in #ahga1 having occasion to write a communication to the ,american ,journal of ,science on the question then raised as to the share of spores and spore-cases in the accumulation of coal1 a question to be discussed in a subsequent chapter1 these curious little bodies were again reviewed1 and were described in substance as follows3 ,the oldest bed of spore-cases known to me is that at ,kettle ,point1 ,lake ,huron4 ,it is a bed of brown bituminous shale1 burning with much flame1 and under a lens is seen to be studded with flattened disc-like bodies1 scarcely more than a hundredth of an inch in diameter1 which under the microscope are found to be spore-cases 7or macrospores7 slightly papillate externally 7or more properly marked with dark pores71 and sometimes showing a point of attachment on one side and a slit more or less elongated and gaping on the other4 ,when slices of the rock are made1 its substance is seen to be filled with these bodies1 which1 viewed as transparent objects1 appear yellow like amber1 and show little structure1 except that the walls can be distinguished from the internal cavity1 which may sometimes be seen to enclose patches of granular matter4 ,in the shale containing them are also vast numbers of rounded1 translucent granules1 which may be escaped spores 7microspores74 ,the bed containing these spores at ,kettle ,point was stated1 in the reports of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 to be twelve or fourteen feet in thickness1 and besides these specimens it contained fossil plants referable to the species ,calamites inornatus and ,lepidodendron primvum1 and ,i not unnaturally supposed that the ,sporangites might be the fruit of the latter plant4 ,i also noticed their resemblance to the spore-cases of ,l4 corrugatum of the ,lower ,carboniferous 7a ,lepidodendron allied to ,l4 primvum71 and to those from ,brazil described by ,carruthers under the name ,flemingites1 as well as to those described by ,huxley from certain ,english coals1 and to those of the ,tasmanite or white coal of ,australia4 ,the bed at ,kettle ,point is shown to be marine by its holding the sea-weed known as ,spirophyton1 and shells of ,lingula4 ,the subject did not again come under my notice till #ahhb1 when ,prof4 ,orton1 of ,columbus1 ,ohio1 sent me some specimens from the ,erian shales of that ,state1 which on comparison seemed undistinguishable from ,sporangites ,huronensis4,,al ,prof4 ,orton read an interesting paper on these bodies1 at the meeting of the ,american ,association in ,montreal1 in which were some new and striking facts4 ,one of these was the occurrence of such bodies throughout the black shales of ,ohio1 extending from the ,huron ,river1 on the shore of ,lake ,brie1 to the mouth of the ,scioto1 in the ,ohio ,valley1 with an extent varying from ten to twenty miles in breadth1 and estimated to be three hundred and fifty feet in thickness4 ,i have since been informed by my friend ,mr4 ,thomas1 of ,chicago1 that its thickness1 in some places at least1 must be three times that amount4 ,about the same time4 ,prof4 ,williams1 of ,cornell1 and ,prof4 ,clarke1 of ,northampton1 announced similar discoveries in the ,state of ,new ,york1 so that it would appear that beds of vast area and of great thickness are replete with these little vegetable discs1 usually converted into a highly bituminous1 amber-like substance1 giving a more or less inflammable character to the containing rock4 ,,al ,these shales have been described1 as to their chemical and geological relations1 by ,dr4 ,t4 ,sterry ,hunt1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 #ahfc1 and by ,dr4 ,newberry1 in the ,reports of the ,geological ,survey of ,ohio1 vol4 i41 #ahfc1 and vol4 iii41 #ahgh4 ,another fact insisted on by ,prof4 ,orton was the absence of ,lepidodendroid cones1 and the occurrence of filamentous vegetable matter1 to which the ,sporangites seemed to be in some cases attached in groups4 ,prof4 ,orton also noticed the absence of the trigonal form1 which belongs to the spores of many ,lepidodendra1 though this is not a constant character4 ,in the discussion on ,prof4 ,orton's paper1 ,i admitted that the facts detailed by him shook my previous belief of the lycopodiaceous character of these bodies1 and induced me to suspect1 with ,prof4 ,orton1 that they might have belonged to some group of aquatic plants lower than the ,lycopods4 ,since the publication of my paper on ,rhizocarps in the ,palozoic period above referred to1 ,i have received two papers from ,mr4 ,edward ,wethered1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s41 in one of which he describes spores of plants found in the lower limestone shales of the ,forest of ,dean1 and in the other discusses more generally the structure and origin of ,carboniferous coal-beds4,,am ,in both papers he refers to the occurrence in these coals and shales of organisms essentially similar to the ,erian spores4 ,,am ,cotteswold ,naturalists' ,field ,club1 #ahhd2 ,journal of the ,royal ,microscopical ,society1 #ahhe4 ,in the ,bulletin of the ,chicago ,academy of ,science1 ,january1 #ahhd1 ,dr4 ,johnson and ,mr4 ,thomas1 in their paper on the ,microscopic ,organisms of the ,boulder ,clay of ,chicago and ,vicinity1 notice ,sporangites ,huronensis as among these organisms1 and have discovered them also in large numbers in the precipitate from ,chicago city water-supply4 ,they refer them to the decomposition of the ,erian shales1 of which boulders filled with these organisms are of frequent occurrence in the ,chicago clays4 ,the ,sporangites and their accompaniments in the boulder clay are noticed in a paper by ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 in the ,bulletin of the ,chicago ,academy1 ,june1 #ahhe4 ,prof4 ,clarke has also described1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science for ,april1 #ahhe1 the forms already alluded to1 and which he finds to consist of macrospores enclosed in sporocarps4 ,he compares these with my ,sporangites ,huronensis and ,protosalvinia bilobata1 but ,i think it is likely that one of them at least is a distinct species4 ,i may add that in the ,geological ,magazine for #ahge1 ,mr4 ,newton1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s41 of the ,geological ,survey of ,england1 published a description of the ,tasmanite and ,australian white coal1 in which he shows that the organisms in these deposits are similar to my ,sporangites ,huronensis1 and to the macrospores previously described by ,prof4 ,huxley1 from the ,better-bed coal4 ,mr4 ,newton does not seem to have been aware of my previous description of ,sporangites1 and proposes the name ,tasmanites punctatus for the ,australian form4 ,here we have the remarkable fact that the waste macrospores1 or larger spores of a species of ,cryptogamous plant1 occur dispersed in countless millions of tons through the shales of the ,erian in ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,no certain clue seemed to be afforded by all these observations as to the precise affinities of these widely distributed bodies2 but this was furnished shortly after from an unexpected quarter4 ,in ,march1 #ahhc1 ,mr4 ,orville ,derby1 of the ,geological ,survey of ,brazil1 sent me specimens found in the ,erian of that country1 which seemed to throw a new light on the whole subject4 ,these ,i described and pointed out their connection with ,sporangites at the meeting of the ,american ,association at ,minneapolis1 in #ahhc1 and subsequently published my notes respecting them in its proceedings1 and in the ,canadian ,record of ,science4 ,mr4 ,derby's specimens contained the curious spiral sea-weed known as ,spirophyton1 and also minute rounded ,sporangites like those obtained in the ,erian of ,ohio1 and of which specimens had been sent to me some years before by the late ,prof4 ,hartt4 ,but they differed in showing the remarkable fact that these rounded bodies are enclosed in considerable numbers in spherical and oval sacs1 the walls of which are composed of a tissue of hexagonal cells1 and which resemble in every respect the involucres or spore-sacs of the little group of modern acrogens known as ,rhizocarps1 and living in shallow water4 ,more especially they resemble the sporocarps of the genus ,salvinia4 ,this fact opened up an entirely new field of investigation1 and ,i at once proceeded to compare the specimens with the fructification of modern ,rhizocarps1 and found that substantially these multitudinous spores embedded in the ,erie shales may be regarded as perfectly analogous to the larger spores of the modern ,salvinia natans of ,europe1 as may be seen by the representation of them in ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,sporangites 7,protosalvinia74 ,a1 ,sporangites ,braziliensis1 natural size1 ,,ax1 ,same1 magnified1 ,b1 ,sp4 biloba1 natural size1 ,c1 ,detached macrospores4 ,d1 ,spore-cases of ,salvinia natans4 ,,dx1 ,same1 magnified4 ,e1 ,shale with sporangites1 vertical section1 highly magnified4 ,the typical macrospores from the ,erian shales are perfectly circular in outline1 and in the flattened state appear as discs with rounded edges1 their ordinary diameter being from one seventy-fifth to one one-hundredth of an inch1 though they vary considerably in size4 ,this1 however1 ,i do not regard as an essential character4 ,the edges1 as seen in profile1 are smooth1 but the flat surface often presents minute dark spots1 which at first ,i mistook for papill1 but now agree with ,mr4 ,thomas in recognising them as minute pores traversing the wall of the disc1 and similar to those which ,mr4 ,newton has described in ,tasmanite1 and which ,mr4 ,wethered has also recognised in the similar spores of the ,forest of ,dean shales4 ,the walls also sometimes show faint indications of concentric lamination1 as if they had been thickened by successive deposits4 ,as seen by transmitted light1 and either in front or in profile1 the discs are of a rich amber colour1 translucent and structureless1 except the pores above referred to4 ,the walls are somewhat thick1 or from one-tenth to one-twentieth the diameter of the disc in thickness4 ,they never exhibit the triradiate marking seen in spores of ,lycopods1 nor any definite point of attachment1 though they sometimes show a minute elongated spot which may be of this nature1 and they are occasionally seen to have opened by slits on the edge or front1 where there would seem to have been a natural line of dehiscence4 ,the interior is usually quite vacant or structureless1 but in some cases there are curved internal markings which may indicate a shrunken lining membrane1 or the remains of a prothallus or embryo4 ,occasionally a fine granular substance appears in the interior1 possibly remains of microspores4 ,the discs are usually detached and destitute of any envelope1 but fragments of flocculent cellular matter are associated with them1 and in one specimen from the corniferous limestone of ,ohio1 in ,mr4 ,thomas's collection1 ,i have found a group of eight or more discs partly enclosed in a cellular sac-like membrane of similar character to that enclosing the ,brazilian specimens already referred to4 ,the characters of all the specimens are essentially similar1 and there is a remarkable absence of other organisms in the shale4 ,in one instance only1 ,i have observed a somewhat smaller round body with a dark centre or nucleus1 and a wide translucent margin1 marked by a slight granulation4 ,even this1 however1 may indicate nothing more than a different state of preservation4 ,it is proper to observe here that the wall or enclosing sac of these macrospores must have been of very dense consistency1 and now appears as a highly bituminous substance1 in this agreeing with that of the spores of ,lycopods1 and1 like them1 having been when recent of a highly carbonaceous and hydrogenous quality1 very combustible and readily admitting of change into bituminous matter4 ,in the paper already referred to1 on spore-cases in coals1 ,i have noticed that the relative composition of lycopodium and cellulose is as follows3 ,cellulose1 ,c#bd;,h#bj,o#bj4 ,lycopodium1 ,c#db;,h#ai-d_/ab,,no#e-f_/aj4 ,thus1 such spores are admirably suited for the production of highly carbonaceous or bituminous coals1 etc4 ,nothing is more remarkable in connection with these bodies than their uniformity of structure and form over so great areas and throughout so great thickness of rock1 and the absence of any other kind of spore-case4 ,this is more especially noteworthy in contrast with the coarse coals and bituminous shales of the ,carboniferous1 which usually contain a great variety of spores and sporangia1 indicating the presence of many species of acrogenous plants1 while the ,erian shales1 on the contrary1 indicate the almost exclusive predominance of one form4 ,this contrast is well seen in the ,bedford shales overlying these beds1 and ,i believe ,lower ,carboniferous4,,an ,specimens of these have been kindly communicated to me by ,prof4 ,orton1 and have been prepared by ,mr4 ,thomas4 ,in these we see the familiar ,carboniferous spores with triradiate markings called ,triletes by ,reinsch1 and which are similar to those of ,lycopodiaceous plants4 ,still more abundant are those spinous and hooked spores or sporangia1 to which the names ,sporocarpon1 ,zygosporites1 and ,traquaria have been given1 and some of which ,williamson has shown to be spores of ,lycopodiaceous plants4,,ao ,,an ,according to ,newberry1 lower part of ,waverly group4 ,,ao ,traquaria is to be distinguished from the calcareous bodies found in the corniferous limestone of ,kelly's ,island1 which ,i have described in the ,canadian ,naturalist as ,saccamina ,eriana1 and believe to be ,foraminiferal tests4 ,they have since been described by ,ulrich under a different name 7,moellerina3 contribution to ,american ,palontology1 #ahhf74 ,see ,dr4 ,williamson's papers in ,transactions of ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,the true ,sporangites1 on the contrary1 are round and smooth1 with thick bituminous walls1 which are punctured with minute transverse pores4 ,in these respects1 as already stated1 they closely resemble the bodies found in the ,australian white coal and ,tasmanite4 ,the precise geological age of this last material is not known with certainty1 but it is believed to be ,palozoic4 ,with reference to the mode of occurrence of these bodies1 we may note first their great abundance and wide distribution4 ,the horizontal range of the bed at ,kettle ,point is not certainly known1 but it is merely a northern outlier of the great belt of ,erian shales referred to by ,prof4 ,orton1 and which extends1 with a breadth of ten to twenty miles1 and of great thickness1 across the ,state of ,ohio1 for nearly two hundred miles4 ,this ,ohio black shale1 which lies at the top of the ,erian or the base of the ,carboniferous1 though probably mainly of ,erian age1 appears to abound throughout in these organisms1 and in some beds to be replete with them4 ,in like manner1 in ,brazil1 according to ,mr4 ,derby1 these organisms are distributed over a wide area and throughout a great thickness of shale holding ,spirophyton1 and apparently belonging to the ,upper ,erian4 ,the recurrence of similar forms in the ,tasmanite and white coal of ,tasmania and ,australia is another important fact of distribution4 ,to this we may add the appearance of these macrospores in coals and shales of the ,carboniferous period1 though there in association with other forms4 ,it is also to be observed that the ,erian shales1 and the ,forest of ,dean beds described by ,wethered1 are marine1 as shown by their contained fossils2 and1 though ,i have no certain information as to the ,tasmanite and ,australian white coal1 they would seem1 from the description of ,milligan1 to occur in distinctly aqueous1 possibly estuarine1 deposits4 ,wethered has shown that the discs described by ,huxley and ,newton in the ,better-bed coal occur in the earthy or fragmentary layers1 as distinguished from the pure coal4 ,those occurring in cannel coal are in the same case1 so that the general mode of occurrence implies water-driftage1 since1 in the case of bodies so large and dense1 wind-driftage to great distances would be impossible4 ,these facts1 taken in connection with the differences between these macrospores and those of any known land-plant of the ,palozoic1 would lead to the inference that they belonged to aquatic plants1 and these vastly abundant in the waters of the ,erian and ,carboniferous periods4 ,it is still further to be observed that they are not1 in the ,erian beds1 accompanied with any remains of woody or scalariform tissues1 such as might be expected in connection with the dbris of terrestrial acrogens1 and that1 on the other hand1 we find them enclosed in cellular sporocarps1 though in the majority of cases these have been removed by dehiscence or decay4 ,these considerations1 ,i think1 all point to the probability which ,i have suggested in my papers on this subject referred to above1 that we have in these objects the organs of fructification of plants belonging to the order ,rhizocarpe1 or akin to it4 ,the comparisons which ,i have instituted with the sporocarps and macrospores of these plants confirm this suggestion4 ,of the modern species which ,i have had an opportunity to examine1 ,salvinia natans of ,europe perhaps presents the closest resemblance4 ,in this plant groups of round cellular sporocarps appear at the bases of the floating fronds4 ,they are about a line in diameter when mature1 and are of two kinds1 one containing macrospores1 the other microspores or antheridia4 ,the first1 when mature1 hold a number of closely packed globular or oval sporangia of loose cellular tissue1 attached to a central placenta4 ,each of these sporangia contains a single macrospore1 perfectly globular and smooth1 with a dense outer membrane 7exhibiting traces of lamination1 and showing within an irregularly vacuolated or cellular structure1 probably a prothallus74 ,i cannot detect in it the peculiar pores which appear in the fossil specimens4 ,each macrospore is about one-seventieth of an inch in diameter when mature4 ,the sporocarps of the microspores contain a vastly greater number of minute sporangia1 about one two-hundredths of an inch in diameter4 ,these contain disc-like antheridia1 or microspores of very minute size4 ,the discs from ,kettle ,point and from the ,ohio black shale1 and from the shale boulders of the ,chicago clays1 are similar to the macrospores of ,salvinia1 except that they have a thicker wall and are a little less in diameter1 being about one-eightieth of an inch4 ,the ,brazilian sporocarps are considerably larger than those of the modern ,salvinia1 and the macrospores approach in size to those of the modern species1 being one seventy-fifth of an inch in diameter4 ,they also seem1 like the modern species1 to have thinner walls than those from ,canada1 ,ohio1 and ,chicago4 ,no distinct indication has been observed in the fossil species of the inner ,sporangium of ,salvinia4 ,possibly it was altogether absent1 but more probably it is not preserved as a distinct structure4 ,with reference to the microspores of ,salvinia1 it is to be observed that the sporocarps1 and the contained spores or antheridia1 are very delicate and destitute of the dense outer wall of the macrospores4 ,hence such parts are little likely to have been preserved in a fossil state2 and in the ,erian shales1 if present1 they probably appear merely as flocculent carbonaceous matter not distinctly marked1 or as minute granules not well defined1 of which there are great quantities in some of the shales4 ,the vegetation appertaining to the ,sporangites has not been distinctly recognised4 ,i have1 however1 found in one of the ,brazilian specimens two sporocarps attached to what seems a fragment of a cellular frond1 and numerous specimens of the supposed ,alg1 named ,spirophyton1 are found in the shales1 but there is no evidence of any connection of this plant with the ,protosalvinia4 ,modern ,rhizocarps present considerable differences as to their vegetative parts4 ,some1 like ,pilularia1 have simple linear leaves2 others1 like ,marsilea1 have leaves in whorls1 and cuneate in form2 while others1 like ,azolla and ,salvinia1 have frondose leaves1 more or less pinnate in their arrangement4 ,if we inquire as to fossils representing these forms of vegetation1 we shall find that some of the plants to be noticed in the immediate sequel may have been nearly allied to the ,rhizocarps4 ,in the mean time ,i may state that ,i have proposed the generic name ,protosalvinia for these curious macrospores and their coverings1 and have described in the paper in the ,bulletin of the ,chicago ,academy of ,sciences1 already quoted1 five species which may be referred to this genus4 ,these facts lead to inquiries as to the origin of the bituminous matter which naturally escapes from the rocks of the earth as petroleum and inflammable gas1 or which may be obtained from certain shales in these forms by distillation4 ,these products are compounds of carbon and hydrogen1 and may be procured from recent vegetable substances by destructive distillation4 ,some vegetable matters1 also1 are much richer in carbon and hydrogen than others1 and it is a remarkable fact that the spores of certain cryptogamous plants are of this kind1 as we see in the inflammable character of the dry spores of ,lycopodium2 and we know that the slow putrefaction of such material underground effects chemical changes by which bituminous matter can be produced4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing unreasonable in the supposition advanced by ,prof4 ,orton1 that the spores so abundantly contained in the ,ohio black shales are important or principal sources of the bituminous matter which they contain4 ,microscopic sections of this shale show that much of its material consists of the rich bituminous matter of these spores 7,fig4 #af74 ,at the same time1 while we may trace the bitumen of these shales1 and of some beds of coal1 to this cause1 we must bear in mind that there are other kinds of bituminous rocks which show no such structures1 and may have derived their combustible material from other kinds of vegetable matter1 whether of marine or of land plants4 ,we shall better understand this when we have considered the origin of coal4 ,the macrospores above referred to may have belonged to humble aquatic plants mantling the surfaces of water or growing up from the bottom1 and presenting little arial vegetation4 ,but there are other ,erian plants1 as already mentioned1 which1 while of higher structure1 may be of ,rhizocarpean affinities4 ,one of these is the beautiful plant with whorls of wedge-shaped leaves1 to which the name ,sphenophyllum 7see ,fig4 #bj7 has been given4 ,plants referred to this genus have been described by ,lesquereux from the upper part of the ,siluro-,cambrian1,,ap and a beautiful little species occurs in the ,erian shales of ,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick4,,aq ,the genus is also continued1 and is still more abundant1 in the ,carboniferous4 ,many years ago ,i observed1 in a beautiful specimen collected by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 in ,new ,brunswick1 that the stem of this plant had an axis of reticulated and scalariform vessels1 and an outer bark4,,ar ,renault and ,williamson have more recently obtained more perfect specimens1 and the former has figured a remarkably complex triangular axis1 containing punctate and barred vessels1 and larger punctate vessels filling in its angles4 ,outside of this there is a cellular inner bark1 and this is surrounded by a thick fibrous envelope4 ,that a structure so complex should belong to a plant so humble in its affinities is one of the strange anomalies presented by the old world1 and of which we shall find many similar instances4 ,the fruit of ,sphenophyllum was borne in spikes1 with little whorls of bracts or rudimentary leaves bearing round sporocarps4 ,,ap ,american ,journal of ,science4 ,,aq ,dawson1 ,report on ,devonian ,plants1 #ahgj4 ,,ar ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahfe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,ptilophyton plumosum 7,lower ,carboniferous1 ,nova ,scotia74 ,natural size and magnified4 ,a second type of plant1 which may have been ,rhizocarpean in its affinities1 is that to which ,i have given the name ,ptilophyton4,,as ,it consists of beautiful feathery fronds1 apparently bearing on parts of the main stem or petiole small rounded sporocarps4 ,they are found abundantly in the ,middle ,erian of the ,state of ,new ,york1 and also occur in ,scotland1 while one species appears to occur in ,nova ,scotia1 as high as the ,lower ,carboniferous 7,figs4 #ag1 #ah74 ,,as ,plumalina of ,hall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,ptilophyton ,thomsoni 7,scotland71 a1 ,impression of plant in vernation1 b1 ,branches conjecturally restored1 c1 ,branches of ,lycopodites ,milleri1 on same slab4 ,these organisms have been variously referred to ,lycopods1 to ,alg1 or to ,zophytes1 but an extended comparison of ,american and ,scottish specimens has led me to the belief that they were aquatic plants1 more likely to have been allied to ,rhizocarps than to any other group4 ,some evidence of this will be given in a note appended to this chapter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,psilophyton princeps1 restored 7,lower ,erian1 ,gasp74 a1 ,fruit1 natural size4 b1 stem1 natural size1 c1 ,scalariform tissue of the axis1 highly magnified4 ,in the restoration1 one side is represented in vernation and the other in fruit4 ,another genus1 which ,i have named ,psilophyton,,at 7,figs4 #ai1 #ba71 may be regarded as a connecting link between the ,rhizocarps and the ,lycopods4 ,it is so named from its resemblance1 in some respects1 to the curious parasitic ,lycopods placed in the modern genus ,psilotum4 ,several species have been described1 and they are eminently characteristic of the ,lower ,erian1 in which they were first discovered in ,gasp4 ,the typical species1 ,psilophyton princeps1 which fills many beds of shale and sandstone in ,gasp ,bay and the head of the neighbouring ,bay des ,chaleurs with its slender stems and creeping1 cord-like rhizomes1 may be thus described3 ,,at ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vols1 xv41 xviii41 and xix41 ,report on ,devonian ,plants of ,canada1 #ahga4 ,stems branching dichotomously1 and covered with interrupted ridges4 ,leaves rudimentary1 or short1 rigid1 and pointed2 in barren stems1 numerous and spirally arranged2 in fertile stems and branchlets1 sparsely scattered or absent2 in decorticated specimens1 represented by a minute punctate scars4 ,young branches circinate2 rhizomata cylindrical1 covered with hairs or ramenta1 and having circular areoles irregularly disposed1 giving origin to slender cylindrical rootlets4 ,internal structure--an axis of scalariform vessels1 surrounded by a cylinder of parenchymatous cells1 and by an outer cylinder of elongated woody cells4 ,fructification consisting of naked oval spore-cases1 borne usually in pairs on slender1 curved pedicels1 either lateral or terminal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,sphenophyllum antiquum 7,erian1 ,new ,brunswick74 ,see pp4 #fa1 #fg4 ,this species was fully described by me in the papers referred to above1 from specimens obtained from the rich exposures at ,gasp ,bay1 and which enabled me to illustrate its parts more fully1 perhaps1 than those of any other species of so great antiquity4 ,in the specimens ,i had obtained ,i was able to recognise the forms of the rhizomata1 stems1 branches1 and rudimentary leaves1 and also the internal structure of the stems and rhizomata1 and to illustrate the remarkable resemblance of the forms and structures to those of the modern ,psilotum4 ,the fructification was1 however1 altogether peculiar1 consisting of narrowly ovate sporangia1 borne usually in pairs1 on curved and apparently rigid petioles4 ,under the microscope these sporangia show indications of cellular structure1 and appear to have been membranous in character4 ,in some specimens dehiscence appears to have taken place by a slit in one side1 and1 clay having entered into the interior1 both walls of the spore-case can be seen4 ,in other instances1 being flattened1 they might be mistaken for scales4 ,no spores could be observed in any of the specimens1 though in some the surface was marked by slight1 rounded prominences1 possibly the impressions of the spores within4 ,this peculiar and very simple style of spore-case is also characteristic of other species1 and gives to ,psilophyton a very distinct generic character4 ,these naked spore-cases may be compared to those of such lycopodiaceous plants as ,psilotum1 in which the scales are rudimentary4 ,they also bear some resemblance1 though on a much larger scale1 to the spore-cases of some ,erian ferns 7,archopteris71 to be mentioned in the sequel4 ,on the whole1 however1 they seem most nearly related to the sporocarps of the ,rhizocarpe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,lepidodendron and ,psilophyton 7,erian1 ,new ,brunswick74 ,a1 ,lepidodendron ,gaspianum4 ,b1 ,c1 ,psilophyton elegans4 ,arthrostigma1 which is found in the same beds with ,psilophyton1 was a plant of more robust growth1 with better-developed1 narrow1 and pointed leaves1 borne in a verticillate or spiral manner1 and bearing at the ends of its branches spikes of naked sporocarps1 apparently similar to those of ,psilophyton but more rounded in form4 ,the two genera must have been nearly related1 and the slender branchlets of ,arthrostigma are1 unless well preserved1 scarcely distinguishable from the stems of ,psilophyton4,,au ,,au ,reports of the author on ,devonian ,plants1 ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 which see for details as to ,erian ,flora of northeastern ,america4 ,if1 now1 we compare the vegetation of these and similar ancient plants with that of modern ,rhizocarps1 we shall find that the latter still present1 though in a depauperated and diminished form1 some of the characteristics of their predecessors4 ,some1 like ,pilularia1 have simple linear leaves2 others1 like ,marsilea1 have leaves in verticils and cuneate in form2 while others1 like ,azolla and ,salvinia1 have frondose leaves1 more or less pinnate in their arrangement4 ,the first type presents little that is characteristic1 but there are in the ,erian sandstones and shales great quantities of filamentous and linear objects which it has been impossible to refer to any genus1 and which might have belonged to plants of the type of ,pilularia4 ,it is quite possible1 also1 that such plants as ,psilophyton glabrum and ,cordaites angustifolia1 of which the fructification is quite unknown1 may have been allied to ,rhizocarps4 ,with regard to the verticillate type1 we are at once reminded of ,sphenophyllum 7,fig4 #bj71 which many palobotanists have referred to the ,marsiliac1 though1 like other ,palozoic ,acrogens1 it presents complexities not seen in its modern representatives4 ,s4 primvum of ,lesquereux is found in the ,hudson ,river group1 and my ,s4 antiquum in the ,middle ,erian4 ,besides these1 there are in the ,silurian and ,erian beds plants with verticillate leaves which have been placed with the ,annulari1 but which may have differed from them in fructification4 ,annularia laxa1 of the ,erian1 and ,protannularia ,harknessii1 of the ,siluro-,cambrian1 may be given as examples1 and must have been aquatic plants1 probably allied to ,rhizocarps4 ,it is deserving of notice1 also1 that the two best-known species of ,psilophyton 7,p4 princeps and ,p4 robustius71 while allied to ,lycopods by the structure of the stem and such rudimentary foliage as they possess1 are also allied1 by the form of their fructification1 to the ,rhizocarps1 and not to ferns1 as some palobotanists have incorrectly supposed4 ,a similar remark applies to ,arthrostigma2 and the beautiful pinnately leaved ,ptilophyton may be taken to represent that type of foliage as seen in modern ,rhizocarps1 while the allied forms of the ,carboniferous which ,lesquereux has named ,trochophyllum1 seem to have had sporocarps attached to the stem in the manner of ,azolla4 ,the whole of this evidence1 ,i think1 goes to show that in the ,erian period there were vast quantities of aquatic plants1 allied to the modern ,rhizocarps1 and that the so-called ,sporangites referred to in this paper were probably the drifted sporocarps and macrospores of some of these plants1 or of plants allied to them in structure and habit1 of which the vegetative organs have perished4 ,i have shown that in the ,erian period there were vast swampy flats covered with ,psilophyton1 and in similar submerged tracts near to the sea the ,protosalvinia may have filled the waters and have given off the vast multitudes of macrospores which1 drifted by currents1 have settled in the mud of the black shales4 ,we have thus a remarkable example of a group of plants reduced in modern times to a few insignificant forms1 but which played a great role in the ancient ,palozoic world4 ,leaving the ,rhizocarps1 we may now turn to certain other families of ,erian plants4 ,the first to attract our attention in this age would naturally be the ,lycopods1 the club-mosses or ground-pines1 which in ,canada and the ,eastern ,states carpet the ground in many parts of our woods1 and are so available for the winter decoration of our houses and public buildings4 ,if we fancy one of these humble but graceful plants enlarged to the dimensions of a tree1 we shall have an idea of a ,lepidodendron1 or of any of its allies 7,figs4 #ae1 #ba74 ,these large lycopodiaceous trees1 which in different specific and generic forms were probably dominant in the ,erian woods1 resembled in general those of modern times in their fruit and foliage1 except that their cones were large1 and probably in most cases with two kinds of spores1 and their leaves were also often very long1 thus bearing a due proportion to the trees which they clothed4 ,their thick stems required1 however1 more strength than is necessary in their diminutive successors1 and to meet this want some remarkable structures were introduced similar to those now found only in the stems of plants of higher rank4 ,the cells and vessels of all plants consist of thin walls of woody matter1 enclosing the sap and other contents of these sacs and tubes1 and when strength is required it is obtained by lining their interior with successive coats of the hardest form of woody matter1 usually known as lignin4 ,but while the walls remain thin1 they afford free passage to the sap to nourish every part4 ,if thickened all over1 they would become impervious to sap1 and therefore unsuited to one of their most important functions4 ,these two ends of strength and permeability are secured by partial linings of lignin1 leaving portions of the original wall uncovered4 ,but this may be done in a great variety of ways4 ,the most ancient of these contrivances1 and one still continued in the world of plants1 is that of the barred or scalariform vessel4 ,this may be either square or hexagonal1 so as to admit of being packed without leaving vacancies4 ,it is strengthened by a thick bar of ligneous matter up each angle1 and these are connected by cross-bars so as to form a framework resembling several ladders fastened together4 ,hence the name scalariform1 or ladder-like4 ,now1 in a modern ,lycopod there is a central axis of such barred vessels associated with simpler fibres or elongated cells4 ,even in ,sphenophyllum and ,psilophyton1 already referred to as allied to ,rhizocarps1,,av there is such a central axis1 and in the former rigidity is given to this by the vascular and woody elements being arranged in the form of a three-sided prism or three-rayed star4 ,but such arrangements would not suffice for a tree1 and hence in the arboreal ,lycopods of the ,erian age a more complex structure is introduced4 ,the barred vessels were expanded in the first instance into a hollow cylinder filled in with pith or cellular tissue1 and the outer rind was strengthened with greatly thickened cells4 ,but even this was not sufficient1 and in the older stems wedge-shaped bundles of barred tissue were run out from the interior1 forming an external woody cylinder1 and inside of the rind were placed bundles of tough bast fibres4 ,thus1 a stem was constructed having pith1 wood1 and bark1 and capable of additions to the exterior of the woody wedges by a true exogenous growth4 ,the plan is1 in short1 the same with that of the stems of the exogenous trees of modern times1 except that the tissues employed are less complicated4 ,the structures of these remarkable trees1 and the manner in which they anticipate those of the true exogens of modern times1 have been admirably illustrated by ,dr4 ,williamson1 of ,manchester4 ,his papers1 it is true1 refer to these plants as existing in the ,carboniferous age1 but there is every reason to believe that they were of the same character in the ,erian4 ,the plan is the same with that now seen in the stems of exogenous phnogams1 and which has long ceased to be used in those of the ,lycopods4 ,in this way1 however1 large and graceful lycopodiaceous trees were constructed in the ,erian period1 and constituted the staple of its forests4 ,,av ,first noticed by the author1 ,journal of ,geological ,society1 #ahfe2 but more completely by ,renault1 ,comptes ,rendus1 #ahgj4 ,the roots of these trees were equally remarkable with their stems1 and so dissimilar to any now existing that botanists were long disposed to regard them as independent plants rather than roots4 ,they were similar in general structure to the stems to which they belonged1 but are remarkable for branching in a very regular manner by bifurcation like the stems above1 and for the fact that their long1 cylindrical rootlets were arranged in a spiral manner and distinctly articulated to the root after the manner of leaves rather than of rootlets1 and fitting them for growing in homogeneous mud or vegetable muck4 ,they are the so-called ,stigmaria roots1 which1 though found in the ,erian and belonging to its lycopodiaceous plants1 attained to far greater importance in the ,carboniferous period1 where we shall meet with them again4 ,there were different types of lycopodiaceous plants in the ,erian4 ,in addition to humble ,lycopods like those of our modern woods and great ,lepidodendra1 which were exaggerated ,lycopods1 there were thick-stemmed and less graceful species with broad rhombic scars 7,leptophleum71 and others with the leaf-scars in vertical rows 7,sigillaria71 and others1 again1 with rounded leaf-scars1 looking like the marks on ,stigmaria1 and belonging to the genus ,cyclostigma4 ,thus some variety was given to the arboreal club-mosses of these early forests4 7,see ,fig4 #ae47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,erian ferns 7,new ,brunswick71 ,a1 ,aneimites obtusa4 ,c1 ,neuropteris polymorpha4 ,f1 ,sphenopteris pilosa4 ,n1 ,hymenophyllites subfurcatus4 ,another group of plants which attained to great development in the ,erian age is that of the ,ferns or ,brackens4 ,the oldest of these yet known are found in the ,middle ,erian4 ,the ,eopteris of ,saporta1 from the ,silurian1 at one time supposed to carry this type much further back1 has unfortunately been found to be a mere imitative form1 consisting of films of pyrites of leaf-like shapes1 and produced by crystallisation4 ,in the ,middle ,erian1 however1 more especially in ,north ,america1 many species have been found 7,figs4 #bb to #bd74;,,aw ,i have myself recorded more than thirty species from the ,middle ,erian of ,canada1 and these belong to several of the genera found in the ,carboniferous1 though some are peculiar to the ,erian4 ,of the latter1 the best known are perhaps those of the genus ,archopteris 7,fig4 #bd71 so abundant in the plant-beds of ,kiltorcan in ,ireland1 as well as in ,north ,america4 ,in this genus the fronds are large and luxuriant1 with broad obovate pinnules decurrent1 on the leaf-stalk1 and with simple sac-like spore-cases borne on modified pinn4 ,another very beautiful fern found with ,archopteris is that which ,i have named ,platyphyllum1 and which grew on a creeping stem or parasitically on stems of other plants1 and had marginal fructification4,,ax ,another very remarkable fern1 which some botanists have supposed may belong to a higher group than the ferns1 is ,megalopteris 7,fig4 #bf74 ,,aw ,for descriptions of these ferns1 see reports cited above4 ,,ax ,reports on ,fossil ,plants of the ,devonian and ,upper ,silurian of ,canada1 #ahga1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,erian ferns 7,new ,brunswick71 ,b1 ,cyclopteris valida1 and pinnule enlarged1 ,d1 ,sphenopteris marginata1 and portion enlarged4 ,e1 ,sphenopteris ,harttii4 ,g1 ,hymenophyllites curtilobus4 ,h1 ,hymenophyllites ,gersdorffii1 and portion enlarged4 ,i1 ,alethopteris discrepans1 ,k1 ,pecopteris serrulata1 ,l1 ,pecopteris preciosa4 ,m1 ,alethopteris ,perleyi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,archopteris ,jacksoni1 ,dawson 7,maine74 ,an ,upper ,erian fern1 a1 b1 ,pinnules showing venation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,an ,erian tree-fern4 ,caulopteris ,lockwoodi1 ,dawson1 reduced4 7,from a specimen from ,gilboa1 ,new ,york47 ,some of the ,erian ferns attained to the dimensions of tree-ferns4 ,large stems of these1 which must have floated out far from land1 have been found by ,newberry in the marine limestone of ,ohio 7,caulopteris antiqua and ,c4 peregrina1 ,newberry71,,ay and ,prof4 ,hall has found in the ,upper ,devonian of ,gilboa1 ,new ,york1 the remains of a forest of tree-ferns standing in situ with their great masses of arial roots attached to the soil in which they grew 7,caulopteris ,lockwoodi1 ,dn474,,az ,,ay ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahga4 ,,az ,ibid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,megalopteris ,dawsoni1 ,hartt 7,erian1 ,new ,brunswick71 a1 ,fragment of pinna4 b1 ,point of pinnule1 c1 ,venation1 7,the midrib is not accurately given in this figure47 ,these arial roots introduce us to a new contrivance for strengthening the stems of plants by sending out into the soil multitudes of cord-like cylindrical roots from various heights on the stem1 and which form a series of stays like the cordage of a ship4 ,this method of support still continues in the modern tree-ferns of the tropics and the southern hemisphere4 ,in one kind of tree-fern stem from the ,erian of ,new ,york1 there is also a special arrangement for support1 consisting of a series of peculiarly arranged radiating plates of scalariform vessels1 not exactly like those of an exogenous stem1 but doing duty for it 7,asteropteris7,,ba ,similar plants have been described from the ,erian of ,falkenberg1 in ,germany1 and of ,saalfeld1 in ,thuringia1 by ,goeppert and ,unger1 and are referred to ferns by the former1 but treated as doubtful by the latter1,,bb ,this peculiar type of tree-fern is apparently a precursor of the more exogenous type of ,heterangium1 recently described and referred to ferns by ,williamson4 ,here1 again1 we have a mechanical contrivance now restricted to higher plants appropriated by these old cryptogams4 ,,ba ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,,bb ,sphenopteris ,refracta1 ,goeppert2 ,flora des ,uebergangsgebirges4 ,cladoxylon ,mirabile1 ,unger2 ,palontologie des ,thuringer ,waldes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,calamites radiatus 7,erian1 ,new ,brunswick74 ,the history of the ferns in geological time is remarkably different from that of the ,lycopods2 for while the latter have long ago descended from their pristine eminence to a very humble place in nature1 the former still1 in the southern hemisphere at least1 retain their arboreal dimensions and ancient dominance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,asterophyllites 7,erian1 ,new ,brunswick71 ,a1 ,asterophyllites latifolia4 ,b1 ,do41 apex of stem 787 fruit1 ,c1 ,c#a1 ,a4 scutigera4 ,d1 ,a4 latifolia1 larger whorl of leaves4 ,d#a1 ,leaf4 ,the family of the ,equisetace1 or mare's-tails1 was also represented by large species of ,calamites and by ,asterophyllites in the ,erian2 but1 as its headquarters are in the ,carboniferous1 we may defer its consideration till the next chapter4 7,figs4 #bg1 #bh47 ,passing over these for the present1 we find that the flowering plants are represented in the ,erian forests by at least two types of ,gymnosperms1 that of ,taxine or yews1 and an extinct family1 that of the ,cordaites 7,figs4 #cj1 #ca74 ,the yew-trees are closely allied to the pines and spruces1 and are often included with them in the family of ,conifer4 ,they differ1 however1 in the habit of producing berries or drupe-like fruits instead of cones1 and there is some reason to believe that this was the habit of the ,erian trees of this group1 though their wood in some instances resembles rather that of the ,araucaria1 or ,norfolk ,island pine1 than that of the modern yews4 ,these trees are chiefly known to us by their mineralised trunks1 which are often found like drift-wood on modern sand-banks embedded in the ,erian sandstones or limestones4 ,it often shows its structure in the most perfect manner in specimens penetrated by calcite or silica1 or by pyrite1 and in which the original woody matter has been resolved into anthracite or even into graphite4 ,these trees have true woody tissues presenting that beautiful arrangement of pores or thin parts enclosed in cup-like discs1 which is characteristic of the coniferous trees1 and which is a great improvement on the barred tissue already referred to1 affording a far more strong1 tough1 and durable wood1 such as we have in our modern pines and yews 7,fig4 #bi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,dadoxylon ,ouangondianum1 an ,erian conifer1 ,a1 ,fragment showing ,sternberg pith and wood2 a1 medullary sheath2 b1 pith2 c1 wood2 d1 section of pith1 ,b1 ,wood-cell2 a1 hexagonal areole2 b1 pore1 c1 ,longitudinal section of wood1 showing1 a1 areolation1 and b1 medullary rays1 ,d1 ,transverse section1 showing1 a1 wood-cells1 and b1 limit of layer of growth1 7,b1 ,c1 ,d1 highly magnified47 ,these primitive pines make their appearance in the ,middle ,erian1 in various parts of ,america1 as well as in ,scotland and ,germany1 and they are represented by wood indicating the presence of several species4 ,i have myself indicated and described five species from the ,erian of ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,from the fact that these trees are represented by drifted trunks embedded in sandstones and marine limestones1 we may1 perhaps1 infer that they grew on the rising grounds of the ,erian land1 and that their trunks were carried by river-floods into the sea4 ,no instance has yet certainly occurred of the discovery of their foliage or fruit1 though there are some fan-shaped leaves usually regarded as ferns which may have belonged to such trees4 ,these in that case would have resembled the modern ,gingko of ,china1 and some of the fruits referred to the genus ,cardiocarpum may have been produced by them4 ,various names have been given to these trees4 ,i have preferred that given by ,unger1 ,dadoxylon1 as being more non-committal as to affinities than the others4,,bc ,many of these trees had very long internal pith-cylinders1 with curious transverse tubul1 and which1 when preserved separately1 have been named ,sternbergia4 ,,bc ,araucarites1 ,goeppert2 ,araucarioxylon1 ,kraus4 ,allied to these trees1 and perhaps intermediate between them and the ,cycads1 were those known as ,cordaites 7,fig4 #cj71 which had trunks resembling those of ,dadoxylon1 but with still larger ,sternbergia piths and an internal axis of scalariform vessels1 surrounded by a comparatively thin woody cylinder4 ,some of them have leaves over a foot in length1 reminding one of the leaves of broad-leaved grasses or iridaceous plants4 ,yet their flowers and fruit seem to have been more nearly allied to the yews than to any other plants 7,fig4 #ca74 ,their stems were less woody and their piths larger than in the true pines1 and some of the larger-leaved species must have had thick1 stiff branches4 ,they are regarded as constituting a separate family1 intermediate between pines and cycads1 and1 beginning in the ,middle ,devonian1 they terminate in the ,permian1 where1 however1 some of the most gigantic species occur4 ,in so far as the form and structure of the leaves1 stems1 and fruit are concerned1 there is marvellously little difference between the species found in the ,erian and the ,permian4 ,they culminated1 however1 in the ,carboniferous period1 and the coal-fields of southern ,france have proved so far the richest in their remains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,cordaites ,robbii 7,erian1 ,new ,brunswick71 a1 ,group of young leaves4 b1 ,point of leaf1 c1 ,base of leaf1 d4 ,venation1 magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,erian fruits1 c41 some gymnospermous1 and probably of ,cordaites and ,taxine trees 7,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick71 ,a1 ,cardiocarpum cornutum4 ,b1 ,cardiocarpum acutum4 ,c1 ,cardiocarpum ,crampii4 ,d1 ,cardiocarpum ,baileyi4 ,e1 ,trigonocarpum racemosum4 ,e#a1 ,e#b1 ,fruits enlarged1 ,f1 ,antholithes ,devonicus4 ,g1 ,annularia acuminata1 ,h1 ,asterophyllites acicularis4 ,h#b1 ,fruit of the same1 ,k1 ,cardiocarpum 78 young of ,a471 ,l1 ,pinnularia dispalans 7probably a root74 ,lastly1 a single specimen1 collected by ,prof4 ,james ,hall1 of ,albany1 at ,eighteen-mile ,creek1 ,lake ,erie1 has the structure of an ordinary angiospermous exogen1 and has been described by me as ,syringoxylon mirabile4,,bd ,this unique example is sufficient to establish the fact of the existence of such plants at this early date1 unless some accident may have carried a specimen from a later formation to be mixed with ,erian fossils4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that the non-occurrence of any similar wood in all the formations between the ,upper ,erian and the ,middle ,cretaceous suggests very grave doubt as to the authenticity of the specimen4 ,i record the fact1 waiting further discoveries to confirm it4 ,of the character of the specimen which ,i have described ,i entertain no doubt4 ,,bd ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 xviii4 ,we shall be better able to realise the significance and relations of this ancient flora when we have studied that of the succeeding ,carboniferous4 ,we may merely remark here on the fact that1 in these forests of the ,devonian and in the marshes on their margins1 we find a wonderful expansion of the now modest groups of ,rhizocarps and ,lycopods1 and that the flora as a whole belongs to the highest group of ,cryptogams and the lowest of ,phnogams1 so that it has about it a remarkable aspect of mediocrity4 ,further1 while there is evidence of some variety of station1 there is also evidence of much equality of climate1 and of a condition of things more resembling that of the insular climates of the temperate portions of the southern hemisphere than that of ,north ,america or ,europe at present4 ,the only animal inhabitants of these ,devonian woods1 so far as known1 were a few species of insects1 discovered by ,hartt in ,new ,brunswick1 and described by ,dr4 ,scudder4 ,since1 however1 we now know that scorpions as well as insects existed in the ,silurian1 it is probable that these also occurred in the ,erian1 though their remains have not yet been discovered4 ,all the known insects of the ,erian woods are allies of the shad-flies and grasshoppers 7,neuroptera and ,orthoptera71 or intermediate between the two4 ,it is probable that the larv of most of them lived in water and fed upon the abundant vegetable matter there1 or on the numerous minute crustaceans and worms4 ,there were no land vertebrates1 so far as known1 but there were fishes 7,dipterus1 etc471 allied to the modern ,barramunda or ,ceratodus of ,australia1 and with teeth suited for grinding vegetable food4 ,it is also possible that some of the smaller plate-covered fishes 7,placoganoids1 like ,pterichthys7 might have fed on vegetable matter1 and1 in any case1 if they fed on lower animals1 the latter must have subsisted on plants4 ,i mention these facts to show that the superabundant vegetation of this age1 whether aquatic or terrestrial1 was not wholly useless to animals4 ,it is quite likely1 also1 that we have yet much to learn of the animal life of the ,erian swamps and woods4 ,,notes ,,to ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,i4--,classification of ,sporangites4 ,it is1 of course1 very unsatisfactory to give names to mere fragments of plants1 yet it seems very desirable to have some means of arranging them4 ,with respect to the organisms described above1 which were originally called by me ,sporangites1 under the supposition that they were ,sporangia rather than spores1 this name has so far been vindicated by the discovery of the spore-cases belonging to them1 so that ,i think it may still be retained as a provisional name2 but ,i would designate the whole as ,protosalvini1 meaning thereby plants with rhizocarpean affinities1 though possibly when better understood belonging to different genera4 ,we may under these names speak of their detached discs as macrospores and of their cellular envelopes as sporocarps4 ,the following may be recognized as distinct forms3 #a4 ,protosalvinia ,huronensis1 ,dawson1 ,syn41 ,sporangites ,huronensis1 ,report on ,erian ,flora of ,canada1 #ahga4--,macrospores1 in the form of discs or globes1 smooth and thick-walled1 the walls penetrated by minute radiating pores4 ,diameter about one one-hundredth of an inch1 or a little more1 ,when in situ several macrospores are contained in a thin cellular sporocarp1 probably globular in form4 ,from the ,upper ,erian1 and perhaps ,lower ,carboniferous shales of ,kettle ,point1 ,lake ,huron1 of various places in the ,state of ,ohio1 and in the shale boulders of the boulder clay of ,chicago and vicinity4 ,first collected at ,kettle ,point by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 and in ,ohio by ,prof4 ,edward ,orton1 and at ,chicago by ,dr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,johnson and ,mr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,thomas1 also in ,new ,york by ,prof4 ,j4 ,m4 ,clarke4 ,the macrospores collected by ,mr4 ,thomas from the ,chicago clays and shales conform closely to those of ,kettle ,point1 and probably belong to the same species4 ,some of them are thicker in the outer wall1 and show the pores much more distinctly4 ,these have been called by ,mr4 ,thomas ,s4 ,chicagoensis1 and may be regarded as a varietal form4 ,specimens isolated from the shale and mounted dry1 show what seems to have been the hilum or scar of attachment better than those in balsam4 ,sections of the ,kettle ,point shale show1 in addition to the macrospores1 wider and thinner shreds of vegetable matter1 which ,i am inclined to suppose to be remains of the sporocarps4 #b4 ,protosalvinia 7,sporangites7 ,braziliensis1 ,dawson1 ,canadian ,record of ,science1 #ahhc4--,macrospores1 round1 smooth1 a little longer than those of the last species1 or about one seventy-fifth of an inch in diameter1 enclosed in round1 oval1 or slightly reniform sporocarps1 each containing from four to twenty-four macrospores4 ,longest diameter of sporocarps three to six millimetres4 ,structure of wall of sporocarps hexagonal cellular4 ,some sporocarps show no macrospores1 and may possibly contain microspores4 ,the specimens are from the ,erian of ,brazil4 ,discovered by ,mr4 ,orville ,derby4 ,the formation1 according to ,mr4 ,derby1 consists of black shales below1 about three hundred feet thick1 and containing the fucoid known as ,spirophyton1 and probably decomposed vegetable matter4 ,above this is chocolate and reddish shale1 in which the well-preserved specimens of ,protosalvinia occur4 ,these beds are very widely distributed1 and abound in ,protosalvinia and ,spirophyton4 #c4 ,protosalvinia 7,sporangites7 bilobata1 ,dawson1 ,canadian ,record of ,science1 #ahhc4--,sporocarps1 oval or reniform1 three to six millimetres in diameter1 each showing two rounded prominences at the ends1 with a depression in the middle1 and sometimes a raised neck or isthmus at one side connecting the prominences4 ,structure of sporocarp cellular4 ,some of the specimens indicate that each prominence or tubercle contained several macrospores4 ,at first sight it would be easy to mistake these bodies for valves of ,beyrichia4 ,found in the same formations with the last species1 though1 in so far as the specimens indicate1 not precisely in the same beds4 ,collected by ,mr4 ,derby4 #d4 ,protosalvinia ,clarkei1 ,dawson1 ,p4 bilobata1 ,clarke1 ,american ,journal of ,science4--,macrospores two-thirds to one millimetre in diameter4 ,one1 two1 or three contained in each sporocarp1 which is cellular4 ,the macrospores have very thick walls with radiating tortuous tubes4 ,unless this structure is a result of mineral crystallisation1 these macrospores must have had very thick walls and must have resembled in structure the thickened cells of stone fruits and of the core of the pear1 or the tests of the ,silurian and ,erian seeds known as ,pachytheca1 though on a smaller scale4 ,it is to be observed that bodies similar to these occur in the ,boghead earthy bitumen1 and have been described by ,credner4 ,i have found similar bodies in the so-called ,stellar coal of the coal district of ,pictou1 ,nova ,scotia1 some layers of which are filled with them4 ,they occur in groups or patches1 which seem to be enclosed in a smooth and thin membrane or sporocarp4 ,it is quite likely that these bodies are generically distinct from ,protosalvinia4 #e4 ,protosalvinia punctata1 ,newton1 ,geological ,magazine1 ,new ,series1 ,december #b;d1 vol4 ii4--,mr4 ,newton has named the discs found in the white coal and ,tasmanite1 ,tasmanites1 the species being ,tasmanites punctatus1 but as my name ,sporangites had priority1 ,i do not think it necessary to adopt this term1 though there can be little doubt that these organisms are of similar character4 ,the same remark may be made with reference to the bodies described by ,huxley and ,newton as occurring in the ,better-bed coal4 ,in ,witham's ,internal ,structure of ,fossil ,vegetables1 #ahcc1 ,plate ,,xi1 are figures of ,lancashire cannel which shows ,sporangites of the type of those in the ,erian shales4 ,quekett1 in his ,report on the ,torbane ,hill ,mineral1 #ahed1 has very well figured similar structures from the ,methel coal and the ,lesmahagow cannel coal4 ,these are the earliest publications on the subject known to me2 and ,quekett1 though not understanding the nature of the bodies he observed1 holds that they are a usual ingredient in cannel coals4 ,,ii4--,the ,nature and ,affinities of ,ptilophyton4 7,lycopodites ,vanuxemii of ,report on ,devonian and ,upper ,silurian ,plants1 ,part ,i41 page #ce1 ,l4 plumula of ,report on ,lower ,carboniferous ,plants1 page #bd1 ,plate ,i41 ,figs4 #g1 #h1 #i47 ,in the reports above referred to1 these remarkable pinnate1 frond-like objects were referred to the genus ,lycopodites1 as had been done by ,goeppert in his description of the ,european species ,lycopodites pennformis1 which is very near to the ,american ,erian form4 ,since #ahga1 however1 there have been many new specimens obtained1 and very various opinions expressed as to their affinities4 ,while ,hall has named some of them ,plumalina1 and has regarded them as animal structures1 allied to hydroids1 ,lesquereux has described some of the ,carboniferous forms under the generic name ,trochophyllum1 which is1 however1 more appropriate to plants with verticillate leaves which are included in this genus4 ,before ,i had seen the publications of ,hall and ,lesquereux on the subject1 ,i had in a paper on ,scottish ,devonian ,plants,,be separated this group from the genus ,lycopodites1 and formed for it the genus ,ptilophyton1 in allusion to the feather-like aspect of the species4 ,my reasons for this1 and my present information as to the nature of these plants1 may be stated as follows3 ,schimper1 in his ,palontologie ,vegetale 7possibly from inattention to the descriptions or want of access to specimens71 doubts the lycopodiaceous character of species of ,lycopodites described in my published papers on plants of the ,devonian of ,america and in my ,report of #ahga4 ,of these1 ,l4 ,richardsoni and ,l4 ,matthewi are undoubtedly very near to the modern genus ,lycopodium4 ,l4 ,vanuxemii is1 ,i admit1 more problematical2 but ,schimper could scarcely have supposed it to be a fern or a fucoid allied to ,caulerpa had he observed that both in my species and the allied ,l4 pennformis of ,goeppert1 which he does not appear to notice1 the pinnules are articulated upon the stem1 and leave scars where they have fallen off4 ,when in ,belfast in #ahgj1 my attention was again directed to the affinities of these plants by finding in ,prof4 ,thomson's collection a specimen from ,caithness1 which shows a plant apparently of this kind1 with the same long narrow pinna8 or leaflets1 attached1 however1 to thicker stems1 and rolled up in a circinate manner4 ,it seems to be a plant in vernation1 and the parts are too much crowded and pressed together to admit of being accurately figured or described2 but ,i think ,i can scarcely be deceived as to its true nature4 ,the circinate arrangement in this case would favour a relationship to ferns2 but some lycopodiaceous plants also roll themselves in this way1 and so do the branches of the plants of the genus ,psilophyton4 7,fig4 #ag1 supra47 ,,be ,canadian ,naturalist1 #ahgh4 ,the specimen consists of a short1 erect stem1 on which are placed somewhat stout alternate branches1 extending obliquely outward and then curving inward in a circinate manner4 ,the lower ones appear to produce on their inner sides short lateral branchlets1 and upon these1 and also upon the curved extremities of the branches1 are long1 narrow1 linear leaves placed in a crowded manner4 ,the specimen is thus not a spike of fructification1 but a young stem or branch in vernation1 and which when unrolled would be of the form of those peculiar pinnate ,lycopodites of which ,l4 ,vanuxemii of the ,american ,devonian and ,l4 pennformis of the ,european ,lower ,carboniferous are the types1 and it shows1 what might have been anticipated from other specimens1 that they were low1 tufted plants1 circinate in vernation4 ,the short stem of this plant is simply furrowed1 and bears no resemblance to a detached branch of ,lycopodites ,milleri which lies at right angles to it on the same slab4 ,as to the affinities of the singular type of plants to which this specimen belongs1 ,i may quote from my ,report on the ,lower ,carboniferous ,plants of ,canada1 in which ,i have described an allied species1 ,l4 plumula3 ,the botanical relations of these plants must remain subject to doubt1 until either their internal structure or their fructification can be discovered4 ,in the mean time ,i follow ,goeppert in placing them in what we must regard as the provisional genus ,lycopodites4 ,on the one hand1 they are not unlike the slender twigs of ,taxodium and similar ,conifers1 and the highly carbonaceous character of the stems gives some colour to the supposition that they may have been woody plants4 ,on the other hand1 they might1 so far as form is concerned1 be placed with ,alg of the type of ,brongniart's ,chondrites obtusus1 or the modern ,caulerpa plumaria4 ,again1 in a plant of this type from the ,devonian of ,caithness to which ,i have referred in a former memoir1 the vernation seems to have been circinate1 and ,schimper has conjectured that these plants may be ferns1 which seems also to have been the view of ,shumard4 ,on the whole1 these plants are allied to ,lycopods rather than to ferns2 and as they constitute a small but distinct group1 known only1 so far as ,i am aware1 in the ,lower ,carboniferous and ,erian or ,devonian1 they deserve a generic name1 and ,i proposed for them in my ,paper on ,scottish ,devonian ,plants1 #ahgh1 that of ,ptilophyton1 a name sufficiently distinct in sound from ,psilophyton1 and expressing very well their peculiar feather-like habit of growth4 ,the genus was defined as follows3 ,branching plants1 the branches bearing long1 slender leaves in two or more ranks1 giving them a feathered appearance2 vernation circinate4 ,fruit unknown1 but analogy would indicate that it was borne on the bases of the leaves or on modified branches with shorter leaves4 ,the ,scottish specimen above referred to was named ,pt4 ,thomsoni1 and was characterised by its densely tufted form and thick branches4 ,the other species known are3 ,pt4 pennformis1 ,goeppert1 ,l4 ,carboniferous2 ,pt4 ,vanuxemii1 ,dawson1 ,devonian2 ,pt4 plumula1 ,dawson1 ,l4 ,carboniferous4 ,shumard's ,filicites gracilis1 from the ,devonian of ,ohio1 and ,stur's ,pinites antecedens1 from the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,silesia1 may possibly belong to the same genus4 ,the ,scottish specimen referred to is apparently the first appearance of this form in the ,devonian of ,europe4 ,i have at a still later date had opportunities of studying considerable series of these plants collected by ,prof4 ,williams1 of ,cornell ,university1 and prepared a note in reference to them for the ,american ,association1 of which1 however1 only an abstract has been published4 ,i have also been favoured by ,prof4 ,lesquereux and ,mr4 ,lacoe1 of ,pittston1 with the opportunity of studying the specimens referred to ,trochophyllum4 ,prof4 ,williams's specimens occur in a dark shale associated with remains of land-plants of the genera ,psilophyton4 ,rhodea1 c41 and also marine shells1 of which a small species of ,rhynchonella is often attached to the stems of the ,ptilophyton4 ,thus these organisms have evidently been deposited in marine beds1 but in association with land-plants4 ,the study of the specimens collected by ,prof4 ,williams develops the following facts3 7#a7 ,the plants are not continuous fronds1 but slender stems or petioles1 with narrow1 linear leaflets attached in a pinnate manner4 7#b7 ,the pinnules are so articulated that they break off1 leaving delicate transverse scars1 and the lower parts of the stems are often thus denuded of pinn for the length of one or more inches4 7#c7 ,the stems curve in such a manner as to indicate a circinate vernation4 7#d7 ,in a few instances the fronds were observed to divide dichotomously toward the top2 but this is rare4 7#e7 ,there are no indications of cells in the pinnules2 but1 on the other hand1 there is no appearance of fructification unless the minute granules which roughen some of the sterns are of this nature4 7#f7 ,the stems seem to have been lax and flexuous1 and in some instances they seem to have grown on the petioles of ferns preserved with them in the same beds4 7#g7 ,the frequency of the attachment of small brachiopods to the specimens of ,ptilophyton would seem to indicate that the plant stood erect in the water4 7#h7 ,some of the specimens show so much carbonaceous matter as to indicate that the pinnules were of considerable consistency4 ,all these characters are those rather of an aquatic plant than of an animal organism or of a land-plant4 ,the specimens communicated by ,prof4 ,lesquereux and ,mr4 ,lacoe are from the ,lower ,carboniferous1 and evidently represent a different species with similar slender pitted stems1 often partially denuded of pinnules below2 but the pinnules are much broader and more distant4 ,they are attached by very narrow bases1 and apparently tend to lie on a plane1 though they may possibly have been spirally arranged4 ,on the same slabs are rounded sporangia or macrospores like those of ,lepidodendron1 but there is no evidence that these belonged to ,trochophyllum4 ,on the stems of this plant1 however1 there are small1 rounded bodies apparently taking the places of some of the pinnules4 ,these may possibly be spore-cases2 but they may be merely imperfectly developed pinnules4 ,still the fact that similar small granules appear on the stems of the ,devonian species1 favours the idea that they may be organs of fructification4 ,the most interesting discovery1 however1 which results from the study of ,mr4 ,lacoe's specimens1 is that the pinnules were cylindrical and hollow1 and probably served to float the plant4 ,this would account for many of the peculiarities in the appearance and mode of occurrence of the ,devonian ,ptilophyton1 which are readily explained if it is supposed to be an aquatic plant1 attaching itself to the stems of submerged vegetable remains and standing erect in the water by virtue of its hollow leaves4 ,it may well1 however1 have been a plant of higher organisation than the ,alg1 though no doubt cryptogamous4 ,the species of ,ptilophyton will thus constitute a peculiar group of aquatic plants1 belonging to the ,devonian and ,lower ,carboniferous periods1 and perhaps allied to ,lycopods and ,pillworts in their organisation and fruit1 but specially distinguished by their linear leaves serving as floats and arranged pinnately on slender stems4 ,the only species yet found within the limits of ,canada is ,pt4 plumula1 found by ,dr4 ,honeyman in the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,nova ,scotia2 but as ,pt4 ,vanuxemii abounds in the ,erian of ,new ,york1 it will no doubt be found in ,canada also4 ,,iii4--,tree-,ferns of the ,erian ,period4 ,as the fact of the occurrence of true tree-ferns in rocks so old as the ,middle ,erian or ,devonian has been doubted in some quarters1 the following summary is given from descriptions published in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london 7#ahga and #ahha71 where figures of the species will be found3 ,of the numerous ferns now known in the ,middle and ,upper ,devonian of ,north ,america1 a great number are small and delicate species1 which were probably herbaceous2 but there are other species which may have been tree-ferns4 ,little definite information1 however1 has1 until recently1 been obtained with regard to their habit of growth4 ,the only species known to me in the ,devonian of ,europe is the ,caulopteris ,peachii of ,salter1 figured in the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society for #aheh4 ,the original specimen of this ,i had an opportunity of seeing in ,london1 through the kindness of ,mr4 ,etheridge1 and have no doubt that it is the stem of a small arborescent fern1 allied to the genus ,caulopteris1 of the coal formation4 ,in my paper on the ,devonian of ,eastern ,america 7,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahfb71 ,i mentioned a plant found by ,mr4 ,richardson at ,perry1 as possibly a species of ,megaphyton1 using that term to denote those stems of tree-ferns which have the leaf-scars in two vertical series2 but the specimen was obscure1 and ,i have not yet obtained any other4 ,more recently1 in #ahfi1 ,prof4 ,hall placed in my hands an interesting collection from ,gilboa1 ,new ,york1 and ,madison ,county1 ,new ,york1 including two trunks surrounded by arial roots1 which ,i have described as ,psaronius textilis and ,p4 ,erianus1 in my ,revision of the ,devonian ,flora1 read before the ,royal ,society4,,bf ,in the same collection were two very large petioles1 ,rhachiopteris gigantea and ,r4 palmata1 which ,i have suggested may have belonged to tree-ferns4 ,,bf ,abstract in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 ,may1 #ahgj2 also ,report on ,erian ,plants of ,canada1 #ahga4 ,my determination of the species of ,psaronius1 above mentioned1 has recently been completely confirmed by the discovery on the part of ,mr4 ,lockwood1 of ,gilboa1 of the upper part of one of these stems1 with its leaf-scars preserved and petioles attached1 and also by some remarkable specimens obtained by ,prof4 ,newberry1 of ,new ,york1 from the ,corniferous limestone of ,ohio1 which indicate the existence there of three species of tree-ferns1 one of them with arial roots similar to those of the ,gilboa specimens4 ,the whole of these specimens ,dr4 ,newberry has kindly allowed me to examine1 and has permitted me to describe the ,gilboa specimen1 as connected with those which ,i formerly studied in ,prof4 ,hall's collections4 ,the specimens from ,ohio he has himself named1 but allows me to notice them here by way of comparison with the others4 ,i shall add some notes on specimens found with the ,gilboa ferns4 ,it may be further observed that the ,gilboa specimens are from a bed containing erect stumps of tree-ferns1 in the ,chemung group of the ,upper ,devonian1 while those from ,ohio are from a marine limestone1 belonging to the lower part of the ,middle ,devonian4 #a4 ,caulopteris ,lockwoodi1 ,dawson4--,trunk from two to three inches in diameter1 rugose longitudinally4 ,leaf-scars broad1 rounded above1 and radiatingly rugose1 with an irregular scar below1 arranged spirally in about five ranks2 vascular bundles not distinctly preserved4 ,petioles slender1 much expanded at the base1 dividing at first in a pinnate manner1 and afterwards dichotomously4 ,ultimate pinn with remains of numerous1 apparently narrow pinnules4 ,this stem is probably the upper part of one or other of the species of ,psaronius found in the same bed 7,p4 ,erianus1 ,dawson1 and ,p4 textilis1 ,dawson74,,bg ,it appears to have been an erect stem embedded in situ in sandstone1 and preserved as a cast4 ,the stem is small1 being only two inches1 or a little more1 in diameter4 ,it is coarsely wrinkled longitudinally1 and covered with large leaf-scars1 each an inch in diameter1 of a horseshoe-shape4 ,the petioles1 five of which remain1 separate from these scars with a distinct articulation1 except at one point near the base1 where probably a bundle or bundles of vessels passed into the petiole4 ,they retain their form at the attachment to the stem1 but a little distance from it they are flattened4 ,they are inflated at the base1 and somewhat rapidly diminish in size4 ,the leaf-scars vary in form1 and are not very distinct1 but they appear to present a semicircular row of pits above1 largest in the middle4 ,from these there proceed downward a series of irregular furrows1 converging to a second and more obscure semicircle of pits1 within or below which is the irregular scar or break above referred to4 ,the attitude and form of the petioles will be seen from ,fig4 #bd1 supra4 ,,bg ,memoir on ,devonian ,flora1 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 ,may1 #ahgj4 ,the petioles are broken off within a few inches of the stem2 but other fragments found in the same beds appear to show their continuation1 and some remains of their foliage4 ,one specimen shows a series of processes at the sides1 which seem to be the remains of small pinn1 or possibly of spines on the margin of the petiole4 ,other fragments show the division of the frond1 at first in a pinnate manner1 and subsequently by bifurcation2 and some fragments show remains of pinnules1 possibly of fertile pinnules4 ,these are very indistinct1 but would seem to show that the plant approached1 in the form of its fronds and the arrangement of its fructification1 to the ,cyclopterids of the sub-genus ,aneimites1 one of which 7,aneimites ,acadica71 from the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,nova ,scotia1 ,i have elsewhere described as probably a tree-fern1,,bh ,the fronds were evidently different from those of ,archopteris,,bi a genus characteristic of the same beds1 but of very different habit of growth4 ,this accords with the fact that there is in ,prof4 ,hall's collection a mass of fronds of ,cyclopteris 7,archopteris7 ,jacksoni1 so arranged as to make it probable that the plant was an herbaceous fern1 producing tufts of fronds on short stems in the ordinary way4 ,the obscurity of the leaf-scars may render it doubtful whether the plant above described should be placed in the genus ,caulopteris or in ,stemmatopteris2 but it appears most nearly allied to the former4 ,the genus is at present1 of course1 a provisional one2 but ,i have thought it only justice to the diligent labours of ,mr4 ,lockwood to name this curious and interesting fossil ,caulopteris ,lockwoodi4 ,,bh ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahfj4 ,,bi ,the genus to which the well-known ,cyclopteris 7,adiantites7 ,hibernicus of the ,devonian of ,ireland belongs4 ,i have elsewhere remarked on the fact that trunks1 and petioles1 and pinnules of ferns are curiously dissociated in the ,devonian beds--an effect of water-sorting1 characteristic of a period in which the conditions of deposition were so varied4 ,another example of this is1 that in the sandstones of ,gasp ,bay1 which have not as yet afforded any example of fronds of ferns1 there are compressed trunks1 which ,mr4 ,lockwood's specimens allow me at least to conjecture may have belonged to tree-ferns1 although none of them are sufficiently perfect for description4 ,mr4 ,lockwood's collection includes specimens of ,psaronius textilis2 and in addition to these there are remains of erect stems somewhat different in character1 yet possibly belonging to the higher parts of the same species of tree-fern4 ,one of these is a stem crushed in such a manner that it does not exhibit its form with any distinctness1 but surrounded by smooth1 cylindrical roots1 radiating from it in bundles1 proceeding at first horizontally1 and then curving downward1 and sometimes terminating in rounded ends4 ,they resemble in form and size the arial roots of ,psaronius ,erianus2 and ,i believe them to be similar roots from a higher part of the stem1 and some of them young and not prolonged sufficiently far to reach the ground4 ,this specimen would thus represent the stem of ,p4 ,erianus at a higher level than those previously found4 ,we can thus in imagination restore the trunk and crown of this once graceful tree-fern1 though we have not the detail of its fronds4 ,mr4 ,lockwood's collections also contain a specimen of the large fern-petiole which ,i have named ,rhachiopteris punctata4 ,my original specimen was obtained by ,prof4 ,hall from the same horizon in ,new ,york4 ,that of ,mr4 ,lockwood is of larger size1 but retains no remains of the frond4 ,it must have belonged to a species quite distinct from ,caulopteris ,lockwoodi1 but which may1 like it1 have been a tree-fern4 #b4 ,caulopteris antiqua1 ,newberry4--,this is a flattened stem1 on a slab of limestone1 containing ,brachiopods1 ,trilobites1 c41 of the ,corniferous limestone4 ,it is about eighteen inches in length1 and three and a half inches in average breadth4 ,the exposed side shows about twenty-two large leaf-scars arranged spirally4 ,each leaf1 where broken off1 has left a rough fracture2 and above this is a semicircular impression of the petiole against the stem1 which1 as well as the surface of the bases of the petioles1 is longitudinally striated or tuberculated4 ,the structures are not preserved1 but merely the outer epidermis1 as a coaly film4 ,the stem altogether much resembles ,caulopteris ,peachii1 but is of larger size4 ,it differs from ,c4 ,lockwoodi in the more elongated leaf-bases1 and in the leaves being more remotely placed2 but it is evidently of the same general character with that species4 #c4 ,caulopteris 7,protopteris7 peregrina1 ,newberry4--,this is a much more interesting species than the last1 as belonging to a generic or subgeneric form not hitherto recognised below the ,carboniferous1 and having its minute structure in part preserved4 ,the specimens are1 like the last1 on slabs of marine limestone of the ,corniferous formation1 and flattened4 ,one represents an upper portion of the stem with leaf-scars and remains of petioles2 another a lower portion1 with arial roots4 ,the upper part is three inches in diameter1 and about a foot in length1 and shows thirty leaf-scars which are about three-fourths of an inch wide1 and rather less in depth4 ,the upper part presents a distinct rounded and sometimes double marginal line1 sometimes with a slight depression in the middle4 ,the lower part is irregular1 and when most perfect shows seven slender vascular bundles1 passing obliquely downward into the stem4 ,the more perfect leaf-bases have the structure preserved1 and show a delicate1 thin-walled1 oval parenchyma1 while the vascular bundles show scalariform vessels with short bars in several rows1 in the manner of many modern ferns4 ,some of the scars show traces of the hippocrepian mark characteristic of ,protopteris2 and the arrangement of the vascular bundles at the base of the scars is the same as in that genus1 as are also the general form and arrangement of the scars4 ,on careful examination1 the species is indeed very near to the typical ,p4 ,sternbergii1 as figured by ,corda and ,schimper4,,bj ,,bj ,corda1 ,beitrge1 ,pl4 #dh1 copied by ,schimper1 ,pl4 #eb4 ,the genus ,protopteris of ,sternberg1 though the original species 7,p4 punctata7 appears as a ,lepidodendron in his earlier plate 7,plate #d71 and as a ,sigillaria 7,s4 punctata7 in ,brongniart's great work1 is a true tree-fern2 and the structure of one species 7,p4 ,cottai7 has been beautifully figured by ,corda4 ,the species hitherto described are from the ,carboniferous and ,permian4 ,the second specimen of this species represents a lower part of the stem4 ,it is thirteen inches long and about four inches in diameter1 and is covered with a mass of flattened arial roots lying parallel to each other1 in the manner of the ,psaronites of the coal-formation and of ,p4 ,erianus of the ,upper ,erian or ,devonian4 #d4 ,asteropteris noveboracensis1 gen4 and sp4 n4--,the genus ,asteropteris is established for stems of ferns having the axial portion composed of vertical radiating plates of scalariform tissue embedded in parenchyma1 and having the outer cylinder composed of elongated cells traversed by leaf-bundles of the type of those of ,zygopteris4 ,the only species known to me is represented by a stem #be centimetres in diameter1 slightly wrinkled and pitted externally1 perhaps by traces of arial roots which have perished4 ,the transverse section shows in the centre four vertical plates of scalariform or imperfectly reticulated tissue1 placed at right angles to each other1 and united in the middle of the stem4 ,at a short distance from the centre1 each of these plates divides into two or three1 so as to form an axis of from ten to twelve radiating plates1 with remains of cellular tissue filling the angular interspaces4 ,the greatest diameter of this axis is about #ae centimetre4 ,exterior to the axis the stem consists of elongated cells1 with somewhat thick walls1 and more dense toward the circumference4 ,the walls of these cells present a curious reticulated appearance1 apparently caused by the cracking of the ligneous lining in consequence of contraction in the process of carbonization4 ,embedded in this outer cylinder are about twelve vascular bundles1 each with a dumb-bell-shaped group of scalariform vessels enclosed in a sheath of thick-walled fibres4 ,each bundle is opposite to one of the rays of the central axis4 ,the specimen shows about two inches of the length of the stem1 and is somewhat bent1 apparently by pressure1 at one end4 ,this stem is evidently that of a small tree-fern of a type1 so far as known to me1 not before described1,,bk and constituting a very complex and symmetrical form of the group of ,palozoic ferns allied to the genus ,zygopteris of ,schimper4 ,the central axis alone has a curious resemblance to the peculiar stem described by ,unger 7,devonian ,flora of ,thuringia7 under the name of ,cladoxylon mirabile2 and it is just possible that this latter stem may be the axis of some allied plant4 ,the large arial roots of some modern tree-ferns of the genus ,angiopteris have1 however1 an analogous radiating structure4 ,,bk ,prof4 ,williamson1 to whom ,i have sent a tracing of the structure1 agrees with me that it is new4 ,the specimen is from the collection of ,berlin ,h4 ,wright1 ,esq41 of ,penn ,yan1 ,new ,york1 and was found in the ,portage group 7,upper ,erian7 of ,milo1 ,new ,york1 where it was associated with large petioles of ferns and trunks of ,lepidodendra1 probably ,l4 ,chemungense and ,l4 primvum4 ,the occurrence of this and other stems of tree-ferns in marine beds has recently been illustrated by the observation of ,prof4 ,a4 ,agassiz that considerable quantities of vegetable matter can be dredged from great depths in the sea on the leeward side of the ,caribbean ,islands4 ,the occurrence of these trunks further connects itself with the great abundance of large petioles 7,rhachiopteris7 in the same beds1 while the rarity of well-preserved fronds is explained by the coarseness of the beds1 and also by the probably long maceration of the plant-remains in the sea-water4 ,in connection with this ,i may refer to the remarkable facts recently stated by ,williamson,,bl respecting the stems known as ,heterangium and ,lyginodendron4 ,it would seem that these1 while having strong exogenous peculiarities1 are really stems of tree-ferns1 thus placing this family in the same position of advancement with the ,lycopods and ,equisetace of the ,coal period4 ,,bl ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 ,january #f1 #ahhg4 ,,iv4--,on ,erian ,trees of the ,genus ,dadoxylon1 ,unger4 7,araucarites of ,goeppert1 ,araucarioxylon of ,kraus47 ,large woody trunks1 carbonised or silicified1 and showing wood-cells with hexagonal areoles having oval pores inscribed in them1 occur abundantly in some beds of the ,middle ,erian of ,america1 and constitute the most common kind of fossil wood all the way to the ,trias4 ,they have in the older formations1 generally1 several rows of pores on each fibre1 and medullary rays composed of two or more series of cells1 but become more simple in these respects in the ,permian and ,triassic series4 ,the names ,araucarites and ,araucarioxylon are perhaps objectionable1 inasmuch as they suppose affinities to ,araucaria which may not exist4 ,unger's name1 which is non-committal1 is therefore1 ,i think1 to be preferred4 ,in my ,acadian ,geology1 and in my ,report on the ,geology of ,prince ,edward ,island1 ,i have given reasons for believing that the foliage of some at least of these trees was that known as ,walchia1 and that they may have borne nutlets in the manner of ,taxine trees 7,trigonocarpum1 c74 ,grand d',eury has recently suggested that some of them may have belonged to ,cordaites1 or to plants included in that somewhat varied and probably artificial group4 ,the earliest discovery of trees of this kind in the ,erian of ,america was that of ,matthew and ,hartt1 who found large trunks1 which ,i afterwards described as ,dadoxylon ,ouangondianum1 in the ,erian sandstone of ,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick1 hence named by those geologists the ,dadoxylon sandstone4 ,a little later1 similar wood was found by ,prof4 ,hall and ,prof4 ,newberry in the ,hamilton group of ,new ,york and ,ohio1 and the allied wood of the genus ,ormoxylon was obtained by ,prof4 ,hall in the ,portage group of the former ,state4 ,these woods proved to be specifically distinct from that of ,st4 ,john1 and were named by me ,d4 ,halli1 ,d4 ,newberryi1 and ,ormoxylon ,erianum4 ,the three species of ,dadoxylon agreed in having composite medullary rays1 and would thus belong to the group ,paloxylon of ,brongniart4 ,in the case of ,ormoxylon this character could not be very distinctly ascertained1 but the medullary rays appeared to be simple4 ,i am indebted to ,prof4 ,j4 ,m4 ,clarke1 of ,amherst ,college1 ,massachusetts1 for some well-preserved specimens of another species from the ,genesee shale of ,canandaigua1 ,new ,york4 ,they show small steins or branches1 with a cellular pith surrounded with wood of coniferous type1 showing two to three rows of slit-formed1 bordered pores in hexagonal borders4 ,the medullary sheath consists of pseudo-scalariform and reticulated fibres2 but the most remarkable feature of this wood is the structure of the medullary rays1 which are very frequent1 but short and simple1 sometimes having as few as four cells superimposed4 ,this is a character not before observed in coniferous trees of so great age1 and allies this ,middle ,erian form with some ,carboniferous woods which have been supposed to belong to ,cordaites or ,sigillaria4 ,in any case this structure is new1 and ,i have named the species ,dadoxylon ,clarkii1 after its discoverer4 ,the specimens occur1 according to ,prof4 ,clarke1 in a calcareous layer which is filled with the minute shells of ,styliola fissurella of ,hall1 believed to be a ,pteropod2 and containing also shells of ,goniatites and ,gyroceras4 ,the stems found are only a few inches in diameter1 but may be branches of larger trees4 ,it thus appears that we already know five species of ,coniferous trees of the genus ,dadoxylon in the ,middle ,erian of ,america1 an interesting confirmation of the facts otherwise known as to the great richness and variety of this ancient flora4 ,the late ,prof4 ,goeppert informed me that he had recognised similar wood in the ,devonian of ,germany1 and there can be no doubt that the fossil wood discovered by ,hugh ,miller in the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland1 and described by ,salter and ,mc,nab1 is of similar character1 and probably belongs to the genus ,dadoxylon4 ,thus this type of ,coniferous tree seems to have been as well established and differentiated into species in the ,middle ,devonian as in the succeeding ,carboniferous4 ,i may here refer to the fact that the lower limit of the trees of this group coincides1 in ,america1 with the upper limit of those problematical trees which in the previous chapter ,i have named ,protogens 7,nematophyton1 ,celluloxlyon1,,bm ,nematoxylon,,bn71 though ,aporoxylon of ,unger extends1 in ,thuringia1 up to the ,upper ,devonian 7,cypridina schists74 ,,bm ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 ,may1 #ahha4 ,,bn ,ibid41 vol4 xix1 #ahfc4 ,v4--,scottish ,devonian ,plants of ,hugh ,miller and others4 7,edinburgh ,geological ,society1 #ahgg47 ,previously to the appearance of my descriptions of ,devonian plants from ,north ,america1 ,hugh ,miller had described forms from the ,devonian of ,scotland1 similar to those for which ,i proposed the generic name ,psilophyton2 and ,i referred to these in this connection in my earliest description of that genus4,,bo ,he had also recognised what seemed to be plants allied to ,lycopods and ,conifers4 ,mr4 ,peach and ,mr4 ,duncan had made additional discoveries of this kind1 and ,sir ,j4 ,hooker and ,mr4 ,salter had described some of these remains4 ,more recently ,messrs4 ,peach1 ,carruthers1 and ,mc,nab have worked in this field1 and still later,,bp ,messrs4 ,jack and ,etheridge have summed up the facts and have added some that are new4 ,,bo ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 ,london1 #ahei4 ,,bp ,ibid41 #ahgg4 ,the first point to which ,i shall refer1 and which will lead to the other matters to be discussed1 is the relation of the characteristic ,lepidodendron of the ,devonian of eastern ,america1 ,l4 ,gaspianum1 to ,l4 nothum of ,unger and of ,salter4 ,at the time when ,i described this species ,i had not access to ,scottish specimens of ,lepidodendron from the ,devonian1 but these had been well figured and described by ,salter1 and had been identified with ,l4 nothum of ,unger1 a species evidently distinct from mine1 as was also that figured and described by ,salter1 whether identical or not with ,unger's species4 ,in #ahgj ,i had for the first time an opportunity to study ,scottish specimens in the collection of ,mr4 ,peach2 and on the evidence thus afforded ,i stated confidently that these specimens represented a species distinct from ,l4 ,gaspianum1 perhaps even generically so4,,bq ,it differs from ,l4 ,gaspianum in its habit of growth by developing small lateral branches instead of bifurcating1 and in its foliage by the absence or obsolete character of the leaf-bases and the closely placed and somewhat appressed leaves4 ,if an appearance of swelling at the end of a lateral branch in one specimen indicates a strobile of fructification1 then its fruit was not dissimilar from that of the ,canadian species in its position and general form1 though it may have differed in details4 ,on these grounds ,i declined to identify the ,scottish species with ,l4 ,gaspianum4 ,the ,lepidodendron from the ,devonian of ,belgium described and figured by ,crepin1,,br has a better claim to such identification1 and would seem to prove that this species existed in ,europe as well as in ,america4 ,i also saw in ,mr4 ,peach's collection in #ahgj some fragments which seemed to me distinct from ,salter's species1 and possibly belonging to ,l4 ,gaspianum4,,bs ,,bq ,report on ,devonian ,plants of ,canada1 #ahga4 ,,br ,observations sur quelques ,plantes ,fossiles des dpts ,devoniens4 ,,bs ,proceedings of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 ,march1 #ahga4 ,in the earliest description of ,psilophyton ,i recognised its probable generic affinity with ,miller's dichotomous plants1 with ,salter's rootlets1 and with ,goeppert's ,haliserites ,dechenianus1 and stated that ,i had little doubt that materials exist in the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland for the reconstruction of at least one species of this genus4 ,since1 however1 ,miller's plants had been referred to coniferous roots1 and to fucoids1 and ,goeppert's ,haliserites was a name applicable only to fucoids1 and since the structure and fruit of my plants placed them near to ,lycopods1 ,i was under the necessity of giving them a special generic name1 nor could ,i with certainty affirm their specific identity with any ,european species4 ,the comparison of the ,scottish specimens with woody rootlets1 though incorrect1 is in one respect creditable to the acumen of ,salter1 as in almost any state of preservation an experienced eye can readily perceive that branchlets of ,psilophyton must have been woody rather than herbaceous1 and their appearance is quite different from that of any true ,alg4 ,the type of ,psilophyton is my ,p4 princeps1 of which the whole of the parts and structures are well known1 the entire plant being furnished in abundance and in situ in the rich plant-beds of ,gasp4 ,a second species1 ,p4 robustius1 has also afforded well-characterised fructification4 ,p4 elegans1 whose fruit appears as oval scales1 no doubt bore sac-like spore-cases resembling those of the other species1 but in a different position1 and perfectly flattened in the specimens procured4 ,the only other ,canadian species1 ,p4 glabrum1 being somewhat different in appearance from the others1 and not having afforded any fructification1 must be regarded as uncertain4 ,the generic characters of the first three species may be stated as follows3 ,stems dichotomous1 with rudimentary subulate leaves1 sometimes obsolete in terminal branchlets and fertile branches2 and in decorticated specimens represented only by punctiform scars4 ,young branches circinate4 ,rhizomata cylindrical1 with circular root-areoles4 ,internal structure of stem1 an axis of scalariform vessels enclosed in a sheath of imperfect woody tissue and covered with a cellular bark more dense externally4 ,fruit1 naked sac-like spore-cases1 in pairs or clusters1 terminal or lateral4 ,the ,scottish specimens conform to these characters in so far as they are known1 but not having as yet afforded fruit or internal structure1 they cannot be specifically determined with certainty4 ,more complete specimens should be carefully searched for1 and will no doubt be found4 ,in ,belgium1 ,m4 ,crepin has described a new species from the ,upper ,devonian of ,condroz under the name ,p4 ,condrusianum 7#ahge74 ,it wants1 however1 some of the more important characters of the genus1 and differs in having a pinnate ramification1 giving it the aspect of a fern4 ,in a later paper 7#ahgf7 the author considers this species distinct from ,psilophyton1 and proposes for it a new generic name ,rhacophyton4 ,the characters given by ,mr4 ,carruthers1 in his paper of #ahgc1 for the species ,p4 ,dechenianum1 are very few and general3 ,lower branches short and frequently branching1 giving the plant an oblong circumscription4 ,yet even these characters do not apply1 so far as known1 to ,miller's fucoids or ,salter's rootlets or ,goeppert's ,haliserites4 ,they merely express the peculiar mode of branching already referred to in ,salter's ,lepidodendron nothum4 ,the identification of the former plants with the ,lepidodendron and ,lycopodites1 indeed1 rests only on mere juxtaposition of fragments1 and on the slight resemblance of the decorticated ends of the branches of the latter plants to ,psilophyton4 ,it is contradicted by the obtuse ends of the branches of the ,lepidodendron and ,lycopodites1 and by the apparently strobilaceous termination of some of them4 ,salter's description of his ,lepidodendron nothum is quite definite1 and accords with specimens placed in my hands by ,mr4 ,peach3 ,stems half an inch broad1 tapering little1 branches short2 set on at an acute angle1 blunt at their terminations4 ,leaves in seven to ten rows1 very short1 not a line long1 and rather spreading than closely imbricate4 ,these characters1 however1 in so far as they go1 are rather those of the genus ,lycopodites than of ,lepidodendron1 from which this plant differs in wanting any distinct leaf-bases1 and in its short1 crowded leaves4 ,it is to be observed that they apply also to ,salter's ,lycopodites ,milleri1 and that the difference of the foliage of that species may be a result merely of different state of preservation4 ,for these reasons ,i am disposed to place these two supposed species together1 and to retain for the species the name ,lycopodites ,milleri4 ,it may be characterised by the description above given1 with merely the modification that the leaves are sometimes nearly one-third of an inch long and secund 7,fig4 #ag1 supra1 lower figure74 ,decorticated branches of the above species may no doubt be mistaken for ,psilophyton1 but are nevertheless quite distinct from it1 and the slender branching dichotomous stems1 with terminations which1 as ,miller graphically states1 are like the tendrils of a pea1 are too characteristic to be easily mistaken1 even when neither fruit nor leaves appear4 ,with reference to fructification1 the form of ,l4 ,milleri renders it certain that it must have borne strobiles at the ends of its branchlets1 or some substitute for these1 and not naked spore-cases like those of ,psilophyton4 ,the remarkable fragment communicated by ,sir ,philip ,egerton to ,mr4 ,carruthers1,,bt belongs to a third group1 and has1 ,i think1 been quite misunderstood4 ,i am enabled to make this statement with some confidence1 from the fact that the reverse or counterpart of ,sir ,philip's specimen was in the collection of ,sir ,wyville ,thomson1 and was placed by him in my hands in #ahgj4 ,it was noticed in my paper on ,new ,devonian ,plants1 in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 and referred to my genus ,ptilophyton1 as stated above under ,section ,,ii41 page #hf et seq4 ,,bt ,journal of ,botany1 #ahgc4 ,mr4 ,salter described1 in #aheg1;,,bu fragments of fossil wood from the ,scottish ,devonian1 having the structure of ,dadoxylon1 though very imperfectly preserved2 and ,prof4 ,mc,nab has proposed,,bv the generic name ,palopitys for another specimen of coniferous wood collected by ,hugh ,miller1 and referred to by him in the ,testimony of the ,rocks4 ,from ,prof4 ,mc,nab's description1 ,i should infer that this wood may1 after all1 be generically identical with the woods usually referred to ,dadoxylon of ,unger 7,araucarioxylon of ,kraus74 ,the description1 however1 does not mention the number and disposition of the rows of pores1 nor the structure of the medullary rays1 and ,i have not been able to obtain access to the specimens themselves4 ,i have described five species of ,dadoxylon from the ,middle and ,upper ,erian of ,america1 all quite distinct from the ,lower ,carboniferous species4 ,there is also one species of an allied genus1 ,ormoxylon4 ,all these have been carefully figured1 and it is much to be desired that the ,scottish specimens should be re-examined and compared with them4 ,,bu ,journal of the ,london ,geological ,society4 ,,bv ,transactions of the ,edinburgh ,botanical ,society1 #ahgj4 ,messrs4 ,jack and ,etheridge have given an excellent summary of our present knowledge of the ,devonian flora of ,scotland1 in the ,journal of the ,london ,geological ,society 7#ahgg74 ,from this it would appear that species referable to the genera ,calamities1 ,lepidodendron1 ,lycopodites1 ,psilophyton1 ,arthrostigma1 ,archopteris1 ,caulopteris1 ,palopitys1 ,araucarioxylon1 and ,stigmaria have been recognised4 ,the plants described by these gentlemen from the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,callender1 ,i should suppose1 from their figures and descriptions1 to belong to the genus ,arthrostigma1 rather than to ,psilophyton4 ,i do not attach any importance to the suggestions referred to by them1 that the apparent leaves may be leaf-bases4 ,long leaf-bases1 like those characteristic of ,lepidofloyos1 do not occur in these humbler plants of the ,devonian4 ,the stems with delicate horizontal processes to which they refer may belong to ,ptilophyton or to ,pinnularia4 ,in conclusion1 ,i need scarcely say that ,i do not share in the doubts expressed by some ,british palontologists as to the distinctness of the ,devonian and ,carboniferous floras4 ,in eastern ,america1 where these formations are mutually unconformable1 there is1 of course1 less room for doubt than in ,ireland and in western ,america1 where they are stratigraphically continuous4 ,still1 in passing from the one to the other1 the species are for the most part different1 and new generic forms are met with1 and1 as ,i have elsewhere shown1 the physical conditions of the two periods were essentially different4,,bw ,,bw ,reports on ,devonian ,plants and ,lower ,carboniferous ,plants of ,canada4 ,it is1 however1 to be observed that since--as ,stur and others have shown--,calamities radiatus1 and other forms distinctively ,devonian in ,america1 occur in ,europe in the ,lower ,carboniferous1 it is not unlikely that the ,devonian flora1 like that of the ,tertiary1 appeared earlier in ,america4 ,it is also probable1 as ,i have shown in the ,reports already referred to1 that it appeared earlier in the ,arctic than in the temperate zone4 ,hence an ,arctic or ,american flora1 really ,devonian1 may readily be mistaken for ,lower ,carboniferous by a botanist basing his calculations on the fossils of temperate ,europe4 ,even in ,america itself1 it would appear1 from recent discoveries in ,virginia and ,ohio1 that certain ,devonian forms lingered longer in those regions than farther to the northeast2,,bx and it would not be surprising if similar plants occurred in later beds in ,devonshire or in the south of ,europe than in ,scotland4 ,still1 these facts1 properly understood1 do not invalidate the evidence of fossil plants as to geological age1 though errors arising from the neglect of them are still current4 ,,bx ,andrews1 ,palontology of ,ohio1 vol4 ii42 ,meek1 ,fossil ,plants from ,western ,virginia1 ,philosophical ,society1 ,washington1 #ahge4 ,,vi4--,geological ,relations of some ,plant-bearing ,beds of ,eastern ,canada4 7,report on ,erian ,plants1 #ahga47 ,the ,gasp sandstones have been fully described by ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 in his ,report on the ,geology of ,canada1 #ahfc4 ,he there assigns to them a thickness of seven thousand and thirty-six feet1 and shows that they rest conformably on the ,upper ,silurian limestones of the ,lower ,helderberg group 7,ludlow71 and are in their turn overlaid unconformably by the conglomerates which form the base of the ,carboniferous rocks of ,new ,brunswick4 ,i shall add here merely a few remarks on points in their physical character connected with the occurrence of plants in them4 ,prototaxites 7,nematophyton7 ,logani and other characteristic ,lower ,erian plants occur in the base of the sandstones at ,little ,gasp4 ,this fact1 along with the occurrence1 as stated in my paper of #ahfc1 of rhizomes of ,psilophyton preserving their scalariform structure1 in the upper part of the marine ,upper ,silurian limestones1,,by proves the flora of the ,devonian rocks to have had its beginning at least in the previous geological period1 and to characterise the lower as well as the upper beds of the ,devonian series4 ,in this connection ,i may state that1 from their marine fossils1 as well as their stratigraphical arrangement1 ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan and ,mr4 ,billings regard the lower portions of the ,gasp sandstones as the equivalents of the ,oriskany sandstone of ,new ,york4 ,on the other hand1 the great thickness of this formation1 the absence of ,lower ,devonian fossils from its upper part1 and the resemblance of the upper beds to those of the newer members of the ,devonian elsewhere1 render it probable that the ,gasp sandstones1 though deficient in the calcareous members of the system1 seen farther to the westward1 represent the whole of the ,devonian period4 ,,by ,the marine fossils of these beds have been determined by ,mr4 ,billings4 ,they are ,upper ,silurian1 with an intermixture of ,lower ,devonian in the upper part4 ,fragments of ,nematophyton occur in beds of the same age in the ,bay des ,chaleurs1 at ,cape ,bon ,ami4 ,the ,gasp sandstones1 as their name imports1 are predominantly arenaceous1 and often coarsely so1 the sandstones being frequently composed of large grains and studded with quartz-pebbles4 ,grey and buff are prevalent colours1 but red beds also occur1 more especially in the upper portion4 ,there are also interstratified shaly beds1 sometimes occurring in groups of considerable thickness1 and associated with fine-grained and laminated argillaceous sandstone1 the whole having in many places the lithological aspect of the coal-measures4 ,at one place1 near the middle of the series1 there is a bed of coal from one inch to three inches in thickness1 associated with highly bituminous shales abounding in remains of plants1 and also containing fragments of crustaceans and fishes 7,pterygotus1 ,ctenacanthus 8 c74 ,the beds connected with this coal are grey sandstones and grey and dark shales1 much resembling those of the ordinary coal formation4 ,the coal is shining and laminated1 and both its roof and floor consist of laminated bituminous shale with fragments of ,psilophyton4 ,it has no true under-clay1 and has been1 ,i believe1 a peaty mass of rhizomes of ,psilophyton4 ,it occurs near ,tar ,point1 on the south side of ,gasp ,bay1 a place so named from the occurrence of a thick dyke of trap holding petroleum in its cavities4 ,the coal is of considerable horizontal extent1 as in its line of strike a similar bed has been discovered on the ,douglas ,river1 about four miles distant4 ,it has not been recognised on the north side of the bay1 though we find there beds1 probably on very nearly the same horizon1 holding ,psilophyton in situ4 ,as an illustration of one of the groups of shaly beds1 and of the occurrence of roots of ,psilophyton1 ,i may give the following sectional list of beds seen near ,watering ,brook1 on the north shore of the bay4 ,the order is descending3 ,,ft4 ,,in4 #a4 ,grey sandstones and reddish pebbly sandstone of great thickness #b4 ,bright-red shale #h #j #c4 ,grey shales with stems of ,psilophyton1 very abundant but badly preserved #j #e #d4 ,grey incoherent clay1 slickensided1 and with many rhizomes and roots of ,psilophyton #j #c #e4 ,hard grey clay or shale1 with fragments and roots of ,psilophyton #d #j #f4 ,red shale #h #j #g4 ,grey and reddish crumbling sandstone ,groups of beds similar to the above1 but frequently much more rich in fossils1 occur in many parts of the section1 and evidently include fossil soils of the nature of under-clays1 on which little else appears to have grown than a dense herbage of ,psilophyton1 along with plants of the genus ,arthrostigma4 ,in addition to these shaly groups1 there are numerous examples of beds of shale of small thickness included in coarse sandstones1 and these beds often occur in detached fragments1 as if the remnants of more continuous layers partially removed by currents of water4 ,it is deserving of notice that nearly all these patches of shale are interlaced with roots or stems of ,psilophyton1 which sometimes project beyond their limits into the sandstone1 as if the vegetable fibres had preserved the clay from removal4 ,in short1 these lines of patches of shale seem to be remnants of soils on which ,psilophyton has flourished abundantly1 and which have been partially swept away by the currents which deposited the sand4 ,some of the smaller patches may even be fragments of tough swamp soils interwoven with roots1 drifted by the agency of the waves or possibly by ice2 such masses are often moved in this way on the borders of modern swamps on the sea-coast4 ,the only remaining point connected with local geology to which ,i shall allude is the admirable facilities afforded by the ,gasp coast both for ascertaining the true geological relations of the beds1 and for studying the ,devonian plants1 as distinctly exposed on large surfaces of rock4 ,on the coast of the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 at ,cape ,rozier and its vicinity1 the ,lower ,silurian rocks of the ,quebec group are well exposed1 and are overlaid unconformably by the massive ,upper ,silurian limestones of ,cape ,gasp1 which rise into cliffs six hundred feet in height1 and can be seen filled with their characteristic fossils on both sides of the cape4 ,resting upon these1 and dipping at high angles toward ,gasp ,bay1 are the ,devonian sandstones1 which are exposed in rugged cliffs slightly oblique to their line of strike1 along a coast-line of ten miles in length1 to the head of the bay4 ,on the opposite side of the bay they reappear2 and1 thrown into slight undulations by three anticlinal curves1 occupy a line of coast fifteen miles in length4 ,the perfect manner in which the plant-bearing beds are exposed in these fine natural sections may serve to account for the completeness with which the forms and habits of growth of the more abundant species can be described4 ,in the ,bay des ,chaleurs1 similar rocks exist with some local variations4 ,in the vicinity of ,campbellton are calcareous and magnesian breccia or agglomerate1 hard shales1 conglomerates and sandstones of ,lower ,devonian age4 ,the agglomerate and lower shales contain abundant remains of fishes of the genera ,cephalaspis1 ,coccosteus1 ,ctenacanthus1 and ,homacanthus1 and also fragments of ,pterygotus4 ,the shales and sandstones abound in remains of ,psilophyton1 with which are ,nematophyton1 ,arthrostigma1 and ,leptophleum of the same species found in the ,lower ,devonian of ,gasp ,bay4 ,these beds near ,campbellton dip to the northward1 and the ,restigouche ,river here occupies a synclinal1 for on the opposite side1 at ,bordeaux ,quarry1 there are thick beds of grey sandstone dipping to the southward1 and containing large silicified trunks of ,prototaxites1 in addition to ,psilophyton4 ,these beds are all undoubtedly ,lower ,erian1 but farther to the eastward1 on the north side of the river1 there are newer and overlying strata4 ,these are best seen at ,scaumenac ,bay1 opposite ,dalhousie1 between ,cape ,florissant and ,maguacha ,point1 where they consist of laminated and fine-grained sandstone1 with shales of grey colours1 but holding some reddish beds at top1 and overlaid unconformably by a great thickness of ,lower ,carboniferous red conglomerate and sandstone4 ,in these beds numerous fossil fishes have been found1 among which ,mr4 ,whiteaves recognises species of ,pterichthys1 ,glyptolepis1 ,cheirolepis1 c4 ,with these are found somewhat plentifully four species of fossil ferns1 all of ,upper ,erian types1 of which one is peculiar to this locality2 but the others are found in the ,upper ,erian of ,perry1 in ,maine1 or in the ,cat skill group of ,new ,york4 ,in order that distinct notions may be conveyed as to the geological horizons of the species1 ,i may state that the typical ,devonian or ,erian series of ,canada and ,new ,york may be divided in descending order into--#a4 ,the ,chemung group1 including the ,chemung and ,portage sandstones and shales4 #b4 ,the ,hamilton group1 including the ,genesee1 ,hamilton1 and ,marcellus shales4 #c4 ,the ,corniferous limestone and its associated beds4 #d ,the ,oriskany sandstone4 ,as the ,corniferous limestone1 which is the equivalent of the ,lower ,carboniferous limestone in the ,carboniferous period1 is marine1 and affords scarcely any plants1 we may1 as is usually done for like purposes in the ,carboniferous1 group it with the ,oriskany under the name ,lower ,erian4 ,the ,hamilton rocks will then be ,middle ,erian1 and the ,chemung group ,upper ,erian4 ,in the present state of our knowledge1 the series may be co-ordinated with the rocks of ,gasp1 ,new ,brunswick1 and ,maine1 as in the following table3 ,new ,york ,gasp ,southern ,coast ,subdivisions4 and and ,bay des ,new of ,western ,canada4 ,chaleurs4 ,brunswick4 ,maine4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,upper ,chemung ,upper ,mispec ,group4 ,perry ,devonian or ,group4 ,sandstones4 ,shale1 ,sandstones4 ,erian4 ,long ,cove1 c4 ,sandstone1 ,scauminac and ,beds4 ,conglomerate4 ,middle ,hamilton ,middle ,little ,r4 ,devonian or ,group4 ,sandstones4 ,group ,erian4 ,bois ,brul1 7including ,cape ,oiseau1 ,cordaite c4 ,shales and ,dadoxylon ,sandstone74 ,lower ,corniferous ,lower ,lower ,devonian or and ,sandstones4 ,conglomerates1 ,erian4 ,oriskany ,gasp ,basin1 c4 groups4 ,little ,gasp1 c4 ,campbellton ,beds4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,it may be proper1 before closing this note1 to state the reasons which have induced me to suggest in the following pages the use of the term ,erian1 as equivalent to ,devonian1 for the great system of formations intervening between the ,upper ,silurian and the ,lower ,carboniferous in ,america4 ,i have been induced to adopt this course by the following considerations3 #a4 ,the great area of undisturbed and unaltered rocks of this age1 including a thickness in some places of eighteen thousand feet1 and extending from east to west through the ,northern ,states of the ,union and western ,canada for nearly seven hundred miles1 while it spreads from north to south from the northern part of ,michigan far into the ,middle ,states1 is undoubtedly the most important ,devonian area now known to geologists4 #b4 ,this area has been taken by all ,american geologists as their typical ,devonian region4 ,it is rich in fossils1 and these have been thoroughly studied and admirably illustrated by the ,new ,york and ,canadian ,surveys4 #c4 ,the rocks of this area surround the basin of ,lake ,erie1 and were named1 in the original reports of the ,new ,york ,survey1 the ,erie ,division #d4 ,great difficulties have been experienced in the classification of the ,european ,devonian1 and the uncertainties thus arising have tended to throw doubt on the results obtained in ,america in circumstances in which such difficulties do not occur4 ,these reasons are1 ,i think1 sufficient to warrant me in holding the great ,erie ,division of the ,new ,york geologists as the typical representative of the rocks deposited between the close of the ,upper ,silurian and the beginning of the ,carboniferous period1 and to use the term ,erian as the designation of this great series of deposits as developed in ,america1 in so far at least as their flora is concerned4 ,in doing so1 ,i do not wish to introduce a new name merely for the sake of novelty2 but ,i hope to keep before the minds of geologists the caution that they should not measure the ,erian formations of ,america1 or the fossils which they contain1 by the comparatively depauperated representatives of this portion of the geological scale in the ,devonian of western ,europe4 ,,vii4--,on the ,relations of the so-called ,ursa ,stage of ,bear ,island with the ,palozoic ,flora of ,north ,america4 ,the following note is a verbatim copy of that published by me in #ahgc1 and the accuracy of which has now been vindicated by the recent observations of ,nathorst3 ,the plants catalogued by ,dr4 ,heer1 and characterising what he calls the ,ursa ,stage1 are in part representatives of those of the ,american flora which ,i have described as the ,lower ,carboniferous ,coal-,measures 7,subcarboniferous of ,dana71 and whose characteristic species1 as developed in ,nova ,scotia1 ,i noticed in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society in #aheh 7vol4 xv474 ,dr4 ,heer's list1 however1 includes some ,upper ,devonian forms2 and ,i would suggest that either the plants of two distinct beds1 one ,lower ,carboniferous and the other ,upper ,devonian1 have been near to or in contact with each other and have been intermixed1 or else that in this high northern latitude1 in which 7for reasons stated in my ,report on the ,devonian ,flora,,bz7 ,i believe the ,devonian plants to have originated1 there was an actual intermixture of the two floras4 ,in ,america1 at the base of the ,carboniferous of ,ohio1 a transition of this kind seems to occur2 but elsewhere in northeastern ,america the ,lower ,carboniferous plants are usually unmixed with the ,devonian4 ,,bz ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 #ahga4 ,dr4 ,heer1 however1 proceeds to identify these plants with those of the ,american ,chemung1 and even with those of the ,middle ,devonian of ,new ,brunswick1 as described by me--a conclusion from which ,i must altogether dissent1 inasmuch as the latter belong to beds which were disturbed and partially metamorphosed before the deposition of the lowest ,carboniferous or ,subcarboniferous beds4 ,dr4 ,heer's error seems to have arisen from want of acquaintance with the rich flora of the ,middle ,devonian1 which1 while differing in species1 has much resemblance in its general facies1 and especially in its richness in ferns1 to that of the coal-formation4 ,to geologists acquainted with the stratigraphy and the accompanying animal fossils1 ,dr4 ,heer's conclusions will of course appear untenable2 but they may regard them as invalidating the evidence of fossil plants2 and for this reason it is1 ,i think1 desirable to give publicity to the above statements4 ,i consider the ,british equivalent of the lower coal-measures of eastern ,america to be the lower limestone shales1 the ,tweedian group of ,mr4 ,tate 7#aheh71 but which have sometimes been called the ,calciferous ,sandstone 7a name preoccupied for a ,cambrian group in ,america74 ,this group does not constitute beds of passage to the ,devonian1 more especially in eastern ,america1 where the lower coal-formation rests unconformably on the ,devonian1 and is broadly distinguished by its fossils4 ,the above notes would not have been extended to so great length1 but for the importance of the ,erian flora as the precursor of that of the ,carboniferous1 and the small amount of attention hitherto given to it by geologists and botanists4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,flora--,,culmination ,,of ,,the ,,acrogens--,,formation ,,of ,,coal4 ,ascending from the ,erian to the ,carboniferous system1 so called because it contains the greatest deposits of anthracite and bituminous coal1 we are still within the limits of the ,palozoic period4 ,we are still within the reign of the gigantic club-mosses1 cordaites1 and taxine pines4 ,at the close of the ,erian there had been over the whole northern hemisphere great changes of level1 accompanied by active volcanic phenomena1 and under these influences the land flora seems to have much diminished4 ,at length all the old ,erian species had become extinct1 and their place was supplied by a meagre group of lycopods1 ferns1 and pines of different species from those of the preceding ,erian4 ,this is the flora of the ,lower ,carboniferous series1 the ,tweedian of ,england1 the ,horton series of ,nova ,scotia1 the lower coal-measures of ,virginia1 the culm of ,germany4 ,but the land again subsided1 and the period of the marine limestone of the ,lower ,carboniferous was introduced4 ,in this the older flora disappeared1 and when the land emerged we find it covered with the rich flora of the coal-formation proper1 in which the great tribes of the lycopods and cordaites attained their maxima1 and the ferns were continued as before1 though under new generic and specific forms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,foliage from the coal-formation1 a1 ,alethopteris lonchitica1 fern 7,moose ,river74 b1 ,sphenophyllum ,schlotheimii 7,pietou74 c1 ,lepidodendron binerve 7,sydney71 d1 ,asterophyllites foliosa 787 7,sydney74 e1 ,cordaites 7,joggins74 f1 ,neuropteris rarinervis1 fern 7,sydney74 g1 ,odontopteris subcuneata1 fern 7,sydney74 ,there is something very striking in this succession of a new plant world without any material advance4 ,it is like passing in the modern world from one district to another1 in which we see the same forms of life1 only represented by distinct though allied species4 ,thus1 when the voyager crosses the ,atlantic from ,europe to ,america1 he meets with pines1 oaks1 birches1 poplars1 and beeches of the same genera with those he had left behind2 but the species are distinct4 ,it is something like this that meets us in our ascent into the ,carboniferous world of plants4 ,yet we know that this is a succession in time1 that all our old ,erian friends are dead and buried long ago1 and that these are new forms lately introduced 7,fig4 #cb74 ,conveying ourselves1 then1 in imagination forward to the time when our greatest accumulations of coal were formed1 and fancying that we are introduced to the ,american or ,european continent of that period1 we find ourselves in a new and strange world4 ,in the ,devonian age1 and even in the succeeding ,lower ,carboniferous1 there was in the interior of ,america a wide inland sea1 with forest belts clinging to its sides or clothing its islands4 ,but in the coal period this inland sea had given place to vast swampy flats1 and which1 instead of the oil-bearing shales of the ,erian1 were destined to produce those immense and wide-spread accumulations of vegetable matter which constitute our present beds of bituminous and anthracite coal4 ,the atmosphere of these great swamps is moist and warm4 ,their vegetation is most exuberant1 but of forms unfamiliar to modern eyes1 and they swarm with insects1 millipedes1 and scorpions1 and with batrachian reptiles large and small1 among which we look in vain for representatives of the birds and beasts of the present day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,sigillari1 restored4 ,a1 ,sigillaria ,brownii4 ,b1 ,sigillaria elegans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,sigillaria ,lorwayana1 ,dawson4 a1 ,zones of fruit-scars4 b1 ,leaf-scar enlarged1 c1 ,fruit-scar enlarged4 ,see appended note4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,stem of ,sigillaria ,brownii4 reduced4 ,natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,two ribs of ,sigillaria ,brownii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,portion of lower part of stem of ,s4 ,brownii4 ,natural size4 ,prominent among the more gigantic trees of these swampy forests are those known to us as ,sigillari 7,fig4 #cc74 ,they have tall1 pillar-like trunks1 often several feet in diameter1 ribbed like fluted columns1 but in the reverse way1 and spreading at the top into a few thick branches1 which are clothed with long1 grass-like leaves4 ,they resemble in some respects the ,lepidodendra of the ,erian age1 but are more massive1 with ribbed instead of scaly trunks1 and longer leaves4 ,if we approach one of them more closely1 we are struck with the regular ribs of its trunk1 dotted with rows of scars of fallen leaves1 from which it receives its name ,sigillaria1 or seal-tree 7,figs4 #cd-cg74 ,if we cut into its stem1 we find that1 instead of the thin bark and firm wood with which we are familiar in our modern trees1 it has a hard external rind1 then a great thickness of cellular matter with rope-like bands of fibres1 constituting an inner bark1 while in the centre is a firm1 woody axis of comparatively small diameter1 and somewhat intermediate in its structures between that of the ,lepidodendra and those of the cycads and the taxine conifers4 ,thus a great stem1 five feet in diameter1 may consist principally of cellular and bast fibres with very little true woody matter4 ,the roots of this tree are perhaps its most singular feature4 ,they usually start from the stem in four main branches1 then regularly bifurcate several times1 and then run out into great cylindrical cables1 running for a long distance1 and evidently intended to anchor the plant firmly in a soft and oozy soil4 ,they were furnished with long1 cylindrical rootlets placed regularly in a spiral manner1 and so articulated that when they dropped off they left regular rounded scars4 ,they are1 in short1 the ,stigmari1 which we have already met with in the ,erian 7,figs4 #ch1 #ci74 ,in ,fig4 #cc ,i have endeavoured to restore these strange trees4 ,it is not wonderful that such plants have caused much botanical controversy4 ,it was long before botanists could be convinced that their roots are properly roots at all1 and not stems of some aquatic plant4 ,then the structure of their stems is most puzzling1 and their fruit is an enigma1 for while some have found connected with them cones supposed to resemble those of lycopods1 others attribute to them fruits like those of yew-trees4 ,for years ,i have been myself gathering materials from the rich coal-formation deposits of ,nova ,scotia in aid of the solution of these questions1 and in the mean time ,dr4 ,williamson1 of ,manchester1 and ,renault and other botanists in ,france1 have been amassing and studying stores of specimens1 and it is still uncertain who may finally be the fortunate discoverer to set all controversies at rest4 ,my present belief is1 that the true solution consists in the fact that there are many kinds of ,sigillari4 ,while in the modern forests of ,america and ,europe the species of any of our ordinary trees1 as oaks1 birches1 or maples1 may almost be counted on one's fingers1 ,schimper in his vegetable palontology enumerates about eighty species of ,carboniferous ,sigillari2 and while on the one hand many of these are so imperfectly known that they may be regarded as uncertain1 on the other hand many species must yet remain to be discovered4,,ca ,now1 in so vast a number of species there must be a great range of organisation1 and1 indeed1 it has already been attempted to subdivide them into several generic groups4 ,the present state of the question appears to me to be this1 that in these ,sigillari we have a group divisible into several forms1 some of which will eventually be classed with the ,lepidodendra as lycopods1 while others will be found to be naked-seeded phnogams1 allied to the pines and cycads1 and to a remarkable group of trees known as ,cordaites1 which we must shortly notice4 ,,ca ,in a recent memoir 7,berlin1 #ahhg7 ,stur has raised the number of species in one subdivision of the ,sigillari 7the ,favulari7 to forty-seven6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,stigmaria root1 seen from above1 showing its regular divisions4 ,from ,acadian ,geology4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,portion of bark of ,stigmaria1 showing scars of attachment of rootlets4 ,before considering other forms of ,carboniferous vegetation1 let us glance at the accumulation of coal1 and the agency of the forests of ,sigillari therein4 ,let us imagine1 in the first instance1 such trees as those represented in the figures1 growing thickly together over vast swampy flats1 with quantities of undergrowth of ferns and other plants beneath their shade1 and accumulating from age to age in a moist soil and climate a vast thickness of vegetable mould and trunks of trees1 and spores and spore-cases1 and we have the conditions necessary for the growth of coal4 ,many years ago it was observed by ,sir ,william ,logan that in the coal-field of ,south ,wales it was the rule with rare exceptions that1 under every bed of coal1 there is a bed of clay filled with roots of the ,stigmaria1 already referred to as the root of ,sigillaria4 ,this discovery has since been extended to all the coal-fields of ,europe and ,america1 and it is a perfectly conclusive fact as regards the origin of coal4 ,each of these under-clays1 as they are called1 must1 in fact1 have been a soil on which grew1 in the first instance1 ,sigillari and other trees having stigmaria-roots4 ,thus1 the growth of a forest of ,sigillari was the first step toward the accumulation of a bed of coal4 ,more than this1 in some of the coarser and more impure coals1 where there has been sufficient earthy matter to separate and preserve impressions of vegetable forms1 we can see that the mass of the coal is made up of flattened ,sigillari1 mixed with vegetable dbris of all kinds1 including sometimes vast quantities of lepidodendroid spores1 and the microscopic study of the coal gives similar results 7,fig4 #dj74 ,further1 on the surfaces of many coals1 and penetrating the shales or sandstones which form their roofs1 we find erect stumps of sigillaria and other trees1 showing that the accumulation of the coal terminated as it had begun1 by a forest-growth4 ,i introduce here a section of a few of the numerous beds of coal exposed in the cliffs of the ,south ,joggins1 in ,nova ,scotia1 in illustration of these facts4 ,we can thus see how in the slowly subsiding areas of the coal-swamps successive beds of coal were accumulated1 alternating with beds of sandstone and shale 7,figs4 #da1 #db74 ,for other details of this kind ,i must refer to papers mentioned in the sequel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,vegetable tissues from coal4 a1 ,sigillaria and ,cordaites4 ,calamodendron4 ,returning to the more special subject of this work1 ,i may remark that the lepidodendroid trees and the ferns1 both the arborescent and herbaceous kinds1 are even more richly represented in the ,carboniferous than in the preceding ,erian1 ,i must1 however1 content myself with merely introducing a few representatives of some of the more common kinds1 in an appended note1 and here give a figure of a well-known ,lower ,carboniferous lepidodendron1 with its various forms of leaf-bases1 and its foliage and fruit 7,fig4 #dc71 and a similar illustration of an allied generic form1 that known as ,lepidophloios,,cb 7,fig4 #dd74 ,,cb ,for full descriptions of these1 see ,acadian ,geology4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,beds associated with the main coal 7,s4 ,joggins1 ,nova ,scotia74 #a1 ,shale and sandstone--plants with ,spirorbis attached2 rain-marks 7874 7#b1 ,sandstone and shale1 eight feet--erect ,calamites2 #c1 ,gray sandstone1 seven feet2 #d1 ,gray shale1 four feet--an erect coniferous 787 tree1 rooted on the shale1 passes up through fifteen feet of the sandstones and shale47 #e1 ,gray sandstone1 four feet4 #f1 ,gray shale1 six inches--prostrate and erect trees1 with rootlets1 leaves1 ,naiadites1 and ,spirorbis on the plants4 #g1 ,main coal-seam1 five feet of coal in two seams4 #h1 ,underclay1 with rootlets4 ,another group which claims our attention is that of the ,calamites4 ,these are tall1 cylindrical1 branchless stems1 with whorls of branchlets1 bearing needle-like leaves and spreading in stools from the base1 so as to form dense thickets1 like ,southern cane-brakes 7,fig4 #df74 ,they bear1 in habit of growth and fructification1 a close relation to our modern equisetums1 or mare's-tails1 but1 as in other cases we have met with1 are of gigantic size and comparatively complex structure4 ,their stems1 in cross-section1 show radiating bundles of fibres1 like those of exogenous woods1 yet the whole plan of structure presents some curious resemblances to the stems of their humble successors1 the modern mare's-tails4 ,it would seem1 from the manner in which dense brakes of these ,calamites have been preserved in the coal-formation of ,nova ,scotia1 that they spread over low and occasionally inundated flats1 and formed fringes on the seaward sides of the great ,sigillaria forests4 ,in this way they no doubt contributed to prevent the invasion of the areas of coal accumulation by the muddy waters of inundations1 and thus1 though they may not have furnished much of the material of coal1 they no doubt contributed to its purity4 ,many beautiful plants of the genera ,asterophyllites and ,annularia are supposed to have been allied to the ,calamites1 or to have connected them with the ,rhizocarps4 ,the stems and fruit of these plants have strong points of resemblance to those of ,sphenophyllum1 and the leaves are broad1 and not narrow and angular like those of the true ,calamites 7,fig4 #de74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,erect ,sigillaria1 standing on a coal-seam 7,s4 ,joggins1 ,nova ,scotia74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,lepidodendron corrugatum1 ,dawson1 a tree characteristic of the ,lower ,carboniferous1 ,a1 ,restoration4 ,b1 ,leaf1 natural size1 ,c1 ,cone and branch1 ,d1 ,branch and leaves1 ,e4 ,various forms of leaf-areoles4 ,f1 ,sporangium1 ,i1 ,l1 ,m1 ,bark1 with leaf-scars1 ,n1 ,bark1 with leaf-scars of old stem1 ,o1 ,decorticated stem 7,knorria74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,lepidophloios ,acadianus1 ,dawson1 a lepidodendroid tree of the coal-formation1 ,a1 ,restoration4 ,b1 ,portion of bark 7two thirds natural size71 ,c1 ,ligneous surface of the same1 ,f1 ,cone 7two thirds natural size74 ,g1 ,leaf 7natural1 size71 ,k1 ,portion of woody cylinder1 showing outer and inner series of vessels magnified1 ,l1 ,scalariform vessels 7highly magnified71 ,m1 ,various forms of leaf-scars and leaf-bases 7natural size74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,asterophyllites1 ,sphenophyllum1 and ,annularia4 ,a1 ,asterophyllites trinerne4 ,a#a1 ,leaf enlarged1 ,b1 ,annularia sphenophylloides4 ,b#a1 ,leaf enlarged1 ,c1 ,sphenophyllum erosum4 ,c#a1 ,leaflet enlarged4 ,c#b1 ,scalariform vessel of ,sphenophyllum4 ,d1 ,pinnularia ramosissima1 probably a root4 ,no one has done more than my friend ,dr4 ,williamson1 of ,manchester1 to illustrate the structure of ,calamites1 and he has shown that these plants1 like other cryptogams of the ,carboniferous1 had mostly stems with regular fibrous wedges1 like those of exogens4 ,the structure of the stem is1 indeed1 so complex1 and differs so much in different stages of growth1 and different states of preservation1 that we are in danger of falling into the greatest confusion in classifying these plants4 ,sometimes what we call a ,calamite is a mere cast of its pith showing longitudinal stri and constrictions at the nodes4 ,sometimes we have the form of the outer surface of the woody cylinder1 showing longitudinal ribs1 nodes1 and marks of the emission of the branchlets4 ,sometimes we have the outer surface of the plant covered with a smooth bark showing flat ribs1 or almost smooth1 and having at the nodes regular articulations with the bases of the verticillate branchlets1 or on the lower part of the stem the marks of the attachment of the roots4 ,the ,calamites grew in dense clumps1 budding off from one another1 sometimes at different levels1 as the mud or sand accumulated about their stems1 and in some species there were creeping rhizomata or root-stocks 7,figs4 #df to #di74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,calamites4 ,a1 ,c4 ,suckovii4 ,b1 ,c4 ,cistii4 7,from ,acadian ,geology47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,erect ,calamites1 with roots attached 7,nova ,scotia74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,node of ,c4 ,cistii1 with long leaves 7,nova ,scotia74 ,but all ,calamites were not alike in structure4 ,in a recent paper,,cc ,dr4 ,williamson describes three distinct structural types4 ,what he regards as typical ,calamites has in its woody zone wedges of barred vessels1 with thick bands of cellular tissue separating them4 ,a second type1 which he refers to ,calamopitus1 has woody bundles composed of reticulated or multiporous fibres1 with their porous sides parallel to the medullary rays1 which are better developed than in the previous form4 ,the intervening cellular masses are composed of elongated cells4 ,this is a decided advance in structure1 and is of the type of those forms having the most woody and largest stems1 which ,brongniart named ,calamodendron 7,fig4 #ej74 ,a third form1 to which ,dr4 ,williamson seems to prefer to assign this last name1 has the tissue of the woody wedges barred1 as in the first1 but the medullary rays are better developed than in the second4 ,in this third form the intermediate tissue1 or primary medullary rays1 is truly fibrous1 and with secondary medullary rays traversing it4 ,my own observations lead me to infer that there was a fourth type of calamitean stem1 less endowed with woody matter1 and having a larger fistulous or cellular cavity than any of those described by ,dr4 ,williamson4 ,,cc ,memoirs of the ,philosophical ,society1 ,manchester1 #ahhf-'hg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--;,erect ,calamites 7,c4 ,suckovii71 showing the mode of growth of new stems 7b71 and different forms of the ribs 7a1 c74 7,pictou1 ,nova ,scotia47 ,half natural size4 ,there is every reason to believe that all these various and complicated stems belonged to higher and nobler types of mare's-tails than those of the modern world1 and that their fructification was equisetaceous and of the form known as ,calamostachys4 ,we have already seen that noble tree-ferns existed in the ,erian period1 and these were continued1 and their number and variety greatly extended1 in the ,carboniferous4 ,in regard to the structure of their stems1 and the method of supporting these by arial roots1 the tree-ferns of all ages have been nearly alike1 and the form and structure of the leaves1 except in some comparatively rare and exceptional types1 has also been much the same4 ,any ordinary observer examining a collection of coal-formation ferns recognises at once their kinship to the familiar brackens of our own time4 ,their fructification is1 unfortunately1 rarely preserved1 so that we are not able1 in the case of many species1 to speak confidently of their affinities with modern forms2 but the knowledge of this subject has been constantly extending1 and a sufficient amount of information has been obtained to enable us to say something as to their probable relationships4 7,figs4 #ea to #ee47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,stems of ,calamodendron and tissues magnified 7,nova ,scotia71 a1 b1 ,casts of axis in sandstone1 with woody envelope 7reduced74 c1 d1 ,woody tissue 7highly magnified74 ,the families into which modern ferns are divided are1 it must be confessed1 somewhat artificial1 and in the case of fossil ferns1 in which the fructification is for the most part wanting1 it is still more so1 depending in great part on the form and venation of the divisions of the fronds4 ,of about eight families into which modern ferns are divided1 seven are found in a fossil state1 and of these1 four at least1 the ,cyathace1 the ,ophioglosse1 the ,hymenophyllace1 and the ,marattiace1 go back to the coal-formation4,,cd ,,cd ,mr4 ,r4 ,kidston has recently described very interesting forms of fern fructification from the coal-formation of ,great ,britain1 and much has been done by ,european palobotanists1 and also by ,lesquereux and ,fontaine in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,group of coal-formation ferns1 ,a1 ,odontopteris subcuneata 7,bunbury71 ,b1 ,neuropteris cordata 7,brongniart74 ,c1 ,alethopteris lonchitica 7,brongniart74 ,d1 ,dictyopteris obliqua 7,bunbury74 ,e1 ,phyllopteris antiqua 7,dawson71 magnified2 ,e#a1 ,natural size1 ,f1 ,neuropteris cyclopteroides 7,dawson74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,alethopteris grandis 7,dawson74 ,middle coal-formation of ,nova ,scotia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,cyclopteris 7,aneimites7 ,acadica 7,dawson71 a tree-fern of the ,lower ,carboniferous4 a1 ,pinnules4 b1 ,fragment of petiole4 c1 ,remains of fertile pinnules4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,sphenopteris latior1 ,dawson4 ,coal-formation1 a1 ,pinnule magnified1 with traces of fructification4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,fructification of ,palozoic ferns1 a1 ,thec of ,archopteris 7,erian74 b1 ,theca of ,senftenbergia 7,carboniferous74 c1 ,thec of ,asterotheca 7,carboniferous74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,tree-ferns of the ,carboniferous4 ,a1 ,megaphyton magnificum1 ,dawson1 restored4 ,b1 ,leaf-scar of the same1 two thirds natural size4 ,b#a1 ,row of leaf-scars1 reduced4 ,c1 ,palopteris ,harttii1 scars half natural size4 ,d1 ,acadica1 scars half natural size4 ,some of these ferns have the more complex kind of spore-case1 with a jointed1 elastic ring4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that those forms which have a simple spore-case1 either netted or membranous1 and without annulus1 are most common in the ,devonian and lowest ,carboniferous4 ,some of the forms in these old rocks are somewhat difficult to place in the system4 ,of these1 the species of ,archopteris1 of the ,upper and ,middle ,erian1 are eminent as examples4 ,this type1 however1 scarcely extends as high as the coal-formation4,,ce ,some of the tree-ferns of the ,carboniferous present very remarkable features4 ,one of these1 of the genus ,megaphyton1 seems to have two rows of great leaves1 one at each side of the stem1 which was probably sustained by large bundles of arial roots 7,fig4 #ef74 ,,ce ,the pretty little ferns of the genus ,botrychium 7moonwort71 so common in ,american and ,european woods1 seem to be their nearest modern allies4 ,in the ,carboniferous1 as in the ,erian1 there are leaves which have been referred to ferns1 but are subject to doubt1 as possibly belonging to broad-leaved taxine trees allied to the gingko-tree of ,china4 ,one of these1 represented in ,fig4 #eg1 has been found in the coal-formation of ,nova ,scotia1 and referred to the doubtful genus ,noeggerathia4 ,fontaine has proposed for similar leaves found in ,virginia the new generic name ,saportea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,noeggerathia disbar 7half natural size74 ,ferns1 as might be inferred from their great age1 are at the present time dispersed over the whole world2 but their headquarters1 and the regions to which tree-ferns are confined1 are the more moist climates of the tropics and of the southern hemisphere4 ,the coal-swamps of the northern hemisphere seem to have excelled even these favoured regions of the present world as a paradise for ferns4 ,i have already stated that the ,carboniferous constitutes the headquarters of the ,cordaites 7,fig4 #eh71 of which a large number of species have been described1 both in ,europe and ,america4 ,we sometimes1 though rarely1 find their stems showing structure4 ,in this case we have a large cellular pith1 often divided by horizontal partitions into flat chambers1 and constituting the objects which1 when detached1 are called ,sternbergi 7,fig4 #fb74 ,these ,sternbergia piths1 however1 occur in true conifers as well1 as they do in the modern world in some trees1 like our common butternut1 of higher type2 and ,i showed many years ago that the ,sternbergia type may be detected in the young twigs of the balsam-fir 7,abies balsamifera74 ,the pith was surrounded by a ring of scalariform or barred tissue1 often of considerable thickness1 and in young stems so important as to have suggested lycopodiaceous affinities4 ,but as the stem grew in size1 a regular ring of woody wedges1 with tissue having rounded or hexagonal pores or discs1 like those of pines1 was developed4 ,outside this was a bark1 often apparently of some thickness4 ,this structure in many important points resembles that of cycads1 and also approaches to the structure of ,sigillaria1 while in its more highly developed forms it approximates to that of the conifers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,cordaites 7,dorycordaites71 ,grand d',eury1 reduced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,fruits of ,cordaites and ,taxine ,conifers 7coal-formation4 ,nova ,scotia47 ,a1 ,antholithes squamosus 7two thirds74 ,b1 ,a4 rhabdocarpi4 7two thirds74 ,b#a1 ,carpel restored4 ,c1 ,a4 spinosus 7natural size74 ,d1 ,trigonocarpum intermedium4 ,e1 ,t4 ,noeggerathii4 ,f1 ,t4 avellanum4 ,g1 ,rhabdocarpus insignis1 reduced4 ,h1 ,antholithes pygmus4 ,i1 ,cardiocarpum fluitans4 ,k1 ,cardiocarpum bisectum4 ,l1 ,sporangites papillata1 lycopodiaceous macrospores 7natural size and magnified74 ,on the stems so constructed were placed long and often broad many-nerved leaves1 with rows of stomata or breathing-pores1 and attached by somewhat broad bases to the stem and branches4 ,the fruit consisted of racemes1 or clusters of nutlets1 which seem to have been provided with broad lateral wings for flotation in the air1 or in some cases with a pulpy envelope1 which flattens into a film4 ,there seem to have been structures of both these kinds1 though in the state of preservation of these curious seeds it is extremely difficult to distinguish them4 ,in the first case they must have been intended for dissemination by the wind1 like the seeds of spruces4 ,in the latter case they may have been disseminated like the fruits of taxine trees by the agency of animals1 though what these were it would be difficult to guess4 ,these trees had very great reproductive power1 since they produced numerous seeds1 not singly or a few together1 as in modern yews1 but in long spikes or catkins bearing many seeds 7,fig4 #ei74 ,it is to be observed that the ,cordaites1 or the ,cordaitin1 as they have been called1 as a family1,,cf constitute another of those intermediate groups with which we have already become familiar4 ,on the one hand they approach closely to the broader-leaved yews like ,gingko1 ,phyllocladus1 and ,podocarpus1 and1 on the other hand1 they have affinities with ,cycadace1 and even with ,sigillari4 ,they were beautiful and symmetrical trees1 adding something to the variety of the rather monotonous ,palozoic forests4 ,they contributed also somewhat to the accumulation of coal4 ,i have found that some thin beds are almost entirely composed of their leaves1 and the tissues of their wood are not infrequent in the mineral charcoal of the larger coal-seams4 ,there is no evidence that their roots were of the stigmaroid type1 though they evidently grew in the same swampy flats with the ,sigillari and ,calamites4 ,,cf ,engler2 ,cordaites of ,renault4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be well to say here that ,i believe there was a considerably wide range of organisation in the ,cordaitin as well as in the ,calamites and ,sigillari1 and that it will eventually be found that there were three lines of connection between the higher cryptogams and the phnogams1 one leading from the lycopods by the ,sigillari1 another leading by the ,cordaites1 and the third leading from the ,equisetums by the ,calamites4 ,still further back the characters afterward separated in the club-mosses1 mare's-tails1 and ferns1 were united in the ,rhizocarps1 or1 as some now1 but ,i think somewhat unreasonably1 prefer to call them1 the heterosporous ,filicin4 ,in the more modern world1 all the connecting links have become extinct and the phnogams stand widely separated from the higher cryptogams4 ,i do not make these remarks in a ,darwinian sense1 but merely to state what appear to be the lines of natural affinity and the links wanting to give unity to the system of nature4 ,of all the trees of the modern world1 none are perhaps so widely distributed as the pines and their allies4 ,on mountain-tops and within the ,arctic zone1 the last trees that can struggle against the unfavourable conditions of existence are the spruces and firs1 and in the warm and moist islands of the tropics they seem equally at home with the tree-ferns and the palms4 ,we have already seen that they are a very ancient family1 and in the sandstones of the coal-formation their great trunks are frequently found1 infiltrated with calcareous or silicious matter1 and still retaining their structure in the greatest perfection 7,fig4 #fj74 ,so far as we know1 the foliage of some of them which constitutes the genera ,walchia and ,araucarites of some authors 7,figs4 #fj1 #fc7 was not dissimilar from that of modern yews and spruces1 though there is reason to believe that some others had broad1 fern-like leaves like those of the gingko4 ,none of them1 so far as yet certainly known1 were cone-bearing trees1 their fruit having probably been similar to that of the yews 7,fig4 #fa74 ,the minute structures of their stems are nearer to those of the conifers of the islands of the southern hemisphere than to that of those in our northern climes--a correlation1 no doubt1 to the equable climate of the period4 ,there is not much evidence that they grew with the ,sigillari in the true coal-swamps1 though some specimens have been found in this association4 ,it is more likely that they were in the main inland and upland trees1 and that in consequence they are mostly known to us by drifted trunks borne by river inundations into the seas and estuaries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,coniferous wood and foliage 7,carboniferous74 ,a1 ,araucarites gracilis1 reduced1 b1 ,dadoxylon ,acadianum 7radial71 #ij diams42 ,b#a 7tangential71 #ij diams2 ,b#b1 cell showing areolation1 #bej diams4 ,c1 ,dadoxylon materiarium 7radial71 #ij diams42 ,c#a 7tangential71 #ij diams4 ,c#b1 cell showing areolation1 #bej diams4 ,d1 ,dadoxylon antiquius 7radial71 #ij diams42 ,d#a 7tangential71 #ij diams42 ,d#b1 cell showing areolation1 #bej diams4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,trigonocarpum ,hookeri1 ,dawson from the coal-measures of ,cape ,breton4 ,probably the fruit of a ,taxine tree4 ,a1 ,broken specimen magnified twice natural size1 ,b1 ,section magnified3 a1 the testa2 b1 the tegmen2 c1 the nucleus2 d1 the embryo1 c1 ,portion of the surface of the inner coat more highly magnified4 ,a remarkable fact in connection with them1 and showing also the manner in which the most durable vegetable structures may perish by decay1 is that1 like the ,cordaites1 they had large piths with transverse partitions1 a structure which1 as ,i have already mentioned1 appears on a minute scale in the twigs of the fir-tree1 and that sometimes casts of these piths in sandstone appear in a separate form1 constituting what have been named ,sternbergi or ,artisi4 ,as ,renault well remarks with reference to ,cordaites1 the existence of this chambered form of pith implies rapid elongation of the stem1 so that the ,cordaites and conifers of the coal-formation were probably quickly growing trees 7,fig4 #fb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,sternbergia pith of ,dadoxylon4 ,a1 ,specimen 7natural size71 showing remains of wood at a1 a4 ,b1 ,junction of wood and pith1 magnified4 ,c1 ,cells of the wood of do41 a1 a2 b1 medullary ray2 c1 areolation4 ,the same general statements may be made as to the coal-vegetation as in relation to that of the ,erian4 ,in the coal period we have found none of the higher exogens1 and there are only obscure and uncertain indications of the presence of endogens1 which we may reserve for a future chapter2 but gymnosperms abound and are highly characteristic4 ,on the other hand1 we have no mosses or lichens1 and very few ,alg1 but a great number of ferns and ,lycopodiace or club-mosses 7,fig4 #fc74 ,thus1 the coal-formation period is botanically a meeting-place of the lower phnogams and the higher cryptogams1 and presents many forms which1 when imperfectly known1 have puzzled botanists in regard to their position in one or other series4 ,in the present world1 the flora most akin to that of the coal period is that of warm1 temperate regions in the southern hemisphere4 ,it is not properly a tropical flora1 nor is it the flora of a cold region1 but rather indicative of a moist and equable climate4 ,still1 we must bear in mind that we may often be mistaken in reasoning as to the temperature required by extinct species of plants1 differing from those now in existence4 ,further1 we must not assume that the climatal conditions of the northern hemisphere were in the coal period at all similar to those which now prevail4 ,as ,sir ,charles ,lyell has shown1 a less amount of land in the higher latitudes would greatly modify climates1 and there is every reason to believe that in the coal period there was less land than now4 ,further1 it has been shown by ,tyndall that a very small additional amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere would1 by obstructing the radiation of heat from the earth1 produce almost the effect of a glass roof or conservatory1 extending over the whole world4 ,again1 there is much in the structure of the leaves of the coal-plants1 as well as in the vast amount of carbon which they accumulated in the form of coal1 and the characteristics of the animal life of the period1 to indicate1 on independent grounds1 that the carboniferous atmosphere differed from that of the present world in this way1 or in the presence of more carbonic acid--a substance now existing in the very minute proportion of one thousandth of the whole--a quantity adapted to the present requirements of vegetable and animal life1 but probably not to those of the coal period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,walchia imbricatula1 ,s4 ,n41 ,permian1 ,prince ,edward ,island4 ,thus1 if we inquire as to any analogous distribution of plants in the modern world1 we find this only in the warmer insular climates of the southern hemisphere1 where ferns1 lycopods1 and pines appear under forms somewhat akin to those of the ,carboniferous1 but mixed with other types1 some of which are modern1 others allied to those of the next succeeding geological ages of the ,mesozoic and ,tertiary2 and under these periods it will be more convenient to make comparisons4 ,the readers of recent ,english popular works on geology will have observed the statement reiterated that a large proportion of the material of the great beds of bituminous coal is composed of the spore-cases of lycopodiaceous plants--a statement quite contrary to that resulting from my microscopical examinations of the coal of more than eighty coal-beds in ,nova ,scotia and ,cape ,breton1 as stated in ,acadian ,geology 7page #dfc71 and more fully in my memoir of #aheh on the ,structures in ,coal1,,cg and that of #ahff1 on the ,conditions of ,accumulation of ,coal4,,ch ,the reason of this mistake is1 that an eminent ,english naturalist1 happening to find in certain specimens of ,english coal a great quantity of remains of spores and spore-cases1 though even in his specimens they constitute only a small portion of the mass1 and being apparently unacquainted with what others had done in this field1 wrote a popular article for the ,contemporary ,review1 in which he extended an isolated and exceptional fact to all coals1 and placed this supposed origin of coal in a light so brilliant and attractive that he has been followed by many recent writers4 ,the fact is1 as stated in ,acadian ,geology1 that trunks of ,sigillari and similar trees constitute a great part of the denser portion of the coal1 and that the cortical tissues of these rather than the wood remain as coal4 ,but cortical or epidermal tissues in general1 whether those of spore-cases or other parts of plants1 are those which from their resistance to water-soakage and to decay1 and from their highly carbonaceous character1 are best suited to the production of coal4 ,in point of fact1 spore-cases1 though often abundantly present1 constitute only an infinitesimal part of the matter of the great coal-beds4 ,in an article in ,the ,american ,journal of ,science1 which appeared shortly after that above referred to1 ,i endeavoured to correct this error1 though apparently without effect in so far as the majority of ,british geological writers are concerned4 ,from this article ,i have taken with little change the following passages1 as it is of importance in theoretical geology that such mistakes1 involving as they do the whole theory of coal accumulation1 should not continue to pass current4 ,the early part of the paper is occupied with facts as to the occurrence of spores and spore-cases as partial ingredients in coal4 ,its conclusions are as follows3 ,it is not improbable that sporangites1 or bodies resembling them1 may be found in most coals2 but it is most likely that their occurrence is accidental rather than essential to coal accumulation1 and that they are more likely to have been abundant in shales and cannel coals1 deposited in ponds or in shallow waters in the vicinity of lycopodiaceous forests1 than in the swampy or peaty deposits which constitute the ordinary coals4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that the conspicuous appearance which these bodies1 and also the strips and fragments of epidermal tissue1 which resemble them in texture1 present in slices of coal1 may incline an observer1 not having large experience in the examination of coals1 to overrate their importance2 and this ,i think has been done by most microscopists1 especially those who have confined their attention to slices prepared by the lapidary4 ,one must also bear in mind the danger arising from mistaking concretionary accumulations of bituminous matter for sporangia4 ,in sections of the bituminous shales accompanying the ,devonian coal above mentioned1 there are many rounded yellow spots1 which on examination prove to be the spaces in the epidermis of ,psilophyton through which the vessels passing to the leaves were emitted4 ,to these considerations ,i would add the following1 condensed from the paper above referred to 7p4 #aci71 in which the whole question of the origin of coal is fully discussed3,,ci ,,cg ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 xv4 ,,ch ,ibid41 vol4 xxii4 ,,ci ,see also ,acadian ,geology1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #ach1 #dfa1 #dic4 #a4 ,the mineral charcoal or 'mother coal' is obviously woody tissue and fibres of bark1 the structure of the varieties of which1 and the plants to which it probably belongs1 ,i have discussed in the paper above mentioned4 #b4 ,the coarser layers of coal show under the microscope a confused mass of fragments of vegetable matter belonging to various descriptions of plants1 and including1 but not usually in large quantities1 sporangites4 #c4 ,the more brilliant layers of the coal are seen1 when separated by thin lamin of clay1 to have on their surfaces the markings of ,sigillari and other trees1 of which they evidently represent flattened specimens1 or rather the bark of such specimens4 ,under the microscope1 when their structures are preserved1 these layers show cortical tissues more abundantly than any others4 #d4 ,some thin layers of coal consist mainly of flattened layers of leaves of ,cordaites or ,pychnophyllum4 #e4 ,the ,stigmaria under-clays and the stumps of ,sigillaria in the coal-roofs equally testify to the accumulation of coal by the growth of successive forests1 more especially of ,sigillari4 ,there is1 on the other hand1 no necessary connection of sporangite-beds with ,stigmarian soils4 ,such beds are more likely to be accumulated in water1 and consequently to constitute bituminous shales and cannels4 #f4 ,lepidodendron and its allies1 to which the spore-cases in question appear to belong1 are evidently much less important to coal accumulation than ,sigillaria1 which cannot be affirmed to have produced spore-cases similar to those in question1 even though the observation of ,goldenberg as to their fruit can be relied on2 the accuracy of which1 however1 ,i am inclined to doubt4 ,on the whole1 then1 while giving due credit to those who have advocated the spore-theory of coal1 for directing attention to this curious and no doubt important constituent of mineral fuel1 and admitting that ,i may possibly have given too little attention to it1 ,i must maintain that sporangite-beds are exceptional among coals1 and that cortical and woody matters are the most abundant ingredients in all the ordinary kinds2 and to this ,i cannot think that the coals of ,england constitute an exception4 ,it is to be observed1 in conclusion1 that the spore-cases of plants1 in their indestructibility and richly carbonaceous character1 only partake of qualities common to most suberous and epidermal matters1 as ,i have explained in the publications already referred to4 ,such epidermal and cortical substances are extremely rich in carbon and hydrogen1 in this resembling bituminous coal4 ,they are also very little liable to decay1 and they resist more than other vegetable matters aqueous infiltration--properties which have caused them to remain unchanged1 and to continue free from mineral additions more than other vegetable tissues4 ,these qualities are well seen in the bark of our ,american white birch4 ,it is no wonder that materials of this kind should constitute considerable portions of such vegetable accumulations as the beds of coal1 and that when present in large proportion they should afford richly bituminous beds4 ,all this agrees with the fact1 apparent on examination of the common coal1 that the greater number of its purest layers consist of the flattened bark of ,sigillari and similar trees1 just as any single flattened trunk embedded in shale becomes a layer of pure coal4 ,it also agrees with the fact that other layers of coal1 and also the cannels and earthy bitumens1 appear under the microscope to consist of finely comminuted particles1 principally of epidermal tissues1 not only from the fruits and spore-cases of plants1 but also from their leaves and stems4 ,these considerations impress us1 just as much as the abundance of spore-cases1 with the immense amount of the vegetable matter which has perished during the accumulation of coal1 in comparison with that which has been preserved4 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,t4 ,sterry ,hunt for the following very valuable information1 which at once places in a clear and precise light the chemical relations of epidermal tissue and spores with coal4 ,dr4 ,hunt says3 ,the outer bark of the cork-tree1 and the cuticle of many if not all other plants1 consists of a highly carbonaceous matter1 to which the name of suberin has been given4 ,the spores of ,lycopodium also approach to this substance in composition1 as will be seen by the following1 one of two analyses by ,duconi1,,cj along with which ,i give the theoretical composition of pure cellulose or woody fibre1 according to ,payen and ,mitscherlich1 and an analysis of the suberin of cork1 from ,quercus suber1 from which the ash and #be per cent of cellulose have been deducted4,,ck ,,cj ,liebig and ,kopp1 ,jahresbuch1 #ahdg-'dh4 ,,ck ,gmelin1 ,handbook1 xv41 #ade4 ---------------------------------------- ,cellulose4 ,cork4 ,lycopodium4 ---------------------------------------- ,carbon #dddd #fegc #fdhj ,hydrogen #fag #hcc #hgc ,nitrogen 4444 #aej #fah ,oxygen #dici #bddd #bjbi ------------------------------- ,total #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj ---------------------------------------- ,this difference is not less striking when we reduce the above centesimal analyses to correspond with the formula of cellulose1 ,c#bd;,h#bj,o#bj1 and represent cork and ,lycopodium as containing twenty-four equivalents of carbon4 ,for comparison ,i give the composition of specimens of peat1 brown coal1 lignite1 and bituminous coal3,,cl ,,cl ,canadian ,naturalist1 vi41 #bec4 ,cellulose ,c#bd;,h#bj,o#bj ,cork ,c#bd;,h#ah-b_/aj,o#f-g_/aj ,lycopodium ,c#bd;,h#ai-d_/aj,,no#e-f_/aj ,peat 7,vaux7 ,c#bd;,h#ad-d_/aj,o#aj ,brown coal 7,schrther7 ,c#bd;,h#ad-c_/aj,o#aj-f_/aj ,lignite 7,vaux7 ,c#bd;,h#aa-c_/aj,o#f-d_/aj ,bituminous coal 7,regnault7 ,c#bd;,h#aj,o#c-c_/aj ,it will be seen from this comparison that1 in ultimate composition1 cork and ,lycopodium are nearer to lignite than to woody fibre1 and may be converted into coal with far less loss of carbon and hydrogen than the latter4 ,they in fact approach closer in composition to resins and fats than to wood1 and1 moreover1 like those substances repel water1 with which they are not easily moistened1 and thus are able to resist those atmospheric influences which effect the decay of woody tissue4 ,i would add to this only one further consideration4 ,the nitrogen present in the ,lycopodium spores1 no doubt1 belongs to the protoplasm contained in them1 a substance which would soon perish by decay2 and subtracting this1 the cell-walls of the spores and the walls of the spore-cases would be most suitable material for the production of bituminous coal4 ,but this suitableness they share with the epidermal tissue of the scales of strobiles1 and of the stems and leaves of ferns and lycopods1 and1 above all1 with the thick1 corky envelope of the stems of ,sigillari and similar trees1 which1 as ,i have elsewhere shown1,,cm from its condition in the prostrate and erect trunks contained in the beds associated with coal1 must have been highly carbonaceous and extremely enduring and impermeable to water4 ,in short1 if1 instead of spore-cases1 we read epidermal tissues in general1 including spore-cases1 all that has been affirmed regarding the latter will be strictly and literally true1 and in accordance with the chemical composition1 microscopical characters1 and mode of occurrence of coal4 ,it will also be in accordance with the following statement1 from my paper on the ,structures in ,coal1 published in #ahei3 ,,cm ,vegetable ,structures in ,coal1 ,journal of ,geological ,society1 xv41 #fbf4 ,conditions of ,accumulation of ,coal1 ibid41 xxii41 #ie4 ,acadian ,geology1 #aig1 #dfd4 ,a single trunk of ,sigillaria in an erect forest presents an epitome of a coal-seam4 ,its roots represent the ,stigmaria under-clay2 its bark the compact coal2 its woody axis the mineral charcoal2 its fallen leaves 7and fruits71 with remains of herbaceous plants growing in its shade1 mixed with a little earthy matter1 the layers of coarse coal4 ,the condition of the durable outer bark of erect trees concurs with the chemical theory of coal1 in showing the especial suitableness of this kind of tissue for the production of the purer compact coals4 ,it is also probable that the comparative impermeability of the bark to mineral infiltration is of importance in this respect1 enabling this material to remain unaffected by causes which have filled those layers1 consisting of herbaceous materials and decayed wood1 with pyrites and other mineral substances4 ,we need not go far in search of the uses of the coal vegetation1 when 4we consider the fact that the greatest civilised nations are dependent on it for their fuel4 ,without the coal of the ,carboniferous period and the iron-ore which is one of the secondary consequences of coal accumulation1 just as bog-ores of iron occur in the subsoils of modern peats1 it would have been impossible either to sustain great nations in comfort in the colder climates of the northern hemisphere or to carry on our arts and manufactures4 ,the coal-formation yields to ,great ,britain alone about one hundred and sixty million tons of coal annually1 and the miners of the ,united ,states extract mainly from the same formation nearly a hundred million tons1 while the ,british colonies and dependencies produce about five million tons2 and it is a remarkable fact that it is to the ,english race that the greatest supply of this buried power and heat and light has been given4 ,the great forests of the coal period1 while purifying the atmosphere of its excess of unwholesome carbonic acid1 were storing up the light and heat of ,palozoic summers in a form in which they could be recovered in our human age1 so that1 independently of their uses to the animals which were their contemporaries1 they are indispensable to the existence of civilised man4 ,nor can we hope soon to be able to dispense with the services of this accumulated store of fuel4 ,the forests of to-day are altogether insufficient for the supply of our wants1 and though we are beginning to apply water-power to the production of electricity1 and though some promising plans have been devised for the utilisation of the direct heat and light of the sun1 we are still quite as dependent as any of our predecessors on what has been done for us in the ,palozoic age4 ,in the previous pages ,i have said little respecting the physical geography of the ,carboniferous age2 but1 as may be inferred from the vegetation1 this in the northern hemisphere presented a greater expanse of swampy flats little elevated above the sea than we find in any other period4 ,as to the southern hemisphere1 less is known1 but the conditions of vegetation would seem to have been essentially the same4 ,taking the southern hemisphere as a whole1 ,i have not seen any evidence of a ,lower ,devonian or ,upper ,silurian flora2 but in ,south ,africa and ,australia there are remains of ,upper ,devonian or ,lower ,carboniferous plants4 ,these were succeeded by a remarkable ,upper ,carboniferous or ,permian group1 which spread itself all over ,india1 ,australia1 and ,south ,africa1,,cn and contains some forms 7,vertebraria1 ,phyllotheca1 ,glossopteris1 c4 7 not found in rocks of similar age in the northern hemisphere1 so that1 if the age of these beds has been correctly determined1 the southern hemisphere was in advance in relation to some genera of plants4 ,this1 however1 is to be expected when we consider that the ,triassic and ,jurassic flora of the north contains or consists of intruders from more southern sites4 ,these beds are succeeded in ,india by others holding cycads1 c41 of ,upper ,jurassic or ,lower ,cretaceous types 7,rajmahal and ,jabalpur groups74 ,,cn ,wyley1 ,journal ,geol4 ,society1 vol4 xxiii41 p4 #agb2 ,daintree1 ibid41 vol4 xxviii42 also ,clarke and ,mc,coy4 ,blanford has shown that there is a very great similarity in this series all over the ,australian and ,indian region4,,co ,hartt and ,darby have in like manner distinguished ,devonian and ,carboniferous forms in ,brazil akin to those of the northern hemisphere4 ,thus the southern hemisphere would seem to have kept pace with the northern1 and according to ,blanford there is evidence there of cold conditions in the ,permian1 separating the ,palozoic flora from that of the ,mesozoic1 in the same manner that ,ramsay has supposed a similar period of cold to have done north of the equator4 ,this would imply a very great change of climate1 since we have evidence of the extension of the ,lower ,carboniferous flora at least as far north as ,spitzbergen4 ,the upper coal-formation we cannot1 however1 trace nearly so far north2 so that a gradual refrigeration may have been going on before the ,permian4 ,thus in both hemispheres there was a general similarity in the later ,palozoic flora1 and perhaps similar conditions leading to its extinction and to its replacement by that to be described in the next chapter4 ,,co ,journal ,geol4 ,society1 vol4 xxxi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,to ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,i4 ,characters and ,classification of ,palozoic ,plants4 ,in the space available in this work it would be impossible to enter fully into the classification of ,palozoic plants2 but it may be well to notice some important points for the guidance of those who may desire to collect specimens2 more especially as much uncertainty exists as to affinities and very contradictory statements are made4 ,the statements below may be regarded as the results of actual observation and of the study of specimens in situ in the rocks1 as well as in the cabinet and under the microscope4 ,gymnosperme4 ,family ,conifer2 ,genus ,dadoxylon1 ,endlicher2 ,araucarites1 ,goeppert2 ,araucarioxylon1 ,kraus4 ,the trunks of this genus occur from the ,middle ,devonian to the ,permian inclusive1 as drift-logs calcified1 silicified1 or pyritised4 ,the only foliage associated with them is of the type of ,walchia and ,araucarites--viz41 slender branches with numerous small spiral acicular leaves4 ,two of the coal-formation species1 ,d4 materiarum and another1 had foliage of this type4 ,that of the others is unknown4 ,they are all distinct from the wood of ,cordaites1 for which see under that genus4 ,the following are ,north ,american species3 ,trunks4 ,dadoxylon ,ouangondianum1 ,dn4 ,m4 ,erian ,report1 #ahga4;,,cp ,d4 ,halli1 ,dn4 ,d4 ,newberryi1 ,dn4 ,d4 ,clarkii1 ,dn4 7,cordoxylon 87 ,report1 #ahhb4 ,d4 ,acadianum1 ,dn4 ,coal-formation ,acadian ,geology4 and millstone grit4 ,d4 ,materiarum1 ,dn4 ,do4 and ,permo- ,carb4 ,d4 7,paloxylon7 antiquius1 ,dn4 ,l4 ,carboniferous4 ,d4 annulatum1 ,dn4 ,coal-formation4 ,ormoxylon ,erianum1 ,dn4 ,erian ,report1 #ahga4 ,foliage4 ,araucarites gracilis1 ,dn4 ,n4 ,coal-formation and ,permian4 ,report on ,walchia robusta1 ,dn4 ,permian4 ,prince ,edward ,w4 imbricatula1 ,dn4 ,island4 ,,cp ,geological ,survey of ,canada3 ,fossil ,plants of ,erian and ,upper ,silurian ,formations1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson4 ,all of the above can be vouched for as good species based upon microscopic examination of a very large number of trunks from different parts of ,north ,america4 ,the three ,erian species of ,dadoxylon and ,d4 antiquius from the ,lower ,carboniferous have two or more rows of cells in the medullary rays4 ,the last named has several rows1 and is a true ,paloxylon allied to ,d4 ,withami of ,great ,britain4 ,d4 materiarium is specially characteristic of the upper coal-formation and ,permian1 and to it must belong one or both of the species of foliage indicated above4 ,d4 ,clarkii has very short1 simple medullary rays of only a few cells superimposed1 and has an inner cylinder of scalariform vessels1 approaching in these points to ,cordaites4 ,ormoxylon has a very peculiar articulated pith and simple medullary rays4 ,witham in #ahcc described several ,carboniferous species of pine-wood1 under the generic name ,pinites1 separating under the name ,pitus species which appeared to have the discs on the cell-walls separate and in transverse lines4 ,witham's name was changed by ,goeppert to ,araucarites1 to indicate the similarity of these woods to ,araucaria1 ,pinites being reserved for trees more closely allied to the ordinary pines4 ,endlicher1 restricting ,araucarites to foliage1 etc41 of ,araucaria-like trees1 gave the name ,dadoxylon to the wood2 and this1 through ,unger's ,genera and ,species1 has gained somewhat general acceptance4 ,endlicher also gave the name ,pissadendron to the species which ,witham had called ,pitus2 but ,brongniart proposed the name ,paloxylon to include all the species with thick and complex medullary rays1 whatever the arrangement of the discs4 ,in ,schimper's new work ,kraus substitutes ,araucarioxylon for ,endlicher's ,dadoxylon1 and includes under ,pissadendron all the species placed by ,brongniart in ,paloxylon4 ,to understand all this confusion1 it may be observed that the characters available in the determination of ,palozoic coniferous wood are chiefly the form and arrangement of the wood-cells1 the character of the bordered pores or discs of their walls1 and the form and composition of the medullary rays4 ,the character on which ,witham separated his genus ,pitus from ,pinites is1 as ,i have ascertained by examination of slices of one of his original specimens kindly presented to me by ,mr4 ,sanderson1 of ,edinburgh1 dependent on state of preservation1 the imperfectly preserved discs or areolations of the walls of the fibre presenting the appearance of separate and distinct circles1 while in other parts of the same specimens these discs are seen to be contiguous and to assume hexagonal forms1 so that in this respect they do not really differ from the ordinary species of ,dadoxylon4 ,the true character for subdividing those species which are especially characteristic of the ,carboniferous1 is the composite structure of the medullary rays1 which are thick and composed of several radial piles of cells placed side by side4 ,this was the character employed by ,brongniart in separating the genus ,paloxylon1 though he might with convenience have retained ,witham's name1 merely transferring to the genus the species of ,witham's ,pinites which have complex medullary rays4 ,the ,erian rocks present the greatest variety of types1 and ,paloxylon is especially characteristic of the ,lower ,carboniferous1 while species of ,dadoxylon with two rows of bordered pores and simple medullary rays are especially plentiful in the upper coal-formation and ,permo-,carboniferous4 ,the following table will clearly show the distinctive characters and relations of the genera in question1 as held by the several authors above referred to3 ,wood of ,palozoic ,conifers4 ,woody ,medullary rays ,generic ,geological fibres4 and pith4 names4 age4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,no discs4 ,one or two series ,aporoxylon1 ,devonian of cells4 ,unger4 7,erian74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,complex1 or of two ,pitus1 or more series of ,witham4 ,middle and or more series of ,paloxylon1 ,lower cells4 ,brongniart4 ,carboniferous ,pith ,sternbergian4 ,pissadendron1 and ,devonian4 ,endlicher4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,discs in one ,simple1 or of one ,araucarites1 series row of cells4 ,goeppert ,upper contiguous1 ,pith ,sternbergian4 ,dadoxylon1 ,carboniferous or in ,endlicher4 and ,permian4 several ,araucarioxylon1 series ,schimper4 spirally ---------------------------------------- ---------------- arranged4 ,pith in spherical ,ormoxylon1,,cq ,dn4 ,devonian4 chambers4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,medullary sheath ,devonian4 scalariform4 ,dadoxylon ,medullary rays 7,cordoxylon71,,cr frequent1 simple1 ,dn4 short4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,cq ,type ,o4 ,erianum1 ,dn41 ,report on ,canadian ,plants1 #ahga4 ,,cr ,type ,d4 ,clarkii1 ,dn41 ,report on ,canadian ,plants1 #ahhb4 ,this may be wood of ,cordaites1 to which it approaches very closely4 ,family ,cordaites1 ,genus ,cordaites1 ,brongniart4 ,trunks marked by transverse scars of attachment of bases of leaves2 leaves broad1 with many parallel veins1 and attached by a broad base2 pistillate and staminate catkins of the nature of ,antholithes4 ,fruit winged or pulpy1 of the kind known as ,cardiocarpum4 ,stem with a ,sternbergia pith1 usually large1 surrounded by a ring of pseudo-scalariform vessels1 and with a cylinder usually narrow1 of woody wedges1 with bordered pores in one or more series1 and with simple medullary rays4 ,from specimens kindly presented to me by ,prof4 ,renault1 ,i have been able to ascertain that the stems of some at least of these plants 7,eucordaites7 are distinct in structure from all the species of ,dadoxylon1 above mentioned1 except ,d4 ,clarkii1 of the ,erian4 ,they may be regarded as intermediate between those of conifers and cycads1 which is indeed the probable position of these remarkable plants4 ,grand d',eury has divided the ,cordaites into sub-genera1 as follows3 #a4 ,eucordaites4--,leaves spatulate1 obovate1 elliptical1 or lanceolate1 sessile1 entire1 with rounded apices and of leathery consistency4 ,the leaves are from twenty to ninety centimetres in length4 ,the nerves are either equally or unequally strong4 #b4 ,dorycordaites4--,leaves lanceolate1 with sharp points2 nerves numerous1 fine1 and equal in strength4 ,the leaves attain a length of from forty to fifty centimetres4 #c4 ,poacordaites4--,leaves narrow1 linear1 entire1 blunt at the point1 with nerves nearly equally strong4 ,the leaves are as much as forty centimetres in length4 ,to these ,renault and ,zeiller have added a fourth group1 ,scutocordaites4 ,genus ,sternbergia4 ,this is merely a provisional genus intended to receive casts of the pith cylinders of various fossil trees4 ,their special peculiarity is that1 as in the modern ,cecropia peltata1 and some species of ,ficus1 the pith consists of transverse dense partitions which1 on the elongation of the internodes1 become separated from each other1 so as to produce a chambered pith cavity1 the cast of which shows transverse furrows4 ,the young twigs of the modern ,abies balsamifera present a similar structure on a minute scale4 ,i have ascertained and described such pith-cylinders in large stems of ,dadoxylon ,ouangondianum1 and ,d4 materiarium4 ,they occur also in the stems of ,cordaites and probably of ,sigillari4 ,i have discussed these curious fossils at length in ,acadian ,geology and in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 #ahfj4 ,the following summary is from the last-mentioned paper3 a4 ,as ,prof4 ,williamson and the writer have shown1 many of the ,sternbergia piths belong to coniferous trees of the genus ,dadoxylon4 b4 ,a few specimens present multiporous tissue1 of the type of ,dictyoxylon1 a plant of unknown affinities1 and which1 according to ,williamson1 has a ,sternbergia pith4 c4 ,other examples show a true scalariform tissue1 comparable with that of ,lepidodendron or ,sigillaria1 but of finer texture4 ,corda has shown that plants of the type of the former genus 7his ,lomatophloios7 had ,sternbergia piths4 ,some plants of this group are by external characters loosely reckoned by botanists as ribless ,sigillari 7,clathraria72 but ,i believe that they are not related even ordinally to that genus4 d4 ,many ,carboniferous ,sternbergi show structures identical with those described above as occurring in ,cordaites1 and also in some of the trees ordinarily reckoned as ,sigillari4 ,genus ,cardiocarpum4 ,i have found at least eight species of these fruits in the ,erian and ,carboniferous of ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia1 all of which are evidently fruits of gymnospermous trees4 ,they agree in having a dense coaly nucleus of appreciable thickness1 even in the flattened specimens1 and surrounded by a thin and veinless wing or margin4 ,they have thus precisely the appearance of samaras of many existing forest-trees1 some of which they also resemble in the outline of the margin1 except that the wings of samaras are usually veiny4 ,the character of the nucleus1 and the occasional appearance in it of marks possibly representing cotyledons or embryos1 forbids the supposition that they are spore-cases4 ,they must have been fruits of phnogams4 ,whether they were winged fruits or seeds1 or fruits with a pulpy envelope like those of cycads and some conifers1 may be considered less certain4 ,the not infrequent distortion of the margin is an argument in favour of the latter view1 though this may also be supposed to have occurred in samaras partially decayed4 ,on the other hand1 their being always apparently flattened in one plane1 and the nucleus being seldom1 if ever1 found denuded of its margin1 are arguments in favour of their having been winged nutlets or seeds4 ,until recently ,i had regarded the latter view as more probable1 and so stated the matter in the second edition of ,acadian ,geology4 ,i have1 however1 lately arrived at the conclusion that the ,cardiocarpa of the type of ,c4 cornutum were gymnospermous seeds1 having two cotyledons embedded in an albumen and covered with a strong membranous or woody tegmen surrounded by a fleshy outer coat1 and that the notch at the apex represents the foramen or micropyle of the ovule4 ,the structure was indeed very similar to that of the seeds of ,taxus and of ,salisburia4 ,with respect to some of the other species1 however1 especially those with very broad margins1 it still appears likely that they were winged4 ,the ,cardiocarpa were borne in racemes or groups1 and it seems certain that some of them at least are the seeds of ,cordaites4 ,the association of some of them and of those of the next genus with ,sigillari is so constant that ,i cannot doubt that some of them belong to plants of that genus1 or possibly to taxine conifers4 ,the great number of distinct species of these seeds1 as compared with that of known trees which could have produced them1 is very remarkable4 ,genus ,trigonocarpum4 ,these are large angled nuts contained in a thick envelope1 and showing internal structures resembling those of the seeds of modern ,taxine4 ,there are numerous species1 as well as allied seeds referred to the provisional genera ,rhabdocarpus and ,carpolithes4 ,in ,trigonocarpum ,hookeri ,i have described the internal structure of one of those seeds1 and many fine examples from the coal-field of ,st4 ,etienne1 in ,france1 have been described by ,brongniart1 so that their internal structure is very well known4 ,genus ,antholithes4 ,this is also a provisional genus1 to include spikes of floral organs1 some of which are known to have belonged to ,cordaites1 others probably to ,sigillari4 ,of ,uncertain ,affinities4 ,family ,sigillariace4 ,under this name palobotanists have included a great number of trees of the ,carboniferous system1 all of which are characterised by broad leaf-sears1 with three vascular scars1 and usually arranged in vertical rows1 and by elongated three-nerved leaves1 and roots of the stigmaria type--that is1 with rounded pits1 marking the attachment of rootlets spirally arranged4 ,these trees1 however1 collected in the genus ,sigillaria by arbitrary characters1 which pass into those of the ,lepidodendroid trees1 have been involved in almost inextricable confusion1 to disentangle which it will be necessary to consider3 #a4 ,the external characters of ,sigillari1 and trees confounded with them4 #b4 ,subdivision of ,sigillari by external markings4 #c4 ,the microscopic character of their stems4 #d4 ,what is known of their foliage and fruit4 #a4 ,characters of ,sigillaroid and ,lepidodendroid ,trunks4 ,it may be premised that the modes of determination in fossil botany are necessarily different from those employed in recent botany4 ,the palobotanist must have recourse to characters derived from the leaves1 the scars left by their fall1 and the internal structures of the stem4 ,these parts1 held in little esteem by botanists in describing modern plants1 and much neglected by them1 must hold the first place in the regard of the fossil botanist1 whereas the fructification1 seldom preserved1 and generally obscure1 is of comparatively little service4 ,it is to be remarked also that in such generalised plants as those of the ,palozoic1 remarkable rather for the development of the vegetative than of the reproductive organs1 the former rise in importance as compared with their value in the study of modern plants4 ,in ,sigillari1 ,lepidodendra1 c41 the following surfaces of the stem may be presented to our inspection3 #a4 ,the outer surface of the epidermis without its leaves1 but with the leaf-bases and leaf-scars more or less perfectly preserved4 ,on this surface we may recognise3 7#a7 ,cellular swellings or projections of the bark to which the leaves are attached4 ,these may be called leaf-bases1 and they are sometimes very prominent4 7#b7 ,the actual mark of the attachment of the leaf situated in the most prominent part of the leaf-base4 ,this is the leaf-scar4 7#c7 ,in the leaf-scar when well preserved we can see one or more minute punctures or prominences which are the points where the vascular bundles passing to the leaf found exit4 ,these are the vascular scars4 ,when the leaves are attached1 the leaf-scars and vascular scars cannot be seen1 but the leaf-bases can be made out4 ,hence it is important1 if possible1 to secure specimens with and without the leaves4 ,in flattened specimens the leaf-bases are often distorted by pressure and marked with furrows which must not be mistaken for true structural characters4 ,the leaf-bases1 which are in relief on the outer surface of the stem1 of course appear as depressions on the mould in the containing rock1 in which the markings often appear much more distinctly than on the plant itself4 #b4 ,the outer surface of the epidermis may have been removed or may be destroyed by the coarseness of the containing rock4 ,in this case the leaf-bases are usually preserved on the surface of the outer or corky bark1 but the leaf-scars and vascular scars have disappeared4 ,this gives that condition of ,lepidodendroid trees to which the name ,knorria has been applied4 ,when plants are in this state careful inspection may sometimes discover traces of the leaf-scars on portions of the stem1 and thus enable the ,knorria to be connected with the species to which it belongs4 #c4 ,the outer or corky bark may be removed1 exposing the surface of the inner or fibrous and cellular bark1 which in the plants in question is usually of great thickness4 ,in this case neither the leaf-bases nor the scars are seen1 but punctures or little furrows or ridges appear where the vascular bundles entered the inner bark4 ,specimens in this state are usually said to be decorticated1 though only the outer bark is removed4 ,it is often difficult to determine plants in this condition1 unless some portion of the stem can be found still retaining the bark2 but when care is taken in collecting1 it will not infrequently be found that the true outer surface can be recovered from the containing rock1 especially if a coaly layer representing the outer bark intervenes between this and the inner impression4 ,specimens of this kind1 taken alone1 have been referred to the genera ,knorria1 ,bothrodendron1 and ,halonia4 #d4 ,in some cases1 though not frequently1 the outer surface of the ligneous cylinder is preserved4 ,it almost invariably presents a regularly striated or irregularly wrinkled appearance1 depending upon the vertical woody wedges1 or the positions of the medullary rays or vascular bundles4 ,specimens of this kind constituted some of the ,endogenites of the older botanists1 and the genus ,schizodendron of ,eichwald appears to include some of them4 ,many of them have also been incorrectly referred to ,calamites4 #e4 ,in some cases the cast of the medullary cylinder or pith may alone be preserved4 ,this may be nearly smooch or slightly marked by vertical stri1 but more usually presents a transverse striation1 and not infrequently the transverse constrictions and septa characteristic of the genus ,sternbergia4 ,loose ,sternbergi afford little means of connecting them with the species to which they belong1 except by the microscopic examination of the shreds of the ligneous cylinder which often cling to them4,,cs ,,cs ,see my paper1 ,journal of ,geological ,society1 vol4 xxvii4 ,these facts being premised1 the following general statements may be made respecting some of the more common ,palozoic genera1 referring1 however1 principally to the perfect markings as seen on the epidermis3 ,sigillaria4--,leaf-bases hexagonal or elongated1 or confluent on a vertical ridge4 ,leaf-scars hexagonal or shield-shaped4 ,vascular scars three1 the two lateral larger than the central4 ,this last character is constant1 depending on the fact that the leaves of ,sigillaria have two or more vascular bundles4 ,all so-called ,sigillari having the central vascular scar largest1 or only one vascular bundle1 should be rejected from this genus4 ,in young branches of branching ,sigillari the leaf-scars sometimes appear to be spiral1 but in the older stems they form vertical rows2 interrupted1 however1 by transverse rows or bands of fruit-scars1 each with a single large central vascular scar1 and which have borne the organs of fructification4 ,arthrocaulis of ,mc,coy is founded on this peculiarity4 ,syringodendron4--,differs from ,sigillaria in the leaf-scars1 which are circular and with a single vascular bundle4 ,it is a matter of doubt whether these plants were of higher rank than ,sigillaria tending toward the pines1 or of lower rank tending toward ,cyclostigma4 ,their leaf-bases form vertical ridges4 ,lepidodendron4--,leaf-bases rhombic1 oval1 or lanceolate1 moderately prominent4 ,leaf-scars rhombic or sometimes shield-shaped or heart-shaped1 in the middle or upper part of the leaf-base4 ,vascular scars three--the middle one always largest and corresponding to the single nerve of the leaf2 the lateral ones sometimes obsolete4 ,in older stems three modes of growth are observed4 ,in some species the expansion of the bark obliterates the leaf-bases and causes the leaf-scars to appear separated by wide spaces of more or less wrinkled bark1 which at length becomes longitudinally furrowed and simulates the ribbed character of ,sigillaria4 ,in others the leaf-bases grow in size as the trunk expands1 so that even in large trunks they are contiguous though much larger than those on the branches4 ,in others the outer bark1 hardening at an early age1 is incapable of either of the above changes1 and merely becomes cleft into deep furrows in the old trunks4 ,lepidophloios4--,leaf-bases transverse and prominent--often very much so4 ,leaf-scars transversely rhombic or oval with three vascular scars1 the central largest4 ,leaves very long and one-nerved4 ,large strobiles or branchlets borne in two ranks or spirally on the sides of the stem1 and leaving large1 round scars 7cone-scars71 often with radiating impressions of the basal row of scales4 ,species with long or drooping leaf-bases have been included in ,lepidophloios and ,lomatophloios1 ,species with short leaf-bases and cone-scars in two rows have been called ,ulodendron1 and some of them have been included in ,sigillaria 7sub-genus ,clathraria74 ,decorticated stems are ,bothrodendron and ,halonia4 ,some of the species approach near to the last genus1 especially to the ,lepidodendra with rhombic leaf-bases like ,l4 tetragonum4 ,cyclostigma4--,leaf-bases undeveloped4 ,leaf-scars circular or horseshoe-shaped1 small1 with a central vascular scar4 ,in old trunks of ,cyclostigma the leaf-scars become widely separated1 and sometimes appear in vertical rows4 ,young branches of ,lepidodendron sometimes have the leaf-scars similar to those of ,cyclostigma4 ,leptophleum4--,leaf-bases flat1 rhombic2 leaf-scars obsolete2 vascular scar single1 central4 ,the last two genera are characteristically ,devonian4 ,in contradistinction from the trees above mentioned1 the following general statements may be made respecting other groups3 ,in conifers the leaf-bases are usually elongated vertically1 often scaly in appearance1 and with the leaf-scar terminal and round1 oval1 or rhombic1 and with a single well-marked vascular scar4 ,in ,calamites1 ,calamodendron1 and ,asterophyllites the scars of the branchlets or leaves are circular or oval1 with only a single vascular scar1 and situated in verticils at the top of well-marked nodes of the stem4 ,in tree-ferns the leaf-bases are large and usually without a distinct articulating surface4 ,the vascular bundles are numerous4 ,protopteris has rounded leaf-scars with a large horseshoe-shaped bundle of vessels above and small bundles below4 ,caulopteris has large elliptic or oval leaf-scars with vascular scars disposed concentrically4 ,palopteris1,,ct of ,geinitz1 has the leaf-scars transversely oval and the vascular bundles confluent in a transverse band with an appendage or outlying bundle below4 ,stemmatopteris has leaf-scars similar to those of ,caulopteris1 but the vascular bundles united into a horseshoe-shaped band4 ,,ct ,this name1 preoccupied by ,geinitz1 has been inadvertently misapplied to the ,devonian ferns of the genus ,archopteris4 #b4 ,subdivision of ,sigillari in ,accordance with their ,markings4 ,the following groups may be defined in this way2 but1 being based on one character only1 they are of course in all probability far from natural3 #a4 ,sigillaria1 ,brongniart4 ,type1 ,sigillaria reniformis1 ,brongniart1 or ,s4 ,brounii1 ,dawson4--,stem with broad ribs1 usually much broader than the usually oval or elliptical tripunctate areoles1 but disappearing at base1 owing to expansion of the stem4 ,leaves narrow1 long1 three-nerved4 #b4 ,rhytidolepis1 ,sternberg4 ,type1 ,s4 scutellata1 ,brongniart4--,ribs narrow1 and often transversely striate4 ,areoles large1 hexagonal or shield-shaped1 tripunctate4 ,leaves as in last group4 ,kings of rounded scars on the stems and branches mark attachment of fruit4 ,it is possible that some of the smaller stems of this group may be branches of trees of group first4 #c4 ,syringodendron1 ,sternberg4 ,type1 ,s4 organum1 ,l4 and ,h41 ,s4 oculata1 ,brongniart4--,stems ribbed2 areoles small and round1 and apparently with a single scar1 or three closely approximated4 ,these are rare1 and liable to be confounded with decorticated examples of other groups2 but ,i have some specimens which unquestionably represent the external surface4 #d4 ,favularia1 ,sternberg4 ,type1 ,sigillaria elegans of ,brongniart4--,leaf-bases hexagonal1 or in young branches elliptical1 in vertical rows1 but without distinct ribs1 except in old or decorticated stems4 ,fruit borne in verticils on the branches bearing transverse rows of rounded scars4 ,leaves somewhat broad and longitudinally striate4 #e4 ,leioderma1 ,goldenberg4 ,type1 ,s4 ,sydnensis1 ,dawson4--,ribs obsolete4 ,cortical and ligneous surfaces striate4 ,vascular scars double1 elongate longitudinally1 and alike on cortical and inner surfaces4 ,areoles in rows and distinct2 stigmaria-roots striate1 with small and distinct areoles4 #f4 ,clathraria1 ,brongniart4 ,type1 ,s4 ,menardi1 ,brongniart4--,areoles hexagonal1 not in distinct rows1 but having a spiral appearance4 ,some of the plants usually referred to this group are probably branches of ,favularia4 ,others are evidently fragments of plants of the genus ,lepidophloios4 #c4 ,internal ,structures of ,sigillaria-,stems4 ,i long ago pointed out1 on the evidence of the external markings and mode of growth1 that the stems of ,sigillari must have been exogenous1 and this conclusion has now been fully confirmed by the microscopic researches of ,williamson1 not only in the case of ,sigillari1 but of ,lepidodendra and ,calamodendra as well4 ,confining myself to my own observations1 three types of ,sigillari are known to me by their internal structures1 though ,i cannot certainly correlate all of these with the external markings referred to above4 #a4 ,diploxylon1 in which the stem consists of a small internal axis surrounded by a very thick inner bark and a dense outer cortex4 ,a fine example from the ,south ,joggins is thus described3,,cu ,,cu ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 ,november1 #ahgg4 ,the axis of the stem is about six centimetres in its greatest diameter1 and consists of a central pith-cylinder and two concentric coats of scalariform tissue4 ,the pith-cylinder is replaced by sandstone1 and is about one centimetre in diameter4 ,the inner cylinder of scalariform tissue is perfectly continuous1 not radiated1 and about one millimetre in thickness4 ,its vessels are somewhat crushed1 but have been of large diameter4 ,its outer surface1 which readily separates from that of the outer cylinder1 is striated longitudinally4 ,the outer cylinder1 which constitutes by much the largest part of the whole1 is also composed of scalariform tissue2 but this is radially arranged1 with the individual cells quadrangular in cross-section4 ,the cross-bars are similar on all the sides and usually simple and straight1 but sometimes branching or slightly reticulated4 ,the wall intervening between the bars has extremely delicate longitudinal waving lines of ligneous lining1 in the manner first described by ,williamson as occurring in the scalariform tissue of certain ,lepidodendra4 ,a few small radiating spaces1 partially occupied with pyrites1 obscurely represent the medullary rays1 which must have been very feebly developed4 ,the radiating bundles passing to the leaves run nearly horizontally2 but their structure is very imperfectly preserved4 ,the stem being old and probably long deprived of its leaves1 they may have been partially disorganised before it was fossilised4 ,the outer surface of the axis is striated longitudinally1 and in some places marked with impressions of tortuous fibres1 apparently those of the inner bark4 ,in the cross-section1 where weathered1 it shows concentric rings2 but under the microscope these appear rather as bands of compressed tissue than as proper lines of growth4 ,they are about twenty in number4 ,this tree has an erect1 ribbed trunk1 twelve feet in height and fifteen inches in diameter1 swelling to about two feet at the base4 #b4 ,favularia ,type4--,this has been well described by ,brongniart and by ,renault1,,cv and differs from the above chiefly in the fact that the outer exogenous woody zone is composed of reticulated instead of scalariform tissue1 and the inner zone is of the peculiar form which ,i have characterised as pseudo-scalariform4 ,,cv ,botanique ,fossile1 ,paris1 #ahha4 #c4 ,sigillaria ,proper4--,this ,i have illustrated in my paper in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society for ,may1 #ahga1 and it appears to represent the highest and most perfect type of the larger ribbed ,sigillaria4 ,this structure ,i have described as follows1 basing my description on a very fine axis found in an erect stem1 and on the fragments of the woody axis found in the bases of other erect stems3 a4 ,a dense cellular outer bark1 usually in the state of compact coal--but when its structure is preserved1 showing a tissue of thickened parenchymatous cells4 b4 ,a very thick inner bark1 which has usually in great part perished1 or been converted into coal1 but which1 in old trunks1 contained a large quantity of prosenchymatous tissue1 very tough and of great durability4 ,this bast-tissue is comparable with that of the inner bark of modern conifers1 and constitutes much of the mineral charcoal of the coal-seams4 c4 ,an outer ligneous cylinder1 composed of wood-cells1 either with a single row of large bordered pores1,,cw in the manner of pines and cycads1 or with two1 three1 or four rows of such pores sometimes inscribed in hexagonal areoles in the manner of ,dadoxylon4 ,this woody cylinder is traversed by medullary rays1 which are short1 and composed of few rows of cells superimposed4 ,it is also traversed by oblique radiating bundles of pseudo-scalariform tissue proceeding to the leaves4 ,in some ,sigillari this outer cylinder was itself in part composed of pseudo-scalariform tissue1 as in ,brongniart's specimen of ,s4 elegans2 and in others its place may have been taken by multiporous tissue1 as in a case above referred to2 but ,i have no reason to believe that either of these variations occurred in the typical ribbed species now in question4 ,the woody fibres of the outer cylinder may be distinguished most readily from those of conifers1 as already mentioned1 by the thinness of their walls1 and the more irregular distribution of the pores4 ,additional characters are furnished by the medullary rays and the radiating bundles of scalariform tissue when these can be observed4 ,,cw ,these are the same with the wood-cells elsewhere called discigerous tissue1 and to which ,i have applied the terms uniporous and multiporous4 ,the markings on the walls are caused by an unlined portion of the cell-wall placed in a disk or depression1 and this often surrounded by an hexagonal rim of thickened wall2 but in all cases these structures are less pronounced than in ,dadoxylon1 and less regular in the walls of the same cell1 as well as in different layers of the tissues of the axis4 d4 ,an inner cylinder of pseudo-scalariform tissue4 ,i have adopted the term pseudo-scalariform for this tissue1 from the conviction that it is not homologous with the scalariform ducts of ferns and other acrogens1 but that it is merely a modification of the discigerous wood-cells1 with pores elongated transversely1 and sometimes separated by thickened bars1 corresponding to the hexagonal areolation of the ordinary wood-cells4 ,a similar tissue exists in cycads1 and is a substitute for the spiral vessels existing in ordinary exogens4 e4 ,a large medulla1 or pith1 consisting of a hollow cylinder of cellular tissue1 from which proceed numerous thin diaphragms towards the centre of the stem4 ,these structures of the highest type of ,sigillaria are on the one hand scarcely advanced beyond those of ,calamopitus1 as described by ,williamson1 and on the other approach to those of ,cordaites1 as seen in specimens presented to me by ,renault4 ,finally1 as to the fruit of ,sigillari1 ,i have no new facts to offer4 ,the strobiles or spikes associated with these trees have been variously described as gymnospermous 7,renault7 or cryptogamous 7,groldenberg and ,williamson74 #a have never seen them in place4 ,two considerations1 however1 have always weighed with me in reference to this subject4 ,one is the constant abundance of ,trigonocarpa and ,cardiocarpa in the soil of the ,sigiliaria forests1 as ,i have studied this at the ,south ,joggins4 ,the other is that the rings of fruit-scars on the branches of ,sigiliaria are homologous with leaf-scars1 not with branches1 and therefore should have borne single carpels and not cones or spikes of inflorescence4 ,these are merely suggestions1 but ,i have no doubt they will be vindicated by future discoveries1 which will1 ,i have no doubt1 show that in the family ,sigillariace we have really two families1 one possibly of gymnospermous rank1 or at least approaching to this1 the other allied to the ,lepidodendra4 ,cryptogamia4 7,acrogenes47 ,family ,lepidodendre2 ,genus ,lepidodendron1 ,sternberg4 ,these are arboreal ,lycopods having linear one-nerved leaves1 stems branching dichotomously1 and with ovate or rhombic leaf-bases bearing rhombic leaf-scars1 often very prominent4 ,the fruit is in scaly strobiles1 terminal or lateral1 and there are usually1 if not always1 macrospores and microspores in each strobile4 ,the young branches and stems have a central pith1 a cylinder of scalariform tubes sending out ascending bundles to the leaves through a thick cellular and fibrous inner bark1 and externally a dense cortex confluent with or consisting of the leaf-bases4 ,older stems have a second or outer layer of scalariform fibres in wedges with medullary rays1 and strengthening the stem by a true exogenous growth1 much as in the ,diploxylon type of ,sigiliaria4 ,the development of this exogenous cylinder is different in amount and rate in different species4,,cx ,this different development of the exogenous axis is accompanied with appropriate external appearances in the stems1 and the changes which take place in their markings4 ,these are of three kinds4 ,in some species the areoles1 at first close together1 become1 in the process of the expansion of the stem1 separated by intervening spaces of bark in a perfectly regular manner2 so that in old stems1 while widely separated1 they still retain their arrangement1 while in young stems they are quite close to one another4 ,this is the case in ,l4 corrugatum4 ,in other species the leaf-scars or bases increase in size in the old stems1 still retaining their forms and their contiguity to each other4 ,this is the case in ,l4 undulatum1 and generally in those ,lepidodendra which have large leaf-bases4 ,in these species the continued vitality of the bark is shown by the occasional production of lateral strobiles on large branches1 in the manner of the modern red pine of ,america4 ,in other species the areoles neither increase in size nor become regularly separated by growth of the intervening bark2 but in old stems the bark splits into deep furrows1 between which may be seen portions of bark still retaining the areoles in their original dimensions and arrangement4 ,this is the case with ,l4 ,pictoense4 ,this cracking of the bark no doubt occurs in very old trunks of the first two types1 but not at all to the same extent4 ,,cx ,see ,memoirs of ,dr4 ,williamson1 in ,philosophical ,transactions1 for ample details4 ,as a type of ,lepidodendron1 ,i may describe one of the oldest ,carboniferous species characteristic of the ,lower ,carboniferous in ,america1 and corresponding to ,l4 ,veltheimianum of ,europe4 ,lepidodendron ,corrugatum1 ,dawson4--7,see ,fig4 #dc1 supra47 ,quarterly ,journal of ,geological ,society1 vol4 xv42 ,acadian ,geology1 page #dea4 ,habit of ,growth4--,somewhat slender1 with long branches and long1 slender leaves having a tendency to become horizontal or drooping4 ,markings of ,stem4--,leaf-bases disposed in quincunx or spirally1 elongate1 ovate1 acute at both ends1 but more acute and slightly oblique at the lower end2 most prominent in the upper third1 and with a slight vertical ridge4 ,leaf-scars small1 rounded1 and showing only a single punctiform vascular scar4 ,the leaf-scar on the outer surface is in the upper third of the base2 but the obliquity of the vascular bundle causes it to be nearly central on the inside of the epidermis4 ,in young succulent shoots the leaf-scars are contiguous and round as in ,cyclostigma1 without distinct leaf-bases4 ,in this state it closely resembles ,l4 ,olivieri1 ,eichwald4,,cy ,,cy ,letha ,rossica1 ,plate ,y1 ,figs4 #ab1 #ac4 ,in the ordinary young branches the leaf-scars are contiguous1 and closely resemble those of ,l4 elegans1 ,brongt4 7,fig4 #dc ,c74 ,as the branches increase in diameter the leaf-scars slightly enlarge and sometimes assume a verticillate appearance 7,fig4 #dc ,d74 ,as they still further enlarge they become separated by gradually increasing spaces of bark1 marked with many waving stri or wrinkles 7,fig4 #dc ,i1 ,n74 ,at the base of old stems the bark assumes a generally wrinkled appearance without distinct scars4 ,knorria or ,decorticated ,states4--,of these there is a great variety1 depending on the state of preservation1 and the particular longitudinal ridges4 ,fig4 #dc ,d shows a form in which the vascular bundles appear as cylindrical truncate projections4 ,other forms show the leaf-bases prominent1 or have an appearance of longitudinal ribbing produced by the expansion of the bark4 ,structure of ,stem4--,this is not perfectly preserved in any of my specimens1 but one flattened specimen shows a central medulla with a narrow ring of scalariform vessels surrounding it1 and constituting the woody axis4 ,the structure is thus similar to that of ,l4 ,harcourtii1 which ,i regard as probably the same with the closely allied ,european species ,l4 ,veltheimianum4 ,leaves4--,these are narrow1 one-nerved1 curving somewhat rapidly outward 7,figs4 #dc1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d74 ,they vary from one to two inches in length4 ,roots4--,i have not seen these actually attached1 but they occur very abundantly in the under-clays of some erect forests of these plants at ,horton ,bluff1 and are of the character of ,stigmari 7,figs4 #cj1 #ca74 ,in some of the under-clays the long1 flattened rootlets are excessively abundant1 and show the mark of a central vascular bundle4 ,fructification4--,cones terminal1 short1 with many small1 acute imbricate scales4 ,spore-cases globular1 smooth 7,fig4 #dc ,c74 ,on the surface of some shales and sandstones at ,horton there are innumerable round spore-cases of this tree about the size of mustard-seed 7,fig4 #dc ,f74 ,large slabs are sometimes covered with these1 and thin layers of shale are filled with flattened specimens4 ,this is the characteristic species of the ,lower ,carboniferous coal-measures1 occurring in great profusion at ,horton ,bluff and its vicinity1 also at ,sneid's ,mills near ,windsor1 ,noel and ,five-,mile ,river1 at ,norton ,creek and elsewhere in ,new ,brunswick 7,matthew's collection71 and at ,antigonish 7,honeyman's collection74 ,i have received from the lowest ,carboniferous beds of ,ohio specimens of this species4,,cz ,according to ,rogers and ,lesquereux similar forms occur in the ,vespertine of ,pennsylvania and in the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,illinois4 ,l4 ,veltheimianum of western ,europe and ,l4 glincanum of ,russia are closely allied ,lower ,carboniferous species4,,da ,,cz ,journal of ,geological ,society1 ,november1 #ahfb1 p4 #cac4 ,,da ,for comparisons of these see ,report on ,plants of ,lower ,carboniferous of ,canada1 p4 #ba4 ,a very different type is furnished by a new species from the middle coal-formation of ,clifton1 ,new ,brunswick4 ,lepidodendron ,cliftonense1 ,dawson4--,habit of ,growth4--,robust1 with thick branches1 and leaves several inches in length4 ,terminal branches becoming slender1 with shorter leaves4 ,markings of ,stem4--,leaf-bases long oval1 pointed at ends1 enlarging with growth of stem4 ,leaf-scars central1 rhombic1 transverse4 ,leaves4--,one-nerved1 acutely pointed1 from four inches in length on the larger branches to one inch or less on the branchlets4 ,fructification4--,cones large1 cylindrical or long oval1 with large scales of trigonal form1 and not elongated but lying close to the surface4 ,borne on lateral1 slender branchlets1 with short leaves4 ,genus ,lepidophloios1 ,sternberg2 ,ulodendron1 ,l4 and ,h42 ,lomatophloios1 ,corda4 ,lepidophloios4--,under this generic name1 established by ,sternberg1 ,i include those lycopodiaceous trees of the coal-measures which have thick branches1 transversely elongated leaf-scars1 each with three vascular points and placed on elevated or scale-like protuberances1 long one-nerved leaves1 and large lateral strobiles in vertical rows or spirally disposed4 ,their structure resembles that of ,lepidodendron1 consisting of a ,sternbergia pith1 a slender axis of large scalariform vessels1 giving off from its surface bundles of smaller vessels to the leaves1 a very thick cellular bark1 and a thin dense outer bark1 having some elongated cells or bast-tissue on its inner side4 ,in these trees the exogenous outer cylinder is less developed than in the ,lepidodendra1 and is sometimes wanting in stems or branches of some thickness4 ,regarding ,l4 laricinum of ,sternberg as the type of the genus1 and taking in connection with this the species described by ,goldenberg1 and my own observations on numerous specimens found in ,nova ,scotia1 #a have no doubt that ,lomatophloios crassicaulis of ,corda1 and other species of that genus described by ,goldenberg1 ,ulodendron and ,bothrodendron of ,lindley1 ,lepidodendron ornatissimum of ,brongniart1 and ,halonia punctata of ,geinitz1 all belong to this genus1 and differ from each other only in conditions of growth and preservation4 ,several of the species of ,lepidostrobus and ,lepidophyllum also belong to ,lepidophloios4 ,the species of ,lepidophloios are readily distinguished from ,lepidodendron by the form of the areoles1 and by the round scars on the stem1 which usually mark the insertion of the large strobiles1 though in barren stems they may also have produced branches2 still1 the fact of my finding the strobiles in situ in one instance1 the accurate resemblance which the scars bear to those left by the cones of the red pine when borne on thick branches1 and the actual impressions of the radiating scales in some specimens1 leave no doubt in my mind that they are usually the marks of cones2 and the great size of the cones of ,lepidophloios accords with this conclusion4 ,the species of ,lepidophloios are numerous1 and individuals are quite abundant in the coal formation1 especially toward its upper part4 ,their flattened bark is frequent in the coal-beds and their roofs1 affording a thin layer of pure coal1 which sometimes shows the peculiar laminated or scaly character of the bark when other characters are almost entirely obliterated4 ,the leaves also are nearly as abundant as those of ,sigillaria in the coal-shales4 ,they can readily be distinguished by their strong1 angular midrib4 ,the markings of ,lepidophloios may easily be mistaken for those of the ,clathraria type of ,sigillaria4 ,when the stem only is seen1 they can be distinguished by the length of the leaf-bases in ,lepidophloios1 and by the dominant central vascular scar2 also by the one-nerved and ribbed leaves4 ,where the large1 round marks of the cones are present1 these are an infallible guide1 never being present in ,sigillaria4 ,as the cones grew on the upper sides of the branches1 the impression of the lower side often shows no cone-scars1 or only two lateral rows1 whereas on the upper side of the same branch they appear spirally arranged4 ,i may describe as an example-- ,lepidophloios ,acadianus1 ,dawson4 ,leaf-bases broadly rhombic1 or in old stems regularly rhombic1 prominent1 ascending1 terminated by very broad rhombic scars having a central point and two lateral obscure points4 ,outer bark laminated or scaly4 ,surface of inner bark with single points or depressions4 ,leaves long1 linear1 with a strong keel on one side1 five inches or more in length4 ,cone-scars sparsely scattered on thick branches1 either in two rows or spirally1 both modes being sometimes seen on the same branch4 ,scalariform axis scarcely an inch in diameter in a stem five inches thick4 ,fruit1 an ovate strobile with numerous acute scales covering small globular spore-cases4 ,this species is closely allied to ,ulodendron majus and ,lepidophloios laricinus1 and presents numerous varieties of marking4 ,coal-formation1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,family ,calamite2 ,genus ,calamites1 ,suckow4 ,the plants of this genus are unquestionably allied to the modern ,equisetace1 but excel these so much in variety of form and structure1 and are so capricious in their states of preservation1 and so liable to be mistaken for parts of plants generically different1 that they have given rise to much controversy4 ,the following considerations will enable us to arrive at some certainty4 ,the genus ,calamites was originally founded in the longitudinally ribbed and jointed stems so frequent in the coal-formation1 and of which the common ,c4 ,suckovii is a typical form4 ,the most perfect of these stems represent the outer surface immediately within the epidermis1 in which case transverse lines or constrictions mark the nodes1 and at the nodes there are rounded spots1 sometimes indicating radial processes of the pith1 first described by ,williamson2 in other cases1 the attachment of branchlets1 or in some specimens both4 ,but some specimens show the outer surface of the epidermis1 in which case the transverse nodal lines are usually invisible1 though the scars of branchlets may appear4 ,in still other examples the whole of the outer tissues have perished1 and the so-called ,calamite is a cast of the interior of the stem1 showing merely longitudinal ribbing and transverse nodal constrictions4 ,in studying these plants in situ in the erect ,calamite brakes of the coal-formation of ,nova ,scotia1 one soon becomes familiar with these appearances1 but they are evidently unknown to the majority of palobotanists1 though described in detail more than twenty years ago4 ,when the outer surface is preserved it is sometimes seen to bear verticils of long needle-like leaves 7,c4 ,cistii71 or of branchlets with secondary whorls of similar leaves 7,c4 ,suckovii and ,c4 undulatus74 ,no ,calamite known to me bears broad one-nerved leaves like those of ,asterophyllites and ,annularia1 though the larger stems of these plants have been described as ,calamites1 and the term ,calamocladus has been used to include both groups4 ,the base of the ,calamite stem usually terminates in a blunt point1 and may be attached to a rhizome1 or several stems may bud out from each other in a group or stool4 ,the roots are long and cylindrical1 sometimes branching4 ,the fruit consists of spikes of spore-cases1 borne in whorls and subtended by linear floral leaves4 ,to these strobiles the name ,calamostachys has been given4 ,williamson has shown that the stem of ,calamites consists of a central pith or cavity of large size surrounded by a cylinder consisting of alternate wedges of woody and cellular matter1 with vertical canals at the inner sides of the wedges1 and slender medullary rays4 ,the thick cellular wedges intervening between the woody wedges he calls primary medullary rays2 the smaller medullary rays in the wedges1 secondary medullary rays4 ,there is thus a highly complex exogenous stem based on the same principle with the stem of a common ,equisetum1 but with much greater strength and complexity4 ,williamson has also shown that there are different sub-types of these stems4 ,more especially he refers to the three following3 7a7 ,calamites proper1 which has the woody wedges of scalariform or barred tissue with thin medullary rays1 and the thick primary medullary rays are cellular4 7b7 ,calamopitus has reticulated or multiporous tissue in the woody wedges with medullary rays1 and the primary medullary wedges are composed of elongated cells4 7c7 ,calamodendron has the woody wedges of barred tissue as in a1 with medullary rays1 but has the intervening medullary wedges of an elongated tissue approaching to woody fibre1 and also with medullary rays4 ,to these ,i would add a fourth type1 which ,i have described1 from the coal-formation of ,nova ,scotia4,,db ,,db ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahga4 7d7 ,eucalamodendron differs from ,calamodendron in having true bordered pores or pseudo-scalariform slit-pored tissue1 and corresponds to the highest type of calamitean stem4 ,i would also add that under a and b there are some species in which the woody cylinder is very thin in comparison to the size of the stem4 ,in c and d the woody cylinder is thick and massive1 and the stems are often large and nodose4 ,as an example of an ordinary ,calamite in which the external surface and foliage are preserved1 ,i may quote the following from my report on the ,flora of the ,lower ,carboniferous and ,millstone ,grit1 #ahgc3 ,calamites ,undulatus1 ,brongniart4--,this species is stated by ,brongniart to be distinguished from the ,c4 ,suckovii1 the characteristic ,calamite of the middle coal-formation1 by its undulated ribs marked with peculiar cellular reticulation4 ,he suggests that it may be merely a variety of ,c4 ,suckovii1 an opinion in which ,schimper coincides2 but since ,i have received large additional collections from ,mr4 ,elder1 containing not only the stems and branches1 but also the leaves and rhizomes1 ,i am constrained to regard it as a distinct though closely allied species4 ,the rhizomata are slender1 being from one to two inches in diameter1 and perfectly flattened4 ,they are beautifully covered with a cellular reticulation on the thin bark1 and show occasional round areoles marking the points of exit of the rootlets4 ,i have long been familiar with irregular flattened stems thus reticulate1 but have only recently been able to connect them with this species of ,calamite4 ,the main stems present a very thin carbonaceous bark reticulated like the rhizomes4 ,they have flat1 broad ribs separated by deep and narrow furrows1 and undulated in a remarkable manner even when the stems are flattened4 ,this undulation is1 however1 perhaps an indication of vertical pressure while the plant was living1 as it seems to have had an unusually thin and feeble cortical layer1 and the undulations are apparently best developed in the lower part of the stem4 ,at the nodes the ribs are often narrowed and gathered together1 especially in the vicinity of the rounded radiating marks which appear to indicate the points of insertion of the branches4 ,at the top of each rib we have the usual rounded areole1 probably marking the insertion of a primary branchlet4 ,the branches have slender ribs and distant nodes1 from which spring secondary branchlet s in whorls1 these bearing in turn small whorls of acicular leaflets much curved upward1 and which are apparently round in cross section and delicately striate4 ,they are much shorter than the leaves of ,calamites ,suckovii1 and are less dense and less curved than those of ,c4 nodosus1 which ,i believe to be the two most closely allied species4 ,lesquereux notices this species as characteristic of the lower part of the ,carboniferous in ,arkansas4 ,it will be observed that ,i regard the striated and ribbed stems not as internal axes1 but as representing the outer surface of the plants4 ,this was certainly the case with the present species and with ,c4 ,suckovii and ,c4 nodosus4 ,other species1 and especially those which belonged to ,calamodendron1 no doubt had a smooth or irregularly wrinkled external bark2 but this gives no good ground for the manner in which some writers on this subject confound ,calamites with ,calamodendra1 and both with ,asterophyllites and ,sphenophyllum4 ,with this no one who has studied these plants1 rooted in their native soils1 and with their appendages still attached1 can for a moment sympathise4 ,one of the earliest geological studies of the writer was a bed of these erect ,calamites1 which he showed to ,sir ,c4 ,lyell in #ahdd1 and described in the ,proceedings of the ,geological ,society in #ahea1 illustrating the habit of growth as actually seen well exposed in a sandstone cliff4 ,abundant opportunities of verifying the conclusions formed at that time have since occurred1 the results of which have been summed up in the figures in ,acadian ,geology1 which1 though they have been treated by some botanists as merely restorations1 are in reality representations of facts actually observed4 ,on these subjects1 without entering into details1 and referring for these to the elaborate discussions of ,schimper1 ,williamson1 and ,mc,nab1 and to my paper on the subject1 ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 xxvii1 p4 #ed1 ,i may remark3 #a4 ,that the arial stems of ordinary ,calamites had a thin cortical layer1 with lacun and fibrous bundles and multiporous vessels--the whole not differing much from the structure of modern ,equiseta4 #b4 ,certain arborescent forms1 perhaps allied to the true ,calamites1 as well as possibly the old underground stems of ordinary species,,dc assumed a thick-walled character in which the tissues resembled the wedges of an exogen1 and abundance of pseudo-scalariform fibres were developed1 while the ribbing of the external surface became obsolete or was replaced by a mere irregular wrinkling4 ,,dc ,williamson1 ,transactions of the ,royal ,society4 ,mc,nab1 in ,proceedings of the ,edinburgh ,botanical ,society4 #c4 ,sufficient discrimination has not been exercised in separating casts of the internal cavities of ,calamites and ,calamodendron from those representing other surfaces and the proper external surface4 #d4 ,there is no excuse for attributing to ,calamites the foliage of ,annularia1 ,asterophyllites1 and ,sphenophyllum1 since these leaves have not been found attached to true ,calamite stems1 and since the structure of the stems of ,asterophyllites as described by ,williamson1 and that of ,sphenophyllum as described by the writer1,,dd are essentially different from those of ,calamites4 ,,dd ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahff4 #e4 ,as the species above described indicates1 good external characters can be found for establishing species of this genus1 and these species are of value as marks of geological age4 ,genus ,archocalamites1 ,sternberg4 ,this genus has been established to include certain ,calamites of the ,devonian and ,lower ,carboniferous1 in which the furrows on the stem do not alternate at the nodes or joints1 and the leaves in one species at least bifurcate4 ,c4 radiatus1 ,brongniart1 is the typical species4 ,in ,north ,america it occurs in the ,erian1 probably as low as the ,middle ,erian4 ,in ,europe it has so far been recognised in the ,lower ,carboniferous only4 ,i have1 however1 seen stems from alleged ,devonian beds in ,devonshire which may have belonged to this species4 ,family ,asterophyllite2 ,genus ,asterophyllites1 ,brongniart4 ,stems ribbed and jointed like the ,calamites1 but with inflated nodes and a stout internal woody cylinder1 which has been described by ,williamson4 ,from the joints proceeded whorls of leaves or of branchlets1 bearing leaves which differed from those of ,calamites in their having a distinct middle rib or vein4 ,the fructification consisted of long slender cones or spikes1 having whorls of scales bearing the spore-cases4 ,some authors speak of ,asterophyllites as only branches and leaves of ,calamites2 but though at first sight the resemblance is great1 a close inspection shows that the leaves of ,asterophyllites have a true midrib1 which is wanting in ,calamites4 ,genus ,annularia4--,it is perhaps questionable whether these plants should be separated from ,asterophyllites1 ,the distinction is that they produce branches in pairs1 and that their whorls of leaves are one-sided and usually broader than those of ,asterophyllites1 and united into a ring at their insertion on the stem4 ,one little species1 ,a4 sphenophylloides1 is very widely distributed4 ,pinnularia--a provisional genus---includes slender roots or stems branching in a pinnate manner1 and somewhat irregularly4 ,they are very abundant in the coal shales1 and were probably not independent plants1 but aquatic roots belonging to some of the plants last mentioned4 ,the probability of this is farther increased by their resemblance in miniature to the roots of ,calamites4 ,they are always flattened1 but seem originally to have been round1 with a slender thread-like axis of scalariform vessels1 enclosed in a soft1 smooth1 cellular bark4 ,family ,rhizocarpe2 ,genus ,sphenophyllum4 ,leaves in whorls1 wedge-shaped1 with forking veins4 ,fructification on spikes1 with verticils of sporocarps4 ,these plants are by some regarded as allied to the ,calamite and ,asterophyllite1 by others as a high grade of ,rhizocarps of the type of ,marsilia4 ,the stem had a star-shaped central bundle of scalariform or reticulato-scalariform vessels4 ,genus ,sporangites4 7,sporocarpon1 ,williamson47 ,under this name we may provisionally include those rounded spherical bodies found in the coal and its accompanying beds1 and also in the ,erian1 which may be regarded as ,macrospores or ,sporocarps of ,protosalvinia1 or other ,rhizocarpean plants akin to those described above in ,chapter ,,iii1 which see for description4 ,genus ,protosalvinia4--,under this we include sporocarps allied to those of ,salvinia1 as described in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,family ,filices4 ,under this head ,i shall merely refer to a few groups of special interest1 and to the provisional arrangement adopted for the fronds of ferns when destitute of fructification4 ,the external appearances of trunks of tree-ferns have been already referred to4 ,with respect to tree ferns1 the oldest known examples are those from the ,middle ,devonian of ,new ,york and ,ohio1 which ,i have described in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahga and #ahha4 ,as these are of some interest1 ,i have reproduced their descriptions in a note appended to ,chapter ,,iii1 which see4 ,the other forms most frequently occurring in the ,carboniferous are ,caulopteris1 ,palopteris1 and ,megaphyton,,de ,stems showing merely masses of arial roots are known by the name ,psaronius4 ,,de ,see my ,acadian ,geology1 also below4 ,with reference to the classification of ,palozoic ferns1 this has hitherto been quite arbitrary1 being based on mere form and venation of fronds1 but much advance has recently been made in the knowledge of their fructification1 warranting a more definite attempt at classification4 ,the following are provisional genera usually adopted3 #a4 ,cyclopteris1 ,brongniart4--,leaflets more or less rounded or wedge-shaped1 without midrib1 the nerves spreading from the point of attachment4 ,this group includes a great variety of fronds evidently of different genera1 were their fructification known2 and some of them probably portions of fronds1 the other parts of which may be in the next genus4 #b4 ,neuropteris1 ,brongniart4--,fronds pinnate1 and with the leaflets narrowed at the base2 midrib often not distinct1 and disappearing toward the apex4 ,nervures equal1 and rising at an acute angle4 ,ferns of this type are among the most abundant in the coal-formation4 #c4 ,odontopteris1 ,brongniart4--,in these the frond is pinnate1 and the leaflets are attached by their whole base1 with the nerves either proceeding wholly from the base1 or in part from an indistinct midrib1 which soon divides into nervures4 #d4 ,dictyopteris1 ,gutbier4--,this is a beautiful style of fern1 with leaflets resembling those of ,neuropteris1 but the veins arranged in a network of oval spaces4 ,only a few species are known in the coal-formation4 #e4 ,lonchopteris1 ,brongniart4--,ferns with netted veins like the above1 but with a distinct midrib1 and the leaflets attached by the whole base4 ,of this1 also1 we can boast but few species4 #f4 ,sphenopteris1 ,brongniart4--,these are elegant ferns1 very numerous in species1 and most difficult to discriminate4 ,their most distinctive characters are leaflets narrowed at the base1 often lobed1 and with nervures dividing in a pinnate manner from the base4 #g4 ,phyllopteris1 ,brongniart4--,these are pinnate1 with long lanceolate pinnules1 having a strong and well-defined midrib1 and nerves proceeding from it very obliquely1 and dividing as they proceed toward the margin4 ,the ferns of this genus are for the most part found in formations more recent than the ,carboniferous2 but ,i have referred to it1 with some doubt1 one of our species4 #h4 ,alethopteris1 ,brongniart4--,this genus includes many of the most common coal-formation ferns1 especially the ubiquitous ,a4 lonchitica1 which seems to have been the common brake of the coal-formation1 corresponding to ,pteris aquilina in modern ,europe and ,america4 ,these are brake-like ferns1 pinnate1 with leaflets often long and narrow1 decurrent on the petiole1 adherent by their whole base1 and united at base to each other4 ,the midrib is continuous to the point1 and the nervures run off from it nearly at right angles4 ,in some of these ferns the fructification is known to have been marginal1 as in ,pteris4 #i4 ,pecopteris1 ,brongniart4--,this genus is intermediate between the last and ,neuropteris4 ,the leaflets are attached by the whole base1 but not usually attached to each other2 the midrib1 though slender1 attains to the summit2 the nervures are given off less obliquely than in ,neuropteris4 ,this genus includes a large number of our most common fossil ferns4 #aj4 ,beinertia1 ,goeppert4--,a genus established by ,goeppert for a curious ,pecopteris-like fern1 with flexuous branching oblique nervures becoming parallel to the edge of the frond4 #aa4 ,hymenophyllites1 ,goeppert4--,these are ferns similar to ,sphenopteris1 but divided at the margin into one-nerved lobes1 in the manner of the modern genus ,hymenophyllum4 #ab4 ,palopteris1 ,geinitz4--,this is a genus formed to include certain trunks of tree-ferns with oval transverse scars of leaves4 #ac4 ,caulopteris1 ,lindley and ,hutton4--,is another genus of fossil trunks of tree-ferns1 but with elongate scars of leaves4 #ad4 ,psaronius1 ,cotta4--,includes other trunks of tree-ferns with alternate scars or thick scales1 and ordinarily with many arial roots grouped round them1 as in some modern tree-ferns4 #ae4 ,megaphyton1 ,artis4--,includes trunks of tree-ferns which bore their fronds1 which were of great size1 in two rows1 one on each side of the stem4 ,these were very peculiar trees1 less like modern ferns than any of the others4 ,my reasons for regarding them as ferns are stated in the following extract from a recent paper3 ,their thick stems1 marked with linear scars and having two rows of large depressed areoles on the sides1 suggest no affinities to any known plants4 ,they are usually ranked with ,lepidodendron and ,ulodendron1 but sometimes1 and probably with greater reason1 are regarded as allied to tree-ferns4 ,at the ,joggins a very fine species 7,m4 magnificum7 has been found1 and at ,sydney a smaller species 7,m4 humile72 but both are rare and not well preserved4 ,if the large scars bore cones and the smaller bore leaves1 then1 as ,brongniart remarks1 the plant would much resemble ,lepidophloios1 in which the cone-scars are thus sometimes distichous4 ,but the scars are not round and marked with radiating scales as in ,lepidophloios2 they are reniform or oval1 and resemble those of tree-ferns1 for which reason they may be regarded as more probably leaf-scars2 and in that case the smaller linear scars would indicate ramenta1 or small arial roots4 ,further1 the plant described by ,corda as ,zippea disticha is evidently a ,megaphyton1 and the structure of that species is plainly that of a tree-fern of somewhat peculiar type4 ,on these grounds ,i incline to the opinion of ,geinitz that these curious trees were allied to ferns1 and bore two rows of large fronds1 the trunks being covered with coarse hairs or small arial roots4 ,at one time ,i was disposed to suspect that they may have crept along the ground2 but a specimen from ,sydney shows the leaf-stalks proceeding from the stem at an angle so acute that the stem must1 ,i think1 have been erect4 ,from the appearance of the scars it is probable that only a pair of fronds were borne at one time at the top of the stem2 and1 if these were broad and spreading1 it would be a very graceful plant4 ,to what extent plants of this type contributed to the accumulation of coal ,i have no means of ascertaining1 their tissues in the state of coal not being distinguishable from those of ferns and ,lycopodiace4 #af4 ,for descriptions of the genus ,archopteris and other ,erian ferns1 see ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,mesozoic4 ,great physical changes occurred at the close of the ,carboniferous age4 ,the thick beds of sediment that had been accumulating in long lines along the primitive continents had weighed down the earth's crust4 ,slow subsidence had been proceeding from this cause in the coal-formation period1 and at its close vast wrinklings occurred1 only surpassed by those of the old ,laurentian time4 ,hence in the ,appalachian region of ,america we have the ,carboniferous beds thrown into abrupt folds1 their shales converted into hard slates1 their sandstones into quartzite and their coals into anthracite1 and all this before the deposition of the ,triassic ,red ,sandstones which constitute the earliest deposit of the great succeeding ,mesozoic period4 ,in like manner the coal-fields of ,wales and elsewhere in western ,europe have suffered similar treatment1 and apparently at the same time4 ,this folding is1 however1 on both sides of the ,atlantic limited to a band on the margin of the continents1 and to certain interior lines of pressure1 while in the middle1 as in ,ohio and ,illinois in ,america1 and in the great interior plains of ,europe1 the coal-beds are undisturbed and unaltered4 ,in connection with this we have an entire change in the physical character of the deposits1 a great elevation of the borders of the continents1 and probably a considerable deepening of the seas1 leading to the establishment of general geographical conditions which still remain1 though they have been temporarily modified by subsequent subsidences and re-elevations4 ,along with this a great change was in progress in vegetable and animal life4 ,the flora and fauna of the ,palozoic gradually die out in the ,permian and are replaced in the succeeding ,trias by those of the ,mesozoic time4 ,throughout the ,permian1 however1 the remains of the coal-formation flora continue to exist1 and some forms1 as the ,calamites1 even seem to gain in importance1 as do also certain types of coniferous trees4 ,the ,triassic1 as well as the ,permian1 was marked by physical disturbances1 more especially by great volcanic eruptions discharging vast beds and dykes of lava and layers of volcanic ash and agglomerate4 ,this was the case more especially along the margins of the ,atlantic1 and probably also on those of the ,pacific4 ,the volcanic sheets and dykes associated with the ,red ,sandstones of ,nova ,scotia1 ,connecticut1 and ,new ,jersey are evidences of this4 ,at the close of the ,permian and beginning of the ,trias1 in the midst of this transition time of physical disturbance1 appear the great reptilian forms characteristic of the age of reptiles1 and the earliest precursors of the mammals1 and at this time the old ,carboniferous forms of plants finally pass away1 to be replaced by a flora scarcely more advanced1 though different1 and consisting of pines1 cycads1 and ferns1 with gigantic equiseta1 which are the successors of the genus ,calamites1 a genus which still survives in the early ,trias4 ,of these groups the conifers1 the ferns1 and the equiseta are already familiar to us1 and1 in so far as they are concerned1 a botanist who had studied the flora of the ,carboniferous would have found himself at home in the succeeding period4 ,the cycads are a new introduction4 ,the whole1 however1 come within the limits of the cryptogams and the gymnosperms1 so that here we have no advance4,,df ,,df ,fontaine's ,early ,mesozoic ,flora of ,virginia gives a very good summary of this flora in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--;,jurassic vegetation4 ,cycads and pines4 7,after ,saporta47 ,as we ascend1 however1 in the ,mesozoic1 we find new and higher types4 ,even within the ,jurassic epoch1 the next in succession to the ,trias1 there are clear indications of the presence of the endogens1 in species allied to the screw-pines and grasses2 and the palms appear a little later1 while a few exogenous trees have left their remains in the ,lower ,cretaceous1 and in the ,middle and ,upper ,cretaceous these higher plants come in abundantly and in generic forms still extant1 so that the dawn of the modern flora belongs to the ,middle and ,upper ,cretaceous4 ,it will thus be convenient to confine ourselves in this chapter to the flora of the earlier ,mesozoic4 ,passing over for the present the cryptogamous plants already familiar in older deposits1 we may notice the new features of gymnospermous and phnogamous life1 as they present themselves in this earlier part of the great reptilian age1 and as they extended themselves with remarkable uniformity in this period over all parts of the world4 ,for it is a remarkable fact that1 if we place together in our collections fossil plants of this period from ,australia1 ,india1 ,china1 ,siberia1 ,europe1 or even from ,greenland1 we find wonderfully little difference in their aspect4 ,this uniformity we have already seen prevailed in the ,palozoic flora2 and it is perhaps equally marked in that of the ,mesozoic4 ,still we must bear in mind that some of the plants of these periods1 as the ferns and pines1 for example1 are still world-wide in their distribution2 but this does not apply to others1 more especially the cycads 7,fig4 #fe74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,podozamites lanceolatus1 ,sternb4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,the cycads constitute a singular and exceptional type in the modern world1 and are limited at present to the warmer climates1 though very generally distributed in these1 as they occur in ,africa1 ,india1 ,japan1 ,australia1 ,mexico1 ,florida1 and the ,west ,indies4 ,in the ,mesozoic age1 however1 they were world-wide in their distribution1 and are found as far north as ,greenland1 though most of the species found in the ,cretaceous of that country are of small size_/ and may have been of low growth1 so that they may have been protected by the snows of winter4 ,the cycads have usually simple or unbranching stems1 pinnate leaves borne in a crown at top1 and fruits which1 though somewhat various in structure and arrangement1 are all of the simpler form of gymnospermous type4 ,the stems are exogenous in structure1 but with slender wood and thick bark1 and barred tissue1 or properly as tissue intermediate between this and the disc-bearing fibres of the pines4 ,though the cycads have a considerable range of organisation and of fructification1 and though some points in reference to the latter might assign them a higher place1 on the whole they seem to occupy a lower position than the conifers or the cordaite of the ,carboniferous4 ,in the ,carboniferous some of the fern-like leaves assigned to the genus ,noeggerathia have been shown by ,stur and ,weiss to have been gymnosperms1 probably allied to cycads1 of which they may be regarded at least as precursors4 ,thus the cycadean type does not really constitute an advance in grade of organisation in the ,mesozoic1 any further than that1 in the period now in question1 it becomes much more developed in number and variety of forms4 ,but the conifers would seem to have had precedence of it for a long time in the ,palozoic1 and it replaces in the ,mesozoic the ,cordaites1 which in many respects excelled it in complexity4 ,the greater part of the cycads of the ,mesozoic age would seem to have had short stems and to have constituted the undergrowth of woods in which conifers attained to greater height4 ,an interesting case of this is the celebrated dirt-bed of the quarries of the ,isle of ,portland1 long ago described by ,dean ,buckland4 ,in this fossil soil trunks of pines1 which must have attained to great height1 are interspersed with the short1 thick stems of cycads1 of the genus named ,cycadoidea by ,buckland1 and which from their appearance are called fossil birds' nests by the quarrymen4 ,some1 however1 must have attained a considerable height so as to resemble palms4 ,the cycads1 with their simple1 thick trunks1 usually marked with rhombic scars1 and bearing broad spreading crowns of large1 elegantly formed pinnate leaves1 must have formed a prominent part of the vegetation of the northern hemisphere during the whole of the ,mesozoic period4 ,a botanist1 had there been such a person at the time1 would have found this to be the case everywhere from the equator to ,spitzbergen1 and probably in the southern hemisphere as well1 and this throughout all the long periods from the ,early ,trias to the ,middle ,cretaceous4 ,in a paper published in the ,linnan ,transactions for #ahfh1 ,dr4 ,carruthers enumerates twenty species of ,british ,mesozoic cycads1 and the number might now be considerably increased4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,salisburia 7,gingko7 ,sibirica1 ,heer4 ,l4 ,cretaceous1 ,siberia and ,north ,america4 ,the pines present some features of interest4 ,we have already seen their connection with the broad-leaved ,cordaites1 and in the ,permian there are some additional types of broad-leaved conifer4 ,in the ,mesozoic we have great numbers of beautiful trees1 with those elegant fan-shaped leaves characteristic of but one living species1 the ,salisburia1 or gingko-tree of ,china4 ,it is curious that this tree1 though now limited to eastern ,asia1 will grow1 though it rarely fruits1 in most parts of temperate ,europe1 and in ,america as far north as ,montreal1 and that in the ,mesozoic period it occupied all these regions1 and even ,siberia and ,greenland1 and with many and diversified species 7,fig4 #ff74 ,salisburia belongs to the yews1 but an equally curious fact applies to the cypresses4 ,the genus ,sequoia1 limited at present to two species1 both ,californian1 and one of them the so-called big tree1 celebrated for the gigantic size to which it attains1 is represented by species found as far back at least as the ,lower ,cretaceous1 and in every part of the northern hemisphere4,,dg ,it seems to have thriven in all these regions throughout the ,mesozoic and early ,kainozoic1 and then to have disappeared1 leaving only a small remnant to represent it in modern days4 ,a number of species have been described from the ,mesozoic and ,tertiary1 all of them closely related to those now existing 7,fig4 #fg74 ,,dg ,in the ,eocene of ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,sequoia ,smithiana1 ,heer4 ,l4 ,cretaceous4 ,the following notice of these trees is for the most part translated1 with some modifications and abridgment1 from a paper read by the late ,prof4 ,heer before the ,botanical ,section of the ,swiss ,natural ,history ,society3 ,the name itself deserves consideration4 ,it is that of an ,indian of the ,cherokee tribe1 ,sequo ,yah1 who invented an alphabet without any aid from the outside world of culture1 and taught it to his tribe by writing it upon leaves4 ,this came into general use among the ,cherokees1 before the white man had any knowledge of it2 and afterward1 in #ahbh1 a periodical was published in this character by the missionaries4 ,sequo ,yah was banished from his home in ,alabama1 with the rest of his tribe1 and settled in ,new ,mexico1 where he died in #ahdc4 ,when ,endlicher was preparing his synopsis of the conifers1 in #ahdf1 and had established a number of new genera1 ,dr4 ,jacbon ,tschudi1 then living with ,endlicher1 brought before his notice this remarkable man1 and asked him to dedicate this red-wooded tree to the memory of a literary genius so conspicuous among the red men of ,america4 ,endlicher consented to do so1 and only endeavored to make the name pronounceable by changing two of its letters4 ,endlicher founded the genus on the redwood of the ,americans1 ,taxodium sempervirens of ,lamb2 and named the species ,sequoia sempervirens4 ,these trees form large forests in ,california1 which extend along the coast as far as ,oregon4 ,trees are there met with of #cjj feet in height and #bj feet in diameter4 ,the seeds have been brought to ,europe a number of years ago1 and we already see in upper ,italy and around the ,lake of ,geneva1 and in ,england1 high trees2 but1 on the other hand1 they have not proved successful around ,zurich4 ,in #aheb1 a second species of ,sequoia was discovered in ,california1 which1 under the name of big tree1 soon attained a considerable celebrity4 ,lindley described it1 in #ahec1 as ,wellingtonia gigantea2 and1 in the following year1 ,decaisne and ,torrey proved that it belonged to ,sequoia1 and that it accordingly should be called ,sequoia gigantea4 ,while the ,sequoia sempervirens1 in spite of the destructiveness of the ,american lumbermen1 still forms large forests along the coast1 the ,sequoia gigantea is confined to the isolated clumps which are met with inland at a height of #e1jjj to #g1jjj feet above sea-level1 and are much sought after by tourists as one of the wonders of the country4 ,reports came to ,europe concerning the largest of them which were quite fabulous1 but we have received accurate accounts of them from ,prof4 ,whitney4 ,the tallest tree measured by him has a height of #cbe feet1 and in the case of one of the trees the number of the rings of growth indicated an age of about #a1cjj years4 ,it had a girth of #ej to #fj feet4 ,we know only two living species of ,sequoia1 both of which are confined to ,california4 ,the one 7,s4 sempervirens7 is clothed with erect leaves1 arranged in two rows1 very much like our yew-tree1 and bears small1 round cones2 the other 7,s4 gigantea7 has smaller leaves1 set closely against the branches1 giving the tree more the appearance of the cypress4 ,the cones are egg-shaped1 and much larger4 ,these two types are therefore sharply defined4 ,both of these trees have an interesting history4 ,if we go back into the ,tertiary1 this same genus meets us with a long array of species4 ,two of these species correspond to those living at present3 the ,s4 ,langsdorfii to the ,s4 sempervirens1 and the ,s4 ,couttsi to the ,s4 gigantea4,,dh ,but1 while the living species are confined to ,california1 in the ,tertiary they are spread over several quarters of the globe4 ,,dh ,s4 ,couttsi has leaves like ,s4 gigantea1 and cones like those of #h4 sempervirens4 ,let us first consider the ,sequoia ,langsdorfii4 ,this was first discovered in the lignite of ,wetterau1 and was described as ,taxites langsdorfii4 ,heer found it in the upper ,rhone district1 and there lay beside the twigs the remains of a cone1 which showed that the ,taxites ,langsdorfii of ,brongniart belonged to the ,californian genus ,sequoia established by ,endlicher4 ,he afterward found much better preserved cones1 together with seeds1 along with the plants of east ,greenland1 which fully confirmed the determination4 ,at ,atanekerdluk in ,greenland 7about #gj north latitude7 this tree is very common4 ,the leaves1 and also the flowers and numerous cones1 leave no doubt that it stands very near to the modern redwood4 ,it differs from it1 however1 in having a much larger number of scales in the cone4 ,the tree is also found in ,spitzbergen at nearly #gh north latitude1 where ,nordenskild has collected1 at ,cape ,lyell1 wonderfully preserved branches4 ,from this high latitude the species can be followed down through the whole of ,europe as far as the middle of ,italy 7at ,senegaglia1 ,gulf of ,spezia74 ,in ,asia1 also11 we can follow it to the steppes of ,kirghisen1 to ,possiet1 and to the coast of the ,sea of ,japan1 and across to ,alaska and ,sitka4 ,it is recognized by ,mr4 ,starkie ,gardner as one of the species found in the ,eocene of ,mull in the ,hebrides4,,di ,it is thus known in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 from #dc to #gh north latitude1 while its most nearly related living species1 perhaps even descended from it1 is now confined to ,california4 ,,di ,it is ,fareites ,campbelli of ,forbes4 ,with this ,s4 ,langsdorfii1 three other ,tertiary species are nearly related 7,s4 brevifolia1 ,hr41 ,s4 disticha1 ,hr41 and ,s4 ,nordenskildi1 ,hr474 ,these have been met with in ,greenland and ,spitzbergen1 and one of them has lately been found in the ,united ,states4 ,three other species1 in addition to these1 have been described by ,lesquereux1 which appear to belong to the group of the ,s4 ,langsdorfii1 viz41 ,s4 longifolia1 ,lesq41 ,s4 angustifolia1 and ,s4 acuminata1 ,lesq4 ,several species also occur in the ,cretaceous and ,eocene of ,canada4 ,these species thus answer to the living ,sequoia sempervirens2 but we can also point to ,tertiary representatives of the ,s4 gigantea4 ,their leases are stiff and sharp-pointed1 are thinly set round the branches1 and lie forward in the same way3 the egg-shaped cones are in some cases similar4 ,there are1 however1 in the early ,tertiary six species1 which fill up the gap between ,s4 sempervirens and ,s4 gigantea4 ,they are the ,s4 ,couttsi1 ,s4 affinis1 ,lesq41 ,s4 imbricata1 ,hr41 ,s4 sibirica1 ,hr41 ,s4 ,heerii1 ,lesq41 and ,s4 biformis1 ,lesq4 ,of these1 ,s4 ,couttsi1 ,hr41 is the most common and most important species4 ,it has short leaves1 lying along the branch1 like ,s4 gigantea1 and small1 round cones1 like ,s4 ,langsdorfii and sempervirens4 ,bovey ,tracey in ,devonshire has afforded splendid specimens of cones1 seeds1 and twigs1 which have been described in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,more lately1 ,count ,saporta has described specimens of cones and twigs from ,armissan4 ,specimens of this species have also been found in the older ,tertiary of ,greenland1 so that it must have had a wide range4 ,it is very like to the ,american ,s4 affinis1 ,lesq4 ,in the ,tertiary there have been already found fourteen well-marked species1 which thus include representatives of the two living types1 ,s4 sempervirens and ,s4 gigantea4 ,we can follow this genus still further back4 ,if we go back to the ,cretaceous age1 we find ten species1 of which five occur in the ,urgon of the ,lower ,cretaceous1 two in the ,middle1 and three in the ,upper ,cretaceous4 ,among these1 the ,lower ,cretaceous exhibits the two types of the ,sequoia sempervirens and ,s4 gigantea4 ,to the former the ,s4 ,smithiana answers1 and to the latter1 the ,reichenbachii1 ,gein4 ,the ,s4 ,smithiana stands indeed uncommonly near the ,s4 ,langsdorfii1 both in the appearance of the leaves on the twigs and in the shape of the cones4 ,these are1 however1 smaller1 and the leaves do not become narrower toward the base4 ,the ,s4 pectina1 ,hr41 of the ,upper ,cretaceous1 has its leaves arranged in two rows1 and presents a similar appearance4 ,the ,s4 ,reichenbachii is a type more distinct from those now living and those in the ,tertiary4 ,it has indeed stiff1 pointed leaves1 lying forward1 but they are arcuate1 and the cones are smaller4 ,this tree has been known for a long time1 and it serves in the ,cretaceous as a guiding star1 which we can follow from the ,urgonian of the ,lower ,cretaceous up to the ,cenomanian4 ,it is known in ,france1 ,belgium1 ,bohemia1 ,saxony1 ,greenland1 and ,spitzbergen 7also in ,canada and the ,united ,states74 ,it has been placed in another genus--,geinitzia--but we can recognise1 by the help of the cones1 that it belongs to ,sequoia4 ,below this1 there is found in ,greenland a nearly related species1 the ,s4 ambigua1 ,hr41 of which the leaves are shorter and broader1 and the cones round and somewhat smaller4 ,the connecting link between ,s4 ,smithiana and ,reichenbachii is formed by ,s4 subulata1 ,hr41 and ,s4 rigida1 ,hr41 and three species 7,s4 gracilis1 ,hr41 ,s4 fastigiata and ,s4 ,gardneriana1 ,carr471 with leaves lying closely along the branch1 and which come very near to the ,tertiary species ,s4 ,couttsi4 ,we have therefore in the ,cretaceous quite an array of species1 which fill up the gap between the ,s4 sempervirens and gigantea1 and show us that the genus ,sequoia had already attained a great development in the ,cretaceous4 ,this was still greater in the ,tertiary1 in which it also reached its maximum of geographical distribution4 ,into the present world the two extremes of the genus have alone continued2 the numerous species forming its main body have fallen out in the ,tertiary4 ,if we look still further back1 we find in the ,jura a great number of conifers1 and1 among them1 we meet in the genus ,pinus with a type which is highly developed1 and which still survives2 but for ,sequoia we have till now looked in vain1 so that for the present we can not place the rise of the genus lower than the ,urgonian of the ,cretaceous1 however remarkable we may think it that in that period it should have developed into so many species2 and it is still more surprising that two species already make their appearance which approach so near to the living ,sequoia sempervirens and ,s4 gigantea4 ,altogether1 we have become acquainted1 up to the present time1 with twenty-six species of ,sequoia4 ,fourteen of these species are found in the ,arctic zone1 and have been described and figured in the ,fossil ,flora of the ,arctic ,regions4 ,sequoia has been recognised by ,ettingshausen even in ,australia1 but there in the ,eocene4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the most remarkable record in the whole history of vegetation4 ,the ,sequoias are the giants of the conifers1 the grandest representatives of the family1 and the fact that1 after spreading over the whole northern hemisphere and attaining to more than twenty specific forms1 their decaying remnant should now be confined to one limited region in western ,america and to two species constitutes a sad memento of departed greatness4,,dj ,the small remnant of ,s4 gigantea still1 however1 towers above all competitors1 as eminently the big trees 2 but1 had they and the allied species failed to escape the ,tertiary continental submergences and the disasters of the glacial period1 this grand genus would have been to us an extinct type4 ,in like manner the survival of the single gingko of eastern ,asia alone enables us to understand that great series of taxine trees with fern-like leaves of which it is the sole representative4 ,,dj ,the writer has shown that much of the material of the great lignite beds of the ,canadian ,northwest consists of wood of ,sequoia of both the modern types4 ,besides these peculiar and now rare forms1 we have in the ,mesozoic many others related closely to existing yews1 cypresses1 pines1 and spruces1 so that the conifers were probably in greater abundance and variety than they are at this day4 ,in this period1 also1 we find the earliest representatives of the endogenous plants4 ,it is true that some plants found in the coal-formation have been doubtfully referred to these1 but the earliest certain examples would seem to be some bamboo-like and screw-pine-like plants occurring in the ,jurassic rocks4 ,some of these are1 it is true1 doubtful forms1 but of others there seems to be no question4 ,the modern ,pandanus or screw-pine of the tropical regions1 which is not a pine1 however1 but a humble relation of the palms1 is a stiffly branching tree1 of a candelabra-like form1 and with tufts of long leaves on its branches1 and nuts or great hard berries for fruit1 borne sometimes in large masses1 and so protected as to admit of their drifting uninjured on the sea4 ,the stems are supported by masses of arial roots like those which strengthen the stems of tree-ferns4 ,these structures and habits of growth fit the ,pandanus for its especial habitat on the shores of tropical islands1 to which its masses of nuts are drifted by the winds and currents1 and on whose shores it can establish itself by the aid of its arial roots4 ,some plants referred to the cycads have proved veritable botanical puzzles4 ,one of these1 the ,williamsonia gigas of the ,english olite1 originally discovered by my friend ,dr4 ,williamson1 and named by him ,zamia gigas1 a very tall and beautiful species1 found in rocks of this age in various parts of ,europe1 has been claimed by ,saporta for the ,endogens1 as a plant allied to ,pandanus4 ,some other botanists have supposed the flowers and fruits to be parasites on other plants1 like the modern ,rafflesia of ,sumatra1 but it is possible that after all it may prove to have been an aberrant cycad4 ,the tree-palms are not found earlier than the ,middle ,cretaceous1 where we shall notice them in the next chapter4 ,in like manner1 though a few ,angiosperms occur in rocks believed to be ,lower or ,lower ,middle ,cretaceous in ,greenland and the northwest territory of ,canada1 and in ,virginia1 these are merely precursors of those of the ,upper ,cretaceous1 and are not sufficient to redeem the earlier ,cretaceous from being a period of pines and cycads4 ,on the whole1 this early ,mesozoic flora1 so far as known to us1 has a monotonous and mean appearance4 ,it no doubt formed vast forests of tall pines1 perhaps resembling the giant ,sequoias of ,california2 but they must for the most part have been dark and dismal woods1 probably tenanted by few forms of life1 for the great reptiles of this age must have preferred the open and sunny coasts1 and many of them dwelt in the waters4 ,still we must not be too sure of this4 ,the berries and nuts of the numerous yews and cycads were capable of affording much food4 ,we know that in this age there were many great herbivorous reptiles1 like ,iguanodon and ,hadrosaurus1 some of them fitted by their structure to feed upon the leaves and fruits of trees4 ,there were also several kinds of small herbivorous mammals1 and much insect life1 and it is likely that few of the inhabitants of the ,mesozoic woods have been preserved as fossils4 ,we may yet have much to learn of the inhabitants of these forests of ferns1 cycads1 and pines4 ,we must not forget in this connection that in the present day there are large islands1 like ,new ,zealand1 destitute of mammalia1 and having a flora comparable with that of the ,mesozoic in the northern hemisphere1 though more varied4 ,we have also the remarkable example of ,australia1 with a much richer flora than that of the early ,mesozoic1 yet inhabited only by non-placental mammals1 like those of the ,mesozoic4 ,the principal legacy that the ,mesozoic woods have handed down to our time is in some beds of coal1 locally important1 but of far less extent than those of the ,carboniferous period4 ,still1 in ,america1 the ,richmond coal-field in ,virginia is of this age1 and so are the anthracite beds of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 on the west coast of ,canada1 and the coal of ,brora in ,sutherlandshire4 ,valuable beds of coal1 probably of this age1 also exist in ,china1 ,india1 and ,south ,africa2 and jet1 which is so extensively used for ornament1 is principally derived from the carbonised remains of the old ,mesozoic pines4 ,in the next chapter we have to study a revolution in vegetable life most striking and unique1 in the advent of the forest-trees of strictly modern types4 ,,note ,,to ,,chapter ,v4 ,i append to this chapter a table showing the plant-bearing series of the ,cretaceous and ,laramie of ,north ,america1 from a paper in ,trans4 ,r4 ,s4 ,c1 #ahhe1 which see for further details3 7,in ,descending ,order47 ,periods4 ,floras and sub-floras4 ,references4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,transition ,upper ,laramie or ,porcupine ,platanus beds of ,souris ,eocene to ,hill4 ,fort ,union ,river and ,calgary4 ,report ,cretaceous4 group1 ,u4 ,s4 territory4 of ,geol4 ,survey of ,canada for #ahgi1 and ,memoir of #ahhe4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,middle ,laramie or ,willow ,creek beds4 ,lemna and ,pistia beds of ,lower ,laramie or ,st4 bad lands of #dith parallel1 ,mary ,river4 ,red ,deer ,river1 c41 with ,upper lignites4 ,report #dith ,cretaceous ,parallel and ,memoir of #ahhe4 7,danian and ,senonian74 ,fox ,hill series ,marine4 ,fort ,pierre series ,marine4 ,sequoia and ,brasenia beds ,belly ,river of ,s4 ,saskatchewan1 ,belly ,river1 c4 with lignites4 ,memoir of #ahhe4 ,coal measures of ,nanaimo1 ,memoir of #ahhc4 ,many ,b4,c41 probably here4 dicotyledons1 palms1 c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,middle ,dunvegan series of ,peace ,cretaceous ,river4 ,dakota group1 ,memoir of #ahhc4 ,many 7,turonian and ,u4 ,s4 ,amboy clays1 dicotyledons1 cycads1 c4 ,cenomanian74 ,u4 ,s4 ,mill ,creek beds of ,rocky ,dicotyledonous leaves1 ,mountains4 similar to ,dakota group of the ,u4 ,s4 ,memoir of #ahhe4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,lower ,suskwa ,river beds and ,cretaceous ,queen ,charlotte ,island ,cycads1 pines1 a few 7,neocomian4 coal series4 ,intermediate dicotyledons4 ,report ,geol4 c74 beds of ,rocky ,survey4 ,memoir of #ahhe4 ,mountains4 ,potomac series of ,virginia4 ,kootanie series of ,rocky ,cycads1 pines1 and ferns4 ,mountains4 ,memoir of #ahhe4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,angiosperms ,,in ,,the ,,later ,,cretaceous ,,and ,,kainozoic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,populus primva1 ,heer4 ,cretaceous1 of ,greenland4 ,one of the oldest known ,angiosperms4 ,it is a remarkable fact in geological chronology that the culmination of the vegetable kingdom antedates that of the animal4 ,the placental mammals1 the highest group of the animal kingdom1 are not known till the beginning of the ,eocene ,tertiary4 ,the dicotyledonous ,angiosperms1 which correspond to them in the vegetable kingdom1 occur far earlier--in the beginning of the ,upper ,cretaceous or close of the ,lower ,cretaceous4 ,the reign of cycads and pines holds throughout the ,lower ,cretaceous1 but at the close of that age there is a sudden incoming of the higher plants1 and a proportionate decrease1 more especially of the cycads4 ,i have already referred to the angiospermous wood supposed to be ,devonian1 but ,i fear to rest any conclusion on this isolated fact4 ,beyond this1 the earliest indications of plants of this class have been found in the ,lower ,cretaceous4 ,many years ago ,heer described and figured the leaves of a poplar 7,populus primva7 from the supposed ,lower ,cretaceous of ,kom1 in ,greenland 7,fig4 #fh74 ,two species1 a ,sterculia and a ,laurus or ,salix1 occur among fossils described by me in the upper part of the ,kootanie series of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and ,fontaine has recently found in the ,potomac group of ,virginia--believed to be of ,neocomian age--several angiospermous species 7,sassafras1 ,menispermites1 ,sapindus1 ,aralia1 ,populus1 c47 mixed with a rich flora of cycads and pines4 ,these are the early forerunners of the modern angiospermous flora2 but so far as known they do not occur below the ,cretaceous1 and in its lower portions only very rarely4 ,when1 however1 we ascend into the ,upper ,cretaceous1 whether of ,europe or ,america1 there is a remarkable incoming of the higher plants1 under generic forms similar to those now existing4 ,this is1 in truth1 the advent of the modern flora of the temperate regions of the earth4 ,a very interesting tabular view of its early distribution is given by ,ward1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science for #ahhd1 of which the following is a synopsis1 with slight emendations4 ,i may add that the new discoveries made since #ahhd would probably tend to increase the proportionate number of dicotyledons in the newer groups4 ,dicotyledonous ,trees in the ,cretaceous4 ,upper ,senonian #agi species4 7,fox ,hill group of ,america47 ,lower ,senonian #ha species4 ,upper white chalk of ,europe2 ,fort ,pierre group of ,america2 coal-measures of ,nanaimo8 ,turonian #bj species4 ,lower white chalk2 ,new ,jersey marls2 ,belly ,r4 group4 ,cenomanian4 #ceg species4 7,chalk-marl1 greensand1 and ,gault1 ,niobrara and ,dakota groups of ,america72 ,dunvegan group of ,canada2 ,amboy clays of ,new ,jersey4 ,neocomian #bj species4,,dk 7,lower greensand and ,speeton clay1 ,wealden and ,hastings sands1 ,kootanie and ,queen ,charlotte groups of ,canada47 ,,dk ,including an estimate of ,fontaine's undescribed species4 ,thus we have a great and sudden inswarming of the higher plants of modern types at the close of the ,lower ,cretaceous4 ,in relation to this1 ,saporta1 one of the most enthusiastic of evolutionists1 is struck by this phenomenon of the sudden appearance of so many forms1 and some of them the most highly differentiated of dicotyledonous plants4 ,the early stages of their evolution may1 he thinks1 have been obscure and as yet unobserved1 or they may have taken place in some separate region1 or mother country as yet undiscovered1 or they may have been produced by a rapid and unusual multiplication of flower-haunting insects6 ,or it is even conceivable that the apparently sudden elevation of plants may have been due to causes still unknown4 ,this last seems1 indeed1 the only certain inference in the case1 since1 as ,saporta proceeds to say in conclusion3 ,whatever hypothesis one may prefer1 the fact of the rapid multiplication of dicotyledons1 and of their simultaneous appearance in a great number of places in the northern hemisphere at the beginning of the ,cenomanian epoch1 cannot be disputed4,,dl ,,dl ,monde des ,plantes1 p4 #aig4 ,the leaves described by ,heer1 from the ,middle ,cretaceous of ,greenland1 are those of a poplar 7,p4 primva74 ,those which ,i have described from a corresponding horizon in the ,rocky ,mountains are a ,sterculites 7,s4 vetustula71 probably allied to the mallows1 and an elongated leaf1 ,laurophyllum 7,l4 crassinerve7 7,fig4 #fi71 which may1 however1 have belonged to a willow rather than a laurel4 ,these are certainly older than the ,dakota group of the ,united ,states and the corresponding formations in ,canada4 ,on the eastern side of the ,american continent1 in ,virginia1 the ,potomac series is supposed to be of ,lower ,cretaceous age1 and here ,fontaine1 as already stated1 has found an abundant flora of cycads1 conifers1 and ferns1 with a few angiospermous leaves1 which have not yet been described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,stercalia and ,laurophyllum or ,salix1 the oldest ,angiosperms ,known in the ,cretaceous of ,canada4 ,in the ,canadian ,rocky ,mountains1 a few hundreds of feet above the beds holding the beforementioned species1 are the shales of the ,mill ,creek series1 rich in many species of dicotyledonous leaves1 and corresponding in age with the ,dakota group1 whose fossils have been so well described1 first by ,heer and ,capellini1 and afterward by ,lesquereux4 ,we may take this ,dakota group and the quader-sand stone of ,germany as types of the plant-bearing ,cenomanian1 and may notice the forms occurring in them4 ,in the first place1 we recognise here the successors of our old friends1 the ferns and the pines1 the latter represented by such genera as ,taxites1 ,sequoia1 ,glyptostrobus1 ,gingko1 and even ,pinus itself4 ,we also have a few cycads1 but not so dominant as in the previous ages4 ,the fan-palms are well represented1 both in ,america and in the corresponding series in ,europe1 especially by the genus ,sabal1 which is the characteristic ,american type of fan-palm1 and there is one genus which ,saporta regards as intermediate between the fan-palms and the pinnately leaved species4 ,there are also many fragments of stems and leaves of carices and grasses1 so that these plants1 now so important to the nourishment of man and his companion animals1 were already represented4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,vegetation of ,later ,cretaceous4 ,exogens and palms4 7,after ,saporta47 ,but the great feature of the time was its dicotyledonous forests1 and ,i have only to enumerate the genera supposed to be represented in order to show the richness of the time in plants of this type4 ,it may be necessary to explain here that the generic names used are mostly based on leaves1 and consequently cannot be held as being absolutely certain1 since we know that at present one genus may have considerable variety in its leaves1 and1 on the other hand1 that plants of different genera may be very much alike in their foliage4 ,there is1 however1 undoubtedly a likeness in plan or type of structure in leaves of closely allied plants1 and1 therefore1 if judiciously studied1 they can be determined with at least approximate certainty4,,dm ,more especially we can attain to much certainty when the fruits as well as the leaves are found1 and when we can obtain specimens of the wood1 showing its structure4 ,such corroboration is not wanting1 though unfortunately the leaves of trees are generally found drifted away from the other organs once connected with them4 ,in my own experience1 however1 ,i have often found determinations of the leaves of trees confirmed by the discovery of their fruits or of the structure of their stems4 ,thus1 in the rich cretaceous plant-beds of the ,dunvegan series we have beech-nuts associated in the same beds with leaves referred to ,fagus4 ,in the ,laramie beds ,i determined many years ago nuts of the ,trapa or water-chestnut1 and subsequently ,lesquereux found1 in beds in the ,united ,states1 leaves which he referred to the same genus4 ,later1 ,i found in collections made on the ,red ,deer ,river of ,canada my fruits and ,lesquereux's leaves on the same slab4 ,the presence of trees of the genera ,carya and ,juglans in the same formation was inferred from their leaves1 and specimens have since been obtained of silicified wood1 with the microscopic structure of the modern butternut4 ,still we are willing to admit that determinations from leaves alone are liable to doubt4 ,,dm ,great allowance has to be made for the variability of leaves of the same species4 ,the modern hazel 7,c4 rostrata7 is a case in point4 ,its leaves1 from different parts of the same plant1 are so dissimilar in form and size that they might readily be regarded as of different species4 ,in the matter of names of fossil leaves1 ,i sympathise very strongly with ,dr4 ,nathorst1 of ,stockholm1 in his objection to the use of modern generic names for mere leaves1 and would be quite content to adopt some non-committal termination1 as that of phyllum or ites suggested by him4 ,i feel1 however1 that almost as much is taken for granted if a plant is called ,corylophyllum or ,corylites1 as if called ,corylus4 ,in either case a judgment is expressed as to its affinities1 which if wrong under the one term is wrong under the other2 and after so much has been done by so many eminent botanists1 it seems inexpedient to change the whole nomenclature for so small and questionable an advantage4 ,i wish it1 however1 to be distinctly understood that plants catalogued on the evidence of leaves alone are for the most part referred to certain genera on grounds necessarily imperfect1 and their names are therefore subject to correction1 as new facts may be obtained4 ,the more noteworthy modern genera included in the ,dakota flora1 as catalogued by ,lesquereux1 are the following3 ,liquidambar1 the sweet-gum1 is represented both in ,america and ,europe1 the leaves resembling those of the modern species1 but with entire edges1 which seems to be a common peculiarity of ,cretaceous foliage4,,dn ,populus 7poplar71 as already stated1 appears very early in ,greenland1 and continues with increasing number of species throughout the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary4 ,salix 7willow7 appears only a little later and continues4 ,of the family ,cupulifer we have ,fagus 7beech71 ,quercus 7oak71 and ,castanea 7chestnut71 which appear together in the ,dakota group and its equivalents4 ,fruits of some of the species are known1 and also wood showing structure4 ,betula 7birch7 is represented by a few species1 and specimens of its peculiar bark are also common4 ,alnus 7alder7 appears in one species at least4 ,the genus ,plat anus 7,fig4 #ga71 that of the plane-trees1 represented at present by one ,european and one ,american species1 has several species in the ,cretaceous1 though the plane-trees seem to culminate in the early part of the succeeding ,eocene1 where there are several species with immense leaves4 ,the large leaves1 known as ,credneria1 found in the ,cenomanian of ,europe1 and those called ,protophyllum 7,fig4 #gb7 in ,america1 appear to be nearer to the plane-trees than to any others1 though representing an extinct type4 ,the laurels are represented in this age1 and the ,american genus ,sassafras1 which has now only one species1 has not one merely but several species in the ,cretaceous4 ,diospyros1 the persimmon-tree1 was also a ,cretaceous genus4 ,,dn ,with reference to this1 something may be learned from the leaves of modern trees4 ,in these1 young shoots have leaves often less toothed and serrated than those of the adult tree4 ,a remarkable instance is the ,populus grandidentatus of ,america1 the young shoots of which have entire leaves1 quite unlike except in venation those of the parent tree1 and having an aspect very similar to that of the ,cretaceous poplars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,platanus nobilis1 ,newberry1 variety basilobata4 ,laramie4 ,much reduced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,protophyllum boreale1 ,dawson1 reduced4 ,upper ,cretaceous1 ,canada4 ,the single species of the beautiful ,liriodendron1 or tulip-tree1 is a remnant of a genus which had several ,cretaceous species 7,figs4 #gd1 #ge74 ,the magnolias1 still well represented in the ,american flora1 were equally plentiful in the ,cretaceous 7,fig4 #gc74 ,the walnut family were well represented by species of ,juglans 7butternut7 and ,carya1 or hickory4 ,in all1 no less than forty-eight genera are present belonging to at least twenty-five families1 running through the whole range of the dicotyledonous exogens4 ,this is a remarkable result1 indicating a sudden profusion of forms of these plants of a very striking character4 ,it is further to be observed that some of the genera have many species in the ,cretaceous and dwindle toward the modern4 ,in others the reverse is the case--they have expanded in modern times4 ,in a number there seems to have been little change4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4--,magnolia magnifica1 ,dawson1 reduced4 ,upper ,cretaceous1 ,canada4 ,dr4 ,newberry has given1 in the ,bulletin of the ,torrey ,botanical ,club an interesting rsum of the history of the beautiful ,liriodendron1 or tulip-tree1 which may be taken as an example of a genus which has gone down in importance in the course of its geological history4 ,the genus ,liriodendron1 as all botanists know1 is represented in the present flora by a single species1 'the tulip-tree' which is confined to eastern ,america1 but grows over all the area lying between the ,lakes and the ,gulf1 the ,mississippi and the ,atlantic4 ,it is a magnificent tree1 on the whole1 the finest in our forests4 ,its cylindrical trunk1 sometimes ten feet in diameter1 carries it beyond all its associates in size1 while the beauty of its glossy1 lyre-shaped leaves and tulip-like flowers is only surpassed by the flowers and foliage of its first cousin1 ,magnolia grandiflora4 ,that a plant so splendid should stand quite alone in the vegetation of the present day excited the wonder of the earlier botanists1 but the sassafras1 the sweet-gum1 and the great ,sequoias of the far ,west afford similar examples of isolation1 and the latter are still more striking illustrations of solitary grandeur4 7,figs4 #gd and #ge47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,liriodendron ,meekii1 ,heer4 7,after ,lesquereux47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,liriodendron primvum1 ,newberry4 7,after ,newberry47 ,three species of ,liriodendron are indicated by leaves found in the ,amboy clays--,middle ,cretaceous--of ,new ,jersey1 and others have been obtained from the ,dakota group in the ,west1 and from the ,upper ,cretaceous strata of ,greenland4 ,though differing considerably among themselves in size and form1 all these have the deep sinus of the upper extremity so characteristic of the genus1 and the nervation is also essentially the same4 ,hence1 we must conclude that the genus ,liriodendron1 now represented by a single species1 was in the ,cretaceous age much more largely developed1 having many species1 and those scattered throughout many lands4 ,in the ,tertiary age the genus continued to exist1 but the species seem to have been reduced to one1 which is hardly to be distinguished from that now living4 ,in many parts of ,europe leaves of the tulip-tree have been found1 and it extended as far south as ,italy4 ,its presence there was first made known by ,unger1 in his ',synopsis1' page #bcb1 and in his ',genera et ,species1' page #ddc1 where he describes it under the name of ,liriodendron procaccinii4 ,the genus has also been noticed in ,europe by ,massalongo1 ,heer1 and ,ettingshausen1 and three species have been distinguished4 ,all these are1 however1 so much like the living species that they should probably be united with it4 ,we here have a striking illustration of the wide distribution of a species which has retained its characters both of fruit and leaf quite unchanged through long migrations and an enormous lapse of time4 ,in ,europe the tulip-tree1 like many of its ,american associates1 seems to have been destroyed by the cold of the ,ice period1 the ,mediterranean cutting off its retreat1 but in ,america it migrated southward over the southern extension of the continent and returned northward again with the amelioration of the climate4 ,leaves of ,liriodendron have been recognised in the ,cretaceous of ,greenland1 though it is now a tree of the warm temperate region1 and ,lesquereux describes several species from the ,dakota group4 ,but the genus has not yet been recognised in the ,laramie or in the ,upper ,cretaceous of ,british ,columbia4 ,in the paper above quoted1 ,newberry describes three new species from the ,amboy clays1 one of which he considers identical with a ,greenland form referred by ,heer to ,l4 ,meekii of the ,dakota group4 ,thus1 if all ,lesquereux's species are to be accepted1 the genus begins in the ,middle ,cretaceous with at least nine ,american species4 ,in ,new ,jersey the ,amboy clays are referred to the same age with the ,dakota beds of the ,west4 ,in these ,dr4 ,newberry has found a rich flora1 including many angiosperms4 ,the following is condensed from a preliminary notice in the ,bulletin of the ,torrey ,botanical ,club3,,do ,,do ,march1 #ahhf4 ,the flora of the ,amboy clays is closely related to that of the ,dakota group--most of the genera and some of the species being identical--so that we may conclude they were nearly contemporaneous1 though the absence in ,new ,jersey of the ,fort ,benton and ,niobrara groups of the upper ,missouri and the apparent synchronism of the ,new ,jersey marls and the ,pierre group indicate that the ,dakota is a little the older4 ,at least one-third of the species of the ,amboy clays seem to be identical with leaves found in the ,upper ,cretaceous clays of ,greenland and ,aachen 7,aix la ,chapelle71 which not only indicates a chronological parallelism1 but shows a remarkable and unexpected similarity in the vegetation of these widely separated countries in the middle and last half of the ,cretaceous age4 ,the botanical character of the flora of the ,amboy clays will be seen from the following brief synopsis3 ,alg4--,a small and delicate form1 allied to ,chondrites4 ,ferns4--,twelve species1 generally similar and in part identical with those described by ,heer from the ,cretaceous beds of ,greenland1 and referred to the genera ,dicksonia1 ,gleichenia1 and ,aspidium4 ,cycads4--,two species1 probably identical with the forms from ,greenland described by ,heer under the names of ,podozamites marginatus and ,p4 tenuinervis4 ,conifers4--,fourteen species1 belonging to the genera ,moriconia1 ,brachyphyllum1 ,cunninghamites1 ,pinus1 ,sequoia1 and others referred by ,heer to ,juniperus1 ,libocedrus1 ,frenelopsis1 ,thuya1 and ,dammara4 ,of these1 the most abundant and most interesting are ,moriconia cyclotoxon--the most beautiful of conifers--and ,cunninghamites elegans1 both of which occur in the ,cretaceous clays of ,aachen1 ,prussia1 and ,patoot1 ,greenland4 ,the ,brachyphyllum was a large and strong species1 with imbricated cones1 eight inches in length4 ,the angiosperms form about seventy species1 which include three of ,magnolia1 four of ,liriodendron1 three or four of ,salix1 three of ,celastrophyllum 7of which one is identical with a ,greenland species71 one ,celastrus 7also found in ,greenland71 four or five ,aralias1 two ,sassafras1 one ,cinnamomum1 one ,hedera2 with leaves that are apparently identical with those described by ,heer as belonging to ,andromeda1 ,cissites1 ,cornus1 ,dewalquea1 ,diospyros1 ,eucalyptus1 ,ficus1 ,ilex1 ,juglans1 ,laurus1 ,menispermites1 ,myrica1 ,myrsine1 ,prunus1 ,rhamnus1 and others not yet determined4 ,some of the ,aralias had palmately-lobed leaves1 nearly a foot in diameter1 and two of the tulip-trees 7,liriodendron7 had leaves quite as large as those of the living species4 ,one of these had deeply lobed leaves1 like those of the white oak4 ,of the other1 the leaves resembled those of the recent tulip-tree1 but were larger4 ,both had the peculiar emargination and the nervation of ,liriodendron4 ,among the most interesting plants of the collection are fine species of ,bauhinia and ,hymena4 ,of these1 the first is represented by a large number of leaves1 some of which are six or seven inches in diameter4 ,they are deeply bilobed1 and have the peculiar and characteristic form and nervation of the leaves of this genus4 ,bauhinia is a leguminous genus allied to ,cercis1 and now inhabits tropical and warm temperate climates in both hemispheres4 ,only one species occurs in the ,united ,states1 ,bauhinia lunarioides1 ,gray1 found by ,dr4 ,bigelow on the ,rio ,grande4 ,hymena is another of the leguminos1 and inhabits tropical ,america4 ,a species of this genus has been found in the ,upper ,cretaceous of ,france1 but quite different from the one before us1 in which the leaves are much larger1 and the leaflets are united in a common petiole1 which is winged2 this is a modification not found in the living species1 and one which brings it nearer to ,bauhinia4 ,but the most surprising discovery yet made is that of a number of quite large helianthoid flowers1 which ,i have called ,palanthus4 ,these are three to four inches in diameter1 and exhibit a scaly involucre1 enclosing what much resembles a fleshy receptacle with achenia4 ,from the border of this radiate a number of ray florets1 one to two inches in length1 which are persistent and must have been scarious1 like those of ,helichrysum4 ,though these flowers so much resemble those of the composit1 we are not yet warranted in asserting that such is certainly their character4 ,in the ,jurassic rocks of ,europe and ,india some flowers not very unlike these have been found1 which have been named ,williamsonia1 and referred to cycads by ,carruthers4 ,a similar fossil has been found in the ,cretaceous rocks of ,greenland1 and named by ,heer ,williamsonia cretacea1 but he questions the reference of the genus to the ,cycade1 and agrees with ,nathorst in considering all the species of ,williamsonia as parasitic flowers1 allied to ,brugmansia or ,rafflesia4 ,the ,marquis of ,saporta regards them as monocotyledons1 similar to ,pandanus4 ,more specimens of the flowers now exhibited will perhaps prove--what we can now only regard as probable--that the ,composit1 like the ,leguminos1 ,magnoliace1 ,celastrace1 and other highly organised plants1 formed part of the ,cretaceous flora4 ,no composite flowers have before been found in the fossil state1 and1 as these are among the most complex and specialised forms of florescence1 it has been supposed that they belonged only to the recent epoch1 where they were the result of a long series of formative changes4 ,the above presents some interesting new types not heretofore found in the ,middle ,cretaceous4 ,more especially the occurrence of large flowers of the composite type presents a startling illustration of the early appearance of a very elevated and complex form4 ,great interest also attaches to these ,amboy beds1 as serving1 with those of ,aix and ,greenland1 to show that the margins of the ,atlantic were occupied with a flora similar to that occurring at the same time in the interior plateau of ,north ,america and on the ,pacific slope4 ,the beds at ,aix-la-,chapelle are1 however1 probably somewhat newer than the ,dakota or ,amboy beds1 and correspond more nearly in age with those of the ,cretaceous coal-field of ,vancouver ,island1 where there is a very rich ,upper ,cretaceous flora1 which ,i have noticed in detail in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada4,,dp ,in these ,upper ,cretaceous beds there are fan-palms as far north at least as the latitude of #di1 indicating a very mild climate at this period4 ,this inference is corroborated by the ,upper ,cretaceous flora of ,atan and ,patoot in ,greenland1 as described by ,heer4 ,,dp ,vol4 ii41 #ahhd4 ,the dicotyledonous plants above referred to are trees and shrubs4 ,of the herbaceous exogens of the period we know less4 ,obviously their leaves are less likely to find their way into aqueous deposits than the leaves of trees4 ,they are1 besides1 more perishable1 and in densely wooded countries there are comparatively few herbaceous plants4 ,i have examined the beds of mud deposited at the mouth of a woodland streamlet1 and have found them stored with the fallen leaves of trees1 but it was in vain to search for the leaves of herbaceous plants4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4--;,brasenia antiqua4 ,upper ,cretaceous1 ,south ,saskatchewan ,river4 ,natural size1 a1 b1 ,diagrams of venation1 slightly enlarged4 ,the climate of ,north ,america and ,europe1 represented by the ,cenomanian vegetation1 is not tropical but warm temperate2 but the flora was more uniform than at present1 indicating a very equable climate and the possibility of temperate genera existing within the ,arctic circle1 and it would seem to have become warmer toward the close of the period4 ,the flora of the ,cenomanian is separated in most countries from that of the ,senonian1 or uppermost ,cretaceous1 by a marine formation holding few plants4 ,this depends on great movements of elevation and depression1 to which we must refer in the sequel4 ,in a few regions1 however1 as in the vicinity of the ,peace ,river in ,canada1 there are plant-bearing beds which serve to bridge over the interval between the ,early ,cenomanian and the later ,cretaceous4,,dq ,,dq ,see paper by the author in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 #ahhb4 ,to this interval also would seem to belong the ,belly ,river series of western ,canada1 which contains important beds of ,coal1 but is ,closely associated with the marine ,fort ,pierre series4 ,a very curious herbaceous plant of this group1 which ,i have named ,brasenia antiqua1 occurs in the beds associated with one of the coals4 ,it is a close ally of the modern ,b4 peltata1 an aquatic plant which occurs in ,british ,columbia and in eastern ,america1 and is also said to be found in ,japan1 ,australia1 and ,india1 a width of distribution appropriate to so old a type 7,fig4 #gf74 ,in so far as vegetable life is concerned1 the transition from the ,upper ,cretaceous to the ,tertiary or ,kainozoic is easy1 though in many parts of the world1 and more especially in western ,europe1 there is a great gap in the deposits between the upper ,chalk and the lowest ,eocene4 ,with reference to fossil plants1 ,schimper recognises in the ,kainozoic1 beginning with the oldest1 five formations--,palocene1 ,eocene1 ,oligocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene4 ,throughout these a flora1 similar to that of the ,cretaceous on the one hand and the modern on the other1 though with important local peculiarities1 extends4 ,there is evidence1 however1 of a gradual refrigeration1 so that in the ,pliocene the climates of the northern hemisphere were not markedly different from their present character4 ,in the first instance an important error was committed by palobotanists1 in referring to the ,miocene many deposits really belonging to the ,eocene4 ,this arose from the early study of the rich plant-bearing ,miocene beds of ,switzerland1 and from the similarity of the flora all the way from the ,middle ,cretaceous to the later ,tertiary4 ,the differences are now being worked out1 and we owe to ,mr4 ,starkie ,gardner the credit of pointing these out in ,england1 and to the ,geological ,survey of ,canada that of collecting the material for exhibiting them in the more northern part of ,america4 ,in the great interior plain of ,america there rests on the ,cretaceous a series of clays and sandstones with beds of lignite1 some of them eighteen feet in thickness4 ,this was formerly known as the lignitic or lignite ,tertiary1 but more recently as the ,laramie series4 ,these beds were deposited in fresh or brackish water1 in an internal sea or group of lakes and swamps1 when the continent was lower than at present4 ,they have been studied both in the ,united ,states,,dr and ,canada2 and1 though their flora was originally referred by mistake to the ,miocene1 it is now known to be ,eocene or ,palocene1 or even in part a transition group between the latter and the ,cretaceous4 ,the following remarks1 taken chiefly from recent papers by the author1,,ds will serve to illustrate this3 ,,dr ,see more especially the elaborate and valuable reports by ,lesquereux and ,newberry1 and a recent memoir by ,ward on ,types of the ,laramie ,flora1 ,bulletins of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 #ahhg4 ,,ds ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 #ahhf-'hg4 ,on the geological map of ,canada the ,laramie series1 formerly known as the lignitic or lignite ,tertiary1 occurs1 with the exception of a few outliers1 in two large areas west of the #ajjth meridian1 and separated from each other by a tract of older ,cretaceous rocks1 over which the ,laramie beds may have extended1 before the later denudation of the region4 ,the most eastern of these areas1 that of the ,souris ,river and ,wood ,mountain1 extends for some distance along the ,united ,states boundary1 between the #ajb;d and #ajith meridians1 and reaches northward to about thirty miles south of the elbow of the ,south ,saskatchewan ,river1 which is on the parallel of #ea north4 ,in this area the lowest beds of the ,laramie are seen to rest on those of the ,fox ,hill group of the ,upper ,cretaceous1 and at one point on the west they are overlaid by beds of ,miocene ,tertiary age1 observed by ,mr4 ,mc,connell1 of the ,geological ,survey1 in the ,cypress ,hills1 and referred by ,cope1 on the evidence of mammalian remains1 to the ,white ,river division of the ,united ,states geologists1 which is regarded by them as ,lower ,miocene4,,dt ,the age of the ,laramie beds is thus stratigraphically determined to be between the ,fox ,hill ,cretaceous and the ,lower ,miocene4 ,they are also undoubtedly continuous with the ,fort ,union group of the ,united ,states geologists on the other side of the international boundary1 and they contain similar fossil plants4 ,they are divisible into two groups--a lower1 mostly argillaceous1 and to which the name of ,bad ,lands beds may be given1 from the bad lands of ,wood ,mountain1 where they are well exposed1 and an upper1 partly arenaceous member1 which may be named the ,souris ,river or ,porcupine ,creek division4 ,in the lower division are found reptilian remains of ,upper ,cretaceous type1 with some fish remains more nearly akin to those of the ,eocene4,,du ,neither division has as yet afforded mammalian remains4 ,,dt ,report of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 #ahhe4 ,,du ,cope1 in ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson's ,report on the #dith ,parallel4 ,the western area is of still larger dimensions1 and extends along the eastern base of the ,rocky ,mountains from the ,united ,states boundary to about the #eeth parallel of latitude1 and stretches eastward to the #aaath meridian4 ,in this area1 and more especially in its southern part1 the officers of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada have recognised three divisions1 as follows3 7#a7 ,the ,lower ,laramie or ,st4 ,mary ,river series1 corresponding in its character and fossils to the ,lower or ,bad ,lands division of the other area4 7#b7 ,a middle division1 the ,willow ,creek beds1 consisting of clays1 mostly reddish1 and not recognised in the other area4 7#c7 ,the ,upper ,laramie or ,porcupine ,hills division1 corresponding in fossils1 and to some extent in mineral character1 to the ,souris ,river beds of the eastern area4 ,the fossil plants collected by ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson in the eastern area were noticed by the author in an appendix to ,dr4 ,dawson's report on the #dith parallel1 in #ahge1 and a collection subsequently made by ,dr4 ,selwyn was described in the ,report of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada for #ahgi-'hj4 ,those of the western area1 and especially collections made by myself near ,calgary in #ahhc1 and by officers of the ,geological ,survey in #ahhd1 have been described in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada vols4 iii4 and iv4 ,in studying these fossil plants1 ,i have found that there is a close correspondence between those of the ,lower and ,upper ,laramie in the two areas above referred to respectively1 and that the flora of the ,lower ,laramie is somewhat distinct from that of the ,upper1 the former being especially rich in certain aquatic plants1 and the latter much more copious on the whole1 and much more rich in remains of forest-trees4 ,this is1 however1 possibly an effect rather of local conditions than of any considerable change in the flora1 since some ,upper ,laramie forms recur as low as the ,belly ,river series of the ,cretaceous1 which is believed on stratigraphical grounds to be considerably older than the ,lower ,laramie4 ,with reference to the correlation of these beds with those of the ,united ,states1 some difficulty has arisen from the tendency of palobotanists to refer the plants of the ,upper ,laramie to the ,miocene age1 although in the reports of ,mr4 ,clarence ,king1 the late director of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 these beds are classed1 on the evidence of stratigraphy and animal fossils1 as ,upper ,cretaceous4 ,more recently1 however1 and partly perhaps in consequence of the views maintained by the writer since #ahge1 some change of opinion has occurred1 and ,dr4 ,newberry and ,mr4 ,lesquereux seem now inclined to admit that what in ,canada we recognise as ,upper ,laramie is really ,eocene1 and the ,lower ,laramie either ,cretaceous or a transition group between this and the ,eocene4 ,in a recent paper ,,dv ,dr4 ,newberry gives a comparative table1 in which he correlates the ,lower ,laramie with the ,upper ,cretaceous of ,vancouver ,island and the ,faxoe and ,maestricht beds of ,europe1 while he regards the ,upper ,laramie as equivalent to ,european ,eocene4 ,except in so far as the equivalence of the ,lower ,laramie and ,vancouver ,island beds is concerned1 this corresponds very nearly with the conclusions of the writer in a paper published last year,,dw--namely1 that we must either regard the ,laramie as a transition ,cretaceo-,eocene group1 or must institute our line of separation in the ,willow ,creek or ,middle ,laramie division1 which has1 however1 as yet afforded no fossil plants4 ,i doubt1 however1 the equivalence of the ,vancouver beds and the ,lower ,laramie1 except perhaps in so far as the upper member of the former is concerned4 ,i have also to observe that in the latest report of ,mr4 ,lesquereux he still seems to retain in the ,miocene certain formations in the ,west1 which from their fossil plants ,i should be inclined to regard as ,eocene4,,dx ,,dv ,newberry1 ,transactions of the ,new ,fork ,academy1 ,february1 #ahhf4 ,,dw ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 vol4 ii4 ,,dx ,while these sheets were going through the press ,i received a very valuable report of ,mr4 ,lester ,f4 ,ward upon the ,laramie of the ,united ,states4 ,i have merely had time to glance at this report1 but can see that the views of the author agree closely with those above expressed4 ,two ferns occurring in these beds are remarkable as evidence of the persistence of species1 and of the peculiarities of their ancient and modern distribution4 ,onoclea sensibilis1 the very common sensitive fern of eastern ,america1 is extremely abundant in the ,laramie beds over a great area in the ,west4 ,mr4 ,starkie ,gardner and ,dr4 ,newberry have also shown that it is identical with the ,filicites ,hebridicus of ,forbes1 from the early ,eocene beds of the ,island of ,mull1 in ,scotland4 ,thus we have a species once common to ,europe and ,america1 but now restricted to the latter1 and which has continued to exist over all the vast ages between the ,cretaceous and the present day4 ,in the ,laramie beds ,i have found associated with this species another and more delicate fern1 the modern ,davallia 7,stenloma7 tenuifolia1 but this1 unlike its companion1 no longer occurs in ,america1 but is found in the mountains of ,asia4 ,this is a curious illustration of the fact that frail and delicate plants may be more ancient than the mountains or plains on which they live4 ,there are also some very interesting and curious facts in connection with the conifers of the ,laramie4 ,one of the most common of these is a ,thuja or arbor vit 7the so-called cedar of ,canada74 ,the ,laramie species has been named ,t4 interrupta by ,newberry1 but it approaches very closely in its foliage to ,t4 occidentalis1 of eastern ,canada1 while its fruit resembles that of the western species1 ,t4 gigantea4 ,still more remarkable are the ,sequoias to which we have already referred1 but which in the ,laramie age seem to have been spread over nearly all ,north ,america4 ,the fossil species are of two types1 representing respectively the modern ,s4 gigantea and ,s4 sempervirens1 and their wood1 as well as that of ,thuja1 is found in great abundance in the lignites1 and also in the form of silicified trunks1 and corresponds with that of the recent species4 ,the ,laramie contains also conifers of the genera ,glyptostrobus1 ,taxodium1 and ,taxus2 and the genus ,salisburia or gingko--so characteristic of the ,jurassic and ,cretaceous--is still represented in ,america as well as in ,europe in the early ,eocene4 ,we have no palms in the ,canadian or ,scottish ,palocene1 though ,i believe they are found further south4 ,the dicotyledonous trees are richly represented4 ,perhaps the most conspicuous were three species of ,platanus1 the leaves of which sometimes fill the sandstones1 and one of which1 ,p4 nobilis1 ,newberry1 sometimes attains the gigantic size of a foot or more in diameter of its blade4 ,the hazels are represented by a large-leaved species1 ,c4 ,macquarrii1 and by leaves not distinguishable from those of the modern ,american species1 ,c4 ,americana and ,c4 rostrata4 ,there are also chestnuts and oaks4 ,but the poplars and willows are specially abundant1 being represented by no less than six species1 and it would seem that all the modern types of poplar1 as indicated by the forms and venation of the leaves1 existed already in the ,laramie1 and most of them even in the ,upper ,cretaceous4 ,sassafras is represented by two species1 and the beautiful group of ,viburnum11 to which the modern tree-cranberry belongs1 has several fine species1 of some of which both leaves and berries have been found4 ,the hickories and butternuts are also present1 the horse-chestnut1 the ,catalpa and ,sapindus1 and some curious leaves which seem to indicate the presence of the modern genus ,symphorocarpus1 the snow-berry tribe4 ,the above may suffice to give an idea of the flora of the older ,eocene in ,north ,america1 and ,i may refer for details to the works of ,newberry1 ,lesquereux1 and ,ward1 already cited4 ,i must now add that the so-called ,miocene of ,atanekerdluk1 ,greenland1 is really of the same age1 as also the ,miocene of ,mull1 in ,scotland1 of ,antrim1 in ,ireland1 and of ,bovey ,tracey1 in the south of ,england1 and the ,gelinden1 or ,heersian beds1 of ,belgium1 described by ,saporta4 ,in comparing the ,american specimens with the descriptions given by ,gardner of the leaf-beds at ,ardtown1 in ,mull1 we find1 as already stated1 ,onoclea sensibilis1 common to both4 ,the species of ,sequoia1 ,gingko1 ,taxus1 and ,glyptostrobus are also identical or closely allied1 and so are many of the dicotyledonous leaves4 ,for example1 ,platanoides ,hebridicus is very near to ,p4 nobilis1 and ,corylus ,macquarrii is common to both formations1 as well as ,populus ,arctica and ,p4 ,richardsoni4 ,i may add that ever since #ahge-'gf1 when ,i first studied the ,laramie plants1 ,i have maintained their identity with those of the ,fort ,union group of the ,united ,states1 and of the so-called ,miocene of ,mc,kenzie ,river and ,greenland1 and that the whole are ,paleocene2 and this conclusion has now been confirmed by the researches of ,gardner in ,england1 and by the discovery of true ,lower ,miocene beds in the ,canadian northwest1 overlying the ,laramie or lignite series4 ,in a bulletin of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey 7#ahhf71 ,dr4 ,white has established in the ,west the continuous stratigraphical succession of the ,laramie and the ,wahsatch ,eocene1 thus placing the ,laramie conformably below the ,lower ,eocene of that region4 ,cope has also described as the ,puerta group a series of beds holding vertebrate fossils1 and forming a transition from the ,laramie to the ,wahsatch4 ,white also testifies that a number of fresh-water mollusks are common to the ,wahsatch and the ,laramie4 ,this finally settles the position of the ,laramie so far as the ,united ,states geologists are concerned1 and shows that the flora is to be regarded as ,eocene if not ,upper ,cretaceous1 in harmony with what has been all along maintained in ,canada4 ,an important rsum of the flora has just been issued by ,ward in the bulletins of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey 7#ahhg74 ,before leaving this part of the subject1 ,i would deprecate the remark1 which ,i see occasionally made1 that fossil plants are of little value in determining geological horizons in the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary4 ,i admit that in these periods some allowance must be made for local differences of station1 and also that there is a generic sameness in the flora of the northern hemisphere1 from the ,cenomanian to the modern1 yet these local differences and general similarity are not of a nature to invalidate inferences as to age4 ,no doubt1 so long as palobotanists seemed obliged1 in deference to authority1 and to the results of investigations limited to a few ,european localities1 to group together1 without distinction1 all the floras of the later ,cretaceous and earlier ,tertiary1 irrespective of stratigraphical considerations1 the subject lost its geological importance4 ,but1 when a good series has been obtained in any one region of some extent1 the case becomes different4 ,though there is still much imperfection in our knowledge of the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary floras of ,canada1 ,i think the work already done is sufficient to enable any competent observer to distinguish by their fossil plants the ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,cretaceous1 and the latter from the ,tertiary2 and1 with the aid of the work already done by ,lesquereux and ,newberry in the ,united ,states1 to refer approximately to its true geological position any group of plants from beds of unknown age in the ,west4 ,an important consequence arising from the above statements is that the period of warm climate which enabled a temperate flora to exist in ,greenland was that of the later ,cretaceous and early ,eocene rather than1 as usually stated1 the ,miocene4 ,it is also a question admitting of discussion whether the ,eocene flora of latitudes so different as those of ,greenland1 ,mackenzie ,river1 northwest ,canada1 and the ,united ,states1 were strictly contemporaneous1 or successive within a long geological period in which climatal changes were gradually proceeding4 ,the latter statement must apply at least to the beginning and close of the period2 but the plants themselves have something to say in favour of contemporaneity4 ,the flora of the ,laramie is not a tropical but a temperate flora1 showing no doubt that a much more equable climate prevailed in the more northern parts of ,america than at present4 ,but this equability of climate implies the possibility of a great geographical range on the part of plants4 ,thus it is quite possible and indeed highly probable that in the ,laramie age a somewhat uniform flora extended from the ,arctic seas through the great central plateau of ,america far to the south1 and in like manner along the western coast of ,europe4 ,it is also to be observed that1 as ,gardner points out1 there are some differences indicating a diversity of climate between ,greenland and ,england1 and even between ,scotland and ,ireland and the south of ,england1 and we have similar differences1 though not strongly-marked1 between the ,laramie of northern ,canada and that of the ,united ,states4 ,when all our beds of this age from the ,arctic sea to the #dith parallel have been ransacked for plants1 and when the palobotanists of the ,united ,states shall have succeeded in unravelling the confusion which now exists between their ,laramie and the ,middle ,tertiary1 the geologist of the future will be able to restore with much certainty the distribution of the vast forests which in the early ,eocene covered the now bare plains of interior ,america4 ,further1 since the break which in western ,europe separates the flora of the ,cretaceous from that of the ,eocene does not exist in ,america1 it will then be possible to trace the succession from the ,mesozoic flora of the ,trias and of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands and ,kootanie series of the ,lower ,cretaceous up to the close of the ,eocene2 and to determine1 for ,america at least1 the manner and conditions under which the angiospermous flora of the later ,cretaceous succeeded to the pines and cycads which characterised the beginning of the ,cretaceous period4 ,in so far as ,europe is concerned1 this may be more difficult1 since the want of continuity of land from north to south seems there to have been fatal to the continuance of some plants during changes of climate1 and there were also apparently in the ,kainozoic period invasions at certain times of species from the south and east1 which did not occur to the same extent in ,america4 ,in recent reports on the ,tertiary floras of ,australia and ,new ,zealand1,,dy ,ettingshausen holds that the flora of the ,tertiary1 as a whole1 was of a generalised character2 forms now confined to the southern and northern hemispheres respectively being then common to both4 ,it would thus seem that the present geographical diversities must have largely arisen from the great changes in climate and distribution of land and water in the later ,tertiary4 ,,dy ,geological ,magazine1 ,august1 #ahhg4 ,the length of our discussion of the early angiospermous flora does not permit us to trace it in detail through the ,miocene and ,pliocene1 but we may notice the connection through these in the next chapter1 and may refer to the magnificent publications of ,heer and ,lesquereux on the ,tertiary floras of ,europe and ,america respectively4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,plants ,,from ,,the ,,tertiary ,,to ,,the ,,modern ,,period4 ,it may be well to begin this chapter with a sketch of the general physical and geological conditions of the period which was characterised by the advent and culmination of the dicotyledonous trees4 ,in the ,jurassic and earliest ,cretaceous periods the prevalence1 over the whole of the northern hemisphere and for a long time1 of a monotonous assemblage of gymnospermous and acrogenous plants1 implies a uniform and mild climate1 and facility for intercommunication in the north4 ,toward the end of the ,jurassic and beginning of the ,cretaceous1 the land of the northern hemisphere was assuming greater dimensions1 and the climate probably becoming a little less uniform4 ,before the close of the ,lower ,cretaceous period the dicotyledonous flora seems to have been introduced1 under geographical conditions which permitted a warm temperate climate to extend as far north as ,greenland4 ,in the ,cenomanian or ,middle ,cretaceous age we find the northern hemisphere tenanted with dicotyledonous trees closely allied to those of modern times1 though still indicating a climate much warmer than that which at present prevails4 ,in this age1 extensive but gradual submergence of land is indicated by the prevalence of chalk and marine limestones over the surface of both continents2 but a circumpolar belt seems to have been maintained1 protecting the ,atlantic and ,pacific basins from floating ice1 and permitting a temperate flora of great richness to prevail far to the north1 and especially along the southern margins and extensions of the circumpolar land4 ,these seem to have been the physical conditions which terminated the existence of the old ,mesozoic flora and introduced that of the ,middle ,cretaceous4 ,as time advanced the quantity of land gradually increased1 and the extension of new plains along the older ridges of land was coincident with the deposition of the great ,laramie series1 and with the origination of its peculiar flora1 which indicates a mild climate and considerable variety of station in mountain1 plain1 and swamp1 as well as in great sheets of shallow and weedy fresh water4 ,in the ,eocene and ,miocene periods1 the continents gradually assumed their present form1 and the vegetation became still more modern in aspect4 ,in that period of the ,eocene1 however1 in which the great nummulitic limestones were deposited1 a submergence of land occurred on the eastern continent which must have assimilated its physical conditions to those of the ,middle ,cretaceous4 ,this great change1 affecting materially the flora of ,europe1 was not equally great in ,america1 which also by the north and south extension of its mountain-chains permitted movements of migration not possible in the ,old ,world4 ,from the ,eocene downward1 the remains of land-animals and plants are found chiefly in lake-basins occupying the existing depressions of the land1 though more extensive than those now remaining4 ,it must also be borne in mind that the great foldings and fractures of the crust of the earth which occurred at the close of the ,eocene1 and to which the final elevation of such ranges as the ,alps and the ,rocky ,mountains belongs1 permanently modified and moulded the forms of the continents4 ,these statements raise1 however1 questions as to the precise equivalence in time of similar floras found in different latitudes4 ,however equable the climate1 there must have been some appreciable difference in proceeding from north to south4 ,if1 therefore1 as seems in every way probable1 the new species of plants originated on the ,arctic land and spread themselves southward1 this latter process would occur most naturally in times of gradual refrigeration or of the access of a more extreme climate--that is1 in times of the elevation of land in the temperate latitudes1 or1 conversely1 of local depression of land in the ,arctic1 leading to invasions of northern ice4 ,hence1 the times of the prevalence of particular types of plants in the far north would precede those of their extension to the south1 and a flora found fossil in ,greenland might be supposed to be somewhat older than a similar flora when found farther south4 ,it would seem1 however1 that the time required for the extension of a new flora to its extreme geographical limit is so small1 in comparison with the duration of an entire geological period1 that1 practically1 this difference is of little moment1 or at least does not amount to antedating the ,arctic flora of a particular type by a whole period1 but only by a fraction of such period4 ,it does not appear that1 during the whole of the ,cretaceous and ,eocene periods1 there is any evidence of such refrigeration as seriously to interfere with the flora1 but perhaps the times of most considerable warmth are those of the ,dunvegan group in the ,middle ,cretaceous1 and those of the later ,laramie and oldest ,eocene4 ,it would appear that no cause for the mild temperature of the ,cretaceous needs to be invoked1 other than those mutations of land and water which the geological deposits themselves indicate4 ,a condition1 for example1 of the ,atlantic basin in which the high land of ,greenland should be reduced in elevation1 and at the same time the northern inlets of the ,atlantic closed against the invasion of ,arctic ice1 would at once restore climatic conditions allowing of the growth of a temperate flora in ,greenland4 ,as ,dr4 ,brown has shown1,,dz and as ,i have elsewhere argued1 the absence of light in the ,arctic winter is no disadvantage1 since1 during the winter1 the growth of deciduous trees is in any case suspended2 while the constant continuance of light in the summer is1 on the contrary1 a very great stimulus and advantage4 ,,dz ,florula ,discoana4 ,it is a remarkable phenomenon in the history of genera of plants in the later ,mesozoic and ,tertiary1 that the older genera appear at once in a great number of specific types1 which become reduced as well as limited in range down to the modern4 ,this is1 no doubt1 connected with the greater differentiation of local conditions in the modern2 but it indicates also a law of rapid multiplication of species in the early life of genera4 ,the distribution of the species of ,salisburia1 ,sequoia1 ,platanus1 ,sassafras1 ,liriodendron1 ,magnolia1 and many other genera1 affords remarkable proofs of this4 ,gray1 ,saporta1 ,heer1 ,newberry1 ,lesquereux1 and ,starkie ,gardner have all ably discussed these points2 but the continual increase of our knowledge of the several floras1 and the removal of error as to the dates of their appearance1 must greatly conduce to clearer and more definite ideas4 ,in particular1 the prevailing opinion that the ,miocene was the period of the greatest extension of warmth and of a temperate flora into the ,arctic1 must be abandoned in favour of the later ,cretaceous and ,eocene2 and1 if ,i mistake not1 this will be found to accord better with the evidence of general geology and of animal fossils4 ,in these various revolutions of the later ,cretaceous and ,kainozoic periods1 ,america1 as ,dr4 ,gray has well pointed out1 has had the advantage of a continuous stretch of high land from north to south1 affording a more sure refuge to plants in times of submergence1 and means of escape to the south in times of refrigeration4 ,hence1 the greater continuity of ,american vegetation and the survival of genera like ,sequoia and ,liriodendron1 which have perished in the ,old ,world4 ,still1 there are some exceptions to this1 for the gingko-tree is a case of survival in ,asia of a type once plentiful in ,america1 but now extinct there4 ,eastern ,asia has had1 however1 some considerable share of the same advantage possessed by ,america1 with the addition1 referred to by ,gray1 of a better and more insular climate4 ,but our survey of these physical conditions can not be considered complete till we shall have considered the great ,glacial age of the ,pleistocene4 ,it is certain that throughout the later ,miocene and ,pliocene the area of land in the northern hemisphere was increasing1 and the large and varied continents were tenanted by the noblest vegetation and the grandest forms of mammalian life that the earth has ever witnessed4 ,as the ,pliocene drew to a close1 a gradual diminution of warmth came on1 and more especially a less equable climate1 and this was accompanied with a subsidence of the land in the temperate regions and with changes of the warm ocean-currents4 ,thus gradually the summers became cooler and the winters longer and more severe1 the hill-tops became covered with permanent snows1 glaciers ploughed their way downward into the plains1 and masses and fields of floating ice cooled the seas4 ,in these circumstances the richer and more delicate forms of vegetation must have been chilled to death or obliged to remove farther south1 and in many extensive regions1 hemmed in by the advance of the sea on the one hand and land-ice on the other1 they must have altogether perished4 ,yet even in this time vegetation was not altogether extinct4 ,along the ,gulf of ,mexico in ,america1 and in the ,mediterranean basin in ,europe1 there were still some remains of a moderate climate and certain boreal and arctic forms moving southward continued to exist here and there in somewhat high latitudes1 just as similar plants now thrive in ,grinnell ,land within sight of the snows of the ,greenland mountains4 ,a remarkable summary of some of these facts as they relate to ,england was given by an eminent ,english botanist1 ,mr4 ,carruthers1 in his address as ,president of the ,biological ,section of the ,british ,association at ,birmingham in #ahhf4 ,at ,cromer1 on the coast of ,norfolk1 the celebrated forest-bed of newer ,pliocene age1 and containing the remains of a copious mammalian fauna1 holds also remains of plants in a state admitting of determination4 ,these have been collected by ,mr4 ,reid1 of the ,geological ,survey1 and were reported on by ,carruthers1 who states that they represent a somewhat colder temperature than that of the present day4 ,i quote the following details from the address4 ,with reference to the plants of the forest-bed or newer ,pliocene he remarks as follows3 ,only one species 7,trapa natans1 ,willd47 has disappeared from our islands4 ,its fruits1 which ,mr4 ,reid found abundantly in one locality1 agree with those of the plants found until recently in the lakes of ,sweden4 ,four species 7,prunus speciosa1 ,l41 ,,oenanthe ,tichenalii1 ,sm41 ,potamogeton pterophyllus1 ,sch41 and ,pinus abies1 ,l47 are found at present only in ,europe1 and a fifth 7,potamogeton trichoides1 ,cham47 extends also to ,north ,america2 two species 7,peucedanum palustre1 ,moench1 and ,pinus sylvestris1 ,l47 are found also in ,siberia1 while six more 7,sanguisorba officinalis1 ,l41 ,rubus fruticosus1 ,l41 #e ,cornus sanguinea1 ,l41 ,euphorbia amygdaloides1 ,l41 ,quercus robur1 ,l41 and ,potamogeton crispus1 ,l47 extend into western ,asia1 and two 7,fagus sylvatica1 ,l41 and ,alnus glutinosa1 ,l47 are included in the ,japanese flora4 ,seven species1 while found with the others1 enter also into the ,mediterranean flora1 extending to ,north ,africa3 these are ,thalictrum minus1 ,l41 ,thalictrum flavum1 ,l41 ,ranunculus repens1 ,l41 ,stellaria aquatica1 ,scop41 ,corylus avellana1 ,l41 ,yannichellia palustris1 ,l41 and ,cladium mariscus1 ,br4 ,with a similar distribution in the ,old ,world1 eight species 7,bidens tripartita1 ,l41 ,myosotis cspitosa1 ,schultz1 ,suda maritima1 ,dum41 ,ceratophyllum demersum11 ,l41 ,sparganium ramosum1 ,huds41 ,potamogeton pectinatus1 ,l41 ,carex paludosa1 ,good41 and ,osmunda regalis1 ,l47 are found also in ,north ,america4 ,of the remainder1 ten species 7,nuphar luteum1 ,sm41 ,menyanthes trifoliata1 ,l41 ,stachys palustris1 ,l41 ,rumex maritimus1 ,l41 ,rumex acetosella1 ,l41 ,betula alba1 ,l41 ,scirpus pauciflorus1 ,lightf41 ,taxus baccata1 ,l41 and ,isoetes lacustris1 ,l47 extend round the north temperate zone1 while three 7,lycopus europus1 ,l41 ,alisma plantago1 ,l41 and ,phragmites communis1 ,trim71 having the same distribution in the north1 are found also in ,australia1 and one 7,hippuris vulgaris1 ,l47 in the south of ,south ,america4 ,the list is completed by ,ranunculus aquatilis1 ,l41 distributed over all the temperate regions of the globe1 and ,scirpus lacustris1 ,l41 which is found in many tropical regions as well4 ,he remarks that these plants1 while including species now very widely scattered1 present no appreciable change of characters4 ,above this bed are glacial clays1 which hold other species indicating an extremely cold climate4 ,they are few in number1 only ,salix polaris1 a thoroughly arctic species1 and its ally1 ,s4 cinerea1 ,l41 and a moss1 ,hypnum turgescens1 ,schimp41 no longer found in ,britain1 but an ,alpine and arctic species4 ,this bed belongs to the beginning of the ,glacial period1 the deposits of which have as yet afforded no plants in ,england4 ,but plants occur in post-glacial and upper-glacial beds in different parts of ,england1 to which ,carruthers thus refers3 ,the period of great cold1 during which arctic ice extended far into temperate regions1 was not favorable to vegetable life4 ,but in some localities we have stratified clays with plant-remains later than the ,glacial epoch1 yet indicating that the great cold had not then entirely disappeared4 ,in the lacustrine beds at ,holderness is found a small birch 7,betula nana1 ,l471 now limited in ,great ,britain to some of the mountains of ,scotland1 but found in the arctic regions of the ,old and ,new ,world and on ,alpine districts in ,europe1 and with it ,prunus padus1 ,l41 ,quercus robur1 ,l41 ,corylus avellana1 ,l41 ,alnus glutinosa1 ,l41 and ,pinus sylvestris1 ,l4 ,in the white clay-beds at ,bovey ,tracey of the same age there occur the leaves of ,arctostaphylos uva-ursi1 ,l41 three species of willow1 viz41 ,salix cinerea1 ,l41 ,s4 myrtilloides1 ,l41 and ,s4 polaris1 ,wahl41 and in addition to our ,alpine ,betula nana1 ,l41 the more familiar ,b4 alba1 ,l4 ,two of these plants have been lost to our flora from the change of climate that has taken place1 viz41 ,salix myrtilloides1 ,l41 and ,s4 polaris1 ,wahl42 and ,betula nana1 ,l41 has retreated to the mountains of ,scotland4 ,three others 7,dryas octopetala1 ,l41 ,arctostaphylos uva-ursi1 ,l41 and ,salix herbacea1 ,l47 have withdrawn to the mountains of northern ,england1 ,wales1 and ,scotland1 while the remainder are still found scattered over the country4 ,notwithstanding the diverse physical conditions to which these plants have been subjected1 the remains preserved in these beds present no characters by which they can be distinguished from the living representatives of the species4 ,one of the instances referred to is very striking4 ,at ,bovey ,tracey the arctic beds rest directly on those holding the rich1 warm temperate flora of the ,eocene2 so that here we have the evidence of fossil plants to show the change from the climate of the ,eocene to that of arctic lands1 and the modern vegetation to indicate the return of a warm temperature4 ,in ,canada1 in the ,pleistocene beds known as the ,leda clays1 intervening between the lower boulder clay and the ,saxicava sand1 which also holds boulders1 there are beds holding fossil plants1 in some places intermixed with sea-shells and bones of marine fishes1 showing that they were drifted into the sea at a time of submergence4 ,these remains are boreal rather than arctic in character1 and with the remains of drift-wood often found in the boulder deposits serve to indicate that there were at all times oases of hardy life in the glacial deserts1 just as we find these in polar lands at the present day4 ,i condense from a paper on these plants,,ea the following facts1 with a few additional notes3 ,,ea ,canadian ,naturalist1 #ahff4 ,the importance of all information bearing on the temperature of the ,post-pliocene period invests with much interest the study of the land-plants preserved in deposits of this age4 ,unfortunately1 these are few in number1 and often not well preserved4 ,in ,canada1 though fragments of the woody parts of plants occasionally occur in the marine clays and sands1 there is only one locality which has afforded any considerable quantity of remains of their more perishable parts4 ,this is the well-known deposit of ,leda clay at ,green's ,creek1 on the ,ottawa1 celebrated for the perfection in which the skeletons of the capelin and other fishes are preserved in the calcareous nodules imbedded in the clay4 ,in similar nodules1 contained apparently in a layer somewhat lower than that holding the ichthyolites1 remains of land-plants are somewhat abundant1 and1 from their association with shells of ,leda glacialis1 seem to have been washed down from the land into deep water4 ,the circumstances would seem to have been not dissimilar from those at present existing in the northeast arm of ,gasp ,basin1 where ,i have dredged from mud now being deposited in deep water1 living specimens of ,leda limatula1 mixed with remains of land-plants4 ,the following are the species of plants recognised in these nodules3 #a4 ,drosera rotundifolia1 ,linn4 ,in a calcareous nodule from ,green's ,creek1 the leaf only preserved4 ,this plant is common in bogs in ,canada1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,newfoundland1 and thence1 according to ,hooker1 to the ,arctic circle4 ,it is also ,european4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--;,gaylussaccia resinosa4 ,pleistocene1 ,canada4 #b4 ,acer spicatum1 ,lamx4 7,acer montanum1 ,aiton47 ,leaf in a nodule from ,green's ,creek4 ,found in ,nova ,scotia and ,canada1 also at ,lake ,winnipeg1 according to ,richardson4 #c4 ,potentilla ,canadensis1 ,linn4 ,in nodules from ,green's ,creek2 leaves only preserved4 ,i have had some difficulty in determining these1 but believe they must be referred to the species above named1 or to ,p4 simplex1 ,michx41 supposed by ,hooker and ,gray to be a variety4 ,it occurs in ,canada and ,new ,england1 but ,i have no information as to its range northward4 #d4 ,gaylussaccia resinosa1 ,torrey and ,gray4 ,leaf in nodule at ,green's ,creek4 ,abundant in ,new ,england and in ,canada1 also on ,lake ,huron and the ,saskatchewan1 according to ,richardson 7,fig4 #gg74 #e4 ,populus balsamifera1 ,linn4 ,leaves and branches in nodules at ,green's ,creek4 ,this is by much the most common species1 and its leaves are of small size1 as if from trees growing in cold and exposed situations4 ,the species is ,north ,american and ,asiatic1 and abounds in ,new ,england and ,canada4 ,it extends to the ,arctic circle1 and is abundant on the shores of the ,great ,slave ,lake and on the ,mc,kenzie ,river1 and according to ,richardson constitutes much of the drift timber of the ,arctic coast 7,fig4 #gh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4--,populus balsamifera4 ,pleistocene1 ,canada4 #f4 ,thuja occidentalism ,linn4 ,trunks and branches in the ,leda clay at ,montreal4 ,this tree occurs in ,new ,england and ,canada1 and extends northward into the ,hudson ,bay territories4 ,it is a northern though not arctic species in its geographical range4 ,according to ,lyell it occurs associated with the bones of ,mastodon in ,new ,jersey4 ,from the great durability of its wood1 it is one of the trees most likely to be preserved in aqueous deposits4 #g4 ,potamogeton perfoliatus1 ,linn4 ,leaves and seeds in nodules at ,green's ,creek4 ,inhabits streams of the ,northern ,states and ,canada1 and according to ,richardson extends to ,great ,slave ,lake4 #h4 ,potamogeton pusillus4 ,quantities of fragments which ,i refer to this species occur in nodules at ,green's ,creek4 ,they may possibly belong to a variety of ,p4 hybridus which1 together with ,p4 natans1 now grows in the river ,ottawa1 where it flows over the beds containing these fossils4 #i4 ,carice and ,gramine4 ,fragments in nodules from ,green's ,creek appear to belong to plants of these groups1 but ,i cannot venture to determine their species4 #aj4 ,equisetum scirpoides1 ,michx4 ,fragments in nodules1 ,green's ,creek4 ,this is a widely distributed species1 occurring in the ,northern ,states and ,canada4 #aa4 ,fontinalis4 ,in nodules at ,green's ,creek there occur1 somewhat plentifully1 branches of a moss apparently of the genus ,fontinalis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--;,frond of ,fucus4 ,pleistocene1 ,canada4 #ab4 ,alg4 ,with the plants above mentioned1 both at ,green's ,creek and at ,montreal1 there occur remains of sea-weeds 7,fig4 #gi74 ,they seem to belong to the genera ,fucus and ,ulva1 but ,i cannot determine the species4 ,a thick stem in one of the nodules would seem to indicate a large ,laminaria4 ,with the above there are found at ,green's ,creek a number of fragments of leaves1 stems1 and fruits1 which ,i have not been able to refer to their species1 principally on account of their defective state of preservation4 ,none of the plants above mentioned is properly arctic in its distribution1 and the assemblage may be characterised as a selection from the present ,canadian flora of some of the more hardy species having the most northern range4 ,green's ,creek is in the central part of ,canada1 near to the parallel of #df1 and an accidental selection from its present flora1 though it might contain the same species found in the nodules1 would certainly include with these1 or instead of some of them1 more southern forms4 ,more especially the balsam poplar1 though that tree occurs plentifully on the ,ottawa1 would not be so predominant4 ,but such an assemblage of drift-plants might be furnished by any ,american stream flowing in the latitude of #ej to #ee north4 ,if a stream flowing to the north1 it might deposit these plants in still more northern latitudes1 as the ,mc,kenzie ,river does now4 ,if flowing to the south1 it might deposit them to the south of #ej4 ,in the case of the ,ottawa1 the plants could not have been derived from a more southern locality1 nor probably from one very far to the north4 ,we may therefore safely assume that the refrigeration indicated by these plants would place the region bordering the ,ottawa in nearly the same position with that of the south coast of ,labrador fronting on the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence at present4 ,the absence of all the more arctic species occurring in ,labrador should perhaps induce us to infer a somewhat milder climate than this4 ,the moderate amount of refrigeration thus required would in my opinion accord very well with the probable conditions of climate deducible from the circumstances in which the fossil plants in question occur4 ,at the time when they were deposited the sea flowed up the ,ottawa valley to a height of #bjj to #djj feet above its present level1 and the valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence was a wide arm of the sea1 open to the arctic current4 ,under these conditions the immense quantities of drift-ice from the northward1 and the removal of the great heating surface now presented by the low lands of ,canada and ,new ,england1 must have given for the ,ottawa coast of that period a summer temperature very similar to that at present experienced on the ,labrador coast1 and with this conclusion the marine remains of the ,leda clay1 as well as the few land molluscs whose shells have been found in the beds containing the plants1 and which are species still occurring in ,canada1 perfectly coincide4 ,the climate of that portion of ,canada above water at the time when these plants were imbedded may safely be assumed to have been colder in summer than at present1 to an extent equal to about #e of latitude1 and this refrigeration may be assumed to correspond with the requirements of the actual geographical changes implied4 ,in other words1 if ,canada was submerged until the ,ottawa valley was converted into an estuary inhabited by species of ,leda1 and frequented by capelin1 the diminution of the summer heat consequent on such depression would be precisely suitable to the plants occurring in these deposits1 without assuming any other cause of change of climate4 ,i have arranged elsewhere the ,post-pliocene deposits of the central part of ,canada1 as consisting of1 in ascending order3 7#a7 ,the boulder clay2 7#b7 a deep-water deposit1 the ,leda clay2 and 7#c7 a shallow-water deposit1 the ,saxicava sand4 ,but1 although ,i have placed the boulder clay in the lowest position1 it must be observed that ,i do not regard this as a continuous layer of equal age in all places4 ,on the contrary1 though locally1 as at ,montreal1 under the ,leda clay1 it is in other places and at other levels contemporaneous with or newer than that deposit1 which itself also locally contains boulders4 ,at ,green's ,creek the plant-bearing nodules occur in the lower part of the ,leda clay1 which contains a few boulders1 and is apparently in places overlaid by large boulders1 while no distinct boulder clay underlies it4 ,the circumstances which accumulated the thick bed of boulder clay near ,montreal were probably absent in the ,ottawa valley4 ,in any case we must regard the deposits of ,green's ,creek as coeval with the ,leda clay of ,montreal1 and with the period of the greatest abundance of ,leda glacialis1 the most exclusively arctic shell of these deposits4 ,in other words1 ,i regard the plants above mentioned as probably belonging to the period of greatest refrigeration of which we have any evidence1 of course not including that mythical period of universal incasement in ice1 of which1 as ,i have elsewhere endeavoured to show1 in so far as ,canada is concerned1 there is no evidence whatever4,,eb ,,eb ,notes on ,post-,pliocene of ,canada1 ,canadian ,naturalist1 #ahgb4 ,the facts above stated in reference to ,post-pliocene plants concur1 with all the other evidence ,i have been able to obtain1 in the conclusion that the refrigeration of ,canada in the ,post-pliocene period consisted of a diminution of the summer heat1 and was of no greater amount than that fairly attributable to the great depression of the land and the different distribution of the ice-bearing arctic current4 ,in connection with the plants above noticed1 it is interesting to observe that at ,green's ,creek1 at ,pakenham ,mills1 at ,montreal1 and at ,clarenceville on ,lake ,champlain1 species of ,canadian ,pulmonata have been found in deposits of the same age with those containing the plants4 ,the species which have been noticed belong to the genera ,lymnea and ,planorbis4 ,the ,glacial age was1 fortunately1 not of very long duration1 though its length has been much exaggerated by certain schools of geologists1,,ec ,it passed away1 and a returning cosmic spring gladdened the earth1 and was ushered in by a time of great rainfall and consequent denudation and deposit1 which has been styled the ,pluvial ,period ,the remains of the ,pliocene forests then returned--with somewhat diminished numbers of species--from the south and again occupied the land1 though they have not been able1 in their decimated condition1 to restore the exuberance of the flora of the earlier ,tertiary4 ,in point of fact1 as we shall see in the next chapter1 it is the floras originating within the polar circle and coming down from the north that are rich and copious4 ,those that1 after periods of cold or submergence1 return from the south1 are comparatively poor4 ,hence the modern flora is far inferior to that of the ,middle ,kainozoic4 ,in ,america1 however1 and in eastern ,asia1 for reasons already stated1 the return was more abundant than in ,europe4 ,,ec ,this ,i have long maintained on grounds connected with ,pleistocene fossils1 amount of denudation and deposit1 c41 and ,i am glad to see that ,prestwich1 the best ,english authority on such subjects1 has recently announced similar conclusions1 based on independent reasons4 ,simultaneously with the return of the old temperate flora1 the arctic plants that had overspread the land retreated to mountain-tops1 now bared of ice and snow1 and back to the polar lands whence they came2 and so it happens that1 on the ,white ,mountains1 the ,alps1 and the ,himalayas1 we have insular patches of the same groups of plants that exist around the pole4 ,these changes need not have required a very long time1 for the multiplication and migration of plants are very rapid1 especially when aided by the agency of migratory animals4 ,many parts of the land must1 indeed1 have been stocked with plants from various sources1 and by agencies--as that of the sea--which might at first sight seem adverse to their distribution4 ,the ,british ,islands1 for example1 have no indigenous plants4 ,their flora consists mainly of ,germanic plants1 which must have migrated to ,britain in that very late period of the ,post-glacial when the space now occupied by the ,north ,sea was mostly dry land4 ,other portions of it are ,scandinavian plants1 perhaps survivors of the ,glacial age1 or carried by migratory birds2 and still another element consists of ,spanish plants1 brought north by spring migrants1 and establishing themselves in warm and sheltered spots1 just as the arctic plants do on the bleak hill-tops4 ,the ,bermudas1 altogether recent islands1 have one hundred and fifty species of native plants1 all of which are ,west ,indian and ,american1 and must have been introduced by the sea-currents or by migratory birds4 ,and so the earth became fitted for the residence of modern man4 ,yet it is not so good or ,edenic a world as it once was1 or as it may yet become1 were another revolution to restore a mild climate to the arctic regions1 and to send down a new swarm of migratory species to renew the face of the earth and restore it to its pristine fertility of vegetable life4 ,thus closes this long history of the succession of plants1 reaching from the far back ,laurentian to the present day4 ,it has1 no doubt1 many breaks1 and much remains to be discovered4 ,yet it may lead us to some positive conclusions regarding the laws of the introduction of plants4 ,one of these1 and perhaps the most remarkable of all1 is that certain principles were settled very far back1 and have remained ever since4 ,we have seen that in the earliest geological periods all that pertains to the structure1 powers1 and laws of the vegetable cell was already fixed and settled4 ,when we consider how much this implies of mechanical structure and chemical and vital property1 the profound significance of this statement becomes apparent4 ,the relations in these respects between the living cell and the soil1 the atmosphere and the sunshine1 were apparently as perfect in the early ,palozoic as in any subsequent time4 ,the same may be said of the structures of the leaf and of the stem4 ,in such old forms as ,nematophyton these were1 it is true1 peculiar and rudimentary1 but in the ,devonian and ,carboniferous the structure of leaves and stems embodied all the parts and principles that we find at present4 ,in regard to fructification there has been more progress1 for1 so far as we know1 the highest and most complex forms of flowery1 fruits1 and seeds belong to the more recent periods1 and simpler forms were at least dominant in the older times4 ,yet even in this respect the great leading laws and structures of bisexual reproduction were perfected in the early ,palozoic1 and the improvements introduced in the gymnosperm and the angiosperm of later periods have consisted mainly in additions of accessory parts1 and in modifications and refinements suited to the wants of the higher and more complex types4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,general ,,laws ,,of ,,origin ,,and ,,migrations ,,of ,,plants4--,,relations ,,of ,,recent ,,and ,,fossil ,,floras4 ,the origination of the successive floras which have occupied the northern hemisphere in geological time1 not1 as one might at first sight suppose1 in the sunny climes of the south1 but under the arctic skies1 is a fact long known or suspected4 ,it is proved by the occurrence of fossil plants in ,greenland1 in ,spitzbergen1 and in ,grinnell ,land1 under circumstances which show that these were their primal homes4 ,the fact bristles with physical difficulties1 yet is fertile of the most interesting theoretical deductions1 to reach which we may well be content to wade through some intricate questions4 ,though not at all a new fact1 its full significance seems only recently to have dawned on the minds of geologists1 and within the last few years it has produced a number of memoirs and addresses to learned societies1 besides many less formal notices4,,ed ,,ed ,saporta1 ,ancienne ,vgtation ,polaire2 ,hooker1 ,presidential ,address to ,royal ,society1 #ahgh2 ,thistleton ,dyer1 ,lecture on ,plant ,distribution2 ,mr4 ,starkie ,gardner1 ,letters in ',nature1' #ahgh1 c4 ,the basis of most of these brochures is to be found in ,heer's ,flora ,fossilis ,arctica4 ,the earliest suggestion on the subject known to the writer is that of ,prof4 ,asa ,gray1 in #ahfg1 with reference to the probable northern source of the related floras of ,north ,america and eastern ,asia4 ,with the aid of the new facts disclosed by ,heer and ,lesquereux1 ,gray returned to the subject in #ahgb1 and more fully developed this conclusion with reference to the ,tertiary floras1,,ee and he has recently still further discussed these questions in an able lecture on ,forest ,geography and ,archology4,,ef ,in this he puts the case so well and tersely that we may quote the following sentences as a text for what follows3 ,,ee ,address to ,american ,association4 ,,ef ,american ,journal of ,science1 xvi41 #ahah4 ,i can only say1 at large1 that the same species 7of ,tertiary fossil plants7 have been found all round the world2 that the richest and most extensive finds are in ,greenland2 that they comprise most of the sorts which ,i have spoken of1 as ,american trees which once lived in ,europe--magnolias1 sassafras1 hickories1 gum-trees1 our identical southern cypress 7for all we can see of difference71 and especially ,sequoias1 not only the two which obviously answer to the two big-trees now peculiar to ,california1 but several others2 that they equally comprise trees now peculiar to ,japan and ,china1 three kinds of gingko-trees1 for instance1 one of them not evidently distinguishable from the ,japan species which alone survives2 that we have evidence1 not merely of pines and maples1 poplars1 birches1 lindens1 and whatever else characterise the temperate zone forests of our era1 but also of particular species of these1 so like those of our own time and country that we may fairly reckon them as the ancestors of several of ours4 ,long genealogies always deal more or less in conjecture2 but we appear to be within the limits of scientific inference when we announce that our existing temperate trees came from the north1 and within the bounds of nigh probability when we claim not a few of them as the originals of present species4 ,remains of the same plants have been found fossil in our temperate region as well as in ,europe4 ,between #ahfj and #ahgj the writer was engaged in working out all that could be learned of the ,devonian plants of eastern ,america1 the oldest known flora of any richness1 and which consists almost exclusively of gigantic1 and to us grotesque1 representatives of the club-mosses1 ferns1 and mares'-tails1 with some trees allied to the cycads and pines4 ,in this pursuit nearly all the more important localities were visited1 and access was had to the large collections of ,prof4 ,hall and ,prof4 ,newberry1 in ,new ,york and ,ohio1 and to those made in the remarkable plant-bearing beds of ,new ,brunswick by ,messrs4 ,matthew and ,hartt4 ,in the progress of these researches1 which developed an unexpectedly rich assemblage of species1 the northern origin of this old flora seemed to be established by its earlier culmination in the northeast1 in connection with the growth of the ,american land to the southward1 which took place after the great ,upper ,silurian subsidence1 by elevations beginning in the north while those portions of the continent to the southwest still remained under the sea4 ,the same result was indicated by the persistence in the ,carboniferous of the south and west of old ,erian forms1 like ,megalopteris4 ,when1 in #ahgj1 the labours of those ten years were brought before the ,royal ,society of ,london1 in the ,bakerian lecture of that year1 and in a memoir illustrating no less than one hundred and twenty-five species of plants older than the great ,carboniferous system1 these deductions were stated in connection with the conclusions of ,hall1 ,logan1 and ,dana1 as to the distribution of sediment along the northeast side of the ,american continent1 and the anticipation was hazarded that the oldest ,palozoic floras would be discovered to the north of ,newfoundland4 ,mention was also made of the apparent earlier and more copious birth of the ,devonian flora in ,america than in ,europe1 a fact which is itself connected with the greater northward extension of this continent4 ,the memoir containing these results was not published by the ,royal ,society1 but its publication was secured in a less complete form in the reports of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada4 ,the part of the memoir relating to ,canadian fossil plants1 with a portion of the theoretical deductions1 was published in a report issued in #ahga4;,,eg ,in this report the following language was used3 ,,eg ,fossil ,plants of the ,devonian and ,upper ,silurian ,formations of ,canada1 pp4 #ib1 twenty plates1 ,montreal1 #ahga4 ,in eastern ,america1 from the ,carboniferous period onward1 the centre of plant distribution has been the ,appalachian chain4 ,from this the plants and sediments extended westward in times of elevation1 and to this they receded in times of depression4 ,but this centre was nonexistent before the ,devonian period1 and the centre for this must have been to the northeast1 whence the great mass of older ,appalachian sediment was derived4 ,in the ,carboniferous period there was also an eastward distribution from the ,appalachians1 and links of connection in the ,atlantic bed between the floras of ,europe and ,america4 ,in the ,devonian such connection can have been only far to the northeast4 ,it is therefore in ,newfoundland1 ,labrador1 and ,greenland that we are to look for the oldest ,american flora1 and in like manner on the border of the old ,scandinavian nucleus for that of ,europe4 ,again1 it must have been the wide extension of the sea of the corniferous limestone that gave the last blow to the remaining flora of the ,lower ,devonian2 and the re-elevation in the middle of that epoch brought in the ,appalachian ridges as a new centre1 and established a connection with ,europe which introduced the ,upper ,devonian and ,carboniferous floras4 ,lastly1 from the comparative richness of the later ,erian,,eh flora in eastern ,america1 especially in the ,st4 ,john beds1 it might be a fair inference that the northeastern end of the ,appalachian ridge was the original birthplace or centre of creation of what we may call the later ,palozoic flora1 or of a large part of that flora4 ,,eh ,see pages #ajg and #ajh4 ,when my paper was written ,i had not seen the account published by the able ,swiss palobotanist ,heer1 of the remarkable ,devonian flora of ,bear ,island1 near ,spitzbergen4,,ei ,from want of acquaintance with the older floras of ,america and western ,europe1 ,heer fell into the unfortunate error of regarding the whole of ,bear ,island plants as ,lower ,carboniferous1 a mistake which his great authority has tended to perpetuate1 and which has even led to the still graver error of some ,european geologists1 who do not hesitate to regard as ,carboniferous the fossil plants of the ,american deposits from the ,hamilton to the ,chemung groups inclusive1 though these belong to formations underlying the oldest ,carboniferous1 and characterised by animal remains of unquestioned ,devonian age4 ,in #ahgb ,i addressed a note to the ,geological ,society of ,london on the subject of the so-called ,ursa stage of ,heer1 showing that1 though it contained some forms not known at so early a date in temperate ,europe1 it was clearly1 in part at least1 ,devonian when tested by ,north ,american standards2 but that in this high latitude1 in which1 for reasons stated in the report above referred to1 ,i believed the ,devonian plants to have originated1 there might be an intermixture of the two floras4 ,but such a mixed group should in that latitude be referred to a lower horizon than if found in temperate regions4 ,dr4 ,nathorst1 as already stated1 has recently obtained new facts which go to show that plants of two distinct horizons may have been intermixed in the collections submitted to ,heer4 ,,ei ,transactions of the ,swedish ,academy #ahga2 ,journal of the ,london ,geological ,society1 vol4 xxviii4 ,between #ahgj and #ahgc my attention was turned to the two sub-floras intermediate between those of the ,devonian and the coal-formation1 the floras of the ,lower ,carboniferous 7,subcarboniferous of some ,american geologists7 and the ,millstone ,grit1 and in a report upon these,,ej similar deductions were expressed4 ,it was stated that in ,newfoundland the coal-beds seem to belong to the ,millstone ,grit series1 and as we proceed southward they belong to progressively newer portions of the ,carboniferous system4 ,the same fact is observed in the coal-beds of ,scotland1 as compared with those of ,england1 and it indicates that the coal-formation flora1 like that of the ,devonian1 spread itself from the north1 and this accords with the somewhat extensive occurrence of ,lower ,carboniferous rocks and fossils in the ,parry ,islands and elsewhere in the arctic regions4 ,,ej ,fossil ,plants of ,lower ,carboniferous and ,millstone ,grit ,formations of ,canada1 pp4 #dg1 ten plates1 ,montreal1 #ahgc4 ,passing over the comparatively poor flora of the earlier ,mesozoic1 consisting largely of cycads1 pines1 and ferns1 and as yet little known in the arctic1 and which may have originated in the south1 though represented1 according to ,heer1 by the supposed ,jurassic flora of ,siberia1 we find1 especially at ,kom and ,atan in ,greenland1 an interesting occurrence of those earliest precursors of the truly modern forms of plants which appear in the ,cretaceous1 the period of the ,english chalk and of the ,new ,jersey greensands4 ,there are two plant-groups of this age in ,greenland2 one1 that of ,kom1 consists almost entirely of ferns1 cycads1 and pines1 and is of decidedly ,mesozoic aspect4 ,this is called ,lower ,cretaceous4 ,the other1 that of ,atan1 holds remains of many modern temperate genera1 as ,populus1 ,myrica1 ,ficus1 ,sassafras1 and ,magnolia4 ,this is regarded as ,upper ,cretaceous4 ,resting upon these ,upper ,cretaceous beds1 without the intervention of any other formation1,,ek are beds rich in plants of much more modern appearance1 and referred by ,heer to the ,miocene period1 a reference1 as we have seen1 not warranted by comparison with the ,tertiary plants of ,europe or of ,america4 ,still farther north this so-called ,miocene assemblage of plants appears in ,spitzbergen and ,grinnell ,land2 but there1 owing to the predominance of trees allied to the spruces1 it has a decidedly more boreal character than in ,greenland1 as might be anticipated from its nearer approach to the pole4,,el ,,ek ,nordenskild1 ,expedition to ,greenland1 ,geological ,magazine1 #ahgb4 ,,el ,yet even here the bald cypress 7,taxodium distichum71 or a tree nearly allied to it1 is found1 though this species is now limited to the ,southern ,states4 ,fielden and ,de ,ranee1 ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahgh4 ,if now we turn to the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary floras of western ,america1 as described by ,lesquereux1 ,newberry1 and others1 we find in the lowest ,cretaceous rocks there known--those of the ,dakota group--which may be in the lower part of the ,middle ,cretaceous1 a series of plants,,em essentially similar to those of the so-called ,upper ,cretaceous of ,greenland4 ,they occur in beds indicating land and fresh-water conditions as prevalent at the time over great areas of the interior of ,america4 ,but overlying this plant-bearing formation we have an oceanic limestone 7the ,niobrara71 corresponding in many respects to the ,european chalk1 and extending far north into the ,british territory1,,en indicating that the land of the ,lower ,cretaceous was replaced by a vast ,mediterranean ,sea1 filled with warm water from the equatorial currents1 and not invaded by cold waters from the north4 ,this is succeeded by thick ,upper ,cretaceous deposits of clay and sandstone1 with marine remains1 though very sparsely distributed2 and these show that further subsidence or denudation in the north had opened a way for the arctic currents1 killing out the warm-water animals of the ,niobrara group1 and rilling up the ,mediterranean of that period4 ,of the flora of these ,upper ,cretaceous periods1 which must have been very long1 we know something in the interior regions1 from the discovery of a somewhat rich flora in the ,dunvegan beds of the ,peace ,river district1 on the northern shore of the great ,cretaceous ,mediterranean2,,eo and on the coast of ,british ,columbia we have the remarkable ,cretaceous coal-field of ,vancouver ,island1 which holds the remains of plants of modern genera1 and1 indeed1 of almost as modern aspect as those of the so-called ,miocene of ,greenland4 ,they indicate1 however1 a warmer climate as then prevalent on the ,pacific coast1 and in this respect correspond with a peculiar transition flora1 intermediate between the ,cretaceous and ,eocene or earliest ,tertiary of the interior regions1 and which is described by ,lesquereux as the ,lower ,lignitic4 ,,em ,lesquereux1 ,report on ,cretaceous ,flora4 ,,en ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 ,report on ,forty-ninth ,parallel4 ,,eo ,reports of ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 ,geological ,survey of ,canada4 ,also1 ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 vol4 i4 ,immediately above these ,upper ,cretaceous beds we have the great ,lignite ,tertiary of the ,west--the ,laramie group of recent ,american reports--abounding in fossil plants1 at one time regarded as ,miocene1 but now known to be ,lower ,eocene1 though farther south extending upward toward the ,miocene age4,,ep ,these beds1 with their characteristic plants1 have been traced into the ,british territory north of the forty-ninth parallel1 and it has been shown that their fossils are identical with those of the ,mc,kenzie ,river valley1 described by ,heer as ,miocene1 and probably also with those of ,alaska1 referred to the same age4,,eq ,now this truly ,eocene flora of the temperate and northern parts of ,america has so many species in common with that called ,miocene in ,greenland that its identity can scarcely be doubted4 ,these facts have led to scepticism as to the ,miocene age of the upper plant-bearing beds of ,greenland1 and more especially ,mr4 ,j4 ,starkie ,gardner has ably argued1 from comparison with the ,eocene flora of ,england and other considerations1 that they are really of that earlier date4,,er ,,ep ,lesquereux's ,tertiary ,flora2 ,white on the ,laramie ,group2 ,stevenson1 ,geological ,relations of ,lignitic ,groups1 ,american ,philosophical ,society1 ,june1 #ahge2 ,dawson1 ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 vol4 iv42 ,ward1 ,bulletin of ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,,eq ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 ,report on the ,geology of the ,forty-ninth ,parallel1 where full details on these points may be found4 ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada1 vol4 iv4 ,,er ,nature1 ,december #ab1 #ahgh4 ,in looking at this question1 we may fairly assume that no climate1 however equable1 could permit the vegetation of the neighbourhood of ,disco in ,greenland to be exactly identical with that of ,colorado and ,missouri1 at a time when little difference of level existed in the two regions4 ,either the southern flora migrated north in consequence of a greater amelioration of climate1 or the northern flora moved southward as the climate became colder4 ,the same argument1 as ,gardner has ably shown1 applies to the similarity of the ,tertiary plants of temperate ,europe to those of ,greenland4 ,if ,greenland required a temperature of about #ej1 as ,heer calculates1 to maintain its ,eocene flora1 the temperature of ,england and that of the ,southwestern ,states must have been higher1 though probably more equable1 than at present4 ,we cannot certainly affirm anything respecting the migrations of these floras1 but there are some probabilities which deserve attention4 ,the ferns and cycads of the so-called ,lower ,cretaceous of ,greenland are nothing but a continuation of the previous ,jurassic flora4 ,now this was established at an equally early date in the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1,,es and still earlier in ,virginia1,,et ,the presumption is1 therefore1 that it came from the south4 ,it has1 indeed1 the facies of a southern hemisphere and insular flora1 and probably spread itself northward as far as ,greenland1 at a time when our northern continents were groups of islands1 and when the ocean currents were carrying warm water far toward the arctic regions4 ,the flora which succeeds this in the sections at ,atan has no special affinities with the southern hemisphere1 and is of a more temperate and continental character4,,eu ,it is not necessarily ,upper ,cretaceous1 since it is similar to that of the ,dakota group farther south1 and this is at least ,middle ,cretaceous4 ,this flora must have originated either somewhere in temperate ,america or within the ,arctic circle1 and it must have replaced the older one by virtue of increasing coolness and continental character of climate4 ,it must1 therefore1 have been connected with that elevation of the land which took place at the beginning of the ,cretaceous4 ,during this elevation it spread over all western ,america at one time or another1 and1 as the land again subsided under the sea of the ,niobrara chalk1 it assumed an aspect more suited to a warm climate1 but still held its place on such islands as remained above water along the ,pacific coast and in the north1 and it continued to exist on these islands till the colder seas of the ,upper ,cretaceous had again given place to the warm plains and land-locked brackish seas or fresh-water lakes of the ,laramie period 7,eocene74 ,thus the true ,upper ,cretaceous marks a cool period intervening between the so-called ,upper ,cretaceous 7really ,middle ,cretaceous7 and the so-called ,miocene 7really ,lower ,eocene7 floras of ,greenland4 ,,es ,reports of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada4 ,,et ,fontaine has well described the ,mesozoic flora of ,virginia1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 ,january1 #ahgi1 and ,report on ,early ,mesozoic ,floras4 ,,eu ,in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,tasmania1 #ahhg1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,m4 ,johnston1 ,f4 ,l4 ,s41 states that in the ,miocene beds of ,tasmania trees of ,european genera abound4 ,the ,mesozoic flora of that island is of the usual conifero-cycadean type4 ,ettingshausen makes a similar statement in the ,geological ,magazine respecting the ,tertiary flora of ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 stating that1 like the ,tertiary floras of ,europe1 they have a mixed character1 being partly of types now belonging to the northern hemisphere4 ,this latter established itself in ,greenland1 and probably all around the ,arctic circle1 in the warm period of the earliest ,eocene1 and1 as the climate of the northern hemisphere became gradually reduced from that time till the end of the ,pliocene1 it marched on over both continents to the southward1 chased behind by the modern arctic flora1 and eventually by the frost and snow of the ,glacial age4 ,this history may admit of correction in details2 but1 so far as present knowledge extends1 it is in the main not far from the truth4 ,perhaps the first great question which it raises is that as to the causes of the alternations of warm and cold climates in the north1 apparently demanded by the vicissitudes of the vegetable kingdom4 ,here we may set aside the idea that in former times plants were suited to endure greater cold than at present4 ,it is true that some of the fossil ,greenland plants are of unknown genera1 and many are species new to us2 but we are on the whole safe in affirming that they must have required conditions similar to those necessary to their modern representatives1 except within such limits as we now find to hold in similar cases among existing plants4 ,still we know that at the present time many species found in the equable climate of ,england will not live in ,canada1 though species to all appearance similar in structure are native here4 ,there is also some reason to suppose that species when new may have greater hardiness and adaptability than when in old age and verging toward extinction4 ,in any case these facts can account for but a small part of the phenomena1 which require to be explained by physical changes affecting the earth as a whole1 or at least the northern hemisphere4 ,many theoretical views have been suggested on this subject1 and perhaps the most practical way of disposing of these will be first to set aside a number which are either precluded by the known facts1 incapable of producing the effects1 or altogether uncertain as to their possible occurrence4 #a4 ,in this class we may place the theory that the poles of the earth have changed their position4 ,independently of astronomical objections1 there is good geological evidence that the poles of the earth must have been nearly in their present places from the dawn of life until now4 ,from the ,laurentian upward1 those organic limestones which mark the areas where warm and shallow equatorial water was spreading over submerged continents are so disposed as to prove the permanence of the poles4 ,in like manner all the great foldings of the crust of the earth have followed lines which are parts of great circles tangent to the existing polar circles4 ,so1 also1 from the ,cambrian age the great drift of sediment from the north has followed the line of the existing ,arctic currents from the northeast to the southwest1 throwing itself1 for example1 along the line of the ,appalachian uplifts in eastern ,america1 and against the ridge of the ,cordilleras in the west4 #b4 ,some of the above considerations1 along with astronomical evidence1 prevent us from assuming any considerable change in the obliquity of the axis of the earth during geological time4 #c4 ,that the earth and the sun have diminished in heat during geological time seems probable2 but physical and geological facts alike render it certain that this influence could have produced no appreciable effect1 even in the times of the earliest floras1 and certainly not in the case of ,tertiary vegetation4 #d4 ,it has been supposed that the earth may have at different times traversed more or less heated zones of space1 giving alternations of warm and cold temperature4 ,no such differences in space are1 however1 known1 nor does there seem any good ground for imagining their existence4 #e4 ,the heat of the sun is known to be variable1 and the eleven years' period of sun-spots has recently attracted much attention as producing appreciable effects on the seasons4 ,there may possibly be longer cycles of solar energy1 or the sun may be liable1 like some variable stars1 to paroxysms of increased energy4 ,such changes are possible1 and may fairly be taken into the account1 provided that we fail to find known causes sufficient to account for the phenomena4 ,of well-known causes there seem to be but three4 ,these are3 ,first1 that urged by ,lyell--viz41 the varying distribution of land and water along with that of marine currents2 secondly1 the varying eccentricity of the earth's orbit1 along with the precession of the equinoxes1 and the effects of this on oceanic circulation1 as illustrated by ,croll2 thirdly1 the different conditions of the earth's atmosphere with reference to radiation1 as argued by ,tyndall and ,hunt4 ,as these causes are all founded on known facts1 and not exclusive of each other1 we may consider them together4 ,i shall take the ,lyellian theory first1 regarding it as the most important1 and the best supported by geological facts4 ,we know that the present distribution of land and water greatly influences climate1 more especially by affecting that of the ocean currents and of the winds1 and by the different action of land as compared with water in the reception and radiation of heat4 ,the present distribution of land gives a large predominance to the arctic and sub-arctic regions1 as compared with the equatorial and with the antarctic2 and we might readily imagine other distributions that would give very different results4 ,but this is not an imaginary case4 ,we know that1 while the forms and positions of the great continents have been fixed from a very early date1 they have experienced many great submergences and re-elevations1 and that these have occurred in somewhat regular sequence1 as evidenced by the cyclical alternations of organic limestones and earthy sediments in successive geological formations4 ,an example bearing on our present subject may serve to illustrate this4 ,in the latter part of the ,upper ,silurian period 7the ,lower ,helderberg age71 vast areas of the ,american continent,,ev were covered with an ocean in which were deposited organic limestones whose fossils show that this great interior sea was pervaded by equatorial waters bringing food and warmth1 while the incipient ranges of the ,appalachians on the east1 and the ,cordilleras on the west1 and the ,laurentian axis on the north1 fenced off from it the colder arctic waters4 ,how different must the climate of ,america and of the region north of it have been in these circumstances from that which prevails at present1 or from that which prevailed in certain other periods1 when it was open to the incursions of the arctic ice-laden currents1 bearing loads of fine sediment6,,ew ,it was in these circumstances1 and in the similar circumstances in which the great ,corniferous limestone of the ,devonian was deposited--a limestone showing in its rich coral fauna even warmer waters than those of the ,lower ,helderberg--that the ,devonian flora took its origin in the north and advanced southward over new lands in process of emergence from the sea4 ,the somewhat similar condition evidenced by the ,lower ,carboniferous limestone preceded the advent of the great and rich flora of the coal-formation4 ,,ev ,see a memoir and map by ,prof4 ,hall1 ,reports of the ,regents of ,new ,york1 #ahgd-'ge4 ,,ew ,it seems certain that the faun of the old limestones1 like the ,trenton1 ,niagara1 ,lower ,helderberg1 and ,corniferous1 belong to warm and sheltered sea areas1 and that those rich in graptolites and trilobites1 enclosed in muddy sediments1 belong to the colder arctic waters4 ,such arctic faun are those of the ,quebec group and of the ,utica shale1 and to some extent that of the ,hamilton group4 ,lyell's theory on this subject has1 ,i think1 in some recent publications1 been somewhat misapprehended4 ,it is true that he stated hypothetically two contrasted conditions of distribution1 in one of which all the land was equatorial1 in another all polar2 but he did not suppose that these conditions had actually occurred2 and even in his earlier editions1 before the recent discoveries and discussions as to ocean currents1 he was always careful to attach due value to these in connection with subsidences and elevations4,,ex ,in his later editions he introduced more full references to current action1 and also stated ,croll's theory1 but still maintained the validity of his original conclusions4 ,,ex ,see ,principles of ,geology1 edition of #ahdj1 chapter vii4 ,the sufficiency of this ,lyellian theory to account for the facts1 in so far as plants are concerned1 may1 ,i think1 be inferred from the course of the isothermal lines at present4 ,the south end of ,greenland is on the latitude of ,christiania in ,norway on the one hand1 and of ,fort ,liard in the ,peace ,river region on the other2 and while ,greenland is clad in ice and snow1 wheat and other grains1 and the ordinary trees of temperate climates1 grow at the latter places1,,ey ,it is evident1 therefore1 that only exceptionally unfavourable circumstances prevent the ,greenland area from still possessing a temperate flora1 and these unfavourable circumstances possibly tell even on the localities with which we have compared it4 ,further1 the mouth of the ,mc,kenzie ,river is in the same latitude with ,disco1 near which are some of the most celebrated localities of fossil ,cretaceous and ,tertiary plants4 ,yet the mouth of the ,mc,kenzie ,river enjoys a much more favourable climate and has a much more abundant flora than ,disco4 ,if north ,greenland were submerged1 and low land reaching to the south terminated at ,disco1 and if from any cause either the cold currents of ,baffin's ,bay were arrested1 or additional warm water thrown into the ,north ,atlantic by the ,gulf ,stream1 there is nothing to prevent a mean temperature of #de ,fahr4 from prevailing at ,disco2 and the estimate ordinarily formed of the requirements of its extinct floras is #ej1;,,ez which is probably above rather than below the actual temperature required4 ,,ey ,see ,macoun's ,report1 ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 and ,richardson's ,boat ,voyage4 ,,ez ,heer4 ,see1 also1 papers by ,prof4 ,haughton and by ,gardner in ,nature for #ahgh4 ,since1 then1 geological facts assure us of mutations of the continents much greater than those apparently required to account for the changes of climate implied in the existence of the ancient arctic floras1 it does not seem absolutely necessary to invoke any others4,,fa ,if1 however1 there are other true causes which might either aid or counteract those above referred to1 it may be well to consider them4 ,,fa ,sir ,william ,thomson1 ,transactions of the ,geological ,society of ,glasgow1 ,february #bb1 #ahgh4 ,mr4 ,croll has1 in his valuable work ,climate and ,time and in various memoirs1 brought forward an ingenious astronomical theory to account for changes of climate4 ,this theory1 as stated by himself in a recent paper1,,fb is that when the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is at a high value1 and the northern winter solstice is in perihelion1 agencies are brought into operation which make the southeast trade-winds stronger than the northeast1 and compel them to blow over upon the northern hemisphere as far as the ,tropic of ,cancer4 ,the result is that all the great equatorial currents of the ocean are impelled into the northern hemisphere1 which thus1 in consequence of the immense accumulation of warm water1 has its temperature raised1 so that ice and snow must to a great extent disappear from the arctic regions4 ,in the prevalence of the converse conditions1 the arctic zone becomes clad in ice1 and the southern has its temperature raised4 ,,fb ,cataclysmic ,theories of ,geological ,climate1 ,geological ,magazine1 ,may1 #ahgh4 ,at the same time1 according to ,croll's calculations1 the accumulation of ice on either pole would tend1 by shifting the earth's centre of gravity1 to raise the level of the ocean and submerge the land on the colder hemisphere4 ,thus a submergence of land would coincide with a cold condition1 and emergence with increasing warmth4 ,facts already referred to1 however1 show that this has not always been the case1 but that in many cases submergence was accompanied with the influx of warm equatorial waters and a raised temperature1 this apparently depending on the question of local distribution of land and water2 and this in its turn being regulated not always by mere shifting of the centre of gravity1 but by foldings occasioned by contraction1 by equatorial subsidences resulting from the retardation of the earth's rotation1 and by the excess of material abstracted by ice and frost from the arctic regions1 and drifted southward along the lines of arctic currents4 ,this drifting must in all geological times have greatly exceeded1 as it certainly does at present1 the denudation caused by atmospheric action at the equator1 and must have tended to increase the disposition to equatorial collapse occasioned by retardation of rotation4,,fc ,,fc ,croll1 in ,climate and ,time1 and in a note read before the ,british ,association in #ahgf1 takes an opposite view2 but this is clearly contrary to the facts of sedimentation1 which show a steady movement of dbris toward the south and southwest4 ,while such considerations as those above referred to tend to reduce the practical importance of ,mr4 ,croll's theory41 on the other hand they tend to remove one of the greatest objections against it--namely1 that founded on the necessity of supposing that glacial periods recur with astronomical regularity in geological time4 ,they cannot do so if dependent on other causes inherent in the earth itself1 and producing important movements of its crust4 ,the third great cause of warmer climates in the past is the larger proportion of carbon dioxide1 or carbonic-acid gas1 in the atmosphere in early geological times1 as proved by the immense amount of carbon now sealed up in limestone and coal1 and which must at one time have been in the air4 ,it has been shown that a very small additional quantity of this substance would so obstruct radiation of heat from the earth as to act almost like a glass roof4 ,if1 however1 the quantity of carbonic acid1 great at first1 was slowly and regularly removed1 even if1 as suggested by ,hunt1 small additional supplies were gradually added from space1 this cause could have affected only the very oldest floras4 ,but it is known that some comets and meteorites contain carbonaceous matter1 and this allows us to suppose that accessions of carbon may have been communicated at irregular intervals4 ,if so1 there may have been cycles of greater and less abundance of this substance1 and an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide might at one and the same time afford warmth and abundance of food to plants4 ,it thus appears that the causes of ancient vicissitudes of climate are somewhat complex1 and when two or more of them happened to coincide very extreme changes might result1 having most important bearings on the distribution of plants4 ,this may help us to deal with the peculiarities of the great ,glacial age1 which may have been rendered exceptionally severe by the combination of several of the causes of refrigeration4 ,we must not suppose1 however1 that the views of those extreme glacialists who suppose continental ice-caps reaching half way to the equator are borne out by facts4 ,in truth1 the ice accumulating round the pole must have been surrounded by water1 and there must have been tree-clad islands in the midst of the icy seas1 even in the time of greatest refrigeration4 ,this is proved by the fact that1 in the ,leda clay of eastern ,canada1 which belongs to the time of greatest submergence1 and whose fossil shells show sea-water almost at the freezing-point1 there are leaves of poplars and other plants which must have been drifted from neighbouring shores4 ,similar remains occur in clays of like origin in the basin of the great lakes and in the ,west4 ,these have been called interglacial1 but there is no evidence to prove that they are not truly glacial4 ,thus1 while we need not suppose that plants existed within the ,arctic circle in the ,glacial age1 we have evidence that those of the cold temperate and sub-arctic zones continued to exist pretty far north4 ,at the same time the warm temperate flora would be driven to the south1 except where sustained in insular spots warmed by the equatorial currents4 ,it would return northward on the re-elevation of the land and the renewal of warmth4 ,if1 however1 our modern flora is thus one that has returned from the south1 this would account for its poverty in species as compared with those of the early ,tertiary4 ,groups of plants descending from the north have been rich and varied4 ,returning from the south they are like the shattered remains of a beaten army4 ,this1 at least1 has been the case with such retreating floras as those of the ,lower ,carboniferous1 the ,permian1 and the ,jurassic1 and possibly that of the ,lower ,eocene of ,europe4 ,the question of the supply of light to an arctic flora is much less difficult than some have imagined4 ,the long summer day is in this respect a good substitute for a longer season of growth1 while a copious covering of winter snow not only protects evergreen plants from those sudden alternations of temperature which are more destructive than intense frost1 and prevents the frost from penetrating to their roots1 but1 by the ammonia which it absorbs1 preserves their greenness4 ,according to ,dr4 ,brown1 the ,danish ladies of ,disco long ago solved this problem4,,fd ,he informs us that they cultivate in their houses most of our garden flowers--as roses1 fuchsias1 and geraniums--showing that it is merely warmth and not light that is required to enable a sub-tropical flora to thrive in ,greenland4 ,even in ,canada1 which has a flora richer in some respects than that of temperate ,europe1 growth is effectually arrested by cold for nearly six months1 and though there is ample sunlight there is no vegetation4 ,it is1 indeed1 not impossible that in the plans of the ,creator the continuous summer sun of the arctic regions may have been made the means for the introduction1 or at least for the rapid growth and multiplication1 of new and more varied types of plants4 ,,fd ,florula ,discoana1 ,botanical ,society of ,edinburgh1 #ahfh4 ,much1 of course1 remains to be known of the history of the old floras1 whose fortunes ,i have endeavoured to sketch1 and which seem to have been driven like shuttle-cocks from north to south1 and from south to north1 especially on the ,american continent1 whose meridional extension seems to have given a field specially suited for such operations4 ,this great stretch of the western continent1 from north to south1 is also connected with the interesting fact that1 when new floras are entering from the arctic regions1 they appear earlier in ,america than in ,europe1 and that in times when old floras are retreating from the south old genera and species linger longer in ,america4 ,thus1 in the ,devonian and ,cretaceous new forms of those periods appear in ,america long before they are recognized in ,europe1 and in the modern epoch forms that would be regarded in ,europe as ,miocene still exist4 ,much confusion in reasoning as to the geological ages of the fossil floras has arisen from want of attention to this circumstance4 ,what we have learned respecting this wonderful history has served strangely to change some of our preconceived ideas4 ,we must now be prepared to admit that an ,eden can be planted even in ,spitzbergen1 that there are possibilities in this old earth of ours which its present condition does not reveal to us2 that the present state of the world is by no means the best possible in relation to climate and vegetation2 that there have been and might be again conditions which could convert the ice-clad arctic regions into blooming paradises1 and which at the same time would moderate the fervent heat of the tropics4 ,we are accustomed to say that nothing is impossible with ,god2 but how little have we known of the gigantic possibilities which lie hidden under some of the most common of his natural laws6 ,these facts have naturally been made the occasion of speculations as to the spontaneous development of plants by processes of varietal derivation4 ,it would1 from this point of view1 be a nice question to calculate how many revolutions of climate would suffice to evolve the first land-plant2 what are the chances that such plant would be so dealt with by physical changes as to be preserved and nursed into a meagre flora like that of the ,upper ,silurian or the ,jurassic2 how many transportations to ,greenland would suffice to promote such meagre flora into the rich and abundant forests of the ,upper ,cretaceous1 and to people the earth with the exuberant vegetation of the early ,tertiary4 ,such problems we may never be able to solve4 ,probably they admit of no solution1 unless we invoke the action of an ,almighty mind1 operating through long ages1 and correlating with boundless power and wisdom all the energies inherent in inorganic and organic nature4 ,even then we shall perhaps be able to comprehend only the means by which1 after specific types have been created1 they may1 by the culture of their ,maker1 be sported into new varieties or subspecies1 and thus fitted to exist under different conditions or to occupy higher places in the economy of nature4 ,before venturing on such extreme speculations as some now current on questions of this kind1 we would require to know the successive extinct floras as perfectly as those of the modern world1 and to be able to ascertain to what extent each species can change either spontaneously or under the influence of struggle for existence or expansion under favourable conditions1 and under arctic semi-annual days and nights1 or the shorter days of the tropics4 ,such knowledge1 if ever acquired1 it may take ages of investigation to accumulate4 ,as to the origin and mode of introduction of successive floras1 ,i am1 for the reasons above stated1 not disposed to dogmatise1 or to adopt as final any existing theory of the development of the vegetable kingdom4 ,still1 some laws regulating the progress of vegetable life may be recognised1 and ,i propose to state these in connection with the ,palozoic floras1 to which my own studies have chiefly related4 ,fossil plants are almost proverbially uncertain with reference to their accurate determination1 and have been regarded as of comparatively little utility in the decision of general questions of palontology4 ,this results principally from the fragmentary condition in which they have been studied1 and from the fact that fragments of animal structures are more definite and instructive than corresponding portions of plants4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that our knowledge of fossil plants becomes accurate in proportion to the extent to which we can carry the study of specimens in the beds in which they are preserved1 so as to examine more perfect examples than those usually to be found in museums4 ,when structures are taken into the account1 as well as external forms1 we can also depend more confidently on our results4 ,further1 the abundance of specimens to be obtained in particular beds often goes far to make up for their individual imperfection4 ,the writer of these pages has been enabled to avail himself very fully of these advantages2 and on this account1 if on no other1 feels entitled to speak with some authority on theoretical questions4 ,it is an additional encouragement to pursue the subject1 that1 when we can obtain definite information as to the successive floras of any region1 we thereby learn much as to climate and vicissitudes in regard to the extent of land and water2 and that1 with reference to such points1 the evidence of fossil plants1 when properly studied1 is1 from the close relation of plants to those stations and climates1 even more valuable than that of animal fossils4 ,it is necessary1 however1 that in pursuing such inquiries we should have some definite views as to the nature and permanence of specific forms1 whether with reference to a single geological period or to successive periods2 and ,i may be excused for stating here some general principles1 which ,i think important for our guidance4 #a4 ,botanists proceed on the assumption1 vindicated by experience1 that1 within the period of human observation1 species have not materially varied or passed into each other4 ,we may make1 for practical purposes1 the same assumption with regard to any given geological period1 and may hold that for each such period there are specific types which1 for the time at least1 are invariable4 #b4 ,when we inquire what constitutes a good species for any given period1 we have reason to believe that many names in our lists represent merely varietal forms or erroneous determinations4 ,this is the case even in the modern flora2 and in fossil floras1 through the poverty of specimens1 their fragmentary condition1 and various states of preservation1 it is still more likely to occur4 ,every revision of any group of fossils detects numerous synonyms1 and of these many are incapable of detection without the comparison of large suites of specimens4 #c4 ,we may select from the flora of any geological period certain forms1 which ,i shall call specific types1 which may for such period be regarded as unchanging4 ,having settled such types1 we may compare them with similar forms in other periods1 and such comparisons will not be vitiated by the uncertainty which arises from the comparison of so-called species which may1 in many cases1 be mere varietal forms1 as distinguished from specific types4 ,our types may be founded on mere fragments1 provided that these are of such a nature as to prove that they belong to distinct forms which cannot pass into each other1 at least within the limits of one geological period4 #d4 ,when we compare the specific types of one period with those of another immediately precedent or subsequent1 we shall find that some continue unchanged through long intervals of geological time1 that others are represented by allied forms regarded either as varietal or specific1 and as derived or otherwise1 according to the view which we may entertain as to the permanence of species4 ,on the other hand1 we also find new types not rationally deducible on any theory of derivation from those known in other periods4 ,further1 in comparing the types of a poor period with those of one rich in species1 we may account for the appearance of new types in the latter by the deficiency of information as to the former2 where many new types appear in the poorer period this conclusion seems less probable4 ,for example1 new types appearing in poor formations1 like the ,lower ,erian and ,lower ,carboniferous1 have greater significance than if they appeared in the ,middle ,erian or in the ,coal ,measures4 #e4 ,when specific types disappear without any known successors1 under circumstances in which it seems unlikely that we should have failed to discover their continuance1 we may fairly assume that they have become extinct1 at least locally2 and where the field of observation is very extensive1 as in the great coal-fields of ,europe and ,america1 we may esteem such extinction as practically general1 at least for the northern hemisphere4 ,when many specific types become extinct together1 or in close succession1 we may suppose that such extinction resulted from physical changes2 but where single types disappear1 under circumstances in which others of similar habit continue1 we may not unreasonably conjecture that1 as ,pictet has argued in the case of animals1 such types may have been in their own nature limited in duration1 and may have died out without any external cause4 #f4 ,with regard to the introduction of specific types we have not as yet a sufficient amount of information4 ,even if we freely admit that ordinary specific forms1 as well as mere varieties1 may result from derivation1 this by no means excludes the idea of primitive specific types originating in some other way4 ,just as the chemist1 after analysing all compounds and ascertaining all allotropic forms1 arrives at length at certain elements not mutually transmutable or derivable1 so the botanist and zologist must expect sooner or later to arrive at elementary specific types1 which1 if to be accounted for at all1 must be explained on some principle distinct from that of derivation4 ,the position of many modern biologists1 in presence of this question1 may be logically the same with that of the ancient alchemists with reference to the chemical elements1 though the fallacy in the case of fossils may be of more difficult detection4 ,our business at present1 in the prosecution of palobotany1 is to discover1 if possible1 what are elementary or original types1 and1 having found these1 to enquire as to the law of their creation4 #g4 ,in prosecuting such questions geographical relations must be carefully considered4 ,when the floras of two successive periods have existed in the same region1 and under circumstances that render it probable that plants have continued to grow on the same or adjoining areas throughout these periods1 the comparison becomes direct1 and this is the case with the ,erian and ,carboniferous floras in northeastern ,america4 ,but1 when the areas of the two formations are widely separated in space as well as in time1 any resemblances of facies that we may observe may have no connection whatever with an unbroken continuity of specific types4 ,i desire1 however1 under this head1 to affirm my conviction that1 with reference to the ,erian and ,carboniferous floras of ,north ,america and of ,europe1 the doctrine of homotaxis1 as distinct from actual contemporaneity1 has no place4 ,the succession of formations in the ,palozoic period evidences a similar series of physical phenomena on the grandest scale throughout the northern hemisphere4 ,the succession of marine animals implies the continuity of the sea-bottoms on which they lived4 ,the headquarters of the ,erian flora in ,america and ,europe must have been in connected or adjoining areas in the ,north ,atlantic4 ,the similarity of the ,carboniferous flora on the two sides of the ,atlantic1 and the great number of identical species1 proves a still closer connection in that period4 ,these coincidences are too extensive and too frequently repeated to be the result of any accident of similar sequence at different times1 and this more especially as they extend to the more minute differences in the features of each period1 as1 for instance1 the floras of the ,lower and ,upper ,devonian1 and of the ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,carboniferous4 #h4 ,another geographical question is that which relates to centres of dispersion4 ,in times of slow subsidence of extensive areas1 the plants inhabiting such areas must be narrowed in their range and often separated from one another in detached spots1 while1 at the same time1 important climatal changes must also occur4 ,on the re-emergence of the land such of these species as remained would again extend themselves over their former areas of distribution1 in so far as the new climatal and other conditions would permit4 ,we would naturally suppose that the first of the above processes would tend to the elimination of varieties1 the second1 to their increase2 but1 on the other ,i hand1 the breaking up of a continental flora into that of distinct islets1 and the crowding together of many forms1 might be a process fertile in the production of some varieties if fatal to others4 ,further1 it is possible that these changes of subsidence may have some connection with the introduction1 as well as with the extinction1 even of specific types4 ,it is certain1 at least1 in the case of land-plants1 that such types come in most plentifully immediately after elevation1 though they are most abundantly preserved in periods of slow subsidence4 ,i do not mean1 however1 that this connection is one of cause and effect2 there are1 indeed1 indications that it is not so4 ,one of these is1 that in some cases the enlargement of the area of the land seems to be as injurious to terrestrial species as its diminution4 #i4 ,another point on which ,i have already insisted1 and which has been found to apply to the ,tertiary as well as to the ,palozoic floras1 is the appearance of new types within the arctic and boreal areas1 and their migration southward4 ,periods in which the existence of northern land coincided with a general warm temperature of the northern hemisphere seem to have been those most favourable to the introduction of new forms of land-plants4 ,hence1 there has been throughout geological time a general movement of new floras from the ,palarctic and ,nearctic regions to the southward4 ,applying the above considerations to the ,erian and ,carboniferous floras of ,north ,america1 we obtain some data which may guide us in arriving at general conclusions4 ,the ,erian flora is comparatively poor1 and its types are in the main similar to those of the ,carboniferous4 ,of these types a few only reappear in the middle coal-formation under identical forms2 a great number appear under allied forms2 some altogether disappear4 ,the ,erian flora of ,new ,brunswick and ,maine occurs side by side with the ,carboniferous of the same region2 so does the ,erian of ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania with the ,carboniferous of those ,states4 ,thus we have data for the comparison of successive floras in the same region4 ,in the ,canadian region we have1 indeed1 in direct sequence1 the floras of the ,upper ,silurian1 the ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,erian1 and the ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,carboniferous1 all more or less distinct from each other1 and affording an admirable series for comparison in a region whose geographical features are very broadly marked4 ,all these floras are composed in great part of similar types1 and probably do not indicate very dissimilar general physical conditions1 but they are separated from each other by the great subsidences of the ,corniferous limestone and the ,lower ,carboniferous limestone1 and by the local but intense subterranean action which has altered and disturbed the ,erian beds toward the close of that period4 ,still1 these changes were not universal4 ,the ,corniferous limestone is absent in ,gasp1 and probably in ,new ,brunswick1 where1 consequently1 the ,erian flora could continue undisturbed during that long period4 ,the ,carboniferous limestone is absent from the slopes of the ,appalachians in ,pennsylvania1 where a retreat may have been afforded to the ,upper ,erian and ,lower ,carboniferous floras4 ,the disturbances at the close of the ,erian were limited to those eastern regions where the great limestone-producing subsidences were unfelt1 and1 on the other hand1 are absent in ,ohio1 where the subsidences and marine conditions were almost at a maximum4 ,bearing in mind these peculiarities of the area in question1 we may now group in a tabular form the distinct specific types recognised in the ,erian system1 indicating1 at the same time1 those which are represented by identical species in the ,carboniferous1 those represented by similar species of the same general type1 and those not represented at all4 ,for example1 ,calamites cannformis extends as a species into the ,carboniferous2 ,asterophyllites latifolia does not so extend1 but is represented by closely allied species of the same type2 ,nematophyton disappears altogether before we reach the ,carboniferous4 ,table of ,erian and ,carboniferous ,specific ,types4 ,erian types4 ,represented in ,by identical ,by related ,carboniferous-- types4 forms4 #a4 ,syringoxylon mirabile 8 #b4 ,nematoxylon #c4 ,nematophyton #d4 ,aporoxylon #e4 ,ormoxylon #f4 ,dadoxylon 99 #g4 ,sigillaria ,vanuxemii 99 #h4 ,s4 palpebra 99 #i4 ,didymophyllum #aj4 ,calamodendron 99 #aa4 ,calamites transitionis 99 #ab4 ,c4 cannformis 99 #ac4 ,asterophyllites scutigera 99 #ad4 ,a4 latifolia #ae4 ,annularia laxa #af4 ,sphenophyllum antiquum 99 #ag4 ,cyclostigma #ah4 ,arthrostigma #ai4 ,lepidodendron ,gaspianum 99 #bj4 ,l4 corrugatum 99 #ba4 ,lycopodites ,matthewi 99 #bb4 ,l4 ,richardsoni #bc4 ,ptilophyton ,vanuxemii #bd4 ,lepidophloios antiquus 99 #be4 ,psilophyton princeps #bf4 ,p4 robustius #bg4 ,cordaites ,robbii 99 #bh4 ,c4 angustifolia #bi4 ,archopteris ,jacksoni #cj4 ,aneimites obtusa 99 #ca4 ,platyphyllum ,brownii #cb4 ,cyclopteris varia 99 #cc4 ,c4 obtusa #cd4 ,neuropteris polymorpha 99 #ce4 ,n4 serrulata 99 #cf4 ,n4 retorquata 99 #cg4 ,n4 resecta #ch4 ,megalopteris ,dawsoni4 #ci4 ,sphenopteris ,hoeninghausi 99 #dj4 ,s4 ,harttii 99 #da4 ,hymenophyllites curtilobus #db4 ,h4 obtusilobus 99 #dc4 ,alethopteris discrepans 99 #dd4 ,pecopteris serrulata 99 #de4 ,p4 preciosa #df4 ,trichomanites 99 #dg4 ,callipteris 99 #dh4 ,cardiocarpum 99 #di4 ,c4 ,crampii #ej4 ,antholithes 99 #ea4 ,trigonocarpum 99 ,of the above forms1 fifty-one in all1 found in the ,erian of eastern ,america1 all1 except the last four1 are certainly distinct specific types4 ,of these only four reappear in the ,carboniferous under identical species1 but no less than twenty-six reappear under representative or allied forms1 some at least of which a derivationist might claim as modified descendants4 ,on the other hand1 nearly one half of the ,devonian types are unknown in the ,carboniferous1 while there remain a very large number of ,carboniferous types not accounted for by anything known in the ,devonian4 ,further1 a very poor flora1 including only two or three types1 is the predecessor of the ,erian flora in the ,upper ,silurian1 and the flora again becomes poor in the ,upper ,devonian and ,lower ,carboniferous4 ,every new species discovered must more or less modify the above statements1 and the whole ,erian flora of ,america1 as well as the ,carboniferous1 requires a thorough comparison with that of ,europe before general conclusions can be safely drawn4 ,in the mean time ,i may indicate the direction in which the facts seem to point by the following general statements3 #a4 ,some of the forms reckoned as specific in the ,devonian and ,carboniferous may be really derivative races4 ,there are indications that such races may have originated in one or more of the following ways3 7#a7 ,by a natural tendency in synthetic types to become specialised in the direction of one or other of their constituent elements4 ,in this way such plants as ,arthrostigma and ,psilophyton may have assumed new varietal forms4 7#b7 ,by embryonic retardation or acceleration1,,fe whereby certain species may have had their maturity advanced or postponed1 thus giving them various grades of perfection in reproduction and complexity of structure4 ,the fact that so many ,erian and ,carboniferous plants seem to be on the confines of the groups of ,acrogens and ,gymnosperms may be supposed favourable to such exchanges4 7#c7 ,the contraction and breaking up of floras1 as occurred in the ,middle ,erian and ,lower ,carboniferous1 may have been eminently favourable to the production of such varietal forms as would result from what has been called the struggle for existence4 7#d7 ,the elevation of a great expanse of new land at the close of the ,middle ,erian and the beginning of the coal period would1 by permitting the extension of species over wide areas and fertile soils1 and by removing the pressure previously existing1 be eminently favourable to the production of new1 and especially of improved1 varieties4 ,,fe ,in the manner illustrated by ,hyatt and ,cope4 #b4 ,whatever importance we may attach to the above supposed causes of change1 we still require to account for the origin of our specific types4 ,this may forever elude our observation1 but we may at least hope to ascertain the external conditions favourable to their production4 ,in order to attain even to this it will be necessary to inquire critically1 with reference to every acknowledged species1 what its claims to distinctness are1 so that we may be enabled to distinguish specific types from mere varieties4 ,having attained to some certainty in this1 we may be prepared to inquire whether the conditions favourable to the appearance of new varieties were also those favourable to the creation of new types1 or the reverse--whether these conditions were those of compression or expansion1 or to what extent the appearance of new types may be independent of any external conditions1 other than those absolutely necessary for their existence4 ,i am not without hope that the further study of fossil plants may enable us thus to approach to a comprehension of the laws of the creation1 as distinguished from those of the continued existence of species4 #c4 ,in the present state of our knowledge we have no good ground either to limit the number of specific types beyond what a fair study of our material may warrant1 or to infer that such primitive types must necessarily have been of low grade1 or that progress in varietal forms has always been upward4 ,the occurrence of such an advanced and specialised type as that of ,dadoxylon in the ,middle ,devonian should guard us against these errors4 ,the creative process may have been applicable to the highest as well as to the lowest forms1 and subsequent deviations must have included degradation as well as elevation4 ,i can conceive nothing more unreasonable than the statement sometimes made that it is illogical or even absurd to suppose that highly organised beings could have been produced except by derivation from previously existing organisms4 ,this is begging the whole question at issue1 depriving science of a noble department of inquiry on which it has as yet barely entered1 and anticipating by unwarranted assertions conclusions which may perhaps suddenly dawn upon us through the inspiration of some great intellect1 or may for generations to come baffle the united exertions of all the earnest promoters of natural science4 ,our present attitude should not be that of dogmatists1 but that of patient workers content to labour for a harvest of grand generalisations which may not come till we have passed away1 but which1 if we are earnest and true to ,nature and its ,creator1 may reward even some of us4 ,within the human period great changes of distribution of plants have occurred1 chiefly through the agency of man himself1 and we have had ample evidence that plants are able to establish themselves and prosper in climates and conditions to which unaided they could not have transported themselves1 as1 for instance1 in the case of ,european weeds naturalised in ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,there is1 however1 no reason to believe that any specific change has occurred to any plant within the ,pleistocene or modern period4 ,in a recent address1 delivered to the biological section of the ,british ,association1 ,mr4 ,carruthers has discussed this question1 and has shown that the earliest vegetable specimens described by ,dr4 ,schweinfurth from the ,egyptian tombs present no appearance of change4 ,this fact appears also in the leaves and other organs of plants preserved in the nodules in the ,pleistocene clays of the ,ottawa1 and in specimens of similar age found in various places in ,britain and the continent of ,europe4,,ff ,,ff ,proceedings ,british ,association1 #ahhf1 ,pleistocene ,plants of ,canada1 ,canadian ,naturalist1 #ahff4 ,the difficulties attending the ordinary theories of evolution as applied to plants have been well set forth by the same able botanist in his ,presidential ,address to the ,geological ,association in #ahgg1 a paper which deserves careful study4 ,one of his illustrations is that ancient willow1 ,salix polaris1 referred to in a previous chapter1 which now lives in the arctic regions1 and is found fossil in the ,pleistocene beds at ,cromer and at ,bovey ,tracey4 ,he notes the fact that the genus ,salix is a very variable one1 including #ai subgeneric groups and #afj species1 with no less than #bbb varieties and #gj hybrids4 ,salix polaris belongs to a subgeneric group containing #bi species1 which are arranged in four sections1 that to which ,s4 polaris belongs containing six species4 ,now it is easy to construct a theoretical phylogeny of the derivation of the willows from a supposed ancestral source1 but when we take our little ,s4 polaris we find that this one twig of our ancestral tree takes us back without change to the ,glacial period4 ,the six species would take us still farther1 and the sections1 sub-genera1 and genus at the same rate would require an incalculable amount of past time4 ,he concludes the inquiry in the following terms3 ,but when we have reached the branch representing the generic form we have made but little progress in the phylogenesis of ,salix4 ,with ,populus this genus forms a small order1 ,salicine1 ,the two genera are closely allied1 yet separated by well-marked characters2 it is not1 however1 difficult to conceive of both having sprung from a generalised form4 ,but there is no record of such a form4 ,the two genera appear together among the earliest known dicotyledons1 the willows being represented by six and the poplars by nine species4 ,the ordinal form1 if it ever existed1 must necessarily be much older than the period of the ,upper ,cretaceous rocks1 that is1 than the period to which the earliest known dicotyledons belong4 ,the ,salicine are related to five other natural orders1 in all of which the apetalous flowers are arranged in catkins4 ,these different though allied orders must be led up by small modifications to a generalised amentiferous type1 and thereafter the various groups of apetalous plants by innumerable eliminations of differentiating characters until the primitive form of the apetalous plant is reached4 ,beyond this the uncurbed imagination will have more active work in bridging over the gap between ,angiosperms and ,gymnosperms1 in finding the intermediate forms that led up to the vascular cryptogams1 and on through the cellular plants to the primordial germ4 ,every step in this phylogenetic tree must be imagined4 ,the earliest dicotyledon takes us not a step farther back in the phylogenetic history of ,salix than that supplied by existing vegetation4 ,all beyond the testimony of our living willows is pure imagination1 unsupported by a single fact4 ,so that here1 also1 the evidence is against evolution1 and there is none in favour of it4 ,it is easy to see that similar difficulties beset every attempt to trace the development of plants on the principle of slow and gradual evolution1 and we are driven back on the theory of periods of rapid origin1 as we have already seen suggested by ,saporta in the case of the ,cretaceous dicotyledons4 ,such abrupt and plentiful introduction of species over large areas at the same time1 by whatever cause effected--and we are at present quite ignorant of any secondary causes--becomes in effect something not unlike the old and familiar idea of creation4 ,science must indeed always be baffled by questions of ultimate origin1 and1 however far it may be able to trace the chain of secondary causation and development1 must at length find itself in the presence of the great ,creative ,mind1 who is before all things and in whom all things consist4 ,,appendix4 ,i4--,,comparative ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,successive ,,pal,,ozoic ,,floras ,,of ,,northeastern ,,america ,,and ,,great ,,britain4 ,in eastern ,canada there is a very complete series of fossil plants1 extending from the ,silurian to the ,permian1 and intermediate in its species between the floras of interior ,america and of ,europe4 ,i may use this succession1 mainly worked out by myself1,,fg to summarise the various ,palozoic floras and sub-floras1 in order to give a condensed view of this portion of the history of the vegetable kingdom1 and to direct attention to the important fact1 too often overlooked1 that there is a definite succession of fossil plants as well as of animals1 and that this is important as a means of determining geological horizons4 ,a ,british list for comparison has been kindly prepared for me by ,mr4 ,r4 ,kidston1 ,f4 ,gr4 ,s4 ,for lists referring to the western and southern portions of ,america1 ,i may refer to the reports of ,lesquereux and ,fontaine and ,white4,,fh ,,fg ,acadian ,geology1 ,reports on ,fossil ,plants of ,canada1 ,geological ,survey of ,canada4 ,,fh ,geological ,surveys of ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and ,illinois4 ,in this connection ,i am reminded1 by an excellent little paper of ,m4 ,zeiller1,,fi on ,carboniferous plants from the region of the ,zambesi1 in ,africa1 that the flora which in the ,carboniferous period extended over the temperate portions of the northern hemisphere and far into the arctic1 also passed across the equator and prevailed in the southern hemisphere4 ,of eleven species brought from the ,zambesi by ,m4 ,lapierre and examined by ,m4 ,zeiller1 all were identical with ,european species of the upper coal-formation1 and the same fact has been observed in the coal flora of the ,cape ,colony4,,fj ,these facts bear testimony to the remarkable uniformity of climate and vegetation in the coal period1 and ,i perfectly agree with ,zeiller that they show1 when taken in connection with other parallelisms in fossils1 an actual contemporaneousness of the coal flora over the whole world4 ,,fi ,paris1 #ahhc4 ,,fj ,grey1 ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 xxvii4 #a4 ,carboniferous ,flora4 7#a7 ,permo-,carboniferous ,sub-,flora3 ,this occurs in the upper member of the ,carboniferous system of ,nova ,scotia and ,prince ,edward ,island1 originally named by the writer the ,newer ,coal-formation1 and more recently the ,permo-,carboniferous1 and the upper beds of which may not improbably be contemporaneous with the ,lower ,permian or ,lower ,dyas of ,europe4 ,in this formation there is a predominance of red sandstones and shales1 and it contains no productive beds of coal4 ,its fossil plants are for the most part of species found in the ,middle or ,productive ,coal-formation1 but are less numerous1 and there are a few new forms akin to those of the ,european ,permian4 ,the most characteristic species of the upper portion of the formation1 which has the most decidedly ,permian aspect1 are the following3 ,dadoxylon materiarium1 ,dawson4 99 ,walchia 7,araucarites7 robusta1 ,dn4 99 ,w4 7,a47 gracilis1 ,dn4 99 ,w4 imbricatula1 ,dn4 ,calamites ,suckovii1 ,brongt4 ,c4 ,cistii1 ,brongt4 99 ,c4 gigas1 ,brongt4 ,neuropteris rarinervis1 ,bunbury4 ,alethopteris nervosa1 ,brongt4 ,pecopteris arborescens1 ,brongt4 99 ,p4 rigida1 ,dn4 ,p4 oreopteroides1 ,brongt4 99 ,cordaites simplex1 ,dn4 ,of these species1 those marked with an asterisk have not yet been found in the middle or lower members of the ,carboniferous system4 ,they will be found described1 and several of them figured1 in my ,report on the ,geology of ,prince ,edward ,island4,,fk ,the others are common and widely diffused ,carboniferous species1 some of which have extended to the ,permian period in ,europe as well4 ,from the upper beds1 characterised by these and a few other species1 there is a gradual passage downward into the productive coal-measures1 and a gradually increasing number of true coal-formation species4 ,,fk #ahga4 ,it is worthy of remark here that the association in the ,permo-,carboniferous of numerous trunks of ,dadoxylon with the branches of ,walchia and with fruits of the character of ,trigonocarpa1 seems to show that these were parts of one and the same plant4 ,this formation represents the ,upper ,barren ,measures of ,west ,virginia1 which are well described by ,fontaine and ,white1,,fl and the reasons which these authors adduce for considering the latter equivalent to the ,european ,permian will apply to the more northern and eastern deposits as well1 though these have afforded fewer species of plants1 and are apparently less fully developed4 ,,fl ,report on the ,permian ,flora of ,western ,virginia and ,south ,pennsylvania1 #ahhj4 7#b7 ,coal-formation ,sub-,flora3 ,the ,middle or ,productive ,coal-formation1 containing all the beds of coal which are mined in ,nova ,scotia and ,cape ,breton1 is the headquarters of the ,carboniferous flora4 ,from this formation ,i have catalogued,,fm one hundred and thirty-five species of plants2 but1 as several of these are founded on imperfect specimens1 the number of actual species may be estimated at one hundred and twenty4 ,of these more than one half are species common to ,europe and ,america4 ,no less than nineteen species are ,sigillari1 and about the same number are ,lepidodendra4 ,about fifty are ferns and thirteen are ,calamites1 ,asterophyllites1 and ,sphenophylla4 ,the great abundance and number of species of ,sigillari1 ,lepidodendra1 and ferns are characteristic of this sub-flora2 and among the ferns certain species of ,neuropteris1 ,pecopteris1 ,alethopteris1 and ,sphenopteris greatly preponderate4 ,,fm ,acadian ,geology1 and ,report on ,flora of ,lower ,carboniferous1 #ahgc4 ,these beds are the equivalents of the ,middle ,coal-measures1 or ,productive ,coal-measures of ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 c41 and of the coal-formation proper of various ,european countries4 ,very many of the species are common to ,nova ,scotia and ,pennsylvania2 but in proceeding westward the number of identical species seems to diminish4 7#c7 ,the ,millstone ,grit ,sub-,flora3 ,in this formation the abundance of plants and the number of species are greatly diminished4,,fn ,trunks of coniferous trees of the species ,dadoxylon ,acadianum1 having wide wood-cells with three or more series of discs and complex medullary rays1 become characteristic4 ,calamites undulatum is abundant and seems to replace ,c4 ,suckovii1 though ,c4 cannformis and ,c4 cistii continue4 ,sigillari become very rare1 and the species of ,lepidodendron are few1 and mostly those with large leaf-bases4 ,lepidophloios still continues1 and ,cordaites abounds in some beds4 ,the ferns are greatly reduced1 though a few characteristic coal-formation species occur1 and the genus ,cardiopteris appears4 ,beds of coal are rare in this formation2 but where they occur there is in connection with them a remarkable anticipation of the rich coal-formation flora1 which would thus seem to have existed locally in the ,millstone ,grit period1 but to have found itself limited by generally unfavorable conditions4 ,in ,america1 as in ,europe1 it is in the north that this earlier development of the coal-flora occurs1 while in the south there is a lingering of old forms in the newer beds4 ,in ,newfoundland and ,cape ,breton1 for instance1 as well as in ,scotland1 productive coal-beds and a greater variety of species of plants occur in this formation4 ,,fn ,report on ,fossil ,plants of the ,lower ,carboniferous and ,millstone ,grit of ,canada1 #ahgc4 ,the following would appear to be the equivalents of this formation1 in flora and geological position3 #a4 ,the ,seral ,conglomerate of ,rogers in ,pennsylvania1 c4 #b4 ,the ,lower ,coal-formation ,conglomerate and ,chester groups of ,illinois 7,worthen74 #c4 ,the ,lower ,carboniferous ,sandstone of ,kentucky1 ,alabama1 and ,virginia4 #d4 ,the ,millstone ,grit and ,yoredale rocks of northern ,england1 and the ,culmiferous of ,devonshire4 #e4 ,the ,moor rock and ,lower ,coal-measures of ,scotland4 #f4 ,flagstones and ,lower ,shales of the south of ,ireland1 and ,millstone ,grit of the north of ,ireland4 #g4 ,the ,jngste ,grauwacke of the ,hartz1 ,saxony1 and ,silesia4 7#d7 ,the ,carboniferous ,limestone ,series3 ,this affords few fossil plants in eastern ,america1 and in so far as known they are similar to those of the next group4 ,in ,scotland it is richer in plants1 but1 according to ,mr4 ,kidston1 these are largely similar to those of the underlying beds1 though with some species which extend upward into the ,millstone ,grit4 ,in ,scotland the alga named ,spirophyton and ,archocalamites radiatus--which in ,america are ,erian--appear in this formation4 7#e7 ,the ,lower ,carboniferous ,sub-,flora3 ,this group of plants is best seen in the shales of the ,horton series1 under the ,lower ,carboniferous marine limestones4 ,it is small and peculiar4 ,the most characteristic species are the following3 ,dadoxylon 7,paloxylon7 antiquius1 ,dn4--,a species with large medullary rays of three or more series of cells4 ,lepidodendron corrugatum1 ,dn4--,a species closely allied to ,l4 ,veltheimianum of ,europe1 and which is its ,american representative4 ,this is perhaps the most characteristic plant of the formation4 ,it is very abundant1 and presents very protean appearances1 in its old stems1 branches1 twigs1 and ,knorria forms4 ,it had well-characterised stigmaria roots1 and constitutes the oldest erect forest known in ,nova ,scotia4 ,lepidodendron tetragonum1 ,sternberg4 ,l4 obovatum1 ,sternb4 ,l4 aculeatum1 ,sternb4 ,l4 dichotomum1 ,sternb4 ,the four species last mentioned are comparatively rare1 and the specimens are usually too imperfect to render their identification certain1 but ,lepidodendra are especially characteristic trees of this horizon4 ,cyclopteris 7,aneimites7 ,acadica1 ,dn4--,a very characteristic fern1 allied in the form of its fronds to ,c4 tenuifolia of ,goeppert1 to ,c4 nana of ,eichwald1 and to ,adiantites antiquus of ,stur4 ,its fructification1 however1 is nearer to that of ,aneimia than to that of ,adiantum4 ,ferns of the genera ,cardiopteris and ,hymenophyllites also occur1 though rarely4 ,ptilophyton plumula1 ,dn4--,this is the latest appearance of this ,erian genus1 which also occurs in the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,europe and of the ,united ,states4 ,cordaites borassifolia1 ,brongt4 ,on the whole1 this small flora is markedly distinct from that of the ,millstone ,grit and true coal-formation1 from which it is separated by the great length of time required for the deposition of the marine limestones and their associated beds1 in which no land-plants have been found2 nor is this gap filled up by the conglomerates and coarse arenaceous beds which1 as ,i have explained in ,acadian ,geology1 in some localities take the place of the limestones1 as they do also in the ,appalachian region farther south4 ,the palobotanical and stratigraphical equivalents of this series abroad would seem to be the following3 #a4 ,the ,vespertine group of ,rogers in ,pennsylvania4 #b4 ,the ,kinderhook group of ,worthen in ,illinois4 #c4 ,the ,marshall group of ,winchell in ,michigan4 #d4 ,the ,waverley sandstone 7in part7 of ,ohio4 #e4 ,the ,lower or ,false ,coal-measures of ,virginia4 #f4 ,the ,calciferous sandstones of ,mc,laren1 or ,tweedian group of ,tate in ,scotland4 #g4 ,the ,lower ,carboniferous slate and ,coomhala grits of ,jukes in ,ireland4 #h4 ,the ,culm and ,culm ,grauwacke of ,germany4 #i4 ,the ,graywacke or ,lower ,coal-measures of the ,vosges1 as described by ,schimper4 #aj4 ,the ,older ,coal-formation of the ,ural1 as described by ,eichwald4 #aa4 ,the so-called ,ursa ,stage of ,heer includes this1 but he has united it with ,devonian beds1 so that the name cannot be used except for the local development of these beds at ,bear ,island1 ,spitsbergen4 ,the ,carboniferous plants of arctic ,america1 ,melville ,island1 c41 as well as those of ,spitzbergen1 appear all to be ,lower ,carboniferous4,,fo ,,fo ,notes on ,geological ,map of the ,northern ,portion of the ,dominion of ,canada1 by ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson1 #ahhg4 ,all of the above groups of rocks are characterised by the prevalence of ,lepidodendra of the type of ,l4 corrugatum1 ,l4 ,veltheimianum1 and ,l4 ,glincanum2 pines of the sub-genus ,pitus of ,witham1 ,paloxylon of ,brongniart1 and peculiar ferns of the genera ,cyclopteris1 ,cardiopteris1 ,triphyllopteris1 and ,sphenopteris4 ,in all the regions above referred to they form the natural base of the great ,carboniferous system4 ,in ,virginia1 according to ,fontaine and ,white1 types1 such as ,archopteris1 which in the north are ,upper ,erian1 occur in this group4 ,unless there have been some errors in fixing the lower limit of the ,vespertine1 this would indicate a longer continuance of old forms in the south4 #b4 ,erian ,flora4 7#a7 ,upper ,erian ,sub-,flora3 ,this corresponds to the ,catskill and ,chemung of the ,new ,york series1 and to the ,upper ,devonian of ,europe4 ,the flora of this formation1 which consists mostly of sandstones1 is not rich4 ,its most distinctive species on both sides of the ,atlantic seem to be the ferns of the genus ,archopteris1 along with species referred to the genus ,cyclopteris1 but which1 in so far as their barren fronds are concerned1 for the most part resemble ,archopteris4 ,the characteristic ,american species are ,archopteris ,jacksoni1 ,a4 ,rogersi1 and ,a4 ,gaspiensis4 ,cyclopteris obtusa and ,c4 7,platyphyllum7 ,brownii are also very characteristic species4 ,in ,europe1 ,archopteris ,hibernica is a prevalent species4 ,leptophleum rhombicum and fragments of ,psilophyton are also found in the ,upper ,erian4 ,there is evidence of the existence of vast numbers of ,rhizocarps in this period1 in the deposits of spore-cases 7,sporangites ,huronensis7 in the shales of ,kettle ,point1 ,lake ,huron2 and in deposits of similar character in ,ohio and elsewhere in the ,west4 ,the ,upper ,erian flora is thus very distinct from that of the ,lower ,carboniferous1 and the unconformable relation of the beds in the ,northeast may perhaps indicate a considerable lapse of time4 ,still1 even in localities where there appears to be a transition from the ,carboniferous into the ,devonian1 as in the ,western ,states and in ,ireland1 the characteristic flora of each formation may be distinguished1 though1 as already stated1 there is apparently some mixture in the ,south4 7#b7 ,middle ,erian ,sub-,flora3 ,both in ,canada and the ,united ,states that part of the great ,erian system which may be regarded as its middle division1 the ,hamilton and ,marcellus shales of ,new ,york1 the ,cordaites shales of ,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick1 and the middle shales and sandstones of the ,gasp series1 presents conditions more favourable to the abundant growth of land-plants than either the upper or lower member4 ,in the ,st4 ,john beds1 in particular1 there is a rich fern flora1 comparable with that of the coal-formation1 and numerous stipes of ferns and trunks of tree-ferns have been found in the ,hamilton and ,corniferous series in the ,west1 as well as trunks of ,dadoxylon4 ,it is1 however1 distinguished by a prevalence of small and delicate species1 and by such forms as ,hymenophyllites and the smaller ,sphenopterids1 and also by some peculiar ferns1 as ,archopteris and ,megalopteris4 ,in addition to ferns1 it has small ,lepidodendra1 of which ,l4 ,gaspianum is the chief4 ,calamite occur1 ,archocalamites radiatus being the dominant species4 ,this plant1 which in ,europe appears to reach up into the ,lower ,carboniferous1 is so far strictly ,erian in northeast ,america4 ,sigillari scarcely appear1 but ,cordaites is abundant1 and the earliest known species of ,dadoxylon appear1 while the ,psilophyton1 so characteristic of the ,lower ,erian1 still continues1 and the remarkable aquatic plants of the genus ,ptilophyton are locally abundant4 7#c7 ,lower ,erian ,sub-,flora3 ,this belongs to the ,lower ,devonian sandstones and shales1 and is best seen in that formation at ,gasp and the ,bay des ,chaleurs4 ,it is equivalent to the ,oriskany sandstone1 so far as its animal fossils and mineral character are concerned4 ,it is characterised by the absence of true ferns1 ,calamites and ,sigillari1 and by the presence of such forms as ,psilophyton1 ,arthrostigma1 ,leptophleum1 and ,nematophyton4 ,lepidodendron ,gaspianum and ,leptophleum already occur1 though not nearly so abundant as ,psilophyton4 ,the ,lower ,erian plants have an antique and generalised aspect which would lead us to infer that they are near the beginning of the land-flora1 or perhaps in part belong to the close of an earlier flora still in great part unknown and few indications of land-plants have been found earlier4 ,at ,campbellton and ,scaumenac ,bay1 on the ,bay des ,chaleurs1 fossil fishes of genera characteristic of the ,lower and ,upper ,devonian horizons respectively1 occur in association with fossil plants of these horizons1 and have been described by ,mr4 ,whiteaves4,,fp ,,fp ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,canada4 ,it is interesting to note that1 as ,fontaine and ,white have observed1 certain forms which are ,erian in the northeast are found in the ,lower members of the ,carboniferous in ,west ,virginia1 indicating the southward march of species in these periods4 #c4 ,the ,silurian ,flora and still ,earlier ,indications of ,plants4 ,in the upper beds of the ,silurian1 those of the ,helderberg series1 we still find ,psilophyton and ,nematophyton2 but below these we know no land-plants in ,canada4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,lesquereux and ,claypole have described remains which may indicate the existence of lycopodiaceous and annularian types as far back as the beginning of the ,upper ,silurian1 or even as low as the ,hudson ,river group1 and ,hicks has found ,nematophyton and ,psilophyton in beds about as old in ,wales1 along with the uncertain stems named ,berwynia4 ,in the ,lower ,silurian the ,protannularia of the ,skiddaw series in ,england may represent a land-plant1 but this is uncertain1 and no similar species has been found in ,canada4 ,the ,cambrian rocks are so far barren of land-plants2 the so-called ,eophyton being evidently nothing but markings1 probably produced by crustaceans and other aquatic animals4 ,in the still older ,laurentian the abundant beds of graphite probably indicate the existence of plants1 but whether aquatic or terrestrial it is impossible to decide at present4 ,it would thus appear that our certain knowledge of land-vegetation begins with the ,upper ,silurian or the ,silurio-,cambrian1 and that its earliest forms were ,acrogens allied to ,lycopods1 and prototypal trees1 forerunners of the ,acrogens or the gymnosperms4 ,in the ,lower ,devonian little advance is made4 ,in the ,middle ,devonian this meagre flora had been replaced by one rivalling that of the ,carboniferous1 and including pines1 tree-ferns1 and arboreal forms of ,lycopods and of equisetaceous plants1 as well as numerous herbaceous plants4 ,at the close of the ,erian the flora again became meagre1 and continued so in the ,lower ,carboniferous4 ,it again became rich and varied in the ,middle ,carboniferous1 to decay in the succeeding ,permian4 ,,ii4--,,heer',s ,,latest ,,results ,,in ,,the ,,greenland ,,flora4 ,a very valuable report of ,prof4 ,steenstrup1 published in ,copenhagen in #ahhc1 the year in which ,heer died1 contains the results of his last work on the ,greenland plants1 and is so important that a summary of its contents will be interesting to all students of fossil botany or of the vicissitudes of climate which the earth has undergone4,,fq ,,fq ,meddelelser om ,gronland1 ,hefte ,v41 ,copenhagen1 #ahhc4 ,the plant-bearing beds of ,greenland are as follows1 in ascending order3 #a4 ,cretaceous4 #a4 ,the ,kom series1 of black shales resting on the ,laurentian gneiss4 ,these beds are found at various other localities1 but the name above given is that by which they are generally known4 ,their flora is limited to ferns1 cycads1 conifers1 and a few endogens1 with only ,populus primva to represent the dicotyledons4 ,these beds are regarded as ,lower ,cretaceous 7,urgonian71 but the animal fossils would seem to give them a rather higher position4 ,they may be regarded as equivalent to the ,kootanie and ,queen ,charlotte beds in ,canada1 and the ,potomac series in ,virginia4 #b4 ,the ,atan series4 ,these also are black shales with dark-coloured sandstones4 ,they are best exposed at ,upernavik and ,waigat4 ,here dicotyledonous leaves abound1 amounting to ninety species1 or more than half the whole number of species found4 ,the fossil plants resemble those of the ,dakota series of the ,united ,states and the ,dunvegan series of ,canada1 and the animal fossils indicate the horizon of the ,fort ,pierre or its lower part4 ,they may be regarded as representing the lower part of the ,upper ,cretaceous4 ,the genera ,populus1 ,myrica1 ,quercus1 ,ficus1 ,platanus1 ,sassafras1 ,laurus1 ,magnolia1 and ,liriodendron are among those represented in these beds1 and the peculiar genera ,macclintockia and ,credneria are characteristic4 ,the genus ,pinus is represented by five species1 ,sequoia by five1 and ,salisburia by two1 with three of the allied genus ,baiera4 ,there are many ferns and cycads4 #c4 ,the ,patoot series4 ,these are yellow and red shales1 which seem to owe their colour to the spontaneous combustion of pyritous lignite1 in the manner observed on the ,south ,saskatchewan and the ,mackenzie rivers4 ,their age is probably about that of the ,fox-,hill group or ,senonian1 and the ,upper ,cretaceous of ,vancouver ,island1 and they afford a large proportion of dicotyledonous leaves4 ,the genera of dicotyledons are not dissimilar from those of ,atan1 but we now recognise ,betula and ,alnus1 ,comptonia1 ,planera1 ,sapotacites1 ,fraxinus1 ,viburnum1 ,cornus1 ,acer1 ,celastrus1 ,paliurus1 ,ceanothus1 ,zizyphus1 and ,cratgus as new genera of modern aspect4 ,on the whole there have been found in all these beds #cce species1 belonging to #fj families1 of which #cf are dicotyledonous1 and represent all the leading types of arborescent dicotyledons of the temperate latitudes4 ,the flora is a warm temperate one1 with some remarkable mixtures of sub-tropical forms1 among which perhaps the most remarkable are ,kaidocarpum referred to the ,pandane1 and such exogens as ,ficus and ,cinnamomum4 #b4 ,tertiary4 #d4 ,the ,unartok series4 ,this is believed to be ,eocene4 ,it consists of sandstone1 which appears on the shores of ,disco ,island1 and possibly at some other places on the coast4 ,the beds rest directly and apparently conformably on the ,upper ,cretaceous1 and have afforded only eleven species of plants4 ,magnolia is represented by two species1 ,laurus by two1 ,platanus by two1 and one of these said to be identical with a species found by ,lesquereux in the ,laramie1,,fr ,viburnum1 ,juglans1 ,quercus1 each by one species2 the ubiquitous ,sequoias by ,s4 ,langsdorfii4 ,this is pretty clearly a ,lower ,laramie flora4 ,,fr ,viburnum marginatum of ,lesquereux4 #e4 ,the ,atanekerdluk series1 consisting of shaly beds1 with limestone intercalated between great sheets of basalt1 much like the ,eocene of ,antrim and the ,hebrides4 ,these beds have yielded #ahg species1 principally in bands and concretions of siderite1 and often in a good state of preservation4 ,they are referred to the ,lower ,miocene1 but1 as explained in the text1 the flora is more nearly akin to that of the ,eocene of ,europe and the ,laramie of ,america4 ,the animal fossils are chiefly fresh-water shells4 ,onoclea sensibilis1 several conifers1 as ,taxites ,olriki1 ,taxodium distichum1 ,glyptostrobus ,europus1 and ,sequoia ,langsdorfii1 and #db of the dicotyledons are recognised as found also in ,american localities4 ,of these1 a large proportion of the more common species occur in the ,laramie of the ,mackenzie ,river and elsewhere in northwest ,canada1 and in the western ,united ,states4 ,it is quite likely also that several species regarded as distinct may prove to be identical4 ,it would seem that throughout the whole thickness of these ,tertiary beds the flora is similar1 so that it is probable it belongs altogether to the ,eocene rather than to the ,miocene4 ,no indication has been observed of any period of cold intervening between the ,lower ,cretaceous and the top of the ,tertiary deposits1 so that1 in all the vast period which these formations represent1 the climate of ,greenland would seem to have been temperate4 ,there is1 however1 as is the case farther south1 evidence of a gradual diminution of temperature4 ,in the ,lower ,cretaceous the probable mean annual temperature in latitude #ga north is stated as #ba to #bb centigrade1 while in the early ,tertiary it is estimated at #ab centigrade4 ,such temperatures1 ranging from #ga to #ec of ,fahrenheit1 represent a marvellously warm climate for so high a latitude4 ,in point of fact1 however1 the evidence of warm climates in the arctic regions1 in the ,palozoic as well as in the ,mesozoic and early ,tertiary1 should perhaps lead us to conclude that1 relatively to the whole of geological time1 the present arctic climate is unusually severe1 and that a temperate climate in the arctic regions has throughout geological time been the rule rather than the exception4 ,,iii4--,,mineralisation ,,of ,,fossil ,,plants4 ,the state of preservation of fossil plants has been referred to incidentally in several places in the text2 but the following more definite statements may be of service to the reader4 ,i4 ,organic remains imbedded in aqueous deposits may occur in an unchanged condition1 or only more or less altered by decay4 ,this is often the case with such enduring substances as bark and wood1 and even with leaves1 which appear as thin carbonaceous films when the layers containing them are split open4 ,in the more recent deposits such remains occur little modified1 or perhaps only slightly changed by partial decay of their more perishable parts4 ,in the older formations1 however1 they are usually found in a more or less altered condition1 in which their original substance has been wholly or in part changed into coaly1 or bituminous1 or anthracitic or graphitic matter1 so that leaves are sometimes represented by stains of graphite1 as if drawn on stone with a lead-pencil4 ,yet even in this case some portion of the original substance remains1 and without any introduction of foreign material4 ,,ii4 ,on the other hand1 such remains are often mineralised by the filling of their pores or the replacement of their tissues with mineral matter1 so that they become hard and stony1 and sometimes retain little or nothing of their original substance4 ,the more important of these changes1 in so far as they affect fossil plants1 may be arranged under the following heads3 7a7 ,infiltration of mineral matter which has penetrated the pores of the fossil in a state of solution4 ,thus the pores of fossil wood are often filled with calcite1 quartz1 oxide of iron1 or sulphide of iron1 while the woody walls of the cells and vessels remain in a carbonised state1 or converted into coaly matter4 ,when wood is preserved in this way it has a hard and stony aspect2 but we can sometimes dissolve away the mineral matter1 and restore the vegetable tissue to a condition resembling that before mineralisation4 ,this is especially the case when calcite is the mineralising substance4 ,we sometimes find1 on microscopic examination1 that even cavities so small as those of vegetable cells and vessels have been filled with successive coats of different kinds of mineral matter4 7b7 ,organic matters may be entirely replaced by mineral substances4 ,in this case the cavities and pores have been first filled1 and then--the walls or solid parts being removed by decay or solution--mineral matter1 either similar to that filling the cavities1 or differing in colour or composition1 has been introduced4 ,silicified wood often occurs in this condition4 ,in the case of silicified wood1 it sometimes happens that the cavities of the fibers have been filled with silica1 and the wood has been afterward removed by decay1 leaving the casts of the tubular fibers as a loose filamentous substance4 ,some of the ,tertiary coniferous woods of ,california are in this state1 and look like asbestus1 though they show the minute markings of the tissue under the microscope4 ,in the case of silicified or agatized woods1 it would seem that the production of carbon dioxide from the decaying wood has caused the deposition of silica in its place1 from alkaline solutions of that substance1 and thus the carbon has been replaced1 atom by atom1 by silicon1 until the whole mass has been silicified1 yet retaining perfectly its structure4 7c7 ,the cavities left by fossils which have decayed may be filled with clay1 sand1 or other foreign matter1 and this1 becoming subsequently hardened into stone1 may constitute a cast of the fossils4 ,trunks of trees1 roots1 c41 are often preserved in this way1 appearing as stony casts1 often with the outer bark of the plant forming a carbonaceous coating on their surfaces4 ,in connection with this state may be mentioned that in which1 the wood having decayed1 an entire trunk has been flattened so as to appear merely as a compressed film of bark1 yet retaining its markings2 and that in which the whole of the vegetable matter having been removed1 a mere impression of the form remains4 ,fossils preserved in either of the modes1 7a7 or 7b71 usually show more or less of their minute structures under the microscope4 ,these may be observed3--7#a7 ,by breaking off small splinters or flakes and examining them1 either as opaque or as transparent objects4 7#b7 ,by treating the material with acids1 so as to dissolve out the mineral matters1 or portions of them4 ,this method is especially applicable to fossil woods mineralised with calcite or pyrite4 7#c7 ,by grinding thin sections4 ,these are first polished on one face on a coarse stone or emery hone1 and then on a fine hone1 then attached by the polished face to glass slips with a transparent cement or ,canada balsam1 and ground on the opposite face until they become so thin as to be translucent4 ,in most cities there are lapidaries who prepare slices of this kind2 but the amateur can readily acquire the art by a little practice1 and the necessary appliances can be obtained through dealers in minerals or in microscopic materials4 ,very convenient cutting and polishing machines1 some of them quite small and portable1 are now made for the use of amateurs4 ,in the case of exogenous woods1 three sections are necessary to exhibit the whole of the structures4 ,one of these should be transverse and two longitudinal1 the latter in radial and tangential planes4 ,,iv4--,,general ,,works ,,on ,,pal,,obotany4 ,in the text frequent reference has been made to special memoirs and reports on the fossil plants of particular regions or formations4 ,there are1 however1 some general books1 useful to students1 which may be mentioned here4 ,perhaps the most important is ,schimper's ,trait de ,palontologie ,vgtale4 ,very useful information is also contained in ,renault's ,cours de ,botanique ,fossile1 and in ,balfour's ,introduction to ,palontological ,botany1 and ,nicholson's ,palontology4 ,unger's ,genera et ,species1 ,brongniart's ,histoire des ,vgtaux ,fossiles1 and ,lindley and ,button's ,fossil ,flora1 are older though very valuable works4 ,williamson's ,memoirs1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 have greatly advanced our knowledge of the structures of ,palozoic plants4 ,lastly1 the ,palophytology of ,schenk1 now in course of publication in ,german and ,french1 in connection with ,zittel's ,palontology1 is an important addition to manuals of the subject4 ,,index4 ,acer1 #bbh4 ,acrogens1 #f4 ,agassiz1 ,prof41 #af4 ,alaska1 ,flora of1 #bde4 ,alg1 real and spurious1 #bf1 #bcj4 ,amboy clays1 ,flora of1 #bjc4 ,america1 ,cretaceous of1 #aij4 ,angiosperms1 #f4 ,annularia1 #abb4 ,anogens1 #f4 ,antholithes1 #acb4 ,aporoxylon1 #be4 ,araucarioxylon1 #adh4 ,araucarites1 #acd4 ,archocalamites1 #agj4 ,archopteris1 #gg1 #he4 ,arctic origin of plants1 #bba1 #bch4 ,arthrophycus1 #cj4 ,arthrostigma1 #fg4 ,asterophyllites1 #gh1 #abb1 #agj4 ,asteropteris1 #gg1 #he4 ,astropolithon1 #cj4 ,atan1 ,plants of1 #bdb1 #bha4 ,atanekerdluk1 ,plants of1 #bhc4 ,australia1 ,palozoic flora of1 #adg4 ,tertiary flora of1 #bag4 ,bauhinia1 #bjd4 ,bear ,island1 #bda4 ,betula1 #aih4 ,bilobites1 #bh4 ,bovey ,tracey1 ,plants of1 #bbf4 ,brasenia1 #bjg4 ,buckland1 ,dr41 #agi4 ,buthotrephis1 #cg4 ,calamites1 #gg1 #abc1 #aff4 ,calamodendron1 #abe4 ,cambrian flora1 #bj4 ,canada1 ,erian of1 #ajc4 ,carboniferous of1 #aaj4 ,laramie of1 #bji4 ,pleistocene of1 #bbg4 ,carbon in ,laurentian1 #i4 ,carboniferous flora1 #aaj4 ,carboniferous1 ,climate of1 #ach4 of ,southern ,hemisphere1 #adg4 ,cardiocarpum1 #hb1 #aec4 ,carruthers1 ,mr41 #bd1 #ih1 #ahj4 ,on modifications of modern plants1 #bbe1 #bfi4 ,carya1 #aif4 ,cauda-galli fucoid1 #aje4 ,caulerpites1 #bi4 ,caulopteris1 #ge1 #id4 ,clarke1 ,prof41 #ea4 ,climate1 ,causes of1 #bdg4 ,climate and plants1 #baf1 #bbj1 #bcb4 of ,carboniferous1 #ach4 of ,cretaceous and ,eocene1 #baf4 of ,devonian1 #dg4 of ,early ,mesozoic1 #agh4 ,climate and plants of ,laurentian1 #ag4 of ,pleistocene1 #bbg1 #bcj4 of ,pliocene1 #bbc4 ,coal1 origin of1 #aag1 #aci4 ,comparison of floras1 #bgb4 ,composite1 #bff4 ,cone-in-cone1 #cf4 ,conifer1 ,erian1 #gh1 #if4 ,carboniferous1 #acd1 #adh4 ,mesozoic1 etc41 #aha4 ,cope1 ,mr41 #bae4 ,cordaites1 #gh1 #acj1 #aea4 ,corylus1 #bac4 ,crepin1 ,m41 #ii4 ,cretaceous1 ,flora of1 #aij4 ,climate of1 #baf4 ,croll on climate1 #beb4 ,cromer1 ,plants of1 #bbd4 ,cycads1 ,mesozoic1 #agh4 ,cyclostigma1 #aeg4 ,dadoxylon1 #if1 #acd1 #adh4 ,dawson1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,m41 #eb1 #baj4 ,delgado1 ,prof41 #bf4 ,dendrophycus1 #cc4 ,derby1 ,orville1 #ec4 ,devonian flora1 #de4 ,devonian or ,erian1 #ajg1 #bgi4 ,climate of1 #dg4 ,dicotyledons1 ,cretaceous1 #aib4 ,table of1 #aib4 ,dictyolites1 #cc4 ,dictyospongia1 #ci4 ,disco1 ,exotic plants at1 #bef4 ,flora of1 #bde1 #bhb4 ,drepanophycus1 #ci4 ,drosera1 #bbh4 ,dunvegan beds1 #bdd4 ,eocene1 ,flora of1 #bjh1 #bad4 ,climate of1 #baf4 ,eophyton1 #ca4 ,eopteris1 #gb4 ,eozoon of ,laurentian1 #i4 ,equisetum1 #agf1 #bcj4 ,erian flora1 #de1 #bgi4 ,climate of1 #dg4 ,erian or ,devonian1 #ajg4 ,ettingshausen1 ,dr41 #ahg1 #bae4 ,exogens1 ,cretaceous1 #aib4 ,tertiary1 #bac1 #bbd4 ,fagus1 #aif1 #aig4 ,ferns1 ,erian1 #gb4 ,carboniferous1 #abf1 #aga4 ,fructification of1 #abh4 ,stems of1 #ij1 #abi4 ,tertiary1 #bab4 ,filices1 #gb1 #abf1 #aga4 ,flora of ,cambrian1 #bf4 of ,carboniferous1 #aaj1 #bgd4 of ,cretaceous1 #aij4 of ,early ,mesozoic1 #age4 of ,erian1 #de1 #bgi4 of ,jurassic1 #agg1 #ahf4 of ,laramie1 #bji4 of ,laurentian1 #h4 of ,miocene1 #bbj1 #bbc4 of ,modern1 #bai4 of ,permian1 #bgd4 of ,pleistocene1 #bbc1 #bbg4 of ,tertiary1 #aia1 #bjh1 #bad1 #bai4 ,fontaine1 ,prof41 #acj1 #agf4 ,fontinalis1 #bcj4 ,fort ,union beds1 #baj4 ,fucoids1 #bg4 ,gardner1 ,mr4 ,starkie1 #bab4 ,geinitz1 ,dr41 #agd4 ,geological formations1 ,table of1 #d4 ,glossopteris1 #adg4 ,glyptodendron1 #be4 ,glyptostrobus1 #aid4 ,goeppert1 ,dr41 #ii4 ,grant1 ,col41 #cf4 ,graphite from plants1 #h4 ,gray1 ,dr41 ,origin of floras1 #bbc1 #bcg4 ,greenland1 ,climate of1 #baf4 ,fossil flora of1 #bdg4 ,gulielmites1 #ce4 ,gymnosperms1 #f4 ,haliserites1 #ci4 ,hartt1 ,prof41 #ec4 ,heer1 ,dr41 #ajh1 #aha4 ,helderberg period1 ,sea of1 #bej4 ,heterangium1 #gg4 ,hicks1 ,dr41 #ba4 ,hunt1 ,dr4 ,sterry1 #ac1 #adc4 ,huxley1 ,prof41 #ec4 ,hymena1 #bjd4 ,insects1 ,erian1 #hc4 ,juglans1 #aif4 ,jurassic flora1 #agg4 ,kainozoic flora1 #aia1 #bjh1 #bad1 #bai4 ,kidston1 ,mr4 ,r41 #abh1 #bgc4 ,king1 ,mr4 ,clarence1 #baa4 ,kom1 ,plants of1 #bdb1 #bha4 ,laramie flora1 #bji1 #bae4 ,laurentian plants1 #h4 ,laurentian1 ,climate of1 #ag4 ,laurophyllum1 #aic4 ,laws of introduction of plants1 #bcg1 #bff4 ,leda clay1 ,flora of1 #bcb4 ,lepidodendron1 #abj1 #aef1 #afb4 ,lepidophloios1 #aba1 #aeg1 #afe4 ,leptophleum1 #aeg4 ,lesquereux1 ,mr4 ,l41 #afi1 #bad4 ,licrophycus1 #cj4 ,lignitic series of ,america1 #bjh4 ,liquidambar1 #aig4 ,liriodendron1 #aii4 ,lower ,carboniferous flora1 #bgg4 ,logan1 ,sir ,w41 #dh4 ,lyell on climate1 #bdi4 ,magnolia1 #bjj4 ,mc,connell1 ,mr41 #bji4 ,mc,nab1 ,prof41 #afi4 ,megalopteris1 #gf4 ,megaphyton1 #abi4 ,mesozoic flora1 #age4 ,climate of1 #agh4 ,migrations of plants1 #bdj1 #bde4 ,miller1 ,hugh1 #ih4 ,miocene flora1 #bbj4 ,miocene1 ,supposed1 #bdb4 ,modern flora1 #bai4 ,modern plants1 how modified1 #bfi4 ,modifications of plants1 #bff4 ,nathorst1 ,dr41 #bf1 #aif4 ,nematodendre1 #be4 ,nematophycus1 #bc4 ,nematophyton1 #ba1 #bb1 #db4 ,newberry1 ,dr41 #bjj1 #bjc1 #bad4 ,newfoundland1 ,fossil plants of1 #bdb4 ,newton1 ,mr41 #eb4 ,nicholson1 ,dr4 ,a41 #bj4 ,niobrara series1 #bdc1 #bdf4 ,noeggerathia1 #acj4 ,northern origin of plants1 #bch4 ,origin of plants1 #bcg4 ,orton1 ,prof41 #ea4 ,pachytheca1 #ba4 ,palanthus1 #bje4 ,palochorda1 #cj4 ,palophycus1 #cj1 #ch4 ,palozoic floras compared1 #bgc4 ,palms1 #ahh1 #aid4 ,pandanus1 #ahh4 ,patoot beds1 #bhb4 ,peach1 ,mr41 #ih4 ,petroleum1 ,origin of1 #ef4 ,phymatoderma1 #bi4 ,plants1 ,classification of1 #f4 ,platanus1 #aih4 ,platyphyllum1 #gd4 ,pleistocene climate1 #bbg1 #bcj4 ,pleistocene flora1 #bbc1 #bbg4 ,pliocene climate1 #bbc4 ,podozamites1 #agh4 ,poles1 ,supposed change of1 #bdh4 ,populus1 #aia1 #bbh4 ,potamogeton1 #bbi4 ,potentilla1 #bbh4 ,protannularia1 #ba4 ,protichnites1 #bg4 ,protophyllum1 #aii4 ,protosalvinia1 #eb4 ,protostigma1 #bj4 ,prototaxites1 #ba4 ,psaronius1 #ic4 ,psilophyton1 #fd4 ,ptilophyton1 #fb1 #hf4 ,quercus1 #aig4 ,rhizocarps1 #dh4 ,rill-marks1 #cc4 ,rusichnites1 #bh4 ,saccamina1 #eg4 ,salisburia1 #ahj4 ,salter1 ,mr41 #ih4 ,salvinia1 #ed4 ,saporta1 ,count de1 #bf1 #aic4 ,saportea1 #eg4 ,sassafras1 #aii4 ,scalariform tissue1 #gj4 ,schimper1 ,dr41 #aaf1 #afi1 #bjh4 ,scolithus1 #cj4 ,scottish ,devonian1 #ih4 ,sequoia1 #aha4 ,shrinkage cracks1 #cc4 ,sigillaria1 #ga1 #aab1 #aed4 ,southern ,hemisphere1 #bag1 #bgc4 ,carboniferous in1 #adg4 ,tertiary in1 #bag4 ,sphenophyllum1 #fa1 #abb1 #aga4 ,spirophyton1 #ch4 ,spitzbergen1 #bda4 ,sterculites1 #aic4 ,sternbergia1 #acg1 #aeb4 ,stigmaria1 #aae4 ,stur1 ,dr41 on ,sigillaria1 #aaf4 ,symphorocarpus1 #bad4 ,syringodendron1 #aef4 ,syringoxylon1 #hb4 ,table of formations1 #d4 ,tasmania1 ,fossil plants of1 #bag1 #bdf4 ,tasmanite1 #eg4 ,tertiary period1 ,flora of1 #aia1 #bjh1 #bad1 #bai4 ,tertiary of ,australia1 #bag4 ,thallogens1 #f4 ,thomas1 ,mr41 #ea4 ,thuja1 #bac1 #bbi4 ,time1 ,geological1 #e4 ,trapa1 #aif4 ,tree-ferns1 #ij1 #abi4 ,triassic flora1 #agf4 ,trigonocarpum1 #acf1 #aec4 ,tyndall1 ,prof41 #ach4 ,ulrich1 ,prof41 #eg4 ,unartok beds1 #bha4 ,ursa stage of ,heer1 #ajh1 #bda4 ,walchia1 #acd1 #ach4 ,ward1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,t41 #aib1 #bab1 #bae4 ,wethered1 ,mr4 ,e41 #eb4 ,white1 ,dr41 #bae4 ,williams1 ,prof41 #ea4 ,williamson1 ,dr41 #bf1 #ca1 #ga1 #afg4 ,williamsonia1 #ahh4 ,,the ,,end4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,charles ,,darwin',s ,,works4 ,,origin ,,of ,,species ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,natural ,,selection1 ,,or ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,favored ,,races ,,in ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,life4 ,revised edition1 with ,additions4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,descent ,,of ,,man1 ,,and ,,selection ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,sex4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,a new edition4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #c4jj4 ,,journal ,,of ,,researches ,,into ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,and ,,geology ,,of ,,countries ,,visited ,,during ,,the ,,voyage ,,of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,,beagle ,,round ,,the ,,world4 ,new edition4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,emotional ,,expressions ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,lower ,,animals4 #ab mo4 ,cloth1 #c4ej4 ,,the ,,variations ,,of ,,animals ,,and ,,plants ,,under ,,domestication4 ,with a ,preface1 by ,professor ,asa ,gray4 #b vols4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #e4jj4 ,,insectivorous ,,plants4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,movements ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,climbing ,,plants4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,the ,,various ,,contrivances ,,by ,,which ,,orchids ,,are ,,fertilized ,,by ,,insects4 ,revised edition1 with ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4 ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,cross ,,and ,,self ,,fertilization ,,in ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,different ,,forms ,,of ,,flowers ,,on ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,species4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,movement ,,in ,,plants4 ,by ,charles ,darwin1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 assisted by ,francis ,darwin4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,vegetable ,,mould ,,through ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,worms4 ,with ,observations on their ,habits4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ----------------------- ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,thomas ,h4 ,,huxley',s ,,works4 ,,science ,,and ,,culture1 ,,and ,,other ,,essays4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,the ,,crayfish3 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,zo,,logy4 ,with #hb ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4 ,,science ,,primers3 ,,introductory4 #ahmo4 ,flexible cloth1 #de cents4 ,,man',s ,,place ,,in ,,nature4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,species4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj4 ,,more ,,criticisms ,,on ,,darwin1 ,,and ,,administrative ,,nihilism4 #abmo4 ,limp cloth1 #ej cents4 ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,vertebrated ,,animals4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4 ,,manual ,,of ,,the ,,anatomy ,,of ,,invertebrated ,,animals4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4 ,,lay ,,sermons1 ,,addresses1 ,,and ,,reviews4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4 ,,critiques ,,and ,,addresses4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,american ,,addresses2 ,,with ,a ,,lecture ,,on ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,biology4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,physiography3 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,nature4 ,with ,illustrations and ,colored ,plates4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4 ,,huxley ,,and ,,youmans',s ,,elements ,,of ,,physiology ,,and ,,hygiene4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley and ,w4 ,j4 ,youmans4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ----------------------- ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,john ,,tyndall',s ,,works4 ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,floating ,,matter ,,of ,,the ,,air1 in ,relation to ,putrefaction and ,infection4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,on ,,forms ,,of ,,water1 in ,clouds1 ,rivers1 ,ice1 and ,glaciers4 ,with #ce ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,heat ,,as ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,motion4 ,new edition4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4 ,,on ,,sound3 ,a ,course of ,eight ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,new edition4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,fragments ,,of ,,science ,,for ,,unscientific ,,people4 #abmo4 ,new revised and enlarged edition4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4 ,,light ,,and ,,electricity4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,,lessons ,,in ,,electricity1 #ahge-'gf4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj ,,hours ,,of ,,exercise ,,in ,,the ,,alps4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,faraday ,,as ,a ,,discoverer4 ,a ,memoir4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj4 ,,contributions ,,to ,,molecular ,,physics in the ,do main of ,radiant ,heat4 #e4jj4 ,,six ,,lectures ,,on ,,light4 ,delivered in ,america in #ahgb-'gc4 ,with an ,appendix and numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,farewell ,,banquet1 given to ,professor ,tyndall1 at ,delmonico's1 ,new ,york1 ,february #d1 #ahgc4 ,paper1 #ej cents4 ,,address delivered before the ,british ,association1 assembled at ,belfast4 ,revised with ,additions1 by the author1 since the ,delivery #abmo4 ,paper1 #ej cents4 ----------------------- ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,ernst ,,haeckel',s ,,works4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,creation2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,its ,,inhabitants ,,by ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,natural ,,causes4 ,a ,popular ,exposition of the ,doctrine of ,evolution in general1 and of that of ,darwin1 ,goethe1 and ,lamarck in particular4 ,from the ,german of ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,professor in the ,university of ,jena4 ,the translation revised by ,professor ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4 ,r1 ,s41 ,fellow of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 ,illustrated with ,lithographic ,plates4 ,in two vols41 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #e4jj4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,man1 ,a ,popular ,exposition of the ,principal ,points of ,human ,ontogeny and ,phylogeny4 ,from the ,german of ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,professor in the ,university of ,jena1 author of ,the ,history of ,creation1 etc4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,in two vols41 #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,price1 #e4jj4 ,in this excellent translation of ,professor ,haeckel's work1 the ,english reader has access to the latest doctrines of the ,continental school of evolution1 in its application to the history of man4 ,it is in ,germany1 beyond any other ,european country1 that the impulse given by ,darwin twenty years ago to the theory of evolution has influenced the whole tenor of philosophical opinion4 ,there may be1 and are1 differences in the degree to which the doctrine may be held capable of extension into the domain of mind and morals2 but there is no denying1 in scientific circles at least1 that as regards the physical history of organic nature much has been done toward making good a continuous scheme of being4--,london ,saturday ,review4 ,,freedom ,,in ,,science ,,and ,,teaching4 ,from the ,german of ,ernst ,haeckel4 ,with a ,prefatory ,note by ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 #abmo4 #a4jj4 ----------------------- ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,sir ,,john ,,lubbock',s 7,bart47 ,,works4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,civilization ,,and ,,the ,,primitive ,,condition ,,of ,,man1 ,,mental ,,and ,,social ,,condition ,,of ,,savages4 ,fourth edition1 with numerous ,additions4 ,with ,illustrations1 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #e4jj4 ,the first edition of this work was published in the year #ahgj4 ,the work has been twice revised for the press in the interval1 and now appears in its fourth edition enlarged to the extent of nearly two hundred pages1 including a full index4 ,this interesting work--for it is intensely so in its aim1 scope1 and the ability of its author--treats of what the scientists denominate anthropology1 or the natural history of the human species2 the complete science of man1 body and soul1 including sex1 temperament1 race1 civilization1 etc4--,providence ,press4 ,,prehistoric ,,times1 ,,as ,,illustrated ,,by ,,ancient ,,remains ,,and ,,the ,,manners ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,,modern ,,savages4 ,illustrated4 ,entirely new revised edition4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #e4jj4 ,the book ranks among the noblest works of the interesting and important class to which it belongs4 ,as a rsum of our present knowledge of prehistoric man1 it leaves nothing to be desired4 ,it is not only a good book of reference but the best on the subject4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the best summary of evidence now in our possession concerning the general character of prehistoric times4 ,the ,bronze ,age1 ,the ,stone ,age1 ,the ,tumuli1 ,the ,lake ,inhabitants of ,switzerland1 ,the ,shell ,mounds1 ,the ,cave ,man1 and ,the ,antiquity of ,man1 are the titles of the most important chapters4--,dr4 ,c4 ,k4 ,adams's ,manual of ,historical ,literature4 ,,ants1 ,,bees1 ,,and ,,wasps4 ,a ,record of ,observations on the ,habits of the ,social ,hymenoptera4 ,with ,colored ,plates4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,this volume contains the record of various experiments made with ants1 bees1 and wasps during the last ten years1 with a view to test their menial condition and powers of sense4 ,the principal point in which ,sir ,john's mode of experiment differs from those of ,huber1 ,forel1 ,mc,cook1 and others1 is that he has carefully watched and marked particular insects1 and has had their nests under observation for long periods--one of his ants' nests having been under constant inspection ever since #ahgd ,his observations are made principally upon ants1 because they show more power and flexibility of mind2 and the value of his studies is that they belong to the department of original research4 ,we have no hesitation in saying that the author has presented us with the most valuable series of observations on a special subject that has ever been produced1 charmingly written1 full of logical deductions1 and1 when we consider his multitudinous engagements1 a remarkable illustration of economy of time4 ,as a contribution to insect psychology1 it will be long before this book finds a parallel4--,london ,athenum4 ----------------------- ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,dr4 ,h4 ,,alleyne ,,nicholson',s ,,works4 ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,zo,,logy1 for ,schools and ,colleges4 #abmo4 ,half roan1 #a4fj4 ,,manual ,,of ,,zo,,logy1 for the ,use of ,students1 with a ,general ,introduction to the ,principles of ,zology4 ,second edition4 ,revised and enlarged1 with #bdc ,woodcuts4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,geology1 for ,schools and ,colleges4 #abmo4 ,half roan1 #a4be4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,biology1 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,life-,,history ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,a ,comprehensive ,outline of the ,principles and ,leading ,facts of ,palontological ,science4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,a work by a master in the science who understands the significance of every phenomenon which he records1 and knows how to make it reveal its lessons4 ,as regards its value there can scarcely exist two opinions4 ,as a text-book of the historical phase of palontology is will be indispensable to students1 whether specially pursuing geology or biology2 and without it no man who aspires even to an outline knowledge of natural science can deem his library complete4--,the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science4 ,the ,professor of ,natural ,history in the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews has1 by his previous works on zoology and paleontology1 so fully established his claim to be an exact thinker and a close reasoner1 that scarcely any recommendation of ours can add to the interest with which all students in natural history will receive the present volume4 ,it is1 as its second title expresses it2 a comprehensive outline of the principles and leading facts of palontoiogical science4 ,numerous woodcut illustrations very delicately executed1 a copious glossary1 and an admirable index1 add much to the value of this volume4--,athenum4 ----------------------- ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,notes ,all images were moved so as to not split paragraphs4