,illustration ,,front ,,of ,,tumbling ,,glacier ,,on ,,berg ,,lake ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,dominion ,,parks ,,branch ,glaciers of the ,rockies and ,selkirks ,by ,a4 ,p4 ,coleman1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4 ,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,president ,alpine ,club of ,canada ,author of 8,the ,canadian ,rockies0 ,with ,notes on ,five ,great ,glaciers of the ,canadian ,national ,parks ,by ,a4 ,o4 ,wheeler1 ,director ,alpine ,club of ,canada ,re-,published under the direction of ,sir ,james ,lougheed ,minister of the ,interior ,first ,edition1 #aiad ,second ,edition1 #aiba ,glaciers of the ,rockies and ,selkirks ,the traveller going westwards from the prairie finds the way blocked by a grim wall of cliffs rising #g1jjj or #h1jjj feet above the sea and justifying the name of the 8,rockies0 given to our greatest chain of mountains4 ,toward the end of the summer these desolate precipices are snowless and except for a glimpse of white peaks through some pass there is scarcely a suggestion of the glacier region within4 ,then the train enters the 8,gap0 and before long the summits around show fields or patches of midsummer snow2 and as one draws nearer to the heart of the ,rockies there is blue ice to be seen clinging to the cliffs or reaching as glaciers down into the wooded valleys1 and one is thrilled with the wild charm of alpine scenery4 ,however1 engineers are strict utilitarians and always choose the lowest pass for a railway1 so that the passenger in the observation car catches only tantalizing glimpses of the wonders and beauties of the ice world a few miles away and a few thousand feet above the valley4 ,one must stop at some place like lake ,louise in the southern ,rockies or ,tte ,jaune in the north or ,glacier in the ,selkirks to come into real contact with snow fields and glaciers4 ,what a joy it is to get rid of the hot and dusty everyday world of cities for a while and come close to ,nature in one of her wildest moods6 ,it is not only the mountaineer who feels the seduction of the cool1 clean solitudes where glaciers are born and do their wonderful work4 ,every healthy manor woman must yield to the delight of living in those inspiring surroundings4 ,it is worthwhile to put on warm strong clothes and hob-nailed shoes and fill your lungs with mountain air in a scramble up to the snow fields to see how the glacial machinery works1 machinery which some thousands of years ago shaped almost the whole surface of ,canada1 doing its work on the plains as well as the mountains and leaving it the splendid land of lakes and rivers and fertile prairies and rolling hills which it is to-day4 ,snowline4 ,to reach the snows generally means some miles of walking and climbing1 often through forest covered slopes at first where the outside world is lost4 ,then the trees begin to thin and grow stunted1 revealing between the trunks blue valleys with a lake or two and far off cliffs and mountains4 ,at last the trees cease at #g1ejj feet and you are at timberline4 ,here the three ,rocky mountain heathers spread soft thick carpets between stiff bushes only a few feet high but with trunks a foot through1 so buffeted have they been by the storms of centuries4 ,the rows of dwarfed spruces leaning back against some rock ledge give fine shelter for the mountain goats1 wisps of whose white wool cling to the stubborn branches4 ,then come cliffs and rocky slopes and grassy or sedgy uplands 7the true alps as the word is used in ,switzerland7 where mountain sheep or goats pasture and wild flowers grow by the million1 blue ones such as lupines1 gentians1 fox-gloves and forget-me-nots2 yellow ones such as adder-tongues1 columbines and a multitude of starry composite flowers2 the red or orange ,indian paint brush2 and white flowers innumerable4 ,you have reached the edge of the snow rapidly melting on a ,july day under a sun that is hot even on high mountains4 ,the plants just freed from their winter covering are all bursting into bloom together1 bees are humming1 butterflies lazily flutter past and a humming bird poises over a blossom2 for it is spring at these altitudes and there is a whole season's work to be done1 seeds ripened and all1 before autumn comes in ,september with its snowstorms burying all under the white silence of a nine-months winter again4 ,it is a thrilling experience to set foot at last on midsummer snow sweeping upwards1 gleaming toward the higher summits1 snow that never entirely melts and that is so dazzling in the ,july sunlight that one needs dark or colored glasses to avoid snow blindness if the tramp is to be a long one4 ,illustration ,,glacier ,,on ,,president ,,range1 ,,yoho ,,park ,we have no special word in ,english for these perpetual snow fields and so the ,french term ,n,v is commonly used4 ,snowline is not nearly so definite as timberline and varies with latitude1 exposure and snowfall4 ,in the eastern ,rockies of ,alberta1 where only a few feet fall in winter1 the line is scarcely below #i1jjj feet2 while in the western ,selkirks1 which catch the full brunt of the ,pacific winds laden with moisture and have a snowfall of #dj or #ej feet in a year1 snowline is depressed almost to timberline1 about #g1ejj feet4 ,this accounts for the bareness of the eastern ,rockies as compared with the splendid ,alpine features of the ,selkirk range1 which is the lower of the two4 ,while one gazes entranced at the array of lakes and valleys1 of snowfields and dark cliffs1 the wind rises and mountains to the west put on a cap of cloud4 ,this grows and darkens and presently a mantle of mist sweeps up with the wind1 the sun is dimmed and in a few minutes the wide world is shut out by a blizzard4 ,we must make our way down to lower levels where sleet whitens the closing flowers1 and then through a belt of rain swept hillside into the valley where the sun may still be shining hotly4 ,since snow falls every month in the year on the nv fields and never melts away one might expect the mountains1 especially the ,selkirks1 to grow as snowheaps into the sky2 but of course this does not take place4 ,under the increasing load of snow the lower beds are compressed into ice2 so that the nv1 beginning as loose or hard drifted snow above passes downwards into ice banded with blue and white layers1 the whole sometimes hundreds of feet in thickness4 ,the snow accumulates only on the gentler slopes or in the higher valleys4 ,on cliffs it cannot lodge but piles upon the nv beneath2 and on steep slopes it may lie for a time but now and then1 especially toward spring1 it breaks loose and thunders down into the valley as an avalanche4 ,the ,motion of ,glaciers4 ,the final disposal of the snowfield1 turned to ice in its lower parts1 comes by a slow creep downwards4 ,that the nv is actually in motion can be seen by following the slope of snow to its upper edge against some mountain wall where a 8,,bergschrund0 generally yawns between the snowfield and the cliff4 ,this may be several feet wide1 and may go down many feet to obscure depths4 ,no amount of snow fall can fill the chasm permanently1 though it may be bridged with fresh snow for a time1 making a risky passage for the climber4 ,illustration ,,cavern ,,on ,,illecillewaet ,,glacier ,illustration ,,snout ,,or ,,forefoot ,,of ,,robson ,,glacier1 ,,jasper ,,park ,the nv is always pulling away from the rocks at its upper border1 and its general motion follows the direction of the lowest depression beneath1 finally extending below snowline as a tongue of ice which reaches down into the valley until it is melted by the increasing warmth of the lower levels4 ,thus a glacier is born4 ,unless whitened by recent storms the glacier is bare of snow in summer with a rough uneven surface of a dirty blue green color1 partly covered with rocky debris1 and its volume diminishes downward by thawing until at a definite point the whole is melted and flows away as a river of water instead of ice4 ,the lower end is sometimes called the 8tongue0 or 8snout0 or 8foot0 of the glacier--a bad case of mixed metaphors4 ,illustration ,,crevasse ,,on ,,great ,,glacier ,remembering that ice is a hard and brittle solid1 it comes as a surprise to find that it can flow like a plastic body under the pull of gravity2 but this can be easily proved4 ,a row of stakes or of metal plates put across a glacier gradually gets out of line1 the middle parts moving fastest as in a river2 but the motion is very slow1 even in the middle1 seldom more than a few inches a day in our mountain glaciers1 though some of the great ,alaskan and ,greenland glaciers are reported to move several feet a day and in one or two cases as much as #fj or #gj feet4 ,illustration ,,moulin 7,,in ,,morning ,,before ,,thaw ,,begins7 ,,robson ,,glacier ,illustration ,,moraine ,,of ,,victoria ,,glacier ,at a sudden descent1 where a river would leap as a waterfall1 a glacier simply breaks across in what are called 8,,crevasses10 fissures which may be several feet wide and hundreds of feet long1 going down to blue black depths appalling to the inexperienced climber4 ,as the glacier advances these crevasse are bent out of shape and may be crossed by fresh crevasses1 splitting up the ice into wild lumps and pinnacles called 8,,seracs40 ,seen from a distance across some valley such an ice fall looks like a cascade or a violent rapid covered with breakers4 ,below these steep descents the crevasses and seracs disappear by the pressure of the moving ice and the glacier becomes a solid mass again4 ,small glaciers hanging from cliffs may send down avalanches of ice which combine to make a lower glacier1 the masses being welded together once more4 ,it is evident that one cause of glacier motion is the power which ice has to break and then to freeze together again4 ,illustration ,,glacier ,,table1 ,,near ,,ten ,,peaks1 ,,rocky ,,mountains ,,park ,illustration ,,lake ,,agnes1 ,a ,,good ,,example ,,of ,a ,,cirque ,,lake ,since glaciers are often the easiest way up a mountain1 climbing parties make use of them1 starting at dawn so as to have a long day and following up the rough and rigid slope1 zigzagging round crevasses and avoiding regions of seracs4 ,toward the upper end there may be fresh snow bridging the crevasses and the party should be roped together and travel in single file1 the leading guide thrusting his ice axe into the snow at every step to make sure of safe going4 ,a fall into a crevasse when unroped may be fatal4 ,seventeen years ago1 while climbing ,mt4 ,gordon north of lake ,louise1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,thompson slipped #fj feet into a crevasse where he was wedged in between the narrowing walls4 ,dr4 ,collie was lowered to rescue him1 and he was finally pulled out by a glacier rope fastened round his arms1 but it was a narrow escape4 ,when the sun shines warmly on the glacier melting begins and water trickles down the ice ridges1 and towards afternoon torrents of pale blue water are racing downwards in ice channels1 here and there plunging into a crevasse4 ,this becomes hollowed into a tube like the penstock of a water power and the foamy torrent springing into the blue chasm is called a 8moulin10 or mill4 ,in this way the waters thawed from the surface reach the bottom and there roar along through an ice tunnel to the end of the glacier1 bursting into daylight as a full fledged river4 ,glacial streams are capricious4 ,on a frosty morning scarcely any water flows and one can go far into the ice cave1 but in the late afternoon there is a raging torrent loaded with mud and stones spreading into half a dozen channels on the broad flood ground4 ,on a rainy or snowy day when the sun is hidden1 the glacial river almost goes out of business1 but comes to life again when the clouds vanish and the sun shines4 ,at those heights with a clear sky the heat of the sun may be intense though it is freezing a few feet away where some rock casts a shadow4 ,the ,work of ,glaciers4 ,one of the most interesting points in a glacier is its carrying power4 ,though it is in motion like a plastic substance it is solid and strong enough to support any weight loaded upon it4 ,debris quarried by frost from the mountain side buries its edge so that often one may walk #ej yards out before the ice can be seen4 ,this fringe of broken rock carried on the edge of the glacier is called a marginal moraine4 ,when two glaciers join1 the marginal moraines between them unite to form a medial moraine1 and when several tributaries combine to make a large glacier the dark lines of the medial moraines can be followed by the eye for long distances upwards to rocky peaks rising out of the nv1 the source from which the train of rocks was derived4 ,blocks even as large as cottages now and then roll down upon the ice and are transported without trouble4 ,medium size blocks a few feet across called 8glacier tables0 are left standing on pedestals of ice1 as thawing goes on all round them1 since they protect the ice beneath from the sun4 ,the whole mass of stony material is carried steadily onwards until the end is reached where melting is complete and no more burdens can be borne4 ,then a terminal moraine is piled up1 a steep and rugged crescent of loose blocks by no means easy to scramble over4 ,work just as important is going on out of sight beneath the glacier1 where fragments of stone frozen into the bottom of the ice form tools for gouging1 carving and scouring the rocky floor1 both tools and rocks being ground up into the 8rock flour0 that makes the glacier streams so milky and opaque4 ,the ground up material mixed with stones of all shapes and sizes without any assortment is left behind when the glacier thaws as 8boulder clay40 ,a little search in this clay shows stones with polished and striated surfaces1 well worn tools1 often called 8soled boulders0 and the rock surface beneath the boulder clay is seen to be rounded1 smoothed and grooved in a very striking way4 ,the ,retreat of ,glaciers4 ,our glaciers1 like those of other countries1 are now almost all in retreat1 either because the climate is slowly growing warmer so that thawing goes on faster or because the snowfall is lessening so that the nv fields no longer feed the glaciers as substantially as before4 ,on this account one can often see several terminal moraines down the valley below the one now forming4 ,the nearest to the present end of the ice is almost bare1 the next1 a few hundred yards away1 may have bushes growing on it1 and others a mile or two away may be covered with ancient forest4 ,for some years past the ,vaux family of ,philadelphia1 two brothers and a sister1 all admirable photographers1 have fixed the position of the end of all accessible glaciers by marking points and directions on rocks near by and by photographing the snout of the glacier4 ,this work determines their rate of advance or recession from year to year1 and a record of the results is published in the journal of the ,alpine ,club of ,canada and elsewhere4 ,illustration ,,lake ,,louise ,,and ,,victoria ,,glacier ,glaciers once filled all the mountain valleys and even pushed out through the passes into the prairies and through the fiords to the sea1 for everywhere one finds boulder clay and moraines and valleys with ,u shaped cross sections that can only be accounted for by glacial action on a large scale4 ,this work was done during the ,ice ,age1 and one may truly say that the higher mountains are still in the ,glacial ,period4 ,one of the most beautiful results of former ice action is to be found in the 8cirques10 half ,kettle or arm chair valleys1 high up among the mountains overhanging the main valleys and enclosed by vertical cliffs on all sides except in front4 ,these are the deserted nests of cliff glaciers1 hollowed out by the ice itself and often deepened so that a turquoise blue lake lies within rock rims4 ,if not too high up these cirque lakes are surrounded by evergreen forest1 behind which rise the gray or purple walls of rock with some snow in the ravines above1 the whole mirrored in the lake1 until some catspaw of breeze shatters the reflection4 ,lake ,agnes in the mountains behind lake ,louise is an easily reached example of a cirque basin1 and there are hundreds of others scattered through the fastnesses of the mountains1 all gems in their way1 many not yet seen by the eye of a white man4 ,the higher cirque lakes1 above timberline1 enclosed only by cliffs and snow1 have an austere beauty of their own1 but lack the graces and the wild flowers of their sisters below in the forest zone4 ,often the walls of such valleys are leaped by streams from some melting snowfield falling hundreds of feet and reaching the bottom as mere threads of spray4 ,glaciers ,reached by the ,canadian ,pacific ,there are very few parts of the world where fine glacial scenery can be found so close to a great railway as in our mountain parks4 ,if one stops at lake ,louise1 in ,rocky ,mountains ,park1 the splendid ,victoria glacier is in view doubled by reflection in its waters1 which get their exquisite color from the last remaining particles of mud brought down by the glacial stream4 ,two miles walk or ride along a good trail brings one into its presence1 and often great masses of ice may be seen avalanching down from cliff glaciers above to the surface of the lower glacier4 ,from lake ,louise as a centre one can reach the well named ,paradise valley by ten miles ride or drive over a good road and visit the fine ,horseshoe glacier at its head4 ,the valley of the ,ten ,peaks farther to the southeast requires a somewhat longer ride or drive1 passing the splendid front of ,mt4 ,temple1 the highest summit in sight from the railway 7#aa1fbf feet74 ,moraine lake1 eleven miles from lake ,louise lies near the entrance of the valley but farther up can be seen the great ,wenkchemna glacier1 and several small glaciers lying between the ,ten ,peaks4 ,beyond the ,ten ,peaks to the south there is a broad snowfield and glacier leading over to ,prospector's valley and ,vermilion pass1 but for an excursion of such length and difficulty one should be equipped for serious climbing and have a light camp outfit4 ,from any high point west of lake ,louise one can catch glimpses of a much larger snowfield towards the north near ,mts4 ,daly and ,balfour1 but the glaciers flowing from it are not so easily reached as those to the south of the railway4 ,there are glaciers in sight during most of the descent by rail from the summit of the pass through the wild ,kickinghorse valley to ,field1 in the ,yoho ,park1 from which the ,yoho valley may be visited with ,yoho glacier at its head4 ,descending beyond this into the warm depths of the ,columbia valley the alpine type of scenery is lost for a time4 ,as the railway climbs laboriously westward out of the valley into the ,selkirks1 ,glacier ,park is entered4 ,here the scenery grows more striking until at ,rogers pass one is once more surrounded by snow peaks--hidden1 alas6 too often by the long snowshed4 ,the five mile tunnel now being pierced to avoid the heavy grades of the pass will cut out many a ravishing view of snow peak and ice tongue2 but a stay at ,glacier1 just beyond the pass1 gives an unrivalled chance to study a fine glacier with the least possible trouble4 ,the ,illecillewaet or ,great glacier is only a mile and a half from ,glacier station and as its foot may be reached with very little climbing1 more travellers visit it than any other glacier in ,canada4 ,a climb to ,mt4 ,lookout just west of the glacier gives a magnificent view over the ,illecillewaet glacier and nv and over the grand mountains surrounding it4 ,this region was the first part of our snowy mountains to be carefully explored and mapped by a skilful climber4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,spotswood ,green made ,glacier his headquarters for this work in #ahhh and published his interesting book 8,among the ,selkirk ,glaciers0 in #ahij4 ,illustration ,,the ,,illecillewaet ,,or ,,great ,,glacier1 ,,glacier ,,park ,there are still finer snowfields and glaciers in the little explored region to the north around ,mt4 ,sir ,sandford1 the highest point in the range 7#aa1fcd feet71 though these are out of reach for the present2 but any of the higher peaks near ,glacier give a marvellous view over a wilderness of snow and ice broken by cliffs too steep for snow to lie4 ,illustration ,,crevasses1 ,,glacier ,,southeast ,,of ,,ten ,,peaks ,some of the lower points of the ,selkirks1 just west of the ,columbia valley1 not more than #g1jjj or #h1jjj feet in height1 face the opposite ,rocky mountains with #ajj or more glaciers in sight at once1 the view beyond the wide and deep valley sweeping #aej miles of the main chain on its snowy western side4 ,unfortunately up to the present no path has been made to such a lookout point1 and the dense forest makes the ascent difficult4 ,the greatest nv in ,canada1 so far as known1 is the ,columbia snowfield covering #ajj square miles and sending tongues of ice down into a dozen valleys1 but this is #hj miles northwest of ,lake ,louise and can only be visited with a camp outfit and packtrain4 ,its northern limit will be within new boundaries of ,jasper ,park and some day a good road will lead through the mountains past this splendid glacier region from the ,grand ,trunk ,pacific to the ,canadian ,pacific opening up to the public the finest glacial playground in ,canada4 ,the ,robson ,region4 ,the beauties of the ,louise1 ,field and ,glacier regions on the ,canadian ,pacific are well known to the public and have been seen by thousands but the exceedingly impressive glacial surroundings of ,mt4 ,robson near the ,yellowhead ,pass on the ,grand ,trunk ,pacific have so far been little visited4 ,mt4 ,robson1 rising #ac1jhg feet above the sea1 the highest point in the ,canadian ,rockies1 is invisible from the pass itself1 hidden by the nearer ,rainbow mountains but bursts upon the view where ,grand ,forks river enters the ,fraser4 ,only a few miles away at the head of the low valley its tremendous cliffs1 mostly too steep for snow to lie1 rise for #aj1jjj feet1 crowned with a snowy pyramid4 ,a trail leads up the ,grand ,forks through the valley of a ,thousand ,falls where the main river tumbles #a1ejj feet in a wild canyon and reaches the rear side of ,mount ,robson #e1gjj feet above the sea4 ,from some low mountains to the northwest there is perhaps the most splendid view in ,north ,america of mountains1 glaciers and lakes4 ,the blue seracs of the ,tumbling glacier seem to be rushing down thousands of feet from the ,helmet and the main peak of ,robson to plunge into ,berg lake1 which doubles them by reflection4 ,to the left the main glacier1 starting in great icefalls on the northeast of the peak1 sweeps a curve of five or six miles round the dark rocks of the ,rearguard4 ,behind the main glacier toward the south rises the unbroken snow slope of ,mt4 ,resplendent ending with a projecting cornice of snow at #aa1jjj feet4 ,illustration ,,crevasse1 ,,robson ,,glacier ,the water coming from the ice caves of the main glacier flows chiefly into ,berg lake and the ,grand ,forks1 but a smaller part reaches lake ,adophus and ,smoky river1 a tributary of the ,mackenzie river1 the same glacier sending tribute to the ,arctic and the ,pacific ,oceans4 ,there are other striking mountains in the region1 such as ,mt4 ,geikie to the south of the ,yellowhead pass and the ,whitehorn to the north1 though none rival ,mt4 ,robson itself2 but much remains for exploration and it will be years before this northern region of the ,rockies1 all the ,alberta side of which is in ,jasper ,park1 is thoroughly known and mapped4 ,trails are being rapidly built in the park1 however1 and with the erection of hotels at ,jasper and other points it will soon be possible for the alpine climber and the tourist to find easy access to this delightful region4 ,some ,comparisons4 ,much of the exploration of the ,canadian ,rockies and ,selkirks has been done by ,englishmen and eastern ,americans who received their training as mountaineers in the ,alps1 and one naturally asks why they should travel thousands of miles to our western mountains when the ,alps are so much more accessible4 ,there is1 of course1 the charm of a virgin and unexplored wilderness in our ,rockies and ,selkirks1 so seductive to one who loves adventure2 but there are other attractions as well which make our mountains fully the equal of the famous ,european range4 ,every type of ,alpine scenery is as well illustrated in ,canada as in ,switzerland and the area of snow mountains in ,alberta and ,british ,columbia is several times that of the ,alps4 ,the whole length of the ,alps is less than #djj miles and its breadth from #ej to #hj2 as compared with a length of #a1bjj miles and a breadth of #adj miles for the ,rockies and ,selkirks1 not to mention the ,gold ranges1 the ,coast range and the ,vancouver ,island mountains1 all of which have their snow fields and glaciers4 ,stuttfield and ,collie in their delightful book 8,climbs and ,explorations in the ,canadian ,rockies0 say of the ,rockies that 8they have a remarkable individuality and character in addition to special beauties of their own which ,switzerland cannot rival40 ,illustration ,,glacial ,,stream1 ,,mt4 ,,robson1 ,,dividing ,,its ,,waters ,,between ,,the ,,pacific ,,and ,,arctic ,,oceans ,illustration ,,ice ,,bridge ,,on ,,illecillewaet ,,glacier ,though there are higher mountains in the ,rockies of the ,united ,states1 they rise from a dry and lofty tableland and most of them have little snow and no glaciers4 ,but for the row of extinct volcanoes beginning with ,mt4 ,baker1 ,mt4 ,rainier and ,mt4 ,shasta1 the ,united ,states has very little truly alpine scenery except where our ,rocky mountain ranges extend for a degree or two south of the boundary4 ,a great many of the mountain climbers of the eastern states come to ,alberta or ,british ,columbia when they want to use an ice axe or a glacier rope and most of their experienced climbers are members of the ,alpine ,club of ,canada4 ,canadians themselves are often not aware of the splendid scenery and the unsurpassed opportunities for climbing of all grades of difficulty offered by their own mountains4 ,there is no more exhilarating sport than that of the mountaineer1 and there is no more interesting region for the geologist1 the botanist or the zoologist than the grand ranges of mountains that run parallel to the ,pacific in our western territory4 ,while tourists from all over the world are being attracted more and more to our glorious alpine region it is especially important that our own people should seek a delightful holiday and gain health and vigor in our mountain parks4 ,as good roads and trails and cabins for shelter are extended to the wilder and more impressive parts of the mountains it becomes easier for the ordinary visitor to study the sublimities of valleys1 glaciers and mountain peaks once out of reach without an expensive camp equipment4 ,a few good ,swiss guides are available at the more important centres in the mountains and the inexperienced climber should not undertake any difficult glacier work nor bad rock climbing without the aid of a guide4 ,there is of course a wide range of less difficult walks and climbs that brings one without risk into the heart of the mountains where one may study the ways by which snowfields and glaciers and glacial rivers do their work of shaping the mountains4 ,illustration ,a4 ,p4 ,coleman in 8,the ,canadian ,rockies0 ,if one halts by chance anywhere on a mountain pass1 all sorts of thrilling things are going on around4 ,lovely flowers are opening eagerly to the sun and wind of ,spring--in mid ,august1 with ,september snows just at hand1 a whole year's work of blossom and seed to be accomplished before the ten months' winter ,sleep begins4 ,bees are tumbling over them intoxicated with honey and the joy of life while it is summer4 ,even the humming-birds1 with jewels on their breasts as if straight from the tropics1 are not afraid to skim up the mountain sides1 poise over a bunch of white heather1 and pass with a flash from flower to flower4 ,the marmots with aldermanic vests are whistling and 8making hay while the sun shines10 and one may see their bundles of choice herbs spread on a flat stone to dry1 while the little striped gophers are busy too4 ,time enough to rest in the winter4 ,everything full of bustle and haste and of joy1 what could be more inspiring than the flowery meadows above tree-line when the warm sun shines in the six weeks of summer6 ,the full splendour and ecstacy of a whole year's life piled into six weeks after the snow has thawed and before it falls again6 ,higher up even the snow itself is alive with the red snow plant and the black glacier flea1 like the rest of the world making the most of summer2 and as you take your way across the snow to the mountain top1 what a wonderful world opens out6 ,how strangely the world has been built1 bed after bed of limestone or slate or quartzite1 pale grey or pale green or dark red or purple1 built into cathedrals or castles1 or crumpled like colored cloths from the rag-bag1 squeezed together into arches and troughs1 into ,v's and ,s's and ,m's ten miles long and two miles high2 or else sheets of rock twenty thousand feet thick have been sliced into blocks and tilted up to play leap-frog with one another4 ,and then the sculpturing that is going on6 ,one is right in the midst of the workshop bustle where mountains are being carved into pinnacles1 magnificent cathedral doors that never open1 towers that never had a keeper--all being shaped before one's eyes out of the mighty beds and blocks of limestone and quartzite that were once the sea bottom4 ,you can watch the tools at work1 the chisel and gouge1 the file and the sandpaper4 ,all the workmen are hard at it this spring morning in ,august2 the quarryman ,frost has been busy over night1 as you hear from the thunder of big blocks quarried from the cliffs across the valley2 there is a dazzling gleam on the moist1 polished rock which craftsman ,glacier has just handed over to the daylight2 and you can watch how recklessly the waterfall is cutting its way down1 slicing the great banks of rock with canyons6 ,it is inspiring to visit the mountains any day in the year1 but especially so in the ,july and ,august springtime when a fresh start is made1 and plants1 animals1 patient glaciers1 hustling torrents1 roaring rivers1 shining lakes are all hard at work rough hewing or putting finishing touches on an evernew world4 99 99 99 99 99 99 8,from the physical geographer's point of view1 every feature of the ,alps has its counterpart somewhere in the ,rockies2 folds and faults and tilted strata are carved into an infinitude of shapes1 including risky peaks and aiguilles2 snow and ice are present in every form1 smooth and easy or torn with blue crevasses and splintered into daring seracs4 ,there is every variety of stream at work1 clear or muddy1 gentle or furious1 including much larger rivers in much longer valleys than any in the ,alps4 ,small lakes are far more numerous and beautiful4 ,every element of interest and beauty on the physical side is as well developed somewhere in the ,rockies as it is in the ,alps but from my own observation ,i may suggest that often the ,alpine mountain group is better posed1 the picture better composed from the point of view of the beholder1 than in the ,rockies4 ,the reason for this is ,i believe1 largely one of area4 ,the comparatively small mass of the ,alps is more statuesque and more easily seen from the proper point of view than any part of the ,cordilleran region1 which sprawls over a hundred thousand square miles4 ,this seeming lack of focus and concentration of dramatic points seems to me the greatest defect of the ,rockies as compared with the ,alps4 ,on the other hand1 there is a cleanness and virginity1 an exquisite loneliness about many of the ,rocky ,mountain peaks and valleys that has a peculiar charm4 ,there is the feeling of having made a new discovery1 of having caught ,nature unawares at her work of creation1 as one turns off from a scarcely-beaten route into one never trodden at all by the feet of white men2 and this experience may be had in a thousand valleys among the ,rockies40 ,illustration ,five ,great ,glaciers in the ,canadian ,national ,parks ,by ,a4 ,o4 ,wheeler ,director ,alpine ,club of ,canada ,yoho ,glacier4 ,the ,yoho glacier is situated at the head of the ,yoho valley and is of very spectacular appearance4 ,it presents a magnificent cascade of broken ice falling into the valley a long way below timber line and the forest is seen thickly clothing the heights far above it4 ,the glacier is of the alpine type4 ,it has its origin in the ,wapta icefield1 a wide snow covered tract of ice with an area of some twenty-five square miles1 and affords one of the principal overflows that maintain the yearly accumulation of snow on this great basin at a constant level4 ,the glacier presents a splendid opportunity for study and observation4 ,it is readily accessible by the pony trails that traverse the valley and can be reached in a day from either ,emerald lake chalet or the ,takakkaw falls summer camp1 to both of which places good driving roads are open from the village of ,field on the ,c4,p4,r4 railway4 ,from glaciers at the summit of ,balfour pass1 lying some two and a half miles east of ,yoho glacier1 ,waves creek flows westward and is the main source of ,yoho river4 ,until recently the bed of ,waves creek1 a deep1 narrow rock canyon1 lay1 at its terminal point1 beneath the icefall of the ,yoho glacier and there joined with the flow from it1 reappearing at the nose of the glacier as the ,yoho river4 ,as a result of this combination1 during the summer months1 a very beautiful ice cave was formed at the nose of the glacier1 which was a source of much delight to visitors4 ,the ice1 however1 has been in retreat for many years and has now gone back so far that the bed of ,waves creek is quite clear of it and the great ice arch formed yearly by its torrent is no longer seen4 ,in #aijf1 the ,alpine ,club of ,canada1 through the writer1 began observations and measurements of the flow and advance of retreat of the ice4 ,such observations were carried on steadily1 year by year1 until #aiai1 when1 owing to the ice tongue having shrunken very greatly and having become much crevassed1 they were discontinued4 ,during the period of twelve years it has been found by measurements from marked rocks that the ice has receded #cif feet2 also by means of metal plates placed on the surface of the forefoot the movement of which was annually measured1 it was found that the mean average rate of surface flow of the ice has been #cc inches per day for the period mentioned4 ,the ,yoho glacier is but one half a dozen that flow from the ,wapta icefield1 and the icefield itself one of many such wide snow-filled basins that lie among the crest of the ,main ,range of the ,rocky mountains and culminate in the great ,columbia icefield with an area of #aaj square miles of ice and snow1 reaching out with numerous ramifications and many magnificent ice-falls4 ,victoria ,glacier4 ,the ,victoria glacier is of the alpine type1 that is1 has its origin in the snow that accumulates at the summit of the ,abbot pass1 and is fed by snow and ice avalanching from the adjacent slopes of ,mts4 ,lefroy and ,victoria4 ,it flows in a narrow channel between the precipitous sides of the two mountains named1 which is known as the death ,trap1 owing to the number of avalanches that are precipitated from side to side directly across its bed4 ,it is wise to make the traverse of this part of the glacier during the early morning hours before avalanches begin to fall4 ,the altitude of the pass is #i1ehh feet above sea level4 ,the snow covered part of the glacier1 or nv1 below the pass lies at an altitude of about #g1ejj feet4 ,the ,lefroy glacier comes in as a tributary from the southeast from below the cliffs of ,mt4 ,lefroy4 ,the length of the ,victoria glacier is about #b miles4 ,the ,lefroy glacier is about #a mile in length4 ,the combined glaciers flow down the valley4 ,the forefoot or tongue of the glacier is covered by a thick veneer of rock detritus carried down by the flow of the ice and fallen from the cliffs of ,popes peak on the west side1 and ,mt4 ,aberdeen on the east4 ,the ice terminates at from #a to #b miles from the end of lake ,louise4 ,owing to the close proximity of the glacier to ,lake ,louise ,chteau1 the ,c4,p4,r4 tourist hotel1 and its easy access therefrom it is of great interest on account of the many spectacular features it present and its unique setting of cliffs and snow clad mountains4 ,particularly may be mentioned the number of avalanches that thunder into ,death ,trap daily and the exhibit of semi-circular markings1 known as 8,forbes dirt bands0 seen on the body of the ice opposite the junction with the ,lefroy glacier4 ,the ,victoria glacier has been steadily receding for many years4 ,observations carried on by ,george and ,william ,s4 ,vaux1 and later by ,miss ,mary ,vaux of ,philadelphia 7now ,mrs4 ,charles ,walcott71 show that between #ahih and #aijc the glacier receded about #ag feet annually or about #he feet for the #e years4 ,subsequent measurements by ,miss ,vaux show that for the year #aiji to #aiab the ice receded #dc feet4 ,the amount of recession is small compared with that of other glaciers1 but a reason is found in the fact that the whole ice forefoot is thickly covered with a veneer of broken rock which protects it from the sun's rays and reduces the melting process to a minimum4 ,of late years no measurements have been made for advance or retreat of the ice but1 as all the most prominent glaciers of the ,canadian ,rockies are known to be receding1 it is assumed that the same has been the case with the ,victoria glacier4 ,wenkchemna ,glacier4 ,the ,wenkchemna glacier lies at the northern base of the ,ten ,peaks in the valley of ,moraine lake4 ,the name is of ,sioux ,indian origin1 ,signifying ten1 and was given to the glacier by ,mr4 ,s4 ,e4 ,s4 ,allen1 an early explorer1 in relation to the ,ten ,peaks4 ,it is of the piedmont type of glacier1 that is1 has its source from a number of commensal streams of ice1 fed by snow falling upon the eastern slopes of the ,ten ,peaks4 ,these independent streams descend to the valley of ,moraine lake and are so close to one another that when they reach the floor of the valley they spread out laterally and join together1 forming a single glacier with a breadth of about three miles and a length of from one-half to one mile4 ,its supply is maintained by the independent ice streams referred to above4 ,glaciers so formed are known as the 8piedmont type40 ,the ,wenkchemna glacier lies at an altitude between #f1djj feet and #g1ejj feet and the easternmost nose is about #djj feet higher than that of the ,victoria glacier4 ,no systematic observations of the ,wenkchemna glacier have been made but it has been visited and photographed several times by ,messrs4 ,william ,s4 and ,george ,vaux1 and ,miss ,vaux of ,philadelphia4 ,their observations have shown that the glacier has made an advance while all the other glaciers in the district have been in retreat4 ,in its advance1 it has encroached on the living forest and has crushed and thrown down the green timber4 ,its advance is probably due to the fact that its surface is thickly covered with broken rock1 fallen from the precipitous sides of the ,ten ,peaks1 and the melting of the ice has been less than the accession it receives from the ice streams that feed it4 ,in the absence of systematic observations and measurements it is not known whether it is continuing to advance1 is stationary or is in retreat4 ,like the ,victoria glacier it affords a feature of very great interest for observation and scientific study1 owing to its easy access from ,lake ,louise ,chteau and the summer camp for visitors which is maintained at ,moraine lake close to the glacier4 ,illecillewaet ,glacier4 ,the ,illecillewaet glacier is commonly referred to as the ,great glacier of the ,selkirks1 although it is by no means the largest one4 ,it is1 however1 one of the most spectacular1 and is seen from ,glacier ,house1 the ,c4,p4,r4 ,hotel near the railway summit of the range1 falling some five thousand feet from skyline of the icefield in which it has its source4 ,seen from high up on the opposite mountain side1 it presents a bird's-eye view that is unique and altogether entrancing4 ,the glacier is of the alpine type and is fed by the overflow from the ,illecillewaet icefield1 which contains an area of some ten square miles4 ,the icefall is of special interest1 owing to the fact that it is situated about one and a half miles from the hotel and is reached by a delightful pony trail through primeval forest--forest presenting a most picturesque setting of giant cedar1 hemlock and spruce trees1 and1 at their base1 an impenetrable tangle of thick undergrowth1 midst which the many-spined devil's club repels the would-be explorer by its poisonous punctures4 ,this barrier is of semi-tropical luxuriance and is justly famous in the valleys of the ,selkirks4 ,it is1 however1 not without its attractions1 for the wonderful collection of ferns1 the bright berries of the devil's club1 the handsome white flowers of the wild rhododendron and the luscious fruit of the huckleberry are most alluring4 ,there are two other special features for which the ,illecillewaet glacier is famous4 ,one is the low altitude at which the nose of the ice-fall is found1 #d1hjj feet1 while timber line lies at #g1cjj feet2 consequently the ice extends #b1ejj feet down into the virgin forest4 ,the other is the immense terminal moraines1 consisting of great blocks of rock weighing hundreds of tons1 which are seen across the valley below the glacier4 ,these moraines have been deposited by the ice many hundred years ago and are now grown with huge trees and other forest growth4 ,owing to their appearance and the frequent cave-like openings between blocks1 they are referred to by ,dr4 ,sherzer1 in his treatise on the subject1 as 8,bear ,den ,moraines04 ,the ice has now retreated a long way from them4 ,some years ago the ,illecillewaet glacier presented a fine ice cave at its snout which was much visited by tourists from ,glacier ,house1 but owing to the continued retreat and shrinkage to which the icefall has been subjected for many years1 it is now a feature of the past4 ,observations and measurements of the ice-fall were carried on during a series of years by ,messrs4 ,vaux and ,miss ,vaux 7,mrs4 ,charles ,walcott7 of ,philadelphia1 the results of which may be summarized as follows3 ,august #agth1 #ahih1 the most advanced point of the ice forefoot was #fj feet from a deeply imbedded marked boulder4 ,on ,july #bd1 #aijf1 it was #cbg feet from the same boulder4 ,on the #aith ,july1 #aiab1 the ice was found to have retreated #fae feet from the boulder4 ,since then the ice has receded very considerably and the forefoot shrunken greatly in size and spectacular appearances4 ,of late years the measurements do not seem to have been continued and the distance from the boulder is not known to the writer4 ,the average maximum surface flow of the ice forefoot during the periods #ahih to #aiab appears from the observations referred to above to have been approximately five inches per day4 ,directly above the icefall towers the ,selkirk giant1 ,mt4 ,sir ,donald1 #aj1hjh feet above sea level1 which furnishes one of the most attractive climbs of the region for mountaineers4 ,from its summit is seen a world of snowy peaks1 widespread icefields1 tumbling glaciers and winding silver streams in the depths of darkly forested valleys filled with violet haze4 ,asulkan ,glacier4 ,tributary to the valley of the ,illecillewaet glacier is the ,asulkan 7,wild ,goat7 valley1 which is1 perhaps1 the most beautiful specimen of a mountain valley traversed by a rushing glacier torrent1 that can be found4 ,on either hand are towering mountain slopes and precipices1 exalted rock ledges from which spectacular waterfalls leap from great heights1 overhanging snow crests which often send roaring avalanches sweeping all before them into the valley below and far up the opposite side4 ,at the head of the valley lies the ,asulkan glacier4 ,it is of the piedmont type1 created by three commensal streams of ice4 ,according to ,dr4 ,sherzer1 it is now in its second childhood4 ,the piedmont characteristics are disappearing and the glacier resolving itself into the original glaciers of alpine type which gave rise to it4 ,it is easy of access from ,glacier ,house1 and of great interest to observers4 ,it has its chief source in the ,asulkan icefield1 which leads to a snow crest or col1 known as the ,asulkan pass4 ,on the opposite side of the pass a steep descent brings one to the ice stream of the ,geikie glacier1 the southern overflow of the ,illecillewaet icefield4 ,beyond1 lies the steep icefall of the ,dawson glacier and ,mts4 ,dawson and ,selwyn1 over #aa1jjj feet above sea level4 ,in the case of the ,asulkan glacier1 also1 observations and measurements were carried on by ,messrs4 ,vaux and ,miss ,vaux4 ,on ,august #ab1 #ahii1 a rock in line with the farthest advanced ice of the forefoot was marked4 ,on ,august #h1 #aijj1 the ice had receded #bd feet4 ,on ,august #f1 #aija1 the ice had advanced #cf feet4 ,on ,july #bc1 #aijf1 the ice was again in line with the rock2 that is in the same position as in #ahii4 ,subsequent observations by ,miss ,vaux show that between ,august #bj1 #aiji1 and ,july #bg1 #aiab1 the ice had retreated #bei feet from the marked rock4 ,during the interval the observations on ,august #i1 #aiaa1 show that the ice had again advanced #ea feet4 ,no measurements made since that date have come to the knowledge of the writer4 ,illustration ,transcriber's ,notes --,some palpable typographical errors were corrected4 --,copyright and publisher's information was included from the printed copy3 this e,book is public domain in the country of publication4