,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,italics have been transcribed using underscores1 bold with equal signs1 spaced text with plus signs1 small capitals as ,,all ,,capitals1 and text in superscript is preceded by a carat4 ,inconsistencies in hyphenation1 punctuation1 spelling and abbreviations have not been corrected4 ,a list of other corrections can be found at the end of the document4 ,,bohn',s ,,philosophical ,,library4 ,,two ,,essays ,,by ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,bell ,,and ,,sons ,,portugal ,,st4 ,,lincoln',s ,,inn1 ,w4,c4 ,,cambridge3 ,,deighton1 ,,bell ,,co4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,bombay3 ,a4 ,h4 ,,wheeler ,,co4 ,,on ,,the ,,fourfold ,,root ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,will ,,in ,,nature4 ,,two ,,essays ,,by ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer4 ,,translated ,,by ,,mme4 ,,karl ,,hillebrand4 ,,revised ,,edition4 ,,london ,,george ,,bell ,,and ,,sons #aijg ,,chiswick ,,press3 ,,charles ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co4 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane1 ,,london4 ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,in venturing to lay the present translation#a before the public1 ,i am aware of the great difficulties of my task1 and indeed can hardly hope to do justice to the ,author4 ,in fact1 had it not been for the considerations ,i am about to state1 ,i might probably never have published what had originally been undertaken in order to acquire a clearer comprehension of these essays1 rather than with a view to publicity4 #a ,from the fourth edition by ,julius ,frauenstdt4 ,fourfold ,root1 ,leipzig1 #ahge2 ,will in ,nature1 ,leipzig1 #ahgh4 ,the two treatises which form the contents of the present volume have so much importance for a profound and correct knowledge of ,schopenhauer's philosophy1 that it may even be doubted whether the translation of his chief work1 ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung1 can contribute much towards the appreciation of his system without the help at least of the ,vierfache ,wurzel des ,satzes vom zureichenden ,grunde4 ,schopenhauer himself repeatedly and urgently insists upon a previous thorough knowledge of ,kant's philosophy1 as the basis1 and of his own ,fourfold ,root1 as the key1 to his own system1 asserting that knowledge to be the indispensable condition for a right comprehension of his meaning4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 neither the ,fourfold ,root nor the ,will in ,nature have as yet found a translator2 therefore1 considering the dawning interest which has begun to make itself felt for ,schopenhauer's philosophy in ,england and in ,america1 and the fact that no more competent scholar has come forward to do the work1 it may not seem presumptuous to suppose that this version may be acceptable to those who wish to acquire a more than superficial knowledge of this remarkable thinker1 yet whose acquaintance with ,german does not permit them to read his works in the original4 ,now although some portions of both the ,essays published in the present volume have of course become antiquated1 owing to the subsequent development of the empirical sciences1 while others--such as1 for instance1 ,schopenhauer's denunciation of plagiarism in the cases of ,brandis and ,rosas in the beginning of ,physiology and ,pathology#b--;can have no interest for the reader of the present day1 ,i have nevertheless given them just as he left them and refrained from all suppression or alteration4 ,and if1 on the whole1 the ,will in ,nature may be less indispensable for a right understanding of our philosopher's views than the ,fourfold ,root1 being merely a record of the confirmations which had been contributed during his lifetime by the various branches of ,natural ,science to his doctrine1 that the thing in itself is the will1 the ,second ,essay has nevertheless in its own way quite as much importance as the ,first1 and is1 in a sense1 its complement4 ,for they both throw light on ,schopenhauer's view of the ,universe in its double aspect as ,will and as ,representation1 each being as it were a rsum of the exposition of one of those aspects4 ,my plea for uniting them in one volume1 in spite of the difference of their contents and the wide lapse of time 7seventeen years7 which lies between them1 must be1 that they complete each other1 and that their great weight and intrinsic value seem to point them out as peculiarly fitted to be introduced to the ,english thinker4 #b ,see ,will in ,nature1 pp4 #i-ah of the original2 pp4 #bbd-bcd of the present translation4 ,in endeavouring to convey the ,author's thoughts as he expresses them1 ,i have necessarily encountered many and great difficulties4 ,his meaning1 though always clearly expressed1 is not always easy to seize1 even for his countrymen2 as a foreigner1 therefore1 ,i may often have failed to grasp1 let alone adequately to render1 that meaning4 ,in this case besides1 the responsibility for any want of perspicuity cannot be shifted by the translator on to the ,author2 since the consummate perfection of ,schopenhauer's prose is universally recognised1 even by those who reject1 or at least who do not share1 his views4 ,an eminent ,german writer of our time has not hesitated to rank him immediately after ,lessing and ,gthe as the third greatest ,german prose-writer1 and only quite recently a ,german professor1 in a speech delivered with the intent of demolishing ,schopenhauer's philosophy1 was reluctantly obliged to admit that his works would remain on account of their literary value4 ,gthe himself expressed admiration for the clearness of exposition in ,schopenhauer's chief work and for the beauty of his style4 ,the chief obstacle ,i have encountered in translating these ,essays1 did not therefore consist in the obscurity of the ,author's style1 nor even in the difficulty of finding appropriate terms wherewith to convey his meaning2 although at times certainly the want of complete precision in our philosophical terminology made itself keenly felt and the selection was often far from easy3 it lay rather in the great difference in the way of thinking and of expressing their thoughts which lies between the two nations4 ,the regions of ,german and ,english thought are indeed separated by a gulf1 which at first seems impassable1 yet which must be bridged over by some means or other1 if a right comprehension is to be achieved4 ,the ,german writer loves to develop synthetically a single thought in a long period consisting of various members2 he proceeds steadily to unravel the seemingly tangled skein1 while he keeps the reader ever on the alert1 making him assist actively in the process and never letting him lose sight of the main thread4 ,the ,english author1 on the contrary1 anxious before all things to avoid confusion and misunderstanding1 and ready for this end not only to sacrifice harmony of proportion in construction1 but to submit to the necessity of occasional artificial joining1 usually adopts the analytical method4 ,he prefers to divide the thread of his discourse into several smaller skeins1 easier certainly to handle and thus better suiting the convenience of the ,english thinker1 to whom long periods are trying and bewildering1 and who is not always willing to wait half a page or more for the point of a sentence or the gist of a thought4 ,wherever it could be done without interfering seriously with the spirit of the original1 ,i have broken up the longer periods in these essays into smaller sentences1 in order to facilitate their comprehension4 ,at times however ,schopenhauer recapitulates a whole side of his view of the ,universe in a single period of what seems intolerable length to the ,english reader3 as1 for instance1 the rsum contained in the ,introduction to his ,will in ,nature1#c which could not be divided without damage to his meaning4 ,here therefore it did not seem advisable to sacrifice the unity and harmony of his design and to disturb both his form and his meaning1 in order to minister to the reader's dislike for mental exertion2 in keeping the period intact ,i have however endeavoured to make it as easy to comprehend as possible by the way in which the single parts are presented to the eye4 #c ,pp4 #b and #c of the original1 and pp4 #baf to #bah of the present translation4 ,as regards the terms chosen to convey the ,german meaning1 ,i can hardly hope to have succeeded in every case in adequately rendering it1 still less can ,i expect to have satisfied my ,english readers4 ,several words of frequent occurrence and of considerable importance for the right understanding of the original1 have been used at different times by different ,english philosophers in senses so various1 that1 until our philosophical terminology has by universal consent attained far greater precision than at present1 it must always be difficult for the writer or translator to convey to the reader's mind precisely the same thought that was in his own4 ,to prevent unnecessary confusion however1 by leaving too much to chance1 ,i will here briefly state those terms which give most latitude for misapprehension1 explaining the sense in which ,i employ them and also the special meaning attached to some of them by ,schopenhauer1 who often differs in this from other writers4 ,they are as follows4 7a47 ,anschauung 7anschauen1 literally 'to behold'7 ,i have rendered differently1 according to its double meaning in ,german4 ,when used to designate the mental act by which an object is perceived1 as the cause of a sensation received1 it is rendered by perception4 ,when used to lay stress upon immediate1 as opposed to abstract representation1 it is rendered by intuition4 ,this last occurs however more often in the adjective form4 7b47 ,vorstellung 7vorstellen1 literally 'to place before'7 ,i render by representation in spite of its foreign1 unwelcome sound to the ,english ear1 as being the term which nearest approaches the ,german meaning4 ,the faculty of representation is defined by ,schopenhauer himself as an exceedingly complicated physiological process in the brain of an animal1 the result of which is the consciousness of a picture there4 7c47 ,auffassung 7auffassen1 literally 'to catch up'7 has so many shades of meaning in ,german that it has to be translated in many different ways according to the relation in which it stands in the context4 ,it signifies apprehension1 comprehension1 perception1 viewing and grasping4 7d47 ,wahrnehmung 7wahrnehmen1 from wahr1 true1 and nehmen1 to take71 is translated by apprehension or perception1 according to the degree of consciousness which accompanies it4 ,but the two words which have proved most difficult to translate1 have been ,vernehmen and ,willkhr4 7e47 ,vernehmen means1 to distinguish by the sense of hearing4 ,this word conveys a shade of thought which it is almost impossible to render in ,english1 because we have no word by which to distinguish1 from mere sensuous hearing1 a sort of hearing which implies more than hearing and less than comprehension4 ,the ,french entendre comes nearer to it than our hearing1 but implies more comprehension than vernehmen4 7f47 ,as to ,willkhr 7arbitrium1 literally 'will-choice'71 after a great deal of consideration ,i have chosen 7relative7 free-will as the nearest approach to the ,german sense1 or at any rate1 to that in which ,schopenhauer uses it4 ,willkhr means in fact what is commonly understood as free-will2 i4e4 will with power of choice1 will determined by motives and unimpeded by outward obstacles3 arbitrium as opposed to voluntas3 conscious will as opposed to blind impulse4 ,this relative free-will however is quite distinct from absolute free-will 7liberum arbitrium indifferenti7 in a metaphysical sense1 i4e4 will in its self-dependency4 ,when its arbitrary character is specially emphasized1 we call ,willkhr1 caprice1 but this is not the usual meaning given to it by ,schopenhauer4 ,besides the meaning of these ,german words1 ,i have still to define the sense in which ,i have used the term idea in this translation2 for this word has greatly changed its meaning at different times and with different authors1 and is even now apt to confuse and mislead4 ,schopenhauer has himself contributed in one way to render its signification less clear2 since1 in spite of his declaration in the ,fourfold ,root#d to the effect1 that he never uses the word idea in any other than its original 7,platonic7 sense1 he has himself employed it to translate ,vorstellung1 in a specimen he gives of a rendering of a passage in ,kant's ,prolegomena in a letter addressed to ,haywood1 published in ,gwinner's ,biography of ,schopenhauer4 ,this he probably did because some eminent ,english and ,french philosophers had taken the word in this sense1 thinking perhaps that ,kant's meaning would thus be more readily understood4 ,as however he uses the word 'idea' everywhere else exclusively in its original 7,platonic7 sense1 ,i have preferred to avoid needless confusion by adhering to his own declaration and definition4 ,besides1 many ,english writers of note have protested against any other sense being given to it1 and modern ,german philosophers have more and more returned to the original meaning of the term4 #d ,see p4 #aac1 #cd of the original1 and p4 #acc of the present translation4 ,some readers may take exception at such expressions as priority1 motivation1 aseity2 for they are not1 strictly speaking1 ,english words4 ,these terms however belong to ,schopenhauer's own characteristic terminology1 and have a distinct and clearly defined meaning2 therefore they had to be retained in all cases in which they could not be evaded1 in order not to interfere with the ,author's intention3 a necessity which the scholar will not fail to recognise1 especially when ,i plead in my defence that fidelity and accuracy have been my sole aim in this work4 ,if moreover ,carlyle's words1 ,he who imports into his own country any true delineation1 any rationally spoken word on any subject1 has done well1 are true1 ,i may also be absolved from censure1 if ,i lay before the public this version of some important utterances of a great thinker1 in the hope that it may be an assistance in1 and an incitement to1 a deeper study of all ,schopenhauer's works4 ,,the ,,translator4 ,may1 #ahhh4 ,,contents4 ,,on ,,the ,,fourfold ,,root ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason4 ,,chap4 ,,page ,translator's ,preface v ,author's ,preface to the ,second ,edition xvii ,editor's ,preface to the ,third ,edition xx ,editor's ,preface to the ,fourth ,edition xxviii ,i4 ,introduction #a ,,ii4 ,general ,survey of the most important views hitherto held concerning the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason #f ,,iii4 ,insufficiency of the ,old and outlines of a ,new ,demonstration #bh ,,iv4 ,on the ,first ,class of ,objects for the ,subject1 and that form of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason which predominates in it #ca ,v4 ,on the ,second ,class of ,objects for the ,subject and that form of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason which predominates in it #aad ,,vi4 ,on the ,third ,class of ,objects for the ,subject and that form of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason which predominates in it #aec ,,vii4 ,on the ,fourth ,class of ,objects for the ,subject1 and that form of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason which predominates in it #afe ,,viii4 ,general observations and results #agg ,,on ,,the ,,will ,,in ,,nature4 ,preface to the ,second ,edition #aic ,editor's ,preface to the ,third ,edition #bac ,editor's ,preface to the ,fourth ,edition #bad ,introduction #bae ,physiology and ,pathology #bbd ,comparative ,anatomy #beb ,physiology of ,plants #bha ,physical ,astronomy #cje ,linguistic #cbb ,animal ,magnetism and ,magic #cbf ,sinology #cei ,reference to ,ethics #cgb ,conclusion #cgh ,,on ,,the ,,fourfold ,,root ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason4 ,a ,,philosophical ,,treatise4 1 ' 4 ,,the ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,this treatise on ,elementary ,philosophy1 which first appeared in the year #ahac1 when it procured for me the degree of doctor1 afterwards became the substructure for the whole of my system4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be allowed to remain out of print1 as has been the case1 without my knowledge1 for the last four years4 ,on the other hand1 to send a juvenile work like this once more into the world with all its faults and blemishes1 seemed to me unjustifiable4 ,for ,i am aware that the time cannot be very far off when all correction will be impossible2 but with that time the period of my real influence will commence1 and this period1 ,i trust1 will be a long one1 for ,i firmly rely upon ,seneca's promise3 ,etiamsi omnibus tecum viventibus silentium livor indixerit2 venient qui sine offensa1 sine gratia judicent4#e ,i have done what ,i could1 therefore1 to improve this work of my youth1 and1 considering the brevity and uncertainty of life1 ,i must even regard it as an especially fortunate circumstance1 to have been thus permitted to correct in my sixtieth year what ,i had written in my twenty-sixth4 #e ,seneca1 ,ep4 #gi4 ,nevertheless1 while doing this1 ,i meant to deal leniently with my younger self1 and to let him discourse1 nay1 even speak his mind freely1 wherever it was possible4 ,but wherever he had advanced what was incorrect or superfluous1 or had even left out the best part1 ,i have been obliged to interrupt the thread of his discourse4 ,and this has happened often enough2 so often1 indeed1 that some of my readers may perhaps think they hear an old man reading a young man's book aloud1 while he frequently lets it drop1 in order to indulge in digressions of his own on the same subject4 ,it is easy to see that a work thus corrected after so long an interval1 could never acquire the unity and rounded completeness which only belong to such as are written in one breath4 ,so great a difference will be found even in style and expression1 that no reader of any tact can ever be in doubt whether it be the older or younger man who is speaking4 ,for the contrast is indeed striking between the mild1 unassuming tone in which the youth--who is still simple enough to believe quite seriously that for all whose pursuit is philosophy1 truth1 and truth alone1 can have importance1 and therefore that whoever promotes truth is sure of a welcome from them--propounds his arguments with confidence1 and the firm1 but also at times somewhat harsh voice of the old man1 who in course of time has necessarily discovered the true character and real aims of the noble company of mercenary time-servers into which he has fallen4 ,nay1 the just reader will hardly find fault with him should he occasionally give free vent to his indignation2 since we see what comes of it when people who profess to have truth for their sole aim1 are always occupied in studying the purposes of their powerful superiors1 and when the e quovis ligno fit ,mercurius is extended even to the greatest philosophers1 and a clumsy charlatan1 like ,hegel1 is calmly classed among them8 ,verily ,german ,philosophy stands before us loaded with contempt1 the laughing-stock of other nations1 expelled from all honest science--like the prostitute who sells herself for sordid hire to-day to one1 to-morrow to another2 and the brains of the present generation of savants are disorganised by ,hegelian nonsense3 incapable of reflection1 coarse and bewildered1 they fall a prey to the low ,materialism which has crept out of the basilisk's egg4 ,good speed to them4 ,i return to my subject4 ,my readers will thus have to get over the difference of tone in this treatise2 for ,i could not do here what ,i had done in my chief work1 that is1 give the later additions ,i had made in a separate appendix4 ,besides1 it is of no consequence that people should know what ,i wrote in my twenty-sixth and what in my sixtieth year2 the only matter of real importance is1 that those who wish to find their way through the fundamental principles of all philosophizing1 to gain a firm footing and a clear insight1 should in these few sheets receive a little volume by which they may learn something substantial1 solid1 and true3 and this1 ,i hope1 will be the case4 ,from the expansion now given to some portions1 it has even grown into a compendious theory of the entire faculty of knowing1 and this theory1 by limiting itself strictly to the research of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 shows the matter from a new and peculiar side2 but then it finds its completion in the ,first ,book of ,the ,world as ,will and ,representation1 together with those chapters of the ,second ,volume which refer to it1 and also in my ,critique of ,kantian ,philosophy4 ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer4 ,,frankfurt ,,am ,,main1 ,september1 #ahdg4 ,,editor',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,in the present volume ,i lay before the public the ,third ,edition of the ,fourfold ,root1 including the emendations and additions left by ,schopenhauer in his own interleaved copy4 ,i have already had occasion elsewhere to relate that he left copies of all his works thus interleaved1 and that he was wont to jot down on these fly-leaves any corrections and additions he might intend inserting in future editions4 ,schopenhauer himself prepared for the press all that has been added in the present edition1 for he has indicated1 by signs in the original context corresponding to other similar signs in the ,,ms4 passages1 the places where he wished his additions to be inserted4 ,all that was left for me to do1 was to give in extended form a few citations he had purposed adding4 ,no essential corrections and additions1 such as might modify the fundamental thoughts of the work1 will be found in this new edition1 which simply contains corrections1 amplifications1 and corroborations1 many of them interesting and important4 ,let me take only a single instance3 #ba1 on the ,intellectual ,nature of ,empirical ,perception4 ,as ,schopenhauer attached great importance to his proof of the intellectual nature of perception1 nay1 believed he had made a new discovery by it1 he also worked out with special predilection all that tended to support1 confirm1 and strengthen it4 ,thus we find him in this #ba quoting an interesting fact he had himself observed in #ahae2 then the instances of ,caspar ,hauser and others 7taken from ,franz's book1 ,the ,eye1 c4 c472 and again the case of ,joseph ,kleinhaus1 the blind sculptor2 and finally1 the physiological confirmations he has found in ,flourens' ,de la vie et de l'intelligence des ,animaux4 ,an observation1 too1 concerning the value of ,arithmetic for the comprehension of physical processes1 which is inserted into this same paragraph1 will be found very remarkable1 and may be particularly recommended to those who are inclined to set too high a value on calculation4 ,many interesting and important additions will be found in the other paragraphs also4 ,one thing ,i could have wished to see left out of this ,third ,edition3 his effusions against the professors of philosophy4 ,in a conversation with ,schopenhauer in the year #ahdg1 when he told me how he intended to chastise the professors of philosophy1#f ,i expressed my dissent on this point2 for even in the ,second ,edition these passages had interrupted the measured progress of objective inquiry4 ,at that time1 however1 he was not to be persuaded to strike them out2 so they were left to be again included in this ,third ,edition1 where the reader will accordingly once more find them1 although times have changed since then4 #f ,see ,arthur ,schopenhauer4 ,von ihm2 ber ihn4 ,ein ,wort der ,vertheidigung1 von ,ernst ,otto ,lindner1 and ,memorabilien1 ,briefe und ,nachlassstcke1 von ,julius ,frauenstdt 7,berlin1 #ahfc71 pp4 #afc-afe4 ,upon another point1 more nearly touching the real issue1 ,i had a controversy with ,schopenhauer in the year #aheb4 ,in arguing against ,fichte's derivation of the ,non-,ego from the ,ego in his chief work1#g he had said3-- #g ,schopenhauer1 ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung1 second edition1 i41 #cg 7third edition1 i41 #ci74 ,just as if ,kant had never existed1 the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason still remains with ,fichte what it was with all the ,schoolmen1 an terna veritas3 that is to say1 just as the ,gods of the ancients were still ruled over by eternal ,destiny1 so was the ,god of the ,schoolmen still ruled over by these terna veritates1 i4e41 by the metaphysical1 mathematical1 and metalogical truths1 and even1 according to some1 by the validity of the moral law4 ,these veritates alone were unconditioned by anything1 and ,god1 as well as the world1 existed through their necessity4 ,thus with ,fichte the ,ego1 according to the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 is the reason of the world or of the ,non-,ego1 of the ,object1 which is the product or result of the ,ego itself4 ,he took good care1 therefore1 neither to examine nor to check the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason any farther4 ,but if ,i had to indicate the particular form of this principle by which ,fichte was guided in making the ,ego spin the ,non-,ego out of itself1 as the spider its web1 ,i should point to the ,principle of the ,sufficient ,reason of ,being in ,space2 for nothing but a reference to this principle gives any sort of sense or meaning to his laboured deductions of the way in which the ,ego produces and manufactures the ,non-,ego out of itself1 which form the contents of the most senseless and--simply on this account--most tiresome book ever written4 ,the only interest this ,fichteian philosophy has for us at all--otherwise it would not be worth mentioning--lies in its being the tardy appearance of the real antithesis to ancient ,materialism1 which was the most consistent starting from the ,object1 just as ,fichte's philosophy was the most consistent starting from the ,subject4 ,as ,materialism overlooked the fact1 that with the simplest ,object it forthwith posited the ,subject also2 so ,fichte not only overlooked the fact1 that with the ,subject 7whatever name he might choose to give it7 he had already posited the ,object also1 because no ,subject can be thought without it2 he likewise overlooked the fact1 that all derivation priori1 nay1 all demonstration whatsoever1 rests upon a necessity1 and that all necessity itself rests entirely and exclusively on the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 because to be necessary1 and to result from a given reason1 are convertible terms2 that the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is still nothing but the common form of the ,object as such3 therefore that it always presupposes the ,object and does not1 as valid before and independently of it1 first introduce it1 and cannot make the ,object arise in conformity with its own legislation4 ,thus this starting from the ,object and the above-mentioned starting from the ,subject have in common1 that both presuppose what they pretend to derive3 i4e41 the necessary correlate of their starting-point4 ,this last assertion that the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason already presupposes the ,object1 but does not1 as valid before and independently of it1 first introduce it1 and cannot make the ,object arise in conformity with its own legislation1 seemed to me so far to clash with the proof given by ,schopenhauer in #ba of the ,fourfold ,root1 as1 according to the latter1 it is the function of the ,subject's understanding which primarily creates the objective world out of the subjective feelings of the sensuous organs by the application of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason2 so that all that is ,object1 as such1 after all comes into being only in conformity with the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 consequently that this principle cannot1 as ,schopenhauer asserted in his polemic against ,fichte1 already presuppose the ,object4 ,in #aheb1 therefore1 ,i wrote as follows to ,schopenhauer3-- ,in your arguments against ,fichte1 where you say that the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason already presupposes the ,object1 and cannot1 as valid before and independently of it1 first introduce it1 the objection occurred to me anew1 that in your ,fourfold ,root you had made the ,object of perception first come into being through the application of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 and that you yourself1 therefore1 derive the ,object from the ,subject1 as1 for instance1 p4 #gc of the ,fourfold ,root 7#bnd edition74 ,how then can you maintain against ,fichte that the ,object is always pre-supposed by the ,subject8 ,i know of no way of solving this difficulty but the following3 ,the ,subject only presupposes in the ,object what belongs to the thing in itself1 what is inscrutable2 but it creates itself the representation of the ,object1 i4e4 that by which the thing in itself becomes phenomenon4 ,for instance1 when ,i see a tree1 my ,subject assumes the thing in itself of that tree2 whereas the representation of it conversely presupposes the operation of my ,subject1 the transition from the effect 7in my eye7 to its cause4 ,to this ,schopenhauer replied as follows on the #abth of ,july1 #aheb3-- ,your answers 7to the objection in question7 are not the right ones4 ,here there cannot yet be a question of the thing in itself1 and the distinction between representation and object is inadmissible3 the world is representation4 ,the matter stands rather as follows--,fichte's derivation of the ,non-,ego from the ,ego1 is quite abstract3--,a ,a1 ergo1 ,i ,i1 and so forth4 ,taken in an abstract sense1 the ,object is at once posited with the ,subject4 ,for to be ,subject means1 to know2 and to know means1 to have representations4 ,object and representation are one and the same thing4 ,in the ,fourfold ,root1 therefore1 ,i have divided all objects or representations into four classes1 within which the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason always reigns1 though in each class under a different form2 nevertheless1 the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason always presupposes the class itself1 and indeed1 properly speaking1 they coincide4#h ,now1 in reality1 the existence of the ,subject of knowing is not an abstract existence4 ,the ,subject does not exist for itself and independently1 as if it had dropped from the sky2 it appears as the instrument of some individual phenomenon of the ,will 7animal1 human being71 whose purposes it is destined to serve1 and which thereby now receives a consciousness1 on the one hand1 of itself1 on the other hand1 of everything else4 ,the question next arises1 as to how or out of what elements the representation of the outer world is brought about within this consciousness4 ,this ,i have already answered in my ,theory of ,colours and also in my chief work1#i but most thoroughly and exhaustively of all in the ,second ,edition of the ,fourfold ,root1 #ba1 where it is shown1 that all those elements are of subjective origin2 wherefore attention is especially drawn to the great difference between all this and ,fichte's humbug4 ,for the whole of my exposition is but the full carrying out of ,kant's ,transcendental ,idealism4#aj #h ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ag-ba1 and vol4 i4 p4 #ci of the second edition4 7,the passages referred to by ,schopenhauer in the second edition are in the third edition vol4 ii4 pp4 #ah-ba1 and vol4 i4 p4 #dj74 #i ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v41 vol4 i4 p4 #bb et seqq41 and vol4 ii4 chap4 ii4 of the second edition2 vol4 i4 p4 #bb1 #f1 and vol4 ii4 chap4 ii4 of the third edition4 #aj ,the passage ,i have quoted above from ,schopenhauer's letter is also to be found among the letters published in my book1 ,arthur ,schopenhauer4 ,von ihm1 ber ihn1 u4 s4 w41 p4 #eda et seqq41 and it results from this1 as well as from several other letters which likewise deal with important and knotty points in his philosophy1 that this correspondence may perhaps not be quite so worthless and unimportant as many--among them ,gwinner1 in his pamphlet1 ,schopenhauer und seine ,freunde 7,leipzig1 #ahfc7--represent it to be4 ,this pamphlet of ,gwinner's1 by the way1 has met with the treatment it deserves in the ,preface to the collection1 ,aus ,arthur ,schopenhauer's handschriftlichen ,aphorismen und ,nachlass4 ,abhandlungen1 ,anmerkungen1 ,fragmente4 7,leipzig1 #ahfd74 ,i have thought it advisable to give this passage of his letter1 as being relevant to the matter in question4 ,as to the division in chapters and paragraphs1 it is the same in this new edition as in the last4 ,by comparing each single paragraph of the second with the same paragraph of the present edition1 it will be easy to find out what has been newly added4 ,in conclusion1 however1 ,i will still add a short list of the principal passages which are new4 ,list of ,additions to the ,third ,edition4 #h1 p4 #ac1 the passages from ,notandum1 c41 to ,ex necessitate1 and p4 #ad1 from ,zunchst adoptirt down to the end of the page 7,english version1 p4 #ad1 ,not41 c41 to ,ex nec42 p4 #ae1 from ,first he adopts down to the end of the paragraph1 p4 #af1 est causa sui71 in confirmation of his assertion that ,spinoza had interchanged and confounded the relation between reason of knowledge and consequent1 with that between cause and effect4 #i1 p4 #ag1 from er proklamirt down to gewusst haben wird4 7,e4 v41 #i1 p4 #ai1 from ,he proclaims it down to by others before47 #bj1 p4 #db1 in speaking of reciprocity 7,wechselwirkung71 from the words ,ja1 wo einem ,schreiber down to ins ,bodenlose gerathen sei4 7,e4 v41 #bj1 p4 #de1 from ,nay1 it is precisely down to his depth47 #ba1 p4 #fa1 the words at the bottom1 und rumlich konstruirt1 down to p4 #fb1 ,data erhlt1 together with the quotation concerning the blind sculptor1 ,j4 ,kleinhaus4 7,e4 v41 #ba1 p4 #fg1 the words and constructs in ,space down to of the ,understanding17 and the note4 #ba1 pp4 #fg-fh1 from ,ein specieller und interessanter ,beleg down to albernes ,zeug dazu4 7,e4 v41 #ba1 p4 #gc1 ,i will here add down to p4 #gd1 followed by twaddle47 #ba1 p4 #gc1 sq41 the instances of ,caspar ,hauser1 c41 from ,franz1 ,the ,eye1 c41 and the physiological corroborations from ,flourens1 ,de la vie et de l'intelligence1 c4 7,e4 v41 p4 #hj1 and following47 #ba1 p4 #gg1 the parenthesis on the value of calculation4 7,e4 v41 p4 #hc1 ,all comprehension1 c47 #ba1 p4 #hc1 the words da ferner ,substanz down to das ,wirken in concreto4 7,e4 v41 #ba1 p4 #ij1 ,substance and ,matter down to in concreto47 #bi1 p4 #aje1 the words im ,lateinischen down to erkannte4 7,e4 v41 #bi1 p4 #aaf1 from ,in ,latin down to ' 47 #cd1 p4 #aaf1 the words ,ueberall ist down to ,praxis und ,theorie4 7,e4 v41 #cd1 p4 #abh1 the words ,reasonable or ,rational down to theory and practice47 #cd1 p4 #aba1 the verses from ,gthe's ,west-stlicher ,divan4 #cd1 p4 #abe1 ,anmerkung1 the words ,auch ist ,brahma down to die erstere1 and p4 #abf1 the quotation from ,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt's ,forschungen4 7,e4 v41 #cd1 p4 #ach1 note1 ,brahma is also down to first of these47 #cd1 p4 #abg1 the words from ,aber der naive down to judaisirten gouverneurs 7,e4 v41 #cd1 p4 #aej1 sentence beginning ,but the artless down to infancy1 and the ,greek quotation from ,plutarch in the note47 #cd1 p4 #abh1 the words from ,ganz bereinstimmend down to berflssige sein soll4 7,e4 v41 p4 #aea1 from ,j4 ,f4 ,davis down to superfluous47 #de1 p4 #adg1 the words ,eben daher kommt es down to sich erhlt4 7,e4 v41 #de1 p4 #afc1 ,it is just for this reason too down to their possession47 #de1 p4 #adi1 the words ,man suche ,das1 c41 down to gelesen haben4 7,e4 v41 #de1 p4 #afd1 from ,we should down to read in books47 #di1 p4 #aed1 the words ,der bei den ,philosophastern1 down to zu kontroliren sind4 7,e4 v41 #di1 p4 #afi1 from the words ,the conception of our1 c41 down to by perception47 #ej1 p4 #aef1 the words ,denn der ,satz vom ,grunde down to nur sich selbst nicht4 7,e4 v41 #ej1 p4 #agb1 from ,for the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 c41 down to everything else47 #eb1 p4 #aeh1 the words ,der allgemeine ,sinn des ,satzes vom ,grunde1 down to der ,kosmologische ,beweis ist4 7,e4 v41 #eb1 p4 #agc1 from ,the general meaning down to the ,cosmological ,proof47 ,,julius ,,frauenst,,dt4 ,,berlin1 ,august1 #ahfd4 ,,editor',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,the present ,fourth ,edition is of the same content as the ,third2 therefore it contains the same corrections and additions which ,i had already inserted in the ,third ,edition from ,schopenhauer's own interleaved copy of this work4 ,,julius ,,frauenst,,dt4 ,,berlin1 ,september1 #ahgg4 ,,on ,,the ,,fourfold ,,root ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,the ,method4 ,the divine ,plato and the marvellous ,kant unite their mighty voices in recommending a rule1 to serve as the method of all philosophising as well as of all other science4#aa ,two laws1 they tell us3 the law of homogeneity and the law of specification1 should be equally observed1 neither to the disadvantage of the other4 ,the law of homogeneity directs us to collect things together into kinds by observing their resemblances and correspondences1 to collect kinds again into species1 species into genera1 and so on1 till at last we come to the highest all-comprehensive conception4 ,now this law1 being transcendental1 i4e4 essential to our ,reason1 takes for granted that ,nature conforms with it3 an assumption which is expressed by the ancient formula1 entia prter necessitatem non esse multiplicanda4 ,as for the law of specification1 ,kant expresses it thus3 entium varietates non temere esse minuendas4 ,it requires namely1 that we should clearly distinguish one from another the different genera collected under one comprehensive conception2 likewise that we should not confound the higher and lower species comprised in each genus2 that we should be careful not to overleap any1 and never to classify inferior species1 let alone individuals1 immediately under the generic conception3 each conception being susceptible of subdivision1 and none even coming down to mere intuition4 ,kant teaches that both laws are transcendental1 fundamental principles of our ,reason1 which postulate conformity of things with them priori2 and ,plato1 when he tells us that these rules were flung down from the seat of the gods with the ,promethean fire1 seems to express the same thought in his own way4 #aa ,platon1 ,phileb4 pp4 #bai-bbc4 ,politic4 #fb1 #fc4 ,phdr4 #cfa-cfc1 ed4 ,bip4 ,kant1 ,kritik der reinen ,vernunft4 ,anhang zur transcend4 ,dialektik4 ,english ,translation by ,f4 ,max ,mller4 ,appendix to the ,transc4 ,dialectic4 pp4 #eea1 and seqq4 #b4 ,application of the ,method in the present case4 ,in spite of the weight of such recommendations1 ,i find that the second of these two laws has been far too rarely applied to a fundamental principle of all knowledge3 the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason4 ,for although this principle has been often and long ago stated in a general way1 still sufficient distinction has not been made between its extremely different applications1 in each of which it acquires a new meaning2 its origin in various mental faculties thus becoming evident4 ,if we compare ,kant's philosophy with all preceding systems1 we perceive that1 precisely in the observation of our mental faculties1 many persistent errors have been caused by applying the principle of homogeneity1 while the opposite principle of specification was neglected2 whereas the law of specification has led to the greatest and most important results4 ,i therefore crave permission to quote a passage from ,kant1 in which the application of the law of specification to the sources of our knowledge is especially recommended2 for it gives countenance to my present endeavour3-- ,it is of the highest importance to isolate various sorts of knowledge1 which in kind and origin are different from others1 and to take great care lest they be mixed up with those others with which1 for practical purposes1 they are generally united4 ,what is done by the chemist in the analysis of substances1 and by the mathematician in pure mathematics1 is far more incumbent on the philosopher1 in order to enable him to define clearly the part which1 in the promiscuous employment of the understanding1 belongs to a special kind of knowledge1 as well as its peculiar value and influence4#ab #ab ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,v4 ,methodenlehre4 ,drittes ,hauptstck1 p4 #hdb of the #ast edition4 ,engl4 ,tr4 by ,f4 ,m4 ,mller4 ,architectonic of ,pure ,reason1 p4 #gbc4 #c4 ,utility of this ,inquiry4 ,should ,i succeed in showing that the principle which forms the subject of the present inquiry does not issue directly from one primitive notion of our intellect1 but rather in the first instance from various ones1 it will then follow1 that neither can the necessity it brings with it1 as a firmly established priori principle1 be one and the same in all cases1 but must1 on the contrary1 be as manifold as the sources of the principle itself4 ,whoever therefore bases a conclusion upon this principle1 incurs the obligation of clearly specifying on which of its grounds of necessity he founds his conclusion and of designating that ground by a special name1 such as ,i am about to suggest4 ,i hope that this may be a step towards promoting greater lucidity and precision in philosophising2 for ,i hold the extreme clearness to be attained by an accurate definition of each single expression to be indispensable to us1 as a defence both against error and against intentional deception1 and also as a means of securing to ourselves the permanent1 unalienable possession of each newly acquired notion within the sphere of philosophy beyond the fear of losing it again on account of any misunderstanding or double meaning which might hereafter be detected4 ,the true philosopher will indeed always seek after light and perspicuity1 and will endeavour to resemble a ,swiss lake--which through its peacefulness is enabled to unite great depth with great clearness1 the depth revealing itself precisely by the clearness--rather than a turbid1 impetuous mountain torrent4 ,la clart est la bonne foi des philosophes1 says ,vauvenargues4 ,pseudo-philosophers1 on the contrary1 use speech1 not indeed to conceal their thoughts1 as ,m4 de ,talleyrand has it1 but rather to conceal the absence of them1 and are apt to make their readers responsible for the incomprehensibility of their systems1 which really proceeds from their own confused thinking4 ,this explains why in certain writers--,schelling1 for instance--the tone of instruction so often passes into that of reproach1 and frequently the reader is even taken to task beforehand for his assumed inability to understand4 #d4 ,importance of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason4 ,its importance is indeed very great1 since it may truly be called the basis of all science4 ,for by science we understand a system of notions1 i4e4 a totality of connected1 as opposed to a mere aggregate of disconnected1 notions4 ,but what is it that binds together the members of a system1 if not the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason8 ,that which distinguishes every science from a mere aggregate is precisely1 that its notions are derived one from another as from their reason4 ,so it was long ago observed by ,plato3 1 7etiam opiniones ver non multi pretii sunt1 donec quis illas ratiocinatione a causis ducta liget74#ac ,nearly every science1 moreover1 contains notions of causes from which the effects may be deduced1 and likewise other notions of the necessity of conclusions from reasons1 as will be seen during the course of this inquiry4 ,aristotle has expressed this as follows3 1 1 7omnis intellectualis scientia1 sive aliquo modo intellectu participans1 circa causas et principia est74#ad ,now1 as it is this very assumption priori that all things must have their reason1 which authorizes us everywhere to search for the why1 we may safely call this why the mother of all science4 #ac ,meno4 p4 #che1 ed ,bip4 ,even true opinions are not of much value until somebody binds them down by proof of a cause4 ,translator's addition4 #ad ,aristot4 ,metaph4 v4 #a4 ,all knowledge which is intellectual or partakes somewhat of intellect1 deals with causes and principles4 ,tr4's add4 #e4 ,the ,principle itself4 ,we purpose showing further on that the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is an expression common to several priori notions4 ,meanwhile1 it must be stated under some formula or other4 ,i choose ,wolf's as being the most comprehensive3 ,nihil est sine ratione cur potius sit1 quam non sit4 ,nothing is without a reason for its being4#ae #ae ,here the translator gives ,schopenhauer's free version of ,wolf's formula4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,general ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,important ,,views ,,hitherto ,,held ,,concerning ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason4 #f4 ,first ,statement of the ,principle and ,distinction between ,two of its ,meanings4 ,a more or less accurately defined1 abstract expression for so fundamental a principle of all knowledge must have been found at a very early age2 it would1 therefore1 be difficult1 and besides of no great interest1 to determine where it first appeared4 ,neither ,plato nor ,aristotle have formally stated it as a leading fundamental principle1 although both often speak of it as a self-evident truth4 ,thus1 with a navet which savours of the state of innocence as opposed to that of the knowledge of good and of evil1 when compared with the critical researches of our own times1 ,plato says3 1 2#af 7necesse est1 qucunque fiunt1 per aliquam causam fieri3 quomodo enim absque ea fierent87 and then again3 ' #ag 7quidquid gignitur1 ex aliqua causa necessario gignitur3 sine causa enim oriri quidquam1 impossibile est74 ,at the end of his book ,de fato1 ,plutarch cites the following among the chief propositions of the ,stoics3 1 1 #ah 7maxime id primum esse videbitur1 nihil fieri sine causa1 sed omnia causis antegressis74 #af ,platon1 ,phileb4 p4 #bdj1 ed ,bip4 ,it is necessary that all which arises1 should arise by some cause2 for how could it arise otherwise8 ,tr4's add4 #ag ,ibid4 ,timus1 p4 #cjb4 ,all that arises1 arises necessarily from some cause2 for it is impossible for anything to come into being without cause4 ,tr4's add4 #ah ,this especially would seem to be the first principle3 that nothing arises without cause1 but everything according to preceding causes4 ,tr4's add4 ,in the ,analyt4 post4 i4 #b1 ,aristotle states the principle of sufficient reason to a certain degree when he says3 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 4 7,scire autem putamus unamquamque rem simpliciter1 quum putamus causam cognoscere1 propter quum res est1 ejusque rei causam esse1 nec posse eam aliter se habere47#ai ,in his ,metaphysics1 moreover1 he already divides causes1 or rather principles1 1 into different kinds1#bj of which he admits eight2 but this division is neither profound nor precise enough4 ,he is1 nevertheless1 quite right in saying1 1 1 1 1 4#ba 7,omnibus igitur principiis commune est1 esse primum1 unde aut est1 aut fit1 aut cognoscitur47 ,in the following chapter he distinguishes several kinds of causes1 although somewhat superficially and confusedly4 ,in the ,analyt4 post4 ii4 #aa1 he states four kinds of causes in a more satisfactory manner3 1 1 1 4#bb 7,caus autem quatuor sunt3 una qu explicat quid res sit2 altera1 quam1 si qudam sint1 necesse est esse2 tertia1 qu quid primum movit2 quarta id1 cujus gratia47 ,now this is the origin of the division of the caus universally adopted by the ,scholastic ,philosophers1 into caus materiales1 formales1 efficientes et finales1 as may be seen in ,suarii disputationes metaphysic#bc--;a real compendium of ,scholasticism4 ,even ,hobbes still quotes and explains this division4#bd ,it is also to be found in another passage of ,aristotle1 this time somewhat more clearly and fully developed 7,metaph4 i4 #c47 and it is again briefly noticed in the book ,de somno et vigilia1 c4 #b4 ,as for the vitally important distinction between reason and cause1 however1 ,aristotle no doubt betrays something like a conception of it in the ,analyt4 post4 i4 #ac1 where he shows at considerable length that knowing and proving that a thing exists is a very different thing from knowing and proving why it exists3 what he represents as the latter1 being knowledge of the cause2 as the former1 knowledge of the reason4 ,if1 however1 he had quite clearly recognized the difference between them1 he would never have lost sight of it1 but would have adhered to it throughout his writings4 ,now this is not the case2 for even when he endeavours to distinguish the various kinds of causes from one another1 as in the passages ,i have mentioned above1 the essential difference mooted in the chapter just alluded to1 never seems to occur to him again4 ,besides he uses the term indiscriminately for every kind of cause1 often indeed calling reasons of knowledge1 and sometimes even the premisses of a conclusion1 1 as1 for instance1 in his ,metaph4 iv4 #ah2 ,rhet4 ii4 #b2 ,de plantis4 p4 #haf 7ed4 ,berol471 but more especially ,analyt4 post4 i4 #b1 where he calls the premisses to a conclusion simply 7causes of the conclusion74 ,now1 using the same word to express two closely connected conceptions1 is a sure sign that their difference has not been recognised1 or at any rate not been firmly grasped2 for a mere accidental homonymous designation of two widely differing things is quite another matter4 ,nowhere1 however1 does this error appear more conspicuously than in his definition of the sophism non caus ut causa1 1 7reasoning from what is not cause as if it were cause71 in the book ,de sophisticis elenchis1 c4 #e4 ,by he here understands absolutely nothing but the argument1 the premisses1 consequently a reason of knowledge2 for this sophism consists in correctly proving the impossibility of something1 while the proof has no bearing whatever upon the proposition in dispute1 which it is nevertheless supposed to refute4 ,here1 therefore1 there is no question at all of physical causes4 ,still the use of the word has had so much weight with modern logicians1 that they hold to it exclusively in their accounts of the fallacia extra dictionem1 and explain the fallacia non caus ut causa as designating a physical cause1 which is not the case4 ,reimarus1 for instance1 does so1 and ,g4 ,e4 ,schultze and ,fries--all indeed of whom ,i have any knowledge4 ,the first work in which ,i find a correct definition of this sophism1 is ,twesten's ,logic4 ,moreover1 in all other scientific works and controversies the charge of a fallacia non caus ut causa usually denotes the interpolation of a wrong cause4 #ai ,we think we understand a thing perfectly1 whenever we think we know the cause by which the thing is1 that it is really the cause of that thing1 and that the thing cannot possibly be otherwise4 ,tr4's add4 #bj ,lib4 iv4 c4 #a4 #ba ,now it is common to all principles1 that they are the first thing through which anything is1 or arises1 or is understood4 ,tr4's add4 #bb ,there are four causes3 first1 the essence of a thing itself2 second1 the sine qua non of a thing2 third1 what first put a thing in motion2 fourth1 to what purpose or end a thing is tending4 ,tr4's add4 #bc ,suarii disputationes metaph4 ,disp4 #ab1 sect4 #b et #c4 #bd ,hobbes1 ,de corpore1 ,p4 ii4 c4 #aj1 #g4 ,sextus ,empiricus presents another forcible instance of the way in which the ,ancients were wont universally to confound the logical law of the reason of knowledge with the transcendental law of cause and effect in ,nature1 persistently mistaking one for the other4 ,in the #ith ,book ,adversus ,mathematicos1 that is1 the ,book ,adversus ,physicos1 #bjd1 he undertakes to prove the law of causality1 and says3 ,he who asserts that there is no cause 771 either has no cause 77 for his assertion1 or has one4 ,in the former case there is not more truth in his assertion than in its contradiction2 in the latter1 his assertion itself proves the existence of a cause4 ,by this we see that the ,ancients had not yet arrived at a clear distinction between requiring a reason as the ground of a conclusion1 and asking for a cause for the occurrence of a real event4 ,as for the ,scholastic ,philosophers of later times1 the law of causality was in their eyes an axiom above investigation3 non inquirimus an causa sit1 quia nihil est per se notius1 says ,suarez4#be ,at the same time they held fast to the above quoted ,aristotelian classification2 but1 as far as ,i know at least1 they equally failed to arrive at a clear idea of the necessary distinction of which we are here speaking4 #be ,suarez1 ,disp4 #ab1 sect4 #a4 #g4 ,descartes4 ,for we find even the excellent ,descartes1 who gave the first impulse to subjective reflection and thereby became the father of modern philosophy1 still entangled in confusions for which it is difficult to account2 and we shall soon see to what serious and deplorable consequences these confusions have led with regard to ,metaphysics4 ,in the ,responsio ad secundas objectiones in meditationes de prima philosophia1 axioma i4 he says3 ,nulla res existit1 de qua non possit quri1 qunam sit causa1 cur existat4 ,hoc enim de ipso ,deo quri potest1 non quod indigeat ulla causa ut existat1 sed quia ipsa ejus natur immensitas est ,,causa1 ,,sive ,,ratio1 propter quam nulla causa indiget ad existendum4 ,he ought to have said3 ,the immensity of ,god is a logical reason from which it follows1 that ,god needs no cause2 whereas he confounds the two together and obviously has no clear consciousness of the difference between reason and cause4 ,properly speaking however1 it is his intention which mars his insight4 ,for here1 where the law of causality demands a cause1 he substitutes a reason instead of it1 because the latter1 unlike the former1 does not immediately lead to something beyond it2 and thus1 by means of this very axiom1 he clears the way to the ,ontological ,proof of the existence of ,god1 which was really his invention1 for ,anselm had only indicated it in a general manner4 ,immediately after these axioms1 of which ,i have just quoted the first1 there comes a formal1 quite serious statement of the ,ontological ,proof1 which1 in fact1 already lies within that axiom1 as the chicken does within the egg that has been long brooded over4 ,thus1 while everything else stands in need of a cause for its existence1 the immensitas implied in the conception of the ,deity--who is introduced to us upon the ladder of the ,cosmological ,proof--suffices in lieu of a cause or1 as the proof itself expresses it3 in conceptu entis summe perfecti existentia necessaria continetur4 ,this1 then1 is the sleight-of-hand trick1 for the sake of which the confusion1 familiar even to ,aristotle1 of the two principal meanings of the principle of sufficient reason1 has been used directly in majorem ,dei gloriam4 ,considered by daylight1 however1 and without prejudice1 this famous ,ontological ,proof is really a charming joke4 ,on some occasion or other1 some one excogitates a conception1 composed out of all sorts of predicates1 among which however he takes care to include the predicate actuality or existence1 either openly stated or wrapped up for decency's sake in some other predicate1 such as perfectio1 immensitas1 or something of the kind4 ,now1 it is well known1--that1 from a given conception1 those predicates which are essential to it--i4e41 without which it cannot be thought--and likewise the predicates which are essential to those predicates themselves1 may be extracted by means of purely logical analyses1 and consequently have logical truth3 that is1 they have their reason of knowledge in the given conception4 ,accordingly the predicate reality or existence is now extracted from this arbitrarily thought conception1 and an object corresponding to it is forthwith presumed to have real existence independently of the conception4 ,wr' der ,gedank' nicht so verwnscht gescheut1 ,man wr' versucht ihn herzlich dumm zu nennen4#bf #bf ,were not the thought so cursedly acute1 ,one might be tempted to declare it silly4 ,,schiller1 ,wallenstein-,trilogie4 ,piccolomini1 ,act ii4 ,sc4 #g4 ,after all1 the simplest answer to such ontological demonstrations is3 ,all depends upon the source whence you have derived your conception3 if it be taken from experience1 all well and good1 for in this case its object exists and needs no further proof2 if1 on the contrary1 it has been hatched in your own sinciput1 all its predicates are of no avail1 for it is a mere phantasm4 ,but we form an unfavourable prejudice against the pretensions of a theology which needed to have recourse to such proofs as this in order to gain a footing on the territory of philosophy1 to which it is quite foreign1 but on which it longs to trespass4 ,but oh6 for the prophetic wisdom of ,aristotle6 ,he had never even heard of the ,ontological ,proof2 yet as though he could detect this piece of scholastic jugglery through the shades of coming darkness and were anxious to bar the road to it1 he carefully shows#bg that defining a thing and proving its existence are two different matters1 separate to all eternity2 since by the one we learn what it is that is meant1 and by the other that such a thing exists4 ,like an oracle of the future1 he pronounces the sentence3 ' 3 7,,esse autem nullius rei essentia1 est1 quandoquidem ens non est genus7 which means3 ,existence never can belong to the essence of a thing4 ,on the other hand1 we may see how great was ,herr von ,schelling's veneration for the ,ontological ,proof in a long note1 p4 #aeb1 of the #ast vol4 of his ,philosophische ,schriften of #ahji4 ,we may even see in it something still more instructive1 i4e41 how easily ,germans allow sand to be thrown in their eyes by impudence and blustering swagger4 ,but for so thoroughly pitiable a creature as ,hegel1 whose whole pseudo-philosophy is but a monstrous amplification of the ,ontological ,proof1 to have undertaken its defence against ,kant1 is indeed an alliance of which the ,ontological ,proof itself might be ashamed1 however little it may in general be given to blushing4 ,how can ,i be expected to speak with deference of men1 who have brought philosophy into contempt8 #bg ,aristot41 ,analyt4 post4 c4 #g4 #h4 ,spinoza4 ,although ,spinoza's philosophy mainly consists in the negation of the double dualism between ,god and the world and between soul and body1 which his teacher1 ,descartes1 had set up1 he nevertheless remained true to his master in confounding and interchanging the relation between reason and consequence with that between cause and effect2 he even endeavoured to draw from it a still greater advantage for his own metaphysics than ,descartes for his1 for he made this confusion the foundation of his whole ,pantheism4 ,a conception contains implicite all its essential predicates1 so that they may be developed out of it explicite by means of mere analytical judgments3 the sum total of them being its definition4 ,this definition therefore differs from the conception itself merely in form and not in content2 for it consists of judgments which are all contained within that conception1 and therefore have their reason in it1 in as far as they show its essence4 ,we may accordingly look upon these judgments as the consequences of that conception1 considered as their reason4 ,now this relation between a conception and the judgments founded upon it and susceptible of being developed out of it by analysis1 is precisely the relation between ,spinoza's so-called ,god and the world1 or rather between the one and only substance and its numberless accidents 7,deus1 sive substantia constans infinitis attributis#bh--;,deus1 sive omnia ,dei attributa74 ,it is therefore the relation in knowledge of the reason to its consequent2 whereas true ,theism 7,spinoza's ,theism is merely nominal7 assumes the relation of the cause to its effect1 in which the cause remains different and separate from the consequence1 not only in the way in which we consider them1 but really and essentially1 therefore in themselves to all eternity4 ,for the word ,god1 honestly used1 means a cause such as this of the world1 with the addition of personality4 ,an impersonal ,god is1 on the contrary1 a contradictio in adjecto4 ,now as nevertheless1 even in the case as stated by him1 ,spinoza desired to retain the word ,god to express substance1 and explicitly called this the cause of the world1 he could find no other way to do it than by completely intermingling the two relations1 and confounding the principle of the reason of knowledge with the principle of causality4 ,i call attention to the following passages in corroboration of this statement4 ,notandum1 dari necessario unius cujusque rei existentis certam aliquam ,,causam1 propter quam existit4 ,et notandum1 hanc causam1 propter quart aliqua res existit1 vel debere contineri in ipsa natura et ,,definitione rei existentis 7nimirum quod ad ipsius naturam pertinet existere71 vel debere ,,extra ipsam dari4#bi ,in the last case he means an efficient cause1 as appears from what follows1 whereas in the first he means a mere reason of knowledge2 yet he identifies both1 and by this means prepares the way for identifying ,god with the world1 which is his intention4 ,this is the artifice of which he always makes use1 and which he has learnt from ,descartes4 ,he substitutes a cause acting from without1 for a reason of knowledge lying within1 a given conception4 ,ex necessitate divin natur omnia1 qu sub intellectum infinitum cadere possunt1 sequi debent4#cj ,at the same time he calls ,god everywhere the cause of the world4 ,quidquid existit ,dei potentiam1 qu omnium rerum ,,causa est1 exprimit4#ca--;,deus est omnium rerum ,,causa immanens1 non vero transiens4#cb--;,deus non tantam est ,,causa ,,efficiens rerum existenti1 sed etiam essenti4#cc--;,ex data quacunque ,,idea aliquis ,,effectus necessario sequi debat4#cd--;,and3 ,nulla res nisi a causa externa potest destrui4#ce--;,demonstr4 ,,definitio cujuscunque rei1 ipsius essentiam 7essence1 nature1 as differing from existentia1 existence71 affirmat1 sed non negat2 sive rei essentiam ponit1 sed non tollit4 ,dum itaque ad rem ipsam tantum1 non autem ad causas externas attendimus1 nihil in eadem poterimus invenire1 quod ipsam possit destruere4 ,this means1 that as no conception can contain anything which contradicts its definition1 i4e41 the sum total of its predicates1 neither can an existence contain anything which might become a cause of its destruction4 ,this view1 however1 is brought to a climax in the somewhat lengthy second demonstration of the #aath ,proposition1 in which he confounds a cause capable of destroying or annihilating a being1 with a contradiction contained in its definition and therefore destroying that definition4 ,his need of confounding cause with reason here becomes so urgent1 that he can never say causa or ratio alone1 but always finds it necessary to put ratio seu causa4 ,accordingly1 this occurs as many as eight times in the same page1 in order to conceal the subterfuge4 ,descartes had done the same in the above-mentioned axiom4 #bh ,spinoza1 ,eth4 i4 prop4 #aa4 #bi ,spinoza1 ,eth4 ,p4 #a4 prop4 #h1 schol4 #b4 #cj ,ibid4 ,prop4 #af4 #ca ,ibid4 ,prop4 #cf1 demonstr4 #cb ,ibid4 ,prop4 #ah4 #cc ,ibid4 ,prop4 #be4 #cd ,eth4 ,p4 iii4 prop4 #a1 demonstr4 #ce ,ibid4 ,prop4 #d4 ,thus1 properly speaking1 ,spinoza's ,pantheism is merely the realisation of ,descartes' ,ontological ,proof4 ,first1 he adopts ,descartes' ontotheological proposition1 to which we have alluded above1 ipsa natur ,dei immensitas est ,,causa ,,sive ,,ratio1 propter quam nulla causa indiget ad existendum1 always saying substantia instead of ,deus 7in the beginning72 and then he finishes by substanti essentia necessario involvit existentiam1 ergo erit substantia ,,causa ,,sui4#cf ,therefore the very same argument which ,descartes had used to prove the existence of ,god1 is used by ,spinoza to prove the existence of the world1--which consequently needs no ,god4 ,he does this still more distinctly in the #bnd ,scholium to the #hth ,proposition3 ,quoniam ad naturam substantia pertinet existere1 debet ejus definitio necessariam existentiam involvere1 et consequenter ex sola ejus definitione debet ipsius existentia concludi4 ,but this substance is1 as we know1 the world4 ,the demonstration to ,proposition #bd says in the same sense3 ,id1 cujus natura in se considerata 7i4e41 in its definition7 involvit existentiam1 est ,,causa ,,sui4 #cf ,eth4 ,p4 i4 prop4 #g4 ,for what ,descartes had stated in an exclusively ideal and subjective sense1 i4e41 only for us1 for cognitive purposes--in this instance for the sake of proving the existence of ,god--,spinoza took in a real and objective sense1 as the actual relation of ,god to the world4 ,according to ,descartes1 the existence of ,god is contained in the conception of ,god1 therefore it becomes an argument for his actual being3 according to ,spinoza1 ,god is himself contained in the world4 ,thus what1 with ,descartes1 was only reason of knowledge1 becomes1 with ,spinoza1 reason of fact4 ,if the former1 in his ,ontological ,proof1 taught that the existentia of ,god is a consequence of the essentia of ,god1 the latter turns this into causa sui1 and boldly opens his ,ethics with3 per causam sui intelligo id1 cujus essentia 7conception7 involvit existentiam1 remaining deaf to ,aristotle's warning cry1 ' 6 ,now1 this is the most palpable confusion of reason and cause4 ,and if ,neo-,spinozans 7,schellingites1 ,hegelians1 c471 with whom words are wont to pass for thoughts1 often indulge in pompous1 solemn admiration for this causa sui1 for my own part ,i see nothing but a contradictio in adjecto in this same causa sui1 a before that is after1 an audacious command to us1 to sever arbitrarily the eternal causal chain--something1 in short1 very like the proceeding of that ,austrian1 who finding himself unable to reach high enough to fasten the clasp on his tightly-strapped shako1 got upon a chair4 ,the right emblem for causa sui is ,baron ,mnchhausen1 sinking on horseback into the water1 clinging by the legs to his horse and pulling both himself and the animal out by his own pigtail1 with the motto underneath3 ,causa sui4 ,let us finally cast a look at the #afth proposition of the #ast book of the ,ethics4 ,here we find ,spinoza concluding from the proposition1 ex data cujuscunque rei definitione plures proprietates intellectus concludit1 qu revera ex eadem necessario sequuntur1 that ex necessitate divin1 natur 7i4e41 taken as a reality71 infinita infinitis modis sequi debent3 this ,god therefore unquestionably stands in the same relation to the world as a conception to its definition4 ,the corollary1 ,deum omnium rerum esse ,,causam ,,efficientem1 is nevertheless immediately connected with it4 ,it is impossible to carry the confusion between reason and cause farther1 nor could it lead to graver consequences than here4 ,but this shows the importance of the subject of the present treatise4 ,in endeavouring to add a third step to the climax in question1 ,herr von ,schelling has contributed a small afterpiece to these errors1 into which two mighty intellects of the past had fallen owing to insufficient clearness in thinking4 ,if ,descartes met the demands of the inexorable law of causality1 which reduced his ,god to the last straits1 by substituting a reason instead of the cause required1 in order thus to set the matter at rest2 and if ,spinoza made a real cause out of this reason1 i4e41 causa sui1 his ,god thereby becoming the world itself3 ,schelling now made reason and consequent separate in ,god himself4#cg ,he thus gave the thing still greater consistency by elevating it to a real1 substantial hypostasis of reason and consequent1 and introducing us to something in ,god1 which is not himself1 but his reason1 as a primary reason1 or rather reason beyond reason 7abyss74 ,hoc quidem vere palmarium est4--,it is now known that ,schelling had taken the whole fable from ,jacob ,bhme's ,full account of the terrestrial and celestial mystery2 but what appears to me to be less well known1 is the source from which ,jacob ,bhme himself had taken it1 and the real birth-place of this so-called abyss1 wherefore ,i now take the liberty to mention it4 ,it is the 1 i4e4 abyssus1 vorago1 bottomless pit1 reason beyond reason of the ,valentinians 7a heretical sect of the second century7 which1 in silence--co-essential with itself--engendered intelligence and the world1 as ,irenus#ch relates in the following terms3 1 1 1 4-- 1 1 4 1 1 ' 1 7 7 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 4#ci 7,dicunt enim esse quendam in sublimitatibus illis1 qu nec oculis cerni1 nec nominari possunt1 perfectum onem prexistentem1 quem et proarchen1 et propatorem1 et ,bythum vocant4 ,eum autem1 quum incomprehensibilis et invisibilis1 sempiternus idem1 et ingenitus esset1 infinitis temporum seculis in summa quiete ac tranquillitate fuisse4 ,un etiam cum eo ,cogitationem exstitisse1 quam et ,gratiam et ,silentium 7,sigen7 nuncupant4 ,hunc porro ,bythum in animum1 aliquando induxisse1 rerum omnium initium proferre1 atque hanc1 quam in animum induxerat1 productionem1 in ,sigen 7silentium7 qu un cum eo erat1 non secus atque in vulvam demisisse4 ,hanc vero1 suscepto hoc semine1 prgnantem effectam peperisse ,intellectum1 parenti suo parem et qualem1 atque ita comparatum1 ut solus patern magnitudinis capax esset4 ,atque hunc ,intellectum et ,monogenem et ,patrem et principum omnium rerum appellant47 #cg ,schelling1 ,abhandlung von der menschlichen ,freiheit4 #ch ,irenus1 ,contr4 hres4 lib4 i4 c4 #a4 #ci ,for they say that in those unseen heights which have no name there is a pre-existing1 perfect on2 this they also call fore-rule1 forefather and the depth4--,they say1 that being incomprehensible and invisible1 eternal and unborn1 he has existed during endless ons in the deepest calmness and tranquillity2 and that coexisting with him was ,thought1 which they also call ,grace and ,silence4 ,this ,depth once bethought him to put forth from himself the beginning of all things and to lay that offshoot--which he had resolved to put forth--like a sperm into the coexisting ,silence1 as it were into a womb4 ,now this ,silence1 being thus impregnated and having conceived1 gave birth to ,intellect1 a being which was like and equal to its ,creator1 and alone able to comprehend the greatness of its father4 ,this ,intellect also they call the ,only-begotten and the ,beginning of all things4 ,tr4's add4 ,somehow or other this must have come to ,jacob ,bhme's hearing from the ,history of ,heresy1 and ,herr von ,schelling must have received it from him in all faith4 #i4 ,leibnitz4 ,it was ,leibnitz who first formally stated the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason as a main principle of all knowledge and of all science4 ,he proclaims it very pompously in various passages of his works1 giving himself great airs1 as though he had been the first to invent it2 yet all he finds to say about it is1 that everything must have a sufficient reason for being as it is1 and not otherwise3 and this the world had probably found out before him4 ,true1 he makes casual allusions to the distinction between its two chief significations1 without1 however1 laying any particular stress upon it1 or explaining it clearly anywhere else4 ,the principal reference to it is in his ,principia ,philosophi1 #cb1 and a little more satisfactorily in the ,french version1 entitled ,monadologie3 ,en vertu du principe de la raison suffisante1 nous considrons qu'aucun fait ne sauroit se trouver vrai ou existant1 aucune nonciation vritable1 sans qu'il y ait une raison suffisante1 pourquoi il en soit ainsi et non pas autrement4#dj #dj ,compare with this #dd of his ,theodice1 and his #eth letter to ,clarke1 #abe4 #aj4 ,wolf4 ,the first writer who explicitly separated the two chief significations of our principle1 and stated the difference between them in detail1 was therefore ,wolf4 ,wolf1 however1 does not place the principle of sufficient reason in ,logic1 as is now the custom1 but in ,ontology4 ,true1 in #ga he urges the necessity of not confounding the principle of sufficient reason of knowing with that of cause and effect2 still he does not clearly determine here wherein the difference consists4 ,indeed1 he himself mistakes the one for the other2 for he quotes instances of cause and effect in confirmation of the principium rationis sufficientis in this very chapter1 de ratione sufficiente1 #gj1 #gd1 #ge1 #gg1 which1 had he really wished to preserve that distinction1 ought rather to have been quoted in the chapter de causis of the same work4 ,in said chapter he again brings forward precisely similar instances1 and once more enunciates the principium cognoscendi 7 #hgf71 which does not certainly belong to it1 having been already discussed1 yet which serves to introduce the immediately following clear and definite distinction between this principle and the law of causality1 #hha-hhd4 ,principium1 he continues1 dicitur id1 quod in se continet rationem alterius2 and he distinguishes three kinds3 #a4 ,,principium ,,fiendi 7causa71 which he defines as ratio actualitatis alterius1 e4g41 si lapis calescit1 ignis aut radii solares sunt rationes1 cur calor lapidi insit4--#b4 ,,principium ,,essendi1 which he defines as ratio possibilitatis alterius2 in eodem1 exemplo1 ratio possibilitatis1 cur lapis calorem recipere possit1 est in essentia seu modo compositionis lapidis4 ,this last conception seems to me inadmissible4 ,if it has any meaning at all1 possibility means correspondence with the general conditions of experience known to us priori1 as ,kant has sufficiently shown4 ,from these conditions we know1 with respect to ,wolf's instance of the stone1 that changes are possible as effects proceeding from causes3 we know1 that is1 that one state can succeed another1 if the former contains the conditions for the latter4 ,in this case we find1 as effect1 the state of being warm in the stone2 as cause1 the preceding state of a limited capacity for warmth in the stone and its contact with free heat4 ,now1 ,wolf's naming the first mentioned property of this state principium essendi1 and the second1 principium fiendi1 rests upon a delusion caused by the fact that1 so far as the stone is concerned1 the conditions are more lasting and can therefore wait longer for the others4 ,that the stone should be as it is3 that is1 that it should be chemically so constituted as to bring with it a particular degree of specific heat1 consequently a capacity for heat which stands in inverse proportion to its specific heat2 that besides it should1 on the other hand1 come into contact with free heat1 is the consequence of a whole chain of antecedent causes1 all of them principia fiendi2 but it is the coincidence of circumstances on both sides which primarily constitutes that condition1 upon which1 as cause1 the becoming warm depends1 as effect4 ,all this leaves no room for ,wolf's principium essendi1 which ,i therefore do not admit1 and concerning which ,i have here entered somewhat into detail1 partly because ,i mean to use the word myself later on in a totally different sense2 partly also1 because this explanation contributes to facilitate the comprehension of the law of causality4--#c4 ,wolf1 as we have said1 distinguishes a ,,principium ,,cognoscendi1 and refers also under causa to a causa impulsiva1 sive ratio voluntatem determinans4 #aa4 ,philosophers between ,wolf and ,kant4 ,baumgarten repeats the ,wolfian distinctions in his ,metaphysica1 #bj-bd1 and #cjf-cac4 ,reimarus1 in his ,vernunftlehre1#da #ha1 distinguishes #a4 ,inward reason1 of which his explanation agrees with ,wolf's ratio essendi1 and might even be applicable to the ratio cognoscendi1 if he did not transfer to things what only applies to conceptions2 #b4 ,outward reason1 i4e4 causa4-- #abj et seqq41 he rightly defines the ratio cognoscendi as a condition of the proposition2 but in an example1 #abe1 he nevertheless confounds it with cause4 #da ,doctrine of ,reason4 ,lambert1 in the new ,organon1 does not mention ,wolf's distinctions2 he shows1 however1 that he recognizes a difference between reason of knowledge and cause2#db for he says that ,god is the principium essendi of truths1 and that truths are the principia cognoscendi of ,god4 #db ,lambert1 ,new ,organon1 vol4 i4 #egb4 ,plattner1 in his ,aphorisms1 #hfh1 says3 ,what is called reason and conclusion within our knowledge 7principium cognoscendi1 ratio--rationatum71 is in reality cause and effect 7causa efficiens--effectus74 ,every cause is a reason1 every effect a conclusion4 ,he is therefore of opinion that cause and effect1 in reality1 correspond to the conceptions reason and consequence in our thought2 that the former stand in a similar relation with respect to the latter as substance and accident1 for instance1 to subject and predicate1 or the quality of the object to our sensation of that quality1 c4 c4 ,i think it useless to refute this opinion1 for it is easy to see that premisses and conclusion in judgments stand in an entirely different relation to one another from a knowledge of cause and effect2 although in individual cases even knowledge of a cause1 as such1 may be the reason of a judgment which enunciates the effect4#dc #dc ,compare #cf4 of this treatise4 #ab4 ,hume4 ,no one before this serious thinker had ever doubted what follows4 ,first1 and before all things in heaven and on earth1 is the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in the form of the ,law of ,causality4 ,for it is a veritas terna3 i4e4 it is in and by itself above ,gods and ,fate2 whereas everything else1 the understanding1 for instance1 which thinks that principle1 and no less the whole world and whatever may be its cause--atoms1 motion1 a ,creator1 et ctera--is what it is only in accordance with1 and by virtue of1 that principle4 ,hume was the first to whom it occurred to inquire whence this law of causality derives its authority1 and to demand its credentials4 ,everyone knows the result at which he arrives3 that causality is nothing beyond the empirically perceived succession of things and states in ,time1 with which habit has made us familiar4 ,the fallacy of this result is felt at once1 nor is it difficult to refute4 ,the merit lies in the question itself2 for it became the impulse and starting-point for ,kant's profound researches1 and by their means led to an incomparably deeper and more thorough view of ,idealism than the one which had hitherto existed1 and which was chiefly ,berkeley's4 ,it led to transcendental ,idealism1 from which arises the conviction1 that the world is as dependent upon us1 as a whole1 as we are dependent upon it in detail4 ,for1 by pointing out the existence of those transcendental principles1 as such1 which enable us to determine priori1 i4e4 before all experience1 certain points concerning objects and their possibility1 he proved that these things could not exist1 as they present themselves to us1 independently of our knowledge4 ,the resemblance between a world such as this and a dream1 is obvious4 #ac4 ,kant and his ,school4 ,kant's chief passage on the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is in a little work entitled ,on a discovery1 which is to permit us to dispense with all ,criticism of ,pure ,reason4#dd ,section ,i41 lit4 ,a4 ,here he strongly urges the distinction between the logical 7formal7 principle of cognition 'every proposition must have its reason1' and the transcendental 7material7 principle 'every thing must have its cause1' in his controversy with ,eberhard1 who had identified them as one and the same4--,i intend myself to criticize ,kant's proof of the priori and consequently transcendental character of the law of causality further on in a separate paragraph1 after having given the only true proof4 #dd ,ueber eine ,entdeckung1 nach der alle ,kritik der reinen ,vernunft entbehrlich gemacht werden soll4 ,with these precedents to guide them1 the several writers on ,logic belonging to ,kant's school2 ,hofbauer1 ,maass1 ,jakob1 ,kiesewetter and others1 have defined pretty accurately the distinction between reason and cause4 ,kiesewetter1 more especially1 gives it thus quite satisfactorily3#de ,reason of knowledge is not to be confounded with reason of fact 7cause74 ,the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason belongs to ,logic1 that of ,causality to ,metaphysics4#df ,the former is the fundamental principle of thought2 the latter that of experience4 ,cause refers to real things1 logical reason has only to do with representations4 #de ,kiesewetter1 ,logik1 vol4 i4 p4 #af4 #df ,ibid4 p4 #fj4 ,kant's adversaries urge this distinction still more strongly4 ,g4 ,e4 ,schultze#dg complains that the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is confounded with that of ,causality4 ,salomon ,maimon#dh regrets that so much should be said about the sufficient reason without an explanation of what is meant by it1 while he blames ,kant#di for deriving the principle of causality from the logical form of hypothetical judgments4 #dg ,g4 ,e4 ,schultze1 ,logik1 #ai1 ,anmerkung #a1 und #fc4 #dh ,sal4 ,maimon1 ,logik1 p4 #bj1 #ba4 #di ,ibid4 ,vorrede1 p4 xxiv4 ,f4 ,h4 ,jacobi#ej says1 that by the confounding of the two conceptions1 reason and cause1 an illusion is produced1 which has given rise to various false speculations2 and he points out the distinction between them after his own fashion4 ,here1 however1 as is usual with him1 we find a good deal more of self-complacent phrase-jugglery than of serious philosophy4 #ej ,jacobi1 ,briefe ber die ,lehre des ,spinoza1 ,beilage #g1 p4 #dad4 ,how ,herr von ,schelling finally distinguishes reason from cause1 may be seen in his ,aphorisms introductory to the ,philosophy of ,nature1#ea #ahd1 which open the first book of the first volume of ,marcus and ,schelling's ,annals of ,medecine4 ,here we are taught that gravity is the reason and light the cause of all things4 ,this ,i merely quote as a curiosity2 for such random talk would not otherwise deserve a place among the opinions of serious and honest inquirers4 #ea ,aphorismen zur ,einleitung in die ,naturphilosophie4 #ad4 ,on the ,proofs of the ,principle4 ,we have still to record various fruitless attempts which have been made to prove the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 mostly without clearly defining in which sense it was taken3 ,wolf's1 for instance1 in his ,ontology1 #gj1 repeated by ,baumgarten in his ,metaphysics1 #bj4 ,it is useless to repeat and refute it here1 as it obviously rests on a verbal quibble4 ,plattner#eb and ,jakob#ec have tried other proofs1 in which1 however1 the circle is easily detected4 ,i purpose dealing with those of ,kant further on1 as ,i have already said4 ,since ,i hope1 in the course of this treatise1 to point out the different laws of our cognitive faculties1 of which the principle of sufficient reason is the common expression1 it will result as a matter of course1 that this principle cannot be proved1 and that1 on the contrary1 ,aristotle's remark3#ed 4 7rationem eorum qurant1 quorum non est ratio3 demonstrationis enim principium non est demonstratio7 may be applied with equal propriety to all these proofs4 ,for every proof is a reference to something already recognised2 and if we continue requiring a proof again for this something1 whatever it be1 we at last arrive at certain propositions which express the forms and laws1 therefore the conditions1 of all thought and of all knowledge1 in the application of which consequently all thought and all knowledge consists3 so that certainty is nothing but correspondence with those conditions1 forms1 and laws1 therefore their own certainty cannot again be ascertained by means of other propositions4 ,in the fifth chapter ,i mean to discuss the kind of truth which belongs to propositions such as these4 #eb ,plattner1 ,aphorismen1 #hbh4 #ec ,jakob1 ,logik und ,metaphysik1 p4 #ch 7#agid74 #ed ,aristotle1 ,metaph4 iii4 #f4 ,they seek a reason for that which has no reason2 for the principle of demonstration is not demonstration4 ,tr4's add4 ,compare with this citation ,analyt4 post4 i4 #b4 ,to seek a proof for the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 is1 moreover1 an especially flagrant absurdity1 which shows a want of reflection4 ,every proof is a demonstration of the reason for a judgment which has been pronounced1 and which receives the predicate true in virtue precisely of that demonstration4 ,this necessity for a reason is exactly what the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason expresses4 ,now if we require a proof of it1 or1 in other words1 a demonstration of its reason1 we thereby already assume it to be true1 nay1 we found our demand precisely upon that assumption1 and thus we find ourselves involved in the circle of exacting a proof of our right to exact a proof4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,insufficiency ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,outlines ,,of ,a ,,new ,,demonstration4 #ae4 ,cases which are not comprised among the old established meanings of the ,principle4 ,from the summary given in the preceding chapter we gather1 that two distinct applications of the principle of sufficient reason have been recognized1 although very gradually1 very tardily1 and not without frequent relapses into error and confusion3 the one being its application to judgments1 which1 to be true1 must have a reason2 the other1 its application to changes in material objects1 which must always have a cause4 ,in both cases we find the principle of sufficient reason authorizing us to ask why8 a quality which is essential to it4 ,but are all the cases in which it authorizes us to ask why comprised in these two relations8 ,if ,i ask3 ,why are the three sides of this triangle equal8 the answer is3 ,because the three angles are so4 ,now1 is the equality of the angles the cause of the equality of the sides8 ,no2 for here we have to do with no change1 consequently with no effect which must have a cause4--,is it merely a logical reason8 ,no2 for the equality of the angle is not only a proof of the equality of the sides1 it is not only the foundation of a judgment3 mere conceptions alone would never suffice to explain why the sides must be equal1 because the angles are so2 for the conception of the equality of the sides is not contained in that of the equality of the angles4 ,here therefore we have no connection between conceptions and judgments1 but between sides and angles4 ,the equality of the angles is not the direct1 but the indirect reason1 by which we know the equality of the sides2 for it is the reason why a thing is such as it is 7in this case1 that the sides are equal73 the angles being equal1 the sides must therefore be equal4 ,here we have a necessary connection between angles and sides1 not a direct1 necessary connection between two judgments4--,or again1 if ,i ask why infecta facta1 but never facta infecta fieri possunt1 consequently why the past is absolutely irrevocable1 the future inevitable1 even this does not admit of purely logical proof by means of mere abstract conceptions1 nor does it belong either to causality1 which only rules occurrences within ,time1 not ,time itself4 ,the present hour hurled the preceding one into the bottomless pit of the past1 not through causality1 but immediately1 through its mere existence1 which existence was nevertheless inevitable4 ,it is impossible to make this comprehensible or even clearer by means of mere conceptions2 we recognise it1 on the contrary1 quite directly and instinctively1 just as we recognize the difference between right and left and all that depends upon it3 for instance1 that our left glove will not fit our right hand1 c4 c4 ,now1 as all those cases in which the principle of sufficient reason finds its application cannot therefore be reduced to logical reason and consequence and to cause and effect1 the law of specification cannot have been sufficiently attended to in this classification4 ,the law of homogeneity1 however1 obliges us to assume1 that these cases cannot differ to infinity1 but that they may be reduced to certain species4 ,now1 before attempting this classification1 it will be necessary to determine what is peculiar to the principle of sufficient reason in all cases1 as its special characteristic2 because the conception of the genus must always be determined before the conception of the species4 #af4 ,the ,roots of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason4 ,our knowing consciousness1 which manifests itself as outer and inner ,sensibility 7or receptivity7 and as ,understanding and ,reason1 subdivides itself into ,subject and ,object and contains nothing else4 ,to be ,object for the ,subject and to be our representation1 are the same thing4 ,all our representations stand towards one another in a regulated connection1 which may be determined ,,priori1 and on account of which1 nothing existing separately and independently1 nothing single or detached1 can become an ,object for us4 ,it is this connection which is expressed by the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in its generality4 ,now1 although1 as may be gathered from what has gone before1 this connection assumes different forms according to the different kinds of objects1 which forms are differently expressed by the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason2 still the connection retains what is common to all these forms1 and this is expressed in a general and abstract way by our principle4 ,the relations upon which it is founded1 and which will be more closely indicated in this treatise1 are what ,i call the ,root of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason4 ,now1 on closer inspection1 according to the laws of homogeneity and of specification1 these relations separate into distinct species1 which differ widely from each other4 ,their number1 however1 may be reduced to four1 according to the four classes into which everything that can become an object for us--that is to say1 all our representations--may be divided4 ,these classes will be stated and considered in the following four chapters4 ,we shall see the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason appear under a different form in each of them2 but it will also show itself under all as the same principle and as derived from the said root1 precisely because it admits of being expressed as above4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,on ,,the ,,first ,,class ,,of ,,objects ,,for ,,the ,,subject1 ,,and ,,that ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason ,,which ,,predominates ,,in ,,it4 #ag4 ,general ,account of this ,class of ,objects4 ,the first class of objects possible to our representative faculty1 is that of intuitive1 complete1 empirical representations4 ,they are intuitive as opposed to mere thoughts1 i4e4 abstract conceptions2 they are complete1 inasmuch as1 according to ,kant's distinction1 they not only contain the formal1 but also the material part of phenomena2 and they are empirical1 partly as proceeding1 not from a mere connection of thoughts1 but from an excitation of feeling in our sensitive organism1 as their origin1 to which they constantly refer for evidence as to their reality3 partly also because they are linked together1 according to the united laws of ,space1 ,time and ,causality1 in that complex without beginning or end which forms our ,empirical ,reality4 ,as1 nevertheless1 according to the result of ,kant's teaching1 this ,empirical ,reality does not annul their ,transcendental ,ideality1 we shall consider them here1 where we have only to do with the formal elements of knowledge1 merely as representations4 #ah4 ,outline of a ,transcendental ,analysis of ,empirical ,reality4 ,the forms of these representations are those of the inner and outer sense2 namely1 ,time and ,space4 ,but these are only perceptible when filled4 ,their perceptibility is ,matter1 to which ,i shall return further on1 and again in #ba4 ,if ,time were the only form of these representations1 there could be no coexistence1 therefore nothing permanent and no duration4 ,for ,time is only perceived when filled1 and its course is only perceived by the changes which take place in that which fills it4 ,the permanence of an object is therefore only recognized by contrast with the changes going on in other objects coexistent with it4 ,but the representation of coexistence is impossible in ,time alone2 it depends1 for its completion1 upon the representation of ,space2 because1 in mere ,time1 all things follow one another1 and in mere ,space all things are side by side2 it is accordingly only by the combination of ,time and ,space that the representation of coexistence arises4 ,on the other hand1 were ,space the sole form of this class of representations1 there would be no change2 for change or alteration is succession of states1 and succession is only possible in ,time4 ,we may therefore define ,time as the possibility of opposite states in one and the same thing4 ,thus we see1 that although infinite divisibility and infinite extension are common to both ,time and ,space1 these two forms of empirical representations differ fundamentally1 inasmuch as what is essential to the one is without any meaning at all for the other3 juxtaposition having no meaning in ,time1 succession no meaning in ,space4 ,the empirical representations which belong to the orderly complex of reality1 appear notwithstanding in both forms together2 nay1 the intimate union of both is the condition of reality which1 in a sense1 grows out of them1 as a product grows out of its factors4 ,now it is the ,understanding which1 by means of its own peculiar function1 brings about this union and connects these heterogeneous forms in such a manner1 that empirical reality--albeit only for that ,understanding--arises out of their mutual interpenetration1 and arises as a collective representation1 forming a complex1 held together by the forms of the principle of sufficient reason1 but whose limits are problematical4 ,each single representation belonging to this class is a part of this complex1 each one taking its place in it according to laws known to us priori2 in it therefore countless objects coexist1 because ,substance1 i4e4 ,matter1 remains permanent in spite of the ceaseless flow of ,time1 and because its states change in spite of the rigid immobility of ,space4 ,in this complex1 in short1 the whole objective1 real world exists for us4 ,the reader who may be interested in this1 will find the present rough sketch of the analysis of empirical reality further worked out in #d of the first volume of ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung1#ee where a closer explanation is given of the way in which the ,understanding effects this union and thus creates for itself the empirical world4 ,he will also find a very important help in the table1 ,prdicabilia priori of ,time1 ,space1 and ,matter1 which is added to the fourth chapter of the second volume of the same work1 and which ,i recommend to his attention1 as it especially shows how the contrasts of ,time and ,space are equally balanced in ,matter1 as their product1 under the form of ,causality4 #ee ,vol4 i4 p4 #ab1 and seqq4 of the #ast edition2 p4 #i of the #crd edition4 ,we shall now proceed to give a detailed exposition of that function of the ,understanding which is the basis of empirical reality2 only we must first1 by a few incidental explanations1 remove the more immediate objections which the fundamental idealism of the view ,i have adopted might encounter4 #ai4 ,immediate ,presence of ,representations4 ,now as1 notwithstanding this union through the ,understanding of the forms of the inner and outer sense in representing ,matter and with it a permanent outer world1 all immediate knowledge is nevertheless acquired by the ,subject through the inner sense alone--the outer sense being again ,object for the inner1 which in its turn perceives the perceptions of the outer--and as therefore1 with respect to the immediate presence of representations in its consciousness1 the ,subject remains under the rule of ,time alone1 as the form of the inner sense3#ef it follows1 that only one representation can be present to it 7the ,subject7 at the same time1 although that one may be very complicated4 ,when we speak of representations as immediately present1 we mean1 that they are not only known in the union of ,time and ,space effected by the ,understanding--an intuitive faculty1 as we shall soon see--through which the collective representation of empirical reality arises1 but that they are known in mere ,time alone1 as representations of the inner sense1 and just at the neutral point at which its two currents separate1 called the present4 ,the necessary condition mentioned in the preceding paragraph for the immediate presence of a representation of this class1 is its causal action upon our senses and consequently upon our organism1 which itself belongs to this class of objects1 and is therefore subject to the causal law which predominates in it and which we are now about to examine4 ,now as therefore1 on the one hand1 according to the laws of the inner and outer world1 the ,subject cannot stop short at that one representation2 but as1 on the other hand1 there is no coexistence in ,time alone3 that single representation must always vanish and be superseded by others1 in virtue of a law which we cannot determine priori1 but which depends upon circumstances soon to be mentioned4 ,it is moreover a well-known fact1 that the imagination and dreams reproduce the immediate presence of representations2 the investigation of that fact1 however1 belongs to empirical ,psychology4 ,now as1 notwithstanding the transitory1 isolated nature of our representations with respect to their immediate presence in our consciousness1 the ,subject nevertheless retains the representation of an all-comprehensive complex of reality1 as described above1 by means of the function of the ,understanding2 representations have1 on the strength of this antithesis1 been viewed1 as something quite different when considered as belonging to that complex than when considered with reference to their immediate presence in our consciousness4 ,from the former point of view they were called real things2 from the latter only1 representations ' 4 ,this view of the matter1 which is the ordinary one1 is known under the name of ,realism4 ,on the appearance of modern philosophy1 ,idealism opposed itself to this ,realism and has since been steadily gaining ground4 ,malebranche and ,berkeley were its earliest representatives1 and ,kant enhanced it to the power of ,transcendental ,idealism1 by which the co-existence of the ,empirical ,reality of things with their ,transcendental ,ideality becomes conceivable1 and according to which ,kant expresses himself as follows3#eg ,transcendental ,idealism teaches that all phenomena are representations only1 not things by themselves4 ,and again3#eh ,space itself is nothing but mere representation1 and whatever is in it must therefore be contained in that representation4 ,there is nothing whatever in ,space1 except so far as it is really represented in it4 ,finally he says3#ei ,if we take away the thinking ,subject1 the whole material world must vanish2 because it is nothing but a phenomenon in the sensibility of our own subject and a certain class of its representations4 ,in ,india1 ,idealism is even a doctrine of popular religion1 not only of ,brahminism1 but of ,buddhism2 in ,europe alone is it a paradox1 in consequence of the essentially and unavoidably realistic principle of ,judaism4 ,but ,realism quite overlooks the fact1 that the so-called existence of these real things is absolutely nothing but their being represented 7ein ,vorgestellt-werden71 or--if it be insisted1 that only the immediate presence in the consciousness of the ,subject can be called being represented ' --it is even only a possibility of being represented 4 ,the realist forgets that the ,object ceases to be ,object apart from its reference to the ,subject1 and that if we take away that reference1 or think it away1 we at once do away with all objective existence4 ,leibnitz1 while he clearly felt the ,subject to be the necessary condition for the ,object1 was nevertheless unable to get rid of the thought that objects exist by themselves and independently of all reference whatsoever to the ,subject1 i4e4 independently of being represented4 ,he therefore assumed in the first place a world of objects exactly like the world of representations and running parallel with it1 having no direct1 but only an outward connection with it by means of a harmonia prstabilita2--obviously the most superfluous thing possible1 for it never comes within perception1 and the precisely similar world of representations which does come within perception1 goes its own way regardless of it4 ,when1 however1 he wanted to determine more closely the essence of these things existing objectively in themselves1 he found himself obliged to declare the ,objects in themselves to be ,subjects 7monades71 and by doing so he furnished the most striking proof of the inability of our consciousness1 in as far as it is merely cognitive1 to find within the limits of the intellect--i4e4 of the apparatus by means of which we represent the world--anything beyond ,subject and ,object2 the representer and the represented4 ,therefore1 if we abstract from the objectivity of an ,object1 or in other words1 from its being represented 7,vorgestellt-werden71 if we annul it in its quality as an ,object1 yet still wish to retain something1 we can meet with nothing but the ,subject4 ,conversely1 if we desire to abstract from the subjectivity of the ,subject1 yet to have something over1 the contrary takes place1 and this leads to ,materialism4 #ef ,compare ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern4 ,elementarlehre4 ,abschnitt ii4 ,schlsse a4 d4 ,begr4 b and c4 #ast edition1 pp4 #cc and #cd2 #eth edition1 p4 #di4 7,transl4 ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #bi1 b and c47 #eg ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,v4 ,kritik des ,vierten ,paralogismus der transcendentalen ,psychologie1 p4 #cfi1 #ast edition4 7,engl4 ,transl4 by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #cbj47 #eh ,ibid4 #ast edition1 pp4 #cgd-cge4 ,note4 7,engl4 ,transl4 p4 #cbe4 ,note47 #ei ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,v4 ,betrachtung ber die ,summe1 c41 p4 #chc of #ast edition4 7,engl4 ,transl4 p4 #cca47 ,spinoza1 who never thoroughly sifted the matter1 and never therefore acquired a clear notion of it1 nevertheless quite understood the necessary correlation between ,subject and ,object as so essential1 that they are inconceivable without it2 consequently he defined it as an identity in the ,substance 7which alone exists7 of that which knows1 with that which has extension4 ,,observation4--,with reference to the chief argument of this paragraph1 ,i take the opportunity to remark that if1 in the course of this treatise1 for the sake of brevity and in order to be more easily understood1 ,i at any time use the term real objects1 ,i mean by it nothing but the intuitive representations that are united to form the complex of empirical reality1 which reality in itself always remains ideal4 #bj4 ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,becoming4 ,in the ,class of ,objects for the ,subject just described1 the principle of sufficient reason figures as the ,law of ,causality1 and1 as such1 ,i call it the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,becoming1 principium rationis sufficientis fiendi4 ,by it1 all objects presenting themselves within the entire range of our representation are linked together1 as far as the appearance and disappearance of their states is concerned1 i4e4 in the movement of the current of ,time1 to form the complex of empirical reality4 ,the law of causality is as follows4 ,when one or several real objects pass into any new state1 some other state must have preceded this one1 upon which the new state regularly follows1 i4e4 as often as that preceding one occurs4 ,this sort of following we call resulting2 the first of the states being named a cause1 the second an effect4 ,when a substance takes fire1 for instance1 this state of ignition must have been preceded by a state1 #ao1 of affinity to oxygen2 #bo1 of contact with oxygen2 #co1 of a given temperature4 ,now1 as ignition must necessarily follow immediately upon this state1 and as it has only just taken place1 that state cannot always have been there1 but must1 on the contrary1 have only just supervened4 ,this supervening is called a change4 ,it is on this account that the law of causality stands in exclusive relation to changes and has to do with them alone4 ,every effect1 at the time it takes place1 is a change and1 precisely by not having occurred sooner1 infallibly indicates some other change by which it has been preceded4 ,that other change takes the name of cause1 when referred to the following one--of effect1 when referred to a third necessarily preceding change4 ,this is the chain of causality4 ,it is necessarily without a beginning4 ,by it1 each supervening state must have resulted from a preceding change3 in the case just mentioned1 for instance1 from the substance being brought into contact with free heat1 from which necessarily resulted the heightened temperature2 this contact again depended upon a preceding change1 for instance the sun's rays falling upon a burning-glass2 this again upon the removal of a cloud from before the sun2 this upon the wind2 the wind upon the unequal density of the atmosphere2 this upon other conditions1 and so forth in infinitum4 ,when a state contains all the requisite conditions for bringing about a new state excepting one1 this one1 when at last it arrives1 is1 in a sense1 rightly called the cause ' 1 inasmuch as we here have the final--in this case the decisive--change especially in view2 but if we leave out this consideration1 no single condition of the causal state has any advantage over the rest with reference to the determination of the causal connection in general1 merely because it happens to be the last4 ,thus the removal of the cloud in the above example1 is in so far the cause of the igniting1 as it took place later than the direction of the burning-glass towards the object2 but this might have taken place after the removal of the cloud and the addition of oxygen might have occurred later still3 in this respect therefore it is the accidental order of things that determines which is the cause4 ,on closer inspection1 however1 we find that it is the entire state which is the cause of the ensuing one1 so that the chronological order in which its single conditions were brought about1 is in all essential respects indifferent4 ,with reference to a given case therefore1 the last occurring condition of a state may be called the cause ' 1 because it completes the measure of the necessary conditions1 and its appearance thus becomes the decisive change4 ,for purposes of general consideration1 however1 it is only the entire state which1 by bringing about its successor1 can be regarded as the cause4 ,the single requisites which1 added together1 complete and constitute the cause may be called causal elements 7urschliche ,momente7 or even conditions1 and into these accordingly the cause may be subdivided4 ,on the other hand1 it is quite wrong to call the objects themselves causes1 instead of the states3 some would1 for instance1 call the burning-glass in the above example the cause of the ignition2 while others1 again1 would call the cloud the cause2 others the sun or the oxygen1 and so on arbitrarily and without order4 ,but it is absurd to call an object the cause of another object2 first of all1 because objects not only contain form and quality1 but ,matter also1 which has neither beginning or end2 secondly1 because the law of causality refers exclusively to changes1 i4e4 to the entrance and exit of states in ,time1 wherein it regulates that special relation1 in reference to which the earlier state is called cause1 the later effect1 and the necessary connection between both1 the resulting of the one from the other4 ,i here refer the thoughtful reader to the explanations ,i have given in my chief work4#fj ,for it is of the highest importance that our conception of the true and proper meaning of the law of causality and the sphere of its validity should be perfectly clear and definite3 before all things1 that we should recognize1 that this law refers solely and exclusively to changes of material states and to nothing else whatever2 consequently1 that it ought not to be brought in when these are not in question4 ,the law of causality is the regulator of the changes undergone in ,time by objects of our outer experience2 but these objects are all material4 ,each change can only be brought about by another having preceded it1 which is determined by a rule1 and then the new change takes place as being necessarily induced by the preceding one4 ,this necessity is the causal nexus4 #fj ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 ii4 chap4 #d1 especially p4 #db and seq4 of the #bnd edition2 p4 #df seq4 of the #crd edition4 ,however simple therefore the law of causality is1 we nevertheless find it expressed quite differently in all philosophical manuals1 from the earliest down to the latest ages3 namely1 in a broader1 more abstract1 therefore less definite way4 ,we are1 for instance1 informed1 now1 that it is that by which something else comes into being2 now1 that it is what produces another thing or gives it reality1 c4 c4 ,wolf says3 ,causa est principium1 a quo existentia1 sive actualitas1 entis alterius dependet2 whereas it is obvious that in causality we have only to do with changes in the form of uncreated1 indestructible ,matter1 and that a springing into existence of what did not previously exist is an impossibility4 ,want of clearness of thought may1 no doubt1 in most cases have led to these views of the causal relation2 but surely sometimes an arrire-pense lurks in the background--a theological intention coqueting with the ,cosmological ,proof1 for whose sake it is ready to falsify even transcendental1 priori truths1 the mother's milk of human understanding4 ,we find the clearest instance of this in ,thomas ,brown's book1 ,on the ,relation of ,cause and ,effect1 a work of #dfj pages1 which1 in #ahce1 had already reached its fourth edition1 and has probably since gone through several more1 and which1 in spite of its wearisome1 pedantic1 rambling prolixity1 does not handle the subject badly4 ,now this ,englishman rightly recognises1 that it is invariably with changes that the causal law has to do1 and that every effect is accordingly a change4 ,yet1 although it can hardly have escaped him1 he is unwilling to admit that every cause is likewise a change1 and that the whole process is therefore nothing but the uninterrupted nexus of changes succeeding one another in ,time4 ,on the contrary1 he persists in clumsily calling the cause an object or substance1 which precedes the change1 and in tormenting himself throughout his tedious book with this entirely false expression1 which spoils all his explanations1 notwithstanding his own better knowledge and against his conscience1 simply in order that his definition may on no account stand in the way of the ,cosmological ,proof1 which others might hereafter state elsewhere4--,but what can a truth be worth which needs devices such as these to prepare its way8 ,and what have our own worthy1 honest ,german professors of philosophy been doing in behalf of their dearly beloved ,cosmological ,proof1 since ,kant dealt it the death-blow in his ,critique of ,pure ,reason8--they1 who prize truth above everything4 ,they were1 indeed1 at their wits' ends1 for--as these worthies well know1 though they do not say so--causa prima is1 just as well as causa sui1 a contradictio in adjecto1 albeit the former expression is more generally used than the latter4 ,it is besides usually pronounced with a very serious1 not to say solemn1 air2 nay1 many people1 especially ,english ,reverends1 turn up their eyes in a truly edifying way when they impressively and emphatically mention that contradictio in adjecto3 'the first cause4' ,they know that a first cause is just as inconceivable as the point at which ,space ends or the moment when ,time first began4 ,for every cause is a change1 which necessarily obliges us to ask for the preceding change that brought it about1 and so on in infinitum1 in infinitum6 ,even a first state of ,matter1 from which1 as it has ceased to be1 all following states could have proceeded1 is inconceivable4 ,for if this state had in itself been the cause of the following ones1 they must likewise have existed from all eternity1 and the actual state existing at the present moment could not have only just now come into being4 ,if1 on the other hand1 that first state only began to be causal at some given period1 something or other must have changed it1 for its inactivity to have ceased2 but then something must have occurred1 some change must have taken place2 and this again obliges us to ask for its cause--i4e4 a change which preceded it2 and here we are once more on the causal ladder1 up which we are whipped step by step1 higher and higher1 in infinitum1 in infinitum6 7,these gentlemen will surely not have the face to talk to me of ,matter itself arising out of nothing6 ,if so1 they will find corollaries at their service further on47 ,the causal law therefore is not so accommodating as to let itself be used like a hired cab1 which we dismiss when we have reached our destination2 rather does it resemble the broom brought to life by the apprentice-wizard in ,gthe's poem1#fa which1 when once set in motion1 does not leave off running and fetching water until the old master-wizard himself stops it1 which he alone has the power to do4 ,these gentlemen1 however1 have no master-wizards among them4 ,so what did they do1 these noble1 genuine lovers of truth1 ever on the alert1 of course1 to proclaim the advent of real merit to the world as soon as it shows itself in their profession1 who far from wishing to divert attention from the works of those who are really what they only seem to be1 by craftily ignoring and meanly keeping them dark1 are naturally foremost to acknowledge their worth--aye1 surely1 as surely as folly loves wisdom above everything8 ,what did they do1 ,i say1 to help their old friend1 the sorely distressed ,cosmological ,proof1 now at its last gasp8 ,oh1 they hit upon a shrewd device4 ,friend1 they said1 you are in sorry plight since your fatal encounter with that stubborn old man in ,knigsberg1 and indeed your brethren1 the ,ontological and ,physico-theological ,proofs are in no better condition4 ,never mind1 you shall not be abandoned by us 7that is what we are paid for1 you know72 only you must alter your dress and your name--there is no help for it--for if we call you by your right name1 everyone will take to his heels4 ,now incognito1 on the contrary1 we can take you by the arm1 and once more lead you into society2 only1 as we have just said1 it must be incognito6 ,that is sure to answer6 ,first of all1 your argument must henceforth be called ,the ,absolute4 ,this has a foreign1 dignified1 aristocratic ring2 and no one knows better than we do all that can be done with ,germans by assuming airs of importance4 ,of course all know what the real meaning is1 and pique themselves upon that knowledge4 ,but you yourself must come forward disguised1 in the form of an enthymeme4 ,be sure and leave behind you all those prosyllogisms and premisses1 by which you used to drag us wearily up the long climax1 for everyone knows how utterly useless they are4 ,come forward with a bold face and a self-sufficient1 supercilious air1 like a man of few words1 and at one bound you will reach the goal4 ,exclaim 7and we will chime in71 ',the ,absolute1 confound it6 that must exist1 or there would be nothing at all6' ,here1 strike the table with your fist4 ,whence does the ,absolute come8 ',what a silly question6 ,did not ,i tell you it was the ,absolute8'--,that will do1 forsooth6 ,that will do6 ,germans are accustomed to content themselves with words instead of thoughts4 ,do we not train them to it from their cradle8 ,only look at ,hegelianism6 ,what is it but empty1 hollow1 nauseous twaddle6 ,yet how brilliant a career was that of this philosophical time-server6 ,a few mercenary individuals had only to strike up a laudation of this stuff1 and they at once found an echo to their voices in the empty hollow of a thousand numskulls--an echo which still continues to resound1 and to extend--and behold6 an ordinary intellect1 a common impostor soon became a sublime thinker4 ,take heart1 therefore6 ,besides1 our friend and patron1 we will also second you in other ways1 for how1 indeed1 are we to get a living without you8 ,so that carping old faultfinder1 ,kant1 has been criticizing ,reason1 and clipping her wings1 has he8 ,well1 then1 we will invent a new sort of ,reason1 such as has never been heard of--a ,reason that does not think1 but which has direct intuition--a ,reason which sees ,ideas 7a high-flown word1 made to mystify71 sees them bodily2 or which apprehends directly that which you and others seek to prove2 or1 again1 a ,reason which has forebodings of all this--this last for the benefit of those who do not care to make large concessions1 but also are satisfied with very little4 ,let us thus pass off early inculcated1 popular conceptions for direct revelations of this new kind of ,reason1 i4e4 for inspirations from above4 ,as for that old-fashioned ,reason1 which criticism has criticized away1 let us degrade it1 call it ,understanding1 and send it about its business4 ,well1 and what is to become of real1 true ,understanding8--,what in the world have we to do with real1 true ,understanding8--,you smile incredulously2 but we know our listeners1 and the harum1 horum we see on the students' benches before us4 ,bacon of ,verulam already in his time said3 ',young men learn to believe at ,universities4' ,of this they can learn as much as they wish from us2 we have a good stock of articles of faith on hand4 ,should any misgivings assail you1 remember that we are in ,germany1 where what would have been impossible in any other country1 has been found possible3 where a dull-witted1 ignorant1 pseudo-philosopher1 whose ineffably hollow verbiage disorganizes peoples' brains completely and permanently1 a scribbler of nonsense--,i am speaking of our dearly beloved ,hegel--has not only been actually proclaimed a profound thinker with impunity1 and even without incurring ridicule1 but is readily accepted as such3 yes1 indeed1 for this fiction has found credence for the last thirty years1 and is believed to this day6--,once therefore we have this ,absolute with your help1 we are quite safe1 in spite of ,kant and his ,critique4--,we may then philosophise in a lofty tone1 making the ,universe proceed from the ,absolute by means of the most heterogeneous deductions1 one more tiresome than the other--this1 by the way1 being their only point of resemblance4 ,we can call the world the ,finite1 and the ,absolute the ,infinite--thus giving an agreeable variety to our nonsense--and talk of nothing but ,god1 explaining how1 why1 wherefore1 by what voluntary or involuntary process he created or brought forth the world1 showing whether he be within or without it1 and so forth1 as if ,philosophy were ,theology1 and as if it sought for enlightenment concerning ,god1 not concerning the ,universe6 #fa ,gthe1 ,der ,zauberlehrling4 ,the ,cosmological ,proof1 with which we here have to do1 and to which the above apostrophe is addressed1 consists thus1 properly speaking1 in the assertion1 that the principle of the sufficient reason of becoming1 or the law of causality1 necessarily leads to a thought which destroys it and declares it to be null and void4 ,for the causa prima 7absolutum7 can only be reached by proceeding upwards from consequence to reason1 through a series prolonged ad libitum2 but it is impossible to stop short at the causa prima without at once annulling the principle of sufficient reason4 ,having thus briefly and clearly shown the nullity of the ,cosmological ,proof1 as ,i had in my second chapter already shown the nullity of the ,ontological ,proof1 the sympathizing reader may perhaps expect me to do the same with respect to the ,physico-theological ,proof1 which is a great deal more plausible4 ,as1 however1 this belongs by its nature to a different department of philosophy1 it would be quite out of place here4 ,i therefore refer him to ,kant's ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 as well as to his ,critique of the ,faculty of ,judgment1 where he treats this subject ex professo2 ,i likewise refer him1 as a complement to ,kant's purely negative procedure1 to my own positive one in ,the ,will in ,nature1#fb a work which1 though small in bulk1 is rich and weighty in content4 ,as for the indifferent reader1 he is free to let this and indeed all my writings pass down unread to his descendants4 ,it matters not to me2 for ,i am here1 not for one generation only1 but for many4 #fb ,the translation of which follows the ,fourfold ,root in the present volume4 ,now1 as the law of causality is known to us priori1 and is therefore a transcendental law1 applicable to every possible experience and consequently without exception1 as will be shown in #ba2 as moreover it decides1 that upon a given1 definite1 relatively first state1 a second equally definite one inevitably ensues by rule1 i4e41 always2 the relation between cause and effect is a necessary one1 so that the causal law authorizes us to form hypothetical judgments1 and thereby shows itself to be a form of the principle of sufficient reason1 upon which principle all judgments must be founded and1 as will be shown further on1 all necessity is based4 ,this form of our principle ,i call the principle of the sufficient reason of becoming1 because its application invariably pre-supposes a change1 the entering upon a new state3 consequently a becoming4 ,one of its essential characteristics is this3 that the cause always precedes the effect in ,time 7compare #dg71 and this alone gives us the original criterion by which to distinguish which is cause and which effect1 of two states linked together by the causal nexus4 ,conversely1 in some cases1 the causal nexus is known to us through former experience2 but the rapidity with which the different states follow upon each other is so great1 that the order in which this happens escapes our perception4 ,we then conclude with complete certitude from causality to succession3 thus1 for instance1 we infer that the igniting of gunpowder precedes its explosion4#fc #fc ,here ,i refer my readers to ,die ,welt als ,wills und ,vorstellung1 vol4 ii4 chap4 #d1 p4 #da of the #bnd edition1 and p4 #de of the #crd edition4 ,from this essential connection between causality and succession it follows1 that the conception of reciprocity1 strictly speaking1 has no meaning2 for it presumes the effect to be again the cause of its cause3 that is1 that what follows is at the same time what precedes4 ,in a ,critique of ,kantian ,philosophy1 which ,i have added to my chief work1 and to which ,i refer my readers1#fd ,i have shown at length that this favourite conception is inadmissible4 ,it may be remarked1 that authors usually have recourse to it just when their insight is becoming less clear1 and this accounts for the frequency of its use4 ,nay1 it is precisely when a writer comes to the end of his conceptions1 that the word 'reciprocity' presents itself more readily than any other2 it may1 in fact1 be looked upon as a kind of alarm-gun1 denoting that the author has got out of his depth4 ,it is also worthy of remark1 that the word ,wechselwirkung1 literally reciprocal action--or1 as we have preferred translating it1 reciprocity--is only found in the ,german language1 and that there is no precise equivalent for it in daily use in any other tongue4 #fd ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 i4 pp4 #eag-eba of the #bnd edition1 and pp4 #edd-edi of the #crd edition4 ,from the law of causality spring two corollaries which1 in virtue of this origin1 are accredited as cognitions priori1 therefore as unquestionable and without exception4 ,they are1 the law of inertia and that of permanence of substance4 ,the first of these laws avers1 that every state in which a body can possibly be--consequently that of repose as well as that of any kind of movement--must last for ever without change1 diminution1 or augmentation1 unless some cause supervenes to alter or annul it4 ,but the other law1 by which the eternity of ,matter is affirmed1 results from the fact1 that the law of causality is exclusively applicable to states of bodies1 such as repose1 movement1 form1 and quality1 since it presides over their temporal passing in or out of being2 but that it is by no means applicable to the existence of that which endures these states1 and is called ,substance1 in order precisely to express its exemption from all arising and perishing4 ',substance is permanent' means1 that it can neither pass into1 nor out of being3 so that its quantity existing in the universe can neither be increased nor diminished4 ,that we know this priori1 is proved by the consciousness of unassailable certainty with which1 when we see a body disappear--whether it be by conjuring1 by minute subdivision1 by combustion1 volatilisation1 or indeed any process whatever--we all nevertheless firmly assume that its substance1 i4e4 its matter1 must still exist somewhere or other in undiminished quantity1 whatever may have become of its form2 likewise1 when we perceive a body suddenly in a place1 where it was not before1 that it must have been brought there or formed by some combination of invisible particles--for instance1 by precipitation--but that it1 i4e4 its substance1 cannot have then started into existence2 for this implies a total impossibility and is utterly inconceivable4 ,the certainty with which we assume this beforehand 7 priori71 proceeds from the fact1 that our ,understanding possesses absolutely no form under which to conceive the beginning and end of ,matter4 ,for1 as before said1 the law of causality--the only form in which we are able to conceive changes at all--is solely applicable to states of bodies1 and never under any circumstances to the existence of that which undergoes all changes3 ,matter4 ,this is why ,i place the principle of the permanence of ,matter among the corollaries of the causal law4 ,moreover1 we cannot have acquired posteriori the conviction that substance is permanent1 partly because it cannot1 in most instances1 be empirically established2 partly also1 because every empirical knowledge obtained exclusively by means of induction1 has only approximate1 consequently precarious1 never unconditioned1 certainty4 ,the firmness of our persuasion as to this principle is therefore of a different kind and nature from our security of conviction with regard to the accuracy of any empirically discovered law of ,nature1 since it has an entirely different1 perfectly unshakable1 never vacillating firmness4 ,the reason of this is1 that the principle expresses a transcendental knowledge1 i4e4 one which determines and fixes1 prior to all experience1 what is in any way possible within the whole range of experience2 but1 precisely by this1 it reduces the world of experience to a mere cerebral phenomenon4 ,even the most universal among the non-transcendental laws of ,nature and the one least liable to exception--the law of gravitation--is of empirical origin1 consequently without guarantee as to its absolute universality2 wherefore it is still from time to time called in question1 and doubts occasionally arise as to its validity beyond our solar system2 and astronomers carefully call attention to any indications corroborative of its doubtfulness with which they may happen to meet1 thereby showing that they regard it as merely empirical4 ,the question may of course be raised1 whether gravitation takes effect between bodies which are separated by an absolute vacuum1 or whether its action within a solar system may not be mediated by some sort of ether1 and may not cease altogether between fixed stars2 but these questions only admit of an empirical solution1 and this proves that here we have not to do with a knowledge priori4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we admit with ,kant and ,laplace the hypothesis1 as the most probable one1 that each solar system has developed out of an original nebula by a gradual process of condensation1 we still cannot for a moment conceive the possibility of that original substance having sprung into being out of nothing3 we are forced to assume the anterior existence of its particles somewhere or other1 as well as their having been brought together somehow or other1 precisely because of the transcendental nature of the principle of the permanence of ,substance4 ,in my ,critique of ,kantian ,philosophy1#fe ,i have shown at length1 that ,substance is but another word for ,matter1 the conception of substance not being realisable excepting in ,matter1 and therefore deriving its origin from ,matter1 and ,i have also specially pointed out how that conception was formed solely to serve a surreptitious purpose4 ,like many other equally certain truths1 this eternity of ,matter 7called the permanence of substance7 is forbidden fruit for professors of philosophy2 so they slip past it with a bashful1 sidelong glance4 #fe ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 i4 p4 #eej of #bnd1 and #ehj of #crd edition4 ,by the endless chain of causes and effects which directs all changes but never extends beyond them1 two existing things remain untouched1 precisely because of the limited range of its action3 on the one hand1 ,matter1 as we have just shown2 on the other hand1 the primary forces of ,nature4 ,the first 7matter7 remains uninfluenced by the causal nexus1 because it is that which undergoes all changes1 or on which they take place2 the second 7the primary forces71 because it is they alone by which changes or effects become possible2 for they alone give causality to causes4 i4e4 the faculty of operating1 which the causes therefore hold as mere vassals a fief4 ,cause and effect are changes connected together to necessary succession in ,time2 whereas the forces of ,nature by means of which all causes operate1 are exempt from all change2 in this sense therefore they are outside ,time1 but precisely on that account they are always and everywhere in reserve1 omnipresent and inexhaustible1 ever ready to manifest themselves1 as soon as an opportunity presents itself in the thread of causality4 ,a cause1 like its effect1 is invariably something individual1 a single change2 whereas a force of ,nature is something universal1 unchangeable1 present at all times and in all places4 ,the attraction of a thread by amber1 for instance1 at the present moment1 is an effect2 its cause is the preceding friction and actual contact of the amber with the thread2 and the force of ,nature which acts in1 and presides over1 the process1 is ,electricity4 ,the explanation of this matter is to be found in my chief work1#ff and there ,i have shown in a long chain of causes and effects how the most heterogeneous natural forces successively come into play in them4 ,by this explanation the difference between transitory phenomena and permanent forms of operation1 becomes exceedingly clear2 and as1 moreover1 a whole section 7 #bf7 is devoted to the question1 it will be sufficient here to give a brief sketch of it4 ,the rule1 by which a force of ,nature manifests itself in the chain of causes and effects--consequently the link which connects it with them--is the law of ,nature4 ,but the confusion between forces of ,nature and causes is as frequent as it is detrimental to clearness of thought4 ,it seems indeed as though no one had accurately defined the difference between these conceptions before me1 however great may have been the urgency for such a distinction4 ,not only are forces of ,nature turned into causes by such expressions as1 ',electricity1 ,gravity1 c41 are the cause of so-and-so1' but they are even often turned into effects by those who search for a cause for ,electricity1 ,gravity1 c4 c41 which is absurd4 ,diminishing the number of the forces of ,nature1 however1 by reducing one to another1 as for instance ,magnetism is in our days reduced to ,electricity1 is a totally different thing4 ,every true1 consequently really primary force of ,nature--and every fundamental chemical property belongs to these forces--is essentially a qualitas occulta1 i4e4 it does not admit of physical1 but only of metaphysical explanation3 in other words1 of an explanation which transcends the world of phenomena4 ,no one has carried this confusion1 or rather identification1 of causes with forces of ,nature further than ,maine de ,biran in his ,nouvelles considrations des rapports du physique au moral1 for it is essential to his philosophy4 ,it is besides remarkable1 that when he speaks of causes1 he rarely uses the word cause alone1 but almost always speaks of cause ou force1 just as we have seen ,spinoza above 7 #h7 write ratio sive causa no less than eight times in the same page4 ,both writers are evidently conscious that they are identifying two disparates1 in order to be able to make use of the one or the other1 according to circumstances2 for this end they are obliged to keep the identification constantly before their readers' mind4-- #ff ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 i4 #bf1 p4 #aec of the #bnd1 and p4 #afj of the #crd edition4 ,now ,causality1 as the director of each and every change1 presents itself in ,nature under three distinct forms3 as causes in the strictest acceptation of the word1 as stimuli1 and as motives4 ,it is just upon this difference that the real1 essential distinction between inorganic bodies1 plants1 and animals is based1 and not upon external1 anatomical1 let alone chemical1 distinctions4 ,a cause1 in its narrowest sense1 is that upon which changes in the inorganic kingdom alone ensue3 those changes1 that is to say1 which form the theme of ,mechanics1 ,physics1 and ,chemistry4 ,newton's third fundamental law1 ,action and reaction are equal to one another1 applies exclusively to this cause1 and enunciates1 that the state which precedes 7the cause7 undergoes a change equivalent to that produced by it 7the effect74 ,in this form of causality alone1 moreover1 does the degree of the effect always exactly correspond to the degree of the cause1 so as to enable us accurately to calculate the one by means of the other4 ,the second form of causality is the stimulus2 it reigns over organic life1 as such1 i4e4 over plant life and the vegetative1 that is1 the unconscious1 part of animal life4 ,this second form is characterized by the absence of the distinctive signs of the first4 ,in it accordingly action and reaction are not equal1 nor does the intensity of the effect by any means correspond throughout all its degrees to the intensity of the cause2 in fact1 the opposite effect may even be produced by intensifying the cause4 ,the third form of causality is the motive4 ,under this form causality rules animal life proper3 that is1 the exterior1 consciously performed actions of all animals4 ,the medium for motives is knowledge3 an intellect is accordingly needed for susceptibility to motives4 ,the true characteristic of the animal is therefore the faculty of knowing1 of representing 7,das ,vorstellen74 ,animals1 as such1 always move towards some aim and end1 which therefore must have been recognised by them3 that is to say1 it must have presented itself to them as something different from themselves1 yet of which they are conscious4 ,therefore the proper definition of the animal would be3 ',that which knows2' for no other definition quite hits the mark or can even perhaps stand the test of investigation4 ,movement induced by motives is necessarily wanting where there is no cognitive faculty1 and movement by stimuli alone remains1 i4e4 plant life4 ,irritability and sensibility are therefore inseparable4 ,still motives evidently act in a different way from stimuli2 for the action of the former may be very brief1 nay1 need only be momentary2 since their efficacy1 unlike that of stimuli1 stands in no relation whatever to the duration of that action1 to the proximity of the object1 c4 c4 ,a motive needs but to be perceived therefore1 to take effect2 whereas stimuli always require outward1 often even inward1 contact and invariably a certain length of time4 ,this short sketch of the three forms of causality will suffice here4 ,they are more fully described in my ,prize-essay on ,free ,will4#fg ,one thing1 however1 still remains to be urged4 ,the difference between cause1 stimulus1 and motive1 is obviously only a consequence of the various degrees of receptivity of beings2 the greater their receptivity1 the feebler may be the nature of the influence3 a stone needs an impact1 while man obeys a look4 ,nevertheless1 both are moved by a sufficient cause1 therefore with the same necessity4 ,for 'motivation'#fh is only causality passing through knowledge2 the intellect is the medium of the motives1 because it is the highest degree of receptivity4 ,by this1 however1 the law of causality loses nothing whatever of its rigour and certainty2 for motives are causes and operate with the same necessity which all causes bring with them4 ,this necessity is easy to perceive in animals because of the greater simplicity of their intellect1 which is limited to the perception of what is present4 ,man's intellect is double3 for not only has he intuitive1 but abstract1 knowledge1 which last is not limited to what is present4 ,man possesses ,reason2 he therefore has a power of elective decision with clear consciousness3 that is1 he is able to weigh against one another motives which exclude each other1 as such2 in other terms1 he can let them try their strength on his will4 ,the most powerful motive then decides him1 and his actions ensue with just the same necessity as the rolling of a ball after it has been struck4 ,freedom of ,will#fi means 7not professorial twaddle but7 that a given human being1 in a given situation1 can act in two different ways4 ,but the utter absurdity of this assertion is a truth as certain and as clearly proved1 as any truth can be which passes the limits of pure mathematics4 ,in my ,essay on ,free ,will1 to which the ,norwegian ,society awarded the prize1 this truth is demonstrated more clearly1 methodically1 and thoroughly than has been done before by anyone else1 and this moreover with special reference to those facts of our consciousness by which ignorant people imagine that absurdity to be confirmed4 ,in all that is essential however1 ,hobbes1 ,spinoza1 ,priestley1 ,voltaire1 and even ,kant#gj already taught the same doctrine4 ,our professional philosophers1 of course1 do not let this interfere with their holding forth on ,free ,will1 as if it were an understood thing which had never been questioned4 ,but what do these gentlemen imagine the above-named great men to have come into the world for1 by the grace of ,nature8 ,to enable them 7the professors7 to earn their livelihood by philosophy8--,since ,i had proved this truth in my prize-essay more clearly than had ever been done before1 and since moreover a ,royal ,society had sanctioned that proof by placing my essay among its memoranda1 it surely behoved these worthies1 considering the views they held1 to make a vigorous attack upon so pernicious a doctrine1 so detestable a heresy1 and thoroughly to refute it4 ,nay1 this duty was all the more imperative as1 in my other essay ,on the ,foundation of ,morality1#ga ,i had proved the utter groundlessness of ,kant's practical ,reason with its ,categorical ,imperative which1 under the name of the ,moral ,law1 is still used by these gentlemen as the corner-stone of their own shallow systems of morality4 ,i have shown it to be a futile assumption so clearly and irrefutably1 that no one with a spark of judgment can possibly believe any longer in this fiction4--,well1 and so they probably did4--,oh no6 ,they take good care not to venture on such slippery ground6 ,their ability consists in holding their tongues2 silence is all they have to oppose to intelligence1 earnestness1 and truth4 ,in not one of the products of their useless scribblings that have appeared since #ahda1 has the slightest notice been taken of my ,ethics--undoubtedly the most important work on ,moral ,philosophy that has been published for the last sixty years--nay1 their terror of me and of my truth is so great1 that none of the literary journals issued by ,academies or ,universities has so much as mentioned the book4 ,zitto1 zitto1 lest the public should perceive anything3 in this consists the whole of their policy4 ,the instinct of self-preservation may1 no doubt1 be at the bottom of these artful tactics4 ,for would not a philosophy1 whose sole aim was truth1 and which had no other consideration in view1 be likely to play the part of the iron pot among the earthen ones1 were it to come in contact with the petty systems composed under the influence of a thousand personal considerations by people whose chief qualification is the propriety of their sentiments8 ,their wretched fear of my writings is the fear of truth4 ,nor can it be denied1 that precisely this very doctrine of the complete necessity of all acts of the will stands in flagrant contradiction with all the hypotheses of their favourite old-woman's philosophy cut after the pattern of ,judaism4 ,still1 that severely tested truth1 far from being disturbed by all this1 as a sure datum and criterion1 as a true 1 proves the futility of all that old-woman's philosophy and the urgent need of a fundamentally different1 incomparably deeper view of the ,universe and of ,man2--no matter whether that view be compatible with the official duties of a professional philosopher or not4 #fg ,see ,die beiden ,grundprobleme der ,ethik1 p4 #cj-cd4 #fh ,the word motivation1 though it may appear objectionable to the ,english reader1 seemed unavoidable here1 as being ,schopenhauer's own term1 for which there is no adequate equivalent in general use in our language4 ,translator's note4 #fi ,here used in the absolute sense of liberum arbitrium indifferenti4 ,tr4 #gj ,whatever conception one may form of freedom of the will1 for metaphysical purposes1 its phenomena1 human actions1 are nevertheless determined by universal laws of ,nature1 just as well as every other occurrence in ,nature4 ,ideen zu einer allgemeinen ,geschichte4 ,anfang4 ,i4 ,kant4 ,all the acts of a man1 so far as they are phenomena1 are determined from his empirical character and from the other concomitant causes1 according to the order of ,nature2 and if we could investigate all the manifestations of his will to the very bottom1 there would be not a single human action which we could not predict with certainty and recognize from its preceding conditions as necessary4 ,there is no freedom therefore with reference to this empirical character1 and yet it is only with reference to it that we can consider man1 when we are merely observing1 and1 as is the case in anthropology1 trying to investigate the motive causes of his actions physiologically4--,kritik4 d4 r4 ,vern4 p4 #edi of the #ast edition1 and p4 #egg of the #eth edition4 7,engl4 ,transl4 by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #dgd47 ,it may therefore be taken for granted1 that if we could see far enough into a man's mode of thinking1 as it manifests itself in his inner1 as well as outer actions1 for us to know every1 even the faintest motive1 and in like manner all the other causes which act upon these1 it would be possible to calculate his conduct in future with the same certainty as an eclipse of the sun or moon4--,kritik der praktischen ,vernunft ed4 ,rosenkranz1 p4 #bcj and p4 #agg of the #dth edition4 #ga ,published in the same volume with the ,prize-,essay on ,free ,will4 ,see ,die beiden ,grundprobleme der ,ethik4 #ba4 priori character of the conception of ,causality4 ,intellectual ,character of ,empirical ,perception4 ,,the ,,understanding4 ,in the professorial philosophy of our philosophy-professors we are still taught to this day1 that perception of the outer world is a thing of the senses1 and then there follows a long dissertation upon each of the five senses3 whereas no mention whatever is made of the intellectual character of perception3 that is to say1 of the fact1 that it is mainly the work of the ,understanding1 which1 by means of its own peculiar form of ,causality1 together with the forms of pure sensibility1 ,time and ,space1 which are postulated by ,causality1 primarily creates and produces the objective1 outer world out of the raw material of a few sensations4 ,and yet in its principal features1 ,i had stated this matter in the first edition of the present treatise#gb and soon after developed it more fully in my treatise ,on ,vision and ,colours 7#ahaf71 of which ,professor ,rosas has shown his appreciation by allowing it to lead him into plagiarism4#gc ,but our professors of philosophy have not thought fit to take the slightest notice either of this1 or indeed of any of the other great and important truths which it has been the aim and labour of my whole life to set forth1 in order to secure them as a lasting possession to mankind4 ,it does not suit their tastes1 or fit into their notions2 it leads to no ,theology1 nor is it even adapted to drill students for higher ,state purposes4 ,in short1 professional philosophers do not care to learn from me1 nor do they even see how much they might learn from me3 that is1 all that their children and their children's children will learn from me4 ,they prefer to sit down and spin a long metaphysical yarn1 each out of his own thoughts1 for the benefit of the public2 and no doubt1 if fingers are a sufficient qualification1 they have it4 ,how right was ,macchiavelli when he said1 as ,hesiod#gd before him3 ,there are three sorts of heads3 firstly1 those which acquire knowledge of things and comprehend them by themselves2 secondly1 those which recognise the truth when it is shown them by others2 and thirdly1 those which can do neither the one nor the other4#ge-- #gb ,anno #ahac1 pp4 #ec-ee4 #gc ,for further details see my ,will in ,nature1 p4 #ai of the #ast edition1 and p4 #ad of the #crd4 7,p4 #bcj et seqq4 of the translation of the ,will in ,nature1 which follows the ,fourfold ,root in the present volume47 #gd ,hesiod1 1 #bic4 #ge ,macchiavelli1 ,il principe1 cap4 #bb4 ,one must indeed be forsaken by all the gods1 to imagine that the outer1 perceptible world1 filling ,space in its three dimensions and moving on in the inexorable flow of ,time1 governed at every step by the laws of ,causality1 which is without exception1 and in all this merely obeying laws we can indicate before all experience of them--that such a world as this1 we say1 can have a real1 objective existence outside us1 without any agency of our own1 and that it can then have found its way into our heads through bare sensation and thus have a second existence within us like the one outside4 ,for what a miserably poor thing is mere sensation1 after all6 ,even in the noblest of our organs it is nothing but a local1 specific feeling1 susceptible of some slight variation1 still in itself always subjective and1 as such therefore1 incapable of containing anything objective1 anything like perception4 ,for sensation is and remains a process within the organism and is limited1 as such1 to the region within the skin2 it cannot therefore contain anything which lies beyond that region1 or1 in other words1 anything that is outside us4 ,a sensation may be pleasant or unpleasant--which betokens a relation to the ,will--but nothing objective can ever lie in any sensation4 ,in the organs of the senses1 sensation is heightened by the confluence of the nerve-extremities1 and can easily be excited from without on account of their extensive distribution and the delicacy of the envelope which encloses them2 it is besides specially susceptible to particular influences1 such as light1 sound1 smell2 notwithstanding which it is and remains mere sensation1 like all others within our body1 consequently something essentially subjective1 of whose changes we only become immediately conscious in the form of the inner sense1 ,time3 that is1 successively4 ,it is only when the ,understanding begins to act--a function1 not of single1 delicate nerve-extremities1 but of that mysterious1 complicated structure weighing from five to ten pounds1 called the brain--only when it begins to apply its sole form1 the causal law1 that a powerful transformation takes place1 by which subjective sensation becomes objective perception4 ,for1 in virtue of its own peculiar form1 therefore priori1 i4e4 before all experience 7since there could have been none till then71 the ,understanding conceives the given corporeal sensation as an effect 7a word which the ,understanding alone comprehends71 which effect1 as such1 necessarily implies a cause4 ,simultaneously it summons to its assistance ,space1 the form of the outer sense1 lying likewise ready in the intellect 7i4e4 the brain71 in order to remove that cause beyond the organism2 for it is by this that the external world first arises1 ,space alone rendering it possible1 so that pure intuition priori has to supply the foundation for empirical perception4 ,in this process1 as ,i shall soon show more clearly1 the ,understanding avails itself of all the several data1 even the minutest1 which are presented to it by the given sensation1 in order to construct the cause of it in ,space in conformity with them4 ,this intellectual operation 7which is moreover explicitly denied both by ,schelling#gf and by ,fries#gg71 does not however take place discursively or reflectively1 in abstracto1 by means of conceptions and words2 it is1 on the contrary1 an intuitive and quite direct process4 ,for by it alone1 therefore exclusively in the ,understanding and for the ,understanding1 does the real1 objective1 corporeal world1 filling ,space in its three dimensions1 present itself and further proceed1 according to the same law of causality1 to change in ,time1 and to move in ,space4--,it is therefore the ,understanding itself which has to create the objective world2 for this world cannot walk into our brain from outside all ready cut and dried through the senses and the openings of their organs4 ,in fact1 the senses supply nothing but the raw materials which the ,understanding at once proceeds to work up into the objective view of a corporeal world1 subject to regular laws1 by means of the simple forms we have indicated3 ,space1 ,time1 and ,causality4 ,accordingly our every-day empirical perception is an intellectual one and has a right to claim this predicate1 which ,german pseudo-philosophers have given to a pretended intuition of dream-worlds1 in which their beloved ,absolute is supposed to perform its evolutions4 ,and now ,i will proceed to show how wide is the gulf which separates sensation from perception1 by pointing out how raw is the material out of which the beautiful edifice is constructed4 #gf ,schelling1 ,philosophische ,schriften 7#ahji71 vol4 i4 pp4 #bcg and #bch4 #gg ,fries1 ,kritik der ,vernunft4 vol4 i4 pp4 #eb-ef and p4 #bij of the #ast edition4 ,objective perception makes use1 properly speaking1 of only two senses2 touch and sight4 ,these alone supply the data upon which1 as its basis1 the ,understanding constructs the objective world by the process just described4 ,the three other senses remain on the whole subjective2 for their sensations1 while pointing to an external cause1 still contain no data by which its relations in ,space can be determined4 ,now ,space is the form of all perception1 i4e4 of that apprehension1 in which alone objects can1 properly speaking1 present themselves4 ,therefore those other three senses can no doubt serve to announce the presence of objects we already know in some other way2 but no construction in ,space1 consequently no objective perception1 can possibly be founded on their data4 ,a rose cannot be constructed from its perfume1 and a blind man may hear music all his life without having the slightest objective representation either of the musicians1 or of the instruments1 or of the vibrations of the air4 ,on the other hand1 the sense of hearing is of great value as a medium for language1 and through this it is the sense of ,reason4 ,it is also valuable as a medium for music1 which is the only way in which we comprehend numerical relations not only in abstracto1 but directly1 in concreto4 ,a musical sound or tone1 however1 gives no clue to spacial relations1 therefore it never helps to bring the nature of its cause nearer to us2 we stop short at it1 so that it is no datum for the ,understanding in its construction of the objective world4 ,the sensations of touch and sight alone are such data2 therefore a blind man without either hands or feet1 while able to construct ,space for himself priori in all its regularity1 would nevertheless acquire but a very vague representation of the objective world4 ,yet what is supplied by touch and sight is not by any means perception1 but merely the raw material for it4 ,for perception is so far from being contained in the sensations of touch and sight1 that these sensations have not even the faintest resemblance to the qualities of the things which present themselves to us through them1 as ,i shall presently show4 ,only what really belongs to sensation must first be clearly distinguished from what is added to it by the intellect in perception4 ,in the beginning this is not easy1 because we are so accustomed to pass from the sensation at once to its cause1 that the cause presents itself to us without our noticing the sensation apart from it1 by which1 as it were1 the premisses are supplied to this conclusion drawn by the ,understanding4 ,thus touch and sight have each their own special advantages1 to begin with2 therefore they assist each other mutually4 ,sight needs no contact1 nor even proximity2 its field is unbounded and extends to the stars4 ,it is moreover sensitive to the most delicate degrees of light1 shade1 colour1 and transparency2 so that it supplies the ,understanding with a quantity of nicely defined data1 out of which1 by dint of practice1 it becomes able to construct the shape1 size1 distance1 and nature of bodies1 and represents them at once perceptibly4 ,on the other hand1 touch certainly depends upon contact2 still its data are so varied and so trustworthy1 that it is the most searching of all the senses4 ,even perception by sight may1 in the last resort1 be referred to touch2 nay1 sight may be looked upon as an imperfect touch extending to a great distance1 which uses the rays of light as long feelers2 and it is just because it is limited to those qualities which have light for their medium and is therefore one-sided1 that it is so liable to deception2 whereas touch supplies the data for cognising size1 shape1 hardness1 softness1 roughness1 temperature1 c4 c41 quite immediately4 ,in this it is assisted1 partly by the shape and mobility of our arms1 hands1 and fingers1 from whose position in feeling objects the ,understanding derives its data for constructing bodies in ,space1 partly by muscular power1 which enables it to know the weight1 solidity1 toughness1 or brittleness of bodies3 all this with the least possible liability to error4 ,these data nevertheless do not by any means yet give perception1 which is always the work of the ,understanding4 ,the sensation ,i have in pressing against a table with my hand1 contains no representation of a firm cohesion of parts in that object1 nor indeed anything at all like it4 ,it is only when my ,understanding passes from that sensation to its cause1 that the intellect constructs for itself a body having the properties of solidity1 impenetrability1 and hardness4 ,if in the dark1 ,i put my hand upon a flat surface1 or lay hold of a ball of about three inches in diameter1 the same parts of my hand feel the pressure in both cases2 it is only by the different position which my hand takes that1 in the one or in the other case1 my ,understanding constructs the shape of the body whose contact is the cause of the sensation1 for which it receives confirmation from the changes of position which ,i make4 ,the sensations in the hand of a man born blind1 on feeling an object of cubic shape1 are quite uniform and the same on all sides and in every direction3 the edges1 it is true1 press upon a smaller portion of his hand1 still nothing at all like a cube is contained in these sensations4 ,his ,understanding1 however1 draws the immediate and intuitive conclusion from the resistance felt1 that this resistance must have a cause1 which then presents itself through that conclusion as a hard body2 and through the movements of his arms in feeling the object1 while the hand's sensation remains unaltered1 he constructs the cubic shape in ,space1 which is known to him priori4 ,if the representation of a cause and of ,space1 together with their laws1 had not already existed within him1 the image of a cube could never have proceeded from those successive sensations in his hand4 ,if a rope be drawn through his hand1 he will construct1 as the cause of the friction he feels and of its duration1 a long cylindrical body1 moving uniformly in the same direction in that particular position of his hand4 ,but the representation of movement1 i4e4 of change of place in ,space by means of ,time1 never could arise for him out of the mere sensation in his hand2 for that sensation can neither contain1 nor can it ever by itself alone produce any such thing4 ,it is his intellect which must1 on the contrary1 contain within itself1 before all experience1 the intuitions of ,space1 ,time1 and together with them that of the possibility of movement2 and it must also contain the representation of ,causality1 in order to pass from sensation--which alone is given by experience--to a cause of that sensation1 and to construct that cause as a body having this or that shape1 moving in this or that direction4 ,for how great is the difference between a mere sensation in my hand and the representations of causality1 materiality1 and mobility in ,space by means of ,time6 ,the sensation in my hand1 even if its position and its points of contact are altered1 is a thing far too uniform and far too poor in data1 to enable me to construct out of it the representation of ,space1 with its three dimensions1 and of the influences of bodies one upon another1 together with the properties of expansion1 impenetrability1 cohesion1 shape1 hardness1 softness1 rest1 and motion3 the basis1 in short1 of the objective world4 ,this is1 on the contrary1 only possible by the intellect containing within itself1 anterior to all experience1 ,space1 as the form of perception2 ,time1 as the form of change2 and the law of ,causality1 as the regulator of the passing in and out of changes4 ,now it is precisely the pre-existence before all experience of all these forms1 which constitutes the ,intellect4 ,physiologically1 it is a function of the brain1 which the brain no more learns by experience than the stomach to digest1 or the liver to secrete bile4 ,besides1 no other explanation can be given of the fact1 that many who were born blind1 acquire a sufficiently complete knowledge of the relations of ,space1 to enable them to replace their want of eyesight by it to a considerable degree1 and to perform astonishing feats4 ,a hundred years ago ,saunderson1 for instance1 who was blind from his birth1 lectured on ,optics1 ,mathematics1 and ,astronomy at ,cambridge4#gh ,this1 too1 is the only way to explain the exactly opposite case of ,eva ,lauk1 who was born without arms or legs1 yet acquired an accurate perception of the outer world by means of sight alone as rapidly as other children4#gi ,all this therefore proves that ,time1 ,space1 and ,causality are not conveyed into us by touch or by sight1 or indeed at all from outside1 but that they have an internal1 consequently not empirical1 but intellectual origin4 ,from this again follows1 that the perception of the bodily world is an essentially intellectual process1 a work of the ,understanding1 to which sensation merely gives the opportunity and the data for application in individual cases4 #gh ,diderot1 in his ,lettre sur les ,aveugles1 gives a detailed account of ,saunderson4 #gi ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 ii4 chap4 #d4 ,i shall now prove the same with regard to the sense of sight4 ,here the only immediate datum is the sensation experienced by the retina1 which1 though admitting of great variety1 may still be reduced to the impression of light and dark with their intermediate gradations and to that of colours proper4 ,this sensation is entirely subjective3 that is to say1 it only exists within the organism and under the skin4 ,without the ,understanding1 indeed1 we should never even become conscious of these gradations1 excepting as of peculiar1 varied modifications of the feeling in our eye1 which would bear no resemblance to the shape1 situation1 proximity1 or distance of objects outside us4 ,for sensation1 in seeing1 supplies nothing more than a varied affection of the retina1 exactly like the spectacle of a painter's palette with divers splashes of colour4 ,nor would anything more remain over in our consciousness1 were we suddenly deprived of all our ,understanding--let us say by paralysis of the brain--at a moment when we were contemplating a rich and extensive landscape1 while the sensation was left unchanged3 for this was the raw material out of which our ,understanding had just before been constructing that perception4 ,now1 that the ,understanding should thus be able1 from such limited material as light1 shade and colour1 to produce the visible world1 inexhaustibly rich in all its different shapes1 by means of the simple function of referring effects to causes assisted by the intuition of ,space1 depends before all things upon the assistance given by the sensation itself1 which consists in this3 first1 that the retina1 as a surface1 admits of a juxtaposition of impressions2 secondly1 that light always acts in straight lines1 and that its refraction in the eye itself is rectilinear2 finally1 that the retina possesses the faculty of immediately feeling from which direction the light comes that impinges upon it1 and this can1 perhaps1 only be accounted for by the rays of light penetrating below the surface of the retina4 ,but by this we gain1 that the mere impression at once indicates the direction of its cause2 that is1 it points directly to the position of the object from which the light proceeds or is reflected4 ,the passage to this object as a cause no doubt presupposes the knowledge of causal relations1 as well as of the laws of ,space2 but this knowledge constitutes precisely the furniture of the ,intellect1 which1 here also1 has again to create perception out of mere sensation4 ,let us now examine its procedure in doing so more closely4 ,the first thing it does is to set right the impression of the object1 which is produced on the retina upside down4 ,that original inversion is1 as we know1 brought about in the following manner4 ,as each point of the visible object sends forth its rays towards all sides in a rectilinear direction1 the rays from its upper extremity cross those from its lower extremity in the narrow aperture of the pupil1 by which the former impinge upon the bottom1 the latter upon the top1 those projected from the right side upon the left1 and vice versa4 ,the refracting apparatus of the eye1 which consists of the humor aqueus1 lens1 et corpus vitreum1 only serves to concentrate the rays of light proceeding from the object1 so as to find room for them on the small space of the retina4 ,now1 if seeing consisted in mere sensation1 we should perceive the impression of the object turned upside down1 because we receive it thus2 but in that case we should perceive it as something within our eye1 for we should stop short at the sensation4 ,in reality1 however1 the ,understanding steps in at once with its causal law1 and as it has received from sensation the datum of the direction in which the ray impinged upon the retina1 it pursues that direction retrogressively up to the cause on both lines2 so that this time the crossing takes place in the opposite direction1 and the cause presents itself upright as an external object in ,space1 i4e4 in the position in which it originally sent forth its rays1 not that in which they reached the retina 7see fig4 #a74--,the purely intellectual nature of this process1 to the exclusion of all other1 more especially of physiological1 explanations1 may also be confirmed by the fact1 that if we put our heads between our legs1 or lie down on a hill head downwards1 we nevertheless see objects in their right position1 and not upside down2 although the portion of the retina1 which is usually met by the lower part of the object is then met by the upper3 in fact1 everything is topsy turvy excepting the ,understanding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,the second thing which the ,understanding does in converting sensation into perception1 is to make a single perception out of a double sensation2 for each eye in fact receives its own separate impression from the object we are looking at2 each even in a slightly different direction3 nevertheless that object presents itself as a single one4 ,this can only take place in the ,understanding1 and the process by which it is brought about is the following3 ,our eyes are never quite parallel1 excepting when we look at a distant object1 i4e4 one which is more than #bjj feet from us4 ,at other times they are both directed towards the object we are viewing1 whereby they converge1 so as to make the lines proceeding from each eye to the exact point of the object on which it is fixed1 form an angle1 called the optic angle2 the lines themselves are called optic axes4 ,now1 when the object lies straight before us1 these lines exactly impinge upon the centre of each retina1 therefore in two points which correspond exactly to each other in each eye4 ,the ,understanding1 whose only business it is to look for the cause of all things1 at once recognises the impression as coming from a single outside point1 although here the sensation is double1 and attributes it to one cause1 which therefore presents itself as a single object4 ,for all that is perceived by us1 is perceived as a cause--that is to say1 as the cause of an effect we have experienced1 consequently in the ,understanding4 ,as1 nevertheless1 we take in not only a single point1 but a considerable surface of the object with both eyes1 and yet perceive it as a single object1 it will be necessary to pursue this explanation still further4 ,all those parts of the object which lie to one side of the vertex of the optic angle no longer send their rays straight into the centre1 but to the side1 of the retina in each eye2 in both sides1 however1 to the same1 let us say the left1 side4 ,the points therefore upon which these rays impinge1 correspond symmetrically to each other1 as well as the centres--in other words1 they are homonymous points4 ,the ,understanding soon learns to know them1 and accordingly extends the above-mentioned rule of its causal perception to them also2 consequently it not only refers those rays which impinge upon the centre of each retina1 but those also which impinge upon all the other symmetrically corresponding places in both retinas1 to a single radiant point in the object viewed3 that is1 it sees all these points likewise as single1 and the entire object also4 ,now1 it should be well observed1 that in this process it is not the outer side of one retina which corresponds to the outer side of the other1 and the inner to the inner of each1 but the right side of one retina which corresponds to the right side of the other1 and so forth2 so that this symmetrical correspondence must not be taken in a physiological1 but in a geometrical sense4 ,numerous and very clear illustrations of this process1 and of all the phenomena which are connected with it1 are to be found in ,robert ,smith's ,optics1 and partly also in ,kstner's ,german translation 7#agee74 ,i only give one 7fig4 #b71 which1 properly speaking1 represents a special case1 mentioned further on1 but which may also serve to illustrate the whole1 if we leave the point ,r out of question4 ,according to this illustration1 we invariably direct both eyes equally towards the object1 in order that the symmetrically corresponding places on both retinas may catch the rays projected from the same points4 ,now1 when we move our eyes upwards and downwards1 to the sides1 and in all directions1 the point in the object which first impinged upon the central point of each retina1 strikes a different place every time1 but in all cases one which1 in each eye1 corresponds to the place bearing the same name in the other eye4 ,in examining 7perlustrare7 an object1 we let our eyes glide backwards and forwards over it1 in order to bring each point of it successively into contact with the centre of the retina1 which sees most distinctly3 we feel it all over with our eyes4 ,it is therefore obvious that seeing singly with two eyes is in fact the same process as feeling a body with ten fingers1 each of which receives a different impression1 each moreover in a different direction3 the totality of these impressions being nevertheless recognised by the ,understanding as proceeding from one object1 whose shape and size it accordingly apprehends and constructs in ,space4 ,this is why it is possible for a blind man to become a sculptor1 as was the case1 for instance1 with the famous ,joseph ,kleinhaus1 who died in ,tyrol1 #ahec1 having been a sculptor from his fifth year4#hj ,for1 no matter from what cause it may have derived its data1 perception is invariably an operation of the ,understanding4 #hj ,the ,frankfort ,konversationsblatt1 ,july #bb1 #ahec1 gives the following account of this sculptor3--,the blind sculptor1 ,joseph ,kleinhaus1 died at ,nauders1 in ,tyrol1 on the #ajth inst4 ,having lost his eyesight through small-pox when he was five years old1 he began to amuse himself with carving and modelling1 as a pastime4 ,prugg gave him some instructions1 and supplied him with models1 and at the age of twelve he carved a ,christ in life-size4 ,during a short stay in ,nissl's workshop at ,fgen1 his progress was so rapid1 that1 thanks to his good capacities and talents1 his fame as the blind sculptor soon spread far and wide4 ,his works are numerous and of various kinds4 ,his ,christs alone1 of which there are about four hundred1 bear special witness to his proficiency1 particularly if his blindness is taken into consideration4 ,he sculptured many other objects besides1 and1 but two months ago1 he modelled a bust of the ,emperor ,franz ,joseph of ,austria which has been sent to ,vienna4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,but just as a single ball seems to me double1 if ,i touch it with my fingers crossed--since my ,understanding1 at once reverting to the cause and constructing it according to the laws of ,space1 takes for granted that the fingers are in their normal position and of course cannot do otherwise than attribute two spherical surfaces1 which come in contact with the outer sides of the first and middle fingers1 to two different balls--just so also does an object seem double1 if my eyes1 instead of converging symmetrically and enclosing the optic angle at a single point of the object1 each view it at a different inclination--in other words1 if ,i squint4 ,for the rays1 which in this case emanate from one point of the object1 no longer impinge upon those symmetrically corresponding points in both retinas with which my mind has grown familiar by long experience1 but upon other1 quite different ones which1 in a symmetrical position of the eyes1 could only be affected in this way by different bodies2 ,i therefore now see two objects1 precisely because perception takes place by means of1 and within1 the ,understanding4--,the same thing happens without squinting when1 for instance1 ,i look fixedly at the furthest of two objects placed at unequal distances before me1 and complete the optic angle at it2 for then the rays emanating from the nearer object do not impinge upon symmetrically corresponding places in both retinas1 wherefore my ,understanding attributes them to two objects1 i4e4 ,i see the nearer object double 7see fig4 #b1 page #gj74 ,if1 on the contrary1 ,i complete the optic angle at the nearer object1 by looking steadily at it1 the further object appears double4 ,it is easy to test this by holding a pencil two feet from the eyes1 and looking alternately at it and at some other more distant object behind it4 ,but the finest thing of all is1 that this experiment may quite well be reversed3 so that1 with two real objects straight before and close to us1 and with our eyes wide open1 we nevertheless see but one4 ,this is the most striking proof that perception is a work of the ,understanding and by no means contained in sensation4 ,let two cardboard tubes1 about #h inches long and #a-a_/b inches in diameter1 be fastened parallel to one another1 like those of a binocular telescope1 and fix a shilling at the end of each tube4 ,on applying our eyes to the opposite extremity and looking through the tubes1 we shall see only one shilling surrounded by one tube4 ,for in this case the eyes being forced into a completely parallel position1 the rays emanating from the coins impinge exactly upon the centres of the two retinas and those points which immediately surround them1 therefore upon places which correspond symmetrically to each other2 consequently the ,understanding1 taking for granted the usual convergent position of the optic axes when objects are near1 admits but one object as the cause of the reflected rays4 ,in other words1 we see but one object2 so direct is the act of causal apprehension in the ,understanding4 ,we have not space enough here to refute one by one the physiological explanations of single vision which have been attempted2 but their fallacy is shown by the following considerations3-- #ao4 ,if seeing single were dependent upon an organic connection1 the corresponding points in both retinas1 on which this phenomenon is shown to depend1 would correspond organically1 whereas they do so in a merely geometrical sense1 as has already been said4 ,for1 organically speaking1 the two inner and two outer corners of the eyes are those which correspond1 and so it is with the other parts also2 whereas for the purpose of single vision1 it is the right side of the right retina which corresponds to the right side of the left retina1 and so on1 as the phenomena just described irrefutably show4 ,it is also precisely on account of the intellectual character of the process1 that only the most intelligent animals1 such as the higher mammalia and birds of prey--more especially owls--have their eyes placed so as to enable them to direct both optic axes to the same point4 #bo4 ,the hypothesis of a confluence or partial intersection of the optic nerves before entering the brain1 originated by ,newton1#ha is false1 simply because it would then be impossible to see double by squinting4 ,vesalius and ,csalpinus besides have already brought forward anatomical instances in which subjects saw single1 although neither fusion nor even contact of the optic nerves had taken place4 ,a final argument against the hypothesis of a mixed impression is supplied by the fact1 that on closing our right eye firmly and looking at the sun with our left1 the bright image which persists for a time is always in the left1 never in the right1 eye3 and vice versa4 #ha ,newton1 ,optics4 ,query #ae4 ,the third process by which the ,understanding converts sensation into perception1 consists in constructing bodies out of the simple surfaces hitherto obtained--that is1 in adding the third dimension4 ,this it does by estimating the expansion of bodies in this third dimension in ,space--which is known to the ,understanding priori--through ,causality1 according to the degree in which the eye is affected by the objects1 and to the gradations of light and shade4 ,in fact1 although objects fill ,space in all three dimensions1 they can only produce an impression upon the eye with two2 for the nature of that organ is such1 that our sensation1 in seeing1 is merely planimetrical1 not stereometrical4 ,all that is stereometrical in our perception is added by the ,understanding1 which has for its sole data the direction whence the eye receives its impression1 the limits of that impression1 and the various gradations of light and dark3 these data directly indicate their causes1 and enable us to distinguish whether what we have before us is a disk or a ball4 ,this mental process1 like the preceding ones1 takes place so immediately and with such rapidity1 that we are conscious of nothing but the result4 ,it is this which makes perspective drawing so difficult a problem1 that it can only be solved by mathematics and has to be learnt2 although all it has to do1 is to represent the sensation of seeing as it presents itself to our ,understanding as a datum for the third process3 that is1 visual sensation in its merely planimetrical extension1 to the two dimensions of which extension1 together with the said data in them1 the ,understanding forthwith adds the third1 in contemplating a drawing as well as in contemplating reality4 ,perspective drawing is1 in fact1 a sort of writing which can be read as easily as printed type1 but which few are able to write2 precisely because our intellect1 in perceiving1 only apprehends effects with a view to constructing their causes1 immediately losing sight of the former as soon as it has discovered the latter4 ,for instance1 we instantly recognise a chair1 whatever position it may be in2 while drawing a chair in any position belongs to the art which abstracts from this third process of the ,understanding1 in order to present the data alone for the spectator himself to complete4 ,in its narrowest acceptation1 as we have already seen1 this is the art of drawing in perspective2 in a more comprehensive sense1 it is the whole art of painting4 ,a painting presents us with outlines drawn according to the rules of perspective2 lighter and darker places proportioned to the effect of light and shade2 finally patches of colouring1 which are determined as to quality and intensity by the teaching of experience4 ,this the spectator reads and interprets by referring similar effects to their accustomed causes4 ,the painter's art consists in consciously retaining the data of visual sensation in the artist's memory1 as they are before this third intellectual process2 while we1 who are not artists1 cast them aside without retaining them in our memory1 as soon as we have made use of them for the purpose described above4 ,we shall become still better acquainted with this third intellectual process by now passing on to a fourth1 which1 from its intimate connection with the third1 serves to elucidate it4 ,this fourth operation of the ,understanding consists in acquiring knowledge of the distance of objects from us3 it is this precisely which constitutes that third dimension of which we have been speaking4 ,visual sensation1 as we have said1 gives us the direction in which objects lie1 but not their distance from us3 that is1 not their position4 ,it is for the ,understanding therefore to find out this distance2 or1 in other words1 the distance must be inferred from purely causal determinations4 ,now the most important of these is the visual angle1 which objects subtend2 yet even this is quite ambiguous and unable to decide anything by itself4 ,it is like a word of double meaning3 the sense1 in which it is to be understood1 can only be gathered from its connection with the rest4 ,an object subtending the same visual angle may in fact be small and near1 or large and far off2 and it is only when we have previously ascertained its size1 that the visual angle enables us to recognise its distance3 and conversely1 its size1 when its distance is known to us4 ,linear perspective is based upon the fact that the visual angle diminishes as the distance increases1 and its principles may here be easily deduced4 ,as our sight ranges equally in all directions1 we see everything in reality as from the interior of a hollow sphere1 of which our eye occupies the centre4 ,now in the first place1 an infinite number of intersecting circles pass through the centre of this sphere in all directions1 and the angles measured by the divisions of these circles are the possible angles of vision4 ,in the second place1 the sphere itself modifies its size according to the length of radius we give to it2 therefore we may also imagine it as consisting of an infinity of concentric1 transparent spheres4 ,as all radii diverge1 these concentric spheres augment in size in proportion to their distance from us1 and the degrees of their sectional circles increase correspondingly3 therefore the true size of the objects which occupy them likewise increases4 ,thus objects are larger or smaller according to the size of the spheres of which they occupy similar portions--say #aj--while their visual angle remains unchanged in both cases1 leaving it therefore undecided1 whether the #aj occupied by a given object belong to a sphere of #b miles1 or of #aj feet diameter4 ,conversely1 if the size of the object has been ascertained1 the number of degrees occupied by it will diminish in proportion to the distance and the size of the sphere to which we refer it1 and all its outlines will contract in similar proportion4 ,from this ensues the fundamental law of all perspective2 for1 as objects and the intervals between them must necessarily diminish in constant proportion to their distance from us1 all their outlines thereby contracting1 the result will be1 that with increasing distance1 what is above us will descend1 what is below us will ascend1 and all that lies at our sides will come nearer together4 ,this progressive convergence1 this linear perspective1 no doubt enables us to estimate distances1 so far as we have before us an uninterrupted succession of visibly connected objects2 but we are not able to do this by means of the visual angle alone1 for here the help of another datum is required by the ,understanding1 to act1 in a sense1 as commentary to the visual angle1 by indicating more precisely the share we are to attribute to distance in that angle4 ,now there are four principal data of this kind1 which ,i am about to specify4 ,thanks to these data1 even where there is no linear perspective to guide us1 if a man standing at a distance of #bjj feet appears to me subtending a visual angle twenty-four times smaller than if he were only #b feet off1 ,i can nevertheless in most cases estimate his size correctly4 ,all this proves once more that perception is not only a thing of the senses1 but of the intellect also4--,i will here add the following special and interesting fact in corroboration of what ,i have said about the basis of linear perspective as well as about the intellectual nature of all perception4 ,when ,i have looked steadily at a coloured object with sharply defined outlines--say a red cross--long enough for the physiological image to form in my eye as a green cross1 the further the surface on to which ,i project it1 the larger it will appear to me3 and vice versa4 ,for the image itself occupies an unvarying portion of my retina1 i4e4 the portion originally affected by the red cross2 therefore when referred outwards1 or1 in other words1 recognised as the effect of an external object1 it forms an unchanging visual angle1 say of #b4 ,now if1 in this case1 where all commentary to the visual angle is wanting1 ,i remove it to a distant surface1 with which ,i necessarily identify it as belonging to its effect1 the cross will occupy #b of a distant and therefore larger sphere1 and is consequently large4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,i project the image on to a nearer object1 it will occupy #b of a smaller sphere1 and is therefore small4 ,the resulting perception is in both cases completely objective1 quite like that of an external object2 and as it proceeds from an entirely subjective reason 7from the image having been excited in quite a different way71 it thus confirms the intellectual character of all objective perception4--,this phenomenon 7which ,i distinctly remember to have been the first to notice1 in #ahae7 forms the theme of an essay by ,sguin1 published in the ,comptes rendus of the #bnd ,august1 #aheh1 where it is served up as a new discovery1 all sorts of absurd and distorted explanations of it being given4 ,messieurs les illustres confrres let pass no opportunity for heaping experiment upon experiment1 the more complicated the better4 ,exprience6 is their watchword2 yet how rarely do we meet with any sound1 genuine reflection upon the phenomena observed6 ,exprience6 exprience6 followed by twaddle4 ,to return to the subsidiary data which act as commentaries to a given visual angle1 we find foremost among them the mutationes oculi intern1 by means of which the eye adapts its refractory apparatus to various distances by increasing and diminishing the refraction4 ,in what these modifications consist1 has not yet been clearly ascertained4 ,they have been sought in the increased convexity1 now of the cornea1 now of the crystalline lens2 but the latest theory seems to me the most probable one1 according to which the lens is moved backwards for distant vision and forwards for near vision1 lateral pressure1 in the latter case1 giving it increased protuberance2 so that the process would exactly resemble the mechanism of an opera-glass4 ,kepler1 however1 had1 in the main1 already expressed this theory1 which may be found explained in ,a4 ,hueck's pamphlet1 ,die ,bewegung der ,krystallinse1 #ahda4 ,if we are not clearly conscious of these inner modifications of the eye1 we have at any rate a certain feeling of them1 and of this we immediately avail ourselves to estimate distances4 ,as however these modifications are not available for the purposes of clear sight beyond the range of from about #g inches to #af feet1 the ,understanding is only able to apply this datum within those limits4 ,beyond them1 however1 the second datum becomes available3 that is to say1 the optic angle1 formed by the two optic axes1 which we had occasion to explain when speaking of single vision4 ,it is obvious that this optic angle becomes smaller1 the further the object is removed3 and vice versa4 ,this different direction of the eyes1 with respect to each other1 does not take place without producing a slight sensation1 of which we are nevertheless only in so far conscious as the ,understanding makes use of it1 as a datum1 in estimating distances intuitively4 ,by this datum we are not only enabled to cognize the distance1 but the precise position of the object viewed1 by means of the parallax of the eyes1 which consists in each eye seeing the object in a slightly different direction2 so that if we close one eye1 the object seems to move4 ,thus it is not easy to snuff a candle with one eye shut1 because this datum is then wanting4 ,but as the direction of the eyes becomes parallel as soon as the distance of the object reaches or exceeds #bjj feet1 and as the optic angle consequently then ceases to exist1 this datum only holds good within the said distance4 ,beyond it1 the ,understanding has recourse to atmospheric perspective1 which indicates a greater distance by means of the increasing dimness of all colours1 of the appearance of physical blue in front of all dark objects 7according to ,gthe's perfectly correct and true theory of colours71 and also of the growing indistinctness of all outlines4 ,in ,italy1 where the atmosphere is very transparent1 this datum loses its power and is apt to mislead3 ,tivoli1 for instance1 seems to be very near when seen from ,frascati4 ,on the other hand1 all objects appear larger in a mist1 which is an abnormal exaggeration of the datum2 because our ,understanding assumes them to be further from us4 ,finally1 there remains the estimation of distance by means of the size 7known to us intuitively7 of intervening objects1 such as fields1 woods1 rivers1 c4 c4 ,this mode of estimation is only applicable where there is uninterrupted succession3 in other words1 it can only be applied to terrestrial1 not to celestial objects4 ,moreover1 we have in general more practice in using it horizontally than vertically3 a ball on the top of a tower #bjj feet high appears much smaller to us than when lying on the ground #bjj feet from us2 because1 in the latter case1 we estimate the distance more accurately4 ,when we see human beings in such a way1 that what lies between them and ourselves is in a great measure hidden from our sight1 they always appear strikingly small4 ,the fact that our ,understanding assumes everything it perceives in a horizontal direction to be farther off1 therefore larger1 than what is seen in a vertical direction1 must partly be attributed to this last mode of estimating distances1 inasmuch as it only holds good when applied horizontally and to terrestrial objects2 but partly also to our estimation of distances by atmospheric perspective1 which is subject to similar conditions4 ,this is why the moon seems so much larger on the horizon than at its zenith1 although its visual angle accurately measured--that is1 the image projected by it on to the eye--is not at all larger in one case than in the other2 and this also accounts for the flattened appearance of the vault of the sky3 that is to say1 for its appearing to have greater horizontal than vertical extension4 ,both phenomena therefore are purely intellectual or cerebral1 not optical4 ,if it be objected1 that even when at its zenith1 the moon occasionally has a hazy appearance without seeming to be larger1 we answer1 that neither does it in that case appear red2 for its haziness proceeds from a greater density of vapours1 and is therefore of a different kind from that which proceeds from atmospheric perspective4 ,to this may be added what ,i have already said3 that we only apply this mode of estimating distances in a horizontal1 not in a perpendicular1 direction2 besides1 in this case1 other correctives come into play4 ,it is related of ,saussure that1 when on the ,mont ,blanc1 he saw so enormous a moon rise1 that1 not recognising what it was1 he fainted with terror4 ,the properties of the telescope and magnifying glass1 on the other hand1 depend upon a separate estimate according to the visual angle alone3 i4e41 that of size by distance1 and of distance by size2 because here the four other supplementary means of estimating distances are excluded4 ,the telescope in reality magnifies objects1 while it only seems to bring them nearer2 because their size being known to us empirically1 we here account for its apparent increase by a diminution of their distance from us4 ,a house seen through a telescope1 for instance1 seems to be ten times nearer1 not ten times larger1 than seen with the naked eye4 ,the magnifying glass1 on the contrary1 does not really magnify1 but merely enables us to bring the object nearer to our eyes than would otherwise be possible2 so that it only appears as large as it would at that distance even without the magnifying glass4 ,in fact1 we are prevented from seeing objects distinctly at less than from eight to ten inches' distance from our eyes1 by the insufficient convexity of the ocular lens and cornea2 but if we increase the refraction by substituting the convexity of the magnifying glass for that of the lens and cornea1 we then obtain a clear image of objects even when they are as near as half an inch from our eyes4 ,objects thus seen in close proximity to us and in the size corresponding to that proximity1 are transferred by our ,understanding to the distance at which we naturally see distinctly1 i4e4 to about eight or ten inches from our eyes1 and we then estimate their magnitude according to this distance and to the given visual angle4 ,i have entered thus fully into detail concerning all the different processes by which seeing is accomplished1 in order to show clearly and irrefragably that the predominant factor in them is the ,understanding1 which1 by conceiving each change as an effect and referring that effect to its cause1 produces the cerebral phenomenon of the objective world on the basis of the priori fundamental intuitions of ,space and ,time1 for which it receives merely a few data from the senses4 ,and moreover the ,understanding effects this exclusively by means of its own peculiar form1 the law of ,causality2 therefore quite directly and intuitively1 without any assistance whatever from reflection--that is1 from abstract knowledge by means of conceptions and of language1 which are the materials of secondary knowledge1 i4e4 of thought1 therefore of ,reason4 ,that this knowledge through the ,understanding is independent of ,reason's assistance1 is shown even by the fact1 that when1 at any time1 the ,understanding attributes a given effect to a wrong cause1 actually perceiving that cause1 whereby illusion arises1 our ,reason1 however clearly it may recognise in abstracto the true state of the matter1 is nevertheless unable to assist the ,understanding1 and the illusion persists undisturbed in spite of that better knowledge4 ,the above-mentioned phenomena of seeing and feeling double1 which result from an abnormal position of the organs of touch and sight1 are instances of such illusions2 likewise the apparently increased size of the rising moon2 the image which forms in the focus of a concave mirror and exactly resembles a solid body floating in space2 the painted relievo which we take for real2 the apparent motion of a shore or bridge on which we are standing1 if a ship happens to pass along or beneath it2 the seeming proximity of very lofty mountains1 owing to the absence of atmospheric perspective1 which is the result of the purity of the air round their summits4 ,in these and in a multitude of similar cases1 our ,understanding takes for granted the existence of the usual cause with which it is conversant and forthwith perceives it1 though our ,reason has arrived at the truth by a different road2 for1 the knowledge of the ,understanding being anterior to that of the ,reason1 the intellect remains inaccessible to the teaching of the ,reason1 and thus the illusion--that is1 the deception of the ,understanding--remains immovable2 albeit error--that is1 the deception of the ,reason--is obviated4--,that which is correctly known by the ,understanding is reality3 that which is correctly known by the ,reason is truth1 or in other terms1 a judgment having a sufficient reason2 illusion 7that which is wrongly perceived7 we oppose to reality3 error 7that which is wrongly thought7 to truth4 ,the purely formal part of empirical perception--that is1 ,space1 ,time1 and the law of ,causality--is contained priori in the intellect2 but this is not the case with the application of this formal part to empirical data1 which has to be acquired by the ,understanding through practice and experience4 ,therefore new-born infants1 though they no doubt receive impressions of light and of colour1 still do not apprehend or indeed1 strictly speaking1 see objects4 ,the first weeks of their existence are rather passed in a kind of stupor1 from which they awaken by degrees when their ,understanding begins to apply its function to the data supplied by the senses1 especially those of touch and of sight1 whereby they gradually gain consciousness of the objective world4 ,this newly-arising consciousness may be clearly recognised by the look of growing intelligence in their eyes and a degree of intention in their movements1 especially in the smile with which they show for the first time recognition of those who take care of them4 ,they may even be observed to make experiments for a time with their sight and touch1 in order to complete their apprehension of objects by different lights1 in different directions and at different distances3 thus pursuing a silent1 but serious course of study1 till they have succeeded in mastering all the intellectual operations in seeing which have been described4 ,the fact of this schooling can be ascertained still more clearly through those who1 being born blind1 have been operated upon late in life1 since they are able to give an account of their impressions4 ,cheselden's blind man#hb was not an isolated instance1 and we find in all similar cases the fact corroborated1 that those who obtain their sight late in life1 no doubt1 see light1 outlines1 and colours1 as soon as the operation is over1 but that they have no objective perception of objects until their ,understanding has learnt to apply its causal law to data and to changes which are new to it4 ,on first beholding his room and the various objects in it1 ,cheselden's blind man did not distinguish one thing from another2 he simply received the general impression of a totality all in one piece1 which he took for a smooth1 variegated surface4 ,it never occurred to him to recognise a number of detached objects1 lying one behind the other at different distances4 ,with blind people of this sort1 it is by the sense of touch1 to which objects are already known1 that they have to be introduced to the sense of sight4 ,in the beginning1 the patient has no appreciation whatever of distances and tries to lay hold of everything4 ,one1 when he first saw his own house from outside1 could not conceive how so small a thing could contain so many rooms4 ,another was highly delighted to find1 some weeks after the operation1 that the engravings hanging on the walls of his room represented a variety of objects4 ,the ,morgenblatt of ,october #bcrd1 #ahag1 contains an account of a youth who was born blind1 and obtained his sight at the age of seventeen4 ,he had to learn intelligent perception1 for at first sight he did not even recognise objects previously known to him through the sense of touch4 ,every object had to be introduced to the sense of sight by means of the sense of touch4 ,as for the distances of the objects he saw1 he had no appreciation whatever of them1 and tried to lay hold indiscriminately of everything1 far or near4--,franz expresses himself as follows3#hc-- ,a definite idea of distance1 as well as of form and size1 is only obtained by sight and touch1 and by reflecting on the impressions made on both senses2 but for this purpose we must take into account the muscular motion and voluntary locomotion of the individual4--,caspar ,hauser1 in a detailed account of his own experience in this respect1 states1 that upon his first liberation from confinement1 whenever he looked through the window upon external objects1 such as the street1 garden1 c41 it appeared to him as if there were a shutter quite close to his eye1 and covered with confused colours of all kinds1 in which he could recognise or distinguish nothing singly4 ,he says farther1 that he did not convince himself till after some time during his walks out of doors1 that what had at first appeared to him as a shutter of various colours1 as well as many other objects1 were in reality very different things2 and that at length the shutter disappeared1 and he saw and recognised all things in their just proportions4 ,persons born blind who obtain their sight by an operation in later years only1 sometimes imagine that all objects touch their eyes1 and lie so near to them that they are afraid of stumbling against them2 sometimes they leap towards the moon1 supposing that they can lay hold of it2 at other times they run after the clouds moving along the sky1 in order to catch them1 or commit other such extravagancies4 ,since ideas are gained by reflection upon sensation1 it is further necessary in all cases1 in order that an accurate idea of objects may be formed from the sense of sight1 that the powers of the mind should be unimpaired1 and undisturbed in their exercise4 ,a proof of this is afforded in the instance related by ,haslam1#hd of a boy who had no defect of sight1 but was weak in understanding1 and who in his seventh year was unable to estimate the distances of objects1 especially as to height2 he would extend his hand frequently towards a nail on the ceiling1 or towards the moon1 to catch it4 ,it is therefore the judgment which corrects and makes clear this idea1 or perception of visible objects4 #hb ,see the original report in vol4 #ce of the ,philosophical ,transactions as to this case4 #hc ,franz1 ,the ,eye1 a treatise on preserving this organ in a healthy state and improving the sight4 ,london1 ,churchill1 #ahci1 pp4 #cd-cf4 #hd ,haslam's ,observations on ,madness and ,melancholy1 #bnd ed4 p4 #aib4 ,the intellectual nature of perception as ,i have shown it1 is corroborated physiologically by ,flourens#he as follows3 ,il faut faire une grand distinction entre les sens et l'intelligence4 ,l'ablation d'un tubercule dtermine la perte de la sensation1 du sens de la vue2 la rtine devient insensible1 l'iris devient immobile4 ,l'ablation d'un lobe crbral laisse la sensation1 le sens1 la sensibilit de la rtine1 la mobilit de l'iris2 elle ne dtruit que la perception seule4 ,dans un cas1 c'est un fait sensorial2 et1 dans l'autre1 un fait crbral2 dans un cas1 c'est la perte du sens2 dans l'autre1 c'est la perte de la perception4 ,la distinction des perceptions et des sensations est encore un grand rsultat2 et it est dmontr aux yeux4 ,il y a deux moyens de faire perdre la vision par l'encphale3 #a par les tubercules1 c'est la perte du sens1 de la sensation2 #b par les lobes1 c'est la perte de la perception1 de l'intelligence4 ,la sensibilit n'est donc pas l'intelligence2 penser n'est donc pas sentir2 et voil toute une philosophie renverse4 ,l'ide n'est donc pas la sensation2 et voil encore une autre preuve du vice radical de cette philosophie4 ,and again1 p4 #gg1 under the heading3 ,sparation de la ,sensibilit et de la ,perception3--,il y a une de mes expriences qui spare nettement la sensibilit de la perception4 ,quand on enlve le cerveau proprement dit 7lobes ou hmisphres crbraux7 un animal1 l'animal perd la vue4 ,mais1 par rapport a l'il1 rien n'est chang3 les objets continuent se peindre sur la rtine2 l'iris reste contractile1 le nerf optique sensible1 parfaitement sensible4 ,et cependant l'animal ne voit plus2 il n'y a plus vision1 quoique tout ce qui est sensation subsiste2 il n'y a plus vision1 parce qu'il n'y a plus perception4 ,le percevoir1 et non le sentir1 est donc le premier lment de l'intelligence4 ,la perception est partie de l'intelligence1 car elle se perd avec l'intelligence1 et par l'ablation du mme organe1 les lobes ou hmisphres crbraux2 et la sensibilit n'en est point partie1 puisqu'elle subsiste aprs la perte de l'intelligence et l'ablation des lobes ou hmisphres4 #he ,flourens1 ,de la vie et de l',intelligence1 #bnd edition1 ,paris1 ,garnier ,frres1 #aheb1 p4 #di4 ,the following famous verse of the ancient philosopher ,epicharmus1 proves that the ancients in general recognized the intellectual nature of perception3 4 7,mens videt1 mens audit2 ctera surda et cca47#hf ,plutarch in quoting this verse1 adds3#hg 1 1 7quia affectio oculorum et aurium nullum affert sensum1 intelligentia absente74 ,shortly before too he says3 1 ' 4 7,stratonis physici exstat ratiocinatio1 qua sine intelligentia sentiri omnino nihil posse demonstrat47#hh ,again shortly after he says3 1 1 1 1 7quare necesse est1 omnia1 qu sentiunt1 etiam intelligere1 siquidem intelligendo demum sentiamus74#hi ,a second verse of ,epicharmus might be connected with this1 which is quoted by ,diogenes ,laertes 7iii4 #af73 1 ' 1 ' 1 4 #hf ,it is the mind that sees and hears2 all besides is deaf and blind4 7,tr4 ,ad47 #hg ,plutarch1 ,de solert4 animal4 c4 #c4 ,for the affection of our eyes and ears does not produce any perception1 unless it be accompanied by thought4 7,tr4 ,ad47 #hh ,straton1 the physicist1 has proved that 'without thinking it is quite impossible to perceive4' 7,tr4 ,ad47 #hi ,therefore it is necessary that all who perceive should also think1 since we are so constituted as to perceive by means of thinking4 7,tr4 ,ad47 7,eumaee1 sapientia non uni tantum competit1 sed qucunque vivunt etiam intellectum habent47 ,porphyry likewise endeavours to show at length that all animals have understanding4#ij #ij ,porph4 ,de abstinentia1 iii4 #ba4 ,now1 that it should be so1 follows necessarily from the intellectual character of perception4 ,all animals1 even down to the very lowest1 must have ,understanding--that is1 knowledge of the causal law1 although they have it in very different degrees of delicacy and of clearness2 at any rate they must have as much of it as is required for perception by their senses2 for sensation without ,understanding would be not only a useless1 but a cruel gift of ,nature4 ,no one1 who has himself any intelligence1 can doubt the existence of it in the higher animals4 ,but at times it even becomes undeniably evident that their knowledge of causality is actually priori1 and that it does not arise from the habit of seeing one thing follow upon another4 ,a very young puppy will not1 for instance1 jump off a table1 because he foresees what would be the consequence4 ,not long ago ,i had some large curtains put up at my bed-room window1 which reached down to the floor1 and were drawn aside from the centre by means of a string4 ,the first morning they were opened ,i was surprised to see my dog1 a very intelligent poodle1 standing quite perplexed1 and looking upwards and sidewards for the cause of the phenomenon3 that is1 he was seeking for the change which he knew priori must have taken place4 ,next day the same thing happened again4--,but even the lowest animals have perception--consequently ,understanding--down to the aquatic polypus1 which has no distinct organs of sensation1 yet wanders from leaf to leaf on its waterplant1 while clinging to it with its feelers1 in search of more light4 ,nor is there1 indeed1 any difference1 beyond that of degree1 between this lowest ,understanding and that of man1 which we however distinctly separate from his ,reason4 ,the intermediate gradations are occupied by the various series of animals1 among which the highest1 such as the monkey1 the elephant1 the dog1 astonish us often by their intelligence4 ,but in every case the business of the ,understanding is invariably to apprehend directly causal relations3 first1 as we have seen1 those between our own body and other bodies1 whence proceeds objective perception2 then those between these objectively perceived bodies among themselves1 and here1 as has been shown in #bj1 the causal relation manifests itself in three forms--as cause1 as stimulus1 and as motive4 ,all movement in the world takes place according to these three forms of the causal relation1 and through them alone does the intellect comprehend it4 ,now1 if1 of these three1 causes1 in the narrowest sense of the word1 happen to be the object of investigation for the ,understanding1 it will produce ,astronomy1 ,mechanics1 ,physics1 ,chemistry1 and will invent machines for good and for evil2 but in all cases a direct1 intuitive apprehension of the causal connection will in the last resort lie at the bottom of all its discoveries4 ,for the sole form and function of the ,understanding is this apprehension1 and not by any means the complicated machinery of ,kant's twelve ,categories1 the nullity of which ,i have proved4--7,all comprehension is a direct1 consequently intuitive1 apprehension of the causal connection2 although this has to be reduced at once to abstract conceptions in order to be fixed4 ,to calculate therefore1 is not to understand1 and1 in itself1 calculation conveys no comprehension of things4 ,calculation deals exclusively with abstract conceptions of magnitudes1 whose mutual relations it determines4 ,by it we never attain the slightest comprehension of a physical process1 for this requires intuitive comprehension of space-relations1 by means of which causes take effect4 ,calculations have merely practical1 not theoretical1 value4 ,it may even be said that where calculation begins1 comprehension ceases2 for a brain occupied with numbers is1 as long as it calculates1 entirely estranged from the causal connection in physical processes1 being engrossed in purely abstract1 numerical conceptions4 ,the result1 however1 only shows us how much1 never what4 ,l'exprience et le calcul1 those watchwords of ,french physicists1 are not therefore by any means adequate for thorough insight47--,if1 again1 stimuli are the guides of the ,understanding1 it will produce ,physiology of ,plants and ,animals1 ,therapeutics1 and ,toxicology4 ,finally1 if it devotes itself to the study of motives1 the ,understanding will use them1 on the one hand1 theoretically1 to guide it in producing works on ,morality1 ,jurisprudence1 ,history1 ,politics1 and even ,dramatic and ,epic ,poetry2 on the other hand1 practically1 either merely to train animals1 or for the higher purpose of making human beings dance to its music1 when once it has succeeded in discovering which particular wire has to be pulled in order to move each puppet at its pleasure4 ,now1 with reference to the function which effects this1 it is quite immaterial whether the intellect turns gravitation ingeniously to account1 and makes it serve its purpose by stepping in just at the right time1 or whether it brings the collective or the individual propensities of men into play for its own ends4 ,in its practical application we call the ,understanding shrewdness or1 when used to outwit others1 cunning2 when its aims are very insignificant1 it is called slyness and1 if combined with injury to others1 craftiness4 ,in its purely theoretical application1 we call it simply ,understanding1 the higher degrees of which are named acumen1 sagacity1 discernment1 penetration1 while its lower degrees are termed dulness1 stupidity1 silliness1 c4 c4 ,these widely differing degrees of sharpness are innate1 and cannot be acquired2 although1 as ,i have already shown1 even in the earliest stages of the application of the ,understanding1 i4e4 in empirical perception1 practice and knowledge of the material to which it is applied1 are needed4 ,every simpleton has ,reason--give him the premisses1 and he will draw the conclusion2 whereas primary1 consequently intuitive1 knowledge is supplied by the ,understanding3 herein lies the difference4 ,the pith of every great discovery1 of every plan having universal historical importance1 is accordingly the product of a happy moment in which1 by a favourable coincidence of outer and inner circumstances1 some complicated causal series1 some hidden causes of phenomena which had been seen thousands of times before1 or some obscure1 untrodden paths1 suddenly reveal themselves to the intellect4-- ,by the preceding explanations of the processes in seeing and feeling1 ,i have incontestably shown that empirical perception is essentially the work of the ,understanding1 for which the material only is supplied by the senses in sensation--and a poor material it is1 on the whole2 so that the ,understanding is1 in fact1 the artist1 while the senses are but the under-workmen who hand it the materials4 ,but the process consists throughout in referring from given effects to their causes1 which by this process are enabled to present themselves as objects in ,space4 ,the very fact that we presuppose ,causality in this process1 proves precisely that this law must have been supplied by the ,understanding itself2 for it could never have found its way into the intellect from outside4 ,it is indeed the first condition of all empirical perception2 but this again is the form in which all external experience presents itself to us2 how then can this law of ,causality be derived from experience1 when it is itself essentially presupposed by experience8--,it was just because of the utter impossibility of this1 and because ,locke's philosophy had put an end to all priority1 that ,hume denied the whole reality of the conception of ,causality4 ,he had besides already mentioned two false hypotheses in the seventh section of his ,inquiry concerning the ,human ,understanding1 which recently have again been advanced3 the one1 that the effect of the will upon the members of our body2 the other1 that the resistance opposed to our pressure by outward objects1 is the origin and prototype of the conception of ,causality4 ,hume refutes both in his own way and according to his own order of ideas4 ,i argue as follows4 ,there is no causal connection whatever between acts of the will and actions of the body2 on the contrary1 both are immediately one and the same thing1 only perceived in a double aspect--that is1 on the one hand1 in our self-consciousness1 or inner sense1 as acts of the will2 on the other1 simultaneously in exterior1 spacial brain-perception1 as actions of the body4#ia ,the second hypothesis is false1 first because1 as ,i have already shown at length1 a mere sensation of touch does not yet give any objective perception whatever1 let alone the conception of ,causality1 which never can arise from the feeling of an impeded muscular effort3 besides impediments of this kind often occur without any external cause2 secondly1 because our pressing against an external object necessarily has a motive1 and this already presupposes apprehension of that object1 which again presupposes knowledge of ,causality4--,but the only means of radically proving the conception of ,causality to be independent of all experience was by showing1 as ,i have done1 that the whole possibility of experience is conditioned by the conception of ,causality4 ,in #bc ,i intend to show that ,kant's proof1 propounded with a similar intent1 is false4 #ia ,compare ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #crd edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #da4 ,the #crd edition of ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 contains at this place a supplement which is wanting in the #bnd edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ch4--,note by the ,editor of the #crd edition4 ,this is also the proper place for drawing attention to the fact1 that ,kant either did not clearly recognise in empirical perception the mediation of the causal law--which law is known to us before all experience--or that he intentionally evaded mentioning it1 because it did not suit his purpose4 ,in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 for instance1 the relation between causality and perception is not treated in the ,doctrine of ,elements1 but in the chapter on the ,paralogisms of ,pure ,reason1 where one would hardly expect to find it2 moreover it appears in his ,critique of the ,fourth ,paralogism of ,transcendental ,psychology1 and only in the first edition4#ib ,the very fact that this place should have been assigned to it1 shows that in considering this relation1 he always had the transition from the phenomenon to the thing in itself exclusively in view1 but not the genesis of perception itself4 ,here accordingly he says that the existence of a real external object is not given directly in perception1 but can be added to it in thought and thus inferred4 ,in ,kant's eyes1 however1 he who does this is a ,transcendental ,realist1 and consequently on a wrong road4 ,for by his outward object ,kant here means the thing in itself4 ,the ,transcendental ,idealist1 on the contrary1 stops short at the perception of something empirically real--that is1 of something existing outside us in ,space--without needing the inference of a cause to give it reality4 ,for perception1 according to ,kant1 is quite directly accomplished without any assistance from the causal nexus1 and consequently from the ,understanding3 he simply identifies perception with sensation4 ,this we find confirmed in the passage which begins1 ,with reference to the reality of external objects1 ,i need as little trust to inference1 c4 c4#ic and again in the sentence commencing with ,now we may well admit1 c4 c4#id ,it is quite clear from these passages that perception of external things in ,space1 according to ,kant1 precedes all application of the causal law1 therefore that the causal law does not belong to perception as an element and condition of it3 for him1 mere sensation is identical with perception4 ,only in as far as we ask what may1 in a transcendental sense1 exist outside of us3 that is1 when we ask for the thing in itself1 is ,causality mentioned as connected with perception4 ,moreover ,kant admits the existence1 nay1 the mere possibility1 of causality only in reflection3 that is1 in abstract1 distinct knowledge by means of conceptions2 therefore he has no suspicion that its application is anterior to all reflection1 which is nevertheless evidently the case1 especially in empirical1 sensuous perception which1 as ,i have proved irrefragably in the preceding analysis1 could never take place otherwise4 ,kant is therefore obliged to leave the genesis of empirical perception unexplained4 ,with him it is a mere matter of the senses1 given as it were in a miraculous way3 that is1 it coincides with sensation4 ,i should very much like my reflective readers to refer to the passages ,i have indicated in ,kant's work1 in order to convince themselves of the far greater accuracy of my view of the whole process and connection4 ,kant's extremely erroneous view has held its ground till now in philosophical literature1 simply because no one ventured to attack it2 therefore ,i have found it necessary to clear the way in order to throw light upon the mechanism of our knowledge4 #ib ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,v4 #ast edition1 p4 #cfg sqq4 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #cah sqq47 #ic ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern4 #ast edition1 p4 #cga4 7,english translation1 by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #cbb47 #id ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern4 #ast edition1 p4 #cgb4 7,english translation1 p4 #cbc47 ,kant's fundamental idealistic position loses nothing whatever1 nay1 it even gains by this rectification of mine1 in as far as1 with me1 the necessity of the causal law is absorbed and extinguished in empirical perception as its product and cannot therefore be invoked in behalf of an entirely transcendent question as to the thing in itself4 ,on referring to my theory above concerning empirical perception1 we find that its first datum1 sensation1 is absolutely subjective1 being a process within the organism1 because it takes place beneath the skin4 ,locke has completely and exhaustively proved1 that the feelings of our senses1 even admitting them to be roused by external causes1 cannot have any resemblance whatever to the qualities of those causes4 ,sugar1 for instance1 bears no resemblance at all to sweetness1 nor a rose to redness4 ,but that they should need an external cause at all1 is based upon a law whose origin lies demonstrably within us1 in our brain2 therefore this necessity is not less subjective than the sensations themselves4 ,nay1 even ,time--that primary condition of every possible change1 therefore also of the change which first permits the application of the causal law--and not less ,space--which alone renders the externalisation of causes possible1 after which they present themselves to us as objects--even ,time and ,space1 we say1 are subjective forms of the intellect1 as ,kant has conclusively proved4 ,accordingly we find all the elements of empirical perception lying within us1 and nothing contained in them which can give us reliable indications as to anything differing absolutely from ourselves1 anything in itself4--,but this is not all4 ,what we think under the conception matter1 is the residue which remains over after bodies have been divested of their shape and of all their specific qualities3 a residue1 which precisely on that account must be identical in all bodies4 ,now these shapes and qualities which have been abstracted by us1 are nothing but the peculiar1 specially defined way in which these bodies act1 which constitutes precisely their difference4 ,if therefore we leave these shapes and qualities out of consideration1 there remains nothing but mere activity in general1 pure action as such1 ,causality itself1 objectively thought--that is1 the reflection of our own ,understanding1 the externalised image of its sole function2 and ,matter is throughout pure ,causality1 its essence is ,action in general4#ie ,this is why pure ,matter cannot be perceived1 but can only be thought3 it is a something we add to every reality1 as its basis1 in thinking it4 ,for pure ,causality1 mere action1 without any defined mode of action1 cannot become perceptible1 therefore it cannot come within any experience4--,thus ,matter is only the objective correlate to pure ,understanding2 for it is ,causality in general1 and nothing else3 just as the ,understanding itself is direct knowledge of cause and effect1 and nothing else4 ,now this again is precisely why the law of causality is not applicable to ,matter itself3 that is to say1 ,matter has neither beginning nor end1 but is and remains permanent4 ,for as1 on the one hand1 ,causality is the indispensable condition of all alternation in the accidents 7forms and qualities7 of ,matter1 i4e4 of all passage in and out of being2 but as1 on the other hand1 ,matter is pure ,causality itself1 as such1 objectively viewed3 it is unable to exercise its own power upon itself1 just as the eye can see everything but itself4 ,substance and ,matter being moreover identical1 we may call ,substance1 action viewed in abstracto3 ,accidents1 particular modes of action1 action in concreto4--,now these are the results to which true1 i4e4 transcendental1 ,idealism leads4 ,in my chief work ,i have shown that the thing in itself--i4e4 whatever1 on the whole1 exists independently of our representation--cannot be got at by way of representation1 but that1 to reach it1 we must follow quite a different path1 leading through the inside of things1 which lets us into the citadel1 as it were1 by treachery4-- #ie ,compare ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #bnd edition2 vol4 i4 sect4 #d1 p4 #i2 and vol4 ii4 pp4 #dh1 #di 7#crd edition1 vol4 i4 p4 #aj2 vol4 ii4 p4 #eb74 ,english translation1 vol4 i4 pp4 #i-aj2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bah4 ,but it would be downright chicanery1 nothing else1 to try and compare1 let alone identify1 such an honest1 deep1 thorough analysis of empirical perception as the one ,i have just given1 which proves all the elements of perception to be subjective1 with ,fichte's algebraic equations of the ,ego and the ,non-,ego2 with his sophistical pseudo-demonstrations1 which in order to be able to deceive his readers had to be clothed in the obscure1 not to say absurd1 language adopted by him2 with his explanations of the way in which the ,ego spins the ,non-,ego out of itself2 in short1 with all the buffoonery of scientific emptiness4#if ,besides1 ,i protest altogether against any community with this ,fichte1 as ,kant publicly and emphatically did in a notice ad hoc in the ,jenaer ,litteratur ,zeitung4#ig ,hegelians and similar ignoramuses may continue to hold forth to their heart's content upon ,kant-,fichteian philosophy3 there exists a ,kantian philosophy and a ,fichteian hocus-pocus1--this is the true state of the case1 and will remain so1 in spite of those who delight in extolling what is bad and in decrying what is good1 and of these ,germany possesses a larger number than any other country4 #if ,wissenschaftsleere 7literally1 emptiness of science71 a pun of ,schopenhauer's on the title of ,fichte's ,wissenschaftslehre 7doctrine of science71 which cannot be rendered in ,english4 7,tr4's ,note47 #ig ,kant1 ,erklrung ber ,fichte's ,wissenschaftslehre4 ,see the ,intelligenzblatt of the ,jena ,literary ,gazette 7#agii71 ,no4 #aji4 #bb4 ,of the ,immediate ,object4 ,thus it is from the sensations of our body that we receive the data for the very first application of the causal law1 and it is precisely by that application that the perception of this class of objects arises4 ,they therefore have their essence and existence solely in virtue of the intellectual function thus coming into play1 and of its exercise4 ,now1 as far as it is the starting-point1 i4e4 the mediator1 for our perception of all other objects1 ,i have called the bodily organism1 in the first edition of the present work1 the ,immediate ,object2 this1 however1 must not be taken in a strictly literal sense4 ,for although our bodily sensations are all apprehended directly1 still this immediate apprehension does not yet make our body itself perceptible to us as an object2 on the contrary1 up to this point all remains subjective1 that is to say1 sensation4 ,from this sensation certainly proceeds the perception of all other objects as the causes of such sensations1 and these causes then present themselves to us as objects2 but it is not so with the body itself1 which only supplies sensations to consciousness4 ,it is only indirectly that we know even this body objectively1 i4e4 as an object1 by its presenting itself1 like all other objects1 as the recognised cause of a subjectively given effect--and precisely on this account objectively--in our ,understanding1 or brain 7which is the same74 ,now this can only take place when its own senses are acted upon by its parts3 for instance1 when the body is seen by the eye1 or felt by the hand1 c41 upon which data the brain 7or understanding7 forthwith constructs it as to shape and quality in space4--,the immediate presence in our consciousness of representations belonging to this class1 depends therefore upon the position assigned to them in the causal chain--by which all things are connected--relatively to the body 7for the time being7 of the ,subject--by which 7the ,subject7 all things are known4 #bc4 ,arguments against ,kant's ,proof of the priority of the conception of ,causality4 ,one of the chief objects of the ,critique of ,pure ,reason is to show the universal validity1 for all experience1 of the causal law1 its priority1 and1 as a necessary consequence of this1 its restriction to possible experience4 ,nevertheless1 ,i cannot assent to the proof there given of the priority of the principle1 which is substantially this3--,the synthesis of the manifold by the imagination1 which is necessary for all empirical knowledge1 gives succession1 but not yet determinate succession3 that is1 it leaves undetermined which of two states perceived was the first1 not only in my imagination1 but in the object itself4 ,but definite order in this succession--through which alone what we perceive becomes experience1 or1 in other words1 authorizes us to form objectively valid judgments--is first brought into it by the purely intellectual conception of cause and effect4 ,thus the principle of causal relation is the condition which renders experience possible1 and1 as such1 it is given us priori4#ih #ih ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern4 #ast edition1 p4 #bja2 #eth edition1 p4 #bdf4 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #agf47 ,this is1 however1 not a literal quotation4 7,tr4's note47 ,according to this1 the order in which changes succeed each other in real objects becomes known to us as objective only by their causality4 ,this assertion ,kant repeats and explains in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 especially in his ,second ,analogy of ,experience1#ii and again at the conclusion of his ,third ,analogy1 and ,i request every one who desires to understand what ,i am now about to say1 to read these passages4 ,in them he affirms everywhere that the objectivity of the succession of representations--which he defines as their correspondence with the succession of real objects--is only known through the rule by which they follow upon one another3 that is1 through the law of causality2 that my mere apprehension consequently leaves the objective relation between phenomena following one another quite undetermined3 since ,i merely apprehend the succession of my own representations1 but the succession in my apprehension does not authorize me to form any judgment whatever as to the succession in the object1 unless that judgment be based upon causality2 and since1 besides1 ,i might invert the order in which these perceptions follow each other in my apprehension1 there being nothing which determines them as objective4 ,to illustrate this assertion1 ,kant brings forward the instance of a house1 whose parts we may consider in any order we like1 from top to bottom1 or from bottom to top2 the determination of succession being in this case purely subjective and not founded upon an object1 because it depends upon our pleasure4 ,in opposition to this instance1 he brings forward the perception of a ship sailing down a river1 which we see successively lower and lower down the stream1 which perception of the successively varying positions of the ship cannot be changed by the looker-on4 ,in this latter case1 therefore1 he derives the subjective following in his own apprehension from the objective following in the phenomenon1 and on this account he calls it an event4 ,now ,i maintain1 on the contrary1 that there is no difference at all between these two cases1 that both are events1 and that our knowledge of both is objective3 that is to say1 it is knowledge of changes in real objects recognized as such by the ,subject4 ,both are changes of relative position in two bodies4 ,in the first case1 one of these bodies is a part of the observer's own organism1 the eye1 and the other is the house1 with respect to the different parts of which the eye successively alters its position4 ,in the second1 it is the ship which alters its position towards the stream2 therefore the change occurs between two bodies4 ,both are events1 the only difference being that1 in the first1 the change has its starting-point in the observer's own body1 from whose sensations undoubtedly all his perceptions originally proceed1 but which is nevertheless an object among objects1 and in consequence obeys the laws of the objective1 material world4 ,for the observer1 as a purely cognising individual1 any movement of his body is simply an empirically perceived fact4 ,it would be just as possible in the second as in the first instance1 to invert the order of succession in the change1 were it as easy for the observer to move the ship up the stream as to alter the direction of his own eyes4 ,for ,kant infers the successive perception of different parts of the house to be neither objective nor an event1 because it depends upon his own will4 ,but the movement of his eyes in the direction from roof to basement is one event1 and in the direction from basement to roof another event1 just as much as the sailing of the ship4 ,there is no difference whatever here1 nor is there any difference either1 as to their being or not being events1 between my passing a troop of soldiers and their passing me4 ,if we fix our eyes on a ship sailing close by the shore on which we are standing1 it soon seems as if it were the ship that stood still and the shore that moved4 ,now1 in this instance we are mistaken1 it is true1 as to the cause of the relative change of position1 since we attribute it to a wrong cause2 the real succession in the relative positions of our body towards the ship is nevertheless quite rightly and objectively recognised by us4 ,even ,kant himself would not have believed that there was any difference1 had he borne in mind that his own body was an object among objects1 and that the succession in his empirical perceptions depended upon the succession of the impressions received from other objects by his body1 and was therefore an objective succession3 that is to say1 one which takes place among objects directly 7if not indirectly7 and independently of the will of the ,subject1 and which may therefore be quite well recognised without any causal connection between the objects acting successively on his body4 #ii ,ibid4 p4 #ahi of the #ast edition2 more fully1 p4 #bcb of the #eth edition4 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #aff47 ,kant says1 ,time cannot be perceived2 therefore no succession of representations can be empirically perceived as objective3 i4e4 can be distinguished as changes in phenomena from the changes of mere subjective representations4 ,the causal law1 being a rule according to which states follow one another1 is the only means by which the objectivity of a change can be known4 ,now1 the result of his assertion would be1 that no succession in ,time could be perceived by us as objective1 excepting that of cause and effect1 and that every other succession of phenomena we perceive1 would only be determined so1 and not otherwise1 by our own will4 ,in contradiction to all this ,i must adduce the fact1 that it is quite possible for phenomena to follow upon one another without following from one another4 ,nor is the law of causality by any means prejudiced by this2 for it remains certain that each change is the effect of another change1 this being firmly established priori2 only each change not only follows upon the single one which is its cause1 but upon all the other changes which occur simultaneously with that cause1 and with which that cause stands in no causal connection whatever4 ,it is not perceived by me exactly in the regular order of causal succession1 but in quite a different order1 which is1 however1 no less objective on that account1 and which differs widely from any subjective succession depending on my caprice1 such as1 for instance1 the pictures of my imagination4 ,the succession1 in ,time1 of events which stand in no causal connection with each other is precisely what we call contingency4#ajj ,just as ,i am leaving my house1 a tile happens to fall from the roof which strikes me2 now1 there is no causal connection whatever between my going out and the falling of the tile2 yet the order of their succession--that is1 that my going out preceded the falling of the tile--is objectively determined in my apprehension1 not subjectively by my will1 by which that order would otherwise have most likely been inverted4 ,the order in which tones follow each other in a musical composition is likewise objectively determined1 not subjectively by me1 the listener2 yet who would think of asserting that musical tones follow one another according to the law of cause and effect8 ,even the succession of day and night is undoubtedly known to us as an objective one1 but we as certainly do not look upon them as causes and effects of one another2 and as to their common cause1 the whole world was in error till ,copernicus came2 yet the correct knowledge of their succession was not in the least disturbed by that error4 ,hume's hypothesis1 by the way1 also finds its refutation through this2 since the following of day and night upon each other--the most ancient of all successions and the one least liable to exception--has never yet misled anyone into taking them for cause and effect of each other4 #ajj ,in ,german ,zufall1 a word derived from the ,zusammenfallen 7falling together71 ,zusammentreffen 7meeting together71 or coinciding of what is unconnected1 just as from 4 7,compare ,aristotle1 ,anal4 post41 i4 #d47 ,elsewhere ,kant asserts1 that a representation only shows reality 7which1 ,i conclude1 means that it is distinguished from a mere mental image7 by our recognising its necessary connection with other representations subject to rule 7the causal law7 and its place in a determined order of the time-relations of our representations4 ,but of how few representations are we able to know the place assigned to them by the law of causality in the chain of causes and effects6 ,yet we are never embarrassed to distinguish objective from subjective representations3 real1 from imaginary objects4 ,when asleep1 we are unable to make this distinction1 for our brain is then isolated from the peripherical nervous system1 and thereby from external influences4 ,in our dreams therefore1 we take imaginary for real things1 and it is only when we awaken3 that is1 when our nervous sensibility1 and through this the outer world1 once more comes within our consciousness1 that we become aware of our mistake2 still1 even in our dreams1 so long as they last1 the causal law holds good1 only an impossible material is often substituted for the usual one4 ,we might almost think that ,kant was influenced by ,leibnitz in writing the passage we have quoted1 however much he differs from him in all the rest of his philosophy2 especially if we consider that ,leibnitz expresses precisely similar views1 when1 for instance1 he says3 ,la vrit des choses sensibles ne consiste que dans la liaison des phnomnes1 qui doit avoir sa raison1 et c'est ce qui les distingue des songes4 ---- ,le vrai ,critrion1 en matire des objets des sens1 est la liaison des phnomnes1 qui garantit les vrits de fait1 l'egard des choses sensibles hors de nous4#aja #aja ,leibnitz1 ,nouveaux ,essais sur l',entendement1 lib4 iv4 ch4 ii4 sect4 #ad4 ,it is clear that in proving the priority and the necessity of the causal law by the fact that the objective succession of changes is known to us only by means of that law1 and that1 in so far1 causality is a condition for all experience1 ,kant fell into a very singular error1 and one which is indeed so palpable1 that the only way we can account for it is1 by supposing him to have become so absorbed in the priori part of our knowledge1 that he lost sight of what would have been evident to anyone else4 ,the only correct demonstration of the priority of the causal law is given by me in #ba of the present work4 ,that priority finds its confirmation every moment in the infallible security with which we expect experience to tally with the causal law3 that is to say1 in the apodeictic certainty we ascribe to it1 a certainty which differs from every other founded on induction--the certainty1 for instance1 of empirically known laws of ,nature--in that we can conceive no exception to the causal law anywhere within the world of experience4 ,we can1 for instance1 conceive that in an exceptional case the law of gravitation might cease to act1 but not that this could happen without a cause4 ,kant and ,hume have fallen into opposite errors in their proofs4 ,hume asserts that all consequence is mere sequence2 whereas ,kant affirms that all sequence must necessarily be consequence4 ,pure ,understanding1 it is true1 can only conceive consequence 7causal result71 and is no more able to conceive mere sequence than to conceive the difference between right and left1 which1 like sequence1 is only to be grasped by means of pure ,sensibility4 ,empirical knowledge of the following of events in ,time is1 indeed1 just as possible as empirical knowledge of juxtaposition of things in ,space 7this ,kant denies elsewhere71 but the way in which things follow upon one another in general in ,time can no more be explained1 than the way in which one thing follows from another 7as the effect of a cause73 the former knowledge is given and conditioned by pure ,sensibility2 the latter1 by pure ,understanding4 ,but in asserting that knowledge of the objective succession of phenomena can only be attained by means of the causal law1 ,kant commits the same error with which he reproaches ,leibnitz3#ajb that of intellectualising the forms of ,sensibility4--,my view of succession is the following one4 ,we derive our knowledge of the bare possibility of succession from the form of ,time1 which belongs to pure ,sensibility4 ,the succession of real objects1 whose form is precisely ,time1 we know empirically1 consequently as actual4 ,but it is through the ,understanding alone1 by means of ,causality1 that we gain knowledge of the necessity of a succession of two states3 that is1 of a change2 and even the fact that we are able to conceive the necessity of a succession at all1 proves already that the causal law is not known to us empirically1 but given us priori4 ,the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is the general expression for the fundamental form of the necessary connection between all our objects1 i4e4 representations1 which lies in the innermost depths of our cognitive faculty3 it is the form common to all representations1 and the only source of the conception of necessity1 which contains absolutely nothing else in it and no other import1 than that of the following of the consequence1 when its reason has been established4 ,now1 the reason why this principle determines the order of succession in ,time in the class of representations we are now investigating1 in which it figures as the law of causality1 is1 that ,time is the form of these representations1 therefore the necessary connection appears here as the rule of succession4 ,in other forms of the principle of sufficient reason1 the necessary connection it always demands will appear under quite different forms from that of ,time1 therefore not as succession2 still it always retains the character of a necessary connection1 by which the identity of the principle under all its forms1 or rather the unity of the root of all the laws of which that principle is the common expression1 reveals itself4 #ajb ,kant1 ,kritik d4 r4 ,vern4 #ast edition1 p4 #bge2 #eth edition1 p4 #cca4 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #bcf47 ,if ,kant's assertion were correct1 which ,i dispute1 our only way of knowing the reality of succession would be through its necessity2 but this would presuppose an ,understanding that embraced all the series of causes and effects at once1 consequently an omniscient ,understanding4 ,kant has burdened the ,understanding with an impossibility1 merely in order to have less need of ,sensibility4 ,how can we reconcile ,kant's assertion that our only means of knowing the objective reality of succession is by the necessity with which effect follows cause1 with his other assertion#ajc that succession in ,time is our only empirical criterion for determining which of two states is cause1 and which effect4 ,who does not see the most obvious circle here8 #ajc ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern4 vol4 i4 p4 #bjc of the #ast edition2 p4 #bdi of the #eth edition4 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #agh47 ,if we knew objectiveness of succession through ,causality1 we should never be able to think it otherwise than as ,causality1 and then it would be nothing else than ,causality4 ,for1 if it were anything else1 it would have other distinctive signs by which to be recognised2 now this is just what ,kant denies4 ,accordingly1 if ,kant were right1 we could not say3 ,this state is the effect of that one1 wherefore it follows it2 for following and being an effect1 would be one and the same thing1 and this proposition a tautology4 ,besides1 if we do away with all distinction between following upon and following from1 we once more yield the point to ,hume1 who declared all consequence to be mere sequence and therefore denied that distinction likewise4 ,kant's proof would1 consequently1 be reduced to this3 that1 empirically1 we only know actuality of succession2 but as besides we recognise necessity of succession in certain series of occurrences1 and even know before all experience that every possible occurrence must have a fixed place in some one of these series1 the reality and the priority of the causal law follow as a matter of course1 the only correct proof of the latter being the one ,i have given in #ba of this work4 ,parallel with the ,kantian theory3 that the causal nexus alone renders objective succession and our knowledge of it possible1 there runs another3 that coexistence and our knowledge of it are only possible through reciprocity4 ,in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason they are presented under the title3 ,third ,analogy of ,experience4 ,here ,kant goes so far as to say that the co-existence of phenomena1 which exercise no reciprocal action on one another1 but are separated by a perfectly empty space1 could never become an object of possible perception#ajd 7which1 by the way1 would be a proof priori that there is no empty space between the fixed stars71 and that the light which plays between our eyes and celestial bodies--an expression conveying surreptitiously the thought1 that this starlight not only acts upon our eyes1 but is acted upon by them also--produces an intercommunity between us and them1 and proves the co-existence of the latter4 ,now1 even empirically1 this last assertion is false2 since the sight of a fixed star by no means proves its coexistence simultaneously with its spectator1 but1 at most1 its existence some years1 nay even some centuries before4 ,besides1 this second ,kantian theory stands and falls with the first1 only it is far more easily detected2 and the nullity of the whole conception of reciprocity has been shown in #bj4 #ajd ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern4 pp4 #bab and #bac of the #ast edition4 7,english translation1 pp4 #ahe and #ahf47 ,the arguments ,i have brought forward against ,kant's proof may be compared with two previous attacks made on it by ,feder1#aje and by ,g4 ,e4 ,schulze4#ajf #aje ,feder1 ,ueber ,raum und ,causalitt4 sect4 #bi4 #ajf ,g4 ,e4 ,schulze1 ,kritik der theoretischen ,philosophie1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dbb sqq4 ,not without considerable hesitation did ,i thus venture 7in #ahac7 to attack a theory which had been universally received as a demonstrated truth1 is repeated even now in the latest publications1#ajg and forms a chief point in the doctrine of one for whose profound wisdom ,i have the greatest reverence and admiration2 one to whom1 indeed1 ,i owe so much1 that his spirit might truly say to me1 in the words of ,homer3 ' ' 1 4#ajh #ajg ,for instance1 in ,fries' ,kritik der ,vernunft1 vol4 ii4 p4 #he4 #ajh ,i lifted from thine eyes the darkness which covered them before4 7,tr4's ,ad47 #bd4 ,of the ,misapplication of the ,law of ,causality4 ,from the foregoing exposition it follows1 that the application of the causal law to anything but changes in the material1 empirically given world1 is an abuse of it4 ,for instance1 it is a misapplication to make use of it with reference to physical forces1 without which no changes could take place2 or to ,matter1 on which they take place2 or to the world1 to which we must in that case attribute an absolutely objective existence independently of our intellect2 indeed in many other cases besides4 ,i refer the reader to what ,i have said on this subject in my chief work4#aji ,such misapplications always arise1 partly1 through our taking the conception of cause1 like many other metaphysical and ethical conceptions1 in far too wide a sense2 partly1 through our forgetting that the causal law is certainly a presupposition which we bring with us into the world1 by which the perception of things outside us becomes possible2 but that1 just on that account1 we are not authorized in extending beyond the range and independently of our cognitive faculty a principle1 which has its origin in the equipment of that faculty1 nor in assuming it to hold good as the everlasting order of the universe and of all that exists4 #aji ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #bnd edition1 vol4 ii4 ch4 iv4 p4 #db et seqq42 #crd edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #df et seqq4 #be4 ,the ,time in which a ,change takes place4 ,as the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,becoming is exclusively applicable to changes1 we must not omit to mention here1 that the ancient philosophers had already raised the question as to the time in which a change takes place1 there being no possibility of it taking place during the existence of the preceding state nor after the new one has supervened4 ,yet1 if we assign a special time to it between both states1 a body would1 during this time1 be neither in the first nor in the second state3 a dying man1 for instance1 would be neither alive nor dead2 a body neither at rest nor in movement3 which would be absurd4 ,the scruples and sophistic subtleties which this question has evoked1 may be found collected together in ,sextus ,empiricus ,adv4 ,mathem4 lib4 ix4 #bfg-bga1 and ,hypat4 iii4 c4 #ad2 the subject is likewise dealt with by ,gellius1 l4 vi4 c4 #ac--,plato#aaj had disposed somewhat cavalierly of this knotty point1 by maintaining that changes take place suddenly and occupy no time at all2 they occur1 he says1 in the 7in repentino71 which he calls an 1 2 a strange1 timeless existence 7which nevertheless comes within ,time74 #aaj ,plato1 ,parmenides1 p4 #ach1 ed4 ,bip4 ,it was accordingly reserved for the perspicacity of ,aristotle to clear up this difficult point1 which he has done profoundly and exhaustively in the sixth ,book of ,physics1 chap4 i4-viii4 ,his proof that no change takes place suddenly 7in ,plato's 71 but that each occurs only gradually and therefore occupies a certain time1 is based entirely upon the pure1 priori intuition of ,time and of ,space2 but it is also very subtle4 ,the pith of this very lengthy demonstration may1 however1 be reduced to the following propositions4 ,when we say of objects that they limit each other1 we mean1 that both have their extreme ends in common2 therefore only two extended things can be conterminous1 never two indivisible ones1 for then they would be one--i4e4 only lines1 but not mere points1 can be conterminous4 ,he then transfers this from ,space to ,time4 ,as there always remains a line between two points1 so there always remains a time between two nows2 this is the time in which a change takes place--i4e4 when one state is in the first1 and another in the second1 now4 ,this time1 like every other1 is divisible to infinity2 consequently1 whatever is changing passes through an infinite number of degrees within that time1 through which the second state gradually grows out of that first one4--,the process may perhaps be made more intelligible by the following explanation4 ,between two consecutive states the difference of which is perceptible to our senses1 there are always several intermediate states1 the difference between which is not perceptible to us2 because1 in order to be sensuously perceptible1 the newly arising state must have reached a certain degree of intensity or of magnitude3 it is therefore preceded by degrees of lesser intensity or extension1 in passing through which it gradually arises4 ,taken collectively1 these are comprised under the name of change1 and the time occupied by them is called the time of change4 ,now1 if we apply this to a body being propelled1 the first effect is a certain vibration of its inner parts1 which1 after communicating the impulse to other parts1 breaks out into external motion4--,aristotle infers quite rightly from the infinite divisibility of ,time1 that everything which fills it1 therefore every change1 i4e4 every passage from one state to another1 must likewise be susceptible of endless subdivision1 so that all that arises1 does so in fact by the concourse of an infinite multitude of parts2 accordingly its genesis is always gradual1 never sudden4 ,from these principles and the consequent gradual arising of each movement1 he draws the weighty inference in the last chapter of this ,book1 that nothing indivisible1 no mere point can move4 ,and with this conclusion ,kant's definition of ,matter1 as that which moves in ,space1 completely harmonizes4 ,this law of the continuity and gradual taking place of all changes which ,aristotle was thus the first to lay down and prove1 we find stated three times by ,kant3 in his ,dissertatio de mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis forma1 #ad1 in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1#aaa and finally in his ,metaphysical ,first ,principles of ,natural ,science4#aab ,in all three places his exposition is brief1 but also less thorough than that of ,aristotle2 still1 in the main1 both entirely agree4 ,we can therefore hardly doubt that1 directly or indirectly1 ,kant must have derived these ideas from ,aristotle1 though he does not mention him4 ,aristotle's proposition-- 7the moments of the present are not continuous7--we here find expressed as follows3 between two moments there is always a time1 to which may be objected that even between two centuries there is none2 because in ,time as in ,space1 there must always be a pure limit4--,thus ,kant1 instead of mentioning ,aristotle1 endeavours in the first and earliest of his three statements to identify the theory he is advancing with ,leibnitz' lex continuitatis4 ,if they really were the same1 ,leibnitz must have derived his from ,aristotle4 ,now ,leibnitz#aac first stated this ,loi de la continuit in a letter to ,bayle4#aad ,there1 however1 he calls it ,principe de l'ordre gnral1 and gives under this name a very general1 vague1 chiefly geometrical argumentation1 having no direct bearing on the time of change1 which he does not even mention4 #aaa ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern4 #ast edition1 p4 #bjg2 #eth edition1 p4 #bec4 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #ahb47 #aab ,kant1 ,metaphysische ,anfangsgrnde der ,naturwissenschaft4 ,end of the ,allgemeine ,anmerkung zur ,mechanik4 #aac ,according to his own assertion1 p4 #ahi of the ,opera philos4 ed4 ,erdmann4 #aad ,ibid4 p4 #ajd4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,on ,,the ,,second ,,class ,,of ,,objects ,,for ,,the ,,subject ,,and ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason ,,which ,,predominates ,,in ,,it4 #bf4 ,explanation of this ,class of ,objects4 ,the only essential distinction between the human race and animals1 which from time immemorial has been attributed to a special cognitive faculty peculiar to mankind1 called ,reason1 is based upon the fact that man owns a class of representations which is not shared by any animal4 ,these are conceptions1 therefore abstract1 as opposed to intuitive1 representations1 from which they are nevertheless derived4 ,the immediate consequence of this is1 that animals can neither speak nor laugh2 but indirectly all those various1 important characteristics which distinguish human from animal life are its consequence4 ,for1 through the supervention of abstract representation1 motivation has now changed its character4 ,although human actions result with a necessity no less rigorous than that which rules the actions of animals1 yet through this new kind of motivation--so far as here it consists in thoughts which render elective decision 7i4e4 a conscious conflict of motives7 possible--action with a purpose1 with reflection1 according to plans and principles1 in concert with others1 c4 c41 now takes the place of mere impulse given by present1 perceptible objects2 but by this it gives rise to all that renders human life so rich1 so artificial1 and so terrible1 that man1 in this ,western ,hemisphere1 where his skin has become bleached1 and where the primitive1 true1 profound religions of his first home could not follow him1 now no longer recognises animals as his brethren1 and falsely believes them to differ fundamentally from him1 seeking to confirm this illusion by calling them brutes1 giving degrading names to the vital functions which they have in common with him1 and proclaiming them outlaws2 and thus he hardens his heart against that identity of being between them and himself1 which is nevertheless constantly obtruding itself upon him4 ,still1 as we have said1 the whole difference lies in this--that1 besides the intuitive representations examined in the last chapter1 which are shared by animals1 other1 abstract representations derived from these intuitive ones1 are lodged in the human brain1 which is chiefly on this account so much larger than that of animals4 ,representations of this sort have been called conceptions1#aae because each comprehends innumerable individual things in1 or rather under1 itself1 and thus forms a complex4#aaf ,we may also define them as representations drawn from representations4 ,for1 in forming them1 the faculty of abstraction decomposes the complete1 intuitive representations described in our last chapter into their component parts1 in order to think each of these parts separately as the different qualities of1 or relations between1 things4 ,by this process1 however1 the representations necessarily forfeit their perceptibility2 just as water1 when decomposed1 ceases to be fluid and visible4 ,for although each quality thus isolated 7abstracted7 can quite well be thought by itself1 it does not at all follow that it can be perceived by itself4 ,we form conceptions by dropping a good deal of what is given us in perception1 in order to be able to think the rest by itself4 ,to conceive therefore1 is to think less than we perceive4 ,if1 after considering divers objects of perception1 we drop something different belonging to each1 yet retain what is the same in all1 the result will be the genus of that species4 ,the generic conception is accordingly always the conception of every species comprised under it1 after deducting all that does not belong to every species4 ,now1 as every possible conception may be thought as a genus1 a conception is always something general1 and as such1 not perceptible4 ,every conception has on this account also its sphere1 as the sum-total#aag of what may be thought under it4 ,the higher we ascend in abstract thought1 the more we deduct1 the less therefore remains to be thought4 ,the highest1 i4e4 the most general conceptions1 are the emptiest and poorest1 and at last become mere husks1 such as1 for instance1 being1 essence1 thing1 becoming1 c4 c4--,of what avail1 by the way1 can philosophical systems be1 which are only spun out of conceptions of this sort and have for their substance mere flimsy husks of thoughts like these8 ,they must of necessity be exceedingly empty1 poor1 and therefore also dreadfully tiresome4 #aae ,begriff1 comprehensive thought1 derived from begreifen1 to comprehend4 ,tr4 #aaf ,inbegriff1 comprehensive totality4 ,tr4 #aag ,inbegriff4 ,now as representations1 thus sublimated and analysed to form abstract conceptions1 have1 as we have said1 forfeited all perceptibility1 they would entirely escape our consciousness1 and be of no avail to it for the thinking processes to which they are destined1 were they not fixed and retained in our senses by arbitrary signs4 ,these signs are words4 ,in as far as they constitute the contents of dictionaries and therefore of language1 words always designate general representations1 conceptions1 never perceptible objects2 whereas a lexicon which enumerates individual things1 only contains proper names1 not words1 and is either a geographical or historical dictionary3 that is to say1 it enumerates what is separated either by ,time or by ,space2 for1 as my readers know1 ,time and ,space are the principium individuationis4 ,it is only because animals are limited to intuitive representations and incapable of any abstraction--incapable therefore of forming conceptions--that they are without language1 even when they are able to articulate words2 whereas they understand proper names4 ,that it is this same defect which excludes them from laughter1 ,i have shown in my theory of the ridiculous4#aah #aah ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 i4 sect4 #ac1 and vol4 ii4 ch4 #h4 ,on analyzing a long1 continuous speech made by a man of no education1 we find in it an abundance of logical forms1 clauses1 turns of phrase1 distinctions1 and subtleties of all sorts1 correctly expressed by means of grammatical forms with their inflections and constructions1 and even with a frequent use of the sermo obliquus1 of the different moods1 c4 c41 all in conformity with rule1 which astonishes us1 and in which we are forced to recognise an extensive and perfectly coherent knowledge4 ,still this knowledge has been acquired on the basis of the perceptible world1 the reduction of whose whole essence to abstract conceptions is the fundamental business of the ,reason1 and can only take place by means of language4 ,in learning the use of language therefore1 the whole mechanism of ,reason--that is1 all that is essential in ,logic--is brought to our consciousness4 ,now this can evidently not take place without considerable mental effort and fixed attention1 for which the desire to learn gives children the requisite strength4 ,so long as that desire has before it what is really available and necessary1 it is vigorous1 and it only appears weak when we try to force upon children that which is not suited to their comprehension4 ,thus even a coarsely educated child1 in learning all the turns and subtleties of language1 as well through its own conversation as that of others1 accomplishes the development of its ,reason1 and acquires that really concrete ,logic1 which consists less in logical rules than in the proper application of them2 just as the rules of harmony are learnt by persons of musical talent simply by playing the piano1 without reading music or studying thorough-bass4--,the deaf and dumb alone are excluded from the above-mentioned logical training through the acquirement of speech2 therefore they are almost as unreasonable as animals1 when they have not been taught to read by the very artificial means specially adapted for their requirements1 which takes the place of the natural schooling of ,reason4 #bg4 ,the ,utility of ,conceptions4 ,the fundamental essence of our ,reason or thinking faculty is1 as we have seen1 the power of abstraction1 or the faculty of forming conceptions3 it is therefore the presence of these in our consciousness which produces such amazing results4 ,that it should be able to do this1 rests mainly on the following grounds4 ,it is just because they contain less than the representations from which they are drawn1 that conceptions are easier to deal with than representations2 they are1 in fact1 to these almost as the formula of higher arithmetic to the mental operations which give rise to them and which they represent1 or as a logarithm to its number4 ,they only contain just the part required of the many representations from which they are drawn2 if instead we were to try to recall those representations themselves by means of the imagination1 we should1 as it were1 have to lug about a load of unessential lumber1 which would only embarrass us2 whereas1 by the help of conceptions1 we are enabled to think only those parts and relations of all these representations which are wanted for each individual purpose3 so that their employment may be compared to doing away with superfluous luggage1 or to working with extracts instead of plants themselves--with quinine1 instead of bark4 ,what is properly called thinking1 in its narrowest sense1 is the occupation of the intellect with conceptions3 that is1 the presence in our consciousness of the class of representations we now have before us4 ,this is also what we call reflection3 a word which1 by a figure of speech borrowed from ,optics1 expresses at once the derivative and the secondary character of this kind of knowledge4 ,now it is this thinking1 this reflection1 which gives man that deliberation1 which is wanting in animals4 ,for1 by enabling him to think many things under one conception1 but always only the essential part in each of them1 it allows him to drop at his pleasure every kind of distinction1 consequently even those of ,time and of ,space1 and thus he acquires the power of embracing in thought1 not only the past and the future1 but also what is absent2 while animals are in every respect strictly bound to the present4 ,this deliberative faculty again is really the root of all those theoretical and practical achievements which give man so great a superiority over animals2 first and foremost1 of his care for the future while taking the past into consideration2 then of his premeditated1 systematic1 methodical procedure in all undertakings1 and therefore of the co-operation of many persons towards a common end1 and1 by this1 of law1 order1 the ,state1 c4 c4--,but it is especially in ,science that the use of conceptions is important2 for they are1 properly speaking1 its materials4 ,the aims of all the sciences may1 indeed1 in the last resort1 be reduced to knowledge of the particular through the general2 now this is only possible by means of the dictum de omni et nullo1 and this1 again1 is only possible through the existence of conceptions4 ,aristotle therefore says3 #aai 7absque universalibus enim non datur scientia74 ,conceptions are precisely those universalia1 whose mode of existence formed the argument of the long controversy between the ,realists and ,nominalists in the ,middle ,ages4 #aai ,aristot4 ,metaph4 xii4 c4 #i1 ,for without universals it is impossible to have knowledge4 7,tr4's ,add47 #bh4 ,representatives of ,conceptions4 ,the ,faculty of ,judgment4 ,conceptions must not be confounded with pictures of the imagination1 these being intuitive and complete1 therefore individual representations1 although they are not called forth by sensuous impressions and do not therefore belong to the complex of experience4 ,even when used to represent a conception1 a picture of the imagination 7phantasm7 ought to be distinguished from a conception4 ,we use phantasms as representatives of conceptions when we try to grasp the intuitive representation itself that has given rise to the conception and to make it tally with that conception1 which is in all cases impossible2 for there is no representation1 for instance1 of dog in general1 colour in general1 triangle in general1 number in general1 nor is there any picture of the imagination which corresponds to these conceptions4 ,then we evoke the phantasm of some dog or other1 which1 as a representation1 must in all cases be determined3 that is1 it must have a certain size1 shape1 colour1 c4 c42 even though the conception represented by it has no such determinations4 ,when we use such representatives of conceptions however1 we are always conscious that they are not adequate to the conceptions they represent1 and that they are full of arbitrary determinations4 ,towards the end of the first part of his ,twelfth ,essay on ,human ,understanding1 ,hume expresses himself in agreement with this view1 as also ,rousseau in his ,discours sur l',origine de l',ingalit4#abj ,kant's doctrine1 on the contrary1 is a totally different one4 ,the matter is one which introspection and clear reflection can alone decide4 ,each of us must therefore examine himself as to whether he is conscious in his own conceptions of a ,monogram of ,pure ,imagination priori2 whether1 for instance1 when he thinks dog1 he is conscious of something entre chien et loup2 or whether1 as ,i have here explained it1 he is either thinking an abstract conception through his ,reason1 or representing some representative of that conception as a complete picture through his imagination4 #abj ,part the ,first1 in the middle4 ,all thinking1 in a wider sense3 that is1 all inner activity of the mind in general1 necessitates either words or pictures of the imagination3 without one or other of these it has nothing to hold by4 ,they are not1 however1 both necessary at the same time1 although they may co-operate to their mutual support4 ,now1 thinking in a narrower sense--that is1 abstract reflection by means of words--is either purely logical reasoning1 in which case it keeps strictly to its own sphere2 or it touches upon the limits of perceptible representations in order to come to an understanding with them1 so as to bring that which is given by experience and grasped by perception into connection with abstract conceptions resulting from clear reflection1 and thus to gain complete possession of it4 ,in thinking therefore1 we seek either for the conception or rule to which a given perception belongs1 or for the particular case which proves a given conception or rule4 ,in this quality1 thinking is an activity of the faculty of judgment1 and indeed in the first case a reflective1 in the second1 a subsuming activity4 ,the faculty of judgment is accordingly the mediator between intuitive and abstract knowledge1 or between the ,understanding and the ,reason4 ,in most men it has merely rudimentary1 often even merely nominal existence2#aba they are destined to follow the lead of others1 and it is as well not to converse with them more than is necessary4 #aba ,let any one to whom this assertion may appear hyperbolical1 consider the fate of ,gthe's ,theory of ,colours 7,farbenlehre71 and should he wonder at my finding a corroboration for it in that fate1 he will himself have corroborated it a second time4 ,the true kernel of all knowledge is that reflection which works with the help of intuitive representations2 for it goes back to the fountain-head1 to the basis of all conceptions4 ,therefore it generates all really original thoughts1 all primary and fundamental views and all inventions1 so far as chance had not the largest share in them4 ,the ,understanding prevails in this sort of thinking1 whilst the ,reason is the chief factor in purely abstract reflection4 ,certain thoughts which wander about for a long time in our heads1 belong to this sort of reflection3 thoughts which come and go1 now clothed in one kind of intuition1 now in another1 until they at last become clear1 fix themselves in conceptions and find words to express them4 ,some1 indeed1 never find words to express them1 and these are1 unfortunately1 the best of all3 qu voce meliora sunt1 as ,apuleius says4 ,aristotle1 however1 went too far in thinking that no reflection is possible without pictures of the imagination4 ,nevertheless1 what he says on this point1#abb 7anima sine phantasmate nunquam intelligit71#abc and 1 7qui contemplatur1 necesse est1 una cum phantasmate contempletur71#abd and again1 7fieri non potest1 ut sine phantasmate quidquam intelligatur71#abe--made a strong impression upon the thinkers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 who therefore frequently and emphatically repeat what he says4 ,pico della ,mirandola1#abf for instance1 says3 ,necesse est1 eum1 qui ratiocinatur et intelligit1 phantasmata speculari2--,melanchthon#abg says3 ,oportet intelligentem phantasmata speculari2--and ,jord4 ,brunus#abh says1 dicit ,aristoteles3 oportet scire volentem1 phantasmata speculari4 ,pomponatius#abi expresses himself in the same sense4--,on the whole1 all that can be affirmed is1 that every true and primary notion1 every genuine philosophic theorem even1 must have some sort of intuitive view for its innermost kernel or root4 ,this1 though something momentary#acj and single1 subsequently imparts life and spirit to the whole analysis1 however exhaustive it may be1--just as one drop of the right reagent suffices to tinge a whole solution with the colour of the precipitate which it causes4 ,when an analysis has a kernel of this sort1 it is like a bank note issued by a firm which has ready money wherewith to back it2 whereas every other analysis proceeding from mere combinations of abstract conceptions1 resembles a bank note which is issued by a firm which has nothing but other paper obligations to back it with4 ,all mere rational talk thus renders the result of given conceptions clearer1 but does not1 strictly speaking1 bring anything new to light4 ,it might therefore be left to each individual to do himself1 instead of filling whole volumes every day4 #abb ,aristot4 ,de anima1 iii4 c4 c4 #c1 #g1 #h4 #abc ,the mind never thinks without 7the aid of7 an image4 ,tr4 #abd ,he who observes anything must observe some image along with it4 ,tr4 #abe ,de ,memoria1 c4 #a3 ,it is impossible to think without 7the aid of7 an image4 #abf ,de imaginatione1 c4 #e4 #abg ,de anima1 p4 #acj4 #abh ,de compositione imaginum1 p4 #aj4 #abi ,de immortalitate1 pp4 #ed et #gj4 #acj ,ein ,momentanes end ,einheitliches4 #bi4 ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,knowing4 ,but1 even in a narrower sense1 thinking does not consist in the bare presence of abstract conceptions in our consciousness1 but rather in connecting or separating two or more of these conceptions under sundry restrictions and modifications which ,logic indicates in the ,theory of ,judgments4 ,a relation of this sort between conceptions distinctly thought and expressed we call a judgment4 ,now1 with reference to these judgments1 the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason here once more holds good1 yet in a widely different form from that which has been explained in the preceding chapter2 for here it appears as the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,knowing1 principium rationis sufficientis cognoscendi4 ,as such1 it asserts that if a judgment is to express knowledge of any kind1 it must have a sufficient reason3 in virtue of which quality it then receives the predicate true4 ,thus truth is the reference of a judgment to something different from itself1 called its reason or ground1 which reason1 as we shall presently see1 itself admits of a considerable variety of kinds4 ,as1 however1 this reason is invariably a something upon which the judgment rests1 the ,german term for it1 viz41 ,grund1 is not ill chosen4 ,in ,latin1 and in all languages of ,latin origin1 the word by which a reason of knowledge is designated1 is the same as that used for the faculty of ,reason 7ratiocinatio73 both are called ratio1 la ragione1 la razon1 la raison1 the reason4 ,from this it is evident1 that attaining knowledge of the reasons of judgments had been recognised as ,reason's highest function1 its business ' 4 ,now1 these grounds upon which a judgment may rest1 may be divided into four different kinds1 and the truth obtained by that judgment will correspondingly differ4 ,they are stated in the following paragraph4 #cj4 ,logical ,truth4 ,a judgment may have for its reason another judgment2 in this case it has logical or formal truth4 ,whether it has material truth also1 remains an open question and depends on whether the judgment on which it rests has material truth1 or whether the series of judgments on which it is founded leads to a judgment which has material truth1 or not4 ,this founding of a judgment upon another judgment always originates in a comparison between them which takes place either directly1 by mere conversion or contraposition1 or by adding a third judgment1 and then the truth of the judgment we are founding becomes evident through their mutual relation4 ,this operation is the complete syllogism4 ,it is brought about either by the opposition or by the subsumption of conceptions4 ,as the syllogism1 which is the founding of one judgment upon another by means of a third1 never has to do with anything but judgments2 and as judgments are only combinations of conceptions1 and conceptions again are the exclusive object of our ,reason3 syllogizing has been rightly called ,reason's special function4 ,the whole syllogistic science1 in fact1 is nothing but the sum-total of the rules for applying the principle of sufficient reason to the mutual relations of judgments2 consequently it is the canon of logical truth4 ,judgments1 whose truth becomes evident through the four well-known laws of thinking1 must likewise be regarded as based upon other judgments2 for these four laws are themselves precisely judgments1 from which follows the truth of those other judgments4 ,for instance1 the judgment3 ,a triangle is a space enclosed within three lines1 has for its last reason the ,principle of ,identity1 that is to say1 the thought expressed by that principle4 ,the judgment1 ,no body is without extension1 has for its last reason the ,principle of ,contradiction4 ,this again1 ,every judgment is either true or untrue1 has for its last reason the ,principle of the ,excluded ,middle2 and finally1 ,no one can admit anything to be true without knowing why1 has for its last reason the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,knowing4 ,in the general employment of our ,reason1 we do not1 it is true1 before admitting them to be true1 reduce judgments which follow from the four laws of thinking to their last reasons1 as premisses2 for most men are even ignorant of the very existence of these abstract laws4 ,the dependence of such judgments upon them1 as their premisses1 is however no more diminished by this1 than the dependence of the first judgment upon the second1 as its premiss1 is diminished by the fact1 that it is not at all necessary for the principle1 all bodies incline towards the centre of the earth1 to be present in the consciousness of any one who says1 this body will fall if its support is removed4 ,that in ,logic1 therefore1 intrinsic truth should hitherto have been attributed to all judgments founded exclusively on the four laws of thinking3 that is to say1 that these judgments should have been pronounced directly true1 and that this intrinsic logical truth should have been distinguished from extrinsic logical truth1 as attributed to all judgments which have another judgment for their reason1 ,i cannot approve4 ,every truth is the reference of a judgment to something outside of it1 and the term intrinsic truth is a contradiction4 #ca4 ,empirical ,truth4 ,a judgment may be founded upon a representation of the first class1 i4e4 a perception by means of the senses1 consequently on experience4 ,in this case it has material truth1 and moreover1 if the judgment is founded immediately on experience1 this truth is empirical truth4 ,when we say1 ,a judgment has material truth1 we mean on the whole1 that its conceptions are connected1 separated1 limited1 according to the requirements of the intuitive representations through which it is inferred4 ,to attain knowledge of this1 is the direct function of the faculty of judgment1 as the mediator between the intuitive and the abstract or discursive faculty of knowing--in other words1 between the ,understanding and the ,reason4 #cb4 ,transcendental ,truth4 ,the forms of intuitive1 empirical knowledge which lie within the ,understanding and pure ,sensibility may1 as conditions of all possible experience1 be the grounds of a judgment1 which is in that case synthetical priori4 ,as nevertheless this kind of judgment has material truth1 its truth is transcendental2 because the judgment is based not only on experience1 but on the conditions of all possible experience lying within us4 ,for it is determined precisely by that which determines experience itself3 namely1 either by the forms of ,space and of ,time perceived by us priori1 or by the causal law1 known to us priori4 ,propositions such as3 two straight lines do not include a space2 nothing happens without a cause2 matter can neither come into being nor perish2 #c #g #ba1 are examples of this kind of judgment4 ,the whole of pure ,mathematics1 and no less my tables of the ,prdicabilia priori1#aca as well as most of ,kant's theorems in his ,metaphysische ,anfangsgrnde der ,naturwissenschaft1 may1 properly speaking1 be adduced in corroboration of this kind of truth4 #aca ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #crd edition1 vol4 ii4 ch4 iv4 p4 #ee4 #cc4 ,metalogical ,truth4 ,lastly1 a judgment may be founded on the formal conditions of all thinking1 which are contained in the ,reason2 and in this case its truth is of a kind which seems to me best defined as metalogical truth4 ,this expression has nothing at all to do with the ,metalogicus written by ,johannes ,sarisberriensis in the twelfth century1 for he declares in his prologue1 quia ,logic suscepi patrocinium1 ,metalogicus inscriptus est liber1 and never makes use of the word again4 ,there are only four metalogically true judgments of this sort1 which were discovered long ago by induction1 and called the laws of all thinking2 although entire uniformity of opinion as to their expression and even as to their number has not yet been arrived at1 whereas all agree perfectly as to what they are on the whole meant to indicate4 ,they are the following3-- #a4 ,a subject is equal to the sum total of its predicates1 or a a4 #b4 ,no predicate can be attributed and denied to a subject at the same time1 or a -a o4 #c4 ,one of two opposite1 contradictory predicates must belong to every subject4 #d4 ,truth is the reference of a judgment to something outside of it1 as its sufficient reason4 ,it is by means of a kind of reflection which ,i am inclined to call ,reason's self-examination1 that we know that these judgments express the conditions of all thinking1 and therefore have these conditions for their reason4 ,for1 by the fruitlessness of its endeavours to think in opposition to these laws1 our ,reason acknowledges them to be the conditions of all possible thinking3 we then find out1 that it is just as impossible to think in opposition to them1 as it is to move the members of our body in a contrary direction to their joints4 ,if it were possible for the subject to know itself1 these laws would be known to us immediately1 and we should not need to try experiments with them on objects1 i4e4 representations4 ,in this respect it is just the same with the reasons of judgments which have transcendental truth2 for they do not either come into our consciousness immediately1 but only in concreto1 by means of objects1 i4e4 of representations4 ,in endeavouring1 for instance1 to conceive a change without a preceding cause1 or a passing into or out of being of ,matter1 we become aware that it is impossible2 moreover we recognise this impossibility to be an objective one1 although its root lies in our intellect3 for we could not otherwise bring it to consciousness in a subjective way4 ,there is1 on the whole1 a strong likeness and connection between transcendental and metalogical truths1 which shows that they spring from a common root4 ,in this chapter we see the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason chiefly as metalogical truth1 whereas in the last it appeared as transcendental truth and in the next one it will again be seen as transcendental truth under another form4 ,in the present treatise ,i am taking special pains1 precisely on this account1 to establish the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason as a judgment having a fourfold reason2 by which ,i do not mean four different reasons leading contingently to the same judgment1 but one reason presenting itself under a fourfold aspect3 and this is what ,i call its ,fourfold ,root4 ,the other three metalogical truths so strongly resemble one another1 that in considering them one is almost necessarily induced to search for their common expression1 as ,i have done in the ,ninth ,chapter of the ,second ,volume of my chief work4 ,on the other hand1 they differ considerably from the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason4 ,if we were to seek an analogue for the three other metalogical truths among transcendental truths1 the one ,i should choose would be this3 ,substance1 ,i mean ,matter1 is permanent4 #cd4 ,reason4 ,as the class of representations ,i have dealt with in this chapter belongs exclusively to ,man1 and as all that distinguishes human life so forcibly from that of animals and confers so great a superiority on man1 is1 as we have shown1 based upon his faculty for these representations1 this faculty evidently and unquestionably constitutes that ,reason1 which from time immemorial has been reputed the prerogative of mankind4 ,likewise all that has been considered by all nations and in all times explicitly as the work or manifestation of the ,reason1 of the 1 1 1 ratio1 la ragione1 la razon1 la raison1 reason1 may evidently also be reduced to what is only possible for abstract1 discursive1 reflective1 mediate knowledge1 conditioned by words1 and not for mere intuitive1 immediate1 sensuous knowledge1 which belongs to animals also4 ,cicero rightly places ratio et oratio together1#acb and describes them as qu docendo1 discendo1 communicando1 disceptando1 judicando1 conciliat inter se homines1 c4 c41 and#acc rationem dico1 et1 si placet1 pluribus verbis1 mentem1 consilium1 cogitationem1 prudentiam4 ,and#acd ratio1 qua una prstamus beluis1 per quam conjectura valemus1 argumentamur1 refellimus1 disserimus1 conficimus aliquid1 concludimus4 ,but1 in all ages and countries1 philosophers have invariably expressed themselves in this sense with respect to the ,reason1 even to ,kant himself1 who still defines it as the faculty for principles and for inference2 although it cannot be denied that he first gave rise to the distorted views which followed4 ,in my principal work1#ace and also in the ,fundamental ,problems of ,ethics1 ,i have spoken at great length about the agreement of all philosophers on this point1 as well as about the true nature of ,reason1 as opposed to the distorted conceptions for which we have to thank the professors of philosophy of this century4 ,i need not therefore repeat what has already been said there1 and shall limit myself to the following considerations4 #acb ,cicer4 ,de ,offic4 i4 #af4 #acc ,idem1 ,de nat4 deor4 ii4 #g4 #acd ,idem1 ,de ,leg4 i4 #aj4 #ace ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #bnd edition1 vol4 i4 #h1 and also in the ,appendix1 pp4 #egg-ehe 7#crd edition1 pp4 #faj-fbj71 and again vol4 ii4 ch4 vi42 finally ,die b4 ,g-,p4 d4 ,ethik1 pp4 #adh-aed 7#bnd edition1 pp4 #adf-aea74 ,our professors of philosophy have thought fit to do away with the name which had hitherto been given to that faculty of thinking and pondering by means of reflection and conceptions1 which distinguishes man from animals1 which necessitates language while it qualifies us for its use1 with which all human deliberation and all human achievements hang together1 and which had therefore always been viewed in this light and understood in this sense by all nations and even by all philosophers4 ,in defiance of all sound taste and custom1 our professors decided that this faculty should henceforth be called ,understanding instead of ,reason1 and that all that is derived from it should be named intelligent instead of rational1 which1 of course1 had a strange1 awkward ring about it1 like a discordant tone in music4 ,for in all ages and countries the words understanding1 intellectus1 acumen1 perspicacia1 sagacitas1 c4 c41 had been used to denote the more intuitive faculty described in our last chapter2 and its results1 which differ specifically from those of ,reason here in question1 have always been called intelligent1 sagacious1 clever1 c4 c4 ,intelligent and rational were accordingly always distinguished one from the other1 as manifestations of two entirely and widely different mental faculties4 ,our professional philosophers could not1 however1 take this into account2 their policy required the sacrifice1 and in such cases the cry is3 ,move on1 truth2 for we have higher1 well-defined aims in view6 ,make way for us1 truth1 in majorem ,dei gloriam1 as thou hast long ago learnt to do6 ,is it thou who givest fees and pensions8 ,move on1 truth1 move on2 betake thyself to merit and crouch in the corner6 ,the fact was1 they wanted ,reason's place and name for a faculty of their own creation and fabrication1 or to speak more correctly and honestly1 for a completely fictitious faculty1 destined to help them out of the straits to which ,kant had reduced them2 a faculty for direct1 metaphysical knowledge3 that is to say1 one which transcends all possible experience1 is able to grasp the world of things in themselves and their relations1 and is therefore1 before all1 consciousness of ,god 7,gottesbewusstsein73 that is1 it knows ,god the ,lord immediately1 construes priori the way in which he has created the ,universe1 or1 should this sound too trivial1 the way in which he has produced it out of himself1 or to a certain degree generated it by some more or less necessary vital process1 or again--as the most convenient proceeding1 however comical it may appear--simply dismissed it1 according to the custom of sovereigns at the end of an audience1 and left it to get upon its legs by itself and walk away wherever it liked4 ,nothing less than the impudence of a scribbler of nonsense like ,hegel1 could1 it is true1 be found to venture upon this last step4 ,yet it is tom-foolery like this which1 largely amplified1 has filled hundreds of volumes for the last fifty years under the name of cognitions of ,reason 7,vernunfterkenntnisse71 and forms the argument of so many works called philosophical by their authors1 and scientific by others--one would think ironically--this expression being even repeated to satiety4 ,reason1 to which all this wisdom is falsely and audaciously imputed1 is pronounced to be a supersensuous faculty1 or a faculty for ideas2 in short1 an oracular power lying within us1 designed directly for ,metaphysics4 ,during the last half-century1 however1 there has been considerable discrepancy of opinion among the adepts as to the way in which all these supersensuous wonders are perceived4 ,according to the most audacious1 ,reason has a direct intuition of the ,absolute1 or even ad libitum of the ,infinite and of its evolutions towards the ,finite4 ,others1 somewhat less bold1 opine that its mode of receiving this information partakes rather of audition than of vision2 since it does not exactly see1 but merely hears 7vernimmt71 what is going on in cloud-cuckoo-land 771 and then honestly transmits what it has thus received to the ,understanding1 to be worked up into text-books4 ,according to a pun of ,jacobi's1 even the ,german name for ,reason1 ,vernunft1 is derived from this pretended ,vernehmen2 whereas it evidently comes from that ,vernehmen which is conveyed by language and conditioned by ,reason1 and by which the distinct perception of words and their meaning is designated1 as opposed to mere sensuous hearing which animals have also4 ,this miserable jeu de mots nevertheless continues1 after half a century1 to find favour2 it passes for a serious thought1 nay even for a proof1 and has been repeated over and over again4 ,the most modest among the adepts again assert1 that ,reason neither sees nor hears1 therefore it receives neither a vision nor a report of all these wonders1 and has a mere vague ,ahndung1 or misgiving of them2 but then they drop the d1 by which the word 7,ahnung7 acquires a peculiar touch of silliness1 which1 backed up as it is by the sheepish look of the apostle for the time being of this wisdom1 cannot fail to gain it entrance4 ,my readers know that ,i only admit the word idea in its primitive1 that is ,platonic1 sense1 and that ,i have treated this point at length and exhaustively in the ,third ,book of my chief work4 ,the ,french and ,english1 on the other hand1 certainly attach a very commonplace1 but quite clear and definite meaning to the word ide1 or idea2 whereas the ,germans lose their heads as soon as they hear the word ,ideen2#acf all presence of mind abandons them1 and they feel as if they were about to ascend in a balloon4 ,here therefore was a field of action for our adepts in intellectual intuition2 so the most impudent of them1 the notorious charlatan ,hegel1 without more ado1 called his theory of the universe and of all things ,die ,idee1 and in this of course all thought that they had something to lay hold of4 ,still1 if we inquire into the nature of these ideas for which ,reason is pronounced to be the faculty1 without letting ourselves be put out of countenance1 the explanation usually given is an empty1 high-flown1 confused verbiage1 in set periods of such length1 that if the reader does not fall asleep before he has half read it1 he will find himself bewildered rather than enlightened at the end2 nay1 he may even have a suspicion that these ideas are very like chimras4 ,meanwhile1 should anyone show a desire to know more about this sort of ideas1 he will have all kinds of things served up to him4 ,now it will be the chief subjects of the theses of ,scholasticism--,i allude here to the representations of ,god1 of an immortal ,soul1 of a real1 objectively existent ,world and its laws--which ,kant himself has unfortunately called ,ideas of ,reason1 erroneously and unjustifiably1 as ,i have shown in my ,critique of his philosophy1 yet merely with a view to proving the utter impossibility of demonstrating them and their want of all theoretical authority4 ,then again it will be1 as a variation1 only ,god1 ,freedom1 and ,immortality2 at other times it will be the ,absolute1 whose acquaintance we have already made in #bj1 as the ,cosmological ,proof1 forced to travel incognito2 or the ,infinite as opposed to the ,finite2 for1 on the whole1 the ,german reader is disposed to content himself with such empty talk as this1 without perceiving that the only clear thought he can get out of it is1 'that which has an end' and 'that which has none4' ',the ,good1 the ,true1 and the ,beautiful1' moreover1 stand high in favour with the sentimental and tender-hearted as pretended ideas1 though they are really only three very wide and abstract conceptions1 because they are extracted from a multitude of things and relations2 wherefore1 like many other such abstracta1 they are exceedingly empty4 ,as regards their contents1 ,i have shown above 7 #bi7 that ,truth is a quality belonging exclusively to judgments3 that is1 a logical quality2 and as to the other two abstracta1 ,i refer my readers partly to #fe of the first volume1 partly to the entire ,third ,book of my chief work4 ,if1 nevertheless1 a very solemn and mysterious air is assumed and the eyebrows are raised up to the wig whenever these three meagre abstracta are mentioned1 young people may easily be induced to believe that something peculiar and inexpressible lies behind them1 which entitles them to be called ideas1 and harnessed to the triumphal car of this would-be metaphysical ,reason4 #acf ,here ,schopenhauer adds1 especially when pronounced ,uedhen4 ,tr4 ,when therefore we are told1 that we possess a faculty for direct1 material 7i4e41 not only formal1 but substantial71 supersensuous knowledge1 7that is1 a knowledge which transcends all possible experience71 a faculty specially designed for metaphysical insight1 and inherent in us for this purpose--,i must take the liberty to call this a downright lie4 ,for the slightest candid self-examination will suffice to convince us that absolutely no such faculty resides within us4 ,the result at which all honest1 competent1 authoritative thinkers have arrived in the course of ages1 moreover1 tallies exactly with my assertion4 ,it is as follows3 ,all that is innate in the whole of our cognitive faculty1 all that is therefore priori and independent of experience1 is strictly limited to the formal part of knowledge3 that is1 to the consciousness of the peculiar functions of the intellect and of the only way in which they can possibly act2 but in order to give material knowledge1 these functions one and all require material from outside4 ,within us therefore lie the forms of external1 objective perception3 ,time and ,space1 and then the law of ,causality--as a mere form of the ,understanding which enables it to construct the objective1 corporeal world--finally1 the formal part of abstract knowledge3 this last is deposited and treated of in ,logic1 which our forefathers therefore rightly called the ,theory of ,reason4 ,but this very ,logic teaches us also1 that the conceptions which constitute those judgments and conclusions to which all logical laws refer1 must look to intuitive knowledge for their material and their content2 just as the ,understanding1 which creates this intuitive knowledge1 looks to sensation for the material which gives content to its priori forms4 ,thus all that is material in our knowledge3 that is to say1 all that cannot be reduced to subjective form1 to individual mode of activity1 to functions of our intellect1--its whole material therefore1--comes from outside2 that is1 in the last resort1 from the objective perception of the corporeal world1 which has its origin in sensation4 ,now it is this intuitive and1 so far as material content is concerned1 empirical knowledge1 which ,reason--real ,reason--works up into conceptions1 which it fixes sensuously by means of words2 these conceptions then supply the materials for its endless combinations through judgments and conclusions1 which constitute the weft of our thought-world4 ,reason therefore has absolutely no material1 but merely a formal1 content1 and this is the object-matter of ,logic1 which consequently contains only forms and rules for thinking operations4 ,in reflecting1 ,reason is absolutely forced to take its material contents from outside1 i4e41 from the intuitive representations which the ,understanding has created4 ,its functions are exercised on them1 first of all1 in forming conceptions1 by dropping some of the various qualities of things while retaining others1 which are then connected together to a conception4 ,representations1 however1 forfeit their capacity for being intuitively perceived by this process1 while they become easier to deal with1 as has already been shown4 ,it is therefore in this1 and in this alone1 that the efficiency of ,reason consists2 whereas it can never supply material content from its own resources4--,it has nothing but forms3 its nature is feminine2 it only conceives1 but does not generate4 ,it is not by mere chance that the ,reason is feminine in all ,latin1 as well as ,teutonic1 languages2 whereas the ,understanding is invariably masculine4 ,in using such expressions as 'sound ,reason teaches this1' or ',reason should control passion1' we by no means imply that ,reason furnishes material knowledge out of its own resources2 but rather do we point to the results of rational reflection1 that is1 to logical inference from principles which abstract knowledge has gradually gathered from experience and by which we obtain a clear and comprehensive view1 not only of what is empirically necessary1 and may therefore1 the case occurring1 be foreseen1 but even of the reasons and consequences of our own deeds also4 ,reasonable or rational is everywhere synonymous with consistent or logical1 and conversely2 for ,logic is only ,reason's natural procedure itself1 expressed in a system of rules2 therefore these expressions 7rational and logical7 stand in the same relation to one another as theory and practice4 ,exactly in this same sense too1 when we speak of a reasonable conduct1 we mean by it one which is quite consistent1 one therefore which proceeds from general conceptions1 and is not determined by the transitory impression of the moment4 ,by this1 however1 the morality of such conduct is in no wise determined3 it may be good or bad indifferently4 ,detailed explanations of all this are to be found in my ,critique of ,kant's ,philosophy1#acg and also in my ,fundamental ,problems of ,ethics4#ach ,notions derived from pure ,reason are1 lastly1 those which have their source in the formal part1 whether intuitive or reflective1 of our cognitive faculty2 those1 consequently1 which we are able to bring to our consciousness priori1 that is1 without the help of experience4 ,they are invariably based upon principles which have transcendental or metalogical truth4 #acg ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #bnd edition1 vol4 i4 p4 #egf et seqq42 #crd edition1 p4 #faj et seq4 #ach ,schopenhauer1 ,die beiden ,grundprobleme der ,ethik1 p4 #aeb2 #bnd edition1 p4 #adi et seq4 ,a ,reason1 on the other hand1 which supplies material knowledge primarily out of its own resources and conveys positive information transcending the sphere of possible experience2 a ,reason which1 in order to do this1 must necessarily contain innate ideas1 is a pure fiction1 invented by our professional philosophers and a product of the terror with which ,kant's ,critique of ,pure ,reason has inspired them4 ,i wonder now1 whether these gentlemen know a certain ,locke and whether they have ever read his works8 ,perhaps they may have done so in times long gone by1 cursorily and superficially1 while looking down complacently on this great thinker from the heights of their own conscious superiority3 may be1 too1 in some inferior ,german translation2 for ,i do not yet see that the knowledge of modern languages has increased in proportion to the deplorable decrease in that of ancient ones4 ,how could time besides be found for such old croakers as ,locke1 when even a real1 thorough knowledge of ,kant's ,philosophy at present hardly exists excepting in a very few1 very old heads8 ,the youth of the generation now at its maturity had of course to be spent in the study of ,hegel's gigantic mind1 of the sublime ,schleiermacher1 and of the acute ,herbart4 ,alas6 alas6 the great mischief in academical hero-worship of this sort1 and in the glorification of university celebrities by worthy colleagues in office or hopeful aspirants to it1 is precisely1 that ordinary intellects--,nature's mere manufactured ware--are presented to honest credulous youths of immature judgment1 as master minds1 exceptions and ornaments of mankind4 ,the students forthwith throw all their energies into the barren study of the endless1 insipid scribblings of such mediocrities1 thus wasting the short1 invaluable period allotted to them for higher education1 instead of using it to attain the sound information they might have found in the works of those extremely rare1 genuine1 truly exceptional thinkers1 nantes in gurgite vasto1 who only rise to the surface every now and then in the course of ages1 because ,nature produced but one of each kind1 and then destroyed the mould4 ,for this generation also those great minds might have had life1 had our youth not been cheated out of its share in their wisdom by these exceedingly pernicious extollers of mediocrity1 members of the vast league and brotherhood of mediocrities1 which is as flourishing to-day as it ever was and still hoists its flag as high as it can in persistent antagonism to all that is great and genuine1 as humiliating to its members4 ,thanks to them1 our age has declined to so low an ebb1 that ,kant's ,philosophy1 which it took our fathers years of study1 of serious application and of strenuous effort to understand1 has again become foreign to the present generation1 which stands before it like 1 at times attacking it coarsely and clumsily--as barbarians throw stones at the statue of some ,greek god which is foreign to them4 ,now1 as this is the case1 ,i feel it incumbent upon me to advise all champions of a ,reason that perceives1 comprehends1 and knows directly--in short1 that supplies material knowledge out of its own resources--to read1 as something new to them1 the ,first ,book of ,locke's work1 which has been celebrated throughout the world for the last hundred and fifty years1 and in it especially to peruse #ba-bf of the ,third ,chapter1 expressly directed against all innate notions4 ,for although ,locke goes too far in denying all innate truths1 inasmuch as he extends his denial even to our formal knowledge--a point in which he has been brilliantly rectified by ,kant--he is nevertheless perfectly and undeniably right with reference to all material knowledge3 that is1 all knowledge which gives substance4 ,i have already said in my ,ethics what ,i must nevertheless repeat here1 because1 as the ,spanish proverb says1 ,no hay peor sordo que quien no quiere oir 7,none so deaf as those who will not hear73 namely1 that if ,reason were a faculty specially designed for ,metaphysics1 a faculty which supplied the material of knowledge and could reveal that which transcends all possible experience1 the same harmony would necessarily reign between men on metaphysical and religious subjects--for they are identical--as on mathematical ones1 and those who differed in opinion from the rest would simply be looked upon as not quite right in their mind4 ,now exactly the contrary takes place1 for on no subject are men so completely at variance with one another as upon these4 ,ever since men first began to think1 philosophical systems have opposed and combated each other everywhere2 they are1 in fact1 often diametrically contrary to one another4 ,ever since men first began to believe 7which is still longer71 religions have fought against one another with fire and sword1 with excommunication and cannons4 ,but in times when faith was most ardent1 it was not the lunatic asylum1 but the ,inquisition1 with all its paraphernalia1 which awaited individual heretics4 ,here again1 therefore1 experience flatly and categorically contradicts the false assertion1 that ,reason is a faculty for direct metaphysical knowledge1 or1 to speak more clearly1 of inspiration from above4 ,surely it is high time that severe judgment should be passed upon this ,reason1 since1 horribile dictu1 so lame1 so palpable a falsehood continues after half a century to be hawked about all over ,germany1 wandering year by year from the professors' chair to the students' bench1 and from bench to chair1 and has actually found a few simpletons1 even in ,france1 willing to believe in it1 and carry it about in that country also4 ,here1 however1 ,french bon-sens will very soon send la raison transcendentale about its business4 ,but where was this falsehood originally hatched8 ,how did the fiction first come into the world8 ,i am bound to confess that it was first originated by ,kant's ,practical ,reason with its ,categorical ,imperative4 ,for when this ,practical ,reason had once been admitted1 nothing further was needed than the addition of a second1 no less sovereign ,theoretical ,reason1 as its counterpart1 or twin-sister3 a ,reason which proclaims metaphysical truths ex tripode4 ,i have described the brilliant success of this invention in my ,fundamental ,problems of ,ethics#aci to which work ,i refer my reader4 ,now1 although ,i grant that ,kant first gave rise to this false assumption1 ,i am1 nevertheless1 bound to add1 that those who want to dance are not long in finding a piper4 ,for it is surely as though a curse lay on mankind1 causing them1 in virtue of a natural affinity for all that is corrupt and bad1 to prefer and hold up to admiration the inferior1 not to say downright defective1 portions of the works of eminent minds1 while the really admirable parts are tolerated as merely accessory4 ,very few in our time know wherein the peculiar depth and true grandeur of ,kant's philosophy lies2 for his works have necessarily ceased to be comprehended since they have ceased to be studied4 ,in fact1 they are now only cursorily read1 for historical purposes1 by those who are under the delusion that philosophy has advanced1 not to say begun1 since ,kant4 ,we soon perceive therefore1 that in spite of all their talk about ,kantian philosophy1 these people really know nothing of it but the husk1 the mere outer envelope1 and that if perchance they may here or there have caught up a stray sentence or brought away a rough sketch of it1 they have never penetrated to the depths of its meaning and spirit4 ,people of this sort have always been chiefly attracted1 in ,kant's ,philosophy1 first of all by the ,antinomies1 on account of their oddity1 but still more by his ,practical ,reason with its ,categorical ,imperative1 nay even by the ,moral ,theory he placed on the top of it1 though with this last he was never in earnest2 for a theoretical dogma which has only practical validity1 is very like the wooden guns we allow our children to handle without fear of danger3 properly speaking1 it belongs to the same category as3 ,wash my skin1 but without wetting it4 ,now1 as regards the ,categorical ,imperative1 ,kant never asserted it as a fact1 but1 on the contrary1 protests repeatedly against this being done2 he merely served it up as the result of an exceedingly curious combination of thoughts1 because he stood in need of a sheet-anchor for morality4 ,our professors of philosophy1 however1 never sifted the matter to the bottom1 so that it seems as if no one before me had ever thoroughly investigated it4 ,instead of this1 they made all haste to bring the ,categorical ,imperative into credit as a firmly established fact1 calling it in their purism the moral law--which1 by the way1 always reminds me of ,brger's ,mam'zelle ,largle2 indeed1 they have made out of it something as massive as the stone tables of ,moses1 whose place it entirely takes1 for them4 ,now in my ,essay upon the ,fundament of ,morality1 ,i have brought this same ,practical ,reason with its ,categorical ,imperative under the anatomical knife1 and proved so clearly and conclusively that they never had any life or truth1 that ,i should like to see the man who can refute me with reasons1 and so help the ,categorical ,imperative honestly on its legs again4 ,meanwhile1 our professors of philosophy do not allow themselves to be put out of countenance by this4 ,they can no more dispense with their moral law of practical ,reason1 as a convenient deus ex machina on which to found their morality1 than with ,free ,will3 both are essential points in their old woman's philosophy4 ,no matter if ,i have made an end of both1 since1 for them1 both continue to exist1 like deceased sovereigns who for political reasons are occasionally allowed to continue reigning for a few days after their death4 ,these worthies simply pursue their tactics of old against my merciless demolition of those two antiquated fictions3 silence1 silence2 and so they glide past noiselessly1 feigning ignorance1 to make the public believe that ,i and the like of me are not worth listening to4 ,well1 to be sure1 their philosophical calling comes to them from the ministry1 while mine only comes from ,nature4 ,true1 we may at last perhaps discover that these heroes act upon the same principle as that idealistic bird1 the ostrich1 which imagines that by closing its eyes it does away with the huntsman4 ,ah well6 we must bide our time2 if the public can only be brought to take up meantime with the barren twaddle1 the unbearably tiresome repetitions1 the arbitrary constructions of the ,absolute1 and the infant-school morality of these gentlemen--say1 till ,i am dead and they can trim up my works as they like--we shall then see4 ,morgen habe denn das ,rechte ,seine ,freunde wohlgesinnet1 ,wenn nur heute noch das ,schlechte ,vollen ,platz und ,gunst gewinnet4 ,g,,the1 ,west-,oestlicher ,divan4 #aci ,schopenhauer1 ,die beiden ,grundprobleme der ,ethik1 p4 #adh and sqq4 7p4 #adf et seq4 of #bnd edition47 ,but do these gentlemen know what time of day it is8 ,a long predicted epoch has set in2 the church is beginning to totter1 nay it totters already to such a degree1 that it is doubtful whether it will ever be able to recover its centre of gravity2 for faith is lost4 ,the light of revelation1 like other lights1 requires a certain amount of darkness as an indispensable condition4 ,the number of those who have been unfitted for belief by a certain degree and extent of knowledge1 is already very large4 ,of this we have evident signs in the general diffusion of that shallow ,rationalism which is showing its bulldog face daily more and more overtly4 ,it quietly sets to work to measure those profound mysteries of ,christianity over which centuries have brooded and disputed with its draper's ell1 and thinks itself wondrous wise withal4 ,it is1 however1 the very quintessence of ,christianity1 the dogma of ,original ,sin1 which these shallow-brained ,rationalists have especially singled out for a laughing-stock2 precisely because nothing seems clearer or more certain to them1 than that existence should begin for each of us with our birth3 nothing therefore so impossible as that we can have come into the world already burdened with guilt4 ,how acute6 ,and just as in times of prevailing poverty and neglect1 wolves begin to make their appearance in villages2 so does ,materialism1 ever lying in wait1 under these circumstances lift up its head and come to the front hand in hand with ,bestialism1 its companion1 which some call ,humanism4 ,our thirst after knowledge augments with our incapacity for belief4 ,there comes a boiling-point in the scale of all intellectual development1 at which all faith1 all revelation1 and all authority evaporate1 and ,man claims the right to judge for himself2 the right1 not only to be taught1 but to be convinced4 ,the leading-strings of his infancy have fallen off1 and henceforth he demands leave to walk alone4 ,yet his craving for ,metaphysics can no more be extinguished than any physical want4 ,then it is1 that the desire for philosophy becomes serious and that mankind invokes the spirits of all the genuine thinkers who have issued from its ranks4 ,then1 too1 empty verbiage and the impotent endeavours of emasculated intellects no longer suffice2 the want of a serious philosophy is felt1 having other aims in view than fees and salaries1 and caring little therefore whether it meets the approbation of cabinet-ministers1 or councillors1 whether it serves the purposes of this or that religious faction1 or not2 a philosophy which1 on the contrary1 clearly shows that it has a very different mission in view from that of procuring a livelihood for the poor in spirit4 ,but ,i return to my argument4 ,by means of an amplification which only needed a little audacity1 a theoretical oracle had been added to the practical oracle with which ,kant had wrongly endowed ,reason4 ,the credit of this invention is no doubt due to ,f4 ,h4 ,jacobi1 from whom the professional philosophers joyfully and thankfully received the precious gift1 as a means to help them out of the straits to which ,kant had reduced them4 ,that cool1 calm1 deliberate ,reason1 which ,kant had criticized so mercilessly1 was henceforth degraded to ,understanding and known by this name2 while ,reason was supposed to denote an entirely imaginary1 fictitious faculty1 admitting us1 as it were1 to a little window overlooking the superlunar1 nay1 the supernatural world1 through which all those truths are handed to us ready cut and dried1 concerning which old-fashioned1 honest1 reflective ,reason had for ages vainly argued and contended4 ,and it is on such a mere product of the imagination1 such a completely fictitious ,reason as this1 that ,german sham philosophy has been based for the last fifty years2 first1 as the free construction and projection of the absolute ,ego and the emanation from it of the non-,ego2 then1 as the intellectual intuition of absolute identity or indifference1 and its evolutions to ,nature2 or again1 as the arising of ,god out of his dark depths or bottomless pit#adj la ,jakob ,bhme2 lastly1 as the pure1 self-thinking1 absolute ,idea1 the scene of the ballet-dance of the self-moving conceptions--still1 at the same time1 always as immediate apprehension 7,vernehmen7 of the ,divine1 the supersensuous1 the ,deity1 verity1 beauty and as many other -ties as may be desired1 or even as a mere vague presentiment#ada of all these wonders4--,so this is ,reason1 is it8 ,oh no1 it is simply a farce1 of which our professors of philosophy1 who are sorely perplexed by ,kant's serious critiques1 avail themselves in order to pass off the subjects of the established religion of their country somehow or other1 per fas aut nefas1 for the results of philosophy4 #adj ,aus seinem ,grund oder ,ungrund4 #ada ,ahnung without the d4 ,see above1 p4 #acc4 7,tr4's note47 ,for it behoves all professorial philosophy1 before all things1 to establish beyond doubt1 and to give a philosophical basis to1 the doctrine1 that there is a ,god1 ,creator1 and ,ruler of the ,universe1 a personal1 consequently individual1 ,being1 endowed with ,understanding and ,will1 who has created the world out of nothing1 and who rules it with sublime wisdom1 power and goodness4 ,this obligation1 however1 places our professors of philosophy in an awkward position with respect to serious philosophy4 ,for ,kant had appeared and the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 was written more than sixty years ago1 the result being1 that of all the proofs of the existence of ,god which had been brought forward during the ,christian ages1 and which may be reduced to three which alone are possible1 none are able to accomplish the desired end4 ,nay1 the impossibility of any such proof1 and with it the impossibility of all speculative theology1 is shown at length priori and not in the empty verbiage or ,hegelian jargon now in fashion1 which may be made to mean anything one likes1 but quite seriously and honestly1 in the good old-fashioned way2 wherefore1 however little it may have been to the taste of many people1 nothing cogent could be brought forward in reply to it for the last sixty years1 and the proofs of the existence of ,god have in consequence lost all credit1 and are no longer in use4 ,our professors of philosophy have even begun to look down upon them and treat them with decided contempt1 as ridiculous and superfluous attempts to demonstrate what was self-evident4 ,ho6 ho6 what a pity this was not found out sooner6 ,how much trouble might have been spared in searching whole centuries for these proofs1 and how needless it would have been for ,kant to bring the whole weight of his ,critique of ,reason to bear upon and crush them6 ,some folks1 will no doubt be reminded by this contempt of the fox with the sour grapes4 ,but those who wish to see a slight specimen of it will find a particularly characteristic one in ,schelling's ,philosophische ,schriften1 vol4 i41 #ahji1 p4 #aeb4 ,now1 whilst others were consoling themselves with ,kant's assertion1 that it is just as impossible to prove the non-existence1 as the existence1 of ,god--as if1 forsooth1 the old wag did not know that affirmanti incumbit probatio--,jacobi's admirable invention came to the rescue of our perplexed professors1 and granted ,german savants of this century a peculiar sort of ,reason that had never been known or heard of before4 ,yet all these artifices were quite unnecessary4 ,for the impossibility of proving the existence of ,god by no means interferes with that existence1 since it rests in unshakeable security on a much firmer basis4 ,it is indeed a matter of revelation1 and this is besides all the more certain1 because that revelation was exclusively vouchsafed to a single people1 called1 on this account1 the chosen people of ,god4 ,this is made evident by the fact1 that the notion of ,god1 as personal ,ruler and ,creator of the world1 ordaining everything for the best1 is to be found in no other religion but the ,jewish1 and the two faiths derived from it1 which might consequently in a wider sense be called ,jewish sects4 ,we find no trace of such a notion in any other religion1 ancient or modern4 ,for surely no one would dream of confounding this ,creator ,god ,almighty with the ,hindoo ,brahm1 which is living in me1 in you1 in my horse1 in your dog--or even with ,brahma1 who is born and dies to make way for other ,brahmas1 and to whom moreover the production of the world is imputed as sin and guilt#adb--least of all with beguiled ,saturn's voluptuous son1 to whom ,prometheus1 defiant1 prophesies his downfall4 ,but if we finally direct our attention towards the religion which numbers most followers1 and in this respect may therefore be said to rank foremost3 that is1 ,buddhism1 we can no longer shut our eyes to the fact that it is as decidedly and explicitly atheistic1 as it is idealistic and ascetic2 and this moreover to such a degree1 that its priests express the greatest abhorrence of the doctrine of pure ,theism whenever it is brought to their notice4 ,therefore1 in a treatise handed to a ,catholic bishop by the ,high ,priest of the ,buddhists at ,ava1#adc the doctrine that there is a ,being who has created the world and all things1 and who alone is worthy of worship1 is counted among the six damnable heresies4#add ,this is entirely corroborated by ,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 a most excellent and learned authority1 whom ,i consider as having undoubtedly the deepest knowledge of ,buddhism of any ,european savant1 and who1 in his work ,upon the connection between ,gnostic doctrines and ,buddhism1 p4 #i1 says3-- #adb ,if ,brimha be unceasingly employed in the creation of worlds 444 how can tranquillity be obtained by inferior orders of being8 ,prabodh ,chandro ,daya1 translated by ,j4 ,taylor1 p4 #bc4--;,brahma is also part of the ,trimurti1 which is the personification of nature1 as procreation1 preservation1 and death3 that is1 he represents the first of these4 #adc ,see ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 vi4 p4 #bfh1 and ,sangermano's ,description of the ,burmese ,empire1 p4 #ha4 #add ,see ,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 ,forschungen im ,gebiete der lteren ,bildungsgeschichte ,mittelasiens4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahbd1 pp4 #bgf1 and #ahj4 ,in the writings of the ,buddhists not a trace is to be found of any positive indication of a ,supreme ,being as the principle of ,creation4 ,whenever this subject presents itself consistently in the course of argument1 it seems1 indeed1 to be intentionally evaded4 ,and again3 ,the system of ,buddhism knows of no eternal1 uncreated1 one and only ,being1 having existed before ,time and created all that is visible and invisible4 ,this idea is quite foreign to ,buddhism1 and not a trace of it is to be found in ,buddhist works4 ,and just as little mention do we find of ,creation4 ,true1 the visible ,universe is not without a beginning1 but it arose out of empty ,space1 according to consistent1 immutable1 natural laws4 ,we should however err1 were we to assume that anything--call it ,fate or ,nature--is regarded or revered by the ,buddhists as a divine principle2 on the contrary1 it is just this very development of empty ,space1 this precipitate from it or this division into countless parts1 this ,matter thus arising1 which constitutes the ,evil of ,jirtintschi1 or of the ,universe in its inner and outer relations1 out of which sprang ,ortschilang1 or continuous change according to immutable laws1 which the same ,evil had established4 ,then again3#ade ,the expression ,creation is foreign to ,buddhism1 which only knows ,cosmogony2 and1 ,we must comprehend that no idea of a creation of divine origin is compatible with their system4 ,i could bring forward a hundred corroborative passages like these2 but will limit myself to one more1 which ,i quote on account of its popular and official character4 ,the third volume of a very instructive ,buddhist work1 ,mahavansi1 ,raja-ratnacari1 and ,raja-,vali1#adf contains a translation of the interrogatories to which the ,high ,priests of the five chief ,pagodas were separately and successively subjected by the ,dutch ,governor of ,ceylon about the year #agff4 ,it is exceedingly amusing to see the contrast between the interlocutors1 who have the greatest difficulty in understanding one another's meaning4 ,in conformity with the doctrines of their faith1 these priests1 who are penetrated with love and compassion for all living beings1 not excepting even ,dutch ,governors1 spare no pains to satisfy him by their answers4 ,but the artless1 nave ,atheism of these priests1 whose piety extends even to practising continence1 soon comes into conflict with the deep convictions founded on ,judaism1 imbibed by the ,governor in his infancy4 ,this faith has become a second nature for him2 he cannot in the least understand that these priests are not ,theists1 therefore he constantly returns to his inquiries after a ,supreme ,being1 asking them who created the world1 and so forth4 ,whereupon they answer that there can be no higher being than ,buddha ,shakia-,muni1 the ,victorious and the ,perfect1 who1 though a king's son by birth1 voluntarily lived the life of a beggar1 and preached to the end his sublime doctrine1 for the ,redemption of mankind1 and for our salvation from the misery of constant renascence4 ,they hold that the world has not been made by anyone1#adg that it is self-created1 that ,nature spreads it out1 and draws it in again2 but that it is that1 which existing1 does not exist3 that it is the necessary accompaniment of renascence1 and that renascence is the result of our sinful conduct1 c4 c4 c4 ,i mention such facts as these chiefly on account of the really scandalous way in which ,german savants still universally persist1 even to the present day1 in looking upon ,religion and ,theism as identical and synonymous2 whereas ,religion is1 in fact1 to ,theism as the genus to the single species1 and ,judaism and ,theism are alone identical4 ,for this reason we stigmatize as heathen all nations who are neither ,jews1 ,christians1 nor ,mahometans4 ,christians are even taxed by ,mahometans and ,jews with the impurity of their ,theism1 because of the dogma of the ,trinity4 ,for1 whatever may be said to the contrary1 ,christianity has ,indian blood in its veins1 therefore it constantly tends to free itself from ,judaism4 ,the ,critique of ,pure ,reason is the most serious attack that has ever been made upon ,theism--and this is why our professors of philosophy have been in such a hurry to set ,kant aside2 but had that work appeared in any country where ,buddhism prevailed1 it would simply have been regarded as an edifying treatise intended to refute heresy more thoroughly by a salutary confirmation of the orthodox doctrine of ,idealism--that is1 the doctrine of the merely apparent existence of the world1 as it presents itself to our senses4 ,even the two other religions which coexist with ,buddhism in ,china--those of ,taotsee and of ,confucius--are just as ,atheistic as ,buddhism itself2 wherefore the missionaries have never been able to translate the first verse of the ,pentateuch into ,chinese1 because there is no word in the language for ,god and ,creation4 ,even the missionary ,gtzlaff1 in his ,history of the ,chinese ,empire1 p4 #ah1 has the honesty to say3 ,it is extraordinary that none of the 7,chinese7 philosophers ever soared high enough to reach the knowledge of a ,creator and ,lord of the ,universe1 although they possessed the ,light of ,nature in full measure4 ,j4 ,f4 ,davis likewise quotes a passage1 which is quite in accordance with this1 from ,milne's ,preface to his translation of the ,shing-yu1 where in speaking of that work1 he says that we may see from it that the bare ,light of ,nature1 as it is called1 even when aided by all the light of ,pagan philosophy1 is totally incapable of leading men to the knowledge and worship of the true ,god4 ,all this confirms the fact that revelation is the sole foundation on which ,theism rests2 indeed1 it must be so1 unless revelation is to be superfluous4 ,this is a good opportunity for observing that the word ,atheism itself implies a surreptitious assumption1 since it takes ,theism for granted as a matter of course4 ,it would be more honest to say ,non-,judaism instead of ,atheism1 and ,non-,jew instead of ,atheist4 #ade ,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 ,lecture delivered in the ,academy at ,st4 ,petersburg on the #aeth ,sept4 #ahcj1 p4 #bf4 #adf ,mahavansi1 ,raja-ratnacari1 and ,raja-,vali1 from the ,singhalese1 by ,e4 ,upham4 ,london1 #ahcc4 #adg 1 1 4 7,neither a ,god nor a man created this world1 says ,heraclitus47 ,plut4 ,de anim procreatione1 c4 #e4 ,now as1 according to the above1 the existence of ,god belongs to revelation1 by which it is firmly established1 it has no need whatever of human authentication4 ,philosophy1 however1 is properly speaking only an idle1 superfluous attempt to let ,reason--that is1 the human power of thinking1 reflecting1 deliberating--once in a while1 try its own powers unassisted1 as a child is now and then allowed to run alone on a lawn and try its strength without leading-strings1 just to see what will come of it4 ,tests and experiments of this kind we call speculation2 and it lies in the nature of the matter that it should1 for once1 leave all authority1 human or divine1 out of consideration1 ignore it1 and go its own way in search of the most sublime1 most important truths4 ,now1 if on this basis it should arrive at the very same results as those mentioned above1 to which ,kant had come1 speculation has no right on that account to cast all honesty and conscience forthwith aside1 and take to by-ways1 in order somehow or other to get back to the domain of ,judaism1 as its conditio sine qua non2 it ought rather henceforth to seek truth quite honestly and simply by any road that may happen to lie open before it1 but never to allow any other light than that of ,reason to guide it3 thus advancing calmly and confidently1 like one at work in his vocation1 without concern as to where that road may lead4 ,if our professors of philosophy put a different construction on the matter1 and hold that they cannot eat their bread in honour1 so long as they have not reinstalled ,god ,almighty on his throne--as if1 forsooth1 he stood in need of them--this already accounts for their not relishing my writings1 and explains why ,i am not the man for them2 for ,i certainly do not deal in this sort of article1 nor have ,i the newest reports to communicate about the ,almighty every ,leipzig fair-time1 as they have4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,on ,,the ,,third ,,class ,,of ,,objects ,,for ,,the ,,subject ,,and ,,that ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason ,,which ,,predominates ,,in ,,it4 #ce4 ,explanation of this ,class of ,objects4 ,it is the formal part of complete representations--that is to say1 the intuitions given us priori of the forms of the outer and inner sense1 i4e4 of ,space and of ,time--which constitutes the ,third ,class of ,objects for our representative faculty4 ,as pure intuitions1 these forms are objects for the faculty of representation by themselves and apart from complete representations and from the determinations of being empty or filled which these representations first add to them2 since even pure points and pure lines cannot be brought to sensuous perception1 but are only priori intuitions1 just as the infinite expansion and the infinite divisibility of ,space and of ,time are exclusively objects of pure intuition and foreign to empirical perception4 ,that which distinguishes the third class of representations1 in which ,space and ,time are pure intuitions1 from the first class1 in which they are sensuously 7and moreover conjointly7 perceived1 is ,matter1 which ,i have therefore defined1 on the one hand1 as the perceptibility of ,space and ,time1 on the other1 as objectified ,causality4 ,the form of ,causality1 on the contrary1 which belongs to the ,understanding1 is not separately and by itself an object for our faculty of representation1 nor have we consciousness of it1 until it is connected with what is material in our knowledge4 #cf4 ,principle of the ,sufficient ,reason of ,being4 ,space and ,time are so constituted1 that all their parts stand in mutual relation1 so that each of them conditions and is conditioned by another4 ,we call this relation in ,space1 position2 in ,time1 succession4 ,these relations are peculiar ones1 differing entirely from all other possible relations of our representations2 neither the ,understanding nor the ,reason are therefore able to grasp them by means of mere conceptions1 and pure intuition priori alone makes them intelligible to us2 for it is impossible by mere conceptions to explain clearly what is meant by above and below1 right and left1 behind and before1 before and after4 ,kant rightly confirms this by the assertion1 that the distinction between our right and left glove cannot be made intelligible in any other way than by intuition4 ,now1 the law by which the divisions of ,space and of ,time determine one another reciprocally with reference to these relations 7position and succession7 is what ,i call the ,principle of the ,sufficient ,reason of ,being1 principium rationis sufficientis essendi4 ,i have already given an example of this relation in #ae1 by which ,i have shown1 through the connection between the sides and angles of a triangle1 that this relation is not only quite different from that between cause and effect1 but also from that between reason of knowledge and consequent2 wherefore here the condition may be called ,reason of ,being1 ratio essendi4 ,the insight into such a reason of being can1 of course1 become a reason of knowing3 just as the insight into the law of causality and its application to a particular case is the reason of knowledge of the effect2 but this in no way annuls the complete distinction between ,reason of ,being1 ,reason of ,becoming1 and ,reason of ,knowing4 ,it often happens1 that what according to one form of our principle is consequence1 is1 according to another1 reason4 ,the rising of the quicksilver in a thermometer1 for instance1 is the consequence of increased heat according to the law of causality1 while according to the principle of the sufficient reason of knowing it is the reason1 the ground of knowledge1 of the increased heat and also of the judgment by which this is asserted4 #cg4 ,reason of ,being in ,space4 ,the position of each division of ,space towards any other1 say of any given line--and this is equally applicable to planes1 bodies1 and points--determines also absolutely its totally different position with reference to any other possible line2 so that the latter position stands to the former in the relation of the consequent to its reason4 ,as the position of this given line towards any other possible line likewise determines its position towards all the others1 and as therefore the position of the first two lines is itself determined by all the others1 it is immaterial which we consider as being first determined and determining the others1 i4e4 which particular one we regard as ratio and which others as rationata4 ,this is so1 because in ,space there is no succession2 for it is precisely by uniting ,space and ,time to form the collective representation of the complex of experience1 that the representation of coexistence arises4 ,thus an analogue to so-called reciprocity prevails everywhere in the ,reason of ,being in ,space1 as we shall see in #dh1 where ,i enter more fully into the reciprocity of reasons4 ,now1 as every line is determined by all the others just as much as it determines them1 it is arbitrary to consider any line merely as determining and not as being determined1 and the position of each towards any other admits the question as to its position with reference to some other line1 which second position necessarily determines the first and makes it that which it is4 ,it is therefore just as impossible to find an end a parte ante in the series of links in the chain of ,reasons of ,being as in that of ,reasons of ,becoming1 nor can we find any a parte post either1 because of the infinity of ,space and of the lines possible within ,space4 ,all possible relative spaces are figures1 because they are limited2 and all these figures have their ,reason of ,being in one another1 because they are conterminous4 ,the series rationum essendi in ,space therefore1 like the series rationum fiendi1 proceeds in infinitum2 and moreover not only in a single direction1 like the latter1 but in all directions4 ,nothing of all this can be proved2 for the truth of these principles is transcendental1 they being directly founded upon the intuition of ,space given us priori4 #ch4 ,reason of being in ,time4 ,arithmetic4 ,every instant in ,time is conditioned by the preceding one4 ,the ,sufficient ,reason of ,being1 as the law of consequence1 is so simple here1 because ,time has only one dimension1 therefore it admits of no multiplicity of relations4 ,each instant is conditioned by its predecessor2 we can only reach it through that predecessor3 only so far as this was and has elapsed1 does the present one exist4 ,all counting rests upon this nexus of the divisions of ,time1 numbers only serving to mark the single steps in the succession2 upon it therefore rests all arithmetic likewise1 which teaches absolutely nothing but methodical abbreviations of numeration4 ,each number pre-supposes its predecessors as the reasons of its being3 we can only reach the number ten by passing through all the preceding numbers1 and it is only in virtue of this insight that ,i know1 that where ten are1 there also are eight1 six1 four4 #ci4 ,geometry4 ,the whole science of ,geometry likewise rests upon the nexus of the position of the divisions of ,space4 ,it would1 accordingly1 be an insight into that nexus2 only such an insight being1 as we have already said1 impossible by means of mere conceptions1 or indeed in any other way than by intuition1 every geometrical proposition would have to be brought back to sensuous intuition1 and the proof would simply consist in making the particular nexus in question clear2 nothing more could be done4 ,nevertheless we find ,geometry treated quite differently4 ,euclid's ,twelve ,axioms are alone held to be based upon mere intuition1 and even of these only the ,ninth1 ,eleventh1 and ,twelfth are properly speaking admitted to be founded upon different1 separate intuitions2 while the rest are supposed to be founded upon the knowledge that in science we do not1 as in experience1 deal with real things existing for themselves side by side1 and susceptible of endless variety1 but on the contrary with conceptions1 and in ,mathematics with normal intuitions1 i4e4 figures and numbers1 whose laws are binding for all experience1 and which therefore combine the comprehensiveness of the conception with the complete definiteness of the single representation4 ,for although1 as intuitive representations1 they are throughout determined with complete precision--no room being left in this way by anything remaining undetermined--still they are general1 because they are the bare forms of all phenomena1 and1 as such1 applicable to all real objects to which such forms belong4 ,what ,plato says of his ,ideas would therefore1 even in ,geometry1 hold good of these normal intuitions1 just as well as of conceptions1 i4e4 that two cannot be exactly similar1 for then they would be but one4#adh ,this would1 ,i say1 be applicable also to normal intuitions in ,geometry1 if it were not that1 as exclusively spacial objects1 these differ from one another in mere juxtaposition1 that is1 in place4 ,plato had long ago remarked this1 as we are told by ,aristotle3#adi 1 1 1 1 ' 1 7item1 prter sensibilia et species1 mathematica rerum ait media esse1 a sensibilibus quidem differentia eo1 quod perpetua et immobilia sunt1 a speciebus vero eo1 quod illorum quidem multa qudam similia sunt1 species vero ipsa unaquque sola74 ,now the mere knowledge that such a difference of place does not annul the rest of the identity1 might surely1 it seems to me1 supersede the other nine axioms1 and would1 ,i think1 be better suited to the nature of science1 whose aim is knowledge of the particular through the general1 than the statement of nine separate axioms all based upon the same insight4 ,moreover1 what ,aristotle says3 7in illis qualitas unitas est7#aej then becomes applicable to geometrical figures4 #adh ,platonic ideas may1 after all1 be described as normal intuitions1 which would hold good not only for what is formal1 but also for what is material in complete representations--therefore as complete representations which1 as such1 would be determined throughout1 while comprehending many things at once1 like conceptions3 that is to say1 as representatives of conceptions1 but which are quite adequate to those conceptions1 as ,i have explained in #bh4 #adi ,aristot4 ,metaph4 i4 #f1 with which compare x4 #a4 ,further1 says he1 besides things sensible and the ideas1 there are things mathematical coming in between the two1 which differ from the things sensible1 inasmuch as they are eternal and immovable1 and from the ideas1 inasmuch as many of them are like each other2 but the idea is absolutely and only one4 7,tr4's ,add47 #aej ,in these it is equality that constitutes unity4 7,tr4's ,add47 ,but with reference to the normal intuitions in ,time1 i4e4 to numbers1 even this distinction of juxtaposition no longer exists4 ,here1 as with conceptions1 absolutely nothing but the identitas indiscernibilium remains3 for there is but one five and one seven4 ,and in this we may perhaps also find a reason why #g #e #ab is a synthetical proposition priori1 founded upon intuition1 as ,kant profoundly discovered1 and not an identical one1 as it is called by ,herder in his ,metakritik4 #ab #ab is an identical proposition4 ,in ,geometry1 it is therefore only in dealing with axioms that we appeal to intuition4 ,all the other theorems are demonstrated3 that is to say1 a reason of knowing is given1 the truth of which everyone is bound to acknowledge4 ,the logical truth of the theorem is thus shown1 but not its transcendental truth 7v4 #cj and #cb71 which1 as it lies in the reason of being and not in the reason of knowing1 never can become evident excepting by means of intuition4 ,this explains why this sort of geometrical demonstration1 while it no doubt conveys the conviction that the theorem which has been demonstrated is true1 nevertheless gives no insight as to why that which it asserts is what it is4 ,in other words1 we have not found its ,reason of ,being2 but the desire to find it is usually then thoroughly roused4 ,for proof by indicating the reason of knowledge only effects conviction 7convictio71 not knowledge 7cognitio73 therefore it might perhaps be more correctly called elenchus than demonstratio4 ,this is why1 in most cases1 therefore1 it leaves behind it that disagreeable feeling which is given by all want of insight1 when perceived2 and here1 the want of knowledge why a thing is as it is1 makes itself all the more keenly felt1 because of the certainty just attained1 that it is as it is4 ,this impression is very much like the feeling we have1 when something has been conjured into or out of our pocket1 and we cannot conceive how4 ,the reason of knowing which1 in such demonstrations as these1 is given without the reason of being1 resembles certain physical theories1 which present the phenomenon without being able to indicate its cause3 for instance1 ,leidenfrost's experiment1 inasmuch as it succeeds also in a platina crucible2 whereas the reason of being of a geometrical proposition which is discovered by intuition1 like every knowledge we acquire1 produces satisfaction4 ,when once the reason of being is found1 we base our conviction of the truth of the theorem upon that reason alone1 and no longer upon the reason of knowing given us by the demonstration4 ,let us1 for instance1 take the sixth proposition of the first ,book of ,euclid3-- ,if two angles of a triangle are equal1 the sides also which subtend1 or are opposite to1 the equal angles shall be equal to one another4 7,see fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,which ,euclid demonstrates as follows3-- ,let a b c be a triangle having the angle a b c equal to the angle a c b1 then the side a c must be equal to the side a b also4 ,for1 if side a b be not equal to side a c1 one of them is greater than the other4 ,let a b be greater than a c2 and from b a cut off b d equal to c a1 and draw d c4 ,then1 in the triangles d b c1 a b c1 because d b is equal to a c1 and b c is common to both triangles1 the two sides d b and b c are equal to the two sides a c1 a b1 each to each2 and the angle d b c is equal to the angle a c b1 therefore the base d c is equal to the base a b1 and the triangle d b c is equal to the triangle a b c1 the less triangle equal to the greater1--which is absurd4 ,therefore a b is not unequal to a c1 that is1 a b is equal to a c4 ,now1 in this demonstration we have a reason of knowing for the truth of the proposition4 ,but who bases his conviction of that geometrical truth upon this proof8 ,do we not rather base our conviction upon the reason of being1 which we know intuitively1 and according to which 7by a necessity which admits of no further demonstration1 but only of evidence through intuition7 two lines drawn from both extreme ends of another line1 and inclining equally towards each other1 can only meet at a point which is equally distant from both extremities2 since the two arising angles are properly but one1 to which the oppositeness of position gives the appearance of being two2 wherefore there is no reason why the lines should meet at any point nearer to the one end than to the other4 ,it is the knowledge of the reason of being which shows us the necessary consequence of the conditioned from its condition--in this instance1 the lateral equality from the angular equality--that is1 it shows their connection2 whereas the reason of knowing only shows their coexistence4 ,nay1 we might even maintain that the usual method of proving merely convinces us of their coexistence in the actual figure given us as an example1 but by no means that they are always coexistent2 for1 as the necessary connection is not shown1 the conviction we acquire of this truth rests simply upon induction1 and is based upon the fact1 that we find it is so in every figure we make4 ,the reason of being is certainly not as evident in all cases as it is in simple theorems like this #fth one of ,euclid2 still ,i am persuaded that it might be brought to evidence in every theorem1 however complicated1 and that the proposition can always be reduced to some such simple intuition4 ,besides1 we are all just as conscious priori of the necessity of such a reason of being for each relation of ,space1 as we are of the necessity of a cause for each change4 ,in complicated theorems it will1 of course1 be very difficult to show that reason of being2 and this is not the place for difficult geometrical researches4 ,therefore1 to make my meaning somewhat clearer1 ,i will now try to bring back to its reason of being a moderately complicated proposition1 in which nevertheless that reason is not immediately evident4 ,passing over the intermediate theorems1 ,i take the #afth3 ,in every triangle in which one side has been produced1 the exterior angle is greater than either of the interior opposite angles4 ,this ,euclid demonstrates in the following manner 7see fig4 #d73-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,let a b c be a triangle2 and let the side b c be produced to d2 then the exterior angle a c d shall be greater than either of the interior opposite angles b a c or c b a4 ,bisect the side a c at e1 and join b e2 produce b e to f1 making e f equal to e b1 and join f c4 ,produce a c to g4 ,because a e is equal to e c1 and b e to e f2 the two sides a e1 e b1 are equal to the two sides c e1 e f1 each to each2 and the angle a e b is equal to the angle c e f1 because they are opposite vertical angles2 therefore the base a b is equal to the base c f1 and the triangle a e b is equal to the triangle c e f1 and the remaining angles of one triangle to the remaining angles of the other1 each to each1 to which the equal sides are opposite2 therefore the angle b a e is equal to the angle e c f4 ,but the angle e c d is greater than the angle e c f4 ,therefore the angle a c d is greater than the angle a b c4 ,in the same manner1 if the side b c be bisected1 and the side a c be produced to g1 it may be demonstrated that the angle b c g1 that is1 the opposite vertical angle a c d is greater than the angle a b c4 ,my demonstration of the same proposition would be as follows 7see fig4 #e73-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,for the angle b a c to be even equal to1 let alone greater than1 the angle a c d1 the line b a toward c a would have to lie in the same direction as b d 7for this is precisely what is meant by equality of the angles71 i4e41 it must be parallel with b d2 that is to say1 b a and b d must never meet2 but in order to form a triangle they must meet 7reason of being71 and must thus do the contrary of that which would be required for the angle b a c to be of the same size as the angle a c d4 ,for the angle a b c to be even equal to1 let alone greater than1 the angle a c d1 line b a must lie in the same direction towards b d as a c 7for this is what is meant by equality of the angles71 i4e41 it must be parallel with a c1 that is to say1 b a and a c must never meet2 but in order to form a triangle b a and a c must meet and must thus do the contrary of that which would be required for the angle a b c to be of the same size as a c d4 ,by all this ,i do not mean to suggest the introduction of a new method of mathematical demonstration1 nor the substitution of my own proof for that of ,euclid1 for which its whole nature unfits it1 as well as the fact that it presupposes the conception of parallel lines1 which in ,euclid comes much later4 ,i merely wished to show what the reason of being is1 and wherein lies the difference between it and the reason of knowing1 which latter only effects convictio1 a thing that differs entirely from insight into the reason of being4 ,the fact that ,geometry only aims at effecting convictio1 and that this1 as ,i have said1 leaves behind it a disagreeable impression1 but gives no insight into the reason of being--which insight1 like all knowledge1 is satisfactory and pleasing--may perhaps be one of the reasons for the great dislike which many otherwise eminent heads have for mathematics4 ,i cannot resist again giving fig4 #f1 although it has already been presented elsewhere2 because the mere sight of it without words conveys ten times more persuasion of the truth of the ,pythagorean theorem than ,euclid's mouse-trap demonstration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,those readers for whom this chapter may have a special interest will find the subject of it more fully treated in my chief work1 ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung1 vol4 i4 #ae2 vol4 ii4 chap4 #ac4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,on ,,the ,,fourth ,,class ,,of ,,objects ,,for ,,the ,,subject1 ,,and ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,sufficient ,,reason ,,which ,,predominates ,,in ,,it4 #dj4 ,general ,explanation4 ,the last ,class of ,objects for our representative faculty which remains to be examined is a peculiar but highly important one4 ,it comprises but one object for each individual3 that is1 the immediate object of the inner sense1 the ,subject in volition1 which is ,object for the ,knowing ,subject2 wherefore it manifests itself in ,time alone1 never in ,space1 and as we shall see1 even in ,time under an important restriction4 #da4 ,subject of ,knowledge and ,object4 ,all knowledge presupposes ,subject and ,object4 ,even self-consciousness 7,selbstbewusstsein7 therefore is not absolutely simple1 but1 like our consciousness of all other things 7i4e41 the faculty of perception71 it is subdivided into that which is known and that which knows4 ,now1 that which is known manifests itself absolutely and exclusively as ,will4 ,the ,subject accordingly knows itself exclusively as willing1 but not as knowing4 ,for the ego which represents1 never can itself become representation or ,object1 since it conditions all representations as their necessary correlate2 rather may the following beautiful passage from the ,sacred ,upanishad be applied to it3 ,id videndum non est3 omnia videt2 et id audiendum non est3 omnia audit2 sciendum non est3 omnia scit3 et intelligendum1 non est3 omnia intelligit4 ,prter id1 videns1 et sciens1 et audiens1 et intelligens ens aliud non est4#aea #aea ,oupnekhat1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjb4 ,there can therefore be no knowledge of knowing1 because this would imply separation of the ,subject from knowing1 while it nevertheless knew that knowing--which is impossible4 ,my answer to the objection1 ,i not only know1 but know also that ,i know1 would be1 ,your knowing that you know only differs in words from your knowing4 ',i know that ,i know' means nothing more than ',i know1' and this again1 unless it is further determined1 means nothing more than 'ego4' ,if your knowing and your knowing that you know are two different things1 just try to separate them1 and first to know without knowing that you know1 then to know that you know without this knowledge being at the same time knowing4 ,no doubt1 by leaving all special knowing out of the question1 we may at last arrive at the proposition ,i know--the last abstraction we are able to make2 but this proposition is identical with ,objects exist for me1 and this again is identical with ,i am ,subject1 in which nothing more is contained than in the bare word ,i4 ,now1 it may still be asked how the various cognitive faculties belonging to the ,subject1 such as ,sensibility1 ,understanding1 ,reason1 are known to us1 if we do not know the ,subject4 ,it is not through our knowing having become an ,object for us that these faculties are known to us1 for then there would not be so many conflicting judgments concerning them2 they are inferred rather1 or more correctly1 they are general expressions for the established classes of representations which1 at all times1 have been more or less clearly distinguished in those cognitive faculties4 ,but1 with reference to the necessary correlate of these representations as their condition1 i4e41 the ,subject1 these faculties are abstracted from them 7the representations71 and stand consequently towards the classes of representations in precisely the same relation as the ,subject in general towards the ,object in general4 ,now1 just as the ,object is at once posited with the ,subject 7for the word itself would otherwise have no meaning71 and conversely1 as the ,subject is at once posited with the ,object--so that being the ,subject means exactly as much as having an ,object1 and being an ,object means the same thing as being known by the ,subject--so likewise1 when an ,object is assumed as being determined in any particular way1 do we also assume that the ,subject knows precisely in that particular way4 ,so far therefore it is immaterial whether we say that ,objects have such and such peculiar inherent determinations1 or that the ,subject knows in such and such ways4 ,it is indifferent whether we say that ,objects are divided into such and such classes1 or that such and such different cognitive faculties are peculiar to the ,subject4 ,in that singular compound of depth and superficiality1 ,aristotle1 are to be found traces even of insight into this truth1 and indeed the critical philosophy lies in embryo in his works4 ,he says3#aeb 7anima quammodo est universa1 qu sunt74 ,and again3 1 i4e41 the understanding is the form of forms1 1 and sensibility the form of sensuous objects4 ,accordingly1 it is all one whether we say1 sensibility and understanding are no more2 or1 the world is at an end4 ,it comes to the same thing whether we say1 ,there are no conceptions1 or ,reason is gone and animals alone remain4 #aeb ,aristot41 ,de anima1 iii4 #h4 ,in a certain sense the intellect is all that exists4 7,tr4's ,add47 ,the dispute between ,realism and ,idealism1 which appeared for the last time in the dispute between the ,dogmatists and ,kantians1 or between ,ontology and ,metaphysics on the one hand and ,transcendental sthetic and ,transcendental ,logic on the other1 arose out of the misapprehension of this relation and was based upon its misapprehension with reference to the ,first and ,third ,classes of representations as established by me1 just as the medival dispute between ,realists and ,nominalists rested upon the misapprehension of this relation with reference to the ,second ,class4 #db4 ,the ,subject of ,volition4 ,according to what has preceded1 the ,subject of knowledge can never be known2 it can never become ,object or representation4 ,nevertheless1 as we have not only an outer self-knowledge 7in sensuous perception71 but an inner one also2 and as1 on the other hand1 every knowledge1 by its very nature1 presupposes a knower and a known1 what is known within us as such1 is not the knower1 but the willer1 the ,subject of ,volition3 the ,will4 ,starting from knowledge1 we may assert that ,i know is an analytical1 ,i will1 on the contrary1 a synthetical1 and moreover an posteriori proposition1 that is1 it is given by experience--in this case by inner experience 7i4e41 in ,time alone74 ,in so far therefore the ,subject of volition would be an ,object for us4 ,introspection always shows us to ourselves as willing4 ,in this willing1 however1 there are numerous degrees1 from the faintest wish to passion1 and ,i have often shown#aec that not only all our emotions1 but even all those movements of our inner man1 which are subsumed under the wide conception of feeling1 are states of the will4 #aec ,see ,die beiden ,grundprobleme der ,ethik1 p4 #aa1 and in several other places4 ,now1 the identity of the willing with the knowing ,subject1 in virtue of which the word ,i includes and designates both1 is the nodus#aed of the ,universe1 and therefore inexplicable4 ,for we can only comprehend relations between ,objects2 but two ,objects never can be one1 excepting as parts of a whole4 ,here1 where the ,subject is in question1 the rules by which we know ,objects are no longer applicable1 and actual identity of the knower with what is known as willing--that is1 of ,subject and ,object--is immediately given4 ,now1 whoever has clearly realized the utter impossibility of explaining this identity1 will surely concur with me in calling it the miracle ' 4 #aed ,weltknoten4 ,just as the ,understanding is the subjective correlate to our ,first ,class of representations1 the ,reason to the ,second1 and pure ,sensibility to the ,third1 so do we find that the correlate to this ,fourth ,class is the inner sense1 or ,self-consciousness in general4 #dc4 ,willing4 ,the ,law of ,motives 7,motivation74 ,it is just because the willing ,subject is immediately given in self-consciousness1 that we are unable further to define or to describe what willing is2 properly speaking1 it is the most direct knowledge we have1 nay1 one whose immediateness must finally throw light upon every other knowledge1 as being very mediate4 ,at every resolution that we take ourselves1 or that we see others take1 we deem ourselves justified in asking1 why8 ,that is1 we assume that something must have previously occurred1 from which this resolution has resulted1 and we call this something its reason1 or1 more correctly1 the motive of the action which now follows4 ,without such a reason or motive1 the action is just as inconceivable for us1 as the movement of a lifeless body without being pushed or pulled4 ,motives therefore belong to causes1 and have also been already numbered and characterized among them in #bj1 as the third form of ,causality4 ,but all ,causality is only the form of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in the ,first ,class of ,objects3 that is1 in the corporeal world given us in external perception4 ,there it forms the link which connects changes one with another1 the cause being that which1 coming from outside1 conditions each occurrence4 ,the inner nature of such occurrences on the contrary continues to be a mystery for us3 for we always remain on the outside4 ,we certainly see this cause necessarily produce that effect2 but we do not learn how it is actually enabled to do so1 or what is going on inside4 ,thus we see mechanical1 physical1 chemical effects1 as well as those brought about by stimuli1 in each instance follow from their respective causes without on that account ever completely understanding the process1 the essential part of which remains a mystery for us2 so we attribute it to qualities of bodies1 to forces of ,nature1 or to vital energy1 which1 however1 are all qualitates occult4 ,nor should we be at all better off as to comprehension of the movements and actions of animals and of human beings1 which would also appear to us as induced in some unaccountable way by their causes 7motives71 were it not that here we are granted an insight into the inward part of the process2 we know1 that is1 by our own inward experience1 that this is an act of the will called forth by the motive1 which consists in a mere representation4 ,thus the effect produced by the motive1 unlike that produced by all other causes1 is not only known by us from outside1 in a merely indirect way1 but at the same time from inside1 quite directly1 and therefore according to its whole mode of action4 ,here we stand as it were behind the scenes1 and learn the secret of the process by which cause produces effect in its most inward nature2 for here our knowledge comes to us through a totally different channel and in a totally different way4 ,from this results the important proposition3 ,the action of motives 7motivation7 is causality seen from within4 ,here accordingly causality presents itself in quite a different way1 in quite a different medium1 and for quite another kind of knowledge2 therefore it must now be exhibited as a special and peculiar form of our principle1 which consequently here presents itself as the ,principle of the ,sufficient ,reason of ,acting1 principium rationis sufficientis agendi1 or1 more briefly1 as the ,law of ,motives 7,law of ,motivation74 ,as a clue to my philosophy in general1 ,i here add1 that this ,fourth ,class of ,objects for the ,subject1 that is1 the one object contained in it1 the will which we apprehend within us1 stands in the same relation towards the ,first ,class as the law of motives towards the law of causality1 as ,i have established it in #bj4 ,this truth is the corner-stone of my whole ,metaphysic4 ,as to the way in which1 and the necessity with which1 motives act1 and as to the dependence of their action upon empirical1 individual character1 and even upon individual capacity for knowledge1 c4 c41 ,i refer my readers to my ,prize-essay on the ,freedom of the ,will1 in which ,i have treated all this more fully4 #dd4 ,influence of the ,will over the ,intellect4 ,it is not upon causality proper1 but upon the identity of the knowing with the willing ,subject1 as shown in #db1 that the influence is based1 which the will exercises over the intellect1 when it obliges it to repeat representations that have once been present to it1 and in general to turn its attention in this or that direction and evoke at pleasure any particular series of thoughts4 ,and even in this1 the will is determined by the law of motives1 in accordance with which it also secretly rules what is called the association of ideas1 to which ,i have devoted a separate chapter 7the #adth7 in the second volume of my chief work4 ,this association of ideas is itself nothing but the application of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in its four forms to the subjective train of thought2 that is1 to the presence of representations in our consciousness4 ,but it is the will of the individual that sets the whole mechanism in motion1 by urging the intellect1 in accordance with the interest1 i4e41 the individual aims1 of the person1 to recall1 together with its present representations1 those which either logically or analogically1 or by proximity in ,time or ,space1 are nearly related to them4 ,the will's activity in this1 however1 is so immediate1 that in most cases we have no clear consciousness of it2 and so rapid1 that we are at times even unconscious of the occasion which has thus called forth a representation4 ,in such cases1 it appears as if something had come into our consciousness quite independently of all connection with anything else2 that this1 however1 is impossible1 is precisely the ,root of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 which has been fully explained in the above-mentioned chapter of my chief work4#aee ,every picture which suddenly presents itself to our imagination1 every judgment even that does not follow its previously present reason1 must be called forth by an act of volition having a motive2 although that motive may often escape our perception owing to its insignificance1 and although such acts of volition are often in like manner unperceived1 because they take place so easily1 that wish and fulfilment are simultaneous4 #aee ,see ,die ,welt1 a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 ii4 ch4 xiv4 #de4 ,memory4 ,that peculiar faculty of the knowing ,subject which enables it to obey the will the more readily in repeating representations1 the oftener they have already been present to it--in other words1 its capacity for being exercised--is what we call ,memory4 ,i cannot agree with the customary view1 by which it is looked upon as a sort of store-house in which we keep a stock of ready-made representations always at our disposal1 only without being always conscious of their possession4 ,the voluntary repetition of representations which have once been present becomes so easy through practice1 that one link in a series of representations no sooner becomes present to us1 than we at once evoke all the rest1 often even1 as it were1 involuntarily4 ,if we were to look for a metaphor for this characteristic quality of our representative faculty 7such as that of ,plato1 who compared it with a soft mass that receives and retains impressions71 ,i think the best would be that of a piece of drapery1 which1 after having been repeatedly folded in the same folds1 at last falls into them1 as it were1 of its own accord4 ,the body learns by practice to obey the will1 and the faculty of representing does precisely the same4 ,a remembrance is not by any means1 as the usual view supposes1 always the same representation which is1 as it were1 fetched over and over again from its store-house2 a new one1 on the contrary1 arises each time1 only practice makes this especially easy4 ,thus it comes to pass that pictures of our imagination1 which we fancy we have stowed away in our memory1 become imperceptibly modified3 a thing which we realize when we see some familiar object again after a long time1 and find that it no longer completely corresponds to the image we bring with us4 ,this could not be if we retained ready-made representations4 ,it is just for this reason too1 that acquired knowledge1 if left unexercised1 gradually fades from our memory1 precisely because it was the result of practice coming from habit and knack2 thus most scholars1 for instance1 forget their ,greek1 and most artists their ,italian on their return from ,italy4 ,this is also why we find so much difficulty in recalling to mind a name or a line of poetry formerly familiar to us1 when we have ceased to think of it for several years2 whereas when once we succeed in remembering it1 we have it again at our disposal for some time1 because the practice has been renewed4 ,everyone therefore who knows several languages1 will do well to make a point of reading occasionally in each1 that he may ensure to himself their possession4 ,this likewise explains why the surroundings and events of our childhood impress themselves so deeply on our memory2 it is because1 in childhood we have but few1 and those chiefly intuitive1 representations3 so that we are induced to repeat them constantly for the sake of occupation4 ,people who have little capability for original thought do this all their lives 7and moreover not only with intuitive representations1 but with conceptions and words also72 sometimes therefore they have remarkably good memories1 when obtuseness and sluggishness of intellect do not act as impediments4 ,men of genius1 on the contrary1 are not always endowed with the best of memories1 as1 for instance1 ,rousseau has told us of himself4 ,perhaps this may be accounted for by their great abundance of new thoughts and combinations1 which leaves them no time for frequent repetition4 ,still1 on the whole1 genius is seldom found with a very bad memory2 because here a greater energy and mobility of the whole thinking faculty makes up for the want of constant practice4 ,nor must we forget that ,mnemosyne was the mother of the ,muses4 ,we may accordingly say1 that our memory stands under two contending influences1 that of the energy of the representative faculty on the one hand1 and that of the quantity of representations occupying that faculty on the other4 ,the less energy there is in the faculty1 the fewer must be the representations1 and conversely4 ,this explains the impaired memory of habitual novel-readers1 for it is with them as with men of genius3 the multitude of representations following rapidly upon each other1 leaves no time or patience for repetition and practice2 only1 in novels1 these representations are not the readers' own1 but other people's thoughts and combinations quickly succeeding each other1 and the readers themselves are wanting in that which1 in genius1 counterbalances repetition4 ,the whole thing besides is subject to the corrective1 that we all have most memory for that which interests us1 and least for that which does not4 ,great minds therefore are apt to forget in an incredibly short time the petty affairs and trifling occurrences of daily life and the commonplace people with whom they come in contact1 whereas they have a wonderful recollection of those things which have importance in themselves and for them4 ,it is1 however1 on the whole1 easy to understand that we should more readily remember such series of representations as are connected together by the thread of one or more of the above-mentioned species of reasons and consequences1 than such as have no connection with one another1 but only with our will according to the law of motives2 that is to say1 those which are arbitrarily grouped4 ,for1 in the former1 the fact that we know the formal part priori1 saves us half the trouble2 and this probably gave rise to ,plato's doctrine1 that all learning is mere remembering4 ,as far as possible we ought to try and reduce all that we wish to incorporate in our memory to a perceptible image1 either directly1 or as an example1 a mere simile1 or an analogue1 or indeed in any other way2 because intuitive perceptions take a far firmer hold than any abstract thoughts1 let alone mere words4 ,this is why we remember things we have ourselves experienced so much better than those of which we read4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,general ,,observations ,,and ,,results4 #df4 ,the ,systematic ,order4 ,the order of succession in which ,i have stated the various forms of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in this treatise1 is not systematic2 it has been chosen for the sake of greater clearness1 in order first to present what is better known and least presupposes the rest4 ,in this ,i have followed ,aristotle's rule3 1 1 ' ' 7et doctrina non a primo1 ac rei principio aliquando inchoanda est1 sed unde quis facilius discat74#aef ,but the systematic order in which the different classes of reasons ought to follow one another is the following4 ,first of all should come ,the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,being2 and in this again first its application to ,time1 as being the simple schema containing only what is essential in all the other forms of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 nay1 as being the prototype of all finitude4 ,the ,reason of ,being in ,space having next been stated1 the ,law of ,causality would then follow2 after which would come the ,law of ,motives1 and last of all the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,knowing2 for the other classes of reasons refer to immediate representations1 whereas this last class refers to representations derived from other representations4 #aef ,aristot4 ,metaph4 iv4 #a4 ,sometimes too1 learning must start1 not from what is really first and with the actual beginning of the thing concerned1 but from where it is easiest to learn4 ,tr4's add4 ,the truth expressed above1 that ,time is the simple schema which merely contains the essential part of all the forms of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 explains the absolutely perfect clearness and precision of ,arithmetic1 a point in which no other science can compete with it4 ,for all sciences1 being throughout combinations of reasons and consequences1 are based upon the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason4 ,now1 the series of numbers is the simple and only series of reasons and consequences of ,being in ,time2 on account of this perfect simplicity--nothing being omitted1 no indefinite relations left--this series leaves nothing to be desired as regards accuracy1 apodeictic certainty and clearness4 ,all the other sciences yield precedence in this respect to ,arithmetic2 even ,geometry3 because so many relations arise out of the three dimensions of ,space1 that a comprehensive synopsis of them becomes too difficult1 not only for pure1 but even for empirical intuition2 complicated geometrical problems are therefore only solved by calculation2 that is1 ,geometry is quick to resolve itself into ,arithmetic4 ,it is not necessary to point out the existence of sundry elements of obscurity in the other sciences4 #dg4 ,relation in ,time between ,reason and ,consequence4 ,according to the laws of causality and of motivation1 a reason must precede its consequence in ,time4 ,that this is absolutely essential1 ,i have shown in my chief work1 to which ,i here refer my readers#aeg in order to avoid repeating myself4 ,therefore1 if we only bear in mind that it is not one thing which is the cause of another thing1 but one state which is the cause of another state1 we shall not allow ourselves to be misled by examples like that given by ,kant1#aeh that the stove1 which is the cause of the warmth of the room1 is simultaneous with its effect4 ,the state of the stove3 that is1 its being warmer than its surrounding medium1 must precede the communication of its surplus caloric to that medium2 now1 as each layer of air on becoming warm makes way for a cooler layer rushing in1 the first state1 the cause1 and consequently also the second1 the effect1 are renewed until at last the temperature of stove and room become equalized4 ,here therefore we have no permanent cause 7the stove7 and permanent effect 7the warmth of the room7 as simultaneous things1 but a chain of changes2 that is1 a constant renewing of two states1 one of which is the effect of the other4 ,from this example1 however1 it is obvious that even ,kant's conception of ,causality was far from clear4 #aeg ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v41 vol4 ii4 ch4 iv4 p4 #da1 #db of the #bnd edition1 and p4 #dd of the #crd4 #aeh ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern41 #ast edition1 p4 #bjb2 #eth edition1 p4 #bdh 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #agg47 ,on the other hand1 the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,knowing conveys with it no relation in ,time1 but merely a relation for our ,reason3 here therefore1 before and after have no meaning4 ,in the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of ,being1 so far as it is valid in ,geometry1 there is likewise no relation in ,time1 but only a relation in ,space1 of which we might say that all things were co-existent1 if here the words co-existence and succession had any meaning4 ,in ,arithmetic1 on the contrary1 the ,reason of ,being is nothing else but precisely the relation of ,time itself4 #dh4 ,reciprocity of ,reasons4 ,hypothetical judgments may be founded upon the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in each of its significations1 as indeed every hypothetical judgment is ultimately based upon that principle1 and here the laws of hypothetical conclusions always hold good3 that is to say1 it is right to infer the existence of the consequence from the existence of the reason1 and the non-existence of the reason from the non-existence of the consequence2 but it is wrong to infer the non-existence of the consequence from the non-existence of the reason1 and the existence of the reason from the existence of the consequence4 ,now it is singular that in ,geometry we are nevertheless nearly always able to infer the existence of the reason from the existence of the consequence1 and the non-existence of the consequence from the non-existence of the reason4 ,this proceeds1 as ,i have shown in #cg1 from the fact that1 as each line determines the position of the rest1 it is quite indifferent which we begin at3 that is1 which we consider as the reason1 and which as the consequence4 ,we may easily convince ourselves of this by going through the whole of the geometrical theorems4 ,it is only where we have to do not only with figures1 i4e41 with the positions of lines1 but with planes independently of figures1 that we find it in most cases impossible to infer the existence of the reason from the existence of the consequence1 or1 in other words1 to convert the propositions by making the condition the conditioned4 ,the following theorem gives an instance of this3 ,triangles whose lengths and bases are equal1 include equal areas4 ,this cannot be converted as follows3 ,triangles whose areas are equal1 have likewise equal bases and lengths2 for the lengths may stand in inverse proportion to the bases4 ,in #bj it has already been shown1 that the law of causality does not admit of reciprocity1 since the effect never can be the cause of its cause2 therefore the conception of reciprocity is1 in its right sense1 inadmissible4 ,reciprocity1 according to the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason of knowing1 would only be possible between equivalent conceptions1 since the spheres of these alone cover each other mutually4 ,apart from these1 it only gives rise to a vicious circle4 #di4 ,necessity4 ,the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in all its forms is the sole principle and the sole support of all necessity4 ,for necessity has no other true and distinct meaning than that of the infallibility of the consequence when the reason is posited4 ,accordingly every necessity is conditioned3 absolute1 i4e41 unconditioned1 necessity therefore is a contradicto in adjecto4 ,for to be necessary can never mean anything but to result from a given reason4 ,by defining it as what cannot not be1 on the other hand1 we give a mere verbal definition1 and screen ourselves behind an extremely abstract conception to avoid giving a definition of the thing4 ,but it is not difficult to drive us from this refuge by inquiring how the non-existence of anything can be possible or even conceivable1 since all existence is only given empirically4 ,it then comes out1 that it is only possible so far as some reason or other is posited or present1 from which it follows4 ,to be necessary and to follow from a given reason1 are thus convertible conceptions1 and may always1 as such1 be substituted one for the other4 ,the conception of an ,,absolutely necessary ,being which finds so much favour with pseudo-philosophers1 contains therefore a contradiction3 it annuls by the predicate absolute 7i4e41 unconditioned by anything else7 the only determination which makes the necessary conceivable4 ,here again we have an instance of the improper use of abstract conceptions to play off a metaphysical artifice such as those ,i have already pointed out in the conceptions immaterial substance1 cause in general1 absolute reason1 c4 c4#aei ,i can never insist too much upon all abstract conceptions being checked by perception4 #aei ,compare ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v41 vol4 i4 p4 #eea et seq4 of the #bnd edition 7i4 p4 #ehb et seq4 of #crd edition7 as to immaterial substance1 and #eb of the present work as to reason in general4 7,editor's note47 ,there exists accordingly a fourfold necessity1 in conformity with the four forms of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason3-- #ao4 ,logical necessity1 according to the principle of sufficient reason of knowing1 in virtue of which1 when once we have admitted the premisses1 we must absolutely admit the conclusion4 #bo4 ,physical necessity1 according to the law of causality1 in virtue of which1 as soon as the cause presents itself1 the effect must infallibly follow4 #co4 ,mathematical necessity1 according to the principle of sufficient reason of being1 in virtue of which1 every relation which is stated in a true geometrical theorem1 is as that theorem affirms it to be1 and every correct calculation remains irrefutable4 #do4 ,moral necessity1 in virtue of which1 every human being1 every animal even1 is compelled1 as soon as a motive presents itself1 to do that which alone is in accordance with the inborn and immutable character of the individual4 ,this action now follows its cause therefore as infallibly as every other effect1 though it is less easy here to predict what that effect will be than in other cases1 because of the difficulty we have in fathoming and completely knowing the individual empirical character and its allotted sphere of knowledge1 which is indeed a very different thing from ascertaining the chemical properties of a neutral salt and predicting its reaction4 ,i must repeat this again and again on account of the dunces and blockheads who1 in defiance of the unanimous authority of so many great thinkers1 still persist in audaciously maintaining the contrary1 for the benefit of their old woman's philosophy4 ,i am not a professor of philosophy1 forsooth1 that ,i need bow to the folly of others4 #ej4 ,series of ,reasons and ,consequences4 ,according to the law of causality1 the condition is itself always conditioned1 and1 moreover1 conditioned in the same way2 therefore1 there arises a series in infinitum a parte ante4 ,it is just the same with the ,reason of ,being in ,space3 each relative space is a figure2 it has its limits1 by which it is connected with another relative space1 and which themselves condition the figure of this other1 and so on throughout all dimensions in infinitum4 ,but when we examine a single figure in itself1 the series of reasons of being has an end1 because we start from a given relation1 just as the series of causes comes to an end if we stop at pleasure at any particular cause4 ,in ,time1 the series of reasons of being has infinite extension both a parte ante1 and a parte post1 since each moment is conditioned by a preceding one1 and necessarily gives rise to the following4 ,time has therefore neither beginning nor end4 ,on the other hand1 the series of reasons of knowledge--that is1 a series of judgments1 each of which gives logical truth to the other--always ends somewhere1 i4e41 either in an empirical1 a transcendental1 or a metalogical truth4 ,if the reason of the major to which we have been led is an empirical truth1 and we still continue asking why1 it is no longer a reason of knowledge that is asked for1 but a cause--in other words1 the series of reasons of knowing passes over into the series of reasons of becoming4 ,but if we do the contrary1 that is1 if we allow the series of reasons of becoming to pass over into the series of reasons of knowing1 in order to bring it to an end1 this is never brought about by the nature of the thing1 but always by a special purpose3 it is therefore a trick1 and this is the sophism known by the name of the ,ontological ,proof4 ,for when a cause1 at which it seems desirable to stop short in order to make it the first cause1 has been reached by means of the ,cosmological ,proof1 we find out that the law of causality is not so easily brought to a standstill1 and still persists in asking why3 so it is simply set aside and the principle of sufficient reason of knowing1 which from a distance resembles it1 is substituted in its stead2 and thus a reason of knowledge is given in the place of the cause which had been asked for--a reason of knowledge derived from the conception itself which has to be demonstrated1 the reality of which is therefore still problematical3 and this reason1 as after all it is one1 now has to figure as a cause4 ,of course the conception itself has been previously arranged for this purpose1 and reality slightly covered with a few husks just for decency's sake has been placed within it1 so as to give the delightful surprise of finding it there--as has been shown in ,section #g4 ,on the other hand1 if a chain of judgments ultimately rests upon a principle of transcendental or of metalogical truth1 and we still continue to ask why1 we receive no answer at all1 because the question has no meaning1 i4e41 it does not know what kind of reason it is asking for4 ,for the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is the principle of all explanation3 to explain a thing means1 to reduce its given existence or connection to some form or other of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 in accordance with which form that existence or connection necessarily is that which it is4 ,the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason itself1 i4e41 the connection expressed by it in any of its forms1 cannot therefore be further explained2 because there exists no principle by which to explain the source of all explanation3 just as the eye is unable to see itself1 though it sees everything else4 ,there are of course series of motives1 since the resolve to attain an end becomes the motive for the resolve to use a whole series of means2 still this series invariably ends parte priori in a representation belonging to one of our two first classes1 in which lies the motive which originally had the power to set this individual will in motion4 ,the fact that it was able to do this1 is a datum for knowing the empirical character here given1 but it is impossible to answer the question why that particular motive acts upon that particular character2 because the intelligible character lies outside ,time and never becomes an ,object4 ,therefore the series of motives1 as such1 finds its termination in some such final motive and1 according to the nature of its last link1 passes into the series of causes1 or that of reasons of knowledge3 that is to say1 into the former1 when that last link is a real object2 into the latter1 when it is a mere conception4 #ea4 ,each ,science has for its ,guiding ,thread one of the ,forms of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in preference to the others4 ,as the question why always demands a sufficient reason1 and as it is the connection of its notions according to the principle of sufficient reason which distinguishes science from a mere aggregate of notions1 we have called that why the parent of all science 7 #d74 ,in each science1 moreover1 we find one of the forms of that principle predominating over the others as its guiding-thread4 ,thus in pure ,mathematics the reason of being is the chief guiding-thread 7although the exposition of the proofs proceeds according to the reason of knowing only72 in applied ,mathematics the law of causality appears together with it1 but in ,physics1 ,chemistry1 ,geology1 c41 that law entirely predominates4 ,the principle of sufficient reason in knowing finds vigorous application throughout all the sciences1 for in all of them the particular is known through the general2 but in ,botany1 ,zoology1 ,mineralogy1 and other classifying sciences1 it is the chief guide and predominates absolutely4 ,the law of motives 7motivation7 is the chief guide in ,history1 ,politics1 ,pragmatic ,psychology1 c4 c41 when we consider all motives and maxims1 whatever they may be1 as data for explaining actions--but when we make those motives and maxims the object-matter of investigation from the point of view of their value and origin1 the law of motives becomes the guide to ,ethics4 ,in my chief work will be found the highest classification of the sciences according to this principle4#afj #afj ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v41 vol4 ii4 ch4 #ab1 p4 #abf of the #bnd edition 7p4 #aci of the #crd edition74 #eb4 ,two principal ,results4 ,i have endeavoured in this treatise to show that the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is a common expression for four completely different relations1 each of which is founded upon a particular law given priori 7the principle of sufficient reason being a synthetical priori principle74 ,now1 according to the principle of homogeneity1 we are compelled to assume that these four laws1 discovered according to the principle of specification1 as they agree in being expressed by one and the same term1 must necessarily spring from one and the same original quality of our whole cognitive faculty as their common root1 which we should accordingly have to look upon as the innermost germ of all dependence1 relativeness1 instability and limitation of the objects of our consciousness--itself limited to ,sensibility1 ,understanding1 ,reason1 ,subject and ,object--or of that world1 which the divine ,plato repeatedly degrades to the 1 7ever arising and perishing1 but in fact never existing71 the knowledge of which is merely a ' 1 and which ,christendom1 with a correct instinct1 calls temporal1 after that form of our principle 7,time7 which ,i have defined as its simplest schema and the prototype of all limitation4 ,the general meaning of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason may1 in the main1 be brought back to this3 that every thing existing no matter when or where1 exists by reason of something else4 ,now1 the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is nevertheless priori in all its forms3 that is1 it has its root in our intellect1 therefore it must not be applied to the totality of existent things1 the ,universe1 including that intellect in which it presents itself4 ,for a world like this1 which presents itself in virtue of priori forms1 is just on that account mere phenomenon2 consequently that which holds good with reference to it as the result of these forms1 cannot be applied to the world itself1 i4e4 to the thing in itself1 representing itself in that world4 ,therefore we cannot say1 the world and all things in it exist by reason of something else2 and this proposition is precisely the ,cosmological ,proof4 ,if1 by the present treatise1 ,i have succeeded in deducing the result just expressed1 it seems to me that every speculative philosopher who founds a conclusion upon the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason or indeed talks of a reason at all1 is bound to specify which kind of reason he means4 ,one might suppose that wherever there was any question of a reason1 this would be done as a matter of course1 and that all confusion would thus be impossible4 ,only too often1 however1 do we still find either the terms reason and cause confounded in indiscriminate use2 or do we hear basis and what is based1 condition and what is conditioned1 principia and principiata talked about in quite a general way without any nearer determination1 perhaps because there is a secret consciousness that these conceptions are being used in an unauthorized way4 ,thus even ,kant speaks of the thing in itself as the reason#afa of the phenomenon1 and also of a ground of the possibility of all phenomena1#afb of an intelligible cause of phenomena1 of an unknown ground of the possibility of the sensuous series in general1 of a transcendental object#afc as the ground of all phenomena and of the reason why our sensibility should have this rather than all other supreme conditions1 and so on in several places4 ,now all this does not seem to me to tally with those weighty1 profound1 nay immortal words of his1#afd the contingency#afe of things is itself mere phenomenon1 and can lead to no other than the empirical regressus which determines phenomena4 #afa ,or ground4 #afb ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,vern41 #ast edition1 pp4 #efa1 #efb1 #efd2 p4 #eij of the #eth edition4 7,pp4 #dhc to #dhf of the ,english translation by ,m4 ,mller47 #afc ,ibid4 p4 #edj of #ast edition1 and #fda of #eth edition4 7,p4 #dff of ,english translation47 #afd ,ibid4 p4 #efc of the #ast and #eia of the #eth edition4 7,p4 #dhe of ,english translation47 #afe ,empirical contingency is meant1 which1 with ,kant1 signifies as much as dependence upon other things4 ,as to this1 ,i refer my readers to my censure in my ,critique of ,kantian ,philosophy1 p4 #ebd of the #bnd1 and p4 #eeb of the #crd edition4 ,that since ,kant the conceptions reason and consequence1 principium and principiatum1 c4 c41 have been and still are used in a yet more indefinite and even quite transcendent sense1 everyone must know who is acquainted with the more recent works on philosophy4 ,the following is my objection against this promiscuous employment of the word ground 7reason7 and1 with it1 of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason in general2 it is likewise the second result1 intimately connected with the first1 which the present treatise gives concerning its subject-matter proper4 ,the four laws of our cognitive faculty1 of which the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason is the common expression1 by their common character as well as by the fact that all ,objects for the ,subject are divided amongst them1 proclaim themselves to be posited by one and the same primary quality and inner peculiarity of our knowing faculty1 which faculty manifests itself as ,sensibility1 ,understanding1 and ,reason4 ,therefore1 even if we imagined it to be possible for a new ,fifth ,class of ,objects to come about1 we should in that case likewise have to assume that the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason would appear in this class also under a different form4 ,notwithstanding all this1 we still have no right to talk of an absolute reason 7ground71 nor does a reason in general1 any more than a triangle in general1 exist otherwise than as a conception derived by means of discursive reflection1 nor is this conception1 as a representation drawn from other representations1 anything more than a means of thinking several things in one4 ,now1 just as every triangle must be either acute-angled1 right-angled1 or obtuse-angled1 and either equilateral1 isosceles or scalene1 so also must every reason belong to one or other of the four possible kinds of reasons ,i have pointed out4 ,moreover1 since we have only four well-distinguished ,classes of ,objects1 every reason must also belong to one or other of these four1 and no further ,class being possible1 ,reason itself is forced to rank it within them2 for as soon as we employ a reason1 we presuppose the ,four ,classes as well as the faculty of representing 7i4e4 the whole world71 and must hold ourselves within these bounds1 never transcending them4 ,should others1 however1 see this in a different light and opine that a reason in general is anything but a conception1 derived from the four kinds of reasons1 which expresses what they all have in common1 we might revive the controversy of the ,realists and ,nominalists1 and then ,i should side with the latter4 ,,on ,,the ,,will ,,in ,,nature4 ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,corroborations ,,received ,,by ,,the ,,author',s ,,philosophy ,,since ,,its ,,first ,,appearance ,,from ,,the ,,empirical ,,sciences4 ,,by ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer4 ,translated from the ,fourth ,edition published by ,,julius ,,frauenst,,dt4 ' 1 ' ' 4 ,,sch4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,to my great joy ,i have lived to revise even this little work1 after a lapse of nineteen years1 and that joy is enhanced by the special importance of this treatise for my philosophy4 ,for1 starting from the purely empirical1 from the observations of unbiassed physical investigators--themselves following the clue of their own special sciences--,i here immediately arrive at the very kernel of my ,metaphysic2 ,i establish its points of contact with the physical sciences and thus corroborate my fundamental dogma1 in a sense1 as the arithmetician proves a sum3 for by this ,i not only confirm it more closely and specially1 but even make it more clearly1 easily1 and rightly understood than anywhere else4 ,the improvements in this new edition are confined almost entirely to the ,additions2 for scarcely anything that is worth mentioning in the ,first ,edition has been left out1 while ,i have inserted many and1 in some cases1 important new passages4 ,but1 even in a general sense1 it may be looked upon as a good sign1 that a new edition of the present treatise should have been found necessary2 since it shows that there is an interest in serious philosophy and confirms the fact that the necessity for real progress in this direction is now more strongly felt than ever4 ,this is based upon two circumstances4 ,the first is the unparalleled zeal and activity displayed in every branch of ,natural ,science which1 as this pursuit is mostly in the hands of people who have learned nothing else1 threatens to lead to a gross1 stupid ,materialism1 the more immediately offensive side of which is less the moral bestiality of its ultimate results1 than the incredible absurdity of its first principles2 for by it even vital force is denied1 and organic ,nature is degraded to a mere chance play of chemical forces4#aff ,these knights of the crucible and retort should be made to understand1 that the mere study of ,chemistry qualifies a man to become an apothecary1 but not a philosopher4 ,certain other like-minded investigators of ,nature1 too1 must be taught1 that a man may be an accomplished zoologist and have the sixty species of monkeys at his fingers' ends1 yet on the whole be an ignoramus to be classed with the vulgar1 if he has learnt nothing else1 save perhaps his school-catechism4 ,but in our time this frequently happens4 ,men set themselves up for enlighteners of mankind1 who have studied ,chemistry1 or ,physics1 or ,mineralogy and nothing else under the sun2 to this they add their only knowledge of any other kind1 that is to say1 the little they may remember of the doctrines of the school-catechism1 and when they find that these two elements will not harmonize1 they straightway turn scoffers at religion and soon become shallow and absurd materialists4#afg ,they may perhaps have heard at college of the existence of a ,plato and an ,aristotle1 of a ,locke1 and especially of a ,kant2 but as these folk never handled crucibles and retorts or even stuffed a monkey1 they do not esteem them worthy of further acquaintance4 ,they prefer calmly to toss out of the window the intellectual labour of two thousand years and treat the public to a philosophy concocted out of their own rich mental resources1 on the basis of the catechism on the one hand1 and on that of crucibles and retorts or the catalogue of monkeys on the other4 ,they ought to be told in plain language that they are ignoramuses1 who have much to learn before they can be allowed to have any voice in the matter4 ,everyone1 in fact1 who dogmatizes at random1 with the nave realism of a child on such arguments as ,god1 the soul1 the world's origin1 atoms1 c4 c4 c41 as if the ,critique of ,pure ,reason had been written in the moon and no copy had found its way to our planet--is simply one of the vulgar4 ,send him into the servants' hall1 where his wisdom will best find a market4#afh #aff ,and this infatuation has reached such a point1 that people seriously imagine themselves to have found the key to the mystery of the essence and existence of this wonderful and mysterious world in wretched chemical affinities6 ,compared with this illusion of our physiological chemists1 that of the alchymists who sought after the philosopher's stone1 and only hoped to find out the secret of making gold1 was indeed a mere trifle4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #afg ,aut catechismus1 aut materialismus1 is their watchword4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #afh ,there too he will meet with people who fling about words of foreign origin1 which they have caught up without understanding them1 just as readily as he does himself1 when he talks about ,idealism without knowing what it means1 mostly therefore using the word instead of ,spiritualism 7which being ,realism1 is the opposite to ,idealism74 ,hundreds of examples of this kind besides other quid pro quos are to be found in books1 and critical periodicals4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,the other circumstance which calls for a real progress in philosophy1 is the steady growth of unbelief in the face of all the hypocritical dissembling and the outward conformity to the ,church4 ,this unbelief necessarily and unavoidably goes hand in hand with the growing expansion of empirical and historical knowledge4 ,it threatens to destroy not only the form1 but even the spirit of ,christianity 7a spirit which has a much wider reach than ,christianity itself71 and to deliver up mankind to moral materialism--a thing even more dangerous than the chemical materialism already mentioned4 ,and nothing plays more into the hands of this unbelief1 than the ,tartuffianism de rigueur impudently flaunting itself everywhere just now1 whose clumsy disciples1 fee in hand1 hold forth with such unction and emphasis1 that their voices penetrate even into learned1 critical reviews issued by ,academies and ,universities1 and into physiological as well as philosophical books1 where however1 being quite in their wrong place1 they only damage their own cause by rousing indignation4#afi ,under such circumstances as these1 it is gratifying to see the public betray an interest in philosophy4 #afi ,they ought everywhere to be shown that their belief is not believed in4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,i have nevertheless one sad piece of news to communicate to our professors of philosophy4 ,their ,caspar ,hauser 7according to ,dorguth7 whom they had so carefully secreted1 so securely walled up for nearly forty years1 that no sound could betray his existence to the world--their ,caspar ,hauser--,i say1 has escaped6 ,he has escaped and is running about in the world2--some even say he is a prince4 ,in plain language1 the misfortune they feared more than anything has come to pass after all4 ,in spite of their having done their best to prevent it for more than a generation by acting with united force1 with rare constancy1 secreting and ignoring to a degree that is without example1 my books are beginning and henceforth will continue to be read4 ,legor et legar3 there is no help for it4 ,this is really dreadful and most inopportune2 nay1 it is a positive fatality1 not to say calamity4 ,is this the recompense for all their faithful1 snug secrecy2 for having held so firmly and unitedly together8 ,poor time-servers6 ,what becomes of ,horace's assurance3-- ,est et fideli tuta silentio ,merces1----8 ,for verily they have not been deficient in faithful reticence2 rather do they excel in this quality wherever they scent merit4 ,and1 after all1 it is no doubt the cleverest artifice2 for what no one knows1 is as though it did not exist4 ,whether the merces will remain quite so tuta1 seems rather doubtful--unless we are to take merces in a bad sense2 and for this the support of many a classical authority might certainly be found4 ,these gentlemen had seen quite rightly that the only means to be used against my writings1 was to secrete them from the public by maintaining profound silence concerning them1 while they kept up a loud noise at the birth of every misshapen offspring of professorial philosophy2 as the voice of the new-born ,zeus was drowned in days of yore by the clashing of the cymbals of the ,corybantes4 ,but this expedient is now used up2 the secret is out--the public has discovered me4 ,the rage of our professors of philosophy at this is great1 but powerless2 for their only effective resource1 so long successfully employed1 being exhausted1 no snarling can avail any longer against my influence1 and in vain do they now take this1 or that1 or the other attitude4 ,they have certainly succeeded1 so far as the generation which was properly speaking contemporaneous with my philosophy1 went to the grave in ignorance of it4 ,but this was a mere postponement1 and ,time has kept its word1 as it always does4 ,now there are two reasons why these gentlemen in the philosophical trade--as they call themselves with incredible navet--hate my philosophy4 ,the first of them is1 that my writings spoil the taste of the public for tissues of empty phrases1 for accumulations of unmeaning words piled one upon another1 for hollow1 superficial1 brain-racking twaddle1 for ,christian dogmatics under the disguise of the most wearisome ,metaphysics1 for systematized ,philistinism of the flattest kind made to represent ,ethics and even accompanied by instructions for card-playing and dancing--in short1 they unfit my readers for the whole method of philosophising la vieille femme1 which has scared so many for ever from the pursuit of philosophy4 ,the second reason is1 that our gentlemen in the trade are absolutely bound in conscience not to let my philosophy pass and are therefore debarred from using it for the benefit of the trade2--and this they even heartily regret2 for my abundance might have been admirably turned to account for the benefit of their own needy poverty4 ,but even if it contained the greatest hoards of human wisdom ever unearthed1 my doctrine could never find favour with them either now or in the future2 for it is absolutely wanting in all ,speculative ,theology and ,rational ,psychology1 and these1 just these1 are the very breath of life to these gentlemen1 the sine qua non of their existence4 ,for they are anxious before all things in heaven and on earth1 to hold their official appointments1 and these appointments demand before all things in heaven and on earth a ,speculative ,theology and a ,rational ,psychology3 extra hc non datur salus4 ,theology there must and shall be1 no matter whence it come2 ,moses and the ,prophets must be made out to be in the right3 this is the highest principle in philosophy2 and there must be ,rational ,psychology to boot1 as is proper4 ,now there is nothing of the sort to be found either in ,kant's philosophy or in mine4 ,for1 as we all know1 the most cogent theological argumentation shivers to atoms like a glass thrown at a wall1 when it is brought into contact with ,kant's ,critique of all ,speculative ,theology1 and under his hands not a shred remains entire of the whole tissue of ,rational ,psychology6 ,as to myself1 being the bold continuer of ,kant's philosophy1 ,i have entirely done away with all ,speculative ,theology and all ,rational ,psychology1 as is only consistent and honest4#agj ,on the other hand1 the task incumbent upon ,university ,philosophy is at bottom this3 to set forth the chief fundamental truths belonging to the ,catechism under the veil of some very abstract1 abstruse and difficult1 therefore painfully wearisome formulas and sentences2 wherefore1 however confused1 intricate1 strange and eccentric the matter may seem at first sight1 these truths invariably reveal themselves as its kernel4 ,this proceeding may be useful1 though to me it is unknown4 ,all ,i know is1 that philosophy1 i4e4 the search after truth--,i mean the truth ' 1 by which the most sublime and important disclosures1 more precious than anything else to the human race1 are understood--will never advance a step1 nay1 an inch1 by means of such manuvring1 by which its course is on the contrary impeded2 therefore ,i found out long ago that ,university philosophy is the enemy of all genuine philosophy4 ,now1 this being the state of the case1 when a really honest philosophy arises1 which seriously has truth for its sole aim1 must not these gentlemen of the philosophical trade feel as might stage-knights in paste-board armour1 were a knight suddenly to appear in the midst of them clad in real armour1 who made the stage-floor creak under his ponderous tread8 ,such philosophy as this must therefore be bad and false and consequently places these gentlemen of the trade under the painful obligation of playing the part of him who1 in order to appear what he is not1 cannot allow others to pass for what they really are4 ,out of all this however there unrolls itself the amusing spectacle we enjoy1 when these gentlemen1 now that ignoring has unfortunately come to an end1 after forty years1 at last begin to measure me by their own puny standard and pass judgment upon me from the heights of their wisdom1 as though they were amply qualified to do so by their office2 but they are most amusing of all when they assume airs of superiority towards me4 #agj ,for revelation goes for nothing in philosophy2 therefore a philosopher must before all things be an unbeliever4 ,add4 to #crd ed44 ,their abhorrence of ,kant1 though less openly expressed1 is scarcely less great than their hatred of me2 precisely because all speculative ,theology and all ,rational ,psychology--the bread-winners of these gentlemen--have been undermined1 not to say irrevocably ruined1 by him in the eyes of all serious thinkers4 ,what6 ,not hate him8 him1 who has made their trade in philosophy so difficult to them1 that they hardly see how to pull through honourably6 ,so ,kant and ,i are accordingly both bad1 and these gentlemen quite overlook us4 ,for nearly forty years they have not deigned to cast a glance upon me1 and now they look down condescendingly upon ,kant from the heights of their wisdom1 smiling in pity at his errors4 ,this policy is both very wise and very profitable2 since they are thus able to hold forth at their ease volume after volume upon ,god and the soul1 as if these were personalities with whom they were intimately acquainted1 and to discourse upon the relation in which the former stands to the world and the latter to the body1 just as if there had never been such a thing as a ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,when once the ,critique of ,pure ,reason is done away with1 all will go on splendidly6 ,now it is for this end that they have been endeavouring for many years quietly and gradually to set ,kant aside1 to make him obsolete1 nay1 to turn up their noses at him1 and one being encouraged by the other in this1 they are becoming bolder every day4#aga ,they have no opposition to fear from their own colleagues1 since they all have the same aims and the same mission and all together form a numerous coterie1 the brilliant members of which1 coram populo1 bow and scrape to each other on all sides4 ,thus by degrees things have come to such a point1 that the wretchedest compilers of manuals have the presumption to treat ,kant's grand1 immortal discoveries as antiquated errors1 nay1 calmly to set them aside with the most ludicrous arrogance and most impudent dicta of their own1 which they nevertheless lay down under the disguise of argumentation1 because they know they may count upon a credulous public1 to whom ,kant's writings are not known4#agb ,and this is what happens to ,kant on the part of writers1 whose total incapacity strikes us in every page1 not to say every line1 we read of their unmeaning1 stupefying verbiage6 ,were this to go on much longer1 ,kant would present the spectacle of the dead lion being kicked by the donkey4 ,even in ,france there is no lack of fellow-workers inspired by a similar orthodoxy1 who are labouring towards the same end4 ,a certain ,m4 ,barthlemy de ,st4 ,hilaire1 for instance1 in a lecture delivered in the ,acadmie des ,sciences ,morales in ,april1 #ahej1 has presumed to criticize ,kant with an air of condescension and to use most improper language in speaking of him2 luckily however in such a way1 that no one could fail to see the underlying purpose4#agc #aga ,one always says the other is right1 so that the public in its simplicity at last imagines them really to be right4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #agb ,here it is especially ,ernst ,reinhold's ,system of ,metaphysics 7#crd edition1 #ahed7 that ,i have in my eye4 ,in my ,parerga ,i have explained how it comes1 that brain-perverting books like this go through several editions4 ,see ,parerga1 vol4 i4 p4 #aga 7#bnd edition1 vol4 i4 p4 #aid74 #agc ,nevertheless1 by ,zeus1 all such gentlemen1 in ,france as well as ,germany1 should be taught that ,philosophy has a different mission from that of playing into the hands of the clergy4 ,we must let them clearly see before all things that we have no faith in their faith--from this follows what we think of them4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,now others among our ,german traders in philosophy again try to get rid of the obnoxious ,kant in a different way3 instead of attacking his philosophy point-blank1 they rather seek to undermine the foundations on which it is built4 ,these people however are so utterly forsaken by all the gods and by all power of judgment1 that they attack priori truths3 that is to say1 truths as old as the human understanding1 nay1 which constitute that understanding itself1 and which it is therefore impossible to contradict without declaring war against that understanding also4 ,so great however is the courage of these gentlemen4 ,i am sorry to say ,i know of three1#agd and ,i am afraid there are a good many more at work at this undermining process1 who have the incredible presumption to maintain the posteriori origin of ,space as a consequence1 a mere relation1 of the objects within it2 for they assert that ,space and ,time are of empirical origin and attached to those bodies1 so that according to them ,space first arises through our perception of the juxtaposition of bodies and ,time likewise through our perception of the succession of changes 7sancta simplicitas6 as if the words collateral and successive would have any sense for us without the antecedent intuitions of ,space and of ,time to give them a meaning72 consequently1 that if there were no bodies1 there would be no ,space1 therefore if they disappeared ,space also must lapse1 and that if all changes were to stop1 ,time also would stop4#age #agd 7a7 ,rosenkranz1 ,meine ,reform der ,hegelschen ,philosophie1 #aheb1 especially p4 #da1 in a pompous1 dictatorial tone3 ,i have explicitly said1 that ,space and ,time would not exist if ,matter did not exist4 ther spread out within itself first constitutes real ,space1 and the movement of this ther and consequent real genesis of everything individual and separate1 constitutes real ,time4 7b7 ,l4 ,noack1 ,die ,theologie als ,religionsphilosophie1 #ahec1 pp4 #h1 #i4 7c7 ,v4 ,reuchlin-,meldegg1 ,two reviews of ,oersted's ,geist in der ,natur in the ,heidelberg ,annals1 ,nov4-,dec41 #ahej1 and ,may-,june1 #ahed4 #age ,time is the condition of the possibility of succession1 which could neither take place1 nor be understood by us and expressed in words1 without ,time4 ,and ,space is likewise the condition of the possibility of juxtaposition1 and ,transcendental sthetic is the proof that these conditions have their seat in the constitution of our head4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,and such stuff as this is gravely taught fifty years after ,kant's death6 ,the aim of it is1 as we know1 to undermine ,kantian philosophy1 and certainly if these propositions were true1 one stroke would suffice to overthrow it4 ,fortunately however these assertions are of a kind which is met by derision rather than by serious refutation4 ,for1 in them1 the question is one of heresy1 not so much against ,kantian philosophy1 as against common sense2 and they are not so much an attack upon any particular philosophical dogma1 as upon an priori truth which1 as such1 constitutes human understanding itself1 and therefore must be instantaneously evident to every one who is in his senses1 just as much as that #b #b #d4 ,fetch me a peasant from the plough2 make the question intelligible to him2 and he will tell you1 that even if all things in ,heaven and on ,earth were to vanish1 ,space would nevertheless remain1 and that if all changes in ,heaven and on ,earth were to cease1 ,time would nevertheless flow on4 ,compared with ,german pseudo-philosophers like these1 how estimable does a man like the ,french physicist ,pouillet appear1 who1 though he never troubles his head about ,metaphysics1 is careful to incorporate two long paragraphs1 one on l',espace1 the other on le ,temps1 in the first chapter of his well-known ,manual1 on which public instruction in ,france is based1 where he shows that if all ,matter were annihilated1 ,space would still remain1 and that ,space is infinite2 and that if all changes ceased1 ,time would still pursue its course without end4 ,now here he does not appeal1 as in all other cases1 to experience1 because in this case experience is not possible2 yet he speaks with apodeictic certainty4 ,for1 as a physicist1 professing a science which is absolutely immanent--i4e4 limited to the reality that is empirically given--it never comes into his head to inquire whence he knows all this4 ,it did come into ,kant's head1 and it was this very problem1 clothed by him in the severe form of an inquiry as to the possibility of synthetical priori judgments1 that became the starting-point and the corner-stone of his immortal discoveries1 or in other words1 of ,transcendental ,philosophy which1 precisely by answering this question and others related to it1 shows what is the nature of that empirical reality itself4#agf #agf ,in the ,scholium to the eighth of the definitions he has placed at the top of his ,principia1 ,newton quite rightly distinguishes absolute1 that is1 empty1 from relative1 or filled ,time1 and likewise absolute from relative ,space4 ,he says1 p4 #aa3 ,tempus1 spatium1 locum1 motum1 ut omnibus notissima1 non definio4 ,notandum tamen quod ,,vulgus 7that is1 professors like those ,i have been mentioning7 quantitates hasce non aliter quam ex relatione ad sensibilia concipiat4 ,et inde oriuntur prjudicia qudam1 quibus tollendis convenit easdem in absolutas et relativas1 veras et apparentes1 mathematicas et vulgares distingui4 ,and again 7p4 #ab73 ,i4 ,tempus absolutum1 verum et mathematicum1 in se et natura sua sine relatione ad externum quodvis1 quabiliter fluit1 alioque nomine dicitur ,duratio3 relativum1 apparens et vulgare est sensibilis et externa quvis ,durationis per motum mensura 7seu accurata seu inquabilis7 qu vulgus vice veri temporis utitur2 ut ,hora1 ,dies1 ,mensis1 ,annus4 ,,ii4 ,spatiam absolutum1 natura sua sine relatione ad externum quodvis1 semper manet similare et immobile3 relativum est spatii hujus mensura seu dimensio qulibet mobilis1 qu a sensibus nostris per situm suum ad corpora definitur1 et a vulgo pro spatio immobili usurpatur3 uti dimensio spatii subterranei1 rei vel coelestis definita per situm suum ad terram4 ,but even ,newton never dreamt of asking how we know these two infinite entities1 ,space and ,time2 since1 as he here impresses on us1 they do not fall within the range of the senses2 and how we know them moreover so intimately1 that we are able to indicate their whole nature and rule down to the minutest detail4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,and seventy years after the ,critique of ,pure ,reason had appeared and filled the world with its fame1 these gentlemen dare to serve up such gross absurdities1 which were done away with long ago1 and to return to former barbarism4 ,if ,kant were to come back and see all this mischief1 he would feel like ,moses on returning from ,mount ,sinai1 when he found his people worshipping the golden calf1 and dashed the ,tables to pieces in his anger4 ,but if ,kant were to take things as tragically as ,moses1 ,i should console him with the words of ,jesus ,sirach3#agg ,he that telleth a tale to a fool speaketh to one in a slumber2 when he hath told his tale1 he will say1 ',what is the matter8' ,for that diamond in ,kant's crown1 ,transcendental sthetic1 never has existed for these gentlemen--it is tacitly set aside1 as non-avenue4 ,i wonder what they think ,nature means by producing the rarest of all her works1 a great mind1 one among so many hundreds of millions1 if the worshipful company of numskulls are to be able at their pleasure and by their mere counter-assertion to annul the weightiest doctrines emanating from that mind1 let alone to treat them with disregard and do as if they did not exist4 #agg ,ecclesiasticus xxii4 #h4 ,but this degenerate1 barbarous state of philosophy which1 in the present day1 emboldens every tyro to hold forth at random upon subjects that have puzzled the greatest minds1 is precisely a consequence still remaining of the impunity with which--thanks to the connivance of our professors of philosophy--that audacious scribbler1 ,hegel1 has been allowed to flood the market with his monstrous vagaries and so to pass for the greatest of all philosophers for the last thirty years in ,germany4 ,every one of course now thinks himself entitled to serve up confidently anything that may happen to come into his sparrow's brain4 ,therefore1 as ,i have said1 the gentlemen of the 'philosophical trade' are anxious before all things to obliterate ,kant's philosophy1 in order to be able to return to the muddy canal of the old dogmatism and to talk at random to their heart's content upon the favourite subjects which are specially recommended to them3 just as if nothing had happened and neither a ,kant nor a ,critical ,philosophy had ever come into the world4#agh ,the affected veneration for1 and laudation of1 ,leibnitz too1 which has been showing itself everywhere for some years1 proceed from the same source4 ,they like to place him in a line with1 nay above1 ,kant1 having at times the assurance to call him the greatest of all ,german philosophers4 ,now1 compared with ,kant1 ,leibnitz is a poor rushlight4 ,kant is a master-mind1 to whom mankind is indebted for the discovery of never-to-be-forgotten truths4 ,one of his chief merits is precisely1 to have delivered us from ,leibnitz and his subtleties3 from pre-established harmonies1 monads and identitas indiscernibilium4 ,kant has made philosophy serious and ,i am keeping it so4 ,that these gentlemen should think differently is easily explained2 for has not ,leibnitz a central ,monad and a ,theodice also1 with which to deck it out8 ,now this is quite to the taste of my gentlemen 'of the philosophical trade4' ,it does not stand in the way of earning a honest livelihood2 it allows one to subsist2 whereas such a thing as ,kant's ,critique of all ,speculative ,theology1 makes one's hair stand on end4 ,kant is consequently a wrong-headed man and one to be set aside4 ,vivat ,leibnitz6 ,vivat the 'philosophical trade6' ,vivat old woman's philosophy6 ,these gentlemen really imagine that1 according to the standard of their own petty aims1 they can obscure what is good1 disparage what is great1 and accredit what is false4 ,they may perhaps succeed in doing so for a time1 but certainly not in the long run1 nor with impunity4 ,notwithstanding all their machinations and spiteful ignoring of me for forty years1 have not even ,i at last made my way8 ,during those forty years however ,i have learnt to appreciate ,chamfort's words3 ,en examinant la ligue des sots contre les gens d'esprit1 on croirait voir une conspiration de valets pour carter les matres4 #agh ,for ,kant has disclosed the dreadful truth1 that philosophy must be quite a different thing from ,jewish mythology4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,we do not care to have much to do with those whom we dislike4 ,one of the consequences of this antipathy for ,kant1 therefore1 has been an incredible ignorance of his doctrines4 ,i can scarcely believe my eyes at times1 when ,i see certain proofs of this ignorance1 and must here support my assertion by a few examples4 ,first let me present a very singular specimen1 though it is now some years old4 ,in ,professor ,michelet's ,anthropology and ,psychology 7p4 #ddd71 he states ,kant's ,categorical ,imperative in the following words3 thou must1 for thou canst 7du sollst1 denn du kannst74 ,this cannot be a lapsus calami1 for he again states it in the same words in his ,history of the ,development of ,modern ,german ,philosophy 7p4 #ch71agi published three years later4 ,letting alone the fact that he appears to have studied ,kantian philosophy in ,schiller's epigrams1 he has thus turned the thing upside down1 and expressed exactly the opposite of ,kant's argument2 evidently without having the slightest inkling of what ,kant meant by that postulate of ,freedom on the basis of his ,categorical ,imperative4 ,none of ,professor ,michelet's colleagues1 to my knowledge1 have pointed out this mistake1 but hanc veniam damus1 petimusque vicissim4--,another more recent instance4 ,the above mentioned reviewer of ,oersted's book 7see note #a 7c71 p4 #bjb71 to whose title the present treatise unfortunately had to stand godfather1 comes in that work on the sentence that bodies are spaces filled with force 7krafterfllte ,rume74 ,this is new to him2 so without the faintest suspicion that he has to do with a far-famed ,kantian dogma1 and taking this for a paradoxical opinion of ,oersted's1 he attacks it and argues against it bravely1 persistently and repeatedly in both his reviews1 which appeared at an interval of three years from one another1 using arguments like these3 ,force cannot fill ,space without something substantial1 ,matter2 then again three years later3 ,force in ,space does not yet constitute any thing4 ,for ,force to fill ,space1 there must be ,substance1 ,matter4 ,a mere force can never fill4 ,matter must be there for it to fill4--,bravo6 my cobbler would use just such arguments as these4#ahj--,when ,i see specimina eruditionis of this sort1 ,i begin to have my misgivings whether ,i did not do the man injustice by naming him among those who endeavour to undermine ,kant2 but in this1 to be sure1 ,i had in view his assertions that ,space is but the relation1 the juxtaposition of things1#aha and that ,space is a relation in which things stand1 a juxtaposition of things4 ,this juxtaposition ceases to be a conception as soon as the conception of ,matter ceases4#ahb ,for he might possibly have penned these sentences in sheer innocence1 since he may have known no more of the ,transcendental sthetic than of the ,metaphysical ,first ,principles of ,natural ,science2 though to be sure1 this would be rather extraordinary for a professor of philosophy4 ,now-a-days however we must not be surprised at anything4 ,for all knowledge of ,critical ,philosophy has died out1 in spite of its being the latest true philosophy that has appeared1 and a doctrine withal1 that has made a revolution and epoch in human knowledge and thought4 ,now therefore1 since it has overthrown all previous systems1 and since the knowledge of it has died out1 philosophising no longer proceeds on the basis of any of the doctrines propounded by the great minds of the past1 but becomes a mere random untutored process1 having an ordinary education and the catechism for its foundation4 ,now that ,i have startled them however1 our professors may perhaps take to studying ,kant's works again4 ,still ,lichtenberg says3 ,past a certain age1 ,i think it as impossible to learn ,kantian ,philosophy as to learn rope-dancing4 #agi ,another instance of ,michelet's ignorance is to be found in ,schopenhauer's posthumous writings1 see ,aus ,arthur ,schopenhauer's handschriftlichem ,nachlass1 ,leipzig1 ,a4 ,brockhaus1 #ahfd1 p4 #cbg4 ,editor's note4 #ahj ,the same reviewer 7,von ,reuchlin-,meldegg7 when be expounds the doctrines of the philosophers concerning ,god in the ,august number of the ,heidelberg ,annals 7#ahee71 p4 #egi1 says3 ,in ,kant1 ,god is a thing in itself which cannot be known4 ,in his review of ,frauenstdt's ,letters in the ,heidelberg ,annals of ,may and ,june 7#ahee7 he says that there is no knowledge priori4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #aha ,c4 #a4 p4 #hii4 #ahb p4 #ijh4 ,i should certainly not have condescended to record the sins of these sinners had not the interests of truth required that ,i should do so1 in order to show the state of degradation at which ,german ,philosophy has arrived fifty years after ,kant's death in consequence of the machinations of the gentlemen 'of the trade1' and also to show what would result1 if these puny minds1 who know nothing but their own ends1 were to be suffered without hindrance to check the influence of the great geniuses who have illumined the world4 ,i cannot look on at this in silence2 it is rather a case to which ,gthe's exhortation applies3 ,du ,krftiger1 sei nicht so still1 ,wenn auch sich ,andre scheuen3 ,wer den ,teufel erschrecken will1 ,der muss laut schreien4 ,dr4 ,martin ,luther thought so also4 ,hatred against ,kant1 hatred against me1 hatred against truth1 all however in majorem ,dei gloriam1 is what inspires these worthies who live on philosophy4 ,who can be so blind as not to see that ,university philosophy is the enemy of all true1 serious philosophy1 whose progress it feels bound to withstand8 ,for a philosophy which deserves the name1 is pure service of truth1 therefore the most sublime of all human endeavours2 but1 as such1 it is not adapted for a trade4 ,least of all can it have its seat in ,universities1 where a theological ,faculty predominates and things are irrevocably decided beforehand ere philosophy comes to them4 ,with ,scholasticism1 from which ,university philosophy descends1 it was quite a different thing4 ,scholasticism was avowedly the ancilla theologi1 so that here the name corresponded to the thing4 ,our ,university philosophy of to-day1 on the contrary1 disclaims the connection1 and professes independent research2 yet in reality it is only the ancilla disguised1 and it is intended no less than its predecessor to be the servant of ,theology4 ,thus genuine1 sincerely meant philosophy has an adversary under the guise of an ally in ,university philosophy4 ,therefore ,i said long ago1 that nothing would be of greater benefit to philosophy than for it to cease altogether to be taught at ,universities2 and if at that time ,i still admitted the propriety of a brief1 quite succinct course of ,history of ,philosophy accompanying ,logic--which undoubtedly ought to be taught at ,universities--,i have since withdrawn that hasty concession in consequence of the following disclosure made to us in the ,gttingischen ,gelehrten ,anzeigen of the #ast ,january1 #ahec1 p4 #h1 by the ,ordinarius loci 7one who writes ,history of ,philosophy in thick volumes73 ,it could not be mistaken that ,kant's doctrine is ordinary ,theism1 and that it has contributed little or nothing towards transforming the current views on ,god and his relation to the world4--,if this is the state of the case1 ,universities are in my opinion no longer the right place even for teaching ,history of ,philosophy4 ,there designs and intentions reign paramount4 ,i had indeed long ago begun to suspect1 that ,history of ,philosophy was taught at our ,universities in the same spirit and with the same granum salis as ,philosophy itself1 and it needed but very little to make my suspicions certainty4 ,accordingly it is my wish to see both ,philosophy and its ,history disappear from the lecture-list1 because ,i desire to rescue them from the tender mercies of our court-councillors4#ahc ,but far be it from me1 to wish to see our professors of philosophy removed from their thriving business at our ,universities4 ,on the contrary1 what ,i should like would be1 to see them promoted three degrees higher in dignity and raised to the highest faculty1 as professors of ,theology4 ,for at the bottom they have really been this for some time already1 and have served quite long enough as volunteers4 #ahc ,hofrthe4 ,a title of honour often given for literary and scientific merit in ,germany1 and common among ,university professors4 ,tr4's note4 ,meanwhile my honest and kindly advice to the young generation is1 not to waste any time with ,university philosophy1 but to study ,kant's works and my own instead4 ,i promise them that there they will learn something substantial1 that will bring light and order into their brains3 so far at least as they may be capable of receiving them4 ,it is not good to crowd round a wretched farthing rushlight when brilliant torches are close by2 still less to run after will o' the wisps4 ,above all1 my truth-seeking young friends1 beware of letting our professors tell you what is contained in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,read it yourselves1 and you will find in it something very different from what they deem it advisable for you to know4--,in our time a great deal too much study is generally devoted to the ,history of ,philosophy2 for this study1 being adapted by its very nature to substitute knowledge for reflection1 is just now cultivated downright with a view to making philosophy consist in its own history4 ,it is not only of doubtful necessity1 but even of questionable profit1 to acquire a superficial half-knowledge of the opinions and systems of all the philosophers who have taught for #b1ejj years2 yet what more does the most honest history of philosophy give8 ,a real knowledge of philosophers can only be acquired from their own works1 and not from the distorted image of their doctrines as it is found in the commonplace head4#ahd ,but it is really urgent that order should be brought into our heads by some sort of philosophy1 and that we should at the same time learn to look at the world with a really unbiassed eye4 ,now no philosophy is so near to us1 both as regards time and language1 as that of ,kant1 and it is at the same time a philosophy1 compared with which all those which went before are superficial4 ,on this account it is unhesitatingly to be preferred to all others4 #ahd ,potius de rebus ipsis judicare debemus1 quam pro magno habere1 de hominibus quid quisque senserit scire1 says ,st4 ,augustine 7,de civ4 ,dei1 l4 #ai1 c4 #c74 ,under the present mode of proceeding1 however1 the philosophical lecture-room becomes a sort of rag-fair for old worn out1 cast-off opinions1 which are brought there every six months to be aired and beaten4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,but ,i perceive that the news of ,caspar ,hauser's escape has already spread among our professors of philosophy2 for ,i see that some of them have already given vent to their feelings in bitter and venomous abuse of me in various periodicals1 making up by falsehoods for their deficiency of wit4#ahe ,nevertheless ,i do not complain of all this1 because ,i am rejoiced at the cause and amused by the effect of it1 as illustrative of ,gthe's verse3 ,es will der ,spitz aus unserm ,stall ,uns immerfort begleiten3 ,doch seines ,bellens lauter ,schall ,beweist nur1 dass wir reiten4 ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer4 ,,frankfurt ,,am ,,mein1 ,august1 #ahed4 #ahe ,i take this opportunity urgently to request that the public will not believe unconditionally any accounts of what ,i am supposed to have said1 even when they are given as quotations2 but will first verify the existence of these quotations in my works4 ,in this way many a falsehood will be detected1 which can however only be stamped as a direct forgery when accompanied by quotation marks 774 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,,editor',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,schopenhauer has left an interleaved copy of his work ,on the ,will in ,nature1 as well as of his other writings1 and has inserted in it those ,corrections and ,additions which he intended to use for the ,third ,edition4 ,i have therefore included them in this ,third ,edition4 ,the ,corrections chiefly concern the style1 here and there an expression being changed1 and a word inserted or omitted4 ,the ,additions1 on the contrary1 concern the matter of the book2 they amplify it more or less considerably1 and are tolerably numerous4 ,the ,corrections are incorporated by ,schopenhauer with the text2 whereas the ,additions are designated by him as ,notes 7,anmerkungen7 to be placed at the foot of the pages with the words1 added to the third edition4 ,they will therefore be found at the places indicated by him for them1 as foot-notes2 and thus the reader will be enabled easily to discern how much has been added in this edition4 ,as to the value of the present work1 ,schopenhauer has expressed himself as follows in the ,world as ,will and ,representation3 ,it would be a great mistake to consider the foreign deliverances with which ,i have connected my own exposition there 7in the work ,on the ,will in ,nature7 as the real substance and argument of that work which1 though small in size1 is weighty in import4 ,they are rather a mere occasion which ,i take as my starting-point in order to expound the fundamental truth of my doctrine more clearly there than has been done anywhere else1 and to apply it all the way down even to the empirical knowledge of ,nature4 ,this ,i have done most exhaustively and stringently under the heading ,physical ,astronomy1 nor can ,i ever hope to find a more correct or accurate expression for the kernel of my doctrine than the one given there4#ahf #ahf ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v41 vol4 ii41 c4 #ah1 p4 #bac4 ,i have nothing to add to testimony thus given by ,schopenhauer himself4 ,,julius ,,frauenst,,dt4 ,berlin1 ,march1 #ahfg4 ,,editor',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,the present ,fourth ,edition is an identical reprint of the ,third3 it therefore contains the same ,corrections and ,additions which ,i had already inserted in the ,third ,edition from ,schopenhauer's own manuscript4 ,,julius ,,frauenst,,dt4 ,berlin1 ,september1 #ahgg4 ,,the ,,will ,,in ,,nature4 ,,introduction4 ,i break silence after seventeen years1#ahg in order to point out to the few who1 in advance of the age1 may have given their attention to my philosophy1 sundry corroborations which have been contributed to it by unbiassed empiricists1 unacquainted with my writings1 who1 in pursuing their own road in search of merely empirical knowledge1 discovered at its extreme end what my doctrine has propounded as the ,metaphysical 7das ,metaphysische71 from which the explanation of experience as a whole must come4 ,this circumstance is the more encouraging1 as it confers upon my system a distinction over all hitherto existing ones2 for all the other systems1 even the latest--that of ,kant--still leave a wide gap between their results and experience1 and are far from coming down directly to1 and into contact with1 experience4 ,by this my ,metaphysic proves itself to be the only one having an extreme point in common with the physical sciences3 a point up to which these sciences come to meet it by their own paths1 so as really to connect themselves and to harmonize with it4 ,moreover this is not brought about by twisting and straining the empirical sciences in order to adapt them to ,metaphysic1 nor by ,metaphysic having been secretly abstracted from them beforehand and then1 la ,schelling1 finding priori what it had learnt posteriori4 ,on the contrary1 both meet at the same point of their own accord1 yet without collusion4 ,my system therefore1 far from soaring above all reality and all experience1 descends to the firm ground of actuality1 where its lessons are continued by the ,physical ,sciences4 #ahg ,so had ,i written in #ahce1 when the present treatise was first composed1 having published nothing since #ahah1 before the close of which year ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung had appeared4 ,for a ,latin version1 which ,i had added to the third volume of ,scriptores ophthalmologici minores1 edente ,j4 ,radio1 in #ahcj1 for the benefit of my foreign readers1 of my treatise ,on ,vision and ,colours 7published in #ahaf71 can hardly be said to break the silence of that pause4 ,now the extraneous and empirical corroborations ,i am about to bring forward1 all concern the kernel and chief point of my doctrine1 its ,metaphysic proper4 ,they concern1 that is1 the paradoxical fundamental truth1 that what ,kant opposed as thing in itself to mere phenomenon--called more decidedly by me representation--and what he held to be absolutely unknowable1 that this thing in itself1 this substratum of all phenomena1 and therefore of the whole of ,nature1 is nothing but what we know directly and intimately and find within ourselves as the will2#ahh #ahh ,as will be seen by the following detailed exposition1 ,schopenhauer attaches a far wider meaning to the word than is usually given1 and regards the will1 not merely as conscious volition enlightened by ,reason and determined by motives1 but as the fundamental essence of all that occurs1 even where there is no choice4 ,tr4 that accordingly1 this will1 far from being inseparable from1 and even a mere result of1 knowledge1 differs radically and entirely from1 and is quite independent of1 knowledge1 which is secondary and of later origin2 and can consequently subsist and manifest itself without knowledge3 a thing which actually takes place throughout the whole of ,nature1 from the animal kingdom downwards2 that this will1 being the one and only thing in itself1 the sole truly real1 primary1 metaphysical thing in a world in which everything else is only phenomenon--i4e4 mere representation--gives all things1 whatever they may be1 the power to exist and to act2 that accordingly1 not only the voluntary actions of animals1 but the organic mechanism1 nay even the shape and quality of their living body1 the vegetation of plants and finally1 even in inorganic ,nature1 crystallization1 and in general every primary force which manifests itself in physical and chemical phenomena1 not excepting ,gravity1--that all this1 ,i say1 in itself1 i4e4 independently of phenomenon 7which only means1 independently of our brain and its representations71 is absolutely identical with the will we find within us and know as intimately as we can know anything2 that further1 the individual manifestations of the will are set in motion by motives in beings gifted with an intellect1 but no less by stimuli in the organic life of animals and of plants1 and finally in all inorganic ,nature1 by causes in the narrowest sense of the word--these distinctions applying exclusively to phenomena2 that1 on the other hand1 knowledge with its substratum1 the intellect1 is a merely secondary phenomenon1 differing completely from the will1 only accompanying its higher degrees of objectification and not essential to it2 which1 as it depends upon the manifestations of the will in the animal organism1 is therefore physical1 and not1 like the will1 metaphysical2 that we are never able therefore to infer absence of will from absence of knowledge2 for the will may be pointed out even in all phenomena of unconscious ,nature1 whether in plants or in inorganic bodies2 in short1 that the will is not conditioned by knowledge1 as has hitherto been universally assumed1 although knowledge is conditioned by the will4 ,now this fundamental truth1 which even to-day sounds so like a paradox1 is the part of my doctrine to which1 in all its chief points1 the empirical sciences--themselves ever eager to steer clear of all ,metaphysic--have contributed just as many confirmations forcibly elicited by the irresistible cogency of truth1 but which are most surprising on account of the quarter whence they proceed2 and although they have certainly come to light since the publication of my chief work1 it has been quite independently of it and as the years went on4 ,now1 that it should be precisely this fundamental doctrine of mine which has thus met with confirmation1 is advantageous in two respects4 ,first1 because it is the main thought upon which my system is founded2 secondly1 because it is the only part of my philosophy that admits of confirmation through sciences which are alien to1 and independent of1 it4 ,for although the last seventeen years1 during which ,i have been constantly occupied with this subject1 have1 it is true1 brought me many corroborations as to other parts1 such as ,ethics1 sthetics1 ,dianoiology2 still these1 by their very nature1 pass at once from the sphere of actuality1 whence they arise1 to that of philosophy itself3 so they cannot claim to be extraneous evidence1 nor can they1 as collected by me1 have the same irrefragable1 unequivocal cogency as those concerning ,metaphysics proper which are given by its correlate ,physics 7in the wide sense of the word which the ,ancients gave it74 ,for1 in pursuing its own road1 ,physics1 i4e41 ,natural ,science as a whole1 must in all its branches finally come to a point where physical explanation ceases4 ,now this is precisely the ,metaphysical1 which ,natural ,science only apprehends as the impassable barrier at which it stops short and henceforth abandons its subject to ,metaphysics4 ,kant therefore was quite right in saying3 ,it is evident1 that the primary sources of ,nature's agency must absolutely belong to the sphere of ,metaphysics4#ahi ,physical science is wont to designate this unknown1 inaccessible something1 at which its investigations stop short and which is taken for granted in all its explanations1 by such terms as physical force1 vital force1 formative principle1 c4 c41 which in fact mean no more than x1 y1 z4 ,now if nevertheless1 in single1 propitious instances1 specially acute and observant investigators succeed in casting as it were a furtive glance behind the curtain which bounds off the domain of ,natural ,science1 and are able not only to feel it is a barrier but1 in a sense1 to obtain a view of its nature and thus to peep into the metaphysical region beyond2 if moreover1 having acquired this privilege1 they explicitly designate the limit thus explored downright as that which is stated to be the true inner essence and final principle of all things by a system of ,metaphysics unknown to them1 which takes its reasons from a totally different sphere and1 in every other respect1 recognises all things merely as phenomena1 i4e41 as representation--then indeed the two bodies of investigators must feel like two mining engineers driving a gallery1 who1 having started from two points far apart and worked for some time in subterranean darkness1 trusting exclusively to compass and spirit-level1 suddenly to their great joy catch the sound of each other's hammers4 ,for now indeed these investigators know1 that the point so long vainly sought for has at last been reached at which ,metaphysics and ,physics meet--they1 who were as hard to bring together as ,heaven and ,earth--that a reconciliation has been initiated and a connection found between these two sciences4 ,but the philosophical system which has witnessed this triumph receives by it the strongest and most satisfactory proof possible of its own truth and accuracy4 ,compared with such a confirmation as this1 which may1 in fact1 be looked upon as equivalent to proving a sum in arithmetic1 the regard or disregard of a given period of time loses all importance1 especially when we consider what has been the subject of interest meanwhile and find it to be--the sort of philosophy we have been treated to since ,kant4 ,the eyes of the public are gradually opening to the mystification by which it has been duped for the last forty years under the name of philosophy1 and this will be more and more the case4 ,the day of reckoning is at hand1 when it will see whether all this endless scribbling and quibbling since ,kant has brought to light a single truth of any kind4 ,i may thus be dispensed from the obligation of entering here into subjects so unworthy2 the more so1 as ,i can accomplish my purpose more briefly and agreeably by narrating the following anecdote4 ,during the carnival1 ,dante having lost himself in a crowd of masks1 the ,duke of ,medici ordered him to be sought for4 ,those commissioned to look for him1 being doubtful whether they would be able to find him1 as he was himself masked1 the ,duke gave them a question to put to every mask they might meet who resembled ,dante4 ,it was this3 ,who knows what is good8 ,after receiving several foolish answers1 they finally met with a mask who replied3 ,he that knows what is bad1 by which ,dante was immediately recognised4#aij ,what is meant by this here is1 that ,i have seen no reason to be disheartened on account of the want of sympathy of my contemporaries1 since ,i had at the same time before my eyes the objects of their sympathy4 ,what those authors were1 posterity will see by their works2 what the contemporaries were1 will be seen by the reception they gave to those works4 ,my doctrine lays no claim whatever to the name ,philosophy of the present time which was disputed to the amusing adepts of ,hegel's mystification2 but it certainly does claim the title of ,philosophy of time to come3 that is1 of a time when people will no longer content themselves with a mere jingle of words without meaning1 with empty phrases and trivial parallelisms1 but will exact real contents and serious disclosures from philosophy1 while1 on the other hand1 they will exempt it from the unjust and preposterous obligation of paraphrasing the national religion for the time being4 ,for it is an extremely absurd thing1 says ,kant1#aia to expect to be enlightened by ,reason and yet to prescribe to her beforehand on which side she must incline4--,it is indeed sad to live in an age so degenerate1 that it should be necessary to appeal to the authority of a great man to attest so obvious a truth4 ,but it is absurd to expect marvels from a philosophy that is chained up1 and particularly amusing to watch the solemn gravity with which it sets to work to accomplish great things1 when we all know beforehand the short meaning of the long speech4#aib ,however the keen-sighted assert that under the cloak of philosophy they can mostly detect theology holding forth for the edification of students thirsting after truth1 and instructing them after its own fashion2--and this again reminds us forcibly of a certain favourite scene in ,faust4 ,others1 who think that they see still further into the matter1 maintain that what is thus disguised is neither theology nor philosophy1 but simply a poor devil who1 while solemnly protesting that he has lofty1 sublime truth for his aim1 is in fact only striving to get bread for himself and for his future young family4 ,this he might no doubt obtain by other means with less labour and more dignity2 meanwhile however for this price he is ready to do anything he is asked to do1 even to deduce priori1 nay1 should it come to the worst1 to perceive1 the ',devil and his dam1' by intellectual intuition--and here indeed the exceedingly comical effect is brought to a climax by the contrast between the sublimity of the ostensible1 and the lowliness of the real1 aim4 ,it remains nevertheless desirable1 that the pure1 sacred precincts of philosophy should be cleansed of all such traders1 as was the temple of ,jerusalem in former times of the buyers and sellers4--,biding such better times therefore1 may our philosophical public bestow its attention and interest as it has done hitherto4 ,may it continue as before invariably naming ,fichte as an obligato accompaniment to1 and in the same breath with1 ,kant--that great mind1 produced but once by ,nature1 which has illumined its own depth--as if forsooth they were of the same kind2 and this without a single voice being heard to exclaim in protest 6 ,may ,hegel's philosophy of absolute nonsense--three-fourths cash and one-fourth crazy fancies--continue to pass for unfathomable wisdom without anyone suggesting as an appropriate motto for his writings ,shakespeare's words3 ,such stuff as madmen tongue and brain not1 or1 as an emblematical vignette1 the cuttle-fish with its ink-bag1 creating a cloud of darkness around it to prevent people from seeing what it is1 with the device3 mea caligine tutus4--,may each day bring us1 as hitherto1 new systems adapted for ,university purposes1 entirely made up of words and phrases and in a learned jargon besides1 which allows people to talk whole days without saying anything2 and may these delights never be disturbed by the ,arabian proverb3 ,i hear the clappering of the mill1 but ,i see no flour4--,for all this is in accordance with the age and must have its course4 ,in all times some such thing occupies the contemporary public more or less noisily2 then it dies off so completely1 vanishes so entirely1 without leaving a trace behind1 that the next generation no longer knows what it was4 ,truth can bide its time1 for it has a long life before it4 ,whatever is genuine and seriously meant1 is always slow to make its way and certainly attains its end almost miraculously2 for on its first appearance it as a rule meets with a cool1 if not ungracious1 reception3 and this for exactly the same reason that1 when once it is fully recognised and has passed on to posterity1 the immense majority of men take it on credit1 in order to avoid compromising themselves1 whereas the number of genuine appreciators remains nearly as small as it was at first4 ,these few nevertheless suffice to make the truth respected1 for they are themselves respected4 ,and thus it is passed from hand to hand through centuries over the heads of the inept multitude3 so hard is the existence of mankind's best inheritance6--,on the other hand1 if truth had to crave permission to be true from such as have quite different aims at heart1 its cause might indeed be given up for lost2 for then it might often be dismissed with the witches' watch-word3 fair is foul1 and foul is fair4 ,luckily however this is not the case4 ,truth depends upon no one's favour or disfavour1 nor does it ask anyone's leave3 it stands upon its own feet1 and has ,time for its ally2 its power is irresistible1 its life indestructible4 #ahi ,kant1 ,von der wahren ,schtzung der lebendigen ,krfte1 #ea4 #aij ,baltazar ,gracian1 ,el ,criticon1 iii4 #ij1 to whom ,i leave the responsibility for the anachronism4 #aia ,kant1 ,krit4 d4 r4 ,v4 #eth edition1 p4 #gee4 7,english translation by ,m4 ,mller1 p4 #fdj47 #aib ,schiller1 der langen ,rede kurzer ,sinn4 ,tr4 ,,physiology ,,and ,,pathology4 ,in classifying the above-mentioned empirical corroborations of my doctrine according to the sciences from which they come1 while ,i take the graduated order of ,nature from the highest to the lowest degree as a guiding-thread to my expositions1 ,i must first mention a very striking confirmation lately received by my chief dogma in the physiological and pathological views of ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,brandis1 private physician to the ,king of ,denmark1 a veteran in science1 whose ,essay on ,vital ,force 7#agie7 had received ,reil's hearty commendation4 ,in his two latest writings3 ,experiences in the ,application of ,cold in ,disease 7,berlin1 #ahcc71 and ,nosology and ,therapeutics of ,cachexi 7#ahcd71 we find him in the most emphatic and striking manner stating the primary source of all vital functions to be an unconscious will1 from which he derives all processes in the machinery of the organism1 in health as well as in disease1 and which he represents as the primum mobile of life4 ,i must support this by literal quotations from these essays1 since few save medical readers are likely to have them at hand4 ,in the first of them1 p4 viii41 we find3 ,the essence of every living organism consists in the will to maintain its own existence as much as possible over against the macrocosm2--p4 x43 ,only one living entity1 one will can be in an organ at the same time2 therefore if there is a diseased will in disagreement with the rest of the body in the organ of the skin1 we may hold it in check by applying cold as long as the generation of warmth1 a normal will1 can be induced by it4 ,p4 #a3 ,if we are forced to the conviction that there must be a determining principle--a will1 in every vital action1 by which the development suited to the whole organism is occasioned1 and each metamorphosis of the parts conditioned1 in harmony with the whole individuality1 and likewise that there is a something capable of being determined and developed1 c4 c4--,p4 #aa3 ,with respect to individual life1 the element which determines1 the organic will1 if it is to rest satisfied1 must be able to attain what it wants from that which has to be determined4 ,this occurs even when the vital movements are over-excited1 as in inflammation3 something new is formed1 the noxious element is expelled2 new plastic materials are meanwhile conveyed through the arteries1 more venous blood is carried off1 until the process of inflammation is finished and the organic will satisfied4 ,it is however possible to excite this will to such a degree1 as to make satisfaction impossible4 ,this exciting cause 7or stimulus7 either acts directly upon the particular organ 7poison1 contagion7 or it affects the whole life2 and this life then begins to make the most strenuous efforts to rid itself of the noxious element or to modify the disposition of the organic will1 and provokes critical vital activity in particular parts 7inflammations7 or yields to the unappeased will4--,p4 #ab3 ,the insatiable will acts destructively upon the organism unless either 7a7 the whole life1 in its efforts to attain unity 7tendency to adapt means to end71 produces other activities requiring satisfaction 7crises et lyses7 which hold that will in check--called decisive 7crises complet7 when quite successful2 crises incomplet1 when only partially so--or 7b7 some other stimulus 7medicine7 produces another will which represses the diseased one4 ,if we place this in one and the same category with the will of which we have become conscious through our own representations1 and bear in mind that here there can be no question of more or less distant resemblance1 we gain the conviction that we have grasped the fundamental conception of the one unlimited1 therefore indivisible1 life which1 according to its different manifestations in various more or less endowed and exercised organs1 is just as able to make hair grow on the human body as to combine the most sublime representations4 ,we see that the most violent passion--unsatisfied will--may be checked by more or less strong excitement1 c4 c4--,p4 #ah3 ,the determining element--this organic will without representation1 this tendency to preserve the organism as a unity--is induced by outward temperature to modify its activity now in the same1 now in a remoter organ4 ,every manifestation of life1 however1 whether in health or in disease1 is a manifestation of the organic will3 this will determines vegetation3 in a healthy condition1 in harmony with the unity of the whole2 in an unhealthy one 444 it is induced not to will in harmony with that unity 444--,p4 #bc3 ,cold suddenly applied to the skin suppresses its function 7chill72 cold drinks check the organic will in the digestive organs and thereby intensify that of the skin and produce perspiration2 just so with the diseased organic will3 cold checks cutaneous eruptions1 c4 c4--,p4 #cc3 ,fever is the complete participation of the whole vital process in a diseased will1 i4e4 it is to the entire vital process what inflammation is to particular organs--the effort of our vitality to form something definite1 in order to content the diseased will and remove the noxious element4--,we call this process of formation crisis or lysis 7turning-point or release74 ,the first perception of the pernicious element which causes the diseased will1 affects the individuality just in the same way as a noxious element apprehended by our senses1 before we have brought to clear representation the entire relation in which it stands to our individuality and the means of removing it4 ,it creates terror and its consequences1 a standstill of the vital process in the parenchyma1 especially in the parts directed towards the outer world2 in the skin1 and in all the motor muscles belonging to the entire individuality 7outer body73 shuddering1 chills1 trembling1 pains in the limbs1 c4 c4 ,the difference between them is1 that in the latter case the noxious element1 either at once or gradually1 becomes clear representation1 because it is compared with the individuality by means of all the senses1 so that its relation to that individuality can be determined1 and the means of protection against it 7disregard1 flight1 warding off1 defence1 c47 be brought to a conscious will2 whereas1 in the former case1 we remain unconscious of that noxious element1 and it is life alone 7or ,nature's curative power7 which is striving to remove the noxious element and thereby to content the diseased will4 ,nor must this be taken for a simile2 it is1 on the contrary1 a true description of the manifestation of life4--,p4 #eh3 ,we must however always bear in mind1 that cold acts here as a powerful stimulus to check or moderate the diseased will and to rouse in its place a natural will1 accompanied by general warmth4-- ,in almost every page of this book similar expressions are to be found4 ,in the second of the ,essays ,i have named1 ,brandis no longer combines the explanation by the will so universally with each separate analysis1 probably in consideration that this explanation is properly speaking1 a metaphysical one4 ,nevertheless he maintains it entirely and completely1 giving it even all the more distinct and decided expression1 wherever he states it4 ,thus1 for instance1 in #fh et seq4 he speaks of an unconscious will1 which cannot be separated from the conscious one1 and is the primum mobile of all life1 as well in plants as in animals2 for1 in these1 it is a desire and aversion manifesting itself in all the organs which determines all their vital processes1 secretions1 c4 c4--4 #ga3 ,all convulsions prove that the manifestation of the will can take place without distinct power of representation4--4 #gb3 ,everywhere do we meet with a spontaneous1 uncommunicated activity1 now determined by the sublimest human free will1 now by animal desire and aversion1 now again by simple1 more vegetative requirements2 which activity1 in order to maintain itself1 calls forth several other kinds of activity in the unity of the individual4--,p4 #if3 ,a creative1 spontaneous1 uncommunicated activity shows itself in every vital manifestation4 444--,the third factor in this individual creation is the will1 the individual's life itself4 444--,the nerves are the conductors of this individual creation3 by their means form and mixture are varied according to desire and aversion4--,p4 #ig3 ,assimilation of foreign substance 444 makes the blood4444 ,it is not an absorption or an exudation of organic matter2 444 on the contrary1 here the sole factor of the phenomenon is in all cases the creative will1 a life which cannot be brought back to any sort of imparted movement4-- 99 99 99 99 99 ,when ,i wrote this 7#ahce7 ,i was still naf enough seriously to believe that ,brandis was unacquainted with my work1 or ,i should not allude here to his writings2 for they would then be merely a repetition1 application and carrying out of my own doctrine on this point1 not a corroboration of it4 ,but ,i thought ,i might safely assume that he did not know me1 because he has not mentioned me anywhere and because if he had known me1 literary honesty would have made it his imperative duty not to remain silent concerning the man from whom he had borrowed his chief fundamental thought1 the more so as he saw that man then enduring unmerited neglect1 by his writings being generally ignored--a circumstance which might be construed as favourable to fraud4 ,add to this1 that it lay in ,brandis' own interest as a writer1 and would therefore have shown sagacity on his part1 to have appealed to me as an authority4 ,for the fundamental doctrine propounded by him is so striking and paradoxical1 that even his ,gttingen reviewer is amazed and hardly knows what to think of it2 yet such a doctrine as this was left without foundation either through proof or induction1 nor did ,dr4 ,brandis establish its relation to the whole of our knowledge of ,nature3 he simply asserted it4 ,i imagined therefore that it was by the peculiar gift of divination1 which enables eminent physicians to see and do the right thing in cases of illness1 that he had been led to this view1 without being able to give a strict and methodical account of the grounds of this really metaphysical truth1 although he must have seen how greatly it is opposed to the generally received views4 ,had he1 thought ,i1 been acquainted with my philosophy1 which gives far greater extension to this truth1 makes it valid for the whole of ,nature and founds it both by proof and induction in close connection with ,kant's teaching1 from which it proceeds as a final result of excogitation--how gladly must he have availed himself of such confirmation and support1 rather than to stand alone by an unheard-of assertion which was never further carried out and1 with him1 never went beyond bare assertion4 ,such were the reasons that led me to believe myself entitled to take for granted ,dr4 ,brandis' ignorance of my book4 ,since then however ,i have become better acquainted with ,german scientists and ,copenhagen ,academicians1 to which body ,dr4 ,brandis belonged1 and have gained the conviction that he knew me very well indeed4 ,i stated my reasons for arriving at this conviction already in #ahdd in the #bnd vol4 of ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung1#aic so that1 as the subject is by no means edifying1 it is needless to repeat them here2 ,i will merely add that ,i have since been assured on trustworthy authority that ,dr4 ,brandis not only knew my work but even possessed it1 as it was found among his property after his death4--,the unmerited obscurity to which writers like myself are long condemned1 encourages such people to appropriate their thoughts without so much as naming them4 #aic ,chapter #bj1 p4 #bfc2 p4 #bie of the #crd edition4 ,another medical authority has carried this even farther2 for1 not content with the thought alone1 he has appropriated to himself the expression of it also4 ,i allude to ,professor ,anton ,rosas of the ,university of ,vienna1 whose entire #ejg in the #ast vol4 of his ,textbook of ,ophthalmology#aid 7#ahcj7 is copied word for word from pp4 #ad-af of my treatise ,on ,vision and ,colours 7#ahaf7 without any mention whatever of me1 or even the slightest hint that he is using the words of another4 ,this sufficiently accounts for the care he has taken not to mention my treatise among the lists of twenty-one writings on ,colours and forty on the ,physiology of the ,eye1 which he gives in #edb and #efg2 a caution which was however all the more advisable1 as he had appropriated to himself a good deal more out of that pamphlet without mentioning me4 ,all that is referred1 for instance1 in #ebf to 'them' 7man71 is only applicable to me4 ,his entire #ebg is copied almost literally from my pp4 #ei and #fj4 ,the theory which he introduces without further ceremony in #ece by the word evidently3 that is1 that yellow is #c_/d and violet #a_/d of the eye's activity1 never was 'evident' to anyone until ,i made it so2 even to this day it is a truth known to few and acknowledged by fewer still1 and much is yet wanting--for example1 that ,i should be dead and buried--ere it be possible to call it 'evident' without further ceremony4 ,the matter will even have to wait till after my death to be seriously sifted1 since a close investigation might easily bring to 'evidence' the real difference between ,newton's theory of colours and my own1 which is simply that his is false1 and mine true3 a discovery which could not fail to mortify my contemporaries4 ,wherefore1 according to ancient custom1 all serious examination into the question is wisely postponed for these few years4 ,professor ,rosas knew no such policy as this and1 as the matter was not alluded to anywhere1 thought himself entitled1 like the ,danish ,academician1 to claim it as lawful prey 7de bonne prise74 ,evidently ,north and ,south ,german honesty had not yet come to a satisfactory understanding4--,moreover the whole contents of #ech1 #eci and #edj in ,professor ,rosas' book are taken from my pamphlet1 nay even in great part copied word for word from my #ac4 ,still once1 where he stands in need of a voucher for a fact1 he finds himself obliged to refer to my treatise3 that is1 in his #eca2 and it is most amusing to see the way in which he even brings in the numerical fractions used by me1 as a result of my theory1 to express all colours4 ,it had probably occurred to him1 that appropriating them quite sans faon might be a delicate matter1 so he says1 p4 #cjh3 ,if we wished to express in numbers the first-mentioned relation in which colours stand to white1 assuming white to be #a1 the following scale of proportion might by the way be adopted 7as has already been done by ,schopenhauer73 yellow #c_/d orange #b_/c red #a_/b green #a_/b blue #a_/c violet #a_/d black #j #aid ,rosas1 ,handbuch der ,augenheilkunde 7#ahcj74 ,now ,i should like to know how anyone could do this by the way1 without having first thought out my whole colour-theory1 to which alone these numbers refer1 and apart from which they are mere abstract numbers without meaning2 above all1 how anyone could do it who1 like ,professor ,rosas1 professes to be a follower of ,newton's colour-theory1 with which these numbers are in direct contradiction8 ,finally1 ,i should like to know how it came1 that during the thousands of years in which men have thought and written1 no one but myself and ,professor ,rosas should ever have thought of using just these particular fractions to denote colours8 ,for the words ,i have quoted above tell us1 that he would have stated those fractions precisely as he has done1 even had ,i not chanced to do it 'already' fourteen years before and thus needlessly anticipated his statement2 they also tell us1 that all that is required is 'to wish1' in order to do so4 ,now it is precisely in these numerical fractions that the secret of colours lies3 by them alone can we rightly solve the mystery of their nature and of their difference from one another4--,i should however be heartily glad1 were plagiarism the worst kind of dishonesty that defiled ,german literature2 there are others far more mischievous1 which penetrate more deeply1 and to which plagiarism bears the same proportion as picking pockets in a mild way to capital crime4 ,i allude to that mean1 despicable spirit1 whose loadstar is personal interest1 when it ought to be truth1 and in which the voice of intention makes itself heard beneath the mask of insight4 ,double-dealing and time-serving are the order of the day4 ,tartuffe comedies are performed without rouge2 nay1 ,capuchin sermons are preached in halls consecrated to ,science2 enlightenment1 that once revered word1 has become a term of opprobrium2 the greatest thinkers of the past century1 ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 ,locke1 ,hume1 are slandered--those heroes1 ornaments and benefactors of mankind1 whose fame1 diffused throughout both hemispheres1 can only be increased1 if by anything1 by the fact that wherever and whenever obscurantists show themselves1 it is as their bitterest enemies--and with good reason4 ,literary coteries and associations are formed to deal out praise and blame1 and spurious merit is then trumpeted forth and extolled1 while sterling merit is slandered or1 as ,gthe says1 secreted1 by means of an inviolable silence1 in which sort of inquisitorial censure the ,germans have attained great proficiency4#aie ,the motives and considerations however from which all this proceeds1 are of too low a nature for me to care to enumerate them in detail4 ,but what a difference there is between periodicals such as the ,edinburgh ,review1 in which gentlemen of independent means are induced to write by a genuine interest in the subjects treated1 and which honourably upholds its noble motto taken from ,publius ,syrus3 ,judex damnnatur cum nocens absolvitur1 and our mean-spirited1 disingenuous1 ,german literary journals1 full of considerations and intentions1 that are mostly compiled for the sake of pay by hired editors1 and ought properly to have for their motto3 ,accedas socius laudes1 lauderis1 ut absens4#aif ,now1 after twenty years1 do ,i understand what ,gthe said to me at ,berka in #ahad4 ,as ,i found him reading ,madame de ,stal's ,de l',allemagne1 ,i remarked in course of conversation that she had given too exaggerated a description of ,german honesty and one that might mislead foreigners4 ,he laughed and said3 ,yes1 to be sure1 they will not secure their baggage behind and will have it cut off4 ,he then added in a graver tone3 ,but one has to know ,german literature in order to realise the full extent of ,german dishonesty4--,all well and good6 ,but the most revolting kind of dishonesty in ,german literature is that of the time-servers1 who pass themselves off for philosophers1 while in reality they are obscurantists4 ,the word 'time-serving' no more needs explanation than the thing needs a proof2 for anyone who had the face to deny it would furnish strong evidence in support of my present argument4 ,kant taught1 that man ought to use his fellow-man only as an end1 never as a means3 he did not think it necessary to say1 that philosophy ought only to be dealt with as an end1 never as a means4 ,time-serving may after all be excused under every garb1 the cowl as well as the ermine1 save only the philosopher's cloak 7,tribonion72 for he who has once assumed this1 has sworn allegiance to truth1 and from that moment every other consideration1 no matter of what kind1 becomes base treachery4 ,therefore it was that ,socrates did not shun the hemlock1 nor ,bruno the stake1 while 'for a piece of bread these men will transgress4' ,are they too short-sighted to see posterity close at hand1 with the history of philosophy at its side1 recording two lines of bitter condemnation with unflinching hand and iron pen in its immortal pages8 ,or has this no sting for them8--,well to be sure1 if it comes to the worst1 'aprs moi le dluge' may be pronounced2 but as to 'aprs moi le mpris1' that is a more difficult matter4 ,therefore ,i fancy they will answer that austere judge as follows3 ,ah1 dear posterity and history of philosophy6 you are quite wrong to take us in earnest2 we are not philosophers at all1 ,heaven forbid6 ,no1 we are only professors of philosophy1 mere servants of the state1 mere philosophers in jest4 ,you might as well drag puppet-knights in pasteboard armour into a real tournament4 ,then the judge will most likely see how matters stand1 erase all their names1 and confer upon them the beneficium perpetui silentii4 #aie ,gthe1 ,tag und ,jahreshefte1 #ahab4 #aif ,this ,i wrote in #ahcf4 ,the ,edinburgh ,review has since however greatly deteriorated1 and is no longer its old self4 ,i have even seen clerical time-serving in its pages1 written down to the level of the mob4 ,from this digression--to which ,i had been led away eighteen years ago1 by the cant and time-serving ,i then witnessed1 though they were not nearly as flourishing then as they are now--,i return to that part of my doctrine which ,dr4 ,brandis has confirmed1 though he did not originate it1 in order to add a few explanations with which ,i shall then connect some further corroborations it has since received from ,physiology4 ,the three assumptions which are criticised by ,kant in his ,transcendental ,dialectic under the names of ,ideas of ,reason1 and have in consequence since been set aside in theoretical philosophy1 had always stood in the way of a deeper insight into ,nature1 until that great thinker brought about a complete transformation in philosophy4 ,that supposed ,idea of ,reason1 the soul3 that metaphysical being1 in it whose absolute singleness knowing and willing were knit and blended together to eternal1 inseparable unity1 was an impediment of this sort for the subject-matter of this chapter4 ,as long as it lasted1 no philosophical ,physiology was possible3 the less so1 as its correlate1 real1 purely passive ,matter1 had necessarily also to be assumed together with it1 as the substance of the body4#aig ,it was this ,idea of ,reason1 the soul1 therefore1 that caused the celebrated chemist and physiologist1 ,george ,ernest ,stahl1 at the beginning of the last century to miss the discovery of the truth he so nearly approached and would have quite reached1 had he been able to put that which is alone metaphysical1 the bare will--as yet without intellect--in the place of the anima rationalis4 ,under the influence of this ,idea of ,reason however1 he could not teach anything but that it is this simple1 rational soul which builds itself a body1 all whose inner organic functions it directs and performs1 yet has no knowledge or consciousness of all this1 although knowledge is the fundamental destination and1 as it were1 the substance1 of its being4 ,there was something absurd in this doctrine which made it utterly untenable4 ,it was superseded by ,haller's ,irritability and ,sensibility1 which1 to be sure1 are taken in a purely empirical sense1 but1 to make up for this1 are also two qualitates occult1 at which all explanation ceases4 ,the movement of the heart and of the intestines was now attributed to ,irritability4 ,but the anima rationalis still remained in undiminished honour and dignity as a visitor at the house of the body4#aih--,truth lies at the bottom of a well1 said ,democritus2 and the centuries with a sigh1 have repeated his words4 ,but small wonder1 if it gets a rap on the knuckles as soon as it tries to come out6 #aig ,as a being existing by itself1 a thing in itself4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #aih ,in which it is lodged in the garret4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,the fundamental truth of my doctrine1 which places that doctrine in opposition with all others that have ever existed1 is the complete separation between the will and the intellect1 which all philosophers before me had looked upon as inseparable2 or rather1 ,i ought to say that they had regarded the will as conditioned by1 nay1 mostly even as a mere function of1 the intellect1 assumed by them to be the fundamental substance of our spiritual being4 ,but this separation1 this analysis into two heterogeneous elements1 of the ego or soul1 which had so long been deemed an indivisible unity1 is1 for philosophy1 what the analysis of water has been for chemistry1 though it may take time to be acknowledged4 ,with me1 that which is eternal and indestructible in man1 therefore1 that which constitutes his vital principle1 is not the soul1 but--if ,i may use a chemical term--its radical3 and this is the will4 ,the so-called soul is already a compound3 it is the union of the will and the intellect 774 ,this intellect is the secondary element1 the posterius of the organism and1 as a mere cerebral function1 is conditioned by the organism2 whereas the will is what is primary1 the prius of the organism1 which is conditioned by it4 ,for the will is that thing in itself1 which only becomes apparent as an organic body in our representation 7that mere function of the brain73 it is only through the forms of knowledge 7or cerebral function71 that is1 only in our representation--not apart from that representation1 not immediately in our self-consciousness--that our body is given to each of us as a thing which has extension1 limbs and organs4 ,as the actions of our body are only acts of volition portraying themselves in representation1 so likewise is their substratum1 the shape of that body1 in the main the portrait of the will3 so that1 in all the organic functions of our body1 the will is just as much the agent as in its external actions4 ,true ,physiology1 at its highest1 shows the spiritual 7the intellectual7 in man to be the product of the physical in him1 and no one has done this so thoroughly as ,cabanis2 but true ,metaphysic teaches us1 that the physical in man is itself mere product1 or rather phenomenon1 of a spiritual 7the will72 nay1 that ,matter itself is conditioned by representation1 in which alone it exists4 ,perception and reflection will more and more find their explanation through the organism2 but not the will1 by which conversely the organism is explained1 as ,i shall show in the following chapter4 ,first of all therefore ,i place the will1 as thing in itself and quite primary2 secondly1 its mere visibility1 its objectification3 i4e4 the body2 thirdly1 the intellect1 as a mere function of one part of that body4 ,this part is itself the objectified will to know 7the will to know having entered into representation71 since the will needs knowledge to attain its own ends4 ,now the entire world as representation1 together with the body itself therefore1 inasmuch as it is a perceptible object1 nay1 ,matter in general as existing only in representation1--all this1 ,i say1 is again conditioned by that function2 for1 duly considered1 we cannot possibly conceive an objective world without a ,subject1 in whose consciousness it is present4 ,thus knowledge and matter 7,subject and ,object7 exist only relatively one for the other and constitute phenomenon4 ,the whole thing therefore1 owing to the radical change made by me1 stands in a different light from that in which it has hitherto been regarded4 ,as soon as it is directed outwardly and acts upon a recognised object1 as soon therefore as it has passed through the medium of knowledge1 we all recognise the will at once to be the active principle1 and call it by its right name4 ,yet it is no less active in those inner processes which have preceded such outward actions as their conditions3 in those1 for instance1 which create and maintain organic life and its substratum2 and the circulation of the blood1 secretion1 digestion1 c4 c41 are its work likewise4 ,but just because the will was only recognised as the active principle in those cases in which it abandons the individual whence it proceeds1 in order to direct itself towards the outer world--now presenting itself precisely for this end1 as perception--knowledge has been taken for its essential condition1 its sole element1 nay1 as the substance of which it consists3 and hereby was perpetrated the greatest that has ever been4 ,but before all things we must learn to distinguish will ,wille 7voluntas7 from free-will ,willkhr 7arbitrium7#aii and to understand that the former can subsist without the latter2 this however presupposes my whole philosophy4 ,the will is called free-will when it is illumined by knowledge1 therefore when the causes which move it are motives3 that is1 representations4 ,objectively speaking this means3 when the influence from outside which causes the act1 has a brain for its mediator4 ,a motive may be defined as an external stimulus1 whose action first of all causes an image to arise in the brain1 through the medium of which the will carries out the effect proper--an outward action of the body4 ,now1 in the human species however1 the place of such an image as this may be taken by a conception drawn from former images of this kind by dropping their differences1 which conception consequently is no longer perceptible1 but merely denoted and fixed by words4 ,as the action of motives accordingly does not depend upon contact1 they can try their power on the will against each other3 in other words1 they permit a certain choice which1 in animals1 is limited to the narrow sphere of that which has perceptible existence for them2 whereas1 in man1 its range comprises the vast extent of all that is thinkable3 that is1 of his conceptions4 ,accordingly we designate as voluntary those movements which are occasioned1 not by causes in the narrowest sense of the word1 as in inorganic bodies1 nor even by mere stimuli1 as in plants1 but by motives4#bjj ,these motives however presuppose an intellect as their mediator1 through which causality here acts1 without prejudice to its entire necessity in all other respects4 ,physiologically1 the difference between stimulus and motive admits also of the following definition4 ,the stimulus provokes immediate reaction1 which proceeds from the very part on which the stimulus has acted2 whereas the motive is a stimulus that has to go a roundabout way through the brain1 where its action first causes an image to arise1 which then1 but not till then1 provokes the consequent reaction1 which is now called an act of volition1 and voluntary4 ,the distinction between voluntary and involuntary movement does not therefore concern what is essential and primary--for this is in both cases the will--but only what is secondary1 the rousing of the will's manifestation3 it has to do with the determination whether causes proper1 stimuli or motives 7i4e4 causes having passed through the medium of knowledge7 are the guidance under which that manifestation takes place4 ,it is in human consciousness1--differing from that of animals by not only containing perceptible representations but also abstract conceptions independent of time-distinctions1 which act simultaneously and collaterally1 whereby deliberation1 i4e4 a conflict of motives1 becomes possible--it is in human consciousness1 ,i say1 that free-will 7arbitrium7 in its narrowest sense first makes its appearance2 and this ,i have called elective decision4 ,it nevertheless merely consists in the strongest motive for a given individual character overcoming the others and thus determining the act1 just as an impact is overcome by a stronger counter-impact1 the result thus ensuing with precisely the same necessity as the movement of a stone that has been struck4 ,that all great thinkers in all ages were decided and at one on this point1 is just as certain1 as that the multitude will never understand1 never grasp1 the important truth1 that the work of our freedom must not be sought in our individual actions but in our very existence and nature itself4 ,in my prize-essay on ,freedom of the ,will1 ,i have shown this as clearly as possible4 ,the liberum arbitrium indifferenti which is assumed to be the distinctive characteristic of movements proceeding from the will1 is accordingly quite inadmissible3 for it asserts that effects are possible without causes4 #aii ,by this ,schopenhauer means the distinction between the will in its widest sense1 regarded as the fundamental essence of all that happens1--even where there is no choice1 even where it is unconscious1--and conscious will1 implying deliberation and choice1 commonly called free-will4 ,we must however carefully guard against confounding this relative free-will1 with absolute free-will 7liberum arbitrium indifferenti71 which ,schopenhauer declares to be inadmissible4 ,the sense in which ,i have used the expression 'free-will' throughout this treatise1 is that of relative freedom1 i4e4 power to choose between different motives1 free of all outward restraint 7,willkhr74 7,tr47 #bjj ,i have shown the difference between cause in its narrowest sense1 stimulus1 and motive1 at length in my ,grund-probleme der ,ethik p4 #bi et seq4 ,as soon therefore as we have got so far as to distinguish will ,wille from free-will ,willkhr1 and to consider the latter as a particular kind or particular phenomenon of the former1 we shall find no difficulty in recognising the will1 even in unconscious processes4 ,thus the assertion1 that all bodily movements1 even those which are purely vegetative and organic1 proceed from the will1 by no means implies that they are voluntary4 ,for that would mean that they were occasioned by motives2 but motives are representations1 and their seat is the brain3 only those parts of our body which communicate with the brain by means of the nerves1 can be put in movement by the brain1 consequently by motives1 and this movement alone is what is called voluntary4 ,the movement of the inner economy of the organism1 on the contrary1 is directed1 as in plant-life1 by stimuli2 only as1 on the one hand1 the complex nature of the animal organism necessitated an outer sensorium for the apprehension of the outer world and the will's reaction on that outer world1 so1 on the other hand1 did it necessitate a cerebrum abdominale1 the sympathetic nervous system1 in order to direct the will's reaction upon inner stimuli likewise4 ,we may compare the former to a ,home ,ministry1 the latter to a ,foreign ,office2 but the will remains the omnipresent ,autocrat4 ,the progress made in ,physiology since ,haller has placed beyond doubt1 that not only those actions which are consciously performed 7functiones animales71 but even vital processes that take place quite unconsciously 7functiones vitales et naturales71 are directed throughout by the nervous system4 ,likewise that their only difference1 as far as our consciousness of them is concerned1 consists in the former being directed by nerves proceeding from the brain1 the latter by nerves that do not directly communicate with that chief centre of the nervous system--mainly directed towards the outside--but with subordinate1 minor centres1 with the nerve-knots1 the ganglia and their net-work1 which preside as it were like vice-gerents over the various departments of the nervous system1 directing those internal processes that follow upon internal stimuli1 just as the brain directs the external actions that follow upon external motives1 and thus receiving impressions from inside upon which they react correspondingly1 just as the brain receives representations on the strength of which it forms resolutions2 only each of these minor centres is confined to a narrower sphere of action4 ,upon this rests the vita propria of each system1 in referring to which ,van ,helmont said that each organ has1 as it were1 its own ego4 ,it accounts also for life continuing in parts which have been cut off the bodies of insects1 reptiles1 and other inferior animals1 whose brain has no marked preponderance over the ganglia of single parts2 and it likewise explains how many reptiles are able to live for weeks1 nay even months1 after their brain has been removed4 ,now1 if our surest experience teaches us that the will1 which is known to us in most immediate consciousness and in a totally different way from the outer world1 is the real agent in actions attended by consciousness and directed by the chief centre of the nervous system2 how can we help admitting that those other actions which1 proceeding from that nervous system but obeying the direction of its subordinate centres1 keep the vital processes constantly going1 must also be manifestations of the will8 ,especially as we know perfectly well the cause because of which they are not1 like the others1 attended by consciousness3 we know1 that is to say1 that all consciousness resides in the brain and therefore is limited to such parts as have nerves which communicate directly with the brain2 and we know also that1 even in these1 consciousness ceases when those nerves are severed4 ,by this the difference between all that is conscious and unconscious and together with it the difference between all that is voluntary and involuntary in the movements of the body is perfectly explained1 and no reason remains for assuming two entirely different primary sources of movement3 especially as principia prter necessitatem non sunt multiplicanda4 ,all this is so obvious1 that1 on impartial reflection from this standpoint1 it seems almost absurd to persist in making the body serve two masters by deriving its actions from two radically different origins and then ascribing on the one hand the movements of our arms and legs1 of our eyes1 lips1 throat1 tongue and lungs1 of the facial and abdominal muscles1 to the will2 while on the other hand the action of the heart1 the movements of the veins1 the peristaltic movements of the intestines1 the absorption by the intestinal villi and glands and all those movements which accompany secretion1 are supposed to proceed from a totally different1 ever mysterious principle of which we have no knowledge1 and which is designated by names such as vitality1 archeus1 spiritus animales1 vital energy1 instinct1 all of which mean no more than x4#bja #bja ,it is especially in secretive processes that we cannot avoid recognising a certain selection of the materials fitted for each purpose1 consequently a free will in the secretive organs1 which must even be assisted by a certain dull sensation1 and in virtue of which each secreting organ only extracts from the same blood that particular secretion which suits it and no others3 for instance1 the liver only absorbs bile from the blood flowing through it1 sending the rest of the blood on1 and likewise the salivary glands and the pancreas only secrete saliva1 the kidneys only urine1 c4 c4 ,we may therefore compare the organs of secretion to different kinds of cattle grazing on one and the same pasture-land1 each of which only browses upon the one sort of herb which suits its own particular appetite4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,it is curious and instructive to see the trouble that excellent writer1 ,treviranus#bjb takes1 to find out in the lower animals1 such as infusoria and zoophyta1 which movements are voluntary1 and which are what he calls automatic or physical1 i4e4 merely vital4 ,he founds his inquiry upon the assumption that he has to do with two primarily different sources of movement2 whereas in truth they all proceed from the will1 and the whole difference consists in their being occasioned by stimuli or by motives1 i4e4 in their having a brain for their medium or not2 and the stimulus may again be merely interior or exterior4 ,in several animals of a higher order--crustaceans and even fishes--he finds that the voluntary and vital movements1 for instance locomotion and respiration1 entirely coincide3 a clear proof that their origin and essence are identical4 ,he says p4 #ahh3 ,in the family of the actinia1 star-fishes1 sea-urchins1 and holothuri 7echinodermata pedata ,cuv471 it is evident that the movement of the fluids depends upon the will of the animals and that it is a means of locomotion4 ,then again p4 #bhh3 ,the gullet of mammals has at its upper end the pharynx1 which expands and contracts by means of muscles resembling voluntary muscles in their formation1 yet which do not obey the will4 ,here we see how the limits of the movements proceeding from the will and of those assumed to be foreign to it1 merge into one another4 ,ibid41 p4 #bic3 ,thus movements having all the appearance of being voluntary1 take place in the stomachs of ruminants4 ,they do not however always stand in connection with the ruminating process only4 ,even the simpler human stomach and that of many animals only allows free passage to what is digestible through its lower orifice1 and rejects what is indigestible by vomiting4 #bjb ,treviranus1 ,die ,erscheinungen und ,gesetze des ,organischen ,lebens1 vol4 i4 pp4 #agh-ahe4 ,there is moreover special evidence that the movements induced by stimuli 7involuntary movements7 proceed from the will just as well as those occasioned by motives 7voluntary movements73 for instance1 when the same movement follows now upon a stimulus1 now again upon a motive1 as is the case when the pupil of the eye is contracted4 ,this movement1 when caused by increased light1 follows upon a stimulus2 whereas1 when occasioned by the wish to examine a very small object minutely in close proximity1 it follows upon a motive2 because contracting the pupil enables us to see things distinctly even when quite near to us1 and this distinctness may be increased by our looking through a hole pierced in a card with a pin2 conversely1 the pupil is dilated when we look at distant objects4 ,surely the same movement of the same organ is not likely to proceed alternately from two fundamentally different sources4--,e4 ,h4 ,weber#bjc relates that he discovered in himself the power of dilating and contracting at will the pupil of one of his eyes1 while looking at the same object1 so as to make that object appear now distinct1 now indistinct1 while the other eye remained closed4--,joh4 ,mller#bjd also tries to prove that the will acts upon the pupil4 #bjc ,e4 ,h4 ,weber1 ,additamenta ad ,e4 ,h4 ,weberi tractatum de motu iridis4 ,lipsia1 #ahbc4 #bjd ,joh4 ,mller1 ,handbuch der ,physiologie1 p4 #gfd4 ,the truth that the innermost mainspring of unconsciously performed vital and vegetative functions is the will1 we find moreover confirmed by the consideration1 that even the movement of a limb recognised as voluntary1 is only the ultimate result of a multitude of preceding changes which have taken place inside that limb and which no more enter into our consciousness than those organic functions4 ,yet these changes are evidently that which was first set in motion by the will1 the movement of the limb being merely their remote consequence2 nevertheless this remains so foreign to our consciousness that physiologists try to reach it by means of such hypotheses as these3 that the sinews and muscular fibre are contracted by a change in the cellular tissue wrought by a precipitation of the blood-vapour in that tissue to serum2 but that this change is brought about by the nerve's action1 and this--by the will4 ,thus1 even here1 it is not the change which proceeded originally from the will which comes into consciousness1 but only its remote result2 and even this1 properly speaking1 only through the special perception of the brain in which it presents itself together with the whole organism4 ,now by following the path of experimental research and hypotheses physiologists would never have arrived at the truth1 that the last link in this ascending causal series is the will2 it is known to them1 on the contrary1 in quite a different way4 ,the solution of the enigma comes to them in a whisper from outside the investigation1 owing to the fortunate circumstance that the investigator is in this case at the same time himself the object of the investigation and by this learns the secret of the inward process1 his explanation of which would otherwise1 like that of every other phenomenon1 be brought to a standstill by an inscrutable force4 ,and conversely1 if we stood in the same inward relation towards every natural phenomenon as towards our own organism1 the explanation of every natural phenomenon1 as well as of all the properties of every body1 would likewise ultimately be reduced to a will manifesting itself in them4 ,for the difference does not reside in the thing itself1 but in our relation to the thing4 ,wherever explanation of the physical comes to an end1 it is met by the metaphysical2 and wherever this last is accessible to immediate knowledge1 the result will be1 as here1 the will4 ,that even those parts of the body whose movements do not proceed from the brain1 do not follow upon motives1 and are not voluntary1 are nevertheless ruled and animated by the will1 is also shown by their participation in all unusually violent movements of the will1 i4e4 emotions and passions4 ,we see1 for instance1 the quickened pulse in joy or alarm1 the blush in embarrassment1 the cheek's pallor in terror or in suppressed anger1 the tears of sorrow1 the difficult breathing and increased activity of the intestines in terror1 watering of the mouth at the sight of dainties1 nausea occasioned by that of loathsome objects1 strongly accelerated circulation of the blood and even altered quality of bile through wrath1 and of saliva through violent rage3 this last even to the degree1 that an excessively irritated dog may communicate hydrophobia by its bite without being itself affected with rabies1 or even then contracting the disease--and the same is also asserted of cats and of cocks4 ,the organism is further deeply undermined by lasting grief1 and may be mortally affected by fright as well as by sudden joy4 ,on the other hand1 all those inner processes and changes which only have to do with the intellect and do not concern the will1 however great may be their importance1 remain without influence upon the machinery of the organism1 with the one exception1 that mental activity1 prolonged to excess1 fatigues and gradually exhausts the brain and finally undermines the organism4 ,this again confirms the fact that the intellect is of a secondary character1 and merely the organic function of a single part1 a product of life2 not the innermost kernel of our being1 not the thing in itself1 not metaphysical1 incorporeal1 eternal1 like the will3 the will never tires1 never grows old1 never learns1 never improves by practice1 is in infancy what it is in old age1 eternally one and the same1 and its character in each individual is unchangeable4 ,being essential moreover1 it is likewise immutable1 and therefore exists in animals as it does in us2 for it does not1 like the intellect1 depend upon the perfection of the organization1 but is in every essential respect in all animals the same thing which we know so intimately4 ,accordingly animals have all the feelings which belong to man3 joy1 grief1 fear1 anger1 love1 hate1 desire1 envy1 c4 c4 ,the great difference between man and the brute creation consists exclusively in the degrees of perfection of the intellect4 ,this however is leading us too far from our subject1 so ,i refer my readers to my chief work1 vol4 ii4 chap4 #ai1 sub4 #b4 ,after the cogent reasons just given in favour of the primary agens in the inward machinery of the organism being the very same will which rules the outward actions of the body and only reveals itself as the will in this passage through consciousness because here it needs the mediation of outwardly directed knowledge1 we shall not be astonished to find that other physiologists besides ,brandis had1 by means of strictly empirical research1 also recognised this truth more or less clearly4 ,meckel1#bje in his ,archiv fr die ,physiologie1 arrives quite empirically and impartially at the conclusion1 that vegetative existence in animals1 the first growth of the embryo1 the assimilation of nourishment and plant-life1 ought properly to be considered as manifestations of the will1 nay1 that even the inclination of the magnetic needle seems to be something of the same kind4 ,the assumption1 he says1 of a certain free will in every vital movement may perhaps be justified4 ,plants appear to seek light voluntarily1 c4 c4 ,this book is dated #ahai just after the appearance of my work2 and as1 to say the least1 it is doubtful whether it had any influence upon him or whether he was even aware of its existence1 ,i class these utterances among the independent empirical confirmations of my doctrine4 ,burdach also1#bjf in his great work on ,physiology1 arrives by a completely empirical road at the conclusion1 that self-love is a force belonging to all things indiscriminately4 ,he points it out1 first in animals1 then in plants1 and lastly in inanimate bodies4 ,but what is self-love after all1 if not the will to preserve our existence1 the will to live8 ,under the heading ,comparative ,anatomy1 ,i shall quote a passage from the same book1 which confirms my view still more decidedly4 ,that the doctrine1 which teaches that the will is the vital principle1 has begun to spread even to the wider circles of medical science and to meet with a favourable reception from its younger representatives1 ,i notice with particular pleasure in the theses sustained by ,dr4 ,von ,sigriz on taking his degree at ,munich 7,august1 #ahce71 which commence as follows3 #a4 ,sanguis est determinans formam organismi se evolventis4 #b4 ,evolutio organica determinatur vit intern actione et voluntate4 #bje ,meckel1 ,a4 f4 d4 ,p4 vol4 #e1 pp4 #aie-aih4 #bjf ,burdach1 ,physiologie1 vol4 i4 #bei1 p4 #chh4 ,lastly1 a very remarkable and unexpected corroboration of this part of my doctrine has to be mentioned1 which has recently been communicated from ancient ,hindoo philosophy by ,colebrook4 ,in his exposition of the philosophical schools of the ,hindoos1#bjg he quotes the following as the doctrine of the ,nyaga school3 ,volition1 ,yatna1 effort or manifestation of the ,will1 is a self-determination to act which gives satisfaction4 ,desire is its occasion1 perception its motive4 ,two kinds of perceptible effort of the will are distinguished3 that which springs from desire which seeks the agreeable1 and that which springs from aversion which shuns the repulsive4 ,another species1 which escapes sensation and perception1 but is inferred from analogy of spontaneous acts1 comprises animal functions1 having for a cause the vital1 unseen power4 ,here the words animal functions are evidently used1 not in a physiological1 but in a popular sense3 so that here organic life is unquestionably derived from the will4 ,we find a similar statement in ,colebrook's ,report on the ,vedas#bjh where he says3 ,asu is unconscious volition1 which occasions an act necessary to the support of life1 as breathing1 c4 #bjg ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,great ,britain1 #ahbd1 p4 #aaj4 #bjh ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 #h1 p4 #dbf4 ,moreover my reduction of vital energy to the will by no means interferes with the old division of its functions into reproductive force1 irritability and sensibility4 ,this division remains a deep view of their difference1 and gives occasion for interesting observations4 ,the faculty of reproduction1 objectified in the cellular tissue of plants1 constitutes the chief characteristic of plants and the vegetative element in ,man4 ,where we find it predominant to excess in human beings1 we assume them to be phlegmatic1 dull1 indolent1 obtuse 7,botians72 though this assumption does not always meet with confirmation4 ,irritability1 objectified in the muscular tissue1 constitutes the chief characteristic of ,animals and the animal element in ,man4 ,where it predominates to excess1 dexterity1 strength1 bravery1 that is1 fitness for bodily exertion and for war1 is usually to be found 7,spartans74 ,nearly all warm-blooded animals and even insects far surpass ,man in irritability4 ,it is by irritability that animals are most vividly conscious of their existence2 wherefore they exult in manifesting it4 ,there is even still a trace of that exultation perceptible in ,man1 in dancing4 ,sensibility1 objectified in the nerves1 is ,man's chief characteristic1 and constitutes what is properly human in him4 ,in this no animal can in the remotest degree compare with ,man4 ,where it predominates to excess1 it produces genius 7,athenians74 ,accordingly a man of genius is in a higher degree a man4 ,this explains why some men of genius have been unwilling to recognise other men1 with their monotonous physiognomies and universal stamp of commonplace mediocrity1 as human beings3 for in them they did not find their equals and naturally came to the erroneous conclusion that their own was the normal standard4 ,diogenes sought for men with a lantern in this sense2--in that work of genius1 the ,koheleth 7,ecclesiastes7 it is said3#bji ,one man among a thousand have ,i found1 but one woman among all those have ,i not found2 and ,gracian in his ,criticon--perhaps the grandest and most beautiful allegory ever written--says3 ,but what was strangest of all1 in the whole country1 even in the most populous cities1 they did not meet with a single man2 on the contrary these cities were inhabited by lions1 tigers1 leopards1 wolves1 foxes1 apes1 oxen1 asses1 pigs1--nowhere was there a man6 ,they only made out after a time that the few existing human beings1 in order to hide themselves and not to witness what was going on1 had retired to those desert places which ought to have been the dwellings of wild beasts4 ,the same reason indeed accounts for the peculiar inclination of all men of genius for solitude1 to which they are driven by their difference from the rest1 and for which their own inner wealth qualifies them4 ,for1 with humanity it is as with diamonds1 the extraordinarily great ones alone are fitted to be solitaires1 while those of ordinary size have to be set in clusters to produce any effect4 #bji ,ecclesiastes1 ch4 #g1 v4 #bh4 ,even the three ,gunas1 or fundamental qualities of the ,hindoos1 tally with the three physiological fundamental forces4 ,tamas-,guna1 obtuseness1 stupidity1 corresponds to reproductive power2 ,rajas-,guna1 passionateness1 to irritability2 and ,sattwa-,guna1 wisdom and virtue1 to sensibility4 ,when however they add to this1 that ,tamas-,guna is the fate of animals1 ,rajas-,guna the fate of man1 and ,sattwa-,guna that of the ,gods1 this is to be taken in a mythological1 rather than physiological sense4 ,in ,chapter #bjth of the #bnd ,vol4 of my chief work entitled ,objectification of the ,will in the ,animal ,organism1 ,i have likewise treated the argument of the present chapter2 therefore ,i advise my readers to read it after this1 as a complement to what is here given4#baj #baj ,in my ,parerga1 #id of the #bnd vol4 7 #if in the #bnd edition7 belongs also to the above4 ,i may observe1 that the passages ,i have quoted from pp4 #ad and #ae of my ,essay on ,colours1 refer to the first edition4 ,,comparative ,,anatomy4 ,now1 from my proposition3 that the ,will is what ,kant calls the thing in itself#baa or the ultimate substratum of every phenomenon1 ,i had however not only deduced that the will is the agent in all inner1 unconscious functions of the body1 but also that the organism itself is nothing but the will which has entered the region of representation1 the will itself1 perceived in the cognitive form of ,space4 ,i had accordingly said that1 just as each single momentary act of willing presents itself at once directly and infallibly in the outer perception of the body as one of its actions1 so also must the collective volition of each animal1 the totality#bab of its efforts1 be faithfully portrayed in its whole body1 in the constitution of its organism2 and that the means supplied by its organisation for attaining the aims of its will must as a whole exactly correspond to those aims--in short1 that the same relation must exist between the whole character of its volition and the shape and nature of its body1 as between each single act of its will and the single bodily action which carries it out4 ,even this too has recently been recognised as a fact1 and accordingly been confirmed posteriori1 by thoughtful zootomists and physiologists from their own point of view and independently of my doctrine3 their judgments on this point make ,nature testify even here to the truth of my theory4 #baa ,ding an sich4 #bab ,inbegriff4 ,in ,pander and d',alton's admirable illustrated work#bac we find3 ,just as all that is characteristic in the formation of bones springs from the character of the animals1 so does that character1 on the other hand1 develop out of their tendencies and desires4 ,these tendencies and desires of animals1 which are so vividly expressed in their whole organisation and of which that organisation only appears to be the medium1 cannot be explained by special primary forces1 since we can only deduce their inner reason from the general life of ,nature4 ,by this last turn the author shows indeed that he has arrived at the point where1 like all other investigators of ,nature1 he is brought to a standstill by the metaphysical2 but he also shows1 that up to this point beyond which ,nature eludes investigation1 tendencies and desires 7i4e4 will7 were the utmost thing knowable4 ,the shortest expression for his last conclusion about animals would be ,as they will1 so they are4 #bac ,pander and d',alton1 ,ueber die ,skelette der ,raubthiere1 #ahbb1 p4 #g4 ,the learned and thoughtful ,burdach1#bad when treating of the ultimate reason of the genesis of the embryo in his great work on ,physiology1 bears witness no less explicitly to the truth of my view4 ,i must not1 unfortunately1 conceal the fact that in a weak moment1 misled ,heaven knows by what or how1 this otherwise excellent man brings in just here a few sentences taken from that utterly worthless1 tyrannically imposed pseudo-philosophy1 about 'thought' being what is primary 7it is just what is last and most conditioned of all7 yet 'no representation' 7that is to say1 a wooden iron74 ,immediately after however1 under the returning influence of his own better self1 he proclaims the real truth 7p4 #gaj73 ,the brain curves itself outwards to the retina1 because the central part of the embryo desires to take in the impressions of the activity of the world2 the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal develops into the lung1 because the organic body desires to enter into relation with the elementary substances of the universe2 organs of generation spring from the vascular system1 because the individual only lives in the species1 and because the life which has commenced in the individual desires to multiply4 ,this assertion of ,burdach's1 which so entirely agrees with my doctrine1 reminds me of a passage in the ancient ,mahabharata1 which it is really difficult not to regard as a mythical version of the same truth4 ,it is in the third ,canto of ,sundas and ,upasunda in ,bopp's ,ardschuna's ,reise zu ,indra's ,himmel#bae 7#ahbd72 ,brahma has just created ,tilottama1 the fairest of women1 who is walking round the circle of the assembled gods4 ,shiva conceives so violent a longing to gaze at her as she turns successively round the circle1 that four faces arise in him according to her different positions1 that is1 according to the four cardinal points4 ,this may account for ,shiva being represented with five heads1 as ,pansh ,mukhti ,shiva4 ,countless eyes arise on every part of ,indra's body likewise on the same occasion4#baf ,in fact1 every organ must be looked upon as the expression of a universal manifestation of the will1 i4e4 of one made once for all1 of a fixed longing1 of an act of volition proceeding1 not from the individual1 but from the species4 ,every animal form is a longing of the will to live which is roused by circumstances2 for instance1 the will is seized with a longing to live on trees1 to hang on their branches1 to devour their leaves1 without contention with other animals and without ever touching the ground3 this longing presents itself throughout endless time in the form 7or ,platonic ,idea7 of the sloth4 ,it can hardly walk at all1 being only adapted for climbing2 helpless on the ground1 it is agile on trees and looks itself like a moss-clad bough in order to escape the notice of its pursuers4 ,but now let us consider the matter from a somewhat more methodical and less poetical point of view4 #bad ,burdach1 ,physiologie1 vol4 #b1 #dgd4 #bae ,bopp1 ,ardschuna's ,reise zu ,indra's ,himmel1 nebst anderen ,episoden des ,mahabharata 7,ardshuna's ,journey to ,indra's ,heaven together with other episodes from the ,mahabharata71 #ahbd4 #baf ,the ,matsya ,parana attributes a similar origin to ,brahma's four countenances4 ,it relates that1 having fallen in love with his daughter ,satarupa1 and gazed fixedly at her1 she stepped aside to avoid his eye2 he being ashamed1 would not follow her movement2 whereupon a new face arose on him directed towards the side where she was and1 on her once more moving1 the same thing occurred1 and was repeated1 until at last he had four faces4 7,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 #f1 p4 #dgc47 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,the manifest adaptation of each animal for its mode of life and outward means of subsistence1 even down to the smallest detail1 together with the exceeding perfection of its organisation1 form abundant material for teleological contemplation1 which has always been a favourite occupation of the human mind1 and which1 extended even to inanimate ,nature1 has become the argument of the ,physico-theological ,proof4 ,the universal fitness for their ends1 the obviously intentional design in all the parts of the organism of the lower animals without exception1 proclaim too distinctly for it ever to have been seriously questioned1 that here no forces of ,nature acting by chance and without plan have been at work1 but a will4 ,now1 that a will should act otherwise than under the guidance of knowledge was inconceivable1 according to empirical science and views4 ,for1 up to my time1 as has been shown in the last chapter1 will and intellect had been regarded as absolutely inseparable1 nay1 the will was looked upon as a mere operation of the intellect1 that presumptive basis of all that is spiritual4 ,accordingly wherever the will acted1 knowledge must have been its guide2 consequently it must have been its guide here also4 ,but the mediation of knowledge1 which1 as such1 is exclusively directed towards the outside1 brings with it1 that a will acting by means of it1 can only act outwardly1 that is1 only from one being upon another4 ,therefore the will1 of which unmistakable traces had been found1 was not sought for where these were discovered1 but was removed to the outside1 and the animal became the product of a will foreign to it1 guided by knowledge1 which must have been very clear knowledge indeed1 nay1 the deeply excogitated conception of a purpose2 and this purpose must have preceded the animal's existence1 and1 together with the will1 whose product the animal is1 have lain outside that animal4 ,according to this1 the animal would have existed in representation before existing in reality4 ,this is the basis of the train of thought on which the ,physico-theological ,proof is founded4 ,but this proof is no mere scholastic sophism1 like the ,ontological ,proof3 nor does it contain an untiring natural opponent within itself1 like the ,cosmological ,proof1 in that very same law of causality to which it owes its existence4 ,on the contrary1 it is1 in reality1 for the educated1 what the ,keraunological ,proof#bag is for the vulgar1#bah and its plausibility is so great1 so potent1 that the most eminent and at the same time least prejudiced minds have been deeply entangled in it4 ,voltaire1 for instance1 who1 after all sorts of other doubts1 always comes back to it1 sees no possibility of getting over it and even places its evidence almost on a level with that of a mathematical demonstration4 ,even ,priestley too declares it to be irrefutable4#bai ,hume's reflection and acumen alone stood the test1 even in this case2 in his ,dialogues on ,natural ,religion1#bbj which are so well worth reading1 this true precursor of ,kant calls attention to the fact1 that there is no resemblance at all between the works of ,nature and those of an ,art which proceeds according to a design4 ,now it is precisely where he cuts asunder the nervus probandi of this extremely insidious proof1 as well as that of the two others--in his ,critique of ,judgment and in his ,critique of ,pure ,reason--that ,kant's merit shines most brilliantly4 ,a very brief summary of this ,kantian refutation of the ,physico-theological ,proof may be found in my chief work4#bba ,kant has earned for himself great merit by it2 for nothing stands so much in the way of a correct insight into ,nature and into the essence of things as this view1 by which they are looked upon as having been made according to a preconceived plan4 ,therefore1 if a ,duke of ,bridgewater offers a prize of high value for the confirmation and perpetuation of such fundamental errors1 let it be our task1 following in the footsteps of ,hume and ,kant1 to work undauntedly at their destruction1 without any other reward than truth4 ,truth deserves respect3 not what is opposed to it4 ,nevertheless here1 as elsewhere1 ,kant has confined himself to negation2 but a negation only takes full effect when it has been completed by a correct affirmation1 this alone giving entire satisfaction and in itself dislodging and superseding error1 according to the words of ,spinoza3 ,sicut lux se ipsa et tenebras manifestat1 sic veritas norma sui et falsi est4 ,first of all therefore we say3 the world is not made with the help of knowledge1 consequently also not from the outside1 but from the inside2 and next we endeavour to point out the punctum saliens#bbb of the world-egg4 ,the physico-theological thought1 that ,nature must have been regulated and fashioned by an intellect1 however well it may suit the untutored mind1 is nevertheless fundamentally wrong4 ,for the intellect is only known to us in animal nature1 consequently as an absolutely secondary and subordinate principle in the world1 a product of the latest origin2 it can never therefore have been the condition of the existence of that world4#bbc ,now the will on the contrary1 being that which fills every thing and manifests itself immediately in each--thus showing each thing to be its phenomenon--appears everywhere as that which is primary4 ,it is just for this reason1 that the explanation of all teleological facts is to be found in the will of the being itself in which they are observed4 #bag ,i should like under this name to add a fourth to the three proofs brought forward by ,kant1 i4e4 the proof a terrore1 which the ancient saying of ,petronius3 primus in orbe ,deos fecit timor1 designates and of which ,hume's incomparable ,natural ,history of ,religion may be considered as the critique4 ,understood in this sense1 even the theologist ,schleiermacher's attempted proof might have its truth from the feeling of dependence1 though perhaps not exactly that truth which its originator imagined it to have4 #bah ,socrates propounded it already in detail in ,xenophon4 7,mem4 i4 #d47 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bai ,priestley1 ,disqu4 on ,matter and ,spirit1 sect4 #af1 p4 #ahh4 #bbj ,part #g1 and in other places4 #bba ,see ,die ,welt als ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 i4 p4 #eig4 7,vol4 i4 p4 #fca of the #crd ed47 #bbb ,the point at which the life-spark is kindled4 ,tr4 #bbc ,nor can a mundus intelligibilis precede a mundus sensibilis2 since it receives its material from the latter alone4 ,it is not an intellect which has brought forth ,nature2 it is1 on the contrary1 ,nature which has brought forth the intellect4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,besides1 the ,physico-theological ,proof may be simply invalidated by the empirical observation1 that works produced by animal instinct1 such as the spider's web1 the bee's honeycomb and its cells1 the white ant's constructions1 c4 c41 are throughout constituted as if they were the result of an intentional conception1 of a wide-reaching providence and of rational deliberation2 whereas they are evidently the work of a blind impulse1 i4e4 of a will not guided by knowledge4 ,from this it follows1 that the conclusion from such and such a nature to such and such a mode of coming into being1 has not the same certainty as the conclusion from a consequent to its reason1 which is in all cases a sure one4 ,i have devoted the twenty-seventh chapter of the second volume of my chief work to a detailed consideration of the mechanical instincts of animals1 which may be used1 together with the preceding one on ,teleology1 to complete the whole examination of this subject in the present chapter4 ,now1 if we enter more closely into the above-mentioned fitness of every animal's organisation for its mode of life and means of subsistence1 the question that first presents itself is1 whether that mode of life has been adapted to the organisation1 or vice versa4 ,at first sight1 the former assumption would seem to be the more correct one2 since1 in ,time1 the organisation precedes the mode of life1 and the animal is thought to have adopted the mode of existence for which its structure was best suited1 making the best use of the organs it found within itself3 thus1 for instance1 we think that the bird flies because it has wings1 and that the ox butts because it has horns2 not conversely4 ,this view is shared by ,lucretius1 7always an ominous sign for an opinion73 ,nil ideo quoniam natum est in corpore1 ut uti ,possemus2 sed1 quod natum est1 id procreat usum4#bbd #bbd ,this is expanded1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #hbe-hdc4 ,only this assumption does not explain how1 collectively1 the quite different parts of an animal's organism so exactly correspond to its way of life2 how no organ interferes with another1 each rather assisting the others and none remaining unemployed2 also that no subordinate organ would be better suited to another mode of existence1 while the life which the animal really leads is determined by the principal organs alone1 but1 on the contrary1 each part of the animal not only corresponds to every other part1 but also to its mode of life3 its claws1 for instance1 are invariably adapted for seizing the prey which its teeth are suited to tear and break1 and its intestinal canal to digest3 its limbs are constructed to convey it where that prey is to be found1 and no organ ever remains unemployed4 ,the ant-bear1 for instance1 is not only armed with long claws on its fore-feet1 in order to break into the nests of the white ant1 but also with a prolonged cylindrical muzzle1 in order to penetrate into them1 with a small mouth and a long1 threadlike tongue1 covered with a glutinous slime1 which it inserts into the white ants' nests and then withdraws covered with the insects that adhere to it3 on the other hand it has no teeth1 because it does not want them4 ,who can fail to see that the ant-bear's form stands in the same relation to the white ants1 as an act of the will to its motive8 ,the contradiction between the powerful fore-feet and long1 strong1 curved claws of the ant-bear and its complete lack of teeth1 is at the same time so extraordinary1 that if the earth ever undergoes a fresh transformation1 the newly arising race of rational beings will find it an insoluble enigma1 if white ants are unknown to them4 ,the necks of birds1 as of quadrupeds1 are generally as long as their legs1 to enable them to reach down to the ground where they pick up their food2 but those of aquatic birds are often a good deal longer1 because they have to fetch up their nourishment from under the water while swimming4#bbe ,moor-fowl have exceedingly long legs1 to enable them to wade without drowning or wetting their bodies1 and a correspondingly long neck and beak1 this last being more or less strong1 according to the things 7reptiles1 fishes or worms7 which have to be crushed2 and the intestines of these animals are invariably adapted likewise to this end4 ,on the other hand1 moor-fowl are provided neither with talons1 like birds of prey1 nor with web-feet1 like ducks3 for the lex parsimoni natur admits of no superfluous organ4 ,now1 it is precisely this very law1 added to the circumstance1 that no organ required for its mode of life is ever wanting in any animal1 and that all1 even the most heterogeneous1 harmonize together and are1 as it were1 calculated for a quite specially determined way of life1 for the element in which the prey dwells1 for the pursuit1 the overcoming1 the crushing and digesting of that prey1--all this1 we say1 proves1 that the animal's structure has been determined by the mode of life by which the animal desired to find its sustenance1 and not vice versa4 ,it also proves1 that the result is exactly the same as if a knowledge of that mode of life and of its outward conditions had preceded the structure1 and as if therefore each animal had chosen its equipment before it assumed a body2 just as a sportsman before starting chooses his whole equipment1 gun1 powder1 shot1 pouch1 hunting-knife and dress1 according to the game he intends chasing4 ,the latter does not take aim at the wild boar because he happens to have a rifle3 he took the rifle with him and not a fowling-piece1 because he intended to hunt the wild boar2 and the ox does not butt because it happens to have horns3 it has horns because it intends to butt4 ,now1 to render this proof complete1 we have the additional circumstance1 that in many animals1 during the time they are growing1 the effort of the will to which a limb is destined to minister1 manifests itself before the existence of the limb itself1 its employment thus anticipating its existence4 ,young he-goats1 rams1 calves1 for instance1 butt with their bare polls before they have any horns2 the young boar tries to gore on either side1 before its tusks are fully developed which would respond to the intended effect1 while on the other hand1 it neglects to use the smaller teeth it already has in its mouth and with which it might really bite4 ,thus its mode of defending itself does not adapt itself to the existing weapons1 but vice versa4 ,this had already been noticed by ,galenus#bbf and by ,lucretius#bbg before him4 ,all these circumstances give us complete certainty1 that the will does not1 as a supplementary thing proceeding from the intellect1 employ those instruments which it may happen to find1 or use the parts because just they and no others chance to be there2 but that what is primary and original1 is the endeavour to live in this particular way1 to contend in this manner1 an endeavour which manifests itself not only in the employment1 but even in the existence of the weapon3 so much so indeed1 that the use of the weapon frequently precedes its existence1 thus denoting that it is the weapon which arises out of the existence of the endeavour1 not1 conversely1 the desire to use it out of the existence of the weapon4 ,aristotle expressed this long ago1 when he said1 with reference to insects armed with stings3#bbh 7quia iram habent1 arma habent71 and further on1 generally speaking3#bbi ' 1 ' 7,natura enim instrumenta ad officium1 non officium ad instrumenta accommodat74 ,from which it follows1 that the structure of each animal is adapted to its will4 #bbe ,i have seen 7,zooplast4 ,cab4 #ahfj7 a humming-bird 7colibri7 with a beak as long as the whole bird1 head and tail included4 ,this bird must certainly have had to fetch out its food from a considerable depth1 were it only from the calyx of a flower 7,cuvier1 ,anat4 ,comp4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cgd72 otherwise it would not have given itself the luxury1 or submitted to the encumbrance1 of such a beak4 #bbf ,galenus1 ,de ,usu ,partium ,anim41 i4 #a4 #bbg ,lucretius1 v4 pp4 #ajcb-ajci4 #bbh ,aristot41 ,de ,part4 ,animal41 iv4 #f3 ,they have a weapon because they have passion4 ,tr4 #bbi ,ibid4 c4 #ab3 ,nature makes the tools for the work1 not the work for the tools4 ,tr4 ,this truth forces itself upon thoughtful zoologists and zootomists with such cogency1 that unless their mind is at the same time purified by a deeper philosophy1 it may lead them into strange errors4 ,now this actually happened to a very eminent zoologist1 the immortal ,de ,lamarck1 who has acquired everlasting fame by his discovery of the classification of animals in vertebrata and non-vertebrata1 so admirable in depth of view4 ,for he quite seriously maintains and tries to prove#bcj at length1 that the shape of each animal species1 the weapons peculiar to it1 and its organs of every sort destined for outward use1 were by no means present at the origin of that species1 but have on the contrary come into being gradually in the course of time and through continued generation1 in consequence of the exertions of the animal's will1 evoked by the nature of its position and surroundings1 through its own repeated efforts and the habits to which these gave rise4 ,aquatic birds and mammalia that swim1 he says1 have only become web-footed through stretching their toes asunder in swimming2 moor-fowl acquired their long legs and necks by wading2 horned cattle only gradually acquired horns because as they had no proper teeth for combating1 they fought with their heads1 and this combative propensity in course of time produced horns or antlers2 the snail was originally1 like other mollusca1 without feelers2 but out of the desire to feel the objects lying before it1 these gradually arose2 the whole feline species acquired claws only in course of time1 from their desire to tear the flesh of their prey1 and the moveable coverings of those claws1 from the necessity of protecting them in walking without being prevented from using them when they wished2 the giraffe1 in the barren1 grassless ,african deserts1 being reduced for its food to the leaves of lofty trees1 stretched out its neck and forelegs until at last it acquired its singular shape1 with a height in front of twenty feet1 and thus ,de ,lamarck goes on describing a multitude of animal species as arising according to the same principle1 in doing which he overlooks the obvious objection which may be made1 that long before the organs necessary for its preservation could have been produced by means of such endeavours as these through countless generations1 the whole species must have died out from the want of them4 ,to such a degree may we be blinded by a hypothesis which has once laid hold of us6 ,nevertheless in this instance the hypothesis arose out of a very correct and profound view of ,nature3 it is an error of genius1 which in spite of all the absurdity it contains1 still does honour to its originator4 ,the true part of it belongs to ,de ,lamarck1 as an investigator of ,nature2 he saw rightly that the primary element which has determined the animal's organisation1 is the will of that animal itself4 ,the false part must be laid to the account of the backward state of ,metaphysics in ,france1 where the views of ,locke and of his feeble follower1 ,condillac1 in fact still hold their ground and therefore bodies are held to be things in themselves1 ,time and ,space qualities of things in themselves2 and where the great doctrine of the ,ideal nature of ,space and of ,time and of all that is represented in them1 which has been so extremely fertile in its results1 has not yet penetrated4 ,de ,lamarck therefore could not conceive his construction of living beings otherwise than in ,time1 through succession4 ,errors of this sort1 as well as the gross1 absurd1 atomic theory of the ,french and the edifying physico-theological considerations of the ,english1 have been banished for ever from ,germany by ,kant's profound influence4 ,so salutary was the effect produced by this great mind1 even upon a nation capable of subsequently forsaking him to run after charlatanism and empty bombast4 ,but the thought could never enter into ,de ,lamarck's head1 that the animal's will1 as a thing in itself1 might lie outside ,time1 and in this sense be prior to the animal itself4 ,therefore he assumes the animal to have first been without any clearly defined organs1 but also without any clearly defined tendencies1 and to have been equipped only with perception4 ,through this it learns to know the circumstances in which it has to live and from that knowledge arise its desires1 i4e4 its will1 from which again spring its organs or definite embodiment2 this last indeed with the help of generation and therefore in boundless ,time4 ,if ,de ,lamarck had had the courage to carry out his theory fully1 he ought to have assumed a primary animal#bca which1 to be consistent1 must have originally had neither shape nor organs1 and then proceeded to transform itself according to climate and local conditions into myriads of animal shapes of all sorts1 from the gnat to the elephant4--,but this primary animal is in truth the will to live2 as such however1 it is metaphysical1 not physical4 ,most certainly the shape and organisation of each animal species has been determined by its own will according to the circumstances in which it wished to live2 not however as a thing physical in ,time1 but on the contrary as a thing metaphysical outside ,time4 ,the will did not proceed from the intellect1 nor did the intellect exist1 together with the animal1 before the will made its appearance as a mere accident1 a secondary1 or rather tertiary1 thing4 ,it is on the contrary the will which is the prius1 the thing in itself3 its phenomenon 7mere representation in the cognitive intellect and its forms of ,space and ,time7 is the animal1 fully equipped with all its organs which represent the will to live in those particular circumstances4 ,among these organs is the intellect also--knowledge itself--which1 like the rest of those organs1 is exactly adapted to the mode of life of each animal2 whereas1 according to ,de ,lamarck1 it is the will which arises out of knowledge4 ,behold the countless varieties of animal shapes2 how entirely is each of them the mere image of its volition1 the evident expression of the strivings of the will which constitute its character6 ,their difference in shape is only the portrait of their difference in character4 ,ferocious animals1 destined for combat and rapine1 appear armed with formidable teeth and claws and strong muscles2 their sight is adapted for great distances1 especially when they have to mark their prey from a dizzy height1 as is the case with eagles and condors4 ,timid animals1 whose will it is to seek their safety in flight instead of contest1 present themselves with light1 nimble legs and sharp hearing in lieu of all weapons2 a circumstance which has even necessitated a striking prolongation of the outer ear in the most timid of them all1 the hare4 ,the interior corresponds to the exterior3 carnivorous animals have short intestines2 herbivorous animals long ones1 suited to a protracted assimilation4 ,vigorous respiration and rapid circulation of the blood1 represented by appropriate organs1 always accompany great muscular strength and irritability as their necessary conditions1 and nowhere is contradiction possible4 ,each particular striving of the will presents itself in a particular modification of shape4 ,the abode of the prey therefore has determined the shape of its pursuer3 if that prey takes refuge in regions difficult of access1 in remote hiding places1 in night or darkness1 the pursuer assumes the form best suited to those circumstances1 and no shape is rejected as too grotesque by the will to live1 in order to attain its ends4 ,the cross-bill 7loxia curvirostra7 presents itself with this abnormal form of its organ of nutrition1 in order to be able to extract the seeds out of the scales of the fir-cone4 ,moor-fowls appear equipped with extra long legs1 extra long necks and extra long beaks1 in short1 the strangest shapes1 in order to seek out reptiles in their marshes4 ,then we have the ant-bear with its body four feet long1 its short legs1 its strong claws1 and its long1 narrow1 toothless muzzle provided with a threadlike1 glutinous tongue for the purpose of digging out the white ants from their nests4 ,the pelican goes fishing with a huge pouch under its beak in which to pack its fish1 when caught4 ,in order to surprise their prey while asleep in the night1 owls fly out provided with enormous pupils which enable them to see in the dark1 and with very soft feathers to make their flight noiseless and thus permit them to fall unawares upon their sleeping prey without awakening it by their movements4 ,silurus1 gymnotus and torpedo bring a complete electric apparatus into the world with them1 in order to stun their prey before they can reach it2 and also as a defence against their own pursuers4 ,for wherever anything living breathed1 there immediately came another to devour it1#bcb and every animal is in a way designed and calculated throughout1 down to the minutest detail1 for the purpose of destroying some other animal4 ,ichneumons1 for instance1 among insects1 lay their eggs in the bodies of certain caterpillars and similar larv1 in which they bore holes with their stings1 in order to ensure nourishment for their future brood4 ,now those kinds which feed on larv that crawl about freely1 have short stings not more than about one-third of an inch long1 whereas pimpla manifestator1 which feeds upon chelostoma maxillosa1 whose larv lie hidden in old trees at great depth and are not accessible to it1 has a sting two inches long2 and the sting of the ichneumon strobill which lays its eggs in larv dwelling in fir-cones1 is nearly as long4 ,with these stings they penetrate to the larva in which they bore a hole and deposit one egg1 whose product subsequently devours this larva4#bcc ,just as clearly does the will to escape their enemies manifest itself in the defensive equipment of animals that are the objects of pursuit4 ,hedgehogs and porcupines raise up a forest of spears2 armadillos1 scaly ant-eaters and tortoises appear cased from head to foot in armour which is inaccessible to tooth1 beak or claw2 and so it is1 on a smaller scale1 with the whole class of crustacea4 ,others again seek protection by deceiving their pursuers rather than by resisting them physically3 thus the sepia has provided itself with materials for surrounding itself with a dark cloud on the approach of danger4 ,the sloth is deceptively like its moss-clad bough1 and the frog its leaf2 and many insects resemble their dwelling-places4 ,the negro's louse is black2#bcd so1 to be sure1 is our flea also2 but the latter1 in providing itself with an extremely powerful apparatus for making irregular jumps to a considerable distance1 trusted to these for protection4--,we can however make the anticipation in all these arrangements more intelligible to ourselves by the same anticipation which shows itself in the mechanical instincts of animals4 ,neither the young spider nor the ant-lion know the prey for which they lay traps1 when they do it for the first time4 ,and it is the same when they are on the defensive4 ,according to ,latreille1 the insect bombex kills the parnope with its sting1 although it neither eats it nor is attacked by it1 simply because the parnope will lay its eggs in the bombex's nest1 and by doing this will interfere with the development of its eggs2 yet it does not know this4 ,anticipations of this kind once more confirm the ideal nature of ,time1 which indeed always becomes manifest as soon as the will as thing in itself is in question4 ,not only with respect to the points here mentioned1 but to many others besides1 the mechanical instincts and physiological functions of animals serve to explain each other mutually1 because the will without knowledge is the agent in both4 #bcj ,de ,lamarck1 ,philosophie ,zoologique1 vol4 i4 c4 #g1 and ,histoire ,naturelle des ,animaux sans ,vertbres1 vol4 i4 ,introd4 pp4 #ahj-bab4 #bca ,urthier4 #bcb ,animated by the feeling of this truth1 ,robert ,owen1 after passing in review the numerous and often very large ,australian fossile marsupialia--sometimes as big as the rhinoceros--came as early as #ahdb to the conclusion1 that a large beast of prey must have contemporaneously existed4 ,this conclusion was afterwards confirmed1 for in #ahdf he received part of the fossile skull of a beast of prey of the size of the lion1 which he named thylacoleo1 i4e4 lion with a pouch1 since it is also a marsupial4 7,see the ,times of the #aith of ,may1 #ahff1 where there is an article on ,palontology1 with an account of ,owen's lecture at the ,government ,school of ,mines47 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bcc ,kirby and ,spence1 ,introduction to ,entomology1 vol4 i4 p4 #cee4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bcd ,blumenbach1 ,de hum4 gen4 variet4 nat4 p4 #ej4 ,smmering1 ,on the ,negro1 p4 #h4 ,as the will has equipped itself with every organ and every weapon1 offensive as well as defensive1 so has it likewise provided itself in every animal shape with an intellect1 as a means of preservation for the individual and the species4 ,it was precisely in this account that the ancients called the intellect the 1 i4e4 the guide and leader4 ,accordingly the intellect1 being exclusively destined to serve the will1 always exactly corresponds to it4 ,beasts of prey stood in greater need of intellect1 and in fact have more intelligence1 than herbivorous animals4 ,the elephant certainly forms an exception1 and so does even the horse to a certain extent2 but the admirable intelligence of the elephant was necessary on account of the length of its life 7#bjj years7 and of the scantiness of its progeny1 which obliged it to provide for a longer and surer preservation of the individual3 and this moreover in countries teeming with the most rapacious1 the strongest and the nimblest beasts of prey4 ,the horse too has a longer life and a scantier progeny than the ruminants1 and as it has neither horns1 tusks1 trunk1 nor indeed any weapon save perhaps its hoofs1 it needed greater intelligence and swiftness in order to elude pursuit4 ,monkeys needed their extraordinary intelligence1 partly because of the length of their life1 which even in the moderate-sized animal extends to fifty years2 partly also because of their scanty progeny1 which is limited to one at a time1 but especially because of their hands1 which1 to be properly used1 required the direction of an understanding4 ,for monkeys depend upon their hands1 not only for their defence by means of outer weapons such as sticks and stones1 but also for their nourishment1 this last necessitating a variety of artificial means and a social and artificial system of rapine in general1 the passing from hand to hand of stolen fruit1 the placing of sentinels1 c4 c4 ,add to this1 that it is especially in their youth1 before they have attained their full muscular development1 that this intelligence is most prominent4 ,in the pongo or ourang-outang for instance1 the brain plays a far more important part and the understanding is much greater during its youth than at its maturity1 when the muscular powers having attained full development1 they take the place of the proportionately declining intellect4 ,this holds good of all sorts of monkeys1 so that here therefore the intellect acts for a time vicariously for the yet undeveloped muscular strength4 ,we find this process discussed at length in the ,rsum des ,observations de ,fr4 ,cuvier sur l'instinct et l'intelligence des animaux1 par ,flourens 7#ahda71 from which ,i have quoted the whole passage referring to this question in the second volume of my chief work1 at the end of the thirty-first chapter1 and this is my only reason for not repeating it here4 ,on the whole1 intelligence gradually increases from the rodents#bce to the ruminants1 from the ruminants to the pachyderms1 and from these again to the beasts of prey and finally to the quadrumana1 and anatomy shows a gradual development of the brain in similar order which corresponds to this result of external observation4 7,according to ,flourens and ,fr4 ,cuvier47#bcf ,among the reptiles1 serpents are the most intelligent1 for they may even be trained2 this is so1 because they are beasts of prey and propagate more slowly than the rest--especially the venomous ones4 ,and here also1 as with the physical weapons1 we find the will everywhere as the prius2 its equipment1 the intellect1 as the posterius4 ,beasts of prey do not hunt1 nor do foxes thieve1 because they have more intelligence2 on the contrary1 they have more intelligence1 just as they have stronger teeth and claws too1 because they wished to live by hunting and thieving4 ,the fox even made up at once for his inferiority in muscular power and strength of teeth by the extraordinary subtility of his understanding4 ,our thesis is singularly illustrated by the case of the bird dodo or dronte 7didus ineptus7 on the island of ,mauritius1 whose species1 it is well known1 has died out1 and which1 as its ,latin name denotes1 was exceedingly stupid1 and this explains its disappearance2 so that here it seems indeed as if ,nature had for once gone too far in her lex parsimoni and thereby in a sense brought forth an abortion in the species1 as she so often does in the individual1 which was unable to subsist1 precisely because it was an abortion4 ,if1 on this occasion1 anyone were to raise the question as to whether ,nature ought not to have provided insects with at least sufficient intelligence to prevent them from flying into the flame of a candle1 our answer would be3 most certainly2 only she did not know that men would make candles and light them1 and natura nihil agit frustra4 ,insect intelligence is therefore only insufficient where the surroundings are artificial4#bcg #bce ,that the lowest place should be given to the rodents1 seems however to proceed from priori rather than from posteriori considerations3 that is to say1 from the circumstance1 that their brain has extremely faint or small convolutions2 so that too much weight may have been given to this point4 ,in sheep and calves the convolutions are numerous and deep1 yet how is it with their intelligence8 ,the mechanical instincts of the beaver are again greatly assisted by its understanding1 and even rabbits show remarkable intelligence 7see ,leroy's beautiful work3 ,lettres ,philosophiques sur l',intelligence des ,animaux1 lettre #c1 p4 #adi74 ,even rats give proof of quite uncommon intelligence1 of which some remarkable instances may be found in the ,quarterly ,review1 ,no4 #bja1 ,jan4-,march1 #aheg1 in a special article entitled ,rats4 #bcf ,the most intelligent birds are also birds of prey1 wherefore many of them1 especially falcons1 are highly susceptible of training4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bcg ,that the negroes should have become the special victims of the slave-trade1 is evidently a consequence of the inferiority of their intelligence compared with that of other human races2 though this by no means justifies the fact4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,everywhere indeed intelligence depends in the first instance upon the cerebral system1 and this stands in a necessary relation to the rest of the organism2 therefore cold-blooded animals are greatly inferior to warm-blooded ones1 and invertebrate animals to vertebrata4 ,but the organism is precisely nothing but the will become visible1 to which1 as that which is absolutely prius1 everything constantly refers4 ,the needs and aims of that will give in each phenomenon the rule for the means to be employed1 and these means must harmonize with one another4 ,plants have no self-consciousness because they have no power of locomotion2 for of what use would self-consciousness be to them unless it enabled them to seek what was salutary and flee what was noxious to them8 ,and conversely1 of what use could power of locomotion be to them1 as they have no self-consciousness with which to guide it4 ,the inseparable duality of ,sensibility and ,irritability does not yet appear therefore in the plant2 they continue slumbering in the reproductive force which is their fundament1 and in which alone the will here objectifies itself4 ,the sun-flower1 and every other plant1 wills for light2 but as yet their movement towards light is not separate from their apprehension of it1 and both coincide with their growth4--,human understanding1 which is so superior to that of all other beings1 and is assisted by ,reason 7the faculty for non-perceptible representations1 i4e4 for conceptions2 reflection1 thinking faculty71 is nevertheless only just proportionate1 partly to ,man's requirements1 which greatly surpass those of animals and multiply to infinity2 partly to his entire lack of all natural weapons and covering1 and to his relatively weaker muscular strength1 which is greatly inferior to that of monkeys of his own size2#bch lastly also1 to the slowness with which his race multiplies and the length of his childhood and life1 which demand secure preservation of the individual4 ,all these great requirements had to be satisfied by means of intellectual powers1 which1 for this reason1 predominate in him4 ,but we find the intellect secondary and subordinate everywhere1 and destined exclusively to serve the purposes of the will4 ,as a rule too1 it always remains true to its destiny and subservient to the will4 ,how nevertheless1 it frees itself in particular instances from this bondage through an abnormal preponderance of cerebral life1 whereby purely objective cognition becomes possible which may be enhanced to genius1 ,i have shown at length in the sthetic part of my chief work4#bci #bch ,as is likewise his capacity for escaping from his pursuers2 for in this respect all the four-footed mammalia surpass him4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bci ,see ,third ,book of the ,w4 a4 ,w4 u4 ,v42 later also1 in my ,parerga1 vol4 ii4 #ej-eg and #bjf4 7 #ea-eh1 and #baj of the #bnd edition47 ,now1 after all these reflections upon the precise agreement between the will and the organisation of each animal1 if we inspect a well-arranged osteological collection from this point of view1 it will certainly seem to us as if we saw one and the same being 7,de ,lamarck's primary animal1 or1 more properly1 the will to live7 changing its shape according to circumstances1 and thus producing all this multiplicity of forms out of the same number and arrangement of its bones1 by prolonging and curtailing1 strengthening and weakening them4 ,this number and arrangement of the bones1 which ,geoffroy de ,st4 ,hilaire#bdj called the anatomical element1 continues1 as he has thoroughly shown1 in all essential points unchanged3 it is a constant magnitude1 something which is absolutely given beforehand1 irrevocably fixed by an unfathomable necessity--an immutability which ,i should compare with the permanence of matter in all physical and chemical changes3 but to this ,i shall soon return4 ,conjointly with this immutability of the anatomical element1 we have the greatest susceptibility to modification1 the greatest plasticity and flexibility of these same bones with reference to size1 shape and adaptation to different purposes1 all which we see determined by the will with primary strength and freedom according to the aims prescribed to it by external circumstances3 it makes out of these materials whatever its necessity for the time being requires4 ,if it desires to climb about in trees1 it catches at the boughs at once with four hands1 while it stretches the ulva and radius to an excessive length and immediately prolongs the os coccygis to a curly tail1 a yard long1 in order to hang by it to the boughs and swing itself from one branch to another4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it desires to crawl in the mud as a crocodile1 to swim as a seal1 or to burrow as a mole1 these same arm-bones are shortened till they are no longer recognisable2 in the last case the metacarpus and phalanges are enlarged to disproportionately large shovel-paws1 to the prejudice of the other bones4 ,but if it wishes to fly through the air as a bat1 not only are the os humeri1 radius and alnus prolonged in an incredible manner1 but the usually small and subordinate carpus1 metacarpus and phalanges digitorum expand to an immense length1 as in ,st4 ,anthony's vision1 outmeasuring the length of the animal's body1 in order to spread out the wing-membrane4 ,if1 in order to browse upon the tops of very tall ,african trees1 it has1 as a giraffe1 placed itself upon extraordinarily high fore-legs1 the same seven vertebr of the neck1 which never vary as to number and which1 in the mole1 were contracted so as to be no longer recognisable1 are now prolonged to such a degree1 that here1 as everywhere else1 the neck acquires the same length as the fore-legs1 in order to enable the head to reach down to drinking-water4 ,but where1 as is the case when it appears as the elephant1 a long neck could not have borne the weight of the enormous1 unwieldy head--a weight increased moreover by tusks a yard long--the neck remains short1 as an exception1 and a trunk is let down as an expedient1 to lift up food and draw water from below and also to reach up to the tops of trees4 ,in accordance with these transformations1 we see in all of them the skull1 the receptacle containing the understanding1 at the same time proportionately expand1 develop1 curve itself1 as the mode of procuring nourishment becomes more or less difficult and requires more or less intelligence2 and the different degrees of the understanding manifest themselves clearly to the practised eye in the curves of the skull4 #bdj ,principes de ,philosophie ,zoologique1 #ahcj4 ,now1 in all this1 that anatomical element we have mentioned above as fixed and invariable1 certainly remains in so far an enigma1 as it does not come within the teleological explanation1 which only begins after the assumption of that element2 since the intended organ might in many cases have been rendered equally suitable for its purpose even with a different number and disposition of bones4 ,it is easy to understand1 for instance1 why the human skull should be formed out of eight bones3 that is1 to enable them to be drawn together by the fontanels during birth2 but we do not see why a chicken which breaks through its egg-shell should necessarily have the same number of skull-bones4 ,we must therefore assume this anatomical element to be based1 partly on the unity and identity of the will to live in general1 partly on the circumstance1 that the archetypal forms of animals have proceeded one from the other1#bda wherefore the fundamental type of the whole race was preserved4 ,it is this anatomical element which ,aristotle means by his 1 and the mutability of its shapes according to different purposes he calls 1#bdb and explains by it how the material for upper incisors has been employed for horns in horned cattle4 ,quite rightly3 since the only ruminants which have no horns1 the camel and the musk-ox1 have upper incisors1 and these are wanting in all horned ruminants4 #bda ,parerga1 vol4 ii4 #ia2 #ic of the #bnd edition4 #bdb ,see ,aristotle1 ,de ,partibus ,animalium1 iii4 c4 #b sub finem3 4 4 4 ,no other explanation or assumption enables us nearly as well to understand either the complete suitableness to purpose and to the external conditions of existence ,i have here shown in the skeleton1 or the admirable harmony and fitness of internal mechanism in the structure of each animal1 as the truth ,i have elsewhere firmly established3 that the body of an animal is precisely nothing but the will itself of that animal brought to cerebral perception as representation--through the forms of ,space1 ,time and ,causality--in other words1 the mere visibility1 objectivity of ,will4 ,for1 if this is once pre-supposed1 everything in and belonging to that body must conspire towards the final end3 the life of this animal4 ,nothing superfluous1 nothing deficient1 nothing inappropriate1 nothing insufficient or incomplete of its kind1 can therefore be found in it2 on the contrary1 all that is required must be there1 and just in the proportion needed1 never more4 ,for here artist1 work and materials are one and the same4 ,each organism is therefore a consummate master-piece of exceeding perfection4 ,here the will did not first cherish the intention1 first recognise the end and then adapt the means to it and conquer the material2 its willing was rather immediately the aim and immediately the attainment of that aim2 no foreign appliances needing to be overcome were wanted--willing1 doing and attaining were here one and the same4 ,thus the organism presents itself as a miracle which admits of no comparison with any work of human artifice wrought by the lamplight of knowledge4#bdc #bdc ,the appearance of every animal therefore presents a totality1 a unity1 a perfection and a rigidly carried out harmony in all its parts which is so entirely based upon a single fundamental thought1 that even the strangest animal shape seems to the attentive observer as if it were the only right1 nay1 only possible form of existence1 and as if there could be no other than just this very one4 ,the expression natural used to denote that a thing is a matter of course1 and that it cannot be otherwise1 is in its deepest foundation based upon this4 ,gthe himself was struck by this unity when contemplating whelks and crabs at ,venice1 and it caused him to exclaim3 ,how delightful1 how glorious is a living thing6 how well adapted for its condition2 how true1 how real6 7,life1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bbc74 ,no artist therefore1 who has not made it his business to study such forms for years and to penetrate into their meaning and comprehension1 can rightly imitate them4 ,without this study his work will seem as if it were pasted together3 the parts no doubt will be there1 but the bond which unites them and gives them cohesion1 the spirit1 the idea1 which is the objectivity of the primary act of the will presenting itself as this or that particular species1 will be wanting4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,our admiration for the consummate perfection and fitness for their ends in all the works of ,nature1 is at the bottom based upon our viewing them in the same light as we do our own works4 ,in these1 in the first place1 the will to do the work and the work are two different things2 then again two other things lie between these two3 firstly1 the medium of representation1 which1 taken by itself1 is foreign to the will1 through which the will must pass before it realizes itself here2 and secondly the material foreign to the will here at work1 on which a form foreign to it has to be forced1 which it resists1 because the material already belongs to another will1 that is to say1 to its own nature1 its forma substantialis1 the 7,platonic7 idea1 expressed by it3 therefore this material has first to be overcome1 and however deeply the artificial form may have penetrated1 will always continue inwardly resisting4 ,it is quite a different thing with ,nature's works1 which are not1 like our own1 indirect1 but on the contrary1 direct manifestations of the will4 ,here the will acts in its primordial nature1 that is1 unconsciously4 ,no mediating representation here separates the will and the work3 they are one4 ,and even the material is one with them3 for matter is the mere visibility of the will4 ,therefore here we find ,matter completely permeated by ,form2 or1 better still1 they are of quite the same origin1 only existing mutually one for the other2 and in so far they are one4 ,that we separate them in works of ,nature as well as in works of ,art1 is a mere abstraction4 ,pure ,matter1 absolutely without ,form or quality1 which we think as the material of a product of ,nature1 is merely an ens rationis and cannot enter into any experience3 whereas the material of a work of ,art is empirical ,matter1 consequently already has a ,form4 ,the distinctive character of ,nature's products is the identity of form and substance2 that of products of ,art the diversity of these two4#bdd ,it is because ,matter is the mere visibility of ,form in ,nature's products1 that1 even empirically1 we see ,form appear as a mere production of ,matter1 bursting forth from its inside in crystallisation1 in vegetable and animal generatio quivoca1 which last cannot be doubted1 at any rate in the epizoa4#bde--;,for this reason we may even assume that nowhere1 either on any planet or satellite1 will ,matter come to a state of endless repose1 but rather that its inherent forces 7i4e4 the will1 whose mere visibility it is7 will always put an end again to the repose which has commenced1 always awaking again from their sleep1 to resume their activity as mechanical1 physical1 chemical1 organic forces2 since at all times they only wait for the opportunity to do so4 #bdd ,it is a great truth which ,bruno expresses 7,de ,immenso et ,innumerabili1 #h1 #aj73 ,ars tractat materiam alienam3 natura materiam propriam4 ,ars circa materiam est2 natura interior materi4 ,he treats this subject much more fully1 ,della ,causa1 ,dial4 #c1 p4 #beb et seqq4 ,page #bee he declares the forma substantialis to be the form of every product of ,nature1 which is the same as the soul4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bde ,thus the saying of the ,schoolmen is verified3 ,materia appetit formam4 ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #crd edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ceb4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,but if we want to understand ,nature's proceeding1 we must not try to do it by comparing her works with our own4 ,the real essence of every animal form1 is an act of the will outside representation1 consequently outside its forms of ,space and ,time also2 which act1 just on that account1 knows neither sequence nor juxtaposition1 but has1 on the contrary1 the most indivisible unity4 ,but when our cerebral perception comprehends that form1 and still more when its inside is dissected by the anatomical knife1 then that which originally and in itself was foreign to knowledge and its laws1 is brought under the light of knowledge2 but then also1 it has to present itself in conformity with the laws and forms of knowledge4 ,the original unity and indivisibility of that act of the will1 of that truly metaphysical being1 then appears divided into parts lying side by side and functions following one upon another1 which all nevertheless present themselves as connected together in closest relationship one to another for mutual help and support1 as means and ends one to the other4 ,the understanding1 in thus apprehending these things1 now perceives the original unity re-establishing itself out of a multiplicity which its own form of knowledge had first brought about1 and involuntarily taking for granted that its own way of perceiving this is the way in which this animal form comes into being1 it is now struck with admiration for the profound wisdom with which those parts are arranged1 those functions combined4 ,this is the meaning of ,kant's great doctrine1 that ,teleology is brought into ,nature by our own understanding1 which accordingly wonders at a miracle of its own creation4#bdf ,if ,i may use a trivial simile to elucidate so sublime a matter1 this astonishment very much resembles that of our understanding when it discovers that all multiples of #i1 when their single figures are added together1 give as their product either the number #i or one whose single figures again make #i2 yet it is that very understanding itself which has prepared for itself this surprise in the decimal system4 ,according to the ,physico-theological argument1 the actual existence of the world has been preceded by its existence in an intellect3 if the world is designed for an end1 it must have existed as representation before it came into being4 ,now ,i say1 on the contrary1 in ,kant's sense3 if the world is to be representation1 it must present itself as designed for an end2 and this only takes place in an intellect4 #bdf ,compare ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 #crd edition1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cge4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,it undoubtedly follows from my doctrine1 that every being is its own work4 ,nature1 which is incapable of falsehood and is as nave as genius1 asserts the same thing downright2 since each being merely kindles the spark of life at another exactly similar being1 and then makes itself before our eyes1 taking the materials for this from outside1 form and movement from its own self3 this process we call growth and development4 ,thus1 even empirically1 each being stands before us as its own work4 ,but ,nature's language is not understood because it is too simple4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,plants4 ,the corroborations ,i am now about to bring forward of the phenomenon of the will in plants1 proceed chiefly from ,french sources1 from a nation whose tendencies are decidedly empirical and which is reluctant to go a step beyond what is immediately given4 ,the informant moreover is ,cuvier1 whose rigid adherence to the purely empirical gave rise to the famous dispute between him and ,geoffroy de ,st4 ,hilaire4 ,so we must not be astonished if the language we meet with here is less decided than in the preceding ,german corroborations and if we find each concession made with cautious reserve4 ,in his ,histoire des ,progrs des ,sciences ,naturelles depuis #aghi jusqu' ce jour1#bdg ,cuvier says3 ,plants have certain apparently spontaneous movements1 which they show under certain circumstances and which at times so closely resemble those of animals1 that a sort of feeling and will might almost be attributed to plants on this account1 especially by those who think they can perceive something of the same kind in the movements of the inward parts of animals4 ,thus the tops of trees always have a vertical tendency1 excepting when they incline towards the light4 ,their roots seek out good earth and moisture and1 in order to attain these1 deviate from the straight course4 ,yet these different tendencies cannot be explained by the influence of external causes1 unless we also assume the existence of an inner natural disposition1 susceptible of being roused1 which differs from the mere mechanical force in inorganic bodies4444 ,decandolle made some remarkable experiments that proved to him the existence of a sort of habit in plants which may be overcome by artificial light1 but only after a certain time4 ,plants that had been shut up in a cellar which was continually lit by lamps1 did not on this account leave off closing in the evening and opening again in the morning for several days4 ,and there are other habits besides which plants are able to adopt and to abandon4 ,flowers that habitually close in wet weather1 finish by remaining open if the wet weather lasts too long4 ,when ,m4 ,desfontaines took a sensitive plant with him in his carriage1 the jolting movement at first caused it to contract1 but at last it expanded again as when in complete repose4 ,therefore even in these cases1 light1 moisture1 c41 c41 only act in virtue of an inner disposition1 which may be neutralized or modified by the continuation of that very activity itself2 and the vital energy of plants1 like that of animals1 is subject to fatigue and exhaustion4 ,the hedysarum gyrans is singularly characterized by the movements of its leaves which continue day and night without needing any sort of stimulus4 ,surely1 if any phenomenon can cause illusion and remind us of the voluntary movements of animals1 it is this4 ,broussonet1 ,silvestre1 ,cels and ,halle have fully described it1 and have shown that the plant's action depends entirely upon its own healthy condition4 #bdg ,vol4 i4 p4 #bde4 #ahbf4 ,again1 in the third volume of the same work1 p4 #aff 7#ahbh71 ,cuvier says3 ,m4 ,dutrochet adds some physiological considerations to which his own experiments had led him1 and which in his opinion prove that the movements of plants are spontaneous1 i4e4 that they depend upon an inner principle which immediately receives the influence of outer agencies4 ,as he is however reluctant to admit that plants have feeling1 he makes use of the word 'nervimotilit4'--,here ,i must observe1 that when we come to examine it closely1 what we think to ourselves in the conception of spontaneity1 is in the end always the same thing as manifestation of will1 with which spontaneity would therefore be simply synonymous4 ,the only difference between them consists in the conception of spontaneity being derived from outer perception1 while that of manifestation of will is drawn from our own consciousness4--,i find a remarkable instance of the impetuous violence of this spontaneity1 even in plants1 in the following communication contained in the ,cheltenham ,examiner3#bdh ,last ,thursday four enormous mushrooms performed a heroic feat of a new kind1 in one of our most crowded streets1 by lifting up a huge block of stone in their strenuous effort to make their way into the visible world4 #bdh ,repeated in the ,times of ,june #bnd1 #ahda4 ,in the ,mm4 de l',acad4 d4 ,sciences de l'anne 7#ahba71 ,cuvier says#bdi3--;,for centuries botanists have been searching for the reason why in a seed which is germinating the root invariably grows downwards1 while the stalk as invariably grows upwards1 no matter what be the position in which the seed is placed4 ,m4 ,dutrochet put some seeds into holes bored in the bottom of a vessel filled with damp mould1 which he hung up to a beam in his room4 ,now1 in this case1 the stem might have been expected to grow downwards4 ,not at all3 the roots found their way to the air below1 and the stems were prolonged so as to traverse the damp mould until they reached its upper surface4 ,according to ,m4 ,dutrochet1 the direction in which plants grow1 is determined by an inner principle and not at all by the attraction of the bodies towards which they direct themselves4 ,a mistletoe seed that was fastened to the point of a perfectly moveable needle fixed on a peg1 with a small plank placed near it1 was induced to germinate4 ,it soon began to send out shoots towards the plank1 which it reached in five days without having communicated the slightest movement to the needle4 ,the stems of onions and leeks with their bulbs1 deposited in dark places1 grow upwards1 although more slowly than in light ones2 they grow upwards even if placed in water3 a fact which suffices to prove that neither light nor moisture determines the direction of their growth4--,still ,c4 ,h4 ,schultz asserts#bej that he made seeds germinate in a dark box with holes bored in the bottom1 and succeeded in inducing the plants to grow upside down1 by means of a mirror fastened to the box1 which reflected the sunlight4 #bdi ,vol4 v4 p4 #aga4 ,paris1 #ahbf4 #bej ,c4 ,h4 ,schultz1 ,sur la ,circulation dans les ,plantes1 a prize-essay1 #ahci4 ,in the ,dictionnaire des ,sciences ,naturelles 7article ,animal7 we find3 ,if1 on the one hand1 animals show avidity in their search after nourishment as well as power of discrimination in the selection of it1 roots of plants may1 on the other hand1 be observed to direct themselves towards the side where the soil contains most nourishment1 nay1 even to seek out the smallest crevices in rocks which may contain any food4 ,if we twist a bough so as to make the upper surface of its leaves the under one1 these leaves even will twist their stems in order to regain the position best suited for the exercise of their functions 7i4e4 so as to have the smooth side uppermost74 ,is it quite certain that this takes place unconsciously8 ,f4 ,j4 ,meyen has devoted a chapter1 entitled ,of the movements and sensations of plants1 to a full investigation of the subject now before us4 ,in this he says#bea3 ,not unfrequently potatoes1 stored in deep1 dark cellars1 may be observed towards summer to shoot forth stems which invariably grow in the direction of the chinks through which the light comes into the cellar1 and to continue thus growing until they at last reach the aperture which receives the light directly4 ,in such cases potato-stalks have been known to reach a length of twenty feet2 whereas under ordinary circumstances1 even such as are most favourable to the growth of the potato1 the stalk is seldom longer than from three to four feet4 ,it is interesting to watch closely the course taken by a potato-stalk thus growing in darkness1 in its endeavours to reach the light4 ,it tries to do so by the shortest road1 but not being firm enough to grow straight across through the air without support1 it lets itself drop on to the floor1 and thus creeps along the ground till it reaches the nearest wall1 up which it then climbs4 ,even this botanist too is led by his facts to the following assertion 7p4 #egf73 ,on observing the freedom of movement of oscillatoria and other inferior plants1 we may perhaps have no alternative but to attribute a species of will to these beings4 #bea ,f4 ,j4 ,meyen1 ,neues ,system der ,pflanzenphysiologe 7#ahci71 vol4 iii4 p4 #ehe4 ,creepers bear distinct evidence as to manifestation of will in plants2 for1 when they find no support near enough for their tendrils to cling to1 they invariably direct their growth towards the shadiest place1 or even towards a piece of dark-coloured paper1 wherever it may be placed2 whereas they avoid glass1 on account of its glitter4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions of #ahab1 ,th4 ,andrew ,knight relates some very pleasing experiments on this subject 7especially with ampelopsis quinquefolia17#beb although he strives hard to explain the matter mechanically1 and will not admit that it is a manifestation of will4 ,i appeal to his experiments1 not to the conclusions he draws from them4 ,a good test might be1 to plant several free creepers in a circle round a tree-trunk and to observe whether they all crept towards the trunk centripetally4 ,on the #fth ,nov4 #ahdc1 ,dutrochet read a treatise on this subject in the ,acad4 de ,sciences called ,sur les ,mouvements ,rvolutifs spontans chez les ,vgtaux1 which1 notwithstanding its great length1 is well worth reading1 and is published among the ,comptes rendus des ,sances de l',acadmie des ,sciences for ,nov4 #ahdc4 ,the result is1 that in pisum sativum 7green pea71 in bryonia alba 7wild bryony7 and in cucumis sativus 7cucumber7 the stems of those leaves which bear the tendrils1 describe a very slow circular movement in the air1 the time in which they complete an ellipsis varying from one to three hours according to temperature4 ,by this movement they seek at random for solid bodies round which1 when found1 they twine their tendrils2 these then support the plant1 it being unable to stand by itself without help4 ,that is1 they do the same thing as the eyeless caterpillar1 which when seeking a leaf describes circles in the air with the upper part of its body4 ,dutrochet contributes a good deal of information too concerning other movements in plants in this treatise3 for instance1 that stylidium graminifolium in ,new ,holland1 has a column in the middle of its corolla which bears the anthers and stigma and alternately folds up and unfolds again4 ,what ,treviranus adduces is to the same effect3#bec ,in parnassia palustris and in ruta graveolens1 the stamina incline one after the other1 in saxifraga tridactylites in pairs1 towards the stigma1 and erect themselves again in the same order4--,shortly before however1 we read in ,treviranus with reference to this subject3 ,of all apparently voluntary movements of plants1 the direction of their boughs and of the upper surface of their leaves towards the light and towards moist heat1 and the twining movements of creepers round their supports1 are the most universal4 ,in this last phenomenon especially there is something which resembles animal movements4 ,while growing1 creepers1 it is true1 if left to themselves1 describe circles with their tips and by this means reach an object near at hand4 ,but it is no merely mechanical cause that induces them to adapt their growth to the form of the object they have thus reached4 ,the cuscuta does not twine round every kind of support3 for instance1 limbs of animals1 dead vegetable matter1 metals and inorganic substances are not used for this purpose1 but only living plants1 and not even all kinds--not mosses1 for instance--only those from which it can extract nourishment by its papill2 and these attract it from a considerable distance4#bed ,the following special observation1 communicated to the ,farmer's ,magazine1 and reproduced by the ,times 7#acth ,july #ahdh7 under the title ,vegetable ,instinct1 is however still more to the point3 ,if a basin of water be placed within six inches of a young pumpkin-stalk1 or of a stem of the large garden pea1 no matter on what side1 the stalk will approach the basin during the night and it will be found next morning with one of its leaves floating on the water4 ,this experiment may be renewed every night till the plant begins to fructify4--,even if its position be changed every day1 a stick fixed upright within six inches of a young convolvulus is sure to be found by the plant4 ,if1 after having wound itself for a certain distance round the stick1 it is unwound and wound round again in the opposite direction1 it will return to its original position or lose its life in the endeavour to do so4 ,nevertheless1 if two such plants grow close to one another without having any stick near enough for them to cling to it1 one of them will change the direction of its winding and they will twine round each other4 ,duhamel placed some ,italian beans in a cylinder filled with moist earth2 after a little while they began to germinate and naturally sent their plumula upwards in the direction of the light and their radicula downwards into the mould4 ,after a few days the cylinder was turned round to the extent of a quarter of its circumference and the same process was repeated until it had been turned completely round4 ,the beans were then removed from the earth1 when it was found that both plumula and radicula had twisted at each turn that had been given1 in order to adapt themselves to it1 the one endeavouring to rise perpendicularly1 the other to descend1 so that they had formed a complete spiral4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this natural tendency to descend1 when the soil below is too dry1 roots will grow upwards in order to reach any moist substance which may be lying higher than themselves4 #beb ,these have been translated for the ,bibliothque ,britannique1 ,section des ,sciences et ,arts1 vol4 lii4 #bec ,treviranus1 ,die ,erscheinungen und ,gesetze des ,organischen ,lebens 7,phenomena and ,laws of ,organic ,life71 vol4 i4 p4 #agc4 #bed ,brandis1 ,on ,life and ,polarity1 #ahcf1 p4 #hh1 says3 ,the roots of rock-plants seek nourishing mould in the most delicate crevices of rocks4 ,these roots cling to a nourishing bone in dense clusters4 ,i saw a root whose growth was intercepted by the sole of an old shoe3 it divided itself into as many fibres as the shoe-sole had holes--those by which it had been stitched together--but as soon as these fibres had overcome the obstruction and grown through the holes1 they united again to a common stem4 ,and p4 #hg3 ,if ,sprengel's observations are confirmed1 even mediate relations are perceived 7by plants7 in order to obtain this end 7fructification73 that is to say1 the anthers of the nigella bend down in order to put the pollen on the bees' backs1 and the pistils bend in like manner to receive it from the bees4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,in ,froriep's ,memoranda for #ahcc 7,no4 #hcb7 there is a short article upon the locomotivity of plants3 in poor soil1 where good mould lies near at hand1 many plants will send out a shoot into the good mould2 after a time the original plant then withers1 but the offshoot prospers and itself becomes the plant4 ,by means of this process1 a plant has been known to climb down from a wall4 ,in the same periodical 7#ahce1 ,no4 #iha7 is to be found a communication from ,professor ,daubeny1 of ,oxford 7taken from the ,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal1 ,april-,july1 #ahce71 in which he shows with certainty1 by means of new and very careful experiments1 that roots of plants have1 at any rate to a certain degree1 the power to make choice from those substances in the soil which present themselves to their surface4#bee #bee ,in this connection ,i may mention an analysis of an entirely different kind1 given by the ,french ,academician ,babinet in an article in which he treats of the seasons on the planets4 ,it is contained in the ,no4 of the #aeth ,january1 #ahef1 of the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 and ,i will give the chief substance of it here in translation4 ,the object of it is to refer to its direct cause the well-known fact1 that cereals only thrive in temperate climates4 ,if grain did not necessarily perish in winter1 if it were perennial1 it would not bear ears1 and there would be no harvest4 ,in the hotter portions of ,africa1 ,asia and ,america1 where no winter kills the grain1 these plants grow like grass with us3 they multiply by means of shoots1 remain always green1 and neither form ears nor run to seed4 ,in cold climates1 on the contrary1 the organism of these plants seems by some inconceivable miracle to feel1 as it were by anticipation1 the necessity of passing through the seed-phase in order to escape dying off in the winter season 7,l'organisme de la plante1 par un inconcevable miracle1 semble prssentir la ncessit de passer par l'tat de graine1 pour ne pas prir compltement pendant la saison rigoureuse74 ,in a similar way1 districts which have a droughty season1--that is to say a season in which all plants are parched up with drought--tropical countries1 for instance ,jamaica1 produce grain2 because there the plant1 moved by the same organic presentiment 7par le mme pressentiment organique71 in order to multiply1 hastens to bear seed at the approach of the season in which it would have to dry up4 ,in the fact which this author describes as an inconceivable miracle1 we recognise a manifestation of the plant's will in increased potency1 since here it appears as the will of the species1 and makes preparations for the future in a similar way to animal instinct1 without being guided by knowledge of that future in doing so4 ,here we see plants in warmer climates dispensing with a complicated process to which a cold climate alone had obliged them4 ,in similar instances animals do precisely the same thing1 especially bees4 ,leroy in his admirable work ,lettres ,philosophiques sur l',intelligence des ,animaux 7#crd letter1 p4 #bca7 relates1 that some bees which had been taken to ,south ,america continued at first to gather honey as usual and to build their cells just as when they were at home2 but that when they gradually became aware that plants blossom there all the year round1 they left off working4 ,the animal world supplies a fact analogous to the above mentioned change in the mode of multiplying in cereals4 ,this is the abnormal mode of propagation for which the aphides have long been noted4 ,the female aphide1 as is well known1 propagates for #aj-ab generations without any pairing with the male1 and by a variety of the ovoviviparous process4 ,this goes on all summer2 but in autumn the males appear1 impregnation takes place1 and eggs are laid as winter quarters for the whole species1 since it is only in this shape that it is able to outlive the winter4 7,add4 to #crd ed47 ,finally ,i will not omit to observe1 that even so early an authority as ,plato#bef had attributed desires1 1 i4e4 will1 to plants4 ,in my chief work1#beg however1 ,i have entered into the doctrines of the ,ancients on this point1 and the chapter there which treats of this subject may on the whole serve to complete the present one4 #bef ,plat4 ,tim4 p4 #djc4 ,bip4 #beg ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 ii4 chap4 #bc4 ,the reluctance and reserve with which we see the authors here quoted make up their minds to acknowledge the will1 which nevertheless undoubtedly manifests itself in plants1 comes from their being still hampered by the old opinion1 that consciousness is a requisite and condition of the will3 now it is evident that plants have no consciousness4 ,the thought never entered into the heads of these naturalists1 that the will might be the prius and therefore independent of the intellect1 with which1 as the posterius1 consciousness first makes its appearance4 ,as for knowledge or representation1 plants have something merely analogous to it1 a mere substitute for it2 whereas they really have the will itself quite directly3 for1 as the thing in itself1 it is the substratum of their phenomenal being as well as of every other4 ,taking a realistic view1 starting accordingly from the objective1 the matter might even be stated as follows3 ,that which lives and moves in plant-nature and in the animal organism1 when it has gradually enhanced itself in the scale of beings sufficiently for the light of knowledge to fall directly upon it1 presents itself in this newly arising consciousness as will1 and is here more immediately1 consequently better1 known than anywhere else4 ,this knowledge therefore must supply the key for the comprehension of all that is lower in the scale4 ,for in this knowledge the thing in itself is no longer veiled by any other form than that of the most immediate apprehension4 ,it is this immediate apprehension of one's own volition which has been called the inner sense4 ,in itself the will is without apprehension1 and remains so in the inorganic and vegetable kingdoms4 ,just as the world would remain in darkness1 in spite of the sun1 if there were no bodies to reflect its light2 or as the mere vibration of a string can never become a sound without air or even without some sort of sounding-board3 so likewise does the will first become conscious of itself when knowledge is added to it4 ,knowledge is1 as it were1 the sounding-board of the will1 and consciousness the tone it produces4 ,this becoming conscious of itself on the part of the will1 was attributed to a supposed inner sense1 because it is the first and most direct knowledge we have4 ,the various emotions of our own will can alone be the object of this inner sense2 for the process of representation itself cannot over again be perceived1 but1 at the very utmost1 only be once more brought to consciousness in rational reflection1 that second power of representing3 that is1 in abstracto4 ,therefore also1 simple representation 7intuition7 is to thinking proper--that is1 to knowing by means of abstract conceptions--what willing in itself is to becoming aware of that willing1 i4e4 to consciousness4 ,for this reason1 a perfectly clear and distinct consciousness1 not only of our own existence but also of the existence of others1 only arises with the advent of ,reason 7the faculty for conceptions71 which raises ,man as far above the brute1 as the merely intuitive faculty of representation raises the brute above the plant4 ,now beings which1 like plants1 have no faculty for representation1 are called unconscious1 and we conceive this condition as only slightly differing from non-existence2 since the only existence such beings have1 is in the consciousness of others1 as the representation of those others4 ,they are nevertheless not wanting in what is primary in existence1 the will1 but only in what is secondary2 still1 what is primary--and this is after all the existence of the thing in itself--appears to us1 without that secondary element1 to pass over into nullity4 ,we are unable directly and clearly to distinguish unconscious existence from non-existence1 although we have our own experience of it in deep sleep4 ,bearing in mind1 according to the contents of the last chapter1 that the faculty of knowing1 like every other organ1 has only arisen for the purpose of self-preservation1 and that it therefore stands in a precise relation1 admitting of countless gradations1 to the requirements of each animal species2 we shall understand that plants1 having so very much fewer requirements than animals1 no longer need any knowledge at all4 ,on this account precisely1 as ,i have often said1 knowledge is the true characteristic which denotes the limits of animality1 because of the movement induced by motives which it conditions4 ,where animal life ceases1 there knowledge proper1 with whose essence our own experience has made us familiar1 disappears2 and henceforth analogy is our only way of making that which mediates between the influence of the outer world and the movements of beings intelligible to us4 ,the will1 on the other hand1 which we have recognised as being the basis and kernel of every existing thing1 remains one and the same at all times and in all places4 ,now1 in the lower degree occupied by plant-life and by the vegetative life of animal organisms1 it is the stimulus which takes the place of knowledge as a means of determining the individual manifestations of this omnipresent will and as a mediator between the outer world and the changes of such a being2 finally1 in inorganic ,nature1 it is physical agency in general2 and when1 as here1 observation takes place from a higher to a lower degree1 both stimulus and physical agency present themselves as substitutes for knowledge1 therefore as mere analogues to it4 ,plants cannot properly be said to perceive light and the sun2 yet we see them sensitive in various ways to the presence or absence of both4 ,we see them incline and turn towards the light2 and though this movement no doubt generally coincides with their growth1 just as the moon's rotation on its axis coincides with its movement round the earth1 it nevertheless exists1 as well as that of the moon1 and the direction of that growth is determined and systematically modified by light1 just as an action is determined by a motive1 and as the direction of the growth of creeping and clinging plants is determined by the shape and position of the supports they may chance to find4 ,thus because plants on the whole1 still have wants1 though not such wants as demand the luxury of a sensorium and an intellect1 something analogous has to take the place of these1 in order to enable the will to lay hold of1 if not to seek out1 the satisfactions which offer themselves to it4 ,now1 this analogous substitute is susceptibility for stimuli1 and ,i would express the difference between knowledge and this susceptibility as follows3 in knowledge1 the motive which presents itself as representation and the act of volition which follows from it1 remain distinctly separate one from the other1 this separation moreover being the more distinct1 the greater the perfection of the intellect2--whereas1 in mere susceptibility for stimuli1 the feeling of the stimulus can no longer be distinguished from the volition it occasions1 and they coalesce4 ,in inorganic nature finally1 even susceptibility for stimuli1 the analogy of which to knowledge is unmistakable1 ceases1 but the diversity of reaction of each body upon divers kinds of action remains2 now1 when the matter is considered1 as we are doing1 in the descending scale1 this reaction still presents itself1 even here1 as a substitute for knowledge4 ,if a body reacts differently1 it must have been acted upon differently and that action must have roused a different sensation in it1 which with all its dullness has nevertheless a distant analogy to knowledge4 ,thus when water that is shut up finds an outlet of which it eagerly avails itself1 rushing vehemently in that direction1 it certainly does not recognise that outlet any more than the acid perceives the alkali approaching it which will induce it to abandon its combination with a metal1 or than the strip of paper perceives the amber which attracts it after being rubbed2 yet we cannot help admitting that what brings about such sudden changes in all these bodies1 bears a certain resemblance to that which takes place within us1 when an unexpected motive presents itself4 ,in former times ,i have availed myself of such considerations as these in order to point out the will in all things2 ,i now employ them to indicate the sphere to which knowledge presents itself as belonging1 when considered1 not as is usual from the inside1 but realistically1 from a standpoint outside itself1 as if it were something foreign3 that is1 when we gain the objective point of view for it1 which is so extremely important in order to complete the subjective one4#beh ,we find that knowledge then presents itself as the mediator of motives1 i4e4 of the action of causality upon beings endowed with intellect--in other words1 as that which receives the changes from outside upon which those in the inside must follow1 as that which acts as mediator between both4 ,now upon this narrow line hovers the world as representation--that is to say1 the whole corporeal world1 stretched out in ,space and ,time1 which as such can never exist anywhere but in the brain any more than dreams1 which1 as long as they last1 exist in the same way4 ,what the intellect does for animals and for man1 as the mediator of motives1 susceptibility for stimuli does for plants1 and susceptibility for every sort of cause for inorganic bodies3 and strictly speaking1 all this differs merely in degree4 ,for1 exclusively as a consequence of this susceptibility to outward impressions having enhanced itself in animals proportionately to their requirements till it has reached the point where a nervous system and a brain become necessary1 does consciousness arise as a function of that brain1 and in it the objective world1 whose forms 7,time1 ,space1 ,causality7 are the way in which that function is performed4 ,therefore we find the intellect originally laid out entirely with a view to subjectivity1 destined merely to serve the purposes of the will1 consequently as something quite secondary and subordinate2 nay1 in a sense1 as something which appears only per accidens2 as a condition of the action of mere motives1 instead of stimuli1 which has become necessary in the higher degree of animal existence4 ,the image of the world in ,space and ,time1 which thus arises1 is only the map#bei on which the motives present themselves as ends4 ,it also conditions the spacial and causal connection in which the objects perceived stand to one another2 nevertheless it is only the mediating link between the motive and the act of volition4 ,now1 to take such an image as this of the world1 arising in this manner1 accidentally1 in the intellect1 i4e4 in the cerebral function of animal beings1 through the means to their ends being represented and the path of these ephemera on their planet being thus illumined--to take this image1 we say1 this mere cerebral phenomenon1 for the true1 ultimate essence of things 7thing in itself71 to take the concatenation of its parts for the absolute order of the ,universe 7relations between things in themselves71 and to assume all this to exist even independently of the brain1 would indeed be a leap6 ,here in fact1 an assumption such as this must appear to us as the height of rashness and presumption2 yet it is the foundation upon which all the systems of pre-,kantian dogmatism have been built up2 for it is tacitly pre-supposed in all their ,ontology1 ,cosmology and ,theology1 as well as in the tern veritates to which they appeal4 ,but that leap had always been made tacitly and unconsciously1 and it is precisely ,kant's immortal achievement1 to have brought it to our consciousness4 #beh ,compare ,die ,welt a4 ,w4 u4 ,v4 vol4 ii4 chap4 #bb3 ,objective ,view of the ,intellect4 #bei ,plan4 ,by our present realistic way of considering the matter therefore1 we unexpectedly gain the objective stand-point for ,kant's great discoveries2 and1 by the road of empirico-physiological contemplation1 we arrive at the point whence his transcendental-critical view starts4 ,for ,kant's view takes the subjective for its standpoint and considers consciousness as given4 ,but from consciousness itself and its law and order1 given priori1 that view arrives at the conclusion1 that all which appears in that consciousness can be nothing more than mere phenomenon4 ,from our realistic1 exterior standpoint1 on the contrary1 which assumes the objective--all that exists in ,nature--to be absolutely given1 we see what the intellect is1 as to its aim and origin1 and to which class of phenomena it belongs1 and we recognise 7so far priori7 that it must be limited to mere phenomena4 ,we see too1 that what presents itself in the intellect can at all times only be conditioned--chiefly subjectively--that is1 can1 together with the order of the nexus of its parts1 only be a mundus phenomenon1 which is likewise subjectively conditioned2 but that it can never be a knowledge of things as they may be in themselves1 or as they may be connected in themselves4 ,for1 in the nexus of ,nature1 we have found the faculty of knowing as a conditioned faculty1 whose assertions1 precisely on that account1 cannot claim unconditioned validity4 ,to anyone who has studied and understood the ,critique of ,pure ,reason--to which our standpoint is essentially foreign--it must nevertheless still appear as if ,nature had intended the intellect for a puzzle-glass to mislead us and were playing at hide-and-seek with us4 ,but by our realistic objective road1 i4e4 by starting from the objective world as given1 we have now come to the very same result at which ,kant had arrived by the idealistic1 subjective road1 i4e4 by examining the intellect itself and the way in which it constitutes consciousness4 ,we now see that the world as representation hovers on the narrow line between the external cause 7motive7 and the effect evoked 7act of the will71 in beings having knowledge 7animals71 in which beings for the first time there occurs a distinct separation between motive and voluntary act4 ,ita res accendent lumina rebus4 ,it is only when it is reached by two quite opposite roads1 that the great result attained by ,kant is distinctly seen2 and when light is thus thrown upon it from both sides1 his whole meaning becomes clear4 ,our objective standpoint is realistic and therefore conditioned1 so far as1 in taking for granted the existence of beings in ,nature1 it abstracts from the fact that their objective existence postulates an intellect1 which contains them as its representation2 but ,kant's subjective and idealistic standpoint is likewise conditioned1 inasmuch as he starts from the intelligence1 which itself1 however1 presupposes ,nature1 in consequence of whose development as far as animal life that intelligence is for the first time enabled to make its appearance4--,keeping steadily to this realistic1 objective standpoint of ours1 we may also define ,kant's theory as follows3 ,after ,locke1 in order to know things in themselves1 had abstracted the share of sensuous functions--called by him secondary qualities--from things as they appear1 ,kant with infinitely greater depth deducted from them the incomparably larger share of the cerebral function1 which includes precisely what ,locke calls primary qualities4 ,but all ,i have done here has been to show why all this must necessarily be as it is1 by indicating the place occupied by the intellect in the nexus of ,nature1 when we start realistically from the objective as given1 but1 in doing so1 take the only thing of which we are quite directly conscious1 the will--that true of ,metaphysics--for our support1 as being what is primarily real1 everything else being merely its phenomenon4 ,what now follows serves to complete this4 ,i have mentioned already1 that where knowledge takes place1 the motive which appears as representation and the act of volition resulting from it1 remain the more clearly separated one from the other1 the more perfect the intellect2 that is1 the higher we ascend in the scale of beings4 ,this calls for fuller explanation4 ,as long as the will's activity is roused by stimuli alone1 and no representation as yet takes place--that is1 in plants--there is no separation at all between the receiving of impressions and the being determined by them4 ,in the lowest order of animal intelligence1 such as we find it in radiaria1 acalepha1 acephala1 c41 the difference is still small2 a feeling of hunger1 a watchfulness roused by this1 an apprehending and snapping at their prey1 still constitute the whole content of their consciousness2 nevertheless this is the first twilight of the dawning world as representation1 the background of which--that is to say1 everything excepting the motive which acts each time--still remains shrouded in impenetrable darkness4 ,here moreover the organs of the senses are correspondingly imperfect and incomplete1 having exceedingly few data for perception to bring to an understanding yet in embryo4 ,nevertheless wherever there is sensibility1 it is always accompanied by understanding1 i4e4 with the faculty for referring effects experienced to external causes2 without this1 sensibility would be superfluous and a mere source of aimless suffering4 ,the higher we ascend in the scale of animals1 the greater number and perfection of the senses we find1 till at last we have all five2 these are found in a small number of invertebrate animals1 but they only become universal in the vertebrata4 ,the brain and its function1 the understanding1 develop proportionately1 and the object now gradually presents itself more and more distinctly and completely and even already in connection with other objects2 because the service of the will requires apprehension of the mutual relations of objects4 ,by this the world of representation acquires some extent and background4 ,still that apprehension never goes beyond what is required for the will's service3 the apprehending and the being roused to reaction by what is apprehended1 are not clearly held asunder3 the object is only perceived in as much as it is a motive4 ,even the more sagacious animals only see in objects what concerns themselves1 what has reference to their will or1 at the utmost1 what may have reference to it in future3 of this last we have an instance in cats1 who take pains to acquire an accurate knowledge of localities1 and in foxes1 who endeavour to find hiding-places for their future prey4 ,but they are insensible towards everything else2 no animal has perhaps ever yet seen the starry sky3 my dog started in terror when for the first time he accidentally caught sight of the sun4 ,a first faint sign of a disinterested perception of their surroundings may at times be observed in the most intelligent animals1 especially when they have been trained by taming4 ,dogs go so far as to stare at things2 we may often see them sit down at the window and attentively watch all that passes4 ,monkeys look about them at times1 as if trying to make up their mind about their surroundings4 ,it is in ,man that the separation between motive and action1 between representation and will1 first becomes quite distinct4 ,but this does not immediately put an end to the subservience of the intellect to the will4 ,ordinary human beings after all only comprehend quite clearly that which1 in some way or other1 refers directly or indirectly to their own selves 7has an interest for them72 with respect to everything else1 their understanding continues to be unconquerably inert2 the rest therefore remains in the back-ground and does not come into consciousness under the radiant light of complete distinctness4 ,philosophical astonishment and artistic emotion occasioned by the contemplation of phenomena1 remain eternally foreign to them1 whatever they may do2 for at the bottom1 everything appears to them to be a matter of course4 ,complete liberation and separation of the intellect from the will and its bondage is the prerogative of genius1 as ,i have fully shown in the sthetic part of my chief work4 ,genius is objectivity4 ,the pure objectivity and distinctness with which things present themselves in intuitive perception--that fundamental and most substantial source of knowledge--actually stands every moment in inverse proportion to the interest which the will has in those things2 and knowing without willing is the condition1 not to say the essence1 of all gifts of sthetic intelligence4 ,why does an ordinary artist produce so bad a painting of yonder landscape1 notwithstanding all the pains he has taken8 ,because he sees it so4 ,and why does he see so little beauty in it8 ,because his intellect has not freed itself sufficiently from his will4 ,the degrees of this separation give rise to great intellectual distinctions between men2 for the more knowledge has freed itself from the will1 the purer1 consequently the more objective and correct1 it is2 just as that fruit is best1 which has no after-taste of the soil on which it has grown4 ,this relation1 as important as it is interesting1 deserves surely to be made still clearer by a retrospective view of the whole scale of beings1 and by recalling the gradual transition from absolute subjectivity to the highest degrees of objectivity in the intellect4 ,inorganic ,nature namely1 is absolutely subjective1 no trace whatever of consciousness of an outer world being found in it4 ,stones1 boulders1 ice-blocks1 even when they fall upon one another1 or knock or rub against one another1 have no consciousness of each other and of an outer world4 ,still even these are susceptible to external influence1 which causes their position and movement to change and may therefore be considered as a first step towards consciousness4 ,now1 although plants also have no consciousness of the outer world1 and although the mere analogue of a consciousness which exists in them must1 on the contrary1 be conceived as a dull self-enjoyment2 yet we see that they all seek light1 and that many of them turn their flowers or leaves daily towards the sun1 while creepers find their way to supports with which they are not in contact2 and finally we see individual kinds of plants show even a sort of irritability4 ,unquestionably therefore1 there is a connection and relation between their movements and surroundings1 even those with which they are not in immediate contact2 and this connection we must accordingly recognise as a faint analogue to perception4 ,with animal life first appears decided perception--that is1 consciousness of other things1 as opposed to that clear consciousness of ourselves to which that consciousness of other things first gives rise4 ,this constitutes precisely the true character of animal-nature1 as opposed to plant-nature4 ,in the lowest animals1 consciousness of the outer world is very limited and dim3 each increasing degree of understanding extends it and makes it clearer1 and this gradual increase of the understanding again adapts itself to the gradually increasing requirements of the animal1 and thus the process continues through the whole long ascending scale of the animal series up to ,man1 in whom consciousness of the outer world reaches its acme1 and in whom the world accordingly presents itself more distinctly and completely than in any other being4 ,still1 even here1 there are innumerable degrees in the clearness of consciousness1 from the dullest blockhead to genius4 ,even in normal heads there still remains a considerable tinge of subjectivity in their objective perception of external objects1 knowledge still bearing throughout the character of existing merely for the ends of the will4 ,the more eminent the head1 the less prominent is this character1 and the more purely objective does the representation of the outer world become2 till in genius finally it attains completely objectivity1 by which the ,platonic ideas detach themselves from the individual things1 because the mind which comprehends them enhances itself to the pure subject of knowledge4 ,now1 as perception is the basis of all knowledge1 all thinking and all insight must be influenced by this fundamental difference in the quality of it1 from which arises that complete difference between the ordinary and the superior mind in their whole way of viewing things1 which may be noticed on all occasions4 ,from this also proceeds the dull gravity1 nearly resembling that of animals1 which characterizes common-place heads whose knowledge is acquired solely for the benefit of the will1 as opposed to the constant play of exuberant intellect which brightens the consciousness of the superior mind4 ,the consideration of the two extremes in the great scale which we have here exhibited1 seems to have given rise to the ,german hyperbolical expression ,block 7,klotz71 as applied to human beings1 and to the ,english blockhead4 ,but another different consequence of the clear separation of the will from the intellect--therefore of the motive from the action1--which first appears in the human race1 is the deceptive illusion of freedom in our individual actions4 ,where1 as in inorganic nature1 causes1 or1 as in the vegetable kingdom1 stimuli1 call forth the effect1 the causal connection is so simple1 that there is not even the slightest semblance of freedom4 ,but already in animal life1 where that which till then had manifested itself as cause or as stimulus1 now appears as a motive--and a new world1 that of representation1 consequently presents itself1 and cause and effect lie in different spheres--the causal connection between both1 and with it the necessity1 are less evident than they were in plants and in inorganic ,nature4 ,nevertheless they are still unmistakable in animals1 whose merely intuitive representation stands midway between organic functions induced by stimuli and the deliberate acts of ,man4 ,the animal's actions infallibly follow as soon as the perceptible motive is present1 unless counter-acted by some equally perceptible counter-motive or by training2 yet here representation is already distinct from the act of volition and comes separately into consciousness4 ,but in ,man--whose representation has enhanced itself even to abstract conception and who now derives motives and counter-motives for his actions from a whole invisible thought-world which he carries about with him in his brain and which makes him independent of presence and of perceptible surroundings--this connection no longer exists at all for observation from outside1 and even for inward observation it is only knowable through abstract and mature reflection4 ,for these abstract motives1 when observed from outside1 give an impress of deliberation to all his movements1 by which they acquire a semblance of independence that manifestly distinguishes them from those of animals1 yet which after all only bears evidence to the fact1 that ,man is actuated by a class of representations in which animals do not share4 ,then again1 in self-consciousness1 the act of volition is known to us in the most immediate way1 but the motive in most cases very indirectly1 being often even intentionally veiled1 out of consideration for our self-knowledge4 ,this process therefore1 in coincidence with the consciousness of that true freedom which belongs to the will1 as thing in itself outside phenomenon1 produces the deceptive illusion that even the single act of volition is unconditioned and free3 that is1 without a reason2 whereas1 when the character is given and the motive recognised1 every act of volition really follows with the same strict necessity as the changes of which mechanics teach us the laws1 and1 to use ,kant's words1 were character and motive exactly known1 might be calculated with precisely the same certainty as an eclipse of the moon2 or again1 to place a very heterogeneous authority by the side of ,kant1 as ,dante says1 who is older than ,buridan3-- ,intra duo cibi distanti e moventi ,d'un modo1 prima si morria di fame ,che liber' uomo l'un recasse a' denti4 ,paradiso1 iv4 #a4bfj #bfj ,between two kinds of food1 both equally ,remote and tempting1 first a man might die ,of hunger1 ere he one could freely chuse4 7,cary's ,tr47 ,,physical ,,astronomy4 ,no part of my doctrine could ,i have less hoped to see corroborated by empirical science than that1 in which the fundamental truth1 that ,kant's thing in itself 7,ding an sich7 is the ,will1 is applied by me even to inorganic ,nature1 and in which ,i show the active principle in all fundamental forces of ,nature to be absolutely identical with what is known to us within ourselves as the ,will4--,it has therefore been particularly gratifying to me to have found that an eminent empiricist1 yielding to the force of truth1 had gone so far as to express this paradox in the exposition of his scientific doctrine4 ,i allude to ,sir ,john ,herschel and to his ,treatise on ,astronomy1 the first edition of which appeared in #ahcc1 and a second enlarged one in #ahdi1 under the title ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,herschel1--who1 as an astronomer1 was acquainted with gravity1 not only in the one-sided and really coarse part which it acts on earth1 but also in the nobler one performed by it in universal ,space1 where the celestial bodies play with each other1 betray mutual inclination1 exchange as it were amorous glances1 yet never allow themselves to come into rude contact1 and thus continue dancing their dignified minuet to the music of the spheres1 while they keep at a respectful distance from one another--when he comes to the statement of the law of gravitation in the seventh chapter1#bfa expresses himself as follows3-- #bfa ,herschel1 ,treatise on ,astronomy1 chap4 #g1 #cga of the #ast edition1 #ahcc4 ,all bodies with which we are acquainted1 when raised into the air and quietly abandoned1 descend to the earth's surface in lines perpendicular to it4 ,they are therefore urged thereto by a force or effort1 the direct or indirect result of a consciousness and a will existing somewhere1 though beyond our power to trace1 which force we term gravity4#bfb #bfb ,even ,copernicus had said the same thing long before ,equidem existimo ,gravitatem non aliud esse quam appetentiam quandam naturalem1 partibus inditam a divina providentia opificis universorum1 ut in unitatem integritatemque suam se conferant1 in formam ,globi coeuntes4 ,quam affectionem credibile est etiam ,soli1 ,lun cterisque errantium fulgoribus1 inesse1 ut ejus efficacia1 in ea qua se repraesentant rotunditate permaneant2 qu nihilominus multis modis suos efficiunt circuitus 7,nicol4 ,copernici revol4 ,lib4 ,i1 ,cap4 ,,ix4 ,compare ,exposition des ,dcouvertes de ,m4 le ,chevalier ,newton par ,m4 ,maclaurin2 traduit de l',anglois par ,m4 ,lavirotte1 ,paris1 #agdi1 p4 #de74 ,herschel evidently saw1 that if we hesitate to explain gravity1 as ,descartes did1 by an impulse from outside1 we are absolutely driven to admit a will inherent in bodies1 ,non datur tertium4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,the writer who reviewed ,herschel's book in the ,october number of the ,edinburgh ,review of #ahcc1 anxious1 as a true ,englishman1 before all things to prevent the ,mosaic record#bfc from being imperilled1 takes great umbrage at this passage1 rightly observing that it cannot refer to the will of ,god ,almighty1 who has called ,matter and all its properties into being2 he utterly refuses to recognise the validity of the proposition itself1 and denies that it follows consistently from the preceding upon which ,herschel wishes to found it4 ,my opinion is1 that it undoubtedly would logically follow from that 7because the contents of a conception are determined by its origin71 but that the antecedent itself is false4 ,it asserts namely1 that the origin of the conception of causality is experience1 more especially such experience as we ourselves make in acting by means of our own efforts upon bodies belonging to the outer world4 ,it is only in countries like ,england1 where the light of ,kantian philosophy has not yet begun to dawn1 that the conception of causality can be thought of as originating in experience 7professors of philosophy who pooh-pooh ,kant's doctrines and think me beneath their notice being left out of the question72 least of all can it be thought of by those who are acquainted with my proof of the priority of that conception1 which differs completely from ,kant's proof and rests upon the fact1 that knowledge of causality must necessarily precede all perception of the outer world itself as its condition2 since perception is only brought about through the transition--effected by the understanding--from the sensation in the organ of sense to its cause1 which cause now presents itself as an object in ,space1 itself likewise an priori intuition4 ,now1 as the perception of objects must be anterior to our conscious action upon them1 the experience of that conscious action cannot be the origin of the conception of causality2 for1 before ,i can act upon things1 they must first have acted upon me as motives4 ,i have entered fully into all that has to do with this in my chief work1#bfd and in the second edition of my treatise on the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 #ba1bfe where the assumption adopted by ,herschel finds special refutation2 it is therefore useless to enter into it once more here4 ,but it would be even quite possible to refute this assumption empirically1 since it would necessarily follow from it1 that a man who came into the world without arms or legs1 could never attain any knowledge of causality or perception of the outer world4 ,now ,nature has effectually disproved this by a case1 of which ,i have reproduced the account from its original source in the above-mentioned chapter of my chief work1 p4 #dj4bff--;,in this assertion of ,herschel's therefore1 we have another instance of a right conclusion drawn from wrong premisses4 ,now this always happens when we have obtained immediate insight into a truth by a right aperu but are at a loss to find out and clearly define our reasons for knowing it1 owing to our inability to bring them to clear consciousness4 ,for1 in all original insight1 conviction exists before proof3 the proof being invariably excogitated afterwards4 #bfc ,which he has more at heart than all the wisdom and truth in the world4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bfd ,see ,die ,welt a4 ,w1 u4 ,v4 vol4 ii4 ch4 #d1 pp4 #ch-db 7#crd edition1 pp4 #da-df74 #bfe ,p4 #gd 7#crd edition1 p4 #gi71 p4 #ib of the translation in the present volume4 #bff #crd edition1 p4 #dd4 ,the immediate manifestation of gravity is more evident in each part of liquid1 than of solid1 matter1 owing to the perfect freedom of motion of the parts among each other4 ,in order therefore to penetrate into this aperu1 which is the true source of ,herschel's assertion1 let us look attentively at a torrent dashing headlong over rocks and ask ourselves whether so determined an impetus1 so boisterous a vehemence1 can arise without an exertion of strength1 and whether an exertion of strength is conceivable without will4 ,and so it is precisely in every case in which we become aware of anything moving spontaneously1 of any primary1 uncommunicated force3 we are constrained to think its innermost essence as will4--,this much at any rate is certain1 that ,herschel1 like all the empiricists in so many different branches of science whose evidence ,i have quoted above1 had arrived here at the limit where nothing more is left behind the ,physical but the ,metaphysical2 that this had brought him to a standstill1 and that he1 as well as the rest of them1 was unable to find anything beyond that limit1 but the will4 ,herschel moreover1 like most of these empiricists1 is here still hampered by the opinion that will is inseparable from consciousness4 ,as ,i have expatiated enough above upon this fallacy1 and its correction through my doctrine1 it is needless for me to enter into it here again4 ,the attempt has repeatedly been made1 since the beginning of this century1 to ascribe vitality to the inorganic world4 ,quite wrongly3 for living and inorganic are convertible conceptions1 and with death the organic ceases to be organic4 ,but no limit in the whole of ,nature is so sharply drawn as the line which separates the organic from the inorganic3 that is to say1 the line between the region in which ,form is the essential and permanent1 ,matter the accidental and changing1--and the region in which this relation is entirely reversed4 ,this is no vacillating boundary like that perhaps between animals and plants1 between solid and liquid1 between gas and steam3 to endeavour to destroy it therefore1 is intentionally to bring confusion into our ideas4 ,on the other hand1 ,i am the first who has asserted that a will must be attributed to all that is lifeless and inorganic4 ,for1 with me1 the will is not1 as has hitherto been assumed1 an accident of cognition and therefore of life3 but life itself is manifestation of will4 ,knowledge1 on the contrary1 is really an accident of life1 and life of ,matter4 ,but ,matter itself is only the perceptibility of the phenomena of the will4 ,therefore we are compelled to recognise volition in every effort or tendency which proceeds from the nature of a material body1 and properly speaking constitutes that nature1 or manifests itself as phenomenon by means of that nature2 and there can consequently be no ,matter without manifestation of will4 ,the lowest and on that account most universal manifestation of will is gravity1 wherefore it has been called a primary and essential property of ,matter4 ,the usual view of ,nature assumes two fundamentally different principles of motion1 therefore it supposes that the movement of a body may have two different origins3 i4e41 that it proceeds either from the inside1 in which case it is attributed to the will2 or from the outside1 and then it is occasioned by causes4 ,this principle is generally taken for granted as a matter of course and only occasionally brought explicitly into prominence2 nevertheless1 in order to make the case quite certain1 ,i will point out a few passages from the earliest to the latest authors in which it is specially stated4 ,in ,phdrus1#bfg ,plato makes the distinction between that which moves spontaneously from inside 7soul7 and that which receives movement only from outside 7body7-- ' 1 4#bfh--;,aristotle establishes the principle in precisely the same way3 ' 1 ' 7quidquid fertur a se movetur1 aut ab alio74#bfi ,he returns to the subject in the next ,book1 chap4 #d and #e1 and connects it with some explanatory details which lead him into considerable perplexity1 on account precisely of the fallacy of the antithesis4#bgj--;,in more recent times again ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau brings forward the same antithesis with great navet and candour in his famous ,profession de foi du vicaire ,savoyard3#bga ,j'aperois dans les corps deux sortes de mouvement1 savoir3 mouvement communiqu et mouvement spontan ou volontaire3 dans le premier la cause motrice est trangre au corps m2 et dans le second elle est en lui-mme4--,but even in our time and in the stilted1 puffed-up style which is peculiar to it1 ,burdach holds forth as follows3#bgb ,the cause that determines a movement lies either inside or outside of that which moves4 ,matter is external existence2 it has powers of motion1 but it only brings them into play under certain spacial conditions and external oppositions3 the soul alone is an ever active and internal thing1 and only those bodies which have souls find within themselves inducement to move1 and move of their own free will1 independently of outer mechanical circumstances4 #bfg ,plato1 ,phd4 p4 #cai ,bip4 #bfh ,that which is moved by itself and that which is moved from outside4 ,tr4 ,and we find the same distinction again in the #ajth ,book ,de ,legibus1 p4 #he4 ,after him ,cicero repeats it in the two last chapters of his ,somnium ,scipionis4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bfi ,all that is moved1 is moved either by itself or by something else4 ,tr4 ,aristotle1 ,phys4 vii4 #b4 #bgj ,maclaurin1 too1 in his account of ,newton's discoveries1 p4 #ajb1 lays down this principle as his starting-point4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bga mile1 iv4 p4 #bg4 ,bip4 #bgb ,burdach1 ,physiologie1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cbc4 ,now here however ,i must say1 as ,ablard once did3 si omnes patres sic1 at ego non sic3 for1 in opposition to this principle1 however great may be its antiquity and universality1 my doctrine maintains1 that there are not two origins of movement differing fundamentally from one another2 that movement does not proceed either from inside1 when it is ascribed to the will1 or from outside1 when it is brought about by causes2 but that both things are inseparable and take place simultaneously with every movement made by a body4 ,for movement which is admitted to arise from the will1 always presupposes a cause also3 this cause1 in beings that have knowledge1 is a motive2 but without it1 even in these beings1 movement is impossible4 ,on the other hand1 the movement of a body which is admitted to have been brought about by an outward cause1 is nevertheless in itself a manifestation of the will of that body which has only been evoked by that cause4 ,accordingly there is only one1 uniform1 universal and exceptionless principle of all movement1 whose inner condition is will and whose outer occasion is cause1 which latter may also take the form of a stimulus or of a motive1 according to the nature of the thing moved4 ,all that is known to us of things in a merely empirical or posteriori1 way1 is in itself will2 whereas1 so far as they can be determined priori1 things belong exclusively to representation1 to mere phenomenon4 ,natural phenomena therefore become proportionately less easy to comprehend1 the more distinctly the will manifests itself in them1 i4e4 the higher they stand on the scale of beings2 whereas1 they become more and more comprehensible the smaller the amount of their empirical content1 because they remain more and more within the sphere of mere representation1 the forms of which1 known to us priori1 are the principle of comprehensibility4 ,accordingly1 it is only so long as we limit ourselves to this sphere--that is to say1 only when we have before us mere representation1 mere form without empirical content--that our comprehension is complete and thorough3 that is1 in the priori sciences1 ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 ,phoronomy and ,logic4 ,here everything is in the highest degree comprehensible2 our insight is quite clear and satisfactory3 it leaves nothing to be desired1 since we are even unable to conceive that anything could be otherwise than it is4 ,this comes from our having here exclusively to do with the forms of our own intellect4 ,thus the more we are able to comprehend in a relation1 the more it consists of mere phenomenon and the less it has to do with the thing in itself4 ,applied ,mathematics1 ,mechanics1 ,hydraulics1 c4 c41 deal with the lowest degrees of objectification of the will1 in which the largest part still remains within the sphere of mere representation2 nevertheless even here there is already an empirical element which stands in the way of entire comprehension1 which makes the transparency less complete1 and in which the inexplicable shows itself4 ,for the same reason1 only few departments of ,physics and of ,chemistry continue to admit of a mathematical treatment2 whereas higher up in the scale of beings this has to be entirely done away with1 precisely because of the preponderance of content over form in these phenomena4 ,this content is will1 the posteriori1 the thing in itself1 the free1 the causeless4 ,under the heading ,physiology of ,plants1 ,i have shown how--in beings that live and have knowledge--motive and act of will1 representation and volition1 separate and detach themselves more and more distinctly one from the other1 the higher we ascend in the scale of beings4 ,now1 in inorganic ,nature also1 the cause separates itself from the effect in just the same proportion1 and the purely empirical--which is precisely phenomenon of the will--detaches itself more and more prominently2 but1 just with this1 comprehensibility diminishes4 ,this point merits fuller investigation1 and ,i request my readers to give their whole and undivided attention to what ,i am about to say1 as it is calculated to place the leading thought of my doctrine in the strongest possible light1 both as to comprehensibility and cogency4 ,but this is all ,i can do2 for it is beyond my power to induce my contemporaries to prefer thoughts to verbiage2 ,i can only console myself for not being the man of the age4 ,on the lowest step of the scale of ,nature1 cause and effect are quite homogeneous and quite equivalent4 ,here therefore we have perfect comprehension of the causal connection3 for instance1 the cause of the movement of one ball propelled by impact1 is the movement of another1 which loses just as much movement as the first one receives4 ,here causality is in the highest degree intelligible4 ,what notwithstanding still remains mysterious1 is restricted to the possibility of the passage of movement--of a thing incorporeal--from one body to another4 ,the receptivity of bodies in this mode is so slight1 that the effect to be produced has to pass over completely from its cause4 ,the same holds good of all purely mechanical influences2 and if they are not all just as instantaneously understood1 it is either because they are hidden from us by accessory circumstances1 or because we are confused by the complicated connection of many causes and effects4 ,in itself1 mechanical causality is everywhere equally1 that is1 in the highest degree1 comprehensible2 because cause and effect do not differ here as to quality1 and because where they differ as to quantity1 as in the lever1 mere ,space and ,time relations suffice to make the thing clear4 ,but as soon as weights come also into play1 a second mysterious element supervenes1 gravity3 and1 where elastic bodies are concerned1 elasticity also4--,things change as soon as we begin to ascend in the scale of phenomena4 ,heat1 considered as cause1 and expansion1 liquefaction1 volatilization or crystallization1 as effects1 are not homogeneous2 therefore their causal connection is not intelligible4 ,the comprehensibility of causality has diminished3 what a lower degree of heat caused to liquefy1 a higher degree makes evaporate3 that which crystallizes with less heat1 melts when the heat is augmented4 ,warmth softens wax and hardens clay2 light whitens wax and blackens chloride of silver4 ,and1 to go still further1 when two salts are seen to decompose each other mutually and to form two new ones1 elective affinity presents itself to us as an impenetrable mystery1 and the properties of the two new bodies are not a combination of the properties of their separate elements4 ,nevertheless we are still able to follow the process and to indicate the elements out of which the new bodies are formed2 we can even separate what has been united and restore the original quantities4 ,thus noticeable heterogeneousness and incommensurability between cause and effect have here made their appearance3 causality has become more mysterious4 ,and this becomes still more apparent when we compare the effects of electricity or of the ,voltaic pile with their causes1 i4e4 with the friction of glass1 or the piling and oxidation of the plates4 ,here all similarity between cause and effect at once vanishes2 causality becomes shrouded in a thick veil1 which men like ,davy1 ,faraday and ,ampre have strenuously endeavoured to lift4 ,the only thing now discernible through that veil1 are the laws ruling its mode of action1 which may be brought into a schema such as ,e - ,e1 communication1 distribution1 shock1 ignition1 analysis1 charging1 isolation1 discharging1 electric current1 c4 c41 to this schema we are able to reduce and even to direct the effect2 but of the process itself we know nothing3 that remains an x4 ,here therefore cause and effect are completely heterogeneous1 their connection is unintelligible1 and we see bodies show great susceptibility to causal influences1 the nature of which remains a secret for us4 ,moreover in proportion as we mount higher in the scale1 the effect seems to contain more1 the cause less4 ,when we reach organic ,nature therefore1 in which the phenomenon of life presents itself1 this is the case in a far higher degree still4 ,if1 as is done in ,china1 we fill a pit with decaying wood1 cover it with leaves from the same tree as the wood1 and pour a solution of sulphur repeatedly over it1 an abundant crop of edible mushrooms will spring up4 ,a world of rapidly moving infusoria will arise from a little hay well watered4 ,what a difference lies here between effect and cause6 ,how much more does the former seem to contain than the latter6 ,when we compare the seed1 sometimes centuries1 nay even thousands of years old1 with the tree1 or the soil with the specifically and strikingly different juices of innumerable plants--some healthy1 some poisonous1 some again nutritious--which spring from the same earth1 upon which the same sun shines and the same rain falls1 all resemblance ceases1 and with it all comprehensibility for us4 ,for here causality already appears in increased potency3 that is1 as stimulus and as susceptibility for stimulus4 ,the schema of cause and effect alone has remained2 we know that this is cause1 that effect2 but we know nothing whatever of the nature and disposition of causality4 ,between cause and effect there is not only no qualitative resemblance1 but no quantitative relation3 the relatively greater importance of the effect as compared with its cause increases more and more2 the effect of the stimulus too does not augment in proportion with the enhancement of that stimulus2 in fact just the contrary often takes place4 ,finally1 when we come to the sphere of beings which have knowledge1 there is no longer any sort of resemblance or relation between the action performed and the object which1 as representation1 evokes it4 ,animals1 however1 as they are restricted to perceptible representations1 still need the presence of the object acting as a motive1 which action is then immediate and infallible 7if we leave training1 i4e4 habit enforced by fear1 out of the question74 ,for animals are unable to carry about with them conceptions that might render them independent of present impressions1 enable them to reflect1 and qualify them for deliberate action4 ,man can do this4 ,therefore when at last we come to rational beings1 the motive is even no longer a present1 perceptible1 actually existing1 real thing1 but a mere conception having its present existence only in the brain of the person who acts1 but which is extracted from many multifarious perceptions1 from the experience of former years1 or has been handed down in words4 ,here the separation between cause and effect is so wide1 the effect has grown so much stronger as compared with the cause1 that the vulgar mind no longer perceives the existence of a cause at all1 and the acts of the will appear to it to be unconditioned1 causeless3 that is to say1 free4 ,this is just why1 when we reflect upon them from outside1 the movements of our own body present themselves as if they took place without cause1 or to speak more properly1 by a miracle4 ,experience and reflection alone teach us that these movements1 like all others1 are only possible as the effects of causes1 here called motives1 and that1 on this ascending scale1 it is only as to material reality that the cause has failed to keep pace with the effect2 whereas it has kept pace with it as to dynamical reality1 energy4--,at this degree of the scale therefore--the highest in ,nature--causality has become less intelligible to us than ever4 ,nothing but the bare schema1 taken in a quite general sense1 now remains1 and the ripest reflection is needed to recognise its applicability and the necessity that schema brings with it everywhere4 ,in the ,grotto of ,pausilippo1 darkness continues to augment as we advance towards the interior2 but when once we have passed the middle1 day-light again appears at the other end and shows us the way2 so also in this case3 just at the point where the outwardly directed light of the understanding with its form of causality1 gradually yielding to increasing darkness1 had been reduced to a feeble1 flickering glimmer1 behold6 we are met by a totally different light proceeding from quite another quarter1 from our own inner self1 through the chance circumstance1 that we1 the judges1 happen here to be the very objects that are to be judged4 ,the growing difficulty of the comprehension of the causal nexus1 at first so clear1 had now become so great for perception and for the understanding--the agent in it--that1 in animal actions1 the very existence of that nexus seemed almost doubtful and those actions appeared to be a sort of miracle4 ,but1 just at this point1 the observer receives from his own inner self the direct information that the agent in them is the will--that very will1 which he knows better and more intimately than anything that external perception can ever supply4 ,this knowledge alone must be the philosopher's key to an insight into the heart of all those processes in unconscious ,nature1 concerning which causal explanation--although1 here1 to be sure1 more satisfactory than in the processes last considered1 and the clearer1 the farther those processes were removed from these--nevertheless had still left an unknown x1 and could never quite illumine the inside of the process1 even in a body propelled by impact or attracted by gravity4 ,this x had continued expanding till finally1 on the highest degrees of the scale1 it had wholly repelled causal explanation4 ,but then1 just when the power of causal explanation had been reduced to a minimum1 that x revealed itself as the will--reminding us of ,mephistopheles when1 yielding to ,faust's learned exorcisms1 he steps forth out of the huge grown poodle whose kernel he was4 ,in consequence of the considerations ,i have here set forth at length1 we can surely hardly avoid recognising the identity of this x1 even on the lowest degrees of the scale1 where it was but faintly perceptible2 then higher up1 where it extended its obscurity more and more2 and finally on the highest degrees1 where it cast a shadow upon all things--till1 at the very top1 it reveals itself to our consciousness in our own phenomenal being1 as the will4 ,the two primarily different sources of our knowledge1 that is to say the inward and the outward source1 have to be connected together at this point by reflection4 ,it is quite exclusively out of this connection that our comprehension of ,nature1 and of our own selves arises2 but then the inner side of ,nature is disclosed to our intellect1 which by itself alone can never reach further than to the mere outside2 and the mystery which philosophy has so long tried to solve1 lies open before us4 ,for then indeed we clearly see what the ,real and the ,ideal 7the thing in itself and the phenomenon7 properly are2 and this settles the principal question which has engaged the attention of philosophers since ,descartes3 that is to say1 the question as to the relation between these two1 whose complete diversity ,kant had shown most thoroughly and with unexampled depth1 yet whose absolute identity was immediately afterwards proclaimed by humbugs on the credit of intellectual intuition4 ,but if we decline to avail ourselves of this insight1 which is really the one strait gate to truth1 we can never acquire comprehension of the intrinsic essence of ,nature1 to which absolutely no other road leads2 for then indeed we fall into an irremovable error4 ,then1 as ,i have already said1 we maintain the view1 that motion has two radically different primary principles with a solid partition-wall between them3 i4e4 movement by means of causes1 and movement by means of the will4 ,the first of these must then remain for ever incomprehensible as to its innermost essence1 because1 after all its explanations1 there is still left that unknown x which contains the more1 the higher the object under consideration stands in the scale of beings2 while the second1 movement by the will1 presents itself as entirely disconnected from the principle of causality2 as without reason2 as freedom in individual actions3 in other words1 as completely opposed to ,nature and utterly unexplainable4 ,on the other hand1 if the above-mentioned union of our external and internal knowledge has once been accomplished at the point where both meet1 we then recognise two identities in spite of all accidental differences4 ,that is to say1 we recognise the identity of causality with itself on every degree of the scale of beings1 and the identity of the x1 which at first was unknown 7i4e4 of physical forces and vital phenomena71 with the will which is within us4 ,we recognise1 ,i say1 firstly the essential identity of causality under the various forms it is forced to assume on the different degrees of the scale1 as it may manifest itself1 now as a mechanical1 chemical1 or physical cause1 now as a stimulus1 and again as a perceptible or an abstract motive3 we know it to be one and the same1 not only when a propelling body loses as much movement as it imparts by impact1 but also when in the combats of thought against thought1 the victorious one1 as the more powerful motive1 sets ,man in motion1 a motion which follows with no less necessity than that of the ball which is struck4 ,where we ourselves are the things set in motion1 where therefore the kernel of the process is well and intimately known to us1 instead of allowing ourselves to be dazzled and confused by this light and thereby losing sight of the causal connection as it lies before us everywhere else in the whole of ,nature2 instead of shutting out this insight for ever1 we now apply the new knowledge we have acquired from within as a key to the knowledge of things outside us1 and then we recognise the second identity1 that of our will with the hitherto mysterious x that remains over after all causal explanation as an insoluble residue4 ,consequently we then say3 even in cases in which the effect is brought about by the most palpable cause1 the mysterious x in the process1 the real innermost core of it1 the true agent1 the in-itself of all phenomena--which1 after all1 is only given us as representation and according to the forms and laws of representation--is essentially one and the same with what is known to us immediately and intimately as the will in the actions of our own body1 which body is likewise given us as intuition and representation4--,this is 7say what you will7 the basis of true philosophy1 and if the present age does not see this1 many following ages will4 ,tempo galant' uomo6 7se nessun altro74--,thus1 just as1 on the one hand1 the essence of causality1 which appears most clearly only on the lowest degree of the objectification of the will1 is recognised by us again at every ascending step1 even at the highest2 so also1 on the other hand1 is the essence of the will recognised by us at every descending step in that ladder1 even at the lowest1 although this knowledge is only immediately acquired at the very highest4 ,the old error asserts1 that where there is will1 there is no causality2 and that where there is causality1 there is no will4 ,but we say3 everywhere where there is causality1 there is will2 and no will acts without causality4 ,the punctum controversi therefore1 is1 whether will and causality can and must subsist together in one and the same process at the same time4 ,what makes the knowledge1 that this is indeed the case1 so difficult1 is the circumstance1 that we know causality and will in two fundamentally different ways3 causality entirely from outside1 quite indirectly1 quite through the understanding2 will entirely from inside1 quite directly2 and that accordingly the clearer the knowledge of the one in each given instance1 the less clear is the knowledge of the other4 ,therefore we recognise the essence of the will least readily1 where causality is most intelligible2 and1 where the will is most unmistakably evident1 causality becomes so obscured1 that the vulgar mind could venture to deny its existence altogether4--,now1 as ,kant has taught us1 causality is nothing but the form of the understanding itself1 knowable priori3 that is1 the essence of representation1 as such1 which is one side of the world2 the other side is will3 which is the thing in itself4 ,that relative increase and decrease of clearness in inverse proportion of causality and of the will1 that mutual advancing and receding of both1 depends consequently upon the fact1 that the more a thing is given us as mere phenomenon1 i4e4 as representation1 the more clearly does the priori form of representation1 i4e4 causality1 manifest itself3 this is the case in inanimate ,nature2 conversely1 the more immediate our knowledge of the will1 the more does the form of representation recede into the background3 this is the case with ourselves4 ,that is3 the nearer one side of the world approaches to us1 the more do we lose sight of the other4 ,,linguistic4 ,all that ,i have to record under this head is an observation of my own1 made within the last few years1 which seems hitherto to have escaped notice4 ,yet1 that it is worthy of consideration1 is attested by ,seneca's utterance3#bgc ,mira in quibusdam rebus verborum proprietas est1 et consuetudo sermonis antiqui qudam efficacissimis notis signat4 ,lichtenberg too says3 ,if one thinks much oneself1 one finds a good deal of wisdom deposited in language4 ,it is hardly likely that we have laid it all there ourselves1 but rather that a great deal of wisdom really lies there4 #bgc ,seneca1 ,epist4 #ha4 ,in many1 perhaps in all1 languages1 the action even of those bodies which are without intellect1 nay of inanimate bodies1 is expressed by the words to will1 so that the existence of a will in these bodies is thus taken for granted2 but they are never credited with a faculty for knowing1 representing1 perceiving or thinking3 ,i know of no expression which conveys this4 ,seneca1 when speaking of lightning shot down from heaven1 says3#bgd ,in his1 ignibus accidit1 quod arboribus3 quarum cacumina1 si tenera sunt1 ita deorsum trahi possunt1 ut etiam terram attingant2 sed quum permiseris1 in locum suum exsilient4 ,itaque non est quod eum spectes cujusque rei habitum1 qui illi non ex voluntate est4 ,si ignem permittis ire quo velit1 clum repetet4 ,in a more general sense ,pliny says3 nec qurenda in ulla parte natur ratio1 sed voluntas4#bge ,nor do we find ,greek less fertile in instances4 ,aristotle1 when explaining gravity1 says3 1 1 1 7parva qudam terr pars1 si elevata dimittitur1 neque vult manere74#bgf ,and3 1 1 1 7unumquodque autem tale dicere oportet1 quale natur su esse vult1 et quod est2 sed non id quod violenti et prter naturam est74#bgg ,of great and more than merely linguistic importance is what ,aristotle says in his ,ethica magna1#bgh where not only animals1 but inanimate beings 7fire striving upwards and earth downwards7 are explicitly in question1 and he asserts that they may be obliged to do something contrary to their nature or their will3 1 ' 1--and therefore rightly places ' as a paraphrase of 4--,anacreon1 in his #bith ,ode1 1 in ordering the portrait of his lady-love1 says of her hair3 ' 1 1 1 1 7capillorum cirros incomposite jungens1 sine utut volunt jacere74#bgi ,in ,german1 ,brger says3 hinab will der ,bach1 nicht hinan 7the brook will go downwards not upwards74 ,in daily life we constantly hear3 the water boils1 it will run over1--the glass will break1--the ladder will not stand2--le feu ne veut pas brler4--la corde1 une fois tordue1 veut toujours se retordre4--,in ,english1 the verb 'to will' is even the auxiliary of the future of all the other verbs1 thus expressing the notion1 that there lies a will at the bottom of every action4 ,in ,english moreover1 the endeavours of all inanimate and unconscious things1 are expressly designated by the word want1 which denotes every sort of human desire or endeavour3 the water wants to get out1--the steam wants to find an issue4--,in ,italian too we have vuol piovere2 quest' orologio non vuol andare4--,the conception of willing is besides so deeply rooted in this last language1 that it seems to indicate everything that is requisite or necessary3 ci vuol un contrappeso2 ci vuol pazienza4 #bgd ,ibid4 ,qust4 nat4 ii4 #bd4 #bge ,plin4 ,hist4 nat4 #cg1 #ae4 #bgf ,aristot4 ,de ,clo4 ii4 c4 #ac1 ,if a small particle of earth is lifted and let loose1 it is carried away and will not rest4 ,tr4's add4 #bgg ,ibid4 c4 #ad1 ,but each thing ought to be named as it wills to be and really is according to its nature1 not as it is by force and contrary to its nature4 ,tr4's add4 #bgh ,arist4 ,eth4 ,mag4 i4 c4 #ad4 #bgi ,let the freely curling locks fall unarranged as they will like4 ,tr4's add4 ,a very striking instance of this is to be found even in ,chinese--a language which differs fundamentally from all those belonging to the ,sanskrit family--it is in the commentary to the ,y-,king1#bhj accurately rendered by ,peter ,regis as follows3 ,yang1 seu materia clestis1 vult rursus ingredi1 vel 7ut verbis doctoris ,tsching-tse utar7 vult rursus esse in superiore loco2 scilicet illius natur ratio ita fert1 seu innata lex4 #bhj ,y-,king1 ed4 ,j4 ,mohl1 vol4 i4 p4 #cda4 ,the following passage from ,liebig#bha has decidedly much more than a linguistic signification1 for it expresses an intimate feeling and comprehension of the way in which a chemical process takes place4 ,aldehyd arises1 which with the same avidity as sulphurous acid1 combines directly with oxygen to form acetic acid4--,and again3#bhb ,aldehyd1 which absorbs oxygen from the air with great avidity4 ,as ,liebig uses this expression twice in speaking of the same phenomenon1 it can hardly be by chance1 but rather because it was the only adequate expression for the thing4#bhc ,that most immediate stamp of our thoughts1 language1 shows us therefore1 that every inward impulse must necessarily be conceived as volition2 but it by no means ascribes knowledge to things as well4 ,the agreement on this point between all languages1 perhaps without a single exception1 proves that here we have to do with no mere figure of speech1 but that the verbal expression is determined by a deeply-rooted feeling of the inner nature of things4 #bha ,liebig1 ,die ,chemie in ihrer ,anwendung auf ,agrikultur1 p4 #cid4 #bhb ,ibid4 ,die ,chemie in ,anwendung auf ,physiologie4 #bhc ,french chemists likewise say3 ,il est vident que les mtaux ne sont pas tous galement avides d'oxygne4 444 ,la difficult de la rduction devait correspondre ncessairement une avidit fort grande du mtal pour l'oxygne4--7,see ,paul de ,rmusat1 ,la ,chimie l',exposition4 ,l',aluminium1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ahee1 p4 #fdi74 ,vaninus 7,de ,amirandis ,natur ,arcanis1 p4 #agj7 had said3 ,argentum vivum etiam in aqua conglobatur1 quemadmodum et in plumbi scobe etiam3 at a scobe non refugit 7this is directed against an opinion expressed by ,cardanus7 imo ex ea quantum potest colligit3 quod nequit 7scil4 colligere71 ut censeo1 invitum relinquit3 natura enim et sua appetit1 et vorat4 ,this is evidently more than a form of words4 ,he here quite decidedly attributes a will to quicksilver4 ,and thus it will invariably be found that where1 in physical and chemical processes1 there is a reference to elementary forces of ,nature and to the primary qualities of bodies which cannot be further deduced1 these are always expressed by words which belong to the will and its manifestations4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,,animal ,,magnetism ,,and ,,magic4 ,in #ahah1 when my chief work first appeared1 ,animal ,magnetism had only begun to struggle into existence4 ,but1 as to its explanation--although1 to be sure1 some light had been thrown upon the passive side of it1 that is1 upon what goes on within the patient1 by the contrast between the cerebral and the ganglionic systems1 to which ,reil had drawn attention1 having been taken for the principle of explanation--the active side1 the agent proper by means of which the magnetiser evokes all these phenomena1 was still completely shrouded in darkness4 ,people groped about among all sorts of material principles of explanation1 such as ,mesmer's all-permeating ether1 or the exhalations from the magnetiser's skin1 assumed by ,stieglitz to be the cause1 c4 c4 ,at the utmost a nerve-spirit had been recognised and1 after all1 this was but a word for an unknown thing4 ,the truth had scarcely begun to dawn upon a few persons1 whom practice had more deeply initiated4 ,but ,i was still far from hoping for any direct corroboration of my doctrine from ,magnetism4 ,dies diem docet however1 and the great teacher1 experience1 has since brought to light an important fact concerning this deep-reaching agent which1 proceeding from the magnetiser1 produces effects apparently so contrary to the regular course of ,nature that the long lasting doubt as to their existence1 the stiff-necked incredulity1 the condemnation of a ,committee of which ,lavoisier and ,franklin were members1 in short1 the whole opposition that ,magnetism encountered both in its first and second period 7with the sole exception of the coarse1 unintelligent condemnation without inquiry1 which till very lately1 prevailed in ,england7 is quite excusable4 ,the fact ,i allude to is1 that this agent is nothing but the will of the magnetiser4 ,to-day not a doubt exists on this point1 ,i believe1 among those who combine practice with insight2 therefore ,i think it superfluous to quote the numerous assertions of magnetisers in corroboration of it4#bhd ,time has thus not only verified ,puysgur's watchword and that of the older ,french magnetisers3 ,veuillez et croyez6 i4e4 ,will with belief6 but this very watchword has even developed into a correct insight of the process itself4#bhe ,from ,kieser's ,tellurismus1 still probably the most thorough and detailed text book of ,animal ,magnetism we have1 it clearly results1 that no act of ,magnetism can take effect without the will2 on the other hand the bare will1 without any outward action1 is able to produce every magnetic effect4 ,manipulation seems to be only a means of fixing1 and so to say incorporating1 the will and its direction4 ,in this sense ,kieser says3 ,inasmuch as the human hand--being the organ by which ,man's outward activity is most visibly expressed--is the efficient organ in magnetising1 manipulation arises4 ,de ,lausanne1 a ,french magnetiser1 pronounces himself with still greater precision on this point in the ,fourth ,book of his ,annales du ,magntisme ,animal 7#ahad-ahaf71 where he says3 ,l'action du magntisme dpend de la seule volont1 il est vrai2 mais l'homme ayant une forme extrieure et sensible1 tout ce qui est son usage1 tout ce qui doit agir sur lui1 doit ncssairement en avoir une1 et pour que la volont agisse1 il faut qu'elle employe un mode d'action4 ,as1 according to my doctrine1 the organism is but the mere phenomenon1 the visibility1 the objectivity of the will2 nay1 as it is properly speaking only the will itself1 viewed as representation in the brain3 so also does the outward act of manipulation coincide with the inward act of the will4 ,but where magnetic effects are produced without manipulation1 they take place as it were artificially1 in a roundabout way1 the imagination taking the place of the outer act and even occasionally that of personal presence3 wherefore it is much more difficult and succeeds less frequently4 ,kieser accordingly alleges that the word ,sleep6 or ,you must6 said aloud1 has a more powerful effect upon a somnambulist than the mere inward willing of the magnetiser4--,on the other hand manipulation1 and in general outward action1 is really an infallible means of fixing the magnetiser's will and promoting its activity2 precisely because outward acts are quite impossible apart from all will1 the body and its organs being nothing but the visibility of the will itself4 ,this explains the fact1 that magnetisers at times magnetise without any conscious effort of volition and almost without thinking1 and yet produce the desired effect4 ,on the whole1 it is not the consciousness of volition1 reflection upon it1 that acts magnetically1 but pure volition itself1 as detached as possible from all representation4 ,in ,kieser's directions to magnetisers therefore1#bhf we find all thinking and reflecting upon their respective doing and suffering1 all conversation between them1 forbidden both to physician and patient2 also all outward impressions which arouse representations1 the presence of strangers1 and even daylight4 ,he advises that everything should proceed as unconsciously as possible1 as is likewise recommended in charm-cures4 ,the true reason of all this is1 that here the will operates in its primariness1 as thing in itself2 and this demands the exclusion1 as far as possible1 of representation1 as a different sphere1 as secondary to the will4 ,facts to prove that the real agent in magnetising is the will and each outward act only its vehicle1 may be found in all the more recent and more trustworthy writings upon ,magnetism1 and it would be needless prolixity to repeat them here4 ,nevertheless ,i will quote one case1 not as being especially striking1 but as furnished by a remarkable person and having a peculiar interest as his testimony4 ,jean ,paul says in a letter3#bhg ,twice in a large company ,i have made ,frau von ,k4 nearly go to sleep by merely looking at her with a firm will1 no one else knowing anything about it1 and before that1 ,i had brought on palpitation of the heart and pallor to such a degree that ,dr4 ,s4 had to be summoned to her assistance4#bhh ,nowadays too1 merely laying and keeping hold of the patient's hands while fixing the eye steadily upon him1 is frequently substituted with complete success for the customary manipulation2 precisely because even this outward act is suited to fix the will in a determined direction4 ,but this immediate power which the will can exercise over other persons1 is brought to light best of all by the admirable experiments made1 even in public1 by ,m4 ,dupotet and his pupils in ,paris1 in which a stranger is guided and determined at pleasure by the magnetiser's mere will1 aided by a few gestures1 and is even forced into the most extraordinary contortions4 ,an apparently quite honestly written pamphlet1 entitled ,first glance into the wonder-world of ,magnetism1 by ,karl ,scholl 7#ahec71 contains a brief account of this4 #bhd ,i only mention one work which has recently appeared1 the explicit object of which is to show that the magnetiser's will is the real agent3 ,qu'est ce que le ,magntisme8 par ,e4 ,gromier4 7,lyon1 #ahej47 #bhe ,puysgur himself says in the year #aghd3 ,lorsque vous avez magntis le malade1 votre but tait de l'endormir1 et vous y avez russi par le seul acte de votre volont2 c'est de mme par un autre acte de volont que vous le rveillez4 7,puysgur1 ,magnt4 ,anim4 #bme dit4 #ahbj1 ,catchisme ,magntique1 p4 #aej-aga47 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bhf ,kieser1 ,tellur4 vol4 i4 p4 #djj1 et seqq4 #bhg ,see ,wahrheit aus ,jean ,paul's ,leben1 vol4 viii4 p4 #abj4 #bhh ,i had the good fortune in the year #ahed myself to witness some extraordinary feats of this kind1 performed here by ,signor ,regazzoni from ,bergamo1 in which the immediate1 i4e4 magical1 power of his will over other persons was unmistakeable1 and of which no one1 excepting perhaps those to whom ,nature has denied all capacity for apprehending pathological conditions1 could doubt the genuineness4 ,there are nevertheless such persons3 they ought to become lawyers1 clergymen1 merchants or soldiers1 but in heaven's name not doctors2 for the result would be homicidal1 diagnosis being the principal thing in medicine4--,regazzoni was able at will to throw the somnambulist who was under his influence into a state of complete catalepsy1 nay1 he could make her fall down backwards1 when he stood behind her and she was walking before him1 by his mere will1 without any gestures4 ,he could paralyze her1 give her tetanos1 with the dilated pupils1 the complete insensibility1 and in short1 all the unmistakeable symptoms of complete catalepsy4 ,he made one of the lady spectators first play the piano2 then standing fifteen paces behind her1 he so completely paralyzed her by his will and gestures1 that she was unable to continue playing4 ,he next placed her against a column and charmed her to the spot1 so that she was unable to move in spite of the strongest efforts4--,according to my own observation1 nearly all his feats are to be explained by his isolating the brain from the spinal marrow1 either completely1 in which case the sensible and motor nerves become paralyzed1 and total catalepsy ensues2 or partially1 by the paralysis only affecting the motor nerves while sensibility remains--in other words1 the head keeps its consciousness1 while the body is apparently lifeless4 ,this is precisely the effect of strychnine3 it paralyzes the motor nerves only1 even to complete tetanos1 which induces death by asphyxia2 but it leaves the sensible nerves1 and with them consciousness1 intact4 ,regazzoni does this same thing by the magic influence of his will4 ,the moment at which this isolation takes place is distinctly visible in a peculiar trembling of the patient4 ,i recommend a small ,french publication entitled ,antoine ,regazzoni de ,bergame ,francfort sur ,mein1 by ,l4 ,a4 ,v4 ,dubourg 7,frankfurt1 ,nov4 #ahed1 #ca pages in #hvo47 on ,regazzoni's feats and the unmistakeably genuine character they bear for everyone who is not entirely devoid of all sense for organic ,nature4 ,in the ,journal du ,magntisme1 edit4 ,dupotet1 of the #aeth ,august1 #ahef1 in criticizing a treatise3 ,de la ,catalepsie1 mmoire couronn1 #ahef1 in #dto1 the reviewer1 ,morin1 says3 ,la plupart des caractres qui distinguent la catalepsie1 peuvent tre obtenus artificiellement et sans danger sur les sujets magntiques1 et c'est mme l une des expriences les plus ordinaires des sances magntiques4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,in the ,communications concerning the somnambulist1 ,auguste ,k4 in ,dresden 7#ahdc71 we find the truth in question confirmed in another way by what the somnambulist herself says1 p4 #ec3 ,i was half asleep and my brother wished to play a piece he knew4 ,as ,i did not like it1 ,i requested him not to play it2 nevertheless he tried to do so and then1 by means of my firm will that he should not1 ,i succeeded in making him unable to remember the piece1 in spite of all his endeavours4--,the thing is however brought to a climax when this immediate power of the will is extended even to inanimate bodies4 ,however incredible this may appear1 we have nevertheless two accounts of it coming from entirely different quarters4 ,in the book just mentioned1#bhi it is related and testified by witnesses1 that ,auguste ,k4 caused the needle of the compass to deviate at one time #g and at another #d1 this experiment moreover being repeated four times4 ,she did this moreover without any use of her hands1 through her mere will1 by looking steadily at it4--,the ,parisian somnambulist1 ,prudence ,bernard1 again in a public sance in ,london1 at which ,mr4 ,brewster1 the physicist's son and two other gentlemen from among the spectators acted as jurors1 made the compass needle deviate and follow her movements by simply turning her head round4#bij #bhi ,mittheilungen ber die ,somnamble1 ,auguste ,k41 in ,dresden4 #ahde1 pp4 #aae1 #aaf1 and #cah4 #bij ,see extract from the ,english periodical ,britannia1 in ,galignani's ,messenger1 of the #bcrd ,october1 #ahea4 ,now1 if we thus see the will--stated by me to be the thing in itself1 the only real thing in all existence1 the kernel of ,nature--accomplish through the human individual1 in ,animal ,magnetism and even beyond it1 things which cannot be explained according to the causal nexus1 i4e4 in the regular course of ,nature2 if we find it in a sense even annulling ,nature's laws and actually performing actio in distans1 consequently manifesting a supernatural1 that is1 metaphysical1 mastery over ,nature--what corroboration better founded on fact could ,i desire for my doctrine8 ,was not even ,count ,szapary1 a magnetiser who certainly did not know my philosophy1 led by the results of his own experience1 after writing the title of his book3 ,a word about ,animal ,magnetism1 soul-bodies and vital essence1#bia to add the following remarkable explanatory words3 or physical proofs that the current of ,animal ,magnetism is the element1 and the will the principle of all spiritual and corporeal life8#bib--;,according to this1 ,animal ,magnetism presents itself directly as practical ,metaphysic1 which was the term used by ,bacon of ,verulam#bic to define ,magic in his classification of the sciences3 it is empirical or experimental ,metaphysic4--,further1 because the will manifests itself in ,animal ,magnetism downright as the thing in itself1 we see the principium individuationis 7,space and ,time71 which belongs to mere phenomenon1 at once annulled3 its limits which separate individuals from one another1 are destroyed2 ,space no longer separates magnetiser and somnambulist2 community of thoughts and of motions of the will appears2 the state of clairvoyance overleaps the relations belonging to mere phenomenon and conditioned by ,time and ,space1 such as proximity and distance1 the present and the future4 #bia ,szapary1 ,ein ,wort ber ,animalischen ,magnetismus1 ,seelenkrper and ,lebensessenz 7#ahdj74 #bib ,oder physische ,beweise1 dass der ,animalisch-magnetische ,strom das ,element1 and der ,wille das ,princip alles geistigen und ,krperlichen ,lebens sei4 #bic ,bacon1 ,instaur4 ,magna1 ,l4 ,,iii4 ,in consequence of these facts1 notwithstanding many reasons and prejudices to the contrary1 the opinion has gradually gained ground1 nay almost raised itself to certainty1 that ,animal ,magnetism and its phenomena are identical with part of the ,magic of former times1 of that ill-famed occult art1 of whose reality not only the ,christian ages by which it was so cruelly persecuted1 but all1 not excepting even savage1 nations on the whole of the earth1 have been equally convinced throughout all ages4 ,the ,twelve ,tables of the ,romans1#bid the ,books of ,moses1 and even ,plato's ,eleventh ,book on ,laws1 already made its practice punishable by death1 and ,apuleius' beautiful speech#bie before the court of justice1 when defending himself against the charge of practising magic by which his life was menaced1 proves how seriously this matter was taken even in the most enlightened ,roman period1 under the ,antonines2 since he merely tries to clear himself personally from the charge in question1 but by no means contests the possibility of witchcraft and even enters into a host of absurd details such as are wont to figure in all the medival trials for witchcraft4 ,the eighteenth century makes an exception as regards this belief in ,magic1 and this is mainly because ,balthasar ,becker1 ,thomasius and some others1 with the good intention of putting an end once for all to the cruel trials for witchcraft1 declared all magic to be impossible4 ,favoured by the philosophy of the age1 this opinion soon gained the upper hand1 although only among the learned and educated classes4 ,the common people have never ceased to believe in witchcraft1 even in ,england2 though here the educated classes contrive to unite a degrading religious bigotry with the firm incredulity of a ,saint ,thomas 7or of a ,thomasius7 as to all facts transcending the laws of impact and counter-impact1 acids and alkalis1 and refuse to lend an ear to their great countryman1 when he tells them that 'there are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in their philosophy4' ,one branch of ,magic is still notoriously preserved and practised among the lower orders1 being tolerated on account of its beneficent purpose4 ,this is curing by charms 7sympathetische ,kuren1 as they are called in ,german71 the reality of which can hardly be doubted4 ,charming away warts1 is one of the commonest forms of this practice1 and of this ,bacon of ,verulam1 cautious and empirical though he was1 attests the efficacy from personal experience4#bif ,the charming away of erisypelas in the face by a spell1 is another instance1 and so often succeeds1 that it is easy to convince oneself of its existence4 ,fever too is often successfully combated by spells1 c4 c4#big--,that1 in all this1 the real agents are not the meaningless words and ceremonies1 but that it is the will of the operator which acts1 as in ,animal ,magnetism1 needs no further explanation after what has been said above4 ,for such as are still unacquainted with charm-cures1 instances may be found in ,kieser4#bih--,these two facts therefore1 ,animal ,magnetism and ,charm-curing1 bear empirical evidence to the possibility of magical1 as opposed to physical1 influence1 which possibility had been so peremptorily rejected by the past century2 since it refused to recognise as possible any other than physical influences brought about in the way of the intelligible nexus of causality4 #bid ,plin4 hist4 nat4 ,l4 #cj1 c4 #c4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bie ,apuleius1 ,oratio de ,magia1 p4 #ajd4 ,bip4 #bif ,bacon1 ,silva ,silvarum1 #iig4 #big ,in the ,times of ,june the #abth1 #ahee1 we find1 p4 #aj1 the following3-- ,a ,horse-charmer4 ,on the voyage to ,england the ship ',simla' experienced some heavy weather in the ,bay of ,biscay1 in which the horses suffered severely1 and some1 including a charger of ,general ,scarlett1 became unmanageable4 ,a valuable mare was so very bad1 that a pistol was got ready to shoot her and to end her misery2 when a ,russian officer recommended a ,cossak prisoner to be sent for1 as he was a 'juggler' and could1 by charms1 cure any malady in a horse4 ,he was sent for1 and immediately said he could cure it at once4 ,he was closely watched1 but the only thing they could observe him do was to take his sash off and tie a knot in it three several times4 ,however the mare1 in a few minutes1 got on her feet and began to eat heartily1 and rapidly recovered4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #bih ,kieser1 ,archiv1 fr den thierischen ,magnetismus1 vol4 v4 heft #c1 p4 #ajf2 vol4 viii4 heft #c1 p4 #ade2 vol4 ix4 heft #b1 p4 #agb2 and vol4 ix4 heft #a1 p4 #abh2 ,dr4 ,most's book likewise3 ber ,sympathetische ,mittel und ,kuren1 #ahdb1 may be used as an introduction to this matter4 7,and even ,pliny indicates a number of charm-cures in the #bhth ,book1 chaps4 #f to #ag4 ,add4 to #crd ed47 ,it is a fortunate circumstance1 that the rectification of this view in our time should have come from medical science2 because it ensures us at the same time against the danger of the pendulum of opinion receiving too strong an impulse in the contrary direction1 and thus carrying us back to the superstition of ruder ages4 ,besides1 as ,i have said1 ,animal ,magnetism and ,charm-curing only save the reality of a part of ,magic1 which included a good deal more1 a considerable portion of which must1 for the present at least1 remain under the old sentence of condemnation or be left in uncertainty2 whereas another portion will at any rate have to be conceived as possible1 through its analogy to ,animal ,magnetism4 ,for ,animal ,magnetism and ,charm-cures are but salutary influences exercised for curative purposes1 like those recorded in the ,history of ,magic as practised by the so-called 7,spanish7 ,saludadores1#bii who nevertheless were also condemned by the ,church2 whereas ,magic was far oftener practised with an evil intent4 ,nevertheless1 to judge by analogy1 it is more than probable1 that the same inherent force which1 by acting directly upon another individuality1 can exercise a salutary influence1 will be at least as powerful to exercise a prejudicial and pernicious one4 ,if therefore there was reality in any part of ancient ,magic beyond what may be referred to ,animal ,magnetism and curing by charms1 it must assuredly have been in that which is called maleficium and fascinatio1 the very thing that gave rise to most of the trials for witchcraft4 ,in ,most's book1 too1 already mentioned1#cjj a few facts are related which must undoubtedly be ascribed to maleficium2 in ,kieser1#cja also we find instances of diseases which had been transmitted1 especially to dogs1 who died of them4 ,in ,plutarch#cjb we find that fascinatio was already known to ,democritus1 who tried to explain it as a fact4 ,now admitting these stories to be true1 they give us the key to the crime of witchcraft1 the zealous persecution of which would therefore not have been quite without reason4 ,for even if in most cases it may have been founded upon error and abuse1 we are still not authorized to look upon our forefathers as having been so utterly benighted1 as to persecute with the utmost vigour and cruelty for so many ages an absolutely impossible crime4 ,from this point of view moreover1 we can also understand that the common people should still even to the present day persist in attributing certain cases of illness to a maleficium1 and are not to be dissuaded from this conviction4 ,now if we are thus induced by the progress of the age to modify the extreme view adopted by the last century concerning the absolute nullity of this ill-famed art--at any rate with respect to some part of it--still nowhere is caution more necessary than here1 in order to fish out from the chaos of fraud1 falsehood and absurdity contained in the writings of ,agrippa von ,nettesheim1 ,wierus1 ,bodinus1 ,delrio1 ,bindsfeldt1 c4 c41 the few isolated truths that may lie in them4 ,for1 frequent though they may be throughout the world1 nowhere have lies and deceit freer play than where ,nature's laws are avowedly set aside1 nay declared invalid4 ,here therefore we find the wildest fictions1 the strangest freaks of the imagination worked up into an edifice1 lofty as the skies1 on the narrow foundation of the slight particle of truth there may have been in ,magic1 and in consequence of this1 the most sanguinary atrocities perpetrated age after age4 ,in contemplating such things1 the psychological reflection on the unlimited capability of the human intellect for accepting the most incredible absurdities and the readiness of the human heart to set its seal to them by cruelty1 prevails over every other4 #bii ,delrio4 ,disqu4 ,mag4 ,l4 ,,iii4 ,p4 #b1 q4 #d4 #d1 s4 #g--;and ,bodinus1 ,mag4 ,dmon1 iii4 #b4 #cjj ,see note #b1 p4 #ccd1 especially pp4 #dj1 #da1 and ,nos4 #hi1 #ia1 and #ig of ,most's book4 #cja ,kieser1 ,archiv4 f4 t4 ,m4 ,see the account of ,bende ,bensen's illness1 vol4 ix4 to vol4 xii4 #cjb ,plutarch1 ,symposiac qustionis1 qu4 v4 #g4 #f4 ,yet the modification which has taken place of late in the views of ,german savants respecting magic1 is not due exclusively to ,animal ,magnetism4 ,the deep foundations of it had already been laid by the change in philosophy wrought by ,kant1 which makes ,german culture differ fundamentally from that of the rest of ,europe1 with respect to philosophy as well as to other branches of knowledge4--,for a man to be able to smile beforehand at all occult sympathies1 let alone magical influences1 he must find the world very1 nay completely1 intelligible4 ,but this is only possible if he looks at it with the utterly superficial glance which puts away from it all suspicion that we human beings are immersed in a sea of riddles and mysteries and have no exhaustive knowledge or understanding either of things or of ourselves in any direct way4 ,nearly all great men have been of the opposite frame of mind and therefore1 whatever age or nation they belonged to1 have always betrayed a slight tinge of superstition4 ,if our natural mode of knowing were one that handed over to us things in themselves immediately and consequently gave us the absolutely true relations and connections of things1 we might then1 no doubt1 be justified in rejecting priori1 therefore unconditionally1 all prescience of future events1 all apparitions of absent1 of dying1 let alone of deceased persons1 and all magical influence4 ,but if all that we know is1 as ,kant teaches1 mere phenomenon1 the forms and laws of which do not extend to things in themselves1 it must be obviously premature to reject all foreknowledge1 all apparitions and all magic2 since that rejection is based upon laws1 whose priori character precisely restricts them to phenomena2 whereas things in themselves1 to which even our own inner self must belong1 remain untouched by them4 ,but it is quite possible for these very things in themselves to have relations with us from which the above-mentioned occurrences may have arisen1 concerning which accordingly we have to wait for the decision posteriori1 and must not forestall it4 ,that the ,english and ,french should persist in denying priori all such occurrences1 comes at the bottom from the influence of ,locke's philosophy1 under which these nations still stand as to all essential points1 and by which we are taught that1 after merely subtracting sensation1 we know things in themselves4 ,according to this view therefore1 the laws of the material world are held to be ultimate1 and no other influence than influxus physicus is admitted4 ,consequently these nations believe1 it is true1 in a physical1 but not in a metaphysical1 science1 and therefore reject all other than so-called ,natural ,magic3 a term which contains the same contradictio in adjecto as ,supernatural ,physics1 but is nevertheless constantly used quite seriously1 while the latter was used but once1 and then in joke1 by ,lichtenberg4 ,on the other hand1 the common people1 with their universal readiness to give credit to supernatural influences1 express by it in their own way the conviction1 that all things which we perceive and comprehend are mere phenomena1 not things in themselves2 although1 with them1 conviction is only felt4 ,i quote the following passage from ,kant's ,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik der ,sitten1 as a proof that this is not saying too much3 ,there is an observation requiring no great subtlety of reflection1 which we may on the contrary suppose the most ordinary understanding capable of making1 albeit in its own way and by an obscure distinction of the faculty of judgment1 which it calls feeling4 ,it is this3 that all our involuntary representations 7such as those of the senses7 give us no further knowledge of objects than as they affect us1 whereby we are left in ignorance as to what those objects may be in themselves2 that1 as far as this sort of representation is concerned therefore1 we are still only able by this means to attain knowledge of phenomena1 but never of things in themselves1 even by dint of the utmost clearness and the most strenuous attention the understanding is able to give to this point4 ,when once this distinction is made1 however1 it stands to reason1 that the existence of something else behind these phenomena1 something which is not phenomenon1 i4e4 the thing in itself1 has still to be admitted and assumed4#cjc #cjc ,kant1 ,first ,principles of ,ethical ,metaphysic1 #crd edition1 p4 #aje4 ,when we read ,d4 ,tiedemann's ,history of ,magic1#cjd we are astonished at the persistency with which mankind have clung to the thought of ,magic in all places and at all times1 notwithstanding frequent failure2 and we come to the conclusion1 that this thought must1 to say the least1 be deeply rooted in human nature1 if not in things in general1 and cannot be a mere arbitrary creation of the fancy4 ,although ,magic is differently defined by the various authors who have treated of it1 the fundamental thought which predominates in all its definitions is nevertheless unmistakeable4 ,for the opinion1 that there must be another quite different way of producing changes in the world besides the regular one through the causal nexus between bodies1 and one moreover which is not founded at all upon that nexus1 has found favour in all ages and countries4 ,therefore also the means belonging to this second way appeared absurd1 when they were viewed in the same light as the first2 since the cause applied was obviously not suited to the effect intended and a causal nexus between them was impossible4 ,but here it was assumed1 that apart from the outer connection between the phenomena of this world on which the nexus physicus is founded1 there must exist another besides1 passing through the very essence in itself of all things3 a subterranean connection as it were1 by means of which immediate action was possible from one point of the phenomenon on to every other point1 through a nexus metaphysicus2 #cjd ,d4 ,tiedemann1 ,disputatio de qustione1 qu fuerit artum magicarum origo4 ,marb4 #aghg4 ,a prize-essay written for the ,gttingen ,society4 that accordingly1 it must be possible to act upon things from inside1 instead of from outside1 as is usual2 that it must be possible for phenomenon to act upon phenomenon by means of that being in itself1 which is one and the same in all phenomena2 that1 just as we act causally as natura naturata1 we might probably be able to act also as natura naturans1 and momentarily to enable the microcosm to play the part of the macrocosm2 that1 however firm the partition walls of individuation and separation might be1 they might nevertheless occasionally permit a communication to take place as it were behind the scenes1 or like a secret game under the table2 and that1 just as a neutralisation of individual isolation takes place in somnambulistic clairvoyance1 so likewise might a neutralisation of the will in the individual be possible4 ,such a thought as this cannot have arisen empirically1 nor can it have been confirmation through experience that has preserved it throughout all ages and in all countries3 for in the majority of cases experience must result downright unfavourably to it4 ,i opine therefore1 that the origin of this thought1 which has universally held its ground with the whole of mankind and1 in spite of so much conflicting experience1 in defiance of common sense1 has never been eradicated1 must be sought at great depth3 namely in the inward feeling of the omnipotence of the will in itself--of that will1 which constitutes at once the inner essence of ,man and of the whole of ,nature--and in the assumption connected with it that1 somehow or other1 this omnipotence might possibly for once make itself felt1 even when proceeding from the individual4 ,people were unable to investigate and distinguish the difference between the capabilities of the will as thing in itself and the same will in its individual manifestation2 but they assumed without further ado1 that under certain circumstances1 the will might be enabled to break through the barriers of individuation4 ,for the above-mentioned feeling rebelled obstinately against the knowledge forced upon it by experience1 that ,der ,gott der mir im ,busen wohnt1 ,kann tief mein ,innerstes erregen1 ,der ber allen meinen ,krften thront1 ,er kann nach ,aussen nichts bewegen4 ,according to the fundamental thought just expounded1 we find that the physical medium used in all attempts at magic1 never was regarded in any other light than in that of a vehicle for a thing metaphysical2 otherwise it could evidently stand in no relation whatever to the effect contemplated4 ,these media consisted in cabalistic words1 symbolical actions1 traced figures1 wax images1 c4 c4 ,we see too that1 according to the original feeling1 what this vehicle conveyed1 was in the last resort always an act of volition that had been connected with it4 ,the very natural inducement to do this1 was the observation1 that every moment men became aware of a completely unaccountable1 that is1 evidently metaphysical1 agency of the will1 in the movements of their own bodies4 ,might not this agency1 they thought1 be extended to other bodies also8 ,to find out a way to annul the isolation in which the will finds itself in each individual1 and to extend the immediate sphere of the will's action beyond the organism of the person willing1 was the aim of ,magic4 ,a great deal was nevertheless still wanting ere this fundamental thought1 from which ,magic seems properly to have sprung1 could pass over at once into distinct consciousness and be recognised in abstracto1 and ere ,magic could at once understand itself4 ,only a few thoughtful and learned writers of former ages--as ,i mean soon to prove by quotations--express the distinct thought1 that it is in the will itself that the magic power lies1 and that the strange signs and acts together with the senseless words that accompanied them1 which passed for the means of exorcising and the connecting link with demons1 are in fact merely vehicles and means for fixing the will1 by which the act of volition1 which is to act magically1 ceases to be mere wish and becomes deed1 or1 to use the language of ,paracelsus1 receives a corpus1 and the individual will in a sense distinctly proclaims that it is now acting as general will1 as will in itself4 ,for in every act of ,magic--charm-cure or whatever else it may be--the outward action 7the connecting link7 is exactly what the passes are in magnetising3 i4e4 not what is really essential1 but the mere vehicle1 that by which the will1 the only real agent1 is directed and fixed in the material world and enters into reality4 ,as a rule therefore1 it is indispensable4--,from the rest of the writers of those times we gather that1 in conformity with that fundamental thought of ,magic1 their only aim was to obtain absolute1 arbitrary power over ,nature4 ,but they were unable to elevate themselves to the thought that this power must be a direct one2 they conceived it1 on the contrary1 absolutely as an indirect one4 ,for all religions in all countries had placed ,nature under the dominion of gods and of demons4 ,now1 it was the magician's endeavour to subject these gods and demons to his will1 to induce1 nay1 to force them to serve him2 and he attributed all that he succeeded in achieving to their agency1 just as ,mesmer attributed the success of his ,magnetism to the magnetic rods he held in his hands1 instead of to his will which was the real agent4 ,it was in this sense that all polytheistic nations took the matter1 and even ,plotinus1#cje but more especially ,iamblichus1 understood ,magic3 that is1 as ,theurgy1 an expression which ,porphyry was the first to use4 ,that divine aristocracy1 ,pantheism1 was favourable to this interpretation1 since it distributed the dominion over the different forces of ,nature among as many gods and demons--mostly mere personifications of natural forces--and the magician1 by persuasion or by force1 subjected now one1 now the other of these divinities to his power and made them do his bidding4 ,but in a ,divine ,monarchy1 where all ,nature obeys a single ruler1 the thought of contracting a private alliance with the ,almighty1 let alone of exercising sovereignty over him1 would have been too audacious4 ,therefore where ,judaism1 ,christianity or ,islam prevailed1 the omnipotence of the one ,god stood in the way of this interpretation of ,magic3 an omnipotence which the magician could not venture to attack4 ,he had no alternative therefore1 but to take refuge with the ,devil1 and with this rebellious spirit--perhaps even direct descendant of ,ahriman--to whom some power over ,nature was still attributed1 he now entered into a compact1 by which he ensured to himself his assistance4 ,this was necromancy 7the 'black art'74 ,its antithesis1 'white ,magic1' was opposed to it by the circumstance that1 in it1 the magician did not make friends with the ,devil1 but rather solicited the permission1 not to say co-operation1 of the ,almighty himself1 to intercede with the angels2 oftener still1 he invoked devils by pronouncing the rarer ,hebrew names and titles of the ,one ,god1 such as ,adon-,ai1 c4 c41 and compelled them to obey him1 without promising them anything in return for their services1 in a hell-compulsion#cjf 7,hllenzwang74--,but all these mere interpretations and outward trappings of the thing were received so entirely as its essence and as objective processes1 that writers like ,bodinus1 ,delrio1 ,bindsfeldt1 c41 whose knowledge of magic was second-hand and not derived from personal experience1 all assert the essential characteristic of ,magic to be1 that it does not act either through forces of ,nature or in a natural way1 but through the assistance of the ,devil4 ,this view was1 and long remained1 current everywhere1 locally modified according to the religions which prevailed in different countries4 ,the laws against sorcery and the trials for witchcraft were based upon it2 likewise1 wherever the possibility of ,magic was contested1 the attacks were generally directed against this opinion4 ,an objective view1 such as this1 was an inevitable consequence of the decided ,realism which prevailed throughout ancient and medival ,europe and which ,descartes was the first to disturb4 ,till then1 ,man had not learnt to direct the light of speculative thought towards the mysterious depths of his own inner self1 but1 on the contrary1 had sought everything outside himself4 ,above all the thought of making the will he found within him rule over ,nature1 was so bold1 that people would have been alarmed by it3 therefore it was made to rule over fictitious beings1 supposed by the prevailing superstition to have command over ,nature1 in order through them to obtain at least indirect mastery over ,nature4 ,every sort of god or demon moreover1 is always a hypostasis1 by which believers of all sects and colours bring to their own comprehension the ,metaphysical1 that which lies behind ,nature1 that which gives her existence and consistence and consequently rules over her4 ,thus1 when it is said1 that ,magic acts by the help of demons1 the meaning which lies at the bottom of this thought still is1 that it is an agency which is not physically1 but metaphysically exercised3 that it is not a natural1 but a supernatural1 agency4 ,now if1 in the small amount of fact which speaks in favour of the reality of ,magic3 that is1 in ,animal ,magnetism and charm-cures1 we still do not recognise anything but an immediate action of the will which here manifests its direct power outside1 instead of inside1 the individual2 if moreover1 as ,i am about to show and to substantiate by decisive1 unequivocal citations1 those who are more deeply initiated into ancient ,magic1 derive all its effects from the magician's will alone3 this is surely strong empirical evidence in support of my doctrine1 that the ,metaphysical in general1 that which alone exists apart from representation1 the thing in itself of the universe--is nothing but what is known to us within ourselves as the will4 #cje ,here and there1 ,plotinus betrays a more correct knowledge1 for instance1 ,enn4 ii4 lib4 iii4 c4 #g2 ,enn4 iv4 lib4 iii4 c4 #ab1 et lib4 ix4 c4 #c4 #cjf ,delrio1 ,disq4 mag4 ,l4 ii4 qu4 #b4 ,agrippa a ,nettesheym1 ,de ,vanit4 ,scient4 c4 #de4 ,now1 if the direct power which may occasionally be exercised over ,nature by the will1 was conceived by those magicians as a merely indirect one1 acquired by the help of demons1 this still could not prevent its efficiency wherever and whenever it may have taken place4 ,for1 precisely because1 in things of this kind1 the will acts in itself1 in its primariness1 therefore apart from representation1 its efficiency cannot be frustrated by erroneous conceptions of the intellect2 on the contrary1 the distance here is a wide one between theory and practice3 the errors of the former do not stand in the way of the latter1 nor does a correct theory qualify for practice4 ,mesmer1 in the beginning1 attributed his agency to the magnetic rods he held in his hands and later on explained the wonders of ,animal ,magnetism by a materialistic theory of a subtle1 all-permeating fluid2 nevertheless he produced wonderfully powerful effects4 ,i once myself knew the proprietor of an estate1 whose peasants were wont by tradition to have their feverish attacks dispelled by a spell of their master's4 ,now1 although he believed he had convinced himself of the impossibility of all such things1 yet he continued good-naturedly to comply with their wish as usual1 and indeed often succeeded in relieving them4 ,this success he ascribed to his peasants' firm belief1 forgetting that a similar faith ought also to bring success to the medical treatment which is so often applied with complete inefficacy to believing patients4 ,now1 if ,theurgy and ,demonomagic1 as described above1 were but the mere interpretation and outward trappings of the thing1 the mere husk1 at which the majority were content to stop short3 there were nevertheless some1 who went below the surface and quite recognised that the agent in influences supposed to proceed from magic1 was absolutely nothing but the will4 ,we must not however look for such deeper observers as these among the discountenancers and antagonists of ,magic1 and the majority of the writers on this subject belong precisely to these3 they derived their knowledge exclusively from ,courts of ,justice and from the examination of witnesses1 so that they merely describe the outside of the matter2 and1 if at any time they chanced1 through confessions1 to gain an insight into the inner processes they took good care not to betray that knowledge1 lest1 by doing so1 they should contribute to diffuse the terrible vice of sorcery4 ,to this class belong ,bodinus1 ,delrio1 ,bindsfeldt1 and others4 ,for information as to the real nature of the thing1 we must on the contrary go to philosophers and investigators of ,nature1 who wrote in those times of prevailing superstition4 ,now1 from what they say1 it clearly follows1 that the real agent in ,magic1 just as in ,animal ,magnetism1 is nothing but the will4 ,here ,i must quote some passages in support of this assertion4#cjg ,theophrastus ,paracelsus especially disclosed perhaps more concerning the inner nature of ,magic than any other writer1 and does not even hesitate to give a minute description of the processes used in it4#cjh--;,he says3#cji ,to be observed concerning wax images3 if ,i bear malice in my will against anyone1 that malice must be carried out by some medium or corpus4 ,thus it is possible for my spirit to stab or wound another person without help from my body in using a sword1 merely by my fervent desire4 ,therefore it is also possible for me to convey my opponent's spirit into the image by my will and then to deform or paralyze it at pleasure4--,you must know1 that the influence of the will is a great point in medicine4 ,for if a man hate another and begrudge him anything good1 it is possible that if he curse him1 that curse may take effect4--,this occurs also with animals and more easily than with men2 for the spirit of man has far greater power of resistance than that of animals4 #cjg ,roger ,bacon already in the thirteenth century said3 444 ,quod si ulterius aliqua anima maligna cogitat fertiter de infectione alterius atque ardenter desideret et certitudinaliter intendat1 atque vehementer consideret se posse nocere1 non est dubium quin natura obediet cogitationibus anim4 7,see ,rogeri ,bacon1 ,opus ,majus1 ,londini1 #agcc1 p4 #beb47 #cjh ,theophrastus ,paracelsus1 ,strassburg edition in two folio vols41 vol4 i1 pp4 #ia1 #cec1 et seqq4 and p4 #ghi2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cfb1 #dif4 #cji ,vol4 i4 p4 #ai4 ,and p4 #cge3 ,it follows from this1 that one image has magic power over another1 not by virtue of the characters or anything of that kind impressed on the virgin wax2 but the imagination overcomes its own constellation1 so as to become a means for fulfilling the will of its heaven1 i4e4 of its man4 p4 #ccd3 ,all the imagining of man comes from his heart4 ,the heart is the sun of the microcosm4 ,and all the imagining of man passes from the small sun of the microcosm into the sun of the great ,universe1 into the heart of the macrocosm4 ,thus the imaginatio of the microcosm is a seed which becomes material1 c4 p4 #cfd3 ,it suffices for you to know what rigorous imagination does1 which is the beginning of all magical works4 p4 #ghi3 ,even my thought therefore is a looking at a mark4 ,now ,i must not turn my eye with my hands in this or that direction2 but my imagination turns it as ,i wish4 ,and this is also to be understood of walking3 ,i desire1 ,i propose to myself1 therefore my body moves1 and the firmer my thoughts1 the more sure it is that ,i shall run4 ,thus imaginatio alone is an impulse for my running4 p4 #hcg3 ,imaginatio used against me may be employed with such rigour1 that ,i may be killed by the imaginatio of another person4 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bgd3 ,imagination comes from longing and desire3 envy1 hatred1 proceed from longing1 for they do not arise unless you long for them4 ,as soon as you wish1 the act of the imagination follows4 ,this longing must be quick1 ardent1 lively1 as that of a pregnant woman1 c4 c4--,a general curse is commonly verified4 ,why8 ,it comes from the heart1 and the seed lies and is born in that coming from the heart4 ,thus parents' curses also come from the heart4 ,the curse of the poor is likewise imaginatio4 ,the prisoner's curse1 also mere imaginatio1 comes from the heart4444 ,thus too1 when one man wishes to stab or paralyze1 c41 another by means of his imaginatio1 he must first attract the thing and instrument to himself and then he can impress it 7with his wish73 for whatever enters into it1 may also go out of it again by the medium of thought as well as by that of the hands4444 ,in such imagining1 women outdo men 444 for they are more ardent in revenge4 p4 #bih3 ,magica is a great occult wisdom2 just as ,reason is a great1 open folly4444 ,no armour avails against sorcery1 for it wounds the inner man1 the vital spirit4444 ,some magicians make an image in the shape of a man they intend to harm1 knock a nail into the sole of its foot1 and the man is invisibly struck with lameness1 until the nail is removed4 p4 #cjg3 ,we ought to know1 that we may convey the spirit of any man into an image1 solely by faith and by our strong imagination4--,no incantation is needed1 and the ceremonies1 drawing of circles1 fumigations1 seals1 c4 c4 are mere humbug to mislead4--,homunculi and images are made1 c4 c4 444 by which all the operations1 powers and will of man are carried out4444 ,the human heart is indeed so great a thing1 that no one can express it3 as ,god is eternal and imperishable1 so also is the heart of man4 ,if we men thoroughly recognised our heart1 nothing would be impossible for us on earth4444 ,perfect imagination1 coming from the stars 7astris7 arises from the heart4 p4 #eac3 ,imaginatio is confirmed and rendered perfect by the belief that it really takes place3 for every doubt injures the effect4 ,faith must confirm the imagination1 for faith decides the will4444 ,but just the fact that man does not always perfectly imagine1 perfectly believe1 causes acts to be called uncertain1 which nevertheless may certainly and quite well exist4 ,a passage from ,campanella's book1 ,de sensu rerum et magia1 may serve to elucidate this last sentence4 ,efficiunt alii ne homo possi futuere1 si tantum credat3 non enim potest facere quod non credit posse facere 7l4 iv4 c4 #ah74 ,agrippa von ,nettesheim#caj speaks in the same sense4 ,non minus subjicitur corpus alieno animo1 quam alieno corpori2 and3#caa ,quidquid dictat animus fortissime odientis habet efficaciam nocendi et destruendi2 similiter in ceteris1 qu affectat animus fortissimo desiderio4 ,omnia enim qu tunc agit et dictat ex characteribus1 figuris1 verbis1 gestibus et ejusmodi1 omnia sunt adjuvantia appetitum anim et acquirunt mirabiles quasdam virtutes1 tum ab anima laborantis in illa hora1 quando ipsum appetitus ejusmodi maxime invadit1 tum ab influxa clesti animum tunc taliter movente4#cab--;,inest hominum animis virtus qudam immutandi et ligandi res et homines ad id quod desiderat1 et omnes res obediunt illi1 quando fertur in magnum excessum alicujus passionis1 vel virtutis1 in tantum1 ut superet eos1 quos ligat4 ,radix ejusmodi ligationis ipsa est affectio anim vehemens et exterminata4 #caj ,de occulta philosophia1 lib4 #a1 c4 #ff4 #caa ,ibid4 c4 #fg4 #cab ,de occulta philosophia1 lib4 #a1 cc4 #ff1 #fg et #fh4 ,and likewise ,jul4 ,cs4 ,vanninus1 ,de admir4 natur arcan4 ,l4 iv4 dial4 #e1 #dce3 ,vehementem imaginationem1 cui spiritus et sanguis obediunt1 rem mente conceptam realiter efficere1 non solum intra1 sed et extra4#cac #cac ,ibid4 p4 #ddj3 ,addunt ,avicenn dictum3 ,ad validam alicujus imaginationem cadit camelus4 ,ibid4 p4 #dgh1 speaking of charms3 fascinatio ne quis cum muliere coeat1 he says3 ,equidem in ,germania complures allocutus sum vulgari cognomento ,necromantistas1 qui ingenue confessi sunt1 se firme satis credere1 meras fabulas esse opiniones1 qu de dmonibus vulgo circumferuntur1 aliquid tamen ipsos operari1 vel vi herbarum commovendo phantasiam1 vel vi imaginationis et fidei vehementissim1 quam ipsorum nugacissimis confictis excantationibus adhibent ignar mulieres1 quibus persuadent1 recitatis magna cum devotione aliquibus preculis1 statim effici fascinum1 quare credul ex intimo cordis effundunt excantationes1 atque ita1 non vi verborum1 neque caracterum1 ut ips existimant1 sed spiritibus#cad1 fascini inferendi percupidis exsufflatis proximos effascinant4 ,hinc fit1 ut ipsi ,necromantici1 in causa propria1 vel aliena1 si soli sint operarii1 nihil unquam mirabile prstiterint3 carent enim fide1 qu cuncta operatur4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #cad ,schopenhauer has added to spiritibus in parenthesis 7sc4 vitalibus et animalibus74 ,just so ,joh4 ,bapt4 ,van ,helmont1 who takes great pains to explain away as much as possible of the ,devil's influence1 in order to attribute it to the will4 ,i quote a few passages from the voluminous collection of his works1 ,ortus ,medicin3 ,recepta injecta4 #ab4 ,quum hostis natur 7diabolus7 ipsam applicationem complere ex se nequeat1 suscitat ideam fortis desiderii et odii in saga1 ut1 mutuatis istis mentalibus et liberis mediis1 transferat suum velle per quod quodque afficere intendit4#cae ,quorsum imprimis etiam execrationes1 cum idea desiderii et terroris1 odiosissimis suis scrofis prscribit4-- #ac4 ,quippe desiderium istud1 ut est passio imaginantis1 ita quoque creat ideam1 non quidem inanem1 sed executivam atque incantamenti motivam4-- #ai4 prout jam demonstravi1 quod vis incantamenti potissima pendeat ab idea naturali sag4 #cae ,der ,teufel hat sie's zwar gelehrt2 ,allein der ,teufel kann's nicht machen4--,faust4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,de injectis materialibus4 #ae4 ,saga1 per ens naturale1 imaginative format ideam liberam1 naturalem et nocuam4444 ,sag operantur virtute naturali4444 ,homo etiam dimittit medium aliud executivum1 emanativum et mandativum ad incantandum hominem2 quod medium est ,idea fortis desiderii4 ,est nempe desiderio inseparabile ferri circa optata4 ,de sympatheticis mediis4 #b4 ,ide scilicet desiderii1 per modum influentiarum clestium1 jaciuntur in proprium objectum1 utcunque localiter remotum4 ,diriguntur nempe a desiderio objectum sibi specificante4 ,de magnetica vulnerum curatione4 #gf4 ,igitur in sanguine est qudam potestas exstatica1 qu1 si quando ardenti desiderio excita fuerit1 etiam ad absens aliquod objectum1 exterioris hominis spiritu deducenda sit3 ea autem potestas in exteriori homine latet1 velut in potentia2 nec ducitur ad actum1 nisi excitetur1 accensa imaginatione ferventi desiderio1 vel arte aliqua pari4-- #ih4 ,anima1 prorsum spiritus1 nequaquam posset spiritum vitalem 7corporeum equidem71 multo minus carnem et ossa movere aut concitare1 nisi vis illi qupiam naturalis1 magica tamen et spiritualis1 ex anima in spiritum et corpus descenderet4 ,cedo1 quo pacto obediret spiritus corporeus jussui anim1 nisi jussus spiritum1 et deinceps corpus movendo foret8 ,at extemplo contra hanc magicam motricem objicies1 istam esse intra concretum sibi1 suumque hospitium naturale1 idcirco hanc etsi magam vocitemus1 tantum erit nominis detorsio et abusus1 siquidem vera et superstitiosa magica non ex anima basin desumit2 cum eadem hc nil quidquam valeat1 extra corpus suum movere1 alterare aut ciere4 ,respondeo1 vim et magicam illam naturalem anim1 qu extra se agat1 virtute imaginis ,dei1 latere jam obscuram in homine1 velut obdormire 7post prvaricationem71 excitationisque indigam3 qu eadem1 utut somnolenta1 ac velut ebria1 alioqui sit in nobis quotidie3 sufficit tamen ad obeunda munia in corpore suo3 dormit itaque scientia et potestas magica1 et solo nutu actrix in homine4-- #ajb4 ,satan itaque vim magicam hanc excitat 7secus dormientem et scientia exterioris hominis impeditam7 in suis mancipiis1 et inservit eadem illis1 ensis vice in manu potentis1 id est sag4 ,nec aliud prorsus ,satan ad homicidium affert1 prter excitationem dict potestatis somnolent4-- #ajf4 ,saga in stabulo absente occidit equum3 virtus qudam naturalis a spiritu sag1 et non a ,satana1 derivatur1 qu opprimat vel strangulet spiritum vitalem equi4-- #aci4 ,spiritus voco magnetismi patronos1 non qui ex clo demittuntur1 multoque minus de infernalibus sermo est2 sed de iis1 qui fiunt in ipso homine1 sicut ex silice ignis2 ex voluntate hominis nempe aliquantillum spiritus vitalis influentis desumitur1 et id ipsum assumit idealem entitatem1 tanquam formam ad complementum4 ,qua nacta perfectione1 spiritus mediam sortem inter corpora et non corpora assumit4 ,mittitur autem eo1 quo voluntas ipsum dirigit2 idealis igitur entitas 444 nullis stringitur locorum1 temporum aut dimensionum imperiis1 ea nec dmon est1 nec ejus ullus effectus2 sed spiritualis qudam est actio illius1 nobis plane naturalis et vernacula4-- #afh4 ,ingens mysterium propalare hactenus distuli1 ostendere videlicet1 ad manum in homine sitam esse energiam1 qua1 solo nutu et phantasia sua1 queat agere extra se et imprimere virtutem aliquam1 influentiam deinceps perseverantem1 et agentem in objectum longissime absens4 ,p4 ,pomponatius also says3 ,sic contigit1 tales esse homines1 qui habeant ejusmodi vires in potentia1 et per vim imaginativam et desiderativam cum actu operantur1 tales virtus exit ad actum1 et afficit sanguinem et spiritum1 qu per evaporationem petunt ad extra et producunt tales effectus4#caf #caf ,de incantationibus4 ,opera ,basil4 #aefg1 p4 #dd4 ,jane ,leade1 an ,english mystic visionary of ,cromwell's time and pupil of ,pordage1 has given us some very curious disclosures of this kind4 ,she is led to ,magic in a very singular way4 ,for1 as the doctrine of their becoming one with the ,god of their religion is a fundamental characteristic of all ,mystics1 so is it with ,jane ,leade also4 ,now1 with her however1 the human will has its share in the omnipotence of the ,divine will as a consequence of the two having become one1 and accordingly acquires magic power4 ,what other magicians therefore believe to be due to a compact with the ,devil1 she attributes to her becoming one with her ,god4 ,her ,magic is therefore in the highest sense 'white ,magic4' ,besides1 this alters nothing as to the practice and results4 ,she is reserved and mysterious1 as people had to be in those times2 still it is easy to see that the thing is not a mere theoretical corollary1 but that it has sprung from knowledge and experience obtained in another way4 ,it is in her ,revelation of ,revelations#cag that we find the chief passage2 but the following one1 which is rather an abridgment than a literal quotation and is contained in ,horst's ,zauberbibliothek1#cah comes from the same book3 ,magic power enables its possessor to rule over and to renew the creation--i4e4 the animal1 vegetable and mineral kingdoms--so that1 were many to co-operate in one magical power1 ,nature might be created anew as a paradise4444 ,how is this magic power to be acquired8 ,by renascence through faith3 that is1 by our will harmonizing with the divine will4 ,for faith subjects the world to us1 inasmuch as our own will1 when it is in harmony with the divine will1 results1 as ,st4 ,paul tells us1 in making everything submit to and obey us4 ,thus far ,horst4--p4 #aca of the ,revelation1 c41 ,jane ,leade shows that it was by the force of his will that ,christ worked miracles1 as1 for instance1 when he said to the leper3 ,i will2 be thou clean4 ,sometimes however he left it to the will of those who1 he saw1 believed in him1 saying to them3 ',what will ye that ,i shall do unto you8' in which cases no less was done for them than they had desired in their will that the ,lord should do4 ,these words of our ,saviour's are well deserving of notice1 since the highest ,magia lies in the will1 so far as it is in union with the will of the ,almighty3 when these two wheels fit into each other1 becoming in a sense one1 they are1 c4--,again1 p4 #acb1 she says3 ,for what could resist that which is united with the will of ,god8 ,the power of such a will is so great1 that it always achieves its end4 ,it is no naked will deprived of its clothing1 or power2 on the contrary1 it brings with it an irresistible omnipotence1 which enables it to uproot1 to plant1 to put to death and to bring to life1 to bind and to loose1 to heal and to injure1 which power will be collected and concentrated in its entirety in the royal1 free-born will4 ,of this power we shall attain knowledge1 when we shall have been made one with the ,holy ,ghost4 or when we shall be united in one spirit and being4--,again1 p4 #acc3 ,we must quench or drown altogether the many multifarious wills which arise out of the mixed essence of souls1 and they must lose themselves in the abysmal depth from which there will then arise and present itself the virgin will1 which was never the slave of anything belonging to degenerate man2 on the contrary1 it stands in connection with the ,almighty ,power1 quite free and pure1 and will infallibly produce fruits and results quite similar to those of the divine will 444 wherefrom the burning oil of the ,holy ,ghost flows up in ,magic1 as it emits its fiery sparks4 #cag ,german translation1 ,amsterdam1 #afie1 pp4 #abf to #aea1 especially the pages headed the power of calm will4 #cah ,horst1 ,zauberbibliothek 7,library of ,magic71 vol4 i4 p4 #cbe4 ,jacob ,bhme too#cai speaks of ,magic precisely in the sense here described4 ,among other things he says3 ,magic is the mother of the essence of all beings3 for it creates itself and is understood in desire4444 ,true ,magic is not a being1 but the desiring spirit of the being4--,in fine3 ,magic is action in the will's spirit4 #cai ,j4 ,bhme1 ,erklrung von sechs ,punkten1 under ,punkt v4 ,in corroboration1 or at any rate in explanation1 of the above view of the will as the real agent in magic1 a curious and interesting anecdote1 related by ,campanella1 from ,avicenna1 may here find its place4#cbj ,mulieres qudam condixerunt1 ut irent animi gratia in viridarium4 ,una earum non ivit4 ,ceter colludentes arangium acceperunt et perforabant eum stilis acutis1 dicentes3 ita perforamus mulierem talem1 qu nobiscum venire detrectavit1 et1 projecto arangio intra fontem1 abierunt4 ,postmodum mulierem illam dolentem invenerunt1 quod se transfigi quasi clavis acutis sentiret1 ab ea hora1 qua arangium ceter2 perforarunt3 et cruciata est valde donec arangii clavos extraxerunt imprecantes bona et salutem4 #cbj ,campanella1 ,de sensu rerum et magia1 l4 iv4 c4 #ah4 ,krusenstern#cba gives a very curious and minute description of maleficent sorcery as practised1 it is said successfully1 by the priests of the savage tribes on the island of ,nukahiva1 the procedure in which is exactly similar to that of our cures by charms4--,this fact is especially remarkable on account of the identity of the thing1 notwithstanding the distance from all ,european tradition4 ,with it ought to be compared ,bende ,bendsen's account of a headache he caused in another person by sorcery1 through the medium of some of that person's hair which had been cut off4 ,he concludes with the following words3 ,as far as ,i can learn1 what is called witchcraft consists simply in preparing and applying noxious magnetic charms combined with a maleficent influence of the will3 this is the detestable league with ,satan4#cbb #cba ,krusenstern's words are3 ,a universal belief in witchcraft1 which is held to be very important by all islanders1 seems to me to be connected with their religion2 for they assert that the priests alone possess magic power1 although some of the common people also1 it is said1 profess to have the secret1 probably in order to make themselves feared1 and to exact presents4 ,this sorcery1 which they call ,kaha1 consists in inflicting a lingering death upon those to whom they bear a grudge1 twenty days being however fixed as the term for this4 ,they go to work as follows4 ,whoever wishes to practise revenge by means of sorcery1 seeks to procure either saliva or urine or excrements of his enemy in some way or other4 ,these he mixes with a powder1 lays the compound in a bag which is woven in a special manner1 and buries it4 ,the most important secret is in the art of weaving the bag in the right way and of preparing the powder4 ,as soon as it is buried1 the effects show themselves in the person who is the object of this witchcraft4 ,he sickens1 becomes daily weaker1 loses at last all his strength1 and in twenty days is sure to die4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he attempts to divert his enemy's revenge from himself by offering up a pig1 or making some other valuable present in order to save his life1 he may yet be saved1 even on the nineteenth day1 and no sooner is the bag unburied1 than the attacks of illness cease4 ,he recovers gradually1 and after a few days is quite restored to health4--,reise um die ,welt4 ,ed4 in #abmo1 #ahab1 ,part i41 p4 #bdi et seq4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #cbb ,kieser1 ,archiv fr thierischen ,magnetismus1 vol4 ix4 s4 i4 in the note1 pp4 #abh-acb4 ,the agreement of all these writers1 not only among themselves1 but with the convictions to which ,animal ,magnetism has led in latter years1 and finally even with what might be concluded from my speculative doctrine on this point1 is surely a most remarkable phenomenon4 ,this much is at any rate certain1 that at the bottom of all the experiments1 successful or unsuccessful1 which have ever been made in ,magic1 there lies an anticipation of my ,metaphysic4 ,for in them is expressed the consciousness1 that the causal law only connects phenomena1 while the inner nature of things remains independent of it2 and also1 that if any direct influence on ,nature be possible from within1 it can only take place through the will itself4 ,but even if ,magic were to be ranked as practical ,metaphysic1 according to ,bacon's classification1 it is certain that no other theoretical ,metaphysic would stand in the right relation to it but mine1 by which the world is resolved into ,will and ,representation4 ,the zealous cruelty with which ,magic has always been persecuted by the ,church and to which the papal malleus maleficarum bears terrible evidence1 seems not to have for its sole basis the criminal purposes often associated with the practice of ,magic or the part assumed to be played by the ,devil1 but rather to proceed partly from a vague foreboding and fear lest ,magic should trace back its original power to its true source2 whereas the ,church has assigned to it a place outside ,nature4#cbc ,the detestation shown by the cautious clergy of ,england towards ,animal ,magnetism #cbd tends to confirm this supposition1 and also the active zeal with which they oppose table-turning1 which at any rate is harmless1 yet which1 for the same reason1 has been violently assailed by the anathemas of the ,french1 and even of the ,german1 clergy4#cbe #cbc ,they scent something of the ,nos habitat1 non tartara sed nec sidera cli3 ,spiritus in nobis qui viget1 illa facit4 7,not in the heavens it lives1 nor yet in hell2 ,the spirit that does it all1 doth in us dwell47 ,compare ,johann ,beaumont1 ,historisch-,physiologisch-und ,theologischer ,tractat von ,geistern1 ,erscheinungen1 ,hexereyen und andern ,zauber-,hndeln1 ,halle im ,magdeburgischen1 #agba1 p4 #bha4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #cbd ,compare ,parerga1 vol4 i4 p4 #beg 7#bnd ed4 vol4 i4 p4 #bhf74 #cbe ,on the #dth of ,august1 #ahef1 the ,roman ,inquisition issued a circular to all the bishops1 in which it called upon them in the name of the ,church to use their utmost influence against the practice of ,animal ,magnetism4 ,the reasons for this are given with striking want of lucidity and great vagueness1 and even here and there are not unmixed with falsehood2 and it is easy to see that the ,church is reluctant to own the real reason4 ,this circular is published in the ,turin ,journal of ,december1 #ahef1 and again in the ,french ,univers1 and reprinted from this in the ,journal des ,dbats of ,january #crd1 #aheg4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,,sinology4 ,nothing perhaps points more directly to a high degree of civilization in ,china than the almost incredible density of its population1 now rated1 according to ,gtzlaff1 at #cfg millions of inhabitants4#cbf ,for whether we compare countries or ages1 we find on the whole that civilization keeps pace with population4 #cbf ,according to a ,chinese official ,report on the census1 printed in ,pekin1 and found by the ,english in the ,chinese ,governor's palace on entering ,canton1 ,china had #cif millions of inhabitants in #aheb1 and allowing for a constant increase1 may now have #djj millions4 7,moniteur de la ,flotte1 end of ,may1 #aheg47 ,the ,reports of the ,russian ,clerical ,mission in ,pekin give the returns of #ahdb as #dad1fhg1jjj4 ,according to the tables published by the ,russian ,embassy at ,pekin1 the population1 in #ahdi1 amounted to #dae millions4 7,post-,zeitung1 #aheh47 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,the pertinacious zeal with which the ,jesuit missionaries of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries strove to inculcate their own relatively new doctrines into the minds of this very ancient nation1 and their futile endeavours to discover early traces of their own faith in that country1 left them no time for a profound study of the belief which prevails there4 ,therefore ,europe has only lately obtained some slight knowledge of the religious state of the ,chinese4 ,we now know1 that is to say1 that in ,china there exists first of all a worship of ,nature1 which is universally professed1 and dates from the earliest times1 even1 it is alleged1 from before the discovery of fire1 wherefore animals were sacrificed raw4 ,the sacrifices offered up publicly at certain seasons or after great events by the ,chinese ,emperor and the chief dignitaries of the ,empire1 belong to this worship4 ,these sacrifices are dedicated first and foremost to the blue sky and to the earth--to the blue sky in the winter solstice1 to the earth in the summer solstice--and1 after these1 to every possible power of ,nature3 the sea1 mountains1 rivers1 winds1 thunder1 rain1 fire1 c4 c4 ,a genius presides over each of these1 and each genius has several temples4 ,on the other hand1 each genius presiding over every single province1 town1 village1 or street1 nay over family funerals and even sometimes over a merchant's warehouse1 has also temples2 only1 in the two last cases they are destined exclusively for private worship4 ,but public worship is besides offered up to former illustrious ,emperors1 founders of dynasties and to heroes1 i4e4 to all such as have benefited 7,chinese7 mankind by word or deed4 ,even these have their temples3 ,confucius alone having no less than #a1fej dedicated to him4 ,this therefore accounts for the great number of small temples found throughout the ,empire4 ,with this hero-worship too1 is associated the private worship offered up by every respectable family on the tombs of their ancestors4--,now besides this worship of ,nature and of heroes1 which is universal1 there are three other prevailing religious doctrines in ,china1 more with a dogmatical intent4 ,first among these is the doctrine of ,taossee1 founded by ,laotse1 an older contemporary of ,confucius4 ,this is the doctrine of ,reason1 as the inner order of the ,universe or inherent principle of all things1 of the great ,one1 the sublime ,gable-,beam 7,taiki7 which supports all the ,rafters1 yet is above them 7properly the all-pervading ,soul of the ,world7 and of ,tao1 i4e4 the ,way1 namely to salvation3 that is1 to redemption from the world and its misery4 ,we have an exposition of this doctrine taken from the fountain-head in ,stanislas ,julien's translation 7#ahdb7 of ,laotse's ,taoteking1 in which we find that the ,tao-doctrine completely harmonizes with ,buddhism both in meaning and in spirit4 ,this sect however seems to have fallen very much into the background1 and its teachers to be now looked down upon4--,secondly1 we find the wisdom of ,confucius1 which has special attractions for ,chinese savants and statesmen4 ,judging from translations1 it is a rambling1 commonplace1 predominantly political1 moral philosophy1 without any metaphysical support1 which has something peculiarly insipid and tiresome about it4--,finally1 there exists for the bulk of the nation ,buddha's sublime doctrine full of love4 ,the name1 or rather title1 of ,buddha in ,china is ,fo or ,fhu1 whilst in ,tartary the ,victoriously-,perfect is more frequently called by his family-name1 ,shakia-,muni1 and also ,burkhan-,bakshi2 in ,birma and ,ceylon1 he is generally called ,gtama or ,tagtata1 but his original name was ,prince ,siddharta4#cbg ,this religion which1 on account of its intrinsic excellence and truth1 as well as of the great number of its followers1 may be considered as ranking highest among all religions on earth1 prevails throughout the greater part of ,asia1 and according to the latest investigator1 ,spence ,hardy1 numbers #cfi millions of believers3 that is1 far more than any other4--,these three religions1 the most widely diffused of which1 ,buddhism1 subsists without any protection whatever from the ,state1 by its own power alone--a circumstance which speaks greatly in its favour--are far from being hostile to one another1 and exist quietly side by side1 nay1 harmonize even to a certain extent1 perhaps by reciprocal influence1 so that the sentence3 ,the three doctrines are only one1 has become proverbial4 ,the ,emperor1 as such1 professes all three2 still many of the ,emperors1 even up to the most recent times1 have been especially devoted to ,buddhism4 ,this is shown by their profound respect for the ,dala-,lama1 nay1 even for the ,teshoo-,lama1 to whom they unhesitatingly yield precedence4--,these three religions are neither monotheistic nor polytheistic1 nor are they even pantheistic--,buddhism1 at any rate1 is not2 since ,buddha did not look upon a world sunk in sin and suffering1 whose tenants1 all subject to death1 only subsist for a short time by devouring each other1 as a manifestation of ,god4 ,moreover the word ,pantheism1 properly speaking1 contains a contradiction2 for it denotes a self-destroying conception1 and has therefore never been understood otherwise than as a polite term of expression by those who know what seriousness means4 ,it accordingly never entered into the heads of the clever1 acute philosophers of the eighteenth century1 not to take ,spinoza for an ,atheist1 on account of his having called the world ,deus2 on the contrary1 this discovery was reserved for the sham philosophers of our own times1 who know nothing but words3 they even pique themselves on the achievement and accordingly talk about ,acomism1 the wags6 ,but ,i would humbly suggest leaving their meanings to words--in short1 calling the world1 the world2 and gods gods4 #cbg ,for the benefit of those who wish to acquire a fuller knowledge of ,buddhism1 ,i here note down those works belonging to its literature1 and written in ,european languages1 which ,i can really recommend1 for ,i possess them and know them well2 the omission of a few others1 for instance of ,hodgson's and ,a4 ,rmusat's books1 is intentional4 #a4 ,dsanglun1 or the ,sage and the ,fool1 in ,tibetan and ,german1 by ,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 ,petersburg1 #ahdc1 #b vols4 in #dto1 contains in the preface to vol4 i4 7i4e4 the ,tibetan volume71 from pp4 xxxi to xxxviii1 a very brief1 but excellent1 sketch of the whole doctrine1 admirably calculated for a first introduction to the knowledge of it3 the whole book even1 as a part of the ,kandshur 7canonical books71 may be recommended4--#b4 ,in the ,memoranda of the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg are to be found several lectures by the same excellent author 7,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt71 which were delivered in ,german in that ,academy in #ahbi-ahcb4 ,as they are of very great value for the knowledge of this religion1 it is to be hoped that they will be collected and published all together in ,germany4--#c4 ,by the same writer3 ,forschungen ber die ,tibeter und ,mongolen4 ,petersb4 #ahbi1 in #dto4 7,investigations concerning the ,tibetans and ,mongols74--#d4 ,by the same writer3 ber die ,verwandtschaft der gnostisch-theosophischen ,lehren mit dem ,buddhaismus1 #ahbh4 7,on the relation between the ,gnostic-,theosophic ,doctrines and ,buddhism47--#e4 ,by the same3 ,geschichte der ,ost-,mongolen1 ,petersb4 #ahbi1 in #dto4 7,history of the ,eastern ,mongols47 ,this is very instructive1 especially the explanations and appendix1 which give long extracts from writings on ,religion1 in which many passages clearly show the deep meaning and breathe the genuine spirit of ,buddhism4--,add4 to #crd ed4--#f4 ,two treatises by ,schiefner in ,german1 in the ,mlanges ,asiatiques tirs du ,bulletin ,historico-,philol4 de l',acad4 d4 ,st4 ,ptersburg1 ,tome #a1 #ahea4--g4 ,samuel ,turner's journey to the ,court of the ,teshoo-,lama 7at the end71 #ahja4--h4 ,bochinger1 ,la ,vie asctique chez les ,indous et les ,bouddhistes1 ,strasbourg1 #ahca4--i4 ,in the #gth vol4 of the ,journal ,asiatique1 #ahbe1 an extremely beautiful biography of ,buddha by ,deshauterayes4--#aj4 ,bournouf1 ,introd1 l',hist1 d4 ,bouddhisme1 vol4 i4 in #dto1 #ahdd4--aa4 ,rgya ,tsher ,rolpa1 traduit du ,tibtain1 par ,foucaux1 #ahdh1 in #dto4 ,this is the ,lalita ,vistara1 i4e4 life of ,buddha1 the gospel of the ,buddhists4--#ab4 ,foe ,koue ,ki1 relation des royaumes ,bouddhiques1 traduit du ,chinois par ,abel ,rmusat1 #ahcf1 in #dto4--#ac4 ,description du ,tubet1 traduit du ,chinois en ,russe par ,bitchourin1 et du ,russe en ,franais par ,klaproth1 #ahca4--ad4 ,klaproth1 ,fragments ,bouddhiques1 printed separately from the ,nouveau ,journal ,asiatique1 ,mars1 #ahca4--ae4 ,spiegel1 ,de officiis sacerdotum ,buddhicorum1 ,palice et ,latine1 #ahda4--af4 ,the same author's ,anecdota ,palica1 #ahde4--ag4 ,dhammapadam1 palice edidet et latine vertit ,fausbll1 ,hovni1 #ahee4--;,add4 to #crd ed4--#ah4 ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 vi4 ,buchanan1 ,on the ,religion of the ,burmas1 and vol4 xx4 7,calcutta1 #ahci71 ,part #b1 contains three important articles by ,csoma ,krsi1 including ,analyses of the ,books of the ,kandshur4--#ai4 ,sangermano1 ,the ,burmese ,empire1 ,rome1 #ahcc4--bj4 ,turnour1 ,the ,mahawanzo1 ,ceylon1 #ahcf4--ba4 ,upham1 ,the ,mahavansi1 ,raja ,ratnacari et ,rajavali1 #c vols4 #ahcc4--bb4 ejusd4 ,doctrine of ,buddhism1 #ahci1 fol4--#bc4 ,spence ,hardy1 ,eastern ,monachism1 #ahej4--bd4 ejusd4 ,manual of ,buddhism1 #ahec4 ,the two last books1 written after a twenty years' stay in ,ceylon and from oral information supplied by the priests there1 have given me a deeper insight into the essence of the ,buddhist dogma than any other work4 ,they deserve to be translated into ,german1 but without abridgement1 for otherwise the best part might be left out4--#be4 ,c4 ,f4 ,kppen1 ,die ,religion des ,buddha1 #aheg1 a complete compendium of ,buddhism1 compiled not only with great erudition and serious industry but also with intelligence and insight from all the other works ,i have mentioned above and from many more besides1 which contains all that is essential on the subject4--#bf4 ,the ,life of ,buddha1 from the ,chinese of ,palladji1 in the ,archiv fr wissenschaftliche ,kunde von ,russland1 edited by ,erman1 vol4 xv4 ,heft #a1 #ahef4--;,add4 to #crd ed4 ,in their endeavours to acquire knowledge of the state of ,religion in ,china1 ,europeans began as usual1 and as the ,greeks and ,romans under similar circumstances had done1 by first searching for points of contact with their own belief4 ,now as1 in their own way of thinking1 the conceptions of ,religion and of ,theism were almost identified1 or at any rate had grown together so closely1 that they could only be separated with great difficulty2 as moreover1 till a more accurate knowledge of ,asia had reached ,europe1 the very erroneous opinion had been disseminated--for the purpose of argument e consensu gentium--that all nations on earth worship a single1 or at any rate a highest1 ,god1 ,creator of the ,universe3#cbh when they found themselves in a country where temples1 priests and monasteries abounded1 they started from the firm assumption that ,theism would also be found there1 though in some very unusual form4 ,on seeing these expectations disappointed however1 and on finding that the very conceptions of such things1 let alone the words to express them1 were unknown1 it was but natural1 considering the spirit in which their inquiries were made1 that their first reports of these religions should refer rather to what they did not1 than to what they did1 contain4 ,besides1 for many reasons1 it can be no easy task for ,european heads to enter fully into the sense of these faiths4 ,in the first place1 they are brought up in ,optimism1 whereas in ,asia1 existence itself is looked upon as an evil and the world as a scene of misery1 where it were better not to find oneself4 ,another reason is to be found in the decided ,idealism which is essential to ,buddhism and to ,hindooism3 a view only known in ,europe as a paradox hardly worth a serious thought1 advanced by certain eccentric philosophers2 whereas in ,asia it is even embodied in popular belief4 ,for in ,hindoostan it prevails universally as the doctrine of ,maja1 and in ,thibet1 the chief seat of the ,buddhist ,church1 it is taught in an extremely popular way1 a religious comedy being performed on occasions of special solemnity1 in which the ,dala-,lama is represented arguing with the ,arch-fiend4 ,the former defends ,idealism1 the latter ,realism1 and among other things the ,devil says3 ,what is perceived through the five sources of all knowledge 7the senses71 is no deception1 and what you teach is not true4 ,after a long argumentation the matter is decided by a throw of the dice3 the ,realist 7the ,devil7 loses1 and is dismissed amid general jeering4#cbi ,keeping this fundamental difference in the whole way of thinking steadily in view1 we shall find it not only excusable1 but even natural1 that in their investigation of the ,asiatic religions ,europeans should at first have stopped short at the negative stand-point2 though1 properly speaking1 it has nothing to do with the matter4 ,we therefore find a great deal referring to this negative stand-point which in no way advances our positive knowledge2 it all however amounts to this3 that ,monotheism--an exclusively ,jewish doctrine1 to be sure--is alien to ,buddhists and in general to the ,chinese4 ,for instance1 in the ,lettres difiantes#ccj we find3 ,the ,buddhists1 whose views on the migration of souls are universally adopted1 are accused of ,atheism4 ,in the ,asiatic ,researches 7vol4 vi4 p4 #bee7 we find3 ,the religion of the ,birmans 7,buddhism7 shows them to be a nation far advanced beyond the barbarism of a wild state and greatly influenced by religious opinions1 but which nevertheless has no knowledge of a ,supreme ,being1 ,creator and ,preserver of the world4 ,yet the system of morality recommended in their fables is perhaps as good as any other taught by the religious doctrines which prevail among mankind4--,and again1 p4 #beh3 ,the followers of ,gtama 7i4e4 of ,buddha7 are strictly speaking ,atheists4--,ibid41 p4 #beh3 ,gtama's sect consider the belief in a divine ,being1 ,creator of the world1 to be highly impious4--,ibid41 p4 #bfh1 ,buchanan relates1 that ,atuli1 the ,zarado or ,high-,priest of the ,buddhists at ,ava1 in an article upon his religion which he presented to a ,catholic bishop1 counted the doctrine1 that there is a ,being who has created the world and all things in it and is alone worthy of adoration1 among the six damnable heresies4 ,sangermano relates precisely the same thing1#cca and closes the list of the six grave heresies with the words3 ,the last of these impostors taught1 that there is a ,supreme ,being1 the ,creator of the world and of all things in it1 and that he alone is worthy of adoration4 ,colebrooke too says3#ccb ,the sects of ,jaina1 and ,buddha are really atheistic1 for they acknowledge no ,creator of the world1 nor any ,supreme ruling ,providence4--,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt#ccc likewise says3 ,the system of ,buddhism knows no eternal1 uncreated1 single1 divine ,being1 having existed before all ,time1 who has created all that is visible and invisible4 ,this idea is quite foreign to ,buddhism and there is not the slightest trace of it anywhere in ,buddhistic books4--,we find the learned sinologist ,morrison too#ccd not less desirous to discover traces of a ,god in the ,chinese dogmas and ready to put the most favourable construction upon everything which seems to point in that direction2 yet he is finally obliged to own that nothing of the kind can be clearly discovered4 ,where he explains the words ,thung and ,tsing1 i4e4 repose and movement1 as that on which ,chinese cosmogony is based1 he renews this inquiry and concludes it with the words3 ,it is perhaps impossible to acquit this system of the accusation of ,atheism4--,and even recently ,upham#cce says3 ,buddhism presents to us a world without a moral ruler1 guide or creator4 ,the ,german sinologist ,neumann too1 says in his treatise#ccf mentioned further on3 ,in ,china1 where neither ,mahometans nor ,christians found a ,chinese word to express the theological conception of the ,deity4444 ,the words ,god1 soul1 spirit1 as independent of ,matter and ruling it arbitrarily1 are utterly unknown in the ,chinese language4444 ,this range of ideas has become so completely one with the language itself1 that the first verse of the book of ,genesis cannot without considerable circumlocution be translated into genuine ,chinese4--,it was this very thing that led ,sir ,george ,staunton to publish a book in #ahdh entitled3 ,an ,inquiry into the proper mode of rendering the word ,god in translating the ,sacred ,scriptures into the ,chinese language4#ccg #cbh ,this is equivalent to imputing to the ,chinese the thought1 that all princes on earth are tributary to their ,emperor4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 #cbi ,description du ,tubet1 traduite du ,chinois en ,russe par ,bitchourin1 et du ,russe en ,franais par ,klaproth1 ,paris1 #ahca1 p4 #fe4 ,also in the ,asiatic ,journal new series1 vol4 i4 p4 #ae4 ,kppen1 ,die ,lamaische ,hierarchie1 p4 #cae4--;,add4 to #crd ed4 #ccj ,lettres difiantes1 dit4 de #ahai1 vol4 viii4 p4 #df4 #cca ,description of the ,burman ,empire1 ,rome4 #ahcc4 p4 #ha4 #ccb ,colebrooke1 ,transactions of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 vol4 i42 ,essay on the ,philosophy of the ,hindoos1 published also among his ,miscellaneous ,essays1 p4 #bcf4 #ccc ,investigations concerning the ,tibetans and ,mongols1 p4 #ahj4 #ccd ,morrison1 ,chinese ,dictionary1 ,macao1 #ahae1 and following years1 vol4 i4 p4 #bag4 #cce ,upham1 ,history and ,doctrine of ,buddhism1 ,london1 #ahbi1 p4 #ajb4 #ccf ,neumann1 ,die ,natur-und ,religions-,philosophie der ,chinesen1 nach den ,werken des ,tehu-hi1 pp4 #aj1 #aa4 #ccg ,the following account given by an ,american sea-captain1 who had come to ,japan1 is very amusing from the navet with which he assumes that mankind consists exclusively of ,jews4 ,for the ,times of the #ahth ,october1 #ahed1 relates that an ,american ship1 under command of ,captain ,burr1 had arrived in ,jeddo ,bay1 and gives his account of the favourable reception he met with there1 at the end of which we find3 ,he likewise asserts the ,japanese to be a nation of ,atheists1 denying the existence of a ,god and selecting as an object of worship either the spiritual ,emperor at ,meaco1 or any other ,japanese4 ,he was told by the interpreters that formerly their religion was similar to that of ,china1 but that the belief in a supreme ,being has latterly been entirely discarded--7this is a mistake7--and he professed to be much shocked at ,deejunoskee 7a slightly ,americanised ,japanese71 declaring his belief in the ,deity4 ,add4 to #crd ed4 ,my intention in giving the above quotations and explanations1 is merely to prepare the way for the extremely remarkable passage1 which it is the object of the present chapter to communicate1 and to render that passage more intelligible to the reader by first making him realize the standpoint from which these investigations were made1 and thus throwing light upon the relation between them and their subject4 ,for ,europeans1 when investigating this matter in ,china in the way and in the spirit described1 always inquiring for the supreme principle of all things1 the power that rules the world1 c4 c41 had often been referred to that which is designated by the word ,tien 7,engl4 ,t'hen74 ,now1 the more usual meaning of this word is ,heaven1 as ,morrison also says in his dictionary2 still it is a well-known thing that ,tien is used in a figurative sense also1 and then has a metaphysical signification4 ,in the ,lettres difiantes#cch we find the following explanation3 ,hing-tien is the material1 visible heaven2 ,chin-tien the spiritual and invisible heaven4 ,sonnerat too1#cci in his travels in ,east-,india and ,china1 says3 ,when the ,jesuits disputed with the rest of the missionaries as to the meaning of the word ,tien1 whether it was ,heaven or ,god1 the ,chinese looked upon these foreigners as restless folk and drove them away to ,macao4 ,it was at any rate through this word that ,europeans could first hope to find the track of that ,analogy of ,chinese ,metaphysic with their own faith1 which had been so persistently sought for2 and it was doubtless owing to investigations of this kind that the results we find communicated in an ,essay entitled ,chinese ,theory of the ,creation were attained4#cdj ,as to ,choo-foo-tze1 called also ,choo-hi1 who is mentioned in it1 ,i observe that he lived in the twelfth century according to our chronology1 and that he is the most celebrated of all the ,chinese men of learning2 because he has collected together all the wisdom of his predecessors and reduced it to a system4 ,his work is in our days the basis of all ,chinese instruction1 and his authority of the greatest weight4 ,in the passage ,i allude to1 we find3 ,the word ,teen1 would seem to denote 'the highest among the great' or 'above all what is great on earth3' but in practice its vagueness of signification is beyond all comparison greater1 than that of the term ,heaven in ,european languages4444 ,choo-foo-tze tells us that 'to affirm1 that heaven has a man 7i4e4 a sapient being7 there to judge and determine crimes1 should not by any means be said2 nor1 on the other hand1 must it be affirmed1 that there is nothing at all to exercise a supreme control over these things4' #cch dition de1 #ahai1 vol4 xi4 p4 #dfa4 #cci ,book iv4 ch4 i4 #cdj ,to be found in the ,asiatic ,journal1 vol4 xxii4 anno #ahbf1 pp4 #da and #db4 ,the same author being asked about the heart of heaven1 whether it was intelligent or not1 answered3 it must not be said that the mind of nature is unintelligent1 but it does not resemble the cogitations of man4444 ,according to one of their authorities1 ,teen is call'd ruler or sovereign 7,choo71 from the idea of the supreme control1 and another expresses himself thus3 ,had heaven 7,teen7 no designing mind1 then it must happen1 that the cow might bring forth a horse1 and on the peach-tree be produced the blossom of the pear4' ,on the other hand it is said1 that the mind of ,heaven is deducible from what is the ,will of mankind6 ,the agreement between this last sentence and my doctrine is so striking and so astonishing1 that if this passage had not been printed full eight years after my own work had appeared1 ,i should no doubt have been accused of having taken my fundamental thought from it4 ,for there are three well-known modes of repelling the attack of new thoughts3 firstly1 by ignoring them1 secondly by denying them1 and lastly by asserting that they are not new1 but were known long before4 ,but the fact that my fundamental thought was formed quite independently of this ,chinese authority1 is firmly established by the reasons ,i have given2 for ,i may hope to be believed when ,i affirm1 that ,i am unacquainted with the ,chinese language and consequently unable to derive thoughts for my own use from original ,chinese sources unknown to others4 ,on further investigation ,i have elicited the fact1 that the passage ,i have quoted1 was most probably1 nay almost certainly1 taken from ,morrison's ,chinese ,dictionary1 where it may be found under the sign ,ten3 only ,i have no opportunity of verifying it4#cda--;,in an article by ,neumann#cdb there are some passages which have evidently a common source with those here quoted from the ,asiatic ,journal4 ,but they are written with the vagueness of expression which is so frequent in ,germany1 and excludes clear comprehension4 ,besides1 this translator of ,choo-hi evidently did not himself quite understand the original2 though by this no blame need be implied1 when we consider the enormous difficulty of the ,chinese language for ,europeans1 and the insufficiency of the means for studying it4 ,meanwhile it does not give us the enlightenment desired4 ,we must therefore console ourselves with the hope1 that as a freer intercourse with ,china has now been established1 some ,englishman may one day give us more minute and thorough information concerning the above-mentioned dogma1 of which we have hitherto received such deplorably imperfect accounts4 #cda ,a note of ,schopenhauer's referring to this says3--,according to letters from ,doss 7a friend of ,s4's71 dated #bfth ,february and #hth ,june1 #aheg1 the passages ,i have here quoted are to be found in ,morrison's ,chinese ,dictionary1 ,macao1 #ahae1 vol4 i4 p4 #egf1 under ,ten1 although in a slightly different order1 in nearly the same words4 ,the important passage at the end alone differs and is as follows3 ',heaven makes the mind of mankind its mind3 in most ancient discussions respecting ,heaven1 its mind1 or will1 was divined 7it stands thus1 and not derived7 from what was the will of mankind4'--,neumann translated this passage for ,doss1 independently of ,morrison's rendering1 and the end was3 ',through the heart of the people ,heaven is usually revealed4' ,editor's ,note4 #cdb ,neumann1 ,die ,natur-und ,religions-,philosophie der ,chinesen1 nach dem ,werke des ,tschu-hi1 an article in ,illgen's ,periodical for ,historical ,theology1 vol4 vii4 #ahcg1 from pp4 #fj to #fc4 ,,reference ,,to ,,ethics4 ,for reasons ,i have stated in the beginning1 confirmations of the rest of my doctrine are excluded from my present task4 ,still1 in concluding1 ,i may perhaps be allowed to make a general reference to ,ethics4 ,from time immemorial1 all nations have acknowledged that the world has a moral1 as well as a physical1 import4 ,everywhere nevertheless the matter was only brought to an indistinct consciousness1 which1 in seeking for its adequate expression1 has clothed itself in various images and myths4 ,these are the different ,religions4 ,philosophers1 on their side1 have at all times endeavoured to attain clear comprehension of the thing and1 notwithstanding their differences in other respects1 all1 excepting the strictly materialistic1 philosophical systems1 agree in this one point3 that what is most important1 nay1 alone essential1 in our whole existence1 that on which everything depends1 the real meaning1 pivot or point 7sit venia verbo7 of it1 lies in the morality of human actions4 ,but as to the sense of this1 as to the ways and means1 as to the possibility of the thing1 they all again quite disagree1 and find themselves before an abyss of obscurity4 ,thus it follows1 that it is easy to preach1 but difficult to found1 morality4 ,it is just because that point is determined by our conscience1 that it becomes the touchstone of all systems2 since we demand1 and rightly demand1 that ,metaphysic should give support to ,ethics3 and now arises the difficult problem to show that1 contrary to all experience1 the physical order of things depends upon a moral one1 and to find out a connection between the force which1 by acting according to eternal laws of ,nature1 gives the world stability1 and the morality which has its seat in the human breast4 ,this is therefore the rock on which the best thinkers have foundered4 ,spinoza occasionally tacks a moral theory on to his ,pantheistic ,fatalism by means of sophisms1 but more often leaves morality terribly in the lurch4 ,kant1 when theoretical ,reason is exhausted1 sends his ,categorical ,imperative1 laboriously worked out of mere conceptions1#cdc on the stage1 as deus ex machina1 with an absolute ought4 ,but the mistake he made by it only became quite clear when ,fichte1 who always took outbidding for outdoing1 had spun it out with ,christian ,wolfian prolixity and wearisomeness to a complete system of moral fatalism in his ,system of ,moral ,doctrine1 and subsequently presented it more briefly in his last pamphlet4#cdd #cdc ,see my prize-essay ,on the ,fundament of ,morality1 #f4 #cdd ,die ,wissenschaftslehre in allgemeinen ,umrisse 7,the ,doctrine of ,science in a general outline71 #ah1 #aj4 ,now1 from this point of view1 a system which places the reality of all existence and the root of the whole of ,nature in the ,will1 and in this will places the root of the world1 must undeniably carry with it1 to say the least1 a strong prejudice in its favour4 ,for1 by a direct and simple way1 it reaches1 nay1 already holds in its hand before coming to ,ethics1 what other systems try to reach by roundabout1 ever dubious by-paths4 ,nor indeed can any other road ever lead to this but the insight1 that the active and impulsive force in ,nature which presents this perceptible world to our intellect1 is identical with the will within us4 ,the only ,metaphysic which really and immediately supports ,ethics1 is that one which is itself primarily ethical and constituted out of the material of ,ethics4 ,therefore ,i had a far greater right to call my ,metaphysic ,ethics1 than ,spinoza1 with whom the word sounds almost like irony1 and whose ,ethics might be said to bear the name like lucus a non lucendo2 since it is only by means of sophistry that he has been able to tack his morality on to a system1 from which it would never logically proceed4 ,in general1 moreover1 he disavows it downright with revolting assurance4#cde ,on the whole1 ,i can confidently assert1 that there has never yet been a philosophical system so entirely cut out of one piece1 so completely without any joins or patches1 as mine4 ,as ,i have said in my preface1 it is the unfolding of a single thought1 by which the ancient #cdf is again confirmed4 ,then we must still take into consideration here1 that freedom and responsibility--those pillars on which all morality rests--can certainly be asserted in words without the assumption of the aseity#cdg of the will2 but that it is absolutely impossible to think them without it4 ,whoever wishes to dispute this1 must first invalidate the axiom1 stated long ago by the ,schoolmen3 operari sequitur esse 7i4e4 the acts of each being follow from the nature of that being71 or we must demonstrate the fallacy of the inference to be drawn from it3 unde esse1 inde operari4 ,responsibility has for its condition freedom2 but freedom has for its condition primariness4 ,for ,i will according to what ,i am2 therefore ,i must be according to what ,i will4 ,aseity of the will is therefore the first condition of any ,ethics based on serious thought1 and ,spinoza is right when he says3 ,ea res libera dicetur1 qu ex sola su natur necessitate existit1 et a se sola ad agendum determinatur4#cdh ,dependence1 as to existence and nature1 united with freedom as to action1 is a contradiction4 ,were ,prometheus to call the creatures of his making to account for their actions1 they would be quite justified in answering3 ,we could only act according to our being3 for actions arise from nature4 ,if our actions were bad1 the fault lay in our nature3 this is thine own work2 punish thyself4#cdi ,and it is just the same with the imperishableness of our true being in death2 for this cannot be seriously thought without the aseity of that being1 and can even hardly be conceived without a fundamental separation of the will from the intellect4 ,this last point is peculiar to my philosophy2 but ,aristotle had already proved the first thoroughly1 by showing at length how that alone can be imperishable which has not arisen1 and that the two conceptions condition each other3#cej 1 1 4444 4-- 1 #cea 7hc mutuo se sequuntur1 atque ingenerabile est incorruptibile1 et incorruptibile ingenerabile4444 generabile enim et corruptibile mutuo se sequuntur4--si generabile est1 et corruptibile esse necesse est74 ,all those among the ancient philosophers who taught an immortality of the soul1 understood it in this way2 nor did it enter into the head of any of them to assign infinite permanence to a being having arisen in any way4 ,we have evidence of the embarrassment to which the contrary assumption leads1 in the ecclesiastical controversy between the advocates of ,pre-existence1 ,creation and ,traduction4 #cde ,for instance1 ,eth4 iv4 prop4 #cg1 ,schol4 #b4 #cdf ,the language of truth is simple4 ,tr4's add4 #cdg ,self-existence2 self-dependence4 #cdh ,eth4 i4 def4 #g4 ,tr4 #cdi ,compare ,parerga1 i4 p4 #aae1 et seqq4 7p4 #acc of #bnd ed474 #cej ,aristot4 ,de ,clo1 i4 #ab4 #cea ,these two go together1 the uncreated is imperishable1 and the imperishable is uncreated4444 ,for the created and the perishable go together4444 ,if a thing is created it is necessarily perishable4 ,tr4 ,the ,optimism moreover of all philosophical systems is a point closely allied to ,ethics which must never fail in any of them1 as in duty bound3 for the world likes to hear that it is commendable and excellent1 and philosophers like to please the world4 ,with me it is different3 ,i have seen what pleases the world1 and therefore shall not swerve a step from the path of truth in order to please it4 ,thus in this point also my system varies from all the others and stands by itself4 ,but when all the others have completed their demonstrations to the song of the best of worlds1 quite at the last1 at the background of the system1 like a tardy avenger of the monster1 like a spirit from the tomb1 like the statue in ,don ,juan1 there comes the question as to the origin of evil1 of the monstrous1 nameless evil1 of the awful1 heartrending misery in the world3--and here they are speechless1 or can only find words1 empty1 sonorous words1 with which to settle this heavy reckoning4 ,on the other hand1 a system1 in whose basis already the existence of evil is interwoven with the existence of the world1 need not fear that apparition any more than a vaccinated child need fear the smallpox4 ,now this is the case when freedom is placed in the esse instead of in the operari and sin1 evil and the world then proceed from that esse4--,moreover it is fair to let me1 as a serious man1 only speak of things which ,i really know and only make use of words to which ,i attach a quite definite meaning2 since this alone can be communicated with security to others1 and ,vauvenargues is quite right in saying3 la clart est la bonne foi des philosophes4 ,therefore if ,i use the words ',will1 ,will to live1' this is no mere ens rationis1 no hypostasis set up by me1 nor is it a term of vague1 uncertain meaning2 on the contrary1 ,i refer him1 who asks what it is1 to his own inner self1 where he will find it entire1 nay1 in colossal dimensions1 as a true ens realissimum4 ,i have accordingly not explained the world out of the unknown1 but rather out of that which is better known than anything1 and known to us moreover in quite a different way from all the rest4 ,as to the paradoxical character finally1 with which the ascetic results of my ,ethics have been reproached1 these results had given umbrage even to ,jean ,paul1 otherwise so favourably disposed towards me1 and had induced ,herr ,rtze also 7not knowing that the only course to be adopted against me was silence7 to write a book against me in #ahbj1 with the best intentions4 ,they have since become the standing rock of offence in my philosophy2 but ,i beg my readers to take into consideration1 that it is only in this north-western portion of the ancient continent1 and even here only in ,protestant countries1 that the term paradoxical can be applied to such things2 whereas throughout the whole of vast ,asia--everywhere indeed1 where the detestable doctrine of ,islam has not prevailed over the ancient and profound ,religions of mankind by dint of fire and sword--they would rather have to fear the reproach of being commonplace4 ,i console myself therefore with the thought that1 when referred to the ,upanishads of the ,sacred ,vedas1 my ,ethics are quite orthodox1#ceb and that even with primitive1 genuine ,christianity they stand in no contradiction4 ,as to all other accusations of heresy1 ,i am well armoured and my breast is fortified with triple steel4 #ceb ,i refer those who may wish to be briefly1 yet thoroughly1 informed on this point1 to the late ,pasteur ,bochinger's work3 ,la vie contemplative1 asctique et monastique chez les peuples ,bouddhistes1 ,strasbourg1 #ahca4 ,,conclusion4 ,the undoubtedly striking confirmations recorded in this treatise1 which have been contributed to my doctrine by the ,empirical ,sciences since its first appearance1 but independently of it1 will unquestionably have been followed by many more3 for how small is the portion which the individual can find time1 opportunity and patience to become acquainted with1 of the branch of literature dedicated to ,natural ,science which is so actively cultivated in all languages6 ,even what ,i have here mentioned however1 inspires me with confidence that the time for my philosophy is ripening2 and it is with heartfelt joy that ,i see the ,empirical ,sciences gradually come forward in the course of time1 as witnesses above suspicion1 to testify to the truth of a doctrine1 concerning which a politic1 inviolable silence has been maintained for seventeen years by our philosophers by profession 7some of them give themselves this characteristic name1 nay even that of philosophers by trade72 so that it had been left to ,jean ,paul1 who was ignorant of their tactics1 to draw attention to it4 ,for it may have appeared to them a delicate matter to praise it1 and1 on due consideration1 they may have thought it not altogether safe to blame it either1 and may have judged it unnecessary besides to show the public1 as belonging neither to the profession nor to the trade1 that it is quite possible to philosophize very seriously without being either unintelligible or wearisome4 ,why compromise themselves therefore with it1 since no one betrays himself by silence and the favourite secretive method was ready at hand1 the approved specific against merit2 this much was besides soon agreed upon3 that1 considering the circumstances of the times1 my philosophy did not possess the right qualifications for being taught professionally4 ,now the true1 ultimate aim of all philosophy1 with them1 is to be taught professionally1--so much and so truly is it so1 that were ,truth to come down stark naked from lofty ,olympus1 but were what she brought with her not found to correspond to the requirements called for by the circumstances of the times1 or to the purposes of their mighty superiors1 these gentlemen of the profession and trade would verily waste no time with the indecent nymph1 but would hasten to bow her out again to her ,olympus1 then place three fingers on their lips and return quietly to their compendia4 ,for assuredly he who makes love to this nude beauty1 to this fascinating syren1 to this portionless bride1 will have to forego the good fortune of becoming a ,government and ,university professor4 ,he may even congratulate himself if he becomes a garret-philosopher4 ,on the other hand1 his audience will consist1 not of hungry undergraduates anxious to turn their learning to account1 but rather of those rare1 select thinkers1 thinly sprinkled among the countless multitude1 who arise from time to time1 almost as a freak of ,nature4 ,and a grateful posterity is beckoning from afar4 ,but they can have no idea of the beauty and loveliness of ,truth1 of the delight there is in pursuing her track1 of the rapture in possessing her1 who can imagine that anyone who has once looked her in the face can ever desert1 deny1 or distort her for the sake of the venal approval1 of the offices1 of the money or the titles of such people4 ,better to grind spectacle-glasses like ,spinoza or draw water like ,cleanthes4 ,henceforth they may take whatever course they like3 ,truth will not change her nature to accommodate the trade4 ,serious philosophy has now really outgrown ,universities1 where ,science stands under ,state-guardianship4 ,it may however some day perhaps come to be counted among the occult sciences2 while the spurious kind1 that ancilla theologi in ,universities1 that inferior counterfeit of ,scholasticism1 for which the highest criterion of philosophical truth lies in the country catechism1 will make our ,lecture-halls doubly re-echo4--,you1 that way3 we1 this way4--#cec #cec ,shakespeare1 ,love's ,labour's ,lost4 ,,chiswick ,,press3--,c4 ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co41 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane4 ,,an ,,alphabetical ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,contained ,,in ,,bohn',s ,,libraries4 ,detailed ,catalogue1 arranged according to the various ,libraries1 will be sent on application4 ,,addison',s ,works4 ,with the ,notes of ,bishop ,hurd1 ,portrait1 and #h ,plates of ,medals and ,coins4 ,edited by ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn4 #f vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,schylus1 ,the ,dramas of4 ,translated into ,english ,verse by ,anna ,swanwick4 #dth ,edition1 revised4 #es4 ---- ,the ,tragedies of4 ,translated into ,prose by ,t4 ,a4 ,buckley1 ,b4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,allen',s 7,joseph1 ,r4 ,n47 ,battles of the ,british ,navy4 ,revised ,edition1 with #eg ,steel ,engravings4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,ammianus ,,marcellinus4 ,history of ,rome during the ,reigns of ,constantius1 ,julian1 ,jovianus1 ,valentinian1 and ,valens4 ,translated by ,prof4 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,andersen',s ,danish ,legends and ,fairy ,tales4 ,translated by ,caroline ,peachey4 ,with #abj ,wood ,engravings4 #es4 ,,antoninus 7,m4 ,aurelius71 ,the ,thoughts of4 ,trans4 literally1 with ,notes and ,introduction by ,george ,long1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,apollonius ,,rhodius4 ',the ,argonautica4' ,translated by ,e4 ,p4 ,coleridge1 ,b4,a4 #es4 ,,appian',s ,roman ,history4 ,translated by ,horace ,white1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #b vols4 #fs4 each4 ,,apuleius1 ,the ,works of4 ,comprising the ,golden ,ass1 ,god of ,socrates1 ,florida1 and ,discourse of ,magic4 #es4 ,,ariosto',s ,orlando ,furioso4 ,translated into ,english ,verse by ,w4 ,s4 ,rose4 ,with ,portrait1 and #bd ,steel ,engravings4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,aristophanes' ,comedies4 ,translated by ,w4 ,j4 ,hickie4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,aristotle',s ,nicomachean ,ethics4 ,translated1 with ,introduction and ,notes1 by the ,venerable ,archdeacon ,browne4 #es4 ---- ,politics and ,economics4 ,translated by ,e4 ,walford1 ,m4,a41 with ,introduction by ,dr4 ,gillies4 #es4 ,,aristotle',s ,metaphysics4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,john ,h4 ,m',mahon1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ---- ,history of ,animals4 ,trans4 by ,richard ,cresswell1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ---- ,organon2 or1 ,logical ,treatises1 and the ,introduction of ,porphyry4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,o4 ,f4 ,owen1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,rhetoric and ,poetics4 ,trans4 by ,t4 ,buckley1 ,b4,a4 #es4 ,,arrian',s ,anabasis of ,alexander1 together with the ,indica4 ,translated by ,e4 ,j4 ,chinnock1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,maps and ,plans4 #es4 ,,athen,,us4 ,the ,deipnosophists2 or1 the ,banquet of the ,learned4 ,trans4 by ,prof4 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,bacon',s ,moral and ,historical ,works1 including the ,essays1 ,apophthegms1 ,wisdom of the ,ancients1 ,new ,atlantis1 ,henry ,,vii41 ,henry ,,viii41 ,elizabeth1 ,henry ,prince of ,wales1 ,history of ,great ,britain1 ,julius ,csar1 and ,augustus ,csar4 ,edited by ,j4 ,devey1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,novum ,organum and ,advancement of ,learning4 ,edited by ,j4 ,devey1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,bass',s ,lexicon to the ,greek ,testament4 #bs4 ,,bax',s ,manual of the ,history of ,philosophy1 for the use of ,students4 ,by ,e4 ,belfort ,bax4 #es4 ,,beaumont and ,,fletcher1 their finest ,scenes1 ,lyrics1 and other ,beauties1 selected from the whole of their works1 and edited by ,leigh ,hunt4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,bechstein',s ,cage and ,chamber ,birds1 their ,natural ,history1 ,habits1 ,food1 ,diseases1 and ,modes of ,capture4 ,translated1 with considerable additions on ,structure1 ,migration1 and ,economy1 by ,h4 ,g4 ,adams4 ,together with ,,sweet ,,british ,,warblers4 ,with #dc coloured ,plates and ,woodcut ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,bede',s 7,venerable7 ,ecclesiastical ,history of ,england4 ,together with the ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,chronicle4 ,edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with ,map4 #es4 ,,bell 7,sir ,charles74 ,the ,anatomy and ,philosophy of ,expression1 as connected with the ,fine ,arts4 ,by ,sir ,charles ,bell1 ,k4,h4 #gth edition1 revised4 #es4 ,,berkeley 7,george71 ,bishop of ,cloyne1 ,the ,works of4 ,edited by ,george ,sampson4 ,with ,biographical ,introduction by the ,right ,hon4 ,a4 ,j4 ,balfour1 ,m4,p4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,bion4 ,see ,,theocritus4 ,,bj,,rnson',s ,arne and the ,fisher ,lassie4 ,translated by ,w4 ,h4 ,low1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,blair',s ,chronological ,tables ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,comprehending the ,chronology and ,history of the ,world1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,russian ,treaty of ,peace1 ,april #ahef4 ,by ,j4 ,willoughby ,rosse4 ,double vol4 #ajs4 ---- ,index of ,dates4 ,comprehending the principal ,facts in the ,chronology and ,history of the ,world1 alphabetically arranged2 being a complete ,index to ,blair's ,chronological ,tables4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,rosse4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,bleek1 ,introduction to the ,old ,testament4 ,by ,friedrich ,bleek4 ,edited by ,johann ,bleek and ,adolf ,kamphausen4 ,translated by ,g4 ,h4 ,venables1 under the supervision of the ,rev4 ,canon ,venables4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,boethius',s ,consolation of ,philosophy4 ,king ,alfred's ,anglo-,saxon ,version of4 ,with a literal ,english ,translation on opposite pages1 ,notes1 ,introduction1 and ,glossary1 by ,rev4 ,s4 ,fox1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,bohn',s ,dictionary of ,poetical ,quotations4 #dth edition4 #fs4 ,,bohn',s ,handbooks of ,games4 ,new edition4 ,in #b vols41 with numerous ,illustrations #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,vol4 ,i4--,,table ,,games3--,billiards1 ,chess1 ,draughts1 ,backgammon1 ,dominoes1 ,solitaire1 ,reversi1 ,go-,bang1 ,rouge et ,noir1 ,roulette1 ,e4,o41 ,hazard1 ,faro4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,,card ,,games3--,whist1 ,solo ,whist1 ,poker1 ,piquet1 ,ecart1 ,euchre1 ,bzique1 ,cribbage1 ,loo1 ,vingt-et-un1 ,napoleon1 ,newmarket1 ,pope ,joan1 ,speculation1 c41 c4 ,,bond',s ,a ,handy ,book of ,rules and ,tables for verifying ,dates with the ,christian ,era1 c4 ,giving an account of the ,chief ,eras and ,systems used by various ,nations2 with the easy ,methods for determining the ,corresponding ,dates4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,bond4 #es4 ,,bonomi',s ,nineveh and its ,palaces4 #g ,plates and #bid ,woodcut ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,boswell',s ,life of ,johnson1 with the ,,tour ,,in ,,the ,,hebrides and ,,johnsoniana4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,napier1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,frontispiece to each vol4 #f vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,brand',s ,popular ,antiquities of ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland4 ,arranged1 revised1 and greatly enlarged1 by ,sir ,henry ,ellis1 ,k4,h41 ,f4,r4,s41 c41 c4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,bremer',s 7,frederika7 ,works4 ,translated by ,mary ,howitt4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,bridgwater ,,treatises4 ,bell 7,sir ,charles7 on the ,hand4 ,with numerous ,woodcuts4 #es4 ,kirby on the ,history1 ,habits1 and ,instincts of ,animals4 ,edited by ,t4 ,rymer ,jones4 ,with upwards of #ajj ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,kidd on the ,adaptation of ,external ,nature to the ,physical ,condition of ,man4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,chalmers on the ,adaptation of ,external ,nature to the ,moral and ,intellectual ,constitution of ,man4 #es4 ,,brink 7,b4 ten7 ,early ,english ,literature4 ,by ,bernhard ten ,brink4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,to ,wyclif4 ,translated by ,horace ,m4 ,kennedy4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,wyclif1 ,chaucer1 ,earliest ,drama ,renaissance4 ,translated by ,w4 ,clarke ,robinson1 ,ph4,d4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,from the ,fourteenth ,century to the ,death of ,surrey4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,alois ,brandl4 ,trans4 by ,l4 ,dora ,schmitz4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,five ,lectures on ,shakespeare4 ,trans4 by ,julia ,franklin4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,browne',s 7,sir ,thomas7 ,works4 ,edited by ,simon ,wilkin4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,burke',s ,works4 #h vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,i4--,vindication of ,natural ,society--,essay on the ,sublime and ,beautiful1 and various ,political ,miscellanies4 ,,ii4--,reflections on the ,french ,revolution--,letters relating to the ,bristol ,election--,speech on ,fox's ,east ,india ,bill1 c4 ,,iii4--,appeal from the ,new to the ,old ,whigs--,on the ,nabob of ,arcot's ,debts--,the ,catholic ,claims1 c4 ,,iv4--,report on the ,affairs of ,india1 and ,articles of ,charge against ,warren ,hastings4 ,v4--,conclusion of the ,articles of ,charge against ,warren ,hastings--,political ,letters on the ,american ,war1 on a ,regicide ,peace1 to the ,empress of ,russia4 ,,vi4--,miscellaneous ,speeches--,letters and ,fragments--,abridgments of ,english ,history1 c4 ,with a ,general ,index4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4--,speeches on the ,impeachment of ,warren ,hastings2 and ,letters4 ,with ,index4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,life4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,prior4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,burney',s ,evelina4 ,by ,frances ,burney 7,mme4 ,d',arblay74 ,with an ,introduction and ,notes by ,a4 ,r4 ,ellis4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,cecilia4 ,with an ,introduction and ,notes by ,a4 ,r4 ,ellis4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,burn 7,r47 ,ancient ,rome and its ,neighbourhood4 ,an ,illustrated ,handbook to the ,ruins in the ,city and the ,campagna1 for the use of ,travellers4 ,by ,robert ,burn1 ,m4,a4 ,with numerous ,illustrations1 ,maps1 and ,plans4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,burns 7,robert71 ,life of4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,lockhart1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,a new and enlarged ,edition4 ,revised by ,william ,scott ,douglas4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,burton',s 7,robert7 ,anatomy of ,melancholy4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,r4 ,shilleto1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,introduction by ,a4 ,h4 ,bullen1 and full ,index4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,burton 7,sir ,r4 ,f47 ,personal ,narrative of a ,pilgrimage to ,al-,madinah and ,meccah4 ,by ,captain ,sir ,richard ,f4 ,burton1 ,k4,c4,m4,g4 ,with an ,introduction by ,stanley ,lane-,poole1 and all the original ,illustrations4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,this is the copyright edition1 containing the author's latest notes4 ,,butler',s 7,bishop7 ,analogy of ,religion1 ,natural and ,revealed1 to the ,constitution and ,course of ,nature2 together with two ,dissertations on ,personal ,identity and on the ,nature of ,virtue1 and ,fifteen ,sermons4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,butler',s 7,samuel7 ,hudibras4 ,with ,variorum ,notes1 a ,biography1 ,portrait1 and #bh ,illustrations4 #es4 ---- or1 further ,illustrated with #fj ,outline ,portraits4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,c,,sar4 ,commentaries on the ,gallic and ,civil ,wars4 ,translated by ,w4 ,a4 ,mc,devitte1 ,b4,a4 #es4 ,,camoens' ,lusiad2 or1 the ,discovery of ,india4 ,an ,epic ,poem4 ,translated by ,w4 ,j4 ,mickle4 #eth ,edition1 revised by ,e4 ,r4 ,hodges1 ,m4,c4,p4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,carafas 7,the7 of ,maddaloni4 ,naples under ,spanish ,dominion4 ,translated from the ,german of ,alfred de ,reumont4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,carlyle',s ,french ,revolution4 ,edited by ,j4 ,holland ,rose1 ,litt4,d4 ,illus4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,sartor ,resartus4 ,with #ge ,illustrations by ,edmund ,j4 ,sullivan4 #es4 ,,carpenter',s 7,dr4 ,w4 ,b47 ,zoology4 ,revised ,edition1 by ,w4 ,s4 ,dallas1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with very numerous ,woodcuts4 ,vol4 ,i4 #fs4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 out of print4 ,,carpenter',s ,mechanical ,philosophy1 ,astronomy and ,horology4 #aha ,woodcuts4 #es4 ---- ,vegetable ,physiology and ,systematic ,botany4 ,revised ,edition1 by ,e4 ,lankester ,m4,d41 c4 ,with very numerous ,woodcuts4 #fs4 ---- ,animal ,physiology4 ,revised ,edition4 ,with upwards of #cjj ,woodcuts4 #fs4 ,,castle 7,e47 ,schools and ,masters of ,fence1 from the ,middle ,ages to the ,end of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by ,egerton ,castle1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with a ,complete ,bibliography4 ,illustrated with #adj ,reproductions of ,old ,engravings and #f ,plates of ,swords1 showing #aad ,examples4 #fs4 ,,cattermole',s ,evenings at ,haddon ,hall4 ,with #bd ,engravings on ,steel from designs by ,cattermole1 the ,letterpress by the ,baroness de ,carabella4 #es4 ,,catullus1 ,tibullus1 and the ,vigil of ,venus4 ,a ,literal ,prose ,translation4 #es4 ,,cellini 7,benvenuto74 ,memoirs of1 written by ,himself4 ,translated by ,thomas ,roscoe4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,cervantes' ,don ,quixote de la ,mancha4 ,motteaux's ,translation revised4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,galatea4 ,a ,pastoral ,romance4 ,translated by ,g4 ,w4 ,j4 ,gyll4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,exemplary ,novels4 ,translated by ,walter ,k4 ,kelly4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,chaucer',s ,poetical ,works4 ,edited by ,robert ,bell4 ,revised ,edition1 with a ,preliminary ,essay by ,prof4 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,m4,a4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,chess ,,congress of #ahfb4 ,a ,collection of the ,games played4 ,edited by ,j4 ,lwenthal4 #es4 ,,chevreul on ,colour4 ,translated from the ,french by ,charles ,martel4 ,third ,edition1 with ,plates1 #es42 or with an additional series of #af ,plates in ,colours1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,chillingworth',s ,religion of ,protestants4 ,a ,safe ,way to ,salvation4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,china1 ,pictorial1 ,descriptive1 and ,historical4 ,with ,map and nearly #ajj ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,chronicles ,,of ,,the ,,crusades4 ,contemporary ,narratives of the ,crusade of ,richard ,cur de ,lion1 by ,richard of ,devizes and ,geoffrey de ,vinsauf2 and of the ,crusade at ,st4 ,louis1 by ,lord ,john de ,joinville4 #es4 ,,cicero',s ,orations4 ,translated by ,prof4 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #d vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,letters4 ,translated by ,evelyn ,s4 ,shuckburgh4 #d vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,on ,oratory and ,orators4 ,with ,letters to ,quintus and ,brutus4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ---- ,on the ,nature of the ,gods1 ,divination1 ,fate1 ,laws1 a ,republic1 ,consulship4 ,translated by ,prof4 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a41 and ,francis ,barham4 #es4 ---- ,academics1 ,de ,finibus1 and ,tusculan ,questions4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ---- ,offices2 or1 ,moral ,duties4 ,cato ,major1 an ,essay on ,old ,age2 ,llius1 an ,essay on ,friendship2 ,scipio's ,dream2 ,paradoxes2 ,letter to ,quintus on ,magistrates4 ,translated by ,c4 ,r4 ,edmonds4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,cornelius ,,nepos4--,see ,,justin4 ,,clark',s 7,hugh7 ,introduction to ,heraldry4 #ahth ,edition1 ,revised and ,enlarged by ,j4 ,r4 ,planch1 ,rouge ,croix4 ,with nearly #ajjj ,illustrations4 #es4 ,or with the ,illustrations ,coloured1 #aes4 ,,classic ,,tales1 containing ,rasselas1 ,vicar of ,wakefield1 ,gulliver's ,travels1 and ,the ,sentimental ,journey4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,coleridge',s 7,s4 ,t47 ,friend4 ,a ,series of ,essays on ,morals1 ,politics1 and ,religion4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,aids to ,reflection1 and the ,,confessions ,,of ,,an ,,inquiring ,,spirit1 to which are added the ,,essays ,,on ,,faith and the ,,book ,,of ,,common ,,prayer4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,lectures and ,notes on ,shakespeare and other ,english ,poets4 ,edited by ,t4 ,ashe4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,biographia ,literaria2 together with ,two ,lay ,sermons4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,table-,talk and ,omniana4 ,edited by ,t4 ,ashe1 ,b4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,miscellanies1 sthetic and ,literary2 to which is added1 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,life4 ,collected and arranged by ,t4 ,ashe1 ,b4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,comte',s ,positive ,philosophy4 ,translated and condensed by ,harriet ,martineau4 ,with ,introduction by ,frederic ,harrison4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,comte',s ,philosophy of the ,sciences1 being an ,exposition of the ,principles of the ,cours de ,philosophie ,positive4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes4 #es4 ,,cond',s ,history of the ,dominion of the ,arabs in ,spain4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,foster4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,cooper',s ,biographical ,dictionary4 ,containing ,concise ,notices 7upwards of #ae1jjj7 of ,eminent ,persons of all ,ages and ,countries4 ,by ,thompson ,cooper1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with a ,supplement1 bringing the work down to #ahhc4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,coxe',s ,memoirs of the ,duke of ,marlborough4 ,with his original ,correspondence4 ,by ,w4 ,coxe1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,revised edition by ,john ,wade4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,an ,atlas of the plans of ,marlborough's campaigns1 #dto4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ---- ,history of the ,house of ,austria 7#abah-agib74 ,with a ,continuation from the ,accession of ,francis ,i4 to the ,revolution of #ahdh4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,craik',s 7,g4 ,l47 ,pursuit of ,knowledge under ,difficulties4 ,illustrated by ,anecdotes and ,memoirs4 ,revised edition1 with numerous ,woodcut ,portraits and ,plates4 #es4 ,,cruikshank',s ,punch and ,judy4 ,the ,dialogue of the ,puppet ,show2 an ,account of its ,origin1 c4 ,with #bd ,illustrations1 and ,coloured ,plates1 designed and engraved by ,g4 ,cruikshank4 #es4 ,,cunningham',s ,lives of the ,most ,eminent ,british ,painters4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,notes and ,sixteen fresh ,lives4 ,by ,mrs4 ,heaton4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,dante4 ,divine ,comedy4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,f4 ,cary1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,translated into ,english ,verse by ,i4 ,c4 ,wright1 ,m4,a4 #crd ,edition1 revised4 ,with ,portrait1 and #cd ,illustrations on ,steel1 after ,flaxman4 ---- ,the ,inferno4 ,a ,literal ,prose ,translation1 with the ,text of the ,original printed on the same page4 ,by ,john ,a4 ,carlyle1 ,m4,d4 #es4 ---- ,the ,purgatorio4 ,a ,literal ,prose ,translation1 with the ,text printed on the same page4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,dugdale4 #es4 ,,de ,,commines 7,philip71 ,memoirs of4 ,containing the ,histories of ,louis ,,xi4 and ,charles ,,viii41 ,kings of ,france1 and ,charles the ,bold1 ,duke of ,burgundy4 ,together with the ,scandalous ,chronicle1 or ,secret ,history of ,louis ,,xi41 by ,jean de ,troyes4 ,translated by ,andrew ,r4 ,scoble4 ,with ,portraits1 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,defoe',s ,novels and ,miscellaneous ,works4 ,with ,prefaces and ,notes1 including those attributed to ,sir ,w4 ,scott4 #g vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,i4--,captain ,singleton1 and ,colonel ,jack4 ,,ii4--,memoirs of a ,cavalier1 ,captain ,carleton1 ,dickory ,cronke1 c4 ,,iii4--,moll ,flanders1 and the ,history of the ,devil4 ,,iv4--,roxana1 and ,life of ,mrs4 ,christian ,davies4 ,v4--,history of the ,great ,plague of ,london1 #affe2 ,the ,storm 7#agjc72 and the ,true-born ,englishman4 ,,vi4--,duncan ,campbell1 ,new ,voyage round the ,world1 and ,political ,tracts4 ,,vii4--,robinson ,crusoe4 ,,demmin',s ,history of ,arms and ,armour1 from the ,earliest ,period4 ,by ,auguste ,demmin4 ,translated by ,c4 ,c4 ,black1 ,m4,a4 ,with nearly #bjjj ,illustrations4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,demosthenes' ,orations4 ,translated by ,c4 ,rann ,kennedy4 #e vols4 ,vol4 ,i41 #cs4 #f;d42 ,vols4 ,,ii4-,v41 #es4 each4 ,,de ,,sta,l',s ,corinne or ,italy4 ,by ,madame de ,stal4 ,translated by ,emily ,baldwin and ,paulina ,driver4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,devey',s ,logic1 or the ,science of ,inference4 ,a ,popular ,manual4 ,by ,j4 ,devey4 #es4 ,,dictionary of ,latin and ,greek ,quotations2 including ,proverbs1 ,maxims1 ,mottoes1 ,law ,terms and ,phrases4 ,with all the ,quantities marked1 and ,english ,translations4 ,with ,index ,verborum 7#fbb pages74 #es4 ,,dictionary of ,obsolete and ,provincial ,english4 ,compiled by ,thomas ,wright1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 c4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,didron',s ,christian ,iconography3 a ,history of ,christian ,art in the ,middle ,ages4 ,translated by ,e4 ,j4 ,millington and completed by ,margaret ,stokes4 ,with #bdj ,illustrations4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,diogenes ,,laertius4 ,lives and ,opinions of the ,ancient ,philosophers4 ,translated by ,prof4 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,dobree',s ,adversaria4 ,edited by the late ,prof4 ,wagner4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,dodd',s ,epigrammatists4 ,a ,selection from the ,epigrammatic ,literature of ,ancient1 ,medival1 and ,modern ,times4 ,by the ,rev4 ,henry ,philip ,dodd1 ,m4,a4 ,oxford4 #bnd ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #fs4 ,,donaldson',s ,the ,theatre of the ,greeks4 ,a ,treatise on the ,history and ,exhibition of the ,greek ,drama4 ,with numerous ,illustrations and #c ,plans4 ,by ,john ,william ,donaldson1 ,d4,d4 #es4 ,,draper',s ,history of the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe4 ,by ,john ,william ,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,dunlop',s ,history of ,fiction4 ,a new ,edition4 ,revised by ,henry ,wilson4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,dyer 7,dr4 ,t4 ,h474 ,pompeii3 its ,buildings and ,antiquities4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,dyer1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with nearly #cjj ,wood ,engravings1 a large ,map1 and a ,plan of the ,forum4 #gs4 #f;d4 ---- ,the ,city of ,rome3 its ,history and ,monuments4 ,with ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,dyer 7,t4 ,f4 ,t47 ,british ,popular ,customs4 ,present and ,past4 ,an ,account of the various ,games and ,customs associated with ,different ,days of the ,year in the ,british ,isles1 arranged according to the ,calendar4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,f4 ,thiselton ,dyer1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,ebers' ,egyptian ,princess4 ,an ,historical ,novel4 ,by ,george ,ebers4 ,translated by ,e4 ,s4 ,buchheim4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,edgeworth',s ,stories for ,children4 ,with #h ,illustrations by ,l4 ,speed4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,elze',s ,william ,shakespeare4--,see ,,shakespeare4 ,,emerson',s ,works4 #e vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,i4--,essays and ,representative ,men4 ,,ii4--,english ,traits1 ,nature1 and ,conduct of ,life4 ,,iii4--,society and ,solitude--,letters and ,social ,aims--,addresses4 ,,iv4--,miscellaneous ,pieces4 ,v4--,poems4 ,,ennemoser',s ,history of ,magic4 ,translated by ,william ,howitt4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,epictetus1 ,the ,discourses of4 ,with the ,,encheiridion and ,fragments4 ,translated by ,george ,long1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,euripides4 ,a ,new ,literal ,translation in ,prose4 ,by ,e4 ,p4 ,coleridge1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,eutropius4--,see ,,justin4 ,,eusebius ,,pamphilus1 ,ecclesiastical ,history of4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,c4 ,f4 ,cruse1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,evelyn',s ,diary and ,correspondence4 ,edited from the ,original ,,mss4 by ,w4 ,bray1 ,f4,a4,s4 ,with #de engravings4 #d vols4 #es4 each4 ,,fairholt',s ,costume in ,england4 ,a ,history of ,dress to the end of the ,eighteenth ,century4 #crd ,edition1 revised1 by ,viscount ,dillon1 ,v4,p4,s4,a4 ,illustrated with above #gjj ,engravings4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,fielding',s ,adventures of ,joseph ,andrews and his ,friend ,mr4 ,abraham ,adams4 ,with ,cruikshank's ,illustrations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,history of ,tom ,jones1 a ,foundling4 ,with ,cruikshank's ,illustrations4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,amelia4 ,with ,cruikshank's ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,flaxman',s ,lectures on ,sculpture4 ,by ,john ,flaxman1 ,r4,a4 ,with ,portrait and #ec ,plates4 #fs4 ,,foster',s 7,john7 ,life and ,correspondence4 ,edited by ,j4 ,e4 ,ryland4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,critical ,essays4 ,edited by ,j4 ,e4 ,ryland4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,essays3 on ,decision of ,character2 on a ,man's writing ,memoirs of ,himself2 on the epithet ,romantic2 on the aversion of ,men of ,taste to ,evangelical ,religion4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,essays on the ,evils of ,popular ,ignorance2 to which is added1 a ,discourse on the ,propagation of ,christianity in ,india4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,foster',s ,essays on the ,improvement of ,time4 ,with ,,notes ,,of ,,sermons and other ,pieces4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,gaspary',s ,history of ,italian ,literature4 ,translated by ,herman ,oelsner1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ,vol4 ,i4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,geoffrey ,,of ,,monmouth1 ,chronicle of4--,see ,old ,english ,chronicles4 ,,gesta ,,romanorum1 or ,entertaining ,moral ,stories invented by the ,monks4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,charles ,swan4 ,revised ,edition1 by ,wynnard ,hooper1 ,b4,a4 #es4 ,,gildas1 ,chronicles of4--,see ,old ,english ,chronicles4 ,,gibbon',s ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,complete and ,unabridged1 with ,variorum ,notes4 ,edited by an ,english ,churchman4 ,with #b ,maps and ,portrait4 #g vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,gilbart',s ,history1 ,principles1 and ,practice of ,banking4 ,by the late ,j4 ,w4 ,gilbart1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,edition1 revised by ,a4 ,s4 ,michie4 #b vols4 #ajs4 ,,gil ,,blas1 ,the ,adventures of4 ,translated from the ,french of ,lesage by ,smollett4 ,with #bd ,engravings on ,steel1 after ,smirke1 and #aj ,etchings by ,george ,cruikshank4 #fs4 ,,giraldus ,,cambrensis' ,historical ,works4 ,translated by ,th4 ,forester1 ,m4,a41 and ,sir ,r4 ,colt ,hoare4 ,revised ,edition1 ,edited by ,thomas ,wright1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 #es4 ,,goethe',s ,faust4 ,part ,i4 ,german ,text with ,hayward's ,prose ,translation and ,notes4 ,revised by ,c4 ,a4 ,buchheim1 ,ph4,d4 #es4 ,,goethe',s ,works4 ,translated into ,english by various hands4 #ad vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,i4 and ,,ii4--,autobiography and ,annals4 ,,iii4--,faust4 ,two ,parts1 complete4 7,swanwick47 ,,iv4--,novels and ,tales4 ,v4--,wilhelm ,meister's ,apprenticeship4 ,,vi4--,conversations with ,eckermann and ,soret4 ,,viii4--,dramatic ,works4 ,,ix4--,wilhelm ,meister's ,travels4 ,x4--,tour in ,italy1 and ,second ,residence in ,rome4 ,,xi4--,miscellaneous ,travels4 ,,xii4--,early and ,miscellaneous ,letters4 ,,xiv4--,reineke ,fox1 ,west-,eastern ,divan and ,achilleid4 ,,goldsmith',s ,works4 ,a new ,edition1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,m4 ,gibbs4 #e vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,grammont',s ,memoirs of the ,court of ,charles ,,ii4 ,edited by ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,together with the ,,boscobel ,,tracts1 including two not before published1 c4 ,new ,edition4 #es4 ,,gray',s ,letters4 ,including the ,correspondence of ,gray and ,mason4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,c4 ,tovey1 ,m4,a4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,greek ,,anthology4 ,translated by ,george ,burges1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,greek ,,romances of ,heliodorus1 ,longus1 and ,achilles ,tatius--viz41 ,the ,adventures of ,theagenes ,chariclea2 ,amours of ,daphnis and ,chloe2 and ,loves of ,clitopho and ,leucippe4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,gregory',s ,letters on the ,evidences1 ,doctrines1 ,duties of the ,christian ,religion4 ,by ,dr4 ,olinthus ,gregory4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,greene1 ,,marlowe1 and ,,ben ,,jonson4 ,poems of4 ,edited by ,robert ,bell4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,grimm',s ,,tales4 ,with the ,notes of the ,original4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,a4 ,hunt4 ,with ,introduction by ,andrew ,lang1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,gammer ,grethel2 or1 ,german ,fairy ,tales and ,popular ,stories4 ,containing #db ,fairy ,tales4 ,trans4 by ,edgar ,taylor4 ,with numerous ,woodcuts after ,george ,cruikshank and ,ludwig ,grimm4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,grossi',s ,marco ,visconti4 ,translated by ,a4 ,f4 ,d4 ,the ,ballads rendered into ,english ,verse by ,c4 ,m4 ,p4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,guizot',s ,history of the ,english ,revolution of #afdj4 ,from the ,accession of ,charles ,i4 to his ,death4 ,translated by ,william ,hazlitt4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,history of ,civilisation1 from the ,fall of the ,roman ,empire to the ,french ,revolution4 ,translated by ,william ,hazlitt4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,hall',s 7,rev4 ,robert7 ,miscellaneous ,works and ,remains4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,hampton ,,court3 ,a ,short ,history of the ,manor and ,palace4 ,by ,ernest ,law1 ,b4,a4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,hardwick',s ,history of the ,articles of ,religion4 ,by the late ,c4 ,hardwick4 ,revised by the ,rev4 ,francis ,procter1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,hauff',s ,tales4 ,the ,caravan--,the ,sheik of ,alexandria--,the ,inn in the ,spessart4 ,trans4 from the ,german by ,s4 ,mendel4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,hawthorne',s ,tales4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,i4--,twice-told ,tales1 and the ,snow ,image4 ,,ii4--,scarlet ,letter1 and the ,house with the ,seven ,gables4 ,,iii4--,transformation ,the ,marble ,faun1 and ,blithedale ,romance4 ,,iv4--,mosses from an ,old ,manse4 ,,hazlitt',s ,table-talk4 ,essays on ,men and ,manners4 ,by ,w4 ,hazlitt4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,lectures on the ,literature of the ,age of ,elizabeth and on ,characters of ,shakespeare's ,plays4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,lectures on the ,english ,poets1 and on the ,english ,comic ,writers4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,the ,plain ,speaker4 ,opinions on ,books1 ,men1 and ,things4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,round ,table4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,sketches and ,essays4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,the ,spirit of the ,age2 or1 ,contemporary ,portraits4 ,edited by ,w4 ,carew ,hazlitt4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,view of the ,english ,stage4 ,edited by ,w4 ,spencer ,jackson4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,heaton',s ,concise ,history of ,painting4 ,new ,edition1 revised by ,cosmo ,monkhouse4 #es4 ,,hegel',s ,lectures on the ,philosophy of ,history4 ,translated by ,j4 ,sibree1 ,m4,a4 ,,heine',s ,poems1 ,complete4 ,translated by ,edgar ,a4 ,bowring1 ,c4,b4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,travel-,pictures1 including the ,tour in the ,harz1 ,norderney1 and ,book of ,ideas1 together with the ,romantic ,school4 ,translated by ,francis ,storr4 ,a ,new ,edition1 revised throughout4 ,with ,appendices and ,maps4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,heliodorus4 ,theagenes and ,chariclea4--,see ,,greek ,,romances4 ,,help',s ,life of ,christopher ,columbus1 the ,discoverer of ,america4 ,by ,sir ,arthur ,helps1 ,k4,c4,b4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,life of ,hernando ,cortes1 and the ,conquest of ,mexico4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,life of ,pizarro4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,life of ,las ,casas the ,apostle of the ,indies4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,henderson 7,e47 ,select ,historical ,documents of the ,middle ,ages1 including the most famous ,charters relating to ,england1 the ,empire1 the ,church1 c41 from the #fth to the #adth ,centuries4 ,translated from the ,latin and edited by ,ernest ,f4 ,henderson1 ,a4,b41 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d4 #es4 ,,henfrey',s ,guide to ,english ,coins1 from the ,conquest to the present time4 ,new and revised ,edition by ,c4 ,f4 ,keary1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 #fs4 ,,henry ,,of ,,huntingdon',s ,history of the ,english4 ,translated by ,t4 ,forester1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,henry',s 7,matthew7 ,exposition of the ,book of the ,psalms4 #es4 ,,herodotus4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,henry ,cary1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,notes on1 ,original and ,selected from the best ,commentators4 ,by ,d4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,coloured ,map4 #es4 ---- ,analysis and ,summary of4 ,by ,j4 ,t4 ,wheeler4 #es4 ,,hesiod1 ,,callimachus1 and ,,theognis4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,banks1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,hoffmann',s 7,e4 ,t4 ,w47 ,the ,serapion ,brethren4 ,translated from the ,german by ,lt4-,col4 ,alex4 ,ewing4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,holbein',s ,dance of ,death and ,bible ,cuts4 ,upwards of #aej ,subjects1 engraved in facsimile1 with ,introduction and ,descriptions by ,francis ,douce and ,dr4 ,thomas ,frognall ,dibden4 #es4 ,,homer',s ,iliad4 ,translated into ,english ,prose by ,t4 ,a4 ,buckley1 ,b4,a4 #es4 ---- ,odyssey4 ,hymns1 ,epigrams1 and ,battle of the ,frogs and ,mice4 ,translated into ,english ,prose by ,t4 ,a4 ,buckley1 ,b4,a4 #es4 ---- ,see also ,,pope4 ,,hooper',s 7,g47 ,waterloo3 ,the ,downfall of the ,first ,napoleon3 a ,history of the ,campaign of #ahae4 ,by ,george ,hooper4 ,with ,maps and ,plans4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,the ,campaign of ,sedan3 ,the ,downfall of the ,second ,empire1 ,august-,september1 #ahgj4 ,with ,general ,map and ,six ,plans of ,battle4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,horace4 ,a new literal ,prose translation1 by ,a4 ,hamilton ,bryce1 ,,ll4,d4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,hugo',s 7,victor7 ,dramatic ,works4 ,hernani--,ruy ,blas--,the ,king's ,diversion4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,newton ,crosland and ,f4 ,l4 ,slous4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,poems1 chiefly ,lyrical4 ,translated by various ,writers1 now first collected by ,j4 ,h4 ,l4 ,williams4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,humboldt',s ,cosmos4 ,translated by ,e4 ,c4 ,ott1 ,b4 ,h4 ,paul1 and ,w4 ,s4 ,dallas1 ,f4,l4,s4 #e ,vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each1 excepting ,vol4 ,v4 #es4 ,,humboldt',s ,personal ,narrative of his ,travels to the ,equinoctial ,regions of ,america during the years #agii-ahjd4 ,translated by ,t4 ,ross4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,views of ,nature4 ,translated by ,e4 ,c4 ,ott and ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn4 #es4 ,,humphreys' ,coin ,collector's ,manual4 ,by ,h4 ,n4 ,humphreys1 with upwards of #adj ,illustrations on ,wood and ,steel4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,hungary3 its ,history and ,revolution1 together with a copious ,memoir of ,kossuth4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,hutchinson 7,colonel74 ,memoirs of the ,life of4 ,by his ,widow1 ,lucy3 together with her ,autobiography1 and an ,account of the ,siege of ,lathom ,house4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,hunt',s ,poetry of ,science4 ,by ,richard ,hunt4 #crd ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #es4 ,,ingulph',s ,chronicles of the ,abbey of ,croyland1 with the ,,continuation by ,peter of ,blois and other ,writers4 ,translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,irving',s 7,washington7 ,complete ,works4 #ae vols4 ,with ,portraits1 c4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,i4--,salmagundi1 ,knickerbocker's ,history of ,new ,york4 ,,ii4--,the ,sketch-,book1 and the ,life of ,oliver ,goldsmith4 ,,iii4--,bracebridge ,hall1 ,abbotsford and ,newstead ,abbey4 ,,iv4--,the ,alhambra1 ,tales of a ,traveller4 ,v4--,chronicle of the ,conquest of ,granada1 ,legends of the ,conquest of ,spain4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4--,life and ,voyages of ,columbus1 together with the ,voyages of his ,companions4 ,,viii4--,astoria1 ,a ,tour on the ,prairies4 ,,ix4--,life of ,mahomet1 ,lives of the ,successors of ,mahomet4 ,x4--,adventures of ,captain ,bonneville1 ,u4,s4,a41 ,wolfert's ,roost4 ,,xi4--,biographies and ,miscellaneous ,papers4 ,,xii4-,,xv4--,life of ,george ,washington4 #d vols4 ---- ,life and ,letters4 ,by his ,nephew1 ,pierre ,e4 ,irving4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,isocrates1 ,the ,orations of4 ,translated by ,j4 ,h4 ,freese1 ,m4,a4 ,vol4 ,i4 #es4 ,,james',s 7,g4 ,p4 ,r47 ,life of ,richard ,cur de ,lion4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,jameson',s 7,mrs47 ,shakespeare's ,heroines4 ,characteristics of ,women3 ,moral1 ,poetical1 and ,historical4 ,by ,mrs4 ,jameson4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,jesse',s 7,e47 ,anecdotes of ,dogs4 ,with #dj ,woodcuts and #cd ,steel ,engravings4 #es4 ,,jesse',s 7,j4 ,h47 ,memoirs of the ,court of ,england during the ,reign of the ,stuarts1 including the ,protectorate4 #c vols4 ,with #db ,portraits4 #es4 each4 ---- ,memoirs of the ,pretenders and their ,adherents4 ,with #f ,portraits4 #es4 ,,johnson',s ,lives of the ,poets4 ,edited by ,mrs4 ,alexander ,napier1 with ,introduction by ,professor ,hales4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,josephus 7,flavius71 ,the ,works of4 ,whiston's ,translation1 revised by ,rev4 ,a4 ,r4 ,shilleto1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,topographical and ,geographical ,notes by ,colonel ,sir ,c4 ,w4 ,wilson1 ,k4,c4,b4 #e vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,joyce',s ,scientific ,dialogues4 ,with numerous ,woodcuts4 #es4 ,,jukes-,,browne 7,a4 ,j471 ,the ,building of the ,british ,isles3 a ,study in ,geographical ,evolution4 ,illustrated by numerous ,maps and ,woodcuts4 #bnd ,edition1 revised1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,julian1 the ,emperor4 ,containing ,gregory ,nazianzen's ,two ,invectives and ,libanus' ,monody1 with ,julian's extant ,theosophical ,works4 ,translated by ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,junius',s ,letters4 ,with all the ,notes of ,woodfall's ,edition1 and important ,additions4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,justin ,,cornelius ,,nepos1 and ,,eutropius4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,juvenal1 ,,persius4 ,,sulpicia and ,,lucilius4 ,translated by ,l4 ,evans1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,kant',s ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,translated by ,j4 ,m4 ,d4 ,meiklejohn4 #es4 ---- ,prolegomena and ,metaphysical ,foundations of ,natural ,science4 ,translated by ,e4 ,belfort ,bax4 #es4 ,,keightley',s 7,thomas7 ,mythology of ,ancient ,greece and ,italy4 #dth ,edition1 revised by ,leonard ,schmitz1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,with #ab ,plates from the ,antique4 #es4 ,,keightley',s ,fairy ,mythology1 illustrative of the ,romance and ,superstition of ,various ,countries4 ,revised ,edition1 with ,frontispiece by ,cruikshank4 #es4 ,,la ,,fontaine',s ,fables4 ,translated into ,english ,verse by ,elizur ,wright4 ,new ,edition1 with ,notes by ,j4 ,w4 ,m4 ,gibbs4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,lamartine',s ,history of the ,girondists4 ,translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,ryde4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,history of the ,restoration of ,monarchy in ,france 7a ,sequel to the ,history of the ,girondists74 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,history of the ,french ,revolution of #ahdh4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,lamb',s 7,charles7 ,essays of ,elia and ,eliana4 ,complete ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,specimens of ,english ,dramatic ,poets of the ,time of ,elizabeth4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,memorials and ,letters of ,charles ,lamb4 ,by ,serjeant ,talfourd4 ,new ,edition1 revised1 by ,w4 ,carew ,hazlitt4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,tales from ,shakespeare4 ,with ,illustrations by ,byam ,shaw4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,lane',s ,arabian ,nights' ,entertainments4 ,edited by ,stanley ,lane-,poole1 ,m4,a41 ,litt4,d4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,lanzi',s ,history of ,painting in ,italy1 from the ,period of the ,revival of the ,fine ,arts to the ,end of the ,eighteenth ,century1 ,translated by ,thomas ,roscoe4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,lappenberg',s ,history of ,england under the ,anglo-,saxon ,kings4 ,translated by ,b4 ,thorpe1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,new edition1 revised by ,e4 ,c4 ,ott4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,painting1 by ,barry1 ,opie1 ,fuseli4 ,edited by ,r4 ,wornum4 #es4 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci',s ,treatise on ,painting4 ,translated by ,j4 ,f4 ,rigaud1 ,r4,a41 ,with a ,life of ,leonardo by ,john ,william ,brown4 ,with numerous ,plates4 #es4 ,,lepsius',s ,letters from ,egypt1 ,ethiopia1 and the ,peninsula of ,sinai4 ,translated by ,l4 and ,j4 ,b4 ,horner4 ,with ,maps4 #es4 ,,lessing',s ,dramatic ,works1 ,complete4 ,edited by ,ernest ,bell1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,memoir of ,lessing by ,helen ,zimmern4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,laokoon1 ,dramatic ,notes1 and the ,representation of ,death by the ,ancients4 ,translated by ,e4 ,c4 ,beasley and ,helen ,zimmern4 ,edited by ,edward ,bell1 ,m4,a4 ,with a ,frontispiece of the ,laokoon group4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,lilly',s ,introduction to ,astrology4 ,with a ,,grammar ,,of ,,astrology and ,,tables for ,calculating ,nativities1 by ,zadkiel4 #es4 ,,livy',s ,history of ,rome4 ,translated by ,dr4 ,spillan1 ,c4 ,edmonds1 and others4 #d vols4 #es4 each4 ,,locke',s ,philosophical ,works4 ,edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,st4 ,john4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,life and ,letters3 ,by ,lord ,king4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,lockhart 7,j4 ,g47--,see ,,burns4 ,,lodge',s ,portraits of ,illustrious ,personages of ,great ,britain1 with ,biographical and ,historical ,memoirs4 #bdj ,portraits engraved on ,steel1 with the respective ,biographies unabridged4 #h vols4 #es4 each4 ,,longfellow',s ,prose ,works4 ,with #af full-page ,wood ,engravings4 #es4 ,,loudon',s 7,mrs47 ,natural ,history4 ,revised edition1 by ,w4 ,s4 ,dallas1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with numerous ,woodcut ,illus4 #es4 ,,lowndes' ,bibliographer's ,manual of ,english ,literature4 ,enlarged ,edition4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn4 #f vols4 cloth1 #es4 each4 ,or #d vols4 half morocco1 #bl4 #bs4 ,,longus4 ,daphnis and ,chloe4--,see ,,greek ,,romances4 ,,lucan',s ,pharsalia4 ,translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,lucian',s ,dialogues of the ,gods1 of the ,sea ,gods1 and of the ,dead4 ,translated by ,howard ,williams1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,lucretius4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,luther',s ,table-,talk4 ,translated and ,edited by ,william ,hazlitt4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,autobiography4--,see ,,michelet4 ,,machiavelli',s ,history of ,florence1 together with the ,prince1 ,savonarola1 various ,historical ,tracts1 and a ,memoir of ,machiavelli4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,mallet',s ,northern ,antiquities1 or an ,historical ,account of the ,manners1 ,customs1 ,religions and ,laws1 ,maritime ,expeditions and ,discoveries1 ,language and ,literature1 of the ,ancient ,scandinavians4 ,translated by ,bishop ,percy4 ,revised and ,enlarged ,edition1 with a ,translation of the ,,prose ,,edda1 by ,j4 ,a4 ,blackwell4 #es4 ,,mantell',s 7,dr47 ,petrifactions and their ,teachings4 ,with numerous illustrative ,woodcuts4 #fs4 ---- ,wonders of ,geology4 #hth ,edition1 revised by ,t4 ,rupert ,jones1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,with a coloured ,geological ,map of ,england1 ,plates1 and upwards of #bjj ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,manzoni4 ,the ,betrothed3 being a ,translation of ',i ,promessi ,sposi4' ,by ,alessandro ,manzoni4 ,with numerous ,woodcuts4 #es4 ,,marco ,,polo',s ,travels2 the ,translation of ,marsden revised by ,t4 ,wright1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 #es4 ,,marryat',s 7,capt4 ,r4,n47 ,masterman ,ready4 ,with #ic ,woodcuts4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,mission2 or1 ,scenes in ,africa4 ,illustrated by ,gilbert and ,dalziel4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,pirate and ,three ,cutters4 ,with #h ,steel ,engravings1 from ,drawings by ,clarkson ,stanfield1 ,r4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,privateersman4 #h ,engravings on ,steel4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,settlers in ,canada4 #aj ,engravings by ,gilbert and ,dalziel4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,poor ,jack4 ,with #af ,illustrations after ,clarkson ,stansfield1 ,r4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,peter ,simple4 ,with #h full-page ,illustrations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,midshipman ,easy4 ,with #h full-page ,illustrations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,martial',s ,epigrams1 complete4 ,translated into ,prose1 each accompanied by one or more ,verse ,translations selected from the ,works of ,english ,poets1 and other sources4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,martineau',s 7,harriet7 ,history of ,england1 from #ahjj-ahae4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,history of the ,thirty ,years' ,peace1 ,a4,d4 #ahae-df4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,see ,comte's ,positive ,philosophy4 ,,matthew ,,paris',s ,english ,history1 from the ,year #abce to #abgc4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,d4,c4,l4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,matthew ,,of ,,westminster',s ,flowers of ,history1 from the beginning of the ,world to ,a4,d4 #acjg4 ,translated by ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,maxwell',s ,victories of ,wellington and the ,british ,armies4 ,frontispiece and #e ,portraits4 #es4 ,,menzel',s ,history of ,germany1 from the ,earliest ,period to #ahdb4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,and ,,raphael1 their ,lives and ,works4 ,by ,duppa and ,quatremere de ,quincy4 ,with ,portraits1 and ,engravings on ,steel4 #es4 ,,michelet',s ,luther's ,autobiography4 ,trans4 by ,william ,hazlitt4 ,with an ,appendix 7#aaj pages7 of ,notes4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,history of the ,french ,revolution from its earliest indications to the flight of the ,king in #agia4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,mignet',s ,history of the ,french ,revolution1 from #aghi to #ahad4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,mill 7,j4 ,s474 ,early ,essays by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,collected from various sources by ,j4 ,w4 ,m4 ,gibbs4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,miller 7,professor74 ,history ,philosophically ,illustrated1 from the ,fall of the ,roman ,empire to the ,french ,revolution4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,milton',s ,prose ,works4 ,edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,st4 ,john4 #e vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,poetical ,works1 with a ,memoir and ,critical ,remarks by ,james ,montgomery1 an ,index to ,paradise ,lost1 ,todd's ,verbal ,index to all the ,poems1 and a ,selection of ,explanatory ,notes by ,henry ,g4 ,bohn4 ,illustrated with #abj ,wood ,engravings from ,drawings by ,w4 ,harvey4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,mitford',s 7,miss7 ,our ,village1 ,sketches of ,rural ,character and ,scenery4 ,with #b ,engravings on ,steel4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,moli,,re',s ,dramatic ,works4 ,a new ,translation in ,english ,prose1 by ,c4 ,h4 ,wall4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,montagu4 ,the ,letters and ,works of ,lady ,mary ,wortley ,montagu4 ,edited by her great-grandson1 ,lord ,wharncliffe's ,edition1 and revised by ,w4 ,moy ,thomas4 ,new ,edition1 revised1 with #e ,portraits4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,montaigne',s ,essays4 ,cotton's ,translation1 revised by ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt4 ,new ,edition4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,montesquieu',s ,spirit of ,laws4 ,new ,edition1 revised and corrected4 ,by ,j4 ,v4 ,pritchard1 ,a4,m4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,morphy',s ,games of ,chess4 ,being the ,matches and best ,games played by the ,american ,champion1 with ,explanatory and ,analytical ,notes by ,j4 ,lwenthal4 #es4 ,,motley 7,j4 ,l474 ,the ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,a ,history4 ,by ,john ,lothrop ,motley4 ,new ,edition1 with ,biographical ,introduction by ,moncure ,d4 ,conway4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,mudie',s ,british ,birds2 or1 ,history of the ,feathered ,tribes of the ,british ,islands4 ,revised by ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin4 ,with #eb ,figures of ,birds and #g ,coloured ,plates of ,eggs4 #b vols4 ,,neander 7,dr4 ,a474 ,history of the ,christian ,religion and ,church4 ,trans4 from the ,german by ,j4 ,torrey4 #aj vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,life of ,jesus ,christ4 ,translated by ,j4 ,mc,clintock and ,c4 ,blumenthal4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,history of the ,planting and ,training of the ,christian ,church by the ,apostles4 ,translated by ,j4 ,e4 ,ryland4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,memorials of ,christian ,life in the ,early and ,middle ,ages2 including ,light in ,dark ,places4 ,trans4 by ,j4 ,e4 ,ryland4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,nibelungen ,,lied4 ,the ,lay of the ,nibelungs1 metrically translated from the old ,german text by ,alice ,horton1 and edited by ,edward ,bell1 ,m4,a4 ,to which is prefixed the ,essay on the ,nibelungen ,lied by ,thomas ,carlyle4 #es4 ,,new ,,testament 7,the7 in ,greek4 ,griesbach's ,text1 with various ,readings at the foot of the page1 and ,parallel ,references in the margin2 also a ,critical ,introduction and ,chronological ,tables4 ,by an eminent ,scholar1 with a ,greek and ,english ,lexicon4 #crd ,edition1 revised and corrected4 ,two ,facsimiles of ,greek ,manuscripts4 #ijj pages4 #es4 ,the ,lexicon may be had separately1 price #bs4 ,,nicolini',s ,history of the ,jesuits3 their ,origin1 ,progress1 ,doctrines1 and ,designs4 ,with #h ,portraits4 #es4 ,,north 7,r47 ,lives of the ,right ,hon4 ,francis ,north1 ,baron ,guildford1 the ,hon4 ,sir ,dudley ,north1 and the ,hon4 and ,rev4 ,dr4 ,john ,north4 ,by the ,hon4 ,roger ,north4 ,together with the ,autobiography of the ,author4 ,edited by ,augustus ,jessopp1 ,d4,d4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,nugent',s 7,lord7 ,memorials of ,hampden1 his ,party and ,times4 ,with a ,memoir of the ,author1 an ,autograph ,letter1 and ,portrait4 #es4 ,,old ,,english ,,chronicles1 including ,ethelwerd's ,chronicle1 ,asser's ,life of ,alfred1 ,geoffrey of ,monmouth's ,british ,history1 ,gildas1 ,nennius1 and the spurious chronicle of ,richard of ,cirencester4 ,edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,d4,c4,l4 #es4 ,,oman 7,j4 ,c47 ,the ,great ,indian ,epics3 the ,stories of the ,,ramayana and the ,,mahabharata4 ,by ,john ,campbell ,oman1 ,principal of ,khalsa ,college1 ,amritsar4 ,with ,notes1 ,appendices1 and ,illustrations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,ordericus ,,vitalis' ,ecclesiastical ,history of ,england and ,normandy4 ,translated by ,t4 ,forester1 ,m4,a4 ,to which is added the ,,chronicle ,,of ,,st4 ,,evroult4 #d vols4 #es4 each4 ,,ovid',s ,works1 complete4 ,literally translated into ,prose4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,pascal',s ,thoughts4 ,translated from the ,text of ,m4 ,auguste ,molinier by ,c4 ,kegan ,paul4 #crd ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,pauli',s 7,dr4 ,r47 ,life of ,alfred the ,great4 ,translated from the ,german4 ,to which is appended ,alfred's ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,version ,,of ,,orosius4 ,with a literal ,translation interpaged1 ,notes1 and an ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,grammar and ,,glossary1 by ,b4 ,thorpe4 #es4 ,,pausanias' ,description of ,greece4 ,newly translated by ,a4 ,r4 ,shilleto1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,pearson',s ,exposition of the ,creed4 ,edited by ,e4 ,walford1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,pepys' ,diary and ,correspondence4 ,deciphered by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,smith1 ,m4,a41 from the original ,shorthand ,,ms4 in the ,pepysian ,library4 ,edited by ,lord ,braybrooke4 #d vols4 ,with #ca ,engravings4 #es4 each4 ,,percy',s ,reliques of ,ancient ,english ,poetry4 ,with an ,essay on ,ancient ,minstrels and a ,glossary4 ,edited by ,j4 ,v4 ,pritchard1 ,a4,m4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,persius4--,see ,,juvenal4 ,,petrarch',s ,sonnets1 ,triumphs1 and other ,poems4 ,translated into ,english ,verse by various ,hands4 ,with a ,life of the ,poet by ,thomas ,campbell4 ,with ,portrait and #ae ,steel ,engravings4 #es4 ,,philo-,,jud,,us1 ,works of4 ,translated by ,prof4 ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #d vols4 #es4 each4 ,,pickering',s ,history of the ,races of ,man1 and their ,geographical ,distribution4 ,with ,,an ,,analytical ,,synopsis ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,man by ,dr4 ,hall4 ,with a ,map of the ,world and #ab coloured ,plates4 #es4 ,,pindar4 ,translated into ,prose by ,dawson ,w4 ,turner4 ,to which is added the ,metrical ,version by ,abraham ,moore4 #es4 ,,planch4 ,history of ,british ,costume1 from the ,earliest ,time to the ,close of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,planch1 ,somerset ,herald4 ,with upwards of #djj ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,plato',s ,works4 ,literally translated1 with ,introduction and ,notes4 #f vols4 #es4 each4 ,i4--,the ,apology of ,socrates1 ,crito1 ,phdo1 ,gorgias1 ,protagoras1 ,phdrus1 ,thetetus1 ,euthyphron1 ,lysis4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,carey4 ,,ii4--,the ,republic1 ,timus1 and ,critias4 ,translated by ,henry ,davis4 ,,iii4--,meno1 ,euthydemus1 ,the ,sophist1 ,statesman1 ,cratylus1 ,parmenides1 and the ,banquet4 ,translated by ,g4 ,burges4 ,,iv4--,philebus1 ,charmides1 ,laches1 ,menexenus1 ,hippias1 ,ion1 ,the ,two ,alcibiades1 ,theages1 ,rivals1 ,hipparchus1 ,minos1 ,clitopho1 ,epistles4 ,translated by ,g4 ,burges4 ,v4--,the ,laws4 ,translated by ,g4 ,burges4 ,,vi4--,the ,doubtful ,works4 ,translated by ,g4 ,burges4 ---- ,summary and ,analysis of the ,dialogues4 ,with ,analytical ,index4 ,by ,a4 ,day1 ,,ll4,d4 #es4 ,,plautus',s ,comedies4 ,translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,pliny',s ,natural ,history4 ,translated by the late ,john ,bostock1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,m4,a4 #f vols4 #es4 each4 ,,pliny4 ,the ,letters of ,pliny the ,younger4 ,melmoth's translation1 revised by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,c4 ,t4 ,bosanquet1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,plotinus1 ,select ,works of4 ,translated by ,thomas ,taylor4 ,with an ,introduction containing the substance of ,porphyry's ,plotinus4 ,edited by ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,r4,a4,s4 #es4 ,,plutarch',s ,lives4 ,translated by ,a4 ,stewart1 ,m4,a41 and ,george ,long1 ,m4,a4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,morals4 ,theosophical ,essays4 ,translated by ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ---- ,morals4 ,ethical ,essays4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,r4 ,shilleto1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,poetry ,,of ,,america4 ,selections from ,one ,hundred ,american ,poets1 from #aggf to #ahgf4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,linton4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,political ,,cyclop,,dia4 ,a ,dictionary of ,political1 ,constitutional1 ,statistical1 and ,forensic ,knowledge2 forming a ,work of ,reference on subjects of ,civil ,administration1 ,political ,economy1 ,finance1 ,commerce1 ,laws1 and ,social ,relations4 #d vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,pope',s ,poetical ,works4 ,edited1 with copious ,notes1 by ,robert ,carruthers4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,homer's ,iliad4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a4 ,illustrated by the entire ,series of ,flaxman's ,designs4 #es4 ---- ,homer's ,odyssey1 with the ,battle of ,frogs and ,mice1 ,hymns1 c41 by other translators4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a4 ,with the entire ,series of ,flaxman's ,designs4 #es4 ---- ,life1 including many of his ,letters4 ,by ,robert ,carruthers4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,poushkin',s ,prose ,tales3 ,the ,captain's ,daughter--,doubrovsky--,the ,queen of ,spades--,an ,amateur ,peasant ,girl--,the ,shot--,the ,snow ,storm--,the ,postmaster--,the ,coffin ,maker--,kirdjali--,the ,egyptian ,nights--,peter the ,great's ,negro4 ,translated by ,t4 ,keane4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,prescott',s ,conquest of ,mexico4 ,copyright edition1 with the notes by ,john ,foster ,kirk1 and an introduction by ,g4 ,p4 ,winship4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,conquest of ,peru4 ,copyright edition1 with the notes of ,john ,foster ,kirk4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,copyright edition1 with the notes of ,john ,foster ,kirk4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,propertius4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,p4 ,j4 ,f4 ,gantillon1 ,m4,a41 and accompanied by ,poetical ,versions1 from various sources4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,proverbs1 ,handbook of4 ,containing an entire ,republication of ,ray's ,collection of ,english ,proverbs1 with his additions from ,foreign ,languages and a complete ,alphabetical ,index2 in which are introduced large additions as well of ,proverbs as of ,sayings1 ,sentences1 ,maxims1 and ,phrases1 collected by ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn4 #es4 ,,proverbs1 ,a ,polyglot of ,foreign4 ,comprising ,french1 ,italian1 ,german1 ,dutch1 ,spanish1 ,portuguese1 and ,danish4 ,with ,english ,translations a ,general ,index by ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn4 #es4 ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain1 and other ,objects of ,vertu4 ,comprising an ,illustrated ,catalogue of the ,bernal ,collection of ,works of ,art1 with the prices at which they were sold by auction1 and names of the possessors4 ,to which are added1 an ,introductory ,lecture on ,pottery and ,porcelain1 and an ,engraved ,list of all the known ,marks and ,monograms4 ,by ,henry ,g4 ,bohn4 ,with numerous ,wood ,engravings1 #es42 or with ,coloured ,illustrations1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,prout',s 7,father7 ,reliques4 ,collected and arranged by ,rev4 ,f4 ,mahony4 ,new issue1 with #ba ,etchings by ,d4 ,maclise1 ,r4,a4 ,nearly #fjj pages4 #es4 ,,quintilian',s ,institutes of ,oratory1 or ,education of an ,orator4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,racine',s 7,jean7 ,dramatic ,works4 ,a metrical ,english version4 ,by ,r4 ,bruce ,boswell1 ,m4,a4 ,oxon4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,ranke',s ,history of the ,popes1 their ,church and ,state1 and especially of their ,conflicts with ,protestantism in the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,translated by ,e4 ,foster4 #c vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,history of ,servia and the ,servian ,revolution4 ,with an ,account of the ,insurrection in ,bosnia4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,kerr4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,recreations in ,,shooting4 ,by ',craven4' ,with #fb ,engravings on ,wood after ,harvey1 and #i ,engravings on ,steel1 chiefly after ,a4 ,cooper1 ,r4,a4 #es4 ,,rennie',s ,insect ,architecture4 ,revised and enlarged by ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with #ahf ,woodcut ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,reynold',s 7,sir ,j47 ,literary ,works4 ,edited by ,h4 ,w4 ,beechy4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,ricardo on the ,principles of ,political ,economy and ,taxation4 ,edited by ,e4 ,c4 ,k4 ,gonner1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,richter 7,jean ,paul ,friedrich74 ,levana1 a ,treatise on ,education3 together with the ,autobiography 7a ,fragment71 and a short ,prefatory ,memoir4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,flower1 ,fruit1 and ,thorn ,pieces1 or the ,wedded ,life1 ,death1 and ,marriage of ,firmian ,stanislaus ,siebenkaes1 ,parish ,advocate in the ,parish of ,kuhschnapptel4 ,newly translated by ,lt4 ,col4 ,alex4 ,ewing4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,roger ,,de ,,hoveden',s ,annals of ,english ,history1 comprising the ,history of ,england and of other ,countries of ,europe from ,a4,d4 #gcb to ,a4,d4 #abja4 ,translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,roger ,,of ,,wendover',s ,flowers of ,history1 comprising the ,history of ,england from the ,descent of the ,saxons to ,a4,d4 #abce1 formerly ascribed to ,matthew ,paris4 ,translated by ,j4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,d4,c4,l4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,rome in the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,containing a complete ,account of the ,ruins of the ,ancient ,city1 the ,remains of the ,middle ,ages1 and the ,monuments of ,modern ,times4 ,by ,c4 ,a4 ,eaton4 ,with #cd ,steel ,engravings4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,see ,,burn and ,,dyer4 ,,roscoe',s 7,w47 ,life and ,pontificate of ,leo ,x4 ,final edition1 revised by ,thomas ,roscoe4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,life of ,lorenzo de' ,medici1 called 'the ,magnificent4' ,with his poems1 letters1 c4 #ajth ,edition1 revised1 with ,memoir of ,roscoe by his ,son4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,russia4 ,history of1 from the earliest ,period1 compiled from the most authentic sources by ,walter ,k4 ,kelly4 ,with ,portraits4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,sallust1 ,,florus1 and ,,velleius ,,paterculus4 ,translated by ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,schiller',s ,works4 ,translated by various hands4 #g vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each3-- ,i4--,history of the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,,ii4--,history of the ,revolt in the ,netherlands1 the ,trials of ,counts ,egmont and ,horn1 the ,siege of ,antwerp1 and the ,disturbances in ,france preceding the ,reign of ,henry ,,iv4 ,,iii4--,don ,carlos1 ,mary ,stuart1 ,maid of ,orleans1 ,bride of ,messina1 together with the ,use of the ,chorus in ,tragedy 7a short ,essay74 ,these ,dramas are all translated in metre4 ,,iv4--,robbers 7with ,schiller's original ,preface71 ,fiesco1 ,love and ,intrigue1 ,demetrius1 ,ghost ,seer1 ,sport of ,divinity4 ,the ,dramas in this volume are translated into ,prose4 ,v4--,poems4 ,,vi4--,essays1 sthetical and ,philosophical4 ,,vii4--,wallenstein's ,camp1 ,piccolomini and ,death of ,wallenstein1 ,william ,tell4 ,,schiller and ,,goethe4 ,correspondence between1 from ,a4,d4 #agid-ahje4 ,translated by ,l4 ,dora ,schmitz4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,schlegel',s 7,f47 ,lectures on the ,philosophy of ,life and the ,philosophy of ,language4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,w4 ,morrison1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,lectures on the ,history of ,literature1 ,ancient and ,modern4 ,translated from the ,german4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,lectures on the ,philosophy of ,history4 ,translated by ,j4 ,b4 ,robertson4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,schlegel',s ,lectures on ,modern ,history1 together with the ,lectures entitled ,csar and ,alexander1 and ,the ,beginning of our ,history4 ,translated by ,l4 ,purcell and ,r4 ,h4 ,whitetock4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- sthetic and ,miscellaneous ,works4 ,translated by ,e4 ,j4 ,millington4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,schlegel 7,a4 ,w47 ,lectures on ,dramatic ,art and ,literature4 ,translated by ,j4 ,black4 ,revised ,edition1 by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,w4 ,morrison1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,schopenhauer on the ,fourfold ,root of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 and ,on the ,will in ,nature4 ,translated by ,madame ,hillebrand4 #es4 ---- ,essays4 ,selected and ,translated4 ,with a ,biographical ,introduction and ,sketch of his ,philosophy1 by ,e4 ,belfort ,bax4 #es4 ,,schouw',s ,earth1 ,plants1 and ,man4 ,translated by ,a4 ,henfrey4 ,with coloured ,map of the ,geography of ,plants4 #es4 ,,schumann 7,robert74 ,his ,life and ,works1 by ,august ,reissmann4 ,translated by ,a4 ,l4 ,alger4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,early ,letters4 ,originally published by his ,wife4 ,translated by ,may ,herbert4 ,with a ,preface by ,sir ,george ,grove1 ,d4,c4,l4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,seneca on ,benefits4 ,newly translated by ,a4 ,stewart1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,minor ,essays and ,on ,clemency4 ,translated by ,a4 ,stewart1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,shakespeare ,,documents4 ,arranged by ,d4 ,h4 ,lambert1 ,b4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,shakespeare',s ,dramatic ,art4 ,the ,history and ,character of ,shakespeare's ,plays4 ,by ,dr4 ,hermann ,ulrici4 ,translated by ,l4 ,dora ,schmitz4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,shakespeare 7,william74 ,a ,literary ,biography by ,karl ,elze1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,translated by ,l4 ,dora ,schmitz4 #es4 ,,sharpe 7,s47 ,the ,history of ,egypt1 from the ,earliest ,times till the ,conquest by the ,arabs1 ,a4,d4 #fdj4 ,by ,samuel ,sharpe4 #b ,maps and upwards of #djj ,illustrative ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,sheridan',s ,dramatic ,works1 ,complete4 ,with ,life by ,g4 ,g4 ,s4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,sismondi',s ,history of the ,literature of the ,south of ,europe4 ,translated by ,thomas ,roscoe4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,smith',s ,synonyms and ,antonyms1 or ,kindred ,words and their ,opposites4 ,revised ,edition4 #es4 ---- ,synonyms ,discriminated4 ,a ,dictionary of ,synonymous ,words in the ,english ,language1 showing the ,accurate signification of words of similar meaning4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,percy ,smith1 ,m4,a4 #fs4 ,,smith',s 7,adam7 ,the ,wealth of ,nations4 ,edited by ,e4 ,belfort ,bax4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments4 ,with a ,memoir of the ,author by ,dugald ,stewart4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,smyth',s 7,professor7 ,lectures on ,modern ,history4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,smyth',s 7,professor7 ,lectures on the ,french ,revolution4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,smith',s 7,pye7 ,geology and ,scripture4 #bnd ,edition4 #es4 ,,smollett',s ,adventures of ,roderick ,random4 ,with short ,memoir and ,bibliography1 and ,cruikshank's ,illustrations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,smollett',s ,adventures of ,peregrine ,pickle4 ,with ,bibliography and ,cruikshank's ,illustrations4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,the ,expedition of ,humphry ,clinker4 ,with ,bibliography and ,cruikshank's ,illustrations4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,socrates 7surnamed ,scholasticus'74 ,the ,ecclesiastical ,history of 7,a4,d4 #cje-dde74 ,translated from the ,greek4 #es4 ,,sophocles1 ,the ,tragedies of4 ,a ,new ,prose ,translation1 with ,memoir1 ,notes1 c41 by ,e4 ,p4 ,coleridge1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,southey',s ,life of ,nelson4 ,with ,portraits1 ,plans1 and upwards of #ej ,engravings on ,steel and ,wood4 #es4 ---- ,life of ,wesley1 and the ,rise and ,progress of ,methodism4 #es4 ---- ,robert ,southey4 ,the ,story of his ,life written in his ,letters4 ,edited by ,john ,dennis4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,sozomen',s ,ecclesiastical ,history4 ,translated from the ,greek4 ,together with the ,,ecclesiastical ,,history ,,of ,,philostorgius1 as epitomised by ,photius4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,e4 ,walford1 ,m4,a4 #es4 ,,spinoza',s ,chief ,works4 ,translated1 with ,introduction1 by ,r4 ,h4 ,m4 ,elwes4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,stanley',s ,classified ,synopsis of the ,principal ,painters of the ,dutch and ,flemish ,schools4 ,by ,george ,stanley4 #es4 ,,starling',s 7,miss7 ,noble ,deeds of ,women4 ,with #ad ,steel ,engravings4 #es4 ,,staunton',s ,chess-,player's ,handbook4 #es4 ---- ,chess ,praxis4 ,a ,supplement to the ,chess-player's ,handbook4 #es4 ---- ,chess-player's ,companion4 ,comprising a ,treatise on ,odds1 ,collection of ,match ,games1 and a ,selection of ,original ,problems4 #es4 ---- ,chess ,tournament of #ahea4 ,with ,introduction and ,notes4 #es4 ,,stockhardt',s ,experimental ,chemistry4 ,edited by ,c4 ,w4 ,heaton1 ,f4,c4,s4 #es4 ,,stowe 7,mrs4 ,h4 ,b47 ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin4 ,illustrated4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,strabo',s ,geography4 ,translated by ,w4 ,falconer1 ,m4,a41 and ,h4 ,c4 ,hamilton4 #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,strickland',s 7,agnes7 ,lives of the ,queens of ,england1 from the ,norman ,conquest4 ,revised ,edition4 ,with #f ,portraits4 #f vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,life of ,mary ,queen of ,scots4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,lives of the ,tudor and ,stuart ,princesses4 ,with ,portraits4 #es4 ,,stuart and ,,revett',s ,antiquities of ,athens1 and other ,monuments of ,greece4 ,with #ga ,plates engraved on ,steel1 and numerous ,woodcut ,capitals4 #es4 ,,suetonius' ,lives of the ,twelve ,csars and ,lives of the ,grammarians4 ,thomson's translation1 revised by ,t4 ,forester4 #es4 ,,swift',s ,prose ,works4 ,edited by ,temple ,scott4 ,with a ,biographical ,introduction by the ,right ,hon4 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 ,m4,p4 ,with ,portraits and ,facsimiles4 #ab vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,vols4 ,i4-,x4 ready4 ,i4--,a ,tale of a ,tub1 ,the ,battle of the ,books1 and other early works4 ,edited by ,temple ,scott4 ,with a ,biographical ,introduction by ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky4 ,,ii4--,the ,journal to ,stella4 ,edited by ,frederick ,ryland1 ,m4,a4 ,with #b ,portraits and ,facsimile4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4--,writings on ,religion and the ,church4 ,v4--,historical and ,political ,tracts 7,english74 ,,vi4--,the ,drapier's ,letters4 ,with facsimiles of ,wood's ,coinage1 c4 ,,vii4--,historical and ,political ,tracts 7,irish74 ,,viii4--,gulliver's ,travels4 ,edited by ,g4 ,r4 ,dennis4 ,with ,portrait and ,maps4 ,,ix4--,contributions to ,periodicals4 ,x4--,historical ,writings4 ,,xi4--,literary ,essays4 ,in preparation4 ,,xii4--,index and ,bibliography4 ,in preparation4 ,,tacitus4 ,the ,works of4 ,literally translated4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ,,tales ,,of ,,the ,,genii4 ,translated from the ,persian by ,sir ,charles ,morell4 ,numerous ,woodcuts and #ab ,steel ,engravings4 #es4 ,,tasso',s ,jerusalem ,delivered4 ,translated into ,english ,spenserian ,verse by ,j4 ,h4 ,wiffen4 ,with #h ,engravings on ,steel and #bd ,woodcuts by ,thurston4 #es4 ,,taylor',s 7,bishop ,jeremy7 ,holy ,living and ,dying4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,ten ,,brink4--,see ,,brink4 ,,terence and ,,ph,,drus4 ,literally translated by ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,m4,a4 ,to which is added1 ,smart's ,metrical ,version of ,phdrus4 #es4 ,,theocritus1 ,,bion1 ,,moschus1 and ,,tyrt,,us4 ,literally translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,banks1 ,m4,a4 ,to which are appended the ,metrical ,versions of ,chapman4 #es4 ,,theodoret and ,,evagrius4 ,histories of the ,church from ,a4,d4 #ccb to ,a4,d4 #dbg2 and from ,a4,d4 #dca to ,a4,d4 #edd4 ,translated4 #es4 ,,thierry',s ,history of the ,conquest of ,england by the ,normans4 ,translated by ,william ,hazlitt4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,thucydides4 ,the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,literally translated by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,dale4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ---- ,an ,analysis and ,summary of4 ,by ,j4 ,t4 ,wheeler4 #es4 ,,thudichum 7,j4 ,l4 ,w47 ,a ,treatise on ,wines4 ,illustrated4 #es4 ,,ure',s 7,dr4 ,a47 ,cotton ,manufacture of ,great ,britain4 ,edited by ,p4 ,l4 ,simmonds4 #b vols4 #es4 each4 ---- ,philosophy of ,manufactures4 ,edited by ,p4 ,l4 ,simmonds4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,vasari',s ,lives of the most ,eminent ,painters1 ,sculptors1 and ,architects4 ,translated by ,mrs4 ,j4 ,foster1 with a ,commentary by ,j4 ,p4 ,richter1 ,ph4,d4 #f vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,virgil4 ,a ,literal ,prose ,translation by ,a4 ,hamilton ,bryce1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,portrait4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,voltaire',s ,tales4 ,translated by ,r4 ,b4 ,boswell4 ,containing ,bebouc1 ,memnon1 ,candide1 ,l',ingnu1 and other ,tales4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,walton',s ,complete ,angler4 ,edited by ,edward ,jesse4 ,with ,portrait and #bjc ,engravings on ,wood and #bf ,engravings on ,steel4 #es4 ---- ,lives of ,donne1 ,hooker1 c4 ,new ,edition revised by ,a4 ,h4 ,bullen1 with a ,memoir of ,izaak ,walton by ,wm4 ,dowling4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #es4 ,,wellington1 ,life of4 ,by ',an ,old ,soldier4' ,from the materials of ,maxwell4 ,with ,index and #ah ,steel ,engravings4 #es4 ,,wellington1 ,victories of4 ,see ,,maxwell4 ,,werner',s ,templars in ,cyprus4 ,translated by ,e4 ,a4 ,m4 ,lewis4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,westropp 7,h4 ,m47 ,a ,handbook of ,archology1 ,egyptian1 ,greek1 ,etruscan1 ,roman4 ,illustrated4 #es4 ,,white',s ,natural ,history of ,selborne4 ,with ,notes by ,sir ,william ,jardine4 ,edited by ,edward ,jesse4 ,with #dj ,portraits and coloured ,plates4 #es4 ,,wheatley',s ,a ,rational ,illustration of the ,book of ,common ,prayer4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,wheeler',s ,noted ,names of ,fiction1 ,dictionary of4 #es4 ,,wieseler',s ,chronological ,synopsis of the ,four ,gospels4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,canon ,venables4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,william of ,,malmesbury',s ,chronicle of the ,kings of ,england4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,sharpe4 ,edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,d4,c4,l4 #es4 ,,xenophon',s ,works4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,m4,a41 and the ,rev4 ,h4 ,dale4 ,in #c vols4 #es4 each4 ,,young 7,arthur74 ,travels in ,france during the years #aghg1 #aghh1 and #aghi4 ,edited by ,m4 ,betham ,edwards4 #cs4 #f;d4 ---- ,tour in ,ireland1 with ,general ,observations on the state of the country during the years #aggf-gi4 ,edited by ,a4 ,w4 ,hutton4 ,with ,complete ,bibliography by ,j4 ,p4 ,anderson1 and ,map4 #b vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,yule-,,tide ,,stories4 ,a ,collection of ,scandinavian and ,north-,german ,popular ,tales and ,traditions4 ,edited by ,b4 ,thorpe4 #es4 ,,the ,,york ,,library ,a ,,new ,,series ,,of ,,reprints ,,on ,,thin ,,paper4 ,the volumes are printed in a handy size 7#f-a_/b #d-a_/d in471 on thin but opaque paper1 and are simply and attractively bound4 ,price1 in cloth1 #bs4 net2 in leather1 #cs4 net4 ',the ,york ,library is noticeable by reason of the wisdom and intelligence displayed in the choice of unhackneyed classics4444 ,a most attractive series of reprints4444 ,the size and style of the volumes are exactly what they should be4'--,bookman4 ',these books should find their way to every home that owns any cultivation4'--,notes and ,queries4 ,the following volumes are now ready3 ,,charlotte ,,bront',s ,,jane ,,eyre4 ,,burney',s ,,evelina4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,,annie ,,raine ,,ellis4 ,,burney',s ,,cecilia4 ,edited by ,,annie ,,raine ,,ellis4 #b vols4 ,,burton',s ,,anatomy ,,of ,,melancholy4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,r4 ,,shilleto1 ,m4,a41 with ,introduction by ,a4 ,h4 ,,bullen4 #c vols4 ,,burton',s 7,,sir ,,richard7 ,,pilgrimage ,,to ,,almadinah ,,and ,,meccah4 ,with ,introduction by ,,stanley ,,lane-,,poole4 #b vols4 ,,cervantes' ,,don ,,quixote4 ,,motteux',s ,translation1 revised4 ,with ,,lockhart',s ,life and ,notes4 #b vols4 ,,classic ,,tales3 ,,johnson',s ,,rasselas1 ,,goldsmith',s ,,vicar ,,of ,,wakefield1 ,,sterne',s ,,sentimental ,,journey1 ,,walpole',s ,,castle ,,of ,,otranto4 ,with ,introduction by ,c4 ,s4 ,,fearenside1 ,m4,a4 ,,coleridge',s ,,aids ,,to ,,reflection1 and the ,confessions of an ,inquiring ,spirit4 ,,coleridge',s ,,friend4 ,a series of ,essays on ,morals1 ,politics1 and ,religion4 ,,coleridge',s ,,table ,,talk ,,and ,,omniana4 ,arranged and ,edited by ,t4 ,,ashe1 ,b4,a4 ,,draper',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,intellectual ,,development ,,of ,,europe4 #b vols4 ,,george ,,eliot',s ,,adam ,,bede4 ,,emerson',s ,,works4 ,a new edition in #e volumes1 with the ,text edited and collated by ,,george ,,sampson4 ,,fielding',s ,,tom ,,jones4 #b vols4 ,,gaskell',s ,,sylvia',s ,,lovers4 ,,gesta ,,romanorum1 or ,entertaining ,moral ,stories invented by the ,monks4 ,translated from the ,latin by the ,rev4 ,,charles ,,swan4 ,revised edition1 by ,,wynnard ,,hooper1 ,m4,a4 ,,goethe',s ,,faust4 ,translated by ,,anna ,,swanwick1 ,,ll4,d4 ,revised edition1 with an ,introduction and ,bibliography by ,,karl ,,breul1 ,litt4,d41 ,ph4,d4 ,,hawthorne',s ,,transformation 7,,the ,,marble ,,faun74 ,,irving',s ,,sketch ,,book4 ,,jameson',s ,,shakespeare',s ,,heroines4 ,characteristics of ,women3 ,moral1 ,poetical1 and ,historical4 ,,lamb',s ,,essays1 ,including the ,essays of ,elia1 ,last ,essays of ,elia1 and ,eliana4 ,,marcus ,,aurelius ,,antoninus1 ,,the ,,thoughts ,,of4 ,translated by ,,george ,,long1 ,m4,a4 ,with an ,essay on ,marcus ,aurelius by ,,matthew ,,arnold4 ,,marryat',s ,,mr4 ,,midshipman ,,easy4 ,with #h ,illustrations by ,e4 ,t4 ,,wheeler4 ,,marryat',s ,,peter ,,simple4 ,with #h ,illustrations by ,f4 ,a4 ,,fraser4 ,,montaigne',s ,,essays4 ,cotton's translation4 ,revised by ,w4 ,c4 ,,hazlitt4 #c vols4 ,,more',s ,,utopia4 ,with the ,life of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 by ,william ,roper1 and his ,letters to ,margaret ,roper and others4 ,edited1 with ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,,george ,,sampson4 ,in the ,press4 ,,motley',s ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,dutch ,,republic4 ,with a ,biographical ,introduction by ,,moncure ,d4 ,,conway4 #c vols4 ,,pascal',s ,,thoughts4 ,translated from the ,text of ,m4 ,,auguste ,,molinier by ,c4 ,,kegan ,,paul4 ,third edition4 ,,plutarch',s ,,lives4 ,translated1 with ,notes and a ,life by ,,aubrey ,,stewart1 ,m4,a41 and ,,george ,,long1 ,m4,a4 #d vols4 ,,swift',s ,,gulliver',s ,,travels4 ,edited1 with ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,g4 ,r4 ,,dennis1 with facsimiles of the original illustrations4 ,,swift',s ,,journal ,,to ,,stella4 ,edited1 with ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,f4 ,,ryland1 ,m4,a4 ,,trollope',s ,,the ,,warden4 ,with an ,introduction by ,,frederic ,,harrison4 ,,trollope',s ,,barchester ,,towers4 ,,trollope',s ,,dr4 ,,thorne4 ,,trollope',s ,,framley ,,parsonage4 ,,trollope',s ,,small ,,house ,,at ,,allington4 #b vols4 ,,trollope',s ,,last ,,chronicle ,,of ,,barset4 #b vols4 ,,arthur ,,young',s ,,travels ,,in ,,france1 during the years #aghg1 #aghh1 and #aghi4 ,edited with ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,m4 ,,betham ,,edwards4 ,other ,volumes are in ,preparation4 ,,bell',s ,,handbooks ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,masters ,,in ,,painting ,,and ,,sculpture4 ,,edited ,,by ,g4 ,c4 ,,williamson1 ,,litt4,d4 ,post #hvo4 ,with #dj ,illustrations and ,photogravure ,frontispiece4 #es4 net each4 ,the following ,volumes have been issued3 ,,botticelli4 ,by ,a4 ,,streeter4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,brunelleschi4 ,by ,,leader ,,scott4 ,,correggio4 ,by ,,selwyn ,,brinton1 ,m4,a4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,carlo ,,crivelli4 ,by ,g4 ,,mcneil ,,rushforth1 ,m4,a4 ,,della ,,robbia4 ,by the ,,marchesa ,,burlamacchi4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,andrea ,,del ,,sarto4 ,by ,h4 ,,guinness4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,donatello4 ,by ,,hope ,,rea4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,gerard ,,dou4 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 ,,martin4 ,translated by ,clara ,bell4 ,,gaudenzio ,,ferrari4 ,by ,,ethel ,,halsey4 ,,francia4 ,by ,,george ,c4 ,,williamson1 ,litt4,d4 ,,giorgione4 ,by ,,herbert ,,cook1 ,m4,a4 ,,giotto4 ,by ,f4 ,,mason ,,perkins4 ,,frans ,,hals4 ,by ,,gerald ,s4 ,,davies1 ,m4,a4 ,,bernardino ,,luini4 ,by ,,george ,c4 ,,williamson1 ,litt4,d4 #crd ,edition4 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4 ,by ,,edward ,,mccurdy1 ,m4,a4 ,,mantegna4 ,by ,,maud ,,cruttwell4 ,,memlinc4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,james ,,weale4 ,,michel ,,angelo4 ,by ,lord ,,ronald ,,sutherland ,,gower1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,perugino4 ,by ,g4 ,c4 ,,williamson1 ,litt4,d4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,piero ,,della ,,francesca4 ,by ,w4 ,g4 ,,waters1 ,m4,a4 ,,pintoricchio4 ,by ,,evelyn ,,march ,,phillipps4 ,,raphael4 ,by ,h4 ,,strachey4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,rembrandt4 ,by ,,malcolm ,,bell4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,rubens4 ,by ,,hope ,,rea4 ,,luca ,,signorelli4 ,by ,,maud ,,cruttwell4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,sodoma4 ,by the ,,contessa ,,lorenzo ,,priuli-,,bon4 ,,tintoretto4 ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,stoughton ,,holborn1 ,m4,a4 ,,van ,,dyck4 ,by ,,lionel ,,cust1 ,m4,v4,o41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,velasquez4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,stevenson4 #crd ,edition4 ,,watteau4 ,by ,,edgcumbe ,,staley1 ,b4,a4 ,,wilkie4 ,by ,lord ,,ronald ,,sutherland ,,gower1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,others to follow4 ,,the ,,chiswick ,,shakespeare4 ,illustrated by ,,byam ,,shaw ,with ,introductions and ,glossaries by ,,john ,,dennis4 ,printed at the ,chiswick ,press1 pott #hvo41 price #as4 #f;d4 net per volume2 also a cheaper edition1 #as4 net per volume2 or #bs4 net in limp leather2 also a few copies1 on ,japanese vellum1 to be sold only in sets1 price #es4 net per volume4 ,now ,complete in #ci ,volumes4 ,,all',s ,,well ,,that ,,ends ,,well4 ,,antony ,,and ,,cleopatra4 ,,as ,,you ,,like ,,it4 ,,comedy ,,of ,,errors4 ,,coriolanus4 ,,cymbeline4 ,,hamlet4 ,,julius ,c,,sar4 ,,king ,,henry ,,iv4 ,part ,i4 ,,king ,,henry ,,iv4 ,part ,,ii4 ,,king ,,henry ,v4 ,,king ,,henry ,,vi4 ,part ,i4 ,,king ,,henry ,,vi4 ,part ,,ii4 ,,king ,,henry ,,vi4 ,part ,,iii4 ,,king ,,henry ,,viii4 ,,king ,,john4 ,,king ,,lear4 ,,king ,,richard ,,ii4 ,,king ,,richard ,,iii4 ,,love',s ,,labour',s ,,lost4 ,,macbeth4 ,,measure ,,for ,,measure4 ,,merchant ,,of ,,venice4 ,,merry ,,wives ,,of ,,windsor4 ,,midsummer-,,night',s ,,dream4 ,,much ,,ado ,,about ,,nothing4 ,,othello4 ,,pericles4 ,,romeo ,,and ,,juliet4 ,,the ,,taming ,,of ,,the ,,shrew4 ,,the ,,tempest4 ,,timon ,,of ,,athens4 ,,titus ,,andronicus4 ,,troilus ,,and ,,cressida4 ,,twelfth ,,night4 ,,two ,,gentlemen ,,of ,,verona4 ,,winter',s ,,tale4 ,,poems4 ,,sonnets4 ',a fascinating little edition4'--,notes and ,queries4 ',a cheap1 very comely1 and altogether desirable edition4'--,westminster ,gazette4 ',but a few years ago such volumes would have been deemed worthy to be considered ditions de luxe4 ,to-day1 the low price at which they are offered to the public alone prevents them being so regarded4'--,studio4 ',handy in shape and size1 wonderfully cheap1 beautifully printed from the ,cambridge text1 and illustrated quaintly yet admirably by ,mr4 ,byam ,shaw1 we have nothing but praise for it4 ,no one who wants a good and convenient ,shakespeare--without excursuses1 discursuses1 or even too many notes--can do better1 in our opinion1 than subscribe to this issue3 which is saying a good deal in these days of cheap reprints4'--,vanity ,fair4 ',what we like about these elegant booklets is the attention that has been paid to the paper1 as well as to the print and decoration2 such stout laid paper will last for ages4 ,on this account alone1 the ',chiswick' should easily be first among pocket ,shakespeares4'--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,the ,chiswick ,shakespeare may also be had bound in #ab volumes1 full gilt back1 price #cfs4 net4 ,new ,editions1 fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 each net4 ,,the ,,aldine ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,poets4 ',this excellent edition of the ,english classics1 with their complete texts and scholarly introductions1 are something very different from the cheap volumes of extracts which are just now so much too common4'--,st4 ,james's ,gazette4 ',an excellent series4 ,small1 handy1 and complete4'--,saturday ,review4 ,akenside4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,a4 ,dyce4 ,beattie4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,a4 ,dyce4 ,blake4 ,edited by ,w4 ,m4 ,rossetti4 ,burns4 ,edited by ,g4 ,a4 ,aitken4 #c vols4 ,butler4 ,edited by ,r4 ,b4 ,johnson4 #b vols4 ,campbell4 ,edited by ,his ,son-in-law1 the ,rev4 ,a4 ,w4 ,hill4 ,with ,memoir by ,w4 ,allingham4 ,chatterton4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 ,chaucer4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,r4 ,morris1 with ,memoir by ,sir ,nicolas4 #f vols4 ,churchill4 ,edited by ,jas4 ,hannay4 #b vols4 ,coleridge4 ,edited by ,t4 ,ashe1 ,b4,a4 #b vols4 ,collins4 ,edited by ,w4 ,moy ,thomas4 ,cowper4 ,edited by ,john ,bruce1 ,f4,s4,a4 #c vols4 ,dryden4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,hooper1 ,m4,a4 #e vols4 ,goldsmith4 ,revised ,edition by ,austin ,dobson4 ,with ,portrait4 ,gray4 ,edited by ,j4 ,bradshaw1 ,,ll4,d4 ,herbert4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,b4 ,grosart4 ,herrick4 ,edited by ,george ,saintsbury4 #b vols4 ,keats4 ,edited by the late ,lord ,houghton4 ,kirke ,white4 ,edited1 with a ,memoir1 by ,sir ,h4 ,nicolas4 ,milton4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,bradshaw4 #b vols4 ,parnell4 ,edited by ,g4 ,a4 ,aitken4 ,pope4 ,edited by ,g4 ,r4 ,dennis4 ,with ,memoir by ,john ,dennis4 #c vols4 ,prior4 ,edited by ,r4 ,b4 ,johnson4 #b vols4 ,raleigh and ,wotton4 ,with ,selections from the ,writings of other ,,courtly ,,poets from #aedj to #afej4 ,edited by ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,hannah1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,rogers4 ,edited by ,edward ,bell1 ,m4,a4 ,scott4 ,edited by ,john ,dennis4 #e vols4 ,shakespeare's ,poems4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,a4 ,dyce4 ,shelley4 ,edited by ,h4 ,buxton ,forman4 #e vols4 ,spenser4 ,edited by ,j4 ,payne ,collier4 #e vols4 ,surrey4 ,edited by ,j4 ,yeowell4 ,swift4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mitford4 #c vols4 ,thomson4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,c4 ,tovey4 #b vols4 ,vaughan4 ,sacred ,poems and ,pious ,ejaculations4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,lyte4 ,wordsworth4 ,edited by ,prof4 ,dowden4 #g vols4 ,wyatt4 ,edited by ,j4 ,yeowell4 ,young4 #b vols4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mitford4 ,,the ,,all-,,england ,,series4 ,,handbooks ,,of ,,athletic ,,games4 ,the only ,series issued at a moderate price1 by ,writers who are the first rank in their respective departments4 ',the best instruction on games and sports by the best authorities1 at the lowest prices4'--,oxford ,magazine4 ,small #hvo4 cloth1 ,illustrated4 ,price #as4 each4 ,cricket4 ,by ,,fred ,c4 ,,holland4 ,cricket4 ,by the ,hon4 and ,rev4 ,e4 ,,littelton4 ,croquet4 ,by ,lieut4-,col4 the ,hon4 ,h4 ,o4 ,,needham4 ,lawn ,tennis4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,wilberforce4 ,with a ,chapter for ,ladies1 by ,mrs4 ,,hillyard4 ,squash ,tennis4 ,by ,,eustace ,h4 ,,miles4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,tennis and ,rackets and ,fives4 ,by ,,julian ,,marshall1 ,major ,j4 ,,spens1 and ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,,arnan ,,tait4 ,golf4 ,by ,h4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,everard1 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,rowing and ,sculling4 ,by ,,guy ,,rixon4 ,rowing and ,sculling4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,,woodgate4 ,sailing4 ,by ,e4 ,f4 ,,knight1 dbl4 vol4 #bs4 ,swimming4 ,by ,,martin and ,j4 ,,racster ,,cobbett4 ,camping out4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,macdonell4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,canoeing4 ,by ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,,hayward4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,mountaineering4 ,by ,dr4 ,,claude ,,wilson4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,athletics4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,griffin4 ,riding4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,kerr1 ,v4,c4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,ladies' ,riding4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,kerr1 ,v4,c4 ,boxing4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,allanson-,,winn4 ,with ,prefatory ,note by ,bat ,mullins4 ,fencing4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,,colmore ,,dunn4 ,cycling4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,griffin1 ,l4,a4,c41 ,n4,c4,u41 ,c4,t4,c4 ,with a ,chapter for ,ladies1 by ,miss ,,agnes ,,wood4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,wrestling4 ,by ,,walter ,,armstrong4 ,new ,edition4 ,broadsword and ,singlestick4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,allanson-,,winn and ,c4 ,,phillipps-,,wolley4 ,gymnastics4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,,jenkin4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,gymnastic ,competition and ,display ,exercises4 ,compiled by ,f4 ,,graf4 ,indian ,clubs4 ,by ,g4 ,t4 ,b4 ,,cobbett and ,a4 ,f4 ,,jenkin4 ,dumb-bells4 ,by ,f4 ,,graf4 ,football--,rugby ,game4 ,by ,,harry ,,vassall4 ,football--,association ,game4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,alcock4 ,revised ,edition4 ,hockey4 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,,creswell4 ,new ,edition4 ,skating4 ,by ,,douglas ,,adams4 ,with a ,chapter for ladies1 by ,miss ,l4 ,,cheetham1 and a ,chapter on ,speed ,skating1 by a ,fen ,skater4 ,dbl4 vol4 #bs4 ,baseball4 ,by ,,newton ,,crane4 ,rounders1 ,fieldball1 ,bowls1 ,quoits1 ,curling1 ,skittles1 c4 ,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,walker and ,c4 ,c4 ,,mott4 ,dancing4 ,by ,,edward ,,scott4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,,the ,,club ,,series ,,of ,,card ,,and ,,table ,,games4 ',no well-regulated club or country house should be without this useful series of books4' ,globe4 ,small #hvo4 cloth1 ,illustrated4 ,price #as4 each4 ,bridge4 ,by ',,templar4' ,whist4 ,by ,dr4 ,,wm4 ,,pole1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,solo ,whist4 ,by ,,robert ,f4 ,,green4 ,billiards4 ,by ,major-,gen4 ,a4 ,w4 ,,drayson1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,with a ,preface by ,w4 ,j4 ,peall4 ,hints on ,billiards4 ,by ,j4 ,p4 ,,buchanan4 ,double vol4 #bs4 ,chess4 ,by ,,robert ,f4 ,,green4 ,the ,two-,move ,chess ,problem4 ,by ,b4 ,g4 ,,laws4 ,chess ,openings4 ,by ,i4 ,,gunsberg4 ,draughts and ,backgammon4 ,by ',,berkeley4' ,reversi and ,go ,bang4 ,by ',,berkeley4' ,dominoes and ,solitaire4 ,by ',,berkeley4' ,bzique and ,cribbage4 ,by ',,berkeley4' cart and ,euchre4 ,by ',,berkeley4' ,piquet and ,rubicon ,piquet4 ,by ',,berkeley4' ,skat4 ,by ,,louis ,,diehl4 ,a ,skat ,scoring-book4 #as4 ,round ,games1 including ,poker1 ,napoleon1 ,loo1 ,vingt-et-un1 c4 ,by ,,baxter-,,wray4 ,parlour and ,playground ,games4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,laurence ,,gomme4 ,,bell',s ,,cathedral ,,series4 ,profusely ,illustrated1 cloth1 crown #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 net each4 ,,english ,,cathedrals4 ,an ,itinerary and ,description4 ,compiled by ,,james ,g4 ,,gilchrist1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,revised and edited with an ,introduction on ,cathedral ,architecture by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,perkins1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,,bangor4 ,by ,p4 ,b4 ,,ironside ,,bax4 ,,bristol4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,j4 ,,mass1 ,m4,a4 ,,canterbury4 ,by ,,hartley ,,withers4 #eth ,edition4 ,,carlisle4 ,by ,c4 ,,king ,,eley4 ,,chester4 ,by ,,charles ,,hiatt4 #crd ,edition4 ,,chichester4 ,by ,h4 ,c4 ,,corlette1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,durham4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,bygate1 ,a4,r4,c4,a4 #crd ,edition4 ,,ely4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,,sweeting1 ,m4,a4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,exeter4 ,by ,,percy ,,addleshaw1 ,b4,a4 #bnd ,edition1 revised4 ,,gloucester4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,j4 ,,mass1 ,m4,a4 #crd ,edition4 ,,hereford4 ,by ,a4 ,,hugh ,,fisher1 ,a4,r4,e4 #bnd ,edition1 revised4 ,,lichfield4 ,by ,a4 ,b4 ,,clifton4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,lincoln4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,,kendrick1 ,b4,a4 #crd ,edition4 ,,manchester4 ,by ,rev4 ,t4 ,,perkins1 ,m4,a4 ,,norwich4 ,by ,c4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,quennell4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,oxford4 ,by ,rev4 ,,percy ,,dearmer1 ,m4,a4 #bnd ,edition1 revised4 ,,peterborough4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,,sweeting4 #bnd ,edition1 revised4 ,,ripon4 ,by ,,cecil ,,hallett1 ,b4,a4 ,,rochester4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,,palmer1 ,b4,a4 #bnd ,edition1 revised4 ,,st4 ,,albans4 ,by ,rev4 ,t4 ,,perkins1 ,m4,a4 ,,st4 ,,asaph4 ,by ,p4 ,b4 ,,ironside ,,bax4 ,,st4 ,,david',s4 ,by ,,philip ,,robson1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,,st4 ,,patrick',s1 ,,dublin4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,bernard1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,st4 ,,paul',s4 ,by ,rev4 ,,arthur ,,dimock1 ,m4,a4 #crd ,edition1 revised4 ,,st4 ,,saviour',s1 ,,southwark4 ,by ,,george ,,worley4 ,,salisbury4 ,by ,,gleeson ,,white4 #crd ,edition1 revised4 ,,southwell4 ,by ,rev4 ,,arthur ,,dimock1 ,m4,a4 #bnd ,edition1 revised4 ,,wells4 ,by ,rev4 ,,percy ,,dearmer1 ,m4,a4 #crd ,edition4 ,,winchester4 ,by ,p4 ,w4 ,,sergeant4 #crd ,edition4 ,,worcester4 ,by ,e4 ,f4 ,,strange4 #bnd ,edition4 ,,york4 ,by ,a4 ,,clutton-,,brock1 ,m4,a4 #crd ,edition4 ,uniform with above ,series4 ,now ready4 #as4 #f;d4 net each4 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,church1 ,,canterbury4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,canon ,,routledge1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,beverley ,,minster4 ,by ,,charles ,,hiatt4 ,,wimborne ,,minster and ,,christchurch ,,priory4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,perkins1 ,m4,a4 ,,tewkesbury ,,abbey ,,and ,,deerhurst ,,priory4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,j4 ,,mass1 ,m4,a4 ,,bath ,,abbey1 ,,malmesbury ,,abbey1 and ,,bradford-,,on-,,avon ,,church4 ,by ,rev4 ,t4 ,,perkins1 ,m4,a4 ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,by ,,charles ,,hiatt4 ,,stratford-,,on-,,avon ,,church4 ,by ,,harold ,,baker4 ,,bell',s ,,handbooks ,,to ,,continental ,,churches4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #bs4 #f;d4 net each4 ,,amiens4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,perkins1 ,m4,a4 ,,bayeux4 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,s4 ,,mylne4 ,,chartres3 ,the ,cathedral and ,other ,churches4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,j4 ,,mass1 ,m4,a4 ,,mont ,,st4 ,,michel4 ,by ,h4 ,j4 ,l4 ,j4 ,,mass1 ,m4,a4 ,,paris 7,,notre-,,dame74 ,by ,,charles ,,hiatt4 ,,rouen3 ,the ,cathedral and ,other ,churches4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,perkins1 ,m4,a4 ,the ,best ,practical ,working ,dictionary of the ,english ,language4 ,,webster',s ,,international ,,dictionary4 #bcdh ,,pages4 #ejjj ,,illustrations4 ,,new ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,throughout ,,with ,a ,,new ,,supplement ,,of #be1jjj ,,additional ,,words ,,and ,,phrases4 ,the ,appendices comprise a ,pronouncing ,gazetteer of the ,world1 ,vocabularies of ,scripture1 ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,english ,proper ,names1 a ,dictionary of the ,noted ,names of ,fiction1 a ,brief ,history of the ,english ,language1 a ,dictionary of ,foreign ,quotations1 ,words1 ,phrases1 ,proverbs1 c41 a ,biographical ,dictionary with #aj1jjj names1 c41 c4 ,dr4 ,,murray1 ,editor of the ',oxford ,english ,dictionary1' says3--',in this its latest form1 and with its large ,supplement and numerous appendices1 it is a wonderful volume1 which well maintains its ground against all rivals on its own lines4 ,the 'definitions1' or more properly1 'explanations of meaning' in ',webster' have always struck me as particularly terse and well-put2 and it is hard to see how anything better could be done within the limits4' ,professor ,,joseph ,,wright1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,editor of the ',english ,dialect ,dictionary1' says3--',the new edition of ,webster's ,international ,dictionary is undoubtedly the most useful and reliable work of its kind in any country4 ,no one who has not examined the work carefully would believe that such a vast amount of lexicographical information could possibly be found within so small a compass4' ,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,,sayce1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,d41 says3--',it is indeed a marvellous work2 it is difficult to conceive of a ,dictionary more exhaustive and complete4 ,everything is in it--not only what we might expect to find in such a work1 but also what few of us would ever have thought of looking for4' ,rev4 ,,joseph ,,wood1 ,d4,d41 ,head ,master of ,harrow1 says3--',i have always thought very highly of its merits4 ,indeed1 ,i consider it to be far the most accurate ,english ,dictionary in existence1 and much more reliable than the ,century4 ,for daily and hourly reference1 ,webster seems to me unrivalled4' ,prospectuses1 with ,prices and ,specimen ,pages1 on ,application4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,bell ,,sons1 ,,york ,,house1 ,,portugal ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,transcriber',s ,,corrections page original text correction xxvii1 #afi1 ' ' #aii #jdj for it is a mere phantasm4 for it is a mere phantasm4 #jhg ,il y a une de mes exprences ,il y a une de mes expriences #jhh #jij the object of invesgation the object of investigation #aba between the ,underderstanding between the ,understanding #adj ,no huy peor sordo ,no hay peor sordo #adf ,nay1 the impossibity of ,nay1 the impossibility of #aeh 1 1 #bbj footnote anchor missing #aij #bef of imparted movement4 of imparted movement4 #bei black #j black #j #bcc footnote anchor missing #aif #bce in a purely empircial sense1 in a purely empirical sense1 #bdf the blush in embarassment1 the blush in embarrassment1 #bga ,letters ,philosophiques sur ,lettres ,philosophiques sur #bhf ,in parnassia palustris ,in parnassia palustris #bhi in the winter season in the winter season #bhi prssentir la necessit prssentir la ncessit #cjb innummerable degrees innumerable degrees #cjh inseparable from conciousness inseparable from consciousness #cae susceptibity to causal susceptibility to causal #cbd seu innata lex4 seu innata lex4 #cbh effect upon a somnabulist effect upon a somnambulist #ced with the divine will4 with the divine will4 #cff which prevail among mankind4 which prevail among mankind4 #cie his belief in the ,deity4 his belief in the ,deity4 #cif and invisible heaven4 and invisible heaven4 #cgb confirmamations of the rest confirmations of the rest