,,transcriber',s ,,note      ,italic    
text is denoted by underscores4         
,superscripts are denoted by  eg ,lithrs
 ,edinr4      ,basic fractions are      
displayed as    etc2 other fractions are
 shown    in the form a_/b1 eg #c_/aa or
 #ac_/7cdb74      ,the caption for an   
illustration is displayed as a sidenote 
in the    etext4 ,it was shown as a page
 footnote in the original text4         
,obvious typographical errors and       
punctuation errors have been            
corrected after careful comparison with 
other occurrences within the    text and
 consultation of external sources4      
,more detail can be found at the end of 
the book4            ,,introduction     
,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of                 
,,pal,,ontological ,,botany             
,,introduction      ,,to ,,the ,,study  
,,of      ,,pal,,ontological ,,botany   
,,by      ,,john ,,hutton ,,balfour1    
,a4,m4 ,m4,d4 ,,edin4    ,f4,r4,s41     
,,sec4 ,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,l4,s4             
,,professor ,,of ,,medicine ,,and       

,,botany ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of   
,,edinburgh1    ,,regius ,,keeper ,,of  
,,the ,,royal ,,botanic ,,garden1       
,,and ,,queen',s ,,botanist ,,for       
,,scotland        ,,with ,,four         
,,lithographic ,,plates1 ,,and ,,upwards
 ,,of    ,,one ,,hundred ,,woodcuts     
,,edinburgh      ,,adam ,,and ,,charles 
,,black      #ahgb          ,printed by 
,r4  ,r4 ,,clark1 ,edinburgh4           
,,to      ,,prof4 ,,heinrich ,,robert   
,,goeppert1 ,m4,d41      ,,director ,,of
 ,,the ,,botanic ,,garden1 ,,breslau2   
,,one ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,eminent       
,,pal,,ontological    ,,botanists ,,of  
,,europe1      ,the following ,treatise 
,,is ,,dedicated1 ,,with ,,best         
,,respects1 ,,by ,,his    ,,obliged     
,,friend      ,,the ,,author4           
,,preface4      ,the subject of ,fossil 
,botany or ,palophytology has formed a  
part of  the ,course of ,botany in the  
,university of ,edinburgh for the last  
twenty-five years1 and the amount of    
time devoted to the exposition  of it   

has increased4 ,the recent foundation of
 a ,chair of ,geology and  of a         
,falconer ,palontological ,fellowship in
 the ,university seems to  require from 
the ,professors of ,zoology and ,botany 
special attention  to the bearings of   
their departments of science on the     
structure  of the animals and plants of 
former epochs of the ,earth's history4  
,no one can be competent to give a      
correct decision in regard to  ,fossils1
 unless he has studied thoroughly the   
present ,fauna and ,flora  of the globe4
 ,to give a well-founded opinion in     
regard to extinct  beings1 it is        
essential that the observer should be   
conversant with  the conformation and   
development of the living ones now on   
the  earth2 with their habits1 modes of 
existence and reproduction1 the         
microscopic structure of their tissues1 
their distribution1 and their  relation 
to soil1 the atmosphere1 temperature1   
and climate4    ,there can be no doubt  
that to become a good ,fossil ,geologist

 a  student must begin with living      
animals and plants4 ,the study of       
,geology must be shared by the          
,petralogist1 who looks at the          
condition of the rocks of the globe1 the
 minerals forming them1 and  their mode 
of formation2 the ,chemist1 who         
determines the materials  which enter   
into the composition of minerals and    
rocks2 the  ,naturalist1 who examines   
the plants and animals found in the     
various  strata2 and perhaps also the   
,natural ,philosopher1 who calculates   
from  independent sources the phases of 
the ,earth's history4 ,it may be said   
thus to combine all these students of   
,science in one brotherhood4  ,much has 
been done by the efforts of such men as 
,hutton and ,werner1  who were engaged  
chiefly in considering the mineral      
department of  ,geology2 but it is clear
 that the ,science could not have       
attained its  present position without  
the continued labours of those who have 
been  examining fossils in their        

relations to time and space4 ,had it not
  been for the researches of            
,palontologists1 ,geology could not have
  made its present advance4    ,in my   
,class ,book of ,botany ,i have given an
 introduction to  ,palophytology1 and it
 occurred to me that it might be useful 
to  students to publish this in a       
separate form1 with additions in  both  
the letterpress and the illustrations4  
,the institution of  the ,palontological
 ,fellowship1 in memory of my former    
friend ,dr4  ,falconer1 has brought the 
subject specially under my notice4 ,the 
,fellowship has been promoted chiefly by
 my friend and former pupil  ,dr4       
,charles ,murchison1 a gentleman fond of
 science and of his ,alma  ,mater1 the  
,university of ,edinburgh1 where he and 
,falconer studied and  took their       
degrees4    ,the first award of the     
,fellowship has been made to a          
distinguished  student1 who acquitted   
himself with the greatest credit during 
the  three days of examination on       

,geology1 ,zoology1 and ,botany4 ,i     
trust  that the ,fellowship will        
continue to stimulate our eminent       
students  in future years4    ,having   
been a student of ,natural ,science     
along with ,dr4 ,falconer1 ,i  feel a   
peculiar interest in doing what ,i can  
to promote the study  of a subject to   
which he so successfully devoted his    
energies4  ,in my endeavour to do so ,i 
have been encouraged by my friend and   
former pupil1 ,mr4 ,william ,carruthers1
 at the head of the ,botanical          
,department of the ,british ,museum1 and
 a former student in ,edinburgh  under  
the late ,professor ,fleming4 ,he has   
done much to advance our  knowledge of  
,fossil ,botany1 and to him ,i am       
indebted for two of the  plates and some
 of the woodcuts which illustrate this  
publication4  ,he has given me most     
efficient assistance1 and ,i have to    
return my  best thanks for his kind aid4
 ,i am also indebted to my colleague1   
,professor ,geikie1 for his valued      

assistance4    ,the neighbourhood of    
,edinburgh is rich in ,fossils of the   
,carboniferous epoch1 and much yet      
remains to be done to illustrate  its   
,palontology4 ,such labourers as ,geikie
 and ,peach may be expected  to give    
great assistance in the furtherance of  
our knowledge of  ,scottish ,geology1 so
 as to form a school which shall revive 
the  reputation enjoyed by ,edinburgh in
 the days of ,hutton and ,jameson4  ,if 
,i can be useful in encouraging students
 to take up the study of                
,palontological ,botany1 and to         
prosecute it with vigour1 ,i shall feel 
that this introductory treatise has not 
been issued in vain4 ,as one  of the few
 surviving relations of ,dr4 ,james     
,hutton1 ,i am glad to be  able to show 
an interest in a science which may aid  
in elucidating  the ,theory of the      
,earth4    ,in writing this work ,i have
 taken for granted that the reader is   
acquainted with the ,elements of        
,botany1 and knows the general          

structure of plants of the present day4 
,i have not1 therefore1  hesitated to   
use the ordinary ,botanical terms       
without explanation4 ,i  am satisfied   
that no one can study ,fossil ,botany   
properly unless he  has studied ,modern 
,botany4    ,those readers who may find 
any difficulty as to technical terms ,i 
would refer to my ,botanist's           
,companion1 where a full ,glossary is   
given4      #bg ,,inverleith ,,row1     
,may #ahgb4          ,,table ,,of       
,,contents4                             
,,page      ,,introductory ,,remarks    
#a      ,,determination ,,of ,,fossil   
,,plants                                
#c      ,,mode ,,of ,,preservation ,,of 
,,fossil ,,plants                       
#h      ,,examination ,,of ,,the        
,,structure ,,of ,,fossil ,,plants      
#ab      ,,fossiliferous ,,rocks        
#bj      ,,natural ,,orders ,,to ,,which
 ,,fossil ,,plants ,,belong             
#bb      ,,periods ,,of ,,vegetation    
,,among ,,fossil ,,plants               

#be      ,,fossil ,,flora ,,of ,,the    
,,primary ,,or ,,pal,,zoic ,,period     
#bf      ,,reign ,,of ,,acrogens        
#bf      ,,flora ,,of ,,the             
,,carboniferous ,,epoch                 
#cf      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,permian   
,,epoch                                 
#ga      ,,fossil ,,flora ,,of ,,the    
,,secondary ,,or ,,mesozoic ,,period    
#gb      ,,reign ,,of ,,gymnosperms     
#gb      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,trias     
,,and ,,lias ,,epochs                   
#gg      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,oolitic   
,,epoch                                 
#hj      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,wealden   
,,epoch                                 
#hd      ,,fossil ,,flora ,,of ,,the    
,,tertiary ,,or ,,cainozoic ,,period    
7,,including    ,,the ,,cretaceous      
,,epoch7                                
#hg      ,,reign ,,of ,,angiosperms     
#hg      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,chalk     
#hg      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,eocene    
,,epoch                                 
#ij      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,miocene   

,,epoch                                 
#ib      ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,pliocene  
,,epoch                                 
#ih      ,,general ,,conclusions        
#aja      ,,recapitulation              
#ajc      ,,works ,,on ,,fossil ,,botany
                                        
#aje      ,,explanation ,,of ,,plates   
#aaa      ,,index                       
#aac          ,,list ,,of ,,woodcuts4   
,,fig4                                  
,,page      #a4  ,section of ,peuce     
,withami1 ,lindley and ,hutton          
#c      #b4  ,bark of ,araucaria        
#e      #c4  ,markings on ,araucaria    
bark                                    
#f      #d4                             
#g      #e4                             
#g      #f4  ,leaf of ,araucaria        
#g      #g4  ,nicolia ,owenii 7,carr47  
#aa      #h4  ,bryson's instrument for  
slitting ,fossils                       
#ad      #i4  ,tree-fern                
#bg      #aj4  ,asplenium               
#bh      #aa a4 ,bifurcating ,trunk of a

 ,tree-fern 7,alsophila ,perrottetiana7 
#bi      #aa b4 ,rhizome of ,lastrea    
,filix-mas                              
#bi      #ab4  ,transverse section of   
stem of a ,tree-fern 7,cyathea7         
#bi      #ac4  ,scalariform vessels from
 ,tree-fern                             
#cj      #ad4  ,sporangia of a ,fern    
#cj      #ae4  ,lycopodium clavatum     
#cj      #af4  ,spore-case1 containing  
,microspores of ,lycopodium             
#cj      #ag4                           
,macrospores of ,selaginella            
#cj      #ah4  ,fructification of       
,equisetum maximum                      
#ca      #ai4  ,polygonal scale of      
,equisetum                              
#cb      #bj4  ,spore of                
,equisetum--filaments contracted        
#cb      #ba4                           
expanded                         #cb    
#bb4  ,marsilea ,fabri                  
#cc      #bb bis4 ,adiantites           
,lindseformis                           
#da      #bc4  ,pecopteris              

7,alethopteris7 aquiline                
#dc      #bd4            7,alethopteris7
 heterophylla                           
#dc      #be4  ,neuropteris ,loshii     
#dc      #bf4             gigantean     
#dc      #bg4             acuminate     
#dc      #bh4  ,sphenopteris affinis    
#dc      #bi4  ,cyclopteris dilatata    
#dc      #cj4  ,stem of ,caulopteris    
macrodiscus                             
#dd      #ca4                           
,balfouri 7,carr47                      
#dd      #cb4                           
,morrisi 7,carr47                       
#dd      #cc4          ,sigillaria      
pachyderma                              
#de      #cd4  ,sigillaria reniformis   
#de      #ce4            pachyderma     
#df      #cf4            7,favularia7   
tessellate                              
#df      #cg4            pachyderma     
#df      #ch4  ,stigmaria ficoides      
#dg      #ci4                    7,s4   
anabathra of ,corda7                    
#dg      #dj4  ,bifurcating stem of     

,lepidodendron obovatum 7elegans7       
#di      #da4  ,stem of ,lepidodendron  
crenatum                                
#di      #db4  ,fructification of       
,lepidodendron                          
#ej      #dc4  ,longitudinal section of 
,fructification of ,triplosporites      
#ej      #dd4  7#a74 ,fruit of          
,selaginella spinulosa1 ,a4 ,braun      
7,lycopodium                            
selaginoides1 ,linn47                   
#ea         7#b74 ,scale and sporangium 
from the upper part of cone          #ea
         7#c74 ,antheridian microspores 
from ditto                        #ea   
7#d74 ,macrospore                       
#ea         7#e74 ,scale and sporangium 
from lower part of cone1 containing     
macrospores                             
#ea         7#f74 ,fruit of             
,lepidostrobus ornatus 7,hooker7        
#ea         7#g74 ,three scales and     
sporangia of ditto                      
#ea         7#h74 ,microspores from     
sporangia of the upper part of the      

cone of ,triplosporites ,brownii1       
,brongn4                #ea             
7#i74 ,macrospore from the sporangia of 
the lower part           #ea            
7#aj74 ,scales and sporangia of a cone  
of ,flemingites             #ea      #de
 a4  ,calamites ,suckovii               
#eg    #de b4  ,septum or ,phragma of a 
,calamite                            #eg
      #df4  ,vertical stems of          
,calamites--in coal-measures of ,treuil1
           near ,st4 ,etienne           
#eh      #dg4  ,fruits of ,equisetum and
 ,calamites                             
#fj          7#a74 ,equisetum arvense1  
,l4                                     
#fj          7#b74 ,portion of          
sporangium wall                         
#fj          7#c1 #d74 ,spores--elaters 
free                                    
#fj          7#e74 ,longitudinal section
 of part of one side of cone         #fj
          7#f74 ,transverse section of  
cone                               #fj  
7#g74 ,calamites 7,volkmannia7 ,binneyi 

7,carr47                   #fj          
7#h74 ,portion of sporangium wall       
#fj          7#i74 ,two spores          
#fj         7#aj74 ,longitudinal section
 of part of one side of cone         #fj
         7#aa74 ,transverse section of  
cone                               #fj  
#dh4  ,foliage and fruits of ,calamites 
#fb          7#a1 #b74 ,asterophyllites 
#fb          7#c1 #d74 ,annularia       
#fb          7#e1 #f74 ,sphenophyllum   
#fb      #di4  ,araucarioxylon ,withami1
 ,krauss 7,pinites ,withami7            
#fc      #ej4  ,trigonocarpum olivforme 
#fc      #ea4  ,cardiocarpum ,lindleyi  
7,carr47                                
#fe      #eb4                           
#fe      #ec4  ,cardiocarpum anomalum   
7,carr47                                
#ff      #ed4  ,pothocites ,grantoni    
7,paterson7                             
#fg      #ee1 #ef4 ,walchia piniformis  
7,sternb47                              
#gb      #eg4  ,pinus sylvestris        
#gc      #eh4  ,abies excelsa           

#gc      #ei4  ,larix ,europa           
#gc      #fj4  ,cedrus ,libani          
#gc      #fa4  ,araucaria excelsa       
#gd      #fb4  ,woody tubes of          
fir--single rows of discs               
#gd      #fc4                  --double 
and opposite rows of discs          #gd 
#fd4  ,woody tubes of ,araucaria        
excelsa--double and triple           and
 alternate rows of discs                
#gd      #fe4  ,longitudinal section of 
stem of a ,gymnosperm                   
#gd      #ff4  ,linear leaves of ,pinus 
,strobus                                
#ge      #fg4  ,cone of ,pinus          
sylvestris                              
#ge      #fh4         ,cupressus        
sempervirens                            
#ge      #fi4  ,scale of mature cone of 
,pinus sylvestris                       
#ge      #gj4  ,fruiting branch of      
,juniperus communis                     
#gf      #ga4  ,branch of ,taxus baccata
                                        
#gf      #gb4  ,male flower of ,yew     

#gf      #gc4  ,fruit of ,yew           
#gf      #gd4  ,cycas revoluta          
#gg      #ge4  ,encephalartos 7,zamia7  
pungens                                 
#gg      #gf4  ,schizoneura heterophylla
                                        
#gh      #gg4  ,zamites                 
#gi      #gh4  ,pterophyllum            
,pleiningerii                           
#hj      #gi4  ,nilssonia compta        
7,pterophyllum comptum of ,lindley      
and ,hutton7                            
#hj      #hj4  ,palozamia pectinata     
7,zamia pectinata of ,brongniart1 and   
,lindley and ,hutton7                   
#hj      #ha4  ,brachyphyllum mammillare
                                        
#ha      #hb4  ,equisetum columnare     
#ha      #hc4  ,araucarites sphrocarpus 
7,carr47                                
#hb      #hd4  ,termination of a scale  
of ditto                                
#hb      #he4  ,section of a scale of   
ditto                                   
#hb      #hf4  ,the ,dirt-bed of the    

island of ,portland                     
#hc      #hg4  ,cycadoidea megalophylla 
7,mantellia nidiformis of ,brongniart7  
#hc      #hh4  ,kaidacarpum ooliticum   
7,carr47                                
#hd      #hi4  ,pandanus odoratissimus  
#hd      #ij4  ,fossil wood1 ,abietites 
,linkii                                 
#he      #ia4  ,sequoiites ovalis       
#hh      #ib4  ,pinites ovatus 7,zamia  
ovata of ,lindley and ,hutton7          
#hi      #ic4  ,palmacites ,lamanonis   
#ij      #ie4  ,comptonia acutiloba     
#ib      #if4  ,acer trilobatum         
#ic      #ig4  ,ulmus ,bronnii          
#ic      #ih4  ,rhamnus ,aizoon         
#id      #ii4  ,alnus gracilis          
#ie      #ajj4  ,taxites or ,taxodites  
,campbellii                             
#ie      #aja4  ,rhamnites multinervatus
                                        
#ie      #ajb4  ,equisetum ,campbellii  
#if          ,,pal,,ontological         
,,botany4      ,the study of the changes
 which have taken place in the nature of

  living beings since their first       
appearance on the globe till the  period
 when the surface of the earth1 having  
assumed its present  form1 has been     
covered by the creation which now       
occupies it1  constitutes one of the    
most important departments in ,geology4 
,it is1  as ,brongniart remarks1 the    
history of life and its metamorphoses4  
,the researches of geologists show      
clearly that the globe has  undergone   
various alterations since that beginning
 when ,god  created the heavens and the 
earth4 ,these alterations are exhibited 
in the different stratified rocks which 
form the outer crust of the  earth1 and 
which were chiefly sedimentary deposits 
produced by the  weathering of the      
exposed rocks4 ,remains of the plants   
and animals  living on the globe at the 
time of the formation of the different  
beds are preserved in them4 ,elevations 
and depressions of the surface  of the  
earth affected the organisms on its     
surface1 and gave to  successive        

deposits new faunas and floras4 ,some of
 these epochs have  been marked by great
 changes in the physical state of our   
planet1  and they have been accompanied 
with equally great modifications  in the
 nature of the living beings which      
inhabited it4 ,the study  of the fossil 
remains of animals is called            
,palozoology 71  ancient1 and 1 animal71
 while the consideration of those of    
vegetables is denominated ,palophytology
 7 and 1 a plant74  ,both are           
departments of the science of           
,palontology1 which has been  the means 
of bringing geology to its present state
 of advancement4  ,the study of these   
extinct forms has afforded valuable     
indications  as to the physical state of
 the earth1 and as to its climate at    
different epochs4 ,this study requires  
the conjunct labours of the  ,zoologist1
 the ,botanist1 and the ,petralogist4   
,the vegetation of the globe1 during the
 different stages of its  formation1 has
 undergone very evident changes4 ,at the

 same time there  is no reason to doubt 
that the plants may all be referred to  
the  great classes distinguished at the 
present day--namely1 ,thallogens1       
including such plants as ,lichens1 ,alg1
 and ,fungi2 ,acrogens1 such  as ,ferns 
and ,lycopods2 ,gymnosperms1 such as    
,cone-bearing plants and  ,cycads2      
,endogens1 such as ,palms1 ,lilies1 and 
,grasses2 and ,exogens1  such as the    
common trees of ,britain 7excluding the 
,fir71 and the  great mass of ordinary  
flowering plants4 ,the relative         
proportion of  these classes1 however1  
has been different1 and the predominance
 of  certain forms has given a character
 to the vegetation of different  epochs4
 ,the farther we recede in geological   
history from the present  day1 the      
greater is the difference between the   
fossil plants and  those which now      
occupy the surface4 ,at the time when   
the coal-beds  were formed1 the plants  
covering the earth belonged to genera   
and  species not existing at the present

 day4 ,as we ascend higher1 the         
similarity between the ancient and the  
modern flora increases1 and in  the     
latest stratified rocks we have in      
certain instances an identity  in       
species and a considerable number of    
existing genera4 ,at early  epochs the  
flora appears to have been uniform1 to  
have presented less  diversity of forms 
than at present1 and to have been       
similar in the  different quarters of   
the globe4 ,the vegetation also         
indicates that  the nature of the       
climate was different from that which   
characterises  the countries in which   
these early fossil plants are now found4
          ,,determination ,,of ,,fossil 
,,plants4      ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #a4 ,section of ,peuce 
,withami1 after ,lindley and  ,hutton1 a
 fossil ,conifer of the coal epoch4     
,punctated woody tissue  seen4          
,fossil plants are by no means so easily
 examined as recent species4  ,they are 
seldom found in a complete state4       

,fragments of stems1  leaves1 and       
fruits1 are the data by which the plant 
is to be  determined4 ,it is very rare  
to find any traces of the flowers4 ,the 
parts of fossil plants are usually      
separated from each other1 and  it is   
difficult to ascertain what are the     
portions which should be  associated    
together so as to complete an individual
 plant4 ,specimens  are sometimes       
preserved1 so that the anatomical       
structure of the  organs1 especially of 
the stem1 can be detected by very thin  
slices  placed under the microscope4 ,in
 the case of some stems the presence  of
 punctated woody tissue 7,fig4 #a7 has  
proved of great service as  regards     
fossil ,botany2 this structure1 along   
with the absence of  large pitted ducts1
 serving to distinguish ,conifers4 ,the 
presence  of scalariform vessels        
indicates a plant belonging to the      
vascular  ,cryptogams1 of which the fern
 is the best known example4 ,the        
cautions  to be observed in determining 

fossil plants are noticed by ,dr4       
,hooker  in the ,memoirs of the         
,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain  
7vol4 ii4  p4 #chg74 ,at the present    
day1 the same fern may have different   
forms  of fronds1 which1 unless they    
were found united1 might be reckoned    
distinct genera2 and remarkable examples
 are seen in ,niphobolus  rupestris and 
,lindsa cordata4 ,moreover1 we find the 
same form of  frond belonging to several
 different genera1 which can only be    
distinguished by the fructification2 and
 as this is rarely seen in  fossil      
ferns1 it is often impossible to come to
 a decided conclusion  in regard to     
them4 ,a leaf of ,stangeria paradoxa was
 considered  by an eminent botanist as a
 barren fern frond1 but it ultimately   
proved to be the leaf of a ,cycad4 ,the 
leaf of ,cupania filicifolia1  a        
,dicotyledon1 might easily be mistaken  
for that of a fern2 it  resembles much  
the frond of a fossil fern called       
,coniopteris4 ,the  diverse leaves of   

,sterculia diversifolia1 if seen        
separately1 might  easily be referred to
 different plants4 ,in the same fern we 
meet  also with different kinds of      
venation in the fronds4 ,similar remarks
  may be made in regard to other plants4
 ,harvey has pointed out many           
difficulties in regard to sea-weeds4    
,as regards the materials for a fossil  
flora1 the following remarks of  ,hugh  
,miller deserve attention3--    ,the    
authors of ,fossil ,floras1 however able
 or accomplished they may  be1 have     
often to found their genera and species1
 and to frame their  restorations1 when 
they attempt these1 on very inadequate  
specimens4  ,for1 were they to pause in 
their labours until better ones turned  
up1  they would find the longest life   
greatly too short for the completion  of
 even a small portion of their task4    
,much of their work must be  of         
necessity of a provisional character--so
 much so1 that there are  few possessors
 of good collections who do not find    

themselves in  circumstances to furnish 
both addenda and errata to our most     
valuable  works on ,palontology4 ,and it
 is only by the free communication of   
these addenda and errata that geologists
 will be at length enabled  adequately  
to conceive of the by-past creations1   
and of that gorgeous  ,flora of the     
,carboniferous age1 which seems to have 
been by far the  most luxuriant and     
wonderful which our emphatically ancient
 earth  ever saw4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #b4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #b4 ,bark 
of ,araucaria imbricata4    ,the bark of
 trees at the present day often exhibits
 different kinds  of markings in its    
layers4 ,this may be illustrated by a   
specimen of  ,araucaria imbricata1 which
 was destroyed by frost in the          
,edinburgh  ,botanic ,garden on #bdth   
,december #ahfa4 ,the tree was #bd feet 
high1  with a circumference of four feet
 at the base of the stem1 and  had      
twenty whorls of branches4 ,the external
 surface of the bark  is represented in 

,fig4 #b4 ,there are seen scars formed  
in part by  prolongations from the lower
 part of the leaves1 which have been    
cut off close to their union with the   
stem4 ,the base of each leaf  remaining 
in the bark has the form of a narrow    
elongated ellipse1  surrounded by       
cortical foliar prolongations4 ,the     
markings on the  bark1 when viewed      
externally1 have a somewhat oblique     
quadrilateral  form4 ,on removing the   
epiphlum or outer bark1 and examining   
its  inner surface1 we remark a         
difference in the appearance presented  
at the lower and upper part of the stem4
 ,in the lower portion the  markings    
have an irregular elliptical form1 with 
a deep depression1  and fissures where  
the leaves are attached 7,fig4 #c74     
,higher up the  epiphlal markings assume
 rather more of a quadrilateral form1   
with  the depressions less deep1 and the
 fissures for the leaves giving off     
prolongations on either side4 ,farther  
up the markings are smaller in  size1   

obliquely quadrilateral1 and present    
circular clots along the  boundary lines
 chiefly 7,fig4 #d74 ,higher still the  
quadrilateral form  becomes more        
apparent1 and the dots disappear 7,fig4 
#e74 ,the epiphlum  thus presents       
differences in its markings at different
 heights on the  stem4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #c4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4    ,sidenote3  
,figs4 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,markings on     
,araucaria bark4    ,the part of the    
bark immediately below the epiphlum is  
well  developed1 and is of a spongy     
consistence4 ,when examined             
microscopically it is seen to be        
composed of cells of various            
shapes--some elongated fusiform1 others 
rhomboidal1 others with  pointed        
appendages4 ,the variety of forms is    
very great1 but it is  possible that    
this may be partly owing to the effects 
of frost on the  cells4 ,on the         
spontaneous separation of the bark1 the 
portion below  the epiphlum was seen to 

consist of distinct plates of a more or 
less quadrilateral form1 with some of   
the edges concave and others  convex1 a 
part in the centre indicating the       
connection with the leaf1  along with   
which it is detached4 ,in ,fig4 #f a    
leaf is shown with one  of these plates 
attached4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4   
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #f4 ,leaf of ,araucaria
 with a portion of bark4    ,the        
appearances presented by the outer and  
middle bark of ,araucaria  imbricata    
bear a marked resemblance to those      
exhibited by certain  fossils included  
in the genera ,sigillaria and           
,lepidodendron4 ,the  sculpturesque     
markings on the stems of these fossil   
plants indicate  their alliance to the  
ferns and lycopods of the present epoch4
 ,but  it is evident1 from these        
markings1 that much caution is required 
in making this determination4 ,other    
points of structure must be  examined   
before a proper decision can be formed4 
,when1 for instance1  the presence of   

scalariform tissue1 or of punctated     
woody tissue1  has been satisfactorily  
shown under the microscope1 we are      
entitled  to hazard an opinion as to the
 affinities of the fossils4 ,in many    
instances1 however1 external appearances
 are the only data on which  to rely for
 the determination of fossil genera and 
species2 and rash  conclusions have     
often been drawn by geologists who have 
not been  conversant with the structure 
of plants4 ,the ,araucaria markings     
point  out the need of care in drawing  
conclusions1 and their variations at    
different parts of the bark indicate the
 danger of a rash decision  as to       
species4 ,there can be no doubt that in 
vegetable ,palontology  the number of   
species has been needlessly             
multiplied--any slight  variation in    
form having been reckoned sufficient for
 specific  distinction4 ,we can conceive
 that the ,araucaria bark markings in a 
fossil state might easily supply several
 species of ,lepidodendron4  ,a         

naturalist1 with little knowledge of the
 present flora of the  globe1 ventures  
sometimes to decide on an isolated      
fragment4 ,hence  the crude descriptions
 of fossil vegetable forms1 and the     
confusion  in which ,palophytology is   
involved4 ,every geologist who examines 
fossil plants ought to be well          
acquainted with the minute structure  of
 living plants1 the forms of their      
roots1 stems1 leaves1 fronds1  and      
fructification2 the markings on the     
outer and inner surfaces of  their      
barks1 on their stems1 and on their     
rhizomes2 the localities in  which they 
grow1 and the climates which genera and 
species affect in  various parts of the 
world4 7,professor ,balfour in the      
,proceedings of  the ,royal ,society of 
,edinburgh1 ,april #ahfb1 vol4 iv4 p4   
#egg47          ,,mode ,,of             
,,preservation ,,of ,,fossil ,,plants4  
,the mode in which plants are preserved 
in a fossil state may be  referred to   
four principal classes3--#a4 ,casts of  

the plants2 from  which all the original
 substance and structure have been      
removed  subsequently to the burial of  
the plants1 and to the greater or  less 
induration of the rocks in which they   
are entombed4 ,such casts  are          
occasionally hollow1 but more frequently
 they consist of the  amorphous         
substance of the rock which has filled  
up the cavity1  and which exhibits1     
often with remarkable minuteness1 the   
external  aspects of the original       
specimen4 #b4 ,carbonisation2 in which  
the  original substance of the plant has
 been chemically altered and  converted 
into lignite or coal4 ,all trace of the 
form of the original  plant is generally
 lost1 as is the case with the extensive
 beds of  coal2 but frequently1 when the
 organism has been buried in a bed of   
clay1 the external appearance is        
faithfully preserved1 as in the  ferns  
and other foliage found in the shales of
 the coal-measures4  #c4 ,infiltration2 
in which the vegetable tissues1 though  

carbonised1  retain their original form 
from the infiltration of some mineral in
  solution1 chiefly lime or silex1 which
 has filled the empty cells  and        
vessels1 and so preserved their original
 form4 ,this mode of  preservation      
occurs in the calcareous nodules in     
coal-beds1 in the  remarkable ash-beds  
discovered by ,mr4 ,wnsch in ,arran1 and
 generally  in the secondary rocks4 #d4 
,petrifaction2 in which the structure is
  preserved1 but the whole of the       
original substance has been replaced1   
atom for atom1 by an inorganic          
substance1 generally lime1 silex1 or    
some ore of iron4 ,this is the condition
 of the beautiful fossils  from         
,antigua1 and of many stems and fruits  
from rocks of all ages in  ,britain4    
,carbonised vegetables1 or those which  
have passed into the state  of          
,lignites1 often undergo modifications  
which render it difficult  to understand
 them rightly4 ,sometimes a portion of  
the organs of  vegetables which have    

passed into the state of lignite is     
transformed  into pyrites1 or else      
pyrites of a globular shape is found in 
the middle of the tissue1 and may be    
taken for a character of  organisation4 
,the section of certain ,dicotyledonous 
fossil woods1 in  that case1 may        
resemble ,monocotyledons4 ,petrifaction1
 as in the case  of silicified woods1   
often preserves all the tissues equally1
 at  other times the soft tissues are   
altered or destroyed2 the cellular      
tissue being replaced by amorphous      
chalcedony1 while the ligneous  and     
vascular tissues alone are petrified1 so
 as to preserve their  forms4 ,in some  
cases the reverse takes place as to     
these tissues2  the fibrous portions    
disappear1 leaving cavities1 while the  
cells  are silicified4 ,sometimes we    
find the parts regularly silicified  at 
one place1 so as to retain the          
structure1 while at another an          
amorphous mass of silica is found4 ,in  
such cases there appear1  as it were1   

distinct silicified woody bundles in the
 midst of an  amorphous mass4 ,the      
appearance depends1 however1 merely on  
irregular  silicification or partial    
petrifaction4 ,infiltrated fossil woods1
 by  means of chemical tests1 are shown 
to possess portions of vegetable        
tissues cemented into a mass by silica4 
,in some cases we find the  vessels and 
cells separately silicified1 without    
being crushed into a  compact mass4 ,in 
these cases1 the intercellular substance
 not being  silicified1 the mass breaks 
down easily2 whereas1 when complete     
silicification takes place1 the mass is 
not friable4 ,coniferous wood  is often 
friable1 from silicified portions being 
still separated  from each other by     
vegetable tissue more or less entire4   
,during  silicification1 or subsequent  
to it1 it frequently happens that  the  
plant has been compressed1 broken1 and  
deformed1 and that  fissures have been  
formed which have been subsequently     
filled with  crystallised or amorphous  

silica4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4     
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #g4 ,nicolia ,owenii   
7,carr471 from the ,tertiary ,strata  of
 ,egypt4    ,silicified stems of trees  
have been observed in various parts of  
the world1 with their structure well    
preserved1 so that their  ,endogenous   
and ,exogenous character could be easily
 determined4 ,the  ,rev4 ,w4 ,b4 ,clarke
 notices the occurrence of a fossil     
pine-forest  at ,kurrur-,kurrn1 in the  
inlet of ,awaaba1 on the eastern coast  
of  ,australia4 ,in the inlet there is a
 formation of conglomerate and          
sandstone1 with subordinate beds of     
lignite--the lignite forming  the       
so-called ,australian coal4 ,throughout 
the alluvial flat1 stumps  and stools of
 fossilised trees are seen standing out 
of the ground1  and one can form no     
better notion of their aspect than by   
imagining  what the appearance of the   
existing living forest of ,eucalypti and
  ,casuarin would be if the trees were  
all cut down to a certain level4  ,in a 

lake in the vicinity there are also some
 fossilised stumps of  trees1 standing  
vertically4 ,in ,derwent ,valley1 ,van  
,diemen's ,land1  fossil silicified     
trees1 in connection with trap rocks1   
have been  found in an erect position4  
,one was measured with a stem #f feet   
high1  a circumference at the base of #g
 feet #c inches1 and a diameter at the  
top of #ae inches4 ,the stems are       
,coniferous1 resembling ,araucaria4 ,the
  outer portion of the stem is of a rich
 brown glossy agate1 while the  interior
 is of a snowy whiteness4 ,one hundred  
concentric rings have  been counted4    
,the tissue falls into a powdery mass4  
,silica is found  in the inside of the  
tubes1 and their substance is also      
silicified4  ,the erect silicified stems
 of coniferous trees exist in their     
natural  positions in the dirt-bed1 an  
old surface soil in the sandstone       
strata of the ,purbeck series in the    
,isle of ,portland1 ,dorsetshire4 ,in   
the petrified forests near ,cairo       

silicified stems have been examined  by 
,brown1 ,unger1 and ,carruthers4 ,they  
belong to dicotyledonous trees  7not    
coniferous71 to which the names of      
,nicolia gyptiaca and ,nicolia  ,owenii 
7,fig4 #g7 have been given4 ,the wood   
consists of a slender  prosenchyma1     
abundantly penetrated by large ducts4   
,the walls of the  ducts are marked by  
small1 regularly arranged1 oval1 and    
somewhat  compressed hexagonal          
reticulations4 ,the ducts have          
transverse  diaphragms4 ,there are      
numerous medullary rays4 ,the wood in   
their  stems is converted into          
chalcedony4 7,carruthers on ,petrified  
,forest  near ,cairo4 ,geol4 ,mag41     
,july #ahgj47          ,,examination    
,,of ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,fossil    
,,plants4      ,when the structure of   
fossil plants is well preserved1 it may 
be  seen under the microscope by making 
thin sections after the mode            
recommended by ,mr4 ,william ,nicol1 the
 inventor of the prism which  bears his 

name1 and to whose memory ,unger        
dedicated the genus  ,nicolia1 which has
 just been described as constituting the
 petrified  forest at ,cairo4 ,the      
following is a description of the       
process of  preparing fossils for the   
microscope1 by ,mr4 ,alexander ,bryson4 
7,edin4  ,n4 ,phil4 ,journal1 ,n4 ,s4   
iii4 #big4 ,balfour's ,botanist's       
,companion1 p4  #cj47    ,the usual mode
 of proceeding in making a section of   
fossil wood is  simple1 though tedious4 
,the first process is to flatten the    
specimen  to be operated on by grinding 
it on a flat lap made of lead charged   
with emery or corundum powder4 ,it must 
now be rendered perfectly flat  by hand 
on a plate of metal or glass1 using much
 finer emery than in  the first         
operation of grinding4 ,the next        
operation is to cement the  object to   
the glass plate4 ,both the plate of     
glass and the fossil  to be cemented    
must be heated to a temperature rather  
inconvenient  for the fingers to bear4  

,by this means moisture and adherent air
 are  driven off1 especially from the   
object to be operated on4 ,canada       
balsam is now to be equally spread over 
both plate and object1 and  exposed     
again to heat1 until the redundant      
turpentine in the balsam  has been      
driven off by evaporation4 ,the two     
surfaces are now to be  connected while 
hot1 and a slow circular motion1 with   
pressure1 given  either to the plate or 
object1 for the purpose of throwing out 
the  superabundant balsam and globules  
of included air4 ,the object should  be 
below and the glass plate above1 as we  
then can see when all the  air is       
removed1 by the pressure and motion     
indicated4 ,it is proper  to mention    
that too much balsam is more favourable 
for the expulsion  of the air-bubbles   
than too little4 ,when cold1 the ,canada
 balsam  will be found hard and         
adhering1 and the specimen fit for      
slitting4  ,this process has hitherto   
been performed by using a disc of thin  

sheet-iron1 so much employed by the     
tinsmith1 technically called  sheet-tin4
 ,the tin coating ought to be partially 
removed by heating  the plate1 and when 
hot rubbing off much of the extraneous  
tin by a  piece of cloth4 ,the plate has
 now to be planished on the polished    
stake of the tinsmith1 until quite flat4
 ,if the plate is to be  used in the    
lathe1 and by the usual method1 it ought
 to be planished  so as to possess a    
slight convexity4 ,this gives a certain 
amount  of rigidity to the edge1 which  
is useful in slitting by the hand2      
while by the method of mechanical       
slitting1 about to be described1  this  
convexity is inadmissible4 ,the tin     
plate1 when mounted on an  appropriate  
chuck in the lathe1 must be turned quite
 true1 with its  edge slightly rounded  
and made perfectly smooth by a fine-cut 
file4  ,the edge of the disc is now to  
be charged with diamond powder4 ,this   
is done by mingling the diamond powder  
with oil1 and placing it on a  piece of 

the hardest agate1 and then turning the 
disc slowly round4  ,then1 by holding   
the agate with the diamond powder with a
 moderate  pressure against the edge of 
the disc1 it is thoroughly charged with 
a host of diamond points1 becoming1 as  
it were1 a saw with invisible  teeth4   
,in pounding the diamond1 some care is  
necessary1 as also a  fitting mortar4   
,the mortar should be made of an old    
steel die1 if  accessible2 if not1 a    
mass of steel1 slightly conical1 the    
base of  which ought to be #b inches in 
diameter1 and the upper part #a inch4   
,a cylindrical hole is now to be turned 
out in the centre1 of ths of  an inch   
diameter1 and about #a inch deep4 ,this1
 when hardened1 is the  mortar2 for     
safety it may be annealed to a straw    
colour4 ,the pestle  is merely a        
cylinder of steel1 fitting the hollow   
mortar but loosely1  and having a ledge 
or edging of an eighth of an inch       
projecting round  it1 but sufficiently  
raised above the upper surface of the   

mortar1 so  as not to come in contact   
while pounding the diamond4 ,the point  
of  the pestle ought only to be hardened
 and annealed to a straw colour1  and   
should be of course convex1 fitting the 
opposing and equal  concavity of the    
mortar4 ,the purpose of the projecting  
ledge is to  prevent the smaller        
particles of diamond spurting out when  
the pestle  is struck by the hammer4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4    ,sidenote3  
,fig4 #h4 ,mr4 ,bryson's instrument for 
slitting fossils4 ,a  very simple       
slicing and polishing machine has been  
invented by ,mr4 ,j4  ,b4 ,jordan of the
 ,mining ,record ,office1 and is sold by
 ,messrs4 ,cotton  and ,johnson1        
,grafton ,street1 ,soho1 ,london4 ,it   
costs about #aj4    ,mr4 ,bryson has    
contrived an instrument for slitting    
fossils4 ,the  instrument is placed on  
the table of a common lathe1 which is1  
of  course1 the source of motion 7,fig4 
#h74 ,it consists of a ,watt's  parallel
 motion1 with four joints1 attached to a

 basement fixed  to the table of the    
lathe4 ,this base has a motion 7for     
adjustment  only7 in a horizontal plane1
 by which we may be enabled to place the
  upper joint in a parallel plane with  
the spindle of the lathe4 ,this  may be 
called the azimuthal adjustment4 ,the   
adjustment1 which in  an astronomical   
instrument is called the plane of right 
ascension1  is given by a pivot in the  
top of the base1 and clamped by a screw 
below4 ,this motion in right ascension  
gives us the power of adjusting  the    
perpendicular planes of motion1 so that 
the object to be slit  passes down from 
the circumference of the slitting-plate 
to nearly  its centre1 in a perfectly   
parallel plane4 ,when this adjustment   
is made accurately1 and the             
slitting-plate well primed and flat1  a 
very thin and parallel slice is         
obtained4 ,this jointed frame is        
counterpoised and supported by a lever1 
the centre of which is  movable in a    
pillar standing perpendicularly from the

 lathe table4  ,attached to the lever is
 a screw of three threads1 by which the 
counterpoise weight is adjusted readily 
to the varying weight of the  object to 
be slit and the necessary pressure      
required on the edge of  the            
slitting-plate4    ,the object is fixed 
to the machine by a pneumatic chuck4 ,it
 consists  of an iron tube1 which passes
 through an aperture on the upper  joint
 of the guiding-frame1 into which is    
screwed a round piece of  gun-metal1    
slightly hollowed in the centre1 but    
flat towards the  edge4 ,this gun-metal 
disc is perforated by a small hole      
communicating  with the interior of the 
iron tube4 ,this aperture permits the   
air  between the glass plate and the    
chuck to be exhausted by a small        
air-syringe at the other end4 ,the face 
of this chuck is covered with  a thin   
film of soft india-rubber not           
vulcanised1 also perforated with  a     
small central aperture4 ,when the chuck 
is properly adjusted1 and  the          

india-rubber carefully stretched over   
the face of the gun-metal1  one or two  
pulls of the syringe-piston is quite    
sufficient to  maintain a very large    
object under the action of the          
slitting-plate4  ,by this method no time
 is lost2 the adhesion is made          
instantaneously1  and as quickly broken 
by opening a small screw1 to admit air  
between  the glass plate and the chuck1 
when the object is immediately          
released4 ,care must be taken1 in       
stretching the india-rubber over the    
face of the chuck1 to make it very equal
 in its distribution1 and as  thin as is
 consistent with strength4 ,when this   
material is obtained  from the shops1 it
 presents a series of slight grooves1   
and is rather  hard for our purpose4 ,it
 ought1 therefore1 to be slightly       
heated1  which renders it soft and      
pliant1 and in this state should now be 
stretched over the chuck1 and a piece of
 soft copper wire tied round  it1 a     
slight groove being cut in the periphery

 of the chuck to detain  the wire in its
 place4 ,when by use the surface of the 
india-rubber  becomes flat1 smooth1 and 
free from the grooves which at first mar
  its usefulness1 a specimen may be slit
 of many square inches1 without  resort 
being had to another exhaustion by the  
syringe4 ,but when a  large1 hard1      
siliceous object has to be slit1 it is  
well for the  sake of safety to try the 
syringe piston1 and observe if it       
returns  forcibly to the bottom of the  
cylinder1 which evidences the good      
condition of the vacuum of the chuck4   
,after the operation of slitting1 the   
plate must be removed from  the spindle 
of the lathe1 and the flat lead lap     
substituted4 ,the  pneumatic chuck is   
now to be reversed1 and the specimen    
placed in  contact with the grinder4 ,by
 giving a slightly tortuous motion to   
the specimen1 that is1 using the motion 
of the various joints1 the  object is   
ground perfectly flat when the length of
 both arms of the  joints is perfectly  

equal4 ,should the leg of the first     
joint on the  right-hand side be the    
longer1 the specimen will be ground     
hollow2 if  shorter1 it will be ground  
convex4 ,but if1 as before stated1 they 
are  of equal length1 a perfectly       
parallel surface will be obtained4      
,in operating on siliceous objects1 ,i  
have found soap and water  quite as     
speedy and efficacious as oil1 which is 
generally used2  while calcareous       
fossils must be slit by a solution of   
common soda  in water4 ,this solution of
 soda1 if made too strong1 softens the  
india-rubber on the face of the         
pneumatic chuck1 and renders a  new     
piece necessary2 but if care is taken to
 keep the solution of  moderate         
strength1 one piece of india-rubber may 
last for six months4  ,the thinner and  
flatter it becomes1 the better hold the 
glass takes1  until a puncture occurs in
 the outer portion1 and a new piece is  
rendered necessary4    ,the polishing of
 the section is the last operation4     

,this is performed  in various ways1    
according to the material of which the  
organism is  composed4 ,if siliceous1 a 
lap of tin is to be used1 about the same
  size as the grinding lap4 ,having     
turned the face smooth and flat1 a      
series of very fine notches are to be   
made all over the surface4 ,this        
operation is accomplished by holding the
 edge of an old dinner-knife  almost    
perpendicular to the surface of the lap 
while rotating2  this produces a series 
of criddles1 or slight asperities1 which
  detain the polishing substance4 ,the  
polishing substance used on the  tin lap
 is technically called lapidaries'      
rot-stone1 and is applied  by slightly  
moistening the mass1 and pressing it    
firmly against  the polisher1 care being
 taken to scrape off the outer surface1 
which often contains grit4 ,the specimen
 is then to be pressed with  some degree
 of force against the revolving tin lap 
or polisher1  carefully changing the    
plane of action1 by moving the specimen 

in  various directions over the surface4
    ,to polish calcareous objects1      
another method must be adopted as       
follows3--    ,a lap or disc of willow  
wood is to be adapted to the spindle of 
the  lathe1 three inches in thickness1  
and about the diameter of the other     
laps 7#aj inches71 the axis of the wood 
being parallel to the spindle  of the   
lathe1 that is1 the acting surface of   
the wood is the end of  the fibres1 the 
section being transverse4    ,this      
polisher must be turned quite flat and  
smoothed by a plane1 as  the willow1    
from its softness1 is peculiarly        
difficult to turn4 ,it  is also of      
consequence to remark that both sides   
should be turned1  so that the lap1 when
 dry1 is quite parallel4 ,this lap is   
most  conveniently adapted to the common
 face chuck of a lathe with a  conical  
screw1 so that either surface may be    
used4 ,this is made  evident1 when we   
state that this polisher is always used 
moist1 and1  to keep both surfaces      

parallel1 must be entirely plunged in   
water  before using1 as both surfaces   
must be equally moist1 otherwise the    
dry surface will be concave and the     
moist one convex4 ,the polishing        
substance used with this lap is putty   
powder 7oxide of tin71 which  ought to  
be well washed1 to free it from grit4   
,the calcareous fossils  being finely   
ground1 are speedily polished by this   
method4 ,to polish  softer substances1 a
 piece of cloth may be spread over the  
wooden  lap1 and finely-levigated chalk 
used as a polishing medium4    ,in order
 to study fossil plants well1 there must
 be an acquaintance  with systematic    
botany1 a knowledge of the microscopical
 structure  of all the organs of plants1
 such as their roots1 stems1 barks1     
leaves1 fronds1 and fruit2 of the       
markings which they exhibit on  their   
different surfaces1 and of the scars    
which some of them  leave when they     
decay4 ,it is only thus we can expect to
 determine  accurately the living       

affinities of the fossil4 ,brongniart   
says1  that before comparing a fossil   
vegetable with living plants1 it is     
necessary to reconstruct as completely  
as possible the portion of  the plant   
under examination1 to determine the     
relations of these  portions to the     
other organs of the same plant1 and to  
complete the  plant if possible1 by     
seeing whether1 in the fossils of the   
same  locality1 there may not be some   
which belong to the same plant4 ,the    
connection of the different parts of the
 same plant is one of the  most         
important problems in ,palophytology1   
and the neglect of it has  led to many  
mistakes4 ,in some instances the data   
have been sufficient  to enable         
botanists to refer a fossil plant to a  
genus of the present  day1 so that we   
have fossil species of the genera       
,ulmus1 ,alnus1  ,pinus1 etc4 ,sometimes
 the plant is shown to be allied to a   
living  genus1 but differing in some    
essential point1 or wanting something to

  complete the identity1 and it is then 
marked by the addition of the  term     
ites1 as ,pinites1 ,thuites1 ,zamites1  
etc4    ,before drawing conclusions as  
to the climate or physical condition  of
 the globe at different geological      
epochs1 the botanist must be  well      
informed as to the vegetation of        
different countries1 as to the  soils   
and localities in which certain plants  
grow1 whether on land  or in the sea1 or
 in lakes1 in dry or marshy ground1 in  
valleys or  on mountains1 or in         
estuaries1 in hot1 temperate1 or cold   
regions4  ,great caution must be        
employed also in predicating from one   
species  the conditions of another1     
inasmuch as different species of the    
same genus frequently exist in very     
different habitats1 and under  almost   
opposite conditions of moisture and     
temperature4 ,it is  only by a careful  
consideration of all these particulars  
that any  probable inferences can be    
drawn as to the condition of the globe4 

,considering the physiognomy of         
vegetation at the present day1 we  find 
remarkable associations of forms4 ,the  
,palms1 although generally              
characteristic of very warm countries1  
are by no means confined to  them2      
,chamrops humilis extending to ,europe  
as far as lat4 #dc to #dd  ,n41 and ,c4 
palmetto in ,north ,america to lat4 #cd 
to #cf ,n41 while  ,c4 ,fortunei1 from  
the north of ,china1 is perfectly hardy 
in the  south of ,england4 ,major       
,madden mentions the association of     
,palms and  ,bamboos with ,conifers at  
considerable elevations on the          
,himalayas4  7,edin4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,trans4
 iv41 p4 #ahe47 ,epiphytic ,orchids1    
which  usually characterise warm        
climates1 have representatives at great 
elevations1 as ,oncidium nubigenum at   
#ad1jjj feet in the ,andes1 and         
,epidendrum frigidum at from #ab1jjj to 
#ac1jjj feet in the ,columbia           
mountains4 ,these facts point out the   
care necessary before drawing           

conclusions as to the climate which     
fossil plants may be supposed to        
indicate4          ,,fossiliferous      
,,rocks4      ,the rocks of which the   
globe is composed are divided into two  
great classes--the ,stratified or       
,aqueous1 and the ,unstratified or      
,igneous4 ,the stratified rocks         
frequently contain fossil remains1  and 
are then called fossiliferous2 those    
with no such remains are  designated    
non-fossiliferous or azoic4 ,the igneous
 unstratified  rocks1 included under the
 names of ,granitic and ,trappean1 show 
no  appearance of animal or vegetable   
remains4 ,those trap rocks1 however1    
which have been formed of loose volcanic
 ashes have often enclosed  and         
preserved the remains of plants and     
animals2 while even between  the        
successive beds of old lava-like trap   
rocks organic remains are  sometimes    
found4 ,thus1 in ,antrim1 near the      
,giant's ,causeway1 deposits  containing
 vegetable remains occur                

inter-stratified with basaltic  rocks4  
,these remains are of ,miocene age1 and 
have been referred to  coniferous       
plants1 beeches1 oaks1 plane trees1 etc4
 ,similar plants  have been discovered  
in a similar position by the ,duke of   
,argyll  in the island of ,mull4 ,in    
trap rocks near ,edinburgh1 lignite with
  distinct structure has also been      
detected4 ,silicified wood and coal1    
imbedded in trap rocks1 have been seen  
in ,kerguelen's ,land4 ,the wood  is    
found enclosed in basalt1 whilst the    
coal crops out in ravines1  in close    
contact with the overlying porphyritic  
and amygdaloidal  greenstone4 ,hooker   
has also seen silicified wood1 in       
connection with  trap1 in ,macquarrie's 
,plains1 in ,tasmania4 ,several beds of 
trap-tuff  or ash1 formed into solid    
compact rock by infiltrated carbonate of
  lime1 occur in the north-east of      
,arran1 which contain numerous stems1   
branches1 and fruits of carboniferous   
plants4 ,these represent the  remains of

 successive forests which grew on this  
locality1 and were  one after the other 
destroyed by the ash-showers poured     
forth from a  neighbouring volcano      
during its intermittent periods of      
activity4    ,fossil remains are        
extremely rare in certain rocks1 which1 
from the  changes they have undergone1  
have been denominated ,metamorphic4     
,these include ,gneiss and ,mica-slate1 
which are stratified rocks  subsequently
 altered by heat and other causes1 and  
so completely  metamorphosed that the   
traces of organisms have been nearly    
obliterated4 ,nevertheless1 recognisable
 traces of plant and animal  remains    
have been found in what were recently   
thought to be azoic  rocks4 ,the absence
 of organic remains in rocks is         
therefore not  sufficient to enable us  
to state that these rocks were formed   
before  animals or vegetables existed4  
,the stratified rocks which contain     
fossils have been divided into  three   
great groups--the ,palozoic1 the        

,secondary1 and the ,tertiary1  or into 
,palozoic and ,neozoic groups4 ,the     
formations included under  these are    
exhibited in the following table1 taken 
from ,lyell's ,manual  of ,geology3--   
#a4  ,recent4                ,post      
,tertiary4   ,recent4    #b4  ,post     
,pliocene4                              
#c4  ,newer ,pliocene4                  
,pliocene4        #d4  ,older ,pliocene4
                                        
#e4  ,upper ,miocene4                   
,miocene4      ,tertiary      #f4       
,lower ,miocene4                        
or                                      
,cainozoic4     #g4  ,upper ,eocene4    
#h4  ,middle ,eocene4                   
,eocene4                     #i4  ,lower
 ,eocene4                               
,neozoic4    #aj4 ,maestricht ,beds4    
#aa4 ,white ,chalk4                     
#ab  ,chloritic ,series4                
,secondary      #ac4 ,gault             
,cretaceous4       or          #ad4     
,neocomian4                             

,mesozoic4      #ae4 ,wealden4          
#af4 ,purbeck ,beds4                    
#ag4 ,portland ,stone4                  
#ah4 ,kimmeridge ,clay4                 
#ai4 ,coral ,rag4                       
,jurassic4                    #bj4      
,oxford ,clay4                          
,secondary      #ba4 ,great or ,bath    
,oolite4                     or         
,neozoic4    #bb4 ,inferior ,oolite4    
,mesozoic4      #bc4 ,lias4             
#bd4 ,upper ,trias4                     
#be4 ,middle ,trias4                    
,triassic4                    #bf4      
,lower ,trias4                          
#bg4 ,permian4                          
,permian4         #bh4 ,coal ,measures4 
#bi4 ,carboniferous                     
,carboniferous4           limestone4    
#cj4 ,upper                  ,devonian  
or       #ca4 ,middle  ,devonian4       
,old ,red                     #cb4      
,lower                   ,sandstone4    
,primary                                
or       ,palozoic4    #cc4 ,upper      

,palozoic4     #cd4 ,lower   ,silurian4 
,silurian4                              
#ce4 ,upper                             
#cf4 ,lower   ,cambrian4                
,cambrian4                              
#cg4 ,upper                             
#ch4 ,lower   ,laurentian4              
,laurentian4             ,,natural      
,,orders ,,to ,,which ,,fossil ,,plants 
,,belong4      ,the plants found in     
different strata are either terrestrial 
or  aquatic1 and the latter exhibit     
species allied to the salt and fresh    
water vegetables of the present day4    
,their state of preservation  depends   
much on their structure4 ,cellular      
plants have probably in a  great measure
 been destroyed1 and hence their rarity2
 while those  having a woody structure  
have been preserved4 ,the following is  
the  number of fossil genera and        
species1 as compiled from ,unger's work 
on  ,palophytology--7,unger1 ,genera et 
,species ,plantarum ,fossilium1 #ahej74 
,,dicotyledones4                        

,genera4   ,species4                    
,thalamiflor4                  #bd      
#hd        ,calyciflor                  
#ef        #ahb        ,corolliflor     
#bc         #fj        ,monochlamyde    
,angiosperm      #dh        #bba        
------------- ,gymnosperm      #ef      
#cfc      ,,monocotyledones4            
,petaloide                     #ch      
#acj        ,glumifer                   
#e         #ab      ,,acotyledones4     
,thallogen                     #ca      
#bjc        ,acrogen                    
#aba        #ifi        ,doubtful       
#ce        #aig                         
----       ----                         
#dcg       #bdba    ,these plants are   
arranged in the different strata as     
follows3--                 ,cambrian1   
,silurian1 and ,devonian       #gc      
,palozoic  ,carboniferous               
#fhc               ,permian             
#ig                 ,triassic           
#aae    ,mesozoic   ,jurassic           
#bid               ,cretaceous          

#ahc                 ,eocene            
#dad    ,cainozoic  ,miocene            
#dif               ,pliocene            
#ce      ,recent      ,post-,pliocene   
#ca                                     
----                                    
,fossil ,species4  #bdba    ,during the 
twenty years that have elapsed since    
this enumeration was  made1 the number  
of fossil species has been very greatly 
increased4  ,the proportion exhibited in
 this table is likewise greatly altered 
from the enormous additions made to the 
,tertiary ,flora by ,unger1             
,ettingshausen1 and ,heer1 and from the 
important contributions by  ,principal  
,dawson to the ,devonian ,flora4        
,among the fossil ,thalamifloral        
,dicotyledons1 ,unger mentions species  
belonging to the orders--               
,magnoliace4    ,anonace4    ,nymphace4 
,capparidace4    ,malvace4              
,byttneriace4    ,tiliace4              
,aurantiace4    ,malpighiace4           
,acerace4    ,sapindace4    ,cedrelace4 

,zygophyllace4    ,xanthoxylace4        
,coriariace4    ,among ,calycifloral    
,dicotyledons--      ,celastrace4       
,rhamnace4    ,anacardiace4             
,amyridace4    ,leguminos4    ,rosace4  
,calycanthace4    ,combretace4          
,melastomace4    ,myrtace4              
,halorageace4    ,cucurbitace4          
,cornace4    ,loranthace4    ,rubiace4  
,among ,corollifloral ,dicotyledons--   
,ericace4    ,styracace4    ,ebenace4   
,aquifoliace4    ,sapotace4    ,oleace4 
,apocynace4    ,gentianace4    ,among   
,monochlamydeous ,angiosperms--         
,nyctaginace4    ,laurace4    ,proteace4
    ,aquilariace4    ,samydace4         
,santalace4    ,euphorbiace4            
,urticace4    ,artocarpace4             
,ceratophyllace4    ,salicace4          
,myricace4    ,betulace4    ,altingiace4
    ,platanace4    ,corylace4           
,juglandace4    ,rafflesiace4    ,among 
,monochlamydeous ,gymnosperms--         
,conifer4    ,taxace4    ,gnetace4      
,cycadace4    ,among ,petaloid          

,monocotyledons--      ,smilace4        
,orchidace4    ,zingiberace4    ,musace4
    ,liliace4    ,palm4    ,pandanace4  
,arace4    ,typhace4    ,naiadace4      
,restiace4    ,among ,glumiferous       
,monocotyledons--      ,cyperace4       
,gramine4    ,among ,acrogenous         
,acotyledons--      ,filices4           
,marsileace4    ,lycopodiace4           
,equisetace4    ,musci4    ,hepatic4    
,among ,thallogenous ,acotyledons--     
,lichenes4    ,charace4    ,alg4        
,fungi4          ,,periods ,,of         
,,vegetation ,,among ,,fossil ,,plants4 
,on taking a general survey of the known
 fossil plants1 ,brongniart  thought    
that he could trace three periods of    
vegetation1  characterised by the       
predominance of certain marked forms of 
plants4 ,in the ancient period there is 
a predominance of ,acrogenous           
,cryptogamic plants2 this is succeeded  
by a period in which there is  a        
preponderance of ,gymnospermous         
,dicotyledons2 while a third period  is 

marked by the predominance of           
,angiospermous ,dicotyledons4 ,there  is
 thus--#a4 ,the reign of ,acrogens1     
which includes the plants of the        
,devonian1 ,carboniferous1 and ,permian 
periods4 ,during these periods  there   
seems to be a predominance of ,ferns1   
and a great development of  arborescent 
,lycopodiace1 such as ,lepidodendron and
 ,sigillaria1 and  with them are        
associated some ,gynmosperms1 allied to 
,araucaria1 and  some anomalous plants1 
as ,noeggerathia4 #b4 ,the reign of     
,gymnosperms1  comprehending the        
,triassic and ,jurassic periods4 ,here  
we meet with  numerous ,conifer and     
,cycadace1 while ,ferns are less        
abundant4 #c4  ,the reign of            
,angiosperms1 embracing the ,cretaceous 
and the ,tertiary  periods4 ,this is    
characterised by the predominance of    
,angiospermous  ,dicotyledons1 a class  
of plants which constitute more than    
three-fourths of the present vegetable  
productions of the globe1 and  which    

appear to have acquired a predominance  
from the commencement of  the ,tertiary 
formations4 ,these plants appear        
sparingly even at the  beginning of the 
chalk formation in ,europe1 but are more
 abundant in  this formation as         
developed in ,north ,america4           
,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,or       
,,pal,,ozoic ,,period4          ,,reign 
,,of ,,acrogens4      ,in the present   
day1 acrogenous plants are represented  
by cellular  and vascular ,cryptogams4  
,in considering fossil plants our       
attention  is specially directed to the 
latter4 ,in the recent ,floras1 vascular
  ,acrogens are represented by such     
plants as ,ferns1 ,lycopods1 and        
,equisetums4 ,some of them have an      
arborescent habit1 but the greater      
number are shrubby and herbaceous4 ,many
 of them have creeping  rhizomes1 which 
are either subterranean1 or run along   
the surface  of the ground4 ,one of     
these arborescent forms is seen in      
,tree-ferns  7,fig4 #i74 ,another form  

with a rhizome is seen in ,fig4 #aj4    
,the trunks  of ferns are marked by     
scars1 which indicate the parts where   
the  bases of the fronds were attached1 
and where the vascular tissue  passes   
out from the interior 7,fig4 #aa1 a and 
b74 ,a transverse  section of the stem  
7,fig4 #ab7 shows a continuous cylinder 
of  scalariform vessels 7,fig4 #ac71    
enclosing a large mass of cellular      
tissue frequently penetrated by small   
scalariform bundles4 ,the  cylinder is  
pierced by meshes1 from the inner sides 
of which rise the  vascular bundles     
going to the leaves1 while some of the  
free bundles  of the axis pass through  
the mesh1 carrying with them a portion  
of  the cellular tissue into the        
petiole4 ,the fructification consists   
of spore-cases 7sporangia71 often with  
an elastic ring round them1  containing 
spores in their interior 7,fig4 #ad74   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4    ,sidenote3  
,fig4 #i4 ,tree-fern1 with a slender    
cylindrical trunk and a  crown of       

drooping fronds4 ,it is a vascular      
acrogen4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4   
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,asplenium2 a     
species of ,spleenwort4 ,a4 ,rhizome1   
r1 covered with the bases 7stalks or    
stipes7 of the fronds2 f1  fronds in    
bud1 rolled up in a circinate manner    
7this is very rarely  seen in fossil    
ferns72 g1 fronds bearing fructification
 on their  backs4 ,b4 ,portion of a     
frond separated to show the linear sori 
or  clusters of sporangia 7spore-cases74
    ,among ,acrogens of the present day 
there are also plants belonging  to the 
natural order ,lycopodiace or           
,club-mosses 7,fig4 #ae71 having        
creeping stems1 which give rise to leafy
 branches4 ,the leaves are  small1      
sessile1 and moss-like1 and the         
fructification consists of two  kinds of
 cellular bodies1 small spores or       
microspores 7,fig4 #af71  and large     
spores or macrospores 7,fig4 #ag74 ,they
 consist of cellular  and vascular      
tissues1 the latter occurring in the    

form of woody1  annular1 and scalariform
 vessels1 which occupy the axis or      
central  part of the stem4 ,they differ 
from ferns in the distribution of  their
 vascular bundles4 ,the order is        
represented also by such plants  as     
,selaginella1 ,psilotum1 ,phylloglossum1
 and ,isoetes4 ,in the plant  called    
,isoetes 7,quillwort7 there is a        
peculiar short stem which does  not     
increase in height4 ,it produces        
additions laterally1 so that the  stem  
increases in thickness4 ,the leaves     
continue to multiply1 and  bear         
fructification at their bases4 ,they    
have both large and small  spores4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa1 a4 ,fig4 #aa1 
b4 ,fig4 #ab4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #aa1  
a4 ,bifurcating 7forked or dichotomous7 
trunk  7caudex7 of a ,tree-fern         
7,alsophila ,perrottetiana71 showing the
  scars 7cicatrices7 left by the fallen 
fronds4 ,these scars exhibit  the       
arrangement of the vascular bundles4    
,fig4 #aa1 b4 ,rhizome of  ,lastrea     

,filix-mas 7male fern71 showing scars of
 the leaves1 c1  with markings of the   
vascular bundles4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4   
#ab4 ,transverse section of the stem    
7caudex7 of a  ,tree-fern 7,cyathea71   
showing the arrangement of the cellular 
and  vascular tissue4 ,the cellular     
tissue of the centre1 m2 that of  the   
circumference1 p2 vascular cylinder1 f  
v1 consisting of  dark-coloured         
pleurenchyma or ligneous tubes1 f1 and  
paler vessels1  v1 chiefly scalariform  
and closed spiral1 and pierced by the   
meshes  for the leaf-bundles at m2 the  
outer cortical portion connected  with  
the bases of the leaves1 e4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac-ag4            
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,scalariform      
vessels taken from a ,tree-fern4 ,they  
are marked with bars like the steps of a
 ladder1 hence their name4  ,the        
membrane occasionally disappears1 so    
that the walls are made up  of fibres   
only at some parts4    ,fig4 #ad4       
,sporangia of a ,fern1 supported on     

stalks1 p1 each of which  ends in an    
elastic cellular ring1 s1 partially     
surrounding the  spore-case1 and opening
 it when mature4    ,fig4 #ae4          
,lycopodium clavatum1 a common          
,club-moss4 ,the leafy branch1  l1 ends 
in a stalk bearing two spikes of        
fructification1 f4    ,fig4 #af4 ,a     
kidney-shaped #b-valved case1 containing
 small spores  7microspores7 of         
,lycopodium4    ,fig4 #ag4 ,two-valved  
case1 containing large spores           
7macrospores7 of  ,selaginella4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4    ,sidenote3 
,fig4 #ah4 ,fructification of ,equisetum
 maximum1 ,great  ,water ,horse-tail1   
showing the stalk surrounded by         
membranous sheaths1  s s1 which are     
fringed by numerous processes called    
teeth4 ,the  fructification1 f1 at the  
extremity1 is in the form of a cone     
bearing polygonal scales1 under which   
are spore-cases containing  spores with 
filaments4    ,another important order  
of vascular ,acrogens is the ,equisetace

  or ,horse-tails 7,fig4 #ah74 ,these   
are ,cryptogams1 having rhizomes1       
bearing hollow1 striated branches1 which
 secrete in their epidermis  a          
considerable amount of silex4 ,these    
branches are jointed and have           
membranous sheaths at the articulations1
 which are whorls of leaves  reduced to 
a very rudimentary condition4 ,the      
fructification consists  of cone-like   
bodies 7,fig4 #ah1 f7 bearing peltate   
polygonal scales1  under which are      
spore-cases 7,fig4 #ai71 enclosing      
spores with four  hygrometric           
club-shaped filaments called elaters    
7,figs4 #bj and #ba74  ,at the present  
day some of these plants in tropical    
regions have  stems of #ae or #af feet  
high4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai-ba4   
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,polygonal scale1 
s1 of a species of ,horse-tail          
7,equisetum71 bearing membranous sacs1  
t1 which open on their  inner surface to
 discharge spores4    ,fig4 #bj4 ,spore 
of ,equisetum1 surrounded by two        

filaments  with club-shaped extremities4
 ,the filaments are represented as      
coiled  round the spore4    ,fig4 #ba4  
,spore of ,equisetum1 with the filaments
 7elaters7  expanded4    ,among vascular
 ,acrogens is included the natural order
 ,marsileace  or ,rhizocarpe1 the       
,pepperworts 7,fig4 #bb74 ,the order    
consists of  aquatic plants1 with       
creeping stems1 bearing leaves1 which   
are either  linear1 or divided into     
three or more wedge-shaped portions not 
unlike clover4 ,the fructification is at
 the base of the leaf-stalks1  and      
consists of sacs 7sporocarps7 containing
 spores of two kinds1  microspores and  
macrospores4 ,the order contains        
,marsilea1 ,pilularia1  ,azolla1 and    
,salvinia4    ,for a fuller account of  
,acrogenous plants1 see ,balfour's      
,class ,book  of ,botany1 p4 #ied4      
,these orders are represented in the    
,palozoic flora4 ,many of the  fossil   
species assume a large size1 and show a 
greater degree  of development than is  

seen in their recent congeners4 ,the    
most  important coal plants belong to   
the ,ferns1 ,lycopods1 and ,horse-tails4
  ,the examination of the structure and 
conformation of the plants of  the      
present flora assists much in the       
determination of the fossil             
carboniferous flora4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #bb4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #bb4     
,marsilea ,fabri1 a species of          
,pepperwort or  ,rhizocarp1 with a      
creeping stem1 quadrifoliate stalked    
leaves on one  side1 and roots on the   
other4 ,the fructification1 s1 is at the
 base  of the leaves1 and consists of   
sporangia1 called sporocarps4    ,in the
 lower ,palozoic strata the plants which
 have been detected  are few4 ,in the   
,silurian and ,cambrian systems1 we meet
 with the  remains of ancient marine    
plants1 as well as a few terrestrial    
species4 ,even in the still older       
,laurentian rocks1 if the remarkable    
structure known as ,eozoon canadense be 
considered1 as it generally  is1 an     

animal1 the existence of contemporary   
plants may be inferred1  inasmuch as    
without vegetable life animals could not
 obtain food4  ,in the ,lower ,silurian 
or ,grauwacke1 near ,girvan1 ,hugh      
,miller found  a species resembling     
,zostera in form and appearance4 ,in the
 ,lower  ,old ,red ,sandstone of        
,scotland he detected ,fucoids1 a       
,lepidodendron1  and ,lignite with a    
distinct ,coniferous structure          
resembling that of  ,araucaria1#a       
besides a remarkable pinnate frond4 ,in 
the middle ,old  ,red of ,forfarshire1  
as seen in the ,arbroath pavement1 he   
found a  fern with reniform pinn and a  
,lepidodendron4 ,in the ,upper ,old     
,red1  near ,dunse1 a ,calamite and the 
well-known ,irish fern ,cyclopteris     
,hibernica occur4#b ,this fern1         
,palopteris ,hibernica of ,schimper     
7,plate ,i4 ,figs4 #a to #d71 along with
 ,sigillaria dichotoma1 is very         
abundant in beds of the same age in the 
south of ,ireland1 from  which the      

specimens described by ,edward ,forbes  
were obtained4 ,the  fructification has 
recently been discovered4 ,this shows   
that the fern  belongs to the           
,hymenophylle1 and is consequently      
nearly related to  the equally famous   
,killarney fern1 ,trichomanes radicans4 
,mr4 ,carruthers states that the        
frond-stalk of this fern is thick1  of  
considerable length1 and clothed with   
large scales1 which form  a dense       
covering at the somewhat enlarged base4 
,the well-defined  separation observed  
in several specimens probably indicates 
that  the frond-stalks were articulated 
to the stem or freely separated  from   
it1 and some root-like structures which 
occur on the slabs with  the ferns may  
be their creeping rhizomes4 ,the pinn   
are linear1  obtuse1 and almost sessile4
 ,the pinnules are numerous1            
overlapping1  of an ovate or            
oblong-ovate form1 somewhat cuneate     
below1 and with  a decurrent base4 ,the 
veins are very numerous1 uniform1       

repeatedly  dichotomous1 and run out to 
the margin1 where they form a slight    
serration4 ,single pinnules rather      
larger than those of the pinn  are      
placed over the free spaces of the      
rachis1 as was pointed out  by          
,brongniart4 ,carruthers has not met    
with any recent fern in which  this     
occurs2 but it has been observed in     
several fossil species1 as  in the      
allied ,american ,palopteris ,halliana  
7,sch471 in ,sphenopteris  erosa        
7,morris71 and others4 ,the pinnules are
 sometimes entirely1  but only partially
 fertile4 ,the ovate-oblong sori are    
generally  single and two-lipped1 the   
slit passing one-third of the way down  
the sorus4 ,the vein is continued as a  
free receptacle in the  centre of the   
cup or cyst1 as in existing             
,hymenophylle1 in which  it is included1
 not reaching beyond its entire portion4
 ,in some  specimens the receptacle is  
broad or thick1 indicating the presence 
of something besides itself in the cup1 

and giving the appearance  that would be
 produced if it were covered with       
sporangia2 there is  no indication on   
the outer surface which might have been 
expected  from the separate sporangia4  
,the compression of the specimens in the
  rock1 which has made the free         
receptacle appear like a vein on the    
wall of the cup1 together with the      
highly altered condition of the  rock in
 which the fossils are contained1       
accounts for the imperfect  preservation
 of the minute structures4 ,the         
interpretation here given  of the       
fructification of this interesting      
fossil exhibits so close  a resemblance 
to what we find in the living genus     
,hymenophyllum1  that1 were it not for  
the vegetative portions1 it would be    
placed  in that genus4 ,several ferns   
have been described by ,bunbury from    
,devonian rocks at ,oporto4 ,a still    
more extensive and varied land  flora of
 ,devonian age 7or ,erian1 as he calls  
it7 has been described  and illustrated 

by ,principal ,dawson from the rocks of 
that period  occurring in ,canada2 and  
during a recent visit to ,britain he has
  correlated many of the fragments      
collected by ,miller1 ,peach1 and       
others1 with the ,american species he   
has described4 ,the following  are some 
of the fossil plants from beds older    
than the ,carboniferous                 
system3#c--,prototaxites ,logani1       
,dadoxylon ,ouangondianum1 ,calamites   
transitionis1 ,asterophyllites parvulus1
 ,sphenophyllum antiquum1               
,lepidodendron ,gaspianum1              
,lepidostrobus ,richardsoni1 ,l4        
,matthewi1  ,psilophyton princeps1 ,p4  
robustius1 ,selaginites formosus1       
,cordaites  ,robbii1 ,c4 angustifolius1 
,cyclopteris ,jacksoni4    ,from the    
microscopic examination of the structure
 of specimens of  fossil trunks         
described under the name of             
,prototaxites ,logani1 and  which       
,principal ,dawson believes to be the   
oldest known instance of  ,coniferous   

wood1 ,mr4 ,carruthers has come to the  
conclusion that  they are really the    
stems of huge ,alg1 belonging to at     
least more  than one genus4 ,they are   
very gigantic when contrasted with the  
ordinary ,alg of our existing seas1     
nevertheless some approach to  them in  
size is made in the huge and tree-like  
,lessonias which ,dr4  ,hooker found in 
the ,antarctic ,seas1 and which have    
stems about #bj  feet high1 with a      
diameter so great that they have been   
collected by  mariners in these regions 
for fuel1 under the belief that they    
were  drift-wood4 ,they are as thick as 
a man's thigh4 ,schimper regards the    
,psilophyton of ,dawson 7,plate ,,iv4   
,fig4 #e7 as allied to ,pilularia1 one  
of the ,rhizocarps 7,fig4 #bb71 and     
,carruthers places it among the true    
,lycopodiace4          ,,flora ,,of     
,,the ,,carboniferous ,,epoch4      ,the
 ,carboniferous period is one of the    
most important as regards  fossil       
plants4 ,the vegetable forms are        

numerous1 and have a great  similarity  
throughout the whole system1 whether    
exhibited in the ,old  or the ,new      
,world4 ,the important substance called 
,coal owes its origin  to the plants of 
this epoch4 ,it has been subjected to   
great pressure  and long-continued      
metamorphic action1 and hence the       
appearance  of the plants has been much 
altered4 ,it is difficult to give a     
definition of ,coal4 ,the varieties of  
it are numerous4 ,there is a  gradual   
transition from ,anthracite to          
,household and ,parrot ,coal2 and  the  
limit between ,coal and what is called  
bituminous shale is by no  means        
distinct4 ,coal may be said to be       
chemically-altered vegetable  matter    
inter-stratified with the rocks1 and    
capable of being used as  fuel4 ,on     
examining thin sections of coal under   
the microscope1 we can  detect vegetable
 tissues both of a cellular and vascular
 nature4 ,in  ,wigan cannel coal1       
vegetable structure is seen throughout  

the whole  mass4 ,such is likewise the  
case with other cannel1 parrot1 and gas 
coals4 ,in common household coal1 also1 
evident traces of organic  tissue have  
been observed4 ,in some kinds of coal   
punctated woody  tissue 7,plate ,,iii4  
,fig4 #e7 has been detected1 in others  
scalariform  tissue 7,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4
 #f71 as well as cells of different     
kinds4  ,sporangia are also frequently  
found in the substance of coal1 as      
shown by ,mr4 ,daw in that from ,fordel 
7,plate ,,iii4 ,figs4 #a to #c72 and    
some beds1 like the ,better bed of      
,bradford1 are composed almost  entirely
 of these sporangia imbedded in their   
shed microspores1  as has been recently 
shown by ,huxley4 ,the structure of coal
 in  different beds1 and in different   
parts of the same bed1 seems to vary    
according to the nature of the plants by
 which it has been formed1  as well as  
to the metamorphic action which it has  
undergone4 ,hence  the different        
varieties of coal which are worked4 ,the

 occurrence of  punctated tissue        
indicates the presence of ,conifer in   
the coal-bed1  while scalariform vessels
 point to ferns1 and their allies1 such 
as  ,sigillaria and ,lepidodendron4 ,the
 anatomical structure of the stems  of  
these plants may have some effect on the
 microscopic characters  of the coal    
produced from them4 ,in some cannel     
coals structure  resembling that of     
,acrogens has been observed4 ,a         
brownish-yellow  substance is           
occasionally present1 which seems to    
yield abundance of  carburetted hydrogen
 gas when exposed to heat4    ,it       
appears that in general each bed of coal
 is accompanied by the  remains of a    
somewhat limited amount of species4     
,their number1  particularly in the most
 ancient beds1 is scarcely more than    
eight  or ten4 ,in other cases the      
number is more considerable1 but rarely 
more than thirty or forty4 ,in the same 
coal-basin each layer often  contains   
several characteristic species which are

 not met with  either in the beds above 
or below4 ,thus1 there are sometimes    
small  local or temporary floras1 each  
of which has given birth to layers  of  
coal4 ,the quantity of carbonaceous and 
other matter required to  form a bed of 
coal is immense4 ,maclaren has          
calculated that one acre  of coal three 
feet thick is equal to the produce of   
#aidj acres of  forest4#d ,the          
proportion of carbon varies in different
 kinds of  coal4 ,along with it there is
 always more or less of earthy matter   
which constitutes the ashes4 ,when the  
earthy substances are in such  quantity 
that the coaly deposit will not burn as 
fuel1 then we have  what is called a    
shale4 ,the coal contains plants similar
 to those of  the shales and sandstones 
above and below it4 ,underneath a       
coal-seam  lies the ,underclay1         
containing roots only1 and representing 
the  ancient soil2 then comes the ,coal1
 composed of plants whose roots are  in 
the clay1 with others which have grown  

along with and upon them1  in a manner  
precisely similar to the growth of peat 
at the present  day2 while above the    
coal is the ,shale1 marking how mud was 
laid  down on the plants1 and bearing   
evidences of vigorous vegetation  on    
neighbouring land1 from which currents  
brought down the fine  sediment1 mingled
 with broken pieces of plants4    ,the  
total thickness of coal in the ,english 
coal-fields is about #ej  or #fj feet4  
,in the ,mid-,lothian field there are   
#ajh feet of coal4  ,coal-beds are      
worked at #agbe feet below the          
sea-level1 and probably  extend down to 
upwards of #bj1jjj feet4 ,they rise to  
#ab1jjj feet above  the sea-level1 and  
at ,huanuco1 in ,peru1 to #ad1gjj4e ,it 
is said that  the first coal-works were 
opened at ,belgium in #aaih1 and soon   
after  in ,england and ,scotland2 it was
 not till the fifteenth century that    
they were opened in ,france and         
,germany4    ,the following calculations
 have been made as to the extent of the 

coal formation in different countries1  
and the amount of coal  raised3--#f     
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,,countries4            ,square ,miles  
of ,annual ,production                  
,coal ,formation4  of ,coal in ,tons4   
----------------------------------------
--------------------------    ,great    
,britain and ,ireland                   
#e1djj          #fe1hhg1ijj             
,british ,north ,america                
#g1ecj           #a1ejj1jjj      ,united
 ,states                        #aif1fej
           #e1jjj1jjj      ,belgium     
#eah           #h1dji1ccj      ,france  
#a1gai           #g1gdj1cag             
,prussia and ,austria                   
----           #d1bjj1jjj      ,saxony  
#cj           #a1jjj1jjj      ,russia   
#ajj           #c1ejj1jjj      ,japan1  
,china1 ,borneo1 ,australia1            
etc4                               ---- 
#b1jjj1jjj                              
----------------------------------------

--------------------------              
,total ,produce of the ,world           
----          #ii1bcg1edg               
----------------------------------------
--------------------------    ,the total
 quantity of coal annually raised over  
the globe appears  thus to be about #ajj
 millions of tons1 of which the produce 
of ,great  ,britain is more than        
two-thirds1 and would be sufficient to  
girdle  the earth at the equator with a 
belt of #c feet in thickness and  nearly
 #e feet in width4 ,the coal-fields of  
the ,united ,states are  nearly forty   
times larger than those of ,great       
,britain4    ,roscoe gives the following
 estimated quantities of coal in the    
principal countries3--                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,average                                
,,countries4              ,thickness4   
,tons4                                  
,no4 ,feet4                             
----------------------------------------

--------------------------    ,belgium  
#fj         #cf1jjj1jjj1jjj     ,france 
#fj         #ei1jjj1jjj1jjj     ,british
 ,islands                         #ce   
#aij1jjj1jjj1jjj     ,pennsylvania      
#be        #caf1djj1jjj1jjj     ,great  
,appalachian ,coalfield             #be 
#a1chg1ejj1jjj1jjj     ,indiana1        
,illinois1 ,western ,kentucky     #be   
#a1bgg1ejj1jjj1jjj     ,missouri1 and   
,arkansas ,basin            #aj         
#gci1jjj1jjj1jjj     ,north ,america    
7assumed thickness                      
over an area of #bjj1jjj square         
miles7                                  
#bj      #d1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj             
----------------------------------------
--------------------------    ,unger    
enumerates #fhc plants of the           
coal-measures1 while ,brongniart        
notices #ejj4 ,of the last number there 
are #f ,thallogens1 #cdf  ,acrogens1    
#ace ,gymnosperms1 and #ac doubtful     
plants4 ,this appears  to be a very     
scanty vegetation1 as far as regards the

 number of  species4 ,it is only equal  
to about #a_/bjth of the number of      
species  now growing on the surface of  
the soil of ,europe4 ,although1         
however1 the number of species was      
small1 yet it is probable that  the     
individuals of a species were numerous4 
,the proportion of  ,ferns was very     
large4 ,there are between #bjj and #cjj 
enumerated4  ,schimper thinks there are 
#g species congeneric with ,lycopodium  
found in the coal-measures4 ,the        
following are some of the  ,cryptogamous
 and ,phanerogamous genera belonging to 
the flora of  the ,carboniferous        
period3--,cyclopteris1 ,neuropteris1    
,odontopteris1  ,sphenopteris1          
,hymenophyllites1 ,alethopteris1        
,pecopteris1 ,coniopteris1              
,cladophlebis1 ,senftenbergia1          
,lonchopteris1 ,glossopteris1           
,caulopteris1  ,lepidodendron           
7,lepidostrobus1 ,lepidophyllum1        
,knorria71 ,flemingites1  ,ulodendron1  
,halonia1 ,psaronius1 ,sigillaria and   

,stigmaria1 ,calamites                  
7,asterophyllites and ,sphenophyllum71  
,noeggerathia1 ,walchia1 ,peuce1        
,dadoxylon1 ,pissadendron1              
,trigonocarpum4    ,ferns are the       
carboniferous fossil group which present
 the most  obvious and recognisable     
relationship to plants of the present   
day4  ,while cellular plants and those  
with lax tissues have lost their        
characters by the maceration to which   
they were subjected before              
fossilisation took place1 ferns are more
 durable1 and retain their  structure4  
,it is rare1 however1 to find the stalk 
of the frond  completely preserved down 
to its base4 ,it is also rare to find   
fructification present4 ,in this        
respect1 fossil ,ferns resemble         
,tree-ferns of the present day1 the     
fronds of which rarely exhibit          
fructification4 ,hooker states that of  
two or three kinds of ,new  ,zealand    
,tree-fern1 not one specimen in a       
thousand bears a single  fertile frond1 

though all abound in barren ones4 ,only 
one surface  of the fossil ,fern-frond  
is exposed1 and that generally the least
  important in a botanical point of     
view4 ,fructification is sometimes      
evidently seen1 as figured by ,corda in 
,senftenbergia4 ,in this case  the      
fructification is not unlike that of    
,aneimidictyon of the present  day4     
,carruthers has recently detected the   
separate sporangia of ,ferns  full of   
spores in calcareous nodules in coal    
7,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #e74 ,these  have the 
elastic ring characteristic of the      
,polypodiace1 and in  their size1 form1 
and method of attachment1 they are      
allied to the  group ,hymenophylle4 ,the
 absence of fructification presents a   
great  obstacle to the determination of 
fossil ,ferns4 ,circinate vernation1  so
 common in modern ,ferns1 is rarely seen
 in the fossil species1  and we do not  
in general meet with rhizomes4          
,characters taken from  the venation and
 forms of the fronds are not always to  

be depended  upon1 if we are to judge   
from the ,ferns of the present day4     
,there  is a great similarity between   
the carboniferous ,ferns of ,britain    
and ,america2 and the same species1 or  
closely allied species of the  same     
genera as those found in ,britain have  
been met with in ,south  ,africa1 ,south
 ,america1 and ,australia4 ,in the      
,english coal-measures  the species are 
about #adj4 ,the ,palozoic flora of the 
,arctic regions  also resembles that of 
the other quarters of the globe4 ,heer1 
in  his account of the fossil flora of  
,bear ,island1#g enumerates the         
following plants3--,cardiopteris        
frondosa1 ,c4 polymorpha1 ,palopteris   
,roemeriana1 ,sphenopteris ,schimperi1  
,lepidodendron ,veltheimianum1 ,l4      
commutatum1 ,l4 ,carneggiannum1 ,l4     
,wilkianum1 ,lepidophyllum ,roemeri1    
,knorria imbricata1 ,k4 acicularis1     
,calamites radiatus1 ,cyclostigma       
,kiltorkense1 ,stigmaria ficoides1 etc41
 ,cardiocarpum ursinum1 ,c4             

punctulatum1 besides various sporangia  
and spores4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb1
 bis4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #bb1 bis4     
,adiantites ,lindseformis4    ,the      
preponderance of ,ferns over flowering  
plants is seen at the  present day in   
many tropical islands1 such as ,st4     
,helena and the  ,society group1 as well
 as in extra-tropical islands1 as ,new  
,zealand4  ,in the latter1 ,hooker      
picked #cf kinds in an area of a few    
acres2  they gave a luxuriant aspect to 
the vegetation1 which presented         
scarcely twelve flowering plants and    
trees besides4 ,an equal area  in the   
neighbourhood of ,sydney 7in about the  
same latitude7 would  have yielded      
upwards of #ajj flowering plants1 and   
only two or three  ,ferns4 ,this        
,acrogenous flora1 then1 seems to favour
 the idea of  a humid as well as mild   
and equable climate at the period of the
  coal formation--the vegetation being  
that of islands in the midst  of a vast 
ocean4 ,lesquereux1 in ,silliman's      

,journal1 gives three  sections of      
,ferns in the ,carboniferous            
strata--viz4 ,neuropteride1             
,pecopteride1 and ,sphenopteride4 ,in   
,neuropteride fructification has  been  
seen in ,odontopteris4 ,in this genus   
the spores are in a peculiar  bladdery  
sporangium4 ,in ,neuropteride the       
fructification appears to  have         
resembled ,dana in some cases1 and      
,osmunda in others4 ,professor  ,geikie 
has noticed in the lower ,carboniferous 
shales of ,slateford1  near ,edinburgh1 
a fern which has been named ,adiantites 
,lindseformis  by ,bunbury 7,fig4 #bb1  
bis74 ,it has pinnules between crescent 
and  fan shaped4 7,mem4 ,geol4 ,survey  
of ,edinburgh1 #ahfa1 p4 #aea47         
,among the ,ferns found in the clays1   
ironstones1 and sandstones of  the      
,carboniferous period1 we shall give the
 characters of some  by way of          
illustration4#h ,pecopteris 7,fig4 #bc7 
seems to be the  fossil representative1 
if not congener1 of ,pteris4 ,pecopteris

  heterophylla 7,fig4 #bd7 has a marked 
resemblance to ,pteris  esculenta of    
,new ,zealand4 ,the frond of ,pecopteris
 is pinnatifid1  or                     
bi-tri-pinnatifid--the leaflets adhering
 to the rachis by the  whole length of  
their base1 sometimes confluent2 the    
midrib of the  leaflets runs to the     
point1 and the veins come off from it   
nearly  perpendicularly1 and the        
fructification when present is at the   
end of  the veins4 ,neuropteris 7,figs4 
#be1 #bf1 #bg7 has a pinnate or         
bipinnate  frond1 with pinn somewhat    
cordate at the base--the midrib of the  
pinn vanishing towards the apex1 and the
 veins coming off obliquely1  and in an 
arched manner4 ,neuropteris gigantea    
7,fig4 #bf7 has a thick  bare rachis1   
according to ,miller1 and seems to      
resemble much ,osmunda  regalis4        
,odontopteris has leaves like the last1 
but its leaflets  adhere to the stalk by
 their whole base1 the veins spring from
 the  base of the leaflets1 and pass on 

towards the point4 ,sphenopteris  7,fig4
 #bh7 has a twice or thrice pinnatifid  
frond1 the leaflets being  narrowed at  
the base1 often wedge-shaped1 and the   
veins generally  arranged as if they    
radiated from the base4 ,sphenopteris   
elegans  resembled ,pteris aquilina in  
having a stout leafless rachis1 which   
divided at a height of seven or eight   
inches from its club-like base  into two
 equal parts1 each of which continued to
 undergo two or three  successive       
bifurcations4 ,a little below the first 
forking two divided  pinn were sent off4
 ,a very complete specimen1 with the    
stipe1 was  collected in the coalfield  
near ,edinburgh by ,hugh ,miller1 who   
has  described it as above4             
,lonchopteris has its frond             
multi-pinnatifid1  and the leaflets more
 or less united together at the base2   
there is a  distinct midrib1 and the    
veins are reticulated4 ,cyclopteris     
7,fig4 #bi7  has simple orbicular       
leaflets1 undivided or lobed at the     

margin1 the  veins radiating from the   
base1 with no midrib4 ,schizopteris     
resembles  the last1 but the frond is   
deeply divided into numerous unequal    
segments1 which are usually lobed and   
taper-pointed4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#bc-bi4    ,sidenote3 ,figs4 #bc to #bi 
exhibit the fronds of some of the ,ferns
  of the ,carboniferous epoch4 ,fig4    
#bc4 ,pecopteris 7,alethopteris7        
aquilina4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,pecopteris        
7,alethopteris7 heterophylla4 ,fig4     
#be4 ,neuropteris ,loshii4 ,fig4 #bf4   
,neuropteris gigantea4 ,fig4 #bg4       
,neuropteris acuminata4 ,fig4 #bh4      
,sphenopteris affinis4 ,fig4 #bi4       
,cyclopteris dilatata4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #cj-cb4    ,sidenote3 ,figs4 #cj 
to #cb4 ,stem of ,tree-ferns1 called    
,caulopteris4  ,fig4 #cj4 ,caulopteris  
macrodiscus4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,caulopteris    
,balfouri  7,carr471 ,coal-measures4    
,fig4 #cb4 ,caulopteris ,morrisi        
7,carr471  ,coal-measures4    ,the      
rarity of ,tree-ferns in the            

coal-measures has often been  observed1 
and it is the more remarkable from the  
durable nature of  their tissues4       
,several species have1 however1 been    
noticed4 ,they  are referred to the     
genus ,caulopteris4 ,one of them1 ,c4   
macrodiscus  7,fig4 #cj7 has the        
leaf-scars in linear series4 ,two other 
species are  figured1 the one a slender 
form with the scars widely separated1   
as in some ,alsophilas1 ,c4 ,balfouri   
7,fig4 #ca7 from the ,somersetshire     
coal-field2 and the other with larger   
stems and more closely  aggregated      
scars1 ,c4 ,morrisi 7,fig4 #cb71 from   
the coal-measures at  ,newcastle4 ,the  
latter species shows the cavities at the
 base of the  petiole described by ,mohl
 in many living fern-stems4 ,the fossils
  named ,psaronius appear to have been  
fern-stems with a slender axis  and a   
large mass of adventitious roots1 as in 
some ,dicksonias and  in ,osmunda       
regalis4 ,these stems probably belong to
 some of the  fronds to which other     

names are given1 but as they have not   
been  found attached1 it is impossible  
to determine the point4 ,miller has     
described a fern as occurring in the    
coal-measures1 which at first  sight    
presents more the appearance of a       
,cycadaceous frond than  any other      
vegetable organism of the carboniferous 
age except the  ,cycadites ,caledonicus 
7,salter71 from ,cockburnspath ,cove4   
,he thus  describes it3--    ,from a    
stipe about a line in thickness there   
proceed at right  angles1 and in        
alternate order1 a series of sessile    
lanceolate  leaflets1 rather more than  
two inches in length1 by about an eighth
  part of an inch in breadth1 and about 
three lines apart4 ,each is  furnished  
with a slender midrib2 and1 what seems a
 singular1 though  not entirely unique  
feature in a ,fern1 the edges of each   
are densely  hirsute1 and bristle with  
thick short hair4 ,the venation is not  
distinctly preserved4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #cc-cd4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   

#cf-cg4    ,sidenote3 ,figs4 #cc to #cg 
exhibit forms of ,sigillaria stems found
 in  the shales of the ,carboniferous   
epoch4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,stem of ,sigillaria  
pachyderma in an erect position1 covered
 by successive deposits  of sandstone   
and shale2 one of the stems is          
bifurcated4 ,fig4 #cd4  ,sigillaria     
reniformis1 with its external markings1 
and roots  which are ,stigmarias1 as    
proved by ,mr4 ,binney4 ,fig4 #ce4      
,sigillaria  pachyderma1 after ,lindley 
and ,hutton1 from the shale of          
,killingworth  ,colliery1 showing the   
scars or places through which the       
vessels of  the stem passed to the      
leaves4 ,fig4 #cf4 ,sigillaria          
7,favularia7  tessellata1 from the      
,denbigh coal-shale1 showing the fluted 
stem  with scars4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,sigillaria
 pachyderma2 the stem marked with       
scars1 and fluted longitudinally4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4    ,sigillaria
 7,plate ,,iv4 ,figs4 #a and #b7 is     
perhaps the most important  plant in the

 coal formation4 ,the name is derived   
from sigillum1 a  seal1 to indicate the 
seal-like markings in the stem4 ,it is  
found  in all coal-shales over the      
world4 ,schimper mentions #hc species4  
,it  occurs in the form of lofty stems1 
#dj-ej feet high1 and #e feet broad     
7,figs4 #cc and #cd74 ,many stems of    
,sigillaria may be seen near ,morpeth1  
standing erect at right angles to the   
planes of alternating strata  of shale  
and sandstone 7,fig4 #cc74 ,they vary   
from #aj to #bj feet in  height1 and    
from one to three feet in diameter4 ,sir
 ,w4 ,c4 ,trevelyan  counted #bj        
portions of these trees within the      
length of half-a-mile1  of which all but
 four or five were upright4 ,brongniart 
mentions  similar erect stems as being  
found near ,st4 ,etienne4 ,the stem of  
,sigillaria is fluted in a longitudinal 
manner1 like a ,doric column1  and has a
 succession of single scars1 which      
indicate the points  of insertion of the
 leaves 7,figs4 #ce1 #cf1 and #cg74     

,when the outer  part of the stem       
separates like bark1 it is found that   
the markings  presented by the inner    
surface differ from those seen          
externally4  ,this has sometimes given  
rise to the erroneous multiplication of 
species and even of genera4 ,sigillaria 
elegans1 as figured by  ,brongniart in  
,archives du ,museum1 i4 #dje1 has a    
stem consisting of a  central cellular  
axis or medulla1 surrounded by a        
vascular cylinder1  and this is invested
 by a thick cellular cortical layer1 the
 outer  portion composed of fusiform    
cells of less diameter than those of    
the inner portion4 ,what ,brongniart    
calls medullary rays are mere  cracks or
 separations in the wedges traversed by 
vessels4 ,in its  structure it resembles
 its root ,stigmaria1 and must be       
referred to  ,lycopodiace1 along with   
,lepidodendron1 ,halonia1 ,ulodendron1  
etc4 ,the  small round sporangia of     
,sigillaria are borne in a single patch 
on  the somewhat enlarged bases of some 

of the leaves4 7,see ,carruthers  on    
,structure and ,affinities of           
,sigillaria1 in ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4    
,aug4  #ahfi47    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#ch-ci4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ch4        
,stigmaria ficoides1 root of            
,sigillaria1 giving  off rootlets1 which
 have been compressed4    ,fig4 #ci4    
,stigmaria ficoides 7,s4 ,anabathra of  
,corda71  which is the root of a        
,sigillaria4 ,the markings are the      
points whence  rootlets proceed4    ,it 
has been ascertained by ,professor ,king
 and ,mr4 ,binney of  ,manchester1 that 
the plant called ,stigmaria 7,fig4 #ch7 
is not a  separate genus1 but the root  
of ,sigillaria 7,plate ,,iv4 ,figs4 #a  
and #b74 ,the name is derived from 1 a  
mark1 indicating the  markings on the   
axis4 ,it is one of the most common     
productions of the  coal-measures1 and  
consists of long rounded or compressed  
fragments1  marked externally by shallow
 circular1 oblong1 or lanceolate        
cavities 7,fig4 #ci7 in the centre of   

slight tubercles1 arranged more  or less
 regularly in a quincuncial manner      
7,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #g74 ,the  cavities
 occasionally present a radiating       
appearance4 ,the axis of  the fragments 
is often hollow1 and different in       
texture from the  parts around4 ,this   
axis consists of a vascular cylinder or 
woody  system1 penetrated by            
quincuncially arranged meshes or        
openings1  through which the vascular   
bundles proceed from the inner surface  
of the cylinder to the rootlets 7,plate 
,,iii4 ,figs4 #h and #i74 ,from  the    
scars and tubercles arise long          
ribbon-shaped processes1 which  were    
cylindrical cellular roots1 now         
compressed 7,fig4 #ch74 ,the  vascular  
cylinder of ,stigmaria is composed      
entirely of scalariform  tissue1 pierced
 by meshes for the passage1 from the    
inner surface  of the cylinder1 of the  
vascular bundles which supply the       
rootlets4  7,carruthers in ,geol4       
,proc41 ,aug4 #ahfi47 ,stigmaria        

ficoides 7,fig4  #ch7 abounds in the    
under-clay of a coal-seam1 sending out  
numerous  roots from its tubercles1 and 
pushing up its aerial stem1 in the form 
of a fluted ,sigillaria4 ,on the ,bolton
 and ,manchester ,railway ,mr4  ,binney 
discovered ,sigillarias standing erect1 
and evidently connected  with           
,stigmarias which extended #bj feet or  
more4#i ,stigmaria is  regarded by      
,schimper as roots1 not of ,sigillaria  
only1 but of  ,knorria longifolia 7one  
of the ,lepidodendre74 ,the base of the 
stem  of this species of ,knorria is    
,ancestrophyllum1 and the upper part  is
 ,didymophyllum ,schottini of ,goeppert4
 ,professor ,king and others  suppose   
that the ,fern-like frond called        
,neuropteris is connected with          
,sigillaria1 but this is a mere         
conjecture1 set aside by the discovery  
of leaves attached to a species allied  
to ,sigillaria elegans1 which           
establishes that the long linear leaves 
described under the name  ,cyperites are

 the foliage of this genus4 ,goldenberg 
has figured the  fructification1 which  
consists of small sporangia like those  
of  ,flemingites1 borne on the basis of 
but slightly modified leaves4  ,this    
establishes the opinion that ,sigillaria
 was an acrogenous plant  belonging to  
,lycopodiace4 ,brongniart reckons it as 
representing an  extinct form of        
,gymnosperms1 and ,king1 having         
erroneously associated  the ,cyclopteris
 with it1 places it between the ,ferns  
and ,cycadace4  ,mr4 ,carruthers informs
 me that he has examined the stem of a  
true  fluted ,sigillaria1 with the      
tissues preserved1 and that these agree 
with the structure of ,lepidodendron1 a 
position in which he had  already placed
 it from the structure of its fruit4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj-da4            
,sidenote3 ,figs4 #dj to #dd exhibit the
 stems and fructification of            
,lepidodendron4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,bifurcating 
stem of ,lepidodendron obovatum         
7elegans71 showing the scale-like scars1

 and the narrow-pointed  leaves1        
resembling those of ,lycopodium1 but    
much larger4 ,fig4 #da4  ,stem of       
,lepidodendron crenatum1 with the scars 
of its leaves4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#db-dc4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #db4        
,fructification of ,lepidodendron1      
showing its  cone-like form and spiral  
arrangement of scales4 ,it is called    
,lepidostrobus ,dabadianus by ,schimper1
 but it is probably  ,triplosporites4   
,fig4 #dc4 ,longitudinal section of the 
fructification1  showing central axis   
and scales carrying sporangia4 ,the     
upper  sporangium contains microspores1 
the lower macrospores2 hence it has  the
 character of ,triplosporites4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4    ,sidenote3 
,in woodcut #dd are represented the     
fruits of ,selaginella  7one of the     
,lycopodiums of the present day71       
,lepidostrobus1  ,triplosporites1 and   
,flemingites4 ,fig4 #a4 ,selaginella    
spinulosa1 ,a4  ,braun 7,lycopodium     
selaginoides1 ,linn47 #b4 ,scale and    

sporangium from  the upper portion of   
the cone4 #c4 ,antheridian microspores  
from the  same4 #d4 ,macrospore4 #e4    
,scale and sporangium from the lower    
part of  the cone1 containing           
macrospores4 #f4 ,lepidostrobus ornatus1
 ,hooker4  #g4 ,three scales and        
sporangia of ditto4 #h4 ,microspores    
from the  sporangia of the upper part of
 the cone of ,triplosporites ,brownii1  
,brongn4 #i4 ,macrospore from the       
sporangia of the lower part 7drawn  from
 ,brongniart's description and          
measurements74 #aj4 ,scales and         
sporangia of a cone of ,flemingites4#aj 
,lepidodendron 7,figs4 #dj to #dd7 is   
another genus of the coal-measures      
which differs from those of the present 
day 7,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c74            
,lepidodendrons1 or fossil ,lycopodiace1
 had spikes of fructification           
comparable in size to the cones of firs 
and cedars1 and containing  very large  
sporangia1 even larger than those of    
,isoetes1 to which  they approach in    

form and structure4 ,schimper1 in #ahgj1
 enumerates  #ef species of             
,lepidodendron1 all arborescent and     
carboniferous4  ,the stem of a          
,lepidodendron is from #bj to #de feet  
high1 marked  outside by peculiar       
scale-like scars 7,fig4 #da71 hence the 
name of  the plant 71 a scale1 and 1 a  
tree74 ,although the scars  on          
,lepidodendron are usually flattened1   
yet in some species they  occupy the    
faces of diamond-shaped projections1    
elevated one-sixth  of an inch or more  
above the surface of the stem1 and      
separated from  each other by deep      
furrows2--the surface bearing the leaf  
being  perforated by a tubular cavity1  
through which the bundle of vessels     
that diverged from the vascular axis of 
the stem to the leaf passed  out4 ,the  
linear or lanceolate leaves are arranged
 in the same way as  those of           
,lycopodiums or of ,conifer1 and the    
branches fork like the  former4 ,the    
internal structure of the stem is the   

same as that of  ,sigillaria4 ,the fruit
 of ,lepidodendron and allied genera is 
seen in  ,lepidostrobus and             
,triplosporites 7,figs4 #db1 #dc2 ,plate
 ,,iii1 ,fig4 #aj74  ,carruthers1 in his
 lecture to the ,royal ,institution1 in 
describing  the forms of ,lepidostrobus1
 says--,the fruit is a cone composed  of
 imbricated scales arranged spirally on 
the axis like the true  leaves1 and     
bearing the sporangia on their          
horizontal pedicels4 ,three  different  
forms of fruit belong to this genus1 or 
it should perhaps  rather be called     
group of plants4 ,the first of these is 
the cone  named by ,robert ,brown       
,triplosporites 7,figs4 #db1 #dc71 and  
described by  him from an exquisitely   
preserved specimen of an upper portion1 
in  which the parts are exhibited as    
clearly in the petrified condition  as  
if they belonged to a fresh and living  
plant4 ,the large sporangia  have a     
double wall1 the outer composed of a    
compact layer of oblong  cells placed   

endwise1 or with the long diameter      
perpendicular to the  surface2 the inner
 is a delicate cellular membrane4 ,the  
sporangium  is filled with a great      
number of very small spores1 each       
composed of  three roundish bodies or   
sporules4 ,recently ,brongniart and     
,schimper  have described a complete    
specimen of this fruit1 in which the    
minute  triple spores are confined to   
the sporangia of the upper and middle   
part of the cone1 but the lower portion1
 which was wanting in ,brown's          
specimen1 bears sporangia filled with   
simple spherical spores ten or  twelve  
times larger than the others 7woodcut   
#dd1 #i74    ,the structure of another  
form of cone 7,lepidostrobus7 has been  
expounded by ,dr4 ,hooker4 ,the         
arrangement of the different parts      
comprising it is precisely similar to   
what occurs in ,triplosporites2  but the
 sporangia are filled with the minute   
triple spores throughout  the whole cone
 7woodcut #dd1 #f and #h74    ,the third

 form of cone1 described by me under the
 name ,flemingites1  differs from the   
other two in having a large number of   
small  sporangia supported on the       
surface of each scale2 and it agrees    
with  ,lepidostrobus in the sporangia   
containing only small spores 7woodcut   
#dd1 #aj74    ,in comparing these       
fossils with the living club-mosses1 one
 is  struck with the singular agreement 
in the organisation of plants so  far   
removed in time1 and so different in    
size1 as the recent humble  club-mosses 
and the palozoic tree ,lepidodendrons4  
,the fruit of  ,triplosporites1 like    
that of ,selaginella 7woodcut #dd1 #a71 
contains  large and small spores1 the   
microspores being found in both genera  
on  the middle and upper scales of the  
cone1 and the macrospores on those  of  
the lower portion 7,fig4 #dc74    ,on   
the other hand1 the fruits of           
,lepidostrobus and ,flemingites  agree  
with that of ,lycopodium in having only 
microspores4 ,the size  of the two kinds

 of spores also singularly agrees in the
 two groups4  ,this is of some          
importance1 for among the recent        
vascular ,cryptogams  there is a        
remarkable uniformity in the size of the
 spores in the  members of the different
 groups1 even when there is a great     
variety  in the size of the plants4     
,thus the spore of our humble wall-rue  
is as large as that of the giant        
,alsophila of tropical regions4 ,so     
also the spores of ,equisetum and       
,calamites agree in size1 as may be     
seen in woodcut #dg1 ,figs4 #c1 #d1 and 
#i1 where the spores of the two  genera 
are magnified to the same extent4 ,and a
 similar comparison  of the macrospore  
and microspore of ,triplosporites with  
those of  ,selaginella1 and of the      
microspore of ,lepidostrobus with that  
of  ,lycopodium1 exhibits a similar     
agreement4 ,this is made apparent by    
the drawings in woodcut #dd of the two  
kinds of spores of ,selaginella1  #c and
 #d1 with those of ,triplosporites1 #h  

and #i1 which are drawn to  the same    
scale4    ,the genus ,sigillaria1 as we 
have already said1 has1 according to the
  observation of ,hooker1 small         
sporangia exactly agreeing in size and  
form with those of ,flemingites4 ,most  
probably the contents of these  small   
sporangia were the same in both genera1 
so that ,sigillaria  would be placed    
with ,flemingites and ,lepidostrobus as 
arborescent  ,lycopodiace having their  
affinities with ,lycopodium1 as they    
have  all microspores only in their     
fructification4    ,the scales upon the 
,lepidodendron stems1 as well as those  
in the  cones1 are arranged in a spiral 
manner1 in the same way as plants  of   
the present day4 ,professor ,alexander  
,dickson has examined the  phyllotaxis  
of ,lepidodendrons1 and gives the       
following results of his  observations  
7,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,edin4 xi4 #ade74  
,the fossil remains  of ,lepidodendrons 
are often so compressed that it is      
difficult1  or even impossible1 to trace

 the secondary spirals round the        
circumference of the stem4 ,in those    
cases1 however1 where there is          
comparatively little compression1 i4e4  
where the stem is more or  less         
cylindrical1 the determination of the   
phyllotaxis is easy4 ,of  such stems he 
has examined fifteen specimens1 which   
may be classed  according to the series 
of spirals to which the leaf-arrangement
  belongs3--      ,a4 ,ordinary series1 
1 1 1 1 #e_/ac1 etc4      7a47 ,single  
spirals 7,d turning to the right1 ,s to 
the left74      7#a47 ,lepidodendron    
7,possil ,ironstone series74 ,stem about
     of an inch in diameter4 ,secondary 
spirals #h ,d1 #ac ,s1 #ba ,d4          
,divergence  #ac_/cd 7or possibly       
#ba_/ee74      7#b47 ,lepidodendron     
7,knightswood1 near ,glasgow1 ,mr4 ,j4  
,young74    ,stem about #a inch in      
diameter4 ,secondary spirals #ac ,d1 #ba
 ,s1 #cd    ,d4 ,divergence  #ba_/ee4   
7#c47 ,lepidodendron 7,possil ,sandstone
 series74 ,trunk about    #b feet long1 

with an average diameter of #bj inches4 
,steepest    secondary spirals #ee ,s1  
#hi ,d4 ,divergence  #ee_/add4      7b47
 ,conjugate spirals4#aa      7#d47      
,lepidostrobus ornatus 7,bathgate       
coal-field74 ,about  of    an inch in   
diameter4 ,secondary spirals #aj ,d1 #af
 ,s1 #bf ,d1 #db ,s4    ,divergence     
#ac_/7cdb7 7,bijugate arrangement74     
7#e47 ,lepidostrobus 7,plean1           
,stirlingshire1 ,mr4 ,mackenzie74 ,about
     an inch in diameter4 ,secondary    
spirals #i ,s1 #ae ,d1 #bd ,s1 #ci ,d4  
,divergence  #h_/7bac7 7,trijugate      
arrangement74      7#f47 ,knorria taxina
 7from collection of ,dr4 ,rankin1      
,carluke74    ,somewhat compressed1 #b-b
 inches#ab in diameter4 ,secondary      
spirals #ae ,d1 #bd ,s4 ,divergence     
#ae_/7acc7 7,trijugate    arrangement74 
7#g47 ,lepidodendron 7from ,dr4         
,rankin's collection74 ,about #a    inch
 in diameter4 ,secondary spirals #aj ,d1
 #ae ,s1 #be ,d1 #dj ,s4    ,divergence 
#e_/7ace7 7,quinquejugate arrangement74 

7#h47 ,lepidodendron 7,dowanhill1       
,glasgow1 ,possil ,sandstone    series74
 ,trunk about #a foot long1 and #a foot 
in diameter4 ,the    upper portion      
exhibits secondary spirals #ce ,d1 #ef  
,s1 #ia ,d2 thus    indicating a        
#g-;jugate arrangement1 with divergence 
#h_/7bag74    ,the arrangement on the   
middle and lower portion is indistinct  
and confused2 so much so as to render   
any determination of the    arrangement 
doubtful4    ,b4 ,series1 1 1 #b_/g1    
#c_/aa1 etc4      7#i47 ,lepidodendron  
7,messrs ,merry and ,cunningham's       
,clayband    ,iron-,pit1 ,carluke74     
,stem #b inches in diameter4 ,secondary 
spirals    #ah ,s1 #bi ,d1 #dg ,s4      
,divergence  #ba_/gf4    ,c4 ,series1 1 
1 #b_/i1 #c_/ad1 etc4      7#aj47       
,lepidodendron 7,r4 ,b4 ,garden1        
,edinburgh1 ,museum74 ,stem    somewhat 
flattened1 #a-a inch in diameter4       
,secondary spirals #i ,d1    #ad ,s1 #bc
 ,d1 #cg ,s4 ,divergence  #ac_/fj4      
7#aa47 ,lepidodendron 7,redhaugh1 near  

,edinburgh1 ,mr4 ,peach74 ,stem         
somewhat flattened1  to  inch in        
diameter4 ,secondary spirals #i    ,s1  
#ad ,d1 #bc ,s1 #cg ,d4 ,divergence     
#ac_/fj4    ,d4 ,series1 1 1 #b_/aa1    
#c_/ag1 #e_/bh1 etc4      7#ab47        
,knorria taxina 7,stockbriggs1          
,lesmahagow1--,hunterian    ,museum74   
,about #a inch in diameter4 ,the        
specimen consists of a    main stem and 
one of the branches into which it has   
forked4    ,on the main stem the        
secondary spirals are #f ,d1 #aa ,s1 #ag
 ,d4    ,divergence  #e_/bh 7series1 1 1
 #b_/aa1 #c_/ag1 #e_/bh1 etc47--,on the 
branch the secondary spirals are #h ,s1 
#ac ,d4 ,divergence  #h_/ba    7ordinary
 series1 1 1 1 1 etc47    ,e4 ,series1 1
 1 #c_/g1 #e_/ab1 #h_/ai1 #ac_/ca1      
#ba_/ej1 etc4      7#ac47 ,lepidodendron
 7from ,dr4 ,rankin's collection74      
,about     inch in diameter4 ,secondary 
spirals #ab ,d1 #ai ,s1 #ca ,d4         
,divergence     #ba_/ej4    ,f4 ,series1
 1 #c_/aj1 #d_/ac1 #g_/bc1 #aa_/cf1     

#ah_/ei1 etc4      7#ad47 ,lepidodendron
 elegans 7,possil ,ironstone74 ,about #a
 inch    in diameter4 ,secondary spirals
 #aj ,s1 #ac ,d1 #bc ,s1 #cf ,d4        
,divergence     #ah_/ei4      7#ae47    
,lepidodendron 7,possil ,ironstone74    
,about #b inches in    diameter4        
,secondary spirals #bc ,s1 #cf ,d1 #ei  
,s1 #ie ,d4 ,divergence     #dg_/aed4   
,from the above it is evident that the  
phyllotaxis of ,lepidodendron  is       
extremely variable1 as much so perhaps  
as that of those most  variable plants1 
in this respect1 the ,cacti4 ,it is also
 clear that  what has been enunciated by
 ,professor ,haughton 7,manual of       
,geology1  ,lond4 #ahff1 pp4 #bdc1 #bde7
 as the law according to which the      
leaves of  palozoic plants were         
arranged--viz4 that of alternate        
whorls--does  not apply to these ancient
 ,lycopods4 ,lepidodendron aculeatum is 
noted  by ,naumann as exhibiting an     
#h_/ba arrangement4 7,poggendorff1      
,annalen1  #ahdb1 p4 #e47 ,professor    

,alexander ,braun 7,nov4 ,acta ,ac4 ,c4 
,l4 ,c4 xv4  #a1 pp4 #eeh-i71 speaking  
of the excessive deviation from ordinary
  arrangements in ,equisetace 7including
 ,calamites71 compares them in  this    
respect with ,lycopodiace 7including    
,lepidodendron71 saying  that in these  
two families the utmost limits of the   
domain of all  leaf-arrangement appears 
to be attained4    ,lepidophyllum is    
certainly leaves of ,lepidodendron1 the 
different  ,lepidophylla belonging to   
different species of the genus4 ,the    
slender  terminal branches are noticed  
under the name of ,lycopodites4 ,in coal
  from ,fordel ,mr4 ,daw has detected   
innumerable bodies 7,plate ,,iii4       
,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c7 which have been shown
 to be sporangia4 7,balfour1  ,trans4   
,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed4 xxi4 #ahg47 ,on their  
under surface ,mr4 ,carruthers  has     
observed a triradiate ridge 7,plate     
,,iii4 ,fig4 #d74 7,geological          
,magazine1 #ahfe1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adj47    
,these sporangia have been found        

connected with the cone-like            
fructification called ,flemingites1 and 
resembling ,lycopodium 7woodcut #dd1    
,fig4 #d74 ,many forms of fossil        
plants1 such as ,halonia1               
,lepidophloios1 ,knorria1 and           
,ulodendron1  belong to the             
,lepidodendron group4 ,knorria is said  
to be the internal  cast of a           
,lepidodendron4    ,ulodendron minus and
 ,u4 ,taylori 7,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 #aa71
 found in  ferruginous shale in the     
,water of ,leith1 near ,colinton1       
exhibit  beautiful sculptured scars1    
ranged rectilinearly along the stem4    
,the surface is covered with small1     
sharply relieved obovate scales1  most  
of them furnished with an apparent      
midrib1 and with their edges  slightly  
turned up4 ,the circular or oval scars  
of this genus are  probably impressions 
made by a rectilinear range of aerial   
roots  placed on either side4 ,when     
decorticated1 the stem is mottled over  
with minute dottings arranged in a      

quincuncial manner1 and its oval  scars 
are devoid of the ordinary sculpturings4
 ,bothrodendron is a  decorticated      
condition of ,ulodendron4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #de a4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #de b4             
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #de4 a1 ,calamites     
,suckovii1 composed of jointed  striated
 fragments having a bark4 ,fig4 #de4 b1 
,septum or phragma of  a ,calamite4     
,calamites 71 a reed7 is a reed-like    
fossil1 having a  sub-cylindrical       
jointed stem 7,fig4 #de1 a and b2 ,fig4 
#df2 ,plate  ,,iv4 ,fig4 #d74 ,the stem 
is often crushed and flattened1 and was 
originally hollow4 ,calamites is thus   
defined by ,grand d',eury 7,ann4  ,nat4 
,hist4 ser4 #d1 vol4 iv4 p4             
#abd73--,stem articulated1 fistular1 and
  septate2 outer part comparatively     
thin1 formed of three concentric        
zones--#a1 an exterior cortical layer   
now converted into coal2 #b1 a  thin    
subjacent zone of vascular tissue1 now  
invariably destroyed2  #c1 a sort of    

inner lining epidermis1 which is        
carbonified4 ,cortical  envelope marked 
interiorly with regular flutings1       
interrupted and  alternate at the       
articulations4 ,inner epidermis smooth1 
or scarcely  striated4 ,vascular        
cylinder thin2 outer surface of bark    
more fully  fluted and articulated than 
the inner surface4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #df4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #df4     
,vertical stems of fossil trees1        
,calamites  chiefly1 found in the       
coal-measures of ,treuil1 near ,saint   
,etienne4    ,carruthers gives the      
following description of the structure  
of a  species of ,calamite which he     
examined3--,the stem was composed of a  
central medulla1 which disappeared with 
the growth of the plant1  surrounded by 
a woody cylinder1 composed entirely of  
scalariform  vessels1 and a thin        
cortical layer4 ,the medulla penetrated 
the  woody cylinder by a series of      
regular wedges1 which were continued1   
as delicate lamin of one or two cells in

 thickness1 to the  cortical layer4 ,the
 cells of those lamin were not muriform2
 their  longest diameter was in the     
direction of the axis4 ,the wedges were 
continuous1 and parallel between each   
node4 ,as the axial appendages  were    
produced in whorls1 the only            
interference with the regularity of  the
 tissues was by the passing out through 
the stem at the nodes of  the vascular  
bundles which supplied these appendages4
 ,as the leaves  of each whorl were     
7with one or two exceptions7 opposite to
 the  interspaces of the whorls above   
and below1 there was also at each  node 
a re-arrangement of the wedges of       
vascular and cellular tissues4          
,schimper considers ,calamites as having
 an analogy with ,equisetum in  its     
fructification4 ,he looks on them as    
fossil ,equisetace4 ,annularia  and     
,sphenophyllum are considered as        
establishing a passage from the         
,equisetace to the ,lycopodiace4 ,some  
gigantic fossil ,equiseta had  a        

diameter of nearly #e inches1 and a     
height of #cj or more feet4 ,the        
branches1 which adorned the higher part 
of them in the form of a  crown1 are    
simple1 and have at their extremity a   
spike of the size  of a pigeon's egg1   
and organised exactly like the spikes of
 living  ,equiseta4 ,the subterranean   
rhizomes are well developed1 and gave   
origin1 like many ,equiseta1 to         
tubercles which had the form and size   
of a hen's egg4    ,the characters of   
,equisetum of the present day and       
,calamites1 are  exhibited in woodcut   
#dg4 ,they show a marked resemblance in 
the  fructification4 7,see also page    
#ca47    ,plants of ,calamites have been
 seen erect by ,mr4 ,binney1 and he has 
determined that what were called leaves 
or branches by some are  in reality     
roots4 ,mr4 ,binney gives a full        
description of various  ,calamites1     
under the name of ,calamodendron        
commune1 in his ,memoir  published by   
the ,palontographical ,society1 #ahfh4  

,there are between  #ej and #fj species 
recorded4#ac    ,in ,spitzbergen1 in    
rocks of the ,carboniferous epoch1 there
 have been  found ,calamites1           
,sigillaria1 ,lepidodendron1 and ferns1 
apparently the  same as those found in  
the ,carboniferous epoch in             
,europe--,calamites  radiatus1          
,lepidodendron ,veltheimianum1          
,sigillaria distans1 ,stigmaria         
ficoides4 ,some species--,sigillaria    
,malmgreni1 ,lepidodendron              
,carneggiannum1 and ,l4 ,wilkianum--seem
 to be peculiar to ,bear ,island4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4    ,sidenote3 
,fig4 #dg4 ,fruits of ,equisetum and    
,calamites4 #a4 ,equisetum  arvense1 ,l4
 #b4 ,portion of sporangium wall4 #c1   
#d4 ,spores1 with the  elaters free4 #e4
 ,longitudinal section of the part of   
one side of  cone4 #f4 ,transverse      
section of cone4 #g4 ,calamites         
7,volkmannia7  ,binneyi1 ,carr41        
magnified three times4 #h4 ,portion of  
the sporangium  wall4 #i4 ,two spores4  

#aj4 ,longitudinal section of the part  
of one side  of cone4 #aa4 ,transverse  
section of cone4    ,according to       
,carruthers the ,equisetace are         
represented in ,britain by  the two     
genera ,calamites found in primary beds1
 and ,equisetum found  in secondary     
rocks and living at the present day4    
,the difference in  the structure of    
their fruits is shown in woodcut #dg4   
,the fruit of  ,calamites1 called       
,volkmannia ,binneyi 7woodcut #dg1 #g71 
is a small  slender cone composed of    
alternating whorls of imbricate scales1 
twelve in each verticil4 ,the scales    
completely conceal the leaves  connected
 with the fructification4 ,the          
fruit-bearing leaves are  stalked1      
peltate1 and are arranged in whorls of  
#f4 ,there are four  sporangia borne on 
the under-surface of the peltate leaves4
 ,these  spore-cases have cellular      
parietes1 and in their interior there is
  a deposit of cellulose in the form of 
short truncate processes not  unlike    

imperfect spirals4 ,the spores are      
spherical1 and appear to  have          
thread-like processes proceeding from   
them1 similar to elaters4  ,the         
fruit-cone bears a marked resemblance to
 the fruit of ,equisetum  in its        
fruit-bearing leaves1 sporangia1 spores1
 and elaters 7see  ,figs4 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1
 #ba74 ,in the modern plant all the     
leaves of the cone  are fructiferous1   
while in the fossil plant some are      
fruit-bearing1  and others are like the 
ordinary leaves of the plant4 ,it is    
thought  that the fossil may be reckoned
 as having a somewhat higher position   
than that possessed by the living genus4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4           
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,foliage and      
fruits of ,calamites4 #a and #b4        
,asterophyllites2 #c and #d4 ,annularia2
 #e and #f4 ,sphenophyllum4    ,the     
different forms of foliage called       
,asterophyllites1 ,sphenophyllum1  and  
,annularia1 belong to the one genus     
,calamites1 but they may form1  perhaps1

 well-characterised sections when their 
fruits are better  known4 ,in woodcut   
#dh representations are given of the    
foliage and  fruit of varieties of      
,calamites4 ,in #a and #b we see the    
simplest form  called ,asterophyllites4 
,the leaves are linear and slender1 with
 a  single rib4 ,the form called        
,annularia 7#c and #d7 differs chiefly  
in having a larger amount of cellular   
tissue spread out on either  side of the
 midrib4 ,this form has a different     
aspect in a fossil  state from the      
other1 from its whorls of numerous broad
 leaves  spread out on the surface of   
deposition1 while the acicular leaves   
of ,asterophyllites have penetrated the 
soft mud1 and are generally  preserved  
in the position they originally occupied
 in reference  to the supporting branch4
 ,the third form 7#e and #f7 is called  
,sphenophyllum1 and consists of whorls  
of wedge-shaped leaves1 with  one or    
more bifurcating veins4 ,they occur like
 those of ,annularia1  spread out on the

 surface of the shale4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #di-ej4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #di4 
,araucarioxylon ,withami1 ,krauss       
7,pinites  ,withami71 from the          
,coal-measures1 ,craigleith1 near       
,edinburgh1  showing pleurenchyma with  
disks1 and medullary rays4 ,an excellent
  specimen of a stem of this pine may be
 seen in the ,edinburgh ,royal  ,botanic
 ,garden4    ,fig4 #ej4 ,trigonocarpum  
olivforme1 an ovate1 acuminate1         
three-ribbed1 and striated fruit or     
seed1 which some suppose to be a        
sporangium of a ,lepidodendron1 others  
refer it to ,cycadace4 ,hooker  refers  
it to ,conifer like ,salisburia4        
,true ,exogenous trees exist in the     
coal-fields both of  ,england and       
,scotland1 as at ,lennel ,braes and     
,allan ,bank1 in  ,berwickshire2        
,high-,heworth1 ,fellon1 ,gateshead1 and
 ,wideopen1 near  ,newcastle-upon-,tyne2
 and in quarries to the west of ,durham2
 also in  ,craigleith quarry1 near      
,edinburgh1 and in the quarry at        

,granton1 now  under water4 ,in the     
latter localities they lay diagonally   
athwart  the sandstone strata1 at an    
angle of about #cj1 with the thicker and
  heavier part of their trunks below1   
like snags in the ,mississippi4  ,from  
their direction we infer that they have 
been drifted by a stream  which has     
flowed from nearly north-east to        
south-west4 ,at ,granton1  one of the   
specimens exhibited roots4 ,in other    
places the specimens  are portions of   
stems1 one of them #f feet in diameter  
by #fa feet in  length1 and another #d  
feet in diameter by #gj feet in length4 
,these  ,exogenous trees are            
,gymnosperms1 having woody tissue like  
that of  ,conifer4 ,we see under the    
microscope punctated woody tissue1 the  
rows of disks being usually two1 three1 
or more1 and alternating4  ,they seem to
 be allied in these respects to         
,araucaria and ,eutassa  7,fig4 #fa1 p4 
#gd7 of the present flora4              
,araucarioxylon or ,pinites  ,withami   

7,fig4 #di7 is one of the species found 
in ,craigleith quarry2  the concentric  
layers of the wood are obsolete2 there  
are #b1 #c1 or  #d rows of disks on the 
wood1 and #b-d rows of small cells in   
the  medullary rays4 ,along with it     
there have also been found ,dadoxylon   
medullare1 with inconspicuous zones1 #b1
 #c1 and #d rows of disks1 and  #b-e    
series of rows of cells in the rays4    
,pissadendron antiquum 7,pitus  antiqua7
 having #d-e series of cells in the     
medullary rays1 and ,p4  primvum 7,pitus
 primva71 with #aj-ae series of cells in
 the medullary  rays1 occur at          
,tweedmill and ,lennel ,braes in        
,berwickshire2 ,peuce  ,withami 7,fig4  
#a1 p4 #c7 at ,hilltop1 near ,durham1   
and at ,craigleith4  ,sternbergia is    
considered by ,williamson as a          
,dadoxylon1 with a  discoid pith like   
that seen now-a-days in the ,walnut1    
,jasmine1 and  ,cecropia peltata1 as    
well as in some species of              
,euphorbia4#ad  ,sternbergia approximata

 is named by him ,dadoxylon             
approximatum4  ,hooker believes from the
 structure of ,trigonocarpum 7,fig4 #ej7
 that it  is a coniferous fruit nearly  
allied to ,salisburia 7,trans4 ,roy4    
,soc4  #ahed74 ,several species of      
,trigonocarpum occur in the             
,carboniferous  rocks1 such as ,t4      
olivforme from ,bolton 7,plate ,,ii4    
,fig4 #e71 and ,t4  sulcatum from       
,wardie1 near ,edinburgh 7,plate ,,ii4  
,fig4 #f74 ,noeggerathia  and a few     
other plants1 such as ,flabellaria and  
,artisia1 are referred  by ,brongniart  
to ,cycadace4 ,flabellaria borassifolia1
 according  to ,peach1 has leaves like  
,yucca4 ,noeggerathia has pinnate       
leaves1  cuneiform leaflets1 sometimes  
fan-shaped2 the veins arise from the    
base of the leaflets1 are equal in size1
 and either remain simple or  bifurcate1
 the nervation 7venation7 being similar 
to that of some  ,zamias4    ,the       
fossils of this period1 referred to as  
,antholithes1#ae have  just been shown  

by ,mr4 ,carruthers to be the           
inflorescence of  ,cardiocarpum 7,geol4 
,mag4 ,feb4 #ahgb71 and he proposes to  
set aside  the former name1 confining it
 to the tertiary fossils to which it    
was originally given by ,brongniart1 and
 to use the latter name4  ,the main axis
 of the inflorescence is simple1 stout1 
and marked  externally with interrupted 
ridges4 ,the axis bears in a distichous 
manner sub-opposite or alternate bracts 
of a linear-lanceolate  form and with   
decurrent bases4 ,in the axils of the   
bracts were  developed flower-like      
leaf-bearing buds1 and from them        
proceeded  three or four linear         
pedicels1 which terminated upwards in a 
somewhat  enlarged trumpet-shaped apex4 
,to this enlarged articulating surface  
was attached the fruit1 to which has    
been given the generic name             
,cardiocarpum#af 7,fig4 #ea74 ,the place
 of attachment is indicated by  the     
short straight line which separates the 
cordate lobes at the base  of the fruit4

 ,the fruit is flattish1 broadly ovate1 
with a cordate  base and sub-acute apex4
 ,it consists of an outer pericarp1     
inclosing  an ovate-acute seed4 ,that   
the pericarp was of some thickness1  and
 formed probably a sub-indurated rind1  
is shown by a specimen  preserved in the
 round1 and figured 7,fig4 #ec a74 ,the 
pericarp is  open at the apex2 and the  
elongated tubular apex of the spermoderm
  passes up to this opening4 ,the seed  
forms a distinct swelling in the  centre
 of the fruit1 and a slight ridge passes
 up the middle to the  base of the      
apical opening4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#ea-eb4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ea4        
,cardiocarpum ,lindleyi1 ,carr4 ,fig4   
#eb4 ,do41  ,coal-measures1 ,falkirk4   
,these fossils are believed to be an    
extinct form of ,gymnosperms4 ,two      
species have been described1 of both of 
which we are able to give  figures4 ,the
 first figure is from the specimens     
collected by ,mr4  ,peach at ,falkirk4  
,it is ,cardiocarpum ,lindleyi 7,figs4  

#ea1 #eb72 it has  a primary axis with  
sub-opposite axillary axes1 bearing four
 to six  lanceolate leaves and three or 
four pedicels4 ,primary bracts short    
and arcuate4 ,fruit ovate-cordate1 with 
an acute bifid apex1 and a  ridge       
passing up the middle of the fruit4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4    ,sidenote3 
,fig4 #ec4 ,cardiocarpum anomalum       
7,carr471 natural size3  with separate  
fruit 7a71 twice natural                
size--,coal-measures1  ,coalbrookdale4  
,the second species is ,cardiocarpum    
anomalum 7,fig4 #ec7 from               
,coalbrookdale2 it has a primary axis   
with alternate or sub-opposite  axillary
 axes1 slender and elongated1 bearing   
many linear leaves1 and  several slender
 pedicels2 primary bracts long1 slender1
 and straight2  fruits small1 margined4 
,the somewhat magnified separate fruit  
7a7  shows the thickness of the pericarp
 and the enclosed seed4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4    ,sidenote3 
,fig4 #ed4 ,pothocites ,grantoni1       

,paterson4 a1 ,spike  natural size2 b1  
,portion of spike magnified2 c1         
,perianth1  #d-;cleft1 magnified4    ,in
 the bituminous shale at ,granton1 near 
,edinburgh1 ,dr4 ,robert  ,paterson     
discovered in #ahdj a peculiar fossil   
plant1 which he called  ,pothocites     
,grantoni 7,fig4 #ed1 a74 ,it is figured
 in the ,transactions  of the ,edinburgh
 ,botanical ,society1 vol4 i4 ,march    
#ahdj4 ,it is a spike  covered by       
parallel rows of flowers 7,fig4 #ed1 b71
 each apparently  with a #d-;cleft calyx
 7,fig4 #ed1 c74 ,it was supposed to be 
allied to  ,potamogeton or ,pothos1 more
 probably to the latter4 ,in that case  
it  must be referred to the natural     
order ,arace4 ,the original specimen  is
 deposited in the museum at the ,royal  
,botanic ,garden1 ,edinburgh4    ,our   
knowledge of the real state of the      
vegetation of the earth  when coal was  
formed must be very limited1 when we    
reflect how  seldom the fructification  
of coniferous trees has been met with   

in the coal-measures4 ,a very doubtful  
fragment1 supposed to be a  cone1 is    
given in ,lindley and ,hutton's work1   
under the title of  ,pinus anthracina2  
but it is believed by ,carruthers to be 
a fragment  of a ,lepidodendroid branch4
 ,lyell never saw a fossil fir-cone of  
the ,carboniferous epoch1 either in the 
rocks or museums of ,north  ,america or 
,europe4 ,bunbury never heard of any    
other example than  that noticed by     
,lindley and ,hutton4 ,principal ,dawson
 is disposed  to think that the suberin 
of cork1 of epidermis in general1 and of
  spore-cases in particular1 is a       
substance so rich in carbon that  it is 
very near to coal1 and so indestructible
 and impermeable to  water1 that it     
contributes more largely than anything  
else to the  mineral4 ,sir ,charles     
,lyell remarks--,to prevent ourselves1  
therefore1  from hazarding false        
generalisations1 we must ever bear in   
mind the  extreme scantiness of our     
present information respecting the flora

  of that peculiar class of stations to 
which1 in the ,palozoic era1  the       
coal-measures probably belonged4 ,i have
 stated elsewhere my  conviction that   
the plants which produced coal were not 
drifted from  a distance1 but nearly all
 of them grew on the spot where they    
became  fossil4 ,they constituted the   
vegetation of low regions1 chiefly the  
deltas of large rivers1 slightly        
elevated above the level of the sea1    
and liable to be submerged beneath the  
waters of an estuary or sea  by the     
subsidence of the ground to the amount  
of a few feet4 ,that  the areas where   
the carboniferous deposits accumulated  
were low1  is proved not only by the    
occasional association of marine        
remains1  but by the enormous thickness 
of strata of shale and sandstone to     
which the seams of coal are subordinate4
 ,the coal-measures are often  thousands
 of feet1 and sometimes two or three    
miles1 in vertical  thickness1 and they 
imply that for an indefinite number of  

ages a  great body of water flowed      
continuously in one direction1 carrying 
down towards a given area the detritus  
of a large hydrographical  basin1       
draining some large islands or          
continents1 on the margins of  which the
 forests of the coal period grew4 ,if   
this view be correct1  we can know      
little or nothing of the upland flora of
 the same era1  still less of the       
contemporaneous plants of the           
mountainous or alpine  regions4 ,if so1 
this fact may go far to account for the 
apparent  monotony of the vegetation1   
although its uniform character may      
doubtless be in part owing to a greater 
uniformity of climate then  prevailing  
throughout the globe4 ,mr4 ,bunbury has 
successfully pointed  out that the      
peculiarity of the carboniferous climate
 consisted  more in the humidity of the 
atmosphere and the absence of cold1 or  
rather the equable temperature preserved
 in the different seasons of  the year1 
than in its tropical heat2 but we must  

still presume that  colder climates     
existed at higher elevations above the  
sea4    ,the plants of the coal-measures
 are evidently terrestrial plants4      
,brongniart agrees with ,lyell in       
thinking that the layers of coal have   
in general accumulated in the situation 
where the plants forming  them grew4    
,the remains of these plants covered the
 soil in the same  way as layers of     
peat1 or the vegetable mould of great   
forests4 ,in a  few instances1 however1 
the plants may have been transported    
from a  distance1 and drifted into      
basins4 ,phillips is disposed to think  
that  this was the general mode of      
formation of coal-basins4 ,he is led to 
this conclusion by observing the        
fragmentary state of the stems and      
branches1 the general absence of roots1 
and the scattered condition  of all the 
separable organs4 ,those who support the
 drift theory1 look  on the coal plants 
as having been swept from the land on   
which they  grew by watery currents at  

different times1 and deposited in basins
  and large sea-estuaries1 and sometimes
 in lakes4 ,the snags in the            
,mississippi1 the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and   
other large rivers1 are given as        
instances of a similar drifting process4
    ,the vegetation of the coal epoch   
seems to resemble most that of  islands 
in the midst of vast oceans1 and the    
prevalence of ferns  indicates a climate
 similar to that of ,new ,zealand in the
 present  day4 ,in speaking of the      
island vegetation of the coal epoch1    
,professor ,ansted remarks 7,ancient    
,world1 p4 #hh7--,the whole of the      
interior of the islands may have been   
clothed with thick forests1  the dark   
verdure of which would only be          
interrupted by the bright  green of the 
swamps in the hollows1 or the brown tint
 of the ferns  covering some districts  
near the coasts4 ,the forests may have  
been  formed by a mixture of several    
different trees4 ,we would see then1    
for instance1 the lofty and             

widely-spreading ,lepidodendron1 its    
delicate feathery fronds clothing1 in   
rich luxuriance1 branches  and stems1   
which are built up1 like the trunk of   
the tree-fern1 by  successive leafstalks
 that have one after another dropped    
away1  giving by their decay additional 
height to the stem1 which might at      
length be mistaken for that of a        
gigantic pine4 ,there also should we    
find the ,sigillaria1 its tapering and  
elegant form sustained on a  large and  
firm basis--enormous matted roots1      
almost as large as the  trunk itself1   
being given off in every direction1 and 
shooting out  their fibres far into the 
sand and clay in search of moisture4    
,the  stem of this tree would appear    
like a fluted column1 rising simply  and
 gracefully without branches to a great 
height1 and then spreading  out a       
magnificent head of leaves like a noble 
palm-tree4 ,other trees1  more or less  
resembling palms1 and others like       
existing firs1 also  abounded1 giving a 

richness and variety to the scene2 while
 one  gigantic species1 strikingly      
resembling the ,norfolk ,island pine1   
might be seen towering a hundred feet or
 more above the rest of the  forest1 and
 exhibiting tier after tier of branches 
richly clothed  with its peculiar       
pointed spear-like leaves1 the branches 
gradually  diminishing in size as they  
approach the apex of a lofty pyramid of 
vegetation4 ,tree-ferns also in         
abundance might there be recognised1    
occupying a prominent place in the      
physiognomy of vegetation1  and dotted  
at intervals over the distant plains and
 valleys1 the  intermediate spaces being
 clothed with low vegetation of more    
humble  plants of the same kind4 ,these 
we may imagine exhibiting their rich    
crests of numerous fronds1 each many    
feet in length1 and produced  in such   
quantity as to rival even the palm-trees
 in beauty4 ,besides  all these1 other  
lofty trees of that day1 whose stems and
 branches  are now called ,calamites1   

existed chiefly in the midst of swamps1 
and bore their singular branches and    
leaves aloft with strange and           
monotonous uniformity4 ,all these trees1
 and many others that might  be         
associated with them1 were1 perhaps1    
girt round with innumerable  creepers   
and parasitic plants1 climbing to the   
topmost branches of  the most lofty     
amongst them1 and relieving1 in some    
measure1 the dark  and gloomy character 
of the great masses of vegetation4      
,hugh ,miller remarks--,the             
sculpturesque character of the          
nobly-fluted  ,sigillarias was shared by
 not a few of its contemporaries4       
,ulodendrons1 with their rectilinear    
rows of circular scars1 and  their stems
 covered with leaf-like carvings1       
rivalled in effect the  ornately        
relieved torus of a ,corinthian column4 
,favularia1 ,halonia1  many of the      
,calamites1 and all the ,lepidodendrons1
 exhibited the most  delicate           
sculpturing4 ,in walking among the ruins

 of this ancient  flora1 the            
palontologist almost feels as if he had 
got among the  broken fragments of      
,italian palaces erected long years ago1
 when  the architecture of ,rome was    
most ornate1 and every moulding was     
roughened with ornament2 and in         
attempting to call up in fancy the  old 
,carboniferous forests1 he has to dwell 
on this peculiar feature  as one of the 
most prominent2 and to see in the       
multitude of trunks  darkened above by  
clouds of foliage that rise upon him in 
the  prospect1 the slender columns of an
 older ,alhambra1 roughened with        
arabesque tracery and exquisite filigree
 work4          ,,flora ,,of ,,the      
,,permian ,,epoch4      ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ee-ef4    ,sidenote3 ,figs4 #ee  
and #ef4 ,walchia piniformis1 ,sternb41 
a common  species in the ,permian rocks 
of ,europe4 ,fig4 #ee4 ,plant with      
leaves  and fructification4 ,fig4 #ef4  
,fructification1 natural size4    ,the  
nature of the vegetation during the     

,permian period1 which is  associated   
with the ,carboniferous1 under the reign
 of ,acrogens1 has  been extensively    
illustrated by ,goeppert4 ,brongniart   
has enumerated  the fossils in three    
different localities1 which he refers   
doubtfully  to this period4 #a4 ,the    
flora of the bituminous slates of       
,thuringia1  composed of ,alg1 ,ferns1  
and ,conifer4 #b4 ,flora of the ,permian
  sandstones of ,russia1 comprehending  
,ferns1 ,equisetace1 ,lycopodiace1  and 
,noeggerathi4 #c4 ,flora of the slaty   
schists of ,lodve1 composed  of ,ferns1 
,asterophyllites1 and ,conifer4 ,the    
genera of ,ferns here met  with are     
those found in the ,carboniferous epoch2
 the ,gymnosperms are  chiefly species  
of ,walchia and ,noeggerathia 7the      
latter is supposed  by ,schimper to be a
 ,cycad72 ,lepidodendron elongatum1     
,calamites gigas1  and ,annularia       
floribunda1 are also species of this    
period4 ,walchia  is a conifer          
characteristic of the ,permian epoch1 of

 which there are  eight species         
described 7,figs4 #ee and #ef74 ,it has 
a single seed to  each scale of the     
cone1 and two kinds of leaves1 the one  
short and  imbricated1 the other long   
and spreading4 ,among the plants of the 
,permian formation ,goeppert enumerates 
the following3#ag--;,equisetites        
contractus1 ,calamites ,suckowi1 ,c4    
leioderma1 ,asterophyllites             
equisetiformis1 ,a4 elatior1 ,huttonia  
truncata1 ,h4 equisetiformis1  many     
species of ,psaronius1 one of the       
filicoid plants1  ,hymenophyllites      
complanatus1 ,sphenopteris crassinervia1
 ,sagenopteris  tnifolia1 ,neuropteris  
imbricata1 and many other species of    
these  genera2 several species of       
,odontopteris1 ,callipteris1            
,cyclopteris1  ,dioonopteris1           
,cyatheites1 ,alethopteris1             
,noeggerathia1 ,cordaites1              
,anthodiopsis1 ,dictyothalamus1         
,calamodendron1 ,arthropitys2 besides   
species of ,sigillaria1 ,stigmaria1 and 

,lepidodendron4 ,various fruits  are    
also mentioned1 under the names of      
,rhabdocarpum1 ,cardiocarpum1           
,acanthocarpum1 ,trigonocarpum1 and     
,lepidostrobus4          ,,fossil       
,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,secondary ,,or     
,,mesozoic ,,period4          ,,reign   
,,of ,,gymnosperms4      ,illustration3 
,fig4 #eg1 ,fig4 #ei4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #eh1 ,fig4 #fj4    ,sidenote3     
,fig4 #eg4 ,pinus sylvestris1 ,scotch   
,fir4    ,fig4 #eh4 ,abies excelsa1     
common ,spruce ,fir of northern         
,europe4    ,fig4 #ei4 ,larix ,europa1  
the ,larch1 indigenous on the  ,alps of 
middle ,europe4    ,fig4 #fj4 ,cedrus   
,libani1 ,cedar of ,lebanon4    ,the    
,gymnospermous plants of the present day
 are included in two  natural orders1   
,conifer and ,cycadace4 ,under ,conifer 
are enumerated  the various species of  
,pine 7,fig4 #eg71 ,spruce 7,fig4 #eh71 
,larch  7,fig4 #ei71 ,cedar 7,fig4 #fj71
 ,eutassa1 ,araucaria 7,fig4 #fa71      
,sequoia1  ,cryptomeria1 ,taxodium1     

,cypress1 ,juniper 7,fig4 #gj71         
,salisburia1  ,dacrydium1 ,yew 7,fig4   
#ga71 etc4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa1 
,fig4 #fe4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#fb-fd4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #fa4        
,araucaria excelsa1 called also         
,altingia or  ,eutassa or ,eutacta      
excelsa1 ,norfolk ,island ,pine4        
,fig4 #fb4 ,woody tubes of fir1 with    
single rows of discs4    ,fig4 #fc4     
,woody tubes of fir1 with double rows of
 discs1  which are opposite to each     
other4    ,fig4 #fd4 ,woody tubes of    
,araucaria excelsa1 with double  and    
triple rows of discs1 which are         
alternate4    ,fig4 #fe4 ,longitudinal  
section of the stem of a ,gymnosperm1   
showing tubes of wood marked with       
punctations in one or more  rows1 and a 
medullary ray composed of cells running 
across the  pleurenchyma4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff-fi4            
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,linear leaves of 
,pinus ,strobus1 ,weymouth ,pine1  in a 
cluster of five1 with scaly sheath at   

the base4    ,fig4 #fg4 ,cone of ,pinus 
sylvestris1 ,scotch ,fir4    ,fig4 #fh4 
,cone of ,cupressus sempervirens1 common
 ,cypress4    ,fig4 #fi4 ,scale1 s1 of  
mature cone of ,pinus sylvestris1  with 
two naked winged seeds1 m m1 at its     
base2 ch marks the  chalaza1 m the      
micropyle4    ,the ,conifer of the      
present day are distinguished as        
resinous trees  or shrubs with punctated
 woody tissue 7,figs4 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1    
#fe71 linear  acerose or lanceolate     
parallel-veined leaves1 sometimes       
clustered1  and having a membranous     
sheath at the base 7,fig4 #ff74 ,male   
flowers  in deciduous catkins2 female   
flowers in cones 7,figs4 #fg1 #fh74 ,the
  seeds are considered by most botanists
 as being naked1 i4e4 not  contained in 
a true pistil 7,fig4 #fi74 ,some of the 
conifers have a  succulent cone1 as the 
juniper 7,fig4 #gj71 and the yew 7,figs4
 #ga-gc7  has a succulent mass covering 
a single naked seed 7,fig4 #gc74 ,the   
yew  also has its pleurenchyma marked   

both with punctations and spiral        
fibres4 ,the arrangement of the         
punctations in the ,conifer gives       
characters which enable us to classify  
the woods into groups that  have some   
relation to the genera established from 
the reproductive  organs 7see ,figs4    
#fb-fe74    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj-gc4
    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,fruiting     
branch of ,juniperus communis1 common   
,juniper1 with linear acerose leaves and
 succulent cones4    ,fig4 #ga4 ,branch 
of ,taxus baccata1 common ,yew4    ,fig4
 #gb4 ,male flower of ,yew1 with bracts 
at the base4    ,fig4 #gc4 ,fruit of    
,yew1 consisting of a single naked seed 
partially covered by a succulent        
receptacle4    ,the natural order       
,cycadace is not so largely represented 
at the  present day as it was during the
 ,mesozoic epoch4 ,among the genera of  
the present day are ,cycas 7,fig4 #gd71 
,zamia1 ,macrozamia1 ,encephalartos     
7,fig4 #ge71 ,dion1 ,stangeria1 etc4    
,they are small palm-like trees or      

shrubs1 with unbranched stems1          
occasionally dichotomous1 marked  with  
leaf-scars1 and having large medullary  
rays along with pitted  woody tissue4   
,the leaves are pinnate1 except in      
,bowenia1 which has a  bipinnate leaf4  
,males in cones4 ,females consisting of 
naked ovules  on the edges of altered   
leaves1 or on the inferior surface of   
the  peltate apex of scales4#ah         
,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,trias ,,and ,,lias 
,,epochs4      ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#gd-ge4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,cycas 
revoluta1 one of the false ,sago-plants 
found in ,japan4    ,fig4 #ge4          
,encephalartos 7,zamia7 pungens1 another
  starch-yielding ,cycad4    ,in this   
reign the ,acrogenous species are less  
numerous2 the  ,gymnosperms almost equal
 them in number1 and ordinarily surpass 
them  in frequency4 ,there are two      
periods in this reign1 one in which     
,conifer predominate1 while ,cycadace   
scarcely appear2 and another  in which  
the latter family preponderates as      

regards the number of  species1 and the 
frequency and variety of generic forms4 
,cycadace  occupied a more important    
place in the ancient than in the present
  vegetable world4 ,they extend more or 
less from the ,trias formation up  to   
the ,tertiary4 ,they are rare in the    
,grs bigarr or lower strata  of the     
,triassic system4 ,they attain their    
maximum in the ,lias and  ,oolite1 in   
each of which upwards of #dj species    
have been enumerated1  and they         
disappear in the ,tertiary formations4  
,schimper describes  #ac genera of      
fossil ,zami1 and about #bj ,cycade4 ,he
 thinks that  ,trigonocarpum 7#ae       
species71 ,rhabdocarpum 7#bd species71  
,cardiocarpum  7#ba species71 and       
,carpolithes 7#i species71 are all      
fruits of  ,cycade4 ,many supposed      
fossil ,cycads are looked upon by       
,carruthers  as ,conifer4 ,zamia        
macrocephala1 or ,zamites macrocephalus1
 or  ,zamiostrobus macrocephalus1 is    
called by him ,pinites macrocephalus2   

,zamia ovata1 or ,zamites ovatus1 or    
,zamiostrobus ovatus1 is ,pinites       
ovatus2 ,zamia ,sussexiensis is ,pinites
 ,sussexiensis4 ,among other  species of
 ,pinites noticed by ,carruthers are    
,pinites oblongus1  ,p4 ,benstedi1 ,p4  
,dunkeri1 ,p4 ,mantellii1 ,p4 patens1   
,p4 ,fittoni1 ,p4  elongatus4 ,it is    
important to notice that in an existing 
,cycad called  ,stangeria paradoxa the  
veins of the pinn rise from a true      
midrib  and fork1 characters which      
render untenable the distinction usually
  relied upon between the foliage of    
,ferns and ,cycads4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #gf4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #gf4     
,schizoneura heterophylla1 one of the   
fossil  ,conifer of the ,triassic       
system4    ,in ,brongniart's ,vosgesian 
period1 the ,grs bigarr1 or the ,red    
,sandstones and ,conglomerates of the   
,triassic system1 there is a  change in 
the flora4 ,sigillarias and             
,lepidodendrons disappear1 and  in their
 place we meet with ,gymnosperms1       

belonging to the genera  ,voltzia1      
,haidingera1 ,zamites1 ,ctenis1         
thophyllum1 and ,schizoneura  7,fig4    
#gf74 ,the genus ,voltzia is confined to
 the ,trias1 and though a  true conifer1
 it is not easy to correlate it with any
 living form4 ,it  is apparently        
,abietineous1 having two seeds to each  
scale1 but they  are placed on the      
dilated upper portion of the scale4 ,the
 leaves are  of two kinds1 the one broad
 and short1 and the other at the tops of
  the branches long and linear4 ,species
 of ,neuropteris1 ,pecopteris1  and     
other acrogenous coal genera are still  
found1 along with species  of           
,anomopteris and                        
,crematopteris--peculiar ,fern-forms1   
which are  not found in later           
formations4 ,stems of arborescent ,ferns
 are more  frequent than in the next    
period4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4    
,the ,jurassic period of ,brongniart    
embraces the ,keupric period or         
variegated marls of the ,triassic       

system1 the ,liassic epoch1 the         
,oolitic and the ,wealden4 ,the flora of
 the ,keupric epoch differs from  that  
of the ,grs bigarr of the ,vosges4 ,the 
,acrogens are changed as  regards       
species1 and frequently in their genera4
 ,thus we have the  genera              
,camptopteris1 ,sagenopteris1 and       
,equisetum4 ,among ,gymnosperms1  the   
genera ,pterophyllum and ,taxodites     
occur4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh-gi4  
,sidenote3 ,figs4 #gg to #ha4 ,cycadace 
of the ,jurassic epoch of  ,brongniart1 
and of the ,oolite4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,zamites1
 one of the fossil  ,cycadace4 ,fig4    
#gh4 ,pterophyllum ,pleiningerii1 leaf  
of a fossil  ,cycad4 ,fig4 #gi4         
,nilssonia compta 7,pterophyllum comptum
 of  ,lindley and ,hutton71 from the    
,oolite of ,scarborough4 ,lower part of 
the pinnatifid leaf1 with blunt almost  
square divisions4 ,there are  numerous  
veins1 slightly varying in thickness2   
while in ,pterophyllum  there are       
numerous veins of equal thickness1 in   

,cycadites there is a  solitary vein    
forming a thick midrib4 ,fig4 #hj4      
,palozamia pectinata  7,zamia pectinata 
of ,brongniart1 and ,lindley and        
,hutton71 a pinnated  leaf1 with a      
slender rachis4 ,the pinn are linear1   
somewhat obtuse1  with slender equal    
ribs4 ,it is found in the ,oolite of    
,stonesfield  7,lindley and ,hutton74   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4    ,in the    
,lias the essential characters of the   
flora are the  predominance of          
,cycadace1 in the form of species of    
,cycadites1  ,otozamites1 ,zamites      
7,fig4 #gg71 ,ctenis1 ,pterophyllum     
7,fig4 #gh71  and ,nilssonia 7,fig4     
#gi71 ,palozamia 7,fig4 #hj71 and the   
existence  among the ,ferns of many     
genera with reticulated venation1 such  
as  ,camptopteris and ,thaumatopteris1  
some of which began to appear at  the   
,keupric epoch4 ,coniferous genera1 as  
,brachyphyllum 7,fig4 #ha71  ,taxodites1
 ,palissya1 and ,peuce1 are found4 ,in  
the ,lias near ,cromarty1  ,miller      

states that he found a cone with long   
bracts like those of  ,pinus bracteata4 
,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,oolitic ,,epoch4   
,in the ,oolitic epoch the flora        
consists of numerous ,cycadace and      
,conifer1 some of them having peculiar  
forms4 ,its distinctive  characters are1
 the rarity of ,ferns with reticulated  
venation1  which are so numerous in the 
,lias1 the frequency of the ,cycadaceous
  genera ,otozamites and ,zamites1 which
 are most analogous to those  now       
existing2 the occurrence of a remarkable
 group presenting very  anomalous       
structure in their organs of            
reproduction1 to which  ,carruthers has 
given the name of ,williamsonia2 and the
 diminution  of ,ctenis1 ,pterophyllum1 
,palozamia1 and ,nilssonia1 genera far  
removed from the living kinds2 and      
lastly1 the greater frequency  of the   
coniferous genera1 ,brachyphyllum and   
,thuites1 which are  much more rare in  
the ,lias4 ,in the ,scottish ,oolite at 
,helmsdale1  ,miller detected about #fj 

species of plants1 including ,cycadace  
and ,conifer1 with detached cones1 and  
,fern-forms resembling  ,scolopendrium4 
,he also discovered a species of        
,equisetum1 and what he  supposed to be 
a ,calamite4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ha-hb4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ha4        
,brachyphyllum mammillare1 a ,coniferous
 plant of  the ,oolitic system1         
,yorkshire4    ,fig4 #hb4 ,equisetum    
columnare1 a fossil species of the      
,oolite of ,yorkshire4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #hc-he4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #hc4 
,araucarites sphrocarpus1 ,carr41 found 
in the  inferior ,oolite at ,bruton1    
,somersetshire4    ,fig4 #hd4           
,termination of a scale of ,araucarites 
sphrocarpus1 ,carr4    ,fig4 #he4       
,section of a scale of ,araucarites     
sphrocarpus1  ,carr41 showing the size  
and position of the seed4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf-hg4            
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,the ,dirt-bed of 
the ,island of ,portland1  containing   
stumps of fossil ,cycadace in an erect  

position4    ,fig4 #hg4 ,cycadoidea     
megalophylla 7,mantellia nidiformis  of 
,brongniart71 a subglobose depressed    
trunk1 with a concave apex1  and with   
the remains of the petioles disposed in 
a spiral manner1 the  markings being    
transversely elliptical4 ,it is found in
 the ,oolite of  the ,island of         
,portland1 in a silicified state4       
,there is an absence of true coal-fields
 in the secondary formations  generally2
 but in some of the ,oolitic series1 as 
in the lower ,oolite  at ,brora1 in     
,sutherlandshire1 and in the north-east 
of ,yorkshire1  and the ,kimmeridge clay
 of the upper ,oolite1 near ,weymouth1  
there  are considerable deposits of     
carbonaceous matter1 sometimes forming  
seams of coal which have been worked for
 economic purposes4#ai ,some  suppose   
that the ,brora coal was formed chiefly 
by ,equisetum columnare  7,fig4 #hb74   
,in the sandstones and shales of the    
,oolitic series1  especially in the     
lower ,oolite of the north of ,england1 

as at ,whitby  and ,scarborough1 as well
 as in ,stonesfield slate1 the ,portland
 ,crag  of the middle1 and the ,portland
 beds of the upper ,oolite1 numerous    
fossil plants are found4 ,peuce         
,lindleyana is one of the ,conifer  of  
the lower ,oolite4 ,beania 7,plate ,,ii4
 ,fig4 #b7 is a ,cycadaceous  fossil    
from the ,oolite of ,yorkshire          
7,carruthers1 ,geol4 ,mag4 vi4 #ia74    
,araucarites sphrocarpus 7,figs4 #hc1   
#hd1 #he7 is found in the inferior      
,oolite1 and separate scales of         
,araucarian fruits occur in the ,oolitic
  shales of ,yorkshire 7,araucarites    
,phillipsii1 ,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #aa71   
and  in the slate at ,stonesfield 7,a4  
,brodiei1 ,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #aj74 ,the 
upper ,oolite at ,portland contains an  
interesting bed1 about a foot in        
thickness1 of a dark brown substance4   
,this is the ,dirt-bed 7,fig4  #hf7 made
 up of black loam1 which1 during the    
,purbeck period1 formed  a surface soil 
which was penetrated by the roots of    

trees1 fragments  of whose stems are now
 found in it fossilised4 ,these consist 
of  an assemblage of silicified stumps  
or stools of large trees1 from  #a-c    
feet high1 standing in their original   
position1 with the roots  remaining     
attached to them1 and still penetrating 
the earth in which  they grew4 ,besides 
the erect trunks many stems have been   
broken and  thrown down1 and are buried 
in a horizontal position in the bed4    
,they belong to ,conifer and ,cycadace4 
,one of these is ,mantellia  nidiformis1
 shown in ,fig4 #hg4 ,carpolithes       
conicus and ,c4 ,bucklandi  are fruits  
found in the ,oolite4 ,some look upon   
them as fruits of  palms4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh-hi4            
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,kaidacarpum      
ooliticum1 ,carr41 fruit of a fossil    
allied to ,pandanace1 from the great    
,oolite near ,northampton4    ,fig4 #hi4
 ,pandanus odoratissimus1 ,screw-pine1  
with  adventitious roots4    ,several   
species of ,pandanaceous fruits have    

been found in ,oolitic  strata4         
,buckland described one of them as      
,podocarya1 which is  remarkable1 as it 
consists of a single but many-seeded    
drupe4 ,to  another form1 more nearly   
allied to the existing plants1          
,carruthers  has given the name         
,kaidacarpum1 and has described three   
species4  ,these fruits are made up of a
 large number of single-seeded drupes4  
,the species figured 7,fig4 #hh7 is from
 the great ,oolite1 near  ,northampton4 
,in ,fig4 #hi a representation is given 
of one of the  ,pandanace1 the          
screw-pines of the present day4         
,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,wealden ,,epoch4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4    ,sidenote3 
,fig4 #ij4 ,fossil ,wood1 ,abietites    
,linkii4 ,a ,coniferous  plant from the 
,wealden1 showing punctated woody tissue
 and medullary  rays4    ,the flora of  
the ,wealden epoch is characterised in  
the south of  ,england by the abundance 
of the fern called ,lonchopteris        
,mantellii1  and in ,germany by the     

predominance of the ,conifer denominated
  ,abietites ,linkii 7,fig4 #ij71 and   
the presence of ,araucarites            
,pippingfordensis1 as well as by        
numerous ,cycadace1 such as species  of 
,cycadites1 ,zamites1 ,pterophyllum1    
,mantellia1 ,bucklandia1 and a          
remarkable genus having a fleshy fruit1 
and related to the ordinary  ,cycadace  
as ,taxus is to the other ,conifer1     
which has been fully  described in the  
,linn4 ,trans41 under the name of       
,bennettites 7,plate  ,,ii4 ,fig4 #c74  
,in the ,wealden at ,brook ,point1 ,isle
 of ,wight1 ,cycads  have been detected 
allied to ,encephalartos4 ,the fruits of
 them are  described by ,carruthers as  
,cycadeostrobus4 ,he describes the      
following  species3--,cycadeostrobus    
ovatus 7,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a71 ,c4     
truncatus1 ,c4  tumidus1 ,c4 elegans1   
,c4 ,walkeri1 ,c4 sphricus1 in the      
,oxford clay of  ,wiltshire2 ,c4 primvus
 in the inferior ,oolite at ,burcott    
,wood and  ,livingston1 and ,c4         

,brunonis4 ,mantell states that he has  
found #dj or  #ej fossil cones in the   
,wealden of ,england2 they belong either
 to the  genus ,cycadeostrobus or to the
 pines mentioned below as occurring in  
the ,wealden4 ,the ,wealden fresh-water 
formation terminates the reign  of      
,gymnosperms4 ,carruthers gives the     
following list of the remains of        
,conifer which have been found in the   
secondary strata of ,britain1  excluding
 the ,trias3--      ,upper              
,chalk4--,wood in flint nodules4        
,upper ,greensand4--,foliage and cone of
 ,sequoiites ,woodwardii2 cone    of    
,pinites oblongus4      ,gault4--,cones 
of ,pinites gracilis and ,p4 hexagonus1 
,sequoiites    ,gardneri and ,s4 ovalis4
      ,lower ,greensand4--,water-worn   
and bored pieces of wood2 cones of      
,pinites ,benstedi1 ,p4 ,sussexiensis1  
and ,p4 ,leckenbyi4                     
,wealden4--,driftwood1 foliage of       
,abietites ,linkii2 cones of    ,pinites
 ,dunkeri1 ,p4 ,mantellii1 ,p4 patens1  

and ,p4 ,fittoni1 and    of ,araucaria  
,pippingfordensis2 foliage 7and drupes87
 of ,thuites    ,kurrianus4             
,purbeck4--,fossil forest in situ at    
,isle of ,portland2 cone    nearly      
related to ,araucaria excelsa in the    
,dirt-bed4      ,portland               
,stone4--,driftwood ,araucarites4       
,kimmeridge ,clay4--,cone of ,pinites   
depressus4      ,oxford                 
,clay4--,driftwood and foliage of       
,araucarites4      ,great               
,oolite4--,driftwood of ,araucarites2   
foliage of ,thuites    acutifolius1 ,t4 
articulatus1 ,t4 cupressiformis1 ,t4    
divaricatus1    and ,t4 expansus1 and of
 ,taxites podocarpoides2 detached cones 
at    ,helmsdale1 ,sutherland4          
,inferior ,oolite4--,wood of ,peuce     
,eggensis 7,tertiary according to       
,geikie72 foliage of ,brachyphyllum     
mammillare1 ,cryptomerites8             
divaricatus1 and ,palissya8             
,williamsonis2 cones of ,araucarites    
sphrocarpus1 ,a4 ,brodiei1 and ,a4      

,phillipsii4 ,pinites primva    7,lindl4
 and ,hutt47 is a ,cycadean fruit4      
,lias4--,wood of ,pinites ,huttonianus  
and ,p4 ,lindleyanus2 foliage    of     
,araucaria peregrina and ,cupressus     
latifolia2 cone of ,pinites             
elongatus1 and cone with long bracts    
like those of ,pinus    bracteata1 from 
,cromarty4    ,carruthers gives the     
following arrangement of fossil         
,cycadace in  the ,transactions of the  
,linn4 ,soc4 vol4 xxvi4--,firstly1 the  
,cycade3  including the genus           
,bucklandia1 ,presl2 and species ,b4    
anomala1 ,b4  ,mantellii1 ,b4 squamosa1 
,b4 ,milleriana--the two first-named    
species  being from the ,wealden1 and   
the two last-named from the ,oolite4    
,secondly1 the ,zamie3 including the    
genus ,yatesia1 ,carr42 and  species ,y4
 ,morrisi1 ,lower ,cretaceous2 ,y4      
gracilis1 ,lias2 ,y4 crassa1  ,m4       
,oolite2 ,y4 ,joassiana1 ,m4 ,oolite2   
the genus ,fittonia1 ,carr41 and        
species ,f4 squamata1 ,u4 ,cretaceous2  

the genus ,crossozamia1 ,pomel1  and    
species ,c4 ,moreaui1 ,pomel1 ,jurassic1
 and ,c4 ,buvignieri1 ,pomel1           
,jurassic--both from ,st4 ,michel1      
,france4 ,thirdly1 the ,williamsonie3   
including the genus ,williamsonia1      
,carr42 and species ,w4 gigas1 ,w4      
pecten1 ,w4 hastula1 all from the       
inferior ,oolite4 ,fourthly1 the        
,bennettite3 including the genus        
,bennettites1 ,carr41 and species  ,b4  
,saxbyanus1 ,wealden2 ,b4 ,gibsonianus1 
,lr4 ,greensand2 ,b4 maximus1  ,wealden2
 ,b4 ,portlandicus1 ,lr4 ,purbeck2 and  
,b4 ,peachianus1 ,m4  ,oolite2 the genus
 ,mantellia1 ,brong41 and species ,m4   
nidiformis1 ,m4  intermedia1 ,m4        
microphylla1 from the ,lr4 ,purbeck2 and
 ,m4 inclusa1  from the ,lr4            
,cretaceous2 the genus ,raumeria1       
,goeppert1 and species ,r4              
,reichenbachiana1 from ,galicia1 and ,r4
 ,schulziana from ,silesia4             
,,fossil ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,tertiary  
,,or ,,cainozoic ,,period1              

7,,including ,,the ,,cretaceous         
,,epoch74          ,,reign ,,of         
,,angiosperms4      ,this reign is      
characterised by the appearance of      
,angiospermous  ,dicotyledons1 plants   
which constitute more than three-fourths
 of the  species of the existing        
flowering plants of the globe1 and which
  appear to have acquired the           
predominance from the commencement of   
the  ,tertiary epoch4 ,they are plants  
with seeds contained in seed-vessels1   
and each seed with two cotyledons4      
,these plants1 however1 appear even  at 
the beginning of the ,cretaceous period4
 ,in this reign1 therefore1  ,brongniart
 includes the upper ,secondary period1  
or the ,cretaceous  system1 and all the 
,tertiary period4 ,the ,cretaceous may  
be considered  as a sort of transition  
period between the reign of ,gymnosperms
 and  ,angiosperms4          ,,flora    
,,of ,,the ,,chalk4      ,the ,chalk    
flora is characterised by the           
,gymnospermous almost  equalling the    

,angiospermous ,dicotyledons1 and by the
 existence of a  considerable number of 
,cycadace1 which do not appear in the   
,tertiary  period4 ,the genus ,credneria
 is one of the characteristic forms4 ,in
  this period we find ,alg represented  
by ,cystoseirites1 ,confervites1        
,sargassites1 and ,chondrites2 ,ferns by
 peculiar species of ,pecopteris  and   
,protopteris2 ,naiadace by ,zosterites2 
,palms1 by ,flabellaria and             
,palmacites2 ,cycadace by ,cycadites1   
,zamites1 ,microzamia1 ,fittonia1  and  
,bennettites2 ,conifer1 by              
,brachyphyllum1 ,widdringtonites1       
,cryptomeria1 ,abietites1 ,pinites1     
,cunninghamites1 ,dammarites1           
,araucarites2 and ,angiospermous        
,dicotyledons1 by ,comptonites1         
,alnites1  ,carpinites1 ,salicites1     
,acerites1 ,juglandites1 and ,credneria4
 ,at the  base of the ,tertiary period  
there are deposits of ,alg of a very    
peculiar form1 belonging to the genera  
,chondrites and ,munsteria4 ,no  land   

plants have been found mingled with     
these marine species4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #ia4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ia4     
,sequoiites ovalis4 ,large cone4    ,in 
the ,gault1 near ,folkestone1 an        
interesting association of  coniferous  
fruits has been found1 consisting of two
 species of  ,sequoia1 along with two of
 ,pinus4 ,the pines belong to the same  
group  as those which now grow with the 
,wellingtonias in ,california1 showing  
the remarkable fact that the coniferous 
vegetation of the high lands  of the    
,upper ,cretaceous period had a facies  
similar to that now  existing in the    
mountains on the west of ,north         
,america4 ,we figure  both the species  
of ,sequoiites--viz4 ,s4 ovalis 7,fig4  
#ia71 a large  cone1 and ,s4 ,gardneri  
7,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #g74 ,in the present
 day there  are two species of the genus
 ,sequoia--viz4 ,s4 gigantea            
7,wellingtonia  gigantea7 and ,s4       
sempervirens4#bj ,in the ,lower         
,greensand a  remarkably fine cone      

belonging to the same group as the      
,cedar has  been found4 ,this is the    
,pinites ,leckenbyi 7,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 
#d74 ,a  section exhibits the seeds in  
their true position1 some of which are  
preserved so as to exhibit the form and 
position of the embryo4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4    ,sidenote3 
,fig4 #ib4 ,pinites ovatus 7,zamia ovata
 of ,lindley and  ,hutton71 an ovate    
cone with a truncated base and obtuse   
apex1 nearly  allied to the stone-pine4 
,the ,tertiary period is characterised  
by the abundance of  ,angiospermous     
,dicotyledons and of ,monocotyledons1   
more especially of  ,palms4 ,by this it 
is distinguished from the more ancient  
periods4  ,angiosperms at this period   
greatly exceed ,gymnosperms4 ,cycadace  
are very rare1 if not completely        
wanting1 in the ,european ,tertiary     
strata1 and the ,conifer belong to      
genera of the temperate regions4  ,in   
the lower ,tertiaries ,carruthers has   
found a fossil ,osmunda1 and  the       

existence of a group of ,pines having   
cones with a very thick  apophysis4     
,from their remarkable external aspect1 
these cones  had been considered to be  
,cycadean1 but their internal structure 
indicates that they are coniferous4     
,pinites ovatus is one of  these cones  
7,fig4 #ib74 ,the ,cupressine are found 
in the ,tertiary  beds only4 ,taxodie   
are represented by ,sequoiites 7,plate  
,,ii4 ,fig4  #g7 in the ,cretaceous and 
,eocene strata4 ,peuce australis of ,van
  ,diemen's ,land and ,p4 ,pritchardi of
 ,ireland are ,tertiary plants4  ,the   
,peuce of ,eigg 7,p4 ,eggensis71        
according to ,geikie1 is also           
,tertiary1 and not ,oolitic4 ,isoetes is
 mentioned by ,schimper as a  ,tertiary 
genus4 ,although the vegetation         
throughout the whole of the  ,tertiary  
period presents pretty uniform          
characters1 still there  are notable    
differences in the generic and specific 
forms1 and in  the predominance of      
certain orders at different epochs4     

,brongniart  does not entirely agree    
with ,unger as to these epochs4 ,many of
 the  formations classified by ,unger in
 the ,miocene division he refers with   
,raulin to the ,pliocene4 ,he divides   
the ,tertiary period1 as regards        
plants1 into the ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and 
,pliocene epochs1 and gives the         
following comparative results from an   
examination of their floras3--          
----------------------------------------
-------------------------     ,classes  
and                                     
,sub-,classes4     ,eocene ,epoch4      
,miocene ,epoch4  ,pliocene ,epoch4     
----------------------------------------
-------------------------     ,thallogen
            #af               #f        
#f            ,acrogen              #ag 
#d                #g                    
,monocotyledones       #cc              
#bf                #d                   
,dicotyledones--                        
,gymnosperm         #dj              #ai
               #ca                      

,angiosperm        #ajc              #gh
              #afd                      
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
#bji             #acc              #bab 
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,eocene ,,epoch4    
,in the ,eocene formation the fossil    
fruits of the ,isle of ,sheppey         
increase the number of ,phanerogamous   
plants1 only a small proportion  of     
which have as yet been described4 ,this 
is an exceptional locality1  and the    
deposit in which the fruits occur is    
probably the silt found  at the mouth of
 a large river which flowed1 like the   
,nile1 from  tropical regions towards   
the north4 ,the number of plants as     
given by  ,brongniart is much smaller   
than that mentioned by ,unger 7p4 #bc74 
,the  latter includes in his enumeration
 a considerable amount of uncertain     
species4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4   
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,palmacites       

,lamanonis4 ,fan-shaped 7flabellate7    
leaf of a ,palm4    ,the ,eocene epoch  
in general is characterised by the      
predominance of  ,alg and marine        
,naiadace1 such as ,caulinites and      
,zosterites2 by  numerous ,conifer1 the 
greater part resembling existing genera 
among  the ,cupressine1 and appearing in
 the form of ,juniperites1 ,thuites1    
,cupressinites 7,plate ,,ii4 ,figs4 #h1 
#i71 ,callitrites1 ,frenelites1 and     
,solenostrobus2 by the existence of a   
number of extra-,european forms1        
especially of fruits1 such as           
,nipadites1 ,leguminosites1 ,cucumites1 
and ,hightea2 and by the presence of    
some large species of ,palm  belonging  
to the genera ,flabellaria and          
,palmacites 7,fig4 #ic74                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4    ,sidenote3 
,fig4 #id4 ,osmunda regalis1 ,royal     
,fern1 having a bipinnate  frond and    
fructification in a spike-like form1 the
 branches bearing  sporangia4    ,unger 
says that the ,eocene flora has         

resembled in many respects that  of the 
present ,australian vegetation4 ,he     
gives the following genera  as occurring
 at the ,eocene epoch3--,araucaria1     
,podocarpus1 ,libocedrus1  ,callitris1  
,casuarina1 ,pterocarpus1               
,drepanocarpus1 ,centrolobium1          
,dalbergia1 ,cassia1 ,csalpinia1        
,bauhinia1 ,copaifera1 ,entada1 ,acacia1
  ,mimosa1 ,inga4 7,seemann's ,journal  
of ,bot4 vol4 iii4 p4 #dc47 ,amber is   
considered to be the produce of many    
,conifer of this epoch1 such  as ,peuce 
succinifera or ,pinites succinifera1 and
 ,pinus ,rinkianus4 ,it  occurs in ,east
 ,prussia in great quantity1 and it is  
said that many  pieces of fossil wood   
occur there1 which1 when moderately     
heated1  give out a decided smell of    
amber4 ,connected with these beds are   
found cones belonging to ,pinites       
sylvestrina and ,p4 ,pumilio-miocena1   
species nearly allied to the living     
species2 others to ,pinites             
,thomasianus and ,p4 brachylepis4       

,goeppert contrasts the present flora   
of ,germany and that of the ,amber epoch
 as follows3--                          
,german ,flora4   ,amber ,flora4        
,cryptogame             #fhjj           
#fj    ,phanerogame            #cded    
#ajb    and gives the following         
specimens of two of the orders3--       
,cupulifer                #ab           
#aj    ,ericace                  #bc    
#bd    7,see remarks by ,goeppert on the
 ,amber ,flora1 etc41 ,edin4 ,n4 ,phil4 
,journ4 lvi4 #cfh2 and ,quart4 ,journ4  
,geol4 ,soc4 x4 #cg47 ,in the lower     
,eocene of ,herne ,bay1 ,carruthers     
noticed a fern like ,osmunda 7,fig4     
#id71 which he calls ,osmundites        
,dowkeri 7,plate ,i4 ,figs4 #h1 #i74    
,this  specimen was silicified2 starch  
grains contained in its cells1 and  the 
mycelium of a parasitic fungus          
traversing some of them1 were  perfectly
 preserved4 ,berkeley has detected in   
amber fossil fungi1  which he has named 
,penicillium curtipes1 ,brachycladium   

,thomasinum1  and ,streptothrix         
spiralis4#ba ,some ,charace are also met
 with1 as  ,chara medicaginula and ,c4  
prisca1 with a fossil called            
,gyrogonites1  the nucule or the        
fructification of these plants4         
,carpolithes ovatus1  a minute          
seed-vessel1 occurs in the ,eocene beds 
of ,lewisham4 ,another  small fruit1 of 
a similar nature1 called ,folliculites  
minutulus1  occurs in the ,bovey ,tracey
 coal1 which belongs to the ,tertiary   
beds4          ,,flora ,,of ,,the       
,,miocene ,,epoch4      ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ie4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ie4     
,comptonia acutiloba1 apparently the    
leaf of  a plant belonging to the       
natural order ,proteace1 which abound in
  ,australia1 and are also found at the 
,cape of ,good ,hope at the present     
day4    ,sidenote3 ,figures #if to #ii  
show the leaves of plants belonging to  
the ,miocene epoch4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #if-ig4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ih4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4 #if4 ,acer     

trilobatum1 a three-lobed palmate leaf1 
like that of the ,maple1 with the lobes 
unequal1 inciso-dentate1 the  lateral   
ones spreading1 found at ningen4 ,fig4  
#ig4 ,ulmus ,bronnii1  a petiolate leaf1
 like that of the ,elm1 unequally       
ovato-acuminate1  feather-veined and    
toothed1 found in ,bohemia4 ,fig4 #ih4  
,rhamnus  ,aizoon1 a petiolate          
elliptical obtuse feather-veined leaf1  
with an  entire margin1 found in        
,styria4    ,the most striking          
characters of the ,miocene epoch consist
 in the  mixture of exotic forms of warm
 regions with those of temperate        
climates4 ,unger says that it resembles 
that of the southern part  of ,north    
,america4 ,thus we meet with ,palms1    
such as species of  ,flabellaria and    
,phnicites1 a kind of ,bamboo called    
,bambusium  sepultum2 ,laurace1 as      
,daphnogene and ,laurus2 ,combretace1 as
  ,getonia and ,terminalia2 ,leguminos1 
as ,phaseolites1 ,desmodophyllum1       
,dolichites1 ,erythrina1 ,bauhinia1     

,mimosites1 and ,acacia--all plants     
having their living representatives in  
warm climates2 ,echitonium1  ,plumiera1 
and other ,apocynace of equatorial      
regions2 ,comptonia 7,fig4  #ie71 a     
,proteaceous genus1 and ,steinhauera1 a 
,cinchonaceous genus2  mingled with     
species of ,acer 7,fig4 #if71 ,ulmus    
7,fig4 #ig71 ,rhamnus  7,fig4 #ih72 and 
,amentiferous forms1 such as ,myrica1   
,betula1 ,alnus  7,fig4 #ii71 ,quercus1 
,fagus1 ,carpinus1 all belonging to     
temperate  and cold climates4 ,the      
statements as to the occurrence of      
,pinus  sylvestris and ,betula alba     
among the ,miocene fossils have not been
  founded on complete data4 ,it is by no
 means easy1 even in the present  day1  
to distinguish fragments of dried       
specimens of ,pinus ,pumilio  from those
 of ,p4 sylvestris1 and from a great    
many other ,pines4  ,the difficulty is  
still greater in fossils 7,hook4 ,kew   
,journ4 v4  #dac74 ,there are a very    
small number of plants belonging to     

orders  with gamopetalous corollas4 ,in 
the ,miocene formation of ,lough  ,neagh
 in ,ireland1 and of ,mull in ,scotland1
 silicified trunks of  considerable size
 have been found4 ,the ,irish silicified
 wood has been  denominated             
,cupressoxylon ,pritchardi from its     
apparent resemblance  to the ,cypress4  
,as connected with the ,miocene epoch1  
we may notice  the leaf-beds found at   
,ardtun1 in the island of ,mull1 by the 
,duke  of ,argyll4#bb ,above and below  
these beds basalt occurs1 and there  are
 peculiar tuff-beds alternating with the
 leafy deposits4 ,these  tuff-beds were 
formed by the deposit of volcanic dust  
in pools  probably of fresh water4 ,they
 contain fragments of chalk and flint4  
,the leaves are those of plants allied  
to the ,yew1 ,rhamnus1 ,plane1 and      
,alder1 along with the fronds of a      
peculiar ,fern1 and the stems of an     
,equisetum4 ,the genera are ,taxites or 
,taxodites 7,fig4 #ajj71 ,rhamnites     
7,fig4 #aja71 ,platanites1 ,alnites1    

,filicites1 and ,equisetum 7,fig4       
#ajb74 ,in the leaf-beds at ,bournemouth
 ,mr4 ,wanklyn detected several  ferns4 
,one is a species of ,didymosorus1 and  
shows distinct venation  and            
fructification4 ,fossilised wood was    
found in the ,arctic ,regions  by       
,captain ,m',clure4 ,at the ,n4,w4 of   
,banks ,land he found trees with  trunks
 #a foot #g inches in diameter4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii-aja4           
,sidenote3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,alnus gracilis1  
an ovate-oblong leaf1 like that  of the 
,alder1 found in ,bohemia4    ,sidenote3
 ,figures #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb1 exhibit     
fragments of plants which  occur in the 
leaf-bed at ,ardtun ,head1 in ,mull1 and
 which is referred  to the ,miocene     
epoch4 ,the figures are from the ,duke  
of ,argyll's  paper4    ,sidenote3 ,fig4
 #ajj4 ,taxites1 or perhaps ,taxodites  
,campbellii1 a  branch with leaves      
resembling those of the ,yew1 or rather 
those of  ,taxodium4    ,fig4 #aja4     
,rhamnites multinervatus1 a leaf        

resembling  that of ,rhamnus4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4    ,sidenote3
 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,equisetum ,campbellii1 a  
stem like that of an  ,equisetum of the 
present day4    ,dr4 ,oswald ,heer#bc   
has examined the plants preserved in the
 lignite  beds of ,bovey ,tracey1 in    
,devonshire1 and he finds that they     
belong  to the ,miocene formation4      
,there is a remarkable coincidence      
between  this and several of the        
continental fossil floras1 such as those
  of ,salzhauser in the ,wetterau1      
,manosque in ,provence1 and of some     
parts of ,switzerland4 ,bovey ,tracey   
has no species in common with  ,iceland1
 although the ,tertiary flora of        
,iceland belongs to the  same period4   
,two of its species 7,corylus           
,mac,quarrii and ,platanus  aceroides7  
have been found in the ,miocene of      
,ardtun ,head4 ,even the  genera are    
distinct1 with the exception of ,sequoia
 and ,quercus4 ,the  ,bovey ,tracey     
flora has a much more southern          

character1 corresponding  entirely with 
that of the ,lower ,miocene of          
,switzerland4 ,it contains  three       
species of ,cinnamon1 one ,laurel1      
evergreen ,figs1 one ,palm1 and  large  
,ferns1 thus manifesting a subtropical  
climate4 ,one of the most  important    
plants is ,sequoia ,couttsi1 a ,conifer 
which supplies a link  between ,s4      
,langsdorfii and ,s4 ,sternbergi1 the   
widely-distributed  representatives of  
,s4 sempervirens and ,s4 gigantea       
7,wellingtonia71  which are ,californian
 trees4 ,among other characteristic     
plants may be  mentioned ,cinnamomum    
lanceolatum and ,c4 ,scheuchzeri2       
,quercus ,lyellii1  an evergreen oak2   
species of evergreen fig 7,ficus        
,falconeri and ,f4  ,pengellii71        
,palmacites ,dmonorops1 a prickly       
twining ,rotang-palm2  species of ,vine 
7,vitis ,hookeri and ,v4 ,britannica72  
,pecopteris  lignitum1 a large          
tree-fern2 species of ,nyssa1 at present
 confined  to ,north ,america4 ,among   

other plants recorded by ,heer in his   
paper  are the following3--,laurus      
primigenia1 ,daphnogene ,ungeri1 species
  of ,dryandroides1 ,andromeda1         
,vaccinium acheronticum1 ,echitonium    
cuspidatum1 ,gardenia ,wetzleri1 species
 of ,anona1 ,nympha ,doris1             
,carpolithes ,websteri1 ,c4 ,boveyanus1 
and other species4 ,in the              
post-tertiary white clay of ,bovey      
,tracey1 ,salix cinerea1 and a  species 
allied to ,s4 repens1 as well as ,betula
 nana1 are found4    ,the ,arctic fossil
 flora 7,miocene71 according to ,heer1  
amounts to  #afb species3 ,cryptogamia1 
#ah species1 of which #i are large      
ferns2  ,phanerogamia1 ,conifer1 #ca2   
,monocotyledons1 #ad2 ,dicotyledons1    
#ii4  ,among the ,conifer are--,pinus   
,m',clurii1 ,sequoia ,langsdorffii1     
,sternbergi1 and ,couttsi1 ,taxodium    
dubium1 ,glyptostrobus europus1         
,thujopsis europa4 ,among leafy trees   
are--,fagus ,deucalionis1 ,quercus      
,olafseni1 ,platanus aceroides1 willows1

 beeches1 ,acer1 ,otopteryx1            
tulip-tree1 walnuts1 ,magnolia          
,inglefieldi1 ,prunus ,scottii1 ,tilia  
,malmgreni1 ,corylus ,m',quarrii1 ,alnus
 ,kefersteinii1 ,daphnogene ,kannii1    
probably one of the ,laurace2 and among 
,proteace1 ,mac,clintockia8 and  ,hakea4
 ,in ,greenland are found species of    
,rhamnus1 ,paliurus1 ,cornus1  ,ilex1   
,cratgus1 ,andromeda1 ,myrica1 ,ivy1 and
 ,vine4 ,from the flora of              
,spitzbergen1 in the ,miocene epoch1 we 
may conclude that under #gi  ,n4 lat4   
the mean temperature of the year may    
have been #da ,fahr41  while at the same
 epoch that of ,switzerland was #fih    
,fahr42 judging  from the analogy of    
floras1 it appears that the mean        
temperature  has fallen #fi4 ,from this 
it follows that at ,spitzbergen1 at  #gh
 ,n4 lat41 the mean temperature was     
perhaps #dai ,fahr4 ,in  ,greenland1 at 
#gj1 it would be #dia ,fahr41 and in    
,iceland and on  the ,mackenzie1 in lat4
 #fe1 it would be #ebg ,fahr4 ,at the   

,miocene  epoch the temperature seems to
 have been much more uniform1 the  mean 
heat diminishing much more gradually in 
proportion as the pole  was approached4 
,the isothermal line of #cb ,fahr4 might
 have fallen  upon the pole1 while now  
it is situated under #eh ,n4 7,see      
,heer's  conclusions as to changes of   
temperature depending on proportion  of 
sea and land1 eccentricity of the earth1
 and the earth moving  through warm and 
cold spaces in the universe--,ann4 ,nat4
 ,hist4 #dth  ser4 i4 #ff47    ,in      
speaking of the ,polar flora of former  
epochs1 ,heer says that every  plant    
executes a slow and continuous          
migration4 ,these migrations1  the      
starting-point of which is the distant  
past1 are recorded in  the rocks2 and   
the interweaving of the carpets of      
flowers which  adorn our present        
creation retraces them for us in its    
turn4 ,for  the vegetation of the       
present day is closely connected with   
that of  preceding epochs2 and          

throughout all these vegetable creations
 reigns  one thought1 which not only    
reveals itself around us by thousands   
upon thousands of images1 but strikes us
 everywhere in the icy  regions of the  
extreme north4 ,organic nature may      
become impoverished  there1 and even    
disappear when a cold mantle of ice     
extends over the  whole earth2 but where
 the flowers die the rocks speak1 and   
relate  the marvels of creation2 they   
tell us that even in the most distant   
countries1 and in the remotest parts1   
nature was governed by the same  laws   
and the same harmony as immediately     
around us4#bd          ,,flora ,,of     
,,the ,,pliocene ,,epoch4      ,the     
flora of the ,pliocene epoch has a great
 analogy to that of the  temperate      
regions of ,europe1 ,north ,america1 and
 ,japan4 ,we meet with  ,conifer1       
,amentifer1 ,rosace1 ,leguminos1        
,rhamnace1 ,acerace1  ,aquifoliace1     
,ericace1 and many other orders4 ,there 
is a small  number of ,dicotyledons with

 gamopetalous corollas4 ,the twenty     
species with such corollas recognised by
 ,brongniart are referred to  the       
,hypogynous ,gamopetalous group of      
,exogens1 which in the general          
organisation of the flowers approach    
nearest to ,dialypetal4 ,in  this flora 
there is the predominance of            
,dicotyledons in number and  variety2   
there are few ,monocotyledons4 ,no      
species appear to be  identical1 at     
least with the plants which now grow in 
,europe4 ,thus  the flora of ,europe1   
even at the most recent geological epoch
 of the  ,tertiary period1 was very     
different from the ,european flora of   
the  present day4    ,taking the natural
 orders which have at least four        
representatives1  ,raulin#be gives the  
following statement as to the ,tertiary 
flora  of central ,europe4 ,the ,eocene 
flora of ,europe is composed of #abh    
species1 of which #aae belong to ,alg1  
,charace1 ,pandanace1 ,palm1  ,naiadace1
 ,malvace1 ,sapindace1 ,proteace1       

,papilionace1 and  ,cupressine4 ,the    
,miocene flora has #aab species1 of     
which #fi belong to  ,alg1 ,palm1       
,naiadace1 ,apocynace1 ,acerace1        
,laurace1 ,papilionace1  ,platanace1    
,quercine1 ,myricace1 and ,abietine4    
,the ,pliocene  flora has #beh species1 
of which #bbf belong to ,alg1 ,fungi1   
,musci1  ,filices1 ,palm1 ,ericace1     
,aquifoliace1 ,acerace1 ,ulmace1        
,rhamnace1  ,papilionace1 ,juglandace1  
,salicace1 ,quercine1 ,betulace1        
,taxace1  ,cupressine1 and ,abietine4   
,the ,eocene species are included in    
genera which belong at the present day  
to inter-tropical regions1  comprising  
in them ,india and the ,asiatic islands 
of ,australia4 ,some  are peculiar to   
the ,mediterranean region4 ,the aquatic 
plants1 which  form almost one-third of 
the flora1 belong to genera now peculiar
 to  the temperate regions of ,europe   
and of ,north ,america1 or occurring    
everywhere4 ,the ,miocene species belong
 to genera1 of which several  are found 

in ,india1 tropical ,america1 and the   
other inter-tropical  regions1 but which
 for the most part inhabit the          
sub-tropical and  temperate regions1    
including the ,united ,states4 ,some of 
the genera  are peculiar to the         
temperate regions4 ,the aquatic genera1 
poor in  species1 occur everywhere1 or  
else solely in the temperate regions4   
,the ,pliocene species belong to genera 
which almost all inhabit the  temperate 
regions1 either of the old continent or 
of the ,united  ,states4 ,a few only are
 of genera existing in ,india1 ,japan1  
and the  north of ,africa4 ,these       
various floras1 which present           
successively  the character of those of 
inter-tropical1 sub-tropical1 and       
temperate regions1 seem to indicate that
 central ,europe has1 since  the        
commencement of the ,tertiary period1   
been subjected1 during  the succession  
of time1 to the influence of these three
 different  temperatures4 ,it would     
appear1 then1 ,raulin remarks1 that the 

climate  of ,europe has during the      
,tertiary period gradually become more  
temperate4    ,brown coal occurs in the 
upper ,tertiary beds1 and in it         
vegetable  structure is easily seen     
under the microscope4 ,goeppert1 on     
examining  the brown coal deposits of   
northern ,germany and the ,rhine1 finds 
that  ,conifer predominate in a         
remarkable degree2 among #cjj specimens 
of  bituminous wood collected in the    
,silesian brown coal deposits alone1    
only a very few other kinds of          
,exogenous wood occur4 ,this seems      
remarkable1 inasmuch as in the clays of 
the brown coal formation  in many other 
places leaves of deciduous              
,dicotyledonous trees have  been found2 
and yet the stems on which we may       
suppose them to have  grown are wanting4
 ,the leaves have been floated away from
 the place  where they grew by a current
 of water which was not powerful enough 
to transport the stems4 ,the coniferous 
plants of these brown coal  deposits    

belong to ,taxine and ,cupressine       
chiefly2 among the plants  are ,pinites 
protolarix and ,taxites ,ayckii4 ,many  
of the ,conifer  exhibit highly         
compressed1 very narrow annual rings1   
such as occur in  ,conifer of northern  
latitudes4 ,goeppert has described a    
trunk1 or  rather the lower end of a    
trunk1 of ,pinites protolarix1          
discovered  in #ahdi in the brown coal  
of ,laasan in ,silesia4 ,it was found in
 a  nearly perpendicular position1 and  
measured more than #cb feet in          
circumference4 ,sixteen vast roots ran  
out almost at right angles from  the    
base of the trunk1 of which about four  
feet stood up perfect in  form1 but     
stripped of bark4 ,unfortunately the    
interior of the stem  was almost        
entirely filled with structureless brown
 coal1 so that  only two cross sections 
could be obtained from the outer parts1 
one  sixteen inches1 the other three    
feet six inches broad4 ,in the first    
section ,goeppert counted #gjj1 in the  

second #acjj rings of wood1 so  that for
 the half-diameter of #e feet1 at least 
#bbjj rings must have  existed4 ,as     
there is every reason to believe that   
the rings were  formed in earlier ages  
just as the annual zones are now1 this  
tree  would be from #bbjj to #bejj years
 old4 ,exogenous stems in lignite are   
often of great size and age4 ,in a trunk
 near ,bonn1 ,nggerath counted  #gib    
annual rings4 ,in the turf bogs of the  
,somme1 at ,yseux near  ,abbeville1 a   
trunk of an oak-tree has been found     
above #ad feet in  diameter4            
,,general ,,conclusions4      ,we have  
thus seen that the vegetation of the    
globe is represented  by numerous       
distinct floras connected with the      
different periods  of its history1 and  
that the farther back we go1 the more   
are the  plants different from those of 
the present day4 ,there can be no doubt 
that there have been successive deposits
 of stratified rocks1 and  successive   
creations of living beings4 ,we see that

 animals and plants  have gone through  
their different phases of existence1 and
 that their  remains in all stages of   
growth and decay have been imbedded in  
rocks  superimposed upon each other in  
regular succession4 ,it is impossible   
to conceive that these were the result  
of changes produced within the  limits  
of a few days4 ,considering the depth of
 stratification1 and  the condition and 
nature of the living beings found in the
 strata at  various depths1 we must     
conclude 7unless our senses are mocked  
by  the phenomena presented to our view7
 that vast periods have elapsed  since  
the ,creator in the beginning created   
the heavens and the earth4  ,how far it 
may be possible in the future to        
correlate the history  of the earth     
inscribed on its rocky tablets and      
deciphered by the  geologist1 and that  
short narrative which forms the         
introduction to  the ,sacred ,volume1 it
 is too difficult to say4 ,at present   
there are  no satisfactory materials for

 such a correlation2 but one thing is   
certain1 that both ,revelation and      
,geology testify with one voice to  the 
work of a ,divine ,creator4    ,who     
shall declare 7,hugh ,miller remarks7   
what through long ages the  history of  
creation has been8 ,we see at wide      
intervals the mere  fragments of        
successive ,floras2 but know not how1   
what seem the  blank interspaces1 were  
filled2 or how1 as extinction overtook  
in  succession one tribe of existences  
after another1 and species1 like        
individuals1 yielded to the great law of
 death1 yet other species  were brought 
to the birth1 and ushered upon the      
scene1 and the chain  of being was      
maintained unbroken4 ,we see only       
detached bits of  that green web which  
has covered our earth ever since the dry
 land  first appeared4 ,but the web     
itself seems to have been continuous    
throughout all time2 though1 as breadth 
after breadth issued from  the creative 
loom1 the pattern was altered1 and the  

sculpturesque  and graceful forms that  
illustrated its first beginnings and its
  middle spaces have yielded to flowers 
of richer colour and blow1 and  fruits  
of fairer shade and outline2 and for    
gigantic club-mosses  stretching forth  
their hirsute arms1 goodly trees of the 
,lord have  expanded their great boughs2
 and for the barren fern and the        
calamite  clustering in thickets beside 
the waters1 or spreading on flowerless  
hill-slopes1 luxuriant orchards have    
yielded their ruddy flush1 and  rich    
harvests their golden gleam4    ,when we
 find animals and plants1 of forms      
unknown at the present  day1 in all     
stages of development1 we read a lesson 
as to the  history of the earth's former
 state as conclusive as that which  is  
derived from the ,nineveh relics        
7independent of ,revelation7 in  regard 
to the history of the human race4 ,there
 is no want of harmony  between         
,scripture and ,geology4 ,the ,word and 
the ,works of ,god must  be in unison1  

and the more we truly study both1 the   
more they will  be found to be in       
accordance4 ,any apparent want of       
correspondence  proceeds either from    
imperfect interpretation of ,scripture  
or from  incomplete knowledge of        
science4 ,the changes in the globe have 
all  preceded man's appearance on the   
scene4 ,he is the characteristic  of the
 present epoch1 and he knows by         
,revelation that the world is  to       
undergo a further transformation1 when  
the elements shall melt  with fervent   
heat1 and when all the present state of 
things shall be  dissolved1 ere the     
ushering in of a new earth1 wherein     
righteousness  is to dwell4             
,,recapitulation4      ,recapitulation  
of the chief points connected with      
,fossil ,botany3--      #a4 ,the        
vegetation of the globe has varied at   
different epochs of    the earth's      
history4      #b4 ,the farther we recede
 in geological history from the present 
day1 the greater is the difference      

between the fossil plants and    those  
which now occupy the surface4      #c4  
,all fossil plants may be referred to   
the great classes of    plants of the   
present day1 ,acotyledons1              
,monocotyledons1 and    ,dicotyledons4  
#d4 ,the fossil species are different   
from those of the present    flora1 and 
it is only when we reach the ,tertiary  
periods that we    meet with some genera
 which are without doubt identical4     
#e4 ,fossil plants are preserved in     
various conditions1 according    to the 
nature of their structure1 and the mode 
in which they have    been acted upon4  
,sometimes mere casts of the plants are 
found1 at    other times they are       
carbonised and converted into coal1     
while    at other times1 besides being  
carbonised1 they are infiltrated    with
 calcareous or siliceous matter1 and    
finally1 they may be    petrified4      
#f4 ,cellular plants1 and the cellular  
portions of vascular plants1    have    
rarely been preserved1 while woody      

species1 and especially    ,ferns1 which
 are very indestructible1 have retained 
their forms    in many instances4       
#g4 ,in some cases1 especially when     
silicified or charred1 the    structure 
of the woody stems can be easily seen in
 thin sections    under the microscope4 
#h4 ,the determination of fossil plants 
is a matter of great    difficulty1 and 
requires a thorough knowledge of        
structure1 and    of the markings on    
stems1 roots1 etc4      #i4 ,the rocks  
containing organic remains are called   
fossiliferous1    and are divided into  
,primary1 ,secondary1 and ,tertiary1 or 
into    ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 and       
,cainozoic1 each of these series being  
characterised by a peculiar facies of   
vegetable life4      #aj4 ,the mere     
absence of organic remains will not     
always be a    correct guide as to the  
state of the globe4      #aa4 ,the      
number of fossil species has been       
estimated at between    #cjjj and #djjj2
 but many parts of plants are described 

as separate    species1 and even genera1
 and hence the number is perhaps greater
    than it ought to be4      #ab4      
,brongniart divides the fossil flora    
into three great    epochs3--#a4 ,the   
reign of ,acrogens2 #b4 ,the reign of   
,gymnosperms2    #c4 ,the reign of      
,angiosperms4      #ac4 ,the reign of   
,acrogens embraces the ,silurian1       
,carboniferous1    and ,permian epochs1 
in which there was a predominance of    
plants    belonging to the natural      
orders ,filices1 ,lycopodiace1 and      
,equisetace1 associated1 however1 with  
others of a higher class4      #ad4 ,the
 reign of ,gymnosperms embraces the     
lower and middle    ,secondary periods1 
and is characterised by the presence of 
numerous ,conifer and ,cycadace4        
#ae4 ,the reign of ,angiosperms includes
 the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary          
periods1 and is marked by the           
predominance of ,angiospermous          
,dicotyledons4      #af4 ,coal is a     
vague term1 referring to all kinds of   

fuel formed    from the                 
chemically-altered remains of plants4   
#ag4 ,when there is a great admixture of
 mineral matter1 so that it    will not 
burn as fuel1 then a shale is produced4 
#ah4 ,the microscopic structure of ,coal
 probably varies according    to the    
nature of the plants of which it is     
composed1 and the    changes produced by
 pressure1 heat1 and other causes4      
,cellular    tissue1 punctated woody    
tissue1 and scalariform vessels1 have   
been detected in it4      #ai4 ,certain 
temporary and local floras seem to have 
given origin    to peculiar layers of   
coal4      #bj4 ,during the             
,carboniferous epoch we meet with       
,ferns1    ,sigillarias1 and their roots
 called ,stigmarias1 ,lepidodendrons1   
,ulodendrons1 ,calamites1 ,gymnosperms1 
etc4      #ba4 ,the plants forming coal 
have grown in the basin where the       
coal is found2 but sandstone rocks in   
the coal-measures deposited    by water 
having a considerable velocity1 and     

consequently    carrying power1 contain 
sometimes trunks of large trees which   
have been drifted like snags4      #bb4 
,the strata between the ,permian epoch  
and ,chalk display    numerous          
,gymnosperms1 especially belonging to   
the ,cycadaceous    ,order4 ,some of    
them exhibit limited coal deposits4     
#bc4 ,the ,chalk and ,tertiary strata   
display not only ,acrogens and          
,gymnosperms1 but also ,angiospermous   
,dicotyledons1 some of which1    at the 
,miocene period1 belong apparently to   
genera of the present    day4      #bd4 
,brown ,coal occurs in the ,upper       
,tertiary beds1 and in it    vegetable  
structure is easily seen under the      
microscope4      #be4 ,raulin thinks    
that during the ,tertiary epoch the     
flora of    ,europe has gradually       
assumed a more temperate character4     
#bf4 ,the ,eocene flora1 according to   
,unger1 resembled in many    respects   
that of ,australia at the present day4  
#bg4 ,the ,miocene flora is             

characterised by a number of exotic     
forms of warm regions with those of     
temperate climates4 ,it is    largely   
seen in the ,arctic ,regions4      #bh4 
,the ,pliocene flora has great analogy  
with that of the    temperate regions of
 ,europe1 ,north ,america1 and ,japan4  
,,works ,,on ,,fossil ,,botany4      ,on
 the subject of ,fossil ,botany the     
following works may be  consulted3--    
,abhandlungen der ,kaiserlich           
,kniglichen ,geologischen               
,reichsanstalt1 ,band4 ii4 ,wien4 #ahee4
      ,argyll1 ,duke of1 on ,tertiary   
,leaf-,beds in the ,isle of ,mull1      
,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,lond41 vii4 ,may  
#ahea4      ,balfour1 ,j4 ,h41 on       
certain ,vegetable ,organisms in ,coal  
from    ,fordel1 ,trans4 ,r4,s4,e41 vol4
 xxi4 p4 #ahg4      ,baily1 ,w4 ,h41    
,figures of ,characteristic ,british    
,fossils1 #ahga-b4      ,bennett1 ,j4   
,hughes1 on the ,structure of ,torbane  
,hill ,mineral and    other ,coals1     
,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,ed41 vol4 xxi4 p4    

#agc4      ,binney1 ,e4 ,w41 on         
,calamites and ,calamodendron1          
,palontographical    ,society's         
,memoirs1 #ahfh4      ---- on the       
,structure of ,fossil ,plants found in  
the ,carboniferous    ,strata4          
,palontographical ,society's ,memoirs1  
#ahga4      ---- ,description of some   
,fossil ,plants1 showing ,structure in  
the    ,lower ,coal ,seam of ,lancaster 
and ,yorkshire1 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4    
#aee1 p4 #egi4      ,bowerbank1 ,fossil 
,fruits and ,seeds of the ,london ,clay4
      ,brongniart1 ,histoire des ,vgtaux
 ,fossiles1 #ahbh-dd4      ----         
,observations sur la ,structure         
intrieure du ,sigillaria1    etc41 in   
,archives du ,museum1 i4 #dje4      ----
 ,exposition ,chronologique des ,priodes
 de ,vgtation1 in ,ann4    des ,sc4     
,nat4 #c;d series1 ,bot4 xi4 #bhe4      
,carruthers1 on ,gymnospermatous ,fruits
 from the ,secondary ,rocks of          
,britain1 ,journ4 ,bot41 ,jan4 #ahfg4   
---- on the ,structure of the ,stems of 

the ,arborescent    ,lycopodiace of the 
,coal ,measures1 ,nos4 i4 to iv41       
,month4    ,microsc4 ,journ41 vols4 i4  
ii4 iv4      ---- on the ,cryptogamic   
,forests of the ,coal ,period1 ,paper   
read    before the ,royal ,institution  
of ,great ,britain1 #afth ,april #ahfi4 
---- on the ,structure and ,affinities  
of ,sigillaria and ,allied    ,genera1  
,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,aug4     
#ahfi4      ---- on a ,fossil ,cone from
 the ,coal ,measures1 ,geol4 ,mag41     
#ahfe4      ---- on ,caulopteris        
punctata1 ibid4      ---- on ,araucaria 
,cones from the ,secondary ,beds of     
,britain1    ibid4 #ahff4      ---- on  
an ,aroideous ,fruit from the           
,stonesfield ,slate1 ibid4    #ahfg4    
---- on ,cycadoidea ,yatesii1 ibid4     
#ahfg4      ---- on the ,structure of   
the ,fruit of ,calamites1 ,journal of   
,botany1 #ahfg4      ---- on ,british   
,fossil ,pandanace1 ibid4 #ahfh4        
---- on ,british ,fossil ,conifer1 ibid4
 #ahfi4      ---- on the ,petrified     

,forest near ,cairo1 ,geol4 ,mag41 vii4 
#cjf4      ---- on the ,structure of a  
,fern-,stem from the ,lower ,eocene1    
,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 xxvi4 #cdi4       
---- on the ,structure and ,affinities  
of ,lepidodendron and    ,calamites1    
,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,edin41 viii4 #die4 
---- on some ,fossil ,coniferous        
,fruits1 ,geol4 ,mag41 vols4 iii4 vi4   
---- on ,beania1 a new genus of         
,cycadean ,fruit1 from the ,yorkshire   
,oolites1 ,geol4 ,mag41 vol4 vi4        
---- on ,plant-remains from the         
,brazilian ,coal-beds1 with ,remarks    
on the genus ,flemingites1 ,geol4 ,mag41
 vol4 vi4      ---- on the ,fossil      
,cycadaceous ,stems from the ,secondary 
,rocks of    ,britain1 ,linn4 ,trans41  
xxvi4 #fge4      ---- on the ,history   
and ,affinities of the ,british         
,conifer1 ,brit4    ,assoc4 ,reports1   
#djth ,meeting1 p4 #ga4                 
,carruthers1 ,list of ,new ,genera and  
,species of ,fossil ,plants1 ,nos4    i4
 ii4 and iii41 ,journal of ,botany1     

vols4 viii4 ix4 x4      ,coalfields1 by 
a ,traveller under ground4      ,corda1 
,beitrge zur ,flora der ,vorwelt1 ,prag4
 #ahde4      ,cotta1 ,dendrolithen1     
,leipzig1 #ahej4      ,dawson1 ,j4 ,w41 
on ,spore-,cases in ,coal1 ,ann4 ,nat4  
,hist41 #ahga1 p4    #cba4      ---- on 
,vegetable ,structures in ,coal1 ,quart4
 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41    #ahfj4        
---- on the ,pre-,carboniferous ,flora  
of ,new ,brunswick and ,eastern         
,canada1 ,canadian ,naturalist1 ,may    
#ahfa4      ---- on the ,flora of the   
,devonian ,period in ,north-,eastern    
,america1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 
,nov4 #ahfb4      ---- on an ,erect     
,sigillaria and a ,carpolite from ,nova 
,scotia1    ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4
 ,lond4      ---- on ,calamites1 ,ann4  
,nat4 ,hist4 #dth ser4 vol4 iv4 #bgb4   
---- on the ,varieties and ,mode of     
,preservation of the ,fossils    known  
as ,sternbergi1 ,canadian ,naturalist2  
also in ,edin4 ,new    ,phil4 ,journal1 
,n4,s4 vii4 #adj4      ---- ,acadian    

,geology1 #ahfh4      ---- the ,fossil  
,plants of the ,devonian and ,upper     
,silurian    ,formations of ,canada1    
,geol4 ,survey of ,canada1 #ahga4       
---- on the ,pre-,carboniferous ,floras 
of ,north-,eastern ,america1    with    
special reference to that of the ,erian 
7,devonian7 ,period1    ,proc4 ,roy4    
,soc4 ,lond41 ,may #e1 #ahgj4      ---- 
on the ,graphite of the ,laurentian     
,rocks of ,canada1 ,quart4    ,journ4   
,geol4 ,soc41 xxvi4 #aab4      ,dunker1 
,zettel1 and ,meyer1 ,beitrge zur       
,naturgeschichte der    ,vorwelt4       
,ettingshausen1 ,beitrge zur ,flora der 
,vorwelt in ,abhandlungen der           
,geolog4 ,reichsanstalt1 ,vienna1 #ahea4
      ,forbes1 on ,tertiary ,leaf-,beds 
in the ,isle of ,mull1 discovered by    
the ,duke of ,argyll1 ,f4,g4,s41 with a 
note on the ,vegetable ,remains    from 
,ardtun ,head1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4   
,soc4 ,lond41 vol4 vii4      ,giebel1   
,palontologie4      ,goeppert1 ,beitrge 
zur ,bernsteinflora2 sur la ,structure  

de la    ,houille4      ---- ,die       
,gattungen der ,fossilen ,pflanzen1     
,bonn1 #ahda4      ---- ,monographie des
 ,fossilen ,coniferen1 #ahej4      ---- 
,systema ,filicum ,fossilium1 ,nova     
,acta1 xvii4      ---- ,ueber die       
,fossilen ,cycadeen1 ,breslau1 #ahdd4   
---- ,erluterung der                    
,steinkohlen-,formation4      ,goeppert1
 ,die ,fossile ,flora der ,permischen   
,formation1    ,palontographica1        
,hermann von ,meyer1 ,cassel1 #ahfd4    
---- ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss ,fossilen  
,cycadeen1 ,breslau4      ,grand        
d',eury1 on ,calamites and              
,asterophyllites1 ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist41   
ser4 #d1 vol4 iv4 #abd4      ,harkness1 
on ,coal1 ,edin4 ,phil4 ,journ41 ,july  
#ahed4      ,heer1 ,flora ,tertiaria    
,helveti1 #c vols4      ---- ,flora     
,fossilis ,arctica1 #ahfh-ahga4         
---- on the ,fossil ,flora of ,bovey    
,tracey1 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4,l41      
#aeb1 p4 #ajci4      ---- on the ,fossil
 ,flora of ,north ,greenland1 ,phil4    

,trans41 vol4    #aei1 p4 #dde4         
,hooker1 on ,some ,minute ,seed-,vessels
 7,carpolithes ovulum1    ,brongniart7  
from the ,eocene beds of ,lewisham1     
,proceed4 ,geol4    ,soc41 #ahee4       
---- ,vegetation of the ,carboniferous  
,period1 in ,mem4 of ,geol4    ,survey1 
ii4      ---- on a ,new ,species of     
,volkmannia1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4     
,soc4    ,lond41 ,may #ahed4      ,king1
 on ,sigillaria1 etc41 in ,edin4 ,new   
,phil4 ,journal1 xxxvi4                 
,lesquereux1 on the ,coal ,measures of  
,america1 ,silliman's ,journal1         
#ahfc4      ,lindley and ,hutton1       
,fossil ,flora1 #c vols4 ,a revision of 
the    original work1 with a            
supplementary volume containing the     
recent    additions1 and a ,synopsis of 
the ,fossil ,plants of ,britain by ,mr4 
,w4 ,carruthers1 is announced as about  
to be published4      ,lowry1 ,table of 
the ,characteristic ,fossils of         
,different    ,formations4      ,m',nab1
 on the ,structure of a ,lignite        

7,palopitys7 from the ,old    ,red      
,sandstone1 ,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,edin41 
x4 #cab4      ,mueller and ,smyth1 on   
,some ,vegetable ,fossils from          
,victoria1 ,geol4    ,mag41 vii4 #cij4  
,meyer1 ,hermann ,von1 ,palontographica4
 ,beitrge zur    ,naturgeschichte der   
,vorwelt1 #ahfd4      ,nicholson1 on the
 ,occurrence of ,plants in the ,skiddaw 
,slates1    ,geol4 ,mag41 vol4 vi4      
,paterson1 ,description of ,pothocites  
,grantoni1 a ,new ,fossil    ,vegetable 
from the ,coal ,formation1 ,trans4 ,bot4
 ,soc4 ,edin41 vol4 i4      ,penny      
,cyclopdia1 vol4 vii41 ,coal ,plants4   
,pictet1 ,trait de ,palontologie4       
,quekett1 on the ,minute ,structure of  
,torbane ,hill ,mineral1 ,journ4        
,microsc4 ,sc41 #ahed4      ,raulin1    
,flore de l',europe pendant la ,priode  
,tertiaire1 in ,ann4    des ,sc4 ,nat41 
#c;d ser4 x4 #aic4      ,redfern1 on the
 ,nature of the ,torbane ,hill and other
 ,varieties of    ,coal1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 
,liverpool1 #ahed4      ,roehl1 ,a4 von1

 ,fossile ,flore der ,steinkohlen       
,formation    ,westphalens4             
,saporta1 ,etudes sur la ,vgtation du   
,sud-,est de la ,france     l',epoque   
,tertiaire1 ,annales des ,sciences      
,naturelles1 ser4 #d1 tome    xvi4 #cji1
 xvii4 #aia1 xix4 #e2 ser4 #e1 tome iii4
 #e1 iv4 #e4      ,schenk1 ,professor1  
die ,fossile ,flore der ,nordwest       
,deutschen    ,wealden ,formation4      
,schimper1 ,trait de ,palontologie      
,vgtale1 #ahgj-ga4      ,tate1 on the   
,fossil ,flora of the ,mountain         
,limestone ,formation of    the ,eastern
 ,borders1 in connection with the       
,natural ,history of    ,coal 7in       
,johnstone's ,eastern ,borders74        
,torbane ,coal1 as noticed in the       
,report of the ,trial as to the         
substance called ,torbane ,mineral or   
,torbanite4      ,unger1 ,genera et     
,species ,plantarum ,fossilium4         
---- ,chloris ,protoga4      ---- ,le   
,monde ,primitive 7a work which contains
 picturesque views    of the supposed   

state of the earth at different         
geological    epochs74      ---- on the 
,flora of the ,eocene ,epoch1 ,journ4   
,bot41 iii4 #ci4      ,weber and        
,wersel1 ,die ,tertiarflore der ,nieder 
,sheinescher    ,braunkohlen ,formation4
      ,williamson1 ,w4 ,c41 on the      
,organisation of the ,fossil ,plants of 
the ,coal ,measures1 ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist41
 #ahga1 p4 #acd4      ---- on the       
,structure and ,affinities of the       
,plants hitherto known    as            
,sternbergi1 ,mem4 ,manch4 ,lit4 and    
,phil4 ,soc41 ix4      ---- on a ,new   
,form of ,calamitean ,strobilus1 from   
the ,lancashire    ,coal ,measures1     
,mem4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,manchester1   
vol4 iv4 #c;d    series4      ---- on   
the ,structure of the ,woody ,zone of an
 ,undescribed ,form of    ,calamite1    
,mem4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,manchester1   
vols4 iv4 and viii4 #c;d    series4     
---- on ,volkmannia ,dawsoni1 ibid4     
#ahgj-ga4      ---- on ,zamia gigas     
7,williamsonia gigas71 ,linn4 ,trans41  

xxvi4 #ffc4      ---- on the            
,organisation of ,fossil ,plants of the 
,coal ,measures1    ,part ,i41          
,calamites1 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4,l41   
vol4 #afa1 p4 #dgg4      ,witham1 on the
 ,structure of ,fossil ,vegetables4     
,yates1 on ,zamia gigas1 ,proceed4      
,yorkshire ,phil4 ,soc41 ,april #ahdg4  
,young1 ,j41 and ,armstrong1 ,jas41 on  
the ,carboniferous ,fossils of    the   
,west of ,scotland1 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4
 ,glas41 vol4 iii4      ,besides        
geological treatises such as those of   
,ansted1    ,beudant1 ,jukes1 ,lyell1   
and others4          ,,explanation ,,of 
,,plates4      ,,plate ,i4      ,fig4   
#a4 ,palopteris ,hibernica1 ,schimper   
7,cyclopteris ,hibernica1    ,forbes74  
,one-sixth the natural size4      ,fig4 
#b4 ,a pinnule somewhat magnified1      
showing the venation4      ,fig4 #c4 ,a 
fertile pinna1 natural size4      ,fig4 
#d4 ,two cup-shaped indusia borne on the
 rachis4      ,fig4 #e4 ,sporangia      
enclosing spores4 ,from the             

,coal-measures4      ,fig4 #f4          
,sporangia of ,hymenophyllum            
,tunbridgense1 ,sm4 7,fern of    present
 epoch47      ,fig4 #g4 ,sporangium of  
,polypodium vulgare1 ,linn4 7,fern of   
present    epoch47 ,figs4 #e1 #f1 and   
#g1 magnified to the same extent4       
,fig4 #h4 ,transverse section of        
,osmundites ,dowkeri1 ,carruthers4      
,fig4 #i4 ,two cells of ,osmundites1    
filled1 the one with starch    granules1
 and the other with mycelium of a       
fungus4      ,,plate ,,ii4      ,fig4   
#a4 ,cycadeostrobus ovatus1 ,carr4 ,from
 the ,wealden1 ,isle of    ,wight4      
,fig4 #b4 ,beania gracilis1 ,carr4 ,from
 the ,yorkshire ,oolite4      ,fig4 #c4 
,bennettites ,saxbyanus1 ,carr4 ,from   
the ,lower ,greensand of    the ,isle of
 ,wight4      ,fig4 #d4 ,pinites        
,leckenbyi1 ,carr4 ,from the ,lower     
,greensand of the    ,isle of ,wight4   
,fig4 #e4 ,trigonocarpon olivforme1     
,lindl4 and ,hutt4 ,from the            
,coal-measures1 ,manchester4      ,fig4 

#f4 ,trigonocarpon sulcatum1 ,carr4     
,coal-measures1 ,wardie1    ,edinburgh4 
,fig4 #g4 ,sequoiites ,gardneri1 ,carr4 
,from the ,gault at ,folkestone4        
,figs4 #h1 #i4 ,cupressinites           
,thujoides1 ,bowerbank4 ,from the       
,eocene    at ,sheppey4      ,fig4 #aj4 
,scale of ,araucarites ,brodiei1 ,carr4 
,from the ,great    ,oolite at          
,stonesfield4      ,fig4 #aa4 ,scale of 
,araucarites ,phillipsii1 ,carr4 ,from  
the ,oolite    of ,yorkshire4      ,all 
the figures on this ,plate 7except ,fig4
 #b1 which is one-half    of the natural
 size7 are drawn the size of nature4    
,,plate ,,iii4      ,fig4 #a4 ,mass of  
coal from ,fordel1 ,fifeshire1          
containing numerous    sporangia of     
,flemingites4 ,these sporangia occur in 
coal from    different localities in    
,england and ,scotland4 ,binney has seen
    them in ,wigan coal4 ,huxley has    
found them abounding in coal near       
,bradford 7,balfour1 ,r4,s4,e4 ,trans47 
,fig4 #b4 ,one of the ,sporangia entire1

 and separated from the coal            
7,balfour74      ,fig4 #c4 ,sporangium  
with its valves separated1 containing a 
quantity of black carbonaceous matter in
 its interior 7,balfour74    ,this      
matter is formed by the altered spores  
7microspores74      ,fig4 #d4           
,sporangium1 showing the triradiate     
marking on the under    surface1 and a  
granulation produced probably by the    
spores in the    interior4      ,fig4   
#e4 ,punctated woody tissue             
7,coniferous74 ,from the needle coal    
of ,toplitz1 ,bohemia 7,harkness74      
,fig4 #f4 ,scalariform vessels from coal
 7,balfour74      ,fig4 #g4 ,stigmaria1 
with markings of rootlets4 ,one showing 
the    papilla to which the rootlet was 
articulated 7,hooker74      ,fig4 #h4   
,transverse section of ,stigmaria1      
showing the vascular    cylinder divided
 into wedges 7,hooker74      ,fig4 #i4  
,tissues of ,stigmaria1 showing the     
inner portion of the    vascular        
cylinder 7,hooker74      ,fig4 #aj4     

,transverse section of a ,lepidostrobus1
 the    fructification of               
,lepidodendron1 showing scales and      
sporangia    7,hooker74      ,fig4 #aa4 
,ulodendron ,taylori 7,carruthers74     
,,plate ,,iv4      ,fig4 #a4 ,sigillaria
 ,brownii1 restored 7,dawson74          
,fig4 #b4 ,sigillaria elegans1 restored 
7,dawson74      ,fig4 #c4               
,lepidodendron1 restored 7,carruthers1  
,bot4 ,soc4 ,trans47      ,fig4 #d4     
,calamites1 restored 7,carruthers1 ,bot4
 ,soc4 ,trans47      ,fig4 #e4          
,psilophyton1 a fossil of the ,devonian 
epoch 7,dawson74      ,illustration3    
,pl4 ,i4      ,a4 ,t4 ,hollick del4 et  
lith4      ,mintern ,bros4 imp4         
,fossil ,ferns4      ,illustration3 ,pl4
 ,,ii4      ,a4 ,t4 ,hollick del4 et    
lith4      ,mintern ,bros4 imp4         
,fossil ,gymnospermous ,fruits4         
,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iii4              
,mc,farlane  ,erskine1 ,lithrs ,edinr   
,coal and ,coal-,plants4                
,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iv4               

,mc,farlane  ,erskine1 ,lithrs ,edinr   
,devonian and ,carboniferous ,flora4    
,,index4        ,abietites1 #hd1 #he1   
#hg4      ,acacia1 #ij1 #ib4            
,acanthocarpum1 #gb4      ,acer1 #ib1   
#ig4      ,acerites1 #hg4      ,acrogens
 of present day1 #bf4      ,acrogens1   
fossil1 reign of1 #be1 #bf4             
,adiantites1 #da4      thophyllum1 #gi4 
,alder1 #id4      ,alethopteris1 #dc1   
#gb4      ,alg1 #ce4      ,alg of       
,cretaceous epoch1 #hg4      ,alnites1  
#hg1 #id4      ,alnus1 #id1 #ig4        
,alsophila1 #bi4      ,amber1 #ij4      
,amber flora1 ,goeppert on the1 #ia4    
,amentifer1 fossil1 #ib4                
,ancestrophyllum1 #dh4      ,andromeda1 
#if1 #ig4      ,angiosperms1 fossil1    
reign of1 #be1 #hg4      ,annularia1    
#fa1 #ga4      ,anomopteris1 #gi4       
,anona1 #ig4      ,anthodiopsis1 #gb4   
,antholithes1 #fd4      ,anthracite1    
#cf4      ,apocynace1 fossil1 #ib4      
,araucaria1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #he1 #ij4       
,araucarioxylon1 structure of1 #fc4     

,araucarites1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1  
#hg4      ,arctic fossil flora          
7,miocene71 #ig4      ,arctic ,regions1 
,palozoic flora of1 #dj4      ,arctic   
,regions1 fossil wood of1 #ie4          
,arthropitys1 #gb4      ,artisia1 #fd4  
,asplenium1 #bh4      ,asterophyllites1 
#ce1 #fa1 #ga4        ,bambusium1 #ib4  
,bauhinia1 #ij1 #ib4      ,beania1 #hb4 
,bear ,island1 fossil flora of1 #dj1    
#ei4      ,beeches1 #ig4                
,bennettite1 #hf4      ,bennettites1    
#he1 #hg4      ,betula1 #id1 #ig4       
,bothrodendron1 #eg4      ,bovey ,tracey
 flora1 #if4      ,bovey ,tracey1       
,devonshire1 lignite beds of1 #if4      
,brachyphyllum1 #hj1 #hf1 #hg4          
,bryson's instrument for slitting1 #ad4 
,bucklandia1 #hd1 #hf4                  
,csalpinia1 #ij4      ,cainozoic period1
 fossil plants of1 #hg4      ,calamites1
 #ce1 #da1 #ec4      ,calamites1 foliage
 and fruit 7woodcut71 #fb4              
,calamites1 structure of1 #eg4          
,calamites1 structure of fruit1 #fj4    

,calamodendron1 #ei1 #gb4               
,callipteris1 #gb4      ,callitris1 #ij4
      ,camptopteris1 #gi1 #hj4          
,carboniferous epoch1 #cf4              
,carboniferous vegetation1 its general  
character1 #fi4      ,carbonisation1 #i4
      ,cardiocarpum1 #da1 #gb1 #gh4     
,cardiocarpum1 structure of1 #fd4       
,cardiopteris1 #dj4      ,carpinites1   
#hg4      ,carpinus1 #id4               
,carpolithes1 #gh1 #hc1 #ib1 #ig4       
,cassia1 #ij4      ,casts of plants1 #h4
      ,casuarina1 #ij4      ,caulinites1
 #ij4      ,caulopteris1 #dc4           
,centrolobium1 #ij4      ,chalk flora1  
characteristics of1 #hg4      ,chara1   
#ib4      ,charace1 fossil1 #ia4        
,chondrites1 #hg4      ,cinchonace1     
fossil1 #ib4      ,cinnamomum1 #if4     
,classes to which fossil plants belong1 
#b4      ,climate as determined by      
fossil plants1 #ai4      ,climate of the
 ,tertiary period1 #ajj4                
,club-mosses1 #bf1 #cj4                 
,coal-basins1 #cg4      ,coal1 brown1   

structure of1 #ajj4      ,coal1 ,fordel1
 #cf1 #ef4      ,coal-formation1 extent 
of1 #ch4      ,coal1 household1 #cf4    
,coal-measures1 flora of1 #ci4          
,coal1 parrot1 #cf4      ,coal-plants1  
in situ1 or drifted1 #fg4      ,coal1   
structure in1 #cf4      ,coal1 ,wigan   
cannel1 #cf4      ,coal of ,oolitic     
epoch1 #hb4      ,coal of ,tertiary     
beds1 #ajj4      ,combretace1 fossil1   
#ib4      ,comptonia1 #ib1 #id4         
,comptonites1 #hg4      ,cones1 fossil1 
of ,wealden1 #he4      ,confervites1    
#hg4      ,conifer1 #hg4      ,conifer1 
modern1 #gb4      ,conifer1 number of   
,miocene species1 #ig4      ,conifer1   
,oolitic1 #hj4      ,conifer1 structure 
of recent1 #gd4      ,conifer of brown  
coal deposits1 #ajj4      ,conifer of   
,miocene ,arctic fossil flora1 #ig4     
,conifer of ,secondary strata1 #he4     
,conifer of ,tertiary period1 #hi4      
,coniferous genera of ,lias1 #gi4       
,coniferous vegetation of ,upper        
,cretaceous period1 appearance of1 #hi4 

,copaifera1 #ij4      ,cordaites1 #ce1  
#gb4      ,cornus1 #ig4      ,corylus1  
#if1 #ig4      ,cratgus1 #ig4           
,credneria1 #hg4      ,crematopteris1   
#gi4      ,cretaceous system1 fossil    
plants of1 #hg4      ,crossozamia1 #hf4 
,cryptogamia1 number of ,miocene species
 of1 #ig4      ,cryptomeria1 #hg4       
,cryptomerites1 #hf4      ,ctenis1 #gh1 
#gi4      ,cucumites1 #ij4              
,cunninghamites1 #hg4      ,cupressine1 
#hi4      ,cupressoxylon1 #ic4          
,cyathea1 #bi4      ,cyatheites1 #gb4   
,cycadace1 #hg4      ,cycadace1 fossil1 
,carruthers' arrangement of1 #hf4       
,cycadace1 modern1 #gb1 #ge4            
,cycadace1 ,oolitic1 #hj4      ,cycadace
 in ,mesozoic period1 #gg4              
,cycadace of ,lias1 #gi4      ,cycadace 
of ,tertiary period1 #hi4      ,cycadace
 of ,wealden epoch1 #hd4                
,cycadeostrobus1 #he4      ,cycadites1  
#dd1 #gi1 #hd1 #hg4      ,cycadoidea1   
#hc4      ,cycas1 #gf4                  
,cyclopteris1 #cb1 #ce1 #dc1 #gb4       

,cyclostigma1 #da4      ,cyperites1 #dh4
      ,cystoseirites1 #hg4              
,dadoxylon1 #ce1 #fc4      ,dalbergia1  
#ij4      ,dammarites1 #hg4             
,daphnogene1 #ib1 #if1 #ig4      ,dawson
 on ,devonian fossils1 #ce4             
,desmodophyllum1 #ib4      ,dicotyledons
 of ,pliocene epoch1 #ih4               
,dictyothalamus1 #gb4                   
,didymophyllum1 #dh4      ,didymosorus1 
#ie4      ,dioonopteris1 #gb4           
,dirt-bed1 ,portland1 #hc4              
,dolichites1 #ib4      ,drepanocarpus1  
#ij4      ,dryandroides1 #if4           
,echitonium1 #ib1 #if4                  
,encephalartos1 #gf4      ,entada1 #ij4 
,eocene epoch1 ,alg of1 #ij4            
,eocene epoch1 characteristics of1 #ij4 
,eocene epoch1 ,conifer of1 #ij1 #ia4   
,eocene epoch1 flora of1 #hi1 #ij4      
,eocene epoch1 fruits of1 #ij4          
,eozoon ,canadense1 #ca4                
,equisetace1 #bi1 #ei4                  
,equisetites1 #ga4      ,equisetum1 #ca1
 #ec1 #gi1 #id1 #ie4      ,equisetum    

spores1 #cb4      ,equisetum1 structure 
of fruit1 #fj4      ,erian fossil       
plants1 #ce4      ,erythrina1 #ib4      
,exogenous trees of ,carboniferous      
epoch1 #fb4        ,fagus1 #id1 #ig4    
,favularia1 #df4      ,fern-flora in    
connection with climate1 #da4           
,ferns1 #if4      ,ferns1 structure of1 
#bi4      ,ferns of ,carboniferous      
strata1 #da4      ,ferns of present day1
 #bf4      ,ficus1 #if4      ,fig1      
evergreen1 #if4      ,filicites1 #id4   
,fittonia1 #hf1 #hg4      ,flabellaria1 
#fd1 #hg4      ,flemingites1 #ea1 #eb1  
#eg4      ,floras of present day in     
connection with fossil plants1 #ai4     
,folliculites1 #ib4      ,fossil botany1
 recapitulation of chief points         
connected with1 #ajc4      ,fossil      
botany1 list of works treating of1 #aje4
      ,fossil plants compared with      
modern plants1 #c1 #d4      ,fossil     
plants1 determination of1 #c4           
,fossil plants1 mode of preservation of1
 #h4      ,fossil plants1 number of1    

#bc4      ,fossiliferous periods1       
according to ,brongniart1 #be4          
,fossiliferous rocks1 #bj4              
,fructification in ferns of             
,carboniferous epoch1 #dj4      ,fruits1
 fossil1 of ,isle of ,sheppey1 #ij4     
,fungi1 fossil1 #ia4        ,gardenia1  
#ig4      ,gault1 ,conifer of1 #hj1 #he4
      ,getonia1 #ib4                    
,glyptostrobus1 #ig4      ,grs bigarr1  
#gh4      ,gymnosperms1 fossil1 reign   
of1 #be4      ,gyrogonites1 #ib4        
,haidingera1 #gh4      ,hakea1 #ig4     
,halonia1 #eg4      ,heer's list of     
plants from the ,bovey ,tracey ,miocene 
formation1 #if4      ,heer on the       
migration of plants1 #ih4      ,heer on 
the number of species in the ,arctic    
fossil flora1 #ig4      ,heer's remarks 
on the ,polar flora1 #ih4      ,hightea1
 #ij4      ,horse-tails1 #bi4           
,huttonia1 #ga4      ,hymenophylle1 #cd4
      ,hymenophyllites1 #ga4            
,hymenophyllum1 #ce4        ,ilex1 #ig4 
,infiltration1 #i4      ,inga1 #ij4     

,isoetes1 #bg1 #di1 #hi4      ,ivy1 #ig4
        ,juglandites1 #hg4              
,jurassic period of ,brongniart1 #gi4   
,kaidacarpum1 #hd4      ,keupric period1
 #gi4      ,kimmeridge ,clay1 ,conifer  
of1 #he4      ,knorria1 #da1 #dh1 #eg4  
,knorria1 phyllotaxis of1 #ee4          
,lastrea1 #bi4      ,laurace1 #ig4      
,laurace1 fossil1 #ib4      ,laurel1    
#if4      ,laurentian rocks1 #ca4       
,laurus1 #ib1 #if4      ,leaf-beds of   
,ardtun1 ,mull1 #ic4      ,leaf-beds of 
,bournemouth1 #ie4      ,leaf-beds1     
genera of1 #id4      ,leguminos1 fossil1
 #ib4      ,leguminosites1 #ij4         
,lepidodendron1 #ce1 #da1 #di4          
,lepidodendron1 phyllotaxis of1 #ed4    
,lepidophloios1 #eg4                    
,lepidophyllum1 #da1 #ef4               
,lepidostrobus1 #ce1 #ej1 #eb4          
,lias1 ,conifer of1 #hj4      ,lias1    
fossil plants of1 #gi4      ,libocedrus1
 #ij4      ,lignite1 #cb4      ,lignite 
beds of ,bovey ,tracey1 #if4            
,lignites1 #i4      ,lonchopteris1 #dc1 

#hd4      ,lough ,neagh1 ,miocene       
formation of1 #ic4      ,lower          
,greensand1 cone of1 #hi4      ,lower   
,greensand1 ,conifer of1 #he4           
,lycopodiace1 #di1 #ed4                 
,lycopodiace1 modern1 #bf4              
,lycopodites1 #ef4      ,lycopodium1    
#cj1 #ec4        ,mac,clintockia1 #ig4  
,macrospores1 #cj4      ,magnolia1 #ig4 
,mantellia1 #hc1 #hd1 #hf4              
,marsilea1 #ca1 #cc4      ,marsileace1  
#ca4      ,mesozoic period1 flora of    
the1 #gb4      ,microspores1 #cj4       
,microzamia1 #hg4      ,mimosa1 #ij4    
,mimosites1 #ib4      ,miocene epoch1   
flora of1 #hi1 #ib4      ,miocene       
period1 temperature of1 #ig4      ,mull1
 leaf-beds of1 #ic4      ,mull1 ,miocene
 formation of1 #ic4      ,munsteria1    
#hg4      ,myrica1 #id1 #ig4            
,naiadace1 #hg4      ,natural orders to 
which fossil plants belong1 #bb4        
,neuropteride1 #da4      ,neuropteris1  
#db1 #ga4      ,nicolia1 #aa4           
,nicol's mode of preparing sections1    

#ac4      ,nilssonia1 #gi4              
,nipadites1 #ij4      ,noeggerathia1    
#fd1 #ga1 #gb4      ,nympha1 #ig4       
,odontopteris1 #db1 #gb4      ,oolitic  
epoch1 flora of1 #hj4      ,oolite1     
fruits of1 #hc4      ,oolite1 ,inferior1
 ,conifer of1 #hf4      ,oolite1 ,lower1
 #hb4      ,oolite1 ,scottish1 plants   
of1 #ha4      ,oolite1 ,upper1 #hb4     
,oolite1 ,yorkshire1 #hc4      ,osmunda1
 #hi4      ,osmundites1 #ia4            
,otopteryx1 #ig4      ,otozamites1 #gi4 
,oxford ,clay1 ,conifer of1 #hf4        
,palophytology1 #a4      ,palopitys1    
#cb4      ,palopteris1 #cb1 #cd1 #da4   
,palozamia1 #gi4      ,palozoic or      
,primary period1 #bf4      ,palozoology1
 #a4      ,palissya1 #hj1 #hf4          
,paliurus1 #ig4      ,palm1 #if4        
,palmacites1 #hg1 #ij1 #if4             
,pandanace1 #hd4      ,pecopteris1 #db1 
#if4      ,pecopteride1 #da4            
,pepperworts1 #ca4      ,permian flora1 
#ga4      ,permian period1 fruits of1   
#gb4      ,petrifaction1 #i4            

,petrified forests1 #aa4      ,pence1   
#fd1 #hj1 #hb1 #hf1 #hi4                
,phanerogamia1 number of ,miocene       
species of1 #ig4      ,phaseolites1 #ib4
      ,phnicites1 #ib4                  
,phyllotaxis1 #ed1 #ee4      ,pilularia1
 #ca4      ,pinites1 #gh1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1
 #hi1 #ajj4      ,pinites1 structure of1
 #fc4      ,pinus1 #hf1 #id1 #ig4       
,pissadendron1 #fc4      ,pitus1        
structure of1 #fd4      ,plane1 #id4    
,platanites1 #id4      ,platanus1 #ig4  
,pliocene epoch1 flora of the1 #hi1 #ih4
      ,plumiera1 #ib4      ,podocarpus1 
#ij4      ,podocarya1 #hd4              
,portland beds1 #hb4      ,portland     
,crag1 #hb4      ,portland stone1       
,conifer of1 #he4      ,pothocites1 #ff4
      ,proteace1 fossil1 #ib1 #ig4      
,protopteris1 #hg4      ,prototaxites1  
#ce4      ,prunus1 #ig4      ,psaronius1
 #dd1 #ga4      ,psilophyton1 #ce4      
,pterocarpus1 #ij4      ,pterophyllum1  
#hd1 #gi4      ,purbeck1 ,conifer of1   
#he4      ,purbeck period1 #hc4         

,quercus1 #id1 #if1 #ig4        ,raulin 
on the ,tertiary flora of ,central      
,europe1 #ii4      ,raumeria1 #hf4      
,recapitulation of chief points         
connected with fossil botany1 #ajc4     
,rhabdocarpum1 #gb1 #gg4                
,rhamnites1 #id1 #ie4      ,rhamnus1    
#id1 #ig4      ,rhizocarpe1 #ca4        
,rings1 number of annual1 in fossil     
,exogens1 #ajj4        ,sagenopteris1   
#ga1 #gi4      ,salicites1 #hg4         
,salix1 #ig4      ,sargassites1 #hg4    
,scalariform vessels1 #cj4              
,schizopteris1 #dc4      ,secondary     
period1 flora of the1 #gb4              
,sections of fossils for microscope1    
#ab4      ,selaginella1 #bg1 #ea1 #ec4  
,selaginites1 #ce4      ,senftenbergia1 
#dj4      ,sequoia1 #hg1 #if1 #ig4      
,sequoiites1 #he1 #hi4      ,shale1 #cg4
      ,sheppey1 fruits of ,isle of1 #ij4
      ,sigillaria1 #de4      ,silicified
 stems1 #aj4      ,sphenophyllum1 #ce1  
#fa4      ,sphenopteride1 #da4          
,sphenopteris1 #cd1 #da1 #db4           

,sporangia1 #cj1 #ef4      ,stangeria1  
#gh4      ,steinhauera1 #ib4            
,sternbergia1 #fd1 #ig4      ,stigmaria1
 #da1 #dg1 #dh4      ,stonesfield slate1
 #hb4      ,stratified rocks1 #ba4      
,structure of fossil plants1 #ab4       
,table of formations1 #ba4              
,taxites1 #hf1 #id1 #ie1 #ajj4          
,taxodie1 #hi4      ,taxodites1 #gi1    
#hj1 #id1 #ie4      ,taxodium1 #ig4     
,terminalia1 #ib4      ,tertiary flora  
of ,europe1 #ii4      ,tertiary period1 
characteristics of1 #hi1 #ajj4          
,tertiary period1 fossil plants of1 #hg4
      ,tertiary vegetation1             
,brongniart's divisions of1 #hi4        
,thaumatopteris1 #hj4      ,thuites1    
#ha1 #he1 #hf4      ,thujopsis1 #ig4    
,tilia1 #ig4      ,trap rocks1 #bj4     
,tree-fern1 #bg4      ,trees of ,miocene
 ,arctic fossil flora1 #ig4             
,triassic fossils1 #gg4                 
,trigonocarpum1 #fd1 #gb4               
,triplosporites1 #ej1 #ec4              
,tuff-beds1 #id4      ,tulip tree1 #ig4 

,ulmus1 #ib4      ,ulodendron1 #eg4     
,underclay1 #cg4      ,unger's list of  
genera of ,eocene epoch1 #ij4           
,upper ,chalk1 #he4      ,upper         
,greensand1 ,conifer of1 #he4           
,vaccinium1 #if4      ,vitis1 #if4      
,volkmannia1 #fj4      ,voltzia1 #gh1   
#gi4      ,vosgesian period1            
,brongniart's1 #gh4        ,walchia1    
#ga4      ,walnuts1 #ig4      ,wealden1 
,conifer of1 #he4      ,wealden epoch1  
flora of1 #hd4      ,widdringtonites1   
#hg4      ,williamsonia1 #ha4           
,williamsonie1 #hf4      ,willow1 #ig4  
,works1 list of1 treating of fossil     
botany1 #aje4        ,yatesia1 #hf4     
,yew1 #id4        ,zamia1 #gh4          
,zamie1 #hf4      ,zamiostrobus1 #gh4   
,zamites1 #gh1 #gi1 #hd1 #hg4           
,zostera1 #cb4      ,zosterites1 #hg4   
,,the ,,end4      ,printed by ,r4  ,r4  
,,clark1 ,edinburgh4                    
,,footnotes3    #a ,miller's ,footprints
 of the ,creator1 #aib-aii4 ,doubts have
 been  thrown on the antiquity of this  

specimen by those who support the       
erroneous progressive development       
theory2 but the presence1 in the  same  
nodule1 of a scale of a fish only found 
in the lower ,old ,red1  puts the matter
 beyond doubt4 ,dr4 ,m',nab on the      
,structure of a ,lignite  7,palopitys7  
from the ,old ,red ,sandstone4 7,trans4 
,bot4 ,soc4 x4 p4  #cab47    #b         
,specimens of these fossil plants1 as   
well as numerous others1  illustrating  
the fossil flora of ,scotland1 are to be
 seen in ,mr4  ,miller's collection1 now
 in the ,edinburgh ,museum of ,science  
and ,art4    #c ,dawson1 ,jour4 ,geol4  
,soc4 ,lond4 xv4 ,canadian ,naturalist1 
v4  ,acadian ,geology1 #b;d edit4       
,fossil plants of the ,devonian and     
upper  ,silurian ,formations of ,canada1
 with #bj plates2 in ,report of         
,geological ,survey of ,canada4    #d   
,maclaren1 ,geology of ,fife and the    
,lothians1 p4 #aaf4    #e ,our          
,coal-fields1 by a ,traveller under     
,ground4    #f ,see ,hall's ,coal-fields

 of ,great ,britain1 #ahfa2 ,roscoe's   
,lectures  on ,coal1 ,manchester1       
#ahff-fg2 ,hunt's ,mineral ,statistics  
of ,great  ,britain2 ,taylor's          
,statistics of ,coal1 #ahee-ef4    #g   
,heer1 ,flora fossilis ,arctica2        
,fossile ,flora der ,bren ,insel41      
#ahga4    #h ,in giving names to fossil 
,ferns1 the ,greek word 1 meaning  a    
,fern1 is often used with a prefix      
indicating some character in the  form  
of the leaves1 or stem1 or              
fructification3 such as1 1 a  comb2 1 a 
nerve2 1 a tooth2 1 a wedge2 1 a stalk  
or stem2 1 a circle2 1 a split1 etc4    
#i ,the imbedding of plants in an erect 
state in strata is similar to  what was 
noticed at the present day by ,gardner  
in ,brazil1 where stems  of recent      
,coco-nut ,palms were seen covered with 
sand to the depth of  #ej feet4    #aj  
,for woodcuts #dd1 #dg1 and #dh1 ,i am  
indebted to ,dr4 ,h4 ,bence  ,jones1 who
 has kindly placed them at my disposal4 
,they were used to  illustrate ,mr4     

,carruthers' remarks on the ,cryptogamic
 forests of the  ,coal period1 published
 in the ,journal of the ,royal          
,institution of  ,great ,britain1 ,april
 #af1 #ahfi4 ,mr4 ,carruthers'          
observations are given  in the text4    
#aa ,conjugate spirals result from      
whorls of usually #b1 #c1 #e1 #h1  etc41
 leaves arranged so as to give #b1 #e1  
#h1 etc41 parallel spirals1  each with  
an angular divergence equal to 1 1 1 1  
etc41 of one  of the fractions          
expressing the divergence in an         
arrangement of  alternate leaves4    #ab
 ,by inadvertence1 the diameter is      
stated in my ,class-book as #d-e        
inches4    #ac ,see ,remarks on the     
,structure of ,calamites by ,w4 ,c4     
,williamson1  ,philos4 ,trans41 #afa1 p4
 #dgg4    #ad ,williamson on the        
,structure and ,affinities of           
,sternbergi1 in  ,manch4 ,lit4 and      
,phil4 ,soc4 ,mem4 ix4 ,dawson on       
,sternbergia1 in ,edin4  ,new ,phil4    
,journ41 new series1 vii4 #adj4    #ae  

,see ,notice of ,antholithes ,pitcairni1
 by ,c4 ,w4 ,peach1 in ,bot4  ,soc4     
,trans4 ,edin4 vol4 xi4    #af ,see     
,professor ,duns on the association of  
,cardiocarpum with  ,sphenopteris4      
,proc4 ,r4,s4,e41 ,april #a1 #ahgb4     
#ag ,see ,meyer's ,palontographica1     
,cassel1 #ahfd4    #ah ,see fuller      
description of ,conifer and ,cycadace in
 ,balfour's  ,class ,book of ,botany1   
pp4 #ijf-iab4    #ai ,coal in the       
,kimmeridge clay is probably of animal  
origin4    #bj ,carruthers1 ,geol4      
,mag41 vol4 viii4 ,december #ahga4      
#ba ,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4   
#b;d ser4 ii4 #chj4    #bb ,journ4      
,geol4 ,soc4 of ,london1 vii4    #bc    
,philosophical ,transactions1 ,r4 ,soc4 
,lond41 vol4 clii4 p4 #ajci4    #bd     
,heer1 ,flore ,fossile des ,regions     
,polaires1 ,zurich2 also  ,bibliotheque 
,univ4 xxxix4 p4 #ab2 see also ,ann4    
,nat4 ,hist4 #dth ser4 i4  #fa1 iv4 #ha4
    #be ,raulin1 ,sur les               
,transformations de la ,flore de        

l',europe centrale  pendant la priode   
,tertiaire4--,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 #c;d  
ser4 ,bot4 x4 #aic4                 99  
99       99       99       99           
,,professor ,,balfour',s    ,,botany4   
,in one vol41 royal #hvo1 pp4 #aaag1    
with #ahjj ,illustrations1    price     
#bas41      ,,class-,,book ,,of         
,,botany4      ,being an ,introduction  
to the ,study of the ,vegetable         
,kingdom4      ,by ,j4 ,,hutton         
,,balfour1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41           
,professor of ,medicine and ,botany in  
the ,university of ,edinburgh1          
,regius ,keeper of the ,royal ,botanic  
,garden1 and ,queen's ,botanist    for  
,scotland4      7,may also be had in two
 ,parts1 price #bas47        ,in ,dr4   
,balfour's ',class-,book of ,botany1'   
the author seems to have    exhausted   
every attainable source of information4 
,few1 if any1 works    on this subject  
contain such a mass of carefully        
collected and    condensed matter1 and  
certainly none are more copiously or    

better    illustrated4--,hooker's       
,journal of ,botany4      ,professor    
,balfour's ',class ,book of ,botany' is 
too well and    favourably known to     
botanists1 whether teachers or learners1
 to    require any introduction to our  
readers4 ,it is1 as far as we know1     
the only work which a lecturer can take 
in his hand as a safe    text-book for  
the whole of such a course as is        
required to prepare    students for our 
,university or medical examinations4    
,every branch    of botany1 structural  
and morphological1 physiological1       
systematic1    geographical1 and        
palontological1 is treated in so        
exhaustive a    manner1 as to leave     
little to be desired4      ,the work is 
one indispensable to the class-room1 and
 should be in    the hands of every     
teacher4--,nature4      ,the voluminous 
and profusely illustrated work of ,dr4  
,balfour is too    well known to need   
any words of comment4--,lancet4         
,,edinburgh3 ,,adam ,,and ,,charles     

,,black4            ,,jukes' ,,geology4 
,just ,published1 in crown #hvo1 cloth1 
price #abs4 #f;d41      ,,new ,,edition 
,,of ,,beete ,,jukes'      ,,manual ,,of
 ,,geology4      ,,third ,,edition4     
,illustrated with numerous ,woodcuts4   
,edited by ,,archibald ,,geikie1        
,f4,r4,s41      ,professor of ,geology  
and ,mineralogy in the ,university of   
,edinburgh1    and ,director of the     
,geological ,survey of ,scotland4       
,a book which every earnest student of  
geology will welcome with    delight1   
and than which he can find no better    
guide to his studies4    --,edinburgh   
,courant4            ,,owen',s          
,,pal,,ontology4      ,second ,edition1 
#hvo1 illustrated1 price #gs4 #f;d4     
,,pal,,ontology1      ,,or      ,a      
,,systematic ,,summary ,,of ,,extinct   
,,animals    ,,and ,,their ,,geological 
,,relations4        ,by ,,richard       
,,owen1 ,f4,r4,s41      ,superintendent 
of the ,natural ,history ,department in 
the    ,british ,museum4        ,the    

,prince of ,palontologists has here     
presented us with a most                
comprehensive survey of the characters1 
succession1 geological    position1 and 
geographical distribution of the various
 forms of life    that have passed      
away4--,medical ,times and ,gazette4    
,,edinburgh3 ,,adam ,,and ,,charles     
,,black4            ,,transcriber',s    
,,note      ,italic text is denoted by  
underscores4    ,superscripts are       
denoted by   eg ,lithrs ,edinr4         
,basic fractions are displayed as       
etc2 other fractions are shown    in the
 form a_/b1 eg #c_/aa or #ac_/7cdb74    
,most entries in the ,table of ,contents
 had a corresponding section    heading 
in the text4 ,twelve entries had a      
corresponding page-header1    on        
odd-numbered pages1 but no section      
heading in the text itself4    ,all the 
page-headers have of course been removed
 in the etext4 ,to    improve           
readability these twelve section        
headings have been created    and       

inserted in the etext2 they have been   
italicized to indicate they    have been
 added by the transcriber4      ,the    
caption for an illustration is displayed
 as a sidenote in the    etext4 ,it was 
shown as a page footnote in the original
 text4      ,obvious typographical      
errors and punctuation errors have been 
corrected after careful comparison with 
other occurrences within the    text and
 consultation of external sources4      
,except for those changes noted below1  
misspelling in the text1 and            
inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been
 retained4 ,for example1    planished2  
punctated2 coal-field1 coalfield2       
criddles4      ,pg #aa1 'silicicified'  
replaced by 'silicified'4    ,pg #ci1   
'#a-bjth' replaced by '#a_/bjth' for    
consistency4    ,pg #db ,footnote #h1   
',i split' replaced by 'a split'4    ,pg
 #gc ,illustration1 ',fg4 #fa' replaced 
by ',fig4 #fa'4    ,pg #gi1 'aborescent'
 replaced by 'arborescent'4    ,pg #ajb1
 'to difficult' replaced by 'too        

difficult'4    ,pg #aje1 '#bi4 ,the     
,pliocene' replaced by '#bh4 ,the       
,pliocene'4    ,pg #aaa1 ',erom the     
,gault' replaced by ',from the ,gault'4