,,rural ,,education ,,series ,,edited ,,by ,,harold ,w4 ,,foght ,,president ,,south ,,dakota ,,teachers ,,college ,,community ,,civics ,,and ,,rural ,,life ,,by ,,arthur ,w4 ,,dunn ,,specialist ,,in ,,civic ,,education1 ,,united ,,states ,,bureau ,,of ,,education2 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,community ,,and ,,the ,,citizen ,,introductory ,,note ,this book1 like the author's earlier one1 ,the ,community and the ,citizen1 is a community civics text4 ,two purposes led to the preparation of this second volume4 ,the first was to produce a text that would meet the needs of pupils and teachers who live outside of the environment of the large city4 ,training for citizenship in a democracy is a fundamentally identical process in all communities1 whether urban or rural4 ,but1 if it really functions in the life of the citizen1 this process must consist largely in deriving educational values from the actual civic situations in which he normally finds himself4 ,moreover1 instruction that relates to matters that lie beyond immediate experience must nevertheless be interpreted in terms of that experience if it is really to have meaning4 ,at least half of the young citizens of ,america live in an environment that is essentially rural4 ,hence their need for civics instruction that takes its point of departure in1 and refers back to1 a body of experience that differs in many ways from that of the urban citizen4 ,this does not imply that urban conditions should be ignored in the civic education of the rural citizen4 ,on the contrary1 one of the things that every citizen should be led to appreciate is the interdependence of country and city in a unified national life4 ,in the present volume emphasis is given to this interdependence4 ,for this reason1 and because of the fundamental principles which have controlled the development of the text1 it is believed that the book may perform a distinct service even in city schools4 ,the second purpose in undertaking the present book has been to make as obvious as possible the elements which1 in the author's judgment1 characterize community civics and give it vitality4 ,the ,community and the ,citizen was a pioneer among texts that have sought to vitalize the study of government and citizenship4 ,the term community civics became current only at a later time to designate the new civics which that book represented4 ,it seems to the author1 however1 that many teachers and others have seized upon some of the more incidental1 even though important1 features of the new civics without apparently recognizing its really vital characteristics4 ,for example1 the new civics performed a real service in giving emphasis to the study of the local community1 which was being sadly neglected ten or fifteen years ago4 ,it was this emphasis1 doubtless1 that gave rise to the name community civics4 ,but local study1 even though labelled community civics1 may be1 and often is1 entirely lacking in vitalizing features4 ,on the other hand1 the vitalizing methods that should characterize community civics may be applied to the study of our national community1 and even of the embryonic world community1--and should be so applied in any community civics that is worthy of a place in our schools in this critical period of national and world history4 ,the real significance of the term community civics is to be found in its application to an interpretation of the ,,community-,,character of national and international life equally with that of town or neighborhood4 ,another service that community civics performed was in introducing certain elements of social or sociological study into grades as low as the grammar school4 ,this has sometimes led to the description of community civics as elementary sociology4 ,the ,community and the ,citizen was perhaps the first civics textbook to include such sociological material4 ,so far as that book is concerned1 at least1 the sociological material was included ,,primarily to afford a viewpoint from which the better to interpret ,,government ,,and ,,citizenship4 ,this point seems often to be missed1 with the result that in some schools we find a more or less vitalized social study labelled community civics1 ,,followed ,,by a formal study of government that shows no obvious1 organic relation to the earlier study4 ,whatever else community civics may accomplish1 one of its foremost aims should be ,,to ,,make ,,government1 ,,including ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,nation1 ,,mean ,,something ,,to ,,the ,,young ,,citizen4 ,in the present book the author has endeavored to keep this aim prominent in the mind of the teacher4 ,it is hoped that the organic relation of the last few chapters1 which deal explicitly with governmental mechanism and operation1 to the earlier chapters will be obvious4 ,the underlying1 vitalizing features of community civics may be summed up as3 #a4 ,,the ,,demonstration ,,to ,,the ,,young ,,citizen1 ,,by ,,reference ,,to ,,his ,,own ,,observation ,,and ,,experience1 ,,of ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,his ,,community ,,life 7,,local ,,and ,,national71 ,,and ,,of ,,government ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,that ,,life2 #b4 ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,certain ,,habits1 ,,ideals1 ,,and ,,attitudes ,,essential ,,to ,,effective ,,participation ,,in ,,that ,,life ,,through ,,government ,,and ,,otherwise4 ,the aim of the following text is to fix in the pupil's consciousness a few essential ideas1 which will help to determine his ideals and attitudes1 by a judicious ,,use of facts1 which will thereby be more readily remembered and understood4 ,the most important element of success in community life 444 is ,,team ,,work2 and team work depends1 first of all1 ,,upon ,a ,,common ,,purpose4 ,the controlling ideas throughout the following chapters are3 #a4 ,the common purposes in our community life2 #b4 ,our interdependence in attaining these common purposes2 #c4 ,the consequent necessity for cooperation 7team work72 #d4 ,government as a means of securing teamwork for the common good4 ,these ideas are set up in the first few chapters and exemplified in the remaining chapters4 ,they are easily grasped by young citizens when ,,demonstrated by reference to their own observation and experience1 which the text and the accompanying topics seek as far as possible to compel4 ,the last few chapters contain an analysis of our governmental mechanism which seeks to answer the question1 ,how far does our government provide the organization1 the leadership1 and the control over leadership necessary to secure the teamwork which the preceding chapters have shown to be essential8 ,the present volume is larger than ,the ,community and the ,citizen4 ,the author believes that this is an advantage1 especially for pupils in communities where supplementary materials are not so easily available4 ,the increased length is due chiefly to the liberal incorporation of concrete illustrative and explanatory matter4 ,young students need larger textbooks1 provided the additional matter clothes the skeleton with living flesh4 ,whether based on this textbook or some other1 however1 community civics cannot be successfully taught if it is made primarily a textbook study4 ,the word demonstration has been used advisedly in the paragraphs above as applied to the ideas to be taught4 ,the text sets up ideas1 interprets and exemplifies them2 but demonstration can be made only as the pupils draw upon their own observation and experience4 ,hence1 numerous ,,suggestive topics are interspersed throughout to divert attention from the text and to direct it to the actualities of the pupils' experience4 ,even the topics should not be followed literally in every case1 but should be diversified to meet the needs and opportunities of the occasion4 ,but to omit such studies as suggested by the topics is to negate the value of community civics4 ,the successful teacher will seek to extend the pupil's opportunity to participate in group activities both within the school and in the community outside1 and will make the fullest possible use of such activities both as a means of demonstrating the operation of the fundamental principles of civic life1 and as a means of cultivating habits1 ideals1 and attitudes4 ,training for citizenship through service is an essential factor in community civics4 ,community civics has now been quite definitely assigned to the junior high school grades 7see ,report of ,committee on ,social ,studies1 ,bulletin1 #aiaf1 ,no4 #bh1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education74 ,while the tendency is toward continuous civics instruction in all of these grades1 practice still varies greatly4 ,the present text has been written in recognition of this variation and is1 in the author's judgment1 adapt able to any of the grades in question4 ,if community civics is placed below the ninth grade1 however1 the author would suggest its distribution over both seventh and eighth grades4 ,an outline suggesting a vital coordination between the civics and the history of these grades1 and of particular service in the seventh grade1 is given in ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #ej1 ,part #c 7a report on ,civic ,education for the ,schools of ,memphis1 ,tenn474 ,it may be added that community civics in the junior high school grades will be vastly more effective if it is preceded in the six elementary grades by some such course as that outlined in ,citizenship in ,school and ,out 7,dunn and ,harris1 published by ,d4,c4 ,heath ,company74 ,see also ,lessons in ,civics for the ,six ,elementary ,grades of ,city ,schools1 by ,hannah ,margaret ,harris 7,bulletin1 #aibj1 ,no4 #ah1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education74 ,a list of ,readings is appended to each of the following chapters4 ,while it is not expected that pupils in the grades for which the book is intended will do a great deal of reading outside of the text1 an abundance of illustrative material is desirable and much more easily available1 even for rural schools1 than is often appreciated4 ,let the pupils ,,use ,,their ,,government1 in this connection1 as freely as possible4 ,a very large part of the references given are to government publications1 many of which can be obtained free of cost directly from the departments issuing them1 and all of which can be had for a nominal cost from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,useful publications of the state government and of state institutions can usually be had for the asking4 ,in ordering from the ,superintendent of ,documents the money must be sent in advance 7stamps are not accepted74 ,lists of publications with the prices may be obtained from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 or from the several ,departments of the ,government4 ,frequent reference is made to ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life4 ,these are issued in three pamphlets 7,series ,a1 ,b1 and ,c7 by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 at #ae cents per pamphlet4 ,they contain a large amount of illustrative material4 ,a very few books are referred to in certain chapters because of their especial value when obtainable4 ,among these are two collections of patriotic selections valuable because of their emphasis upon national ideals--,long's ,american ,patriotic ,prose 7,d4,c4 ,heath ,company71 and ,foerster and ,pierson's ,american ,ideals 7,houghton ,mifflin ,company74 ,other similar collections will be found useful4 ,the illustrations of the book1 with comparatively few exceptions1 are from photographs furnished by various departments of the ,united ,states ,government4 ,,arthur ,w4 ,,dunn4 ,,editor',s ,,introduction ,rural schools1 and schools whose pupils have largely a background of rural experience1 have not done as much as they should towards training for citizenship4 ,this is largely because the text books have failed to interpret citizenship and government in terms of the actual experience of such pupils1 or to stimulate teamwork and leadership in communities with a distinctly rural background4 ,more over1 in city and rural schools alike1 there has been failure to emphasize the interdependence of rural and urban communities in a single national enterprise4 ,community ,civics and ,rural ,life is planned to meet these deficiencies4 ,there has been too much ,,talking ,,about citizenship in school1 and too little ,,living it from day to day4 ,training for citizenship necessitates its daily practice in school and out4 ,in the hands of an able teacher1 ,community ,civics and ,rural ,life should point the way to real community living1 both now and in the future4 ,it should teach the pupils what their real civic responsibilities are as well as their civic opportunities--and assist them to embrace them when they come4 ,children so trained will learn to respect1 now and later1 the rights of their neighbors1 and will become as fair in their dealings with the government as with their fellowmen4 ,they will furnish their communities with the right kind of leaders1 unselfish and public spirited4 ,when the time calls1 they will be ready to accept and shed a new dignity upon the old positions of school trustee1 highway engineer1 sanitary inspector1 township supervisor1 county commissioner1 or the more conspicuous offices of state and national government4 ,or as plain citizens they will lend these officials their active support for community and national betterment4 ,,harold ,w4 ,,foght4 ,,contents ,i4 ,our ,common ,purposes in ,community ,life ,,ii4 ,how ,we ,depend ,upon ,one ,another in ,community ,life ,,iii4 ,the ,need for ,cooperation in ,community ,life ,,iv4 ,why ,we ,have ,government ,v4 ,what is ,citizenship8 ,,vi4 ,what is ,our ,community8 ,,vii4 ,our ,national ,community ,,viii4 ,a ,world ,community ,,ix4 ,the ,home ,x4 ,why ,government ,helps in ,home ,making ,,xi4 ,earning a ,living ,,xii4 ,government as a ,means of ,cooperation in ,agriculture ,,xiii4 ,thrift ,,xiv4 ,the ,relation ,between the ,people and the ,land ,,xv4 ,conserving ,our ,natural ,resources ,,xvi4 ,protection of ,property and ,property ,rights ,,xvii4 ,roads and ,transportation ,,xviii4 ,communication ,,xix4 ,education ,,xx4 ,the ,community's ,health ,,xxi4 ,social1 ,aesthetic1 and ,spiritual ,wants ,,xxii4 ,dependent1 ,defective1 and ,delinquent ,members of the ,community ,,xxiii4 ,teamwork in ,taxation ,,xxiv4 ,how ,we ,govern ,ourselves ,,xxv4 ,our ,local ,governments ,,xxvi4 ,our ,state ,governments ,,xxvii4 ,our ,national ,government ,appendix--,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states ,,community ,,civics ,,chapter ,i ,,our ,,common ,,purposes ,,in ,,community ,,life ,,team ,,work ,,and ,,common ,,purposes ,the most important element of success in community life1 as in a ball game1 a family1 or a school1 is ,,team ,,work2 and team work depends1 first of all1 upon a ,,common ,,purpose4 ,our nation gave an example of team work during the recent war such as is seldom seen2 and this was be cause every member of the nation was keenly intent on ,,winning4 ,we may see the same thing in our school when ,christmas entertainment is being planned1 when an athletic tournament is approaching1 or when some other school activity is under way in which all are deeply interested4 ,it is often illustrated in our town1 or rural neighborhood when some important enterprise is on foot1 such as the building of a new railroad into town1 a ,red ,cross drive and a county fair1 or the construction of a much needed new schoolhouse4 ,,recognition ,,of ,,common ,,purposes ,all communities have common purposes1 although they are not always as clearly defined as when our nation was at war1 or as in the other cases mentioned in the preceding paragraph4 ,sometimes the people of a community1 or a large portion of them1 seem to be wholly unconscious that a common purpose exists4 ,this may be true even in a family or in a school4 ,and when this happens1 the effect is the same as if there ,,were no common purpose4 ,no club or athletic team can be successful unless its members have a common purpose ,,and ,,understand ,,it4 ,insofar as our communities are imperfect--and none of them1 is perfect--it is largely because their members fail to recognize or understand their common purposes4 ,people in communities have common purposes because they have the same wants4 ,this may not at first seem to be true4 ,,common ,,purposes ,,due ,,to ,,common ,,wants ,if we visit a large city1 we see throngs of people hurrying hither and thither1 jostling one another1 apparently in the greatest confusion4 ,we wonder where they are all going1 what they are doing1 what they are seeking4 ,in rural communities or in small towns there is less apparent confusion than in the bustling life of the city4 ,yet even here it is not always easy to see common purposes and common interests4 ,whether in large or small communities1 we are more likely to be impressed by the ,,variety of men's wants and even by the ,,conflict of their purposes4 ,but no matter how numerous and conflicting our wants may seem1 they may all be grouped in a very few important kinds1 which are common to all of us alike4 ,it will be worthwhile to test the truth of this1 because it will help us to see our community life in some kind of order1 and will throw a flood of light upon the common purposes that control it4 ,,physical ,,wants3 ,,life ,,and ,,health ,for example1 we all want food1 drink1 and sleep1 clothing to protect our bodies1 and houses to shelter us4 ,but all these things supply our ,,physical wants2 that is1 they re late to ,,life ,,and ,,health4 ,many of the things that we do every day are important because of their relation to our physical well-being4 ,one reason why we enjoy out door sports is that they make our blood tingle and give a sense of physical pleasure4 ,unless our physical wants are provided for1 the other wants of life cannot well be satisfied4 ,good health is a priceless possession4 ,mention some things you have done today for your physical welfare4 ,,the ,,want ,,for ,,association ,,with ,,others ,another reason why sports and games give pleasure is be cause of the association they afford with other people4 ,,association ,,with ,,others is a second great want which explains many of the things we do4 ,whatever may be our other reasons for going to school1 it affords us the opportunity to meet and work and play with other boys and girls to our pleasure and profit4 ,one of the objections often raised against life in the country is the lack of opportunity for association with other people4 ,but life in the country is not so isolated as it once was2 and one may be very much alone in a city crowd1 where nearly all are strangers to one another1 and where there is very little real association among individuals4 ,city families often live in the same apartment house without knowing one another4 ,what are some things you do especially for the sake of companionship8 ,,the ,,want ,,for ,,knowledge ,while going to school enables us to associate with others1 the principal reason for going is to gain ,,knowledge4 ,whether we always like our studies or not1 we certainly want knowledge1 and seek it in many ways4 ,we read the newspaper or magazine that comes to the home4 ,we ask questions of parents and others who have had more experience than we4 ,we may travel to see new sights4 ,we examine with curiosity a new machine for the farm4 ,the discoveries and inventions that mark man's progress in civilization are the result of his unquenchable thirst for knowledge4 ,mention some of the different ways in which you seek knowledge4 ,mention some geographic and scientific discoveries that have been made through man's search for knowledge4 ,what is science8 ,name some sciences4 ,,the ,,want ,,for ,,beauty ,besides health and knowledge and association with other people1 we want surroundings that are pleasant and beautiful4 ,the want for ,,beauty is sometimes more neglected than other wants1 but it is important1 and we all have it and seek to satisfy it in some way or other4 ,it may be at one time by a walk in the woods or fields1 or at other times by cultivating flowers1 by keeping our room tidy1 by looking at pictures1 or by exercising good taste in clothing4 ,we also enjoy beauty in sound1 as the song of birds or music in the home or school4 ,in what ways do you provide for this want8 ,,the ,,religious ,,want ,very likely we go to church on ,sunday4 ,it affords opportunity to enjoy association with others1 to add to our knowledge1 and to hear beautiful music4 ,but the church service is one of the chief means by which people satisfy another of the great wants of life --the ,,religious want4 ,individuals differ in their religious ideas and in the depth of their religious feelings1 but in every community there are certain things that men do because of it4 ,what are some of the great religions of the world8 ,is religion a strong influence in your community8 ,can you mention any great historical events that were due to religious causes8 ,,the ,,want ,,for ,,wealth ,perhaps after school1 or on ,saturdays1 or in vacation time1 we work at tasks to earn money1 or at least help in occupations that contribute to the living of the family4 ,doubtless we have thought more or less about what we are going to do for a living after we leave school4 ,we all have a desire to own things1 to have property1 to accumulate ,,wealth4 ,this also is one of the great wants of life4 ,we have perhaps already experienced the satisfaction of raising our own first crop of corn or potatoes1 of acquiring our first livestock1 of putting away or selling our first supply of canned fruits or vegetables1 of buying a set of tools1 a bicycle1 or some books1 of starting a bank account4 ,but after all the chief reason why we want wealth1 or to make money1 is because of what we can do with it4 ,it enables us to satisfy our wants4 ,earning a living simply means earning the things that satisfy our wants in life4 ,make a blackboard list of the occupations by which the parents and other members of the families of the pupils in the class make a living4 ,make a blackboard list of things done by members of the class to earn money4 ,what is your choice of occupation by which to make a living in the future8 ,why8 ,make a blackboard list for the whole class4 ,,these ,,wants ,,give ,,purpose ,,to ,,community ,,life ,the six kinds of wants that we have indicated clearly account for many of the things that we do4 ,in fact1 ,,all of our wants are of one or another of these kinds and ,,everything we do is important because of its relation to them4 ,we may not be ready1 yet1 to accept this statement4 ,we may think of wants that seem at first not to fall under any of these six kinds4 ,it will do no harm to add other kinds to the list if we think it necessary4 ,but1 at all events1 the six kinds of wants mentioned are common to all of us4 ,we live in communities in order to provide for them1 and a community is good to live in proportion as it provides for all of them adequately4 ,it is these wants that give ,,common ,,purpose to our community life4 ,make as complete a list as possible of the things you did yesterday 7outside of school as well as in school74 ,then extend the list to include the more important things done during the entire week4 ,write the six wants across the top of a page of your notebook or a sheet of paper3 ,health ,knowledge ,association ,beauty ,religion ,wealth ,arrange the activities in your list in the six columns according to the wants which they satisfy4 ,if any activity clearly satisfies more than one of the wants1 write it down in ,,each of the proper columns4 ,which column is the longest8 which comes next8 which is the shortest8 ,is your longest column also the longest in the lists made by other members of your class8 ,compare your other columns with those of your classmates4 ,which wants seem to keep you busiest8 ,which do you think is most important8 ,why8 ,discuss this question in class4 ,do you all agree in regard to this point8 ,if any of the activities in your list are for the purpose of earning money1 tell for what you expect to spend the money4 ,show how the things you expect to buy with your money will help to satisfy your other five wants4 ,for which of these six wants do you spend the most time in providing8 your father8 your mother8 ,if there is a difference in the three answers1 why is it8 ,do you have difficulty in classifying any of the things you do1 or that you see others do1 under any of the six heads8 ,make note of these things and1 as your study proceeds1 see if the difficulty of classification is removed4 ,suppose a boy is a ,,bully3 what wants does he satisfy by his bullying conduct8 ,suppose a boy or a girl is ambitious to become a ,,leader1 either among present companions or later in social life1 business1 or politics3 under which head or heads would you place this ambition8 ,a boy wants to enlist in the army1 or a girl as an army nurse3 do these wants come under any of the six heads8 ,would you1 after your discussion of these topics1 add any other group or kind of wants to the six mentioned8 ,if so1 what would you call it8 ,every one wants ,,happiness4 ,why is it not necessary to make a special group under this head8 ,make a list of things done in your home to provide for each of the six wants4 ,what is done in your school to provide for the want for health8 for beauty8 for association with others8 for the religious want8 ,has your school work any relation to your desire to make a living8 ,is it the business of the school to provide for all these things as well as for the want for knowledge8 ,make a list of a few things done in your community outside of the home and school to provide for each of the six wants4 ,think of something in which your entire community is deeply interested1 such as the improvement of the roads1 or the building of a new high school1 or a county fair1 and explain what wants it provides for4 ,what wants do the following things provide for3 rural mail delivery2 weather reports2 a corn club 7or a similar club72 a school garden2 a library2 the telephone2 a hospital2 a parent- teacher association8 ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,democracy ,we may often hear our common purposes as communities or as a nation stated in different terms than those suggested in the paragraphs above4 ,for example1 ,franklin ,k4 ,lane1 the ,secretary of the ,interior during the war1 said1 ,our national purpose is to transmute days of dreary work into happier lives--for ourselves first and for all others in their time4 ,again1 ,president ,wilson said that our purpose in entering the world war was to help make the world safe for democracy4 ,although these two statements read differently1 they mean very much the same thing2 and they both refer in general terms to the things this chapter discusses in more familiar and express terms4 ,for happier lives can only result from a more complete satisfaction of our common wants4 ,our own happiness comes from the satisfaction of our own wants ,,and ,,from ,,helping ,,to ,,satisfy ,,the ,,wants ,,of ,,others4 ,and democracy means1 in part1 that the ,,common ,,wants ,,of ,,all shall be properly provided for4 ,in the ,declaration of ,independence we read3 ,,we ,,hold ,,these ,,truths ,,to ,,be ,,self-,,evident1 ,,that ,,all ,,men ,,are ,,created ,,equal ,,that ,,they ,,are ,,endowed ,,by ,,their ,,creator ,,with ,,certain ,,unalienable ,,rights1 ,,that ,,among ,,these ,,are ,,life1 ,,liberty ,,and ,,the ,,pursuit ,,of ,,happiness4 ,,our ,,unalienable ,,rights ,the statement that all men are created equal has troubled many people when they have thought of the obvious inequalities that exist in natural ability and opportunity4 ,but whatever inequalities may exist1 people are absolutely equal in their ,,right to satisfy the wants described in this chapter4 ,these are the unalienable rights which the ,declaration of ,independence sums up in the phrase life1 liberty and the pursuit of happiness4 ,that community is best to live in that most nearly provides equal opportunity for all its citizens to enjoy these rights4 ,from the ,declaration of ,independence to the present day1 our great national purpose has been to increase this opportunity1 even though at times we have apparently not been conscious of it1 and even though we have fallen short of its fulfillment4 ,one of the chief objects of our study is to find out how our communities are seeking to accomplish this purpose4 ,the ,declaration of ,independence did not mention the questions of our day4 ,it is of no consequence to us unless we can translate its general terms into examples of the present day and substitute them in some vital way for the examples it itself gives1 so concrete1 so intimately involved in the circumstances of the day in which it was conceived and written4 ,it is an eminently practical document1 meant for the use of practical men 444 ,unless we can translate it into the questions of our own day1 we are not worthy of it1 we are not sons of the sires who acted in response to its challenge4-- ,woodrow ,wilson1 in ,the ,new ,freedom1 pp4 #dh1 #di4 ,a and ,b are two boys of the same age4 ,one was born in a rich family1 and one in a very poor family4 ,so far as this accident of birth is concerned1 have they equal ,,opportunity to satisfy the wants of life8 ,have they an equal ,,right to health8 to an education8 to pleasant surroundings8 to earn a good living8 ,suppose ,a is a ,native ,american boy1 and ,b a foreign-born boy who speaks a foreign language3 does this make any difference in their ,,right to life and health1 an education1 etc48 ,does it make any difference in their ,,opportunity to satisfy their wants in these directions8 ,can you think of persons in your community who have less ,,opportunity to satisfy their wants than you have8 ,can you think of any persons who have less ,,right to satisfy their wants than you have8 ,the first ten amendments to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states comprise what is known as a bill of rights4 ,study together in class this bill of rights 7see ,appendix7 to see how many of the wants described in this chapter are there1 provided for directly and indirectly4 ,has your state constitution a bill of rights8 ,if so1 read it together in class for the same purpose as suggested in the last question4 ,,readings ,preamble of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states 7see ,appendix74 ,the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,dunn1 ,arthur ,w41 ,the ,community and the ,citizen1 ,chapters1 i1 iv4 7,heath74 ,tufts1 ,james ,h41 ,the ,real ,business of ,living 7,henry ,holt ,co471 ,chapter xxxix1 7,democracy as ,equality74 ,van ,dyke1 ,henry1 ,equality of ,opportunity1 in ,long's ,american ,patriotic ,prose1 pp4 #caa1 #cab 7,heath74 ,see the note on reference materials in the ,introduction to this book4 ,it should become a ,,habit of both teacher and pupils to be on the constant lookout for news items and discussions in available newspapers and periodicals illustrative of the points made in each chapter or lesson4 ,individual scrapbooks may be made1 but more important than this is the assembling of such material as a class enterprise1 its classification under proper heads1 and its preservation in scrapbooks or in files as working material for succeeding classes4 ,there will always be enough for each class to do1 while each class at the same time contributes to the success of the work of later classes4 ,the idea of ,,service should dominate such work4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,how ,,we ,,depend ,,upon ,,one ,,another ,,in ,,community ,,life ,,interdependence ,,an ,,important ,,fact ,nothing could be freer than air4 ,but even as we sit in our schoolroom1 whether or not we get all the pure air we need1 depends upon how the schoolhouse was built for ventilation1 the number of people who occupy the room1 the care that is taken by others to keep the room free from dust1 the health and cleanliness of those who sit in the room with us4 ,if this dependence upon others is true in the case of the very air we breathe1 how much more true it must be of other necessities of life that are not so abundant4 ,this dependence of people upon one another for the satisfaction of their wants is one of the most important facts about community life4 ,it is not merely that ,a and ,b have the ,,same wants1 but that ,a is dependent upon ,b1 and ,b upon ,a1 for the satisfaction of their wants1 that makes their wants ,,common4 ,mention the people1 both inside and outside of your home1 who had a share in providing for you the food you had for breakfast or dinner4 ,mention all the workers that occur to you who have been employed in producing the clothing you wear2 the book you are reading2 the materials of which your house is built4 ,show how the people who produce these things are dependent upon your wants for their livelihood4 ,show that you are dependent upon other people for your education2 for recreation4 ,are other people dependent upon your education for their welfare8 ,are others dependent on you for their recreation8 ,,independence ,,of ,,the ,,pioneer ,the farmer's life is often spoken of as an independent life4 ,his independence was certainly much more complete in pioneer days than it is now4 ,in regard to the early days of ,indiana1 it has been said3 ,give the pioneer farmer an axe and an auger1 or in place of the last a burning iron1 and he could make almost any machine that he was wont to work with4 ,with his sharp axe he could not only cut the logs for his cabin and notch them down1 but he could make a close-fitting door and supply it with wooden hinges and a neat latch4 ,from the roots of an oak or ash he could fashion his hames and sled runners2 he could make an axle-tree for his wagon1 a rake1 a flax brake1 a barrow1 a scythe-snath1 a grain cradle a pitchfork1 a loom1 a reel1 a washboard1 a stool1 a chair1 a table1 a bedstead1 a dresser1 and a cradle in which to rock the baby4 ,if he was more than ordinarily clever1 he repaired his own cooperage1 and adding a drawing knife to his kit of tools1 he even went so far as to make his own casks1 tubs1 and buckets4 ,he made and mended his own shoes4 ,footnote3 ,quoted in ,pioneer ,indianapolis1 by ,ida ,stearns ,stickney1 p4 #aa 7,bobbs-,merrill ,co41 ,indianapolis74 ,we also read that in early ,new ,england3 ,every farmhouse was a manufactory1 not of one kind of goods1 but of many4 ,all day long in the chamber or attic the sound of the spinning-wheel and loom could be heard4 ,carpets1 shawls1 bedspreads1 tablecovers1 towels1 and cloth for garments were made from materials made on the farm4 ,the kitchen of the house was a baker's shop1 a confectioner's establishment1 and a chemist's laboratory4 ,every kind of food for immediate use was prepared there daily2 and on special occasions sausages1 head cheese1 pickles1 apple butter1 and preserves were made4 ,it was also the place where soap1 candles1 and vinegar were manufactured4 ,agricultural implements were then few and simple1 and farmers made as many of them as they could4 ,every farmhouse was a creamery and cheese factory4 ,as there were no sewing machines1 the farmer's wife and daughters had to ply the hand needle most of the time when they were not engaged in more laborious pursuits4 ,during the long evenings they generally knit socks and mittens or made rag carpets4 ,footnote3 ,nourse1 ,agricultural ,economics1 p #fd1 from ,the ,farmer's ,changed ,conditions1 by ,rodney ,welsh1 in the ,forum1 x1 #fhi-ib 7,feb41 #ahia74 ,,the ,,price ,,of ,,independence ,but even under such conditions as those described1 the farmer and his family were not wholly independent4 ,even ,robinson ,crusoe on his lonely island was dependent upon the tools and equipment that he saved from shipwrecks1 and that were the product of other men's labor4 ,so1 also1 the pioneer farmer had to maintain some kind of relation1 however infrequent and slight1 with the outside world4 ,moreover1 he had to pay for his comparative independence by many privations4 ,he had all the wants described in the preceding chapter1 but he had to provide for them in the simplest way possible1 and often they were hardly provided for at all4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,interdependence ,as soon as a number of people come to live together1 even in a pioneer community1 it is likely that some members will have a knack for doing certain things of use to the community better than others can do them4 ,thus one man may be especially skillful in making axe handles4 ,in time1 the entire community comes to depend upon him for its axe handles4 ,in addition1 he probably makes other tools and does repair work of all kinds4 ,this requires so much of his time that he does little or no farming1 and depends upon others for his food supply4 ,so in a course of time the community has its blacksmiths1 carpenters1 shoe-makers1 teachers1 storekeepers and doctors upon whom it depends for their special kinds of service1 while each of them depends upon others to supply the wants that he has neither the time nor the skill to supply for himself4 ,thus interdependence develops in the simplest communities4 ,,the ,,dependence ,,on ,,others ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,farmer ,the farmer still does many things on the farm that in the city would be done by special workers1 such as repairing houses1 barns1 and tools4 ,but he has become vastly more dependent upon others than formerly4 ,this is due partly to improved farming methods1 requiring the use of complicated machines and greater technical knowledge2 and partly to improved means of transportation and communication which bring him in close touch with trade centers4 ,if a farmer needs a new axe handle1 he can get a better one with less expenditure of time and effort by going to town in his automobile than if he made it himself4 ,his farm machinery is too complicated for him to repair except in small matters1 and even then he must go or send to town for the necessary parts1 which may be sent to him by parcel post4 ,not only does he get better tools and services generally through this reliance upon others who are specialists in their lines1 but also on account of it has more time to give to the actual business of farming1 for which others depend upon him1 and leisure for thoughtful study of his problems1 for social life1 and for recreation4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,self-,,reliance ,it must be acknowledged that reliance upon others may be carried so far as to result in loss or disadvantage4 ,self-reliance is one of the most admirable traits of character4 ,the pioneer farmer possessed it from necessity to a remarkable extent4 ,a habit of depending upon others may quickly cause a person to lose the knack of doing things for himself1 to become less handy about the place1 and less thrifty about keeping things in repair or installing small improvements--the casting of a cement trough1 mending the harness or the fence or painting the barn4 ,,who ,,makes ,,our ,,shoes ,the interdependence of people in community life to-day may be illustrated by starting with some of our own needs1 as was suggested in the topics on page #ab4 ,for example1 if we need a pair of shoes1 we must have money1 which we will suppose that we earn by farming4 ,in order to farm successfully we must have machinery4 ,this we also buy in town2 but it is manufactured for us in distant city factories from metals procured from mines and from wood from the forest4 ,the shoes bought at the store were also made in a factory employing hundreds of men and women1 perhaps in ,massachusetts4 ,they were made from leather from the hides of cattle raised in the far west1 or perhaps even in the ,argentine ,republic4 ,the leather is tanned by another industry1 and tanning requires the use of an acid from the bark of certain trees from the forest4 ,the making of the shoes also requires machinery which is made by still other machines1 the necessary metals coming from mines4 ,to smelt the metals and to run the factories there must be fuel from other mines4 ,meanwhile the workers in all these industries must be fed and clothed and housed4 ,this means the work of farmers1 food packers1 millers and bakers1 lumbermen1 carpenters1 cotton and woolen mills1 clothing factories1 and many others4 ,at every stage transportation enters in1--by team and automobile truck1 by railway1 by water4 ,these are only a part of the activities necessary in order that we may have a pair of shoes4 ,it would seem that practically every kind of worker and industry in the world had something to do with it4 ,people in communities today are indeed very interdependent4 ,the following item appeared in a newspaper3 ,,held ,,back ,,by ,,neighbors ,farmer ,is ,limited by ,conditions in ,community ,the average farmer is limited in the changes he can make in his farm business by the farm practices of the community in which he is living4 ,there are farmers in every community who would like to change their systems of agriculture but are restrained from doing so by the fact that their neighbors will not change4 ,many farmers have tried to change from one type of farming to another better suited to the region1 but failed because the cost of running such an entirely independent business was too great4 ,a man owning an orchard in a locality where there are no other orchards has trouble getting rid of his crop4 ,even when the farmer is so fortunate as to get buyers1 he generally receives a lower price for the same grade of fruit than would be received in a general apple-growing region4 ,if a man wants to buy several purebred ,holstein cows1 he generally goes to a locality where a large number of farmers keep that kind of stock4 ,often there is a man in his own community who has for sale ,holsteins that are just as highly bred as those in other districts1 but he either has no market for them or must sell them at a greatly reduced price4 ,the farmer ought not to think on account of these facts that he should not change his system of farming just because his neighbors do not do likewise4 ,probably the best way for a farmer to start such a movement is to arouse the interest of his neighbors in his farming operations4 ,as soon as this has been accomplished he can gradually bring about the change that he advocates4 ,farmers in a community profit from the experiences of other individuals4 ,,what ,,gives ,,value ,,to ,,land ,the value of a man's property is dependent not upon his efforts alone1 but upon what his neighbors do4 ,the land occupied by a pioneer increases in value as other people settle in the neighborhood1 and ,,because they settle there4 ,men often buy land and then simply wait for it to increase in value because of improvements in the neighborhood4 ,the property that we own may increase or decrease in value according to the care that neighbors take of their property4 ,even if we take good care of our property1 it will be less valuable if the neighbors let their fences and buildings run down and the weeds grow than it will be if they keep their fences and buildings in good repair and their weeds cut4 ,,interdependence ,,in ,,health ,malaria is carried by mosquitoes1 and we know that mosquitoes breed in standing water1 as in swamps and in old barrels or tin cans that hold rainwater until it becomes stagnant4 ,now we may endeavor to get rid of mosquitoes1 and thus of malaria1 by removing all open receptacles of water about our premises and by draining the marshes on our land2 but unless our neighbors do the same1 we are not much better off than we were before4 ,give other illustrations to show the dependence of people upon one another in your community4 ,compare the farmer of to-day in your neighborhood with the pioneer of ,indiana described on page #ad with respect to his equipment1 skill in making things and kinds of implements used4 ,compare the average farmer's home in your neighborhood to-day with that of the ,new ,england farmer described on page #ad with respect to household activities4 ,are farmers in your neighborhood to-day more or less dependent upon others to supply their wants than they were when your parents were children8 ,why is it8 ,get all the information you can from your parents on this point4 ,which is more dependent upon others for its daily wants3 a family that lives on a farm in your neighborhood or one that lives in town8 ,give examples to prove your answer4 ,do you know cases in your own community where land has increased in value while lying idle8 ,what are the reasons8 ,do you know of cases in your community where property has depreciated in value because of neighborhood influences such as suggested on page #ah8 ,do you know of cases in your community similar to the one described on page #ag under the heading ,held ,back by ,neighbors8 ,explain4 7,consult at home47 ,,unexpected ,,results ,,of ,,interdependence ,we do not always realize how dependent we are upon one another until something happens to disturb our accustomed relations4 ,we best realize our dependence upon the telephone when it is out of order4 ,the recent great war produced conditions that made us conscious of our interdependence in unexpected ways4 ,for example1 if we had gone into a store to buy underwear in the early part of the war1 we would have found that the price had greatly increased1 and we might have been told1 if the salesman were well informed1 that the high price was due to the manufacture of airplanes6 ,the explanation is that the wire stays used in the manufacture of airplanes are made of steel wire from which machine knitting needles are also made4 ,in the early part of the war all of the available wire of this kind was taken for airplanes1 thus limiting the supply of knitting needles and consequently of knit goods4 ,the manufacture of airplanes is also said to have affected the price of fish6 ,the nets used for catching certain deep-sea fish1 such as cod1 must be made of linen1 which is invisible in water4 ,the linen which had been used for this purpose suddenly came into great demand for the manufacture of airplane wings4 ,since airplanes were necessary1 linen fishing nets were sacrificed and the price of deep-sea fish went up4 ,this1 of course1 created a demand for other kinds of fish1 and the price of the latter also went up4 ,,conflicts ,,due ,,to ,,interdependence ,when people are so closely dependent upon one another conflicts are likely to occur4 ,sometimes they are due to selfish disregard by some persons of the rights and interests of others2 but more often they are due simply to failure to see what the real results of a particular act may be and how it may affect other people4 ,it was not dreamed that the building of airplanes would affect the price of underwear and fish1 and it was only after careful investigation that the relation between these things was discovered4 ,a family that is careless in the disposal of refuse from the household and stables may unconsciously poison the wells of neighbors half a mile away4 ,sometimes men oppose public improvements1 such as better roads1 or a new schoolhouse1 because they see only the direct costs of the improvements1 and fail to see the more important losses to themselves and to the community if the improvements are not made4 ,,danger ,,of ,,hasty ,,judgments ,one thing we may learn from such facts as these is the danger of forming hasty judgments about things that happen1 or conditions that exist1 or proposals that are made1 in our community life4 ,even those conditions or events that are apparently most simple may be related to other conditions and events that are not at first apparent4 ,wise judgment and wise action are dependent upon the most complete knowledge obtainable4 ,we shall see1 as we proceed with our study1 how this fact of interdependence appears in every phase of our community life4 ,from observation in your own community1 give illustrations to show how people1 in attempting to satisfy their own wants1 may interfere with the efforts of others to satisfy theirs4 ,the following are given as suggestions3 ,an employer and those whom he employs4 ,a man who owns a house or farm and the tenant to whom he rents it4 ,a man who keeps a livery stable adjoining a schoolhouse4 ,a grocer who displays his goods on the sidewalk 7especially food products74 ,men who raise cattle and those who raise sheep on the western ranges4 ,a boy who raises chickens and one who has a garden adjoining4 ,suppose a schoolmate comes to school with measles or some other contagious disease4 ,how may this affect your schoolwork8 your association with your friends8 ,how may it even add to your father's expenses8 ,show that your schoolmates are as dependent upon you as you are upon them4 ,is the community in which you live dependent upon you in any way8 ,give illustrations4 ,taxpayers like to keep the tax rate as low as possible4 ,in their interest in doing this1 is it possible that they might interfere with your getting a good education in favorable surroundings8 ,explain4 ,who are the taxpayers8 ,we often hear of self-made men4 ,what does it mean8 ,can a man be entirely self-made8 ,does a child become more or less dependent upon others as he grows older8 ,explain your answer4 ,show that as a person becomes more self-dependent other people become more dependent upon him2 for example1 in the home1 and in school4 ,watch the newspapers for items illustrating interdependence1 or conflicts due to it4 ,,readings ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life 7see note on reference materials in ,introduction7 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #a1 ,some fundamental aspects of social organization4 ,lesson #b1 ,the western pioneer4 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #a1 ,the effect of the war on commerce in nitrate4 ,lesson #b1 ,the varied occupations of a colonial farm4 ,lesson #ab1 ,impersonality of modern life4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #a1 ,the war and aeroplanes4 ,lesson #b1 ,spinning and dyeing in colonial times4 ,lesson #i1 ,inventions4 ,lesson #aa1 ,the effects of machinery on rural life4 ,dunn1 ,arthur ,w41 ,the ,community and the ,citizen1 ,chapters i1 v4 ,tufts1 ,james ,h41 ,the ,real ,business of ,living1 ,chapter xxxi 7,problems of country life74 ,earle1 ,alice ,morse1 ,home ,life in ,colonial ,days 7,macmillan74 ,finley1 ,john ,h41 ,paths of the ,pioneers1 in ,long's ,american ,patriotic ,prose1 pp4 #a-d4 ,pioneer stories from any available source1 especially local history stories4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,need ,,for ,,cooperation ,,in ,,community ,,life ,,the ,,need ,,for ,,teamwork ,when people have common purposes and are dependent upon one another in accomplishing them1 there must be ,,cooperation1 which is another name for teamwork4 ,a team of horses that does not pull together can not haul a heavy load4 ,a baseball team1 though composed of good players1 will seldom win games unless its teamwork is good4 ,a few soldiers may easily disperse a large mob because they have teamwork1 while a mob usually does not4 ,this principle of pulling together1 teamwork1 or cooperation1 is of the greatest importance in community life4 ,there can be no real community life without it4 ,,simple ,,types ,,of ,,cooperation ,in the early days there were barn raisings1 when neighbors came together to help one of their number to raise his barn2 and all the men of a pioneer community contributed their labor in building the community church or schoolhouse4 ,this was a simple form of cooperation4 ,it may be seen now at threshing time1 when neighboring farmers combine to thresh the grain of each1 the same group of men and the same threshing machine doing the work for all4 ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture reports that3 ,in a group of #ad farmers situated in a community in one of the best farming regions in the corn belt1 444 it was found that #e men out of the #ad failed to get all their corn planted by the last week in ,may4 ,they had worked as hard and as steadily at that operation as had their neighbors1 but they were delayed by one cause or another1 such as lack of labor or teams1 or were handling a larger acreage than their equipment would allow them to handle satisfactorily4 ,in this same community were #c men who completed all their planting operations before the #bjth of ,may1 and #e others who completed their work by the #beth of ,may4 444 ,if all these men had considered that corn planting was a national necessity and had pooled their efforts1 all of the corn on all the farms could have been planted within the most favorable time4 ,footnote3 ,the ,farm ,labor ,problem1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of the ,secretary1 ,circular ,no4 #aab1 p4 #e4 ,give other illustrations of this sort of cooperation from the farm or community life of your neighborhood4 ,give illustrations of such teamwork among boys and girls4 ,give illustrations of the failure of enterprises in which you have been interested because of a lack of teamwork4 ,why is it an advantage for the farmers to use one threshing machine for all the threshing of the neighborhood instead of each farmer having his own machine8 ,,organized ,,cooperation ,,and ,,leadership ,as communities grow and the people become more dependent upon one another1 and especially when it becomes hard to see how one thing that happens may affect others1 as shown in ,chapter ,,ii1 cooperation becomes more difficult1 but it becomes even more necessary4 ,it needs to be ,,organized1 and it needs ,,leadership4 ,the experience of fruit growers in ,california affords a good illustration of this4 ,when they acted independently of one another1 they often had difficulty in disposing of their product to advantage4 ,sometimes it rotted on the ground4 ,as individuals they did not have the means of learning where the best markets were4 ,they had to make their own terms separately with the railroads for transportation and since they shipped in small quantities1 they paid high freight rates4 ,they had no adequate means of storing fruit while it was awaiting shipment4 ,they were dependent upon commission merchants in the cities for such prices as they could get1 which were often practically nothing at all4 ,these and other difficulties that made fruit growing unprofitable were overcome by the organization of fruit growers' associations1 in which each grower may become a member by purchasing shares of stock4 ,the members elect from their number a ,,board ,,of ,,directors1 who in turn appoint a ,,business ,,manager who gives his entire attention to the association's business4 ,the association has central offices and storage and packing houses4 ,the manager keeps in close touch with market conditions1--where the demand for fruit is greatest1 the kinds of fruit wanted1 the best prices paid4 ,he contracts for the sale of fruit at fair prices4 ,shipping in large quantities1 he gets the advantage of low rates on fast freight trains with refrigerator cars4 ,uniform methods of packing fruit are adopted1 sometimes the fruit being packed at the central packing house4 ,information is distributed as to the best methods of growing fruit1 the best varieties to grow1 and so on4 ,on the other hand1 supplies and provisions are bought in large quantities1 securing the best quality at the lowest prices4 ,,voluntary ,,cooperation ,,in ,,cities ,in cities there are almost innumerable organizations by which groups of people cooperate for one purpose or another4 ,men in the same line of business or in the same profession organize to promote their common interests4 ,there are boards of trade1 chambers of commerce1 merchants' and manufacturers' associations4 ,lawyers have their bar associations1 physicians their medical associations4 ,there are associations of teachers1 and work men in the various trades have their unions4 ,besides such business and professional organizations1 there are clubs and associations of all sorts for men1 for women1 and even for children1 some of them educational1 some social or recreational1 some philanthropic1 some religious4 ,where there are so many people interested in the same thing1 where it is easy for them to meet together1 and where competent leadership is forthcoming1 it is quite the usual thing to organize for united action4 ,,cooperation ,,in ,,rural ,,communities ,in agricultural communities cooperation has developed more slowly4 ,farmers have been too isolated from one another to make organization easy1 they have not fully realized its advantages1 and they have lacked leadership4 ,this has been an obstacle to the fullest development of community life4 ,the most backward communities are those where there is the least cooperation4 ,in such communities the farmer works single-handed1 getting no strength from joint action or combined effort4 ,but all this is changing4 ,organizations like the fruit growers' associations are becoming common and are proving their value4 ,the map on page #cf shows the distribution of organizations among farmers in the ,united ,states for cooperation in business enterprises of various kinds1 though it shows only about half as many as actually exist4 ,they include cooperative grain elevators and warehouses1 creameries and cheese factories1 cooperative stores1 fruit and grain growers' associations1 livestock associations1 cotton and tobacco associations1 and many others4 ,study the map on page #cf and indicate the region or regions where you think cooperative grain elevators and warehouses would be most numerous2 livestock associations2 dairies and creameries2 fruit growers' associations2 cotton growers' associations2 tobacco growers' associations4 ,are there any organizations of farmers in your community similar to those in the list in the last paragraph above8 ,make a list of them4 ,what are their purposes8 ,what are their advantages8 ,what obstacles have they encountered8 ,are all the farmers in the community members8 ,if not1 why8 ,describe their plans of organization--membership1 officers1 management1 etc4 7,discuss these questions at home and report results47 ,is there any organization of businessmen1 or of workmen1 in your town or neighboring town8 ,if so1 ascertain what advantages it seeks4 ,show how an ordinary store1 or a bank1 or a grain elevator1 is a means by which people cooperate4 ,are there any boys' or girls' clubs in your community8 ,show how such clubs require and secure cooperation4 ,how is leadership provided8 ,if there is a parents' association connected with your school1 show how it brings about cooperation among its members in the interest of the school4 ,make a list of all the organizations you can think of in your community 7such as clubs1 societies1 associations74 ,opposite the name of each write the chief purposes for which it exists4 ,write the six great wants across the top of a page1 as suggested in the fifth topic on page #f1 and arrange the list of organizations suggested in the last question above in the proper columns according to the wants they provide for4 ,discuss the importance of leadership in school activities4 ,what are the qualities that make a good leader8 ,who are some of the leaders in your community1 both men and women8 ,,the ,,farm ,,bureau ,at the close of #aiaf there were nearly three hundred farm bureaus in the northern and western states with a membership of nearly #ajj1jjj4 ,a farm bureau is an organization to secure cooperation throughout an entire county for the promotion of agricultural interests4 ,the members elect an executive committee to manage the affairs of the bureau4 ,in each of the small communities of which the county is made up1 there is a community committee4 ,the chairmen of the several community committees constitute a county agricultural council4 ,the chairmen and members of the various committees are chosen because of their interest in special lines of work and their fitness to direct such work4 ,various other organizations in the county1 such as the fair association1 breeders' associations1 the ,grange1 the schools1 and others1 are represented in the committees of the bureau1 the purpose being to secure teamwork among them1 as well as among the different communities of the county and among the individual farmers4 ,the bureau also cooperates with the state and national governments in employing a ,,county ,,agricultural ,,agent1 who is the bureau's adviser1 or leader4 ,in short1 the farm bureau represents the county working together in an organized way and under leadership for the improvement of community life4 ,in the ,year ,book of the ,department of ,agriculture for the year #aiae1 the story is told of ,christian ,county1 ,kentucky4 ,footnote3 ,how the ,whole ,county ,demonstrated1 #aiae ,year ,book1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 pp4 #bbe-bdh4 ,a ,,case ,,of ,,county ,,cooperation ,this county is almost wholly agricultural1 but the county seat is a small city of #aj1jjj4 ,there had formerly been more or less jealousy between the city and county1 as too frequently happens4 ,but a businessmen's association was organized in the city1 which interested itself in bettering the agricultural conditions of the county1 because the business of the city was very dependent upon the neighboring agriculture4 ,a crop improvement association was formed1 including farmers in its membership4 ,a county agricultural agent was employed1 and local community clubs were organized in different parts of the county1 which held meetings attended by the farmers and their families1 and by businessmen from the city4 ,a good roads association was organized1 and a good roads day was held on which businessmen turned out with the farmers1 stores of the city were closed1 and on one of the principal roads at least #ij per cent of the workmen were city men4 ,stone was contributed by contractors1 concrete firms furnished men gratis to repair bridges1 one company supplied outfits for trimming trees1 and a large amount of work was done by the county and town working side by side 444 ,such results could only be accomplished through unity of purpose and cooperation of all the people4 ,among other things accomplished in this county1 a fair association has been formed2 medical instruction has been introduced into the schools2 a public library and hospital have been built2 the school system of the county has cooperated in all educational work2 both town and county merchants have offered prizes to members of the boys' clubs2 also for cooking in the schools1 and have put women's restrooms in the stores for the use of the public4 ,there is now an active girls' canning club in every community in the county1 attended by the girls and also by their mothers4 ,there are #ab social clubs which meet regularly2 #ae parent-teachers' and mothers' clubs2 and there is not a school in the county which does not have some form of community meeting4 ,the schoolhouses are generally used for the meetings of the community clubs4 ,in some instances farmers have given sufficient ground for amusement purposes at the schoolhouses4 ,here may be found the ball diamond1 tennis court1 and basketball courts4 ,it is said of this county that it stands as a demonstration of the effect of education and organization under the proper leadership4 ,,the ,,town ,,and ,,the ,,county ,,are ,,one4 ,the result is better agriculture1 better business1 and better living4 ,write a brief theme on one of the following topics3 7a7 ,the importance of the telephone as a means of cooperation in my community4 7b7 ,instances in my community where bad roads have caused a lack of cooperation4 7c7 ,instances in my community where improvement of roads has led to better cooperation4 ,in what ways do you think there is need for better cooperation in your community8 ,discuss this with your parents1 and report in class the result of your talk with them4 ,is there any organized cooperation in your community or county as a whole for the general improvement of the community or county8 ,investigate the organization and work of a farm bureau4 7,if there is none in your county1 write to your ,state ,agricultural ,college or to the ,states ,relations ,service1 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 for information4 ,see references at the end of this chapter47 ,,public ,,library ,,as ,,an ,,example ,cooperation is as necessary for the fullest satisfaction of our other wants as it is in the business of making a living4 ,in one pioneer community there were few books and papers and they were handed about from house to house4 ,there may be comparatively few people in a community who can afford to buy a hundred books each year2 but there may easily be a hundred persons who could buy one book each1 and by some arrangement exchange with one another1 so that each could in the course of a year have the use of a hundred books4 ,neighborhood clubs are often organized to subscribe for magazines on this plan4 ,a public library provides an arrangement by which a great variety of good reading matter can be enjoyed by the entire community at trifling cost to each member4 ,in fact1 we may be able to draw books from such a library without any cost to ourselves2 but the books which we thus enjoy do cost the community a large sum of money1 and our free enjoyment of them is one of the advantages of community cooperation4 ,our part in the cooperation is in using the books carefully and in returning them promptly1 so that as many people as possible may have the use of them4 ,,nation-,,wide ,,cooperation ,the necessity for cooperation is by no means limited to our neighborhood or county or city4 ,people with common purposes organize for cooperation on a state-wide or nation-wide scale4 ,following is a list of national organizations in the interest of agriculture4 ,as our study proceeds1 we shall have abundant illustration of the value of cooperation and of the disadvantages that follow from its absence4 ,,farmers' ,,organizations ,american ,cooperative ,association 7,cooperative ,league of ,america74 ,american ,dairy ,farmers' ,association4 ,american ,federation of ,organized ,farmers4 ,american ,national ,live ,stock ,association4 ,american ,pomological ,society4 ,american ,poultry ,association4 ,american ,society of ,equity4 ,corn ,belt ,meat ,producers' ,association1 ,dairy ,cattle ,congress4 ,farm ,women's ,national ,congress4 ,farmers' ,educational and ,cooperative ,union of ,america 7,the ,farmers' ,union74 ,farmers' ,equity ,union4 ,farmers' ,national ,congress4 ,farmers' ,society of ,equity4 ,federation of ,jewish ,farmers of ,america4 ,gleaners1 ,the ,ancient ,order of4 ,grange1 ,national 7,patrons of ,husbandry74 ,national ,agricultural ,organization ,society4 ,national ,board of ,farm ,organizations4 ,national ,council of ,farmers' ,cooperative ,associations4 ,national ,dairy ,council4 ,national ,dairy ,union4 ,national ,farmers' ,associations4 ,national ,farmers' ,cooperative ,grain and ,live ,stock ,associations4 ,national ,nut ,growers' ,association4 ,national ,society of ,record ,associations4 ,national ,swine ,growers' ,association4 ,national ,wool ,growers' ,association4 ,national ,women's ,farm and ,garden ,association4 ,southern ,rice ,growers' ,association4 ,,cooperation ,a ,,matter ,,of ,,habit ,cooperation is largely a matter of habit4 ,habits can be formed only by practice2 and opportunity to practice cooperation is abundant if we are only on the lookout for it4 ,we shall find that it not only secures better results in whatever we are doing1 but that it also adds greatly to the enjoyment of life4 ,let us not forget that cooperation merely means team work1 working together for the common good4 ,they who cannot or will not work together are always in a weak position when brought into competition with those who can and do4 ,footnote3 ,carver1 ,the ,organization of a ,rural ,community1 p4 #e4 ,if there is a public library in your community1 what benefits do you get from it8 ,about how many books do you draw from it in the course of a year8 ,what would these books cost you if you bought them8 ,what do they cost you when you draw them from the library8 ,usually a fine is imposed for keeping a book from the library beyond a specified time4 ,show why this is proper4 ,do you have the use of a traveling library in your school or community8 ,if so1 where do the books come from8 ,show how it secures cooperation4 ,give examples of cooperation in your home1 and show what is gained by it4 ,in what ways do you think that cooperation could be improved in your home8 ,work out a plan for it4 ,give examples of cooperation in your school4 ,suggest plans for more and better cooperation in your school4 ,in what ways have you cooperated with others during the last month for the good of the community in which you live8 ,make a list in your notebook of ways in which you think you could cooperate with others to promote the welfare of your community1 and add to the list from time to time as new opportunities for such cooperation occur to you4 ,are any of the national organizations in the list on page #ce represented in your community8 ,what are their purposes8 7,consult parents and friends47 ,,readings ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life ,series ,a3 ,lesson #a1 ,some fundamental aspects of social organization4 ,lesson #c1 ,the cooperation of specialists in modern society4 ,lesson #g1 ,organization4 ,lesson #h1 ,the rise of machine industry4 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #d1 ,feeding a city4 ,lesson #be1 ,concentration of production in the meat packing industry4 ,lesson #bf1 ,concentration in the marketing of citrus fruits ,the publications of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture have a wide range of material relating to practical cooperation4 ,the following selected titles are illustrative4 ,the threshing ring in the corn belt1 ,year ,book #aiah1 #bdg-bfh4 ,boys' ,pig ,club ,work1 ,year ,book #aiae1 #agc-ahh4 ,poultry ,club ,work in the ,south1 ,year ,book #aiae1 #aic-bjj4 ,how the whole county demonstrated1 ,year ,book #aiae1 #bbe-bdh4 ,organization of rural interests1 ,year ,book #aiac1 #bci-beh4 ,organization of a rural community1 ,year ,book #aiad1 #hi-ach4 ,cooperative purchasing and marketing organizations1 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #edg4 ,cooperative grain companies1 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #cga4 ,cooperative stores1 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin4 ,no4 #cid4 ,county ,organization1 ,states ,relations ,service ,document #fe4 ,farm ,bureau ,organization1 ,states ,relations ,service ,document #ed4 ,see note on reference material in ,introduction with regard to method of applying for this material4 ,the assistance of the local county agent1 the state agricultural college1 or of the congressman1 may be enlisted if necessary4 ,cooperative enterprise in ,north ,carolina1 ,north ,carolina ,club ,year ,book1 #aiae-aiaf1 pp4 #dg-di1 ,university of ,north ,carolina1 ,chapel ,hill1 ,n4 ,c4 ,publications of the ,state ,agricultural ,college and ,experiment ,station of your own state1 relating to cooperation4 ,tufts1 ,james ,h1 ,the ,real ,business of ,living1 chaps ii1 iii1 viii1 xv1 xvi4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,why ,,we ,,have ,,government ,,government ,a ,,means ,,to ,,secure ,,cooperation ,we are now in a better position to understand why we have government4 ,it is a means by which to secure cooperation1 or team work4 ,,in ,,education ,when a schoolhouse is built to-day1 it is not done by combined manual labor1 as in the pioneer community4 ,as in all building1 there is cooperation of a highly organized kind in the production and assembling of the materials and in the construction of the building by workmen of different kinds4 ,but more than this1 since the schoolhouse is a ,,public ,,building1 the community cooperates in paying for it4 ,this is done by means of ,,taxes4 ,the people pay taxes not only for the building1 but also to meet the cost of operating the school1 paying the teachers1 buying equipment1 and heating the building4 ,the community must know how much money is needed for the school1 the taxes must be fairly apportioned and collected1 and the school must be properly managed to perform the community's work of education4 ,in small communities the people may meet together to vote the taxes and to decide on other matters relating to education1 as in ,new ,england towns4 ,but there must be leadership1 and there must be an organization to perform the work which the community wants done4 ,every community therefore has its board of education1 or school committee1 a superintendent1 and other officials4 ,such organization corresponds to the board of directors and business manager of the fruit growers' association1 only it represents the entire community and attends to the community's business of education4 ,it is part of the community's governing machinery4 ,ascertain from your father how much school tax he pays each year4 ,who determines the amount of this tax8 ,to whom does he pay it8 ,could you employ a teacher at home for the amount your father pays as school tax8 ,if you had a teacher at home1 could you get as good an education as you can now get at school8 ,explain your answer4 ,in what ways do you cooperate with the community to make the school a success8 ,if there is a public library in your community1 is it supported by taxation8 ,who manages the public library for the community8 ,,in ,,fire ,,protection ,when a building takes fire in the country the neighbors gather as quickly as possible to fight the flames by such means as may be at hand1 but seldom very effectively4 ,in a small city or town1 there may be a volunteer fire company composed of men who1 when a fire breaks out1 leave their usual occupations to save the property4 ,in large cities1 fully equipped and costly fire departments are maintained1 with paid firemen who are always on duty4 ,the police usually keep the crowd away from the burning building1 not only for their own safety1 but because they would hinder rather than help the trained and organized firemen4 ,in each case there is cooperation for fire protection2 the greater the common danger1 the more perfect the organization and the more complete the control by government4 ,,in ,,road ,,building ,it was once the usual practice1 as it still is in some localities1 for each farmer to give a certain number of days each year to work on the roads4 ,now1 in the most progressive communities1 the roads are better and more uniformly built and kept in better repair because they are placed by the community in charge of skilled roadmakers paid for by taxation4 ,but whether the farmer contributes money or labor1 or both1 cooperation is planned and directed by the government4 7,see ,chapter ,,xvii47 ,,in ,,health ,,protection ,in ,benjamin ,franklin's time1 each householder in ,philadelphia swept the pavement in front of his home if he wanted it kept clean4 ,franklin1 who was a splendid example of good citizenship in that he was always looking for opportunities to improve his community1 tells what happened3 ,one day ,i found a poor industrious man1 who was willing to undertake keeping the pavement clean by sweeping it twice a week1 carrying off the dirt from before all the neighbors' doors1 for the sum of sixpence per month to be paid by each house4 ,i then wrote and printed a paper setting forth the advantages to the neighborhood that might be obtained by this small expense4 444 ,i sent one of these papers to each house1 and in a day or two went around to see who would subscribe an agreement to pay these sixpences2 it was unanimously signed1 and for a time well executed4 ,this raised a general desire to have all the streets paved1 and made the people more willing to submit to a tax for that purpose4 ,this was community cooperation under simple conditions4 ,a hundred years later1 the one and a half million people living in ,philadelphia were just as truly cooperating to keep their city clean by means of more than #abjj miles of sewers for which they had paid nearly #ce millions of dollars1 and by means of a department of highways and street-cleaning which employed a contractor to clean the streets and to remove all ashes and garbage at an annual cost of more than a million and a half dollars4 ,this is all under the direction of the city government4 ,,in ,,state ,,and ,,national ,,affairs ,what is true of our local boards of education1 road supervisors1 fire and street-cleaning departments1 and other departments of our local governments1 is also true of state and national governments4 ,we shall not stop for illustrations of this now1 because they will be numerous in later chapters4 7,see1 for example1 ,chapter ,,xii47 ,is there a government in your home8 ,if so1 prove whether or not it is a means by which the members of the family cooperate4 ,describe the government of your school and show how it secures cooperation4 ,if you can get a copy of ,benjamin ,franklin's ,autobiography1 find in it further instances in which he improved the cooperation of his community1 as for fire protection and street lighting4 ,show how street lights in town represent community cooperation4 ,for what purpose is this form of cooperation8 ,give additional illustrations to prove that government in your community is a means of cooperation4 ,in what ways can you cooperate with the school board or trustees of your community1 and thus with the community itself1 for better schools8 ,,government ,,to ,,help ,,and ,,not ,,to ,,repress ,a number of boys whose lives were spent mostly in the city streets were once asked what the word government suggested to them4 ,some of them at once answered1 ,the policeman6 ,and when they were asked ,why8 they replied1 ,he arrests people1 ,he makes us keep off the grass in the parks1 ,he drives us off when we play ball in vacant lots4 ,these answers represent a common idea about government1 that it is something over us to restrict our freedom4 ,government does restrict the freedom of individuals at times2 but one of the best illustrations of its real purpose is the traffic policeman in cities4 ,he stands at the crossing of busy streets1 regulating the movement of people and vehicles in such a way as to insure the safety of all and to keep the intersecting streams of traffic moving smoothly and with as little interruption as possible4 ,now and then he leaves his post to help a child or an aged person or a cripple across the street2 or answers the inquiries of a stranger4 ,if now and then he arrests a driver1 it is because the latter disregards the rights or welfare of others4 ,,laws ,,as ,,signals ,,of ,,cooperation ,in small or thinly settled communities there may be no traffic policeman2 but there may be signs at the intersection of highways to guide travelers1 or warnings such as ,dangerous ,curve6 or ,school3 ,drive ,slowly6 ,such signs are usually posted by state or local authorities in accordance with ,,law4 ,and even where there are no signs1 the laws themselves are supposed to regulate traffic4 ,some one has compared the laws in our country to the signals given to a football team by the quarterback4 ,these signals are agreed upon in advance by the team1 and tell each player not only what he himself1 but also what every other player1 is to do1 and thus team work is secured4 ,and so our laws are said to be signals of cooperation1 just as much as the sign ,drive ,slowly1 or as when the traffic policeman holds up his hand or blows his whistle4 ,,laws ,,as ,,rules ,,of ,,the ,,game ,laws1 however1 are more than signals of cooperation2 they are also ,,rules by which cooperation is secured--rules of the game4 ,wherever people are dependent upon one another and work together there must be rules of conduct4 ,one kind of rules consists of what we call etiquette or good manners4 ,we have doubtless all observed how much better an athletic contest moves along1 or even the ordinary sports of the playground1 where good manners prevail4 ,good manners include more than the party manners that we put on and take off on special occasions1 like party clothes4 ,they consist of the accepted rules of behavior toward those with whom we associate4 ,in the home1 in school1 in business1 in public places1 there are good manners that are recognized by custom and that make the wheels move smoothly and without jar4 ,we do not need a law or a policeman to require a man to give way to a woman1 or even to another man1 in passing through a doorway2 good manners provide for this4 ,even on the public street much confusion is avoided by an observance of good manners1 or ,,custom4 ,thoughtful people instinctively turn to the right in passing others 7in ,england and ,canada the custom is to turn to the left7 without thinking whether there is a law on the subject or not4 ,,law ,,gives ,,freedom ,now most of our laws that regulate the conduct of individuals are simply rules that experience has proved to be of the greatest advantage to the greatest number1 and that are necessary because ,,some people have not good manners4 ,most people observe them1 not because they are laws1 but because they are reasonable and helpful in avoiding friction and in securing cooperation4 ,if they are good laws1 it is only the ill-mannered who are really conscious of their existence4 ,just laws restrict the freedom only of the ill- mannered1 while they ,,give freedom to those who have good manners4 ,what street or highway signs are there in your community8 ,who placed them8 ,are they faithfully observed8 ,if not1 why8 ,what signals are there in your school8 ,discuss their usefulness4 ,what are some of the rules of your school8 ,are they good rules8 ,why8 ,are they an advantage or a disadvantage to yourself8 ,if they did not exist1 would your own conduct be different8 ,why8 ,what are some of the rules of good manners that are supposed to control conduct in your school8 in your home8 in the street8 ,discuss their reasonableness4 ,do they enlarge or restrict freedom8 ,do the rules of football1 or other games1 increase or decrease the freedom of play8 ,what are some of the laws that control conduct in your community8 ,would most people observe the laws you mention even if they were not written laws1 and if there were no penalty for failing to observe them8 ,why8 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,law ,the following story illustrates the difference between law and custom1 or manners1 and how the former may develop out of the latter4 ,footnote3 ,rudimentary ,society among ,boys1 by ,john ,johnson1 in ,johns ,hopkins ,university ,studies in ,historical and ,political ,science1 vol4 ii 7#ahhd74 ,the story as here given is reproduced from ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life1 ,series ,c1 p4 #ade1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education 7,lesson ,c-#ah1 ,cooperation through ,law1 by ,arthur ,w4 ,dunn74 ,there was once a boys' school located in an #hjj-;acre tract of land1 in the fields and woods of which the boys1 when free from their studies1 gathered nuts1 trapped small animals1 and otherwise lived much like primitive hunters4 ,just after midnight some morning early in ,october1 when the first frosts of the season loosened the grasp of the nuts upon the limbs1 parties of two or three boys might be seen rushing at full speed over the wet fields4 ,when the swiftest party reached a walnut tree1 one of the number climbed up rapidly1 shook off half a bushel of nuts and scrambled down again4 ,then off the boys went to the next tree1 where the process was repeated unless the tree was occupied by other boys doing likewise4 ,nut hunters coming to the tree after the first party had been there1 and wishing to shake the tree some more1 were required by custom to pile up all the nuts that lay under the tree4 ,until this was done1 the unwritten law did not permit their shaking any more nuts on the ground4 ,so far this was a ,,custom accepted by the boys because of its reasonableness4 ,but after a while1 some members of this boy community thought to get ahead of the other members4 ,one night before frost came they secretly went to the woods and took possession of most of the nut trees by shaking them according to custom4 ,when this was discovered1 some of the leaders of the community ,,called ,a ,,meeting of all the boys4 ,after discussing the matter thoroughly1 they provided against a repetition of the trick by ,,making ,a ,,rule 7passing a law7 that thereafter the harvesting of nuts should not begin before ,a ,,fixed ,,date in ,october4 ,these boys acted very much as men have often acted under simple conditions of community life4 ,the ,new ,england town meeting1 for example1 is precisely the same thing as the boys' meeting4 ,,the ,,second ,,element ,,in ,,democracy3 ,,control ,,by ,,the ,,people ,we shall study the organization and methods of lawmaking in later chapters4 ,at present we are merely noting ,,why we have laws1 and the fact that they are supposed to be made1 directly or indirectly1 by the people themselves4 ,and right here we see the second thing necessary to make a ,,democracy4 ,on page #i we saw that in a democracy all people have certain equal and unalienable rights1 and that that community is most democratic that affords its members most nearly equal opportunity to enjoy these rights4 ,now we see further that in a democracy the people make their own laws4 ,moreover1 the laws of a democracy control1 not only the conduct of the people1 but also the government itself4 ,the government of a democracy may do only those things1 and use only those methods1 for which the people give the authority4 ,it is only when government exercises power without control by the people that it becomes autocratic4 ,,two ,,historic ,,documents ,the purpose of our government is clearly stated in two historic documents4 ,one of these is the ,declaration of ,independence1 which has already been quoted in ,chapter ,i4 ,the same quotation is given here with an additional sentence in italics3 ,we hold these truths to be self-evident1 that all men are created equal1 that they are endowed by their ,creator with certain unalienable rights1 that among these are life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness4 ,that1 ,,to ,,secure ,,these ,,rights1 ,,governments ,,are ,,instituted ,,among ,,men1 ,,deriving ,,their ,,just ,,powers ,,from ,,the ,,consent ,,of ,,the ,,governed444 ,the second great document is the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 the preamble to which reads3 ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states1 in order to form a more perfect union1 establish justice1 insure domestic tranquillity1 provide for the common defense1 promote the general welfare1 and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity1 do ordain and establish this ,constitution for the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,,democracy ,a ,,goal ,,still ,,to ,,be ,,reached ,it is not to be supposed that our government and our laws are perfect4 ,they cannot be perfect as long as they are made and operated by imperfect people4 ,it is possible1 for example1 that the boys of the city had a just complaint against the government for not permitting them to play ball in vacant lots1 ,,unless ,,the ,,community ,,at ,,the ,,same ,,time ,,provided ,,them ,,with ,,another ,,suitable ,,place ,,for ,,the ,,game--for every community should protect the right of its boys and girls to play4 ,we are far from having attained complete democracy4 ,it is a goal toward which men are struggling1 and have been struggling for centuries--since long before our ,revolutionary ,war1 and in other countries as well as in our own4 ,the great world war which began in #aiad1 and which the ,united ,states entered in #aiag1 was a war to establish more firmly in the world the principles of democratic government4 ,whether these principles shall be carried out in practice1 and whether our governments--local1 state1 and national--shall fulfill the purposes so clearly stated in the preamble to the ,constitution1 depends upon the extent to which each citizen understands these purposes1 and cooperates with his fellow-citizens and with his governments in support of them4 ,,the ,,right ,,idea ,,of ,,it ,it is said that in one of the training camps during the war an officer addressed a squad of new recruits as follows3 ,boys1 ,i want you to get the right idea of the salute4 ,i do not want you to think that you are being compelled to salute me as an individual4 ,no6 ,when you salute me1 you are simply rendering respect to the power ,i represent2 ,,and ,,the ,,power ,i ,,represent ,,is ,,you4 ,now let me explain4 ,you elect the ,president of the ,united ,states1 and the ,president of the ,united ,states grants me a commission to represent his authority in this army4 ,his only authority is the authority that you vest in him when you elect him ,president4 ,now1 when you salute an officer1 you salute not the man1 but the representative of your own authority4 ,the salute is going to be rigidly enforced in this army1 and ,i want you boys to get the right idea of it4 ,i want you to know what you salute and why4 ,it is very important that we should get the right idea of what our government is4 ,it is very much the idea that the officer gave his soldiers about the salute4 ,it is the idea contained in this chapter3 that government is our own organization for team work in community life4 ,all through this book we shall be engaged in discovering how far this is true4 ,do you know of instances in which the national government has helped to secure cooperation among the farmers of your locality8 ,discuss the parcel post as a means of cooperation4 ,during the war with ,germany the ,united ,states government assumed control of all the railroads of the country4 ,show how this was to secure better cooperation4 ,is the government of your school democratic8 ,explain your answer4 ,do you think it should be made more democratic8 ,why8 ,compare the purposes stated in the preamble to the ,constitution with the common purposes stated on page #f of ,chapter ,i4 ,show how the pupil who does as he pleases in school may interfere with the rights and liberties of other pupils4 ,is it right that his liberty should then be restricted8 ,why8 ,is liberty the right to do as one pleases8 ,if not1 what is it8 ,read together in class the preamble to the ,constitution and carefully discuss the meaning of each phrase4 ,,readings ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life3 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #ag1 ,the development of a system of laws4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #ag1 ,custom as a basis for law4 ,lesson #ah1 ,cooperation through law4 ,in ,long's ,american ,patriotic ,prose3 ,lincoln1 ,mob ,law1 pp4 #agc-agg4 ,lincoln1 ,back to the ,declaration1 pp4 #agj-aha4 ,mc,kinley1 ,liberty is ,responsibility1 ,not ,license1 pp4 #bed-bee4 ,the ,declaration of ,independence1 pp4 #fg-ga4 ,beard1 ,chas4 ,a41 ,american ,citizenship1 chap1 i 7,the ,nature of ,modern ,government74 ,franklin1 ,benjamin1 ,autobiography4 ,,chapter ,v ,,what ,,is ,,citizenship8 ,,what ,,membership ,,means ,before we go further1 let us get a definite idea of what it means to be a citizen4 ,,in ,,the ,,body ,we have frequently referred to the fact that we are members of various communities4 ,our bodies have members1 such as arms and hands4 ,the tongue has been called an unruly member4 ,it is a little member and boasteth great things4 ,footnote3 ,james iii3 #e4 ,there are two important facts about members of the body4 ,one is ,,that ,,they ,,get ,,their ,,life ,,from ,,the ,,body4 ,if the hand is cut off1 it quickly ceases to be a hand because it is severed from the source of life4 ,if the body is seriously ill1 its members are unable to perform their proper work4 ,the second important fact is ,,that ,,the ,,body ,,is ,,dependent ,,upon ,,its ,,members ,,for ,,its ,,life4 ,if the hand is cut off1 or an eye put out1 the body does not necessarily die1 but it is seriously handicapped4 ,if a member is paralyzed or diseased it may be a positive hindrance to the body1 and the disease may spread to other members4 ,the body may suffer merely because its members are poorly trained4 ,,in ,,the ,,community ,that is what it means to be a member of the body2 and membership in a family1 or a school1 or a club1 or a community1 is just the same4 ,we have already seen1 and we shall see more fully as we go on with our study1 how completely we are dependent upon our communities for food1 for the protection of life1 for education1 and for all else that makes up our life4 ,the community that does not provide for its members in these things is like a sick body4 ,on the other hand1 as members of a community we are always contributing something to its life--either to its advantage or disadvantage4 ,of course1 each of us is only one of a great many members in a large community1 and we may seem to be very unimportant4 ,but each performs his part1 whether it be great or small1 and whether he does it well or poorly4 ,,citizenship ,,means ,,membership ,now we often speak of members of a community as ,,citizens of that community4 ,,citizenship means practically the same thing as membership in the community4 ,as a good community is one that provides well for its members1 so the good citizen is the member who does well his part in the life of the community4 ,a bad citizen is the member who hinders the progress of the community when he might be helping4 ,a citizen has certain ,,rights and certain ,,duties4 ,his rights are what the community owes him2 his duties are what he owes the community4 ,,trained ,,and ,,untrained ,,citizens ,there are many members of communities who are like the diseased or paralyzed hand1 or like the hand that is untrained4 ,a member of an athletic team who does not train will probably be dropped from the team--he fails to become an athlete4 ,a member of a community1 or a citizen1 who does not train still remains a member1 but an inefficient one4 ,he is a handicap to his community and interferes with community team work4 ,the part that a member plays in community life may be more important than he realizes4 ,even in small things1 the falling short of one may mean disaster to many4 ,each member of a community1 like each member of a body1 must be not only in a healthy condition but also well trained4 ,,who ,,are ,,citizens ,let us not make the mistake of thinking that we are not yet citizens because we are young4 ,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states says that ,,all ,,persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states and subject to the jurisdiction thereof 7that is1 subject to its laws7 are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the state wherein they reside4 ,even persons born in foreign countries and who have not yet been naturalized ,footnote3 ,naturalization is the legal process by which persons of foreign birth renounce their allegiance to the land of their birth and pledge their allegiance to our government4 enjoy almost all the rights of native-born ,americans1 and therefore have much of the responsibility of citizenship4 ,until they are naturalized they are still considered members of the country from which they came1 and therefore as owing certain duties to that country which would be inconsistent with their duties as members of our nation4 ,therefore they are denied certain ,,political rights1 such as voting and holding office4 ,footnote3 ,in a few states even unnaturalized persons are allowed to vote after they have declared their intention of becoming citizens4 ,these same political rights are denied to native-born citizens until they have reached maturity4 ,but we must not confuse this right to vote with citizenship4 ,explain how the idea of membership as described in the text applies to your membership in the family2 to membership in a club2 in a church2 in a farmers' cooperative organization4 ,can you be a member of your class or school without doing it either good or harm8 ,explain your answer4 ,read ,romans xii3 #d-h and ,james iii3 #e-h4 ,show how an injury or a benefit to one pupil in the school may be an injury or a benefit to the entire school4 ,give illustrations to prove this4 ,show how a failure to save food1 to buy savings stamps1 or to perform other services that one is able to perform1 weakened our nation and other nations who were her allies during the war with ,germany4 ,make a list of things you have done during the week for the benefit of your school2 for the welfare of your neighborhood1 town1 or school district4 ,do you do as much for your family1 school1 or community as they do for you8 ,turn to ,amendment ,,xiv of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states 7see ,appendix71 and read the entire first section containing the definition of a citizen4 ,discuss the meaning of the section4 ,at what age does the native-born citizen acquire the right to vote8 ,why is he not allowed to vote before that time8 ,what native-born citizens of the ,united ,states do not have the right to vote even after they are of voting age8 ,,readings ,in ,long's ,american ,patriotic ,prose3 ,doane1 ,the ,men to ,make a ,state1 pp4 #bcf-bch4 ,lane1 ,makers of the ,flag1 pp4 #cad-caf4 ,steiner1 ,on ,becoming an ,american ,citizen1 pp4 #cag-cbj4 ,wilson1 ,to ,newly-,made ,citizens1 pp4 #cbb-cbf4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,what ,,is ,,our ,,community8 ,,elements ,,that ,,make ,a ,,community ,in the preceding chapters we have often spoken of our community4 ,as a matter of fact1 each of us is a member of a number of communities4 ,it is time to consider just what they are ,every community1 of course1 consists of a ,,group ,,of ,,people who occupy a more or less ,,definite ,,locality4 ,much depends1 in community life1 upon the character of both the people and the locality they occupy4 ,but the essential thing about a community is that the people who comprise it are ,,working ,,together 7cooperating7 under an ,,organization 7government7 for the ,,common ,,good 7common purposes74 ,,large ,,and ,,small ,,communities ,a neighborhood of farmers with their families may constitute a community4 ,in this case the area occupied may be extensive while the people are few in number4 ,or the community may be a city with a population very large in proportion to area it occupies4 ,there are villages1 towns1 and small cities of varying sizes both as to population and area4 ,each state in our ,union is a community and so is the nation itself because each is composed of a group of people 7very large in these cases71 occupying a definite territory 7also large71 and having a government through which the people are working for common ends4 ,there is a world community1 but it is1 as yet1 very imperfect4 ,the nations and peoples that comprise it have been slow to recognize their common purposes and have so far failed to develop adequate means of cooperation1 7,see ,chapter ,,viii47 ,is your class a community8 7,apply the definition given above47 ,what common interests does it have8 ,has it any government or laws8 ,is your school a community8 ,apply the same tests as above4 ,is your home a community8 ,what are some of its common interests8 ,are there laws in your family8 ,what are some of the things in which your family and your nearest neighbors have a common interest because of living close together8 ,do your family and your neighbors work together to provide for these interests8 ,what are some of the things in which all the people of your city or village 7or the one nearest to you7 have a common interest1 and which the city1 or village1 government helps to provide for8 ,,interdependence ,,of ,,rural ,,and ,,city ,,communities ,a community of farmers has interests of its own1 largely centering around farming activities1 or the social life of the local neighborhood4 ,a few miles away is a village or city whose people also have their own peculiar interests1 such as the lighting of the streets at night1 or the building of a new high school1 or the election of a mayor4 ,yet there are interests common to both the farming community and the city community4 ,the city is dependent upon the country for its food supply1 and the farmers are dependent upon the city for their market4 ,probably some of the farmers send their children to the city schools4 ,thus city and rural communities are bound together into a larger community with interests common to both4 ,in the early days of western settlement a community was founded in ,illinois4 ,it was an agricultural community1 but in the midst of it a village grew1 which in the course of time became a small city4 ,one of the first settlers was a young farmer with a mechanical turn of mind4 ,he began experimenting to improve the methods of planting grain4 ,the result was the invention of a corn planter1 the manufacture of which became one of the chief industries of the growing city1 employing hundreds of men and sending machines to all parts of the world4 ,another young farmer invented a better plow than those which had been in use1 the manufacture of which became another of the city's industries4 ,in those pioneer days each family usually made its own brooms1 but one young man in this community earned his way through the local college by making brooms from corn raised on the college farm4 ,the college cornfield disappeared in the course of time1 but on one part of it there grew up a broom factory employing a large number of workmen4 ,these city industries were thus literally children of the soil1 and the city's prosperity depended upon the agriculture of the surrounding region4 ,on the other hand1 the city provided the farmers with improved plows and corn planters1 furnished them an immediate market for their products1 supplied them with goods through its shops and stores1 and gave education to hundreds of farmers' children in its schools and college4 ,,need ,,for ,,rural ,,and ,,city ,,teamwork ,sometimes jealousies and antagonisms arise between small neighboring communities1 and especially between rural and city communities4 ,this interferes with the progress of both communities1 and of the larger community of which each is a part4 ,it may be proposed to build a township high school4 ,it is natural that the several communities that comprise the township should each want it4 ,but the interest of the entire township should be considered in determining the location of the school1 and not merely the advantage of one local district as against others4 ,it sometimes happens that the people of a city are exempted from taxation for county purposes outside of the city1 although the benefits would be almost1 if not quite as great1 for the city as for the country4 ,this sort of thing serves to set off city and country against each other instead of binding them together to their mutual advantage4 ,the case of ,christian ,county1 ,kentucky1 described in ,chapter ,,iii1 is an excellent illustration of teamwork between city and country in the interest of the entire county1 and of the results achieved by it4 ,,small ,,communities ,,unite ,,in ,,large ,,ones ,in this chapter there are three maps of ,dane ,county1 ,wisconsin1 which show how small communities1 both rural and urban1 are united into a large community1 the county4 ,map ,i shows the school districts and the townships which comprise the county4 ,the city of ,madison occupies the center1 and small towns and villages are scattered here and there4 ,the country school is the chief center of interest in each school district4 ,here and there through the county are high schools4 ,each of these is a center of a larger irregular area1 including a number of school districts and parts of several townships as shown in map #b4 ,map #c shows ,,trade ,,areas4 ,trade and education are two of the chief interests that bind people into communities4 ,but where these interests exist1 there are likely to be other interests2 the high school is likely to be a meeting place for social and recreational purposes4 ,the area and boundaries of a farming or rural neighborhood community are usually rather indefinite and changeable1 depending upon surface features and upon transportation conditions1 or the length of the day's haul4 ,with improved roads and better means of transportation1 larger areas and more people are included4 ,a neighborhood or trade area with automobiles is much larger than one where horses or ox carts are used exclusively4 ,the consolidated school with transportation provided for pupils expands the rural neighborhood community4 ,,common ,,interests ,,of ,,the ,,larger ,,community ,each of the small dots on map #c represents a farm home4 ,if we select one of these dots and imagine ourselves members of the family that lives there1 we shall see that we are members of a certain school district1 of a certain township1 of a community that has grown up around a trade center and a high school1 and of course of the county as a whole4 ,no matter in what school district we live1 we have an interest in some matters in common with the people of all other school districts in the county4 ,for example1 there is a state university at ,madison1 and connected with it is a training school for teachers4 ,the work done here influences the teaching in all the schools of the county1 and indeed of the whole state4 ,there is also an agricultural college at the state university which serves the farmers throughout the entire county and state4 ,if we look closely at map #c1 we shall see how highways and railroads center at ,madison1 which is the county seat of ,dane ,county and the capital of the state of ,wisconsin4 ,just as the many small communities that make up a county are dependent upon one another1 requiring organized cooperation for the county welfare1 so all the counties of a state1 and all the people who live in all the counties1 are interdependent in many ways4 ,the people of the city of ,madison1 for example1 depend for their food supply upon the farmers not only of ,dane ,county but of the entire state4 ,the university at ,madison serves not ,dane ,county alone1 but the people of all the counties of the state4 ,the public schools of the state should be equally good in all counties and managed by a uniform plan4 ,roads and other means of transportation are a matter of concern to the entire state4 ,and so the state is a community1 organized with a government1 to secure cooperation among all the people and all the smaller communities that compose it4 ,in fact1 a large part of the business of the governments of the local communities1 such as city and county and township1 is to administer the laws of the central state government4 ,in a similar manner1 the forty-eight states of the ,union1 with all the counties and smaller communities of which they consist1 comprise our great national community1 of which we are all members4 ,,communities ,,in ,,the ,,larger ,,communities ,when we speak of our community we are likely to think at once of the small community immediately around us--our neighborhood1 village1 or city4 ,our citizenship in these local communities is extremely important1 and will demand no small part of our attention4 ,but it is equally important to be fully alive to our citizenship in the larger communities4 ,this is true wherever we live2 but there is a sense in which our national community is peculiarly important to those of us who live in rural communities4 ,the wants of people in cities are1 as a rule1 looked after more completely by their local governments than is the case in rural communities4 ,the people of rural communities1 and especially farmers themselves1 are directly served by the national government in a great variety of ways4 ,in the next chapter we shall consider our nation as a community4 ,show how the different classes of your school are bound together by interests common to the entire school4 ,compare this union of classes with the union of states into a nation4 ,what constitutes the government of your school8 ,mention some things in which all the people of your county have a special interest4 ,are these things of equal interest to farmers and townspeople8 ,do the farmers and townspeople of your county work well together1 or are there conflicts between them8 ,if there are conflicts1 what are the causes8 ,point out some ways in which the prosperity and welfare of the farmers of your locality depend upon a neighboring city or town4 ,also some ways in which1 the city or town depend upon the neighboring farmers4 ,if there is organized cooperation in your county1 similar to that described on page #cb1 has it been brought about or encouraged by government1 or solely by voluntary effort on the part of citizens8 ,if the government had anything to do with it1 was it the county government1 state government1 or national government8 ,has farmland increased or decreased in value in your locality since your father was a boy8 ,can you show a relation between this change in value of farmland and the growth of nearby towns or cities8 ,what industries in your town 7or a neighboring town7 are dependent upon farming for their raw materials8 for the sale of their product8 ,what is the cotton gin8 the spinning jenny8 ,show how these inventions were a benefit to agriculture4 ,how did they promote the growth of cities8 ,make a map of your school district4 ,do the people of this district cooperate in matters other than those pertaining to the school8 ,on a map of your county1 show approximately the trade area served by the trade center nearest you4 ,for what other purposes besides trade do the farmers of this trade area come to the trade center8 ,on a map of your county1 show the area from which pupils come to the high school nearest you4 ,on a map of your state1 show the principle railroad centers4 ,show how these are the centers of larger trade areas corresponding to the small trade areas of your county4 ,show how the farmers and the residents of these railroad centers have common interests4 ,,readings ,dunn1 ,arthur ,w41 ,the ,community and the ,citizen1 ,chapters1 i-iii4 ,galpin1 ,c4 ,j41 ,the ,social ,anatomy of an ,agricultural ,community1 ,research ,bulletin #cd1 ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 ,university of ,wisconsin1 ,madison1 ,wis4 ,gillette1 ,john ,m41 ,constructive ,rural ,sociology 7,sturgis ,walton ,co41 ,new ,york71 ,chapter iv 7,types of ,communities74 ,small and ,vincent1 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,society 7,american ,book ,co471 ,book ,,ii1 ,chapters i-iv4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,our ,,national ,,community ,,imperfections ,,of ,,our ,,national ,,community ,it is important to get in the habit of thinking of our nation as a community1 just as we think of our school or town or rural neighborhood as one4 ,this is not always easy to do because of its huge size and complicated character4 ,it would be wrong1 too1 to get the idea that it is a perfect community--none of our communities is perfect4 ,conflicts of interest are often more apparent than community of interest4 ,teamwork among the different parts and groups that make up our nation is often very poor4 ,although our government is a wonderfully good one1 it is still only an imperfect means of cooperation4 ,our nation is far from being a complete democracy1 for there are many people in it who do not have the full enjoyment of life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness2 and large numbers of our self-governing people really have little or no part in government4 ,,loyalty ,,to ,,ideals ,it need not give us an unpatriotic feeling to acknowledge the imperfections of our nation or of our government2 for communities ,,grow1 not only in size1 but also in ability to perform their proper work1 just as individuals do4 ,we call a person conceited who thinks that he is perfect1 especially if he boasts of it4 ,but his conceit is itself an imperfection and a hindrance to growth4 ,so the patriotic citizen is not one who is unable to see defects in his community1 or who refuses to acknowledge them1 but one who has high ,,civic ,,ideals and is loyal to them1 who understands in what respects these ideals have not been reached1 and who1 as a member of the community1 contributes everything he can to keep it growing in ,,the ,,right ,,direction4 ,the problem of government is1 after all1 the problem of human growth4 444 ,the one constant and inconstant quantity with which man must deal is man--changing1 inert1 impulsive1 limited1 sympathetic1 selfish1 aspiring man4 ,his institutions1 whether social or political1 must come out of his wants and out of his capacities4 ,luther ,burbank has not yet made grapes to grow on thorns or figs on thistles4 ,neither has any system of government made all men wise444--,,franklin ,k4 ,,lane4 ,is it possible for a community to be #ajj percent perfect8 ,why8 ,what people in your community take no part in government8 ,may people who cannot vote have any influence upon government8 ,explain4 ,has a good citizen a right to criticize his government8 ,what is the difference between helpful and harmful criticism8 ,what is an ideal8 a civic ideal8 ,,welding ,,of ,,the ,,nation ,,by ,,war ,it is easier now than usual to think of our nation as a community1 because the war with ,germany served to arouse our national spirit1 and showed very clearly the importance in our national life of those elements which characterize all community life-- common purpose1 interdependence1 and organized1 cooperation 7see ,chapters ,i-,,iii74 ,the creation of a ,national ,army did much to bring this about4 ,when the benefits which come to the nation through the creation of the ,national ,army are catalogued1 the fact that it has welded the country into a homogeneous society1 ,footnote3 ,homogeneous society--a society or community all of whose parts and members have like purposes and interests4 seeking the same national ends and animated by the same national ideals1 will overtop all other advantages4 ,the organization of the selected ,army fuses the thousand separate elements making up the ,united ,states into one steel-hard mass4 ,men of the ,north1 ,south1 ,east1 and ,west meet and mingle1 and on the anvil of war become citizens worthy of the liberty won by the first ,american armies4 ,footnote3 ,major ,granville ,r4 ,fortesque1 in ,national ,geographic ,magazine1 ,dec41 #aiag4 ,how this welding of the parts of the nation together was brought about by the war is suggested by the words of an old ,confederate soldier who wrote to a friend in the ,north3 ,during the war between the states ,i was a rebel1 and continued one in heart until this great war4 ,but now ,i am a devoted follower of ,uncle ,sam and endorse him in every respect4 ,,diverse ,,elements ,,in ,,our ,,nation ,the fact that our nation contained in its population large numbers of people from practically every country of ,europe caused no little anxiety when we entered the ,european war4 ,our population embraces a hundred different races and nationalities4 ,of these1 ten million are negroes and three hundred thirty-six thousand are ,indians4 ,thirty-three million are of foreign parentage1 and of these1 thirteen million are foreign-born4 ,five million do not speak ,english1 and there are one thousand five hundred news papers in the ,united ,states printed in foreign languages4 ,five and one- half million above the age of ten years1 including both foreign and native1 cannot read or write in any language4 ,new ,york ,city has a larger ,hebrew population than any other city in the world1 contains more ,italians than ,rome1 and its ,german population is the fourth largest among the cities of the world4 ,pittsburgh has more ,serbs than the capital of ,serbia4 ,it is said that there were more ,greeks subject to draft in the ,american army than there were in the entire army of ,greece4 ,would all these people be loyal to our nation1 or would they divide it against itself8 ,,loyalty ,,of ,,diverse ,,elements ,the war1 in fact1 showed us that there were some among us who had never really become members of our nation and who were dangerous to our peace and safety4 ,it also showed us the danger that comes from the presence of so many illiterates1 or of those who cannot use the ,english language2 for such people1 even though loyal in spirit to the ,united ,states1 cannot understand instructions either in the army or in industry1 and otherwise prevent effective cooperation4 ,and yet the most striking thing that the war showed us in regard to this mixed population is that the great mass of it1 regardless of color or place of birth1 is really ,american in spirit and loyal to our flag and the ideas which it represents4 ,,national ,,safety ,,depends ,,on ,,harmony ,another weakness within our nation that the war emphasized is the lack of harmony between wage earners and their employers4 ,there were many sharp conflicts between them4 ,strikes occurred1 or were threatened1 in factories1 shipyards1 mines1 and railroads1 that blocked the wheels of industry at a time when the nation needed to strain every nerve to provide the materials of war4 ,this lack of harmony between workmen and employers1 which in war threatened our national safety1 has existed for many years and has always been an obstacle to national progress4 ,but the common purpose of winning the war caused employers and wage earners1 in most cases1 to adjust their differences4 ,in nearly every case1 one side or the other1 or both sides1 yielded certain points and agreed not to dispute over others1 at least for the period of the war4 ,the national government did much to bring this about by the creation of labor adjustment boards to hear complaints from either side and to settle disputes4 ,if our national community life is to develop in a wholesome way1 complete cooperation between workmen and employers must be secured and made permanent on the basis of interests that are common to both4 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,a ,,common ,,purpose ,such facts as these show how easy it is1 in a huge1 complex community like our nation1 for conflicts to arise among different sections and groups of the population2 and how difficult it is always to see the common interests that exist4 ,but they also show how such conflicts tend to disappear when a situation arises which forces us to think of the common interests instead of the differences4 ,all else was forgotten in the common purpose to win the war4 ,no sacrifice was too great on the part of any individual in order that this national purpose might be served4 ,everywhere throughout the country1 in cities and in remote rural districts1 service flags in the windows testified that the homes of the land were offering members that the nation and its ideals might live4 ,men1 women1 and even children contributed their work and their savings and denied themselves customary comforts to help win the war4 ,,the ,,entire ,,nation ,,was ,,working ,,together ,,for ,a ,,common ,,purpose4 ,,our ,,national ,,purpose ,we have said that this common purpose was to win the war4 ,but there were purposes that lie much deeper than this1 without which it would not have been worth while to enter the war at all4 ,as we saw in ,chapter ,i1 our nation is founded on a belief in the right of every one to life and physical well-being2 to be secure in one's rightful possessions2 to freedom of thought--education1 free speech1 a free press2 to freedom of religion2 to happiness in pleasant surroundings and a wholesome social life2 and1 above all1 to a voice in the government which exists to protect these rights4 ,it was to secure a larger freedom to enjoy these rights1 for ourselves first and for all others in their time1 that our nation was solidly united against the enemy that threatened it from without4 ,but it was with this same purpose that the ,war of ,independence was fought1 that our ,constitution was adopted1 that slavery was abolished1 that millions of people from foreign lands have come to our shores4 ,it is this common purpose that makes the great mass of foreigners in our country ,americans1 ready to fight for ,america1 if necessary even against the land of their birth4 ,it is this for which the ,american flag stands at all times1 whether in peace or in war4 ,what proof can you give of a national spirit in your locality during the war8 ,what evidence can you give to show that this national spirit is or is not as strong since the war closed8 ,what was the ,national ,army8 the ,national ,guard8 ,which of these organizations was most likely to develop a national spirit8 ,why8 ,what good reasons can you give for the action of the government in consolidating the ,regular ,army1 the ,national ,army1 and the ,national ,guard into a ,united ,states ,army8 ,what arguments can you give in favor of requiring all instruction in the public schools to be given in the ,english language8 ,what arguments can you give in favor of teaching lessons in citizenship in foreign-language newspapers8 ,what foreign nationalities are represented in your locality8 ,make a blackboard table showing the nationality of the parents and grandparents of each member of your class4 ,give illustrations to show that winning the war was the controlling purpose in your community during the war4 ,in what way has the war made ,,you think about the right-to-life and the need for physical well-being8 about security in property8 about freedom of thought8 about the desirability of an education8 about the right of people to pleasant surroundings8 about self- government8 ,show how the ,spanish-,american war was fought for the same purpose as that mentioned in the paragraph above4 ,write a brief theme on ,what the ,flag ,means to ,me4 ,,national ,,interdependence ,the attempt to work together in the war made it very apparent how dependent the nation is upon all its parts1 and how dependent each part is upon all the others4 ,it was often said that the farmers would win the war4 ,at other times it was said to be ships1 or fuel1 or airplanes1 or railroad transportation1 or trained scientists and technical workers4 ,the truth is1 of course1 that all these things and many more were absolutely necessary1 and that no one of them would have been of much value without all the others4 ,it is true that the winning of the war depended upon the farmers1 because they are the producers of the food and of the raw materials for textiles without which the nation and every group and person in it would have been helpless4 ,but the farmer could not supply food to the nation without machinery for its production1 and without city markets and railroads and ships for its distribution4 ,machinery could not be made1 nor ships and locomotives built1 without steel4 ,for the manufacture of steel there must be iron and fuel and tungsten and other materials4 ,and for all these things there must be inventors and skilled mechanics1 and to produce these there must be schools4 ,and so we could go on indefinitely to show how the war made us feel our interdependence4 ,what we need to understand1 however1 is that ,,this ,,interdependence ,,is ,,characteristic ,,of ,,our ,,national ,,life ,,at ,,all ,,times2 the war only made us feel it more keenly4 ,,nation-,,building ,,in ,,war ,,time ,during the war1 strange as it may seem1 while we were devoting our national energies to the work of destruction incident to war1 we as a nation made astonishing progress in many ways other than in the art of war--in what we might call nation-building4 ,in some ways we made progress in a year or two that under ordinary circumstances might have required a generation4 ,a striking illustration of this is in the development of a great fleet of merchant ships at a rate that would have been impossible before the war4 ,beginning with almost nothing when the war began1 we had1 in less than two years1 a merchant fleet larger than that of any other nation1 and that in spite of the constant destruction of ships by the enemy4 ,the chairman of the shipping board of the ,united ,states government says that this is because the necessities of the war made the whole nation see how much it depends upon ships1 and caused not only ship-builders1 but also engineers and manufacturers and businessmen and the ,navy department of the government1 and many others1 to concentrate upon this problem1 with the result that we discovered methods of shipbuilding1 and of loading and unloading and operating ships when they were built1 that will probably enable us to maintain permanently a merchant marine1 the lack of which we have deplored for many years4 ,in a similar way we discovered and brought into use valuable natural resources of whose existence we had largely been ignorant and for which we had been dependent upon other nations4 ,we made astonishing progress in scientific knowledge1 and especially in the application of this knowledge to invention and to industrial enterprises4 ,we developed a new interest in agriculture1 and learned the food values of many products that had formerly been neglected4 ,we were led to attack seriously the great problem of suitable housing for workmen1 and had an important lesson in the relation between wholesome home-life and industrial efficiency 7see ,chapter ,x1 pp4 #aab-aac74 ,foundations were laid for the adjustment of the unfortunate differences that have long existed between workmen and their employers4 ,the war suggested changes in our educational methods1 some of which will doubtless become effective1 to the great improvement of our public schools1 colleges1 and technical schools4 ,we shall study some of these things more fully in later chapters4 ,they are mentioned now to illustrate how ,,our ,,national ,,progress ,,was ,,stimulated ,,when ,,the ,,war ,,forced ,,us ,,to ,,see ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,all ,,these ,,things ,,to ,,one ,,another ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,accomplishment ,,of ,,our ,,national ,,purpose4 ,on the other hand1 failure to recognize this national interdependence means slow progress as a national community4 ,when the war began1 our nation was said to be unprepared4 ,insofar as this was true--and it was true in many particulars--it was because in the times of peace before the war we had not thought enough about the dependence of our national strength and safety upon all these factors in our national life ,,working ,,together4 ,and so1 in the times of peace ,,after ,,the ,,war1 if the purposes for which our nation fought are to be fulfilled1 we must continue to profit by this lesson which the war has taught us4 ,recall your discussion of national interdependence in connection with your study of ,chapter ,,ii4 ,report on some of the important scientific and commercial developments resulting from the war2 as1 for example3 ,the development of the commercial use of the airplane4 ,the development of new food supplies4 ,the production of fertilizer from the nitrogen of the air4 ,the development of new industries in the ,united ,states4 ,changes in methods of farming4 ,what are some changes in education that are likely to result from the war8 ,show how the strike of coal miners in #aiai affected the life of the nation4 ,,the ,,supreme ,,test ,,of ,,the ,,nation ,the working together of all these interdependent parts is the important thing4 ,the supreme test of the nation has come1 said ,president ,wilson4 ,we must all speak1 act1 and serve together4 ,footnote3 ,message to the ,american ,people1 ,april #ae1 #aiai4 #a ,it is not an army that we must shape and train for war 444 it is a ,nation4 ,to this end our people must draw close in one compact front against a common foe4 ,but this cannot be if each man pursues a private purpose4 ,the ,nation needs all men1 but it needs each man1 not in the field that will most pleasure him1 but in the endeavor that will best serve the common good4 444 ,the whole ,nation must be a team1 in which each man must play the part for which he is best fitted4 ,footnote3 ,conscription ,proclamation1 ,may #ah1 #aiag4 ,,the ,,nation ,,as ,a ,,team ,we had some suggestion on page #gb of how such national team work became a fact4 ,do your bit6 was the watch-word4 ,it was splendid to see how personal interests gave way before the desire to serve the nation4 ,it is a thrilling story how the racial elements in our population forgot their differences of race and language and remembered only that they were ,american2 how employers and employees laid aside their differences2 how farmers and businessmen1 manufacturers and mechanics1 miners and woodsmen1 inventors and teachers1 women in the home and children in the schools1 doctors and nurses1 and every other class and group subordinated their personal interests to the one national purpose of winning the war in order that the world might become a decent place in which to live4 ,as soon as the ,united ,states entered the war1 ,washington1 the nation's capital1 became filled with people from all parts of the country who wanted to help in some way4 ,some were called there by the government2 others came to volunteer their services and to offer ideas that they thought useful4 ,many came as representatives of organizations--business and industrial organizations1 scientific associations1 civic societies4 ,new committees and associations were formed1 until the number of voluntary citizen organizations eager to do war work became almost too numerous to remember4 ,they were all an indication of the desire of the people to do their part in the national enterprise4 ,,confusion ,,without ,,organization ,but there followed a period of confusion4 ,all these organizations and the people whom they represented wanted to help1 but they did not always know just what to do nor how to do it4 ,each organization had its own ideas which it often magnified above all others4 ,different organizations wanted to accomplish the same purpose1 but wanted to do it in different ways4 ,often they duplicated one another's efforts4 ,a war could not be won under such conditions4 ,but out of all this confusion there finally developed order1 and this was because the various organizations of people realized that if they were to accomplish anything they must work in cooperation with the national government1 whose business it was1 after all1 to organize the nation for united action4 ,in fact1 it was for this reason that they came to ,washington4 ,many of them sought to influence the government to adopt this or that plan1 and sometimes succeeded2 but it was the government that finally decided what plans were to be adopted1 and all of the effort of the numerous organizations and of individuals must be brought into harmony with these4 ,,national ,,team ,,work ,,through ,,government ,the period of the war afforded many striking examples of national cooperation secured by the government4 ,it may have seemed sometimes that our government interfered with personal freedom to an unreasonable extent1 as when it limited the amount of coal we could buy1 fixed the prices of many articles1 determined the wages that should be paid for labor1 took over the management of the railroads and of the telegraph and telephone lines1 and did many other things that it never had done in times of peace4 ,we expected government to exercise powers in war time that it would not be permitted to exercise in times of peace4 ,but it can be shown that even during the war1 the government1 with all its unusual powers1 did not ride roughshod over the people1 but sought to make them partners in an enterprise which after all was their own4 ,the nation was fighting for its life and for the very principles upon which it was founded1 and it was necessary that cooperation should be complete and effective4 ,this was what the government sought1 and it exercised its powers by inviting and obtaining national cooperation to a remarkable extent4 ,,the ,,selective ,,draft ,,as ,,an ,,illustration ,,of ,,team ,,work ,our national army was created by a selective draft1 or conscription4 ,conscription had formerly been looked upon with disfavor as a form of forced military service4 ,a volunteer army was thought to be more in harmony with a democratic form of government4 ,but the draft is now seen to be far more democratic than a volunteer army because it treats all able-bodied men alike1 instead of leaving the fighting to those who are most courageous and most patriotic1 while those who are inclined to shirk may easily do so4 ,moreover1 the ,,selective draft means the selection of men to serve in the capacity for which they are best fitted4 ,in ,great ,britain1 under a volunteer system1 and in ,france1 under a system of compulsory military service for all men1 thousands of brave men went to the trenches in the early days of the war who1 because of their training1 should have been kept at home to perform the vast amount of skilled labor and scientific work which this war demanded4 ,war industry1 without which there could be no fighting1 was thus greatly hampered4 ,by our selective draft1 on the other hand1 while every man was expected to do his share1 each was selected as far as possible to do the thing which he could do best and therefore which would best serve the country4 ,it also sought to prevent those who had families dependent upon them from going to war until they were absolutely needed4 ,thus the selective draft is an example of government organizing our national manpower for more effective teamwork and with less hardship than if it had been left to voluntary action4 ,,team ,,work ,,through ,,the ,,food ,,administration ,the ,united ,states ,food ,administration was created by the ,president to carry out the provisions of a law passed by ,congress1 to provide further for the national security and defense by encouraging the production1 conserving the supply1 and controlling the distribution of food products and fuel4 ,the ,president placed at its head a man in whom the people of the country had great confidence1 because of his experience and success in organizing and managing the ,belgian relief work1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,hoover4 ,he gathered around him men familiar with the problems relating to the food supply of the nation1 and then proceeded to enlighten the country in regard to the nature of these problems and to seek for the cooperation of the people in solving them4 ,as soon as he was appointed1 the food administrator issued a statement containing the following facts3 ,whereas we exported before the war but #hj1jjj1jjj bushels of wheat per annum1 this year we must find for all our allies #bbe1jjj1jjj bushels1 and this in the face of a short crop4 444 ,france and ,italy formerly produced their own sugar1 while ,england and ,ireland imported largely from ,germany4 ,owing to the inability of the first-named to produce more than one third of their needs1 and the necessity for the others to import from other markets1 they must all come to the ,west ,indies for their very large supplies1 and therefore deplete our resources4 ,if we can reduce our consumption of wheat flour by #a pound1 our meat by #g ounces1 our sugar by #g ounces1 our fat by #g ounces ,,per ,,person ,,per ,,week1 these quantities1 multiplied by #ajj1jjj1jjj 7the population of the ,united ,states7 will immeasurably aid and encourage our allies1 help our own growing armies1 and so effectively serve the great and noble cause of humanity in which our nation has embarked4 ,,democracy ,a ,,partnership ,this illustrates how the ,food ,administration sought cooperation4 ,it made partners of the people1 explained to them the situation1 and asked them to help as individuals4 ,it showed the nation what it must do if it were to be successful in its undertaking4 ,it is true that the ,president had large powers to enforce observance of the rules outlined by the ,food ,administration1 but it was only in the exceptional case of the individual consumer and producer who refused to cooperate for the common good that it became necessary to use the power4 ,the method of democracy is to point out clearly how the desired result may be obtained and to depend upon the people to govern themselves accordingly4 ,after a year of the war a member of the ,food ,administration is quoted as saying1 ,footnote3 ,in an article on ,your ,wheatless ,days1 by ,w4 ,a4 ,wolff1 in ,collier's ,weekly1 ,aug4 #ag1 #aiah4 ,there's never been anything like it in history4 444 ,we asked the ,american people to do voluntarily more than any other people has ever been asked to do under compulsion4 ,and the ,american people made good6 ,what was true in the unusual time of war is true to even a greater extent in the ordinary time of peace4 ,we have little to fear from our national government as long as we and those to whom we entrust its management1 always keep in mind its real purpose1 which is to show us how to work together effectively as a nation and to help us do it4 ,,every ,,man ,,counts ,all through this study we are going to observe how in the ordinary affairs of life our national government serves us in this respect4 ,one thing that we need especially to learn is that we have a great national purpose ,,all ,,the ,,time1 in peace as well as in war4 ,in fact1 ,,peace ,,is ,a ,,part ,,of ,,that ,,purpose4 ,we went to war because without it there could be no assurance of a lasting peace4 ,while we fought to defend our national purpose and our national ideals against a powerful foe from without1 this purpose and these ideals cannot be fully achieved by the war alone4 ,they can be finally achieved only by ourselves as we develop1 day by day1 our national community life4 ,to do this we must always keep in mind our great national purpose1 we must realize our dependence upon one another in achieving this purpose1 and we must make our national team work as perfect as it can be made4 ,above all1 we must realize that1 in peace as in war1 ,,every ,,man ,,counts in our national community life4 ,as ,president ,wilson said3 ,,the ,,nation ,,needs ,,all ,,men1 ,,but ,,it ,,needs ,,each ,,man4 444 ,,the ,,whole ,,nation ,,must ,,be ,a ,,team1 ,,in ,,which ,,each ,,man ,,shall ,,play ,,the ,,part ,,for ,,which ,,he ,,is ,,best ,,fitted4 ,read and discuss ,president ,wilson's ,message to the ,american ,people1 of ,april #ae1 #aiag4 ,what organizations existed in your community to secure teamwork for war purposes8 ,show how boys' and girls' clubs1 or the ,school ,garden ,army1 made cooperation possible on a national scale4 ,is this true in peace times as well as in war time8 ,is there greater or less need of national teamwork today than during the war8 ,explain your answer4 ,what evidences are there that the teamwork of our nation has not been as good since the war as during the war8 ,why is this8 ,show how universal military training might increase the national spirit ,what arguments can you give against it8 ,should or should not the food administration of wartime be continued in peace time8 ,why8 ,what does it mean to you to be an ,american8 ,,readings ,in ,long's ,american ,patriotic ,prose3 ,van ,dyke1 ,the ,blending of ,races1 p4 #d4 ,de ,crevecoeur1 ,the ,american1 p4 #ch4 ,webster1 ,imaginary ,speech of ,john ,adams1 p4 #gg4 ,brooks1 ,the ,fourth of ,july in ,westminster ,abbey1 p4 #hi4 ,van ,dyke1 ,the ,americanism of ,washington1 pp4 #ace-acg4 ,jay1 ,unity as a ,protection against ,foreign ,force and ,influence1 p4 #aci4 ,webster1 ,liberty and ,union ,inseparable1 p4 #aeh4 ,lincoln1 ,gettysburg ,speech1 p4 #aha4 ,lincoln1 ,second ,inaugural ,address1 p4 #ahc4 ,whitman1 ,two ,brothers1 ,one ,north1 ,one ,south1 p4 #bja4 ,wilson1 ,spirit of ,america1 p4 #bff4 ,roosevelt1 ,true ,americanism1 p4 #bgj4 ,wilson1 ,conscription ,proclamation1 p4 #bhc4 ,hughes1 ,what the ,flag ,means1 p4 #bhh4 ,eliot1 ,five ,american ,contributions to ,civilization1 p4 #caj4 ,lane1 ,makers of the ,flag1 p4 #cad4 ,mc,call1 ,america the ,melting ,pot1 p4 #cbj4 ,wilson1 ,to ,newly-,made ,citizens1 p4 #cbb4 ,gibbons1 ,the ,republic ,will ,endure1 p4 #cdj4 ,eliot1 ,what ,americans ,believe ,in1 p4 #cfa4 ,abbott1 ,patriotism1 p4 #cfb4 ,in ,foerster and ,pierson's ,american ,ideals3 ,wilson1 ,conscription ,proclamation1 p4 #age4 ,wilson1 ,americanism and the ,foreign-,born1 p4 #agh4 ,alderman1 ,can ,democracy be ,organized8 p4 #aeh4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,a ,,world ,,community ,is there a world community8 ,a world torn by war1 as our world was from #aiad to #aiah1 may not seem to give much evidence of it1 and many would at once answer ,no to our question4 ,and yet such phrases as the brotherhood of man and the cause of humanity are familiar to us all4 ,we may briefly discuss the question in this study1 because if there is such a community1 we are all members of it1 and our membership in it affects our lives as individuals and as a nation4 ,,what ,,the ,,war ,,disclosed ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,a ,,world ,,community ,the world community is certainly very imperfectly developed1 but while the war emphasized its imperfections1 it also furnished evidence if its reality4 ,its existence depends upon the presence of recognized common purposes and of organized teamwork in accomplishing these purposes1 as in the case of any community4 ,the war disclosed conflicting interests among the nations2 but it united for a common purpose a larger part of the world's population than had ever before acted together in a common cause4 ,it disclosed an interdependence among the nations and the peoples of the world that we had not thought of4 ,and while it disclosed the weakness of the world's organization for teamwork1 it aroused us to the possibilities of such organization1 made us long for it1 and brought us1 as many believe1 a step nearer to its accomplishment4 ,,america',s ,,detachment ,,from ,,the ,,world ,separated by wide oceans1 from the rest of the world1 our nation grew and prospered with a sense of security from the conflicts that from time to time disturbed the ,old ,world4 ,we early adopted a policy of avoiding entanglements that might draw us into these conflicts4 ,in his ,farewell ,address1 ,washington said3 ,the great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is1 in extending our commercial relations1 to have with them as little political connection as possible4 444 ,why1 by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of ,europe1 entangle our peace and posterity in the toils of ,european ambition1 rivalship1 interest1 humor1 or caprice8 ,it is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world4 ,a few years later1 ,president ,monroe issued his famous statement1 known as the ,monroe ,doctrine1 which1 recognizing the principle that ,washington had stated1 also denied the right of ,european powers to interfere with the free growth of the republican nations of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the ,united ,states has steadfastly held to this doctrine from that day to this4 ,,nations ,,have ,,become ,,close ,,neighbors ,but great changes have come to the world since the time of ,washington4 ,the use of steam in navigation1 the submarine cable and wireless telegraphy have brought all the world into closer relations than existed between ,new ,england and the ,southern ,states in the early days of our national life4 ,our government at ,washington may send messages to ,european capitals and receive a reply within ten minutes4 ,the ,atlantic has been crossed by airplane4 ,the nations of the world have become very close neighbors4 ,the murder of a prince in a little city of central ,europe drew from millions of homes in ,america their sons to fight on the soil of ,europe4 ,we entered the war because our interests were so closely bound up with those of the world that we could not keep out2 because what affects mankind is inevitably our affair1 as well as the affair of the nations of ,europe and ,asia4 ,the war did not create this interdependence2 it only emphasized it4 ,but now that we are aware of it1 it will probably influence our lives to a much greater extent than before the war4 ,,what ,,the ,,world ,,was ,,fighting ,,for ,the nations that were associated against ,germany1 occupy1 with their dependencies1 two-thirds of the earth's surface and include more than four-fifths of its population4 ,the governments of these nations declared that they were fighting primarily1 not for selfish interests such as ports and provinces and trade1 but for the common interests of the whole family of civilized nations--for nothing less than the cause of mankind4 ,footnote3 ,stuart ,p4 ,sherman1 ,american and ,allied ,ideals1 p4 #ad4 ,even if some of the governments were influenced to a greater or lesser extent by selfish motives1 they still recognized a common interest of the peoples of the world1 a cause of mankind1 and based their appeals upon it4 ,the prime minister of ,england said1 ,we must not allow any sense of revenge1 any spirit of greed1 any grasping desire1 to overcome the fundamental principles of righteousness4 ,faraway ,siam declared that she entered the war to uphold the sanctity of international rights against nations showing a contempt for humanity4 ,and little ,guatemala proclaimed that she had from the first adhered to and supported the attitude of the ,united ,states in defense of the rights of nations1 of liberty of the seas1 and of international justice4 ,our ,president said that what we demand in this war is nothing peculiar to ourselves4 ,it is that the world be made fit and safe to live in for every peace- loving nation4 444 ,all the peoples of the world are in effect partners in this interest4 ,the avowed purpose for which the ,united ,states entered the war1 and for which all the peoples of the world are in effect partners1 is the same as that for which the ,american ,revolutionary ,war was fought1 which was proclaimed in our ,declaration of ,independence1 and for which ,america has always stood--the equal right of all men to life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness1 and to self-government4 ,nearly the whole world was united against a few autocratic governments that denied these rights4 ,,america ,,has ,,fought ,,for ,,the ,,freedom ,,of ,,others ,at the time of the ,american ,revolution the colonists had no desire to fight the ,english ,,people1 but revolted against the autocratic ,english ,,government of that time1 which refused to recognize the rights of the people4 ,the ,english people had many times fought for these rights1 and many of them sympathized with the ,american colonists1 ,the winning of ,american independence was a victory for free government in ,england as well as in ,america1 and the government of ,england today is as democratic as our own4 ,this understanding about the ,american ,revolution throws light upon what the ,president of the ,united ,states meant when he said that we fought ,germany for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples1 ,,the ,,german ,,peoples ,,included4 ,another writer said1 ,we are not fighting to put the ,germans out but to get them in4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,human ,,sympathy ,it has taken a long time for the peoples of the world to develop a sense of their common wants and purposes4 ,differences in language1 in race and color1 in religious beliefs and observances1 in forms of government1 even in such matters as dress and other habits and customs1 have tended to obscure the common feelings of all4 ,this lack of sympathetic understanding is suggested by ,shylock1 in ,shakespeare's ,merchant of ,venice3 ,hath not a ,jew eyes8 hath not a ,jew hands1 organs1 dimensions1 senses1 affections1 passions8 fed with the same food1 hurt with the same weapons1 subject to the same diseases1 healed by the same means1 warmed and cooled by the same ,winter and ,summer1 as a ,christian is8 ,if you prick us1 do we not bleed8 if you tickle us1 do we not laugh8 if you poison us1 do we not die8 and if you wrong us1 shall we not revenge8 if we are like you in the rest1 we will resemble you in that4 ,increased opportunity for travel1 better means of communication1 and more widespread education have greatly increased the understanding among peoples and nations1 and have disclosed to view common purposes and ideals in spite of differences4 ,the fact that large numbers of people from every part of the globe have come to the ,united ,states to live together as one nation has contributed to the same result4 ,give illustrations from your own experience and reading to show that differences in dress1 language1 race1 and customs make sympathetic understanding difficult4 ,what is meant by ,america1 the melting-pot8 ,,international ,,cooperation ,as the peoples of the world have become better acquainted1 individuals and groups have tended to associate themselves together1 regardless of national boundaries1 for the promotion of common interests4 ,one example of this is the common movement of organized labor which has overstepped national boundaries4 ,there is an ,international ,institute of ,agriculture1 with headquarters at ,rome1 and representing #ef countries1 the purpose of which is to promote better economic and social conditions among agricultural populations of the world4 ,some of its publications are published in five languages4 ,literature and art bind all the world together1 and science knows no national boundary lines4 ,christianity is one of the greatest influences for a brotherhood of man4 ,differences in religious belief have presented most difficult barriers to overcome1 but there has been a steadily increasing tolerance of one religious faith toward others4 ,these are only a few of hundreds of illustrations that might be given4 ,,service ,,of ,,the ,,red ,,cross ,we have all become familiar1 during the war1 with the work of the ,red ,cross4 ,no other organization has done more to extend the feeling of common brotherhood in the world and the spirit of world service4 ,during the war a ,junior ,department of the ,red ,cross was organized1 enrolling in its membership about twelve million ,american boys and girls and organizing them for practical service to war-stricken ,europe and ,asia4 ,since the war1 the ,junior ,red ,cross1 whose headquarters are at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 has undertaken to use its organization to promote correspondence among boys and girls of different lands1 and an exchange of handiwork1 pictures1 and other things illustrative of their interests4 ,the ,american ,school ,citizenship ,league 7#dje ,marlboro ,street1 ,boston7 is encouraging the same idea1 and there is a ,bureau of ,french- ,american ,education ,correspondence for a similar purpose1 with headquarters at the ,george ,peabody ,college for ,teachers1 ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,,the ,,movement ,,for ,,world ,,peace ,numerous ,,international ,,peace ,,congresses have been held1 the first one as early as #ahdc1 and in the ,united ,states and other countries organizations exist for the promotion of friendly relations among the nations1 and especially for the substitution of arbitration for war as a means of settling international disputes4 ,among such organizations in the ,united ,states are the ,league to ,enforce ,peace1 the ,carnegie ,endowment for ,international ,peace1 the ,american ,peace and ,arbitration ,league1 the ,american ,peace ,society1 the ,world ,peace ,federation1 the ,church ,peace ,union4 ,what may be gained by correspondence between the young people of different lands8 ,report on the following 7see references73 ,the work of the ,pan-,american ,union4 ,the work of the ,red ,cross in war and peace4 ,,pan-,,american ,,union ,one of the most successful experiments in international cooperation is that of the ,north and ,south ,american republics4 ,the first ,pan-,american ,conference1 attended by delegates from the twenty-one ,american republics1 was held in ,washington1 ,d4,c41 in #ahhi4 ,as a result of this ,conference the ,pan-,american ,union was established1 with permanent headquarters in ,washington4 ,its purpose is the development of commerce1 friendly intercourse1 and good understanding among these countries4 ,,international ,,government ,to secure anything like effective teamwork among the nations for the common interest and to substitute arbitration for war as a means of settling differences1 there must be some kind of international organization1 and rules to which the governments of the nations will agree4 ,civilized nations have always had their official means of dealing with one another through their governments1 such as the diplomatic and consular services4 ,alliances have1 from time immemorial1 been made between nations1 treaties have been solemnly agreed to1 and a body of international law has gradually grown up4 ,but treaties and international law have frequently been violated1 and no international government has existed with sufficient authority or power to force nations to observe the law or to keep their agreements4 ,as a result of two peace conferences held at ,the ,hague in ,holland1 in #ahii and #aijg1 an international ,court of ,arbitration was established at ,the ,hague 7,the ,hague ,tribunal71 before which disputes might be brought by nations if they desired to do so4 ,but there was no way by which a nation could be compelled to appeal to the court4 ,,nationality ,,and ,,sovereignty ,nations have a strong sense of their ,,nationality1 and are extremely jealous of their ,,sovereignty1 which is the supreme power claimed by every nation to form its own government and to manage its own affairs without interference by other nations4 ,it is this that has prevented the development of anything like a real international government that could control the conduct of national governments1 or that could require a nation to submit its grievances to any judge other than itself4 ,this has perhaps been the chief weakness of the world community4 ,a ,,league ,,of ,,nations ,many people have long believed that the self-governing nations of the world must sooner or later unite1 in the interest of world peace1 in some kind of federation or league1 with a central organization to which all would agree to submit their differences4 ,the war made it seem even more necessary4 ,accordingly1 the ,peace ,conference at ,versailles at the close of the war included in the treaty of peace a ,covenant 7or constitution7 for a ,league of ,nations4 ,the treaty1 including the ,covenant1 has been ratified 7,march1 #aibj7 by four of the five great nations associated against ,germany 7,france1 ,england1 ,italy1 and ,japan2 the ,united ,states being the exception71 besides several other nations4 ,while the ,president of the ,united ,states strongly advocated the treaty with the ,covenant1 the ,senate did not approve of its ratification4 ,those in our country who opposed the ,covenant did so for a variety of reasons1 but chief among them were3 first1 the fear that the ,covenant would cause us to depart from the principles laid down by ,washington and ,monroe2 and1 second1 the fear that the powers conferred upon the international government would deprive our national government of some of its sovereign powers4 ,the friends of the ,covenant denied that either of these things would be true4 ,whether or not the ,united ,states should enter the ,league ,footnote3 ,the ,council of the new ,league of ,nations held its first meeting ,january #af1 #aibj1 the ,united ,states1 of course1 not being represented4 we shall have to leave for the statesmen to decide2 and whether or not the ,league will accomplish the desired ends1 time alone can prove4 ,but two or three things may safely be said with regard to any really effective world government4 ,,might ,,does ,,not ,,make ,,right ,when people live together in communities1 each person has to sacrifice something of his personal freedom in order that all may enjoy the largest possible liberty4 ,the same is true of families in a neighborhood1 of communities in a state1 of the states in our nation4 ,there is no reason why it should not be true of nations which are neighbors to one another4 ,no nation has any more right to do as it pleases than a person or a family has1 ,,if ,,what ,,it ,,pleases ,,to ,,do ,,is ,,unjust ,,to ,,its ,,neighbors4 ,the only thing1 however1 that a nation can properly be asked to give up ,,is ,,being ,,unjust ,,to ,,its ,,neighbors4 ,we saw in ,chapter ,,iv that government and law increase rather than decrease the individual citizen's freedom1 and that it is only the ill-mannered who feel the restrictions of a wise government4 ,so1 when we finally get a world government that is good1 it will be one that will increase the freedom of all good-mannered nations1 restricting only those that are ill- mannered4 ,,what ,,america ,,first ,,means ,moreover1 when we finally get a league of nations that will really secure friendly cooperation among the nations for their common interests1 it will be brought about1 not by sacrificing nationality and national patriotism1 but by ,,strengthening them4 ,what is required is not less loyalty to one's nationality1 but more sympathetic understanding of nationalities and national ideals different from one's own1 combined with a recognition of the fundamental interests 444 which unite them to each other4 ,footnote3 ,thoughts on ,nationalism and ,internationalism1 in ,history ,teachers' ,magazine1 ,june #aiah1 p4 #ccd4 ,the only way to be sure of a perfect neighborhood is first to see to it that the homes of the neighborhood are strong and whole some4 ,no person can really be loyal to his neighborhood who is not first of all loyal to his home4 ,thoroughly efficient townships and counties and cities are essential to a thoroughly efficient state2 and no citizen is loyal to his state who is not loyal to his township1 county1 and city4 ,the strength of our nation depends upon the strength of the states that compose it1 and real national patriotism cannot well exist in the heart of a citizen who is disloyal to his state4 ,the first essential step toward an effective ,,world government is to see that our national government is efficient and at the same time ,,just4 ,the first and best service that a citizen can perform for the world community is to be loyal to ,,american ,,ideals1 which are becoming the ideals of an ever- increasing part of the world's population4 ,,the ,,new ,,type ,,of ,,patriot ,,no ,,longer ,,cries1 ,,my ,,country ,,against ,,the ,,world1 ,,but ,,my ,,country ,,for ,,the ,,world4 ,footnote3 ,stuart ,p4 ,sherman1 ,american and ,allied ,ideals1 p4 #ad4 ,topics for investigation3 ,the ,hague ,tribunal4 ,disputes that have been settled by it4 ,why the dispute that led to the recent war was not settled by it4 ,the meaning of nationality4 ,of sovereignty4 ,has a government any more right to be dishonest than an individual8 ,both sides of the argument over the ratification by the ,united ,states of the treaty of peace with the ,covenant for the ,league of ,nations 7see references74 ,the truth of the statement that the only way to be sure of a perfect neighborhood is first to see to it that the homes of the neighborhood are strong and wholesome4 ,the meaning of the statement in the quotation at the end of the text above4 ,,readings ,in ,long's ,,american ,,patriotic ,,prose3 ,washington1 ,farewell ,address1 pp4 #aje-abd4 ,washington1 ,proclamation of ,neutrality1 pp4 #adc-adf4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine1 pp4 #adh-adi4 ,john ,quincy ,adams1 ,the ,mission of ,america1 pp4 #adi-aej4 ,george ,f4 ,hoar1 ,a ,warning ,against the ,spirit of ,empire1 pp4 #bdd- #bdg4 ,woodrow ,wilson1 ,spirit of ,america1 pp4 #bff-bfh4 ,franklin ,k4 ,lane1 ,why ,we ,are ,fighting ,germany1 pp4 #bhb-bhc4 ,carl ,schurz1 ,the ,rule of ,honor for the ,republic1 pp4 #cdb-cdc4 ,woodrow ,wilson1 ,war ,message of ,april #b1 #aiag1 pp4 #cea-cfa4 ,in ,foerster and ,pierson's ,,american ,,ideals3 ,washington1 ,counsel on ,alliances 7,farewell ,address71 pp4 #ahe- #ahi4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine1 pp4 #aij-aic4 ,henry ,clay1 ,the ,emancipation of ,south ,america1 pp4 #aid-aii4 ,robert ,e4 ,lansing1 ,pan-,americanism1 pp4 #bjj-bif4 ,a4 ,lawrence ,lowell1 ,a ,league to ,enforce ,peace1 pp4 #bjg-bbc4 ,george ,g4 ,wilson1 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine and the ,league to ,enforce ,peace1 pp4 #bbd-bcb4 ,woodrow ,wilson1 ,the ,conditions of ,peace1 pp4 #bcc-bda4 ,woodrow ,wilson1 ,war for ,democracy and ,peace1 pp4 #bdb-bef4 ,various books and pamphlets have been written relating to the ,league of ,nations and world relations following the war4 ,among these are3 ,,the ,,league ,,of ,,nations1 edited by ,henry ,e4 ,jackson 7published by ,prentice-,hall1 ,inc41 #gj ,fifth ,ave41 ,n4,y4 ,paper1 #ej cents2 cloth1 #a74 ,a document prepared to stimulate community discussion and promote organized public opinion4 ,this book contains1 at the end1 a list of titles of books and pamphlets on the subject4 ,the ,lodge-,lowell ,,debate ,,on ,,the ,,covenant ,,of ,,the ,,league ,,of ,,nations 7,world ,peace ,foundation1 ,boston74 ,president ,lowell1 of ,harvard ,university1 argued for1 and ,senator ,lodge against1 the ,covenant as contained in the treaty of peace4 ,taft1 ,william ,howard1 ,,why ,a ,,league ,,of ,,nations ,,is ,,necessary 7,league to ,enforce ,peace1 ,new ,york74 ,sherman1 ,stuart ,p41 ,,american ,,and ,,allied ,,ideals 7,world ,peace ,foundation1 ,boston74 ,the complete official record of the ,united ,states ,senate debate on the treaty of peace is to be found in the ,,congressional ,,record1 a file of which ,,should be in your public library4 ,,the ,,junior ,,red ,,cross ,,news1 ,american ,red ,cross1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,for the work of the ,pan ,american ,union and the ,red ,cross1 consult your public library2 and write to the ,pan ,american ,union and the ,american ,red ,cross1 both in ,washington1 ,d4,c41 for descriptive publications4 ,for the ,hague ,conferences and the ,hague ,tribunal1 consult any good modern encyclopedia1 and your public library4 ,write for materials to the ,american ,school ,citizenship ,league1 #dje ,marlboro ,st41 ,boston1 and the ,world ,peace ,foundation1 ,boston4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,home ,,no ,,nation ,,can ,,be ,,destroyed ,,while ,,it ,,possesses ,a ,,good ,,home ,,life4 ,the home is the smallest1 the simplest1 and the most familiar community of which we are members4 ,in many respects it is also the most important4 ,the quotation with which this chapter opens suggests this4 ,it will appear at many points in our study4 ,what do you think that the quotation at the head of the chapter means8 ,in what respects do you think it true8 ,some cities take pride in the fact that they are cities of homes4 ,what does this mean8 ,why is it a cause for pride8 ,is your community 7neighborhood or town7 a community of homes8 ,what is a home8 ,when a person is homesick for what is he sick8 ,may a good home exist in a poor dwelling8 ,a poor home in a fine dwelling8 ,is a hotel a home8 ,may a family living in a hotel have a home there8 ,is an orphan asylum a home8 ,would you exchange life in your own home for life in an orphan asylum8 ,why8 ,there are children who think an orphan asylum is a fine place to live2 why is this8 ,the home is important 7#a7 because of what it does for its own members1 and 7#b7 because of what it does for the larger community of which it is a part4 ,we shall consider first what it does for its own members4 ,,the ,,pioneer ,,family ,under the conditions of pioneer life the wants of the members of the family were provided for almost entirely by their own united efforts4 ,they built their own dwelling from materials which they themselves procured from the forest4 ,they made their living from the land which they occupied1 with tools which were largely homemade4 ,they provided their own defense against attack from without and against sickness within4 ,such education as the children obtained was of the most practical kind1 and was obtained by actual experience in their daily work supplemented by such instruction as parents and older brothers and sisters could give4 ,there was little social life except within the family circle4 ,,effect ,,of ,,community ,,growth ,when other homes were built in the neighborhood a larger community life began4 ,the neighboring homes came to depend upon one another and to cooperate in many ways4 ,the store at the crossroads provided for many wants that each home had formerly provided for itself4 ,the doctor who came to live in the community relieved the home of much anxiety in case of sickness4 ,the education of the children was in part1 at least1 turned over to the community school4 ,and so1 as a community grows1 the home shifts much of the responsibility for providing for the wants of its members upon community agencies4 ,,dependence ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,home ,this shifting of responsibility for the welfare of citizens from the home to the larger community is carried furthest in cities4 ,almost everything wanted in the home may be bought in the city shops1 and work that is done in the home for the family1 such as repair work1 dressmaking1 laundry work1 and cooking1 is likely to be done by people brought in from outside4 ,water is piped in from a public water supply and sewage is piped out through public sewers4 ,gas and electricity for lighting and heating are furnished by city plants4 ,since many city homes have not a spot of ground for a garden or for outdoor play1 they depend upon public parks and playgrounds provided by the city4 ,these are among the many so- called advantages of city life4 ,,the ,,obligation ,,of ,,the ,,home ,when so much is done for the citizen by the larger community agencies1 there is danger that the family may forget its own responsibility for the welfare of its members in connection with every want of life4 ,for no matter how good the community's arrangements for health protection may be1 the health of every citizen depends more upon the home than upon any other agency 7see ,chapter ,,xx74 ,no matter how good the schools1 the home always has great responsibility for the education of the children1 both within the home itself and through cooperation with the schools 7,chapter ,,xix74 ,no matter how many social organizations and places of amusement the community may afford1 the social and recreational life of the home is the most important of all and the most far- reaching in its influence 7,chapter ,,xxi74 ,no matter how excellent the form of government in a community may be1 its results will be very imperfect unless the government in each home is good4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,home ,,in ,,rural ,,communities ,the home has especial importance in the rural community of to-day4 ,the rural home is no longer so isolated and self-dependent as the pioneer home1 but the life of the rural citizen is much more dependent upon efforts within the home itself than the life of the city resident4 ,the business of farming by which the family living is secured is carried on at home1 and1 as a rule1 all the members of the family have some part in it4 ,it is a cooperative family enterprise to a much greater extent than any other modern business4 ,in cities1 in the great majority of cases1 the work by which the family living is earned is done away from home1 and very often no member of the family except the father has any direct part in it4 ,there are numerous cases1 however1 where the mother and even the children go out to work1 and in such cases the home life may be seriously interfered with4 ,it would be hard to find a rural home in the ,united ,states to-day that is not near enough to a schoolhouse to enable the children to attend it1 at least for an elementary education4 ,unfortunately1 high schools are not yet easily accessible in all rural communities 7see ,chapter ,,xix74 ,but whether the education afforded by the rural school is of the best or not1 the boy or girl on the farm gets in addition a kind of education through the varied occupations of the farm life that the city boy or girl does not get1 and for which the city schools have tried in vain to find an adequate substitute4 ,it is remarkable how many of the successful men and women of our country were raised on farms2 and they almost always bear witness to the value of the training received there4 ,so in matters of health1 of social life and recreation1 of pleasant and beautiful surroundings1 the rural home must depend very largely upon itself4 ,the strength and happiness of the community1 of our nation itself1 depend largely upon the extent to which the homes perform their proper work in providing for the wants of their members4 ,review what was said in ,chapter ,,ii regarding the independence of the pioneer family4 ,review also what was said in ,chapter ,i regarding the growing dependence of the family upon the community4 ,gather stories regarding pioneer home life 7a7 in your own locality1 7b7 in the settlement of the ,west2 7c7 in colonial times4 ,illustrate from these stories how the home provided for the wants of its members4 ,show in detail how the various members of a farmer's family take part in the business of farming4 ,compare with a family in town whose living is provided for by some other business4 ,make a list of the different people who come to the home of a family in town to provide for its wants 7such as the grocer's boy1 the milkman1 the postman1 etc474 ,compare with a farmer's home with respect to this service from outside4 ,,labor ,,saving ,,in ,,the ,,home ,we have read in an earlier chapter that our national purpose is to transmute days of dreary work into happier lives--for ourselves first and for all others in their time4 ,this purpose cannot be fully achieved if it is not first of all achieved in the home4 ,one of the objections often raised to life on the farm is that it is a life of drudgery1 of few conveniences and comforts1 of long hours1 hard work1 and little recreation4 ,happily this is not so true as it once was4 ,labor-saving machinery1 better methods of transportation and communication1 better schools1 have done much to improve conditions of rural home life4 ,but occasionally there still come statements like the following from some of the women in farm homes3 ,in many homes life on the farm is a somewhat one-sided affair4 ,many times the spare money above living expenses is expended on costly machinery and farm implements to make the farmer's work lighter2 on more land where there is already a sufficiency2 on expensive horses and cattle and new out-buildings2 while little or nothing is done for home improvement and no provision made for the comfort and convenience of the women of the family4 ,if a silo will help to reduce the man's labor1 a vacuum cleaner will do likewise for his wife4 ,if the stock at the barn needs a good water system to help it grow1 the stock in the house needs it too1 and needs it warm for baths4 ,you see many a farm where there is a cement floor in the barn1 while the cellar in the house is awful4 ,a sheep dip1 but no bathtub2 a fine buggy and a poor baby carriage4 ,on many farms a hundred dollars in cash are not spent in the home in a year4 ,,equal ,,opportunities ,,in ,,the ,,home ,these are not meant as complaints about the purchase of labor- saving farm machinery4 ,such complaints would be short-sighted1 for it is only by improved methods of farming that the means and the leisure can be found to enrich the home life in every way4 ,but the advantages gained by improvements that increase the farmer's returns are largely lost if they do not at the same time bring happier lives to the family as a whole4 ,the farm home is not only the place where the family living is ,,earned2 it is also the place where the family life is ,,lived4 ,democracy aims at ,,equal opportunity to enjoy life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness2 days of dreary work must be transmuted into happier lives for the women and children as well as for the men4 ,unless this is done in the home there is little chance of its being done at all4 ,a story is told of a housekeeper in a farm-home in the ,west who saw in the sacred rite of old-school housekeepers something more than scrubbing and polishing 444 ,when her housecleaning was over she knew just what linen she would need during the coming year1 just how much fruits and vegetables she would need to can or preserve or dry1 just what clothing must be replaced or repaired1 and what dishes would be needed to keep her set complete4 ,she not only made changes to improve the appearance of her house1 but planned and made the changes in her workshop which would save steps and make her work as easy as possible4 ,when her mind got to work1 housekeeping became a game1 the object being to eliminate all unnecessary labor4 ,her benches and tables and sinks were raised to the proper height and she became ashamed of the back- breaking energy she had wasted bending over them4 ,a high stool1 made by removing the back and arms from the baby's outgrown high chair1 made dishwashing and ironing much easier4 ,she has been housekeeping intelligently a dozen years1 yet each house-cleaning or stock-taking period she installs some new labor saver4 ,she not only makes her head save her heels1 but she takes another kind of inventory which is as well worth while4 ,it is the inventory which we all need to take of ourselves to be sure that we are making the best of our opportunities instead of drifting along day by day in a rut4 ,she searches out the hidden places in her soul to see if she is just as patient1 as thoughtful1 as cheerful as she might be 444 ,footnote3 ,,reclamation ,,record1 ,feb41 #aiah1 p4#ee1 ,project ,women and ,their ,materials1 by ,mrs4 ,louella ,littlepage4 ,,community ,,cooperation ,,and ,,the ,,home ,in some rural communities the home has been relieved of much of the household drudgery by the development of cooperative creameries1 cooperative laundries1 and other community institutions to do work that was formerly done entirely in the home4 ,in such cooperative enterprises1 citizens of the community buy shares of stock as in the case of the fruit growers' association4 ,in one community in ,michigan a vote was taken1 the women voting as well as the men1 to determine the sentiment of the community on the establishment of such a laundry1 and the vote was so overwhelmingly in favor of the proposition that the ,farmers' ,club promptly called a meeting to promote the enterprise4 ,an addition was built to the cooperative creamery1 which the community already possessed1 so that the same steam plant could be used for both4 ,the farmers brought their laundry when they brought their cream1 and carried it back on the next trip4 ,the laundry has been successful in relieving the hard life of a farmer's wife1 and in addition has been not only self-sustaining but a profitable institution4 ,one of the women of the community says1 ,it has lightened the work in the home to such an extent that one can manage the work without keeping help1 which is very scarce and high priced1 when it would be impossible to do so if the washing was included with our other duties4 ,and another writes1 ,this change gives me two days of recreation that ,i can call my own every week and also gives me more time in which to accomplish the household duties4 ,footnote3 ,a ,successful ,rural ,cooperative ,laundry1 in the ,year ,book1 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aiae1 pp4 #ahi-aid4 ,,government ,,serves ,,the ,,home ,a great deal of help is now being given to the home by the government1 and this is especially true in the case of the rural home4 ,the public schools1 both in city and country1 now consider home making and home economics as worthy of a place in the course of study as geography and mathematics 7see ,chapter ,,xix74 ,state agricultural colleges are beginning to give as much attention to these subjects as they do to soils and fertilizers and stock-breeding4 ,moreover1 the colleges conduct extension courses1 sending teachers trained in the art of home making to give instruction to women and girls in every part of the state4 ,they assist in organizing clubs of girls and women to study various aspects of home making and housekeeping1 and give demonstrations of the most successful methods of cooking1 of canning1 and of other activities connected with home life on the farm1 as well as of labor-saving devices in the household4 ,the state agricultural colleges have the cooperation of the ,department of ,agriculture of the national government in all this work4 ,,what ,,one ,,girl ,,accomplished ,in the ,year ,book of the ,department of ,agriculture for #aiaf there is an account of results derived from home demonstration work in the ,southern ,states4 ,the following story of what ,ruth ,anderson accomplished is a good illustration of the possibilities of this work4 ,ruth ,anderson1 of ,etowah ,county1 ,alabama1 in her second year of club work1 had an excellent plot of one tenth of an acre of beans and tomatoes4 ,she is the second girl in a family of eleven1 and takes a great interest in her club work4 ,the family home was small1 dark1 and crowded1 and somewhat unattractive4 ,one day a carpenter friend of her father saw her one tenth of an acre and said he wished he had time to plant a garden4 ,she told him she would furnish vegetables in exchange for some of his time4 444 ,after a while a bargain was made by which the carpenter agreed to begin work on the remodeling of the house if ,ruth would furnish him with fresh and canned vegetables for the season4 ,the other members of the family were soon interested in this undertaking and worked willingly to contribute their share to its success4 ,when the house was partly finished ,ruth won a canning- club prize given by a hardware merchant in ,gadsden1 the county seat4 ,silverware was offered her1 but1 intent upon completing the new house she asked the merchant how much a front door of glass would cost1 and learned that she could get the door1 side lights1 and windows for the price of the silverware4 ,in this way ,ruth brought light and joy to her family with her windows and door4 ,to- day they live in a pretty bungalow that she helped to build with her gardening and canning work4 ,at the age of #ad1 in the second year of her work1 ,ruth put up #gjj cans of tomatoes and #gej cans of beans4 ,footnote3 ,effect of ,home ,demonstration ,work in the ,south1 in #aiaf ,year ,book of the ,department of ,agriculture1 p4 #bed4 ,ruth's home before and after she began her work is shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,,national ,,aid ,,to ,,the ,,home ,the national government helps in home making in other ways than those suggested above1 and through other departments than that of agriculture4 ,in the ,department of the ,interior the ,general ,land ,office1 the ,bureau of ,education1 the ,reclamation ,service1 the ,office of ,indian ,affairs are all doing work to improve the homes of the land4 ,so1 also1 is the ,public ,health ,service of the ,treasury ,department2 the ,bureau of ,standards in the ,department of ,commerce2 the ,children's ,bureau in the ,department of ,labor4 ,we shall encounter some of this work as we proceed with our study4 ,in what ways has household work been relieved of its drudgery since your mothers were girls8 ,what labor-saving devices have been introduced in your home8 ,make a report on labor-saving inventions for the household 7see references at end of chapter74 ,what are some labor-saving household devices that could be made by boys and girls 7such as fireless cookers1 iceless refrigerators1 etc478 7,see references below74 ,can your school help in such projects8 ,to what extent could 7or do7 boys' and girls' clubs undertake such projects8 ,is there any leader in your community who could direct or advise in such projects8 ,is the kitchen in your home properly arranged to save steps1 labor1 and time in doing kitchen work8 ,consider plans for improvement4 ,consult parents4 ,does experience in your community confirm the feeling of the women quoted on page #ajd8 ,are there any cooperative enterprises in your community that relieve the housekeeper of household labor1 such as cooperative laundries1 creameries1 etc48 ,are they a business success8 ,have they improved conditions of home life8 ,what is the difference between a cooperative laundry and an ordinary laundry such as may be found in most towns8 ,does one relieve the home more than the other8 ,what other business enterprises are carried on in towns that relieve the home of work8 ,why are such business enterprises not conducted in the same way in rural communities8 ,is there any special interest in home improvement in your community8 ,who or what has brought it about8 ,what can you do to encourage such interest8 ,,readings ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life3 ,series ,c1 ,lesson #bj1 ,the ,family and ,social ,control4 ,for an extensive list of titles of publications relating to the home1 send to the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education for its ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #df1 ,bibliography of ,home ,economics1 especially section ,,viii on ,the ,family1 and section ,x on ,the ,house and ,household ,activities4 ,among the many titles given in this are3 ,earle1 ,alice ,morse1 ,home ,life in ,colonial ,days 7,macmillan74 ,gillette1 ,j4 ,m41 ,the ,family and ,society 7,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg74 ,thwing and ,butler1 ,the ,family 7,lothrop1 ,lee and ,shepard ,co474 ,gilman1 ,charlotte ,p41 ,the ,home 7,doubleday1 ,page and ,co474 ,talbot and ,breckenridge1 ,the ,modern ,household 7,whitcomb and ,barrows1 ,boston74 ,addams1 ,jane1 ,the ,spirit of ,youth and the ,city ,streets 7,macmillan74 ,ellwood1 ,charles ,a41 ,sociology and ,modern ,social ,problems1 chapters on the family 7,american ,book ,co474 ,scott1 ,rhea1 ,home ,labor-,saving ,devices 7,lippincott74 ,foght1 ,h4 ,w41 ,the ,rural ,teacher and his ,work1 ,part ,i1 chap4 iii4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,office of the ,secretary1 ,reports #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf3 ,social and ,labor ,needs of ,farm ,women4 ,domestic ,needs of ,farm ,women4 ,educational ,needs of ,farm ,women4 ,economic ,needs of ,farm ,women4 ,these reports can be obtained only from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 #ae cents each4 ,the ,american ,farm ,woman as ,she ,sees ,herself1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,book1 #aiad1 pp4 #caa-cah4 ,selection of ,household ,equipment1 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,book #aiad1 pp4 #ccj-cfb4 ,dunn1 ,arthur ,w41 ,the ,community and the ,citizen1 chaps1 v1 vi4 ,,chapter ,x ,,why ,,government ,,helps ,,in ,,home ,,making ,our nation requires healthy citizens1 intelligent citizens1 prosperous and happy citizens4 ,the home can do more to produce them than any other community agency4 ,therefore the nation is wise to look after its homes4 ,,relation ,,of ,,home ,,conditions ,,to ,,industry ,people cannot do their work well if they live in unwholesome or unpleasant homes4 ,this was made clear during the recent war4 ,the lack of suitable living places for workmen and their families was one of the chief obstacles to shipbuilding and munitions manufacture during the early part of the war4 ,england found this out as well as the ,united ,states1 and one of the first things both countries had to do was to take measures to provide proper home conditions for those who were engaged in supplying the nation's needs4 ,during the first year of the war our ,congress appropriated #bjj1jjj1jjj to build houses for industrial workers4 ,the problem of securing good physical conditions of home life has naturally been greatest in crowded industrial centers1 but it is by no means absent in small communities1 or even in the open country4 ,one writer describes a certain farmhouse where five people were accustomed to sleep in one not very large bedroom1 which had only one small window1 and even that was nailed shut1 one of these five had incipient tuberculosis4 ,these people were well-to-do farmers1 living in a large twelve-room1 stone house and simply crowded into one room for the sake of mistaken economy-- presumably to save coal and wood4 ,many such cases could be described1 not only in the more remote and backward regions1 but even in prosperous farming communities4 ,what is the result of this overcrowding and lack of proper housing in the country8 ,just exactly the same as in the great cities--lack of efficiency1 disease1 and premature death to many 444 ,while the great majority of people subjected to overcrowding and bad housing conditions do not prematurely die1 yet they have a lessened physical and mental vigor1 are less able to do properly their daily work1 and not only become a loss to themselves and their families1 but to the state 444 ,footnote3 ,bashore1 ,overcrowding and defective housing in the rural districts1 quoted in ,nourse1 ,,agricultural ,,economics1 pp4 #aah1 #aai1 #aba4 ,,strength ,,of ,,the ,,nation ,,depends ,,on ,,the ,,home ,some of our states and many of our cities have laws to regulate housing conditions1 but such laws seldom apply to small communities4 ,in cities where people live crowded together in closely built city blocks1 unsanitary conditions in one home endanger the health of the entire community4 ,there is also danger from fire1 and vice and crime may breed and spread quickly and unseen4 ,the community is driven1 therefore1 in its own defense1 to regulate the people's housing4 ,in small communities1 and especially in rural communities1 where homes are more widely separated and in some cases quite isolated1 it has seemed of little concern to others how one citizen builds his home and what he does in it4 ,thoughtful consideration of such cases as that described above1 however1 must convince us that it ,,is a matter of national concern what happens even in remote homes4 ,both the physical and the economic strength of the nation are undermined by unwholesome conditions in the separate homes of the land4 ,,community ,,planning ,economic loss to the community may result not merely from ,,unwholesome home conditions1 but also from ,,inconvenience of location and arrangement of the homes4 ,a good deal of attention is being given to community planning in the ,united ,states and especially in ,england and other ,european countries4 ,community planning includes not only provision for the proper location and construction of public buildings and streets1 for water supply1 lights1 parks1 etc41 but also for the convenient1 as well as wholesome and pleasant location of homes4 ,large cities1 like ,london1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 and ,chicago1 have spent enormous sums of money in city planning after they have already grown up without plan4 ,it has necessitated destroying old structures and widening streets4 ,villages and small towns are in a position to introduce a plan for future growth without this needless expense4 ,our beautiful capital city of ,washington has grown according to a plan that was carefully laid out before a building was erected4 ,but even in ,washington one of the greatest problems the city had to face during the war was that of providing homes for the enormous number of workers who came to the city to do the work of the government4 ,,planning ,,the ,,farmstead ,the need of careful arrangement in country homes is much more urgent than in city homes for the reason that country people use their homes as the business center of their profession1 says ,prof4 ,r4,j4 ,pearce1 of ,iowa ,state ,college4 ,the farmer in his business center must not only produce enough raw material to provide for him self and family1 but he needs to produce enough to feed and clothe the entire human race4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,space must be taken into consideration to obtain the greatest results from our high-priced land2 ,,convenience must be a prime factor when expensive labor is at a premium2 and ,,attractiveness must be one of the chief motives not only to make farm property more saleable but to give greater enjoyment to the owner and his family444 ,a farmstead is1 but a unit in a farming community1 yet travelers form an impression of the entire community by individual farm homes which they see in passing4 ,therefore1 not only financial consideration but personal pride and a feeling of community spirit and enterprise should urge the farm owner to develop his farmstead according to the best of modern methods4 ,what facts can you find in regard to what the government did to provide homes for workers in shipbuilding or munitions plants during the war8 ,in many of the war industries preference was given to men with families in employing workmen4 ,why was this8 ,in some rural communities in the ,united ,states a teacherage 7home for the teacher7 is provided4 ,of what advantage to the community is this8 ,is there a housing problem in your community8 ,are there any laws in your state regulating the building of homes8 ,if so1 what are some of them8 ,do they apply in your community8 ,are they carefully observed and enforced8 ,make a study of the arrangement of the buildings on farms with which you are familiar1 drawing diagrams1 and report whether or not they are well planned with reference to ,,economy ,,of ,,space occupied1 ,,convenience1 and ,,attractiveness4 ,consider 7a7 ,are they properly placed with reference to the highway8 7b7 ,are they conveniently placed in relation to one another8 7c7 ,are they suitably protected from the prevailing winds8 ,how8 7d7 ,what makes them attractive or unattractive8 7e7 ,are the stables properly situated to protect the health of the family8 ,how8 ,must a home be large and costly to be attractive8 ,what impression would a stranger get in regard to the community spirit of your community from the appearance of its homes8 ,would he be right8 ,,the ,,home ,,and ,,community ,,stability ,home ownership is one of the strongest influences that give permanence and stability to the community4 ,the census taken by the ,united ,states government every ten years shows that home ownership has been decreasing throughout the country as a whole4 ,the decrease has been greatest in cities1 but it is true also of farmhome ownership4 ,in #ahhj only #be of the farms of the ,united ,states were occupied by tenants 7renters72 in #aiaj1 #cg were so occupied4 ,it is true that in the ten years from #aijj to #aiaj there was a slight increase in the proportion of farms owned by their occupants in the ,new ,england and ,middle ,atlantic states1 and in a large part of the ,west2 but the increase in these parts was more than overbalanced by the decrease in the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf states and in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the smallest proportion of farm tenancy is found in ,new ,england 7#h71 and the largest in the southern states 7#de4i in the ,south ,atlantic states1 and more than #ej in the ,south central states74 ,a large part of the farming in the ,south is done by negroes1 most of whom are either laborers on the farms of the white population or tenants on small farms which they usually work on shares4 ,and yet the number of negro farm owners in the ,south has been rapidly increasing in the last few years1 though not so rapidly as the number of tenants4 ,in #aiaj negro farm owners cultivated nearly #af1jjj1jjj acres of land in the ,south1 all of which they have acquired since the ,civil ,war4 ,,effects ,,of ,,decline ,,of ,,home ,,ownership ,the decline in home ownership both in the cities and in the rural districts of the ,united ,states has been observed with considerable anxiety because of the effect upon our national welfare and upon the citizenship of the country4 ,one writer says3 ,farming is a permanent business2 it is no fly by night occupation4 444 ,no man can pull up stakes and leave a farm at the close of the year without sacrificing the results of labor which he has done 444 ,the renter who ends harvest knowing that he will move in the spring1 will not do as good a job of hauling manure and fall plowing as he would were he to stay2 nor does he take as good care of the buildings and other improvements 444 ,the cost to the farming business of the country each year for this annual farm moving-week mounts into the millions of dollars4 ,and the pity of it all is that practically no one is the winner thereby 444 ,the renter loses1 the landlord loses1 the general community and the nation at large lose4 ,footnote3 ,w4,d4 ,boyce1 in an editorial in ,,the ,,farming ,,business1 ,february #bf1 #aiaf1 quoted in ,nourse1 ,,agricultural ,,economics1 p4 #fea4 ,tenant farming also places obstacles in the way of community progress in other ways4 ,the tenant takes little interest in community affairs4 ,the questions of schools1 churches1 or roads are of little moment to him4 ,he does not wish to invest in enterprises which will of necessity be left wholly 444 to his successor4 ,in short1 he is in the community1 but hardly of it4 ,footnote3 ,b4,h4 ,hibbard1 ,farm ,tenancy in the ,united ,states1 in ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,march1 #aiab1 p4 #ci4 ,a family that owns its home feels a sense of proprietorship in a part of the community land4 ,the money value of a home increases in proportion to the prosperity of the community as a whole2 its owner will therefore be inclined to do all he can to promote the welfare of the community4 ,a community that is made up largely of homes owned by their occupants is likely to be more prosperous and more progressive1 and its citizens more loyal to it1 than a community whose families are tenants4 ,,the ,,tenant ,,as ,a ,,citizen ,while all that has been said in the preceding paragraph is true1 it must not be thought that tenancy is necessarily a bad thing in all cases1 nor that a man who does not own his home cannot be a thoroughly good citizen4 ,there are circumstances that make it necessary for many families to live in dwellings that they do not own4 ,tenancy may be a step toward home ownership4 ,a citizen may have insufficient money to buy a farm1 but enough to enable him to rent one4 ,by industry1 economy1 and intelligence1 he may soon accumulate means with which to buy the farm he occupies or some other4 ,the increase in the number of tenants in the ,southern ,states is due in large part to the breaking up of many larger plantations into small farms which are occupied by tenants1 many of them negroes4 ,that many of these tenants are on the road to home ownership is indicated by the facts stated on page #aag4 ,it is as much the duty of the home renter as it is of the home owner to take an interest in the community life in which he and his family share1 and to cooperate with his neighbors for the common good4 ,while he lives in the community he is largely dependent upon it1 like any other citizen1 for the satisfaction of his wants4 ,its markets and its roads are his for the transportation and disposal of his produce and stock4 ,he gets the benefit of its schools for the education of his children4 ,he may share in its social life if he cares to do so4 ,his property is protected by the same agencies that protect that of his neighbors4 ,he cannot1 therefore1 escape the responsibility of contributing to the progress of his community to the extent of his ability4 ,,teamwork ,,between ,,landlord ,,and ,,tenant ,it is as much the duty of the man who rents a farm as it is of the man who owns one to make his farm produce to its full capacity1 to protect the soil from exhaustion and the buildings and fences from destruction4 ,but on the other hand1 it is the duty of the landlord1 both as a good business man and as a good citizen1 to make such terms with his tenant that the latter will take an interest in the farm and will find it profitable to farm properly4 ,there must be team work4 ,the landlord must be interested not only in his land but in his tenant4 ,the tenant must be interested not only in himself but in his landlord and his land4 ,a system that favors the tenant to the injury of the land is bad4 ,a system that favors the land to the injury of the tenant is equally harmful4 ,either system will result in the poverty of both the landlord and the tenant4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,seaman ,a4 ,knapp1 quoted by ,dr4 ,thomas ,jesse ,jones in ,negroes and the ,census of #aiaj1 p #af4 7,reprint from ,,the ,,southern ,,workman for ,august1 #aiab47 ,the fact remains1 however1 that home ownership contributes to the permanence1 the stability1 and the progress of a community4 ,it is also a fact that conditions have developed in our country1 both in cities and in rural communities1 which make home ownership increasingly difficult4 ,in another chapter 7,chapter ,,xiv7 we shall see what some of these conditions are1 and what our government has done and may do to overcome them4 ,,the ,,home ,a ,,school ,,of ,,citizenship ,one of the most important services performed for the community by the home is that of training its members for citizenship4 ,the family has been called a school of all the virtues that go to make good citizenship4 ,it is a school in which not only the children1 but also the parents1 not only the boys and men1 but also the girls and women1 receive training by practice4 ,in the home are developed thoughtfulness for others1 a spirit of self- sacrifice for the common good1 loyalty to the group of which the individual is a member1 respect for the opinions of others of long experience1 a spirit of teamwork1 obedience to rules which exist for the welfare of all4 ,if these and other qualities of good citizenship are not cultivated in the home1 it is not in a healthy condition nor performing its proper service to the community4 ,moreover1 the exercise of these virtues in the home is not only training for good citizenship2 it ,,is good citizenship4 ,if the home is as important a factor in our national life as this chapter has indicated1 then one of the greatest opportunities for good citizenship1 and one of the greatest duties of good citizenship1 is that of making the home what it should be2 and in this each member of the family has his or her share4 ,make a study of farm tenancy in your locality 7neighborhood1 township1 or county74 ,how many of the farms of the locality are occupied and operated by their owners8 how many by tenants8 ,what is the percentage of tenancy8 ,to what extent are the tenants men who were formerly farm laborers1 but who by renting farms are making a start on their own account8 ,is this a sign of progress8 ,what percentage of the tenants are white8 negro8 ,to what extent are the tenants foreigners who have recently come to the locality8 ,are the tenant farms usually rented for long periods or for short periods8 ,what is the system of tenancy in your locality 7i4e4 cash rental1 working on shares1 partnership with the owner1 etc478 ,if more than one exists1 which seems to work best8 ,why8 ,is tenancy increasing or decreasing in your locality8 ,what reasons are given for this8 ,does experience in your locality support the statement that tenant farmers are less likely than others to interest themselves in community progress8 ,if you live or go to school in town1 make a study of home ownership in the town4 7,if a small community1 the class may study the entire area2 if large1 different sections may be studied by different groups of pupils47 ,how many homes are occupied by their owners8 how many by tenants8 ,what is the percentage of tenancy8 ,is tenancy increasing or decreasing8 ,for what reasons8 ,is there some section of the community where most of the people own their homes1 and another section where most of the people rent8 ,if so1 do you notice any difference in the general appearance of the two sections8 ,do you think that the difference1 if any exists1 is due in any part to the fact that some own and others rent their homes8 ,is there a tendency for the farmers of your locality to move into town8 ,if so1 why8 ,what becomes of their farms8 ,review the points made in the discussion of topics #d and #e on page #ch 7,chapter ,,iii74 ,continue to develop plans for cooperation in the home and school4 ,what does it mean to be in training for athletics8 ,in the light of your answer to this question1 what would it mean to be in training for citizen ship8 ,,readings ,see ,readings for ,chapter ,,ix4 ,also3 ,housing the ,worker on the ,farm1 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,book1 #aiah1 pp4 #cdg-cef4 ,what the ,department of ,agriculture is ,doing for the ,housekeeper1 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,book1 #aiac1 pp4 #adc-afb4 ,the ,effect of ,home ,demonstration on the ,community and the ,county1 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,book1 #aiaf1 pp4 #bea-bff4 ,farm ,tenantry in the ,united ,states1 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,book1 #aiaf1 pp4 #cba-cdf4 ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life3 ,series ,c1 ,lesson #cb1 ,housing for ,workers4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,earning ,a ,,living ,,living1 ,,not ,,earning1 ,,the ,,end ,,in ,,view ,the most conspicuous activities that we see going on in the community are usually those that have to do with earning a living or the production of wealth4 ,footnote3 ,the activities by which we earn a living are also the activities by which wealth is produced4 ,it is important to understand that when we speak of wealth we do not necessarily mean ,,great wealth4 ,a boy who has a fifty-cent knife1 or a girl who has a twenty-five-cent purse1 has wealth as truly as the man who owns a well-stocked farm4 ,the difference is merely in kind and amount4 ,food1 clothing1 houses1 books1 tools1 cattle1 are all forms of wealth4 ,,any material thing1 for which we are willing to work and make sacrifices because it satisfies our wants1 is wealth4 ,earning a living is merely earning or producing wealth to satisfy our wants and those of others4 ,indeed1 some people become so absorbed in the business of earning a living that they seem to be ,,living ,,to ,,earn rather than ,,earning ,,to ,,live4 ,it does not do to forget that not ,,earning1 but ,,living1 is the real end in view4 ,unless we know how to use what we earn to provide properly for all of our normal wants1 the effort we spend in earning is very largely wasted4 ,nevertheless1 before we can enjoy a living it has to be earned1 by ourselves or by someone else2 and the activities by which it is earned occupy so important a place in our lives1 are so closely dependent upon the community1 have so much to do with our citizenship1 and receive so much attention from government1 that we must give them some consideration in this chapter and several chapters following4 ,,importance ,,of ,,vocational ,,life ,while young people are spending most of their time at school or at play1 their fathers and other grown people are usually chiefly occupied in the business of making a living or earning money4 ,footnote3 ,gold and silver and paper and wood are forms of wealth4 ,out of wood we make a yardstick or a peck measure with which ,,to ,,measure ,,quantities of cloth or grain4 ,in a similar manner1 out of gold1 silver1 paper1 and other materials1 we make money1 and for a similar reason1 viz4 to ,,measure ,,the ,,value of wealth4 ,when we speak of a ,,fifty-,,cent ,,knife and a ,,twenty-,,five ,,cent ,,purse1 we measure the value of these articles4 ,it would take thousands of ,,dollars to measure the value of a well-stocked farm4 ,when we say that a boy earns a dollar1 or that a man earns #d4jj a day1 we measure the value of his work or his service4 ,if a man works for a farmer1 he very likely receives his board and lodging in part payment for his services2 he makes a direct exchange of his services for food and shelter4 ,but he also probably receives in addition an amount of money1 because with the money he can buy clothes and other things that the farmer cannot give4 ,he takes the money and buys with it these other things that he needs to supply his wants4 ,thus money becomes something more than a measure of wealth or of services2 it is also ,a ,,means ,,of ,,exchanging ,,wealth ,,or ,,services4 ,these are the two uses of money4 ,money has value only because of what it represents in wealth1 and wealth is useful because it enables us to satisfy wants4 ,these things are mentioned because it is quite important that we should never forget that money and wealth are worth working for only because of the living1 or life1 that they help us to attain4 ,children are1 as a rule1 wholly dependent upon their parents for their living4 ,but during their period of dependence they are gaining skill and experience1 in school and otherwise1 that will later enable them to earn their own living and that of other people who may1 in turn1 become dependent upon them4 ,as adult life approaches1 there comes an increasing desire for independence of others1 to have possessions1 own property1 or accumulate wealth4 ,our ,,vocations1 or occupations1 by which we earn a livelihood1 come to occupy a prominent place in our thought1 and to a large extent control our activity4 ,doubtless most of those who read this chapter have begun to think more or less seriously about what they are going to do for a living4 ,some may be already doing so1 in part1 or helping to earn that of their families4 ,boys and girls who live on farms are especially likely to have a share in the work by which the family living is provided2 but most boys and girls have more or less regularly earned money1 even if they have not considered it necessary for their living4 ,an inquiry in a large1 first-year high school class disclosed the fact that the girls of the class1 quite as much as the boys1 were thinking of their choice of vocation4 ,more avenues are open to girls to-day than formerly by which to earn their living outside of the family2 but even the management of a home is a business as truly as the management of a farm or factory1 and is an exceedingly important factor in the earning of the family living4 ,what part1 if any1 do you have in helping to earn the family living8 ,what have you done during the past year to earn money 7a7 out of school hours on school days1 7b7 on ,saturdays1 7c7 in vacation time8 ,tabulate the results for the entire class4 ,what vocation would you like to follow for life8 ,why8 ,if you have not decided upon some one vocation1 name several that seem attractive to you4 ,why are they attractive8 ,what do you know about the opportunities and the qualifications necessary for success in the vocations you have named8 ,how may you proceed to find out more about them8 ,what vocations offer special opportunities for girls and women to- day8 ,how do these opportunities compare with those when your mothers were girls8 ,make a list of the occupations of the fathers 7or other members of the families7 of the members of your class4 ,make a list of as many occupations in your community 7town or county7 as you can think of4 ,,dependence ,,of ,,the ,,pioneer ,our dependence upon others for a living by no means ends with childhood4 ,there is no such thing as an entirely self-made man1 by which is meant a man who has been successful entirely by his own efforts4 ,it is true that the primitive hunter and the pioneer farmer were independent of others to an unusual extent4 ,but their living was a meager one1 and they could not accumulate much wealth4 ,the very land that a pioneer occupies1 even though it is extensive and fertile1 has little value as long as it is remote from centers of population4 ,even if a pioneer laid claim to a large tract of land1 he could produce little wealth from it in crops if he could get no help to cultivate it1 or if he had no improved machinery 7made by others72 and whatever he produced1 he and his family could eat but little of the product4 ,he could feed some to his few animals1 and he would save some for seed2 but anything that he raised above what he could actually use would have no value unless he could get it to other people who wanted it4 ,if he could not sell what he produced1 neither could he buy from others what they produced to satisfy other wants than that for food4 ,so the kind of living a person enjoys1 and the amount of wealth he accumulates1 depend largely upon other people1 and upon the community in which he lives4 ,,dependence ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,farmer ,under present-day conditions1 a farmer who raises wheat probably uses none of it himself4 ,he sells his entire crop for the use of others1 while to supply himself and his family with bread he goes to the store and buys flour that may have been milled in ,minnesota from wheat raised by other farmers1 perhaps in ,north ,dakota or ,south ,dakota4 ,in exchange for his wheat he also gets clothing manufactured in ,new ,york or ,new ,england from cotton raised in ,georgia or ,texas1 or from wool grown in ,montana4 ,he buys a wagon made in ,indiana from lumber cut in the ,south and iron mined in ,michigan and smelted in ,ohio4 ,thus he earns his living by producing food for other people1 while the things he uses in living are the product of labor expended by other people in the effort to earn ,,their living4 ,we noticed in ,chapter ,,ii how many people and occupations were concerned in producing a pair of shoes4 ,,earning ,,by ,,service ,while the farmer or other worker may be interested primarily in providing for his own wants and those of his family1 he can do this only by producing something or performing service for others2 and while each worker may be most concerned about ,,what ,,he ,,receives for his work1 the community is most concerned about ,,what ,,he ,,produces4 ,earning a living has two sides to it3 rendering service to others and being paid for the service rendered4 ,it is as if the community entered into a sort of agreement with the worker to the effect that it will provide him with a living in return for definite service to the community or for the product of his labor4 ,what we call business is ,,selling ,a ,,service4 ,it may be personal service1 such as teaching1 or prescribing medicine1 or nursing1 or giving legal advice1 or cutting hair1 or driving a team1 or running an automobile4 ,or it may be purchasing1 storing1 retailing1 and delivering things which have been produced perhaps many hundreds or thousands of miles away4 ,or it may be raising foodstuffs on the farm1 or mining fuels and metals from the earth1 or cutting timber from the forest4 ,or it may be manufacturing-- buying materials and converting them into products serviceable to others4 ,whatever it is1 every man's business is also the community's business1 and the community has a right to expect industry and honest1 efficient work from every worker4 ,discuss the occupations named in answer to the two questions on page #bf1 from the point of view of their service to the community4 ,to what extent is your father's business or occupation dependent upon the business or occupation of the fathers of other members of the class8 ,show how your father's business is also the community's business4 ,what is the price of land in your neighborhood8 ,consult your father or friends in regard to the increase or decrease in price in recent years and in regard to the reasons for it4 ,,living ,,without ,,earning ,there are exceptional cases where people ,,receive a living without ,,earning it4 ,one class of such people is represented by thieves1 gamblers1 swindlers1 and persons engaged in occupations that are positively harmful to the community4 ,such people may be very skillful and they may work hard enough1 but they take what others have earned without producing anything of value to the community4 ,then there are those who are incapable of productive work because of physical defects1 or through the feebleness of old age4 ,it is the duty of every citizen to provide1 as far as possible1 during his productive years1 for the rainy day of misfortune or advancing age4 ,for those who cannot do so1 the community must provide4 ,very young children are users of wealth produced by others4 ,it is expected1 however1 that children will in later years make return to the community for what they have received during their period of dependence4 ,,inherited ,,wealth ,some people inherit wealth1 or otherwise come into possession of it without effort on their part4 ,the wealth so received1 however1 has been earned by someone1 or has come from the community in some way4 ,if the person who so receives it uses it in a way that is highly useful to the community1 he may in a sense earn it even after he receives it2 but if he uses it solely for his own enjoyment1 without effort to make it highly useful to the community1 he does not in any sense earn it1 and places himself in the class of those who are wholly dependent upon the community4 ,,unfair ,,compensation ,,for ,,service ,on the other hand1 there are people who do not get for their work a living that fairly compensates them for the service they render by it to the community4 ,if our community life were perfectly adjusted in all its parts2 if all the people clearly recognized their common interests and their interdependence2 if they had the spirit of cooperation and were wise enough to devise smoothly working machinery of cooperation2--then the returns that a worker received for his work would be closely proportionate to the service rendered by his work4 ,that is1 he would ,,get what he ,,earned1 so far as wages or profits were concerned4 ,but this is one of the particulars in which our community life is still imperfect4 ,where so many different kinds of workers are engaged in producing shoes1 for example1 it is extremely difficult to determine how much each should be paid for his share of the work4 ,what ,,wages should be given to the different classes of workers who care for cattle1 make the leather1 manufacture the machines with which the shoes are made1 operate the machines1 mine the coal and iron for the production of the machines1 and so on8 ,what ,,profits shall be allowed to the men who raise the cattle1 to the merchants who sell the shoes and the machines1 and to the transportation companies that carry them from the factories to the dealers8 ,what ,,interest shall be received by the men who furnish the ,,capital necessary to run the factories and the farms8 ,these questions relating to the ,,distribution ,,of ,,wealth that men produce have proved very difficult to answer satisfactorily4 ,a very useful and interesting1 but rather difficult1 science has grown up to explain the ,,production1 ,,distribution1 ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,wealth4 ,it is called the ,,science ,,of ,,economics4 ,of all the divisions of this science1 that relating to the distribution of wealth is the most perplexing4 ,it is the inequalities in the distribution of wealth1 the sense of injustice produced by these inequalities1 and sometimes a failure to understand what a fair distribution is1 that have caused all the labor disputes referred to in ,chapter ,,vii 7p4 #ga71 and the discontent sometimes felt by farmers and other producers in regard to the prices of their products4 ,have you ever heard any one say1 ,the world owes me a living8 ,is this a true statement8 ,if so1 in what sense do you think it is true8 ,which do you think is the truer statement3 ,i have a right to a living1 or ,i have a right to earn a living8 ,discuss the difference4 ,a thief has been known to say1 ,i was brought into the world without my own consent2 therefore the world owes me a living1 and ,i owe the world nothing4 ,is this good argument8 ,did the people upon whom he depends for a living have any more to say about their being brought into the world than he had8 ,what things are you using to-day that were not provided for you by others8 ,if a stranger should come to your community to-day to live1 what are some of the things that he would find already provided by the community for his use in making a living8 ,name five important inventions and state what they have done for you4 ,would you say that the world owes ,thomas ,a4 ,edison and ,luther ,burbank a living8 ,why8 ,how are you indebted for your living to the pioneers who settled your state8 to ,robert ,fulton8 to the men who built the first transcontinental railroad8 ,can you think of some way in which your family is indebted for its living to the ,british nation8 to ,france8 to ancient ,greece8 to the ,phoenicians8 to the people of ,brazil8 ,which is the greater1 the debt of your family to the world or the debt of the world to your family8 ,what is a parasite8 ,could this term be appropriately applied to any of the people referred to in the last few paragraphs of the text above8 ,,government ,,interested ,,in ,,production ,each citizen has a right to feel that the government is interested in his individual prosperity and happiness2 and it is1 for unhappy and discontented citizens are seldom good citizens4 ,but the government represents community as a whole1 and has the interest of the community as a whole in its keeping rather than the interest of particular individuals4 ,its interest is primarily in what each citizen ,,produces1 for it is upon this that the strength4 of the nation depends4 ,,the ,,national ,,service ,,army ,,of ,,producers ,a few days after war was declared against ,germany1 the ,president made an appeal to his fellow producers countrymen1 in which he said3 ,it is evident to every thinking man that our industries on the farms1 in the shipyards1 in the mines1 in the factories1 must be made more prolific and more efficient than ever and that they must be more economically managed and better adapted to the particular requirements of our task than they have been2 and what ,i want to say is that the men and women who devote their thought and their energy to these things will be serving the country and conducting the fight for peace and freedom just as truly and just as effectively as the men on the battlefield or in the trenches4 ,the industrial forces of the country1 men and women alike1 will be a great national1 a great international ,service ,army1--a notable and honored host engaged in the service of the nation and the world 444 ,thousands1 nay1 hundreds of thousands1 of men otherwise liable to military service will of right and necessity be excused from that service and assigned to the fundamental1 sustaining work of the fields and factories and mines1 and they will be as much part of the great patriotic forces of the nation as the men under fire4 ,he then appealed directly to every kind of worker in the country1 and to the farmers he said3 ,the supreme need of our own nation and of the nations with which we are cooperating is an abundance of supplies1 and especially of foodstuffs4 444 ,without abundant food 444 the whole great enterprise upon which we have embarked will break down and fail 444 ,upon the farmers of this country1 therefore1 in large measure1 rests the fate of the war and the fate of nations4 ,let me suggest1 also1 that every one who creates or cultivates a garden helps1 and helps greatly1 to solve the problem of the feeding of the nations2 and that every housewife who practices strict economy puts herself in the ranks of those who serve the nation4 ,the nation needs the productive work of each citizen in time of peace as truly as in time of war1 although when it is not fighting for its very life it is more tolerant of those who do not contribute efficiently by their work to the common good4 ,it carries them along somehow4 ,but such members of the community are a burden and a source of weakness at all times4 ,therefore1 for example1 there are in most of our communities laws against vagrancy2 that is1 against willful and habitual idlers without visible means of support1 such as beggars and tramps4 ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,unemployed ,there are times when many men are out of work4 ,in times of business depression the number may become very great1 while in prosperous times the number dwindles2 but always there are some4 ,it is often through no fault of their own2 it is another result of the imperfect adjustment of our community life4 ,it often happens that while large numbers of men are unable to find work in industrial centers1 the farmers may be suffering for want of help4 ,this may be merely because there is no way by which to let workmen know where they are needed1 or of distributing them to meet the need4 ,or1 many of the unemployed may be unskilled1 while the demand is for skilled workmen2 or they may be skilled in one line1 while the demand is in another line4 ,whatever the causes1 the problem of the unemployed is one of the most serious that the community has to deal with4 ,during the war the national government sought to overcome these difficulties by the organization of an employment service in the ,department of ,labor1 and state and local communities established employment bureaus4 ,who have been some of the builders of your own community by reason of their business life8 ,explain4 ,so far as you have observed1 what boys have been most successful after leaving school--those who make it a practice to do all they can for their employers1 or those who have tried to do the least possible8 ,is it true in your community that the most useful citizens are those who care more about the excellence of their work than about what they receive for it8 ,are there many vagrants in your community8 ,are there laws against vagrancy8 ,if so1 what are they8 ,are there often many men out of work in your community8 ,if so1 why is it8 ,is it ever difficult to get farm labor in your locality8 ,if so1 how do the farmers explain it8 ,what experience have the farmers of your locality had during and since the war in getting labor when it was needed8 ,did the government help them at that time8 ,how8 ,it is of the greatest importance both to the individual and to the community that every citizen3 7#a7 should be continuously employed in a useful occupation1 7#b7 should be free and able to choose the occupation for which he is best fitted1 and in which he will be happiest1 and 7#c7 should be thoroughly efficient in his work1 whatever it is4 ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,the ,,community ,,to ,,industry 7#a7 ,the community has a right to expect every citizen to be industrious and productive1 for only in this way can he be self- sustaining and at the same time contribute his share to the well- being of the community4 ,doubtless all who read this chapter are desirous of doing useful work4 ,at the same time1 it is easy for any of us to fall into the habit of thinking more about what we can ,,get than about what we can ,,give4 ,there ,,are people who habitually seek to do as little as possible for what they receive1 or to get all they can for the least possible service4 ,this applies not only to idlers who live entirely off the community without any service on their part1 but also to those who have employment1 but who seek to evade1 by time-serving and otherwise slacking1 the full responsibility of service4 ,we sometimes hear complaint in regard to public officials who draw good salaries without rendering adequate or honest public service in return1 and to such we frequently apply the term of grafter4 ,but the principle is exactly the same when any person who has undertaken to do a piece of work fritters away his time or loafs on the job4 ,,satisfaction ,,in ,,service ,after all1 the chief return that we get for our work is not the wages or the profits1 important as they are to us1 but the satisfaction of doing something that is worthwhile4 ,if this pleasure is absent from the work we do1 no amount of money returns can compensate us for it4 ,the happy man is a busy man1 an industrious man2 and his happiness is more in the doing than in the mere fact of money returns4 ,,importance ,,of ,a ,,right ,,choice 7#b7 ,the value of our work to the community and the pleasure that we derive from it both depend to a large extent upon our fitness for it4 ,it is important to choose our work carefully4 ,there are four important considerations in choosing a vocation3 7a7 its usefulness to the community1 7b7 one's own fitness for it1 7c7 one's happiness in it1 and 7d7 whether it offers an adequate living to one's self and dependents4 ,the last of these is1 of course1 a most important consideration4 ,what a person receives for his work ought to be determined by the first two considerations1 i4e4 the usefulness of the work to the community and one's fitness for it4 ,we have seen that this is not always true4 ,in such cases it often becomes necessary to make a further choice--a choice between working primarily for one's own profit and working primarily for the satisfaction that comes from important service well rendered4 ,it is not always easy to make this choice2 but there are many people who have sacrificed large incomes for the sake of doing work that the community needs and for which they consider themselves well fitted4 ,a ,,choice ,,of ,,vocation ,,is ,,inevitable ,many people seem to have little choice in the matter of vocation4 ,the farmer's boy has to work on the farm whether he wants to or not2 and many a man is a farmer apparently for no other reason than that he was raised on the farm and has seen no opportunity to do anything else4 ,other people seem to be forced into other occupations by circumstances or drift into them by chance4 ,but even in these cases there is something of a choice4 ,the farmer's boy chooses to remain on the farm rather than to take the chances involved in running away1 or because he would rather be at home than in a strange city4 ,the discontented farmer might have chosen to be a lawyer if he had been willing to make enough sacrifices to get ready for it2 and even now he chooses to remain on the farm in spite of his dislike for it because to do otherwise would mean sacrifice of some kind or other that he is unwilling to make4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,our ,,work ,,to ,,the ,,community ,the pleasure and effectiveness of ,,any work1 however1 are increased if its importance to the community or to the world is clearly understood2 for ,,all productive work is important4 ,there is no more terrible work than that of the soldier in the trenches4 ,no man would voluntarily choose it for his own pleasure4 ,but millions of men have gone into it joyfully because of the results to be attained for their country and the world4 ,other millions of men and women1 and even children1 on the farms1 in the mines1 in the shops1 and in the homes1 worked and sacrificed during the war with ,germany as they had never worked and sacrificed before1 produced results such as had never been produced before1 and doubtless experienced a satisfaction in their toil that they had never experienced before1 because each one saw more definitely than before the relation of his work to the great national and world purpose4 ,an understanding of the meaning of our work in its relation to community welfare goes a long way toward transmuting days of dreary work into happier lives4 ,,freedom1 ,,equality ,,and ,,justice ,the opportunity to choose one's calling1 to decide what service one will fit himself for1 the right of self-determination with regard to what one's work shall be--this is what freedom means4 ,this is why men are happier when they are free4 ,the equality and justice that all men want mean ,,equality ,,of ,,opportunity ,,to ,,choose that which they like to do1 and ,,an ,,equal ,,chance ,,to ,,make ,a ,,living1 or to obtain compensation for their labor or enterprise4 ,it is for these things more than for anything else that people have left old-world conditions and come to ,america4 ,the ability to make a living under conditions of freedom and justice depends in part upon the common wants of the community1 and upon the willingness of members of the community to pay for the satisfaction of their wants enough to enable those who perform service for them also to satisfy theirs4 ,but it also depends upon the ability of the individual to make a choice1 and upon his willingness to spend years in preparation1 if need be1 to enable him to offer a service of the kind he likes to render1 and for which others are glad to pay well4 ,a ,,day ,,of ,,specialists ,we are living in a day of specialists4 ,the very nature of our interdependent life makes it necessary for each worker to do one thing and to do it exceedingly well4 ,even farming is broken up to a considerable extent into special kinds of farming4 ,moreover1 since the worker must be a specialist1 requiring long1 special training1 it is more difficult than it used to be for him to change from one occupation to another after he has once started4 ,each person1 therefore1 owes it both to himself and to the community to choose his vocation carefully1 so far as he has opportunity to make a choice4 ,the schools are more and more making it their business to give boys and girls the knowledge and the experience that will enable them to choose wisely their mode of earning a living4 ,,the ,,necessity ,,for ,,training 7#c7 ,whether a citizen follows a vocation of his own voluntary choice1 or one into which he has fallen by chance or by force of circumstances1 he is under obligation to the community as well as to himself to do his work well4 ,in these days of specialization this inevitably means preparation1 training4 ,if the community expects the citizen to perform efficient service1 it must afford him a fair opportunity for preparation4 ,during the war the government made special provision for training1 not only for military service1 but also for the industrial occupations that the nation needed4 ,vocational training is now receiving great attention from the schools and from government4 ,,hasty ,,entrance ,,upon ,,vocational ,,life ,as in the choice of a vocation1 so in preparation for it the individual has his share of responsibility4 ,it is always a temptation for young people to get out into the active work of the world at the earliest possible moment4 ,the desire to be independent1 to earn one's own living1 to make money1 is strong4 ,it leads many boys and girls to leave school even before they have finished their elementary education4 ,in the great majority of cases this results in serious economic loss both to the boy or girl and to the community4 ,the charts on page #acg furnish evidence of this4 ,,patriotism ,,in ,,vocational ,,life ,we call it patriotism when a man gives all that he has1 even his life if necessary1 for the good of his country1 without stopping to consider whether or not he will receive an equal benefit in return4 ,there is no higher type of patriotism than that which prompts a citizen to perform his best service for the community in his daily calling1 not for what he can get for it1 but for what he can give4 ,this patriotism is shared by the young citizen who is willing to defer an apparent immediate gain to himself in order to prepare himself thoroughly for more effective service later4 ,if your father had his life to live over again1 would he choose the same vocation that he is now following8 ,consult him as to his reasons4 ,what special kinds of farming exist in your locality8 ,is there a tendency in your community toward specialization in farming1 or toward general farming8 ,reasons8 ,to what extent is scientific farming practiced in your locality8 ,what does it mean8 ,make a study of the extent to which specialization is necessary in the industries of your town4 ,does your school offer any vocational training or vocational guidance8 ,is there a tendency in your school for boys and girls to quit before completing the course8 ,at what grades do pupils begin to drop out in considerable numbers8 ,why do they leave8 ,what sort of work do they do when they leave school8 ,at what ages does the law in your state permit boys and girls to go to work8 ,show how this restriction of freedom now increases freedom later on4 ,,readings ,in ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #c1 ,the cooperation of specialists in modern society4 ,lesson #e1 ,the human resources of a community4 ,lesson #g1 ,organization4 ,lesson #h1 ,the rise of machine industry4 ,lesson #i1 ,social control4 ,lesson #aj1 ,indirect costs4 ,lesson #aa1 ,education as encouraged by industry4 ,lesson #bc1 ,the services of money4 ,lesson #bh1 ,the worker in our society4 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #h1 ,finding a job4 ,lesson #aa1 ,the work of women4 ,lesson #bh1 ,women in industry4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #i1 ,inventions4 ,lesson #aa1 ,the effects of machinery on rural life4 ,lesson #ba1 ,before coins were made4 ,lesson #bb1 ,the minting of coins4 ,lesson #bc1 ,paper money4 ,lesson #bd1 ,money in the community and the home4 ,lesson #bi1 ,child labor4 ,in ,long's ,american ,patriotic ,prose3 ,frank ,a4 ,vanderlip1 ,service ,leads to ,success1 pp4 #cdg-cdh4 ,charles ,m4 ,schwab1 ,opportunity is ,plentiful in ,america1 pp4 #cdh- #cej4 ,tufts1 ,the ,real ,business of ,living1 ,chapters viii-x2 xv-xxviii4 ,the following books relating to vocational life may be helpful and stimulating if available3 ,gowin and ,wheatley1 ,occupations 7,ginn ,co474 ,giles1 ,vocational ,civics 7,macmillan74 ,gulick1 ,the ,efficient ,life 7,doubleday1 ,page ,co474 ,reid and others1 ,careers for the ,coming ,men 7,saalfield ,pub ,co41 ,akron1 ,ohio74 ,marden1 ,choosing a ,career 7,bobbs-,merrill1 ,indianapolis74 ,marden1 ,talks with ,great ,workers 7,thos4 ,y4 ,crowell74 ,bok1 ,successward 7,doubleday1 ,page ,co474 ,williams1 ,how it ,is ,made1 ,how it ,is ,done1 ,how it ,works 7,thos4 ,nelson ,sons74 ,fowler1 ,starting in ,life 7,little1 ,brown ,co474 ,parsons1 ,choosing a ,vocation 7,houghton ,mifflin ,co474 ,carnegie1 ,the ,empire of ,business1 7,doubleday ,page ,co474 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,government ,,as ,a ,,means ,,of ,,cooperation ,,in ,,agriculture ,,gainful ,,occupations ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,according to the census of #aiaj1 somewhat more than #ch million of the #ib million people of our country at that time were engaged in gainful occupations2 that is1 in earning their living and that of the remaining #ed million people who were dependent upon them4 ,of the #ch million1 more than #ac #a_/b million were producing wealth directly from the land1 in agriculture1 forest industries1 mining industries1 and fishing4 ,about #aj #a_/b million were engaged in manufacturing and mechanical trades1 by which the materials extracted from the land are transformed into articles of use4 ,the remainder of the breadwinners were engaged in trade and transportation1 and in professional1 personal1 and public service4 ,,importance ,,of ,,agriculture ,of the #ac #a_/b million people gaining their living directly from the land1 more than #ab #a_/b million were engaged in agricultural pursuits4 ,at the present time 7#aiai7 probably one half of the population1 including women and children1 is directly dependent upon agriculture as a means of livelihood1 while the other half1 as well1 is dependent upon it for food supply and the materials for clothing4 ,in view of the fact that agriculture is the source of the nation's food supply and of a large part of the national wealth1 and that so large a part of the people are engaged in it as a means of livelihood1 it is not surprising to find our government deeply interested in it and performing a vast amount of service for its promotion4 ,,state ,,departments ,,of ,,agriculture ,the government of every state in the ,union has an organization to protect and promote the farming industry and the welfare of the farmer4 ,this organization differs in its form and in the extent of service performed in the several states1 due partly to the varying importance of agriculture in the different states1 and partly to the varying success with which the people and their representatives have dealt with the problem4 ,in some of the states there are departments of agriculture1 equal in dignity and power with the other main divisions of the government4 ,in others agricultural interests are placed in the hands of subordinate boards1 bureaus1 or commissions4 ,in some cases the officials in charge of the organization1 such as the commissioner of agriculture1 are elected directly by the people1 while in others they are appointed by the governor of the state or by the legislature4 ,often the department is organized in numerous branches with specialists at the head of each4 ,thus1 there are dairy commissioners1 horticultural boards1 livestock sanitary boards1 foresters1 entomologists 7specialists in insect life in its relation to agriculture71 and others1 to look after every aspect of farming4 ,in a constantly decreasing number of states the powers of the agricultural officers are slight and their work ineffectual2 but in others the organization is thorough and the work efficiently done and of the greatest value to the state4 ,,duties ,,of ,,state ,,departments ,,of ,,agriculture ,in general1 state departments of agriculture have had two kinds of duties3 first1 regulative and administrative duties1 such as the enforcement of laws relating to agriculture passed by the state legislature1 enforcing quarantine against diseased animals1 establishing standards for the grading of grain1 making and enforcing rules for the control of animal and plant diseases1 and similar matters4 ,second1 investigative and educational duties1 such as the investigation of animal and plant diseases1 crop conditions1 and other agricultural problems2 and the distribution of information to the farmers and to the people of the state generally1 relating to agricultural matters4 ,reports and bulletins on special subjects are published and farmers' institutes are conducted4 ,,agricultural ,,colleges ,,and ,,experiment ,,stations ,the practice is growing1 however1 to transfer the work of investigation and education to the ,,state ,,agricultural ,,colleges ,,and ,,experiment ,,stations which have been established and are conducted with the cooperation of the national ,department of ,agriculture4 ,these institutions have a corps of highly trained specialists and educators and are equipped with laboratories and experimental farms where research may be carried on under the most favorable conditions4 ,the agricultural colleges not only educate young men and women within their walls in agriculture and related subjects1 but carry on ,,extension ,,work throughout the state for the benefit of the farmers and the people of rural communities4 ,with the development of these institutions the state department of agriculture is left with almost purely administrative and regulative duties4 ,this seems to be the wiser plan of organization4 ,write to your state commissioner of agriculture or to the secretary of your state board of agriculture for a copy of the law1 or other published document1 containing a description of the organization of your state department of agriculture and its work4 ,also ask for1 if available1 a list of publications issued by the department1 from which you may later select such as may seem to be useful4 ,write to your state agricultural college1 or to the experiment station1 for its latest report showing the work that it has done1 and for a list of available publications4 ,in writing to public officials for materials for class use1 it is well to send but ,,one letter for the class or school1 and to request ,,the ,,smallest ,,number ,,of ,,copies that will serve the purposes of the class4 ,public officials are busy people1 and the publications for which you ask cost the people of the community money4 ,the members of the class may compete1 if desired1 in formulating a suitable letter1 and a class committee may select the best1 or formulate one on the basis of suggestions from the class4 ,materials collected in this way should become school property1 and the class should be conscious that it is accumulating a library for later classes as well as for themselves4 ,study and report on the following3 ,the organization of your state department of agriculture1 its officers and how chosen1 its divisions and their work4 ,the work done at your state experiment station 7individual reports may be made on the several important lines of work1 or on particular investigations or discoveries of interest74 ,the character of the extension courses offered by your state agricultural college4 ,courses given in your own community4 ,instances of regulative work done in your state and county by your state department of agriculture4 ,instances in which your county or locality has been served by your state agricultural college or by the experiment station4 ,the difficulty of the farmer in coping with animal disease or plant disease by his own effort4 ,facts to show that money has been saved to your community by the state agricultural department or experiment station4 ,why the people of the cities of your state should pay taxes to support the department of agriculture4 ,facts to show that your state department of agriculture and your experiment station are really means of cooperation in your state and county4 ,extent to which the farmers of your locality actually cooperate through the governmental machinery of the department of agriculture4 ,consult your parents or farmer friends as to ways in which the work of your state department of agriculture1 agricultural college1 or experiment station should be extended4 ,sentiment among the people of your locality1 especially the farmers1 as to the usefulness of your department of agriculture1 experiment station and agricultural college4 ,get information from your county agent1 or from your state agricultural college1 as to the states having the best organized departments of agriculture1 and then get information as to their points of excellence4 ,the advantage of a state fair 7,a7 to the farmer1 7,b7 to the state4 ,the fair as a means of cooperation4 ,the management of your county fair 7if any74 ,,agriculture ,a ,,national ,,enterprise ,it does one state very little good to fight hog cholera or the boll weevil unless neighboring states do likewise4 ,inferior service in one state by its department of agriculture is a detriment not only to the farmers of that state1 but to those of other states and of the country as a whole4 ,states gradually learn from one another and frequently adopt from one another the best methods that are developed4 ,this is a slow process4 ,the agriculture of our nation must be considered as a great national enterprise1 and not as forty-eight separate enterprises4 ,this was made evident during the recent war4 ,hence the necessity for national control4 ,,early ,,national ,,support ,,of ,,agriculture ,washington and ,jefferson1 like other founders of our nation1 took the keenest interest in agriculture4 ,but in the early years of our history little was done by the national government for its promotion1 except by a rather generous policy of disposing of the public lands 7see ,chapter ,,xiv74 ,in #ahbj a committee on agriculture was for the first time created in the ,house of ,representatives1 and in #ahbe a similar committee in the ,senate4 ,in #ahci ,congress made its first appropriation for agricultural purposes1 #ajjj1 to be spent in gathering information about crops and other agricultural matters4 ,this was a small beginning when compared with the #cg1jjj1jjj appropriated by ,congress for agricultural purposes in #aiah4 ,,creation ,,of ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture was created by ,congress in #ahfb1 though it was not placed on an equality with the other executive departments of the national government1 with a member of the ,president's cabinet at its head1 until #ahhi4 ,while it has some very important regulatory powers1 that is1 powers to enforce laws and otherwise to control the practice of the people1 its service has been largely by way of scientific investigation of the problems of agriculture and the distribution of the information so acquired4 ,its policy has been one of cooperation with state authorities4 ,,national ,,cooperation ,,with ,,the ,,states ,in #ahfb ,congress gave to the several states portions of the public lands1 the proceeds from which were to be used for the establishment and support of the agricultural colleges of which mention has been made4 ,again1 in #ahhg1 ,congress made appropriations for the establishment of the agricultural experiment stations1 which are conducted cooperatively by the state and national governments4 ,in #aiad the ,smith-,lever ,act was passed by ,congress1 making appropriations for agricultural extension work to be conducted by the state agricultural colleges with the cooperation of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,by the terms of this act each state must appropriate a sum of money for the extension work equal to that received from the national government4 ,,the ,,states ,,relations ,,service of the ,department of ,agriculture supervises and administers these cooperative relations with the states under the terms of the ,smith-,lever ,act4 ,in each state there is a director of extension work who represents both the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture and the state agricultural college4 ,under him there is usually a state agent or leader1 district agents1 county agents1 and specialists of various kinds4 ,the county agents conduct agricultural demonstration work in their counties and assist in organizing rural communities for cooperation4 ,women county agents1 or home demonstration agents1 are rapidly being installed also1 to conduct extension work in home economics and organize cooperation among the women4 ,in the ,southern ,states during #aiae about #aaj1jjj farmers carried out demonstration work under the supervision of county agents4 ,each such farm demonstration serves as an object lesson for the entire community4 ,these demonstrations included corn raising in #ddf1jjj acres1 cotton in #bjb1jjj acres1 tobacco in #bfcj acres1 small grains in #aif1jjj acres1 and many other products in hundreds of thousands of acres4 ,stumps were removed from more than #gj1jjj acres1 #bbj1jjj acres were drained1 and there were #bi1jjj demonstrations in home gardens4 ,sixty-four thousand improved implements were bought4 ,work was done with orchards involving more than #b1jjj1jjj trees1 #bi1jjj farmers were instructed in the care of manure with an estimated saving of more than #c1jjj1jjj tons4 ,farmers in #fgh cooperative community organizations were advised with regard to the purchase of fertilizers with a saving in cost of #abe1jjj4 ,one thousand six hundred fifty-four community organizations were formed to study local problems and to meet local business needs4 ,nearly #fc1jjj boys were enrolled in corn clubs4 ,there were also in the ,southern ,states #cfh counties with home demonstration agents1 who gave instruction to #cb1fac girls and #fhga women4 ,each of the girls produced a one tenth acre home garden of tomatoes and other vegetables4 ,they put up more than #b1jjj1jjj cans of fruit and vegetables worth #cjj1jjj4 ,there were nearly #aj1jjj members in poultry clubs and #cjjj in bread clubs4 ,two hundred fifty women's community clubs were formed4 ,similar work was done in the ,northern ,states1 where #bji1jjj boys and girls were enrolled in club work4 ,nearly #be1jjj of these were engaged in profit-making enterprises in which they produced food worth more than #ejj1jjj4 ,reports from #caee homes show #edf1eae quarts of fruits and vegetables canned1 about half of which consisted of vegetables1 windfall apples1 and other products that frequently go to waste4 ,how much money does your state receive from the national treasury under the terms of the ,smith-,lever ,act8 7,discuss at home1 consult your county agent47 ,find out from your county agent1 and from your home demonstration agent 7if there is one71 what their work includes and how it is done4 ,invite them to speak to your school on the subject4 ,what demonstration work is being carried on in your county for men and women8 ,results achieved8 ,with the help of your county agent1 make a map of your county showing the distribution of his demonstration work4 ,report on boys' and girls' club work in your county4 ,describe particularly any such work in which you are engaged4 ,what are some of the problems in regard to which the farmers of your community need help8 ,make a report on ,george ,washington the ,farmer2 on ,thomas ,jefferson's contributions to agriculture4 ,,the ,,office ,,of ,,markets ,,and ,,rural ,,organization promotes the organization of rural communities for cooperation in buying and selling1 in obtaining rural credits and insurance 7see ,chapter ,,xiii71 in developing means of communication 7,chapter ,,xviii71 and in providing for social needs4 ,it investigates markets and methods of marketing1 and transportation and storage facilities4 ,it seeks to establish standards for grading and packing fruits1 vegetables1 and other products4 ,,the ,,office ,,of ,,farm ,,management investigates and promotes the application of business methods to farm management and farm practice4 ,it studies the cost and profitableness of producing particular crops1 livestock1 and dairy products1 the use of the woodlot1 the most economic and effective farm equipment4 ,it investigates the cost of the farmer's living1 methods of keeping accounts1 the methods and results of tenantry4 ,,the ,,bureau ,,of ,,animal ,,industry investigates the causes1 prevention1 and treatment of diseases of domestic animals1 and has done much to eradicate them4 ,it studies methods of dairying and dairy manufacturing1 of breeding and feeding livestock1 of producing wool and other animal fibers1 of poultry raising4 ,it cooperates with the ,states ,relations ,service and the state agricultural colleges in educational work1 conducting livestock demonstration work and advising with regard to the establishment and management of creameries and cheese factories4 ,it promotes the organization of pig clubs to stimulate interest in swine production4 ,,the ,,bureau ,,of ,,plant ,,industry investigates the causes1 prevention1 and treatment of plant diseases1 including those of fruit1 shade1 and forest trees4 ,it has introduced over #dc1jjj varieties of foreign seeds and plants1 from which many new industries have grown up amounting in value to many millions of dollars each year4 ,its explorers have brought new varieties of cereals from ,russia and ,siberia2 alfalfas from ,siberia2 date palms from ,north ,africa1 ,arabia1 and ,persia2 the pistachio nut from ,greece and ,sicily2 vanilla and peaches from ,mexico2 barleys and hops from ,europe2 rices and matting rushes from ,japan2 forage grasses from ,india2 tropical fruits from ,south ,america4 ,it experiments in the breeding of hardy and disease-resisting grains1 fruits1 and vegetables1 studies soil fertility1 investigates the medicinal qualities of plants1 tests seeds1 and improves agricultural implements4 ,its experiments are conducted in experimental gardens in ,washington1 ,d4,c41 at ,arlington1 ,va41 and at the experiment stations distributed widely over the ,united ,states4 ,this bureau does much educational work1 instructing farmers how to control plant diseases and how to organize for cooperation in the breeding of disease-resisting plants1 and conducting demonstrations on reclaimed lands in arid regions4 ,during #aiaf it distributed1 through members of ,congress1 #cef1jjj tulip and narcissus bulbs1 #if1jjj strawberry plants of #ae varieties1 #ad1jjj packages of lawn grass seed1 and more than #af1jjj1jjj packages of vegetable and flower seeds4 ,,the ,,bureau ,,of ,,chemistry studies the influence of environment on crops and plants2 investigates the quality of mill products1 the methods of bread making1 of tanning leather1 and of paper making4 ,it tests the food values of all kinds of products1 the keeping quality of poultry1 eggs1 and fish in the course of transportation1 and the composition of drugs4 ,it is called upon by other departments of government to make chemical analysis of many articles4 ,,the ,,bureau ,,of ,,soils investigates the quality of soils and their adaptation to different kinds of crops1 and the fertilizer sources of the country4 ,,the ,,bureau ,,of ,,entomology is concerned with the study of insects and their relation to agriculture1 including those that are destructive to fruit1 shade1 and forest trees4 ,its work includes the study and promotion of bee culture4 ,it has carried on a campaign for the eradication of such diseases as spotted fever1 malaria1 and typhoid which are carried by ticks1 mosquitoes1 flies1 and other insects 7see ,chapter ,,xx74 ,,the ,,bureau ,,of ,,biological ,,survey maintains game1 mammal1 and bird reservations1 including among others the ,montana ,national ,bison ,range1 the winter elk refuge in ,wyoming1 the ,sully's ,hill ,national ,game ,preserve in ,south ,dakota1 and the ,aleutian ,islands ,reservation in ,alaska4 ,it studies the food habits of ,north ,american birds and mammals in relation to agriculture1 horticulture1 and forestry1 and the habits1 geographical distribution1 and migrations of animals and plants4 ,it conducts experiments and demonstrations in destroying animals harmful to agriculture and animal husbandry and in connection with rearing fur-bearing animals4 ,it cooperates with local authorities in the protection of migratory birds4 ,,the ,,bureau ,,of ,,crop ,,estimates gathers and publishes data regarding agriculture1 and particularly estimates relating to crop and livestock1 production4 ,,the ,,weather ,,bureau is in charge of the forecasting of the weather1 the issuing of storm warnings1 the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of commerce1 agriculture1 and navigation 7see ,chapter ,,xvi74 ,,the ,,forest ,,service has in its keeping the great national forests 7see ,chapter ,,xv74 ,,the ,,office ,,of ,,public ,,roads ,,and ,,rural ,,engineering administers the work of the federal government for road improvement1 and studies farm engineering problems such as those relating to sanitation and water supply 7see ,chapters ,,xvii and ,,xx74 ,,regulatory ,,powers ,,of ,,the ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,the ,department of ,agriculture has certain important powers of regulation and control4 ,animals are inspected at market centers to discover the presence of disease1 and localities infected are quarantined4 ,in #aiae more than #ae million sheep were inspected and nearly #d million dipped to cure scabies4 ,as a result nearly one and one half million square miles of land were released from quarantine4 ,in the same year more than a million square miles were released from quarantine against scabies in cattle4 ,in quarantining a state1 or portion of a state1 the ,department acts by authority of laws passed by ,congress under its power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce 7,constitution1 ,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #h1 cl4 #c74 ,by the same authority1 all cattle for export and all imported from foreign countries are inspected and those diseased excluded4 ,slaughter houses and meat-packing establishments where meat is packed for interstate or foreign commerce are inspected2 meat that is unfit for use being condemned1 while that which is good has the government stamp placed upon it4 ,such measures are primarily health measures 7see ,chapter ,,xx71 but they have great economic value4 ,in a similar manner imported seeds1 plants1 and plant products are inspected to prevent the importation of plant diseases and plant pests1 and also to prevent adulteration of plant products4 ,warehouses are inspected and licenses granted to those that are suitable for the proper storage of cotton1 grains1 tobacco1 flaxseed1 and wool4 ,the ,department enforces the laws that fix the standards for grading cotton and grain1 and licenses grain inspectors4 ,it also enforces the ,food and ,drugs ,act 7see ,chapter ,,xx74 ,topics for investigation3 ,difficulties experienced by farmers in your locality in marketing produce or livestock4 ,assistance received from the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture to overcome the difficulties4 ,experiments in cooperative marketing in your locality4 ,products of your locality that require storage facilities4 ,adequacy of storage facilities4 ,transportation needs of your locality4 ,improvements in transportation facilities in recent years4 ,consult your county agent1 or write to the ,office of ,farm ,management1 for publications relating to farm management1 farm accounting1 etc4 ,discuss with farmers of your acquaintance the extent to which they find farm accounts and farm records useful4 ,diseases of livestock prevalent in your locality and state4 ,experiments in cooperation to eradicate these diseases4 ,assistance received from the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,crops of foreign origin raised in your locality4 ,countries from which introduced4 ,destructive plant diseases and plant pests of your locality4 ,efforts to combat them4 ,importance of bird migrations to the farmers of your locality4 ,extent of protection afforded birds4 ,how you cooperate in this matter4 ,importance of these various farmers' problems to the people in town--the housekeeper1 the merchant1 the manufacturer1 the railroad companies4 ,cases of animal quarantine occurring in your locality4 ,why warehouses for food products1 cotton1 etc41 should be licensed4 ,what licensing means4 ,how grain1 cotton1 or other products are graded4 ,the reason for grading4 ,why there needs to be a law on the subject4 ,,service ,,of ,,other ,,departments ,,of ,,government ,while the business interests of the farmer1 and indeed many of his other interests1 such as health1 education1 and social life1 are especially looked after by the ,department of ,agriculture1 he shares with all other citizens the services of all the other departments of government1 each of which also has its elaborate organization 7see ,chapter ,,xxvii74 ,it is the ,treasury ,department1 for example1 acting under authority given to it by ,congress1 that provides the people with their system of money and with a banking system1 both of which are great cooperative devices4 ,the ,department of ,commerce serves the farmer directly by discovering markets for his products in every part of the world1 and indirectly by everything it does to promote the country's commerce4 ,the rural mail delivery1 the parcel post1 and the motor truck service of the ,post ,office ,department are of untold value to the farmer 7see ,chapter ,,xviii74 ,the ,department of the ,interior has supervision over the public lands1 the reclamation of arid lands1 and the development of mineral resources 7,chapters ,,xiv1 ,,xv74 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,labor ,,supply ,the question of labor supply is one of the most serious questions which the farmer has to face4 ,it is one that he must help to solve for himself3 ,as soon as work on the farms is organized1 and employment is made steady for all help1 just so soon will a better class of laborers be attracted to the farm4 ,as the farm-owner wishes life to be free from eternal drudgery for himself and family1 yielding the fruits of happiness1 leisure1 and culture1 he would do well to consent and arrange to give the farm hand who shares the shelter of his roof a fair chance at the same benefits4 ,the laborer wants regular hours1 a chance for recreation1 a good place to live in1 and enough wages to maintain a family according to ,american standards4 ,footnote3 ,w4,j4 ,dougan and ,m4,w4 ,leiserson in ,rural ,social ,problems1 ,fourth ,annual ,report ,wisconsin ,country ,life ,conference1 quoted in ,nourse1 ,,agricultural ,,economics pp4 #beh-bfj4 ,but there are aspects of the labor problem over which the farmer by his own unaided efforts can have little control4 ,one of these is the problem of bringing the laborer and the job together 7see ,chapter ,,xi1 p4 #acc74 ,the work of the ,employment ,service in the ,department of ,labor during the recent war affords a striking illustration of cooperation secured through an agency of government4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,employment ,,service ,the ,employment ,service had been created in #aiad1 but was rapidly developed during the war to meet the demand for farm labor to provide a food supply adequate to war needs4 ,the main offices of ,employment ,service were with the ,department of ,labor in ,washington4 ,but each state had a federal director of employment1 and branch offices were established in local communities4 ,the success of the whole scheme depended1 first of all1 upon cooperation between national1 state1 and local governments4 ,thousands of county agents and local rural community organizations discovered and reported local needs to local employment offices1 which in turn distributed the information by means of the district1 state1 and national organizations4 ,fifty-five thousand post offices became farm-labor employment agencies1 postmasters and rural carriers acting as agents4 ,railroads cooperated both in reporting needs for the districts through which they run and in distributing labor to the points where needed4 ,newspaper offices served as employment bureaus4 ,the operators of nearly #hjjj rural telephone companies weekly called up the homes of two million farmers to inquire as to needs4 ,state and county councils of defense1 chambers of commerce1 labor unions1 farmers' organizations1 and other volunteer agencies afforded channels through which the farmer and the laborer were brought together4 ,from ,january to the end of ,october #aiah1 approximately #b1ejj1jjj workers were directed to employment 7not all farm workers74 ,in that year the enormous wheat crop of the western states was entirely harvested by labor forces organized and moving northward as the harvest ripened4 ,teamwork between the county agricultural agents and farm-help specialists of the ,department of ,agriculture and the harvest emergency force of the ,united ,states ,employment ,service is considered largely responsible for the excellent results4 ,in a similar manner assistance was given in harvesting the corn and cotton crops1 the fruits of orchards and vineyards1 and the vegetable crops of the country4 ,the ,boys' ,working ,reserve constituted one division of the ,employment ,service4 ,in #aiah1 #baj1jjj boys between the ages of #af and #bj were enrolled for work on the farms during the summer4 ,the ,reserve was responsible in #aiag and #aiah for saving millions of dollars worth of crops4 ,it is estimated that in #aiah it raised enough food to feed a million soldiers for one year4 ,,employment ,,service ,,in ,,peace ,,time ,with the passing of the war emergency1 the elaborate machinery of the ,employment ,service was in large measure allowed to fall to pieces through lack of appropriations for its maintenance4 ,this is true of much of the emergency organization of government developed during the war period4 ,it illustrates the tendency in our country to leave business control as fully as possible to individual initiative excepting in times of great emergency4 ,so important is the problem of bringing the worker and the job together that many believe that the ,employment ,service organization should be revived and continued4 ,the central office at ,washington is still maintained4 ,in most states there are still 7#aiai7 state directors4 ,the local machinery has been largely discontinued except in cities where volunteer agencies1 such as the ,red ,cross and other welfare organizations1 have taken over the work1 chiefly to find employment for discharged soldiers and sailors4 ,a few states have made appropriations to continue the ,boys' ,working ,reserve4 ,,national ,,vocational ,,guidance ,one division of the ,employment ,service is the ,junior ,section1 for the guidance of boys and girls from #af to #ba years of age seeking employment4 ,local junior sections were organized as branches of local employment offices and in schools4 ,a junior counselor was placed in charge of each local junior section to study the needs and qualifications of those who applied for employment1 and to give them advice4 ,the ,junior ,section is still maintained with a director in the ,washington office4 ,the duties of the junior counselor are stated as follows3 ,to influence boys and girls to remain in school as long as possible4 ,to give aid toward the right start for those who have to leave school to go to work4 ,to arouse the ambitions of the boys and girls to fit themselves for definite careers4 ,to direct youth who are employed toward some form of trade1 technical1 or business school for special training4 ,to promote the opportunities for vocational education4 ,to follow up all applicants in their training and at their work to see that they have the best available advantages of study and labor4 ,,government ,,always ,,at ,,our ,,service ,the array of facts contained in the foregoing paragraphs is given1 not with the expectation that those who read will memorize them1 but to suggest the enormous amount of work that the ,united ,states government is doing in the interest of agriculture and the farmer1 and the extensive machinery necessary to do it4 ,the facts given are only a few of those that might be given4 ,the detailed story of how much of this work is done is fascinating1 and often of thrilling interest4 ,all around us may be seen1 if our eyes are open1 the evidences of the work of our government4 ,always the governmental machinery is at hand to serve us in a thousand ways1 if we are wise enough to use it4 ,the more we study its work1 the more we shall be impressed by the fact that its greatest service is in opening the way for cooperation1 and in providing the organization and the leadership for such cooperation4 ,topics for investigation3 ,how money serves as a means of cooperation4 ,how a bank serves as a means of cooperation4 ,the attractiveness of the conditions of living for farm laborers in your community4 ,how they could be improved4 ,the farm labor supply in your locality and state4 ,the work of the ,united ,states ,employment ,service in your state and community4 ,employment agencies in your community at the present time4 ,by whom conducted4 ,are they free1 or run for profit8 ,advantages and disadvantages of the two kinds4 ,harvesting the wheat crop in war time4 ,the ,boys' ,working ,reserve in your locality4 ,the experience of the farmers of your locality as to its value4 ,possible objections raised to it4 ,its continuance since the war4 ,the ,junior ,section of the ,employment ,service4 ,junior counselors in your community4 ,,readings ,procure from the ,state ,department of ,agriculture1 the ,state ,agricultural ,college1 and the ,state ,experiment ,station1 publications relating to their work4 ,send to the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture for its ,list of ,publications ,available for ,distribution2 or for publications relating to particular topics4 ,among the useful publications of the ,department are3 ,farmers' ,bulletins 7covering a wide variety of subjects74 ,states ,relations ,service ,circulars4 ,the ,year ,book4 ,annual ,reports of the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,program of ,work of the ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture 7#aiag or later years74 ,report on ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations and ,cooperative ,agricultural ,extension ,work 7#aiae or later years74 ,a very useful publication is the ,guide to ,united ,states ,government ,publications1 published by the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education as ,bulletin1 #aiah1 ,no4 #b4 ,it not only describes the publications of each department of government1 but also the organization and work of each department and its subdivisions4 7,government ,printing ,office1 #bj cents47 ,more recent and equally useful is ,the ,federal ,executive ,departments as ,sources of ,information for ,libraries1 also published by the ,bureau of ,education1 ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #gd 7,government ,printing ,office1 #be cents74 ,the work of each ,department and its subdivisions is described in some detail4 ,in ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life3 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #cj1 ,employment agencies4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #ab1 ,patents and inventions4 ,lesson #ac1 ,market reports on fruits and vegetables4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,thrift ,,thrift ,,is ,,good ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,business ,,of ,,living4 ,,national ,,importance ,,of ,,thrift ,this definition is taken from ,ten ,lessons in ,thrift1 issued by the ,treasury ,department of the ,united ,states ,government 7,february1 #aiai74 ,the ,united ,states ,government sent out these lessons because ,america to-day stands in the position in which all her economic problems must be solved through thrift 444 ,unless our people gain a deep1 sincere appreciation of the absolute necessity for thrift1 we cannot hope to hold the proud position we occupy as the flag bearer of nations 444 ,footnote3 ,s4,w4 ,strauss1 ,president ,american ,society for ,thrift1 in ,the ,patriotism of ,war ,savings 7,national ,education ,association pamphlet1 ,,thrift1 #aiah7 ,,lessons ,,of ,,the ,,war ,the great war taught us some lessons about the importance of thrift to the nation4 ,the enormous expenses of the war were paid and the armies and the civilian populations of the countries at war were fed very largely by the combined small savings of our people4 ,nearly #bj million people contributed to the fourth liberty loan1 by which almost seven billion dollars were raised1 an average of about #cej for each contributor4 ,almost every one bought war savings stamps1 by which about a billion dollars were raised in #aiah4 ,practically all this money came from savings4 ,enormous sums were also given to the ,red ,cross and other causes4 ,to do this people saved and sacrificed until it hurt4 ,the provisioning of our armies and of the needy peoples of ,europe was made possible by the saving1 in ,american homes1 of slices of bread1 of teaspoonfuls of sugar1 of small portions of meat and fats4 ,,thrift ,,as ,,patriotism ,thrift1 however1 is not merely a war necessity4 ,the time when thrift shall not be needed--needed as vitally as food itself--will never come 444 ,through thrift alone can the rebuilding come--the rebuilding of ,america--the rebuilding of the world 444 ,thrift is patriot ism because it is the elimination of every element that tends to retard444 ,footnote3 ,s ,w ,strauss1 ,the ,patriotism of ,war ,savings ,thrift is necessary both for individual success and for good citizenship4 ,it is only by thrift that the individual may in some measure repay others for the care he himself received during dependent childhood1 and provide1 during his productive years1 for the rainy day of sickness and old age4 ,it is by thrift that ,,capital is accumulated with which to carry on the world's work4 ,the citizen who saves and invests his savings in a home1 in business enterprises1 in bonds or savings stamps1 not only makes his own future secure1 but becomes identified with the community and takes a greater interest in it4 ,the thrifty citizen inspires the confidence of the community1 and acquires an influence in community affairs that the unthrifty citizen does not enjoy4 ,finnish farmers in a certain section of ,new ,england are said to be able to obtain credit from neighboring bankers and businessmen more easily than many of their neighbors1 and to be considered as especially desirable citizens1 because of their reputation for thrift and honesty4 ,thrift is often confused with stinginess and selfish ness4 ,on the contrary it alone makes generosity and service possible4 ,,thrift1 ,,the ,,essence ,,of ,,democracy ,thrift is the very essence of democracy4 ,for democracy means freedom1 equality of opportunity1 self-determination4 ,no man is a greater slave than one who is bound and driven by financial necessity4 ,by thrift the mind is unfettered by the petty annoyances that result from improvident ways4 ,thrift means providing for the future4 ,there is nothing in the world that will so establish one's faith in the future and that will1 therefore1 give that freedom of spirit upon which democracy depends1 as the wise use of to-day and of to-day's resources4 ,,thrift ,a ,,right ,,as ,,well ,,as ,a ,,duty ,every man must practice thrift and every man must have the ,,chance of practicing it4 ,it is a ,,right as well as a duty4 ,before the war it was said that four fifths of the wage earners of our country received less than #gej a year for their labor4 ,studies in various cities also showed that an average family of five could not maintain health and efficiency on an income of less than from #gej to #ajjj4 ,under such circumstances thrift is the strictest necessity1 but it is a thrift that means pinching economy and the sacrifice of health and efficiency4 ,it is not the thrift that provides for the future and gives freedom to the individual1 the thrift that is the essence of democracy itself4 ,every man should have an opportunity to earn a living wage1 which includes an opportunity to provide for the future4 ,democracy is not complete until that opportunity is afforded4 ,thrift1 or the good management of the business of living1 is shown 7#a7 in earning1 7#b7 in spending1 7#c7 in saving1 and 7#d7 in investing4 ,,thrift ,,in ,,earning 7#a7 ,since the earning of a living was the subject of ,chapter ,,xi1 we need not dwell upon it now except to note that a thrifty person is an industrious person--he makes wise use of his time2 and also to note that many of those who are now in want1 or who1 in advanced years1 are receiving small wages1 owe their condition to a failure at some time or other to make use of the opportunity for thrift4 ,many people do not recognize the opportunity when it is presented1 or lack the wisdom or the courage to seize it4 ,thrift involves ,,making ,a ,,choice1 and in many cases a wise choice requires courage as well as wisdom4 ,it is a choice between the satisfaction of present wants and the sacrifice of present enjoyment for the sake of greater satisfaction and service in the future4 ,when a boy in school has a chance to take a job that will pay him wages1 he has to make a choice between it and remaining in school4 ,it may seem to be the thrifty thing to go to work2 but real thrift is shown by careful choice of vocation1 and by thorough preparation for it1 even though it requires sacrifices that seem difficult 7see pp4 #acg1 #aci74 ,we may note here1 also1 that physical fitness is essential if earning power1 which means power to perform service1 is to be fully developed4 ,the conservation of health and life is so important that a chapter is devoted to it later 7,chapter ,,xx74 ,,thrift ,,in ,,spending 7#b7 ,after money has been earned1 thrift shows itself first of all in the way the money is spent2 and many of us have the spending of the money that some one else has earned4 ,every time we spend a nickel or a dollar we make a choice--we choose to spend or not to spend1 how much we shall spend1 for what we shall spend4 ,a lawyer in a small town reports that in one month he made out the necessary papers to enable #ge men to mortgage their homes to buy automobiles4 ,butchers say that during the war they more often sold expensive cuts of meat to wage earners who were by no means well-to-do1 but who happened for the time to be getting good wages1 than to people of larger means4 ,one reason1 perhaps1 for extravagance in food and clothing on the part of unintelligent people who find themselves unusually prosperous1 is that they see no better way to spend their money4 ,those who find pleasure in books1 in education for their children1 in travel1 in investing money in serviceable enterprises1 and in the higher things of life1 have to make ,a ,,choice in regard to what they shall enjoy1 and as a rule prefer to sacrifice the grosser pleasures4 ,,choosing ,,what ,,to ,,spend ,people1 and especially young people1 need a certain amount of sweets in their diet4 ,but when we know that the candy bill of the people of the ,united ,states amounts to #djj1jjj1jjj a year1 that this is almost as much as the total amount spent for public education1 that it is about double the amount used to keep ,belgium supplied with food for a year during the war1 or that it will buy #bcd million bushels of corn at #a4gj a bushel1 we may well think twice before deciding to spend ,,much money for candy4 ,,tests ,,for ,,spending ,the few cents difference in the price of two articles between which we must choose1 and the nickels we spend for immediate enjoyment1 may seem to amount to very little2 but the ,new ,york ,city street railways collected in a year #ie1jjj1jjj in five-cent fares1 and the ,woolworth ,building in ,new ,york1 one of the largest office buildings in the ,united ,states1 was built from the profits of #e and #aj ,cent ,stores4 ,one thrift stamp a week amounts in five years to #fe1 and #ad cents a day at #d per cent interest amounts in twenty years to more than #aejj4 ,in one of the ,ten ,lesson in ,thrift1 the following tests in buying are given3 ,do ,i need it8 ,do ,i need it now8 ,do ,i need something else more8 ,will it pay for itself in the end8 ,do ,i help or injure the community in buying this8 ,do you have instruction in your school in home economics that relates to wise spending or buying8 ,if you do not have such instruction1 apply to the home demonstration agent in your county 7if there is one71 or write to your state agricultural college1 or to the ,states ,relations ,service1 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 for circulars or bulletins relating to thrift in buying food1 clothing1 etc4 ,in writing for such material1 why is it an example of thrift to ask for ,,one copy of ,,each publication for your ,,class or for your ,,school1 rather than to ask for a copy for each pupil8 ,in what ways is thrift shown by having a class committee write one letter making the request for the class instead of having each member of the class write8 ,has any home demonstration work relating to thrift been conducted in your community8 ,what methods were employed1 and what results achieved8 ,who in your family makes most of the expenditures for the family living8 ,for what items in the family living is most of the money spent8 ,what are some of the things that have to be considered in buying food8 clothing8 house furnishings8 books8 amusements8 ,discuss the topics mentioned in the following statement of values in buying 7from ,ten ,lessons in ,thrift73 ,food3 nutrition1 healthfulness1 cleanliness1 attractiveness1 flavor1 quality1 price1 economy in preparation 7of time1 strength1 fuel1 utensils71 buying from bulk or in package1 buying in quantity or small unit1 buying for the day or laying in stores1 calculation of portions1 calculation of meals1 varied diet4 ,clothing3 design related to material1 color1 and becomingness2 style1 durability2 adaptability to fine or rough wear1 to repair and remaking2 suitability to season1 health1 occupation1 comfort2 home-made ,,versus ready-made2 conditions of manufacture1 use of child labor1 the sweat shop1 the living wage1 health4 ,make a study at the grocery of the relative prices of articles bought in small and large quantities3 for example1 laundry soap by the bar1 by the quarter's worth1 by the box2 canned goods by the can1 by the dozen1 and by the case2 flour by the pound1 by the #be- pound sack1 #ej-pound sack1 by the barrel2 etc4 ,make a study of the relative prices of articles in bulk and in package2 for example1 vinegar by the bottle and by the gallon2 bacon in bulk and in jars1 etc4 ,why may it be economy to buy some food articles in packages rather than in bulk1 even at a higher price8 ,give examples4 ,which is likely to be more economical1 to buy groceries by telephone or in person8 ,to buy by mail order or at the store in town8 ,why8 ,at ,christmas time the ,park ,view community center in ,washington1 ,d4,c41 ordered #adj turkeys from a rural neighborhood center in ,maryland4 ,the turkeys were brought by the producers to the schoolhouse of the rural neighborhood1 taken by a postal service motor-truck to the schoolhouse of the ,park ,view center in ,washington1 and from there distributed to the #adj families4 ,the city buyers paid an average of #ae cents a pound less than the price prevailing in the ,washington markets1 and the producers received #f cents a pound more than the ,washington markets were paying4 ,why was there a saving to both producer and consumer in the above case8 ,what costs of marketing were cut out or reduced8 ,what is the middleman8 ,does he perform a real service to the community8 ,should he be paid for his service8 ,why8 ,is it just that the middleman should be eliminated by cooperative marketing and buying organizations8 ,why8 ,is there any cooperative buying organization in your community8 ,if so1 how has it benefited the community8 ,if not1 why8 7,consult your parents1 your county agent1 and others47 ,get publications from your state agricultural college relating to cooperative buying and selling4 ,,thrift ,,in ,,management ,wise expenditures depend not only upon knowledge of prices and qualities1 but also upon good management1 as in planning ahead4 ,one plan that has been the means of lifting many individuals and families out of financial difficulties and of enabling them to lay by as savings a portion of their income1 however small the latter may be1 is the ,,budget1 which means the apportionment of expenditures according to a plan laid out in advance4 ,no budget can apply to all families alike1 but the following illustrates the principle3 ,house 7rent1 taxes1 insurance1 repairs7444444444444444444444444#be ,food 7all expenditures for the table1 ice1 etc47444444444444444#cj ,clothing 7materials and making1 repairing1 cleaning1 pressing1 millinery1 shoes74444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444#ac ,housekeeping 7labor and materials for laundry1 fuel and light1 telephone1 supplies1 and furnishings744444444444444444444444444#a b ,educational 7school and school books1 club dues1 church and charity contributions1 gifts1 books1 magazines1 newspapers1 amusements1 medical and dental treatment7444444444444444444444444444444 44444#f ,luxuries 7all items not necessaries and not coming under educational1 such as candies1 etc47444444444444444444444444444#d ,savings44444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444444444444#aj ,total4444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444444#ajj ,before a budget can be planned1 and in order to know whether it is being lived up to1 it is necessary to keep accounts of receipts and expenditures4 ,with such accounts1 it is possible to determine where savings can be made under some heads and where1 perhaps1 it is necessary or advisable to spend more4 ,is a budget used in your home8 ,find out from your parents their reason for using1 or not using it4 ,could you use a budget in your own personal affairs8 ,find out whether a budget system is used by your local government and your state government in apportioning expenditures4 ,how may we budget our time8 ,is the time you spend in school budgeted8 ,make a daily time budget for yourself4 ,when is clothing a necessity and when a luxury8 ,footnote3 ,this and the following topics are adapted from ,ten ,lessons in ,thrift4 ,when is food a necessity and when an amusement8 ,when is amusement education and when a frivolity8 ,when is fuel an item in rent and when current housekeeping expense8 ,when are club dues education and when amusement8 ,when is vacation health and when amusement8 ,when is the theater amusement and when indulgence8 ,when is rent a necessity and when an extravagance8 ,footnote3 ,from ,suggestion for ,home ,demonstration ,agents regarding ,methods of ,teaching ,thrift1 ,states ,relations ,service ,circular1 ,dec4 #bg1 #aiah4 ,,thrift ,,in ,,saving 7#c7 ,the object of thrift in spending is both to get the greatest value for our money now and to insure savings that will provide for the future4 ,every budget should make as definite provision for savings as for rent or clothing4 ,the purpose of a budget and of accounts is to assure a surplus rather than a deficit4 ,successful men and women make it a practice always to spend less than they earn1 no matter how little they earn1 and they cannot be sure of this without planning ahead and keeping accounts4 ,saving in this way is largely a matter of habit2 but it is astonishing how many fail to form the habit4 ,court records show that out of every #ajj men who die1 #hb leave no income-producing estates1 or that about #he per cent who reach the age of #fe are dependent upon relatives or upon the community4 ,out of every #ajj widows1 only #ah are left in comfortable circumstances1 while #dg are obliged to go to work and #ce are left in absolute want4 ,footnote3 ,s4,w4 ,strauss1 ,the ,greater ,thrift1 ,national ,education ,association ,,proceedings1 #aiaf1 p4 #bgh4 ,,american ,,extravagance ,wise buying means saving money2 and so does the wise use of what we buy4 ,it is said that an ,american ship can be distinguished from the ships of other nations in harbor by the flocks of gulls that hover around to feast on the food thrown overboard4 ,whether this is true or not1 ,americans have a reputation for wastefulness4 ,it has been called our chief national sin4 ,it is said that a family in ,france can live in comfort on what an ,american family in the same circumstances ordinarily throws away4 ,an average load of garbage in ,new ,york ,city has been shown to contain fifty dollars' worth of good food materials4 ,,what ,,small ,,savings ,,will ,,do ,investigations by the ,food ,administration showed that there is enough glycerine in a ton of garbage to make explosives for #ad shells1 enough fat and acid to make #ge bars of soap1 and enough fertilizer to grow #h bushels of wheat4 ,it is said that #bd cities wasted enough garbage to make #d million pounds of nitroglycerine1 #dj million cakes of soap1 and fertilizer for #c million bushels of wheat4 ,on the other hand1 #cjj cities produced #eb million pounds of pork by feeding their garbage to hogs4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture has shown that the waste of a half- cup of milk daily by each of the #bj million families in the ,united ,states would equal in a year the total production of #djj thousand cows2 that one ounce of meat or fat saved daily would in a year mean #hge thousand steers1 or a million hogs2 and that if #ha percent of the whole wheat were used in bread instead of #ge percent1 the saving in a year would feed #ab million people4 ,during the war our government organized a campaign for the salvage of junk1 and the total amount collected had a value of #a #a_/b billion dollars4 ,the school children of ,des ,moines1 ,iowa1 are reported to have gathered and sold two thousand dollars' worth of waste paper in one week1 and those of many other communities obtained similar results4 ,,value ,,of ,,by-,,products ,every successful business man is constantly vigilant to discover and remedy waste in his business--waste of materials1 time1 and effort4 ,many of the most valuable products in certain industries are by-products1--that is1 products produced as an incident to the main industry and from materials that otherwise would have been wasted4 ,in the manufacture of gas from coal1 for example1 important by-products are coke1 tar1 and ammonia4 ,there has been great waste in the lumber industry1 but now practically every scrap from the tree may be used4 ,in the ,forestry ,products ,laboratory at the ,university of ,wisconsin1 a process has been discovered of producing from #ae to #be gallons of wood alcohol from a ton of sawdust--and sawdust has many other uses4 ,these are only illustrations4 ,scientists and inventors1 many of them employed by the government1 are constantly at work finding uses for waste products4 ,,wastefulness ,,in ,,farming ,wastefulness is found in great variety in farming activities4 ,for example3 ,why plant seed only #fj or #gj per cent of which will germinate when1 for a few dollars extra and a little work1 seed may be procured that will average #ij to #ie per cent in the germination test8 ,why purchase or cultivate a worthless crab apple tree or a hybrid when ,rome ,beauty1 ,northern ,spy1 or ,grimes ,golden1 and other standard varieties of apples may be secured for a few additional cents8 ,why feed and care for a scrub pig1 calf1 or colt when it will bring at maturity only half or two thirds the price of a thoroughbred8 444 ,it is not thrift to invest money in second-rate products4 ,some farmers are so careless 444 that they do not husk their corn in the fall but leave it standing in the field until late winter or early spring4 ,by this time the fodder is somewhat decayed and unfit for feeding purposes4 ,possibly a third of the corn has been eaten by the birds1 a third of it has rotted1 and a third of it remains in a damp and moldy condition4 444 ,many boys could make good wages by going over the corn field at cutting time and collecting the ears lying on the ground4 444 ,often a farmer will cut down his hay1 paying no attention whatever to the reports of the weather bureau 444 ,apples shaken from the trees by the wind decay on the ground 444 ,the bearings of mowing machines and reapers often suffer excessive wear because the owner neglects to keep them properly oiled4 ,often a wheat drill1 a mowing machine1 a threshing machine1 or an engine is left out of doors for a whole year1 or for several months after the farmer has ceased to use it4 ,a good piece of machinery1 if judiciously used1 properly lubricated1 and put away in a dry place1 may last from ten to twenty years1 while the life of such machinery will only be about half as long without proper care4 ,if a wooden handle rots loose from its fastenings it is an indication that the handle has not been thoroughly dried after it has been used4 ,tools rust out very readily if they are not kept dry and thoroughly oiled 444 ,so careless are some farmers that hoes1 shovels1 mattocks1 wrenches1 saws1 and axes are thrown down in the field or woods to lie there until it is again necessary to use them4 ,it often takes hours to find an article thus misplaced or thrown aside4 ,it is economy of time to know just where to find everything on the farm4 ,footnote3 ,the ,teaching of ,thrift1 by ,h4 ,r4 ,bonner1 ,assistant ,state ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,west ,virginia1 pp4 #bb1 #bc4 ,the topics on page #ahj from publications of the ,states ,relations ,service of the ,department of ,agriculture are suggestive3 ,preventing loss of food in the home3 ,suitable food storage places and equipment4 ,essentials of a good refrigerator4 ,the care of winter vegetables and fruit4 ,the care of perishable vegetables and fruit4 ,prevention of spoilage of milk1 meat1 and fish4 ,preservation of eggs4 ,care of bread and other baked products4 ,what should not go into the garbage pail4 ,good cooking and attractive serving4 ,failure to use perishable food promptly4 ,failure to use left-overs completely4 ,failure to use all food materials 7fats1 meat and fish bones1 etc474 ,leaving small portions of food in mixing and cooking dishes4 ,lack of accurate measuring and mixing1 so that food is not palatable4 ,allowing food to be scorched or otherwise spoiled in preparation4 ,providing over-generous portions in serving4 ,failure to eat all food served4 ,preventing loss of food in the market3 ,sanitary display cases for food4 ,prevention of sampling and handling of food4 ,food protection in food carts and delivery wagons4 ,proper care of milk4 ,proper care of meat and fish4 ,prevention of cereal products from deterioration4 ,protection of fruits and vegetables4 ,the care of bread and bakery products4 ,careful selection of food4 ,following are special points which might be discussed3 ,the well-planned house4 ,saving steps by better arrangement of equipment4 ,lessening work by systematizing it4 ,menu-planning for lessened work in preparation4 ,household lighting4 ,labor-saving equipment in the laundry1 the kitchen1 and the sewing room4 ,labor-saving devices for house cleaning4 ,leading a simple life4 ,apply to your home demonstration agent1 or write to ,states ,relations ,service1 for publications relating to thrift in food1 clothing1 fuel1 etc4 ,,thrift ,,in ,,investment 7#d7 ,thrift involves a wise use of savings4 ,they may be invested in a home1 a wise use because of the satisfaction that a home produces4 ,if the home is well located1 well built1 and well kept up1 it will probably also increase in money value4 ,savings may be invested in machinery for farming1 manufacturing1 or mining2 in a stock of goods to be sold at a profit2 in houses or office buildings to be rented to others2 or they may be lent to others who pay interest for their use4 ,in all these cases money represents ,,capital--capital being the machinery or tools and other equipment with which wealth is produced4 ,capital is brought into existence in only one way--that is1 by consuming less than is produced4 ,if one has a dollar one can spend it either for an article of consumption1 say confectionery1 or for an article of production1 say a spade4 ,he who buys a spade becomes a capitalist to the amount of a dollar--that is1 he becomes the owner of tools4 ,the process is precisely the same whether the amount in question is a dollar or a million dollars4 ,footnote3 ,t4,n4 ,carver1 ,how to ,use ,farm ,credit1 ,,farmers' ,,bulletin #eic1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 p4 #b4 ,,borrowing ,every business requires capital1 some more than others4 ,farming requires more capital to-day than formerly because of the increased use of machinery4 ,the necessary capital must either be saved by the person who wants to use it1 or borrowed from others who have saved it4 ,the advantage of borrowing is that one does not have to wait so long to get possession of the tools and equipment4 ,one can get them at once and make them produce the means of paying for themselves4 ,without them the farmer's production might be so low as to make it difficult ever to accumulate enough with which to buy them4 ,with their help he may be able to pay for them--that is1 to pay off the debt--in a shorter time than it would take to accumulate the purchase price without them4 ,that is the only advantage of credit in any business1 but it is a great advantage to those who know how to use it4 ,footnote #b3 ,t4,n4 ,carver1 ,how to ,use ,farm ,credit1 ,,farmers' ,,bulletin1 #eic1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 p4 #b4 ,,credit ,credit is simply a person's ability to borrow and depends upon the confidence that others place in him4 ,this confidence depends on his reputation for honesty and his known ability to repay4 ,a man1 as a rule1 has to ,,have something--land or property of other kind-- that he can offer as security before he can borrow much4 ,it is for this reason that thrift is essential to a man's credit--thrift and honesty4 ,there is no magic about credit4 ,it is a powerful agency for good in the hands of those who know how to use it4 ,so is a buzz saw4 ,they are about equally dangerous in the hands of those who do not understand them4 444 ,many a farmer would be better off to-day if he had never had a chance to borrow money at all1 or go into debt for the things which he bought4 ,however1 there is no reason why those farmers who do know how to use credit should not have it4 ,shortsighted people1 however1 who do not realize how inexorably the time of payment arrives1 who do not know how rapidly tools wear out and have to be replaced1 or do not keep accounts in order that they may tell exactly where they stand financially1 will do well to avoid borrowing4 ,debts have to be paid with deadly certainty1 and they who do not have the wherewithal when the day of reckoning arrives become bankrupt with equal certainty4 ,on the other hand there is nothing disgraceful in borrowing for productive purposes4 ,the feeling that it is not quite respectable to go into debt has grown out of the old habit of borrowing to pay living expenses4 ,that was regarded1 perhaps rightly1 as a sign of incompetency4 444 ,but to borrow for a genuinely productive purpose1 for a purpose that will bring you in more than enough to pay off your debt1 principal and interest1 is a profitable enterprise4 ,it shows business sagacity and courage1 and is not a thing to be ashamed of4 ,but it cannot be too much emphasized that the would-be borrower must calculate very carefully and be sure that it is a productive enterprise before he goes into debt4 ,footnote3 ,t4 ,n4 ,carver1 ,how to ,use ,farm ,credit1 p4 #b4 ,,cooperation ,,for ,,credit ,even though a farmer be thrifty1 industrious1 and honest1 the conditions of farm business are such that it has not always been easy for him to borrow capital4 ,here again cooperation helps4 ,in some of our states the law permits the organization of ,,credit ,,unions4 ,the members are farmers of a neighborhood or district and1 therefore1 are acquainted with one another4 ,each member must buy shares of stock1 which provides a certain amount of funds4 ,the union may also receive deposits of money1 paying interest on them as a savings bank would do4 ,this increases the funds and also encourages thrift on the part of the farmer4 ,idle money1 or money that might otherwise be spent unwisely1 is thus made productive4 ,in some unions1 as in ,massachusetts1 children are encouraged to deposit their small savings1 and in some cases half the capital of the union is made up of such small savings deposits4 ,from these funds loans are made to members of the union on reasonable terms1 provided they are to be used for productive purposes4 ,the union may also borrow money from the bank in town on the ,,collective ,,credit of its members for the improvement of agricultural conditions in the neighborhood4 ,,national ,,aid ,,to ,,the ,,farmers' ,,credit ,similar aid to the farmers' credit has been given by the national government through the ,federal ,farm ,loan ,act of #aiaf4 ,this ,act created a ,federal ,farm ,loan ,board in the ,treasury ,department1 and twelve ,federal ,land ,banks1 one in each of twelve districts into which the ,united ,states was divided for that purpose4 ,through the organization provided by the board and the banks1 a farmer may now borrow money on more favorable terms1 but only on condition that he agrees to use the money for the purchase and improvement of land or for equipment1 and to engage in the actual cultivation of the farm for the development of which he desired the money4 ,the provisions of the ,federal ,farm ,loan ,act afford an excellent illustration of how government promotes citizen cooperation4 ,the government does not lend the money to the farmers2 it merely provides the machinery by which the farmers may cooperate among themselves1 and also secure the cooperation of investors in all parts of the country1 to obtain capital necessary for the proper development of the land4 ,as a rule the farmer can borrow money from the land bank only by being a member of a local national farm loan association4 ,his dealings with the bank are through this association4 ,his membership in the association gives him better standing and secures for him better terms than he could get if acting separately4 ,moreover1 the money that the bank lends to the farmer comes from the farmers who belong to the association1 and from investors in all parts of the country1 who buy shares of stock in the bank and bonds issued by the bank on the security of the farmers' land and equipment4 ,the whole scheme is one of cooperation which would be impossible but for the legislation1 financial support1 and supervision of the government at ,washington4 ,,partnership ,,in ,,the ,,nation',s ,,business ,it will be seen then that much of the capital that a farmer uses is borrowed1 and is made up of small savings of other people--some of them his neighbors1 others in distant places4 ,the same is true with respect to the capital used in all other businesses4 ,the enormous capital of railroads is derived chiefly from the savings of millions of people1 some of whom buy shares of railroad stock directly1 but most of whom deposit their savings in banks or other institutions which1 in turn1 lend it to the railroads or invest it in their stock4 ,the farmer or the school boy who has a savings account in a neighboring bank thus may become a partner in various business enterprises of the country4 ,his dollars or dimes1 added to the dollars and dimes of many other people1 are used to buy machinery and tools and materials1 and to pay labor4 ,because of the service performed by his savings he receives interest on his money4 ,,opportunities ,,for ,,investment ,there are many opportunities for young people to invest savings in productive enterprises1--perhaps more in rural communities than elsewhere4 ,the different kinds of boys' and girls' clubs illustrate the variety of channels through which money may be both earned and invested4 ,as soon as a boy invests a little money in a pig1 or a calf1 or garden tools1 he becomes a capitalist to that extent4 ,it is to be hoped that not many have the experience of the boy described in the following lines3 ,footnote3 ,read by ,r4,h4 ,wilson1 in an address before the ,national ,council of ,education1 ,n4,e4,a4 ,,proceedings1 #aiag1 p4 #acc4 ,johnnie bought a little pig with money he had earned1 ,he named her ,nell and fed her well1 and lots of tricks she learned4 ,but ,nellie grew to be a sow1 had piggies quite a few1 ,then father up and sold them1 and kept the money1 too4 ,johnnie took a little calf as pay for hoeing corn1 ,he loved the calf and the calf loved him as sure as you are born4 ,the calfie grew to be a cow1 as all good calfies do1 ,then father up and sold her1 and kept the money1 too4 ,now1 ,johnnie loved his little pets1 but father loved the pelf1 ,so ,johnnie left his father's farm and struck out for himself4 ,said ,johnnie's pa1 one summer day1 ,i often wonder why ,boys don't like life upon the farm1 'the city' is their cry4 ,it always will be strange to me1 continued ,johnnie's pa1 ,it only goes to prove1 though1 how ungrateful children are4 ,when ,johnnie heard what father said1 he gave a bitter laugh1 ,and thought of his empty childhood and of his pig and calf4 ,savings may be deposited in savings banks1 which accept small deposits and pay compound interest1 usually at a rate of #c per cent or #c #a_/b per cent4 ,such banks operate in accordance with state or national laws to protect the depositor against loss4 ,many schools conduct school savings banks4 ,the pupils bring their small amounts to the teacher or to some pupil acting as teller1 the collected funds then being deposited in some bank in the community4 ,these school banks promote habits of thrift and afford experience in business methods1 besides bringing into use in the world's work many small amounts of money that would otherwise be lying idle or spent unwisely4 ,,postal ,,savings ,,system ,in #aiaj ,congress established the ,postal ,savings ,system under which any post office may be a savings bank4 ,any person over ten years of age may deposit money at the postal savings bank in amounts of from #a4jj to #be4jj1 receiving from the postmaster ,,postal ,,savings ,,certificates as evidence of the deposit4 ,provision is made for savings accounts of less than a dollar by selling ,,postal ,,savings ,,stamps at ten cents each1 ten of which may be exchanged for a dollar certificate4 ,two per cent interest is paid on postal savings1 but savings certificates may be exchanged for ,,postal ,,savings ,,bonds1 bearing interest at the rate of #b #a_/b per cent4 ,,lending ,,to ,,the ,,government ,the purchase of ,liberty ,bonds or ,savings ,stamps and ,thrift ,stamps is a good investment and a patriotic act4 ,the money raised in this way is used for the national defense and for reconstruction after the war4 ,the ,savings ,division of the ,united ,states ,treasury ,department carries on a campaign of thrift education4 ,among other things1 it promotes the organization of savings societies and thrift clubs1 because thrift is a habit which is encouraged by the example and cooperation of others4 ,in ,randolph ,county1 ,indiana1 for example1 each consolidated school has its thrift club1 and over #ge per cent of the pupils are members4 ,one of these schools sold over #aa1jjj worth of thrift stamps1 and others sold from #aejj to #cejj worth4 ,savings societies exist among the workmen of many industries1 and employers report that these have increased the purchase of homes1 and have resulted in a saving of materials and tools because of the habits of thrift established4 ,,insurance ,among the many other agencies to promote thrift we shall only mention ,,building ,,and ,,loan ,,associations and ,,insurance4 ,the purpose of building and loan associations is to help people of small means to purchase or build homes4 ,insurance affords a particularly good illustration of organized cooperation4 ,the ,,premiums paid by thousands of policy holders produce a large sum of money1 part of which goes to pay the expenses of the insurance company1 but most of which is invested in enterprises that cause the amount rapidly to increase4 ,out of this fund the occasional losses of individuals are paid4 ,life insurance is a good form of investment4 ,it provides for the future of the family of the insured in case of his death4 ,by the ,,endowment plan the insured may himself receive1 at the end of a specified number of years1 all that he has paid in premiums together with interest4 ,during the war our national government itself insured the soldiers against death or injury4 ,this was known as ,,war ,,risk ,,insurance4 ,at the end of the war the soldier had the privilege of converting the war risk insurance into a regular form of insurance1 still provided1 however1 by the government itself4 ,one of our states also1 ,wisconsin1 sells life insurance to its citizens4 ,as we proceed with our study we shall encounter other aspects of thrift in various chapters4 ,as a nation we may be thrifty or unthrifty in the use of our resources 7see ,chapters ,,xiv and ,,xv74 ,thrift is as essential in our community housekeeping1 which is carried on by government1 as in our homes and business4 ,but we can hardly expect thrift to become a national characteristic unless it first becomes a personal habit4 ,are you a capitalist8 ,if so1 explain in what way4 ,what forms does the capital take with which your father does business8 ,what capital does an ,eskimo have8 the ,american ,indians when the country was first settled8 ,do you belong to a thrift club8 ,would it be desirable to organize one in your school8 ,confer with your teacher and principal about it4 ,write to the ,savings ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,treasury ,department1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 for literature regarding organization4 ,is there a credit union1 or a savings association1 or other organization to promote thrift in your community8 ,if so1 find out how it operates4 ,write a story on the subject1 ,what my five dollars may accomplish after ,i put it in the savings bank1 before it comes back to me with interest4 ,why are people willing to accept a lower rate of interest from a postal savings bank than from an ordinary savings bank8 ,,readings ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #f1 ,capital4 ,lesson #ac1 ,u4,s4 ,food ,administration4 ,lesson #ad1 ,substitute foods4 ,lesson #ae1 ,woman as the family purchaser4 ,lesson #ba1 ,borrowing capital for modern business4 ,lesson #bb1 ,the commercial bank and modern business4 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #g1 ,an intelligently selected diet4 ,lesson #bb1 ,financing the war4 ,lesson #bc1 ,thrift and war savings4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #g1 ,preserving foods4 ,lesson #h1 ,preventing waste of human beings4 ,lesson #ad1 ,the ,u4,s4 ,fuel ,administration4 ,lesson #af1 ,the ,commercial ,economy ,board of the ,council of ,national ,defense4 ,write ,savings ,division1 ,u4,s4 ,treasury ,department1 for materials2 especially ,ten ,lessons in ,thrift1 and ,teaching ,thrift in ,elementary ,schools4 ,both of these contain lists of readings4 ,the ,post-,office ,department has publications descriptive of the postal savings service4 ,farmers' ,bulletins1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 relating to thrift4 ,federal ,farm ,loan ,act1 ,how ,it ,benefits the ,farmer1 ,farmers' ,bulletin #gib4 ,see references in footnotes in this chapter4 ,dunn1 ,,the ,,community ,,and ,,the ,,citizen1 ,chapter ,,xiv1 ,waste and ,saving4 ,the local public library1 the ,state ,library1 and the ,state ,agricultural ,college1 will doubtless furnish lists of references and perhaps provide materials4 ,the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education will send list of references4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,relation ,,between ,,the ,,people ,,and ,,the ,,land ,,nature ,,was ,,much ,,bigger ,,and ,,stronger ,,than ,,man4 ,,she ,,would ,,suffer ,,no ,,sudden ,,highways ,,to ,,be ,,thrown ,,across ,,her ,,spaces2 ,,she ,,abated ,,not ,,an ,,inch ,,of ,,her ,,mountains1 ,,compromised ,,not ,a ,,foot ,,of ,,her ,,forests4 444 ,,for ,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,nation ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,her ,,proper ,,territory ,,from ,,nature ,,was ,,first ,,necessary 444 ,a ,,bold ,,race ,,has ,,derived ,,inspiration ,,from ,,the ,,size1 ,,the ,,difficulty1 ,,the ,,danger ,,of ,,the ,,task4 ,if you wanted to buy a farm1 what facts would you investigate in regard to land and location8 ,what farm in your neighborhood comes nearest to meeting your requirements in these matters8 ,explain fully why4 ,make a sketch map of a farm in your neighborhood1 preferably one upon which you have lived1 showing as nearly as you can the boundaries1 the position of highlands and lowlands1 marshes1 timber1 streams1 etc4 ,also the position of house1 barns1 bridges1 roads1 and other important features4 ,did the features of the land indicated on your map determine the location of the buildings8 of the roads and bridges8 the kinds of crops raised on different parts of the farm8 ,should the surface features of the land be taken into account in determining the position of the house and barns in relation to each other8 ,why8 ,has the character of the land influenced the life of the farmer's family in any way8 ,explain4 ,,importance ,,of ,,geographical ,,conditions ,directly or indirectly1 geographical conditions affect every aspect of community life and help or hinder us in satisfying all of our wants 7see ,chapter ,i74 ,their influence is chiefly felt1 however1 in their relation to the economic interest of the people2 that is1 in relation to earning a living and the production of wealth4 ,,establishing ,,relations ,,with ,,the ,,land ,every step that man has taken to make his relations with the land permanent and definite has been a step of progress in civilization1 as when1 for example1 the savage hunter became a herdsman1 or the herdsman an agriculturist4 ,we live to-day in an age of machinery1 which is a result of turning to our use the metals from the depths of the earth and the power derived from the forces of nature1 as in the application of steam1 electricity1 and the explosive force of gasoline4 ,many have had a part in this work of establishing relations with the land3 explorers2 scientists who have discovered the uses of our varied mineral and vegetable resources and how to make the forces of nature serve us2 engineers who have built our railroads and bridges and tunneled our mountains4 ,a most important part has been taken by those who win their living directly from nature's resources--the woodsman1 the miner1 the farmer2 and the service of the farmer has been especially great in giving stability to our community life4 ,,agriculture ,,means ,a ,,settled ,,life ,those ,american ,indians were most civilized who had developed agriculture to the highest point1 because this meant a settled life4 ,if we recall the story of the colonization of ,america we shall remember that it was not successfully accomplished by the gold hunters and fur traders who came first1 but only when those came who1 as farmers1 began to cultivate the soil4 ,later1 as the population moved westward across the ,alleghenies into the ,mississippi ,valley and on to the ,pacific ,coast1 the hunters and trappers were the scouts who found the way1 while the real army that took possession of the land was an army of farmers4 ,did the ,american ,indians who formerly lived in your locality lead a settled life8 ,why8 ,were they agriculturists to any extent8 ,if so1 what do you know of their method of agriculture8 ,of what pastoral peoples have you read8 ,why was their life more settled than that of hunting peoples8 ,why less settled than that of farmers8 ,why were settlements by gold hunters and fur traders likely not to be permanent8 ,do you know of important mining towns that have had a brief life8 ,,protecting ,,ownership ,,of ,,land ,the story of how individuals acquired the right to own land is an interesting one1 but too long to be told here4 ,the right has long been recognized and protected by government4 ,if your father owns a piece of land he doubtless has a ,,deed for it1 containing an accurate description of the land and giving him title to ownership4 ,in each county there is an office of government where all deeds are recorded--the office of the recorder or register of deeds4 ,the record of every piece of land is thus kept and is open to examination by any one4 ,if a man wishes to buy a piece of land he will go to the office of the recorder and find out whether the title to the land is clear4 ,only by so doing may he be protected against error or fraud4 ,,transfers ,,of ,,land ,since lands are likely to change hands a number of times1 and since men frequently ,,mortgage their lands as security for loans or other indebtedness1 thus giving to others a claim to their land1 it is sometimes a tedious and difficult task for a buyer to trace the record back and to be sure that the title to the land is clear4 ,it sometimes requires months4 ,there are lawyers who make a business of examining the records and making ,,abstracts ,,of ,,titles4 ,this involves expense4 ,besides1 there is always the chance that a mistake may be made somewhere4 ,for this reason some states have adopted a plan known as the ,,torrens ,,system of land transfer1 from the name of the man who devised it in ,australia4 ,under the ,torrens ,system the government itself1 through its proper officer1 may examine the title to any piece of land4 ,the land is then ,,registered1 and the owner is given a certificate as evidence4 ,if a mortgage is placed on the land or if it changes hands the transaction is recorded on the certificate and in the office records4 ,a mere glance at the record of registry or at the certificate is sufficient to ascertain the title to the land4 ,thus time and expense are saved2 and moreover the government gives its absolute guarantee to the owner or buyer as to his rights in the land4 ,the ,torrens ,system is in use in some form in fourteen states of the ,union1 in the ,philippines and ,hawaii1 and in various other countries of the world4 ,,the ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,lands ,when settlers began to occupy the lands west of the ,alleghenies1 many of them laid claim to tracts without much regard for the claims of others4 ,boundary lines were indefinite4 ,where surveys were made they were often inaccurate4 ,much confusion resulted4 ,disputes arose that frequently found their way into the courts and dragged on for many years4 ,the government sought to put an end to this state of affairs1 and in ,thomas ,jefferson's administration a survey was begun to establish lines by which any piece of land might be located and defined with exactness4 ,the government survey was begun by establishing certain north and south lines known as ,,principal ,,meridians4 ,there are twenty-four of these1 the first being the meridian that separates ,indiana from ,ohio1 while the last runs through the state of ,oregon4 ,at intervals of six miles east and west of the principal meridians were established other meridians called ,,range ,,lines4 ,a parallel of latitude was then chosen as a ,,base ,,line1 and at intervals of six miles north and south of the base line were established ,,township ,,lines4 ,these township lines with the range lines divide the country into areas six miles square called ,,townships4 ,a township may thus be located with reference to its nearest base line and principal meridian 7see diagram ,i74 ,since meridians converge as we go north 7look at a globe71 the townships are not exactly square1 and become slightly smaller toward the north4 ,to correct this1 certain parallels north and south of the base line were chosen as ,,correction ,,lines1 from which the survey began again as from the original base line4 ,each township is divided into ,,sections one mile square1 and therefore containing #fdj acres each4 ,these sections are numbered in each township from #a to #cf as indicated in diagram ,,iii4 ,each section is further subdivided into halves and quarters1 which are designated as in diagram ,,iv4 ,this government survey has been made only in the public lands 7see below1 p4 #aig74 ,it is still being carried on by the ,general ,land ,office of the ,department of the ,interior4 ,in #aiag more than #aj1jjj1jjj acres1 or nearly #af1jjj square miles1 were surveyed4 ,in that year there still remained unsurveyed more than #ijj1jjj square miles of public land1 #eij1jjj of which were in ,alaska and #cbj1jjj in the ,united ,states proper4 ,in the original thirteen states along the ,atlantic seaboard a similar survey has been made1 but either by private enterprise or under the authority of the state or county governments4 ,massachusetts has recently spent a large sum of money in a new survey of the state for the purpose of verifying and correcting doubtful boundaries4 ,has your father a deed to the land you live on8 ,if so1 ask him to show it to you and explain it4 ,how is the land described8 ,at the first convenient time1 make a visit to the office of the recorder of deeds in your county1 and ask to have some of the records shown and explained to you1 preferably the record of the property you occupy4 ,where is the office of the recorder8 7,a visit of this sort should be in company with the teacher or parent4 ,a class excursion for this and other purposes may well be arranged for47 ,what is a ,,mortgage8 ,an ,,abstract ,,of ,,title8 7,consult parents47 ,is the ,torrens ,system in use in your state8 ,is your state a public land state8 ,from the deed to your father's land1 or from the records in the recorder's office1 or from a map of your county showing the survey lines1 locate the land you live on1 as indicated in the accompanying diagrams4 ,in what section and township is your schoolhouse8 ,are there still any public lands in your state8 ,are the boundary lines of farms in your neighborhood regular or irregular8 ,how does this happen8 ,do you know of any boundary disputes between farmers or other citizens in your community8 ,what machinery of government exists to settle such disputes8 ,,the ,,public ,,lands ,at the close of the ,revolutionary ,war1 the territory of the ,united ,states extended west as far as the ,mississippi ,river4 ,that part of this territory which lay west of the ,allegheny ,mountains had been claimed by seven of the thirteen states that formed the ,union2 but soon after the war they ceded these western possessions to the ,united ,states1 having received a promise from ,congress that these lands1 which were largely unoccupied at the time1 should be disposed of ,,for ,,the ,,common ,,benefit ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,they thus became ,,public ,,lands2 that is1 they belonged to the people of the nation as a whole4 ,the common interest in these public lands was one of the chief influences that kept the thirteen states united under one government during the troubled times between the close of the ,revolution and the adoption of the ,constitution in #aghi4 ,as time went on1 the public lands of the nation were increased by the acquisition of new territory1 ,footnote3 ,louisiana ,territory was acquired in #ahjc1 ,oregon in #ahje1 ,florida in #ahab and #ahai1 ,texas in #ahde1 ,california and ,new ,mexico in #ahdf-dh1 the ,gadsden ,purchase in #ahec1 ,alaska in #ahfg4 ,of the #c1fjj1jjj square miles comprising the ,united ,states and ,alaska more than three fourths has at some time been public land2 but of this there now remain1 exclusive of ,alaska1 only about #cfj1jjj square miles1 much of which is forest and mineral land1 unsuitable for agriculture4 ,,disposal ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,lands ,to turn this great domain with all its resources to the fullest service of the nation has been one of the greatest problems with which our government has had to deal4 ,in the early part of our history various plans were tried by which to secure the occupancy and development of the agricultural lands by farmers1 until in #ahfb the first ,homestead ,act was passed by ,congress4 ,about #aj1jjj1jjj acres of the public land were given to soldiers who fought in the ,revolution and in the ,war of #ahab in recognition of then-service to their country4 ,about #fj1jjj1jjj acres were later given to veterans of the ,mexican ,war4 ,until the year #ahjj the plan in use for the disposition of the public lands was to sell large areas to colonizing companies1 with the expectation that these companies would find settlers to whom they would sell the land in small quantities at a profit4 ,this was not successful1 as actual settlers found it difficult to get land they wanted at prices they could afford4 ,from #ahjj to #ahbj lands were sold in small areas ,,on ,,credit4 ,many bought more than they were able to pay for1 and much land so disposed of had to be taken back by the government4 ,in #ahbj a third plan was adopted3 ,that of selling land for cash in any quantity to any purchaser4 ,this led to speculation1 individuals and companies of individuals buying recklessly1 without intention of actual settlement1 but with the purpose of selling again at a profit4 ,this brought on a financial panic in #ahcg4 ,then followed the ,,preemption plan1 by which actual settlers could preempt land 7get the first right to it7 by merely taking possession and paying a cash price of #a4be an acre4 ,the ,homestead ,act of #ahfb was an extension of the preemption plan2 but instead of paying a cash price1 the settler could acquire the land merely by living on it for a period of five years 7now three7 and paying fees of about #dj4jj4 ,,homestead ,,acts ,the ,homestead ,act1 like earlier laws1 made a direct appeal to men's desire to earn a living1 to acquire property1 and especially to own homes4 ,it has been modified from time to time1 but in all essentials it still remains in force and provides that any citizen of the ,united ,states who has reached the age of twenty-one1 or who is the head of a family1 may acquire a farm on condition of living upon it for a period of three years1 cultivating the land and erecting a dwelling1 and paying to the government a small fee4 ,the size of the farm that he may so acquire varies according to the nature of the land1 but the usual homestead on good agricultural land is limited to #afj acres4 ,the purpose of the government has been to encourage ,,actual ,,settlement in order to secure the development of the nation's resources1 and for this purpose to allow each settler enough land to enable him to support a family in comfort4 ,it was decided that #afj acres of ,,good ,,farm ,,land was enough4 ,some portions of the public land1 however1 are less productive than others4 ,where the rainfall is slight and where irrigation is impracticable1 and yet where crops can be raised by the dry farming process1 the law allows a settler to take #cbj acres4 ,a settler may also obtain #cbj acres in the desert lands of some of the western states4 ,these lands may be made productive by irrigation1 but the settler must construct his own irrigation system4 ,originally #fdj acres were allowed in such lands1 but the amount has been reduced to #cbj acres1 and the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office now recommends 7#aiaf7 that it be further reduced to #afj acres4 ,in those parts of the desert region which the government has already reclaimed by irrigation1 thus making the land extremely fruitful1 the amount usually allowed a settler is from #dj to #hj acres4 ,there are regions where the land is suitable only for stock raising and for forage crops4 ,here ,congress has decided that #fdj acres is a fair amount for the support of a family4 ,lands that are valuable for their timber and mineral resources are disposed of on different terms1 but on somewhat the same principle4 ,,reclamation ,,of ,,lands ,,by ,,soldiers ,at the close of the war in #aiah a plan was proposed by the ,secretary of the ,interior to secure the occupation of land by returning soldiers4 ,since the lands suitable for farming in their natural state have practically all been disposed of2 the plan contemplates the reclamation of arid and swamp lands1 and of land from which the forests have been cut but which are still covered with stumps4 ,it is proposed that returned soldiers shall be employed by the government in the work of reclaiming the land1 and that those who desire to become farmers may buy their farms in the reclaimed lands at a reasonable price1 and with a period of thirty or forty years in which to pay for them4 ,the ,secretary of the ,interior said3 ,this plan does not contemplate anything like charity to the soldier 444 ,he is not to be made to feel that he is a dependent4 ,on the contrary1 he is to continue in a sense in the service of the ,government4 ,instead of destroying our enemies he is to develop our resources4 ,much of the land whose reclamation by and for returning soldiers is thus contemplated is not now public land1 but is lying idle in the hands of private owners4 ,,land ,,settlement ,,in ,,california ,the state of ,california has recently enacted a law known as the ,land ,settlement ,act1 which provides for a demonstration in planned rural development4 ,its first idea is educational1 to show what democracy in action can accomplish4 ,under the terms of this act the state acting through a ,land ,settlement ,board and with the cooperation of experts from the ,university of ,california1 has purchased several thousand acres of land at ,durham1 in ,butte ,county1 which it sells to settlers on easy terms4 ,it also lends money to settlers for improvement and equipment for the farmers4 ,the ,california ,land ,settlement ,act is significant1 because it eliminates speculation1 it aims to create fixed communities by anticipating and providing those things essential to early and enduring success4 ,another feature is the use it makes of cooperation4 ,the settlers are at the outset brought into close business and social relations4 ,it reproduces the best feature of the ,new ,england town meeting1 as every member of the community has a share in the discussions and planning for the general welfare4 ,this influence in rural life has been lacking in new communities in recent years4 ,in the great movement of people westward with its profligate disposal of public land1 settlement became migratory and speculative4 ,every man was expected to look out for himself4 ,rural neighborhoods became separated into social and economic strata4 ,there was the nonresident landowner2 the influential resident landowner2 the tenant1 aloof and indifferent to community improvements2 and1 below that1 the farm laborer who had no social status and who in recent years1 because of lack of opportunity and social recognition1 has migrated into the cities where he could have independence and self-respect1 or has degenerated into a hobo4 ,at ,durham1 for the first time in ,american land settlement1 the farm laborer who works for wages is recognized as having as useful and valuable a part in rural economy as the farm owner4 ,the provisions made for his home are intended to give to his wife and children comfort1 independence1 and self-respect2 in other words1 the things that help create character and sustain patriotism4 ,the farm laborers' homes already built are one of the most attractive features of the settlement2 and when the community members gather together1 as they do1 to discuss matters that affect the progress of the settlement1 or to arrange for cooperative buying and selling1 the farm laborer and his family are active and respected members of the meetings4 ,from maps in school histories study the claims of the seven states to western lands4 ,what is the ,ordinance of #aghg8 ,make reports on the circumstances connected with our various territorial acquisitions4 ,from whom did the colonists get the right to the land in the original thirteen colonies8 ,do you know anyone who has ever taken up a homestead claim8 ,if so1 learn how it was done4 ,if possible1 get a description of a land lottery and a land rush in newly opened public lands4 ,get all the information you can about the plan to provide land for the soldiers1 referred to above4 ,do you think this is a better plan than that of giving land to soldiers outright8 ,why8 ,is your state likely to cooperate with the national government in carrying out this plan8 ,how8 ,,the ,,nation',s ,,interests ,,are ,,first ,the policy of the government of disposing of the public lands to individuals has of course been of great benefit to the latter2 but we should not lose sight of the fact that the national well-being is the first consideration4 ,as the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office said in a recent report 7#aiaf71 ,every acre of public land disposed of under this line of legislation is ,,an ,,investment1 the profits to be found in the general development of the welfare of the nation at large4 ,,safeguarding ,,the ,,interests ,,of ,,individuals ,it has been no simple matter to administer our public lands1 and mistakes have been made4 ,sometimes the interests of individuals have not been sufficiently safeguarded4 ,many settlers have suffered serious loss1 and many promising communities have failed1 through the taking of homesteads in regions of little rainfall1 as in western ,kansas and ,nebraska4 ,the government now seeks to protect homesteaders against such errors by distinguishing carefully between lands suitable for ordinary agriculture and those suitable only for dry-farming and stock-raising1 by informing prospective settlers in regard to the facts1 and by allowing larger entries in lands of the latter classes4 ,another mistake was made in allowing many of the first claimants to stock- raising lands so to locate their claims as to acquire the exclusive use of the only available water supply for miles around1 thus making useless other large tracts4 ,this might have been avoided by a little foresight4 ,,abuse ,,of ,,land ,,laws ,on the other hand1 the land laws have sometimes been abused4 ,large quantities of public land have fallen into the hands of speculators whose purpose is not to develop its resources1 but to make a profit from the increased value of the land due to the efforts of others4 ,immense areas of land have thus been withheld from production1 or have been made to produce to a limited extent only1 to the great loss of the nation4 ,,railroad ,,lands ,in the days of transcontinental railroad building1 large tracts of land were given to the railroad companies by the government1 with the expectation that they would dispose of it at reasonable prices to settlers attracted by the new transportation facilities1 and would use the proceeds in railway development4 ,in fact1 however1 large quantities of this land have been held in an unproductive state for speculative purposes4 ,an illustration of this is the case of the ,oregon and ,california ,railroad land grant1 made by ,congress in #ahfi and #ahgj1 and comprising more than #d1bjj1jjj acres1 most of which bore a heavy growth of valuable timber4 ,this railroad grant 444 contained a special provision to the effect that the railroad company should sell the land it received to actual settlers only1 in quantities not greater than one-quarter section to one purchaser and at a price not exceeding #b4ej an acre4 ,by this precaution it was intended that in aiding the construction of the railroad an immediate impetus should also be given to the settlement and development of the country through which the road was to be constructed4 ,after selling some of the lands according to the terms of the agreement1 the railroad company ceased to live up to these terms and sold large bodies of the land to lumber interests1 thus putting a stop to the development of the region in the way intended by the government4 ,the government brought action against the railroad company1 the outcome of which is that the government has bought back from the company at #b4ej an acre all of the lands of the grant which remained unsold1 amounting to about #b1cjj1jjj acres and valued at from #cj1jjj1jjj to #ej1jjj1jjj4 ,these lands are being classified in accordance with their chief value1 either in power-site lands1 timber lands1 or agricultural lands1 and are to be disposed of accordingly4 ,the timber will be sold separately from the land1 and the land will then be opened to homestead entry4 ,by this arrangement the railroad company gets for the land all that it was entitled to under the terms of the original grant4 ,in addition1 provision is made for the payment to the counties in which the land lies of the taxes which the railroad company has not paid4 ,as the lands are sold1 the proceeds are to be divided between the state and the ,united ,states1 the state receiving #ej percent1 #dj percent being paid into the general reclamation fund of the ,united ,states 7see ,chapter ,,xiv1 p4 #bac71 and #aj per cent into the general funds of the ,united ,states ,treasury4 7,from the ,report of the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 #aiaf1 pp4 #df-di74 ,this is a striking illustration of how our government1 acting through ,congress1 the ,courts1 and the ,general ,land ,office of the ,department of the ,interior1 has sought to obtain justice for all parties concerned1 and to fulfill the original purpose of securing the development of the land in the interest of the state and the nation4 ,,lands ,,for ,,public ,,schools ,something like #acc1jjj1jjj acres of our public lands have from time to time been turned over to the states1 the proceeds to be used for the promotion of public education1 for the construction of roads1 and for other purposes 7see ,chapters ,,xvii and ,,xix74 ,in some cases these lands have not been used altogether for the purposes for which they were granted4 ,school lands have sometimes been sold at a nominal price to individuals who have reaped the profit1 whereas the lands might have been so administered by the states as to have brought large returns for educational purposes4 ,in some cases1 state officials have made unwise investments of the funds derived from the sale of the lands1 thereby losing them for the use of the state4 ,,land ,,monopoly ,,and ,,tenantry ,the control1 or monopolizing1 of the public land by large holders is said to be one of the causes of increasing tenantry 7,chapter ,x1 p4 #aaf72 for as the available supply of desirable farming land is diminished1 the actual home-seeker is driven to take less productive lands1 or to purchase from the large holders at a higher price4 ,the more recent land laws limit the amount of public land that an individual may acquire to an area sufficient to enable him to make a comfortable living for a family 7see above1 p4 #aii74 ,they also exact from the homesteader an agreement that he will actually occupy and cultivate the land4 ,,responsibility ,,for ,,land ,,frauds ,the responsibility for the defects in our methods of administering the public lands rests in part upon our governmental representatives1 who have not always dealt wisely with the extremely difficult problem4 ,but it rests also upon each individual citizen4 ,there are those1 be it said to our shame1 who deliberately seek to defeat the purpose of the laws and to appropriate to their own selfish uses the lands which belong to the nation as a whole4 ,there is one division of the ,general ,land ,office in ,washington known as the ,contest ,division4 ,before it come1 not only the ordinary disputes that are likely to arise between rival claimants1 but also cases of alleged fraud and violation of the land laws4 ,in the year #aiaf ,,more ,,than #ab1jjj ,,cases ,,of ,,alleged ,,fraud ,,were ,,acted ,,upon1 ,,and ,,nearly #ab1jjj ,,other ,,cases ,,awaited ,,action ,,at ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,year6 ,but the responsibility comes much closer home than this4 ,many of us who would not think of violating the law have failed to appreciate the value of the gifts that nature has given us1 and have apparently been too busy to inform ourselves as to whether or not our public lands have been administered solely for the purpose to which ,congress devoted them just after the ,revolution4 ,this1 like every other matter of community interest1 requires team work4 ,the community has certain rights to a citizen's land that are clearly recognized as superior to the citizen's rights4 ,acting through its government1 it may take a part of a citizen's property by taxation 7see ,chapter ,,xxiii74 ,taxes are paid in money2 but if a citizen does not pay the tax upon his land1 the government may sell the land for enough to cover the obligation4 ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,eminent ,,domain ,again1 the government may take a citizen's land for public uses1 if the interests of the community demand it1 by what is called the ,,right ,,of ,,eminent ,,domain4 ,for example1 if the interests of the community demand that a new road be built1 the government will seek to buy the necessary land from the farmers along the line of the proposed highway4 ,some farmer may say that he does not want the road to run through his farm1 or he may try to get a price beyond what his land is worth4 ,the government may then ,,condemn the required land and fix a price despite the farmer's objections4 ,the citizen whose land is taken must1 however1 be paid for it2 the ,constitution of the ,united ,states protects him by the provision1 nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation 7,amendment ,v1 last clause74 ,the right of eminent domain may be exercised to secure a site for a schoolhouse1 a post-office1 an army post1 or courthouse1 or for any other public purpose4 ,the government also authorizes corporations that perform a public service to exercise the right1 as in the case of railroads which must obtain a right of way for their tracks1 and sites for their yards and stations4 ,,the ,,police ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,government ,finally1 by the exercise of what is known as the ,,police ,,power1 the government may control the use to which a citizen may put his land4 ,occasion for the exercise of the police power arises most frequently in cities1 where it is necessary to control the construction of buildings for fire protection1 and to regulate the kinds of business that may be conducted4 ,in country districts it does not usually make so much difference what a man does on his own land2 but even there the police power may be exercised1 as when the state of ,idaho passed a law forbidding the herding of sheep within a certain distance of towns4 ,,political ,,relations ,,with ,,the ,,land ,there is another way in which government establishes relations between the people and the land4 ,citizens of the ,united ,states have certain political rights and duties1 such as voting1 holding office1 and paying taxes4 ,these rights may be enjoyed and the duties performed only within certain districts which the government creates for this purpose4 ,thus1 a citizen has a right to vote within the state where he lives1 but not in any other state4 ,he must cast his vote within his own county1 township1 and precinct4 ,the boundaries of the states are established by the national government 7except the original thirteen states of the ,union1 whose boundaries were fixed before the national government was organized72 but they may not be changed afterward without the consent of the states affected4 ,the states organize their own counties and townships ,footnote3 ,in the public land states the political township usually1 but not always1 corresponds with the township surveyed by the national government4 ,see pp4 #aid-aif4 and other districts4 ,villages and cities are granted definite boundaries by the state1 and organize themselves into wards and precincts4 ,there are legislative1 congressional1 judicial1 and revenue districts1 the boundaries of which are fixed by state and national governments4 ,locally1 there are school districts4 ,the boundaries which separate one nation from another are determined by agreement1 or treaty1 between the nations concerned4 ,uncertainty or indefiniteness in regard to national boundary lines has been the cause of much international strife1 and was an important factor in the ,european war begun by ,germany in #aiad4 ,if you live in a public land state1 for what uses have public lands been given to the state8 ,have the school lands in your state been wisely used8 ,is it easy for a young man to acquire a farm in your locality8 to keep up improvements on a farm that he owns8 ,has it been easy for a farmer in your locality to borrow money8 7,consult parents and friends47 ,have the farmers of your locality made much use of the ,federal ,farm ,loan ,act8 ,do they think it is a good law8 ,have you heard of forced sales of land in your community to pay taxes8 ,do you know of cases of the exercise of the right of eminent domain in your community8 ,for what purposes8 ,was it exercised by local1 state1 or national government8 ,in what ways does government control the use to which you may put the land on which you live8 ,in what township do you live8 school district8 congressional district8 state legislative district8 revenue district8 ,,readings ,annual reports of the ,secretary of the ,interior4 ,annual reports of the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 ,department of the ,interior1 ,washington4 ,the ,general ,land ,office has published a large wall map showing the land surveys1 the national forests1 and many other important items4 ,it may be secured from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 for #a4 ,see the ,new ,international ,encyclopedia and the ,encyclopedia ,americana on public lands1 national forests1 and other topics referred to in this chapter4 ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #d1 ,what nature has done for a typical city4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,conserving ,,our ,,natural ,,resources ,,resources ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,in the preceding chapter we learned that as a nation we have not been altogether thrifty in the disposal and use of our public lands4 ,the same thing will have to be said regarding the use of the resources of the land1 of which the soil is by far the most valuable4 ,it is said that #abjj boys in ,ohio1 organized in clubs1 increased the average yield of corn from #ce bushels to #ha bushels per acre4 ,the average returns per acre from the soil of the ,united ,states were lower before the war than in any ,european country1 except ,russia4 ,the following table gives the production per acre of four cereals in the ,united ,states and five ,european countries in #aiac4 ,the same relative position of the ,united ,states would be shown if we took the average production of these countries for a series of years4 ,,production ,,in ,,bushels ,,per ,,acre ,,under ,,cultivation ,,in #aiac ,,ability ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,farmer ,the low position of the ,united ,states in agriculture is by no means due to inferior ability on the part of the ,american farmer4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture says that ,even now no farmer in the world can compare with the ,american farmer in agricultural efficiency4 ,his adaptability to new and changing conditions1 to the use of improved machinery and processes1 coupled with the great natural resources with which the nation is endowed1 make him far superior to any of his competitors4 ,it is true that he does not produce more per acre than the farmers of some other nations4 ,production per acre1 however1 is not the ,american standard4 ,the standard is the amount of production for each person engaged in agriculture1 and by this test the ,american farmer appears to be from two to six times as efficient as most of his competitors4 ,,wastefulness ,,of ,,early ,,farming ,as long as we had a great abundance of unoccupied land it would perhaps have been uneconomic to increase the production of that which was occupied by the costly methods of agriculture used in ,belgium1 ,germany1 and other thickly settled countries4 ,but the old methods of farming not only failed to get from the soil all that it was then capable of producing1 they also robbed it of fertility without restoring to it what was taken from it4 ,thus the loss caused by wasteful methods was passed on to future generations4 ,to continue such methods in the light of our present knowledge and with our growing population is thriftless in the extreme4 ,methods of preserving and restoring the fertility of the soil and of obtaining the largest returns from it are now receiving the most careful attention from both state and national governments4 ,,idle ,,lands ,a great deal of land lies idle that might be productive of food-- not only arid1 swamp1 and cut-over lands1 mentioned in later paragraphs1 and land held for speculation1 but also vacant lots and unused back yards in cities and villages1 and waste or unused portions of cultivated farms4 ,it is largely from city and village lots that the ,school ,garden ,army obtained its remarkable results4 ,it is astonishing how many farmers buy instead of raising their vegetables for the table1 as well as feed for their stock4 ,texas1 for instance1 has purchased #bjj1jjj1jjj worth of food products yearly from northern markets which might have been produced more cheaply at home4 ,it takes #ae to #bj acres of land in ,texas to grow cotton enough to buy #afj bushels of canned sweet potatoes1 while one acre of ,texas soil would produce the same quantity1 and uncanned4 ,footnote3 ,,thrift1 a monograph published by the ,national ,education ,association1 #aiah4 ,such topics as the following should be studied1 consulting parents1 farmers of the locality1 and such printed sources of information as are available4 ,the important cereal crops of your state4 ,the average yield per acre of each4 ,increase or decrease in yield in recent years4 ,the work of corn clubs and other boys' and girls' clubs to increase the yield of crops in your state4 ,the difference between production per acre and production per person engaged in agriculture4 ,the difference between intensive and extensive agriculture4 ,single crop and diversified crop types of agriculture in your locality4 ,advantages of each4 ,extent to which farmers of your locality raise their own table vegetables and stock feed4 ,evidence furnished by your town1 or neighboring towns1 during the war1 of the wealth-producing power of vacant lots or unused backyards4 ,,reclamation ,,of ,,arid ,,lands ,much of our public land has been nonproductive solely because of the lack of moisture4 ,in #aijb a law known as the ,reclamation ,act was passed by ,congress1 providing that the proceeds from the sale of public lands in states containing arid regions1,footnote3 ,the states to which this law applies are ,arizona1 ,california1 ,colorado1 ,idaho1 ,kansas1 ,montana1 ,nebraska1 ,nevada1 ,new ,mexico1 ,north ,dakota1 ,oklahoma1 ,oregon1 ,south ,dakota1 ,utah1 ,washington1 and ,wyoming4 ,see map4 except such as were already devoted to educational and other public purposes1 should be used for the construction and maintenance of irrigation works4 ,this reclamation work is in charge of the ,reclamation ,service of the ,department of the ,interior1 whose engineers have built great dams and reservoirs from which the water has been led by canals and ditches into the desert4 ,by #aiaf more than #a1jjj1jjj acres had been irrigated under this act1 the crop value in that year reaching #ce1jjj1jjj4 ,the reclaimed land is disposed of to actual settlers in accordance with the homestead laws1 each homesteader repaying the government in annual installments the cost of reclaiming the land he occupies4 ,the fund so created is used by the government for further reclamation projects4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture sends its experts to advise with the farmers in regard to the problems peculiar to the reclaimed regions4 ,every effort should be and is1 therefore1 being made to promote the success of the farmer1 and on the basis of his success to increase the prosperity of the country4 ,footnote #b3 ,report of the ,reclamation ,service1 #aiab- #aiac1 p4 #d4 ,the ,yuma project in ,arizona opened a new ,valley of the ,nile where four crops of alfalfa are now raised on what once were arid lands4 ,the streets of ,yuma and ,somerton are crowded with the automobiles of farmers1 enriched by thousands of acres of splendid long-staple cotton1 alfalfa1 corn1 and feterita4 ,another irrigated valley in ,arizona1 that of the ,salt ,river1 has few superiors in the world and has come in three years into great prosperity4 ,arizona planted to cotton last year #ib1jjj acres4 ,its crop was #if per cent perfect1 the best record in the ,united ,states4 ,footnote3 ,arthur ,d4 ,little1 ,developing the ,estate1 ,,atlantic ,,monthly1 ,march1 #aiai4 ,the principal irrigation projects of the ,reclamation ,service are shown on the accompanying map4 ,,reclamation ,,by ,,states ,,and ,,private ,,enterprise ,five or six times as much arid land has been reclaimed by private enterprise as by the ,reclamation ,service4 ,the first extensive irrigation project in the ,west was a cooperative enterprise by the ,mormon colonists in ,utah4 ,it is said that about two fifths of the land irrigated in the ,united ,states is supplied with water by works built and controlled by individual farmers or by a few neighbors1 while another one third is supplied by stock companies4 ,as early as #ahgg ,congress passed a desert land law1 by which homesteads were granted in the arid lands on condition that the settlers should irrigate the land4 ,in #ahid the ,carey ,act was passed by ,congress under which the national government may give to a state as much as a million acres of arid public land within its borders1 on condition that the state provides for its irrigation4 ,the work is done by private stock companies1 with whom the state makes a contract for the purpose4 ,the most extensive irrigation project undertaken by private enterprise is that of the ,imperial ,valley in ,california1 which derives its water from the ,colorado ,river4 ,under the laws of ,california the ,imperial ,valley region has been organized as an irrigation district1 with power to levy taxes for the development and support of the irrigation work4 ,each state in which irrigation is practiced has its own laws regulating the use of water by farmers and other consumers4 ,the theory is that the state regulates the appropriation of the water1 exercising this power and holding the land in trust for the public 444 ,it is the duty of every state to which the ,reclamation ,act is applicable to assist with every resource under its control4,footnote3 ,water ,supply ,paper1 #bcd1 ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,department of the ,interior1 p4 #ff4 ,reference has been made in ,chapter ,,xiv to the proposed plan for the reclamation and settlement of new areas of arid land by returning soldiers4 ,,swamp ,,lands ,there are probably #hj1jjj1jjj acres of swamp lands in the ,united ,states which could be made productive by drainage4 ,farmers themselves could reclaim much of this land at comparatively small cost1 greatly increasing their own profit and the wealth of the country4 ,one farm in ,wisconsin has #dj acres of poorly drained land that in its present condition is practically worthless4 #be4jj per acre spent in drainage will make this #dj-;acre tract the equal of any in the district1 and good land is selling there at #aej4jj per acre4 ,footnote #b3 ,unprofitable ,acres1 in ,,year ,,book1 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aiae1 ,p4 #adg4 ,the national government has at various times granted to the states swamp lands aggregating #fj1jjj1jjj acres1 with the expectation that the states would reclaim them4 ,the states have1 however1 done very little to fulfill the expectation4 ,these swamp lands are among those whose reclamation by returning soldiers is proposed by the government4 ,investigate and report on the following topics3 ,the work of the ,reclamation ,service of the national government4 ,if you live in one of the states to which the ,reclamation ,act applies1 report on what has been accomplished by it in your state4 ,the development of one of the irrigation projects shown on the map4 ,irrigation by private or state enterprise in your state 7if any71 and what it has accomplished4 ,the reclamation of ,utah by the ,mormons4 ,the development of the ,imperial ,valley of ,california4 ,the laws regulating the use of water for irrigation in your state 7if an irrigated state74 ,the swamp areas in your locality or state4 ,progress made in their reclamation4 ,the reclamation of swamp or marshy land on particular farms of your locality4 ,the extent of idle cut-over land in your locality1 why it is idle1 the uses to which it could be put if reclaimed4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,water ,,power ,by the construction of dams1 reservoirs1 and canals the waters of a few of our streams are turned to the work of reclaiming land4 ,our unused water resources are very great4 ,niagara ,falls have been harnessed for industrial uses1 and with only a small part of their power in use they light the streets and houses1 run the street cars1 and turn the wheels of industry in ,buffalo and ,toronto and the neighboring region4 ,but so far we are making use of less than #aj per cent of the power easily available from our streams4 ,the water now flowing idly from our hills to the sea could turn every factory wheel and every electric generator1 operate our railroads1 and still leave much energy to spare for new developments4 ,footnote3 ,arthur ,d4 ,little1 ,developing the ,estate1 ,,atlantic ,,monthly1 ,march1 #aiai1 p4 #chh4 ,it is probably not too much to expect that when our undeveloped water power is utilized it will provide electric light and power for every farm in the land4 ,our nation has allowed many of the best water power sites of the country to fall into the hands of private speculators who hold them undeveloped1 as in the case of farmlands1 forests1 and other resources4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,flood ,,waters ,floods are not only immensely destructive of property1 causing a loss of #ajj1jjj1jjj along the ,mississippi ,river alone in a single year1 but they carry to the sea water that might be used for irrigation and for industry4 ,reservoirs1 such as are built for irrigating projects1 regulate the flow of water in streams and prevent floods4 ,in ,new ,england and ,new ,york reservoirs have been built for this very purpose1 and probably #aj per cent of the flood waters that originate in these states is saved in this way and turned to industrial uses4 ,similar conservation of flood waters occurs in ,minnesota1 but it is estimated that for the country as a whole not more than one per cent of the flood waters is saved4 ,footnote3 ,conservation of ,water ,resources1 ,water ,supply ,paper #bcd1 ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey1 #aiai4 ,there are areas in which the reservoir system is impracticable1 as in the lower ,mississippi ,valley4 ,here all that can be done is to protect the adjacent land by means of levees while controlling the floods farther up the valley4 ,,fuel ,,resources ,larger use of water power would conserve another valuable resource--coal4 ,of this fuel we have vast resources--in ,west ,virginia alone more than ,great ,britain and ,germany combined4 ,but the supply is not inexhaustible and we are mining it and using it in an extravagant manner4 ,the loss here is not merely of heat and power and light1 but of many valuable products of coal1 including dyes1 ammonia1 vaseline1 and many others4 ,,destruction ,,by ,,floods ,floods are increasing in the ,united ,states4 ,this is due chiefly to the destruction of our forests by wasteful lumbering and by fire4 ,in forested areas the ground absorbs the rainfall more easily1 while in areas barren of trees and other vegetation it runs off the surface4 ,the destruction of the forests1 therefore1 involves not only the loss of the timber1 but also the loss caused by the floods1 including the washing away of the soil4 ,,the ,,forest ,,reserves ,in #ahia ,congress authorized the ,president to establish forest reserves1 the first to be created being the ,yellowstone ,park ,timberland ,reserve4 ,from time to time new reserves were established1 and in #aijg the name was changed to the ,national ,forests4 ,in #aiag1 more than #agf million acres were included within the ,national ,forest boundaries1 #ba million acres of which1 however1 belonged to private owners4 ,they are administered by the ,forest ,service of the ,department of ,agriculture1 at the head of which is the ,chief ,forester4 ,they are grouped in seven districts with a district forester in charge of each4 ,over each of the #aej forests in the seven districts there is a forest supervisor2 and each forest is further subdivided into ranger districts under district rangers who not only look after timber sales and the use of the forests generally1 but also help build roads1 trails1 bridges1 telephone lines1 and other permanent improvements4 ,a ranger must naturally be sound in body1 for he is called upon to work for long periods in all kinds of weather4 ,he must also know how to pack supplies and find food for himself and his horse in a country where it is often scarce4 ,besides a written test1 prospective rangers are examined in compass surveying1 timber work1 and the handling of horses4 ,footnote3 ,government ,forest ,work1 ,forest ,service1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 p4 #ae4 ,there are also employed in the ,forests great numbers of logging engineers1 lumbermen1 scalers1 planting assistants1 guards1 and others4 ,in the great war1 the ,forest ,service raised two regiments of men who went to ,france to assist in the various kinds of forestry work necessitated by the war4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,,service ,the purpose of the ,forest ,service is to secure the use of the forests in such a way that they will yield all their resources to the fullest extent without exhausting them1 for the benefit primarily of the home builder4 ,the controlling policy is serving the public while conserving the forests4 ,footnote3 ,the ,status of ,forestry in the ,united ,states1 ,forest ,service ,circular #afg1 #aiji1 p4 #e4 ,timber is cut and sold1 but always with a view to developing future growth4 ,the forests are protected against fire4 ,burned-over areas are reforested by planting4 ,water power sites are protected4 ,the freest possible use of forest pasture land is permitted1 but under such regulations as to prevent injury to the forests and the denudation of the land by overgrazing4 ,in #aiae1 nine million cattle1 horses1 sheep1 and goats were pastured in the forests4 ,in #aiaf it was said that more than #bj million dollars will probably be spent in the next ten years in building good roads in the ,national ,forests4 ,footnote #b3 ,opening up the ,national ,forests by ,road ,building1 ,,year ,,book of the ,department of ,agriculture1 #aiaf4 ,also reprinted in separate ,leaflet ,no4 #fif4 ,,waste ,,of ,,timber ,,resources ,but our timber resources are not all in the ,national ,forests1 and the waste continues to an appalling extent4 ,with a total annual cut of #dj1jjj1jjj1jjj feet1 board-measure1 of merchantable lumber1 another #gj1jjj1jjj1jjj feet are wasted in the field and at the mill4 ,in the yellow-pine belt the values in rosin1 turpentine1 ethyl alcohol1 pine oil1 tar1 charcoal1 and paper stock lost in the waste are three or four times the value of the lumber produced4 ,enough yellow-pine pulp-wood is consumed in burners1 or left to rot1 to make double the total tonnage of paper produced in the ,united ,states4 ,but the wastes in lumbering1 colossal though they are in absolute amount1 are trivial compared to the losses which our estate has suffered1 and still endures1 from forest fires4 ,the ,french properly regard as a national calamity the destruction of perhaps a thousand square miles of their fine forests by ,german shells4 ,and yet the photographs that they show of this wreck and utter demolition may be reproduced indefinitely on #aj1jjj1jjj acres of our forest lands swept each year by equally devastating fire for which our own people are responsible4 ,you have doubtless already forgotten that forest fire which last autumn1 in ,minnesota1 burned over an area half as large again as ,massachusetts1 destroying more than twenty-five towns1 killing #djj people1 and leaving #ac1jjj homeless4 ,footnote3 ,developing the ,estate1 ,,atlantic ,,monthly1 ,march1 #aiai1 pp4 #chd-che4 ,the nation has been defrauded of a great deal of wealth in timber by speculators who have taken advantage of the homestead laws4 ,single tracts of #afj acres often have a value for the timber alone of #bj1jjj 444 ,lands acquired 444 under the guise of the homestead law are to-day in the hands of lumber companies who promptly purchased them from the settlers as soon as the title passed1 and are either reserving them for later cutting or are holding the land itself after cutting for from #dj to #fj an acre1 or even more--a speculative process which effectively prevents the possibility of men of small means acquiring and establishing homes there4 ,footnote #b3 ,the ,national ,forests and the ,farmer1 in ,,year ,,book1 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aiad1 p4 #gj4 ,to prevent this sort of thing1 the government now sells the timber and the land separately1 withholding from agricultural entry heavily timbered land until the timber is cut off4 ,in the ,kaniksy ,national ,forest1 in ,idaho and ,washington1 timber sales have been made to include much of the remaining agricultural timberland4 ,within eight years fully #aj1jjj acres of land will be made available for settlement4 ,permanent homes will be established and there will be available for the use of the communities approximately #bbe1jjj for roads and schools1 their share of the proceeds from the sale of the timber4 ,footnote #c3 ,,ibid41 p4 #ga4 ,,state ,,forests ,besides the ,national ,forests1 there are more than #d1jjj1jjj acres of ,,state ,,forests4 ,twenty-four states have forestry departments1 sometimes under a state board or a commission1 sometimes under the control of a single state forester1 as in ,massachusetts and ,virginia4 ,in ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 and ,wisconsin the state forestry is a part of the work of a general conservation commission4 ,in ,connecticut it is centered in the state agricultural experiment station1 and in ,texas in the agricultural college4 ,in ,south ,dakota the state forester is under the commissioner of schools and public lands4 ,so there is great variety in the organization of forestry work1 and great variation in the amount and kind of attention given to it4 ,,privately ,,owned ,,timberlands ,the difference between the number of states having state forests and the number having forestry departments is due to the fact that the public forests embrace only a small part of the timbered land of a state4 ,it will be noted from the table on page #bbe that only one southern state 7,north ,carolina2 two if ,maryland is counted7 has state forests4 ,six of them 7eight with ,maryland and ,virginia7 have state forestry departments4 ,more attention is now being given to forest preservation and use in the ,south than these facts indicate1 because of cooperation between state and national governments1 chiefly through the county agents4 ,such cooperation also exists in the northern states4 ,the map on page #bdb shows cooperation for fire protection in ,new ,hampshire4 ,,voluntary ,,protective ,,associations ,the conservation of our forest resources requires cooperation on the part of citizens4 ,in many states there are timberland owners' fire protective associations1 in #aiag about fifty of them4 ,there is an ,american ,forestry ,association that publishes a magazine devoted to forestry1 ,,american ,,forestry2 a ,society of ,american ,foresters2 ,the ,camp ,fire ,club of ,america1 with a committee on conservation of forests and wild life4 ,besides1 there is a considerable number of local associations with similar purposes4 ,,erosion ,it is not always realized how important to our welfare the forests are1 especially from the point of view of agricultural production4 ,a very large part of the timbered area of the ,united ,states is in small woodlands on privately owned farms4 ,not only are the timber resources themselves of great value1 but the relation of woodland to agriculture is very close1 especially in its effect upon soil erosion4 ,altogether it has been estimated that erosion is responsible for an annual loss in this country of approximately #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,to the farmer it means money out of pocket from start to finish4 ,it impairs the fertility and decreases the productivity of his land1 and may even ruin it altogether2 it renders irrigation more difficult and more costly2 by reducing the possibilities of cheap water power development it tends to keep up the price and check the more extended use of electricity2 and by interfering with navigation it helps to prevent the development of a comprehensive system of cheap inland water transportation4 ,but the farmer is not the only sufferer4 ,the entire community is directly affected by the loss and is justified in taking heroic measures to remedy the evil4 ,if the problem is to be solved we must cease to accelerate surface run-off by burning the forests and brush fields1 overgrazing the range1 clearing steep slopes for agriculture1 and practicing antiquated methods of cultivation4 ,on the contrary1 the farmer1 the forester1 and the stockman must cooperate in seeing that the land is so used that surface run-off1 particularly at the higher elevations1 is reduced to a minimum4 ,children in particular should have their interest actively aroused and their support enlisted4 ,in one state1 gully clubs have been organized by the state forester4 ,these are composed largely of school children who take an active part in the work of gully reclamation and particularly in finding and checking incipient gullies before it is too late4 ,why could not such organizations as boy scouts1 girl scouts1 and campfire girls be used in the same way8 ,footnote3 ,farms1 ,forests1 and ,erosion1 ,,year ,,book of the ,department of ,agriculture1 #aiaf1 pp4 #ajg-acd4 ,,mineral ,,resources ,soil1 water1 and forests are only a few of the rich natural resources of our country1 although they are among the most important4 ,great as the mineral production of our country now is1 we have only begun to open the mineral storehouse4 ,on the other hand1 we have been extremely wasteful of some of our minerals1 as in the case of natural gas1 oil1 and coal4 ,the war has done more1 perhaps1 than anything else to open our eyes to our mineral wealth and to convict us of our wastefulness in the past4 ,in the light of what it has shown us we should redouble our efforts to conserve our resources4 ,our government has been gradually developing a program of conservation which we should help to make effective4 ,at the end of this chapter will be found references to interesting accounts of our national wealth1 and of what the government is doing to conserve it in other directions than those described in this chapter4 ,many of these references are to publications issued by the government itself1 which can be obtained for the asking4 ,investigate and report on4 ,losses in your state from periodic floods4 ,measures adopted or proposed to control them4 ,the by products of coal and of petroleum4 ,the ,forest ,service of the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,a description of your state forests 7if any74 ,forestry in your own state1 public and private4 ,losses from forest fires in your state4 ,the life of a forest ranger4 ,the use of the farm woodlot in your locality4 ,the extent and effects of soil erosion in your locality or state4 ,measures taken to prevent it4 ,the feasibility of gully clubs in your locality4 ,the mineral resources of your state4 ,uses in war and peace4 ,game laws of your state4 ,,readings ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #ac1 ,the ,united ,states ,food ,administration4 ,lesson #ad1 ,substitute ,foods4 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #e1 ,saving the soil4 ,lesson #f1 ,making dyes from coal tar4 ,lesson #i1 ,how men made heat to work4 ,lesson #ac1 ,the ,department of the ,interior4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #d1 ,petroleum and its uses4 ,lesson #e1 ,conservation as exemplified by irrigation projects4 ,lesson #f1 ,checking waste in the production and use of coal4 ,lesson #aj1 ,iron and steel4 ,lesson #ad1 ,the ,united ,states ,fuel ,administration4 ,lesson #af1 ,the ,commercial ,economy ,board of the ,council of ,national ,defense4 ,reports of your ,state ,agricultural ,college and ,experiment ,station1 and of your ,state ,geologist and other officers having to do with the natural resources of your state4 ,annual ,reports of the ,secretary of the ,interior4 ,that for #aiae 7pp4 #a-cj7 contains an interesting review of our natural resources and their use2 also 7pp4 #aea-bji7 a comprehensive and interesting discussion of our mineral resources and their development4 ,that for #aiah contains an account of the plan for land reclamation by and for soldiers4 ,publications of the ,geological ,survey1 the ,bureau of ,mines1 and the ,reclamation ,service 7all in the ,department of the ,interior71 and of the ,bureau of ,fisheries 7,department of ,commerce74 ,publications of the ,forestry ,service 7,department of ,agriculture74 ,among the numerous publications of the ,department of ,agriculture may be mentioned3 ,farmers' ,bulletin #cdj7;,declaration of ,governors for the conservation of natural resources74 ,the ,national ,forests and the farmer1 ,,year ,,book #aiad1 #fe-hh4 ,importance of developing our natural resources of potash1 ,,year ,,book #aiaf1 pp4 #cja-caj4 ,agriculture and ,government reclamation projects1 ,,year ,,book #aiaf1 #agg-aih4 ,farms1 forests1 and erosion1 ,,year ,,book #aiaf1 #ajg-acd4 ,the farm woodlot problem1 ,,year ,,book #aiad1 #dci-def4 ,economy of farm drainage1 ,,year ,,book #aiad1 #bde-bef4 ,economic waste from soil erosion1 ,,year ,,book #aiac1 #bjg-bbj4 ,unprofitable acres1 ,,year ,,book #aiae1 #adg-aed4 ,consult ,guide to ,united ,states ,government ,publications1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education ,bulletin1 #aiah1 ,no4 #b2 also1 ,the ,federal ,executive ,departments as ,sources of ,information1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #gd4 ,report of the ,national ,conservation ,commission 7#aiji71 ,senate ,document #fgf1 #fjth ,congress1 #bnd ,session4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,protection ,,of ,,property ,,and ,,property ,,rights ,,destruction ,,of ,,property ,there is nothing more discouraging than to have the product of one's labor swept away by disaster4 ,the farmer who has every prospect of a bumper crop after a hard season's work may have his hope dashed by smut in his grain1 or by a visitation of grasshoppers1 or by storm and flood4 ,cholera may carry off his hogs1 or hoof-and-mouth disease his cattle4 ,rats and other rodents may eat his grain4 ,fire may destroy his barn or his home4 ,the thief may steal his pocketbook or his automobile4 ,his investments may prove unfortunate1 or be swept away by somebody's bad management or fraud4 ,some thoughtless boys or deliberate vandals may ruin in a few minutes a beautiful lawn or trees that have taken years to grow and have involved great expense and effort4 ,,the ,,national ,,loss ,,from ,,property ,,destruction ,the individual's loss is also a loss to the community4 ,it is reported by the ,department of ,agriculture that nearly #hjj1jjj1jjj damage was done to crops by insects in a single year4 ,animal diseases cause a direct loss to our country estimated at #bab1jjj1jjj annually4 ,hog cholera alone costs #ge1jjj1jjj a year4 ,smut destroys more than #ej1jjj1jjj a year in cereals4 ,food and feed products to the value of #aej1jjj1jjj a year are destroyed by prairie dogs1 ground squirrels1 and other rodents4 ,it is said that prairie dogs often take half the pasturage of western cattle ranges4 ,it is estimated that the killing of wolves1 coyotes1 mountain lions1 bobcats1 and lynxes saved more than #b1jjj1jjj worth of livestock in #aiah4 ,floods have destroyed #ajj1jjj1jjj in property in the ,mississippi ,valley alone4 ,the loss from fire in the ,united ,states is said to equal the value of our total product of gold1 silver1 copper1 and petroleum4 ,the buildings consumed by fire in #aiad1 if placed on lots of #fe feet frontage1 would line both sides of a street extending from ,new ,york to ,chicago4 ,a person journeying along this street of desolation would pass in every thousand feet a ruin from which an injured person was taken4 ,at every three fourths of a mile in this journey he would encounter the charred remains of a human being who has been burned to death4 ,footnote3 ,the ,fire ,tax and ,waste of ,structural ,materials in the ,united ,states1 ,bulletin #had1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,department of the ,interior4 ,,the ,,service ,,of ,,goverment ,protection against loss of property is one of the chief services performed for us by our government4 ,we have already noted in ,chapter ,,xii what a great deal of work both the national and state governments are doing to prevent loss of crops and of livestock from disease1 insects1 and other causes4 ,what this may mean to the individual farmer and to the country is suggested by the case of a farmer who had hundreds of acres of corn destroyed in some manner unknown to him4 ,a single visit from a representative of the ,department of ,agriculture showed him the cause of the trouble1 the corn rootworm1 and how it could be eradicated by a simple rotation of crops4 ,the farmer said that this knowledge would save him #aj1jjj a year4 ,,leadership ,,and ,,cooperation ,the state and national governments spend a great deal of money in equipping experimental laboratories and employing scientists to seek out these enemies of the farmer and of the nation1 to find methods of destroying them or counteracting their effects1 and to advise the farmer how he may protect himself and his neighbors4 ,while the government provides leadership in these matters1 it depends upon the cooperation of the people to get results1 as we have seen in so many cases4 ,a farmer may destroy all the rats1 or ground squirrels1 or prairie dogs on his place1 but the trouble will be repeated unless there is community cooperation4 ,the same thing is true of animal and plant diseases1 insect enemies1 and so on4 ,investigate and report on3 ,further facts regarding losses to farmers of the ,united ,states due to insect and bird enemies1 predatory animals1 animal and plant diseases4 ,similar losses in your own state4 ,estimated losses of individual farmers in your locality from any of these causes4 ,the value of insect-eating birds as property savers4 ,campaigns against rabbits and prairie dogs in the ,west4 ,bounties on wolves and other predatory animals in your state4 ,the work of your state experiment station to prevent loss of property4 ,,national ,,cooperation ,,for ,,flood ,,prevention ,some kinds of protection require effort beyond the powers of individual citizens1 or even of combined citizen action4 ,this is the case with flood protection4 ,millions of dollars in property have been destroyed1 thousands of lives lost1 and untold suffering caused by the periodic recurrence of floods in certain sections of the country1 as in the lower ,mississippi ,valley1 or as in ,ohio1 a few years ago4 ,the individual farmer has some responsibility for such floods1 because by looking after his own drainage and preserving his own timberland he may help decrease the amount of water that flows into the streams and ultimately causes such havoc farther down the valley4 ,but such efforts are helpful only in connection1 with the larger efforts of the government4 ,even state governments cannot alone control the floods1 because the waters that cause damage in ,louisiana and ,mississippi come from the states along the entire course of the ,mississippi ,river and its tributaries4 ,moreover1 the destruction caused in ,louisiana or any other state is a loss to the entire nation4 ,the control of floods requires the combined efforts of national and state governments1 as well as of local communities and individuals4 ,levees have been built along some of our rivers that are subject to flood1 notably the lower ,mississippi1 where the work has been done by the joint action of the states affected1 through their local levee boards and their state boards of engineers1 and the ,united ,states ,mississippi ,river ,commission4 ,the ,united ,states government has spent large sums for river improvements1 but there is a general feeling that the money has not always been wisely spent4 ,at all events the work has been restricted to navigable streams under the power of the national government to regulate interstate commerce4 ,recently1 however1 the ,president has approved a law passed by ,congress appropriating #de1jjj1jjj for the control of the floods of the ,mississippi by improvements from the headwaters of the river to the mouth of the ,ohio4 ,the law also includes the appropriation of #e1jjj1jjj for the protection of the ,sacramento ,valley in ,california4 ,this law was passed under the power given to ,congress by the ,constitution to lay and collect taxes444for the common defense and general welfare of the ,united ,states 7,art4 ,i1 sec4 #h1 clause i74 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,weather ,,bureau ,great saving of property has been effected by the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau4 ,the work of this ,bureau is wonderful1 but it is not mysterious4 ,just as the movements of a ship or of a railroad train may be reported day by day1 and hour by hour1 by telegraph1 so the appearance and movement of a storm center or of a cold wave or of a flood are reported from a multitude of observing stations4 ,there are central weather-forecasting stations at ,chicago1 ,new ,orleans1 ,denver1 ,san ,francisco1 ,portland1 ,ore41 and ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,weather forecasts are made up at these points from observations telegraphed in from observing stations1 and within two hours are telegraphed to about #afjj distributing stations1 from which they are further distributed to about #ij1jjj mail addresses daily1 to all newspapers1 and are made available to #e1ejj1jj x#c telephone subscribers4 ,a farmer may call central by telephone and learn with remarkable certainty what the weather for twenty-four hours will be1 except in the case of local thunder showers which may drench his fields while passing by those of his neighbor4 ,it may be said without exaggeration that the ,san ,francisco office of the ,weather ,bureau has saved to the citrus fruit growers of ,california more money within the last five years than the annual appropriation for the entire ,bureau during a period of twenty years4 ,in the citrus fruit districts of ,california it is reported that fruit to the value of #ad1jjj1jjj was saved444 during one cold wave4 ,the value of the orange bloom1 vegetables1 and strawberries protected and saved on a single night in a limited district in ,florida444was reported at over #ajj1jjj4 ,the warnings issued for a single cold wave444 resulted in saving over #c1ejj1jjj through the protection of property4 ,signals displayed for a single hurricane are known to have detained in port on our ,atlantic coast vessels valued with their cargoes at over #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,flood warnings are sent in from about #fj centers along our rivers1 enabling farmers to remove their cattle from bottom lands1 to save their crops when they are ready for cutting1 and otherwise to determine their farming operations4 ,they are also of the greatest service to railroads1 business men1 and home owners1 in cities4 ,these are but a few illustrations of the services performed by the ,weather ,bureau4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the building of levees in your state4 ,where1 by whom1 their value4 ,the amount of money spent in your state for river improvement 7or harbor improvement74 ,how the ,weather ,bureau forecasts the weather1 storms1 floods4 ,how to read a weather map4 ,experiences of individual farmers of their locality with regard to benefits derived from the ,weather ,bureau4 ,how a merchant in your town may be benefited by the ,weather ,bureau4 ,the losses in your state and locale from frost4 ,preventable ,losses ,a great deal of the property loss referred to is due to causes for which we are not responsible1 such as storms1 the depredations of insects1 and epidemics of animal disease4 ,but some of it is due to our own carelessness4 ,it was said on page #agf that wastefulness is our chief national sin4 ,carelessness is the twin sister of wastefulness2 they go hand in hand4 ,enormous waste is caused by fire1 and most fires are due to carelessness--carelessness in handling matches1 in the use of oil stoves1 in accumulations of rubbish1 in disposing of hot ashes1 in smoking where there are inflammable materials4 ,fire ,protection in ,cities ,in cities and towns the safety of our own property from fire is largely dependent upon the care of others4 ,if our neighbor is careless1 our property as well as his may be destroyed4 ,under such circumstances it is necessary to have rules to regulate conduct for the common safety4 ,the materials with which we may build1 the thickness of our walls1 the construction of our flues1 the storage of explosive or inflammable materials1 the disposal of rubbish and ashes1 and many other things1 are regulated by law4 ,this is cooperation for fire prevention4 ,much money is also spent by cities for fire protection1 including water supply and organized fire departments4 ,,fire ,,protection ,,in ,,rural ,,communities ,where people live widely separated from one another1 as in rural communities1 such regulations are less necessary and organized fire protection is less easy to afford4 ,a farmer's property may be destroyed by fire from a spark from a passing locomotive1 or from the camp of a careless hunter in the adjoining woods4 ,there may be state laws to control such cases4 ,but in the main1 if his property burns it is due to the carelessness of some one who lives on the premises1 and he is dependent upon his own efforts to control the fire4 ,improved farm water supply with adequate pumping facilities1 the telephone by which neighbors may be summoned1 and the automobile by which help may quickly be brought1 have increased the farmer's safety2 but his chief safeguard is the exercise of care by all who live on the farm at every point where a fire might possibly be started4 ,,fire ,,insurance ,fire insurance is a means of reducing the fire loss of individual property owners by a form of cooperation4 ,insurance companies1 operating under state laws1 sell insurance to property owners4 ,the latter pay a small premium for the protection afforded4 ,from the funds produced by the premiums and the interest on their investment1 the occasional losses of individuals are paid4 ,this does not prevent the destruction of the property1 but it distributes the loss among thousands of people1 perhaps in all parts of the country4 ,,farmers' ,,cooperative ,,insurance ,there are in the ,united ,states about #bjjj ,,farmers' ,,cooperative ,,fire ,,insurance ,,companies1 carrying insurance amounting to more than #e billion dollars4 ,these companies are associations of farmers who elect their own directors and manage their own insurance business4 ,they provide insurance at a much lower rate than the ordinary commercial insurance companies4 ,a usual provision of the laws under which these cooperative companies operate is that no member may insure his property for its full value4 ,his neighbors will help him bear his loss1 but will not bear it all4 ,this has the effect of causing him to exercise greater care to prevent fire on his premises4 ,for this reason insurance does reduce the actual fire loss to some extent4 ,property may also be insured against loss from storm and flood4 ,investigate and report on3 ,fire losses in your community in a year4 ,causes of fires in your community last year4 ,number that were preventable4 ,precautions against fire in your home and school4 ,fire preventive regulations in your community4 ,cost of fire prevention in your community4 ,improved means of fire prevention in country districts4 ,how fire insurance works4 ,cooperative fire insurance companies in your state4 ,storm insurance in your locality4 ,,police ,,protection ,all states have laws to protect their citizens against the ill- mannered who do not respect property rights--thieves1 burglars1 highwaymen1 vandals1 sharpers1 and others4 ,the enforcement of these laws is left largely in the hands of local community officers4 ,cities have police departments1 with large numbers of patrolmen and detectives whose business it is not only to arrest violators of the law after the violation has taken place1 but also by their vigilance to prevent the violation from occurring4 ,,rural ,,police ,,protection ,the state laws against the violation of property rights apply to rural communities as well as to cities1 and rural communities have officers for their enforcement--the constable in townships1 the sheriff and his deputies in counties4 ,where the population is small and widely scattered1 as in a rural township or county1 about all the officers can do is to arrest law violators after the commission of the unlawful act1 if they can be found4 ,the officers are too few to watch isolated and remote property1 and in case of serious disturbance1 such as a riot1 they are too few to handle the situation effectively4 ,rural communities and many small industrial or mining communities do not always have the protection they need against lawlessness4 ,in such cases the tendency is sometimes for the people to take the law in their own hands4 ,in times of labor trouble mining companies and other industrial corporations have sometimes organized their own police4 ,such practice is dangerous1 for the enforcement of law should be in the hands of the state1 and not in the hands of an interested party4 ,in early days on the frontier1 in mining and lumber camps1 vigilance committees were common2 and even now1 in various localities1 we hear too frequently of lynching parties1 which are as lawless as the original offenders against the law1 and tend to create a disrespect for law4 ,and yet disrespect for law may also result from failure on the part of the community to enforce the law through regular agencies1 from failure of officers to apprehend offenders promptly1 or of courts to mete out justice promptly and impartially4 ,,state ,,police ,canada has been more efficient than the ,united ,states in affording protection to remote and rural communities1 by means of her national mounted police4 ,the isolated farmer and his wife slept securely in their sod hovel beyond the frontier1 because they knew that a brave and swift corps of vigilant young athletes 444 kept sleepless vigil4 ,life and property were secure 444 4 ,footnote3 ,c4,r4 ,henderson1 ,rural ,police1 ,,annals ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 #aiab1 p4 #bbh4 ,in our own country ,texas has her rangers who protect her borders against raids2 but the best example of rural policing in the ,united ,states is in ,pennsylvania1 where there is a well-organized state police1 or constabulary1 which has many times proved its efficiency in protecting remote rural communities and homes1 in bringing criminals to justice1 and in quelling riots in mining centers4 ,,vandalism ,a great deal of property is destroyed or injured by ,,vandals4 ,the original ,vandals were a tribe of ,germanic peoples who invaded southern and western ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 and who were noted for their destructiveness of the beautiful buildings and other evidences of ,roman civilization4 ,there seem to be vandals in almost every community1 and sometimes they seem to be especially numerous in small communities1 perhaps because of the lack of police protection4 ,sometimes vandalism is wanton1--that is1 it results from an apparent love of being destructive4 ,most often it is purely thoughtless4 ,few people would knowingly injure the property of another if they would stop to think of their feelings if another should injure ,,their property4 ,it is a case of bad manners4 ,moreover1 it is not a square deal to injure another's property while expecting one's own property to be secure4 ,when vandalism occurs in a community it creates a general feeling of insecurity and destroys the sense of freedom4 ,,public ,,property is often more likely to suffer from vandalism than private property4 ,some people will mar the walls of public buildings1 or make their floors filthy with expectoration1 when they would not think of doing so in private buildings4 ,they will break shrubbery in public parks1 or despoil public flower beds1 when they would not think of entering private premises for such purpose4 ,there seems to be a feeling that public property belongs to no one1 or else that1 since it is public1 any one is at liberty to do as he pleases with it4 ,this1 of course1 is foolish4 ,it is as if a stockholder in a business corporation should injure or destroy the corporation property1 forgetting that he owned a share in it and suffered a share of the loss4 ,investigate and report on3 ,organization of police protection in your community4 ,organization of a police department in a large city4 ,the ,mounted ,police of ,canada and their work4 ,the ,texas rangers4 ,the state police of ,pennsylvania4 ,vigilance committees in frontier towns of former times4 ,why lynching is wrong4 ,the promptness with which justice is meted out in the courts of your state4 ,the extent and causes of vandalism in your community4 ,is vandalism justifiable on ,halloween8 ,inspect the courthouse and other public buildings in your community and report as to whether they are disfigured in any way4 ,,the ,,sacredness ,,of ,,property ,,rights ,when a thief or vandal takes or destroys another person's property1 the loss of the property is not the worst thing that happens1 but the attack upon ,,property ,,rights4 ,the right to security in one's possessions is among the most sacred rights of a free people1 being classed with the right to life1 the right of free speech1 the right of petition1 the right to freedom of religion4 ,it is by securing these rights that the law makes us free4 ,the sacred right to property is as truly violated by one who steals a nickel as by one who robs a bank of a thousand dollars1 by one who ruins our flower bed as well as by one who burns our house4 ,the amount has nothing to do with it4 ,the tax which the ,english government imposed on tea imported by the ,american colonists was not a heavy tax1 but the colonists objected because it was imposed without their consent4 ,,constitutional ,,guarantees ,,of ,,property ,,rights ,the citizens of a free country require protection of their property rights against infringement by their government as well as by one another4 ,the ,revolutionary ,war was fought in defense of this and other rights against violation by the ,english government4 ,when the ,constitution of the ,united ,states was framed1 the people refused to ratify it unless amendments were added guaranteeing these rights4 ,thus it was provided that no soldier shall1 in time of peace1 be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner1 nor in time of war1 but in a manner to be prescribed by law 7,amendment ,,iii72 that the right of the people to be secure in their persons1 houses1 papers1 and effects1 against unreasonable searches and seizures1 shall not be violated 444 7,amendment ,,iv72 that no persons shall be 444 deprived of life1 liberty or property1 without due process of law2 nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation 7,amendment ,v4 ,see also ,chapter ,,xiv1 p4 #bjg74 ,the ,constitution also provides that no state shall 444 pass any 444 law impairing the obligation of contracts 7,art4 ,i1 sec4 #aj1 clause ,i71 and in various other ways protects our property rights4 ,our state constitutions contain many similar provisions4 ,our governments have the power to take property in the form of taxes1 but under certain restrictions imposed by our constitutions to safeguard the rights of the people 7see ,chapter ,,xxiii74 ,,our ,,national ,,army ,it is to protect these ,,rights1 rather than property itself1 that communities have their police1 that states have their militia1 and that the nation has its army and its navy4 ,among the chief causes that led us into war with ,germany was the fact that ,germany was violating the property rights of our citizens4 ,while our ,constitution provides for state militia and a national army for the defense of our rights1 property rights included1 it has always been our national policy to maintain as small a standing army as is consistent with the national safety2 and this for the very reason that a large standing army and a large navy are not only a great burden of expense1 but also1 as the founders of our nation believed1 a menace to the liberties of the people and to the peace of the world4 ,,the ,,service ,,of ,,the ,,courts ,we have seen that no person may be deprived of property by the government without due process of law4 ,this means that the procedure provided by law must be followed1 and that the citizen whose property is taken may have his side of the case presented1 the value of the property in question appraised by impartial judges1 and so on4 ,it is the business of ,,the ,,courts to see that justice is done4 ,they inquire into the facts in the case1 and interpret the law bearing on it4 ,the courts are the final safeguard to our liberties4 ,our government comprises1 therefore1 not only a law-making branch and a law-enforcing branch1 but also a ,,law-,,interpreting1 ,,or ,,judicial1 branch--the courts4 ,,the ,,rights ,,of ,,accused ,,persons ,the ,constitution guarantees justice to persons accused of violating the property rights1 or other rights of citizens1 by theft1 fraud1 or otherwise1 as well as to the citizen who has been wronged4 ,in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial1 by an impartial jury of the ,state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed 444 and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation2 to be confronted with the witnesses against him1 to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor1 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense 7,amendment ,,vi74 ,excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted 7,amendment ,,viii74 ,investigate and report on3 ,how are property rights guaranteed in your state constitution8 in the national ,constitution8 ,read the charges made in the ,declaration of ,independence against the ,king of ,england with respect to the violation of property rights4 ,due process of law4 ,the violation of property rights by ,germany as a cause for war4 ,are property rights as sacred in time of war as in time of peace8 ,what property rights has an ,american in ,mexico8 ,what property rights has a ,mexican in the ,united ,states8 ,what became of ,german property in the ,united ,states during the war8 ,the purpose of the courts4 ,what courts exist in your community8 ,the rights of a person accused of crime4 ,,readings ,in the ,year ,book of the ,department of ,agriculture3 #aiaj1 pp4 #dac-dbd1 ,fire prevention and control on the national forests4 #aiac1 pp4 #ge-ib1 ,bringing applied entomology to the farmer4 #aiae1 pp4 #aei-agb1 ,animal disease and our food supply4 #aiae1 pp4 #bfc-bgb1 ,recent grasshopper outbreaks and methods of control4 #aiaf1 pp4 #bag-bbf1 ,suppression of gypsy and brown-tailed moths4 #aiaf1 pp4 #bfg-bgb1 ,cooperative work for eradicating citrus canker4 #aiaf1 pp4 #cha-cih1 ,destroying rodent pests on the farm4 #aiah1 pp4 #cjc-caf1 ,federal protection of migratory birds4 ,farmers' mutual fire insurance1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,bulletin ,no4 #ecj2 also1 ,year ,book1 #aiaf1 pp4 #dba-dcd4 ,the ,weather ,bureau 7a pamphlet71 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington4 ,send to the ,weather ,bureau for list of publications4 ,how the ,weather ,bureau forecasts storms1 frosts1 and floods1 ,office of ,information1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture2 reprinted in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 ,march #ad1 #aiad4 ,forecasting storms3 the ,weather ,bureau's helpfulness1 ,,sunset ,,magazine1 vol4 #be1 pp4 #ebi-ecb 7,nov41 #aiaj74 ,the ,farmer and the ,weather ,bureau1 ,,scientific ,,american1 ,feb4 #ah1 #aiaa4 ,doing business by the weather map1 ,,world',s ,,work1 ,june1 #aiad4 ,flood control3 ,water ,supply ,paper #bcd1 ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,department of the ,interior1 #aiai4 ,write for other publications on this subject4 ,also1 the ,office of the ,chief of ,engineers1 ,war ,department4 ,there has been much magazine literature on this subject4 ,war and ,navy ,departments1 in the ,federal ,executive ,departments1 ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #gd1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education4 ,dunn1 ,,the ,,community ,,and ,,the ,,citizen1 chap4 ,x4 ,hart1 ,,actual ,,government1 pp4 #egc-ehb4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,roads ,,and ,,transportation ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,office ,,of ,,public ,,roads ,during the years #aiaj-aiae the ,office of ,public ,roads of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture made a continuous study1 year by year1 of the methods and results of road improvement in eight selected counties of the ,united ,states4 ,footnote3 ,spotsylvania1 ,dinwiddie1 ,lee1 and ,wise counties in ,virginia2 ,franklyn ,county in ,new ,york2 ,dallas ,county in ,alabama2 ,lauderdale ,county in ,mississippi2 and ,manatee ,county in ,florida4 ,the results of the investigation are described in ,bulletin ,no4 #cic 7#aiaf7 of the ,department of ,agriculture1 which is worth sending for and studying by any school that is interested in the improvement of the community4 ,,spotsylvania ,,county1 ,,va ,one of these counties was ,spotsylvania ,county1 ,virginia1 a map of which is shown on the opposite page4 ,since the ,civil ,war the farmland in this county had gradually declined from its prosperous condition before the war until it was little better than a wilderness of second-growth timber1 valued at from #e to #ae an acre4 ,for many months of the year the roads were well-nigh impassable4 ,there was much wealth in timber1 but it could not be marketed to advantage4 ,the soil was very little cultivated4 ,more farm products were shipped into ,fredericksburg1 the only city in the county1 by rail from outside than were shipped out from the farms of the county4 ,,movement ,,for ,,road ,,improvement ,nearly one third of the population of the county lived in ,fredericksburg2 but under the law of the state of ,virginia the people of the city could not be taxed for county purposes outside of the city4 ,moreover1 two of the four districts of the county at first took little interest in the matter of road improvement1 although they had to use the roads in going to market at ,fredericksburg4 ,courtland and ,chancellor districts1 however1 were determined to have better roads1 and voted to raise the necessary money by selling bonds to the amount of #ajj1jjj4 ,three years later the other two districts1 inspired by the success of ,courtland and ,chancellor districts1 also voted bonds for road improvement to the amount of #gc1jjj4 ,this debt would of course have to be paid off by levying taxes upon the people of the districts4 ,with a tax rate of #a4gj on every hundred dollars' worth of property1 a farmer with a farm assessed at #cjjj would pay a total tax of #ea1 of which #ai4dh would be for the roads4 ,,cost ,,must ,,be ,,justified ,it is not always easy to convince the people of a community that it is worth while to spend so much money on their roads4 ,they have to be shown that the expenditure will in due time pay for itself1 as well as add to the convenience and pleasure of the community4 ,too much money spent in costly improvements on roads that are little used1 or in construction that does not stand the traffic and soon wears out1 is of course a bad investment4 ,but the results in ,spotsylvania ,county1 as well as in the seven other counties studied by the ,office of ,public ,roads1 justified the cost4 ,,state ,,and ,,local ,,cooperation ,the law of ,virginia provided that all highway construction in the state must be supervised by the ,,state ,,highway ,,commissioner4 ,he accordingly appointed an engineer to supervise the work in ,spotsylvania ,county1 the engineer's salary being paid by the state4 ,the work of construction1 however1 was under the direction of a ,,county ,,board ,,of ,,public ,,roads4 ,the board appointed a superintendent who hired all labor and teams and purchased all equipment and materials4 ,three main highways in ,courtland and ,chancellor districts1 and leading into ,fredericksburg1 were chosen for improvement4 ,within two years more than forty miles of road were completed1 or about #aj per cent of all the roads in the entire county4 ,,money ,,for ,,repairs ,roads have to be kept in repair after they are constructed4 ,by #aiad money was needed for this purpose4 ,the farmers objected to further increase of the tax rate1 so it was decided to charge ,,tolls for the use of the improved highways--#e cents for a single horse and vehicle1 #aj cents for two horses and a buggy1 #ae cents for two horses and a wagon1 #be cents for four horses and a wagon1 and from #bj cents to #ce cents for automobiles4 ,more money than was needed was raised in this way in the first month1 and the tolls were therefore reduced one half4 ,one advantage to the county of the toll system was that automobilists and others from other districts1 counties1 and states would contribute to the upkeep of the roads4 ,,effect ,,of ,,improvements ,,on ,,land ,,values ,on the roads selected for improvement there were #ce farms including #eeah acres4 ,in #aiaj1 the average value of these farms1 including buildings1 was #ad per acre1 and seldom did any one want to buy land in the neighborhood4 ,but within two years after the road improvement seven of the #ce farms had been sold1 and a large part of another1 as shown in the following3 ,in the next two or three years a number of other farms were sold at similar increased prices1 and some farms that had been abandoned were reoccupied4 ,large areas of land were cultivated for the first time since the ,civil ,war4 ,the farmers were1 however1 most interested for the time being in their timber wealth1 and between #aiji and #aiac the shipments of forest products from ,fredericksburg increased #gh4b per cent4 ,,the ,,average ,,haul ,before the improvement of the roads1 the average weight of load for a two-horse team in the winter and spring1 when the roads were bad1 was about #abjj pounds2 when the roads were dry1 about #bdjj pounds4 ,the cost for hauling at this rate averaged1 for the year round1 about #cj cents per ton per mile4 ,after the roads were improved1 the average load the year round was #djjj pounds1 and the cost for hauling only #ae cents per ton per mile4 ,investigate and report on3 ,results of road improvement in others of the eight counties referred to on page #bdh 7see ,bulletin #cic1 #aiaf1 ,department of ,agriculture74 ,procure or make a map of your county showing road improvement4 ,is your county well provided with improved roads8 ,do the cities and towns in your county contribute to the improvement of the country roads8 ,do the people of the rural districts of your county contribute to the improvement of the streets of the cities and towns8 ,bond issues in your county for road improvement4 ,meaning of bond issues4 ,tax rate in your county for road improvement4 ,how is road improvement managed in your county8 ,what help does your county get from your state for road improvement8 ,what supervision does your state exercise over road improvement8 ,are there toll roads in your county or state8 ,toll roads were once common in this country4 ,why have tolls been generally abandoned8 ,who has charge of bridge construction in your county8 ,from what sources does the money come for road repair in your county8 ,what is the cost of hauling on the roads of your county8 ,how does this cost compare with the cost in neighboring counties and states8 ,relation of land values in your county to the character of the roads4 ,,money ,,value ,,of ,,good ,,roads ,good roads pay1 in dollars and cents1 provided they are made of suitable materials and with due regard to the kind and amount of traffic they are to carry4 ,they permit of larger loads1 and more loads in a given time2 they save wear and tear on horses1 harness1 wagons1 and automobiles2 in the case of automobiles they save gasoline2 they save the time of the farmer2 they make possible a more varied agriculture by making marketing easier2 they add to the value of the land4 ,,good ,,roads ,,and ,,community ,,life ,but good roads pay in many other ways than in dollars and cents4 ,in ,spotsylvania ,county1 as in other counties investigated at the same time1 the improvement of the roads was followed by a decided improvement in school attendance4 ,in more than one case it led to the improvement of the quality of the schools by the consolidation of a number of poor1 one-room schoolhouses into a single larger school with better equipment and better teachers 7see ,chapter ,,xix74 ,the relation between good roads and good schools is clearly suggested in one of the illustrations in this chapter4 ,so1 also1 good roads increase the ease with which the people of the community may associate with one another1 attend church or community meetings at the schoolhouse1 and enjoy the social life and entertainment of the neighboring city or village4 ,when the road is improved1 the farmers along the way are more likely to keep the weeds cut1 to repair broken fences or build new ones1 and otherwise to beautify the adjoining premises1 which adds both to the money value of property and to the enjoyment of life4 ,,road ,,making ,a ,,cooperative ,,enterprise ,road making is necessarily a cooperative enterprise4 ,in the first place1 a public road serves the common interest of the entire community4 ,the community may1 through its government1 exercise the ,,right ,,of ,,eminent ,,domain1 taking land from adjacent farms for the purpose of laying out a new road1 provided1 of course1 that the farmers are paid for it4 ,in the second place1 the making of a road is far too costly and difficult for an individual farmer to undertake for the benefit he himself would derive from it4 ,it requires a great deal of labor and a high degree of technical skill4 ,,road ,,making ,a ,,job ,,for ,,experts ,it has been quite common for farmers themselves to work on the roads of their locality--working out their road taxes4 ,but roads so made are seldom very good1 unless the work is supervised by someone trained in the business4 ,whether a farmer works on the roads himself or merely pays for having it done1 it is to his advantage to know something about road making4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture and the state agricultural colleges now give extension courses in road making for the benefit of the farmers4 ,it is reported that in one county of ,oklahoma the pupils of forty different school districts have built more than forty miles of good roads1 of course working under supervision4 ,,value ,,of ,,country ,,roads ,,to ,,cities ,good country roads are of the greatest importance1 not only to the farmers and rural communities1 but also to the people of cities4 ,the road improvement in ,spotsylvania ,county1 ,virginia1 was of as much benefit to the people and the business of ,fredericksburg as to the farmers4 ,an excellent illustration of the recognition of the common interest of city and country in the public roads1 and of effective cooperation in improving them1 was given in ,chapter ,,iii1 page #cb1 in the case of ,christian ,county1 ,kentucky4 ,the wide use of the automobile has done a great deal to awaken the people of cities to their interest in country roads1 and associations and journals devoted to the interests of automobilists have been active in advocating the improvement of the public highways4 ,,good ,,roads ,,not ,,merely ,,of ,,local ,,concern ,in ,spotsylvania ,county we saw1 also1 that the improvement of roads in two districts was a direct advantage to the farmers of the other two districts4 ,carrying this idea further1 we shall see that the roads of one county may be of the greatest importance to other counties in the state2 and those of one state of importance to other states4 ,the crossties produced from the timber of ,spotsylvania ,county may be wanted for railroad building in a distant state4 ,the cotton from the plantations of ,tennessee or ,texas is needed at the mills in ,new ,england4 ,the wheat of the great farms of the northwest supplies the whole nation4 ,most of the freight carried on the railroads and steamships has at some time and in some form been hauled in wagons and trucks over country roads4 ,it is clear1 then1 that the character of the highways in any locality is a matter of national interest1 and even of world-wide interest4 ,,early ,,national ,,interest ,,in ,,road ,,building ,when our nation was created1 the question of highways at once became very important4 ,the states needed to be bound together1 and the public lands must be settled4 ,the ,constitution gave ,congress the power to establish post offices and post roads1 and to regulate commerce 444 among the several states2 but it was not clear how far these powers could be exercised for internal improvements4 ,roads and canals were proposed in great numbers4 ,in #ahjf ,congress authorized the building of the ,cumberland ,road1 which began at ,cumberland1 ,md41 and was finally completed as far west as ,illinois4 ,road building was1 however1 left chiefly to the states and to private enterprise4 ,the ,cumberland ,road finally passed under the control of the states through which it ran1 and by them was given into the management of the counties4 ,many turnpikes were built by private companies1 which charged tolls for their use4 ,,poor ,,roads ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,the building of many canals and1 later1 the coming of railroads caused interest in public highways to decline1 and their building was left almost wholly to local initiative1 where it remained until very recently4 ,the result is that the ,united ,states has had the poorest roads in the civilized world4 ,under local management the cost of public roads fell chiefly upon the farmers1 cities escaping taxation for this purpose1 except for their own streets4 ,a road running across a state might be well kept in some localities while allowed to run down in others4 ,a community was reluctant to spend money on a highway only to have the improvements destroyed by through traffic from neighboring communities who had no responsibility for maintaining the road4 ,local communities could not afford to employ expert officials to plan and supervise road construction4 ,,state ,,control ,,of ,,highways ,under these conditions the road situation became so bad that public sentiment was gradually aroused on the subject1 and it was seen that a road was of more than merely local importance4 ,state control was agitated4 ,new ,jersey was the first state to pass a law placing the highways within the state under state regulation4 ,this was in #ahia4 ,other states followed ,new ,jersey's example1 until by #aiad forty-two states had state highway departments4 ,these differ greatly from one another in organization1 powers1 and efficiency4 ,unfortunately1 political influence has entered into road building and management in many states in such a way as to interfere with efficiency2--that is1 those in charge of roads have often been chosen for political reasons rather than for their fitness for the work1 and large sums of money have been spent unwisely1 if not dishonestly in some cases4 ,,recent ,,progress ,,under ,,state ,,control ,in a number of states1 ,,state ,,highways have been built4 ,these are wholly state enterprises1 paid for and managed by the state4 ,california has two trunk lines running the entire length of the state1 with branch lines connecting them with the county seats4 ,to ,january #a1 #aiad1 ,massachusetts had completed more than #ajjj miles of state highways4 ,new ,york has an extensive system1 and ,maryland is another example4 ,but the plan most commonly in use is state aid and supervision in the construction of roads by counties4 ,this was the ,new ,jersey plan of #ahia4 ,by it1 plans for road improvement with state aid in any county must be approved by the state highway department1 and construction is supervised by state engineers4 ,the cost is divided between the state and the local community4 ,in ,new ,jersey the property owners along the highway1 who of course are most directly benefited1 were to pay one-tenth of the cost1 the state one-third1 and the county the remainder4 ,in ,wisconsin1 the board of county commissioners in each county is required to plan a county system of highways to be a part of the state system4 ,the cost of each county system is divided equally among township1 county1 and state4 ,the work is directed by a county highway commissioner1 but in accordance with plans and specifications of the state highway commission4 ,in ,ohio1 a system of intercounty highways is being built1 connecting all the county seats of the state4 ,counties1 towns1 and property owners along the highway must provide an amount equal to that provided by the state1 and the work is under the direction of the state highway department4 ,in ,virginia the cost of highway construction is divided equally between state and local communities2 but the counties often accept from the state the labor of prison convicts instead of money4 ,convict labor on the roads is quite common in southern states4 ,the money for state aid in highway building is commonly raised by the sale of bonds by the state4 ,for the maintenance of the roads after they are built1 the proceeds from automobile licenses are applied4 ,our roads1 even in remote rural districts1 are of national importance for the reasons stated on page #bei4 ,moreover1 they are becoming more and more used for the transportation of freight and passengers over long distances1 for which the introduction of the automobile and the motor truck is responsible4 ,therefore1 national cooperation is necessary for adequate road improvement4 ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,government ,,for ,,road ,,improvement ,the work of the national government on behalf of good roads has heretofore been largely educational and advisory4 ,in #ahic the ,office of ,road ,inquiry 7now the ,office of ,public ,roads7 was created in the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture to investigate methods of road making and management4 ,the results of its investigations have been published for the benefit of the country4 ,advice was given when asked for4 ,instruction was given through extension courses 7p4 #beg74 ,here and there model or experimental roads were constructed to test new methods or to serve as object lessons to the localities where they were built4 ,good road building has also been greatly stimulated by the extension of the rural free mail delivery1 routes not being established unless the roads are in reasonably good condition4 ,the national government has also given to many states public lands within their borders1 the proceeds from which were to be used for road construction2 and a part of the proceeds from the sale of timber in the national forests is devoted to road building in the locality4 ,,federal ,,aid ,,road ,,act ,in #aiaf1 however1 ,congress passed the law known as the ,federal ,aid ,road ,act4 ,this law places the national government in the same relation to the states1 in the matter of road building1 that the state governments have borne to the counties in granting state aid4 ,the ,federal ,aid ,road ,act appropriated #ge million dollars to aid states in improving their rural post roads1 and #aj million dollars for the construction and maintenance of roads in the national forests4 ,of the #ge million dollars for state aid in building post roads1 #e million dollars were to be available the first year1 #aj million the second1 #ae million the third1 and so on for five years1 when the total amount will have been used4 ,the money is given to the states only on their request1 and on condition that each state shall provide an amount equal to that received from the national treasury4 ,the money is apportioned among the states on the basis of area1 population1 and the extent of post roads in the state4 ,,responsibility ,,of ,,the ,,state ,the administration of the law is in the hands of the ,office of ,public ,roads4 ,the entire country is divided into ten districts1 over each of which is a district engineer4 ,when a state desires aid from the national government1 its highway department must draw up plans for the improvements proposed and submit them to the district engineer1 who in turn submits them with recommendations to the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 whose approval they must have4 ,having obtained this approval1 the work is carried on by the state as in the case of other roads entirely under state control4 ,,results ,,of ,,federal ,,aid ,it is too soon yet to tell what the results of this new cooperative enterprise of the national government will be4 ,but the first important effect has been to cause the organization of state highway departments in the few states that did not already have them1 and the reorganization of such departments in the states where they were weak2 for the ,federal ,aid ,road ,act provides that aid may be given to the states only on condition that they have effective highway departments4 ,the result is that every state in the ,union now has an active highway department1 and road improvement is going on at a rate never before known4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the amount of time saved in a year by a farmer in your locality because of good roads2 or lost because of unimproved roads4 ,the wear and tear on vehicles and equipment because of unimproved roads4 ,effect of improved or unimproved roads in your county on school and church attendance1 social life1 etc4 ,instances of the exercise of the right of eminent domain in your county for road improvement4 ,materials used in road making in your county4 ,relative merits of different materials as shown by experience in your county4 ,methods of road construction in your county4 ,extension courses in road making by your state agricultural college4 ,the amount of traffic on the roads of your community by non- residents4 ,the sentiment of farmers of your locality with regard to road improvement4 ,organization of the state highway commission of your state4 ,the state highway system of your state4 ,history and use of canals in your state 7if any74 ,influence of rural mail delivery upon road improvement in your county4 ,the extent to which federal aid for road improvement has been taken advantage of by your state4 ,,the ,,nation',s ,,interest ,,in ,,transportation ,those who live in the most remote rural communities have a vital interest in the nation's transportation system1 including railways and steamship lines4 ,as we have seen 7p4 #bjc71 there was the closest relation between the building of railroads and the opening of the public lands4 ,the market of the farmer and the source of his supplies are not merely the neighboring trading center1 but in far distant parts of the country and of the world4 ,without railroads1 the farmer1 the manufacturer1 and the city merchant would alike be helpless4 ,,government ,,control ,,of ,,railroads ,while our government has at times given direct aid to encourage the building of railroads1 as by the gift of public lands1 they have been developed chiefly by private enterprise4 ,they are owned by private corporations which do business under charters granted by the state governments 7rarely by the national government7 and regulated by law4 ,control over them has been exercised chiefly by the state governments1 except in matters affecting interstate commerce1 which falls under the control of ,congress4 ,as the parts of our country have become more closely bound together and interdependent1 largely by the influence of the railroads themselves1 an increasingly large part of commerce has become interstate in character1 and railway transportation has become more and more a national concern4 ,the result is an increasing control by the national government ,,interstate ,,commerce ,in #ahhg1 ,congress created an ,interstate ,commerce ,commission with power to inquire into the management of the business of common carriers1 such as railroads1 steamship lines1 and express companies4 ,it was later given power to fix rates which such carriers could charge4 ,other laws were passed1 such as the ,sherman ,act1 or ,anti-,trust ,law1 of #ahij1 which made unlawful any contract1 combination 444 or conspiracy in restraint of trade4 ,these and other laws checked abuses that characterized railroad management at that time1 but1 on the other hand1 they are said in some respects to have hampered the economic and efficient development of the country's transportation system4 ,the ,sherman ,law1 for example1 absolutely forbade the consolidation of competing railroad lines under one management1 although such consolidation often makes for efficiency and economy4 ,,government ,,railroad ,,administration ,,in ,,war ,when the ,united ,states entered the recent war1 the weakness of our transportation system quickly became apparent1 and the need for the most effective transportation service led the government to take unusual steps to secure it4 ,the ,president issued a proclamation by which1 in the exercise of his ,,war ,,powers1 he took possession and assumed control of each and every system of transportation in the ,united ,states and the appurtenances thereof4 ,this meant assuming control over #cig1jjj miles of railways owned by #bije corporations and employing more than #a1gjj1jjj persons4 ,the management of this great transportation system was intrusted to a ,railroad ,administration with a ,director ,general of ,railroads at its head4 ,the ownership of these railroads1 however1 remained with the private companies1 which were to receive compensation for the use of their property1 and were to receive back the railroads after the war was over4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,government ,,management ,the whole purpose of the government in its management of the railroads was to win the war1 the convenience of the public being a minor consideration4 ,the people cheerfully put up with inconveniences of travel and with rates that they had not experienced while the roads were under private management4 ,on the other hand1 there were certain decided advantages in the management of all railroads as one great system4 ,it meant the consolidation of competing lines that the law itself prevented the railway companies from effecting1 it meant shortening routes in many cases1 the use of common freight terminals by different lines1 the increase of track facilities and storage areas at seaport terminals1 the selling of passenger tickets good over any one of several roads running between two points4 ,there are those who believe that the railroads should be managed1 or even owned1 by the government in time of peace as well as during war4 ,there are others who believe as strongly in private ownership and direction4 ,many of the latter believe1 however1 that a more perfect control should be exercised over the privately owned roads by the government under laws that protect the interests of the public and that at the same time permit1 or even require1 greater cooperation among the roads than has heretofore existed4 ,since the war1 bills have been introduced in ,congress looking to these ends1 and doubtless the experience of the war will result in an appreciable improvement in our country's railway transportation system4 ,,water ,,transportation ,in the early days of our nation1 rivers were used for transportation to a large extent1 and canals were proposed in great numbers1 some of them being built and carrying a large amount of traffic4 ,the coming of the railroads caused water transportation to decline1 to the nation's great loss4 ,the war stimulated the use of our waterways to a considerable extent1 and any scheme for transportation control in the future should provide for their fullest development as a means of marketing the products of our farms1 forests1 mines1 and factories4 ,there was also a time1 in the early part of our history1 when our seaports swarmed with ,american ships that sailed every sea4 ,our shipping afterward declined because other nations built and manned ships more cheaply than we could do4 ,we allowed these other nations to carry our commerce4 ,we deplored the fact that our merchant marine had disappeared and discussed ways and means to restore it4 ,but all to no purpose1 until the great war came2 then we ,,had to have ships4 ,,effect ,,of ,,war ,,upon ,,our ,,merchant ,,marine ,when we entered the war we had almost no ships4 ,congress created the ,united ,states ,shipping ,board and its ,emergency ,fleet ,corporation4 ,as a result1 and within a year's time1 the ,united ,states took rank as the leading shipbuilding nation in the world4 ,it has more shipyards1 more shipways1 more ship workers1 more ships under construction1 and is building more ships every month during the war than any other country4 ,prior to the war the ,united ,states stood a poor third among the shipbuilding nations4 ,since ,august1 #aiag1 more seagoing tonnage has been launched from ,american shipyards than was ever launched before in a similar period anywhere4 ,footnote3 ,shipping ,facts1 issued by the ,u4,s4 ,shipping ,board1 ,september1 #aiah4 ,moreover1 under the stress of necessity methods of shipbuilding and operation were developed that ought to make it possible for the ,united ,states to compete successfully in the future with other nations1 even though our workmen and sailors are paid more than those of other nations4 ,the chairman of the shipping board said1 ,the ,american community must think of ships as a local improvement4 ,this means that the business and welfare of every ,american community1 whether a seaport or a remote farming community1 are dependent upon ships4 ,by our merchant marine the ,american farmer and the ,american businessman are brought into touch with the remotest parts of the earth4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the service of the railroads to the farmers of your county4 ,to the merchants of your town4 ,the story of the building of the first transcontinental railway4 ,state control of railroads in your state4 ,experiences of your community with respect to railroad rate discrimination4 ,the work of the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission4 ,the work of the ,united ,states ,railway ,administration during the war4 ,advantages and disadvantages of government control of railroads during the war4 ,the war powers of the ,president4 ,arguments for and against government ownership of railroads4 ,electric interurban railways in your county and state4 ,what they mean to the farmer and to the city resident4 ,the work of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey4 ,the history of the ,american merchant marine4 ,the development of the ,american merchant marine during the recent war4 ,the building of fabricated ships4 ,the life of a sailor to-day1 as compared with that of #ajj years ago4 ,the dependence of the ,american farmer upon the merchant marine4 ,,readings ,county reports relating to road construction and improvement4 ,reports of ,state ,highway ,commission4 ,state management of public roads1 ,,year ,,book1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 #aiad1 pp4 #baa-bbf4 ,publications of ,office of ,public ,roads1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,write also to ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 for price list of documents relating to the subject of roads4 ,farmers' ,bulletins relating to marketing and transportation facilities1 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #bf1 ,concentration of control in the railroad industry4 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #bg1 ,good roads4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #be1 ,a seaport as a center of concentration of population and wealth4 ,lesson #bg1 ,early transportation in the ,far ,west4 ,lesson #bh1 ,the first railway across the continent4 ,consult the public library for magazine literature on the subject of roads1 railroads1 river transportation1 etc4 ,for example1 in the ,,review ,,of ,,reviews1 ,february1 #aiah1 there are the following articles3 ,uncle ,sam ,takes the ,railroads4 ,the ,world's ,greatest ,port 7,new ,york74 ,new ,york ,canals a ,transportation ,resource4 ,river ,navigation--a ,war ,measure4 ,hart1 ,,actual ,,government1 chap4 ,,xxvii4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,communication ,roads and other means of transportation are important not only as a means of transporting products1 but also as a means of communication among the members of the community4 ,team work is impossible without prompt and effective means of communication4 ,tell what you know about the value of signals in getting team work in a football or baseball team4 ,discuss the importance of means of communication in conducting military operations4 ,what means were used for this purpose in our ,army in ,france8 ,how were military movements reported and directed in the ,revolutionary ,war8 ,andrew ,jackson's victory at ,new ,orleans was won a month after the ,war of #ahab was officially ended4 ,how did this happen8 ,what were some of the methods used by the ,american ,indians to convey information between distant points8 ,,language ,,as ,a ,,means ,,of ,,communication ,one of the most interesting chapters in history is that relating to the development of means of communication4 ,language itself is the most important of these means4 ,it is not altogether clear what the first steps were in the development of spoken language2 but we know that among uncivilized peoples conversation is aided1 and often largely carried on1 by signs made with the hands4 ,written language certainly developed from the use of pictures1 which were gradually curtailed into ,,hieroglyphics1 such as were used by the ancient ,egyptians1 and finally developed into the ,,alphabet1 each letter of which was originally a picture4 ,a story is told of a group of ,american ,indians who some years ago visited an eastern city4 ,they could not make themselves understood1 nor could they understand others1 and became very lonely4 ,they were taken to visit a deaf-and-dumb institution1 where they were quite delighted to find that they could converse freely by the use of a natural sign language4 ,uncivilized peoples are in the habit of conveying ideas in the most astonishing ways4 ,for example1 among a certain ,african tribe the gift of a tooth brush carries a message of affection4 ,these ,africans take great pride in their white teeth1 and the tooth brush carries the message1 ,as ,i think of my teeth morning1 noon1 and night1 so ,i think often of you4 ,to illustrate the development of the alphabet from pictures1 our letter ,m represents the ears of an owl1 which in ,egypt was called ,,mu1 and the picture of which1 later reduced to the ears1 came to represent the sound of ,m44 ,,effects ,,of ,,illiteracy ,,and ,,inability ,,to ,,use ,,english ,the fascinating story of the development of language cannot be told here4 ,it is referred to because we are likely to forget what an important factor it is in making community life possible4 ,inability to use a common language prevents intercourse and team work4 ,large numbers of men drafted in the ,american ,army were unable to understand the ,english language4 ,between #cj1jjj and #dj1jjj illiterates were taken in the first draft and it is said that there were nearly #gjj1jjj men of draft age in the ,united ,states who could neither read nor write4 ,they could not sign their names1 nor read orders or instructions4 ,they had to be separated and taught1 thus greatly delaying the complete organization of our available fighting forces4 ,inability to use a common language is equally an obstacle in industrial life1 for non-,english speaking workmen are unable to understand instructions1 or to read signs and warnings4 ,many accidents are due to this cause4 ,it is said that approximately #e #a_/b million of our population above ten years of age cannot read or write in any language1 and that #e million of our foreign population cannot use ,english4 ,an active campaign is now being conducted to teach ,english to foreigners and to eradicate illiteracy4 ,a bill has recently been introduced in ,congress to provide ,federal aid for this purpose4 ,if the productive labor value of an illiterate is less by only #ej cents a day than that of an educated man or woman1 the country is losing #hbe1jjj1jjj a year through illiteracy 444 ,the ,federal ,government and the ,states spend millions of dollars in trying to give information to the people in rural districts about farming and home making4 ,yet #c1gjj1jjj1 or #aj per cent1 of our country folk can not read or write a word4 ,they can not read a bulletin on agriculture1 a farm paper1 a food-pledge card1 a liberty-loan appeal1 a newspaper1 the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 or their ,bibles1 nor can they keep personal or business accounts4 ,an uninformed democracy is not a democracy4 ,a people who cannot have means of access to the mediums of public opinion and to the messages of the ,president and the acts of ,congress can hardly be expected to understand the full meaning of this war1 to which they all must contribute in life or property or labor4--,,secretary ,,lane1 ,annual ,report1 #aiah1 p4 #cj4 ,from letter to the ,president4 ,ask at home3 ,what is illiteracy8 ,what is the difference between an illiterate and a non-,english speaking person8 ,debate 7or discuss73 ,,resolved1 ,that ,,all persons of sound mind in the ,united ,states should be required by law to attend school until they are able to speak1 read1 and write ,english fluently4 ,,resolved1 ,that the elimination of illiteracy and the teaching of ,english to foreigners should be left wholly to the states without interference or aid from the national government4 ,why are foreigners required to read sections from the ,constitution of the ,united ,states before they receive their naturalization papers8 ,what does knowing how to read mean8 ,debate3 ,,resolved1 ,that no native-born ,american should be permitted to vote who cannot read intelligently4 ,what is being done in your community and in your state to eradicate illiteracy and to teach ,english to foreigners8 ,,the ,,printing ,,press ,,and ,,newspapers ,next to language itself1 the most important invention for the communication of ideas is the art of printing4 ,it made possible the book1 the magazine1 the newspaper4 ,the writer of this book is enabled to communicate with boys and girls whom he will never see by means of the printed page and the pictures which the book contains4 ,by the same means the ideas of people who lived long ago have been handed down to us1 and the ideas of to-day will be passed on to later generations4 ,most wonderful is the modern newspaper1 which daily carries into almost every home of the land the important happenings in the world during the preceding twenty- four hours4 ,in cities several editions are printed during the day4 ,the newspaper enables the merchant to communicate1 through advertisements1 with possible buyers1 and the farmer and business man to keep posted regarding crop conditions and market prices4 ,most newspapers have special departments for different classes of readers--a woman's page1 a children's column1 a page devoted to sports1 another to market conditions4 ,most of them also have a department in which individuals may ask questions or express their own opinions regarding questions of the day4 ,the local newspaper1 with a circulation that seldom extends far beyond the county in which it is published1 is of the greatest value in stimulating a community spirit4 ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,free ,,speech ,the first amendment to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states provides that3 ,congress shall make no law 444 abridging the freedom of speech or of the press2 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble444 ,the right of free speech and of a free press is a very sacred one1 and its maintenance is one of the chief safeguards of democracy4 ,it is the means by which ,,public ,,opinion is formed and made known2 and public opinion is one of the chief means of control in a democracy4 ,it controls the conduct of individuals1 and it controls the actions of government4 ,the representatives and leaders of the people in the government seek constantly to know what public opinion is1 and the public press is one of the chief channels through which they may find out4 ,on the other hand1 leaders and parties seek to ,,form public opinion1 to lead the people to think in certain ways and to support certain ideas4 ,the press affords an effective means for doing this4 ,,propaganda ,it is easy to see that both good leaders and bad leaders may thus create public opinion1 that both good and bad ideas may be spread through the press4 ,during the war we heard much about ,german ,,propaganda4 ,this means that ideas were systematically spread to create a public opinion favorable to the ,german cause4 ,it was done largely by rumors1 springing from no one knows where1 and spreading by word of mouth4 ,but it was also accomplished through the newspapers1 by news items and stories that appeared to be true and that were published innocently enough in most cases1 but that afterward were found to be false4 ,,the ,,develoment ,,of ,,public ,,opinion ,it is not to be supposed that all propaganda is harmful or dangerous4 ,there is propaganda in good causes1 or on both sides of a disputed question4 ,by this means public opinion is educated4 ,when the peace conference at ,paris proposed a plan for a ,league of ,nations1 it was at once taken up for discussion through the newspapers and magazines4 ,people who believed in the idea organized a campaign of ,,publicity to support the plan and to create a public opinion for it1 while those opposed to it were equally active in their attempt to create a public opinion against it4 ,in this way the people became informed regarding the question1 provided they read both sides of the discussion and not one only4 ,leaders in the community may conduct propaganda through the newspapers in behalf of better schools1 better roads1 woman suffrage1 prohibition1 or any other cause4 ,the good citizen cannot well get along without the newspaper and magazine4 ,but he needs to keep in mind the fact that news items may be in error1 and that the opinions expressed by editors and other writers usually represent the opinions of but a single group of people1 which may be large or small1 right or wrong4 ,in most cases these writers are sincere1 but there is always the chance for error4 ,the intelligent citizen will not base his own opinions and actions solely on what he reads in ,,one paper or magazine or book1 but will seek to understand ,,all sides of a question4 ,he is helped to do this by the great variety of publications available representing every shade of belief1 and by the freedom of speech and of the press under our system of government4 ,,the ,,control ,,of ,,free ,,speech ,,and ,a ,,free ,,press ,freedom of speech and of the press does not mean that a citizen may always say anything he pleases in public4 ,at no time has one the right to attack the character of another by false or malicious statements4 ,this constitutes slander1 or libel1 and may be punished by the courts4 ,in time of war freedom of speech and of the press may be restricted to an extent that would not be tolerated in time of peace1 because if absolute freedom were permitted information might be made public that would be helpful to the enemy1 and propaganda started that would be dangerous to the public safety4 ,but even in war time1 the people of a democracy chafe under restrictions upon free speech and a free press1 and it is often a delicate question to determine how far such restriction is justifiable or wise4 ,make a report on the invention of the printing press4 ,is there more than one local paper in your town or county8 ,do these local papers take the same position in regard to public questions8 ,do you read more than one8 ,what is the most influential newspaper in your state 7ask at home78 ,why is it so influential8 ,what is the difference between a news story and an editorial8 ,ask at home what newspaper editor it was who said1 ,go ,west1 young man4 ,also find out what you can about his influence as an editor4 ,examine with care the newspapers you take at home and make a list of their different departments or sections4 ,what do you first look for in the newspaper when you read it8 ,ask your father and mother and other members of the family what they first look for4 ,what is the value of ,,cartoons in the newspaper8 ,do you study them8 ,do they convey a story to you8 ,make a collection of cartoons that you think are particularly good1 and explain what each means4 ,is any propaganda being conducted now in the newspapers you read8 ,if so1 explain what it is4 ,to what extent are newspaper and magazine advertisements useful in your home8 ,,post-,,offices ,,and ,,post-,,roads ,congress was given power by the ,constitution to establish post- offices and post-roads4 ,there had been a postal service in the colonies before the ,revolution4 ,during the ,revolution ,benjamin ,franklin was made ,postmaster ,general1 and he made the service as effective as it could well be made under the conditions that existed in those times4 ,the plan that he devised was continued after the ,constitution was adopted4 ,in those days mails were sent from ,new ,york to ,boston and to ,philadelphia two or three times a week4 ,they were carried on horseback or by stage and by boat4 ,sometimes a month was consumed by a trip that can now be made in a half-day4 ,postage cost from six cents to twenty-five cents for each letter1 according to the distance it was carried1 and had to be paid in cash in advance4 ,postage stamps were not introduced until #ahdg4 ,often mail was allowed to accumulate until there was enough to pay for the trip4 ,the isolation of a remote rural community can well be imagined where the difficulties of communication were so great1 and where the scarcity of money made postage an important item4 ,,rural ,,mail ,,routes ,in #aiah there were #ed1cde post-offices in the ,united ,states managed by the ,post-,office ,department at ,washington1 besides nearly #fjj in the ,philippines managed by the war ,department1 and a few in the ,panama ,canal ,zone4 ,of the #cjcj counties in the ,united ,states1 #cjjh had rural mail routes aggregating more than a million miles in extent1 serving more than #f million families1 and costing for operation more than #ec million dollars4 ,this cost1 however amounts to only about #a4ij for each person served1 or a little more than one cent for each piece of mail handled4 ,the aim is to make the postal service pay for itself1 and in #aiah the receipts exceeded the expenditures by more than #fj million dollars4 ,,special ,,services ,,of ,,the ,,post-,,office ,,department ,the ,post-,office ,department not only provides for the transportation of ordinary mail1 but through its post-offices it sells money orders for the transmission of money safely through the mails2 it operates the parcel post by which merchandise may be transported1 including farm produce of many kinds2 it administers the postal savings system4 ,one of the interesting divisions of the ,post-,office ,department is the ,division of ,dead ,letters1 to which is returned all mail that fails to reach its destination4 ,in #aiah there were returned to the ,dead-,letter ,division #ad1dea1iec pieces of mail4 ,in these dead letters there were drafts1 checks1 money orders1 and loose money1 amounting to #d1aid1hci4fh4 ,the failure of this mail to reach its proper destination is due in very large measure to carelessness in addressing and to failure to place on the envelope or package a return address4 ,a great deal of loss and inconvenience could be avoided1 and much labor and expense saved for the postal service1 if every one would see that every piece of mail sent out is properly addressed and stamped1 and has a return address in the upper left-hand corner4 ,,transportation ,,of ,,the ,,mails ,the efficiency of the postal service depends very largely upon the means of transportation1 from steamship and railway lines down to the country roads4 ,nothing else1 perhaps1 has stimulated the improvement of roads so much as the rural mail service4 ,it is the power granted by the ,constitution to ,congress to establish ,,post- roads that enables the ,federal government to aid the states in road improvement4 ,the development of fast mail trains and the introduction of motor-truck service have been important steps in the improvement of the postal service in city and country4 ,the latest development is the transportation of mail by airplane4 ,an aerial mail route between ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 and ,new ,york ,city was established ,may #ae1 #aiah1 and a round trip daily is now made over this route1 regardless of weather conditions4 ,the flying time from ,washington to ,new ,york1 with a stop at ,philadelphia1 averages two hours and thirty minutes1 or one half the time of the fastest trains4 ,the ,post-,office ,department is planning an extensive airplane mail service from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 with various side lines2 also to the ,west ,indies1 ,panama1 and ,south ,america4 ,the routes are partially worked out1 and trial trips have been made in some cases1 as between ,new ,york and ,chicago4 ,,the ,,telegraph ,we need only mention the important part played by the telegraph1 the submarine cable1 and ,,radio-,,communication1 in binding together our nation and the world as a whole4 ,without them the modern newspaper1 with its daily news from every corner of the globe1 would be impossible1 our cooperation in the great ,world ,war would have been extremely difficult1 and the ,president probably would not have left the ,united ,states to participate in the peace negotiations at ,paris4 ,although the first telegraph line in the ,united ,states was owned and operated by the government as a part of the postal service1 the telegraph service of the country has since been in the hands of private corporations2 except that during the war the ,post-,office ,department took over the management of the telegraph and the telephone1 as the ,railroad ,administration took over the transportation lines4 ,,the ,,telephone ,as this chapter is being written1 word has come that the ,secretary of the ,navy has talked by ,,wireless ,,telephone with the ,president of the ,united ,states while the latter was #hjj miles out at sea on his return from ,france4 ,at the close of the war ,american aviators were talking with one another from airplane to airplane1 and receiving orders from the ground1 by wireless telephone4 ,these instances suggest new possibilities of communication in the near future4 ,already the ordinary telephone has practically made over our community life in many particulars4 ,we can hardly estimate its value in business and home life1 in the city or on the farm4 ,there are about #hjjj rural telephone systems in the ,united ,states serving the homes of two million farmers4 ,in #aiab1 out of seven hundred and eighteen telephone systems in ,north ,carolina1 about six hundred and fifty were country telephone systems owned and operated privately by groups of farmers4 ,these included about #bj1jjj telephones and used approximately #ce1jjj miles of wire4 ,,service ,,of ,,the ,,rural ,,telephone ,to call a neighbor and ask for the exchange of labor on certain work1 as threshing1 haying1 etc41 is only the work of a moment4 ,to have a definite answer immediately is often worth much4 ,to be able to 'phone the village storekeeper1 who runs a country delivery1 and ask that supplies be sent out is a great convenience to the housewife4 ,to 'phone the implement dealer and learn whether he has needed repairs in stock and1 if so1 to have them sent out on the next trolley car1 if not to ask him to telegraph the factory to forward them immediately by express1 is a saving of time that often amounts to a large saving when the planting or harvesting of crops is delayed because of needed repairs4 444 farm homes have been saved from destruction by fire because of prompt help secured by word over the telephone2 444 valuable animals have been saved through the early arrival of the veterinarian who was summoned by 'phone4 444 ,many an itinerant sharper's plans have been frustrated4 444 ,the sharper in disgust turns to other fields where there are no telephones over which to notify his prospective victims of his game4 ,business appointments1 social appointments1 discussions of social and church plans1 to say nothing of the mere friendly exchange of greeting over the telephone have probably compensated every owner of a rural telephone many times over for the expense of it1 if all business advantages were ignored4 444 ,at some seasons of the year the general summons to the 'phone gives notice that central is ready to report the weather bureau's prognostication for the following day4 444 ,footnote3 ,rural ,conveniences1 by ,h4 ,e4 ,van ,norman1 in the ,,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,march1 #aiab ,the cost of this important aid to community life has been reduced to a small amount in many rural districts by the organization of local cooperative telephone companies4 ,ask at home1 or have committee interview postmaster3 ,how is the postmaster in your post-office chosen8 ,are all postmasters chosen in the same way8 ,what are first-class1 second-class1 third-class1 and fourth-class post-offices8 ,how are rural mail-carriers chosen8 ,what is a star mail route1 and how does it differ from an ordinary rural route8 ,are there any star routes in your county8 ,what constitute first-class1 second-class1 third-class1 and fourth-class mail8 ,what is the rate of postage on each8 ,has rural mail delivery had the effect of causing road improvement in your county8 ,if so1 give instances4 ,from the office of a local newspaper find out about the work of the ,associated ,press or similar news agency4 ,why does the work of a newspaper reporter carry with it great responsibility8 ,who was ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse8 ,who is ,alexander ,graham ,bell8 ,marconi8 ,what particular advantages has the telephone brought to your community8 to your home8 ,is there a cooperative telephone company in your community8 ,if so1 how is it organized8 ,if possible1 visit a telephone exchange and report on what you see4 ,write a theme on ,modern means of communication and the growth of a world community4 ,,readings ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #aj1 ,telephone and telegraph4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #a1 ,the war and aeroplanes4 ,lesson #i1 ,inventions4 ,the development of writing3 ,picture ,writing of the ,american ,indians1 #ajth ,annual ,report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #ahhh-ahhi4 ,this is profusely illustrated and very interesting4 ,the volume may be in the public library4 ,it may be difficult to obtain1 otherwise1 unless through a representative in ,congress4 ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 ,,anthropology1 chaps4 ,,iv-,,vii 7,d4 ,appleton ,co471 and ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,mankind1 chaps4 ,,ii-,v 7,henry ,holt ,co474 ,given1 ,j4 ,l41 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,newspaper 7,henry ,holt ,co474 ,annual ,reports of the ,postmaster ,general of the ,united ,states4 ,report of the ,secretary of the ,interior1 #aiah1 pp4 #ac-bd1 #bi-ca1 for a discussion of the necessity of eliminating illiteracy and teaching ,english to foreigners4 ,there is much magazine literature on this subject4 ,,americanization1 a publication issued regularly by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education1 is useful in this connection4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,education ,,democracy ,,depends ,,upon ,,education ,both the efficiency and the democracy of a community depend upon the extent and the kind of education it affords to its people4 ,autocratic ,germany had a most thorough-going system of education1 but a system that made autocracy possible4 ,the common people were trained to be efficient workers1 and thus to contribute to the national strength2 but they were trained ,,to ,,submit to authority1 and not to exercise control over it4 ,the kind of education that develops leaders was given only to the few4 ,the leaders of the ,german people were imposed upon them from above2 in the ,united ,states we are supposed to ,,choose our leaders4 ,in a nation whose aim is to afford to every citizen an equal opportunity to make the most of himself and whose people are self-governing1 education must be widespread1 it must develop the power of self-direction1 it must train leaders1 and it must enable the people to choose their leaders intelligently4 ,when ,governor ,berkeley of ,virginia reported to the king of ,england in #afga1 ,i thank ,god there are no free schools nor printing2 and ,i hope we shall not have these hundred years1 he spoke for the autocratic form of government which a hundred years later led the colonies to revolt1 and which in #aiag forced the ,united ,stares into a world war4 ,,government ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,education ,in a democracy government must be carried on largely ,,by ,,means ,,of education4 ,there must be trained leadership4 ,and since the aim of democratic government is to secure team work in public affairs1 the people must have the tools of team work1 such as a common language and other knowledge that makes living and working together possible2 they must have training that will enable them to contribute effectively to the community's work1 and an intelligent understanding of the community's aims and ideals4 ,and since government is controlled largely by public opinion1 the people must have an intelligent understanding of the community's problems4 ,we had abundant illustration during the recent war of the extent to which our government not only depended upon highly educated men and women for leadership1 but also used educational methods to secure its ends4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,education ,these facts explain why public education is the largest single item of expense in our government 7except in time of war74 ,in #aiad nearly #fjj million dollars were spent for public elementary and high schools4 ,some #bjj million dollars more were spent for private elementary and high schools1 and for universities1 colleges1 and normal schools1 some of which are public and some private4 ,,inequality ,,of ,,educational ,,reqiuirements ,if democracy is to be safe and efficient1 every member must have a reasonable education4 ,every state now has a compulsory education law1 though these laws vary greatly4 ,in some states every child must attend school for seven years 7#g to #ad1 or #h to #ae71 and in one state 7,maryland7 for eight years4 ,in other states the period is less1 sometimes as little as four years4 ,in most of the states there is an additional period1 usually of two years 7#ad to #af71 during which children must remain in school unless they go to work4 ,as a rule there are laws that forbid the employment of children in industry before the age of #ad4 ,in some states they may go to work as soon as they reach the age limit regardless of what their educational qualifications are2 in others they must have completed the eight grades of the elementary school2 in others ,editor's ,note3 ,missing text4 laws are not well enforced in some states4 ,the facing table shows the number of children of school age in and out of school in the several states in #aiae-aiaf4 ,for the country as a whole1 #ag4d per cent of the children of school age were not in school4 ,school terms are so short in many states and compulsory attendance is so badly enforced that ,,the ,,school ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,average ,,person ,,growing ,,up ,,in ,,rural ,,sections ,,is ,,only #d4e ,,school ,,years ,,of #adj ,,days ,,each4 ,in urban communities conditions are better1 but far from satisfactory4 ,footnote3 ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #d1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education1 ,a ,manual of ,educational ,legislation1 p4 #f4 ,,pm ,note3 ,leave this page blank4 ,please do not delete this note ,the facing table shows the number of days the public schools were open1 the average number of days of attendance by each pupil enrolled1 and the rank of the state in each case1 for each state in the school year #aiae-aiaf4 ,why would it not be more democratic to permit children to attend school or not as they or their parents wish8 ,discuss the statement that education makes people free4 ,compare this statement with a somewhat similar statement made on page #acf1 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,what is the compulsory school age in your state8 ,is wide variation in the compulsory school age among the different states a good thing8 ,why8 ,is the compulsory school law rigidly enforced in your state8 ,how is it enforced8 ,how much of each year must a child spend in school during the compulsory period in your state8 ,investigate the reasons given by pupils in your community for leaving school before completing the course1 and report4 ,what rank does your state hold with respect to length of term8 to average daily attendance of pupils8 7,see table47 ,what rank does your state hold with respect to number of children of school age in and out of school8 7,see table47 ,what is the length of your own school year8 ,do you think it should be lengthened8 ,why8 ,get from your teacher or principal the average daily attendance for each pupil enrolled in your school2 in your county4 ,do you think this record could be improved8 ,is there any good reason why the school year should be shorter in rural communities than in cities8 ,it is advocated by many that schools should be open the year round4 ,what advantages can you see in the plan8 ,debate the question4 ,,the ,,district ,,school ,the pioneer family was dependent at first upon its own efforts for the education of its children4 ,when other families came1 a schoolhouse was built1 a teacher employed and the work of teaching the elements of knowledge was handed over to the school4 ,this was the origin of the district school1 which is characteristic of pioneer conditions4 ,as the population grew and local government was organized1 the unit of local government tended to become the unit for school administration4 ,in ,new ,england this was the town or township2 in the ,south it was the county2 in the ,west it was sometimes the township and sometimes the county1 or else a combination of the two4 ,in a large number of the western states1 however1 and in a few of the eastern states1 the district school persists in many rural communities1 a relic of pioneer conditions4 ,it is often felt that it is more democratic for each district to administer its own school1 subject only to the laws of the state4 ,under the district system there is an annual school meeting of the voters of the district1 who vote the school taxes1 determine the length of the school year1 and elect a board of education or school trustees4 ,the trustees look after the school property1 choose the teacher and fix his salary1 and in a general way manage the school business4 ,each school is independent of all other schools4 ,,township ,,organization ,under the township system all of the schools of the township are administered by a township board or committee 7or by a single trustee in ,indiana7 elected by the people of the township4 ,the chief advantages over the district system are that all the schools of the township are administered by a single plan1 the taxes are apportioned to the schools according to needs1 and pupils may be transferred from one school to another at convenience4 ,in ,new ,england two or three townships are sometimes united into a union district supervised by a single superintendent4 ,,county ,,organization ,under the county system all the schools of the county are under the management of a county board and1 usually1 a county superintendent4 ,in #bi of the #ci states that have county superintendents they are elected by the people1 in #h states they are appointed by the county board1 in ,delaware they are appointed by the governor1 and in ,new ,jersey by the state commissioner of education4 ,election of the county superintendent is losing favor on the ground that there is less assurance of securing a highly trained man4 ,the chart on page #bic shows a plan of organization for county schools proposed to the legislature of ,south ,dakota by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,school ,,consolidation ,among the advantages of the county system are greater economy1 more nearly equal educational opportunity for all children of the county1 and better supervision because of the larger funds available for this purpose4 ,it is under the county system of organization that the movement for ,,school ,,consolidation is progressing most rapidly4 ,by this is meant the union of a number of small1 poorly equipped schools into a larger1 well-graded1 and well equipped school4 ,its advantages may best be suggested by an example4 ,in ,randolph ,county1 ,indiana1 there were1 in #aijh1 #abh one-room schools in the open country1 with an attendance of from #ab to #fj pupils doing grade work only1 #f two-room schools in hamlets1 with grade work only2 #b three room schools in villages1 with grade work and two years of high school work with a six months' term2 #c four- room village schools1 with grade work and three years of high school work with a six months' term2 #a six-room school in a town1 with grade work and four years of high school work with an eight months' term4 ,by consolidation1 #aac one-room schools and #d two-room schools were supplanted by #bj consolidated schools with two grade teachers2 #f with four grade teachers1 #f with five grade teachers2 #b with six grade teachers2 and #a with eight grade teachers--a total of #hf grade teachers doing the work formerly done by #adh teachers1 and doing it better4 ,fifteen of the schools have a four-year high school course with an eight months' term4 ,for the five-year period preceding consolidation not more than half of the eighth-grade pupils attended high school2 after consolidation1 an average of #if per cent of the eighth-grade pupils went to high school4 ,the pupils are transported to and from school in hacks or motor- busses heated in winter4 ,the school buildings are equipped with running water1 modern heating and sanitation1 telephone1 restrooms for pupils and teachers1 gymnasiums and outdoor physical apparatus1 physical training and athletic competition being carried on under supervision4 ,the courses of study have been enriched1 increased attention is given to vocational work1 and music and art receive attention impossible in the district schools4 ,eleven of the schools have orchestras1 and concerts are held which the community as well as the schools attend4 ,there are auditoriums used for community lectures and concerts1 ,sunday- school conventions1 community sings1 parent-teachers' meetings1 and exhibits of various kinds4 ,report on the following3 ,school life in colonial ,new ,england2 in colonial ,virginia4 ,the first schools in your own community--length of school term1 attendance1 whether private or public1 qualifications of teachers1 methods of teaching4 ,what the family does for the education of the children that the school cannot do4 ,what the school does that the family cannot do4 ,organization of the schools in your district1 township1 county1 or city4 ,advantages of graded schools over ungraded schools4 ,consolidation of schools in your county or state4 ,debate the question3 ,the district school is more democratic than the county organization4 ,method of selection of the superintendent of your county and town4 ,length of term of office4 ,organization1 powers1 mode of election1 etc41 of your local board of education4 ,authority1 or lack of authority1 of your county superintendent over the schools of cities and large towns in the county4 ,qualifications prescribed for teachers in your county or town4 ,how selected4 ,how are school books selected8 ,are they free to pupils8 ,advantages and disadvantages of free textbooks4 ,evidence that public education is or is not a matter of common interest to the people of your community4 ,examples of team work1 or lack of it1 in your community in the interest of the schools4 ,are the methods by which school authorities are chosen in your community calculated to secure the best leadership8 ,how the duties relating to the schools are divided between your school board and the superintendent4 ,does your board perform any duties that should be performed by the superintendent1 or ,,vice ,,versa8 ,explain4 ,parent-teacher organizations in your community and their service4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,high ,,school ,public education was long restricted to the elementary school4 ,high schools were at first private academies designed to prepare for college the few who wished to continue their education4 ,while they still continue to give preparation for college1 their development in recent years has been largely for the benefit of the greater number of boys and girls who do not expect to go to college4 ,the high school naturally made its first appearance in cities4 ,it requires more elaborate equipment and more highly trained teachers1 and its cost is at least twice that of elementary schools4 ,these facts1 together with the small and scattered population of rural communities1 have been obstacles to the development of rural high schools4 ,the consolidated school has in large measure removed these obstacles1 and a high school education is rapidly becoming as available for rural boys and girls as for those who live in cities4 ,report on3 ,the history of high school development in your community4 ,the percentage of pupils in your community who go to high school after completing the elementary school4 ,what the high school does for my community4 ,my reasons for going 7or not going7 to high school4 ,the cost per pupil in the high school in your community as compared with that in the elementary school4 ,education must not only be within the reach of every citizen of a democracy1 but it must be of a kind that will fit him to play well his part as a member of the community4 ,,education ,,for ,,physical ,,fitness ,the public schools now give more attention than formerly to the physical education and welfare of the pupils 7see ,chapter ,,xx1 pp4 #cad1 #cae74 ,the wide prevalence of physical defects disclosed in the effort to raise an army during the recent war will doubtless cause still greater emphasis to be placed on this aspect of education4 ,physical fitness is the foundation of good citizenship4 ,provision for physical education and welfare has found its way into rural schools more slowly than in city schools1 as the following table shows4 ,but our nation can be neither efficient nor fully democratic until the physical well-being of all its citizens is provided for1 and the responsibility rests largely with the public school4 ,,health ,,work ,,in ,,city ,,and ,,rural ,,schools ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,footnote3 ,adapted from ,dr4 ,thomas ,d4 ,wood1 in ,new ,york ,,times ,magazine1 ,april #b1 #aiaf4 ,,education ,,for ,,vocational ,,fitness ,it is a part of the business of education to fit every citizen to earn a living1 for every efficient citizen must be self-supporting and able to contribute effectively to the productive work of the community4 ,the interdependence of all occupations in modern industry and the necessity for every worker to be a specialist make training essential for every worker who is to attain success for himself and contribute his full share to the community's work4 ,the war emphasized strongly the nation's dependence upon trained workers in every field of industry4 ,,national ,,aid ,,for ,,vocational ,,education ,one of the direct results of war needs was the passage by ,congress1 in #aiag1 of the ,smith-,hughes ,act1 providing for national aid for vocational instruction for persons over #ad years of age who have already entered upon1 or are preparing to enter1 some trade4 ,the instruction given under the terms of this act must be of less than college grade4 ,every state in the ,union has met the conditions imposed by this law4 ,the ,smith-,hughes ,act created a ,federal ,board for ,vocational ,education to consist of the ,secretaries of the ,departments of ,agriculture1 ,commerce and ,labor1 the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 and three citizens appointed by the ,president1 one to represent labor interests1 one commercial and manufacturing interests1 and the third agricultural interests4 ,the law appropriates national funds to be given to the state for the establishment of vocational schools and for the training of teachers for these schools2 but each state must appropriate an amount equal to that received from the national government4 ,each state must also have a board for vocational education1 through which the national board has its dealings with the state4 ,,breadth ,,of ,,preparation ,,for ,,vocational ,,life ,the duty of the regular elementary and high schools is not to cultivate special vocational skills2 not to turn out trained farmers1 or mechanics1 and so on4 ,but the work of these schools should be such that their graduates will be better farmers1 or mechanics1 or lawyers1 or doctors1 or engineers1 or teachers1 than they would be without it4 ,first of all these schools should produce workers who are physically fit for the work they enter4 ,they should educate the hand and the eye along with the brain4 ,they should cultivate habits of working together1 give instruction regarding the significance of all work in community and national life1 and by every means possible prepare the pupil to make a wise choice of vocation4 ,moreover1 the schools should provide a breadth of education that will transmute days of dreary work into happier lives4 ,,making ,,life ,,educational ,mr4 ,herbert ,quick in his story of ,the ,brown ,mouse1 which is a plea for better rural schools1 says3 ,let us cease thinking so much of agricultural education1 and devote ourselves to educational agriculture4 ,so will the nation be made strong4 ,the life we live1 even on the farm1 is full of science and history1 civics and economics1 arithmetic and geography1 poetry and art4 ,the modern school helps the pupil to find these things in his daily life and1 having found them1 to apply them to living for his profit and enjoyment4 ,for this reason it works largely through the home project1 boys' and girls' clubs1 gardening1 and many other activities4 ,a recent writer has said1 ,what is the true end of ,american education8 ,is it life or a living8 444 ,education finds itself face to face with a bigger thing than life or the getting of a living4 ,it is face to face with a big enough thing to die for in ,france1 a big enough thing to go to school for in ,america 444 ,neither life nor the getting of a living1 but ,,living ,,together1 this must be the single ,,public end of a common public education hereafter4 ,footnote3 ,d4 ,r4 ,sharp1 ,patrons of ,democracy1 in ,,atlantic ,,monthly1 ,november1 #aiai1 p4 #fej4 ,,education ,,for ,,living ,,together ,the more nearly the conditions of living in the school community correspond to the conditions of living in the community outside of school1 the better the training afforded for living together4 ,in many schools the spirit and methods of community life prevail1 even to the extent of school government in which the pupils participate4 ,of this community pupils and teachers are members with certain common interests4 ,cooperation is the keynote of the community life4 ,the realization of this cooperation is seen in the classrooms1 in study halls1 in the assembly room1 in the corridors1 on the playground4 ,it manifests itself in the method of preparing and conducting recitations2 in the care of school property2 in protecting the rights of younger children2 in maintaining the sanitary conditions of the building and grounds2 in the elimination of cases of discipline and of irregularity of attendance2 in the preparation and conduct of opening exercises1 school entertainments1 and graduating exercises2 in beautifying the school grounds2 in the making of repairs and equipment for our school2 in fact1 in every aspect of the school life4 ,footnote3 ,civic ,education in ,elementary ,schools1 p4 #ca1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education ,bulletin1 #aiae1 ,no4 #ag4 ,,the ,,school ,,as ,a ,,community ,,center ,the schoolhouse is becoming more and more the center of community life4 ,we have noticed how1 in ,randolph ,county1 ,indiana1 the consolidated school building affords a meeting place for all sorts of community activities4 ,the school law of ,california provides that3 ,there is hereby established a civic center at each and every public schoolhouse within the ,state of ,california1 where the citizens of the respective public school districts 444 may engage in supervised recreational activities1 and where they may meet and discuss 444 any and all subjects and questions which in their judgment may appertain to the educational1 political1 economic1 artistic1 and moral interests of the respective communities in which they may reside2 ,provided1 that such use of said public schoolhouse and grounds for said meetings shall in no wise interfere with such use and occupancy of said public schoolhouse and grounds as is now1 or hereafter may be1 required for the purpose of said public schools of the ,state of ,california4 ,investigate and report on the following3 ,provision in your school and in the schools of your state for health work suggested in the table on page #bii4 ,other provisions in your school for the physical well-being of pupils4 ,the work of your school that relates directly to preparation for earning a living4 ,the extent to which a high school can make a farmer4 ,the operation of the ,smith-,hughes ,act in your state and in your county or town4 ,the meaning of the quotation from ,the ,brown ,mouse on page #cja4 ,the use of home projects by your school4 ,the meaning of the statement that the end of public education is neither life nor the getting of a living1 but living together4 ,differences and similarities between the government of your school and that of the community in which you live4 ,the wisdom of making them more alike4 ,different plans of pupil self-government4 7,see references47 ,uses to which the schoolhouses of your community are1 or might be1 put4 ,hours per week and weeks per year during which your schoolhouse is used4 ,economy 7or lack of it7 in allowing schoolhouses to stand idle most of the time4 ,the community center idea4 7,see references47 ,educational work for adults in your community4 ,educational agencies in your community besides schools4 ,,state ,,organization ,,for ,,education ,the schools of the local community are a part of the state school system4 ,education is considered a duty of the state1 though it is performed largely by local agencies4 ,the constitutions of all states make provision for it4 ,state control and support of education are necessary if there is to be equality of educational opportunity for all children of the state4 ,every state has a department of education1 and in most states each local community receives a portion of a general state tax for school purposes4 ,the state departments of education differ widely from one another both in organization and in the effectiveness of their work4 ,in most states there is a state board of education1 composed sometimes of certain state officials1 including the governor and the state superintendent of education1 sometimes of citizens appointed for this purpose alone by the governor or 7in four states7 by the legislature4 ,in only one state is it elected by popular vote4 ,in all states there is also a chief educational officer1 usually called state superintendent or commissioner of education or of public instruction4 ,in several states women hold this position4 ,the state superintendent is sometimes elected by popular vote1 sometimes appointed by the state board of education or by the governor4 ,under the state superintendent there are deputy superintendents1 heads of departments1 and supervisors of the various branches of educational work4 ,the diagram on page #bic shows a plan of organization proposed for one state by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education4 ,,relation ,,of ,,state ,,to ,,local ,,organization ,the extent of the supervision and control exercised by the state department of education over the schools of the state varies within wide limits4 ,in some cases it is very little4 ,in many states there are state courses of study that are followed more or less closely by local communities4 ,in a number of states the textbooks used by all schools are selected either by the state board of education or by a special state textbook commission4 ,in ,new ,york ,state the examination questions used in all schools are prepared by the state educational authorities4 ,some states furnish text books free1 and in a very few the state even prints all textbooks4 ,it has not been easy to work out a well-balanced plan of state administration of schools that would ensure a thoroughgoing education for the entire state1 and that would at the same time leave sufficient freedom to local school authorities to adjust the work to local needs4 ,,higher ,,educational ,,institutions ,many of the states support higher educational institutions1 such as state universities and state agricultural colleges1 at which attendance is free for citizens of the state4 ,there are also special state schools for defectives1 such as the blind and the deaf4 ,,policy ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,government ,,toward ,,education ,the national government gave its first support to public education by the ,ordinance of #aghg under which the ,northwest ,territory was organized4 ,it provided that religion1 morality1 and knowledge being necessary government to good government and the happiness of mankind1 schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged4 ,as new states were organized1 sections of the public lands were to be reserved for school purposes4 ,grants of public land were also made for the establishment of agricultural colleges and experiment stations4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,bureau ,,of ,,education ,we have also noted the national cooperation with the states for agricultural extension work and for vocational education4 ,the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education is under the direction of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education4 ,it has exerted its chief influence through its investigations of educational methods and its numerous reports and other publications4 ,it serves as a sort of educational clearing house for local and state school authorities4 ,one of its chief endeavors has been to increase the educational opportunities in rural communities4 ,report on the following3 ,provisions of your state constitution with regard to education4 ,cost of public schools per year to your community2 your county2 your state4 ,how this cost is met in your town or county4 ,portion paid by the state4 ,organization of your state department of education4 ,compare with the organization of state departments in neighboring states4 ,arguments for and against the method of choosing your state board of education and your state superintendent4 ,do the rural schools and city schools of your state operate under the same state supervision8 ,why8 ,use of state course of study in your school and community4 ,selection of textbooks for your school4 ,advantages and disadvantages of uniform textbooks and course of study4 ,of uniform examinations throughout the state4 ,management and support of your state university4 ,qualifications for admission to the state university and state agricultural college4 ,why you are 7or not7 going to college4 ,the value of the state university or agricultural college to your state4 ,state educational institutions for the blind1 the deaf1 etc4 ,arguments for and against national control of education4 ,chief provisions of any bill now before ,congress for a national ,department of ,education4 ,,readings ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #aa1 ,education as encouraged by industry4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #h1 ,preventing waste of human beings4 ,in ,long's ,,american ,,patriotic ,,prose3 ,educated men in politics 7,grover ,cleveland71 pp4 #bee-beg4 ,the educated man and democratic ideals 7,charles ,e4 ,hughes71 pp4 #bhf-bhh4 ,in ,foerster and ,pierson's ,,american ,,ideals3 ,the ,american scholar 7,r4 ,w4 ,emerson71 pp4 #acc-aee4 ,democracy in education 7,p4 ,p4 ,claxton71 pp4 #aef-aeg4 ,reports of local and state departments of education4 ,publications of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education4 ,latest annual report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,commissioner of ,education4 ,these annual reports contain excellent summaries of every phase of education in the ,united ,states and in many foreign countries4 ,bulletins4 ,send to the ,bureau for ,list of ,available ,publications4 ,these bulletins relate to every important aspect of education1 school organization and administration1 etc4 ,many of them are of special application to rural education4 ,teachers of civics will find the following helpful3 #aiae1 ,no4 #ag1 ,civic education in elementary schools as illustrated in ,indianapolis 7,government ,printing ,office1 #e cents74 #aiae1 ,no4 #bc1 ,the teaching of community civics 7,government ,printing ,office1 #aj cents74 #aiaf1 ,no4 #bh1 ,the social studies in secondary education 7,government ,printing ,office1 #aj cents74 #aiag1 ,no4 #df1 ,the public school system of ,san ,francisco1 chapter on civic education4 #aiag1 ,no4 #ea1 ,moral values in secondary education4 #aiah1 ,no4 #ae1 ,educational survey of ,elyria1 ,ohio1 chapter on civic education 7,government ,printing ,office1 #cj cents74 #aiai1 ,no4 #ej1 ,part #c1 ,civic education in the public school system of ,memphis4 ,write to the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education for list of references on pupil self-government4 ,also write to the ,school ,citizens' ,committee1 #b ,wall ,st41 ,new ,york ,city1 for material on the same subject4 ,earle1 ,alice ,morse1 ,,child ,,life ,,in ,,colonial ,,days 7,macmillan74 ,dewey1 ,john1 ,,the ,,school ,,and ,,society and ,,schools ,,of ,,to-,,morrow4 ,quick1 ,herbert1 ,,the ,,brown ,,mouse 7,bobbs-,merrill ,co41 ,indianapolis74 ,foght1 ,h4 ,w41 ,,the ,,rural ,,teacher ,,and ,,his ,,work4 ,jackson1 ,henry ,e41 ,a ,,community ,,center--,,what ,,it ,,is ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,organize ,,it4 ,bulletin1 #aiah1 ,no4 #aa1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,community',s ,,health ,,physical ,,defects ,,and ,,the ,,national ,,defense ,there is nothing else that concerns the community or the nation so much as the health of its citizens4 ,of more than three million men between the ages of #ba and #ca examined for military service in #aiah1 only about #fe per cent were passed as physically fit to fight for their country4 ,footnote3 ,public ,health ,reports1 ,u4 ,s4 ,public ,health ,service1 vol4 #cd1 ,no4 #ac1 p4 #fcc 7,march #bh1 #aiai74 ,the remaining #ce per cent were either totally unfit for any kind of service1 or were capable only of the less strenuous activities connected with warfare4 ,most of the defects found could have been remedied1 or prevented altogether1 if proper care had been taken in earlier years4 ,,physical ,,defects ,,and ,,the ,,nation',s ,,industry ,the nation loses by this physical unfitness in other ways than in fighting power4 ,investigations have shown that wage earners lose from their work an average of from six to nine days each year on account of sickness4 ,footnote #b3 ,public ,health ,reports1 ,u4 ,s4 ,public ,health ,service1 vol4 #cd1 ,no4 #af1 pp4 #ggg-ghb 7,april #ah1 #aiai74 ,the cost to the individual in loss of wages1 doctors' bills1 and otherwise1 is a serious matter1 to say nothing of the absolute want to which it reduces many families and the suffering entailed4 ,in addition to this1 the country loses the wage earner's production4 ,sometimes death brings to the family permanent loss of income1 and to the nation complete loss of the product of the wage earner's work4 ,the nation spends large sums of money every year in providing for dependent families and individuals4 ,if each of the #ch million wage earners in the ,united ,states in #aiaj lost #f days from work in a year1 how many days' work would the nation lose8 ,how many years of work would this amount to8 ,at #b4ej a day 7is this a high wage87 how much would be lost in wages in a year8 ,get information regarding the cost of a long case of sickness1 such as typhoid fever1 in some family of your acquaintance 7perhaps your own71 including doctor's bills1 medicines1 time lost from work1 etc4 ,what would such expense mean to a family living on as low wages as those mentioned on page #afg8 ,,education ,,and ,,physical ,,defects ,moreover1 the nation loses a great deal 7how much cannot be calculated7 from the physical unfitness of many who keep on working1 but who are not fully efficient because of bodily defects or ailments4 ,we see the results of this even in school4 ,pupils who lag behind their mates in their studies are often suffering from physical defects of which their teachers1 and even they themselves1 may be unaware4 ,it may be that they are ill-nourished1 or that they have defective vision1 or hearing1 or teeth1 or that they sleep in poorly ventilated rooms4 ,the community does not get its money's worth from its schools if its children are not in physical condition to profit by them4 ,in a similar manner earning and productive power are reduced4 ,,physical ,,unfitness ,,in ,,rural ,,communities ,it has usually been assumed that the people in rural districts are more healthy than those who live in cities2 but it has been found that there is as much physical unfitness there as elsewhere4 ,it is true that the records of the war department seem to show fewer men rejected in rural districts as totally unfit for any kind of military service2 but evidence of other kinds has been collected that indicates that some kinds of disease1 at least1 and many physical defects are more prevalent in the country than in the city4 ,in ,,the ,,lure ,,of ,,the ,,land1 ,dr4 ,harvey ,wiley makes a comparison of the death rate from certain diseases in a few states where the figures are available for both city and country4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,harvey ,wiley1 ,,the ,,lure ,,of ,,the ,,land1 ,chapter ,,viii1 ,health on the ,farm1 pp4 #ec-fj4 ,,rural ,,and ,,city ,,school ,,children ,,compared ,studies have been made of the comparative health of city and rural school children1 which show results in favor of the former4 ,of #ccj1agi children examined in ,new ,york ,city #gj percent were found defective1 while of #bid1dbg examined in #ahca rural districts of ,pennsylvania #ge per cent were defective4 ,the preceding chart shows the comparative prevalence of health defects among city and country children4 ,investigate the following3 ,meaning of vital statistics4 ,importance of vital statistics to your community4 ,where recorded for your county or town4 ,what the vital statistics of your community for the last year show4 ,causes of deaths in your community for the last year4 ,the percentage of these deaths that were preventable4 ,increase or decrease of death rate in your community during recent years1 in your state4 ,the nature of the prevailing sicknesses in your community during the last year4 ,per cent of these that were contagious4 ,list of contagious diseases in the order of their prevalence4 ,quarantine regulations in your community against contagious diseases4 ,extent to which they are observed4 ,who is responsible for their observance8 ,for their enforcement8 ,observe condition of sidewalks and other public places with respect to expectoration4 ,is there a law on the subject in your community'8 ,is it observed or enforced8 ,who is responsible8 ,dangers from expectoration4 ,medical inspection in the schools of your county1 town1 and state4 ,if any1 its results4 ,kinds of defects most commonly found4 ,how is it conducted8 ,who sends the inspectors8 ,to what extent the homes of the community cooperate with the schools in getting results from medical inspection4 ,,better ,,conditions ,,in ,,cities ,,due ,,to ,,organized ,,team ,,work ,we may well ask why ill health and physical defects seem to be more prevalent in rural communities than in cities4 ,the answer probably is1 simply1 that in cities they are ,,prevented more effectively4 ,the chart on page #cac shows that while the death rate in ,new ,york ,city was #bj4f per thousand in #aijj1 it had declined to #ad per thousand in #aiad2 while that in the rural districts of ,new ,york ,state remained practically the same during these years 7#ae4e per thousand in #aijj1 #ae4c in #aiad74 ,this indicates that health conditions in the city were originally much worse than in the country4 ,they were rapidly improved by organization for health protection4 ,there is not the occasion1 in rural communities1 for the elaborate health-protecting organization that is now found in all large cities1 because the people in rural communities are not so completely dependent upon one another nor at the mercy of conditions over which1 as individuals1 they have no control4 ,and yet even in rural communities physical well-being depends largely upon organized team work4 ,,schools ,,as ,,an ,,agency ,,for ,,health ,,conservation ,cities have used their school organization to combat physical defects and weaknesses of pupils1 and that is why they make a better showing than rural communities in such matters as those shown in the table on page #cab4 ,removing such defects from young people means a stronger and more efficient adult population ten or twenty years from now2 for these defects are often the causes of more serious illness in later years4 ,the table on page #bii1 ,chapter ,,xix1 shows how much behind cities rural communities have been in the use of their school organization for this purpose4 ,the encouraging thing is1 however1 that rural communities are beginning to find the means to use their schools in this way4 ,the way has been opened by school consolidation 7p4 #bie71 by the grouping of all the small and isolated schools of a county under a central county administration 7p4 #bid71 by aid from the state1 both in money and in supervision1 and by cooperation from the national government4 ,,health ,,education ,,for ,,adults ,,in ,,cities ,cities have extended their health-educational work to the adult population4 ,this takes place in part through the schools also4 ,instruction given to children is of course taken home by them4 ,visiting nurses employed by the schools visit the homes4 ,classes for mothers are conducted at the school in the afternoon or evening4 ,but more than this1 city boards of health1 often in cooperation with the school authorities1 conduct educational campaigns by means of literature distributed to the homes through school children1 by means of evening lectures and moving pictures1 and through the newspapers4 ,,agencies ,,for ,,health ,,education ,,in ,,rural ,,communities ,means are not wanting for similar work in rural communities4 ,the homes may be reached by the right kind of instruction in the schools4 ,the classes or clubs for women conducted by women county agents may be1 and often are1 used as means of health instruction4 ,public meetings at the community center at the schoolhouse may be devoted at times to public health problems1 with lectures1 moving pictures1 and discussions4 ,the local newspapers always afford a channel through which to get matters of this kind before the people4 ,local and state boards of health1 the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 and the ,public ,health ,service may and do use these and other agencies to reach the people4 ,,responsibility ,,of ,,the ,,home ,no matter how much machinery for cooperation we may have in our community1 like that described above1 it cannot help much unless every family and every citizen cooperates intelligently4 ,in a large city1 a small group of men1 constituting the city council1 may inaugurate measures which will accomplish sanitary improvements at thousands of homes2 but for the accomplishment of sanitary improvements at #ajjj farm homes at least #ajjj persons 444 must be convinced that the sanitary measures are needed1 become informed how to apply them1 and be willing to put them into operation4 ,footnote3 ,,rural ,,sanitation1 by ,l4 ,l4 ,lumsden1 ,public ,health ,bulletin ,no4 #id1 ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service1 p4 #aj4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,pure ,,air ,pure air is essential to good health4 ,it is not always easy to get in the crowded living and working conditions of cities4 ,there it is necessary to regulate these conditions by law1 and factories and tenements are inspected to see that they are properly ventilated and not overcrowded4 ,in rural communities there is less excuse for bad air1 and the responsibility for it rests more directly upon the individual1 as illustrated on page #aab1 ,chapter ,x4 ,,bad ,,air ,,and ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,disease ,it might seem that it is nobody's business but our own how we live in our homes or at our work4 ,but bad air lessens vitality and nurtures disease4 ,this reduces productive power4 ,moreover1 colds1 influenza1 and tuberculosis 7of which more than a million people are constantly sick in the ,united ,states71 all of which are nourished in bad air1 may be spread by contact1 or by food handled by those who are sick4 ,people who live in bad air at home mingle with others at church1 in moving picture theaters1 at school1 in the courtroom1 and in other public meeting places1 which are themselves often poorly ventilated4 ,it is strange that court rooms1 where justice is administered1 schools where children are prepared for life1 and churches where people worship1 are so often badly ventilated4 ,report on the following3 ,is your schoolroom well ventilated8 ,how do you know8 ,what effect does poor ventilation have upon your feelings and your work8 ,if the law requires school attendance1 why should it also require good ventilation of the school8 ,if the ventilation of your school is not good1 what may you do about it8 ,who is responsible for it8 ,observe and report upon the ventilation of the court rooms1 moving picture theaters1 churches1 and other meeting places in your community4 ,,pure ,,water ,,and ,,health ,cities go to great expense to get an abundant pure-water supply4 ,it is of the greatest importance in community sanitation ,impure water is one of the chief sources of typhoid fever and other diseases of the intestines4 ,about #djj1jjj persons have typhoid fever every year in the ,united ,states1 and #cj1jjj are killed by it2 and it is unnecessary4 ,we have from three to five times as much typhoid as many ,european countries have1 and for no other reason than that we are negligent4 ,,pure ,,food ,,and ,,health ,pure1 clean1 wholesome food is equally essential4 ,we need not dwell upon the importance of the right kinds of food and well- cooked food4 ,much illness is caused by spoiled foods4 ,disease germs may be carried by food as well as by water4 ,tuberculosis may be carried by milk1 either from diseased cattle1 or from victims of the disease who handle the milk at some point in its progress from the dairy farm to the home4 ,the death rate among babies is appalling1 especially in cities1 because of the use of milk containing germs of intestinal diseases4 ,typhoid fever may be contracted from milk1 green vegetables1 and oysters from beds contaminated with sewage4 ,the food supply of cities passes through many hands before it reaches the consumer4 ,at almost every point it is protected by regulations and inspection4 ,most of it1 however1 comes originally from the farm which is beyond the control of the city authorities4 ,the producers and handlers of food products in rural districts therefore owe it not only to themselves but also to their city neighbors to exercise every possible precaution against the spread of disease4 ,such precautions consist in cleanliness in handling and storing milk1 butter1 and meats2 in the cleansing of milk receptacles with pure water2 in the proper location and construction of wells2 in protecting springs from surface drainage2 in sanitary disposal of sewage and other wastes from the household2 in protection of food against flies4 ,,sanitation ,,in ,,cities ,in cities a great deal of attention is given to sanitation4 ,sewage is carried off by public sewers4 ,householders are required to place garbage in sanitary cans1 whence it is collected and disposed of in such a way as not to pollute the soil4 ,ashes and refuse are carried away from homes and shops1 and the streets are cleaned daily4 ,in rural communities such matters are left almost entirely to the householder4 ,,flies ,,as ,,disease ,,carriers ,exposed garbage1 improperly built outdoor toilets1 and stable manure are breeding places of flies2 and flies are notorious carriers of disease4 ,yet1 out of more than #cjjj homes in one county in ,indiana only #ca made provision to prevent stable manure from breeding flies1 and the same was true of only #a out of more than #bjjj homes in a county in ,north ,carolina1 and only #hf out of nearly #ejjj homes in an ,alabama county4 ,,danger ,,from ,,mosquitoes ,malaria is widespread in the ,united ,states and imposes a heavy toll upon the nation's health4 ,it is carried from one victim to another by a certain kind of mosquito1 of which it is comparatively easy to get rid by proper drainage of breeding places1 by treating the surface of pools with kerosene1 by screening1 and by seeing to it that rain barrels are covered and that tin cans and other receptacles of water are not left lying around4 ,but flies and mosquitoes do not stop with fences1 nor do they recognize city or county boundaries4 ,hence1 individual effort without community cooperation is likely to be useless4 ,,polluted ,,soil ,,and ,,hookworm ,,disease ,the terrible hookworm disease so prevalent in our southern states is caused by a minute worm that infests soil polluted with sewage4 ,it penetrates the soles of the feet of those who go barefoot and the palms of the hands of those who work in the soils1 finds its way through the blood to the intestines1 and thence to the soil again4 ,an investigation in #ggj counties in #aa states where hookworm disease is prevalent showed that out of #bhg1fjf farm homes only six tenths of one per cent disposed of their sewage in such a way as to prevent soil pollution4 ,out of #cje homes in a little community in ,mississippi1 only #d properly disposed of sewage4 ,when the first investigations were made1 there were #djg cases of hookworm disease out of #ajjb residents4 ,besides1 there had been recently #ab cases of tuberculosis1 #dg of typhoid fever1 #ahd of malaria1 and #chd of dysentery4 ,safe methods of disposing of sewage were introduced1 houses were screened1 an artesian well was bored for a public water supply1 and the community cleaned up generally4 ,after these improvements the various diseases almost entirely disappeared4 ,similar results were obtained in #ii other communities in the southern states4 ,footnote3 ,report of the ,rockefeller ,foundation1 #aiag1 pp4 #acf- #ach4 ,topics for investigation3 ,the water supply of farms in your locality4 ,any recent improvements4 ,the public water supply 7if any7 of your community4 ,its sources4 ,method of purification4 ,quality of water4 ,how the people know it is pure or impure4 ,public or private ownership of the supply4 ,cost to the householder4 ,extent to which the families represented in your class depend upon private wells4 ,how many have had their well water examined to test its purity4 ,how to proceed to have water tested4 ,who tests it8 ,who pays for the test8 7,if possible1 visit the laboratory where the tests are made47 ,number of cases of typhoid fever in your community1 now or during last year4 ,how the information can be obtained4 ,is the information likely to be accurate8 ,whose business is it to keep a record8 ,why should a record be kept8 ,why should it be made public8 ,causes of typhoid in your community4 ,are they preventable8 ,how8 ,observance of quarantine against typhoid4 ,how may wells become polluted8 ,give cases of which you may know4 ,study diagram on page #cad4 ,methods of sewage disposal in your community4 ,laws on the subject4 ,can you suggest improvements8 ,regulation of milk production and handling in your community3 on the farms where it is produced2 in the hands of dealers and distributors2 in the home4 ,who make these regulations8 ,outline on a map the area from which your community is supplied with milk4 ,show on a map cities that are supplied by your county with dairy products1 garden vegetables1 meats1 etc4 ,clean-up campaigns in your community4 ,progress and methods of fly and mosquito extermination in your community4 ,the work of the ,rockefeller ,foundation for the extermination of hookworm disease 7see references74 ,hospitals that serve your community4 ,where located4 ,by whom supported 7private1 city or town1 county1 state74 ,,national ,,control ,,of ,,health ,,conservation ,health protection1 like education1 has been considered primarily the duty of the state4 ,but many conditions affecting health have arisen that the state cannot completely control4 ,chiefly under the power given to it by the ,constitution to regulate foreign and interstate commerce 7p4 #dea71 ,congress has passed many laws that protect health1 placing their enforcement in the hands of the several departments of the national government4 ,,health ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,the ,department of ,agriculture conducts much public health work1 through its home demonstration agents1 its ,office of ,rural ,engineering1 which deals with problems of farm water supply and rural sanitation1 its ,bureau of ,entomology which wages war against flies and other disease-carrying insects1 and its ,bureau of ,animal ,industry which inspects cattle1 meats1 and dairy products4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture also administers the ,food and ,drugs ,act1 the purpose of which is to secure purity of food products and to require that they and medicinal drugs shall be labeled in such a way as to show what they contain4 ,fraudulent and harmful cures and patent medicines may thus be exposed4 ,,the ,,public ,,health ,,service ,the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service investigates diseases and health conditions and the means of controlling them4 ,it has given considerable attention to rural sanitation4 ,it issues reports and other publications of great value to the citizen1 some of them being listed at the end of this chapter4 ,it has representatives in all important foreign ports1 inspects all ships that enter ,american harbors1 and holds them in quarantine until they and their passengers are given a clean bill of health4 ,cholera and other dangerous diseases have thus been prevented from gaining a foothold on ,american soil4 ,,health ,,work ,,of ,,other ,,departments ,the ,war ,department has also waged a relentless warfare against disease1 not only in the army itself1 but also in the ,panama ,canal ,zone1 ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico1 the ,philippines1 and other regions occupied by the army4 ,the ,department of ,labor seeks to improve the physical conditions of labor for both men and women1 and its ,children's ,bureau is charged with a study of all matters pertaining to the welfare of children4 ,in the ,department of the ,interior the ,census ,bureau collects national vital statistics2 the ,bureau of ,mines has done valuable work for the prevention of accidents in mines and mining industries2 and the ,bureau of ,education seeks to promote physical education1 instruction in home economics1 and education in the home relating to the care of children4 ,,state ,,responsibility ,,for ,,health ,,protection ,a very large part of the duty of health protection must1 however1 remain with the states4 ,every state has its department of health1 headed by a state board of health1 or a commissioner of health1 or both4 ,these departments differ greatly in their organization and in the extent and effectiveness of their work4 ,,new ,,york ,,state ,,organization ,one of the best organized state departments of health is that of ,new ,york4 ,among its most important features are 7#a7 a ,,public ,,health ,,council which has power to establish a state-wide ,,sanitary ,,code2 7#b7 the concentration of all administrative power in the hands of a single state ,,commissioner ,,of ,,health1 who has a staff of experts to direct special lines of health work2 and 7#c7 a well- organized scheme of cooperation between the state department and local health authorities4 ,,local ,,organization ,,for ,,health ,,protection ,the absence or weakness of local organization for health protection has been one of the obstacles to progress in physical well-being in the ,united ,states4 ,driven by an appalling death rate and frequent epidemics1 our large cities have developed health departments which in many cases have proved very effective4 ,but in smaller communities1 while health departments or health officers usually exist1 the organization has for the most part been very ineffective4 ,the people themselves have not been sufficiently aroused to their needs and to methods of meeting them4 ,new ,york and ,massachusetts are among the most progressive states in this matter4 ,each local community in these states 7town1 village1 or small city7 has its board of health and health officer2 but these communities are grouped into ,,health ,,districts 7#h in ,massachusetts1 #bj in ,new ,york71 each district being in charge of a health officer appointed by the state commissioner or board of health4 ,in ,new ,york the district health officer1 who is there called the ,,sanitary ,,supervisor1 has the following duties3 ,to keep informed regarding the work of each local health officer within his sanitary district4 ,to aid the local health officers in making health surveys of the community under their control4 ,to aid each local health officer in the performance of his duties1 particularly on the appearance of contagious diseases4 ,to hold conferences of local health officers4 ,to study the causes of excessive death rates4 ,to promote efficient registration of births and deaths4 ,to inspect all labor camps and to enforce in them all public health regulations4 ,to inspect ,indian reservations and to enforce all provisions of the sanitary code in them4 ,to secure the cooperation of medical organizations for the improvement of the public health4 ,to promote the information of the public in matters pertaining to the public health4 ,,example ,,of ,,north ,,carolina ,another type of local health organization and of cooperation between local and state authorities for health protection and promotion has been developed in ,north ,carolina1 where #he per cent of the population is rural4 ,here the county has been taken as the unit of local organization4 ,health conditions had been very bad in this state1 hookworm disease1 tuberculosis1 malaria1 and other diseases being prevalent4 ,the state board of health1 assisted by the ,rockefeller ,sanitary ,commission 7see above1 page #cbj1 and references below71 began an investigation and an educational campaign among the people1 with the result that many of the counties of the state now have an organization for health cooperation unsurpassed1 perhaps1 in any other state4 ,each county has a health department1 which is controlled jointly by the state board of health and a county board of health4 ,the county board of health consists of the mayor of the county seat1 the chairman of the board of county commissioners1 the county superintendent of schools1 and two physicians of the county elected by the other three members4 ,the work of the health department is directed by a county health officer1 who is appointed by the state board of health of which he is also a member4 ,he has a staff of trained assistants4 ,in this plan note the cooperation between state and local communities1 between town and county officials1 and between the school authorities and the health organization4 ,note1 also1 the leadership of specialists in health matters4 ,topics for investigation3 ,organization of the department of health in your community 7both county and town73 the board of health2 the executive health officer or officers2 the kinds of work done4 ,amount of money spent by your local health department for all purposes and for each purpose separately4 ,compare with the amounts spent for roads1 for schools1 and for other work of the local government4 ,the interest shown by the people in your community in public health matters4 ,some of the more important health problems of your community4 ,the leadership in your community in health matters4 ,cooperation between the state government and your local government in health matters4 ,the more important local and state laws relating to health in your community4 ,organization of your state department of health4 ,local health problems that need state control4 ,state health problems that need local cooperation4 ,the operation of the ,food and ,drugs ,act in your community4 ,the work of the ,public ,health ,service4 ,the extermination of yellow fever in the ,united ,states4 ,the fight against the bubonic plague in ,california4 ,the work of the ,war ,department to maintain the health of the soldiers during the recent war4 ,volunteer agencies that cooperated in this work4 ,work done in your community for the promotion of health by the ,department of ,agriculture and the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service4 ,the work of the ,children's ,bureau of the ,department of ,labor4 ,the inspection of immigrants4 ,,readings ,reports of local and state boards of health4 ,publications of state agricultural college relating to public health4 ,publications of the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service1 ,washington4 ,the following are illustrative3 ,federal ,public ,health ,administration3 ,its ,development and ,present ,status4 ,reprint ,no4 #aab1 ,u4 ,s4 ,pub4 ,health ,reports1 #aiac4 ,public ,health ,reports4 ,issued weekly4 ,rural ,sanitation1 ,pub4 ,health ,bulletin ,no4 #id1 #aiah4 ,health ,insurance1 ,pub4 ,health ,reports1 vol1 #cd1 ,no4 #af1 #aiai4 ,the ,nation's ,physical ,fitness1 ,pub4 ,health ,reports1 vol4 #cd1 ,no4 #ac1 #aiai4 ,good ,water for ,farm ,homes1 ,pub4 ,health ,bulletin ,no4 #gj1 #aiae4 ,typhoid ,fever3 ,its ,causation and ,prevention1 ,pub4 ,health ,bulletin ,no4 #fi1 #aiae4 ,public ,health ,almanac 7for current year74 ,what the ,farmer ,can ,do to ,prevent ,malaria1 ,pub4 ,health ,reports1 ,no4 #aa1 ,supplement1 #aiad4 ,fighting ,trim3 ,the ,importance of ,right ,living4 ,supplement ,no4 #e1 ,pub4 ,health ,reports1 #aiac4 ,the ,transmission of ,disease by ,flies1 ,supplement ,no4 #bi1 ,pub4 ,health ,reports1 #aiaf4 ,the ,citizen and ,public ,health1 ,supplement ,no4 #d1 ,pub4 ,health ,reports1 #aiac4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture publications contain material relating to public health4 ,for example3 ,health ,laws1 ,year ,book1 #aiac1 pp4 #abe-acd4 ,animal ,disease and ,our ,food ,supply1 ,year ,book1 #aiae1 pp4 #aei-agb4 ,public ,abattoirs in ,new ,zealand and ,australia1 ,year ,book1 #aiad1 pp4 #dcc-dcf4 ,meat ,inspection ,service of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,year ,book #aiaf1 pp4 #gg-ih4 ,sewage ,disposal on the ,farm1 ,year ,book1 #aiaf1 pp4 #cdg-cgd4 ,clean ,water and ,how to ,get ,it on the ,farm1 ,year ,book1 #aiad1 pp4 #aci-aef4 ,dunn1 ,,the ,,community ,,and ,,the ,,citizen1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,beard1 ,c4 ,a41 ,,american ,,city ,,government1 pp4 #bfa-bhb4 ,among the ,bulletins of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,education treating of health matters are the following3 #aiaj1 ,no4 #e1 ,american schoolhouses4 #aiac4 ,no4 #dd1 ,organized health work in schools4 ,no4 #dh1 ,school hygiene4 ,no4 #eb1 ,sanitary schoolhouses4 #aiad1 ,no4 #aj1 ,physical growth and school progress4 ,no4 #ag1 ,sanitary survey of the schools of ,orange ,county1 ,va4 ,no4 #bj1 ,the rural school and hookworm disease4 #aiae1 ,no4 #d1 ,the health of school children4 ,no4 #ba1 ,schoolhouse sanitation4 ,no4 #ej1 ,health of school children4 #aiag1 ,no4 #ej1 ,physical education in secondary schools4 #aiai1 ,no4 #b1 ,standardization of medical inspection facilities4 ,no4 #fe1 ,the eyesight of school children4 ,publications of the ,children's ,bureau1 ,department of ,labor4 ,see1 for example1 ,rural ,children in ,selected ,counties of ,north ,carolina1 ,rural ,child ,welfare ,series ,no4 #b1 and ,baby-,saving ,campaigns4 ,a ,preliminary ,report on ,what ,american ,cities are ,doing to ,prevent ,infant ,mortality1 ,bureau ,publication ,no4 #c4 ,see list of publications issued by the ,bureau4 ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #ad1 ,the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #ai1 ,how the city cares for health4 ,reports of the ,rockefeller ,foundation1 #fa ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,social1 ,,aesthetic1 ,,and ,,spiritual ,,wants ,,happiness ,,through ,,service ,several times in the preceding chapters reference has been made to our national purpose to transmute days of dreary work into happier lives4 ,this does not mean to get rid of work2 for happiness can be attained only ,,in work and ,,through work4 ,happiness ,,in work depends largely upon our freedom and ability to choose the kind of service for which we are best fitted1 and upon the extent to which we prepare ourselves for it4 ,it also depends to a large extent upon good health 7p4 #cji74 ,,satisfaction ,,of ,,higher ,,wants ,but there never was a truer statement than that all work and no play makes ,jack a dull boy4 ,in return for his work every citizen is entitled to enough compensation to enable him to provide not only for the bare necessities of life1 such as food and shelter1 but also for the pleasure that he derives from the satisfaction of his higher wants1 such as social life and recreation1 an education that will give him a richer enjoyment of life1 pleasant surroundings1 religious advantages4 ,,equality ,,of ,,opportunity ,,to ,,enjoy ,,life ,all these things have much to do with our national well-being and our citizenship4 ,our nation is democratic only in proportion to the equality of opportunity enjoyed by all citizens to satisfy these wants4 ,moreover1 the efficiency of each citizen in productive work and as a participator in self-government depends more than we sometimes think upon his opportunity to enjoy life in pleasant surroundings and in wholesome social relations4 ,in the past the citizen has been left largely to his own resources and to purely voluntary cooperation to provide for these wants4 ,government has not even adequately ,,protected his rights of this kind1 to say nothing of positively ,,promoting them4 ,at present1 however1 community team work through government is being organized as never before both to promote and to protect the interests of all citizens in the fullest possible enjoyment of life4 ,,recreation ,,and ,,social ,,life ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,play ,children enjoy play because it satisfies physical1 mental1 and social wants4 ,but it is also the principal means by which they prepare for the more serious duties of later life4 ,it builds up health1 trains the muscles and the senses1 and sharpens the wits4 ,it gives practice in team work1 develops leadership1 and teaches the value of rules of the game4 ,every child is entitled to an abundant opportunity to play1 both because of the happiness it affords him and because by it he is trained for membership in the community4 ,it is to the interest of the community to afford him the opportunity4 ,it is largely for this reason that most of the states protect children by law from being put to work for a living at too early an age4 ,,opportunities ,,for ,,play ,,in ,,cities ,in large cities thousands of children live in crowded districts where there is no place to play except in the public streets4 ,so little appreciative have we been of the importance of play in the development of young citizens that great numbers of city schools have been built with no provision whatever for playgrounds4 ,this mistake is slowly being corrected1 often at great expense4 ,no city school is now considered first-class if it does not have an ample and well-equipped playground1 with competent directors to teach children how to get the most out of their play4 ,most cities are also establishing public playgrounds apart from the schools1 sometimes under the management of the school board1 but often under that of a special playground or recreation commission4 ,,play ,,in ,,rural ,,communities ,play for the children of rural communities is as important as for those of cities1 but even less attention has been given to it4 ,many a country school has no playground1 and if it has one it is likely to be small and not equipped with play apparatus4 ,why should there be playgrounds when there is all outdoors in which to play8 ,why should there be expensive play apparatus and play directors when boys and girls can get all the exercise they need at home or on the farm8 ,play means more than mere physical exercise1 and must be pleasurable if it is to have value4 ,organized play is as truly a means of education as any school instruction1 and must have competent leadership or direction4 ,in rural districts1 where the children live far apart1 there is particular need for a common meeting place for organized group play1 and the school is the most appropriate place for it4 ,,argument ,,for ,,school ,,consolidation ,the need for organized play in rural communities is one of the best arguments for school consolidation1 for it brings together larger numbers and makes possible the employment of a competent play director and the proper equipment of the playground4 ,teacher- training schools now make a point of training play leaders as well as teachers of arithmetic and geography4 ,,meaning ,,of ,,recreation ,as children grow older1 an increasing part of their time must be given to work--school work1 tasks at home1 remunerative employment outside of the home4 ,after leaving school and throughout adult life1 work absorbs the major part of one's time and attention4 ,but even then1 all work and no play will continue to make ,jack a dull boy4 ,we now call play recreation1 for by it body and mind and spirit are refreshed1 renewed1 ,,re-,,created1 after close application to work4 ,that is why school work is broken by recesses4 ,recreation is necessary as a means of providing for physical1 mental1 and social wants2 for the pleasure that it affords4 ,but it is also important in its relation to work1 for without it body and mind become fagged1 people grow stale at their work1 producing power and power of service are reduced4 ,,the ,,habit ,,of ,,play ,it is very easy to get out of the habit of play1 and especially difficult to form the habit in adult life if it has not been done in youth4 ,people often become so absorbed in work that there seems to be no time for recreation4 ,in such cases not only is the enjoyment of life narrowed1 but there is a risk of damaging the quality of one's work and even of shortening one's life of productive activity1 or of service4 ,,leisure ,a ,,requirement ,every worker is entitled to opportunity for recreation1 both for his own sake and for the well-being of the community4 ,this means1 first of all1 that he must have ,,leisure for it4 ,when people have to work hard for ten or twelve or more hours a day1 year in and year out1 as was once customary in industry1 there is neither time nor energy for wholesome recreation4 ,that such conditions existed1 and still exist to a considerable extent1 is due to gross imperfections in the industrial organization of the community4 ,one of the evidences of progress toward transmuting days of dreary work into happier lives is the reduction in the hours of toil in many industries1 and the consequent increase of leisure for the enjoyment of life and for self-improvement4 ,one of the things for which labor unions have struggled is the shortening of the working day4 ,through their efforts1 and through the awakening of public interest and knowledge in regard to the matter1 the working day is now fixed by law at eight hours in most industries1 often with a half holiday on ,saturdays4 ,experience has shown that this change has in no way reduced the product of industry4 ,there are still some industries1 however1 in which men toil at the hardest kind of labor for twelve or more hours a day1 sometimes even including ,sundays4 ,a ,,living ,,wage ,a ,,necessity ,a second thing necessary to afford opportunity for recreation is an income from one's work sufficient to provide more than the bare necessities of life4 ,before the war1 it is said1 more than five million families1 or about one fourth of the families in the ,united ,states1 were trying to live on a wage of #ej a month1 or less4 ,during the war1 wages of skilled and unskilled labor shot upward2 but so1 also1 did the cost of living4 ,it is not easy to determine just what share of the proceeds of industry should1 in justice1 go to the laborer in wages4 ,but it should be enough to provide not only for food and clothing and shelter1 but also for decent family life1 for healthful surroundings1 for education for the children1 and for wholesome recreation4 ,labor unions and others interested in a fairer distribution of the proceeds of industry have long been working for the enactment of minimum wage laws1 that is1 laws fixing the least wage that may be paid for each class of labor1 this to be enough to provide a reasonable satisfaction of all the wants of life4 ,some states have already enacted such laws1 and during the recent war the federal government in some cases fixed rates of wages1 and appointed labor boards to adjust wages to the rising cost of living4 ,,the ,,wise ,,use ,,of ,,leisure ,neither leisure nor income1 however1 suffice for recreation unless they are wisely used4 ,mere idleness is not recreation2 and many people use their leisure in ,,dissipation instead of in recreation4 ,dissipation is the opposite of thrift4 ,it means to throw away1 or to be wasteful4 ,a person may dissipate his income4 ,we have come to understand the word dissipation1 however1 to mean excessive indulgence in pleasures or amusements that are wasteful of time1 energy1 or health1 or all three1 and we call the person dissipated who is addicted to such indulgence4 ,any amusement1 even though harmless in itself1 may become dissipation if indulged in to excess1 or at the sacrifice of other things that are better4 ,,rural ,,opportunities ,,for ,,recreation ,one of the principal disadvantages often put forward against life in rural communities is the lack of opportunity for recreation4 ,it partly explains the difficulty of obtaining an abundance of farm labor1 and is one of the obstacles to inducing young people to remain on the farm4 ,unfortunately1 too1 the women on the farm have often been the chief sufferers from close confinement to the drudgery of housework1 with little opportunity for recreation and less chance than the men have to enjoy the companionship of other people4 ,the very nature of farming entails hard work and long hours1 especially at certain seasons4 ,under existing conditions it is hard to see how the farmer's working day could be limited to eight hours as in most other occupations4 ,the citizen farmer who lives in the same community with the miner 444 must invest in land and buildings1 tools and livestock4 ,he must pay taxes and insurance and repairs and veterinary fees4 ,he must work often sixteen hours1 seldom less than ten1 and he must be on duty day and night1 ready always to care for his independent plant--all this1 and yet in order to receive a labor income equal to that of the soft coal miner 444 the farmer must not only work himself as no professional laborer ever works1 but he must also work his children without pay4 ,footnote3 ,e4 ,davenport1 ,dean of the ,college of ,agriculture1 ,university of ,illinois1 in ,proceedings of the ,first ,national ,country ,life ,conference1 ,baltimore1 #aiai4 p4 #ahc4 ,,improved ,,conditions ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,although this only too faithfully describes living conditions on the farm as they have been in the past and still are in many cases1 much improvement has taken place4 ,improvement of agricultural machinery and methods has brought a greater measure of leisure to the farmer1 while better means of transportation and communication have both saved him time and made easier for him and his family association with other people and the enjoyment of entertainment in the neighboring village or city4 ,the farm woman has benefited by the introduction of labor-saving devices and better management in the household1 and by the development of community cooperation in such matters as dairying and laundry work 7see pp4 #ajf1 #ajg74 ,in fact1 better team work in every phase of the business of agriculture means greater opportunity for the enjoyment of living1 and the efforts of the national and state governments to encourage such team work and to improve the methods of agriculture have for their purpose not merely the increase of the agricultural product1 but also the greater happiness of the rural citizen4 ,,facilities ,,for ,,dissipation ,when leisure may be found for recreation1 the facilities for it are often inadequate4 ,the city1 and even the village1 affords facilities for amusement and social enjoyment that good roads1 automobiles1 and trolley lines have made more accessible than formerly to the country round about4 ,while the urban community naturally affords greater opportunity than the rural community for social recreation1 its opportunities for dissipation are equally great4 ,going to the movies may be a real recreation1 or it may become a dissipation when indulged in to excess without discrimination as to the merit of the performance4 ,almost every village has its well-known loafing places1 and the saloon used to be a favorite meeting place for certain classes of people4 ,amusements that are especially harmful are more or less regulated by law4 ,even moving pictures are censored4 ,saloons have now been totally abolished4 ,,facilities ,,for ,,recreation ,the most effective preventive of dissipation is ample provision for wholesome recreation4 ,various agencies in urban communities seek to supply this need1 both for their own residents and for visitors from outside4 ,men's clubs1 such as chambers of commerce1 afford social and amusement advantages for the business men of the town1 and for visiting farmers who formerly met only at the store or courthouse1 in the saloon or on the street corner4 ,public libraries1 often with the cooperation of women's clubs1 provide rest rooms1 arranged for the comfort and entertainment of visiting women1 and afford means of profitable and enjoyable recreation for young people4 ,town churches sometimes maintain social rooms1 open during the week for similar purposes4 ,the ,young ,men's and ,young ,women's ,christian ,associations have performed a great service by providing entertainment and social life for young people4 ,one of the more recent developments is the community center1 usually at the schoolhouse1 where there are offered lectures and concerts1 social entertainments1 dances1 games1 and sports4 ,in some large cities such recreation centers are of the greatest value in the crowded districts4 ,,opportunities ,,afforded ,,by ,,the ,,consolidated ,,school ,rural communities have suffered from a dearth of recreational facilities of their own1 especially of a ,,social type4 ,one of the most promising influences to supply this deficiency is the ,,consolidated ,,school1 which makes provision for assembly halls1 social gatherings1 and recreation grounds for young and old alike4 ,an illustration of this is given in ,chapter ,,xix 7p4 #bif74 ,development of community recreation centers at consolidated rural schools is going on rapidly in many parts of the country4 ,iowa affords a striking example of this4 ,in that state more than #bjjj one-room country schools have been consolidated into something more than #cjj1 and consolidation is still going on4 ,some of these consolidated schools have five acres of land1 where provision is made1 not only for gardening and farming activities1 but also for picnic grounds and for fields for athletic sports and contests4 ,the buildings contain assembly halls1 gymnasiums1 and kitchens where food is prepared for social entertainments as well as for school lunches and for the teaching of cooking4 ,,need ,,for ,,leadership ,one of the chief obstacles to the development of rural community recreation has been the absence of leadership4 ,the consolidated school helps to remedy this4 ,other agencies1 however1 are doing something to provide such leadership1 among the most active of which is the county work department of the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association1 which has organized county-wide athletic associations and rural play festivals and field days in many localities4 ,,knowing ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,opportunities ,there are agencies1 or organizations1 in almost every community that could and should serve recreational ends4 ,the trouble with many of us is not so much the lack of time or of the means for recreation1 but a lack of knowledge of how to get the most out of our recreational opportunities4 ,hence the need for leadership4 ,hence1 also1 the need for an education that will open up to us new avenues of enjoyment4 ,recreation may be obtained not only from athletic sports and social entertainments1 but from the fields and woods1 from books and music and pictures1 even from ,,variety ,,in ,,our ,,work1 if we only knew how to find it4 ,the school is under as great obligation to provide us with an education that will teach us this as it is to equip us to earn a living4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the opportunities for play in your community4 ,the forms of play most prevalent in your community4 ,the extent to which play in your community develops team work and leadership4 ,how your school playground could be improved4 ,play as a means of education in your school4 ,agencies besides the school that afford opportunity for play in your community4 ,leisure on the farms of your locality3 for men2 for women2 for children4 ,could an eight-hour day be applied to farming in your locality8 ,why8 ,length of the working day for different employments in your town or neighboring city4 ,minimum wage laws in your state4 ,recreational facilities and agencies in your community4 ,community centers in your community and their activities4 ,the value of a county field day in your community4 ,meaning of the statement that the boy without a playground is father to the man without a job4 ,,attractive ,,surroundings ,,appreciation ,,of ,,that ,,which ,,is ,,beautiful ,beauty in one's surroundings adds much to the enjoyment of life1 and therefore1 also1 to one's efficiency in work and as a citizen4 ,people are often apparently blind to the beauty that is around them4 ,having eyes1 they see not2 and ears1 they hear not4 ,those who live in the open country are surrounded by natural beauties of which city dwellers are largely deprived4 ,too often1 however1 they are unconscious of them or indifferent to them4 ,to the hard- working farmer a gorgeous sunset may be little more than a sign of the weather on the morrow1 and the beauty of a field of wheat or corn may be lost in the thought of the toil that has gone into it1 or of the dollars that may come out of it4 ,fortunate is the rural dweller whose toil and isolation are tempered by an appreciation of the beauties of the natural world about him6 ,,its ,,cultivation ,love for and appreciation of that which is beautiful may be cultivated4 ,it is a part of one's education4 ,the schools now give more attention to it than formerly2 but many of them do not yet give enough4 ,appreciation of beauty is cultivated not merely by instruction in art1 but also by those studies that increase one's knowledge of the common things about us4 ,the teaching of agriculture and of science has a very practical purpose2 but its purpose is only partly accomplished if it teaches us how to raise corn or cotton without opening our eyes to the wonders of nature involved in the process4 ,an appreciation of beauty may be cultivated1 also1 by association with it1 as it may be destroyed by constant association with that which is ugly4 ,people who live in unkempt and slovenly surroundings are likely to become indifferent to them4 ,it is the duty of every one to have a care for the appearance of his surroundings both because of its effect upon himself and its influence upon others4 ,,importance ,,of ,,appearances ,a stranger who visits our school is likely to judge it1 first of all1 by its appearance4 ,he will note whether or not the building is in good repair1 the condition of the grounds and fences1 the presence or absence of flower beds1 shrubs1 and trees4 ,inside1 he will observe the cleanliness and orderliness of the room1 the decorations on the walls1 the presence or absence of pictures and flowers and plants2 yes1 and also the care the pupils and teacher take of their personal appearance4 ,these things are signs to the visitor of the interest taken by pupils1 school authorities1 and the community in their school4 ,they are also signs of the character of the work done in the school1 and of the happiness of the pupils4 ,a ,,community ,,judged ,,by ,,appearances ,in a similar manner1 the visitor to your community will form his first opinion of it by its appearance4 ,he will note1 first of all the appearance of the homes1 and then1 probably1 the cleanliness and state of repair of the streets or roads4 ,he will observe the condition of the fences1 and whether or not the weeds are cut along the roads4 ,he will notice1 also1 the extent to which the people love flowers1 and care for trees and vacant lots4 ,all of these things will be signs to him of the prosperity1 the happiness1 the community spirit1 of the citizens4 ,they will doubtless enter into his decision as to whether or not he cares to live1 or establish a business1 or educate his children1 in that community4 ,,community ,,interest ,,in ,,beauty ,in cities a good deal of attention is usually given to such matters1 and laws exist1 with government officers to administer them1 for the protection and promotion of community beauty4 ,in rural communities these matters are left more largely to individual initiative and voluntary cooperation4 ,it becomes a matter of public interest and spirit on the part of the individual and the family4 ,it is true that some things are done through government authorities1 as in the improvement of the roads and the building of bridges and culverts that are of pleasing design as well as serviceable4 ,in some ,new ,england towns there are town planning boards1 which carefully plan for the laying out of streets and their improvement1 the proper location of public buildings and the style of architecture to be used1 the location and development of parks and playgrounds1 the enactment of suitable housing laws1 and other matters pertaining to the beauty of the community as well as to the well-being of its citizens4 ,,community ,,planning ,systematic planning of rural communities with a view to making them beautiful has not been carried very far in this country4 ,in fact1 as one travels over a large part of the ,united ,states one is impressed by the monotonous and unattractive character of the towns and villages4 ,this is not true everywhere1 for in some parts of the country1 usually those that have been settled longest1 one sees beautiful villages that fit harmoniously into the landscape4 ,but over large areas of the country it seems that wherever man has gone he has marred the beauty of nature4 ,,influence ,,of ,,example ,there is nothing in which the influence of example is so quickly seen as in matters relating to appearance4 ,people are prone to copy their neighbors in matters of style1 whether it be in dress or in architecture4 ,in one rather wretched community a few boys who were studying civics sought permission to lay sod in the dooryard of a tenement house4 ,having obtained permission and laid the sod1 it was not long before some one else in the neighborhood did likewise1 and soon people all around were sodding their yards or sowing grass seed4 ,then they began to repair and paint their fences and otherwise tidy up their places1 until the whole neighborhood was transformed in appearance4 ,it is interesting to note1 also1 that as the community improved in appearance1 it also became less lawless than it had been4 ,this is one phase of community life in which it is easy to establish leadership1 and in which young people can perform valuable civic service and contribute materially toward transmuting days of dreary work into happier lives4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the natural beauty of your community4 ,how natural beauty has been destroyed in your community4 ,how natural beauty has been preserved in your community4 ,our national parks4 ,how your school promotes the love for beauty4 ,how your school could be made more beautiful4 ,how you and your schoolmates could make your school more beautiful4 ,what impression a stranger would get of your community from its appearance4 ,the features in the appearance of your community of which you are proud4 ,those of which you are ashamed4 ,agencies that exist in your community to promote its beauty ,ways in which you can participate in making your community more beautiful4 ,,religious ,,life ,,and ,,agencies ,,government ,,and ,,religion ,in some countries church and state are inseparably bound together4 ,before the recent war the ,russian ,czar was also the head of the ,russian church4 ,in our own country in colonial times1 no citizen was permitted to vote in the ,new ,england town meeting who did not belong to the ,puritan church of the community4 ,this religious qualification for participation in government was in the course of time dispensed with1 and one of the fundamental principles of our democracy is that every citizen shall have complete liberty of religious belief4 ,our government exercises no control over the religious life of the people other than to guarantee this liberty4 ,congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion1 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof 7,united ,states ,constitution1 ,amendment ,i74 ,state constitutions contain similar guarantees4 ,to prevent government interference with religion1 religious institutions are exempt from taxation4 ,,religion ,a ,,means ,,of ,,control ,on the other hand1 the church and other religious institutions are an important means of community control4 ,they do not exercise this control through government1 but through the influence of their own beliefs and organization upon the conduct of their members4 ,if everybody should live in accordance with the ,golden ,rule1 there would be no need for government as a means of repression1 but only as a means of performing service4 ,,religious ,,differences ,,an ,,obstacle ,,to ,,team ,,work ,one of the unfortunate things about the church has been the fact that more or less important differences in religious belief have tended to break up the community into numerous religious groups1 or churches4 ,this may be necessary in purely religious matters1 but it has too often happened that the people have allowed their religious differences to prevent united action in other matters of common interest to the entire community4 ,in some cases communities have been broken up into rival1 or even hostile1 factions because of this4 ,there is1 however1 a growing tolerance of one religious sect or denomination by others1 which is in accord with the ,christian spirit1 and is necessary if community life is to be well developed4 ,it often happens that there are more churches of the same denomination in a community than it can support4 ,in such cases1 at least1 there is need for church consolidation similar to the consolidation of schools1 and for the same reason4 ,,social ,,service ,,of ,,the ,,church ,the church may be1 and often is1 an important agency in the community for the performance of services other than that of ministering to the religious wants of the people4 ,or1 to speak more correctly1 it has realized more or less fully that the religious wants of the people are closely bound up with their other wants1 and seeks to minister to these other wants as a part of its religious duty4 ,thus1 we find the church growing more active in looking after the health interests1 educational interests1 and social and recreational interests of its members and others4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the number of religious denominations having churches in your community4 ,the number of churches in each denomination4 ,membership and attendance in the churches of your community4 ,arguments for and against church consolidation in your community4 ,activities of churches in your community1 other than religious4 ,religious organizations other than churches in your community4 ,,readings ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #bg1 ,concentration of social institutions 7including the school and the church74 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #ab1 ,impersonality of modern life4 ,lesson #bj1 ,the church as a social institution4 ,lesson #bi1 ,labor organizations4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #aa1 ,the effects of machinery on rural life4 ,lesson #bi1 ,child labor4 ,lesson #cb1 ,housing for workers4 ,sources of ,information on ,play and ,recreation1 by ,lee ,f4 ,hanmer and ,howard ,w4 ,knight2 ,department of ,recreation1 ,russell ,sage ,foundation1 ,new ,york 7#aiae74 ,,the ,,playground4 ,a monthly publication of the ,playground and ,recreation ,association of ,america1 #a ,madison ,ave41 ,new ,york 7#b a year74 ,,neighborhood ,,play4 ,a manual of rural recreation 7,the ,youth's ,companion1 ,boston74 ,mc,cready1 ,s4 ,b41 ,rural ,science ,reader4 ,in ,rural ,education ,series1 ,h4 ,w4 ,foght1 general editor 7,heath74 ,write the ,county ,work ,department1 ,international ,committee of the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 for material4 ,foght1 ,h4 ,w41 ,,the ,,rural ,,teacher ,,and ,,his ,,work1 ,chapter ,,vi 7,the rural school and community recreation74 ,jackson1 ,henry ,e41 ,a ,,community ,center--,,what ,,it ,,is ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,organize ,,it1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education ,bulletin1 #aiah1 ,no4 #aa4 ,quick1 ,herbert1 ,the rural awakening in its relation to civic and social center development4 ,bulletin ,no4 #dgd1 ,university of ,wisconsin4 ,beautifying the ,farmstead1 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #ajhg1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,proceedings ,first ,national ,country ,life ,conference 7address ,dwight ,sanderson1 ,secretary1 ,cornell ,university1 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y472 ,play and recreation in rural life1 p4 #ie2 ,religious forces for country life1 p4 #hc4 ,jackson1 ,henry ,e41 ,,the ,,community ,,church 7,macmillan74 ,numerous surveys of rural communities have been made by various agencies4 ,among them are those made by the ,department of ,church and ,country ,life of the ,board of ,home ,missions of the ,presbyterian ,church1 #aef ,fifth ,ave41 ,new ,york4 ,extensive surveys are being made by the ,inter-,church ,world ,movement1 #de ,west #ahth ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,bulletin ,no4 #ahd of the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 ,iowa ,state ,agricultural ,college1 ,ames1 ,iowa1 contains a social survey of ,orange ,township1 ,blackhawk ,county1 ,iowa4 ,write your ,state ,agricultural ,college or ,state ,university for possible materials of a local character4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,dependent1 ,,defective1 ,,and ,,delinquent ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,community ,in every community there are some members who are not self- supporting and who do not contribute materially to the community's progress 7see ,chapter ,v and ,chapter ,,xi74 ,,who ,,constitute ,,dependents1 ,,defectives1 ,,and ,,delinquents ,the very young and the very aged come within this group4 ,both are peculiarly dependent upon others1 though the aged may1 by thrift in earlier years1 have acquired a competence with which to meet the needs of old age2 and the young are expected1 in later years1 to compensate the community for the care they have received from others during childhood4 ,there are those1 also1 of all ages1 who are incapacitated for self-support and for service by disease1 or by physical or mental defects such as bodily deformities1 blindness1 or feeble- mindedness4 ,in addition1 there are some who1 though physically able to perform service1 deliberately prey upon the community in one manner or another without giving anything in return4 ,the latter constitute the ,,delinquent class1 and include criminals4 ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,family ,,to ,,the ,,problem ,normally1 the needs of those who are unable to support themselves1 whether because of extreme youth or old age or because of physical or mental defects1 are provided for by the family4 ,it frequently happens1 however1 that the family is unable to perform this service4 ,it may be entirely broken up4 ,children may be left without parents1 and the aged without children4 ,the natural supporters of the family may be stricken by disease1 or by accident1 or by financial misfortune4 ,moreover1 the proper care and treatment of many defectives require better facilities and greater skill than can be provided even by well-to-do families4 ,thus a class of ,,dependents is produced--dependents upon the community as a whole4 ,they may or may not be ,,defectives1 physical or mental4 ,dissipation and thriftlessness are two of the chief causes of dependency4 ,,treatment ,,in ,,early ,,times ,in the lower stages of civilization it was not uncommon for the feeble and the helpless to be put to death1 even sickly children and persons infirm from old age4 ,this was done in the name of community interest4 ,the struggle for existence was so severe that the presence of non-producing or non-fighting members endangered the entire group4 ,besides1 it was the belief in most cases that the sacrifice of the helpless simply hastened their passage into a happier life4 ,,reducing ,,the ,,wastage ,,of ,,human ,,life ,humane considerations now prevent such treatment of the helpless4 ,moreover1 with our increased skill in medicine and surgery and education1 the diseased and defective may often be restored to health or fitted for some form of self-support that makes them happier and of use to the community4 ,the wastage of human life has been greatly reduced in recent years4 ,many of the soldiers who returned from the war in ,europe so broken in body or mind that in former times they would have dragged out the remainder of their lives a burden to themselves and to others have1 by surgical skill and special forms of education1 been restored wholly or partially to the ranks of the self-supporting and useful members of the community4 ,this ,,rehabilitation of the dependent and defective members of the community1 whether their misfortune is due to war or other causes1 is the chief aim of the treatment given them by the community at the present time4 ,,responsibility ,,of ,,each ,,community ,it is an accepted principle that each community should1 so far as possible1 care for its own unfortunates1 and the effectiveness with which it is done varies4 ,but everywhere it has taken a long time to change from the old policy of mere ,,relief to the new policy of ,,rehabilitation 7see above74 ,,the ,,local ,,almshouse ,,and ,,its ,,defects ,in ,new ,england and in a few other states the town1 or township1 is the unit for administering poor relief1 but elsewhere it is the county4 ,the almshouse1 or poor farm1 or county infirmary is the usual local institution for this purpose4 ,unfortunately it has been1 as a rule1 badly managed4 ,men and women1 old people and children1 healthy and diseased1 blind and crippled1 moral and immoral1 even the insane1 have been housed together1 often mingling with one another with little restriction4 ,the evils of such a system are apparent4 ,,short-,,sighted ,,policy ,moreover1 the policy of the typical almshouse has been merely to give shelter and food and clothing to those who appeal for it1 rather than to remedy the causes of dependency or to restore the unfortunate to a basis of self-support and usefulness4 ,medical treatment is of course given1 but the means do not exist to give special expert treatment to particular classes of defectives4 ,little educational opportunity worthy of the name is afforded4 ,while able-bodied inmates usually have some work to do1 it is seldom of a character to train for self-support or to create habits of industry4 ,,remedies ,,proposed ,to provide this special treatment requires elaborate equipment and expert service1 which cost a great deal of money1 more than most counties or towns feel that they can afford4 ,communities must come to realize that they cannot afford to neglect their unfortunate members1 no matter what it costs to care for them4 ,but the cost need not be so great as it seems4 ,a great deal of money is now ,,wasted on almshouses without adequate results4 ,this can largely be remedied by insisting upon more expert supervision in such institutions1 and by a system of regular inspection by expert state officers4 ,greater care should be exercised with respect to those who are admitted to the institutions4 ,only the deserving should be allowed to live on the public funds4 ,it is not uncommon for some classes of shiftless people to make a practice of seeking shelter in the almshouse during the winter1 where they live in comparative comfort and idleness at the public expense1 only to leave in the spring for a life of aimless indolence1 imposing as beggars upon kind-hearted people4 ,,purpose ,,of ,,state ,,institutions ,moreover1 the county almshouse should be only a temporary place of detention for many of the people who now are kept there permanently4 ,those who need special treatment or training should be passed on as quickly as possible to special institutions that are equipped to care for them4 ,since most local communities could not well afford to maintain such special institutions for the comparatively few who would need them1 the state should maintain enough of them at central points to provide for the needs of all local communities4 ,the states do maintain such institutions--hospitals and sanitariums for various types of mental disease1 homes for orphans and for the aged1 and for persons with incurable diseases1 asylums and schools for the blind and the deaf-and-dumb1 industrial schools for boys and girls4 ,the problem of the state is1 first1 to develop such institutions to the highest possible degree of efficiency for the ,,rehabilitation of their patients or inmates1 and1 second1 to secure effective cooperation on the part of local authorities and institutions in transferring those1 and only those1 who are entitled to state assistance4 ,,cooperation ,,for ,,outdoor ,,relief ,when dependents are cared for in institutions1 it is called ,,indoor ,,relief2 when they are cared for outside of institutions1 in their homes1 it is called ,,outdoor ,,relief4 ,outdoor relief requires community organization and cooperation and expert leadership quite as much as indoor relief4 ,the lack of these has often resulted in great harm both to the community and to the needy person4 ,promiscuous giving of charity by well-intentioned persons often results in giving to the undeserving as well as to the deserving4 ,there are lazy and shiftless individuals who find it easier to live on charity than by honest work1 and whose lack of self- respect permits them to do so4 ,sometimes they do so by fraudulent methods4 ,giving to such persons encourages pauperism and fraud instead of curing it4 ,kind-hearted people often say that they would rather be cheated occasionally by dishonest applicants for charity than to fail to help the really needy by too great caution4 ,the answer to this is that by proper community organization and cooperation the needy will be found with much greater certainty1 the fraudulent will be detected1 and the aid given to those who should have it will be much more effective4 ,the citizen who turns an applicant for aid over to an effective organization in a great majority of cases performs a much greater service both to the applicant and to the community than by attempting to give aid directly4 ,a few pennies or a few dollars given even to a worthy applicant may not reach the root of the trouble at all1 and may be the innocent cause of perpetuating the trouble4 ,,voluntary ,,agencies ,many voluntary organizations exist for charitable and philanthropic purposes4 ,the church has always been one of the chief agencies to care for the poor and unfortunate2 but there are many others1 especially in our large cities4 ,sometimes they maintain hospitals and other institutions for the treatment of those who need indoor relief4 ,they have done a great deal of good4 ,but they are subject to the same difficulties that individuals encounter in dealing wisely with particular cases4 ,they have often devoted themselves too exclusively to giving temporary relief instead of seeking to cure causes and to rehabilitate the unfortunate4 ,they are frequently deceived by impostors4 ,seldom do they have expert investigators to follow up individual cases and to prescribe the most effective remedy4 ,they frequently duplicate one another's work in a wasteful manner4 ,,charity ,,organization ,this lack of team work has been in large measure remedied1 especially in city communities1 by the establishment of ,,charity ,,organization ,,societies4 ,such societies do not as a rule give direct relief1 but act as a clearing house for existing charitable agencies in the community4 ,that is1 they organize the effort of the various existing agencies4 ,they have a corps of trained investigators who look into each case reported by any individual or charitable agency in the community1 make a careful record of it1 and prescribe the proper treatment4 ,the case is usually turned over to one of the existing agencies that is properly equipped to handle it4 ,philanthropic persons may turn to the charity organization society for advice as to purposes for which money is most needed4 ,the aim of charity organization is to remedy causes of dependency and to restore dependents to a self- sustaining basis so far as that is possible4 ,,governmental ,,organization ,,for ,,poor ,,relief ,charity organization societies are wholly voluntary organizations2 and there is need for such voluntary cooperation to care for the community's unfortunate and to root out the causes of dependency4 ,such organizations should1 however1 work in cooperation with governmental agencies4 ,there are state boards of charities which usually have supervision over the various state institutions for dependents and defectives4 ,every large city government has its department of charities1 sometimes combined with the department of health4 ,the overseer of the poor is one of the oldest of town officers4 ,the care of dependents and defectives in small1 or rural1 communities has1 however1 been very poorly organized4 ,,relation ,,between ,,state ,,and ,,local ,,organization ,an effective attack upon the public welfare problems of a state is twofold3 7#a7 by a state welfare board and state welfare institutions1 and 7#b7 by town and county welfare boards and institutions444 4 ,public welfare work calls for a state board of public welfare1 statewide in authority 444 and for state institutions that are large enough to care for the delinquents1 the dependents1 the defectives1 and the neglected who cannot be better cared for by local authority and institutions4 444 ,but1 on the other hand1 it calls for county boards of public welfare with county-wide authority and trained executive secretaries4 444 ,many of our ills bulk up so big that they can be successfully attacked only in detail by local interest1 local effort1 and local institutions4 ,tuberculosis and poverty are capital instances of social problems that are beyond the possibilities of state institutions1 and that necessarily wait upon organized county efforts of effective sort4 444 ,we do not know the deaf1 the blind1 the feeble-minded1 the epileptic1 the crippled1 and the neglected or wayward boys and girls--their number1 their names1 and their residences in any county of the state 444 because there is at present no local organization charged with the responsibility of accounting for such unfortunates4 444 ,footnote3 ,e4 ,c4 ,branson1 ,county responsibility for public welfare1 in the ,north ,carolina ,club ,,year ,,book1 #aiag-aiah1 pp4 #afa1 #afb 7,university of ,north ,carolina1 ,chapel ,hill1 ,n4 ,c474 ,,causes ,,of ,,dependency ,,must ,,be ,,removed ,there will doubtless always be some dependent and defective members of the community for whom the community must care4 ,their number1 however1 may be greatly reduced by creating conditions that will remove their causes4 ,it has been reported from many localities1 for example1 that the prohibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors has resulted in the emptying of the work houses which communities have sustained for the confinement of vagrants and persons convicted of petty misdemeanors4 ,much dependency has resulted from the crippling of wage earners by industrial accidents and from industrial diseases arising from work in unwholesome conditions4 ,these causes may be removed by the maintenance of wholesome working conditions1 by the installation of safety devices1 and by the exercise of greater care by workers and employers4 ,the safety first movement strikes at the root of much dependency4 ,inability to read signs and to understand instructions on the part of illiterate and foreign workers is the cause of many accidents4 ,,social ,,insurance ,some states have passed employers' liability laws1 designed to hold employers responsible for accidents resulting from failure to provide safe working conditions4 ,others have workmen's compensation laws which provide that an injured workman shall receive a portion of his wages during incapacity from accident or illness4 ,in some countries various forms of ,,compulsory ,,state ,,insurance have been adopted4 ,germany1 for example1 has long had laws requiring employees to take out accident insurance and insurance against sickness1 both employees and employers contributing to the insurance fund4 ,pensions for the aged and for widows are also provided for1 the government itself contributing to the fund for this purpose4 ,at the close of the year #aiai1 #ci of our #dh states had laws providing for aid by the state to mothers who were unable to provide properly for their children4 ,the aim in our community life should be as far as possible to ,,prevent dependency and not merely to relieve suffering after it occurs4 ,we shall find that the problem will tend to disappear in proportion as we develop in our communities adequate provision for health protection and physical development 7,chapter ,,xx71 for vocational and general education 7,chapter ,,xix71 for wholesome recreation 7,chapter ,,xxi71 for the cultivation of habits of thrift 7,chapter ,,xiii72 and as we are successful in producing a right attitude toward the problem of earning a living and wholesome relations between employer and employee 7,chapter ,,xi74 ,investigate and report on3 ,the rehabilitation of crippled soldiers after the war4 ,your county or town almshouse or poor farm3 ,the kinds of cases sheltered there2 its cost to the community2 the methods of treatment employed4 ,other local institutions for indoor relief in your community4 ,state institutions for the care of dependents and defectives in your state4 ,their kinds and location4 ,the difference between poverty and pauperism4 ,the extent and kind of charity work done by the church which you attend 7get accurate information74 ,the voluntary organizations of your community that give poor relief4 ,the kind of charitable work done by each4 ,charity organization in your community4 ,its results and the need for it4 ,the causes of dependence in your community4 ,the extent to which voluntary charitable work in your community is directed to removing the causes of dependency4 ,the organization of your county or town government for the care of dependents and defectives4 ,employers' liability laws1 workmen's compensation laws1 mothers' pension laws1 in your state4 ,,the ,,criminal ,,class ,it is said that there are at least #bej1jjj people in the ,united ,states who make their living by crime1 and there are many more who commit crime on occasion4 ,it is said1 also1 that to support and control this criminal class costs the people of the ,united ,states not less than #fjj1jjj1jjj per annum1 or as much as is expended for the entire educational system of the country4 ,,what ,,crime ,,is ,crime is the violation of law4 ,the criminal is a member of the community who refuses to cooperate with others in accordance with the law4 ,the conduct of an individual may be wrong and harmful to the community without being criminal2 it becomes criminal only when the law actually forbids it4 ,a given act may be a crime in one state and not in another state1 because the laws of the states differ in their definition of crimes4 ,they also differ in the penalties imposed for the same crime4 ,,early ,,methods ,,of ,,treating ,,criminals ,the methods of dealing with criminals have changed greatly with the progress of civilization1 and especially in recent years since the causes of crime have become better understood4 ,in the earlier methods two ideas were prominent3 the infliction of punishment1 and the deterrence of others from committing the same offense4 ,the penalties inflicted were therefore very severe4 ,the death penalty was inflicted not only for taking human life but also for minor offenses1 such as stealing4 ,even in our own country in colonial times bodily mutilation was not uncommon1 such as branding with a hot iron1 or cutting off the ears4 ,prisons were vile and loathsome places4 ,,rehabilitation ,,of ,,criminals ,humane feelings have caused the abandonment of such treatment4 ,the death penalty still remains for the worst of crimes2 but even it has become more humane in its methods4 ,many believe that it should be entirely abandoned4 ,the eighth amendment to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states says that excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted4 ,moreover1 a new idea has entered into the matter4 ,it is the same idea that controls the modern treatment of dependents1 namely1 that of ,,rehabilitating the criminal4 ,it is now recognized that crime results in most cases from diseased conditions either in the individual or in the community4 ,some individuals commit crime merely because it seems to them the easiest way to make a living or to gain some other end2 but even such individuals are ,,morally diseased4 ,much crime is due to temporary mental disturbance1 as from the use of intoxicants or other drugs4 ,sometimes it is the act of persons who are actually insane or feeble-minded4 ,very often it is committed under pressure of poverty4 ,in view of these facts1 while the deliberate violator of law should doubtless be punished1 it is even more important that the causes of crime should be removed1 and that the criminal should1 in as many cases as possible1 be restored to a useful and an honest manner of life4 ,the proper treatment of dependents and defectives1 and the removal of causes of dependency and defectiveness1 are essential steps toward the lessening of crime4 ,,the ,,local ,,jail ,the county jail and the town lock-up are the usual local institutions where persons suspected of having violated the law are detained while awaiting trial in the courts1 and also where those convicted of petty misdemeanors are imprisoned for punishment4 ,the jail and the lock-up are as notorious as the almshouse for unwholesome conditions and mismanagement1 though conditions have greatly improved under the influence of an awakened public opinion4 ,they have often1 been unsanitary in the extreme4 ,prisoners have often been treated more like cattle than like human beings4 ,young and old are thrown together1 the hardened criminal with the youthful first offender1 and with those merely suspected of crime1 many of whom will be proved to be innocent4 ,the result is demoralizing4 ,our jails have sometimes been said to be schools of vice and crime4 ,,needed ,,reform ,,of ,,the ,,jail ,two reforms1 at least1 are needed in local jails4 ,first1 they should be made as wholesome as possible1 both physically and morally4 ,they should be perfectly sanitary1 and the food should at least be clean and nourishing4 ,arrangements should be made to keep the different classes of inmates separate1 especially the hardened and vicious criminals from youthful transgressors and suspects4 ,in the second place1 the local jail should be merely a place of detention for those awaiting trial or1 after trial1 transfer to other institutions4 ,those found guilty by the courts should be transferred as quickly as possible to institutions where they may receive treatment fitted to their needs4 ,,fitting ,,the ,,treatment ,,to ,,the ,,offender ,of three persons who steal ten dollars1 one may be a deliberate thief who prefers to make his living this way2 another may be driven by hunger2 and the third may be mentally unbalanced4 ,it is obvious that the treatment accorded to each should be determined by these facts rather than by the mere amount of the theft4 ,the first doubtless needs punishment2 but he should also have treatment designed to change his attitude toward the community and to fit him to make an honest living4 ,the second needs to be relieved of his want and to be given an opportunity for self- support4 ,the third needs hospital treatment4 ,we are only beginning to see that punishment is only a part of the treatment necessary1 and that the treatment should be made to fit the criminal fully as much as to fit the crime4 ,,state ,,institutions ,,for ,,delinquents ,proper treatment for all the various classes of cases cannot well be given in the county jail2 nor can the local community as a rule afford to maintain separate institutions for them1 as the number in each class is very small in a given community4 ,hence the necessity for state institutions to which those convicted in the local courts may be sent4 ,such institutions exist1 although not always adequate to the needs of the state4 ,they include state penitentiaries1 reform and industrial schools1 hospitals for the insane1 special schools for the feeble-minded1 and others4 ,these institutions have been steadily improving in their efficiency4 ,the greater difficulty seems to be in the local communities1 in securing the assignment of offenders to the proper institutions4 ,,administration ,,of ,,state ,,prisons ,great changes have occurred in recent years in the methods of administering state penitentiaries1 especially in some states4 ,under old conditions convicts were either confined in isolation and idleness or condemned to hard labor1 punishment being the sole idea in both cases4 ,the most rigid and arbitrary discipline was enforced4 ,modern penitentiaries keep prisoners employed in occupations that are of use to the state1 that are designed to train the prisoner for useful service1 and that yield him some compensation that will help to make him self-supporting when he leaves4 ,they also maintain schools for the instruction of prisoners in at least the common branches of knowledge and in vocational subjects4 ,great care is taken of the health4 ,in some cases the prisoners are graded according to their conduct and their ability to assume responsibility1 certain privileges and freedom and participation in the administration of the prison being bestowed upon them so long as they show a sense of their responsibility4 ,the period of imprisonment may be shortened as a reward for good conduct4 ,,juvenile ,,offenders ,one of the most important reforms that have been made is that in the treatment of juvenile offenders4 ,the main feature of this is the establishment of a ,,juvenile ,,court1 where the usual procedure and publicity of a criminal court are avoided1 and where the judge takes a fatherly attitude toward the accused4 ,each case is carefully investigated to discover the cause of trouble and to arrive at a wise conclusion as to the treatment to be given4 ,in the case of first offenders1 or where other conditions justify it1 the prisoner is released ,,on ,,probation4 ,that is1 he is given his freedom on his honor1 but under the supervision of a ,,probation ,,officer to whom he must report at regular intervals4 ,in the case of more serious offenses1 or of repeated wrong-doing1 or of violation of parole1 offenders are sent to reform schools or industrial schools4 ,the entire effort is to set the young offender on the right road to honest self-support and good citizenship4 ,unfortunately1 however1 this machinery for the treatment of juvenile delinquency is so far found almost exclusively in cities4 ,the problem of juvenile delinquency in rural communities is one that requires more attention than has been given to it4 ,it is a problem that the young citizen himself can greatly help to solve by the cultivation1 in himself and in his friends1 of right conceptions of citizenship4 ,investigate and report on the following3 ,the organization of your county and town governments to protect persons and property against criminals1 to apprehend law violators1 and to bring them to justice4 ,the cost to your county or town of this organization4 ,the desirability or undesirability of differing definitions of crime in different states1 and of different punishments for the same crime4 ,the efficacy of severe punishments in preventing crime4 ,should capital punishment be abolished8 ,the meaning of bail1 and why it is provided for4 ,the effect of prohibition upon the amount of crime in your community4 ,the number of prisoners confined in your county jail during the past year1 why they were there1 and what it cost to keep them4 ,the meaning of fitting punishment to the criminal rather than to the crime4 ,the treatment of prisoners in your state penitentiary4 ,the method of dealing with juvenile offenders in your community4 ,the meaning of probation2 of parole2 of an indeterminate sentence4 ,the extent of juvenile delinquency in your community2 its causes4 ,the use of convict labor outside of prisons4 ,,readings ,reports of county and town authorities4 ,reports of state board of charities and of administrative boards of state institutions4 ,publications of the ,children's ,bureau1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,labor4 ,send for list from which to select4 ,two valuable publications of this ,bureau are3 ,bureau ,publication ,no4 #cb1 ,juvenile ,delinquency in ,rural ,new ,york4 ,bureau ,publication4 ,no4 #fj1 ,standards of ,child ,welfare4 ,this contains among other valuable material1 discussions of child labor and legislation relating to it1 of the care of dependent and defective children1 and of juvenile delinquency4 ,in ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #e1 ,the human resources of a community4 ,lesson #bh1 ,the worker in our society4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #h1 ,preventing waste of human beings4 ,lesson #bj1 ,the family and social control4 ,lesson #cj1 ,social insurance4 ,the following are a few good books relating to the topics of this chapter3 ,burch1 ,h4 ,r1 and ,patterson1 ,s4 ,h41 ,american ,social ,problems1 chaps1 xvi-xx 7,macmillan74 ,henderson1 ,c4 ,r41 ,dependents1 ,defectives1 and ,delinquents4 ,warner1 ,a4 ,g41 ,american ,charities4 ,devine1 ,e4 ,t41 ,principles of ,relief4 ,addams1 ,jane1 ,twenty ,years at ,hull ,house1 and ,the ,house on ,henry ,street4 ,ellwood1 ,c4 ,a41 ,sociology and ,modern ,social ,problems4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,team ,,work ,,in ,,taxation ,,the ,,dislike ,,of ,,the ,,people ,,for ,,taxation ,people have never liked to pay taxes4 ,their repugnance to it is largely a survival of the times when an autocratic ruling class imposed taxes upon the people for its own selfish purposes4 ,struggling for the bare necessities of life1 the people had to pay the bills of the ruling class who lived in luxury4 ,the long struggle for liberty in ,england and in the ,english colonies was a struggle against the power of rulers to impose taxes without the consent of the people4 ,the habit of mind with respect to taxation formed under such conditions has to a considerable extent persisted into the present1 when conditions are very different4 ,,what ,,taxation ,,means ,,in ,a ,,democracy ,the change to government of the people1 by the people1 for the people should put the paying of taxes in a very different light4 ,we decide upon a service we want performed for us1 we provide the governing machinery to perform the service1 and the service must be paid for4 ,we do not object to paying for having our house built1 our food provided1 our clothes made1 and our goods hauled4 ,why should we object to paying for the service of schools1 roads1 protection of health and property1 the defense of our liberties8 ,,the ,,returns ,,from ,,taxation ,such objection seems especially unreasonable when we consider that the value of the service rendered by government is1 as a rule1 far in excess of what it costs the individual citizen4 ,in ,chapter ,,xvii we saw that a ,virginia farmer1 the value of whose farm was assessed at #cjjj1 was taxed #ai4dh for road improvements4 ,in return for this he acquired the use of a system of roads throughout the county that cost at least #agc1jjj4 ,this local system connected him with the transportation system of the entire country1 gave him a market for his produce1 greatly increased the value of his land1 brought better school facilities1 and enriched his life in many ways4 ,the recent war imposed an unusually heavy burden of taxation upon us4 ,but when we think of the millions of people who paid for the war with their ,,lives1 and of the fact that the war was fought for the most precious of all things1--human liberty1--the money tax that each citizen had to pay in some form or other seems very insignificant4 ,,benefits ,,of ,,team ,,work ,,in ,,taxation ,in ,chapter ,,iv we read how ,benjamin ,franklin secured the services of a man to keep the pavements of the neighborhood clean for the sum of sixpence per month to be paid by each house4 ,by this bit of cooperation1 each householder was relieved of a burden1 and had the benefit not only of having his own pavement cleaned1 but also of knowing that those of all his neighbors would be equally clean1 and thus of having a pleasanter neighborhood1 and the cost was insignificant4 ,this incident illustrates the underlying principle of taxation in a self-governing community4 ,the poorest citizen is made rich in the benefits that he may enjoy1 while the cost is made proportional to his ability to pay4 ,,misuse ,,of ,,taxes ,like the rest of our governing machinery1 however1 our system of levying1 collecting1 and paying taxes does not always work perfectly1 and there is more or less ground for dissatisfaction with it4 ,in the first place1 the people do not always get full value for their taxes4 ,while it is true that the farmer receives1 in return for his road tax1 vastly more than he could purchase privately with the same amount of money1 yet1 if the road improvements are poorly made1 he gets less than he should4 ,it usually costs as much to employ an inefficient road supervisor1 or school teacher or superintendent1 or sheriff1 as to employ an efficient one--in fact1 in the long run it costs more4 ,sometimes more persons are employed in government offices than there is any need for1 or some of those employed are shirkers1 or otherwise inefficient4 ,there is wastefulness in the methods by which appropriations are made for the expenses of government4 ,sometimes there is graft1 by which public money is diverted to the private uses of officials1 contractors1 or others4 ,a ,,cause ,,of ,,dissatisfaction ,such abuses as these are1 of course1 not faults of the ,,taxing system1 but they naturally make citizens reluctant to pay taxes4 ,people want to know that their money is spent for the purposes for which it was paid1 and that it is used economically and effectively for these purposes4 ,nothing else will do so much to remove the dislike of taxation as assurance on these points4 ,as ,franklin said with reference to his successful experiment in street cleaning1 it raised a general desire to have all the streets paved1 and made the people more willing to submit to a tax for that purpose4 ,,taxation ,,must ,,be ,,just ,a system of taxation must be ,,just if it is to meet with popular approval4 ,it is not easy1 nor indeed possible1 to devise a system that works with absolute justice in every case2 for the assessment of taxes is a complicated process1 and reliance must be placed to a considerable extent upon the honesty and conscientiousness of individual citizens4 ,the people are satisfied1 however1 if they see that every reasonable effort is made to secure justice4 ,the first essential in a just system is that ,,every ,,citizen ,,shall ,,bear ,,his ,,share of the burden4 ,therefore the paying of taxes is compulsory by law4 ,it is also just that each citizen shall pay only ,,in ,,proportion ,,to ,,his ,,ability4 ,these two principles of taxation are similar to those applied in the selective draft for war service4 ,it is in assessing taxes according to ability to pay that one of the principal difficulties appears4 ,but an effort has been made to do this by the following procedure4 ,,how ,,the ,,amount ,,to ,,be ,,raised ,,is ,,determined ,it is first necessary to know how much money will be needed by the government4 ,each year1 therefore1 the heads of the various branches and departments of government make an estimate for the coming year1 based on their knowledge of past expenditures and present and future needs4 ,such estimate can be made intelligently only when there is an accurate and businesslike system of keeping accounts and records1 and a well-planned ,,budget ,,system4 ,unbusinesslike methods of keeping accounts and the lack of a budget system have been among the chief weaknesses of our governments1 equally characteristic of local1 state1 and national governments4 ,efforts are being made to remedy these defects and are described in ,chapters ,,xxv1 ,,xxvi1 and ,,xxvii4 ,,taxes ,,on ,,persons1 ,,property1 ,,and ,,privileges ,the second thing to be ascertained is the ability of each citizen to pay4 ,in some states a uniform ,,poll ,,tax is assessed upon every adult citizen4 ,this is a tax upon the ,,person and usually amounts to about two dollars4 ,only those are exempt who are incapable of self-support4 ,but the chief reliance is upon a property tax4 ,state and local governments depend principally upon a ,,general ,,property ,,tax1 for which purpose property is divided into two kinds3 ,,real ,,estate1 which includes land and buildings1 and ,,personal ,,property1 which includes furniture1 tools1 livestock1 money1 and valuables of various kinds4 ,in addition to the general property tax there may be taxes upon ,,incomes and upon ,,inheritances4 ,there are also ,,license ,,taxes1 such as dog and automobile licenses4 ,finally there are taxes upon certain ,,privileges which are bestowed upon the individual by the community and have a money value4 ,of such a nature is the license tax imposed upon a peddler or upon a person who maintains a market stand on the public street4 ,such1 also1 are the taxes placed upon corporations for the privilege of using the public highways for car tracks1 water mains1 or telephone poles4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 for the government to ,,assess ,,the ,,value of the property 7or privilege7 of each citizen1 and it has its organization for this purpose4 ,each local community ,the assessment of 7township1 county1 or city7 has one or more ,,tax ,,asessors1 who endeavor to ascertain by inquiry values or inspection the value of each citizen's property4 ,the sum of the individual assessments constitutes the assessment valuation for the town1 or county1 or city2 and the sum of the valuations of these local communities constitutes the valuation for the entire state4 ,,the ,,rate ,,of ,,taxation ,the third step is to ascertain the ,,rate of taxation4 ,this is found by dividing the total amount to be raised by taxation ,the rate of by the total property valuation of the county or taxation state1 as the case may be4 ,if the amount to be raised is #ejj1jjj1 and the property valuation is #aj1jjj1jjj1 the rate would be #e per cent1 and the tax is levied against each citizen at this rate4 ,a citizen who owns twice as much property as another should pay twice as much tax4 ,each should pay according to his ability4 ,,difficulty ,,of ,,just ,,assessment ,this seems like a simple procedure2 but it is very difficult to get a just result4 ,the difficulty lies chiefly in the assessment ,it requires a good deal of intelligence to assess property fairly1 even with the best of intentions4 ,assessors are not always competent4 ,two assessors may differ in their judgment1 so that assessments in one part of the community may run at a lower level than in another part4 ,thus assessments vary in their fairness in different townships of the same county1 and in different counties of the same state4 ,an attempt is made to avoid this by means of county and state ,,tax ,,equalization ,,boards1 which seek to adjust differences of this sort4 ,but their efforts are only partially successful4 ,,responsibility ,,of ,,property ,,owners ,property owners are themselves1 however1 more responsible than anyone else for the inequities of taxation in our country4 ,it is a common practice of tax assessors to accept the property owner's own statement of the valuation of his property4 ,in an astonishingly large proportion of cases he gives a valuation far below the real one4 ,even when the assessor inspects the property1 it is easy to conceal from his eyes certain forms of personal property1 such as money1 stocks and bonds1 and jewelry4 ,land and livestock cannot be concealed2 and for this reason farmers are likely to pay a heavier share of taxes than others whose property is in less conspicuous forms4 ,but they may make false valuations4 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,unjust ,,assessments ,in one state1 where the law requires the assessment of real estate at its true value in money when sold in the ordinary manner of sale1 a study in one township showed that the average ,,tax value of farm land in the open country 444 is #g4hi1 while the average ,,market value runs around #bj4 ,the #gc largest taxpayers give in their farm holdings at values ranging from #f to #bj an acre4 ,thus the burden of state and county support falls three or four times as heavily on one acre of farm land as on another--on farms lying side by side4 ,when we look at suburban farm land the tax values range from #ag to #bbbj an acre4 ,but the most amazing 'jokes' appear in the values put by their owners on improved town lots4 ,in the same end of the town we found three handsome town properties worth around #ae1jjj each1 the tax values were #eej1 #ddjj1 #diej4 ,in another neighborhood1 two adjoining homes about equal in value were listed at #ejj and #cdjj2 one at about #ej per cent and the other at about #h per cent of the actual value4 ,with regard to personal property in the same township1 the wealthiest private taxpayer in the township lists household goods and utensils1 work-stock1 vehicles1 money1 jewelry 444 at #baf4 ,the next wealthiest private taxpayer covers all these properties with #aje4 ,he's a farmer and well-to-do1 but his household furniture1 farm animals1 vehicles1 implements1 and the like1 are worth only #aje--on the tax list4 ,another large landowner covers his household goods1 farm animals1 vehicles1 and the like1 with #hb2 another with #deg1 and another with #bbgb4 ,the differences lie not so much in the properties as in the consciences of these big landlords4,footnote3 #a ,e4 ,c4 ,branson1 ,a ,township ,tax-,list ,study2 in ,north ,carolina ,club ,year ,book1 #aiag-aiah1 pp4 #ff1 #fg 7,the ,university of ,north ,carolina ,extension ,series ,no4 #cj74 ,,public ,,and ,,private ,,honesty ,such inequalities as these may be found in almost every tax list in any community4 ,one of the strange things about it is that citizens evade taxation who would not think of being dishonest or unfair in a private business transaction4 ,the reason is not easy to understand4 ,doubtless it is partly due to the feeling that as long as everybody does it it is justifiable4 ,of course this is not true4 ,one taxpayer is reported as saying1 ,i feel dog-mean whenever ,i give in my taxes2 but ,i'm doing as well as the rest and a little better than most4 ,,good ,,sense ,,and ,,good ,,business ,dishonest returns by one taxpayer defraud the citizen who is honest1 because they place a heavier burden of taxation upon the latter4 ,moreover1 the dishonest taxpayer and good cheats himself along with others1 for the lower the business valuation of property1 the higher the rate of taxation1 or the poorer the service received from the government4 ,it is good sense and good business for a state to show up with large tax values and low tax rates4 ,it shows a brisk and lively prosperity that is attractive to outside capital and enterprise4 ,footnote3 ,e4 ,c4 ,branson1 ,a ,township ,tax-,list ,study ,,intelligence ,,and ,,publicity ,,needed ,to secure fairer taxation and better returns from taxation there is need of improvement in the organization for tax assessment and tax equalization4 ,it is especially important to make it more difficult for the tax dodger to evade his responsibility4 ,it would seem1 however1 that there would be fewer tax dodgers if the people once got the right idea of what taxation really means in a democracy4 ,great improvement would doubtless result1 even under present conditions1 if honest citizens would take more interest in the results of assessments as shown in the tax lists4 ,the writer quoted in the paragraphs above asserts that1 next to the ,bible1 the most important book in any county is the ,tax ,list1 and it is the one book that the people in general know least about4 ,everybody knows in a vague1 general way that something is wrong with our tax system 444 but what everybody does not know is what the facts are in concrete1 accurate detail4 ,there is no cure like publicity for wrongs in a democracy4 ,give the folks the facts1 whatever they are1 and the folks will do the rest4 444 ,but at present nobody knows the facts4 ,that is to say1 nobody but the tax listers1 the registers1 and the sheriffs4 ,and they are dumb because their official lives depend on silence4 ,footnote34 ,c4 ,branson1 ,a ,township ,tax-,list ,study4 ,investigate and report on the following3 ,do people of your acquaintance like to pay taxes8 ,what reasons do they give8 ,the cost of your town government1 your county government1 and your state government per year4 ,the purposes for which most money is spent by your town government1 your county government1 and your state government4 ,the assessed valuation of property in your town1 county1 state4 ,does the law in your state require that property shall be assessed at its full market value8 ,if not1 at what part of its market value8 ,the tax rate in your county4 ,is it high or low8 ,reasons why it is high or low4 ,the tax list of your town4 ,the sources of revenue in your county and state1 and the amount raised from each source4 ,the work of a tax assessor in your town4 ,where taxes are paid in your community4 ,who has charge of tax collections in your community8 ,what happens to a citizen in your community who fails to pay his taxes8 ,the difference between assessing and levying taxes4 ,who levies the taxes in your town8 county8 state8 ,explain the statement that large tax values and low tax rates attract outside capital and enterprise4 ,,taxation ,,by ,,the ,,national ,,government ,we have been speaking so far of taxation1 for the purposes of state and local governments4 ,but ,congress also has power by to lay and collect taxes 444 to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the ,united ,states 7,constitution1 ,art4 ,i1 sec4 #h1 clause i74 ,state and local governments raise most of their revenues by ,,direct taxation upon the property of citizens4 ,the national government1 on the other hand1 has always relied chiefly upon ,,indirect taxation4 ,congress levies ,,duties ,,on ,,imports4 ,these duties are paid in the first instance by the importer4 ,the latter1 however1 adds the tax to the price of the goods1 so that it is paid finally by the consumers and not by the importer4 ,in a similar manner ,congress levies ,,excise ,,taxes1 which are taxes upon products manufactured in this country4 ,the principal excise taxes have been those levied on alcoholic liquors and tobacco4 ,but here again the tax is paid by the consumer in the price which he pays for the liquor or tobacco4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,indirect ,,taxation ,the chief advantage of indirect taxes is the ease and certainty with which they may be collected by the government4 the citizen pays them whenever he buys the articles on which the tax is levied4 ,the retail dealer passes them on to the wholesaler1 and so finally the importer is reimbursed4 ,the government collects the taxes at customs houses at ports of entry1 or at the tobacco factories and1 formerly1 at distilleries4 ,prohibition has deprived the government of one of its chief sources of revenue4 ,indirect taxes are also less objectionable to the people1 for they are seldom conscious of paying them when they buy goods upon which they are levied4 ,,federal ,,income ,,tax ,congress has the power to levy direct as well as indirect taxes1 but it has usually avoided direct taxation1 partly for the reasons stated above1 and partly because the ,constitution provides that no capitation or other direct tax shall be laid1 unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken2 that is1 in proportion to population4 ,it has been found difficult in practice to make such apportionment4 ,various attempts by ,congress to levy a direct tax on incomes have been declared unconstitutional by the ,supreme ,court because it was not so apportioned4 ,the ,constitution has now been amended1 however1 to give ,congress the power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived1 without apportionment among the several states1 and without regard to any census or enumeration 7,amendment ,,xvi74 ,a large revenue is now derived from the national income tax4 ,the law at first exempted from it single persons whose income was less than #cjjj1 and married persons whose income was less than #djjj4 ,as a result of the war1 only those are now exempt whose incomes are less than #ajjj1 if single1 and #bjjj if married1 with an additional exemption for each dependent child4 ,the tax is ,,progressive3 that is1 the larger one's income1 the higher ,,rate one pays4 ,,war ,,taxes ,in ordinary times of peace1 state and local governments together spend much more money than the national government4 ,in war time the reverse is true4 ,enormous sums of money were required for the conduct of the recent war4 ,as a result the rates of import1 excise1 and income taxes were greatly increased1 and unusual forms of taxation were adopted4 ,a war tax was placed upon many articles of common use1 an inheritance tax was imposed similar to that in some of the states1 and the ,,excess ,,profits of businesses which the war made unusually prosperous were taxed heavily4 ,the effort in every case was to distribute the tax so that every one should do his share1 while the burden should rest most heavily upon those who could best bear it4 ,,government ,,loans ,a large part of the money necessary for war purposes1 and for permanent improvements in time of peace1 is raised by borrowing4 ,governments1 whether national1 state1 or local1 borrow money by the sale of ,,bonds1 the purchase price with interest being returned to the purchaser after a stated period of years4 ,the national government borrowed more than #bb billion dollars during the war by the sale of liberty bonds1 and an additional large sum by the sale of war savings stamps4 ,these loans made by the people are ultimately paid off with funds raised by taxation4 ,the people to- day advance money to the government1 which the people of to-morrow pay back by taxation4 ,this is justifiable because the war was fought for the benefit of future generations as well as of the people to-day4 ,for the same reason1 the cost of permanent improvements1 such as roads and public buildings1 is distributed over a period of years4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the full meaning of ,article ,i1 section #h1 clause i1 and section #g1 clause ,i1 of the ,constitution4 ,the loss to the nation of revenue as a result of the prohibition of the liquor traffic4 ,compensating financial gains to the nation through prohibition of the liquor traffic4 ,why an income tax is a good form of taxation4 ,why it should be progressive4 ,the justice of an inheritance tax4 ,of a tax on excess profits4 ,articles upon which you pay an import duty4 ,why government is justified in using force to compel the payment of taxes4 ,,readings ,county and state reports4 ,local tax lists4 ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #bb1 ,financing the war4 ,lesson #bc1 ,thrift and war savings4 ,the ,united ,states ,treasury ,department2 in ,federal ,executive ,departments1 ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #gd1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,education4 ,in ,long's ,,american ,,patriotic ,,prose3 ,taxation and ,government 7,john ,fiske71 pp4 #bdi-bed4 ,north ,carolina ,club ,,year ,,book1 #aiag-aiah1 pp4 #di-fh 7,university of ,north ,carolina ,record1 ,extension ,series ,no4 #cj1 ,chapel ,hill1 ,n4,c474 ,tufts1 ,jas4 ,h41 ,,the ,,real ,,business ,,of ,,living1 pp4 #eb-ed2 #bdb-bdf 7,henry ,holt ,co474 ,hart1 ,a4,b41 ,,actual ,,government1 pp4 #cha-dbi 7,longmans1 ,green ,co474 ,reed1 ,t4,h41 ,,form ,,and ,,functions ,,of ,,american ,,government1 pp4 #dfh-dha 7,world ,book ,co474 ,,encyclopedia ,,of ,,american ,,government1 under ,tax and ,taxation4 ,plehn1 ,c4,c41 ,,introduction ,,to ,,public ,,finance 7,macmillan74 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,how ,,we ,,govern ,,ourselves ,early in our study we considered the question ,,why we have government 7,chapter ,,iv74 ,we saw then that it is the people's organization for teamwork in protecting and promoting their common interests4 ,succeeding chapters contain evidence that this is so1 although they also show that the results achieved by government are by no means perfect4 ,now we are to consider ,,how we have organized to get teamwork and how well our organization is suited to its purpose4 ,,government ,,as ,a ,,protector ,,of ,,individual ,,initiative ,american experience indicates that what men do for themselves1 on their own initiative1 is better done than what paternalistic government attempts to do for them4 ,footnote3 ,editorial1 ,,saturday ,,evening ,,post1 ,february #ab1 #aiba4 ,americans have always disliked ,,paternalism in government1 which means an attempt on the part of government to control the personal affairs of the people as a father 7,latin1 ,,pater7 controls the affairs of a small child4 ,democracy is founded on faith in the ability of the people to manage their own affairs with due regard for the equal rights of other people4 ,we look upon our government chiefly as an instrument to ensure an equal opportunity to all to exercise initiative and to manage their own affairs2 or1 to use the terms we have used before1 not so much to do things for us1 as to secure teamwork in doing things for ourselves4 ,we have had numerous examples of this principle in preceding chapters1 one of which was the extent to which private initiative and enterprise were depended upon for the development of our public lands4 ,,government ,,as ,a ,,performer ,,of ,,service ,as our community life has become more complex1 and as our dependence upon one another has become greater1 we have gradually come to expect government to do many things for us1 and to control our individual conduct in many ways1 that were not thought of at an earlier time4 ,we have had illustrations of this1 also1 in foregoing chapters4 ,for example1 whereas roads were at first built and controlled almost entirely by private enterprise1 now they are mostly ,,public highways1 maintained by state and local governments with the cooperation of the national government4 ,proposals to place railroads under government management have always met1 and still meet1 with opposition2 but government exercises a much greater control over them than formerly4 ,even education has only gradually become compulsory by law1 and the public high school is of recent origin4 ,until quite recently the people have been left largely to their own resources for the protection of health1 and for recreation and social life4 ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,socialists ,there are those who take the extreme position that government should manage practically everything for us4 ,such are the ,socialists1 who believe that the unequal distribution of wealth and the resulting inequalities in opportunity to satisfy wants are due to the control of industry by a small and essentially selfish capitalistic class4 ,they believe that all natural resources and all capital should belong to the people jointly1 and that the people's government should control both the production and the distribution of wealth4 ,it has been objected to the socialist scheme that1 since government would still be in the hands of imperfect human beings1 it would not be wise enough to accomplish the desired result2 that political motives would enter into government management1 as they do in government enterprises to-day1 and would prevent the achievement of the desired results2 and that1 the opportunity for private initiative and enterprise having been removed1 there would be lacking one of the chief inducements to human progress4 ,socialism has made considerable progress in some nations of the world1 but it is by no means popular in the ,united ,states1 although it has many advocates4 ,we adhere in the main to the principle that government should do things for us only when they could not be so well done by private enterprise1 and should control our conduct only so far as to secure equality of personal freedom4 ,the fact remains1 however1 that an increasing amount of service is being performed for us by government1 and an increasing control exercised by it over private enterprise4 ,,organization ,,for ,,service ,,and ,,for ,,control ,insofar as government performs service for us1 it must have an organization for that purpose1 with competent leadership4 ,and if it is not to interfere unduly with freedom of action or personal liberty1 the people must have an organization by which to maintain control over it4 ,thus there must be an organization to ensure efficient ,,service1 and there must be an organization to ensure democracy1 or ,,popular ,,control4 ,if both organizations are effective1 we have an ,,efficient ,,democracy1 toward which we have been striving through all our history1 but which we have not yet completely attained4 ,a government may be efficient in performing service for the people without being democratic4 ,in fact1 it may be easier to get efficient service under an autocratic government4 ,germany before the war illustrated this4 ,but we believe that a government may be both efficient and democratic4 ,this depends upon competent leadership and popular control2 and both of these depend upon education 7,chapter ,,xix74 ,in the remaining pages of this book we shall consider both the organization of our government for service and that for popular control4 ,in this chapter we shall examine some of the methods by which we seek to control government1 or to be ,,self-governing4 ,,direct ,,self-,,government ,the people of a community may govern themselves by direct action or indirectly through representatives1 just as a group of farmers may build their own schoolhouse or church1 or employ someone to do it for them4 ,when ,english colonists settled ,new ,england1 geographical conditions and other reasons led them to form small1 compact communities1 in which it was easy to assemble frequently at the meetinghouse to discuss matters of community concern and to agree upon1 rules1 or laws1 to regulate them4 ,this local government by town meeting has persisted in many ,new ,england towns1 or townships1 to the present day4 ,,representative ,,self-,,government ,this direct action of the people in the ,new ,england town is for the purpose of ,,making the laws only4 ,when it comes to the enforcement of these laws1 it is necessary to delegate the authority to someone4 ,the town meeting could make a law against permitting hogs to run at large1 but it chose someone1 a hog reeve1 to see that the law was observed4 ,when the community is large it is found more convenient to choose representatives also to make the laws4 ,thus each ,massachusetts town had its representative in the lawmaking assembly of the colony as a whole4 ,this representative system of government now prevails in our cities1 counties1 states1 and nation4 ,,direct ,,self-,,government ,,through ,,constitutions ,even in the larger communities1 however1 such as cities1 states1 and the nation itself1 the people have sought to retain more or less direct control over lawmaking4 ,in the first place1 the fundamental law of the states and nation found in their constitutions1 which determine what the form and powers of government shall be1 has been adopted by more direct action of the people than most other laws4 ,the ,preamble to the federal ,constitution asserts that ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states444do ordain and establish this ,constitution for the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,neither state nor national constitutions can be altered except by special action by the people themselves1 either by direct vote at the polls or by conventions of representatives chosen especially for the purpose4 ,,direct ,,lawmaking3 ,,initiative ,,and ,,referendum ,it has long been the practice in many communities to submit important local questions to popular vote for decision1 such as the question of issuing bonds for public improvements1 or of licensing saloons4 ,within recent years in a number of states the people have gained direct control over lawmaking in regard to any subject whatever1 both in local and state affairs1 by means of the initiative and referendum4 ,the initiative is the right of the voters themselves to initiate1 or propose1 legislation4 ,this is done by means of a petition signed by a specified number of voters4 ,the legislature may then act upon the proposed law2 but if it does not do so1 the law is submitted to the people for their vote at the next election4 ,on the other hand1 if the legislature passes a law that is objectionable to some of the voters a petition signed by a specified number of voters requires the law to be ,,referred to the people for their approval or rejection4 ,this is the referendum4 ,,democracy ,,of ,,the ,,west ,of the #ba states that had adopted the initiative and referendum 7to #aiag7 only four were east of the ,mississippi ,river 7,maine1 ,maryland1 ,michigan1 and ,ohio74 ,footnote3 ,the ,initiative and ,referendum1 ,bulletin ,no4 #f1 submitted to the ,constitutional ,convention of ,massachusetts 7#aiag7 by the ,commission to ,compile ,information and ,data1 p4 #aj4 ,the movement to increase popular control over government has always been stronger in the ,west1 as we shall see in other connections4 ,for the most part1 however1 our laws are made by our representatives1 over whom we exercise more or less control4 ,some of the more important means by which this control is exercised are described in following chapters2 but first of all we exercise control by ,,choosing our representatives at frequent intervals4 ,let us inquire to what extent the people have a voice in this choice4 ,,the ,,suffrage ,it is not true that all citizens have a voice in choosing their representatives1 though it is more nearly true today than ever before4 ,the right to a voice in this choice is called the ,,suffrage4 ,it is bestowed only on those citizens who possess certain qualifications4 ,the constitution of each state fixes the qualifications for those who live within the boundaries of the state1 the national government having exercised no control over the matter except in two cases4 ,after the ,civil ,war1 the ,fifteenth ,amendment to the ,federal ,constitution was adopted1 providing that ,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states1 or by any state1 on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude2 and recently ,congress has enacted another amendment to the federal ,constitution which1 when approved by a sufficient number of states1 will bestow the suffrage upon all women of the nation who possess the other necessary qualifications4 ,,early ,,distrust ,,of ,,the ,,people ,the founders of our nation were far from democratic as we now understand the term4 ,they believed that the government should be controlled by the educated and propertied class1 which was small4 ,the lack of confidence in the people was shown in various ways1 but among others by the restriction of the suffrage4 ,this was true even in the ,new ,england town meeting1 which we are in the habit of considering as the most democratic of institutions4 ,for instance1 no one could vote in colonial times who did not belong to the church4 ,religious qualifications were soon abolished however1 and property qualifications have almost completely disappeared1 though in some states voters must be taxpayers4 ,,qualifications ,,for ,,the ,,suffrage ,today no citizen may vote in any state who has not reached the age of #ba4 ,the reason for this is clear and just1 but it excludes from the suffrage about #cj million young citizens4 ,persons of unsound mind are denied the suffrage1 and citizens may be disqualified by crime4 ,in some states illiterates are denied the right to vote4 ,in most states foreigners must have completed the process of naturalization1 which requires five years before they may vote4 ,all states require residence in the state and in their local districts for specified periods prior to voting4 ,but with these exceptions1 the suffrage is now possessed by practically all male citizens who are #ba years of age or over1 and is rapidly being extended to women on equal terms with the men4 ,,woman ,,suffrage ,there are instances in our early history where women were permitted to vote--in ,new ,jersey1 for example1 prior to #ahjg4 ,in #ahfi1 ,wyoming1 while still a territory1 extended full suffrage to women1 and has been an equal suffrage state since her admission to the ,union in #ahij4 ,woman suffrage has rapidly gained ground in recent years1 most rapidly in the ,west1 and at the present writing 7#aiai7 #ae states have granted women equal suffrage with men1 all but two of these states being west of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,the women of ,alaska also have this right4 ,in many other states they have the suffrage at certain elections4 ,moreover1 nearly all of the #cf required states have ratified the suffrage amendment to the federal ,constitution4 ,why may an autocratic government perform more efficient service than a democratic government8 ,what is a benevolent despotism8 ,what is a paternalistic government8 ,why do we consider an imperfect democracy better than an efficient autocracy8 ,do you have direct or representative self-government in your community8 ,explain4 ,what voluntary organizations are there in your community 7such as farmers' cooperative organizations1 business corporations1 churches1 clubs1 etc47 that have direct self-government8 ,representative self-government8 ,does your county or town have representatives in state and national governments8 ,what are their names8 ,how long will they be your representatives8 ,does your state have the initiative and referendum8 ,if so1 explain in detail how they are used4 ,give instances of the use of either4 ,give instances 7if any7 of the use of the referendum in your community to settle a local question4 ,from your state constitution ascertain the exact qualifications for the suffrage in your state4 ,report on the history of woman suffrage in your state4 ,do you think any of the restrictions now existing on the suffrage in your state should be removed8 ,why8 ,do you think any further restrictions should be placed on the suffrage in your state8 ,why8 ,,majority ,,and ,,minority ,,rule ,one of the important principles upon which democratic government rests is that the will of the majority should control4 ,it is the only arrangement that can be made with justice4 ,it often happens1 however1 that a minority1 and sometimes a very small minority1 gains control4 ,it also sometimes happens that the party in power in government1 whether it is a majority or a minority1 governs without full consideration for the interests of other parties or of the community as a whole4 ,we shall try to get some idea of how this happens1 and also of methods proposed to prevent it2 for as long as it happens we cannot lay claim to a full measure of democracy in our government4 ,if the pupils of your class or school are voting on the kind of entertainment to be given1 and a difference of opinion arises1 can you think of a fairer way to decide than by a vote of the majority8 ,how else might the matter be decided8 ,if the majority decides the question1 should the minority yield gracefully to the decision8 ,why8 ,after the majority plan has been adopted1 have the minority any rights in the matter8 ,is the majority always right in its decisions8 ,give illustrations to prove your answer4 ,if your community takes a vote on the question of road improvement1 or of school consolidation1 is it right that the majority should decide8 ,if the majority rules in such a case1 is it right that the citizens of the minority party should be taxed for the improvement as well as those of the majority8 ,why8 ,if your class president is elected by a majority of the class1 or a county supervisor by a majority of the voters of the county1 to what extent is it the duty of this officer to consider the interests of the minority which voted against him8 ,,political ,,parties ,our government is a government by political parties4 ,that is1 political parties control the government4 ,voters acting independently of one another cannot exercise much influence4 ,there must be teamwork in political matters as in everything else4 ,a political party consists of those voters who think alike and act together on questions of government policy1 or in electing their representatives in government4 ,it is a voluntary organization1 entirely outside of the government and not recognized in our constitutions1 but exercising very great influence upon government4 ,in his ,farewell ,address to the people1 ,washington said3 ,the spirit of party unfortunately is inseparable from our nature1 having its root in the strongest passions of the human mind4 ,it exists under different shapes in all governments1 more or less stifled1 controlled1 or repressed2 but in those of the popular form it is seen in its greatest rankness1 and is truly their worst enemy4 ,the alternate domination of one faction over another1 sharpened by the spirit of revenge natural to party dissensions444is a frightful despotism444 ,the common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of party are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of a wise people to discourage and restrain it4 ,,mischiefs ,,of ,,the ,,party ,,spirit ,as long as people differ on questions of public policy there are bound to be political parties1 as ,washington knew1 and they have always played an important part in our government4 ,but necessary and useful as parties have been1 the events of our history have shown that ,washington's warning was exceedingly wise1 the party spirit having often proved the worst enemy of our democratic government4 ,,value ,,of ,,minority ,,opposition ,when some great question is before the country1 like that of the adoption of the ,constitution1 or that of slavery1 the people are usually divided into two great parties4 ,the party that marshals the greater number of votes constitutes a majority and gains control of the government4 ,the defeated minority usually accepts its defeat in a sportsmanlike manner and loyally supports the government4 ,nevertheless it does not cease its opposition to the principles of the party in power4 ,one of the chief values of the party system is that it keeps important questions in constant discussion4 ,the opposition of the minority serves as a check upon the acts of the party in power1 which is anxious to avoid arousing too much opposition4 ,this is one means of control over the government enjoyed by the minority party4 ,a defeated minority at one election may become a victorious majority at the next4 ,the fact that a party is in the minority does not necessarily mean that it is in the wrong4 ,,how ,,minorities ,,may ,,gain ,,control ,minorities1 however1 sometimes win elections4 ,if more than two parties are contesting the election1 which often happens1 that one wins which has the greatest number of votes1 though this number may be less than the combined votes of the opposing parties4 ,no other arrangement seems possible4 ,president ,wilson won his first election by a minority vote1 the opposition being divided between ,taft and ,roosevelt4 ,a minority may win through better teamwork4 ,there are always some voters who1 through indifference or other causes1 do not cast their vote4 ,this is especially likely to happen in local elections1 in which there is almost never as large a vote cast as in the same district at a general election4 ,it is one of the chief objects of a party organization to keep its members informed and interested and to see that they cast their votes4 ,the party that is best organized for these purposes is very likely to win over its opponents even though the latter are more numerous4 ,,organization ,,of ,,parties ,,and ,,its ,,control ,the organization of the national political parties is very thorough4 ,each party has a managing committee in every local district1 the local organizations are united in a state organization1 and the several state organizations in a national organization4 ,the shrewdest men the party affords are made chairmen of committees and chosen for other positions of leadership4 ,such organization is necessary and proper2 it is only commonsense teamwork4 ,but unfortunately it has frequently fallen into the hands of designing men who have used it to promote private interests rather than those of the public4 ,a political boss1 who is at the head of an inner ring of politicians1 often decides who shall be nominated for the various offices of government1 leaving no choice to the voters themselves4 ,this makes of our government a real autocracy1 and the worst kind of autocracy1 because the autocrat 7the boss7 acts in secret1 and is in no way responsible to the people4 ,it is the frightful despotism of which ,washington warned his countrymen 7p4 #che74 ,,causes ,,of ,,social ,,unrest ,political bosses are often allied with powerful business interests which seek legislation and governmental administration favorable to themselves4 ,this has given rise to the charge sometimes made that our government is a plutocracy1 a government of the people by a small wealthy class4 ,it is the feeling that this is so that has caused much of the social unrest at the present time1 and that explains in part the growth of the socialists1 and of other groups that would go much further than the socialists in their proposed changes1 such as the ,i4,w4,w4 7,independent ,workers of the ,world7 in our country1 the ,bolshevists in ,russia1 and anarchists everywhere4 ,,government ,,in ,,the ,,interest ,,of ,,all ,,classes ,unquestionably selfish groups representing great wealth have often exerted undue influence in governmental affairs without regard for the public welfare4 ,we have seen how the public lands and the nation's natural resources have in some cases fallen into the hands of wealthy individuals and corporations to the injury of the nation and of those who want to use them for productive purposes4 ,on the other hand1 it is natural that men who have been successful in managing their private business affairs should also be influential in managing public affairs without necessarily having unworthy motives4 ,nevertheless1 when government falls under the control of ,,any particular class or group1 whether it represents wealth1 or labor1 or any other interest1 if it has not due regard for all classes1 and if it denies to the members of other groups the voice in government to which they are entitled1 it establishes a despotism and overthrows democracy4 ,,why ,,the ,,people ,,submit ,,to ,,boss ,,rule ,why do the people submit to boss rule8 ,in the first place1 they do not always submit to it4 ,occasionally1 when the bosses go to unusual extremes1 the people give way to fits of public rage1 to use the words of former ,senator ,elihu ,root1 in which the people rouse up and tear down the political leader1 first of one party and then of the other party4 ,it is thus possible for the people to escape the despotism of boss rule4 ,but two things seem to be necessary to bring it about3 first1 the people must be sufficiently ,,interested in the management of their public affairs2 and1 second1 they require ,,leadership4 ,it takes close attention to public affairs to enable a citizen to make wise decisions for himself2 and the average citizen looks around for guidance4 ,the absence of ,,responsible leadership gives the irresponsible boss his chance4 ,,the ,,short ,,ballot ,one difficulty encountered by the citizen who wishes to vote intelligently is the large number of persons to be chosen4 ,there have been cases where the names of several hundred candidates appeared on the same ticket4 ,in a small community a voter may know personally all the candidates1 but in larger communities this is not so4 ,it was once thought that to make as many of the government offices as possible elective was a step in the direction of democracy1 and that it gave the people direct control over them4 ,but it has not worked out this way4 ,it is impossible for the average voter to choose wisely among so many candidates1 and he therefore falls an easy prey to boss rule4 ,the ,,short ,,ballot is now quite generally advocated to meet this situation4 ,by this plan the number of officers to be elected is reduced1 and includes only those who are responsible for determining the policies of government1 such as members of legislatures and the chief executive officers4 ,these few important officers and representatives are then made responsible for the appointment of all other subordinate officers whose business is to carry policies into effect4 ,this really gives the people better control over their government by fixing responsibility in a few places1 and is therefore no less democratic than the older plan4 ,do you have a long ballot or a short ballot in your county or town8 ,in your state8 ,how many offices in your county government are elective8 ,how many of the men holding these offices do you know8 ,consult your parents as to the number of these officers they know personally4 ,how many does your teacher know8 ,at the next election1 get a copy of the ballot used in your community and ascertain the number of candidates for all offices1 including local1 state1 and national4 ,what national political parties exist at present8 ,are the voters of your local community divided into parties on local questions8 ,if so1 what are some of these questions8 ,investigate the organization in your county 7or town7 of the political party of which your father is a member4 ,who is chairman of its local committee8 ,investigate the work that a party organization does in your community during an election campaign2 on election day2 in the time between elections4 ,why is secret control over government dangerous8 ,what is meant by social unrest8 ,are all men of your acquaintance equally capable of directing the affairs ,of government in office8 ,why8 ,what is meant by responsible and irresponsible leadership8 ,what does it mean to say that a leader must be responsive as well as responsible to the people8 ,,the ,,secret ,,ballot ,various schemes have been adopted to ensure to every voter a free expression of his choice for representatives1 and to the majority their right to govern4 ,one of these is the ,,secret ,,ballot4 ,at the polls each voter enters a booth by himself to mark his ballot1 or to operate the voting machine1 and need have no fear that a possible watcher may cause him to lose his job or otherwise suffer for voting as he thinks best4 ,the secret ballot also reduces the likelihood that votes will be bought1 for there is no way of telling whether the man who sells his vote will vote as he has agreed2 and the man who sells his vote is not to be trusted4 ,the only voters who are embarrassed by the secret ballot are those who cannot read their ballots4 ,these have to seek help1 and are thus open to influence by agents of the boss4 ,,the ,,direct ,,primary ,another device to ensure to the voter a voice in his government is the ,,direct ,,primary for the nomination of candidates for office4 ,by the older method candidates were nominated by party conventions2 but under boss rule they were in reality determined upon in advance by the boss1 the nomination by the convention being largely a matter of form1 the delegates voting according to instructions4 ,the ordinary voter had nothing to say about it4 ,under the direct primary plan any voter possessing the necessary qualifications for holding office may become a candidate by merely securing the signatures of a specified number of voters to a petition4 ,then a ,,primary ,,election is held at which the voters of each party go to the polls to express their choice for one among the several candidates who have been announced for each office to be filled4 ,the candidates receiving the highest number of votes become the nominees of their party4 ,the direct primary is now used quite widely throughout the ,united ,states and is believed to be a great improvement over the old method1 though it does not always work as well as was expected of it4 ,the truth is that ,,any organization is open to abuse by clever people who wish to abuse it1 and ,,no political organization will work effectively unless the voters are intelligent and eternally vigilant4 ,,preferential ,,primaries ,the ,president and ,vice ,president of the ,united ,states are still nominated by national party conventions4 ,but in some states there are ,,presidential ,,preferential ,,primaries4 ,these are direct primaries at which the voters ex press their ,,preference for the presidential candidates4 ,this is intended to be a guide to the nominating convention1 but there is nothing to compel the convention to follow the guidance4 ,,the ,,rights ,,of ,,minorities ,democratic government demands certain rights for minorities4 ,we have seen how a minority party may exercise a wholesome check upon the party in power by constant opposition4 ,we never have a ,congress or a state legislature in which the members are all of one party4 ,this is a good thing1 for it results in discussion and debate in the legislative body by which the people are kept informed4 ,the initiative and referendum 7p4 #chj7 are also weapons in the hands of a minority2 for1 as we have seen1 a small number of voters may compel the legislature to consider1 or reconsider1 any piece of legislation1 or to submit it to the people for their decision4 ,minority parties may thus keep prominently before the people measures that have been adversely acted upon by the majority4 ,,the ,,recall ,another device that has been introduced in some states and local communities is the ,,recall of officials4 ,by means of this a specified number of voters may demand that an officer of government who is displeasing to them be brought before the people for their vote as to whether he shall be removed from office or not4 ,a small minority may thus call an elected officer to account4 ,,proportional ,,representation ,,of ,,parties ,one plan strongly advocated by some students of government to insure to minorities an actual voice in government is that of ,,proportional ,,representation of parties in legislative bodies4 ,by this plan each party would be represented in proportion to its strength4 ,if two parties were of about equal strength they would be represented equally2 if one were twice as strong as another1 it would have twice the representation4 ,the plan is actually in use in very few localities4 ,in ,illinois1 however1 the ,,cumulative-,,vote plan is in use1 by which each voter is permitted as many votes as there are places to be filled1 and to distribute these votes among the several candidates or to cast them all for one candidate4 ,thus1 if there are three representatives to be elected from his district1 he may give one vote to each of the three1 or he may give three votes to one of them4 ,a minority may thus1 by concentrating all of their votes upon a single candidate1 be reasonably sure of representation4 ,but it requires good team work to get this result4 ,,different ,,bases ,,of ,,representation ,representation in our government is on a ,,territorial1 ,,or ,,geographical1 ,,basis4 ,that is1 each representative represents the people in a given territory or district4 ,thus1 in many counties the board of supervisors is composed of representatives from each township1 the members of state legislatures represent districts of the state1 members of the ,united ,states ,house of ,representatives represent congressional districts in each state1 and ,united ,states ,senators represent states4 ,in each district under our present system1 however1 the representatives are ,,elected ,,by ,a ,,majority1 though they are supposed to ,,represent ,,all the people when elected4 ,if proportional representation were adopted1 it would be necessary to increase the number of representatives from each district1 in order that each party should have at least one4 ,then we should have ,,representation ,,by ,,parties1 as well as by districts4 ,we now hear a good deal about ,,soviet ,,government in ,russia4 ,the soviet is a representative body with a different basis of representation than either of the above4 ,soviet government is government by workers and each representative represents a ,,trade ,,or ,,occupation4 ,it is as if1 in our country1 all the farmers in a county1 as a group1 should elect their representatives to the board of county supervisors1 all the carpenters their representatives1 all the merchants theirs1 and so on4 ,it would be1 as it is in ,russia1 ,,representation ,,by ,,occupational ,,groups1 instead of by geographical districts as now4 ,it would differ from proportional representation by parties1 as described above1 because each political party is made up of representatives of all occupations4 ,only in a few cases have political parties in our country tended to become identified with occupational interests1 as in the case of labor parties1 and the old greenback party1 which was largely made up of farmers4 ,at election time visit the nearest polling place1 observe the procedure of voting1 and report4 ,get sample copies of the ballot used4 ,who are the different persons on duty at the polling place1 and what are their duties8 ,why and how do voters register before an election8 ,describe a primary election in your community4 ,how do discussion and debate protect the rights of minorities8 ,is the recall used in your state8 ,if so1 what instances of its exercise do you know1 and what were the circumstances8 ,what advantages and disadvantages can you see in representation by occupational groups as compared with representation by geographical districts8 ,,readings ,in ,foerster and ,pierson's ,,american ,,ideals3 ,contributions of the west to democracy 7,f4,j4 ,turner71 pp4 #gb-ig4 ,a charter of democracy 7,theodore ,roosevelt71 pp4 #aad-acb4 ,can democracy be organized8 7,e4,a4 ,alderman71 pp4 #aeh-agd4 ,the sovereignty of the people 7,a4 de ,tocqueville71 pp4 #beg-bfj4 ,general tendency of the laws 7,a4 de ,tocqueville71 pp4 #bfa-bff4 ,the activity of the body politic 7,a4 de ,tocqueville71 pp4 #bfg-bgb4 ,the ,german and the ,american temper 7,kuno ,francke71 pp4 #bgc-bha4 ,the ,divine ,average 7,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson71 pp #bhb-bhd4 ,in ,long's ,,american ,,patriotic ,,prose3 ,farewell ,address 7,washington71 pp4 #aje-abc4 ,the independent in politics 7,james ,russell ,lowell71 pp4 #bda-bdc4 ,liberty is responsibility1 not license 7,mc,kinley71 pp4 #bed-bee4 ,the right of the people to rule 7,roosevelt71 pp4 #bgb-bgc4 ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #af1 ,caste in ,india4 ,lesson #ai1 ,active citizenship4 ,series ,c3 ,lesson #ag1 ,custom as a basis for law4 ,lesson #ah1 ,cooperation through law4 ,hart1 ,a4,b41 ,,actual ,,government1 ,chapters ,,iv1 ,v4 ,ashley1 ,r4,l41 ,,the ,,new ,,civics 7,macmillan71 ,chapters1 ,,vi1 ,,vii4 ,reed1 ,t4,h41 ,,form ,,and ,,functions ,,of ,,american ,,government1 ,chapters ,v- ,,viii1 7,world ,book ,co474 ,bryce1 ,james1 ,,the ,,american ,,commonwealth1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,,iii1 ,the party system2 and ,part ,v1 ,chapters1 ,,xcvii-,,xcix1 ,the faults and strength of democracy4 ,,encyclopedia ,,of ,,american ,,government1 under the several topics referred to in this chapter4 ,teachable ,facts about ,bolshevism and ,sovietism1 ,institute for ,public ,service1 #ea ,chambers ,st41 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,our ,,local ,,governments ,,units ,,of ,,local ,,government ,when the first colonists of ,america undertook to organize governments for their local settlements1 they naturally adopted forms with which they had been familiar in ,england4 ,there were two such forms which met their needs1 the ,,town1 ,,or ,,township1 ,,and ,,the ,,county4 ,these have remained to this day the chief units of our local government4 ,,the ,,new ,,england ,,town ,geographical conditions were such in ,new ,england that the colonists settled in compact communities4 ,there the township1 or town1 was adopted as the more convenient unit4 ,it included a central village and the neighboring farming region with irregular boundaries4 ,it is still the unit of local government throughout rural ,new ,england1 and in many communities that have grown to the proportion of cities4 ,it has been said of the ,new ,england town government that it is the fullest and most perfect example of local self-government either then or now in existence 444 4 ,the state might fall to pieces1 and the town would still supply all the wants of everyday government4 ,footnote3 ,henry ,cabot ,lodge1 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,colonies ,,in ,,america1 p4 #dad4 ,,the ,,town ,,meeting ,the chief feature of the ,new ,england town government is the ,,town ,,meeting1 which is an assemblage of the voters of the town at the town hall 7formerly often at the church71 the regular annual town meeting being held in the spring or autumn1 and special meetings as necessary4 ,these meetings are called by the ,,selectmen 7see below7 by means of a ,,warrant which contains a statement of the business to be transacted4 ,at the annual meeting1 reports are heard from the officers of the preceding year1 officers for the new year are elected1 by-laws 7town laws7 are enacted1 taxes are levied and appropriations made for the various purposes of government4 ,it is direct self-government4 ,,new ,,england ,,town ,,officers ,among the officers elected by the town meeting are the selectmen1 varying in number from three to nine1 who have charge of the town property and are responsible to the town meeting for the conduct of the town's business2 a town clerk1 who keeps the town records1 issues marriage licenses1 registers births and deaths1 and performs other clerical services2 an assessor of taxes2 a treasurer2 several constables1 who have police duties1 execute warrants issued by the selectmen and by the justices of the peace1 and sometimes act as tax collectors2 school committeemen2 overseers of the poor2 members of the board of health and of other boards for public service4 ,in some of the ,new ,england states the justices of the peace1 who are not strictly town officers1 are elected by the town meeting4 ,,the ,,town ,,warrant ,there is here given a copy of portions of a warrant for a special town meeting4 ,this warrant is very brief as compared with those issued for a regular annual meeting2 but it gives an idea of the variety of business transacted4 ,town ,warrant ,,middlesex1 ,,ss4 ,to ,henry ,atchison1 one of the constables of the ,town of ,framingham or to either of them1 ,,greeting3 ,in the name of the ,commonwealth of ,massachusetts1 you are hereby required to notify and warn the inhabitants of the ,town of ,framingham1 qualified to vote in elections1 and ,town affairs1 to meet at the ,casino in said ,framingham1 on ,,wednesday1 ,,july #af,,th1 ,a4,d4 #aiai at eight o'clock ,p4,m4 ,then and there to act on the following articles1 viz43 ,article ,i4 ,to hear and act upon such reports of any of the officers of the ,town or ,committees of the ,town as may be then and there presented1 appropriate money to carry out the recommendations thereof1 or any of them1 pass any vote or take any action relative to any of said reports1 or any part thereof4 ,art4 #b4 ,to hear and act on the report of the ,committee directed to investigate school needs in the ,apple ,street ,district4 444 ,art4 #c4 ,to see if the ,town will vote to instruct the ,town ,treasurer to place to the credit of the ,park ,department 444 for the care and maintenance of parks and playgrounds1 any and all sums of money which may be received by him 444 on account of said ,department1 and authorize the use of the same by said ,department4 444 ,art4 #d4 ,to see if the ,town will grant or appropriate a sum not exceeding twenty-five hundred dollars 7#bejj7 for the purchase by the tree warden of a new tree spraying machine4 444 ,art4 #e4 ,to see if the ,town will authorize its ,board of ,park ,commissioners to sell and dispose of two of the unused schoolhouses placed in charge of the ,park ,commission some years ago4 444 ,art4 #f4 ,to see if the ,town will appropriate the sum of fifty-five hundred dollars 444 to be expended under the direction of the following committee 444 for the purpose of selecting a site1 location and erection of a temporary memorial tablet1 and cause to be inscribed thereon the names of the ,framingham soldiers1 sailors1 marines 444 and nurses1 who gave their lives in the late war4 444 ,art4 #h4 ,to see if the ,town will vote to install and maintain incandescent electric lights on following named streets 444 4 ,art4 #i4 ,to see if the ,town will vote to raise the pay of its ,police ,officers fifty cents a day4 444 ,art4 #aj4 ,to see if the ,town will vote to appoint and instruct a committee to petition the ,county ,commissioners to relocate ,marble ,street4 444 ,art4 #ab4 ,to see if the ,town will vote to appropriate a sum 444 to reimburse ,wellington ,h4 ,pratt for expenses incurred in the construction of a sewer and laying of water pipes4 444 ,and you are directed to serve this warrant by posting an attested copy of the same at each of the ,meeting ,houses and ,post-,offices in said ,town1 eight days at least1 including two ,sundays1 before the time of holding said meeting4 ,hereof fail not1 and make due return of this warrant1 with your doing thereon1 to the ,town ,clerk at the time and place of said meeting4 ,given under our hands this first day of ,july in the year of our ,lord one thousand nine hundred and nineteen4 7,signed by the ,selectmen7 ,it has been said that ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,town ,,meeting ,the thing most characteristic of a town meeting is the lively and educating debate2 for attendants on town meeting from year to year become skilled in parliamentary law1 and effective in sharp1 quick argument on their feet4 ,children and others than voters are allowed to be present as spectators4 ,in every such assembly1 four or five men ordinarily do half the talking2 but anybody has a right to make suggestions or propose amendments1 and occasionally even a non-voter is allowed to make a statement2 and the debate is often very effective4 ,footnote3 ,albert ,bushnell ,hart1 ,,actual ,,government1 p4 #aga4 ,another writer says1 ,the retiring officers present their reports1 which in the larger towns have been previously printed and distributed4 ,any citizen present is free to express any criticism or ask any question4 ,no better method of checking the conduct of public officers has ever been discovered than this system of report in open meeting4 ,keen questions and sharp comment rip open and expose to view the true inwardness of the officers' behavior4 ,at its best1 the ,new ,england town meeting has never been equaled as a mechanism for local government4 ,no mere representative system can give the opportunity for real participation in government which a town meeting affords4 ,even the small boys who come to enjoy the fun from the gallery are taught that government is a living reality4 ,by grappling first-hand with their own small local problems1 men are trained to take part wisely in the bigger affairs of state and nation4 ,footnote3 ,thomas ,h4 ,reed1 ,,form ,,and ,,functions ,,of ,,american ,,government1 pp4 #bah1 #bbj4 ,,weakening ,,of ,,government ,,by ,,town ,,meeting ,changing conditions1 however1 have tended to bring about changes in town government4 ,in the early days the town meeting was a matter of great interest1 and everybody attended1 including the women and children4 ,many of the towns have now acquired large populations1 the people are no longer acquainted with one another1 and interest has declined4 ,a few years ago it was reported that ,in ,brookline1 ,mass41 with about #bejj votes cast1 there are from #cjj to #ejj at the business sessions4 ,in ,hyde ,park1 ,mass41 with #bejj voters444 from #ejj to #fjj attended the annual appropriation meeting4 ,in ,leominster1 ,mass41 with #adjj voting1 the normal attendance is about #hjj4 ,the same writer says that3 ,in many places the town meeting is being undermined by the caucus1 held beforehand1 to nominate candidates for office4 ,here a small group of persons not only narrow the choice for officers1 but often arrange the other business to be determined at the town meeting4 ,sometimes every thing is cut and dried before it comes up for popular discussion2 and that discussion thus becomes a mere formality4 ,j4,a4 ,fairlie1 ,,local ,,government ,,in ,,counties1 ,,towns ,,and ,,villages1 p4 #adh4 ,,influences ,,leading ,,to ,,decline ,this illustrates what was said in the preceding chapter 7p4 #chh7 about the necessity for leadership and the tendency of the people1 under certain conditions1 to accept self-appointed leaders1 sometimes not of the best1 outside of the government4 ,conditions in large towns are likely to favor this4 ,the questions that have to be acted upon are more complicated than formerly1 and often involve the expenditure of large sums of money4 ,the candidates for office are not known to many of the voters4 ,there may be a considerable number of uneducated people in the town1 and perhaps a foreign population that is unfamiliar with the ,english language and with ,american methods4 ,these things make intelligent self- government by direct methods difficult4 ,,the ,,finance ,,committee3 ,a ,,means ,,of ,,better ,,service ,various means have been adopted to meet these changing conditions4 ,one of these is the creation of a ,,finance ,,committee1 before which are brought for consideration questions involving the expenditure of money4 ,this committee holds hearings1 at which citizens may present arguments for and against proposed measures4 ,thus important matters are sifted out by the committee which then reports to the town meeting4 ,the town meeting usually votes in accordance with the recommendations of the committee4 ,while this arrangement tends to secure careful consideration of financial measures1 and to result in wise decisions1 provided the committee is composed of reliable men1 it tends1 on the other hand1 to prevent discussion in open town meeting1 to make the vote in the latter a mere matter of form1 and to destroy interest in it4 ,in other words1 while it tends to better ,,service1 it reduces the value of the town meeting as a means of ,,education ,,for ,,democracy4 ,,town ,,planning ,another arrangement that has been adopted in a good many towns is the ,,town ,,planning ,,board4 ,this is a committee which1 after careful study of existing conditions and tendencies of community growth1 formulates a definite ,,plan for the promotion of the community's interests during a period of years4 ,it considers such matters as the laying out of new roads and streets and the improvement of old ones1 the location of parks1 playgrounds1 and public buildings1 the construction of sewers1 water works1 and lighting systems1 the style of architecture for public buildings1 the enactment of housing laws4 ,while town planning boards usually deal primarily with matters pertaining to the physical development of the town1 they may also plan with reference to the improvement of the educational system1 the promotion of public health1 and of social needs generally4 ,the town planning board is usually composed of trained men1 such as engineers1 architects1 and physicians1 and it may call in expert advisers from other communities or from the state government4 ,the advantage of having such a board is that it provides the town with a program of action carefully worked out from the point of view both of continuous community needs and of economy4 ,it affords expert leadership4 ,,need ,,for ,,citizen ,,cooperation ,as has been said many times in these pages1 government is the community's official organization to secure cooperation2 but it is effective only to the extent that the people ,,cooperate4 ,it is a machine that is valuable as the people ,,use it4 ,the weakening of town1 government1 or of any other government1 is due largely to a lack of interest and of actual participation by the people4 ,many people think they have done their share toward good government when they have helped elect their officers and have paid their taxes4 ,but when they take this view they are likely to lose both interest in their government and control over it4 ,,voluntary ,,community ,,organization ,in many ,new ,england towns the decline in popular control of town government has been largely counterbalanced by ,,community ,,organization ,,for ,,voluntary ,,cooperation4 ,much community service is1 and probably always will be1 performed by private enterprise and initiative rather than by government2 and the efficiency of government depends to a considerable extent upon the efficiency of voluntary enterprise4 ,government must have the cooperation of the latter1 and to some extent work through it4 ,in practically every community there are groups of people organized to cooperate for one purpose or another2 but they are often self-centered and act independently of one another1 if not actually at cross purposes4 ,the situation that exists in many communities is illustrated by the chart on page #djb4 ,footnote3 ,this chart and the one on page #djc are taken from ,extension ,bulletin ,no4 #bc1 ,massachusetts ,agricultural ,college1 by ,e4,l4 ,morgan4 ,,community ,,organization ,,in ,,massachusetts ,in a good many ,massachusetts towns this situation has been very largely remedied by means of community organization for which the leadership has been provided in many cases by the ,community ,organization ,department of the ,extension ,service of the ,state ,agricultural ,college4 ,the organization varies in detail in different communities to meet local needs1 but the main features are the following3 ,first3 a ,,community ,,council1 consisting of representatives of the various community interests and organizations including the town officials4 ,this council serves at first as a sort of steering committee to bring the various interests together and to plan the organization and the work to be done4 ,second3 a ,,community ,,meeting1 the first one of which is called by the community council to consider the questions3 ,is it possible for a community to plan for its future development8 ,do we care to do it8 ,is it worthwhile8 ,how can it be done8 ,the community meeting becomes a sort of ,,unofficial ,,town ,,meeting1 and is often more largely attended than the official town meeting1 partly because it is attended by the women of the community4 ,third3 a number of ,,working ,,committees1 appointed as a result of the first community meeting4 ,they may include3 ,a committee on farm production4 ,a committee on conservation4 ,a committee on boys' and girls' interests4 ,a committee on farm business4 ,a committee on community life 7education1 health1 recreation1 etc47 ,these committees make a study of the conditions and needs of the community in their respective fields1 and prepare plans and projects1 which are submitted to the community meeting in due time4 ,fourth3 a ,,community ,,program1 which has been agreed upon by the community meeting1 is supervised by the community council1 and is carried out by the various community organizations represented1 including the public officials4 ,,official ,,and ,,unofficial ,,teamwork ,this organization is entirely outside of the official govern mental organization4 ,it may be asked why it is necessary to have a community meeting when the official town meeting already exists4 ,the answer is that the official town meeting has its work pretty definitely cut out for it4 ,it meets for a half-day or a day at a time1 and its time is occupied ,,by ,,the ,,voters in passing laws1 electing officials1 levying taxes1 making appropriations1 and doing other official business4 ,the community meeting1 on the other hand1 is attended by non-voters as well as voters1 the women taking an active part1 and the young people being represented4 ,many matters are discussed that could not properly be taken up in town meeting4 ,a large part of the program of the community organization is carried out by the voluntary agencies of the community4 ,but a great many of its proposals must have the approval of the official town meeting1 require appropriations which can only be made by the town meeting1 and are finally executed by the public officials of the town4 ,the organization naturally stimulates interest in the official government1 and brings to its support all the organized agencies of the community working together4 ,,township ,,government ,,outside ,,of ,,new ,,england ,the township is found as a unit of local government in many states outside of ,new ,england1 but in most of these cases its government is entirely representative in form4 ,while the town meeting is found in a few of these states1 ,footnote3 ,as in ,new ,york and ,new ,jersey2 and farther west in ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 the ,dakotas1 ,illinois1 and ,nebraska4 it nowhere holds the important place that it does in ,new ,england4 ,one reason for this is the larger size and more scattered population of the township4 ,in the public land states the congressional township1 six miles square1 is also the political township4 ,at the head of the township government in its representative form are ,,trustees 7sometimes three1 sometimes only one7 who1 with the town clerk1 the constables1 the tax assessor1 the treasurer1 the justices of the peace1 and such other officers as may be required1 are elected by the people4 ,the powers of the township government outside of ,new ,england vary in different states1 but are always quite limited1 relating most commonly to the maintenance of roads1 school administration1 and the care of the poor4 ,in these circumstances there is at least as great need for community organization to support and supplement the work of government as in the ,new ,england towns4 ,investigate and report on the following3 ,the services performed by your township government4 ,a complete list of your township officers1 and the duties of each4 7,committees of pupils may interview some of the more important officers to get a description of their daily routine1 kinds of service performed1 etc4 ,also discuss with parents47 ,officers of the colonial ,new ,england town that do not exist now1 and their duties4 ,what is parliamentary law8 7,valuable training may be secured by conducting school meetings1 club meetings1 or occasional regular class exercises1 in accordance with parliamentary procedure47 ,why public discussion is a check upon the conduct of persons holding responsible positions4 ,the popular interest in public questions in your township4 ,if there is a finance committee in your township 7p4 #cii71 how does it serve the community8 ,does it hold hearings8 7,attend and report upon some such hearing47 ,town planning in your community 7what has been1 or what might be1 done74 ,the value of having a plan4 ,is your community more like that represented by the chart on page #djb1 or by that on page #djc8 ,the extent to which voluntary organizations in your community co operate with and through the local government4 ,the extent to which your state agricultural college promotes community organization4 ,the feasibility of organizing your town 7or community7 by some such plan as that outlined on page #djb4 ,the value of a community forum as a means to good government4 ,why the official town meeting should 7or should not7 be encouraged in your state4 ,procure and examine recently published official reports of your township government4 ,what do these reports tell you8 ,what is the value of such reports8 ,are the reports of your township generally read by the people of the township8 ,why8 ,discuss ways in which your township reports could be made more useful4 ,,the ,,county ,the other unit of local government with which the colonists were familiar was the county1 which in ,england embraced a number of townships4 ,in the colonies of ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania the county and the town ship were developed together as in ,england2 in the southern colonies the county was organized without the township4 ,today the county exists in every state of the ,union1 including the ,new ,england states4 ,in ,louisiana it is called the ,,parish4 ,,types ,,of ,,county ,,government ,there are two main types of county government4 ,according to one plan1 as in ,new ,york1 each township elects a representative to a county ,,board ,,of ,,supervisors1 which is sometimes quite large4 ,according to the other plan1 as in ,pennsylvania1 the people of the county as a whole elect a small ,,board ,,of ,,commissioners1 the townships not being represented as such even when they exist4 ,the board of supervisors or commissioners levies taxes and makes appropriations for various county purposes1 such as constructing and maintaining roads1 bridges1 and county buildings1 paying the salaries of county officers1 caring for the county poor1 and conducting the county schools4 ,it is sometimes spoken of as the county legislative body1 but it is rather an administrative body1 its lawmaking powers being very slight4 ,,county ,,officers ,among the important county officers are the sheriff1 who is chief guardian of the peace in the county1 has charge of the jail1 is the chief executive officer of the county court 7see p4 #dci71 and sometimes acts as tax collector2 the county prosecutor 7also called the prosecuting attorney1 the district attorney1 or the state's attorney71 who prosecutes all criminal cases in the county and represents the public authorities in civil suits2 the county clerk1 who keeps the county records2 the register of deeds1 who records all transfers of property2 the coroner1 who investigates the cause of violent and mysterious deaths2 the tax assessor2 the treasurer2 the auditor1 who examines the accounts of county officers2 the surveyor2 the school superintendent2 the health officer4 ,some times there are others4 ,,lack ,,of ,,interest ,,in ,,county ,,government ,although practically every citizen of the ,united ,states is also a citizen of a county1 the people have as a rule shown surprisingly little interest in county government4 ,as generally found it affords a striking example of poor service resulting from a lack of teamwork4 ,county government has the reputation of being one of the weakest spots in our whole system of government4 ,,will ,,county ,,government ,,survive8 ,we seem to have gotten into the habit of not expecting much service from the county government4 ,where the township government is strong1 as in ,new ,england1 it takes the place of county government4 ,where people live in cities1 they look to the city government to serve them rather than to the county government4 ,in rural districts the people have come more and more to look to the state and national governments for such service as they expect government to give4 ,these facts might suggest the question whether or not we really need county government4 ,one recent writer says1 ,there are some parts of the country where ,i can see that the county will pass out of existence entirely in a very short time1 unless it does adjust itself to the new conditions4 ,footnote3 ,h4,s4 ,gilbertson1 in the ,university of ,north ,carolina ,,record1 ,no4 #aei1 ,october1 #aiah1 p4 #cg4 ,the same writer says1 ,unless the county does measure up in this way1 the powers of government and the services which it renders will have to drift away from local control and be placed in the hands of some government more fit and which will probably be further away from home4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,long ,,ballot ,students of county government attribute many of its defects to the long ballot4 ,in one county in ,north ,carolina1 at a recent election1 there were twenty-five different candidates for county offices on each of three party tickets1 making seventy-five candidates among whom each voter had to choose4 ,township and state officers were also elected at the same election1 bringing the number of persons to be voted for up to about fifty out of #aej candidates4 ,it is apparent that the average voter would have difficulty in voting intelligently4 ,,government ,,without ,a ,,head ,the long ballot has other results than the mere difficulty of intelligent voting4 ,one of these is a ,,government ,,without ,a ,,head4 ,while the board of supervisors or commissioners is nominally at the head of the county government1 it has to work through the various administrative officers4 ,these are also elected by the people1 and may be of the opposite political party4 ,at all events1 they are independent of the board1 not responsible to it1 and may or may not work in harmony with it4 ,a former member of a county board in ,north ,carolina says1 ,most persons are under the impression that the board of commissioners1 with its chairman1 is at the head of the county government4 444 ,the board does have authority to say how about #ai cents of the entire tax levy may be spent1 but its authority over the balance of the levy1 over any county official1 such as the sheriff1 clerk of the court1 coroner1 constable1 county judge1 or recorder1 is nil4 ,the chairman of the board does have the honor 444 of smiling and trying to look pleasant when complaints are made about bad roads1 excessive tax assessments1 or the delinquency of some county subordinate1 over whom neither he nor the board has any control4,footnote3 ,m4 ,s4 ,willard1 ,north ,carolina ,club ,year ,book1 #aiah1 p4 #hg4 ,,the ,,opportunity ,,of ,,the ,,boss ,another result of the long ballot is the opportunity it gives the political boss to control the selection of officers4 ,it is not uncommon to hear rural citizens ask such questions as1 ,what's the use of farmers taking off time for politics when the whole thing is run by political bosses anyway8,footnote3 ,graham ,taylor1 in ,rural ,manhood1 ,october1 #aiad1 p4 #cbh4 ,in such counties office- seeking has become not the means to the end of performing service1 but exists for the immediate reward1 and whatever service is rendered to the people is incidental to that other object4 ,footnote3 ,h4 ,s4 ,gilbertson1 ,forms of ,county ,government1 in the ,university of ,north ,carolina ,record1 ,no4 #aei1 ,october1 #aiah1 p4 #cg4 ,,bad ,,business ,,methods ,along with these defects1 and largely because of them1 bad business methods have characterized county government1 resulting in poor service and wastefulness of the people's money4 ,a faulty system of keeping accounts is as unbusinesslike and disastrous in public business as in private business4 ,,our ,,local ,,governments ,when ,i was first connected with the government of my own county1 ,i became very much interested to know whether we were doing better or worse in the management of our road finances2 in the cost of maintaining our county prisoners2 in the maintenance of our county home and numerous other county institutions1 than were other counties4 ,i was anxious to find out what was being done in other counties in the way of appropriations for hospitals and ,i selected twelve or fifteen counties and wrote letters to the county officials asking for information4 ,in answer to probably two of my letters ,i received intelligent and satisfactory replies4 ,probably half a dozen more gave me some figures which were of very little use for purposes of comparison1 and to my other letters ,i received no replies1 although the first request was followed up by a second and a third letter4 ,i then began an effort to secure copies of the newspapers in which had been printed the financial statements of the counties4 ,i succeeded in securing probably ten statements and1 after a fruitless attempt to coordinate these statements so that ,i might secure information which would enable me to know whether we were doing better or worse than our neighbors1 ,i became hopelessly lost in a jungle of statistics and reluctantly gave it up as useless1 and turned my attention to doing what ,i could to place our own county affairs in such condition that they could be understood by those of our taxpayers who might be inquisitive enough to want to know how the money was handled which they paid for taxes4 ,footnote3 ,m4 ,s4 ,willard1 ,county ,finances in ,north ,carolina1 in the ,university of ,north ,carolina ,,record1 ,no4 #aei1 ,october1 #aiah1 p4 #hj4 ,,the ,,fee ,,system ,the practice of compensating county officers from ,,fees received for special services and of allowing them to retain the interest on public money is one illustration of extravagant business methods4 ,for many of the services performed by county officers fees are charged1 on the principle that the person served should pay for the service4 ,it did not occur to the people to inquire how much their officers were getting in this way4 ,in one county1 in which there was a large city1 investigation showed that the sheriff had a net income from fees and commissions of #ae1jjj1 the county treasurer #bc1jjj1 and the county auditor over #ej1jjj4 ,from the point of view of economy and efficiency it is better to pay all officers an adequate salary and to require that all fees1 commissions1 and interest on public money be returned to the county treasury4 ,it keeps the tax rate down and makes possible an increase of service4 ,the county office fees and commissions in ,north ,carolina amount to something like one and a quarter million dollars a year1 if they are collected according to law4 ,the total is large enough to pay all salaries in at least #eh counties of the state1 and leave large balances to apply to schools1 roads1 jail expenses1 interest1 and sinking funds4 ,these large surpluses are being wasted in most of the salary counties4 ,footnote3 ,e4,c4 ,branson1 ,the ,fee ,system in ,north ,carolina1 in the ,university of ,north ,carolina ,record1 ,no4 #aei1 ,october1 #aiah1 p4 #fi4 ,such faulty business methods are gradually being corrected by the introduction of the short ballot1 as in ,california and elsewhere1 by businesslike methods of keeping accounts1 by the appointment of county and state auditors1 and by giving full publicity to reports of county business4 ,,the ,,fault ,,with ,,the ,,citizen ,but after all1 says the county official quoted above1 a great part of the shortcomings of county officials and a great deal of the looseness which prevails in the management of county affairs can be charged to the citizen people themselves4 ,another student of the situation says1 ,among the country people themselves there is no demand for better local government or almost none2 they are satisfied or content themselves with grumbling about taxes and in fierce partisan politics4 444 ,the country people of ,america lack an adequate sense of civic and social responsibility1 and the deficiency is rising into critical1 national importance4 ,footnote #b3 ,e4,c4 ,branson1 ,report of subcommittee on local government1 ,national ,country ,life ,conference1 ,baltimore ,proceedings1 #aiai1 pp4 #fh1 #fi4 ,another says1 ,the first thing to be reformed in county government is not the officers down at the courthouse1 but our own attitude toward the county1 and particularly toward public office4 ,for1 after all1 public officers in this country are just what the people make them 444 ,footnote #c3 ,h4,s4 ,gilbertson1 ,forms of ,county ,government1 in the ,university of ,north ,carolina ,record1 ,no4 #aei1 ,october1 #aiah1 p4 #ch4 ,there are those who advocate breaking up the county into smaller units for purposes of local self-government1 as in ,new ,england4 ,thomas ,jefferson1 living in ,virginia where the county was the sole unit of local government1 was a great admirer of the ,new ,england town meeting1 and said that public education and the subdivision of the counties into wards1 or townships1 were the two hooks upon which republican government must hang4 ,on the other hand1 we have observed an opposite tendency to concentrate the administration of schools1 roads1 health1 and other matters1 in the county government 7see pp4 #bid1cbe74 ,the fact is that both the organization for centralized1 county-wide government1 and that for the government of local communities within the county1 have their uses4 ,neither can do its best work without the other4 ,the problem is to deter mine what the business of each should be and to establish a proper balance between them4 ,one thing is sure1 namely1 that the government of the county cannot be effective unless the people of the various communities within the county are organized to cooperate both for their local interests and for the interests of the county as a whole4 ,this may be provided for in part through township governments1 where they exist1 and in part through such unofficial organization as that described for the ,new ,england town 7p4 #djb71 or as that furnished by the farm bureau with its local community committees 7p4 #cj74 ,one of the most progressive states in the matter of county government is ,north ,carolina4 ,one of the chief instruments by which this progress has been made is the ,,north ,,carolina ,,club1 organized by the ,university of ,north ,carolina for the study and promotion of the interests of the state4 ,the ,north ,carolina ,club has affiliated with it ,,county ,,clubs1 each of which studies its own county and promotes its interests4 ,in ,north ,carolina they are working in both directions suggested above3 in the direction of an effective central county government1 and in the direction of organization of all local communities for the study of needs and for teamwork in providing for them4 ,see references4 ,,the ,,county ,,as ,a ,,subdivision ,,of ,,the ,,state ,another important factor in county government is the control exercised over it by the state4 ,the county is not only a local self-governing unit1 but it is also a division of the state for the administration of state laws4 ,its powers of self-government are given to it by the state1 and along with these powers it has imposed upon it certain duties for the state4 ,first of all1 the county is a ,,state ,,judicial ,,district4 ,the most important building at the county seat is the courthouse4 ,the ,,county ,,court is one of the state courts described in the next chapter4 ,the county judge is sometimes chosen by the people of the county1 but he is really a state officer4 ,in ,new ,england the county is almost solely a judicial district1 and in all states its judicial purposes are of supreme importance4 ,but more than this1 the county schools are a part of the state school system and must be administered in accordance with state laws1 though by county and township officers4 ,county officers must enforce the health laws of the state4 ,county authorities not only levy and collect county taxes1 but also collect state taxes from residents of the county4 ,,the ,,necessity ,,for ,,state ,,control ,here again we have an illustration of the necessity for a careful balance between matters properly subject to local self-government and those properly subject to state control4 ,counties have suffered both from too much state control in some respects1 and from too little in others4 ,the whole state is injured 444 if one township lets its citizenship deteriorate through ignorance or drunkenness1 and so the state has a right to say that at least six months school term must be given in every township and that no whiskey-selling shall be permitted4 ,or if one township is infested with cattle ticks1 other townships are injured1 and so the state may set a minimum standard here 444 ,it often happens that the citizens of one county pay more than their share of the state taxes because it has better methods of assessing and collecting taxes and of keeping accounts than other counties in the state4 ,one of the greatest needs of counties1 and one least provided for1 is uniformity among the counties of a state in methods of keeping accounts 7see example on page #daj74 ,some states have established state systems of auditing county finances4 ,,home ,,rule ,,for ,,counties ,on the other hand1 state governments often interfere in matters that might better be left to local determination4 ,usually all the counties of a state have exactly the same form of government1 with exactly the same officers who exercise exactly the same duties4 ,yet some counties within a state are almost wholly rural1 some are almost wholly urban1 others are mixed in character4 ,a form of government adapted to one may not be suited to another4 ,so there has arisen a demand for a larger degree of home rule in counties4 ,in ,illinois1 counties have had the right to determine for themselves whether the township should or should not be given prominence in local government1 and whether the supervisor or the commissioner plan of government should be used4 ,california now has a law which provides that counties may apply for charters in the same way that cities do in all states4 ,the charter1 like a constitution1 determines the form and powers of the government1 and is framed by the people of the county themselves1 though it must then have the approval of the state legislature4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,urban ,,communities ,we have noted how the growth of cities with their elaborate organization for service tends to divert attention from the less conspicuous county government4 ,while probably half the counties of the ,united ,states contain no city1 or town1 or village of #bejj people1 there is in almost every township at least one compact settlement that has grown up around the trading center4 ,sometimes there are several of them in a township and many in a county4 ,in such compact communities cooperation becomes necessary to provide for needs that are not felt in more rural districts1 such as paved streets1 sewers1 public water supply1 fire and police protection1 and so on4 ,a separate government becomes necessary4 ,the people of such communities may appeal to the authorities of township1 county1 or state1 for incorporation as a village1 borough1 town1 or city4 ,village and borough are simply two names used in different localities for the same thing4 ,the difference between them and an incorporated town or city is principally one of size and corresponding complexity of organization4 ,,government ,,of ,,villages ,,and ,,incorporated ,,towns ,the chief governing body of a village1 or borough1 or incorporated town1 is a small council1 or board1 elected by the people4 ,it has legislative powers in a small way1 enacting ,,ordinances for the regulation of local officers and in the public interest4 ,in ,michigan 444 they may prescribe the terms and conditions for licensing taverns1 peddlers1 and public vehicles4 ,they have control of streets1 bridges and public grounds2 and have authority to construct bridges and pavements1 and to regulate the use and prevent the obstruction of the highways4 ,they may establish and maintain sewers and drains4 ,they may construct and control public wharves1 and regulate and license ferries4 ,they may establish and regulate markets4 ,they may provide a police force and a fire department4 ,they may construct or purchase and operate water works and lighting plants4 ,they may own cemeteries1 public pounds1 public buildings and parks4,footnote3 ,john ,a4 ,fairlie1 ,local ,government in ,counties1 ,towns1 and ,villages1 pp4 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,the council also has limited power to levy taxes and to borrow money for public purposes4 ,there is a chief executive officer1 sometimes called ,,mayor1 sometimes president1 or by other names4 ,subordinate to him are various other officers1 such as the police marshal1 the street commissioner1 fire marshal1 tax assessor1 treasurer1 clerk1 and so on4 ,in larger villages boards of health and other boards and commissions exist to administer various forms of public service4 ,the village may also have its minor court presided over by a justice of the peace4 ,,city ,,government ,when villages or towns reach a certain population usually fixed by state law1 they may be incorporated as cities4 ,the change that takes place is simply one of elaborating the governing machinery and giving to it larger powers to correspond with the larger needs of city life4 ,the complex problems of city government we shall not attempt to study in this book4 ,,changes ,,in ,,urban ,,government ,,for ,,better ,,service ,,and ,,better ,,control ,great improvement in the government of towns and cities has been made in recent years4 ,the latest plan of government to be adopted1 and it has spread to a considerable number of towns and cities in the ,united ,states1 is the ,,city ,,manager1 or ,,town ,,manager1 form of government4 ,by this plan the voters elect a small council1 or board of directors1 who in turn appoint a ,,manager who serves as a superintendent over the affairs of the city or town4 ,he is a trained specialist1 often an engineer1 and cities and towns sometimes search the country over for the best man available for the place4 ,the manager appoints the heads of the various departments of government1 such as health1 police1 public works1 etc41 and is responsible to the council for their work4 ,it is the application to town government of methods long used by successful business corporations4 ,investigate and report upon3 ,how the county in ,louisiana came to be called a parish4 ,organization and powers of your county board4 ,a list of your county officers and their duties4 ,the sentiment in your county with regard to the efficiency of your county government4 ,is the sentiment justified8 ,recognized defects in your county government4 ,the long 7or short7 ballot in your county4 ,extent to which the people of your county study the reports of your county government 7consult at home and with older friends74 ,what do you find of interest in your county reports8 ,are reports of your county published in the newspapers8 ,do you understand them8 ,ask your father to explain them to you4 ,extent to which your county board exercises control over other county officers4 ,extent to which the farmers of your county interest themselves in politics4 ,whether or not the experience of the officer quoted on page #daj could be duplicated in your state4 ,the fee system in your county4 ,how and why public officers are just what the people make them4 ,the meaning of ,jefferson's remark that public education and the subdivision of counties into wards are the two hooks upon which republican government must hang4 ,the feasibility of a county club in your county similar to those in ,north ,carolina4 ,the balance between county government and township government in your county4 ,state control of your county government--too much1 or too little8 ,explain4 ,difference between a charter and a constitution4 ,number of incorporated towns and cities in your county4 ,cooperation 7or friction7 between urban and rural districts in your county4 ,organization of village1 borough1 or town government in your county4 ,difference between the town as referred to in the last part of this chapter and the town as described in the first part4 ,services in incorporated towns and villages in your county that are not performed by the county or township governments for rural residents4 ,how a village or town is incorporated in your state4 ,town manager form of government in your state4 ,its advantages4 ,,readings ,state ,constitution4 ,county ,government and ,county ,affairs in ,north ,carolina1 ,north ,carolina ,club ,year ,book #aiag-aiah 7,the ,university of ,north ,carolina ,record1 ,extension ,series ,no #cj1 ,chapel ,hill1 ,n4,c4 74 ,county ,government1 ,,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,vol ,,xlvii1 ,may1 #aiac4 7#cfth and ,woodland ,ave1 ,philadelphia47 ,publications of the ,new ,york ,short ,ballot ,association1 #cha ,fourth ,ave1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,fairlie1 ,j4,a41 ,local ,government in ,counties1 ,towns1 and ,villages 7,the ,century ,co474 ,mobilizing the ,rural ,community1 by ,e4,l4 ,morgan1 ,extension ,bulletin ,no4 #bc1 ,massachusetts ,agricultural ,college1 ,amherst1 ,mass4 ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #ai1 ,the commission form of government and the city manager4 ,hart1 ,a4,b41 ,actual ,government1 ,part ,,iv1 ,local government in action4 ,reed1 ,t4,h41 ,form and ,functions of ,american ,government1 ,part iv1 ,local government4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,our ,,state ,,governments ,,source ,,of ,,governing ,,power ,when the thirteen original states were colonies1 they derived their governing powers from ,,charters granted to them by the king1 as cities and some counties are granted charters by the state4 ,when they won their independence the people of each state substituted a ,,constitution for the charter2 the difference between a charter and a constitution being that the former is given ,,to the people by some higher authority1 while the latter is adopted ,,by the people themselves4 ,all of our states alike1 whether created before or after the ,union was formed1 are self-governing under constitutions of their own making4 ,counties and towns1 cities and villages1 have no powers of self- government except those granted to them ,,by ,,the ,,state4 ,the national government1 also1 may exercise only such powers as are given to it by the people ,,voting ,,as ,,states4 ,each state1 on the other hand1 is self-governing in its own right1 and may exercise through its government any power whatever1 excepting only those which it voluntarily surrendered upon entering the ,union4 7,see pp4 #id1 #ddi2 also ,constitution1 ,art4 ,i1 ,sec4 #aj and ,art4 ,,iv47 ,,the ,,state ,,constitution ,the state constitution is the supreme law of the state and is supposed to represent the direct voice of the people4 ,since the ,union was formed1 state constitutions have been framed by conventions of delegates elected especially for the purpose1 and in most cases have been submitted to the people for their ratification4 ,amendments may be proposed either by such conventions or by the state legislatures1 but they must also be ratified by the people4 ,some of the states have completely revised their constitutions several times1 and amendments have been very numerous4 ,,cause ,,of ,,length ,,of ,,state ,,constitutions ,state constitutions are long documents1 containing a great deal of detail regarding the organization and powers of government4 ,in this respect they differ from the national ,constitution1 which is brief and speaks in broad1 general terms4 ,recent constitutions are longer than earlier ones1 partly because there is a greater variety of problems to be dealt with1 but also because of a growing tendency to limit the powers of legislatures and administrative officers4 ,a ,,republican ,,form ,,of ,,government ,after a ,,declaration ,,of ,,rights1 which all state constitutions contain1 the constitution is concerned chiefly with the organization1 powers and duties of the government4 ,each state may organize its government as it sees fit1 provided only that it is republican in form as required by the federal ,constitution 7,art4 ,,iv1 sec4 #d74 ,this means that it must be a form of representative self-government4 ,,separation ,,of ,,powers ,while the state governments differ from one another in matters of detail1 the general plan is the same in all4 ,each consists of three branches3 the legislative branch for lawmaking2 the executive branch for law enforcement and administration2 and the judicial branch for the interpretation of the laws and for the administration of justice in accordance with the law4 ,these three branches are organized on the principle of a ,,separation ,,of ,,powers1 to prevent encroachment by one upon the powers of the others1 and to make each a check upon the powers of the others4 ,in the government of this commonwealth1 the legislative department shall never exercise the executive and judicial powers1 or either of them2 the executive shall never exercise the legislative and judicial powers1 or either of them2 the judicial shall never exercise the legislative and executive powers1 or either of them2 to the end it may be a government of laws1 and not of men4 ,footnote3 ,constitution of ,massachusetts1 ,part ,i1 ,art4 ,,xxx4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the meaning of a government of laws1 and not of men4 ,the entrance of your state into the ,union4 ,the history of your present state constitution4 ,the powers surrendered by your state when it entered the ,union4 ,compare the length of your state constitution with that of the federal ,constitution4 ,the principal parts of which your constitution is composed4 ,number of amendments to your state constitution4 ,when the latest amendments were adopted and why4 ,the declaration of rights in your state constitution4 ,checks exercised by the legislature upon the executive and judicial branches2 by the executive upon the legislative and judicial branches2 by the judicial upon the legislative and executive branches4 ,,the ,,governor ,the chief executive officer of the state is the governor1 who is elected by the people for a term which varies1 in the different states1 from one to four years4 ,it is his duty to see that the laws of the state are faithfully executed4 ,the constitution makes him the commander-in-chief of the state militia1 which he may call upon to enforce the laws or to quell disorders4 ,it also gives him the power to pardon persons convicted of crime1 in the exercise of which power he is sometimes assisted by a special board of pardons and sometimes by the legislature2 but the consideration of the pleas of such persons and their friends for pardon often consumes much of his time4 ,,the ,,governor',s ,,varied ,,duties ,a great deal of the governor's time is also taken up with duties devolving upon him as the official representative of the state on ceremonial occasions1 as in the laying of corner-stones of public buildings1 attending state fairs1 and making speeches at public meetings of all kinds4 ,by virtue of his office he is also a member of many boards and commissions whose meetings he must attend4 ,,the ,,governor',s ,,part ,,in ,,lawmaking ,the governor also has some part in lawmaking4 ,in all states except ,north ,carolina he has the power to ,,veto bills passed by the legislature4 ,this check upon the legislature is not absolute1 for the legislature may overcome the governor's veto by again passing the bill1 usually by a two-thirds vote4 ,the governor may also influence legislation by means of his messages to the legislature in which he recommends measures which he believes should be enacted into law4 ,in case of opposition by the legislature1 the governor often carries his proposals directly to the people1 who quickly make known whether or not they support him4 ,the governor may call special sessions of the legislature to consider measures of especial importance4 ,,growing ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,governor ,the governor is a more influential officer today than he was in the early part of our history4 ,in colonial times he was the direct representative of the king1 or of the colonial proprietor1 and the people sought in every way to limit his powers4 ,after the colonies became states this habitual fear of the governor continued1 and he was placed under the control of the legislature4 ,as time went on1 however1 the legislature fell under the suspicion of the people1 while the governor was more and more looked to as their leader4 ,thus1 for example1 the veto power was given to him1 increasing his influence while it curbed that of the legislature4 ,,weakness ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,executive ,but the power and influence of the governor are by no means as great in relation to state government as are the powers of the ,president in relation to the national government4 ,in fact1 the executive branch of our state governments has been notoriously weak1 and its weakness is of the same kind as that noted in county government3 the lack of an effective1 responsible head4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,state ,,with ,,national ,,executive ,in our national government the executive power is concentrated in the hands of one man4 ,state constitutions seem to confer the same powers upon the governor4 ,the constitution of ,indiana says1 ,the executive powers of the ,state shall be vested in a ,governor2 and that of ,pennsylvania says1 ,the supreme executive power shall be vested in the ,governor4 ,but the ,pennsylvania constitution also says1 ,the executive department shall consist of a ,governor1 ,lieutenant ,governor1 ,secretary of the ,commonwealth1 ,attorney ,general1 ,auditor ,general1 ,state ,treasurer1 ,secretary of ,internal ,affairs and a ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction 7,art4 ,,iv1 ,sec4 ,i74 ,four of these officers besides the governor are elected by the people4 ,,bewildering ,,complexity ,,of ,,administrative ,,offices ,in all states the governor shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed 7,pennsylvania constitution74 ,for the execution of the laws1 however1 he is dependent not only upon a number of principal executive officers such as those named above1 but also upon a large number of less important administrative officers4 ,governor ,lowden1 of ,illinois1 a few years ago said3 ,administrative agencies have been multiplied in bewildering confusion4 ,they have been created without reference to their ability economically and effectively to administer the laws4 ,separate boards govern the penitentiaries1 the reformatories1 and the educational institutions4 ,several boards and commissions have charge of matters affecting the agricultural interests4 ,administration of laws affecting labor is parceled out among numerous agencies1 including several boards having jurisdiction of mining problems and several free employment agencies1 each independent of the other4 ,our finance administration is chaotic1 illogical and confused4 ,the administration of the health laws is divided between boards and commissions1 with no effective means of coordination4 ,our educational agencies are not harmonious4 ,over one hundred officers1 boards1 agencies1 commissions1 institutions and departments are charged with the administration of our laws4 ,no systematic organization exists1 and no adequate control can be exercised 444 ,under the present system the governor cannot exercise the supervision and control which the people have a right to demand4 ,footnote3 ,charles ,e4 ,woodward1 ,the ,illinois ,civil ,administrative ,code1 reprinted from ,proceedings1 ,academy of ,political ,science1 ,july1 #aiah4 ,,governor ,,lacks ,,power ,,to ,,meet ,,his ,,responsibility ,this condition of affairs is characteristic of state governments generally4 ,some of the numerous officers are appointed by the governor1 but many of them are elected by the people or appointed by the legislature4 ,their terms of office do not coincide with that of the governor1 so that he finds in office many persons whom he did not appoint1 and whom he cannot remove4 ,often they may be of an opposite political party4 ,thus the very organization of the state executive department is such as to make it impossible for the governor to perform the duty1 imposed upon him by the constitution1 of seeing to it that the laws are faithfully executed4 ,it must be remembered1 moreover1 that the execution of the laws is also dependent largely upon a multitude of local officers over whom the state exercises little control4 ,it is apparent how imperfect must be the teamwork of the people through this organization4 ,,unsuccessful ,,efforts ,,at ,,popular ,,control ,why have the people put up with this sort of thing8 ,for one thing1 they have not understood where the trouble lies4 ,there is also seen the influence of the political boss1 who thrives under this confusion4 ,but among the causes is the desire of the people to maintain control over government4 ,they have attempted1 in their constitutions1 not only to say just what services should be performed for them1 but also to specify just what machinery should be used for their performance4 ,for every new service1 they have created a new and independent piece of machinery4 ,then1 to make their control complete1 as they thought1 they have made most of their new officers elective4 ,experience has shown that control of this kind has been gained only at the sacrifice of efficient service1 through failure to provide trained leadership and effective organization4 ,moreover1 experience has also shown that control of this kind is largely a delusion2 for the people cannot keep in touch with their multitude of officers1 and in many cases yield their control1 often unknowingly1 to the political boss4 ,,experiment ,,necessary ,,to ,,progress ,in noting these defects1 it is not to be concluded that our state governments have been a failure in all respects4 ,far from it4 ,notable progress has been made toward the ideals toward which we have been striving4 ,we have tried one experiment after another1 some of which have been highly successful1 but others of which have not met the test of new conditions4 ,it is important1 however1 that we should face our failures squarely and profit by them4 ,,reorganization ,,of ,,executive ,at the present time there is a marked effort to overcome the defects that we have just noted1 and a good deal of progress toward it has been made in some states4 ,one of the most progressive states in this particular is ,illinois1 which has recently enacted a law for the reorganization of its executive branch of government4 ,under the new ,civil ,administrative ,code of ,illinois1 the executive branch of government is organized in nine departments3 the departments of finance1 of agriculture1 of labor1 of mines and minerals1 of public works and buildings1 of public welfare1 of public health1 of trade and commerce1 and of registration and education4 ,at the head of each department is a director1 who is appointed by the governor1 is responsible to him1 and whose term of office is the same as that of the governor4 ,each department is organized into various bureaus1 or other subdivisions1 with officers in charge who are directly responsible to the director of the department4 ,thus1 in the department of agriculture there is an assistant director1 a general manager of the state fair1 a superintendent of foods and dairies1 a superintendent of animal industry1 a superintendent of plant industry1 a chief veterinarian1 a chief game and fish warden1 and a food standard commission of three members4 ,all subordinate employees in all departments are appointed under a civil service law which requires competitive examinations4 ,associated with most of the departments are advisory boards consisting of citizens who serve without pay4 ,thus1 the department of agriculture has a board of agricultural advisers composed of fifteen persons1 and a board of state fair advisers of nine persons1 not more than three of whom shall be appointed from any one county4 ,the things aimed at in this reorganization are3 7,i7 fixing responsibility for the entire service-organization in one place-- with the governor2 7#b7 responsible1 trained leadership in each department of service2 7#c7 responsiveness of leadership to the people's wants1 as provided for by the advisory boards2 7#d7 a system of accounting and records that will make for efficiency and economy1 and that will inform the people as well as the officers of government4 ,investigate and report on3 ,the name of the governor of your state1 his political party1 when elected1 for how long a term4 ,advantages and disadvantages of a long term for the governor4 ,the constitutional powers of the governor of your state4 ,the influence of the governor of your state with the people4 ,the principal executive and administrative officers of your state4 ,those that are elective and those that are appointive4 ,a complete list of the administrative bureaus1 boards1 commissions1 and other state agencies1 with their duties4 ,the application of ,governor ,lowden's statement regarding ,illinois to your state4 ,any proposed reorganization of the executive branch of your state government4 ,,the ,,legislative ,,branch ,the legislative branch of government consists1 in all states1 of a legislature 7general assembly1 legislative assembly1 or general court7 composed of two houses or chambers1 the house of representatives and the senate4 ,the senate is the upper house1 and is usually from one-third to one-half the size of the lower house2 in ,massachusetts only one-sixth the size4 ,,the ,,two ,,houses ,a bill to become a law must pass both houses separately1 each house acting as a check upon the other1 thus securing greater deliberation in lawmaking4 ,the senate is supposed to be1 and usually is1 a more conservative1 or cautious1 body than the house of representatives1 partly because of its smaller size which makes possible a more careful consideration of business4 ,its members are elected from larger districts1 thus increasing the opportunity to select able men4 ,a higher age qualification is required for membership in the senate than in the house of representatives2 and only a part of the senate is elected at each election1 so that it is a continuing body1 always containing members of experience1 while the lower house may be almost entirely changed at each election4 ,,defects ,,in ,,distribution ,,of ,,representation ,it is a theory of our representative government that representation should be proportional to population4 ,to secure this result1 each state is divided into election districts presumably of as nearly equal population as possible1 the senatorial districts being the larger4 ,in practice1 however1 these districts do not always have representation proportional to their population4 ,the county is often the unit of representation1 or in ,new ,england the town1 and these districts vary greatly in population4 ,an attempt is made to equalize the difference by providing that no district shall have less than one representative1 and often that none shall have more than a certain number4 ,inequalities nevertheless exist4 ,in ,connecticut1 thirty- four of the most populous towns and cities have sixty-eight members in the lower house1 whereas if the distribution were made on the basis of population they would be entitled to #ahf members4 ,again1 four of the smallest ,connecticut towns1 with a total population of #aefg1 have five members2 four of the most populous cities1 containing #cji1ihb inhabitants1 have only eight members1 whereas on the basis of population they would be entitled to eighty-seven4 ,footnote3 ,c4,a41 ,beard1 ,america ,government and ,politics1 p4 #eba4 ,partisan influences often enter into the districting of states for representation1 the party in power trying to fix boundaries so as to ensure keeping their majority in the legislature4 ,investigate and report on the following3 ,number of members in the lower and upper houses of your legislature4 ,qualifications for membership and term of office in each house4 ,names of your own representative and senator4 ,secure a map showing legislative districts of your state4 ,locate your own4 ,whether representation in your legislature is proportional to population4 ,the gerrymander3 what is it1 and has it been used in your state8 ,the legislature controls our lives at almost every turn4 ,it has control over the whole domain of civil law2 ,footnote #b3 ,see below1 p4 #dcg4 that is1 it lays down the rules governing contracts1 real and personal property1 inheritance1 corporations1 mortgages1 marriage and divorce1 and other civil matters4 ,it defines crime2 that is1 it prescribes those actions of the citizen which are to be punished by fine or imprisonment or death4 ,it touches the property of the citizen not only by regulating its use1 but also by imposing upon it a burden of taxation4 ,finally1 it has control over the vast domain known as the police power1 under which it makes regulations concerning public health1 morals1 and welfare1 devises rules for the conduct of business and professions1 and in other ways restrains the liberty of the citizen to do as he pleases4 ,footnote #c3 ,c4,a4 ,beard1 ,america ,government and ,politics11 p4 #eaf4 ,,attitude ,,of ,,the ,,people ,,toward ,,their ,,legislatures ,in view of this importance1 it would seem that the people would have the keenest interest in their state legislatures and the greatest respect for them4 ,this has not always been the case4 ,as one writer says1 it has become almost fashionable to speak slightingly of legislatures and their members1 and to talk of them as if they were wholly corrupt and dishonorable4 ,if the very best men the community affords are not always chosen for the difficult and responsible work of lawmaking1 the people have no one to blame but themselves4 ,moreover1 the members of our legislatures average up very much like their neighbors1 and most of them are sincerely desirous of serving their state and do so to the fullest extent possible under the conditions that exist4 ,it is indeed time that a different attitude should be assumed toward these bodies4 444 ,acquaintance with actual legislatures will immediately reveal the fact that they are fairly representative of the ,american people1 and that there is in them1 a great deal of honest effort to grapple with the difficult problems of legislation4 444 ,before all1 there ought to be a sustained effort to support the men who are with honest purpose struggling for equitable and effective legislation4 444,footnote3 ,paul ,s4 ,reinsch1 ,american ,legislatures and ,legislative ,methods1 p4 #abf4 ,,difficulties ,,of ,,wise ,,legislation ,most of the unwise and harmful legislation has been due1 not to wrong intentions on the part of legislators1 but to the difficulty encountered by a body of men of average intelligence and of little experience in dealing with public questions1 in getting information necessary to enable them to decide wisely with respect to the multitude of complicated problems that come before them during the brief session of the legislature4 ,in the lower house of one typical legislature only #ai out of the #beb members had ever been members of a legislature before1 #abc were farmers1 #f lawyers1 #aj physicians1 #dh merchants and manufacturers1 #c bankers1 #e preachers1 #f insurance men1 #b hotel proprietors1 #c liverymen1 #ad laborers or artisans1 #f apparently with no occupation except that of general politician and office- seeker4 ,of the thirty members of the senate of the same legislature1 #i were farmers1 #d lawyers1 #d physicians1 and #ac merchants4 ,seven of these had completed their education in academies1 while #ac had never got beyond the public schools4 ,these men had to decide1 in the course of a few weeks1 upon an astonishing variety of problems1 some of them of the greatest complexity1 and all of them affecting the lives of the citizens of the state in a multitude of ways4 ,it is not surprising that serious mistakes are sometimes made4 ,footnote3 ,c4 ,a4 ,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 p4 #ebe 7from ,s4 ,p4 ,orth1 ,our ,state ,legislatures1 ,atlantic ,monthly1 vol4 xciv1 pp4 #gbh ff47 ,the mere writing of a bill in language that will convey the exact meaning intended1 and that will not involve undesirable and unexpected results1 is a difficult matter that requires the skill of men trained for it4 ,,legislative ,,reference ,,bureaus ,in a number of states an attempt has been made to meet these natural difficulties by the establishment of legislative reference libraries1 or bureaus1 in charge of highly trained students who collect all available information relating to every possible subject of legislation1 keep records of legislation in other states1 and place the material in convenient form at the disposal of the legislators4 ,sometimes they provide expert service in the writing of bills in the proper form4 ,it is said that such legislative reference bureaus have already greatly improved the quality of legislation in some of the states4 ,it would be impossible for a legislature1 acting as a body1 to give consideration to more than a small fraction of the bills that come before it4 ,it is said that it is not unusual for more than #bejj bills to be introduced at a single session4 ,legislatures are in session from #dj to #ij days4 ,if the session were #fj days1 and the working day #aj hours1 there would be but #ae minutes for each of #bejj bills4 ,this time would be divided between the two houses4 ,besides1 a great deal of business must be transacted other than the consideration and passage of bills4 ,,the ,,committee ,,system ,,of ,,legislation ,to make possible the handling of all this work1 each house is organized in standing committees4 ,as bills are introduced1 they are referred to their appropriate committees1 in which most of the work of lawmaking is done4 ,most of the bills so referred are never reported back to the legislature at all1 and those that are reported are in most cases acted upon by the legislature in accordance with the committees' reports1 with little general discussion4 ,the procedure followed in referring bills to committees and in considering them when they are reported back is determined by a complexity of rules that are confusing to the outsider and that cannot be explained in detail here4 ,but their declared purpose is to save time and to enable the legislative business to move smoothly4 ,the small committees can work to better advantage than the large body of men in either chamber4 ,the work is divided up so that the few members of each committee can concentrate their attention upon a few subjects and gain experience in handling special kinds of problems4 ,,invisible ,,government ,on the other hand1 it is to this organization that we owe some of the bad lawmaking for which our legislatures are blamed4 ,it tends to remove legislation from the control of the people1 and results in what is often called invisible government1 government that is carried on out of sight of the people4 ,it opens a door to partisan influences and to control by political bosses and self-seeking interests4 ,in the lower house the committees are appointed by the speaker1 who is the presiding officer1 and who is always chosen by the members of the majority party in the house from their own number4 ,the senate committees are sometimes appointed by the presiding officer of the senate1 who is often the lieutenant- governor1 and sometimes elected by the senate itself4 ,but the chairmen and the majority of the members of all committees in both houses belong to the majority party1 which is thus enabled to control legislation for partisan ends if it so desires1 and it often does so4 ,,evils ,,of ,,the ,,system ,bills may be killed in committee1 or reported unfavorably1 or so amended as to change their meaning entirely1 merely at the will of the party leaders1 or of bosses and interests outside of the legislature4 ,a large part of the work of the committees is carried on in secret4 ,although hearings may be held at which citizens may present arguments for and against proposed measures1 these may be mere matters of form4 ,influential interests may maintain a lobby at the legislature1 which means that they are represented there by agents who seek to influence the members of the legislature1 and especially of the committees1 sometimes by corrupt methods4 ,the lobby often works by secret methods1 whereas the hearings are public4 ,the party leaders in control1 of whom the most important are the speaker of the house1 the rules committee1 the chairmen of committees1 and the floor manager1 by dictating the procedure to be followed1 may at times make it practically impossible for a member of the minority party1 or one who has incurred the displeasure of the leaders1 to gain a hearing4 ,the following description gives an idea of what may happen3 ,footnote3 ,from a pamphlet issued by the ,illinois ,legislative ,voters' ,league in #aijc1 and quoted by ,c4 ,a4 ,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp #eci1 #edj4 ,consider the petty annoyances to which a decent member outside the organization may be subjected1 and the methods by which legitimate legislation1 backed by him1 may be blocked4 ,the bill goes to an unfriendly committee4 ,the chairman refuses to call the committee together1 or when forced to call it1 a quorum does not attend4 444 ,action may be postponed on various pretexts1 or the bill may be referred to a sub-committee4 ,the committee may kill the bill by laying it on the table4 ,on the other hand1 the committee may decide that the bill be reported to the house to pass4 ,then a common practice is for the chairman to pocket the bill1 delaying to report it to the house till too late to pass it4 ,when finally reported to the house1 it goes on the calendar to be read a first time in its order4 ,then begins the advancing of bills by unanimous consent1 without waiting to reach them in order4 ,here is where the organization has absolute control4 ,unanimous consent is subject to the speaker's acuteness of hearing4 ,his hearing is sharpened or dulled according to the good standing of the objector or of the member pushing the bill4 ,if one not friendly to the house organization wants to have his bill considered over an objection1 he must move to suspend the rules4 ,the speaker may refuse to recognize him1 or may put his motion and declare it carried or not carried as suits his and the organization's desires4 ,so the pet bills are jumped over others ahead of them on the calendar1 while ,footnote3 ,from a pamphlet issued by the ,illinois ,legislative ,voters' ,league in #aijc1 and quoted by ,c4 ,a4 ,beard1 ,american ,government and ,politics1 pp #eci1 #edj4 the ones not having the backing of the house organization are retired farther and farther down until their ultimate passage becomes hopeless4 ,if the bill of the independent member reaches a second reading1 it may be killed by striking out the enacting clause or by tacking on an obnoxious amendment that makes it repulsive to its former friends4 444 ,to carry out the will of the organization1 the speaker declares amendments carried or the contrary by a viva voce vote4 ,demands for roll-calls are ignored by him in violation of the members' constitutional rights4 444 ,,efforts ,,to ,,curb ,,power ,,of ,,legislatures ,it is such practices as these that have brought state legislatures into bad repute1 and that have resulted in measures to curb their power4 ,instead of leaving it entirely to them to make their own rules of procedure1 many of these rules are now prescribed by the state constitutions4 ,it was in order to restrain the legislatures that the veto power has been given to the governors of all states but one1 and that sessions of legislatures have been limited to brief periods of from forty to ninety days1 and then only once in two years4 ,for the same reason state constitutions have taken away powers that legislatures once commonly abused1 as in running the state deeply into debt1 or in legislating in the interest of particular localities or particular groups2 and have provided in great detail for many things that were formerly left to the discretion of the legislatures4 ,for the same reason some states have adopted the initiative and referendum4 ,investigate and report on3 ,powers possessed by either house of your legislature not possessed by the other4 ,powers denied your legislature by the federal ,constitution4 ,powers denied your legislature by your state constitution4 ,reasons4 ,attitude of the people of your community toward your legislature4 ,why service in the legislature does not attract more of the most capable men of the state4 ,the vocations of the members of your legislature4 ,number of bills introduced1 and the number passed1 at the last session of your legislature4 ,the purpose of some of the most important laws enacted by your legislature at its last session4 ,why it is difficult to write a bill correctly4 ,the legislative reference library1 or bureau1 of your state 7if any74 ,the committees in each house of your legislature4 ,procedure by which a bill becomes a law in your state4 ,the speaker of the ,house of ,representatives in your state4 ,invisible government in your state4 ,laws regulating the lobby in your state4 ,frequency and length of legislative sessions in your state4 ,,inefficient ,,business ,,methods ,,of ,,state ,,governments ,some of the greatest abuses of governing power have been in connection with the appropriation of money4 ,they have been due not so much to dishonesty as to bad organization and loose business methods1 both in the executive and legislative branches of government4 ,when the executive branch consists of a large number of more or less independent parts1 each trying to make the best showing possible1 it is quite to be expected that each will seek to get from the public treasury all the money possible without reference to the needs of other parts or to the resources of the state4 ,when1 in addition1 there is no central executive authority with power to hold the heads of the various parts responsible for their acts1 and no uniform or businesslike system of keeping accounts1 either of money expended or of work accomplished1 it is easy to see the opportunity for wastefulness and inefficiency4 ,,wasteful ,,methods ,,of ,,making ,,appropriations ,on the other hand1 the methods of making appropriations in the legislature have been equally conducive to wastefulness4 ,appropriation bills pass through the same legislative machinery as all other bills and are subject to the same dangers4 ,moreover1 they are handled by different committees that act as independently of one another as do the various executive departments4 ,in ,illinois1 for example1 until recently requests for appropriations were submitted informally by each office1 department1 or board2 and separate bills were prepared by the several departments and institutions1 and introduced by individual members of the ,general ,assembly1 l,footnote3 ,john ,a4 ,fairlie1 ,budget ,methods in ,illinois1 ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,november1 #aiae2 quoted by ,w4 ,f4 ,willoughby1 in ,the ,movement for ,budgetary ,reform in the ,states1 p4 #de4 then being referred to different committees according to the subjects to which they related4 ,at the session of #aiac1 #id separate appropriation acts were passed4 ,,the ,,budget ,,system ,a number of the states have sought to remedy this defect in government by the adoption of a budget system 7see ,chapter ,,xiii74 ,illinois has perhaps made the complete reform in this matter4 ,we have already seen how that state has reorganized its executive branch of government1 which is the first necessary step4 ,in this reorganization there was created a finance department1 to which all the administrative departments submit a careful estimate of the money needed for their various lines of work1 together with a detailed statement of work done and money spent during the two preceding years4 ,the finance department considers all these statements and estimates in their relation to one another and to the financial resources available for the next two years1 and submits to the governor a comprehensive and detailed budget4 ,on the basis of this1 a single appropriation bill is prepared by a single committee of the legislature4 ,public hearings are held1 the people are given opportunity to know just what the government has done and intends to do1 and the governor and his finance department may be held responsible4 ,no single change would add so largely to both democracy and efficiency as the introduction of proper budget methods4 ,footnote3 ,foreword to ,public ,budgets1 ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science1 ,november1 #aiae2 quoted by ,w4 ,f4 ,willoughby1 ,the ,movement for ,budgetary ,reform in the ,states1 p4 #b4 ,investigate and report on3 ,method of making appropriations in your state4 ,movement for a budget system in your state4 ,why a budget system tends toward 7#a7 economy1 7#b7 efficiency1 7#c7 democracy4 ,,the ,,judicial ,,branch ,questions are continually arising as to the meaning of laws1 or as to how they apply in particular cases4 ,to answer these questions the judicial branch of government exists1 comprising a system of courts4 ,the courts are sometimes called upon to decide whether a law passed by the legislature1 or an act of an administrative officer1 is in harmony with the constitution1 and if not1 to declare such law or act invalid4 ,the judicial branch of government is therefore the people's organization to keep the other branches of government within their constitutional powers4 ,,civil ,,and ,,criminal ,,cases ,in most cases that come before the courts1 however1 the law is perfectly clear when once the facts in the case are known4 ,it is therefore the business of the courts also to ascertain the facts4 ,there are two classes of cases that come before the courts1 civil cases and criminal cases2 and the law that applies to the two classes is known as civil law and criminal law4 ,a civil case is one that involves a dispute between individuals1 or an injury done by one individual to another4 ,such would be a dispute over a boundary line between the properties of two individuals1 or over the payment of a debt2 or a personal injury due to the carelessness of some one1 or an injury to property or to health through maintaining a nuisance of some kind4 ,in such cases the court1 after ascertaining the facts1 merely sees that justice is done1 as by the payment of damages to the injured party by the one doing the injury4 ,a criminal case is one in which a person is charged with having violated a law of the community4 ,the injury is one against the community as a whole1 and not merely against an individual4 ,it is the community that appears in court against the accused person1 and not merely one of his neighbors4 ,in such cases the court first ascertains the guilt or innocence of the accused person2 and if he is guilty1 imposes a ,,punishment upon him1 such as a fine1 or imprisonment1 or even death1 according to the nature of the crime4 ,the judicial branch of government1 then1 is that part of the governmental organization that seeks to adjust1 by peaceful and just means1 the inevitable conflicts that arise in community life4 ,,justices' ,,courts ,the lowest in the series of state courts are the ,,justices' ,,courts1 of which there is at least one in every township4 ,they are presided over by justices of the peace4 ,only cases of small moment come before justices' courts3 civil cases involving very small amounts1 and cases of minor infractions of the law punishable by small fines or by short terms in jail4 ,persons accused of more serious crimes may have a preliminary examination in a justice's court and1 if the evidence warrants it1 be committed to jail to await the action of the grand jury 7see below74 ,most cases in a justice's court are disposed of by the justice of the peace alone2 but a jury trial may be demanded in all criminal cases1 and in civil suits where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars 7,const41 ,amendments ,,vi1 ,,vii74 ,,county ,,courts ,more serious cases1 civil or criminal1 are tried in the ,,county1 or ,,district1 courts before a judge and a ,,jury4 ,cases that have been tried in a justice's court may be ,,appealed to the county or district court1 where there is sure to be a jury trial1 and where the judge is more learned in the law than is a justice of the peace4 ,it is the business of the jury to decide on the facts in the case on the evidence furnished in the trial1 and in civil cases to award the amount of damages1 if any1 to be paid2 while the judge sees that the procedure is in accordance with the law1 instructs the jury as to the law in the case1 and in criminal cases fixes the penalty within the limits permitted by the law4 ,,the ,,community ,,in ,,court ,it was stated above that in criminal cases it is the ,,community that appears against the accused4 ,the community appears in the person of the district attorney1 otherwise called the prosecuting attorney1 state's attorney1 or county solicitor4 ,it is the business of this officer to gather evidence of crimes committed in the community and1 in most cases1 to submit it to the ,,grand ,,jury1 which is a body of citizens carefully chosen to consider such evidence4 ,if the grand jury considers the evidence against the accused sufficient to warrant bringing him to trial1 it brings in an ,,indictment against him4 ,the prosecuting attorney then prosecutes the case for the community against the accused4 ,it is of course his duty to secure exact justice2 sometimes1 however1 he seems interested only in securing the ,,conviction of the accused4 ,,rights ,,of ,,the ,,accused ,our state and national constitutions seek to protect carefully the rights of a person accused of crime4 ,he is assumed to be innocent until he has been proved otherwise4 ,he is guaranteed a speedy and public trial1 by an impartial jury4 ,he must be confronted with witnesses against him1 and have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor1 and assistance of counsel for his defense 7,const41 ,amendment ,,vi74 ,he cannot be compelled to be a witness against himself1 nor be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law 7,amendment ,v74 ,excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted4 7,amendment ,,viii74 ,,circuit ,,or ,,superior ,,courts ,in some states there is another set of courts immediately above the county courts1 known as ,,circuit1 ,,district1 or ,,superior1 courts4 ,the districts in which these courts have jurisdiction include several counties4 ,the cases courts handled by them are either cases of appeal from the lower courts1 or cases of greater importance than those over which the lower courts have jurisdiction4 ,,the ,,state ,,supreme ,,court ,the highest court in the state is the ,,supreme ,,court1 sometimes called the ,,court ,,of ,,appeals1 or the ,,court ,,of ,,errors4 ,in the supreme court several judges sit together1 and there is no jury4 ,the cases that come before it are for the most part cases of appeal from the lower courts1 although there are certain classes of cases that come before it in the first instance4 ,the supreme court is the final judge as to whether acts of the legislature are in conformity with the state constitution4 ,,other ,,courts ,in addition to the courts named above there are sometimes others to deal with special classes of cases4 ,in cities there are ,,municipal ,,courts and ,,police ,,courts1 both in the same class with justices' courts4 ,there are ,,juvenile ,,courts to deal with juvenile offenders2 ,,probate1 or ,,surrogate1 ,,courts to settle the estates of persons who have died2 ,,courts ,,of ,,claims to settle claims against the state2 and ,,chancery ,,courts1 or courts of ,,equity1 which administer justice in cases that the ordinary law will not reach4 ,for example1 the ,,law will permit a man's property to be taken to satisfy a mortgage2 ,,equity requires that the property be sold and the surplus over the amount of the mortgage returned to the owner4 ,the ,,law will grant damages for any injury inflicted2 ,,equity will1 by an injunction1 forbid a repetition of the injury4 ,,selection ,,of ,,judges ,the judges of the state courts were originally appointed by the governors1 or by the legislatures4 ,with the movement toward more democratic forms of government1 the states began to introduce provisions in their constitutions for the election of judges by the people1 and they are now so chosen in most states1 though in a number they are appointed by the governor1 and in a few by the legislature4 ,it is highly important that judges should be controlled in their decisions solely by the desire to render justice1 and that they should be removed as far as possible from partisan influences4 ,popular election of judges is most prevalent because it seems to give to the people the most direct control over their courts4 ,on the other hand1 it is opposed by many because it makes possible the election of incompetent judges1 and because it does not necessarily remove the matter from partisan influences4 ,in three states 7,california1 ,oregon and ,arizona7 the judges are subject to recall by the people4 ,the terms during which judges hold office also vary greatly among the states4 ,in three states they hold office for life 7,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island and ,new ,hampshire74 ,in the other states their terms vary from two to twenty-one years4 ,it seems to be the opinion of most students that the state courts would be improved if their judges were appointed by the chief executive and should hold office for life1 or during good behavior1 as is the case in the federal courts4 ,investigate and report on3 ,civil law and criminal law4 ,what makes an act a crime4 ,difference between a crime and a misdemeanor4 ,justices' courts in your community4 ,procedure in a justice's court4 ,the organization of your county court4 ,who is your county 7or district7 judge4 ,procedure in your county court1 and how it differs from that in the justice's court4 ,organization and work of the grand jury4 ,how a trial jury is selected4 ,the citizen's duty to serve on the jury4 ,rights of an accused person4 ,meaning of bail1 indictment1 due process of law1 counsel for defense1 subpoena1 true bill4 ,circumstances under which an appeal may be made4 ,the supreme court of your state4 ,the work of a juvenile court4 ,,readings ,state ,constitution4 ,reports of the several departments of the state government4 ,in ,,lessons ,,in ,,community ,,and ,,national ,,life3 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #ah1 ,how state laws are made and enforced4 ,the ,civil ,administrative ,code of the ,state of ,illinois1 compiled by ,louis ,l4 ,emmerson4 ,secretary of ,state1 ,springfield1 ,ill4 ,the ,illinois ,civil ,administrative ,code1 by ,charles ,e4 ,woodward1 ,the ,academy of ,political ,science1 ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,beard1 ,chas4 ,a41 ,,american ,,government ,,and ,,politics1 ,part iii1 ,state government4 ,hart1 ,a4 ,b41 ,,actual ,,government1 ,part iii1 ,state governments in action4 ,reed1 ,t4 ,h41 ,,form ,,and ,,functions ,,of ,,american ,,government1 ,part iii1 ,state government4 ,bryce1 ,james1 ,,the ,,american ,,commonwealth1 vol4 i1 ,part ii1 ,the ,state governments4 ,in ,long's ,,american ,,patriotic ,,prose3 ,invisible government 7,elihu ,root71 pp4 #bfa-bfd4 ,in ,foerster and ,pierson's ,,american ,,ideals3 ,how to ,preserve the ,local ,self-,government of the ,states 7,elihu ,root71 pp4 #dh-ee ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,our ,,national ,,government ,,the ,,revolutionary ,,government ,it was the necessity for team work in carrying on the ,war for ,independence that led the thirteen ,american colonies for the first time to unite under a common government4 ,they had revolted to escape from an autocratic government1 and they sought to avoid setting up another in its place4 ,since it had been the king whom they distrusted most1 they endeavored to get along without any executive head at all4 ,their new government consisted solely of a ,congress of delegates from the thirteen states4 ,,the ,,critical ,,period ,this form of government was continued for several years after the ,revolution under a constitution known as the ,articles of ,confederation4 ,it was1 however1 unsuccessful in securing anything like real national cooperation4 ,the ,congress had no power to levy and collect taxes1 it had little power to make laws1 and it was without means to execute the laws that it did make4 ,the real governing power during this period was with the several states4 ,the result was a period of unutterable confusion which has been called the critical period of ,american history4 ,the question at stake was whether a number of self-governing state communities with a multitude of apparently conflicting interests could really become a nation4 ,,the ,,new ,,constitution ,during the war ,benjamin ,franklin had said1 ,we must all hang together or we shall all hang separately4 ,the states had hung together sufficiently to win the war2 but the wise men of the time now saw the need for a government so organized and with such powers as to secure effective cooperation among all the states and all the people at all times for the welfare of the entire ,union1 while leaving each state free to manage its own local affairs4 ,therefore a convention of delegates from all the states was called together at ,philadelphia in #aghg to revise the ,articles of ,confederation4 ,the result was our present ,constitution under which our present national government went into effect in #aghi4 ,investigate and report3 ,the nature and causes of the confusion during the critical period of ,american history4 ,the leading men of the ,constitutional ,convention4 ,how the states ratified the ,constitution4 ,which of the original thirteen states did not ratify the ,constitution until after it had gone into effect4 ,the number of states required to ratify before the ,constitution went into effect 7,constitution1 ,art4 ,,vii74 ,,popular ,,control ,,through ,,the ,,constitution ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states ordained and established the ,constitution 7see the ,preamble74 ,it was also ordained in the ,constitution 7,art4 ,v7 that it could be amended only by methods designed to give the people control over the matter--greater control than they have over ordinary lawmaking4 ,a great many amendments have been proposed in the course of time1 but only eighteen have so far been adopted1,footnote3 ,a nineteenth amendment is at this writing before the states for ratification-- the woman suffrage amendment4 ten of these having been adopted in the very beginning as a condition on which the states would accept the ,constitution at all4 ,none of these amendments changed the form of our government except with respect to the methods of electing the ,president and ,united ,states senators 7,amendments ,,xii and ,,xvii74 ,explain the two methods of proposing1 and the two methods of ratifying1 amendments 7,constitution1 ,art4 ,,vii74 ,has there ever been a national constitutional convention called by the states8 ,which of the two methods of ratifying was used in the case of the last amendment adopted8 ,footnote3 ,ohio by a referendum in #aiai submitted the eighteenth amendment to the people of the state for their vote1 after it had been ratified by the legislature4 ,this was the first time in our history that an amendment to the ,constitution was submitted to popular vote for ratification4 ,did your state vote to ratify or to reject the last amendment8 ,if any amendment is now before the states for ratification1 watch the newspapers for the action of the various states4 ,,our ,,government ,a ,,growing ,,thing ,the ,constitution adopted in #aghg has met the needs of our growing nation in a most remarkable way4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to think that it has always met new conditions perfectly1 or that we are governed to-day exactly as was intended by the framers of the ,constitution4 ,although few amendments have been made1 ,,interpretations have been placed on the ,constitution that were probably unthought of by the framers or by the people who ratified it2 and ,,practices have grown up in our government that have made it quite a different government from that which was anticipated4 ,our government is a ,,growing thing1 and one of the chief merits of our ,constitution is the fact that it speaks in such general terms that it has been possible1 under it1 to adapt our government to new and unexpected conditions4 ,in this respect it differs from the detailed state constitutions4 ,,defects ,,inevitable ,on the other hand1 conditions have arisen with the growth of our nation that our ,constitution has not enabled us to meet with the greatest success1 and that we have not yet met by amendment4 ,in some cases we have tried to get around the difficulties by devices not provided for in the ,constitution1 sometimes with unfortunate results4 ,but a recognition of defects in our government should not cause us to lose respect for the ,constitution4 ,they are due not to positive blunders on the part of the framers1 but to the mere absence of provision for conditions that did not exist when the ,constitution was framed and that could not be foreseen by the wisest men of that time4 ,the wise course for all good citizens is to seek to understand clearly wherein our government fails to meet our needs1 if it does fail1 and then to seek to correct the difficulty1 under the existing terms of the ,constitution if possible1 or by amendment of the ,constitution if that becomes clearly necessary4 ,amendment of the ,constitution was purposely made difficult1 and this was doubtless wise1 for it tends to prevent changes without full consideration of their needs and probable effects4 ,radical changes in our form of government and in our established laws are always fraught with danger4 ,because of the extreme complexity of community life a change effected at one point to meet a particular evil may have consequences of the most far-reaching kind and in the most unexpected directions4 ,a change that corrects one evil may produce conditions resulting in evils even worse than the first4 ,changes are necessary at times1 but they should be made only after the most careful consideration by men of the widest possible experience4 ,,the ,,bill ,,of ,,rights ,one thing that stood out clearly after the ,revolution was the fear of a strong national government4 ,some of the states refused to ratify the ,constitution unless amendments were added at once guaranteeing the liberties of the people4 ,the first ten amendments1 known as the bill of rights1 were the result4 ,to make sure that no important rights were left unguarded1 the ninth amendment provides that the enumeration in the ,constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people4 ,read the first ten amendments and discuss the meaning of each4 ,a ,,government ,,of ,,delegated ,,powers ,it was clearly expected that most of the governing powers to which the people were subject should be exercised by the states1 and not by the national government4 ,the national government was to exercise no powers except such as were ,,delegated to it in the ,constitution4 ,these powers are important ones1 but few in number1 and are listed in section #h of ,article ,i4 ,in order to make this limitation of powers perfectly clear1 the tenth amendment declares that ,the powers not delegated to the ,united ,states by the ,constitution1 nor prohibited by it to the states1 are reserved to the states respectively or to the people4 ,certain powers were also expressly denied to the national government in section #i of ,article ,i4 ,discuss the meaning of each clause in ,article ,i1 section #h4 ,discuss the meaning of each clause in ,article ,i1 section #i4 ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,national ,,powers ,the powers of the national government relate to interstate and foreign affairs1 or to matters that the several states could not well regulate without confusion or injustice4 ,for example1 it was chiefly the confusion in matters pertaining to trade in the period following the ,revolution that made the new government necessary4 ,therefore power was given to it to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states1 and with the ,indian tribes4 ,so1 also1 it was given power to coin money1 regulate the value thereof1 and of foreign coin1 and fix the standard of weights and measures1 for varying systems of coinage and of weights and measures would be inconvenient4 ,for similar reasons it was empowered to establish post-offices and post-roads1 to establish an uniform rule of naturalization for immigrants1 and to promote the progress of science and useful arts by giving copyrights and patents to authors and inventors4 ,the states1 on the other hand1 were expressly forbidden to exercise any control over some such matters of national and international concern in section #aj of ,article ,i4 ,read section #aj1 ,art ,i1 and discuss the reasons why the powers there mentioned should have been denied to the states4 ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,checks ,,and ,,balances ,not only did the framers of the ,constitution carefully limit the powers that the national government might exercise1 but they also introduced into the organization of the government various devices to control it and to prevent any of its parts from assuming too much power4 ,the most important of these is the system of ,,checks ,,and ,,balances4 ,in our national government1 as in the state governments1 the legislative1 executive1 and judicial powers are ,,separated4 ,in early times in ,england1 the king could make any laws he wished1 he could enforce them as he pleased1 and he controlled the courts of justice4 ,in our government the legislature1 composed of representatives of the people1 makes the laws2 the executive branch of government sees to their enforcement2 and the courts1 which are responsible neither to the legislature nor to the executive1 interpret the laws and administer justice in accordance with the laws4 ,this separation of powers is to prevent any one person or group of persons from exercising too much power1 as the king did1 and is a safeguard to the liberty of the people4 ,but the separation of powers ,,is ,,not ,,complete4 ,each branch of government has ,a ,,limited ,,control over the others4 ,this constitutes ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,checks ,,and ,,balances1 which still further protects the people's liberties4 ,while the ,president cannot make the laws1 he is given a check upon the lawmaking power of ,congress by his veto power4 ,on the other hand1 he cannot1 by an excessive use of his veto power1 destroy the lawmaking power of ,congress1 because ,congress may pass laws over the ,president's veto by means of a two-thirds vote4 ,the ,president cannot make a treaty1 nor appoint men to office1 without the consent of the senate2 neither can he exercise his executive powers until ,congress votes him the necessary money4 ,if ,congress passes a law that is contrary to the ,constitution the courts may declare the law void1 and the executive cannot enforce it4 ,the courts1 on the other hand1 are in a measure under the control of both ,congress and the ,president1 for ,congress may create and destroy courts 7except those created by the ,constitution71 and the ,president1 with the consent of the senate1 appoints the judges4 ,,advantages ,,and ,,disadvantages ,,of ,,checks ,,and ,,balances ,the checks and balances in the organization of our government have been very effective in accomplishing the purpose for which they were intended1 namely1 to protect the liberties of the people against despotic government4 ,but they have also1 at times1 been an obstacle to team work and to effective service4 ,it sometimes happens1 for example1 that the ,president represents one political party1 while the majority of one or both houses of ,congress are of the opposing party4 ,the two branches of government may then enter into a struggle on partisan grounds1 each trying to defeat the program of the other4 ,such a situation was probably unforeseen by the framers of the ,constitution1 although it again reminds us of ,washington's warning with regard to the dangers of the party spirit4 ,,the ,,implied ,,powers ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,government ,with the growth of our nation1 the national government has come to perform a vast amount of service1 as we have seen in earlier chapters1 and to regulate the lives of the people in a multitude of ways little dreamed of by the makers of the ,constitution4 ,this has been possible because of the principle of ,,implied ,,powers in the ,constitution4 ,this means that some of the powers expressly granted in the ,constitution have been broadly interpreted to ,,imply powers not expressly stated4 ,there are certain clauses in the ,constitution that especially lend themselves to such broad interpretation4 ,for example1 after the enumeration of the powers which ,congress may exercise1 in section #h of ,article ,i1 clause #ah of that section gives ,congress power to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers 444 ,another clause whose liberal interpretation has been responsible for much of the service performed by the national government is that giving it the power to regulate interstate commerce 7,art4 ,i1 sec4 #h1 clause #c74 ,in the early days of our government the ,federalist party1 under the leadership of ,alexander ,hamilton1 proposed the creation of a ,,national ,,bank4 ,the ,republican party under ,jefferson opposed this because the ,constitution did not expressly provide for it1 and because it was feared that it would give the national government too much power4 ,but the broad constructionists argued that a national bank was a necessary and proper means to enable the national government to borrow money on the credit of the ,united ,states and to exercise other financial powers expressly granted in the ,constitution4 ,the supreme court of the ,united ,states supported the latter view1 and the national bank became a fact4 ,the building of roads and other internal improvements by the national government have always been opposed by the strict constructionists1 except where roads were clearly post-roads 7,article #a1 section4#h1 clause #g74 ,but the broad constructionists argued that roads were necessary and proper to provide for the common defense1 and also as a means to regulate commerce among the several states4 ,most of the work that the national government has done for the promotion of the public health1 such as the passage and enforcement of the pure food and drugs act1 the inspection of livestock and of slaughterhouses1 and the attempt to regulate child labor1 has been done under the authority of the clause giving ,congress power to regulate interstate commerce4 ,,expansion ,,of ,,powers ,,by ,,judicial ,,decision ,it has been the duty of the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states to decide finally whether much of the new service undertaken by the national government is in accordance with the ,constitution or not1 and this court has been responsible for most of the expansion of the service rendered1 because of its liberal interpretation of the ,constitution4 ,why should the power to regulate interstate commerce also give ,congress the power to require the inspection of cattle in your neighborhood8 or to forbid the use of harmful substances in patent medicines8 or to forbid the employment in factories of children8 ,find out what you can about the influence of ,john ,marshall1 ,chief ,justice of the ,supreme ,court1 in extending the powers of the national government4 ,,the ,,executive ,,centralized ,,and ,,controlled ,the ,constitution vests the executive power in the ,president of the ,united ,states 7,art4 ,,ii1 sec4 ,i71 and he alone is responsible to the people for the execution of the laws4 ,the people are protected against abuse of this power in the hands of one man by various constitutional provisions4 ,the ,president's term of office is limited to four years1 though he may be reelected4 ,in case of improper conduct in office1 he may be removed by ,,impeachment4 ,the impeachment charges must be brought against him by the ,house of ,representatives1 and the ,senate1 presided over by the ,chief ,justice of the ,supreme ,court1 must act as a court to try the case4 ,moreover1 even the ,president must act according to law1 and in so far as his duties are not prescribed by the ,constitution they are prescribed by ,congress4 ,congress must also create the machinery by which the ,president executes the laws1 and it must appropriate the necessary money4 ,the ,senate exercises a further control over the ,president in that it must approve all appointments and all treaties made by him4 ,,method ,,of ,,electing ,,the ,,president ,the method of electing the ,president provided in the ,constitution was intended to insure a wise choice1 and also shows a lack of complete confidence in the people on the part of the framers of the ,constitution4 ,he was to be elected by a body of ,,electors1 chosen by the several states in such manner as the legislatures thereof may direct1 the number of electors from each state to equal the whole number of senators and representatives from that state 7,art4 ,,ii1 sec4 #b74 ,these electors were originally chosen by the legislatures of the states1 but are now elected by the people4 ,when voters vote for the ,president every four years1 they in reality only vote for these electors who1 in turn1 cast their votes for the ,president4 ,,departure ,,from ,,the ,,intention ,,of ,,the ,,constitution ,in the method of electing the ,president we find one of the points where the intention of the framers of the ,constitution has clearly been thwarted4 ,it was obviously the intention that the electors chosen by the states should use their own discretion in the choice of the ,president4 ,but in practice to-day1 the entire body of electors from each state always represents the victorious political party1 and casts its vote invariably for the presidential candidate already nominated by the party machinery4 ,we still elect the electors1 and the electors go through the form of electing the ,president2 but their part in the procedure is now entirely useless4 ,,the ,,vice-,,president ,the ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states is elected at the same time and by the same method as the ,president4 ,but he has no executive duties whatever so long as the ,president is capable of performing his duties4 ,in order that he might have something to do1 he was made presiding officer of the ,senate1 but even there he has no vote4 ,investigate and report3 ,the qualifications necessary to hold the office of ,president 7,const41 ,art4 ,,ii1 sec4 ,i1 cl4 #e74 ,how the electors elect the ,president 7,const41 ,amend4 ,,xii74 ,who would become ,president if both the ,president and the ,vice- ,president should die4 ,the salary of the ,president4 ,the oath taken by the ,president on assuming office4 ,the difference between an oath and an affirmation 7,art4 ,,ii1 sec4 i1 cl4 #h74 ,the powers of the ,president 7,art4 ,,ii1 sec4 #b74 ,a ,president who was impeached4 ,why no ,president has been elected for a third term4 ,advantages and disadvantages of a longer term for the ,president4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,service ,,organization ,the ,president is at the head of a stupendous service organization which was not ready-made by the ,constitution1 but which has been gradually created by acts of ,congress under its express and implied powers4 ,the ,constitution did not even create the great administrative departments through which the ,president works1 although it implied that such departments should be created3 ,the ,president 444 may require the opinion1 in writing1 of the principal officer in each of the executive departments1 upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices 7,art4 ,,ii1 sec4 #b1 cl4 i74 ,the heads of these departments are appointed by the ,president1 are responsible to him1 and may be removed by him4 ,together they constitute the ,president's ,,cabinet1 meeting with him frequently to discuss the affairs of their departments and matters of public policy4 ,,the ,,administrative ,,departments ,five of these administrative departments were created during ,washington's administration4 ,these five have grown to cover a multitude of activities that were not at first contemplated1 and five other great departments have since been created4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,state maintains relations between the ,united ,states and foreign powers4 ,the ,secretary of ,state1 acting for the ,president1 negotiates treaties with foreign governments1 and is in constant communication with the ambassadors1 ministers1 consuls1 and other representatives of our government in foreign countries1 and with similar representatives of foreign governments in this country4 ,this department is the medium of communication between the ,president and the governors of the several states4 ,the ,secretary of ,state has in his keeping the treaties and laws of the ,united ,states1 and also the ,great ,seal of the ,united ,states1 which he affixes to proclamations1 commissions1 and other official papers4 ,through him the rights of ,american citizens in foreign countries are looked after4 ,he is first in rank among the members of the cabinet1 and by law would succeed to the ,presidency in case of the death or disability of both the ,president and the ,vice- ,president4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,treasury has at its head the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 who is the financial manager of the national government4 ,he prepares plans for1 and superintends the collection of1 the public revenues2 determines the manner of keeping the public accounts2 directs the coinage and printing of money4 ,he also controls the construction and maintenance of public buildings1 and administers the public health service and the life- saving service4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,war is directed by the ,secretary of ,war1 who1 under the ,president1 controls the military establishment and superintends the national defense4 ,he also administers river and harbor improvements1 the prevention of obstruction to navigation1 and the building of bridges over navigable rivers when authorized by ,congress4 ,he also has direction of the ,bureau of ,insular ,affairs1 which supervises the government of ,porto ,rico and the ,philippines4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,justice has at its head the ,attorney ,general1 who is the chief law officer of the government1 and represents it in all matters of a legal nature4 ,he is the legal adviser of the ,president and of the several executive departments1 and supervises all ,united ,states attorneys and marshals in the judicial districts into which the country is divided4 ,the ,,post-,,office ,,department is administered by the ,postmaster ,general4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,navy1 under the ,secretary of the ,navy1 has charge of the construction1 manning1 equipment1 and employment of vessels of war4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior was created to relieve the ,department of ,state of work relating to internal affairs1 and now embraces a wide variety of duties4 ,at its head is the ,secretary of the ,interior4 ,through many bureaus and divisions it administers the public lands1 the national parks1 the giving of patents for inventions1 the pensioning of soldiers1 ,indian affairs1 education1 the reclamation service1 the geological survey1 the improvement of mining methods for the safety of miners1 certain matters pertaining to the territories of the ,united ,states1 and certain institutions in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture is directed by the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,its work is described in ,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,commerce1 under the ,secretary of ,commerce1 promotes the commercial interests of the country in many ways4 ,it includes in its organization the ,bureau of ,foreign and ,domestic ,commerce1 the ,bureau of ,corporations1 the ,census ,bureau1 the ,bureau of ,lighthouses1 the ,bureau of ,navigation1 the ,bureau of ,fisheries1 and the ,bureau of ,standards4 ,the ,,department ,,of ,,labor1 under the ,secretary of ,labor1 has for its purpose fostering1 promoting1 and developing the welfare of the wage earners of the ,united ,states1 improving their working conditions1 and advancing their opportunities for profitable employment4 ,among its important bureaus are those of ,immigration and of ,naturalization1 and the ,children's ,bureau1 which investigates and reports upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of children and child life among all classes of our people4 ,,other ,,administrative ,,agencies ,in addition to these great administrative departments with their numerous bureaus and subdivisions1 there are various boards1 commissions and establishments that are independent of the departments4 ,some of the most important of these are the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 the ,civil ,service ,commission 7see below71 the ,federal ,reserve ,board1 the ,federal ,trade ,commission1 the ,united ,states ,tariff ,commission1 the ,board of ,mediation and ,conciliation1 the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,efficiency1 the ,federal ,board of ,vocational ,education1 the ,panama ,canal4 ,of another kind are the ,library of ,congress which includes the ,copyright ,office2 the ,government ,printing ,office2 the ,smithsonian ,institution1 including the ,national ,museum and the ,national ,zoological ,park4 ,there are many others4 ,during the recent war a great variety of new administrative commissions and boards were created for the emergency4 ,most of these have been1 or are to be1 discontinued1 though some of them may survive4 ,such were the ,council of ,national ,defense1 the ,committee on ,public ,information1 the ,food ,administration1 the ,fuel ,administration1 the ,united ,states ,shipping ,board1 the ,war ,trade ,board1 the ,director ,general of ,railroads4 ,,the ,,civil ,,service ,the detailed work of this vast service organization is carried on by about #djj1jjj employees 7not counting the army and the navy74 ,these constitute the ,,civil ,,service4 ,the quality of service depends largely upon the efficiency of these employees4 ,the task of filling all these places is a large one4 ,in ,andrew ,jackson's administration 7#ahbi-ahcg7 the spoils system was introduced1 which means that government positions were treated by the victorious party as the spoils of victory1 to be given to members of the victorious party as rewards for party service without much regard to fitness for the work to be done4 ,whenever the administration passed from one party to another1 the army of civil service employees was displaced by another of new employees4 ,not only did this result in inefficient service1 but the time of the ,president and the heads of the departments was largely consumed in considering the claims of those seeking appointment4 ,moreover1 since appointments could be made only with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 senators were besieged by applicants for positions and their friends4 ,the ,president1 overwhelmed by the multitude of appointments to be made1 came to rely almost wholly upon the advice of the senators1 and even of members of the ,house of ,representatives1 for appointments in their states and districts4 ,thus1 in effect1 appointments were made by members of ,congress rather than by the ,president who was really responsible4 ,no system could have been devised more wasteful of the time of the executive and legislative branches of the government1 or more conducive to inefficiency4 ,,reform ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,service ,the spoils system became a great offense to the nation1 but it was not until ,president ,garfield was murdered by a disappointed office seeker that ,congress1 in #ahhc1 passed a law for the reform of the civil service4 ,candidates for many positions in the civil service were required to pass an examination designed to prove their fitness for the work to be done1 and a ,,civil ,,service ,,commission was created to administer the law and to conduct the examinations1 which are held at stated intervals in different parts of the country4 ,those appointed under this system cannot be removed except for cause4 ,even at the present time1 however1 only about half of the civil service is subject to this ,,merit ,,system4 ,from the above description of the work of the several executive departments select topics for special investigation and report2 such as3 ,the work of ,united ,states ,consuls4 ,coining money2 the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,engraving4 ,the life-saving service of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,united ,states ,army in war and peace4 ,the ,united ,states ,army as an organization to save life1 especially in its work of sanitation in territories occupied4 ,representatives of the ,united ,states ,department of ,justice in your community1 and examples of their work4 ,building a battleship4 ,training for the navy4 ,exploits of the navy in war4 ,the work of the navy in time of peace4 ,the work of the patent office2 of the bureau of ,indian affairs2 of the geological survey2 of the bureau of mines4 ,taking the ,united ,states census4 ,the work of the bureau of fisheries4 ,marvels of the bureau of standards4 ,the immigration bureau4 ,work of the children's bureau4 ,how an immigrant is naturalized4 ,the ,government ,printing ,office4 ,the ,congressional ,library4 ,the spoils system in ,andrew ,jackson's administration4 ,how would you go about it to take an examination for the civil service8 ,is there any reason why a mail carrier or a clerk in a government office should be a ,republican or a ,democrat8 ,what employees of the ,united ,states civil service are there in your community8 ,,responsive ,,and ,,responsible ,,leadership ,efficient government requires strong1 clearly recognized leadership4 ,democratic government requires that its leadership shall be responsive to the needs of the people and under their control4 ,the problem of how to secure strong leadership and controlled leadership at one and the same time is a difficult one4 ,so far as the executive branch of government alone is concerned1 the framers of the ,constitution secured strength by concentrating full responsibility in the ,president4 ,but did they expect him to be their leader in the government as a whole2 that is1 in formulating the policies of government that should serve as the basis for legislation8 ,we are in the habit of thinking of him as our national leader1 but was he made so in fact8 ,,leadership ,,of ,,the ,,president ,in fact1 the framers of the ,constitution were apparently more concerned about maintaining control over the ,president than about clearly making him the nation's leader4 ,about the only indication the ,constitution contains that he was to be such a leader is the statement that he shall from time to time give to the ,congress information of the state of the ,union1 and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient 7,art4 ,,ii1 sec4#c74 ,he does submit recommendations to ,congress at the opening of each of its terms and often at other times4 ,if the ,president and the majority in ,congress are of the same political party1 ,congress is pretty likely to follow the ,president's lead2 or1 if the ,president has a commanding personality and is clearly popular with the people1 he may force measures through even an unwilling ,congress4 ,but if differences arise between the ,president and ,congress1 especially when one or both houses of ,congress are of the opposite party from the ,president1 his recommendations may be entirely ignored4 ,by our system of checks and balances the ,president is controlled1 but he ceases to be a leader when he does not have the following of ,congress1 or of the majority of the people4 ,president ,wilson began his second administration with a majority in both houses of ,congress of his political party1 and apparently in popular favor4 ,he was clearly accepted as leader and practically all of his proposed measures were favorably acted upon by ,congress4 ,in the middle of this administration a congressional election occurred which resulted in a majority in both houses of the opposing party4 ,this result might be considered as a popular vote against the leadership of the ,president1 and his opponents did consider it so4 ,it cannot be absolutely certain that this was intended1 for the people were not voting directly on this question4 ,whether this was true or not1 ,congress refused to follow his leadership in many important questions1 including the treaty of peace with ,germany4 ,,control ,,of ,,leadership ,,in ,,england ,it will be helpful to compare this situation with the method by which ,england has worked out the problem of leadership and control of leadership4 ,the real executive head in the ,english government is the prime minister4 ,the king appoints the prime minister1 but he always chooses for the position ,,the ,,recognized ,,leader ,,of ,,the ,,political ,,party ,,that ,,is ,,in ,,the ,,majority in the ,house of ,commons 7which corresponds to our ,house of ,representatives74 ,the prime minister having been appointed1 he then selects the other members of his cabinet1 who are to be the heads of the executive departments1 and ,,who ,,are ,,also ,,members ,,of ,,parliament4 ,the prime minister and the other members of the cabinet have seats in the ,house of ,commons1 contrary to the practice in our country4 ,,they ,,also ,,take ,,the ,,lead ,,in ,,legislation1 for most of the important bills considered in the ,house of ,commons are planned and introduced by the cabinet4 ,so the executive and legislative branches of the ,english government are not separated as in our country4 ,the same group of men manage the service organization and lead in planning the legislation that makes the service possible4 ,it sometimes happens1 however1 that the cabinet introduces a measure which1 after discussion1 a majority of the ,house of ,commons rejects4 ,this means that on this question the cabinet no longer represents the majority in the ,house4 ,then one of two things happens4 ,,either ,,the ,,cabinet ,,resigns in a body to make way for a new cabinet that does represent the majority2 ,,or ,,the ,,prime ,,minister ,,asks ,,for ,a ,,general ,,election ,,for ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,commons4 ,if at this election a majority is again returned that is opposed to the cabinet1 it means that the cabinet no longer leads the people1 and it resigns4 ,if a majority is returned in support of the cabinet1 it means that the old ,house was no longer representative of the people1 and the old cabinet retains its leadership4 ,this system gives the ,english people ,,more ,,direct ,,control over their government than we have in our country2 it is very much like the method of ,,recall that is used in some of our states4 ,at the same time1 it assures a real executive leadership ,,within ,,the ,,government1 a leadership that is both responsive and responsible to the people4 ,,growth ,,of ,,irresponsible ,,leadership ,not only does our ,constitution fail to provide clearly for responsible leadership within the government1 but our system of checks and balances1 our party system of government1 and the organization and rules of ,congress1 all taken together1 have tended to confuse our leadership1 and to impose upon us an irresponsible leadership1 ,,outside of the government as outlined by the ,constitution4 ,to understand this it will first be necessary to examine the organization of ,congress4 ,,the ,,congress ,congress1 like the state legislatures1 consists of two chambers1 the ,house of ,representatives and the ,senate2 this being another instance of checks and balances4 ,the creation of two chambers in the ,congress made possible a satisfactory settlement of a dispute in the ,constitutional ,convention with regard to the basis of representation4 ,the larger states wanted representation proportional to their population1 while the smaller states1 insisted upon ,,equal representation for all the states4 ,it was settled that there should be equal representation in the ,senate1 and proportional representation in the ,house of ,representatives4 ,this is one of a series of compromises that had to be made between the two parties in the convention4 ,in fact1 the ,constitution is a series of compromises from beginning to end4 ,only thirty-nine of the fifty-five delegates in the convention signed the ,constitution1 and it is probable that no one even of the thirty-nine was wholly pleased with it4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,representatives ,the number of representatives in the first ,congress from each state was fixed in the ,constitution1 and provision made for a census in #agij and every ten years thereafter1 on the basis of which a reapportionment should be made4 ,at present there are #dce members of the ,house1 one for about every #bab1jjj of the population4 ,they are elected by direct vote of the people1 one from each of the ,,congressional ,,districts into which each state is divided1 and for a term of two years4 ,,the ,,senate ,there are two senators from each state4 ,the ,constitution provided that they were to be elected by the state legislatures1 another evidence of distrust of the people4 ,in #aiac1 the seventeenth amendment to the ,constitution was enacted1 providing for the election of senators by popular vote1 showing the growing spirit of democracy and the distrust of the state legislatures4 ,senators are elected for six years1 but the term of only one third of them expires at the same time1 so that at least two thirds of the ,senate have always had at least two years' experience4 ,no citizen may become a senator until he is thirty years of age1 while one may become a member of the lower house at twenty-five4 ,,exclusive ,,powers ,,of ,,each ,,house ,the ,house of ,representatives has one important power not possessed by the ,senate3 it alone can originate bills for raising revenue4 ,this is because the representatives were supposed to be more directly representative of the people than the senators4 ,however1 the ,senate may amend such bills1 and often succeeds in forcing the ,house to accept such radical amendments as practically to destroy the advantage possessed by the latter in its power to originate the bills4 ,in addition to its lawmaking powers1 the ,senate was intended to be an advisory council to the ,president4 ,only with its advice and consent may the ,president make appointments and treaties4 ,investigate and report on the following3 ,the compromises of the ,constitution4 ,the census of #aibj4 ,the number of congressional districts in your state1 and the number of the one you live in4 ,the names of your representative and senators4 ,the qualifications for election to the ,house of ,representatives and to the ,senate 7,art4 ,i1 secs4 #b and #c74 ,compare with the qualifications for election to the two houses of your legislature4 ,the characteristics of the ,senate that make it more conservative than the ,house of ,representatives4 ,the meaning of conservatism4 ,why the ,senate should be more conservative than the ,house4 ,the long and short sessions of ,congress4 ,how vacancies in ,congress are filled between elections4 ,legislation in which the representative from your district has been especially interested during the last session of ,congress4 ,in ,england a member of the ,house of ,commons is not required to be a resident of the district which he represents4 ,arguments for and against this plan4 ,debate the question3 ,,resolved1 that our ,constitution should be amended to provide for a responsible cabinet government as in ,england4 ,,organization ,,of ,,congress ,the presiding officer of the ,senate is the ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states1 while that of the ,house of ,representatives is a ,,speaker elected by the ,house4 ,the ,vice-,president has no vote in the ,senate except in case of a tie1 when he may cast the deciding vote4 ,the ,speaker1 on the other hand1 has all the rights of any other member and has large powers by virtue of his position4 ,he is always elected by a strictly party vote1 and therefore represents the majority party in the ,house4 ,,the ,,committee ,,system ,as in the state legislatures1 and for the same reason1 most of the work of legislation in ,congress is done by standing committees1 of which there are about sixty in the ,house and about seventy-five in the ,senate4 ,as in the state legislatures1 these committees are chosen on party lines1 the chairmen and the majority of the members always being of the majority party4 ,the procedure by which legislation is carried on in ,congress is very much the same as that in the state legislatures1 and has the same advantages and disadvantages4 ,there is even greater necessity for the committee organization and for rules because of the vastly greater number of bills introduced4 ,in a recent ,congress more than #cc1jjj bills were introduced in the ,house of ,representatives alone4 ,whereas in the state legislatures some of the rules of procedure are fixed by the state constitutions1 the rules of ,congress are determined entirely by each house for itself4 ,the committee on rules in each house1 the ,speaker of the ,house of ,representatives1 and the chairmen of the committees in both houses1 may run things as they see fit4 ,that this is done there is plenty of evidence1 such as the following words of a member of ,congress3 ,you send important questions to a committee1 you put into the hands of a few men the power to bring in bills1 and then they are brought in with an ironclad rule1 and rammed down the throats of members2 and then those measures are sent out as being the deliberate judgment of the ,congress of the ,united ,states when no deliberate judgment has been expressed by any man4 ,,diffused ,,leadership ,,in ,,congress ,it is this procedure in ,congress that causes leadership to become diffused1 hidden1 and often to pass outside of the government altogether into the hands of bosses and special interests4 ,there can be no well-conceived ,,plan worked out by responsible leaders and approved by ,congress as a whole4 ,there may be plans1 worked out by leaders in ,congress1 but they are likely to be plans designed to serve party ends rather than to promote a well- thought-out program of national development4 ,thousands of bills of the greatest variety are introduced by individual members and handled by different committees acting independently of one another and often at cross purposes4 ,,relation ,,between ,,executive ,,and ,,legistlative ,,branches ,the legislative and executive branches of government are each extremely jealous of any encroachment upon its powers by the other4 ,it is not always easy to decide just where the dividing line lies between the powers properly exercised by each4 ,it is maintained on the one hand that ,congress is encroaching on the rightful domain of the executive2 and at least it is true that while it denies the ,president responsible leadership in determining the policies of the government1 it has failed to substitute any other responsible leadership1 and has even made leadership obscure4 ,on the other hand1 it is maintained that the executive encroaches upon the powers of ,congress4 ,while this chapter was being written a member of the ,house of ,representatives made a speech in which he said3 ,this bill presents a fine specimen of bureaucratic legislation4 ,footnote3 ,bureaucratic legislation here means lawmaking by bureaus in the executive branch of the government4 ,if the ,congress ever intends1 as it surely does1 to regain the powers granted it by the fathers1 of which it is now temporarily deprived by bureaucratic encroachment1 now is the time to start upon such a campaign by defeating by a decisive majority the bill now offered for your consideration 444 ,every time you weaken ,congress by the establishment of a bureau in which the authority of ,congress is lessened1 you lay one more stone in the erection of the temple of autocracy 444 ,these bureaus are not only legislating by administrative processes but are usurping the power and prerogatives of the people's courts 444 ,,the ,,duty ,,of ,,congress ,,to ,,watch ,,the ,,executive ,it is the business of the people's representatives in the law- making branch of government not merely to make laws1 but also to watch and control the executive4 ,the great ,english philosopher1 ,john ,stuart ,mill 7#ahjf-ahgc71 thus stated the purpose of the ,english ,house of ,commons3 ,to watch and control the government2 ,footnote3 ,government here refers to the executive branch4 to throw the light of publicity on its acts2 to compel a full explanation and justification of all of them which any one considers questionable2 to censure them if found condemnable2 to be at once the nation's committee on grievances2 an arena in which not only the opinion of the nation1 but that of every section of it1 and as far as possible1 of every eminent individual that it contains1 can produce itself in full sight and challenge full discussion4 ,as we have seen1 the ,english ,house of ,commons has a way to control executive leadership without destroying it4 ,even if we desired to do so1 we could not adopt the ,english plan without changing our ,constitution4 ,but there are ways in which the same result could in a measure be accomplished without such change4 ,one of these is by a well-organized ,,budget ,,system4 ,,responsibility ,,for ,,appropriations ,the methods of making appropriations for the purposes of our national government have been as unbusinesslike as in the states4 ,charges of extravagance and inefficiency have been made freely1 the blame being placed sometimes upon ,congress and sometimes upon the executive departments4 ,both are at fault2 and the difficulty is that it is almost impossible to fix the responsibility anywhere4 ,,duplication ,,and ,,confusion ,,in ,,the ,,executive ,,branch ,although the national government1 unlike the states1 has a single- headed executive1 the executive departments are composed of a multitude of bureaus and other subdivisions that are not well organized in their relations to one another4 ,there is overlapping1 duplication1 and even conflict of work4 ,the director of finance of the ,war ,department said that in the recent war1 ,the ,war ,department entered this war without any fixed or carefully digested and prepared financial system4 ,there were at the beginning of the war five 444 bureaus each independent of the others1 each making its own contracts1 doing its own purchasing1 doing its own accounting1 with as many different methods as there were bureaus4 ,as a result they were competing with each other in a market where the supplies in many cases for which they were competing were restricted in amount 444 ,there was no central authority to prune1 revise1 or compare estimates submitted and to coordinate expenditures1 and that naturally resulted in overlappings and duplications1 and some of them of a large amount4 ,footnote3 ,testimony before ,budget ,committee1 quoted by ,will ,payne1 ,your ,budget1 ,saturday ,evening ,post1 ,jan4 #c1 #aibj1 p4 #cb4 ,the responsibility is partly in the executive department2 but it is also partly in ,congress1 for it creates bureaus1 defines their duties1 appropriates money for them4 ,and in ,congress the responsibility is divided among various committees4 ,one committee or subcommittee has supervision of building the barracks at a given army post while another committee or subcommittee has supervision of building the hospital at the same post4 ,one committee has jurisdiction of the guns1 another committee has jurisdiction of the emplacement of the guns4 ,all committees are jealous of their own prerogatives and sometimes more or less jealous of other committees4 ,footnote3 ,will ,payne1 ,your ,budget1 ,,saturday ,,evening ,,post1 ,jan4 #c1 #aibj1 p4 #aff4 ,,appropriations ,,made ,,more ,,or ,,less ,,blindly ,each year the executive departments submit to the ,secretary of the ,treasury an estimate of the amount of money they think they will need4 ,the ,secretary of the ,treasury puts these estimates together without revision and without criticism and submits them to ,congress1 together with an estimate of the probable revenues available4 ,while there is a committee on appropriations in each house of ,congress1 444 one class of appropriations after another has been taken away from this committee and intrusted to other committees until1 as a result1 the work of preparing appropriations in the ,house of ,representatives is broken up so that there are now no less than fourteen general appropriation bills prepared by seven different committees 444 ,in the preparation of their bills the committee on appropriations and the other committees in charge of appropriations are really compelled to work more or less blindly4 ,sometimes they hold extensive hearings endeavoring to get a complete grasp of the multitudinous detailed expenditures for which they must provide4 ,but1 of course1 it is impossible for the several committees1 in the time at their disposal1 to give even minor matters the amount of attention demanded by sound public economy4 ,footnote3 ,c4 ,a4 ,beard1 ,,american ,,government ,,and ,,politics1 pp4 #cff1 #cfg4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,a ,,budget ,,system ,the first principles of a budget1 according to students of government1 are that it should be prepared by the executive branch of the government1 which is responsible for spending the money2 that it should be prepared by an agency responsible directly to the ,president1 and with authority to revise and adjust the estimates of the several departments in the light of the needs and resources of the government as a whole2 and that it should be based upon an accounting system that will show clearly how efficiently each department and minor subdivision is doing its work4 ,as this chapter is being written1 a bill is before ,congress which1 if passed1 will more or less completely accomplish these results4 ,,the ,,need ,,for ,,centralizing ,,appropriations ,it remains for ,congress1 however1 to make the appropriations requested in the budget1 with such modifications as may be shown to be wise4 ,it is generally accepted that appropriations cannot be wisely made under the present system1 and that responsibility for them must be centered in one committee in each house4 ,this change will necessitate a change in the rules which can only be made by each house for itself4 ,a resolution has been introduced in the ,house of ,representatives recommending this change1 but it has not at this writing been acted upon4 ,in the ,english ,house of ,commons1 when the appropriation bill is introduced1 the ,house becomes in effect a court before which the prime minister and his cabinet are placed on trial to defend their budget4 ,the whole ,house is in session4 ,the minority party1 which conducts the opposition1 employs counsel1 and by its searching inquiries compels the cabinet to explain and defend the budget at every point4 ,by this procedure the public is informed as to the work and program of the government1 and the executive leaders held strictly to account4 ,,responsibility ,,of ,,the ,,citizen ,a budget system1 however good it may be1 like all other governmental machinery is merely an organization for team work1 and will do very little good unless the team work is forthcoming1 not only among the various branches and departments of government1 but also on the part of the citizens4 ,if there is a real budget it has got to be your budget4 ,it will be good1 bad or indifferent finally just in proportion to your interest in it and your expression of that interest at the polls and elsewhere4 ,if there is a good budget system--not on paper1 but in actual practice--you've got to make it4 ,if1 when a budget bill is finally enacted you say1 ,well1 that job is done1 and dismiss it from your mind there will be no lasting gain 444 ,footnote3 ,will ,payne1 ,your ,budget1 ,,saturday ,,evening ,,post ,january #c1 #aibj1 p4 #cj4 ,effective control over government can be exercised only by ,,public ,,opinion and ,,public ,,interest4 ,we may have any kind of government we want1 if we only want it badly enough1 and only when we want it badly enough4 ,the blame for inefficiency and wastefulness on the part of government at ,washington1 or at the state capital1 or at the county seat1 rests largely with the people back home1 who are either selfish or blind to the fact that the interests of the nation are larger than their own or those of their own little community4 ,the very people who talk most loudly about the extravagance of government1 or about the burden of taxes1 are likely to be the ones who expect most from their congressmen for purely personal or local advantage4 ,they are likely to judge their representative's fitness for his position more by his ability to get funds from the public treasury for local gratification than by his attitude toward great national questions4 ,investigate and report on the following3 ,the present ,speaker of the ,house of ,representatives1 and some of the more important members4 ,leaders in the ,senate at the present time4 ,a list of some of the more important committees in each ,house of ,congress4 ,the procedure by which a bill becomes a law1 from the time when it is introduced to the time it goes into effect as a law of the land4 ,bills introduced in ,congress by the representative from your district4 ,the purposes of these bills4 7,consult at home1 at your public library1 at your newspaper office47 ,follow the course of debate on some measure in the ,house of ,representatives or the ,senate in the files of the ,congressional ,record 7files may be found at your public library1 or at the newspaper offices1 if not in your school74 ,conflict of opinion regarding the powers of the ,president and of the ,senate in connection with the discussion of the treaty of peace with ,germany4 ,filibustering in ,congress4 ,clause #b of section #f of ,article ,i of the ,constitution says1 ,no person holding any office under the ,united ,states shall be a member of either ,house during his continuance in office4 ,why is this8 ,the privileges of members of ,congress under clause ,i of section #f of ,article ,i of the ,constitution4 ,reasons for these privileges4 ,log-rolling in ,congress1 what it is and why so called4 ,the details of the budget system of the national government if one has been created by the time you study this chapter4 ,any change in the rules of ,congress relating to appropriations4 ,the desirability of introducing in our government a plan similar to that used by the ,house of ,commons4 ,,the ,,national ,,judiciary ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states government is vested by the ,constitution in one ,supreme ,court1 and in such inferior courts as the ,congress may from time to time ordain and establish 7,art4 ,,iii1 sec4 ,i74 ,the number of judges in the ,supreme ,court is determined by ,congress1 and they are appointed by the ,president with the advice and consent of the ,senate4 ,at present the ,supreme ,court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices4 ,its sessions are held in the ,capitol building at ,washington4 ,congress has created circuit courts of appeals1 of which there are now nine1 each circuit including several states2 and district courts1 of which there is at least one in every state1 and sometimes several4 ,in addition to these there is a court of customs appeals and a court of claims1 for special classes of cases4 ,the courts of the ,district of ,columbia are also ,united ,states courts1 inasmuch as the ,district is governed entirely by the national government4 ,the judges of all ,united ,states courts are appointed by the ,president and hold office for life4 ,,powers ,,of ,,the ,,federal ,,courts ,the powers of the federal courts are stated in ,article ,,iii1 section #b1 of the ,constitution4 ,in general1 they have jurisdiction over cases of a national or interstate character4 ,most cases that come in the first instance before the federal courts are tried in the ,united ,states district courts1 going to the higher courts only on appeal2 but there are certain classes of cases that go to the ,supreme ,court at once 7,art4 ,,iii1 sec4 #b1 cl4 #b74 ,a case brought to trial before a state court may be appealed to the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states when the ,constitution1 the laws1 or the treaties of the ,united ,states are involved1 and its decision is final4 ,the ,supreme ,court may declare a law passed by ,congress or an act of the ,president null and void if1 in its opinion1 such law or act is contrary to the provisions of the ,constitution4 ,it has been questioned whether the framers of the ,constitution intended the ,supreme ,court to have this power1 but it exercises the power on the ground that the ,constitution is the supreme law of the land to which even ,congress and the ,president are subject1 and that it is the sacred duty of the courts to preserve it from violation4 ,we have noted the influence exercised by the ,supreme ,court in extending the activities of the ,united ,states government by its broad interpretations of the ,constitution4 ,study the powers of the federal courts in ,article ,,iii1 sections #a and #b4 ,what is treason8 7,art4 ,,iii1 sec4 #c1 cl4 ,i47 ,what is meant by the second clause in section #c of ,article ,,iii8 ,,readings ,guerrier1 ,edith1 ,the ,federal ,executive ,departments1 ,bulletin1 #aiai1 ,no4 #gd1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education4 ,swanton1 ,w4 ,i41 ,guide to ,united ,states ,government ,publications2 ,bulletin1 #aiah1 ,no4 #b1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,education4 ,in ,lessons in ,community and ,national ,life3 ,series ,a3 ,lesson #ab1 ,history of the federal departments4 ,lesson #ah1 ,local and national governments4 ,series ,b3 ,lesson #ac1 ,the ,department of the ,interior4 ,lesson #ad1 ,the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service4 ,lesson #ba1 ,national standards and the ,bureau of ,standards4 ,in ,foerster and ,pierson's ,american ,ideals3 ,the nature of the ,union 7,daniel ,webster71 pp4 #ag-bf4 ,the nature of the ,union 7,john ,c4 ,calhoun71 pp4 #bg-dd4 ,jefferson's ,first ,inaugural ,address1 pp #ei- #fd4 ,the frame of the national government 7,bryce71 pp4 #bhe-cjj4 ,criticism of the federal system 7,bryce71 pp4 #cja-caa4 ,merits of the federal system 7,bryce71 pp4 #cab-cba4 ,beard1 ,c4 ,a41 ,american ,government and ,politics1 ,part ii1 especially chaps1 xi and xiv ,hart1 ,a4 ,b41 ,actual ,government1 ,part v1 ,the ,national ,government in ,action4 ,bryce1 ,james1 ,the ,american ,commonwealth1 vol4 ,i1 ,part i4 ,wilson1 ,woodrow1 ,congressional ,government 7,houghton ,mifflin ,co474 ,haskin1 ,f4 ,j41 ,the ,american ,government 7,lippincott74 ,young1 ,the ,new ,american ,government 7,macmillan74 ,,appendix ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,preamble ,we1 the people of the ,united ,states1 in order to form a more perfect union1 establish justice1 insure domestic tranquillity1 provide for the common defence1 promote the general welfare1 and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity1 do ordain and establish this ,,constitution for the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,,article ,i4 ,,the ,,legislative ,,department ,,section ,i4 ,,congress ,,in ,,general ,all legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a ,congress of the ,united ,states1 which shall consist of a ,senate and ,house of ,representatives4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,house ,,of ,,representatives #ast ,clause4 ,the ,house of ,representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several ,states1 and the electors in each ,state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the ,state legislature4 #bnd ,clause4 ,no person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years1 and been seven years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that ,state in which he shall be chosen4 #crd ,clause4 ,representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several ,states which may be included within this ,union1 according to their respective numbers1 which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons1 including those bound to service for a term of years1 and1 excluding ,indians not taxed1 three-fifths of all other persons4 ,the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the ,congress of the ,united ,states1 and within every subsequent term of ten years1 in such manner as they shall by law direct4 ,the number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand1 but each ,state shall have at least one representative2 and until such enumeration shall be made1 the ,state of ,new ,hampshire shall be entitled to choose three1 ,massachusetts eight1 ,rhode ,island and ,providence ,plantations one1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york six1 ,new ,jersey four1 ,pennsylvania eight1 ,delaware one1 ,maryland six1 ,virginia ten1 ,north ,carolina five1 ,south ,carolina five1 and ,georgia three4 #d,,th ,,clause4 ,when vacancies happen in the representation from any ,state1 the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies4 #e,,th ,,clause4 ,the ,house of ,representatives shall choose their ,speaker and other officers2 and shall have the sole power of impeachment4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,the ,,senate4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the ,senate of the ,united ,states shall be composed of two senators from each ,state1 chosen by the legislature thereof1 for six years2 and each senator shall have one vote4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election1 they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes4 ,the seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year1 of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year1 and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year1 so that one-third may be chosen every second year2 and if vacancies happen by resignation1 or otherwise1 during the recess of the legislature of any ,state1 the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature1 which shall then fill such vacancies4 #crd ,,clause4 ,no person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years1 and been nine years a citizen of the ,united ,states1 and who shall not1 when elected1 be an inhabitant of that ,state for which he shall be chosen4 #d,,th ,,clause4 ,the ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states shall be ,president of the ,senate1 but shall have no vote1 unless they be equally divided4 #e,,th ,,clause4 ,the ,senate shall choose their other officers1 and also a ,president pro tempore1 in the absence of the ,vice-,president1 or when he shall exercise the office of ,president of the ,united ,states4 #f,,th ,,clause4 ,the ,senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments4 ,when sitting for that purpose1 they shall all be on oath or affirmation4 ,when the ,president of the ,united ,states is tried1 the ,chief ,justice shall preside2 and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present4 #g,,th ,,clause4 ,judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office1 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor1 trust1 or profit under the ,united ,states2 but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment1 trial1 judgment1 and punishment1 according to law4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,both ,,houses4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the times1 places1 and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives1 shall be prescribed in each ,state by the legislature thereof2 but the ,congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations1 except as to the places of choosing senators4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,the ,congress shall assemble at least once in every year1 and such meeting shall be on the first ,monday in ,december1 unless they shall by law appoint a different day4 ,,section ,v4 ,,the ,,houses ,,separately4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,each house shall be the judge of the elections1 returns1 and qualifications of its own members1 and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business2 but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day1 and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members1 in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,each house may determine the rules of its proceedings1 punish its members for disorderly behavior1 and1 with the concurrence of two-thirds1 expel a member4 #crd ,,clause4 ,each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings1 and from time to time publish the same1 excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy2 and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall1 at the desire of one-fifth of those present1 be entered on the journal4 #d,,th ,,clause4 ,neither house1 during the session of ,congress1 shall1 without the consent of the other1 adjourn for more than three days1 nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,privileges ,,and ,,disabilities ,,of ,,members4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services1 to be ascertained by law1 and paid out of the treasury of the ,united ,states4 ,they shall1 in all cases except treason1 felony and breach of the peace1 be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses1 and in going to and returning from the same2 and for any speech or debate in either house1 they shall not be questioned in any other place4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,no senator or representative shall1 during the time for which he was elected1 be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the ,united ,states1 which shall have been created1 or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time2 and no person holding any office under the ,united ,states shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,mode ,,of ,,passing ,,laws #a,,st ,,clause4 ,all bills for raising revenue shall originate in the ,house of ,representatives2 but the ,senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,every bill which shall have passed the ,house of ,representatives and the ,senate shall1 before it become a law1 be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 if he approve he shall sign it1 but if not he shall return it1 with his objections1 to that house in which it shall have originated1 who shall enter the objections at large on their journal1 and proceed to reconsider it4 ,if after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill1 it shall be sent1 together with the objections1 to the other house1 by which it shall likewise be reconsidered1 and if approved by two-thirds of that house1 it shall become a law4 ,but in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays1 and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively4 ,if any bill shall not be returned by the ,president within ten days 7,sundays excepted7 after it shall have been presented to him1 the same shall be a law1 in like manner as if he had signed it1 unless the ,congress by their adjournment prevent its return1 in which case it shall not be a law4 #crd ,,clause4 ,every order1 resolution1 or vote to which the concurrence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives may be necessary 7except on a question of adjournment7 shall be presented to the ,president of the ,united ,states2 and before the same shall take effect1 shall be approved by him1 or being disapproved by him1 shall be repassed by two-thirds of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,,powers ,,granted ,,to ,,congress4 ,the ,congress shall have power-- #a,,st ,,clause4 ,to lay and collect taxes1 duties1 imposts1 and excises1 to pay the debts1 and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the ,united ,states2 but all duties1 imposts1 and excises shall be uniform throughout the ,united ,states2 #bnd ,,clause4 ,to borrow money on the credit of the ,united ,states2 #crd ,,clause4 ,to regulate commerce with foreign nations1 and among the several ,states1 and with the ,indian tribes2 #d,,th ,,clause4 ,to establish a uniform rule of naturalization1 and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the ,united ,states2 #e,,th ,,clause4 ,to coin money1 regulate the value thereof1 and of foreign coin1 and fix the standard of weights and measures2 #f,,th ,,clause4 ,to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the ,united ,states2 #g,,th ,,clause4 ,to establish post-offices and post-roads2 #h,,th ,,clause4 ,to promote the progress of science and useful arts1 by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries2 #i,,th ,,clause4 ,to constitute tribunals inferior to the ,supreme ,court2 #aj,,th ,,clause4 ,to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas1 and offences against the law of nations2 #aa,,th ,,clause4 ,to declare war1 grant letters of marque and reprisal1 and make rules concerning captures on land and water2 #ab,,th ,,clause4 ,to raise and support armies2 but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years2 #ac,,th ,,clause4 ,to provide and maintain a navy2 #ad,,th ,,clause4 ,to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces2 #ae,,th ,,clause4 ,to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the ,union1 suppress insurrections1 and repel invasions2 #af,,th ,,clause4 ,to provide for organising1 arming1 and disciplining the militia1 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the ,united ,states1 reserving to the ,states respectively the appointment of the officers1 and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by ,congress2 #ag,,th ,,clause4 ,to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever1 over such district 7not exceeding ten miles square7 as may1 by cession of particular ,states1 and the acceptance of ,congress1 become the seat of the ,government of the ,united ,states2 and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the ,state in which the same shall be1 for the erection of forts1 magazines1 arsenals1 dock-yards1 and other needful buildings2--and #ah,,th ,,clause4 ,to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers1 and all other powers vested by this ,constitution in the government of the ,united ,states1 or in any department or officer thereof4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,,powers ,,denied ,,to ,,the ,,united ,,states4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the migration or importation of such persons as any of the ,states now existing shall think proper to admit1 shall not be prohibited by the ,congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight1 but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation1 not exceeding ten dollars for each person4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended1 unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it4 #crd ,,clause4 ,no bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed4 #d,,th ,,clause4 ,no capitation1 or other direct tax shall be laid1 unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken4 #e,,th ,,clause4 ,no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any ,state4 #f,,th ,,clause4 ,no preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one ,state over those of another2 nor shall vessels bound to1 or from1 one ,state1 be obliged to enter1 clear1 or pay duties in another4 #g,,th ,,clause4 ,no money shall be drawn from the treasury1 but in consequence of appropriations made by law2 and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time4 #h,,th ,,clause4 ,no title of nobility shall be granted by the ,united ,states2 and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall1 without the consent of ,congress1 accept of any present1 emolument1 office1 or title1 of any kind whatever1 from any king1 prince1 or foreign ,state4 ,,section ,x4 ,,powers ,,denied ,,to ,,the ,,states4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,no ,state shall enter into any treaty1 alliance1 or confederation2 grant letters of marque and reprisal2 coin money2 emit bills of credit2 make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts2 pass any bill of attainder1 ,,ex ,,post ,,facto law1 or law impairing the obligation of contracts1 or grant any title of nobility4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,no ,state shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports1 except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws2 and the net produce of all duties and imposts1 laid by any ,state on imports or exports1 shall be for the use of the treasury of the ,united ,states2 and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the ,congress4 #crd ,,clause4 ,no ,state shall1 without the consent of ,congress1 lay any duty of tonnage1 keep troops1 or ships of war in time of peace1 enter into any agreement or compact with another ,state or with a foreign power1 or engage in war1 unless actually invaded1 or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,the ,,executive ,,department4 ,,section ,i4 ,,president ,,and ,,vice-,,president4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the executive power shall be vested in a ,president of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,he shall hold his office during the term of four years1 and1 together with the ,vice-,president1 chosen for the same term1 be elected as follows3 #bnd ,,clause4 ,each ,state shall appoint1 in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct1 a number of electors1 equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the ,state may be entitled in the ,congress4 ,but no senator or representative1 or person holding an office of trust or profit under the ,united ,states1 shall be appointed an elector4 ,the #crd clause has been superseded by the #abth article of ,amendments4 ,see page xix4 #d,,th ,,clause4 ,the ,congress may determine the time of choosing the electors1 and the day on which they shall give their votes1 which day shall be the same throughout the ,united ,states4 #e,,th ,,clause4 ,no person1 except a natural-born citizen1 or a citizen of the ,united ,states at the time of the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be eligible to the office of ,president2 neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years1 and been fourteen years a resident within the ,united ,states4 #f,,th ,,clause4 ,in case of the removal of the ,president from office1 or of his death1 resignation1 or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office1 the same shall devolve on the ,vice- ,president2 and the ,congress may by law provide for the case of removal1 death1 resignation1 or inability1 both of the ,president and ,vice-,president1 declaring what officer shall then act as ,president1 and such officer shall act accordingly1 until the disability be removed1 or a ,president shall be elected4 #g,,th ,,clause4 ,the ,president shall1 at stated times1 receive for his services a compensation1 which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected1 and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the ,united ,states1 or any of them4 #h,,th ,,clause4 ,before he enter on the execution of his office1 he shall take the following oath or affirmation3--,i do solemnly swear 7or affirm7 that ,i will faithfully execute the office of ,president of the ,united ,states1 and will1 to the best of my ability1 preserve1 protect1 and defend the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,powers ,,of ,,the ,,president4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the ,president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the ,united ,states1 and of the militia of the several ,states1 when called into the actual service of the ,united ,states2 he may require the opinion1 in writing1 of the principal officer in each of the executive departments1 upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices1 and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the ,united ,states1 except in cases of impeachment4 #crd ,,clause4 ,he shall have power1 by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 to make treaties1 provided two-thirds of the senators present concur2 and he shall nominate1 and by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate1 shall appoint1 ambassadors1 other public ministers and consuls1 judges of the ,supreme ,court1 and all other officers of the ,united ,states1 whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for1 and which shall be established by law2 but the ,congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers1 as they think proper1 in the ,president alone1 in the courts of law1 or in the heads of departments4 #crd ,,clause4 ,the ,president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the ,senate1 by granting commissions1 which shall expire at the end of their next session4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,president4 ,he shall from time to time give to the ,congress information of the state of the ,union1 and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient2 he may1 on extraordinary occasions convene both houses or either of them1 and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment1 he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper2 he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers2 he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed1 and shall commission all the officers of the ,united ,states4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,impeachment of the ,president4 ,the ,president1 ,vice-,president1 and all civil officers of the ,united ,states1 shall be removed from office on impeachment for1 and conviction of1 treason1 bribery1 or other high crimes and misdemeanors4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,the ,,judicial ,,department4 ,,section ,i4 ,the ,united ,states ,courts4 ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall be vested in one ,supreme ,court1 and in such inferior courts as the ,congress may from time to time ordain and establish4 ,the judges1 both of the ,supreme and inferior courts1 shall hold their offices during good behavior1 and shall1 at stated times1 receive for their services a compensation1 which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,jurisdiction of the ,united ,states ,courts4 #ast ,clause4 ,the judicial power shall extend to all cases1 in law and equity arising under this ,constitution1 the laws of the ,united ,states1 and treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under their authority1 to all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers1 and consuls2 to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction2 to controversies to which the ,united ,states shall be a party2 to controversies between two or more ,states2 between a ,state and citizens of another ,state2 between citizens of different ,states2 between citizens of the same ,state claiming lands under grants of different ,states1 and between a ,state1 or the citizens thereof1 and foreign states1 citizens1 or subjects4 #bnd ,clause4 ,in all cases affecting ambassadors1 other public ministers and consuls1 and those in which a ,state shall be a party1 the ,supreme ,court shall have original jurisdiction4 ,in all the other cases before mentioned1 the ,supreme ,court shall have appellate jurisdiction1 both as to law and fact1 with such exceptions and under such regulations as the ,congress shall make4 #crd ,clause4 ,the trial of all crimes1 except in cases of impeachment1 shall be by jury2 and such trial shall be held in the ,state where the said crimes shall have been committed2 but when not committed within any ,state1 the trial shall be at such place or places as the ,congress may by law have directed4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,treason4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,treason against the ,united ,states shall consist only in levying war against them1 or in adhering to their enemies1 giving them aid and comfort4 ,no person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act1 or on confession in open court4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,the ,congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason1 but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood1 or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,provisions4 ,,section ,i4 ,,state ,,records4 ,full faith and credit shall be given in each ,state to the public acts1 records1 and judicial proceedings of every other ,state4 ,and the ,congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which1 such acts1 records1 and proceedings shall be proved1 and the effect thereof4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,privileges ,,of ,,citizens4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the citizens of each ,state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several ,states4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,a person charged in any ,state with treason1 felony1 or other crime1 who shall flee from justice1 and be found in another ,state1 shall1 on demand of the executive authority of the ,state from which he fled1 be delivered up1 to be removed to the ,state having jurisdiction of the crime4 #crd ,,clause4 ,no person held to service or labor in one ,state1 under the laws thereof1 escaping into another1 shall1 in consequence of any law or regulation therein1 be discharged from such service or labor1 but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,new ,,states ,,and ,,territories4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,new ,states may be admitted by the ,congress into this ,union2 but no new ,state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other ,state2 nor any ,state be formed by the junction of two or more ,states or parts of ,states1 without the consent of the legislatures of the ,states concerned as well as of the ,congress4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,the ,congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the ,united ,states2 and nothing in this ,constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the ,united ,states or of any particular ,state4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,guarantees to the ,states4 ,the ,united ,states shall guarantee to every ,state in this ,union a republican form of government1 and shall protect each of them against invasion2 and on application of the legislature1 or of the executive 7when the legislature cannot be convened71 against domestic violence4 ,,article ,v4 ,,powers ,,op ,,amendment4 ,the ,congress1 whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary1 shall propose amendments to this ,constitution1 or1 on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several ,states1 shall call a convention for proposing amendments1 which1 in either case1 shall be valid1 to all intents and purposes1 as part of this ,constitution1 when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several ,states1 or by conventions in three- fourths thereof1 as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the ,congress3 provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article2 and that no ,state1 without its consent1 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the ,senate4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,,public ,,debt1 ,,supremacy ,,of ,,the ,,constitution1 ,,oath ,,of ,,office1 ,,religious ,,test4 #ast ,clause4 ,all debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this ,constitution1 shall be as valid against the ,united ,states under this ,constitution1 as under the ,confederation4 #bnd ,clause4 ,this ,constitution1 and the laws of the ,united ,states which shall be made in pursuance thereof1 and all treaties made1 or which shall be made1 under the authority of the ,united ,states1 shall be the supreme law of the land2 and the judges in every ,state shall be bound thereby1 anything in the ,constitution or laws of any ,state to the contrary notwithstanding4 #crd ,clause4 ,the senators and representatives before mentioned1 and the members of the several ,state legislatures1 and all executive and judicial officers1 both of the ,united ,states and of the several ,states1 shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this ,constitution2 but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the ,united ,states4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,,ratification ,,of ,,the ,,constitution4 ,the ratification of the conventions of nine ,states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this ,constitution between the ,states so ratifying the same4 ,,amendments ,,proposed ,,by ,,congress ,,and ,,ratified ,,by ,,the ,,legislatures ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,states1 ,,pursuant ,,to ,,the ,,fifth ,,article ,,of ,,the ,,original ,,constitution4 ,,article ,i4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,religion4 ,congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion1 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof2 or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press2 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble1 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,right ,,to ,,bear ,,arms4 ,a well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state1 the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,quartering ,,soldiers ,,on ,,citizens4 ,no soldier shall1 in time of peace1 be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner1 nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,search ,,warrants4 ,the right of the people to be secure in their persons1 houses1 papers1 and effects1 against unreasonable searches and seizures1 shall not be violated1 and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause1 supported by oath or affirmation1 and particularly describing the place to be searched1 and the persons or things to be seized4 ,,article ,v4 ,,trial ,,for ,,crime4 ,no person shall be held to answer for a capital1 or otherwise infamous crime1 unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury1 except in cases arising in the land or naval forces1 or in the militia1 when in actual service in time of war or public danger2 nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb2 nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself1 nor be deprived of life1 liberty1 or property without due process of law2 nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,,rights ,,of ,,accused ,,persons4 ,in all criminal prosecutions1 the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the ,state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed1 which district shall have been previously ascertained by law1 and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation2 to be confronted with the witnesses against him2 to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor1 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,,suits ,,at ,,common ,,law4 ,in suits at common law1 where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars1 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved1 and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re- examined in any court of the ,united ,states than according to the rules of the common law4 ,,article ,,viii4 ,,excessive ,,bail4 ,excessive bail shall not be required1 nor excessive fines imposed1 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted4 ,,article ,,ix4 ,,rights ,,retained ,,by ,,the ,,people4 ,the enumeration in the ,constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people4 ,,article ,x4 ,,reserved ,,rights ,,of ,,the ,,states4 ,the powers not delegated to the ,united ,states by the ,constitution1 nor prohibited by it to the ,states1 are reserved to the ,states respectively1 or to the people4 ,,article ,,xi4 ,the judicial power of the ,united ,states shall not be construed to extend to any suit1 in law or equity1 commenced or prosecuted against one of the ,united ,states by citizens of another ,state1 or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state4 ,,article ,,xii4 #a,,st ,,clause4 ,the electors shall meet in their respective ,states1 and vote by ballot for ,president and ,vice-,president1 one of whom1 at least1 shall not be an inhabitant of the same ,state with themselves2 they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as ,president1 and in distinct ballots the person voted for as ,vice-,president1 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as ,president1 and of all persons voted for as ,vice- ,president1 and of the number of votes for each1 which lists they shall sign and certify1 and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the ,united ,states1 directed to the ,president of the ,senate2 the ,president of the ,senate shall1 in presence of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 open all the certificates1 and the votes shall then be counted2 the person having the greatest number of votes for ,president shall be the ,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed2 and if no person have such majority1 then from the persons having the highest numbers1 not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as ,president1 the ,house of ,representatives shall choose immediately1 by ballot1 the ,president4 ,but in choosing the ,president1 the votes shall be taken by ,states1 the representation from each ,state having one vote2 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the ,states1 and a majority of all the ,states shall be necessary to a choice4 ,and if the ,house of ,representatives shall not choose a ,president whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them1 before the fourth day of ,march next following1 then the ,vice- ,president shall act as ,president1 as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the ,president4 #bnd ,,clause4 ,the person having the greatest number of votes as ,vice-,president shall be the ,vice-,president1 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed2 and if no person have a majority1 then from the two highest numbers on the list the ,senate shall choose the ,vice-,president2 a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators1 and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice4 #crd ,,clause4 ,but no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of ,president shall be eligible to that of ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states4 ,,article ,,xiii4 ,,section ,i4 ,neither slavery nor involuntary servitude1 except as a punishment for crime1 whereof the party shall have been duly convicted1 shall exist within the ,united ,states1 or any place subject to their jurisdiction4 ,,sec4 ,,ii4 ,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xiv4 ,,section ,i4 ,all persons born or naturalized in the ,united ,states1 and subject to the jurisdiction thereof1 are citizens of the ,united ,states and of the ,state wherein they reside4 ,no ,state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the ,united ,states2 nor shall any ,state deprive any person of life1 liberty1 or property1 without due process of law1 nor deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws4 ,,sec4 ,,ii4 ,representatives shall be apportioned among the several ,states according to their respective numbers1 counting the whole number of persons in each ,state1 excluding ,indians not taxed4 ,but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for ,president and ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states1 representatives in ,congress1 the executive and judicial officers of a ,state1 or the members of the legislature thereof1 is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such ,state1 being twenty-one years of age1 and citizens of the ,united ,states1 or in any way abridged1 except for participation in rebellion or other crime1 the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such ,state4 ,,sec4 ,,iii4 ,no person shall be a senator or representative in ,congress1 or elector of ,president and ,vice-,president1 or hold any office1 civil or military1 under the ,united ,states1 or under any ,state1 who1 having previously taken an oath1 as a member of ,congress1 or as an officer of the ,united ,states1 or as a member of any ,state legislature1 or as an executive or judicial officer of any ,state1 to support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same1 or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof4 ,but ,congress may1 by a vote of two-thirds of each house1 remove such disability4 ,,sec4 ,,iv4 ,the validity of the public debt of the ,united ,states1 authorized by law1 including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion1 shall not be questioned4 ,but neither the ,united ,states nor any ,state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the ,united ,states1 or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave2 but all such debts1 obligations1 and claims shall be held illegal and void4 ,,sec4 ,v4 ,the ,congress shall have power to enforce1 by appropriate legislation1 the provisions of this article4 ,,article ,,xv4 ,,section ,i4 ,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states1 or by any ,state1 on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,,sec4 ,,ii4 ,the ,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xvi4 ,the ,congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes1 from whatever source derived1 without apportionment among the several ,states1 and without regard to any census or enumeration4 ,,article ,,xvii4 ,,section ,i4 ,the ,senate of the ,united ,states shall be composed of two ,senators from each ,state1 elected by the people thereof1 for six years2 and each ,senator shall have one vote4 ,the electors in each ,state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the ,state ,legislatures4 ,,sec4 ,,ii4 ,when vacancies happen in the representation of any ,state in the ,senate1 the executive authority of such ,state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies3 ,provided that the ,legislature of any ,state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the ,legislature may direct4 ,,sec4 ,,iii4 ,this amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any ,senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the ,constitution4 ,,article ,,xviii4 ,,section ,i4 ,after one year from the ratification of this article1 the manufacture1 sale1 or transportation of intoxicating liquors within1 the importation thereof into1 or the exportation thereof from1 the ,united ,states and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof1 for beverage purposes1 is hereby prohibited4 ,,sec4 ,,ii4 ,the ,congress and the several ,states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4 ,,sec4 ,,iii4 ,this article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the ,constitution by the legislatures of the several ,states1 as provided in the ,constitution1 within seven years from the date of the submission thereof to the ,states by the ,congress4 ,,article ,,xix4 ,,section #a4 ,the right of citizens of the ,united ,states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the ,united ,states or by any state on account of sex4 ,,sect4 #b4 ,the ,congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation4