:i* includes ! m ?an #bej orig9al illu/rations4 ,see #ejhdf-;h4htm or #ejhdf-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/ #ejhdf_/pg#ejhdf-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#ejhd f_/ejhdf-;h4zip7 ,images ( ! orig9al pages are available ?r\gh ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,see https3_/_/ar*ive4org_/details_/me*anics( h\se#jjke5 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 ,text enclos$ by equal signs is 9 bold face 7bold74 ,,me*anics ,,( ,,! ,,h\sehold 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 ,inc4 ,,publi%]s ,,( ,,books ,,= ,coal ,age ,electric ,railway ,j\rnal ,electrical ,_w ,eng9e]+ ,news-,record ,am]ican ,ma*9i/ ,! ,contractor ,eng9e]+ ,m9+ ,j\rnal ,p[] ,metallurgical ,*emical ,eng9e]+ ,electrical ,m]*&is+ 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,me*anics ,,( ,,! ,,h\sehold ,a ,c\rse ( ,/udy ,devot$ to ,dome/ic ,ma*9]y & ,h\sehold ,me*anical ,appliances ,e4 ,s4 ,,ke5e ,dean ( ,me*anic ,arts ,nor? ,dakota ,agricultural ,college ,,fir/ ,,edition ,mcgraw-,hill ,book ,company1 ,inc4 #bci ,we/ #ci? ,/reet4 ,new ,york ,london3 ,hill ,publi%+ ,co41 ,ltd4 #f #h ,b\v]ie ,/41 ,e4 ,c4 #aiah ,copyright1 #aiah1 by ! ,mcgraw-,hill ,book ,company1 ,inc4 ,,introduction ,?is book is int5d$ to be a pres5tation ( ! physical pr9ciples & me*anism employ$ 9 ! equipm5t t has be5 develop$ = dome/ic conv5i5ce4 ,its aim is to provide in=mation relative to ! g5]al practice ( dome/ic eng9e]+4 ,! scope ( ! "w is su* z to pres5t3 fir/1 ! use ( h\sehold me*anical appliances2 second1 ! pr9ciples involv$ & ! me*anism employ$4 ,x is n exhau/ive1 nei!r does x t\* _m ( ! second>y topics t might be discuss$ 9 connection ) ! v>i\s subjects4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 describe at lea/ "o repres5tative piece ( ea* type ( h\sehold app>atus t is us$ 9 good practice4 ,! me*anism us$ 9 ! equipm5t ( a mod]n dwell+ is wor?y ( great] att5tion1 z a c\rse ( /udy1 ?an x has be5 h]et(ore accord$4 ,! fact t any h\se1 rural or urban1 may be provid$ ) all dome/ic conv5i5ces includ$ 93 furnace heat+1 me*anical temp]ature regulation1 light+ facilities1 wat] supply1 sewage disposal & o!r appliances1 indicates ! g5]al use ( dome/ic ma*9]y 9 great v>iety4 ,to compreh5d ! application & adaptability ( ?is me*anism requires a k ( its g5]al plan ( con/ruction & pr9ciples ( op]ation4 ,heat+ sy/ems 9 great v>iety utilize /eam1 hot wat]1 or hot air z ! vehicle ( transf] ( heat f ! furnace1 ?r\gh\t ! h\se4 ,ea* ( ^! is made 9 ! =m ( special heat+ plants t may be adapt$1 9 "s special advantage to ! v>i\s conditions ( use4 ,a k ( _! work+ pr9ciples & g5]al me*anical arrangem5t furni%es a fund ( in=mation t is ( e day application4 ,! sy/ems available = h\sehold wat] di/ribution take advantage ( natural laws1 :i* aid$ by suitable me*anical devices & conv5i5tly arrang$ sy/ems ( pipes1 provide wat]-supply plants to satisfy any condition ( s]vice4 ,!y may be ( simple =m1 to suit a cottage1 or elaborat$ to ! requirem5ts ( l>ge resid5ces & made entirely automatic 9 action4 ,9 ea*1 ! app>atus consi/s ( p>ts t p]=m def9ite functions4 ,! p>ts may be obta9$ f diff]5t mak]s & assembl$ z a work+ unit or ! plant may be pur*as$ complete z "s special sy/em ( wat] supply4 ,an acqua9tance ) dome/ic wat] supply app>atus may be ( s]vice 9 e condition ( life4 ,! type ( illum9ation = a h\se or a gr\p ( build+s1 may be select$ f a v>iety ( light+ sy/ems4 ,9 rural homes1 *oice may be made betwe5 oil gas1 gasol5e1 acetyl5e & electricity1 ea* ( :i* is us$ 9 a numb] ( successful plants t diff] only 9 ! me*anism employ$4 ,any build+ arrang$ ) toilet1 kit*5 & laundry conv5i5ces mu/ be provid$ ) "s =m ( sewage disposal4 ,private disposal plants are made to meet _m conditions ( s]vice4 ,! me*anical con/ruction & pr9ciples ( op]ation are n difficult to compreh5d & _! adaptation to a giv5 s]vice is only an intellig5t conception ( ! possible conditions ( disposal1 dep5d5t on ! natural surr\nd+s4 ,!re are few communities :]e h\sehold equipm5t _c be f\nd to illu/rate ea* ( ! subjects discuss$4 ,mo/ mod]n s*ool h\ses are equipp$ = automatic control ( temp]ature1 v5tilation & humidity4 ,!y are fur!r provid$ ) sy/ems ( gas1 wat] & electric di/ribution & arrangem5ts = sewage disposal4 ,^! facilities furni% demon/ration app>atus t are also examples ( _! application4 ,additional examples ( ! v>i\s =ms ( plumb+ & pipe fitt+s1 valves1 traps & wat] fixtures may be f\nd 9 ! %op ( deal]s 9 plumb]s & /eam-fitt]s supplies4 ,att5tion is call$ to ! value ( obs]v+ h\ses 9 process ( con/ruction & ! means employ$ = ! placem5t ( ! pipes = ! sew]1 gas1 wat]1 electric conduits1 etc4 ,^! are g5]ally locat$ by direction ( ! specifications provid$ by ! ar*itect b obs]vation ( _! in/allation is necess>y = a compreh5sion ( actual work+ conditions4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! "w be made t (1 fir/1 acquir+ an idea ( e/abli%$ practice1 & second1 t ( inve/igat+ ! examples ( its application4 ,,cont5ts ,,preface v ,,*apt] ,i ,,page ,,! ,,/eam ,,heat+ ,,plant #a ,heat ( ,vaporization--,/eam ,temp]ature--,gage ,pressure--,absolute ,pressure--,two-pipe ,sy/em--,sep>ate-return ,sy/em--,ov]head or ,drop ,sy/em--,wat]-fill$ ,radiators--,air ,v5ts--,automatic ,air ,v5ts--,/eam ,radiator ,valves--,! ,h\se-heat+ ,/eam ,boil]--,boil] ,trimm+s--,! ,wat] ,column--,! ,/eam ,gage--,! ,safety ,valve--,! ,draft ,regulator--,rule = ,proportion+ ,radiators--,proportion+ ! ,size ( ,ma9s--,=ms ( ,radiators--,radiator ,f9i%+s--,pipe ,cov]+s--,vapor-sy/em ,heat+4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,hot-,,wat] ,,heat+ ,,plant #cg ,! ,l[-pressure ,hot-wat] ,sy/em--,! ,high-pressure ,hot-wat] ,sy/em--,heat+-plant ,design--,ov]head ,sy/em ( ,hot-wat] ,heat+--,expansion ,tanks--,radiator ,connection--,hot-wat] ,radiators--,hot-wat] ,radiator ,valves--,air ,v5ts--,automatic ,hot-wat] ,air ,v5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,hot-,,air ,,furnace #ea ,con/ruction--,furnace-gas ,leaks--,location ( ! ,furnace--,flues--,comb9ation ,hot-air & ,hot-wat] ,heat]4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,temp]ature ,,regulation #ei ,h& ,regulation--,damp] ,regulator = ,/eam ,boil]--,damp] ,regulators = ,hot-wat] ,furnaces--,! ,!rmo/at ,motor--,comb9$ ,!rmo/at & ,damp] ,regulator--,!rmo/at-motor ,connections4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,managem5t ,,( ,,heat+ ,,plants #gj ,g5]al ,advice--,! ,economy ( ,good ,draft--,g5]al ,fir+ ,rules--,wea!r & ,"t ( ,day--,night ,fir+--,fir/-day ,fir+--,o!r ,day ,fir+--,economy & ,fuels--,= ,burn+ ,s(t ,coal--,= ,burn+ ,coke--,o!r ,rules = ,wat] ,boil]s--,air-v5t ,valves on ,radiators--,! ,air ,valves--,end ( ! ,season--,! ,"r ,*imney ,flue--8,smokey0 ,*imneys4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,plumb+ #hb ,wat] ,supply--,wat] ,cocks--,bibb-cocks--,self-clos+ ,bibbs--,lev]-h&le ,bibbs--,full] ,cocks--,wa%-tray ,bibbs--,bas9 ,cocks--,pantry ,cocks--,sill ,cocks--,valves--,kit*5 & ,laundry ,fixtures--,! ,ba?room--,ba? ,tubs--,wa% ,/&s & ,lavatories--,traps--,back-v5t+--,soil ,pipe--,wat] ,closets--,wa%\t ,closets--,wa%d[n ,closets--,siphon-jet ,closet--,flu% ,tanks--,l[-d[n ,flu% ,tank--,op5+ ,/opp$ ,pipes--,sew] ,gas--,range ,boil]s--,! ,wat]-back--,excessive ,pressure--,bl[-(f ,cock--,location ( ,range ,boil]--,d\ble ,heat] ,connections--,horizontal ,range ,boil]s--,tank ,heat]s--,ov]heat] ,wat]--,furnace ,hot-wat] ,heat]s--,in/antane\s ,heat]s4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,wat] ,,supply #abe ,wat] ,analysis--,pokegama ,wat]--,riv] ,wat]--,artesian ,wat]--,m$ical ,wat]--,organic ,matt]--,ammonia--,h>dness 9 ,wat]--,iron 9 ,wat]--,wat] ,s(t5+ ,) ,hydrat$ ,silicates--,*lor9e--,pollut$ ,wat]--,pollution ( ,wells--,safe ,di/ance 9 ! ,location ( ,wells--,surface ,pollution ( ,wells--,wat] ,table--,! ,div9+ ,rod--,selection ( a ,type ( ,well--,fl[+ ,wells--,con/ruction ( ,wells--,dug ,wells--,op5 ,wells--,! ,ideal ,well--,cov]+s ( ,concrete--,artesian ,wells--,driv5 ,wells--,bor$ ,wells--,clean+ ,wells--,gases 9 ,wells--,peculi>ities ( ,wells--,brea?+ ,well--,freez+ ,wells--,pumps--,! ,lift ,pump--,! ,=ce ,pump--,tank ,pump--,well ,pumps--,wood5 ,pump--,pumps = ,driv5 ,wells--,deep-well ,pumps--,tubul> ,well ,cyl9d]s--,*a9 ,pumps--,ra9 ,wat] ,ci/]ns--,filt]s--,! ,hydraulic ,ram--,s+le-act+ ,hydraulic ,ram--,! ,d\ble-act+ ,hydraulic ,ram--,dome/ic ,wat]-supply ,plants--,gravity ,wat] ,supply--,pressure-tank ,sy/em ( ,wat] ,supply--,! ,pressure ,tank--,p[] ,wat]-supply ,plants--,electric ,p[] ,wat] ,supply--,! ,wat] ,lift4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,sewage ,,disposal #afh ,! ,septic ,tank--,! ,septic ,tank ,) a ,s&-b$ ,filt]--,! ,septic ,tank & ,ana]obic ,filt]--,limit ( ,effici5cy4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,coal #ahb ,oxidation ( ,hydroc>bons--,graphitic ,an?racite--,cannel ,coal--,lignite--,peat--,wood--,*>coal-- ,coke--,gas-coke--,briquettes --,comp>ative ,value ( ,coal to ,o!r ,fuels--,price ( ,coal4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,atmosph]ic ,,humidity #aif ,humidity ( ! ,air--,relative ,humidity--,! ,hygromet]--,! ,hygrodeik--,dial ,hygromet]s--,! ,swiss ,cottage 8,b>omet]0--,dew-po9t--,to ,det]m9e ! ,dew-po9t--,fro/ ,pr$iction--,prev5tion ( ,fro/--,humidify+ ,app>atus4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,v5tilation #bai ,quantity ( ,air ,dis*>g$ by a ,flue--,co/ ( ,v5tilation--,! ,wolp]t ,air ,te/]--,pneumatic ,temp]ature ,regulation--,me*anical ,v5tilation--,! ,pl5um ,me?od--,v5tilation ,app>atus--,air ,condition+--,humidify+ ,plants--,vaporization z a ,cool+ ,ag5t--,air-cool+ ,plants--,humidity ,control4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,gase\s ,,& ,,liquid ,,fuels #bej ,gase\s & ,liquid ,fuels--,coal ,gas--,all-oil ,wat] ,gas--,p9ts* ,gas--,blau ,gas--,wat] ,gas--,measurem5t ( ,gas--,gas ,met]s ,h[ to ,read ! ,index--,prepaym5t ,met]s--,gas-s]vice ,rules--,gas ,ranges--,light+ & ,heat+ ) ,gasol9e--,gasol9e--,k]os5e--,! ,cold-process ,gas ,ma*9e--,! ,holl[-wire ,sy/em ( ,gasol9e ,light+ & ,heat+--,mantle ,gas ,lamps--,op5-flame ,gas ,burn]s--,! ,inv]t$-mantle ,gasol9e ,lamp--,portable ,gasol9e ,lamp--,c5tral ,g5]ator ,plants--,c5tral-g5]ator ,gas ,lamps--,b\lev>d ,lamps--,gasol9e ,sad ,irons--,alcohol ,sad ,irons--,alcohol ,table ,/oves--,dang] f ,gase\s & ,liquid ,fuels--,acetyl5e-gas ,ma*9e--,types ( ,acetyl5e ,g5]ators--,gas ,light]s--,acetyl5e ,/oves4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,electricity #cje ,inc&esc5t ,electric ,lamps--,! ,mazda ,lamp--,c&lep[]--,lamp ,labels--,illum9ation--,! ,foot-c&le--,! ,lum5--,reflectors--,*oice ( ,reflector--,lamp ,trans=m]s--,units ( ,electrical ,measurem5ts--,m9iature ,lamps--,effects ( ,voltage ,v>iations--,turn-d[n ,electric ,lamps--,! ,dim-a-lite--,gas-fill$ ,lamps--,daylight ,lamps--,m9iature ,tung/5 ,lamps--,fla% ,lights--,! ,electric ,flat-iron--,! ,electric ,toa/]--,motors1 ,fuse ,plugs--,electric ,heat]s--,int]communicat+ ,telephones--,electric ,signals--,buzz]s--,burgl> ,al>ms--,annunciators--,table ,pu%es--,bell-r++ ,trans=m]s--,! ,record+ ,wattmet]--,to ,read ! ,met]--,/ate ,regulation ( ,met] ,s]vice--,electric ,batt]ies--,batt]y ,=mation--,batt]y ,te/]s--,electric ,conductors--,lamp ,cord--,portable ,cord--,annunciator ,wire--,private ,electric ,g5]at+ ,plants--,/orage ,batt]ies--,! ,pilot ,cell--,national ,electrical ,code--,electric ,light ,wir+--,outlet ,boxes--,automatic ,door ,swit*--,plug ,receptacles--,heat] ,swit*1 ,pilot & ,receptacle--,s]vice ,swit*--,local ,swit*es--,pilot ,lights--,wall & ,ceil+ ,sockets--,drop ,lights4 ,,index #che ,,me*anics ,,( ,,! ,,h\sehold ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,/eam ,,heat+ ,,plant ,! use ( /eam z a means ( heat+ dwell+s is common 9 e "p ( ! civiliz$ _w4 ,plants ( all sizes are con/ruct$1 t n only give satisfactory s]vice b are effici5t 9 ! use ( fuel1 & require ! m9imum am\nt ( att5tion4 ,! manufacture ( /eam heat+ app>atus has come to be a di/9ct indu/ry1 & repres5ts a special bran* ( eng9e]+4 ,_m manufactur+ companies1 pursue ?is l9e ( bus9ess exclusively4 ,! result has be5 ! developm5t ( _m di/9ctive features & sy/ems ( /eam heat+1 t are v excell5t = ! purposes int5d$4 ,practice has %[n t l>ge plants c be op]at$ m economically ?an small ones4 ,/eam may be c>ri$ ?r\gh und]gr\nd1 insulat$ pipes to great di/ances ) b small loss ( heat4 ,?is has lead to ! sale ( exhau/ /eam1 f ! eng9es ( manufactur+ plants1 = heat+ purposes & ! e/abli%m5t ( community heat+ plants1 :]e ! dwell+s ( a neighborhood are heat$ f a c5tral heat+ plant2 ea* subscrib] pay+ = 8 heat accord+ to ! numb] ( squ>e feet ( radiat+ surface 8 h\se conta9s4 ,9 ! practice mo/ commonly foll[$1 ) small /eam heat+ plants1 ! /eam is g5]at$ 9 a boil] locat$ at any conv5i5t place1 b commonly 9 ! basem5t4 ,! /eam is di/ribut$ ?r\gh insulat$ pipes to ! rooms1 :]e x gives up its heat to ca/-iron radiators1 & f !m x is imp>t$ to ! air2 p>tly by radiation b mo/ ( ! heat is transmitt$ to ! air 9 direct contact ) ! radiator surface4 ,! heat+ capacity ( a radiator is det]m9$ by its outside surface area1 & is commonly t]m$1 radiat+ surface or heat+ surface4 ,radiators ( diff]5t /yles & sizes are li/$ by manufactur]s1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( heat+ surface ea* possesses4 ,radiators are sold at a def9ite am\nt p] squ>e foot1 & may be made to conta9 any am\nt ( heat+ surface1 = diff]5t heights f #ab to #de in*es4 ,! widespread use ( /eam z a means ( heat+ build+s is due to its rem>kable heat cont5t4 ,:5 wat] is conv]t$ into vapor ! *ange is att5d$ by ! absorption ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat4 ,no matt] at :at temp]ature wat] is evaporat$1 a def9ite quantity ( heat is requir$ to m]ely *ange ! wat] into vapor )\t *ang+ its temp]ature4 ,! heat us$ to vaporize wat] 9 a /eam boil] is giv5 up 9 ! radiators :5 ! /eam is cond5s$4 ,x is because ( ?is prop]ty t /eam is su* a conv5i5t vehicle = transf]r+ heat f ! furnace--:]e x is g5]at$--to ! place to be w>m$4 ,?is heat ( vaporization is really ! prop]ty :i* gives to /eam its usefulness z a means ( heat+4 ,heat ( ,vaporization4--,! temp]ature ( ! /eam is comp>atively an unimportant factor 9 ! am\nt ( heat giv5 up by ! radiator4 ,x is ! heat lib]at$ at ! "t ! /eam *anges f vapor to wat] t produces ! greate/ effect 9 *ang+ ! temp]ature ( ! h\se4 ,?is evolution ( heat by cond5sation is sometimes call$ ! lat5t heat ( vaporization4 ,x is ! heat t 0 us$ up 9 *ang+ ! wat] to vapor4 ,! foll[+ table ( ! prop]ties ( /eam %[s ! temp]atures & exact am\nts ( lat5t heat t correspond to v>i\s pressures4 ,:5 wat] at ! boil+ po9t is turn$ into /eam at ! same temp]ature1 !re are requir$ #ife4g ,b4t4u4 = ea* p\nd ( wat] *ang$ into /eam4 ,9 ! table1 ?is is ! lat5t heat ( ! vapor ( wat] at #j1 gage pressure4 ,z ! pressure & correspond+ temp]ature rise1 ! lat5t heat becomes less4 ,at #aj p\nds gage pressure1 ! temp]ature ( ! /eam is practically #bdj;,f41 b ! heat ( vaporization is #idf !rmal units4 ,:5 ! /eam is *ang$ back into wat]1 z x is :5 cond5s$ 9 ! radiators1 ?is lat5t heat becomes s5sible & is t :i* heats ! rooms4 ,! /eam ent]s ! radiators &1 com+ into contact ) ! relatively cold] walls1 is cond5s$4 ,z cond5sation takes place1 ! lat5t heat ( ! /eam becomes s5sible heat & is absorb$ by ! radiators & !n transf]r$ to ! air ( ! rooms4 ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,/eam ---------------------------------------- - ,absolute ,gage ,temp]ature ,lat5t pressure pressure heat ---------------------------------------- - #j #ad4g #bab4jj #ife4gj #a #ae4j #bac4jd #ifd4if #b #af4j #baf4cc #ifb4fc #c #ag4j #bai4de #ifj4di #d #ah4j #bbj4dj #ieh4cb #e #ai4j #bbe4be #ieh4cj #f #bj4j #bbg4ie #ied4ch #g #ba4j #bcj4fj #ieb4ej #h #bb4j #bcc4aj #iej4fb #i #bc4j #bce4di #idi4jc #aj #bd4j #bcg4ha #idg4cg #aa #be4j #bdj4jg #ide4gf #ab #bf4j #bdb4bd #idd4be #ac #bg4j #bdd4cb #idb4gd #ad #bh4j #bdf4ce #ida4bi #ae #bi4j #bdh4cc #ici4hh #af #cj4j #bej4bf #ich4ej #ag #ca4j #beb4ac #icg4ag #ah #cb4j #bec4ih #ice4de #ai #cc4j #bee4gg #icd4eg #bj #cd4j #beg4eb #icc4cb #ba #ce4j #bei4bb #icb4aj #bb #cf4j #bfj4hh #icj4ib #bc #cg4j #bfb4ej #ibi4gf #bd #ch4j #bfd4ji #ibh4fb #be #ci4j #bfe4fe #ibg4ea ---------------------------------------- - ,:5ev] wat] is evaporat$1 heat is us$ up at a rate t 9 am\nt dep5ds on its temp]ature & ! quantity ( wat] vaporiz$4 ,?is heat ( vaporization is important1 n only 9 problems :i* relate to /eam heat+ b 9 all o!rs :]e vapor ( wat] ex]ts an influ5ce--v5tilation ( build+s1 atmosph]ic humidity1 ! =mation ( fro/1 refrig]ation1 & _m o!r applications 9 practice2 ?is factor is "o ( ! important items 9 quantitative det]m9ations ( heat4 ,x w appe> repeat$ly 9 consid]+ v5tilation & humidity4 ,at temp]atures bel[ ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 ! heat ( vaporization gradually increases until1 at ! freez+ po9t1 x is #ajib ,b4t4u4 ,wat] vaporizes at all temp]atures--ev5 ice evaporates--& ! cool+ effect produc$ by evaporation f spr9kl$ /reets 9 summ]1 or ! *ill+ s5sation br\ght ab\t by ! w9ds ( w9t] are caus$ l>gely because ( its effect4 ,! evaporation ( p]spiration f ! body is "o ( ! means ( keep+ x cool4 ,at ! temp]ature ( ! body #ih4f ! heat ( vaporization is #ajdf ,b4t4u4 ,/eam ,temp]atures4--,:ile ! temp]ature ( /eam is an unimportant factor 9 ! heat+ ( build+s !re are _m uses 9 :i* x is ( ! greate/ consequ5ce4 ,:5 /eam is employ$ = cook+ or bak+ x is n ! quantity ( heat b its int5sity t is necess>y = ! accompli%m5t ( its purpose4 ,/eam cook]s mu/ "w at a temp]ature suitable to ! articles "u prep>ation1 & ! l5g? ( "t requir$ 9 ! process4 ,exam9ation ( ! table on page #c1 w %[ t /eam at ! pressure ( ! air or #j1 gage pressure1 has a temp]ature ( #bab;,f41 :i* = boil+ is suffici5tly int5se = ord9>y cook+2 b = all conditions requir$ ( /eam cook+1 a pressure ( #be p\nds gage pressure is requir$4 ,! temp]ature correspond+ to #be p\nds is %[n 9 ! table z #bfg;,f4 ,bak+ temp]atures = ov5 bak+ z = bread requires temp]atures ( #djj;,f4 or high]4 ,to bake by /eam at t temp]ature w\ld require a gage pressure ( #ahe p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,! ,briti% !rmal unit is ! ,engli% unit ( measure ( heat4 ,x is ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] #a;,f4 ,f ! table x w be se5 t /eam at #aj p\nds gage pressure1 is only #bg4d hott] ?an x 0 at #j p\nds4 ,9 rais+ ! pressure ( a p\nd ( /eam f #j to #aj p\nds1 ! /eam ga9$ only #bg4d ,b4t4u4 ( heat4 ,! am\nt ( heat ga9$ by rais+ ! pressure to #aj p\nds is small z comp>$ ) ! heat x receiv$ on vaporiz+4 ,! extra fuel us$ up 9 rais+ ! pressure is n well exp5d$4 ,x is cu/om>y1 !re=e1 9 heat+ plants1 to use only en\gh pressure 9 ! boil] to c>ry ! /eam ?r\gh ! sy/em4 ,?is am\nt is r>ely m ?an #aj p\nds & (t5] b #c or #d p\nds pressure4 ,gage ,pressure--,absolute ,pressure4--,9 ! practice ( eng9e]+ among ,engli% speak+ p1 pressures are /at$ 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 above ! atmosph]e4 ,?is is t]m$ gage pressure4 ,x is t indicat$ by ! gages ( boil]s1 tanks1 etc41 subject$ to int]nal pressure4 ,"u ord9>y conditions ! t]m pressure is und]/ood to mean gage pressure1 ! #j po9t be+ t ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is sy/em requires pressures bel[ t ( ! atmosph]e to be express$ z a p>tial vacuum1 a complete vacuum be+ #ad4g p\nds bel[ ! normal atmosph]ic pressure4 ,9 ord] to measure positively all pressures above a vacuum1 ! normal atmosph]e is #ad4g p\nds2 all pressures above t po9t are cont9u$ on ! same scale1 ?us3 ,gage pressure #j #ad4g absolute ,gage pressure #aj #aj #ad4g #bd4g absolute ,gage pressure #bj #bj #ad4g #cd4g absolute ,absolute pressures are1 !re=e1 ^? ( ! gage plus ! additional am\nt due to ! atmosph]e4 ,all ref]5ces to pressure 9 ?is "w are int5d$ to indicate gage pressure unless specifically m5tion$ z absolute pressure4 ,/eam heat+ z appli$ to build+s may be consid]$ "u two g5]al me?ods3 ! pressure sy/em 9 :i* /eam "u pressure above ! atmosph]e is utiliz$ to procure circulation2 & ! vacuum sy/em 9 :i* ! /eam is us$ at a pressure bel[ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,ea* ( ^! sy/ems is us$ "u a great v>iety ( conditions1 & to "s is appli$ specific names b ! pr9ciple ( op]ation is v mu* ! same 9 all ( a s+le class4 ,/eam heat+ plants are n[ seldom in/all$ 9 ! av]age home b !y are v mu* employ$ 9 ap>tm5t h\ses & ! l>g] resid5ces4 ,9 l>ge build+s & 9 gr\ps ( build+s heat$ f a c5tral po9t1 /eam is us$ = heat+ almo/ exclusively4 ,! type ( plant employ$ = any giv5 condition w dep5d on ! ar*itecture ( ! build+s & _! surr\nd+s4 ,9 v l>ge build+s & 9 gr\ps ( build+s1 ! vacuum sy/em is v g5]ally employ$4 ,?is sy/em has1 z a special field ( heat+1 ! elaborate plants requir$ 9 l>ge units4 ,! l[-pressure gravity sy/em ( heat+ is us$ 9 build+s ( mod]ate size1 l>ge resid5ces1 s*ools1 *ur*es1 ap>tm5t h\ses1 & ! l4 ,"u ?is =m ( /eam heat+ is to be includ$ vapor heat+ sy/ems4 ,?is is ! same z ! l[-pressure plant except t x op]ates "u pressure only slightly above ! atmosph]e & possesses features t frequ5tly recomm5d its use ov] any o!r =m ( /eam heat+4 ,! t]m vapor heat+ is us$ to di/+ui% x f ! l[-pressure sy/em4 ,! l[-pressure gravity sy/em1 ) :i* we are mo/ conc]n$1 takes its "n f ! conditions "u :i* x works4 ,! l[ pressure ref]s to ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil]1 :i* is g5]ally #c or #d p\nds2 & s9ce ! wat] ( cond5sation fl[s back to ! boil] by reason ( gravity1 x is a gravity sy/em4 ,! plac+ ( ! pipes :i* are to c>ry ! /eam to ! radiators & return ! wat] ( cond5sation to ! boil] may consi/ ( "o or bo? ( two /&>d arrangem5ts4 ,!y are kn[n z ! s+le-pipe sy/em & ! two-pipe sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,diagram ( a gravity sy/em /eam heat+ plant4 ,fig4 #a %[s a diagram ( a s+le-pipe sy/em 9 its simple/ =m4 ,9 ! figure ! pipe m>k$ supply & return1 connects ! boil] ) ! radiators4 ,f ! v]tical pipe call$ a ris]1 ! /eam is tak5 to ! radiators ?r\gh bran* pipes t all slope t[>d ! ris]1 s t ! wat] ( cond5sation may readily fl[ back into ! boil]4 ,! wat] ( cond5sation1 return+ to ! boil]1 mu/ "u ?is condition1 fl[ 9 a direction contr>y to ! c\rse ( ! /eam supply+ ! radiators4 ,9 ,fig4 #b is giv5 a simple application ( ?is sy/em4 ,a s+le pipe f ! top ( ! boil]1 9 ! basem5t1 m>k$ supply & return pipe1 connects ) "o radiator on ! floor above4 ,! radiator & all ( ! connect+ pipes are set to dra9 ! wat] ( cond5sation into ! boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,a simple =m ( /eam heat+ plant4 ,! furnace fire is controll$ by a !rmo/at & a damp] regulator4 ,:5 ! valve is op5$ to admit /eam to ! radiator1 ! air v5t mu/ also be op5$ to all[ ! escape ( ! conta9$ air4 ,! /eam w n diffuse ) ! air 9 ! radiator & unless ! air is all[$ to escape1 ! /eam w n ent]4 ,z ! /eam ent]s ! cold radiator1 x is rapidly cond5s$1 & collects on ! walls 9 ! =m ( dew1 at ! same "t giv+ up its lat5t heat4 ,! heat is lib]at$ z cond5sation takes place1 & z ! dew =ms on ! radiator walls ! heat is conduct$ directly to ! iron4 ,! wat] runs to ! bottom ( ! radiator & !n ?r\gh ! pipes2 back to ! boil]4 ,! wat] occupies b relatively a little space & may return ?r\gh ! same pipe1 :ile m /eam is ent]+ ! radiator4 ,z ! /eam cond5ses 9 ! radiator1 its r$uction 9 volume t5ds to r$uce ! pressure & ?us aids additional /eam f ! boil] to ent]4 ,9 ?is mann] a con/ant supply ( heat ent]s ! radiator 9 ! =m ( /eam :i* :5 cond5s$ goes back to ! boil] at a temp]ature v ne> ! boil+ po9t to be revaporiz$4 ,x %\ld be kept 9 m9d t x is ! heat ( vaporization1 n ! temp]ature ( ! /eam t is utiliz$ 9 ! radiator1 & t ! heat ( vaporization is ! vehicle ( transf]4 ,! wat] return+ to ! boil] may be at ! boil+ po9t & ! /eam supply+ ! heat to ! radiators may be at ! same temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,a gravity sy/em /eam heat+ plant ( two radiators4 ,! furnace is gov]n$ by a !rmo/at4 ,fig4 #c is a slightly diff]5t arrangem5t ( ! same boil] z t %[n 9 ,fig4 #b1 connect$ ) two radiators on diff]5t floors4 ,! same ris] supplies bo? radiators ) /eam & takes ! wat] ( cond5sation back to ! boil]4 ,fig4 #d is an example ( ! s+le-pipe sy/em appli$ to a small h\se4 ,9 ! draw+1 ! boil] 9 ! basem5t is %[n connect$ ) f\r radiators on ! fir/ floor & ?ree on ! second floor4 ,! pipes connect+ ) ! m di/ant radiators are only ext5sions ( ! pipes connect+ ! radiators ne> ! boil]4 ,z 9 ,figs4 #a1 #b & #c1 all ( ! pipes & radiators are set to dra9 back into ! boil]4 ,if at any place ! pipe is s grad$ t a "p ( ! wat] is reta9$1 poor circulation w result1 because ( ! re/rict$ area ( ! pipe1 & ! radiators w n be prop]ly heat$4 ,?is lack ( dra9age is also a common cause ( hamm]+ & p\nd+ 9 /eam sy/ems1 kn[n z wat]-hamm]4 ,! =mation ( wat]-hamm] is caus$ by /eam fl[+ ?r\gh a wat]-re/rict$ area1 into a cold "p ( ! sy/em1 :]e cond5sation takes place v rapidly4 ,! cond5sation ( ! /eam is s rapid & complete t ! result+ vacuum draws ! trapp$ wat] into ! space ) ! =ce ( a hamm] /roke4 ,! hamm]+ w cont9ue s long z ! conditions exi/4 ,! pipes 9 ! basem5t are susp5d$ f ! floor joi/s by hang]s z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,9 practice ! pipes 9 ! basem5t are cov]$ ) "s =m ( insulat+ mat]ial to prev5t loss ( heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,! gravity sy/em /eam heat+ plant in/all$ 9 a dwell+4 ,z /at$ above1 ! s+le-pipe sy/em may be successfully us$ 9 all h\se-heat+ plants except ^? ( l>ge size4 ,x requires ! lea/ am\nt ( pipe & labor = in/allation ( ! circulat+ sy/em & :5 well con/ruct$ p]=ms v satisfactorily all ( ! functions requir$ 9 a small heat+ plant4 ,"o ( ! commone/ causes ( tr\ble 9 a s+le-pipe sy/em is due to ! radiator connections4 ,! s+le radiator connection requires ! ent]+ /eam & escap+ wat] ( cond5sation to pass ?r\gh ! same op5+4 ,"u ord9>y conditions ?is d\ble (fice ( ! radiator valve is accompli%$ ) satisfaction b occasionally x is ! cause ( consid]able noise4 ,at any "t ! valve is left only p>tly op5 ! /eam w ent] & cond5se because ( ! l[] pressure inside ! radiator b ! cond5s$ wat] w n be able to escape4 ,! wat] has only ! =ce ( gravity to c>ry x out ( ! radiators & if x meets no opposition w fl[ back ?r\gh ! pipe to ! boil]2 b if x is requir$ to pass a small op5+ ?r\gh :i* /eam is fl[+ 9 a contr>y direction1 ! wat] w be reta9$ 9 ! radiators4 ,s+le-pipe radiators1 !re=e1 "w satisfactorily only "u conditions :i* w p]mit ! /eam to ent] & ! wat] to leave z fa/ z x is =m$4 ,9 ord9>y use ! valve at any "t is apt to be left slightly op5 & ?is produces undesirable work+ conditions4 ,9 l>g] build+s1 :]e great] di/ances require long] runs ( pipe & m complicat$ connections1 & :]e ! volume ( cond5s$ /eam is too great to be tak5 c>e ( 9 a s+le pipe1 ?is sy/em does n "w satisfactorily4 ,two-pipe ,sy/em4--,fig4 #e is a diagram ( a two-pipe sy/em4 ,"h1 ea* radiator has a supply pipe1 ?r\gh :i* ! /eam ent]s1 & a return pipe :i* conducts ! wat] away4 ,! bran* pipes f a common supply pipe or ris]1 c>ry /eam to ! v>i\s radiators & all ( ! return pipes empty into a s+le return pipe t takes ! wat] back to its s\rce4 ,x w be notic$ t 9 ?is case ! ris] also connects at ! bottom ) ! return pipe4 ,?is connection is made = ! purpose ( conduct+ away ! cond5sation t takes place 9 ! connect+ pipes4 ,! wat] w always /& 9 ^! pipes1 at ! same height z ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,! supply pipe f ! boil]1 & ! bran* pipes connect+ ! radiators all slope t[>d ! ris]4 ,! cond5sation 9 ! connect+ pipes does n pass ?r\gh ! radiators z x returns to ! boil]4 ,an exception to ?is g5]al rule is %[n 9 ! radiator on ! second floor4 ,9 ?is case ! supply pipe slopes d[nw>d z x approa*es ! radiator4 ,to prev5t c>ry+ wat] ?r\gh ! radiator1 a small pipe "u ! left-h& valve connects ) ! return pipe & ! wat] is ?us conduct$ to ! ma9 return pipe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,diagram %[+ ! arrangem5t ( a two-pipe /eam plant4 ,fig4 #f is a simple application ( ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,! /eam may be easily trac$ f ! boil] to ! radiators1 & back ?r\gh ! return pipes to its s\rce4 ,! pipe m>k$ ,r is ! connection betwe5 ! ma9 supply pipe & ! return pipe t takes away ! cond5sation ( ! ris]4 ,x is connect$ to ! ma9 return pipe bel[ ! wat] l9e ( ! boil] &1 !re=e1 does n int]f]e 9 any way ) ! passage ( ! /eam4 ,ea* radiator empties its wat] ( cond5sation into a common return pipe1 t f9ally connects ) ! boil] bel[ ! wat] l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a two-pipe /eam heat+ plant4 ,?is arrangem5t may be elaborat$ to almo/ any ext5t & is an improvem5t ov] ! s+le-pipe sy/em4 ,x is q commonly us$ z a me?od ( /eam di/ribution1 b x lacks ! requir$ elem5ts necess>y to a positive circulation4 ,z an example3 ,suppose t ! plant %[n 9 ,fig4 #f is work+ & t ! radiator on ! fir/ floor is hot1 b ! valves ( ! radiator on ! second floor are clos$ & x is cold4 ,! /eam ent]+ at ! valve ,a ( ! l[] radiator is be+ cond5s$ z fa/ z ! heat is radiat$4 ,! /eam w pass on ?r\gh ! valve ,b into ! return pipe & z soon z ! return pipe becomes hot x w conta9 /eam at practically ! same pressure z t 9 ! supply pipe4 ,?is is :at takes place 9 e work+ /eam plant4 ,n[ suppose t x is desir$ to heat ! radiator on ! floor above4 ,! /eam valve ,a ( ! upp] radiator is op5$ to admit /eam & ! return valve is also op5$ to all[ ! wat] to escape4 ,!re is /eam 9 bo? ! supply & return pipes ( ! radiator bel[ at ! same pressure1 ea* t5d+ to s5d /eam into ! radiator above at opposite ends4 ,?is w\ld make a condition exactly ! same z a s+le-pipe sy/em1 ) a supply pipe at bo? ends ( ! radiator & ! result w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be ! same z 9 ! s+le-pipe sy/em4 ,!re be+ no place = ! wat] to escape except aga9/ ! incom+ /eam1 ! wat] w sometimes surge back & =? ) ! cu/om>y noises peculi> to su* conditions4 ,x mu/ n be und]/ood t ?is w always occur1 because sy/ems ( ?is k9d are 9 use ) fairly good results1 b noisy radiators are n at all r>e :5 work+ "u ?is condition & ! cause is f t describ$4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty & *ange ! sy/em into "o 9 :i* !re w\ld be a positive circulation f ,a to ,b1 9 ea* radiator1 all[+ ! /eam always to ent] at ! valve ,a & escape at ,b1 ! sy/em mu/ be *ang$ to t ( sep>ate returns4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,diagram ( a sep>ate return /eam sy/em4 ,sep>ate-return ,sy/em4--,a diagram ( a sep>ate-return sy/em is %[n 9 ,fig4 #g4 ,9 ?is figure1 ! radiator1 boil] & supply pipes are ! same z ^? ( ,fig4 #e1 b !re is a sep>ate return pipe f ea* ( ! radiators1 connect+ ) ! ma9 return pipe at a po9t bel[ ! wat] l9e ( ! boil]4 ,exam9ation ( ?is diagram w %[ t !re is an indep5d5t circuit = ! /eam ?r\gh ea* radiator4 ,! /eam is tak5 f a common ris] z be=e b aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! radiator ! wat] is return$ by a sep>ate pipe to ! ma9 return pipe at ! bottom ( ! boil]4 ,fig4 #h is an application ( sep>ate-return sy/em4 ,x is exactly ! same z ,fig4 #f1 except t ea* radiator has an indep5d5t return pipe4 ,/eam mu/ always ent] ! radiators at ! valves ,a & leave at ! valves ,b4 ,?is makes a positive circulation t r5d]s ea* radiator indep5d5t ( ! o!rs4 ,!re is no opportunity = /eam to pass ?r\gh "o radiator & int]f]e ) ! return wat] ( ano!r2 x1 !re=e1 prev5ts ! possibility ( hamm]+ or surg+ s common 9 poorly design$ /eam sy/ems4 ,( all ! me?ods ( /eam heat+ :]e ! wat] ( cond5sation is return$ to ! boil] by reason ( gravity ?is is ! mo/ satisfactory4 ,?is plant requires a l>g] am\nt ( pipe ?an ! o!r sy/ems describ$ & z a consequ5ce ! co/ ( in/allation is great] b x repays 9 excell5ce ( s]vice ! extra exp5se incurr$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,a sep>ate return heat+ plant4 ,ov]head or ,drop ,sy/em4--,!re is yet ano!r gravity sy/em ( /eam heat+ t is sometimes us$ 9 l>ge build+s :]e economy 9 ! use ( pipe is desir$2 ?is is ! ov]head or drop sy/em %[n 9 ,fig4 #i4 ,x is n a common me?od ( pip+ & is giv5 "h only because ( its occasional use4 ,9 ! arrangem5t ( ! drop sy/em1 ! supply pipe = ! radiators rises f ! boil] to ! highe/ po9t ( ! sy/em & ! bran* pipes = ! radiators are tak5 (f f ! desc5d+ pipe4 ,its action is ! same z t ( a s+le-pipe sy/em b ! advantage ga9$ by ! arrangem5t is t ! /eam 9 ! ma9 supply pipes travels 9 ! same direction z ! return+ wat] ( cond5sation2 ! cause ( surg+ 9 long ris]s is ?us elim9at$4 ,! two-pipe sy/ems ( /eam heat+ are m c]ta9 9 action ?an ! s+le-pipe me?ods because !re is no?+ to int]f]e ) ! progress ( ! /eam on its way to ! radiators4 ,9 long bran* pipes ( ! s+le-pipe sy/em1 ! return+ wat] is frequ5tly caught by ! advanc+ /eam & c>ri$ to ! end ( ! pipe1 :5 slugg+ & surg+ is ! result4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,diagram ( ! ov]head or drop sy/em /eam plant4 ,wat]-fill$ ,radiators4--,radiators frequ5tly fill ) wat] & are noisy because ( ! position ( ! valve4 ,?is may be true 9 any gravity sy/em b p>ticul>ly s 9 radiators hav+ a s+le pipe4 ,:5 ! valve ( a s+le-pipe radiator is op5$ a v small am\nt1 ! ent]+ /eam is imm$iately cond5s$ b ! wat] _c escape because ! incom+ /eam entirely fills ! op5+4 ,"u ?is condition1 ! radiator may entirely fill ) wat]4 ,if ! valve is !n op5$ wide1 ! imprison$ wat] has an opportunity to escape :ile ! /eam is ent]+1 b ! ent]+ /eam & escap+ wat] sets up a wat]-hamm] t sometimes is t]rific & la/s until ! wat] is dis*>g$ f ! radiator4 ,! same condition may exi/ 9 a two-pipe sy/em1 if ! /eam valve is slightly op5$ :ile ! escape valve is clos$1 b 9 a well-design$ sy/em ! radiator w be imm$iately empti$ :5 bo? valves are op54 ,air ,v5ts4--,all radiators mu/ be provid$ ) air v5ts4 ,! v5t is plac$ ne> ! top ( ! la/ loop ( ! radiator1 at ! end opposite f ! ent]+ /eam1 z indicat$ 9 ,figs4 #b1 #c1 #f1 etc4 ,! object ( ! v5t is to all[ ! air to escape f ! radiator z ! /eam ent]s4 ,/eam w n diffuse ) ! air &1 !re=e1 _c ent] ! radiator until ! air is dis*>g$4 ,! air v5t may be a simple cock su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj1 t mu/ be op5$ by h& :5 ! /eam is turn$ on1 to all[ ! air to escape1 & clos$ :5 ! /eam appe>s at ! v5t2 or x may be an automatic v5t1 t op5s :5 ! radiator cools & closes automatically :5 ! radiator is fill$ ) /eam4 ,!re are _m makes ( air v5ts ( bo? h&-regulat+ & automatic types2 ( ! =m]1 ,fig4 #aj furni%es a common example4 ,! "p ,a1 9 ! figure1 is ?read$ & screws tightly into a hole made to receive x 9 ! end loop ( ! radiator4 ,! "p ,b is a screw-plug t closes ! passage ,c1 lead+ to ! inside ( ! radiator4 ,:5 ! /eam is turn$ on1 ! v5t mu/ be op5$ until ! air is dis*>g$1 aft] :i* x is clos$ by ! h&-:eel ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,a common =m ( air v5t = radiators4 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,an inexp5sive automatic radiator air v5t4 ,,fig4 #ab4--,mona% ,no4 #af automatic air v5t4 ,,fig4 #ac4--,! ,all5 float1 radiator air v5t4 ,automatic ,air ,v5ts4--,^! v5ts dep5d = _! action on ! expansion ( a "p ( ! valve due to ! temp]ature ( ! /eam4 ,! valve rema9s clos$ :5 hot & op5s :5 cold4 ,! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! /eam & ! expell$ air f ! radiator is ! controll+ factor4 ,9 ! automatic v5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa1 ! "p ,a is screw$ into ! radiator loop4 ,! dis*>ge ,c is op5 to ! air or connect$ ) a drip pipe1 :i* returns ! wat] to ! basem5t4 ,! cyl9d] ,d1 :i* closes ! passage ,b1 is made ( a mat]ial ( a high coeffici5t ( expansion4 ,! piece ,d1 :5 cool1 is contract$ suffici5tly to leave ! passage ,b op5 to ! air4 ,:5 ! /eam is turn$ on1 ! expell$ air f ! radiator escapes ?r\gh ,b & ,c1 b :5 ! /eam rea*es ,d ! heat quickly exp&s ! piece & closes ! v5t4 ,mo/ automatic v5ts require adju/+ :5 put 9 place & occasionally ne$ readju/m5t4 ,! cap ,o1 ( ,fig4 #aa1 may be remov$ ) a wr5* & a screw-driv] us$ to adju/ ! piece ,d1 s z to %ut (f ! /eam :5 ! radiator is fill$ ) /eam4 ,! exp&+ piece is simply screw$ d[n until ! /eam ceases to escape4 ,fig4 #ab is ano!r /yle ( automatic v5t1 con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple z t ( ,fig4 #aa1 b probably m positive 9 action4 ,9 ?is v5t ! "p ,a atta*es to ! radiator4 ,! exp&+ portion ,b is made 9 ! =m ( a holl[ cyl9d]1 ?r\gh :i* ! air & /eam escape to ! atmosph]e4 ,x is long] ?an ! correspond+ piece 9 ! o!r v5t & is m s5sitive because ( its great] l5g? & expos$ surface4 ,z ! piece ,b elongates f expansion1 ! upp] end makes a jo9t ) ! conical piece ,d4 ,! %ape ( ?is latt] piece gives bett] opportunity = a tight jo9t ?an 9 ! o!r =m ( v5t & 9 practice gives bett] s]vice4 ,fig4 #ac is a cross-section ( ! ,all5 v5t4 ,?is is an example ( a v5t :i* dep5ds = its action on a float4 ,:5ev] suffici5t wat] accumulates 9 ! body ( ! v5t to raise ! float1 x closes ! v5t by means ( its buoyancy4 ,! body ( ! v5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #ac is compos$ ( two conc5tric cyl9d]s4 ,! float ,e occupies ! inn] cyl9d]1 :ile surr\nd+ x is ! out] cyl9d] ,d4 ,! out] cyl9d] is entirely clos$ except a little hole at ,g4 ,! float is made ( light metal & fits loosely 9 ! inn] cyl9d]4 ,! /eam f ! radiator cond5ses 9 ! v5t until ! inn] cyl9d] is fill$ ) wat]1 up to ! op5+ ,a4 ,! float by its buoyancy keeps ! op5+ 9 ,b /opp$1 & no /eam c escape4 ,! air ( ! out] cyl9d] ,d is exp&$ by ! heat ( ! /eam & mo/ ( ! air escapes ?r\gh ! hole ,g4 ,:5 ! radiator cools1 ! r>efi$ air 9 ,d contracts & draws ! wat] f ! inn] cyl9d] into ! space ,d2 ?is all[s ! float to fall & un/op ! op5+ 9 ,b4 ,:5 ! /eam aga9 rea*es ! v5t1 ! heat exp&s ! air 9 ,d & =ces ! wat] into ! inn] cyl9d]2 ! float is aga9 rais$ & /ops ! op5+ 9 ,b4 ,_m o!r air v5ts are 9 common use b mo/ ( !m op]ate on "o or ! o!r ( ! pr9ciples describ$4 ,fig4 #aa is a relatively inexp5sive v5t1 :ile ,fig4 #ab is high]-pric$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,/eam radiator valve4 ,,fig4 #ae4--,sectional view ( a /eam radiator valve4 ,/eam ,radiator ,valves4--,l mo/ o!r me*anical appliances t are ext5sively us$1 radiator valves are made by a great numb] ( manufactur]s & 9 _m diff]5t =ms4 ,"s possess special features t are int5d$ to increase _! work+ effici5cy b ! type ( radiator valve mo/ commonly us$ = ord9>y con/ruction is t illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #ad & #ae4 ,x is a /yle ( angle valve t takes ! place ( an elb[ & be+ made ) a union jo9t1 also furni%es a means ( disconnect+ ! radiator )\t di/urb+ ! pipes4 ,fig4 #ad is an outside view ( ! valve & ,fig4 #ae %[s its me*anical con/ruction4 ,! "p ,b screws onto ! end ( ! /eam pipe & ,a connects ) ! radiator4 ,! "p ,c-,d is ! union4 ,! nut ,c screws onto ! valve & makes a /eam-tight jo9t at ,d1 betwe5 ! p>ts4 ,9 case x is desir$ to remove ! radiator1 x furni%es an easy means ( deta*+ ! valve4 ,! composition valve-disc ,e makes a seat on ! brass r+ directly "u x1 to %ut (f ! /eam4 ,9 case ! valve leaks1 ! disc may be remov$ by tak+ ! valve cas+ ap>t at ,g4 ,! worn disc c !n be replac$ ) a new "o :i* may be obta9$ f ! deal] :o furni%$ ! valve4 ,! only mov+ "p ( ! valve expos$ to ! air is at ! po9t :]e ! valve-/em ,s ent]s ! cas+4 ,! jo9t is made /eam-tight by ! pack+ ,p4 ,! pack+ is greas$ c&le wick+ t is w\nd ar\nd ! /em & held tightly 9 place by ! screw-cap ,h4 ,if ! valve leaks at ?is jo9t1 a turn or two ) a wr5* w /op ! escape ( ! /eam4 ,,! ,,h\se-,,heat+ ,,/eam ,,boil] ,h\se-heat+ boil]s 7 =m]ly made ( %eet metal & are /ill s con/ruct$ to "s ext5t1 b by f> ! great] numb] are n[ made ( ca/ iron4 ,%eet-metal boil]s are con/ruct$ at ! factory1 ready to be in/all$1 b ! ca/-iron type is made 9 sections & assembl$ to make a complete boil]1 at ! "t ! plant is erect$4 ,sectional boil]s are conv5i5t to in/all1 on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( h&l+ ! p>ts 9 a limit$ space1 t w\ld n admit an assembl$ boil] )\t te>+ d[n a "p ( ! basem5t = admission4 ,ca/-iron boil]s z commonly us$ = heat+ dwell+s are made 9 two def9ite /yles4 ,! small sizes are cyl9drical 9 =m & are us$ = ei!r /eam or hot-wat] heat+4 ,! l>g] sizes are made z illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #af & #ag1 ! =m] be+ an outside view1 & ! latt] %[+ ! int]nal arrangem5t ( ! same boil]4 ,! fire-box1 wat] space & smoke passages are easily recogniz$4 ,ea* division repres5ts a sep>ate section :i* assembl$ z t 9 ! figures makes a complete boil] ) a common op5+ z %[n at ! top ( ,fig4 #ag4 ,^! boil]s are us$ = resid5ces ( l>ge size & = build+s ( less ?an #aj1jjj feet ( radiat+ surface4 ,= l>ge build+s1 ! /eam is mo/ commonly g5]at$ 9 boil]s built = high pressure4 ,9 small plants1 int5d$ = ei!r /eam or hot-wat] heat+1 ! cyl9drical /yle ( boil] %[n 9 ,fig4 #ah is commonly us$4 ,z con/ruct$ by diff]5t manufactur]s1 ! p>ts diff] q mat]ially b ,fig4 #ah %[s all ( ! ess5tial features & s]ves to illu/rate ! diff]5t work+ p>ts4 ,! sections into :i* ! boil] is divid$ are indicat$ on ! left-h& side ( ! figure by ! numb]s #a to #f4 ,! p>ts f #a to #e are screw$ toge!r ) ?read$ nipples1 jo9+ ! c5tral column4 ,! "p #f conta9s ! grate & ! a%-pit1 ) ! draft & clean-out doors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,fig4 #af4--,sectional ca/-iron boil] = /eam or hot-wat] heat+4 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,int]ior view ( ! boil] %[n 9 ,fig4 #af4 ,! draw+ %[s ! boil] cut ?r\gh ! middle l5g?wise & exposes to view all ( ! ess5tial features4 ,! fire-box & ! spaces occupi$ by ! /eam & wat] are easily recogniz$4 ,x w be se5 t ! wat] space surr\nds ! fire-box except at ! bottom & t ! space above ! fire-box pres5ts a l>ge am\nt ( heat+ surface to ! flame & heat$ gases z !y pass to ! *imney4 ,! arr[s %[ _! c\rse2 fir/ ?r\gh ! op5+s ne> ! c5t]1 !n ?r\gh ^? fur!r away4 ,! object be+ to keep ! heat z long z possible 9 contact ) ! heat+ surfaces )\t int]f]+ ) ! draft4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,sectional view ( ! cyl9drical type ( ca/-iron1 sectional boil]4 ,!re is no /&>d me?od ( rat+ ! heat+ capacity ( boil]s ( ?is k9d & z a consequ5ce1 boil]s ( diff]5t makes--= ! same rat+--are n ! same 9 actual heat+ capacity4 ,! boil]s are sold by _! mak]s 9 sizes t are int5d$ to furni% heat suffici5t to supply a def9ite numb] ( squ>e feet ( radiat+ surface4 ,! rat+s are q g5]ally too high = ! wea!r conditions ( ! ,nor?we/4 ,a common practice ) contractors is to select boil]s = a giv5 plant #ej p] c5t4 & ev5 #ajj p] c5t4 l>g] ?an ^? rat$ by ! manufactur]s = ! same am\nt ( radiation4 ,"s manufactur]s sell _! boil]s at hone/ rat+s b !y are exceptions4 ,9 specify+ ! capacity ( a h\se-heat+ plant x is common practice to require ! boil] to be ( su* size z w easily heat a def9ite numb] ( squ>e feet ( radiat+ surface4 ,! radiators are requir$ to possess suffici5t radiat+ surface to keep ! h\se at #gj;,f4 9 any wea!r4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any rules or specifications = det]m9+ ! heat+ capacity ( ! boil]1 ! only means ( secur+ a satisfactory plant is to require a gu>antee ( ! contractor to in/all a boil] su* z w fulfil ! conditions /at$ above4 ,boil] ,trimm+s4--,atta*$ to ! boil] & requir$ = its safe op]ation are a numb] ( appliances t dem& special att5tion4 ,! (fice ( ea* "p %\ld be ?or\ghly appreciat$ & ! me*anical con/ruction %\ld be fully und]/ood4 ,an intimate acqua9tance ) ! details ( ! plant1 helps to make its op]ation satisfactory & adds to ! effici5cy ) :i* x c be made to p]=m its duty4 ,! ,wat] ,column4--,9 ,fig4 #ah ! wat] column is %[n at ,c4 ,x is atta*$ to ! boil] by pipes at po9ts above & bel[ ! wat] l9e1 s z to all[ a free passage ( ! wat] ( ! boil] to ! int]ior4 ,! wat] l9e %\ld be #c or #d in*es above ! top heat+ surface4 ,atta*$ to ! wat] column is ! gage-glass1 ! try-cocks ,t & ,t & ! /eam gage ,g4 ,! object ( ! gage-glass is to %[ ! height ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,x is %[n 9 place on ! boil] 9 ,figs4 #af & #ah & 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #ai4 ,! l[] "p ( ! gage-glass occupies a position on ! boil] ab\t #b in*es above ! top heat+ surface4 ,:5 ! boil] is work+1 ! level ( ! wat] %\ld always be visible 9 ! glass & %\ld /& normally "o-?ird to "o-half full4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,! wat] gage4 ,! wat] gage is atta*$ to ! wat] column by two brass valves ,v4 ,! valves are provid$ s t 9 case ! wat] glass %\ld be brok5 ! op5+s may be clos$4 ,! ends ( ! glass are made tight by 8/uff+-boxes0 m>k$ ,c1 9 ! figure4 ,! pack+ ,s is g5]ally 9 ! =m ( rubb] r+s b greas$ wick+ may be us$ if necess>y z 9 ! case ( valve-/ems4 ,! try-cocks ,t & ,t 7,fig4 #ah7 are also int5d$ to indicate ! approximate height ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] & %\ld ! wat] glass be brok5 may be us$ 9 its place4 ,! op5+s ( ! try-cocks po9t t[>d ! floor4 ,:5 a cock is op5$1 %\ld /eam alone escape1 x w be absorb$ by ! air1 b if wat] is escap+1 al?\gh mu* ( x w be vaporiz$ & look l /eam1 "s ( ! wat] w be c>ri$ to ! floor & produce a wet spot4 ,:5 ! cock is op5$ wide ! escap+ wat] f ! l[] cock %\ld always wet ! floor4 ,! drip-cock ,p 7,fig4 #ah7 at ! bottom ( ! gage-glass is = dra9+ ! wat] column & = bl[+ out any deposit t may collect 9 ! op5+ ( ! column4 ,?is cock %\ld be op5$ occasionally to assure ! correctness ( ! gage-glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,typical ,b\rdon pressure gage ) ! face remov$4 ,! ,/eam ,gage4--,/eam pressure is measur$ 9 p\nds to ! squ>e in* above ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! gages us$ = indicat+ ! pressure ( ! /eam are made 9 sev]al =ms b ! type mo/ commonly us$ is t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bj4 ,x is kn[n z ! ,b\rdon type ( gage & takes its "n f ! b5t tube ,a1 :i* furni%es its active pr9ciple4 ,! ,b\rdon b>omet] inv5t$ 9 #ahdi employ$ ?is =m ( s5sitive tube4 ,9 ! draw+ ! face ( ! gage has be5 remov$ to %[ ! work+ p>ts4 ,! s5sitive "p is ! flat ela/ic tube ,a1 :i* is b5t 9 ! =m ( a circle4 ,:5 ! pressure ( ! /eam ent]s at ,s ! air 9 ! tube is compress$ & ! tube t5ds to /raight54 ,! movem5t ( ! tube caus$ by ! /eam pressure is communicat$ to ! po9t] by a l9k connection & ge> z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,! am\nt ( /raight5+ ( ! tube w be 9 proportion to ! /eam pressure & is indicat$ by ! numb]s m>k$ on ! face ( ! gage4 ,:5 ! pressure is releas$1 ! tube returns to its orig9al position & ! spiral spr+ ,c turns ! h& back to its fir/ position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,cross-section ( a pop valve4 ,! ,safety ,valve4--,all /eam boil]s %\ld be provid$ ) safety valves z a safegu>d aga9/ excessive /eam pressures4 ,( ! v>i\s types ( safety valves1 t kn[n z ! pop-valve is mo/ commonly us$ on h\se-heat+ boil]s4 ,x is indicat$ at ,w 9 ,fig4 #ah & is %[n 9 section 9 ,fig4 #ba4 ,! "p ,a is screw$ into ! top ( ! boil] at any conv5i5t place4 ,! pressure ( ! spr+ ,c holds ! valve ,b on its seat until ! int]nal pressure rea*es a c]ta9 int5sity at :i* ! valve is set1 :5 x op5s & all[s ! excess /eam to escape4 ,:5 ! pressure is r$uc$1 ! spr+ =ces ! valve back on its seat4 ,! h&le ,d p]mits ! valve to be lift$ at any "t z an assurance t x is 9 work+ ord]4 ,?is %\ld be done occasionally1 z ! valve may /ick to ! seat aft] long /&+ & all[ ! pressure to rise above ! po9t at :i* x %\ld 8pop40 ,! valve may be set to 8bl[ (f0 at any desir$ pressure by ! adju/+ piece ,e4 ,h\se-heat+ boil]s g5]ally h _! safety valves set to bl[ (f at #h or #aj p\nds4 ,! ,draft ,regulator4--,z a means ( automatic control ( ! /eam pressure1 ! draft regulator is frequ5tly us$ to s gov]n ! fire t :5 a c]ta9 /eam pressure is rea*$1 ! direct draft w be automatically clos$ & ! *eck-draft damp] op5$4 ,! draft regulator is %[n 9 place at ,d 9 ,fig4 #ah1 & w also be f\nd 9 ,fig4 #af4 ,a detail$ description ( ! regulator w be f\nd on pages #fj & #fa4 ,,rule ,,= ,,proportion+ ,,radiators ,rules = det]m9+ ! am\nt ( radiat+ surface t w be requir$ to satisfactorily heat a build+ to #gj;,f4 reg>dless ( wea!r conditions are entirely empirical1 t is1 !y are d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,x is evid5t t no def9ite rule c be e/abli%$ t w take into acc\nt ! me?od ( build+ con/ruction1 ! k9d & am\nt ( mat]ials t make up ! walls & ! quality ( workman%ip employ$4 ,^! v>iable quantities c\pl$ ) ! *ang+ climatic conditions ( temp]ature & w9d velocity produce a complication t _c be ov]come 9 a =mula t w give exact results4 ,_m rules are 9 use = ?is purpose1 no two ( :i* give exactly ! same results :5 appli$ to a problem4 ,a common practice is to apply "o ( ! rules 9 use & !n "u conditions ( exceptional exposure1 to add to ! am\nt ?us calculat$ z exp]i5ce may dictate4 ,! foll[+ rule by ,pr(essor ,r4 ,g4 ,c>p5t] ( ,cornell ,univ]sity 0 tak5 f a h&book publi%$ by ! ,j4 ,l4 ,mott ,iron ,works ( ,new ,york4 ,?is company manufactures & deals 9 all k9ds ( app>atus ent]+ into /eam & hot-wat] heat+ & ! rule is giv5 z "o t has produc$ satisfactory results4 ,,rule4--,add ! area ( ! glass surface 9 ! room to "o-qu>t] ( ! expos$ wall surface1 & to ?is add f "o-fifty-fif? to ?ree-fifty-fif?s ( ! cubical cont5ts 7"o-fifty-fif? = rooms on upp] floor1 two-fifty-fif?s = rooms on fir/ floor & ?ree-fifty-fif?s = l>ge halls72 !n = /eam multiply by #j4be1 & = hot wat] by #j4dj4 ,example4--,a room #bj by #ab by #aj feet ) glass exposure ( #dh feet1 #a_/d ( wall exposure 7two sides expos$7 #cbj feet #hj1 #a_/ee ( #bdjj #dd4 #dh #hj #dd #agb #j4be #dc feet4 ,if y add #b_/ee ! surface w\ld be #ed feet4 ,if y add #c_/ee ! surface w\ld be #fe feet4 ,,proportion+ ,,! ,,size ,,( ,,ma9s ,= any size sy/em ( /eam or wat] heat+ ! foll[+ rule w be f\nd entirely satisfactory = ma9s #ajj feet long2 = ea* #ajj feet additional use a size l>g] ratio4 ,,rule4-- r 7#c4adaf_/;d7,r a_/r #ajj4 r repres5ts ratio ( ma9 9 in*es = ea* #ajj feet ( surface2 d1 diamet] ( pipe2 ,r1 quantity ( radiation c>ri$ by size ( pipe2 a1 area ( pipe 9 in*es4 ,f ?is ! foll[+ table has be5 con/ruct$3 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,diamet] ,area ,ratio to ,quantity ( ( pipe ( pipe ea* #ajj radiation1 /eam feet ( or wat]1 on a surface giv5 size pipe ---------------------------------------- ----- #a #a4gfg #b4aj #hd #b #c4ada #a4eg #bjj #b #d4ijh #a4be #djj #c #g4jfi #a4jd #gjj #c #i4fba #j4ij #a1jfb #d #ab4eff #j4gh #a1eij #d #ae4ijd #j4gj #b1bgb #e #ai4fbe #j4fc #c1abj #f #bh4bgd #j4eb #e1ddj #g #ch4dhd #j4de #h1eej #h #ej4bfe #j4dj #ab1eef #i #fc4fag #j4ce #ah1ajj #aj #gh4edj #j4cj #be1cjj ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,=ms ,,( ,,radiators ,radiators are mu* ! same 9 appe>ance = bo? /eam & hot-wat] heat+4 ,!y are holl[ ca/-iron columns s design$ t !y may be fa/5$ toge!r 9 units ( any numb] ( sections4 ,! sections are made 9 size to pres5t a def9ite numb] ( squ>e feet ( outside surface t is spok5 ( z radiat+ surface4 ,! am\nt ( radiat+ surface 9 any radiator dep5ds on its height & ! cont\r ( ! cross-section4 ,! radiator sections may be made 9 ! =m ( a s+le column z ,fig4 #bb or !y may be divid$ into two1 ?ree1 f\r or m columns to increase _! radiat+ surface4 ,! foll[+ table1 tak5 f a manufactur]'s catalogue1 %[s ! me?od ( rat+ ! heat+ capacity ( a p>ticul> design4 ,9 ! table1 ! fir/ column gives ! numb] ( sections 9 ! radiator1 ! second column /ates ! l5g? ( ! radiator 9 in*es4 ,! columns head$ heat+ surface give ! heights ( ! sections 9 in*es & ! am\nt ( radiat+ surface 9 v>i\s radiators ( diff]5t heights & numb]s ( sections4 ,z an example3 ,?is table ref]s to ! ?ree-column radiators ( ,fig4 #bc4 ,su* a radiator #cb in*es high ) #aj sections w\ld conta9 #de squ>e feet ( radiat+ surface & w\ld be #be in*es 9 l5g?4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,heat+ surface--squ>e feet ---------------------------------------- ------- ,no4 ,l5g? #de 94 #ch 94 #cb 94 #bf 94 #bc 94 #bj 94 ( #b 94 high1 high1 high1 high1 high1 high1 sections p] #f sq4 #e sq4 #d sq4 #c sq4 #c sq4 #b sq4 section ft4 ft4 ft4 ft4 ft4 ft4 p] p] p] p] p] p] sec4 sec4 sec4 sec4 sec4 sec4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #b #e #ab #aj #i #g #f #e #c #g #ah #ae #ac #aa #i #h #d #aj #bd #bj #ah #ae #ac #aa #e #ab #cj #be #bb #ah #af #ac #f #ae #cf #cj #bg #bb #ai #af #g #ag #db #ce #ca #bf #bb #ai #h #bj #dh #dj #cf #cj #bf #bb #i #bb #ed #de #dj #cc #bi #bd #aj #be #fj #ej #de #cg #cb #bg #aa #bg #ff #ee #di #da #ce #cj #ab #cj #gb #fj #ed #de #ci #cc #ac #cb #gh #fe #eh #dh #db #ce #ad #ce #hd #gj #fc #eb #de #ch #ae #cg #ij #ge #fg #ef #dh #da #af #dj #if #hj #gb #fj #eb #dd #ag #db #ajb #he #gf #fc #ee #df #ah #de #ajh #ij #ha #fg #eh #di #ai #dg #aad #ie #he #ga #fa #eb #bj #ej #abj #ajj #ij #ge #fe #ee #ba #eb #abf #aje #id #gh #fh #eg #bb #ee #acb #aaj #ii #hb #ga #fj #bc #eg #ach #aae #ajc #hf #gd #fc #bd #fj #add #abj #ajh #ij #gh #ff #be #fb #aej #abe #aab #ic #ha #fh #bf #fe #aef #acj #aag #ig #hd #ga #bg #fg #afb #ace #aba #aja #hg #gd #bh #gj #afh #adj #abf #aje #ia #gg #bi #gb #agd #ade #acj #ajh #id #gi #cj #ge #ahj #aej #ace #aab #ig #hb #ca #gg #ahf #aee #aci #aaf #ajj #he #cb #hj #aib #afj #adj #abj #ajd #hh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,fig4 #bb is a radiator made up ( eight s+le-column sections4 ,9 ,fig4 #bc is %[n five ?ree-column radiators1 v>y+ 9 height f #bj to #de in*es4 ,! sections ( /eam radiators are jo9$ toge!r at ! bottom ) close-nipples1 s z to leave an op5+ f end to end4 ,! sections ( hot-wat] radiators are jo9$ 9 ! same mann]1 except t !re is an op5+ at bo? top & bottom4 ,fig4 #cj %[s ! op5+s ( a hot-wat] radiator in/all$ z direct-indirect heat]4 ,fig4 #bd illu/rates a special =m ( radiator t is int5d$ to be plac$ "u w9d[s & 9 o!r places t w n admit ! high =m4 ,su* a radiator z t %[n 9 ! picture is (t5 cov]$ ) a w9d[ seat & 9 cold wea!r becomes ! favorite place ( ! sitt+ room4 ,ano!r special =m is t ( ,fig4 #be4 ,z a corn] radiator ?is /yle is mu* to be pref]r$ to ! ord9>y me?od ( connection2 "h ! angle is completely fill$--!re is no op5 space 9 ! corn]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,fig4 #bb4--,s+le column /eam radiator4 ,,fig4 #bc4--,?ree-column radiators ( diff]5t heights2 = /eam or hot-wat] heat+4 ,wall radiators su* z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bf are made to set close to ! wall1 :]e floor space is limit$4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly adapt$ = use 9 n>r[ halls1 ba?rooms & o!r places :]e ! ord9>y type c\ld n be conv5i5tly us$4 ,a radiator t w appeal to all neat h\sekeep]s is t ( ,fig4 #bg4 ,x does n /& on ! floor z 9 ! case ( ! ord9>y type1 b is hung f ! wall by conceal$ brackets4 ,! difficulty ( sweep+ "u ?is radiator is entirely avoid$4 ,fig4 #bh is a radiator design$ to furni% a w>m+ ov5 = plates & = heat+ ! room at ! same "t4 ,x is sometimes in/all$ 9 d9+ rooms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,six-column1 l[ =m ( hot-wat] radiators to be plac$ "u w9d[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,two-column corn] radiator = /eam heat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,wall =m1 radiator = /eam or hot wat]4 ,! ord9>y me?od ( heat+ by ! use ( radiators is kn[n z ! direct me?od4 ,! air is heat$ by com+ directly into contact ) ! radiators & di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! room by convection4 ,if ! arrangem5t is su* t ! air is br\ght f outdoors & heat$ by ! radiator be=e ent]+ ! room1 x is call$ ! indirect me?od ( heat+4 ,su* an arrangem5t is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #bi4 ,! radiator is locat$ b5ea? ! floor1 9 a passage t takes ! air f outdoors & aft] be+ heat$1 ent]s ! room ?r\gh a regi/] locat$ 9 ! wall4 ,fig4 #cj is /ill ano!r arrangem5t kn[n z ! direct-indirect me?od ( heat+4 ,! radiator is plac$ 9 position1 z = direct heat+1 b ! air supply is tak5 f outdoors4 ,! radiator base is enclos$ & a d\ble damp] ,t regulates ! am\nt ( air t comes f ! outside4 ,:5 ! inside damp] is clos$ & ! outside damp] is op51 z is %[n 9 ! draw+1 ! air comes f outdoors & is heat$ z x passes ?r\gh ! radiator on its way to ! room4 ,if ! damp]s are rev]s$1 ! air circulates ?r\gh ! radiator z 9 ! case ( direct radiation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,two-column radiator susp5d$ f ! wall by brackets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,d9+-room radiator conta9+ a w>m+ ov54 ,9 ! use ( ! direct or ! direct-indirect me?od ( heat+ ! pr9cipal object to be atta9$ is t ( v5tilation1 b q g5]ally ! passages are s arrang$ t ! air may be tak5 f outdoors or1 if desir$1 ! air ( ! h\se may be s5t ?r\gh ! radiators to be reheat$4 ,9 extremely cold & w9dy wea!r x is sometimes difficult to keep ! h\se at ! desir$ temp]ature :5 all ( ! air supply comes f ! outside4 ,"u su* conditions ! outside air is us$ only occasionally4 ,9 mild wea!r x is common to use ! outdoor air mo/ ( ! "t4 ,! co/ ( heat+1 :5 ^! me?ods are us$1 is high] ?an by direct radiation1 because ! air is be+ con/antly *ang$ 9 temp]ature f t ( ! outside to #gj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,v5tilation by ! indirect me?od ( heat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,v5tilation by ! direct-indirect me?od ( heat+4 ,radiator ,f9i%+s4--,9 /eam & hot-wat] heat+ ! decoration ( ! radiators is a mu* m important item ?an t ( a good-look+ surface or "o :i* w h>monize ) ! sett+4 ,until rec5tly radiator f9i%+ has be5 consid]$ a m9or detail & ! famili> bronze has be5 look$ ^u z a /&>d cov]+1 :ile pa9t$ radiators 7 consid]$ only a matt] ( ta/e4 ,! "* ( ! surface is1 h[ev]1 ! det]m9+ factor 9 ! quantity ( heat giv5 out by radiators4 ,?is has be5 det]m9$ 9 ! exp]im5tal laboratory ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan by ,pr(essor ,john ,a4 ,all54 ,comp>ison 0 made ( b>e ca/-iron radiators ) ! same =ms pa9t$ z indicat$ 9 ! foll[+ table4 ,! b>e radiator 0 tak5 at #ajj p] c5t42 ! o!r f9i%es are express$ 9 p] c5t4 above or bel[ t ( ! b>e radiator4 ,cond5s+ capacity1 p] c5t4 ,no4 #a1 a ca/-iron radiator1 b>e z receiv$ f ! f\ndry #ajj ,no4 #b1 a ca/-iron radiator1 coat$ ) alum9um bronze #gh ,no4 #c1 a ca/-iron radiator1 ?ree coats ( :ite enamel pa9t #ajb ,no4 #d1 a ca/-iron radiator1 coat$ ) copp] bronze #hj ,no4 #e1 a ca/-iron radiator1 ?ree coats ( gre5 enamel pa9t #aja ,no4 #f1 a ca/-iron radiator1 ?ree coats ( black enamel pa9t #aja ,! au?or has /at$ fur!r t1 8,x might be said 9 g5]al t all bronzes r$uce ! heat+ effect ( ! radiator ab\t #be p] c5t4 :ile lead pa9ts & enamels give (f ! same am\nt ( heat z b>e iron4 ,! numb] ( coats ( pa9t on ! radiator makes no diff]5ce4 ,! la/ coat is always ! det]m9+ factor 9 heat transmission40 ,,pipe ,,cov]+s ,all hot-wat] or /eam pipes 9 ! basem5t & 9 o!r places n int5d$ to be us$ = heat+ %\ld be cov]$ ) "s =m ( insulat+ mat]ial4 ,at ord9>y work+ temp]ature a squ>e foot ( hot pipe surface w radiate ab\t #ae ,b4t4u4 ( heat p] m9ute4 ,to prev5t ?is loss ( heat & ! consequ5t wa/e ( fuel ! pipes %\ld be cov]$ ) "s =m ( insulat+ mat]ial4 ,pipe cov]+s are made ( _m k9ds ( mat]ial & "s possess insulat+ prop]ties t may r$uce ! loss to z l[ a po9t z #ae p] c5t4 ( ! am\nt radiat$ by a b>e pipe4 ,_m good insulat+ mat]ials d n give satisfactory results z pipe cov]+s because !y d n keep _! %ape1 "s _c be consid]$ 9 ! av]age plant because ( high co/4 ,wood-pulp pap] is ext5sively us$ z a *eap cov]+2 x is a good insulator & "u ord9>y conditions makes a satisfactory cov]+4 ,a m effici5t & also a m exp5sive cov]+ t is ext5sively us$ is t made ( magnesia c>bonate & kn[n z magnesia cov]+4 ,aside f ^!1 o!r =ms made ( cork1 hair-felt1 asbe/os & composition cov]+s are sometimes us$ 9 h\se-heat+ plants4 ,9 select+ a pipe cov]+1 !re %\ld be tak5 into acc\nt n only its insulat+ prop]ties b its ability to resi/ fire1 dampness or bre$+ places = v]m94 ,x re/s entirely ) ! own] :e!r he cov]s ! pipes ) a combu/ible or an incombu/ible mat]ial :5 ! insulat+ prop]ties are ab\t ! same4 ,cov]+s made ( animal or vegetable mat]ials "u "s conditions furni% a bre$+ place = v]m94 ,pipe cov]+s are made 9 sections ab\t #c feet 9 l5g? & f #a to #a-c_/h in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,! sections are usually cut 9 halves l5g?wise to p]mit be+ put 9 place4 ,! sections are cov]$ ) common musl9 to keep ! mat]ial 9 place & sometimes are pa9t$ aft] be+ in/all$4 ,pa9t+ has no?+ to d ) _! insulat+ capabilities1 b x pres]ves ! clo? & makes a neat appe>ance4 ,! sections :5 put 9 place are secur$ by pa/+ "o ( ! loose edges ( ! clo? to ! surface4 ,! ends ( ! sections are b\nd toge!r ) /rips ( metal4 ,fig4 #ca %[s ! appe>ance ( ! pipe :5 ! cov]+ is 9 place4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,pipe cov]+4 ,irregul> surfaces l ! body ( ! furnace1 pipe connections1 etc41 are insulat$ by cov]+s made f a pla/] t is made expressly = su* "w4 ,x is kn[n z asbe/us pla/]4 ,! pla/] may be pur*as$ 9 bulk & put 9 place ) a tr[el4 ,z x is f\nd 9 ! m>ket ! pla/] requires only ! addition ( wat] to put into work+ =m4 ,! value ( a pipe cov]+ is n 9 proportion to its ?ickness4 ,exp]im5ts ) pipe cov]+s h %[n t a ?ickness ( #a-c_/h in*es w r$uce ! radiation #ij p] c5t41 b d\bl+ ! ?ickness r$uces ! loss only #e p] c5t4 ,x1 !re=e1 does n pay to make a cov]+ m ?an #a-c_/h in*es ?ick4 ,vapor-sy/em ,heat+4--,?is sy/em ( heat+ is n greatly diff]5t f ! /eam plants already describ$ b x is op]at$ "u conditions :i* d n p]mit ! /eam 9 ! boil] to rise beyond a few ounces ( pressure4 ,s9ce ! plant is int5d$ to "w at a pressure t is sc>cely indicat$ by an ord9>y /eam gage1 x has be5 t]m$ a vapor sy/em to di/+ui% x f ! pressure sy/ems :i* employ /eam1 up to #e p\nds or m to ! squ>e in*4 ,! heat is transmitt$ to ! radiators 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! pressure sy/ems4 ,! heat ( vaporization ( /eam is some:at great] at ! boil+ po9t ( wat] ?an at high] pressures1 & ! lack ( pressure1 !re=e1 increases its heat+ capacity4 ,?is is %[n 9 ! table1 prop]ties ( /eam1 on page #c4 ,! successful op]ation ( su* a plant re/s 9 ! deliv]y ( ! vapor to ! radiators at only ! slighte/ pressure & ! return ( ! cond5sate to ! boil] )\t noise or ob/ruction to ! circulation at ! same "t eject+ ! conta9$ air4 ,! excell5ce ( ! sy/em dep5ds 9 ! greate/ measure on good design & ! employm5t ( special facilities t all[ all wat] to be dis*>g$ f ! radiators & return$ to ! boil] )\t accumulation at any "p ( ! circulat+ sy/em4 ,x requires1 fur!r1 ! dis*>ge ( ! air f ! sy/em at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! sy/em is1 !re=e1 practically pressureless4 ,v>i\s sy/ems ( vapor heat+ are sold "u ! names ( _! manufactur]s4 ,ea* possesses special appliances = produc+ positive circulation t are advocat$ z features ( p>ticul> excell5ce4 ,! vapor sy/em ( heat+ has met ) a great deal ( favor z a m ne>ly univ]sal =m ( heat+ ?an ei!r ! pressure-/eam plant or ! hot-wat] me?od ( heat+4 ,fig4 #ca;a is a diagram illu/rat+ ! ,c4 ,a4 ,dunham sy/em ( vapor heat+4 ,x w be notic$ t !re are no air v5ts on ! radiators4 ,! air f ! radiators is eject$ ?r\gh a special =m ( trap t is indicat$ 9 ! draw+4 ,^! traps p]mit ! wat] & air to pass f ! radiators b close aga9/ ! slightly high] temp]ature ( ! vapor4 ,?is assures ! cond5sation ( ! vapor 9 ! radiators & excludes x f ! return pipes4 ,! wat] returns to ! boil] 9 mu* ! same mann] z 9 ! pressure sy/ems already describ$ b ! air escapes ?r\gh ! air elim9ator z indicat$ 9 ! draw+4 ,! sy/em is1 !re=e1 "u atmosph]ic pressure at ?is po9t & only a slight am\nt great] 9 ! boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca;a4--,diagram %[+ ! ,c4 ,a4 ,dunham ,co4's sy/em ( vapor heat+4 ,! wat] ( cond5sation is return$ to ! boil] aga9/ ! vapor pressure1 by a =ce ex]t$ by ! column ( wat] 9 ! pipe connect+ ! air elim9ator ) ! boil]4 ,! ma9 return is plac$ #bd in*es or m above ! wat] l9e ( ! boil]4 ,x is ! pressure ( ?is column t =ces ! wat] into ! boil] ?r\gh ! *eck valve1 aga9/ ! vapor pressure 9 ! boil]4 ,x might be imag9$ t ! wat] 9 ! boil] & t 9 ! air-elim9ator pipe =m$ a 8,u-tube10 ! vapor pressure on ! wat] surface 9 ! boil]1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure on ! wat] 9 ! elim9ator /&pipe4 ,! slight vapor pressure 9 ! boil] is c\nt]balanc$ by a column ( wat] 9 ! elim9ator pipe4 ,x is ?is condition t fixes a di/ance ( #bd in*es f ! wat] l9e to ! return pipe2 t is1 ! =ce ex]t$ by a column ( wat] #bd in*es high is requir$ to s5d ! wat] into ! boil]4 ,! vapor pressure is controll$ by means ( ! pressure/at1 :i* is an electrifi$ ,b\rdon spr+ pressure gage1 connect$ up by simple wir+ to ! damp] motor1 :i* may be any =m ( damp] regulator4 ,9 resid5tial "w1 ! pressure/at is s connect$ ) a !rmo/at1 t bo? pressure & temp]ature conditions op]ate & control ?is damp] regulator1 :i* 9 turn controls ! draft & ! fire4 ,! two in/rum5ts are s connect$ t if ! pressure m\nts to #h ounces & ! pressure/at caus$ ! draft damp] to close & ! *eck to op51 ! !rmo/at _c rev]se ! damp]1 reg>dless ( ! temp]ature 9 ! room1 until ! pressure drops bel[ ! limit+ #h-ounce pressure4 ,j s long z ! pressure is bel[ #h ounces1 ! !rmo/at is ! ma/] 9 ! control ( ! damp]s4 ,! m9ute t ! pressure goes up to #h ounces !n ! pressure/at takes control4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,hot-,,wat] ,,heat+ ,,plant ,( ! v>i\s sy/ems ( heat+ dwell+s t by hot-wat] is consid]$ by _m to be ! mo/ satisfactory4 ,on acc\nt ( its high specific heat1 wat] at a temp]ature mu* bel[ ! boil+ po9t furni%es ! heat necess>y to keep ! temp]ature ( ! h\se at ! desir$ degree4 ,! temp]ature ( ! radiators is g5]ally mu* l[] ?an ^? heat$ by /eam b ! am\nt ( radiat+ surface is great] ?an = /eam heat+ plants ( ! same capacity4 ,x is because ( ! relatively l[ temp]ature at :i* ! wat] is us$1 t ! great] am\nt ( heat+ surface is requir$4 ,"o objection to ! use ( hot wat] z a means ( heat+ is1 t once ! heat ( ! h\se is mu* r$uc$1 ! furnace is a long "t 9 rais+ ! temp]ature to normal4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! temp]ature ( ! wat] ( ! entire sy/em mu/ be uni=mly rais$1 because ( its cont9u\s passage ?r\gh ! heat]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?is uni=mity ( ! temp]ature ( ! wat] prev5ts sudd5 *anges 9 ! temp]ature ( ! h\se4 ,wat]-heat+ plants "w ) p]fect quiet & may be s regulat$ to suit ! outside temp]ature t ! heat ( ! wat] w j supply ! am\nt to suit ! prevail+ conditions4 ,! c>e requir$ 9 ! managem5t ( ! boil] is less ?an t requir$ 9 ! /eam plant because ( ! few] appliances necess>y = its safe op]ation4 ,ano!r advantage 9 ! use ( ! hot-wat] plant is its adaptability to ! temp]ature conditions dur+ ! *illy wea!r ( e>ly fall & late spr+1 :5 a v small am\nt ( heat is requir$4 ,at su* times ! temp]ature ( ! radiators is b a few degrees w>m] ?an ! outside air4 ,! am\nt ( att5tion necess>y = ma9ta9+ ! prop] furnace fire "u su* conditions is less !n = any o!r =m ( heat+4 ,! increas+ use ( ! hot-wat] plant = heat+ ! av]age-siz$ dwell+ atte/s to its excell5ce 9 s]vice4 ,! ,l[-pressure ,hot-wat] ,sy/em4--,a hot-wat] sy/em consi/s ( a heat]1 9 :i* ! wat] receives its supply ( heat1 ! circulat+ pipes = conduct+ ! heat$ wat] to & f ! radiators t supply heat to ! rooms1 & ! expansion tank t receives ! excess ( wat] caus$ :5 ! temp]ature is rais$ f normal to ! work+ degree4 ,9 addition to ! p>ts nam$ !re are a numb] ( appliances to be describ$ lat]1 t are requir$ to make ! sy/em complete4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,diagram ( a simple =m ( hot-wat] heat+ plant4 ,a hot-wat] plant ( ! simple/ =m is %[n 9 ,fig4 #cb4 ,! illu/ration pres5ts ea* ( ! features m5tion$ above1 z 9 a work+ plant4 ,! diff]5t p>ts are %[n cut across ?r\gh ! middle1 ! black portion repres5t+ wat]4 ,n only does ! wat] fill ! entire sy/em b appe>s 9 ! expansion tank :5 ! plant is cold4 ,hot-wat] heat]s are q g5]ally 9 ! =m ( int]nally fir$ boil]s4 ,! fire-box occupies a place inside ! boil] & is surr\nd$1 except at ! bottom1 by ! wat] space4 ,commonly1 ^! boil]s are made ( ca/ iron & are con/ruct$ 9 sections1 ! same z ! /eam boil] %[n 9 ,fig4 #af4 ,manufactur]s sell a s+le /yle = ei!r /eam or hot-wat] heat+4 ,! boil] 9 ,fig4 #cb is cyl9drical 9 =m4 ,x is made ( wr\ght iron & conta9s a l>ge numb] ( v]tical tubes ?r\gh :i* ! heat f ! furnace mu/ pass on its way to ! *imney4 ,z ! wat] is heat$ x exp&s & rises to ! top ( ! boil] because ( its decreas$ weight4 ,s9ce ! wat] 9 ! radiator is really a "p ( ! same body ( wat]1 ! heat$ portion rises ?r\gh ! supply pipe to ! top ( ! radiator4 ,z ! hot wat] rises 9 ! radiator1 x displaces an equal am\nt ( cold wat]1 :i* ent]s ! boil] at ! bottom4 ,?is displacem5t is con/ant & produces a circulation t beg9s z soon z ! fire is />t$ & v>ies ) ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! hot wat] leav+ ! boil] at ! top & ! cold wat] ent]+ at ! bottom4 ,z ! wat] 9 ! sy/em is heat$ & exp&s1 !re mu/ be "s provision made to receive ! enl>g+ volume4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t a pipe connects ! bottom ( ! boil] ) ! expansion tank locat$ at a po9t above ! radiator4 ,"u ! conditions repres5t$ 9 ! draw+ ! wat] does n circulate ?r\gh ! tank & z a consequ5ce ! wat] x conta9s is always cold4 ,9 rais+ its temp]ature1 wat] absorbs m heat ?an any o!r fluid & on cool+ x gives up an equal am\nt4 ,z a consequ5ce x furni%es an excell5t vehicle = transmitt+ ! heat ( ! furnace to ! rooms to be heat$4 ,wat]1 h[ev]1 is a poor conductor & receives its heat by com+ directly into contact ) ! hot surfaces ( ! furnace1 & gives x up by direct contact ) ! radiator walls4 ,to transmit heat rapidly & ma9ta9 a high radiator temp]ature1 ! circulation ( ! wat] 9 ! sy/em mu/ be ! be/ possible4 ,! connect+ pipes betwe5 ! boil] & ! radiators mu/ be z direct z circum/ances w p]mit & ! am\nt ( radiat+ surface 9 ea* room mu/ be suffici5t to easily give up an ample supply ( heat4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! furnace is able to furni% a pl5tiful supply ( heat to w>m ! h\se1 x _c be transmitt$ to ! rooms unless !re is suffici5t radiat+ surface4 ,a plant might prove unsatisfactory ei!r because ( a furnace too small to furni% ! necess>y heat or f an insuffici5t am\nt ( radiat+ surface4 ,yet ano!r factor 9 ! design ( a plant is t ( ! conduct+ pipes4 ,bo? ! boil] & ! radiators might be 9 ! "r proportion to produce a good plant1 b if ! di/ribut+ pipes are too small to c>ry ! wat] requir$1 or ! circulation is ret>d$ by _m turns & long runs1 ! plant may fail to give satisfaction4 ,fig4 #cc %[s a complete hot-wat] plant adapt$ to a dwell+4 ,x is j su* a plant z is commonly in/all$ 9 ! av]age-siz$ h\se b )\t any ( ! appliances us$ = automatic control ( temp]ature4 ,! regulation ( ! temp]ature is made entirely by h&1 9 s gov]n+ ! fire z to provide ! requir$ am\nt ( heat4 ,9 ! draw+ ! supply & return pipes may be trac$ to ! radiators z 9 ! case ( ! simple plant4 ,! supply pipe f ! top ( ! boil] bran*es into two circuits to provide ! wat] = ! two gr\ps ( radiators at ! "r & left side ( ! h\se4 ,to provide any radiator ) hot wat]1 a pipe is tak5 f ! ma9 supply pipe & pass+ ?r\gh ! radiator x is br\ght back & connect$ ) ! return pipe :i* conducts ! wat] back to ! boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,! l[-pressure hot-wat] heat+ sy/em appli$ to a small dwell+4 ,! expansion tank is locat$ 9 ! ba?room ne> ! ceil+4 ,x is connect$ ) ! circulat+ sy/em by a s+le pipe :i* jo9s ! supply pipe z x ent]s ! radiator locat$ 9 ! kit*54 ,l ! expansion tank 9 ,fig4 #ca ! wat] x conta9s is always cold4 ,x is provid$ ) a gage-glass :i* %[s ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! tank & an ov]fl[ pipe :i* dis*>ges into ! ba?tub1 9 case ( an ov]fl[4 ,an ov]fl[ pipe mu/ always be provid$ to take c>e ( ! surplus :5 ! wat] 9 ! sy/em becomes ov]heat$4 ,?is does n (t5 occur b ! provision mu/ be made = ! em]g5cy4 ,! ov]fl[ pipe is frequ5tly connect$ directly ) ! sew] or dis*>g$ at "s conv5i5t place 9 ! basem5t4 ,! ,high-pressure ,hot-wat] ,sy/em4--,9 ! hot-wat] plant describ$ ! expansion tank is op5 to ! air & ! wat] 9 ! sy/em is subject$ to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e alone4 ,! heat ( ! furnace may be suffici5tly great to br+ ! entire volume ( wat] ( ! sy/em to ! boil+ po9t & cause x to ov]fl[ b ! temp]ature ( ! wat] _c rise mu* above ! boil+ po9t due to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,if ! expansion tank is clos$1 ! pressure g5]at$ by ! exp&+ wat] & ! =mation ( /eam w p]mit ! wat] to rea* a mu* high] temp]ature4 ,9 ! table ( temp]atures & pressures ( wat] on page #c1 x w be se5 t %\ld ! pressure rise to #aj p\nds1 t is1 #aj p\nds above ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] w\ld be v ne>ly #bdj;,f4 7#bci4d;,f474 ,! diff]5ce 9 heat+ effect 9 hot-wat] heat+ plants "u ! two conditions is v m>k$4 ,9 ! l[-pressure sy/em ! temp]ature ( ! radiators _c be above #bab b ! high-pressure sy/em set = #aj p\nds pressure w heat ! radiators to #bdj1 & a /ill high] pressure w\ld give a correspond+ly high] temp]ature4 ,! am\nt ( heat radiat$ by a hot body is 9 proportion to ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! body & ! surr\nd+ air4 ,if we consid] ! surr\nd+ air at #fj ! diff]5ce 9 am\nt ( heat-radiation capacity ( ! two radiators w\ld be z #ahj is to #acb4 ,! advantage ( ! high-pressure sy/em lies 9 its ability to heat a giv5 space ) less radiat+ surface ?an ! l[-pressure sy/em4 ,9 ,fig4 #cd is illu/rat$ an application ( a simple & effici5t valve arrangem5t t conv]ts a l[-pressure hot-wat] sy/em into a high-pressure sy/em )\t *ang+ 9 any way ! pip+ or radiators4 ,! draw+ %[s ! boil] & two radiators connect$ z = a l[-pressure sy/em1 b atta*$ to ! end ( ! pipe z x ent]s ! expansion tank is a safety valve ,b & a *eck valve ,a1 z indicat$ 9 ! enl>g$ figure ( ! valve4 ,! safety valve is int5d$ to all[ ! wat] to escape into ! expansion tank :5 ! pressure 9 ! sy/em rea*es a c]ta9 po9t = :i* ! valve is set4 ,! *eck valve ,a p]mits ! wat] to rent] ! sy/em f ! tank :5ev] ! pressure is re/or$ to its normal am\nt4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,! high-pressure sy/em ( hot-wat] heat+4 ,suppose t su* a sy/em is work+ z a l[-pressure plant4 ,! hot wat] f ! top ( ! boil] is fl[+ to ! radiators ?r\gh ! supply pipe & ! displac$ cool] wat] is return+ to ! bottom ( ! boil] ?r\gh ! return pipe z 9 ! o!r plants describ$4 ,x is n[ f\nd t ! radiators are n suffici5tly l>ge to heat ! rooms to ! desir$ degree except :5 ! furnace is fir$ v heavily4 ,x is always poor economy to keep a v hot fire 9 any k9d ( a heat]1 because a hot fire s5ds mo/ ( its heat up ! *imney4 ,if ! radiators c\ld be safely rais$ 9 temp]ature1 !y w\ld1 ( c\rse1 give out m heat & z a result ! rooms w\ld be m quickly heat$ & kept at ! requir$ temp]ature ) less ef=t by ! furnace4 ,! difficulty 9 ?is case lies solely 9 !re be+ insuffici5t radiator surface to supply heat z fa/ z requir$4 ,! increase 9 radiator temp]ature is accompli%$ by ! pressure regulat+ valve ,b1 atta*$ to ! end ( ! pipe z x ent]s ! expansion tank4 ,! expansion tank ) ! regulat+ valve is %[n enl>g$ at ! left ( ! figure4 ,! valve ,b is kept clos$ by a weight m>k$ ,w1 t is int5d$ to hold back a pressure ( say #aj p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,a pressure ( #aj p\nds w require a temp]ature ( practically #bdj;,f4 7see table on page #c74 ,! *eck valve ,a is kept clos$ by ! pressure f ! inside ( ! sy/em4 ,:5 ! pressure ( ! wat] goes above #aj p\nds--or ! am\nt ( ! weight is int5d$ to hold back--! valve is lift$ & an am\nt ( wat] escapes ?r\gh ! valve ,b into ! tank1 suffici5t to relieve ! pressure4 ,%\ld en\gh wat] be =c$ out ( ! sy/em to fill ! tank to ! top ( ! ov]fl[ pipe1 ! ov]fl[ wat] is dis*>g$ ?r\gh ?is pipe into ! s9k 9 ! basem5t4 ,:5 ! h\se has become ?or\ghly w>m$1 ! dem& = a high radiator temp]ature is r$uc$1 ! furnace drafts are clos$1 ! wat] 9 ! sy/em cools & z x %r9ks ! sy/em w n be completely fill$4 ,x is !n necess>y to take back f ! tank ! wat] t has be5 =c$ out by excess pressure4 ,x is "h t ! *eck valve comes into use4 ,s long z !re is pressure on ! pipes1 ?is valve is held %ut & no wat] c escape1 b z ! inside pressure is releas$ by ! cool+ !re w come a po9t :]e ! wat] 9 ! tank w fl[ back ?r\gh ! valve ,a & fill ! sy/em4 ,?is is ! type ( valve us$ by ! ,&rews ,heat+ ,co4 & designat$ a regurgitat+ valve4 ,9 practice x gives excell5t s]vice4 ,! only dang] ( excessive pressure 9 ! use ( ?is device is ! possibility ( ! valve becom+ /uck to ! seat ?r\gh disuse4 ,any possible dang] f su* an occurr5ce may be elim9at$ by ! occasional lift+ ( ! valve by h&4 ,heat+-plant ,design4--,a heat+ plant %\ld be design$ by a p]son ( exp]i5ce4 ,no set ( rules has yet be5 devis$ t w meet e condition4 ,c>p5t]'s rules giv5 on page #be s]ve = hot wat] z well z = /eam z a means ( det]m9+ ! radiat+ surface requir$ = an ord9>y build+1 b ! rules d n take into acc\nt ! me?od ( con/ruction ( ! h\se & ! consequ5t extra radiation dem&$ = poorly con/ruct$ build+s4 ,9 _m cases ! design] mu/ rely on exp]i5ce z a guide :]e ! rules w n apply4 ,9 ! case usually enc\nt]$1 h[ev]1 ! rules giv5 w meet ! conditions4 ,:at 0 said reg>d+ ! size ( /eam boil]s requir$ = def9ite am\nts ( heat+ surfaces1 applies ) equal =ce to hot-wat] boil]s1 because h\se-heat+ boil]s are commonly us$ = ei!r /eam or hot-wat] heat+4 ,!re are no e/abli%$ rules = det]m9+ ! heat+ capacities ( h\se-heat+ boil]s4 ,manufactur]s' rat+s are usually l[4 ,!re are "s manufactur]s :o make hone/ rat+s = _! boil]s b !y are 9 ! m9ority4 ,:5 ! heat+ capacity ( a boil] is n kn[n f exp]i5ce1 ! only safegu>d aga9/ in/all+ a boil] too small = ! radiators to be heat$1 is to require a gu>antee t ! plant w give satisfaction :5 9 op]ation & :5 consid]$ necess>y a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( ! contract price %\ld be )held until ! plant proves itself by actual trial4 ,ov]head ,sy/em ( ,hot-wat] ,heat+4--,9 ,fig4 #ce is illu/rat$ ano!r sy/em ( high-pressure hot-wat] heat+ t corresponds to ! ov]head sy/em ( /eam heat+4 ,x diff]s f ! high-pressure sy/em already describ$ 9 ! me?od ( di/ribution & 9 ! radiator connections4 ,! fl[ pipe is tak5 to ! attic & !re jo9$ to ! expansion tank z a po9t ( di/ribution4 ,on ! expansion tank is a safety valve set at #aj or m p\nds pressure4 ,! fl[ ( ! wat] is all d[nw>d t[>d ! radiators4 ,! circulation ?r\gh ! radiators is also diff]5t f ! o!r plants describ$4 ,! supply pipe jo9s directly to ! return pipe & ! connections to ! radiators are made at ! top & bottom ( ! same end4 ,! circulation ?r\gh ! radiators 9 ?is case is due to ! diff]5ce 9 gravitational effect betwe5 ! hot & cold] wat] at ! top & bottom ( ! radiator4 ,! sy/em requires no air v5ts on ! radiators z all air t might collect 9 ! sy/em goes up to ! expansion tank4 ,! safety valve on ! expansion tank 9 ?is case is ! common lev] type4 ,! ov]fl[ %\ld empty into ! sew] & be pit*$ to prev5t any wat] be+ reta9$ 9 ! dis*>ge pipe4 ,if wat] %\ld be reta9$ 9 ?is pipe & %\ld freeze1 ! sy/em w\ld become dang]\s1 because ( ! possibility ( high pressures f a hot fire4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,! ov]head sy/em ( hot-wat] heat+4 ,expansion ,tanks4--,fig4 #cf is a =m ( expansion tank 9 common use4 ,x may be us$ = ei!r ! high-or l[-pressure sy/em4 ,! body ( ! tank is made ( galvaniz$ iron & is made to /& a consid]able am\nt ( pressure4 ,! gage-glass is atta*$ at ,b1 & ! ov]fl[ at ,o4 ,! pipe ,e connects ! tank ) ! circulat+ sy/em & ,d connects ) ! cold-wat] supply z a conv5i5ce = fill+ ! sy/em ) wat]4 ,! object 9 plac+ ! /op-cock ,d ne> ! expansion tank is to avoid ov]fl[+ ! sy/em 9 fill+4 ,! ov]fl[ pipe1 z /at$ above1 is mo/ conv5i5tly connect$ ) ! sew]1 into :i* ! wat] w run 9 case ( an ov]fl[1 b ! o!r me?ods %[n are commonly us$4 ,!re %\ld be no valve 9 ?is pipe nor 9 ! pipe ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,! expansion tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,:5 ! expansion tank ( a hot-wat] heat+ sy/em mu/ be s locat$ t x is apt to freeze1 x mu/ be pip$ z a radiator4 ,! expansion tank mu/ be s locat$ t !re w be no dang] ( freez+4 ,%\ld x be necess>y to place ! tank 9 ! attic or :]e freez+ is possible1 ! tank mu/ be s connect$ z to become a "p ( ! circulat+ sy/em4 ,su* an arrangem5t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #cg4 ,! expansion tank is connect$ ) a supply & return pipe z a radiator4 ,?is arrangem5t is sometimes us$ b x is n desirable4 ,x is wa/eful ( heat & !re is always a possibility ( freez+ 9 case ! fire 9 ! furnace is ext+ui%$ a suffici5t "t to all[ ! wat] to gr[ cold4 ,any possibility ( dang] f excessive pressures 9 ei!r ! l[-pressure or ! high-pressure sy/em mu/ orig9ate 9 ! expansion tank4 ,x is1 !re=e1 desir$ to aga9 m5tion ! possible causes ( dang]4 ,any clos$-tank sy/em is liable to become ov]heat$4 ,! expansive =ce ( wat] is irresi/ible & unless "s means is tak5 to prev5t excessive pressure "s "p ( ! app>atus is apt to bur/4 ,no clos$-tank sy/em %\ld be us$ )\t a safety valve4 ,! l[-pressure or op5-tank sy/em requires no safety appliances4 ,s long z !re is op5 communication betwe5 ! tank & ! boil] ! pressure _c rise b slightly above t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,!re is only "o cause t w lead to high pressure 9 su* a sy/em4 ,if ! pipe connect+ ! expansion tank is /opp$ an excessive pressure might g5]ate4 ,!re is little or no dang] ( ?is happ5+4 ,9 ! clos$-tank sy/em ! expansion tank %\ld be ( great] capacity ?an = ! op5-tank sy/em4 ,its size is commonly ab\t "o-n9? ( ! volume ( wat] us$4 ,! l>g] tank is necess>y to prev5t too rapid rise ( pressure z ! temp]ature ( ! wat] rises4 ,! air 9 ! tank acts z a cu%ion aga9/ :i* ! pressure ( ! exp&+ wat] is ex]t$4 ,! ext5d$ use ( hot-wat] heat+ has l$ to ! inv5tion ( _m appliances = ! improvem5t ( ! circulation & heat+ effects4 ,pulsation valves are us$ = reta9+ ! wat] 9 ! boil] until a def9ite pressure has be5 atta9$ t w lift ! valve long en\gh to dissipate ! pressure4 ,_m ( ^! sy/ems possess m]it & "s ( !m are great improvem5ts ov] ! simple plant4 ,radiator ,connection4--,! me?od ( connect+ ! radiators to ! di/ribut+ pipes dep5ds entirely on local conditions4 ,9 a well-balanc$ sy/em any ( ! me?ods %[n 9 ,figs4 #ch1 #ci or #dj might be us$ ) good heat+ effects4 ,! me?od ( atta*+ ! supply pipe to ! radiator is1 h[ev]1 an important factor 9 case ( accumulation ( air4 ,9 ,fig4 #da is %[n ! =m ( connection mo/ commonly us$4 ,! draw+ is int5d$ to repres5t a ca/-iron radiator ) ! valve at ,d1 & ! air v5t at ,b4 ,%\ld air collect 9 ! radiator x w rise to ! top & displace ! wat]4 ,! wat] w cont9ue to circulate & heat z mu* ( ! radiator z is 9 contact ) ! wat]1 b t "p n 9 contact w receive no heat f ! wat] & w1 !re=e1 fail to fulfill its function4 ,z soon z ! air v5t is op5$ ! air w escape & all[ ! wat] to entirely fill ! space4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,,figs4 #ch ,,to #dj4--,v>i\s me?ods ( atta*+ ! supply & return pipes to hot-wat] radiators4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,! effect ( accumulation ( air 9 a hot-wat] radiator ) bottom connections4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,) ?is me?od ( connections1 if ! air collects suffici5tly to =ce ! wat] d[n to ! level ,l1 circulation w /op4 ,9 ,fig4 #db a mu* diff]5t condition exi/s1 :5 air accumulates4 ,9 ?is mode ( connection ! wat] ent]s ?r\gh ! valve ,v1 & escapes at ! bottom ( ! opposite end4 ,:5 air fills ! radiator to ! l9e ,l1 ! circulation is /opp$ & ! radiator w gr[ cold4 ,! position ( ! valve on ^! radiators is ( little consequ5ce4 ,! valve is int5d$ m]ely to int]rupt ! fl[ ( ! wat] & may occupy a place on ei!r end ( ! radiator ) ! same result4 ,hot-wat] ,radiators4--,radiators = hot-wat] heat+ are mo/ commonly ( ca/ iron & 9 appe>ance are ! same z ^? us$ = /eam heat+4 ,! only diff]5ce 9 ! two =ms is 9 ! op5+s betwe5 ! sections4 ,^? int5d$ = /eam h an op5+ at ! bottom jo9+ ! sections2 :ile ^? = hot wat] h op5+s at bo? top & bottom to p]mit circulation ( ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,! hot-wat] radiator valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc;a4--,details ( con/ruction ( ! hot-wat] radiator valve4 ,hot-wat] ,radiator ,valves4--,valves = hot-wat] radiators diff] mat]ially f ^? us$ on /eam radiators4 ,figs4 #dc & #dc;a %[ ! outside appe>ance & ! me*anical arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! ,ohio hot-wat] valve4 ,! "p ,a 9 ,fig4 #dc;a is a holl[ brass cyl9d] atta*$ to ! valve-/em1 "o side ( :i* has be5 remov$4 ,:5 x is desir$ to %ut (f ! supply ( heat ! h&le ( ! valve is giv5 "o-qu>t] turn & ! "p ,a cov]s ! op5+ to ! inlet pipe4 ,! supply ( wat] be+ %ut (f1 ! radiator gradually cools4 ,:5 ! valve is clos$ a small am\nt ( wat] is admitt$ to ! radiator ?r\gh a #a_/h-;in* hole 9 ! piece ,a to prev5t ! possibility ( freez+4 ,air ,v5ts4--,9 ! use ( ! sy/ems ( hot-wat] heat+ describ$1 e radiator mu/ be suppli$ ) an air v5t ( "s k9d to take away ! trapp$ air :i* accumulates ?r\gh use4 ,any k9d ( a valve w s]ve z a v5t = h& regulation & g5]ally su* a cock z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj is employ$4 ,automatic ,hot-wat] ,air ,v5ts4--,x is sometimes desir$ to use automatic air v5ts on hot-wat] radiators4 ,= su* "w a v5t is us$ t rema9s clos$ z long z wat] is pres5t & w op5 :5 ! wat] is displac$ by ! accumulat+ air1 b w aga9 close :5 ! air is dis*>g$4 ,9 su* v5ts ! valve is controll$ by a float1 ! buoyancy ( ! float :5 surr\nd$ by wat] s]v+ to keep ! valve clos$4 ,^! v5ts are n s positive 9 _! action z automatic air v5ts = /eam4 ,! *ange 9 temp]ature :i* controls ! /eam v5t does n take place ) hot wat]4 ,! automatic hot-wat] v5ts are n p]fectly reliable4 ,!y may "w ) entire satisfaction = a long "t & !n fail f v slight cause4 ,! failure ( a hot-wat] v5t is g5]ally discov]$ by f9d+ a pool ( wat] on ! floor or a wet spot on ! ceil+ or wall ( ! floor bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,automatic air v5t = hot-wat] radiators4 ,"o type ( ! automatic hot-wat] v5t t has prov5 q successful is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dd4 ,! ?read$ lug is screw$ into ! radiator at ! prop] po9t4 ,z ! wat] ent]s ! radiator ! air is dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! v5t1 escap+ at ! op5+ ,c4 ,:5 ! wat] has ris5 to a suffici5t height x ent]s ! op5+s ,g & ,h until en\gh is pres5t to raise ! float ,a4 ,! po9t$ /em atta*$ clos$ ! hole ,c ) suffici5t =ce to make an air-tight jo9t4 ,! float ,a is a v light copp] cyl9d]4 ,its buoyancy supplies ! =ce to close ! v5t & its weight op5s ! v5t :5 ! wat] is displac$ by air4 ,x w be readily se5 t v slight cause might prev5t ! p]=mance ( its duty4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,hot-,,air ,,furnace ,( ! me?ods ( heat+ dwell+s o!r ?an by /oves1 t ( ! hot-air furnace is ! mo/ common4 ,( ! v>i\s modes ( furnace heat+ x is ! lea/ exp5sive 9 fir/ co/ & mo/ rapid 9 effect4 ,9 ! use ( /eam heat1 ! wat] 9 ! boil] mu/ be vaporiz$ be=e its heat is available4 ,) hot-wat] heat+1 ! :ole mass ( wat] 9 ! entire sy/em mu/ be rais$ consid]ably 9 temp]ature be=e its heat c affect ! temp]ature ( ! rooms1 & consequ5tly 9 fir/ effect x is v sl[4 ,9 ! use ( ! hot-air furnace ! heat f ! regi/] beg9s to w>m ! rooms :5 ! fire is />t$4 ,hot-air furnaces are made by manufactur+ companies 9 a great v>iety ( /yles & =ms to suit purposes ( e k9d4 ,9 practice ! furnace is built 9 sizes1 to heat a def9ite am\nt ( cubical space4 ,! mak] designs a furnace to heat a c]ta9 numb] ( cubic feet ( space conta9$ 9 a build+4 ,x mu/ be suffici5tly l>ge to keep ! temp]ature at #gj;,f4 on ! colde/ nights ( w9t] :5 ! w9d is bl[+ a gale4 ,x is evid5t t ) ! v>iable factors ent]+ ! problem1 ! design] mu/ be a p]son ( exp]i5ce 9 ord] t ! furnace meet ! requirem5ts4 ,! foll[+ table tak5 f a manufactur]'s catalogue %[s ! me?od ( adapt+ ! product ( ! mak] to any size ( dwell+4 ,! volume ( ! h\se is calculat$ 9 cubic feet & f ?is result ! size ( furnace mo/ ne>ly suit$ is select$ f ! table4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,furnace numb] #a #b #c #d #e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,weight )\t cas+1 #ihd #a1aaa #a1cdj #a1eca #a1icd lb4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,e/imat$ capacities 9 #h1jjj #ab1jjj #bj1jjj #ce1jjj #fj1jjj cubic feet to to to to to #ab1jjj #bj1jjj #ce1jjj #fj1jjj #ajj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,capacity 9 numb] ( rooms ( ord9>y size #c to #e #e to #g #g to #i #i to #ab #ab to #ae 9 resid5ce heat+ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,con/ruction ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,int]ior view ( a hot-air furnace4 ,! furnace1 9 g5]al con/ruction1 consi/s ( a ca/-iron fire-box ) its heat+ surfaces1 ?r\gh :i* ! flames & heat$ gases f ! fire pass1 on ! way to ! *imney2 ^! ) ! passages & heat+ surfaces = heat+ ! air compose ! ess5tial features4 ,fig4 #de %[s su* a furnace ) ! sides brok5 away to %[ ! int]nal con/ruction4 ,! flames & gases f ! fire-box ,f circulate ?r\gh ! ca/-iron drum ,d & are dis*>g$ at ,c to ! *imney4 ,! drum ,d is made 9 su* =m t x pres5ts to ! heat f ! fire a l>ge am\nt ( heat+ surface & at ! same "t (f]s z little opposition z possible to ! furnace draft4 ,! air to be heat$ ent]s ! furnace ?r\gh ! cold air duct at ! bottom1 & aft] circulat+ ?r\gh ! drum1 passes out at ! op5+s ,r to ! conduct+ pipes4 ,! ca/-iron box ,w is a wat] tank t %\ld be atta*$ to e hot-air furnace4 ,! wat] conta9$ 9 ! tank is = humidify+ ! air z x passes ?r\gh ! furnace4 ,9 ?is furnace ! outside cas+ is ( %eet iron1 re9=c$ ) wr\ght-iron flanges4 ,! front1 :i* conta9s ! doors ( ! fire-box1 a%-pit1 etc41 are ( ca/ iron ( ornam5t$ design4 ,z ! air to be heat$ passes ?r\gh ! furnace x receives "p ( its w>m? by radiation b mo/ ( x is absorb$ by com+ directly into contact ) ! heat+ surfaces4 ,s9ce air is a poor conductor ( heat its temp]ature is rais$ v sl[ly2 x %\ld1 !re=e1 be kept 9 contact ) ! heat+ surfaces z long z possible to insure an economical furnace4 ,9 common practice ! ratio ( heat+ surface to grate surface av]age #ce to #a2 t is1 = ea* squ>e foot ( grate surface !re is #ce squ>e feet ( heat+ surface to w>m ! pass+ air4 ,%\ld ?is ratio be increas$ to #ej to #a ! effici5cy ( ! furnace w\ld be mu* improv$4 ,if ! ratio ( heat+ surface to ! grate surface is too small = its requirem5ts1 ! temp]ature ( ! air-heat+ surfaces mu/ be v high to provide ! desir$ am\nt ( heat4 ,"u su* a condition ! effici5cy ( ! furnace w\ld be l[1 s9ce 9 all cases :]e rapid combu/ion is requir$ ! available am\nt ( heat p] p\nd ( coal consum$ is l[4 ,) a l>ge am\nt ( heat+ surface1 ! air rema9s 9 contact ) ! hot surface a relatively long] p]iod & ! desir$ temp]ature is rea*$ ) ! exp5diture ( a small] am\nt ( fuel4 ,a mom5t>y exposure ( ! air to a r$-hot surface is f> less effective ?an a prolong$ contact ) a surface hav+ only a mod]ate temp]ature4 ,"t is an elem5t ( great importance 9 heat+ air4 ,9 consid]+ ! relative m]its ( two furnaces ) ! same am\nt ( grate surface1 t ) ! l>g] am\nt ( heat+ surface w evid5tly be ! mo/ effici5t4 ,! supply ( heat comes prim>ily f ! burn+ coal on ! furnace grate4 ,! grate surface %\ld be l>ge en\gh 9 area to p]mit ! requir$ quantity ( heat to be g5]at$ by ! burn+ fuel ) a mod]ate fire4 ,if ! grate surface is too small = ! requir$ purpose1 a hot fire w be necess>y1 :5 ! normal am\nt ( heat is dem&$ by ! h\se4 ,dur+ extremely cold wea!r1 p>ticul>ly :5 accompani$ by high w9d1 ! extra heat dem&$ to keep ! h\se at ! desir$ temp]ature makes necess>y ! use ( an am\nt ( fuel t _c be burn$ on ! grate unless ! fire is =c$4 ,hot fires c be kept up only at ! exp5se ( a l>ge am\nt ( heat1 & ! resultant effici5cy ( ! furnace is r$uc$4 ,high furnace temp]atures are always att5d$ by a l>ge loss ( heat4 ,! va/ly great] quantity ( air necess>y to create ! combu/ion1 ! high temp]ature ( ! *imney gases & ! increas$ velocity ( ! heat$ gases ?r\gh ! furnace1 all t5d to increase ! am\nt ( heat t is s5t up ! *imney1 & to decrease ! p]c5tage ( heat t is deliv]$ by ! furnace4 ,9 ord] to heat ! h\se economically ! furnace mu/ be l>ge en\gh to easily g5]ate ! requir$ am\nt ( heat dem&$ 9 ! mo/ sev]e wea!r4 ,furnace-gas ,leaks4--,! pres5ce ( furnace gas 9 ! atmosph]e ( a h\se is n only annoy+ b may be a s\rce ( dang]4 ,gas leaks are commonly due to ! imp]fect union ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( :i* ! furnace is compos$4 ,ca/-iron furnaces are con/ruct$ 9 sections t are assembl$ to =m a complete plant4 ,9 assembl+1 ! v>i\s p>ts ( contact mu/ be c>efully jo9$ to prev5t ! gases 9 ! fire-box f escap+ into ! air-heat+ space4 ,9 ! manufacture ( ca/-iron furnaces x is practically impossible to =m gas-tight jo9ts by ! contact ( ! metal alone4 ,9 ! erection ( ! furnace all d\btful jo9ts are fill$ ) /ove putty4 ,furnaces ( good design require ! use ( ! lea/ am\nt ( ?is mat]ial4 ,/ove putty is compos$ ( f9ely divid$ graphitic c>bon t is made into a pa/e suitable = fill+ all imp]fect jo9ts4 ,:5 ! putty h>d5s x )/&s ! heat to :i* x is subject$1 )\t %r9k+4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t1 h[ev]1 ! putty may be displac$ & leave op5+s ?r\gh :i* ! furnace gases may leak into heat+ space & ?us ent] ! h\se4 ,leaks ( ! k9d may be /opp$ by r5ew+ ! putty :i* may be obta9$ f any deal] 9 /oves4 ,location ( ! ,furnace4--,! location ( ! furnace w g5]ally be gov]n$ by ! exposure ( ! h\se & ! location ( ! *imney4 ,9 all expos$ rooms on ! w9dw>d side ( ! h\se ! temp]ature w be l[] & ! air pressure high] ?an 9 o!r p>ts ( ! h\se4 ,! increase 9 atmosph]ic pressure makes x necess>y to supply to su* rooms ! hotte/ air practicable4 ,! conduct+ pipes1 !re=e1 %\ld be mo/ directly connect$ ) ! furnace & ) ! lea/ run ( horizontal pipe4 ,! prop] place = ! furnace is z ne> z possible ! colde/ place ( ! h\se4 ,x is a common practice to place regi/]s ne> ! inn] corn] ( ! room1 9 ord] to economize 9 conduct+ pipe1 9 horizontal runs4 ,a small am\nt ( economy 9 fir/ co/ is ?us secur$ b ! effici5cy ( ! app>atus is sacrific$4 ,! greate/ objection to plac+ ! regi/]s & conduct+ pipes 9 ! out] walls ( build+s is t ( loss ( heat1 due to exposure to ! outside cold & ! result+ loss 9 circulation4 ,losses ( ?is k9d may be prev5t$ by cov]+ ! ducts ) ! necess>y non-conduct+ mat]ial4 ,! regi/]s %\ld occupy a place 9 ! room ne>e/ ! ent]+ cold air4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,me?od ( conduct+ w>m air f ! furnace to ! regi/]s4 ,flues4--,x is cu/om>y to place ! conduct+ pipes = ! fir/ floor 9 su* a way z to use only ! %orte/ connections4 ,! flues us$ = ! second floor produce1 z 9 a *imney1 a great] velocity ( fl[ to ! air & z a consequ5ce l>g] horizontal pipes are us$ at ! furnace4 ,all horizontal pipes %\ld h upw>d slant1 z mu* z ! basem5t w p]mit4 ,! velocity ( ! air 9 ! conduct+ flues w dep5d on two factors3 ! height ( ! flue1 & ! temp]ature ( ! air4 ,to prev5t ! loss ( ! temp]ature ( ! air1 ! flue %\ld be cov]$ ) at lea/ two lay]s ( asbe/us pap] b\nd ) wire4 ,wall flues are commonly flatt5$ & occupy a place 9 ! wall betwe5 ! /udd+4 ,ea* flue %\ld h a damp] at ! furnace1 t w p]mit ! heat to be %ut (f f any "p ( ! h\se4 ,rules = proportion+ ( regi/]s & conduct+ flues to suit rooms ( v>i\s sizes are entirely empirical4 ,! sizes ( regi/]s & flues f\nd satisfactory 9 practice is g5]ally a guide = ! design]4 ,! foll[+ table is tak5 f a manufactur]'s catalogue & gives a li/ ( sizes t h prov5 satisfactory "u a great v>iety ( conditions & may be tak5 z good practice3 ,,fir/ ,,floor ---------------------------------------- ------- ,sizes ( ,diamet] ( ,size ( ,height ( regi/]s pipes rooms ceil+s 9 in*es 9 in*es 9 feet 9 feet ---------------------------------------- ------- #ab by #ae #ab #ah by #bj #aa #aj by #ad #aj #ae by #ae #aj #i by #ab #i #ad by #ae #i #h by #ab #i #ac by #ac #i ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,second ,,floor ---------------------------------------- ------- #aj by #ad #aj #ah by #bj #aj #i by #ab #i #af by #af #i #h by #ab #h #ac by #ac #h #h by #aj #g #ab by #ab #h ---------------------------------------- ------- ,! furnace is n only a means ( heat+ ! h\se b may be a means ( v5tilation z well2 to ?is end x is desirable to arrange ! air supply ( ! furnace to connect ) ! outside air4 ,?is arrangem5t assures a supply ( oxyg5 ev5 ?\gh no special means is arrang$ = dis*>g+ ! vitiat$ air f ! rooms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,int]ior con/ruction ( a comb9ation hot-wat] & hot-air furnace4 ,comb9ation ,hot-air & ,hot-wat] ,heat]4--,9 ! case ( l>ge h\ses heat$ by hot air x is sometimes bett] to use two or m furnaces ?an to attempt to c>ry ! heat long di/ances 9 ! cu/om>y pipes4 ,:]e heat is requir$ 9 rooms locat$ at a di/ance m ?an #cj feet1 x is advisable to use a comb9ation hot-air & hot-wat] heat]1 ! di/ant rooms be+ heat$ by hot-wat] radiators4 ,a furnace arrang$ = su* a comb9ation is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dg4 ,?is furnace conta9s1 fir/1 ! ess5tial features ( a hot-air furnace2 next1 x includes a hot-wat] plant4 ,! fire-box & air-heat+ surfaces are easily recogniz$4 ,! arr[s %[ ! c\rse ( ! air ent]+ at ! bottom ( ! furnace1 :i* aft] be+ heat$ by pass+ ov] ! heat+ surfaces1 escapes at ! op5+s m>k$ w>m air1 to ! di/ribut+ pipes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,! hot-air furnace z x appe>s 9 ! h\se4 ,inside ! air-heat+ surfaces are ?ree holl[ ca/-iron pieces ,w1 t =m a "p ( ! walls ( ! fire-box4 ,^! pieces1 ) _! connect+ pipes1 =m ! wat]-heat+ "p ( ! furnace1 :i* supplies ! hot wat] = ! radiators4 ,! pieces ,w1 ) ! connect+ pipes & radiators1 =m an indep5d5t heat+ plant1 ) a fire-box 9 common ) ! hot-air furnace4 ,! return+ wat] f ! radiators ent]s ! heat+ surfaces ,w1 ?r\gh ! pipe m>k$ return pipe4 ,! heat$ wat] is dis*>g$ f ! heat]s into t m>k$ fl[ pipe :i* conducts x to ! radiators4 ,su* a furnace is1 !re=e1 two indep5d5t sy/ems1 "o = hot air & ! o!r = hot wat]1 b ) a s+le fire-box4 ,?is furnace1 l ! simple hot-air furnace1 is rat$1 fir/ 9 ! am\nt ( space x w heat ) hot air & 9 addition1 by ! numb] ( squ>e feet ( hot-wat] radiat+ surface t w be kept hot by ! hot-wat] heat]4 ,9 ,fig4 #dh is %[n ! location ( ! furnace 9 a cottage ) ! conduct+ pipes to ! v>i\s rooms4 ,! regi/]s 9 ! fir/ floor are g5]ally set 9 ! floor b if desir$ !y may be plac$ 9 ! walls4 ,^? on ! second floor are plac$ 9 ! walls because ( conv5i5ce4 ,! conduct+ pipes pass ?r\gh ! p>titions betwe5 ! /udd+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,details ( air ducts & damp] regulator us$ ) ! hot-air furnace4 ,9 all well-arrang$ hot-air heat+ plants provision is made s t ! air = heat+ may be tak5 f ! outside4 ,x does n foll[ t ! supply ( fre% air %\ld always come f outdoors2 !re are times dur+ extremely cold wea!r1 accompani$ by high w9ds1 :5 v5tilation is ample )\t ! outside s\rce ( supply4 ,s9ce x is nev] desirable to take ! air supply f ! basem5t1 su* an arrangem5t z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #di1 or a modification ( ! same plan is commonly employ$4 ,! duct ,a f ! outside & ,b f ! rooms above connect ) ! air supply = ! furnaces4 ,a damp] ,c arrang$ to move on a h+e1 is s plac$ z to admit ! air f ei!r s\rce z desir$4 ,! damp] may be plac$ s z to take "p or all ( ! air f ! outside by adju/+ ! h&le at ! prop] place4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,temp]ature ,,regulation ,! me?od us$ = regulat+ ! temp]ature ( a h\se w dep5d on its size1 ! conditions "u :i* x is to be us$ & ! me?od ( heat+4 ,9 small h\ses ! temp]ature may be satisfactorily gov]n$ entirely by h&1 t is1 ! furnace drafts may be *ang$ by h& to suit ! v>y+ conditions ( temp]ature4 ,a m satisfactory me?od is t ( !rmo/atic regulation1 9 :i* a !rmo/atic gov]nor & a motor automatically control ! furnace damp]s s z to keep a con/ant temp]ature at "o po9t1 g5]ally ! liv+ room4 ,:]e hot-wat] or /eam heat+ plants are us$1 ano!r device is frequ5tly employ$ to keep ! temp]ature ( ! heat supply at a con/ant degree4 ,?is is kn[n z ! automatic damp] regulator4 ,! damp] regulator is "o ( ! boil] accessories :i* s gov]ns ! drafts ( ! furnace z to keep a con/ant wat] temp]ature 9 ! hot-wat] heat] or a con/ant /eam pressure 9 ! /eam boil]4 ,9 "s cases bo? ! damp] regulator & ! !rmo/at are us$ z a m complete means ( temp]ature control4 ,h& ,regulation4--,z a means ( *ang+ ! damp]s ( ! furnace f ! floor above1 to suit ! prevail+ conditions1 ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #di does away ) ! necessity ( a j\rney to ! basem5t1 to rem$y ea* *ange ( temp]ature4 ,a plate is fa/5$ to ! wall at any conv5i5t place1 to :i* ! end ( a *a9 is atta*$ z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,?is connects ) a second *a91 ! ends ( :i* are fa/5$1 "o to ! direct draft or a%-pit damp] ,f1 & ! o!r to ! *eck draft ,e1 9 ! *imney4 ,z ! furnace appe>s 9 ! draw+1 ! direct draft is clos$ & ! *eck draft is op54 ,by *ang+ ! r+ f ,g to ,h1 ! movem5t ( ! *a9 op5s ,f1 & closes ,e1 admitt+ air to ! furnace4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! room is rais$ suffici5tly1 ! drafts are re/or$ to _! orig9al position by replac+ ! r+ at ,g4 ,sometimes "o or m int]m$iate po9ts are made on ! plate betwe5 ,g & ,h1 :i* p]mits bo? drafts to be kept p>tly op5 & few] *anges are requir$ to keep ! temp]ature approximately normal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,cross-section ( damp] regulator = /eam boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,/eam boil] = h\se heat+1 ) ! damp] regulator1 9 place1 atta*$ to ! damp]s4 ,damp] ,regulator = ,/eam ,boil]4--,! damp] regulator us$ on a /eam boil] is a simple device t automatically controls ! draft damp]s by reason ( ! *ang+ pressures ( ! /eam4 ,! object ( ! damp] regulator is to prev5t ! g5]ation ( /eam 9 ! boil] beyond a c]ta9 pressure at :i* ! valve is set4 ,?is po9t is usually #c or #d p\nds bel[ ! pressure at :i* ! safety valve w\ld act4 ,if 9 prop] work+ ord] ! damp] regulator w s control ! damp]s t ! boil] w always conta9 a supply ( /eam1 b ! pressure w n rea* a po9t requir+ ! action ( ! safety valve4 ,fig4 #ea illu/rates its connections ) ! furnace damp]s4 ,9 ,fig4 #ah ! regulator appe>s at ,d4 ,9 ext]nal appe>ance & 9 op]ation ( ! damp]s1 x is ! same z ! regulator = a hot-wat] boil] b its int]nal con/ruction is simpl]4 ,fig4 #ej %[s its con/ruction4 ,x is atta*$ to ! /eam space ( ! boil] at ,e4 ,! /eam pressure acts directly on ! flexible metallic diaphragm ,b4 ,z ! pressure ( ! /eam approa*es ! desir$ am\nt ! diaphragm is rais$ & ) x ! lev] ,v4 ,a *a9 ,d1 atta*$ to ! end ( ! lev]1 op5s ! *eck draft1 & ano!r at ,c closes ! draft damp]4 ,:5 ! /eam pressure falls1 ! diaphragm l[]s ! lev] & ! damp]s are re/or$ to _! orig9al position4 ,! same movem5ts are repeat$ ) ea* rise & fall ( ! /eam pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,damp] regulator = hot-wat] boil]4 ,damp] ,regulators = ,hot-wat] ,furnaces4--,! damp] regulator = a hot-wat] boil] automatically controls ! damp]s ( ! furnace s z to keep ! wat] ( ! boil] approximately at a con/ant temp]ature4 ,! regulator is %[n 9 ,fig4 #eb4 ,! ends ( ! lev] are connect$ to ! direct-draft & *eck-draft damp]s1 z 9 ! case ( ! damp] regulator = ! /eam plant4 ,a cross-section ( ! work+ p>ts %[s ! details ( con/ruction4 ,! lev] d is op]at$ by a diaphragm g1 :i* tightly cov]s a brass b[l1 conta9+ a mixture ( alcohol & wat]1 ( su* proportions z w produce a vapor pressure at ! desir$ temp]ature1 say #bjj4 ,! hot wat] f ! boil] passes ?r\gh ! valve1 ent]+ at a & leav+ at b4 ,:5 ! wat] rea*es ! desir$ temp]ature1 ! conta9$ liquid vaporizes & a pressure is produc$ t is suffici5t to lift ! diaphragm & ! lev]4 ,! *a9 atta*$ to ! "r-h& end closes ! direct-draft damp]2 at ! same "t ! o!r end ( ! lev] op5s ! *eck draft1 & ! supply ( air to ! furnace fire is entirely cut (f4 ,z soon z ! wat] has cool$ suffici5tly1 ! vapor pressure 9 ! b[l is r$uc$1 all[+ ! weight ,w to depress ! diaphragm & ! lev] is re/or$ to its fir/ position4 ,! weight ,w is = adju/+ ! valve to ! desir$ temp]ature4 ,! plug f tightly closes ! orifice ?r\gh :i* ! liquid is introduc$ into ! b[l4 ,! object ( ! damp] regulator on a hot-wat] boil] is to gov]n ! fire ( ! furnace s z to keep ! wat] 9 ! boil] at ! desir$ temp]ature4 ,9 case !re is a dem& = heat at any "p ( ! h\se1 a supply ( hot wat] w always be on h&4 ,x has no?+ to d ) ! regulation ( ! temp]ature ( ! h\se4 ,! control ( ! h\se temp]ature is ! (fice ( ! !rmo/at4 ,! !rmo/at is a me*anical device = automatically regulat+ temp]ature4 ,x may be arrang$ to op]ate ! valve ( a s+le radiator or regi/] & s control ! temp]ature ( a room1 or z commonly us$ 9 ! av]age dwell+1 ! controll] may be plac$ to gov]n ! temp]ature ( ! liv+ room & 9 s do+ keep ! furnace 9 condition to satisfactorily heat ! rema9d] ( ! h\se4 ,!rmo/ats are made 9 a v>iety ( =ms by diff]5t manufactur]s b !y may be divid$ into two g5]al classes3 ! electric1 & ! pneumatic types4 ,! electric !rmo/at dep5ds on an electric curr5t z a means ( controll+ ! action ( ! motor :i* 9 turn op]ates ! furnace damp]s s z to ma9ta9 a con/ant heat supply4 ,! pneumatic !rmo/at regulates ! supply ( heat by means ( pneumatic valves4 ,x w be consid]$ lat] 9 discuss+ me*anical v5tilation4 ,?is type ( temp]ature regulation is p>ticul>ly adapt$ to l>ge build+s4 ,fig4 #ec illu/rates "o /yle ( electric !rmo/at t is v g5]ally us$ = temp]ature regulation 9 ! av]age dwell+4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree di/9ct p>ts--! controll]1 ! electric batt]y & ! motor4 ,9 ! draw+ ! motor is %[n connect$ ) a /eam valve1 su* z may be us$ = furni%+ /eam = a s]ies ( radiators4 ,x may ) equal facility be atta*$ to ! damp]s ( a furnace or o!r heat+ app>atus4 ,! controll] occupies a place on ! wall ( ! room to be heat$ & makes electric connections betwe5 ! batt]y & ! motor4 ,:5ev] ! temp]ature v>ies f ! requir$ degree1 a *ange ( electric contact 9 ! controll] />ts ! motor1 & ! radiator valve or ! furnace drafts are op5$ or clos$ z occasion requires4 ,! controll] appe>s 9 ,fig4 #ed z commonly se5 9 use4 ,! upp] "p c>ries a !rmomet] & ! po9t] ,a indicates ! temp]ature to be ma9ta9$ 9 ! room4 ,! middle division indicates #gj;,f4 ,ea* division to ! "r ( ! middle po9t raises ! temp]ature #e4 ,ea* division to ! left l[]s ! temp]ature a l am\nt4 ,9 addition to ! ord9>y type ?is controll] is furni%$ ) a "t atta*m5t by means ( :i* ! controll] may p]mit ! temp]ature ( ! room to fall to any desir$ degree at night & raise x aga9 9 ! morn+ at ! "t = :i* x is set4 ,?is is accompli%$ by a little al>m clock %[n at ! bottom ( ! controll] 9 ,fig4 #ed4 ,! indicator ,b is arrang$ to correspond ) ! indicator ,a2 ! middle po9t repres5t+ #gj;,f4 ,to set ! "t atta*m5t1 ! al>m is w\nd & set z 9 any al>m clock1 #a_/b h\r e>li] ?an ! desir$ "t = ris+4 ,! indicator ,b is set = ! day temp]ature & ,a is set = ! temp]ature desir$ dur+ ! night4 ,at ! appo9t$ "t ! al>m moves ! indicator ,a to ! desir$ po9t = ! day & ! controll] raises ! temp]ature accord+ly4 ,fig4 #ee %[s ! me*anism t is expos$ to view :5 ! cov] ( ! controll] is remov$4 ,! b5t /rip ,c is ! "p t is influ5c$ by ! *ange ( temp]ature4 ,x is made ( two ?9 /rips ( metal1 "o ( brass & ! o!r ( /eel4 ,! two /rips are sold]$ firmly toge!r4 ,any *ange 9 temp]ature w affect ! /rip & cause x to b5d & t\* ! contact po9t--,k or ,j4 ,! b5d+ ( ! /rip is due to ! unequal expansion ( ! brass & /eel due to ! *ange ( temp]ature4 ,brass exp&s #b4d times z mu* z /eel ) ! same *ange ( temp]ature4 ,! am\nt ( b5d+ is suffici5t to make an appreciable movem5t 9 a small fraction ( a degree *ange4 ,! brass "p ( ,c is on ! left & s9ce x exp&s ! great] am\nt1 a ris+ temp]ature causes ,c to come into contact ) ! po9t ,j4 ,:5 ?is happ5s ! motor is />t$ & makes "o-half cycle4 ,9 s do+ x %uts (f ! air supply ( ! furnace1 op5s ! *eck draft & at ! same "t ! motor *anges ! electric contact f ,j to ,k4 ,:5 ! temp]ature beg9s to fall1 ! brass contracts 9 ! same ratio to ! /eel z x exp&s dur+ ! ris+ temp]ature & z a consequ5ce ! b> b5ds to ! left4 ,:5 ! /rip t\*es ! po9t ,k ! motor aga9 makes "o-half circle1 admitt+ air once m to ! furnace1 closes ! *eck draft & %ifts ! electric contact back to ,k4 ,:5 prop]ly />t$ ! !rmo/at w regulate ! temp]ature )9 a degree ( temp]ature4 ,! ,!rmo/at ,motor4--,! !rmo/at motor automatically op5s & closes ! furnace damp]s or ! valve t admits /eam to ! radiators z heat is dem&$ by ! controll]4 ,! motor1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ec1 consi/s ( a sy/em ( ge>s & a brake ,s1 :i* regulates ! spe$1 a cam ,m1 & armature ,i1 = />t+ & /opp+ ! motor1 & ! electromagnet ,h-,h :i* op]ates ! b> ,i4 ,two lev] arms ,l1 "o 9 front & ! o!r at ! back ( ! motor furni% means = atta*m5t to ! valve or furnace damp]s4 ,an em]g5cy swit* at ,d is %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #ef4 ,! batt]y ,b furni%es ! curr5t :i* en]gizes ! magnets & an iron weight supplies ! motive p[] = ! motor4 ,! description ( ! op]ation ( ! motor applies to ! /eam valve %[n 9 ,fig4 #ec4 ,! same motor might be us$ = op5+ & clos+ ( ! damp]s ( ! furnace 9 any k9d ( heat supply4 ,! me?od ( communicat+ ! motion ( ! motor arms to ! damp]s ( ! furnace w be describ$ lat]4 ,! connections ) ! furnace drafts are %[n 9 ,figs4 #c1 #f1 #h1 #cd1 etc4 ,suppose t ! valve = admitt+ /eam to ! radiators1 z t 9 ,fig4 #ec1 is clos$ & t ! temp]ature ( ! h\se is fall+4 ,! /rip ,c ( ! !rmo/at controll] is mov+ t[>d ,j4 ,:5 contact is made1 ! curr5t f ! batt]y ,b en]gizes ! magnets ,h-,h & ! b> ,i is lift$4 ,z ! b> ,i is rais$ ! cat* ,j is releas$ & p]mits ! motor to />t4 ,! b> ,i is held susp5d$ by ! cam ,m until ! arm ,l has made "o-half revolution1 :5 ! lug ,k drops into ! depression 9 ! cam made to receive x & ! cat* ,j engages ) ! brake & /ops ! motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,!rmo/at complete ) ! regulator1 batt]y & motor1 atta*$ to a /eam supply valve4 ,dur+ ?is movem5t ! arm ,l has lift$ ! valve arm ,n & ! valve admits /eam to ! radiators1 at ! same "t ! contact ,m has be5 %ift$ f ! "r-h& contact to ! left1 & ! electric circuit is ready to be made 9 ! controll] at ! po9t ,k4 ,:5 ! temp]ature has fall5 a suffici5t am\nt ! controll] b> ,c w make contact at ,k & ! motor w aga9 make a half cycle1 *ang+ ! valve back to its orig9al position4 ,?is process w be kept up s long z ! motor is w\nd & !re is suffici5t fuel 9 ! furnace to raise ! temp]ature4 ,fig4 #ee %[s ! me?od ( connect+ ! electric wires f ! batt]y to ! controll]4 ,a ?ree-wire cable connects ! batt]y1 & makes contacts z indicat$ at ,h1 ,k & ,j4 ,! wires are %[n atta*$ to ! motor z 9 ,fig4 #ee4 ,a wire is tak5 f ei!r pole ( ! batt]y & atta*$ to "o ( ! ends ( ! magnet coil4 ,pass+ ?r\gh ! magnet ! wire is atta*$ to ! frame ( ! motor4 ,?is makes ! cam ,m a "p ( ! electric circuit4 ,! o!r two wires are atta*$ to ! brass /rips on ea* side ( ! arm ,l4 ,! /rips are insulat$ f ! frame4 ,! electric circuit ?r\gh ! magnet is made alt]nately by contact ) ! /rips at "r & left ( ! arm ,l4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,!rmo/atic regulator ) clock atta*m5t = control ( day & night temp]ature4 ,9 case ! motor1 ?r\gh neglect1 runs d[n1 a safety swit* at ,d 7,fig4 #ec7 disconnects ! batt]y & keeps x f be+ dis*>g$4 ,?is swit* is %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #ef4 ,:5 ! weight has rea*$ its limit1 ! piece ,c on ! *a9 comes into contact ) ,d & lift+ x out ( contact1 breaks ! circuit4 ,:5 ! motor is aga9 w\nd1 ,c engages ) ,e & re/ores ! contact4 ,! swit* is s arrang$ t :5 op51 ! valve w always be clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed;,a4--,%[+ ! clock atta*m5ts to ! !rmo/atic regulator4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,me*anism ( ! !rmo/atic regulator4 ,comb9$ ,!rmo/at & ,damp] ,regulator4--,x is evid5t t1 9 heat+ a h\se by /eam1 ! damp] regulator gov]ns only ! /eam pressure ( ! boil]4 ,9 ! use ( a !rmo/at alone1 ! regulation is t ( ! temp]ature ( ! rooms only1 & has no?+ to d ) ! /eam pressure4 ,z an example3 ,suppose t 9 cold wea!r ! h\se is cold & t ! gage ( ! /eam boil] %[s no pressure4 ,! desire is to get up /eam z soon z possible4 ,9 s do+ a hot fire is made ) a l>ge am\nt ( fuel4 ,z soon z ! /eam beg9s to =m1 ! pressure rises rapidly4 ,:5 ! radiators h become hot & ! /eam is no long] tak5 away z fa/ z x is =m$1 ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil] keeps on ris+4 ,! !rmo/at w n close ! furnace damp]s until ! temp]ature ( ! rooms is normal4 ,?is may require s great a l5g? ( "t z to produce a great excess ( /eam t _c be us$ at ! "t & ! pressure w be reliev$ by ! safety valve4 ,?is may n be dang]\s b x is disagreeable4 ,to prev5t ! safety valve f bl[+ except 9 case ( em]g5cy1 a comb9$ !rmo/at & draft regulator is us$4 ,9 su* a comb9ation1 ! draft regulator closes ! draft z soon z ! pressure rea*es ! desir$ po9t1 aft] :i* ! !rmo/at does ! regulat+ accord+ to suit ! temp]ature ( ! h\se4 ,9 ,fig4 #b is %[n su* a comb9ation atta*$ to a boil]4 ,! cord f ! regulator1 in/ead ( ext5d+ directly to ! direct-draft damp]1 passes ov] ! pulley ,p & connects to ! !rmo/at cord4 ,! regulator may n[ close ! damp] to suit ! /eam pressure1 b aft] ! temp]ature 9 ! rooms is normal1 ! am\nt ( heat necess>y to ma9ta9 ! desir$ degree is regulat$ entirely by ! !rmo/at :i* op5s & closes ! damp]s reg>dless ( ! position ( ! damp] regulator4 ,if occasion %\ld require b a v slight am\nt ( /eam to keep ! h\se at ! desir$ temp]ature1 ! !rmo/at w gov]n ! drafts aright4 ,if ! /eam pressure is 9 dang] ( becom+ excessive1 ! damp] regulator w gov]n ! drafts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,automatic swit* :i* op5s ! batt]y circuit :5 ! !rmo/at motor weight1 rea*es its limit4 ,!rmo/at-motor ,connections4--,! arrangem5t ( cords & pulleys us$ = atta*+ ! !rmo/at motor to ! furnace damp]s w dep5d v mu* on local conditions4 ,! motor c be plac$ 9 any conv5i5t position s t ! connect+ cords w act mo/ directly4 ,! motor op5s & closes ! direct draft & *eck draft 9 accordance ) ! dem& = heat4 ,! connections = all k9ds ( furnaces are made 9 mu* ! same mann]4 ,! pulleys suppli$ ) ! motor are plac$ to "w z freely1 & ! cords to pull z directly z possible4 ,9 ,fig4 #eg ! motor is connect$ ) a hot-air furnace4 ,! cord ,d is atta*$ to ! front arm ( ! motor & connects ) ! direct-draft damp] ,f4 ,! cord ,c connects ! re> arm ( ! motor ) ! *eck-draft damp] at ,e4 ,9 ! position ( ! damp]s %[n1 ! direct-draft damp] is clos$ & ! air is ent]+ ! *imney ?r\gh ! *eck draft ,e4 ,:ile ?is damp] is op5 !re is v little induc$ draft to supply ! fire ) air t might leak ?r\gh ! crevices ar\nd ! a%-pit door1 b ! gases f ! furnace are completely c>ri$ away to ! *imney by ! air ent]+ at ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,!rmo/at motor connect$ ) ! damp]s ( a hot-air furnace4 ,9 ,figs4 #c1 #f1 #h1 #cd1 etc41 ! same motor is connect$ ) ! furnaces ( v>i\s o!r sy/ems ( heat+4 ,! object is ! same 9 all2 :5 less heat is requir$1 ! air supply is cut (f & ! furnace fire subsides2 :5 m heat is dem&$ ! air is aga9 admitt$ to produce great] combu/ion4 ,! *eck draft is an important feature z x *ecks ! fl[ ( air ?r\gh ! furnace reg>dless ( ! position ( ! direct-draft damp]4 ,ev5 %\ld ! direct draft be left op51 ! *eck draft :5 op5 w\ld de/roy 9 a great measure ! supply ( air ent]+ ! furnace4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,managem5t ,,( ,,heat+ ,,plants ,! foll[+ in/ructions on ! c>e & managem5t ( /eam & hot-wat] heat+ plants is pr9t$ ) p]mission ( ! ,am]ican ,radiator ,co4 ,!y 7 prep>$ z a guide to ! successful op]ation ( ! ,ideal heat+ plants b apply ) equal =ce to o!r plants ( a simil> "*4 ,g5]al ,advice4--,no set rules c be giv5 = c>+ = e boil] alike--*imney flues are n alike--"s h /rong draft1 "s are av]age & "s are weak4 ,!re is mu* m diff]5ce 9 ! heat-mak+ qualities ( coal ?an is commonly kn[n1 & x is important t ! "r size coal = ! draft be us$4 ,^! rules apply to mo/ all fuels4 ,a little try+ ( ?is way or t way ( leav+ ! damp]s 7:5 regulators are n us$7 (t5 discov]s ! bett] way4 ,x is well to v>y f ! rules a little if any ( !m d n seem to br+ ab\t ! be/ results4 ,) good1 av]age *imney flue draft & ! "r k9d ( fuel1 ^! rules w gov]n ! l>ge majority ( cases4 ,! ,economy ( ,good ,draft4--,9 _m cases a boil] ) sluggi% draft w burn m coal ?an a boil] ) good draft4 ,9 ! fir/ case ! fuel may be said to 8rot0--9 lack+ air supply ! gases pass (f unburn$4 ,! 8nagg+0 :i* a boil] has to take "u ^! conditions increases ! wa/e ( fuel4 ,a boil] "u %>p1 /rong draft ma9ta9s a cle> int5se fire & burns ! gases--gett+ ! l>g] am\nt ( heat f ! coal4 ,g5]al ,fir+ ,rules4-- #a4 ,put b little coal on a l[ fire4 #b4 ,:5 add+ coal to ! boil]1 op5 ! smoke-pipe damp] 7inside ! smoke pipe7 & close ! cold-air *eck damp]4 ,?is w make a draft ?r\gh ! fe$ doorway inw>d & prev5t ! escape ( du/ or gas into ! cell> :5 ! fe$ door is op5 to take fuel4 ,put ^! p>ts back to _! regul> places aft] fe$+4 #c4 ,:5 x c be done1 9 fe$+ a l>ge am\nt ( coal 7z = night7 leave a "p ( ! fire or flame expos$1 s t ! gases may be burn$ z !y arise4 #d4 ,:5 a regulator is n us$1 le>n to use ! damp]s correctly & accord+ to ! =ce ( ! *imney draft4 ,le>n to use cold-air *eck damp]4 ,(t51 :5 clos+1 ! a%-pit draft damp] does n *eck ! fire en\gh2 op5+ ! cold-air *eck damp] w *eck x ab\t "r4 ,increas+ or less5+ ! pressure ( a /eam boil] mu/ be done by *ang+ ! weight on ! regulator b>4 #e4 ,c>ry a deep fire or a high fire2 let ! live coals come up to ! fe$ door--ev5 9 mild wea!r :5 f #d to #f in*es ( a%es /& on ! grate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg;a4--,indicates ! g5]al condition ( ! furnace fire dur+ v cold wea!r4 ,! fuel %\ld fill ! fire-pot to ,c4 ,! a%es %\ld n be all[$ to accumulate beyond ,b1 on ! grate4 ,!re %\ld be no m a%es ?an appe> at ,h1 9 ! a%pit4 #f4 ,9 sev]e wea!r give ! heat] ! mo/ c>eful att5tion ! la/ ?+ at night4 #g4 ,d n ov]%ake or poke ! fire 9 mild wea!r2 once 9 a :ile %ake en\gh to give place = a little m fuel4 #h4 ,d n let a%es bank up "u ! grate 9 a%-pit4 ,grate b>s are v h>dy1 b x is possible to w>p !m ) c>elessness4 ,tak+ up ! a%es once a day is ! be/ rule1 ev5 if b little has fall5 into ! pit4 #i4 ,keep ! boil] surfaces & flues clean2 a cru/ ( soot #a_/d in* 9 ?ickness causes ! boil] to require half z mu* m fuel ?an :5 ! surfaces are clean4 #aj4 ,if conv5i5t1 h a wat] hose to spray ! a%es :5 clean+ out ! pit4 #aa4 ,att5d ! boil] f two to f\r times p] day4 ,9 mild wea!r1 runn+ ) a *eck$ fire1 morn+ & night is usually (t5 en\gh4 ,9 sev]e wea!r1 once 9 e>ly morn+1 aga9 at mid-day1 aga9 at five or six o'clock & f9ally ?or\gh att5tion at f n9e to elev5 o'clock 9 ! ev5+4 #ab4 ,if1 ?r\gh burn+ poor coal1 ! fire pot gets full ( a%es1 or slate & cl9k]s mass$ toge!r1 ! quicke/ way to get a good active fire is to dump ! grate & !n build a new fire--f ! k9dl+ up4 #ac4 ,if a h>d cl9k] lodges betwe5 ! grate b>s1 d n =ce ! %ak+1 b fir/ dislodge ! mass ) a pok] or slic+ b>4 ,!n ! grate w op]ate )\t damage4 ,wea!r & ,"t ( ,day4--,9 sev]e wea!r keep ! fire pot full ( coal1 & run ! heat] by ! damp]s or regulator 7if "o is us$74 ,?or\ghly clean ! grate twice a day4 ,let ! top ( ! fire 9 front be level ) ! fe$ door sill4 ,bank up ! coal high] to ! re>4 ,9 mod]ate wea!r !re %\ld be f #b to #f in*es ( a%es betwe5 ! live coal & ! grate4 ,z ! wea!r gr[s cold] keep ! grate & ! fire pot a little clean]--sometimes x helps to run ! pok] or slic+ b> ov] x ?r\gh ! cl9k] door4 ,) "s fuels ?is is nev] necess>y4 ,night ,fir+4--,9 v cold wea!r1 :5 ! h\se %\ld be kept w>m all night1 clean ! grate well at a late h\r--! la/ ?+4 ,cle> ! bottom ( ! fire pot ( all a%es & cl9k]s s t ! grate is cov]$ ) cle>-burn+1 r$-hot coals1 !n fill ! pot full ( fuel4 ,if possible1 leave "s ( ! flame expos$ to burn ! gases4 ,leave ! drafts on long en\gh to burn (f "s ( ! gas1 !n *eck ! heat] = ! night4 ,?us !re is pl5ty ( coal to burn dur+ ! night & "s on :i* to comm5ce e>ly 9 ! morn+4 ,"s drafts d n make x necess>y to leave ! damp]s on to burn (f ! gas aft] fe$+4 ,) ! a%-pit draft damp] clos$ & ! cold-air *eck damp] op5 at night1 b "p ( ! coal is burn$ & !re is mu* ( x n burn$ 9 ! morn+4 ,s1 by rev]s+ ! damp]s 9 ! e>ly morn+ ! fire />ts up quickly & (t5 ! h\se may be well w>m$ be=e any coal is put into ! fire pot4 ,"s boil]s are run ! o!r way--a v poor way4 ,if ! grate is cle>$ (f 9 v cold wea!r & coal add$ at five or six o'clock 9 ! aft]noon1 by elev5 o'clock at night ne>ly "o-half ( ! coal is burn$ & ! grate is cov]$ ov] ) a mass ( a%es & cl9k]s4 ,) little coal rema9+1 to %ake ! grate w q likely put out ! rema9+ fire2 to put fre% coal on a l[ fire r$uces fur!r its decl9+ temp]ature4 ,! result is a cold h\se t w gr[ cold] until a new fire is />t$4 ,(t5 9 cold wea!r ) ?is poor way ( night fir+1 x takes "o or m h\rs ( =c$ fir+ to w>m ! h\se 9 ! morn+1 & all ! coal sav$ ! night be=e is m ?an us$ to get ! h\se or build+ 8heat$ up0--:ile ! p :o %\ld be com=table h to get up1 ba! & take breakfa/ 9 *illy rooms4 ,at no "t 9 ! day is heat m want$ ?an ab\t ! "t ( gett+ up & />t+ ! day4 ,a fire well c>$ = late 9 ! ev5+ makes a w>m h\se all night4 ,& s x foll[s t x is mu* easi] to add a little m heat 9 ! morn+4 ,& surely less coal is burn$1 = ! =c+ ( a fire "p ( ! "t (t5 ov]heats1 & wa/es coal4 ,fir/-day ,fir+4--,9 ! morn+ ( mod]ate w9t] wea!r1 ) ! a%-pit draft damp] op51 be=e add+ any coal all[ ! fire to bright5 up if x seems to be l[2 !n 7= su* conditions7 spread ov] a ?9 lay] ( fre% coal & set ! drafts = a brisk fire4 ,aft] ! new fire is well />t$ add z mu* coal z may be necess>y to la/ until next fir+4 ,d n %ake mu* if any--j en\gh to give space = m coal4 ,!n by sett+ ! regulator 7if "o is us$71 or1 by clos+ ! a%-pit draft damp] & op5+ ! cold-air *eck damp] a little1 ! boil] %\ld keep up its "w until ! next fir+ "t4 ,9 sev]e wea!r1 if ! boil] has be5 att5d$ to at night z direct$ 9 ! section on 8night fir+10 ! drafts c be turn$ on & ! boil] run = half an h\r be=e add+ coal4 ,or1 if m conv5i5t to give x imm$iate att5tion1 ! grate c be ?or\ghly %ak5 & en\gh coal add$ to la/ until mid-day4 ,(t5 ! cold-air *eck damp] w ne$ to be entirely clos$ & ! a%-pit draft damp] p>tly op5 if ! heat] is a wat] boil]4 ,if a /eam boil]1 ! regulator %\ld !n be set to ma9ta9 ! numb] ( p\nds ( pressure want$ & s left4 ,o!r-day ,fir+4--,9 sev]e wea!r m coal %\ld be add$ ab\t noon1 sometimes ! draft may be left on = a few m9utes & !n *eck$4 ,& 9 su* wea!r x is (t5 well to give ! boil] fur!r att5tion at five or six o'clock4 ,9 sev]e/ wea!r ! boil] %\ld n be att5d$ m ?an f\r times a day2 & g5]ally n less ?an ?ree times4 ,(t5 mu* coal is wa/$ by 8nagg+0 ! fire--pok+1 %ak+ & fe$+ x until x becomes 8dyspeptic40 ,a sure cure is a little common s5se 9 regul> fe$+1 etc4 ,economy & ,fuels4--,9 runn+ _m boil]s = mod]ate wea!r bett] results foll[ if ! grate is n %ak5 too mu* or too (t54 ,sometimes 9 mod]ate wea!r a body ( a%es on ! grate *ecks ! fire & !re is en\gh heat )\t a useless burn+ ( fuel4 ,_m h\ses are ov]heat$ 9 mod]ate wea!r & too mu* coal burn$ by runn+ ! boil] z = z]o wea!r4 ,s we repeat--x is n wise to ov]%ake or ov]fe$ a boil] 9 mod]ate wea!r4 ,! fire %\ld be 9 su* %ape t if a *ange comes at night !re is a basis = a good fire to />t on4 ,:5 ! grate is %ak5 b once dur+ ! #bd h\rs 7dur+ mod]ate wea!r7 late at night is ! be/ "t4 ,:5 "o /ops to ?9k t heat+ is ne$$ dur+ ab\t #g mon?s out ( ! ye>1 & t a great] portion ( ?is "t is usually mod]ate wea!r :5 a v little heat is ne$$1 x mu/ be se5 t ! sci5ce ( runn+ ! heat] to save coal is to apply common s5se rules ( limit+ ! fe$+ & ! att5tion 9 su* p]iods4 ,9 sev]e wea!r we believe 9 giv+ ! boil] a lib]al quantity ( fuel regul>ly & at ! "r "t4 ,! "t to save coal is :5 !re is no ne$ = burn+ x4 ,?is is :]e a great _m p make errors 9 runn+ ! boil]--9 =gett+ to 8let up0 on ! %ak+ & fe$+ 9 mod]ate wea!r4 ,) "s drafts & = boil]s us+ h>d coal or coke1 good economical results (t5 are secur$ by op5+ ! fe$ door a little :5 x is desir$ to *eck ! fire 9 mod]ate wea!r4 ,?is dep5ds on ! draft4 ,= ,burn+ ,s(t ,coal4--,"s types ( boil]s are made to burn s(t coal ) economy1 ) lea/ "w4 ,"s types are made specially to burn ! mean] grades ( s(t coal4 ,fir+ to prev5t smoke is a s\rce ( economy & ^! ways ( runn+ %\ld be foll[$--specially ) l>ge sectional boil]s4 ,!re are two types ( s(t coal1 viz43 ,! free-burn+ coal1 :i* breaks ap>t :5 burn+1 all[+ ! gases to freely escape2 & ! fus+-cok+ coal1 :i*1 :5 burn+1 fir/ fuses into a solid burn+ mass ) a h>d cru/ ov] ! top1 sl[ly cok+ z x burns4 ,! latt] k9d is mo/ valuable = h\se-heat+ boil]s because ! gases are m ?or\ghly consum$4 ,! fus+-cok+ coal is wor? ab\t #bj p] c5t4 m = ?is purpose ?an ! free-burn+ coal4 ,! gases %\ld be all[$ to pass (f f ! coal sl[ly4 ,leave air inlet on ! fe$ door op5 if draft p]mits4 ,if possible1 use uni=m sizes ( coal4 ,avoid us+ coal hav+ too mu* du/--! 8run-(-!-m9e0 may be l[] 9 price b its heat-mak+ value is also l[4 ,= ! purpose ( sl[ burn+ ( s(t coal1 x is well 9 fe$+ at night to let ! fire burn up freely s t ! coals are v live ) heat4 ,!n fill 9 en\gh coal to la/ all night--leav+ "s ( ! live coals uncov]$ if possible4 ,) l>ge sectional boil]s ?is exposure %\ld be at ! re> ( ! fire s t ! flame w pass ov] ! live coals4 ,?us ! gases com+ (f f ! fre% coal are burn$ & a l>g] am\nt ( ! full heat-produc+ value ( s(t coal is made use ( & ) less smoke4 ,aft] a boil] is s f$1 ! damp]s 7unless an automatic regulator is us$7 %\ld be left ab\t z foll[s3 ,a%-pit draft damp] op5 a little or clos$1 z draft may require4 ,cold-air *eck damp] op5 ab\t "o-eigh? to "o-?ird di/ance ( ! op5+4 ,smoke-pipe damp] ab\t "o-half clos$4 ,a little exp]im5t ) ! draft w usually tell ! op]ator ! be/ way ( leav+ ^! damp]s4 ,x w be f\nd 9 ! morn+ t ! entire *>ge ( coal is well burn$ or p>tly cok$4 ,! cok$ fuel1 or t :i* /icks toge!r 9 a mass1 %\ld be brok5 up by ! pok] & m add$ g5]ally z by rules giv5 9 o!r sections4 ,x mu/ always be rememb]$ t ! s(t coals m9$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry h widely v>y+ heat-mak+ capacities4 ,to obta9 satisfactory results br&s mu/ be select$ :i* h an e/abli%$ reputation = excell+ results 9 small boil]s4 ,= ,burn+ ,coke4--,x is be/ to keep ! pot full ( fuel--keep+ a l>ge body ( coke "u a l[ fire r ?an a little fuel "u a /rong fire4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t coke makes a v 8hot fire0 because ! coke is free-burn+4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to leave drafts on too long 9 boil]s n hav+ regulators4 ,coke burns be/ = h\se-heat+ purposes ) less draft ?an is requir$ = coal1 !re=e to keep a l[ fire ! a%-pit draft damp] %\ld be kept clos$1 & ! smoke-pipe damp] almo/ entirely clos$4 ,! regulator 7:5 us$7 c be set to keep ! damp]s ab\t z "h advis$4 ,coke is practically smokeless & its quick-burn+ "* makes a cut-(f damp] 9 ! smoke pipe 7:i* w /ay fix$ z x may be set7 q necess>y4 ,x is well to keep a lay] ( a%es on ! grates & :5 %ak+ /op be=e r$-hot coals come ?r\gh ! grate4 ,! coke !n burns m sl[ly1 :i* increases its effectiv5ess4 ,) "s drafts x may be well to 8bank ! fire0 at night ) coke--pea coal size4 ,?is is a matt] ( exp]im5t1 & dep5ds on ! "* ( ! *imney draft4 ,fire %\ld be t5d$ regul>ly--two times a day1 or f\r at ! outside4 ,) an extra /rong draft1 at night ! fuel %\ld be pack$ d[n by tamp+ ) ! back ( a %ovel4 ,) ord9>y condition ( draft1 cru%$ coke1 small egg size1 %\ld be us$4 ,o!r ,rules = ,wat] ,boil]s--,to ,fill ,sy/em4--,op5 ! fe$-cock :5 ! heat] is connect$ ) a city or t[n wat] supply2 if n1 fill by funnel at ! expansion tank4 ,fill until ! gage-glass on ! expansion tank %[s ab\t half full ( wat]4 ,9 fill+ ! sy/em see t all air cocks on ! radiators are clos$4 ,!n beg9n+ ) ! l[] floor1 op5 ! air cocks on ea* radiator1 "o at a "t1 until ea* radiator is fill$2 !n close ! air cock & take ! next radiators on upp] floors until all are fill$1 aft] :i* let ! wat] run until x %[s 9 ! gage-glass ( ! wat] tank4 ,aft] ! wat] is heat$ & 9 circulation1 v5t ! radiators by op5+ ! air valves z be=e4 ,!n aga9 all[ ! wat] to run into ! sy/em until x rises to ! prop] level 9 ! expansion tank gage-glass4 ,always keep ! app>atus full ( wat] unless ! build+ be vacat$ dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 :5 ! wat] %\ld be drawn (f to prev5t freez+4 ,nev] draw wat] (f ) fire 9 ! heat]4 ,to draw (f wat]1 op5 ! draw-(f cock at ! l[e/ po9t 9 ! sy/em1 & !n op5 air cocks on all radiators z fa/ z ! wat] l[]s beg9n+ ) ! highe/ radiator4 ,air-v5t ,valves on ,radiators4--,9 ord] to secure ! full b5efit ( ! heat+ surface ( a hot-wat] radiator1 ! inside ( ! section mu/ be free ( air4 ,:5 a radiator is 8air-b\nd0 x means t p>ts ( ! sections are fill$ ) air 9 pockets :i* rema9 until ! air is all[$ to pass (f ?r\gh ! v5t valve4 ,air w ga!r f "t to "t at ! highe/ po9ts inside ! radiators1 especially 9 ^? plac$ 9 ! upp] /ories ( ! build+4 ,^! air accumulations inside cut d[n ! work+ p[] ( a radiator exactly 9 proportion z !y rob ! inside ( ! ca/+ ( prop] contact ) heat$ wat]4 ,air pockets n only r$uce effective heat+ surface1 b !y also prev5t ! circulation ( hot wat]4 ,!re=e1 x is well once 9 a :ile to take ! little key provid$ by ! heat+ contractor & op5 ! air valves on radiators to all[ ! air 7if any7 to escape4 ,:5 a radiator does n "w z well z usual1 op5 ! air valves until ! wat] fl[s1 :i* indicates t ! air has be5 fully releas$4 ,!n close ! valve4 ,valves on ,cell> ,ma9s4--,if cut-(f valves h be5 plac$ on ! ma9 & return pipes 9 ! cell>1 see t ! valves on "o l9e ( ma9 & return pipes 7at lea/7 are op5 :5 ! boil] is "u op]ation4 ,be sure t ! sy/em is op5 to circulate wat] ?r\gh ! supply & return pipes be=e build+ a fire 9 ! boil]4 ,end ( ! ,season4--,at ! close ( ! heat+ season clean all ! fire & flue surfaces ( ! boil]4 ,let ! wat] rema9 9 ! sy/em dur+ ! summ] mon?s4 ,no bad results w foll[ if ! sy/em is n refill$ m (t5 ?an once 9 #b or #c ye>s4 ,b1 g5]ally1 x is ?\ght t be/ results are secur$ by empty+ ! sy/em once a ye> 7aft] fire is out7 & refill+ ) fre% wat]4 ,x is a v good idea to take d[n ! smoke pipe 9 ! spr+1 ?or\ghly clean & put x back 9 place4 ,leave all doors op5 on ! boil] 9 ! summ] "t4 ,o!r ,rules = ,/eam ,boil]s--,to ,fill ,boil]4--,op5 ! fe$-cock :5 ! heat] is connect$ ) city or t[n wat] supply2 if n1 fill ?r\gh ! funnel4 ,let ! wat] run until ! gage-glass %[s ab\t half full ( wat]4 ,9 ! fir/ fill+1 aft] ! wat] has boil$1 get up a pressure ( at lea/ #aj p\nds1 draw ! fire & bl[ (f ! boil] "u pressure ?r\gh draw-(f cock to remove oil & s$im5t1 aft] :i* refill ) fre% wat] to ! wat] l9e4 ,?is is be/ done usually by ! /eam-fitt]4 ,! damp] regulator w control ! pressure ( /eam1 clos+ ! damp] :5 ! pressure is rais$ beyond ! desir$ po9t & op5+ ! damp] :5 ! pressure falls bel[ t po9t4 ,by remov+ ! weight on ! lev]1 diff]5t degrees ( pressure c be kept up4 ,! regulator %\ld be all[$ to control ! drafts )\t int]f]5ce4 ,exam9e ! wat] glass (t5 to see t ! wat] l9e is at ! prop] height4 ,if l[] ?an normal op5 ! supply pipe until ! wat] runs 9 & /&s at ! prop] level4 ,x is be/ :5 no wat] /&s 9 ! glass1 nor %[s at ! bottom ( ! try-cock1 to quickly dump ! grate & d n put wat] into ! boil] aga9 until x is cool$ (f4 ,if !re is "o or m %ut-(f valves on ! ma9 or return pipes1 be=e />t+ a fire see t "o l9e ( pip+ at lea/ 7ma9 & return7 is op5 to circulate ! /eam4 ,to ,control ,radiators4--,:5 x is desir$ to %ut (f /eam f any radiator 7if ! regul> radiator valves are us$71 close ! valve tight1 & :5 x is turn$ on see t ! valve is wide op54 ,a valve p>tly turn$ (f w cause ! radiator to fill ) wat]4 ,?is rule applies only to "o-pipe heat+ sy/ems4 ,! ,air ,valves4--,if little key$ air valves 7sometimes call$ 8pet-cocks07 are us$1 foll[ g5]ally ! same directions z outl9$ = hot-wat] radiators on page #di--only1 ( c\rse1 9 releas+ ! air f ! radiator op5 ! valve ) ! key provid$ & close x j z soon z ! /eam unmix$ ) air comes ?r\gh ! nose ( ! valve4 ,if 8automatic0 air valves are us$ !y mu/ be c>efully adju/$ by ! /eam-fitt] & !n left to op]ate )\t undue int]f]5ce4 ,end ( ! ,season4--,at ! close ( ! heat+ season fill ! /eam boil] ) wat] to ! safety valve & let x ?us /& ?r\gh ! summ]4 ,also ?or\ghly clean all ! fire & flue surfaces ( ! boil] & at ! op5+ ( ! next season )draw ! wat] & refill ) fre% wat] to ! wat] l9e1 />t+ ! boil] z be=e4 ,x is advisable to h a compet5t /eam-fitt] bl[ (f ! boil] "u pressure & ?us give ! inside a ?or\gh clean+ :5 ! boil] is fir/ set up & ready = fire4 ,a l[-pressure boil]1 us+ good wat]1 r>ely ne$s bl[+ (f aft] x is once clean$ at "t ( sett+ up4 ,,! ,,"r ,,*imney ,,flue ,! area ( ! flue %\ld nev] be less ?an #h in*es 9 diamet] if r\nd1 or #h by #h in*es if squ>e--unless = a v small heat+ boil] or tank heat]4 ,n9e or #aj in*es r\nd1 or #h by #ab rectangul> is a good av]age size4 ,! flue %\ld g5]ally h a little m area ?an t ( ! connect+ smoke pipes4 ,draft =ce dep5ds v mu* on ! height ( ! flue4 ,! *imney top %\ld run above ! highe/ "p ( ! ro( & %\ld be s locat$ ) ref]5ce to any high] build+s ne>by t ! prevail+ w9d curr5ts w n =m eddies :i* w =ce ! air d[nw>d 9 ! %aft4 ,(t5 a %ift+ c[l :i* w always turn ! outlet away f ! s\rce ( adv]se curr5ts w promote bett] draft4 ,! flue %\ld run z ne>ly /raight up f ! base to ! top outlet z possible4 ,x %\ld h no o!r op5+s into x b ! boil] smoke pipe4 ,%>p b5ds & (fsets 9 ! flue w (t5 r$uce ! area & *oke ! draft4 ,! flue mu/ be free ( any feature :i* prev5ts a free area = ! passage ( smoke4 ,! outlet mu/ n be capp$ ) any device :i* makes ! area ( ! outlet less ?an ! area ( ! flue4 ,! be/ =m ( flue is a r\nd tile--9 su* !re is less friction ?an 9 ! squ>e =m & ! spiral asc5t ( ! draft moves 9 ! easie/ & mo/ natural mann]4 ,if ! flue is made ( brick only1 ! /ack %\ld be at lea/ two #d-;in* c\rses 9 ?ickness4 ,if !re is a soot pocket 9 ! flue bel[ ! smoke-pipe op5+1 ! clean-out door %\ld always be clos$4 ,if ?is soot pocket has o!r op5+s 9 x--f fireplaces or o!r connections--su* arrangem5ts are v liable to *eck ! draft & prev5t be/ action 9 ! boil]4 ,! smoke pipe %\ld n ext5d into ! flue beyond ! inside surface ( ! flue1 o!rwise ! end ( ! pipe cuts d[n ! area ( ! flue & injures its draw+ capacity4 ,! inside ( a flue %\ld be smoo? 7po9t$ or pla/]$74 ,:5 ! c\rses are laid ) ! mort> bulg+ out f ! jo9ts ! friction )9 ! flue is v mu* increas$4 ,(t5 a tr\blesome flue is correct$ by l[]+ "s %>p-edg$ weight by a rope :i* %\ld be work$ aga9/ ! sides ( ! flue until ! clogg+ is scrap$ (f4 ,a new *imney :5 8gre50 w n h a good draw+ capacity4 ,%ort use dries out ! mort> & bett] results foll[4 8,smokey0 ,*imneys4--,! failure ( draft 9 flues may be due to a v>iety ( causes1 "o ( :i* is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #eg;b4 ,! %ort *imney on ! left side ( ! ro( %[s ! c\rse ( ! w9d z x passes ov] ! ridge ( ! ro( & :y ! draft 9 su* a *imney is ret>d$ :5ev] ?is condition exi/s4 ,! =ce ( ! w9d1 z x comes into contact ) ! ro(1 causes a compression ( ! air on ! w9dw>d side & a r>ification on ! lee side4 ,?is inequality ( pressure causes a d[nw>d sweep ( ! w9d z indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,! effect on ! l[ *imney is to ret>d ! draft & sometimes ! pressure is great en\gh to rev]se ! action ( ! flue & =ce ! smoke into ! h\se4 ,! only rem$y = su* a condition is an ext5sion ( ! *imney t w raise its top above ! ridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg;b4--,effect ( ! w9d 9 caus+ d[n draft 9 l[ *imneys4 ,! same effect is (t5 produc$ by a neighbor+ build+ or a bord] ( trees t are high] ?an ! *imney & d5se en\gh to effect ! w9d pressure4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,plumb+ ,! t]m plumb+ is usually und]/ood to cov] all pip+ & fixtures t c>ry wat] into ! h\se & remove ! wa/e mat]ial 9 ! =m ( sewage4 ,x does n include ! pipes ( ! heat+ sy/em4 ,al?\gh ! "w ( in/all+ heat+ plants is frequ5tly done by plumb]s1 pipe fitt+ & plumb+ are two di/9ct trades4 ,9 ! process ( build+ a h\se ! r\gh plumb+ is put into place z soon z ! /ructure is enclos$ & ! r\gh floors are laid4 ,! r\gh plumb+ includes ! soil pipe1 into :i* ! wa/e pipes f ! v>i\s fixtures empty1 & ^? pipes :i* mu/ occupy a position inside ! p>tition walls & b5ea? ! floors4 ,! connections "h describ$ are = a city dwell+ & apply to ! cu/om ( local conditions4 ,! same sy/em might be us$ = a c\ntry resid5ce except 9 reg>d to ! wat] supply & me?od ( sewage disposal4 ,plants ( ?is type are discuss$ 9 ! *apt] on septic tanks4 ,fig4 #eh %[s a cross-section ( ! /reet1 expos+ ! sew] ,s1 ! wat] ma9 ,w1 & ! connections ) ! h\se4 ,! side ( ! h\se has be5 remov$ to p]mit a view ( ! wat] & sew] pipes1 connect+ ) ! ba?room1 kit*51 laundry & o!r basem5t fixtures4 ,! lat]al sew] or h\se dra91 :i* connects ! h\se ) ! /reet sew] ,s1 is provid$ ) a trap ,g1 locat$1 9 ?is case1 j outside ! basem5t wall4 ,! h\se dra9 is made ( vitrifi$ tile1 laid s z to grade into ! /reet sew] ) ! greate/ possible pit*4 ,! sections are laid z true z conditions w p]mit & ! jo9ts are all c>efully fill$ ) cem5t mort> to prev5t leakage4 ,! object ( ! trap ,g is to prev5t sew] gas f ent]+ ! h\se f ! ma9 sew]4 ,! trap prev5ts ! gas f pass+ because ! wat] 9 ! b5d ( ! trap =ms a wat] seal1 beyond :i* ! pollut$ air f ! sew] _c travel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,cross-section ( a city /reet %[+ ! wat]ma9 & sew] pipe ) _! connections to a dwell+4 ,next inside ! trap is ! v5t pipe ,e1 t ext5ds to ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 ?is case x is j outside ! basem5t wall4 ,! top is cov]$ ) a metal cap4 ,ano!r arrangem5t (t5 made to accompli% ! same purpose is %[n 9 ,figs4 #fa & #fb1 :]e a piece ( soil pipe 9 ! =m ( a b5d is made to take ! place ( ! cap4 ,inside ! basem5t & ext5d+ up ?r\gh ! p>tition walls to ! ro( is ! wa/e /ack or soil pipe ,a4 ,?is pipe z is expla9$ 9 detail lat]1 is made ( ca/ iron & is put toge!r ) calk$ lead jo9ts4 ,! top ( ! /ack at ! po9t :]e x passes ?r\gh ! ro( is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ei4 ,9 ext5d+ ?r\gh ! ro( ! pipe ,a mu/ make a wat]-tight jo9t to prev5t wat] f leak+ ?r\gh4 ,?is is accompli%$ by means ( ! metal plate ,d1 :i* is set "u ! %+les & ! piece ,c1 t is sold]$ to ,d4 ,! jo9t betwe5 ,c & ,a is be/ made ) lead ! same z ! o!r jo9ts ( ! /ack4 ,9 ! case ( v high /acks1 ! bottom %\ld be support$ by a pi] or iron pipe re/4 ,besides be+ support$ at ! base ! /ack %\ld be secur$ to ! side walls or floor beams at ea* floor4 ,?is is to keep ! pipe f mov+ out ( place & ! consequ5t op5+ ( jo9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,detail ( soil pipe connection4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,cross-section ( cell>-dra94 ,all ( ! wa/e pipes f ! ba?room1 kit*5 & basem5t dra9 into ! wa/e /ack4 ,! cell> dra9 = dra9+ ! basem5t is %[n at ,t 9 ,fig4 #eh4 ,x also appe>s 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #fj4 ,! plate ,b1 9 ! latt] figure1 is set flu% to ! surface ( a depression 9 ! floor t s]ves z a collect+ po9t = wat]4 ,! floor is con/ruct$ to dra9 t[>d ?is po9t4 ,! plate is p]=at$ to let ! wat] ?r\gh & is g5]ally h+$ s t 9 case ( /oppage ! cov] may be rais$4 ,! bell-%ap$ piece "u ! cov] surr\nds ! piece ,c1 to =m a wat] seal :5 ! level ( ! wat] is at ,a4 ,9 addition to ?is wat] seal !re is g5]ally a trap betwe5 ! dra9 & ! sew] z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,! me?od ( connect+ ! ba?room wa/e pipes ) ! /ack is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ii & w be describ$ lat]4 ,all ( ! sewage ( ! h\se is empti$ into ! /ack by ! mo/ direct r\te1 & f ! /ack x is conduct$ z directly z possible into ! sew]4 ,f ! draw+ x w be se5 t all op5+s to ! sew] are seal$ 9 two sep>ate places1 once at ! outlet to prev5t ! air f ! /reet sew] ent]+ ! h\se dra9 ,g1 & aga9 at ea* op5+ to prev5t escape ( ! sew] gas f ! dra9 into ! h\se4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,h\se dra9 ) outside v5t1 & runn+ trap plac$ inside ! basem5t wall4 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,h\se dra9 ) outside v5t1 & runn+ trap plac$ outside ! basem5t wall4 ,! op5+s at ,e & ,a at ea* end ( ! /ack p]mit a con/ant circulation ( air = v5tilation4 ,! l5g? ( ! /ack & its location causes x to act z a *imney & ! draught produc$ takes ! air 9 at ,e1 & dis*>ges x at ! top4 ,9 l>ge h\ses !re is sometimes add$ a v5t /ack to produce fur!r v5tilation1 b 9 ! av]age dwell+ ! arrangem5t "h %[n cov]s ! common practice4 ,9 ,figs4 #fa & #fb are %[n 9 detail two me?ods ( arrang+ ! sew] connections 9 ! basem5t to p]mit ( ! removal ( ob/ructions 9 case ! pipes at any "t become /opp$4 ,! trap1 v5t1 etc41 are easily recogniz$4 ,) ! arrangem5t z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fb1 ! clean-out is s plac$ z to give access to ! inside ( ! pipe4 ,%\ld an accumulation or ob/ruction ( any k9d become lodg$ 9 ! pipe1 ! /op 9 ! clean-out is remov$ & a flexible metal rod is us$ to remove ! /oppage4 ,! trap outside ! wall has an op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! ob/ruction may be rea*$ 9 case x _c be remov$ f ! fir/ clean-out4 ,! disadvantage 9 us+ ! outside trap1 z "h %[n1 is t x c be rea*$ only by excavation4 ,fig4 #fa %[s ano!r common me?od ( in/allation4 ,"h ! trap is plac$ inside ! basem5t wall4 ,?is gives an easi] means ( op5+ ! trap ?an ,fig4 #fb af=ds & accompli%es ! same purpose4 ,! connections ) ! /ack are ! same z 9 ,fig4 #fb4 ,ob/ructions 9 ! sew] pipe are mo/ likely to become lodg$ 9 ! trap & = ?is reason ! trap %\ld occupy a position t is reasonably easy ( access4 ,! outside trap z describ$ above is q g5]ally in/all$ 9 build+s ( all k9ds1 b its use is by no means univ]sal4 ,9 "s communities x is n us$ at all1 & _m plumb]s consid] x only an add$ means ( caus+ /oppage & an extra exp5se to in/all4 ,! object ( ! outside trap is to keep ! air ( ! /reet sew] f ent]+ ! h\se dra94 ,x is at once inf]r$ t ! air ( ! /reet sew] is m dang]\s ?an t ( ! h\se dra94 ,! /reet sew]s1 h[ev]1 are v5tilat$ at ea* /reet corn] & at ea* manhole4 ,!re _c !n be mu* diff]5ce 9 ! air ( ! two places4 ,! traps on ! fixtures t prev5t sew] gas f ent]+ ! h\se w\ld be j z effici5t if ! outside trap did n exi/4 ,:ile ! me?ods %[n 9 ,figs4 #fa & #fb are consid]$ good practice1 !re is consid]able objection to ! v5t be+ plac$ ne> ! dwell+1 because ( ! sew] gas t is =c$ out1 :5ev] a sudd5 dis*>ge ( wat] goes into ! dra94 ,ea* "t a closet is flu%$1 a l>ge volume ( wat] ent]s ! /ack & completely fills ! pipe4 ,:5 ?is occurs1 ! desc5d+ wat] =ces out ! air ( ! pipe ahead ( x1 & a gu% ( (f5sive air fill$ ) sew] gases is =c$ out ( ! v5t4 ,x is evid5t t su* a v5t1 locat$ ne> an op5 w9d[ or :]e x w rea* ! no/rils ( ! inhabitants is a ?+ n greatly to be desir$4 ,outside traps :5 plac$ ne> ! surface sometimes freeze4 ,! circulation ( air ?r\gh ! v5t is occasionally suffici5t 9 cold wea!r to freeze ! wat] & /op ! trap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,corporation cock ) lead connect+ pipe4 ,wat] ,supply4--,! wat] supply tak5 f ! /reet ma9 is conduct$ to ! h\se by ! pipe %[n 9 ,fig4 #eh1 at ,c4 ,?is pipe is g5]ally ( lead z pip+ ( t metal is ! mo/ durable = und]gr\nd "w4 ,iron us$ "u ! same conditions w la/ only a few ye>s4 ,! connection is made ) ! wat] ma9 by use ( a corporation cock4 ,?is is a special /yle ( cock t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc4 ,9 ! figure ! cock is connect$ ) a %ort piece ( lead pipe t is us$ = mak+ connection ) ! s]vice pipe 9 ! h\se4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,curb cock z x appe>s atta*$ to ! s]vice pipe4 ,locat$ at ! left ( ,c1 9 ,fig4 #eh1 is ! curb-cock1 us$ = %utt+ (f ! wat] f ! city lot4 ,! curb-cock1 be+ und]gr\nd1 is rea*$ ?r\gh an iron tube by means ( a wr5* atta*$ to a long iron rod4 ,! curb-cock has a protective cov]+ 9 ! =m ( an iron pipe4 ,! l[] end ( ! pipe screws into ! body ( ! cock4 ,! top end comes j above ! grade l9e ( ! curb & is cov]$ ) an iron screw-cap4 ,! curb-cock is %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #fd4 ,! pipe ,b is fa/5$ to ! valve at ,d & ,a is ! screw-cap4 ,9 op5+ & clos+ ! wr5* fits ov] ! "p ,c ( ! valve4 ,on ent]+ ! build+ ! supply pipe %\ld be provid$ ) a /op & wa/e-cock = %utt+ (f ! wat] f ! h\se & dra9+ ! pipes t compose ! sy/em ( circulation4 ,at ,v1 9 ,fig4 #eh1 is indicat$ a /op & wa/e-cock ) ! wa/e pipe ,b connect$ ) ! sew]4 ,?is cock is %[n 9 detail 9 ,figs4 #fe & #ff4 ,! cock is s made t :5 clos$ !re is a small op5+ at ,a1 t all[s ! wat] f ! sy/em to escape ?r\gh ! wa/e pipe4 ,f ! wat] supply1 ! cold-wat] pipes may be trac$ 9 ! draw+ directly to ea* ( ! fixtures ( ! h\se4 ,! hot-wat] pipe leaves ! range boil] at ! top & connects ) ea* fixture us+ hot wat]1 ?us mak+ ! circuit complete4 ,details ( ! pip+ :i* provides hot wat] is describ$ "u range boil]1 page #aaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #fe4--,/op & dra9 cock ) lev] h&le4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,/op & dra9 cock ) ,t h&le4 ,,wat] ,,cocks ,! developm5t ( mod]n plumb+ has br\ght ab\t ! use ( a great numb] ( h\sehold me*anical appliances1 t h receiv$ trade names little und]/ood by ! av]age p]son4 ,! lack ( di/+ui%+ t]ms1 or language 9 :i* to describe plumb+ fixtures1 (t5 leads to emb>rassm5t1 :5 su* articles are to be describ$ to workm54 ,common h\sehold valves & cocks are s classifi$ by ! trade1 t mi/akes are (t5 made 9 _! designation1 because ( a limit$ k ( ! use ( ! v>i\s articles4 ,a little consid]ation ( ! diff]5t classes ( fixtures w make x possible to /ate to a tradesman ! exact article 9 "q4 ,! t]m valve is int5d$ to def9e an appliance t is us$ to p]mit1 or prev5t1 ! passage ( a liquid ?r\gh ! op5+ or port :i* x gu>ds4 ,! t]m is s g5]al 9 its application t !re are hundr$s ( diff]5t k9ds ( valves4 ,ev5 = a s+le purpose !re are _m /yles ( a giv5 k9d4 ,a cock 0 orig9ally a rot>y valve or spigot us$ = draw+ wat]4 ,today !re are _m k9ds ( cocks t are n rot>y 9 _! movem5t4 ,x w\ld be impossible 9 ?is "w to describe 9 detail all ( ! k9ds ( cocks & valves us$ 9 h\sehold plumb+4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be ! aim to conf9e att5tion to "o article ( a type & to *oose su* examples z are 9 g5]al use & t are good repres5tatives ( _! classes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff;a4--,kit*5 s9k ) ,full] bibb-cocks4 ,bibb-cocks4--,on ! kit*5 s9k1 ! wat] faucets1 su* z ^? %[n 9 ,fig4 #ff;a1 are t]m$ bibb-cocks by ! plumb]4 ,if ! nozzle is pla91 x is a pla9 bibb4 ,if ! nozzle is ?read$ s t a hose connection may be atta*$ z 9 ,fig4 #fg1 x is a hose bibb4 ,bibb-cocks are f\nd 9 ?ree g5]al /yles3 compression bibbs1 gr\nd-key bibbs1 & ,full] bibbs4 ,! compression bibb takes its "n f ! me?od ( clos+ ! valve4 ,fig4 #fh gives an example ( its me*anical con/ruction4 ,?is is a pla9 sold] bibb because ! %ank ,a is to be atta*$ by a sold] jo9t4 ,if ! "p ,a conta9$ a ?read to make a screw jo9t1 su* z ,fig4 #fg1 x w\ld be a pla91 compression1 screw bibb4 ,fig4 #fh is ano!r /yle ( compression bibb-cock1 l>gely us$ on s9ks2 ?is cock1 be+ f9i%$ ) a flange1 is a compression flange bibb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,compression hose bibb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,compression flange bibb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,cross-section ( pla9 compression bibb-cock = a sold] jo9t4 ,fig4 #fi %[s q cle>ly ! me*anical arrangem5t ( ! compression cock4 ,:5 ! h&le is turn$ ! nut ,c lifts ! valve f its seat ,b1 all[+ ! wat] to escape4 ,! piece ,d is g5]ally made ( composition rubb] t may be b\ght at ! deal]s = a trifl+ am\nt b x may be replac$ tempor>ily ) a piece ( lea!r4 ,! "p ,e is pack+1 to keep ! wat] f leak+ out ar\nd ! /em4 ,! pack+ may be obta9$ f ! deal] especially = ! purpose or x may be made ( a disc ( %eet rubb]4 ,9 fact1 any?+ t c be put into ! space w answ] ! purpose tempor>ily4 ,! valve is clos$ by compression1 h5ce ! "n compression cock4 ,all cocks made to op5 & close 9 ! same mann] are compression cocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,cross-section ( pla9 self-clos+ bibb-cock = lead pipe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,cross-section ( lev] h&le1 pla9 bibb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,cross-section ( pla9 ,full] bibb = lead pipe4 ,self-clos+ ,bibbs4--,9 ,fig4 #gj is "o example ( ! _m /yles ( self-clos+ bibb-cocks4 ,:5 ! h&le ( ?is cock is turn$1 ! /eep-pit*$ screw ,a op5s ! valve & at ! same "t compresses ! spiral spr+ ,b1 :5 ! h&le is releas$1 ! valve is press$ back on its seat by ! spr+4 ,self-clos+ cocks are us$ to prev5t ! wa/e ( wat] at dr9k+ f\nta9s1 wa% bas9s & o!r places :]e ! wat] is apt to be left runn+ ?r\gh c>elessness4 ,lev]-h&le ,bibbs4--,fig4 #ga is an example ( ! lev]-h&le1 gr\nd-key bibb-cock4 ,! key is ! piece ,a1 :i* is tap]$ & =ms a gr\nd jo9t ) ! "p ,b4 ,! cock takes its "n f ! =m ( ! h&le4 ,! t]m gr\nd-key means t ! key has be5 gr\nd into place ) em]y du/4 ,?is cock is kept f leak+ by adju/m5t ( ! screw ,c4 ,full] ,cocks4--,^! cocks take _! "n f _! inv5tor4 ,!y are made to suit e condition = :i* wat] cocks are us$4 ,_! univ]sal use atte/s to _! utility & excell5ce 9 s]vice4 ,fig4 #gb %[s ! pr9ciple on :i* all ,full] cocks "w4 ,! v>y+ conditions "u :i* ! cocks are us$ require a great _m =ms1 b ! work+ pr9ciple is ! same 9 all4 ,9 ^! cocks1 ! valve is a rubb] plug or ball t is drawn into ! op5+ by an ecc5tric piece atta*$ to ! h&le4 ,! piece ,d 9 ! draw+ is ! rubb] plug t is drawn aga9/ ! op5+ by ! crank ,b1 :i* is work$ by ! lev] h&le ,a4 ,?is cock may be repair$1 9 case x leaks1 by unscrew+ x at ! jo9t ne>e/ ! plug4 ,a wr5* & a pair ( pli]s are all ! tools requir$4 ,! pieces ,d mu/ be obta9$ f ! deal]4 ,! "p ,j is ! pack+ t keeps ! wat] f leak+ out ar\nd ! /em4 ,! screw-cap ,h =ces a coll> ,i d[n on ! pack+ to keep x wat]-tight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,repairs = ,full] cocks4 ,! p>ts = ! ,full] cock t may be obta9$ = repair are %[n 9 detail on ,fig4 #gc4 ,! ball1 :i* appe>s 9 ,fig4 #gc at ,d1 is ! "p t receives ! greate/ am\nt ( we>4 ,if ! cock at any "t fails to /op ! fl[ ( wat]1 a new ball may be put 9 place by ! aid ( a wr5* & a pair ( pli]s4 ,! wat] be+ fir/ %ut (f f ! sy/em1 ! cock is unscrew$ & ! cap ,e remov$ ) a pair ( pli]s4 ,! worn ball is !n remov$ & a new "o sub/itut$4 ,wa%-tray ,bibbs4--,a special /yle ( cock is made = laundry wa% trays 9 bo? ! ,full] & compression types4 ,( ^! ! ,full] type is ! mo/ conv5i5t z ! h&le is plac$ on ! side & b "o movem5t is requir$ to op5 ! cock4 ,?is /yle ( cock is us$ on ! wa% trays %[n 9 ,fig4 #hc4 ,bas9 ,cocks4--,wat] cocks = wa% bas9s are made 9 two g5]al types--! compression & ! ,full] types ( cocks4 ,_! me*anism is mu* ! same z = o!r simil> /yles adapt$ to ! use = bas9s4 ,! self-clos+ cocks us$ s l>gely on wa% bas9s are compression cocks4 ,fig4 #gd is an example ( ,full] bas9 cock 9 g5]al use4 ,compression cocks = ! same purpose are %[n on ! wa% bas9 9 ,fig4 #ij4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,full] bas9 cock4 ,pantry ,cocks4--,9 g5]al =m1 pantry cocks are ! same z ^? us$ = bas9s except t ! outlet is elongat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,sill cock 9 place atta*$ to ! wat] pipe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,cross section ( sill cock4 ,sill ,cocks4--,z a means ( atta*+ g>d5 hose or lawn spr9kl]s1 sill cocks are plac$ on ! side ( ! build+ at any place conv5i5t = _! use4 ,fig4 #ge illu/rates ! me?od ( atta*+ ! cock to ! wat] supply4 ,fig4 #gf %[s 9 cross-section its me*anical arrangem5t4 ,! "p ,a is screw$ into ! wat] supply1 & ,b furni%es ! hose atta*m5t4 ,! valve is op]at$ ! same z any o!r compression valve4 ,9 ,fig4 #ge ! cock is %[n at ,a ) a g>d5 hose atta*$4 ,! pipe to :i* ,a is atta*$ passes into ! basem5t & connects to ! wat] supply4 ,! /op-cock ,b is us$ to %ut (f ! wat]4 ,:5 ! /op-cock ,b is clos$1 ,a %\ld be op5$1 s t ! pipe w dra94 ,if ?is is neglect$ dur+ freez+ wea!r1 ! pipe is apt to freeze & bur/4 ,valves4--,! di/9ction betwe5 a cock & a valve is n at all def9ite4 ,cu/om has det]m9$ t 9 c]ta9 places a cock %all /op ! fl[ ( a liquid b 9 ano!r place1 p]haps ( a simil> nature1 a valve %all accompli% ! same purpose4 ,! *ief di/9ction betwe5 a cock & a valve is t ( its ext]nal =m4 ,9 ,figs4 #gg1 #gh & #gi are ?ree examples ( valves t are v g5]ally us$ on pipes c>ry+ any k9d ( fluid4 ,! valves are %[n 9 cross-section to display ! arrangem5t ( ! me*anism4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,cross-section ( globe valve ) deta*able valve disc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,cross-section ( angle globe valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,cross-section ( gate valve4 ,fig4 #gg is an example ( ! common globe-valve4 ,! "n 0 orig9ally int5d$ to def9e a valve ! body ( :i* 0 9 ! =m ( a globe4 ,! h&-:eel ,h1 atta*$ to ! screw-/em ,s1 raises ! valve ,a :5 desir$4 ,! valve makes close contact ) ! seat ,c1 by means ( a composition rubb] disc ,b4 ,! disc ,b may be r5ew$ :5 worn out z 9 ! case ( ! radiator valve already describ$4 ,fig4 #gh repres5ts an angle globe-valve4 ,9 g5]al con/ruction x is q simil> to ,figs4 #ad & #ae1 b ! valve ,v 9 ?is case is a cone-%ap$ piece ( brass1 :i* makes a seat 9 a depression provid$ = x4 ,! valve ,v & ! seat are =m$ z desir$ & !n gr\nd into contact ) em]y du/ or o!r abrasive mat]ial1 to assure a p]fectly tight jo9t4 ,:5 ?is valve becomes worn & beg9s to leak1 x may be repair$ by regr9d+1 b su* "w requires ! s]vices ( a pipe-fitt]4 ,! t5d5cy ( mod]n practice is to use valves ) ! deta*able discs1 su* z t ( ,fig4 #gg1 because !y are easily repair$4 ,! valve %[n 9 ,fig4 #gi is kn[n z a gate-valve4 ,! upp] "p1 includ+ ! screw & /em1 is ! same z ! globe /yle b ! valve prop] is made 9 ! =m ( two flat gates ,a-,a4 ,:5 ! valve is clos$1 z x appe>s 9 ! draw+1 ! gates are =c$ aga9/ ! seats by ! cone-%ap$ piece ,b1 :i* acts z a w$ge1 to tightly close ! op5+4 ,:5 ! h&-:eel is turn$ to op5 ! valve1 ! gates are rais$ & are tak5 entirely out ( ! pa? ( ! fl[+ liquid4 ,gate-valves are us$ 9 places :]e x is desir$ to ob/ruct ! fl[ z little z possible4 ,!y are some:at m exp5sive ?an globe-valves b are consid]$ wor? ! extra exp5se 9 s]vice4 ,kit*5 & ,laundry ,fixtures4--,! developm5t 9 mod]n plumb+ has wr\ght _m *anges 9 ! /yles ( h\sehold fixtures b none has be5 s great z t 9 ! kit*5 s9k4 ,! old /yle1 insanit>y1 wood5 s9k has be5 almo/ entirely replac$ by ^? made ( press$ /eel or enamel$ iron4 ,!y are made 9 e desir$ size & to suit all purposes4 ,!y may be pla9 or galvaniz$ z occasion may require1 or ! enamel$ s9k is obta9able at a v slight addition 9 price4 ,! enamel$ s9k has rea*$ a degree ( p]fection :]e its durability is unque/ion$1 & z a consequ5ce kit*5 furniture is va/ly improv$ at b little advance 9 co/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,model kit*54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,:ite enamel kit*5 s9k4 ,a mod]n kit*5 9 :i* gas is us$ z fuel is %[n 9 ,fig4 #hj4 ,simplicity & neatness ( arrangem5t are ! noticeable features4 ,?is kit*5 is int5d$ to suit ! av]age-siz$ dwell+ & conta9s all necess>y plumb+1 cook+ & heat+ app>atus4 ,! hot-wat] boil] is "h %[n atta*$ to an in/antane\s heat]4 ,! common kit*5 s9k is supplem5t$ ) a slop s9k & cov]$ ) a dra9 bo>d4 ,?is simple kit*5 may be elaborat$ to any ext5t4 ,fig4 #ha %[s a kit*5 s9k ( :ite enamel ) two enamel$ dra9 bo>ds4 ,! dra9 bo>ds are sometimes cov]$ ) p]=at$ rubb] mats4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,model laundry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,enamel wa% trays 9 a basem5t laundry4 ,9 ,fig4 #hb is %[n an example ( ! mod]n basem5t laundry4 ,! wa%-boil] heat] is %[n on ! left4 ,an automatic in/antane\s wat] heat] is on ! "r4 ,! /ation>y tubs or wa% trays occupy ! c5t] ( ! picture4 ,9 detail ^! wa% trays appe> 9 ,fig4 #hc4 ,^! are enamel-cov]$ w>e & are provid$ ) ! wa%-tray bibb-cocks describ$ above4 ,?is type ( plumb+ repres5ts ! mo/ mod]n ( sanit>y arrangem5ts4 ,,! ,,ba?room ,) ! pres5t-day improvem5ts 9 plumb+1 & ! p]fection 9 ! manufacture ( porcela9 & enamel$ iron1 ! ba?rooms ( h\ses ( mod]ate co/ h become places ( cleanl9ess1 attractive1 relatively free f (f5d+ odors & suppli$ ) all necess>y sanit>y fixtures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,model ba? room = ! av]age dwell+4 ,enamel$ iron has rea*$ a /ate ( p]fection :]e x rivals porcela9 9 beauty4 ,! =ms ( ! v>i\s ba?room pieces h be5 model$ = conv5i5ce 9 use & grace ( =m1 at ! same "t ! /rife ( ! design] has be5 to produce articles t n only look well b are conv5i5t & easily kept clean4 ,ba?rooms ne$ n be exp5sive 9 ord] to be conv5i5t1 attractive & useful4 ,! ba?room %[n 9 ,fig4 #hd is su* z is in/all$ 9 dwell+s ( mod]ate price4 ,x possesses e feature necess>y to usefulness & com=t4 ,9 ?is room ! furni%+s are all ( enamel$ iron4 ,! floor is cov]$ ) l9oleum & ! wa9scot+ ) enamel pa9t4 ,ba? ,tubs4--,ba? tubs are made 9 sizes t v>y 9 l5g? f #d-a_/b to #f feet4 ,!y are con/ruct$ 9 a v>iety ( =ms & ( mat]ials to suit all conditions ( s]vice4 ,= dome/ic use !y are v g5]ally made ( enamel$ iron4 ,?is =m ( con/ruction produces s]viceable & h&some furni%+s = ! ba?rooms ( ! mode/ h\se z well z = ! sumptu\s ba? ( ! mo/ pret5ti\s resid5ce4 ,an elaboration ( ,fig4 #hd might include ! ,sitz ba? %[n 9 ,fig4 #he & ! fitt+s may be *os5 f a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,! rec5t /yles ( enamel$ tubs are1 9 design1 mu* h&som] ?an ^? ) ! roll rim & 9 =m su* z p]mits a clean room ) ! m9imum ( labor4 ,!y are also provid$ ) m conv5i5t wat] & dra9age fixtures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,sitz ba?4 ,! tub ( ,fig4 #hf sets flat on ! floor & makes a close jo9t ) ! wall4 ,x ?us prev5ts ! accumulation ( du/ t is difficult to remove4 ,9 addition ! fixtures are arrang$ 9 a m commodi\s mann] & ! g5]al appe>ance is mo/ pleas+4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! fixtures 9 ,fig4 #hg gives /ill great] conv5i5ce & be+ arrang$ ) a %[] & protect+ curta91 provides all ( ! conv5i5ces ( a luxuri\s ba? )\t greatly increas$ co/ ov] ! simple tub4 ,! fixtures 9 ?is design are all 9 position ( greate/ conv5i5ce & atta*$ to pipes t are conceal$ 9 ! wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,enamel$ iron ba? tub4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,ba? tub ) %[]4 ,! fixtures usually provid$ ) ! tub are d\ble ,full] or compression cocks = hot & cold wat]1 ! ov]fl[ & /ra9]1 = ! dis*>ge ( ! wat] into ! sew] 9 case ! tub ov]fl[s1 & a dra9 & ba? plug4 ,! d\ble ,full] cock is %[n 9 ,fig4 #hh4 ,x is made to op5 & close by ! same sort ( me*anism z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ga1 a description ( :i* appe>s on page #ij4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,d\ble ,full] cock = ba? tubs4 ,! ov]fl[ is %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #hi4 ,! "p ,a appe>s inside ! tub4 ,x is made wat]-tight ar\nd ! edge ,c by a rubb] wa%] t is clamp$ tight to ! surfaces by ! nut ,b4 ,9 case ( leakage1 ! ov]fl[ may be remov$ = repair by unscrew+ ! union atta*$ to ! piece ,d & remov+ ! nut ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,,fig4 #hi;a4 ,,fig4 #hi4--,ov]fl[ atta*m5t = ba? tubs1 lavatories1 etc4 ,,fig4 #hi;a4--,dra9 atta*m5t = ba? tubs1 lavatories1 etc41 %[+ locknut & union connection4 ,! dra9-pipe connection is %[n 9 ,fig4 #hi;a4 ,! plug ,d & ! flange ,a %[ inside ! tub4 ,! flange is made wat]-tight by a rubb] wa%] t ! nut ,b clamps tight to ! tub4 ,! "p ,c is a union :i* p]mits ! tub to be deta*$ f ! dra9 pipe4 ,repairs to ?is jo9t may be made z 9 ! ov]fl[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,old /yle m>ble f9i%$ lavatory4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,types ( lavatory plumb+ n n[ us$ 9 good practice4 ,wa% ,/&s & ,lavatories4--,wa% /&s = ba?rooms are obta9able 9 _m =ms1 ei!r pla9 or ornate1 to suit e condition & /yle ( ar*itectural f9i%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,enamel$ iron wall wa% bas94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,enamel$ iron p$e/al wa% bas94 ,!y are made 9 m>ble1 porcela9 & enamel$ iron1 ! la/ be+ ! mo/ commonly us$4 ,!y are made to suit ! "p ( ! room to be occupi$1 :e!r t is aga9/ a wall1 a corn]1 or to /& on a p$e/al on ! floor4 ,^? int5d$ to fa/5 to ! wall may be support$ by brackets or susp5d$ at ! back f pieces secur$ 9 ! wall4 ,9 ,figs4 #ij & #ia are %[n samples ( m>ble-f9i%$ wa% bas9s4 ,9 =m] ye>s bas9s ( ?is type 7 v mu* 9 use1 & until ! introduction ( ! mod]n porcela9 & enamel$ w>e1 x 0 ! highe/ type ( sanit>y plumb+4 ,! wat] cocks & traps are ( ! same /yle & grade z appe> on ! mo/ mod]n examples ( enamel$ w>e ( ,figs4 #ib1 #ic & #id4 ,! wat] cocks us$ 9 ,fig4 #ij are ( ! compression type4 ,all ( ! o!rs are ( ! ,full] type4 ,! bas9 9 ,fig4 #ic is provid$ ) extra %ut-(f cocks on ! wat] pipe "u ! bas94 ,!y are add$ to ! plumb+ m]ely z a conv5i5t means ( %utt+ (f ! wat] = repair4 ,! wa% /& is usually provid$ ) hot & cold wat] cocks1 a wa/e pipe ) its traps & ov]fl[ connections4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,corn] wa% bas94 ,traps4--,! wa/e pipes f ! wa% bas9 & ba? tub are always provid$ ) "s =m ( trap1 to prev5t air f ent]+ ! room f ! sew]1 *>g$ ) (f5d+ odors4 ,traps are made 9 _m =ms1 b ! purpose ( all is to prev5t ! escape ( sew] gas4 ,! pla9 trap ,s1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ie1 is t us$ "u ! bas9 9 ,fig4 #ia4 ,x makes a tight jo9t by means ( ! nut ,b & a rubb] wa%] z 9 ! case ( o!r jo9ts ( ! k9d4 ,! p>ts ,c & ,e are unions t p]mit ! pipe or b[l to be remov$ )\t di/urb+ ! rema9d] ( ! plumb+4 ,f ! =m ( ! trap x w be se5 t ! ,u-%ap$ "p bel[ ! dott$ l9e ,f w always rema9 full ( wat] & s prev5ts ! escape ( air f ! sew]4 ,9 case ! trap becomes /opp$ ! ob/ruction w likely become lodg$ 9 ?is "p ( ! pipe4 ,to clean ! trap ! screw-plug ,d is tak5 out ) a pair ( pli]s & ! ob/ruction remov$ ) a wire4 ,! traps us$ 9 ,figs4 #ij & #ib are ! same 9 pr9ciple z ,fig4 #ie b are made to dis*>ge into a pipe plac$ 9 ! wall in/ead ( "u ! floor4 ,! trap 9 ,fig4 #id is a =m kn[n z ! bottle-trap t is sometimes us$ 9 ! m exp5sive plumb+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,! ,s trap ( nickel-plat$ brass tub+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,! ,b[] non-siphon+ trap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,! drum type ( non-siphon+ trap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,an ,s trap made ( lead pipe4 ,ano!r /yle mu* us$ ) lavatories is ! ,b[] trap %[n 9 ,fig4 #if4 ,9 ?is trap ! wat] comes d[n ! pipe ,b & pu%+ aside ! holl[ rubb] ball ,a1 ent]s ! space surr\nd+ x & is dis*>g$ at ,c4 ,! ball1 be+ light1 is held aga9/ ! end ( ! pipe by ! wat] & acts z a /opp] to prev5t evaporation f tak+ place4 ,op5 traps1 su* z ,fig4 #ie1 if left /&+ = a long "t1 may lose suffici5t wat] by evaporation to de/roy ! wat] seal & all[ ! sew] gas to escape4 ,9 ! use ( ! ,b[] trap su* occurr5ce is mu* less likely to take place4 ,fig4 #ig is ano!r trap mu* us$ on s9ks2 x is kn[n "u ! trade "n ( ! ,clean ,sweep trap4 ,! "p ,c is mu* l>g] ?an ! common trap & ! wat] seal is less likely to be brok54 ,! clean-out is l>g] & ! int]ior is easy ( access 9 case ( /oppage4 ,! simple/ & mo/ commonly us$ trap 9 *eap plumb+ is t ( ,fig4 #ih4 ,x is a lead pipe b5t 9 ! =m ( an ,s4 ,x is ! same 9 %ape z ,fig4 #ie & p]=ms its "w z well b does n h ! means ( deta*m5t %[n 9 ! latt]4 ,traps ( _m o!r =ms are 9 use b all h ! same function to p]=m & ! me*anical make-up is mu* ! same z ^? describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,a me?od ( ba?-room plumb+ us+ ! drum trap4 ,! plan ( atta*m5t ( ! v>i\s ba?room fixtures ( ! soil pipe mu/ always dep5d on local conditions4 ,! object is to conduct ! wa/e wat] to ! sew] 9 su* a way z to give ! lea/ opportunity = /oppage & to prev5t sew] gas f escap+ into ! h\se4 ,to accompli% ?is purpose ! pipes & traps are arrang$ accord+ to a plan propos$ by ! ar*itect1 plumb] or o!r p]son famili> ) ! pr9ciples ( plumb+4 ,s9ce ^! pipes are plac$ 9 ! walls & "u ! floors1 :]e !y are n readily accessible1 x is necess>y t _! arrangem5t be made ) c>e & t ! workman%ip be su* z to assure correct in/allation4 ,9 ,fig4 #ii is %[n a common me?od ( connect+ ba?room fixtures ) ! sew]4 ,! draw+ %[s a ba?room ) ! floor brok5 away to %[ ! pipe connections ) ! ba? tub1 wa% bas9 & closet4 ,! ov]fl[ pipes ,o & ,v & ! dra9 pipes ,d & ,r f ! wa% bas9 & ba? tub empty into a l>ge lead drum-trap ,t1 set "u ! floor4 ,?is trap takes its "n f its %ape4 ,x is set 9 position z dictat$ by ! conditions "u :i* x is us$4 ,! nickel$ plate ,p1 screw$ into ! top ( ! trap1 comes j above ! ba?room floor4 ,?is plate is easily remov$ 9 case ( /oppage4 ,x is made air-tight by a rubb] r+ plac$ "u ! cov] & :i* makes a jo9t ) ! top edge ( ! drum4 ,x w be notic$ t ! wa/e pipes f ! ba? tub & wa% bas9 ent] ! trap ne> ! bottom & dis*>ge at ! opposite side ne> ! top4 ,! wat] w /& 9 ! trap & pipes level ) ! bottom ( ! dis*>ge pipe & ?us =m a seal t prev5ts ! escape ( sew] gas4 ,?is is a common =m ( non-siphon+ trap4 ,x is non-siphon+ because x _c lose its seal by reason ( ! siphon+ effect ( ! wat] z x passes ?r\gh ! wa/e pipes on its way to ! sew]4 ,ano!r =m ( non-siphon+ trap is ! clean sweep trap %[n 9 ,fig4 #ig4 ,su* traps z ,figs4 #ie & #ih are siphon+ traps1 s9ce x is possible1 9 ?is =m ( trap1 = ! wat] to be s completely siphon$ t n en\gh rema9s to =m a seal4 ,! small draw+1 m>k$ ,detail ,l1 is ano!r me?od ( connect+ ! same arrangem5t ( fixtures4 ,! wa/e pipe ent]s ! trap z be=e b dis*>ges imm$iately opposite4 ,! level ( ! wat] /&s 9 ! pipes z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9e4 ,back-v5t+4--,to prev5t ! possibility ( loss ( seal by siphon+ & ! escape ( sew] gas1 traps are back-v5t$ to ! ma9 /ack or to a sep>ate v5t /ack4 ,! v5t+ is accompli%$ by jo9+ a pipe to ! top ( ! trap or to "s po9t 9 its imm$iate neighborhood1 & connect+ ?is ) ! ma9 /ack or ! v5t /ack4 ,! wat] 9 a trap s v5t$ w be op5 to ! air f bo? sides & consequ5tly c nev] be subject to siphonic action4 ,9 ! av]age-siz$ dwell+ :]e non-siphon+ traps are us$1 back-v5t+ is n necess>y1 b 9 l>ge h\ses & 9 plumb+ :]e siphon traps are us$1 v5t pipes mu/ be atta*$ to ! traps to assure a satisfactory sy/em4 ,fig4 #ajj furni%es an example ( back-v5t+1 appli$ to ! ba?room %[n 9 ,fig4 #ii4 ,9 ! =m] figure ! ba? tub & wa% bas9 are connect$ ) ! wa/e pipe by siphon traps4 ,a siphon trap may lose its seal 9 two ways3 by self-siphonage1 or by aspiration caus$ by ! dis*>ge ( ! wat] f o!r fixtures4 ,9 ! dis*>ge ( ! siphon trap1 su* z ,b1 9 ,fig4 #ajj1 ! long leg ( ! siphon1 =m$ by ! dis*>ge pipe1 may c>ry away ! wat] s completely t n en\gh rema9s 9 ! trap to =m a seal4 ,aga91 ! dis*>ge ( ! wat] f ! ba? tub ?r\gh ! wa/e pipe t5ds to =m a vacuum above x & 9 "s cases ! seal 9 ,b is de/roy$ by ! wat] be+ drawn into ! v]tical pipe4 ,! possibility ( ei!r ( ^! occurr5ces is prev5t$ by back-v5t+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,an example ( back-v5t$ plumb+ z appli$ to ! ba?room4 ,9 ,fig4 #ajj1 a pipe f ! ma9 /ack is connect$ ) ! b5d ( ! trap at ,b & also to ! wa/e pipe outside ! trap at ,t4 ,a v5t is also tak5 f ! dra9 ,c1 at a po9t j bel[ ! trap 9 ! closet seat4 ,! object ( all ( ! v5ts is to prev5t ! t5d5cy ( ! =mation ( a vacuum f any cause t w c>ry away ! wat] seal ( ! trap & all[ sew] gas to ent] ! h\se4 ,! closet seat also conta9s a trap :i* w be describ$ lat]4 ,x connects ) soil pipe ,s1 lead+ to ! sew] by a l>ge lead pipe ,c4 ,all ( ! pipes "u ! floor1 lead+ to ! soil pipe1 %\ld be ( lead4 ,! pipes above ! floor are g5]ally ( iron or nickel-plat$ brass4 ,all ( ! connections 9 ! lead pipes are made ) wip$ jo9ts2 t is1 ! connections are made by wip+ hot sold] ab\t ! jo9t1 9 a mann] peculi> to ?is k9d ( "w1 9 su* a way z to sold] ! pipes toge!r4 ,! jo9ts made 9 ?is mann] are p]fectly & p]man5tly tight4 ,lead pipes are us$ "u su* conditions1 because lead is ! lea/ affect$ by corrosion ( any ( ! metals t c\ld be us$ = su* "w4 ,soil ,pipe4--,! soil pipe1 ( :i* ! wa/e /ack or h\se dra9 is compos$1 is made ( ca/ iron & comes f ! factory cov]$ ) asphaltum pa9t4 ,x may be obta9$ 9 two grades1 ! /&>d & extra heavy4 ,! only diff]5ce is 9 ! ?ickness ( ! pipe4 ,! =m] is commonly us$ 9 ! av]age dwell+4 ,"o end passes ?r\gh ! ro( & ! o!r end jo9s to ! vitrifi$ sew] tile "u ! basem5t floor4 ,! jo9ts mu/ be p]fectly tight1 because a leak 9 ?is pipe w\ld all[ sew] gas to escape into ! h\se4 ,"o end ( ea* section is enl>g$ suffici5tly to receive ! small end ( ! next section4 ,! jo9ts are made ) s(t lead4 ,! pipes are set 9 place & a roll ( oakum is pack$ into ! bottom ( ! jo9t1 aft] :i* molt5 lead is p\r$ into ! jo9t1 fill+ x completely4 ,! oakum is us$ only to keep ! lead 9 ! jo9t until x cools4 ,aft] ! lead has cool$ x is pack$ solidly into ! jo9t ) a hamm] & calk+ tool4 ,! calk+ is necess>y because ! lead %r9ks on cool+ & makes a jo9t t is n tight4 ,well-calk$ jo9ts ( ?is k9d are air-tight & p]man5t4 ,detail ,n 7,fig4 #ii7 %[s ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! jo9t z indicat$ at ,a4 ,! black5$ portion repres5ts ! lead z x appe>s 9 ! jo9t4 ,detail ,m 7,fig4 #ii7 %[s ! me?ods ( atta*+ ! closet seat to ! lead wa/e pipe ,c4 ,! end ( ! lead pipe is flang$ at ! level ( ! floor1 z %[n at ,c 9 ! detail draw+4 ,! depression ,d1 ar\nd ! connection1 is !n fill$ ) glazi]'s putty & ! seat is =c$ d[n tightly 9 place & fa/5$ ) lag screws4 ,! pipe ,c1 f ! closet1 & t f ! trap ,t1 be+ ( lead1 a special jo9t is necess>y 9 connect+ !m ) ! soil pipe1 because a wip$ jo9t _c be made ) ca/ iron4 ,to make su* a connection ! end ( ! lead pipe is 8wip$0 onto a brass ?imble1 heavy en\gh to all[ x to be jo9$ to ! soil pipe by a calk$ lead jo9t4 ,! brass ?imble is !n jo9$ to ! ca/-iron pipe by a calk$ lead jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,! wa%-out closet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,! wa%-d[n closet4 ,wat] ,closets4--,wat] closets are made 9 a great numb] ( /yles to suit ! ar*itectural surr\nd+s & ! v>i\s conditions "u :i* !y are to be us$4 ,_m =ms ( wat] closets are manufactur$ to con=m to special conditions1 b ^? commonly us$ 9 ! ba?rooms ( dwell+s are ( ?ree g5]al types4 ,! me*anical con/ruction ( ea* is %[n 9 ! foll[+ draw+s1 ,figs4 #aja1 #ajb & #ajc %[+ respectively 9 cross-section ! pr9ciple ( op]ation ( ! wa%\t closet1 ! wa%d[n closet & ! siphon-jet closet4 ,wa%\t ,closets4--,?is type ( closet has 9 ! pa/ be5 us$ to a v great ext5t4 ,x does n p]=m ! "w x has to d1 s p]fectly z ! o!rs1 because ! %all[ness ( ! wat] 9 ! b[l all[s x to give (f odors1 & because x is difficult to keep clean4 ,! action ( ! closet is z foll[s3 ,:5 ! closet is flu%$ ! wat] ent]s ! rim at ,a1 & ! great] portion ( x is wa%$ d[nw>d at ,b to dislodge ! cont5ts ( ! b[l4 ,a light] flu% is s5t ?r\gh ! op5+s 9 ! side1 :i* s]ves to wa% ! entire surface4 ,! direction ( dis*>ge is =w>d1 :]e x da%es aga9/ ! front ( ! b[l & !n falls into ! trap4 ,! only =ce receiv$ to c>ry ! wat] to ! trap is f fall+ ?r\gh ! di/ance f ! po9t :]e x /rikes ! front4 ,! flu%+ action is obta9$ f ! use ( a l>ge volume ( wat]4 ,z ! dis*>g$ matt] is da%$ aga9/ ! front ( ! b[l1 ! flu%+ action ( ! wat] is n suffici5t to remove all ! /a9s2 ! result is an accumulation ( fil?4 ,?is "p ( ! b[l is out ( sight2 h5ce1 x is seldom kept clean4 ,! "n wa%\t comes f ! action ( ! wat] to wa% out ! cont5ts ( ! b[l4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,! siphon-jet closet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,a poor design ( wa%-d[n closet4 ,wa%d[n ,closets4--,z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajb1 ! action ( ?is closet is to wa% ! cont5ts ( ! b[l directly d[n ! soil pipe4 ,! dep? ( ! wat] at ,a is mu* great] ?an at ! correspond+ po9t 9 ! wa%\t closets2 z a consequ5ce fecal matt] is almo/ subm]g$4 ,! ma9 objection to ?is closet is t x is noisy4 ,fig4 #ajd %[s ano!r =m ( wa%d[n closets4 ,?is closet is op5 to objection because ( faulty design2 ! "p ,a is difficult to keep clean because ( its %ape4 ,siphon-jet ,closet4--,:at is consid]$ by _m to be ! mo/ satisfactory closet yet design$1 is t ( ! siphon-jet type %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,! flu%+ action ( ?is closet is entirely diff]5t f t ( ! o!rs describ$4 ,! flu%+ wat] ent]s at ,a & fills ! rim ,b4 ,"p ( ! wat] wa%es ! sides ( ! b[l1 :ile ! rema9d] fl[s ?r\gh ! jet ,c1 & is dis*>g$ directly into ! outlet4 ,! eject$ wat] ent]s ! outlet ,d1 :i*1 z soon z x fills1 acts z a siphon to draw ! wat] into ! soil pipe4 ,?is closet is mo/ positive 9 its action1 s9ce ! dis*>ge is made by ! siphon & also receives ! additional mom5tum due to ! wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! jet4 ,its action is att5d$ ) b little noise4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,siphon-jet closet ) ! high flu% tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,=m ( closet n n[ us$ 9 good practice4 ,flu% ,tanks4--,! wat] closet dep5ds = its action on "o ( two g5]al types ( flu% tanks1 ! high & ! l[ =ms4 ,! tank is automatically fill$ ) wat] & :5 want$1 a l>ge volume ( wat] is sudd5ly dis*>g$ into ! sew]1 c>ry+ ) x ! cont5ts ( ! seat4 ,! tank aga9 fills & is ready = use :5 requir$4 ,z illu/rations ( high flu% tanks1 ^? %[n 9 ,figs4 #aje & #ajf furni% examples ( a simple & effici5t =m4 ,! details ( ! me*anism ( ?is type ( tank are %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,! pipe f ! wat] supply is atta*$ at ,g to ! automatic valve ,f1 :i* keeps ! tank fill$ ) wat]4 ,! piece ,f ( ! valve is held aga9/ ! op5+ by ! pressure ex]t$ ?r\gh ! float ,e4 ,! float is a holl[ copp] ball4 ,z ! ball is lift$ x ex]ts a pressure 9 proportion to ! am\nt x is subm]g$4 ,:5 ! wat] rea*es ! level ,a-,a1 ! valve is tightly clos$4 ,z ! wat] is dis*>g$ f ! tank ! ball foll[s ! level ( ! wat] & op5s ! valve1 all[+ ! wat] to ent] & aga9 fill ! tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,details ( con/ruction ( a simple type ( siphon flu% tank4 ,! siphon is made ( ca/ iron1 & 9 ! figure is %[n cut ?r\gh ! c5t]4 ,! l[] end fits loosely 9 ! piece ,k1 & makes a wat]-tight jo9t ar\nd its out] edge1 by re/+ on a rubb] r+ ,c-,c4 ,! "r-h& side ( ! siphon is op5 at ,h1 & :5 ! tank is full1 ! level ( ! wat] is at ,a-,a1 :i* is almo/ at ! top ( ! division plate4 ,to dis*>ge ! tank1 ! *a9 ,l1 atta*$ to ! lev] ,b1 is pull$ d[n2 ?is action raises ! siphon f its seat4 ,z soon z ! siphon is lift$1 ! wat] ru%es ?r\gh ! op5+ ar\nd ,c-,c1 into ! pipe ,k2 ?is causes a p>tial vacuum to =m 9 ,d1 & ! wat] is lift$ ov] ! division plate ,k1 & fl[s out at ,d1 =m+ ! siphon4 ,z soon z ! siphonic action beg9s ! siphon may be dropp$ back on ! seat & ! wat] w cont9ue to dis*>ge until ! tank is empty4 ,l[-d[n ,flu% ,tank4--,! l[-d[n flu% tank = wat] closets has met ) s mu* favor t x has to a great ext5t displac$ ! high tank4 ,! reason = ?is is because ( its advantages ov] ! o!r /yle4 ,! l[ tank is m accessible1 m easily kept clean1 & bett] adapt$ to l[ ceil+s4 ,x is us$ successfully z a siphon tank1 b o!r =ms are 9 use ) satisfactory results4 ,fig4 #ajh gives a p]spective view ( "o /yle ( ?is type ( tank atta*$ to a siphon-jet closet4 ,figs4 #aji & #aaj give ! details ( ! con/ruction ( two =ms ( ?is type ( tank1 bo? ( :i* h giv5 effici5t s]vice4 ,! draw+ %[s ! tanks ) ! front brok5 away to give a view ( ! work+ p>ts4 ,! wat] ent]s ! tank & is dis*>g$ at ! po9ts indicat$4 ,! float & supply valve works exactly z describ$ 9 ! high tank4 ,! draw+ 9 ,fig4 #aji %[s ! tank 9 ! act ( dis*>g+4 ,! dis*>ge valve is rais$ z %[n at ,e4 ,:5 ! wat] is completely dis*>g$1 ! float occupies ! position %[n dott$4 ,:5 ! float rea*es ?is dott$ position1 its weight pulls d[n ! piece ,a4 ,?is releases ! lev] ,b1 & ! atta*$ /opp] ,e1 :i* falls & closes ! dis*>ge orifice4 ,:ile ! tank is fill+ ) wat]1 a /ream fl[s ?r\gh ! small pipe ,d1 to repl5i% ! wat] 9 ! closet t has be5 dis*>g$ 9 siphon+4 ,:5 ! tank is full ( wat]1 ! pieces ,a & ,b occupy ! positions %[n dott$4 ,to dis*>ge ! tank ! trip is pu%$ d[n4 ,?is action raises ! lev] to ! position ,b1 & ) x ! atta*$ /opp] ,e4 ,! piece ,c falls & ! opposite end ,a holds ,b susp5d$ until ! tank is completely dis*>g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,siphon-jet closet ) l[-d[n tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,details ( con/ruction ( l[-d[n flu% tank4 ,! action ( ! tank %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaj is ! same z ! o!rs except t ( ! dis*>ge me*anism4 ,9 ! draw+1 ! tank is full ( wat] ready to be dis*>g$ :5 requir$4 ,a holl[ rubb] ball ,e s]ves z a /opp] = ! dis*>ge pipe4 ,! ball is kept 9 place1 :5 ! tank is fill+1 by ! pressure ( ! wat] above x4 ,! dis*>ge is />t$ by press+ d[n ! trip on ! front ( ! tank4 ,?is raises ! ball f its seat1 & be+ light] ?an wat]1 x floats1 ?us leav+ ! dis*>ge pipe op5 until ! tank is empty1 :5 ! ball is aga9 back on its seat4 ,z ! tank fills ! pressure ( ! wat] above prev5ts ! ball f aga9 float+1 until lift$ f its seat4 ,! supply valve & refill+ pipe ,d is ! same 9 action z 9 ! o!r tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,details ( con/ruction ( ! float-valve1 l[-d[n flu% tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,me?od ( us+ ! plumb]'s fri5d1 9 remov+ ob/ructions4 ,op5+ ,/opp$ ,pipes4--,x occasionally happ5s t pipes lead+ f ! v>i\s toilet fixtures become /opp$ because ( accumulations or by articles t accid5tally pass ! entrance4 ,9 case ! pipe has a trap connection ! /oppage is mo/ likely to occur at t po9t4 ,usually ! ob/ruction may be remov$ by deta*+ ! screw-plug ( ! trap & remov+ ! accumulation ) a wire4 ,closet seats furni% an invit+ receptacle = wa/e mat]ial ( almo/ e k9d4 ,/oppages are n uncommon & are g5]ally f\nd 9 ! trap4 ,"o me?od ( remov+ ob/ruction is by use ( ! plumb]s' fri5d4 ,?is device is %[n at ,p-,r1 9 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,x consi/s ( a wood5 h&le ,p atta*$ to a cup-%ap$ rubb] piece ,r4 ,! plumb]s' fri5d is %[n 9 ! figure1 plac$ to remove an ob/ruction ,s t is lodg$ 9 ! trap4 ,a sudd5 d[nw>d ?ru/ causes ! rubb] cap ,r to entirely fill ! closet outlet & ! result+ pressure to ! wat] is g5]ally suffici5t to =ce ! ob/ruction ?r\gh ! trap to ! soil pipe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,me?od ( remov+ ob/ructions f a /opp$ dra9-pipe4 ,! kit*5 s9k is ano!r place t af=ds opportunity = accumulation t /ops ! wa/e pipe4 ,accumulation ( grease 9 ! trap is a common cause ( tr\ble4 ,?is may be rem$i$ to "s ext5t by ! use ( pota% or cau/ic soda4 ,:5 ! pipe is /opp$ & ! tr\ble _c be rea*$ f ! trap1 a common me?od ( remov+ ! /oppage is t sugge/$ 9 ,fig4 #aab4 ,a piece ( heavy rubb] tub+ is =c$ ov] ! wat] tap & ! o!r end tightly w$g$ into ! dra9 pipe2 ! wat] is !n turn$ on & g5]ally ! pressure is suffici5t to =ce ! accumulation d[n ! pipe4 ,sew] ,gas4--,! preval5t fe> ( ! delet]i\s effect ( escap+ sew] gas is "o t has be5 magnifi$ to an unw>rantable degree4 ,among bact]iologi/s x is v g5]ally recogniz$ t none ( ! dread$ diseases to :i* ! human k9d is susceptible are transmitt$ by gases4 ,! "o possible h>mful effect recogniz$ 9 sew] gas by sci5ti/s is t produc$ by c>bon monoxide4 ,sew] gas (t5 conta9s1 f escap+ illum9at+ gas1 suffici5t c>bon monoxide to produce ! poison+ effect *>act]i/ic ( t gas b ! possibility ( dang] is q remote4 ,! leakage ( sew] gas is detect$ by ! s5se ( smell soon] ?an 9 almo/ any o!r way4 ,:ile leaks 9 sew] pipes are unhygi5ic 9 t !y are conducive to undesirable atmosph]ic conditions1 !y %\ld n be look$ ^u z ! ag5ts ?r\gh :i* transmissible diseases are c>ri$4 ,to ! av]age p]son ! t]m sew] gas conveys ! impression ( a p>ticul>ly loa?some =m ( vapor\s contagion1 capable ( di/ribut+ e =m ( communicable disease4 ,to ! sci5tific m9d x means no m ?an a bad odor4 ,sew] gas is really no?+ b ill-smell+ air4 ,,range ,,boil]s ,! hot-wat] supply to ! h\sehold is ( s mu* importance1 t ! in/allation ( ! range boil] %\ld be made ) great c>e1 & an und]/&+ ( ! pr9ciple on :i* x works %\ld be fully appreciat$ by all :o h to d ) its managem5t4 ,! ability ( ! boil] to supply ! dem&s put ^u x dep5ds 9 a great measure on its size & ! arrangem5t ( its p>ts1 b prop] managem5t is necess>y to assure a supply ( hot wat] :5 requir$4 ,range boil]s are us$ = /or+ hot wat] heat$ by ! wat]-back ( ! kit*5 range or o!r wat] heat]1 dur+ a p]iod :5 wat] is n drawn4 ,x s]ves z a res]ve supply :]e ! heat] is n ( suffici5t size to heat wat] z fa/ z is dem&$4 ,z commonly us$1 range boil]s are galvaniz$-/eel tanks made expressly = h\sehold use4 ,!y are /&>d 9 =m & may be b\ght ( any deal] 9 plumb+ or h\sehold supplies4 ,9 capacity !y range f #bj to #bjj gallons & are made = ei!r high-or l[-pressure s]vice4 ,!y are said to be te/$ at ! factory to a pressure ( #bjj p\nds to ! squ>e in* & are rat$ to /& a work+ pressure ( #aej p\nds4 ,range boil]s are galvaniz$ aft] !y are made & coat$ bo? inside & out4 ,! coat+ ( z9c receiv$ 9 ! galvaniz+ process helps to make _! seams tight & at ! same "t r5d]s ! surface free f ru/4 ,!re is no def9ite means ( det]m9+ ! size ( tank to be us$ 9 any giv5 case1 because ( ! v>y+ dem&s ( a h\sehold b a common practice is to all[ #e gallons 9 capacity to ea* p]son ! h\se is able to accommodate4 ,! ,wat]-back4--,! mo/ common me?od ( heat+ wat] = ! range boil] is by use ( ! wat]-back or wat]-front ( ! kit*5 range4 ,! wat]-back is a holl[ ca/-iron piece t is made to take ! place ( ! back fire-box l9+ ( ! range4 ,9 "s ranges ! heat] occupies ! front ( ! fire-box in/ead ( ! back1 9 :i* case ! heat] becomes ! wat]-front4 ,! arrangem5t ( pipes connect+ ! s\rce ( wat] supply ) ! boil] is su* t cold wat] is con/antly suppli$ to ! tank z ! hot wat] is drawn4 ,if no wat] is drawn f ! tank1 x w cont9ue to circulate ?r\gh ! tank & heat]1 ! wat] becom+ con/antly hott]4 ,! connect+ pipes are usually ( iron b sometimes pipes ( copp] or brass are us$4 ,! jo9ts %\ld be ream$ to remove ! burr t is =m$ 9 cutt+4 ,! angles %\ld be #de-;degree b5ds or bett] /ill #ij-;degree b5ds 9 connect+ ! heat] ) ! tank s z to cut d[n ! am\nt ( friction z mu* z possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,a common me?od ( connect+ ! range boil] to ! wat]-back4 ,9 ,fig4 #aac is %[n a /&>d range boil] connect$ to ! range4 ,! wat] is br\ght into ! top ( ! tank ?r\gh ! pipe a-a1 & pass+ ?r\gh x ent]s ! wat]-back by means ( ! pipe b4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! wat]-back ! wat] aga9 ent]s ! tank ?r\gh ! pipes c & d1 z indicat$ by ! arr[4 ,! fl[ pipe 7c>ry+ ! out-go+ wat]7 f ! wat]-back may be connect$ ) ! tank at e1 z %[n dott$ or 9 "s cases ! connections are made at bo? places4 ,! velocity ( circulation dep5ds on ! v]tical height ( ! column ( hot wat] & ! great] height w1 !re=e1 improve ! circulation & ?us increase ! effici5cy ( ! heat]4 ,! circulation ( ! wat] ?r\gh ! tank & heat] is produc$ by its *ange 9 weight z ! wat] is heat$4 ,z ! hot wat] comes f ! wat]-back x rises 9 ! pipe because x is light] 9 weight ?an ! cool] wat] ( ! tank4 ,9 ! case ( ! pipe %[n dott$ 9 ,fig4 #aac ! long] v]tical rise w give a great] upw>d velocity ( ! hot wat] & consequ5tly a bett] circulation ?r\gh ! entire circuit4 ,! con/ruction ( ! wat]-back is %[n 9 ! small draw+4 ,! connections are made at b & c z be=e4 ,a division plate 9 ! wat]-back causes ! wat] fl[+ 9 at b to foll[ ! l5g? ( ! heat] at ! bottom & return at ! top z indicat$ by ! arr[1 :5 x is dis*>g$ at ,c4 ,! hotte/ wat] is always at ! top ( ! tank & ! temp]ature grades uni=mly f ! hotte/ at ! top to ! coole/ at ! bottom4 ,! reason = ext5d+ ! pipe a s f> d[n into ! tank is t ! cold wat] may n m+le ) ! hot wat] & r$uce its temp]ature on ent]+ ! tank4 ,ne> ! top ( ! pipe a is a small hole f t is int5d$ to prev5t ! wat] f be+ siphon$ f ! tank 9 case a vacuum is =m$ 9 ! cold-wat] pipe4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t ! wat] ent]s & leaves at ! top ( ! tank4 ,9 case ! supply is %ut (f at any "t ! tank is left almo/ full ( wat]1 because ! siphon+ effect _c ext5d bel[ ! small hole f4 ,excessive ,pressure4--,accid5ts due to ! explosion ( hot-wat] backs are n at all r>e & x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t !re is dang] ( excessive pressure be+ =m$ %\ld ! pipes b & c become /opp$4 ,"u normal conditions ! pressure g5]at$ by ! heat$ wat] is reliev$ by ! wat] 9 ! tank be+ =c$ back into ! supply pipe4 ,! pressure 9 ! tank1 !re=e1 _c become great] ?an t ( ! s\rce ( supply1 b if b & c %\ld become /opp$ ) ! wat]-back full ( wat] a dang]\s pressure might result4 ,! greate/ dang] f ?is cause is t ( freez+4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t h\ses are clos$ dur+ cold wea!r & ! wat]-back is left undra9$4 ,! wat] freezes & :5 a fire is />t$ 9 ! range1 ! ice 9 ! wat]-back is ! fir/ to melt4 ,9 a %ort "t /eam w be g5]at$ t w soon produce a suffici5t pressure to bur/ ! wat]-back4 ,?is has happ5$ _m times ) disa/r\s results4 ,su* dang]s may be avoid$ by ! ex]cise ( a reasonable am\nt ( c>e 9 ! managem5t ( ! range4 ,to dra9 ! wat]-back1 ! wat] is fir/ %ut (f at ! po9t :]e ! supply pipe ent]s ! h\se4 ,! wat] 9 ! range boil] is !n drawn (f by means ( ! cock h4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,bl[-(f = remov+ s$im5t4 ,bl[-(f ,cock4--,:5 a consid]able am\nt ( s$im5t is c>ri$ 9 ! wat] ! range boil] acts z a settl+ tank & ! deposit accumulat$ at ! bottom w 9 "t am\nt to a s\rce ( tr\ble4 ,! accumulation is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aad4 ,! "p ,w1 :i* connects ) ,b1 is sometimes provid$ ) a bl[-(f cock t w admit ( a dis*>ge ( ! s$im5t4 ,m commonly ! pip+ is arrang$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aac1 :5 s$im5t is remov$ by occasionally draw+ wat] f ! cock h4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,me?od ( connect+ ! range boil] :5 plac$ on ! floor bel[ ! heat]4 ,location ( ,range ,boil]4--,x is sometimes desir$ to place ! range boil] on a diff]5t floor1 ei!r above or bel[ ! range4 ,:ile su* arrangem5ts are entirely possible ! circulation ( ! wat] is n s good z t describ$ above4 ,! weight ( ! two columns ( wat] 9 ! connect+ pipes are s ne>ly balanc$ t good circulation is n always possible4 ,9 ,fig4 #aae ! connections are %[n1 :]e ! tank is locat$ 9 ! basem5t4 ,9 connect+ ! wat]-back to ! tank "u su* conditions ! pip+ is relatively ! same z is %[n 9 ! dott$ connections ( ,fig4 #aac1 b ! connections are long]4 ,! circulat+ pipe comes f ! bottom ( ! tank & leads to ! bottom ( ! wat]-back4 ,! fl[ pipe f ! top ( ! wat]-back is ext5d$ up to a di/ance equal or great] ?an ! di/ance f ! wat]-back to ! bottom ( ! tank4 ,! hot wat] is tak5 f ! top ( ! fl[ pipe at any place above ! tank4 ,d\ble ,heat] ,connections4--,two heat]s are sometimes connect$ to "o range boil]1 ea* circuit be+ indep5d5t ( ! o!r4 ,"u su* conditions "o or bo? heat]s may be us$4 ,:5 ! tank is connect$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaf ! pipe a1 f ! bottom ( ! tank1 bran*es & leads to b & b1 at ! bottom ( ea* ( ! heat]s4 ,! fl[ pipes f ! top ( ! heat]s ent] ! tank at sep>ate places1 ! l[] heat] s5d+ its wat] into ! side ( ! tank at c1 & ! upp] heat] fl[+ into ! pipe d1 at ! top ( ! tank4 ,x w\ld be p]fectly possible to rev]se ! connections = ! fl[ pipes 9 ! arrangem5t ( ,fig4 #aaf & atta9 ! same results4 ,9 su* comb9ations ! heat]s are sometimes pip$ t&em1 ! wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ea* ( ! heat]s 9 turn4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! be/ me?od to employ1 = if only "o ( ! heat]s is us$ ! second acts to cool ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,d\ble connections = ! range boil] :]e a heat] is plac$ 9 ! basem5t = occasional use4 ,horizontal ,range ,boil]s4--,x occasionally happ5s t 9 a small kit*5 !re is no conv5i5t floor space = ! range boil] & x becomes necess>y to susp5d x f ! ceil+4 ,x is p]fectly possible to /ation ! ord9>y range boil] 9 su* a position & h x "w fairly well b f ! location ( ! cold-wat] inlet1 only t "p ( ! range boil] above ! cold wat] pipe is actually us$ = /orage4 ,! wat] 9 ! l[] half con/antly mixes ) ! ent]+ cold wat] be=e x is heat$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! wat]-back4 ,:5 hot wat] is drawn f ! top ( ! range boil]1 cold wat] ent]s by ! cold-wat] pipe & r$uces ! temp]ature ( mo/ ( ! l[] half4 ,fig4 #aag illu/rates su* an arrangem5t4 ,9 ?is case ! pipes connect$ ) ! wat]-back are ^? t correspond to ! circulat+ pipes a & e 9 ,fig4 #aac4 ,suppose ! range boil] is full ( wat]1 & t x is be+ heat$4 ,! l[] pipe at ! left-h& end is conduct+ ! wat] to ! wat]-back & x is be+ return$ to ! range boil] by ! upp] pipe at ! same end4 ,:5 ! hot wat] is drawn f ! top ( ! range boil] by ! hot-wat] pipe1 ! ent]+ cold wat] mixes ) hot wat] 9 mo/ ( ! l[] half ( ! range boil] be=e x has be5 heat$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! wat]-back & s r$uces ! temp]ature ( mo/ ( ! l[] half ( ! tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,me?od ( connect+ ! v]tical range-boil] 9 a horizontal position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,horizontal range-boil] susp5d$ f ! ceil+4 ,a mu* bett] tank = ! purpose is t indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #aah4 ,?is is a tank made p>ticul>ly = su* a location4 ,! cold wat] ent]s at ! bottom ( ! tank & also leaves ! bottom on its way to ! wat]-back4 ,circulation takes place ?r\gh ! wat]-back z be=e b :5 hot wat] is drawn f ! top ( ! tank1 ! ent]+ cold wat] at ! bottom mixes ) only t at ! l[] "p ( ! tank & s cools b a small am\nt ( ! hot wat] 9 /orage4 ,hot-wat] tanks ( ?is k9d are tapp$ = pipe connections 9 two places on bo? ! top & bottom sides & also at ! ends z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,tank ,heat]s4--,:5 ! dem& = hot wat] is suffici5t to w>rant a sep>ate hot-wat] heat] ! app>atus simil> to ,fig4 #aai is us$4 ,) su* a heat]1 ! conditions ( ov]heat$ wat]--to be describ$ lat]--may be almo/ entirely avoid$4 ,9 ?is case ! connections are arrang$ simil>ly to ^? ( ! range boil] b a sep>ate furnace takes ! place ( ! wat]-back4 ,! heat] is simply a small furnace made expressly = heat+ wat]4 ,connect$ ) ! dis*>ge pipe p is a draft-regulat+ valve :i* controls ! drafts ( ! heat]4 ,! draft-regulator is set to s control ! furnace t wat] at ! desir$ temp]ature w always be 9 ! tank4 ,! me*anism ( ?is regulator is ! same z ! draft-regulator describ$ "u hot-wat] heat+ plants4 ,ov]heat$ ,wat]4--,"u ord9>y conditions ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! range boil] is bel[ ! atmosph]ic boil+ po9t 7#bab;,f47 b at times :5 a hot fire is kept up 9 ! range = a consid]able p]iod1 ! temp]ature w rise to a degree mu* above t am\nt4 ,! temp]ature to :i* ! wat] w rise w dep5d on ! pressure ( ! wat] supply4 ,z an example--suppose ! gage pressure ( ! wat] supply is #be p\nds4 ,! temp]ature correspond+ to t pressure is #beh;,f4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! tank w rise to t am\nt b n fur!r because any additional temp]ature w produce a high] pressure1 b a high] pressure w\ld be great] ?an ! pressure ( ! wat] supply & h5ce w back ! wat] into ! supply pipe4 ,?is condition ( ?+s1 !n1 acts z a safety valve to ! tank to prev5t excessive pressures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,indep5d5t hot-wat] heat] ) temp]ature regulator4 ,:5 ! wat] at a high temp]ature is drawn f ! tap a consid]able "p ( x w in/antly vaporize1 because ( ! r$uc$ pressure4 ,if wat] at a pressure ( #be p\nds is drawn f ! faucet1 ! temp]ature1 #beh;,f41 is suffici5t to s5d all ( ! wat] in/antly into /eam4 ,?is high temp]ature w scald at ! slighte/ t\*4 ,! wat] drawn f ! faucet w cont9ue to vaporize z x comes into ! air until ! wat] 9 ! tank is cool$ by ! incom+ cold wat]4 ,! only means ( reliev+ ! ov]heat$ condition is to op5 ! faucet a slight am\nt & all[ a portion ( ! heat$ wat] to be drawn (f4 ,x is evid5t f :at has be5 said ( ! range boil] t x op]ates "u a v>iety ( conditions4 ,x is fir/ a /orage tank 9 :i* is accumulat$ ! wat]1 heat$ f a great] or less p]iod ( use ( ! range4 ,%\ld ! range fire be ma9ta9$ ?r\gh ! day or night ! supply ( hot wat] w be excessive & sup]heat+ is ! result4 ,if ! heat] is to be us$ dur+ %ort p]iods ( "t1 ! pip+ %\ld be arrang$ to produce ! be/ circulation2 on ! contr>y1 %\ld ! heat] be us$ cont9u\sly--z 9 ! case ( a furnace coil--a sl[ circulation ?r\gh ! tank is mo/ to be desir$ & ! pip+ %\ld be arrang$ = t purpose4 ,9 ! use ( furnace heat]s1 sup]heat+ is likely to occur dur+ cold wea!r :5 a hot fire mu/ be us$ ov] a long p]iod ( "t4 ,9 ord] to cons]ve ! heat accumulat$ "u su* conditions a hot-wat] radiator is frequ5tly connect$ ) ! range boil] ?r\gh :i* to dispose ( ! excess heat4 ,?is radiator may be plac$ 9 any desir$ position & s connect$ by a valve z to discont9ue its use at any "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,! range boil] connections :5 a furnace coil is us$ = hot-wat] heat+4 ,furnace ,hot-wat] ,heat]s4--,x is sometimes m conv5i5t to use ! furnace z a means ( heat+ wat] ?an ! kit*5 range4 ,su* an arrangem5t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #abj1 :]e a loop ( pipe 9 ! fire-box ( ! furnace takes ! place ( ! wat]-back4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! pipes 9 ! range boil] are z be=e1 ! wat] ent]+ ! tank ?r\gh ! pipe ,a1 circulates ?r\gh ! pipes ,b & ,c1 receiv+ its heat :ile pass+ ?r\gh ! loop 9 ! furnace1 9 exactly ! same way z 9 ! wat]-back4 ,x w\ld be q possible to also connect ! kit*5 range ) ! tank z %[n by ! dott$ l9es indicat+ ! wat]-back4 ,su* an arrangem5t w\ld virtually be t %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaf1 :]e ! two heat]s on diff]5t floors are connect$ ) ! boil]4 ,in/antane\s ,heat]s4--,9 isolat$ ba?rooms :]e no con/ant supply ( hot wat] is available1 in/antane\s hot-wat] heat]s are mu* us$4 ,9 _m h\ses :]e a range fire is us$ int]mitt5tly1 p>ticul>ly dur+ ! summ] mon?s1 a l me?od is us$ = ! hot-wat] supply4 ,^! heat]s are made 9 _m =ms to suit any condition4 ,"s are v simple1 be+ made ( a gas heat]1 ! heat f :i* is held aga9/ a long coil ( pipe or a l>ge am\nt ( heat+ surface 9 o!r =m1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] circulates on its way to ! tap4 ,o!rs are q elaborate1 be+ made entirely automatic 9 _! action4 ,! ,ruud heat]1 = example1 is s con/ruct$ t :5 ! hot-wat] faucet is op5$ ! r$uc$ wat] pressure />ts a gas heat] 9 contact ) a s]ies ( pipe coils ?r\gh :i* ! wat] circulates4 ,z soon z ! wat] faucet is clos$ ! wat] pressure automatically closes ! gas valve1 cutt+ (f ! supply ( gas4 ,a little gas jet us$ = ignit+ ! burn] is left con/antly burn+1 ready to light ! gas :5ev] hot wat] is requir$4 ,fig4 #aba illu/rates a simple =m ( in/antane\s heat] t is relatively inexp5sive & has met ) a great deal ( favor4 ,a %eet-iron cas+ encloses a s9u\s1 multiple coil ( pipes ?r\gh :i* ! wat] passes4 ,! heat furni%$ by a ,buns5 burn] ( a l>ge numb] ( small jets is ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] ! bottom ( ! heat]4 ,! heat+ coils are arrang$ to int]rupt ! heat pass+ ?r\gh ! cas+ & absorb z mu* z possible4 ,to d good "w su* a heat] mu/ be connect$ by a pipe to a *imney flue :i* furni%es a good draught4 ,in/antane\s wat] heat]s %\ld n be us$ 9 ba?rooms unless ! products ( combu/ion f ! heat] are c>ri$ away by a *imney4 ,! combu/ion ( ! requir$ am\nt ( gas produces a l>ge volume ( c>bonic acid gas :i* if all[$ to rema9 9 ! room is n only delet]i\s b may be a positive dang] to life4 ,cases ( asphyxiation f ?is cause are n at all r>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,gas heat] = hot-wat] supply4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,hot-wat] supply ) gas heat]1 connect$ to ! range boil]4 ,fig4 #abb %[s ! heat] connect$ ) a range boil]4 ,9 ?is case ! heat] may be consid]$ z tak+ ! place ( ! wat]-back4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be us$ z an auxili>y heat]4 ,9 ! picture ( ! kit*5 %[n 9 ,fig4 #hj1 an in/antane\s heat] is %[n atta*$ to ! range boil]4 ,x is locat$ 9 ?is case betwe5 ! kit*5 range & ! boil]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,wat] ,,supply ,! use ( wat] ent]s into ea* detail ( ! affairs ( ev]yday life & =ms a "p ( e article ( food2 its quality has mu* to d ) ! heal? ( ! family1 & its conv5i5ce ( di/ribution l5ds greatly to ! cont5tm5t ( its memb]s4 ,! family wat] supply %\ld be z c>efully gu>d$ z means w p]mit1 & judici\s c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ to prev5t ! possibility ( its pollution4 ,:]e ! s\rce ( ! wat] is kn[n1 x %\ld be ! subject ( unremitt+ att5tion4 ,wat] comes orig9ally f ra9 or sn[ & z x falls1 x is pure4 ,wat]1 h[ev]1 9 fall+ ?r\gh ! air absorbs ! conta9$ vapors & wa%es ! air free f susp5d$ organic matt] 9 ! =m ( du/1 s t :5 x rea*es ! e>? ra9 wat] conta9s "s impurities4 ,z ! wat] is absorb$ by ! e>?1 x comes into contact ) ! m9]al matt] & organic mat]ials ( animal & vegetable orig9 conta9$ 9 ! soil2 & z wat] is a mo/ wond]ful solv5t1 x soon conta9s m9]al salts & possibly ! lea*+s f ! organic sub/ances ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,! impurities usually f\nd 9 well wat] are 9 ! =m ( m9]al salts t h be5 tak5 up f ! e>?1 b o!r contam9at+ mat]ials may come f ! surface & be c>ri$ into ! well by accid5tal dra9age4 ,wat] t is colorless & odorless is usually consid]$ good = dr9k+ & 9 ! abs5ce ( m accurate means ( det]m9ation may be us$ z a te/ ( excell5ce2 b x (t5 happ5s t wat] possess+ ^! qualities is s heavily freight$ ) m9]al salts z to be ! direct cause ( impair$ heal?4 ,aga91 wat] t appe>s pure may be pollut$ ) disease-produc+ bact]ia to su* an ext5t z to endang] ! lives ( all :o use x4 ,! fact t a s\rce ( dr9k+ wat] be>s a local reputation = purity1 because ( long usage1 _c be tak5 z a te/ ( its actual purity until x has be5 subject$ to *emical & bact]ial exam9ation4 ,x mu/ n be inf]r$ t all wat] is likely to be unsuitable = dr9k+2 !re is1 h[ev]1 a possibility ( ! wat] be+ pollut$ f natural s\rces & f accid5tal causes1 t are sometimes prev5table2 & ! only means ( det]m9+ ! purity ( wat] is by *emical & bact]ial exam9+4 ,wat] ,analysis4--,9 ord] to be assur$ z to ! quality ( dr9k+ wat]1 x %\ld be subject$ to analysis & ! result ( ! analysis inspect$ by a physician ( good /&+4 ,su* analysis may usually be obta9$ free ( *>ge f ! ,/ate ,bo>d ( ,heal? & if ask$1 ! ,*ief ,*emi/ w usually give 8 op9ion reg>d+ ! quality z dr9k+ wat]4 ,9 *emical wat] analysis1 ! total am\nt ( solids1 reg>dless ( _! nature is tak5 z indicative ( its excell5ce = dr9k+ purposes4 ,^! solids may be ei!r 9 susp5sion & give ! wat] a color or produce a turbidity1 or !y may be entirely 9 solution & ! wat] appe> colorless4 ,engli% au?orities on ! subject place ! all[able proportion ( solids at #ejj p>ts to ! million4 ,any wat] t conta9s m ?an #ejj p>ts to ! million is condemn$ = dr9k+ purposes4 ,wat] conta9+ #ejj p>ts or less to ! million is consid]$ good4 ,! ,/&>d ( ! ,am]ican ,bo>d ( ,heal? p]mits ! use ( wat] = city supply t conta9s #ajjj p>ts ( solid matt] to ! million4 ,! am\nt ( solids conta9$ 9 wat] is n at all a def9ite indication ( its quality = dr9k+ purposes1 z may be inf]r$ f ! widely v>y+ am\nts p]mitt$ by ! diff]5t au?orities1 b x gives an indication ( its "* because ( ! kn[n physiological action ( ! conta9$ solids4 ,*emical analysis alone _c be tak5 z a complete indication ( ! "* ( wat]1 because su* analysis %[s no?+ ( ! bact]ia t may be pres5t4 ,! organic matt] may indicate ! possible pres5ce ( bact]ia1 b microscopic exam9ation w be requir$ to det]m9e its h>mful prop]ties4 ,z examples ( ! *emical con/itu5ts ( potable wat]s1 ! foll[+ furni% illu/rations ( diff]5t types ( wat] 9 g5]al use4 ,pokegama ,wat]4--,! wat] f ,pokegama ,spr+ at ,detroit1 ,m9n4 is us$ widely ?r\gh ! ,nor?we/ z a table wat]4 ,x is consid]$ to be a v excell5t dr9k+ wat] because ( ! l[ am\nt ( solids & ! abs5ce ( any delet]i\s con/itu5ts4 ,! complete *emical analysis z report$ by ! ,nor? ,dakota ,pure ,food ,laboratory is z foll[s3 ,gra9s p] gallon ,sodium *loride #j4jbjj ,sodium sulphate #j4jceg ,sodium c>bonate #c4ibhh ,calcium c>bonate #aa4ciig ,lime c>bonate #j4jjaf ,magnesium c>bonate #c4hhif ,sodium phosphate trace ,potassium sulphate #j4ddce ,silica #j4ddaf ,organic matt] #j4ajjf -------- ,total #bj4bfaa ,! total solids1 #bj4bfaa gra9s p] gallon1 equival5t to #cdf4he p>ts p] million1 is v l[ & compos$ ( c>bonates ( sodium1 calcium & magnesium1 none ( :i* are 9 any way h>mful ev5 9 mu* l>g] quantities4 ,! am\nt ( organic matt] is practically no?+4 ,riv] ,wat]4--,! wat] supply ( ! city ( ,f>go1 ,n4 ,d41 is tak5 f ! ,r$ ,riv] ( ! ,nor?1 :i* aft] be+ filt]$ ?r\gh a me*anical filtration plant is suppli$ to ! wat] sy/em ( ! city4 ,! riv] wat] 9 its raw /ate is consid]$ unfit = dr9k+ because ( ! am\nt ( organic matt] pres5t at diff]5t times ( ! ye>4 ,analysis ( raw wat] f intake pipe1 ,april #ad1 #aiac3 ,p>ts p] million ,*lor9e #aj ,equival5t z sodium *loride1 salt #af ,volatile & organic matt] #hj ,m9]al solids #ahj ---- ,total solids #bfj ,9 ?is wat] nei!r ! solids nor ! organic matt] are at all high b dur+ a "p ( ea* ye> !re are _m pa?og5ic g]ms pres5t1 ! conta9$ typhoid bacillus be+ ! mo/ fe>$4 ,! foll[+ is an analysis aft] ! wat] has be5 filt]$1 ,april #ad1 #aiac3 ,p>ts p] million ,*lor9e #ab ,equival5t z sodium *loride1 salt #ah ,volatile & organic matt] #de ,m9]al solids #adj ---- ,total solids #ahe ,x w be notic$ t 9 ! process ( filtration !re has be5 remov$ f ! wat] #ce p>ts to ! million ( organic matt] & ) probably #ii p] c5t4 ( ! pa?og5ic bact]ia4 ,9 addition !re has be5 remov$ #dj p>ts to ! million ( m9]al solids1 ! removal ( :i* has *ang$ a v h>d wat] to t :i* is reasonably s(t4 ,! process ( filtration has *ang$ wat] t is g5]ally condemn$ = dr9k+ to "o t is consid]$ rem>kably good4 ,artesian ,wat]4--,! analysis ( ! sample ( artesian wat] giv5 bel[ is an example ( ! wat] analysis made by ! ,nor? ,dakota ,pure ,food ,laboratory4 ,x furni%es an illu/ration ( ! type ( reports t are return$ f samples ( wat] submitt$ = exam9ation4 ,?is report 0 9 ! =m ( a lett] :i* 0 tak5 at r&om f ! files ( ! laboratory4 ,sample ( artesian wat] ,no4 #aicf f ,moorhead1 ,m9n43 ,p>ts p] million ,*lor9e #gj ,equival5t z sodium *loride1 salt #aaf ,volatile & organic matt] #ij ,m9]al solids #dee ---- ,total solids #ede 8,! solids 9 ?is wat] are made up ( sodium *loride1 salt1 #aaf p>ts2 volatile & organic matt]1 #ij p>ts2 lime sulphate1 a trace2 lime c>bonate1 a slight am\nt2 magnesium c>bonate1 a slight am\nt2 & ! balance ( ! solids are all :olly made up ( sodium bic>bonate4 ,?is wat] is l[ 9 solids & ( good quality40 ,m$ical ,wat]4--,! solids t occur mo/ commonly 9 spr+ & well wat] appe> 9 ! =m ( m9]al salts4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t salts giv+ a ca?>tic action are pres5t 9 suffici5t quantity to r5d] ! wat] objectionable :5 us$ = dr9k+4 ,sodium *loride or common salt frequ5tly occurs 9 quantity suffici5t to be di/9ctly noticeable4 ,magnesium sulphate 7,epsom salts7 & sodium sulphate 7,glaub] salts71 bo? ( :i* are well-kn[n laxative salts1 v commonly occur 9 well wat]4 ,! c>bonates ( calcium & sulphur also frequ5tly f\nd 9 well wat] are in]t 9 physical action :5 tak5 9 dr9k+ wat]4 ,! pres5ce ( laxative salts 9 spr+ wat] has giv5 great celebrity to _m spr+s bo? 9 ,europe & ,am]ica t are fam\s z cures = all mann] ( human ills4 ,su* curative value z ^! spr+s possess is d]iv$ f ! ca?>tic salts conta9$ by ! wat]4 ,! table ( cont5ts ( ! ,s>atoga ,congress ,wat] z giv5 by ,dr4 ,woods ,hut*9son %[s ! solids ( "o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ,am]ica's m$ic9al wat]s4 ,gra9s p] gallon ,sodium *loride #che ,magnesium c>bonate #ef ,calcium c>bonate & sulphate #aaf ,sodium bic>bonate #i ,sodium iodide #d ,bromide1 iron1 silica trace ----- ,total solids #egj ,:5 r$uc$ to ord9>y measure & giv5 _! common names ! m9]al solids 9 a gallon ( ?is wat] w be approximately3 ,common salt #h teaspoonfuls ,magnesium #a teaspoonful ,lime & pla/] ( ,p>is #b teaspoonfuls ,bak+ soda #a_/f teaspoonful ,bromides & iodides #a_/ab teaspoonful ,! total solids1 #egj gra9s p] gallon1 conta9$ 9 ,s>atoga wat]1 gives ! rem>kably high cont5t 9 total solids1 ( #igeh p>ts p] million2 ?is is almo/ t5 times ! limit ( ! ,am]ican /&>d4 ,:ile su* wat] w\ld n d = con/ant consumption1 x is tak5 = consid]able p]iods ( "t ) b5eficial results & is recomm5d$ by _m au?orities z a wat] ( great m$ic9al pot5cy4 ,:ile mo/ m$ical au?orities condemn ! use ( wat] high 9 solids1 ! ideal dr9k+ wat] is nei!r s(t wat] nor di/ill$ wat]--t is1 wat] t is p]fectly free f any salt9ess--b "o t conta9s a mod]ate am\nt ( ! ord9>y con/itu5ts ( ! e>?4 ,x is reasonably safe to assume t any unpollut$ wat] conta9+ z high p]c5tage ( solids z #ajjj p>ts ( total solids to ! million1 & t is agreeable to ! ta/e1 w\ld be safe = dr9k+4 8,*emical analysis 9 g5]al indicates ! possible pollution ( wat]4 ,a relatively high cont5t ( organic sub/ances1 nitrate1 *lorides & sulphates1 might indicate contam9ation1 p>ticul>ly :5 ammonia is also pres5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a high cont5t ( j "o ( ! above-m5tion$ sub/ances1 be x organic1 *loride1 nitrate or sulphate1 may orig9ate f ! natural soil /rata40 ,organic ,matt]4--,organic matt] may come f peat swamps1 decay+ leaves & grasses2 or x may come f decay$ animal matt] :i* f9ds its way into ! soil2 or wor/ ( all x may come f cesspools or o!r sewage4 ,:ile ! pres5ce ( organic matt] does n necess>ily indicate ! pres5ce ( disease-produc+ bact]ia1 x is a m$ium 9 :i* su* g]ms live & multiply2 = t reason x is an indicator ( possible h>m4 8,wat]s conta9+ a high p]c5tage ( organic sub/ances & among !m products ( putrefaction are frequ5tly us$ )\t damage b !y are capable ( produc+ ga/ro-inte/9al cat>rh1 ph5om5a ( excitem5t & p>alysis z well z dea?4 ,( ! _m pa?og5ic bact]ia t soon] or lat] may get into ! wat]1 ^? ( *ol]a & typhoid are ( special importance4 8,pa?og5ic bact]ia occur b r>ely & :5 once !y f9d _! way into a wat]1 !y g5]ally d n multiply b rema9 = a great] or less] p]iod viable4 8,bact]ia ent] wells by ?ree diff]5t modes3 fir/1 f surface wat] t is wa%$ f ! soil by ra92 second1 f faulty con/ruction ( ! curb+2 & ?ird1 f bact]ia ent]+ ! soil f vaults1 etc40 7,van ,es74 ,ammonia4--,9 ! analysis ( wat] ! pres5ce ( ammonia is an indicator ( organic matt]4 ,ammonia is n ( itself injuri\s b x indicates ! pres5ce ( matt] 9 :i* bact]ia f9d conditions suit$ to _! gr[?4 ,free ammonia is usually consid]$ an indicator ( rec5t pollution1 :ile album9oid ammonia indicates ! pres5ce ( nitrog5\s matt] t has n und]gone suffici5t decomposition to =m ammonia comp\nds4 ,h>dness 9 ,wat]4--,wat] t holds no m9]al matt] 9 solution is 8s(t wat]0 & :5 soap is add$ w readily =m a la!r4 ,! pres5ce ( lime or magnesia is commonly ! cause ( 8h>dness0 9 wat]4 ,ei!r ( ^! m9]als1 :5 pres5t =m an insoluble curd :5 ! soap is add$ to ! wat] & ! soap w n =m a la!r until en\gh soap has be5 add$ to unite ) ! m9]al matt] pres5t4 ,! h>d5+ ag5ts are usually 9 ! =m ( bic>bonates & sulphates4 ,all soap us$ 9 neutraliz+ ! h>d5+ ag5ts is wa/$1 because a la!r w n =m until all ( ! h>d5+ mat]ials are neutraliz$4 ,x is evid5t t ! s(t5+ ( wat] = dome/ic purposes is b5eficial1 bo? because ( ! less am\nt ( soap requir$ & because ( ! abs5ce ( ! curd4 ,h>dness 9 wat] may occur 9 two =ms--z tempor>y h>dness or z p]man5t h>dness4 ,:5 bic>bonate pr$om9ates z ! h>d5+ ag5t1 ! wat] is said to be tempor>ily h>d because1 :5 heat$ to boil+1 ! bic>bonate is precipitat$ & ! wat] is ?us s(t5$4 ,:5 s(t5+ ( su* wat] is to be done on a l>ge scale1 *emical treatm5t is m satisfactory4 ,wat] conta9+ bic>bonate ( lime may be s(t5$ by add+ a p\nd ( lime to #ajjj gallons or #a p\nd ( lime to #afe cubic feet ( ! wat]4 ,?is quantity ( lime is suffici5t to remove #aj gra9s ( ! bic>bonate to ! gallon4 ,:5 ! m9]al matt] is 9 ! =m ( sulphates1 ma9ly sulphate ( lime or magnesia1 ! wat] is said to be p]man5tly h>d1 because boil+ w n s(t5 x4 ,su* wat] may be s(t5$ by add+ soda a% or impure c>bonate ( soda4 ,"o p\nd to #a-a_/d p\nds ( 8wa%+ soda0 to ea* #ajjj gallons ( wat] w r5d] su* wat] s(t2 by its action ! sulphate ( lime is precipitat$ & settles to ! bottom ( ! conta9]2 ! wat] may !n be siphon$ (f leav+ ! precipitate 9 ! bottom4 ,iron 9 ,wat]4--,wat] conta9+ iron is f\nd 9 _m wells & spr+s4 ,:ile iron is n h>mful1 x is objectionable to ta/e & /a9s mo/ ?+s ) :i* x is long 9 contact4 ,x may be precipitat$ ) lime & remov$ z ! sulphate ( magnesia describ$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph4 ,wat] ,s(t5+ ) ,hydrat$ ,silicates4--,by ,w4 ,l4 ,/ockham1 assi/ant *emi/1 ,nor? ,dakota ,exp]im5t ,/ation4 8,! use ( *emicals 9 s(t5+ wat] requires ! me*anical removal ( ! sep>at$ mat]ials by skimm+1 settl+ or filt]+ & x is difficult to det]m9e j h[ mu* *emical to add4 ,a new process = s(t5+ wat]1 & "o t has awak5$ great int]e/ because ( its effici5cy1 employs hydrat$ silicates ( alum9um or iron comb9$ ) soluble bases4 ,?is process s(t5s wat] f practically any condition or h>dness4 8,! =m ( app>atus 9 use v>ies f a portable j>1 ) an inlet at ! top & an outlet at ! bottom1 to ! m complex tanks = indu/rial & dome/ic purposes4 ,a plant = dome/ic use might consi/ ( a #bj-;gallon tank = conta9+ ! s(t5+ mat]ial & a second tank 9 :i* is prep>$ ! salt solution = reactivat+ ! s(t5]4 ,! two tanks ) _! valves & connections con/itute ! app>atus4 ,! s(t5]1 support$ by a por\s plate1 sieve1 or lay] ( gravel1 completely fills ! fir/ tank & ! wat] to be treat$ passes ?r\gh ! int]spaces betwe5 ! granules4 ,9 "s plants ! wat] passes ?r\gh a lay] ( m>ble *ips be=e com+ into contact ) ! s(t5]4 ,! app>atus may be atta*$ tempor>ily to ! faucet or connect$ p]man5tly ) ! wat] sy/em4 ,a gravity sy/em may be employ$ :]e ! wat] pressure is lack+4 8,! s(t5] is put on ! m>ket 9 granul> =m & may be pur*as$ & us$ ) app>atus o!r ?an t furni%$ by manufactur]s4 ,! granules are ab\t #a_/d in* 9 diamet] & p]mit a ready passage ( ! wat] ?r\gh ! int]spaces4 ,! mat]ial la/s indef9itely4 8,z ! wat] passes ?r\gh ! app>atus1 ! l>ge expos$ surface ( ! granules entirely absorbs ! calcium & magnesium1 :i* produce h>dness1 mak+ x s(t & ready = imm$iate use4 ,! wat] does n require be+ 9 contact ) ! s(t5] any long] ?an ! "t tak5 to pass ?r\gh & x em]ges almo/ z fa/ z f ! faucet4 ,! s(t5] mu/ be reactivat$ aft] x has s(t5$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]4 ,?is is accompli%$ by fill+ ! tank ) a common salt solution :i* is conta9$ 9 ! second tank4 ,! wat] supply is tempor>ily %ut (f & ! salt solution all[$ to fill ! s(t5+ tank4 ,aft] rema9+ 9 contact ) ! granules = a "t ! *emical action ( ! salt releases ! calcium & magnesium1 :i* are flu%$ out ) ! excess ( salt solution1 into ! sew]4 ,! s(t5] ?us r5ew$ is ready = s(t5+ ano!r supply ( wat]4 ,s9ce ?is r5ewal is a simple application ( ! law ( mass action1 an excess ( ! salt mu/ be us$4 ,! r5ewal may be repeat$ indef9itely4 8,! am\nt ( any p>ticul> sample ( wat] :i* c be s(t5$ be=e r5ewal dep5ds on ! am\nt ( mat]ial 9 ! app>atus & ! h>dness ( ! wat]4 ,five gallons ( ! wat] p] p\nd ( s(t5] w\ld n be f> f ! av]age capacity4 ,:]e a l>ge am\nt ( s(t wat] is requir$ at "o "t1 x may be prep>$ 9 advance & accumulat$ 9 a tank or ci/]n4 8,! co/ ( s(t5+1 aside f ! orig9al co/ ( ! plant1 is nom9al1 z ! value ( ! salt solution is ! only exp5se4 8,! wat] produc$ by ?is process is absolutely s(t & suitable = dr9k+1 dome/ic & indu/rial purposes4 ,9 ! case ( v h>d wat] ! sav+ 9 soap = wa%+ is m ?an equal to ! co/ ( op]ation4 ,!re are at lea/ ?ree firms manufactur+ s(t5+ plants ( ! k9d at ! pres5t "t3 ,! ,p]mutite ,co4 ( ,new ,york2 ! ,c>tright ,co4 ( ,*icago1 ^: product is call$ ,borromite2 & ! ,des ,mo9es ,ref9+ ,co41 manufactur]s ( ,ref9ite4 8,a comp>ative te/ ( v>i\s =ms ( wat]-s(t5+ mat]ials may be obta9$ f ! ,regulatory ,dep>tm5t1 ,nor? ,dakota ,agricultural ,college40 ,*lor9e4--,! pres5ce ( *lor9e 9 wat] may indicate ! pres5ce ( pollut+ matt] 9 ! =m ( sewage b only :5 ! am\nt is consid]ably above ! normal am\nt ( *lor9e t is conta9$ 9 ! soil 9 ! community f :i* ! wat] is tak54 ,an increase ( ! *lor9e 9 ! wat] w\ld indicate a probable pollution f sewage4 ,pollut$ ,wat]4--,well wat] t is roily or t possesses objectionable ta/e or odor may be suspect$ ( conta9+ pollut+ matt] & %\ld be boil$ be=e be+ us$ = dr9k+ purposes until su* "t z may be requir$ to h x exam9$4 ,sickness due to ! use ( pollut$ wat] does n necess>ily develop z specific diseases1 unless ! wat] conta9s disease-produc+ bact]ia4 ,typhoid fev]1 "o ( ! commone/ & mo/ dread$ ( diseases1 is usually transmitt$ by wat]4 ,typhoid is a disease ( human orig91 ! g]m ( :i* develops 9 ! alim5t>y tract ( ! human k9d alone4 ,! g]ms may be spread by ! wa/e f ! typhoid pati5t by be+ ?r[n on ! gr\nd :]e x is tak5 up by ! wat] & passes into /reams or x may ent] wells f privies or cesspools4 ,a s+le case ( typhoid has be5 kn[n to s pollute ! wat] ( a /ream1 z to produce an epidemic ( ! disease ?r\gh\t ! entire l5g? ( ! /ream1 among ! p :o drank its wat]2 :ile wat] f a pollut$ well (t5 transmits disease to a neighborhood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,"s ( ! common causes ( pollution ( wells1 & ! means ( transmitt+ disease1 su* z typhoid1 etc4 ,pollution ( ,wells4--,! wat] f wells is (t5 pollut$ by seepage ?r\gh ! e>? f s\rces t might be prev5t$4 ,fig4 #abc illu/rates "s ( ! commone/ s\rces ( contam9ation t ?r\gh c>elessness or ignorance are locat$ 9 ! neighborhood ( ! family wat] supply4 ,! dra9age f su* s\rces ( pollution is (t5 direct$ t[>d ! well & _m cases ( ill-heal?1 disease or dea? are ! direct consequ5ces ( dr9k+ its wat]4 ,x may be readily obs]v$1 9 ! case ( ! well illu/rat$1 t ! m wat] t is pump$ f ! well1 ! great] w be ! t5d5cy ( ! wat] f ea* ( ! s\rces ( pollution to rea* ! well4 ,ano!r common cause ( contam9ation ( well wat] is t ( imp]fect well curbs t all[ ! wa/e wat] or surface wat] to fl[ into ! well4 ,! area ab\t ! well %\ld be grad$ to all[ no /&+ wat]1 & ! wa/e %\ld be conduct$ away )\t p]mitt+ x to collect 9 /&+ pools4 ,dra9age f manur$ fields or o!r places :]e dis9tegrat+ animal or vegetable matt] may be absorb$ by wat] is (t5 ! cause ( tempor>y pollution1 :]e ! wat] is c>ri$ to l[-ly+ wells4 ,wells locat$ 9 l[ areas t receive ! dra9age f su* places may be suspect$ ( pollution dur+ ! spr+ or e>ly summ]1 :5 dur+ ! rema9d] ( ! ye> ! wat] is pure4 ,9 connection ) any wat] suspect$ ( pollution1 x is well to rememb] t by boil+ ! wat] us$ = dr9k+1 its h>mful prop]ties are entirely de/roy$4 ,safe ,di/ance 9 ! ,location ( ,wells4--,9 ! location ( a well1 ! di/ance ( safety f s\rces ( pollution w dep5d1 9 a consid]able measure1 on ! "* ( ! soil & ! quantity & conc5tration ( ! pollution mat]ial ent]+ ! gr\nd wat]4 ,:5 com+ f ! surface1 ! dang] is usually nei!r great nor difficult to avoid2 b :5 cesspools & privies 9 ! neighborhood are sunk to a consid]able dep? 9 por\s e>?1 f :i* ! supply ( wat] is drawn1 ! pollut+ mat]ial may rea* ! well undilut$4 ,no absolute radius ( safety c be giv51 b c]ta9 g5]alizations z to conditions may be made z to "* ( soil & ! diff]5t topographical conditions :i* surr\nd a safe location4 ,9 ord9>y clay1 or 9 clay mix$ ) pebbles & 9 soils ( ! same g5]al nature1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] circulates by seepage1 ! pollution is n likely to be c>ri$ to a di/ance ( #ajj feet4 ,clay (f]s m>k$ resi/ance to ! passage ( wat]1 :i* 9 b$s ( #c to #e feet ?ick w act z protection f pollution f above4 ,9 s&y soils ! movem5t ( wat] is fa/] ?an 9 clayey soils1 b #aej feet may be tak5 z a safe di/ance1 unless ! d[nw>d slope ( ! l& c>ries ! pollut+ mat]ial directly to ! well4 ,surface ,pollution ( ,wells4--,9 dug wells1 pollution f ! surface is due mo/ commonly to c>eless con/ruction & lack ( c>e4 ,9 ,fig4 #abd is indicat$ ! mo/ common cause ( surface pollution4 ,! figure repres5ts a well t has be5 curb$ ) planks4 ,?r\gh lack ( c>e ! e>? has sunk5 at ! top1 p]mitt+ ! surface wat] to fl[ into ! well4 ,! top ( ! well is on a level ) ! surface & cov]$ ) loosely laid bo>ds :i* all[ ! wa/e wat] to drip ?r\gh ! jo9ts4 ,su* a well1 ev5 ?\gh ! s\rce ( supply is good1 w likely yield wat] ( inf]ior quality4 ,9 bor$ wells1 pollut+ wat] may ent] ?r\gh ! uncem5t$ jo9ts ( ! til+ or ?r\gh ! jo9ts 9 ! /aves ( wood5 tub+2 9 drill$ or driv5 wells1 ?r\gh leaky jo9ts or holes eat5 9 ! iron cas+ by corrosive wat]s4 ,by cem5t+ ! int]ior surface ( /one-or brick-curb$ wells1 by replac+ wood ) cem5t or o!r imp]vi\s curbs & by sub/itut+ new pipes = leaky iron cas+s1 ! entrance ( pollut+ wat] may be prev5t$4 ,9 ! av]age home ! wat] supply is mo/ commonly tak5 f a well1 ! wat] f :i* comes ?r\gh ! e>? f unkn[n s\rces1 & ! "* ( *emical salts or organic matt] ! wat] conta9s w dep5d on ! k9d ( soil ?r\gh :i* x passes be=e rea*+ ! well4 ,! wat] f wells1 :e!r deep or %all[1 is g5]ally ( relatively local orig91 x be+ absorb$ by ! soil & c>ri$ to ! wat] /ratum by p]colation4 ,if ! soil conta9s soluble m9]al salts ! wat] w conta9 ^! mat]ials 9 quantities dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( ! salts pres5t 9 ! e>?4 ,if ! e>? conta9s organic matt] z pa?og5ic bact]ia ! wat] is likely to conta9 ^! bact]ia 9 l numb]s z !y are pres5t 9 ! soil ?r\gh :i* ! wat] filt]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,undesirable =m ( well curb+4 ,z usually enc\nt]$1 ! wat]-be>+ e>? occurs 9 %eets r ?an 9 ve9s or /reams4 ,! movem5t ( ! wat] 9 su* areas foll[s ! cont\r ( ! e>? & is influ5c$ by ! v>y+ am\nt ( ra9 or sn[fall & ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! lat]al movem5t is (t5 only a few in*es a day & 9 "s places no lat]al movem5t occurs at all4 ,und]gr\nd /reams ( any k9d are n usually f\nd except 9 lime/one regions4 ,z a rule1 a well is =m$ by digg+ or bor+ into ! e>? until a /ratum ( wat]-be>+ soil is enc\nt]$1 ! type ( ! well be+ det]m9$ by ! "* ( ! e>? & ! location ( ! wat]-be>+ soil4 ,! wat] f ! surr\nd+ area fills ! op5+ to ! height ( ! saturat$ soil4 ,z ! wat] is pump$ f ! well x is repl5i%$ by ! fl[ f ! surr\nd+ e>?4 ,if ! soil is por\s1 z 9 ! case ( gravel1 ! wat] w refill ! well almo/ z fa/ z x is tak5 away by ! pump4 ,if ! soil is d5se & ! inw>d fl[ is sl[1 ! well :5 once exhau/$ may be a long "t 9 refill+4 ,wat] ,table4--,! upp] level ( ! saturat$ portion ( ! soil is kn[n z ! wat] table4 ,x has a def9ite surface t con=ms to ! broad] surface irregul>ities4 ,:ile a def9ite1 det]m9able wat] table appe>s only 9 por\s soil1 x exi/s ev5 9 d5se rocks4 ,x rises & falls 9 wet seasons & 9 dr\ght4 ,9 exceptionally wet seasons ! wat] table may be at or above ! surface4 ,"u su* conditions ! opportunities = ! pollution ( wells is mu* increas$4 ,9 p>ticul>ly dry seasons ! wat] table may s9k bel[ ! bottom ( ! well1 :5 x is said to 8g dry40 ,! wat] table foll[s ! surface cont\r 9 a mann] dep5d+ on ! "* ( ! soil4 ,x is flatte/ 9 s& or gravel areas b 9 clay x foll[s ! cont\r ( deep slopes ) b slight v>iation4 ,! ,dev9+ ,rod4--,! use ( ! dev9+ rod1 = ! purpose ( locat+ suitable sites = wells1 has be5 suppos$ by _m to be a gift possess$ by a *os5 few4 ,! dev9+ rod is a =k$ bran* ( wit* hazel1 pea* or o!r wood1 :i* :5 held 9 ! h&s & c>ri$ ov] ! gr\nd1 is suppos$ to indicate ! pres5ce ( wat] by b5d+ t[>d x4 ,9 mo/ cases ! op]ators are entirely hone/ 9 _! belief & 9 a l>ge proportion ( trial _! ef=ts h be5 successful 9 locat+ desirable wells2 b x has _m times be5 prov5 t ! movem5t ( ! rod is due to an unconsci\s muscul> movem5t ( ! arms & h&s1 9 places :]e ! op]ator has previ\sly suspect$ ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,! op]ator ( ! dev9+ rods is mo/ successful 9 regions :]e wat] occurs 9 %eets1 su* z (t5 occur 9 gravel or pebbly clay4 ,! successful use ( ! dev9+ rod _c be expla9$ by any sci5tific reasons4 ,!re h be5 inv5t$ a numb] ( dev9+ rods1 claim$ by _! inv5tors to be bas$ on sci5tific laws2 b ! gov]nm5t has n yet grant$ pat5ts to appliances ( ! k9d4 ,selection ( a ,type ( ,well4--,! *ief factor :i* controls ! selection ( a type ( well is ! nature ( ! wat]-be>+ e>?1 ! am\nt ( wat] requir$1 ! co/ ( con/ruction & ! c>e ( ! result+ supply4 ,if a l>ge am\nt ( wat] is to be dem&$ ( a well1 to be dug 9 soil ?r\gh :i* ! wat] p]colates sl[ly1 ! well mu/ be l>ge 9 diamet]1 9 ord] t ! necess>y supply may be accumulat$4 ,if ! e>? is por\s & yields its wat] readily1 a small iron pipe driv5 into ! gr\nd may supply ! desir$ am\nt4 ,! "* ( ! wat]-be>+ mat]ial is ( ! greate/ importance 9 det]m9+ ! yield ( ! well4 ,9 quicks&1 wat] is usually pres5t 9 ample quantities1 yet ow+ to ! extremely f9e p>ticles ( :i* ! quicks& is compos$1 its pres5ce z a wat]-be>+ soil is highly undesirable4 ,fl[+ ,wells4--,fl[+ wells are obta9$ 9 places :]e wat] is conf9$ 9 ! e>?1 "u suffici5t pressure to lift x to ! surface1 ?r\gh an op5+ made to ! wat]-be>+ /ratum4 ,^! are kn[n z artesian wells1 f ! fact t !y 7 fir/ us$ 9 ,artois 7anci5tly call$ ,artesium7 9 ,france4 ,9 ord] t wat] may h suffici5t head to lift x to ! surface1 x mu/ be conf9$ "u imp]vi\s clay or o!r b$ ( e>?1 & ) its s\rce at a level consid]ably high] ?an its po9t ( exit4 ,! s\rce ( supply = fl[+ wells is (t5 at a great di/ance4 ,because ( ! fact t fl[+ wells are %ut (f f ! surface by an imp]vi\s lay] ( e>?1 ! possibility ( pollution f ! surface is effectively prev5t$4 ,any contam9ation ( ! wat] mu/ come f a di/ance & ent] ! wat] at its s\rce4 ,z pollution r>ely ext5ds ?r\gh ! gr\nd to any great lat]al di/ance1 artesian wat]s are seldom pollut$4 ,! wat] f artesian wells (t5 is heavy ) m9]al matt] & 9 _m cases is unfit = dr9k+ on t acc\nt4 ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,wells ,wells are con/ruct$ by diff]5t me?ods1 dep5d+ on ! "* ( ! soil 9 :i* !y are sunk4 ,_! excavation is usually accompli%$ by "o ( ?ree g5]al me?ods3 by digg+2 by driv+ a pipe into ! e>? until x p5etrates ! wat]-be>+ /ratum2 or by bor+ a hole ) an enl>g$ e>? aug]1 into ! wat]-be>+ soil4 ,artesian wells are made by drill+ ) a device suitable = mak+ a small & v deep hole4 ,dug ,wells4--,9 %all[ wells ! wat] seeps ?r\gh ! soil f local precipitation4 ,deep wells are ^? f :i* ! wat] is br\ght to ! surface ?r\gh an imp]vi\s geologic =mation1 z a b$ ( clay or rock1 & f a dep? great] ?an t f :i* wat] may be lift$ by atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! fact t a deep well orig9ates f a s\rce t entirely diff]s f t ( ! %all[ well acc\nts = ! diff]5ce 9 *emical composition :i* frequ5tly exi/s 9 ! wat] f ! two types ( wells 9 ! same neighborhood4 ,! =m ( ! dug well is g5]ally t ( a cyl9drical %aft #d feet or m 9 diamet] & ( dep? dep5d+ on ! location ( ! wat]-be>+ /ratum4 ,:]e ! "* ( ! soil is su* t ! seepage is sl[ & ! wat] does n fl[ into ! well z fa/ z ! pump w remove x1 ! well mu/ conta9 a consid]able volume to supply ! p]iod ( greate/ dem&4 ,wells ( ?is k9d are commonly wall$ ) brick or /one to keep ! sides 9 place & to prev5t ! entrance ( surface wat]s4 ,! top ( ?is curb %\ld be br\ght above ! surface ( ! gr\nd & %\ld be made wat]-tight to prev5t ! entrance ( surface wat]s4 ,! space ar\nd ! curb1 at ! surface1 %\ld be grad$ to dra9 ! wat] away f ! well4 ,!re %\ld be no *ance = ! wat] to collect 9 pools ab\t ! well2 x %\ld be conduct$ away 9 a gutt] to ! place ( f9al disposal4 ,! well %\ld be cov]$ ) a plat=m ( concrete or plank+ :i* w all[ no wat] to ent] f ! surface4 ,wells ( ?is ord] are sometimes dug to great dep? be=e ! wat]-be>+ /ratum is enc\nt]$2 ?is may sometimes be rea*$ only aft] a great am\nt ( exp5se & labor4 ,! hi/oric ,joseph ,well1 ne> ,cairo1 ,egypt1 is an op5 %aft1 #ah by #bd feet 9 area1 sunk ?r\gh solid rock #afj feet4 ,op5 ,wells4--,op5 wells h long be5 condemn$ z insanit>y4 ,! famili> op5 well ( ! 8,old ,oak5 ,bucket0 type is an invit+ receptacle = ! deposit ( all mann] ( refuse1 :i* once inside rema9s until x is dis9tegrat$4 ,^! wells become ! f9al re/+ place ( _m small animals & all mann] ( creep+ ?+s1 9 se>* ( wat]4 ,! op5 top receives w9d-bl[n matt] 9 ! =m ( leaves & du/1 mu* ( :i* is 9 ! nature ( pollut+ mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--;,ideal =m ( well curb+ ) cov] & dra9 made ( concrete4 ,! ,ideal ,well4--,9 ! case ( a well :i* yields pure wat]1 e precaution %\ld be tak5 to prev5t its pollution4 ,! ideal =m ( con/ruction is t %[n 9 ,fig4 #abe4 ,9 ?is well1 ! curb+ ,c is ( heavy concrete t ext5ds above ! natural surface ( ! gr\nd1 to prev5t ! entrance ( surface wat]1 & t f seepage ?r\gh ! upp] /ratum ( ! soil4 ,! re9=c$-concrete top =ms a close jo9t ) ! curb to prev5t ! entrance ( wa/e wat] & all animal life4 ,! pump is ( iron1 secur$ to ! well cov] by bolts1 set 9 ! concrete4 ,! tr\gh ( concrete ,g conducts ! wa/e wat] f ! well to a safe di/ance4 ,! e>? ab\t ! well is s grad$ z to p]mit no wat] to /& 9 pools4 ,cov]+s ( ,concrete4--,! use ( concrete = ! cov]+s ( wells1 ci/]ns & spr+s has become a recogniz$ =m ( ! be/ con/ruction4 ,x is n m exp5sive ?an o!r good mat]ials & :5 prop]ly execut$ x =ms an imp]i%able protection & gives a neat appe>ance4 ,! spr+ cov] 9 ,fig4 #abf1 & ! ci/]n top 9 ,fig4 #abg are illu/rations ( its application4 ,artesian ,wells4--,artesian wells are made by bor+ into ! e>? until ! drill rea*es ! artesian /ratum1 ! int]nal pressure =ces ! wat] ?r\gh ! op5+ to ! surface4 ,!y are usually small 9 diamet] & (t5 ( great dep?4 ,9 "s areas ! artesian fl[ is f\nd a few feet bel[ ! surface1 b g5]ally x is mu* deep] & #cjjj feet is n an unusual dep?4 ,! pressure & am\nt ( fl[ f ^! wells is sometimes suffici5t to p]mit ! wat] be+ us$ = ! g5]ation ( p[]4 ,small wat]:eels are n uncommonly driv5 9 ?is way & ! p[] us$ = ! g5]ation ( electricity = light+ & runn+ small h\sehold appliances4 ,driv5 ,wells4--,9 localities :]e ! nature ( ! soil gives opportunity1 wells are made by driv+ a pipe to ! requir$ dep?4 ,wells ( ?is "* are usually made 9 places :]e ! wat]-be>+ soil is ( s& or gravel4 ,! pipe t]m9ates 9 a s&-po9t su* z t ( ,fig4 #abh4 ,?is s&-po9t is a p]=at$ pipe ) a po9t$ end1 t facilitates driv+4 ,! p]=ations1 z %[n 9 ! po9t ,p1 =m a /ra9] :i* all[s ! wat] to ent] ! pipe b prev5ts ! s& f fill+ ! op5+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,concrete cov] = a spr+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--;,concrete ci/]n top4 ,9 ! use ( driv5 wells1 ! wat]-be>+ soil mu/ be suffici5tly op5 to all[ ! wat] to fl[ into ! pipe z fa/ z ! pump takes x away4 ,bor$ ,wells4--,9 _m localities ! wat]-be>+ /ratum is ( su* nature z to give a ready fl[ ( wat] b yet n suffici5t to p]mit ( ! use ( a s&-/ra9]2 if1 h[ev]1 ! op5+ is some:at enl>g$1 ! wat] w ent] ) suffici5t rapidity to supply a pump4 ,9 su* cases bor$ wells are q g5]ally us$4 ,!y are made by bor+ a hole ( ! requir$ size ) an e>? aug]4 ,^! wells are made ( any size up to #b feet 9 diamet]4 ,!y are (t5 call$ tubul> wells because !y are l9$ ) iron tub+ or tile1 to prev5t ! e>? f refill+ ! hole4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,driv5 well ) a s&-po9t /ra9]4 ,clean+ ( ,wells4--,v few dug wells are s con/ruct$ z to exclude du/ & wa%+s f ! gr\nd4 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y t !y be occasionally clean$4 ,accumulations f ^! causes may be suffici5t to h9d] ! entrance ( ! wat] to ! well & ?us less5 its capacity4 ,gases 9 ,wells4--,"o ( ! commone/ gases f\nd 9 wells is c>bon dioxide 7c>bonic acid gas74 ,x may be detect$ by l[]+ a light$ c&le or lant]n to ! bottom4 ,if ! gas is pres5t 9 dang]\s quantity1 ! flame w be ext+ui%$4 ,dea? f asphyxiation due to ?is gas is n an uncommon occurr5ce1 to p]sons desc5d+ into wells4 ,be=e ent]+ a well1 ! te/ describ$ above %\ld be appli$1 z a precaution aga9/ accid5t4 ,c>bon dioxide is a colorless1 odorless gas 9 :i* a p]son w dr[n z readily z 9 wat]4 ,peculi>ities ( ,wells4--,ow+ to ! =mation ( ! wat]-be>+ e>?s1 f :i* !y receive _! wat]1 _m wells possess m>k$ peculi>ities ( behavior t (t5 give rise to local reputation because ( _! vag>ies4 ,^! *>act]i/ics h be5 classifi$ into brea?+ wells1 bl[+ wells1 suck+ wells1 etc4 ,^! effects are 9 almo/ e case due to v>iation ( b>ometric pressure4 ,! ord9>y level ( ! wat] 9 a well is gov]n$ by ! v>iation ( ra9fall1 melt+ ( sn[ or ! release ( wat] by ! ?aw+ ( froz5 gr\nd4 ,x (t5 occurs1 h[ev]1 t ! head ( wat] is m>k$ly influ5c$ by /orms1 :5 a rise ( ! level ( ! wat] occurs at ! "t ( l[ b>ometric pressure dur+ ! /orm p]iod4 ,?is effect is (t5 notic$ 9 fl[+ wells4 ,_m wells1 at ! approa* ( /orms1 yield roily wat] to su* an ext5t t :]e ! wat] is normally cle> x may become = a p]iod entirely unfit to dr9k1 because ( ! matt] held 9 susp5sion4 ,all ( ^! effects are acc\nt$ = by ! v>y+ atmosph]ic pressure4 ,at ! "t ( high b>omet]1 a well t ord9>ily fl[s freely w h to be pump$1 ! additional pressure ( ! air hold+ back ! wat] to an ext5t repres5t+ sev]al feet ( head4 ,! *ange ( an in* 9 ! b>ometric pressure w produce slightly m ?an a foot 9 head ( wat]4 ,at ! "t ( /orms1 ! b>omet] is sometimes abnormally l[ :i* w produce a correspond+ rise ( wat] 9 ! well4 ,at su* "t ! free fl[ ( wat] into a dug well1 f ! usual s\rce ( supply1 w cause su* a rapid fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! passages 9 ! e>? z to c>ry ) ! wat] ! s$im5t t produces roily wat] 9 ! well4 ,?is s$im5t w settle aft] a :ile & ! wat] w aga9 be cle>4 ,brea?+ ,well4--,wells ( ?is k9d are mo/ common 9 areas :]e ! wat]-be>+ e>? is ( rock =mation2 p>ticul>ly 9 lime/one areas1 :]e caves & cavities are common4 ,x sometimes happ5s t 9 ! neighborhood ( a well !re is a cavity 9 ! e>? ( consid]able volume1 ! only entrance to :i* is ?r\gh ! well & t be+ "u usual conditions cov]$ by wat]1 a foot or m 9 dep?4 ,) su* a =mation ! conditions are "r = a brea?+ well4 ,at times ( high b>omet] ! wat] is depress$ & ! air w fl[ into ! cavity ?r\gh ! well1 :5 ! well is said to inhale4 ,?is inw>d fl[ ( air w cont9ue until ! air pressure 9 ! cavity is equal to t ( ! out] air2 & if ! cavity is l>ge & ! op5+ small1 ! inw>d fl[ ( air may cont9ue = h\rs1 ev5 = days4 ,) a fall ( b>ometric pressure1 ! air 9 ! cavity1 be+ at a high] pressure ?an ! ext]nal air1 ! air w fl[ outw>d & ! well is said to exhale4 ,freez+ ,wells4--,9 cold climates1 p>ticul>ly 9 t]ritory possess+ cav]n\s lime/one deposits1 brea?+ wells (t5 freeze 9 w9t]4 ,:5 l>ge volumes ( frigid air are drawn into a well1 ! am\nt ( heat tak5 f ! wat] is suffici5t to freeze x1 & /op ! supply ( wat]4 ,?is effect is sometimes rem$i$ by plugg+ ! well at ! top1 s t ! influx ( cold air is prev5t$ & ! wat] does n freeze4 ,,pumps ,pumps = lift+ & elevat+ wat] are made ( bo? wood & iron 9 almo/ endless v>iety2 b = dome/ic purposes !y are ( two g5]al types--! lift pump & ! =ce pump--:i* include features t are common to all4 ,! lift pump is int5d$ = use 9 lift+ wat] f l[-head ci/]ns & wells1 ! dep? ( :i* is n beyond ! head furni%$ by atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! =ce pump p]=ms ! "w ( a lift pump & 9 addition =ces ! wat] f ! outlet at a pressure to suit any dome/ic application4 ,^! pumps are made by manufactur]s 9 a great v>iety ( =ms1 b ! ess5tial p>ts are ! same 9 all pumps int5d$ = a s+le purpose4 ,! pr9ciple ( op]ation is ! same 9 all pumps ( any type4 ,! diff]5ce 9 me*anism ( pumps int5d$ = ! same purpose is only 9 ! =m & arrangem5t ( ! p>ts4 ,! ,lift ,pump4--,! kit*5 pump is an example ( ! lift pump4 ,x is univ]sally us$ = h\sehold purposes :]e wat] is to be rais$ f ci/]ns1 etc41 & is mo/ commonly made ?r\gh\t ( ca/ iron4 ,fig4 #abi illu/rates "o =m1 sometimes call$ ! pit*] pump1 because ( ! slight resemblance to ! article4 ,x frequ5tly c>ries ! "n ci/]n pump f ! fact t x v g5]ally is us$ to lift wat] f ci/]ns4 ,al?\gh wat] may be rais$ #cd feet ) a !oretically p]fect pump & ) a b>ometric pressure ( #cj in*es ! actual limit is mu* l[]4 ,9 use1 #bj feet is probably ab\t ! limit & #aj feet or less is t ( common practice4 ,a pump t requires 8prim+0 w\ld raise wat] #ae feet ) consid]able difficulty = reasons t w appe> lat]4 ,9 ,fig4 #abi is %[n a sectional view ( ! work+ p>ts ( ! kit*5 pump1 ! action & g5]al =m ( :i* apply to any lift pump4 ,! body ( ! pump conta9s a cyl9d]1 9 :i* closely fits a pi/on ,p1 conta9+ a valve ,a4 ,at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] is an additional valve ,b4 ,! pi/on & two valves con/itute ! work+ p>ts ( ! pump4 ,! wat] is lift$ ?r\gh ! pipe ,s1 & is dis*>g$ at ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,sectional draw+ ( ! kit*5 pump %[+ its work+ p>ts4 ,! action ( ! pump is z foll[s3 ,) ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]s & ) no wat] 9 ! pump1 ! h&le is =c$ d[n1 :i* action rais$ ! pi/on4 ,9 s do+ ! air bel[ x is r>efi$4 ,! r$uction ( pressure due to ! r>efication ( ! air all[s ! wat] to rise 9 ! pipe ,s correspond+ly4 ,aft] repeat$ /rokes ( ! pi/on1 ! wat] rea*es ! valve ,b1 :i* raises to let x pass1 b imm$iately closes at ! end ( ! upw>d /roke4 ,:5 ! space betwe5 ! pi/on & ! valve ,b is fill$ ) wat]1 ea* desc5t ( ! pi/on =ces ! wat] ?r\gh ! valve ,a2 & :5 ! pi/on is rais$1 ! wat] is lift$ out ?r\gh ! sp\t4 ,! valve ,a is a loose piece ( ca/ iron1 surfac$ on ! l[] side to make good contact ) ! pi/on4 ,! valve ,b is ( ca/ iron fa/5$ to a piece ( lea!r by a screw4 ,! lea!r makes a jo9t ) ! valve-seat & furni%es an excell5t valve = its use4 ,9 ord] to keep ! plung] ,p tight 9 ! cyl9d]1 x is surr\nd$ ) a lea!r gasket4 ,%\ld ?is gasket become worn1 z x w 9 "t1 ! plung] fits loosely 9 ! cyl9d] & ! pump w lift ! wat] ) difficulty1 because ( ! leakage ar\nd ! gasket4 ,%\ld ! valve ,b leak1 ! wat] w gradually run back into ! pipe ,s1 & ! pump :5 left idle w lose its 8prim+40 ,! plung] & ! valve ,b are ! p>ts mo/ likely to get out ( ord]4 ,if ! gasket ar\nd ! pi/on ,p is v mu* worn1 & !re is no wat] 9 cyl9d]1 ! pump w require prim+ be=e ! wat] c be rais$4 ,if ! pump conta9s no wat] & is left /&+ = a consid]able "t1 ! lea!r p>ts ( ! valve dry out & %r9k2 :5 ! pump is aga9 put into use1 ! valves w fail to "w prop]ly1 until ! lea!rs are aga9 wat]-soak$4 ,wat] is p\r$ into ! top ( ! pump until ! cyl9d] is fill$1 & z soon z ! lea!r becomes wat]-soak$ & fills ! cyl9d]1 ! pi/on w aga9 p]=m its function4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,me?od ( atta*+ ! h\se pump to kit*5 s9k4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,sectional draw+ ( ! =ce pump %[+ its work+ p>ts4 ,! ,=ce ,pump4--,! h\se =ce pump is (t5 us$ 9 place ( ! ord9>y lift pump1 :5 no o!r means is at h& = provid+ wat] "u pressure4 ,x furni%es a limit$ means = lawn spr9kl+ & gives "s degree ( fire protection 9 isolat$ places4 ,x may be made a "p ( ! kit*5 s9k z %[n 9 ,fig4 #acj1 by use ( ! atta*m5t t appe>s 9 detail "u ! s9k4 ,?is type ( pump may be us$ 9 small wat]-supply plants1 su* z t ( ,fig4 #adc2 or 9 connection ) small pressure tanks = ! same purpose4 ,x diff]s some:at 9 con/ruction f ! lift pump1 9 t x has no valve 9 ! pi/on & is provid$ ) a *eck valve & an air *amb] = g5]at+ pressure to ! dis*>g$ wat]4 ,fig4 #aca %[s ! ess5tial p>ts ( ! =ce pump & furni%es a means ( describ+ its op]ation4 ,all =ce pumps possess ! same p>ts & ! op]ation describ$ applies ) equal =ce to all4 ,a valve ,a is locat$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] & ! *eck valve ,b prev5ts ! return ( ! wat] to ! cyl9d] aft] x has be5 =c$ out ( ! pump4 ,! action ( ! pump 9 rais+ ! wat] is ! same z 9 ! lift pump b :5 ! wat] fills ! cyl9d] & ! pi/on desc5ds1 ! wat] is =c$ ?r\gh ! valve ,b & out at ,d4 ,if ! outlet pipe is slightly small] ?an ! op5+ 9 ! valve ,b1 "s ( ! wat] w ent] ! air *amb] ,c & compress ! air4 ,! pressure ?us g5]at$ w imm$iately t5d to =ce ! wat] out & 9 c\rse ( ord9>y pump+ w s5d out a /eady /ream in/ead ( ! int]mitt5t fl[ ( ! lift pump4 ,)\t ! air *amb]1 ! fl[ f ?is pump w be a s]ies ( pulsations t atta9 maximum =ce ) ea* desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,tank pump1 commonly us$ 9 small dome/ic wat] supply plants4 ,tank ,pump4--,! type ( pump us$ ) a wat]-supply plant w dep5d entirely on ! am\nt ( wat] t is us$4 ,if ! supply ( wat] to be provid$ is = only "o or two p ! h\se =ce pump su* z t ( ,fig4 #acj w suffice2 b :5 a great] numb] ( p are to be suppli$1 a =ce pump ( ! type %[n 9 ,fig4 #acb is q g5]ally us$4 ,^! pumps are made 9 a v>iety ( patt]ns & are commonly t]m$ tank pumps4 ,! "o %[n 9 ! ,fig4 #acb is a d\ble-act+ =ce pump 9 t ! cyl9d] receives & dis*>ges wat] at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,! air *amb] is locat$ at ,a4 ,directly b5ea? ! air *amb] is ! valve *e/ 9 :i* are locat$ ! valves :i* regulate ! entrance & dis*>ge ( ! wat]4 ,z us$ 9 ! av]age dome/ic plant ! cyl9d]s are #c or #d in*es 9 diamet]4 ,,well ,,pumps ,! pumps int5d$ = rais+ wat] f wells are practically ! same 9 con/ruction z ! h\se pump1 except t !y are int5d$ to deliv] a great] volume ( wat] & sometimes to "w "u a diff]5t condition1 z t ( ! deep well pump4 ,well pumps h1 !re=e1 assum$ c]ta9 /&>d =ms t diff] only 9 ! /yles ( me*anism employ$ by diff]5t manufactur]s4 ,! "o %[n 9 ,fig4 #acc furni%es a good example ( a g5]al-purpose iron pump :i* may be us$ ei!r z a =ce pump or a lift pump4 ,x repres5ts also ! g5]al con/ruction ( a deep-well pump1 :]e ! wat] mu/ be lift$ f a level1 bel[ t at :i* a lift pump w "w4 ,! pi/on & valves are enclos$ 9 ! cyl9d] ,c1 plac$ bel[ ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! well4 ,?is cyl9d] also appe>s 9 section 9 ! small draw+1 %[+ ! details ( ! valve4 ,! op]ation ( ?is pump is id5tical to t ( ! lift pump already describ$1 b ! addition ( an air *amb] gives x ! necess>y facility to produce a cont9u\s fl[ ( wat]4 ,9 ord] to prev5t ! air 9 ! air *amb] f escap+1 ! pump rod is surr\nd$ ) ! necess>y /uff+-box :i* is usually pack$ ) c&le wick+ to assure a good jo9t4 ,9 deep wells ! tube is elongat$ suffici5tly to place ! cyl9d] ,c bel[ ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! well4 ,su* pumps are op]at$ ei!r by h& or by p[]4 ,wood5 ,pump4--,! wood5 pump ( ,fig4 #acd furni%es a good illu/ration ( a type t 0 =m]ly us$ 9 great numb]s4 ,x is an inexp5sive & effici5t pump made almo/ entirely ( wood except ! cyl9d] :i* is q g5]ally made ( iron1 l9$ ) enamel4 ,! valve & ! pi/on ) its valves are made ( wood1 b fac$ ) lea!r to insure tight jo9ts4 ,! pi/on is also provid$ ) lea!r pack+ to make x tight 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! action ( ! pump is ! same z t already describ$4 ,! wood5 tube is made 9 sections jo9$ toge!r by tap] jo9ts t are driv5 into place4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--,sectional view ( a well ) an iron cyl9d] pump1 plac$ = deep-well pump+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,sectional view ( a well & wood5 pump = %all[ pump+4 ,! piece at ! side ( ! pump is provid$ to dra9 ! wat] f above ! pi/on1 z a precaution aga9/ freez+ dur+ extremely cold wea!r4 ,! rod1 :5 rais$1 op5s an orifice t leads to ! inside ( ! pump & p]mits ! wat] to dra9 into ! well4 ,pumps = ,driv5 ,wells4--,! me?od ( con/ruct+ driv5 wells--t ( driv+ a pipe into ! e>? to ! wat]-be>+ /ratum ( s& or gravel--requires a special end to prev5t ! pump tube f becom+ /opp$4 ,9 ord] t ! f9e mat]ial may n ent] & fill ! l[] end ( ! tube1 a s&-po9t is us$1 su* z t %[n 9 ,fig4 #abh4 ,x is made ( p]=at$ brass tub+ & provid$ ) a %>p5$ end to facilitate driv+4 ,! p]=ations act z a /ra9] t keeps out all b ! f9e p>ticles :i* w pass ! pump valves4 ,s&-po9ts are made ) /ra9]s ( v>i\s degrees ( f95ess to suit ! diff]5t conditions ( soils4 ,^! /ra9]s may 9 ! c\rse ( "t become fill$ ) p>ticles ( ! soil t lodge 9 ! p]=ations & ! outside become s encru/$ z to prev5t ! entrance ( ! wat]4 ,9 su* case1 ! pipe mu/ be pull$ out ( ! gr\nd & ! po9t replac$ by a new "o4 ,9 ,fig4 #abh is %[n a driv5 well ) ! s&-po9t 9 ! wat]-be>+ /ratum4 ,if ! small p>ticles ( e>? clog ! /ra9] ! pump w 8"w h>d0 & yield only a portion ( ! wat] ! soil is capable ( giv+ :5 ! /ra9] is cle>4 ,deep-well ,pumps4--,! pr9ciple ( op]ation z describ$ 9 ! lift pump takes advantage ( ! atmosph]ic pressure to lift ! wat] above ! fir/ valve4 ,! limit+ di/ance to :i* wat] c be lift$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure w dep5d on ! altitude & ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,) ! normal atmosph]ic pressure at sea level1 wat] c be lift$1 !oretically1 #cd feet1 b 9 practice ! limit+ value is nev] ev5 approximat$4 ,! pump is usually plac$ )9 #aj ( #ab feet ( ! wat] & #bj feet is ab\t ! limit ( di/ance4 ,! reason = ?is is because ( ! impossibility ( keep+ ! jo9ts tight 9 ! valve & tub+4 ,:]e wat] is to be rais$ f a deep well1 ! cyl9d] ) its pi/on is plac$ ne> ! wat] & ! tube & rod1 z t ( ,fig4 #acc1 connects ! cyl9d] ) ! pump /ock4 ,aft] ! wat] has pass$ ! valve 9 ! pi/on1 x may be readily lift$ to ! pump /ock4 ,9 ?is way wat] is rais$ f wells ( great dep?4 ,tubul>-well ,cyl9d]s4--,tubul> wells t are cas$ ) iron pipe are provid$ ) a special type ( pump cyl9d] t admits ( deep-well op]ation4 ,! cas+ ( ! well be+ 9 place1 ! cyl9d] %[n 9 ,fig4 #ace is =c$ d[n ! cas+ to its prop] place1 ! spr+ ,s hold+ x 9 place until x is firmly secur$4 ,a special seat+ tool is n[ l[]$ into ! cas+ & atta*es at ,t to ! c\pl+2 z ! tool is turn$1 rubb] pack+ ,r is exp&$1 lock+ ! cyl9d] firmly to ! cas+4 ,?is makes a complete pump cyl9d]1 :i* ) ! pi/on ,p 9 place is op]at$ z any o!r pump4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,*a9 ,pumps4--,9 %all[ wells & o!r s\rces ( supply1 :]e wat] is to be lift$ only a %ort di/ance1 *a9 pumps h be5 us$ to a great ext5t1 because ( _! quick action4 ,?is pump1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #acf1 elevates ! wat] by an endless *a9 be+ drawn ?r\gh ! tube1 ! l[] end ( :i* is bel[ ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! *a9 is provid$ at int]vals ) discs or rubb] or iron1 t fit ! bore ( ! tube & =m pi/ons :i* elevate ! wat] z !y asc5d4 ,! *a9 passes ar\nd a :eel 9 ! upp] "p ( ! box & is work$ by ! crank4 ,*a9 pumps are n usually employ$ to elevate wat] a great] height ?an #bj feet4 ,!y are n effici5t pumps & are n sanit>y because ( ! opportunity !y give = admitt+ pollut+ mat]ial to ! well4 ,_! "o advantage is t ( quick action 9 elevat+ wat] %ort di/ances4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,*a9 pump (t5 us$ 9 %all[ wells4 ,,ra9-,,wat] ,,ci/]ns ,ci/]ns = ! /orage ( ra9 wat] h be5 us$ f ! "t immemorial & are con/ruct$ 9 a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,= h\sehold use !y are (t5 made 9 ! =m ( wood5 or metal tanks1 ei!r elevat$ or plac$ 9 ! basem5t2 ! great] numb]1 h[ev]1 are ( ! und]gr\nd v>iety made ( brick or concrete4 ,wood5 ci/]ns are made by manufactur]s 9 diff]5t sizes & %ipp$ to ! us] 8knock$ d[n20 t is1 !y are tak5 ap>t & ! /aves1 bottom & hoops are %ipp$1 pack$ 9 small space to save space 9 transportation4 ,"u "s conditions !y give good s]vice b are apt to leak at times & require att5tion on t acc\nt4 ,9 damp basem5ts !y give out ! disagreeable odor ( damp wood4 ,tanks made ( galvaniz$ iron are mu* us$ z ci/]ns = tempor>y use4 ,!y are inexp5sive & give good s]vice b are %ort-liv$4 ,possibility ( leakage is _! greate/ disadvantage4 ,und]gr\nd ci/]ns are built ei!r 9 ! basem5t or outside ! h\se4 ,!y are q g5]ally made jug-%ap$1 b are (t5 con/ruct$ ( concrete 9 squ>e & rectangul> =m4 ,:5 built ( brick ! walls are (t5 made ( a s+le c\rse1 b walls made ( two c\rses ( brick are consid]$ bett] practice4 ,! walls & floor are made wat]-tight by pla/]+ ) an in* or m ( cem5t mort>4 ,:5 ci/]ns are made ( concrete1 ! floor %\ld be put 9 #f in*es 9 dep? & z soon aft] z possible ! walls are put up4 ,9 good con/ruction ! walls are #h in*es 9 ?ickness ( concrete1 made ( #a "p good ,portl& cem5t1 #b p>ts clean s& & #d p>ts cru%$ /one4 ,if ! ci/]n is squ>e or rectangul> 9 =m ! walls %\ld be re9=c$ ) wov5 wire or /eel rods1 to prev5t crack+4 ,! curb ( ! ci/]n %\ld ext5d above ! surface ( ! gr\nd suffici5tly to prev5t surface wat] f ent]+1 & ! top %\ld be cov]$ ) a wood-l9$ %eet-metal cov] to prev5t freez+4 ,filt]s4--,unfilt]$ ci/]n wat] is n1 z a rule1 fit = dr9k+ purposes because ( pollution f du/ & impurities wa%$ f ! ro(1 b = ba?+ & laundry "w filt]$ ra9 wat] is greatly to be desir$4 ,z ra9 wat] comes f ! ro(s ( build+s1 !re is wa%$ into ! ci/]n a consid]able quantity ( du/1 leaves1 bird dropp+s & o!r pollut+ mat]ials :i* contam9ate & discolor ! wat]4 ,?is =eign matt] is n injuri\s = ! purposes int5d$1 b to r5d] ! wat] cle> x %\ld be filt]$ be=e us+4 ,filt]s = ci/]ns are q g5]ally made ( s(t brick laid 9 cem5t mort>1 ! face ( ! brick be+ left uncov]$4 ,fig4 #acg illu/rates a simple & effici5t =m ( filt] made ( a s+le c\rse ( brick4 ,a space "o-f\r? to "o-?ird ( ! volume ( ! ci/]n is left = ! filt]$ wat]4 ,! op5+ at ! top ( ! wall mu/ be l>ge en\gh to admit a man1 = "s s$im5t w collect ev5 9 ! filt]$ wat] & ! filt] mu/ be occasionally clean$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,cross-section ( a brick curb$ ci/]n ) a brick filt] wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,cross-section ( a concrete ci/]n ) a brick dome filt]4 ,! filt] %[n 9 ,fig4 #ach is dome-%ap$ & built ( brick4 ,! wat] is pump$ f inside ! filt] & ! suction ( pump+ filt]s ! wat] z x is us$4 ,9 ?is case ! filt]+ action is accel]at$ by reason ( ! r$uc$ pressure inside ! filt] z ! wat] is pump$4 ,! *ief disadvantage 9 ?is =m ( filt] is ! small area expos$ = ! filt]+ action & ! relatively great] am\nt ( "w requir$ = pump+ ! wat]1 due to ! p>tial vacuum =m$ z ! wat] is pump$4 ,! ci/]n 9 ,fig4 #aci is provid$ ) a cat* bas9 :i* acts z a /ra9] = remov+ leaves1 etc41 t w\ld /a9 ! wat]4 ,x is made 9 ! =m ( a concrete bas9 & p>tly fill$ ) gravel4 ,! filt] 9 ?is case is =m$ by a depression 9 ! ci/]n floor4 ,a section ( tile is plac$ on ! floor1 & ar\nd x is fill$ ! filt]+ mat]ial ( gravel & s&4 ,filt]s ( ?is k9d are (t5 fill$ ) *>coal or o!r mat]ials t are expect$ to purify ! wat]4 ,!y are usually ineffici5t because _! value z absorb]s ( pollut+ ag5ts is %ort-liv$ & unless ! mat]ials are frequ5tly r5ew$ !y are valueless & sometimes a detrim5t to rapid filtration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,cross-section ( a concrete ci/]n1 conta9+ a s& filt]4 ,,! ,,hydraulic ,,ram ,9 places :]e its use is possible1 ! hydraulic ram is a mo/ conv5i5t & inexp5sive means ( me*anical wat] supply4 ,x is simple 9 con/ruction1 requires v little att5tion & its co/ ( op]ation is only ! labor necess>y to keep x 9 repair4 ,:5ev] a suffici5t supply ( wat] w admit ( a fall ( a few feet1 ! hydraulic ram may be us$ z a pump = =c+ ! wat] to a di/ant elevat$ po9t1 :]e x may be utiliz$ = all dome/ic purposes4 ,! wat] may be us$ directly f ! ram or /or$ 9 an elevat$ tank z a res]ve supply2 or accumulat$ 9 a pressure tank1 :]e additional pressure is requir$4 ,! hydraulic ram has be5 us$ s9ce #agif1 :5 x 0 inv5t$ by ,joseph de ,montgolfi]4 ,! pr9ciple ( its op]ation is t ( ! utilization ( ! en]gy ( fl[+ wat]4 ,! runn+ wat] is made to give up a portion ( its mom5tum to elevate a "p ( ! wat]1 & transport x to a consid]able di/ance4 ,if ! s\rce ( supply & ! fall is suffici5t1 almo/ any am\nt may be elevat$ & c>ri$ to a great di/ance4 ,l>ge rams are sometimes us$ z a means ( wat] supply = small t[ns4 ,9 ! use ( ! d\ble-act+ ram1 "o s\rce ( wat] may be us$ to op]ate ! ram & wat] f an entirely diff]5t s\rce may be deliv]$4 ,x sometimes happ5s t a muddy /ream & a cle> spr+ are s locat$1 t ! wat] ( ! /ream c be utiliz$ to furni% ! en]gy = convey+ ! spr+ wat] to a po9t :]e x is desir$ = use4 ,?is is accompli%$ by ! d\ble-act+ ram 9 a mo/ effici5t mann]4 ,s+le-act+ ,hydraulic ,ram4--,fig4 #adj repres5ts ! in/allation ( a s+le-act+ hydraulic ram1 plac$ to take wat] f a spr+ ,e1 & deliv] x to an elevat$ tank at ! h\se on ! hill4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--;,hydraulic ram driv5 by ! wat] f a spr+4 ,9 case ! ram mu/ be locat$ at a consid]able di/ance f ! spr+ 9 ord] to atta9 ! requir$ fall1 a /&pipe ,d--slightly l>g] ?an ! supply pipe--is us$ to take advantage ( ! full =ce ( ! wat]4 ,9 long pipes1 ! friction ( ! fl[+ wat] absorbs a consid]able am\nt ( ! en]gy ( fl[ & a /&pipe1 locat$ z indicat$ at ,d1 9 ! picture1 w assure ! full =ce ( ! fl[+ wat] 9 ! ram4 ,! ram is commonly plac$ 9 an und]gr\nd pit z protection f freez+ dur+ cold wea!r1 & a dra9 f ! bottom ( ! pit conducts ! wa/e wat] away4 ,! supply pipe or drive pipe ,b & deliv]y pipe ,c are buri$ und]gr\nd bel[ ! fro/ l9e z a protection f freez+4 ,9 ,fig4 #ada a sectional view ( ! ram %[s all ( ! work+ p>ts4 ,! air *amb] ,g is %[n p>tly fill$ ) wat]2 ! impetus valve ,d is t "p ( ! ram :i* *ecks ! fl[ ( ! runn+ wat] & =ces a "p ( x ?r\gh ! valve ,e1 at ! bottom ( ! air *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--;,cross-section ( a s+le-act+ hydraulic ram4 ,:5 inactive ! valve ,d /&s op5 & z ! wat] ent]s f ! pipe ,a1 x fl[s ?r\gh ! valve to ! wa/e pipe b z soon z ! full =ce ( ! wat] be>s on ! valve x w sudd5ly close4 ,?is sudd5 /op ( ! fl[+ wat] w lift ! valve ,e1 & ! en]gy ( fl[1 due to its sudd5 /opp+1 w =ce "s ( ! wat] into ! *amb] ,g4 ,z ?is action occurs ! upw>d pressure aga9/ ! valve ,d is releas$ & x reop5s b imm$iately closes aga9 z ! wat] beg9s to fl[4 ,?is process is kept up1 ea* closure ( ! valve s5d+ a little wat] into ! air *amb]4 ,z ! wat] gradually fills ! air *amb]1 x is subject$ to ! same action z 0 describ$ 9 ! pressure tank1 ! air above ! surface be+ compress$ & ! pressure develop$ 9 ! space ,g =ces ! wat] out ?r\gh ! deliv]y pipe :]e x atta9s a =ce t is a factor ( ! height ( ! orig9al fall4 ,! air 9 ! *amb] ,g1 is subject to ! same conditions ( loss z t ( ! pressure tank1 & to be assur$ ( a supply to give pressure to ! wat]1 "s air mu/ be c>ri$ into ! *amb] ) ! wat]4 ,= ?is purpose ! valve ,f provid$4 ,aft] ! *amb] is p>tially fill$1 !re occurs a reaction 9 ! fl[ ( wat] at ea* closure ( ! valve1 :i* causes a little air to be drawn 9 ?r\gh ! valve ,f ) ea* impulse4 ,?is air bubbles up ?r\gh ! wat] & ent]s ! *amb] :]e x assures an ela/ic cu%ion = clos+ ! valve ,e4 ,! fl[ ( wat] f ! supply pipe is regulat$ at ,h by a nut on ! /em ( ! impetus valve :i* p]mits its regulation4 ,clos+ ! valve slightly causes a less supply ( wat] to be deliv]$2 op5+ ! valve wid] gives a great] supply4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,sectional view ( a d\ble-act+ hydraulic ram4 ,! ,d\ble-act+ ,hydraulic ,ram4--,! diagram ( ,fig4 #adb illu/rates ! work+ pr9ciple ( ! d\ble-act+ hydraulic ram m5tion$ above2 :]e ! wat] f a muddy /ream is us$ to drive ! ram & t f a sep>ate s\rce1 z a spr+ is deliv]$4 ,! con/ruction ( ! d\ble-act+ ram is simil> to ! s+le-act+ ram1 b a sep>ate pipe ,s dis*>ges spr+ wat] directly bel[ ! valve :i* acts j z ?\gh x _h ent]$ at ! drive pipe4 ,! ram 9 ?is case is receiv+ wat] f ! drive pipe ,d1 :i* op]ates ! valve & furni%es p[] = elevat+ ! spr+ wat]4 ,! spr+ wat] ent]s ! ram ?r\gh ! pipe ,s1 to keep ! space ,t fill$1 directly "u ! valve4 ,! wat] :i* ent]s ! air *amb] is1 !re=e1 only t f ! spr+4 ,a /&pipe is arrang$ z %[n 9 ! figure1 ) a *eck valve to prev5t ! wat] 9 ! ram f be+ =c$ back into ! spr+ wat] pipe aft] ent]+ ! ram4 ,,dome/ic ,,wat]-,,supply ,,plants ,until rec5t ye>s1 no ?\ght 0 giv5 to private wat]-supply plants1 9 any except ! m pret5ti\s resid5ces4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t ! co/ ( ma*9]y & in/allation ( su* plants prohibit$ ! use ( a wat] sy/em 9 ! av]age home4 ,z an item ( exp5se 9 build+1 a satisfactory wat]-supply sy/em may be in/all$ at a l[] co/ ?an is paid = plumb+ & ba?room fixtures4 ,9 rec5t ye>s mu* att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! design ( small wat]-supply plants = isolat$ homes1 su* z are requir$ = suburban & rural dwell+s1 ) ! result t ! necess>y app>atus to suit any conditions may be obta9$ ( any ent]pris+ deal]4 ,! degree ( complet5ess ) :i* ! plant is to be arrang$ w dep5d on ! funds to be exp5d$1 b 9 ! mo/ mode/ dwell+ "s =m ( wat]-supply plant is possible4 ,:]e opportunity is giv5 to make ! plant complete1 its appo9tm5ts ( con/ruction may be elaborat$ to almo/ any ext5t4 ,a suburban or c\ntry resid5ce may be made z p]fect 9 po9t ( toilet1 kit*5 & laundry conv5i5ces1 z :]e city wat] & sew] s]vice are available4 ,! wat]-supply plant may be op]at$ by h& or by p[]1 & if s desir$ may be made completely automatic 9 action4 ,gravity ,wat]-supply ,plant4--,9 po9t ( simplicity1 ! plant %[n 9 ,fig4 #adc repres5ts a wat] sy/em t answ]s e purpose ( a cottage & yet is only an elevat$ tank = /orage ( wat]1 comb9$ ) a h\se =ce pump4 ,! tank 9 ?is case may be made ( wood or metal & is op5 at ! top4 ,! wat] is s5t into ! tank by ! pump1 & gravity furni%es ! =ce = c>ry+ x to ! fixtures 9 ! kit*5 & ba?room4 ,9 us+ a tank ( ! k9d %[n 9 ! draw+1 provision %\ld be made = ! possibility ( leakage4 ,?is is arrang$ = by hav+ ! tank set 9 a %all[ pan1 s con/ruct$ t 9 case ( accid5t ! wat] may be c>ri$ away )\t do+ damage4 ,?is type ( plant is n usually employ$ 9 cold climates1 unless "s provision is made to prev5t ! wat] 9 ! tank f freez+4 ,tanks ( ?is k9d are sometimes us$ 9 cold climates b a mu* m desirable plant = ! purpose is describ$ bel[4 ,9 ,fig4 #adc ! wat] f ! ci/]n ,w is rais$ by ! pump ,p1 :i* also =ces x into ! tank above ! kit*54 ,! gravitational =ce giv5 ! wat]1 because ( its elevat$ position is all t is necess>y to c>ry ! wat] to ! fixtures 9 ! ba?room & kit*5 s9k4 ,z %[n 9 ! draw+1 x furni%es a complete wat] sy/em t w p]=m all ( ! requirem5ts ( wat] di/ribution = a small family4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,sectional view ( a cottage conta9+ a simple gravity wat]-supply plant4 ,! pipes f ! range boil] are atta*$ to ! wat] heat]1 :i* =ms a "p ( ! kit*5 range z expla9$ on pages #aaf to #abj4 ,x receives ! supply ( cold wat] directly f ! tank ?r\gh ! pipe m>k$ ,c1 & ! hot wat] f ! range boil] is suppli$ ?r\gh ! pipe ,h4 ,cold wat] is also tak5 f ! tank directly to ea* ( ! cold-wat] taps4 ,! pump ,p is a h\se pump1 su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #acj4 ,x is a small =ce pump1 design$ to suit ! conditions ( dome/ic use & is made to s5d wat] into ! s9k or into ! supply tank z desir$4 ,pressure-tank ,sy/em ( ,wat] ,supply4--,! wat]-supply plant %[n 9 ,fig4 #add is ano!r simple con/ruction1 some:at m elaborate ?an ! la/1 s arrang$ t ! dang] ( freez+ is practically elim9at$4 ,?is is a simple pressure-tank sy/em 9 :i* a tightly built metal wat] tank takes ! place ( ! elevat$ tank ( ! previ\s figure1 & a tank pump is us$ = lift+ & giv+ pressure to ! wat]4 ,x is a m complete plant ?an ! fir/ & int5d$ to accommodate a l>g] dwell+4 ,! draw+ %[s all ( ! fixtures & connect+ pipes t are requir$ 9 ! av]age home4 ,x %[s all ( ! appliances = connect+ ! pressure tank & range boil] ) ! wa% trays 9 ! basem5t1 ) all ( ! fixtures 9 ! ba?room & ) ! fixtures 9 ! kit*5 s9k4 ,! range boil] is ! same z ^? previ\sly describ$ & connect$ to ! heat] 9 an id5tical mann]4 ,! orig9al s\rce ( supply 9 ?is case is a ci/]n1 sunk bel[ ! basem5t floor4 ,! wat] is lift$ f ! ci/]n by ! pump & =c$ into ! pressure tank ?r\gh a pipe ne> ! bottom :]e x furni%es ! supply = ! h\se4 ,! pressure tank may be ( any size to suit ! requirem5ts ( ! h\se & may be plac$ 9 ei!r a v]tical or horizontal position4 ,x is sometimes galvaniz$1 z a precaution aga9/ ru/1 b ?is is n a necess>y requirem5t4 ,! pipe :i* conveys ! wat] f ! pump connects ) ! tank ne> ! bottom4 ,z ! wat] ent]s1 ! conta9$ air above its surface is compress$ into small] & small] space4 ,! pressure t is develop$ by ! compress$ air furni%es ! =ce by :i* ! wat] is driv5 out ( ! tank & ?r\gh ! di/ribut+ pipes to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! sy/em4 ,if ! air 9 ! tank :5 empty is compress$ to "o-half its orig9al volume1 !n ! gage pressure w be ab\t #ae p\nds to ! squ>e in*2 if ! air is compress$ to "o-?ird its orig9al volume1 t is1 :5 ! tank is two-?irds full ( wat]1 ! gage pressure w be ab\t #cj p\nds to ! squ>e in*1 :i* is en\gh to supply wat] at any po9t ( a two-/ory build+ ) ample =ce4 ,by pump+ m wat] into ! tank1 a pressure ( #ej or #fj p\nds may be obta9$ )\t difficulty2 b #dj p\nds is g5]ally suffici5t = all ! dem&s ( a h\se plant4 ,?is is an application ( ! ,boyle's law :i* z /at$ 9 text books ( physics is3 8,! temp]ature rema9+ ! same1 ! pressure on conf9$ gas v>ies inv]sely z its volume40 ,z ! volume ( su* a conf9$ body ( gas is made small]1 ! pressure increases 9 l ratio4 ,! desir$ pressures are easily atta9$ ) a h& =ce pump su* z is %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,! pressure-tank sy/em ( wat] supply z x appe>s 9 a dwell+4 ,! gage-glass ,g on ! side ( ! tank is int5d$ to %[ ! height ( ! wat] 9 ! tank at any "t1 & ! pressure gage atta*$ to ! supply pipe %[s ! am\nt ( pressure su/a9$ by ! wat]4 ,! ,pressure ,tank4--,! wat] leaves ! tank by a pipe atta*$ ne> ! bottom & bran*es to supply ea* fixture1 to :i* ! wat] is to be conduct$4 ,9 ! draw+1 ! pipe may be trac$ f ! po9t :]e x leaves ! tank to ! v>i\s fixtures4 ,! cold-wat] pipe t]m9ates at ! range boil]1 = at t po9t ! hot-wat] sy/em beg9s4 ,! range boil] is connect$ by two pipes to ! wat] heat] 9 ! kit*5 range4 ,! wat] heat] is a "p ( ! fire-box ( ! kit*5 range & s long z ! fire is kept burn+1 wat] is heat$ & /or$ 9 ! range boil]4 ,:]e ! h\se is furnace-heat$1 ! furnace fire is sometimes utiliz$ = heat+ ! wat] by use ( a coil ( pipe above ! fire & :i* may take ! place ( ! range heat]4 ,v>i\s o!r means are also employ$ = heat+ ! wat] z describ$ "u range boil]s4 ,9 ,fig4 #ade is %[n a ne>] view ( a pressure tank ) ! pump atta*$4 ,! pump is 9 ?is case id5tical 9 its action to ! "o %[n 9 ,fig4 #acb1 b diff]s slightly 9 me*anical design4 ,! draw+ %[s ! gage-glass ,g1 = indicat+ ! height ( wat]2 ! pressure gage ,p1 :i* indicates ! pressure to :i* ! wat] is subject$2 ! atta*m5t ( ! supply pipe ,s1 & ! deliv]y pipe ,d4 ,! wat] tap ,t is provid$ to draw (f ! wat] :5 ! tank is to be empti$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,! pressure tank complete1 ) ! pump & gages z us$ = dome/ic wat] supply4 ,9 op]ation1 ! air 9 ! pressure tank furni%es ! =ce :i* s5ds ! wat] ?r\gh ! pipes to ! v>i\s po9ts1 & =ces x ?r\gh ! taps at ! desir$ rate4 ,if = any reason ! air 9 ! tank escapes1 ! propell+ =ce is de/roy$4 ,?is may occur by reason ( absorption ( ! air by ! wat]1 due to ! pressure to :i* x is subject$2 or to small air leaks t may develop 9 ! jo9ts1 :i* all[ ! air to escape4 ,to ov]come ! possibility ( ^! occurr5ces1 arrangem5t is made :]eby air may be pump$ into ! tank by ! same pump z t :i* supplies ! wat]4 ,9 ?is way1 ! air is introduc$ ) ! wat]1 :i* bubbles up ?r\gh x to ! surface4 ,if at any "t ! pressure 9 ! tank is lo/1 x may be replac$ by pump+ air alone into ! tank4 ,p[] ,wat]-supply ,plants4--,:]e ! pump is expect$ to furni% wat] to any consid]able am\nt beyond t = h\sehold use1 x is desirable t ! plant be p[]-driv54 ,if ! "w ( wat]+ /ock1 lawn spr9kl+1 etc41 is int5d$1 ! tank & pump mu/ be enl>g$ to suit ! desir$ am\nt ( wat]1 & a gasol9e eng9e1 w9dmill or electric motor w be us$ = p[]4 ,:]e local conditions w p]mit1 a hydraulic ram may be sub/itut$ = ! pump & ! pressure tank us$ = additional pressure & /orage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--,tank pump op]at$ by a small gasol9e eng9e4 ,fig4 #adf %[s a plant 9 :i* ! pump is driv5 by a gasol9e eng9e4 ,9 ! figure1 ! eng9e ,e is %[n connect$ by a belt to a spe$-r$uc+ device or 8jack10 m>k$ ,j4 ,! object ( ?is ma*9e is to r$uce ! spe$ ( rotation & *>ge x to ! requir$ motion = op]at+ ! pump4 ,! jack is connect$ to ! pump by a rod atta*$ to a l>ge ge>1 s z to produce ! desir$ crank motion2 & ! opposite end ( ! rod is atta*$ to ! pump h&le4 ,! rod may be deta*$ at any "t & ! pump work$ by h&4 ,electric ,p[] ,wat] ,supply4--,fig4 #adg %[s ano!r type ( p[] plant 9 :i* an electric motor op]ates ! pump4 ,9 ?is /yle ( plant1 ! pulley on ! electric motor ,m is connect$ by a belt to ! l>ge :eel ,w1 f :i* ! crank motion is secur$ = driv+ ! pump ,p4 ,?is ma*9e is provid$ ) an automatic />t+ & /opp+ device1 :i* automatically controls ! supply ( wat] 9 ! sy/em4 ,:5ev] ! pressure 9 ! tank falls to a c]ta9 po9t1 ! *ange ( pressure produc$ on ! diaphram valve ,a />ts ! motor1 & ! pump s5ds wat] into ! tank until ! pressure 9 ! tank aga9 rea*es ! am\nt = :i* ! valve is set1 at :i* "t ! valve disconnects ! electric contact to ! motor & ! pump /ops work+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,pressure tank suppli$ by an electrically driv5 pump4 ,w9d-p[] ,wat] ,supply4--,9 ,fig4 #adh is %[n a l>g] & m complete plant ?an ! =m]1 9 :i* a w9dmill furni%es ! p[] = pump+ & a l>ge und]gr\nd tank is utiliz$ = ! ma9 supply ( wat]4 ,! tank m>k$1 ,well ,wat] ,pressure ,tank1 9 ?is case is s plac$ t ! end is expos$ 9 ! well curb1 :]e ! height ( ! wat] may be obs]v$ at any "t4 ,! pump is op]at$ z any o!r ( its k9d1 b is provid$ ) an automatic pressure cyl9d]1 :i* controls ! op]ation ( ! mill ?r\gh ! rise & fall ( ! wat] 9 ! tank4 ,at any "t ! wat] 9 ! tank falls to a c]ta9 po9t1 ! pump is ?r[n into ge> by ! pressure cyl9d]1 & ! wat] is pump$ into ! tank until a def9ite height is rea*$2 at ?is po9t ! pump is automatically ?r[n out ( ge> & rema9s inactive until an additional supply ( wat] is requir$4 ,! plant is !re=e automatic 9 its action & requires only t ! mill be kept oil$ & 9 runn+ ord]4 ,z %[n 9 ! draw+1 ! l>ge tank receives its supply ( wat] f ! well & aside f provid+ a res]ve supply furni%es p[] = pump+ ci/]n wat]4 ,! wat] f ! l>ge tank is pip$ into ! h\se = use z requir$1 & f ! same pipe is tak5 a hydrant = lawn spr9kl+2 9 addition1 ?is wat] is pip$ to ! b>n :]e x is us$ = wat]+ /ock4 ,a bran* ( ! same pipe is int5d$ to op]ate a wat] lift1 :i* 9 turn furni%es ! h\se ) s(t wat] f ! ra9-wat] ci/]n = ba?+1 laundry1 & kit*5 purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,?is diagram %[s ! arrangem5t ( dome/ic wat]-supply app>atus1 9 :i* a w9dmill furni%es ! pressure necess>y = op]at+ ! entire plant4 ,! ,wat] ,lift4--,! wat] lift is a comb9$ wat] eng9e & pump1 ! motive p[] = :i* is ! pressure f ! well-wat] tank4 ,! s(t wat]1 pump$ by ! wat] lift1 is /or$ 9 ! small] pressure tank m>k$ ,s(t ,wat] ,pressure ,tank 9 ! draw+1 & furni%es a supply = ! purposes m5tion$4 ,! wat] lift is s con/ruct$ t :5 ! pressure 9 ! s(t-wat] tank equals ! pressure 9 ! well-wat] tank1 ! lift w /op work+ & w n />t aga9 until wat] has be5 drawn f ! taps4 ,:5ev] wat] is drawn f any "p ( ! sy/em1 ! pressure w be r$uc$ & ! lift w imm$iately beg9 pump+ m wat] & w cont9ue until ! pressure ( ! two tanks are ! same4 ,! sy/em is entirely automatic1 ea* "p dep5d+ on ! p[] orig9ally suppli$ by ! w9dmill4 ,! plant c\ld be j z successfully op]at$ by sub/itut+ a gasol9e eng9e or o!r s\rce ( p[] = ! w9dmill4 ,! ma*9]y = su* a plant is n at all complicat$ nei!r is x difficult to manage1 yet x is complete 9 e p>ticul> & furni%es an almo/ ideal arrangem5t = a c\ntry or suburban home4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,! wat] lift4 ,9 ord] to be assur$ ( a supply ( wat] ov] p]iods ( atmosph]ic quiet1 ! well-wat] tank mu/ be suffici5tly l>ge to supply wat] = #c or #d days2 b 9 case ( em]g5cy wat] may be pump$ by h&4 ,a ne>] view ( ! wat] lift is %[n 9 ,fig4 #adi4 ,9 ! figure1 ! "r-h& cyl9d] ) its valve ,v is ! wat] eng9e :i* furni%es ! p[] = op]at+ ! pump1 enclos$ 9 ! left-h& cyl9d]4 ,! wat] pressure ( ! ma9 supply furni%es ! en]gy :i* drives ! eng9e1 ! pi/on rod ( :i* is atta*$ to ! pump pi/on4 ,! eng9e receives its supply ( wat] ?r\gh ! pipe m>k$ ,inlet & ! wa/e wat] is dis*>g$ to ! sew] by ! wa/e pipe on ! opposite side ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! op]ation ( ! lift is gov]n$ by an automatic regulator :i* s controls ! eng9e t x />ts pump+ :5ev] ! pressure 9 ! sy/em falls to a c]ta9 po9t4 ,! regulator m>k$ ,adju/able ,regulator 9 ! draw+ may be adju/$ to suit ! wat] pressure desir$ 9 ! di/ribut+ sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 #a ,air ,*amb] ,nut #b ,brass ,tube = ,air ,*amb] #c ,air ,*amb] #d ,brass ,cock #e ,cap ,screw #f ,lea!r ,wa%] #g ,h&le ,p9 #h ,pitman #i ,h&le #aj ,brass ,cov]$ ,pi/on ,rod #aa ,fulcrum #ab ,fulcrum ,p9 #ac ,brass ,/uff+ ,nut #ad ,cap #ae ,fulcrum ,r+ #af ,fulcrum ,r+ ,p9 #ag ,plung] #ah ,cyl9d] #ai ,cap ,screw #bj ,l[] ,valve #ba ,brass ,valve ,seat #bb ,base #bc ,bottom ,brass ,f]rule #bd ,bottom ,nut ,,fig4 #aej4--,! t]ms by :i* ! p>ts ( a =ce pump are designat$4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,sewage ,,disposal ,! disposal ( sewage1 9 a conv5i5t & sanit>y mann] is a problem ( s]i\s importance 9 ! equipm5t ( isolat$ dwell+s ) mod]n h\sehold conv5i5ces4 ,! mann] ( heat+1 light+ & ( wat] supply are que/ions ( selection among a numb] ( e/abli%$ sy/ems1 b ! problem ( sewage disposal mu/ 9 a great measure be det]m9$ by local conditions4 ,unless ! natural surr\nd+s are su* z w p]mit sewage to be empti$ directly into a /ream ( consid]able volume1 ! problem ( its safe disposal becomes "o ( s]i\s importance4 ,sewage is und]/ood to mean ! fluid wa/e f ! kit*51 toilet & laundry & has no?+ :atev] to d ) g>bage4 ,sewage disposal has to d ) conduct+ away ! h\se wa/e & dispos+ ( x 9 a sanit>y mann]4 ,sewage disposal does n necess>ily h any?+ to d ) sewage purification2 al?\gh a sewage disposal plant may be s con/ruct$ z to dis*>ge a purifi$ efflu5t1 x usually is und]/ood to h to d alone ) its disposal 9 a mann] t does n (f5d ! ae/hetic s5se4 ,a simple sewage plant is any?+ t w take ! sewage away f ! h\se 9 su* a way z to produce no unsightly accumulations t w decay & produce (f5sive odors4 ,a sewage purification plant is "o 9 :i* ! raw sewage f ! h\se dra9 is fir/ liquefi$1 aft] :i* ! liquid is pass$ into a filt] :]e x und]goes a process ( bact]ial dis9tegration & ! organic matt] r$uc$ to ! inorganic /ate1 :]e no fur!r *ange is possible4 ,! wat] :i* fl[s f su* a filt] is cle> & sp>kl+1 & is (t5 tak5 = spr+ wat]4 ,! degree ( purification giv5 to ! sewage w dep5d on ! /yle ( filt] & ! l5g? ( "t necess>y = ! wat] to pass ?r\gh x4 ,sewage is compos$ ( organic matt] 9 a fluid or "p fluid condition1 conta9$ 9 a l>ge volume ( wat]4 ,x is n usually ! d>k1 heavy1 f\l-smell+ fluid t is imag9$ by _m1 b a turbid liquid possess+ only a few ( ! qualities usually ascrib$ to sewage4 ,"u favorable conditions practically all ( ! organic matt] w be readily dissolv$ & ! sewage w become entirely liquid4 ,z a liquid1 ! raw sewage is 9 ! mo/ favorable condition = rapid decay & if left /&+ 9 ! air x soon develops prop]ties t r5d] x highly objectionable4 ,! decay ( all organic matt] is a process ( dis9tegration t ultimately ends 9 ! elem5ts f :i* x came4 ,9 ! disposal ( sewage1 ! aim is to p]mit ?is dis9tegration to take place "u conditions t w be lea/ (f5sive to ! ae/hetic s5sibilities1 & 9 "s cases to r5d] x free f h>mful prop]ties %\ld !re be pres5t ! bact]ia ( communicable disease4 ,! successful disposal ( sewage f cities is accompli%$ "u a great v>iety ( conditions4 ,x is mu* easi] to arrange = sewage purification on a l>ge scale ?an 9 a small way4 ,! reason = ?is is t 9 ! c>e ( a city ! sewage-disposal plant is "u ! sup]vision ( a compet5t p]son1 ^: bus9ess x is to see t ! conditions are kept at ! highe/ effici5cy4 ,private plants are left almo/ entirely )\t c>e1 until !y fail f causes t are usually prev5table4 ,sewage may be successfully purifi$ "u a great _m conditions1 b no type ( plant has z yet prov5 itself successful t does n receive intellig5t att5tion4 ,! mo/ successful ( small sewage disposal plant is ! septic tank sy/em alone or 9 connection ) an adequate =m ( bact]ial filt]4 ,cesspools are n to be c\nt5anc$ by p ( intellig5ce4 ,! cesspool has be5 s univ]sally condemn$ by au?orities on sanitation1 t all intellig5t p look ^u x z a ?+ fil?y beyond description4 ,al?\gh ! septic tank is little m ?an an improv$ cesspool1 ! condition "u :i* x acts is entirely diff]5t f t :i* takes place 9 ! latt] & ) c>e & wat*fulness1 x may be made to "w to a degree ( p]fection t is surpris+4 ,! "o great cause ( ! failure ( small sewage-disposal plants is ! lack ( prop] c>e4 ,! process ( sewage purification z n[ practis$ 9 ! mo/ successful plants is l>gely me*anical1 b bact]ial action plays a "p ( great importance 9 ! completion ( ! process4 ,x consi/s ( two /ages3 ! tank treatm5t1 9 :i* ! sewage is liquefi$2 & ! process ( filtration :]e ! liquefi$ sewage--commonly call$ ! efflu5t--f ! septic tank und]goes a process ( filtration & bact]ial purification4 ,! ,septic ,tank4--,! septic tank alone1 z us$ = sewage disposal1 is (t5 t]m$ a sewage purify+ plant1 :5 9 reality x is only int5d$ to *ange ! sewage into a =m 9 :i* x c be readily c>ri$ away4 ,! ^w septic means putrify+1 & :5 appli$ to sewage disposal x furni%es a conv5i5t t]m b has no?+ to d ) purification4 ,! septic tank furni%es only ! fir/ /age ( ! purify+ process1 & al?\gh its efflu5t may be cle> & possess little odor1 x is nev]!less unpurifi$4 ,! septic tank dis*>ges an efflu5t ( m or less completely dige/$ sewage1 in/ead1 z 9 ! cesspool1 ( p]mitt+ x to rema9 a con/antly fe/]+ mass1 to be sl[ly absorb$ by ! e>?4 ,! sewage is fir/ collect$ 9 a tank ( suffici5t size to conta9 ! dis*>ge f ! h\se = #bd h\rs4 ,9 ! process ( dige/ion :i* ! sewage und]goes :ile 9 ! tank1 x is r5d]$ almo/ entirely liquid2 at ! same "t x is act$ ^u by ! bact]ia t are develop$1 & t t5d to r$uce ! sewage to its elem5tal =m4 ,! efflu5t liquid :i* passes out ( ! tank is almo/ colorless & possesses relatively little odor4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! *ange :i* takes place 9 ! tank is to nitrify ! organic matt] b "u ord9>y conditions ! action is n fully complete4 ,! efflu5t sometimes und]goes b little *ange except to be r$uc$ to a liquid4 ,if ! efflu5t is n[ all[$ to fl[ into a dit* :]e x w /& 9 pools1 fur!r putrification w take place ) its result+ annoyance4 ,9 case ! septic tank is to be us$ alone1 ! efflu5t %\ld be conduct$ to a /ream = f9al disposal4 ,a septic tank mu/ be built to accommodate a c]ta9 numb] ( p & ( suffici5t size to take c>e ( ! ent]+ sewage4 ,! action :i* goes on 9 ! tank w r5d] ! cont5ts almo/ entirely fluid1 & "u good conditions ! sewage w be completely dige/$4 ,:5 work+ prop]ly1 a ?ick scum w =m on ! surface1 ?r\gh :i* filt]s ! gases t are lib]at$ 9 ! process ( dis9tegration4 ,! =mation ( ! scum is an indication t ! filt] is do+ its be/ "w4 ,%\ld ! tank be requir$ to take c>e ( m sewage ?an x c conv5i5tly h&le1 ! scum w n =m & ! efflu5t w be turbid because ( ! undige/$ matt]4 ,! *ange t takes place 9 ! sewage :ile x rema9s 9 ! tank is fir/ t ( be+ liquefi$ & !n dis9tegrat$ by bact]ial action4 ,t su* a *ange does take place is evid5c$ by ! residue t is f\nd 9 ! tank 9 ! process ( clean+4 ,?is is a black granul> sub/ance1 compos$ mo/ly ( humus & commonly kn[n z sludge4 ,! am\nt ( accumulat$ sludge is relatively small1 & ! op]ation ( clean+ is n necess>y m ?an twice a ye> & is n ! disagreeable task "o might suppose4 ,! ,septic ,tank ,) a ,s&-b$ ,filt]4--,9 places :]e ! use ( ! septic tank alone is n possible1 x sometimes happ5s t ! natural conditions are su* z w p]mit ! efflu5t to be dra9$ directly into ! soil4 ,) su* a condition1 ! efflu5t goes into a filt] b$ compos$ ( gravel or o!r loose mat]ial1 :]e x und]goes /ill fur!r bact]ial action & if ! process is complete1 ! wat] :i* comes f ! filt] b$ is cle> & odorless4 ,"u good conditions x is cle> sp>kl+ wat] & conta9s b a small am\nt ( impurities4 ,septic tanks are made 9 _m =ms b t illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #aea & #aeb is commonly us$4 ,9 ,fig4 #aea ! tank is %[n 9 position to receive ! sewage f ! h\se dra91 :]e x is to und]go ! fir/ treatm5t & !n to be conduct$ to a filt] b$ made ( por\s tile1 set 9 loose soil4 ,! tank is %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,x is a cem5t$ brick ci/]n ) an op5+ to ! surface t conta9s a d\ble cov] z a protection dur+ cold wea!r4 ,a brick p>tition divides ! tank into spaces ,g & ,h1 t conta9 volumes t are to ea* o!r z #a to #b4 ,! tank is ( su* size z w hold a volume ( sewage equal to #bd h\rs' use2 t is1 x is expect$ t any portion ( sewage w rema9 9 ! tank = t l5g? ( "t4 ,! sewage ent]s at ,a1 9 su* a way z w give ! lea/ di/urbance ( ! liquid ( ! tank4 ,an op5+ ,c all[s ! liquid to pass f ,h into ,g1 :]e any additional sewage ent]+ ,h w displace an equal am\nt 9 ,g1 :i* w pass out at ,b to ! filt] b$4 ,! p>tition ,d is high en\gh s t ! scum t =ms on ! surface w n pass directly into ! space ,g4 ,! entrance & exit pipes are made ( vitrifi$ sew] tile ) ! op5+s bel[ ! surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--,sectional view ( a septic tank1 connect$ ) a s&-b$ filt]2 = ! disposal ( sewage f a resid5ce4 ,z ! sewage ent]s ! tank ,a1 a consid]able portion w s9k to ! bottom1 :ile "s w float to ! top :]e a ?ick scum w ga!r4 ,by f> ! greate/ portion ( solids w be readily dissolv$ 9 ! wat] & ! rema9d] w be /ill fur!r r$uc$ to liquid =m by bact]ial solution4 ,! process ( dis9tegration t goes on evolves a consid]able am\nt ( c>bon dioxide & ammonia :i* filt]s ?r\gh ! scum4 ,! process t n[ goes on 9 ! tank is t ( liquefy+ ! organic matt] & *ang+ x f organic to ! inorganic /ate4 ,! bact]iologi/ recognizes 9 ! process ( sewage dis9tegration ! "w ( two classes ( bact]ia1 ! a]obic or ^? bact]ia t "w by reason ( air & d _! "w only 9 its pres5ce & ! ana]obic or ^? t "w 9 ! abs5ce ( air4 ,9 ! action ( ! sewage-disposal plant bo? k9ds ( bact]ia are at "w4 ,if1 9 ! f9al /age :]e ! sewage passes into ! filt]1 air c be c>ri$ into ! e>? ! action w be ha/5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--,section ( ! septic tank 9 ,fig4 #aea %[+ details ( con/ruction4 ,x is evid5t t1 s9ce ! sewage ent]+ ! tank is almo/ entirely dissolv$1 "u ideal action ?is sy/em w\ld give v little tr\ble1 b actually z ! sewage ent]s ! tank ! di/urbance caus$ by ! incom+ wat] =ces "s ( ! undige/$ matt] into ! outlet & be+ c>ri$ into ! filt] b$ x w be deposit$ at ! fir/ opportunity4 ,?is w cause ! filt] b$ to fill up ) undige/$ sewage at ! po9t ne>e/ ! entrance1 & 9 c\rse ( "t x w /op ! pipe because ( ?is accumulation4 ,to avoid su* an occurr5ce1 tanks h be5 built 9 :i* an automatic siphon dis*>ges ! efflu5t :5ev] a c]ta9 quantity has collect$4 ,su* a tank is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aec4 ,) ?is arrangem5t1 ! sewage ent]s ! fir/ tank at ,a1 & passes into ! second tank at ,b4 ,at ,s is %[n an automatic siphon1 s made t :5 ! efflu5t has collect$ to ! height ( ! wat] l9e1 ! siphon automatically dis*>ges ! cont5ts ( ! tank4 ,?is is kn[n z a dosage tank because p]iodically a dose ( ! efflu5t is dis*>g$ into ! filt] b$4 ,! volume dis*>g$ is suffici5t to fill ! great] portion ( ! b$1 & =ce out ! air 9 ! loose soil4 ,z ! wat] filt]s f ! b$ ! air is drawn 9 to take its place & gives ! bact]ia :i* "w 9 ! pres5ce ( air an opportunity to d _! "w4 ,! "w done by ?is filt] b$ is fir/ to filt] out any susp5d$ matt] c>ri$ 9 ! efflu5t :i* w lodge on ! surface ( ! filt] mat]ial & !n to und]go ! sl[ process ( integration1 & to p]mit ! oxidation ( ! dissolv$ sewage4 ,if ?is matt] is deposit$ fa/] ?an x dis9tegrates !n ! filt] w fill up & f9ally refuse to "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--,sectional view ( a two-*amb] septic tank ) a dosage siphon4 ,! ,septic ,tank & ,ana]obic ,filt]4--,9 places :]e ! use ( ! simple septic tank is n possible & :]e ! "* ( ! soil w n p]mit ( a natural s&-b$ filt]1 an ana]obic filt] may be con/ruct$ ?r\gh :i* to pass ! efflu5t f ! septic tank4 ,! ana]obic filt] is "o 9 :i* ana]obic bact]ial action is giv5 opportunity to r$uce ! organic matt] 9 ! sewage to its elem5tal condition4 ,! filt] may be con/ruct$ 9 any =m t w p]mit ! process ( filtration to be c>ri$ out 9 a way t w af=d good ana]obic action4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! purification is to be c>ri$ w det]m9e ! =m & size ( ! filt]4 ,9 ,fig4 #aed is %[n su* a plant1 :]e a comb9$ septic tank & ana]obic filt] dis*>ges its efflu5t into a filt] dit* 9 :i* ! purify+ process is cont9u$ ?r\gh a b$ ( gravel ( any desir$ l5g?4 ,! figure illu/rates a plant t 0 design$ = a c\ntry resid5ce4 ,! septic tank & ana]obic filt] are locat$ relatively z %[n 9 ! draw+1 ! filt] dit* foll[+ ! c\rse ( a roadway4 ,! wat] is f9ally dis*>g$ into a little /ream1 :]e x m+les ) ! wat] f a spr+1 & fl[s ?r\gh a mead[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,sectional view ( a septic tank comb9$ ) an anrobic filt]2 toge!r ) ! details ( con/ruction & plan ( arrangem5t4 ,! septic tank 9 ,fig4 #aed is q simil> 9 con/ruction to ! o!rs describ$ except t a section ( sew] tile takes ! place ( ! brick wall betwe5 ! two p>ts ( ! tank4 ,! op5+ ,o1 ?r\gh :i* ! efflu5t is dis*>g$1 is locat$ a little above ! c5t] ( ! tank4 ,! ana]obic filt] is a tank1 rectangul> 9 cross-section1 made ) brick walls & cem5t$ on ! inside4 ,! efflu5t f ! septic tank ent]s ! ana]obic filt] 9 a *amb]1 t is sep>at$ f ! ma9 tank by a wood5 grat+ aga9/ :i* re/s ! filt] mat]ial4 ,z indicat$ 9 ! draw+1 ! bottom is fill$ ) co>se mat]ial2 /ones or brok5 tiles ab\t #d in*es 9 diamet]4 ,above ?is is a lay] ( mat]ial ab\t #b in*es 9 diamet] & above t ano!r lay] ( #a-;in* mat]ial2 ! top is made ( gravel4 ,?is =ms ! ana]obic filt]1 9 :i* takes place ! bact]ial action away f ! pres5ce ( air4 ,! int]spaces 9 ! filt] mat]ial all[s ! efflu5t f ! septic tank to seep ?r\gh & deposit ! p>ticles ( matt] held 9 susp5sion4 ,! arrangem5t is su* z is be/ suit$ to ! ana]obic action4 ,"h1 %ut away f ! light & air1 ! organic matt] 9 ! efflu5t und]goes dis9tegration j z w\ld happ5 9 ! e>?4 ,x is evid5t t "s ( ! matt] t %\ld rema9 9 ! septic tank & be remov$ z sludge w be c>ri$ into ! ana]obic filt]4 ,?is w1 ( c\rse1 =m an insoluble deposit t w accumulate & 9 ! c\rse ( "t ! filt] w become clogg$4 ,x %\ld be expect$ t su* a filt] w ultimately ne$ r5ew+1 = ?is reason ! top is made ( a slab ( re9=c$ concrete t may be rais$ to all[ ! removal & refill+ ( ! filt] mat]ial4 ,! automatic siphon dis*>ges ! wat] f ! *amb] ,s1 :5ev] x fills4 ,! dis*>g$ wat] f ! siphon is conduct$ into a dra9 tile1 plac$ 9 a dit* fill$ ) gravel or o!r loose mat]ial1 :i* s]ves z an additional filt] & 9 :i* ! wat] und]goes a /ill fur!r purification4 ,?is filt] dit* is con/ruct$ z indicat$ 9 longitud9al section4 ,! wat] f ! siphon ent]s ! tile ,c & seep+ ?r\gh ! fill+ is dra9$ away 9 ! tile %[n at ,d4 ,! tiles are n set close toge!r1 b ! jo9ts are left op5 & cov]$ by pieces ( brok5 tile z %[n 9 ,h4 ,?is is to prev5t ! filt] mat]ial f ent]+ ! tile & ?us /opp+ ! ready fl[ ( ! wat]4 ,! filt] dit* ( ! plant w be con/ruct$ accord+ to ! cont\r ( ! gr\nd & w foll[ ! natural dra9age4 ,! c\rse ( ! dit*--if x is desir$ to use "o--w accommodate itself to ! "* ( ! gr\nd4 ,! f9al dis*>ge ( ! wat] w be det]m9$ by ! natural dra9age4 ,t a plant ( ?is k9d w "w p]fectly :5 new is is beyond a d\bt b t x w cont9ue indef9itely to give p]fect satisfaction is n reasonable to expect4 ,! septic tank w require clean+1 probably once a ye>4 ,! ana]obic filt] w require r5ew+ at int]vals1 dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( sewage ! filt] is requir$ to take c>e ( & ! rate at :i* ! plant is work$1 probably once 9 #d or #e ye>s4 ,if ! septic tank is ( insuffici5t size to readily dige/ ! sewage1 ! accumulation ( sludge 9 ! ana]obic filt] w be great] ?an %\ld occur4 ,x w\ld be only reasonable to suppose t ! siphon w sometimes refuse to dis*>ge4 ,ev5 ?\gh x is an automatic siphon1 circum/ances may cause x at times to fail to act4 ,= ?is reason ! manhole is plac$ s t ! siphon may be inspect$ & repair$1 %\ld x be necess>y4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t once su* a plant is 9 place t all ( ! "w is ov]4 ,! success ( a good sewage-disposal plant ( ?is k9d dem&s et]nal vigilance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,septic tank ) a settl+ bas9 & w9dmill pump4 ,9 ! level areas :]e ! possibilities ( natural dra9age is n good1 x sometimes occurs t plants su* z ^? describ$ are n p]missible4 ,to ov]come su* conditions ! plant 9 ,fig4 #aee repres5ts an in/allation :]e ! efflu5t is c>ri$ sev]al hundr$ feet ?r\gh a dra9 tile be=e x is f9ally dis*>g$ into an outlet4 ,?is plant is made up ( two sep>ate tanks1 ! fir/ act+ z a septic tank1 :ile ! second tank is a settl+ *amb]4 ,! wat] f ! second *amb] is pump$ by w9dmill p[] & dis*>g$ into a dra9 tile at ! requir$ height ?r\gh :i* x is c>ri$ to ! place ( f9al deposit4 ,limit ( ,effici5cy4--,mu* t has be5 writt5 on ! subject conveys ! impression t ! septic tank alone1 us$ "u v>i\s conditions1 w elim9ate disease g]ms & all (f5d+ features ( sewage & r5d] x a pure wat] ) a small am\nt ( residue rema9+ 9 ! tank4 ,t su* is n ! case is all too evid5t to _m :o h con/ruct$ plants expect+ p]fect results & h atta9$ only p>tial success4 ,x is n reasonable t a plant giv+ satisfaction "u ! usual conditions c\ld accompli% its purpose "u /ress ( "w4 ,x is q evid5t t ! am\nt ( sewage f any s\rce _c be con/ant4 ,x is equally evid5t t ! efflu5t f ! plant _c always be ! same2 b ) reasonable limits ( v>iation1 a suitably design$ tank ought to take c>e ( ! sewage f a h\se at all times & dis*>ge an efflu5t t is reasonably cle> & )\t (f5d+ odor4 ,x %\ld be kept 9 m9d t1 z commonly us$1 ! *ief (fice ( ! septic tank is to d away ) ! ?+s t (f5d ! s5ses1 & n to make an efflu5t t might s]ve z dr9k+ wat]4 ,x mu/ also be kept 9 m9d t if ! disease g]ms ent] ! plant because ( sickness 9 ! h\se t !re is e possibility t ! g]ms w be 9 ! dis*>g$ wat]4 ,! plant mu/ be locat$ z is direct$ by ! natural surr\nd+s b ! dra9age mu/ be away f build+s & p>ticul>ly f wells4 ,small sewage plants are reasonably effici5t & add imm5sely to ! com=t & heal?ful conditions ( ! home4 ,!y are n p]fect 9 _! action b !re is excell5t reason to believe t ! plant ( ideal con/ruction w yet be atta9$4 ,9 a flat c\ntry :]e dra9age is difficult1 ! =m ( plant mu/ be modifi$ to suit ! prevail+ conditions b "s =m ( work+ plant c always be devis$4 ,small plants d n give s effici5t results z ^? ( l>ge size b !y d v acceptable "w4 ,to d good s]vice !y mu/ receive att5tion b ! actual am\nt ( labor !y dem& is small4 ,small sewage-disposal plants are n exp5sive nor difficult to con/ruct1 & = ! am\nt ( labor & money exp5d$ !y give returns t _c be e/imat$4 ,9 det]m9+ ! "* ( plant to be con/ruct$1 9 any p>ticul> place1 local conditions w 9 a great measure decide ! type to be us$4 ,! degree ( purity to :i* x w be necess>y to r$uce ! efflu5t w dep5d on ! location ( ! plant & ! means ( f9al disposal4 ,if ! efflu5t c be run into a /ream ( suffici5t volume1 ! septic tank alone w probably answ] ! purpose4 ,! septic tank r$uces sewage to a liquid =m :i* has "s odor4 ,x may be c>ri$ away 9 an op5 dit* :i* has good fl[1 b if all[$ to collect 9 pools x w und]go fur!r putresc5ce & be objectionable4 ,x may be possible to use a small creek = f9al disposal b "o 9 :i* ! efflu5t f a septic tank alone w\ld be objectionable4 ,9 su* a case ! use ( ! septic tank comb9$ ) an ana]obic filt] w\ld probably give a p]missible degree ( purity4 ,) a plant compos$ ( a septic tank & ana]obic filt]1 sewage is r5d]$ almo/ free f odor & ! efflu5t w n und]go fur!r putresc5ce :5 collect$ 9 pools4 ,9 _m cases x is desir$ to purify ! efflu5t /ill fur!r1 ei!r because ( lack ( means = f9al disposal or because ! efflu5t w\ld contam9ate ! wat] into :i* x is dis*>g$4 ,9 su* cases ! plant w consi/ ( ! septic tank1 an ana]obic filt] & a filt] dit* or s&-b$ filt]4 ,! efflu5t f su* a plant w be cle> sp>kl+ wat] t might be mi/ak5 = spr+ wat]4 ,! design & con/ruction ( sewage-disposal plants has be5 made a subject ( inve/igation 9 a numb] ( ,/ate eng9e]+ exp]im5t /ations4 ,9 addition1 manufactur]s ( cem5t h prep>$ descriptive lit]ature t is s5t gratis on application4 ,^! bullet9s conta9 detail$ in=mation z to ! work+ prop]ties & con/ruction ( private plants to suit ! v>i\s conditions ( disposal4 ,! foll[+ is tak5 by p]mission ( ! ,univ]sal ,portl& ,cem5t ,co4 f _! bullet9 on 8,concrete ,septic ,tanks40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--,septic tank4 ,?is %[s ! con/ruction z if cut away along a c5t] l9e foll[+ its l5g?1 also a section ( ! siphon *amb] & a plan ( ! :ole con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef;a4--,photographic reproduction ( a concrete septic tank1 simil> to t ( ,fig4 #aec4 ,! tank requires only ! cov] to make x complete4 8,! design 9 ,fig4 #aef %[s a septic tank z x w\ld appe> if p>tly cut away to expose ! int]ior to view1 & z if cut 9 half along a c5t] l9e foll[+ its l5g?4 ,?is type w be f\nd to op]ate effectively :]e f9al disposal is accompli%$ by sub-surface irrigation4 ,?is sy/em once />t$ is self-op]at+ due to ! siphon %[n 9 ! second1 or "r-h& comp>tm5t1 :i* at regul> int]vals empties ! cont5ts & dis*>ges !m into ! l9e ( tile f :i* ! liquids lea* out ?r\gh jo9ts into ! soil4 ,9 a tank con/ruct$ z %[n 9 ! design m5tion$1 x is v important to use a siphon to empty ! second comp>tm5t at int]vals in/ead ( all[+ a cont9u\s outw>d fl[ ( cont5ts1 because ( ! t5d5cy = dra9s to become clogg$ :5 liquids are con/antly trickl+ ?r\gh4 8,! size ( tank requir$ = resid5ce use dep5ds ^u ! quantity ( sewage to be h&l$ 9 ! fir/ *amb] dur+ a day ( #bd h\rs2 !re=e1 ?is comp>tm5t %\ld be l>ge en\gh to conta9 an entire day's fl[4 ,?is frequ5tly am\nts to f #cj to #ej gallons p] p]son p] day1 s ! requir$ capacity c readily be comput$ f ^! figures1 al?\gh x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! requir$ dep? = ! tank %\ld be figur$ f ! top ( ! concrete baffle wall or p>tition :i* sep>ates ! fir/ & second comp>tm5ts4 ,ano!r po9t to be> 9 m9d is t ! wid? ( ! fir/ comp>tm5t %\ld be ab\t "o-half its l5g?40 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,coal ,coal is ( prehi/oric orig91 =m$ f accumulation ( vegetable matt]1 suppos$ to be ! rema9s ( imm5se =e/s4 ,9 pa/ ages ! deposits und]w5t de/ructive di/illation f great heat & 0 subject$ to pressure1 suffici5t to compress x into v>y+ degrees ( h>dness4 ,coal is compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 ) small quantities ( nitrog5 & v>y+ am\nts ( sulphur & a%4 ,! coals f diff]5t geological =mations v>y 9 quality f ! h>d dry an?racites to ! s(t wet lignites1 ) ! int]m$iate bitum9\s coals2 all ( :i* furni% fuels t :5 burn$ w produce am\nts ( heat1 dep5d+ on _! composition1 ! quantity ( moi/ure conta9$ & ! conditions ( _! combu/ion4 ,c>bon1 ( :i* coal is pr9cipally compos$1 exi/s 9 diff]5t comb9ations1 dep5d+ on ! condition ( its =mation4 ,"p ( ! c>bon is comb9$ ) hydrog5 to =m hydroc>bon t may be driv5 (f :5 heat$1 & :i* =ms ! volatile portion ( ! coal4 ,! rema9d] ( ! c>bon appe>s 9 ! =m ( coke--:5 ! volatile matt] is driv5 (f--& is said to be fix$4 ,! fix$ c>bon & volatile con/itu5ts toge!r make up ! combu/ible4 ,o!r +r$i5ts ( coal t require att5tion are ! moi/ure1 & ! incombu/ible matt] t =ms a%4 ,moi/ure v>ies 9 quantity f z l[ z #j4ge p] c5t4 9 h>d coal to #ej p] c5t4 9 lignite4 ,! am\nts ( a% 9 diff]5t coals v>y f #c to #cj p] c5t4 ( ! weights ( ! fuel4 ,! heat+ value ( coals diff]s 9 am\nt by reason ( ! v>iable quantities ( fix$ & comb9$ c>bons1 moi/ure & a%4 ,diff]5t coals are comp>$ 9 value by ! numb] ( ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd ( dry coal t c possibly be develop$ :5 burn$1 & ) ^! factors are giv5 ! p]c5tages ( moi/ure & a%4 ,!re are no di/9ct dem>kations betwe5 diff]5t grades ( coal4 ,! classifications are made because ( _! *ief *>act]i/ics & !y commonly are grad$ z an?racites1 semi-an?racites1 semi-bitum9\s & bitum9\s coals4 ,^! classes compreh5d ! mo/ common comm]cial coals ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,aside f ^? nam$ are =ms ( coal t are occasionally f\nd1 su* z graphitic an?racite1 cannel coal1 etc41 & ! v>i\s lignites4 ,! value ( coal z a heat-produc+ ag5t is repres5t$ by ! ,b4t4u4 x is capable ( turn+ to useful acc\nt4 ,! price ( coal %\ld be bas$ on ! am\nt ( heat x is capable ( g5]at+ :5 burn$4 ,9 consid]+ ! value ( coal = any p>ticul> purpose1 ?\ght mu/ be tak5 z to its *>act]i/ic prop]ties1 = coals t produce excell5t results = "o purpose may be v unsatisfactory 9 o!rs4 ,s(t coal conta9+ a l>ge p]c5tage ( volatile matt] usually produces a great am\nt ( smoke & unless c>efully fir$ ?is w cond5se & =m accumulations ( soot t are objectionable4 ,= reasons ( ?is k9d bitum9\s coals are (t5 sold at a l[] price ?an _! rat$ heat+ value might indicate4 ,an?racite or h>d coal possesses bright lu/r\s surfaces :5 newly fractur$1 t :5 h&l$ d n soil ! h&s4 ,x conta9s a high p]c5tage ( c>bon1 a small am\nt ( volatile matt] & little moi/ure4 ,x is greatly 9 dem& z a dome/ic fuel because x burns sl[ly ) an int5se heat1 practically )\t flame & produces no smoke4 ,x inv>iably comm&s a high] price ?an s(t coal1 b 9 heat+ value is n sup]ior to ! bett] grades ( s(t coal4 ,9 furnaces = h\se heat+ ! use ( s(t coal (t5 gives bett] satisfaction ?an h>d coal4 ,! grades ( h>d coal f\nd 9 ! m>ket w v>y ) ! dem& 9 any locality b ^? recogniz$ by ! trade are3 ,egg ,coal w pass ?r\gh #b-;in* me% scre54 ,/ove ,coal w pass ?r\gh #b-;in* me% scre54 ,*e/nut ,coal w pass ?r\gh #a-;in* me% scre54 ,pea ,coal w pass ?r\gh -in* me% scre54 ,no4 #a ,buck:eat ,coal w pass ?r\gh -in* me% scre54 ,no4 #b ,buck:eat ,coal w pass ?r\gh -in* me% scre54 ,no4 #c ,buck:eat ,coal w pass ?r\gh -in* me% scre54 ,h>d coal ( /ove & *e/nut sizes are ^? mo/ commonly us$ = dome/ic heat+1 because !y are well suit$ = furnaces & heat+ /oves4 ,( ! two sizes *e/nut coal is mo/ l>gely us$ & on acc\nt ( ! great] dem&1 ! price = ?is size is usually some:at 9 advance ( ! o!rs2 at ! same "t ! small] sizes--pea & buck:eat coals--are less 9 price = ! same grade ( coal4 ,"u conditions t w p]mit _! use ! latt] coals are an economical =m ( fuel4 ,bitum9\s or s(t coal repres5ts ! *ief fuel ( comm]ce4 ,! m>ket prices ( ^! coals are det]m9$ l>gely by reason ( _! reputation z desirable fuel4 ,! v>iations 9 price dep5d on ! physical qualities1 r ?an on ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 combu/ion4 ,! compositions ( coals v>y m>k$ly 9 diff]5t localities & (t5 9 ! same locality sev]al grades are produc$4 ,x sometimes happ5s t f diff]5t p>ts ( a m9e ! coal w diff] v mu* 9 heat value4 ,bitum9\s coals are r\ghly classifi$ z cok+ & free-burn+4 ,! =m] is valuable = gas manufacture & = production ( coke4 ,! cok+ coals fuse on be+ heat$1 all[+ ! volatile portion to escape2 & :5 ! gas has be5 all di/ill$1 ! residue is coke4 ,:5 us$ = gas mak+1 ! volatile portion =ms ! illum9at+ gas4 ,:5 burn$ 9 a furnace1 ! gases f s(t coal burn ) a yell[ flame & usually ) consid]able smoke4 ,! classification ( bitum9\s coals diff] some:at 9 ! ,ea/ f t ( ! ,we/4 ,ea/]n bitum9\s coals are commonly grad$3 ,a4 ,run-(-m9e coal unscre5$ coal z tak5 f ! m9e4 ,b4 ,lump coal t :i* passes ov] a b> scre5 ) #a-a_/d-;in* op5+s4 ,c4 ,nut coal t :i* passes ?r\gh a b> scre5 ) #a-a_/d-;in* op5+s & ov] "o ) #c_/d-;in* op5+s4 ,d4 ,slack all t :i* passes ?r\gh a #c_/d-;in* b> scre54 ,we/]n bitum9\s coal3 ,e4 ,run-(-m9e coal ! unscre5$ coal z tak5 f ! m9e4 ,f4 ,lump coal--divides z #f-;in*1 #c-;in* & #a-a_/d-;in* accord+ to ! diamet] ( ! me% ?r\gh :i* ! pieces pass ! scre5s4 ,g4 ,nut coal--v>y+ f #a-a_/d-;in* size to #c_/d-;in* 9 diamet]4 ,h4 ,scre5+ all coal :i* passes a #a-a_/d-;in* scre5 includ+ ! du/4 ,heat d]iv$ f coal--or any o!r fuel--9 ! process ( combu/ion is due to oxidation4 ,combu/ion or burn+ is caus$ by rapid oxidation4 ,:5 oxyg5 comb9es ) c>bon 9 suffici5t quantities1 c>bon dioxide is =m$ & at ! same "t heat is lib]at$4 ,9 burn+ fuel1 if ! c>bon is completely oxidiz$ & *ang$ into c>bon dioxide1 ! greate/ am\nt ( heat is produc$4 ,! requir$ oxyg5 is furni%$ by ! air1 :i* ?r\gh ! damp]s ( ! furnace regulates ! rate ( combu/ion4 ,oxidation ( ,hydroc>bons4--,9 ! oxidation ( hydroc>bons1 z t ( burn+ coal gas1 ! comb9ation ( ! elem5ts =ms c>bon dioxide & wat]4 ,! pres5ce ( ! wat]1 =m$ 9 combu/ion1 is (t5 %[n 9 ! =mation ( moi/ure on ! bottom ( a cold vessel :5 plac$ ov] a gas flame4 ,! same effect is obs]v$ 9 a newly light$ k]os5e lamp1 :5 ! film ( moi/ure =ms inside ! cold lamp *imney4 ,z soon z ! surfaces become heat$ ! moi/ure is evaporat$4 ,occasionally1 ! accumulation ( moi/ure 9 *imneys1 f ?is cause1 is suffici5t dur+ extremely cold wea!r to =m ice 9 ! "p ( ! *imney expos$ to ! outside air4 ,*imneys h be5 kn[n to become s /opp$ by accumulation ( ice f ?is cause z to mat]ially int]f]e ) ! draft4 ,! fix$ c>bon ( ! coal1 :5 oxidiz$1 has a con/ant heat+ value ( #ad1jjj ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd4 ,! volatile hydroc>bons develop am\nts ( heat :5 burn$1 dep5d+ on _! composition1 & diff] 9 coals f diff]5t localities4 ,! heat obta9$ f ! volatile "p ( coal dep5ds on its *emical composition & diff]s v mat]ially2 x may be z high z #ba1jjj ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd1 or z l[ z #ab1jjj ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd4 ,a high p]c5tage ( volatile matt] usually indicates a fuel t w produce a l>ge volume ( smoke1 :i*--unless ! combu/ion is complete 9 ! furnace--w deposit soot z soon z x is cond5s$1 ei!r 9 ! *imney or 9 ! outside air4 ,! a% has no heat+ value1 & ! conta9$ moi/ure has a negative heat+ effect1 because consid]able heat is requir$ to evaporate & raise x to ! temp]ature ( ! gases ( ! furnace4 ,9 burn+ fuel ! moi/ure uses up ! heat ( combu/ion 9 proportion z x appe>s 9 ! coal4 ,! moi/ure is b\ght z coal b requires heat to get rid ( x2 s ! p]c5tage ( wat] 9 coal %\ld be consid]$ v c>efully4 ,x is cu/om>y 9 comp>+ ! heat+ values ( coals1 to /ate ! proportionate p>ts ( fix$ c>bon1 volatile matt]1 moi/ure & a% z well z ! ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd ( dry coal4 ,! heat value 9 ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd ( fuel is usually obta9$ by burn+ samples 9 a calorimet] f :i* ! heat p] p\nd is calculat$4 ,! heat value ( fuels us$ 9 p[] plants are (t5 det]m9$ by c>eful te/s ( ! am\nt ( p[] d]iv$ = ea* p\nd ( fuel burn$ 9 ! furnace4 ,?is is done by weigh+ ! fuel burn$ & measur+ ! wat] evaporat$4 ,! a%es are weigh$ & ?is weight toge!r ) ! weight ( moi/ure pres5t is subtract$ f t ( ! coal to det]m9e ! am\nt ( combu/ible ( ! fuel4 ,! f9al results are express$ by ! numb] ( p\nds ( wat] evaporat$ p] p\nd ( combu/ible & also ! weight to wat] evaporat$ p] p\nd ( coal burn$4 ,semi-bitum9\s coal repres5ts a class betwe5 ! h>d & s(t grades4 ,x conta9s less c>bon & m volatile matt] ?an h>d coal4 ,x burns ) a %ort flame ) v little smoke & is valuable z a furnace fuel4 ,! ,pocahontas coal ( ,we/ ,virg9ia is an example ( ?is class4 ,semi-bitum9\s coal is (t5 call$ smokeless coal1 because 9 burn+ x produces relatively little smoke4 ,x w be not$ 9 ! table ( heat values on page #aib t coal ( ?is v>iety has high heat-produc+ prop]ties4 ,x is a v friable coal & = t reason is apt to conta9 consid]able du/4 ,z a furnace fuel x produces--:5 c>efully fir$--v satisfactory results4 ,graphitic ,an?racite4--,?is is a type ( coal f\nd 9 ,rhode ,isl& & ,massa*usetts :i* resembles bo? graphite & an?racite coal4 ,x is gray 9 color1 v h>d & burns ) extreme difficulty4 ,cannel ,coal4--,?is is a v>iety ( bitum9\s coal1 ri* 9 hydroc>bons4 ,x burns ) a bright flame )\t fus+ & is (t5 us$ = op5 fires4 ,lignite4--,?is is a type ( fuel t 9 po9t ( geological =mation repres5ts ! condition betwe5 true coal & peat4 ,lignite occurs 9 imm5se deposits ?r\gh\t ! middle portion ( ! we/]n half ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e b$s #bj feet 9 dep? are n uncommon4 ,x v>ies 9 color f black to br[n & 9 _m localities is kn[n z br[n coal4 ,:5 newly m9$1 lignite conta9s a l>ge p]c5tage ( wat]1 sometimes z high z #ej p] c5t4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is l>ge moi/ure cont5t x has a relatively l[ calorific value1 b :5 dry ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ p] p\nd comp>es v favorably ) s(t coal4 ,peat4--,z a fuel1 peat has be5 us$ v little 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates on acc\nt ( ! abundance ( ! bett] grades ( fuel1 b 9 _m p>ts ( ! c\ntry x is us$ locally to a consid]able ext5t4 ,9 peat bogs f :i* ! fuel is tak51 ! peat is =m$ f grasses & s$ges :i* 9 "t produce a c>bonace\s mass t becomes suffici5tly d5se to be tak5 out 9 sections1 ) a long n>r[ spade4 ,! peat is !n built into piles :]e aft] dry+ x is ready to be burn$4 ,wood4--,on acc\nt ( its relative sc>city & correspond+ly high price1 wood is no long] a comm]cial fuel ( any consequ5ce4 ,! l[ heat+ value ( wood z comp>$ ) coal makes x a prohibitive fuel except 9 =e/ localities4 ,wood is commonly sold by ! cord & no att5tion is giv5 by deal]s to its value 9 heat-produc+ capacity4 ,! desirability ( wood z a fuel is *iefly t ( reputation4 ,x is usually consid]$ t hickory is ! ideal fire wood1 dry maple a close second & t oak is next 9 desirability z fuel2 foll[+ :i* are a%1 elm1 bee*1 etc41 dep5d+ on ! d5sity ( ! wood4 ,! price ( wood p] cord dep5ds on ! ne>ness & abundance ( supply4 ,! actual heat+ values ( diff]5t woods z det]m9$ by ,gottlieb %[ t p] p\nd ( dry wood !re is little diff]5ce 9 heat value betwe5 diff]5t k9ds ( h>d woods1 & t p9e gives p] p\nd ! highe/ value ( all4 ,! table giv5 bel[ 0 tak5 f 8,/eam0 publi%$ by ! ,babcock-,wilcox ,co4 ,p] c5t4 ( ,b4t4u4 p] ,k9ds ( wood a% p\nd ,oak #j4cg #h1caf ,a% #j4eg #h1dhj ,elm #j4ej #h1eaj ,bee* #j4eg #h1eia ,bir* #j4bi #h1ehf ,fir #j4bh #i1jfc ,p9e #j4cg #i1aec ,popl> #a4hf #g1hcd ,will[ #c4cg #g1ibf ,9 consid]+ ?is table x mu/ be kept 9 m9d t ! values are = dry wood p] p\nd4 ,z giv5 9 ,k5t's 8,eng9e]'s ,pocket ,book0 ! weights ( diff]5t fuel woods p] cord 7?or\ghly air-dri$7 are ab\t z foll[s3 #a cord hickory or h>d maple #d1ejj p\nds equal to #a1hjj p\nds coal #a cord :ite oak #c1hej p\nds equal to #a1edj p\nds coal #a cord bee*1 r$ & black oak #c1bej p\nds equal to #a1cjj p\nds coal #a cord popl>1 *e/nut & elm #b1cej p\nds equal to #idj p\nds coal #a cord av]age p9e #b1jjj p\nds equal to #hjj p\nds coal ,! above values 9 p\nds ( coal may be tak5 to repres5t av]age bitum9\s coals4 ,z giv5 by ,suplee's 8,me*anical ,eng9e]s' ,ref]5ce ,book10 eight samples ( coals repres5t+ bitum9\s coals f m9es ea/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv] give an av]age heat+ value ( #ac1gee ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd4 ,*>coal4--,?is is made f wood by driv+ (f ! volatile con/itu5ts2 ! residual c>bon1 :i* =ms ! *>coal is a fuel t burns )\t smoke or flame4 ,*>coal is made by pil+ wood 9 a heap1 :i* is cov]$ ) e>?4 ,9 ! bottom ( ! heap a fire g5]ates ! necess>y heat = di/ill+ (f ! volatile matt]4 ,*>coal holds to wood ! same relation t coke be>s to coal4 ,coke4--,?is is ! residue f ! di/illation ( coal4 ,x comprises f #fj to #gj p] c5t4 ( ! orig9al coal & conta9s mo/ ( ! c>bon & all ( ! a% ( ! coal4 ,coke is gray 9 color & has a slightly metallic lu/]2 x is por\s1 brittle & 9 h&l+ gives out some?+ ( a metallic r+4 ,x is (t5 sold = fuel z a byproduct by gas factories4 ,9 heat+ value gas-coke gives ab\t #ad1jjj ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd :5 dry & z a consequ5ce is rat$ z an excell5t fuel4 ,clean coke burns )\t flame & is capable ( produc+ an int5se heat4 ,on acc\nt ( its por\s nature x occupies a relatively l>ge volume p] ton4 ,x is mo/ successfully burn$ 9 /oves & furnaces ) l>ge fire-boxes4 ,gas-coke1 :i* is ! residue f ! gas retorts1 is some:at inf]ior 9 heat+ value to coke made 9 ov5s b x is an excell5t fuel :]e furnaces are adapt$ to its use4 ,gas-coke is (t5 /or$1 by pil+ x 9 heaps1 9 ! op5 & on acc\nt ( its por\s nature x absorbs consid]able moi/ure4 ,:]e expos$ to ! wea!r ! am\nt ( conta9$ moi/ure dep5ds on ! am\nt ( ra9 or sn[ ! coke has absorb$4 ,?is am\nt is easily det]m9$ by weigh+ a fair sample & driv+ (f ! moi/ure 9 an ov54 ,! sample %\ld be weigh$ sev]al times until ! weight rema9s con/ant4 ,briquettes4--,briquett$ coal & o!r fuels are produc$ by compress+ coal du/ or o!r p[d]$ fuel1 mix$ ) coal t>s or o!r bitum9\s b9d] 9 suffici5t quantity to cause ! adhesion ( ! p>ticles :5 press$ into =m "u great pressure4 ,ow+ to ! relative *eapness ( fuel1 briquettes h be5 us$ b v little 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,) ! advance 9 ! price ( coal ( ! pa/ few ye>s1 !y h f\nd a place on ! m>ket & h become a common =m ( fuel4 ,! heat value ( briquettes w dep5d on ! k9d & quality ( mat]ial t ent]s into _! composition4 ,q g5]ally1 !y produce heat equal to ! av]age grade ( s(t coal4 ,9 ! ,nor?we/ briquettes made ( ,we/ ,virg9ia semi-bitum9\s coal sell at ! same price z run-(-m9e coal ( ! same quality4 ,_! use has prov5 satisfactory z a furnace fuel & !y w v likely be sold 9 increas+ quantities4 ,comp>ative ,value ( ,coal to ,o!r ,fuels4--,until a comp>atively rec5t "t1 coal has be5 sold by weight & reputation alone2 b conditions are rapidly approa*+1 :i* w require x to be sold accord+ to its composition & heat+ value4 ,among manufactur]s & o!rs us+ l>ge quantities ( fuel1 ! practice ( contract+ = coal by specification is becom+ increas+ly common4 ,! det]m9+ factors are ! am\nts ( moi/ure1 a%1 sulphur1 c>bon1 & volatile matt] ! coal conta9s1 z well z ! size ( ! pieces & fre$om f du/4 ,9 a few ( ! mo/ progressive cities1 coal deal]s are requir$ to supply coal = s*ools & o!r municipal uses1 :i* has be5 subject to ! approval ( ! ,city ,eng9e]4 ,! "t is n f> di/ant :5 deal]s w be requir$ to submit samples ( all fuel1 = sale to ! public1 to ! exam9ation ( ! municipal au?orities4 ,! foll[+ table ( ! heat+ values ( v>i\s fuels is tak5 f ,b5son's 8,indu/rial ,*emi/ry40 ,,briti% ,,!rmal ,,units ,,= ,,"o ,,c5t ,,f ,,diff]5t ,,fuels ,acetyl5e1 f c>bide at #aj c5ts p] p\nd #fjj ,d5atur$ alcohol1 at #dj c5ts p] gallon #b1jjj ,air gas 7f gasol9e1 #hj;,b at #be c5ts p] gallon7 #c1jjj ,wat] gas1 at #a p] #ajjj cubic feet #c1jjj ,coal gas1 at #a p] #ajjj cubic feet #f1ejj ,gasol9e1 at #bj c5ts p] gallon #g1ejj ,k]os5e1 at #ae c5ts p] gallon #aa1jjj ,natural gas1 at #ej c5ts p] #ajjj cubic feet #ah1jjj ,*>coal1 at #aj c5ts p] bu%el 7#ae p\nds7 #bj1jjj ,petroleum at #e c5ts p] gallon #cj1jjj ,produc] gas1 f an?racite1 #g p] ton #cj1jjj ,produc] gas1 f coke1 #e p] ton #cf1jjj ,an?racite1 at #g p] ton #df1jjj ,produc] gas1 f s(t coal1 at #c p] ton #ej1jjj ,coke1 at #e p] ton #ed1jjj ,mond produc] gas f s(t coal1 at #c p] ton #fe1jjj ,s(t coal1 at #c p] ton #hj1jjj ,price ( ,coal4--,! value ( coal z a fuel w dep5d on ! am\nt ( heat x is capable ( produc+ :5 burn$2 its price %\ld !re=e be det]m9$ by ! heat+ value p] p\nd ( fuel z pur*as$4 ,second>y det]m9+ factors 9 price are ^? ( conv5i5ce ( h&l+ & ! difficulty 9 burn+ ! fuel su* z ! size & uni=mity ( ! pieces1 ! =mation ( cl9k]s1 smoke & accumulation ( soot4 ,s(t coals1 conta9+ a l>ge am\nt ( volatile matt]1 usually produce mu* soot & smoke & z a consequ5ce sell = a l[] price ?an coals t produce little smoke4 ,! selection ( fuels w dep5d on ! type ( heat+ plant 9 use1 :e!r by /oves or by furnaces4 ,if by /oves1 :e!r x is possible to use s(t coal z a fuel4 ,! automatically f$ /ove1 ( ! base-burn] type1 are usually design$ = ! use ( h>d coal & 9 su* /oves ! use ( s(t coal w\ld n be possible4 ,o!r /oves & furnaces are usually capable ( burn+ s(t coal ) v>y+ degrees ( satisfaction1 dep5d+ on ! design & surr\nd+ conditions4 ,! foll[+ prices1 f ! local m>ket1 %[ ! usual rat+s ( v>i\s fuels 9 common use4 ,^! prices v>y ) ! locality & some:at ) ! season4 ,x is usually possible to pur*ase coal at "s r$uction 9 price dur+ ! summ] mon?s :5 ! dem& = coal is light4 ,h>d coal--/ove size #aj4be p] ton ,h>d coal--nut size #aj4ej p] ton ,semi-bitum9\s--run-(-!-m9e #i4jj p] ton ,p5nsylvania bitum9\s--run-(-!-m9e #g4ej p] ton ,s(t coal--,ohio--run-(-!-m9e #g4ej p] ton ,s(t coal--,ill9ois--bitum9\s--run-(-!-m9e #g4ej p] ton ,s(t coal--,i[a--bitum9\s--run-(-!-m9e #g4ej p] ton ,briquettes-mixture semi-bitum9\s coal du/ #i4jj p] ton ,wood 7oak71 saw$1 /ove l5g? & split #h4ej p] cord ,! price ( coal is det]m9$ 9 _m localities by ! di/ance f ! s\rces ( supply & ! means ( transportation4 ,! fact t coals f all ( ! pr9cipal m9+ areas f ,p5nsylvania1 we/ to ,i[a1 are sold at po9ts 9 ! ,nor?we/ = ! same price1 is due 9 greate/ measure to transportation rates on ! ,great ,lakes4 ,! prices ( ,ea/]n coals at ,dulu? are su* t 9 competition ) ,we/]n coals !y are sold at ! same price z is %[n by ! table4 ,x is usually impossible = ! av]age h\sehold]1 or ev5 ! deal]1 to det]m9e def9itely ! exact locality f :i* 8 fuel is m9$4 ,ev5 :5 su* in=mation is obta9able1 ! quality is /ill 9 d\bt1 unless analysis is obta9able by sample4 ,! data giv5 9 ! foll[+ tables is su* z w furni% a fair k ( ! relative heat+ values ( coals f ! pr9cipal m9+ areas ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! data 0 obta9$ f a consid]able numb] ( au?orities b *iefly f ! reports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,! diff]5t items are n int5d$ to be exact1 !y m]ely repres5t reliable av]age conditions4 ,! v>y+ conditions ( available heat & p]c5tage ( moi/ure giv5 9 ! foll[+ table are su* z to be ( little use to ^? unaccu/om$ to problems ( ?is k9d1 unless a sy/ematic me?od ( comp>ison is made ( ! diff]5t fuels4 ,,approximate ,,composition ,,& ,,calorific ,,value ,,( ,,typical ,,am]ican ,,coals ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #c #g #b ,numb]1 #e #f ,b4t4u4 #a ,k9d ( ( ,moi/ure,volatile,fix$ p\nd p] #h ,locality coal samples matt] c>bon dry coal ,a% exam9$ ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,pa4 ,an?racite #ab #e4je #e4eb #hb4ed #ab1fhb #aa4ec ,md4 ,semi- #e #b4ci #ag4gc #ge4dd #ad1ecj #g4dj bitum9\s ,pa4 ,semi- #ae #c4fj #ai4bf #gd4df #ad1baa #h4cb bitum9\s ,w4 ,va4 ,semi- #ab #b4ej #ai4jj #ge4gj #ad1geh #e4bd bitum9\s ,ala4 ,bitum9\s #f #c4ee #bi4ii #ei4bd #ac1ebb #aj4gc ,ark4 ,bitum9\s #b #a4db #af4eh #gc4cg #ad1bje #aj4je ,colo4 ,bitum9\s #f #i4hi #cg4cd #eb4ec #ab1cbe #aj4cb ,ill4 ,bitum9\s #bb #aj4ca #cf4gc #ej4eb #aa1ejd #ab4gc ,ia4 ,bitum9\s #h #g4gb #ci4ae #ej4ed #ab1fef #aj4cc ,kan4 ,bitum9\s #c #d4be #cb4bj #ea4ag #ab1jca #ac4ge ,ky4 ,bitum9\s #i #e4ii #cd4eh #ef4ef #ac1cda #h4hf ,mo4 ,bitum9\s #i #aa4eb #cg4he #dh4aa #ab1cih #ad4jd ,ohio4 ,bitum9\s #ad #e4fe #ch4ea #ej4ei #ab1hci #aj4fe ,okla4 ,bitum9\s #c #e4gb #cd4hc #eb4gf #ab1fdh #ab4da ,n4,m4 ,bitum9\s #a #ab4ag #cf4ca #ea4ag #ab1abf #ab4eb ,pa4 ,bitum9\s #ae #b4dd #cc4da #eh4ca #ac1gcb #h4dj ,t5n4 ,bitum9\s #d #b4ec #cf4eh #eh4ba #ad1jih #e4dg ,tex4 ,bitum9\s #c #c4hd #ce4je #dh4ii #ab1cjb #ae4if ,va4 ,bitum9\s #e #b4ga #ca4cb #fb4dg #ad1jbe #f4ib ,w4 ,va4 ,bitum9\s #aj #b4fa #cc4ib #eh4hj #ad1jid #g4bg ,colo4 ,lignite #f #ai4ge #de4ba #de4he #aj1gii #h4ic ,n4 ,d4 ,lignite #e #ce4ic #dd4cc #dc4ba #aj1dbj #ab4de ,tex4 ,lignite #f #cj4hf #dd4jf #ci4ba #aj1big #af4gf ,wyo4 ,lignite #d #ad4ga #dh4dg #dd4di #aa1fjh #g4jce ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! foll[+ table 0 prep>$ f ! date ( t prec$+ comb9$ ) ! prices ( v>i\s coals to be obta9$ 9 ! local m>ket4 ,! table is int5d$ to pres5t a me?od ( comp>+ ! values ( fuels f diff]5t coal areas4 ,! consum] is int]e/$ to "k ! am\nt ( heat pur*as$ 9 ! =m ( fuel4 ,! table %[s 9 ! column head$ 8,heat p] #a10 ! numb] ( ,b4t4u4 pur*as$ = #a 9 coal2 ! numb] ( available ,b4t4u4 9 ! diff]5t k9ds ( coal may be tak5 z a relative comp>ison ( _! values z fuel4 ,! gas-coke 9 ! table is t sold by ! local gas company4 ,! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ?is case is relatively high because ( ! fact t ! coke is /or$ 9 a y>d expos$ to ! wea!r1 :]e x absorbs all precipitat$ moi/ure4 ,a less am\nt ( moi/ure w\ld give a high] value = ! same fuel4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,b4t4u4 p] ,price ,p] ,b4t4u4 to#ajj co/ p] c5t41,b4t4u4 p]evaporate p] #ajj ,heat ,k9d ( coal ton wat] #ajj p\nds wat] p\nds p] #a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a1ccf1efe ,bitum9\s #g4ej #b4dd #a1cdj1jjj - #c1dci --------- #c1efd1jjj ,p5nsylvania #j4cge ,b4t4u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,semi- #a1dae1fhe bitum9\s #i4jj #c4jf #a1dbj1jjj - #d1cae --------- #c1ade1jjj ,we/ ,virg9ia #j4de ,b4t4u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #a1aja1jab ,gas-coke #g4jj #aj4jj #a1aag1ijj - #af1hhh --------- #c1ade1jjj #j4ce ,b4t4u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,nor? #fjg1bhb ,dakota #d4ej #ce4ij #ffh1jjj - #ej1gbh ------- #b1gjc1jjj lignite #j4bbe ,b4t4u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #a1jag1fjb ,bitum9\s #g4ej #aj4ca #a1jcb1jjj - #ad1cih --------- #b1ihj1jjj ,ill9ois #j4cge ,b4t4u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #iid1ebi ,bitum9\s #g4ej #ac4aj #a1jab1jjj - #ah1dga ------- #b1feb1jjj ,i[a #j4cge ,b4t4u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #a1bbe1ije ,h>d coal #aj4ej #c4je #a1bcj1jjj - #d1aie --------- #b1cce1jjj ,p5nsylvania #j4ebe ,b4t4u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,semi-bitum9\s coal comm&s consid]able favor z a h\se-heat+ fuel1 because ( ! fact t x burns ) mu* less smoke ?an bitum9\s coal4 ,9 available heat x is consid]ably above ! ,we/]n bitum9\s coal & x sells at a price #a4ej high] p] ton4 ,! reason = ! diff]5ce 9 price is n s mu* on acc\nt ( its heat+ value1 z because ( relatively small am\nt ( smoke produc$ 9 combu/ion4 ,o!r coals capable ( produc+ m heat are sold at less price because ( smoke & soot produc$ 9 burn+4 ,h>d coal at #aj4ej is ! mo/ exp5sive coal ( all4 ,! ratio ( available heat units p] #a = h>d coal1 z comp>$ ) ! be/ s(t coal1 is z #bc is to #ce4 ,?is means t at ! /at$ prices ^? :o burn h>d coal pay ! additional price1 because ( ! physical prop]ties x possesses4 ,9 con/ruct+ ! above table1 #ajj p\nds ( coal 0 tak5 z a unit ( comp>ison4 ,! price p] ton is t giv5 9 ! table ( local prices4 ,! p] c5t4 ( moi/ure & ! ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd ( fuel 0 tak5 f table on page #aib4 ,9 expla9+ ! me?od by :i* ! diff]5t items 7 obta9$1 x w be necess>y to discuss briefly ! condition ( combu/ion & ! heat losses t take place :5 fuel is burn$4 ,! moi/ure 9 ! fuel is ! undesirable "p1 because x requires a l>ge am\nt ( heat to dispose ( x4 ,x is look$ ^u z s mu* wat]1 t mu/ be rais$ 9 temp]ature f t 9 :i* x is tak5 f ! coal b9 to ! temp]ature & condition ( vapor 9 :i* x passes into ! *imney4 ,:5 ! fuel ent]s ! furnace ! wat] is heat$ to ! boil+ po9t4 ,9 *ang+ temp]ature x absorbs #a ,b4t4u4 = ea* p\nd ( wat]1 ?r\gh ea* degree ( *ange4 ,suppose t1 z 9 ! case ( ,p5nsylvania bitum9\s coal :i* conta9s #b4dd p\nds ( wat] to ea* #ajj p\nds ( coal1 ! coal ent]+ ! furnace 0 at #ej;,f4 ,to raise its temp]ature to ! boil+ po9t 7#bab;,f47 requir$ a *ange ( #afb4 ,! #b4dd p\nds ( wat] rais$ ?is am\nt #afb #b4dd #cie4bh ,b4t4u4 ,to *ange ! #b4dd p\nds ( wat]1 into /eam at ! atmosph]ic pressure requires #ifi4g ,b4t4u4 7heat ( vaporization71 practically #igj ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd ( wat]4 ,! heat requir$ to vaporize #b4dd p\nds ( wat] is #b4dd #igj #bcff4hj ,b4t4u4 ,! vapor is n[ rais$ 9 temp]ature1 to t ( ! furnace1 :i* we may assume is #abjj;,f4 ,! furnace be+ at atmosph]ic pressure ! vapor m]ely exp&s 9 volume z a gas4 ,! specific heat ( /eam at atmosph]ic pressure is #j4dfd2 t is1 #a p\nd ( /eam requires only #j4dfd ,b4t4u4 to raise x a degree1 & #b4dd p\nds ( wat] w absorb #j4dfd #b4dd #abjj #acef4jj ,b4t4u4 ,( ?is la/ am\nt ( heat1 approximately #ej p] c5t4 is recov]$ z ! gases pass ?r\gh ! furnace4 ,! total loss ( heat due to ! evaporation ( ! wat] is ,rais+ temp]ature f normal to #bab #cie ,b4t4u4 ,evaporation #b1cff ,b4t4u4 ,*ang+ temp]ature ( vapor1 less #ej p] c5t4 #fgh ,b4t4u4 ------------ ,total heat loss #c1dci ,b4t4u4 ,9 ! #ajj p\nds ( coal "u consid]ation1 !re is #ajj p\nds1 less #b4dd p\nds ( wat]1 or #ig4ef ( dry coal1 ea* p\nd ( :i* conta9s #ac1gcb ,b4t4u4 z giv5 by ! table on page #aic4 ,?is gives #ig4ef #ab1fhb #a1cci1gec practically #a1cdj1jjj ,b4t4u4 ,f ?is quantity is subtract$ ! loss ( heat1 #cdci4 #a1cdj1jjj - #cdci #a1ccf1efa ,b4t4u4 ,?is repres5ts ! total available heat 9 #ajj p\nds ( coal4 ,if ?is quantity is n[ divid$ by ! co/ ( #ajj p\nds ( coal at #g4be p] ton1 ! result1 #c1efd1jjj ,b4t4u41 w be ! available heat b\ght = #a z giv5 9 column #g ( ! table4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,atmosph]ic ,,humidity ,! physical effect ( atmosph]ic humidity has come to be recogniz$ by all :o deal 9 problems ( h\se heat+1 sanitation & hygi5e4 ,! diff]5ce 9 effect ( dry atmosph]e1 f t ( air conta9+ a desirable degree ( moi/ure1 is v noticeable 9 all build+s t are artificially heat$4 ,! effect ( dry air is made app>5t 9 ! av]age home dur+ ! w9t] mon?s by ! %r9k+ ( ! woodwork & furniture4 ,! absorption ( ! moi/ure f ! build+ :i* is usually t]m$ 8dry+ out10 causes ! jo9ts 9 ! floors & casem5ts to op51 doors to %r9k until !y fail to lat* & draw]s t h op5$ ) difficulty dur+ ! summ] !n "w freely4 ,w9t] "t is ! season ( preval5t colds1 *aps & r\ghness ( ! sk91 n s mu* on acc\nt ( cold wea!r z because ( dry air4 ,! sk9 :i* is normally moi/ is kept dry by con/ant evaporation ) ! att5d+ discom=t ( an irritat$ surface & ! results :i* foll[4 ,! humidity ( ! air 9 :i* we live & on :i* we dep5d = life has mu* to d ) ! bodily com=t we d]ive 9 exi/5ce1 & is suspect$ ( be+ ! cause ( _m physical ailm5ts4 ,v5tilation eng9e]s n only recognize ?is condition b h f\nd means ( controll+ x4 ,x is possible to s control atmosph]e temp]ature & humidity ( build+s z to produce any desir$ condition4 ,humidity ( ! ,air4--,! am\nt ( wat] vapor 9 ! air is call$ ! humidity ( ! air4 ,x may v>y f a fraction ( a gra9 p] cubic foot 9 extremely cold wea!r1 to #bj gra9s p] cubic foot dur+ ! occasional hot wea!r ( summ]4 ,s9ce ! am\nts ( moi/ure t air w hold dep5ds on its temp]ature1 & z ! air is ord9>ily only p>tly saturat$1 ! v>y+ am\nt ( moi/ure are express$ ei!r z relative humidity & /at$ 9 p] c5t4 saturation or 9 ! actual weight ( wat] 9 gra9s p] cubic foot & kn[n z absolute humidity4 ,! relative humidity ( ! atmosph]e is ! am\nt ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 a giv5 space z comp>$ ) ! am\nt ! same air c\ld possibly hold at t temp]ature4 ,w>m air w hold m moi/ure ?an ! same air :5 cold4 ,air absorbs wat] l a sponge to a po9t ( saturation4 ,:5 ! air is fill$ ) moi/ure1 any *ange :i* takes place to r$uce ! temp]ature also r$uces its capacity to hold ! wat] vapor & ! excess is deposit$ z dew4 ,?is sup]saturation ord9>ily takes place ne> ?+s :i* lose _! heat fa/] ?an ! surr\nd+ air & ! ne>e/ cold] surface acts z a cond5s] to receive ! drops ( dew4 ,grass be+ 9 conv5i5t position is ! commone/ receptacle = dew =mation4 ,if ! dew =ms 9 ! air x falls z ra91 b if ! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t is bel[ freez+1 ! dew imm$iately freezes & sn[ is ! result4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( problems t involve atmosph]ic moi/ure1 bo? relative & absolute humidity are factors ( common use1 t are capable ( exact det]m9ation4 ,! relative humidity ( ! air is mo/ readily det]m9$ & z x expresses ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e 9 :i* plants & animals live & ?rive1 z oppos$ to o!r conditions ( humidity 9 :i* !y sometimes sick5 & die1 x is "o ( ! indicators ( ! quality ( atmosph]ic air4 ,9 ! subject ( v5tilation1 :i* is und]tak5 lat]1 x w be f\nd t a def9ite k ( atmosph]ic humidity has mu* to d ) ! successful op]ation ( v5tilation app>atus4 ,mo/ p recognize ! 8balmy air ( ,june0 )\t realiz+ j :y at ! same temp]ature o!r seasons are n s delightful4 ,9 reality x is ! condition ( atmosph]ic humidity comb9$ ) an agreeable temp]ature t gives ! k9d ( air 9 :i* we f9d ! greate/ degree ( com=t4 ,! effect ( mod]ately w>m humid air is t ( high] temp]ature ?an ! !rmomet] indicates4 ,:5 ! atmosph]e is ne> ! po9t ( saturation1 ! evaporation :i* usually goes on1 f ! surface ( ! body1 practically ceases4 ,9 summ] "t a temp]ature ( #he;,f4 ) relative humidity ( #ij p] c5t4 saturation seems w>m] ?an a temp]ature ( #ajj at #dj p] c5t4 saturation1 because ( ! cool+ effect produc$ by ! increas$ evaporation due to ! dri] air4 ,9 w9t]1 :5 mo/ ( ! "t is sp5t indoors1 9 an atmosph]e t is v dry1 ! s5sation ( discom=t produc$ by ! lack ( humidity (t5times leads to physical d]angem5ts t w\ld nev] appe> "u m desirable conditions4 ,! cause ( _m ailm5ts ( ! nose1 ?roat & lungs dur+ ! w9t] mon?s is attribut$ by physiologi/s to brea?+ almo/ con/antly ! dry vitiat$ indoor air4 ,! cause ( dry air 9 build+s is n difficult to expla92 x is a great deal m difficult to realize t ! lack ( wat] bre$s s mu* discom=t4 ,9 ord] to express ! condition ( humidity t may exi/ 9 ! av]age dwell+1 (fice or s*ool-room dur+ ! w9t]1 x is mo/ conv5i5t to ref] to ! results ( v>y+ atmosph]ic conditions t are giv5 9 ,table #a--,prop]ties ( ,air--:i* appe>s bel[4 ,9 ! second column ( ! table1 "u ! head+ 8,weight ( vapor p] cubic foot ( saturat$ air10 w be f\nd ! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 gra9s p] cubic foot t w be requir$ to humidify air at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,x w be se5 t at #aj ! air w conta91 :5 fully saturat$1 only #a4aa gra9s ( wat]1 :ile at #gj temp]ature ! same air w\ld hold #h gra9s ( wat]4 ,^! am\nts w be f\nd 9 ! column opposite ! temp]ature read+s4 ,x is at once evid5t t :5 saturat$ air at #aj is rais$ to normal temp]ature #gj1 ! orig9al am\nt ( moi/ure is conta9$ 9 an atmosph]e capable ( hold+ #h gra9s ( wat]4 ,its relative humidity w !re=e be #a4aa_/h1 practically #ad p] c5t4 saturat$4 ,unless moi/ure is receiv$ by ! air f "s o!r s\rce ?is condition w produce a v dry atmosph]e4 ,! normal atmosph]ic temp]ature ( #gj;,f4 ) a relative humidity ( #ej to #fj p] c5t4 saturation produces a condition t is "o ( agreeable w>m? to ! av]age p]son 9 heal? & is recogniz$ z ! atmosph]e mo/ desirable4 ,to "s1 ?is /ate ( temp]ature & humidity is t ( too mu* w>m? & a temp]ature ( #fh1 ) ! same humidity1 is mo/ agreeable4 ,at ! same temp]ature1 a r$uction ( ! humidity to #bj p] c5t4 saturation w produce a feel+ ( discom=t & ! s5sation w be t ( a lack ( heat4 ,! cause = ?is latt] feel+ is due to excessive evaporation ( moi/ure f ! body4 ,,table ,i4--,,prop]ties ,,( ,,air ------------------------------------- ,weight ( vapor p] ,weight ( ,temp]aturecubic foot (cubic foot ( ( ! air saturat$ airsaturat$ air ------------------------------------- ,fahr5heit ,gra9s ,gra9s #aj #a4aa #ehi4d #aa #a4ae #ehh4a #ab #a4ai #ehf4h #ac #a4bd #ehe4e #ad #a4bh #ehd4b #ae #a4cb #ehb4i #af #a4cg #eha4f #ag #a4da #ehj4c #ah #a4dg #egi4a #ai #a4eb #egg4h #bj #a4eh #egf4e #ba #a4fc #ege4c #bb #a4fi #egd4j #bc #a4ge #egb4g #bd #a4ha #ega4e #be #a4hg #egj4b #bf #a4ic #efi4j #bg #b4jj #efg4g #bh #b4jg #eff4e #bi #b4ad #efe4c #cj #b4ba #efd4a #ca #b4bi #efb4h #cb #b4cg #efa4f #cc #b4de #eff4d #cd #b4ec #eei4b #ce #b4fb #eeh4j #cf #b4ga #eef4h #cg #b4hj #eee4f #ch #b4hi #eed4d #ci #b4ii #eec4b #dj #c4ji #eeb4j #da #c4ai #eej4h #db #c4cj #edi4f #dc #c4da #edh4d #dd #c4eb #edg4b #de #c4fd #edf4a #df #c4gf #edd4i #dg #c4hh #edc4g #dh #d4ja #eda4c #di #d4ad #edb4e #ej #d4bh #edj4b #ea #d4db #eci4j #eb #d4ef #ecg4i #ec #d4ga #ecf4g #ed #d4hf #ece4e #ee #e4jb #ecd4d #ef #e4ah #ecc4b #eg #e4cd #ecb4a #eh #e4ea #ecd4i #ei #e4fi #ebi4h #fj #e4hg #ebh4f #fa #f4jf #ebg4j #fb #f4be #ebf4c #fc #e4de #ebe4b #fd #f4fe #ebd4j #fe #f4hg #ebb4j #ff #g4jh #eba4g #fg #g4cj #ebj4j #fh #g4ec #eai4d #fi #g4gf #eah4c #gj #h4jj #eag4b ,! evaporation ( moi/ure is always accompani$ ) ! loss ( heat requir$ to produce su* *ange ( condition4 ,?is is kn[n z ! heat ( vaporization & repres5ts a def9ite am\nt ( heat t is us$ up :5ev] wat] is *ang$ into vapor4 ,no matt] :at its temp]ature may be--:e!r hot or cold--:5 wat] is vaporiz$1 a def9ite am\nt ( heat is requir$ to *ange ! wat] into vapor4 ,wat] may be evaporat$ at any temp]ature2 ev5 ice evaporates4 ,a common in/ance ( ! latt] is t ( wet clo!s :i* 8freeze dry0 9 w9t] wea!r :5 hung on ! clo!s l9e4 ,! rate at :i* evaporation takes place dep5ds on ! dryness ( ! surr\nd+ air & ! rapidity ( its motion4 ,9 dry w9dy wea!r evaporation is mo/ rapid4 ,z be=e /at$1 :5ev] wat] evaporates--at no matt] :at temp]ature--a def9ite quantity ( heat is necess>y to *ange ! wat] into vapor4 ,! exact am\nt ( heat requir$ to produce ?is *ange v>ies some:at ) ! temp]ature & atmosph]ic pressure b x always repres5ts a l>ge loss ( heat4 ,at ! boil+ po9t ( wat] 7#bab;,f47 ! heat ( vaporization is #igj ,b4t4u4 = ea* p\nd ( wat] evaporat$1 b at a l[] temp]ature x is great] ?an t am\nt4 ,at ! temp]ature ( ! body 7#ih4f7 ! heat necess>y to evaporate a p\nd ( moi/ure f its surface is #ajde ,b4t4u4 ,x is ! absorption ( heat due to evaporation t cools ! air ( a spr9kl$ /reet4 ,! m rapid ! evaporation ! m pron\nc$ is ! decl9e ( temp]ature 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity4 ,! same effect is produc$ :5 moi/ure is evaporat$ f ! surface ( ! body4 ,! accel]ation ( evaporation caus$ by a breeze or ! bla/ ( air f an electric fan is t :i* produces ! *ill+ s5sation to ! body4 ,dur+ w9t] wea!r ! effect ( ! cold w9d is r5d]$ m sev]e by evaporation ( moi/ure f ! body4 ,9 heal?1 ! body be+ 9 a slightly moi/ condition1 ! evaporation :i* goes on f its surface is :at keeps x cool 9 w>m wea!r1 b if on acc\nt ( excessive dryness ( ! surr\nd+ air ! evaporation is v rapid1 a s5sation ( cold is ! result4 ,n only does excessively dry air produce ! s5sation ( *ill9ess b ! loss ( heat f ! body due to sudd5 or long exposure effects ! g5]al heal? & is conducive to *ills t are foll[$ by fev]4 ,9 heal? ! temp]ature ( ! body is con/ant & normally #ih4f;,f42 any condition t r$uces t temp]ature t5ds t[>d a l[]+ ( vitality & ! consequ5t inability to )/& ! attack ( disease4 ,9 a v dry atmosph]e ! sk91 in/ead ( be+ slightly moi/1 is kept dry1 ! result ( :i* is ! irritation t produces *aps & r\ghness ( ! surface4 ,reports ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,dep>tm5t %[ t ! relative humidity ( ,dea? ,valley1 :i* is ! drie/ & hotte/ kn[n c\ntry1 dur+ ! drie/ p]iod ( ! ye>--betwe5 ,may & ,septemb]--av]ages #ae4e p] c5t4 saturation4 ,9 w9t]1 _m build+s1 p>ticul>ly (fices & s*ool build+s are n f> f t atmosph]ic condition1 con/antly4 ,"u ! usual conditions ( h\se heat+1 !re is an almo/ absolute lack ( means to give moi/ure to ! air4 ,almo/ )\t exception /eam-heat+ plants & hot-wat] heat+ plants 9 (fice build+s & dwell+s are )\t any provision = *ang+ ! atmosph]ic humidity4 ,9 s*ool build+s t are n kept "u a m desirable condition ( temp]ature & humidity1 ! g5]al heal? is impair$ & ! behavior ( ! pupils v m>k$ly influ5c$4 ,! t5sion ( a s*ool-room full ( fidgety n]v\s *ildr5 c be v promptly & greatly r$uc$ by ! introduction ( wat] vapor into ! air to #ej p] c5t4 saturation4 ,all mod]n s*ool build+s1 auditoriums1 etc41 are provid$--aside f ! heat+ plants--) means ( v5tilat+ 9 :i* ! ent]+ air is wa%$ & humidifi$ to ! desir$ degree1 be=e be+ s5t into ! rooms4 ,! popul> conception ( ! hot-air furnace me?od ( heat+ is t x produces p>ticul>ly dry air1 :5 9 reality x is ! only type ( h\se-heat+ plant 9 :i* any provision is made = add+ wat] to ! air4 ,^! furnaces are usually furni%$ ) a wat] res]voir by use ( :i* ! humidity may be rais$ to a desirable po9t4 ,mu* ( ! wat] :i* ent]s ! air ( ! av]age home1 dur+ w9t] wea!r1 comes f ! evaporation t goes on 9 ! kit*54 ,usually on wa% days ! humidity is rais$ to a m>k$ degree & t day is commonly foll[$ by a %ort p]iod ( agreeable atmosph]ic condition4 ,! arrangem5t ( _m h\ses is su* t a mu*-improv$ condition ( humidity might be obta9$ f ! kit*5 by cont9u\s evaporation ( wat] f a tea-kettle4 ,,relative ,,humidity ,depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] 7t-t'7 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,air temp4 t #a4j #b4j #c4j #d4j #e4j #f4j #g4j #h4j #i4jaj4j ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ce #ia #hb #gc #fd #ee #df #cg #bi #bj #ab #cf #ia #hb #gc #fe #ef #dh #ci #ca #bc #ad #cg #ia #hc #gd #ff #eh #di #da #cc #be #ag #ch #ia #hc #ge #fg #ei #ea #dc #ce #bg #ai #ci #ib #hd #gf #fh #fj #eb #dd #cg #bi #ba #dj #ib #hd #gf #fh #fa #ec #df #ch #ca #bc #da #ib #hd #gg #fi #fb #ed #dg #dj #cc #bf #db #ib #he #gg #gj #fb #ee #dh #da #cd #bh #dc #ib #he #gh #gj #fc #ef #di #dc #cf #bi #dd #ic #he #gh #ga #fd #eg #ea #dd #cg #ca #de #ic #hf #gi #ga #fe #eh #eb #de #ci #cc #df #ic #hf #gi #gb #fe #ei #ec #df #dj #cd #dg #ic #hf #gi #gc #ff #fj #ed #dg #da #ce #dh #ic #hg #hj #gc #fg #fj #ed #dh #db #cf #di #ic #hg #hj #gd #fg #fa #ee #di #dc #cg #ej #ic #hg #ha #gd #fh #fb #ef #ej #dd #ci #ea #id #hg #ha #ge #fi #fc #eg #ea #de #dj #eb #id #hh #ha #ge #fi #fc #eh #eb #df #da #ec #id #hh #hb #ge #gj #fd #eh #ec #dg #db #ed #id #hh #hb #gf #gj #fe #ei #ed #dh #dc #ee #id #hh #hb #gf #ga #fe #fj #ee #di #dd #ef #id #hh #hb #gg #ga #ff #fa #ee #ej #de #eg #id #hh #hc #gg #gb #ff #fa #ef #ea #df #eh #id #hi #hc #gg #gb #fg #fb #eg #eb #dg #ei #id #hi #hc #gh #gc #fh #fc #eh #ec #dh #fj #id #hi #hd #gh #gc #fh #fc #eh #ec #di #fa #id #hi #hd #gi #gd #fh #fd #ei #ed #ej #fb #id #hi #hd #gi #gd #fi #fd #fj #ee #ej #fc #ie #ij #hd #gi #gd #gj #fe #fj #ef #ea #fd #ie #ij #he #gi #ge #gj #ff #fa #ef #eb ---------------------------------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,air temp4 t #aa4jab4jac4jad4jae4jaf4jag4jah4jai4jbj4 j ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ce #d #cf #f #cg #i #a #ch #ab #d #ci #ad #g #dj #af #i #b #da #ah #aa #e #db #ba #ad #g #j #dc #bc #af #i #c #dd #bd #ah #ab #e #de #bf #bj #ad #h #b #df #bh #bb #af #aj #d #dg #bi #bc #ag #ab #f #a #dh #ca #be #ai #ad #h #c #di #cb #bf #ba #ae #aj #e #ej #cc #bh #bb #ag #ab #g #b #ea #ce #bi #bd #ai #ad #i #d #eb #cf #cj #be #bj #ae #aj #f #j #ec #cg #cb #bg #bb #ag #ab #g #c #ed #ch #cc #bh #bc #ah #ad #i #e #j #ee #ci #cd #bi #be #bj #ae #aa #f #b #ef #dj #ce #ca #bf #ba #ag #ab #h #d #eg #da #cf #cb #bg #bc #ah #ad #aj #e #a #eh #db #ch #cc #bh #bd #bj #ae #aa #g #c #ei #dc #ci #cd #cj #be #ba #ag #ac #i #e #fj #dd #dj #ce #ca #bg #bb #ah #ad #aj #f #fa #de #dj #cf #cb #bh #bd #bj #af #ab #h #fb #df #da #cg #cc #bi #be #ba #ag #ac #i #fc #dg #db #ch #cd #cj #bf #bb #ah #ad #aa #fd #dh #dc #ci #ce #ca #bg #bc #bj #af #ab ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,relative ,,humidity 7,cont9u$7 ,depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] 7t-t7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,air temp4 #a4j #b4j #c4j #d4j #e4j #f4j #g4j #h4j #i4j #aj4j #aa4j t ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #fe #ie #ij #he #hj #ge #gj #ff #fb #eg #ec #dh #ff #ie #ij #he #hj #gf #ga #ff #fb #eh #ec #di #fg #ie #ij #he #hj #gf #ga #fg #fb #eh #ed #ej #fh #ie #ij #he #ha #gf #gb #fg #fc #ei #ee #ea #fi #ie #ij #hf #ha #gg #gb #fh #fd #ei #ee #ea #gj #ie #ij #hf #ha #gg #gb #fh #fd #fj #ef #eb #ga #ie #ij #hf #hb #gg #gc #fi #fd #fj #ef #ec #gb #ie #ia #hf #hb #gh #gc #fi #fe #fa #eg #ec #gc #ie #ia #hf #hb #gh #gc #fi #fe #fa #eh #ed #gd #ie #ia #hf #hb #gh #gd #gj #ff #fb #eh #ed #ge #if #ia #hg #hb #gh #gd #gj #ff #fc #ei #ee #gf #if #ia #hg #hc #gh #gd #gj #fg #fc #ei #ee #gg #if #ia #hg #hc #gi #ge #ga #fg #fc #ei #ef #gh #if #ia #hg #hc #gi #ge #ga #fg #fd #fj #eg #gi #if #ia #hg #hc #gi #ge #ga #fh #fd #fj #eg #hj #if #ia #hg #hc #gi #gf #gb #fh #fd #fa #eg #hb #if #ib #hh #hd #hj #gf #gb #fi #fe #fb #eh #hd #if #ib #hh #hd #hj #gg #gc #gj #ff #fc #ei #hf #if #ib #hh #he #ha #gg #gd #gj #fg #fc #fj #hh #if #ib #hh #he #ha #gh #gd #ga #fg #fd #fa #ij #if #ib #hi #he #ha #gh #ge #ga #fh #fe #fb #ib #if #ib #hi #he #hb #gh #ge #gb #fi #fe #fb #id #if #ic #hi #hf #hb #gi #ge #gb #fi #ff #fc #if #if #ic #hi #hf #hb #gi #gf #gc #gj #fg #fd #ih #if #ic #hi #hf #hc #gi #gf #gc #gj #fg #fd #ajj #if #ic #ij #hf #hc #hj #gg #gd #ga #fh #fe #ajb #if #ic #ij #hf #hc #hj #gg #gd #ga #fh #fe #ajd #ig #ic #ij #hg #hd #hj #gg #gd #gb #fi #ff #ajf #ig #ie #ij #hg #hd #ha #gh #ge #gb #fi #ff #ajh #ig #ic #ij #hg #hd #ha #gh #ge #gb #gj #fg ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,air temp4 #ab4j #ac4j #ad4j #ae4j #af4j #ag4j #ah4j #ai4j #bj4j t ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #fe #dd #dj #cf #cb #bh #be #ba #ag #ac #ff #de #da #cg #cc #bi #bf #bb #ah #ae #fg #df #db #ch #cd #cj #bg #bc #bj #af #fh #dg #dc #ci #ce #ca #bh #bd #ba #ag #fi #dg #dd #dj #cf #cb #bi #be #bb #ai #gj #dh #dd #dj #cg #cc #cj #bf #bc #bj #ga #di #de #da #ch #cd #ca #bg #bd #ba #gb #di #df #db #ci #ce #cb #bh #be #bb #gc #ej #df #dc #dj #cf #cc #bi #bf #bc #gd #ea #dg #dd #dj #cg #cd #cj #bg #bd #ge #ea #dh #dd #da #ch #cd #ca #bh #be #gf #eb #dh #de #db #ch #ce #cb #bi #bf #gg #eb #di #df #db #ci #cf #cc #cj #bg #gh #ec #ej #df #dc #dj #cg #cd #ca #bh #gi #ed #ej #dg #dd #da #cg #cd #ca #bi #hj #ed #ea #dg #dd #da #ch #ce #cb #bi #hb #ee #eb #di #df #dc #dj #cg #cd #ca #hd #ef #ec #ej #dg #dd #da #ch #ce #cb #hf #eg #ed #ea #dh #de #db #ci #cg #cd #hh #eh #ee #eb #di #df #dc #da #ch #ce #ij #ei #ef #ec #ej #dg #dd #db #ci #cg #ib #ei #eg #ed #ea #dh #de #dc #dj #ch #id #fj #eg #ed #eb #di #df #dd #da #ci #if #fa #eh #ee #ec #ej #dg #de #db #dj #ih #fa #ei #ef #ec #ea #dh #df #dc #da #ajj #fb #ei #eg #ed #eb #di #dg #dd #db #ajb #fc #fj #eg #ee #eb #ej #dg #de #dc #ajd #fc #fa #eh #ef #ec #ea #dh #df #ad #ajf #fd #fa #ei #ef #ed #ea #di #dg #de #ajh #fd #fb #ei #eg #ed #eb #ej #dg #de ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,! prevail+ impression seems to exi/ t :5 air is heat$1 x loses its moi/ure4 ,9 reality1 air t is heat$ only atta9s a condition 9 :i* its capacity = conta9+ moi/ure is increas$4 ,if aft] be+ heat$ to a high degree--& is relatively v dry--! air is r$uc$ to its orig9al temp]ature1 ! am\nt ( moi/ure w be ! same z 0 orig9ally conta9$4 ,9 heat+ h\ses ) hot air1 ! seem+ly dry condition is usually due to temp]ature alone4 ,:5 a hot-air furnace is provid$ ) ! cu/om>y res]voir = moi/5+ ! dis*>g$ air1 x may be made to produce excell5t conditions ( atmosph]ic humidity4 ,! heat$ air readily absorbs ! wat] evaporat$ 9 ! furnace f ! wat] res]voir & ent]s ! rooms z relatively dry air b conta9+ m moi/ure ?an ! outside air2 :5 x has be5 r$uc$ 9 temp]ature by mix+ ) ! cool] air ( ! h\se1 its moi/ure cont5t rema9s unalt]$ & at ! l[] temp]ature its relative humidity is increas$4 ,relative ,humidity4--,suppose t on a damp day ! outside temp]ature is #ej & t ! atmosph]e is #ij p] c5t4 saturat$4 ,! air t comes into ! h\se at ?is temp]ature & humidity is heat$ to #gj4 ,! rise ( temp]ature gives ! air ! prop]ty ( absorb+ additional moi/ure s t ! relative humidity :i* 0 #ij p] c5t4 is n[ mu* less4 ,f ! table relative humidity1 w be se5 t at #ej temp]ature & #ij p] c5t4 saturation ! air conta9s #c4fg gra9s ( moi/ure4 ,:5 ! air is heat$ to #gj1 x /ill conta9s ! orig9al am\nt ( moi/ure b its relative humidity has decreas$ ) ! *ange ( temp]ature4 ,x is really ! am\nt ( moi/ure pres5t--#c4fg gra9s--divid$ by ! am\nt necess>y to saturate ! air at #gj1 :i* is #h gra9s2 ?is gives approximately a relative humidity #dj p] c5t4 saturation4 ,z ! temp]ature goes l[]1 less & less moi/ure is requir$ to saturate ! air4 ,if saturat$ air at #j;,f41 :i* conta9s #j4dh gra9 ( wat]1 is rais$ to #gj;,f4--:]e #h gra9s ( wat] is requir$ = saturation--! p]c5tage ( saturation w\ld be #j4dh_/h or #f p] c5t4 ,! ,hygromet]4--,! in/rum5t mo/ commonly employ$ = det]m9+ atmosph]ic humidity is ! hygromet]4 ,?is appliance is compos$ ( two !rmomet]s m\nt$ 9 a frame ) a vessel = hold+ wat]4 ,"o ( ! !rmomet]s is int5d$ to regi/] ! temp]ature ( ! air & is call$ ! dry-bulb !rmomet]4 ,! bulb ( ! o!r--! wet-bulb !rmomet]--is cov]$ ) a piece ( clo? or o!r por\s mat]ial :i* is kept saturat$ ) wat]1 absorb$ f ! wat] hold]4 ,! dryness ( ! air is indicat$ 9 ! wet-bulb !rmomet] by ! decl9e ( temp]ature due to evaporation4 ,! rate ( evaporation f ! wet-bulb cov]+ w v>y ) ! humidity & if ! air is v dry ! wet-bulb !rmomet] w regi/] a temp]ature sev]al degrees bel[ t ( ! o!r !rmomet]4 ,if ! air is saturat$ ) moi/ure1 no evaporation w take place & ! !rmomet]s w read alike4 ,! relative humidity ( ! air z indicat$ by ! read+s ( ! !rmomet]s is tak5 directly f a humidity table4 ,! table is made to suit any condition ( atmosph]ic humidity & ! det]m9ations require no calculation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--;,hygromet] ( ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau type2 = det]m9+ atmosph]ic humidity4 ,fig4 #aeg %[s ! ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau patt]n hygromet] su* z is us$ at ! wea!r /ations4 ,! wet-bulb !rmomet] has a musl9 or knitt$ silk cov]+ :i* dips into a metal wat] cup z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,x is important t ! cov]+ ( ! wet bulb be kept 9 good condition4 ,! evaporation ( ! wat] f ! cov]+ leaves 9 ! me%es p>ticles ( solid matt] t 7 held 9 solution 9 ! wat]4 ,! accumulation ( ! solids ultimately prev5t ! wat] f ?or\ghly wett+ ! wick4 ,an obs]vation consi/s 9 read+ ! two !rmomet]s & f ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! wet-bulb read+ & t ( ! dry-bulb1 ! relative humidity is tak5 directly f ! table4 ,to illu/rate1 suppose t ! dry-bulb !rmomet] reads #fj & t ! wet-bulb reads #ef4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two read+s is #d4 ,9 ! table ( relative humidity on page #bjb1 #fj is f\nd 9 ! column head$1 ,air temp4 t1 & opposite t numb] 9 ! column head$ #d is #gh1 :i* indicates t "u ! obs]v$ conditions ! air is #gh p] c5t4 saturat$ ) moi/ure4 ,?is table is suit$ = air temp]atures f #ce;,f4 to #hj;,f4 & depressions ( ! wet-bulb !rmomet] f #a;,f4 to #bj;,f4 ,! table1 !re=e1 has a range ( v>iations :i* w admit humidity det]m9ations = all ord9>y conditions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--,! hygrodeik4 ,a =m ( hygromet] 9 :i* relative humidity is f\nd directly f a diagram4 ,! ,hygrodeik4--,9 ,fig4 #aeh is %[n a =m ( hygromet] kn[n z a hygrodeik1 by means ( :i* atmosph]ic humidity may be det]m9$ )\t ! use ( ! tables4 ,9 ! figure ! wet-bulb & dry-bulb !rmomet]s are easily recogniz$4 ,a glass wat] bottle ,w is held to ! base ( ! in/rum5t by spr+ clips :i* p]mit its removal to be fill$ ) wat]4 ,betwe5 ! !rmomet]s is a diagram *>t f :i* ! atmosph]ic humidity is tak54 ,an index arm1 c>ry+ a movable po9t] ,p1 p]mits ! in/rum5t to be set = any obs]v$ !rmomet] read+s4 ,! index is really a graphical me?od ( express+ ! figures giv5 9 ! table on pages #bjb-bjc4 ,9 ! picture ! wet-bulb !rmomet] reads #fe1 ! dry-bulb !rmomet] #gg4 ,to det]m9e ! relative humidity "u ^! conditions ! movable arm is swung to ! left & ! po9t] ,p plac$ on ! left-h& scale at ! l9e #fe4 ,! arm is !n swung to ! "r until ! po9t] t\*es ! d[nw>d curv+ l9e beg9n+ at #gg1 ! dry-bulb read+4 ,! l[] end ( ! arm ,h n[ po9ts to ! relative humidity1 :]e #eb p] c5t4 is indicat$ by ! scale at ! bottom ( ! index4 ,! same result is obta9$ f ! table ( ,relative ,humidity4 ,! read+s ( ! !rmomet]s 9 ! figure give a diff]5ce 9 temp]ature ( #ab1 ! dry-bulb !rmomet] reads #gg4 ,ref]r+ ?is data to ! humidity table1 ! column m>k$ #ab1 = ! depression ( ! wet-bulb !rmomet] & opposite #gg 9 ! air temp]ature column1 is f\nd #ec :i* indicates ! p] c5t4 ( saturation4 ,! hygrodeik gives fur!r ! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t1 on ! scale to ! "r2 & ! absolute humidity may be f\nd by foll[+ ! upw>d curv+ l9e ne>e/ ! po9t]1 at ! end ( :i* l9e is giv5 ! value 9 gra9s ( moi/ure p] cubic foot4 ,! hygrodeik or o!r in/rum5t ( ! k9d is v l>gely us$ 9 places :]e relative humidity is regul>ly obs]v$ by ^? ( limit$ exp]i5ce1 z 9 s*ool-rooms1 auditoriums1 etc4 ,su* records are n int5d$ to be p]fectly accurate & ! read+s ( ! hygrodeik are v well-suit$ = ! purpose4 ,9 us+ ! hygromet] & ! hygrodeik ! in/rum5ts are /ation>y2 !y are usually hung on ! wall 9 a conv5i5t location = obs]vation & are plac$ to avoid accid5tal drafts 9 ord] t ! conditions surr\nd+ ! obs]vation may be ! same at all times4 ,! evaporation :i* takes place f ! wet bulb is due to natural convection & does n always rea* ! maximum am\nt4 ,! evaporation is fur!rmore influ5c$ by accid5tal v>iations & consequ5tly ! results _c be consid]$ exact4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--,psy*romet] ( ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,bureau type2 = accurate det]m9ation ( atmosph]ic humidity4 ,"u conditions t dem& m exact humidity records ?an are obta9able ) hygromet]1 ! psy*romet] furni%es means ( mak+ m accurate obs]vation4 ,! psy*romet] %[n 9 ,fig4 #aei is ( ! =m us$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,wea!r ,dep>tm5t4 ,l ! hygromet]1 x is compos$ ( a wet-bulb & a dry-bulb !rmomet] b no wat] cup is atta*$ to ! in/rum5t = moi/5+ ! wick ( ! wet bulb4 ,:5 ready = use ! wick is wet ) wat] be=e ea* obs]vation4 ,! great] accuracy to be atta9$ by ! use ( ?is in/rum5t is on acc\nt ( ! maximum evaporation :i* is obta9$ f ! wet bulb = any atmosph]ic condition4 ,! evaporation :i* takes place f ! wet-bulb !rmomet] 9 quiet air is n s great z t :i* occurs if ! same air is 9 motion4 ,9 mov+ air1 h[ev]1 !re is a c]ta9 maximum rate beyond :i* no fur!r evaporation w take place4 ,! motion ( ! air may be produc$ ei!r by bl[+ on ! bulb ) a fan or air bla/1 or by :irl+ ! !rmomet]4 ,) ! psy*romet] ! latt] me?od is us$4 ,?is in/rum5t is provid$ ) a h&le :i* is pivot$ to ! frame & ab\t :i* x is swung to produce a maximum evaporation f ! wick4 ,:5 a motion ( ! air is atta9$ suffici5t to produce a saturat$ atmosph]e ab\t ! bulb1 ! temp]ature w rema9 con/ant4 ,a velocity ( air or ! motion ( ! wet-bulb !rmomet] #aj feet p] second is t usually tak5 z ! rate = obs]vation & ! sw++ is kept up #c or #d m9utes or until ! temp]ature ( ! wet-bulb !rmomet] rema9s /ation>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--;,dial hygromet]4 ,!n ! temp]ature ( ea* !rmomet] is read & ! humidity f\nd 9 ! table4 ,relative humidity det]m9ations may be made at temp]atures bel[ ! freez+ po9t if suffici5t precaution is tak5 9 ! obs]vations4 ,:5 ! in/rum5t is n 9 use1 x is kept 9 ! metallic case %[n 9 ! picture1 to protect x f injury4 ,dial ,hygromet]s4--,v>i\s =ms ( hygromet]s are 9 use1 9 :i* a po9t] is int5d$ to indicate on a dial ! p]c5tage ( atmosph]ic humidity4 ,t %[n 9 ,fig4 #afj is "o ( ! common =ms4 ,in/rum5ts ( ?is k9d dep5d = _! action on ! absorptive prop]ty ( catgut or o!r mat]ials t are s5sitive to ! moi/ure *anges ( ! air4 ,^! in/rum5ts give fairly accurate read+s 9 a small range = a limit$ "t1 b !y are apt to g out ( adju/m5t f causes t _c be controll$4 ,unless !y are occasionally comp>$ ) a /&>d humidity det]m9ation1 _! read+s _c be reli$ ^u = def9ite am\nts ( atmosph]ic moi/ure4 ,! ,swiss ,cottage 8,b>omet]40--,fig4 #afa is "o ( ! in/rum5ts ( absorptive class t are sometimes us$ z wea!r indicators4 ,! images :i* occupy ! op5+s 9 ! cottage are s arrang$ t ) ! approa* ( damp wea!r ! man comes outside & at ! same "t ! woman moves back into ! h\se4 ,9 fair wea!r ! rev]se movem5t takes place4 ,! figures are m\nt$ on ! opposite ends ( a light /ick :i* is fa/5$ to an upright pill>4 ,! movem5t ( ! images is caus$ by ! *ange 9 l5g? ( a piece ( catgut :i* is secur$ to ! pill> & also to ! frame ( ! h\se4 ,any *ange 9 atmosph]ic humidity causes a contraction or elongation ( ! catgut :i* moves ! pill> & ) x ! images4 ,s9ce /ormy wea!r is accompani$ by a high degree ( humidity & fair wea!r is att5d$ ) dry atmosph]e1 ! movem5t ( ! images indicates 9 "s degree ! wea!r *anges2 b ! device is n 9 any way influ5c$ by atmosph]ic pressure & h5ce is n a b>omet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,swiss cottage 8,b>omet]40 ,?is device is arrang$ to %[ ! condition ( atmosph]ic humidity by ! movem5t ( ! images4 ,x is n really a b>omet]4 ,dew-po9t4--,dew is =m$ :5ev] fall+ temp]ature ( ! air passes ! po9t :]e saturation occurs4 ,! r$uction ( ! temp]ature ( air raises ! relative humidity because ( ! dim9i%$ capacity to conta9 moi/ure4 ,z ! temp]ature decl9es !re w come a po9t at :i* ! air is saturat$ & any fur!r decrease ( temp]ature w cause sup]saturation4 ,at ?is po9t ! moi/ure w be deposit$ on ! cool] surfaces 9 ! =m ( drops4 ,! temp]ature at :i* dew beg9s to =m is kn[n z ! dew-po9t4 ,! sweat+ ( cold wat] pipes1 ! dew t =ms on a wat] glass & o!r relatively cold surfaces is caus$ by a temp]ature bel[ ! dew-po9t ( ! air4 ,,dew-,,po9t ,,table ,dew-po9t 9 degrees ,fahr5heit1 b>omet] pressure #bi in*es ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,air ,vapor ,depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] 7t-t7 temp4 press4---------------------------------- ------ t e #a4j #b4j #c4j #d4j #e4j #f4j #g4j #h4j ---------------------------------------- ------------- #cj #j4afd #bg #be #bb #ah #ad #i #c -#e #ca #j4agb #bi #bf #bc #bj #af #aa #e -#b #cb #j4ahj #cj #bg #bd #ba #ag #ac #h #a #cc #j4ahg #ca #bh #be #bb #ai #ae #aj #c #cd #j4aie #cb #bi #bg #bd #bj #af #ab #f #ce #j4bjc #cc #cj #bh #be #bb #ah #ad #h #cf #j4baa #cd #ca #bi #bf #bc #bj #ae #aa #cg #j4bai #ce #cb #cj #bg #bd #ba #ag #ac #ch #j4bbh #cf #cc #ca #bh #bf #bc #ai #ad #ci #j4bcg #cg #cd #cb #bi #bg #bd #ba #af #dj #j4bdg #ch #ce #cc #ca #bh #be #bb #ah #da #j4bef #ci #cg #cd #cb #bi #bf #bc #bj #db #j4bff #dj #ch #ce #cc #cj #bh #be #ba #dc #j4bgg #da #ci #cf #cd #ca #bi #bf #bc #dd #j4bhg #db #dj #ch #ce #cb #cj #bg #bd #de #j4bih #dc #da #ci #cf #cd #ca #bi #bf #df #j4caj #dd #db #dj #cg #ce #cb #cj #bg #dg #j4cbb #de #dc #da #ci #cf #cd #ca #bh #dh #j4ccd #df #dd #db #dj #cg #ce #cb #cj #di #j4cdg #dg #de #dc #da #ci #cf #cd #ca #ej #j4cfj #dh #df #dd #db #dj #cg #ce #cb #ea #j4cgc #di #dg #de #dc #da #ci #cf #cd #eb #j4chg #ej #dh #df #dd #db #dj #cg #ce #ec #j4djb #ea #di #dg #de #dc #da #ci #cf #ed #j4dag #eb #ej #di #dg #dd #db #dj #ch #ee #j4dcb #ec #eb #ej #dh #df #dc #da #ci #ef #j4ddh #ed #ec #ea #di #dg #de #dc #dj #eg #j4dfe #ee #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #db #eh #j4dhb #ef #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #de #dc #ei #j4dii #eg #ef #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #fj #j4eag #eh #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #de #fa #j4ecf #ei #eh #ef #ed #eb #ea #di #df #fb #j4eee #fj #ei #eg #ee #ed #eb #ej #dh #fc #j4ege #fa #fj #eh #ef #ee #ec #ea #di #fd #j4eie #fb #fa #ei #eh #ef #ed #eb #ej #fe #j4faf #fc #fb #fj #ei #eg #ee #ec #ea #ff #j4fch #fd #fc #fa #fj #eh #ef #ed #ec #fg #j4ffa #fe #fd #fb #fa #ei #eg #ef #ed #fh #j4fhd #fg #fe #fc #fb #fj #eh #eg #ee #fi #j4gjg #fh #ff #fd #fc #fa #fj #eh #ef #gj #j4gcb #fi #fg #ff #fd #fb #fa #ei #eg #ga #j4geg #gj #fh #fg #fe #fc #fb #fj #eh #gb #j4ghc #ga #fi #fh #ff #fe #fc #fa #fj #gc #j4haj #gb #gj #fi #fg #ff #fd #fb #fa #gd #j4hch #gc #ga #gj #fh #fg #fe #fd #fb #ge #j4hff #gd #gb #ga #fi #fh #ff #fe #fc #gf #j4hif #ge #gc #gb #gj #fi #fg #ff #fd #gg #j4ibf #gf #gd #gc #ga #gj #fh #fg #fe #gh #j4ieg #gg #ge #gd #gb #ga #fi #fh #ff #gi #j4ihi #gh #gf #ge #gc #gb #gj #fi #fg #hj #a4jbb #gi #gg #gf #ge #gc #gb #gj #fi ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,air ,vapor ,depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] 7t-t7 temp4 press4---------------------------------- ------ t e #i4j #aj4j #aa4j #ab4j #ac4j #ad4j #ae4j #af4j ---------------------------------------- ------------- #cj #j4afd -#bj #ca #j4agb -#ad -#ej #cb #j4ahj -#i -#bi #cc #j4ahg -#e -#bj #cd #j4aie -#b -#ad -#ej #ce #j4bjc #a -#h -#bh #cf #j4baa #d -#d -#ai #cg #j4bai #g -#a -#ab -#dd #ch #j4bbh #i #c -#g -#be #ci #j4bcg #ab #f -#c -#af #dj #j4bdg #ad #h #a -#aj -#ce #da #j4bef #af #aa #d -#e -#ba #db #j4bff #ag #ac #g -#a -#ac -#ei #dc #j4bgg #ai #ae #aj #c -#g -#bh #dd #j4bhg #ba #ag #ab #f -#b -#ag #de #j4bih #bb #ai #ad #h #b -#i -#cg #df #j4caj #bd #bj #af #aa #e -#d -#bj #dg #j4cbb #be #bb #ah #ac #h #j -#ab -#ec #dh #j4ccd #bg #bc #bj #ae #aj #d -#f -#be #di #j4cdg #bh #be #ba #ag #ac #g -#b -#ae #ej #j4cfj #bi #bg #bc #ai #ae #i #b -#h #ea #j4cgc #ca #bh #be #ba #ag #ab #f -#c #eb #j4chg #cb #bi #bf #bc #ai #ad #i #a #ec #j4djb #cd #ca #bh #bd #ba #af #aa #e #ed #j4dag #ce #cb #bi #bf #bc #ai #ad #h #ee #j4dcb #cf #cd #ca #bh #bd #ba #af #aa #ef #j4ddh #ch #ce #cb #bi #bf #bc #ai #ad #eg #j4dfe #ci #cf #cd #ca #bh #bd #ba #af #eh #j4dhb #dj #ch #ce #cb #bi #bf #bb #ah #ei #j4dii #db #ci #cg #cd #ca #bh #bd #bj #fj #j4eag #dc #da #ch #ce #cb #bi #bf #bb #fa #j4ecf #dd #db #ci #cg #cd #ca #bh #bd #fb #j4eee #df #dc #da #ch #ce #cb #cj #bf #fc #j4ege #dg #de #db #dj #cg #cd #ca #bh #fd #j4eie #dh #df #dd #da #ch #cf #cc #cj #fe #j4faf #di #dg #de #dc #dj #cg #cd #ca #ff #j4fch #ea #dh #df #dd #db #ci #cf #cc #fg #j4ffa #eb #ej #dh #de #dc #dj #ch #ce #fh #j4fhd #ec #ea #di #dg #dd #db #ci #cf #fi #j4gjg #ed #eb #ej #hd #df #dc #da #ch #gj #j4gcb #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #de #db #dj #ga #j4geg #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #df #dd #da #gb #j4ghc #eh #ef #ed #eb #ej #dh #de #dc #gc #j4haj #ei #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #dd #gd #j4hch #fj #eh #ef #ed #ec #ej #dh #df #ge #j4hff #fa #fj #eh #ef #ed #eb #ej #dg #gf #j4hif #fb #fa #ei #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #gg #j4ibf #fd #fb #fj #eh #ef #ed #eb #ej #gh #j4ieg #fe #fc #fa #ei #eh #ef #ed #eb #gi #j4ihi #ff #fd #fb #fa #ei #eg #ee #ec #hj #a4jbb #fg #fe #fd #fb #fj #eh #ef #ed ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,! temp]ature at :i* dew =ms w dep5d on ! am\nt ( moi/ure pres5t 9 ! air1 b ) a def9ite humidity & air pressure x w always occur at ! same temp]ature4 ,if ! dew-po9t is above freez+1 ! dew w =m z drops ( wat]1 b if x is at or slightly bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 ! dew w appe> z fro/4 ,:ite fro/ is =m$ :5 ! dew-po9t is only a few degrees bel[ ! freez+ po9t4 ,a ,black fro/ occurs :5 ! atmosph]ic humidity is s l[ t dew does n =m until ! temp]ature is mu* bel[ ! freez+ po9t4 ,to ,det]m9e ! ,dew-po9t4--,! dew-po9t may be f\nd by a numb] ( me?ods1 usually describ$ 9 works on physics b practical det]m9ations are made ) a hygromet] or psy*romet] & a dew-po9t table4 ,accurate det]m9ations mu/ be made by ! use ( ! psy*romet]2 ^? made by ! hygromet] are approximate4 ,suppose ! read+ ( ! dry-bulb !rmomet] is #fh & t ?is is designat$ z t2 at ! "t ! wet-bulb temp]ature is #eg & is call$ t4 ,! depression ( ! wet bulb = ^! temp]atures 7t-t7 is #aa4 ,9 ! dew-po9t table above is f\nd 9 ! dry-bulb column1 opposite ?is numb] 9 ! column head$ #aa--"u depression ( ! wet-bulb !rmomet]--is #di1 :i* is ! dew-po9t = ! obs]v$ conditions4 ,z ano!r illu/ration1 suppose ! dry bulb ( ! psy*romet] m>ks #fe & ! wet bulb indicates #ef;,f42 !n #fe-ef equals #i ( ! cold produc$ by evaporation4 ,! dew-po9t is det]m9$ 9 exactly ! same way z ) ! hygromet]4 ,opposite #fe1 9 ! dry-bulb column ( ! dew-po9t table1 "u ! column ( diff]5ces m>k$ #i1 is f\nd ! dew-po9t = ! obs]v$ conditions4 ,?is is #di at :i* temp]ature dew w beg9 to =m4 ,fro/ ,pr$iction4--,! =mation ( dew is always att5d$ ) a lib]ation ( heat--! heat ( vaporization--:i* t5ds to *eck ! fur!r decl9e ( temp]ature4 ,! heat ?us develop$ is usually suffici5t to prev5t ! fall ( temp]ature beyond a v few degrees1 b at times :5 !re is little moi/ure 9 ! air ! fall ( sev]al degrees ( temp]ature is necess>y be=e ! heat lib]at$ by ! =m+ dew balances ! heat lo/ by radiation & ! temp]ature rema9s /ation>y4 ,?is condition ( ?+s 0 po9t$ out _m ye>s ago by ,tyndall1 :o 9 8 book on 8,heat0 /ates3 8,! removal = a s+le summ]'s night ( ! aque\s vapor :i* cov]s ,engl& w\ld be att5d$ by ! de/ruction ( e plant :i* a freez+ temp]ature w\ld kill40 ,! fro/s ( late spr+ & e>ly fall :i* occur at times ( dry air & cl\dless sky are (t5 caus$ by local conditions t are n =eca/$ by ! wea!r dep>tm5t & (t5 may be successfully combat$4 ,at ! "t ( suspect$ fro/1 ! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t 9 relation to ! freez+ po9t det]m9es ! probability ( a freez+ temp]ature4 ,if ! dew-po9t occurs at #aj or m above ! freez+ po9t !re w be little dang] ( a kill+ fro/4 ,z ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! dew-po9t & ! fro/ po9t decreases1 ! dang] ( fro/ increases4 ,if ! dew-po9t falls at ! freez+ po9t1 fro/ is a c]ta9ty4 ,9 us+ ! table on page #bad1 ! op5 diagonal l9e may be consid]$ ! dang] l9e & any dew-po9t fall+ bel[ ! temp]ature ?us indicat$ w be consid]$ dang]\sly ne> ! fro/ po9t4 ,?is table diff]s f ! o!r dew-po9t table only 9 ! range ( temp]ature4 ,! dew-po9t is f\nd 9 exactly ! same way z be=e4 ,9 ! use ( ! psy*romet] & table z a means ( fro/ pr$iction x is fir/ necess>y to make a read+ ( ! wet-bulb & dry-bulb temp]ature describ$ above4 ,! dry-bulb read+ is f\nd 9 ! left-h& column ( ! table2 !n foll[ ! horizontal l9e opposite ! figure1 till ! p]p5dicul> column is rea*$ indicat+ ! diff]5ce 9 read+ betwe5 ! dry & wet bulb4 ,! numb] at ! meet+ w be ! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t4 ,= example1 suppose ! dry bulb /&s at #fe & ! wet bulb at #ee1 ! diff]5ce be+ #aj & dew-po9t "u ^! conditions w be #dg4 ,if ! dew-po9t is #aj or m above ! freez+ po9t !re is no dang] ( a fro/1 b if ! conditions are su* z to give a temp]ature diff]5ce less ?an #aj above ! freez+ po9t !re w\ld be dang]4 ,if ! dew-po9t falls bel[ ! op5 diagonal l9e ( ! table !re is dang] & t dang] increases z ! diff]5ce 9 degrees betwe5 ! freez+ po9t & ! dew-po9t becomes less4 ,z ano!r illu/ration1 suppose t at sunset at ! "t ( suspect$ fro/ ! dry-bulb !rmomet] read #ed & ! depression ( ! wet bulb %[$ #aj4 ,ref]r+ to ! table x w be se5 t = ^! conditions ! dew-po9t falls at #cc :i* is only #a above ! freez+ po9t4 ,x is highly probable t fro/ w\ld =m4 ,,dew-,,po9t ,,table ,,= ,,fro/ ,,pr$iction ,depression ( ! wet-bulb !rmomet] ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,dry- bulb #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac temp4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #gj #fi #fg #ff #fd #fb #fa #ei #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #fi #fh #ff #fd #fc #fa #ei #eh #ef #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #fh #fg #fe #fc #fb #fj #eh #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #df #dd #fg #ff #fd #fb #fa #ei #eg #ee #ed #eb #ej #dg #de #dc #ff #fd #fc #fa #fj #eh #ef #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #fe #fc #fb #fj #ei #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #de #db #da #fd #fb #fa #ei #eg #ef #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #dc #dj #fc #fa #fj #eh #ef #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #dd #db #da #ch #fb #fj #ei #eg #ee #ec #eb #ej #dh #de #dc #ci #cg #fa #ei #eh #ef #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #db #da #ch #ce #fj #eh #eg #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #de #dc #ci #cf #cc #ei #eg #ef #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #dj #ch #dc #cb #eh #ef #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #de #db #da #ci #cf #cc #cj #eg #ee #ed #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #dj #cg #ce #ca #bh #ef #ed #ec #ea #di #dg #dd #db #da #ci #cf #cc #cj #bf #ee #ec #eb #ej #dh #df #dc #dj #cg #cd #ca #bh #be #ed #eb #ej #di #df #dd #db #da #ci #cf #cc #cj #bg #bc #ec #ea #di #dg #de #dc #dj #cg #cd #ca #bh #be #bj #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #db #da #ch #cf #cc #cj #bg #bc #ah #ea #di #dg #de #dc #dj #cg #cd #ca #bh #be #ba #af #ej #dh #df #dd #db #da #ch #cf #cc #cj #bg #bc #ai #ad #di #dg #de #dc #dj #cg #cd #ca #bh #be #ba #ag #aa #dh #df #dd #db #da #ch #cf #cc #cj #bg #bc #ai #ad #i #dg #de #dc #dj #cg #ce #cb #bi #be #bb #ag #ab #f #df #dd #db #da #ci #cf #cc #cj #bg #bd #bj #ae #aj #c #de #dc #dj #cg #ce #cb #bi #bf #bb #ah #ac #g -#a #dd #db #da #ci #cf #cc #cj #bg #bd #bj #af #aa #d -#e #dj #cg #ce #cb #bi #bf #bc #ai #ad #h #a -#i #dc #da #ci #cf #cd #ca #bh #be #ba #ag #ab #f -#b -#ae #db #dj #ch #ce #cc #bi #bf #bc #ai #ae #i #c -#f -#bb #da #ci #cf #cd #ca #bh #be #bb #ag #ac #g #j -#aa -#cb #dj #ch #ce #cc #cj #bg #bd #bj #af #aa #d -#d -#af -#gd #ci #cg #cd #cb #bi #bf #bb #ah #ad #h #b -#h #bc #ch #cf #cc #ca #bh #bd #ba #ag #ab -#f -#a -#ab -#ce ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,prev5tion ( ,fro/4--,f ! discussion ( fro/ =mation x is evid5t t1 ! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t be+ ! det]m9+ factor 9 its probable occurr5ce1 any exp$i5t t may be us$ ei!r to increase ! humidity or to cons]ve ! radiation ( heat w\ld prev5t a dang]\s decl9e ( temp]ature4 ,fro/ prev5tion is practis$ 9 all fruit-gr[+ regions & ! me?od pursu$ dep5ds on ! k9d ( vegetation to be protect$4 ,9 ! protection ( or*>ds ! use ( smudge pots are probably ! commone/ means = prev5t+ ! loss ( heat4 ,! object is to create a cl\d ( smoke ov] & ab\t ! or*>d s t x =ms a protective cov]+ :i* prev5ts ! escape ( ! heat4 ,9 ! case ( a light fro/--t is1 :]e ! temp]ature falls only a few degrees bel[ ! fro/ po9t--! plants 9 small g>d5s & fl[] b$s may be prev5t$ f freez+ by lib]al spr9kl+ ) wat]4 ,?is is done to raise ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! vegetation4 ,mo/ vegetation )/&s ! temp]ature at ! freez+ po9t )\t p>ticul> injury1 & ! freez+ ( "p ( ! wat] lib]ates heat 9 suffici5t quantity to prev5t a fur!r decl9e ( temp]ature4 ,?is heat lib]at$ on ! freez+ ( wat] is describ$ 9 physics z ! heat ( fusion & 9 *ang+ "p ( ! wat] into ice suffici5t heat is lib]at$ to *eck ! fur!r fall ( temp]ature4 ,humidify+ ,app>atus4--,opportunity = add+ moi/ure1 9 ! desir$ quantity1 to ! air ( ! av]age dwell+ is limit$ to ! evaporation ( wat] 9 ! heat+ plant1 f vessels atta*$ to ! radiators or t :i* goes on 9 ! kit*54 ,h\sehold humidify+ plants are )9 ! range ( possibility b !re is n yet suffici5t dem& = _! use to make attractive _! manufacture4 ,9 ! hot-air furnace a wat] res]voir is usually a "p ( ! *amb] 9 :i* ! air supply is heat$4 ,! wat] 9 ! res]voir is heat$ to a great] or less] degree1 dep5d+ on ! temp]ature ( ! furnace & vaporiz$ bo? by heat & by ! con/antly *ang+ air4 ,9 ! use ( a /eam plant or hot-wat] heat+ plant ! opportunity ( humidify+ ! air is v limit$4 ,"o me?od is t ( susp5d+ wat] tanks to ! back ( ! radiators f :i* wat] is vaporiz$4 ,:ile ?is me?od is fairly effici5t z a humidifi] x is inconv5i5t & !re=e apt to be neglect$4 ,9 h\ses heat$ by /oves !re are sometimes wat] urns atta*$ to ! top ( ! frame :i* are int5d$ = ! evaporation ( wat] b z a rule !y are n ( suffici5t size to be ( appreciable value4 ,! quantity ( wat] requir$ to humidify ! air ( a h\se w dep5d fir/1 on ! temp]ature & humidity ( ! outside air2 second1 on ! cubic cont5ts ( ! build+2 ?ird1 on ! rate ( *ange ( air 9 ! build+4 ,if ! v5tilation is good ! rate ( atmosph]ic *ange is rapid & ! am\nt ( wat] 9 consequ5ce mu/ be correspond+ly increas$4 ,! data includ$ 9 ! foll[+ table %[+ ! relative humidity & am\nt ( wat] requir$ 7 tak5 f a sev5-room frame dwell+ 9 ,f>go1 ,n4 ,d41 dur+ p>ticul>ly sev]e w9t] wea!r4 ,! relative humidity det]m9ations 7 made ) a hygrodeik ea* day at noon4 ,! h\se 0 heat$ by a hot-air furnace arrang$ to take its air supply f ! outside4 ,! air supply is record$ "u ,cold-air intake4 ,! furnace 0 provid$ ) a wat] pan = humidify+ ! air supply4 ,! am\nt ( wat] evaporat$ ea* day is record$ 9 ! column head$ ,evap4 9 #bd h\rs4 ,! outside temp]ature rang$ f -#ab;,f4 to -#ba;,f4 ,! wea!r 0 cle> & calm except ! la/ day1 ,jan4 #ab1 :i* 0 w9dy4 ,! high] humidity on t day 0 no d\bt due to ! great] am\nt ( heat requir$ f ! furnace & ! consequ5t evaporation ( ! wat] f ! wat] pan4 ,! humidity det]m9ations made by a hygrodeik1 z be=e expla9$1 are only approximately correct b suffici5tly exact = practical purposes4 ,! temp]ature is giv5 9 degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,9 ! table x w be notic$ t ! outside air 0 us$ only a "p ( ! "t because ( ! sev]ity ( ! wea!r4 ,att5tion is call$ to ! quantity ( wat] requir$ to keep ! humidity at ! am\nt %[n4 ,?is av]ages #bg-a_/b qu>ts p] day4 ,at ! "t ^! obs]vations 7 made ! physics lecture-room at ! ,nor? ,dakota ,agricultural ,college av]ag$ #ah to #bj p] c5t4 saturation dur+ class h\rs1 ) obs]vations made f a simil> in/rum5t4 ,?is is a /eam-heat$ room ) only accid5tal means ( add+ wat] to ! air4 ,! result 0 an atmosph]e #c-a_/b p] c5t4 above t ( ,dea? ,valley4 ,,hot-,,air ,,furnace ,read+s tak5 at #ab o'clock noon ea* day ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,temp4 ,wet ,dry ,p] ,evap4 ,9 ,date outsidebulbbulb c5t4 #bd h\rs ,cold-air intake saturat$qu>ts p9ts ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,dec4 #ac -#ac #ed #fc #ec ,clos$ #h a4m4 ,dec4 #ad -#ah #ee #ff #dg ,op5 ,dec4 #ae -#bj #eg #fh #di #ba ,clos$ #g a4m4 ,dec4 #af -#ah #eg #fg #ea #bj #a ,clos$ #g a4m4 ,dec4 #ag -#bb #eh #fi #dh #ah #a ,clos$ #g a4m4 ,dec4 #ah -#af #ee #fe #ea #ag #a ,clos$ #f3cj a4m4 ,dec4 #ai -#aj #eg #fh #dg #bj #a ,clos$ #h a4m4 ,dec4 #bj #j #ei #gj #di #ac ,n op5 at night ,jan4 #h -#ab #eh #ga #dc #ah ,clos$ ,jan4 #i -#ag #eg #ga #ci #be ,op5 #bd h\rs ,jan4 #aj -#af #eh #fi #de #bg #a ,op5 #aj h\rs ,jan4 #aa -#ba #fj #ge #dj #cj ,clos$ ,jan4 #ab -#ae #fj #gc #df #cj ,clos$ ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! am\nts ( wat] evaporat$ may seem l>ge to ^? :o are unaccu/om$ to quantitatively consid] problems 9 v5tilation b ! small am\nt ( wat] 9 ! air at -#ba mu/ produce a v dry atmosph]e :5 x is rais$ to #gj 9 temp]ature4 ,! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 air at #bj;,f4 & at #hj p] c5t4 humidity is only #a4eh gra9s to ! cubic foot4 ,if ?is air is n[ rais$ to #gj ! moi/ure w /ill be #a4eh gra9s :]e !re %\ld be #d gra9s ( wat] to make #ej p] c5t4 humidity4 ,x !re=e w require ! addition ( practically #b4db gra9s ( wat] = ea* cubic foot ( ent]+ air 9 ord] to br+ x up to #ej p] c5t4 humidity4 ,9 a case ) ! above conditions ( atmosph]e1 suppose x is desir$ to "k ! am\nt ( wat] t w\ld be tak5 up 9 humidify+ ! air = a s*ool-room ( size to accommodate #dj pupils4 ,! prescrib$ quantity ( air = ?is purpose is #cj cubic feet p] m9ute = ea* pupil4 ,! air is to be ma9ta9$ at a humidity #ej p] c5t4 saturat$4 ,! problem w be "o ( simple ari?metic4 ,if ea* pupil is to receive #cj cubic feet ( air p] m9ute or #ahjj cubic feet p] h\r1 ! #dj pupils receiv+ #ahjj cubic feet p] h\r w require #dj #ahjj #gb1jjj cubic feet ( air p] h\r4 ,to ea* cubic foot ( ! air is to be add$ #b4gd gra9s ( wat]1 #gb1jjj #b4db #afd1bdj gra9s ( wat]4 ,r$uc+ ?is to p\nds1 #afd1bdj #gjjj #bc4df p\nds or #b4gg gallons ( wat] p] h\r4 ,9 practice ! room w %[ a high] am\nt ?an #ej p] c5t4 humidity ) ?is addition ( ! am\nt ( wat]1 because ( ! wat] vapor t is exhal$ f ! lungs ( ! pupils4 ,t a consid]able am\nt ( wat] vapor is add$ to ! atmosph]e by brea? exhalation is made evid5t f ! moi/ure cond5s$ by brea?+ on a cold pane ( glass4 ,9 any unv5tilat$ room occupi$ by a consid]able numb] ( p ! humidity is ?us increas$ a v noticeable am\nt4 ,! *ange 9 humidity ( ! air 9 a clos$ room fill$ ) p is v pron\nc$4 ,! con/ant exhalation ( moi/ure f ! lungs is suffici5t to saturate ! air 9 a %ort "t4 ,! heavy atmosph]e ( ov]cr[d$1 unv5tilat$ rooms is due to moi/ure exhalation1 body odors & increas$ c>bonic acid gas4 ,z ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e is increas$ a s5sation ( uncom=table w>m? is ! result ( ! less] evaporation4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,v5tilation ,! purity ( air 9 any habitable enclosure is det]m9$ by ! am\nt ( ,,co 7,c>bonic acid gas7 includ$ 9 its composition4 ,! process ( v5tilation is t ( add+ fre% air to ! impure atmosph]e ( h\ses1 until a desirable quality is atta9$4 ,9 ! op9ion ( hygi5i/s1 :5 air does n exce$ #f to #h p>ts ( ,,co1 by volume 9 #aj1jjj1 ! v5tilation is desirable4 ,ord9>y outdoor air conta9s ab\t #d p>ts ( ,,co to #aj1jjj1 :ile v bad air may conta9 z high z #hj p>ts to ! same quantity4 ,! quantity ( air requir$ = ! v5tilation ( a build+ is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( p to be provid$4 ,! am\nt ( air requir$ p] individual p] h\r necess>y to produce a desir$ condition ( v5tilation is det]m9$ by adopt+ a /&>d ( purity to suit ! prevail+ circum/ances4 ,9 hospitals :]e pure air is consid]$ ( greate/ importance #djjj & #ejjj cubic feet p] inmate p] h\r is n uncommon4 ,! practice ( supply+ #cj cubic feet ( air p] p]son p] m9ute 7#ahjj cubic feet p] h\r7 seems to fulfill ! av]age requirem5ts4 ,x is ! am\nt commonly specifi$ = s*ool-rooms4 ,! quantity ( fre% air requir$ p] p]son to insure good v5tilation w dep5d on ! type ( build+ to be suppli$ & v>ies some:at ) diff]5t au?orities4 ,! ,de ,*aumont /&>d is t ( #a cubic foot ( air p] second or #cfjj cubic feet p] h\r1 = ea* p]son to be accommodat$4 ,de ,*aumont assum$ a condition ( purity :i* w p]mit less ?an #b p>ts 9 #aj1jjj ( ,,co ov] t c>ri$ by c\ntry air4 ,9 consid]+ ! same problem f ! basis ( p]missible ,,co1 if #f p>ts ( ,,co 9 #aj1jjj repres5ts purity ( ! requir$ air1 !n #cjjj cubic feet p] p]son p] h\r is necess>y4 ,likewise1 ! v>y+ am\nts = diff]5t degrees ( purity are giv5 by ,k5t 9 ! foll[+ table4 ,! upp] l9e gives ! p]missible numb] ( p>ts ( ,,co p] #aj1jjj1 :ile bel[ ea* factor appe>s ! numb] ( cubic feet ( air requir$ p] h\r = ea* p]son suppli$4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #f #g #h #i #aj #ae #bj ,p>ts ( ,,co p] #aj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #c1jjjb1jjja1ejja1bjja1jjjedecge ,cubic feet ( pure air p] h\r ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,x is g5]ally recogniz$1 t x is possible to live "u conditions :]e no attempt is made to *ange ! air 9 a build+4 ,x is also an e/abli%$ fact t ! only prev5tive & cure = tub]culosis is t ( liv+ con/antly 9 an atmosph]e ( ! pure/ air4 ,! greate/ atta9able degree ( heal? is enjoy$ by ^? :o live 9 ! op5 air1 because oxidation is "o ( ! mo/ effici5t =ms ( prev5tion & elim9ation ( disease1 & an abundance ( pure air is ! only assur$ means ( suffici5t oxidation4 ,! ,de ,*aumont /&>d is int5d$ to repres5t ! limit beyond :i* ! s5se ( smell fails to detect body odors or 8clos5ess0 9 an occupi$ room4 ,! am\nt ( ,,co t air conta9s is n an absolute index ( its purity1 b x gives a /&>d "u ord9>y conditions1 makes possible ! requirem5t ( a def9ite quantity ( air4 ,if x 7 possible to express ! am\nt ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! same relative condition might be atta9$4 ,! ord9>y man exhales #j4f cubic foot ( ,,co p] h\r4 ,"s =ms ( light+ app>atus produces ?is gas 9 great] am\nts4 ,! ord9>y k]os5e lamp gives out #a cubic foot ( ,,co p] h\r4 ,a gas light us+ #e cubic feet ( gas p] h\r produces #c4ge cubic feet ( ,,co 9 ! same "t4 ,any =m ( combu/ion p]mitt+ ! products to escape into ! air ( ! room t5ds to l[] ! quality ( ! atmosph]e by add+ to its cont5t ( ,,co4 ,! prevail+ impression t impure air is heavy & settles to ! floor is errone\s4 ,impurities 9 ! =m ( gases & vapors 7pr9cipally c>bonic acid gas & odors7 diffuse ?r\gh\t ! entire space1 & ! ent]+ fre% air t5ds to dilute ! entire volume4 ,z a quantative problem1 v5tilation consi/s 9 admitt+ pure air into an impure atmosph]e 9 am\nt to give a def9ite degree ( purity4 ,?is is accompli%$ by admitt+ suffici5t air to completely *ange ! atmosph]e at /at$ int]vals1 or to provide a def9ite quantity = ea* inhabitant4 ,! me?ods by :i* v5tilation may be accompli%$ w dep5d on ! type ( build+ to be v5tilat$ & ! app>atus x is possible to use4 ,:5 ! use ( me*anical v5tilation appliances are p]missible1 any desir$ degree ( atmosph]ic purity may be ma9ta9$ at all times1 "u any condition ( climate or *ange ( wea!r4 ,9 build+s :]e me*anical v5tilation _c be consid]$ z t ( ! av]age dwell+1 ! problem is "o ( produc+ an av]age condition ( reasonably pure air by natural convection4 ,9 ! av]age dwell+1 v5tilation is accompli%$ by ! natural draft produc$ 9 *imneys or air flues1 by p>tially op5$ w9d[s & by ! =ce produc$ by ! movem5t ( ! outside air4 ,9 "s build+s a bett] condition ( v5tilation is atta9$ by ord9>y means ?an at fir/ sight seems possible4 ,! fact t x is difficult to keep a h\se at ! desir$ temp]ature dur+ cold wea!r indicates t a consid]able quantity ( outside air is con/antly ent]+ & heat$ air is leav+ ! build+4 ,x may be1 h[ev]1 t ! v5tilation "u su* condition is unsatisfactory1 ev5 ?\gh ! am\nt ( air :i* ent]s ! build+ is suffici5t 9 quantity to produce a desirable atmosph]e4 ,if ! places ( entrance & exit are s locat$ t ! ent]+ air has no opportunity to mix ) ! air ( ! build+1 ! advantage ( its pres5ce is lo/4 ,9 ! burn+ ( fuel 9 /oves & furnaces1 ! am\nt ( oxyg5 necess>y = combu/ion is suppli$ by ! air :i* is fir/ tak5 into ! h\se & ?us =ms its atmosph]e be=e x c ent] ! heat]4 ,!oretically1 ab\t #ab p\nds ( air are requir$ = ! combu/ion ( a p\nd ( coal1 b 9 practice a mu* l>g] am\nt actually passes ?r\gh ! heat]4 ,z giv5 by ,suplee1 f #ah to #bd p\nds ( air are actually us$ 9 burn+ #a p\nd ( coal4 ,if #bj p\nds ( air p] p\nd ( fuel is tak5 z an av]age1 !re w be requir$ #aih cubic feet ( air p] p\nd ( coal consum$4 ,9 a build+ t requires #aj tons ( coal to be us$ dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 ?is w\ld necessitate ! av]age use ( #aigg cubic feet ( air p] h\r1 :i* mu/ be drawn into ! h\se be=e x c ent] ! /oves4 ,?is air acts z a means ( v5tilation & if x is us$ to advantage w\ld furni% a supply suffici5t 9 am\nt to produce excell5t v5tilation1 consid]ably m ?an en\gh = two p4 ,! am\nt ( air drawn into ! h\se 9 ?is way is fur!r increas$ by t :i* passes into ! *imney flue ?r\gh ! *eck-draft damp]s1 :5 ! fires are burn+ l[4 ,! aim ( ar*itects is to con/ruct build+s z completely w9dpro( z possible1 b t su* con/ruction is atta9$ 9 only a slight degree is sometimes v evid5t dur+ cold wea!r4 ,no matt] h[ tightly con/ruct$ build+s may be1 mo/ ( ! conta9$ air filt]s ?r\gh ! cracks & crevices ( ! walls or ?r\gh ! jo9ts ( ! w9d[s & door frames1 because !re is seldom any special provision made = its entrance4 ,dur+ extremely cold & w9dy wea!r ! am\nt ( air t ent]s ! h\se 9 ?is way--because ( ! air pressure on ! w9dw>d side--is sometimes suffici5t to keep ! temp]ature at an uncom=tably l[ degree4 ,"u su* conditions1 ! air drifts ?r\gh ! build+ fa/] ?an x c be rais$ to ! desir$ temp]ature & ! rooms on ! w9dw>d side ( ! build+ _c be kept com=tably w>m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--;,a simple exp$i5t = ! prev5tion ( drafts & improv+ v5tilation4 ,! common me?od ( v5tilation 9 dwell+s is t ( p>tially op5 w9d[s4 ,! air ?us admitt$1 be+ cold] & consequ5tly heavi] ?an t at ! temp]ature ( ! room1 s9ks to ! l[e/ level4 ,9 s do+ x creates drafts t produce discom=t & act only 9 ! smalle/ degree to produce ! desir$ effect ( v5tilation4 ,! effect ( w9d[ v5tilation may be greatly improv$ by a simple exp$i5t illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #afb4 ,9 ?is1 ! ent]+ air meets a deflector 9 ! =m ( a bo>d or pane ( glass t directs ! cold air upw>d :]e x m+les ) ! heat$ air ) ! lea/ production ( a noticeable draft4 ,?is is ! mo/ effici5t me?od ( h\se v5tilat+ :]e no special provision is made = ! admission ( fre% air4 ,! object s\ght 9 v5tilat+ a room is to keep up ! quality ( ! air by con/ant addition ( fre% air1 & 9 ord] to br+ ab\t a uni=m purification ( ! entire atmosph]e ! ent]+ air mu/ be mix$ ) t already 9 ! enclosure4 ,if ! discom=ts ( drafts are to be avoid$1 ?is mix+ process mu/ be br\ght ab\t by admitt+ ! cold air at ! upp] "p ( ! room4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--;,a *imney flue us$ z a v5tilator4 ,w>m air rises to ! top ( ! room because x is light] ?an ! cold] air b5ea? x4 ,! colde/ air is always l[e/ 9 po9t ( elevation & unless !re is "s means to /ir up ! entire volume ?is condition w always rema9 ! same4 ,:5 ! easie/ means ( air = ent]+ & leav+ are ne> ! floor1 ! cold ent]+ air & t :i* goes out w always be 9 ! l[] "p ( ! room1 ev5 :5 ! supply is amply l>ge4 ,if no opportunity is giv5 = ! fre% air to mix ) t already 9 ! room1 a poor av]age quality w result4 ,9 ! process ( v5tilation1 ! ent]+ air %\ld be admitt$ at1 or direct$ t[>d1 ! highe/ "p ( ! room1 s t ! pure cold air may h a *ance to mix ) t :i* is w>me/4 ,air is n a good conductor ( heat1 & 9 mix+ w>m & cold air ! cold p>ticles w t5d to float d[nw>d & take up heat f ! w>m] air ) :i* x comes into contact1 & ?us produces a m uni=m temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,me?od ( admitt+ cold air into rooms s z to produce ! be/ condition ( v5tilation4 ,! condition mo/ to be desir$ is t ( admitt+ cold air at a po9t :]e x w mo/ readily m+le ) ! w>m air f ! s\rce ( heat4 ,! r$uction 9 temp]ature t mu/ take place f ?is mixture w produce a gravitational circulation4 ,un=tunately ?is is n always possible to atta9 9 an old build+1 b 9 ! con/ruction ( a new build+ air ducts plac$ to admit air at po9ts ne> ! ceil+ & locat$ ) ref]5ce to ! supply ( heat w br+ ab\t ! be/ effect ( v5tilation4 ,! air :i* ent]s a room %\ld1 !re=e1 be ne> ! top or s direct$ t ! ent]+ %aft w c>ry x upw>d4 ,! air :i* is tak5 out ( ! room %\ld leave f a po9t ne> ! floor4 ,9 s do+ x w t5d to produce a m uni=m quality & a m ev5 di/ributor ( ! heat4 ,9 ord] t ! mo/ desirable quality ( atmosph]e may be atta9$1 !re %\ld be a con/ant supply ( pure air ent]+ & an equal am\nt dis*>g+ f ! h\se4 ,9 ! bett]-con/ruct$ dwell+ su* a condition is (t5 provid$ ?r\gh a v5tilat+ flue t is a "p ( ! *imney4 ,?is flue is arrang$ ) regi/]s plac$ to take air f ! p>ts ( ! h\se requir+ ! greate/ am\nt ( air4 ,su* an arrangem5t is %[n 9 ! picture 9 ,fig4 #afc4 ,fig4 #afd %[s ! me?od ( ,fig4 #afc comb9$ ) a direct means ( admitt+ fre% air f ! inside4 ,! fre% air ducts %\ld be provid$ ) damp]s to control ! effect ( extreme cold & w9d4 ,quantity ( ,air ,dis*>g$ by a ,flue4--,any *ange ( temp]ature ( air produces a *ange equal to #a_/dia "p ( its volume1 = ea* degree v>iation4 ,if a cubic foot ( air is rais$ 9 temp]ature #a;,f41 its volume is #a_/dia "p l>g] ?an ! orig9al volume1 & its buoyancy 9 ! surr\nd+ air is increas$ correspond+ly4 ,air t has a temp]ature high] ?an t surr\nd+ x w t5d to rise because x is light]4 ,! air ris+ f a hot-air regi/] or f a heat$ surface are illu/rations ( ?is condition4 ,s9ce ! *ange ( volume--or :at is ! same ?+1 its t5d5cy to rise--increases #a_/dia = ea* degree diff]5ce 9 temp]ature1 ! upw>d velocity ( highly heat$ air w be v great4 ,9 w>m air t fills a *imney flue or a room1 ! same t5d5cy exi/s1 ! w>me/ air rises to ! highe/ po9t & if ! air c escape1 z 9 ! case ( a *imney1 a draft w result4 ,! draft ( a *imney1 9 quiet air1 is due to ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! air inside ! flue above t outside ! h\se4 ,a *imney t does n 8draw0 & causes a /ove to 8smoke10 w (t5 produce suffici5t draft aft] ! flue has be5 w>m$4 ,! upw>d movem5t ( ! w>m] air 9 ! flue produces a con/antly increas+ velocity1 until x rea*es ! top ( ! *imney4 ,?is is an accel]at$ velocity t may be calculat$ by use ( ! =mula giv5 9 physics1 to express ! velocity ( accel]at$ motion4 ,! well-kn[n =mula ,v 7#b;gh7 may be modifi$ to express ! conditions exi/+ 9 a flue & p]mit ( ! calculation ( ! quantity ( air dis*>g$4 ,! upw>d fl[ ( air 9 a *imney flue be+ due to ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature ( ! air 9 ! flue ov] ! outside air1 ! fl[ ( air f ! rooms w cont9ue z long z ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature exi/s4 ,moreov]1 ! air t is dis*>g$ f ! rooms w be repl5i%$ f ! outside1 & = ! air s5t out ( ! flue a correspond+ am\nt w be br\ght into ! rooms ?r\gh any op5+s t exi/--door or w9d[s or ?r\gh cracks or crevices1 dep5d+ on ! complet5ess ) :i* ! h\se is clos$4 ,9 no case is a h\se air-tight4 ,! air pressure regi/]$ by ! b>omet] is always ! same inside z t outside ! build+4 ,dur+ cold wea!r1 :5 ! w9d[s & doors are clos$1 ! air is escap+ ?r\gh ! *imney & also ?r\gh e little crack & *9k 9 ! top ( ! rooms :]e ! air is w>me/4 ,! cold] air is ent]+ at ! same "t ?r\gh ! jo9ts ab\t w9d[s1 door cas+s1 ?r\gh ! crevices 9 ! walls & p>ticul>ly ?r\gh ! op5 jo9ts made by ! basebo>ds & ! floor4 ,?is latt] entrance ( cold air is "o ( ! commone/ causes ( cold floors4 ,! %r9kage ( ! basebo>ds & floors f ! qu>t]-r\nd m\ld+ :i* =ms ! jo9t leaves op5+s ?r\gh :i* cold air is freely admitt$ f p>titions & outside walls4 ,! cold1 heavi] air rema9s ne> ! floor because x c rise only :5 heat$ or =c$ upw>d by a draft4 ,if ! same air 7 p]mitt$ to ent] at po9ts ne> ! ceil+ & m+le ) ! w>me/ air 9 ! room1 a m uni=m temp]ature w\ld result1 z well z bett] v5tilation4 ,! ent]+ cold air1 mix+ ) ! w>m air at ! top ( ! room1 w\ld be r$uc$ 9 its temp]ature & weight4 ,! heavi] air 9 fall+ w\ld diffuse ) ! air b5ea? x & ?us improve ! g5]al quality ( ! atmosph]e4 ,x is important to rememb] t ! dis*>ge ( air ?r\gh a *imney flue w dep5d1 9 consid]able am\nt1 on ! rate ! new air is able to ent] ! h\se4 ,9 a new1 tightly con/ruct$ h\se1 ! flue is (t5 capable ( dis*>g+ air mu* fa/] ?an x c ent]1 :5 x mu/ f9d its way 9 ?r\gh accid5tal op5+s4 ,9 su* cases an op5 door or w9d[ imm$iately improves ! draft ( ! /ove4 ,! v5tilation 9 ! av]age dwell+ is & mu/ be accompli%$ by natural draft t is g5]at$ ?r\gh diff]5ce 9 temp]ature ( ! air4 ,! possibility ( provid+ an acceptable sy/em ( cont9u\s v5tilation is conf9$ to ! draft ( ! *imney or to a flue provid$ especially = t purpose4 ,su* be+ ! case1 ! dim5sions ( flues con/ruct$ = v5tilation %\ld be ! subject ( inve/igation4 ,! "w t a *imney or v5tilat+ flue has to d is cont9u\s & w la/ ?r\gh\t its lifetime2 its proportions %\ld !re=e be consid]$ ) m ?an pass+ c>e4 ,x has be5 /at$ t ! me?od ( calculat+ volumes ( air t w pass ?r\gh a flue is bas$ on ! =mula us$ to express ! velocity ( accel]at$ motion4 ,! fundam5tal =mula mu/ be *ang$ to suit ! conditions produc$ :5 air is heat$ & made buoyant by expansion4 ,z has be5 /at$1 ! *ange 9 temp]ature ( air #a;,f4 causes an increase or decrease #a_/dia "p ( its volume = ea* degree *ange4 ,any portion ( air1 w>m] ?an t :i* surr\nds x1 t5ds to rise because ( its light] weight2 ! t5d5cy to rise increases ) ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4 ,! draft ( a flue is caus$ by ?is condition ( diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! air inside ! flue & ! outside atmosph]e4 ,9 ord] t ?is g5]al condition may be express$ 9 ! simple/ =m let3 ,t ! temp]ature inside ! flue 9 degrees ,f4 t ! temp]ature outside ! flue 9 degrees ,f4 ,h ! height ( ! flue 9 feet4 ,! quantity 7,t-t7_/#dia expresses ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature 9 degrees1 divid$ by ! *ange ( volume = ea* degree4 ,?is gives ! con/ant upw>d t5d5cy ( ! air 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! flue4 ,if ?is quantity is plac$ 9 ! =mula ,v 7#b;gh71 s z to ex]t its influ5ce ?r\gh ! height ( flue ,h1 ! condition may be express$3 ,v 7#b;g77,t-t7_/#dia7;,h7 ,! factor g1 repres5t+ ! accel]ation ( gravity1 is con/ant & equal to #cb feet p] second4 ,! quantity #b;g may be remov$ f "u ! radical & ! =mula becomes3 ,v #h777,t-t7_/#dia7;,h7 ,! =mula may n[ be us$ to express ! volume ( dis*>ge ( air f a flue4 ,suppose su* a flue conta9s an area ( #a squ>e foot 9 cross-section & t x is desir$ to e/imate ! air dis*>g$ f ! flue p] h\r4 ,! value ( g is giv5 9 feet p] second1 & 9 ord] to make ! =mula express ! volume ( air dis*>g$ 9 cubic feet p] h\r1 x mu/ be multipli$ by ! numb] ( seconds 9 an h\r4 ,volume dis*>g$ 9 cubic feet p] h\r #fj #fj #h777,t-t7_/#dia7;,h7 #bh1hjj777,t-t7_/#dia7;,h7 ,?is =mula applies to conditions su* z w p]mit uni=m movem5t ( ! air 9 a /raight flue1 un9flu5c$ by irregul>1 odd-%ap$ passages & r\gh surfaces4 ,moreov]1 x is suppos$ t ! air may ent] ! h\se z rapidly z x escapes4 ,! !oretical dis*>ge w1 9 mo/ in/ances1 be less ?an ! calculat$ am\nt1 because ! air _c ent] ! h\se z fa/ z x may be dis*>g$ by ! flue4 ,x is a common cu/om to consid] ! !oretical flue only #ej p] c5t4 effici5t4 ,z appli$ to ! =mula1 ! con/ant #bh1hjj :5 r$uc$ #ej p] c5t4 w become #ad1djj1 & w be s us$ 9 ! calculations z foll[s4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! application ( ! =mula1 suppose t ! temp]ature 9 ! h\se & 9 ! flue is #gj;,f4 & t ! outside temp]ature is #bj;,f4 ,! height ( ! *imney is #cj feet4 ,! area ( ! flue is #a squ>e foot4 ,volume #ad1djj 777,t - t7_/#dia7;,h7 #ad1djj777gj - #bj7_/dia7 #cj7 #be1adj cubic feet p] h\r4 ,su* a v5tilat+ flue w\ld be suffici5t 9 size1 "u ! conditions giv51 to furni% air at ! rate ( #be1adj cubic feet p] h\r or #cj cubic feet p] m9ute to #ac p]sons1 provid$ ( c\rse t ! air c\ld ent] ! build+ at ! rate dem&$4 ,:]e no provision is made = ! air to ent] ! build+ x mu/ f9d its way by ! accid5tal op5+s4 ,a common illu/ration ( ?is effect may be notic$ 9 ! rate at :i* ! fire ( a /ove w burn 9 a tightly clos$ room4 ,! op5+ ( a door or w9d[ causes an imm$iate increase ( combu/ion1 because ( ! extra air supply4 ,x is evid5t t 9 well-con/ruct$ h\ses o!r means %\ld be provid$ = admitt+ air ?an t ( accid5tal op5+4 ,! foll[+ table calculat$ by ! above =mula gives ! quantity ( air 9 cubic feet p] h\r dis*>g$ ?r\gh a flue ( #a squ>e foot cross-section4 ,! table %[s ! calculat$ dis*>ge f flues ( heights v>y+ f #ae to #dj feet1 & ) temp]ature diff]5ces f #aj to #ajj betwe5 ! outside air & t ( ! h\se4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,height ,temp]ature ( air 9 ! flue above t ( ext]nal air ( flue ---------------------------------------- --------------- 9 feet #aj #ae #bj #be #cj #ej #ajj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ae #g1ihj #i1gbj #aa1bhj #ab1eej #ac1hjj #ag1hbj #be1adj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #bj #i1ahj #aa1ahj #ac1jhj #ad1ebj #ae1ijj #bj1ebj #bi1jdj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #be #aj1bfj #ab1fjj #ad1ebj #af1bfj #ag1hbj #bb1ihj #cb1dfj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #cj #aa1bhj #ac1hjj #ae1ijj #ag1hbe #ai1ejj #be1adj #ce1ehj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ce #ab1ahj #ad1hhj #ag1afj #ai1bjj #ba1jfj #bg1ahj #ch1djj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #dj #ac1jbj #ae1ijj #ah1cfj #bj1ebj #bb1ejj #bi1jdj #dj1ihj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,9 ,fig4 #afc is illu/rat$ ! =m ( *imney t is (t5 us$ = ! v5tilation ( dwell+s4 ,?is is built ) ?ree flues4 ,! flue to ! left--m>k$ ,a at ! top--is int5d$ to c>ry away ! smoke & gases f ! kit*5 range4 ,! flue to ! "r is t to :i* is connect$ ! smoke pipe f ! furnace4 ,! flue 9 ! middle m>k$ ,b is = v5tilation4 ,occupy+ z x does ! space betwe5 ! o!r two1 x is kept w>m by ! heat ( ! o!r flues & ! draft is ?us increas$4 ,op5+s to ! flue are %[n 9 ! diff]5t floors at ! po9ts ,r & ,s4 ,! op5+s are furni%$ ) regi/]s :i* may be regulat$ to suit ! wea!r conditions4 ,! dim5sions ( su* a flue may be calculat$ by ! =mula giv5 or ! area may be tak5 f ! table to correspond ) requir$ conditions4 ,9 all cases flues %\ld be made ample 9 size1 z !y mu/ (t5 d _! maximum "w "u ! poore/ conditions = ! production ( good draft4 ,! am\nt ( air dis*>g$ f ! flue z giv5 9 ! table is due to ! gravitational effect alone4 ,! suction produc$ by ! w9d adds 9 a v l>ge degree to ! am\nt ( air dis*>g$4 ,! quantity ( air t w fl[ f a #cj-;foot flue1 by reason ( ! suction ( ! w9d1 bl[+ #g miles p] h\r is equal to ! same flue work+ by gravity ) a temp]ature diff]5ce ( #bj4 ,) a w9d velocity ( #g miles p] h\r & a temp]ature z giv51 ! capacity ( ! flue is d\bl$4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to und]/& :y ! rate at :i* fires burn is s greatly increas$ by high w9ds4 ,at ! "t ( v high w9ds1 a *imney flue w c>ry away ?ree & ev5 f\r times ! volume dis*>g$ at ! "t ( atmosph]ic calm4 ,co/ ( ,v5tilation4--,! co/ ( good v5tilation is (t5 look$ ^u z prohibitive1 because ( ! exp5se 9 heat necess>y to keep ! inside atmosph]e at /&>d purity4 ,co/ ( v5tilation is det]m9$ by analysis ( ! kn[n conditions & calculations made ( ! am\nt ( extra heat necess>y to w>m ! great] volume ( air4 ,! common practice ( e/imat+ ! quantity ( heat us$ 9 any =m ( heat+ or v5tilation is by ref]5ce to ! ,b4t4u4 us$ 9 produc+ ! desir$ condition4 ,?is unit1 z has already be5 /at$1 is ! am\nt ( heat necess>y to *ange a p\nd ( wat]1 #a;,f4 ,9 consid]+ ! co/ ( heat+ ! air = v5tilation1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! heat us$ 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! air conta9$ 9 an enclosure is only a "p ( t necess>y = w>m+ ! build+4 ,mo/ ( ! heat us$ goes to keep up ! loss due to radiation & conduction :i* goes on f ! w9d[s1 ! walls & o!r p>ts ( ! build+ t are expos$ to ! outside cold4 ,! mat]ial ( :i* ! build+ is compos$ mu/ be heat$ & 9 turn radiates its heat to ! cold] outside air4 ,! quantity ( heat necess>y to *ange ! temp]ature ( a def9ite am\nt ( air is easy ( calculation4 ,! problem is t ( det]m9+ ! numb] ( heat units requir$ to w>m ! necess>y air to suit ! av]age condition ( wea!r4 ,we w assume t ! h\se is heat$ to ! normal temp]ature #gj1 & t ! additional co/ ( heat+ ! air = v5tilation ov] ! am\nt ?us exp5d$ is ! co/ ( v5tilation4 ,assum+ t ! h\se is s con/ruct$ t x is possible to supply air at ! rate ( #ajjj cubic feet p] h\r to ea* p]son ( a family ( five1 ?is condition w necessitate #ejjj cubic feet ( air p] h\r or #abj1jjj cubic feet ( air p] day4 ,! h\se is su* t #aj tons ( coal are requir$ p] ye>1 at a co/ ( #aj p] ton4 ,! p]iod ( w9t] wea!r w be consid]$ #e mon?s ( #cj days ea*4 ,?is w be #aej days1 dur+ :i* ! fuel = heat+ ! h\se w co/ #ff-b_/c c5ts p] day4 ,! av]age temp]ature ( ! outdoor air dur+ ! entire p]iod w be assum$ to be #bj;,f41 ?us requir+ ! air = v5tilation to be *ang$ #ej 9 ord] to raise x to ! normal temp]ature1 #gj4 ,! weight ( a cubic foot ( air at #gj is practically #j4jge p\nd4 ,! #abj1jjj cubic feet ( air us$ p] day w1 !re=e1 weigh #j4jge #abj1jjj #ijjj p\nds :i* mu/ be rais$ #ej 9 temp]ature4 ,9 ord] to express 9 ,b4t4u4 ! necess>y heat requir$ to produce ! *ange ( air temp]ature1 ! quantity ( air is be/ /at$ 9 an equival5t am\nt ( wat]4 ,! specific heat ( air is #j4bcg2 t is1 ! am\nt ( heat necess>y to *ange a p\nd ( air #a is #j4bcg ( ! am\nt us$ 9 *ang+ #a p\nd ( wat] #a4 ,! #ijjj p\nds ( air express$ z an equival5t am\nt ( wat] w !n be3 #ijjj #j4bcg #bacc p\nds ( wat]4 ,?is am\nt ( wat] rais$ #a is equival5t to rais+ #abj1jjj cubic feet ( air #a4 ,n[ ! av]age *ange 9 ! temp]ature ( ! air is #ej1 s t #ej #bacc w be ! numb] ( heat units us$4 #ej #bacc #ajf1fej ,b4t4u4 ,t is1 #ajf1fej ,b4t4u4 w be requir$ to heat ! air = v5tilation "o day4 ,9 ord] to express ?is am\nt ( heat 9 t]ms ( fuel consum$1 x w be assum$ t ! coal conta9$ #ad1jjj ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd1 ?is be+ a fair valuation ( good coal4 ,! av]age h\se-heat+ furnace w turn into available heat ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ( ! fuel burn$4 ,?is value is tak5 f h\se-heat+ fuel te/s made at ! ,i[a ,/ate ,college4 ,! available heat 9 ea* p\nd ( coal !n w be #gjjj ,b4t4u4 #ajf1fej #gjjj #ae4b p\nds ( coal4 ,t is1 #ae4b p\nds ( coal p] day mu/ be burn$ 9 ord] to furni% #ajjj cubic feet ( air p] p]son ea* h\r at ! desir$ temp]ature4 ,at #aj a ton ( #bjjj p\nds1 ! fuel co/s #a_/b c5t p] p\nd4 ,! co/ ( v5tilation is1 !re=e1 #a_/b #ae4b #g4fj c5ts a day1 n an extravagant am\nt = good air4 ,x is evid5t t ) ! use ( hot-air furnaces :i* take _! entire am\nt ( air f outdoors1 ! extra am\nt ( heat necess>y = ?is improv$ quality ( atmosph]e is v well exp5d$4 ,! use ( v5tilat+ devices adds only a relatively small am\nt to ! total co/ ( heat+ & provides = ! well-be+ ( ! occupants ( ! h\se--9 ! =m ( good air--an am\nt ( heal?fulness impossible ( calculation4 ,! be/ v5tilation is atta9$ :]e a con/ant supply ( fre% air is admitt$ to ! h\se at po9ts f :i* ! be/ circulation may be secur$ & equal quantities ( vitiat$ air are remov$ f ! diff]5t ap>tm5ts4 ,x is und]/ood t 9 ! process ( natural v5tilation ! desir$ condition c only be approximat$ & t ! p]missible v5tilation appliances are s plac$ z to give results su* z to p]mit ! air to foll[ ! natural laws t mu/ prevail4 ,if ! h\se is heat$ by /oves1 ! outside air is be/ admitt$ ne> ! ceil+1 s t ! cold air on ent]+ may come into contact & m+le ) ! w>me/ air 9 ! room4 ,! circulation w by ?is me?od be effect$ by gravity4 ,9 ! use ( ! hot-air furnace1 ! air supply--z has already be5 expla9$ 9 ! figures on pages #ee & #eh--;is br\ght f ! outside1 :]e aft] be+ heat$ x ent]s ! rooms ?r\gh ! regi/]s plac$ ne> ! floor4 ,be+ w>m] ?an ! air 9 ! room1 x t5ds to quickly rise4 ,! curr5ts set up by its motion help to produce a uni=m temp]ature & to diffuse ! new air ?r\gh ! entire space4 ,! m ev5ly ! air is di/ribut$ ! m uni=m w be ! condition ( temp]ature ( ! room4 ,9 hot-wat] & /eam heat+1 ! direct me?od ( heat+ 9 ,fig4 #bi & ! indirect me?od ( ,fig4 #cj %[ two =ms ( app>atus = admitt+ air to build+s t are q g5]ally employ$ = v5tilation ( dwell+s4 ,9 ! use ( all su* devices = v5tilation purposes1 !re %\ld be provid$ means ( escape ( air correspond+ 9 am\nt to ! fre% air admitt$4 ,! exhau/ air v5t %\ld be locat$ ne> ! floor to br+ ab\t ! be/ results4 ,! degree ( success att5d+ ! use ( su* app>atus w dep5d on ! am\nt ( c>e tak51 to suit ! position ( ! damp]s to ! prevail+ wea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,! ,wolp]t air te/]2 an in/rum5t us$ to det]m9e ! quality ( air4 ,! ,wolp]t ,air ,te/]4--,! purity ( air is express$ by quantity ( c>bonic acid gas includ$ 9 its composition4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! degree ( purity ( any atmosph]e ! am\nt ( conta9$ gas mu/ be det]m9$4 ,?is is accompli%$ by use ( simple app>atus t may be successfully op]at$ by ^? :o are unacqua9t$ ) *emical analytical me?ods4 ,! process is due to *emical action b ! manipulation ( ! requir$ app>atus is purely me*anical4 ,fig4 #afe %[s ! ,wolp]t air te/] :i* is a =m ( ?is app>atus t has giv5 g5]al satisfaction4 ,! results atta9$ by its use are approximate b suffici5tly exact = all practical purposes4 ,! app>atus consi/s ( a graduat$ glass tube 9 :i* fits a rubb] pi/on m\nt$ on a holl[ glass rod1 ?r\gh :i* ! sample ( air is admitt$ to ! tube4 ,! *emicals us$ = absorb+ ! c>bonic acid gas are furni%$ ) ! in/rum5t b may be repl5i%$ )\t difficulty4 ,directions = its use are furni%$ ) ! te/] t may be readily foll[$ aft] a trial4 ,! results obta9$ are read directly f ! side ( ! tube4 ,! te/] may be obta9$ f any deal] 9 *emical or physical app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,!rmo/at regulator & motor-valve atta*$ to a radiator4 ,pneumatic ,temp]ature ,regulation4--,pneumatic temp]ature regulation is v g5]ally us$ 9 l>ge & complicat$ heat+ sy/ems1 because ( its positive action & complet5ess ( heat control4 ,?is me?od ( heat regulation utilizes ! en]gy ( compress$ air1 ) :i* to op5 & close ! valves ( ! radiators4 ,x may be adapt$ to any mode ( heat+ & c be us$ ) any size ( plant1 b is p>ticul>ly suit$ to ext5d$ sy/ems4 ,! radiators1 provid+ heat = any p>ticul> space1 are "u control ( sep>ate !rmo/ats1 :i* by means ( motor valves admit heat only z requir$4 ,a motor1 op]at$ by compress$ air1 is atta*$ directly to ea* radiator valve4 ,any *ange 9 temp]ature ( ! room causes ! !rmo/at to correct 9 ! radiator ! requir$ am\nt ( heat4 ,) ?is me?od ( regulation ! temp]ature-controll+ elem5t ( ! !rmo/at1 l t ( ! electro-!rmo/atic sy/em1 is a s5sitive "p1 :i* by exp&+ & contract+ ) ! heat & cold directly controls ! heat 9 any "p ( ! build+4 ,! motive p[] = op5+ & clos+ ! valves ( /eam or hot-wat] radiators or = op]at+ ! damp]s 9 a hot-air sy/em is suppli$ by compress$ air4 ,! air supply is furni%$ by an air compressor :i* automatically /ores air "u pressure 9 a pressure tank1 f :i* is drawn ! necess>y en]gy1 z occasion dem&s4 ,! air is conduct$ to ! motors ?r\gh small pipes :i* are connect$ ) ! regulat+ elem5ts & also ) ! motors4 ,! function ( ! !rmo/at is to s gov]n ! air :i* ent]s ! motor z to correct any *ange 9 ! temp]ature ( ! rooms4 ,?is x does by op5+ & clos+ ! valves z occasion dem&s4 ,9 ,fig4 #aff is %[n ! arrangem5t ( ! !rmo/at ,t z x appe>s on ! wall4 ,air f ! supply tank is convey$ by ! pipe ,a ?r\gh ! !rmo/at ,t to ! motor valve ,v atta*$ to ! radiator4 ,! function ( ! !rmo/at is t ( s controll+ ! radiator valve by means ( ! motor ,v t ! radiator w give out j suffici5t heat to keep ! room at ! desir$ temp]ature4 ,a clos] view ( ! !rmo/at is giv5 9 ,fig4 #afg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--,outside view ( !rmo/at z x appe>s 9 use4 ,! !rmo/at illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #afg is t employ$ by ! ,national ,regulator ,co4 ,! draw+ %[s ! ext]ior & int]ior con/ruction ( ! p>ts enclos$ 9 ! previ\s illu/ration4 ,! pipe ,c at ! "r & op5+ ,p at ! left are ! same z ,a 9 ,fig4 #afi2 likewise1 ! pipe ,d connects at ! op5+ ,m ( ! motor valve 9 ,fig4 #afi4 ,ref]r+ aga9 to ,fig4 #afh1 ! s5sitive "p consi/s ( a tube ,a ( vulcaniz$ rubb]4 ,x is ! d>k-%ad$ "p 9 ! left-h& draw+4 ,any *ange 9 ! air temp]ature influ5ces ! l5g? ( ?is tube4 ,! *ang+ l5g? ( ! tube effects ! air supply to close ! radiator valve :5 ! temp]ature rises above ! desir$ am\nt & to reop5 x :5 m heat is requir$4 ,a f9ely ?read$ screw passes ?r\gh ! plug ,h at ! top & to ?is is secur$ ! indicat+ disc ,x4 ,! bottom ( ?is screw is cupp$ to receive ! po9t ( ! rod ,k1 :i* connects ) ! piece ,l4 ,any *ange 9 l5g? ( ! s5sitive tube moves ! valve lev] ,o1 & ?us op5s or closes ! air port ,g4 ,air "u pressure is suppli$ by ! pipe ,c1 connect$ to ! air supply1 fl[+ into ! !rmo/at ?r\gh ! filt] ,p1 ! re/riction ,s1 ! passage ,t1 & ! port ,g4 ,! adju/m5t ( ! !rmo/at = diff]5t temp]atures is provid$ = by ! screw ,j ?r\gh ! top plug ,h1 & ! indicat+ disc ,x4 ,! screw ,r 9 ! connector ,q at ! base ( ! !rmo/at is a ne$le valve :i* op5s or closes ! connection ) ! air supply1 & is us$ z an air %ut-(f valve :5 x is desir$ to remove ! !rmo/at4 ,! screw ,s is a re/riction valve :i* controls ! supply ( air to ! !rmo/at1 & ?is screw is set s z to all[ ! air to pass 9 a re/rict$ quantity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,int]nal con/ruction ( ! ,national ,regulator ,co4's !rmo/atic regulator4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! ap>tm5t has ris5 s z to exp& ! !rmo/atic elem5t ,a1 ! pressure on ,k & ,l is reliev$ & ! spr+ ,n closes ! port ,g4 ,! air admitt$ ?r\gh ! re/riction screw ,s1 s9ce x _c escape ?r\gh ! port ,g1 accumulates 9 ! passage ,y & pipe ,d1 fill+ ! diaphragm & mov+ ! valve into ! position to decrease ! supply ( heat4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! ap>tm5t has decreas$ s z to produce pressure on ! connect+ rod ,k1 ?r\gh ! contraction ( ! !rmo/atic elem5t ,a1 ! port ,g w be op5$ by ! valve lev] ,o1 all[+ ! air 9 ! pipe ,d1 toge!r ) t :i* fl[s ?r\gh ! re/riction ,s1 to escape ?r\gh ! passage ,w to ! atmosph]e1 all[+ no air to accumulate 9 ! pipe ,d1 & ?us p]mitt+ ! spr+ at ! diaphragm to actuate ! damp] or valve = m heat4 ,! am\nt ( air releas$ ?r\gh ! port ,g by ! valve lev] ,o v>ies ! pressure accumulat$ 9 ! pipe ,d & produces ! graduat$ or int]m$iate action desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--;,cross-section ( pneumatic radiator valve %[+ its int]nal con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--,pneumatic motor valve = automatic control ( damp]s1 etc4 ,a fur!r application ( air pressure 9 temp]ature regulation is t ( ! type ( motor %[n 9 ,fig4 #agj4 ,?is device is int5d$ to op5 & close damp]s su* z are us$ 9 ! automatic regulation ( temp]ature :]e heat$ air is us$ to w>m ! build+s4 ,! op]ation ( ! motor is ! same z t :i* controls ! /eam valve4 ,! pressure ex]t$ by ! diaphragm is appli$ at ,a & ! atta*m5t to ! damp] is made at ,b4 ,! motors indicat$ at ,v & ,n 9 ,fig4 #agd & ,d 9 ,fig4 #age are examples ( its application4 ,me*anical ,v5tilation4--,draft v5tilation produc$ by op5 w9d[s1 flues & *imneys is influ5c$ by extremes ( temp]ature & by ! =ce & *ang+ direction ( ! w9d2 x is1 !re=e1 b imp]fectly controll$4 ,! sup]iority ( me*anical v5tilation is g5]ally recogniz$ because ! am\nt ( ent]+ air may be regulat$ to suit any circum/ance & its temp]ature & humidity v>i$ to con=m to any desir$ atmosph]ic conditions4 ,me*anical v5tilat+ plants are seldom employ$ 9 any b ! m pret5ti\s dwell+s1 b _! use has ext5d$ to a degree t !y are occasionally in/all$ 9 ap>tm5t build+s & _! fur!r application is likely to gr[4 ,nei!r ! co/ ( in/allation nor ! exp5se ( op]ation is prohibitive 9 dwell+s ( ! bett] types4 ,me*anical v5tilation is q g5]ally employ$ 9 s*ool build+s1 auditoriums1 hospitals1 public build+s & o!rs :]e means w p]mit1 & !re is a univ]sal recognition ( ! effects ( ! agreeably condition$ air4 ,me*anical v5tilation may be accompli%$ by p[]-driv5 fans1 ei!r by exhau/+ ! air f ! build+ or by =c+ air into x1 & "u "s conditions a comb9ation ( ! two me?ods is us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--;,exhau/ fan = induc$ v5tilation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agb4--,v5tilation app>atus 9 :i* is includ$ ! heat] coils1 ! fan & ! motor4 ,! exhau/ me?od ( v5tilation is t 9 :i* air is bl[n out ( ! build+ by a fan2 & ! supply1 to repl5i% t tak5 away1 is conduct$ into ! build+ ?r\gh ducts prep>$ = ! purpose4 ,9 "s cases ! induc$ air supply leaks into ! rooms ?r\gh ! jo9ts 9 ! doors & w9d[s1 & ?r\gh ! accid5tal crevices4 ,9 ,fig4 #aga is %[n a simple exhau/ fan in/all$ to produce su* a *ange ( air4 ,x is suitable = kit*5s & o!r places :]e x is desir$ to elim9ate smoke or gases r ?an to produce a supply ( air4 ,) ?is app>atus ! air ( ! room is bl[n out by ! rotat+ fan & new air to take ! place ( t exhau/$ is drawn 9 at any conv5i5t op5+4 ,! ,pl5um ,me?od4--,t =m ( me*anical v5tilation by means ( :i* air is =c$ into ! rooms is kn[n z ! pl5um me?od4 ,x is ! mo/ positive means ( air supply because its action is att5d$ by a slight pressure above ! outside air2 x is cont9u\s 9 action & ! am\nt ( ent]+ air is "u control4 ,! escape ( ! expell$ air is made ?r\gh v5t flues especially con/ruct$ = ! purpose4 ,v5tilation ,app>atus4--,fig4 #agb illu/rates ! =m ( app>atus us$ = v5tilat+ build+s :]e no attempt is made at wa%+ or humidify+ ! air4 ,enclos$ 9 a %eet-iron case ,c is a fan :i* is driv5 by ! electric motor ,m4 ,! capacity ( ! fan1 = ! deliv]y ( air1 is made to suit ! requirem5ts ( ! build+4 ,9 ?is case ! fan is secur$ to an ext5sion ( ! armature %aft ( ! motor4 ,connect+ ) ! case :i* encloses ! fan is ano!r %eet-iron box ,h1 conta+ coils ( heat+ pipe4 ,! heat+ app>atus is design$ to *ange ! temp]ature ( ! ent]+ air to suit ! requirem5ts ( ! build+4 ,?is repres5ts ! draw-?r\gh or induc$-draft type ( v5tilation app>atus4 ,! air deliv]$ by ! fan induces a fl[ ( outside air :i* is drawn ?r\gh ! heat+ coils & dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! op5+ ,e4 ,at ?is po9t x ent]s ! ma9 v5tilation duct f :i* x is di/ribut$ by bran* conduits ?r\gh\t ! build+4 ,! temp]ature ( ! air s5t out f ! fan is regulat$ by ! /eam valves ( ! heat] coils to suit ! prevail+ conditions4 ,"u "s in/allations ( ?is "* ! v5tilat+ air is made to furni% ! heat necess>y to w>m ! build+ z well z to provide its air supply4 ,z ord9>ily us$1 h[ev]1 ! temp]ature ( ! v5tilat+ air is ! same z t ( ! room4 ,! me?od ( convey+ air to ! v>i\s ap>tm5ts dep5ds entirely on local conditions4 ,! conduits may be made ( %eet iron1 plac$ to suit ! exi/+ conditions2 b :5 a build+ is con/ruct$ ) a v5tilat+ plant 9 view z a "p ( ! build+ equipm5t1 x is cu/om>y to make ! ducts "p ( ! p>titions4 ,9 brick build+s ! ducts are con/ruct$1 s f> z x is practicable1 9 ! walls4 ,^! ducts are made 9 size & arrangem5t to suit ! am\nt ( air requir$ = ea* room4 ,:5 ! plant is put into op]ation ea* duct is te/$ ) an anemomet] :i* indicates ! velocity ( ! ent]+ air4 ,! calculat$ am\nt ( air1 det]m9$ by ! velocity & area ( ! ent]+ column1 :5 comp>$ ) ! necess>y quantity dem&$ = good v5tilation1 gives ! effici5cy ( ! sy/em4 ,air ,condition+4--,9 addition to ! possibility ( a con/ant supply ( air1 a comb9ation ( ! exhau/ & pl5um me?ods admits ( air purification4 ,) su* a plant1 ! air may be wa%$ free f all susp5d$ du/ or gases & moi/5$ to any degree ( humidity4 ,! process ( wa%+ & humidify+ air is kn[n z air condition+4 ,app>atus = air condition+ is made 9 a v>iety ( =ms to produce any desir$ ext5t ( air purification & any degree ( humidity4 ,! plant may be regulat$ by h& or x may be made entirely automatic 9 its action4 ,air-condition+ plants may be arrang$ to produce air t is purifi$1 humidifi$ & w>m$ dur+ w9t] wea!r & 9 summ] ! hot humid atmosph]e may be cool$ & dehumidifi$ to a temp]ature & p]c5tage ( moi/ure t is mo/ agreeable4 ,condition$ air is (t5 us$ 9 manufactories1 n = ! purpose ( supply+ good air to ! employees b because ( ! effect ( ! atmosph]ic air on ! products4 ,! manufacture ( textile fabrics (t5 dem&s a con/ant atmosph]ic humidity 9 ord] t ! mat]ial produc$ may be uni=m 9 grade2 ?is is p>ticul>ly true 9 ! mak+ ( silks4 ,v>i\s manufactories require an atmosph]e free f l9t & du/ 9 ord] t ! be/ quality ( mat]ial may be produc$4 ,! air = v5tilation 9 su* places is wa%$ free f all susp5d$ matt] be=e be+ s5t into ! build+4 ,9 ,fig4 #agc is indicat$ an application ( app>atus simil> 9 con/ruction to t j describ$4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts is su* z to produce a ,pl5um hot-air sy/em ( v5tilation & temp]ature regulation4 ,! plant occupies a room 9 ! basem5t & ! draw+ %[s ! me?od ( heat+1 toge!r ) ! plan ( di/ribution4 ,! air duct lead+ to ! room above furni%es an example ( ! mann] ( admitt+ ! w>m$ air to ! rooms4 ,! damp]s ,c1 ,c1 etc41 are controll$ by sep>ate motors4 ,! motor ,m is "u ! control ( ! !rmo/at ,t 9 ! room above4 ,any *ange ( temp]ature 9 ! room is correct$ by ! damp] to admit cold or w>m air z is desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,pl5um hot-bla/ heat+ sy/em ) temp]ature regulation4 ,! p[]-driv5 fan ,f draws 9 outdoor air f an op5+ ,a1 ?r\gh a set ( heat] coils ,h1 9 :i* x is rais$ consid]ably 9 temp]ature4 ,! heat] 9 ?is case is a coil ( /eam pipes4 ,! air--aft] be+ w>m$--is tak5 into ! fan & f x may be s5t ?r\gh a second set ( coils ,h1 to receive additional heat1 or if already suffici5tly w>m$ ! air f ! fan may pass "u ! second set ( coils & receive no heat f !m4 ,"u ! fir/ heat] coil is also a bypass :i* may be op5$ by ! motor ,n to admit cold air t is drawn directly into ! fan4 ,! movem5t ( ! air ?r\gh ^! bypasses is "u control ( ! !rmo/at1 :i* causes ! motor ,n to op5 or close ! bypass to suit ! temp]ature ( ! room4 ,:5 ! bypass is op5$ ! /eam is %ut (f f ! heat] coils4 ,exam9ation ( ! draw+ w %[ t ! air f ! fan may pass ?r\gh a second heat] ,h1 to ! place m>k$ w>m air1 or x may pass "u ! heat] to ! comp>tm5t m>k$ cold air4 ,! am\nt ( w>m & cold air :i* ent]s ! duct is regulat$ by ! position ( ! damp]s ,c4 ,! position ( ! damp]s ,c1 :i* is controll$ by ! motors ,m1 is made to take am\nts ( cold or w>m air to produce ! desir$ temp]ature 9 ! rooms4 ,! motors ,c1 etc41 are "u control ( ! !rmo/at 9 ea* room4 ,any *ange ( temp]ature 9 ! room w imm$iately affect ! !rmo/at4 ,! effect on ! !rmo/at w s *ange ! air pressure 9 ! motor t ! valve ,c is mov$ to correct ! diff]5ce 9 room temp]ature4 ,if w>m air is dem&$1 ! motor *anges ! damp] ,c to close ! cold-air supply & take air t mu/ pass ?r\gh ! heat] coils ,h4 ,if only cold air is desir$ ! damp] w turn to %ut (f ! c\rse ?r\gh ! heat]s & admit air directly f outdoors4 ,humidify+ ,plants4--,me*anical v5tilation plants t are int5d$ = wa%+ ! air may be made up ( p>ts simil> to t ( ,fig4 #agc1 b 9 addition to ! app>atus %[n provision is made = ! air to pass ?r\gh a *amb] fill$ ) a spray ( wat]4 ,! air 9 pass+ ?r\gh ?is spray is wa%$ free ( du/ & at ! same "t absorbs wat] necess>y = its desir$ humidity4 ,! humidity ( air may be increas$ by ! addition ( moi/ure or decreas$ 7dehumidifi$7 by rais+ its temp]ature1 !reby increas+ its capacity = conta9+ moi/ure4 ,suppose t air at #ej is saturat$ ) moi/ure2 x w conta9 practically #d gra9s ( wat] p] cubic foot4 ,if n[ ! temp]ature ( ! air is rais$ to #gj1 ! same am\nt ( air is capable ( conta9+ #h gra9s ( wat] & is1 !re=e1 only #ej p] c5t4 saturat$4 ,humidification is accompli%$ 9 air-condition+ plants ?r\gh "o ( two g5]al me?ods3 by ! evaporation type ( app>atus1 9 :i* ! pass+ air absorbs moi/ure f contact ) a l>ge area ( wat]2 or ! spray me?od1 9 :i* ! wat] is brok5 into a v f9e spray by a specially devis$ nozzle & ?us r5d]$ easy ( absorption by ! air to be moi/5$4 ,a ?ird me?od is sometimes employ$1 9 :i* /eam is introduc$ into ! air supply4 ,/eam is already vaporiz$ wat] & imm$iately becomes a "p ( ! air )\t fur!r *ange4 ,! /eam type ( humidify+ plant possesses features t limit its application1 9 t ! /eam 9 "s cases may possess objectionable odor or includes ! vapor ( grease1 ei!r ( :i* w\ld mat]ially effect its use4 ,fur!r1 ! heat ( vaporization lib]at$ by ! cond5s+ /eam is also a factor t influ5ces ! temp]ature ( ! air & 9 case ( direct humidification mu/ receive special att5tion4 ,vaporization z a ,cool+ ,ag5t4--,! evaporation ( wat] has a di/9ct value aside f humidify+ ! air1 9 t ! cool+ effect is 9 direct proportion to ! add$ moi/ure4 ,9 ! process ( evaporation ! heat necess>y to *ange ! wat] into vapor is tak5 f ! surr\nd+ air & ! temp]ature is ?us mat]ially l[]$4 ,9 practical air-condition+ app>atus1 ( ! evaporative or spray types1 ! process consi/s ( draw+ ! outside air into a *amb] fill$ ) fall+ wat] t is brok5 up into drops l ra9 or spray4 ,9 pass+1 e p>ticle ( ! air comes into contact ) ! wat] drops2 ! almo/ invisible p>ticles ( du/ adh]e to ! wat] & are c>ri$ away leav+ ! air wa%$ clean4 ,9 addition to free+ ! air f du/1 ! intimate mixture ( ! air p]mits ( a ready absorption ( ! wat]1 :i* is tak5 up to any p] c5t4 ( saturation4 ,aft] leav+ ! spray *amb]1 ! moi/ure-lad5 air passes ?r\gh an elim9ator 9 :i* any unabsorb$ moi/ure is extract$4 ,x is possible = air to become n only completely saturat$ ) wat] "u ! conditions enc\nt]$ 9 a humidify+ plant1 b 9 addition1 ! movem5t ( ! air may c>ry along unabsorb$ p>ticles t are precipitat$ directly aft] leav+ ! spray *amb]4 ,= ?is reason ! air is pass$ ?r\gh an elim9ator4 ,! elim9ator is compos$ ( a s]ies ( irregul> %eet-metal surfaces s arrang$ t ! air is requir$ to abruptly *ange its direction sev]al times 9 its passage ( a %ort di/ance4 ,! impact ( ! air aga9/ ! surfaces & ! c5trifugal =ce ex]t$ by ! sudd5 *anges ( direction ?r[ out ! excess moi/ure & any rema9+ susp5d$ matt] ! air may conta94 ,! saturat$ air f ! elim9ator passes ?r\gh a heat] :]e ! temp]ature is rais$ to t ( ! rooms4 ,9 ! rise ( temp]ature ! air :i* is saturat$ is r5d]$ capable ( absorb+ m moi/ure1 & h5ce has be5 dehumidifi$4 ,! rise ( temp]ature & ! correspond+ decrease 9 relative humidity is int5d$ to be su* z to leave 9 ! f9i%$ air ! desir$ p]c5tage ( moi/ure4 ,air-cool+ ,plants4--,! use ( air-wa%+ & humidify+ plants s f> m5tion$ has be5 conf9$ to elim9ation ( du/ & ! addition ( moi/ure to air1 "u w9t] conditions4 ,! same type ( app>atus1 us$ 9 summ]1 becomes a cool+ plant1 & by obs]vance ( ! necess>y requirem5ts may be us$ to produce agreeable atmosph]ic conditions dur+ hot wea!r4 ,:5 us$ = su* purpose ! air is wa%$1 by pass+ x ?r\gh fall+ wat] :i* frees x f du/ & r$uces its temp]ature4 ,x is !n fur!r cool$ by pass+ ov] cold surfaces t take ! place ( ! heat]s us$ 9 cold wea!r4 ,! cool+ surfaces are pipe coils kept cold by ! conta9$ wat] :i* comes f ! wat] supply or f a refrig]at+ plant4 ,! temp]ature & humidity are ?us *ang$ to suit ! requirem5ts ( ! condition$ air4 ,dur+ ! hot wea!r ( summ] ! mo/ disagreeable atmosph]ic condition is t caus$ by humidity ne> saturation1 at a "t ( relatively high temp]ature4 ,"u su* conditions ! cool+ plant n only cools ! air1 b causes a precipitation ( ! moi/ure on ! cold surfaces :i* are kept bel[ ! dew-po9t4 ,! air is cool$ & dehumidifi$ to a po9t su* t ! condition$ air produces an agreeable atmosph]e4 ,! regulation ( ! degree to :i* ! air is cool$ is accompli%$ by ! same g5]al me?ods z are us$ 9 heat+4 ,humidity ,control4--,! me?od ( regulat+ atmosph]ic humidity 9 a humidify+ plant w be det]m9$ by ! conditions "u :i* x is int5d$ to "w4 ,!re are a v>iety ( means employ$ t may be us$ to br+ ab\t ! same effects1 ea* ( :i* is p>ticul>ly suit$ to c]ta9 requirem5ts4 ,! pres5t object is to describe ! ess5tial features ( aircondition+ plants1 by use ( illu/rations repres5t+ ea* ( ! ?ree me?ods m5tion$ above4 ,t ( ! v5tilation ( a s*ool build+ "u w9t] conditions w be tak5 z an example4 ,9 ,fig4 #agd is %[n a heat+ & v5tilat+ sy/em 9 :i* ! air condition+ is accompli%$ by automatic regulators = bo? temp]ature & humidity4 ,! plant occupies a room 9 ! basem5t1 & a room directly above illu/rates ! conditions t prevail 9 all ( ! o!r rooms ( ! build+4 ,! pr9cipal features ( ! plant are ! fan ,g1 :i* supplies ! air2 ! hot-air furnace ,h1 :i* furni%es ! heat2 & ! wat] spray ,s1 :i* provides ! moi/ure ) :i* ! air is humidifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--;,furnace bla/ sy/em ( heat+1 ) temp]ature regulation & humidity control4 ,! air is drawn 9 at ,a to a room 9 :i* a motor-driv5 fan ,g =ces ! supply ?r\gh ! heat+ app>atus into ! build+4 ,! air aft] leav+ ! fan passes ?r\gh a cold-air duct ,c to ! heat+ surfaces ,h to be w>m$4 ,! air 9 pass+ ov] ! heat+ surfaces is rais$ to a degree consid]ably above ! temp]ature ( ! rooms4 ,! hot air leav+ ! heat] ,h ent]s ! temp]$ air *amb] ,t ?r\gh ! passage ,k4 ,a damp] ,m provides means = also admitt+ cold air to ! *amb] ,t directly f ! fan4 ,! !rmo/at1 locat$ at ,o1 is connect$ ) a pneumatic motor ,v 7simil> to ,fig4 #agj7 :i* regulates ! supply ( cold & hot air f ,k & ,m to suit ! desir$ temp]ature ( ! air supply = ! rooms above4 ,! arm ( ! motor ,v is s arrang$ t an upw>d movem5t op5s ! cold-air & closes ! hot-air passages2 ! d[nw>d movem5t produces ! opposite effect4 ,! motor ,v ?us controls ! temp]ature ( ! air4 ,9 ?is sy/em ! air is humidifi$ by a direct wat] spray m>k$ ,s 9 ! draw+4 ,a "p ( ! hot air f ! heat] ,h may escape ?r\gh ! damp] ,w & absorb wat] on its way to ! duct ,d1 :i* takes ! air to ! room above1 :]e x ent]s ?r\gh ! regi/] ,e4 ,?is air z x comes f ! heat]1 be+ hot1 w absorb a l>g] am\nt ( wat] ?an ! air c\ld hold :5 cool$ to room temp]ature2 = ?is reason only a "p ( ! air supply is humidifi$4 ,! supply ( ! hot humid air is admitt$ to ! duct ,d 9 su* quantity z w produce ! desir$ degree ( humidity 9 ! rooms4 ,! degree ( room temp]ature is gov]n$ by ! !rmo/at1 9 ! room1 :i*1 by means ( ! motor ,n1 controls ! damp] ,f4 ,?is damp] admits hot humid air & ! temp]$ air f ! *amb] ,t 9 prop] proportion4 ,at any "t ! humidity ( ! air 9 ! room rea*es ! maximum am\nt = :i* x is set1 ! humido/at1 ?r\gh its motor1 closes ! valve ,r1 :i* controls ! wat] supply to ! spray nozzle1 & ! moi/ure 9 ! air is r$uc$ until a fur!r am\nt is dem&$4 ,) app>atus ( ?is k9d ! temp]ature & humidity may be kept practically con/ant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #age4--;,direct /eam heat+ sy/em ) me*anical fan-bla/ v5tilation1 temp]ature regulation & humidity control4 ,fig4 #age %[s ano!r arrangem5t ( a simil>ly controll$ plant 9 :i* /eam is us$ = humidify+ ! air4 ,! air is admitt$ at ,a1 f :5ce x passes ?r\gh a /eam-heat+ coil ,s1 :i* raises x to a pr$et]m9$ temp]ature4 ,! /eam jets are arrang$ at ,h1 = provid+ ! necess>y moi/ure4 ,! humido/at ?r\gh a motor valve ,v gov]ns ! am\nt ( /eam t is p]mitt$ to ent] ! humidify+ *amb]4 ,a !rmo/at locat$ 9 ! air duct at ,b controls ! temp]ature ( ! air s5t to ! rooms by regulat+ ! am\nt ( heat giv5 out by ! /eam coils ,s4 ,?is control is made /ill m s5sitive by use ( a cold-air bypass4 ,! damp] ,d is op5$ by a motor valve to admit cold air at ! same "t ! /eam is %ut (f f ! heat] coils4 ,9 ?is plant ! v5tilat+ air is n int5d$ to supply all ( ! heat to ! rooms4 ,a !rmo/at on ! wall controls ! room temp]ature by regulat+ ! am\nt ( /eam admitt$ to ! radiators4 ,9 ! v5tilat+ plant previ\sly describ$1 all ( ! heat = ! build+ is suppli$ ?r\gh ! v5tilat+ sy/em2 9 ! plant %[n 9 ,fig4 #age1 ! heat+ app>atus :i* w>ms ! build+ is entirely sep>ate & may be us$ :5 ! v5tilat+ sy/em is inop]ative4 ,! humidity is controll$ by admitt+ saturat$ air to ! w>m] air ( ! rooms 9 su* quantity z w produce ! desir$ mixture4 ,! humido/at1 on ! left-h& wall1 regulates ! quantity ( moi/ure by op5+ or clos+ ! /eam valve ,v z occasion requires4 ,ano!r example ( air-condition+ plant simil> 9 pr9ciple to t j describ$ is (t5 call$ ! dew-po9t sy/em4 ,x dep5ds = its action on a def9ite dew-po9t temp]ature at :i* ! air is saturat$ ) moi/ure1 be=e be+ heat$ to room temp]ature4 ,! air to be condition$ is fir/ w>m$1 by pass+ ?r\gh a set ( temp]+ coils1 to a degree at :i* x w conta9 ! necess>y moi/ure :5 saturat$4 ,aft] saturation ! temp]ature is rais$ by a second set ( heat+ coils to ! room temp]ature1 ! moi/ure conta9$ be+ "r to give ! desir$ humidity4 ,to illu/rate1 suppose t x is desir$ to ma9ta9 a con/ant humidity ( #ej p] c5t4 saturation at #gj;,f4 9 ! build+4 ,! temp]ature at :i* ! air mu/ be saturat$1 to conta9 #d gra9s ( moi/ure p] cubic foot1 is f\nd 9 ! table on page #aii to be #dh;,f4 ,! ent]+ air mu/ fir/ be rais$ to t temp]ature by ! temp]+ coils4 ,! air !n ent]s ! spray *amb] :]e x absorbs moi/ure to saturation1 by contact ) a multitude ( wat] p>ticles4 ,?is saturat$ air n[ passes ?r\gh a second set ( heat$ coils & takes up heat suffici5t to raise x to ! f9i%$ temp]ature4 ,! dew-po9t temp]ature at :i* ! air ent]s ! spray *amb] & ! f9al temp]ature are kept con/ant by motor-op]at$ valves :i* supply ! heat+ coils ) ! necess>y heat 9 ! =m ( /eam4 ,! motors are controll$ by !rmo/ats1 plac$ to measure ! temp]ature ( ! air z x ent]s ! saturator & ! f9i%$ air z x ent]s ! rooms4 ,if ^! conditions are n[ kept con/ant1 ! f9i%$ air w be con/antly #ej p] c5t4 saturat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--,s*ool build+ section %[+ a complete air-condition+ plant4 ,a plant ( ?is "* is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #agf4 ,! figure %[s ! ext]ior ( ! cas+s :i* enclose ! temp]+ coils & saturator at ,a1 ! elim9ator at ,b1 & ! heat+ coils at ,c4 ,?is is ano!r draw-?r\gh type ( plant :]e a fan1 enclos$ 9 ,d1 draws ! air ?r\gh ! condition+ app>atus & =ces x ?r\gh ! %eet-iron ducts ,e4 ,! passages 9 ! walls--z indicat$ by ! arr[s--conduct ! air ?r\gh ! regi/] ,r1 into ! room4 ,! regi/] ,s repres5ts ! dis*>ge duct ?r\gh :i* ! vitiat$ air is =c$ f ! room4 ,9 ?is sy/em ( air condition+1 all ( ! v5tilat+ air is to be saturat$ ) moi/ure at a temp]ature su* t :5 rais$ to room temp]ature w conta9 ! desir$ p]c5tage ( humidity4 ,! saturator occupies ! space betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,a numb] ( spray jets are arrang$ to fill ! entire space ) wat] drops t are mov+ 9 e direction4 ,! air1 z x passes1 mu/ come into contact ) ! drops aga9 & aga91 until by repeat$ impact ea* p>ticle is completely saturat$ & at ! same "t wa%$ free f du/4 ,x has already be5 expla9$ t ! movem5t ( ! saturat$ air ?r\gh a mass ( spray w c>ry ) x a consid]able am\nt ( unabsorb$ wat] t mu/ be tak5 out by an elim9ator4 ,a section ( ! cas+ is brok5 out at ,b1 %[+ ! elim9ator plates4 ,! irregul> surfaces ( ^! plates repeat$ly *ange ! direction ( ! pass+ air1 & ! susp5d$ wat] or rema9+ solid matt] is ?r[n aga9/ ! surfaces :]e !y adh]e4 ,! moi/ure accumulates 9 drops ( wat] t run d[n ! plates to ! bottom ( ! enclosure & f9ally into ! sew]4 ,f ! elim9ator ! air passes ?r\gh ! heat+ coils enclos$ 9 ,c1 :]e x is heat$ to ! necess>y temp]ature = admission to ! rooms4 ,! regulation ( ! temp]ature ( ! temp]+ coils & heat+ coils is accompli%$ z 9 ! o!r plants describ$4 ,! !rmo/ats ) _! motors op]ate ! valves ( ! heat]s to admit /eam suffici5t to keep con/ant temp]atures at ! diff]5t p>ts4 ,! humidity is ma9ta9$ at a con/ant am\nt by saturat+ ! air at a con/ant temp]ature & !re=e no humido/at is requir$4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,gase\s ,,& ,,liquid ,,fuels ,gase\s & ,liquid ,fuels4--,gase\s & liquid fuels us$ = dome/ic illum9ation & heat+ may be divid$ into ?ree g5]al classes--coal gas1 includ+ c>burett$ wat] gas & produc] gas & _! v>i\s mixtures2 oil gas1 acetyl5e & gasol9e gas4 ,( ^! ! fir/ is ! mo/ important z an illum9at+ gas1 :ile = indu/rial & dome/ic purposes produc] gas is ( no importance z a fuel gas4 ,gasol9e1 acetyl5e & oil gases are g5]at$ & us$ to a rem>kable ext5t 9 isolat$ dwell+s z fuel & = illum9ation4 ,! value ( any gas = dome/ic purposes w dep5d on ! am\nt ( heat t is produc$ :5 x is burn$4 ,9 ! e>li] days ( its use coal gas 0 employ$ entirely z an illum9ant & its value 0 express$ 9 illum9at+ p[]2 at ! pres5t "t ! /&>d (t5 prescrib$ by regulation is t ( its illum9at+ capability & is /at$ 9 c&lep[]4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a t5d5cy to e/abli% ! m consi/5t /&>d ( express+ ! value ( gas by its heat value4 ,! reasons = ?is is ! g5]al use ( mantle gas burn]s :i* dep5d on ! heat+ value alone = _! effici5cy & ! fact t coal gas is v ext5sively us$ = dome/ic fuel4 ,coal ,gas4--,coal gas is d]iv$ f ! solid hydroc>bons ( coal trans=m$ into ! m conv5i5t1 gase\s =m ( fuel by means ( di/illation4 ,coal gas 0 fir/ made by di/ill+ coal f an iron pot ov] a fire & to "s ext5t ?is is /ill ! pr9ciple ( ! pres5t practice4 ,! gas z x comes f ! retort is subject$ to a ref9+ process ( wa%+ & scrubb+ to remove ! undesirable prop]ties :5 x is /or$ 9 a l>ge gasomet] = di/ribution ?r\gh pipes to its places ( use4 ,coal gas is n[ us$ l>gely = fuel z well z = light+4 ,unless ! heat+ value ( gas is regulat$ by law 9 any community & det]m9ations ( its quality are made regul>ly by "s compet5t (ficial1 ! am\nt ( heat conta9$ 9 coal gas is entirely at ! option ( ! manufactur] & manag]'s consci5ce4 ,! value z giv5 9 ! table on page #beb is ! numb] ( ,b4t4u4 coal gas %\ld conta94 ,! heat+ value ( any gas is det]m9$ by burn+ ! gas 9 a calorimet] made expressly = ! measurem5t ( ! heat ( combu/ion = ea* foot ( ! gas consum$4 ,all-oil ,wat] ,gas4--,9 places :]e an abundant supply ( *eap oil is available1 all-oil wat] gas has met ) a great deal ( favor4 ,x is made by atomiz+ crude oil by a bla/ ( /eam 9 a heat$ *amb] :]e a comb9ation ( ! vaporiz$ oil & /eam =m a gas4 ,9 g5]al ! gas resembles coal gas & z giv5 9 ! table on page #beb is slightly high] 9 heat+ value4 ,p9ts* ,gas4--,"o ( ! comm]cial adaptations ( oil gas is t ( ! ,p9ts* process ( compress+ ! gas 9 tanks = transportation4 ,9 ! ,p9ts* process1 ! gas is subject$ to a pressure ( #aj atmosph]es--ab\t #aej p\nds4 ,?is cond5sation p]mits a suffici5tly l>ge volume ( gas to be /or$ 9 tanks z to make possible ! light+ ( railroad tra9s1 etc41 by gaslight4 ,! pressure ( ! gas is r$uc$ by an automatic regulat+ valve to t requir$ by ! burn]4 ,! flame is v mu* ! same z t produc$ by coal gas4 ,blau ,gas4--,ano!r comm]cial adaptation ( oil gas is t kn[n z ,blau gas4 ,9 ?is process ( /orage ! gas is subject$ to #ajj atmosph]es ( pressure--ab\t #aejj p\nds4 ,?is pressure is suffici5t to liquefy ! gas & z a result a l>ge am\nt c be transport$ 9 a relatively small space4 ,accord+ to ,fulweil] #a gallon ( ! liquefi$ gas w yield ab\t #bh cubic feet ( ! exp&$ gas & !re w rema9 a residue t may run up to #i p] c5t4 ,wat] ,gas4--,:5 ! vapor ( wat] is br\ght into contact ) inc&esc5t c>bon1 ! wat] is decompos$ & suffici5t c>bon is absorb$ to produce a fuel gas4 ,its manufacture dep5ds on ! decomposition t takes place :5 /eam is bl[n into a b$ ( inc&esc5t coal4 ,! gas made by ?is reaction is a wat] gas1 b due to ! fact t :5 burn$ x gives a blue flame1 x is kn[n z 8blue gas40 ,x has a heat+ value ( ab\t #cjj ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot1 & z comp>$ ) coal gas :i* gives #fbb ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot1 w\ld be reckon$ at ab\t "o-half its value z a heat+ ag5t4 ,blue gas may be r5d]$ lum9\s by ! addition ( "s hydroc>bon t w lib]ate free c>bon 9 ! flame :5 burn$4 ,?is is accompli%$ 9 ! process ( manufacture by ! addition ( vaporiz$ oil4 ,! foll[+ table z /at$ by ,fulweil] gives ! heat+ values ( ! gases commonly us$ = dome/ic purposes 9 ,briti% !rmal units p] cubic foot4 ,coal gas4 #fbb ,b4t4u4 ,c>burett$ wat] gas #fdc ,b4t4u4 ,p9ts* gas4 #a1bgf ,b4t4u4 ,blau gas4 #a1gjd ,b4t4u4 ,all-oil wat] gas #fhj ,b4t4u4 ,acetyl5e gas #a1cej ,b4t4u4 ,gasol9e gas4 #ead ,b4t4u4 ,oil gas #a1cbj ,b4t4u4 ,blue wat] gas #cjj ,b4t4u4 ,! co/ & calorific values z comput$ by ,dr4 ,will>d ( ! ,/ate ,agricultural ,college ( ,kansas1 giv5 bel[1 %[s ! relative values ( v>i\s k9ds ( dome/ic fuels4 ,co/ p] ,cal4 p] ,cal4 = p\nd ,gram #a c5t c5ts ,wood1 #bj p] c5t4 ,h4,o4 #e4jj p] cord #j4afg #b4c #g1fbj ,bitu4 coal #d4be p] ton4 #j4bac #g4e #af1jji ,ant4 coal #ab4ej p] ton #j4fbe #f4j #d1ced ,gasol9e1 sp4 gr4 #fh #j4ad p] gallon1 #e p\nds4 #b4dgj #aj4j #a1hdf ,k]os5e1 sp4 gr4 #hj #j4aa p] gallon1 #f p\nds4 #a4fej #aj4j #b1gec ,coal gas1 #a4ej p] #ajjj cubic feet4 #c4ajj #bj4j #b1ibg ,alcohol1 #ij p] c5t41 #ej p] gallon1 #g4adj #f4d #djd #g p\nds ,electricity1 #j4ae p] kil[att-h\r #eg4d ,! relatively high heat value ( ,blau gas 7#agjd ,b4t4u47 & ! fact t x may be r$uc$ to a liquid =m = transportation has result$ 9 ! manufacture ( small light+ plants t may be us$ 9 places :]e o!r =ms ( liquid or gase\s fuel are n desirable4 ,= transportation ! gas is compress$ 9 seamless1 /eel bottles t conta9 ab\t #bj p\nds ( liquid4 ,! *>g$ bottles are %ipp$ to ! consum] & :5 empty are return$ to ! manufactur]s to be refill$4 ,! entire plant--ready to be atta*$ to ! di/ribut+ pipes 9 ! h\se--is conta9$ 9 a /eel cab9et4 ,! *>g$ tanks are atta*$ to a l>g] tank into :i* ! liquid gas is fir/ exp&$4 ,?is expansion is accompli%$ by an automatic valve t ma9ta9s a con/ant pressure 9 ! l>ge tank4 ,) ?is plant ! lamps & burn]s ( ! /oves are op]at$ z ) city gas--no g5]at+ or prelim9>y prep>ation be+ necess>y4 ,z soon z ! bottles are exhau/$ !y are replac$ by o!rs & ! empty bottles are %ipp$ to ! factory to be refill$4 ,measurem5t ( ,gas4--,:5 gas ( any k9d is pur*as$ f a manufactur+ company1 ! am\nt us$ is measur$ by a gas met]1 locat$ at ! po9t :]e ! gas ma9 ent]s ! build+4 ,! read+s ( ! met] are tak5 by ! company at /at$ int]vals & ! am\nt regi/]$ is *>g$ to ! acc\nt ( ! consum]4 ,gas is sold 9 cubic feet & is s regi/]$ by ! met]4 ,! price is quot$ by ! manufactur]s at a def9ite rate p] ?\s& cubic feet4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! la/ two read+s ( ! met] furni%es ! am\nt f :i* ! gas bill is reckon$4 ,! occupants ( a build+ are responsible = all gas regi/]$ by ! met] &1 !re=e1 %\ld be acqua9t$ ) ! conditions "u :i* ! gas is sold4 ,gas bills are (t5 ! subject ( dispute because ( failure to und]/& ! p]iod ( "t cov]$ by ! am\nt claim$2 aga91 ! v>y+ l5g? ( days due to ! season ( ! ye> has a pron\nc$ effect on ! am\nt ( gas consum$4 ,lack ( c>e 9 ! economical use ( gas is probably ! mo/ prolific cause ( disput$ bills4 ,! am\nt due = gas may at any "t be *eck$ by ! consum] :o keeps a record ( ! met] read+s4 ,at any "t ! correctness ( a met] is d\bt$1 arrangem5t may be made ) ! gas company to h x te/$ = accuracy4 ,?is is done 9 ! (fice ( ! company1 by atta*+ ! met] to a measur+ device--call$ a met] prov]--9 :i* a def9ite measur$ am\nt ( gas is pass$ ?r\gh ! met] & comp>ison made ) met] regi/ration4 ,if x is f\nd t ! met] does n regi/] correctly1 ! gas company is 9 duty b\nd to make good ! diff]5ce4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! met] is f\nd to be correct1 x is cu/om>y to *>ge = ! s]vices ( prov+ ! met]4 ,gas ,met]s4--,! gas met] z ord9>ily us$ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #agg4 ,9 ,fig4 #agh ! same met] is %[n ) ! top & front expos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--;,gas met]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--;,gas met] %[+ int]nal me*anism4 ,! met] is op]at$ by ! pressure ( ! gas :i* ent]s at ! inlet pipe on ! left-h& side ( ! met] z y face ! index4 ,! gas f ?is pipe comes into ! valve *amb] & passes alt]nately into ! diaphragms & _! *amb]s1 z ! valve ports ,v are op5$ & clos$ by ! action ( ! met]4 ,! movem5t ( ! valve 9 op5+ ! port :i* admits gas to ! diaphragm closes ! port to ! *amb] :i* has fill$4 ,! gas ent]+ ! diaphragm exp&s x l a bell[s & =ces ! gas out ( ! *amb]1 ?r\gh ! middle "p ( ! valve into ! outlet pipe ,f4 ,:ile ?is action is go+ on1 ! gas is ent]+ ! case comp>tm5t on ! opposite side ( ! met] & also =c+ ! gas f its diaphragm ?r\gh ! op5+ ,f4 ,:ile ! met] is 9 op]ation1 "o ( ! diaphragms & "o ( ! case comp>tm5ts are fill+ :ile ! o!rs are empty+4 ,! movem5t ( ! diaphragm discs is trans=m$ to ! record+ dial by ! connect+ lev]s %[n at ! top ( ! figure4 ,! movem5t ( ^! lev]s is su* z to produce a rot>y motion to a tang5t :i* is atta*$ to a %aft t op]ates ! record+ dial4 ,! tang5t is c>ri$ ar\nd 9 a circle by ! action ( ! arms & its movem5t is regi/]$ on ! index ( ea* cycle ( ! diaphragms4 ,! measurem5t is accompli%$ by ! displacem5t ( a def9ite am\nt ( gas ) ea* movem5t ( ! discs2 fir/1 f ! *amb] & !n f ! diaphragms4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,read ,,! ,,index ,! index ( a gas met] looks q complicat$1 b x is really a v simple contrivance4 ,! small circle on ! top 9 ,fig4 #agg is = te/+ purposes only & ne$ n be consid]$4 ,! dial ( ,fig4 #agg is %[n 9 ,fig4 #agg;,a4 ,! fir/ circle1 m>k$ #a ?\s&1 regi/]s #ajj feet = ea* figure1 #ajjj feet = ! entire circle4 ,if ! po9t] /ood on #i x w\ld mean #ijj cubic feet4 ,! second circle regi/]s #ajjj = ea* figure1 or #aj1jjj = ! entire circle4 ,:5 ! po9t] ( ! fir/ circle has be5 ar\nd once1 x rea*es #j on t circle1 b ! h& on ! second has mov$ to figure #a1 %[+ #ajjj feet us$4 ,! process goes on until ! po9t] ( ! second circle has travel$ ar\nd & /&s at z]o4 ,! po9t] on ! ?ird circle1 h[ev]1 has mov$ to #a1 indicat+ #aj1jjj4 ,?is explanation %[s ! g5]al plan ( ! index4 ,a few m9utes /udy ( x w r5d] ! index z easy to read z ! face ( a clock4 ,( c\rse1 ! po9t]s d n always /& exactly on ! figures z !y move f figure to figure z ! gas is us$4 ,suppose y\r index /ood l ?is3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg;,a4--,gas-met] dial4 ,x reads #chfjj cubic feet4 ,take ! figure #c on ! #ajj ?\s& circle1 ! figure #h on ! #aj ?\s&1 & ! figure #f on ! #a ?\s&1 & y h #cj1jjj1 #hjjj1 & #fjj1 or #ch1fjj feet4 ,to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( gas us$ 9 ! "t elaps+ betwe5 ! read+s ( ! met]1 subtract ! quantity regi/]$ at ! previ\s read+4 ,?us1 if ! previ\s read+ 0 #ch1fjj feet1 & ! next read+ #dj1ajj feet1 ! po9t]s /&+ ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg;,b4--,gas-met] dial4 ,x reads #djajj cubic feet4 ,y h #dj1ajj ,subtract y\r la/ read+ #ch1fjj & y f9d ------ t y\r bill %\ld be = #a1ejj feet ,:5 #ajj1jjj feet h be5 pass$1 ! index is at z]o2 t is1 all ! po9t]s /& at #j1 & ! regi/ration beg9s all ov] aga94 ,prepaym5t ,met]s4--,9 _m places x is desirable to sell gas 9 small quantities & to prepay ! am\nt = a giv5 supply ( gas4 ,?is is accompli%$ by a met] su* z t ( ,fig4 #agi4 ,! met] is con/ruct$ mu* ! same z ! =m] b provid$ ) a me*anism su* t :5 a co9--usually #be c5ts--is deposit$1 accord+ to ! pr9t$ directions 9 ! in/rum5t1 an am\nt ( gas repres5t+ ! proportional curr5t rate is all[$ to pass ! met]4 ,! supply is cut (f z soon z ! am\nt paid = is us$2 :5 9 ord] to receive m gas1 ano!r co9 mu/ be deposit$ z be=e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--,! prepaym5t gas met]4 ,gas-s]vice ,rules4--,! rules = ! regulation ( gas s]vice are 9 _m ,/ates "u ! control ( a bo>d or commission ^: duty x is to =m codes prescrib+ ! measurem5t & sale ( all public utilities4 ,! foll[+ =m1 ,g5]al ,ord] ,no4 #bj1 ,/ate ,public ,utilities ,commission ( ,ill9ois1 gives an idea ( ! requirem5ts 9 t ,/ate = ! sale ( coal gas4 ,,rule #c4 ,,reque/ ,,te/s4--,ea* utility furni%+ met]$ s]vice %all make a te/ ( ! accuracy ( any met]1 ^u writt5 reque/ by a consum]3 ,provid$1 fir/1 t ! met] 9 "q has n be5 te/$ by ! utility or by ! commission )9 #f mon?s previ\s to su* reque/2 & second1 t ! consum] w agree to accept ! result ( ! te/ made by ! utility z det]m9+ ! basis = settl+ ! diff]5ce claim$4 ,no *>ge %all be made to ! consum] = any su* te/4 ,a report1 giv+ ! result ( e su* te/1 %all be made to ! consum]4 ,,rule #d4 ,,adju/m5t ,,( ,,bills ,,= ,,met] ,,error4--,if on any te/ ( a s]vice met]1 ei!r by ! utility or by ! commission1 su* met] %all be f\nd to h a p]c5tage ( error great] ?an t all[$ 9 ,rule #aa 7see bel[7 = gas met]s1 ! foll[+ provisions = ! adju/m5t ( bills %all be obs]v$4 7a7 ,fa/ ,met]s4--,if ! met] is fa/] ?an all[able1 ! utility %all refund to ! consum] a p]c5tage ( ! am\nt ( 8 bills = ! #f mon?s previ\s to ! te/ or = ! "t ! met] 0 in/all$1 n exce$+ #f mon?s1 correspond+ to ! p]c5tage ( error ( ! met]4 ,no "p ( a m9imum1 s]vice or dem& *>ge ne$ be refund$4 7b7 ,sl[ ,met]s4--,if ! met] is f\nd n to regi/] or to run sl[1 ! utility may r5d] a bill to ! consum] = ! e/imat$ consumption dur+ ! prec$+ #f mon?s1 n cov]$ by bills previ\sly r5d]$1 b su* action %all be tak5 only 9 cases ( sub/antial importance :]e ! utility is n at fault = all[+ ! incorrect met] to be 9 s]vice4 ,,rule #aa4 ,,gas-,,met] ,,accuracy4--7a7 ,me?od ( ,te/+4--,all te/s to det]m9e ! accuracy ( regi/ration ( a gas s]vice met] %all be made ) a suitable met] prov]4 ,at lea/ two te/ runs %all be made on ea* met]1 ! results ( :i* %all agree ) ea* o!r )9 "o-half p] c5t4 7#a_/b74 7c7 ,all[able ,error4--,:5ev] a met] is te/$ to det]m9e ! accuracy ) :i* x has be5 regi/]+ 9 s]vice1 x may be consid]$ z correct if f\nd n m ?an two p] c5t4 7#b7 9 error1 & no adju/m5t ( *>ges %all be entail$ unless ! error is great] ?an ?is am\nt4 ,,rule #ae4 ,,heat+ ,,value4--,ea* utility furni%+ manufactur$ gas %all supply gas :i* at any po9t at lea/ #a mile f ! plant1 & te/$ 9 ! place :]e x is consum$1 %all h a mon?ly av]age total heat+ value ( n less ?an #efe ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot1 & at no "t %all ! total heat+ value ( ! gas at su* po9t be less ?an #ecj ,b4t4u4 p] cubic foot4 ,to arrive at ! mon?ly av]age total heat+ value1 ! results ( all te/s made on any "o day %all be av]ag$ & ! av]age ( all su* daily av]ages %all be tak5 z ! mon?ly av]age4 ,,rule #h4 ,,railroad ,,commission ,,( ,,wiscons94--,ea* utility furni%+ gas s]vice mu/ supply gas giv+ a mon?ly av]age ( n less ?an #fjj ,b4t4u4 total heat+ value p] cubic foot1 z ref]r$ to /&>d conditions ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,! m9imum heat+ value %all nev] fall bel[ #eej4 ,! te/s to det]m9e ! heat+ value ( ! gas %all be made any:]e )9 a #a-mile radius ( ! c5t] ( di/ribution4 ,gas ,ranges4--,gas ranges & all o!r heat]s us+ gas z a fuel are con/ruct$ to utilize ! pr9ciple ( ! ,buns5 burn]4 ,fig4 #ahj illu/rates ! type ( burn] us$ 9 ! ,jewel gas range4 ,?is repres5ts ! =m adapt$ to ! top burn]s = all direct-contact cook+ or heat+4 ,! burn]s are ( diff]5t sizes & arrang$ z !y appe> 9 ,fig4 #aha4 ,?is picture %[s ! top ( ! range z se5 f above1 look+ directly d[nw>d4 ,! gas supply pipe & individual valves = ea* burn] are 9 position z !y appe> 9 front ( ! range4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--;,detroit ,jewel "o-piece1 />-%ap$ burn]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,,fig4 #aha4--,%[+ top burn]s & valve atta*m5t ( a gas /ove4 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,section %[+ arrangem5t ( ov5 burn]s & light] ( a gas ov54 ,9 op]ation1 ! nozzles ( ! gas valves /& directly 9 front ( ! op5+ ,g1 9 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,! /ream ( gas 9 pass+ into ! burn] induces a fl[ ( air ?r\gh ! op5+ ,a4 ,! mixture ( gas & air is su* z w burn ) ! *>act]i/ic ,buns5 flame )\t smoke4 ,! ov5 burn]s are diff]5t 9 =m b ! individual flames are ! same z ^? ( ! top burn]s4 ,!y ext5d across ! ov5 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,9 ?is ! top ( ! ov5 is remov$ & burn]s z se5 are view$ f above4 ,! top burn]s are light$ by direct application ( a burn+ mat* b ! ov5 burn]s mu/ be light$ by fir/ ignit+ a special tor* or 8pilot light]40 ,! middle gas valve ( ,fig4 #ahb is turn$ & ! tor* light$1 !n ! o!r valves are op5$ & ! jets are in/antly ignit$4 ,z soon z !y are burn+ ! pilot light] is ext+ui%$ by turn+ its valve4 ,! reason = ?is special light] is because ( ! possibility ( explosion at ! "t ( light+4 ,! gas f ! jets is mix$ ) air at ! prop] proportion to be viol5tly explosive & if by *ance ! gas %\ld be turn$ on a suffici5t "t to fill ! ov5 ) ?is explosive mixture & !n light$1 an explosion w\ld be c]ta91 ) e possibility ( disa/r\s consequ5ces4 ,all gas ov5s %\ld be light$ 9 a mann] simil> to t describ$4 ,light+ & ,heat+ ) ,gasol9e4--,! rem>kable gr[? ( mod]n cities1 ! build+ ( small t[ns 9 ! we/1 & ! improvem5t 9 suburban & rural homes has creat$ a dem& = effici5t means ( illum9ation 9 ! =m ( small h\sehold light+ plants4 ,! developm5t & improvem5t 9 electric light+ has induc$ an equal1 if n great]1 improvem5t 9 gas light+4 ,up to ! ye> #ahge1 ! op5-flame gas jet repres5t$ ! mo/ improv$ =m ( city light+4 ,!n came electricity1 :i* = a "t bade fair to supplant all o!r =ms ( illum9ation2 b ! relative high co/ ( electric light+1 ev5 ) ! advantages x af=d$1 0 a /imulus to improvem5t 9 less exp5sive =ms ( illum9ants4 ,! inv5tion ( ! inc&esc5t-mantle gas burn] enorm\sly increas$ ! opportunities = gas light+ & op5$ an invit+ field ( endeavor4 ,9 a relatively %ort "t1 ?ree di/9ct types ( gasol9e light+ plants = h\sehold illum9ation came into common use1 ) a great numb] ( diff]5t sy/ems 9 ea* type4 ,z a means ( economical illum9ation ! only rival ( any consequ5ce to ! small gasol9e-gas plant ( today is acetyl5e4 ,! dang]s att5d+ ! use ( ^! ag5ts ( illum9ation h be5 rapidly elim9at$1 until today--:5 intellig5tly manag$--!y are fully z safe z any o!r means ( artificial light+4 ,gasol9e plants are n[ 9 common use 9 cities :]e competition ) all o!r =ms ( illum9ation require excell5ce 9 s]vice to hold an e/abli%$ place4 ,9 ord] t any me*anical appliance may be us$ ) ! be/ results1 its pr9ciple ( op]ation & me*anism mu/ be ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,9 ! case ( gasol9e plants1 n only famili>ity ) ! me*anism %\ld be acquir$ b an intimate k ( gasol9e & its *>act]i/ic prop]ties %\ld be ga9$1 t ! peculi>ities ( ! plant may be m fully compreh5d$4 ,gasol9e is ! fir/ di/illate ( crude petroleum2 t is1 9 ! process ( sep>ation1 ! crude petroleum is di/ill$ f a retort & ! cond5s$ vapors at diff]5t degrees ( temp]ature =m ! v>i\s grades ( gasol9e1 k]os5e1 lubricat+ oil1 p>aff91 etc4 ,! crude oil is plac$ 9 ! /ill & heat$2 ! di/illate t fir/ comes f ! cond5s]1 at ! l[e/ temp]ature ( ! /ill1 is gasol9e ( a light spirit\s nature4 ,z ! process ( di/illation cont9ues1 ?is "p ( ! petroleum is entirely driv5 (f & x is necess>y to raise ! temp]ature ( ! /ill 9 ord] to vaporize an additional portion ( ! oil4 ,!re is no di/9ct l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! gasol9e t fir/ comes f ! cond5s] & t :i* comes ov] aft] ! temp]ature is rais$1 except t x is less ( a spirit\s nature & conta9s m oily matt]4 ,z ! temp]ature ( ! retort is gradually rais$1 ! di/illate conta9s less & less ( ! spirit\s & con/antly m ( ! oily matt]4 ,9 ord] to grade gasol9e = ! m>ket1 ! /&>d adopt$ 0 t ( relative d5sity4 ,! di/illations produc$ at v>i\s temp]atures are mix$ to produce v>i\s d5sities :i* =m def9ite grades ( gasol9e4 ,! ,beaum hydromet] is a scale ( relative specific gravities 9 :i* ! diff]5t d5sities are express$ 9 degrees4 ,! highe/ grade ( gasol9e produc$ by ! fir/ di/illation is #ij;,b42 t is1 ! hydromet] w s9k 9 ! gasol9e to #ij on ! scale4 ,z ! temp]ature ( ! retort is gradually rais$1 ! di/illate becomes heavi] & ! next comm]cial grade is #hf gasol9e4 ,! #hf gasol9e conta9s a great] proportion ( oily matt] & a less am\nt ( t ( a spirit\s nature4 ,! next comm]cial grade t is produc$1 z ! temp]ature is rais$1 is #gf gasol9e1 a /ill highly volatile _s b conta9+ m oil ?an ! la/4 ,?is process is kept up until !re is an am\nt ( oil 9 ! di/illate t c no long] be t]m$ gasol9e1 :5 k]os5e is di/ill$ f ! retort4 ,! foll[+ descriptions ( gasol9e & k]os5e by ,b4 ,l4 ,smi?1 ,/ate ,oil ,inspection ,*emi/ ( ,nor? ,dakota1 gives a def9ite idea ( _! prop]ties & ! requirem5ts ( ! law 9 _! regulation & sale4 8,gasol9e is =m$ by ! cond5sation ( vapor t passes (f at comp>atively l[ temp]atures dur+ ! di/illation ( crude petroleum4 ,x has be5 common practice among ref9]s to collect z #8/raight' gasol9e all t di/illate hav+ a specific gravity above #fj;,b4 ,at pres5t1 ! "n applies broadly to all ! light] products ( petroleum above #ej;,b4 9 gravity1 includ+ products obta9$ f ! #8cas+-head' gases ( oil wells1 by me?ods ( compression & cool+1 & also ! #8crack$' gasol9e =m$ by ! decomposition ( heavi] oils :5 subject$ to high temp]ature & pressure4 8,x has be5 ! cu/om to grade & sell gasol9e accord+ to #8high' or #8l[' gravity te/4 ,rec5t /udy & inve/igation has %[n t specific gravity 9 itself is ( v little value 9 det]m9+ ! quality ( a gasol9e4 ,x may be tak5 z an index ( o!r prop]ties1 p>ticul>ly its volatility1 if in=mation z to its s\rce & me?od ( production are at h&2 b "u pres5t m>ket conditions a specific-gravity det]m9ation is entirely inadequate4 ,! specific-gravity te/ alone may give a high rat+ to a poor gasol9e & a l[ rat+ to a good "o4 ,x has be5 disc>d$ z a /&>d ( comp>ison by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,m9es4 ,x indicates no?+ def9ite ab\t ! quality ( a gasol9e & 9 _m cases x does n ev5 approximate relative values4 ,volatility1 t is1 ! ease ) :i* x vaporizes1 is ! fundam5tal prop]ty t det]m9es ! grade1 quality1 & usefulness ( gasol9e4 ,! ,beaum te/1 h[ev]1 mu/ rema9 ! /&>d = grad+ gasol5e until a m def9ite measure is adopt$4 8,! ,oil ,inspection ,law 7#aiag7 = ! ,/ate ( ,nor? ,dakota1 /ates1 t3 #8all gasol9es1 sold or (f]$ = sale 9 ?is ,/ate = h\sehold use1 %all1 :5 "o hundr$ cubic c5timet]s are subject$ to a di/illation 9 a flask--z describ$ = di/ill+ ( oil--%[ n less ?an ?ree 7#c7 p] c5t4 di/ill+ at "o hundr$ & fifty-eight 7#aeh7 degrees ,fahr5heit1 & !re %all n be m ?an six 7#f7 p] c5t4 residue at two hundr$ & eighty-f\r 7#bhd7 degrees ,fahr5heit1 :i* %all be kn[n z ! *emical te/ = gasol9e sold or (f]$ = sale 9 ?is ,/ate = dome/ic purposes4' 8,gasol9e = h\sehold purposes1 z = use 9 cold-process light+ sy/ems %\ld conta9 n m ?an a v slight am\nt ( con/itu5ts t d n vaporize readily4 ,x is obvi\s t a gasol9e = clean+ or dry+ purpose %\ld conta9 no oily or k]os5e di/illate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! gasol9e = use 9 a gasol9e /ove or o!r g5]ator1 :]e heat is employ$ 9 its vaporization1 may conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( ! less volatile oils4 ,! am\nt ( gasol9e sold = h\sehold use is 9 v m9or proportion to ! imm5se quantity us$ = motor purposes4 8,no h>d & fa/ l9e diff]5tiates good motor gasol9e f bad4 ,9 fact /&>ds ( quality seem to be v>y+ ) advances 9 eng9e design1 s t :at once 0 poor gasol9e c n[ be successfully us$4 ,improvem5t 9 c>buretors seem to be keep+ pace ) ! ev] increas+ am\nt ( k]os5e 9 ! ord9>y motor gasol9e4 8,gravity te/ _c be reli$ ^u z indicat+ ! k]os5e cont5t4 ,9 ! laboratories ( ! ,oil ,inspection ,dep>tm5t = ! ,/ate ( ,nor? ,dakota1 !re h be5 exam9$ two gasol9es ( ! same gravity1 #ef4b;,b4 at #fj;,f41 b :i* conta9s #ca p] c5t4 & #fb p] c5t4 ( k]os5e respectively1 & _! di/illation range is q diff]5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are o!r gasol9es ^: boil+ range is ne>ly p>allel & simil>1 yet ^: gravities are #ej4b;,b4 & #ei4b;,b4 respectively4 ,also a gasol9e & a k]os5e hav+ a diff]5ce 9 gravity ( b #a;,b4 & a diff]5ce ( ne>ly #ajj;,f4 9 ! temp]ature at :i* !y beg9 to boil & a diff]5ce at #bjj;,f4 9 ! temp]ature at :i* all _h di/ill$ ov]4 ,! s-call$ #8l['-te/ gasol9es av]age betwe5 #ce p] c5t4 & #dj p] c5t4 k]os5e4 ,! *ief elem5t ( advantage 9 ! s-call$ #8high'-te/ gasol9es seems to be t !y yield a maximum effici5cy ov] a l>g] range ( eng9e conditions4 8,we h a sample ( gasol9e sold z #8high'-te/ gasol9e :i* conta9s #bi p] c5t4 ( k]os5e4 ,inde$ x has a high ,beaum gravity 7#fc4gj7 comp>$ to ! av]age l[-gravity gasol9es on ! m>ket1 & x also conta9s a l>ge am\nt 7#ad p] c5t47 ( v easily volatile con/itu5ts4 ,su* a product seems to be a bl5d ( v light #8cas+-head' /ock ) k]os5e ( l[ boil+ range to give ! #8high' gravity4 8,x is desirable t a gasol9e %\ld conta9 a c]ta9 p]c5tage ( v l[-boil+ con/itu5ts1 s t eng9es may />t m readily1 especially 9 unfavorable conditions ( wea!r or climate2 b a l>ge proportion w\ld be undesirable because ( loss ?r\gh evaporation & ! liability ( accid5tal ignition & explosion4 ,a reasonable am\nt ( light volatile mat]ial w\ld probably be ab\t #c-a_/b p] c5t4 ,aga9 a reasonably l[ p]c5tage ( ! v less volatile con/itu5ts is desirable to insure complete vaporization at a n too high temp]ature1 say n m ?an #aj p] c5t42 b su* a gasol9e w\ld be exp5sive4 ,! produc]s & ref9]s claim t ! pres5t imm5se dem& necessitates ! mixture ( l[-boil+ k]os5e con/itu5ts ) ! true gasol9e fraction4 8,k]os5e4--,! "* ( ?is fuel is be/ und]/ood by comp>+ x ) gasol9e1 :i* x 9 g5]al resembles1 except t x is mu* less volatile4 ,x is obta9$ f crude petroleum at a temp]ature j above t 7#cjj;,f47 at :i* gasol9e passes (f4 ,its *ief use is z an illum9ant 9 lamps4 ,x is also increas+ly us$ z a fuel 9 cook+ /oves1 small portable heat]s1 & z a motor fuel = eng9es & tractors4 8,! laws ( mo/ ,/ates /ipulate c]ta9 te/s :i* k]os5e mu/ meet 9 ord] to be approv$ = g5]al sale4 ,^! te/s include color1 fla% po9t1 fire te/1 sulphur det]m9ation1 & c&lep[] te/s4 ,! ,nor? ,dakota ,oil ,inspection ,law 7#aiag7 specifies t ! color %all be wat]-:ite :5 view$ by transmitt$ light ?r\gh a lay] ( oil #d in*es deep4 ,x %all n give a fla% te/ bel[ #ajj;,f4 & %all n h a fire te/ bel[ #abe;,f4 ,su* illum9at+ oils %all n conta9 wat] or t>-l matt]1 nor %all !y conta9 m ?an a trace ( any sulphur comp\nd4 ,! photometric te/1 :5 burn+ "u normal conditions1 %all n %[ a fall ( m ?an #be p] c5t4 9 c&lep[] 9 a burn+ te/ ( n less ?an #f h\rs nor m ?an #h h\rs' duration1 consum+ #ie p] c5t4 ( ! oil4 8,! fla% po9t ( an oil is ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* vapors aris+ !refrom ignite1 )\t sett+ fire to ! oil itself1 :5 a small te/ flame is quickly approa*$ ne> ! surface 9 a te/ cup & quickly remov$4 8,! fire te/ ( an oil is ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* ! oil itself ignites f its vapors & cont9ues to burn :5 a te/ flame is quickly approa*$ ne> its surface & quickly remov$4 8,:5 oils conta9+ sulphur are burn$1 ! sulphur is ?r[n (f 9 ! =m ( gase\s sulphur comp\nds4 ,because ( _! poison\s nature & _! blea*+ & dis9tegrat+ action on clo?+1 hang+s1 wall cov]+s1 etc41 x is obvi\s t to safegu>d ! heal? & pres]ve ! furni%+s ( ! home1 illum9at+ oils %\ld conta9 n m ?an a trace ( sulphur comp\nds1 & t _! fla% & fire limits %\ld be high en\gh to insure safety 9 ord9>y use 9 lamps & /oves4 8,! law fur!r specifies z to ! boil+ limits ( k]os5e3 #8,x %all be ! duty ( ! ,/ate ,oil ,inspector 444 to h *emical te/s made 444 demon/rat+ :e!r or no su* oils conta9 m ?an #d p] c5t4 residue aft] be+ di/ill$ at a temp]ature ( #egj;,f41 & %all n conta9 m ?an #f p] c5t4 ( oil di/ill+ at #caj;,f41 :5 "o hundr$ cubic c5timet]s ( ! oil is di/ill$ f a side-neck di/ill+ flask' ( c]ta9 specifi$ dim5sions4 8,?is is to insure ! k]os5e aga9/ an excess ( easily inflammable mat]ial ( ! gasol9e range & ?us r5d] x dang]\s to ! us]4 ,9 addition x is to insure aga9/ an undue proportion ( heavy con/itu5t ( lubricat+ oil di/illate1 :i* w\ld clog ! wick & r$uce ! effici5cy1 heat+ & illum9at+ value ( ! oil40 ,,light+ ,,& ,,heat+ ,,) ,,gasol9e ,! ext5d$ use ( gasol9e z a light+ & heat+ ag5t1 has br\ght ab\t ! developm5t ( a great numb] ( me*anical devices t are int5d$ to furni% ! h\se ) an effici5t s\rce ( illum9ation & at ! same "t provide ! kit*5 ) a conv5i5t & relatively inexp5sive fuel4 ,^! ma*9es are g5]ally simple 9 me*anical con/ruction & s design$ z to elim9ate mo/ ( ! dang]s involv$ 9 ! use ( gasol9e4 ,9 op]ation1 !y require a m9imum am\nt ( att5tion :5 suit$ to ! purpose = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,t ! object ( ! plants is atta9$ is atte/$ by ! great numb] 9 use & ! degree ( satisfaction af=d$ ! us]s4 ,! ?ree sy/ems ( gasol9e light+ ref]r$ to above are kn[n comm]cially by t]ms :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! process involv$3 #a4 ,! cold-process sy/em1 9 :i* ! gasol9e is vaporiz$1 at ! temp]ature ( an und]gr\nd supply tank1 & aft] be+ mix$ ) ! requir$ am\nt ( air is s5t ?r\gh ! build+ 9 ord9>y gas pipes exactly z 9 ! case ( city gas4 #b4 ,! holl[-wire sy/em1 9 :i* ! gasol9e is s5t f ! supply tank to ! burn]s 9 a liquid =m1 :]e x is vaporiz$ by heat & ! vapor mix$ ) ! necess>y air to af=d complete combu/ion4 #c4 ,! c5tral-g5]ator or tube sy/em1 9 :i* ! gasol9e is s5t to a c5tral g5]ator f a supply tank & !re vaporiz$ by heat1 at ! same "t be+ mix$ ) air 9 suffici5t am\nts to r5d] x a completely combu/ible gas )\t fur!r dilution4 ,,! ,,cold-,,process ,,gas ,,ma*9e ,! gas ma*9e ( ! cold-process type is s con/ruct$ t air is =c$ ?r\gh a tank or c>buretor1 conta9+ gasol9e & rema9s 9 its pres5ce until saturat$ ) gasol9e vapor4 ,?is saturat$ air is aft]w>d dilut$ ) additional air1 to produce a quality ( gas t conta9s proportions ( air & gasol9e vapor :i* w produce complete combu/ion :5 burn$ ) an op5 flame4 ,combu/ion is a rapid *emical *ange 9 :i* heat is evolv$ due to ! union ( c>bon & oxyg54 ,if ! c>bon is completely oxidiz$1 ! comb9ation produces c>bon dioxide 7,,co7 & ! greate/ am\nt ( heat is evolv$4 ,gasol9e be+ a highly volatile liquid w vaporize at temp]atures z l[ z -#aj;,f41 b z ! temp]ature is high] vaporization w be m rapid4 ,9 a conf9$ space1 at relatively l[ temp]ature1 su* z ! c>buretor ( a gas ma*9e1 ! vaporization w at fir/ be v rapid2 b aft] ! m highly spirit\s portion has be5 evaporat$1 a consid]able "p1 ev5 ( ! light] grades1 w be vaporiz$ v sl[ly4 ,9 ! cold-process ma*9es1 only ! light] grades c be us$ ) success & ev5 !n1 9 ineffici5t ma*9es1 a portion ( ! less] volatile gasol9e w h to be ?r[n away4 ,= ?is reason & = o!rs t w appe> lat]1 x is advisable to consid] v closely ! work+ prop]ties ( ! entire plant4 ,9 ord] to obta9 gas t w always be ( ! same quality & at ! same "t use gasol9e 9 an effici5t mann]1 ! gas ma*9e mu/ be compos$ ( ?ree ess5tial p>ts3 ! bl[]1 ! c>buretor & ! mix]4 ,! bl[] is t "p ( ! ma*9e :i* supplies air = absorb+ ! gasol9e vapor & ma9ta9+ a con/ant pressure on ! sy/em4 ,x is usually made 9 ! =m ( a rot>y pump1 ! motive p[] = :i* is a heavy weight4 ,! pump may1 h[ev]1 be driv5 by wat] pressure furni%$ by city wat] pipes or o!r wat] supply4 ,! c>buretor is a tank :i* conta9s ! supply ( gasol9e & is s con/ruct$ z to p]mit ! air f ! bl[] to mo/ readily take up ! gasol9e vapor4 ,x %\ld be s arrang$ t :5 ! conta9$ gasol9e becomes old & less volatile1 ! air may rema9 9 its pres5ce a suffici5t "t to become saturat$ by sl[ absorption4 ,! mix] is t "p ( ! ma*9e :i* regulates ! am\nt ( gasol9e vapor conta9$ 9 ! gas ent]+ ! di/ribut+ pipes4 ,9 ord] to satisfactorily p]=m its function1 x %\ld be s arrang$ z to p]mit a con/ant am\nt ( gasol9e vapor to ent] ! mixture :i* composes ! f9i%$ gas4 ,?is am\nt %\ld be su* z to produce a bright cle> flame 9 an op5 gas jet4 ,if ! gas conta9s too great an am\nt ( gasol9e vapor1 ! flame w smoke4 ,if too little gasol9e vapor is pres5t1 ! flames w be pale & lack+ 9 heat4 ,illu/ration3 #a ,c>burator #b ,mix] #c ,bl[] #d ,weight #e ,gas ,range #f ,wat] ,heat] #g ,wat] ,tank ,,fig4 #ahc4--;,cold-process sy/em ( gasol9e light+ ) kit*5 range & wat] heat]4 ,9 ,fig4 #ahc1 ! entire plant is %[n 9 place4 ,x occupies a place inside ! build+1 usually 9 ! basem5t4 ,9 ! figure ! c>buretor is m>k$ #a2 ! mix] #b /&s at ! end ( ! bl[]1 :i* is numb]$ #c4 ,! motive p[] ( ! bl[] is furni%$ by a heavy weight1 :i* is rais$ by a block & tackle1 ! cord ( :i* is atta*$ to ! drum & fa/5$ to ! %aft ( ! bl[]4 ,! =ce furni%$ by ! weight #d drives ! bl[] & ma9ta9s a con/ant pressure on ! gas 9 ! sy/em4 ,! pipe #h conducts ! air f ! bl[] to ! c>buretor1 :i* is locat$ und]gr\nd1 bel[ ! fro/ l9e & #be or #cj feet away f ! build+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--;,c>buretor = cold-process gasol9e light+ plant4 ,! c>buretor 9 ?is case is also ! /orage tank1 z %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,! c>buretor is divid$ lat]ally into two or m comp>tm5ts1 dep5d+ on ! size ( ! plant to be accommodat$4 ,t %[n 9 ,fig4 #ahd conta9s f\r comp>tm5ts & is int5d$ = a l>ge plant4 ,! con/ruction is su* t ! comp>tm5ts are only p>tly fill$ ) gasol9e1 & arrang$ to p]mit ! air f ! bl[]1 :i* ent]s at ! pipe m>k$ air1 to pass ?r\gh ea* comp>tm5t 9 succession1 beg9n+ at ! bottom1 9 ord] t x may become completely saturat$ ) gasol9e vapor4 ,z an additional means ( aid+ ! saturation ( ! pass+ air1 ! comp>tm5ts 9 ?is c>buretor are provid$ ) spiral passages ?r\gh :i* ! air mu/ pass1 s t :5 x rea*es ! outlet pipe1 m>k$ gas1 ! air is completely fill$ ) gasol9e vapor4 ,! vapor-saturat$ air n[ leaves ! c>buretor by pipe #i1 9 ,fig4 #ahc1 & ent]s ! mix+ *amb] #b1 :]e x is mix$ ) ! requir$ am\nt ( atmosph]ic air1 to make x completely combu/ible :5 burn$ at ! burn]4 ,! mix+ *amb] is %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,! mix+ is done automatically & ! quality ( ! gas is uni=m1 reg>dless ( ! v>y+ conditions ( ! att5d+ temp]ature & ! quality ( ! gasol9e 9 ! c>buretor4 ,! vitally important feature ( any gas ma*9e is1 t a con/ant am\nt ( gasol9e vapor be c>ri$ to ! burn]s4 ,if ! gas conta9s too great an am\nt ( gasol9e vapor1 a smoky flame w be ! result2 if an insuffici5t am\nt ( gasol9e is pres5t1 ! flame w be pale & give out little light4 ,:5 fre%ly *>g$1 ! gasol9e 9 ! c>buretor w vaporize v readily1 & a l>ge am\nt ( air mu/ be add$ to ! gas to r$uce x to ! prop] consi/5cy2 b f old gasol9e1 :i* has lo/ mo/ ( ! highly volatile matt]1 a small] proportion ( atmosph]ic air w be dem&$4 ,= ?is reason1 a mix+ regulator t w always deliv] gas conta9+ ! same am\nt ( gasol9e vapor is necess>y to give satisfactory s]vice4 ,! mix] %[n 9 ,fig4 #ahe accompli%es ?is (fice by reason ( ! specific gravity ( ! gas4 ,z ! air 9 ! c>buretor takes up gasol9e vapor1 its specific gravity is increas$ until ! air is saturat$2 & by add+ ! am\nt ( atmosph]ic air necess>y = complete combu/ion ! weight is r$uc$ to a def9ite am\nt :i* w be con/ant4 ,! requir$ mixture w1 !re=e1 always weigh ! same am\nt4 ,! pr9ciple on :i* ?is mix] works is t describ$ 9 physics z ! pr9ciple ( ,ar*im$es3 8t a body imm]s$ 9 a fluid w lose 9 weight an am\nt equal to ! liquid displac$40 ,9 ! application ( ! law1 ! gas 9 ! mix] is ! fluid1 & ! float--to be describ$--is ! displac+ body4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--;,diagram illu/rat+ ! mix] ( ! ,detroit cold-process sy/em ( gasol9e light+4 ,! mix] 9 ,fig4 #ahe1 is %[n cut across l5g?wise4 ,! outside cas+ is indicat$ by ! heavy black l9es4 ,! gas :i* leaves ! op5+ at ! top--m>k$ gas outlet--is a mixture ( gasol9e & air t may be us$ = exactly ! same purpose & 9 ! same mann] z coal gas4 ,x may be us$ 9 op5-flame gas jets or 9 ! mantle gas lamps = light+ purposes & also z fuel gas = dome/ic heat+4 ,! gas is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! build+ 9 ord9>y gas pipes :i* are in/all$ z = any o!r k9d ( gas4 ,9 ,fig4 #ahc ! di/ribut+ pipes are indicat$ by ! heavy l9es4 ,! valve 9 ! air inlet1 9 ! bottom ( ! mix]1 controls ! am\nt ( air to be admitt$4 ,! ent]+ gas f ! c>buretor be+ heavi] ?an ! desir$ mixture1 w raise ! float & 9 s do+ w op5 ! air valve & all[ ! air f ! bl[] to ent]4 ,! float & valve are s adju/$ t ! desir$ mixture is atta9$ :5 ! balance beam is level4 ,any v>iation 9 ! mixture w *ange its weight & ! valve corrects ! *ange :e!r x be too mu* or too little air4 ,! op5+s at ! bottom1 m>k$ gas inlet & air inlet1 are int5d$ = ! admission ( ! saturat$ vapor f ! c>buretor1 & ! atmosph]ic air1 z requir$4 ,! float :i* fills ! great] "p ( ! inn] space is a light %eet-metal drum1 t is tightly seal$ & nicely balanc$ by a c\nt]weight on ! opposite end ( ! susp5d+ b>4 ,! c\nt]weight is made adju/able by ! device m>k$ movable adju/+ weight--9 ! draw+--:i* p]mits ! quantity ( ent]+ gas to be slightly *ang$ z ! gasol9e 9 ! c>buretor gr[s old4 ,! adju/m5t ( ! c\nt]weight to suit ! gas giv5 (f f old gasol9e 9 ! c>buretor1 & ! occasional rew9d+1 to elevate ! bl[] weight1 is practically all ! att5tion ?is plant requires4 ,x is a real gas plant :i* gives e s]vice t may be obta9$ f coal gas4 ,,! ,,holl[-,,wire ,,sy/em ,,( ,,gasol9e ,,light+ ,,& ,,heat+ ,! holl[-wire sy/em ( gasol9e light+ possesses ! advantage ( simplicity 9 con/ruction & ease ( in/allation t makes x attractive1 p>ticul>ly = use 9 small dwell+s4 ,! ease ) :i* plants ( ?is "* are in/all$ 9 build+s already con/ruct$ & its relatively l[ co/ has made x a popul> means ( light+4 ,! same pr9ciple z t us$ 9 ! holl[-wire sy/em is appli$ to portable gasol9e lamps 9 :i* a rem>kably conv5i5t & brilliant lamp is made to take ! place ( ! cu/om>y k]os5e lamp4 ,small portable gasol9e lamps are n[ ext5sively us$ = ! same purpose z ord9>y oil lant]ns4 ,^! lamps are conv5i5t z a s\rce ( light1 make a h&some appe>ance & are relatively inexp5sive to op]ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--;,holl[-wire sy/em ( gasol9e light+ ) gravity fe$4 ,! holl[-wire sy/em z commonly employ$ is illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #ahf & #ahg4 ,9 ! gravity type ( ! sy/em z illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ahf1 ! supply ( gasol9e is /or$ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! h\se 9 a tank ,t & conduct$ to ! burn]s bel[1 ?r\gh a sy/em ( small copp] tubes z indicat$ by ! heavy l9es 9 ! draw+4 ,! same tank is us$ to supply ! gasol9e = ! /ove ,r 9 ! kit*5 & ! lamps ,l 9 ! diff]5t ap>tm5ts4 ,! gasol9e supply 9 ?is case1 is obta9$ entirely by gravity4 ,?is type ( plant is n approv$ by ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,und]writ]s b its use is q g5]ally p]mitt$4 ,! /orage ( gasol9e 9 ?is =m %\ld be done ) caution z c>elessness or accid5t might lead to s]i\s results4 ,) an arrangem5t ( ?is k9d ! =ce ( gravity gives ! pressure :i* supplies ! burn]s bel[ b x w\ld n be possible to use ! lamps on ! same floor ) ! tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--;,holl[-wire sy/em ( gasol9e light+ ) pressure-tank fe$4 ,:]e x is desir$ to use lamps on bo? floors1 a pressure tank is employ$ = supply+ ! gasol9e to ! lamps1 z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,9 ?is plant ! pressure tanks ,s1 ,t 9 ! basem5t1 furni% ! pressure :i* =ces ! supply ( gasol9e ?r\gh ! small tubes to ! lamps ,l 9 ! diff]5t rooms & also to ! /ove ,r 9 ! kit*54 ,! means ( furni%+ ! pressure = supply+ ! gasol9e to ! burn]s may be a simple tank z t 9 ,fig4 #ahh1 or ! m elaborate app>atus %[n 9 ! d\ble tank ( ,fig4 #ahi4 ,ei!r /yle w give good results b ! d\ble tank requires ! lea/ att5tion 9 op]ation & is !re=e m satisfactory 9 use4 ,! tank 9 ,fig4 #ahh is made ( %eet metal ( su* weight z w safely )/& ! pressure necess>y 9 its use4 ,x is arrang$ ) an op5+ ,e1 = fill+ ) gasol9e1 a pressure gage = indicat+ ! air pressure to :i* ! gasol9e is subject$1 & two ne$le valves2 ,c1 = atta*+ an air pump & ,d1 to :i* ! holl[ wire is atta*$ = di/ribut+ ! gasol9e to ! places ( use4 ,! tank is fill$ ) gasol9e to ab\t ! l9e ,a1 & !n air pressure is appli$ ) an ord9>y air pump to say #bj p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,?is pressure w be mu* m ?an w be necess>y to =ce ! gasol9e ?r\gh ! tubes b x is int5d$ to la/ = a consid]able l5g? ( "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--,simple gasol9e pressure-tank4 ,,fig4 #ahi4--;,d\ble-pressure tank = con/ant pressure s]vice 9 gasol9e light+ sy/ems4 ,! pr9ciple ( op]ation is t kn[n 9 physics z ,boyle's law1 t 8! temp]ature be+ con/ant1 ! pressure ( a conf9$ gas w be inv]sely z its volume40 ,t is1 if ! tank is p]fectly tight1 ! pressure above ! l9e ,a1 9 ! tank1 w gradually become less z ! gasol9e is us$ & :5 its level is at ! l9e ,b1 :]e ! volume is twice ! orig9al am\nt1 ! pressure w be "o-half :at x 0 orig9ally1 & w /ill be suffici5t to =ce ! gasol9e ?r\gh ! tubes to ! lamps4 ,x is evid5t t once ! tank is *>g$ & ! air pressure appli$ x w require no fur!r att5tion until a consid]able "p ( ! gasol9e is consum$4 ,if at any "t ! pressure 9 ! tank becomes too l[ to fe$ ! lamps1 a few /rokes ( ! pump w raise x to ! requir$ am\nt4 ,:ile ! s+le tank does ! requir$ "w1 its use is n p]fect because ! pressure is con/antly v>y+4 ,if a lamp is set to burn at a def9ite pressure1 any decrease 9 ! gasol9e supply due to fall+ pressure w *ange ! am\nt ( light giv5 by ! lamp2 :ile ! v>iation 9 ! pressure ( ! s+le supply tank is n great1 a m p]fect effect is atta9$ 9 ! d\ble type ( tank z t ( ,fig4 #ahi4 ,! object atta9$ 9 ! use ( two tanks diff]s ) diff]5t manufactur]s4 ,! tank %[n 9 ,fig4 #ahc1 be+ int5d$ to ma9ta9 a con/ant pressure on ! gasol9e1 is q diff]5t f ^? describ$ 9 ,fig4 #aig 9 use ) ! c5tral-g5]ator sy/em ( light+1 to be describ$ lat]4 ,9 ,fig4 #ahi tank ,no4 #a is = air supply alone & tank ,no4 #b is ! /orage tank = gasol9e4 ,betwe5 ! two tanks is a pressure-regulat+ valve #f-g1 :i* keeps a con/ant pressure on tank ,no4 #b s long z ! air pressure ( ! tank ,no4 #a is equal or great] ?an ! o!r4 ,! gasol9e 9 tank ,no4 #b w !re=e be always "u ! same pressure & :5 ! lamps are once burn+ ! gasol9e supply to ea* lamp w be a con/ant am\nt4 ,tank ,no4 #b is sep>at$ by ! head #ac into two comp>tm5ts1 m>k$ #ah & #ai4 ,! connection betwe5 ! two comp>tm5ts is made by ! valve #ae & ! connection #af4 ,! gasol9e supply = ! light+ sy/em is tak5 f ! l[] *amb] at ! valve m>k$ #ag4 ,x is possible to refill ?is tank ) gasol9e :ile ! sy/em is work+4 ,to accompli% ?is1 ! air supply is cut (f f tank ,no4 #a1 by clos+ valve #i & ! valve #ae is clos$ to reta9 ! pressure on ! l[] *amb] ( tank ,no4 #b4 ,! screw-plug is !n tak5 f ! tube #ab & ! tank refill$4 ,! screw-plug is !n return$ to its place1 ! valves #i & #ae are aga9 op5$ & ! regulat+ valve imm$iately re/ores ! desir$ pressure4 ,! am\nt ( pressure requir$ on ! sy/em w dep5d on ! height to :i* ! gasol9e is c>ri$ )9 ! build+4 ,! pressure is g5]ally #a p\nd to ea* foot 9 height & to d ! be/ "w ! pressure mu/ be con/ant4 ,^! plants may s]ve z a fuel supply = gasol9e /ove z indicat$ at ,r or any o!r s\rce ( dome/ic heat+4 ,! usual gravity supply tank is replac$ by ! holl[ wire ?r\gh :i* is ! gasol9e f ! tank 9 ! basem5t4 ,mantle ,gas ,lamps4--,mantle lamps t are int5d$ = us+ city gas are mu* ! same 9 con/ruction z ^? us+ ! cold-process gasol9e gas2 ! /yles ( me*anism diff] some:at ) manufactur]s b all lamps ( ?is k9d possess ! ess5tial features t are common to all4 ,ei!r ( ^! gases may be us$ ) op5-flame burn]s1 su* z ,fig4 #aic1 b s9ce ! introduction ( mantle lamps1 ! op5-flame burn]s are r>ely us$ = h\sehold illum9ation4 ,9 ! inc&esc5t-mantle lamp1 ! light is produc$ by heat+ to inc&esc5ce a filmy mantle ( highly refractory mat]ial4 ,! high] ! temp]ature to :i* ! mantle ( a lamp is rais$1 ! great] is ! quantity ( light produc$4 ,! (fice ( ! burn] is to produce a uni=m heat ?r\gh\t ! mantle ) ! use ( ! lea/ am\nt ( gas4 ,z ord9>ily furni%$ f ! ma9s1 coal gas or gasol9e gas is too ri* 9 c>bon to be us$ 9 mantle lamps )\t dilution4 ,:5 gas is burn$ 9 a mantle lamp1 x mu/ conta9 suffici5t oxyg5--:i* is suppli$ by ! air--to comb9e completely ) ! conta9$ c>bon & r$uce x to c>bon dioxide4 ,if insuffici5t air is suppli$1 ! lamp w smoke & ! mantle w soon be fill$ ) soot4 ,9 ! use ( ! v>i\s gases--made f coal1 gasol9e1 k]os5e1 alcohol1 etc4--z a fuel = ! production ( ei!r heat or light1 ! =m ( ! burn] 9 :i* ! gas is consum$ is ! mo/ important factor ( ! sy/em4 ,)\t burn]s 9 :i* to g5]ate a satisfactory supply ( heat = ! desir$ purposes1 mantle gas lamps w\ld nev] h come into common use4 ,an und]/&+ ( ! me*anism ( ! burn]s ( a sy/em is ( fir/ importance because ( ! possibility ( ! failure ( ! entire plant ?r\gh an improp] adju/m5t ( ! lamps4 ,if complete combu/ion ( ! gas is atta9$ 9 ! burn]1 ! greate/ am\nt ( heat w be evolv$ & ! residue w be an odorless gas1 c>bon dioxide 7,,co74 ,if ! gas is n completely burn$ ! odor ( ! gas is noticeable 9 ! air4 ,incomplete combu/ion may be caus$ by an insuffici5t air supply1 :i* causes a smoky flame2 or if a l>g] flame is us$ ?an ! burn] is design$ to c>ry1 "s ( ! gas w escape unburn$4 ,9 ei!r case ! greate/ am\nt ( heat is n develop$ by ! burn]4 ,9 mo/ burn]s1 :e!r = heat+ or light+--9 :i* gas1 gasol9e or alcohol is us$ z a fuel--! pr9ciple ( op]ation is t ( ! ,buns5 tube4 ,"o noticeable exception to ?is rule is ! burn]s us$ ) ! c5tral-g5]at+ sy/ems :]e ! ,buns5 tube is a "p ( ! g5]ator4 ,! gas g5]at$ f any hydroc>bon w burn completely1 only aft] be+ mix$ ) air or o!r incombu/ible gas1 9 proportions su* z w completely oxidize ! c>bon conta9$ 9 ! fuel4 ,9 ,fig4 #aij ! famili> laboratory ,buns5 burn] af=ds an excell5t illu/ration ( ! ,buns5 pr9ciple :i* =ms a "p ( all burn]s us+ gas z a fuel4 ,! gas f ! supply pipe issues f a small op5+ ,a into a tube ,b & by ! =ce ( its velocity ! ent]+ gas c>ries into ! tube above x a quantity ( air t may be regulat$ by ! size ( ! op5+4 ,if ! gas is burn$ )\t be+ fir/ mix$ ) air1 ! flame w be dull & smoky b if air is admitt$ to mix ) ! gas1 an entirely diff]5t flame is produc$1 ! *>act]i/ic %ape ( :i* is %[n 9 ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--;,cross-section ( ,buns5 burn] %[+ *>act]i/ic ,buns5 flame4 ,! upp] "p ( ! flame ,c is kn[n z ! r$uc+ flame2 x is blue 9 color & int5sely hot4 ,! portion ,d is ! oxidiz+ flame2 x is pale blue1 sometimes light gre5 9 color4 ,! l[] "p ,e is ! gas be=e x beg9s to burn4 ,:5 burn+ 9 air1 ! ,buns5 flame gives sc>cely any light1 all ( ! en]gy be+ exp5d$ 9 heat4 ,9 ! gas /ove :]e ! burn]s are made up ( a great numb] ( small jets1 x w be se5 t ea* jet %[s ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! ,buns5 flame4 ,! inc&esc5t-mantle gaslight takes advantage ( ! heat g5]at$ by ! ,buns5 flame & produces an inc&esc5t light t has revolutioniz$ gas light+4 ,! flame ( ! ,buns5 tube is burn$ inside a mantle :i* is r5d]$ inc&esc5t by ! heat4 ,! inc&esc5t mantle 0 inv5t$ by ,dr4 ,au] von ,welsba* & 0 kn[n = a long "t z ! ,welsba* light2 b improvem5ts 9 ! process ( mak+ ! mantles1 br\ght o!r lamps ( ! same type on ! m>ket1 :5 x became kn[n z ! mantle lamp4 ,! fir/ s]viceable mantles 7 made 9 #ahia & f t "t !re has be5 a /eady developm5t 9 ! gas-light+ indu/ry4 ,! orig9al mantles 7 made ( knitt$ cotton y>n1 impregnat$ ) r>e e>?s & are /ill s made2 b ! mo/ durable mantles are n[ con/ruct$ f ramie or *9a grass4 ,aft] be+ knitt$1 ! mantles are impregnat$ ) ?orium nitrate1 ) ! addition ( a small quantity ( c]ium nitrate1 & occasionally o!r nitrates4 ,! mantles are !n %ap$ & m\nt$2 ! fib] is burn$ out & ! mantles are dipp$ 9 collodion to give !m /ability = transportation4 ,:5 plac$ 9 ! lamp = use1 ! collodion is fir/ burn$ (f & ! rema9+ oxide ( ?orium =ms ! inc&esc5t mantle4 ,"o /yle ( mantle is n[ be+ made 9 :i* ! fib] is n burn$ out until x is plac$ 9 ! lamp4 ,!y are commonly us$ ) gasol9e lamps & give v good results4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aia4--;,gas lamp ) upright mantle4 ,! fir/ inc&esc5t-mantle gas lamps to be us$ 7 ( ! upright type1 su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aia1 & = a long "t !y 7 ! only mantle lamps 9 use4 ,:ile ! upright mantle 0 a great improvem5t ov] ! op5-flame gas jet1 ! lamp 0 n satisfactory because ( ! %ad[s ca/ by ! fixture & f ! fact t a l>ge am\nt ( ! light 0 lo/ by be+ direct$ upw>d f ! inc&esc5t mantle4 ,) ! developm5t ( ! inv]t$ type1 ! mantle lamp 0 greatly improv$4 ,9 ! use ( lamps ( any k9d1 ! desir$ position ( ! illum9ation is t 9 :i* ! light is direct$ d[nw>d4 ,9 ! inv]t$ type ( mantle lamp ?is feature is accompli%$ & adds mat]ially to ! effici5cy ( ! light1 because ! rays are s5t 9 ! direction ( greate/ s]vice4 ,! upright mantle lamps are /ill sold b by f> ! great] numb] (f]$ = sale are ( ! inv]t$ type4 ,! ess5tial features ( all gas lamps us$ "u ^! conditions are %[n 9 ,fig4 #aib1 :i* repres5ts ! common bracket type ( lamp4 ,! gas-cock ,c1 connects ! lamp ) ! gas supply ,g4 ,! gas escapes into ! ,buns5 tube1 ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! tip ,p1 :i* is s con/ruct$ t ! am\nt ( gas may be v>i$ to suit ! requir$ conditions4 ,! brass screw nut ,n may be rais$ or l[]$ & ?us increase or dim9i% ! am\nt ( escap+ gas by reason ( ! position ( ! p9 ,p4 ,if ! nut is screw$ completely d[n ! p9 closes ! op5+ & ! gas is entirely %ut (f4 ,:5 ! lamp is put 9 place1 ! burn] is adju/$ to admit ! prop] am\nt ( gas & s long z ! quality ( ! gas rema9s ! same1 no fur!r adju/m5t w be necess>y4 ,any *ange to a ri*] or poor] gas w1 h[ev]1 require an adju/m5t ( ! burn] to suit ! mantle4 ,! am\nt ( gas admitt$ is only t :i* w produce complete combu/ion 9 ! mantle :5 comb9$ ) ! requir$ am\nt ( air4 ,ea* burn] mu/1 !re=e1 be design$ = ! mantle 9 use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--,mantle gas lamp %[+ details ( ,buns5 tube4 ,z ! gas leaves ! op5+ above ! p9 ,p1 x ent]s ! mix+ *amb] ( ! ,buns5 tube & air is drawn at ! op5+s ,a-,a4 ,! mixture ( ! gas & air is accompli%$ 9 ! tube lead+ to ! mantle ,m1 :]e x is burn$4 ,9 all lamps ( ?is k9d1 !re is a wire scre5 plac$ relatively z ,s1 ! object ( :i* is to prev5t ! mixture 9 ! tube f explod+--9 case ( l[ pressure--& ?us cause ! gas to ignite & burn at ! po9t ( entrance to ! tube4 ,at any "t ! pressure is insuffici5t to s5d a /eady fl[ ( gas into ! tube1 ! flame may 8fla% back0 & ignite ! gas at ! po9t ( entrance :]e x w cont9ue to burn4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! scre5 is int]pos$ betwe5 ! gas supply & ! burn]1 ! flame ( explosion w n pass ! scre54 ,9 light+ ! lamp1 ! gas is turn$ on & a light$ mat* is held "u ! mantle1 ! explosive mixture ( gas & air fills ! mantle & escapes into ! globe1 9 :i* x is usually inclos$4 ,z soon z ignition takes place ! gas outside ! mantle explodes ) ! effect t is />tl+ b n necess>ily dang]\s4 ,! escap+ gas cont9ues to burn & heats ! mantle to inc&esc5ce4 ,! am\nt ( escap+ gas is regulat$ by turn+ ! gas-cock to produce ! greate/ brilliance ) ! lea/ flame outside ! mantle4 ,:5 us$ = h\sehold illum9ation1 ! int5sity ( ! light is su* z to be objectionable1 :5 us$ directly2 b :5 surr\nd$ by an opal glass globe to diffuse ! light1 ?is is a highly satisfactory & economical means ( light+4 ,op5-flame ,gas ,burn]s4--,gas jets ( ! op5-flame type cont9ue to be us$ to "s ext5t b ! m effici5t mantle lamp has v l>gely supplant$ lights ( ?is k9d4 ,9 ! pa/1 ^! gas lights 7 made 9 a great _m /yles & 7 kn[n "u a v>iety ( trade names--! fi%-tail burn]1 ! bats-w+ burn] & ! ,arg& burn]--& 7 at times v g5]ally us$ = gas light+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--,sw+-bracket gas lamp ) op5-flame burn]4 ,! common gas jet is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #aic4 ,! figure %[s a bracket fixture :i* is g5]ally fa/5$ to a pipe 9 ! wall4 ,a sw+-jo9t at ,a p]mits ! flame ,f to be mov$ into diff]5t positions4 ,! annul> op5+ ,a p]mits ! gas to pass to ! jet 9 any position to :i* ! light is mov$4 ,! gas-cock ,c is a cone-%ap$ plug1 :i* has be5 gr\nd to p]fectly fit its socket4 ,x %\ld move ) p]fect fre$om1 & yet prev5t ! escape ( ! gas4 ,a slott$ screw ,n p]mits ! jo9t to be readju/$1 %\ld ! plug become loose 9 ! socket4 ,! gas-tips ,t are made ( a numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( mat]ials & are commonly t]m$ lava-tips b tips = gas & gasol9e are frequ5tly made ( metal4 ,! bottom ( ! tip is cone-%ap$1 :i* p]mits x to be =c$ into place 9 ! end ( ! tube ) a pair ( pli]s4 ,9 size ! tips are grad$ by ! am\nt ( gas :i* !y w all[ to escape 9 cubic feet p] h\r4 ,= example--a #d-;foot tip w use approximately #d cubic feet ( gas p] h\r4 ,!y are made 9 a numb] ( sizes to suit ! v>y+ requirem5ts4 ,! ,inv]t$-mantle ,gasol9e ,lamp4--,! inv]t$-mantle gasol9e-gas lamp %[n 9 ,fig4 #aid1 furni%es a good example ( me*anism & pr9ciple ( op]ation1 :5 us$ ) ! holl[-wire sy/em4 ,?is is ! bracket /yle ( lamp b ! same me*anism is us$ 9 o!r =ms ( fixtures4 ,lamps ( simil> con/ruction are susp5d$ f ! ceil+1 ei!r s+ly or 9 clu/]s2 !y are also us$ 9 portable =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--,sectional view ( holl[-wire mantle gasol9e lamp4 ,9 ,fig4 #aid ! lamp consi/s ( a bracket ,h1 :i* is secur$ to ! wall & ?r\gh ! /em ( :i* ! gasol9e is conduct$ to ! g5]ator by ! pipe ,w4 ,! arr[s %[ ! c\rse ( ! gasol9e & its vapor z x passes ?r\gh ! lamp4 ,on ent]+ ! g5]ator ! gasol9e fir/ passes1 ! p]colation1 ?r\gh an asbe/os wick ,b1 ! object ( :i* is to prev5t ! vapor pressure f act+ directly on ! gasol9e 9 ! supply tube4 ,! gasol9e passes ?r\gh ! wick ,b1 l>gely by capill>y action1 z x mu/ ent] ! g5]ator aga9/ a pressure great] ?an t af=d$ by ! pressure tank4 ,! vaporization ( ! gasol9e takes place 9 ! tube above ! mantle ,t1 f ! flame ( :i* x receives ! necess>y heat4 ,9 light+ ! lamp an asbe/os tor* saturat$ ) alcohol is ignit$ & hung on ! frame1 s t ! flame may heat ! g5]at+ ca/+ ,n4 ,?is process usually requires less ?an a m9ute1 g5]ally ab\t #dj or #ej seconds4 ,! tor* supplies heat suffici5t to g5]ate ! vapor = light+ ! lamp1 b z soon z light$ ! heat f ! gl[+ mantle keeps ! g5]ator at ! requir$ temp]ature = cont9u\s supply ( vapor4 ,:5 ! g5]ator is suffici5tly heat$ by ! g5]at+ tor*1 ! ne$le valve ,n is op5$ by pull+ ! *a9 ,p4 ,?is all[s ! gasol9e vapor f ! g5]at+ tube to escape at ,g into ! induction tube ,r4 ,z ! vapor ent]s ! induction tube at a high velocity1 x c>ries ) x ! atmosph]ic air 9 quantity suffici5t to r5d] x completely combu/ible4 ,! op5+ ,g & ! tube toge!r =m a ,buns5 burn]4 ,! lamp is s proportion$ z to give a mixture ( gasol9e vapor & air t w produce complete combu/ion 9 ! mantle ,t4 ,! portion ( ! burn] ,z1 ?r\gh :i* ! gas ent]s ! mantle1 is a brass tip1 fill$ ) a flut$ /rip ( ,g]man silv]1 s arrang$ t ! gas on ent]+ ! mantle w be uni=mly di/ribut$ & t ! heat g5]at$ w r5d] ! entire mantle uni=mly brilliant4 ,"o feature ( ! lamp t requires special att5tion is ! op5+ ,g1 ?r\gh :i* ! vapor f ! g5]ator is dis*>g$ into ! induction tube4 ,?is is a v small op5+ & occasionally becomes /opp$ or p>tly clos$4 ,:5 ?is occurs ! lamp fails to receive ! necess>y am\nt ( gas1 & ! light is unsatisfactory4 ,9 ?is lamp1 ! clean+ ne$le ,q is provid$ = remov+ ! /oppage4 ,! ne$le is simply screw$ into ! op5+ & =ces out ! ob/ruction2 :5 x is )drawn1 ! op5+ is left free4 ,a m conv5i5t device = accompli%+ ! same purpose is describ$ 9 ! portable lamp1 ,figs4 #aie & #aif4 ,portable ,gasol9e ,lamps4--,! portable =m ( desk & read+ lamps = ! use ( gasol9e is made 9 a great v>iety ( /yles4 ,!y are sometimes con/ruct$ to fe$ by gravity1 b by f> ! great] numb] are op]at$ by ! pressure me?od4 ,! portable lamp mu/ be a complete gas plant1 ) /orage tank = ! gasol9e1 pipe sy/em = conduct+ ! gasol9e to ! lamp1 g5]ator & burn]4 ,to give satisfactory results1 ! lamp mu/ be capable ( be+ light$ ) ! lea/ degree ( tr\ble & op]at$ ) ! lea/ am\nt ( c>e4 ,! imm5se numb] ( lamps ( ?is k9d t are sold %[s t !y meet all ( ^! requirem5ts & h prov5 satisfactory 9 op]ation4 ,_! greate/ attractiv5ess is _! capability ( giv+ a v l>ge am\nt ( light at relatively l[ co/4 ,fig4 #aie illu/rates a portable gasol9e lamp 9 :i* a conv5i5t & effici5t =m ( g5]at+ me*anism is comb9$ ) an attractively proportion$ ext]ior4 ,! lamp works on ! pr9ciple ( ! holl[-wire sy/em1 ! base s]v+ z a /orage & pressure tank1 ! frame ( ! lamp act+ z ! tube = supply+ ! lamp ) gasol9e1 & ! canopy conta9+ ! g5]at+ me*anism4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--,portable gasol9e mantle lamp4 ,! tank 9 ! base is fill$ ) gasol9e at ! op5+ ,e1 :i* is made air-tight by a screw-plug4 ,! plug also conta9s an atta*m5t piece = ! air pump1 :i* furni%es ! pressure to ! gasol9e4 ,! holl[ /&>d rea*es to ! bottom ( ! tank & ?r\gh x ! gasol9e is =c$ to ! po9t m>k$ ,a1 :]e ! gasol9e ent]s ! g5]at+ me*anism4 ,?is "p ( ! lamp1 :i* is entirely conceal$ by ! lamp canopy1 is %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #aif4 ,! ref]5ce lett]s 9 ,fig4 #aie apply to ! same p>ts 9 ! detail draw+4 ,! gasol9e ent]s an asbe/os-pack$ tube ,f at ! po9t ,a1 & aft] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! tube1 rea*es ! regulat+ valve at ! po9t ,g4 ,! h&-:eel ,b op5s & closes ! valve1 & ?us controls ! entrance ( ! gasol9e to ! g5]at+ tube ,h1 :]e x is conv]t$ into ! vapor4 ,! vapor n[ ne$s only ! addition ( air to make x ! desir$ gas = illum9at+ ! mantle4 ,! vapor f ! g5]at+ tube escapes at ! small hole ,k1 locat$ directly "u ! mix+ *amb] ,m4 ,! supply ( air is receiv$ ?r\gh ! tube ,c1 provid$ ) a regulator1 :i* is readily accessible f ! outside ( ! lamp4 ,! mixture ( gasol9e vapor & air is accompli%$ z 9 ! o!r lamps describ$1 ?r\gh ! ,buns5 tube ,n4 ,9 ?is case1 ! ,buns5 tube is ext5d$ & increas$ 9 size to produce a mix+ *amb] ( consid]able volume4 ,! mantle is atta*$ to ! tip ,o4 ,! tip1 l ! "o already describ$1 is made ( ,g]man silv] & con/ruct$ to produce a flame t w entirely fill ! mantle4 ,?is lamp is provid$ ) a special means ( keep+ ! op5+ ,k free f accumulations4 ,! op5+ ,k1 ?r\gh :i* ! gasol9e vapor escapes f ! g5]ator1 is v small & a slight /oppage w mat]ially int]f]e ) ! fl[ ( ! vapor & ?us impair ! illum9at+ effect ( ! light4 ,a lev] ,d op]ates an ecc5tric :i* engages ! piece ,p1 to :i* is atta*$ a p9 t readily ent]s an op5+ ,k1 :5 ! lev] is turn$4 ,any accumulation :i* may lodge 9 ! op5+ is in/antly remov$ & ! ne$le return$ to its place by a turn ( ! lev] ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--,sectional view ( ! g5]ator = ! ,am]ican holl[-wire gasol9e lamp4 ,c5tral-g5]ator ,plants4--,! c5tral-g5]ator or tube sy/em ( light+ ) gasol9e1 diff]s f ! o!r me?ods describ$1 9 ! mann] ( g5]at+ & di/ribut+ ! supply ( gas to ! lamps4 ,9 ! holl[-wire sy/em ea* lamp g5]ates its own gas supply4 ,) ! c5tral-g5]ator sy/em ! gas = all ( ! lamps is g5]at$ & prop]ly mix$ ) air 9 a c5tral g5]ator1 & ! f9i%$ gas di/ribut$ ?r\gh tubes to ! diff]5t burn]s & !re burn$ 9 inc&esc5t mantles4 ,! gas z x leaves ! g5]ator requires no fur!r mix+ ) air & !re=e ! burn]s are n ( ! ,buns5 type4 ,c5tral-g5]ator gas ma*9es are made 9 a numb] ( diff]5t =ms by diff]5t manufactur]s1 all ( :i* are int5d$ to p]=m ! same "w b diff] 9 ! me*anism employ$4 ,! ma*9es are simple 9 con/ruction & z 9 ! holl[-wire sy/em are capable ( us+ l[] grades ( gasol9e ?an c be us$ ) ! cold-process plants4 ,! gas f a c5tral g5]ator may be us$ = all purposes = :i* gasol9e gas is employ$1 ei!r = light+ or heat+4 ,"o difficulty 9 ! use ( ! ma*9e is ! lack ( flexibility :5 requir$ = only a few lamps or v>y+ numb] ( lights4 ,al?\gh ^! plants are sometimes us$ = light+ & heat+ dwell+s1 _! use is limit$1 = ! reason t v>iation ( ! numb] ( lights requires ! g5]ator to be regulat$ to suit ! *ange 9 ! gas supply4 ,! plants _c be conv5i5tly cut d[n to "o light4 ,_! mo/ g5]al use is t ( light+ *ur*es1 /ores1 halls1 auditoriums1 etc41 :]e a v>iable am\nt ( light is n dem&$4 ,plants ( ?is "* are q g5]ally us$ = /reet light+ & = o!r outside illum9ation4 ,an effici5t & simple plant ( ! c5tral-g5]ator type is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aig4 ,! supply ( gasol9e is /or$ 9 a tank simil> to t us$ ) ! holl[-wire sy/em & plac$ 9 any conv5i5t location4 ,! gasol9e is conduct$ to ! g5]ator ,g1 ?r\gh a holl[ wire m>k$ ,w4 ,! g5]ator is inclos$ 9 a %eet-iron box1 :i* is locat$ at any conv5i5t place 9 ! build+4 ,f ! g5]ator ! gas is conduct$ ?r\gh ! tube to ! lamps ,l4 ,9 ,fig4 #aih is %[n a diagram ( ! g5]ator1 cut ?r\gh ! middle l5g?wise1 9 :i* all ( ! work+ p>ts are %[n 9 _! relative positions4 ,! ref]5ce figures designate ! same p>ts ( ! g5]ator 9 ,figs4 #aig & #aih4 ,9 ! process ( g5]ation ! tank is fill$ ) gasol9e & pressure appli$ ) ! air pump4 ,! tanks describ$ 9 ,fig4 #ahi might be us$ to advantage ) ?is plant b ! "o %[n 9 ,fig4 #aig is s con/ruct$ t ! l>g] tank is us$ = /orage ( gasol9e4 ,! gasol9e is pump$ directly into ! small] tank :i* alone is kept "u pressure4 ,! pump ,p is enclos$ 9 ! l>ge tank2 at any "t x is desir$ to repl5i% ! supply ( gasol9e1 x is only necess>y to op5 ! valve ,v & pump ! necess>y supply into ! small tank4 ,?is transf] may be done at any "t )\t dang] f escap+ gasol9e vapor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--;,diagram ( c5tral-g5]ator tube sy/em ( gasol9e light+4 ,! process ( g5]at+ ! gas is be/ und]/ood by ref]5ce to ,fig4 #aih1 :i* %[s ! int]nal con/ruction ( ! g5]ator4 ,! liquid gasol9e is admitt$ at ! bottom ?r\gh ! small pipe ,w1 & !n ent]s ! space #d1 :]e x is vaporiz$4 ,! initial fl[ ( gas is g5]at$ by heat+ ! g5]ator ) an alcohol flame f ! iron cup #a1 :i* surr\nds ! g5]ator4 ,:5 ! g5]ator is heat$ ! gasol9e admitt$ to ! g5]ator is imm$iately vaporiz$2 :51 by turn+ ! h&le #f1 ! ne$le valve #e op5s a small orifice ?r\gh :i* ! heat$ gasol9e vapor escapes into ! tube #g1 above4 ,! bla/ ( vapor issu+ f ! orifice c>ries ) x air ( suffici5t volume to r5d] ! gasol9e vapor an explosive mixture t :5 burn$ 9 ! mantle w be r$uc$ to ,,co gas4 ,:5 ! initial heat+ by ! alcohol flame is exhau/$1 suffici5t gas has be5 g5]at$ s t "p ( x may be us$ z a sub-flame 9 ! gas burn] #i1 to keep ! g5]ator heat$4 ,! gas is conduct$ to ! burn] f ! ma9 tube #aa1 ?r\gh ! pipe #ab-ad1 z indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,! burn] #i surr\nds ! g5]ator & ! size ( ! flame is regulat$ by ! valve #ae1 :i* is op5$ an am\nt suffici5t to admit ! necess>y gas to ! burn]4 ,to />t ! g5]ator1 ! cup #a is fill$ ) alcohol & ignit$4 ,! ne$le valve #b is n[ op5$ by turn+ ! h&-:eel #c1 admitt+ gasol9e into ! g5]ator *amb] #d1 :]e ! vaporization ( ! gasol9e takes place4 ,! flame f ! burn+ alcohol w heat ! g5]ator 9 ab\t a m9ute4 ,:5 ! g5]ator is hot1 ! ne$le valve #e is op5$ slightly1 by turn+ ! lev] #f1 & ! gasol9e vapor "u high pressure bl[s into ! tube #g4 ,z ! gasol9e vapor is bl[n into ! tube #g1 air is drawn 9 ?r\gh ! op5+ #h1 z indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,! g5]ator is practically a l>ge ,buns5 tube f :i* ! mixture ( gasol9e vapor & air is conduct$ to ! burn]s by a connect+ pipe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--;,cross-section ( ! g5]ator = ! tube sy/em ( gasol9e light+4 ,gas ma*9es op]at$ on ?is pr9ciple are made to accommodate a def9ite numb] ( lamps4 ,aft] ! lamps are light$1 ! am\nt ( gas is regulat$ to suit ! numb] 9 use4 ,if at any "t x is desir$ to r$uce ! numb] ( lamps 9 op]ation1 ! gas supply mu/ be regulat$ to suit ! lights left burn+4 ,z an illu/ration1 suppose t a plant ( t5 lamps _h be5 burn+ & t x 0 desir$ to r$uce ! numb] to six2 f\r ( ! lamps are ext+ui%$ by turn+ ! lev]s ,c1 :i* control ! gas-cocks4 ,! g5]ator :i* _h be5 supply+ suffici5t gas = t5 lights w cont9ue to produce ! same am\nt until ! lev] #f is turn$ to r$uce ! supply ( gasol9e to ! requir$ am\nt = six lamps4 ,?is is done by gradually clos+ ! valve #e until ! lamps aga9 burn brightly4 ,9 small plants ! lea/ numb] ( lamps t w "w satisfactorily at "o "t is ?ree4 ,automatic regulators are made = plants ( consid]able size b d n satisfactorily control ! gas :5 ! lamps are r$uc$ bel[ ?ree 9 numb]4 ,! gas f ^! plants may readily be us$ 9 kit*5 ranges1 wat] heat]s & o!r dome/ic purposes4 ,individual plants = op]at+ ranges 9 re/aurants & hotels are 9 common use4 ,! plants are subject to m9or d]angem5ts t require correct+ z !y occur1 b z soon z ! me*anism & *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! plant are kn[n1 ! correction ( any difficulty t may pres5t itself is easily accompli%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--;,gas lamp = use ) ! c5tral-g5]ator or tube sy/em ( gasol9e light+4 ,c5tral-g5]ator ,gas ,lamps4--,fig4 #aii %[s ! g5]al con/ruction & arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! inv]t$-mantle lamp us$ ) ! c5tral-g5]ator sy/em4 ,9 outw>d appe>ance ! lamp is mu* l any o!r inv]t$-mantle gas lamp1 b 9 arrangem5t ( p>ts x is m>k$ly diff]5t4 ,! gas-cock ,c is l>g] ?an t us$ ) ! ord9>y fixture1 because ! op5+ ,o mu/ c>ry a l>g] volume ( gas ?an t = supply+ gas to lamps us+ ! ,buns5 tube4 ,9 ! use ( lamps ) ! ,buns5 tube1 ! gas f ! ma9s is mix$ ) approximately tw5ty times its volume ( air2 ) a lamp l t ( ,fig4 #aii1 :]e ! mixture has already be5 made 9 ! g5]ator1 ! conduct+ tubes & ! gas-cock mu/ be relatively v l>ge4 ,! scre5 ,s1 :i* corresponds to ! scre5 ,s 9 ,fig4 #aib1 is q z necess>y z 9 ! o!r lamp4 ,x n only assures a uni=m di/ribution ( ! gas 9 ! tube b x prev5ts ! mantle f be+ brok5 :5 ! burn] is light$4 ,if ?is scre5 is punctur$1 ! explosion :i* takes place :5 ! burn] is light$ w be suffici5t to bl[ out ! bottom ( ! mantle4 ,! burn] tip ,t is practically ! same z t us$ ) o!r mantle lamps4 ,b\lev>d ,lamps4--,gasol9e lamps = outside illum9ation may be con/ruct$ to op]ate ) any ( ! sy/ems describ$1 b ! holl[-wire & ! g5]ator sy/ems are mo/ conv5i5tly us$1 because ea* po/ may be arrang$ z an indep5d5t plant4 ,= illum9at+ private gr\nds or public ?or\ghf>es1 lamps su* z are illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #bjj & #bja are v g5]ally us$4 ,! lamp %[n 9 ,fig4 #bjj is ( ! c5tral g5]ator type 9 :i* ! /orage tank & g5]ator me*anism are locat$ 9 ! base ( ! po/4 ,^! lamps are also sometimes con/ruct$ ) a "t atta*m5t 9 ! base ( ! po/1 arrang$ ) a clock me*anism s t ! light may be automatically ext+ui%$ at any desir$ "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--;,b\lev>d lamp ) g5]ator 9 ! base ( ! lamp po/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--;,b\lev>d lamp op]at$ by ! holl[-wire me?od ( light+4 ,9 ,fig4 #bja ! lamp is ( ! holl[-wire type & z 9 ! case ( ! o!r1 ! supply tank is 9 ! base ( ! po/4 ,) ?is sy/em x w\ld be possible to supply sev]al lamps f a common supply tank1 provid$ ! holl[ wire 0 protect$ aga9/ damage4 ,! lamps arrang$ to "w on ei!r sy/em1 require ! same am\nt ( att5tion & are subject to ! same d]angem5ts z ^? = inside s]vice4 ,burn]s = gasol9e /oves are made 9 a great v>iety ( =ms1 ea* hav+ "s special po9ts ( excell5ce t are us$ to recomm5d ! sale ( ! /ove4 ,! mo/ ess5tial feature ( a gasol9e /ove is ! burn]1 s9ce on its successful p]=mance w dep5d ! satisfaction giv5 by ! /ove4 ,_m self-g5]at+ burn]s h be5 devis$ :i* h met ) a great deal ( favor1 b ! type ( burn] mo/ widely us$ & ! fir/ to be devis$ = ! purpose is ! g5]at+ burn] simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! g5]at+ gasol9e lamp4 ,! burn] is fir/ heat$ f an outside s\rce1 9 ord] to g5]ate suffici5t gas to />t ! flame1 aft] :i* ! heat f ! burn] w develop ! gas supply4 ,) gasol9e /oves ( ?is k9d1 ! supply tank is elevat$1 9 ord] t ! =ce ( gravity may give suffici5t pressure to s5d ! gasol9e into ! g5]ator :ile ! flame is burn+4 ,9 ! holl[-wire sy/em ! same type ( burn] is us$1 b ! gasol9e is =c$ into ! burn] by ! pressure 9 ! tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--,sectional view ( ! g5]ator & burn] ( a gasol9e /ove4 ,9 ,fig4 #bjb is %[n a sectional view ( ! burn] z x appe>s 9 ! /ove4 ,! supply tank1 or holl[ wire f ! pressure tank1 s5ds ! gasol9e into ! tube ,a at ! bottom ( ! /ove1 to :i* sev]al burn]s may be atta*$4 ,! tube ,b1 ?r\gh :i* ! gasol9e p]colates on its way to ! g5]ator1 is fill$ ) mod]ately co>se s&1 or o!r mat]ial t is int5d$ to prev5t ! gasol9e f be+ =c$ out ( ! pipe by ! pressure t is develop$ 9 ! g5]ator4 ,! pieces ,c-,c are p]=at$ metal plugs t prev5t ! escape ( ! p>ticles ( :i* ,b is compos$4 ,! g5]ator is a brass ca/+ ,d-,d :i* is firmly screw$ to ! top ( ! tube ,b4 ,a ne$le-valve ,e gov]ns ! dis*>ge ( ! gasol9e vapor at ,g1 :]e ! vapor ent]s ! tube ,h1 z indicat$ at ,k-,k4 ,! gasol9e vapor ent]s ! op5 ,buns5 tube ,h1 & ) x is c>ri$ ! air necess>y to produce ! requir$ gas = complete combu/ion4 ,! piece ,n is ! g5]at+ cup 9 :i* is burn$ ! g5]at+ fluid--ei!r gasol9e or alcohol4 ,! gasol9e f ! pipe ,a p]colates ?r\gh ! mat]ial 9 ,b & fl[s into ! g5]ator4 ,! ne$le-valve be+ clos$1 ! space ,d-,d fills ) gasol9e4 ,to light ! burn]1 ! h&-:eel ,j is turn$1 op5+ ! ne$le-valve a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to all[ ! gasol9e to fill ! cup ,n ) fuel = g5]at+ ! initial volume ( vapor4 ,a /ill bett] way is to fill ! cup ) alcohol1 because ! burn+ alcohol does n fill ! air ) smoke & odors1 z 9 ! case ( gasol9e1 :5 us$ = g5]at+ purposes4 ,! g5]at+ mat]ial hav+ be5 ignit$ & burn$ out1 ! g5]ator is hot & fill$ ) vapor4 ,! heat$ g5]ator vaporizes a portion ( ! conta9$ gasol9e & =ms suffici5t pressure to =ce ! rema9+ gasol9e back ?r\gh ,b into ! supply tank4 ,! mat]ial ( ! tube ,b p]mits only a sl[ movem5t ( ! gasol9e & prev5ts ! possibility ( surg+ 9 ! g5]ator4 ,! initial supply ( vapor be+ g5]at$1 ! ne$le-valve may be op5$ & ! gas light$ above ! burn] ,i-,i1 :]e x %\ld burn 9 little jets at ea* op5+ ) ! *>act]i/ic ,buns5 flame4 ,x sometimes happ5s t ! g5]ator is n heat$ suffici5tly1 by ! g5]at+ flame1 to vaporize ! necess>y gasol9e = />t+ ! burn]2 9 ?is case liquid gasol9e w be =c$ f ! op5+ ,g1 & ! burn] w fl>e up int]mitt5tly 9 a r$ smoky flame4 ,:5 ?is occurs ! burn]s mu/ be reg5]at$4 ,gasol9e ,sad ,irons4--,! use ( gase\s or liquid fuel is always att5d$ by an elem5t ( dang]1 because ( ! possibility ( accid5tal explosion4 ,! use ( gasol9e1 ! mo/ highly volatile ( all liquid fuels1 has1 h[ev]1 come to be v g5]ally us$ z a s\rce ( heat = dome/ic purposes4 ,! dang] ( accid5t 9 ! use ( gasol9e z a fuel = heat+ sad irons is l>gely due to ignorance ( ! involv$ me*anism or c>elessness 9 manipulation4 ,a k ( ! pr9ciple includ$ 9 _! op]ation1 toge!r ) an obs]vance ( ! possible cause ( accid5t1 w r$uce ! elem5t ( dang] to a negligible quantity4 ,! use ( gasol9e sad irons has come into favor because ( _! conv5i5ce & economy 9 op]ation4 ,^! irons1 9 common ) ! use ( gasol9e 9 its o!r applications ( heat+ & light+1 are made 9 a great _m =ms b ! pr9ciple ( op]ation is conf9$ to two types4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--;,gasol9e flat-iron op]at$ by a heat$ fuel tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--;,gasol9e flat-iron %[+ ! position ( ! cov] :ile initial *>ge ( gas is be+ g5]at$4 ,fir/1 ^? 9 :i* ! gasol9e is =c$ into ! g5]ator by ! vapor pressure1 f ! heat$ supply tank2 & second ^? 9 :i* ! pressure is caus$ by pump+ air into ! supply tank aft] ! mann] ( ! holl[-wire sy/em ( light+4 ,! fir/ type ( iron is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,! same iron is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bjd1 ) ! top 9 position = g5]at+ vapor pressure necess>y to />t ! burn]4 ,! body ( ! iron ,a is a holl[ ca/+1 design$ to receive ! g5]ator & burn] 9 su* position t ! bottom portion ( ! iron may be uni=mly heat$4 ,! g5]ator & burn] are %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #bje1 9 :i* a sectional view is giv5 ( ! p>ts1 cut across l5g?wise ( ! iron4 ,9 />t+ ! burn] = use1 ! tank is fir/ fill$--n q full--( /ra9$ gasol9e4 ,! precaution ( /ra9+ ! gasol9e %\ld be tak51 to prev5t putt+ into ! tank any?+ t w possibly *oke ! ne$le-valve4 ,alcohol is us$ = g5]at+ ! vapor supply1 because ! flame does n black ! iron & fill ! room ) smoke z 9 ! case :5 gasol9e is us$ = ! purpose4 ,:5 ! alcohol is ignit$1 ! cov] is plac$ 9 position z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bjd1 s t ! flame may heat n only ! g5]ator b also ! tank4 ,! object ( heat+ ! tank is t ! heat$ gasol9e may furni% pressure ) :i* to =ce ! gasol9e into ! g5]ator4 ,:5 ! alcohol us$ = g5]at+ is almo/ burn$ out1 ! valve ,f is slightly op5$ & ! burn] light$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--,sectional view ( gasol9e flat-iron g5]ator & burn]4 ,z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bje1 ! g5]ator ,g is a brass tube1 inclos+ ! valve-/em ,g1 :i* t]m9ates 9 ! ne$le-valve ,v4 ,?is valve regulates ! supply ( gas admitt$ to ! burn] & is op]at$ by ! h&-:eel ,f4 ,:5 ! gasol9e 9 ! tank has be5 heat$ ! necess>y am\nt1 ! vapor 9 ,g is all[$ to escape ?r\gh ! valve ,v4 ,! vapor is dis*>g$ into ! ,buns5 tube1 & ) x ! air is c>ri$ 9 ?r\gh ! op5+s ,e1 f bo? sides ( ! iron4 ,! burn] is a brass tube1 slott$ z %[n at ,h1 ?r\gh :i* ! gas escapes1 =m+ a %ort flame ( l>ge area close to ! "p ( ! iron to be heat$4 ,! size ( ! flame is regulat$ by ! h&-:eel ,f4 ,! tank is entirely clos$1 ! plug ,p be+ provid$ ) a lead wa%] to insure a tight jo9t4 ,! plug is fur!r provid$ ) a s(t metal c5t] :i* acts z a 8safety-plug0 9 case ( ov]heat+4 ,%\ld ! iron at any "t become too hot1 ! s(t metal c5t] w melt & ! releas$ pressure 9 ! tank w put out ! burn] flame4 ,! s(t metal c5t] may be r5ew$ ) a drop ( sold]4 ,9 case ! safety-plug at any "t is melt$1 ! hot gasol9e w spurt f ! op5+ & imm$iately vaporize4 ,?is ( c\rse w\ld1 9 a %ort "t1 produce an explosive atmosph]e :i* if ignit$ w\ld be dang]\s4 ,9 case ( accid5t ! iron %\ld be c>ri$ to ! op5 air & ! flame smo!r$ ) a clo?4 ,alcohol ,sad ,irons4--,irons ( ! same /yle are also made 9 :i* alcohol is us$ z a fuel4 ,! alcohol irons diff] 9 con/ruction f ^? us+ gasol9e only 9 ! am\nt ( air t is mix$ ) ! vapor4 ,9 g5]al appe>ance ! two /yles look v mu* alike1 b 9 ! alcohol iron "o ( ! intakes ,e is entirely clos$ & ! o!r op5+ is p>tially clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--;,gasol9e flat-iron op]at$ by an air-pressure fuel tank4 ,! op]ation ( ^! irons is id5tical to ^? us+ gasol9e1 b !y are pref]r$ by ^? :o fe> ! use ( t fuel4 ,9 reality !re is little diff]5ce 9 ! dang] att5d+ ! use ( ! two liquids4 ,x is only fair to say1 h[ev]1 t ! use ( any highly volatile fuel is att5d$ ) "s dang] :5 us$ c>elessly1 b ) a reasonable am\nt ( c>e & a k ( ! me*anism ( ! ma*9e 9 use ! dang] is ( m9or consequ5ce4 ,9 ,fig4 #bjf is illu/rat$ ano!r /yle ( gasol9e sad iron1 ! work+ pr9ciple ( :i* is ! same z ^? already describ$ b ! supply tank is n heat$ to give pressure to ! gasol9e 9 ! tank4 ,9 ?is iron ! tank is locat$ at "o side ( ! iron & pressure is appli$ ) an air pump z 9 ! holl[-wire sy/em ( light+4 ,! burn] is g5]at$ aft] ! mann] ( ! o!rs & op]at$ 9 exactly ! same mann]4 ,! *ief diff]5ce is t ! possibility ( excessive pressure ?r\gh ov]heat+ is elim9at$4 ,alcohol ,table ,/oves4--,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! use ( alcohol z a fuel has nev] be5 ext5sively employ$ because ( ! duty impos$ on its manufacture by ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 #ahif ?is duty 0 remov$ f d5atur$ alcohol & ! co/ 0 suffici5tly r$uc$ to p]mit a great ext5sion 9 its use z a fuel4 ,d5atur$ alcohol is any alcohol to :i* has be5 add$ any ( ! li/ ( prescrib$ volatile fluids t w r5d] ! alcohol unfit = use 9 bev]ages & n mat]ially *ange its heat+ value4 ,d5atur$ alcohol is sold at a price t w p]mit its use 9 small flat-irons1 table /oves & o!r =ms ( burn]s :]e small am\nts ( heat are g5]at$ = conv5i5ce4 ,at ! price ( d5atur$ alcohol z g5]ally sold1 x _c compete ) gasol9e & k]os5e z a fuel4 ,9 ,fig4 #bjg is %[n a conv5i5t & inexp5sive =m ( table /ove1 9 :i* ! vapor ( alcohol is burn$ 9 practically ! same mann] z ! vapor ( gasol9e 9 ! burn]s already describ$4 ,! supply ( alcohol is /or$ 9 a tank ,a1 & f$ by gravity to ! burn] ,b1 ! flame f :i* resembles t ( ! ord9>y gasol9e burn]4 ,! g5]ator ,g ) ! o!r ess5tial p>ts are %[n 9 detail 9 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,! ref]5ce lett]s indicate ! same p>ts 9 ! detail draw+ z 9 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--;,alcohol vapor /ove4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--,sectional view ( ! g5]ator & burn] ( ! alcohol vapor /ove4 ,! alcohol fl[s f ! supply tank ?r\gh ! pipe ,c to ! g5]ator ,g1 :i* is a brass tube fill$ ) copp] wires4 ,! vapor = />t+ ! burn] is g5]at$ by op5+ ! valve ,v & all[+ a small am\nt ( alcohol to fl[ ?r\gh ! orifice ,c into ! pan ,p directly bel[ ! g5]ator4 ,! valve is !n clos$ & ! alcohol ignit$4 ,:5 ! g5]at+ flame has burn$ out1 ! valve ,v is aga9 op5$ & ! vapor :i* has g5]at$ 9 ! tube escapes at ! orifice ,c & ent]s ! ,buns5 tube ,t1 7,fig4 #bjg7 c>ry+ ) x ! prop] am\nt ( air to produce ! ,buns5 flame at ea* ( ! holes ( ! burn]4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! gasol9e burn]s ! orifice ,c sometimes becomes clogg$ & x is necess>y to ins]t a small wire to cle> ! op5+4 ,) ! /ove is provid$ a tool = ?is purpose4 ,) /oves ( ?is k9d1 ! supply tank mu/ n be tightly clos$1 because any pressure 9 ! tank w\ld cause x to become dang]\s4 ,! alcohol is f$ to ! g5]ator entirely by gravity4 ,! /opp] ( ! tank conta9s a small hole at ! top :i* %\ld be kept op5 to avoid ! g5]ation ( pressure %\ld ! tank become accid5tally heat$4 ,/oves ( ?is k9d may be conv5i5tly us$ = a great v>iety ( h\sehold purposes1 & :5 intellig5tly h&l$ are relatively free f dang]4 ,dang] f ,gase\s & ,liquid ,fuels4--,all combu/ible gases or vapors1 :5 mix$ )9 def9ite am\nts1 are explosive4 ,! viol5ce ( ! explosion w be 9 proportion to ! volumes ( ! gas & ! condition ( conf9em5t4 ,:5 gasol9e or o!r volatile fuel is vaporiz$ 9 a clos$ room1 !re is dang] ( an explosion1 %\ld ! mixture ( ! vapor & air rea* explosive proportions4 ,x is dang]\s to ent] a room ) a light$ mat* or op5-flame lamp1 :]e gase\s odor is m>k$ly noticeable4 ,9 case ( dang] ( ?is k9d ! w9d[s & doors %\ld be imm$iately op5$ to produce ! mo/ rapid v5tilation4 ,9 ! act ( ignit+ ! flame 9 a gas or vapor /ove1 ! light] %\ld be made ready be=e ! gas is turn$ on4 ,explosions 9 gas & vapor /oves are usually due to c>elessness 9 ignit+ ! fuel4 ,x %\ld be kept con/antly 9 m9d t1 if a combu/ible gas is all[$ to escape & mix ) air 9 any space & !n ignit$1 an explosion ( m or less viol5ce is sure to occur4 ,gasol9e & k]os5e are light] ?an wat] & w float on its surface4 ,! flames f ^! oils are aggravat$ :5 wat] is us$ 9 attempt+ to ext+ui% !m4 ,! burn+ oil float+ on ! surface ( ! wat] increases ! burn+ surface4 ,burn+ oil mu/ be ei!r remov$ to a place :]e dang] w n result or ! flames mu/ be smo!r$4 ,9 case ( a small blaze1 ! fire may be ext+ui%$ ) a clo?1 pref]ably ( wool1 or if circum/ances w p]mit1 ) a%es s& or e>?4 ,alcohol dissolves 9 wat] & may1 !re=e1 be dilut$ to a po9t :]e x w no long] burn4 ,,acetyl5e-,,gas ,,ma*9es ,acetyl5e is a gas t is g5]at$ :5 wat] is absorb$ by calcium c>bide1 aft] ! mann] 9 :i* c>bonic acid gas is evolv$ :5 lime slakes ) wat]1 b ) ! lib]ation ( a l>g] am\nt ( ! combu/ible gas4 ,calcium c>bide is a product result+ f ! union ( lime & coke1 fus$ 9 an electric furnace to =m a grayi%-br[n mass4 ,x is brittle & m or less cry/all9e 9 /ructure & looks mu* l /one4 ,x w n burn except :5 heat$ ) oxyg54 ,a cubic foot ( ! cru%$ calcium c>bide weighs #afj p\nds4 ,calcium c>bide--or c>bide z x is ord9>ily t]m$--may be pres]v$ = any l5g? ( "t if kept seal$ f ! air1 b ! ord9>y moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e gradually slakes x & aft] exposure = a consid]able "t x *anges into slak$ lime4 ,! c>bide itself has no odor1 b 9 ! air x is always att5d$ by ! p5etrat+ odor ( acetyl5e1 because ( ! gas lib]at$ by ! moi/ure absorb$ f ! air4 ,if protect$ f moi/ure1 calcium c>bide _c take fire1 be+ l lime 9 ?is respect2 x is !re=e a safe sub/ance to /ore4 ,x is transport$ "u ! same classification z h>dw>e1 & w keep indef9itely if prop]ly seal$4 ,a p\nd ( pure c>bide yields #e-a_/b cubic feet ( acetyl5e1 b 9 comm]cial =m1 z rat$ by ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s1 lump c>bide is e/imat$ at #d-a_/b cubic feet p] p\nd4 ,9 ! g5]ation ( acetyl5e1 exact weights ( c>bide & wat] always ent] into comb9ation1 i4e41 #fd p>ts ( c>bide to #cd p>ts ( wat]1 & a def9ite am\nt ( heat is evolv$ = ea* "p ( c>bide consum$4 ,uncontroll$1 ! gas burns ) a bright b n brilliant flame & ) a great deal ( smoke1 b :5 us$ 9 a burn] suit$ = its combu/ion x burns ) a cle> brilliant flame ( a quality approa*+ sunlight4 ,:ile c>bide is n explosive nor inflammable1 x may1 if x f9ds access to wat]1 create a pressure su* z to bur/ its conta9]1 & x is n impossible t heat might be g5]at$ suffici5t to ignite ! gas "u su* conditions4 ,t su* condition w\ld (t5 occur is n at all probable4 ,:5 wat] is spr9kl$ ^u c>bide1 9 quantity su* t x w all be tak5 up1 ! resultant slak$ lime is left dry & du/y1 & occupies m space ?an ! orig9al c>bide4 ,:5 m ?an en\gh wat] is employ$1 ! rema9+ mixture ( lime & wat] is :itewa%4 ,*emically consid]$1 acetyl5e is ,c,h2 x is compos$ ( c>bon & hydrog5 & belongs to a class ( comp\nds kn[n z hydroc>bons1 repres5t$ 9 nature by petroleum1 natural gas1 etc4 ,x is compos$ ( #ib4c p] c5t4 c>bon & #g4g p] c5t4 ( hydrog51 bo? combu/ible gases4 ,x is a non-poison\s1 colorless gas1 ) a p]si/5t & p5etrat+ odor4 ,its pres5ce 9 ! air1 to ! ext5t ( #a "p 9 #ajjj is di/9ctly p]ceptible4 ,:5 burn+ brightly 9 a jet1 !re is no p]ceptible odor4 ,:5 completely burn$ x requires = its combu/ion #b-a_/b times its volume ( oxyg54 ,all combu/ible gases1 :5 mix$ ) air & ignit$1 produce m or less viol5t explosions4 ,acetyl5e is no exception to ! rule1 & :5 all[$ to escape into any enclos$ space x w quickly produce a viol5tly explosive mixture1 s t x is always dang]\s to ent] a room or basem5t ) a lamp or flame ( any k9d :]e ! odor ( gas is p]ceptible4 ,?is is q true ) a combu/ible gas ( any k9d1 b ) acetyl5e all mixtures f #c to #cj p] c5t4 are capable ( be+ explod$ ) great] or less viol5ce4 ,! k9dl+ po9t ( acetyl5e is l[] ?an coal gas or gasol9e gas4 ,to ignite ei!r ( ! latt] gases1 a flame is necess>y to />t ! combu/ion1 b a sp>k or a gl[+ cig> is suffici5t to ignite acetyl5e4 ,x %\ld !re=e be borne 9 m9d t acetyl5e is n only explosive :5 mix$ ) air b t x is v easy to ignite4 ,"u ord9>y pressures pure acetyl5e is n explosive1 b at pressure above #ae p\nds to ! squ>e in* explosions sometimes occur :]e prop] precautions are n obs]v$4 ,at all pressures su* z are requir$ = h\sehold purposes acetyl5e is z safe = use z any o!r gas4 ,al?\gh acetyl5e is 9 dang] ( explod+ :5 "u pressure1 x is p]fectly safe1 :5 ! prop] conditions are obs]v$1 9 tanks = a great _m k9ds ( portable lights4 ,:]e acetyl5e is us$ 9 portable tanks "u pressure1 advantage is tak5 ( its solubility 9 acetone4 ,?is is a product ( ! di/illation ( wood :i* possesses ! prop]ty ( absorb+ acetyl5e to a rem>kable degree4 ,9 addition to ?is prop]ty is ! m important "o ( r5d]+ ! acetyl5e non-explosive :5 "u pressure4 ,! tanks = its /orage are fill$ ) asbe/os or o!r absorb5t mat]ial t is saturat$ ) acetone4 ,! acetyl5e is !n =c$ into ! tanks "u pressure & is absorb$ by ! acetone4 ,! safety ( ?is means ( /orage lies 9 ! degree ( p]fection to :i* ! tanks are fill$ ) ! absorb5t mat]ial4 ,!re mu/ be no space any:]e 9 ! tank :]e undissolv$ acetyl5e c exi/4 ,its fre$om f dang] "u su* conditions has be5 ?or\ghly demon/rat$ 9 its use = railroad & automobile lamps4 ,! use ( acetyl5e z a fuel = cook+ & = ! v>i\s o!r purposes ( dome/ic use is successfully accompli%$ 9 burn]s t give ! blue flame desir$ = su* purposes4 ,complete cook+ ranges & v>i\s o!r heat+ & cook+ devices are regul>ly sold by deal]s 9 heat+ appliances1 :ile wat]-heat]s1 hot-plates1 *af+-di% heat]s1 etc41 are z mu* a possibility z ) any o!r ( gase\s fuel & 9 z reasonably an inexp5sive way4 ,coal gas1 conta9+ z x does suffici5t c>bon monoxide to r5d] x poison\s1 w cause dea? :5 inhal$ = any l5g? ( "t1 b acetyl5e "u ! same conditions w h no delet]i\s effect4 ,types ( ,acetyl5e ,g5]ators4--,!re are two g5]al me?ods ( g5]at+ acetyl5e = dome/ic illum9at+ & heat+ purposes3 t ( add+ c>bide to wat]1 & t 9 :i* ! wat] is mix$ ) c>bide4 ,! two types are illu/rat$ 9 ! diagrams %[n 9 ,figs4 #bji & #baj4 ,! fir/ me?od1 t 9 :i* ! c>bide is dropp$ into wat]1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bji4 ,! tank ,a is ! g5]ator & ,b is ! receiv] or gas-hold]4 ,! tank ,a holds a consid]able quantity ( wat] & is provid$ ) a conta9] ,c = hold+ ! supply ( c>bide4 ,! tank ,a is connect$ ) ! gas-hold]s by a pipe :i* ext5ds above ! wat] l9e 9 ! tank ,b1 :]e ! gas is all[$ to collect 9 ! gas-hold] ,g4 ,a *>ge ( c>bide1 suffici5t to fill ! hold] ) gas1 is pu%$ into ! tank ,a by rais+ ! lev] ,h4 ,imm$iately ! wat] beg9s to comb9e ) ! c>bide & ! bubbles ( gas pass up ?r\gh ! wat] & are conduct$ into ! tank ,b4 ,! hold] ,g is lift$ by ! gas & its weight furni%es ! pressure necess>y to =ce ! gas into ! pipes1 :i* conduct x to ! burn]s4 ,if ?is ma*9e 7 provid$ ) ! prop] me*anism to fe$ into ! g5]ator a supply ( c>bide :5ev] ! gas 9 ! hold] is exhau/$1 ! ma*9e w\ld repres5t ! mod]n 8c>bide to wat]0 g5]ator4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--;,diagram ( a c>bide-to-wat] acetyl5e-gas g5]ator4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--;,diagram ( a wat]-to-c>bide acetyl5e-gas ma*9e4 ,! 8wat] to c>bide0 g5]ator is %[n diagrammatically 9 ,fig4 #baj4 ,z 9 ! o!r figure1 ,a is ! g5]ator & ,b is ! gas-hold]4 ,a supply ( c>bide ,s is plac$ 9 ! g5]ator & wat] f a tank ,c is all[$ to drip or spray onto ! c>bide4 ,! gas collects 9 ! gas-hold] z be=e4 ,?is app>atus repres5ts 9 pr9ciple ! p>ts ( a ma*9e = g5]at+ acetyl5e by ?is process4 ,! actual ma*9es are arrang$ to p]=m ! functions necess>y to make ! ma*9es automatic 9 _! action4 ,:atev] ! type ( ! ma*9e1 ! object is to keep 9 ! hold]s a suffici5t am\nt ( gas ) :i* to supply ! dem& made on ! plant4 ,ma*9es repres5t+ ea* ( ! types describ$ are to be obta9$1 b ! great] numb] ( ^? manufactur$ are ( ! 8c>bide to wat]0 =m4 ,9 ! =mative p]iod ( acetyl5e g5]ators _m accid5ts ( s]i\s consequ5ce result$ f imp]fect me*anism4 ,imp]fections h be5 gradually elim9at$ until ! ma*9es :i* h surviv$ are effici5t 9 action & me*anically free f dang]\s ecc5tricities4 ,! qualities dem&$ ( a good g5]ator are3 ,!re mu/ be no possibility ( an explosive mixture 9 any ( ! p>ts2 x mu/ insure a cool g5]ation ( gas2 x mu/ be well-con/ruct$ & simple to op]ate2 x %\ld create no pressure above a few ounces2 x %\ld be provid$ ) an indicator to %[ h[ l[ ! *>ge ( c>bide has become 9 ord] t x may be re*>g$ 9 due season1 & x mu/ use up ! c>bide completely4 ,because ( ! fact t ! great] numb] ( acetyl5e-gas ma*9es ( today are ( ! 8c>bide to wat]0 type1 9 ! description to foll[ t type ( ma*9e is us$4 ,!y are g5]ally made 9 two p>ts1 "o "p conta9+ ! g5]at+ app>atus & ! o!r act+ z gasomet] 7gas-hold]71 b "s ma*9es are made 9 :i* "o cell conta9s bo? ! g5]ator & gasomet]4 ,9 ,fig4 #baa is %[n a two-"p1 gravity-f$ ma*9e1 9 :i* all ( ! int]nal work+ p>ts are expos$ to view4 ,! tank 7a71 z 9 ! diagram1 is ! g5]ator & ! tank 7b7 conta9s ! gasomet] m>k$ ,g4 ,ea* tank possesses a numb] ( appliances :i* are necess>y to make ! ma*9e automatic 9 its action4 ,! "p ,c ( ! g5]ator conta9s ! supply ( c>bide1 brok5 into small pieces1 a portion ( :i* is dropp$ into ! wat] :5ev] additional gas is requir$4 ,! fe$ me*anism ,f is controll$ by ! gasomet] bell ,g1 :i* is buoy$ up by ! gas x conta9s4 ,:5 ! supply ( gas becomes l[1 ! desc5d+ bell c>ries ) x ! end ( ! lev] ,f1 :i* is atta*$ to ! fe$ valve2 ?is motion raises ! fe$ valve & all[s "s ( ! c>bide to fall into ! wat]4 ,! gas t is imm$iately g5]at$ passes into ! gasomet] ?r\gh ! pipe ,p1 & z ! bell is rais$ by ! accumulat+ gas ! valve ,v is clos$4 ,! gas z x ent]s ! gasomet] passes ?r\gh a holl[ device ,w1 t looks l an inv]t$ ,t1 ! l[] edge ( :i* is too?-%ap$ & ext5ds bel[ ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,! gas1 9 pass+ ?is irregul> surface1 is brok5 up & comes ?r\gh ! wat] 9 little bubbles1 9 ord] t x may be wa%$ clean ( du/4 ,?is device also prev5ts ! return ( ! gas to ! g5]ator tank dur+ ! process ( *>g+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baa4--,sectional view ( ! ,colt acetyl5e-gas ma*9e4 ,! gas escapes f ! bell ?r\gh ! pipe ,s to ! filt] ,d1 :]e any du/ t may h escap$ ! wa%+ process is remov$ by a felt filt]4 ,x f9ally leaves ! ma*9e by ! pipe ,l1 at :i* po9t x ent]s ! sy/em ?r\gh :i* x is convey$ to ! diff]5t light+ fixtures4 ,x w be notic$ t ! tank 7b7 is divid$ into two comp>tm5ts1 ! upp] portion conta9+ ! wat] 9 :i* ! gasomet] floats4 ,! l[] comp>tm5t is also p>tly fill$ ) wat] :i* acts z a safety valve to prev5t any escape ( gas into ! room 9 :i* ! g5]ator is locat$4 ,! l[] end ( ! pipes ,p & ,s are imm]s$ 9 ! wat] at ! bottom *amb] ( ! tank1 f :i* ! gas c\ld escape 9 case too mu* is g5]at$ & f9ally exit ?r\gh ! v5t pipe ,u to ! outside air4 ,! float ,a 9 ! tank 7a7 is a safety device t prev5ts ! introduction ( c>bide unless ! tank conta9s a full supply ( wat]4 ,! float is a holl[ metal cyl9d] connect$ by a rod to a h+$ cup "u ! bottom op5+ ( ! c>bide hold]4 ,:5 ! wat] is )drawn f ! g5]ator1 ! float falls & ! cup %uts (f ! c>bide outlet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--,sectional view ( a h\se equipp$ ) acetyl5e lights & dome/ic heat+ app>atus4 ,! accumulation ( lime1 f ! dis9tegrat$ c>bide1 requires occasional removal f ! tank 7a72 ! valve ,k is provid$ = ?is purpose4 ,! lev] ,s is us$ to /ir up ! lime :i* is deposit$ on ! bottom ( ! tank1 t x may be c>ri$ out ) ! dis*>g$ wat]4 ,ma*9es ( ?is k9d t are safegu>d$ aga9/ leakage ( gas or ! possibility ( accumulat$ pressure are practically free f dang] 9 ! use ( acetyl5e4 ,! accid5tal leakage ( gas f defective pipes & fixtures produce only ! elem5t ( risk t is assum$ ) ! use ( any o!r =m ( gas = illum9at+ purposes4 ,acetyl5e is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! h\se 9 pipes 9 ! same mann] z = ord9>y illum9at+ gas4 ,! sizes ( ! pipes to suit ! v>y+ conditions ( use are regulat$ by rules provid$ by ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s4 ,^! rules /ate def9itely ! sizes ( pipes requir$ = ma*9es ( diff]5t capacities4 ,rules ( ?is k9d & o!rs t specify all matt]s relat+ to ! use ( acetyl5e may be obta9$ f any fire insurance ag5t4 ,! g5]al plan ( pip+ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bab4 ,! g5]ator ,g is 9 ?is case a 8wat] to c>bide0 ma*9e & is %[n connect$ to ! kit*5 range1 z well z ! pipe sy/em :i* may be trac$ to ! lamps 9 ! diff]5t rooms1 to ! por* lights & to ! b\lev>d lamp 9 front ( ! build+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bac4--;,acetyl5e gas burn]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--;,electric ignit] = acetyl5e gas burn]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--;,electric ignit] = acetyl5e gas burn]s4 ,! type ( burn] us$ 9 acetyl5e lamps is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bac4 ,! gas issues f two op5+s to =m ! jet z x appe>s 9 ! engrav+4 ,^! burn]s are made 9 sizes to consume #a_/d1 #a_/b1 #c_/d1 & #a foot p] h\r dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( light dem&$4 ,gas ,light]s4--,! acetyl5e gas jets are light$ ord9>ily ) a mat* or tap] b electric ignit]s are (t5 us$ = t purpose4 ,electric light]s = acetyl5e lamps are practically ! same z ^? us$ ) ord9>y gas lamps b !y mu/ be adapt$ to ! type ( burn] on :i* !y are us$4 ,electric ignit]s t are int5d$ to be us$ ) lamps plac$ 9 inaccessible places are diff]5t 9 con/ruction f ^? )9 rea*4 ,9 ,figs4 #bad & #bae are illu/rat$ two =ms ( ignit]s t are int5d$ to be us$ on bracket or p5d5t lamps4 ,!y diff] 9 me*anical con/ruction to suit two diff]5t conditions4 ,fig4 #bad is an ignit] 9 :i* is also includ$ ! gas-cock4 ,! gas is light$ by pull+ a cord or *a9 atta*$ to ! lev] ,l4 ,! movem5t ( ?is lev] turns on ! gas & at ! same "t br+s ! piece ,c 9 contact ) ! wire ,a to complete an electric circuit4 ,z ! contact betwe5 ^! two pieces is brok51 a sp>k is =m$ t ignites ! gas escap+ f ! burn] at ,b4 ,on releas+ ! lev] a spr+ returns ! piece ,c to its orig9al position4 ,! light is ext+ui%$ by a second pull ( ! lev]4 ,fig4 #bae illu/rates a /yle ( ignit] :i* may be atta*$ to an ord9>y gas-cock4 ,x is atta*$ to ! /em ( ! burn] by a clamp ,d4 ,! gas is turn$ on by ! usual gas-cock & by pull+ ! *a9 at ! left ! jet is light$4 ,9 pull+ ! *a9 ! arm ,a is rais$ & c>ries ) x ! arm ,b4 ,:5 ! arms ,a & ,b t\*1 an electric circuit is =m$ ) a batt]y & sp>k coil4 ,:5 ! desir$ position ( ! arms is rea*$1 ! po9ts sep>ate to =m an electric fla% :i* lights ! gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--;,diagram ( electric ignit]s atta*$ to gas burn]s4 ,fig4 #baf illu/rates 9 ,a ! me?od ( in/all+ electric ignit]s l ^? describ$4 ,a batt]y ,b & a sp>k coil ,s are jo9$ 9 circuit z %[n4 ,! gas pipe acts z "o ( ! wires ( ! circuit4 ,a batt]y ( f\r dry cells is commonly us$ = ! purpose4 ,! sp>k coil is a simple coil ( wire w\nd on a heavy iron core1 :i* s]ves to int5sify ! sp>k :5 ! circuit is brok54 ,9 us+ ! ignit]1 x is only necess>y to see t ! cells are jo9$ 9 s]ies ) ! coil & atta*$ to ! insulat$ "p ( ! ignit]4 ,z already expla9$ ! action ( ! ignit] is to close ! circuit & imm$iately break ! contact at a po9t :]e ! sp>k w ignite ! gas4 ,on be+ releas$ ! ignit] returns to its orig9al position4 ,9 ! fixture %[n at ,c is an ignit] su* z is us$ 9 places t _c be conv5i5tly rea*$4 ,to light ! jet1 ! circuit is complet$ by turn+ ! swit* at ,w4 ,z soon z ! gas is light$ ! swit* is aga9 turn$ to break ! ignit]-circuit4 ,9 ?is device ! curr5t passes ?r\gh a magnet coil 9 ! ignit] :i* acts to op5 & close ! circuit ) ! same effect z 9 ! o!rs4 ,acetyl5e ,/oves4--,/oves 9 :i* acetyl5e is us$ z a fuel are q simil> 9 con/ruction to ^? :i* burn coal gas4 ,! pr9ciple ( op]ation is t ( mix+ ! acetyl5e ) air 9 prop] proportion s z to produce complete combu/ion :5 burn$4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,electricity ,! adaptability ( electricity to h\sehold use = light+1 heat+ & ! g5]ation ( p[] has br\ght into use a ho/ ( me*anical devices t h f\nd a p]man5t place 9 e community :]e electricity may be obta9$ at a reasonable rate1 or :]e x c be g5]at$ to advantage 9 small plants4 ,because ( its cleanl9ess & conv5i5ce1 electricity is us$ 9 pref]5ce to o!r =ms ( light+1 ev5 ?\gh its co/ is relatively high4 ,electric p[] = h\sehold purposes is con/antly f9d+ new applications & w cont9ue to increase 9 favor because its use z comp>$ ) h& p[] is rem>kably inexp5sive4 ,small motors adapt$ to mo/ ( ! ord9>y h\sehold uses are made 9 conv5i5t sizes & sold at prices t are conducive to _! great] use4 ,human en]gy is f> too preci\s to be exp5d$ 9 h\sehold drudg]y :]e me*anical p[] c be us$ 9 its place & (t5 to great] advantage4 ,electric heat+ devices compete favorably ) _m ( ! e/abli%$ =ms ( h\sehold heat+ appliances1 ! electric flat-iron be+ a notable example4 ,9 all applications :]e small am\nts ( heat are requir$ = %ort p]iods ( "t1 electricity is us$ at a co/ t p]mits its use1 9 competition ) o!r =ms ( heat+4 ,! rem>kable advance t has tak5 place 9 electric transmission 9 ! pa/ few ye>s t5ds to an enorm\s increase 9 its use4 ,! con/ant increase 9 its use = light+1 heat+ & p[] purposes is due 9 a great measure to ! developm5t ( effici5t electric g5]at+ plants f :i* ?is en]gy may be obta9$ at ! lea/ co/4 ,9 ^? communities :]e hydro-electric g5]ation is possible its field ( application is almo/ )\t end4 ,inc&esc5t ,electric ,lamps4--,any?+ made 9 ! =m ( an illum9at+ device1 9 :i* ! light+ elem5t is r5d]$ inc&esc5t by electricity1 may prop]ly be call$ an inc&esc5t lamp1 :e!r ! m$ium is inc&esc5t gas z 9 ! ,moore lamp1 an inc&esc5t vapor z ! ,coop] ,hewitt m]cury-vapor lamp1 or ! inc&esc5t filam5t ( c>bon or metal su* z is univ]sally us$ = light+4 ,f ! ye> #ahgi1 :5 ,mr4 ,edison ann\nc$ ! p]fection ( ! inc&esc5t electric lamp1 until #aijc1 :5 = a %ort p]iod tantalum lamps 7 us$1 v little improvem5t _h be5 made 9 ! c>bon-filam5t lamp4 ,imm$iately foll[+ ! introduction ( ! tantalum lamp came ! tung/5 lamp1 :i* because ( its wond]fully increas$ capability = produc+ light has ext5d$ artificial illum9ation to a degree almo/ beyond compreh5sion4 ,! influ5ce ( ! tung/5 lamp has induc$ a new era ( illum9ation t has affect$ ! entire civiliz$ _w4 ,! developm5t ( ! high-effici5cy inc&esc5t lamp has br\ght ab\t a revolution 9 electric light+4 ,its use is univ]sal & its application is made 9 e =m ( electric illum9ation4 ,reg>dless ( ! imm5se numb] ( tung/5 lamps 9 use1 ! c>bon-filam5t lamp is /ill employ$ 9 great numb]s & w probably cont9ue 9 use = a long "t to come4 ,9 places :]e lamps are requir$ = occasional use & = %ort int]vals ( "t1 ! c>bon filam5t /ill f9ds effici5t use4 ,9 "o =m ( manufacture ! c>bon filam5t is subject$ to a metaliz+ process t mat]ially increases its effici5cy4 ,?is =m1 kn[n comm]cially z ! ,,gem lamp1 fills an important place 9 electric light+4 ,( ! r>e-metal filam5t lamps1 ^? us+ tung/5 & tantalum are 9 g5]al use1 b ! tung/5 lamps give results s mu* sup]ior 9 po9t ( economy 9 curr5t consum$ t ! future filam5t lamps w beyond d\bt be ( t type unless "s o!r mat]ial is f\nd t w give bett] results4 ,! filam5ts ( ! fir/ tung/5 lamps 7 v fragile & 7 s easily brok5 t _! use 0 limit$1 b 9 a v %ort "t me?ods 7 f\nd = produc+ filam5ts capable ( )/&+ g5]al usage & hav+ an av]age life ( #ajjj h\rs ( s]vice4 ,^! lamps give an effici5cy ( #a4a to #a4be watts p] c&lep[] ( light1 z w be lat] m fully expla9$4 ,?is1 z comp>$ ) ! c>bon-filam5t lamps :i* av]age #c4a to #d4e watts p] c&lep[]1 gives a rem>kable advantage to ! =m]4 ,! tung/5 lamp has a useful life t = co/ ( light is practically "o-?ird t ( ! c>bon-filam5t lamp4 ,! metal tung/51 f :i* ! lamp filam5t is made1 0 discov]$ 9 #ahga4 ,x is n f\nd 9 ! metallic /ate b occurs z tung/ate ( iron & manganese & z calcium tung/ate4 ,up to #aijf x 0 kn[n only 9 laboratories & on acc\nt ( its r>ity ! price 0 v high4 ,z great] bodies ( ore 7 f\nd & ! process ( extraction became bett] kn[n1 ! price soon dropp$ to a po9t p]mitt+ its use = lamp filam5ts 9 a comm]cial scale4 ,pure tung/5 is h>d en\gh to scrat* glass4 ,its fus+ po9t is high] ?an any o!r kn[n metal2 "u ord9>y conditions x is almo/ impossible to melt x & ?is prop]ty gives its value z an inc&esc5t filam5t4 ,"o ( ! laws t affect ! light+ prop]ties ( inc&esc5t lamps is3 8! high] ! temp]ature ( ! gl[+ filam5t1 ! great] w be ! am\nt ( light furni%$ = a giv5 am\nt ( curr5t consum$40 ,! high melt+ po9t p]mits ! tung/5 filam5t to be us$ at a high] temp]ature ?an any o!r kn[n mat]ial4 ,tung/5 is n ductile1 & 9 ord9>y =m _c be drawn into wire4 ,because ( ?is fact1 ! filam5ts ( ! fir/ lamps 7 made by ! 8pa/e0 process1 :i* consi/$ ( mix+ ! p[d]$ metal ) a b9d+ mat]ial1 9 ! =m ( gums1 until ! mass acquir$ a consi/5cy 9 :i* x might be squirt$ ?r\gh a m9ute orifice 9 a diamond dye4 ,! result+ ?read 0 dri$1 aft] :i* x 0 heat$1 & f9ally plac$ 9 an atmosph]e ( gases :i* attack$ ! b9d+ mat]ial )\t affect+ ! metal4 ,:5 heat$ by electricity 9 ?is condition1 ! p>ticles ( metal fus$ toge!r to =m a filam5t ( tung/54 ,:ile ! 8pa/e0 filam5ts 7 nev] satisfactory 9 g5]al use1 _! effici5cy z a light-produc+ ag5t inspir$ a great] dilig5ce 9 ! se>* = a m durable =m4 ,al?\gh tung/5 9 ord9>y condition is n at all ductile1 me?ods 7 soon f\nd = mak+ tung/5 wire & ! wire-filam5t lamps are n[ ^? ( g5]al use4 ,"o process ( produc+ ! drawn wire is t ( fill+ a molt5 mass ( a ductile metal ) p[d]$ tung/5 aft] :i* wire is drawn f ! mixture 9 ! usual way4 ,! enclos+ metal is !n remov$ by *emical means or volatiliz$ by heat4 ,( ! difficulties enc\nt]$ 9 ! use ( metal-filam5t lamps t ( ! l[ resi/ance (f]$ by ! wire 0 ov]come by us+ filam5ts v small 9 cross-section & ( z great l5g? z c\ld be conv5i5tly h&l$4 ,! long tung/5 filam5t requires a me?od ( support v diff]5t f ! c>bon lamp4 ,! *>act]i/ic =m ( tung/5 lamps is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bag1 9 :i* ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! lamp are nam$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--;,an ,edison ,mazda lamp & its p>ts4 ,! filam5t ( an inc&esc5t lamp is heat$ because ( ! curr5t :i* passes ?r\gh x4 ,! electric pressure furni%$ by ! voltage1 =ces curr5t ?r\gh ! filam5t 9 z great an am\nt z ! resi/ance w p]mit4 ,a #af-;c&lep[] c>bon lamp atta*$ to a #aaj-volt circuit requires practically #a_/b amp]e ( curr5t to r5d] ! filam5t inc&esc5t2 ! filam5t resi/ance mu/1 !re=e1 all[ ! passage ( #a_/b amp]e4 ,) a giv5 size ( filam5t1 its l5g? mu/ be su* z w produce ! desir$ resi/ance4 ,a great] l5g? ( ?is filam5t w\ld give m resi/ance & a correspond+ly less am\nt ( curr5t w\ld give a dim light because ( its l[] temp]ature4 ,likewise1 a %ort] filam5t w\ld all[ m curr5t to pass & a bright] light w\ld result4 ,:5 ! size & l5g? ( filam5t is once f\nd t w p]mit ! "r am\nt ( curr5t to pass1 if ! voltage is kept con/ant1 ! filam5ts w always burn ) ! same brightness4 ,?is is 9 accordance ) ,ohm's law :i* z /at$ 9 a =mula is ,e ,,rc t is ,e1 ! electromotive =ce 9 volts1 is always equal to ! product ( ! resi/ance ,r1 9 ohms1 & ! curr5t ,c1 9 amp]es4 ,9 ! inc&esc5t lamp1 if ! electromotive =ce is #aaj volts & ! curr5t is #a_/b amp]e1 ! resi/ance w be #bbj ohms & z express$ by ! law #aaj #bbj #j4e ,f ?is x is se5 t any *ange 9 ! voltage w produce a correspond+ *ange 9 ! curr5t to keep an equality 9 ! equation4 ,if ! voltage increases1 ! curr5t also increases & ! lamp burns bright]4 ,%\ld ! voltage decrease ! curr5t w decrease & ! lamp w burn dim4 ,?is dimm+ effect is noticeable 9 any light+ sy/em :5ev] !re occurs a *ange 9 voltage4 ,! quantity ( electricity us$ up 9 su* a lamp is express$ 9 watts1 :i* is ! product ( ! volts & amp]es ( ! circuit4 ,9 ! lamp describ$1 ! product ( ! voltage 7#aaj7 by ! am\nt ( pass+ curr5t 7#a_/b amp]e7 is #ee watts4 ,) ! above conditions ! #af c&lep[] ( light w require #c4dc watts 9 ! production ( ea* c&lep[]4 ,! be/ p]=mance ( c>bon-filam5t lamps give a c&lep[] = ea* #c4a watts ( en]gy4 ,! filam5t ( ! tung/5 lamp mu/ (f] a resi/ance suffici5t to prev5t only en\gh curr5t to pass z w raise its temp]ature to a po9t giv+ ! greate/ p]missible am\nt ( light1 & yet n de/roy ! wire4 ,! high fus+ po9t & ! l[ specific heat ( tung/5 p]mits ! filam5t to be heat$ to a high] temp]ature ?an ! c>bon filam5t & ) a less am\nt ( electric en]gy4 ,^! are ! prop]ties t give to ! tung/5 lamp its value ov] ! c>bon lamp4 ,! exact advantage ( ! tung/5 lamp has be5 inve/igat$ ) great c>e & its behavior "u g5]al work+ conditions is def9itely kn[n4 ,9 light-giv+ prop]ties :]e ! c>bon-filam5t lamp requires #c4a watts to produce a c&lep[] ( light1 9 ! tung/5 filam5t only #a4a watts are necess>y to cause ! same effect4 ,! tung/5 lamp !re=e gives almo/ ?ree times z mu* light z ! c>bon lamp = ! same en]gy exp5d$4 ,! manufactur]s aim to make lamps t give ! greate/ effici5cy = a def9ite numb] ( h\rs ( s]vice4 ,x has be5 agre$ t #ajjj work+ h\rs %all be ! life ( ! lamps & 9 t p]iod ! filam5t %\ld give its greate/ am\nt ( light = ! en]gy consum$4 ,! ,mazda ,lamp4--,! trade "n = ! lamp giv+ ! greate/ effici5cy is ,mazda4 ,! t]m is tak5 z a symbol ( effici5cy 9 electric inc&esc5t light+4 ,at pres5t ! ,mazda is ! tung/5-filam5t lamp1 b %\ld !re be f\nd "s o!r m effici5t means ( light+1 :i* c take its place to great] advantage1 t w become ! ,mazda lamp4 ,c&lep[]4--,! inc&esc5t lamps are usually rat$ 9 light-giv+ prop]ties by _! value 9 horizontal c&lep[]4 ,?is repres5ts ! mean value ( ! light ( ! lamp :i* comes f a horizontal plane pass+ ?r\gh ! c5t] ( illum9ation & p]p5dicul> to ! long axis ( ! lamp4 ,c&lep[] 9 ?is connection orig9ally ref]r$ to ! ,engli% /&>d c&le :i* is made ( sp]maceti4 ,! /&>d c&le is #j4i in* 9 diamet] at ! base1 #j4h in* 9 diamet] at ! top & #aj in*es long4 ,x burns #abj gra9s ( sp]maceti & wick p] h\r4 ,?is c&le is n satisfactory z a /&>d because ( ! v>iable conditions t mu/ surr\nd its use4 ,! ,am]ican or ,int]national /&>d is equal to #a4aa ,hefn] c&les4 ,! ,hefn] c&le 7:i* is ! /&>d 9 cont95tal ,europe & ,s\? ,am]ican c\ntries7 is produc$ by a lamp burn+ amylacetate4 ,?is lamp consi/s ( a res]voir & wick ( /&>d dim5sions :i* gives a con/ant quantity ( light4 ,! light f ?is lamp has prov5 mu* m satisfactory z a means ( measurem5t ( light ?an ! ,engli% /&>d & !re=e its use has be5 v g5]ally adopt$4 ,! light giv5 out by an inc&esc5t lamp is n ! same 9 all directions4 ,9 mak+ comp>isons x is necess>y to def9e ! position f :i* ! light ( ! lamps is tak54 ,! horizontal c&lep[] af=ds a fairly exact means ( comp>+ lamps :i* h ! same %ape ( filam5t1 b = diff]5t k9ds ( lamps x does n give a true comp>ison4 ,! sph]ical c&lep[] is us$ to comp>e lamps ( diff]5t con/ruction z ?is gives ! mean value at all po9ts ( a sph]e surr\nd+ ! lamp4 ,! c&lep[] is measur$ at v>i\s positions ab\t ! lamp ) ! use ( a photomet]1 & ! mean ( ^! values is tak5 z ! mean sph]ical c&lep[]4 ,at _! be/1 c>bon-filam5t lamps require 9 electricity #c4a w4p4c4 7watts p] c&lep[]74 ,z ! lamp gr[s old ! numb] ( watts p] c&le p[] increases1 until 9 v old lamps ! am\nt ( electricity us$ to produce a giv5 am\nt ( light may become excessively l>ge4 ,accord+ to a bullet9 issu$ by ! ,ill9ois ,eng9e]+ ,exp]im5t ,/ation on ! effici5cy ( c>bon-filam5t inc&esc5t lamps1 ! am\nt ( electrical en]gy p] c&lep[] v>i$ f #c4a w4p4c41 :5 new1 to #d4b w4p4c41 aft] burn+ #hjj h\rs4 ,a common practice 9 ! use ( c>bon-filam5t lamps is to consid] t ! p]iod ( useful life ends at a po9t :]e ! am\nt ( electricity1 p] c&lep[]1 rea*es #bj p] c5t4 9 excess ( ! orig9al am\nt4 ,?is po9t 7sometimes t]m$ ! sma%+ po9t7 w\ld be rea*$ aft] #hjj work+ h\rs1 accord+ to ! ,ill9ois ,/ation1 & at ab\t #ajjj h\rs z /at$ by ! bullet9s ( ! ,g5]al ,electric ,co4 ,if a c>bon-filam5t lamp burns = an av]age p]iod ( #c h\rs a day = a ye>1 x ought to be replac$4 ,! ,edison screw base z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bag is n[ g5]ally us$ 9 all makes ( inc&esc5t lamps = atta*+ ! lamp to ! socket4 ,:5 screw$ into place ?is base =ms 9 ! socket ! connections ) ! supply wires1 to produce a circuit ?r\gh ! lamp4 ,"o end ( ! filam5t is atta*$ to ! brass cap contact2 ! opposite end connects ) ! brass screw %ell ( ! base4 ,:5 ! curr5t is turn$ on1 ! contact made 9 ! swit* is su* z to =m a complete circuit betwe5 ! supply wires2 ! voltage s5d+ a con/ant curr5t ?r\gh ! lamp produces a /eady inc&esc5ce ( ! filam5t4 ,9 ,fig4 #bah is %[n a c>bon-filam5t lamp atta*$ to an ord9>y socket4 ,! lamp base & socket are %[n 9 section to expose all ( ! p>ts t comprise ! me*anism4 ,! insulat$ wires ( ! lamp cord ent] ! top ( ! socket & ! ends atta* to ! b9d+ screws ,a & ,b1 :i* are insulat$ f ea* o!r & =m ! brass %ell :i* encases ! socket4 ,! lamp base is %[n screw$ into ! socket1 ! brass cap contact ,f mak+ connection at ,g2 ! screw %ell jo9s ! socket at ,d4 ,to ! key ,s is atta*$ a brass rod ,r1 on :i* is fa/5$ ,e1 ! contact-mak]4 ,! rod ,r passes ?r\gh a support>y frame :i* is secur$ to ! lamp socket at ,g4 ,z %[n 9 ! figures ! piece ,e makes contact ) a brass spr+ atta*$ to ,a1 & ?is completes a circuit ?r\gh ! filam5t4 ,! brass cap contact ( ! lamp base makes connection at "o end ( ! filam5t ,h1 ! o!r end ( ! filam5t ,k is atta*$ to ! brass screw %ell ( ! base1 :i* 9 turn connects ) ! screw %ell ( ! socket & ?is %ell is connect$ ) ! piece conta9+ ! b9d+ screw ,b by ! rod ,c to complete ! circuit4 ,:5 ! key ,s turns1 ! contact above ,e is brok5 & ! lamp ceases to burn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--,section ( a lamp base & socket4 ,fig4 #aah %[s ! use ( an adapt] t is sometimes enc\nt]$ 9 old electric fixtures1 ! use ( :i* requires explanation4 ,m5tion has already be5 made ( ! v>i\s =ms ( lamp sockets 9 use be=e ! ,edison base became a /&>d4 ,9 ord] to use an ,edison lamp 9 a socket int5d$ = ano!r =m ( base an adapt] mu/ be employ$ to suit ! new base to ! old socket4 ,9 ! figure ! piece ,p1 is ! adapt]4 ,?is is int5d$ to adapt ! /&>d lamp base to a socket t 0 =m]ly 9 use on ! ,?ompson-,h\/on sy/em ( electric light+4 ,! adapt] is jo9$ to ! old socket by ! screw at ,g & ! circuit =m$ z already describ$4 ,lamp ,labels4--,= _m ye>s all inc&esc5t lamps 7 rat$ 9 c&lep[] & 7 made 9 sizes #h1 #af1 #cb1 etc41 c&lep[]4 ,on ! label 0 pr9t$ ! voltage at :i* ! lamp 0 int5d$ to op]ate1 & also ! c&lep[] x 0 suppos$ to develop4 ,?us #aaj v41 #af cp4 indicat$ t :5 us$ on #aaj-volt circuit1 ! lamp w\ld give #af c&lep[] ( light4 ,?is label 9 no way indicat$ ! am\nt ( en]gy exp5d$4 ,) ! developm5t ( ! m effici5t filam5ts came a t5d5cy to label lamps 9 ! am\nt ( en]gy consum$4 ,?is has result$ 9 all lamps be+ label$ to %[ ! voltage ( ! circuit suit$ to ! lamp1 & ! watts ( electricity consum$ :5 work+ at t voltage4 ,at pres5t a lamp label may be m>k$ #aaj v41 #dj w41 :i* indicates t x is int5d$ to develop its be/ p]=mance at #aaj volts & w consume #dj watts at t voltage4 ,comm]cial lamps are n[ manufactur$ 9 sizes ( #aj1 #ae1 #be1 #dj1 #fj1 #ge1 & #ajj watts capacity = ord9>y use4 ,( ^! ! #dj-watt lamp probably fulfills ! greate/ numb] ( conditions & is mo/ commonly us$4 ,besides ^! !re are ! high-effici5cy lamps ( ! gas-fill$ v>iety t are made 9 l>g] sizes & ! m9iature lamps 9 great v>iety4 ,all are label$ to %[ ! volts & ! watts consum$4 ,illum9ation4--,! developm5t ( high-effici5cy lamps has caus$ a radical *ange 9 ! me?ods ( illum9ation4 ,) *eap] light came ! desire to m ne>ly approximate ! effect ( daylight 9 illum9ation4 ,?is has br\ght into use indirect illum9ation1 9 :i* ! light f ! lamp is diffus$ by reflection f ! ceil+ & walls ( ! room4 ,illum9at+ eng9e]+ is n[ a bus9ess t has to d ) plac+ ( lamps to ! greate/ advantage 9 light+ any desir$ space4 ,9 l>ge & complicat$ s*emes ( light+ pr(essional s]vices are necess>y1 b 9 h\sehold light+ ! requir$ numb] ( lamps = ! v>i\s ap>tm5ts are almo/ self-evid5t4 ,! light+ ( l>ge rooms1 h[ev]1 requires ?\ghtful consid]ation & 9 _m cases ! only def9ite solution ( ! problem is t ( calculation4 ,! ,foot-c&le4--,! am\nt ( illum9ation produc$ ov] a giv5 area dep5ds n only on ! numb] ( lamps & _! c&lep[]1 b ^u _! di/ribution & ! color ( ! walls & furni%+s4 ,9 ! calculation ( problems 9 illum9ation1 units ( measure are necess>y to express ! am\nt ( light t w be furni%$ at any po9t f its s\rce4 ,! units adopt$ = su* purposes are ! foot-c&le & ! lum54 ,! ,lum54--,a light giv+ #a c&lep[]1 plac$ 9 ! c5t] ( a sph]e ( #a foot radius illum9ates a sph]e1 ! area ( :i* is #d #c4adaf or #ab4eg squ>e feet4 ,! int5sity ( light on ea* squ>e foot is d5ot$ z a c&le-foot4 ,! c&le-foot is ! /&>d ( illum9ation on any surface4 ,! quantity ( light us$ 9 illum9at+ ea* squ>e foot ( ! sph]e is call$ a lum54 ,a light ( #a c&lep[] w !re=e produce an int5sity ( #a c&le-foot ov] #ab4eg squ>e feet & give #ab4eg lum5s4 ,!re=e1 if all ( ! light is effective on a plane to be illum9at$1 a lamp rat$ at #djj lum5s w\ld light an area ( #djj squ>e feet to an av]age int5sity ( #a c&le-foot4 ,to f9d ! numb] ( lamps requir$ = light+ any space1 ! area 9 squ>e feet is multipli$ by ! requir$ int5sity 9 foot-c&les1 to obta9 ! total necess>y lum5s1 & ! am\nt ?us obta9$ is divid$ by ! effective lum5s p] lamp4 ,! bullet9s ( ! ,columbia ,inc&esc5t ,lamp ,works gives ! foll[+ me?od ( calculat+ ! numb] ( lamps requir$ to light a giv5 space3 ,numb] ( lamps 7,s ,i7_/7,effective lum5s p] lamp7 ,s 7squ>e feet7 ,i 7requir$ illum9ation 9 foot-c&les7 total lum5s4 ,! total lum5s divid$ by ! numb] ( effective lum5s p] lamp gives ! numb] ( lamps requir$4 ,9 us+ ! =mula ! effective lum5s p] lamp is tak5 f ! foll[+ table3 ,watts p] lamp #be #dj #fj #afj #aej #bej ,effective lum5s p] lamp #ie #afj #bej #dbj #fcj #ajij ,lum5s p] watt #c4h #d4j #d4b #d4b #d4b #d4c ,! size ( ! units is a matt] ( *oice s9ce six #djj-lum5 units are equal to f\r #fjj-lum5 units 9 illum9at+ p[]1 etc4 ,9 decid+ ^u ! prop] size ( lamps to use1 consid]ation mu/ be tak5 ( ! outlets if ! build+ is already wir$4 ,9 g5]al ! fewe/ units consi/5t ) good di/ribution w be ! mo/ economical4 ,! table %[s ! lum5s effective = ord9>y light+ ) ,mazda lamps & cle> high-effici5cy reflectors ) d>k walls & ceil+4 ,:]e bo? ceil+ & walls are v light ^! figures may be increas$ by #be p] c5t4 ,to illu/rate ! use ( ! table1 take an av]age room #af by #bd to be light$ ) ,mazda lamps to an int5sity ( #c4e foot-c&les4 ,if cle> ,holoplane reflectors are us$1 ! values = lum5s effective on ! plane may be increas$ #aj p] c5t4 due to reflection f fairly light walls4 ,! lamps 9 ?is case are to be ( ! #dj-watt type :i* 9 ! table are rat$ at #afj lum5s4 ,to ?is am\nt #aj p] c5t4 is add$ on acc\nt ( ! reflectors & walls4 ,?is data appli$ to ! =mula gives3 s #af by #bd feet ,i #c4e ,lum5s p] lamp #afj 77#af #bd7 #c4e7_/agf eight #dj-watt lamps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,reflectors4--,! "* & =m ( reflectors h mu* to d ) ! effective di/ribution ( ! light produc$ by ! lamp4 ,! mo/ effici5t =m ( reflectors are made ( glass & design$ to project ! light 9 ! desir$ direction4 ,! illu/ration 9 ,fig4 #bai1 m>k$ op5 reflector1 %[s ! *>act]i/ic features ( reflectors design$ = special purposes4 ,!y are made ( prismatic glass fa%ion$ into su* =m z w produce ! desir$ effect & at ! same "t transmit & diffuse a "p ( ! light to all p>ts ( ! space to be light$4 ,! great] portion ( ! light is s5t 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! highe/ illum9ation is desir$4 ,! reflectors are made to conc5trate ! light on a small space or to spread x ov] a l>ge area z is desir$4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 designat$ z int5sive or ext5sive reflectors & made 9 a v>iety ( =ms4 ,*oice ( ,reflector4--,:]e ! light f a s+le lamp mu/ spread ov] a relatively great area1 x is advisable to use an ext5sive =m ( reflector4 ,?is reflector is applicable to g5]al resid5ce light+1 also uni=m light+ ( l>ge areas :]e l[ ceil+s or widely spac$ outlets dem& a wide di/ribution ( light4 ,:]e ! area to be light$ by "o lamp is small]1 ! int5sive reflector is us$4 ,su* cases include brilliant local illum9ation1 z = read+ tables1 s+le-unit light+ or rooms ) high ceil+s z pantries or halls4 ,:]e an int5se light on a small area directly bel[ ! lamp is desir$1 a focus+ reflector is us$4 ,! diamet] ( ! circle ?us int5sely light$ is ab\t "o-half ! height ( ! lamp above ! plane consid]$4 ,focus+ reflectors are us$ 9 ve/ibules or rooms ( unusually high ceil+s4 ,type ,height above plane to be light$ ,ext5sive #a_/b ,d ,int5sive #d_/e ,d ,focus+ #d_/c ,d ,d di/ance betwe5 sides ( room to be illum9at$4 ,! v>i\s o!r fixtures ( ,fig4 #bai t are designat$ z reflectors are 9 "s cases only a means ( diffusion ( light4 ,9 ! use ( ! high-effici5cy gas-fill$ lamps ! light is too bright to be us$ directly = ord9>y illum9ation4 ,:5 ^! lamps are plac$ 9 opal scre5s ( ! indirect or ! semi-indirect =m ! light produc$ = g5]al illum9ation is v satisfactory4 ,consid]able light is lo/ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! transluc5t glass b ?is is comp5sat$ by ! use ( ! high-effici5cy lamps & ! g5]al satisfaction ( light di/ribution4 ,lamp ,trans=m]s4--,lamps ( ! ,mazda type1 con/ruct$ to "w at ! usual comm]cial voltages1 are made 9 l[-p[] =ms to consume z little z #aj watts2 b ow+ to ! difficulty ( arrang+ a suitable filam5t = ! small] sizes ( lamps1 less voltage is requir$ to insure successful op]ation4 ,! lamps = ?is purpose are ( ! type us$ 9 connection ) batt]ies & require #a or m volts to produce ! desir$ illum9ation4 ,:5 ^! little lamps are us$ on a comm]cial circuit1 ! r$uction ( ! voltage is accompli%$ by small trans=m]s1 locat$ 9 ! lamp socket4 ,! op]at+ pr9ciple & fur!r use ( ! trans=m]s w be expla9$ lat] "u doorbell trans=m]s4 ,! lamp trans=m]1 al?\gh m9iature 9 design1 is con/ruct$ z any o!r ( its k9d b design$ to r$uce ! usual voltage ( ! circuit to #f volts ( pressure4 ,! socket is t int5d$ = ! use ( ! ,mazda automobile lamp giv+ #b c&lep[]4 ,?is lamp us$ ) electricity at ! av]age rate p] kil[att c be burn$ = #aj h\rs at less ?an half a c5t4 ,9 b$rooms1 sickrooms & o!r places :]e a small am\nt ( light is necess>y b :]e a consid]able quantity is objectionable1 ! m9iature lamp trans=m] s]ves an admirable purpose 9 adapt+ ! voltage ( ! comm]cial alt]nat+ circuit to t requir$ = lamps ( small illum9at+ p[]4 ,su* a trans=m] is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--,m9iature lamp trans=m] complete & ! p>ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,! figure %[s 9 ,a ! assembl$ atta*m5t ) ! lamp bulb 9 place4 ,! "p ,b1 ! trans=m]1 *anges ! l9e voltage to t ( a batt]y lamp4 ,a l9e voltage ( #aaj may be trans=m$ to suit a #f-volt m9iature lamp4 ,! p>ts ,c & ,d compose ! screw base & ! cov]1 9 :i* is fitt$ ! trans=m] ,b4 ,units ( ,electrical ,measurem5t4--,! g5]al application ( electricity has br\ght into common use ! t]ms necess>y 9 its measurem5t & units ( quantity by :i* x is sold4 ,! volt1 amp]e & ohm are t]ms t are us$ to express ! conditions ( ! electric circuit2 ! watt & ! kil[att are units t are employ$ 9 measur+ its quantity 9 comm]cial usage4 ,! use ( ^! units 9 actual problems is ! mo/ satisfactory me?od ( appreciat+ _! application4 ,z already expla9$ ! volt is ! unit ( electric pressure :i* causes curr5t to be s5t ?r\gh any circuit4 ,! electric circuits ( h\ses are int5d$ to be "u con/ant voltage--commonly #aaj or #bbj--;b ! voltage may be any am\nt = :i* ! g5]at+ sy/em is design$4 ,indep5d5t light+ sy/ems su* z are us$ 9 h\se-light+ plants--to be describ$ lat]--commonly employ #cb volts ( electric pressure4 ,oppos$ to ! effect ( ! volts ( electromotive =ce is ! resi/ance ( ! circuit1 :i* is measur$ 9 ohms4 ,resi/ance has be5 call$ electric friction2 x expresses itself z heat & t5ds to dim9i% ! fl[ ( curr5t4 ,e circuit (f]s resi/ance dep5d+ on ! l5g?1 ! k9d & ! size ( wire us$4 ,s9ce ! wires ( comm]cial light+ sy/ems are made ( copp]1 x c be said t ! resi/ance ( ! circuit increases z ! size ( ! conduct+ wire decreases4 ,9 l>ge wires ! resi/ance is small b z ! size ( ! wire is r$uc$ ! resi/ance is increas$4 ,a long atta*m5t cord ( a flat-iron1 may (f] suffici5t resi/ance to prev5t ! iron f heat+ prop]ly4 ,! amp]e is ! unit :i* measures ! am\nt ( curr5t4 ,! amp]es ( curr5t det]m9e ! rate at :i* ! electricity is be+ us$ 9 any circuit4 ,! wires ( a h\se mu/ be ( a size suffici5t to c>ry ! necess>y curr5t )\t heat+4 ,any h\se wire :i* becomes noticeably w>m is too small = ! curr5t x c>ries & %\ld be replac$ by "o t is l>g]4 ,! watt is ! unit ( electric quantity4 ,! quantity ( electricity be+ us$ 9 any circuit is ! product ( ! volts ( pressure & amp]es ( curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh ! wires4 ,! am\nt ( curr5t--9 amp]es--s5t ?r\gh ! circuit is ! direct result ( ! volts ( pressure2 ! quantity ( electricity is !re=e ! product ( ^! two factors4 ,a #be-watt lamp on a circuit ( #aaj volts uses #j4bbg amp]e ( curr5t4 #be watts #aaj volts #j4bbg amp]es4 ,t5 su* lamps use #aj #j4bbg amp]es #b4bg amp]es4 ,! product ( #aaj volts & #b4bg amp]es is #bej watts4 ,9 ord] to express quantity ( en]gy1 x is necess>y to /ate ! l5g? ( "t ! en]gy is to act & orig9ally ! watt repres5t$ ! en]gy ( a volt-amp]e = "o second4 ,= comm]cial purposes ?is quantity is too small = conv5i5t use & ! h\r ( "t 0 tak5 in/ead4 ,! watt ( comm]cial measurem5t is ! watt-h\r & 9 ! pur*ase ( electricity ! watt is always und]/ood z t quantity4 ,ev5 z a watt-h\r ! measure is s small z to require a l>ge numb] to express ord9>y am\nts & a /ill l>g] unit ( #ajjj watt-h\rs or ! kil[att-h\r 0 adopt$ & has become ! accept$ unit ( comm]cial electric measurem5t4 ,j z a doll> 9 money conv5i5tly repres5ts #ajjj mills s does a kil[att ( electricity repres5t a conv5i5t quantity4 ,9 ! pur*ase ( electricity1 ! consum] pays a def9ite am\nt1 say #aj c5ts p] kil[att4 ,?is repres5ts an exact quantity ( en]gy1 t may be exp5d$ 9 light1 9 heat1 or 9 ! g5]ation ( p[]1 all ( :i* may be express$ z def9ite quantities4 ,z light1 x indicates 9 ! electric lamp ! numb] ( c&le-p[]-h\rs t may be obta9$ = #aj c5ts4 ,at ?is rate a s+le watt co/s #j4ja c5t an h\r4 ,a #be-watt electric lamp w !re=e co/ #j4be 7#a_/d7 c5t = ea* h\r ( use2 a #fj-watt lamp co/s #j4f c5t p] h\r2 ! t5 #be-watt lamp m5tion$ above us+ #bej watts co/s #b4e c5ts p] h\r4 ,z heat1 x is express$ 9 ,engli%-speak+ c\ntries z ,briti% !rmal units1 #a kil[att-h\r repres5t+ #cdab ,b4t4u4 p] h\r4 ,"o c5t's wor? ( electricity at ! rate giv5 yields #cda4b ,b4t4u4 ( heat4 ,z p[]1 x repres5ts an exact am\nt ( "w4 ,s express$1 a watt repres5ts #a_/gdf horsep[]2 !re=e a kil[att is repres5t$ 9 p[] z #ajjj_/gdf #a4c horsep[]4 ,s9ce ! kil[att pur*as$ = #aj c5ts is a kil[att-h\r1 ! equival5t horsep[] is = ! same l5g? ( "t4 ,at ! assum$ rate1 #aj c5ts buys #a4c horsep[] = "o h\r4 ,:5 us$ z "w x repres5ts #b1edd1jjj foot-p\nds or #bee1djj foot-p\nds ( "w = #a c5t4 ,?is "w :5 exp5d$ 9 a motor1 to d ! family wa%+ or p]=m any o!r h\sehold drudg]y1 repres5ts ! greate/ value to be d]iv$ f its use4 ,a #a_/b-;horsep[] motor is amply l>ge to op]ate a family wa%+ ma*9e4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! motor is only #ej p] c5t4 effici5t its co/ ( op]ation is less ?an #g c5ts p] h\r4 ,m9iature ,lamps4--,m9iature electric lamps include all t are n us$ = g5]al illum9at+ purposes4 ,! t]m applies m p>ticul>ly to ! =m ( ! base ?an to ! voltage or c&lep[] ( ! filam5t4 ,!re are ?ree g5]al classes ( ^! lamps3 c&elabra & decorative1 t op]ate on light+ circuits ( #ajj to #acj volts & are usually int5d$ = decorative purposes2 g5]al batt]y lamps us$ = fla% lights2 & lamps = automobiles & electric-vehicle s]vice4 ,illu/ration3 ,c&elabra screw base ,m9iature screw base ,d\ble-contact bayonet c&elabra base ,s+le-contact bayonet c&elabra base ,,fig4 #bba4--,m9iature lamp bases4 ,! t]m m9iature lamp applies m p>ticul>ly to ! base ?an to ! voltage or c&lep[]4 ,! /yle ( base is *>act]i/ic ( ! s]vice = :i* ! lamp is design$ r ?an ! size or numb] ( watts consum$4 ,!re are two g5]al /yles ( bases3 ! screw type ( ! ,edison con/ruction ( :i* !re are two sizes2 & ! bayonet type ( :i* !re are two /yles ( con/ruction4 ,bases = m9iature lamps are made 9 =m to suit ! conditions ( _! use4 ,! /yles at pres5t are %[n 9 ,fig4 #bba4 ,( ^! ! screw bases at ! left are ^? atta*$ to small fla%-lamp bulbs & o!rs ( ! small] sizes ( lamps4 ,! two at ! "r ( ! figure are ! bayonet /yle us$ "u conditions n suit$ to ! screw contact4 ,9 ! case ( automobile lamps & 9 places :]e vibration w cause loss ( contact ! bayonet base is g5]ally 9 use4 ,! lamp is held 9 place by ! project+ lugs t engage ) op5+s 9 ! socket & kept 9 place by ! pressure ( a spr+4 ,! contact ) ! lamp filam5t is made by two t]m9als t make connection directly ) ! t]m9als ( ! lamp filam5t4 ,! s+le contact base is kept 9 place simil>ly to t ( ! o!r b makes a s+le contact at ! end ( ! socket :ile ! o!r b makes a s+le contact at ! end ( ! socket :ile ! circuit is complet$ ?r\gh ! pressure ex]t$ betwe5 ! project+ lugs & ! socket4 ,effect ( ,voltage ,v>iations4--,voltage v>iation may be tempor>y1 due to *ang+ load 9 ! circuit1 or 9 con/antly ov]load$ circuits ! voltage may be con/antly bel[ normal4 ,! *ange 9 electric pressure affects 9 a consid]able degree ! am\nt ( light giv5 by ! lamp4 ,z an example1 a #e p] c5t4 drop f ! normal voltage w cause a decrease ( #ca p] c5t4 9 ! am\nt ( light giv54 ,?is means t if a lamp is work+ on a circuit ( #aaj volts & ! voltage f any cause 7 to drop to #ajd-a_/b volts1 ! light w\ld decrease #f4h1 almo/ #g c&lep[]4 ,drop 9 voltage may also be due to ! resi/ance ( wires t are too small = ! s]vice4 ,lamps atta*$ to su* a circuit w con/antly burn dim4 ,turn-d[n ,electric ,lamps4--,! ord9>y inc&esc5t lamp lacks ! flexibility ( gas & oil lamp1 9 t ! am\nt ( light _c be v>i$ at w4 ,?is feature is atta9$ 9 ! electric turn-d[n lamp ei!r by resi/ance add$ to ! lamp circuit or by ! use ( two sep>ate filam5ts 9 a s+le globe2 "o ( ord9>y lamp size & ! o!r ( su* size t x consumes only a fraction z mu* en]gy z ! normal lamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4--,sectional view ( a 8turn-d[n0 lamp socket4 ,turn-d[n lamps ( ! latt] =m are made 9 sev]al /yles1 ! *ief po9ts ( diff]5ce be+ 9 ! me?od ( *ang+ ! contact f ! high-to ! l[-p[] filam5t4 ,9 ,fig4 #bbb a sectional view %[s ! 8pull-/r+0 =m ( lamp 9 :i* ! p>ts are expos$4 ,! long filam5t ,h & ! small] "o ,l repres5t two individual lamps ( diff]5t light+ p[]4 ,! *ange 9 light is made f "o to ! o!r by pull+ ! /r+ :i* is atta*$ to a swit* 9 ! socket & :i* *anges ! contact to s5d ! curr5t ?r\gh ! filam5t giv+ ! desir$ am\nt ( light4 ,! figure %[s a c>bon-filam5t lamp1 b tung/5 lamps are made to accompli% ! same purpose4 ,! difficulty ( manufactur+ a #a-;c&lep[] tung/5 lamp = direct op]ation on a #aaj-volt circuit requires ! filam5ts to "w 9 s]ies4 ,! figure is arrang$ on ! same plan z = a tung/5 lamp4 ,! lamp base :5 screw$ into ! socket makes contact ) ! two s]vice wires ( ! circuit at ,a & at ,e1 :i* are "p ( ! screw base4 ,to light ! lamp ! curr5t is swit*$ on z 9 any lamp4 ,! curr5t ent]s at ,a & passes d[n ! connect+ piece to ! contact ,b4 ,! piece ,b is mov$ by ! cord to light ei!r ! l>ge or ! small filam5t4 ,9 ! position %[n ! curr5t ent]s ! small filam5t at ,c & 9 ord] to complete ! circuit to ,e mu/ trav]se bo? ! l>ge & ! small filam5t4 ,! resi/ance ( ! small filam5t is su* t ! pass+ curr5t raises x to a temp]ature ( inc&esc5ce b ! l>ge filam5t does n heat suffici5tly to give an appreciable am\nt ( light4 ,:5 ! cord is pull$ to light ! l>ge filam5t1 ! contact is made at ,d & ! curr5t passes directly ?r\gh ! l>ge filam5t to complete ! circuit at ,e4 ,turn-d[n lamps are especially adapt$ to ! home4 ,_! use 9 a *ild's b$room or sick *amb] is a great conv5i5ce4 ,! lamps are (t5 con/ruct$ ) a long-di/ance cord ext5d+ f a fixture to ! b$side4 ,by ?is means a dim or bright light is giv5 z desir$1 ) ! lea/ inconv5i5ce4 ,turn-d[n lamps are made 9 a v>iety ( sizes4 ,! l>ge filam5ts are arrang$ to give #h1 #af1 & #cb c&lep[]4 ,) ! #h-;c&lep[] lamp ! small filam5t gives #a_/b c&lep[] & ) ! #af-;& #cb-;c&lep[] ! small filam5t gives #a c&lep[]4 ,) ! lamps describ$1 ! v>iation 9 am\nt ( light is atta9$ by *ang+ ! contacts1 to br+ into action filam5ts ( diff]5t resi/ances4 ,!y admit ( only two *anges1 ei!r ! lamp burns at full capacity or at ! lea/ light ! lamp w give4 ,! heat lib]at$ by ! l>ge filam5t1 :5 ! small light is 9 use1 takes place inside ! lamp globe4 ,! ,dim-a-lite4--,9 ano!r =m ( turn-d[n lamp ! *ange 9 am\nt ( light is produc$ by ext]nal resi/ance 9 ! circuit4 ,! resi/ance is furni%$ by a coil ( wire :i* is enclos$ 9 a special lamp socket4 ,x possesses ! advantage z a turn-d[n lamp 9 a numb] ( *anges ( light4 ,! add$ resi/ance 9 a socket decreases ! fl[ ( curr5t &1 !re=e1 ! filam5t gives less light4 ,! resi/ance wire is divid$ into a numb] ( sections & contact ) ! t]m9als ( ^! sections decreases ! light ) ea* addition ( resi/ance4 ,! heat g5]at$ 9 ! resi/ance coils is dissipat$ by ! brass cov]+ ( ! socket4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--,! resi/ance type ( 8turn-d[n0 lamp4 ,an illu/ration ( a turn-d[n lamp us+ a sep>ate resi/ance is t ( ,fig4 #bbc1 kn[n comm]cially z ! ,dim-a-lite1 :i* is an excell5t example4 ,! ,dim-a-lite atta*m5t is a lamp socket 9 :i* is enclos$ a m9iature rheo/at or resi/ance unit4 ,! lamp1 :5 plac$ on ! ,dim-a-lite1 makes electrical contact z 9 an ord9>y socket b ) ! diff]5ce t 9 s]ies ) ! lamp filam5t is ! rheo/at1 by means ( :i* additional resi/ance may be add$ to *ange ! curr5t fl[+ 9 ! lamp4 ,! rheo/at is s arrang$ t contact may be made at f\r diff]5t po9ts 9 ! resi/ance coil1 ?r\gh :i* ! electricity may be v>i$ f #ajj to #bj p] c5t4 ( ! normal quantity4 ,! resi/ance 9 any case p]mits curr5t to pass ?r\gh ! filam5t 9 am\nts ( #gj1 #cj & #bj p] c5t4 ( ! normal am\nt4 ,9 use1 ! v>iation is made by pull+ "o /r+ to add resi/ance & ?us dim ! light2 or by pull+ ! o!r /r+1 ! resi/ance is decreas$ & m electricity passes ?r\gh ! filam5t to produce a bright] light4 ,! quantity ( light giv5 out by ! filam5t does n v>y 9 ! ratio ( ! add$ resi/ance b a v>iable light is obta9$ at ! exp5se ( a small am\nt ( electricity :i* is *ang$ into heat4 ,:5 ! light is burn+ at its dimme/ only #bj p] c5t4 ( ! normal curr5t is us$4 ,"u ?is condition ! light giv5 out by filam5t does n express ! high effici5cy atta9$ :5 ! lamp is burn+ at its full p[] b x does give a conv5i5t =m ( light regulation ) ! m9imum wa/e ( en]gy4 ,gas-fill$ ,lamps4--,until #aiac ! filam5ts ( all ,mazda lamps op]at$ 9 a vacuum4 ,! vacuum s]v+ ! purpose ( prev5t+ oxidation & at ! same "t x r$uc$ ! en]gy loss to ! lea/ am\nt4 ,x 0 f\nd1 h[ev]1 "u "s conditions ( con/ruction t lamps fill$ ) in]t gas gave a high] effici5cy & m satisfactory s]vice ?an ^? ( ! vacuum type4 ,9 ?is con/ruction1 ! filam5t is op]at$ at a temp]ature mu* high] ?an t ( ! vacuum lamp & z a consequ5ce gives light at a less co/ p] c&lep[]4 ,mazda vacuum lamps are n[ designat$ by ! ,g5]al ,electric ,co4 z ,mazda ,b lamps1 ,fig4 #bbd1 & ^? ( ! gas-fill$ v>iety1 ,fig4 #bbe1 are designat$ z ,mazda ,c lamps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--dj-watt ,mazda ,b lamp 7#a_/b scale74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--gej-watt ,mazda ,c lamp 7#a_/d scale74 ,! filam5ts ( ! gas-fill$ lamps are int5sely brilliant & :]e !y come )9 ! l9e ( vision %\ld be scre5$ f ! eyes4 ,! high effici5cy ( ^! lamps p]mit ! use ( opal %ades to produce a desir$ illum9ation at a rate ( co/ t comp>es favorably ) ! unscre5$ light ( ! vacuum lamps4 ,daylight ,lamps4--,! color ( ! light f an inc&esc5t electric lamp dep5ds on ! temp]ature ( ! filam5t4 ,9 ! case ( ! gas-fill$ ,mazda lamp ! high filam5t temp]ature produces a light t diff]s m>k$ly f ! vacuum lamps 9 t x conta9s a great] am\nt ( blue & gre5 rays4 ,x is !re=e possible to produce light t is ! same z av]age daylight4 ,gas-fill$ lamps ) globes color$ to produce light ( noonday quality are produc$ at an exp5diture ( #a4b watts p] c&lep[]4 ,9 ! mat*+ ( colors1 x %\ld be kept 9 m9d t ! t9t ( any color is influ5c$ by ! k9d ( light by :i* x is view$4 ,colors mat*$ by ord9>y inc&esc5t light conta9+ a l>ge p]c5tage ( r$ rays _c produce ! same effect :5 ! same articles are se5 9 light ( diff]5t quality4 ,! daylight lamps are !re=e int5d$ to be us$ "u conditions t require daylight quality4 ,m9iature ,tung/5 ,lamps4--,! wond]ful light-giv+ prop]ties ( tung/5 has made possible ! use ( m9iature inc&esc5t lamps = an almo/ inf9ite v>iety ( usages4 ,! m9iature lamps are simil> 9 action to o!r inc&esc5t electric lamps except t !y are op]at$ on voltages l[] ?an is us$ on comm]cial circuits4 ,:5 us$ on comm]cial circuits1 inc&esc5t tung/5 lamps ( less ?an #aj watts capacity require filam5ts t are too delicate to )/& ! conditions ( ord9>y use4 ,! prop]ties ( tung/5 are su* t ! passage ( only a small am\nt ( curr5t is requir$ to r5d] ! filam5t inc&esc5t4 ,9 ! case ( a #aaj-volt circuit1 a #aj-watt lamp requires only #j4ji amp]e to produce ! desir$ inc&esc5ce4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! watt is a volt-amp]e & ! #aj-watt lamp w !n require #aaj volts #j4ji amp]e #aj watts4 ,s9ce #aj-watt lamps are ! smalle/ units t may be us$ on #aaj-volt circuits1 _! employm5t 9 small] sizes mu/ be su* z w give m /able filam5ts4 ,?is is possible :5 ! lamps are us$ at l[] voltage4 ,a #aj-watt lamp on a #aj-volt circuit w require an amp]e ( curr5t4 #aj volts #a amp]e #aj watts4 ,a filam5t suitable = an amp]e ( curr5t is %ort] & heavi] ?an t ( ! #aaj-volt lamp & !re=e furni%es a good =m ( con/ruction4 ,/ill l[] voltages may be us$ ) filam5ts suit$ to ! quantity ( light desir$4 ,9 ! case ( batt]y lamps t are int5d$ to op]ate on #a or m volts1 ! filam5ts are made 9 size & l5g? to suit ! condition ( action4 ,9 all cases ! product ( ! volts & amp]es give ! capacity ( ! lamp 9 watts4 ,m9iature lamps are ord9>ily m>k$ to %[ ! voltage on :i* !y are int5d$ to op]ate4 ,a #f-volt batt]y lamp is int5d$ to be us$ ) a prim>y batt]y ( f\r to six cells dep5d+ on ! condition ( usage1 or ?ree cells ( /orage batt]y1 ea* cell ( :i* gives #b volts ( pressure4 ,fla% ,lights4--,^! are portable electric lamps compos$ ( a m9iature inc&esc5t bulb1 :i* ) "o or m dry cells are enclos$ 9 a frame to suit ! purpose ( _! use4 ,!y are made 9 pocket sizes or 9 =m to be conv5i5tly c>ri$ 9 ! h& & are conv5i5t & effici5t lamps :]ev] a small am\nt ( light is requir$ = a %ort "t4 ,! electricity = op]at+ ! lamp is suppli$ by a batt]y ( dry cells 7to be describ$ lat]71 or by a s+le dry cell4 ,9 ea* case ! inc&esc5t bulb is suit$ to ! voltage ( ! batt]y4 ,9 replac+ ! bulbs c>e mu/ be tak5 to see t ! voltage is t suit$ to ! batt]y4 ,! voltage is usually /amp$ on ! lamp base or m>k$ on ! bulb4 ,9 case a lamp int5d$ = a s+le cell is us$ ) a batt]y ( ?ree or f\r cells1 ! lamp filam5t w soon be de/roy$4 ,! rev]se w be true %\ld a lamp int5d$ = a batt]y be us$ ) a s+le cell4 ,! s+le cell giv+ n mu* m ?an a volt ( electromotive =ce w n s5d suffici5t curr5t ?r\gh ! lamp filam5t to r5d] x inc&esc5t4 ,! ,electric ,flat-iron4--,! *anges t h be5 made 9 dome/ic appliances by ! ext5d$ use ( electricity h br\ght _m innovations b none are m pron\nc$ ?an ! improvem5ts made 9 ! dome/ic flat-iron4 ,x 0 ! fir/ ( ! h\sehold heat+ devices to receive univ]sal recognition & its place z a dome/ic utility is firmly e/abli%$4 ,! relatively high co/ ( heat z g5]at$ ?r\gh electric en]gy is 9 a great measure c\nt]balanc$ 9 ! flat-iron by high effici5cy 9 its use4 ,9 ! electric iron1 ! heat is develop$ 9 ! place :]e x c be us$ to ! greate/ advantage1 & transmitt$ to ! face ( ! iron ) b v little loss4 ,because ( ?is direct application ! co/ ( op]ation is b slightly 9 excess ( ! o!r me?ods ( heat+4 ,! electric flat-iron has n[ become a "p ( ! equipm5t ( e comm]cial laundry1 :]e electricity c be obta9$ at a reasonable rate4 ,! popul>ity ( ! electric iron is due to its cleanl9ess & to ! increas$ am\nt ( "w t may be accompli%$ ?r\gh its use4 ,because ( ! "t sav$ 9 *ang+ irons & ! com=t ( ! room by reason ( its l[] temp]ature1 a suffici5tly great] am\nt ( "w is accompli%$ to m ?an comp5sate = ! great] co/ ( heat4 ,! electric curr5t is conduct$ to ! flat-iron f ! h\se circuit by wires made into ! =m ( a flexible cord4 ,! cord atta*es to ! electric-lamp fixture by a screw-plug & connects ) ! iron by a special atta*m5t piece z indicat$ at ,p & ,r 9 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,connection is made to an inc&esc5t lamp socket at any conv5i5t place4 ,! only precaution necess>y 9 atta*+ ! iron is to see t ! fuse & ! wires1 :i* =m ! circuit1 are ( size suffici5t to transmit ! am\nt ( curr5t ! iron is rat$ to use4 ,z expla9$ lat]1 ! fuse :i* is a "p ( e electric h\se circuit1 & ! conduct+ wires :i* =m ! heat] circuit1 mu/ be suffici5t 9 size to transmit ! necess>y curr5t )\t mat]ial heat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--;,electric flat-iron & its atta*m5ts4 ,! cord connects ) ! socket at ,p1 & ! curr5t turn$ on4 ,x is atta*$ ) ! iron by a piece ,r1 made ( non-conduct+ & heat-resi/+ mat]ial & arrang$ to make contact ) ! heat] t]m9als by two brass plugs t are insulat$ f ! body ( ! iron & af=d easy means ( mak+ electric contact4 ,! contact plugs are %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,to make electric connection1 ! contact piece is simply pu%$ ov] ! plugs1 :]e x is held 9 place by friction4 ,in/ructions :i* accompany a flat-iron :5 pur*as$ advise t ! atta*m5t piece be us$ 9 turn+ (f ! curr5t4 ,! reason = ?is is because ( ! fla% t accompanies ! break 9 ! circuit :5 disconnection is made 9 ! socket4 ,?is fla% is really a small electric arc1 t =ms z ! circuit is brok5 & :i* burns away ! swit* at ! po9t ( disconnection4 ,! arc s =m$ burns away ! contact pieces 9 ! swit* & x is soon de/roy$4 ,! atta*m5t piece w /& ?is we> m readily ?an ! socket swit* & h5ce is pref]able = disconnect+4 ,! irons are frequ5tly provid$ ) a special swit* = ! s]vice requir$ 9 ! flat-iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--;,electric flat-iron %[+ position ( ! heat+ elem5t & contact plugs4 ,a spiral spr+ connect$ to ! atta*m5t cord prev5ts x f k9k+ :5 9 use & ?us break+ ! conduct+ wires4 ,! atta*m5t cord is made ( /r&$ wires to make x flexible4 ,! /r&s ( f9e copp] wire are made to correspond to ! gage numb]s by :i* ! v>i\s sizes ( wire are designat$4 ,9 use ! con/ant movem5t ( ! iron t5ds to k9k ! cord & ?us breaks ! /r&s4 ,?is action is mo/ pron\nc$ at ! po9t :]e ! cord atta*es to ! iron4 ,= ?is reason a spiral spr+ wire encloses ! cord = a %ort di/ance above ! atta*m5t piece4 ,aft] long usage ! cord is apt to break 9 ?is vic9ity4 ,x may usually be repair$ by cutt+ (f ! ends ( ! cords & new connections made 9 ! atta*m5t piece4 ,:5 ! iron is 9 use ! slack portion ( ! cord is kept f int]f]+ ) ! "w by ! coil$ wire ,s1 :i* connects ) ! cord at any conv5i5t place4 ,electric flat-irons are made 9 a v>iety ( /yles & =ms1 ! me*anism ( ea* possess+ "s p>ticul> advantage1 b all are provid$ ) ! same ess5tial p>ts1 *ief ( :i* is ! heat] ) its electric atta*m5t piece4 ,9 ,fig4 #bbh is %[n v cle>ly ! con/ruction ( an example 9 :i* att5tion is call$ to ! po9ts ( excell5ce t are requir$ 9 a p>ticul>ly s]viceable iron4 ,! =m ( ! heat+ elem5t :i* is recogniz$ 9 ! iron is also %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--;,electric flat-iron heat+ elem5t4 ,9 ! figure ! heat] is made ( coils ( resi/ance wire1 w\nd on a suitable frame ( mica4 ,! heat+ elem5t is insulat$ f ! body ( ! iron ) %eets ( mica1 ?is be+ a mat]ial t makes an excell5t insulator & is n mat]ially affect$ by ! heat to :i* x is subject$4 ,! resi/ance wire ( :i* ! elem5t is compos$ is especially prep>$ to resi/ ! corrod+ action common to metal :5 heat$ 9 air4 ,! =m ( ! elem5t is su* z to p]mit ! lea/ movem5t ( ! turns ( wire--9 _! con/ant heat+ & cool+--t w all[ ! diff]5t spires to make contact & ?us *ange ! resi/ance4 ,%\ld ! spires ( wire come toge!r1 ! curr5t w\ld be %unt$ across ! contact & ! resi/ance ( ! elem5t decreas$4 ,! effect ( su* a r$uction ( resi/ance w\ld be an increas$ fl[ ( curr5t & a correspond+ increase ( heat4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 ! electric lamp & all o!r electric circuits1 ! curr5t1 voltage & resi/ance foll[ ! conditions ( ,ohm's law4 ,diff]5t sizes ( irons w1 ( c\rse1 require diff]5t am\nts ( curr5t4 ,a #f-p\nd iron1 su* z is commonly us$ = h\sehold "w1 w take ab\t #e amp]es ( curr5t at #aaj volts pressure4 ,! am\nt ( electricity ! iron is int5d$ to consume is g5]ally /amp$ on ! nameplate ( ! manufactur]4 ,?is is specifi$ by ! numb] ( volts & amp]es ( curr5t ! iron is rat$ to use4 ,z an example1 ! iron may be m>k$1 ,volts #aje-aae1 ,amp]es #b-c4 ,?is indicates t ! iron is int5d$ to be us$ on circuits t c>ry electric pressure v>y+ f #aje to #aae volts & t ! heat] w use f #b to #c amp]es ( curr5t1 dep5d+ on ! voltage4 ,to e/imate ! co/ ( op]at+ su* an iron1 x is necess>y to det]m9e ! numb] ( watts ( electric en]gy consum$4 ,! numb] ( watts ( en]gy develop$ "u any condition w be ! product ( ! volts times ! amp]es4 ,suppose t 9 ! above example ! iron 0 us$ on a circuit ( #aaj volts4 ,"u ?is condition ! curr5t requir$ to keep ! iron hot w\ld be #b4e amp]es4 ,! product ( ^! two qualities1 #aaj #b4e is #bge watts4 ,if ! co/ ( electricity is #aj c5ts p] kil[att-h\r 7#ajjj watts7 ! co/ ( op]at+ ! iron w\ld be #bge_/ajjj #aj c5ts #b-c_/d c5ts an h\r4 ,s9ce ! electric iron requires a mu* l>g] am\nt ( curr5t ?an is usually requir$ = ord9>y light+1 ! circuit on :i* x is us$ %\ld receive m ?an pass+ att5tion4 ,! wires %\ld be ( size amply l>ge to c>ry )\t heat+ ! curr5t necess>y = its op]ation4 ,?is topic w be discuss$ lat] b x is well "h to call att5tion to ! necessity = a circuit suit$ to ! requir$ curr5t4 ,if an iron requir+ #e amp]es ( curr5t is atta*$ to a circuit t is int5d$ to c>ry only #c amp]es ! conduct+ wires w be ov]heat$ & may be ! cause ( s]i\s results4 ,! ,electric ,toa/]4--,z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbi ! toa/] is made ( a s]ies ( heat+ elem5ts m\nt$ on mica frames & support$ on a porcela9 base4 ,x is an example ( heat+ by expos$ wires & direct radiation4 ,! heat]s ,h are coils ( flat resi/ance wire t are w\nd on w$ge-%ap$ pieces ( mica4 ,!y are support$ on a wire frame t is =m$ to receive slices ( bread on ea* side ( ! heat]s4 ,! atta*m5t piece ,a & ! mat]ial ( ! heat] is simil> 9 con/ruction to t ( ! flat-iron4 ,! electric circuit may be trac$ f ! contacts at ,a & ,b 9 ! atta*m5t plug by ! dott$ l9es :i* indicate ! wires 9 ! porcela9 base4 ,! curr5t trav]ses ea* coil 9 turn & connects ) ! next1 alt]nately at ! top & bottom4 ,! resi/ance is su* z w p]mit ! voltage ( ! circuit to s5d ?r\gh ! coils curr5t suffici5t to raise ! heat]s to a r$ heat4 ,! add$ resi/ance ( ! hot wires decreases ! fl[ ( curr5t to keep ! temp]ature at ! desir$ degree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--,! electric toa/]4 ,9 a heat] ( ?is k9d ! resi/ance ( ! wire may increase ) age & ! coils fail to gl[ ) a suffici5t brightness4 ,! reason = ! lack ( heat is t ( decrease 9 curr5t1 due to ! increas$ resi/ance ( ! wires4 ,?is condition may be correct$ by ! removal ( a little ( ! heat] coils4 ,if a turn or two ( ! heat] wire is remov$1 ! resi/ance ( ! circuit is r$uc$ & ! effect ( ! increas$ curr5t w produce a high] temp]ature 9 ! heat]4 ,motors4--,z a means ( develop+ me*anical p[] 9 small units1 ! electric motor has made possible its application 9 _m h\sehold uses t 7 =m]ly p]=m$ entirely by manual labor4 ,z a dome/ic utility electrical p[] is g5]at$ at a co/ t is ! lea/ exp5sive ( all its applications4 ,z a means ( light+ & heat+ electricity has _h to compete ) e/abli%$ me?ods & has won place because ( ! advantages x possesses ov] t ( co/4 ,9 ! developm5t ( dome/ic p[] x has practically no oppon5t4 ,!re is no o!r =m ( p[] t c be s successfully utiliz$ 9 deliv]+ me*anical "w = ! purposes requir$4 ,a kil[att ( electric en]gy1 = :i* #aj c5ts is a common price1 w furni% a surpris+ am\nt ( manual labor4 ,!oretically1 #gdf watts is equal to #a horsep[]4 ,! comm]cial kil[att is rat$ at an h\r ( "t1 & is1 !re=e1 equal !oretically to #a-a_/c horsep[] = "o h\r4 ,:ile motors _c be expect$ to trans=m all ( ?is en]gy into actual "w )\t loss1 ev5 at ! l[ rate ( effici5cy atta9$ by ! small electric motor1 !y furni% p[] at a relatively small co/4 ,! fir/ applications ( electric p[] 7 ^? = sew+ ma*9es1 fans1 wa%+ ma*9es1 etc4 ,its use has made possible ! vacuum clean]1 automatic pump+1 refrig]ation1 v5tilation1 & _m o!r m9or uses z ! turn+ ( ice-cream freez]s1 *urn+ & rock+ ! cradle4 ,electric motors are made 9 _m sizes = p[] g5]ation & 9 =ms to suit any application4 ,!y are made to develop #a_/cj horsep[] & 9 o!r fractional sizes = bo? direct & alt]nat+ curr5t4 ,9 apply+ me*anical p[] to any p>ticul> purpose special appliances mu/ be made to adopt electric motors to ! requir$ "w4 ,?is is accompli%$ 9 all h\sehold requirem5ts4 ,! motors are made to run at a high rate ( spe$ & mu/ be r$uc$ 9 motion by pulleys or ge>s to suit _! condition ( op]ation4 ,z 9 ! case ( electric lamps !y mu/ be suit$ to ! voltage & type ( curr5t ( ! circuit on :i* !y are to be us$4 ,comm]cial electric circuits furni% electricity 9 two types1 direct curr5t1 ord9>ily t]m$ ,d4,c41 & ,a4,c4 or alt]nat+ curr5t4 ,! t]ms direct & alt]nat+ curr5t apply to ! direction ( ! electric impulses :i* con/itute ! transmitt$ en]gy4 ,9 ! electric dynamo1 ! g5]ation ( ! curr5t is due to impulses t are induc$ 9 ! wires ( ! dynamo armature z !y pass ?r\gh a magnetic field ( great int5sity4 ,^! electric impulses are direct$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ! wires cut across ! l9es ( =ce :i* make up ! magnetic field4 ,9 ! case ( ! direct curr5t ! impulses are always 9 ! same direction ?r\gh ! circuit1 :ile 9 ! o!r !y are induc$ alt]nately to & fro & s produce alt]nat+ curr5t4 ,! t]m electric curr5t is us$ only = conv5i5ce ( express+ a direct$ =m ( en]gy4 ,s9ce no?+ really passes ?r\gh ! wires b a wave ( en]gy1 ! effect is ! same :e!r ! electric impulses are 9 ! same or 9 opposite directions4 ,an inc&esc5t lamp w "w equally well on an ,a4,c4 or a ,d4,c4 circuit ( ! prop] voltage2 b 9 ! case ( motors ! =m ( con/ruction mu/ be suit$ to ! k9d ( curr5t4 ,bo? ,a4,c4 & ,d4,c4 comm]cial circuits are 9 common use1 ! units ( measurem5t are ! same = ea* b 9 ord]+ a motor x is necess>y to /ate ! type ( curr5t & ! voltage1 9 ord] t ! deal] may supply ! requir$ ma*9e4 ,9 ! case ( an alt]nat+ motor x is fur!r necess>y to /ate ! numb] ( cycles ( *anges ( direction made p] second 9 ! ,a4,c4 circuit4 ,all ( ?is in=mation may be obta9$ by inquir+ ( a local electrician or ( ! p[] /ation f :i* ! curr5t is obta9$4 ,!re is /ill ano!r item ( in=mation necess>y to be suppli$ ) an ord] = a motor1 o!r ?an ^? ( fractional horsep[]4 ,) motors ( a horsep[] or m x is necess>y to /ate ! numb] ( phases includ$ 9 ! circuit4 ,?is in=mation to be complete mu/ /ate :e!r ! motor is to op]ate on a s+le-phase1 two-phase1 or ?ree-phase circuit4 ,^! t]ms apply to a condition made possible 9 ,a4,c4 g5]ation t p]mits "o1 two1 or ?ree complete impulses to be develop$ 9 a circuit at ! same "t4 ,^! phases are transmitt$ by ?ree wires1 any two ( :i* w =m a circuit & give a supply ( en]gy at ! same voltage4 ,ei!r "o phase or all may be us$ at ! same "t & = ?is reason ! phase ( an ,a4,c4 motor %\ld be giv5 9 an ord]4 ,to make ! in=mation complete !re %\ld be includ$ ! numb] ( cycles or complete electric impulses p] second produc$ 9 ! circuit4 ,suppose t a #a-;horsep[] motor is requir$ to "w on an ,a4,c4 circuit ( #aaj volts4 ,inquiry ( ! electric company reveals t ! circuit is ?ree-phase at #fj cycles p] second4 ,! deal] on receiv+ ?is in=mation w be able to s5d a motor to suit y\r conditions4 ,mo/ ,a4,c4 motors ( #a horsep[] or less are ( ! s+le-phase v>iety4 ,9 ! case ( ,d4,c4 motors x is necess>y only to /ate ! voltage ( ! circuit to make ! requir$ in=mation complete4 ,fuse ,plugs4--,e electric circuit is liable to occurr5ces kn[n z %ort-circuit+ or 8%ort+40 ,?is is a te*nical t]m describ+ a condition :]e1 by accid5t or design1 ! wires ( a circuit are 9 any way connect$ by a l[-resi/ance conductor or by com+ directly into contact ) ea* o!r4 ,9 case ( %ort+1 ! resi/ance is practically all remov$ & ! am\nt ( curr5t :i* fl[s ?r\gh ! circuit is s great z to produce a dang]\s am\nt ( heat 9 ! wires4 ,if ! cov]+ ( a lamp cord becomes worn s z to p]mit ! b>e wire ( ! two /r&s to come toge!r1 a 8%ort0 is produc$4 ,imm$iately1 ! r$uc$ resi/ance p]mits ! electric pressure to s5d an am\nt ( curr5t ?r\gh ! wires1 great] ?an !y are int5d$ to c>ry4 ,:5 ?is occurs an electric arc w =m at ! po9t ( contact ) ! accompany+ fla% ( vaporiz+ metal & ! wire w f9ally burn (f4 ,fires />t$ f ?is cause are n uncommon4 ,to gu>d aga9/ accid5ts f %ort-circuit+1 e electric circuit %\ld be provid$ ) fuses :i*1 9 cases ( em]g5cy1 are int5d$ to melt & ?us break ! circuit4 ,fuses are made ( lead-composition or alum9um & are us$ 9 ! =m ( wire or ribbon-l /rips1 ( sizes t w c>ry a def9ite am\nt ( curr5t4 ,!y are designat$ by _! c>ry+ capacity 9 amp]es4 ,z an example3 a #b-;amp]e fuse w c>ry #b amp]es ( curr5t )\t noticeable heat+1 b at a dang]\s ov]load ! fuse w melt & ! circuit be brok54 ,%\ld a %ort-circuit be =m$ at any "t1 ! ru% ( curr5t ?r\gh ! fuse w cause x almo/ imm$iately to melt1 & /op ! fl[ ( curr5t4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 ! safegu>d ( ! circuit aga9/ undue heat+ ( ! conduct+ wires4 ,:5 an op5 fuse bl[s 7melts71 ! heat g5]at$ by ! arc1 =m$ at ! break+ circuit1 is s sudd5 t !re is frequ5tly an explosive effect t ?r[s ! melt$ metal 9 all directions1 & 9 case x comes into contact ) combu/ible mat]ial a fire may result4 ,to d away ) ?is dang]1 fire insurance companies 9 _! specifications ( electric fixtures /ate :at =ms ( fuses w be acceptable 9 ! build+s to be insur$4 ,^! specifications are kn[n z ! ,und]writ]s ,rules & may be obta9$ f any fire insurance company4 ,! fuses1 or fuse plug1 z !y are commonly call$1 g5]ally occupy a place 9 a cab9et or di/ribut+ panel1 ne> ! po9t :]e ! lead wires ent] ! build+4 ,! cab9et conta9s ! porcela9 cut\ts = s5d+ ! curr5t ?r\gh ! diff]5t circuits2 ! fuse plugs =m a "p ( ! cut\ts1 "o fuse to ea* wire4 ,! cab9et conta9s besides ! cut\ts a d\ble-pol$ swit* to be us$ = %utt+ (f ! curr5t f ! build+ :5 desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--;,electric cab9ets4 ,cab9ets = ?is purpose are made 9 /&>d =m ( wood or /eel to suit ! condition ( s]vice4 ,^! cab9ets may be obta9$ f any deal]s 9 electrical supplies or ! cab9et may be made a "p ( ! h\se s9ce !y are only small %all[ closets4 ,fig4 #bcj repres5ts su* a cab9et z is us$ 9 ! av]age dwell+4 ,x is made ( a light wood5 frame set betwe5 ! /udd+ ( a p>tition at any conv5i5t place4 ,! bottom ( ! cab9et is made slop+ to prev5t its be+ us$ z a place ( /orage = articles t might lead to tr\ble4 ,! cab9et is sometimes l9$ ) asbe/os pap] z a prev5tion f fire b ?is is n necess>y z ! fuse plugs & _! receptacles1 :5 ( approv$ design1 are suffici5t to prev5t accid5t4 ,! ma9 wires :i* supply ! h\se ) electricity--m>k$ lead wires--are br\ght into ! cab9et z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bca & atta*$ to ! poles ( ! swit* ,s4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ! swit* ! lead wires ea* conta9 a mica-cov]$ fuse plug ,f1 t w be describ$ lat]4 ,! curr5t at any "t may be entirely cut (f f ! h\se by pull+ ! h&le ,h1 :i* is connect$ by an insulat+ b> & ! contacts ,n ( ! swit*4 ,:5 ! h&le ,h is pull$ to sep>ate ! contact pieces1 all electric connection is sev]$ at t po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bca4--;,electric panel conta9+ cut\t blocks1 fuses & swit*4 ,! wattmet] = measur+ ! curr5t is plac$ at ! po9ts m>k$ met]1 z a "p ( ! ma9 circuit4 ,! ma9 wires 9 ! cab9et t]m9ate 9 ! porcela9 cut\ts1 f :i* are tak5 (f ! v>i\s circuits ( ! h\se4 ,9 ! figure1 ?ree su* cut\ts are %[n mak+ ?ree circuits m>k$ #a1 #b1 & #c4 ,9 circuit ,no4 #a1 ! fuses are m>k$ ,f4 ,^! wires are jo9$ to ! ma9 wires at ! po9ts m>k$ ,c & ,c4 ,! numb] ( circuits ! h\se w conta9 dep5ds on ! numb] ( lights & ! mann] 9 :i* !y are plac$4 ,! circuits are int5d$ to be arrang$ s t 9 case ( a %ort1 no "p ( ! h\se w be left entirely 9 d>kness4 ,fuses = g5]al use are made 9 two diff]5t types--! plug type & ! c>tridge type--ea* ( :i* con=ms to ! rules ( ! ,und]writ]s ,association4 ,^? mo/ commonly us$ = h\se wir+ are ! plug type %[n 9 ,fig4 #bcb & indicat$ 9 ! figure j describ$4 ,^! plugs are made ( porcela9 & provid$ ) a screw base :i* p]mits _! be+ screw$ into place l an inc&esc5t lamp4 ,! front ( ! plug is arrang$ ) a mica w9d[ :i* all[s inspection to be made 9 case ( a %ort1 ! bl[n fuse indicat+ ! circuit 9 :i* ! tr\ble is locat$4 ,ano!r /yle ( ! same type ( plug1 kn[n z ! re-fusable fuse plug1 p]mits ! fuse to be replac$ aft] ! wire has be5 de/roy$ by a %ort4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4--,mica cov]$ fuse plug4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4--;,c>tridge fuse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4--,plug receptacle = c>tridge fuse4 ,! second type is commonly kn[n z ! c>tridge fuse plug f its g5]al appe>ance4 ,?is fuse is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,! fusable wire is enclos$ 9 a composition fib] tube1 ! ends ( :i* are cov]$ by brass caps :i* af=d contact pieces 9 ! fuse receptacle & to :i* are fa/5$ ! ends ( ! fuse wire4 ,^! fuses are v g5]ally employ$ 9 p[] circuits & o!rs ( l>ge curr5t capacity4 ,! small circle 9 ! c5t] ( ! label is ! indicator4 ,:5 ! fuse burns out1 a black spot w appe> 9 ! circle4 ,x is sometimes desirable to use ! c>tridge fuse plug 9 receptacles int5d$ = ! mica-cov]$ type4 ,! use ( ! c>tridge fuses "u ?is condition is effect$ by use ( a porcela9 receptacle su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bcd2 ! c>tridge fuse is simply ins]t$ into ! receptacle :i* is !n screw$ into ! socket 9 place ( ! mica fuse4 ,9 ord] to avoid any possible *ance ( ov]load+ ! wires ( a circuit1 fuses are in/all$ :i* are suit$ to ! "w to be p]=m$4 ,suppose t !re are t5 #dj-watt lamps t may be us$ on a circuit1 ea* lamp ( :i* requires #d_/aa amp]e ( curr5t4 #aaj ,c #dj watts ,c #dj_/aaj #d_/aa amp]e p] lamp4 ,t5 su* lamps require t5 times #d_/aa amp]e or #dj_/aa #c4g amp]es to supply ! lamps4 ,a fuse t w c>ry #c4g amp]es ( curr5t w supply ! circuit b a #e-;amp]e fuse w p]mit an increase 9 ! size ( ! lamp & w fulfill all ! necess>y conditions4 ,if1 h[ev]1 an electric heat] requir+ #g amp]es 7 atta*$ to ! circuit1 ! fuse be+ int5d$ = only #e amp]es w\ld soon burn out4 ,:5 a fuse burns out x mu/ be replac$ ei!r ) an entirely new receptacle or ! fuse wire mu/ be replac$4 ,x sometimes happ5s t 9 case ( a bl[n fuse !re is no extra "p at h& & a wire ( mu* great] c>ry+ capacity is us$ 9 its place4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t 9 ?is practice ( 8copp]+0 a bl[n fuse1 has tak5 away ! protection aga9/ %ort-circuit+ ) its possibility ( mis*ief4 ,:5 a %ort occurs1 ! cause %\ld be s\ght =4 ,x _c be locat$ & on be+ replac$ a second fuse bl[s1 ! s]vices ( an electrician %\ld be secur$4 ,electric ,heat]s4--,all electric heat+ devices--:e!r 9 ! =m ( hot plates1 ov5s1 /oves or o!r dome/ic heat+ app>atus-possess heat+ elem5ts some:at simil> to ! flat-iron or ! toa/]4 ,! con/ruction ( ! heat+ elem5t w dep5d on ! use = :i* ! heat] is int5d$ & ! temp]ature to be ma9ta9$4 ,hot plates simil> to t ( ,fig4 #bce are made s+ly or two or m 9 comb9ation4 ,:5 ! heat is to be transmitt$ directly by radiation ! heat+ coils are op51 z ) ! toa/]4 ,"u o!r conditions ! coils are emb$d$ 9 enamel t is fus$ to a metal plate4 ,9 elem5ts ( ?is k9d ! heat is transmitt$ to ! plate entirely by conduction f :i* x is utiliz$ 9 any mann] requir+ a heat$ surface4 ,! =m ( ! heat+ elem5t w1 !re=e1 dep5d on ! application ( ! heat1 :e!r x is by direct radiation or by a comb9ation ( radiation & conduction4 ,electric ov5s are con/ruct$ to utilize electric heat 9 an insulat$ enclosure4 ,heat d]iv$ f electricity is m exp5sive ?an f o!r s\rces b :5 us$ 9 insulat$ ov5s x may be made to conv5i5tly p]=m ! s]vice ( t d]iv$ f o!r fuels4 ,9 electric ov5s ! heat]s are atta*$ to inside walls4 ,z 9 o!r heat+ elem5ts !y are arrang$ to suit ! conditions = :i* ! ov5 is to be us$4 ,! heat]s are usually s divid$ z to p]mit ei!r all ( ! heat]s to be us$ at ! same "t to quickly produce a high temp]ature1 or only a portion ( ! heat to be us$ 9 keep+ up ! temp]ature lo/ by radiation4 ,ov5s ( ?is k9d may be provid$ ) regulators by means ( :i* ! heat may be automatically kept at any desir$ temp]ature4 ,su* heat+ & temp]ature regulation may be us$ to produce any desir$ condition1 b 9 practice ! co/ ( ! heat is ! factor :i* det]m9es its use4 ,unless electric heat is cons]v$ by insulation x _c become a competitor ) o!r =ms ( heat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bce4--;,electric ?ree-burn] hot plate4 ,electric hot plate4 ,electric cook+ /oves & ranges are made = e =m ( dome/ic & cul9>y s]vice4 ,!y fulfill _m purposes t may be obta9$ 9 no o!r way4 ,z conv5i5ces1 ! co/ ( heat becomes ( second>y consid]ation & _! use is con/antly increas+4 ,9 ,fig4 #bcf is an example ( a "t-controll$ & automatically regulat$ electric range4 ,9 ! picture is %[n sep>ately all ( ! heat]s = ! ov5s & /ove top4 ,! "p ,s %[s ! swit*es atta*$ to ! heat]s ( ! /ove top1 :i* is rais$ to %[ ! connect+ wires4 ,9 ! l>g] ov5 !re are two heat]s ( #ajjj watts ea*1 & 9 ! small] ov5 "o heat] ( #hej watts4 ,ea* heat] may be controll$ sep>ately ) a swit* giv+ ?ree regulations ( heat--high1 m$ium & l[4 ,! advantage ( ?is arrangem5t lies 9 ! fact t "o c set ! two heat]s 9 ! ov5 at diff]5t temp]atures :i* w p]mit ei!r a sl[ or quick heat1 b :5 ! pr$et]m9$ temp]ature is rea*$ ! curr5t w be automatically cut (f by ! circuit-break]s4 ,su* flexibility ( heat control 9 ! ov5s p]mits ! op]ator to apply heat at bo? top & bottom = bak+ & roa/+ at j ! desir$ temp]ature4 ,?is arrangem5t also avoids ! dang] ( scor*+ food f conc5tration ( heat1 & w>p+ ut5sils or ! l9+s ( ! ov54 ,all ov5 heat]s on ! automatic ranges are fur!r controll$ & ma/]$ by ! circuit-break]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--;,electric range4 ,%[+ h[ all p>ts c be remov$ = clean+ & replacem5t4 ,int]communicat+ ,telephones4--,?is =m ( telephone is us$ ov] %ort di/ances su* z f room to room 9 build+s or = connect+ ! h\se ) ! /able1 g>age1 etc4 ,x is complete1 9 t x possesses ! same features z any o!r telephone b ! signal is an electric call-bell in/ead ( ! pol>iz$ electric bell us$ 9 comm]cial telephone s]vice4 ,any telephone is made to p]=m two functions3 7#a7 t ( a signal ) :i* to call att5tion2 & 7#b7 ! app>atus requir$ to transmit spok5 words4 ,9 ! int]communicat+ telephone or int]phone1 ! signal is made l any call-bell & p>ts are simil> to ^? describ$ "u electric signals4 ,! bell-r++ me*anism is includ$ 9 ! box ) ! transmitt+ app>atus & ! signal is made by press+ a pu% button4 ,x is n suitable = connect+ ) public telephones4 ,telephone companies1 z a rule1 d n p]mit connection ) _! l9es any app>atus :i* !y d n control4 ,! int]phone ( ,fig4 #bcg %[s ! in/rum5t complete except ! batt]y4 ,?is =m ( in/rum5t is inexp5sive1 easy to put 91 simple to op]ate & supplies a mo/ excell5t means ( int]communication4 ,complete directions = in/allation are suppli$ ) ! phones by ! manufactur]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4--,! int]communicat+ telephone4 ,electric ,signals4--,electrical signal+ devices = h\sehold use1 9 ! =m ( bells & buzz]s1 are made 9 a great v>iety ( =ms & sizes to suit e condition ( requirem5t4 ,! vibrat+ me*anism ( ! doorbell is us$ 9 all o!r h\sehold signals except t ( ! magneto telephone4 ,x is an application ( ! electromagnet1 9 :i* ! magnetism is appli$ to vibrate a tapp] aga9/ ! rim ( a bell4 ,a bell sy/em consi/s ( ! gong ) its me*anism = vibrat+ ! armature1 an electric batt]y or ,a4,c4 trans=m] connect$ to ! magnet coils to =m an electric circuit & a pu% button :i* s]ves to close ! circuit :5ev] ! bell is to be s\nd$4 ,! bell sy/em is an op5-circuit =m ( app>atus2 t is1 ! circuit is n complete except dur+ ! "t ! bell is r++4 ,by press+ ! pu% button ! circuit is clos$ & ! electric curr5t f ! batt]y fl[s ?r\gh ! magnet & causes ! tapp] to vibrate4 ,:5 ! pu% button is releas$ ! circuit is brok5 & ! circuit /&s op5 until ! bell is to be aga9 us$4 ,! p>ts ( ! bell me*anism are %[n 9 ,fig4 #bch :]e ) ! batt]y1 ! pu% button & ! connect+ wires is %[n a complete doorbell outfit4 ,^! p>ts may be plac$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! build+ & connect$ by wires z %[n 9 ! ,fig4 #bci4 ,! bell is locat$ at ,r1 9 ! kit*54 ,! batt]y is plac$ 9 ! closet at ,b1 ! connect+ wires are indicat$ by ! heavy l9es2 !y are secur$ to any conv5i5t "p ( ! wall & ext5d into ! basem5t & are fa/5$ to ! joi/s4 ,! wires t]m9ate 9 ! pu% button ,p1 :]e !y pass ?r\gh ! frame ( ! front door4 ,! wires are secur$ by /aples to keep !m 9 place4 ,ea* wire is fa/5$ sep>ately to avoid ! dang] ( %ort-circuit+4 ,if bo? wires are secur$ ) a s+le /aple !re is a possibility ( ! insulation be+ cut & a %ort produc$ across ! /aple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bch4--;,diagram %[+ ! p>ts ( an electric doorbell4 ,! batt]y ,b1 9 ,fig4 #bch1 is a s+le dry cell b m commonly x is compos$ ( two dry cells jo9$ 9 s]ies4 ,x is connect$1 z %[n 9 ! figure1 to ! b9d+ po/s ,p & ,p ( ! vibrat+ me*anism1 ! pu% button ,,pb s]v+ to make contact :5 ! circuit is to be clos$4 ,:5 ! button is press$ ! circuit is complete f ! pole ( ! batt]y cell ?r\gh ! b9d+ po/ ,p1 across ! contact ,f1 ?r\gh ! spr+ ,a1 ?r\gh ! magnet coils ,m1 across ! b9d+ po/ ,p & pu% button to !-pole ( ! cell4 ,! vibration ( ! tapp] is caus$ by ! magnetiz$ cores ( ! coils ,m4 ,:5 ! electric curr5t fl[s ?r\gh ! coils ( wire1 ! iron cores become tempor>y magnets4 ,?is magnetism attracts ! iron armature atta*$ to ! spr+ ,a1 & x is sudd5ly pull$ =w>d ) en]gy suffici5t to cause ! tapp] to /rike ! gong4 ,z ! armature moves =w>d1 ! spr+ contact at ,f is brok5 & ! curr5t /ops fl[+ ?r\gh ! magnet coils4 ,:5 ! curr5t ceases to fl[ 9 ! magnet coils1 ! cores are demagnetiz$ & ! armature is drawn back by ! spr+ ,a to ! orig9al position4 ,z soon z ! contact is re/or$ at ,f a new impulse is receiv$ only to be brok5 z be=e4 ,9 ?is mann] ! bell cont9ues r++ s long z ! pu% button makes contact4 ,! screw at ,f is adju/$ to suit ! contact ) ! spr+ atta*$ to ! armature4 ,! motion ( ! armature may be regulat$ to a consid]able degree by ?is adju/m5t4 ,:5 prop]ly set ! screw is lock$ 9 place by a nut & %\ld require no fur!r att5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bci4--;,example ( an electric doorbell in/allation4 ,electric bells v>y 9 price accord+ to design & workman%ip4 ,a bell outfit may be pur*as$ complete = #a b x is advisable to in/all a bell ( bett] con/ruction1 z few pieces ( h\sehold me*anism repay _! co/ 9 s]vice s (t5 z a well-made bell4 ,! bell %\ld be rigid1 well-con/ruct$1 & ! contact piece ,f %\ld be adju/able4 ,?is "p ,f1 be+ ! mo/ important ( ! mov+ p>ts ( ! bell1 is %[n sep>ately 9 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,only ! ends ( ! magnet coils ) _! cores are %[n 9 ! figure4 ,! contact is made at ,a1 by ! pressure ( ! spr+ aga9/ ! end ( ! adju/able screw ,d4 ,:5 ! screw is prop]ly adju/$ x is lock$ securely 9 place by ! nut ,g4 ,! screw ,d is held ) a screw-driv] & ! nut ,g =c$ into position to prev5t any movem5t4 ,if ! screw is mov$1 s t contact is lo/ at ,a1 ! bell w n r+4 ,9 ! bett] class ( bells ! po9t ( ! screw & its contact at ,a are made ( plat9um to insure long life4 ,) ea* movem5t ( ! armature a sp>k =ms at ! contact :i* we>s away ! po9t1 s t to insure good s]vice ^! po9ts mu/ be made ( refractory mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4--;,diagram ( ! vibrat+ me*anism us$ 9 buzz]s & doorbells4 ,buzz]s4--,electric bells are (t5 objectionable z signal calls because ( _! clamor1 b ) ! removal ( ! bell ! vibrat+ armature s]ves equally well z a signal b )\t ! undesirable noise4 ,) ! bell & tapp] remov$ ! op]at+ me*anism ( su* a device works ) a s\nd t has giv5 to !m ! "n ( buzz]s4 ,fig4 #bda illu/rates ! =m ( an iron-cas$ buzz] = ord9>y duty4 ,! work+ p>ts are enclos$ by a /amp$ /eel cov] t may be easily remov$4 ,! me*anism is q simil> to t already describ$ 9 ! doorbell & ,fig4 #bdj %[s 9 detail ! work+ p>ts4 ,! noise1 f :i* ! device takes its "n1 is produc$ by ! armature & spr+ 9 mak+ & break+ contact4 ,burgl> ,al>ms4--,a burgl> al>m is any device t w give notice ( ! attempt$ entrance ( an intrud]4 ,x is usually 9 ! =m ( a bell or buzz] plac$ 9 circuit ) a batt]y1 z a doorbell sy/em1 9 :i* ! contact piece is plac$ to detect ! op5+ ( a door or w9d[4 ,! contact is arrang$ to />t ! al>m :5ev] ! w9d[ or door is op5$ beyond a c]ta9 po9t4 ,! atta*m5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bdb is int5d$ to =m ! contact = a w9d[4 ,x is set 9 ! w9d[ frame s t ! lug ,c w be depress$ & close ! al>m circuit 9 case ! sa% is rais$ suffici5tly to admit a man4 ,ea* w9d[ may be furni%$ ) a simil> device & ! doors provid$ ) suitable contacts :i* toge!r =m a sy/em to op]ate 9 a s+le al>m4 ,dur+ ! "t :5 ! al>m is n ne$$ x is disconnect$ by a swit*4 ,! w9d[s & doors are sometimes connect$ ) an annunciator :i* w indicate ! place f :i* an al>m is giv54 ,an annunciator us$ = ?is purpose designates ! exact po9t at :i* ! contact is made & removes ! necessity ( se>*+ = ! place ( attempt$ entrance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bda4--,! electric buzz]4 ,,fig4 #bdb4--;,contact = a w9d[ burgl> al>m4 ,,fig4 #bdc4--,trip contact :i* ann\nces ! op5+ ( a door4 ,,fig4 #bdd4--;,contact = a door al>m4 ,,fig4 #bde4--;,doorway or hall matt+ ) contacts = electric al>m4 ,9 ,fig4 #bdc is illu/rat$ "o =m ( door trip :i* may be us$ on a door to ann\nce its op5+4 ,?is trip makes electric connection 9 ! al>m circuit :5 ! op5+ door comes into contact ) ! sw++ piece ,t1 b no contact is made z ! door closes4 ,! trip is fa/5$ ) screws at ,d to ! frame above ! door4 ,! op5+ door comes into contact ) ,t & moves x =w>d until ! electric circuit is =m$ at ,c2 aft] ! door has pass$1 a spr+ returns x to place4 ,z ! door is clos$1 ! "p ,t is mov$ aside )\t mak+ electric contact4 ,fig4 #bdd is ano!r =m ( door al>m t makes contact :5 ! door is op5$ & rema9s 9 contact until ! door is clos$4 ,! "p ,p is set into ! door frame ( ! door 9 su* position t ! contact at ,c is held op5 :5 ! door is clos$4 ,:5 ! door is op5$ a spr+ 9 ,c closes ! contact & causes ! al>m to s\nd4 ,x cont9ues to s\nd until ! door is clos$ & ! contact is brok54 ,:5 ! use ( ! al>m is n requir$1 ! contact-mak] is turn$ to "o side & ! contact is held op5 by a cat*4 ,x is put out ( use by press+ ! plung] to "o side4 ,! matt+ %[n 9 ,fig4 #bde is provid$ ) spr+ contacts s plac$ t no "p may be /epp$ ^u )\t s\nd+ ! al>m4 ,:5 plac$ 9 a doorway & prop]ly connect$ ) a signal1 no p]son c ent] )\t />t+ an al>m4 ,! matt+ is atta*$ to ! al>m by ! wires ,c & contacts are set at close int]vals s t a foot/ep on ! mat mu/ close at lea/ "o contact4 ,annunciators4--,x is (t5 conv5i5t = a bell or buzz] to s]ve two or m pu% buttons plac$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! h\se4 ,9 ord] t !re may be means ( designat+ ! pu% button us$--:5 ! bell is rung--an annunciator is provid$4 ,?is is a box arrang$ ) an electric bell & ! requir$ numb] ( po9t]s & f+]s correspond+ to ! pu% buttons4 ,9 ,fig4 #bdf is %[n an annunciator ) :i* two pu% buttons are s]v$ by ! s+le bell4 ,! annunciator is plac$ at ! mo/ conv5i5t place ( obs]vation1 usually 9 ! kit*54 ,:5 ! bell r+s ! po9t] indicates ! pu% button t has la/ be5 us$4 ,9 hotels or ap>tm5t h\ses an annunciator ) a s+le bell may ?us s]ve any numb] ( pu% buttons4 ,9 a burgl>-al>m sy/em ! annunciator numb]s are arrang$ to indicate ! w9d[s & o!r op5+s at :i* entrance might be made4 ,:5 ! al>m s\nds ! annunciator indicates ! place f :i* ! al>m is made4 ,table ,pu%es4--,call bells to be rung f ! d9+-room table are connect$ ) an annunciator or to a sep>ate bell4 ,! table pu%es may be tempor>ily clamp$ on ! edge ( ! table & connect$ by a cord to an atta*m5t set 9 ! floor or ! connection may be made by a foot plate set on ! floor4 ,9 ,fig4 #bdg is %[n a =m ( pu% ,p :i* is int5d$ to be clamp$ to ! edge ( ! table "u ! clo?4 ,! plate ,f =ms ! floor connection4 ,x is set p]man5tly ) ! upp] edge flu% ) ! surface ( ! floor4 ,! "p ,s1 9 :i* ! connect+ cord t]m9ates1 :5 ins]t$ 9 ! floor plate1 makes contact at ! po9ts ,c to =m an electric circuit ) ! batt]y4 ,! foot plate %[n 9 ,fig4 #bdh is only an enl>g$ pu% button :i* is set "u ! table 9 conv5i5t positions to be press$ ) ! foot4 ,its connection might be made z indicat$ or ) ! same floor connection z t ( ! prec$+ figure4 ,fig4 #bdi is a simpl] =m ( floor pu% 9 :i* a metallic plug is ins]t$ 9 ! floor plate4 ,:5 ! plug ,r is press$1 contact is made at ! po9ts ,c to =m ! circuit ) ! batt]y & bell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4--;,a kit*5 annunciator4 ,,fig4 #bdg4--,plug atta*m5t & table pu% = a d9+ table4 ,,fig4 #bdh4--;,foot plate & contact = table bell4 ,,fig4 #bdi4--;,call bell atta*m5t ) deta*able contact piece4 ,bell-r++ ,trans=m]s4--,! g5]al employm5t ( alt]nat+ electricity = all comm]cial s]vice requir+ di/ant transmission is because ( ! possibility ( *ang+ ! voltage to suit any condition4 ,! en]gy transmitt$ is det]m9$ by ! amp]es ( curr5t c>ri$ by ! wires & ! volts ( pressure by :i* x is impell$4 ,! product ( ^! two factors det]m9es ! watts ( en]gy transmitt$4 #aaj volts #a amp]e #aaj watts4 ,if ! voltage is rais$ to say t5 times ! orig9al int5sity ) ! same curr5t1 ! quantity ( en]gy is t5 times ! orig9al am\nt4 #aajj volts #a amp]e #aajj watts4 ,! c>ry+ capacity ( wires is det]m9$ by ! amp]es ( curr5t t c be transmitt$ )\t heat+4 ,! co/ ( copp] wire is su* t ! exp5se ( l>ge wires = c>ry+ a l>ge curr5t is unnecess>y :]e by rais+ ! voltage a small wire w p]=m ! same s]vice2 !re=e1 x is desirable to transmit electric en]gy at a high voltage & !n trans=m x to suit ! condition ( usage4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t may be trans=m$ to a high] or a l[] voltage to suit any condition by us+ /ep-up or /ep-d[n trans=m]s4 ,a trans=m] is a simple device compos$ ( two coils ( wire w\nd on a clos$ core ( iron4 ,! coil into :i* is s5t ! induc+ curr5t is ! prim>y4 ,t 9 :i* ! curr5t is induc$ is ! second>y coil4 ,! *ange 9 voltage betwe5 prim>y & second>y coils v>y z ! numb] ( turns ( wire :i* compose ! coils4 ,! h\se circuit may be /epp$ d[n f ! cu/om>y #aaj volts to a voltage su* z is furni%$ by a s+le dry cell1 or a batt]y ( cells4 ,9 pr9ciple1 ! action ( ! trans=m] is ! same z t ( ! induction coil1 a detail$ explanation ( :i* w be f\nd 9 any text-book ( physics4 ,ea* impulse ( curr5t 9 ! prim>y coil ( ! trans=m] magnetizes its core & ! magnetism ?us excit$ induces a correspond+ curr5t 9 ! second>y coil4 ,s9ce alt]nat+ curr5t 9 ! prim>y coil con/antly *anges ! pol>ity ( ! core1 ea* *ange ( magnetism induces curr5t 9 ! second>y coil4 ,small trans=m]s are frequ5tly us$ = op]at+ doorbells1 annunciators1 etc41 9 place ( prim>y batt]ies4 ,^! trans=m]s are also us$ to supply curr5t = light+ l[-p[] tung/5 lamps t _c be us$ ) ! ord9>y voltages employ$ 9 h\se light+4 ,! prim>y wires ( ! trans=m] are atta*$ to ! s]vice wires 9 ! h\se & f ! second>y wires voltages are tak5 to suit ! desir$ purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bej4--;,doorbell trans=m]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bea4--;,details ( doorbell trans=m]4 ,fig4 #bej %[s su* a trans=m] ) ! cov] p>tly brok5 away to expose ! int]ior con/ruction4 ,! wires f h\se ma9s ,,mm lead ! curr5t to ! prim>y coil ,p :i* is a l>ge numb] ( turns ( f9e wire w\nd ab\t a s(t-iron core4 ,! induc$ curr5t 9 ! second>y coil ,s is tak5 f ! contact po9ts #a1 #b1 #c & #d4 ,! con/ruction ( ! trans=m] coils %[n 9 ,fig4 #bej indicates ! prim>y wires at ,,ll ( ,fig4 #bea4 ,! wires ( ! prim>y coil are p]man5tly atta*$ to h\se wires4 ,! reactive effect ( ! magnetism 9 ! coil p]mits only en\gh curr5t to fl[ z w keep ! core excit$4 ,?is is a /ep-d[n trans=m] & ! second>y coil conta9s few] turns ( wire ?an ! prim>y coil4 ,s9ce ! voltage induc$ 9 ! second>y coil is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( turns ( wire 9 action1 ?is coil is s arrang$ t circuits =m$ by atta*m5t ) diff]5t contacts give a v>iety ( voltages4 ,! numb]s on ! front ( ,fig4 #bej correspond to ^? ( ,fig4 #bea4 ,! coils betwe5 contact #a & ! o!rs #b1 #c & #d1 repres5t diff]5t numb] ( turns ( wire & 9 !m is induc$ voltages correspond+ ) ! numb] ( turns ( wire 9 ea*4 ,! ,record+ ,wattmet]4--,to det]m9e ! am\nt ( electricity us$ by consum]s1 ea* circuit is provid$ ) "s =m ( wattmet]4 ,^! met]s might be m correctly call$ watt-h\r met]s s9ce !y regi/] ! watt-h\rs ( electrical en]gy t pass ?r\gh ! circuit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beb4--,record+ watt met]4 ,9 ! common type ( met]1 ! record+ app>atus 9 compos$ ( a motor & a regi/]+ dial4 ,! motor is int5d$ to rotate at a rate t is proportional to ! am\nt ( pass+ curr5t4 ,an example ( ?is device is ! ,?ompson induction met] ( ,fig4 #beb4 ,! motion ( ! alum9um disc se5 ?r\gh ! w9d[ 9 front indicates at any "t ! rate at :i* electricity is be+ us$4 ,?is con/itutes ! rotat+ "p ( ! motor4 ,x is propell$ by ! magnetism1 creat$ by ! pass+ curr5t1 & is s5sitive to e *ange t takes place 9 ! electric circuit4 ,ea* lamp1 heat] or motor t is br\ght into use or turn$ (f produces a *ange ( curr5t 9 ! conduct+ wires & ?is *ange is indicat$ by ! rate ( rotation ( ! disc4 ,ea* rotation ( ! disc repres5ts ! passage ( a def9ite am\nt ( electricity t is record$ on ! regi/]+ dials4 ,! %aft on :i* ! disc is m\nt$ is connect$ ) ! record+ me*anism by a screw :i* engages ) ! fir/ ( a tra9 ( ge>s4 ,^! ge>s h1 to ea* o!r1 a ratio ( #aj to #a2 t is1 t5 rotations ( any "r-h& ge>1 causes "o rotation ( ! ge> next to ! left4 ,! po9t]s on ! dial are atta*$ to ! ge> sp9dles4 ,"o rotation ( ! "r-h& dial w move ! po9t] next to ! left "o division on its dial4 ,ea* dial 9 succession w move 9 l ratio4 ,! met]s are c>efully calibrat$ & usually record ) tru?fulness ! am\nt ( electricity us$4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 subject to d]angem5t t produces incorrect regi/ration4 ,to ,read ! ,met]4--,fir/1 note c>efully ! unit 9 :i* ! dial ( ! met] reads4 ,! figures above ! dial circle indicate ! value ( "o complete revolution ( ! po9t] 9 t circle4 ,!re=e1 ea* division indicates "o-t5? ( ! am\nt m>k$ above or bel[ ! circle4 ,second1 9 read+1 note ! direction ( rotation ( ! po9t]s4 ,comm5c+ at ! "r1 ! fir/ po9t] rotates 9 ! direction ( ! h&s ( a clock 7clockwise72 ! second rotates c\nt]-clockwise2 ! ?ird1 clockwise2 etc41 alt]nately4 ,! direction ( rotation ( any "o po9t] may easily be det]m9$ by not+ ! direction ( ! sequ5ce ( figures plac$ ar\nd ea* division4 ,! arr[s 7%[n above7 indicate ! direction ( rotation ( ! po9t]s :5 ! met] is 9 op]ation4 ,?ird1 read ! figures indicat$ by ! po9t]s f "r to left1 sett+ d[n ! figures z !y are read1 i4e41 9 a position relative to ! position ( ! po9t]s4 ,,note3 ,"o revolution ( ! fir/ or "r-h& po9t] makes "o-t5? ( a revolution ( ! po9t] next to x on ! left4 ,"o revolution ( ?is second po9t] makes "o-t5? ( a revolution ( ! po9t] next to x on ! left1 etc4 ,!re=e1 if1 :5 read+ ! dial1 x is f\nd t ! second po9t] re/s v ne>ly ov] "o ( ! t5? divisions & x is d\btful z to :e!r x has pass$ t m>k1 x is only necess>y to ref] to ! po9t] next to x on ! "r4 ,if ?is po9t] on ! "r has n complet$ its revolution1 x %[s t ! second po9t] has n yet rea*$ ! division 9 "q4 ,if x has complet$ its revolution1 t is1 pass$ ! z]o1 x indicates t ! second po9t] has rea*$ ! division & ! figure correspond+ is to be set d[n = ! read+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bec;a4--,?is dial reads #idhd kil[att h\rs4 ,! =ego+ also applies to ! rema9+ po9t]s4 ,:5 x is desir$ to "k :e!r a po9t] has pass$ a t5? division m>k1 x is necess>y to ref] only to ! next po9t] to ! "r ( x4 ,f\r?1 see if ! regi/] is direct-read+1 i4e41 has no multiply+ con/ant4 ,"s regi/]s are n direct-read+ 9 t !y require multiply+ ! dial read+ by a con/ant su* z #aj or #ajj 9 ord] to obta9 ! true read+4 ,if ! regi/] be>s "s notation su* z 8,multiply by #ajj10 ! read+ z indicat$ by ! po9t]s %\ld be multipli$ by #aj or #ajj z ! case may be to det]m9e ! true am\nt ( en]gy consum$4 ,"s ( ! e>li] =ms ( met]s 7 equipp$ ) :at is kn[n z a 8non-direct-read+ regi/]40 ,9 ?is case1 ! read+ mu/ be multipli$ by ! figure appe>+ on ! dial z j expla9$1 b ! dial diff]s f ^? j describ$ 9 t ! multiply+ con/ant is g5]ally a fraction su* z #a_/b1 etc41 & ! dial has five po9t]s4 ,?is old] /yle ( regi/] reads 9 8watt-h\rs0 ( 8kil[att-h\rs40 ,fif?1 ! read+ ( ! dial does n necess>ily %[ ! watt-h\rs us$ dur+ ! pa/ mon?4 ,9 o!r words1 ! po9t]s d n always />t f z]o4 ,to det]m9e ! numb] ( watt-h\rs us$ dur+ a c]ta9 p]iod x is necess>y to read ! dial at ! beg9n+ ( a p]iod & aga9 at ! end ( t p]iod4 ,by subtract+ ! fir/ read+ f ! second1 ! numb] ( watt-h\rs or kil[att-h\rs us$ dur+ ! p]iod is obta9$4 ,! met] man1 hav+ 9 8 possession a record ( ! read+s ( ea* cu/om]'s met] = ! prec$+ mon?s1 is ?us able to det]m9e ! am\nt ( en]gy consum$ mon?ly4 ,,examples ,,( ,,met] ,,read+s ,fig4 #bec;a %[s an example ( an ord9>y dial read+4 ,comm5c+ at ! fir/ "r-h& po9t]1 ,fig4 #bec;c1 x is not$ t ! la/ figure pass$ ov] by ! po9t] is #a4 ,! next circle to ! left %[s ! figure la/ pass$ to be #b1 be>+ 9 m9d t ! direction ( ! rotation ( ?is po9t] is c\nt]-clockwise4 ,! la/ figure pass$ by ! next po9t] to ! left is #a1 :ile t pass$ by ! la/ po9t] to ! left is obvi\sly #i4 ,! read+ to be set d[n1 !re=e1 is #iaba4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bec;b4--,?is dial reads #iig kil[att h\rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bec;c4--,?is dial reads #iaba kil[att h\rs4 ,9 a simil> mann] ! dial %[n 9 ,fig4 #bec;b may be read4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ?ree ( ! po9t]s re/ ne>ly ov] ! divisions & c>e mu/ be us$ to foll[ ! direction to avoid error4 ,comm5c+ at ! "r1 ! fir/ po9t] indicates #g4 ,! second po9t] has pass$ #i & is approa*+ #j4 ,! ?ird po9t] appe>s to re/ directly ov] #j1 b s9ce ! second po9t] reads b #i1 ! ?ird _c h complet$ its revolution & h5ce ! figure la/ pass$ is set d[n :i* 9 ?is case is #i4 ,simil>ly1 ! f\r? or left-h& po9t] appe>s to re/ directly ov] #a b by ref]r+ to ! po9t] next to x on ! "r1 we f9d t its indication is #i z j expla9$4 ,!re=e1 ! f\r? po9t] _c h rea*$ #a1 & s ! figure la/ pass$ :i* is #j is set d[n1 :i* 9 ?is case is #i4 ,simil>ly1 ! f\r? or left-h& po9t] appe>s to re/ directly ov] #a1 b by ref]r+ to ! po9t] next to x on ! "r we f9d t its indication is #i z j expla9$4 ,!re=e1 ! f\r? po9t] _c h rea*$ #a1 & s we set d[n ! figure la/ pass$ :i* is #j4 ,! figures z !y h be5 set d[n1 !re=e1 are #jiig1 :i* indicates t #iig kil[att-h\rs ( electricity h be5 us$4 ,if1 = example1 ! read+ ( ?is met] = ! prec$+ mon? 0 #igf kil[att-h\rs1 ! numb] ( kil[att-h\rs us$ dur+ t mon? w\ld be #iig-igf #ba kil[att-h\rs4 ,/ate ,regulation ( ,met] ,s]vice4--,electric wattmet]s are subject to errors t may cause !m to run ei!r fa/ or sl[4 ,compla9ts made ( inaccurate records or read+s are usually rectifi$ by ! electric company4 ,9 _m ,/ates all public utilities are gov]n$ by laws t are =mulat$ by public utilities commissions or o!r bodies f :i* may be obta9$ bullet9s fully describ+ ! conditions requir$ ( public s]vice corporations or own]s ( public utilities4 ,! foll[+ quotation f ,bullet9 ,no4 ,v41 #bcc ( ! ,railroad ,commission ( ,wiscons91 w give an illu/ration ( ! requirem5t 9 t ,/ate4 ,,rule #ad4--;,,creep+ ,,met]s4--,no electric met] :i* regi/]s ^u 8no load0 %all be plac$ 9 s]vice or all[$ to rema9 9 s]vice4 ,?is means t :5 no electricity is be+ us$ 9 ! sy/em ! motor disc %\ld rema9 /ation>y & if x %[s any motion "u su* condition x is n record+ accurately4 ,,p]iodic ,,te/s ,,rule #ag4--;,ea* watt-h\r met] %all be te/$ accord+ to ! foll[+ s*$ule & adju/$ :5ev] x is f\nd to be 9 error m ?an #a p] c5t41 ! te/s bo? be=e & aft] adju/m5t be+ made at approximately ?ree-qu>t]s & "o-t5? ( ! rat$ capacity ( ! met]4 ,met]s op]at$ at l[ p[]-factor %all also be te/$ at approximately ! m9imum p[]-factor "u :i* !y w be requir$ to op]ate4 ,! te/s %all be made by comp>+ ! met]1 :ile connect$ 9 its p]man5t position1 on ! consum]'s premises ) approv$1 suitable /&>ds1 mak+ at lea/ two te/ runs at ea* load1 ( at lea/ #cj seconds ea*1 :i* agree )9 #a p] c5t4 ,s+le-phase1 induction-type met]s hav+ curr5t capacities n exce$+ #ej amp]es %all be te/$ at lea/ once e #d mon?s & z mu* (t5] z ! results obta9$ %all w>rant4 ,all s+le-phase induction-type met]s hav+ curr5t capacities exce$+ #ej amp]es & all polyphase & commutator-type met]s hav+ voltage rat+s n exce$+ #bej volts & curr5t capacities n exce$+ #ej amp]es %all be te/$ at lea/ once e #ab mon?s4 ,all o!r watt-h\r met]s %all be te/$ at lea/ once e #f mon?s4 ,,rule #bj4--,,reque/ ,,te/s4--,ea* utility furni%+ met]$ electric s]vice %all make a te/ ( ! accuracy ( any electricity met] ^u reque/ ( ! consum]1 provid$ ! consum] does n reque/ su* te/ m frequ5tly ?an once 9 #f mon?s4 ,a report giv+ ! results ( ea* reque/ te/ %all be made to ! consum] & ! complete1 orig9al record kept on file 9 ! (fice ( ! utility4 ,electric ,batt]ies4--,electric batt]ies are compos$ ( electric cells t are made 9 two g5]al types3 ! prim>y cell1 9 :i* electricity is g5]at$ by ! decomposition ( z9c2 & ! second>y cell or /orage cell 9 :i* electricity f a dynamo may be accumulat$ & ?us /or$4 ,electric cells are ! elem5ts ( :i* electric batt]ies are made2 a s+le electric cell is (t5 call$ a batt]y b ! batt]y is really two or m cells comb9$ to produce effects t _c be atta9$ by a s+le elem5t4 ,bo? prim>y & second>y batt]ies =m a "p ( ! h\sehold equipm5t b ! "w ( ! second>y batt]y is us$ m p>ticul>ly = electric light+1 ! op]ation ( small motors & = o!r purposes :]e cont9u\s curr5t is requir$4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be consid]$ 9 ano!r place4 ,prim>y batt]ies are us$ to op]ate call-bells1 table pu%es1 buzz]s1 night lat*es & v>i\s o!r =ms ( electric al>ms besides :i* !y are us$ 9 gas light]s1 !rmo/at motors & = _m special =ms1 all ( :i* =m an important "p 9 ! affairs ( ev]yday life4 ,prim>y batt]y cells = h\sehold use are made to be us$ 9 ! wet & dry =m1 b ! dry cell is n[ m ext5sively us$ ?an any o!r k9d & = mo/ purposes has supplant$ ! wet =m4 ,=m]ly all prim>y cells 7 made ( z9c & copp] plates plac$ 9 a solution call$ an electrolite1 t dissolv$ ! z9c & ?us g5]at$ electricity1 ! electrolite act+ z a conductor ( ! electricity to ! opposite plate4 ,9 lat] electric cells ! copp] 0 replac$ by plates ( c>bon & f ! z9c & c>bon cell 0 f9ally evolv$ ! pres5t-day dry cell4 ,:5 ! use ( electric cells rea*$ a po9t :]e portable batt]ies 7 requir$1 a =m 0 dem&$ f :i* ! solution c\ld n be lo/ accid5tally4 ,! fir/ electric cells 9 :i* ! electrolite 0 n fluid 01 !re=e1 call$ a dry cell4 ,^! cells are n completely dry4 ,! electrolite is made 9 ! =m ( a pa/e t acts 9 ! same mann] z ! fluid electrolite & is only dry 9 t x is n fluid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bed4--;,electric dry cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bee4--;,details ( electric dry cell4 ,9 con/ruction ! dry cell is %[n 9 ,figs4 #bed & #bee1 ! =m] %[+ its ext]ior & ! latt] expos+ its int]nal con/ruction4 ,! conta9] is a z9c c :i* is l9$ ) por\s pap] to prev5t ! fill] f com+ into contact ) ! z9c4 ,! z9c fur!r is ! active electrode1 ! *emical de/ruction ( :i* g5]ates ! electricity4 ,! p>ts enclos$ 9 ! conta9] are3 a c>bon rod1 :i* acts z ! positive pole2 & ! fill]1 compos$ ( f9ely divid$ c>bon mix$ ) manganese dioxide & wet ) a solution ( salammoniac4 ,! composition plug1 made ( coal-t> products & ros91 is int5d$ to keep ! cont5ts ( ! c 9 place & prev5t ! evaporation ( ! moi/ure4 ,b9d+ po/s atta*$ to ! c>bon rod & sold]$ to ! c furni% ! &-poles4 ,9 ! action ( cell1 ! salammoniac attacks ! z9c 9 :i* *emical action electricity is evolv$4 ,! electricity is conduct$ to ! c>bon pole ?r\gh ! c>bon & ! salammoniac solution :i* 9 ?is case is ! electrolite4 ,9 ! dissolution ( ! z9c1 hydrog5 gas is lib]at$ :i* adds to ! resi/ance ( ! cell & ?us r$uces ! curr5t4 ,! pres5ce ( ! hydrog5 is increas$ :5 ! action ( ! cell is rapid & ! decrease 9 curr5t is said to be due to pol>ization4 ,! manganese dioxide is mix$ ) ! fill] 9 ord] t ! free hydrog5 may comb9e ) ! oxide & ?us r$uce ! resi/ance4 ,?is process is kn[n z depol>ization4 ,! comb9ation betwe5 ! hydrog5 & ! oxide is sl[ & = ?is reason ! depol>ization ( batt]ies sometimes require sev]al h\rs4 ,dry cells are usually conta9$ 9 pap] c>tons to prev5t ! surfaces f com+ into contact & ?us de/roy+ _! electrical action4 ,! be/ cell is t :i* gives ! greate/ am\nt ( curr5t = ! longe/ "t4 ,"u any condition ! work+ value ( a cell is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( amp]es ( curr5t x c furni%4 ,! curr5t is measur$ by a batt]y te/] su* z ,fig4 #beg4 ,! connection ( ! te/] is plac$ 9 contact ) ! pole ( ! cell or batt]y & ! o!r connection plac$ on !-pole4 ,! po9t] w imm$iately indicate ! curr5t giv5 out by ! batt]y4 ,a new dry cell w give #bj or m amp]es ( curr5t = a %ort "t b if us$ cont9u\sly ! quantity ( curr5t w be r$uc$ by pol>iz+ until b a v small am\nt is g5]at$4 ,a cell t indicates less ?an #e amp]es %\ld be replac$4 ,if %ort-circuit$1 t is if ! poles are connect$ )\t any int]v5+ resi/ance1 a l>ge am\nt ( curr5t w be giv5 b ! cell w soon we> out & possibly be ru9$4 ,a cell %\ld1 !re=e1 nev] be all[$ to become %ort-circuit$4 ,! voltage ( a cell is practically cont9u\s & %\ld be f #a4e to #a volt4 ,x is q possible t a cell may possess its normal voltage & yet deliv] little curr5t2 ! voltage ( a cell does n indicate its work+ prop]ty4 ,9 ord] to be assur$ ( active cells !y %\ld be te/$ at ! "t ( pur*ase ) an ammet]4 ,! moi/ure 9 ! pa/e ( a cell is t :i* =ms ! circuit betwe5 ! z9c & ! c>bon elem5ts4 ,if ! pa/e has dri$ out its resi/ance is increas$ & ! cell g5]ates little curr5t4 ,! voltage ( su* a cell may be normal :ile ! amp]age is v l[4 ,cells 9 ?is condition may be reviv$ by add+ moi/ure to ! pa/e z a tempor>y rem$y4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by punctur+ ! c ) a nail & add+ wat]4 ,a solution ( salammoniac may be us$ in/ead ( wat] & ! cell soak$ to accompli% ! same purpose2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is only a tempor>y exp$i5t4 ,temp]ature influ5ces ! work+ prop]ties ( an electric cell 9 pron\nc$ mann]4 ,! moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! cell is compos$ ( ammonium *loride & z9c *loride & consequ5tly ! resi/ance ( ! cell increases ) ! fall ( temp]ature2 ! effect ( ! resi/ance ?us add$ is a decrease 9 ! fl[ ( curr5t4 ,batt]ies %\ld be kept 9 a temp]ature z ne>ly z possible t ( #gj;,f4 ,! batt]y rega9s its normal rate ( dis*>ge :5 ! temp]ature is re/or$4 ,! normal voltage & amp]age = a giv5 make ( cell is practically ! same = all4 ,! size ( ! cell does n 9 any way influ5ce ! voltage4 ,small cells & l>ge cells are ! same4 ,! l>ge cells are advantage\s only 9 t !y give out a great] numb] ( amp]e-h\rs ( en]gy4 ,all batt]ies are rat$ 9 ! numb] ( amp]e-h\rs ( curr5t !y are capable ( furni%+4 ,! amp]e-h\r repres5ts an amp]e ( curr5t = "o h\r4 ,on ?is basis all batt]ies are rat$ = ! total am\nt ( en]gy !y are capable ( produc+4 ,if ! batt]y is work$ at a high curr5t1 its life is %ort2 if h[ev]1 x is dis*>g$ at a l[ rate1 its life %\ld be long4 ,9 all cases ! product ( ! numb] ( amp]es & ! numb] ( h\rs con/itute ! amp]e-h\rs ( en]gy produc$4 ,batt]y ,=mation4--,= ord9>y h\sehold "w z t ( op]at+ doorbells1 etc41 ! cells :i* =m a batt]y are jo9$ 9 s]ies1 t is ! positive or c>bon pole ( "o cell is jo9$ to ! z9c or negative pole ( ! next4 ,! cells s connect$ are plac$ 9 circuit ) ! bell & pu% button4 ,if by accid5t ! two cells ( a batt]y are jo9$ ) bo? c>bon poles or bo? z9c poles toge!r ! batt]y w give out no curr5t because ! voltage is oppos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bef4--;,batt]y comb9ations4 ,9 ! use ( batt]ies = ignition z = gasol9e eng9es1 automobiles1 etc41 ! arrangem5t ( ! cells has frequ5tly a decid$ influ5ce on ! effect produc$4 ,9 ,fig4 #bef ,a is repres5t$ f\r cells jo9$ 9 s]ies1 t is ! c>bon or poles are jo9$ ) ! z9c or-poles1 alt]nately4 ,connect$ 9 ?is mann] if ea* cell gives #a4e volts ! batt]y w give #d #a4e #f volts2 ! curr5t1 h[ev]1 w rema9 z t ( a s+le cell4 ,if ! cells s+ly give #bj amp]es1 ! batt]y w give #bj amp]es4 ,:5 cells are connect$ 9 ?is =m ! curr5t passes ?r\gh ea* cell 9 turn & is z mu* a "p ( ! circuit z ! wires4 ,%\ld "o ( ! cells be 8dead0--t is deliv]+ no curr5t--x w act z additional resi/ance & ! curr5t is r$uc$4 ,:5 jo9$ 9 multiple or p>allel connection z 9 ,fig4 #bef ,b1 9 :i* all simil> b9d+ po/s are connect$1 ! effect is decid$ly diff]5t4 ,9 ! multiple connection all ( ! z9cs are jo9$ to act z a s+le z9c & all ( ! c>bons are likewise jo9$ & act z a s+le c>bon4 ,9 su* a comb9ation ! voltage w be t ( a s+le cell #a4e volts1 b ! amp]age w be f\r times t ( a s+le cell or #hj amp]es4 ,! diagrams & foll[+ descriptions ( possible comb9ations 7 tak5 f a bullet9 on batt]y connections issu$ by ! ,fr5* ,batt]y & ,c>bon ,co4 ,by comb9+ ! s]ies & multiple connections1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 ,c1 bo? ! voltage & curr5t c be increas$ ov] t deliv]$ by "o cell4 ,ref]r+ to ! figure1 x is se5 t 9 ea* ( ! two r[s ( f\r cells ! cells are connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,?is w\ld produce #f volts & #bj amp]es = ! s]ies ( f\r :i* may n[ be assum$ z a unit1 s t ! two r[s c be imag9$ z two l>ge cells1 ea* ( :i* has a normal output ( #bj amp]es at #f volts4 ,n[ by connect+ ! simil> poles ( two su* l>ge cells !y are 9 multiple & we get an increas$ curr5t or #dj amp]es & #f volts1 :i* is ! capacity ( ! eight cells connect$ z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,?is is commonly designat$ z a multiple-s]ies batt]y4 ,fig4 #bef ,d illu/rates a multiple-s]ies connection made 9 a diff]5t mann]1 b :i* produces ! same voltage & curr5t z ! above m5tion$4 ,9 ,fig4 ,d1 two cells at a "t are connect$ 9 multiple1 & ^! sets are !n connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,! capacity ( ea* set ( two is #dj amp]es at #a-a_/b volts1 & z ^! f\r sets are connect$ 9 s]ies ! total output ( ! eight cells comb9$ is #f volts & #dj amp]es1 ! same z t produc$ by ! connections %[n 9 ,fig4 ,c4 ,fig4 ,e %[s ! multiple-s]ies connection illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 ,d1 appli$ to twelve cells 9 :i* f\r sets ( ?ree cells ea* are wir$ 9 s]ies1 ! ?ree cells ( a set be+ 9 multiple s t ! capacity ( a set is #a-a_/b volts & #fj amp]es4 ,by connect+ ! f\r sets 9 s]ies z %[n1 ! total capacity w be #fj amp]es at #f volts4 ,! use ( ! s]ies-multiple connection is a di/9ct /ep =w>d 9 dry-cell use4 ,! arrangem5t ( cells %[n 9 ,figs4 ,c or ,d is bett] ?an ! arrangem5t 9 ,fig4 ,a1 9 j ! same way t a team ( horses is bett] ?an a s+le horse4 ,"o horse pull+ a load ( #b tons may become exhau/$ 9 "o h\r1 b two horses pull+ t same load may "w cont9u\sly = six h\rs4 ,x is true t 9 ,fig4 ,c !re are twice z _m cells us$ z 9 ,fig4 ,a1 b ! eight cells 9 ,fig4 ,c w d f ?ree to f\r times z mu* "w z ! f\r cells 9 ,fig4 ,a4 ,9 o!r words1 :ile m cells are us$ 9 ! multiple-s]ies arrangem5t1 ! am\nt ( s]vice p] cell is great] & ! s]vice is1 !re=e1 *eap] 9 ! multiple-s]ies arrangem5t4 ,"s batt]y manufactur]s sell _! batt]ies put up 9 boxes1 ! cells be+ connect$ up 9 multiple-s]ies & surr\nd$ by pit* or t> to keep out ! moi/ure4 ,?is has c]ta9 advantages z well z c]ta9 disadvantages4 ,"o ( ! objections to ?is me?od ( putt+ up dry cells is t if by any *ance "o cell out ( ! eight or twelve :i* are buri$ 9 ! pit* is defective x w run all ( ! cells d[n1 & be+ buri$ (f]s no means ( detection or removal4 ,x is n possible to gu>antee absolutely t a weak cell w n be occasionally includ$ 9 a l>ge numb]1 s dry cells may be expect$ to v>y to "s degree among !mselves4 ,x is int]e/+ to "k ! effect ( "o weak cell on a s]ies-multiple arrangem5t4 ,if1 = example1 9 ,fig4 ,c or ,fig4 ,d1 ! dott$ l9e connect+ 7a7 & 7b7 be us$ to indicate a cell :i* is p>tly %ort-circuit$ by int]nal weakness or ext]nal defect ! result is z foll[s3 ,9 ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 ,c1 :]e "o cell ( ! upp] f\r is %ort-circuit$1 ! l[] f\r w dis*>ge ?r\gh ! upp] f\r ev5 ?\gh ! ext]nal circuit is n clos$2 t is1 "o %ort-circuit$ cell w cause a run-d[n 9 all ( ! cells4 ,9 ,fig4 ,d1 h[ev]1 "o %ort-circuit$ cell w influ5ce n ! entire set b ! o!r "o to :i* x is directly connect$4 ,!re is ?us se5 to be an advantage 9 ! arrangem5t ( ,fig4 ,d & ,fig4 ,e1 ov] ! arrangem5t 9 ,fig4 ,c4 ,9 mak+ connections betwe5 cells insulat$ wire %\ld be us$1 or special batt]y connectors are pref]ably employ$4 ,! ends ( ! wires or connectors & ! b9d+ po/s mu/ be scrap$ clean s t good electrical connection c be made betwe5 ! two1 & ! knurl$ nuts %\ld be screw$ tight into place4 ,c>e mu/ also be tak5 t ! pa/ebo>d cov]+ ar\nd ! batt]y is n torn4 ,?is w\ld all[ contact betwe5 ! z9c conta9]s1 & ?us %ort-circuit ! cells4 ,! batt]ies %\ld be plac$ s t ! z9c cans & ! b9d+ po/s ( any cell d n come into contact ) any o!r cell4 ,vibration might cause en\gh motion = ! brass t]m9al to we> ?r\gh ! pa/ebo>d ( ! neighbor+ cell & make contact ) ! z9c c4 ,diff]5t classes ( "w require diff]5t am\nts ( curr5t at diff]5t voltages & by *oos+ ! prop] comb9ation ( s]ies1 multiple1 or s]ies-multiple connections practically e requirem5t c be fulfill$4 ,= electric bells1 telegraph in/rum5ts1 m9iature lights1 toy motors ) f9e wire w9d+s1 etc41 s]ies connection is recomm5d$ = ! reason t ! resi/ance ( ! ext]nal circuit is high & a l>ge voltage is necess>y4 ,= sp>k coils1 magnets & toy motors ) l>ge wire w9d+s1 multiple or s]ies-multiple connection ( batt]ies %\ld be us$ z a high voltage is n requir$4 ,= "s "w1 gas-eng9e ignition especially1 x is economical to h two complete sets ( batt]ies1 ei!r ( :i* c be ?r[n into ! circuit at w1 s t :ile "o set is deliv]+ curr5t ! o!r is recup]at+4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t by us+ two sets ( batt]ies1 prop]ly connect$ to give ! desir$ curr5t1 ! life ( ea* set is increas$ ab\t f\r times4 ,?us x is se5 t a sav+ ( #ej p] c5t4 is effect$ 9 ! co/ ( ! batt]ies4 ,batt]y ,te/]s4--,! 8/r5g?0 ( a cell is det]m9$ by ! amp]es ( curr5t x is capable ( produc+2 !re=e1 a met] t w indicate ! am\nt ( curr5t be+ produc$ is us$ to te/ ! curr5t /r5g? ( ! cell4 ,batt]y te/]s are made to indicate voltage or amp]age & sometimes ! in/rum5t is made to indicate bo? volts & amp]es4 ,z expla9$ above1 ! voltage ( a cell is n a true indicator ( its /r5g?4 ,! amp]e met] or ammet]1 z x is t]m$1 is ! prop] indicator ( ! /r5g? ( ! cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beg4--;,batt]y te/]4 ,! common batt]y te/] does n always give ! exact numb] ( amp]es ( curr5t1 b x indicates ! relative /r5g? :i* is really ! ?+ desir$4 ,:5 ! curr5t f an active cell is once %[n on ! dial ( ! te/]1 any o!r cell ( ! same int5sity w be indicat$ 9 l am\nt4 ,electric ,conductors4--,cov]$ wire = c>ry+ electricity is made 9 a great v>iety ( =ms & designat$ by names t h be5 sugge/$ by _! use4 ,^! wires are made ( a s+le /r& or 9 cables1 :]e sev]al wires are collect$1 insulat$ & =m$ into a s+le piece4 ,cables may conta9 any numb] ( insulat$ wires4 ,! sizes ( wires are det]m9$ by a wire gage4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,b4 ,s4 gage is us$ z ! /&>d = all wires & %eet metal4 ,! gage orig9at$ ) ! ,br[n ,%>p ,mfg4 ,co4 ( ,provid5ce1 ,r4 ,i41 & has become a national /&>d by common cons5t4 ,! numb]s range f ,no4 #jjjj to ,no4 #fj4 ,! size ( wire = h\sehold electrical s]vice ranges f ,no4 #ah :i* is #j4jd in* 9 diamet] to ,no4 #h :i* is #j4abh in* across4 ,! c>ry+ capacities 9 amp]es ( wires1 z giv5 by ! ,und]writ]s' table ( sizes f ,no4 #h to ,no4 #ah1 are z foll[s3 -------------------------------- ,wire ,rubb] ,o!r gage insulation1 insulation1 ,no4 amp]es amp]es -------------------------------- #h #ce #ej #aj #be #cj #ab #bj #be #ad #ae #bj #af #f #aj #ah #c #e -------------------------------- ,lamp ,cord4--,! flexible cord us$ = drop lights1 connectors1 portable lamps1 ext5sions1 etc41 is made ( two cords twi/$ toge!r or two cords laid p>allel & cov]$ ) braid$ silk or cotton4 ,! conductors consi/ ( a numb] ( ,no4 #cj ,b4 ,s4 gage1 unanneal$ copp] wires twi/$ into a cable ( requir$ capacity4 ,! conductor is w\nd ) f9e cotton ?read ov] :i* is a lay] ( seamless rubb]1 & ! :ole is cov]$ ) braid$ cotton or silk4 ,lamp cord is sold 9 ?ree grades1 old code1 new code1 & comm]cial1 :i* v>y only 9 ! ?ickness & quality ( rubb] :i* encloses ! conductor4 ,! new code lamp cord is id5tical ) ! old code =m except t x is requir$ by ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s to be cov]$ ) a high] quality ( rubb] insulation ?an 0 us$ 9 ! old =m4 ,! comm]cial cord is n recogniz$ by ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,und]writ]s4 ,x is practically ! same z t describ$ b does n con=m to ! te/s prescrib$ = ! new code cord4 ,! sizes ( ! conductors enclos$ 9 ! lamp cord are made equal 9 c>ry+ capacity to ! /&>d wire gage numb]s4 ,! sizes ord9>ily us$ are ,no4 #ah & #bj gage b !y are made 9 sizes f ,no4 #aj to ,no4 #bb ( ! ,br[n ,%>p gage4 ,portable ,cord4--,?is is a t]m us$ to designate re9=c$ lamp cord4 ,! wires are laid p>allel & are cov]$ z ) a supplem5t>y insulation ( rubb]4 ,! additional insulation & ! braid$ cov]+ assumes a cyl9drical =m4 ,! cov]+ is saturat$ ) wea!rpro( comp\nd1 wax$ & poli%$4 ,annunciator ,wire4--,?is wire is made 9 ! usual sizes & cov]$ ) two lay]s ( cotton ?read saturat$ ) a special wax & highly poli%$4 ,z ! "n implies x is us$ = annunciators1 door bells & o!r purposes ( l importance4 ,private ,electric ,g5]at+ ,plants4--,! conv5i5ces to be d]iv$ f ! use ( electricity 7 = _m ye>s available only by ^? :o liv$ 9 di/ribut+ areas cov]$ by comm]cial electrical g5]at+ plants4 ,except 9 t[ns ( suffici5t size to w>rant ! erection ( exp5sive light & p[] sy/ems or along ! l9es ( electric p[] transmission1 curr5t = dome/ic purposes 0 n obta9able4 ,)9 a comp>atively few ye>s !re h be5 develop$ a numb] ( small electric g5]at+ sy/ems t are suitable = supply+ ! av]age h\sehold ) ! electric en]gy = all dome/ic conv5i5ces4 ,! comb9ation ( ! gasol9e eng9e1 ! electric dynamo & ! /orage batt]y h made possible g5]at+ app>atus t is op]at$ ) ! m9imum ( difficulty & :i* supplies all ( ! electric appliances t 7 =m]ly s]v$ only f comm]cial electric circuits4 ,an electric g5]at+ sy/em is commonly t]m$ an electric plant4 ,x consi/s ( an eng9e = ! developm5t ( p[]1 a dynamo = *ang+ ! p[] into electricity &--to be ( ! greate/ s]vice--a /orage batt]y = ! accumulation ( a supply ( en]gy to be us$ at su* times z are n conv5i5t to keep ! dynamo 9 active op]ation4 ,su* a comb9ation1 ea* "p compris$ ( me*anism ) :i* ! av]age h\sehold] is unfamili>1 seems at fir/ too great a complication to put into successful practice4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 is n ! case4 ,! op]ation ( small electric g5]at+ plants is no long] an exp]im5t4 ,_! g5]al use te/ifies to _! successful s]vice4 ,! work+ pr9ciples are 9 mo/ cases ^? ( elem5t>y physics comb9$ ) me*anism1 ! managem5t ( :i* is n difficult to compreh5d4 ,su* plants are made to suit e condition ( application & at a co/ t is condusive to g5]al employm5t4 ,9 a brief space x is n possible to ent] into a detail$ discussion ( ! gasol9e eng9e1 ! electric dynamo1 & ! /orage batt]y ) ! v>i\s appliances necess>y = _! op]ation2 x is1 !re=e1 int5d$ to give only a g5]al description ( ! lead+ features ( ea*4 ,! manufactur]s ( su* plants furni% to _! cu/om]s & to o!rs :o are int]e/$ detail$ in=mation ) explicit in/ructions = _! successful managem5t4 ,! fir/ private light+ plants 7 made up ( p>ts built by diff]5t manufactur]s & assembl$ to =m g5]at+ sy/ems ) little reg>d to _! adaptability4 ,a gasol9e eng9e belt$ to a dynamo ( ! prop] g5]at+ capacity suppli$ ! electricity4 ,nei!r ! eng9es nor ! dynamos 7 p>ticul>ly suit$ to ! "w to be p]=m$1 yet ^! comb9ations 7 suffici5tly successful to comm& a ready sale4 ,! en]gy ?us g5]at$ 0 accumulat$ 9 a /orage batt]y f :i* 0 tak5 ! curr5t = a light+ & heat+ device4 ,besides ! g5]at+ & /orage app>atus !re is requir$ 9 su* a sy/em1 a swit*bo>d1 to :i* are atta*$ ! necess>y met]s & swit*es t are requir$ to measure & direct ! curr5t to ! v>i\s electric circuits4 ,=esight$ manufactur]s1 compreh5d+ ! probable future dem&1 began ! con/ruction ( ! v>i\s p>ts1 suit$ to ! "w & ! conditions "u :i* !y 7 to be employ$4 ,! manufacture ( app>atus1 design$ = ! special s]vice & compos$ ( ! fewe/ possible p>ts1 has r$uc$ ! op]at+ difficulty to a po9t ( relative simplicity4 ,exp]i5ce 9 ! use ( a l>ge numb] ( ^! plants has reveal$ to ! mak] ! c\rse ( _m m9or difficulties ( op]ation & ! means ( _! correction4 ,! me*anism has be5 improv$ to prev5t possible d]angem5t & to simplify ! means ( control1 until ! private electric plant is successfully employ$ by ^? :o h _h no =m] exp]i5ce ) p[]-g5]at+ ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beh4--;,h\sehold electric g5]at+ plant4 ,z an example ( ! private electric plant ,fig4 #beh %[s ! app>atus includ$ 9 a comb9$ eng9e1 dynamo & swit*bo>d1 connect$ ) a /orage batt]y4 ,! relative size ( ! ma*9e is %[n by comp>ison ) ! girl 9 ! act ( />t+ ! motor4 ,?is plant is ( capacity suitable = supply+ an av]age home ) electricity = all ord9>y dome/ic uses4 ,a ne>] view ( ! g5]at+ app>atus is giv5 9 ,fig4 #bei 9 :i* all ( ! ext]ior p>ts are nam$4 ,an int]ior view ( ! g5]at+ app>atus is giv5 9 ,fig4 #bfj1 9 :i* is expos$ all ( ! work+ p>ts4 ,! "r-h& side ( ! picture %[s all ( ! p>ts ( ! gasol9e eng9e t furni%es ! p[] = driv+ ! g5]ator4 ,?is is an example ( an air-cool$ gasol9e eng9e 9 :i* ! excess heat develop$ 9 ! cyl9d] is c>ri$ away by a dr\ght ( air4 ,! air draft is induc$ by ! fly:eel ( ! eng9e1 :i* is con/ruct$ z a fan4 ,! blades ( ! fan1 :5 9 motion1 are s set z to draw air into ! top ( ! eng9e cas+ & exhau/ x f ! rim ( ! :eel4 ,! air 9 pass+ takes up ! heat 9 excess ( t necess>y = ! prop] cyl9d] temp]ature4 ,?is =m ( cyl9d] cool+ takes ! place ( ! cu/om>y wat] circulation & ?us elim9ates its att5d+ s\rces ( tr\ble4 ,9 pr9ciple ! eng9e is ! same z is employ$ 9 automobiles & o!r p[] g5]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bei4--;,comb9$ motor1 electric g5]ator & swit*bo>d4 ,on ! left-h& side is se5 ! dynamo & swit*bo>d4 ,! dynamo armature is atta*$ to ! crank%aft ( ! eng9e by :i* x is rotat$ 9 a magnetic field to produce ! desir$ am\nt ( electricity4 ,! bru%es1 9 contact ) ! commutator1 conduct ! electricity z x is g5]at$ 9 ! armature1 :i* aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! swit*bo>d is made available f ! two wires at ! top ( ! bo>d m>k$ 8light & p[] wires40 ,^! wires are connect$ ) ! /orage batt]y & also to ! h\se circuits ?r\gh :i* ! curr5t is to be s5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4--;,details ( motor1 electric g5]ator & swit*bo>d4 ,ref]r+ to ! swit*bo>d ( ,fig4 #bei1 ! ?ree swit*es & ! ammet] comprise ! necess>y accessories4 ,! />t+ swit* is s arrang$ t by press+ ! lev] a curr5t ( electricity f ! /orage batt]y is s5t ?r\gh ! dynamo4 ,! dynamo act+ z a motor />ts ! eng9e4 ,:5 ! eng9e has atta9$ its prop] spe$ its function z a dynamo ov]comes ! curr5t pressure f ! batt]y & s5ds electricity into ! cells to re/ore ! exp5d$ en]gy1 or if s desir$ ! curr5t may be us$ directly f ! dynamo = any h\sehold purpose4 ,! box enclos+ ! swit* conta9s a magnetic circuit-break] s con/ruct$ t :5 ! batt]y is completely *>g$ ! swit* automatically releases its contact & /ops ! eng9e4 ,! 8/opp+ swit*0 at ! "r ( ! bo>d & ! 8swit* = light & circuit0 on ! left are us$ respectively = /opp+ ! eng9e & = op5+ & clos+ ! h\se circuits4 ,! met] p]=ms a multiple function1 9 t x %[s at any "t ! condition ( *>ge 9 ! /orage batt]y1 ! rate at :i* curr5t is ent]+ or leav+ ! batt]y & also acts to /op ! eng9e :5 ! batt]y is *>g$4 ,at any "t ! po9t] rea*es ! m>k indicat$ 9 ! picture1 ! ignition circuit is automatically brok5 & ! eng9e /ops4 ,! fuses on ! bo>d 9 ?is case p]=m ! same function z ^? already describ$4 ,/orage ,batt]ies4--,^! batt]ies h already be5 m5tion$ z second>y batt]ies4 ,!y are sometimes call$ electric accumulators4 ,! electricity is /or$ or accumulat$1 n by reason ( ! de/ruction ( an electrode z 9 ! prim>y cell b by ! *emical *ange t takes place 9 ! plates z ! *>g+ curr5t is s5t ?r\gh ! cell4 ,:5 ! batt]y is dis*>g$1 ! curr5t f ! dynamo is s5t ?r\gh ! batt]y circuit 9 ! rev]se direction to t ( ! dis*>ge & ! plates are re/or$ to _! orig9al condition4 ,! action t takes place 9 *>g+ & dis*>g+ is due to *emical *anges t take place 9 ! plates & also 9 ! solution or electrolyte 9 :i* ! plates are imm]s$4 ,!re are two types ( /orage batt]ies1 ^? made ( lead plates imm]s$ 9 an acid electrolyte & ! ,edison batt]y :i* is compos$ ( iron-nickel cells imm]s$ 9 a cau/ic pota% electrolyte4 ,! =m] type is mo/ commonly us$ & is ! "o to be describ$4 ,! lead-plate cell illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #bfb %[s all ( ! p>ts ( a work+ elem5t4 ,! plates are made 9 ! =m ( lead grids :i* :5 fill$ to suit ! requirem5ts ( _! action1 =m ! positive & negative electrodes4 ,! negative plates are fill$ ) f9ely divid$ metallic lead :i* :5 *>g$ are slate gray 9 color4 ,! positive plates are fill$ ) lead oxide4 ,:5 *>g$ !y are *ocolate br[n 9 color4 ,9 ! figure !re are ?ree positive & f\r negative plates :i* toge!r =m ! elem5t1 !n ) _! sep>ators are plac$ 9 a solution ( sulphuric acid electrolyte4 ,! sep>ators are ?9 pieces ( wood & p]=at$ rubb] plates t keep ! positive & negative plates f t\*+ ea* o!r & keep 9 place ! dis9tegration produc$ by ! electro-*emical action ( ! cell4 ,! unit ( electric capacity 9 batt]ies is ! amp]e-h\r4 ,! cell illu/rat$ w accumulate #hj amp]e-h\rs ( en]gy4 ,x w dis*>ge an amp]e ( curr5t = #hj h\rs4 ,if desir$ x may be dis*>g$ at ! rate ( two amp]es = #dj h\rs1 or f\r amp]es = #bj h\rs1 or at any o!r rate ( amp]es & h\rs1 ! product ( :i* is #hj4 ,! numb] ( amp]e-h\rs a cell w accumulate w dep5d on ! area ( ! positive & negative plates2 l>ge cells w /ore a great] numb] ( amp]e-h\rs ?an ^? ( small size4 ,! cells1 no matt] :at size1 give an av]age electric pressure ( #b volts4 ,! plates are jo9$ by heavy plate-/raps connect+ all ( ! positives on "o end & all ( ! negative k9d on ! opposite end4 ,to insure rigidity ! two sets are secur$ to ! rubb] cov] by locknuts4 ,9 ?is cell ! plates are susp5d$ f ! cov]4 ,! plate t]m9als are made ( heavy lead connectors t :5 =m$ into a batt]y are jo9$ toge!r ) lead bolts & nuts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4--;,hydromet] = te/+ /orage batt]y electrolyte4 ,! electrolyte is a solution ( pure sulphuric acid 9 di/ill$ wat] & on its purity dep5ds1 9 a great measure1 its action & l5g? ( life4 ,! electrolyte is made ( a def9ite d5sity :i* is express$ z its specific gravity4 ,:5 fully *>g$ ! electrolyte w te/ #abbj by ! hydromet]4 ,t is1 x w be #a4bbj heavi] ?an wat]4 ,:5 dis*>g$ x w te/ by ! hydromet] #aahe4 ,?is means t 9 dis*>g+ ! d5sity has be5 r$uc$ to #a4ahe t ( wat]4 ,! *emical *ange 9 ! electrolyte is1 !re=e1 an important "p ( ! *>ge & dis*>ge ( ! cell4 ,! d5sity ( an electrolyte may be det]m9$ by a hydromet] su* z ,fig4 #bfa4 ,?is is an ord9>y glass hydromet] su* z is us$ = det]m9+ ! d5sity ( fluids1 enclos$ 9 a glass tube1 to :i* is atta*$ a rubb] bulb4 ,! po9t ( ! tube is ins]t$ into ! op5+ at ! top ( ! cell & ! electrolyte drawn into ! tube by ! reop5+ ( ! collaps$ bulb4 ,! d5sity is !n read f ! /em ( ! hydromet]4 ,! ,pilot ,cell4--,9 ord] to make app>5t ?is d5sity ( ! electrolyte )\t ! necessity ( its measurem5t ) a hydromet]1 "o cell ( ! batt]y is provid$ ) a gage z t ( ,fig4 #bfb4 ,?is is an enl>gem5t ( ! end ( ! j> 9 :i* floats a holl[ glass ball ( su* weight t x w at any "t indicate by its position ! relative d5sity ( ! solution4 ,:5 ! cell is *>g$ ! ball /&s at ! top ( ! gage & indicates a d5sity #abbj2 :5 dis*>g$ x is at ! bottom & express$ by its position a d5sity ( #aahe4 ,! electrolyte d5sities are ! indicators ( ! conditions ( *>ge4 ,! ball by its position %[s at a glance ! quantity ( electricity 9 ! batt]y4 ,! voltage usually employ$ 9 h\sehold electric plants is t ( a batt]y compos$ ( #af cells4 ,s9ce ! normal voltage ( a /orage cell is #b volts su* a batt]y jo9$ 9 s]ies is #cb volts4 ,?is voltage = ! purpose fulfills all ord9>y conditions & is g5]ally employ$4 ,a batt]y ( #af cells1 ( #hj-;amp]e-h\r capacity1 w deliv] curr5t ( #a amp]e = #hj h\rs at #cb volts int5sity4 ,a #bj-watt lamp on a #cb-volt circuit requires #b_/c amp]e = its op]ation4 ,! batt]y w1 !re=e1 keep light$ "o su* lamp = #if h\rs1 or f\r #bj-watt lamps may be light$ cont9u\sly = #bd h\rs1 or eight lamps = #ab h\rs1 be=e re*>g+4 ,aside f its ability to supply ! requir$ light = ! av]age home1 x furni%es en]gy suffici5t = heat+ a flat-iron or o!r heat+ app>atus1 to op]ate motors = pump+ wat]1 driv+ a wa%+ ma*9e or any o!r ( ! dome/ic requirem5ts4 ,su* plants are made 9 sizes to suit any condition ( requirem5t4 ,9 l>ge e/abli%m5ts a l>g] motor g5]ator & batt]y w be necess>y ) :i* to g5]ate & /ore ! requir$ electricity b 9 any case suitable app>atus is to be obta9$ to meet any requirem5t ( light1 heat or p[] develop$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4--;,electric /orage cell4 ,national ,electrical ,code4--,! details gov]n+ ! size1 ! mann] ( plac+ & secur+ wires 9 build+s is includ$ 9 ! regulations publi%$ by ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s z ! ,national ,electric ,code4 ,likewise ! me*anical con/ruction ( all app>atus deal+ ) electric di/ribution is def9itely specifi$ s t manufactur]s furni% reliable mat]ials = all requirem5ts4 ,9 ! specifications = furni%+ build+s ) ! use ( electricity1 descriptions are made ( ! desir$ types & /yles ( ! swit*es & v>i\s o!r fixtures to suit ! requirem5ts4 ,electric ,light ,wir+4--,9 ! equipm5t ( a h\se = ! use ( electricity1 ! wir+1 toge!r ) di/ribut+ panel1 ! v>i\s outlets1 receptacles1 swit*es1 & o!r appliances t make up ! sy/em1 is ( m ?an pass+ consequ5ce4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! electric sy/em x is important t ! wires & _! in/allation be done 9 a mann] to meet e cont+5cy4 ,! foll[+ descriptions = electric h\se wir+ 7 tak5 f a set ( specifications publi%$ by ! ,bryant ,electric ,co4 z apply+ to build+s ( wood frame con/ruction4 ,! specifications s]ve z explanations = ! appliances requir$ 9 an ord9>y dwell+4 ,! specifications are = ! lea/ exp5sive =m ( good practice 9 wir+ = frame build+s4 ,!y w\ld n be p]mitt$ 9 l>ge cities :]e fur!r protection f fire is requir$ & :]e m rigid rules are dem&$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s4 #a4 ,,sy/em4--,! circuit wir+ %all be in/all$ z a two-wire direct curr5t or alt]nat+ sy/em4 ,n m ?an #af outlets or a maximum ( #ffj watts %all be plac$ on any "o circuit1 all[+ #aaj watts = ea* basebo>d plug connection or ext5sion outlet & #ee watts = ea* #af c&lep[] lamp indicat$ at ! v>i\s wall & ceil+ outlets on plans4 ,all wir+ %all be in/all$ z a conceal$ knob-&-tube sy/em4 ,! type ( wir+ is designat$ z a two-wire direct or alt]nat+ curr5t sy/em 9 ord] t !re %all be no d\bt z to ! me?od ( wir+ to be us$4 ,!re are o!r me?ods t might be employ$ t ne$ n be discuss$ "h4 ,! #af outlets m5tion$ are int5d$ to cov] all lamps or plug atta*m5ts t are to be us$ = heat]s1 fans1 motors1 or any o!r electric device4 ,! #ffj watts at #aaj volts pressure w require #f amp]es 9 ! ma9 wires ( ! circuit1 :i* is ! maximum curr5t ! wires are int5d$ to c>ry4 ,?is does n mean t #aaj-watt lamps might n be us$ b t no s+le circuit %all c>ry lamps t w aggregate m ?an #ffj watts4 ,! conceal$ knob-&-tube sy/em m5tion$ is illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #bfc & #bfd1 9 :i* ! wires :i* pass ?r\gh joi/s & /udd+ are to be insulat$ by porcela9 tubes & ^? wires :i* lay p>allel to ^! memb]s are to be fa/5$ to porcela9 knobs :i* are secur$ by screws to ! wood pieces to prev5t any possibility ( com+ into contact ) electric conduct+ mat]ials4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4--,mann] ( secur+ wires by ! knob-&-tube sy/em = ceil+ outlets4 #b4 ,,outlets4--,at ea* & e swit*1 wall1 ceil+1 receptacle or o!r outlet %[n on plans1 in/all a metal outlet box ( a /yle mo/ suitable = ! purpose ( ! outlet4 ,all outlet boxes mu/ be rigidly secur$ 9 place by approv$ me?od & ^? int5d$ = fixtures %all be provid$ ) a fixture /ud1 or 9 ! case ( l>ge fixtures1 a hang] to furni% support indep5d5t ( ! outlet box4 ,outlet ,boxes4--,= ! safe & conv5i5t accommodation ( swit*es1 receptacles or o!r connections 9 ! walls & ceil+s ( a build+1 outlet boxes are us$ z a means ( secur+ ! wire t]m9als to ! receptacles4 ,^! boxes are made 9 a numb] ( =ms = g5]al application4 ,"o /yle is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,! boxes are made ( %eet /eel & arrang$ to be secur$ 9 place ) screws4 ,! box is fur!r provid$ ) screw fa/5+s to :i* ! swit* or receptacle may be firmly atta*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4--,?is %[s ! knob-&-tube sy/em ( secur+ ! wires 9 p>titions & ! mann] ( fa/5+ metal 8cut out0 boxes2 = swit*1 atta*m5ts1 plugs1 etc4 #c4 ,,in/allation ,,( ,,wires1 ,,etc4--,all wires %all be rigidly support$ on porcela9 insulators :i* sep>ate ! wire at lea/ #a in* f ! surface wir$ ov]4 ,wires pass+ ?r\gh floors1 /udd+1 etc41 %all be protect$ ) porcela9 tubes1 & :]e wires pass v]tically ?r\gh bottom plates1 bridg+1 etc41 ( p>titions1 an extra tube %all be us$ to protect wires f pla/] dropp+s4 ,wires mu/ be support$ at lea/ e #d feet & :]e ne> gas or wat] pipes extra supports %all be us$4 ,all porcela9 mat]ial %all be non-absorptive & brok5 or damag$ pieces mu/ be replac$4 ,tubes %all be ( suffici5t l5g? to bu% entire l5g? ( hole4 ,at outlets ! wires %all be protect$ by flexible tub+1 ! same to be cont9u\s f ne>e/ wire support to inside ( outlet box4 ,wires in/all$ 9 masonry "w %all be protect$ by approv$ rigid iron conduit :i* %all be cont9u\s f outlet to outlet4 ,! me?od & reasons = support+ ! wires describ$ above are z h already be5 m5tion$ "u item #a4 ,! reason = extra supports ne> gas pipes & wat] pipes is z a precaution aga9/ ! possibility ( %ort-circuit+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4--,outlet box4 #d4 ,,conductors4--,conductors %all be cont9u\s f outlet to outlet & no splices %all be made except 9 outlet boxes4 ,no wire small] ?an ,no4 #ad ,b4 ,s4 gage %all be us$ & = all circuits ( #ajj feet or long]1 ,no4 #ab1 ,b4 ,s4 gage or l>g] %all be us$4 ,all conductors ( ,no4 #h ,b4 ,s4 gage or l>g] %all be /r&$4 ,wires %all be ( suffici5t l5g? at outlets to make connection to app>atus )\t /ra9+ connections4 ,splices %all be made bo? me*anically & electrically p]fect1 & ! prop] ?ickness ( rubb] & friction tape %all be !n appli$4 ,cont9u\s conductors are requir$ because ( ! possibility ( defects 9 ! jo9ts ( splic$ wire4 #e4 ,,position ,,( ,,outlets4--,unless o!rwise indicat$ or direct$1 plug receptacles %all be locat$ j above basebo>d2 wall brackets1 #e feet above f9i%$ floor 9 b$rooms1 & #e feet #f in*es 9 all o!r rooms2 wall swit*es1 #d feet above f9i%$ floors4 ,all outlets %all be c5t]$ ) reg>d to panell+1 furr+1 trim1 etc41 & any outlet :i* is improp]ly locat$ on acc\nt ( above conditions mu/ be correct$ at ! contractor's exp5se4 ,all outlets mu/ be set plumb & ext5d to f9i% ( wall1 ceil+ or floor1 z ! case may be1 )\t project+ beyond same4 #f4 ,,mat]ials4--,all mat]ials us$ 9 c>ry+ out ^! specifications %all be acceptable to ! ,national ,bo>d ( ,fire ,und]writ]s & to ! local dep>tm5t hav+ jurisdiction4 ,:]e ! make or br& is specifi$ or :]e ! expression 8equal to0 is us$1 ! contractor mu/ notify ! ar*itect ( ! make or br& to be us$ & receive 8 approval be=e any ( said mat]ial is in/all$4 ,:]e a p>ticul> br& or make is di/9ctly specifi$1 no sub/itution w be p]mitt$4 #g4 ,,grade ,,( ,,wire4--,! insulation ( all conductors %all be rubb]1 ) protect+ braids1 :i* %all be ,n4,e4,c4 ,/&>d 7,national ,electrical ,code ,/&>d74 #h4 ,,outlet ,,boxes4--,outlet boxes %all be /&>d press$ /eel1 knock-out type & %all be enamel$4 #i4 ,,local ,,swit*es4--,local wall swit*es %all be two-button flu% type completely enclos$ 9 a box ( non-breakable insulat+ mat]ial ) brass bevel$-edge cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,fig4 #bfi %[s ! v>i\s =ms & grades ( swit*es t !re are on ! m>ket4 ,! screws :i* atta* ! plate to ! swit* ent] bu%+s t are "u spr+ t5sion !reby prev5t+ defacem5t ( ! plate by ov]tight5+ ( ! screws4 ,s+le-pole is to be us$ :]e ! load w n be 9 excess ( #ffj watts2 d\ble-pole to be us$ :]e ! load is m !n #ffj watts or :]e = any o!r reason x is desirable to break ! curr5t at bo? wires4 ,?ree-po9t swit*es are to be us$ :5 a light or gr\p ( lights is to be controll$1 z hall lights t may be light$ or ext+ui%$1 f ei!r ! top or at ! bottom ( a /airway4 ,f\r-po9t swit*es are to be us$ betwe5 & two1 ?ree-po9t swit*es to control additional lights4 ,:]e two or m swit*es are plac$ toge!r an approv$ gang plate is to be provid$ :i* designates ! use ( ea* swit*4 ,:]e indicat$ on ! plan1 clo!s closets %all be equipp$ ) automatic door swit* to connect ! light :5 ! door is op54 #aj4 ,,pilot ,,lights4--,swit*es controll+ cell>1 attic & por* lights %all h pilot lamp 9 p>allel on ! load side ( ! swit*4 ,! swit* 9 ,fig4 #c requires = its in/allation a two-gang outlet box4 ,! ruby bull's-eye :i* cov]s ! lamp is practically flu%1 ext5d+ f ! wall no fur!r ?an ! buttons ( ! swit*4 ,pilot lights are int5d$ to indicate ! op]ation ( o!r lights or app>atus t _c be directly obs]v$4 ,! t]m bull's-eye applies to a color$-glass button cov]+ a m9iature lamp :i* burns :5ev] a light is us$ :i* is apt to be =gott5 & all[$ to burn = a long] "t ?an necess>y4 #aa4 ,,plug ,,receptacles4--,plug receptacles %all be ( ! disappe>+-door type1 ) bevel$-edge brass cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e 7see ,fig4 #bff74 ,9 ?is receptacle ! doors are pu%$ inw>d by ! ins]tion ( ! plug & ^u its )drawal close automatically1 effectually exclud+ dirt & conceal+ ! live t]m9als4 ,x is ! late/ & be/ plug receptacle obta9able4 ,plug receptacles are ! atta*m5ts = ! t]m9al pieces ( plugs1 :i* tempor>ily connect portable lamps1 electric fans or o!r devices1 !y are made 9 _m =ms4 #ab4 ,,wall ,,& ,,ceil+ ,,sockets4--,"o-light ceil+ receptacles %all be ( a type to fit /&>d #c-a_/d-;in* or #d-;in* outlet boxes4 ,wall sockets %all be ( ! insulat$ base type4 ,sockets 9 cell>s %all be made entirely ( porcela9 & ( ! pull type4 ,all lamp sockets us$ 9 fulfill+ ^! specifications %all h an approv$ rat+ ( #ffj watts1 #bej volts4 #ac4 ,,drop ,,lights4--,drop lights %all consi/ ( ! necess>y l5g? ( re9=c$ cord support$ by an insulat$ rosette ) brass base & cov]2 ! latt] to cov] #d-;in* outlet box1 & furni%$ ) a key socket complete ) a #b-a_/d-;in* %ade-hold]4 ,ea* drop cord %all h an adju/]4 #ad4 ,,heat] ,,swit*1 ,,pilot ,,& ,,receptacle4--,heat+ device outlets %all be equipp$ ) comb9ation ( swit*1 pilot light & receptacle ) plug & sp>e pilot lamp4 #ae4 ,,s]vice ,,swit*4--,! s]vice-entrance swit* %all be #cj amp]es1 porcela9 base ) connections = plug fuses4 ,,in/allation ,,( ,,s]vice ,,swit*4--,s]vice swit* %all be in/all$ 9 a moi/ure-pro( metal box ) h+$ door4 ,,panel ,,cab9et4--,! di/ribut+ panel cab9et %all be ( /eel n less ?an ,no4 #ab gage re9=c$ ) angle iron frames1 :i* %all be securely rivet$ 9 place4 ,cab9et %all be l>g] ?an panel to give at lea/ #d-;in* wire space ar\nd panel & %all be giv5 at lea/ two coats ( moi/ure-repellant pa9t4 ,,di/ribut+ ,,panel4--,! di/ribut+ panel %all consi/ ( two-wire #abe-volt bran* cut\ts1 two-wire #abe-volt porcela9-base panel-bo>d units1 two-wire #abe-volt porcela9-base deadfront panel-bo>d units4 ,! di/ribut+ panel %all be surr\nd$ ) an ebony asbe/os or slate p>tition #a_/b in* ?ick :i* w =m a wire space ar\nd panel4 ,,fuses4--,all fuses = bran* circuits %all be n m ?an #aj amp]es capacity4 ,! contractor %all furni% ! own] ) #aej p] c5t4 ( requir$ numb] ( #abe-volt plug-type fuses = complete in/allation4 ,,panel ,,trim ,,& ,,door4--,! panel trim & door %all be ( /eel1 ) brass cyl9d] lock & conceal$ h+es1 all furni%$ "u ?is contract4 ,a directory ( circuits & outlets s]v$ by panel %all be enclos$ 9 glass ) metal frame1 m\nt$ on inside ( panel door4 ,,h>dw>e4--,all h>dw>e furni%$ "u ?is contract %all mat* 9 quality & f9i% o!r adjac5t h>dw>e4 ,,?ree-,,way ,,control4--,! ne>e/ outlet at top & bottom ( all /airs & 9 entrance hall %all be controll$ by ?ree-way swit*es locat$ on sep>ate floors :]e direct$4 ,,electroli] ,,control4--,:]ev] !re are ceil+ outlets = fixtures hav+ ?ree or m sockets controll$ by wall swit*es ?ree wires %all be run betwe5 ! swit* box & ! outlet to p]mit ! use ( electroli] swit*es4 ,,d9+-,,room ,,circuit4--,furni% & in/all 9 d9+-room1 :]e indicat$ on plans1 an approv$ floor box conta9+ an approv$ #be-;amp]e plug receptacle4 ,! wires connect+ ?is receptacle to ! c5t] ( di/ribution %all be ,no4 #aj ,b4 ,s4 gage4 ,furni% & deliv] to :om direct$ an approv$ multiple-connection block consi/+ ( ?ree individually fus$ plug receptacles4 ,! connection betwe5 ! plug receptacle & ?is block %all be made by means ( #aj feet ( ,no4 #aj ,b4 ,s4 approv$ silk-cov]$ portable cord ) an approv$ #bj-;amp]e cord connector #b feet f ! multiple block4 ,,h\se ,,fe$]s4--,! size ( ! fe$] f ! s]vice swit* to ! panel bo>d %all be figur$ 9 accordance ) ! ,national ,code rules = c>ry+ capacity1 all[+ = all circuits be+ fully load$4 ,! fe$] %all be ( suffici5t size1 h[ev]1 to conf9e ! drop 9 voltage ) all lights 9 circuit to #a p] c5t4 ( ! l9e voltage4 ,,s]vice ,,connection4--,make ext5sion ( h\se fe$] ov]head to light+ company's ma9s & make all connections complete to ! satisfaction ( ! light company & ! ar*itect4 ,furni% & in/all ! necess>y frame or backbo>d = met]4 ,,call ,,bells4--,! contractor %all furni%1 in/all & connect all pu% buttons1 bells1 buzz]s & annunciators1 z %[n on plans or !re9 describ$4 ,all wir+ %all be cleat$ 9 joi/s1 /uds1 etc41 ) insulat$ /aples4 ,damp places1 metal pipes ( all descriptions1 flues1 etc41 mu/ be avoid$ & wire fa/5+s mu/ be appli$ 9 su* a way t insulation is n damag$4 ,no splices %all be made :]e same w n be accessible at any "t aft] completion ( build+4 ,wires %all n be small] ?an ,no4 #ah ,b4 ,s4 gage & %all be damp-pro( insulat$4 ,bells1 buzz]s1 buttons1 etc41 %all be ( approv$ make4 ,pu% button = ma9 entrance door %all be provid$ ) ornam5tal place ) approv$ f9i%4 ,pu% button 9 d9+-room %all consi/ ( comb9ation floor pu%1 ) necess>y l5g? ( flexible cord & approv$ portable foot pu%4 ,furni% & in/all :]e direct$ ?ree cells ( c>bon cyl9d] batt]y 9 a sub/antial cab9et4 ,,burgl> ,,al>m4--,furni% & in/all complete burgl> al>m sy/em consi/+ ( ! necess>y wires1 w9d[ spr+s1 door spr+s1 night lat* cut\t = front door1 bell1 batt]ies1 cab9et1 int]connection /rip1 etc41 & ev]y?+ requir$ = a complete op5-circuit sy/em4 ,ea* w9d[ sa% & door ?r\gh\t ! build+ %all be equipp$ ) contact spr+ ( approv$ make & all spr+s on same side ( build+ on ea* floor %all be wir$ on "o circuit & t]m9at$ on s+le-pole knife swit* on int]connection /rip4 ,! int]connection /rip %all be locat$ z direct$ & %all h cut\t swit*es = ea* circuit z well z a d\ble-pole batt]y swit*4 ,! batt]y %all consi/ ( at lea/ ?ree dry cells 9 suitable cab9et plac$ :]e direct$ & bo? positive & negative leads %all be c>ri$ direct to int]connection /rip4 ,! burgl>-al>m wires %all be n less ?an ,no4 #af ,b4 ,s4 gage1 insulat$ & in/all$ z specifi$ = call bells4 ,,int]communicat+ ,,telephones4--,furni% & in/all an int]communicat+ telephone sy/em complete ) all telephone sets1 wir+1 batt]ies1 etc4 ,all wires to be cables conta9+ "o pair ( ,no4 #bb ,b4 ,s4 gage conductors = ea* /ation & a pair ( ,no4 #af ,b4 ,s4 gage conductors = talk+ & r++ batt]y respectively4 ,ea* pair ( wires %all be twi/$ & all pairs %all be twi/$ ar\nd ea* o!r to elim9ate cross talk & inductive noises4 ,! wires %all be silk insulat$1 ) a moi/ure repell5t ( beeswax or v>ni% & ! :ole cov]$ ) a lead %ea? at lea/ #a_/fd in* 9 ?ickness4 ,:]e cables t]m9ate 9 outlet boxes !y %all be fann$ out & lac$ 9 an ord]ly mann] & secur$ to connect+ t]m9als1 "o ( :i* %all be provid$ = ea* wire4 ,in/all :]e direct$ 9 an approv$ cab9et at lea/ f\r cells ( dry batt]y ea*1 = talk+ & r++ purposes4 ,,in/allation ,,( ,,int]phone ,,cable4--,int]communicat+ cables %all be support$ ) pipe /raps & lib]al cle>ance %all be obs]v$ :]e ne> /eam or o!r pipes4 ,automatic ,door ,swit*4--,:]e indicat$ on ! plan1 clo!s closets %all be equipp$ ) automatic door swit* to connect ! light :5 ! door is op54 ,fig4 #bff is plac$ 9 ! door frame 9 su* position t electric contact is made by release ( ! project+ p9 z ! door is op5$4 ,:5 ! door is clos$1 ! p9 is depress$ & ! light is ext+ui%$ ,plug ,receptacles4--,plug receptacles %all be select$ f ! /yles %[n 9 ,figs4 #bfg1;a1 b1 c or d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bff4--;,automatic door swit*4 ,fig4 #bfg1;a is ! disappe>+-door type ) bevel$-edge brass cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,9 ?is receptacle ! doors are pu%$ inw>d by ! ins]tion ( ! plug & ^u its )drawal close automatically1 effectually exclud+ dirt & conceal+ ! live t]m9als4 ,x is ! late/ & be/ plug receptacle obta9able4 ,fig4 #bfg1;b is ( ! ,*apman type ) bevel$-edge brass cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,9 ?is receptacle ! doors op5 outw>d b are flu% :e!r ! plug is 9 or out4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4--,/yles ( plug receptacles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4--;,heat+-device receptacles4 ,fig4 #bfg1;c is ( ! screw-plug type ) bevel$-edge brass cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,by _m ?is is pref]r$ = ap>tm5t use z x w receive any /yle ( ,edison atta*m5t plug4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4--,s]vice swit*es4 ,fig4 #bfg1;d is ( ! removable-me*anism type ) bevel$-edge brass cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,! me*anism ( ?is receptacle is ex*angeable ) ! me*anism ( ! d\ble-pole swit* z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bgj1;c4 ,heat] ,swit*1 ,pilot & ,receptacle4--,heat+-device outlets %all be equipp$ ) comb9ation ( swit*1 pilot light & receptacle ) plug & sp>e pilot lamp4 ,figs4 #bfh1;a1 b1 c & d1 repres5t v>i\s =ms f :i* selection may be made4 ,all are adapt$ = ! same purpose & diff] only 9 me*anical arrangem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4--,local wall swit*es4 ,s]vice ,swit*4--,! s]vice entrance swit* may be select$ f ! ?ree /yles %[n 9 ,figs4 #bfi1;a1 b1 & c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bga4--,pilot lights4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4--,wall & ceil+ sockets4 ,fig4 #bfi1;a is compos$ ( a #cj-;amp]e porcela9 base ) connections = plug fuses4 ,fig4 #bfi1;b is a slate base ) connections = c>tridge fuses4 ,fig4 #bfi1;c is a slate base ) connections = op5-l9k fuses ,local ,swit*es4--,local wall swit*es may be select$ f ! v>i\s /yles %[n 9 ,figs4 #bgj1;a1 b1 c1 d & e4 ,fig4 #bgj1;a is ! two-button flu% type completely enclos$ 9 a box ( non-breakable insulat+ mat]ial ) brass bevel$ cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4--;,drop-light atta*m5ts & lamp bases4 ,fig4 #bgj1;b is a two-button flu% type ) brass bevel$-edge cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,fig4 #bgj1;c is ( ! removable-me*anism type ) brass bevel$-edge cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,fig4 #bgj1;d is ! s+le-button flu% type ) brass bevel$-edge cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,fig4 #bgj1;e is ! rot>y-flu% type ) brass bevel$-edge cov] plate f9i%$ to mat* surr\nd+ h>dw>e4 ,pilot ,lights4--,swit*es controll+ cell>1 attic & por* lights may be ei!r ,fig4 #bgj1;a or b4 ,fig4 #bgj1;a requires = its in/allation a two-gang outlet box4 ,! ruby bull's-eye :i* cov]s ! lamp is practically flu%1 ext5d+ f ! wall no fur!r ?an ! buttons ( ! swit*4 ,fig4 #bgj1;b is in/all$ 9 a s+le-gang box4 ,! lamp ext5ds ?r\gh ! plate & is protect$ by a p]=at$ cage :i* ext5ds ab\t an in* f ! plate4 ,wall & ,ceil+ ,sockets4--,"o-light ceil+ receptacles may be select$ f ! types %[n 9 ,figs4 #bgb1;a1 b1 c1 d & e4 ,fig4 #bgb1;a is ( a type to fit /&>d #c-a_/d-;in* or #d-;in* outlet boxes4 ,fig4 #bgb1;b is ( ! small conceal$-base type4 ,fig4 #bgb1;c is ( ! l>ge conceal$-base type4 ,fig4 #bgb1;d is ( ! insulat$-base type4 ,fig4 #bgb1;e is ( ! porcela9-base type4 ,sockets 9 cell>s %all be made entirely ( porcela94 ,^? 9 ba?rooms %all be entirely ( porcela9 & ( ! pull type4 ,drop ,lights4--,drop lights %all consi/ ( ! necess>y l5g? ( re9=c$ cord support$ by ei!r brass or porcela9 bases4 ,ea* drop cord to h an adju/]4 ,figs4 #bgc1;a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 illu/rate ! v>i\s /yles4 ,fig4 #bgc1;h is a %ade hold] to be us$ ) ! drop lights4 ,,index ,a ,acetyl5e1 gas burn]1 #cjb gas ma*9e1 ! ,colt1 #cjj ma*9es1 #bie g5]ators1 types (1 #big /oves1 #cjd ,air condition+1 #bdj cool+ plants1 #bdd dis*>g$ by a flue1 #bbe elim9ators1 #ce1 #cf prop]ties (1 table1 #aii te/]1 ! ,wolp]t1 #bcc valves1 #ai ,alcohol1 sad irons1 #bhi table /oves1 #bic ,annunciators1 #cdf ,an?racite1 graphitic1 #ahf ,atmosph]ic humidity1 #aif ,b ,backv5t+1 ( plumb+1 #aje ,ba?room1 #ig ,ba?tubs1 #ih fixtures =1 #ajj ,bibb1 compression flange1 #hi flange1 #hi ,full]1 #hi hose1 #hi lev] h&le1 #ij screw1 #hi self-clos+1 #ij sold]1 #hi wa%-tray1 #ia ,boil]1 at end ( season1 #gi ca/-iron1 #ai1 #bj1 #ch cyl9drical =m (1 #ch h\se heat+1 #ai1 #bd rules = managem5t (1 #gg %eet-metal1 #ai ,boil]1 /eam1 rules = managem5t (1 #gh ! h\se-heat+ /eam1 #ai ,boyle's law1 def9ition1 #afa1 #bgb ,briquettes1 #ahi ,briti% !rmal units1 #d = "o c5t1 #aij ,b4t4u41 #b1 #cb1 #ahb1 #ahe ,burgl> al>ms1 #cdd ,buzz]s1 #cdd ,c ,c&le1 foot1 #cac ,hefn]1 #caj p[]1 #caj horizontal1 #caj sph]ical1 #caa ,cell> dra91 #hd ,cell1 ,pilot1 /orage batt]y1 #cgj ,cesspools1 #afi ,*>coal1 #ahh ,*eck-draft damp]1 #bd ,*imney flue1 ! "r1 #gi ,*imneys1 8smokey10 #hj1 #ha ,ci/]ns1 filt]s =1 #aeb1 #aec galvaniz$ iron tanks z1 #aeb ra9-wat]1 #aea wood51 #aeb ,cl9k]s1 #gb1 #gc ,close-nipples1 #bh ,coal1 #ahb an?racite or h>d1 #ahc1 #aic bitum9\s or s(t1 #ahd burn+ s(t1 #ge calorific value ( typical ,am]ican1 #aib1 #aic cannel1 #ahf cok+1 #ahd comp>ative value (1 #ahi free burn+1 #ge ,coal1 fus+-cok+1 #ge grades ( s(t1 #ahd pea size1 #gf price (1 #aij1 #aia semi-bitum9\s1 #ahf1 #aic ,cocks1 bas91 #ib bibb1 #hh corporation1 #hg curb1 #hg ,full]1 #ia bibb1 #hi repairs =1 #ia pantry1 #ic sill1 #ic /op & dra91 #hh /op & wa/e1 #hg ,code1 national electric1 #cga ,coke1 #gf1 #ahh gas1 #ahh ,column1 ! wat]1 #bb ,cond5sation1 wat] (1 #f1 #aj1 #aa1 #ae1 #ce ,conductors1 #cgd ,cord1 lamp1 #cfc portable1 #cfc ,curr5t1 alt]nat+1 #ccb direct1 #ccb ,d ,damp]1 a%-pit1 #ei *eck-draft1 #bd1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj direct-draft1 #ei1 #fa1 #fg regulator1 #ei1 #fj comb9$ !rmo/at &1 #fg = hot-wat] furnaces1 #fa1 #fb = /eam boil]1 #fj1 #gh ,design1 heat+ plant1 #dd ,dev9+ rod1 #acg ,dew-po9t1 #bji to det]m9e !1 #bab ,dim-a-lite1 #cbc ,door bells1 #cdb ,draft1 economy ( good furnace1 #gj h&1 regulation1 #ei induc$1 #fi ,drip-cock1 #bc ,dry cells1 #ced ,e ,electric annunciators1 #cdf batt]ies1 #ced batt]y =mation1 #ceh te/]s1 #cfj burgl> al>ms1 #cdd buzz]s1 #cdd conductors1 #cfb door bell1 #cdb dry cell1 #cee flat-iron1 #cbf fuse plugs1 #ccd1 #ccg g5]at+ plants1 #cfc heat]s1 #cch heat+ devices1 #cje lamp cord1 #cfb lamps1 ,gem1 #cjf inc&esc5t1 #cjf motors1 #ccb panel1 #ccf range1 #cdj signals1 #cda /oves1 #cci table pu%es1 #cdf toa/]1 #ccj ,electrical measurem5ts1 units (1 #cag ,electricity1 #cje ,elim9ator1 air1 #ce1 #cf ,evaporation z a cool+ ag5t1 #bdc ,f ,filam5ts1 c>bon1 #cjh inc&esc5t lamp1 #cjf1 #cjg tung/51 #cjg ,fire-box1 #ai1 #bj1 #ed ,fir+1 fir/ day1 #gc 9 mod]ate wea!r1 #gd 9 sev]e wea!r1 #gd night1 #gb ,fixtures1 ba?room1 #aje kit*5 & laundry1 #id ,flat-iron1 electric1 #cbf ,flues1 furnace1 #ee ,flu% tanks1 #aaj details ( con/ruction1 #aab1 #aac l[ d[n1 #aaa ,foot-c&le1 #cac ,fro/ pr$iction1 #bab ,fuels1 comp>ative value ( coal to o!r1 #ahi dang] f gase\s & liquid1 #bid heat+ values ( dome/ic1 #beb moi/ure 91 #aid ,furnace1 ca/-iron1 #ed fir+1 g5]al rules =1 #gj times ( day =1 #gb location (1 #ed ! hot-air1 #ea1 #eb con/ruction (1 #eb ,furnace-gas leaks1 #ed ,fuse plugs1 #ccd ,g ,gage1 ,b\rdon type (1 #bc electrifi$ ,b\rdon spr+ pressure1 #cf glass1 #bb1 #dj1 #afa1 #afb /eam1 #bb wat]1 #bb ,gas1 acetyl5e1 ma*9es1 #bie all-oil wat]1 #bea ,blau1 #bea burn]1 ,buns51 #bge op5-flame1 #bgh coal1 #bej lamps1 mantle1 #bgd1 #bgf1 #bgg light]s1 #cjb measurem5ts (1 #bec met] dials1 read+ (1 #bee1 #bef met]s1 #bed prepaym5t1 #bef ,p9ts*1 #bea s]vice rules1 #bef1 #beg ranges1 #beh wat]1 #bea ,gases1 heat+ values (1 #beb ,gasol9e1 #bej ,beaum te/ (1 #bfa ,gasol9e1 b\lev>d lamp1 #bhg c5tral g5]ator plants = use (1 #bhb cold process sy/em ( light+ )1 #bfd1 #bfe gas lamps1 #bhf gravity te/ (1 #bfb holl[-wire sy/em ( light+ & heat+ )1 #bfi lamps1 inv]t$ mantle1 #bgi portable1 #bhj1 #bha light+ & heat+ )1 #bei1 #bfd regulation & sale (1 #bfa sad irons1 #bhi /oves1 burn]s =1 #bhh ,gate valve1 #id ,globe valve1 #ic angle1 #id ,grate surface1 #ec ,gravity sy/em1 l[ pressure1 #f1 #ae ,h ,heat]s1 comb9ation hot-air & hot-wat]1 #ef direct & indirect1 #bh furnace hot-wat]1 #abb in/antane\s1 #abc tank1 #aba wa% boil]s1 #if ,heat+1 ,c4 ,a4 ,dunham's sy/em ( vapor1 #cd1 #ce direct indirect1 #cj hot-wat]1 #bf indirect me?od (1 #bi1 #cj l[ pressure sy/em (1 #e1 #f ov]head or drop sy/em ( /eam1 #ad sy/em ( hot wat]1 #dd plants1 managem5t (1 #gj sep>ate return sy/em ( /eam1 #ac s+le pipe sy/em ( /eam1 #f1 #ab1 #ae /eam1 #bf surface ( furnaces1 #ef ,heat+1 radiators1 #bf two pipe sy/em ( /eam1 #f1 #aj1 #aa1 #ae ,heat1 ( vaporization1 #b specific1 #cg ,hot-air furnace1 #fa ,hot-wat] heat]s1 #ch ,h\se dra91 #hb ,humidify+ app>atus1 #bae plants1 #bdb ,humidity1 absolute1 #aif atmosph]ic1 #aif control1 #bdd ( ! air1 #aif relative1 #aig1 #bjd ,hydraulic ram1 #aed d\ble act+1 #aeg s+le act+1 #aee ,hydromet]1 /orage batt]y1 #cfh ,hygrodeik1 #bjf ,hygromet]1 #bjd dial1 #bjh ,i ,illum9ation1 #cac int5sity (1 #cad quantity (1 #cad ,k ,k]os5e1 #bfc legal te/s =1 #bfc ,l ,lamp1 base1 ! ,edison1 #caa cord1 #cfc labels1 #cab ,lamps1 b\lev>d1 #bhg c>bon filam5t1 #caa c5tral-g5]ator gas1 #bhf daylight1 electric1 #cbd gas-fill$ electric1 #cbd inc&esc5t electric1 #cjf mantle1 #bgf inv]t$-mantle gasol9e1 #bgi ,lamps1 ,mazda1 #caj m9iature electric1 #cbj1 #cbe portable1 gasol9e1 #bhj tantalum1 #cjf tung/5-filam5t1 #cjf turn-d[n electric1 #cba ,lights1 drop1 #chc fla%1 #cbf pilot1 #chc ,lignite1 #ahf ,lum51 #cac ,o ,outlet boxes1 #cgc ,ov]fl[ pipe1 #de ,ov]heat$ wat]1 #dg ,p ,peat1 #ahg ,pilot light1 #cge ,pipes1 cov]+1 #cc elim9ator1 #cf fl[1 #eg op5+s /opp$1 #aac ov]fl[1 #dj1 #da return1 #f1 #aj1 #eg supply1 #f1 #aj ,plant1 hot-wat] heat+1 #cg /eam heat+1 #a1 #e ,plug receptacles1 #cgh ,plumb]s fri5d1 #aac ,plumb+1 #ha r\gh1 #hb ,pneumatic motor valve1 #bcg radiator valve1 #bcg ,pollut$ wat]1 #acd ,pollution ( wells1 #acd ,pressure1 absolute1 #d gage1 #d tank1 #afb vapor1 #ce1 #cf ,prop]ties ( /eam1 #c ,psy*romet]1 #bjg ,pump1 =ce1 !1 #adf lift1 !1 #add tank1 #adf ,pumps1 #add *a91 #aea deep well1 #aej = driv5 wells1 #aej prim+ (1 #ade well1 #adh wood51 #adh ,r ,radiat+ surface1 #a1 #ba1 #bb1 #bg ,radiators1 air v5t on1 #gg connections1 #aj1 #dg corn]1 #bh f9i%+s1 #ca =ms (1 #bf hot-wat]1 #bh1 #di rules = proportion+1 #bd1 #be s+le column1 #bh pipe1 #aj1 #ae ?ree column1 #bh to control1 #gi wall1 #bh wat]-fill$1 #ae ,range boil]s1 #aae bl[-(f cock1 #aah d\ble heat] connections =1 #aai excessive pressure 91 #aag horizontal1 #aai location1 #aah ,reflectors1 #cae *oice (1 #caf focus+1 #caf holoplane1 #cae int5sive1 #caf ,regi/]s1 rules = proportion+1 #ee ,regulator1 comb9$ !rmo/at & damp]1 #fg damp]1 #ei1 #fj1 #fg draft1 #bd temp]ature1 #ei1 #fg ,ris]1 #f1 #aj ,s ,sad irons1 alcohol1 #bib gasol9e1 #bhi ,safety valve1 #bd1 #dd1 #dg1 #fg ,septic tank1 #agj & ana]obic filt]1 #agd automatic siphon =1 #agf concrete1 #agi limit ( effici5cy (1 #agh ,univ]sal ,portl& ,cem5t ,co41 #agi ) s&-b$ filt]1 #aga ,sewage1 #afh disposal1 #afh purification1 #afh ,sew]1 #hb1 #he gas1#aad ,%ort circuit+1 #ccd ,sitz ba?1 #ih ,slic+ b>1 #gb ,slugg+1 #ae ,soil pipe1 #hd1 #ajg ,soot pocket1 #hj ,/& pipe elim9ator1 #cf ,/eam temp]atures1 #d ,/op-cock1 #df ,/ove1 acetyl5e1 #bib gasol9e1 #bhh putty1 #ed ,surface1 grate1 #ec air-heat+1 #ec ,surg+1 #ae ,swit*1 automatic door1 #cgh heat]1 #chj local1 #chb s]vice1 #cha ,sy/em1 high-pressure hot-wat]1 #da l[-pressure gravity1 #f hot-wat]1 #ch ov]head or drop1 #ad sep>ate return1 #ac s+le pipe1 #h two pipe1 #aj ,t ,table1 air dis*>g$ f flues1 #bbi requir$ = v5tilation1 #bbj calorific value ( ,am]ican coals1 #aib ,table1 dew-po9t1 #baj1 #baa fro/ pr$iction1 #bad heat+ values ( coals1 #ic gases1 #beb wood1 #ahg1 #ahh hot-air furnaces1 #ea regi/]s1 #ea lum5s p] watt1 #cad prices ( fuels1 #aia prop]ties ( air1 #aii /eam1 #c radiators1 sizes (1 #bg record ( evaporation f hot-air furnace1 #bag relative heat+ values ( dome/ic fuel1 #beb humidity1 #bjb1 #bjc sizes ( h>d coal1 #ahc heat+ ma9s1 #bf hot-air furnaces1 #ea s(t coal1 #ahd !rmal units = "o c5t1 #aij ,table pu%es1 #cdf ,tank heat]s1 #aba expansion1 #ch1 #dj1 #da1 #de1 #df1 #dg ,telephones1 int]communicat+1 #cdj ,temp]ature regulation1 #ei h&1 #ei pneumatic1 #bcd ,!rmo/ats1 #fb1 #fg controll]s1 #fb1 #fc electric1 #fb motor1 #fd ,national ,regulator ,co41 #bce1 #bcf pneumatic1 #fb "t atta*m5t1 #fc ,trans=m]s1 bell-r++1 #cdg lamp1 #caf ,traps1 ,b[]1 #ajc clean sweep1 #ajc drum1 #ajc1 #aje = ba?room fixture1 #ajb1 #ajc inside1 #hc non-siphon+1 #aje outside1 #hc sew] = h\se dra9s1 #hb siphon+1 #ajf ,s1 #ajc1 #ajd ,try-cocks1 #bb1 #bc ,tung/51 #cjg ,u ,union jo9t1 #ah ,v ,vacuum1 #e ,valve1 air1 #gi angle1 #ah *eck1 #db1 #dc def9ition (1 #hh1 #ic disc1 #ai globe1 #ic hot-wat] radiator1 #di ,ohio hot-wat]1 #di on cell> ma9s1 #gh safety1 #bd1 #dd1 #dg /eam radiator1 #ah /em1 #ai ,valves1 def9ition (1 #ic globe1 #ic ,vaporization1 heat (1 #b ,v5tilation1 #bai app>atus1 #bci by direct me?od ( heat+1 #ca by indirect me?od ( heat+1 #ca co/ (1 #bcj ,de ,*aumont /&>d (1 #bai me*anical1 #bcg ( dwell+s1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd ,pl5um me?od (1 #bci quantity ( air requir$ =1 #bbj ,v5ts1 air1 #af1 #de1 #dh1 #di automatic air1 #af hot-wat] air1 #ej ,mona% ,no4 #af air1 #af pipe1 #hc radiator1 #af sew]1 #he ! ,all5 float1 #af ,voltage v>iation1 effect (1 #cba ,w ,wa% /&s & lavatories1 #aja ,wa/e /ack1 #hd1 #he ,wat]1 ammonia 91 #acj analyses1 #abf artesian1 #abh back1 #aae *lor9e 91 #acc closets1 #ajh siphon-jet1 #ajh wa%d[n1 #aji wa%\t1 #ajh fro/1 #aae hamm]1 #i1 #ae h>dness 91 #aca iron 91 #aca lift1 #afe m$ical1 #abh ( cond5sation1 #aa organic matt] 91 #acj ov]heat$1 #aba ,pokegama1 #abg pollut$1 #acc riv]1 #abg seal1 #hc s(t5+ ) hydrat$ silicates1 #acb supply1 #hg1 #abe electric p[]1 #afd plants1 dome/ic1 #aeh gravity1 #aeh p[]1 #afc pressure tank sy/em (1 #afj w9d p[]1 #afd table1 #acg ,wattmet]1 p]iodic te/s (1 #ced read+s1 #ceb record+1 #cej /ate regulation (1 #cec to read !1 #cej ,well1 ! ideal1 #adj ,wells1 artesian1 #adj bor$1 #ada brea?+1 #adc clean+ (1 #adb concrete cov]+s =1 #adj con/ruction (1 #ach curb+ (1 #acf1 #adj cyl9d]s = tubul>1 #aea driv51 #ada dug1 #aci fl[+1 #ach freez+1 #add gases 91 #adb op51 #aci peculi>ities (1 #adc safe di/ance 9 ! location (1 #ace selection ( ! type (1 #ach surface pollution (1 #ace ,wip$ jo9ts1 #ajg ,wire annunciator1 #cec ,wir+1 electric light1 #cgb ,wood1 #ahg heat+ value (1 #ahg ,transcrib]'s note3 ,m9or punctuation errors e4g4 miss+ 4 9 ,fig4 h be5 correct$4 ,inconsi/5t hyph5ation & use ( ligatures has be5 left e4g4 ca/-iron & ca/ iron4 7,(t5 ! diff]5ce is betwe5 ! hyph5ation 9 ! text1 t us$ 9 captions to illu/rations & t us$ 9 ! index47 ,bo? gasol5e & gasol9e are us$ 9 ! text ,bo? c>burator & c>buretor are us$ 9 ! text ,_m ( ! table values h errors :i* c be %[n by graph+ ! results1 ^! h be5 left z pr9t$ b are not$ "h3 p4#e4 ,absolute ,pressure #e1 ,lat5t heat ( #ieh4cj %\ld be #ief4cj p4#aii4 ,air temp]ature #cc deg,f4 ,weight ( cu4 ft4 air #eff4d %\ld be #efj4d ,air temp]ature #dc deg,f4 ,weight ( cu4 ft4 air #edh4d %\ld be #edb4d ,air temp]ature #di deg,f4 ,weight ( cu4 ft4 air #edb4e %\ld be #eda4e ,air temp]ature #eh deg,f4 ,weight ( cu4 ft4 air #ecd4i %\ld be #ecj4i ,air temp]ature #fc deg,f4 ,weight ( vapor_/cu4 ft4 air %\ld be #f4de p4#bjc4 ,air ,temp4 #ajf1 #b deg4 depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] #ie %\ld be #ic p4#baa4 ,dew po9t4 #fi1 #ab deg4 depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] #hd %\ld be #dh p4#bad4 ,dry-bulb temp4 #ci1 #ab deg4 depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] #bc %\ld be -#bc ,dry-bulb temp4 #ch #i deg4 depression ( wet-bulb !rmomet] -#f %\ld be #f p4#cad4 ,column head+ %\ld read ,watts p] lamp #be #dj #fj #ajj #aej #bej ,o!r errors f\nd3 ,page ,orig9al ,correct$ numb] text text ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #cc asbe/us pla/] ,asbetos is us$ else:]e b ?is c\ld be a trade "n s x has be5 left z pr9t$4 #ee two lay]s ( asbe/us pap] ,z above4 #ef heat+ ! h\se ,! u 9 h\se 0 upside-d[n4 #ic pipe to :i* ,a is atta*$ ,a %\ld be 9 italics4 #ajj ba? tubs1 avatories ba? tubs1 lavatories #acc dr9k+ porposes dr9k+ purposes #acc elem5t>y tract alim5t>y tract #acg ,x is flate/ ,x is flatte/ #afa ,boyles ,boyle's #afb wtih ! pump ) ! pump #ahj its legn? its l5g? #aha h\ld %\ld #ahh ,z giv5 by ,suplees ,z giv5 by ,suplee's #baf hydrodeik hygrodeik #bbj ,cubic feet or pure air ,cubic feet ( pure air #bci conta+ coils conta9+ coils #bdc %eet-met a surfaces %eet-metal surfaces #bei & explosion an explosion #bfh ,! vitally improtant ,! vitally important #bfi end ( ! sup5d+ b> end ( ! susp5d+ b> #bfi gasol9e 9 ! caburetor gasol9e 9 ! c>buretor #bgj gasol9e = ! /ove ,s gasol9e = ! /ove ,r #bgb ,boyles law ,boyle's law #bgi ,inv]t$-mantel ,gasol9e ,lamp,inv]t$-mantle ,gasol9e ,lamp #bha p]colat+ tr\gh ! tube p]colat+ ?r\gh ! tube #cje elect ic transmission electric transmission #cji ! electrotromotive =ce electromotive =ce #cai #ajjj #gdf #a4c horsep[] #ajjj_/gdf #a4c horsep[] #cbj ,m9ature screw base ,m9iature screw base #cbi also %[n 9 ,fig4 #bhh also %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbh #cdc ! contact peice ! contact piece #cde w9d[ burgl] al>m w9d[ burgl> al>m #cdg ins]t$ 9 ! floor place ins]t$ 9 ! floor plate #ceb at ! beg9+ at ! beg9n+ #cef require sev]als h\rs require sev]al h\rs #ceg ,! amp]-h\r ,! amp]e-h\r #ceh ,if ! cells s+ly give ,if ! cells s+ly give #bj volts1 ! batt]y w #bj amp]es1 ! batt]y w give #bj volts give #bj amp]es #che ,boyles' law1 def9ition ,boyle's law1 def9ition #chg blau1 #bea ,blau1 #bea #cij ,de,chaumont ,de ,*aumont ---------------------------------------- -----------------------------