:i* includes ! m ?an #bjj orig9al       
illu/rations4       ,see #ejhbh-;h4htm  
or #ejhbh-;h4zip3                       
7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/
#ejhbh_/pg#ejhbh-;images4html7       or 
7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#ejhb
h_/ejhbh-;h4zip7   ,transcrib]'s note3  
,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics
 7italics74        ,text enclos$ by     
tilde *>act]s is 9 bold sans-s]if       
face 7bold sans-s]if74      ,,smi?sonian
 ,,in/itution  ,,unit$ ,,/ates          
,,national ,,museum   ,illu/ration3     
,,bullet9 #bcj  ,,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4      
#aifd   ,museum ( ,hi/ory & ,te*nology  
,,! ,,b>k ,,canoes ,,& ,,sk9 ,,boats ,,(
 ,,nor? ,,am]ica  ,,edw9 ,,tappan       
,,adney & ,,h[>d ,i4 ,,*apelle  ,curator
 ( ,transportation        ,b#jcabbb;,,ca
  ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4
 ,c4 #aifd  ,publications ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates ,national ,museum  ,! s*ol>ly &  
sci5tific publications ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 ,national ,museum include two s]ies1   
,proce$+s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national   

,museum & ,unit$ ,/ates ,national       
,museum ,bullet94  ,9 ^! s]ies ! ,museum
 publi%es orig9al articles & monographs 
deal+ ) ! collections & "w ( its        
con/itu5t museums--,! ,museum ( ,natural
 ,hi/ory & ! ,museum ( ,hi/ory &        
,te*nology--sett+ =? newly acquir$ facts
 9 ! fields ( ,an?ropology1 ,biology1   
,hi/ory1 ,geology1 & ,te*nology4 ,copies
 ( ea* publication are di/ribut$ to     
libr>ies1 to cultural & sci5tific       
organizations1 & to speciali/s & o!rs   
int]e/$ 9 ! diff]5t subjects4  ,!       
,proce$+s1 begun 9 #ahgh1 are int5d$ = !
 publication1 9 sep>ate =m1 ( %ort]     
pap]s f ! ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4   
,^! are ga!r$ 9 volumes1 octavo 9 size1 
) ! publication date ( ea* pap] record$ 
9 ! table ( cont5ts ( ! volume4  ,9 !   
,bullet9 s]ies1 ! fir/ ( :i* 0 issu$ 9  
#ahge1 appe> long]1 sep>ate publications
 consi/+ ( monographs 7occasionally 9   
sev]al p>ts7 & volumes 9 :i* are        
collect$ works on relat$ subjects4      
,bullet9s are ei!r octavo or qu>to 9    

size1 dep5d+ on ! ne$s ( ! pres5tation4 
,s9ce #aijb pap]s relat+ to ! botanical 
collections ( ! ,museum ( ,natural      
,hi/ory h be5 publi%$ 9 ! ,bullet9 s]ies
 "u ! head+ ,contributions f ! ,unit$   
,/ates ,national ,h]b>ium1 & s9ce #aiei1
 9 ,bullet9s titl$ ,contributions f !   
,museum ( ,hi/ory & ,te*nology1 h be5   
ga!r$ %ort] pap]s relat+ to !           
collections & rese>* ( t ,museum4  ,?is 
"w1 ! result ( coop]ation ) ! ,m>9]s'   
,museum1 ! ,/efansson ,libr>y1 ! ,museum
 ( ! ,am]ican ,indian1 ,heye ,f\ndation1
 & ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural        
,hi/ory1 =ms numb] #bcj ( ! ,bullet9    
s]ies4                                  
,,frank ,a4 ,,taylor                    
,director1 ,unit$ ,/ates ,national      
,museum                      ,u4,s4     
,,gov]nm5t ,,pr9t+ ,,(fice              
,,wa%+ton3 #aifd                     99 
99       99       99       99           
,= sale by ! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,docum5ts1   
,u4,s4 ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice          
,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 #bjdjb--,price #f4ge   

,special ackn[l$gm5t   ,is "h gratefully
 made to ,! ,m>9]s' ,museum1 ,newport   
,news1 ,virg9ia1 "u ^: auspices 0 prep>$
 & ) ^: coop]ation is "h publi%$ ! "p ( 
?is "w bas$ on ! ,adney pap]s2 also to !
 late ,vilhjalmur ,/efansson1 = ^:      
,,encyclop$ia ,,arctica 0 writt5 ! *apt]
 on ,arctic sk9 boats4     ,cont5ts     
,page    ,introduction                  
#a    #a4 ,e>ly ,hi/ory                 
#g    #b4 ,mat]ials & ,tools            
#ad    #c4 ,=m & ,con/ruction           
#bg         ,=m                         
#bg         ,con/ruction                
#cf    #d4 ,ea/]n ,m>itime ,region      
#eh         ,micmac                     
#eh         ,malecite                   
#gj         ,/4 ,francis                
#hh         ,beo?uk                     
#id    #e4 ,c5tral ,canada              
#ii         ,ea/]n ,cree                
#aja         ,ttes de ,b\le             
#ajg         ,algonk9                   
#aac         ,ojibway                   
#abb         ,we/]n ,cree               

#acb         ,fur-trade ,canoes         
#ace    #f4 ,nor?we/]n ,canada          
#aed         ,n>r[-,bottom ,canoe       
#aee         ,kayak-,=m ,canoe          
#aeh         ,/urgeon-,nose ,canoe      
#afh    #g4 ,arctic ,sk9 ,boats3 by     
,h[>d ,i4 ,*apelle                      
#agd         ,! ,umiak                  
#aha         ,! ,kayak                  
#aij    #h4 ,tempor>y ,craft            
#bab         ,b>k ,canoes               
#bab         ,sk9 ,boats                
#bai    ,retrospect                     
#bba    ,app5dix3 ,! ,kayak ,roll1 by   
,john ,d4 ,hea?                         
#bbc    ,bibliography                   
#bca    ,index                          
#bce     ,illu/rations     ,figure      
,page    #a ,fur-trade canoe on !       
,miss9aibi ,riv]1 #aija4 7,canadian     
,geological ,survey photo47             
#b    #b ,page f a manuscript ( #agga1  
,obs]vations on ,hudsons         ,bay1  
by ,alex&] ,graham1 ,factor4 7,9 ar*ives
 ( ,hudson's         ,bay ,company47    

#i    #c ,canoes f ,la,hontan's ,n\veaux
 ,voyages 444 dans l',am]ique           
sept5trionale1 %[+ crude repres5tations 
typical (         e>ly writ]s4          
#aa    #d ,l9es ( an old bir*-b>k canoe1
 probably ,micmac1 br\ght to            
,engl& 9 #agdi f ,new ,engl&4 7,f       
,admiralty ,collection         (        
,draughts1 ,national ,m>itime ,museum1  
,gre5wi*47           #ab    #e ,ojibway 
,indian c>ry+ spruce roots1 ,lac ,seul1 
,ont41 #aiai4         7,canadian        
,geological ,survey photo47             
#ae    #f ,roll ( b>k = a hunt+ canoe4  
,algonk9 ,res]ve1 at ,gold5             
,lake1 ,ont41 #aibg4                    
#af    #g ,sket*3 wood-splitt+          
te*niques1 c$> & spruce4                
#ag    #h-ai ,sket*es ( tools3 #h1 /one 
axe2 #i1 /one hamm]1 w$ge1 &            
knife2 #aj1 mauls & driv+ /icks2 #aa1   
/one scrap]2 #ab1         b[ drill2 #ac1
 mod]n ,hudson ,bay axe2 #ad1 /eel      
fur-trade         tomahawk2 #ae1 /eel   
canoe awls2 #af1 crook$ knives2 #ag1    

froe2         #ah1 %av+ horse2 #ai1     
bucksaw4                                
#ag    #bj ,peel+1 roll+1 & transport+  
b>k4 7,sket*es by         ,adney47      
#be    #ba ,sket*3 ,build+ frame = a    
l>ge canoe4                        #bf  
#bb1 #bc ,sket*es3 ,effect on canoe     
bottom ( crimp+ & gor+         b>k4     
#cj    #bd ,sket*3 ,canoe =m$ by use (  
gores & panels4                 #ca     
#be ,gunwale ends nail$ & wrapp$ )      
spruce roots4 7,sket*         by        
,adney47                                
#ca    #bf ,gunwales & /akes on build+  
b$1 plan view4 7,sket* by               
,adney47                                
#cb    #bg ,photo3 ,gunwale la%+s1      
examples made by ,adney4                
#cc    #bh ,photo3 ,gunwale-end la%+s1  
examples made by ,adney4             #cc
    #bi ,sket*3 ,spl9ts arrang$ 9 v>i\s 
ways to %ea? ! bottom         ( a canoe4
                                        
#cd    #cj ,end details1 includ+        
con/ruction ( /em-pieces4               

7,sket*es by ,adney47                   
#ce    #ca ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,/4 ,john  
,riv] ,malecite canoe4                  
#cf    #cb ,malecite canoe build+1      
#aiaj4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey   
photos47                                
#ci    #cc ,fir/ /age ( canoe           
con/ruction3 assembl$ gunwale frame is  
us$ to locate /akes tempor>ily on build+
 b$4 7,sket*         by ,adney47        
#dj    #cd ,second /age ( canoe         
con/ruction3 b>k cov] is laid out on    
! build+ b$1 & ! gunwales are 9 place ^u
 x4         7,sket* by ,adney47         
#da    #ce ,photo3 ,malecite canoe      
build]s ne> ,fr$]icton1 ,n4,b41 us+     
wood5 plank build+ b$4                  
#db    #cf ,sket*3 ,two common /yles (  
root /it*+ us$ 9 b>k         canoes4    
#dc    #cg ,comp>ison ( canoe on !      
build+ b$ & canoe :5 fir/         remov$
 f build+ b$ dur+ fif? /age (           
con/ruction4         7,detail sket*es by
 ,adney47                               
#dd    #ch ,?ird /age ( canoe           

con/ruction3 ! b>k cov] is %ap$         
on ! build+ b$4 7,sket* by ,adney47     
#de    #ci ,cross section ( canoe on    
build+ b$ dur+ ?ird &         f\r? /ages
 ( con/ruction4 7,sket* by ,adney47     
#df    #dj ,sket*3 ,multiple cross      
section ?r\gh "o side ( a canoe on      
! build+ b$1 at ! headbo>d1 middle1     
fir/1 & second         ?w>ts4           
#df    #da ,f\r? /age ( canoe           
con/ruction3 b>k cov] has be5           
%ap$ & all /akes plac$4 7,sket* by      
,adney47            #dg    #db ,fif?    
/age ( canoe con/ruction3 canoe is      
remov$ f         build+ b$ & set on     
horses to %ape ends & complete          
sew+4 7,sket* by ,adney47               
#di    #dc ,ribs be+ dri$ & %ap$ =      
,ojibway canoe4 7,canadian              
,geological ,survey photo47             
#ej    #dd ,sket*3 ,details ( ribs &    
me?od ( %ap+ !m 9 pairs4     #ea    #de 
,six? /age ( canoe con/ruction3 9 ?is   
/age spl9ts =         %ea?+ 7upp] left7 
are fix$ 9 place & held by              

tempor>y ribs 7l[] "r7 "u ! gunwales4   
7,sket* by         ,adney47             
#ec    #df ,g5]al details ( bir*-b>k    
canoe con/ruction1 9 a         draw+ by 
,adney4 7,f ,h>p]'s ,"y ,p1 supplem5t1  
,july #bi1 #ahij47                      
#ed    #dg ,gunwale con/ruction & ?w>t  
or crossb> fa/5+s1 z         %[n 9 a    
sket* by ,adney4 7,h>p]'s ,"y ,p1       
supplem5t1 ,july #bi1 #ahij47           
#ef    #dh ,pet] ,joe at ,"w4 ,draw+ by 
,adney = 8 article ,h[ an               
,indian ,bir*-,b>k ,canoe is ,made4     
7,h>p]'s ,"y ,p1         supplem5t1     
,july #bi1 #ahij47                      
#eg    #di ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,micmac    
pack1 or woods1 canoe4                  
#ei    #ej ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,micmac    
pack1 or woods1 canoe4                  
#fj    #ea ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,micmac    
pack1 or woods1 canoe4                  
#fa    #eb ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,micmac    
big-riv] canoe4                         
#fb    #ec ,l9es ( #c-;fa?om ,micmac    
ocean canoe fitt$ = sail+4         #fc  

#ed ,micmac r\gh-wat] canoe1 ,ba?ur/1   
,n4,b4 7,canadian         ,geological   
,survey photo47                         
#fd    #ee ,micmac ,woods canoe1 built  
by ,malecite ,jim ,paul at ,/4 ,m>y's   
,res]ve 9 #aiaa4 7,canadian ,geological 
,survey photo47        #fd    #ef       
,micmac r\gh-wat] canoe fitt$ = sail+4  
7,photo ,w4 ,h4         ,me*l+1 #aiac47 
#fe    #eg ,micmac r\gh-wat] canoe1 ,bay
 ,*aleur4 7,photo ,h4 ,v4               
,h5d]son1 ,we/ ,ba?ur/1 ,n4,b47         
#ff    #eh ,micmac r\gh-wat] sail+      
canoe1 ,bay ,*aleur4 7,canadian         
,geological ,survey photo47             
#ff    #ei ,draw+3 ,details ( ,micmac   
canoes1 includ+ ma/ & sail4      #fg    
#fj ,micmac canoe1 ,ba?ur/1 ,n4,b4      
7,canadian ,geological ,survey          
photo47                                 
#fh    #fa ,micmac woman gumm+ seams (  
canoe1 ,ba?ur/1 ,n4,b41 #aiac4          
7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47  
#fi    #fb ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,malecite  
riv] canoe1 #ai? c5tury4 ,old         =m

 ) rak+ ends & mu* %e]4                 
#ga    #fc ,l9es ( old =m (             
,malecite-,abnaki #b-;fa?om ocean canoe 
(         ! ,p5obscots 9 ! ,peabody     
,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4            #gb  
#fd ,l9es ( l>ge #c-;fa?om ocean canoe (
 ! ,passamaquoddy         porpoise      
hunt]s4                                 
#gc    #fe ,l9es ( old =m (             
,passamaquoddy #b-;fa?om ocean canoe4   
#gd    #ff ,l9es ( ,malecite rac+ canoe 
( #ahhh1 %[+ ,v-%ap$ keel         piece 
betwe5 %ea?+ & b>k to =m deadrise4      
#ge    #fg ,l9es ( %>p-end$ #b-;fa?om   
,passamaquoddy hunt+ canoe1         =   
use on tidal riv]4                      
#gf    #fh ,l9es ( ,malecite #b-;fa?om  
,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv] canoe1               
probably a hybrid model4                
#gg    #fi ,l9es ( ,malecite #b-;fa?om  
riv] canoe ( #ahij f !         ,rivire  
du ,l\p region4                         
#gh    #gj ,l9es ( ,mod]n 7#ahie7       
#b-;fa?om ,malecite ,/4 ,john ,riv]     
canoe4                                  

#gi    #ga ,draw+3 ,malecite canoe      
details1 ge>1 & gunwale                 
decorations4                            
#hj    #gb ,draw+3 ,malecite canoe      
details1 /em pr(iles1 paddles1 sail     
rig1 & salmon spe>4                     
#ha    #gc ,l9es & decoration           
recon/ruct$ f a v old model ( a         
,/4 ,john ,riv] anci5t woods1 or pack1  
canoe4                 #ha    #gd ,l9es 
( la/ kn[n ,passamaquoddy decorat$ ocean
 canoe to be         built 7#ahih74     
#hb    #ge ,draw+3 ,malecite canoe      
details & decorations4                  
#hc    #gf ,sket*es3 ,wulegessis        
decorations4                            
#hd-he    #gg ,photo3 ,end decorations1 
,passamaquoddy canoe4                   
#hf    #gh ,photo3 ,end decorations1    
,passamaquoddy canoe4                   
#hg    #gi ,photo3 ,passamaquoddy       
decorat$ canoe4                         
#hg    #hj ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,/4        
,francis canoe ( ab\t #ahfe             
#hi    #ha ,l9es ( #ad-;foot ,/4        

,francis canoe ( ab\t #aiajij    #hb    
,l9es ( #b-;fa?om l[-end$ ,/4 ,francis  
canoe4                  #ia    #hc ,l9es
 ( ,/4 ,francis-,abnaki canoe = op5     
wat]1 a type t         became ext9ct    
be=e #ahij4 ,f ,adney's draw+s ( a canoe
         =m]ly 9 ! ,museum ( ,natural   
,hi/ory4                    #ib    #hd  
,photo3 ,model ( a ,/4 ,francis-,abnaki 
canoe "u con/ruction4   #ic    #he      
,photo3 ,/4 ,francis-,abnaki canoe4     
#ic    #hf ,a #ae-;foot ,beo?uk canoe ( 
,newf\ndl& 7,sket* by ,adney47     #ie  
#hg ,l9es bas$ on ,adney's recon/ruction
 ( #ae-;foot ,beo?uk         canoe4     
#ig    #hh ,montagnais crook$ canoe4    
7,canadian ,geological ,survey          
photo47                                 
#ajj    #hi ,bir*-b>k crook$ canoe1     
,ungava ,cree4 7,smi?sonian             
,in/itution photo47                     
#aja    #ij ,l9es ( #c-;fa?om ,nascapee 
canoe1 ea/]n ,labrador4             #ajb
    #ia ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,montagnais   
canoe ( s\!rn ,labrador &               

,quebec4                                
#ajb    #ib ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om crook$    
canoe ( ! ,ungava ,p59sula4       #ajc  
#ic ,l9es ( hybrid-model #b-;fa?om      
,nascapee canoe4                  #ajc  
#id ,ea/]n ,cree crook$ canoe ( r       
mod]ate %e] &         rock]4 7,canadian 
,pacific ,railway ,company photo47      
#ajd    #ie ,photo3 ,/raight & crook$   
canoes1 ea/]n ,cree4               #aje 
#if ,montagnais canvas-cov]$ crook$     
canoe "u con/ruction4         7,canadian
 ,geological ,survey photo47            
#ajf    #ig ,sket*3 ,fiddlehead ( scrap$
 b>k on b[ & /]n ( a         ,montagnais
 bir*-b>k canoe at ,sev5 ,isl&s1 ,que41 
#aiae4    #ajg    #ih ,sket*3 ,disk (   
color$ porcup9e quills decorat+ canoe   
f\nd at ,namaquagon1 ,que41 #ahih4      
#ajg    #ii ,fleet ( #ea bir*-b>k canoes
 ( ! ,ttes de ,b\le ,indians1           
assembl$ at ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company   
po/1 ,gr& ,lake         ,victoria1      
,procession ,sunday1 ,augu/ #ahie4      
7,photo1         ,po/-,factor ,l4 ,a4   

,*ri/oph]son47                          
#ajh    #ajj ,photo3 ,ttes de ,b\le     
canoe4                                  
#aji    #aja ,photo3 ,ttes de ,b\le     
canoes4                                 
#aaj    #ajb ,l9es ( #a-;fa?om ,ttes de 
,b\le hunt+ canoe4               #aaa   
#ajc ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,ttes de ,b\le   
canoe1 ) con/ruction         details4   
#aaa    #ajd ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,ttes de 
,b\le hunt+ canoe4                #aab  
#aje ,photo3 ,old ,algonk9 canoe4       
#aac    #ajf ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om old      
model1 ,ottawa ,riv]1 ,algonk9 canoe4   
#aad    #ajg ,photo3 ,models made by    
,adney ( ,algonk9 & ,ojibway            
/em-pieces4                             
#aae    #ajh ,l9es ( light1 fa/         
#b-;fa?om hunt+ canoe ( ! old           
,algonk9 model4                         
#aaf    #aji ,l9es ( hybrid #b- &       
#b-;fa?om ,algonk9 canoes4              
#aag    #aaj ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,algonk9 
hunt]'s canoe1 )\t headbo>ds4 #aah      
#aaa ,photo3 ,algonk9 canoe1 old type4  

#aai    #aab ,photo3 ,algonk9 ,wab9aki  
,*iman                              #abj
    #aac ,algonk9 canoe decorations1    
,gold5 ,lake1 ,ont4                     
#aba    #aad ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,ojibway 
hunt]'s canoe1 built 9 #ahgc        #abc
    #aae ,l9es ( #c-;fa?om ,ojibway old 
model rice-h>ve/+ canoe &               
#b-;fa?om hunt]'s canoe4                
#abd    #aaf ,l9es ( #c-;fa?om ,ojibway 
freight canoe4                          
#abd    #aag ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,ojibway1
 old =m1 canoe & a #af-;foot            
long-nose ,cree-,ojibway canoe4         
#abe    #aah ,ea/]n ,ojibway canoe1 old 
=m4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway        
photo47                                 
#abf    #aai ,photo3 ,ojibway           
,long-,nose canoe1 ,ra9y ,lake ,di/rict4
           #abf    #abj ,l9es (         
#b-;fa?om ,ojibway hunt]'s canoe1 #ahdi 
& long-nose         ,m9nesota ,ojibway  
rice-h>ve/+ canoe4                      
#abg    #aba ,photos3 ,canoe build+1    
,lac ,seul1 ,canada1 #aiah              

#abh-abi    #abb ,long ,lake ,ojibway   
long-nose canoe4 7,canadian ,geological 
,survey photo47                         
#acj    #abc ,photo3 ,ojibway #ai-;foot 
canoe ) #ac ,indians abo>d 7#aiac7      
#aca    #abd ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om we/]n    
,cree canoe1 ,w9isk ,riv] di/rict1      
nor?we/ ( ,james ,bay4                  
#acc    #abe ,l9es ( a #f-;fa?om        
fur-trade canoe ( ! e>ly #ai? c5tury4   
#acd    #abf ,inbo>d pr(ile ( a         
#f-;fa?om fur-trade canoe1 & details (  
con/ruction1 fitt+1 & decoration4       
#ace    #abg ,l9es ( small #c-;fa?om    
nor? canoe ( ! ,ttes de ,b\le           
model4                                  
#acf    #abh ,photo3 ,models ( fur-trade
 canoes4                                
#acg    #abi ,fur-,trade ,matre ,canot  
,) ,pass5g]s4 ,f an oil         pa9t+ by
 ,hopk9s 7,public ,ar*ives ( ,canada    
photo74     #ach    #acj ,biv\ac 9      
,exp$ition 9 ,hudson's ,bay ,canoe4 ,f  
an oil         pa9t+ by ,hopk9s 7,public
 ,ar*ives ( ,canada photo74     #aci    

#aca ,ojibway #c-;fa?om fur-trade canoe1
 a c>go-c>ry+ type1         m>k$ by     
cut-"u end pr(iles1 t 0 built z late z  
#ahid4                                  
#aci    #acb ,l9es ( a #e-;fa?om        
fur-trade canoe1 ,gr& ,lake ,victoria   
,po/1 ,hudson's ,bay ,company4          
#adj    #acc ,hudson's ,bay ,canoe      
,runn+ ! ,rapids4 ,f an oil pa9t+       
by ,hopk9s 7,public ,ar*ives ( ,canada  
photo74              #ada    #acd       
,repair+ ! ,canoe4 ,f an oil pa9t+ by   
,hopk9s         7,public ,ar*ives (     
,canada photo74                         
#adb    #ace ,l9es ( a #d-;fa?om        
,hudson's ,bay ,company ,nor? ,canoe1   
built by ,crees ne> ,james ,bay1        
mid-#ai? c5tury4             #adc       
#acf ,photo3 #e-;fa?om fur-trade canoe f
 ,brunswick ,h\se1 a         ,hudson's  
,bay ,company po/4                      
#add    #acg ,fur-trade canoes on !     
,miss9aibi ,riv]1 #aija4 7,canadian     
,geological ,survey photo47             
#ade    #ach ,photo3 ,fur-trade canoe   

brigade f ,*ri/oph]son's ,hudson's      
,bay ,company po/1 ab\t #ahhe4          
#adf    #aci ,=e/ rang]s1 ,lake         
,timagami1 ,ont>io4 7,canadian ,pacific 
,railway ,company photo47               
#adg    #adj ,photo3 ,models made by    
,adney ( fur-trade canoe /em-pieces4    
#adi    #ada ,photo3 ,models by ,adney (
 fur-trade canoe /em-pieces4            
#aea    #adb ,portag+ a #d-;fa?om       
fur-trade canoe1 ab\t #aijb1 ne> !      
head ( ! ,ottawa ,riv]4 7,canadian      
,pacific ,railway ,company              
photo47                                 
#aeb    #adc ,decorations1 fur-trade    
canoes 7,wat]color sket* by ,adney47    
#aec    #add ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,*ipewyan
 hunt]'s canoe4                    #aee 
#ade ,l9es ( #b-;fa?om ,*ipewyan &      
#c-;fa?om ,dogrib c>go1 or              
family1 canoes4                         
#aef    #adf ,l9es ( #c-;fa?om ,slavey &
 #b-;fa?om ,algonk9-type                
,a?abascan plank-/em canoes4            
#aeg    #adg ,l9es ( ,eskimo kayak-=m   

bir*-b>k canoe f ,alaskan         ,coa/4
                                        
#aei    #adh ,l9es ( ,a?abascan hunt+   
canoes ( ! kayak =m4          #afj      
#adi ,l9es ( ext9ct =ms ( ,l\*eux &     
bateau-=m canoes1         recon/ruct$ f 
old models4                             
#afa    #aej ,l9es ( kayak-=m canoes ( !
 ,alaskan ,eskimos &         ,canadian  
,a?abascan ,indians4                    
#afc    #aea ,l9es ( kayak-=m canoe (   
,briti% ,columbia & upp] ,yukon         
valley4                                 
#afd    #aeb ,con/ruction ( kayak-=m    
canoe ( ! l[] ,yukon1 %[+         rigid 
bottom frame4 7,smi?sonian ,in/itution  
photo47       #afe    #aec ,photo3      
,model ( an ext9ct =m ( ,a?abascan type 
bir*-b>k         canoe1 ( ,briti%       
,columbia4 ,9 ,peabody ,museum1 ,h>v>d  
,univ]sity4                             
#afg    #aed ,l9es ( /urgeon-nose b>k   
canoe ( ! ,kut5ai & ,%uswap4  #afi      
#aee ,ojibway canoe con/ruction4        
7,canadian ,geological ,survey          

photos47                                
#agj-aga    #aef ,photo3 ,indians )     
canoe at ,al]t ,bay1 on ,cormorant      
,isl&1         ,b4 ,c4                  
#agc    #aeg ,eighte5?-c5tury l9es draw+
 ( a kayak1 f ,labrador or         s\!rn
 ,baff9 ,isl&4                          
#age    #aeh ,we/]n ,alaskan umiak )    
eight wom5 paddl+1 ,cape ,pr9ce         
( ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by    
,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47       #agg    #aei  
,we/]n ,alaskan umiak be+ bea*$1 ,cape  
,pr9ce ( ,wales1         ,alaska1 #aicf4
 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47         
#agg    #afj ,repair+ umiak frame at ,/4
 ,lawr5ce ,isl&1 ,alaska1 #aicj4        
7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47          
#agh    #afa ,eskimo woman splitt+      
walrus hide to make umiak cov]1 ,/4     
,lawr5ce ,isl&1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo 
by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47                  
#agh    #afb ,fitt+ split walrus-hide   
cov] to umiak at ,/4 ,lawr5ce           
,isl&1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,h5ry 
,b4 ,coll9s47         #agi    #afc      

,outbo>d motor in/all$ on umiak1 ,cape  
,pr9ce ( ,wales1         ,alaska1 #aicf4
 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47         
#agi    #afd ,laun*+ umiak 9 light surf1
 ,cape ,pr9ce ( ,wales1 ,alaska1        
#aicf4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47   
#agi    #afe ,umiaks on racks1 9 front (
 village on ,little ,diom$e             
,isl&1 ,july #cj1 #aicf4 7,photo by     
,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47        #aha    #aff 
,umiak cov]$ ) split walrus hide1 ,cape 
,pr9ce ( ,wales1         ,alaska4       
7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47          
#ahc    #afg ,l9es ( small umiak =      
walrus hunt+1 we/ coa/ (                
,alaska4 #ahhh-hi                       
#ahd    #afh ,umiaks ne> ,cape ,pr9ce ( 
,wales1 ,alaska1 %[+ walrus hide        
cov] & lac+4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4       
,coll9s47             #ahe    #afi ,l9es
 ( umiak1 we/ coa/ ( ,alaska1 ,k+ ,isl&1
 #ahhf        #ahf    #agj ,mak+ ! bl9d 
seam3 two /ages ( me?od us$ by !        
,eskimo to jo9 sk9s toge!r4             
#ahf    #aga ,l9es ( nor? ,alaskan :al+ 

umiak ( ab\t #ahij             #ahg     
#agb ,l9es ( ,baff9 ,isl& umiak1 #ahhe4 
,drawn f model &         detail$        
measurem5ts ( a s+le boat4              
#ahh    #agc ,l9es ( ea/ ,gre5l& umiak1 
drawn f measurem5ts tak5         (f by a
 ,u4,s4 ,army (fic] 9 #aide4            
#ahi    #agd ,frame ( kayak1 ,nunivak   
,isl&1 ,alaska4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4    
,coll9s47                               
#aia    #age ,frame ( kayak at ,nunivak 
,isl&1 ,alaska1 #aibg4 7,photo by       
,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47                     
#aic    #agf ,l9es ( ,koryak kayak1     
drawn f damag$ kayak 9 !                
,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1    
#aidh4                    #aie    #agg  
,l9es ( ,kodiak ,isl& kayak1 #ahhe1 9   
,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4   #aif    #agh
 ,l9es ( ,aleutian kayak1 ,unalaska1    
#ahid1 9 ,u4,s4 ,national               
,museum4                                
#aif    #agi ,l9es ( kayak f ,russian   
,sib]ia1 #b-;hole ,aleutian type1 9     
,wa%+ton ,/ate ,hi/orical ,society &    

,museum4 ,tak5 (f by         ,john      
,hea?1 #aifb4                           
#aig    #ahj ,l9es ( ,nunivak ,isl&     
kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhi1 9 ,u4,s4         
,national         ,museum4              
#aih    #aha ,l9es ( ,k+ ,isl& kayak1   
,alaska1 #ahhh1 9 ,u4,s4 ,national      
,museum4                                
#aih    #ahb ,l9es ( ,norton ,s\nd      
kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhi1 9 ,u4,s4         
,national         ,museum4              
#aih    #ahc ,nunivak ,isl& kayak )     
picture ( my?ological wat]         mon/]
 ,palriayuk pa9t$ along gunwale4 7,photo
 by ,h5ry ,b4         ,coll9s47         
#aii    #ahd ,photo3 ,nunivak ,isl&     
kayak 9 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4       
#aii    #ahe ,we/]n ,alaskan kayak1     
,cape ,pr9ce ( ,wales1 #aicf4 7,photo by
         ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47            
#bjj    #ahf ,l9es ( ,kotzebue ,s\nd    
kayak1 9 ,m>9]s' ,museum4               
#bja    #ahg ,l9es ( ,po9t ,b>r[ kayak1 
,alaska1 #ahhh1 9 ,u4,s4 ,national      
,museum4                                

#bja    #ahh ,l9es ( ,mack5zie ,delta   
kayak1 9 ,museum ( ! ,am]ican           
,indian4                                
#bja    #ahi ,photo3 ,kayak f ,po9t     
,b>r[1 ,alaska1 9 ,u4,s4 ,national      
,museum4                                
#bjb    #aij ,photo3 ,cockpit ( kayak f 
,po9t ,b>r[4                     #bjb   
#aia ,l9es ( kayak 9 ,u4,s4 ,national   
,museum4                        #bjc    
#aib ,l9es ( kayak f ,coronation ,gulf1 
,canada4                   #bjc    #aic 
,l9es ( ,c>ib\ ,eskimo kayak1 ,canada1 9
 ,am]ican ,museum (         ,natural    
,hi/ory4                                
#bjc    #aid ,l9es ( ,netsilik ,eskimo  
kayak1 ,k+ ,william ,isl&1 ,canada1     
9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4
                   #bjc    #aie ,l9es ( 
old kayak f vic9ity ( ,s\?ampton ,isl&1 
,canada4                                
#bje    #aif ,l9es ( ,baff9 ,isl& kayak1
 f ,cape ,dorset1 ,canada1 9         !  
,museum ( ! ,am]ican ,indian4           
#bje    #aig ,l9es ( kayak f nor?       

,labrador1 ,canada1 9 ! ,museum (       
! ,am]ican ,indian4                     
#bjg    #aih ,l9es ( ,labrador kayak1   
,canada1 9 ! ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4  
#bjg    #aii ,l9es ( nor? ,gre5l& kayak1
 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,am]ican               
,indian4                                
#bjg    #bjj ,l9es ( nor? ,gre5l& kayak1
 9 ! ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1          
,mass4                                  
#bjg    #bja ,photo3 ,pr(ile ( ,gre5l&  
kayak f ,disko ,bay1 9 !                
,national ,museum4                      
#bjh    #bjb ,photo3 ,deck ( ,gre5l&    
kayak f ,disko ,bay4                    
#bjh    #bjc ,photo3 ,cockpit ( ,gre5l& 
kayak f ,disko ,bay4              #bji  
#bjd ,photo3 ,b[ view ( ,gre5l& kayak f 
,disko ,bay4             #bji    #bje   
,l9es ( nor?we/]n ,gre5l& kayak1 9 !    
,u4,s4 ,national         ,museum4       
#baj    #bjf ,l9es ( s\?we/]n ,gre5l&   
kayak1 #ahhc1 9 ! ,u4,s4                
,national ,museum4                      
#baj    #bjg ,l9es ( s\?we/]n ,gre5l&   

kayak1 9 ! ,peabody ,museum1            
,salem1 ,mass4                          
#baj    #bjh ,l9es ( s\? ,gre5l& kayak1 
9 ! ,am]ican ,museum (         ,natural 
,hi/ory4                                
#baa    #bji ,l9es ( ,malecite &        
,iroquois tempor>y canoes4              
#bad    #baj ,photo3 ,model (           
hickory-b>k canoe "u con/ruction1 9 !   
,m>9]'s ,museum4                        
#bag    #baa ,sket*3 ,detail ( ?w>t us$ 
9 ,malecite tempor>y         spruce-b>k 
canoe4                                  
#bag    #bab ,iroquois tempor>y elm-b>k 
canoe1 aft] a draw+ ( #ahdi4    #bah    
#bac ,l>ge moosehide canoe ( upp]       
,gravel ,riv]1 ,mack5zie         valley4
 7,photo1 ,george ,m4 ,d\glas47         
#bba    #bad ,sket*3 ,/&>d ,gre5l& roll4
                               #bbd     
#bae ,sket*3 ,critical /age ( a capsize 
recov]y4                  #bbe    #baf  
,sket*3 ,h& positions us$ ) ! /&>d      
,gre5l& roll4  #bbf    #bag ,sket*3     
,kayak rescue1 b[-grab me?od4           

#bbf    #bah ,sket*3 ,kayak rescue1     
paddle-grab me?od4                      
#bbf    #bai ,prep>+ = demon/ration (   
,eskimo roll1 ,igdlorssuit1 ,we/        
,gre5l&4 7,photo by ,k5ne? ,taylor47    
#bbg    #bbj ,gett+ abo>d kayak4 7,photo
 by ,k5ne? ,taylor47             #bbh   
#bba ,fully capsiz$ kayak4 7,photo by   
,k5ne? ,taylor47             #bbh       
#bbb ,em]g+ f roll4 7,photo by ,k5ne?   
,taylor47               #bbi    #bbc    
,em]g+ f roll4 7,photo by ,k5ne?        
,taylor47               #bbi    #bbd    
,right+ ! kayak4 7,photo by ,k5ne?      
,taylor47               #bbi            
,!                       ,b>k ,canoes & 
,sk9 ,boats                             
(                             ,nor?     
,am]ica     ,,introduction              
,illu/ration3 ,figure #a  ,,fur-,,trade 
,,canoe ,,on ,,! ,,miss9aibi ,,riv]1    
#aija4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey   
photo47  ,! b>k canoes ( ! ,nor?        
,am]ican ,indians1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( bir* 
b>k1 7 among ! mo/ highly develop$ (    

manually propell$ primitive wat]craft4  
,built ) ,/one ,age tools f mat]ials    
available 9 ! areas ( _! use1 _! design1
 size1 & appe>ance 7 v>i$ s z to create 
boats suitable to ! _m & diff]5t        
requirem5ts ( _! us]s4 ,! great skill   
exhibit$ 9 _! design & con/ruction %[s t
 a long p]iod ( developm5t mu/ h tak5   
place be=e !y became kn[n to :ite m54   
,! ,indian b>k canoes 7 mo/ effici5t    
wat]craft = use 9 =e/ travel2 !y 7      
capable ( be+ propell$ easily ) a       
s+le-blad$ paddle4 ,?is all[$ ! paddl]1 
unlike ! o>sman1 to face ! direction (  
travel1 a necessity 9 ob/ruct$ or %oal  
wat]s & 9 fa/-mov+ /reams4 ,! canoes1   
be+ light1 c\ld be c>ri$ ov]l& = long   
di/ances1 ev5 :]e trails 7 r\gh or      
nonexi/5t4 ,yet !y c\ld c>ry heavy loads
 9 %all[ wat] & c\ld be repair$ 9 ! =e/ 
)\t special tools4  ,b>k canoes 7       
design$ = v>i\s conditions3 "s = use 9  
rapid /reams1 "s = quiet wat]s1 "s = !  
op5 wat]s ( lakes1 "s = use along !     
coa/4 ,mo/ 7 int5d$ = portage 9 ov]l&   

transportation z well4 ,!y 7 built 9 a  
v>iety ( sizes1 f small "o-man hunt+ &  
fi%+ canoes to canoes l>ge en\gh to c>ry
 a ton ( c>go & a crew1 or a w>-p>ty1 or
 "o or m families mov+ to new           
habitations4 ,"s canoes 7 design$ s t !y
 c\ld be us$1 turn$ bottom up1 = %elt]  
a%ore4  ,! sup]ior qualities ( ! b>k    
canoes ( ,nor? ,am]ica are indicat$ by !
 :ite man's unqualifi$ adoption ( !     
craft4 ,almo/ z soon z he arriv$ 9 ,nor?
 ,am]ica1 ! :ite man le>n$ to use !     
canoe1 )\t alt]ation1 = wild]ness       
travel4 ,mu* lat]1 :5 ! orig9al mat]ials
 us$ 9 build+ 7 no long] readily        
available1 canvas 0 sub/itut$ = b>k1 &  
nails = ! la%+s & sew+2 b z long z      
manual propulsion 0 us$1 ! basic models 
( ! b>k canoes 7 reta9$4 ,inde$1 !      
models & ! proportions us$ 9 _m ( ^! old
 b>k canoes are reta9$ 9 ! canoes us$   
today 9 ! wild]nesses ( nor!rn ,canada &
 ,alaska1 & ! same /yles may be se5 9 ! 
canoes us$ = pleasure 9 ! summ] resorts 
( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,! b>k canoe (     

,nor? ,am]ica %>es ) ! ,eskimo kayak !  
di/9ction ( be+ "o ( ! few primitive    
craft ( :i* ! basic models are reta9$ 9 
! boats ( civiliz$ man4  ,x may seem    
/range1 !n1 t ! lit]ature on ,am]ican   
b>k canoes is s limit$4 ,_m possible    
explanations = ?is might be (f]$4 ,"o is
 t ! art ( b>k canoe build+ di$ e>ly1 z 
! ,indians came into contact ) ! :ites1 
be=e !re 0 any attempt fully to record  
,indian culture4 ,! b>k canoe is fragile
 comp>$ to ! dug\t4 ,! latt] might la/  
hundr$s ( ye>s subm]g$ 9 a bog1 b ! b>k 
canoe w n la/ m ?an a few decades4 ,x is
 difficult1 9 fact1 to pres]ve b>k      
canoes 9 museums1 = z !y age & ! b>k    
becomes brittle1 !y are easily damag$ 9 
mov+ & h&l+4  ,"s small models made by  
,indians are pres]v$1 b1 l mo/ models   
made by primitive m51 ^! are n to any   
scale & d n %[ ) equal accuracy all p>ts
 ( ! canoes !y repres5t4 ,!y are1 !re=e1
 ( value only :5 full-siz$ canoes ( !   
same type are available = comp>ison1 b  
?is is too r>ely ! case ) ! ,am]ican    

,indian b>k canoes4 ,today ! build]s :o 
might h add$ to our k are long dead4  ,x
 might be said fairly t ^? :o _h ! be/  
opportunities to obs]ve1 includ+ _m ^:  
pr(ession x 0 to record ! culture (     
primitive man1 %[$ little int]e/ 9      
wat]craft & h left u only ! mo/ meag]   
descriptions4 ,ev5 :5 ! wat]craft ( !   
primitive man _h obvi\sly play$ a l>ge  
"p 9 8 culture1 we r>ely f9d a record   
complete en\gh to all[ ! same accuracy (
 reproduction t obta9s1 say1 = 8 art1 8 
dress1 or 8 pott]y4 ,once lo/1 !        
in=mation on primitive wat]craft _c1 z a
 rule1 be recov]$4  ,h[ev]1 z f> z ! b>k
 canoes ( ,nor? ,am]ica are conc]n$1 !re
 0 ano!r factor4 ,! /ud5t :o became     
suffici5tly int]e/$ to beg9 rese>* soon 
discov]$ t "o man 0 devot+ 8 lifetime to
 ! /udy ( ^! craft2 t1 9 a field ) few  
docum5t>y records & few] artifacts1 he  
_h _h opportunities = detail$ exam9ation
 n op5 to y\ng] m52 & t x 0 widely      
expect$ t ?is man w\ld ev5tually publi% 
8 f9d+s4 ,h5ce _m1 :o might o!rwise h   

c>ri$ on "s rese>* & writ+1 turn$ to o!r
 subjects4 ,practically1 !n1 ! :ole     
field _h be5 left to ,edw9 ,tappan      
,adney4  ,born at ,a!ns1 ,ohio1 9 #ahfh1
 ,edw9 ,tappan ,adney 0 ! son (         
,pr(essor ,h4 ,h4 ,adney1 =m]ly a       
colonel 9 a volunte] regim5t 9 ! ,civil 
,w> b !n on ! faculty ( ,ohio           
,univ]sity4 ,8 "m 0 ,ru? ,%aw ,adney4   
,edw9 ,tappan ,adney did n receive a    
college education1 b he manag$ to pursue
 ?ree ye>s' /udy ( art ) ,! ,art        
,/ud5ts' ,league ( ,new ,york4 ,app>5tly
 he 0 int]e/$ 9 orni?ology z well z 9   
art1 & sp5t mu* "t 9 ,new ,york museums1
 :]e he met ,erne/ ,?ompson ,seton & o!r
 naturali/s4 ,be+ unable to af=d m /udy 
9 art s*ool1 he w5t on :at 0 int5d$ to  
be a %ort vacation1 9 #ahhg1 to         
,wood/ock1 ,new ,brunswick4 ,!re he     
became int]e/$ 9 ! woods-life ( ,pet]   
,joe1 a ,malecite ,indian :o liv$ 9 a   
tempor>y camp ne>by4 ,?is life s int]e/$
 ! #ai-ye>-old ,ohioan t he turn$ t[>d !
 c>e] ( an arti/-craftsman1 record+     

outdoor sc5es ( ! wild]ness 9 pictures4 
,he und]took to le>n ! h&icrafts ( !    
,indian1 9 ord] to picture him & 8 works
 correctly1 & l5g!n$ 8 /ay4 ,9 #ahhi1   
,adney & ,pet] ,joe ea* built a bir*-b>k
 canoe1 ,adney foll[+ & record+ e /ep ! 
,indian made dur+ con/ruction4 ,! result
 ,adney publi%$1 ) sket*es1 9 ,h>p]'s   
,"y ,p magaz9e1 ,july #bi1 #ahij1 &1 9 a
 lat] v]sion1 9 ,out+1 ,may #aijj4 ,^!1 
s f> z is kn[n1 are ! e>lie/ detail$    
descriptions ( a bir*-b>k canoe1 )      
in/ructions = build+ "o4 ,daniel ,be>d  
consid]$ !m ! be/1 & ) ,adney's         
p]mission us$ ! mat]ial 9 8 ,boat+ ,book
 = ,boys4  ,9 #ahig1 ,adney w5t to !    
,klondike z an arti/ & special          
correspond5t = ,h>p]'s ,weekly & ,!     
,london ,*ronicle1 to report on !       
gold-ru%4 ,he also wrote a book on 8    
exp]i5ce1 ,klondike ,/amp$e1 publi%$ 9  
#aijj4 ,9 #ahii he m>ri$ ,m9nie ,bell   
,%>p1 ( ,wood/ock1 b by #aijj ,adney 0  
aga9 9 ! ,nor?we/1 ?is "t z special     
correspond5t = ,colli]s magaz9e at      

,nome1 ,alaska1 dur+ ! gold-ru% ( t ye>4
 ,on 8 return to ,new ,york1 ,adney     
engag$ 9 illu/rat+ outdoor sc5es & also 
lectur$ = ! ,society = ! ,prev5tion (   
,cruelty to ,animals4 ,9 #aijh he       
contribut$ to a ,h>p]'s ,outdoor ,book =
 ,boys4 ,f ,new ,york he remov$ to      
,montreal & became a citiz5 ( ,canada1  
ent]+ ! ,canadian ,army z a ,lieut5ant (
 ,eng9e]s 9 #aiaf4 ,he 0 assign$ to !   
con/ruction ( tra9+ models & 0 on ! /aff
 ( ! ,milit>y ,college1 mu/]+ out 9     
#aiai4 ,he !n made 8 home 9 ,montreal1  
engag+ 9 pa9t+ & illu/rat+4 ,f 8 e>ly   
ye>s 9 ,wood/ock he _h made a hobby ( ! 
/udy ( bir*-b>k canoes1 & :ile 9        
,montreal he became honor>y consultant  
to ! ,museum ( ,mc,gill ,univ]sity1     
deal+ ) ,indian lore4 ,by #aibe ,adney  
_h assembl$ a great deal ( mat]ial &1 to
 cl>ify 8 ideas1 he began con/ruction ( 
scale models ( ea* type ( canoe1 c>ry+  
on a v ext5sive correspond5ce )         
,indians1 factors & o!r employees       
7retir$ & active7 ( ! ,hudson's ,bay    

,company1 & ) gov]nm5t ag5ts on !       
,indian ,res]vations4 ,he also made a   
numb] ( exp$itions to int]view ,indians4
 ,possess+ l+ui/ic ability 9 ,malecite1 
he 0 mu* int]e/$ 9 all ! ,indian        
languages2 ?is help$ him 9 8 canoe      
/udies4  ,ow+ to p]sonal & f9ancial     
mis=tunes1 he & 8 wife 7!n bl9d7 return$
 9 ! e>ly #aicj's to h] family home/ead 
9 ,wood/ock1 :]e ,mrs4 ,adney di$ 9     
#aicg4 ,adney cont9u$ 8 "w "u ! greate/ 
difficulties1 includ+ ill-heal?1 until 8
 dea?1 ,octob] #aj1 #aiej4 ,he did n    
succe$ 9 complet+ 8 rese>* & _h n       
organiz$ 8 collection ( pap]s & notes = 
publication :5 he di$4  ,?r\gh !        
f>sight$ness ( ,fr$]ick ,hill1 !n       
director ( ,! ,m>9]s' ,museum1 ,newport 
,news1 ,virg9ia1 ,adney _h1 t5 ye>s be=e
 8 dea?1 deposit$ 9 ! museum ov] a      
hundr$ ( 8 models & a portion ( 8 pap]s4
 ,aft] 8 dea? 8 son ,gl5n ,adney        
coop]at$ 9 plac+ 9 ,! ,m>9]s' ,museum ! 
rema9+ pap]s deal+ ) b>k canoes1 ?us    
complet+ ! ,adney ,collection4  ,fr$]ick

 ,hill's appreciation ( ! scope & value 
( ! collection prompt$ him to seek my   
assi/ance 9 organiz+ ?is mat]ial ) a    
view to publication4 ,?\gh ! ,adney     
pap]s 7 app>5tly complete & 7 f\nd1 ^u  
c>eful exam9ation1 to conta9 an imm5se  
am\nt ( valuable in=mation1 !y 7 9 a    
highly *aotic /ate4 ,at ! reque/ ( ,!   
,m>9]s' ,museum1 ,i h assembl$ ! p]t95t 
pap]s & h compil$ f ,adney's rese>*     
notes z complete a description z ,i c\ld
 ( b>k canoes1 _! hi/ory1 con/ruction1  
decoration & use4 ,i _h long be5 int]e/$
 9 ! primitive wat]craft ( ! ,am]icas1 b
 ,i 0 "o ( ^? :o _h discont9u$ rese>* on
 b>k canoes ^u le>n+ ( ,adney's "w4 ,!  
little ,i _h accompli%$ dealt almo/     
entirely ) ! canoes ( ,alaska & ,briti% 
,columbia2 f ^! ,i _h turn$ to dug\ts & 
to ! sk9 boats ( ! ,eskimo4 ,!re=e ,i h 
fac$ ) mu* diffid5ce ! task ( assembl+ &
 prep>+ ! ,adney pap]s = publication1   
p>ticul>ly s9ce x 0 n always cle> :at   
,adney _h f9ally decid$ ab\t c]ta9      
matt]s p]ta9+ to canoes4 ,8 notes 7     

seldom arrang$ 9 a sequ5ce t w\ld enable
 ! read] to decide :i*1 ( a numb] (     
solutions or op9ions giv51 7 ,adney's   
f9al ones4  ,adney's int]e/ 9 canoes1 z 
canoes1 0 v great1 b 8 int]e/ 9         
an?ropology l$ him to =m _m op9ions ab\t
 pre-,columbian migrations ( ,indian    
tribes & ab\t ! significance ( !        
decorations us$ 9 "s canoes4 ,8 pap]s   
conta9 consid]able discussion ( ^!      
matt]s1 b !y are 9 su* /ate t only an   
e?nologi/ c\ld edit & evaluate !m4 ,9   
addition1 my own /udies lead me to      
conclude t ! m]e exam9ation ( wat]craft 
alone is insuffici5t evid5ce ^u :i* to  
base op9ions z f>-rea*+ z ^? ( ,adney4  
,!re=e ,i h n attempt$ to pres5t 9 ?is  
"w any ( ,adney's !ories reg>d+ ! orig9 
or e?nological significance ( ! canoes  
discuss$4 ,i h foll[$ ! same practice ) 
^? ,adney pap]s :i* conc]n ,indian      
language1 "s ( :i* relate to individual 
tribal canoe types & are conta9$ 9 !    
canoe mat]ial4 7,mo/ ( 8 pap]s on       
l+ui/ics are n[ 9 ,! ,peabody ,museum1  

,salem1 ,massa*usetts47  ,! /r5g? &     
weaknesses ( ,adney's "w1 z %[n 9 8     
pap]s1 draw+s1 & models1 seem to me to  
be fully app>5t4 ,t "p deal+ ) ! ea/]n  
,indians1 ) :om he _h long p]sonal      
contact1 is by f> ! mo/ volum9\s &1     
p]haps1 ! mo/ accurate4 ,! canoes us$ by
 ,indians we/ ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce z f> z ! 
we/]n end ( ! ,great ,lakes & nor?w>d to
 ! we/ side ( ,hudsons ,bay are1 ) a few
 exceptions1 cov]$ 9 some:at less       
detail1 b ! mat]ial none!less appe>s    
ample = our purpose4 ,! canoes us$ 9 !  
,canadian ,nor?we/1 except ^? f !       
vic9ity ( ,great ,slave ,lake1 & 9      
,alaska 7 less well describ$4 ,x appe>s 
t ,adney _h relatively little           
opportunity to exam9e closely ! canoes  
us$ 9 ,alaska1 dur+ 8 visit !re 9 #aijj1
 & t he lat] 0 unable to visit ^?       
,am]ican museums hav+ collections t w\ld
 h help$ him ) reg>d to ^! areas4 ,z a  
result1 ,i h f\nd x desirable to add my 
own mat]ial on ^! areas1 drawn l>gely f 
! collections ( ,am]ican museums & f my 

notes on con/ruction details4  ,an      
important "p ( ,adney's "w deals ) !    
l>ge canoes us$ 9 ! fur trade4 ,v little
 beyond ! b>e/ ( descriptions has be5   
publi%$ &1 ) b few exceptions1          
contempor>y pa9t+s & draw+s ( ^! canoes 
are obvi\sly faulty4 ,adney 0 =tunate   
en\gh to h be5 able to beg9 8 rese>* on 
^! canoes :ile !re 7 m5 alive :o _h     
built & us$ !m4 ,z a result he obta9$   
in=mation t w\ld h be5 lo/ )91 at mo/1 !
 span ( a decade4 ,8 int]e/ 0 d\bly ke51
 =tunately1 = ,adney n only 0 int]e/$ 9 
! canoes z su*1 he also valu$ !         
in=mation = its aid 9 pa9t+ hi/orical   
sc5es4 ,z a result1 !re is h>dly a "q   
conc]n+ fur trade canoes1 :e!r ( model1 
con/ruction1 decoration1 or use1 t is n 
answ]$ 9 8 mat]ial4  ,i h made e ef=t to
 pres]ve ! results ( ,adney's           
inve/igations ( ! individual types 9    
accurate draw+s or 9 ! descriptions 9 ! 
text4 ,x 0 necess>y to r$raw & complete 
mo/ ( ,adney's scale draw+s ( canoes1 = 
!y 7 prep>$ = model-build+ r ?an =      

publication4 ,:]e 8 draw+s 7 incomplete1
 !y c\ld be fill$ 9 f 8 scale models &  
notes4 ,x mu/ be kept 9 m9d t 9 draw+   
plans ( primitive craft ! draftsman mu/ 
inevitably idealize ! subject some:at1  
s9ce a draw+ %[s fair curves & /raight  
l9es :i* ! primitive craft d n h 9 all  
cases4 ,also1 ! inbo>d pr(iles are      
diagrammatic r ?an precise1 because1 9 !
 necess>y r$uction ( ! full-size canoe  
to a draw+1 ?is is ! only way to %[ its 
=m 9 a mann] t c be int]pret$ accurately
 & t c be reproduc$ 9 a model or full   
size1 z desir$4 ,x is necess>y to add t1
 ?\gh mo/ ( ! ,adney plans 7 measur$ f  
full-size canoes1 "s 7 recon/ruct$ f    
,indian models1 build]s' in=mation1 or  
o!r s\rces4 ,?anks to ,adney's ?or\gh k 
( b>k con/ruction1 ! plans are highly   
accurate1 b !re are /ill *ances = error1
 & ^! are discuss$ :]e !y occur4        
,al?\gh recon/ruction ( ext9ct canoe    
types is difficult1 = ! /range canoes ( 
! ,beo?uk ,indians ( ,newf\ndl& ,adney  
appe>s to h solv$ "s ( ! riddles pos$ by

 contempor>y descriptions & ! few grave 
models extant 7! latt] may h be5        
*ildr5's toys74 ,:e!r or n 8 recon/ruct$
 canoe is completely accurate _c be     
det]m9$2 at lea/ x con=ms reasonably    
well to ! descriptions & models1 &      
,adney's ?or\gh k ( ,indian craftsman%ip
 gives weight to 8 op9ions &            
conclusions4 ,?is mu* c be said3 !      
result+ canoe w\ld be a practical "o & x
 fulfills v ne>ly all descriptions ( !  
type kn[n today4  ,adney's pap]s &      
draw+s deal+ ) ! con/ruction ( b>k      
canoes are mo/ complete & valuable4 ,s  
complete z to be almo/ a set ( h[-to-d-x
 in/ructions1 !y cov] ev]y?+ f !        
selection ( mat]ials & use ( tools to ! 
art ( %ap+ & build+ ! canoe4 ,an und]/&+
 ( ^! build+ in/ructions is ess5tial to 
any s\nd exam9ation ( ! b>k canoes (    
,nor? ,am]ica1 = !y %[ ! limitations ( !
 m$ium & indicate :at 0 & :at 0 n       
reasonable to expect f ! f9i%$ product4 
,9 work+ on ,adney's pap]s1 x became    
obvi\s t ?is publication c\ld n be      

limit$ to bir*-b>k canoes1 s9ce canoes  
built ( o!r b>ks & ev5 "s cov]$ ) sk9s  
appe> 9 ! bir* b>k areas4 ,because (    
?is1 & to expla9 ! te*nical diff]5ces   
betwe5 ^! & ! bir* canoes1 sk9-cov]$    
canoes h be5 includ$4 ,i h also app5d$ a
 *apt] on ,eskimo sk9 boats & kayaks4   
,?is mat]ial ,i _h orig9ally prep>$ =   
inclusion 9 ! ,encyclop$ia ,arctica1    
publication ( :i* 0 cancell$ aft] "o    
volume _h appe>$4 ,z a result1 ! pres5t 
"w n[ cov]s ! native craft1 exclusive ( 
dug\ts1 ( all ,nor? ,am]ica nor? (      
,mexico4  ,9 my op9ion ! value ( !      
in=mation ga!r$ by ,edw9 ,tappan ,adney 
is well wor? ! ef=t t has be5 exp5d$ to 
br+ x to its pres5t =m1 & any m]it t    
atta*es to x belongs l>gely to ,adney   
himself1 ^: long & pa9/ak+ rese>*1 c>ri$
 on "u sev]e p]sonal difficulties1 is ! 
f\ndation ( ?is /udy4                   
,,h[>d ,,irv+ ,,*apelle                 
,curator ( ,transportation1             
,museum ( ,hi/ory & ,te*nology          
,*apt] ,"o  ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory   ,!        

developm5t ( b>k canoes 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 
be=e ! arrival ( ! :ite m5 _c           
satisfactorily be trac$4 ,unlike !      
dug\t1 ! b>k canoe is too p]i%able to   
survive 9 recognizable =m buri$ 9 a bog 
or subm]g$ 9 wat]1 s we h little or no  
visual evid5ce ( v great age ^u :i* to  
base s\nd assumptions4  ,records ( b>k  
canoes1 conta9$ 9 ! reports ( ! e>ly    
:ite explor]s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 are      
woefully lack+ 9 detail1 b !y at lea/   
give gr\nds = believ+ t ! b>k canoes ev5
 !n 7 highly develop$1 & 7 ! product ( a
 v long p]iod ( exi/5ce & improvem5t    
prior to ! fir/ appe>ance ( ,europeans4 
,! ,europeans 7 mo/ impress$ by ! fact t
 ! canoes 7 built ( b>k re9=c$ by a     
light wood5 frame4 ,! spe$ ) :i* !y c\ld
 be propell$ by ! ,indians also caus$   
amazem5t1 z did _! light weight & m>k$  
/r5g?1 comb9$ ) a great load-c>ry+      
capacity 9 %all[ wat]4 ,x is rem>kable1 
h[ev]1 t al?\gh b>k canoes app>5tly     
ar\s$ s mu* admiration among ,europeans1
 s little ( accurate & complete         

in=mation appe>s 9 _! writ+s4  ,) two   
notable exceptions1 to be discuss$ lat]1
 e>ly explor]s1 *ur*m51 travell]s1 &    
writ]s 7 g5]ally cont5t m]ely to m5tion 
! numb] ( p]sons 9 a canoe4 ,! fir/     
publi%$ acc\nt ( v>iations 9 exi/+ =ms (
 ! ,am]ican b>k canoe does n occur until
 #agbd1 & ! fir/ kn[n illu/ration ( a   
b>k canoe accurate en\gh to indicate its
 tribal designation appe>$ only two ye>s
 e>li]4 ,?is fact makes any detail$     
exam9ation ( ! e>ly books deal+ ) ,nor? 
,am]ica q unpr(itable z f> z precise    
in=mation on b>k canoes is conc]n$4  ,! 
fir/ kn[n ref]5ce by a ,fr5*man to ! b>k
 canoe is t ( ,jacques ,c>ti]1 :o       
report$ t he saw two b>k canoes 9 #aece2
 he said ! two c>ri$ a total ( #ag m54  
,*ampla9 0 ! fir/ to record any def9ite 
dim5sions ( ! b>k canoes2 he wrote t 9  
#afjc he saw1 ne> :at is n[ ,quebec1 b>k
 canoes #h to #i paces long & #a paces  
wide1 & he add$ t !y might transport z  
mu* z a pipe ( w9e yet 7 light en\gh to 
be c>ri$ easily by "o man4 ,if a pace is

 tak5 z ab\t #cj in*es1 !n ! canoes w\ld
 h be5 betwe5 #bj & #bc feet long1      
betwe5 #dj & #ej in*es beam & capable ( 
c>ry+ ab\t half a ton1 ,engli%          
measurem5ts4 ,^! 7 app>5tly ,algonk9    
canoes4 ,*ampla9 0 impress$ by ! spe$ ( 
! b>k canoes2 he report$ t 8 fully mann$
 longboat 0 pass$ by two canoes1 ea* )  
two paddl]s4 ,z w be se51 he 0 p]haps   
prim>ily responsible = ! rapid adoption 
( b>k canoes by ! e>ly ,fr5* 9 ,canada4 
,! fir/ ,engli% ref]5ce t has be5 f\nd  
is 9 ! records ( ,capta9 ,george        
,weym\?'s voyage4 ,he & 8 crew 9 #afjc  
saw b>k canoes to ! we/w>d ( ,p5obscot  
,bay1 on :at is n[ ! coa/ ( ,ma9e4 ,!   
,engli% 7 impress$1 j z ,*ampla9 _h be51
 by ! spe$ ) :i* canoes hav+ b ?ree or  
f\r paddl]s c\ld pass 8 %ip's boat mann$
 ) f\r o>sm54 ,weym\? also speaks       
admir+ly ( ! f9e workman%ip %[n 9 !     
/ructure ( ! canoes4  ,:5 ,*ampla9      
attack$ ! ,iroquois1 on :at is n[ ,lake 
,*ampla91 he f\nd t ^! ,indians _h oak  
b>k 7m probably elm7 canoes capable (   

c>ry+ #aj1 #ae1 & #ah m54 ,?is w\ld     
indicate t ! maximum size ( ! ,iroquois 
canoes 0 ab\t #cj to #cc feet long4 ,!  
illu/rations 9 8 publi%$ acc\nt indicate
 canoes ab\t #cj feet long2 b e>ly      
illu/rations ( ?is k9d 7 too (t5 !      
product ( ! arti/'s imag9ation1 j z 7 ! 
del9eations ( ! animals & plants ( ,nor?
 ,am]ica4  ,z an example ( :at may be   
d$uc$ f o!r e>ly ,fr5* acc\nts1 ,*ampla9
 9 #afae1 ) a companion & #ab ,indians1 
emb>k$ at ,la ,*9e 9 two b>k canoes = a 
trip to ! ,great ,lakes4 ,he /at$ t !   
two canoes1 ) m5 & baggage abo>d1 7     
ov]-cr[d$4 ,tak+ "o ( ^! canoes z hav+  
#g m5 & baggage abo>d1 x seems app>5t t 
x 0 n mu* l>g] ?an ! l>ge/ ( ! canoes   
,*ampla9 _h se5 9 #afjc on ! ,/4        
,lawr5ce4 ,b 9 #afgb1 ,l\is ,joliet &   
,fa!r ,jacques ,m>quette travel$ 9 two  
canoes1 c>ry+ a total ( #e ,fr5* & #be  
,indians--say #ad 9 "o canoe & #af 9 !  
o!r4 ,^! canoes1 !n1 mu/ h be5 at lea/  
#bh feet long ov] ! gunwales1 exclusive 
( ! r\nd ( ! ends1 or ab\t #cj feet     

ov]all4 ,! ,*evali] ,h5ri de ,tonti1 "o 
( ,la ,salle's (fic]s1 m5tions a canoe  
c>ry+ #cj m5--probably #ad paddl]s on   
ea* side1 a /e]sman1 & a pass5g] or     
(fic]4 ,su* a capacity might indicate a 
canoe ab\t #dj feet ov] ! gunwales1 ?\gh
 ?is seems v long inde$2 x is m probable
 t ! canoe w\ld be ab\t #cf feet long4  
,ano!r ( ,la ,salle's (fic]s1 ,b>on de  
,la,hontan1 gave ! fir/ reasonably      
complete acc\nt t has be5 f\nd ( ! size 
& "* ( a bir*-b>k canoe4 ,?is 0 writt5  
at ,montreal ,june #bi1 #afhd4 ,aft]    
/at+ t he _h se5 at lea/ a hundr$ b>k   
canoes 9 8 j\rneys1 he said t bir*-b>k  
canoes rang$ 9 l5g? f #aj to #bh pi$s & 
7 capable ( c>ry+ f #b to #ad p]sons4 ,!
 l>ge/1 :5 c>ry+ c>go1 might be h&l$ by 
?ree m5 & c\ld c>ry #b1jjj p\nds (      
freight 7#bj qu9tals74 ,^! l>ge canoes 7
 safe & nev] upset4 ,!y 7 built ( b>k   
peel$ 9 ! w9t]2 hot wat] 0 ?r[n on ! b>k
 to make x pliable1 s t x c\ld be roll$ 
up aft] x 0 remov$ f ! tree4 ,! canoes 7
 built ( m ?an "o piece ( b>k z a rule4 

,! l>ge canoes1 he reports1 7 #bh pi$s  
long1 #d pi$s wide & #bj p\ces deep1 top
 ( gunwale to top ( frames on bottom4 ,!
 la/ indicates inside measurem5t2 9 ?is 
! l5g? w\ld be ov] ! gunwales1 n ov]all1
 & ! beam inside ! gunwales1 n extreme4 
,he also says ! canoes _h a l9+ or %ea?+
 ( c$> spl9ts or plank &1 inside ?is1   
c$> ribs or frames4 ,! b>k 0 ! ?ickness 
( an cu 7?is co91 a cr[n1 0 a little    
less ?an  in* ?ick71 ! %ea?+ ! ?ickness 
( two cus1 & ! ribs ( ?ree4 ,! ends ( ! 
ribs 7 po9t$ & ^! 7 seat$ 9 holes 9 !   
und]side ( ! gunwales4 ,!re 7 #h        
crosspieces 7?w>ts7 betwe5 ! gunwales   
7note3 su* a canoe w\ld commonly h #i   
?w>ts2 ,la,hontan may h err$ "h74  ,!   
canoes 7 conv5i5t1 he says1 because ( _!
 great lightness & %all[ draft1 b !y 7  
easily damag$4 ,h5ce !y _h to be load$ &
 unload$ afloat & usually requir$       
repairs to ! b>k cov]s at ! end ( ea*   
day4 ,!y _h to be /ak$ d[n at night1 s t
 a /rong w9d might n damage or bl[ !m   
away2 b ?is light weight p]mitt$ !m to  

be c>ri$ ) ease by two m51 "o at ea*    
end1 & ?is suit$ !m = use on ! riv]s (  
,canada1 :]e rapids & falls made c>ry+  
frequ5tly necess>y4 ,^! canoes 7 ( no   
value on ! ,lakes1 ,la,hontan /ates1 z  
!y c\ld n be us$ 9 w9dy wea!r2 ?\gh 9   
good wea!r !y might cross lakes & might 
g f\r or five leagues on op5 wat]4 ,!   
canoes c>ri$ small sails1 b ^! c\ld be  
us$ only ) fair w9ds ( mod]ate =ce4 ,!  
paddl]s might kneel1 sit1 or /& to      
paddle & pole ! canoes4 ,! paddle blade 
0 #bj p\ces long1 #f wide1 & #d lignes  
?ick2 ! h&le 0 ( ! diamet] ( a pigeon's 
egg & ?ree pi$s long4 ,! paddl]s also _h
 a sett+ pole1 to pole ! canoes 9 %oal  
wat]4 ,! canoes 7 alike at bo? ends &   
co/ #hj cus 7,la,hontan's co/ #ij71 &   
w\ld la/ n m ?an five or six ye>s4 ,!   
=ego+ is b a cond5s$ extract (          
,la,hontan's lively acc\nt4  ,9         
translat+ ,la,hontan's measurem5ts a pi$
 is tak5 z #ab4gi in*es1 a p\ce z ab\t  
#a in*es4 ,! ,fr5* fa?om1 or brasse1 z  
us$ 9 colonial ,canada1 0 ! l5g? f      

f+]-tip to f+]-tip ( ! arms out/ret*$ & 
s v>i$1 b may be r\ghly e/imat$ z ab\t  
#fd in*es2 ?is 0 ! fa?om us$ lat] 9     
class+ fur-trade canoes = l5g?4 ,9      
,engli% measurem5ts 8 l>ge canoe w\ld h 
be5 ab\t #cj feet long ov] ! gunwales &1
 p]haps1 almo/ #cc feet ov]all1 #eg     
in*es beam inside ! gunwales1 or ab\t   
#fj in*es extreme beam4 ,! dep? inside  
w\ld be #ba or #ba in*es bottom to top (
 gunwale amid%ips4 ,la,hontan also      
describ$ ! elm-b>k canoes ( ! ,iroquois 
z be+ l>ge & wide en\gh to c>ry #cj     
paddl]s1 #ae on a side1 sitt+ or /&+4   
,"h aga9 a canoe ab\t #dj feet long is  
indicat$4 ,he said t ^! elm-b>k canoes 7
 crude1 heavy & sl[1 ) l[ sides1 s t    
once he & 8 m5 rea*$ an op5 lake1 he no 
long] fe>$ pursuit by ! ,iroquois 9 ^!  
craft4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #b  ,,page
 ,,f ,a ,,manuscript ,,( #agga1         
,obs]vations on ,hudsons ,bay1 by       
,alex&] ,graham1 ,factor1 n[ 9 ! ar*ives
 ( ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company 9 ,london4 
,! bir*-b>k canoe at ! top1 ! kayak     

bel[1 & ! paddles are obvi\sly drawn by 
"o n tra9$ to obs]ve z an arti/4  ,f !  
slight evid5ce (f]$ 9 su* records z ^!1 
x appe>s t ! ,indians may h _h1 :5 !    
,europeans fir/ rea*$ ,canada1 canoes at
 lea/ z long z ! #e-;fa?om or #e-;fa?om 
canoe ( lat] times4 ,x appe>s also t ^! 
dim5sions appli$ to ! canoes ( ! ,great 
,lakes area & p]haps to ! elm-b>k canoes
 ( ! ,iroquois z well4 ,probably !re 7  
canoes z %ort z #aj feet1 us$ z "o-man  
hunt+ & fi%+ boats1 & x is pla9ly evid5t
 t canoes betwe5 ?is l5g? & ab\t #bd    
feet 7 v common4 ,! evid5ce 9 ,la       
,salle's "t1 9 ! la/ half ( ! sev5te5?  
c5tury1 mu/ be tak5 ) "s caution1 z     
,fr5* influ5ce on ! size ( l>ge canoes  
may h by !n come into play4 ,! comp>ison
 betwe5 ! maximum l5g? ( ! ,iroquois    
canoes1 inf]r$ f ! report ( ,*ampla91 & 
t sugge/$ by ,la,hontan1 might indicate 
?is gr[?4  ,beg9n+ z e>ly z #affj1 !    
colonial gov]nm5t ( ,canada issu$ congs 
or trad+ lic5ses4 ,^! 7 fir/ grant$ to !
 milit>y (fic]s or _! families2 lat] !  

congs 7 issu$ to all approv$ trad]s1 & !
 fees 7 us$ = p5sions ( ! milit>y       
p]sonnel4 ,records ( ^! lic5ses1 pres]v$
 f ab\t #agjj1 %[ t ?ree m5 commonly    
made up ! crew ( a trad+ canoe 9 !      
e>lie/ ye>s1 b t by #agbe five m5 7     
employ$1 by #agcg sev5 m51 & by #agdg   
sev5 or eight m54 ,h[ev]1 z ,la,hontan  
has /at$ t 9 8 "t ?ree m5 7 suffici5t to
 man a l>ge canoe ) c>go1 x is evid5t t 
! congs (f] unreliable data & d n       
necess>ily prove t ! size ( canoes _h   
increas$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! increase 9 !
 crews may h be5 br\ght ab\t by ! great]
 di/ances travell$1 ) an increas$ numb] 
( portages or1 p]haps1 by heavi] items (
 c>go4  ,! w> canoe does n appe> 9 ^!   
e>ly acc\nts z a special type4 ,accord+ 
to ! traditions ( ! ea/]n ,micmac &     
,malecite ,indians1 _! w> canoes 7 only 
l>ge en\gh to c>ry ?ree or f\r w>riors &
 s mu/ n h exce$$ #ah feet 9 l5g?4 ,^! 7
 built = spe$1 n>r[ & ) v %>p ends2 !   
bottom 0 made z smoo? z 0 possible4 ,ea*
 canoe c>ri$ ! insignia ( ea* ( its     

w>riors1 t is1 8 p]sonal m>k or sign4 ,a
 canoe c>ry+ a w> lead] _h only 8       
p]sonal m>k1 none = ! re/ ( ! crew4 ,x  
is possible to reg>d ! l>ge canoes ( !  
,iroquois z w> canoes s9ce !y 7 us$ 9 ! 
pursuit ( ,fr5* raid]s 9 ,la,hontan's   
"t4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,iroquois did n build !   
canoes prim>ily = w>2 9 e>ly times ^!   
fi]ce tribesm5 pref]r$ to take to !     
w>pa? 9 ! dead ( w9t] & to raid ov]l& on
 sn[%oes4 ,9 op5 wea!r1 !y us$ ! r\gh1  
%ort-liv$ & quickly built elm-b>k canoes
 to cross /reams & lakes or to foll[    
wat]ways1 disc>d+ !m :5 ! imm$iate      
purpose 0 accompli%$4 ,probably x 0 !   
,fr5* :o really produc$ ! b>k w> canoes1
 = !y appe> to h plac$ great emphasis on
 l>ge canoes = use ( ! milit>y1 z       
indicat$ by ,la,hontan's conc]n ) !     
l>ge/ canoes ( 8 "t4 ,p]haps l>ge b>k   
canoes 7 once us$ on ! ,great ,lakes =  
w> p>ties1 b1 if s1 no m5tion ( a       
special type has be5 f\nd 9 ! e>ly ,fr5*
 acc\nts4 ,! sp>se ref]5ces sugge/ t bo?
 l>ge & small canoes 7 us$ by ! w>      

p>ties b t no special type p>allel+ !   
*>act]i/ics ( ! ,micmac & ,malecite w>  
canoes exi/$ 9 ! ,we/4 ,! huge dug\t w> 
canoe ( ! ,indians ( ! ,nor?we/ ,coa/   
appe>s to h _h no c\nt]p>t 9 size among 
! bir* or elm b>k canoes4  ,except =    
,la,hontan1 ! e>ly ,fr5* writ]s :o ref] 
to ! use ( sail agree t ! canoes 7 q    
unfitt$ = sail+4 ,x is extremely d\btful
 t ! prehi/oric ,indians us+ b>k canoes 
7 acqua9t$ ) sails1 ?\gh x is possible t
 ! coa/al ,indians might h set up a bu% 
9 ! b[ to utilize a foll[+ w9d & ?us    
light5 ! labor ( paddl+4 ,h[ev]1 once ! 
,indian saw ! usefulness ( a sail       
demon/rat$ by :ite m51 he 0 quick to    
adopt x2 judg+ f ! ,la,hontan ref]5ce1 &
 ! use ( sails 9 canoes mu/ h become    
well e/abli%$ 9 "s areas by #afhe4  ,"o 
( ! mo/ important elem5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( !
 canoe is its e>ly adoption by ! ,fr5*4 
,*ampla9 0 ! fir/ to recomm5d its use by
 :ite m54 ,he /at$ t ! b>k canoe w\ld be
 v necess>y 9 trade & exploration1 po9t+
 out t 9 ord] to p5etrate ! back c\ntry 

above ! rapids at ,montreal1 dur+ ! %ort
 summ] season1 & to come back 9 "t to   
return to ,france = ! w9t] 7unless !    
w9t] 0 to be sp5t 9 ,canada7 ! canoe    
w\ld h to be us$4 ,) x ! small & l>ge   
/reams c\ld be navigat$ safely & !      
num]\s ov]l& c>ries c\ld be quickly     
made4 ,also1 ( c\rse1 ,indians c\ld be  
employ$ z crews )\t ! ne$ ( tra9+ !m to 
r[4 ,?is g5]al argum5t 9 favor ( ! b>k  
canoe rema9$ s\nd aft] ! desirability ( 
go+ home to ,france = ! w9t] _h ceas$ to
 influ5ce ,fr5* ideas4 ,! quick         
expansion ( ! ,fr5* fur trade 9 ! e>ly  
sev5te5? c5tury op5$ up ! we/]n c\ntry  
into ! ,great ,lakes area & to !        
nor?w>d4 ,x 0 soon discov]$ t by us+    
canoes on ! anci5t canoe r\te along !   
,ottawa ,riv] goods c\ld rea* ! we/]n   
po/s on ! ,lakes & be transport$ nor?   
e>ly en\gh to rea* ! nor!rnmo/ po/s be=e
 ! fir/ freeze-up occurr$4 ,! use (     
sail+ vessels on ! ,lakes did n enable  
?is to be accompli%$1 s t until !       
railroads 7 built 9 we/]n ,canada1 !    

canoe rema9$ ! mode ( transport = ! fur 
trade 9 ?is area4 ,ev5 aft] ! railways 7
 built1 canoe traffic rema9$ important1 
until well into ! fir/ half ( ! tw5tie? 
c5tury z "p ( ! local sy/em (           
transportation 9 ! nor?we/]n c\ntry (   
,canada4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #c      
,,canoes ,,f ,,lahontan',s ,n\veaux     
,voyages 444 dans l',am]ique            
,sept5trionale1 %[+ crude repres5tations
 typical ( e>ly writ]s4  ,!             
unsatisfactory illu/rations accompany+  
e>ly publi%$ acc\nts h be5 m5tion$4 ,!  
e>lie/ recognizable canoe to be %[n 9 an
 illu/ration is ! reasonably accurate   
draw+ ( a ,micmac canoe t appe>s 9      
,bacqueville de la ,pot]ie's book1      
publi%$ 9 #agbb4 ,la,fiteau1 ano!r      
,fr5*man1 9 #agbd publi%$ a book t n    
only conta9s recognizable draw+s b po9ts
 out reasons = ! v>iation 9 ! appe>ance 
( b>k canoes3    ,! ,ab5acquis1 =       
example1 are less high 9 ! sides1 less  
l>ge1 & m flat at ! two ends2 9 a way !y
 are almo/   level = _! :ole ext5t2     

because ^? :o travel on _!   small riv]s
 are sure to be tr\bl$ & /ruck by !     
bran*es (   trees t bord] & ext5d ov] ! 
wat]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !   ,outa\acs       
,ottawas & ! nations ( ! upp] c\ntry    
hav+ to   d _! navigation on ! ,/4      
,lawr5ce ,riv] :]e !re are _m   falls & 
rapids1 or especially on ! ,lakes :]e   
!re is always   a v consid]able swell1  
mu/ h high ends4  ,8 illu/rations %[ t 8
 l[-end$ canoes 7 ( ,micmac type b t 8  
high-end$ canoes 7 n ( ! ,ottawa ,riv]  
or ,great ,lakes types b r ( ! ea/]n    
,malecite ( ! l[] ,/4 ,lawr5ce valley4  
,?is ,jesuit mission>y also not$ t !    
canoes 7 alike at ! ends & t ! paddles 7
 ( maple & ab\t #e feet long1 ) blades  
#ah in*es long & #f wide4 ,he obs]v$ t  
b>k canoes 7 unfitt$ = sail+4           
,illu/ration3 ,figure #d  ,,l9es ,,(    
,,an ,,old ,,bir*-,,b>k ,,canoe1        
probably ,micmac1 br\ght to ,engl& 9    
#agdi f ,new ,engl&4 ,?is canoe 0 n     
alike at bo? ends1 al?\gh app>5tly      
int5d$ to be s by ! build]4 7,f         

,admiralty ,collection ( ,draughts1     
,national ,m>itime ,museum1 ,gre5wi*47  
,! e>ly ,engli% settl]s ( ,new ,engl& & 
,new ,york 7 acqua9t$ ) ! canoe =ms (   
ea/]n ,indians su* z ! ,micmac1         
,malecite1 ,abnaki1 & ! ,iroquois4      
,surviv+ records1 h[ev]1 %[ no detail$  
description ( ^! canoes by an ,engli%   
writ] & no illu/ration until ab\t #agej4
 ,at ?is "t a b>k canoe1 app>5tly       
,micmac1 0 br\ght f ,portsm\?1 ,new     
,hamp%ire1 to ,engl& & deliv]$ to ,"l   
,anson :o _h x plac$ 9 ! ,boat ,h\se ( !
 ,*a?am ,docky>d4 ,!re x 0 measur$ & a  
scale draw+ 0 made by ,admiralty        
draftsm52 ! draw+ is n[ 9 ! ,admiralty  
,collection ( ,draughts1 9 ! ,national  
,m>itime ,museum at ,gre5wi*4 ,a r$raw+ 
( ?is plan appe>s opposite4 ,x probably 
repres5ts a w> canoe1 s9ce a n>r[1      
%>p-end$ canoe is %[n4 ,! bottom1 nei!r 
flat nor fully r\nd1 is a r\nd$ ,v-%ape2
 ?is may indicate a canoe int5d$ =      
coa/al wat]s4 ,o!r draw+s1 ( a lat]     
date1 %[+ crude plans ( canoes1 exi/ 9  

,europe b none yet f\nd appe> z c>efully
 drawn z ! ,admiralty plan1 a scale     
draw+1 :i* seems to be bo? ! e>lie/ & ! 
mo/ accurate #ah?-c5tury repres5tation (
 a tribal type ( ,am]ican ,indian b>k   
canoe4  ,due to ! rapid developm5t ( !  
,fr5* fur trade1 & ! att5dant           
exploration1 a great v>iety ( canoe     
types mu/ h become kn[n to ! ,fr5* by   
#agej1 yet little 9 ! way ( draw+s & no 
e>ly scale plans h be5 f\nd4 ,?is is r  
surpris+1 n only because ! opportunity =
 obs]vation exi/$ b also because a canoe
 factory 0 actually op]at$ by ! ,fr5*4  
,! memoirs ( ,colonel ,franquet1        
,milit>y ,eng9e]-9-,*ief = ,new ,france1
 conta9 ext5sive ref]5ces to ?is factory
 z x exi/$ 9 #agea4  ,! canoe factory 0 
locat$ at ,trois ,rivires1 j bel[       
,montreal1 on ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,a /&>d   
l>ge canoe 0 built1 & ! rate (          
production 0 !n #bj a ye>4 ,franquet    
gives z ! dim5sions ( ! canoes ! foll[+ 
7conv]t$ to ,engli% measurem5t73 l5g?   
#cf feet1 beam ab\t #e feet1 & dep? ab\t

 #cc in*es4 ,mu* ( 8 description is n   
cle>1 b x seems evid5t t ! canoe        
describ$ 0 v mu* l ! lat] gr& canot1 or 
l>ge canoe1 ( ! fur trade4 ,! date at   
:i* ?is factory 0 e/abli%$ is unkn[n2 x 
may h exi/$ z e>ly z #agjj1 z might h   
be5 requir$ by ! rapid expansion ( !    
,fr5* trade & o!r activities 9 ! la/    
half ( ! previ\s c5tury4 ,x is app>5t f 
e>ly comm5ts t ! ,fr5* f\nd ! ,indian   
canoe-build]s unreliable1 n to say mo/  
unc]ta91 z a s\rce ( supply4 ,! ne$ =   
l>ge canoes = milit>y & trade op]ations 
_h =c$ ! e/abli%m5t ( su* a factory z   
soon z ,europeans c\ld le>n h[ to build 
! canoes4 ,?is w\ld1 9 fact1 h be5 !    
only possible solution4  ,( c\rse1 x mu/
 n be assum$ t ! b>k canoes 7 ! only    
wat]craft us$ by ! e>ly ,fr5* trad]s4   
,!y us$ plank boats z well1 rang+ f sc[s
 to flat-bottom$ bateaux & %ip's boats1 
& !y also _h "s e>ly sail+ craft built  
on ! ,great ,lakes & on ! l[] ,/4       
,lawr5ce4 ,! bateau1 %ap$ mu* l a mod]n 
dory b ) a %>p /]n1 0 adopt$ by !       

,engli% settl]s z well z ! ,fr5*4 ,9    
e>ly colonial times ?is =m ( boat 0     
call$ by ! ,engli% a battoe1 or         
,s*5ectady ,boat1 & lat]1 an ,albany    
,boat4 ,x 0 %>p at bo? ends1 x usually  
_h /raight fl>+ sides ) a flat bottom1 &
 0 commonly built ( :ite p9e plank4 ,"s1
 h[ev]1 _h r\nd$ sides & lap/rake       
plank+1 z %[n by a plan ( a bateau (    
#aggf 9 ! ,admiralty ,collection (      
,draughts4 ,e>ly bateaux _h ab\t ! same 
range ( size z ! b>k canoes b lat] ones 
7 l>g]4  ,aft] ! ,engli% ga9$ control ( 
,canada1 ! records ( ! ,hudson's ,bay   
,company1 & ( individual trad]s &       
travell]s su* z ,alex&] ,h5ry1 ,jr41 &  
,alex&] ,mac,kenzie1 at ! end ( !       
eighte5? c5tury1 give mu* mat]ial on !  
fur-trade canoes b little on ! small    
,indian canoes4 ,9 g5]al1 ^! records %[ 
t ! fur-trade canoe ( ! ,we/ 0 commonly 
#bd feet long inside ! gunwales1        
exclusive ( ! curves ( b[ & /]n2 #d feet
 #i in*es beam2 #bf in*es deep2 & light 
en\gh to be c>ri$ by two m51 z          

,mac,kenzie record$1 ?ree or f\r miles  
)\t re/+ on a good road4 ,b ! developm5t
 ( ! fur-trade canoes is be/ left = a   
lat] *apt]4  ,! use ( ! "n canoe = b>k  
wat]craft does n appe> to be5 tak5 f a  
,nor? ,am]ican ,indian usage4 ,! e>ly   
,fr5* explor]s & travell]s call$ ^!     
craft canau 7pl4 canaux74 ,z ?is also   
meant canal1 ! "n canot 7pl4 canots7 0  
soon sub/itut$4 ,b "s e>ly writ]s       
pref]r$ to call ! canoe ecorse de       
b\leau1 or bir*-b>k1 & sometimes ! "n   
us$ 0 m]ely ! g5]ic petit emb>cation1 or
 small boat4 ,! e>ly ,engli% t]m 0      
canoa1 lat] canoe4 ,! popul> uses (     
canoe1 canoa1 canau1 & canot are ?\ght  
to h begun e>ly 9 ! sixte5? c5tury z !  
adaptation ( a ,c>ib ,indian ^w = a     
dug\t canoe4   ,summ>y  ,x w be se5 t ! 
e>ly descriptions ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican b>k
 canoes are g5]ally lack+ 9 exact       
detail4 ,yet ?is scanty in=mation       
/rongly supports ! claim t b>k canoes 7 
highly develop$ & t ! only influ5ce :ite
 m5 ex]cis$ ^u _! design 0 relat$ to an 

increase 9 size ( ! l>ge canoes t may h 
tak5 place 9 ! late sev5te5? & e>ly     
eighte5? c5turies4 ,! v e>ly recognition
 ( ! spe$1 f9e con/ruction1 & g5]al     
adaptability ( ! b>k canoes to wild]ness
 travel su/a9 ?is view4 ,! two kn[n     
in/ances m5tion$ ( e>ly accurate        
illu/ration emphasize t di/9ct v>iations
 9 tribal =ms ( canoes exi/$1 & t ^! 7  
little *ang$ betwe5 e>ly colonial times 
& a relatively rec5t p]iod1 despite     
/eadily increas+ influ5ce ( ! ,european4
     ,*apt] ,two  ,,mat]ials & ,,tools  
,b>k ( ! pap] bir* 0 ! mat]ial pref]r$  
by ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians = !        
con/ruction ( _! canoes1 al?\gh o!r b>ks
 7 us$ :]e bir* 0 n available4 ,?is tree
 7,betula papyrif]a ,m>%471 also kn[n z 
! canoe bir*1 is f\nd 9 good soil1 (t5  
ne> /reams1 & :]e gr[+ conditions are   
favorable x becomes l>ge1 rea*+ a height
 ( a hundr$ feet1 ) a butt diamet] (    
?irty in*es or m4 ,its range =ms a wide 
belt across ! cont95t1 ) ! nor!rn limits
 9 ,canada along a l9e ext5d+ we/w>d f  

,newf\ndl& to ! s\!rn %ores ( ,hudson   
,bay & !nce g5]ally nor?we/w>d to ,great
 ,be> ,lake1 ! ,yukon ,riv]1 & !        
,alaskan coa/4 ,! s\!rn limits ext5d    
r\ghly we/w>d f ,long ,isl& to ! s\!rn  
%ores ( ,lake ,erie & ?r\gh c5tral      
,mi*igan to ,lake ,sup]ior1 !nce ?r\gh  
,wiscons91 nor!rn ,nebraska1 &          
nor?we/]ly ?r\gh ! ,dakotas1 nor!rn     
,montana1 & nor!rn ,wa%+ton to !        
,pacific ,coa/4 ,! trees are bo?        
abundant & l>ge 9 ! ea/]n portion ( !   
belt1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,newf\ndl&1 ,quebec1 
! ,m>itime ,prov9ces1 ,ont>io1 ,ma9e1 & 
,new ,hamp%ire1 9 contra/ to ! we/]n    
areas4 ,ne> ! limits ( gr[? to ! nor? & 
s\? ! trees are usually small & scatt]$4
  ,! leaves are r small1 deep gre51 &   
po9t$-oval1 & are (t5 he>t-%ap$ at !    
base4 ,! edges ( ! leaves are r co>sely 
too!d along ! m>g91 :i* is slightly     
six-not*$4 ,! small limbs are black1    
sometimes spott$ ) :ite1 & ! l>ge are   
:ite4  ,! b>k ( ! tree has an aromatic  
odor :5 fre%ly peel$1 & is *alky :ite   

m>k$ ) black splot*es on ei!r side (    
limbs or :]e bran*es h gr[n at "o "t4   
,else:]e on ! b>k1 d>k1 or black1       
horizontal l9es ( v>y+ l5g?s also appe>4
 ,! l[] "p ( ! tree1 to ab\t ! height ( 
w9t] sn[s1 has b>k t is usually r\gh1   
blemi%$ & ?92 above ?is level1 to !     
height ( ! l[e/ l>ge limbs1 ! b>k is (t5
 only slightly blemi%$ & is ?ick & well 
=m$4 ,! b>k is made up ( pap]-l lay]s1  
_! color deep5s ) ea* lay] f ! *alky    
:ite ( ! ext]ior ?r\gh creamy buff to a 
light tan on ! inn] lay]4 ,a gelat9\s   
gre5i% to yell[ r9d1 or cambium lay]1   
lies betwe5 ! b>k & ! wood ( ! trunk2   
its *>act]i/ics are diff]5t f ^? ( ! re/
 ( ! b>k4 ,! horizontal l9es t appe> on 
ea* successive pap]-l lay] d n appe> on 
! r9d4  ,! ?ickness ( ! b>k _c be judg$ 
f ! size ( a tree & may v>y m>k$ly among
 trees ( ! same approximate size 9 a    
s+le grove4 ,! ?ickness v>ies f a little
 less ?an "o-eigh? to ov] ?ree-sixte5?s 
in*2 b>k ) a ?ickness ( "o-qu>t] in* or 
m is r>ely f\nd4 ,= canoe con/ruction1  

b>k mu/ be ov] "o-eigh? in* ?ick1 t\gh1 
& f a naturally /raight trunk (         
suffici5t diamet] & l5g? to give        
reasonably l>ge pieces4 ,! eyes mu/ be  
small & n s closely spac$ z to all[ !   
b>k to split easily 9 _! vic9ity4  ,!   
b>k c be peel$ readily :5 ! sap is fl[+4
 ,9 w9t]1 :5 ! ext]ior ( ! tree is      
froz51 ! b>k c be remov$ only :5 heat is
 appli$4 ,dur+ a prolong$ ?aw1 h[ev]1   
?is may be accompli%$ )\t ! application 
( heat4 ,b>k peel$ f ! tree dur+ a w9t] 
?aw1 & e>ly 9 ! spr+ or late 9 ! fall1  
usually adh]es /rongly to ! inn] r9d1   
:i* comes away f ! tree ) ! b>k4 ,! act 
( peel+1 h[ev]1 puts a /ra9 on ! b>k1 s 
t only t\gh1 well-made b>k c be remov$  
"u ^! conditions4 ,?is p>ticul>         
*>act]i/ic caus$ ,indians 9 ! ea/ to    
call b>k ) ! r9d adh]+ w9t] b>k1 ev5    
?\gh x might h be5 peel$ f a tree dur+ !
 w>m wea!r ( e>ly summ]4 ,s9ce 9 l>ge   
trees ! fl[ ( sap usually />ts lat] ?an 
9 small ones1 ! p]iod 9 :i* good b>k is 
obta9able may ext5d into late ,june 9 "s

 localities4 ,^u exposure to air &      
moi/ure1 ! inn] r9d fir/ turns orange-r$
 & gradually d>k5s ) age until 9 a few  
ye>s x becomes d>k br[n1 or sepia4 ,if x
 is fir/ moi/5$1 ! r9d c be scrap$ (f1 &
 ?is all[$ x to be employ$ 9 decoration1
 en\gh be+ left to =m designs4 ,h5ce    
w9t] b>k 0 priz$4  ,to ! ea/]n ,indians 
summ] b>k 0 a poor grade t readily      
sep>at$ into its pap]-l lay]s1 a        
*>act]i/ic ( b>k peel$ 9 hot wea!r1 or (
 poorly made b>k 9 any season4 ,9 ! we/1
 h[ev]1 high-quality b>k 0 (t5 sc>ce &1 
!re=e1 ! di/9ction betwe5 w9t] & summ]  
b>k does n seem to h be5 made4          
,newf\ndl& once _h excell5t canoe b>k1 z
 did ! ,m>itime ,prov9ces1 ,ma9e1 ,new  
,hamp%ire1 & ,quebec1 b ! be/ b>k 0 f\nd
 back f ! seacoa/4 ,ont>io & ! c\ntry to
 ! imm$iate nor? ( ,lake ,sup]ior are   
also said to h produc$ b>k ( high       
quality = canoe build+4  ,! b>k ( ! pap]
 bir* 0 pref]r$ = canoe build+ because x
 c\ld be obta9$ 9 q l>ge %eets cle> (   
s]i\s blemi%es2 because its gra9 ran    

ar\nd ! tree r ?an along ! l9e ( v]tical
 tree gr[?1 s t %eets c\ld be sewn      
toge!r to obta9 l5g? 9 a canoe2 &       
because ! b>k 0 res9\s & n only did n   
/ret* & %r9k z did o!r b>ks1 b also _h  
"s ela/icity :5 gre51 or :5 kept damp4  
,?is ela/icity1 ( c\rse1 0 lo/ once !   
b>k 0 all[$ to become dry ?r\gh exposure
 to air & sun%9e1 a factor :i* controll$
 to "s ext5t ! te*nique ( its employm5t4
  ,_m o!r b>ks 7 employ$ 9 b>k canoe    
con/ruction1 b 9 mo/ in/ances ! craft 7 
= tempor>y or em]g5cy use & 7 disc>d$   
aft] a %ort "t4 ,su* b>ks z spruce      
7,picea71 elm 7,ulmus71 *e/nut 7,ca/5ea 
d5tata ,l471 hickory 7,c>ya spp471      
basswood 7,tilia spp471 & cottonwood    
7,populus spp47 are said to h be5 us$ 9 
b>k canoe con/ruction 9 "s p>ts ( ,nor? 
,am]ica4 ,bir*es o!r ?an ! pap] bir*    
c\ld be us$1 b mo/ ( !m produc$ b>k t 0 
?9 & o!rwise poor1 & 0 consid]$         
unsuitable = ! bett] types ( canoes4    
,b>ks o!r ?an bir* usually _h r\gh      
surfaces t _h to be scrap$ away1 9 ord] 

to make ! mat]ial flexible en\gh = canoe
 con/ruction4 ,spruce b>k _h "s ( ! good
 qualities ( ! pap] bir* b>k1 b to a f> 
less degree1 & 0 consid]$ at be/ a m]e  
sub/itute4 ,non-res9\s b>ks1 because (  
_! /ructure c\ld n be jo9$ toge!r to ga9
 l5g?1 & _! *>act]i/ic %r9kage & swell+ 
made x virtually impossible to keep !m  
atta*$ to a solid framework = any great 
l5g? ( "t4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #e    
,,ojibway ,,indian c>ry+ spruce roots1  
,lac ,seul1 ,ont41 #aiai4 7,canadian    
,geological ,survey photo47  ,! mat]ial 
us$ = sew+ toge!r pieces ( bir* b>k 0   
mo/ commonly ! root ( ! black spruce    
7,picea m>iana 7,mill47 ,b4,s4,p471 :i* 
gr[s 9 mu* ( ! area :]e ! pap] bir*     
exi/s4 ,! root ( ?is p>ticul> spruce is 
long b ( small diamet]2 x is t\gh1      
durable1 & flexible en\gh = ! purpose4  
,! tree usually gr[s 9 s(t1 moi/ gr\nd1 
s t ! long roots are commonly v close to
 ! surface1 :]e !y c\ld easily be dug up
 ) a %>p /ick or ) ! h&s4 ,9 "s areas ( 
favorable gr[+ conditions1 ! roots ( !  

black spruce c\ld be obta9$ 9 l5g?s up  
to #bj feet1 yet ) a maximum diamet] no 
l>g] ?an t ( a lead p5cil4              
,illu/ration3 ,figure #f  ,,roll ,,(    
,,b>k ,,= ,a ,,hunt+ ,,canoe4 ,hold+ !  
b>k is ! int5d$ build]1 ,v9c5t ,mikans1 
!n 79 #aibg71 at age #ajj1 ! olde/      
,indian on ! ,algonk9 ,res]ve at ,gold5 
,lake1 ,ont4  ,o!r roots c\ld be us$ 9  
an em]g5cy1 su* z ^? ( ! o!r spruces1 z 
well z ( ! nor!rn :ite-c$> 7,?uja       
occid5talis ,l471 tam>ack 7hackmatack or
 ea/]n l>*7 7,l>is l>ic9a 7,du ,roi7 ,k4
 ,ko*7 & jack p9e 7p9us banksiana       
,lamb471 ! la/ nam$ be+ us$ ext5sively  
by "s ( ! we/]n tribes4 ,al?\gh inf]ior 
to ! black spruce = sew+1 ^! & o!r      
mat]ials 7 us$ = sew+ b>k2 ev5 ra:ide 0 
employ$ = "s purposes 9 canoe           
con/ruction by c]ta9 tribes4  ,canoes   
built ( nonres9\s b>ks 7 usually la%$1  
in/ead ( sewn1 by ?ongs ( su* mat]ial z 
! inn] b>k ( ! nor!rn :ite c$>1         
basswood1 elm1 or hickory1 = ! reason   
/at$ e>li]4 ,spruce root 0 also us$ =   

la%+s1 if readily available4 ,s9ce %eets
 ( bir* b>k 7 jo9$ )\t employ+ a ne$le1 
! sew+ actually c\ld m correctly be t]m$
 lac+1 r ?an /it*+4 ,b = ! nonres9\s    
b>ks1 :i* c\ld /& little sew+ or lac+1  
p]haps la%+ is ! bett] t]m4  ,be=e /eel 
tools became available to ! ,indians1 ! 
woodwork requir$ 9 con/ruct+ a bir*-b>k 
canoe repres5t$ great labor1 s9ce /one  
tools hav+ poor cutt+ *>act]i/ics 7 us$4
 ,selection ( ! prop] wood 0 !re=e a    
vital consid]ation4 ,9 mo/ sections ( ! 
b>k canoe area1 ! nor!rn :ite c$> 0 !   
mo/ s\ght-= wood = canoe con/ruction4   
,?is timb] _h ! excell5t *>act]i/ic (   
splitt+ cleanly & readily :5 dry &      
well-season$4 ,z a result1 ! ,indian    
c\ld ei!r utilize fall5 timb] ( ?is     
species1 w9dbl[n or torn up 9 spr+      
floods2 ) ! crude means available he    
c\ld fell a suitable tree well 9 advance
 ( 8 ne$s2 or he c\ld girdle ! tree s t 
x w\ld die & season on ! /ump & !n fell 
x at 8 conv5i5ce4 ,if split prop]ly1    
ribs ( :ite c$> c\ld be b5t & set 9 %ape

 by ! use ( hot wat]4 ,9 _m areas !     
ribs1 %ea?+1 & ! gunwale memb]s ( b>k   
canoes 7 made ( ?is wood1 z 7 also !    
headbo>ds & /em pieces4  ,illu/ration3  
,figure #g  ,:ite c$> ,black spruce     
,wood-splitt+ te*niques  ,black spruce 0
 also employ$1 z x too w\ld split well1 
al?\gh only :5 gre54 ,?is wood also     
requir$ a diff]5t direction 9 splitt+   
?an ! :ite c$>4 ,ribs ( black spruce    
c\ld be b5t & set 9 %ape :5 ?is 0 done  
:ile ! wood 0 gre54 ,9 "s areas black   
spruce 0 us$ 9 place ( :ite c$> = all   
p>ts ( a b>k canoe /ructure4  ,h>d maple
 7usually ei!r ,ac] sac*>um ,m>%4 or ,a4
 nigrum ,mi*x471 c be split r easily    
:ile gre52 ?is wood 0 us$ = !           
crosspieces or ?w>ts t hold ! gunwales  
ap>t & = paddles4 ,l>*1 p>ticul>ly we/]n
 l>* 7,l>ix occid5talis ,nutt471 0 us$ 9
 "s areas = canoe memb]s4 ,:ite & black 
a% 7,frax9us am]icana ,l4 & ,f4 nigra   
,m>%471 7 also us$ :]e suitable wood (  
^! species 0 available4 ,9 ! nor?we/1   
spruce & v>i\s p9es 7 employ$1 z 0 also 

will[ 7,salix74 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! use 
( _m woods 9 b>k canoe con/ruction c be 
id5tifi$ only 9 ! p]iod aft] /eel tools 
became available2 x mu/ be assum$ t !   
range ( selection 0 mu* n>r[] 9         
prehi/oric times4  ,to make a b>k cov]  
wat]tight1 x is necess>y to coat all    
seams & to cov] all sew+ ) a wat]pro(   
mat]ial1 ( :i* ! mo/ favor$ by !        
,indians 0 spruce gum1 ! res9 obta9$ f  
black or :ite spruce 7,picea m>iana or  
,p4 glauca 7,mo5*7 ,voss74 ,! res9 ( !  
r$ spruce 7,picea rub5s ,s>g47 0 n us$1 
s f> z has be5 discov]$4 ,! s(t res9 0  
scrap$ f a fall5 tree or f "o damag$ 9  
summ]4 ,spruce gum c\ld be accumulat$ by
 /ripp+ a n>r[ l5g? ( b>k f trees e>ly 9
 ! spr+ & !n1 dur+ w>m wea!r1 ga!r+ !   
res9 t appe>$ at ! bottoms ( ! sc>s ?us 
made4 ,x 0 melt$ or heat$ 9 v>i\s ways  
to make x workable & c]ta9 mat]ials 7   
usually add$ to make x durable 9 use4   
,illu/ration3 ,figure #h  ,/one axe  ,! 
mo/ important aids to ! ,indian 9 canoe 
con/ruction 7 8 pati5ce1 k ( ! work+    

qualities ( mat]ials1 8 manual skill ) !
 crude cutt+1 scrap+1 & bor+ in/rum5ts  
kn[n to him1 & ( c\rse fire2 "t 01      
p]=ce1 ( less importance4 ,! canoe      
build] _h to le>n by exp]i5ce & close   
obs]vation h[ to "w ! mat]ial available4
 ,! wood-work+ tools ( ! /one age 7     
relatively ineffici5t1 b ) c>e & skill  
c\ld be us$ ) rem>kable precision &     
neatness4  ,fell+ ( trees 0 accompli%$  
by use ( a /one axe1 hat*et1 or adze1   
comb9$ ) ! use ( fire4 ,! me?od almo/   
univ]sally employ$ by primitive p 0     
foll[$4 ,! tree 0 fir/ girdl$ by /rik+ x
 ) ! /one tool to loos5 & raise ! wood  
fib]s & remove ! s(t gre5 b>k4 ,above   
?is girdle ! trunk 0 daub$ all ar\nd )  
wet e>?1 or pref]ably clay4 ,a l>ge1 hot
 fire 0 !n built ar\nd ! base ( ! tree  
&1 aft] ! loose fib]s 7 burn$ away & !  
wood well *>r$1 ! *> 0 remov$ by bl[s f 
! /one tool4 ,! process 0 repeat$ until 
! trunk 0 cut ?r\gh en\gh = ! tree to   
fall4 ,! fall5 trunk c\ld be cut into   
sections by employ+ ! same me?ods1 mud  

be+ laid on ea* side ( ! cut to prev5t !
 fire f spread+ along ! trunk4 ,fire    
c\ld also be us$ to cut d[n poles &     
small trees1 to cut !m into sections1 & 
to %>p5 ! ends into po9ts to =m crude   
w$ges or /akes4  ,/one tools 7 =m$ by   
*ipp+ fl9t1 jasp]1 or o!r =ms ( qu>tz1  
su* z *alc$ony1 into flakes ) %>p edges4
 ,?is 0 done by /rik+ ! nodule ( /one a 
%>p bl[ ) ano!r /one held 9 ! h& or     
m\nt$ 9 a h&le ( hide or wood to =m a   
/one hamm]4 ,! flakes 7 !n %ap$ by      
press+ ! edges ) a horn po9t--say1 "p ( 
a de] antl]--to =ce a *ip f ! flake4 ,! 
*ipp+ tool 0 sometimes fitt$ ) a hide or
 wood h&le set at "r angles to ! tool1 s
 t its head c\ld be hit ) a /one or horn
 hamm]4 ,! flake be+ work$ ^u1 if small1
 0 (t5 held 9 ! h&1 :i* 0 protect$ f !  
slipp+ ( a *ipp+ tool by a pad ( ra:ide4
 ,heat 0 n us$ 9 *ipp+1 & "s ,indians   
took c>e to keep ! flake damp :ile work+
 x1 occasionally bury+ ! flake = a :ile 
9 moi/ soil4 ,! cutt+ edge ( a /one tool
 c\ld be gr\nd by abrasion on a h>d     

piece ( granite or on s&/one1 b ! f9al  
degree ( %>pness dep5d$ ^u ! qualities (
 ! /one be+ us$ z a tool4 ,slate c\ld be
 us$ 9 tools 9 spite ( its brittl5ess4  
,9 g5]al1 /one tools 7 unsuitable =     
*opp+ or :ittl+ wood4  ,illu/ration3    
,figure #i  ,/one hamm]  ,/one w$ge     
,/one knife ) ra:ide ?ong h&le  ,splitt+
 0 done by />t+ ! split at ! upp]1 or   
small end1 ( a balk ( timb] ) a maul & a
 /one w$ge or ! blade ( a /one axe1     
hat*et1 or knife4 ,! /one knives us$ =  
?is "w 7 n f9i%$ tools ) wood h&les1 b  
r1 z ! blade 0 (t5 damag$ 9 use1 select$
 flakes fitt$ ) hide pads t s]v$ z a    
h&le4 ,! tool 0 usually driv5 into !    
wood ) bl[s f a wood5 club or maul1 !   
brittle /one tool be+ protect$ f damage 
by a pad ( ra:ide secur$ to ! top1 or   
head1 ( ! tool4 ,once ! split 0 />t$1 x 
c\ld be cont9u$ by driv+ m w$ges1 or    
po9t$ /icks1 into ! split2 ?is process 0
 cont9u$ until ! :ole balk 0 divid$4    
,:ite c$> 0 split into qu>t]s by ?is    
me?od & !n ! he>twood 0 split away1 !   

latt] be+ us$ = canoe /ructural memb]s4 
,f %ort balks ( ! l5g? ( ! longe/ rib or
 p]haps a little m1 7 split batt5s equal
 9 ?ickness to two ribs & 9 wid? also   
equal to two1 s t by splitt+ "o batt5   
two ways f\r f9i%$ ribs 7 produc$4 ,!   
broad faces ( ! ribs 7 z ne>ly p>allel  
to ! b>k side ( ! wood z possible1 z !  
ribs w\ld b5d satisfactorily t[>d or    
away f ! b>k side only4 ,black spruce1  
h[ev]1 0 split 9 l9e ) ! wood rays1 f ! 
he>t outw>d t[>d ! b>k1 s t "o ( ! rib's
 n>r[ edges fac$ ! b>k side2 only 9 ?is 
direction w\ld ! wood split readily &   
only :5 made ?is way w\ld ! ribs b5d )\t
 great breakage4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure 
#aj  ,wood5 mauls  7#b1 #c us$ to set   
ribs ) #d1 #e7  ,driv+ /icks  ,long     
pieces = %ea?+ & = ! gunwale memb]s 7   
split f :ite c$> or black spruce4 ,!    
splitt+ ( su* long pieces z ^! requir$ n
 only prop] selection ( cle> wood1 b    
also c>eful manipulation ( wood & tools 
9 ! op]ation4 ,splitt+ ( ?is k9d--say1 =
 ribs 9 ! f9i% cut--0 usually done by   

fir/ splitt+ out a batt5 l>ge en\gh to  
=m two memb]s4 ,to split x aga91 a /one 
knife 0 tapp$ into ! end gra9 to />t !  
split at ! desir$ po9t1 :i*1 z has be5  
not$1 0 always at ! upp] end ( ! /ick1 n
 at ! root end4 ,once ! split 0 op5$1 x 
0 cont9u$ by use ( a %>p-po9t$ /ick & ! 
/one knife2 if ! split %[$ a t5d5cy to  
run (f ! gra9 z x op5$1 x c\ld be       
controll$ by b5d+ ! batt51 or "o ( !    
halves1 away f ! direction ! split 0    
tak+4 ,! fir/ r\gh split usually s]v$ to
 %[ ! work] ! splitt+ *>act]i/ics ( a   
piece ( wood4 ,?is me?od ( f9i%+ frame  
memb]s 9 b>k canoes acc\nts = ! unev5   
surfaces t (t5 m>k "s p>ts1 a wavy gra9 
produc+ a wave 9 ! surface ( ! wood :5 x
 0 f9i%$4 ,if x 7 desir$ to produce a   
p>tially split piece ( wood1 su* z "s   
tribal gr\ps us$ = ! /ems1 or 9 ord] to 
all[ great] curvature at ! ends ( !     
gunwale1 ! splitt+ 0 /opp$ at ! desir$  
po9t & a tight la%+ ( ra:ide or b>k 0   
plac$ !re to =m a /op4  ,! tap]+ (      
frames1 gunwales1 & ?w>ts & ! %ap+ (    

paddles 7 accompli%$ by splitt+ away    
surplus wood along ! ?9 edges & by      
abrasion & scrap+ on all edges4 ,/one   
scrap]s 7 widely employ$2 %ell c\ld be  
employ$ 9 "s areas4 ,rubb+ ) an abrasive
 su* z s(t s&/one 0 us$ :5 ! wood became
 ?or\ghly dry2 h>dwood c\ld (t5 be      
poli%$ by rubb+ x ) a l>ge piece ( wood1
 or by use ( f9e s& held 9 a ra:ide pad4
 ,by ^! means ! %>p edges c\ld be r\nd$ 
(f & ! f9al %ap+ accompli%$4 ,"s /one   
knives c\ld be us$ to cut wood sl[ly1   
saw fa%ion1 & ?is process appe>s to to h
 be5 us$ to =m ! ?w>t ends t 9 _m canoes
 7 t5on$ into ! gunwales4 ,a /one knife 
us$ saw fa%ion w\ld also cut a b5t sapl+
 easily1 ?\gh sl[ly4 ,to cut & trim b>k 
a /one knife 0 employ$2 to peel b>k f a 
tree1 a hat*et1 axe1 or *isel c\ld be   
us$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aa  ,/one  
scrap]  ,drill+ 0 done by means ( a bone
 awl made f a spl9t] ( ! %ank-bone ( a  
de]2 ! blade ( ?is awl _h a r\ghly      
triangul> cross-section4 ,! spl9t] 0    
held 9 a wood5 h&le or 9 a ra:ide grip4 

,! awl 0 us$ n only to make holes 9     
wood1 b also z ! pun* to make holes =   
sew+ 9 b>k4 ,l>ge holes 7 drill$ by     
means ( ! b[-drill1 9 :i* a /one        
drill-po9t 0 rotat$ back & =? by !      
b[-/r+4 ,"s ,indians rotat$ ! drill     
betwe5 ! palms ( _! h&s1 or by a /r+ )  
h&grips at ea* end4 ,! top ( ! drill 0  
/eadi$ by a block held 9 ! work]'s m\?1 
! top rotat+ 9 a hole 9 ! und]side ( !  
block4 ,) ! b[-drill1 h[ev]1 ! block 0  
held 9 "o h&4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ab
  ,b[ ,drill  ,peel+ ! b>k f roots &    
splitt+ !m 0 done by use ( ! ?umbnail1 a
 /one knife1 or a clam%ell4 ,bit+ 0 also
 resort$ to4 ,! end ( a root c\ld also  
be split by fir/ p\nd+ x ) a /one1 us+ a
 log or ano!r /one z an anvil1 to op5 ! 
fib]s at "o end4 ,splitt+ a root 0      
usually done by bit+ to />t ! split4    
,once ?is 0 done1 half 0 held 9 ! m\? & 
! o!r half betwe5 ! ?umb & =ef+] ( ! "r 
h&4 ,!n ! two p>ts 7 gradually pull$    
ap>t ) ! "r h&1 :ile ! ?umbnail ( ! left
 0 us$ to guide ! split4 ,if ! split %[$

 a t5d5cy to run (f1 b5d+ ! root away f 
! direction ( ! run :ile cont9u+ !      
splitt+ usually s]v$ to *ange ! c\rse ( 
! split4 ,if a root 0 h>d to split1 !   
/one knife came into play in/ead ( !    
?umbnail4 ,:5 ! split rea*$ arm's l5g?1 
! ends 7 %ift$ 9 h& & m\? & ! op]ation  
cont9u$4  ,! use ( hot wat] z an aid 9  
b5d+ wood 0 well kn[n to "s tribal gr\ps
 be=e ! :ite man came4 ,wat] 0 plac$ 9 a
 wood5 tr\gh1 or 9 a b>k bas91 & heat$  
to boil+ by dropp+ hot /ones into x4 ,"s
 ,indians boil$ wat] 9 b>k ut5sils by   
plac+ !m ov] a fire ( hot coals surr\nd$
 by /ones & e>? s t ! flame c\ld n rea* 
! highly inflammable b>k above !        
wat]-level 9 ! di%4 ,/ones 7 lift$ f !  
fire ) wood5 tongs made ( gre5 sapl+s   
b5t into a ,u-%ape or made into a       
spoon-l outl9e4 ,a /raight /ick & a =k$ 
"o1 us$ toge!r1 =m$ ano!r type ( tongs4 
,! /raight /ick 0 plac$ 9 & "u ! =k2 !n1
 by =c+ ! latt] "u ! /one & br++ ! end (
 ! /raight /ick h>d aga9/ its top1 !    
/one 0 held firmly1 p9c]-fa%ion4  ,!    

wood to be b5t 0 fir/ soak$ 9 ! boil+   
wat]1 or ! wat] 0 p\r$ ov] x by means ( 
a bir*-b>k or o!r dipp]4 ,:5 ! wood 0   
?or\ghly soak$ ) boil+ wat]1 b5d+ began1
 & z x progress$ boil+ wat] 0 almo/     
cont9u\sly p\r$ on ! wood4 ,:5 ! wood _h
 be5 b5t to a desir$ =m1 x 0 secur$ 9   
%ape by ?ongs & all[$ to cool & dry out1
 dur+ :i* x w\ld take a p]man5t set4    
,h>d b5ds1 z 9 gunwale ends &           
/em-pieces1 7 made by ?is means1 usually
 aft] ! wood _h be5 split into a numb] (
 lam9ations 9 ! area ( ! greate/ b5d4   
,:5 ! piece _h be5 boil$ & b5t to its   
requir$ =m1 ! lam9ations 7 secur$ by    
wrapp+ !m spirally ) a ?ong ( inn] b>k  
7su* z basswood71 ( roots1 or ( ra:ide4 
,flat /ones 7 us$ to weigh d[n b>k 9    
ord] to flatt5 x & prev5t curl+4 ,pick$ 
up ab\t ! canoe-build+ site1 !y _h "o   
smoo? & fairly flat surface s t no h>m  
came to ! b>k1 & 7 ( su* size & weight z
 c\ld be h&l$ easily by ! build]4 ,smoo?
 /ones f a /ream appe> to h be5 pref]r$4
 ,9 prep>ation = build+ a canoe1 ! p9s1 

/akes1 & poles :i* 7 ( only tempor>y use
 7 cut or burn$ d[n 9 ! mann] m5tion$ & 
/or$ ready = use4 ,b>k conta9]s 7 made &
 fill$ ) spruce gum1 & ! mat]ials us$ 9 
mak+ x h>d & durable 7 ga!r$4 ,! build+ 
site 0 select$ 9 ! %ade1 to prev5t ! b>k
 f becom+ h>d & brittle1 & on gr\nd t 0 
smoo?1 cle> ( outcropp+s ( /one1 &      
roots1 or o!r ob/ructions1 & firm en\gh 
to hold ! /akes driv5 into x4 ,!        
location 01 ( c\rse1 usually ne> ! wat] 
:]e ! canoe 0 to be laun*$4             
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ac  ,mod]n       
,hudson ,bay axe  ,:5 /eel tools became 
available1 ! "w ( ! ,indian 9 cutt+ &   
%ap+ wood became mu* easi] b x is       
d\btful t bett] workman%ip result$4 ,!  
/eel axe & hat*et made m rapid & f>     
easi] ?an be=e ! fell+ & cutt+ up (     
trees1 poles1 & /icks2 !y c\ld also be  
us$ 9 peel+ b>k4 ,! favor$ /yle ( axe   
among ,canadian ,indians 0 :at is kn[n z
 ! ,hudson ,bay axe2 x is made z a      
fairly l>ge or full-axe1 z a light]     
half-axe1 & z a l>ge hat*et1 or h&-axe4 

,! head ( ! blade is v n>r[1 ! front ( !
 blade v]tical1 :ile ! back wid5s t[>d !
 cutt+ edge & ! latt] /&s at a slightly 
acute angle to ! front ( ! blade4 ,?is  
/yle ( axe seems to foll[ ! traditional 
=m ( ! tomahawk & is popul> because x   
cuts well1 yet is light] to c>ry ?an !  
o!r =ms ( axe4 ,x is also call$ a c$>   
axe 9 "s localities4 ,9 mod]n times1    
,indian hat*ets are ( ! comm]cial       
v>iety1 ! la?+ =m be+ pref]r$ because x 
holds some:at to ! old trade tomahawk 9 
=m ( blade & weight4 ,! traditional /eel
 tomahawk1 incid5tally 0 an adaptation (
 "o ( ! ,european =ms ( hat*et1 sold 9 !
 e>ly days ( ! fur trade4  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #ad  ,/eel tomahawk 7fur trade7
  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ae  ,/eel canoe
 awls  ,! canoe awl ( ! fur trade 0 a   
/eel awl ) a blade triangul> or squ>e 9 
cross-section1 & 0 sometimes made ( an  
old triangul> file ( small size4 ,its   
blade 0 lock$ into a h>dwood h&le1 & x 0
 a mod]n v]sion ( ! old bone awl ( ! b>k
 canoe build]s1 h5ce its "n4  ,! plane 0

 also us$ by mod]n ,indians1 b n 9 :ite 
man's fa%ion1 9 :i* ! wood is held 9 a  
vise & smoo!d by slid+ ! tool =w>d ov] !
 "w4 ,! ,indian usually fix$ ! plane    
upside d[n on a b5* or timb] & slid ! "w
 ov] ! sole1 mu* z w\ld be done ) a     
p[]-driv5 jo9]4 ,h[ev]1 ! plane 0 n v   
popul> among any ( ! canoe-build+       
,indians4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #af    
,crook$ knives  ,! bor+ tool mo/ favor$ 
by ! ,indians 0 ! common /eel gimlet2 if
 a l>g] bor+ tool 0 desir$1 an aug] ( ! 
requir$ diamet] 0 b\ght & fitt$ ) a     
removable cross-h&le r ?an a brace4  ,"o
 /eel tool hav+ mu* popul>ity among     
canoe-build+ ,indians 0 ! pione]'s      
splitt+ tool kn[n z ! froe4 ,?is 0 a    
heavy /eel blade1 fifte5 to tw5ty in*es 
long1 ab\t two in*es wide1 & ne>ly a    
qu>t] in* ?ick along its back4 ,"o end (
 ! blade end$ 9 a tight loop into :i* a 
heavy h>dwood h&le1 ab\t a foot long1 0 
set at "r angles to ! back edge ( !     
blade1 s t1 :5 held 9 ! h&1 ! blade 0   
cutt+ edge d[n1 ) ! h&le upright4 ,!    

froe 0 driv5 into ! end ( a balk ( timb]
 to be split by bl[s f a wood5 maul on !
 back ( its blade4 ,once ! split 0 />t$1
 ! maul 0 dropp$ & ! h& t _h held x 0   
plac$ at ! end ( ! blade away f ! h&le4 
,by twi/+ ! blade ) ! two h&s ! split   
c\ld be =c$ op54 ,! froe 0 a mo/ p[]ful 
& effici5t splitt+ tool :5 n>r[1 %ort   
plank1 or batt5s1 7 requir$4 ,! balk to 
be split 0 usually plac$ m or less      
end-up1 z its l5g? p]mitt$1 9 ! crot* ( 
a fell$ tree1 s z to hold x /eady dur+ !
 splitt+4 ,! pione] us$ ?is tool to make
 clapbo>ds & riv5 %+les2 ! ,indian canoe
 build] f\nd x h&y = all splitt+4       
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ag  ,froe  ,ano!r
 pione] tool t became useful to !       
,indian canoe build] 0 ! %av+ horse4 ,a 
sort ( b5* & vise1 x 0 us$ by ,indians 9
 a v>iety ( =ms1 all bas$ on ! same     
pr9ciple ( con/ruction4 ,usually a      
sev5-foot-long b5* made ( a l>ge log    
flatt5$ on top 0 support$ by two or f\r 
legs1 "o pair be+ high en\gh to raise t 
end ( ! b5* sev]al feet (f ! gr\nd to   

provide a seat = ! op]ator4 ,to ! top ( 
! b5* 0 secur$ a %ort]1 w$ge-%ap$ piece 
flatt5$ top & bottom1 ) "o end bevel$ & 
fa/5$ to ! b5* & ! o!r held ab\t #ab    
in*es above x by a support t5on$ into ! 
b5* ab\t ?irty in*es f ! high end4      
,?r\gh ! b5* & ! %ort] piece 7 cut      
slots1 ab\t f\r feet f ! high end ( !   
b5* & align$ to receive an arm pivot$ on
 ! b5* & ext5d+ f ! gr\nd to above !    
upp] slot4 ,! arm 0 %ap$ to ov]hang !   
slot on ! front1 t[>d ! op]ator's end ( 
! b5*1 & on ea* side4 ,! l[] portion ( !
 arm 0 squ>$ to fit ! slot1 & a         
crosspiece 0 secur$ to1 or ?r\gh1 its   
l[] end4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ah     
,,%av+ ,,horse4  ,! work] sat a/raddle !
 high end ( ! b5*1 fac+ ! l[ end1 ) 8   
feet on ! crosspiece ( ! pivot$ arm4    
,plac+ a piece ( wood on top ( !        
w$ge-%ap$ piece1 close to ! head ( !    
pivot$ arm1 he pu%$ =w>d on ! crosspiece
 ) 8 feet1 ?us =c+ ! head d[n h>d ^u !  
wood1 s t x 0 held z 9 a vise4 ,! wood  
c\ld !n be %av$ d[n to a requir$ %ape ) 

a drawknife or crook$ knife )\t !       
necessity ( hold+ ! "w4 ,a long piece 0 
cant$ on top ( ! b5* s t ! f9i%$ "p w\ld
 pass by ! body ( ! work]1 &1 if x 7    
necess>y to %ape ! full l5g?1 x c\ld be 
rev]s$4  ,nails & tacks ev5tually came  
into use1 ?\gh !y 7 nev] us$ 9 all      
phases ( ! con/ruction ( a p>ticul>     
canoe4 ,9 ! la/ days ( b>k canoe        
con/ruction1 ! b>k 0 tack$ to ! gunwales
 &1 9 areas :]e a gunwale cap 0         
cu/om>ily employ$1 ! cap 0 (t5 nail$ to 
! top ( ! gunwales4  ,! bucksaw also    
came into ! h&s ( ! ,indians1 b ! frame 
( ?is saw 0 too awkw>d to c>ry1 s !     
,indian usually b\ght only ! blade4 ,) a
 c\ple ( nails & a b5t sapl+ he c\ld    
make a v good frame 9 ! woods1 :5 ! saw 
0 requir$4 ,! ends ( ! sapl+ 7 slott$ to
 take ! ends ( ! blade & !n drill$      
crosswise to ! slot1 s a nail c\ld be   
ins]t$ to hold ! ends ( blade & sapl+   
toge!r4 ,) ! end ( ! nail b5t ov]1 !    
frame 0 lock$ toge!r & ! t5sion 0 giv5  
to ! blade by ! b5t sapl+ h&le4         

,illu/ration3 ,figure #ai  ,bucksaw  ,! 
crook$ knife 0 ! mo/ important & popul> 
/eel tool f\nd among ! ,indians build+  
b>k canoes4 ,x 0 made f a flat /eel file
 ) "o side work$ d[n to a cutt+-edge4 ,!
 back ( ! blade ?us =m$ 0 usually a     
little less ?an an eigh? ( an in* ?ick4 
,! cutt+ edge 0 bevel-=m1 l t ( a       
drawknife or *isel1 ) ! back face q     
flat4 ,! tang ( ! file 0 fitt$ into a   
h&le made ( a crot*$ /ick1 to "o arm (  
:i* ! tang 0 atta*$1 :ile ! o!r project$
 at a slightly obtuse angle away f !    
back ( ! blade4 ,! tang 0 usually held 9
 place by be+ b5t at its end into a     
slight hook & let into ! h&le1 :]e x 0  
secur$ ) s9ew la%+2 wire lat] came into 
use = ?is la%+4 ,! knife1 held ) ! cutt+
 edge t[>d ! us]1 0 grasp$ f+]s-up ) !  
?umb ( ! hold+ h& laid along ! "p ( !   
h&le project+ away f ! us]4 ,?is /eadi$ 
! knife 9 cutt+4 ,unlike a jackknife1 ! 
crook$ knife 0 n us$ to :ittle b to cut 
t[>d ! us]1 & 01 9 effect1 a "o-h&      
drawknife4 ,?is =m ( knife is s         

satisfactory t x is to ?is day employ$  
in/ead ( a drawknife by _m boat-build]s 
9 ,new ,brunswick & ,quebec4 ,a v>iation
 9 ! crook$ knife has ! tip ( ! blade   
turn$ upw>d1 on ! flat1 s t x c be us$ 9
 holl[+ out a wood5 b[l or di%4 ,!      
blades ( crook$ knives se5 are usually  
ab\t five-eigh?s in* wide & p]haps five 
or six in*es long4 ,"s are only slightly
 bevel$ along ! cutt+ edge2 o!rs %[ ?is 
feature v m>k$ly4  ,awls1 z well z      
*isels & o!r /one or bone blades1 (t5 _h
 h&les on _! sides to all[ !m to be held
 safely :5 hit ) a hamm]4 ,"s ( ! /one  
blades & *isels ?us took ! =m ( adzes & 
c\ld be us$ l !m1 b only1 ( c\rse1 to   
cut *>r$ or v s(t wood4 ,! %>p5+ ( /one 
tools foll[$ ! same me?ods us$ 9 _!     
orig9al manufacture & 0 a sl[ und]tak+4 
,to "s ,indians an effici5t wood-cutt+  
*isel 0 available 9 ! tee? ( ! beav]4   
,ea* too? 0 ne>ly a qu>t] in* wide1 s   
two tee? w\ld give a cut ( ne>ly half an
 in*4 ,! usual practice appe>s to h be5 
to employ ! skull z a h&le1 ?\gh "s     

beav] too? *isels _h wood5 h&les4 ,z us$
 9 mak+ t5ons 9 ! gunwales1 two holes1 (
 a diamet] equal to ! desir$ wid?1 7    
fir/ drill$ close en\gh toge!r to make !
 l5g? ( ! desir$ t5on1 aft] :i* !       
int]v5+ wood1 especially if x 0 :ite c$>
 or black spruce1 c\ld be readily split 
out by means ( ei!r a beav] too? or n>r[
 /one *isel4  ,! maul 0 m]ely "s =m (   
wood5 club2 ! mo/ common type 0 made by 
cutt+ away "p ( ! l5g? ( a small balk to
 =m a h&le1 ! rema9d] be+ left to =m !  
head4 ,! swell+ ( ! trunk ( a small tree
 at ! gr\nd1 :]e ! roots =m1 0 also     
utiliz$ to give weight & bulk to ! head 
( a maul4 ,x c\ld be h>d5$ by scor*+ !  
head 9 a fire4 ,ano!r me?od ( p\nd+ &   
driv+ 0 to employ a /one held 9 "o h& or
 bo?4 ,/one hamm]s 7 r>ely employ$1 s9ce
 ! maul or a /one held 9 ! h& w\ld s]ve 
! purpose4  ,! bir* tree t 0 to supply !
 b>k 0 usually select$ f> 9 advance ( ! 
"t ( con/ruction4 ,by explor+ ! bir*    
groves1 ! build] locat$ a numb] ( trees 
f :i* a suitable quantity ( b>k ( !     

desir$ quality c\ld be obta9$4 ,samples 
( ! b>k ( ea* tree 7 /ripp$ f ! trunk & 
c>efully inspect$ & te/$4 ,if !y sep>at$
 into lay]s :5 b5t back & =?1 ! b>k 0   
poor4 ,if ! eyes inside ! b>k 7 lumpy1 !
 b>k 9 _! vic9ity w\ld split too easily2
 ?is 0 also true if !y 7 too close      
toge!r1 b if ! eyes on ! inside ( ! b>k 
appe>$ holl[ !re 0 no objection4 ,b>k t 
0 dead :ite1 or ! out] surface ( :i* 0  
m>k$ by small /rips p>tly peel$ away f !
 lay] bel[1 w\ld be reject$ z poor 9    
quality4  ,pref]ably1 b>k 0 /ripp$ f !  
select$ trees dur+ a prolong$ ?aw 9     
w9t]1 p>ticul>ly "o accompani$ by ra91  
or z soon z ! sap 9 ! trees _h begun to 
fl[ 9 e>ly spr+4 ,if ?is 0 n possible1  
w9t] b>k1 z describ$ on page #ad1 0 us$ 
z long z x 0 obta9able4 ,only dire      
necessity =c$ ! ,indian to use b>k ( a  
poor quality4 ,fall peel+1 aft] ! fir/  
fro/s1 0 also practic$ 9 "s areas4 ,! "w
 on ! tree 0 done f /ages made ( small  
trees ^: bran*es c\ld be us$ 9 climb+1  
or f r\gh ladd]s con/ruct$ ( %ort rungs 

la%$ to two poles4 ,:5 /eel axes &      
hat*ets 7 available ! tree c\ld be      
fell$1 provid$ c>e 0 tak5 to h x fall on
 poles laid on ! gr\nd to prev5t damage 
to ! b>k 9 ! fall & to keep ! trunk high
 en\gh to all[ x to be peel$4 ,fell+    
p]mitt$ use ( hot wat] to heat ! b>k1 & 
?us made peel+ possible 9 cold] wea!r   
?an w\ld p]mit /ripp+ a /&+ tree4 ,fell+
 by burn+1 h[ev]1 sometimes result$ 9 an
 uncontroll$ fall 9 :i* ! b>k c\ld be   
damag$4  ,:e!r /one or /eel knives 7    
us$1 ! b>k 0 cut 9 ! same mann]1 ) !    
blade held at an angle to make a sla%+  
cut2 hold+ a %>p knife upright1 s z to  
cut squ>e to ! surface ( ! b>k1 makes ! 
tool /ick & jump1 & a ragg$ cut results4
 ,a /one or /eel axe blade c\ld also v  
readily be us$ 9 cutt+ b>k2 ) su* tools1
 x 0 cu/om>y to tap ! head ) a maul to  
make ! cut4 ,x 0 necess>y to make only !
 longitud9al cut on ! trunk ( ! bir*    
tree1 z ! b>k w\ld split ar\nd ! tree ) 
! gra9 at ! ends ( ?is cut4 ,spruce &   
o!r b>ks1 h[ev]1 requir$ bo? v]tical &  

horizontal cuts4  ,once ! v]tical cut 0 
made to ! desir$ l5g?1 "o edge ( ! b>k 0
 c>efully pri$ away f ! wood ) ! blade (
 a knife4 ,!n ! removal ( ! b>k c\ld    
proce$ m rapidly4 ,in/ead ( />t+ ! b>k )
 a knife blade1 "s ,indians us$ a small 
/ick1 "o end ( :i* 0 slightly b5t & made
 into a *isel %ape ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an
 in* wide4 ,?is 0 us$ to pry ! b>k away1
 n only along ! edge ( ! v]tical cut1 b 
?r\gh\t ! op]ation ( peel+4 ,ano!r tool1
 useful 9 obta9+ w9t] b>k1 :i* 0        
difficult to /rip f ! tree1 0 a piece ( 
dry1 ?ick bir* b>k1 ab\t a foot squ>e1 )
 "o edge cut 9 a slight r\nd & bevel$ to
 a %>p edge4 ,! bevel$ side 0 ins]t$    
b5ea? ! b>k & rock$ on its curv$ cutt+  
edge1 ?us sep>at+ ! b>k f ! wood ) less 
dang] ( splitt+ ! b>k4 ,spruce & o!r    
b>ks 7 remov$ f ! tree ) ! same tools4  
,aft] ! b>k _h be5 remov$ f ! tree1 x 0 
h&l$ ) great c>e to avoid splitt+ x     
along ! gra94 ,ev5 9 q w>m wea!r1 ! b>k 
0 usually heat$ slightly ) a b>k tor* to
 make x flexible2 sometimes hot wat] 0  

appli$ if ! inn] r9d 0 n to be us$ =    
decoration4 ,!n ! %eets 7 roll$ up      
tightly 9 ! direction ( gr[? ( ! tree4  
,?is made a roll conv5i5t = transport+ &
 also help$ to prev5t ! b>k f curl+4 ,if
 ! b>k 0 n to be us$ imm$iately1 x 0    
c>efully subm]g$ 9 wat] s t x w\ld n dry
 out be=e x 0 fitt$ to ! canoe4 ,spruce 
& o!r res9\s b>ks1 :i* c\ld n be /or$1 7
 us$ z soon z possible aft] !y 7 /ripp$ 
f ! tree1 ! r\gh ext]ior surface be+    
remov$ by scrap+4  ,roots = sew+ 7 also 
ga!r$1 split1 & roll$ up1 !n plac$ 9    
wat] s !y w\ld rema9 flexible4          
,sometimes !y 7 boil$ z well1 j be=e be+
 us$4  ,! spruce gum 0 ga!r$ & temp]$4  
,be=e metal kettles & fry+ pans became  
available to ! ,indians1 x 0 heat$ 9 a  
numb] ( ways4 ,"o me?od 0 to heat x 9 a 
wood5 tr\gh ) hot /ones4 ,z ! spruce gum
 melt$ easily1 great temp]ature 0 n     
requir$4 ,/one & pott]y conta9]s 7 also 
us$4 ,ano!r me?od 0 to boil wat] 9 a b>k
 conta9] & drop 9 ! spruce gum1 :i*     
melt$ & float$ on top ( ! wat] 9 su* a  

consi/5cy t x c\ld be skimm$ (f ) a b>k 
spoon or dipp]4 ,*ips & dirt 7 skimm$ (f
 ! hot gum ) a /rip ( b>k or a flat     
/ick4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bj        
,,peel+1 ,,roll+1 ,,& ,,transport+ b>k =
 use 9 canoe con/ruction4 7,sket*es by  
,adney47  ,temp]+1 done aft] ! gum 0    
melt$1 consi/$ ( add+ animal fat & a    
little f9ely p[d]$ *>coal4 ,! mixture 0 
!n te/$ by dipp+ a /rip ( b>k into x &  
!n into cold wat]4 ,! /rip 0 b5t to see 
if x crack$ ! spruce gum2 if x did1 too 
mu* temp]+ mat]ial _h be5 add$ & m gum 0
 requir$4 ,if no crack+ occurr$1 ! gum  
on ! /rip 0 held 9 ! h& = a few mom5ts  
to see if x became tacky or c\ld be     
rubb$ (f ! /rip2 if ei!r occurr$1 m     
temp]+ 0 ne$$4 ,! me?od ( temp]+ _h _m  
v>iations4 ,"o 0 to remelt ! gum a numb]
 ( times2 ?is d>k5$ x & made x h>d]4 ,r$
 o*re or v]million 7 sometimes add$1 (t5
 toge!r ) *>coal made f ! will[4 ,in/ead
 ( spruce gum1 9 "s areas1 p9e res9 0   
us$1 temp]$ ) tall[ & sometimes *>coal4 
,! ,indians 9 ! ,ea/ sometimes us$      

remelt$ spruce gum to :i* a little tall[
 _h be5 add$1 mak+ a light br[n or almo/
 transp>5t mixture4 ,mo/ tribal gr\ps   
us$ gum t 0 black1 or ne>ly s4  ,=      
repair "w1 :5 melt$ spruce gum c\ld n be
 procur$ 9 ! usual mann]1 h>d globules &
 flakes ( gum scrap$ f a fall5 spruce   
tree 7 us$4 ,^! c\ld n be easily melt$1 
s !y 7 fir/ *ew$ ?or\ghly until s(t2 !n 
! gum 0 spread ov] a seam4 ,?is type (  
gum w\ld n /ick well unless x 7 smoo!d )
 a gl[+ /ick1 & h5ce 0 us$ only 9       
em]g5cies4  ,x is believ$ t be=e /eel   
tools 7 available bir*-b>k canoes 7     
commonly built ( a numb] ( %eets ( b>k r
 ?an1 z q (t5 occurr$ 9 lat] times1 (   
only "o or two %eets4 ,! great] numb] ( 
%eets 9 ! e>ly canoes result$ f !       
difficulty 9 obta9+ l>ge %eets f a /&+  
tree4 ,comp>ison ( surviv+ bir*-b>k     
canoes sugge/s t ^? built ( a numb] (   
%eets w\ld h conta9$ ! bett] b>k1 z l>ge
 %eets (t5 includ$ b>k tak5 f l[ on !   
trunk1 & ?is1 z has be5 m5tion$1 is     
usually ( poor] quality ?an t high] on !

 trunk4  ,x is kn[n t ! e>ly ,indians   
c>ri$ on "s trade 9 b>k canoe build+    
mat]ials1 z !y did 9 /one = weapons &   
tools4 ,areas 9 :i* "s mat]ials 7 sc>ce 
or ( poor quality might ?us obta9       
replacem5ts f m =tunate areas4 ,f9e     
quality b>k1 sew+ roots1 & good spruce  
gum _h trade value1 & ^! items 7 sold by
 "s ( ! e>ly fur trad]s4 ,pa9t does n   
appe> to h be5 us$ on e>ly canoes1      
except1 9 "s in/ances1 on ! woodwork4   
,?is use occurr$ mo/ly 9 ! ,ea/1        
p>ticul>ly among ! ,beo?uks 9           
,newf\ndl&4 ,pa9t 0 app>5tly n us$ on   
bir* b>k until x 0 introduc$ by :ite m5 
9 ! fur trade4   ,summ>y  ,x w be se5 t 
! ,indian ga!r$ all mat]ials & prep>$ !m
 = use ) only a few simple tools1 mo/ ( 
:i* c\ld be manufactur$ at ! build+ site
 & disc>d$ aft] ! "w 0 complet$4 ,! only
 o!r tools he usually br\ght to ! sc5e 7
 ^? he normally requir$ 9 8 ev]yday     
exi/5ce 9 ! =e/4 ,"s in/rum5ts us$ 9    
canoe build+1 h[ev]1 might be pres]v$2  
^! 7 ! measur+ /icks on :i* 7 m>k$1 by  

not*es1 c]ta9 measurem5ts to be us$ 9   
%ap+ a canoe4 ,also1 "s ,indians us$ a  
build+ frame t %ap$ ! bottom 9 plan     
view4 ,^! are be/ describ$ :5 ! actual  
build+ me?ods are exam9$4  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #ba  ,,build+ ,,frame ,,= ,a   
,,l>ge ,,canoe4 ,dott$ l9es %[ *ange 9  
%ape is caus$ by omitt+ crossb>s or by  
us+ %ort b>s 9 ends4 ,note la%+ at ends 
& me?od ( fa/5+ ?w>t ) a ?ong4          
,*apt] ,?ree  ,,=m ,,& ,,con/ruction    
,classification ( ! types ( b>k canoes  
built by ! ,indians is n a simple matt]4
 ,p]haps ! mo/ practical way is to      
employ ! tribal designation1 su* z ,cree
 canoe1 ,micmac canoe1 accept+ z a      
crit]ion ! di/9ctive g5]al appe>ance ( !
 canoes us$ by ea* tribe4 ,x mu/ be     
emphasiz$1 h[ev]1 t ?is me?od (         
classification does n indicate ! model1 
or l9es1 employ$4 ,bo? ! model & ! size 
( b>k canoes 7 ext5sively affect$ by !  
requirem5ts ( use3 lake1 coa/al1 or riv]
 navigation2 smoo?1 r\gh1 or fa/-runn+  
wat]2 transportation ( a hunt]1 a       

family1 or c>go2 ! conditions & l5g? (  
portages2 & ! p]man5ce ( con/ruction    
desir$4 ,canoes ( v>i\s models1 sizes1  
me?ods ( con/ruction1 or decoration     
might be f\nd )9 ! limits ( a s+le      
tribal classification4 ,also1 )9 a giv5 
area1 !re might be app>5t simil>ity 9   
model among ! canoes ( two or ?ree      
tribal gr\ps4 ,h[ev]1 a classification  
bas$ on geographical areas has be5 f\nd 
to be impractical1 because ! movem5ts ( 
tribal gr\ps 9 se>* ( new hunt+ gr\nds  
t5d to make tribal b\nd>ies difficult to
 def9e4   ,=m  ,! canoes ( "s tribal    
gr\ps appe> to be hybrids1 repres5t+ an 
int]m+l+ ( types z a result ( "s pa/    
contact betwe5 tribes4 ,^? ( o!r gr\ps  
are ( l model1 =m1 & ev5 appe>ance1     
possibly ow+ to l conditions (          
employm5t4 ,! effects ( a simil>ity 9   
use requirem5ts ^u inv5tiv5ess is se5 9 
! applications = mod]n pat5t rights1 :]e
 two or m applications c cov] almo/     
exactly ! same device )\t ! slighte/    
evid5ce ( contact betwe5 ! applicants2  

!re is no logical reason to suppose !   
same condition _c apply to primitive    
peoples1 ev5 ?\gh _! processes (        
inv5tion might be v sl[ or relatively   
r>e 9 occurr5ce4  ,! effects ( migration
 ( tribes ^u _! canoe =ms c only be     
/udi$ ) respect to ^? comp>atively rec5t
 times = :i* records & obs]vations are  
available4 ,f ! limit$ in=mation at h& x
 appe>s t ! ,indian1 :5 he mov$ to an   
area :]e use requirem5ts & mat]ials     
available = build+ diff]$ f ^? to :i* he
 _h be5 accu/om$1 0 (t5 =c$ to modify ! 
model1 =m1 size1 & con/ruction ( 8      
canoe4 ,9 "s in/ances ?is seems to h    
result$ 9 ! adoption ( ano!r tribal =m4 
,! di/9ctive feature t usually id5tifies
 ! tribal classification ( a b>k canoe  
is ! pr(ile ( ! ends1 al?\gh sometimes !
 pr(ile ( ! gunwale1 or %e]1 & ev5 ( !  
bottom1 is also involv$4 ,! b[ & /]n (  
_m b>k canoes 7 z ne> alike 9 pr(ile z !
 me?od ( con/ruction w\ld p]mit2        
nev]!less "s types _h di/9ct b[ & & /]n 
=ms4 ,among tribes ! =m ( ! ends ( !    

canoes v>i$ consid]ably2 "s 7 l[ &      
unimpressive1 o!rs 7 high & (t5         
graceful4  ,obvi\sly practical reasons c
 be f\nd = c]ta9 tribal v>iations4 ,9 "s
 areas1 ! l[ ends appe> to ensue f ! use
 ( ! canoe 9 op5 wat]1 :]e ! w9d        
resi/ance ( a high end w\ld make paddl+ 
labori\s4 ,9 o!rs ! l[ ends appe> to    
result f ! canoe be+ commonly employ$ 9 
small /reams :]e ov]hang+ bran*es w\ld  
ob/ruct passage4 ,portage conditions may
 likewise h be5 a factor2 l[ ends w\ld  
pass ?r\gh bru% m easily ?an high4      
,types us$ :]e rapids 7 to be run (t5 _h
 ends high] ?an ! gunwales to prev5t !  
canoe f %ipp+ wat] ov] ! b[4 ,! high1   
di/9ctive ends ( ! canoes mo/ us$ 9 !   
fur trade1 on ! o!r h&1 7 said to h     
result$ f ! necessity ( employ+ ! canoe 
z a %elt]4 ,:5 ! canoe 0 turn$ upside   
d[n on ! gr\nd1 ) "o gunwale & ! tops ( 
! high ends support+ x1 !re 0 en\gh     
headroom "u ! canoe to p]mit its use z a
 %elt] )\t ! addition ( any tempor>y    
/ructure4 ,! desirability ( ?is         

*>act]i/ic 9 ! fur-trade canoe c be     
expla9$ by ! fact t ! crew travell$ z _m
 h\rs z possible ea* day1 & re/$ = only 
a v %ort p]iod1 s t rapid erection (    
%elt] l5g!n$ bo? ! p]iods ( travel & (  
re/4  ,yet ^! practical consid]ations d 
n always expla9 ! end-=ms f\nd 9 b>k    
canoes4 ,canoes ) relatively high ends 7
 us$ 9 op5 wat]s1 & simil> canoes 7     
portag$ ext5sively4 ,possibly !         
,indian's consci\sness ( tribal         
di/9ctions l$ him to reta9 "s feature1  
su* z height ( ! end-=ms1 z a means (   
tribal recognition1 ev5 ?\gh practical  
consid]ations requir$ its suppression to
 "s degree4  ,! pr(ile ( ! gunwales also
 v>i$ a good deal among tribal types4   
,mo/ b>k canoes1 because ( ! rais$      
end-=ms1 %[$ a %ort1 %>p upsweep ( ! %e]
 close to ! b[ & /]n4 ,"s %[$ a m>k$    
hump1 or upw>d sweep1 amid%ips :i* made 
! %e] pr(ile foll[ some:at ! =m ( a     
cupid's b[4 ,_m types _h a /raight1 or  
ne>ly /raight1 %e]2 o!rs _h an or?odox  
%e]1 ) ! l[e/ "p ne>ly amid%ips4  ,!    

bottom pr(iles ( b>k canoes %[$ v>y+    
degrees ( curvature4 ,9 "s ! bottom 0   
/raight = mo/ ( its l5g?1 ) a slight    
rise t[>d ! ends4 ,9 o!rs ! bottom %[$ a
 m>k$ curvature ov] its full l5g?1 & 9 a
 few ! bottom 0 practically /raight     
betwe5 ! po9ts at :i* ! /ems 7 =m$4 ,"s 
nor?we/]n types _h a slightly hogg$     
bottom1 b 9 ^! ! wood5 framework 0      
unusually flexible1 s t ! bottom became 
/raight1 or ev5 a little rock]$ :5 !    
canoe 0 afloat & mann$4  ,! practical   
reasons = ^! bottom =ms are n cle>4 ,=  
canoes us$ 9 rapid /reams or 9 expos$   
wat]s :]e high w9ds 7 to be met _m      
,indians pref]r$ bottoms t 7 /raight4   
,o!rs 9 ^! same conditions pref]r$ !m   
rock]$ to v>y+ degrees4 ,x is possible t
 rock] may be desirable 9 canoes t mu/  
be run a%ore end-on 9 surf4 ,( c\rse1 a 
/rongly rock]$ bottom p]mits quick      
turn+2 ?is may h be5 appreciat$ by "s   
tribal gr\ps4 ,/ill o!r ,indians appe>  
to h believ$ t a canoe ) a slightly     
rock]$ bottom c\ld be paddl$ m easily   

?an "o hav+ a p]fectly /raight bottom4  
,! midsections ( b>k canoes v>i$ some:at
 9 =m )9 a s+le tribal type1 because !  
me?od ( con/ruction did n give absolute 
control ( ! sectional %ape dur+ !       
build+1 b1 on ! :ole1 ! %ape foll[$     
tribal cu/om1 be+ modifi$ only to meet  
use requirem5ts4 ,p]haps ! two mo/      
common midsection %apes 7 ! ,u-=m1 ) !  
bottom some:at flatt5$1 & ! di%-%ape1   
hav+ r /raight1 fl>+ sides comb9$ ) a   
n>r[1 flat1 or ne>ly flat bottom4 ,"s   
ea/]n canoes %[$ m>k$ tumble-home 9 !   
topside above ! bilge2 (t5 !y _h a wide 
& r flat r\nd$ bottom1 ) a %ort1 h>d    
turn 9 ! bilge4 ,a few ea/]n canoes1 us$
 ma9ly 9 op5 wat]s along ! coa/1 _h     
bottoms ) deadrise--t is1 a %all[ ,v-=m1
 ! apex ( ! ,v be+ mu* r\nd$2 !         
,v-bottom1 ( c\rse1 w\ld h aid$ 9 /e]+ !
 canoe 9 /rong w9ds4 ,"o type ( canoe ) 
?is ris+ bottom _h tumble-home topsides1
 b ano!r1 us$ "u sev]e conditions1 _h a 
midsection t 0 an almo/ p]fect ,v1 !    
apex be+ r\nd$ b ) s little curvature 9 

! arms t no bilge c\ld be se54  ,g5]ally
 speak+1 ! ea/]n canoes _h a r well     
r\nd$ bottom ) a high turn ( ! bilge &  
"s tumble-home above1 ?\gh !y might h a 
flatt] =m :5 built = %all[-wat] use or =
 increas$ c>ry+ capacity4 ,a canoe built
 = spe$1 h[ev]1 might be v r\nd on !    
bottom1 & x might or might n h "s       
tumble-home 9 ! topside4 ,9 ! ,we/1 a   
flat bottom ) fl>+ topsides pr$om9at$2  
fa/ canoes !re _h a v n>r[1 flat bottom 
) "s fl>e1 ! wid? ( ! bottom & ! am\nt (
 fl>e be+ increas$ to give great]       
capacity on a %all[ draft4 ,"s canoes 9 
! ,nor?we/ _h a skiff-=m flat bottom &  
fl>+ sides1 ) ! *9e r\nd$ (f %>ply4  ,! 
=m ( ! sections ne> ! ends ( a canoe are
 controll$ to a great ext5t by ! =m (   
midsection4 ,9 canoes hav+ flat bottoms 
comb9$ ) fl>+ sides ?is =m 0 usually    
c>ri$ to ! ends1 :]e x became a r %>p   
,v1 giv+ f9e l9es = spe$ :5 ! canoe 0   
light1 & only mod]ately increas$        
resi/ance :5 x 0 load$4 ,among ea/]n    
canoes hav+ tumble-home topsides1 !     

midsection =m c\ld be c>ri$ to ! ends1  
gradually becom+ %>p] 9 canoes hav+ *9 9
 ! pr(iles ( ! ends2 9 canoes hav+ no   
*91 ! sections necess>ily took a po9t$  
oval =m close to ! ends4 ,a few canoes  
hav+ fl>+ sides & *9 ends %[$ a simil>  
*ange 9 =m4 ,9 all1 h[ev]1 ! b[ & /]n   
%[$ a t5d5cy t[>d fullness ne> !        
wat]l9e4  ,canoes ) a /rongly ,u-%ap$   
midsection commonly c>ri$ ?is =m to !   
ends1 ) increas+ %>pness 9 ! r\nd ( !   
,u4 ,! ,u-=m pr$om9at$ 9 ! end-sections 
( ea/]n canoes1 ( c\rse1 ?\gh a few %[$ 
a ,v-=m1 z mu/ be expect$4 ,! fair+ ( ! 
end sections into ! end pr(iles appe>s  
to h controll$ ?is matt]4 ,! outl9e ( ! 
gunwales1 9 plan view1 also influ5c$ !  
=m ( ! end-sections & ( ! level l9es    
!re4 ,"s canoes1 :5 view$ f above1 %[$ a
 p9*$-9 =m at ! ends1 ?is 0 caus$ by !  
con/ruction ( ! gunwales or by !        
projection ( ! end-pr(ile =ms beyond !  
ends ( ! true /ructural gunwale memb]s4 
,su* canoes w\ld h a v /rong holl[ 9 !  
level l9es project$ ?r\gh _! hull-=m    

bel[ ! gunwales1 & ?is c\ld h be5       
acc5tuat$ by any /rong *9 9 ! b[ & /]n  
%apes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m canoes %[$ no   
holl[1 & ! level l9es 7 /raight = "s    
di/ance inbo>d ( ! ends1 or 7 slightly  
convex4 ,full1 convex level l9es w appe>
 bel[ ! wat]l9e 9 canoes hav+ a /rongly 
rock]$ bottom4  ,x %\ld be not$ t !     
,indians 7 aw>e t v %>p-end$ canoes     
usually 7 fa/ "u paddle2 h5ce !y employ$
 ?is *>act]i/ic 9 any canoe :]e high    
spe$ 0 desir$4 ,h[ev]1 ! degree (       
%>pness 9 ! gunwales & at ! level l9es  
is n always ! same at bo? ends1 ?\gh !  
v>iation is sometimes too slight to be  
detect$ )\t c>eful measurem5t2 x may at 
times h be5 accid5tal1 b 9 _m cases x   
appe>s to h be5 int5tional4  ,"s ea/]n  
canoes hav+ _! greate/ wid?1 or beam1 on
 ! gunwales at midl5g? _h f9] level l9es
 aft ?an =w>d1 app>5tly to produce trim 
by ! /]n :5 afloat & mann$4 ,?is made !m
 /e] well 9 r\gh wat]4 ,"s nor?we/]n    
canoes _h _! greate/ beam abaft !       
midl5g?1 giv+ !m a long1 %>p b[2 ! run 0

 sometimes =m$ by sweep+ up ! bottom aft
 to a %all[ /]n1 z well z by !          
d\ble-end$ =m ( ! canoe4 ,despite a     
g5]al simil>ity 9 ! =m ( ! ends1 9 "s   
canoes ! b[ 0 m>k$ by its great] height1
 9 o!rs1 by ! mann] 9 :i* ! b>k 0 lapp$ 
at ! seams1 or by ! mann] ( decoration4 
,9 a few ) ends exactly alike ! b[ 0    
indicat$ by ! fitt+ ( ! ?w>ts su* z1 =  
example1 by plac+ at ! =w>d end a       
p>ticul> /yle ( ?w>t1 int5d$ to hold !  
tor* us$ 9 spe>+ fi% at night1 or to    
support a ma/ & sail4  ,9 exam9+ ! l9es1
 or model1 ( a b>k canoe1 ! limitations 
impos$ ^u ! build] by ! *>act]i/ics (   
b>k mu/ be consid]$4 ,! degree (        
flexibility1 ! run ( ! gra91 & !        
t\ghness & ela/icity ( ! b>k us$ all    
influ5c$ ! =m ( canoes4 ,! m>k$ *9 9 !  
ends ( "s canoes1 = example1 result$ f  
an ef=t to (fset ! t5d5cy ( bir* b>k to 
split :5 a r[ ( /it*es lay 9 ! same l9e 
( gra94 ,! curv$ *9 pr(ile all[$ ! /it*+
 to cross a numb] ( l9es ( gra94        
,sometimes ?is t5d5cy 0 avoid$ by       

incorporat+ batt5s into ! co>se /it*+2  
?is /yle ( sew+ 0 p>ticul>ly useful 9   
piec+ out bir* b>k = wid? 9 a canoe1 :]e
 ! sew+ _h to be 9 l9e ) ! gra94 ,!     
,indians also employ$ alt]nat+ %ort &   
long /it*+ 9 "s =m = ! same purpose4    
,spruce b>k1 z us$ 9 canoes 9 ! extreme 
,nor? & ,nor?we/1 c\ld be sewn 9 mu* !  
same mann] z bir* b>k1 b ) due reg>d = !
 longitud9al gra9 ( ! spruce b>k4  ,!   
jo9+ ( two pieces ( b>k by root sew+ or 
lac+1 comb9$ ) ! use ( spruce gum to    
obta9 wat]tightness1 =m$ a seam t c\ld  
be readily damag$ by abrasion f laun*+ !
 canoe1 f pull+ x a%ore1 or f gr\nd+ x  
accid5tally4 ,= ?is reason1 seams bel[ !
 wat]l9e 7 kept at a m9imum & 7 nev]    
plac$ along ! longitud9al c5t]l9e ( !   
bottom1 :]e !y w\ld h =m$ a %>p apex to 
bo? ! ,v-%ap$ midsection & to ! deadrise
 bottom =m4 ,likewise1 a seam 0 n us$ 9 
=m+ ! rock] ( ! bottom4 ,?\gh seams _h  
to be us$ to jo9 ! b>k at b[ & /]n1 ! =m
 ( ! canoe all[$ ! seams to be greatly  
/r5g!n$ & protect$ !re4  ,! re/rictions 

on =m impos$ by b>ks su* z elm1 *e/nut1 
& hickory 7 v great4 ,^! b>ks1 :i* are n
 z ela/ic z bir* b>k1 7 sometimes       
employ$ 9 a s+le l>ge %eet4 ,! %eets 7 n
 jo9$ = l5g?2 canoes ( ?is mat]ial 7 (t5
 =m$ by crimp+1 or lap fold+1 r ?an by  
cutt+ out gores & !n sew+ ! edges       
toge!r4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ^! b>ks c      
readily be demon/rat$ ) a %eet ( pap]3  
su* a %eet c be made into a crude       
canoe-=m by b5d+ x l5g?wise & jo9+ !    
ends1 b x w be obvi\s t ! midsection    
takes a v un/able ,u-=m4 ,by =c+ ! ends 
inw>d to give a ram1 or *91 effect to b[
 & /]n1 a some:at flatt] bottom c be    
obta9$ 9 ! midsection4 ,by crimp+ or    
fold+ ! pap] gore-fa%ion ne> ea* end ( !
 canoe-=m at ! gunwale edge1 "s rock] is
 creat$ 9 ! bottom & ! wid? ( ! gunwales
 is increas$ ne> ! ends1 giv+ m         
capacity4 ,b )\t ! crimp+ along !       
gunwale1 :5 ! midsection =m is flatt5$  
on ! bottom1 ! latt] t5ds to hog4 ,_m ( 
^! b>k canoes utiliz$ bo? ! rams ends & 
crimp+ to obta9 a m useful =m4 ,h[ev]1  

:ile a %eet ( bir* b>k c\ld be crimp$ or
 gor$ into a sc[-=m canoe su* z !       
,asiatic bir*-b>k canoe1 no example (   
?is =m f ,nor? ,am]ica is kn[n4 ,on ?is 
cont95t all b>k canoes 7 %>p at bo?     
ends1 i4e41 d\ble-end$1 al?\gh a numb] (
 ,nor? ,am]ican dug\ts 7 sc[-7or punt-7 
%ap$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bb        
,,canoe =m$ 7a7 )\t crimp+ or gor+      
sides1 %[+ hogg$ bottom2 & 7b7 ) ram    
ends to r$uce hogg+ ( bottom4           
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bc  ,,canoe =m$  
7a7 by crimp+ sides1 %[+ rock]$ bottom  
l9e1 & 7b7 by simple gores 9 sides4 ,!  
same effects are obta9$ by mak+ b>k cov]
 ( ?ree pieces3 sides & bottom4  ,bir*  
b>k gave mu* m fre$om 9 ! selection ( =m
 simply because x c\ld be jo9$ toge!r 9 
small odd-siz$ %eets to %ape a hull1 &  
because x 0 ela/ic en\gh to all[ "s     
m\ld+ by pressure ( ! framework employ$4
 ,bir* b>k c\ld be gor$1 or sla%$1 &    
rejo9$ )\t resort to fold+ or crimp+2   
?us x p]mitt$ a smoo? ext]ior surface to
 be a*iev$4 ,! t\ghness ( ! b>k 0       

suffici5t to all[ "s sew+ 9 l9e ) !     
gra91 to add to ! wid? ( a %eet1 if !   
prop] te*nique 7 employ$ 7?is 0 also    
true to a less] ext5t ( spruce b>k74    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bd  ,,canoe ,,=m$
 by use ( gores & panels4  ,! framework 
( mo/ b>k canoes dep5d$ ^u ! gunwale    
/ructure to give longitud9al /r5g? to ! 
hull2 = ?is reason ! /ructure 0 made    
suffici5tly l>ge 9 cross-section to be r
 /iff1 or 0 =m$ ( m ?an "o memb]4 ,an   
inn] & out] gunwale con/ruction 0       
employ$ 9 _m b>k canoes4 ,! inn] memb] 0
 ! /r5g? memb] & 0 sometimes squ>e1 or  
ne>ly s1 9 cross-section4 ,9 "s canoes  
b>k 0 br\ght up on ! outside ( ?is      
gunwale memb]1 lapp$ ov] ! top1 & la%$  
ov] x2 9 o!rs ! b>k 0 la%$ to bo? inn] &
 out] gunwales4 ,! out] gunwale1 a      
rectangul>-section$ batt5 b5t n>r[-edge 
up1 0 appli$ l a gu>d1 outside ! b>k1 & 
0 secur$ by pegs1 by ! la%+s ( ! b>k    
cov]1 or by widely spac$ la%+s4 ,on top 
( ! l>ge inn] gunwale & usually ext5d+  
outw>d ov] ! out] gunwale1 a ?9 cap1    

pegg$ or la%$ 9 ! same mann] z ! out]   
gunwale1 0 sometimes add$2 ?is 0 int5d$ 
to protect ! la%+ ( ! b>k to ! gunwale r
 ?an to add longitud9al /r5g?4  ,!      
corn]s ( ! inn] gunwale1 or ( ! s+le    
gunwale1 7 all r\nd$ (f to prev5t !m f  
cutt+ ! sew+ & la%+s4 ,! bottom outbo>d 
corn] 0 sometimes r\nd$ (f m ?an ! o!r1 
or bevel$1 9 ord] to =m betwe5 ! outbo>d
 face ( ! gunwale & ! b>k a slot into   
:i* ! heads ( ! ribs c\ld be =c$4 ,an   
alt]nate me?od ( accompli%+ ?is 0 to    
not* or drill holes 9 ! gunwales = !    
heads ( ! ribs4  ,! ends ( ! gunwales 7 
fa%ion$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,9 "s canoes !    
gunwales 7 %e]$ upw>d at ! ends only    
slightly1 ! gunwale ends be+ secur$ to  
wide end bo>ds 9 ! /ems or ext5d$ pa/ !m
 & secur$ to ! /em-pieces4 ,! app>5t %e]
 9 ! latt] might be =m$ by b5d+ ! out]  
gunwale1 or outwale1 & ! cap 7if "o     
exi/$7 to ! requir$ curve & !n secur+ ! 
ends to ! /em-piece1 or to ! end bo>ds1 
z ! =m ( end pr(ile dictat$4 ,if ei!r ! 
s+le gunwale or ! outwale or bo? 7 %>ply

 %e]$1 !y 7 split1 to a po9t ne> ! end  
?w>t1 into two or f\r or ev5 m          
lam9ations2 ev5 ! rail cap1 :i* 0 p]haps
 half an in* ?ick1 might be split 9 !   
same mann] to all[ a %>p upw>d sweep at 
! /ems4 ,aft] be+ b5t1 ! split memb]s 7 
tempor>ily wrapp$ to hold ! lam9ations  
toge!r4 ,9 no b>k canoes did ! ends ( ! 
gunwales curve back on !mselves to =m a 
hook j inbo>d ( ! b[ & /]n1 despite !   
num]\s pictures t %[ ?is feature4 ,!    
gunwale ends sometimes project$ almo/   
p]p5dicul>ly upw>d1 slightly above ! top
 ( ! b[ & /]n1 s t :5 ! canoe 0 upside  
d[n its weight came on ^! r ?an on !    
sew+ ( ! ends ( ! craft4  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #be  ,,gunwale ,,ends nail$ &   
wrapp$ ) spruce roots4 7,sket* by       
,adney47  ,! gunwale ends 9 "s canoes 7 
fa/5$ toge!r by means ( "o or m la%+s1  
(t5 widely spac$4 ,aft] be+ la%$ toge!r1
 a n>r[ w$ge 0 sometimes driv5 betwe5 ! 
two gunwales f inbo>d to tight5 ! la%+s4
 ,! ends 7 sometimes bevel$ on _! be>+  
surfaces s z to make a neat appe>ance :5

 jo9$4 ,! v>i\s ways 9 :i* ! gunwale    
ends at /em & /]n 7 f9i%$ c be/ be      
describ$ :5 individual types are "u     
exam9ation4 ,"s canoes _h a small piece 
( b>k ov] ! ends ( ! gunwales b "u !    
outwales t held x 9 place4 ,:e!r ^!     
pieces 7 employ$ to protect ! la%+ ( !  
gunwales & adjo9+ "w f ! wea!r1 or :e!r 
!y 7 ! ve/igial rema9s ( a deck+ once   
us$1 _c be det]m9$4 ,9 ! ,canadian      
,nor?we/ ! ends ( b>k canoes 7 sometimes
 deck$ ) b>k = a %ort di/ance inbo>d4   
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bf  ,,gunwales   
,,& ,,/akes ,,on ,,build+ ,,b$1 plan    
view4 7,sket* by ,adney47  ,! b>k 0     
secur$ to ! gunwales by a cont9u\s      
spiral la%+ all along ! ma9 gunwale or  
by sep>at$ la%+ 9 s]ies4 ,9 ! fir/1 !   
cont9u\s la%+1 :]e x pass$ ?r\gh ! b>k1 
might %[ regul>ly spac$ sep>ations to   
avoid ! tops ( ! ribs4 ,9 ! second1 !   
la%+s 7 plac$ cle> ( ! ribs4 ,!re 7 "s  
slight v>iations 9 ! la%+s1 b ^! 7 (    
m9or importance s f> z /ructural /r5g?  
is conc]n$4 ,9 all cases1 ! b>k 0 br\ght

 up to or ov] ! top ( ! gunwale be=e be+
 secur$1 s t ! holes = ! la%+ 7 pi]c$ at
 "s di/ance f ! edge ( ! b>k to prev5t x
 f splitt+4  ,! ends ( ! ?w>ts 7 mortis$
 into ! gunwales & also secur$ by la%+s4
 ,! numb] ( ?w>ts v>i$ ) ! tribal type1 
! size1 & ! purpose ( ! canoe4 ,usually 
an odd numb]1 f ?ree to n9e1 7 us$1 ?\gh
 occasional canoes _h two or f\r ?w>ts4 
,v small canoes = hunt+ might h only two
 or ?ree ?w>ts1 b mo/ canoes #ad to #bj 
feet long _h five4 ,canoes int5d$ =     
portag+ usually _h "o ?w>t at midl5g? to
 aid 9 lift+ ! canoe = ! c>ry position4 
,! di/ance betwe5 ! ?w>ts might be      
det]m9$ by /ructural design1 or might be
 fix$ s z to divide ! c>go space to all[
 prop] trim4 ,! ?w>ts might s]ve z      
backre/s = pass5g]s1 b 7 nev] us$ z     
seats4 ,!re 0 no /&>d =m = ! %ape ( !   
?w>ts1 :i* v>i$ n only to "s degree by  
tribal classification1 b ev5 among      
build]s 9 s+le tribe4 ,!y 7 usually     
?icke/ & wide/ ov] ! c5t]l9e ( ! canoe1 
tap]+ outbo>d & !n spread+ aga9 at !    

gunwales to =m a m>k$ %\ld] at !        
mortise4 ,! la%+s to ! gunwales (t5     
pass$ ?r\gh two or m holes 9 ?is %\ld]4 
,! ribs1 or frames1 ( mo/ canoes 7 v    
closely spac$ & 7 wide1 flat1 & ?94 ,!y 
ran 9 a s+le l5g? f gunwale to gunwale4 
,9 canoes hav+ ,v-sections ne> ! ends1 !
 ribs 7 (t5 s %>ply b5t z to be fractur$
 slightly4 ,across ! bottom !y 7 wide b 
above ! bilge !y tap]$ 9 wid? t[>d !    
end1 :i* 0 ei!r a r\nd$ po9t or a bevel$
 or r\nd$ *isel-edge4 ,! ribs 7 =c$ "u !
 gunwales s t ! heads fitt$ into !      
bevel1 or into not*es or holes at !     
und]side & outbo>d edge ( ! gunwale1    
betwe5 x & ! b>k cov]4 ,by cant+ ! rib  
to br+ its ends into ! prop] position & 
!n =c+ x ne>ly p]p5dicul>1 ! build]     
br\ght en\gh pressure on ! b>k cov] to  
mold x to ! requir$ =m4 ,bulg+ ( ! b>k  
at ea* frame 0 prev5t$ by a ?9 plank    
%ea?+4 ,! ribs 9 _m ,ea/]n canoes 7     
spac$ s t on ! bottom !y 7 sep>at$ only 
by a space equal to ! wid? ( a rib4     
,ea* piece ( %ea?+1 bett] describ$ z a  

spl9t ?an z plank+1 0 commonly (        
irregul> =m4 ,! edges 7 (t5 bevel$ to a 
m>k$ ?9ness4 ,:ile "s build]s laid !    
%ea?+ edge-to-edge 9 ! b>k cov]1 o!rs   
ov]lapp$ ! edges4 ,ne>ly all build]s    
fea!r$ ! butts & ov]lapp$ !m slightly4  
,! %ea?+ 0 held 9 position by a numb] ( 
light tempor>y ribs :ile ! p]man5t      
frames1 or ribs1 7 be+ in/all$4 ,x is to
 be not$ t ! %ea?+ 0 nei!r la%$ nor     
pegg$2 x rema9$ fix$ 9 place only ?r\gh 
! pressure ( ! b5t ribs & ! re/ra9t ( ! 
b>k sk94  ,! exact me?od ( fitt+ ! %ea?+
 v>i$ some:at f area to area1 b n 9 e   
in/ance f tribe to tribe4 ,! bottom     
%ea?+ us$ by "s ea/]n ,indians 0 9 two  
l5g?s4 ,! individual pieces 7 tap]$ t[>d
 ! /ems & ! edges butt$ closely toge!r4 
,! sides 7 9 ?ree l5g?s1 b o!rwise      
simil>ly fitt$4 ,! butts lapp$ v        
slightly4 ,9 a second me?od1 us$ to !   
we/w>d1 ! %ea?+ 0 laid edge-to-edge 9   
two l5g?s1 ) ! butts slightly lapp$4 ,! 
c5t] memb]s ( ! bottom1 usually five1 7 
p>allel-sid$1 b ! outbo>d ends ( ^? at !

 turn ( ! bilges 7 bevel$1 or sni$1 (f4 
,! memb]s fur!r outbo>d 7 9 "o l5g?1 )  
bo? ends sni$ (f4 ,! bottom ?us appe>$ z
 an elongat$ diamond-=m4 ,! topside     
%ea?+ 0 fitt$ z 9 ! fir/ in/ance4       
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bg  ,,gunwale    
,,la%+s1 examples made by ,adney3 #a1   
,elm-b>k1 ,malecite2 #b1 ,/4 ,francis2  
#c1 ,algonk92 #d1 ,malecite4            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bh               
,,gunwale-,,end ,,la%+s1 examples made  
by ,adney3 ,a?abascan 7l>ge71 ,ojibway  
7small74  ,a v>iation 9 ! second /yle   
us$ ?ree l5g?s 9 ! c5t]l9e %ea?+4 ,9    
/ill ano!r v>iation a c5t]l9e piece 0   
laid 9 two l5g?s )\t tap]1 ! next       
outbo>d piece 0 !n cut 9 ! %ape ( a     
broad-bas$ triangle1 & ! re/ 7 laid 9   
two l5g?s1 ) ! sides p>allel to ! sides 
( ! triangul> /rake & ) _! ends sni$ (f 
aga9/ ! c5t]l9e pieces4 ,9 a f\r? /yle  
%ort pieces1 r\ghly elongate-oval 9     
%ape1 7 ov]lapp$ on all sides & laid    
irregul>ly s t :5 9 place !y appe>$ ?r[n
 94 ,) ?is /yle1 ! mid%ip section 0 laid

 fir/ & secur$ by a tempor>y rib1 !n !  
next t[>d ! ends1 ) ! butts %ov$ "u !   
ends ( ! middle section4 ,! next s]ies 0
 simil>ly laid s t ! top memb] ( ea*    
butt-lap fac$ t[>d ! ends ( ! hull & 0  
"u a rib4 ,! ends 7 n cut squ>e across1 
b 7 ei!r blunt-po9t$ or r\nd$4 ,five    
l5g?s ( %ea?+ 7 (t5 us$1 & ! wid?s ( !  
individual pieces ( %ea?+ 7 r>ely !     
same1 s ! seams 7 n l9$ up & pres5t$ an 
irregul> appe>ance 9 ! f9i%$ canoe4 ,!  
%ea?+ 0 ?9 en\gh to all[ x to take !    
curve ( ! bilge easily4  ,illu/ration3  
,figure #bi  ,,spl9ts ,,arrang$ 9 v>i\s 
ways to %ea? ! bottom ( a canoe3 #a1    
,micmac1 ,malecite2 #b1 ,c5tral ,cree1  
,ttes de ,b\le1 etc42 #c1 ,montagnais2  
#d1 ,algonk91 ,ojibway1 etc4  ,if !     
%ea?+ 0 lapp$1 ! ov]lap 0 always slight4
 ,9 "s old canoes a small space 0 left  
betwe5 ! edges ( ! %ea?+1 p>ticul>ly 9 !
 topsides4 ,9 "s nor?we/]n b>k canoes   
!re 0 no %ea?+2 ^! us$ a batt5 sy/em    
some:at l t 9 ! ,eskimo kayak1 except t 
9 ! b>k canoes ! batt5s 7 n la%$ to !   

ribs1 be+ held 9 place only by pressure4
 ,^! kayak-l b>k canoes _h a bottom     
framework =m$ ) *9e memb]s2 "s _h a     
rigid bottom frame ( ?is type1 :ile o!rs
 _h bottom frames secur$ only by rib    
pressure4 ,! purpose ( ! %ea?+1 x %\ld  
be not$1 0 to protect ! b>k cov] f      
abrasion f ! inside1 to prev5t ! ribs f 
bulg+ ! b>k1 & to back up ! b>k s z to  
resi/ impacts2 b 9 no case1 ev5 :5      
batt5s 7 employ$1 z 9 ! ,nor?we/1 did ! 
%ea?+ add to ! longitud9al /r5g? ( ! b>k
 canoe4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! /ress$ rib &    
clamp$ %ea?+1 :i* is ! mo/ m>k$         
*>act]i/ic 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ,nor?    
,am]ican ,indian b>k canoe1 is          
fundam5tally diff]5t f t us$ 9 !        
con/ruction ( ! ,eskimos' sk9 craft4  ,a
 wide v>iety ( fram+ me?ods are exhibit$
 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ends1 or /ems1 (   
b>k canoes4 ,9 ! tempor>y types ( !     
,ea/1 ! b>k 0 trimm$ to a /raight1      
slightly ram =m & secur$ by sew+ ov] two
 batt5s1 "o outbo>d on ea* side4        
,bir*-b>k canoes ( ! ,ea/ usually _h an 

inside /em-piece b5t by ! lam9ation     
me?od to ! desir$ pr(ile1 ! heel be+    
left unsplit2 z usual1 ! lam9ations 7   
spirally wrapp$1 (t5 ) basswood-b>k     
?ongs4 ,! /em-piece 0 !n plac$ betwe5 ! 
b>k ( ! sides1 & ! b>k & wood 7 la%$    
toge!r ) an ov]-&-ov] /it*4 ,sometimes  
v>iations ( ! %ort-&-long =m ( /it* 7   
us$ "h1 & "s build]s also plac$ a       
halv$-root batt5 ov] ! ends ( ! b>k be=e
 la%+ to =m a /em-b& z protection to !  
seam4 ,9 "s canoes ! end la%+ pass$     
?r\gh holes drill$ 9 ! /em-pieces1 (t5 )
 ! turns alt]nat+ 9 "s regul> mann]     
?r\gh & ar\nd ! /em-piece4  ,!          
/em-pieces 7 g5]ally v light1 & 9 "s    
canoes ! head 0 not*$ & %>ply b5t d[n & 
inbo>d1 s t x c\ld be secur$ to ! ends (
 ! gunwales4 ,"s tribal types _h no inn]
 /em-piece1 & ! /em pr(iles 7 /r5g!n$   
m]ely by ! use ( two split-root or      
halv$-sapl+ batt5s1 "o on ea* side1     
outside ! b>k & "u ! sew+4              
,illu/ration3 ,figure #cj  ,,end        
,,details1 ,,includ+ ,,con/ruction ,,(  

,,/em-,,pieces & fitt+ ( b>k ov] !m1    
end+ ( gunwale caps at /em heads1 & !   
headbo>d1 ) its location4 ,lam9ation ( !
 /em pieces %[s few] lam9ae ?an is      
common4 7,sket*es by ,adney47  ,bir*-b>k
 canoes to ! we/w>d us$ batt5s "u ! end 
la%+ z well z r complicat$ inside       
/em-pieces4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! ,we/ &       
,nor?we/1 ! ends 7 =m$ ( bo>ds set up on
 edge =e-&-aft1 ! b>k be+ la%$ ?r\gh    
all1 ) ! bo>ds project+ slightly outbo>d
 ( ! ends ( ! b>k cov] to =m a cutwat]4 
,to support ! inside /em-piece1 "s =m ( 
headbo>d 0 usually fitt$ ne> ea* end    
aft] ! %ea?+ 0 9 place4 ,^! 7 %ap$ to ! 
cross-section ( ! canoe s z to =m       
bulkheads4 ,9 "s canoes1 ^! m9iature    
bulkheads /ood v]tical1 b 9 o!rs !y 7   
curv$ some:at to foll[ ! g5]al curve ( !
 end-pr(ile1 & ?is caus$ !m to be %ap$ m
 l a batt5 ?an a bulkhead4 ,b5t         
headbo>ds 7 sometimes /epp$ s z to rake 
outbo>d4 ,sometimes ! =m ( ! headbo>d   
p]mitt$ ! gunwale memb]s to be la%$ to  
x1 & (t5 !re 0 a not* = ! ma9 gunwale on

 ea* side4  ,! headbo>ds 7 sometimes    
/epp$ on ! unsplit heel ( ! /em-piece2 a
 not* 0 made 9 ! bottom ( ! headbo>d to 
all[ ?is4 ,9 two types ( canoe 9 :i* !re
 0 no inn] /em-piece1 ! headbo>ds 7     
/epp$ on %ort keel pieces1 or frogs1    
=e-&-aft on ! bottom & ext5d+ slightly  
=w>d ( ! end ( ! %ea?+ to re9=ce !      
=efoot4 ,! purpose ( ! headbo>d 0 to    
/r5g!n ! /em-piece1 & 9 _m cases x 0 an 
integral memb] ( ! end /ructure itself &
 help$ to ma9ta9 its =m4 ,! headbo>d    
usually s]v$ to support ! gunwale ends 9
 "s mann]1 x /ret*$ ! b>k smoo? ne> !   
/ems1 & x secur$ ! ends ( ! %ea?+ :]e   
support f a rib w\ld h be5 mo/ difficult
 to obta94 ,_m canoes _h ! space betwe5 
! headbo>d & ! /em-piece /uff$ ) %av+s1 
moss1 or o!r dry mat]ial to help mold ! 
b>k to =m beyond ! %ea?+ 9 ! ends4 ,"s  
tribal gr\ps decorat$ ! headbo>ds4  ,9 a
 few canoes1 ! /em-piece 0 additionally 
support$ by a %ort1 horizontal memb]    
/epp$ 9 ! =w>d face ( ! headbo>d &      
project+ =w>d to be> on ! aft] side ( ! 

/em-piece4 ,! latt] 0 sometimes b5t back
 onto itself above ?is memb] to =m a    
loop ar\nd ! top ( ! end-pr(ile1 & !    
gunwale ends or a "p ( ! gunwale        
/ructure 7 secur$ to x4 ,?is complicat$ 
b5d+ ( ! /em-piece1 9 conjunction ) use 
( a headbo>d & a brace memb]1 s]v$ to   
/iff5 ! end /ructure suffici5tly to meet
 ! requirem5ts ( s]vice4  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #ca  ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,( ,,! 
,,type ,,describ$ ,,9 ,,?is ,,*apt]4    
,?is #b fa?om ,/4 ,john ,riv] canoe     
repres5ts ! la/ ,malecite bir*-b>k      
model1 & usually 0 fa/5$ ) tacks &      
nails1 r ?an ) root la%+s & pegs z      
describ$ "h4  ,! use ( a b>k cov] ov] ! 
gunwale ends has already be5 m5tion$4 ,9
 "s ea/]n canoes1 ?is 0 plac$ "u ! cap &
 outwale pieces & ext5d$ bel[ ! latt] 9 
a %all[ flap on :i* ! own]'s m>k or o!r 
decoration might appe>2 ! flap 0 9 fact 
a k9d ( "n bo>d4 ,su* flaps d n appe> on
 ! p>tly deck$ b>k canoes ( ! ,nor?we/4 
,?is g5]al description ( ! /ructure ( ! 
b>k canoes is suffici5t to p]mit !      

explanation ( ! actual con/ruction ( a  
b>k canoe to be m readily und]/ood1 & x 
also s]ves to illu/rate ! close         
connection betwe5 ! me?od ( con/ruction 
& ! =mation ( ! l9es1 or model1 ( b>k   
canoes4 ,f ! description1 too1 x c be   
se5 t :ile ! %ape ( a b>k canoe 0       
p>tially plann$ dur+ ! con/ruction !    
control ( e "p ( ! model c\ld n be      
ma9ta9$ ) ! same degree ( precision z 9 
! build+ ( an ,eskimo sk9 boat or an    
,indian dug\t4   ,con/ruction  ,"o      
aspect ( canoe con/ruction1 ! ,indian   
me?od ( mak+ measurem5ts1 0 briefly     
m5tion$ 7p4 #h7 "u a discussion ( !     
orig9 ( ! measurem5t kn[n 9 ,fr5*       
,canada z ! brasse4 ,?is 0 ! di/ance f  
f+]-tip to f+]-tip ( ! arms out/ret*$2 9
 ! fur trade 9 ,engli% times x 0 kn[n z 
! fa?om & x appe>s to h be5 ab\t #fd    
in*es1 or less ?an ! nautical fa?om ( #f
 feet4 ,o!r measurem5ts us$ 7 ! greate/ 
wid? ( ! ball ( ! ?umb1 :i* is v close  
to an ,engli% in*1 & ! wid? ( ! f\r     
f+]s1 ea* f+]-bread? be+ close to       

?ree-f\r?s ( an ,engli% in*4 ,! l5g? ( !
 =e>m1 usually f ! knuckles ( ! cl5*$ h&
 to ! elb[1 0 also employ$ by "s        
,indians1 z a conv5i5t measurem5t4      
,measurem5ts 9 ^! units might be        
memoriz$ & us$ 9 build+1 b _m ,indians  
us$ measur+ /icks1 & ^! s]v$ z          
foot-rules4 ,!y 7 sometimes squ>$ & 7   
pa9t$ z well z not*$4  ,a ,malecite     
,indian1 int]view$ 9 #aibe1 _h ?ree su* 
/icks = canoe build+4 ,"o1 = ! l5g? ( ! 
gunwale frame1 0 half ! total l5g?      
requir$2 x 0 not*$ to %[ ! di/ance at   
:i* ! ends ( ! gunwales 7 la%$ & also ! 
position ( ! ?w>ts4 ,su* a /ick w\ld be 
ab\t #g feet long = a #af-;foot canoe1  
#h feet = an #ah-;foot canoe4 ,! second 
/ick 0 not*$ to %[ half ! l5g? ( ea* ( !
 ?w>ts4 ,! ?ird /ick _h not*es %[+ !    
height ( ! gunwale at ea* ?w>t & at !   
end1 f\r not*es 9 all = ! half-l5g? ( ! 
canoe4 ,?is /ick measur$ f ! surface ( !
 build+ b$1 n f a regul> base l9e4  ,!  
me?od ( measur+ canoes appe>s to h be5  
fairly well /&>diz$1 at lea/ 9 hi/orical

 times4 ,z /at$ e>li]1 l5g? 0 commonly  
tak5 ov] ! gunwales only1 & did n       
include ! end pr(iles1 :i* might ext5d  
up to a foot or slightly m beyond !     
gunwale ends1 b[ & /]n4 ,h[ev]1 9 c]ta9 
old records ! ov]all l5g? is giv51 & 9  
v>i\s areas o!r me?ods ( measurem5t     
exi/$4 ,:]e a build+ frame 0 us$1 ! giv5
 l5g? ( ! canoe 0 ! l5g? ( ?is frame2   
usually ?is approximat$ ! l5g? ( !      
gunwales4 ,! wid? ( a canoe 0 measur$ by
 ! ,indian f inside to inside ( ! ma9   
gunwale memb]s4 ,! extreme beam might be
 only #b or #c in*es great] ?an ! inside
 measurem5t ( ! gunwales1 b if ! sides  
bulg$ out1 ! beam might actually be #f  
or m in*es great]4 ,! dep? 0 usually    
measur$ f ! inside ( ! ribs to ! top ( !
 gunwale b 9 build+ x 0 measur$ f !     
surface ( ! build+ b$ to ! bottom ( !   
ma9 gunwales1 z not$ above 9 !          
description ( ! measur+ /icks4  ,?us x w
 be se5 t ! ,indian measurem5ts         
con/itut$ a /atem5t ( dim5sions prim>ily
 useful to ! build]1 = _! ma9 purpose 0 

to fix ! proportions r ?an e/abli% !    
actual l5g?1 wid?1 & dep?4 ,today we    
/ate ! l5g? ( a canoe 9 t]ms ( extreme  
ov]all measurem5t2 ! ,indian 0 incl9$ to
 /ate ! l5g? 9 build+ t]ms1 giv+        
dim5sions applicable to ! woodwork only1
 j z ! old-"t %ipbuild] gave ! keel l5g?
 ( a vessel in/ead ( ! ov]all l5g? on   
deck4  ,! build+ site 0 c>efully        
select$4 ,! space 9 :i* ! canoe 0 to be 
set up _h to be smoo?1 free ( /ones &   
roots or any?+ t might damage ! b>k1 & !
 soil _h to be su* t /akes driv5 into x 
w\ld /& firmly4 ,a %ady place 0 pref]r$1
 z ! b>k w\ld n dry !re z fa/ z 9       
sunlight4 ,s9ce ! con/ruction ( a canoe 
requir$ bo? "t & ! aid ( ! :ole ,indian 
family1 ! site _h to be close to a      
suitable place = camp+1 :]e food & wat] 
c\ld be obta9$4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1
 to f9d canoe build+ sites t app>5tly _h
 be5 us$ by g5]ations ( ,indians4  ,!   
prep>ation ( ! build+ b$ 0 controll$ by 
! int5d$ =m ( ! canoe to be built4 ,if !
 bottom ( ! canoe 0 to be rock]$1 !     

cle>$ gr\nd 0 br\ght to a flat surface =
 ! l5g? requir$ = sett+ up ! canoe4 ,if 
! rock] 0 to be great1 ! middle ( ! b$  
w\ld be slightly depress$4 ,if ! bottom 
0 to be /raight =e-&-aft1 or v ne>ly s1 
! b$ 0 cr[n$ f #a to #b in*es high] 9 ! 
middle ?an at ! ends1 s t ! canoe 0 fir/
 set up ) a hogg$ bottom4 ,v l>ge canoes
 su* z 7 us$ 9 ! fur trade requir$ z mu*
 z #d in*es cr[n 9 ! build+ b$4 ,o!r    
dim5sions be+ equal1 ! am\nt ( cr[n 0   
usually some:at great] 9 canoes hav+    
bulg+ sides ?an 9 ones hav+ m upright or
 fl>+ sides4 ,canoe factories su* z 7   
op]at$ 9 c]ta9 fur-trad+ po/s sometimes 
_h a plank build+ b$ suitably cr[n$ &   
drill$ = sett+ ! /akes4  ,two me?ods (  
sett+ up ! canoe 7 us$4 ,9 mo/ ( ! ea/]n
 area1 ! gunwales 7 put toge!r & us$ to 
e/abli% ! plan outl9e ( ! canoe on !    
build+ b$4 ,b a build+ frame 0 us$ =    
con/ruct+ ! v>i\s n>r[-bottom canoes    
hav+ fl>+ sides1 & = "s o!r tribal =ms4 
,! frame1 made 9 ! same g5]al =m z !    
gunwales :5 assembl$1 b less wide &     

sometimes mu* %ort]1 c\ld be tak5 ap>t  
easily1 all[+ x to be remov$ aft] !     
canoe 0 built2 h5ce x c\ld be us$ to    
build z _m canoes z desir$ to ! same    
dim5sions z ! fir/1 & 0 reta9$ by !     
build] z a tool1 or patt]n1 = future    
use4  ,! me?od ( con/ruction 9 :i*      
gunwales only 7 us$ 9 sett+ up ! canoe w
 be expla9$ fir/ 9 ord] to %[ ! g5]al   
te*nique ( con/ruction4 ,use ( ! build+ 
frame w !n be describ$4 ,important      
deviations f ^! me?ods w be describ$ 9  
lat] *apt]s "u ! individual tribal types
 9 :i* !y occur4  ,! ,malecite canoe1 a 
/raight-bottom$ craft ab\t #ai feet long
 & #cf in*es beam1 is us$ z ! example1  
h5ce ! me?od ( build+ to be describ$ is 
t g5]ally employ$ 9 ! ,ea/1 :]e         
v>iations 9 con/ruction ma9ly involve ! 
use or omission ( /ructural elem5ts4  ,!
 gunwales are ! fir/ memb]s to be =m$4  
,9 ! ,malecite canoe ^! are ! inn]      
gunwales1 z ! canoe w h outwales & caps4
 ,! gunwales are split f :ite c$> to    
produce batt5s t w squ>e #a in*es :5    

%ap$4 ,! gunwales are tap]$ ea* way f   
midl5g?1 :]e !y are #a in*es squ>e1 to a
 po9t #c in*es %ort ( ! ends1 :]e !y are
  by #a to #a in*es4 ,! edges ( !       
gunwales are all r\nd$1 & ! outbo>d     
bottom edge is bevel$ almo/  in*1 at #de
 to ! bottom ( ! memb]4 ,! la/ #c in*es 
at ea* end is =m$ l half a blunt        
arr[head1 z %[n 9 ! sket* ( ! memb] on  
page #ca4 ,! gunwales w be b5t1 side to 
side1 on ! flat z f> z ! ends are       
conc]n$1 s ! blunt arr[head is =m$ on "o
 ( ! wide faces ( ! ends z %[n4 ,!      
arr[head =m all[s a neat jo9t :5 !      
gunwale ends are br\ght toge!r1 pegg$   
a?w>t%ips1 & !n wrapp$ ) a root la%+4 ,9
 =m+ & f9i%+ ! gunwales1 a good deal (  
c>e is requir$ to get !m to b5d alike1 s
 t ! c5t]l9e ( ! f9i%$ frame w be       
/raight & true4  ,to take ! ends ( !    
middle ?w>t1 a mortise  by #b in*es is  
cut 9 ea* gunwale memb] a?w>t%ips at    
exactly midl5g?1 ! l5g? ( ! mortise be+ 
) ! run ( ! gunwale4 ,9 x1 ! middle     
?w>t1 #cc in*es long1 is fitt$4 ,made ( 

a -in* by #c-;in* piece ( h>d maple1 !  
?w>t tap]s slightly 9 ?ickness ea* way f
 its c5t] to )9 #e in*es ( ! %\ld]s1 :i*
 are #cj in*es ap>t4 ,! ?ickness at a   
po9t #e in*es f ! %\ld] is  in*2 f !re !
 tap] is quick to ! %\ld]1 :i* is  in*  
?ick1 ) a drop to  in* 9 ! t5on4 ,!     
wid?1 #c in*es at ! c5t]1 decreases 9 a 
graceful curve to )9 #e in*es ( ! %\ld]1
 :]e x is #b in*es1 !n increases to ab\t
 #c in*es at ! %\ld]4 ,! wid? ( ! t5on  
is1 ( c\rse1 #b in*es1 to fit ! mortise 
hole 9 ! gunwale4 ,! edges ( ! out] #e  
in*es ( ! ?w>t are r\nd$ (f or bevel$ a 
good deal2 inbo>d !y are only slightly  
r\nd$4  ,! ?w>t is c>efully fitt$ to !  
gunwale memb]s & ! ends are pegg$4 ,"s  
build]s w$g$ ! ends ( ?is ?w>t f outside
 ! gunwales1 ! w$ge /&+ v]tical 9 ! ?w>t
 s t ! gunwale w\ld n split2 h[ev]1 x is
 n c]ta9 t w$g+ 0 us$ 9 prehi/oric      
times1 al?\gh x is se5 9 "s exi/+ old   
canoes4 ,! pegs us$ 9 ?is canoe are     
driv5 f above1 into holes bor$ ?r\gh !  
gunwale & ! t5on ( ! ?w>t to lock all   

firmly toge!r4 ,?ree holes are !n bor$ 9
 ! broad %\ld]s ( ! ?w>t ab\t #a in*es  
inbo>d ( gunwale = ! root la%+ t is also
 us$4  ,! ends ( ! gunwale memb]s are n[
 br\ght toge!r1 & to avoid an unfair    
curve appe>+ at ! ?w>t 9 place1 %ort    
pieces ( split plank or ( sapl+1 not*$  
to hold !m 9 place1 are ins]t$ betwe5 ! 
gunwale memb]s z tempor>y ?w>ts at po9ts
 ab\t #e feet on ea* side ( ! middle    
?w>t4 ,aft] ! ends are br\ght toge!r & !
 f9al fitt+ is c>ri$ out1 a peg is driv5
 a?w>t%ips ! ends & a s+le-"p root la%+ 
is c>efully wrapp$ ar\nd ! assembly4    
,"s canoe build]s omitt$ ! blunt$       
half-arr[head =m at ! gunwale end4      
,in/ead1 ! inside faces 7 tap]$ to all[ 
! two p>ts to be> on "o ano!r = "s      
di/ance4 ,! gunwales 7 !n p9*$ toge!r & 
la%$ ) "o or m wrapp+s4 ,f9ally1 a ?9   
w$ge 0 sometimes driv5 f inbo>d betwe5 !
 two gunwale ends to tight5 ! wrapp+s4  
,! w$ges 7 usually s c>efully fitt$ z to
 be difficult to id5tify4 ,x is probable
 t ?is w$g$ gunwale end+ repres5ts !    

prehi/oric =m1 & ! blunt$ half-arr[head 
end+ is a result ( ! use ( /eel tools4  
,aft] ! ends ( ! gunwales h be5 securely
 fa/5$ toge!r1 ! fir/ pair ( p]man5t    
?w>ts is fitt$4 ,^! are locat$ #cf      
in*es1 c5t] to c5t]1 on ea* side ( !    
middle ?w>t1 a di/ance t det]m9es !     
c5t]s ( ! mortises 9 ea* gunwale memb]4 
,ea* ?w>t1 made f a -in* by #c-;in*     
piece1 tap]s smoo?ly 9 ?ickness f ! -in*
 c5t] to ! -in* %\ld]4 ,! t5on is ( !   
same dim5sions z t ( ! middle ?w>t1 !   
wid? takes ! same =m z t ( ! middle     
?w>t1 & ! edges are simil>ly bevel$ &   
r\nd$4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! %\ld]s1 tak5 
along ! c5t]l9e1 is #bb in*es1 & !      
c5t]l9e l5g? ( ! ?w>t #be in*es4 ,h[ev]1
 ! %\ld]s & ends ( ! t5ons mu/ be       
bevell$ to foll[ ! curve ( ! gunwales   
h5ce ! extreme l5g? ( ! ?w>t is actually
 v close to #bf in*es4 ,! work] det]m9es
 ! bevel ( ! %\ld]s by fitt+ ! ?w>t to !
 run ( ! gunwales1 ! tempor>y ?w>ts be+ 
%ift$ s t ! di/ance betwe5 ! gunwales   
equals t set by ! measur+ /ick4 ,^! two 

?w>ts hav+ be5 fitt$1 ! t5ons are pegg$ 
z be=e1 b 9 ! %\ld]s only "o la%+ hole  
is bor$ in/ead ( ! ?ree employ$ 9 !     
middle ?w>t4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #cb 
,,malecite ,,canoe ,,build+1 #aiaj4     
7,canadian ,geological ,survey photos47 
,weight+ gunwales on b>k cov] on build+ 
b$4  ,resett+ /akes4  ,%ap+ b>k cov] &  
secur+ x to /akes4  ,illu/ration3       
,figure #cc  ,,fir/ ,,/age ,,( ,,canoe  
,,con/ruction3 assembl$ gunwale frame is
 us$ to locate /akes tempor>ily on      
build+ b$4 ,in/ead ( ! gunwales1 a      
build+ frame 0 us$ 9 "s areas4 7,sket*  
by ,adney47  ,! second pair ( ?w>ts is  
plac$ #cj in*es1 c5t] to c5t]1 f ! fir/ 
pair1 "o at ea* end1 & on ! basis ( ?is 
measurem5t ! t5ons are cut z = ! o!rs4  
,^! two ?w>ts are made ( -by #d-;in*    
pieces tap]+ 9 ?ickness ea* way f ! c5t]
 to ! %\ld]1 :]e !y are a scant  in*    
?ick1 ! t5ons hav+ ! same dim5sions z 9 
! o!r ?w>ts4 ,9 wid? ! ?w>ts are work$  
to an ev5 #c in*es f %\ld] to %\ld]1 b 9
 ! =m ( a curve s t :5 ea* ?w>t is 9    

place its c5t] w be b[$ t[>d ! ends ( ! 
canoe1 view$ f above4 ,z 9 ! fir/ pair1 
! %\ld]s & ends are cut to a bevel to   
fit ! gunwale2 at ! c5t]l9e !y ea*      
measure #ab in*es %\ld]-to-%\ld] 9 a    
/raight l9e a?w>t%ips & #ae in*es       
end-to-end4 ,all[+ = bevel1 ! maximum   
l5g? is j ov] #ae- in*es4 ,^! ?w>ts are 
drill$ = s+le gunwale la%+s & ! corn]   
edges are well r\nd$ f %\ld] to %\ld]4  
,! di/ance f ! c5t]l9es ( ^! la/ ?w>ts  
at ! b[ & /]n to ! extreme ends ( ! jo9$
 gunwales is #cc in*es1 s ! f9i%$       
gunwale l5g? is #af feet4  ,aft] !      
endmo/ ?w>ts are pegg$ into place1 !    
tempor>y /ays are remov$4 ,at ea* /ep ( 
con/ruction ! alignm5t ( ! gunwales is  
*eck$ by measur+ ) ! measur+ /icks & by 
sight+1 s9ce ! %ape ( ! assembl$        
gunwales1 9 ?is case ( ! inn] gunwales1 
is v important 9 det]m9+ ! %>pness ( !  
complet$ canoe & ! fairness ( its g5]al 
=m4  ,! assembl$ gunwales are n[ ready  
to be laid on ! build+ b$ :i*1 = !      
,malecite canoe1 is #bj feet long1 ab\t 

#c feet wide & is rais$ ab\t #a in*es at
 midl5g? s t ! canoe bottom w be /raight
 :5 ! craft is 9 ! wat]4 ,! gunwale     
frame hav+ be5 c>efully c5t]$ on ?is b$1
 ) ! middle ?w>t exactly ov] ! highe/   
po9t 9 ! surface ( ! b$1 "s scrap       
split-plank+ is laid across ! gunwales &
 ! :ole weight$ d[n ) a few flat /ones4 
,next1 #cd /akes f #cj to #ej in*es long
 are prep>$1 ea* made ( a halv$ l5g? (  
sapl+4 ,ar\nd ! outside ( ! gunwale     
frame #bf ( ^! are driv5 9 pairs        
opposite "o ano!r across ! frame1 ab\t  
#bd in*es ap>t & plac$ s t none is      
opposite a ?w>t1 except = ! /akes at !  
extreme ends ( ! gunwale frame1 :i* are 
spac$ ab\t a foot f _! ne>e/ neighbors &
 are face-to-face1 ab\t #a in*es ap>t4  
,all ! /akes are driv5 ) ! flat face    
ab\t an in* f ! gunwale frame & p>allel 
to its outside edge4 ,f9ally two m pairs
 ( /akes are driv5 at ea* end1 ! fir/   
pair ab\t a foot beyond ! end ( !       
gunwale frame & #a in*es ap>t1 ! second 
ab\t #f in*es beyond ^! & simil>ly      

spac$4 ,! l5g? betwe5 ! out]mo/ /akes1  
measur$ ov] ! gunwale frame1 is ab\t #ah
 feet4 ,great c>e is tak5 to l9e up !   
la/ pairs ( /akes ) ! c5t]l9e ( !       
gunwale frame4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure   
#cd  ,,second ,,/age ,,( ,,canoe        
,,con/ruction3 /akes h be5 remov$ & laid
 aside1 & ! gunwales %[n 9 fir/ /age h  
be5 remov$ f ! build+ b$4 ,! b>k cov] is
 laid out on ! build+ b$1 & ! gunwales  
are 9 place ^u x1 weight$ d[n ) /ones4  
7,sket* by ,adney47  ,if ! canoe is to h
 a slight rock] ne> ! ends & is to be   
/raight ov] ! re/ ( ! bottom1 ! ends ( !
 gunwale frame w be block$ above !      
build+ b$ s t ! frame is n hogg$ on !   
b$4  ,aft] ! build] is satisfi$ ) !     
/ak+1 ea* /ake is c>efully pull$ up &   
laid to "o side1 (f ! b$ b ne> its hole4
 ,! weights are !n remov$ f ! gunwale   
frame1 :i* is lift$ f ! b$ & laid aside1
 & ! b$1 if di/urb$ is repair$ &        
re-level$4  ,! roll ( bir* b>k is n[    
remov$ f /orage1 p]haps 9 a ne>by pool  
:]e x has be5 plac$ to keep x flexible1 

& unroll$ :ite side up on ! build+ b$4  
,z ! b>k dries1 x w become m & m /iff1 s
 x w be necess>y to moi/5 x frequ5tly   
dur+ con/ruction to ma9ta9 its          
flexibility4  ,! b>k is usually long    
en\gh1 b (t5 x is n wide en\gh4 ,if !   
b>k is too %ort1 x may be piec$ out at  
?is "t1 or lat]4 ,if x is n wide en\gh x
 is c5t]$ on ! b$2 ! piec+ out w be done
 lat]4 ,! gunwale frame is n[ laid on ! 
b>k1 c>e be+ tak5 to place x z ne>ly z  
possible 9 its =m] position on ! b$4  ,!
 b>k outside ! frame is !n sla%$ f !    
edge to a po9t close to ! end ( ea*     
?w>t1 & also to po9ts along ! frame     
halfway betwe5 ! ?w>ts1 s t ! edges c be
 turn$ up4 ,:ile x is be+ sla%$1 ! b>k  
cov] is b5t slightly1 s t x is cut "u   
t5sion4 ,lat]1 :5 ! requir$ %ape c be   
det]m9$1 ^! sla%es w be made into gores1
 ! ,malecite canoes hav+ flu% seams1 n  
ov]laps1 9 ! topsides & bottom4 ,if a   
fault is not$ along ! out] edge ( ! b>k1
 a sla% may be plac$ s z to all[ ! fault
 to be cut out 9 ! lat] gor+2           

irregul>ity 9 ! position ( ! cuts does  
no great h>m to ! progress ( build+ ^!  
canoes4 ,! sla%es are usually c>ri$ to  
)9 an in* ( ! gunwales on ! b$4 ,x is n 
cu/om>y to sla% ! b>k close to ! end1   
!re ! b>k c usually be br\ght up        
unbrok51 dep5d+ ^u ! =m ( ! end4  ,:5 ! 
b>k has be5 cut z describ$1 x c be turn$
 up smoo?ly all ar\nd ! frame s t ! /ake
 holes c be se5 & a few ( ! /akes c be  
replac$4 ,! frame & ! b>k are !n        
realign$ s t all /akes may be replac$ 9 
_! holes )\t difficulty4 ,:5 ! frame &  
b>k are align$1 ! frame is weight$ z    
be=e & ! b>k is turn$ up all ar\nd x1 ! 
/akes be+ firmly driv51 z ?is is done1 9
 _! orig9al holes4 ,! longe/ /akes are  
at ! ends ( ! frame1 z ! dep? ( ! hull  
is to be greate/ !re4 ,! tops ( ea* pair
 ( opposite /akes are n[ ti$ toge!r ) a 
?ong ( basswood or c$> b>k1 to hold !m  
rigid & upright4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure 
#ce  ,,malecite ,,canoe ,,build]s ,,ne> 
,,fr$]icton1 ,n4,b41 us+ wood5 plank    
build+ b$ ) /akes set 9 holes 9 !       

plat=m4 ,?is 0 a late me?od (           
con/ruction1 :i* probably orig9at$ 9 !  
e>ly ,fr5* canoe factory at ,trois      
,rivires1 ,que4  ,aft] ! b>k is turn$ up
 ar\nd ! frame1 its lack ( wid? becomes 
fully app>5t4 ,at ?is /age1 "s build]s  
fitt$ ! additional pieces to ga9 !      
necess>y wid?2 o!rs did x lat]4 ,! me?od
 ( piec+ ! b>k cov] & ! sew+ te*nique1  
h[ev]1 is expla9$ "h4  ,! b>k is piec$  
out ) reg>d to ! dang] ( abrasion t w\ld
 occur :5 ! canoe is mov+ ?r\gh         
ob/ructions 9 ! wat]1 or :5 x is roll$  
or haul$ a%ore & unload$4 ,if ! b>k is  
to be lapp$ bel[ ! wat]l9e1 ! ?ickness (
 ! b>k ( bo? pieces 9 ! lap is scrap$ ?9
 s a ridge w n be =m$ a?w>t ! bottom2   
"h1 h[ev]1 mo/ tribes us$ edge-to-edge  
jo9+4 ,if !re are laps 9 ! topsides1 !  
expos$ edge is t[>d ! /]n2 if 9 !       
midl5g?1 upw>d t[>d ! gunwale2 & if x is
 9 ! end ! lap may be t[>d ! bottom1    
because ?is makes x easi] to sew1 &     
because 9 ! ends ( ! canoe !re is less  
dang] ( s]i\s abrasion4 ,_m tribes us$  

edge-to-edge jo9+ ev]y:]e 9 ! topsides s
 t ! direction ( lapp+ 0 n a matt] (    
consid]ation4 ,! type ( gor+1 :e!r by   
sla% & lap or by cutt+ out a ,v-%ap$    
gore1 w1 ( c\rse1 h mu* to d ) !        
selection ( ! me?od ( sew+ to be us$4   
,x is to be recall$ t 9 canoe build+ no 
ne$le 0 us$ 9 sew+ ! b>k2 ! ends ( !    
root /r&s 7 %>p5$ & us$ to ?read ! /r&  
?r\gh ! awl holes4 ,mu* ( ! topside sew+
 9 a b>k canoe 0 done ) small /r&s made 
by splitt+ small roots 9 half & !n      
flatt5+ ! halves by scrap+4 ,l>ge root  
/r&s qu>t]$ & prep>$ 9 ! same mann]1 or 
! cores ( ^!1 7 sometimes us$ 9 heavy   
sew+ or la%+ at ! gunwale or 9 ! ends ( 
a canoe4  ,z not$ previ\sly1 root ?ongs 
7 us$ well wat]-soak$ or q gre51 = !y   
became v /iff & r brittle z !y dri$ out4
 ,once 9 place1 h[ev]1 ! dry+ did n seem
 to de/roy _! /r5g?4 ,ra:ide 0 also us$ 
= su* sew+ by "s tribes4  ,! sew+ 0 done
 by ,indian wom51 if _! help 0          
available1 & ! =ms ( /it*+ us$ 9 canoe  
build+ v>i$ greatly4 ,! root sew+ at !  

ends ( ! canoes rang$ f a simple        
ov]-&-ov] spiral =m to elaborate &      
decorative /yles4 ,long-&-%ort /it*+ 9 a
 sequ5ce t usually foll[$ "s =mal patt]n
 0 widely us$4 ,among ! patt]ns 7 su*   
arrangem5ts z "o long1 f\r %ort1 & "o   
long2 or two longs1 two or ?ree %orts1 &
 two longs2 or "o %ort1 five (          
progressively increas+ l5g?1 & !n "o    
%ort2 or six progressively long] foll[$ 
by six progressively %ort]4             
,cross-/it*+1 employ+ ! two ends ( !    
sew+ root z 9 ! lac+ ( a %oe 0 also     
common4 ,sometimes ?is 0 comb9$ ) a     
/raight-across d\ble-/r& pass to jo9 !  
ends ( ! ,x4 ,! h>ness /it*1 9 :i* bo?  
ends ( ! sew+ root 7 pass$ 9 opposite   
directions ?r\gh ! same holes1 0 (t5    
us$1 z 0 ! #b-?ong 9-&-out lac+ f ea*   
side us$ 9 nor?we/]n canoes hav+ plank  
/em-pieces4  ,if ! root /r& 0 too %ort  
to complete a seam1 in/ead ( be+ splic$ 
or knott$ ! end 0 tuck$ back "u ! la/   
turns or /it*es1 on ! inside ( ! b>k    
cov]4 ,9 />t+1 ! tail 0 plac$ "u ! fir/ 

turn ( ! /it*1 s t x c\ld n be pull$    
?r\gh4 ,to f9i% sew+ ) d\ble-end$ /r&s1 
z 9 ! h>ness /it*1 bo? ends 7 tuck$ "u !
 la/ turn or two4  ,commonly two or m   
turns 7 tak5 ?r\gh a s+le hole 9 ! b>k2 
?is might be done to cle> "s ob/ruction 
su* z a frame head at ! gunwale1 or to  
provide a /rong] /it*1 or turn1 z 9 !   
h>ness /it* & o!rs1 or to all[ = great] 
spac+ betwe5 awl holes 9 ! b>k4 7,s9ce !
 awl blade 0 tap]$1 ! size ( ! hole x   
made 9 ! b>k c\ld be regulat$ by ! dep? 
( p5etration ( ! blade z x 0 turn$ 9 !  
hole47  ,! l5g? ( /it*es v>i$ ) ! ne$ = 
/r5g? & wat]tightness4 ,long /it*es 7   
ab\t ,i in*1 %ort /it*es f ab\t  to  in*
 9 l5g?4 ,! run ( ! gra91 ( c\rse1 0 a  
consid]ation 9 ! l5g? ( /it* us$4       
,illu/ration3 ,figure #cf  ,,sew+3 two  
common /yles ( root /it*+ us$ 9 b>k     
canoes4  ,! piec+ ( ! side panels 0 done
 ) a great v>iety ( sew+ /yles1 accord+ 
to /r5g? requirem5ts4 ,! /ra9 put ^u !  
b>k 9 mold+ x by rib pressure 0 great] 9
 ! midl5g? ?an 9 ! ends2 & ! sew+ diff]$

 accord+ly4 ,! ov]-&-ov] spiral1 ) a    
batt5 "u ! sew+1 0 us$ = sew+ 9 !       
midl5g?1 z 0 back-/it*+1 a v>iety ( ba/+
 /it* 9 :i* a new pass is />t$ ab\t half
 way betwe5 /it*es1 ?us =m+ ov]lapp$    
passes or turns4 ,back-/it*+ 0 usually  
done 9 a direction slightly diagonal to 
! l9e ( sew+1 s z to cross ! gra9 ( !   
b>k at an angle ) ea* pass4 ,!          
d\ble-?ong 9-&-out /it*1 9 :i* ea* ?ong 
goes ?r\gh ! same hole f opposite sides1
 0 frequ5tly us$4 ,! simple1 spiral     
ov]-&-ov] /it* 0 us$ 9 sew+ panels 9 !  
ends ( canoes1 z 0 ! simple1 9-&-out    
ba/+ /it* us+ ei!r a s+le or d\ble /r&4 
,:5 ! sides 7 piec$ out edge-to-edge1 ! 
sew+ 0 usually done spirally1 ov] & ov] 
a n>r[1 ?9 batt5 plac$ outside ! b>k    
cov]4 ,?is batt5 might be ei!r a ?9     
split sapl+ or1 m commonly1 a split &   
?9n$ piece ( root4 ,if ! piec$-out sides
 7 lapp$1 !n ! h>ness /it* 0 commonly   
us$4 ,! lap might be "s in*es wide to   
decrease ! dang] ( splitt+ :ile ! b>k 0 
be+ pun*$ ) ! awl1 aft]w>d ! surplus 0  

cut away leav+ ab\t a half in* ( ov]lap4
 ,on r>e occasions ! /r5g? ( a          
lapp$-edge seam 0 increas$ by ! use ( a 
p>allel r[ ( /it*+4  ,illu/ration3      
,figure #cg  ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,canoe    
,,on ,,! ,,build+ ,,b$ 7above71 )       
gunwales or build+ frame weight$ d[n by 
/ones inside b>k cov]1 & 7bel[7 canoe :5
 fir/ remov$ f build+ b$ dur+ fif? /age 
( con/ruction4 7,sket*es by ,adney47  ,9
 mak+ ! canoe wat]tight1 x is to be     
rememb]$ t "s =ms ( /it* make ! b>k lie 
up tight all along its edges :ile o!rs  
b9d only :]e ! /it* crosses ! seam4 ,!  
9-&-out /it*1 :i* 0 us$ only above !    
wat]l9e1 _c be pull$ up h>d )\t caus+ ! 
b>k to puck] & split & _c be made v     
wat]tight ) gum4 ,! ov]-&-ov] /it*1 9   
ei!r a spiral =m or squ>e across ! seam 
on ! outside & diagonally on ! inside1  
is v /rong2 :5 a batt5 is us$ "u !      
/it*es x c be pull$ up h>d & all[s a v  
wat]tight gumm+4 ,:5 ?is /yle ( sew+ is 
us$ )\t a batt5 across ! run ( ! gra91 z
 9 ! gore seams1 x _c be pull$ up z h>d1

 b w s]ve4 ,back-/it*+1 :i* 0 mu* us$ 9 
! topsides1 c be pull$ up q h>d & makes 
a tight seam :5 gumm$1 z d ! h>ness /it*
 & cross-/it*4 ,! ends1 reg>dless ( !   
/yle ( sew+ us$1 7 m readily made tight 
by gumm+ ?an ! o!r seams 9 a b>k canoe4 
,two basic me?ods1 ) "s slight &        
unimportant v>iations1 7 us$ to fa/5 !  
b>k to ! gunwales4 ,"o employ$ a        
cont9u\s ov]-&-ov] /it*1 ! o!r employ$  
gr\ps ( la%+s4 ,on a canoe ) ! la%+     
cont9u\s along ! gunwales1 ! turns 7    
made two or m times ?r\gh ! same hole on
 ea* side ( ea* rib head to all[ space =
 !m4 ,?is might also be done :]e ! la%+ 
0 9 gr\ps1 z describ$ above4 ,usually1 a
 measur+ /ick 0 us$ to space ! gr\ps    
betwe5 ?w>t ends s t ea* gr\p came      
betwe5 ! rib heads4 ,! gr\p+s c\ld be   
indep5d5t la%+s1 or ! /r& c\ld be c>ri$ 
f "o gr\p to ano!r4 ,if ! latt]1 x 0    
pass$ along "u ! gunwale 9 a numb] (    
9-&-out /it*es or 9 a s+le lone /it*    
ei!r inside or out1 or else x 0 br\ght  
ar\nd ov] ! gunwale f ! la/ full turn4  

,"s tribes use bo? ends ( ! la%+1 pass+ 
!m ?r\gh ! same hole 9 ! b>k f opposite 
directions bel[ ! gunwales2 ! ends might
 be c>ri$ 9 ! same mann] 9 a long /it*  
to ! next gr\p4 ,9 "s elm & o!r b>k     
canoes employ+ basswood or c$>-b>k la%+s
 ! b>k 0 ti$ ) a s+le turn at wide      
int]vals2 :5 roots 7 us$ 9 ^!1 h[ev]1   
small gr\p+s ( /it*es 7 cu/om>y4 ,:5    
gr\p la%+s 7 us$ ) bir* b>k1 ! int]vals 
betwe5 gr\ps 0 usually relatively %ort1 
?\gh 9 a few canoes ! gr\ps & int]vals 7
 ( ne>ly equal l5g?4  ,illu/ration3     
,figure #ch  ,,?ird ,,/age ,,( ,,canoe  
,,con/ruction3 ! b>k cov] is %ap$ on !  
build+ b$4 ,! gores h be5 cut2 "p ( !   
cov] is %ap$ & secur$ by /akes & batt5s4
 ,a %[s batt5s secur$ by /icks la%$ to  
/akes4 7,sket* by ,adney47  ,9 an       
indep5d5t gr\p1 ! ends ( ! /r& 7 treat$ 
z 9 :ipp+1 ! tail be+ "u ! fir/ turns   
made & ! end tuck$ back "u !            
la/--usually on ! inside ( ! gunwales4  
,:]e !re 7 inn] & out] gunwales ! la%+ 0
 always ar\nd bo?1 & ! tail might be    

jamm$ betwe5 !m4 ,if a cap 0 us$ on !   
gunwales1 ! la%+s 7 always "u x4 ,! use 
( a knott$ turn to />t a la%+ occurr$   
only 9 ! old ,ttes de ,b\le canoes4  ,on
 ! ,malecite canoe1 ! sides are piec$   
out 9 "o to ?ree panels r ?an 9 "o long1
 n>r[ panel on ea* side4 ,! panel = !   
midl5g? requires ! greate/ /r5g? & is   
usually lapp$ inside ! bottom b>k4 ,!   
latt] is fir/ trimm$ /raight along its  
edge1 & ! panel ins]t$ beh9d x ) a c\ple
 ( in*es ( lap4 ,!n ! two pieces ( b>k  
are sewn toge!r ov] a halv$-root batt5 )
 an ov]-&-ov] /it*4 7,o!r tribes us$ "s 
=m ( ! h>ness /it*1 or a simil> /yle1   
all[+ great /r5g?47 ,! middle panel does
 n ext5d mu* beyond ! ends ( ! fir/ pair
 ( ?w>ts on ea* side ( ! middle4 ,! next
 panels t[>d ! ends are lapp$ outside ! 
bottom b>k & are sewn ) ! back-/it*4    
,!n1 if /ill ano!r panel is requir$ at  
ea* end1 ?is too is lapp$ outside & is  
sewn 9 ! lap ) an 9-&-out /it*4 ,! ends 
( ! panels are usually sewn ) an        
ov]-&-ov] /it* t runs squ>e ) ! seam    

outside & diagonally to x inside ! b>k4 
7,! h>ness /it* 0 us$ "h by "s tribes1 z
 7 _m =ms ( ! cross-/it*47 ,! ends ( !  
canoe & ! gores h already be5 sewn dur+ 
an e>li] /age ( ! build+ process4  ,once
 ! sides are piec$ out1 ! b>k is ready  
to be turn$ up & ar\nd ! gunwale frame &
 clamp$ p]p5dicul>ly4 ,to effect ?is1   
small /akes are made by halv+ sapl+s1 s 
t ea* half is ab\t a half in* ?ick4 ,!  
butt ( ea* half is cut *isel-%ap$1 ) !  
bevel on ! flat side2 ! r\nd$ face is   
smoo!d (f1 & x may be tap]$ t[>d ! head 
( ! /ake4 ,betwe5 two ( ! sla%es a l5g? 
( b>k is n[ br\ght up aga9/ ! out]      
/akes2 aga9/ ! b>k ! small1 inside /ake 
is plac$ ) ! r\nd face ( ! *isel-po9t$  
butt w$g$ aga9/ ! out] face ( ! gunwale4
 ,! top is !n lev]$ aga9/ ! outside     
/ake1 s t ! flat face ( ea* clamps ! b>k
 9 place4 ,! top ( ! inn] /ake is !n    
b\nd to ! out]4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure  
#ci  ,,cross ,,section ( canoe on build+
 b$ dur+ ?ird /age ( con/ruction 7above7
 & f\r? /age4 7,sket* by ,adney47  ,9   

sett+ ! inside /akes1 c>e is tak5 t _!  
po9ts d n pi]ce ! b>k4 ,no inside /akes 
are requir$ at ! ends1 z "h ! outside   
/akes are s close toge!r 9 oppos+ pairs 
z to hold ! b>k 9 a %>p fold along !    
c5t]l9e ( ! cov]4 ,?is ( c\rse is also  
true ( ! /akes beyond ! ends ( !        
gunwales4  ,aft] a few l5g?s ( b>k h be5
 ?us secur$1 !y are fair$ betwe5 ! /akes
 by ins]t+ ?9 /rips ( split sapl+1 or   
batt5s ( wood or root1 along ea* side ( 
! b>k1 "u ! inside & outside /akes4 ,^! 
batt5s are plac$ ab\t halfway up !      
upturn$ b>k4 ,"s build]s us$ long wood5 
batt5s1 z ?is gave a v fair side :5     
en\gh l5g?s 7 secur$ upright2 o!rs got !
 same results ) %ort batt5s1 ! ends (   
:i* 7 ov]lapp$ betwe5 a pair ( /akes on 
ea* side4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #dj    
,,multiple ,,cross ,,section ?r\gh "o   
side ( a canoe on ! build+ b$3 at !     
headbo>d1 middle1 fir/1 & second ?w>ts4 
,gunwale is rais$ & support$ on %e]+    
po/s set "u ?w>ts4 ,cr[n ( ! build+ b$  
is %[n by v>y+ heights ( bottoms ( ! f\r

 sections4  ,:5 ! b>k has be5 turn$ up &
 clamp$1 ! gores may be trimm$ to all[ x
 to be sewn ) edge-to-edge seams at ea* 
sla%4 ,?is is usually done aft] ! sides 
are fair$1 by mov+ ! batt5s up & d[n z !
 cuts are made1 !n replac+ !m 9 _!      
orig9al position4 ,! gores or sla%es1 if
 ov]lapp$1 are n usually sewn at ?is    
/age ( con/ruction4  ,) ! inside /akes 9
 place1 ! longitud9al batt5s secur$1 & !
 gores cut or ! ov]laps prop]ly arrang$1
 all is ready = %e]+ ! gunwales4 ,fir/ !
 weights are remov$ f ! gunwale frame s 
t x c be lift$4 ,if ! inside /akes h be5
 prop]ly made & fitt$ ?is c be done )\t 
di/urb+ ! sides1 ?\gh ! ties across ea* 
pair ( outside /akes may h to be slack$ 
(f some:at4 ,be=e lift+ ! frame1 "s %ort
 po/s1 usually ( sapl+ or ( wa/e f      
splitt+ out ! gunwales & ?w>ts1 are cut 
9 l5g?s det]m9$ by ! measur+ /ick or f  
memory1 "o = ea* end ( ea* ?w>t1 & "o = 
ea* end ( ! gunwale frame4 ,^? "u !     
middle ?w>t ends 9 ?is canoe are #g     
in*es long1 ^? "u ! next ?w>ts out f !  

middle w be #i in*es1 ^? "u ! end ?w>ts 
w be #ab in*es1 & ^? at ! gunwale ends w
 be #ag in*es long4 ,^! po/s1 cut )     
squ>$ butts1 are laid alongside ! b$4 ,!
 gunwale frame is n[ lift$ & ! pair (   
po/s to g "u ! middle ?w>t are /epp$ on 
! b>k cov]1 ! gunwale is l[]$ onto !m1 &
 :ile ! frame & po/s are held /eady1    
/ones are laid on a plank ov] ! middle  
?w>t4 ,next1 ! ends ( ! gunwales are    
held & lift$ s t a pair ( po/s c be     
plac$ at ! ?w>ts next out f ! middle4 ,m
 weights are plac$ ov] ^!1 ! op]ation is
 repeat$ = ! end ?w>ts &1 f9ally at !   
gunwale ends1 s t ! gunwales n[ /& on   
po/s on ! b>k cov]1 sprung to ! correct 
=e-&-aft %e] & /eadi$ by ! be>+ ( !     
outside ( ! gunwale frame on ! r\nd$    
faces ( ! inside /akes4 ,n[ ! %e] has   
be5 e/abli%$ & ! dep? ( ! canoe is      
approximat$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #da 
,,f\r? ,,/age ,,( ,,canoe ,,con/ruction3
 b>k cov] has be5 %ap$ & all /akes      
plac$4 ,! gunwales h be5 rais$ to %e]   
height2 ,a indicates ! /icks :i* fix !  

%e] ( ! gunwales2 ,b indicates blocks   
plac$ "u ends to =m rock]4 ,side panels 
are %[n 9 place1 & cov] is be+ sewn to  
gunwales4 7,sket* by ,adney47  ,to      
protect ! b>k cov] f ! ?ru/ ( ! weights 
us$ to balla/ ! frame1 "s build]s ins]t$
 small b>k or wood %ields = padd+ "u !  
heels ( ! po/s4 ,by "s tribes ! po/s 7  
not*$ on "o face1 to fit inside !       
gunwales ne> ! ?w>ts1 & !re 7 also o!r  
ways ( assembl+ ! gunwales !mselves4  ,x
 %\ld be app>5t t ! op]ations j describ$
 w\ld s]ve only = canoes 9 :i* ! %e] _h 
a g5tle1 fair sweep4 ,= canoes 9 :i* !  
%e] turn$ up %>ply at ! ends1 ! gunwale 
memb]s might h to be split into         
lam9ations & preb5t to ! requir$ %e]    
be=e be+ assembl$ into ! gunwale frame4 
,to accompli% ?is1 ! lam9ations 7 scald$
 ) boil+ wat] until saturat$ & !n !     
gunwale memb]s 7 /ak$ out on ! gr\nd or 
ti$ ) cords to set ! wood 9 ! desir$    
curves z x dri$ out4 ,! lam9ations 7 !n 
wrapp$ ) cord & ! gunwale 0 ready to    
assemble4 ,to produce a hogg$ %e]1 !    

gunwales 7 made ( gre5 spruce & !n /ak$ 
out to season 9 ! =m desir$2 a hogg$ %e]
 0 also =m$ by /eam+ or boil+ ! gunwale 
memb]s at midl5g?4  ,! canoe1 z n[      
erect$ on ! build+ b$1 has a d\ble-end$1
 flat-bottom$1 wall-sid$ =m4 ,! gunwales
 are sprung to ! prop] bread? & %e]1 & !
 b>k is /&+ irregul>ly above !m4 ,at ?is
 po9t1 on canoes n hav+ outwales1 ! b>k 
cov] 0 lac$ or la%$ to ! gunwales4 ,s9ce
 ! ,malecite canoe has outwales1 ^! are 
n[ made & fitt$4 ,!y consi/ ( two :ite  
c$> batt5s ab\t #ai feet long1 p]haps #a
 in* wide1 &  in* ?ick4 ,! face t w be !
 outbo>d side is usually some:at r\nd$1 
z are all ! corn]s1 & ! corn] t w be on 
! inside & bottom ( ea* batt5 :5 x is 9 
place is some:at bevel$4 ,! outwales are
 plac$ betwe5 ! b>k & ! outside /akes1 !
 inside /akes be+ remov$ "o by "o z ?is 
is done4 ,! removal ( ! inside /akes    
all[s room = ! outwale to be ins]t$ 9 _!
 place1 betwe5 ! outside /akes & ! inn] 
gunwale face1 & x all[s ! b>k to be     
br\ght aga9/ ! outside face ( ! inn]    

gunwales4 ,9 ! process ( fitt+ !        
outwales1 ! batt5s along ! sides may h  
to be remov$ & replac$1 or %ift$1 & !   
cross-ties ( ea* pair ( outside /akes   
may require adju/m5t4 ,beg9n+ at        
midl5g?1 ! outwale is pegg$ ?r\gh ! b>k 
cov] to ! inn] gunwales at int]vals ( #f
 to #i in*es4 ,! pegg+ is n c>ri$ mu*   
beyond ! end ?w>ts 9 any canoe & c\ld n 
be 9 canoes hav+ lam9at$ gunwales ne> ! 
ends4  ,! ,malecite canoe has b>k cov]s 
ov] ! ends ( ! inn] gunwales1 & ^! are  
n[ fitt$ s t !y c be pass$ "u ! outwales
 & clamp$ 9 place4 ,! ends ( ! outwales 
are =c$ inside ! /akes at & beyond !    
ends ( ! gunwales1 assum+ a p9*$-9      
appe>ance !re1 & !y may rea* a few in*es
 beyond ! ends ( ! b>k cov]2 !y w be cut
 & %ap$ to ! l5g? ( ! f9i%$ canoe lat]4 
,! outwale pegs are made by splitt+ f a 
balk ( bir*1 l>*1 or fir r\ghly squ>$   
d[els ab\t  in* squ>e & #f to #i in*es  
long4 ,ea* d[el is !n tap]$ & r\nd$ ea* 
way f ! middle to =m two %anks t are    
betwe5  &  in* 9 diamet] ov] #b to #c   

in*es ( l5g?4 ,! ends may be %>p5$ by   
fire4 ,! d[els are !n cut 9 two1 provid+
 a pair ( pegs ) l>ge heads4 ,^! are    
driv5 9 holes drill$ ?r\gh ! outwales1  
b>k cov]1 & gunwales1 & :5 well home1 ! 
protrud+ ends are cut (f flu%4 ,t[>d !  
ends ( ! gunwales1 ! spaces betwe5 !    
pegs increase1 & at ! extreme ends1 !   
outwale w be la%$ to ! gunwale by widely
 spac$ gr\p+s ( root /r&4 ,^! are       
usually tempor>y1 z ! f9al la%+ ( ! b>k 
to ! gunwales w secure ! outwales4      
,aft] ! outwales are secur$ 9 place1 !  
b>k is fa/5$ to ! assembl$ gunwales )   
gr\p la%+s4 ,9 ! ,malecite canoe be+    
built1 ^! are indep5d5t1 ea* gr\p+      
consi/+ ( eight to t5 complete turns ( !
 root /r&4 ,! int]vals betwe51 r\ghly #b
 in*es1 are usually spac$ by means ( a  
special measur+-/ick to insure ev5ness4 
,be=e ! la%+ is actually begun1 h[ev]1 !
 excess b>k /&+ above ! gunwales is cut 
away4 ,! b>k ei!r is trimm$ flu% ) ! top
 ( ! gunwale1 or en\gh is left = a flap 
t w fully cov] ! top ( ! inn] gunwale1  

to be turn$ d[n "u ! la%+4 ,! latt]     
me?od1 ! /rong]1 0 us$ by _m build]s4 ,9
 mak+ ! turns 9 ! gr\p la%+s1 two or    
?ree turns may be tak5 ?r\gh a s+le hole
 9 ! b>k2 ! ,malecites did ?is to avoid 
hav+ ! holes too close toge!r4 ,! result
 is t ! gr\p :5 se5 f outbo>d appe>s z a
 ,w-=m1 ) only two or ?ree holes 9 ! b>k
 = an entire gr\p4 ,c>e is tak5 to lay  
up ! turns ov] ! gunwales neatly1 turn  
aga9/ turn )\t op5 spac+ or ov]laps &   
cross+s4  ,:5 ?is is complet$1 ! ends ( 
! ?w>ts c be la%$1 ! /r& pass+ ?r\gh !  
holes 9 ! %\ld]s1 ar\nd ! two gunwale   
memb]s1 & ?r\gh "o or two holes 9 ! b>k 
cov]4 ,! gr\p+s = ! b>k cov] are spac$ s
 t ^! la%+s d n ov]lap !m1 & ?us ! la%+s
 s]ve a dual purpose4  ,next1 ! gores   
are usually sewn & ! ends ( ! side      
panels clos$4 ,to d ?is1 ! tempor>y side
 batt5s outside ! b>k are remov$4 ,s9ce 
?is is a ,malecite canoe1 ! gores are   
sewn edge-to-edge ) an ov]-&-ov] /it*1 !
 /r& cross+ ! seam squ>e outside &      
diagonally inside4 ,:5 ^! seams & ^?    

rema9+ 9 ! upp] panels are sewn1 ! r    
/iff b>k holds ! %ape =m$ on ! build+ b$
 to a rem>kable degree4  ,! canoe c n[  
be rais$ f ! build+ b$4 ,to set x up at 
a mo/ conv5i5t work+ height1 ! weights  
are fir/ remov$ f ! gunwales & ! rema9+ 
/akes are pull$ up4 ,! canoe is !n lift$
 f its b$ & turn$ upside d[n ov] a c\ple
 ( logs1 or crude horses4               
,traditionally1 logs or sapl+ 7 re/$    
across two pairs ( b\ld]s or ! logs 7   
ti$ betwe5 two pairs ( trees at conv5i5t
 di/ances ap>t4 ,m rec5tly1 horses1 =m$ 
by /ick+ f\r legs into aug] holes drill$
 9 ! bottom ( a #d-;foot l5g? ( timb]1 7
 us$4 ,aft] ! canoe is on its supports !
 ends are ready to be clos$ 94  ,!      
/em-pieces cu/om>ily us$ by ! ,malecite 
build] are =m$ f two cle> :ite c$>      
billets a full #cf in*es long & 9 ! r\gh
 ne>ly #a in*es squ>e4 ,! billets are   
fir/ %ap$ s t ! outbo>d face ( ea*      
/em-piece is ab\t  in* wide1 mak+ x a   
truncat$ triangle 9 cross-section4 ,!n1 
along l9es p>allel to ! base ( !        

truncat$ triangle1 x is split into six  
lam9ations :i* are c>ri$ to )9 #f or #g 
in*es ( ! end select$ to be ! heel ( !  
/em-piece4 ,j cle> ( ! lam9ations a not*
 is cut into ! top side ( ! heel1 to    
hold ! headbo>d1 z w be se54 ,! piece is
 !n treat$ ) boil+ wat] until !         
lam9ations are flexible1 & ! curve ( !  
/em-piece c be =m$ & ei!r pegg$ out or  
ti$ ) cords until x dries 9 ! desir$    
%ape4 ,:5 dry ! lam9ations are tightly  
wrapp$ ) basswood b>k cord1 leav+ ! =m (
 ! /em-piece a qu>t] arc ( a circle1 )  
%ort tang5ts at ea* end1 z %[n 9 !      
illu/ration 7p4 #ce74  ,illu/ration3    
,figure #db  ,,fif? ,,/age ,,( ,,canoe  
,,con/ruction3 canoe is remov$ f build+ 
b$ & set on horse 9 ord] to %ape ends & 
complete sew+4 ,b>k cov] has dri$ out 9 
a flat-bottom$ & wall-sid$ =m4 7,sket*  
by ,adney47  ,next1 ! ends ( ! outwales 
are cut to a l5g? det]m9$ by ! quality (
 ! b>k already 9 place2 if ! b>k 9 "o   
end is n v good1 x may be cut away      
some:at & ! canoe made %ort] by ?is     

am\nt at bo? ends 9 f9i%+4 ,aft] ! ends 
( ! outwales h be5 cut1 bo? are not*$ on
 ! inside at ! extreme ends to take !   
head ( ! /em-piece4 ,! outwales may or  
may n project  or  in* beyond ! /em & ! 
/em head may project  or #a in* above ! 
top ( ! outwales ( ! canoe2 ^! matt]s1  
at ! build]'s option1 decide ! l5g? ( ! 
not* & ! fitt+ ( ! /em-pieces4  ,!      
/em-piece is n[ plac$ betwe5 ! fold$ b>k
 end ( ! canoe ) ! heel re/+ = a small  
di/ance along its l5g? on ! b>k bottom2 
! head mu/ come to ! "r height above !  
outwales1 z not$4 ,:ile "o work] holds !
 /em-piece 9 place1 ano!r trims away !  
excess b>k at ! end to ! pr(ile ( !     
outbo>d face ( ! /em-piece4 ,?us !      
pr(ile ( ea* end is cut & ! rake ( !    
ends is e/abli%$4 ,! b>k is next la%$ to
 ! /em-piece4 ,9 ?is canoe x is done ) a
 spiral ov]-&-ov] /it*1 a batt5 made ( a
 l>ge split root be+ plac$ ov] ! edges (
 ! b>k1 z ! la%+ proce$s1 to =m a /em   
b&4 ,! turns pass alt]nately f outbo>d  
ar\nd ! inbo>d face ( ! /em-piece &     

?r\gh x2 ! awl ins]t$ 9 ! lam9ations f  
"o side op5s !m en\gh to all[ ! /r& to  
be =c$ ?r\gh4 ,c>e is tak5 to pull up ! 
/r& v h>d ea* "t4 ,z ! outwale is       
approa*$1 ! b>k is cut away at ! not*+ 9
 ea* s t ! outwales c be br\ght snugly  
aga9/ ! sides ( ! /em-piece4 ,"h ! /r&  
is br\ght up "o or two times ov] !      
outwales1 abaft ! /em head1 be=e ! bitt]
 end is tuck$1 ?us lock+ ! outwales to !
 /em-piece & ! b>k4 ,!n a la%+ is plac$ 
ar\nd ! outwales j inbo>d ( ! /em-piece1
 pass+ ?r\gh a hole 9 ! flap ( ! end    
deck-piece ( b>k & ?r\gh ! side b>k4    
,?is la%+ holds ! outbo>d end ( ! deck  
piece flap4 ,at ! inbo>d end ( ! flap1  
ano!r la%+ is requir$1 b ! p9*$-9       
outwales require additional secur+      
outbo>d ( ?is po9t2 h5ce a la%+ is pass$
 j inbo>d ( ! middle ( ! flap1 a little 
outbo>d ( ! ends ( ! inwales1 & ab\t six
 in*es inbo>d f ?is la%+ ano!r is pass$ 
?r\gh ! side b>k & ar\nd ! gunwale &    
outwale on ea* side4 ,^! ?ree la%+s hold
 ! outwales snug to ! ends ( ! gunwales 

& aga9/ ! project+ b>k ends 9 ! p9*$-9  
=m ( project+ outwales4  ,illu/ration3  
,figure #dc  ,,ribs ,,be+ ,,dri$ ,,&    
,,%ap$ ,,= ,,ojibway ,,canoe4 7,canadian
 ,geological ,survey photo47  ,! heels (
 ! /em-pieces re/ on ! bottom b>k & !   
sew+ is c>ri$ d[n to :]e ! cutt+ ( !    
pr(ile makes an end to ! seam1 ! solid  
"p ( ! heels ext5d+ ab\t #f to #h in*es 
inbo>d ( ?is4 ,next1 any sew+ requir$ on
 ! bottom is done4 ,:5 ! b>k cov] has   
be5 giv5 a f9al inspection on ! outside 
& all sew+ has be5 complet$1 ! canoe is 
lift$ f its supports1 right$1 & set on !
 b$ or on a smoo? grassy place4  ,all   
seams are n[ pay$ ) gum on ! inside ( ! 
b>k :ile ?is c /ill be done )\t         
int]f]5ce f ! %ea?+ or ^? p>ts ( !      
/ructure rema9+ to be in/all$4 ,!       
,malecites us$ only spruce gum temp]$ ) 
animal fat4 ,! gum1 heat$ until x is    
suffici5tly s(t to p\r l heavy syrup1 is
 spread ) a small wood5 paddle or spoon1
 & is !n work$ into ! seam & smoo!d by  
rubb+ ) ! ?umb dipp$ 9 wat] to prev5t ! 

gum f /ick+ & burn+4 ,x is fir/ work$   
into ! ends1 betwe5 ! b>k & ea* side ( !
 /em-pieces1 p>ticul>ly ne> ! heel bel[ 
! wat]l9e4 ,:5 ! crevices are fill$1 a  
piece ( b>k 79 lat] times a piece ( clo?
 0 us$7 wide en\gh to cov] ! gum        
alongside is well sme>$ ) w>m gum &     
press$ d[n along ! inside ( !           
/em-pieces4 ,on ea* seam1 at gores1 & on
 side panels a ?9 n>r[ /rip ( b>k is    
sme>$ ) gum & press$ ov] ! seam aft] !  
latt] _h be5 well pay$4 ,! b>k is n[    
c>efully scrut9iz$ = small splits1      
holes1 or ?9 spots s9ce ^! c be easily  
pat*$ f ! inside at ?is /age (          
con/ruction4 ,9 fitt+ b>k /rips & 9     
gumm+1 great c>e is tak5 to obta9 a flat
 surface2 ! edges ( ! /rips inside are  
fair$ to ! inside face ( ! b>k by sme>+ 
gum along ! edges4 ,! canoe is n[ ready 
to be %ea!d & ribb$ out4  ,! %ea?+ = ?is
 canoe has be5 split 9 advance out (    
cle> :ite c$> 9 spl9ts ab\t #e to #i    
feet long1 #c to #d in*es wide1 &  in*  
?ick4 ,! butts ( ea* piece h be5 :ittl$ 

to a fea!r edge1 ! bevel ext5d+ back    
ab\t #b in*es4 ,also1 "s pieces ( basket
 a% h be5 split out ( sapl+s = tempor>y 
ribs to hold ! %ea?+ 9 place4  ,a total 
( #ej or m ribs 9 five l5g?s1 ! longe/  
ab\t #e feet1 h be5 made up f :ite c$>  
he>twood & b5t to ! desir$ %ape4  ,9    
decid+ ! r\gh l5g?s ( ! ribs1 ! build] c
 resort to v>i\s me?ods4 ,he c preb5d   
ribs 9 pairs to a numb] ( arbitr>ily    
*os5 %apes3 ! fir/ set ( six pairs to ! 
desir$ midsection =m2 a second set (    
five pairs to ! =m ( ! section betwe5 ! 
middle & fir/ pair ( ?w>ts2 a ?ird1 (   
five pairs1 to ! section at ! fir/ ?w>ts
 ea* way f ! middle2 a f\r?1 ( f\r      
pairs1 to ! section betwe5 ! end & !    
fir/ pair ( ?w>ts ea* way f ! middle2 a 
fif?1 ( ?ree pairs1 to ! section at !   
end ?w>ts2 & a six?1 ( two or ?ree      
pairs1 = ! section at or ne> !          
headbo>ds4 ,?is makes f #ej to #eb      
frames 9 a canoe measur+ #ah or #ai feet
 ov]all4  ,ea* frame piece is treat$ )  
boil+ wat] & !n b5t1 ov] ! knee or ar\nd

 a tree1 to a slightly great] degree ?an
 is ne$$4 ,:ile ?us b5t1 ea* pair is    
wrapp$ l5g?wise ov] ! end ) a /rip (    
basswood or c$> b>k to hold ! ribs 9    
%ape4 ,sometimes a /rut is plac$ "u !   
b>k /rips to ma9ta9 ! desir$ =m1 or a   
cross-tie ( b>k may be employ$4 ,! ribs 
are !n all[$ to season 9 ?is position4  
,ano!r me?od1 :i* w be illu/rat$ lat]   
7p4 #ec71 involves plac+ ribs ( gre5    
spruce 9 _! approximate position & =c+  
!m aga9/ ! b>k4 ,9 ?is me?od1 a numb] ( 
long batt5s are plac$ ov] ! r\ghly b5t  
ribs laid loosely inside ! b>k cov]1 &  
are spread by =c+ a s]ies ( %ort        
crosspieces1 or /ays1 betwe5 !m         
a?w>t%ips4 ,! b>k is giv5 a good wett+ )
 boil+ wat] to make x flexible & ela/ic1
 s t ! pressure appli$ to ! batt5s by ! 
tempor>y crosspieces br+s ! b>k to !    
%ape desir$ = ! canoe4 ,! r\gh l5g?s ( !
 ribs are det]m9$ by use ( a measur+    
/ick or by measurem5ts made ar\nd ! b>k 
) a piece ( flexible root or a batt5 (  
basket a%4 ,! ribs1 9 any case1 are made

 some:at long] ?an requir$ to all[ a    
f9al fitt+ :5 be+ plac$ ov] ! %ea?+4  ,x
 c be se5 t ! exact =m ! canoe takes is 
l>gely a matt] ( judgm5t & ( !          
flexibility & ela/icity ( ! b>k1 r ?an (
 precise mold+ on a pr$et]m9$ model1 or 
l9es4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #dd        
,,details ,,( ,,ribs & me?od ( %ap+ !m 9
 pairs 9 a b>k /rap or ?ong s t !y take 
a set :ile dry+ out4  ,9 ! ,malecite    
canoe ! ribs are wide amid%ips1 #c or #d
 in*es1 & n>r[ to #b or #b in*es t[>d ! 
ends4 ,! ?ickness is an ev5  in*4 ,mo/  
bir*-b>k canoes h ribs ( ev5 ?ickness _!
 full l5g?1 b 9 a few ! ?ickness is     
tap]$ slightly above ! turn ( ! bilge1  
usually :5 ! tumble-home is high on !   
sides & r great4 ,! wid?1 z previ\sly   
expla9$1 is usually c>ri$ all across !  
bottom2 above ! bilges !re is a mod]ate 
tap]4  ,! %ea?+ ( ! canoe is n[ fir/ to 
be put 9 place4 ,9 ! ,malecite canoe !  
c5t] pieces are ! longe/2 !y are tap]$  
ea* way f _! butts1 :i* ov]lap ab\t #b  
in*es amid%ips4 ,! ends are made n>r[   

en\gh to fit readily into ! %>p         
transv]se curve ( ! bottom & are long   
en\gh to pass "u ! heels ( ! /em pieces 
= an in* or two4 ,! pieces ( %ea?+ on   
ea* side ( ! c5t] pieces are fitt$ 9 !  
same mann]1 & by ! "t two or ?ree c\rses
 are 9 place !y mu/ be held 9 "s mann]  
at ! ends4 ,?is is accompli%$ by means (
 ! r\gh tempor>y ribs m5tion$ e>li]4 ,! 
%ea?+ is laid edge-to-edge1 ) ! butts   
ov]lapp+1 &1 if !re are n en\gh long    
pieces to complete ! bottom amid%ips1   
?ree or f\r l5g?s1 ) ov]lapp$ butts1 w  
be us$4 ,z ! %ea?+ progresses1 m        
tempor>y ribs w h to be add$4 ,at ! turn
 ( ! bilge1 ! %ea?+ w b5d transv]sely z 
pressure is appli$ by ! tempor>y ribs2 !
 b>k mu/ be aga9 wett$ s t ! angul>     
bilge c be =c$ into a r\ghly r\nd$ =m4  
,p>ticul> c>e is requir$ 9 f9i%+ ! %ea?+
 bel[ ! gunwale to be c]ta9 t ! top     
/rake w be close up aga9/ ! sew+ ( ! b>k
 at gunwales1 b no p>ticul> attempt is  
made to make ! edges ( ! %ea?+ 9 !      
topsides ma9ta9 edge-to-edge contact4   

,! pressure ( ! tempor>y ribs1 ! heads (
 :i* are =c$ "u ! gunwales1 & !         
ela/icity ( ! b>k due to treat+ x )     
boil+ wat] are en\gh to r\gh-%ape !     
canoe4  ,be=e ! p]man5t ribs are plac$ !
 %e] is *eck$4 ,if x appe>s to h        
/raight5$1 ! ends ( ! gunwales are      
support$ by means ( %ort po/s plac$ "u  
!m1 ) ! heels /&+ on ! heels ( ! /em    
pieces or on ! %ea?+4 ,!n "s /akes1 ea* 
hav+ a project+ limb or root1 are cut & 
are driv5 into ! gr\nd ) ! limb hook$   
ov] ! gunwale to =ce x d[n4  ,aft]      
measurem5ts h be5 made = ! fir/ rib ) a 
/r& ( root or an a% batt51 x is n[ cut  
to a l5g? slightly m ?an w\ld p]mit !   
rib to be =c$ upright :5 9 place4 ,!    
ends ( ! rib are set 9 place 9 ! bevel1 
or not*1 on ! und]side ( ! gunwales1    
aga9/ ! b>k cov]1 & ) ! bottom "p ( !   
rib /&+ inbo>d ( ! head4 ,!n1 ) "o end (
 a %ort batt5 plac$ aga9/ its inbo>d    
side1 ! rib is driv5 t[>d ! end ( !     
canoe ) bl[s f a club on ! head ( !     
batt54 ,if ! rib drives too easily x is 

remov$ & laid aside2 if too h>d1 x is   
%ort5$4 ,x mu/ g home tightly en\gh to  
/ret* slightly ! b>k cov] by br++       
pressure to be> on ! :ole wid? ( !      
%ea?+4 ,c>e is tak51 9 ?is op]ation1 to 
keep moi/ n only ! b>k b also ! sew+1   
p>ticul>ly along ! gunwales1 s t all    
possible ela/icity is obta9$4 ,! ribs   
are set1 "o by "o1 work+ to )9 two or   
?ree frames ( ! mid%ip ?w>t2 !n ! o!r   
end ( ! canoe is begun4 ,! la/ ?ree or  
f\r ribs to be plac$ are ?us amid%ips4  
,9 e rib driv51 ! t5sion is great1 b no 
rib is driv5 s t x /&s p]p5dicul> to !  
base4 ,^? fir/ driv5 /& ) _! bottoms    
ne>] ! mid%ip ?w>t ?an ! ends1 & ?is    
angle1 or slant1 cont9ues to amid%ips2 !
 ribs 9 ! o!r end ( ! canoe slant 9 !   
opposite direction4  ,x w be evid5t t   
skill is requir$ to e/imate h[ mu*      
pressure ! b>k w /& be=e bur/+ "u ! /ra9
 ( ! driv5 ribs4 ,x is also app>5t t !  
%ape ( ! canoe is controll$ by ! %ap+   
giv5 ! ribs 9 ! preb5d+1 = ?is fixes !  
am\nt ( tumble-home & ! am\nt ( r\nd1 or

 r\nd$-,v1 giv5 to ! bottom a?w>t%ips4  
,no fix$ rules appe> to exi/2 ! eye &   
judgm5t ( ! build] are 8 only guides4   
,to %[ h[ mu* /ra9 is plac$ on ! b>k1   
h[ev]1 x may be not$ t inspection ( two 
old canoes %[$ t ! gunwale pegs _h be5  
noticeably b5t betwe5 ! inn] & out]     
gunwales4  ,x appe>s to h be5 a r common
 practice1 aft] all ! ribs _h be5 driv5 
into place1 to all[ ! canoe to /& a few 
days & !n aga9 to set ! frames 7:]e     
unev5ness appe>s 9 ! topsides7 ) driv+  
batt5 & maul1 ! b>k cov] & ! root sew+  
or la%+s hav+ be5 aga9 ?or\ghly wett$4  
,! headbo>ds are n[ to be made4 ,^! are 
%ap$ 9 ! =m ( an elongate-oval f a wide 
spl9t ( :ite c$> ab\t #d in*es wide at  
midl5g? &  in* ?ick4 ,! n>r[ end is fir/
 cut (f squ>e or ne>ly s2 ! bottom end  
is not*$ to fit 9 ! not* 9 ! heel ( !   
/em-piece & ! top has a small t5on at ! 
c5t]l9e t w be fitt$ into a hole drill$ 
or g\g$ 9 ! und]side ( ! inn] gunwales  
:]e !y jo9 at ! ends4 ,! l5g? ( !       
headbo>ds 9 ! canoe be+ built is #ae    

in*es ov] all1 & :5 !y h be5 made = ea* 
end1 !y are *eck$ z to wid? & height to 
see t !y c be fitt$4 ,next1 ! extreme   
ends ( ! canoe betwe5 ! /em & !         
headbo>ds are /uff$ ) dry c$> %av+s or  
dry moss s t ! sides /& firm on ea* side
 ( ! b[ outbo>d ( ! ends ( ! %ea?+1 :i* 
ends r unev5ly1 j outbo>d ( :]e !       
headbo>ds w /&4 ,?is complet$1 !        
headbo>ds are =c$ into position by fir/ 
/epp+ ! heel not* 9 ! /em-piece not* &  
!n b5d+ ! bo>d by plac+ "o h& aga9/ its 
middle & pull+ ! top t[>d ! work]4 ,?is 
%ort5s ! height ( ! bo>d en\gh s ! t5on 
project+ on its head c be sprung into ! 
small hole "u ! inn] gunwales1 :]e x    
becomes rigidly fix$4 ,its sprung %ape  
pu%es up ! gunwales & makes ! side b>k (
 ! ends v taut & smoo?1 :ile support+ ! 
gunwale ends4  ,two ?9 /rips ab\t #ai   
feet long are next split out ( :ite c$> 
to =m ! gunwale caps2 ^! are  to  in*   
?ick1 & tap] ea* way f ab\t #b in*es    
wide 9 ! middle to #a in* wide at !     
ends4 ,^! are laid along ! top ( ! inn] 

gunwales & fa/5$ d[n ) pegs plac$ cle> (
 ! gunwale la%+s4 ,! ends ( ! /rips are 
usually secur$ by two or ?ree small     
la%+s2 ! caps ?us =m$ (t5 /op %ort ( !  
ends ( ! inn] gunwale memb]s4 ,if ! caps
 are c>ri$ "r out to ! /ems1 z 0 !      
practice ( "s ,malecite build]s1 ! la%+s
 ( ! outwale are n turn$ 9 until aft] ! 
caps are 9 place1 9 :i* case ! b>k deck 
pieces1 or flaps1 are put 9 j be=e !    
f9al la%+ is made4  ,illu/ration3       
,figure #de  ,,six? ,,/age ,,( ,,canoe  
,,con/ruction3 canoe has be5 right$ &   
plac$ on a grassy or s&y spot4 ,9 ?is   
/age spl9ts = %ea?+ 7upp] left7 are fix$
 9 place & held by tempor>y ribs 7l[]   
"r7 "u ! gunwales4 ,! b>k cov] has be5  
completely sewn & ! %ape ( ! canoe is   
set by ! tempor>y ribs4 7,sket* by      
,adney47  ,next1 ! canoe is turn$       
upside-d[n & all seams are gumm$ smoo?ly
 on ! outside4 ,! ends1 f ! beg9n+ ( !  
seam to above ! wat]l9e1 may be heavily 
gumm$ & !n cov]$ ) a n>r[ /rip ( ?9 b>k1
 heavily en\gh sme>$ ) gum to cause x to

 adh]e ov] ! seam4 ,9 m rec5t times a   
piece ( gumm$ clo? 0 us$ "h4 ,above ?is 
protective /rip1 ! end seams are fill$ )
 gum s t ! outside c be smoo!d (f flu%  
on ! face ( ! cutwat] betwe5 ! /it*es4  
,all seams 9 ! side & bottom are gumm$  
smoo? & any holes or pat*es rema9+ to be
 gumm$ are tak5 c>e ( 9 ?is f9al        
inspection4  ,if ! canoe is to be       
decorat$ 7n _m types 77 ! outside ( !   
b>k is moi/5$ & ! r\gh1 r$di% w9t] b>k1 
or inn] r9d1 is scrap$ away1 leav+ only 
en\gh to =m ! desir$ decorations4 ,:5   
pa9ts ( v>i\s colors c\ld be obta9$1 ^! 
7 also employ$1 b ! use ( ! inn] r9d 0  
app>5tly ! old] & m common me?od (      
decorat+4  ,! paddles are made f spl9ts 
( spruce or maple1 a%1 :ite c$>1 or l>*4
 ,two =ms ( blade 7 us$ by ! ,malecite4 
,! old] =m is long & n>r[1 ) ! blade    
wide ne> ! top & ! tap] /raight along   
ea* edge to a n>r[1 r\nd$ po9t4 ,above !
 greate/ wid?1 ! blade tap]s almo/      
/raight along ! edge1 com+ into an oval 
h&le v quickly4 ,at ! head1 ! h&le is   

wid5$ & x ends squ>$ (f1 b ! tap] t[>d !
 h&le is /raight1 n fl>$ z 9 mod]n canoe
 paddles2 !re is no swell+4 ,paddles ( a
 %ape simil> to ?is1 "s )\t a wide h&le1
 7 us$ by o!r ea/]n ,indians4 ,! m rec5t
 =m ( ,malecite paddle has a long       
leaf-%ap$1 or beav]-tail1 blade1 mu* l t
 ( ! mod]n canoe paddle1 except t x ends
 9 a dull po9t2 ! h&le is z 9 ! old =m b
 ! head is swell$ to =m ! upp] grip4 ,! 
face ( ! blade1 9 bo? old & new =m1 has 
a noticeable ridge d[n ! c5t]l9e4       
,illu/ration3 ,figure #df  ,,g5]al      
,,details ,,( ,,bir*-,,b>k ,,canoe      
,,con/ruction1 9 a draw+ by ,adney4 7,f 
,h>p]'s ,"y ,p1 supplem5t1 ,july #bi1   
#ahij47  ,! ea/]n /yle ( con/ruction    
describ$ "h produc$ :at might be call$ a
 wide-bottom canoe ) "s tumble-home     
above ! turn ( ! bilge1 b a diff]5t     
me?od ( con/ruction 0 us$ to produce    
canoes hav+ a n>r[ bottom & fl>+ sides4 
,^! canoes 7 n set up on ! build+ b$1 9 
! fir/ /eps ( %ap+ ! hull1 ) ! gunwale  
frame on ! cov] b>k4 ,in/ead1 a special 

build+ frame1 m5tion$ e>li]1 0 us$4 ,ea*
 tribe us+ ! build+ frame _h its own    
/yle1 b ! v>iations 7 conf9$ to m9or    
matt]s or to proportion ( wid? to l5g?4 
,9 g5]al1 ! build+ frame is made ( two  
squ>$ batt5s1 ab\t #a in* squ>e = an    
#ah-;foot canoe4 ,^!1 sometimes tap]$   
slightly t[>d ea* end1 are fitt$ )      
crosspieces ) halv$ not*es 9 ea* end to 
fit ov] ! top ( ! batt5s4 ,!re may be z 
_m z n9e or z few z ?ree ( ^!           
crosspieces1 ) sev5 app>5tly a common   
numb]4 ,:]e ends ( ! long batt5s jo9 !y 
are bevel$ slightly on ! inside face &  
not*es are cut on ! outside face to take
 ! end la%+s4 ,ea* crosspiece end is    
la%$ ar\nd ! long batt5s1 a hole be+    
made 9 ea* end ( ! crosspiece = ?is     
purpose4 ,! la%+s1 commonly b>k or      
ra:ide ?ongs1 are all tempor>y1 z !     
build+ frame has to be dismantl$ to     
remove x f ! canoe4 ,sometimes holes are
 drill$ 9 ! ends ( ! crosspieces1 or 9 !
 long batt5s1 & 9 !m are /epp$ ! po/s   
us$ to fix ! %e] ( ! gunwales4  ,!      

me?ods ( con/ruction1 us+ ! build+      
frame1 v>i$ some:at among ! tribes4     
,s9ce ! gunwale 0 bo? long] & wid]      
across ?an ! build+ frame1 ! po/s = %e]+
 7 set ) outbo>d fl>e4 ,h[ev]1 "s       
build]s made ! gunwales hogg$ by /ak+ !m
 out :5 gre51 & !n set !m above ! build+
 frame ) v]tical po/s4 ,^! gunwales w\ld
 n be fitt$ ) ?w>ts nor w\ld ! ?w>t     
t5ons always be cut at ?is /age4 ,! b>k 
0 la%$ to ! gunwales :ile !y 7 9 ! hogg$
 position ) ! ends secur$2 ! gunwales 7 
!n spread by ins]t+ spread]s1 or /ays1  
betwe5 !m1 aft] :i* ! ?w>ts 7 fitt$4    
,?is me?od requir$ k ( j h[ mu* hog %\ld
 be giv5 to ! gunwales1 & x mu/ be /at$ 
t n all build]s guess$ "r en\gh to      
produce a good-look+ %e]4 ,judg+ ! hogg+
 requir$ 9 ! gunwales 0 complicat$ by ! 
fact t mo/ ( ^! canoes _h lam9at$ ends 9
 ! gunwales at b[ & /]n1 & a quick      
upturn !re z well4 ,?is me?od (         
con/ruction p]si/$1 h[ev]1 because !    
/raight sides made easy ! sew+ ( gores &
 side panels4 ,9 "s ,alaskan bir*-b>k   

canoes ! build+ frame 01 9 fact1 "p ( ! 
hull /ructure & rema9$ 9 ! canoe4 ,9 ^!1
 ! build+ frame 0 hogg$ & !n flatt5$ by 
! ribs 9 con/ruction s z to smoo? !     
bottom b>k by plac+ x "u t5sion4 ,9 "s  
canoes ! po/s = %e]+ ! canoe re/$ "u !  
?w>ts r ?an "u ! gunwales4 ,9 mo/ canoes
 ! build+ frame 0 tak5 ap>t & remov$ f !
 canoe :5 ! gunwale /ructure 0 complete 
& 9 place1 %e]$4  ,:]e l>ge %eets ( b>k 
7 available1 ! sett+ up ) ! build+ frame
 or gunwale 0 made easi] ?an :]e ! b>k  
_h to be piec$ out = bo? l5g? & wid?4   
,if l>ge pieces ( b>k c\ld be obta9$ !re
 0 little or no sew+ on ! bottom2 only !
 gores or laps1 & ! panels1 9 ! side    
requir$ att5tion aft] ! b>k _h be5 la%$ 
to ! gunwales4 ,9 su* in/ances1 ! set-up
 did n require p]p5dicul> sides1 z !    
sides c\ld be complet$ aft] ! canoe 0   
remov$ f ! build+ b$ & ! build+ frame _h
 be5 remov$ f ! hull4 ,!re 7 _m m9or    
v>iations 9 ! set-up & 9 ! sequ5ce ( !  
sew+4 ,9 view ( ! slight opportunities t
 n[ exi/ = exam9+ ! old build+ me?ods & 

con/ruction sequ5ces1 x is impossible to
 be c]ta9 t ! "o us$ by a tribe 9 rec5t 
times 0 t employ$ 9 prehi/oric times by 
_! ance/ors4  ,in/ead ( a lam9at$       
/em-piece1 a l>ge root :ittl$ to !      
desir$ cross section 0 sometimes us$ by 
build]s among ! ,malecites & o!r ea/]n  
tribes4 ,?is 0 b5t into ! ends :ile gre5
 & to x 0 la%$ ! b>k1 s t ! /em dri$ 9  
place to ! desir$ pr(ile curve4 ,no inn]
 /em-piece 0 us$ by ! ,micmacs1 :o =m$ !
 end /ructure by plac+ a split-root     
batt5 on ea* outside face ( ! b>k &     
pass+ ! la%+ ar\nd bo?4 ,:5 a           
plank-on-edge 0 us$ to =m ! /em-piece1 z
 m5tion$ e>li]1 no headbo>d 0 requir$1 z
 ! gunwales ends c\ld be br\ght to !    
plank /ructure4 ,9 canoes hav+ !        
complicat$ /em /ructure se5 9 ! l>ge    
fur-trade canoes & "s o!rs1 ! headbo>d  
became an integral "p ( ! /em /ructure1 
r ?an an indep5d5t unit1 & 0 plac$ 9 !  
canoe dur+ build+ ) ! /em-pieces4  ,!re 
0 mu* v>iation 9 ! =m ( gunwale /ructure
 employ$ 9 b>k canoes4 ,a /rip ( b>k 0  

add$ all along ! outwale by "s tribes1 s
 t betwe5 ! gunwale memb]s & = a %ort   
di/ance bel[ ! sew+ ! b>k 0 d\bl$2 !    
bottom ( ?is /rip 01 9 fact1 a flap n   
secur$ & ?us 0 mu* l ! flaps at ! ends (
 ! ,malecite canoe1 b )\t cov]+ ! top ( 
! ma9 gunwales4 ,! outwale & inwale     
cross sections ( "s canoes 7 almo/ r\nd4
 ,! use ( a s+le gunwale memb] is       
commonly foll[$ by cont9u\s la%+ ( ! b>k
 along x4 ,on "s nor?we/]n canoes hav+  
cont9u\s la%+1 ! ends ( ! ribs 7 made 9 
%>p po9ts t c\ld p5etrate betwe5 ! turns
 ( root sew+1 "u ! gunwales4 ,! ends ( !
 ribs 9 "s ( ^! 7 secur$ m firmly by ty+
 !m to long batt5s plac$ betwe5 ! ribs &
 ! b>k cov] j bel[ ! gunwales4 ,!       
nor?we/]n canoes built 9 ?is mann] _h   
d\ble gunwales1 an outwale & an inwale1 
b no bevel or not* = ! rib heads4 ,!    
ends ( ! gunwales1 inn] & out]1 7 secur$
 9 _m ways4 ,"s1 in/ead ( be+ pegg$ &   
la%$1 7 simply ti$ toge!r2 o!rs 7 fa/5$ 
by a r elaborate la%+ ?r\gh ! b>k &     
ar\nd ! gunwales4 ,caps 7 sometimes     

all[$ to ov]lap at ! ends & 7 p9n$      
toge!r ) pegs or la%$4 ,9 "s canoes !   
outwales 7 la%$1 r ?an pegg$1 to !      
inwales1 & = ?is & = ! caps ra:ide      
appe>s to h once be5 widely us$4 ,9 "s  
canoes ! head ( ! /em-piece 0 b5t inbo>d
 %>ply & la%$ to ! ends ( ! inwales or  
outwales4 ,9 _m canoes ! gunwales1      
in/ead ( /opp+ %ort ( ! /em-piece1 ran  
to x & 7 la%$ !re4  ,illu/ration3       
,figure #dg  ,,gunwale ,,con/ruction &  
?w>t or crossb> fa/5+s1 z %[n 9 a sket* 
by ,adney4 7,f ,h>p]'s ,"y ,p1          
supplem5t1 ,july #bi1 #ahij47  ,at ! />t
 ( ribb+ out a canoe1 ! fir/ two or ?ree
 ribs might n be put at ea* end until   
aft] ! headbo>ds _h be5 fitt$1 &        
sometimes a rib 0 plac$ on ea* side ( ! 
middle ?w>t1 app>5tly to hold securely !
 %ea?+ butt$ amid%ips :ile ! ribb+      
progress$ t[>d !m f ! ends4 ,:5 a canoe 
0 %ort & r wide1 ! ribs usually 7 b5t by
 plac+ !m inside ! fair$ b>k cov] be=e !
 %ea?+ 0 in/all$1 !re to dry & set or to
 season1 dep5d+ on :e!r !y 7 /eam$ or   

gre54 ,preb5d+ ! ribs1 z describ$ 9 !   
build+ ( a ,malecite canoe1 work$ well  
only :5 ! canoe 0 long1 n>r[1 & %>p4 ,! 
spac+ ( ! ribs 0 done by eye1 n by      
precise measurem5t1 & 0 nev] exactly !  
same ov] ! l5g? ( ! canoe4 ,ribs ne> !  
ends 7 usually spac$ at great] int]vals 
?an ^? 9 ! middle ?ird ( ! l5g?4  ,!    
ext5sion ( ! b>k beyond ! ends ( ! inn] 
gunwale 9 an ea/]n canoe 0 (t5 ab\t "o  
foot on ea* end1 b ?is di/ance 0        
actually det]m9$ by ! l5g? ( ! b>k      
available & by ! usual reluctance ( !   
build] to add a panel at ! end4  ,= !   
height ( ! end po/s1 9 %e]+ ! gunwales1 
a common ,malecite measurem5t 0 ! l5g? (
 ! =e>m f knuckles ( cl5*$ fi/ to back (
 elb[4 ,^! po/s 7 (t5 left 9 place until
 ! /ems 7 fitt$4  ,! use ( a build+     
frame is kn[n to h be5 common 9 areas   
:]e1 normally1 ! gunwale frame w\ld be  
employ$ 9 ! initial /eps 9 build+4 ,9 a 
few in/ances ?is occurr$ :5 a build] _h 
a numb] ( canoes ( ! same size to       
con/ruct4 ,x seems probable t ! use ( ! 

build+ frame spread into ,ea/]n areas   
comp>atively rec5tly z a result ( !     
influ5ce ( ! fur-trade canoes on        
con/ruction me?ods4 ,! employm5t ( !    
plank build+ b$ 9 ! ,ea/ is kn[n to h   
occurr$ among individual canoe build]s  
late 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury z a result ( ?is
 influ5ce4  ,! use ( nails & tacks      
in/ead ( pegs & root la%+ or sew+ 9 b>k 
canoe con/ruction became q widespread   
e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury2 x is to be se5 
9 _m old canoes pres]v$ 9 museums4 ,!   
b>k 9 ^! is (t5 secur$ to ! gunwales )  
c>pet or flat-head$ tacks1 & bo? !      
outwale & ! cap are nail$ to ! inn]     
gunwales ) cut or wire nails4 ,v>i\s    
comb9ations ( la%+s & nail+ c be se5 9  
^! canoes1 al?\gh su* comb9ations are   
sometimes ! result ( comp>atively rec5t 
repairs or re/orations r ?an evid5ce ( !
 orig9al con/ruction4 ,no date c be     
plac$ on ! introduction ( nails into    
,indian canoe build+1 al?\gh x may be   
said t nail+ 0 us$ 9 _m ea/]n areas be=e
 #ahej4  ,among ! _m publi%$            

descriptions ( ! me?od ( build+ b>k     
canoes ! e>lie/ give v incomplete       
in=mation on ! build+ sequ5ce & usually 
conta9 obvi\s errors z to proportions & 
mat]ials4 7,an example is t ( ,nicolas  
,d5ys1 :o1 sometime betwe5 #afcb &      
#afej1 saw b>k canoes be+ built 9 :at is
 n[ ,new ,brunswick & ,cape ,breton47 ,!
 be/ descriptions are relatively rec5t  
&1 z a result1 may describe me?ods (    
con/ruction t are n aborig9al4  ,!      
description giv5 "h is bas$ ^u notes    
made by ,adney 9 #ahhi-ij & ^u          
inspection ( old canoes f ! v>i\s tribal
 areas4 ,x 0 not$ t1 al?\gh among canoes
 ( ! same approximate l5g? !re 0 "s     
v>iation 9 dim5sions & "s v>iety 9 end  
=m1 ! con/ruction appe>$ to v>y         
rem>kably little1 & x is app>5t t !     
,malecites held v closely to a fix$     
sequ5ce 9 ! build+ process4 ,!re 01     
h[ev]1 great v>iation 9 detail4 ,! numb]
 ( gore sla%es 9 canoes #ah to #ai feet 
long v>i$ f #aj to #bc on a side4 ,!    
numb] 0 n always ! same on bo? sides ( a

 canoe nor 7 ! gores always opposite "o 
ano!r4 ,canoes ) long1 %>p ends (t5 _h a
 l>ge numb] ( closely spac$ gores 9 !   
middle ?ird ( ! l5g?1 ) widely spac$    
gores t[>d ! ends4 ,full-end$ canoes1 on
 ! o!r h&1 _h r equally spac$ gores _!  
full l5g?4 ,! am\nt & =m ( rock] 0 also 
a factor 9 spac+ ! gores1 & :5 ! rock] 0
 conf9$ to %ort di/ances close to ! ends
 !re w\ld naturally be r closely spac$  
gores 9 ^! portions ( ! sides4  ,a numb]
 ( ! build+ practices rema9 to be       
describ$1 b ^! w be be/ und]/ood :5 !   
individual tribal canoe =ms are exam9$4 
,no writt5 description ( build+ canoes c
 be und]/ood )\t ref]5ce to draw+s1 & to
 promote ?is und]/&+ con/ruction details
 h be5 %[n on _m ( ^? ( individual      
canoes ( ea* tribal type4  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #dh  ,,pet] ,,joe ,,at ,,"w4   
,draw+ by ,adney = 8 article ,h[ an     
,indian ,bir*-,b>k ,canoe is ,made      
7,h>p]'s ,"y ,p1 supplem5t1 ,july #bi1  
#ahij74     ,*apt] ,f\r  ,,ea/]n        
,,m>itime ,,region   ,/udy ( ! tribal   

=ms ( b>k canoes might well be />t$ ) ! 
canoes ( ! ea/]n coa/al ,indians1 ^:    
craft 7 ! fir/ se5 by :ite m54 ,^! 7 !  
canoes ( ! ,indians inhabit+ :at are n[ 
! ,m>itime ,prov9ces & "p ( ,quebec1 on 
! %ores ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv] & 9      
,newf\ndl&1 9 ,canada1 & ( ! ,indians ( 
,ma9e & ,new ,hamp%ire1 9 ,new ,engl&4  
,)9 ?is area 7 ! ,micmac1 ! ,malecite1 &
 ! mixture ( tribal gr\ps kn[n z !      
,abnaki 9 mod]n times1 z well z !       
,beo?uk ( ,newf\ndl&4 ,all ^! gr\ps 7   
exp]t canoe build]s & x 0 _! "w t fir/  
impress$ ! :ite m5 ) ! virtues ( !      
bir*-b>k canoe 9 =e/ travel4   ,micmac  
,! ,micmac ,indians appe> to h occupi$ !
 ,gasp ,p59sula1 mo/ ( ! nor? %ore (    
,new ,brunswick & ne>ly all ! %ores ( ! 
,bay ( ,fundy z well z all ( ,nova      
,scotia1 ,pr9ce ,edw>d ,isl&1 & ,cape   
,breton4 ,!y may h also occupi$ mu* (   
s\!rn & c5tral ,new ,brunswick z well1 b
 if s !y _h be5 driv5 f ^! sections by !
 ,malecites be=e ! :ite m5 came4 ,!     
,micmacs 7 kn[n to ! e>ly ,fr5* invad]s 

"u a v>iety ( names2 ,gaspesians1       
,canadi5s1 ,s\rikois1 or ,s\riquois1    
:ile ! ,engli% coloni/s ( ,new ,engl&   
call$ !m m]ely ,ea/]n ,indians4 ,! "n   
,micmac is said to mean allies & n kn[n1
 b ?is "n 0 9 use e>ly 9 ! #ah? c5tury1 
if n be=e #agjj4  ,! ,micmac 7 a hunt+ p
 ) w>like *>act]i/ics2 !y aid$ !        
,malecite & o!r ,new ,engl& ,indians 9  
w>f>e aga9/ ! e>ly ,new ,engl& coloni/s 
& 9 lat] times aid$ ! ,fr5* aga9/ !     
,engli% 9 ,nova ,scotia & ,new          
,brunswick4 ,^! ,indians liv$ 9 an area 
:]e wat] transport repres5t$ ! easie/   
me?od ( travel & s !y became exp]t      
build]s & us]s ( bir*-b>k canoes1 :i* !y
 employ$ 9 hunt+1 fi%+1 g5]al travel1 & 
w>f>e4  ,! area 9 :i* !y liv$ produc$   
f9e bir* b>k & suitable wood = !        
framework4 ,?r\gh exp]i5ce1 !y _h become
 able to design canoes = specific       
purposes & _h produc$ a v>iety ( models 
& sizes4 ,! hunt+ canoe 0 ! smalle/1 be+
 usually some:]e betwe5 #i & #ad feet   
long1 ) an occasional canoe z long z #ae

 feet4 ,?is light craft1 kn[n z a woods 
canoe & sometimes z a portage canoe1 0  
int5d$ = navigat+ v small /reams & =    
portag+4 ,ano!r model1 ! big-riv] canoe1
 some:at long] ?an ! woods canoe1 0     
usually betwe5 #ae & #bj feet long4 ,a  
?ird model1 ! op5 wat] canoe1 0 = hunt+ 
seal & porpoise 9 salt wat] & rang$ f   
ab\t #ah feet to a little ov] #bd feet 9
 l5g?4 ,! f\r? model1 ! w> canoe1 ab\t  
:i* little is kn[n1 appe>s to h be5     
built 9 ei!r ! big-riv] or op5-wat] =m1 
& to ! same l5g?1 b %>p] & ) less beam s
 z to be fa/]4  ,! tribal *>act]i/ics ( 
! ,micmac bir*-b>k canoes 7 to be se5 9 
! =m ( ! midsection1 9 c]ta9 /ructural  
details1 & 9 _! g5]ally %>p1 torp$o-%ap$
 l9es4 ,! con/ruction 0 v light & m>k$  
by good workman%ip4 ,! di/9ctive pr(iles
 ( b[ & /]n1 :i* d n appe> 9 ! canoes ( 
o!r tribes 9 s radical a =m1 7 almo/    
circul>1 fair+ f ! bottom ar\nd into !  
%e] 9 a s]ies ( curves4 ,! break 9 !    
pr(ile ( ! ends at ! %e]1 a break t m>ks
 9 m or less degree1 ! end pr(ile ( o!r 

tribal =ms1 nev] occurs 9 ! ,micmac     
canoe4 ,at mo/1 a slight break 9 !      
/reaml9$ curve might occur at ! po9t :]e
 ! pr(ile 0 />t$ 9 ! bottom1 at :i* po9t
 !re might be a %ort1 h>d curve4        
,illu/ration3 ,figure #di  ,,micmac     
#b-;,,fa?om ,,pack1 ,,or ,,woods1       
,,canoe = woods travel ) light loads1   
us$ by ! ,nova ,scotia ,micmacs4  ,! =m 
( ! %e] l9e ( ! ,micmac canoes app>5tly 
v>i$ ) ! model3 ! woods canoe _h ! usual
 curv$ %e] ) ! po9t ( l[e/ freebo>d ab\t
 amid%ips1 ! big riv] canoe _h ei!r a   
ne>ly /raight %e] or "o v slightly      
hogg$1 :ile ! op5-wat] canoe _h a       
/rongly hogg$ %e] 9 :i* ! mid%ip portion
 0 (t5 z mu* z #c or #d in*es above t j 
inbo>d ( ! ends4 ,h[ev]1 !re is a       
possibility t1 at "o "t1 ! %e] ( all    
,micmac canoes 0 m or less hogg$4 ,!    
little t is kn[n ( ! w> canoes (        
colonial times indicate t !y _h !       
/rongly hogg$ %e] t n[ m>ks ! op5-wat]  
model1 ?r\gh x is also kn[n t "s ( ^! 7 
really ( ! big-riv] model1 :i* 9 lat]   

times _h usually no m ?an a ve/ige ( !  
hogg$ %e]4  ,! hull-=ms ( ! ,micmac     
canoes 7 m>k$ 9 ! topsides by a /rong   
tumble-home1 c>ri$ ! full l5g? ( ! hull1
 t gave ^! canoes m beam bel[ ?an at !  
gunwale4 ,! =m ( ! midsection v>i$ ) !  
model2 ! woods canoe usually _h a r flat
 bottom a?w>t%ips1 ! big riv] canoe a   
slightly r\nd$ bottom1 & ! op5 wat]     
canoe ei!r a well-r\nd$ bottom or "o 9 !
 =m ( a slightly r\nd$ ,v4 ,! =e-&-aft  
rock] 9 ! bottom 0 always mod]ate1      
usually occurr+ 9 ! la/ few feet ne> !  
ends2 h[ev]1 _m ( ! canoes 7 /raight    
along ! bottom4 ,?is condition w be aga9
 ref]r$ to 9 discuss+ ! build+ b$s us$ 9
 ?is type4 ,! ends 7 usually f9e-l9$2 9 
plan view ! gunwales came into ! ends 9 
/raight or slightly holl[ l9es4 ,! level
 l9es bel[ ! gunwales might also be     
/raight z !y came into ! ends1 b 7      
commonly some:at holl[2 a few examples  
%[ m>k$ holl[ness !re4 ,pr$om9antly1 !  
,micmac canoes 7 v %>p 9 ! ends & paddl$
 swiftly4 ,e>ly ,micmac canoes seem to h

 be5 n>r[] ?an m rec5t examples1 :i* are
 usually r broad z comp>$ to ! types us$
 by "s o!r tribes4  ,/ructurally1 !     
,micmac canoes 7 di/+ui%$ by !          
con/ruction ( ! ends & by _! light build
 ?r\gh\t4 ,! canoes _h no inn] framework
 to %ape ! ends2 /iffness !re 0 obta9$  
by plac+ batt5s outside ! b>k1 "o on ea*
 side ( ! hull1 t ran f ! bottom ( ! cut
 9 ! b>k requir$ to %ape ! ends to      
some:at inbo>d ( ! ends ( ! gunwales at 
! %e]4 ,^! two batt5s1 z well z a       
split-root /em-b& cov]+ ! raw ends ( !  
cut b>k1 7 held 9 place by pass+ a      
spiral ov]-&-ov] la%+ ar\nd all ?ree4   
,sometimes ?ick] batt5s rea*+ f ! high  
po9t ( ! ends inbo>d to ! end ?w>ts 7   
add$1 9 :i* case ! side batt5s 7 /opp$  
at ! high po9t ( ! ends & !re fair$ into
 ! ?ick batt5s4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure  
#ej  ,,micmac #b-;,,fa?om ,,pack1 ,,or  
,,woods1 ,,canoe ) ,nor!rn ,lights      
decoration on b[1 & sev5 ?w>ts4  ,!     
gunwale /ructure 0 r light1 ! maximum   
cross section ( ! ma9 gunwale 9 l>ge    

canoes be+ r>ely 9 excess ( #a in*es    
squ>e4 ,^! memb]s usually tap]$ slightly
 t[>d ! ends ( ! canoe & _h a           
half-arr[head =m :]e !y 7 jo9$4 ,old    
canoes _h no gu>d or outwale1 b "s m    
rec5t ,micmac canoes h _h a %ort gu>d   
along ! middle ?ird ( ! l5g?4 ,(t5 !re 0
 no bevel to take ! rib ends on ! l[]   
outbo>d corn] ( ! ma9 gunwales1 & !     
gunwales 7 n fitt$ s t _! outbo>d faces 
/ood v]tically4 ,in/ead1 ! t5ons 9 !    
gunwales 7 cut to slant upw>d f !       
inside1 s t in/allation ( ! ?w>ts w\ld  
cause ! outbo>d face to fl>e outw>d at !
 top4 ,betwe5 ?is face & ! inside ( !   
b>k cov] 7 =c$ ! bevel$ ends ( ! ribs1  
:i* 7 cut *isel-%ape4 ,h[ev]1 "s build]s
 bevel$ or r\nd$ ! l[] outbo>d corn] ( !
 ma9 gunwale1 z describ$ "u ,malecite   
canoe build+ 7p4 #ch74 ,! b>k cov] 9 !  
,micmac canoe 0 always br\ght up ov] !  
gunwales1 gor$ to prev5t unev5ness1 &   
fold$ d[n on top ( !m be=e be+ la%$4 ,! 
gunwale la%+ 0 a cont9u\s "o 9 :i* !    
turns practically t\*$ "o ano!r outbo>d1

 ?\gh !y 7 sometimes sep>at$ "u !       
gunwale to cle> ! ribs1 :i* wid5$ ne> _!
 ends1 s ! int]vals betwe5 !m 7 v small4
  ,! o!r memb] ( ! gunwale /ructure 0 ! 
cap2 its ?ickness 0 usually  to  in*1   
r$uc$ slightly t[>d ! ends4 ,its inbo>d 
face & ! bottom 7 flat1 b ! top 0       
some:at r\nd$1 ) ! ?ickness r$uc$ t[>d !
 outbo>d edge4 ,! cap 0 fa/5$ to ! ma9  
gunwales ) pegs & ) %ort la%+ gr\ps ne> 
! ends1 b 9 late examples nails 7 us$4  
,! ends ( ! caps 7 bevell$ (f on !      
inbo>d side1 s t !y came toge!r 9 po9t$ 
=m4 ,! cap usually end$ ne> ! end ( !   
gunwale b 9 "s canoes1 p>ticul>ly ^? t 7
 nail-fa/5$1 ! cap 0 let into ! gunwale 
7see p4 #ej7 s t ! top 0 flu% ) end ( ! 
gunwale4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ea     
,,micmac #b-;,,fa?om ,,pack1 ,,or       
,,woods1 ,,canoe ) normal %e] & flat    
bottom4  ,! ends ( ! gunwales 7 support$
 by headbo>ds t 7 belli$ outbo>d to br+ 
t5sion v]tically on ! b>k cov]4 ,! heel 
( ! bo>d /ood on a %ort frog1 laid on ! 
bottom ) ! inbo>d end t\*+ or slightly  

lapp+ ov] ! endmo/ rib4 ,! frog support$
 ! heels ( ! headbo>d & also ! =efoot ( 
! /em-piece1 :i* o!rwise w\ld h b p>tial
 support f ! sew+ batt5s outside ! ends 
at ^! po9ts4 ,! headbo>d 0 r oval-%ap$ &
 ! top 0 not*$ on ea* side to fit "u !  
gunwale2 ! n>r[ c5tral t5on /ood        
slightly above ! top ( ! ma9 gunwales :5
 ! headbo>d 0 sprung into place & 0 held
 9 position by a la%+ across ! gunwales 
inbo>d ( ! top ( ! headbo>d4 ,! heel 0  
held by ! not* 9 ! frog4 ,c$> %av+s 7   
/uff$ into ! ends ( ! canoe betwe5 !    
/em-piece & ! headbo>d to mold ! ends   
prop]ly1 z no ribs c\ld be ins]t$ !re4  
,all woodwork 9 ^! canoes 0 :ite c$>1   
except ! headbo>ds & ?w>ts1 :i* 7 maple1
 & ! /em batt5s1 :i* 7 usually basket a%
 b sometimes 7 split spruce roots4  ,! m
 rec5t ,micmac canoes usually _h no m   
?an five ?w>ts2 ?is numb] 0 f\nd ev5 on 
small woods canoes4 ,h[ev]1 old records 
indicate t canoes #bj to #bh feet long  
on ! gunwales 7 once built ) sev5 ?w>ts4
 ,! %ape ( ! ?w>ts v>i$1 app>5tly 9     

accordance ) ! build]'s fancy4 ,! mo/   
common =m 0 ne>ly rectangul> 9          
cross-section2 9 elevation1 x 0 ?ick at 
! hull c5t]l9e & tap]$ smoo?ly to !     
outbo>d ends2 & 9 plan x 0 n>r[e/ at !  
hull c5t]l9e & increas$ 9 wid? t[>d !   
ends1 ! increase be+ r %>p at ! %\ld]s (
 ! t5on4 ,9 "s1 ! t5on w5t ?r\gh ! ma9  
gunwales & t\*$ ! inside ( ! b>k cov]2 9
 o!rs ! ends ( ! ?w>ts 7 po9t$ 9        
elevation1 squ>e 9 plan1 & 7 ins]t$ 9   
%all[1 bl9d t5ons on ! inbo>d side ( !  
ma9 gunwales4 ,a s+le #c-turn la%+ ?r\gh
 a hole 9 ! %\ld] & ar\nd ! ma9 gunwale 
0 us$ 9 e case4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure  
#ea  ,,micmac #b-;,,fa?om ,,pack1 ,,or  
,,woods1 ,,canoe ) normal %e] & flat    
bottom4  ,sometimes ! ?w>ts j describ$ 7
 /raight 79 plan view7 on ! side t[>d ! 
middle ( ! canoe1 & only ! middle ?w>t 0
 alike on bo? sides4 ,9 o!rs ! /raight  
side ( ! end ?w>t & ( t next inbo>d 7   
t[>d ! b[ & /]n ( ! canoe4 ,9 /ill o!rs1
 ! middle ?w>t _h a r\nd$ b>b =m 9 plan1
 ) ! b>b locat$ )9 #f or #g in*es ( !   

%\ld] & po9t$ t[>d ! t5on2 ! next ?w>ts 
out on ea* side ( ! middle ?w>t 7 %ap$ l
 a cupid's b[ b slightly angul> & aim$  
t[>d ! ends ( ! canoe1 & ! end ?w>ts 7 (
 simil> plan4 ,9 "o kn[n example hav+   
su* ?w>ts1 !re 7 two v %ort ?w>ts at !  
ends ( ! canoe1 ( ! usual pla9 =m       
describ$ e>li]1 ea* a few in*es inbo>d (
 ! headbo>d4 ,?us ?is canoe _h sev5     
?w>ts 9 ! old fa%ion4  ,! ribs1 or      
frames1 7 ?91 ab\t  or  in* ?ick1 &     
across ! bottom ( ! canoe !y 7 (t5 #c   
in*es wide4 ,9 ! topsides ! ribs 7 tap]$
 to ab\t #b in*es 9 wid?2 :5 ! bottom & 
outbo>d corn] ( ! ma9 gunwales 7 n      
bevel$1 ! rib ends 7 cut squ>e across on
 ! wide face & *isel-%ap$4 ,:5 ! gunwale
 corn] 0 bevel$1 ! ribs 7 =m$ ) a %>ply 
tap]$ dull po9t at ! ends4 ,f ! middle (
 ! canoe to ! fir/ ?w>ts ea* way f !    
middle1 ! ribs 7 spac$ #a in*           
edge-to-edge4 ,f ! fir/ ?w>ts to ! ends1
 ! spac+ 0 ab\t #a in*es4 ,mo/ build]s  
made ! ribs n>r[] t[>d ! ends2 if ^? 9 !
 middle ( ! canoe 7 #c in*es wide1 ^?   

ne> ! ends might be #b4 ,!y 7 %ap$ &    
plac$ z describ$ = ! ,malecite canoe 9  
,*apt] #c4  ,9 ! con/ruction ( a ,micmac
 canoe1 ! gunwales 7 fir/ =m$1 assembl$1
 & us$ z a build+ frame4 ,if ! %e] 0 to 
be hogg$1 ?is 0 done by treat+ ! ma9    
gunwales ) boil+ wat] be=e assembly & !n
 /ak+ !m out to dry 9 ! requir$ %e]     
curves4 ,! build+ b$ 0 well cr[n$1      
usually #b to #b in*es because ( ! v    
wide bottom & ! tumble-home ( ^! canoes4
 ,mo/ ,micmac canoes appe> to h _h only 
slight =e-&-aft rock] 9 ! bottom2 !     
bottoms ( ! seago+ type 7 (t5 q /raight1
 & ! o!r two types _h a slight rock] (  
p]haps #a in*es1 mo/ ( x ne> ! ends4 ,:5
 ! %e] 0 hogg$1 ! am\nt ( hog 0 probably
 close to ! am\nt ( cr[n 9 ! build+ b$4 
,! ends ( ! gunwales1 :5 laid on ! b$1 7
 block$ up to ab\t ! desir$ am\nt (     
rock] to be giv5 ! bottom4              
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ec  ,,micmac     
#c-;,,fa?om ,,ocean ,,canoe ,,fitt$ ,,= 
,,sail+4 ,%ort outwales or batt5s       
project gunwales to /r5g!n ! ends ( !   

canoe4 ,"s specim5s ( ?is type ( canoe  
_h almo/ no rock] 9 ! bottom4  ,! b>k   
cov] 0 select$ ) great c>e f ! f9e /& ( 
pap] bir* available to ! ,micmac4       
,except 9 em]g5cies1 only w9t] b>k 0    
us$4 ,! cov] 0 gor$ six to eight times  
on ea* side1 & mo/ ( ^! cuts 7 gr\p$    
amid%ips1 ow+ to ! %>pness ( ! ends4 ,! 
gores 7 trimm$ edge-to-edge1 )\t ov]lap1
 z ! ,micmac pref]r$ a smoo? surfac$    
canoe1 & ! sew+ 0 ! common spiral1 ov] &
 ov]4 ,! wid? ( ! b>k cov] 0 usually    
piec$ out amid%ips on ea* side 7at lea/ 
9 exi/+ models7 by ! addition ( n>r[    
panels4 ,^! may n h be5 necess>y 9 ! v  
old canoes1 :i* appe> to h be5 mu* n>r[]
 ?an m rec5t examples4 ,! horizontal    
seams ( ! panels 7 /raight1 or ne>ly s1 
& did n foll[ ! %e]4 ,! closely spac$   
spiral ov]-&-ov] /it* 0 sewn ov] a      
batt51 ! lap be+ t[>d ! gunwale4 ,z has 
be5 said1 a cont9u\s ov]-&-ov] gunwale  
la%+ 0 us$4 ,! ?w>t la%+s 7 ?r\gh s+le  
holes 9 ! ?w>t %\ld]s1 ?ree turns be+   
usual1 & two turns ar\nd ! gunwale on   

ea* side 7 add$1 all pass+ ?r\gh ! b>k  
cov]1 ( c\rse4 ,! sew+ 0 neat & ! /it*es
 7 ev54  ,! wood l9+1 or %ea?+1 ( !     
,micmac canoe 0 l t describ$ = !        
,malecite canoe 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,! %ea?+ 
0 a full  to ab\t  in* ?ick4 ,! /rakes 7
 laid edge-to-edge longitud9ally1 )     
slightly ov]lapp+ butts amid%ips1 & 7   
tap]$ t[>d ! ends ( ! canoe4 ,! maximum 
wid? ( any /rake at ! butts 0 ab\t #d   
in*es4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ed       
,,micmac ,,r\gh-,,wat] ,,canoe1 ,ba?ur/1
 ,n4,b4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey  
photo47  ,9 "s ( ! r\gh-wat] canoes     
fitt$ to sail1 a gu>d /rip runn+ ! full 
l5g? ( ! canoe & locat$ "s #f or #g     
in*es bel[ ! gunwale 0 plac$ along bo?  
sides to protect ! /rongly tumble-home  
sides f abrasion f ! paddles1 p>ticul>ly
 :5 ! craft 0 /e]$ "u sail4 ,^! /rips1  
ab\t  in* ?ick &  in* wide1 7 butt$ on  
ea* side1 a little abaft amid%ips1 & 7  
held toge!r by a s+le /it*4 ,! gu>ds 7  
secur$ 9 place by r widely spac$ /it*es 
ar\nd !m t pass$ ?r\gh ! b>k cov] &     

ceil+1 betwe5 ! ribs 9 ! topsides4 ,at  
b[ & /]n1 ! ends ( ! gu>ds butt$ aga9/ !
 batt5s outside ! b>k at ! end pr(iles &
 7 secur$ !re by a ?r\gh-all la%+4      
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ee  ,,micmac     
,,woods ,,canoe1 built by ,malecite ,jim
 ,paul at ,/4 ,m>y's ,res]ve 9 #aiaa1 "u
 ! direction ( ,joe ,pict\1 old canoe   
build] ( ,be> ,riv]1 ,n4,s4 ,mod]n nail$
 type4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey   
photo47  ,! proportions & measurem5ts ( 
! ,micmac canoes appe> to h *ang$ betwe5
 ! colonial p]iod & ! late #ai? c5tury4 
,f e>ly ref]5ces1 x is app>5t t ! e>ly  
canoes 7 mu* n>r[] ?an lat] ones1 9     
proportion to l5g?1 z m5tion$ e>li]4 ,an
 #ah-;foot r\gh-wat] canoe ( ! #ah?     
c5tury appe>s to h _h an extreme beam ( 
betwe5 #cj & #cd in*es & a gunwale beam1
 measur$ inside ! memb]s1 ( #bd to #bh  
in*es1 ! dep? amid%ips be+ ab\t #ah to  
#bj in*es4 ,a simil> canoe late 9 ! #ai?
 c5tury w\ld h _h an extreme beam (     
ne>ly #dj in*es1 a beam inside !        
gunwales ( #cc or #cd in*es1 & a dep? ( 

ab\t #ah in*es or less4 ,an e>ly woods  
canoe1 ab\t #ad feet long ov]all1 appe>s
 to h _h an extreme beam ( only #bi     
in*es & a beam inside ! gunwales ( ab\t 
#be or #bf in*es4 ,a woods canoe ( #ahij
 0 #ae feet long1 #cf in*es extreme     
beam1 & #cj in*es inside ! gunwales1 ) !
 dep? amid%ips ab\t #aa in*es4 ,a       
big-riv] canoe ( ?is same date 0 a      
little ov] #bj feet 9 extreme l5g?1 #ah 
feet ov] ! gunwales1 #da in*es extreme  
beam1 & #cd in*es gunwale wid? inside1 )
 a dep? amid%ips ( ab\t #ab in*es4 ,an  
#ah-;foot big-riv] canoe ( an e>li] "t 0
 report$ z be+ #cg in*es extreme beam1  
#cj in*es inside ! gunwales1 & #ac in*es
 dep? amid%ips4 ,! maximum size ( !     
r\gh-wat] seago+ canoe1 9 e>ly times1   
may h be5 z great z #bh feet b ) a n>r[ 
beam ( r\ghly #bi or #cj in*es ov] !    
gunwales1 & say #bd in*es inside1 ) a   
dep? amid%ips z mu* z #bj or #bb in*es  
due to ! /rongly hogg$ %e] !re4 ,9 mod]n
 times1 su* canoes 7 r>ely ov] #ba feet 
9 ov]all l5g? & _h a maximum beam ( ab\t

 #db in*es1 a beam inside ! gunwales (  
#cf or #cg in*es1 & a dep? amid%ips (   
#af or #ag in*es4  ,9 e>ly colonial     
times1 & well into ! #ah? c5tury1       
app>5tly1 ! ,micmac type ( canoe 0 us$ z
 f> s\? z ,new ,engl&1 probably hav+ be5
 br\ght !re by ! ,micmac w> p>ties aid+ 
! ,malecite & ! ,k5nebec 9 _! w>s aga9/ 
! ,engli%4 ,! canoe 9 ! illu/ration on  
page #ab is obvi\sly a ,micmac canoe &  
app>5tly "o us$ by a w> p>ty4 ,z x 0    
br\ght to ,engl& 9 #agdi 9 ! %ip        
,am]ica1 :i* 0 built 9 ,portsm\?1 ,new  
,hamp%ire1 & probably sail$ f !re1 x    
seems highly probable t ! canoe _h be5  
obta9$ ne>by1 p]haps 9 ea/]n ,ma9e4  ,! 
small woods canoe1 mo/ commonly ab\t #ab
 feet long1 appe>s fir/ to h be5 us$ by 
all ! ,micmac4 ,by ! middle ( ! #ai?    
c5tury1 h[ev]1 ?is type 0 to be f\nd    
only 9 ,nova ,scotia1 ow+ to ! movem5t (
 mo/ ( ! tribe t[>d ! nor? %ore 9 ,new  
,brunswick1 :]e _! inl& navigation 0    
conf9$ to l>ge riv]s & ! coa/4 ,h5ce !  
,micmac 9 ,new ,brunswick us$ ! big-riv]

 model & ! seago+ type4 ,! latt] 0 la/  
us$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! head ( ,bay ,*aleur 
& 0 (t5 call$ ! ,re/ig\*e canoe1 aft] ! 
,micmac village ( t "n4 ,x 0 replac$ by 
a #c-;bo>d skiff-canoe & f9ally by a    
l>ge wood5 canoe ( ! ,pet]bor\gh type ) 
peak$ ends & lap/rake plank+2 "s ( !    
latt] may /ill be se5 on ! ,gasp        
,p59sula4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ef    
,,micmac ,,r\gh-,,wat] ,,canoe fitt$ =  
sail+4 7,photo ,w4 ,h4 ,me*l+1 #aiac47  
,! use ( sail 9 ! ,micmac canoes _c be  
trac$ prior to ! arrival ( ! :ite m54 ,!
 use probably result$ f ! influ5ce (    
,europeans1 b x is possible t !         
prehi/oric ,indians may h set up a leafy
 bu% 9 ! b[ ( _! canoes to act z a sail 
) favorable w9ds4 ,! old ,nova ,scotia  
expression c>ry+ too mu* bu%1 mean+     
ov]-canvass+ a boat1 is ?\ght by "s to h
 orig9at$ f an ,indian practice obs]v$  
!re by ! fir/ settl]s4 ,9 e>ly colonial 
times1 ! ,micmac us$ a simple squ>e sail
 9 _! canoes & ?is1 by ! la/ decade ( ! 
#ai? c5tury1 0 replac$ by a spritsail   

probably inspir$ by ! dory-sail ( !     
fi%]m54 ,! ,indian rig 0 unusual 9      
sev]al respects4 ,! %eet1 = example1 0  
d\ble-end$2 "o end 0 made fa/ to ! clew 
( ! sail & ! o!r to ! head ( ! sprit1 s 
t x s]v$ also z a vang4 ,! bight 0      
secur$ )9 rea* ( ! /e]sman by a half    
hit* to a crossb> fix$ well aft across !
 gunwales4 ,! sail1 ne>ly rectangul> & )
 little or no peak1 0 lac$ to ! ma/1 & !
 sprit 0 support$ by a snott] lany>d ti$
 l[ on ! ma/4 ,a sprit boom 0 also c>ri$
 by "s canoes2 ?is 0 secur$ to ! clew ( 
! sail & to ! ma/1 a snott] lany>d be+  
us$ at ! latt] position4  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #eg  ,,micmac ,,r\gh-,,wat]     
,,canoe1 ,,bay ,,*aleur4 7,photo ,h4 ,v4
 ,h5d]son1 ,we/ ,ba?ur/1 ,n4,b47        
,illu/ration3 ,figure #eh  ,,micmac     
,,r\gh-,,wat] ,,sail+ ,,canoe1 ,,bay    
,,*aleur4 7,canadian ,geological ,survey
 photo47  ,! ma/ 0 secur$ by a ?w>t     
pegg$1 or nail$1 across ! gunwale caps4 
,sometimes1 ! ?w>t 0 also not*$ ov] !   
caps1 s t ! side-?ru/ caus$ by ! lev]age

 ( ! ma/ w\ld n %e> ! fa/5+s4 ,! crossb>
 = ! %eet 0 sometimes simil>ly fa/5$ &  
fitt$1 ) its ends project+ outbo>d ( !  
gunwales4 ,! heel ( ! ma/ 0 sometimes   
/epp$ into a block1 :i* 0 usually ab\t  
#e in*es squ>e & #a in*es ?ick1 nail$ or
 pegg$ to ! c5t] bottom bo>d1 or        
sometimes x 0 m]ely /epp$ into a hole 9 
! c5t] bottom bo>d4 ,! bottom bo>ds1    
usually ?ree 9 numb] 7 ( wide1 ?9 /ock &
 7 clamp$ 9 place ov] ! ribs by ?ree or 
f\r false frames driv5 "u ! ?w>ts1 j z 7
 ! canoe ribs "u ! gunwales4            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ei  ,,details ,,(
 ,,micmac ,,canoes1 ,,includ+ ,,ma/ ,,& 
,,sail4  ,! canoes c\ld n sail          
close-haul$1 z a rule1 ?\gh "s ,indians 
le>n$ to use a leebo>d 9 ! =m ( a %ort  
plank hung v]tically ov] ! lee side &   
secur$ by a lany>d to a ?w>t1 ! bo>d be+
 %ift$ 9 tack+4 ,an alt]nate 0 to h a   
pass5g] hold a paddle v]tically on ! lee
 side4 ,!re seems to h be5 no fix$      
proportions to ! area ( sail us$2 !     
actual areas appe> to h be5 some:]e     

betwe5 #ej & #ajj squ>e feet1 dep5d+ ^u 
! size ( ! canoe4 ,joseph ,dadaham1 a   
,micmac1 /at$ 9 #aibe t he us$ #bd y>ds 
9 ! sail ( a r\gh-wat] canoe #bj feet   
long & ab\t #dd in*es beam1 :ile "o #ah 
feet long & ab\t #cf in*es extreme beam 
c>ri$ #af to #ah y>ds2 x is obvi\s t !  
y>ds are ( n>r[ sail clo? & n squ>e y>ds
 ( f9i%$ sail4 ,9 ! la/ days ( sail+ b>k
 canoes1 ma/ hoops & a haly>d block 7   
fitt$ s t ! sail c\ld be l[]$ in/ead (  
hav+ to be furl$ ar\nd ! ma/ 7to        
accompli% ?is ! crew _h to /&74 ,dadaham
 also /at$ t = 8 %eet belay he us$ a    
jamb-hit* :i* c\ld be releas$ quickly :5
 ! canoe 0 f\nd to be ov]p[]$ by ! w9d4 
,x appe>s t dur+ ! la/ era ( ^! b>k     
canoes ! rig _h be5 improv$ to fit x =  
op5-wat] sail+4  ,! paddles us$ by !    
,micmac appe> to h v>i$ 9 %ape4 ,if !   
canoe %[n 9 ,*apt] #a 7p4 #ab7 0 inde$ a
 ,micmac canoe z suppos$1 ! paddle %[n  
!re is q diff]5t f ! lat] tribal =ms    
illu/rat$ above1 & x is possible t ! top
 grips %[n 9 ! m mod]n =ms 7 nev] us$ 9 

prehi/oric times1 :5 ! pole h&le %[n ) !
 old canoe may h be5 /&>d4  ,! ,micmac  
canoes 7 decorat$ by scrap+ away "p ( ! 
inn] r9d ( ! bir* b>k1 leav+ portions ( 
x 9 a =mal design4 ,x seems v probable t
 ! ,micmac seldom us$ ?is =m (          
decoration 9 e>ly times1 b lat] !y us$ x
 a great deal 9 _! r\gh-wat] canoes1    
p]haps z a result ( contact ) !         
,malecite4 ,! =mal designs us$ z        
decoration by ! ,micmac did n h any     
p>ticul> significance z a totem or      
religi\s symbol2 !y 7 us$ purely z      
decoration or to id5tify ! own]4 ,su*   
=ms z ! half-moon1 a /> 9 v>i\s %apes1  
or "s o!r figure might be us$ by !      
build]1 b ^! 7 app>5tly only 8 canoe    
m>k1 n a family insignia or 8 usual     
signature1 & c\ld be alt]$ at w4  ,!    
usual me?od ( decoration 0 to place !   
canoe m>k on bo? sides ( ! canoe at !   
ends & to h along ! gunwales amid%ips a 
long n>r[ panel ( decoration1 usually ( 
"s simple =m4 ,! panel decorations are  
said by ,micmacs to h be5 select$ by !  

build] m]ely z pleas+ designs4 ,"o      
design us$ 0 mu* l ! fleur-de-lis1 ano!r
 0 a s]ies ( triangles suppos$ to       
repres5t camps1 /ill ano!r 0 ! nor!rn   
lights design1 a s]ies ( closely spac$1 
slop+1 p>allel l9es 7or v n>r[ panels7 t
 seem to repres5t a design mu* us$ 9 !  
quill decoration = :i* ! ,micmac 7 not$4
 ,canoes are record$ z hav+ /yliz$      
repres5tations ( a salmon1 a moose1 a   
cross1 or a v simple /> =m2 ^! may h be5
 canoe m>ks or may once h be5 a tribal  
m>k 9 a c]ta9 locality4 ,a s]ies (      
half-circles 7 sometimes us$ 9 ! gunwale
 panels1 :i* 7 r>ely alike on bo? sides 
( ! canoe1 & x is probable t use 0 made 
( o!r =ms t h n be5 record$4 ,color$    
quills 9 nor!rn lights patt]n 7 us$ 9 "s
 model or toy canoes b n 9 any surviv+  
example ( a full-size canoe4 ,x is q    
possible1 h[ev]1 t su* quill-"w 0 once  
us$ 9 ,micmac canoe decoration4 ,pa9t+ (
 ! b>k cov] = decorative purposes 9     
,micmac canoes has n be5 record$4       
,illu/ration3 ,figure #fj  ,,micmac     

,,canoe1 ,,ba?ur/1 ,n4,b4 7,canadian    
,geological ,survey photo47  ,hi/orical 
ref]5ces to ! canoes ( ! ,micmac are    
frequ5t 9 ! ,fr5* records ( ,canada2 x  
mu/ h be5 ,micmac canoes t ,c>ti] saw 9 
#aecd at ,pr9ce ,edw>d ,isl& & 9 ,bay   
,*aleur4 ,! mo/ complete description (  
su* canoes is 9 ! acc\nt ( ,nicolas     
,d5ys1 :o came to ! ,micmac c\ntry 9    
#afcc & rema9$ !re almo/ cont9u\sly     
until 8 dea? at #ij1 9 #afhh4 ,8 travels
 dur+ ?is p]iod took him into ,ma9e z f>
 z ! ,p5obscot & ?r\gh\t :at are n[ ,new
 ,brunswick & ,nova ,scotia4 ,:ile 8    
descriptions are prim>ily conc]n$ ) !   
,malecite dress1 h\ses1 & hunt+ & fi%+  
te*niques1 8 notes on bir*-b>k canoes   
seem to indicate v cle>ly t he is       
describ+ a hogg$-%e] ,micmac r\gh-wat]  
canoe4 ,he says1 = example1 t ! l5g? (  
^! canoes 0 betwe5 #c & #d fa?oms1 !    
fa?om be+ ! ,fr5* brasse1 s t !y rang$ 9
 l5g? f #af to #bd feet ov] ! gunwales4 
,?is gunwale l5g? seems reasonable1 s9ce
 ,d5ys gives ! beam z only ab\t #b      

,engli% feet1 obvi\sly a gunwale        
measurem5t 9 view ( ! great tumble-home 
9 ^! canoes4 ,t ! ,micmac r\gh-wat]     
canoe is ! subject ( ,d5ys' obs]vations 
is fur!r indicat$ by 8 /atem5t t ! dep? 
0 su* t ! gunwales came to ! armpits ( a
 man seat$ on ! bottom4 ,?is c\ld only  
be true 9 a canoe hav+ a hogg$ %e] 9 !  
l5g?s giv51 & is1 9 fact1 a slight      
exagg]ation unless ! man ref]r$ to 0 (  
less ?an av]age height4 ,! dep? w\ld be 
ab\t #bb ,engli% in*es1 great ev5 = a   
#bd-;foot canoe4 ,d5ys /ates t ! inside 
%ea?+ ( ^! canoes 0 split f c$>4 ,he    
also /ates t ! spl9ts 7 ab\t #d in*es   
wide1 7 tap]$ t[>d ! ends1 & ran ! full 
l5g? ( ! canoe4 ,x is probable t !y 7   
butt$ amid%ips1 z 9 kn[n examples2 ?is1 
h[ev]1 w\ld h be5 cov]$ by a rib & might
 n h be5 notic$4  ,d5ys says t !        
,indians b5t ! c$> ribs 9 half-circles  
to =m ribs & %ap$ !m 9 ! fire4 ,adney   
believ$ ?is meant by use ( hot wat]4    
,h[ev]1 ?is b5d+ c\ld h be5 done by :at 
0 kn[n 9 #ag?-c5tury %ipbuild+ practice 

z /ov+1 9 :i* gre5 lumb] 0 roa/$ ov] an 
op5 fire until ! sap & wood became hot  
en\gh to all[ a /rong b5d to be made )\t
 breakage4 ,wood ?us treat$1 :5 cool$ & 
season$ some:at1 w\ld hold ! set4 ,:ile 
x is c]ta9 t lat] ,indians knew h[ to   
employ hot wat]1 x does n foll[ t all   
tribes us$ ?is me?od1 p>ticul>ly 9 e>ly 
times4  ,d5ys also /ates t ! roots (    
fir1 split into ?ree or f\r p>ts1 7 us$ 
9 sew+4 ,he app>5tly us$ fir z a g5]al  
"n = an ev]gre54 ,x is probable t !     
roots us$ 7 ( ! black spruce4 ,!        
te*nique ( build+ he describes is ab\t !
 same z t outl9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,he says
 t ! gunwales 7 r\nd & t sev5 bee* ?w>ts
 7 employ$1 practices t diff] f ^? 9 m  
rec5t ,micmac canoe build+1 & he notes !
 gor+ ( ! b>k cov]4 ,d5ys /ates !       
paddles 7 made ( bee* 7in/ead ( maple z 
0 p]haps ! case7 ) blades ab\t #f in*es 
wide & _! l5g? t ( an arm 7ab\t #bg     
in*es71 ) ! h&le a little long] ?an !   
blade4 ,he also says t f\r1 five1 or six
 paddl]s might be abo>d a canoe & t a   

sail 0 (t5 us$4 ,=m]ly ( b>k1 ! sail 0  
made ( a well-dress$ hide ( a "y moose4 
,s9ce x c\ld c>ry eight or t5 p]sons1 ! 
canoe ,d5ys is ref]r+ to is obvi\sly a  
l>ge "o4 ,9 8 build+ description he does
 n m5tion headbo>ds1 rail caps1 or ! end
 =ms4 ,x may be assum$ t he 0 !n        
describ+ a canoe he _h se5 dur+         
con/ruction b ^: build+ he did n foll[  
/ep by /ep4  ,de la ,pot]ie1 9 8 book   
publi%$ 9 #agbb1 gives a pr(ile & top   
view ( :at mu/ h be5 a ,micmac canoe4 ,!
 probable l5g? indicat$ mu/ h be5 ab\t  
#bb ,engli% feet ov]all & ab\t #cb in*es
 extreme beam2 sev5 ?w>ts are %[n4      
,late 9 ! #ai? c5tury !re appe>s to h   
be5 "s fusion ( ,micmac & ,malecite     
me?ods ( con/ruction1 z ,malecite built 
to ,micmac =ms & vice v]sa4 ,?is        
app>5tly did n produce a hybrid =m s f> 
z appe>ance 0 conc]n$ b x did affect    
con/ruction1 9 t inn] end-frames 7 us$ &
 o!r details ( ! ,micmac design 7 alt]$4
 ,! ,micmac1 hav+ e>ly come into close  
contact ) ! ,europeans1 7 among ! fir/  

,indians to employ nails 9 ! con/ruction
 ( b>k canoes1 & ?is result$ 9 an e>ly  
decad5ce 9 _! build+ me?ods4 ,h5ce1 "s  
examples ( _! canoes %[ :at ! ,indians  
t]m$ brok5 gunwales1 9 :i* ! ends ( !   
?w>ts 7 n t5on$ into ! gunwales1 b r 7  
let flu% into ! top by use ( a dovetail 
cut or1 less securely1 by a rectangul>  
recess across ! gunwale1 & 7 held 9     
place ) a nail ?r\gh ! ?w>t end & !     
gunwale memb]4  ,f scanty ref]5ces by   
e>ly writ]s1 x appe>s t a spiral        
ov]-&-ov] la%+ 0 orig9ally us$ by !     
,micmac on ! ends & gunwales4 ,! l[]    
edges ( ! side panels 7 sewn ov]-&-ov] a
 split-root batt54 ,9 "s extant examples
 ! gores are sewn ) a h>ness /it*2 9    
o!rs a simple spiral /it* is us$4 ,!    
cross-/it* does n appe> to h be5 us$ by 
! ,micmac4 ,! gunwale caps 7 c]ta9ly    
pegg$ & ! ends la%$2 ! b>k cov] 0 fold$ 
ov] ! gunwale tops & clamp$ by ! caps z 
well z secur$ by ! gunwale la%+s4 ,tack+
 ! b>k cov] to ! top ( ! gunwales1 ) !  
cap nail$ ov] all1 m>ks ! lat] ,micmac  

canoes4 ,! use ( nails & tacks seems to 
h begun e>li] ?an #ahej4  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #fa  ,,micmac ,,woman gumm+     
seams ( canoe1 ,ba?ur/1 ,n4,b41 #aiac4  
7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47  
,9 spite ( decad5t con/ruction me?ods   
us$ 9 ! la/ ,micmac bir*-b>k canoes1 !  
model rema9$ a v good "o 9 ea* type4 ,! 
half-circul> ends1 %>p l9es1 & /&>d     
mid-sectional =ms 7 unalt]$2 ! hogg$ %e]
 0 reta9$ 9 "s degree 9 at lea/ two ( ! 
canoe types1 ! r\gh wat] & ! big riv]1  
"r d[n to ! end ( b>k-canoe build+ by   
?is tribe4 ,! v f9e design & attractive 
appe>ance ( ! ,micmac canoe may h       
contribut$ to ! e>ly acceptance by !    
e>ly explor]s & trad]s ( ! bir*-b>k     
canoe z ! be/ mode ( wat] transport =   
=e/ travel4   ,malecite  ,ano!r tribe   
exp]t 9 canoe build+ & use 0 !          
,malecite4 ,^! ,indians 7 kn[n to ! e>ly
 ,fr5* explor]s z ! ,et*im9s or         
,t>rat9es 7or ,t>yt9es74 ,_m            
explanations h be5 giv5 = ! "n          
,malecite4 ,"o is t x 0 appli$ to ^! p  

by ! ,micmac & is f _! ^w mean+ brok5   
talk]s1 s9ce ! ,micmac _h difficulty 9  
und]/&+ !m4 ,:5 ! ,europeans came1 ^! p 
inhabit$ c5tral & s\!rn ,new ,brunswick 
& ! %ore ( ,passamaquoddy ,bay1 ) small 
gr\ps or tribal subdivisions 9 ! area ( 
! ,p5obscot to ! ,k5nebec4 ,^! 7 e>ly   
affect$ by ! retreat ( ! ,new ,engl&    
,indians be=e ! :ites into ea/]n &      
nor!rn ,ma9e & s\!a/]n ,quebec4 ,z a    
result1 ! ,p5obscot & ,k5nebec ,indians 
became "p ( ! gr\p lat] kn[n z ,abnaki1 
:ile ! ,passamaquoddy ,indians rema9$   
:olly ,malecite & closely atta*$ to ^?  
liv+ along ! ,/4 ,john ,riv] 9 ,new     
,brunswick4 ,l _! neighbors ! ,micmac1 !
 ,malecite 7 hunt]s & w>like2 dur+ !    
colonial p]iod !y 7 usually fri5dly to !
 ,fr5* & enemies ( ! ,engli% settl]s 9  
_! vic9ity4 ,x is n c]ta9 t ! tribe n[  
call$ by t "n 7 actually ( a s+le tribal
 /ock2 x is possible t ?is designation  
really cov]s a loose f$]ation ( small   
tribal gr\ps :o ev5tually a*iev$ a      
common language4 ,9 addition1 ! tribal  

designation _c be :olly accurate because
 ( ! fact t mu* ( ! orig9al gr\p liv+ 9 
,new ,engl& 7 absorb$ 9 ! ,abnaki 9 !   
#ag? & #ah? c5turies4 ,!re=e1 !         
,malecite are consid]$ "h to be ^?      
,indians =m]ly inhabit+ valleys ( ! ,/4 
,john & ! ,/4 ,croix ,riv]s1 & !        
,passamaquoddy ,bay area4 ,! rema9+     
portions1 ! ,k5nebec & ,p5obscot        
,indians1 mu/ n[ be class$ z ,abnaki1 ( 
:om m lat] 7see p4 #hh74  ,9 consid]+ ! 
bir*-b>k canoes ( ! ,malecite1 x is     
important to und]/& t ?is tribal =m     
includes n only ! types us$ 9 m rec5t   
times 9 ,new ,brunswick & on            
,passamaquoddy ,bay1 b also an ov]lapp+ 
type relat$ to ! lat] ,abnaki models4 ,!
 old =m ( ,malecite canoe us$ on ! l>ge 
riv]s & along ! coa/ appe>s to h _h r   
high-peak$ ends1 ) a m>k$ ov]hang =e &  
aft4 ,! end pr(iles _h a slop+ outl9e1  
/rongly curv$ into ! bottom1 & a r %>ply
 lift+ %e] t[>d ea* end4 ,?is =m 0 also 
to be se5 9 old canoes f ! ,/4 ,john    
,riv] 7! l[] valley71 ! ,passamaquoddy1 

! ,p5obscot1 & ! upp] ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,by 
late 9 ! #ai? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ?is /yle ( 
canoe _h be5 replac$ by canoes hav+     
r\nd$ ends1 ! pr(iles be+ practically   
qu>t]-circles & sometimes ) su* small   
radii t a slight tumble-home appe>$ ne> 
! %e]4 ,! small radius ( ! end curves is
 p>ticul>ly m>k$ 9 "s ( ! seago+        
porpoise-hunt+ canoes ( !               
,passamaquoddy4 ,9 mod]n =ms1 ! am\nt ( 
%e] is mod]ate & ! quick lift 9 ! %e] to
 ! ends is practically nonexi/5t4 ,on ! 
,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ! radii ( ! end curves are
 v %ort & ! upp] "p ( ! /ems /&s v]tical
 & /raight2 ! %e]1 too1 is usually r    
/raight4 ,! old] type1 ) high-peak$     
ends1 0 also m>k$ by v %>p l9es =w>d &  
aft1 & _h a midsection ) tumble-home    
less extreme ?an 9 ! ,micmac canoes4 ,! 
bottom1 a?w>t%ips1 0 usually some:at    
r\nd$ 79 coa/al canoes ! =m might be a  
r\nd$ ,v7 & ! bilges 7 r slack1 ) a     
rev]se curve above1 to =m ! tumble-home 
r close to ! gunwales4 ,! riv] model    
probably _h l[] ends & less rake ?an !  

coa/al type1 b surviv+ examples ( bo?   
give confus+ evid5ce4 ,! riv] canoes    
usually _h a flatt] bottom ?an ! coa/al 
type1 ! latt] hav+ some:at m rock]      
=e-&-aft4 ,! sections ne> ! ends 7 r    
,v-%ap$ 9 ! coa/al canoes1 ,u-%ap$ 9 !  
riv] canoes4  ,! old =m ( small hunt+   
canoe is repres5t$ by b "o poor model   
7see p4 #gb7 9 :i* ! ends are l[] & )   
mu* less rake ?an ^? ( ! riv] type4 ,f  
?is v scant evid5ce1 x seems probable t 
! small woods canoes 7 patt]n$ on ! riv]
 canoe 9 all respects b ! pr(ile ( !    
ends4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #fb        
,,malecite #b-;,,fa?om ,,riv] ,,canoe1  
#ai,,? ,,c5tury4 ,old =m ) rak+ ends &  
mu* %e]4  ,f ! e>ly ,engli% & ,fr5*     
acc\nts1 x is evid5t t none ( ! m>itime 
,indians us$ v l>ge or long w> canoes1  
capable ( hold+ _m m54 ,! old w> canoes 
( ! ,malecite appe> to h be5 ei!r ( !   
coa/al or riv] types z ! circum/ances ( 
_! place ( build+ & use dictat$4 ,!     
slight in=mation available 9 ^! acc\nts 
sugge/s t ! w> canoe did n diff] 9      

appe>ance f ! o!r types ( ,malecite     
canoes1 & t !y 7 n ( great] size4 ,!    
,malecite appe> to h foll[$ ! same      
practices z ! ,micmac1 us+ = w> purposes
 canoes ( /&>d size & appe>ance b n>r[] 
& built = spe$1 s9ce a w> p>ty s\ght to 
travel rapidly to & f its objective 9   
ord] to surprise ! enemy & escape be=e  
organiz$ pursuit c\ld be =m$4 ,!        
,malecite plac$ f\r w>riors 9 ea* canoe1
 two to paddle & two to wat* & use      
weapons :ile afloat4 ,h[ev]1 only on r>e
 occasions 7 b[s & arr[s us$ f canoes   
afloat2 mo/ fight+ 0 done on l&4 ,ea*   
canoe c>ri$ ! p]sonal m>k ( ea* ( ! f\r 
w>riors1 app>5tly "o m>k on ea* flap1 or
 wulegessis1 "u ! gunwales ne> ! ends4  
,:5 a w> lead] 0 c>ri$ h[ev]1 only 8 m>k
 0 on 8 canoe4 ,aft] a successful raid1 
! ,malecite us$ to race = ! la/ mile or 
s ( ! return j\rney1 & ! w9n+ canoe 0   
giv51 z a di/9ction1 "s m>k or picture1 
(t5 some?+ humor\s su* z a c>icature (  
an animal4 ,?is practice1 h[ev]1 0 n    
conf9$ to w> canoes2 9 r rec5t times x  

has be5 not$ t su* pictures 7 plac$ on  
any canoe t _h %[n out/&+ qualities 9   
rac+ competition or 9 exhibitions (     
skill4  ,:5 mak+ long canoe trips1 !    
,malecite foll[$ ! widespread ,indian   
practice ( us+ ! canoe z a %elt] at     
night4 ,:5 a camp+ place 0 rea*$1 !     
canoe 0 unload$1 c>ri$ a%ore1 & turn$   
upside d[n s t ! tops ( ! ends & "o     
gunwale re/$ on ! gr\nd4 ,if ! ends 7   
high en\gh1 z 9 ! old ,malecite type1 "o
 gunwale 0 rais$ (f ! gr\nd f> en\gh to 
p]mit a man to crawl "u4 ,if1 z 9 !     
,micmac canoes1 ! ends 7 too l[ to all[ 
?is1 !y 7 rais$ (f ! gr\nd by %ort =k$  
/icks1 ) ! =ks re/+ aga9/ ! end ?w>ts & 
! upp] gunwale & ! heels /uck into !    
e>?4 ,! dunnage 7provisions or o!r c>go7
 0 !n /[$ on ! gr\nd "u ! ends ( ! canoe
 & ! two m5 w\ld sleep "u a s+le blanket
 ) _! feet po9t$ 9 opposite directions1 
ea* ) 8 head on a pile ( dunnage4 ,if   
!re 7 too _m m5 abo>d to d ?is1 9 bad   
wea!r a crude %elt] 0 made by re/+ "s   
poles on ! upturn$ bilge & cov]+ !m )   

%eets ( b>k2 "u su* a %elt] meals c\ld  
be cook$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #fc    
,,old ,,=m ,,( ,,malecite-,,abnaki      
#b--;,,fa?om ,,ocean ,,canoe ( !        
,p5obscots4 ,9 ! ,peabody ,museum1      
,salem1 ,mass4  ,z did _m ( ! ea/]n     
,indians1 ! old ,malecite tribesm5 built
 canoes ( mat]ials o!r ?an bir* b>k4 ,:5
 a canoe 0 requir$ = a tempor>y use su* 
z 9 hunt+1 x c\ld be made ( spruce b>k4 
7,z ! designs ( su* canoes 7 r /&>diz$1 
!y w be dealt ) 9 ,*apt] #h47 ,:5 b>k 0 
unobta9able1 ! ,malecite built canoes   
cov]$ ) moosehide1 or1 9 r>e in/ances1  
!y built wood5 dug\ts4  ,! old ,malecite
 riv] canoe %[n on page #ga w s]ve to   
illu/rate a description ( ! details (   
con/ruction t 7 us$4 ,^! canoes 7       
obvi\sly built ) _! gunwales 7:i* 7 !   
l5g? ( ! bottom only7 s]v+ z a build+   
frame4 ,! ends ( ! gunwales 7 support$  
by headbo>ds /epp$ on ! heels ( ! inn]  
/em-pieces1 & ! /ems rak$ outw>d f _!   
heels4 ,! gunwale ends 7 jo9$ to ! head 
( ! /em-piece by ! outwales & ! gunwale 

caps4 ,b>k 0 us$ to ! ends ( ! canoe4   
,"o side ( ! b>k cov] 0 cut s t x /ood  
well above ! %e] l9e f ! gunwale end    
outbo>d1 & ! opposite side 0 cut to !   
level ( ! %e]4 ,! fir/ piece 0 !n fold$ 
ov] ! opposite side & d[n1 s t x cov]$  
bo? ! extreme ends ( ! gunwales & ! top 
( ! inn] /em-piece4 ,ano!r piece ( b>k 0
 !n fitt$ ov] ?is fold1 & ?is new piece 
=m$ ! flaps bel[ ! outwales on ea* side1
 ! wulegessis4 ,! outwales ran pa/ !    
gunwale ends & 7 cut (f flu% ) ! outbo>d
 face ( ! /em2 ! caps ran likewise &    
cov]$ ! b>k ov] ! head ( ! inn] /em     
piece4 ,! *>act]i/ic %e] ( ^! canoes1   
:]e ! rise t[>d ! ends began1 %[$ a     
quick curve t fair$ into a ris+ /raight 
l9e at ! gunwale & !n cont9u$ /raight & 
ris+ to ! /em head4 ,! wulegessis 0     
!re=e q long4 ,! ends ( ! gunwales 7 n (
 ! half-arr[head %ape1 b 7 sni$ (f on _!
 inbo>d sides s t !y met on a r long    
bevel2 ! la%+ 0 slightly let 9 to !     
outbo>d faces to keep x f slipp+ ov] !  
gunwale ends4 ,! caps ( ! gunwales 7    

simil>ly r$uc$ 9 wid?1 :]e !y came      
toge!r ov] ! ends ( ! canoe4            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #fd  ,,l>ge       
#c-;,,fa?om ,,ocean ,,canoe ,,( ,,!     
,,passamaquoddy porpoise hunt]s4 ,^!    
canoes 7 sometimes fitt$ to sail or     
outrigg$ = r[+4 ,! la/ ( ?is type _h mu*
 l[] ends4  ,! ma9 gunwale memb]s 7 ab\t
 #a in*es squ>e amid%ips1 tap]+ to  in* 
at ! ends4 ,! l[] outbo>d corn] 0 bevel$
 to take ! ends ( ! ribs1 z %[n on page 
#ga1 & ! l[] inbo>d corn] 0 also bevel$ 
or r\nd$1 b to a less] degree4 ,! upp]  
inbo>d corn]1 %[n bevel$ 9 ! draw+ (    
figure #fb1 0 sometimes slightly r\nd$1 
z 7 ! outwales4 ,amid%ips ! outwale 0   
ab\t #a in* deep1 & x tap]$ t[>d ! ends1
 :]e its dep? 0 ab\t  in*1 ! ?ickness   
be+  in* amid%ips & a scant  in* at !   
ends4 ,on ! canoe %[n1 ! cap 0  in*     
?ick1 tap]+ to ab\t  in* at ! ends1 & #a
 in*es wide amid%ips1 tap]+ to ab\t  or 
in* :]e ! caps came toge!r at ! ends4 ,!
 top corn]s ( ! cap 7 bevel$ 9 !        
example4  ,! %ea?+ appe>s to h be5 ab\t 

in* ?ick on ! av]age4 ,on ! bottom &    
sides x 0 9 two l5g?s1 ov]lapp+ slightly
 amid%ips4 ,t[>d ! ends ( ! canoe !     
%ea?+ 0 tap]$1 maximum wid? ( ! spl9ts  
be+ ab\t #d in*es amid%ips4  ,! canoe1  
:i* 0 #ah feet #f in*es long ov]all1 _h 
#df ribs4 ,^! 7 ab\t #c in*es wide &    
in* ?ick f ! c5t] to ! fir/ ?w>t outbo>d
 on ea* side1 & #b in*es wide f ^! ?w>ts
 to ! ends1 except = ! endmo/ five ribs1
 :i* 7 r\ghly #a in*es wide4 ,! draw+ on
 page #ga %[s ! %ape ( ! ?w>ts4 ,! ends 
7 t5on$ ?r\gh ! gunwales1 & !re 7 ?ree  
lac+ holes 9 ! ends ( ! middle & fir/   
?w>ts & two 9 ! end ?w>ts4 ,! beam ( !  
canoe inside ! gunwales 0 #cj in*es &   
outside1 #ca in*es2 ! tumble-home made !
 extreme beam #ce in*es4 ,! canoe 0 r   
flat bottom$ a?w>t%ips & q %all[1 ! dep?
 amid%ips be+ #aj in*es4  ,! build+ b$  
mu/ h _h ab\t a #a in* cr[n at midl5g?4 
,x is probable t ! /em pieces 7 n fix$ 9
 place until aft] ! gunwales _h be5     
rais$ to %e] height4 ,! gunwales 7 la%$ 
) ! ,malecite gr\p la%+s1 ea* ( f\r     

turns ?r\gh ! b>k & spac$ at #c to #c   
in*es ap>t 9 ! midl5g? & at #b in*es f !
 end ?w>ts to ! headbo>ds4 ,two auxili>y
 la%+s 7 plac$ ov] ! outwales & caps    
outbo>d ( ! gunwale ends1 "o ab\t #f    
in*es beyond ! ends ( ! gunwales & ! o!r
 aga9/ ! inbo>d side ( ! /em-piece4 ,!  
end closure 0 accompli%$ by ! usual     
spiral la%+ pass$ ?r\gh ! lam9at$ /em   
pieces4 ,! latt] 7 split 7to )9 ab\t #d 
in*es ( ! heel71 into six or m lam9ae t 
7 closely wrapp$ ) b>k cord4 ,!         
headbo>ds 7 belli$ t[>d ! ends to keep !
 b>k cov] "u t5sion1 & ! ends outbo>d ( 
! headbo>ds 7 /uff$ ) %av+s or moss4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #fe  ,,old ,,=m   
,,( ,,passamaquoddy #b-;,,fa?om ,,ocean 
,,canoe ) *>act]i/ic bottom rock] & %e]4
 ,?is r small1 fa/ canoe = coa/al hunt+ 
& fi%+ 0 common 9 ! #ai? c5tury4  ,a    
canoe f ! ,p5obscot ,riv]1 obta9$ 9     
#ahbf by ! ,peabody ,museum1 ,salem1    
,massa*usetts1 & describ$ 9 ,! ,am]ican 
,neptune = ,octob] #aidh1 %[s t !       
,p5obscot built _! canoes on ! old      

,malecite model4 ,! canoe is app>5tly a 
coa/al type4 ,x has "s r\nd 9 ! bottom  
amid%ips & ,v-sections t[>d ! ends2 x is
 #ah feet #g in*es long ov]all1 #cg     
in*es maximum beam1 #ae in*es deep      
amid%ips1 & ! ends /& #bf to #bh in*es  
above ! base l9e1 ! b[ be+ slightly     
high] & ) m rake ?an ! /]n4 ,! rock]    
takes place )9 #d feet ( ! ends1 ) !    
bottom /raight = ab\t #h feet along !   
midl5g?4 ,! bilges amid%ip are slack1 & 
! rev]se curve to =m ! tumble-home />ts 
)9 #f in*es ( ! gunwales 7see draw+1 p4 
#gb47  ,a mu* lat] coa/al canoe ( !     
,passamaquoddy1 a porpoise-& seal-hunt+ 
canoe built 9 #ahgc1 w also s]ve to %[ !
 old type 7see p4 #gc74 ,?is /yle (     
canoe 0 usually built 9 l5g?s rang+ f   
#ah to #bj feet ov]all1 ! maximum beam 0
 betwe5 #be & #dd in*es1 & ! beam inside
 ! gunwales 0 betwe5 #bi & #cf in*es4 ,!
 dep? amid%ips rang$ f ab\t #ah to #ba  
in*es1 & ! height ( ! ends above ! base 
0 f #bh or #cj in*es to z mu* z #de     
in*es4 ,! ribs numb]$ f #db to #dh & 7  

#c in*es wide &  in* ?ick4 ,! %ea?+ 0 f 
to  in* ?ick & ! rock] ( ! bottom1 f #d 
to #f in*es1 took place )9 ! la/ #d or  
#e feet ( ! ends4 ,! midsection %[$ a   
well-r\nd$ bottom1 a slack bilge1 & !   
high rev]se to =m ! tumble-home se5 9 ! 
old ,p5obscot canoe at ,salem4 ,^!      
canoes 7 /ill be+ built well into !     
#ahhj's1 if n lat]1 & are to be se5 9 "s
 old ,u4,s4 ,fi% ,commission photographs
 ( porpoise & seal hunt+ at ,ea/port1   
,ma9e4 ,seal-& porpoise-hunt+ canoes    
c>ri$ a sail1 usually ! spritsail ( !   
dory4 ,:ile ?is model probably 0 little 
*ang$ 9 con/ruction f e>ly times1 !     
surviv+ examples & models are ( ! p]iod 
:5 nails 7 employ$4 ,! draw+ on page #gd
 is ( a small coa/al hunt+ canoe ( !    
same class1 built 9 #ahge4              
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ff  ,,malecite   
,,rac+ ,,canoe ,,( #ahhh1 %[+ ,v-%ap$   
keel piece plac$ betwe5 %ea?+ & b>k to  
=m deadrise4  ,! reasons = ! gradual    
decl9e 9 ! build+ ( canoes ( ! old /yle 
are n kn[n1 & ! transition f !          

high-peak$ ends to ! m mod]n l[ & r\nd$ 
ends 0 n sudd54 ,x app>5tly began 9 "s  
inl& areas1 p>ticul>ly on ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce
 & ! ,/4 ,john ,riv]s1 at lea/ z e>ly z 
#ahdi1 & ! new tr5d 9 appe>ance f9ally  
rea*$ ! coa/ ab\t #be ye>s lat]4 ,9 !   
p]iod ( transition1 ! high-peak$ model  
develop$ t[>d ! ,/4 ,francis type1 or t 
( ! mod]n ,indian canvas canoe1 z well z
 t[>d ! l[-end$ type4  ,"o ( ! lat]     
developm5ts took place on ! ,/4 ,john   
,riv]1 9 ,new ,brunswick1 :]e two       
,indians1 ,jim ,paul & ,pet] ,pol*ies1  
bo? ( ,/4 ,m>ys1 9 #ahhh built = a ,lt4 
,col4 ,h]b]t ,dibble ( ,wood/ock ! rac+ 
canoe illu/rat$ above 7fig4 #ff74 ,?is  
canoe1 #ai feet #f in*es long ov]all &  
only #cj in*es extreme beam1 0 ( a      
design p]haps n *>act]i/ic ( any        
p>ticul> type ( ,malecite canoe1 b x    
nev]!less %[s two elem5ts t may h appe>$
 dur+ ! p]iod ( *ange 9 model4 ,! sides 
amid%ips n only are )\t tumble-home1 !y 
fl>e outw>d slightly1 b tumble-home is  
develop$ at ! fir/ ?w>t ea* side ( !    

middle & cont9ues to ! headbo>ds4 ,!    
bottom %[s a m>k$ ,v-deadrise a*iev$ by 
an unusual con/ruction 9 a bir*-b>k     
canoe3 ! c5t] /rake ( ! %ea?+ is %ap$ 9 
a %all[ ,v 9 cross section1 its wid? be+
 ab\t #b in*es amid%ips & tap]+ ea* way 
t[>d ! ends1 & its ?ickness along !     
longitud9al c5t]l9e be+ ab\t  in* &     
tap]+ to ab\t  in* at ! edges2 ! two    
l5g?s ( ! /rake are butt$1 n lapp$1     
amid%ips1 ?\gh ! re/ ( ! %ea?+ is lapp$ 
at ! butts 9 ! usual way & is uni=mly   
in* ?ick4 ,9 ?is mann] a ridge t gives a
 ,v-deadrise is =m$ d[n ! c5t]l9e ( !   
bottom1 ?\gh ! frames are b5t 9 a       
flatt5$ curve f bilge to bilge4 ,!      
bottom has v little rock]1 ! rise be+   
only #a in*1 & ?is takes place 9 ! la/  
#b feet inbo>d ( ! heel ( ! /em piece4  
,illu/ration3 ,figure #fg  ,,%>p-,,end$ 
#b-;,,fa?om ,,hunt+ ,,canoe = use on    
tidal riv]4 ,built by ! ,passamaquoddy  
,indian ,pet] ,d5is1 x %[s :at may be ! 
primitive con/ruction me?od ( obta9+ a  
,v-=m 9 hull4  ,ano!r feature 9 ?is     

canoe is ! end pr(ile2 ! curv$ ends are 
/rongly rak$1 ! curve us$ be+ ! same z t
 9 ! old ,malecite type1 b ) !          
/em-pieces rev]s$1 s t ! quick turn is  
at ! head1 ne> ! %e]1 r ?an at ! heel4  
,z a result1 ! gunwales come to ! ends 9
 a /raight1 ris+ l9e = ! la/ #af in*es r
 ?an z a sudd5 lift ne> ! ends4 ,!      
/em-heads /& a little above ! rail caps4
 ,! headbo>ds belly t[>d ! ends & are   
rak$ 9 ! same direction4  ,! use ( a    
,v-%ap$ keel piece 9 ! %ea?+ has be5    
f\nd 9 a ,/4 ,francis canoe f ! ,/4     
,lawr5ce c\ntry2 ?is may be a r old     
practice4 ,?is rac+ canoe is v lightly  
built & mu* decorat$1 ! date #ahhh be+  
work$ into ! hull ne> "o end4  ,ano!r   
canoe hav+ a m>k$ ,v-deadrise 0 built   
sometime betwe5 #ahij & #ahib by ,nicola
 7sometimes call$ ,pet]7 ,d5is          
7sometimes spell$ ,dana71 a             
,passamaquoddy1 = 8 son ,francis1 :o us$
 x at ,fr5*man's ,bay1 ,ma9e4 ,! draw+  
above 7fig4 #fg7 %[s a coa/al-type hunt+
 canoe1 nail$ along ! gunwales b sewn   

else:]e1 & pa9t$4 ,! craft is #ae feet  
#i in*es ov]all & #ad feet #e in*es ov] 
! gunwales4 ,! beam amid%ips is #cb     
in*es ov] ! gunwales1 #bi in*es inside4 
,! dep? amid%ips is #aa in*es1 & at !   
headbo>ds1 #ad in*es4 ,! ends are ( ! l[
 r\nd$ =m2 ! pr(ile %[s a mod]ate       
tumble-home j bel[ ! %e]1 :i* is a long 
fair curve )\t any quick lift t[>d !    
ends4 ,! con/ruction is ( ! usual       
,malecite type describ$ 9 ,*apt] #c4 ,! 
midsection %[s a rem>kable am\nt ( ,v 9 
! bottom )\t any tumble-home any:]e 9 ! 
topsides4 ,! ,v-bottom is r\nd$ at !    
apex1 :]e ! keel w\ld be2 ?is is done by
 b5d+ ! ribs v %>ply :]e !y cross !     
c5t]l9e ( ! hull4 ,a n>r[ /rake ( ?9    
%ea?+ runs along ! c5t]l9e ( ! canoe1 & 
?is is b5t a?w>t-wise to foll[ ! b5ds 9 
! ribs !re4 ,! canoe _h #df ribs1 ea* #b
 in*es wide &  in* ?ick1 tap]$ slightly 
f ! middle up to ! gunwales4 ,!         
gunwales1 z previ\sly not$1 are nail$ & 
! ma9 gunwale memb]s are ( saw$ spruce4 
,! re/ ( ! framework is c$>4            

,illu/ration3 ,figure #fh  ,,malecite   
#b-;,,fa?om ,,/4 ,,lawr5ce ,,riv]       
,,canoe1 probably a hybrid model4 ,!    
high ends %[ a we/]n influ5ce4  ,!      
outside ( ! canoe 0 pa9t$ r$1 ! inside 0
 a pale yell[1 ! gunwales & middle      
portions ( ! ?w>ts 7 cobalt blue1 ! ends
 ( ! ?w>ts 7 r$4 ,! wulegessis 0 blue1 &
 ! canoe m>k 0 a pa9t$ repres5tation ( !
 spread eagle ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,seal1 !
 bord] be+ 9 black & :ite & ! eagle 9   
black1 yell[1 & :ite1 hold+ a br[n bran*
 ) gre5 leaves4 ,! :ole panel 0 outl9$ 9
 r$4 ,on ! side ( ! canoe1 ne> ! /]n1 0 
a :ite swall[tail p5nant on :i* is      
lett]$ ,fr5*mans ,bay 9 black capital   
lett]s4 ,?is canoe 0 us$ = fi%+ & also =
 porpoise & seal hunt+4  ,! con/ruction 
employ$ to =m ! ,v-bottom 9 a bir*-b>k  
canoe c be se5 to h be5 done 9 two ways2
 t describ$ on page #gf is und\bt$ly !  
me?od us$ 9 prehi/oric times1 s9ce      
labori\s =m+ ( a ,v keel-piece 9 !      
%ea?+1 us+ /one scrap]s1 w\ld be avoid$4
 ,! ,v-bottom1 x %\ld be not$1 usually  

appe>s 9 canoes us$ 9 op5 wat]s1 z ?is  
=m t5ds to run /raight "u paddle1 9     
spite ( a side w9d1 & ?us requires !    
m9imum ( /e]+ to hold x on its c\rse4 ,x
 0 ?is *>act]i/ic1 too1 t made !        
,v-bottom suitable = ! rac+ canoe on !  
,/4 ,john ,riv]1 s9ce /opp+ ! /roke     
mom5t>ily to /e] dim9i%es ! driv+ p[] ( 
! /]n paddl]4  ,! v>i\s riv] canoes ( ! 
,malecite1 built to ! mod]n l[1         
r\nd$-end pr(iles1 or to ! %ort-radii & 
/raight-l9e =ms1 held r closely to !    
same l9es1 t is1 %>p ends ) a r flat    
bottom amid%ips & an easy bilge4 ,"s ( !
 canoes reta9$ ! *>act]i/ic tumble-home1
 b o!rs _h ne>ly v]tical sides or !     
curve ( ! bilge 0 c>ri$ s high t x end$ 
at ! gunwales4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure   
#fi  ,,malecite #b-;,,fa?om ,,riv]      
,,canoe ( #ahij f ! ,rivire du ,l\p     
region4 ,canoes 9 ?is area _h /raight   
/ems & %>p l9es f at lea/ z e>ly z      
#aheg4  ,on ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce !re 0        
app>5tly a canoe hav+ r peak$ ends z    
well z ! r /raight-/emm$1 l[-end$ type4 

,a ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv] canoe f\nd 9 !    
,*ateau de ,ramezay & built sometime    
be=e #ahfg provides an example ( ! r    
high-peak$ ends4 ,! canoe1 z illu/rat$  
on page #gg1 has a well-r\nd$ bilge     
work+ into a v r\nd tumble-home above & 
into a r flat bottom bel[1 ! tumble-home
 be+ c>ri$ into ! extreme ends1 s t !   
headbo>ds are r wide4 ,! ends r\nd up r 
quickly & !n cont9ue up to ! %e] 9 a v  
slight curve1 hav+ a v mod]ate          
tumble-home ne> ! %e]4 ,! latt] foll[s  
some:at ! *>act]i/ic %e] ( ! old        
,malecite canoes1 b ! /raight portion j 
inbo>d ( ! ends is mu* %ort]1 s t !     
quick upsweep ( ! %e] beg9s ne>] ! ends 
& ?us appe>s some:at m pron\nc$4  ,!    
con/ruction is 9 ! usual mann]4 ,! rock]
 ( ! bottom is #b in*es4 ,! ribs are    
wid] amid%ips ?an ne> ! ends4 ,! outwale
 is r\nd$ on ! outbo>d face s t ! cap is
 slightly n>r[] ?an ! ?ickness ( inn]   
gunwale & outwale comb9$4 ,! headbo>d is
 r unusual1 h[ev]1 z x is n belli$ b /&s
 /raight & v]tical4 ,! la%+ at ! upp]   

portion ( ! /ems is ! cross$ /it*1 bel[ 
x is spiral4 ,! gunwale gr\ps are made  
up ( six passes ?r\gh ! b>k1 & ! spaces 
betwe5 gr\ps are ab\t #b in*es4 ,! side 
panels are sewn ) ! h>ness /it*4 ,!     
canoe is #af feet long ov]all & #ad feet
 #e in*es inside ! gunwales2 ! extreme  
beam amid%ips is #cg in*es & inside !   
gunwales #cb in*es4 ,! dep? amid%ips is 
ab\t #ac in*es & ! height ( ! ends #be  
in*es1 ) #b in*es ( rock] at !          
headbo>ds4 ,?is canoe1 reta9+ ! high    
ends1 m>ks ! transition f ! old =m to ! 
new4  ,a lat] canoe built on ! ,/4      
,lawr5ce ab\t #ahij1 probably ne>       
,rivire de ,l\p1 is %[n above4 ,x is #af
 feet #aa in*es long ov]all1 ! beam ov] 
! gunwales is #cc in*es & inside x is   
#ca in*es1 ! curve ( ! bilge be+ c>ri$  
up to ! gunwales4 ,! bottom is flat =   
only a %ort wid?4 ,! dep? amid%ips is   
#aa in*es & ! height ( ! ends is #bj    
in*es1 ) #a in* ( rock] 9 ! la/ two feet
 ( l5g?4 ,! %e] is a long fair sweep )\t
 any quick upw>d lift ne> ! ends4 ,!    

headbo>ds are v n>r[ & belly only v     
slightly t[>d ! ends4 ,! end pr(ile     
illu/rates ! %ort radii & /raight l9e =m
 t m>k$ _m ( ! la/ ,malecite bir*-b>k   
canoes ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,valley4 ,x is  
possible t ! end-=m 0 copi$ f ! :ite    
man's ,/4 ,lawr5ce skiff1 :i* usually _h
 ends t 7 /raight & ne>ly v]tical1 ) a  
%>p turn into ! keel4  ,illu/ration3    
,figure #gj  ,,mod]n 7#ahie7 ,,malecite 
#b-;,,fa?om ,,/4 ,,john ,,riv] ,,canoe1 
) l[ ends & mod]ate %e]1 develop$ late 9
 ! #ai? c5tury4  ,s9ce a ,malecite canoe
 ( ! =m hav+ r\nd$ l[ ends 0 ! subject  
us$ to describe ! con/ruction ( a       
bir*-b>k canoe 9 ,*apt] #c 7see p4 #cf71
 !re is no ne$ to discuss all ! details 
"h4 ,!re 0 "s v>iety 9 ! sew+ & la%+ us$
 9 ,malecite canoes2 ! comb9ation (     
cross & spiral /it*es 9 ! ends & ! use (
 a batt5 & ! ov]-&-ov] /it* 9 ! side    
panels are1 ( c\rse1 v common 9 ^!      
canoes4 ,! occasional use ( o!r /it*es 9
 ! side panels & ev5 9 ! gores w\ld     
probably be normal1 s9ce individual     

pref]5ces 9 su* details 7 n controll$ by
 a n>r[ tribal practice4  ,! ,malecite  
are kn[n to h haul$ _! canoes ov]l& 9 ! 
e>ly spr+1 be=e ! sn[ 0 entirely gone1  
by m\nt+ ! canoe on two sl$s or         
toboggans 9 t&em1 b9d+ ! canoe to ea*4  
,?is 0 done z late z ! #ahij's = e>ly   
spr+ muskrat hunts4 ,! ,malecite also   
fitt$ _! riv] canoes ) outside          
protection :5 mu* runn+ ( rapids or     
quick wat] "w 0 done4 ,?is protection   
consi/$ ( two sets ( batt5s 7see p4     
#hj71 ea* set be+ made up ( five or six 
?9 spl9ts ( c$> ab\t  in* ?ick & #c     
in*es wide1 tap]+ to #b or #a in*es at  
"o end4 ,^! 7 held toge!r by f\r /rips (
 basket a%1 b>k cord1 or ra:ide4 ,ea*   
cord 0 pass$ ?r\gh holes or slits made  
edgewise ?r\gh ea* spl9t4 ,! cords 7    
locat$ s t :5 ! spl9ts 7 plac$ on !     
bottom ( ! canoe1 ! cords c\ld be ti$ at
 ! ?w>ts4 ,! tap]$ ends ( ! spl9ts 7 at 
! ends ( ! canoe2 ! butts ( ! two sets  
be+ lapp$ amid%ips ) ! lap t[>d ! /]n4  
,?is =m$ a wood5 %ea?+1 outside !       

bottom1 to protect ! b>k f rocks & snags
 or float+ ice t might be met 9 rapids &
 small /reams4 ,! fitt+ 0 us$ also by ! 
,micmac & ,ojibway2 x is n kn[n :e!r ?is
 0 an ,indian or ,european inv5tion4 ,! 
,fr5* canoem5 call$ x b>re d'abordage & 
! ,malecite1 ,p's-ta' k'n2 ! ,engli%    
woodsm5 call$ ! fitt+ canoe %oes4       
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ga  ,,malecite   
,,canoe ,,details1 ,,ge>1 ,,& ,,gunwale 
,,decorations4  ,! ,malecite paddle 0 ( 
v>i\s =ms1 z illu/rat$ 9 figures #ga &  
#gb1 ! pr$om9ant =m be+ v simil> to !   
paddle n[ us$ ) canvas ,indian canoes4  
,! total l5g? ( ! blade 0 usually ab\t  
#bh to #cj in*es2 at #aj or #aa in*es f 
! tip x 0 ab\t #b in*es wide4 ,! h&le 0 
ab\t #cf in*es long4 ,at j above ! blade
 x 0 #a in*es wide & #a in* ?ick4 ,!    
h&le 0 n p>allel-sid$4 ,ne> ! top x     
wid5$ gradually to ab\t #b in*es at #b  
in*es f ! top2 "h ! cross-grip 0 =m$4 ,!
 ?ickness ( ! h&le r$uc$ gradually f t  
giv5 = j above ! top ( ! blade to ab\t  
in* at ab\t #e in*es bel[ ! cross-grip1 

& wid5$ aga9 to  in* at ! po9t :]e !    
cross-grip 0 =m$4 ,! blade 0 ridg$ d[n  
its c5t]4 ,! l[] end 0 r\nd$ & ! l[]    
half ( ! blade 0 approximately half an  
ellipse 9 %ape4 ,! ,passamaquoddy blade 
_h its wide po9t )9 #g in*es ( ! l[]    
tip1 :]e x 0 ab\t #f in*es wide4 ,! h&le
 0 ab\t #a in*es 9 diamet] j above !    
blade1 & !n tap]$ 9 ?ickness until x    
fir/ became oval & !n flat 9 cross      
section4 ,! wid? rema9$ ne>ly con/ant to
 a po9t )9 #ab to #af in*es ( !         
cross-grip1 !n gradually wid5$ to ne>ly 
#c in*es at ! top4 ,! blade 0 #cc to #cf
 in*es long & ! :ole paddle some:]e     
betwe5 #gc & #gf in*es long4 ,!         
cross-grips 7 sometimes r\nd1 at o!r    
times !y 7 m]ely work$ (f 9 an oval %ape
 to fit ! upp] h&4 ,! usual wid? ( !    
cross-grip 0 j "u #c in*es4             
,illu/ration3 ,figure #gb  ,,malecite   
,,canoe ,,details1 ,,/em ,,pr(iles1     
,,paddles1 ,,sail ,,rig1 ,,& ,,salmon   
,,spe>4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #gc      
,,l9es ,,& ,,decoration ,,recon/ruct$   

,,f ,a ,,v ,,old ,,model ( an anci5t    
woods1 or pack1 canoe1 %[+ %ort ends &  
use ( fiddlehead & fire-/eel =m (       
decoration4  ,=m]ly1 ! ,malecite plac$ 8
 p]sonal m>k1 or dupskodegun1 on ! flat 
( ! top ( 8 paddle ne> ! cross-grip4 ,! 
m>k 0 incis$ into ! wood & ! incis$ l9e 
0 fill$ ) r$ or black pigm5t :5         
available4 ,sometimes ! :ole paddle1    
includ+ ! blade1 0 cov]$ ) incis$ l9e   
ornam5tation4 ,?is 0 usually a          
v9e-&-leaf patt]n1 or a comb9ation (    
small triangles & curv$ l9es4 ,!        
,passamaquoddy us$ designs sugge/+ !    
ne$lework once se5 on f9e l95s4         
,sometimes o!r designs %[+ animals1     
camps1 or canoes 7 us$4  ,illu/ration3  
,figure #gd  ,,la/ ,,kn[n               
,,passamaquoddy ,,decorat$ ,,ocean      
,,canoe to be built4 ,con/ruct$ 9 #ahih 
by ,tomah ,joseph1 ,pr9ceton1 ,ma9e1 on 
! same model z a canvas porpoise-hunt+  
canoe4  ,! ,malecite1 p>ticul>ly !      
,passamaquoddy1 7 especially skillful 9 
decorat+ b>k canoes1 z c be se5 f !     

illu/rations 7pp4 #ha-hg74 ,sometimes !y
 us$ scrap$ w9t] b>k decoration j along 
! gunwales2 occasionally ! :ole canoe 0 
decorat$ 9 ?is mann] above ! normal load
 wat]l9e z describ$ on page #hg4        
,usually1 h[ev]1 ! b>k decoration 0     
conf9$ to a long panel j bel[ ! gunwales
 & to ! ends ( ! canoe4 ,! p]sonal m>k (
 ! own]-build] w\ld usually be on !     
flaps ne> ! ends1 ! wulegessis1 mean+ ! 
outside b>k ( a tree or a *ild's diap]1 
b 9 canoe nom5clature us$ to indicate ! 
protective cov] :i* x =m$ = !           
gunwale-end la%+s4 ,sometimes !         
,malecite plac$ 8 m>k 9 ! gunwale       
decoration4 ,sometimes he plac$ a       
picture or a sign on ea* side ( ! ends  
bel[ ! wulegessis1 9 ab\t ! position us$
 = insignia on ! canvas ,indian canoe4  
,! swa/ika 0 us$ by ! ,passamaquoddy 9 a
 w> canoe 9 colonial times & has be5 us$
 lat]4 ,! ,passamaquoddy m>k = an       
exceptional canoe 7su* z a w> canoe t   
won ! race home7 0 (t5 on ! wulegessis1 
& on a relatively mod]n canoe ?is m>k1  

or goget*1 0 a picture ( a funny-look+  
k9d ( doll4 ,a common =m ( decoration 9 
,passamaquoddy canoes 0 ! fiddlehead    
curve :i* resembles ! top ( "y f]n      
%oots4 ,?is appe>s 9 num]\s comb9ations2
 (t5 d\ble & back to back1 jo9$ ) a long
 b>1 or cross4 ,?is p>ticul> comb9ation 
is kn[n z ! fiddlehead & cross or z !   
fire /eel2 ! latt] because ( a fanci$   
resemblance ( ! =m to ! %ape ( ! old    
fire-mak+ /eels ( colonial times4 ,a    
zigzag l9e appe>s to repres5t lightn+ to
 mo/ ,indians4 ,a s]ies ( half-circles  
along ! gunwales1 ) ! r\nd$ side d[n & j
 t\*+ "o ano!r at ! top1 hav+ a small   
circle 9 ! c5t] ( ea*1 repres5ts cl\ds  
pass+ ov] ! moon4 ,a simil> s]ies (     
half-circles )\t ! c5t] circles might   
mean ! canoe 0 laun*$ dur+ a new moon2 !
 numb] ( half-circles %[n w\ld indicate 
! mon?4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ge      
,,malecite ,,canoe ,,details ,,&        
,,decorations4  ,yet !re is n full      
agreem5t among ,indians ab\t ! mean+ (  
decorative =ms2 ! crook$ or zigzag l9e  

might also mean camps or ! crook$ score 
/ick us$ 9 a ,malecite game4 ,! circle  
c\ld mean sun or moon or mon?4 ,a       
half-moon =m might also be a woman's    
e>r+1 or a new moon4 ,a circle ) a v    
small "o inside might be a broo*1 z well
 z money4 ,"r triangles1 9 a closely    
spac$ s]ies along ! gunwales1 app>5tly  
meant door clo?1 or t5t door 7:at y lift
 ) y\r h&74 ,%[n on pages #hd & #he are 
"s ,indian m>ks on ! wulegessis1 bas$ ^u
 ! /atem5ts ( old ,malecites or ^u _!   
sket*es4  ,aft] ! ,malecite _h become   
,roman ,ca?olic1 a fi% on ! middle panel
 ( a canoe meant t x _h be5 laun*$ on   
,friday4 ,pictures on a canoe sometimes 
indicat$ a my?ological /ory2 a picture (
 a rabbit sitt+ & smok+ a pipe on "o    
side ( ! canoe & a lynx on ! o!r w\ld be
 su* a case4 ,9 ,malecite my?ology !    
rabbit 0 ! ance/or ( ! tribe4 ,he 0 also
 a great magician4 ,! lynx 0 ! mortal   
enemy ( ! rabbit1 b 9 ! my?ological     
tales he 0 always ov]come & defeat$ by !
 rabbit's magic4 ,h5ce1 ! idea convey$  

is t ?\gh !-lynx is ne>1 ! rabbit sits  
calmly smok+ 8 pipe & z he kn[s he c    
ov]come 8 enemy1 or1 9 %ort1            
self-confid5ce4  ,! ,indian's m>k on 8  
canoe or weapons is n a signature to be 
read by anyone4 ,! m>k may1 ( c\rse1 be 
id5tifi$ z to :at x repres5ts1 b unless 
x is kn[n z ! m>k us$ by a c]ta9 man x  
_c be read4 ,any m>k c\ld be us$ by an  
,indian1 ei!r because x _h "s connection
 ) 8 activities or habits1 or because he
 likes x4 ,! /one tobacco pipe us$ by   
,pet] ,pol*ies 7see p4 #he7 z 8 m>k _h  
no kn[n connection ) ?is ,indian's      
habits or activities4 ,h[ev]1 8 son1 ( !
 same "n & well kn[n also z ,doctor     
,pol*ies1 took ! same m>k1 b 9 8 case x 
_h a p]sonal mean+ s9ce he 0 not$       
locally = 8 skill 9 mak+ /one pipes4    
,ano!r case 0 a ,passamaquoddy :o at e  
opportunity us$ to pole 8 canoe 9       
pref]5ce to paddl+4 ,z a result he _h   
become kn[n z ,pet] ( ! ,pole or ,pet]  
,pole & he !n us$ z a canoe m>k a       
repres5tation ( a sett+ pole4 ,9        

submitt+ sket*es ( ! m>k+ on !          
wulegessis ( canoes to old ,indians x 0 
seldom possible to le>n ! id5tity ( !   
own] or build]1 s9ce ! m>ks 7 usually n 
kn[n to ^? que/ion$4 ,9 m rec5t times1 !
 educat$ ,malecite sign$ 8 "n 9 ,engli% 
on 8 canoe & ?us gave x m p]man5t       
id5tification4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure   
#gf  ,,wulegessis ,,decorations  m>k (  
,mit*ell ,laporte  t pot hang+ 0 us$ by 
?ree or f\r g5]ations--x 0 m>k on ,john 
,lol>'s canoe 9 #ahgb  ,i made m>ks l   
?is on wulegessis & sometimes on middle 
7,*>lie ,be>7  m>k ( ,noel ,john ,sapi] 
7tomahawk7  m>k ( ,noel ,pol*ies        
7paddle7  m>k ( old ,pet] ,pol*ies 7/one
 pipe7  m>k ( ,*ief ,neptune            
7,passamaquoddy7  m>k ( ,l\is ,paul     
canoe 0 f9i%$ on new moon 7,joe ,ellis7 
m>k ( old ,solomon ,paul  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #gg  ,,end ,,decorations1       
,,passamaquoddy ,,canoe built by ,tomah 
,joseph4  ,9 duplicat+ a design1 !      
,malecite app>5tly us$ a patt]n1 or     
/5cil1 :i* 0 pres]v$ to all[ duplication

 ov] a long p]iod ( "t4 ,! /5cil 0      
usually cut f bir* b>k1 app>5tly an old 
practice1 al?\gh :e!r x 0 done 9        
prehi/oric times _c be det]m9$4 ,! long 
contact ( ! ,malecites ) ,europeans is a
 factor to be consid]$ 9 su* matt]s4    
,?is is sometimes %[n 9 picture-writ+ on
 a canoe2 "o1 = in/ance1 %[$ a :ite man 
fi%+ ) rod & l9e f a canoe ) an ,indian 
guide4 ,on ! opposite side 0 !          
repres5tation ( an ,indian camp beside  
two trees1 a kettle ov] ! fire & ! brave
 sitt+ cross-legg$ smok+ 8 pipe1        
indicat+1 ( c\rse1 com=t & cont5tm5t4   
,ask+ old ,indians to id5tify or give ! 
names ( decorations1 ,adney record$     
/atem5ts :i* indicate _! ?\ght 9 reg>d  
to su* matt]s4 ,!re 7 us$1 = example1   
two =ms ( ! half-moon or cresc5t2 "o 0 q
 op5 at ! po9ts :i* pla9ly indicat$ a   
half-moon1 b ! o!r 0 m ne>ly clos$3     
,illu/ration ,mrs4 ,billy ,ellis1 wid[ (
 ,frank ,francis1 a ,malecite1 said (   
!m1 ,old ,indian e>r+s1 t is only :at ,i
 c call !m4 ,also 9 nose4 ,wild ,indian 

made !m ( silv] or moose-bone1 ,i guess 
he ?\ght he look$ nice2 x look$ l !     
devil4 ,joe ,ellis1 an old canoe build]1
 also call$ ?is =m e>r+s & :5 ask$ :y an
 ,indian w\ld put ^! on a canoe1 repli$ 
,he w ?9k :at he w put on "h4 ,he might 
h se5 8 wife at b[ ( canoe1 & put x on  
!re4 ,%[n ! "r-triangle-9-s]ies design1 
,mrs4 ,ellis said ,i f]git x b ,i w     
rememb]2 :at y lift ) y\r h&1 we call x 
t--camp door 7ref]r+ to ! clo? or hide  
hung ov] a camp door1 & rais$ at "o     
corn] to ent]1 s t ! op5+ is !n divid$  
diagonally74  ,9 a lat] p]iod1 !        
,malecite usually conf9$ decoration to !
 wulegessis & to ! piec$-out b>k        
amid%ips1 ! panel =m$ on ea* side4 ,!   
wulegessis 0 ( v>i\s =ms2 its bottom 0  
sometimes %ap$ l a cupid's b[1 sometimes
 x 0 rectangul>4 ,a common =m 0 "o      
repres5t+ ! pr(ile ( a canoe4 ,be+ (    
w9t] b>k1 x 0 r$ or br[n1 ) ! "p :]e !  
design 0 scrap$ %[+ :ite or yell[4 ,!   
c5t] panel 0 also ( w9t] b>k1 & ! design
 on x %[$ a simil> contra/ 9 color4 ,ev5

 :5 ! b>k cov] 0 n piec$ out1 ! panel 0 
=m$ by scrap+ all ! cov] except a panel 
amid%ips on ea* side4 ,old models       
indicate t ! e>ly ,malecite canoes may h
 us$ decoration all ov] above ! wat]l9e 
7see p4 #ha7 f> m frequ5tly ?an has be5 
! rec5t cu/om4 ,! decorations 7 a       
fiddlehead design 9 a complicat$ sequ5ce
 s t x bore a fa9t resemblance to !     
hyan?us 9 a =mal scroll1 b ! design     
app>5tly _h no c]emonial significance2 x
 0 us$ = ! same reason giv5 ,adney = s  
_m =ms ( b>k decoration1 x look$ nice4  
,illu/ration3 ,figure #gh  ,,end        
,,decorations1 ,,passamaquoddy ,,canoe  
built by ,tomah ,joseph4  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #gi  ,,passamaquoddy ,,decorat$ 
,,canoe built by ,tomah ,joseph4  ,!    
draw+s & plans on pages #ga to #hg w    
s]ve bett] ?an words to %[ ^! *>act]i/ic
 designs & decorations4 ,x is d\btful t 
color1 pa9t or pigm5t1 0 us$ 9 decorat+ 
! ,malecite b>k canoes be=e ! com+ (    
,europeans1 b x 0 employ$ occasionally 9
 ! la/ half ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,! beauty (

 ! ,malecite canoe designs lay n 9 !    
b>b>ic display ( color *>act]i/ic ( !   
l>ge fur-trad]s' canoes1 b 9 ! ta/eful  
di/ribution ( ! scrap$ w9t] b>k         
decoration along ! sides ( ! hull4 ,!   
workman%ip exhibit$ by ! ,malecite 9 !  
con/ruction ( _! canoes 0 g5]ally v f9e2
 inde$1 !y 7 p]haps ! mo/ f9i%$ craftsm5
 among ,indian canoe-build]s4   ,/4     
,francis  ,! tribal composition ( !     
,abnaki ,indians is some:at unc]ta94 ,! 
gr\p 0 c]ta9ly made up ( a portion ( !  
old ,malecite gr\p1 ! ,k5nebec &        
,p5obscot1 b lat] also includ$ ! :ole or
 p>ts ( ! refugee ,indians ( o!r ,new   
,engl& tribes :o 7 =c$ to flee be=e !   
advanc+ :ite settl]s4 ,x is probable t  
among ! refugees 7 ! ,c[assek 7,coosuc71
 ,p5nacook1 & ! ,ossipee4 ,!re 7 also "s
 ,ma9e tribes among ^!--! ,sokoki1      
,&roscogg91 7,arosaguntacook71 ,wew5oc1 
,taconnet1 & ,pequawket4 ,x is probable 
t ! tribal gr\ps f s\!rn & c5tral ,new  
,engl& 7 m]e fragm5ts & t ! l>ge/ numb] 
to make up ! ,abnaki 7 ,malecite4 ,!    

latt] 9 turn 7 driv5 out ( _! old homes 
on ! l[] ,ma9e coa/ & drift$ nor?we/w>d 
into ! old hunt+ gr\nds ( ! ,k5nebec &  
,p5obscot1 nor?we/]n ,ma9e & ea/]n      
,quebec z f> z ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,! *ief  
settlem5t 0 f9ally on ! ,/4 ,francis    
,riv] 9 ,quebec1 h5ce ! ,abnaki 7 also  
kn[n z ! ,/4 ,francis ,indians4 ,^!     
tribesm5 held a deep-seat$ grudge aga9/ 
! ,new ,engl&]s &1 by ! middle ( ! #ah? 
c5tury1 !y _h made !mselves ?or\ghly    
hat$ 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,sid+ ) ! ,fr5*1 !  
,/4 ,francis raid$ ! ,connecticut       
,valley & ea/w>d1 tak+ :ite *ildr5 &    
wom5 home ) !m aft] a successful raid1 &
 z a result ! lat] ,/4 ,francis _h mu*  
:ite blood4 ,!y 7 g5]ally ent]pris+ &   
progressive4  ,little is kn[n ab\t !    
canoes ( ^! ,abnaki dur+ ! p]iod ( _!   
retreat nor?we/w>d4 ,x is obvi\s t !    
,p5obscot1 at lea/1 us$ ! old =m ( !    
,malecite canoe4 ,:at ! canoes ( ! o!r  
tribal gr\ps 7 l _c be /at$4 ,h[ev]1 by 
! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury ! ,/4 ,francis 
,indians _h produc$ a v f9e bir*-b>k    

canoe ( di/9ctive design & excell5t     
workman%ip4 ,^! !y began to sell to     
sportsm51 ) ! result t ! type ( canoe   
became a /&>d "o = hunt+ & fi%+ 9       
,quebec4 ,:5 o!r tribal gr\ps discov]$ !
 m>ket = canoes1 !y 7 =c$ to copy ! ,/4 
,francis model & appe>ance to a v m>k$  
degree 9 ord] to be assur$ ( ready      
sales4 ,x is obvi\s1 f :at is n[ kn[n1 t
 ! ,/4 ,francis _h adapt$ "s ideas 9    
canoe build+ f ,indians we/ ( ! ,/4     
,lawr5ce1 ) :om !y _h come into close   
contact4 ,h[ev]1 !y _h also reta9$ mu* (
 ! build+ te*nique ( _! ,malecite       
relatives4 ,h5ce1 ! ,/4 ,francis canoes 
usually repres5t a bl5d ( build+        
te*niques z well z ( models4  ,! ,/4    
,francis canoe ( ! la/ half ( ! #ai?    
c5tury _h high-peak$ ends1 ) a quick    
upsweep ( ! %e] at b[ & /]n4 ,! end     
pr(ile 0 almo/ v]tical1 ) a %ort radius 
:]e x fair$ into ! bottom4 ,! rock] ( ! 
bottom took place 9 ! la/ #ah or #bd    
in*es ( ! ends1 ! rema9+ portion ( !    
bottom be+ usually /raight4 ,! am\nt (  

rock] v>i$ a good deal2 app>5tly "s     
canoes _h only an in* or s :ile o!rs _h 
z mu* z f\r or five4 ,a few canoes _h a 
project+ *9 end-pr(ile2 ! top portion   
:]e x met ! %e] 0 usually a /raight l9e4
  ,! midsection 0 slightly wall-sid$1 ) 
a r quick turn ( ! bilge4 ,! bottom 0   
ne>ly flat across1 ) v slight r\nd+     
until close to ! bilges4 ,! end sections
 7 a ,u-%ape t approa*$ ! ,v ow+ to ! v 
quick turn at ! c5t]l9e4 ,! ends ( !    
canoe 7 v %>p1 com+ 9 practically       
/raight at ! gunwale & at level l9es    
bel[ x4 ,! gunwales 7 long] ?an ! bottom
 & s ! ,/4 ,francis canoes 7 commonly   
built ) a build+-frame :i* 0 ne>ly z    
wide amid%ips z ! gunwales b %ort] 9    
l5g?4  ,at lea/ "o ,/4 ,francis canoe1  
built on ,lake ,memphremagog1 0         
con/ruct$ ) a tumble-home amid%ips !    
same z t ( "s ,malecite canoes4 ,! rock]
 ( ! bottom at ea* end />t$ at ! fir/   
?w>t on ea* side ( ! middle & gradually 
increas$ t[>d ! ends1 :i* fair$ into !  
bottom )\t any break 9 ! curves4 ,! end 

pr(iles project$ ) a *9 t 0 full & r\nd 
up to ! peak$ /em heads4 ,! %e] swept up
 %>ply ne> ! ends to ! /em heads4 ,?is  
p>ticul> canoe repres5t$ a hybrid design
 n develop$ = sale to sportsm51 & ! sole
 example1 a full-size canoe =m]ly 9 ,!  
,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory at  
,new ,york & measur$ by ,adney 9 #ahij1 
is n[ miss+ & probably has be5 brok5 up4
  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #hj  ,,/4       
,,francis #b-;,,fa?om ,,canoe ,,( ,,ab\t
 #ahfe1 ) upright /ems4 ,built = =e/    
travel1 ?is =m rang$ 9 size f #ab feet  
#f in*es ov]all & #bf-;in* beam1 to #af 
feet ov]all & #cd-;in* beam4  ,! ,/4    
,francis canoes 7 usually small1 be+    
commonly betwe5 #ab & #af feet ov]all2 !
 #ae-;foot l5g? usually 0 pref]r$ by    
sportsm54 ,! wid? amid%ips 0 f #cb to   
#ce in*es & ! dep? #ab to #ad in*es4 ,! 
#ad-;foot canoe usually _h a beam ( ab\t
 #cb in*es & 0 ne>ly #ad in*es deep2 if 
built = portag+ ! ends 7 some:at l[] ?an
 if ! canoe 0 to be us$ 9 op5 wat]s4    
,canoes built = hunt+ might be z %ort z 

#aj or #aa feet & ( only #bf to #bh     
in*es beam2 ^! 7 ! true woods canoes ( !
 ,/4 ,francis4  ,! gunwale /ructure ( ! 
,/4 ,francis canoes foll[$ ,malecite    
design2 x 0 (t5 ( slightly small] cross 
section ?an t ( a ,malecite canoe (     
equal l5g?1 b bo? outwale & cap 7 (     
some:at l>g] cross section4 ,!          
/em-pieces 7 split & lam9at$ 9 ! same   
mann]1 b occasionally ! lam9ation 0 at !
 bottom1 due to ! h>d curve requir$ :]e 
! /em fair$ into ! bottom4 ,_m su*      
canoes _h no headbo>ds1 ! heavy outwales
 be+ c>ri$ to ! sides ( ! /em pieces &  
secur$ !re to support ! ma9 gunwales4   
,if ! headbo>d 0 us$1 x 0 q n>r[ & 0    
belli$ t[>d ! ends ( ! canoe4 ,9 "s ,/4 
,francis canoes ! b>k cov] 9 ! rock]$   
bottom ne> ! ends %[$ a m>k$ ,v4 ,9 !   
canoe exam9$ by ,adney at ! ,am]ican    
,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 ! ribs      
inside t[>d ! end %[$ no signs ( be+    
brok51 s x is evid5t t ! ,v 0 =m$ ei!r  
by use ( a %ap$ keel-piece 9 ! %ea?+ or 
by an additional batt5 %ap$ to give ?is 

,v-=m "u ! c5t] /rake4 ,s9ce ! ,v began 
:]e ! rock] 9 ! canoe />t$1 9 an almo/  
angul> break 9 ! bottom1 x is likely t a
 %ap$ batt5 _h be5 us$ to =m x4 ,he c\ld
 n v]ify ?is1 h[ev]1 z ! area 0 cov]$ by
 ! frames & %ea?+4  ,illu/ration3       
,figure #ha  ,,/4 ,,francis ,,canoe ,,( 
,,ab\t #aiaj1 ) n>r[1 rock]$ bottom1 a  
model popul> ) guides & sportsm5 = =e/  
travel4  ,! %ea?+ 0 9 %ort l5g?s ) r\nd$
 ends :i* ov]lapp$1 & x 0 laid          
irregul>ly 9 ! ?r[n 9 /yle f\nd 9 _m    
we/]n bir*-b>k canoes4 ,! ribs 7        
commonly ab\t #b in*es wide & ne>ly  in*
 ?ick1 ! wid? tap]+ to r\ghly #a in*es  
"u ! gunwales4 ,! ends ( ! ribs 7 !n    
%>ply r$uc$ 9 wid? to a *isel po9t ab\t 
#a in* wide2 ! sides ( ! %>ply r$uc$    
tap] be+ bevel$1 z well z ! end4 ,a     
#ae-;foot canoe usually _h #df to #ej   
ribs4  ,! ?w>ts1 unlike ^? ( ! ,micmac &
 "s ,malecite canoes1 9 :i* ! ?w>ts 7   
unequally spac$1 7 equally spac$ accord+
 to a build]'s =mula4 ,! ends ( ! ?w>ts1
 or crossb>s1 7 t5on$ into ! ma9        

gunwales & la%$ 9 place ?r\gh ! ?ree    
la%+ holes 9 ! ends ( ea* ?w>t1 except !
 end ones1 :i* usually _h b two4 ,9 "s  
small canoes1 h[ev]1 two la%+ holes 7   
plac$ 9 all ?w>t ends4 ,! design ( ! ,/4
 ,francis ?w>t 0 z a rule v pla91       
gradually increas+ 9 wid? f ! c5t]      
outw>ds to ! t5on at ! gunwale 9 plan & 
decreas+ 9 ?ickness 9 elevation 9 ! same
 direction4 ,! ends ( ! ma9 gunwales 7 (
 ! half-arr[head =m1 & 7 cov]$ ) a b>k  
wulegessis1 b ! flaps bel[ ! outwales 7 
sometimes cut (f1 or !y might be =m$ 9  
"s graceful outl9e4  ,! b>k cov] 0      
sometimes 9 "o piece2 :5 x 0 piec$ out =
 wid?1 ! h>ness-/it* 0 us$4 ,9 mo/      
canoes1 ! b>k along ! gunwale 0 d\bl$ by
 add+ a long n>r[ /rip1 (t5 left hang+  
free bel[ ! gunwales & /opp+ j %ort ( ! 
wulegessis1 :i* x resembl$4 ,x 0        
sometimes decorat$4 ,a few ,/4 ,francis 
canoes ) nail$ gunwales omitt$ ?is d\bl+
 piece4 ,:5 us$1 ! d\bl+ piece1 z well z
 ! end cov]1 7 fold$ d[n on top ( !     
gunwale be=e be+ sewn into place4 ,!    

decoration ( ! ,/4 ,francis canoes seems
 to h be5 scant & :olly conf9$ to a n>r[
 b& along ! gunwale1 or to ! d\bl+      
pieces4 ,! m>k+ ( ! wulegessis _h ceas$ 
long be=e ,adney inve/igat$ ?is type (  
canoe & no liv+ ,indian knew ( any old  
m>ks1 if any ev] _h be5 us$4            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #hb  ,,l[-,,end$  
,,/4 ,,francis ,,canoe ) ,v-=m end      
sections made ) %ort1 ,v-%ap$ keel      
batt5s outside ! %ea?+ at ea* end4 ,note
 ! unusual =m ( headbo>d1 se5 9 "s ,/4  
,francis canoes4  ,! ends 7 commonly    
la%$ ) a spiral or cross$ /it*1 b "s    
build]s us$ a s]ies ( %ort-to-long      
/it*es t made gr\ps g5]ally triangul> 9 
appe>ance4 ,! gunwale la%+ 0 9 gr\ps    
ab\t #b in*es long1 ea* hav+ #e to #g   
turns ?r\gh ! b>k4 ,! gr\ps 7 ab\t #a to
 #a in*es ap>t ne> ! ends & ab\t #b     
in*es ap>t else:]e4 ,! gr\ps 7 n        
indep5d5t b 7 made by br++ ! la/ turn ( 
ea* gr\p ov] ! top & inside ! ma9       
gunwale 9 a long diagonal pass s z to   
come ?r\gh ! b>k f ! inside = ! fir/    

pass ( ! new gr\p4 ,! caps 7 orig9ally  
pegg$1 ) a few la%+s at ! ends4  ,! ribs
 7 b5t gre54 ,aft] ! b>k cov] _h be5    
sewn to ! gunwales1 ! gre5 ribs 7 fitt$ 
r\ghly inside ! b>k1 ) _! ends /&+ above
 ! gunwales1 & 7 !n =c$ into ! desir$   
%ape & held !re1 usually by two wide    
batt5s press$ aga9/ !m by #g to #aj     
tempor>y cross /ruts4 ,aft] be+ all[$ to
 dry 9 place1 ! ribs 7 !n remov$1 !     
%ea?+ 0 put into place1 & ! ribs1 aft] a
 f9al fitt+1 7 driv5 into _! prop]      
positions4 ,"s build]s put 9 ! ribs by  
pairs 9 ! %ap+ /age1 "o on top ( ! o!r1 
z ?is made easi] ! job ( fitt+ !        
tempor>y batt5s4 ,! =c+ ( ! ribs to %ape
 also s]v$ to %ape ! b>k cov]1 & ! canoe
 0 plac$ on horses dur+ ! op]ation1 s t 
! %ape ( ! bottom c\ld be obs]v$ :ile ! 
b>k 0 be+ m\ld$4 ,"s build]s us$ v ?9   
longitud9al batt5s betwe5 ! b>k & ! gre5
 ribs to avoid dang] ( bur/+ ! b>k4  ,! 
canoe 0 built on a level build+ b$1 9   
mo/ in/ances app>5tly1 ) ! ends ( !     
build+ frame block$ up ab\t an in*4 ,x  

seems possible1 h[ev]1 t n>r[ bottom    
canoes may h be5 built ) ! b$ rais$ #b  
or #c in*es 9 ! middle1 r ?an employ+ a 
n>r[ build+ frame4 ,! con/ruction ( !   
build+ frame 0 ! same z among ! we/]n   
,indians & z describ$ 9 ,*apt] #c4      
,illu/ration3 ,figure #hc  ,,/4         
,,francis-,,abnaki ,,canoe ,,= ,,op5    
,,wat]1 a type t became ext9ct be=e     
#ahij4 ,f ,adney's draw+s ( a canoe     
=m]ly 9 ! ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1   
,new ,york4 ,details ( ,abnaki canoes   
are also %[n4  ,9 prep>+ ! ribs1 a      
common practice 0 ! foll[+3 ,assume1 =  
example1 t !re are #aj ribs f ! c5t] to 
! fir/ ?w>t =w>d2 ^! are laid out on !  
gr\nd edge-to-edge ) ! rib "u ! c5t]    
?w>t to ! left & ! rib "u ! fir/ ?w>t to
 ! "r4 ,on ! rib to ! left ! middle ?w>t
 is laid s t its c5t] co9cides ) t ( !  
rib1 & ! ends ( ! ?w>t are m>k$ on !    
rib4 ,! same is done to ! rib on ! f>   
"r1 ov] :i* ! fir/ ?w>t is laid z !     
measure4 ,on ea* side ( ! c5t]l9e !     
po9ts m>k+ ! ends ( ! ?w>ts are !n jo9$ 

by a l9e across ! ribs1 z !y lie toge!r1
 to m>k ! approximate tap] ( ! canoe    
t[>d ! ends1 at ! turn ( ! bilge4 ,ea*  
rib is tak5 9 turn f ! panel & ) x is   
plac$ ano!r f ! /ock on h& to be set 9 a
 mat*+ position on ! o!r side ( ! middle
 ?w>t1 t[>d ! /]n2 ! pair1 plac$ flat   
sides toge!r1 are !n b5t ov] ! knee at1 
or outside (1 ! m>ks or l9es4 ,! ribs 9 
! next portion ( ! canoe's l5g? are %ap$
 9 ! same mann]1 us+ ! l5g?s ( ! fir/ & 
second ?w>ts z guides4 ,?us1 ! ribs are 
giv5 a r\gh1 prelim9>y b5d be=e be+     
fitt$ inside ! b>k cov] & /ay$ into     
place to season4 ,?is me?od all[$ !     
bilge ( ! canoe to be r precisely       
det]m9$ & =m$ dur+ ! fir/ /ages (       
con/ruction4 ,at ! ends1 ( c\rse1 ! ribs
 are %>ply b5t only 9 ! middle4 ,s9ce ! 
full ?w>t l5g? makes a wide bottom1 by  
sett+ ! l5g? ( ! rib p]haps a h&'s wid? 
less ?an t ( ! :ole ?w>t1 ! n>r[ bottom 
is =m$4  ,! r\gh l5g? ( ! ribs 0 twice !
 l5g? ( ! ?w>ts ne>e/ !m4 ,hackmatack 0 
us$ = ?w>ts by ! ,/4 ,francis ,indians1 

rock maple be+ consid]$ next be/4 ,c$> 0
 fir/ *oice = ribs1 !n spruce1 & !n     
balsam fir4 ,longitud9als 7 c$> or      
spruce4 ,all canoe measurem5ts 7 made by
 h&1 f+]1 & arm measurem5ts4 ,basket a% 
/rips 7 (t5 us$ 9 transf]r+ measurem5ts4
  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #hd  ,,model ,,(
 ,a ,,/4 ,,francis-,,abnaki ,,canoe ,,"u
 ,,con/ruction1 %[+ me?od ( m\ld+ ribs  
inside ! assembl$ b>k cov]4  ,f :at has 
be5 said1 x w be se5 t ! con/ruction    
practice ( ! ,/4 ,francis did n foll[ 9 
all details t ( _! ,malecite relatives4 
,! intrusion ( we/]n practices into ?is 
gr\p probably took place "s "t aft] !   
gr\p's f9al settlem5t at ,/4 ,francis4  
,z !y gradually came into m intimate    
relations ) _! we/]n neighbors & drift$ 
into we/]n ,quebec1 beyond ! ,/4        
,lawr5ce1 _! canoe build+ te*nique      
became influ5c$ by :at !y saw to !      
we/w>d4 ,z w\ld be expect$1 ! ,/4       
,francis ,abnaki began e>ly to use nails
 9 canoe build+1 b1 be+ exp]t workm51 !y
 reta9$ ! good features ( ! old sewn    

con/ruction to a m>k$ degree up to ! v  
end ( bir*-b>k canoe con/ruction 9 s\!rn
 ,quebec1 probably ab\t #aiae4 ,x %\ld  
p]haps be not$ t :at has be5 discov]$   
ab\t ! ,/4 ,francis ,abnaki canoes ref]s
 necess>ily to only ! la/ half ( ! #ai? 
c5tury1 s9ce no e>li] canoe ( ?is gr\p  
has be5 discov]$4 ,! *anges t took place
 betwe5 ! decl9e ( ! ,p5obscot /yle (   
canoe & t ( ! lat] ,abnaki rema9 a matt]
 ( speculation4  ,illu/rations3 ,figure 
#he  ,,/4 ,,francis-,,abnaki ,,canoe4   
,beo?uk  ,! f\r? gr\p ( ,indians1 class$
 "h z belong+ to ! ea/]n m>itime area1  
are ! ,beo?uk ( ,newf\ndl&4             
,hi/orically1 p]haps1 ^! ,indians %\ld h
 be5 discuss$ fir/1 z !y 7 probably !   
fir/ ( all ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians to   
come into contact ) ! :ite man4 ,h[ev]1 
s little is kn[n ab\t _! canoes t x has 
seem$ bett] to place !m la/1 s9ce       
practically all t c be said is ! result 
( recon/ruction1 speculation1 & logic   
f\nd$ ^u r unsatisfactory evid5ce4 ,!   
tribal orig9 ( ! ,beo?uk has long be5 a 

matt] ( argum5t2 !y are kn[n to h us$ r$
 pigm5t on _! weapons1 equipm5t1 clo!s1 
& p]sons4 ,a prehi/oric gr\p t once     
inhabit$ ,ma9e & ! ,m>itime ,prov9ces   
appe>s to h _h a simil> cu/om2 ^! are   
kn[n z ! ,r$ ,pa9t ,p1 & x may be t !   
,beo?uk 7 a survival ( ?is e>li]        
culture4 ,b all t c be said ) c]ta9ty is
 t ! ,beo?uk inhabit$ ,newf\ndl& &      
p]haps "s ( ! ,labrador coa/ :5 ! :ite  
man began to frequ5t ^? p>ts4 ,! ,beo?uk
 made a nuisance ( !mselves by /eal+ ge>
 f ! ,european fi%]m51 & by occasionally
 murd]+ individuals or small gr\ps (    
:ite m54 ,late 9 ! #ag? c5tury1 ! ,fr5* 
import$ "s ,micmac w>riors & began a w> 
( ext]m9ation aga9/ ! ,beo?uk4 ,by !    
middle ( ! #ah? c5tury ! ,newf\ndl&     
tribe 0 r$uc$ to a few v small gr\ps1 & 
! ,beo?uk became ext9ct e>ly 9 ! #ai?   
c5tury1 be=e c>eful inve/igation ( _!   
culture c\ld be made4  ,_! canoes 7 made
 to a di/9ctive model q diff]5t f t ( ! 
canoes ( o!r ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians4 ,!
 descriptions available are f> f        

complete &1 z a result1 _m important    
details are left to speculation4 ,"s    
p>ts ( ! m complete descriptions are    
obscure & d n appe> to agree ) "o ano!r4
 ,9 spite ( ^! difficulties1 h[ev]1 "s  
in=mation on ! canoes is r specific2 by 
us+ ?is1 toge!r ) a k ( ! requirem5ts ( 
bir*-b>k canoe con/ruction1 & by ref]5ce
 to "s toy canoes f\nd 9 #ahfi 9 ! grave
 ( a ,beo?uk boy1 a reasonably accurate 
recon/ruction ( a canoe is possible4    
,capta9 ,ri*>d ,:itb\rne _h come ) ,sir 
,humphrey ,gilb]t to ,newf\ndl& 9 #aehj 
& revisit$ ! isl& a numb] ( times       
aft]w>d4 ,9 #afab he wrote t ! ,beo?uk  
canoes 7 %ap$ l ! :]ries ( ! ,riv]      
,?ames1 app>5tly ref]r+ to ! hump$ %e] (
 bo?2 9 ! :]ry ! %e] swept up %>ply to !
 height ( ! o> ?oles1 9 pr(ile1 & fl>$  
outw>d1 9 cross section4  ,john ,gay1 a 
memb] ( ! ,company ( ,newf\ndl&         
,plantation1 wrote 9 #afab t ,beo?uk    
canoes 7 ab\t #bj feet long & #d feet   
wide 9 ! middle & al(t1 t ! ribs 7 l    
la?s1 & t ! bir*-b>k cov] 0 sewn )      

roots4 ,! canoes c>ri$ f\r p]sons &     
weigh$ less ?an a hundr$weight4 ,!y _h a
 %ort1 light /aff set 9 ea* end by :i* !
 canoes c\ld be lift$ a%ore4 ,9 ! middle
 ! canoa is high] a great deale1 ?an at 
! b[e & qu>t]4 ,he also says ( _! cross 
section3 ,!y be all be>+ f ! keel to    
portlesse1 n ) any circul>1 b ) a       
/raight1 l9e4  ,joann de ,laet1 writ+   
ab\t #afcc1 speaks ( ! cresc5t %ape ( ! 
canoes1 ( _! %>p keel & ne$ ( balla/ to 
keep !m upright2 he also /ates t !      
canoes 7 n ov] #bj feet long & c\ld c>ry
 up to five p]sons4  ,! mo/ complete    
description ( ! ,beo?uk canoe 0 9 !     
manuscript ( ,lt4 ,john ,c>twright1     
,r4,n41 :o 0 on ! coa/ ( ,newf\ndl& 9   
#agfg-agfh z ,lieut5ant ( ,h4,b4,m4 ,%ip
 ,gu]nsey4 ,h[ev]1 "s portions are ei!r 
9 error or ! description 0              
ov]-simplifi$4 ,= example1 ,c>twright   
says t ! gunwales 7 =m$ ) a di/9ct angle
 made by jo9+ two l5g?s ( ! ma9 gunwale 
memb]s at ! elevat$ middle ( ! %e]4 ,?is
 h>dly seems correct s9ce su* a         

connection w\ld n produce ! rigidity t  
su* /ructural p>ts require1 giv5 !      
me?ods us$ by ,indians to build b>k     
canoes4 ,! ?ree grave models %[ t ! %e] 
0 actually curv$ along its elevat$      
middle4 ,x is possible t ,c>twright saw 
a damag$ canoe 9 :i* ! la%+s ( ! sc>f ( 
! gunwales _h slack5$ s t ! l9e ( %e]   
broke !re4 ,c>twright is p]haps mislead+
 9 8 description ( ! rock] ( ! keel z   
be+ ne>ly1 if n exactly1 ! half ( an    
ellipse1 longitud9ally divid$4 ,! models
 %[ ! keel to h be5 /raight along ! l5g?
 ( ! canoe & turn$ up %>ply at ! ends to
 =m b[ & /]n4 ,c>twright also /ates !   
keel piece 0 ab\t ! size ( ! h&le ( a   
common hat*et amid%ips1 or p]haps #a in*
 ?ick & #a in*es wide1 & tap]$ t[>d !   
ends1 :i* 7 ab\t  in* wide & ab\t       
equally ?ick4 ,! height ( ! %e] amid%ips
 0 p]haps two-?irds ! height ( ! ends4  
,illu/ration3 ,figure #hf  ,a           
#ae-;,,foot ,,beo?uk ,,canoe ,,(        
,,newf\ndl& ) #db-;in* beam1 inside     
measurem5t1 turn$ on side = use z a     

camp4 ,x gives headroom cle>ance ( ab\t 
#c feet1 d\ble t ( an #ah-;foot         
,malecite canoe ) high ends4 ,:5 ! ends 
7 n high en\gh to provide maximum       
cle>ance1 small upright /icks 7 la%$ to 
b[ & /]n4 ,! %ape ( ! gunwales w\ld     
p]mit ! canoe to be heel$ to an angle 7m
 ?an #ce7 :i* w\ld swamp a canoe (      
ord9>y %e] & dep?4 7,sket* by ,adney47  
,ne>ly all obs]v]s1 ,c>twright includ$1 
not$ ! almo/ p]fect ,v-=m cross section 
( ^! canoes1 ) ! apexes r\nd$ (f        
slightly & ! w+s slightly curv$4 ,f an  
int]pretation ( ,c>twright's /atem5ts1 x
 appe>s t aft] ! b>k cov] _h be5 lac$ to
 ! gunwales1 ! latt] 7 =c$ ap>t to ins]t
 ! ?w>ts1 z 9 "s we/]n ,indian          
canoe-build+ te*niques4 ,! ?ree ?w>ts   
are describ$ z be+ ab\t two f+]s 9 wid? 
& dep?4 ,x is /at$ t ! gunwales 7 made  
up ( an inn] & out] memb] & all 7 sc>f$ 
9 ! middle to tap] ea* way t[>d ! ends1 
! out] memb] s]v+ z an outwale or gu>d4 
,c>twright also /ates t ! inside ( ! b>k
 cov] 0 l9$ ) /icks #b or #c in*es      

broad1 cut flat & ?94 ,he ref]s also to 
o!rs ( ! same sort :i* s]v$ z timb]s s  
he is describ+ bo? ! %ea?+ & ! ribs z   
be+ #b or #c in*es wide4 ,he does n say 
h[ ! ?w>ts 7 fitt$ to ! gunwales1 h[    
high ! ends 71 h[ ! ends ( ! gunwales 7 
=m$1 nor does he give any details ( !   
sew+ us$4 ,h[ev]1 ! grave models sugge/ 
! =m ( sew+ probably us$ & ! approximate
 proportions ( %e]4  ,an old settl] told
 ,james ,h[ley t ! ,beo?uk canoes c\ld  
be fold$ toge!r l a purse4 ,consid]+ !  
con/ruction requir$ 9 bir*-b>k canoes1  
?is is manife/ly impossible2 p]haps :at 
! settl] _h se5 0 a canoe 9 con/ruction 
) ! b>k secur$ to %ap$ gunwales1 ready =
 ! latt] to be sprung ap>t by ?w>ts1 z 9
 op5+ a purse4 ,h[ley also obta9$ f a   
man :o _h se5 ,beo?uk canoes a sket* :i*
 %[s a /raight keel & peak$ ends1       
confirm$ 9 all respects by ! grave      
models or toys4  ,! toy canoes s (t5    
ref]r$ to "h 7 f\nd by ,samuel ,c(f9 9  
an ,indian burial cave on a small isl& 9
 ,pilley's ,tickle1 ,notre ,dame ,bay   

7on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,newf\ndl&71 9 #ahfi4  
,among ! graves 9 ! cave1 "o ( a *ild1  
evid5tly a boy1 0 f\nd to conta9 a wood5
 image ( a boy1 toy b[s & arr[s1 two toy
 canoes & a fragm5t ( a ?ird1 packages (
 food1 & "s r$ o*re4 ,) "o ( ! canoes 0 
a fragm5t ( a m9iature paddle4 ,"o ( !  
canoes 0 #cb in*es long1 height ( ends  
#h in*es1 height ( side amid%ips #f     
in*es1 /raight portion ( keel #bf in*es 
& beam #g in*es1 z %[n by ,h[ley4  ,9   
,newf\ndl& !re 0 v f9e bir* b no c$>4   
,!re 01 h[ev]1 excell5t spruce :i* w\ld 
take ! place ( c$>4 ,x seems c]ta91 !n1 
t all ! framework ( ! ,beo?uk canoes 0 (
 spruce4 ,x seems likely t !y 7 nev]    
built ( a s+le %eet ( bir* b 7 cov]$ ) a
 numb] ( %eets sewn toge!r1 z 9 o!r e>ly
 ,indian bir*-b>k canoes4 ,! canoe bir* 
( ,newf\ndl& grew to a diamet] ( #b to  
#b feet at ! butt1 :i* w\ld produce a   
%eet ( bir* ( #f to #g feet wid?2 ! l5g?
 w\ld be decid$ by h[ f> up ! tree !    
,indian c\ld climb to make ! upp] cut4  
,z has be5 /at$1 ! prehi/oric ,indians  

seem+ly made little attempt to build    
bir*-b>k canoes ( long l5g?s ( b>k1     
pref]r+ to use only ! b>k obta9able ne> 
! gr\nd & above ! height ( ! w9t] sn[s4 
,! =m ( ! ,beo?uk canoes1 p>ticul>ly !  
lack ( bilge & ! m>k$ ,v-=m1 has caus$  
mu* speculation4 ,"o writ] assum$ t ! =m
 0 p>ticul>ly suit$ = runn+ rapids4     
,actually1 ! ,beo?uk appe>$ to h us$    
canoes = riv] travel v r>ely1 z few     
riv]s 9 _! c\ntry 7 suit$ = navigation4 
,in/ead1 !y seem to h be5 coa/ dwell]s &
 to h us$ canoes = coa/al travel & =    
voyages f isl& to isl&4  ,_! canoes 7   
und\bt$ly design$ = op5-wat] navigation1
 & ! ,v-=m 0 p>ticul>ly suitable = ?is4 
,! draft aid$ 9 keep+ ! canoe on its    
c\rse ) ei!r broadside or qu>t]+ w9ds1 &
 if ! ,beo?uks knew sail1 ! hull-=m w\ld
 h s]v$ !m well4 ,x is q evid5t t !     
,beo?uk canoes us$ balla/ 9 ! =m ( /ones
 or heavy c>go4 ,/ones w\ld h be5 plac$ 
along ! keel piece & cov]$ ) moss &     
sk9s4 ,! /rongly hogg$ %e] 0 useful 9   
protect+ c>go amid%ips f spray &1 9     

pick+ up a seal or porpoise1 ! canoe    
c\ld be %>ply heel$ )\t tak+ 9 wat]4 ,! 
,v sections =e & aft 7 suitable =       
r\gh-wat] navigation2 because ( its =m &
 ! weight ( balla/1 ! canoe w\ld pass   
p>tly ov] & ?r\gh ! wave-top )\t p\nd+4 
,if a wave ( su* height z to ov]top !   
gunwales j abaft ! /em 7 met1 ! /rongly 
fl>+ sides w\ld give res]ve buoyancy1   
caus+ ! canoe to lift quickly z ! wave  
rea*$ up ! sides4  ,! small /icks 9 !   
ends1 m5tion$ by ,john ,gay1 s]v$ n only
 = lift+ ! canoe b also z braces to     
support ! canoe at a giv5 angle :5 turn$
 ov] a%ore to s]ve z a %elt]4 ,! ,beo?uk
 canoe1 because ( its =m1 0 n well suit$
 = portag+1 & x mu/ be conclud$ t little
 ( ?is 0 done4 ,9 coa/al voyages1 !     
canoe w\ld be unload$ & br\ght a%ore ea*
 night to s]ve z a %elt]4  ,x is believ$
 t ! gunwale la%+ ( ^! canoes 0 9 gr\ps1
 z 9 ! ,malecite4 ,h[ley que/ion$ an old
 ,micmac :o _h se5 ! ,beo?uk la%+2 he   
lik5$ x to ! cont9u\s la%+ us$ by 8 own 
p1 indicat+ "s =m ( gr\p wrapp+1 at     

lea/4 ,x is probable t ! gr\p la%+s 7   
let into ! gunwales by %all[ not*+ at   
ea* gr\p1 a common ,indian practice :5  
no rail cap 0 us$1 to prev5t abrasion f 
! paddle or f load+ & unload+ ! canoe4  
,! lac+ ( ! ends appe>s to h be5 9 !    
common spiral /it*1 judg+ by ! grave    
models4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 %[ a cont9u\s wrapp+
 at ! gunwales1 a common simplification 
f\nd 9 ,indian canoe models1 repres5t+  
ei!r gr\p or cont9u\sly wrapp$ gunwales 
indiscrim9ately4  ,! paddle ( ! ,beo?uks
 _h a long1 n>r[ blade1 probably ) a    
po9t$ tip & a ridg$ surface4 ,! %ape is 
ne>ly spatulate4 ,! h&le is miss+ f !   
grave model b 0 p]haps ( ! usual        
hoe-h&l$ =m )\t a top cross-grip4  ,f ^!
 descriptions & on ! basis ( common     
,indian te*niques 9 bir*-b>k canoe      
con/ruction1 ! =m & me?ods ( build+ !   
,beo?uk canoe c be recon/ruct$4 ,! draw+
 on page #ig %[s ! probable %ape &      
appe>ance ( ! f9i%$ canoe4 ,x seems     
likely t a level build+ b$ 0 fir/       
prep>$4 ,! keel1 probably rectangul> 9  

cross section1 0 !n =m$ ( two poles     
plac$ butt-to-butt1 work$ to %ape1 &    
sc>f$4 ,! fa/5+ ( ! sc>f 0 probably two 
or m la%+s let into ! surface ( ! wood4 
,^! la%+s are assum$ to h be5 (         
split-root mat]ial b may h be5 s9ew4    
,possibly to /r5g!n ! sc>fs1 pegs 7 also
 us$1 a te*nique consi/5t ) ! /ate (    
,beo?uk culture4 ,! keel probably _h its
 ends split into lam9ae to all[ ! %>p   
b5d requir$ to =m ! b[ & /]n pieces2 & x
 0 probably treat$ ) hot wat] & /ak$ out
 to ! desir$ pr(ile4 ,! ma9 gunwales 7  
simil>ly made & work$ to ! pr$et]m9$ %e]
 :i*1 9 /ak+ out1 0 hogg$ to a great]   
degree ?an 0 requir$ 9 ! f9i%$ canoe4 ,!
 ends ( ! gunwales 7 app>5tly split into
 lam9ae to all[ ! %ap+ ( ! %>p upsweep (
 ! %e] close to b[ & /]n4 ,! outwales 7 
probably =m$ 9 ! same mann]1 aft] :i* ! 
?ree ?w>ts 7 made & ! mat]ial = ribs &  
%ea?+ prep>$4 ,! ribs 7 app>5tly b5t to 
! desir$ %ape1 us+ hot wat]1 & 7 ei!r   
/ak$ out or ti$ to hold !m 9 =m until   
ne$$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #hg        

,,beo?uk ,,canoe1 ,,approximate ,,=m ,,&
 ,,con/ruction  ,! keel 0 !n laid on !  
b$ & a s]ies ( /akes1 p]haps #d feet    
long1 7 driv5 into ! b$ on ea* side ( ! 
piece 9 oppos+ pairs at int]vals (      
p]haps #b or #c feet4 ,! /akes & keel   
piece 7 !n remov$ & ! b>k cov] laid ov] 
! b$4 ,?is may h be5 9 two or ?ree      
l5g?s1 ) ! edges ov]lapp$ s t ! outside 
edge ( ! lap fac$ away f :at 0 to be !  
/]n4 ,! keel 0 !n plac$ on ! b>k &      
weight$ d[n ) a few /ones or la%$ at !  
/em heads to ! end /akes2 !n ! b>k 0    
fold$ up on ea* side ( ! keel1 & ! /akes
 slipp$ back into _! holes 9 ! b$ &     
driv5 solidly into place1 p]haps ) !    
tops angl$ slightly outw>d4 ,! heads 7  
!n ti$ toge!r across ! "w & batt5s plac$
 along ! /akes & ! outside ( ! b>k to =m
 a tr\gh aga9/ :i* ! cov] c\ld be held )
 horizontal inside batt5s4 ,^! 7 secur$ 
by inside /akes la%$ to ea* outside /ake
 9 ! mann] us$ 9 build+ ea/]n ,indian   
canoes 7see p4 #de74 ,! b>k cov] n[ /ood
 on ! b$ 9 a %>p ,v =m1 ) ! keel        

support$ on ! b$1 ! ends ( ! b>k        
support$ by ! end /akes1 & bo? held d[n 
by /ones along ! l5g? ( ! keel4 ,an     
alt]native w\ld h be5 to fix heavy /akes
 at ! extreme b[ & /]n ( ! keel & to la%
 ! /em-heads firmly to ^! 9 ord] to hold
 ! keel d[n on ! b>k4  ,next ! ma9      
gunwales1 preb5t to ! requir$ =m1 7     
br\ght to ! build+ b$ & _! ends         
tempor>ily la%$ to /em & /]n4 ,! b>k 0  
br\ght up to ^!1 trimm$1 fold$ ov] _!   
tops1 & secur$ by a few tempor>y la%+s4 
,!n ! outwales 7 plac$ outside ! b>k )  
_! ends tempor>ily secur$1 & a few pegs 
7 driv5 ?r\gh outwale1 b>k1 & ma9       
gunwales1 or a few p]man5t la%+s 7      
pass$4 ,! b>k cov] 0 next securely la%$ 
to ! gunwales & outwales comb9$1 all    
along ! %e] to a po9t ne> ! ends4 ,!    
excess b>k 0 !n trimm$ away at b[ & /]n 
& ! cov] 0 lac$ to ! end pieces to =m b[
 & /]n4 ,?is lac+ mu/ h pass$ ?r\gh !   
lam9ations ( ! /em & /]n pieces 9 !     
usual mann]1 avoid+ ! spiral la%+ t held
 ! lam9ae toge!r4 ,! ends ( ! gunwales &

 outwales 7 next p]man5tly la%$ toge!r )
 root or o!r mat]ial & to ! /em & /]n   
pieces4 ,?is done1 ! gunwales 7 spread  
ap>t amid%ips1 press+ ! /akes outw>d    
/ill m at ! tops4 ,at ?is po9t ! t5ons  
may h !n be5 cut 9 ! ma9 gunwales & !   
?w>ts ins]t$4 ,?is me?od1 incid5tally1 0
 us$ 9 build+ "s we/]n ,indian b>k      
canoes4  ,! usual /eps ( complet+ a     
bir*-b>k canoe w\ld !n foll[--! ins]tion
 ( %ea?+1 held 9 place by tempor>y ribs1
 & !n ! driv+ home ( ! preb5t ribs "u ! 
ma9 gunwales1 ) _! heads 9 ! spaces     
betwe5 ! gr\p la%+s along ! gunwales &  
aga9/ ! l[] outbo>d corn] ( ! ma9       
gunwale memb]1 :i* 0 probably bevel$ z 9
 ! ,malecite canoe4 ,! %ea?+ may h be5 9
 two or ?ree l5g?s1 except close to !   
gunwale amid%ips :]e "o l5g? w\ld s]ve4 
,on ea* side ( ! keel piece a %ea?+     
/rake 0 plac$ :i* 0 ?ick on ! edge aga9/
 ! keel b ?9 along ! outbo>d edge1 9    
ord] to fair ! %ea?+ into ! keel piece4 
,at "s po9t 9 ?is process1 ! b>k cov] 0 
piec$ out to make ! requir$ wid?1 &     

gores 7 cut 9 ! usual mann]4 ,9 spread+ 
! gunwales1 ! b[ & /]n w\ld h to be fre$
 f any /akes1 z ^! w\ld t5d to pull     
inbo>d slightly z ! gunwales 7 spread 9 
! process ( %ap+ ! hull4 ,! ribs c\ld h 
be5 put 9 :ile gre5 & %ap$ 9 ! b>k cov] 
by use ( batt5s & cross braces inside1 z
 7 ^? ( ! ,/4 ,francis canoes4  ,! sew+ 
( ! b>k cov] at panels & gores w\ld take
 place be=e ! %ea?+ & ribs 7 plac$1 (   
c\rse4 ,a #ae-;foot canoe :5 complet$   
w\ld h a gir? amid%ips ( ab\t #fe to #fh
 in*es if ! beam at ! gunwales 7 #dh    
in*es1 & a b>k cov] ( ?is wid? c\ld be  
tak5 f a tree ( r\ghly #bj in*es 9      
diamet]4 ,h5ce1 !re may h be5 little    
piec+ out ( ! b>k = wid?4 ,9 ! =m ( !   
,beo?uk canoe z recon/ruct$ !re is no?+ 
t dep>ts f :at is possible by ! common  
,indian canoe-build+ te*niques4 ,! f9i%$
 canoe w\ld1 9 all respects1 agree ) mo/
 ( ! descriptions t h be5 f\nd & w\ld be
 a practical craft 9 all ! conditions "u
 :i* x w\ld be employ$4  ,^! 7 ! only   
bir*-b>k canoes suppos$ to h made long  

runs 9 ! op5 sea cle> ( ! l&4 ,9 !m !   
,beo?uk are suppos$ to h made voyages to
 ! outly+ isl&s1 9 :i* runs 9 op5 wat] (
 upw>d ( #fj miles w\ld be necess>y1 &  
!y probably cross$ f ,newf\ndl& to      
,labrador4  ,! ,v-=m us$ by ! ,beo?uk   
canoe 0 ! mo/ extreme ( all bir*-b>k    
canoe models 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 al?\gh1 z 
has be5 m5tion$1 less extreme ,v-bottoms
 7 us$ else:]e4 ,! ,beo?uk canoe may h  
be5 a developm5t ( "s m anci5t =m ( b>k 
sea canoe also relat$ to ! ,v-bottom    
canoes ( ! ,passamaquoddy4 ,! mo/ m>k$  
/ructural *>act]i/ic ( ! ,beo?uk canoe 0
 ! keel2 ! only o!r canoe 9 :i* a true  
keel 0 employ$ 0 ! tempor>y moosehide   
canoes ( ! ,malecite4  ,! ,beo?uk keel  
piece may h sometimes be5 ne>ly r\nd 9  
section l ! keel ( ! ,malecite moosehide
 canoe 7p4 #bad74 ,! two g>bo>d /rakes (
 ! %ea?+ may h be5 %ap$ 9 cross section 
to fair ! b>k cov] f ! ?9 %ea?+ above to
 ! ?ick keel & at ! same "t all[ ! ribs 
to hold ! g>bo>ds 9 place4 ,!y c\ld1 9  
fact1 be easily made1 s9ce a radial     

split ( a small tree w\ld produce       
clapbo>d-l cross sections4 ,?is         
con/ruction w\ld p]haps comply bett] )  
,c>twright's description ( ! keel ?an t 
%[n 9 ! plan on page #ig4  ,! %e] ( !   
,beo?uk canoe is an exagg]at$ =m ( !    
gunwale %ape ( ! ,micmac r\gh-wat] canoe
 b ?is1 ( c\rse1 is no real indication (
 any relation%ip betwe5 ! two4 ,inde$1 !
 probable sc>f+ ( ! gunwales ( ! ,beo?uk
 canoe might be tak5 z evid5ce aga9/ su*
 a !ory4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! elm-b>k & o!r  
tempor>y canoes ( ! ,malecite &         
,iroquois _h crudely sc>f$ gunwale      
memb]s1 z did "s nor?we/]n b>k canoes4  
,mo/ ( ! build+ te*niques employ$ by    
,indians ?r\gh\t ,nor? ,am]ica are      
illu/rat$ by ^! ea/]n b>k canoes1 yet   
m>k$ v>iation 9 con/ruction details     
exi/$ to ! we/w>d1 z w be se54          
,*apt] ,five  ,,c5tral ,,canada   ,!    
,indians inhabit+ c5tral ,canada 7 exp]t
 build]s ( bir*-b>k canoes & produc$ _m 
di/9ctive types4 ,! area includes n only
 :at are n[ ! ,prov9ces ( ,quebec       

7includ+ ,labrador71 ,ont>io1 ,manitoba1
 & ! ea/]n "p ( ,saskat*ewan1 b also !  
neighbor+ nor!rn portions ( ,mi*igan1   
,wiscons9 & ,m9nesota 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4
 ,! migrations ( tribal gr\ps )9 ?is    
l>ge area 9 hi/orical times1 z well z ! 
influ5ce ( a long-e/abli%$ fur trade1 h 
produc$ _m hybrid =ms ( b>k canoes &1 9 
at lea/ a few in/ances1 ! transf] ( a   
canoe model f "o tribal gr\p to ano!r4  
,x is ?is t makes x necess>y to exam9e  
?is area z a s+le geographic unit1      
al?\gh a wide v>iation ( tribal =ms (   
b>k canoes exi/$ )9 its conf9es4  ,!    
l>g] portion ( ! ,indians inhabit+ ?is  
area 7 ( ! great ,algonkian family4 ,9 !
 ea/ dur+ ! #ah? & #ai? c5turies1 h[ev]1
 "s memb]s ( ! ,iroquois ,conf$]acy 7   
also f\nd1 & 9 ! we/1 f at lea/ z e>ly z
 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,fr5* fur trade1 gr\ps (  
,si\x1 ,dakota1 ,teton1 & ,ass9ibo94 ,f 
! fur trade z well z f normal migratory 
movem5ts !re 0 mu* int]m+l+ ( ! v>i\s   
tribes1 & x 0 long ! practice 9 ! fur   
trade1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! days ( ! ,hudson's

 ,bay ,company1 to employ ea/]n ,indians
 z canoem5 & z canoe build]s 9 ! we/]n  
areas4 ,^! app>5tly introduc$ canoe     
models into sections :]e !y 7 =m]ly     
unkn[n2 z a result1 ! tribal            
classification ( b>k canoes )9 ! area "u
 exam9ation _c be v precise & ! range ( 
ea* =m _c be /at$ accurately4 ,x 0 9 ?is
 area1 too1 t ! hi/orical canot du matre
 7also writt5 matre canot71 or great    
canoe1 ( ! fur trade 0 develop$4  ,mo/ (
 c5tral ,canada1 except t[>d ! extreme  
nor? 9 ,quebec & t[>d ! s\? bel[ !      
,great ,lakes1 is 9 ! area :]e ! canoe  
bir* 0 pl5tiful & ( l>ge size4 ,!re !   
num]\s inl& wat]ways1 ! ,great ,lakes1 &
 ! coa/al wat]s ( ,james & ,hudson ,bays
 make wat] travel conv5i5t1 & natural   
conditions require a v>iety ( canoe     
models4 ,h5ce1 :5 ,europeans fir/ appe>$
 9 ?is area !y f\nd already 9 exi/5ce a 
highly develop$ me?od ( canoe           
transportation4 ,?is !y imm$iately      
adopt$ z _! own1 & 9 ! long p]iod la/+  
until v rec5t times1 dur+ :i* !         

developm5t ( ! nor!rn portion ( ?is area
 0 sl[1 ! canoe rema9$ ! mo/ important  
means ( =e/ travel4  ,9 ! nor!a/]n      
portion ( ! area1 includ+ ! ,prov9ce (  
,quebec 7) ,labrador7 f a l9e drawn f ! 
head ( ,james ,bay ea/w>dly ?r\gh ,lake 
,/4 ,john & ! ,sagu5ay ,riv] ,valley to 
! ,/4 ,lawr5ce & !nce nor?w>d to !      
treel9e 9 ! sub-,arctic1 dwelt ! ea/]n  
bran* ( ! f>-rang+ ,cree tribe4 ,^? liv+
 on ! %ores ( ,hudson & ,james ,bays1   
along ! we/ side ( ! ,labrador ,p59sula1
 7 kn[n z ! ,ea/]n1 ,swamp1 or ,muskeg  
,cree4 ,to ! nor?1 at ! ,head ( ,ungava 
,bay1 ar\nd ,=t ,*imo1 & to ! imm$iate  
s\?w>d1 7 ! ,nascapee1 or ,nascopie1    
suppos$ly relat$ to ! ,ea/]n ,cree4 ,9  
s\!rn ,labrador & 9 ,quebec along ! nor?
 %ore ( ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce & = "s   
di/ance inl&1 dwelt ano!r relat$ tribal 
gr\p n[ kn[n z ! ,montagnais4  ,al?\gh !
 mo/ rec5t canoe =ms employ$ by ^! ?ree 
,indian gr\ps 7 v mu* ! same1 ?is may n 
h be5 ! case e>li]4 ,a common canoe     
model 9 ?is area 0 ! s-call$ crook$     

canoe1 9 :i* !re 0 a v m>k$ =e-&-aft    
rock] to ! bottom )\t a correspond+     
am\nt ( %e]2 z a result ! canoe 0 mu*   
deep] amid%ips ?an ne> ! ends4 ,ano!r   
common model _h a r /raight bottom =e & 
aft1 ) "s lift ne> ! ends & a           
correspond+ am\nt ( %e]4 ,betwe5 ^! 0 a 
hybrid :i* _h "s =e-&-aft rock] 9 !     
bottom & a v mod]ate %e]4 ,n until !    
#ahgj's 0 any detail$ exam9ation made ( 
! canoes 9 ?is area2 !n x appe>$ t !    
crook$ canoe might be ! tribal model ( !
 ea/]n ,cree only1 :ile ! ,nascapee     
employ$ a /raight-bottom model1 b x is  
possible t ! exam9ation 0 limit$ & t    
,nascapee use ( ! crook$ canoe 0 simply 
n obs]v$4 ,by #aijj1 h[ev]1 ! crook$    
model 0 9 use n only by ! ea/]n ,cree & 
! ,nascapee b also by ! ,montagnais4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #hh  ,,montagnais 
,,crook$ ,,canoe4 7,canadian ,geological
 ,survey photo47  ,9 ! area ar\nd ,=t   
,*imo & at ! nor!rn ranges ( ! ea/]n    
,cree & ( ! ,montagnais ! lack ( good   
bir* b>k made x necess>y to make up !   

b>k cov] out ( _m small pieces4 ,?is n  
only 0 labori\s b made a r\gh & r       
unsightly cov]4 ,h5ce1 "s ( ! nor!rn    
build]s1 p>ticul>ly ! ,nascapee1        
sub/itut$ spruce b>k1 :i* 0 available 9 
q l>ge %eets4 ,! use ( ! spruce b>k1    
h[ev]1 did n cause any ( ^! p to dep>t  
m>k$ly f ! model or ! me?od ( con/ruct+ 
bir*-b>k canoes1 z x did = ! ,indians 9 
! m>itime area4  ,at ! "t 7#aijh7 :5    
,adney 0 c>efully obs]v+ ! canoes 9 ?is 
area he f\nd t bo? crook$ &             
/raight-bottom canoes 7 be+ us$ by all  
?ree tribal gr\ps1 b ) a v>iation 9     
midsection =m among individual build]s4 
,bo? types 7 built ) a midsection t _h a
 wide bottom & v]tical sides1 or1 z an  
alt]native1 a n>r[ bottom & fl>+ sides4 
,! end pr(ile ( all ^! canoes %[$ *94 ,9
 "s crook$ canoes ! pr(ile 0 app>5tly an
 arc ( a circle1 b 9 mo/ canoes ! =m 0  
an irregul> curve4 ,! /em met ! gunwale 
9 a m>k$ peak r\nd$ v slightly at !     
head1 z ! result ( ! me?od by :i* ! /em 
0 con/ruct$1 b 9 ! hybrid model us$ by !

 ,nascapee ! ends 7 l[ & n mu* peak$ & !
 quick upw>d rise ( ! %e] ne> ! ends 0  
lack+4 ,9 cross section all ^! canoes   
became ,v-%ap$ close to ! ends1         
reg>dless ( ! midsection =m4 ,= !       
/raight-bottom canoe & 9 ! hybrid =m ?is
 result$ 9 v %>p level l9es1 b ! v great
 rock] ( ! crook$ canoe br\ght ! ends   
well above ! normal l9e ( flotation1 s t
 ?is type 0 q full-end$ at ! level l9e 9
 spite ( ! ,v-section4  ,x is app>5t ^u 
exam9+ ! crook$ canoe t !re 0 actually  
less v>iation 9 its =m1 9 spite (       
diff]5ces 9 midsection %ape1 ?an 9 t ( !
 /raight-bottom canoe1 ow+ to its v     
great dep? amid%ips 9 proportion to its 
wid?4 ,?is proportion made necess>y a v 
mod]ate fl>e 9 ! n>r[-bottom midsection 
& result$ 9 a r wall-sid$ appe>ance1 ev5
 9 ?is model4 ,! hybrid =m1 :i* fell    
betwe5 ! extremes ( ! crook$ canoe & !  
/raight-bottom canoe1 _h a n>r[-bottom$ 
fl>+-sid$ midsection1 & its relatively  
mod]ate dep? made obvi\s ! fl>e 9 !     
topsides & ?us creat$ a di/9ctive model4

  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #hi             
,,bir*-,,b>k ,,crook$ ,,canoe1 ,,ungava 
,,cree4 7,smi?sonian ,in/itution photo47
   ,ea/]n ,cree  ,! con/ruction ( canoes
 ( ! ea/]n ,cree & relat$ tribes seems  
g5]ally l t ( ! ,micmac craft4 ,in/ead (
 ! gunwale me?od employ$ 9 ! ,m>itime   
area1 a build+ frame 0 us$1 & z a result
 ! gunwales 7 long] ?an ! bottom4 ,9    
con/ruct+ ! crook$ canoe1 ! build+ frame
 mu/ be heavily %e]$1 & !re is evid5ce t
 ! build+ b$ 0 depress$ amid%ips1 r ?an 
rais$ z 0 usual 9 ! ea/4 ,! great am\nt 
( rock] 9 ! bottom 9 ?is =m ( ,cree     
canoe made x necess>y to block up ! ends
 ( ! build+ frame to a v great height1 &
 !re 0 no ne$ to raise ! build+ b$ at   
midl5g?1 s9ce ! rock] ext5d$ ! full l5g?
 ( ! bottom4 ,! b>k cov] _h to be gor$  
at closely spac$ int]vals to all[ !     
rock] to be =m$1 & ev5 9 !              
/raight-bottom model1 ! quick rise ( !  
bottom ne> ! ends requir$ closely spac$ 
gores !re4 ,9 ! /raight-bottom model1   
h[ev]1 ! build+ b$ 0 rais$ at midl5g?1 z

 9 ea/]n canoe-build+1 & ! build+ frame 
0 balla/$ to a cupid's-b[ pr(ile1 :5 on 
! b$1 s z to a*ieve ! comb9ation (      
/raight bottom amid%ips ) %>ply ris+    
ends4  ,! gunwales 7 =m$ ( ! ma9 gunwale
 memb] & a light gunwale cap1 no outwale
 be+ employ$4 ,!y 7 jo9$ at ! ends &1   
aft] hot wat] _h be5 appli$1 7 /ak$ out 
) po/s "u ! ends to obta9 ! requir$ %e]4
 ,! ?w>ts 7 !n t5on$ into ! ma9         
gunwales1 ?\gh occasionally a canoe 0   
built ) brok5 gunwales1 t is1 !         
?w>t-ends 7 let flu% into ! top & cov]$ 
by ! caps4 ,"s build]s did n spread !   
gunwales & place ! ?w>ts until aft] !   
b>k cov] 0 la%$ at ! %e]2 o!rs us$ !    
ea/]n me?ods ( assembl+ ! gunwale       
/ructure prior to secur+ ! b>k cov] at  
%e]4 ,! b>k cov] 0 atta*$ to ! ma9      
gunwales ) a cont9u\s la%+1 z 9 !       
,micmac canoes1 b ! b>k 0 n always      
br\ght ov] ! top ( ! gunwales4 ,z a     
result1 "s canoes _h a batt5 plac$ "u ! 
la%+1 ne> ! edge ( ! cov]1 to prev5t !  
la%+ f te>+ away4 ,due to ! lack ( good 

root mat]ial1 ! la%+ 0 (t5 ( ra:ide4 ,= 
all horizontal seams 9 ! side panels ( !
 b>k cov]1 ra:ide sew+ ov] a root batt5 
0 us$4 ,! ends ( ! gunwales 7 support$  
by sprung headbo>ds2 9 "s canoes ^! 7   
belli$ t[>d ! ends to su* a degree t !y 
almo/ p>allel$ ! end pr(iles4           
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ij  ,,nascapee   
#c-;,,fa?om ,,canoe1 ,,ea/]n ,,labrador4
 ,simil> canoes1 ) slight v>iations 9   
model & dim5sions1 7 us$ by all ,ungava 
,indians3 ! ,montagnais & ! ,ea/]n1 or  
,swamp1 ,crees4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure  
#ia  ,,montagnais #b-;,,fa?om ,,canoe   
,,( ,,s\!rn ,,labrador ,,& ,,quebec1 %[+
 old decoration =ms4 ,draw+ bas$ on     
small model ( a n>r[-bottom canoe built 
= fa/ paddl+4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ib
  ,,crook$ ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fa?om1 ,,( ,,!
 ,,ungava ,,p59sula1 us$ by !           
,ungava-,cree1 ,montagnais1 & ,nascapee4
 ,also built ) a wide bottom & a slight 
tumble-home 9 ! topsides4  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #ic  ,,hybrid ,,model ,,( ,,!  
,,nascapee-,,cree ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fa?om1 

built ( spruce or bir* b>k1 ) details ( 
canoes & paddles4  ,! ends 7 =m$ by     
means ( ! same te*nique us$ = ,micmac   
canoes2 no inside /em-piece 0 employ$ & 
! b>k cov] 0 /iff5$ by outside batt5s   
cov]$ by ! la%+4 ,9 ! ,cree canoes1     
h[ev]1 ! /em batt5s 7 brok5 %>ply at !  
%e] to =m a slightly r\nd$ peak :]e !   
end met ! gunwale caps4 ,! break 9 !    
batt5s 0 made by b5d+ !m v %>ply1 s t !y
 7 almo/ fractur$4 ,! ,cree practice    
also diff]$ f t ( ! ,micmac1 al?\gh n   
univ]sally1 by pass+ ! l[] end ( ! /em  
batt5 ?r\gh ! b>k cov] at ! po9t :]e !  
/em met ! bottom4 ,! slit ?us made 0    
seal$ ) gum or1 m rec5tly1 cov]$ ) clo? 
impregnat$ ) gum4 ,! /ems 7 la%$ 9 v>i\s
 ways2 ! mo/ common 0 a spiral =m up to 
! %e]4 ,ne> ! gunwale caps cross$ /it*es
 or small1 closely spac$ wrapp+s 7 also 
employ$4 ,! tops ( ! batt5s1 =m+ ! peak 
( ! /em1 7 br\ght along "u ! rail caps1 
9 l9e ) ! gunwale la%+s inbo>d1 & secur$
 ) a cont9u\s la%+ = ab\t #f in*es4 ,9 !
 nor!rn p>ts ( ! area "u discussion !   

/em la%+ 0 (t5 ( ra:ide4  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #id  ,,ea/]n ,,cree ,,crook$    
,,canoe ( r mod]ate %e] & rock]4        
7,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company   
photo47  ,gunwale caps 7 wid] ?an !     
gunwales & ?us gave "s protection to !  
la%+ !re4 ,! ends ( ! gunwale caps 7    
heavily tap]$ to all[ ! %>p b5ds        
necess>y to c>ry !m out on ! /ems4 ,!y 7
 pegg$ or nail$ to ! gunwales1 b at !   
ends 7 la%$2 usually ) two or ?ree small
 gr\p la%+s ov] & "u ! /em batt5s1 bel[ 
! caps4  ,! mo/ rec5t canoes _h canvas  
cov]s in/ead ( b>k4 ,nails1 tacks1 &    
tw9e = sew+ 7 us$2 o!rwise !y 7 built z 
! ,indians built bir*- & spruce-b>k     
craft1 & n z :ite m5 built canvas canoes
 & boats4  ,! framework ( ! canoes 0    
usually spruce or l>*4 ,t[>d ! s\? &    
along ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce "s :ite c$> 0 us$1 
& 9 ! s\? maple 0 sometimes us$ = ?w>ts4
 ,! ribs ( ! canoes inspect$ by ,adney 7
 usually ab\t #c in*es wide1 & a %ort   
tap] br\ght !m to ab\t #b in*es at !    
ends1 :]e !y 7 cut squ>e across4 ,!y 7  

spac$ ab\t #a in* ap>t edge-to-edge     
amid%ips & some:at fur!r ap>t t[>d !    
ends ( ! canoe4 ,! canoes usually _h an 
odd numb] ( ribs1 z ! fir/ 0 plac$ "u ! 
?w>t amid%ips4 ,! la/ ?ree ribs at !    
ends 7 brok5 at ! c5t]l9e to all[ !m to 
take ! necess>y ,v-section !re2 b ! f\r?
 rib f ea* end 0 only %>ply b5t4 ,9 "s  
canoes ! heel ( ! v n>r[ headbo>d 0     
/epp$ on ! %ea?+ aga9/ ! endmo/ rib1 9  
o!rs x 0 /epp$1 z 9 ! ,micmac canoes1 on
 a frog :i* re/$ aga9/ ! endmo/ rib4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ie  ,,/raight ,,&
 ,,crook$ ,,canoes1 ,,ea/]n ,,cree4  ,9 
m rec5t times ! %ea?+ 0 laid 9 "o ( two 
ways1 accord+ to ! pref]5ce ( ! build]1 
b ! exi/5ce ( ! two /yles sugge/s t ea* 
0 once a tribal-gr\p me?od4 ,"o me?od ( 
%ap+ ! bottom %ea?+ 0 to employ a c5t]1 
or keelson1 piece 9 two l5g?s1 ! butts  
be+ ov]lapp$ amid%ips1 p>allel-sid$     
except t[>d ! /ems1 :]e x 0 tap]$ to fit
 ! ,v-sections r closely4 ,! next /rake 
outbo>d 0 %ort & 0 9 ! =m ( a %all[     
triangle ) its base along ! middle      

portion ( ! fir/ /rakes & ab\t "o-?ird !
 l5g? ( ! bottom4 ,its apex 0 "u !      
middle ?w>t4 ,! next /rake outbo>d 0 9  
two l5g?s lapp$ amid%ips1 p>allel sid$  
along ! arms ( ! triangul> /rake1 & sni$
 (f at ! ends to fit along ! sides ( !  
fir/ /rake4 ,ano!r /rake outbo>d ( ?is 0
 simil> 9 =m & position1 b long]4 ,?us  
sev5 /rake wid?s w\ld complete ! bottom 
%ea?+4 ,! side %ea?+ 0 n>r[ & slightly  
tap]$2 ea* /rake 9 two l5g?s ov]lapp$   
slightly amid%ips4 ,! ends ( ! topside  
%ea?+ ran well into ! ends1 9 mo/       
canoes1 :]e !y app>5tly s]v$ z /iff5+4  
,! second me?od ( %ea?+ employ$         
p>allel-sid$ /rakes ?r\gh\t1 laid side  
by side on ! bottom1 ) ! ends sni$ (f to
 fit ! =m ( ! b>k bottom4 ,! exi/5ce ( a
 model canoe made ab\t #ahej 7see p4    
#ia7 supports ! !ory t ! fir/ me?od 0   
orig9ally ! ,montagnais tribal          
con/ruction & t ! m primitive second    
me?od 0 probably ,cree or ,nascapee4  ,!
 ribs 7 pre=m$ & fitt$ to ! canoe aft]  
dry+ out4 ,!y 7 b5t to ! desir$ %ape 9  

pairs & ti$ ) a ?ong across ! ends to   
hold _! %ape :ile dry+4 ,"s build]s     
ins]t$ a /rut inside ! b5t ribs1 p>allel
 to ! ?ong1 protect+ ! surface ( ! inn] 
rib by a pad ( b>k plac$ "u ea* end ( ! 
/rut4 ,! pair ( ribs might also be      
wrapp$ ) a b>k cord to help hold !m     
toge!r4 ,to aid 9 h&l+1 "o pair ( ribs  
might be ne/$ inside ano!r4 ,z 9 ea/]n  
canoes ! ribs "u ! gunwales 7 driv5 into
 place4 ,at ! ends !y 7 cant$ t[>d !    
c5t]1 s t 9 ! /raight-bottom models !y  
/ood ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! rock] ( !    
bottom !re2 9 ! crook$ canoe ! ribs 7   
all some:at cant$ 9 ?is mann]4          
,illu/ration3 ,figure #if  ,,montagnais 
,,canvas-,,cov]$ ,,crook$ ,,canoe "u    
con/ruction4 7,canadian ,geological     
,survey photo47  ,! paddles us$ 9 ?is   
area 7 made ) p>allel-sid$ blades1 ! end
 ( ! blade be+ almo/ circul>4 ,! h&le   
might be fitt$ ) a wide grip at ! head  
or x might be pole-end$4 ,x is          
impossible to say h[ e>ly sails 7 us$ to
 propel canoes1 b x is probable !y 7    

introduc$ by ! fur trad]s4 ,squ>e sails 
7 be+ us$ on ! coa/al canoes at ! "t !  
e>lie/ ref]5ce 0 made to ^! canoes1 9 ! 
#ahgj's4  ,little is kn[n ab\t !        
decorations employ$ by ! ea/]n ,cree4 ,!
 ,montagnais bir*-b>k model canoe ( ab\t
 #ahej 7see p4 #ia7 has ?ree small      
circles plac$ 9 a triangul> position on 
! b[ & a b& along ! bottom ( ! side     
panels4 ,! circles & ! b&s are 9 r$     
pa9t1 b may h be5 int5d$ to repres5t !  
d>k inn] r9d left aft] scrap+ ! w9t] b>k
 cov]4 ,! use ( decoration 9 ?is area   
aft] #ahej has n be5 not$ 9 any         
available ref]5ce4  ,z a rule1 !        
/raight-bottom canoes 7 small1 commonly 
betwe5 #ab & #ah feet ov]all1 & ! mo/   
popul> size 0 #ad to #af feet ov]all4 ,a
 canoe ( ?is size 0 usually employ$ z a 
hunt]s' canoe = =e/ travel1 ?\gh x might
 be us$ occasionally along ! coa/s4 ,^! 
canoes 7 light &1 9 ?is respect1        
resembl$ ! ,micmac models %[n 9 ,*apt]  
#d4  ,! orig9al purpose ( ! crook$ canoe
 is 9 "q4 ,^? travel]s :o saw ?is canoe 

9 use on ! ,hudson ,bay side ( !        
,labrador ,p59sula believ$ t x 0 design$
 = use 9 r\gh1 expos$ wat]4 ,:ile x w\ld
 be a desirable =m = bea* "w 9 surf1 !  
high ends w\ld make paddl+ aga9/ /rong  
w9ds v difficult4 ,on ! o!r h& !        
,montagnais us$ ! crook$ canoe = riv]   
navigation1 p>ticul>ly :]e rapids 7 to  
be run1 & = ?is "w x appe>s to h be5    
well adapt$4 ,! crook$ canoe 0 commonly 
built l>g] ?an ! /raight-bottom model1  
betwe5 #af & #bj feet 9 l5g? ov]all1 & 0
 a vessel ( burd5 r ?an a hunt+ canoe4  
,canoes up to #bh feet 9 l5g? h be5     
m5tion$ by travel]s 9 ?is area b        
inve/igation indicates /rongly t ^! 7 n 
! tribal =m b ! canot du nord1 or nor?  
canoe ( ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company       
trad]s4  ,along ! s\!rn bord]s ( _!     
t]ritory & to ! we/w>d ! ea/]n ,cree (t5
 built & us$ canoes model$ on ^? ( _!   
neighbors1 ! ,ttes de ,b\le & !         
,ojibway4 ,h5ce ! tribal classification 
does n hold good 9 ^! localities4 ,also1
 ! ea/]n ,cree 7 employ$ by ! ,hudson's 

,bay ,company z build]s ( =ms ( ! matre 
canot & canot du nord t are unlike _!   
typical tribal model4   ,ttes de ,b\le  
,! ,ttes de ,b\le1 p>ticul>ly ! we/]n   
b&s1 7 skill$ canoe build]s & _h long   
be5 employ$ by ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company
 9 ! con/ruction ( l>ge fur-trade       
canoes4 ,app>5tly made up ( b&s (       
,indians inhabit+ l[] ,quebec1 9 ! bas9 
( ! ,/4 ,maurice ,riv] & on ! ,height ( 
,l&1 ^! b&s _h come d[n to ! l[] ,ottawa
 ,riv] to trade ) ! local ,algonk9 tribe
 !re 9 e>ly times4 ,!y 7 kn[n to !      
,algonk9s1 :o _h _h "s contact )        
civilization1 z wild ,indians4 ,!y also 
came into close trad+ relations ) !     
,fr5* coloni/s1 z ! ,ottawa ,riv] 0 !   
e>ly ,fr5* canoe r\te betwe5 ,montreal &
 ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,because !y cut _! hair
 %ort1 unlike ! o!r ,indians1 ^! nor!rn 
b&s 7 nicknam$ ,bull ,heads1 or ,r\nd   
,heads1 by ! ,fr5* trad]s1 & ! tribesm5 
soon came to accept ?is r ?an _! own    
designation ( ,:ite ,fi% ,p z ! tribal  
"n4 ,9 m rec5t times1 ! "n has be5      

appli$ to gr\ps ( ,indians liv+ 9 we/]n 
,quebec ,prov9ce1 ne> ,lake ,b>rire &   
,gr& ,lake ,victoria1 b ^! d n consid]  
!mselves relat$ to ! ,/4 ,maurice b&s4  
,x seems app>5t t ! canoe models ( all  
^! gr\ps _h be5 alt]$ z a result ( long 
contact ) o!r tribal gr\ps4 ,al?\gh !   
,/4 ,maurice & ! we/]n b&s 7 app>5tly n 
( ! same tribal /ock1 _! relations ) !  
,algonk9 may h br\ght ab\t ! use ( a    
/&>d model by all4  ,illu/ration3       
,figure #ig  ,,fiddlehead ,,( ,,scrap$  
,,b>k on b[ & /]n ( a ,montagnais       
bir*-b>k canoe at ,sev5 ,isl&s1 ,que41  
#aiae4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ih       
,,disk ,,( ,,color$ ,,porcup9e ,,quills 
decorat+ canoe f\nd at ,namaquagon1     
,que41 #ahih4 ,)9 ! #d-;in* disk may h  
be5 an #h-po9t$ />4  ,! ,ttes de ,b\le  
liv$ 9 an area :]e v sup]ior mat]ials = 
bir*-b>k canoe con/ruction 7 pl5tiful4  
,?is1 ) ! ne$ = canoes impos$ by !      
num]\s wat]ways & ! dem& = canoes f :ite
 trad]s1 made _m ( ! tribesm5 exp]t     
build]s4 ,_! small canoes1 rang+ f !    

#h-to #ab-;foot hunt]'s canoes to !     
#ad-to #af-;foot family canoes1 7 v     
simil> 9 pr(ile to ! canoes ( ! ,/4     
,francis ,abnaki4 ,! ,ttes de ,b\le     
canoes1 h[ev]1 7 commonly n>r[] on !    
bottom1 & 9 _! con/ruction a build+     
frame 0 always us$4 ,! ,ttes de ,b\le   
model 0 /raight along ! bottom = bett]  
?an half ! l5g? & !n rose r quickly t[>d
 ! ends4 ,simil>ly1 ! %e] 0 mod]ate     
amid%ips & increas$ t[>d ! ends4 ,! /ems
 %[$ a *9 & 7 mu* peak$ at ! gunwale    
ends4 ,mo/ commonly ! midsection _h a   
flat bottom a?w>t%ips & a well-r\nd$    
bilge1 giv+ ! topsides1 ne> ! gunwale1 a
 v slight outw>d fl>e4 ,"s ,ttes de     
,b\le canoes _h r ,v-section ends 9 :i* 
! endmo/ rib 0 brok5 at ! c5t]l9e4 ,z a 
result ! l9es 7 %>p & ! canoes paddl$ v 
easily4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ii  ,a  
,,fleet ,,( #ea ,,bir*-,,b>k ,,canoes ( 
! ,ttes de ,b\le ,indians1 assembl$ at !
 ,hudson's ,bay ,company po/1 ,gr& ,lake
 ,victoria1 ,procession ,sunday1 ,augu/ 
#ahie4 7,photo1 ,po/-,factor ,l4 ,a4    

,*ri/oph]son47  ,= con/ruction ( ! ,ttes
 de ,b\le canoe1 :i* 0 m>k$ by good     
/ructural design & neat workman%ip1 !   
build+ b$ 0 slightly rais$ at midl5g?1 z
 0 ! g5]al practice ( ! ,/4 ,francis    
build]s4 ,! build+ frame 0 usually ab\t 
#f in*es less 9 wid? amid%ips1 inside to
 inside1 ?an 7 ! gunwales1 & f #ae to   
#ah in*es %ort]4 ,! build+ frame 0 made 
q %>p t[>d ! ends s t1 view$ f above1 x 
r approa*$ a diamond =m2 ?is produc$ ! v
 %>p l9es t are to be se5 9 _m examples 
( ! ,ttes de ,b\le canoes4 ,! build+    
frame 0 ( c\rse remov$ f ! canoe z soon 
z ! gunwales 7 9 place & ! b>k cov] la%$
 to !m4  ,! gunwale /ructure1 compris$ (
 ma9 gunwale memb]s1 caps1 & outwales1 0
 ! same z 9 ! ,malecite canoes4 ,! ma9  
gunwales 7 rectangul> 9 cross-section1  
"s be+ almo/ squ>e1 ) ! l[] outbo>d     
corn] bevell$ (f4 ,comp>$ to ^? ( ea/]n 
canoes ( equal l5g?1 ! ma9 gunwales 7   
unusually light2 _! dep? & wid? r>ely   
exce$$ #a in*1 & 9 v small hunt]'s      
canoes ^! 7 (t5 only ab\t  in*4 ,t[>d ! 

ends1 !y tap]$ to  in*1 or ev5 slightly 
less4 ,! ends ( ! ma9 gunwales1 usually 
( ! common half-arr[head =m1 7 held     
toge!r by ra:ide or root ?ongs pass$    
back & =? ?r\gh horizontal holes 9 !    
memb]s4 ,aft] be+ ?us la%$ toge!r1 !y 7 
securely wrapp$ ) ?ongs :i* usually w5t 
ov] gunwales & outwales & ?r\gh ! b>k   
cov]4  ,! gunwale caps1 also light1 7   
usually betwe5  &  in* ?ick & f #a to #a
 in*es wide4 ,at ! ends !y 7 tap]$ 9    
wid? & ?ickness1 (t5 to  by  in*1 s z to
 foll[ ! quickly ris+ %e] !re4 ,! ends (
 ! gunwales1 caps1 & outwales requir$   
hot-wat] treatm5t to obta9 ! requir$    
curve ( ! %e]4 ,! caps 7 pegg$ to !     
gunwales & 7 secur$ at ea* end ) two or 
?ree gr\ps ( la%+s :i* pass$ ar\nd !    
outwales z well1 & ?r\gh ! b>k cov]4  ,!
 outwales 7 likewise light batt5s betwe5
  &  in* ?ick & f  to #a in*es deep1 !  
dep? ne> ! ends be+ tap]$ to  to  in* s 
z to %e] correctly4  ,! b>k cov] _h f\r 
or five v]tical gores on ea* side ( !   
middle ?w>t1 ! gore ne>e/ ea* /em be+   

commonly well inbo>d ( ! end ?w>ts4 ,!  
side panels 7 usually deep amid%ips &   
n>r[$ t[>d ! ends4 ,a root batt5 0 us$  
"u ! /it*+ ( ! longitud9al seams ( !    
side panels1 :i* 7 sewn ) a             
h>ness-mak]'s /it*4 ,! top edge ( ! b>k 
cov] 0 br\ght ov] ! top ( ! ma9         
gunwales1 z 9 ! ,malecite canoes1 & 0   
secur$ by gr\p wrapp+s pass+ ov] !      
gunwales & outwales1 "u ! caps4 ,^!     
gr\ps 7 n indep5d5t1 ! root ?ong be+    
c>ri$ f gr\p to gr\p outside ! b>k 9 a  
long pass "u ! outwales4 ,! gr\ps ( sev5
 to n9e turns 7 r\ghly an in* ap>t 9 _m 
small canoes1 & p]haps #a in*es 9 ! l>ge
 craft4 ,9 ! la/ bir*-b>k canoes 9 :i*  
no nails or tacks 7 us$1 wrapp+s ( root 
?ongs began ) a /op knot1 b ?is does n  
appe> to h be5 ! e>li] practice4        
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ajj  ,t,,tes ,,de
 ,,b\le ,,canoe4  ,! ,ttes de ,b\le     
canoes _h inside /em-pieces split1      
accord+ to ! size ( ! canoe1 9 f\r to   
six lam9ations & la%$ ) a b>k or root   
?ong 9 an op5 spiral 9 "s canoes b      

close-wrapp$ 9 o!rs4 ,! /em-piece 0 z 9 
! ,malecite canoes1 except t x end$ "u !
 rail cap1 & did n pass ?r\gh x z 9 !   
,ea/]n canoes2 ! heel 0 not*$ to receive
 ! heel ( ! headbo>d4 ,! b>k 0 usually  
la%$ ?r\gh ! /em1 z 9 ! ,malecite       
con/ruction4 ,h[ev]1 9 "s ,ttes de ,b\le
 canoes1 ! /em close to ! heel 0 n      
lam9at$ & ! b>k 0 la%$ to ! solid "p by 
an 9-&-out /it* pass+ ?r\gh closely     
spac$ holes drill$ 9 ! /em piece4 ,above
 ?is1 ! la%+ 0 ! usual spiral :i*1 9 at 
lea/ a few in/ances1 0 pass$ ?r\gh ! b>k
 j inbo>d ( ! /em piece4 ,ne> ! top ( ! 
/em ! la%+s sometimes 7 r widely spac$ &
 pass$ inbo>d ( ! /em-pieces2 at o!r    
times1 h[ev]1 ^! la%+s 7 m closely spac$
 & pass$ ?r\gh ! /em4  ,ord9>ily1 at !  
ends ( ! canoe no wulegessis1 or cov]s (
 b>k1 7 us$ "u ! gunwale caps1 al?\gh 9 
"o example exam9$ a small cov] _h be5   
ins]t$ ov] ! gunwale ends & "u ! caps1 x
 did n ext5d bel[ ! outwales to =m a    
wulegessis4 ,9 "s canoes ! b>k cov] 0   
piec$ up at ! peak ( ! /ems by a panel  

^: bottom fair$ into ! bottom ( ! side  
panels4  ,a v>iety ( me?ods 0 us$ to fit
 ! gunwale caps at ! ends ( ! canoe4 ,"s
 build]s c>ri$ ! cap out beyond !       
gunwale ends1 flat1 ov] ! edges ( ! b>k 
cov] & ! top face ( ! outwale1 b o!rs   
tilt$ ! cap outbo>d & d[nw>d4 ,! ends ( 
! caps came flu% ) ! face ( ! /ems4 ,9  
an app>5tly late v>iation1 ! gunwales1  
in/ead ( end+ 9 ! half-arr[head1 7 sni$ 
(f ! inside & a triangul> block 0 ins]t$
 betwe5 ! ends4 ,! gunwales 7 !n pegg$  
or nail$ to ! block & ! :ole secur$ ) a 
root wrapp+ ar\nd !m1 be=e ! outwales 7 
9 place4 ,! fir/ turn began by pass+ !  
root ?r\gh a hole 9 ! block ne> its     
inbo>d end1 ) a /op knot 9 ! root4  ,!  
ends ( ! gunwales 7 support$ by a n>r[  
headbo>d %>ply belli$ t[>d ! end ( !    
canoe4 ,! top ( ! headbo>d 0 not*$ to /&
 "u ! ma9 gunwales2 ! c5t] portion (t5 0
 c>ri$ high & end$ ) a cyl9drical top t 
0 slightly swell$ l ! h&le ( a g\ge or  
*isel4 ,! heel 0 sometimes held 9 !     
/em-piece not* ) a root la%+4           

,illu/ration3 ,figure #aja  ,t,,tes ,,de
 ,,b\le ,,canoes4  ,! ?w>ts1 spac$ equal
 di/ances ap>t1 7 t5on$ into ! gunwales 
z 9 ! old ,malecite canoes1 & 7 secur$ )
 a peg & la%+ ?r\gh ! two holes 9 ! ?w>t
 ends4 ,! middle ?w>t 0 usually =m$ ) a 
%\ld]1 view$ 9 plan1 t />t$ #f or #g    
in*es inbo>d ( ! inside face ( ! ma9    
gunwale4 ,9 =m1 ?is ?w>t usually swell$ 
outw>d 9 a /raight l9e f ! t5on %\ld]1  
!n r$uc$ 9 a curv$ l9e to ab\t ! wid? ( 
! t5on tongue &1 f9ally1 increas$ aga9 9
 a "r-angle cut to ! greate/ wid?4 ,f "h
 x 0 r$uc$ aga9 9 a long curve to !     
canoe's c5t] l9e4 ,! o!r ?w>ts usually  
_h simple ends1 wide at ! t5on %\ld] &  
r$uc$ 9 a long curve to a n>r[ c5t]4 ,9 
elevation1 all ! ?w>ts 7 ?9 outbo>d &   
?ick at ! c5t]l9e ( ! canoe4 ,! cross   
section ( ! c5t] ?w>t at ! c5t]l9e 0    
squ>e or ne>ly s1 ! fir/ ?w>t on ea*    
side 0 rectangul> 9 cross section at !  
c5t]1 & ! end ?w>ts 7 simil>1 b v ?94   
,! %ea?+ ( ! ,ttes de ,b\le canoes 0 ?91
 p>ticul>ly at ! ends ( ! /rakes4 ,!    

bottom 0 laid ) a p>allel-sid$ c5t]     
/rake go+ 9 fir/4 ,?is /rake 0 9 two    
l5g?s 9 a small canoe & ?ree l5g?s 9 a  
l>ge1 ! butts ov]lapp+ slightly4 ,! re/ 
( ! /rakes 9 ! bottom 7 tap]$ t[>d !    
ends ( ! canoe4 ,at ! extremities ( !   
canoe1 ! n>r[ ends ( ! /rakes 7 v ?9 &  
ov]lapp$ along _! edges1 ! bottom %ea?+1
 :5 9 place1 ?us foll[+ ! diamond =m ( !
 build+ frame4 ,! topside %ea?+ 0 laid  
up 9 %ort l5g?s ) ov]lapp+ butts & edges
 9 an irregul> plan1 ^? /rakes along !  
bilges be+ long] ?an above4 ,t[>d ! ends
 ( ! canoe ^! /rakes 7 slightly tap]$ & 
! edges 7 v ?94 ,! %ea?+ end$           
irregul>ly1 outbo>d ( ! headbo>ds1 9    
n>r[ butts z 9 mo/ ea/]n canoes4        
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ajb  ,t,,tes ,,de
 ,,b\le ,,hunt+ ,,canoe1 #a-;,,fa?om1 ) 
typical con/ruction details & a paddle4 
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ajc  ,t,,tes ,,de
 ,,b\le ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fa?om1 ) "s      
con/ruction details4  ,! ribs1 l ! re/ (
 ! /ructure1 7 v light1 usually  to  in*
 ?ick & f ab\t #a to #a in*es wide1     

dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! canoe4 ,a few      
examples _h ribs #b in*es wide1 & /ill  
few] _h ribs up to #b in*es wide4 ,!    
spac+ 0 usually close1 some:at m ?an an 
in* edge to edge amid%ips & a little m  
betwe5 ! end ?w>ts & ! headbo>ds4 ,!    
spac+ amid%ips w\ld av]age p]haps #c    
in*es1 c5t] to c5t]4 ,! ends ( ! ribs1 9
 ! la/ #b or #c in*es1 7 r$uc$ 9 wid? v 
%>ply 9 a holl[1 curv$ tap] to  to  in* 
wide1 & 7 usually bevel$ on ! inside    
edge4 ,! ?ickness 0 also r$uc$ by a cut 
on ! inside1 s t ! ends 7 *isel-po9t$ ) 
a %ort bevel on ! inbo>d side4 ,! rib   
ends 7 =c$ betwe5 ! ma9 gunwales & ! b>k
 cov]1 com+ home 9 ! bevel ( ! l[]      
outbo>d edge ( ! ma9 gunwales betwe5 !  
gr\p la%+s ( ! b>k cov] z 9 ! ,malecite 
canoes4 ,! ribs 7 n preb5t b 7 plac$ 9 !
 canoe :5 gre51 treat$ ) hot wat]1 & !n 
all[$ to dry into place4 ,9 prep>+ !    
rib1 x 0 fir/ b5t ov] ! knee4 ,x 0 !    
cu/om ( "s build]s to place "u ! build+ 
frame ! ribs t 7 to g ne> ! ends ( !    
canoe1 & to m>k ! po9t :]e !y w\ld be   

b5t4 ,sometimes ! endmo/ ribs t 7 to be 
brok5 at ! c5t]l9e to =m ! ,v-section 7 
split edgewise4 ,a piece ( ! inn] lam9a 
0 !n cut out to "o side ( ! c5t] s t !  
inn] lam9ae w\ld lie flat aga9/ ea* o!r1
 & to prev5t ! inn] half f buckl+ ! rib 
0 wrapp$ ) a ?ong to "o side ( ! break4 
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ajd  ,t,,tes ,,de
 ,,b\le ,,hunt+ ,,canoe1 #b-;,,fa?om1 ) 
wide bottom1 %[+ /ructural details4  ,x 
does n appe> to h be5 ! common practice 
( ! ,ttes de ,b\le to decorate _! small 
canoes1 ?\gh :5 build+ = :ite m5 !y w\ld
 decorate if ! buy] reque/$ x4  ,!      
paddles us$ by ! ,ttes de ,b\le 7       
some:at l ^? ( ! ea/]n ,cree b ! blade 0
 slightly wid] ne> ! tip ?an ne> ! h&le4
 ,! top grip 0 =m$ wide & ?91 ! tap] f !
 l[] grip to ! upp] "o (t5 be+ v long4  
,! paddles 7 usually ( :ite bir*1 b     
maple 0 us$ 9 a few ( ! examples exam9$4
  ,! gunwales1 outwales1 & caps ( !     
,ttes de ,b\le canoes 7 usually (       
spruce2 ! ribs & /em pieces1 :ite c$>2 !
 ?w>ts1 :ite bir*2 ! headbo>ds1 :ite c$>

 9 all b "o ( ! canoes inspect$ 79 ?is1 
bir* _h be5 us$74 ,jack p9e 0 us$ also =
 ?w>ts1 & c$> 0 sometimes us$ = !       
gunwale memb]s2 z w\ld be expect$1 !    
build]s us$ ! mat]ials t 7 at h& ne> !  
build+ sites4  ,ttes de ,b\le fur-trade 
canoes1 l ^? ( ! ea/]n ,cree1 appe> to h
 _h no relation%ip to ! small] tribal   
types1 s9ce !y 7 con/ruct$ "u sup]vision
 ( :ite m54 ,!y w be discuss$ z a gr\p  
on page #ace4   ,algonk9  ,! ,algonk9s 7
 a tribe resid+ on ! ,ottawa ,riv] & its
 tribut>ies1 9 :at are n[ ! prov9ces (  
,quebec & ,ont>io1 :5 ! ,fr5* fir/ met  
!m4 ,!y appe> to h be5 a l>ge & p[]ful  
tribe & 7 app>5tly compet5t build]s &   
us]s ( bir*-b>k canoes4 ,!y 7 n ! same  
tribe z ! ,ottawa1 :o controll$ ! ,lake 
,huron end ( ! canoe r\te betwe5        
,montreal & ,lake ,sup]ior1 by way ( !  
,ottawa ,riv]4 ,^! ,ottawa 7 relat$ to !
 ,ojibway tribe & receiv$ _! "n f !     
,fr5*1 :o gave ! "n ,outa\ais1 or       
,ottaway1 to all ,indians1 except !     
,hurons1 :o came f ! we/ by way ( !     

,ottawa4 ,! ,algonk9s1 because ( _!     
location1 7 mu* influ5c$ by ! ,fr5* fur 
trade4 ,e>ly 9 ! #ah? c5tury !y int]m+l$
 ) c]ta9 ,iroquois :om !y all[$ to      
settle ) !m1 ne> ,montreal1 at ! ,lake (
 ,two ,m\nta9s1 lat] ,oka4 ,!nce !y     
gradually spread out & lo/ tribal unity1
 until only small gr\ps 7 left4 ,^! liv$
 on ! ,gold5 ,lake ,algonk9 ,res]ve1    
,bon%]e ,riv]1 ,ont>io2 at ,oka1        
,quebec2 & else:]e 9 we/]n ,quebec &    
ea/]n ,ont>io4 ,x is possible t !y 7 !  
fir/ to build fur-trade canoes = !      
,fr5*1 b evid5ce to support su* a claim 
) any c]ta9ty is lack+4  ,due to        
int]mix+ ) o!r tribal gr\ps & to !      
influ5ce ( ! fur trade1 9 :i* !y 7 long 
employ$ z canoe m5 & build]s1 !         
,algonk9s no long] us$ a s+le tribal    
model ( canoe4 ,h[ev]1 "o ( _! models1  
:i* _h high ends resembl+ ^? ( ! l>ge   
fur-trade canoe1 may h be5 ! tribal type
 f :i* ! fur-trade canoe 0 develop$1 z w
 be se54  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aje    
,,old ,,algonk9 ,,canoe4  ,! high-end$  

model1 ! olde/ =m kn[n to h be5 us$ by  
?is tribe1 0 n>r[-bottom$1 ) fl>+ sides4
 ,! canoes se5 7 built ) c>eful         
workman%ip & 9 ! old mann]1 )\t iron    
fa/5+s4 ,!y 7 light & easily paddl$1 yet
 w\ld c>ry a heavy load4 ,! ends 7 %>p  
at ! l9e ( flotation4 ,! bottom 0       
/raight to a po9t ne> ! ends1 :]e x     
lift$ some:at4 ,! %e] 0 r /raight ov] ! 
middle portion ( ! canoe1 !n lift$      
slightly until close to ! /em1 :]e x    
rose %>ply1 becom+ almo/ p]p5dicul> at !
 ends ( ! rail caps4 ,! midsection 0    
slightly r\nd$ across ! bottom1 ) a     
well-r\nd$ bilge & a g5tly fl>+ topside4
 ,! cross-section became ,v-%ap$ close  
to ! headbo>ds4 ,! mo/ m>k$ feature 9 ! 
appe>ance ( ?is canoe 0 ! pr(ile ( !    
ends4 ,! /em l9e1 beg9n+ ) a slight     
angle :]e x jo9$ ! bottom1 b5t outw>d 9 
a g5tle curve1 rea*+ ! p]p5dicul> at a  
po9t a little m ?an half ! height ( !   
end1 & f !re x tumbl$ home slightly4 ,9 
mo/ ( ! canoes exam9$ ! top ( ! /em !n  
r\nd$ inbo>d 9 a quick1 h>d curve1      

usually almo/ half a circle1 s t ! /em 0
 turn$ d[nw>d z x jo9$ ! outwale &      
gunwale cap4 ,9 a v>iation ( ?is /em =m1
 ! top ( ! /em 0 cut (f almo/ squ>e1 =m+
 a /raight l9e t ran p>allel to ! rise (
 ! bottom bel[ ! /ems to ! po9t :]e x   
w\ld meet ! upturn$ outwale & cap4 ,!   
ends ( ! outwales & caps 7 ?us #c or #d 
in*es inbo>d ( ! extremities4 ,?is =m ( 
/em1 p>ticul>ly :5 to top 0 r\nd$ 9 a   
half-circle1 approa*$ ! basic =m ( !    
ends ( ! fur-trade canoe4  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #ajf  ,,old ,,model1 ,,ottawa  
,,riv]1 ,,algonk9 ,,canoe1 comb9+       
capacity ) easy paddl+ qualities4  ,all 
! examples ( ?is =m ( canoe t 7 exam9$ 7
 small1 f #ad to a little ov] #af feet 9
 l5g? ov]all1 b ?is is n pro( t l>g]    
canoes ( ?is type _h n exi/$ e>li]4  ,! 
lat] & m common =m ( ,algonk9 canoe 0 ! 
wab9aki *iman4 ,a corruption ( ,abnaki1 
wab9aki to ! lat] ,algonk9 meant !      
,malecite z well z ! ,/4 ,francis       
,indians4 ,! wab9aki *iman 0 built 9    
l5g?s f #ab to #ah feet4  ,iroquois liv+

 9 ! ,algonk9 t]ritory dur+ ! p]iod     
built ?is =m ( canoe z well z ! old]1   
high-end$ =m4 ,! wab9aki *iman 0 v mu* l
 ! ,/4 ,francis & ,malecite canoes 9    
appe>ance1 b x 0 n an exact copy4 ,!    
,algonk9 v]sion 0 commonly a n>r[-bottom
 canoe ) fl>+ topsides4 ,!re 0 "s       
v>iation 9 ! end pr(iles2 mo/ _h ! r    
high1 peak$ ends ( ! ,/4 ,francis canoe4
 ,! %e] 0 r /raight until ne> ! end1 :]e
 x rose rapidly to ! /em4 ,! /em 0 r\nd$
 & 0 fair$ into ! bottom4 ,! top ( ! /em
 0 (t5 r /raight & tumbl$ home slightly1
 b on "s x rak$ outw>d1 mu* z did ! /em 
( "s ,malecite canoes4  ,ano!r =m (     
,algonk9 canoe _h a l[ %e] ) only a     
slight lift t[>d ! ends4 ,9 ?is canoe ! 
/em might h a %ort1 h>d curve at ! heel 
& an upp] portion t 0 q /raight &       
slightly tumbl$ home2 or ! full height  
might be well r\nd$1 ) a slight         
tumble-home ne> ! /em head4  ,9         
appe>ance ^! canoes 7 v l ! /raight-/em 
,malecite models4 ,! wab9aki *iman 0    
unque/ionably copi$ f ! ea/]n canoes t  

came into popul>ity among ! ,algonk9    
late 9 ! #ai? c5tury1 :5 :ite sportsm5 7
 dem&+ canoes ( ! ,/4 ,francis &        
,malecite models4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,algonk9    
canoes diff]$ some:at f ! ea/]n canoes n
 only 9 model b also 9 me?ods (         
con/ruction4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ajg
  ,,algonk9 ,,& ,,ojibway               
,,/em-,,pieces1 models ( old =ms made by
 ,adney3 #a1 #b1 #c1 ,ojibway2 #d1 #e1  
#f1 #g1 ,algonk94  ,algonk9s us$ ! same 
con/ruction me?ods 9 bo? _! canoe       
models1 ?\gh ! framework 0 n alike 9 all
 respects4 ,! build+ frame 0 always us$4
 ,= a #b-or #b-;fa?om canoe ?is 0 made (
 two /rips ( c$>1 #a in*es wide &  in*  
deep1 t 7 b5t edgewise1 not*$1 & ti$    
toge!r at ! ends ) ?ongs ( ! inn] b>k ( 
! basswood4 ,^! /rips 7 held ap>t 9 !   
requir$ %ape by c$> crosspieces #a in*  
wide & #a in*es deep1 ) ! ends not*$    
in* deep 7! dep? ( ! longitud9als7 & !  
tops well r\nd$4 ,! crosspieces1 five 9 
all1 7 fa/5$ to ! longitud9als ) ?ongs  
pass+ ?r\gh holes 9 ! ends4 ,! middle "o

 0 ab\t #ai in*es betwe5 ! inside faces 
( ! longitud9als1 ^? on ea* side ( x 7  
ab\t #ae in*es long by simil> measure1 &
 ! end ones 7 ne>ly #f in*es long & 7   
locat$ a foot or s f ! extremities ( !  
longitud9als4 ,! outside wid? ( ! build+
 frame amid%ips w\ld ?us be ab\t #bb or 
#bc in*es4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ajh  
,,light1 ,,fa/ #b-;,,fa?om ,,hunt+      
,,canoe ( ! old ,algonk9 model4  ,!     
build+ b$ 0 level1 ) a #f-;in*-wide     
bo>d1 "s #f to #h feet 9 l5g?1 sunk into
 ! e>? flu% ) ! surface to insure a true
 l9e = ! bottom4 ,! outside /akes 7 ( ! 
usual sort describ$ 9 build+ ! ,malecite
 canoe 7pp4 #dj-da74 ,! w$ge-%ap$ inside
 /akes1 or clamp pieces1 7 #a in*es     
wide1 #a in* ?ick1 & #bj to #be in*es   
long4 ,! po/s = sett+ ! height ( !      
gunwales at ! ends & at ! crosspieces 7 
n cut (f squ>e at ! top z = ! ,malecite 
canoe1 b 7 not*$ on ! outside to take ! 
gunwales4 ,! heights ( ! po/s 7         
graduat$1 ( c\rse1 to =m ! requir$ %e] 9
 ! gunwales4 ,l ! canoes ( ! ,ttes de   

,b\le1 ^! ( ! ,algonk9 7 g5]ally less   
deep amid%ips ?an ! g5]al run ( ea/]n   
canoes4  ,build+ proc$ure 0 z foll[s3 ,!
 gunwales 7 made1 b5t1 & ! ends fa/5$1 b
 in/ead ( be+ mortis$ & fitt$ ) ?w>ts1  
!y 7 spread by tempor>y crosspieces1 or 
spalls1 made ( a spl9t1 or              
plank-on-edge1 ) ! l[] edge not*$ 9 two 
places to take ! gunwale memb]s4        
,sometimes ! spalls 7 la%$1 pegg$ or    
nail$ to ! gunwales z well4 ,! /akes 7  
set along ! build+ frame & ^! 7 g5]ally 
driv5 slop+1 s t _! heads /ood outbo>d (
 ! po9ts4 ,!y 7 !n pull$ & laid aside1 !
 build+ frame 0 remov$1 & ! b>k cov]    
plac$ on ! build+ b$4 ,aft] ! build+    
frame has be5 reset 9 its orig9al       
position & ! b>k cov] turn$ up along !  
sides1 ! /akes 7 aga9 driv5 9 _! holes4 
,! cov] 0 !n piec$ out ) side panels z  
necess>y & gor$1 & longitud9al /rips (  
wood 7 set 9 place by means ( ! clamp   
pieces1 ab\t z 9 ,malecite con/ruction4 
,! gunwales 7 !n plac$ on ! po/s1 :i* _h
 be5 set to ! requir$ %e]1 & ! b>k      

trimm$ & fitt$ to !m4 ,! old me?od 0 to 
la% ! b>k to ! ma9 gunwale memb]s & to  
peg on ! outwales at int]vals ( ab\t a  
foot4 ,9 e>li] times mo/ build]s ins]t$ 
along ! gunwales an extra re9=c+ /rip ( 
b>k ext5d+ a little bel[ ! outwales1 z 9
 ! ,/4 ,francis canoes1 b 9 !           
nail$-&-tack$ b>k canoes built dur+ !   
decad5t p]iod ?is 0 sometimes omitt$4   
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aji  ,,hybrid    
,,algonk9 ,,canoes3 ,ea/]n #b fa?om     
7above7 & nor!a/]n #b-;fa?om adaptation1
 ) sket*es ( /ems us$ 9 ea*4  ,mortises 
= ! ?w>ts 7 next cut & ! middle ?w>t 0  
=c$ into place1 aft] ! spall !re _h be5 
remov$4 ,?is requir$ t ! gunwales be    
spread slightly1 ?us increas+ ! am\nt ( 
%e] some:at4 ,mu* judgm5t 0 ne$$ to d   
?is correctly4 ,! increase 9 ! %e] lift$
 ! ends slightly & put "s rock] 9 !     
bottom t[>d ! ends4 ,! build+ frame 0   
lift$ out be=e ! re/ ( ! ?w>ts 7 plac$2 
usually x 0 tak5 ap>t 9 ! process4 ,9   
=m+ ! ends ( ! b>k cov]1 ! two sides 7  
held toge!r by a clo!sp9-l device made (

 two %ort1 flat /icks la%$ toge!r4      
,increas+ ! beam at ! gunwales by fitt+ 
! ?w>ts aft] ! b>k cov] _h be5 secur$ to
 ! gunwales n only increas$ ! %e] b     
decreas$ ! dep? ( ! canoe amid%ips z    
e/abli%$ by ! po/s plac$ "u ! gunwales 9
 sett+ up4 ,9 ord] to reta9 ! requir$   
%e] & ! desir$ dep? ( side1 ! gunwales  
_h be5 %e]$ up at ! ends :ile be+ %ap$1 
& _h also be5 treat$ ) hot wat] & hogg$ 
upw>d amid%ips by be+ /ak$ out to dry   
into %ape4 ,! spread+ ( ! gunwales t5d$ 
to lift ! ends ( ! bottom l9e1 a        
condition t 0 controll$ 9 two ways3 !   
usual "o app>5tly 0 to employ1 9        
comb9ation ) a level b$1 a build+ frame 
slightly wid] ?an 0 desir$ = ! f9i%$    
bottom2 ! second way 0 to foll[         
,malecite proc$ure & elevate slightly ! 
middle ( ! build+ b$ :ile employ+ a     
build+ frame ! wid? ( ! f9i%$ bottom4 ,!
 ,algonk9 proc$ure ( spread+ ! gunwales 
dur+ con/ruction 0 t employ$ 9 ! nor?we/
 & 9 ! build+ ( ! fur-trade canoes1 z w 
be se54 ,! am\nt ( spread to be giv5 !  

gunwales also affect$ ! angle1 or slope1
 at :i* ! side /akes 7 driv5 on ! build+
 b$4 ,ev5 s1 "s build]s :o spread !     
gunwales a good deal w\ld set ! /akes   
almo/ v]tically1 in/ead ( at a slant1 z 
?is made sew+ ! side panels easi]1      
p>ticul>ly 9 l>ge canoes & 9 canoes ^:  
cov]s 7 made up ( a l>ge numb] ( small  
pieces ( b>k4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure    
#aaj  ,,algonk91 #b-;,,fa?om ,,hunt]',s 
,,canoe1 )\t headbo>ds4 ,details (      
build+ frame1 /akes or po/s1 gauge1 &   
/em4  ,! gunwales ( ! ,algonk9 canoes 7 
made up ( ?ree memb]s--ma9 gunwales1    
outwales1 & caps4 ,! ma9 gunwales1      
usually ( c$>1 7 rectangul> 9 cross     
section & b5t on ! flat4 ,! l[] outbo>d 
corn] 0 bevell$ (f to take ! rib ends1 z
 9 ! ,malecite canoes4 ,! gunwales 7 r  
light rang+ 9 ! examples f\nd f ab\t #a 
in* squ>e to #a by #a in*es1 ! ends be+ 
tap]$ to a less] size4 ,! outwales 7    
light batt5s1 rectangul> 9              
cross-section1 ab\t z deep z ! ma9      
gunwales & ab\t two-?irds _! ?ickness or

 less2 !y tap]$ 9 dep? t[>d ! ends to   
or  in* 9 ord] to foll[ ! %e]1 :ile !   
?ickness might be con/ant or only       
slightly r$uc$4 ,! caps1 :i* 7 pegg$ to 
! gunwales1 7 also light & 7 ab\t equal 
to ! comb9$ wid? ( ! ma9 gunwales &     
outwales & _h a dep? ( ab\t  to  in*    
amid%ips4 ,at ! ends !y 7 tap]$ 9 bo?   
wid? & dep?1 becom+  in* wide &  in*    
deep4 ,! am\nt ( tap] 9 ! ends ( !      
gunwale memb]s dep5d$ ^u ! =m ( %e]2 !  
,algonk9 practice 9 ! old =m ( canoe 0  
to %e] ! outwales & caps to ! top ( !   
/em1 :ile ! gunwales %e]$ less & met !  
sides ( ! /em piece at a l[] po9t1 z 9 !
 draw+ 7p4 #aaf74 ,9 ! wab9aki *iman1   
h[ev]1 ! gunwales & o!r memb]s1 z a     
rule1 all foll[$ ! %e] ( ! ends ( !     
canoe4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aaa      
,,algonk9 ,,canoe1 ,,old ,,type4  ,!    
,algonk9s us$ inside /em-pieces 9 bo?   
models1 b ! /em-piece ( ! old high-end$ 
canoe 0 q diff]5t f t ( ! wab9aki *iman1
 = x 0 built to give a pr(ile 9 :i* !   
top ( ! high /em end$ 9 a l9e /raight   

across to ! %e]4 ,! piece consi/$ ( a   
crook$ /ick1 )\t lam9ation1 work$ out ( 
a ?9 bo>d1  to  in* ?ick4 ,x 0 %ap$ to !
 desir$ pr(ile inside & out1 & 0        
slightly %>p5$1 or sometimes rabbet$ &  
%>p5$1 t[>d ! outbo>d face4 ,! headbo>d 
0 m\nt$ on ?is /em-piece by means ( !   
usual not* b 0 n belli$2 in/ead x /ood  
approximately v]tical & a %ort /rut 0   
t5on$ into bo? ! headbo>d & ! inside    
face ( ! /em at a po9t ab\t half !      
height ( ! /em4 ,sometimes two /ruts 7  
us$1 side by side1 ) ! outbo>d ends la%$
 at ! sides ( ! /em4 ,?us ! /em-pieces &
 headbo>ds 7 plac$ z a s+le unit1 n     
indep5d5tly z 9 ea/]n canoes4 ,! gunwale
 ends 7 la%$ to ! sides ( ! /em-piece1  
betwe5 ! /rut & ! /em-head1 at a height 
det]m9$ by ! %e]+ ( ! ma9 gunwale       
memb]s4 ,! outwales & caps did n t\* !  
/em-piece1 end+ ) a ne>ly v]tical upw>d 
sweep1 a few in*es inbo>d4 ,! ends ( !  
outwales & caps 7 always high] ?an ! top
 ( ! /em-piece s t1 :5 ! canoe 0 turn$  
upside d[n1 ! b>k cov] ov] ! /em-head 0 

kept (f ! gr\nd & ?us pres]v$ f damage4 
,! top ( ! /em-piece 0 held rigid n only
 by ! /rut to ! headbo>d b also by !    
ends ( ! ma9 gunwale memb]s la%$ to x a 
little high] up4 ,! headbo>d 0 9 ! =m ( 
a r\nd$ ,v t 0 wide/ at midheight1 at ! 
gunwales1 :i* 7 let into its sides4  ,:5
 ! /em-head 0 r\nd$ 9 ! /yle ( !        
fur-trade canoe1 ! /em-piece except ne> 
! heel 0 split into v ?9 lam9ations ab\t
  in*1 or a little m1 ?ick4 ,! c>efully 
select$ c$> ( :i* ^! 7 made 0 treat$ )  
boil+ wat]1 !n b5t to pr(ile2 ! head 0  
%>ply b5t ov] & d[n1 inside ! /em1 !n   
%>ply up aga9 s ! end /ood at ab\t "r   
angles to ! face ( ! /em at midheight4  
,! headbo>d 0 m\nt$ z previ\sly         
describ$1 except t ! end ( ! /em-piece 0
 ins]t$ into a hole 9 ! headbo>d j above
 ! /rut4 ,! lam9ations ( ! /em-piece 7  
wrapp$ 9 ! normal mann] & ! la%+ 0 (t5  
br\ght ar\nd ! /rut z well1 up aga9/ !  
outbo>d face ( ! headbo>d4 ,! :ole      
/ructure 0 ?us made rigid & v /rong4 ,z 
9 ! o!r =m1 ! ma9 gunwale memb]s did n  

foll[ ! %e] ne> ! ends ( canoe b 7      
secur$ at a po9t l[] d[n on ! sides ( ! 
/em-piece4 ,9 ! r\nd-head =m1 h[ev]1 !  
outwale & cap ends 7 fa/5$ on ! aft]    
face ( ! /em-head :]e ! lam9ations 7    
curv$ d[nw>d z illu/rat$ 9 ! draw+ 7p4  
#aaf74  ,! headbo>ds = bo? models 7     
?ick] ?an ^? 9 ! ea/]n canoes2 ?is aid$ 
9 hold+ ! /em l9e 9 =m4 ,t5sion on ! b>k
 cov] 0 obta9$ by mak+ ! cov] ,v-=m$    
t[>d ! ends & !n spread+ ! sides ( ! ,v 
) ! headbo>d1 ?us br++ pressure on !    
/rakes ( ! %ea?+ & =c+ ! sides outw>d 9 
a slight curve4  ,! /em-pieces ( !      
wab9aki *iman 7 ei!r cut out ( a ?9 bo>d
 or lam9at$4 ,9 ! /raight-/em =m1 only !
 =efoot "p 0 lam9at$1 & no headbo>d 0   
us$4 ,ord9>ily1 h[ev]1 ! rigid headbo>d 
) a s+le /rut 0 us$4 ,! head ( !        
/em-piece 0 c>ri$ ?r\gh ! rail caps &   
%[$ above !m2 ! ends ( ! caps & ma9     
gunwales 7 not*$ to p]mit ?is1 b nei!r  
^! nor ! cap ext5d$ outbo>d ( ! face ( !
 /em4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aab       
,,algonk9 ,,wab9aki ,,*iman4  ,! b>k    

cov] 0 la%$ to ! gunwales ) gr\p la%+s 9
 :i* ! ?ong 0 c>ri$ f gr\p to gr\p by a 
long /it* outside ! cov]1 "u ! outwale4 
,! turns 9 ea* gr\p 7 pass$ ?r\gh five  
or six holes 9 ! cov] & re9=c+ piece1   
two turns ( ! ?ong go+ ?r\gh ea* hole4  
,! connect+ /it* betwe5 gr\ps1 :i* 7    
usually ab\t #a in*es ap>t1 usually     
pass$ f ! la/ hole 9 a gr\p to ! second 
hole 9 ! next4 ,"s build]s laid a wood5 
measur+ /ick along ! gunwales to space !
 la%+s2 ?is 0 p]haps ! practice ( _m    
tribal gr\ps4  ,! la%+ ( ! ends ( ! cov]
 0 pass$ ?r\gh ! /em pieces2 :5 ! latt] 
7 n lam9at$1 holes ?r\gh ! s(t1 ?9 c$> 7
 made by a %>p awl & an 9-&-out or      
h>ness /it* 0 q commonly us$4 ,on       
lam9at$ /em pieces ! =m ( la%+ v>i$2 9 !
 wab9aki *iman x 0 commonly "s          
comb9ation ( spiral & cross$ turns2 9 ! 
old =m ( high-end$ canoe multiple turns 
?r\gh a s+le hole 7usually at ! top ( ! 
/em-head7 7 also us$ 9 comb9ation )     
closely spac$ long-&-%ort turns 9       
triangul> gr\ps ne> ! top ( ! /em       

pr(ile4 ,bel[1 9 ! =efoot1 spiral or    
cross$ /it*es 7 us$4 ,! ends ( !        
outwales 7 la%$ toge!r ) a close wrapp+ 
( turns 9 contact :]e !y turn$ upw>d    
%>ply1 & ! caps 7 secur$ !re by two or m
 gr\p la%+s4 ,! head ( ! headbo>d 0 la%$
 to ea* gunwale by pass+ ! ?ong ?r\gh   
holes ea* side ( ! headbo>d2 ^! la%+s 7 
9 a long gr\p & 7 pass$ ar\nd gunwale & 
outwale be=e ! caps 7 9 place4 ,) plank 
/em-pieces ! ends ( ! b>k cov] 7        
slightly inbo>d ( ! cutwat] l9e1        
sometimes protect$ by a rabbet4  ,! side
 panels 7 sewn on ) 9-&-out /it*es1 back
 /it*es1 or a d\ble l9e ( ei!r4 ,! gores
 7 sewn spirally 9 ! usual mann] or 7   
/it*$ ) a closely spac$ lac+4  ,"s ( !  
old ,algonk9 canoes exam9$ _h :at appe>$
 to be a wulegessis j outbo>d ( !       
headbo>ds4 ,no m>k+ 0 f\nd on ^! & !y 7 
too f> aft to protect ! ends ( !        
gunwales4 ,! b>k 0 c>ri$ across !       
gunwales1 "u ! caps1 & hung d[n a little
 bel[ ! outwales4 ,on top1 x rea*$ f !  
headbo>d out to ! la%+s ( ! outwales1   

=m+ betwe5 ! headbo>ds & ! la%+s a %ort 
deck t may h be5 int5d$ to keep dirt &  
wat] out ( ! ends ( ! canoe4 ,sometimes 
a mod]n wab9aki *iman has a wulegessis1 
copy+ ! ,ea/]n practice b )\t m>k+s4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aac  ,,algonk9   
,,canoe ,,decorations by ,tommy ,s]s9   
7or ,s]zia71 ,gold5 ,lake1 ,ont41 %[+   
f\r sides ( /ems ( "o canoe4 ,indian %[n
 has ! ea/]n headdress r ?an t ( !      
,pla9s ,indian4 ,moose1 be>1 beav]1 &   
goose are %[n4 7,sket*es by ,adney47  ,!
 ?w>ts 7 ( v>i\s designs2 a common "o _h
 p>allel sides 9 plan4 ,! old canoes _h 
?w>ts mu* l ^? ( ! ,ttes de ,b\le4 ,!   
end la%+s ( ^! 7 usually pass$ ?r\gh    
?ree holes 9 ! ?w>t ends1 b "s _h only  
two holes4  ,%ea?+ 0 laid some:at z 9 ! 
,ttes-de-,b\le canoe1 ) ov]lapp+ edges &
 butts4 ,! end %ea?+ 0 %ort & 0 laid    
fir/2 ! c5t]l9e /rake 0 p>allel-sid$ to 
a po9t ne> ! %>p end ( ! canoe4 ,!      
/rakes on ea* side ( x 7 tap]$ & 7 laid 
) _! wide ends t[>d ! middle ( ! canoe &
 ) ! sides & n>r[ end lapp$4 ,9 ! middle

 ( ! canoe ! /rakes 7 p>allel-sid$ & _! 
butts 7 on top ( ^? ( ! /rakes 9 ! end (
 ! canoe4 ,! %ea?+ 0 c>ri$ up to )9 ab\t
 ?ree in*es ( ! gunwales4 ,! edges 7 n  
?9n$ or fea!r$ z mu* z 7 ^? 9 ! ,ttes de
 ,b\le canoe4  ,ribs 7 ( c$> f #b to #c 
in*es wide1 closely spac$ &1 z usual1   
)\t tap] until ne> ! ends1 :i* 7 =m$ ) a
 n>r[ *isel edge z 9 ! ,ttes-de-,b\le   
canoe4 ,! ribs 7 fir/ r\ghly b5t1 us+ ! 
build+ frame z a g5]al guide = l5g?1 9  
ord] to obta9 a some:at di%-%ap$ cross  
section2 by ?is means ! wid? ( ! bottom 
c\ld be e/abli%$ to ! build]'s          
satisfaction4  ,! =ego+ description (   
build+ me?ods & con/ruction is bas$     
l>gely ^u :at is kn[n ( ! old canoes4 ,9
 lat] times ! ,algonk9 copi$ ! ea/]n    
canoes & _! proc$ure alt]$4 ,n only did 
!y copy ext5sively ! appe>ance ( ! ,/4  
,francis & ,malecite canoes1 b !y built 
"s canoes mu* l ^? ( ! ,ttes de ,b\le & 
,ojibway4 ,z a result1 x has become     
difficult to det]m9e :at _! tribal      
practices 74  ,_! paddles 7 ( ! same    

design z ^? ( ! ,ttes de ,b\le1         
r\nd-po9t$ & ) ! blade p>allel-sid$ =   
mo/ ( its l5g?4 ,9 portag+1 ! ,algonk91 
l _m =e/ ,indians1 plac$ a pair (       
paddles a foot or s ap>t =e-&-aft ov] ! 
middle ?w>t & ^? on ea* side ( x4 ,^! 7 
la%$ 9 place ) ! ends ( a b& ( hide or !
 inn] b>k ( a tree l ! basswood or elm4 
,?is b& _h be5 fir/ pass$ ar\nd ! ends (
 ! middle ?w>t1 outside ! %\ld]s1 &     
hit*$ ) ends long en\gh to secure !     
paddles 9 place4 ,! %\ld] on ! middle1  
?w>t1 a few in*es inside ! gunwales1 0  
plac$ !re = j ?is purpose1 n z a m]e    
decoration1 s t ! l9e c\ld n slide 9    
along ! ?w>t4 ,! canoe 0 !n lift$ &     
turn$ ov] by rais+ "o end1 or by lift+ !
 :ole canoe1 & 0 plac$ on ! c>ri]'s     
%\ld]s1 s t ! paddle h&les 7 on 8       
%\ld]s4 ,?is br\ght ! middle ?w>t to j  
beh9d ! c>ri]'s head4 ,! loop ( ! b>k or
 hide cord 0 !n plac$ ar\nd ! =ehead ( !
 c>ri] 9 ord] to keep ! canoe f slipp+  
backw>d4 ,9 ?is fa%ion "o man c\ld c>ry 
a canoe = miles if ! canoe 7 small--&   

all woods1 or portage1 canoes 7 small & 
light4 ,! headb& 0 kn[n to :ite m5 z a  
tump l9e4 ,! ,indians us$ x to c>ry n   
only canoes b o!r heavy or awkw>d loads 
7see p4 #be74  ,!re is no c]ta9ty ab\t !
 decorations ( ,algonk9 canoes4 ,"s ( ! 
old] ,indians claim$ t ! old =m ( canoe 
0 (t5 decorat$ ) figures =m$ by scrap+ !
 w9t] b>k2 usually ^! depict$ ! game !  
own] hunt$4 ,five-po9t$ />s1 fi%1 &     
circul> =ms are kn[n to h be5 us$ on !  
wab9aki *iman1 b x is n kn[n :e!r ^! 7  
really ,algonk9 decorations or m]ely    
some?+ t _h be5 copi$ because x look$   
good4  ,! ,algonk9 call$ ! l>ge fur     
canoes nabiska1 a "n :i* ! ,ttes de     
,b\le r5d]$ z rabeska4 ,! ^w may be a   
corruption ( ! ,cree ^w = /rong4 ,at any
 rate1 ! "n rabeska 7sometimes pron\nc$ 
ra-bas-ha71 r ?an ! ,fr5* matre canot1 0
 long appli$ by :ite m5 9 ! fur trade to
 ! l>ge canoes built 9 ! ,ottawa ,riv]  
,valley = _! bus9ess4 ,9 late ye>s !    
rabeska 0 a l>ge #b-;fa?om high-end$    
bir*-b>k canoe1 b orig9ally x meant a   

fur-trade canoe1 ) ! *>act]i/ic ends1 ( 
f #c fa?oms upw>d 9 l5g?4   ,ojibway  ,!
 ,indian b&s t 7 call$ ,outa\ais by !   
e>ly ,fr5* d n appe> to h be5 an        
indep5d5t tribe1 z has be5 m5tion$1 b 7 
l>gely made up ( ,ojibway f ! ,great    
,lakes region4 ,p]haps "s ,ttes de ,b\le
 7 among ^! b&s be=e ^! p 7 giv5 _!     
nickname4 ,! ,ojibway 7 a p[]ful tribal 
gr\p1 made up ( f>-rang+ b&s1 locat$ all
 ar\nd ,lake ,sup]ior & to ! nor?we/ z  
f> z ,lake ,w9nipeg4 ,!y _h be5 9 !     
process ( tak+ ov] ! we/]n end ( ,lake  
,sup]ior :5 ! e>lie/ ,fr5* explor]s     
rea*$ t area2 !y pu%$ ! ,si\x f ^! =e/  
l&s into ! pla9s area1 jo9+ ) ! we/]n   
,cree 9 ?is movem5t4 ,9 ! process !y    
seem to h absorb$ bo? "s ,si\x & "s     
,cree b&s4 ,)9 ! ,ojibway tribal gr\p1  
lat] call$ ,*ippewa or ,*ippeway by !   
,engli% & ,am]icans1 ! b&s _h local     
names1 or 7 giv5 nicknames1 su* z !     
,m5om9ee1 ,saltreaux1 ,pillag]s1 etc4   
,all ! important b&s )9 ! tribal gr\p 7 
exp]t canoem5 & build]s4 ,z f> z c be   

discov]$ n[1 ! ,ojibway add$ to _! own  
tribal types ! models ( canoes !y       
enc\nt]$ 9 _! expansion we/w>d4 ,x has  
long be5 true t ! ,ojibway canoe c be "o
 ( at lea/ ?ree =ms1 dep5d+ ^u :i* area 
( _! t]ritory is be+ discuss$4  ,:at is 
believ$ to be _! old tribal =m 0 a      
high-end$ canoe 9 all respects v mu* l !
 high-end$ ,algonk9 type4 ,?is 0 ! model
 us$ by ! ,lake ,nipigon ,ojibway1 nor? 
( ,lake ,sup]ior 9 ,ont>io1 & by ^? ( ! 
same tribe t once liv$ ne> ,sag9aw1     
,mi*igan1 z well z by ! ,m5om9ee (      
,wiscons94 ,at ! late p]iod1 f ! middle 
( ! #ai? c5tury onw>d1 = :i* in=mation 0
 available or 9 :i* inve/igation 0      
possible1 x appe>s t ! ,ojibway canoes (
 ?is high-end$ model 7 built 9 l>g]     
sizes ?an contempor>y ,algonk9 canoes ( 
l design4 ,! ,ojibway canoes _h ! same  
end /ructure z ^!2 ! e>ly examples f\nd 
_h *9 9 ! end pr(iles & ! tumble-home ( 
! /em 0 /raight1 or ne>ly s1 betwe5 !   
l>ge curve ( ! =efoot & ! v %ort h>d    
curve at ! /em head4 ,! ,ojibway us$ !  

same inn] /em-piece1 lam9at$ & br\ght   
d[nw>d abaft ! /em-head & !n inbo>d s t 
! end fitt$ into a slot 9 ! headbo>d a  
little above its midheight1 at :i* po9t 
0 fitt$ a /rut f ! headbo>d to ! back ( 
! /em-piece4 ,! midsection ( ! ,ojibway 
canoe 0 v mu* l t ( ! ,algonk92 x _h a  
n>r[ bottom some:at r\nd$ a?w>t%ips1 a  
well-r\nd$ bilge1 & fl>+ topsides4  ,a  
small ,ojibway portage canoe built 9 !  
middle ( ! #ai? c5tury _h an end pr(ile 
some:at diff]5t f t describ$ above2 !   
ends 7 well r\nd$ & _h a heavy *91 ! /em
 0 c>ri$ into ! tumble-home ) a full    
r\nd$ curve all ! way to ! /em-head1 :]e
 ! /em piece 0 b5t 9 & d[nw>d v %>ply & 
!n inbo>d %>ply aga91 s t ! end pi]c$ ! 
v]tical headbo>d at %e] height4 ,!      
,s-curve 0 s locat$ t ! ma9 gunwales    
c\ld be la%$ to ! /em piece at ! po9t   
:]e !y p>allel$ x well bel[ ! /em head4 
,9 ^! canoes ! ,ojibway foll[$ ,algonk9 
practice 9 end+ ! gunwales2 !re 01      
!re=e1 no /rut4 ,:]e ?is canoe 0 built  
is unc]ta94  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aad 

,,ojibway #b-;,,fa?om ,,hunt]',s        
,,canoe1 us$ by ! ea/]n tribal gr\ps4   
,probably ! anci5t model4  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #aae  ,,examples ,,( ,,! ,,old 
,,model ,,ojibway #c-;,,fa?om           
rice-h>ve/+ canoe 7above71 & #b-;fa?om  
hunt]'s canoe1 %[+ ! easy paddl+ =m us$4
  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aaf  ,,ojibway 
#c-;,,fa?om ,,freight ,,canoe ,,f ,,lake
 ,,timagami1 app>5tly a hybrid bas$ on  
canvas canoes4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure   
#aag  ,,! ,,old ,,=m ,,( ,,ojibway      
#b-;,,fa?om ,,canoe ( ! ea/]n gr\ps     
7above71 & ! long-nose ,cree-,ojibway   
canoe ( ! we/]n gr\ps4  ,at ,lake       
,timagami1 nor? ( ,georgian ,bay 9      
,ont>io1 ! ,ojibway us$ a l[-end$ canoe 
) a rem>kably /raight tumble-home /em   
pr(ile2 ! =efoot _h a v %ort radius end+
 at ! bottom l9e ) a knuckle1 & !       
/em-head /ood slightly above ! gunwale  
caps4 ,! /em-piece 0 made f a ?9 plank  
cut to pr(ile2 ?us no lam9ation 0       
necess>y4 ,! headbo>d /ood /raight1     
fall+ inbo>d slightly at ! head4 ,!     

midsection 0 di%-%ap$1 ) a flat bottom  
a?w>t%ips & /rongly fl>+ sides1 ! turn (
 ! bilge be+ r abrupt4 ,! ends 7 /rongly
 ,v-%ap$ 9 cross-section2 a numb] ( !   
frames !re be+ brok5 at ! c5t]l9e ( !   
bottom4 ,a canoe ( ?is design 0 se5 by  
,adney at ,nor? ,bay1 ,ont>io1 9 #aibe1 
indicat+ t ! design may h be5 us$ 9 "s  
degree outside ! ,lake area 9 lat] ye>s4
  ,! mo/ common ,ojibway model us$ to ! 
nor?we/ & we/ ( ,lake ,sup]ior 0 !      
s-call$ long-nose =m1 a r /raight-%e]$  
canoe4 ,! bottom1 ne> ! ends1 _h a      
slight rock]1 & ! %e] turn$ up v %>ply  
!re1 becom+ almo/ p]p5dicul> at !       
extremities1 yet ! ends 7 n             
proportionally v high4 ,! end-pr(ile    
came up f ! bottom v full & r\nd1 !n    
fell %>ply inbo>d 9 a slightly r\nd$    
sweep to jo9 ! upturn$ %e] well inbo>d4 
,! midsection 0 some:at di%-%ap$1 b )   
well-r\nd$ bilges1 s t ! fl>e ( !       
topsides 0 r\nd$ & n v app>5t to !      
casual obs]v]4 ,! end section develop$  
into a tumble-home =m1 s t a section    

?r\gh ! top ( ! headbo>d 0 r oval4 ,z a 
result1 ^! canoes appe>$ r clumsy &     
unfair 9 _! l9es1 b ?is app>5tly did n  
h>m _! paddl+ qualities or seawor?9ess4 
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aah  ,,ea/]n     
,,ojibway ,,canoe1 ,,old ,,=m4          
7,canadian ,pacific ,railway photo47    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aai  ,,ojibway   
,,long-,,nose ,,canoe1 ,,ra9y ,,lake    
,,di/rict4  ,^! canoes _h n>r[ headbo>ds
 t 7 %>ply belli$1 some:at l ^? 9 !     
crook$ canoes1 & ! belly 0 suffici5t to 
all[ ! heel ( ! end-bo>d to pass "u !   
bottom %ea?+ & inside ! b>k cov] s t two
 end ribs s]v$ to hold ! heel 9 place4  
,! inside /em-piece 0 (t5 no m ?an a    
light /ick or rod b5t to pr(ile1 ) !    
head split & br\ght ov] ! gunwale ends &
 d[n inside1 betwe5 !m4 ,ea* half ( !   
split 0 !n la%$ to its neighbor+ gunwale
 memb]4 ,a /rip ( b>k 0 (t5 plac$ ov] ! 
end ( ! b>k cov] & c>ri$ d[n ! face ( ! 
/em1 "u ! sew+4 ,! rail caps 7 !n br\ght
 up ov] ! tops ( ! gunwales & ov]lapp$ !
 top portion ( ! /em piece4 ,! heel ( ! 

/em-piece 0 bevell$ (f on ! inbo>d side 
s t x c\ld be w$g$ "u ! headbo>d1 inside
 ! b>k cov]4 ,^! headbo>ds1 x %\ld be   
not$1 7 no m ?an a ?91 n>r[ batt51 & 9  
"s canoes ! head ( ?is batt5 0 la%$ "u !
 gunwale ends in/ead ( com+ up betwe5 !m
 inbo>d1 z usual4 ,a v>iation 9 ! fitt+ 
( ! /em head 0 f\nd 9 a canoe at ,long  
,lake1 ,ont>io2 ! /em head1 in/ead ( be+
 split1 0 la%$ betwe5 ! gunwale ends &  
?us 0 br\ght inbo>d level ) ! top ( !   
gunwales4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #abj   
,,small ,,ojibway ,,canoes ,,( ,,! ,,two
 ,,tribal ,,=ms %[+ 7above7 e>ly tr5d   
t[>d ! long nose =m1 & ! f9al           
,ojibway-,cree hybrid =m comb9+ fl>+    
sides amid%ips ) tumble-home sections at
 ends4  ,! cross section ( ! ma9        
gunwales 0 r\nd or ne>ly s 9 ne>ly all  
long-nose canoes1 & (t5 a gunwale cap 0 
fitt$4 ,! b>k cov] 0 secur$ to !        
gunwales by a cont9u\s la%+1 b 9 at lea/
 "o example1 f ,m9nesota1 ! gunwale     
wrapp+s 7 9 gr\ps ov] an outwale aft] ! 
regul> fa%ion to ! ea/w>d4 ,! ends ( !  

?w>ts 7 w$ge-or *isel-%ap$ & in/ead (   
be+ t5on$ 7 =c$ into splits 9 ! r\nd    
gunwales4 ,_m canoes _h b>k cov]s at !  
gunwale ends & ve/iges ( ! wulegessis 7 
to be se54  ,all ,ojibway canoes 7 built
 ) a build+ frame1 ! b$ be+ slightly    
high] at midl5g? ?an at ! ends4 ,! /akes
 7 driv5 ne>ly p]p5dicul>1 in/ead ( )   
heads slant$ outw>d4 ,x is app>5t f     
obs]v$ examples t "s canoes 7 built by !
 same proc$ure z ! ,algonk91 b t n all !
 long-nose canoes 7 built by spread+ !  
gunwales2 "s 7 built us+ ! me?ods ( !   
,/4 ,francis4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure    
#aba  ,,ojibway ,,canoe ,,build+1 ,,lac 
,,seul1 #aiah4  ,prep>+ a build+ site or
 b$2 build+ frame 9 place4  ,b>k set up2
 b>k /ak$ out on build+ b$4  ,b>k cov]  
be+ sewn on build+ b$4  7,see pp4       
#agj-aga = m photos ( ,ojibway canoe    
build+47 ,gunwales be+ la%$4  ,secur+   
gunwales4  ,pit* be+ appli$ to seams4   
,illu/ration3 ,figure #abb  ,,long      
,,lake ,,ojibway ,,long-,,nose ,,canoe4 
7,canadian ,geological ,survey photo47  

,! la%+ 9 ! high-end$ ,ojibway canoes 0 
ab\t ! same z t 9 ! ,algonk9 canoes1 b 9
 ! long-nose type ! workman%ip 0 (t5    
co>se4 ,on _m ( ! latt] ! /ems 7 la%$ by
 use ( small gr\ps 9 :i* two turns 7    
tak5 ?r\gh ea* ( two closely spac$ holes
 9 ! b>k & ! connection betwe5 ! gr\ps 0
 made by a long spiral ar\nd ! outside (
 ! /em4 ,?is patt]n 0 c>ri$ d[n f !     
/em-head to ab\t ! level ( ! mid%ip %e] 
height2 f !re d[n ar\nd ! =efoot ! la%+ 
consi/$ ( a simple spiral4 ,ano!r /yle 0
 to use widely spac$ gr\ps made up ( two
 or ?ree turns ?r\gh a pair ( fac+ holes
 9 ! b>k1 "o on ea* side & inbo>d ( !   
/em4 ,! turn w5t ar\nd ! /em1 & ! la/   
connect$ ) ! next pair ( holes bel[4 ,a 
few canoes ( ?is /yle us$ closely spac$ 
wrapp+1 z 9 ! high-end$ canoes4  ,!     
long-nose ,ojibway canoe is surpris+ly  
primitive by comp>ison ) ! graceful &   
well-f9i%$ high-end$ model built aft] ! 
,algonk9 /yle4 ,adney believ$ t !       
long-nose type orig9at$ ) ! ,si\x       
,dakotas1 be=e ! comb9$ ,ojibway & ,cree

 movem5t =c$ !m out ( ! =e/ l&s to ! we/
 ( ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,he consid]$ x       
possible t bo? ! ,ojibway & ,cree adapt$
 ! ,dakota model1 modify+ x some:at to  
_! me?ods ( con/ruction4 ,x is true t ! 
we/]n ,cree built a long-nose canoe1 b x
 _h less *9 ?an ! ,ojibway model4 ,on ! 
o!r h&1 ! ,ojibway preb5t ribs 9 pairs l
 ! ea/]n ,cree1 & us$ spread]s 9 ! end  
ribs :ile dry+ !m1 9 exactly ! same     
mann]4 ,a picture tak5 9 #aiaf %[s !    
gunwales ( a ,cree long-nose canoe be+  
set2 x 0 laid on ! gr\nd & weight$ along
 ! midl5g? by /ones laid on bo>ds plac$ 
across ! longitud9als4 ,! ends _h be5   
%e]$ up & 7 support$ at ea* end by a    
?ong made fa/ to ! gunwale end & !n     
br\ght ov] a po/1 or /rut1 a few feet   
inbo>d & made fa/ to ! middle ?w>t4  ,x 
is unnecess>y to detail ! con/ruction ( 
! ,ojibway canoes1 z !y employ$ a       
build+-frame1 z ! draw+s on pages #abc  
to #abg %[ pla9ly en\gh ! p]t95t details
 ( fitt+ & con/ruction4 ,x is important 
to obs]ve t ! wide v>iation 9 model & 9 

con/ruction details ( ! ,ojibway canoes 
produc$ a v>iety ( build+ proc$ures t 9 
! ma9 7 l ^? ( ! ,algonk9 & ,cree4 ,h5ce
 ! old] tribal me?od ( con/ruction _c n[
 be /at$ ) any accuracy4  ,! paddle =ms 
us$ by ! ,ojibway gr\ps v>i$ some:at4   
,mo/ 7 made ) p>allel-sid$ blades & oval
 tips4 ,! h& grip at ! top ( ! h&le 0   
rectangul> & 0 l>ge 9 comp>ison to !    
grip ( ! ea/]n ,cree paddles4 ,a few    
v>iations h be5 notic$2 ! blade ( "o 0  
wide/ at ! top1 ! tip 0 almo/ squ>$ (f1 
& ! upp] h& grip 0 mu* z 9 ! factory    
paddle ( today4 ,?is paddle1 f an unkn[n
 locality1 0 us$ 9 #ahdi4  ,z 9 ! case (
 ! ,algonk91 ! ea/]n ,ojibway built     
fur-trade canoes "u sup]vision4 ,?\gh ^!
 canoes diff]$ some:at f ^? built by !  
,algonk9s1 x is n[ impossible to say    
:e!r or n !re 0 any real relation%ip    
betwe5 !m & ! small1 high-end$ old-=m   
canoe4 ,likewise1 ! ,ojibway built a    
v]sion ( ! wab9aki *iman :i* seems to h 
influ5c$ "s types ( _! own1 su* z1 =    
in/ance1 ! /raight-/em ,lake ,temagami  

canoe4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #abc      
,,n9ete5-,,foot ,,ojibway ,,canoe )     
?irte5 ,indians abo>d 7#aiac74   ,we/]n 
,cree  ,! we/]n portion ( ! great ,cree 
tribe appe> to h occupi$ ! we/]n %ore ( 
,james ,bay & to h mov$ gradually       
nor?we/w>d 9 hi/orical times4 ,_!       
t]ritory includ$ ! nor!rn portion (     
,ont>io & nor!rn ,manitoba nor? ( ,lake 
,w9nipeg1 & z e>ly z #ahjj !y _h ent]$  
nor?we/]n ,alb]ta4 ,! l9e ( division    
betwe5 ! canoes ( ! ea/]n & we/]n ,cree 
_c be /rictly det]m9$1 b x is r\ghly !  
,miss9aibi ,riv]1 :i*1 ) ! ,abitibi     
,riv]1 empties into ! head ( ,james ,bay
 at ! old po/ ( ,moose ,factory4 ,!     
s\!rn range ( ! ,cree model 0 only a    
little way s\? ( ! head ( ,james ,bay1  
irregul>ly we/w>d 9 l9e ) ,lake ,/4     
,joseph to ,lake ,w9nipeg4 ,to ! we/1 ! 
,cree type ( canoe gradually spread     
until x met ! canoe =ms ( ! ,a?abascan 9
 ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritories1 9 ! vic9ity (  
,lake ,a?abaska 9 nor?we/]n             
,saskat*ewan4  ,! canoes ( ! we/]n      

,cree1 z has be5 not$1 /rongly resembl$ 
! long-nose ,ojibway model except t !y  
_h less pron\nc$ *94 ,b unlike ^? ( !   
ea/]n ,cree1 _! canoes employ$ an inside
 /em-piece t 0 sometimes a lam9at$ piece
 & sometimes a piece ( spruce root4 ,!  
/em head 0 commonly b5t %>ply & secur$  
betwe5 ! gunwale ends at ! po9t :]e !   
two longitud9als 7 fa/5$ toge!r1 mu* z 9
 "s ,ojibway long-nose canoes4 ,! ,cree 
canoe _h basically ! same di%-%ap$      
midsection1 b x _h v full1 r\nd bilges &
 ! fl>e 0 s curv$ 9 ! topside t x 0 ev5 
less app>5t ?an 9 ! ,ojibway model4 ,!  
%ort] *9 ( ! ,cree canoe also made      
tumble-home 9 ! end sections unnecess>y1
 & cross section ne> ! headbo>ds 0 giv5 
! =m ( a slightly r\nd$ ,u4  ,! bottom  
_h v little rock] at ! ends1 be+ /raight
 = practically ! :ole l5g?4 ,! /em-piece
 if lam9at$ 7(t5 9 only two or ?ree     
lam9ations7 came up f ! bottom 9 a fair 
r\nd =efoot & !n tumbl$ 9 by a g5tle    
curve to ! /em-head1 :]e x 0 b5t %>ply  
to pass d[n betwe5 ! gunwale ends z     

previ\sly not$4 ,b if ! /em-piece 0 (   
spruce root1 ! pr(ile 0 (t5 some:at     
irregul> & ! *9 0 m pron\nc$4 ,9 a      
common /yle ! /em came fair out ( !     
bottom 9 a quick h>d curve1 !n curv$    
outw>d slightly until ! height ( ! lea/ 
freebo>d amid%ips 0 rea*$1 at :i* height
 ano!r h>d turn began ! tumble-home 9 a 
g5tle sweep to ! /em-head1 :]e !re 0 a v
 h>d turn d[nw>d4 ,! /em-head 0 (t5     
split1 z 9 "s ,ojibway canoes1 s t x    
came ov] ! jo9$ ends ( ! ma9 gunwales & 
! two halves 7 !n la%$ to ! inside faces
 ( ! gunwales4  ,bir* b>k 0 (t5 poor or 
sc>ce 9 ! t]ritory ( ! we/]n ,cree1 z 9 
t ( _! ea/]n bro!rs4 ,z a sub/itute1 !y 
employ$ spruce b>k & 9 g5]al seem to h  
a*iev$ bett] results1 = _! spruce-b>k   
canoes _h a neat] appe>ance4 ,if ! canoe
 0 built :5 or :]e root mat]ial 0       
difficult to obta91 ! we/]n ,cree us$   
ra:ide = sew+ ! b>k cov]4 ,:5 ! /ems 7  
la%$ ) ra:ide1 a /em-b& ( b>k "u ! la%+ 
0 common4  ,! gunwales 7 r\nd 9 cross   
section & 7 (t5 splic$ amid%ips4 ,! b>k 

cov] 0 la%$ to ^! ) a cont9u\s la%+1 no 
caps or outwales be+ employ$4 ,z 9 !    
,ojibway long-nose canoe1 ! headbo>ds 7 
v n>r[ & mu* belli$4 ,^! canoes 7 built 
) f\r or five ?w>ts2 ! #d-?w>t type 0   
us$ = ga!r+ wild rice1 z 0 ! ,ojibway   
type1 :ile ! #e-?w>t canoe 0 ! portage  
model4 ,! ?w>ts 7 sometimes mortis$ into
 ! gunwales1 b "s build]s made ! ?w>t   
ends *isel-po9t$ & drove !m into %ort   
splits 9 ! gunwales be=e la%+ !m1 "o or 
two holes be+ drill$ 9 ! ?w>t ends to   
take ! la%+ ?ongs4 ,:5 ! ?w>ts 7 t5on$  
into ! gunwales1 ! build]s ( c\rse made 
! inside ( ! gunwales flat4  ,:5 spruce 
b>k 0 employ$1 its great] /iffness made 
x possible to space ! ribs z mu* z #aj  
in*es on c5t]s1 b ) bir* ! spac+ 0 ab\t 
#a in*1 edge to edge4 ,! %ea?+ 0 9 %ort 
spl9ts & ! inside ( ! canoe 0 %+l$ or   
cov]$ irregul>ly )\t reg>d to l9+ (f !  
/rakes1 a practice sometimes obs]v$ 9   
,ojibway long-nose canoes4 ,! mu*-belli$
 & n>r[ headbo>ds 7 fitt$ z 9 !         
long-nose canoe1 & ! heel 0 secur$ "u a 

piece ( %ea?+ & held by x & ! fir/ two  
ribs4  ,we/]n ,cree canoes 7 built ) a  
build+ frame1 & ! b$ 0 rais$ 9 ! middle4
 ,! sew+ v>i$4 ,! ends 7 la%$ )         
comb9ations ( close-wrapp$ turns1 cross$
 turns1 gr\p$1 & spiral turns2 ! la%+   
commonly w5t ar\nd ! inside /em piece r 
?an ?r\gh x4 ,side panels 7 sewn )      
9-&-out /it*es or back /it*es1 & ! gores
 ) ! usual spiral4 ,gumm+ z a rule 0    
done ) cle> spruce gum temp]$ by repeat$
 melt+s4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #abd    
,,we/]n ,,cree #b-;,,fa?om ,,canoe1     
,w9isk ,riv] ,di/rict1 nor?we/ ( ,james 
,bay4 ,built ( ei!r bir* or spruce b>k4 
,inside root /em piece1 r\nd gunwales1 &
 mu*-belli$ headbo>d are typical4  ,!   
woodwork v>i$ ) ! build+ site2 "s       
build]s c\ld use mu* c$>1 b spruce 0 mo/
 common & ! ?w>ts 7 usually ( bir*4 ,:5 
spruce b>k 0 us$ x 0 nev] employ$ 9 a   
s+le l>ge %eet1 s9ce x w\ld h be5       
impossible to mold x to ! requir$ %ape4 
,h5ce ! b>k cov] 0 piec$ up1 :e!r bir*  
or spruce1 z an aid 9 mold+ ! =m4 ,be=e 

! spruce b>k 0 sew$ & gumm$1 ! edges ( !
 pieces _h to be ?9n$ to make a neat    
jo9t4 ,fur!rmore1 9 ! cont9u\s la%+ x 0 
desirable to take two or ?ree turns     
?r\gh "o hole 9 ! b>k cov] to avoid     
weak5+ ! mat]ial ) closely spac$ holes4 
,! we/]n ,cree paddles _h p>allel-sid$  
blades ) r\nd$ tips2 ! h&le sometimes _h
 a ball-%ap$ top grip & sometimes x 0   
pole-end$4 ,! blade did n h a ridge on  
its face ne> ! h&le4 ,old ,cree paddles 
7 (t5 decorat$ ) r$ pigm5t b&s1 m>k+s 9 
! %ape ( crosses1 squ>es 9 s]ies1 & dots
 on ! blades2 ! top grip might also be  
pa9t$4  ,_m tribal gr\ps 9 ! we/]n      
portion ( ! area h be5 m5tion$--,teton1 
,si\x1 ,ass9ibo9e1 ,ill9ois1 ,huron1 &  
_m o!rs--b no record ( _! canoe =ms has 
surviv$ & ! assign+ ( any model to !m is
 pure speculation4 ,! fur trade alone   
br\ght ab\t a p]iod ( tribal movem5t    
among ! ,indians long en\gh to erase _m 
tribal di/9ctions 9 canoes & to cause   
types to move great di/ances4           
,illu/ration3 ,figure #abe  ,,an ,,old  

#f-;,,fa?om ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe1 or   
rabeska1 us$ on ! ,montreal-,great      
,lakes run4 ,also call$ ! ,iroquois     
canoe1 x approximates ! canoes built = !
 ,fr5*1 at ! ,trois ,rivires1 ,que41    
factory & is ( ! /yle us$ by ! ,nor?    
,we/ & ,hudson's ,bay ,companies4       
,fur-,trade ,canoes  ,( all bir*-b>k    
canoe =ms1 ! mo/ fam\s 7 ! canots du    
matre1 or matre canots 7also call$ nor? 
canoes1 great canoes1 or rabeskas71 ( ! 
great fur companies ( ,canada4 ,^! l>ge 
canoes 7 develop$ e>ly1 z we h se5 9 !  
,fr5* colonial records1 & rema9$ a vital
 "p ( ! fur trade until well t[>d ! v   
end ( ! #ai? c5tury--two hundr$ ye>s (  
use & developm5t at ! v lea/4 ,a        
compreh5sive hi/ory ( ! ,canadian &     
,am]ican fur trade is yet to be writt52 
:5 "o appe>s x w %[ t ! fur trade c\ld n
 h exi/$ on a l>ge scale )\t ! great    
matre canot ( bir* b>k4 ,x w also h to  
%[ t ! e>ly exploration ( ! nor? c\ntry 
0 l>gely made possible by ?is c>ri]4 ,9 
fact1 ! great canoes ( ! ,canadian fur  

trade mu/ be look$ ^u z ! national      
wat]craft type1 hi/orically1 ( ,canada &
 f> m repres5tative ( ! great ye>s (    
national expansion ?an ! wagon1 truck1  
locomotive1 or /eam%ip4  ,little has    
surviv$ conc]n+ ! =m & con/ruction ( !  
e>ly ,fr5*-colonial fur-trade canoes4   
,circum/antial evid5ce leads to !       
conclusion t ! model 0 a developm5t1 an 
enl>gem5t p]haps1 ( ! ,algonk9 =m (     
high-end$ canoe z describ$ on pages #aac
 to #aaf4 ,! e>ly ,fr5* came into       
contact ) ^! tribesm5 be=e !y met !     
,great ,lakes ,ojibway1 ! o!r build]s ( 
! high-end$ model4 ,x is kn[n t !       
,indians fir/ suppli$ l>ge canoes to !  
,fr5* gov]nm5tal & *ur* au?orities & t  
:5 ?is s\rce ( canoes prov$ insuffici5t1
 ! canoe factory at ,trois ,rivires 0   
set up & a /&>d size 7probably a /&>d   
model z well7 came into exi/5ce4 ,z !   
fur trade exp&$1 l>ge canoes may well h 
be5 built else:]e by ! e>ly ,fr5*2 we "k
 at lea/ t build+ spread we/w>d &       
nor?w>d aft] ,canada became a ,briti%   

possession4  ,9 ! rise ( ! great canoe (
 ! fur trade1 ! basic model 0 no d\bt   
ma9ta9$ ?r\gh ! me?od ( tra9+ its       
build]s4 ,! fir/ ,fr5* engag$ 9         
b>k-canoe build+ le>n$ ! te*niques1 let 
u say1 f ! orig9al ,indian build]s1 !   
,algonk94 ,z build+ mov$ we/w>d1 ! fir/ 
m5 s5t to ! new po/s to build canoes    
app>5tly came f ! ,fr5*-op]at$ canoe    
factory4 ,x w\ld be reasonable to expect
 t z build+ increas$ 9 ! we/1 local     
modifications w\ld be patt]n$ on canoes 
f ar\nd ! build+ po/1 b t ! basic model 
w\ld rema94 ,?is may acc\nt = !         
dep>tures f ! true ,ojibway-,algonk9    
canoes se5 9 ! matre canots4            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #abf  ,,inbo>d    
,,pr(ile ,,( ,a #f-;,,fa?om             
,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe1 & details (      
con/ruction1 fitt+1 & decoration4       
,illu/ration3 ,figure #abg  ,,small     
#c-;,,fa?om ,,nor? ,,canoe ( ! ,ttes de 
,b\le model4 ,built 9 ! #ai? c5tury =   
fa/ travel1 ?is ,hudson's ,bay ,company 
canoe 0 also call$ nad[ *iman1 or       

,iroquois canoe4  ,9 model1 all !       
fur-trade canoes _h n>r[ bottoms1 fl>+  
topsides1 & %>p ends4 ,! fl>+ sides 7 r 
/raight 9 section & ! bottom ne>ly flat 
a?w>t%ips4 ,! bottom _h a mod]ate rock] 
v close to ! ends4 ,9 ne>ly all ( ^!    
canoes1 ! ma9 gunwales 7 %e]$ up only   
slightly at ! ends & 7 secur$ to ! sides
 ( ! inn] /em-piece2 ! outwales & caps1 
h[ev]1 7 /rongly %e]$ up to ! top ( !   
/em4 ,! curvature & =m ( ! ends1 9 lat] 
ye>s at lea/1 v>i$ ) ! place ( build+4  
,aft] ! ,engli% took control ( ,canada &
 ! fur trade1 a l>ge numb] ( ,iroquois  
remov$ into ,quebec & 7 employ$ by !    
,engli% fur trad]s z canoem5 & z canoe  
build]s4 ,?\gh ! aborig9al ,iroquois 7 n
 bir*-b>k canoe build]s1 !y app>5tly    
became s aft] !y rea*$ ,canada1 = !     
fur-trade canoes built on ! ,ottawa     
,riv] & tribut>ies by ! ,algonk9s & _!  
neighbors became kn[n aft] #ahbj z nad[ 
*iman or ad[e *iman1 names :i* mean     
,iroquois canoe4 ,^! ,iroquois canoes1  
h[ev]1 7 n a /&>d =m4 ,^? built by !    

,algonk9 _h relatively upright /em      
pr(iles1 giv+ !m a r long bottom1 & !   
outwales & caps /ood almo/ v]tical at ! 
/em-heads2 9 contra/1 ! ,iroquois canoes
 built by ! ,ttes de ,b\le _h a         
proportionally %ort] bottom ?an ^? ( !  
,algonk91 because ! end pr(iles 7 cut "u
 m at ! =efoot4 ,also1 ! outwales & caps
 ( ! ,ttes de ,b\le canoes 7 n %e]$ q z 
mu* z 7 ^? ( ! ,algonk94  ,x is suppos$ 
t ! ,ttes de ,b\le 7 taught to build ?is
 model by ,iroquois1 :o _h replac$ !    
,fr5* build]s subsequ5t to ! clos+ ( !  
canoe factory at ,trois ,rivires1       
sometime ab\t #ahbj4 ,aft] ! ,engli%    
took possession ( ,canada 9 #agfc1 ! old
 canoe factory _h be5 ma9ta9$ by !      
,montreal trad]s 7! ,nor? ,we/          
,company71 & x 0 n until ^! trad]s 7    
absorb$ by ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company t  
canoe manufacture at ,trois ,rivires    
f9ally came to a halt1 al?\gh x is      
probable t ! production ( canoes !re _h 
become limit$ by %ortages ( b>k & o!r   
suitable mat]ials4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,nor? ,we/ 

,company _h built ! l>ge trad+ canoes   
else:]e1 = _m ( its po/s _h f\nd x      
necess>y to con/ruct canoes locally1 &  
:5 ! ,hudson's ,bay ,company f9ally took
 ov] ! fur trade x cont9u$ ! policy (   
build+ ! canoes at v>i\s po/s :]e       
mat]ial & build]s c\ld be f\nd4 ,?is    
policy appe>s to h produc$ 9 ! fur-trade
 canoe model a ?ird v>iant 9 :i* ! high 
ends 7 mu* r\nd$ at ! /em head2 ?is 0 ! 
=m built by ! ,ojibway & ,cree 7see p4  
#aci74 ,x mu/ be not$1 h[ev]1 t !       
v>iation 9 ! ?ree =ms ( fur-trade canoe 
0 express$ almo/ entirely 9 ! =m & fram+
 ( ! ends2 ! l9es 7 all ab\t ! same1    
?\gh small v>iations 9 %e]1 rock]1 &    
midsection mu/ h exi/$4  ,illu/ration3  
,figure #abh  ,,models ,,( ,,fur-,,trade
 ,,canoes1 top to bottom3 #b-;fa?om     
,ottawa ,riv] ,algonk9 canoe1 ,hudson's 
,bay ,company express canoe1 #c-;fa?om  
,ttes de ,b\le ,iroquois canoe1         
#c-;fa?om ,lake ,timagami canoe1        
#e-;fa?om fur-trade canoe ( e>ly type1 &
 #e-;fa?om ,hudson's ,bay ,company canoe

 built 9 nor?we/]n ,quebec ,prov9ce4    
,al?\gh no regulations appe> to h be5   
set up by ! fur companies to gov]n !    
size1 model1 con/ruction or f9i% ( ^!   
canoes1 cu/om & ! requirem5ts ( usage   
appe> to h be5 satisfactory guides1 hav+
 be5 e/abli%$ by practical exp]i5ce4 ,z 
a result1 ! l5g? ( canoes v>i$ & !      
classification by fa?oms or feet mu/ be 
accept$ z no m ?an approximate4  ,! =m (
 ! canoe 0 det]m9$ by ! use to :i* x 0  
to be put1 9 trade or 9 travel4         
,fur-trade acc\nts (t5 m5tion ! light   
canoe1 or canot lg]1 (t5 misspell$ 9    
v>i\s ways 9 e>ly ,engli% acc\nts1 & ?is
 class ( canoe 0 always m5tion$ :]e spe$
 0 necess>y4 ,commonly1 ! light canoe 0 
m]ely a trade canoe lightly burd5$4 ,due
 to ! n>r[ bottom ( ^! canoes1 !y became
 long & n>r[ on ! wat]l9e :5 n heavily  
load$ & s c\ld be paddl$ v rapidly4 ,x  
is true1 h[ev]1 t "s express canoes 7   
built = fa/ paddl+4 ,^! 7 m]ely ! common
 trade models ) less beam ?an usual at  
gunwale & across ! bottom4 ,"s po/s made

 a specialty ( build+ su* canoes1 (t5   
h&somely pa9t$1 = ! use ( (ficials ( !  
company1 or ( ! *ur* or gov]nm5t1 dur+  
inspection trips4 ,n all ( ! highly     
f9i%$ canoes 7 ( ! n>r[ =m1 h[ev]1 z "s 
7 built wide = capacity r ?an = high    
spe$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #abi       
,,fur-,,trade ,,ma,,tre ,,canot ,,)     
,,pass5g]s4 ,f an oil pa9t+ by ,hopk9s  
7,public ,ar*ives ( ,canada photo74  ,! 
fur trad]s us$ n only ! s-call$         
fur-trade canoes1 ( c\rse1 b !y employ$ 
v>i\s ,indian types :5 small canoes 7   
requir$4 ,& 9 ! con/ruction ( !         
high-end$ fur-trade models1 !y did n    
limit !mselves to canoes ( relatively   
great l5g?4 ,ea* canoe road =m+ ! ma9   
l9es ( travel 9 ! old fur-trade _h      
requirem5ts t affect$ ! size ( ! canoes 
employ$ on x4 ,! l>ge/ size ( fur-trade 
canoe1 ! /&>d #e-;fa?om 7bottom l5g?71 0
 employ$ only on ! ,montreal-,great     
,lakes r\te1 9 ! days be=e ?is run 0    
tak5 ov] by bateaux1 s*oon]s1 sloops1 & 
lat]1 by /eam]s4 ,at ! we/]n end ( ?is  

r\te1 a small] #d-or #d-;fa?om canoe    
came into use4 ,! latt] 0 us$ on ! long 
run into ! nor?we/4 ,ev5 small] canoes 7
 (t5 employ$ by ! nor!rn po/s2 ! #c-or  
#c-;fa?om sizes 7 popul> :]e ! canoe    
r\tes 7 v difficult to op]ate4 ,= use on
 "s ( ! l>ge nor!rn lakes1 ! l>ge canoes
 ( ! ,montreal-,great ,lakes run 7      
introduc$4 ,fur com+ ea/ f ! ,a?abasca  
might ?us be transport$ 9 canoes ( v>y+ 
size along ! way4  ,9 judg+ ! size ( !  
canoe m5tion$ 9 a fur-trad]'s j\rnal1 x 
is (t5 v difficult to be c]ta9 :e!r !   
measurem5t he is employ+ is bottom or   
gunwale l5g?4 ,9 ! l>ge/ canoes1 h[ev]1 
! #e-;fa?om bottom-l5g? 0 ! #f-;fa?om   
gunwale l5g?1 & ! use ( ei!r usually1 b 
n always1 indicates ! me?od (           
measurem5t4 ,?is is n ! case 9 ! small  
canoe h[ev]1 :]e ! matt] mu/ too (t5 be 
left to guesswork4 ,to give ! read] a m 
precise idea ( ! sizes ( ! canoes la/   
employ$ 9 ! fur trade1 ! foll[+ w s]ve4 
,! matre canot ( ! ,montreal-,great     
,lakes run 0 commonly ab\t #cf feet     

ov]all1 or ab\t #cb feet #i in*es ov] ! 
gunwales1 & a little ov] #cb feet on !  
bottom4 ,! beam at gunwale 0 r\ghly #ff 
in*es 7inside ! gunwales7 or ab\t #fh-gj
 in*es extreme beam4 ,! wid? ( ! build+ 
frame t =m$ ! bottom w\ld be some:]e    
ar\nd #db in*es4 ,! dep? amid%ips1 f    
bottom to top ( gunwale might be        
approximately #cj-cb in*es & ! height ( 
! /ems r\ghly #ed in*es4 ,^! dim5sions  
might be be/ describ$ z av]age1 s9ce    
canoes ) gunwale l5g? giv5 z #f fa?oms 7
 built a numb] ( in*es wid] or n>r[]1 & 
deep] or %all[]4 ,! e>li] fur-trade     
canoes ( ! ,fr5* & ( ! ,nor? ,we/       
,company1 = example1 7 app>5tly n>r[]   
?an ! above4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #acj
  ,,biv\ac ,,9 ,,exp$ition ,,9          
,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,canoe4 ,f an oil    
pa9t+ by ,hopk9s 7,public ,ar*ives (    
,canada photo74  ,illu/ration3 ,figure  
#aca  ,,ojibway #c-;,,fa?om             
,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe1 a c>go-c>ry+     
type1 m>k$ by cut-"u end pr(iles1 t 0   
built z late z #ahid4  ,illu/ration3    

,figure #acb  ,,?is ,,type ,,(          
#e-;,,fa?om ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe 0     
built at ,l4 ,a4 ,*ri/oph]son's         
,hudson's ,bay ,company po/s at ,gr&    
,lake ,victoria1 ,lake ,b>rire1 & ,lake 
,abitibi4 ,call$ ! ,ottawa ,riv] canoe  
by fur-trad]s1 x 0 us$ = fa/ travel &   
%[s ! upright /ems ( ! nor?we/ ,quebec  
,algonk94  ,! #e-;fa?om size t replac$ !
 l>g] canoe at ! close ( ! b>k-canoe    
p]iod 0 ab\t #ca feet long ov] !        
gunwales or #cj feet #h in*es 9 a       
/raight l9e f tip ( upturn$ rail cap at 
"o /em to ! o!r4 ,! beam inside !       
gunwales 0 #fj in*es4 ,! wid? ( ! build+
 frame w\ld be betwe5 #dj & #de in*es1 &
 ! frame :5 =m$ w\ld be ab\t #bf feet #h
 in*es long4 ,! dep? ( ! canoe amid%ips1
 f bottom to top ( gunwale1 0           
approximate #cj in*es & ! height ( !    
/ems ab\t #ej in*es4 ,! ov]all l5g? (   
su* a canoe 0 ab\t #cd feet #d in*es4   
,an express canoe ( ?is size w\ld be    
ab\t #ef in*es beam inside ! gunwales or
 ev5 some:at less1 & ! dep? amid%ips    

ab\t #bh in*es or a little less4        
,illu/ration3 ,figure #acc  ,,hudson',s 
,,bay ,,canoe ,,runn+ ,,! ,,rapids4 ,f  
an oil pa9t+ by ,hopk9s 7,public        
,ar*ives ( ,canada photo74  ,a #d-;fa?om
 canoe measur$ #bf feet #h in*es ov] !  
tips ( ! upturn$ rail caps1 & #bi feet  
#aa in*es ov]all4 ,! beam amid%ips 0 #eg
 in*es inside ! gunwales & ! dep?       
amid%ips to top ( gunwales 0 #bf in*es2 
! height ( ! /em 0 #ec in*es4  ,a       
#c-;fa?om canoe 0 #ai feet #b in*es     
ov]all1 #af feet #h in*es ov] ! ends ( !
 gunwale caps1 #db in*es beam amid%ips  
inside ( gunwales1 ! dep? ( ! canoe f   
bottom to top ( gunwale amid%ips 0 #ai  
in*es1 & ! height ( ! ends 0 #ch in*es4 
,! build+ frame = ?is canoe 0 #ae feet  
#h in*es long & #bg in*es wide4  ,!     
canoes fall+ betwe5 ! ev5-fa?om         
measurem5ts 7 (t5 ( ab\t ! same         
dim5sions z ! ev5-fa?om size next bel[2 
a #c-;fa?om canoe w\ld h ne>ly ! same   
bread? & dep? z a #c-;fa?om2 only ! l5g?
 0 increas$4 ,! half-fa?om r>ely measur$

 t--a canoe rat$ z #c fa?om 0 actually  
only #bj feet #e in*es ov]all4 ,"o      
express canoe rat$ #c fa?oms measur$ #bj
 feet #a in* ov]all1 #ah feet #c in*es  
ov] ! gunwale caps1 #dd in*es beam      
inside gunwales amid%ips1 & #ba in*es   
deep1 bottom to top ( gunwale cap4 ,!   
height ( ! ends 0 #ci in*es4 ,?is       
example w s]ve to indicate h[ inexact ! 
fa?om classification really 04 ,x %\ld  
also be not$ t ! height ( ! ends v>i$ a 
good deal 9 any giv5 range ( l5g?1 z ?is
 dim5sion 0 det]m9$ n by ! l5g? ( !     
canoe b by ! judgm5t & ta/e ( ! build] &
 8 tribal =m ( end4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1    
small canoes _h relatively high] ends   
?an l>ge canoes1 9 proportion to l5g?1  
because1 z w be rememb]$1 "o function ( 
! end 0 to hold ! up5d$ canoe f> en\gh  
(f ! gr\nd to p]mit ! us] to seek %elt] 
"u x4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #acd       
,,repair+ ,,! ,,canoe4 ,f an oil pa9t+  
by ,hopk9s 7,public ,ar*ives ( ,canada  
photo74  ,extremes ( dim5sion appe> to h
 be5 r>e 9 fur-trade canoes2 none ^:    

l5g? ov]all exce$$ #cg feet h be5 f\nd 9
 ! records1 & ! maximum beam report$ 9 a
 matre canot 0 #hj in*es4 ,:5 canvas    
replac$ bir* b>k 9 ! fur-trade canoes1 !
 high-end$ models disappe>$2 ! canvas   
freight canoes 7 commonly ( ! :ite man's
 type hav+ l[-peak$ ends1 or a modifi$  
,pet]bor\gh type4  ,be=e discuss+ !     
me?ods ( con/ruction1 ! load+ & equipm5t
 ( ! fur-trade canoes %\ld be describ$ f
 contempor>y fur trade acc\nts4 ,! goods
 c>ri$ 9 ^! canoes 7 pack$ into easily  
h&l$ bundles1 or packages1 ( f #ij to   
#ajj p\nds weight4 ,w9es & liquor 7     
c>ri$ 9 #i-;gallon kegs1 ! mo/ awkw>d ( 
all c>go to portage4 ,9 "s cases ! furs 
7 pack$ into #hj-or #ij-p\nd bundles 9 !
 ,nor?we/1 & 7 repack$ into #ajj-p\nd   
bundles be=e be+ plac$ on ! l>ge canoes 
( ! ,montreal-,great ,lakes r\te1 b     
bundles light] ?an #ij p\nds 7 made up =
 ! %ipm5t ( small quantities (          
individual goods to isolat$ po/s4 ,!    
bundles1 or packs1 ( furs 7 =m$ "u screw
 presses s t #ejj m9k sk9s1 = example1 7

 made into a package #bd in*es long1 #ba
 in*es wide & #ae in*es deep1 weigh+ v  
close to #ij p\nds4 ,buffalo hides =m$ a
 l>g] pack1 ( c\rse4 ,9 ! canoe1 packs 7
 cov]$ by a p>ala1 a heavy1 oil$        
r$-canvas t>paul94  ,boxes call$        
cassettes 7 c>ri$2 ^! 7 #bh in*es long &
 #af in*es 9 wid? & dep?1 made ( -in*   
season$ p9e dovetail$ & iron-/rapp$1 ) !
 lid tightly fitt$4 ,! top1 & sometimes 
! bottom too1 0 bevell$ along ! edges4  
,! lids 7 fitt$ ) hasps & padlocks & !  
boxes 7 z wat]tight z possible4 ,ea* box
 0 pa9t$ & m>k$2 9 ^! 7 plac$ ca% & o!r 
valuables4 ,also c>ri$ 0 a travell+     
case--a l9$ box = m$ic9e1 refre%m5ts = !
 (fic]s1 & :at w\ld be ne$$ quickly on !
 road4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ace      
,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,company #d-;,,fa?om 
,,nor? ,,canoe1 ( ! type built by ,crees
 at po/s ne> ,james ,bay 9 ! middle ( ! 
#ai? c5tury1 = c>go-c>ry+4  ,provisions 
su* z meat1 sug>1 fl\r1 etc4 7 c>ri$ 9  
t9s & 7 /[$ 9 baskets :i* 7 usually ( ! 
=m kn[n to woodsm5 z pack-baskets4      

,baskets also s]v$ to c>ry cook+ ut5sils
 & o!r loose articles4 ,b$rolls consi/$ 
( blankets or robes1 made up 9 a t>paul9
 or oilsk9 gr\nd%eet & 7 us$ 9 ! canoe z
 pads or seats4 ,! voyageur's t]m = !   
canoe equipm5t--paddles1 sett+ poles1   
sail1 ma/1 & y>d1 & ! rigg+ & haul+     
l9es--0 agrs1 or agrets4  ,! t]m pacton 
0 appli$ to packs made up ready =       
portage2 !y 7 ord9>ily made up ( two or 
m packages1 s ! weight c>ri$ 0 at ! v   
lea/ #ahj p\nds4 ,no self-respect+      
voyageur w\ld c>ry less1 z x w\ld be    
disgraceful to be s weak4 ,! pacton 0   
c>ri$ by means ( a colli]1 or tump-l9e  
simil> to t us$ to portage canoes 7see  
p4 #abb74 ,x 0 made ( ?ree pieces ( /\t 
lea!r4 ,! middle piece 0 ( /\t tann$    
lea!r ab\t #d in*es wide & #ah in*es    
long1 tap]$ t[>d ea* end1 to :i* 7 sewn 
pliant /raps #b or #b in*es wide & #aj  
feet long4 ,^! 7 usually slightly tap]$ 
t[>d ! free ends4 ,! middle portion (   
?is piece ( ge> 0 ( ?ick en\gh lea!r to 
be q /iff1 b ! /raps 7 v flexible4      

,sometimes ! middle portion & #b or #c  
feet ( ! end /raps 7 9 "o piece )       
ext5sions sewn to ! latt]4 ,! pacton 0  
lift$ & plac$ s t x re/$ 9 ! small ( !  
c>ri]'s back1 ) its weight borne by !   
hips4 ,! ends ( ! colli] 7 ti$ to !     
pacton s z to hold x 9 place1 ) ! broad 
c5tral b& ar\nd ! c>ri]'s =ehead4 ,on   
top ( ! pacton 0 plac$ a loose package1 
cassette1 or p]haps a keg4 ,! total load
 am\nt$ to #bgj p\nds on ! av]age if !  
trail 0 good2 ! maximum on record is    
#fcj p\nds4 ,) 8 body lean+ =w>d to     
support ! load1 ! c>ri] sprang =w>d 9 a 
quick trot1 us+ %ort1 quick paces1 &    
mov$ at ab\t #e miles an h\r ov] a good 
trail4 ,a c>ri] 0 expect$ to make m ?an 
"o trip ov] ! portage1 z a rule4  ,!    
traditional picture ( ! fur-trade       
voyageur z a happy1 c>efree adv5tur] 0  
h>dly a true "o1 at lea/ 9 ! #ai?       
c5tury4 ,) poor food ha/ily prep>$1     
back-break+ loads1 & cont9ual exposure1 
8 lot 0 a v h>d "o at be/4 ,! mon/r\s   
packs usually br\ght physical injury & !

 work+ life ( a pack] 0 v %ort4 ,9 !    
e>ly days1 & dur+ ! "t ( ! ,nor? ,we/   
,company1 ! canoem5 7 all[$ to d "s     
private trad+ to add to _! wages1 b :5 !
 ,hudson's ,bay ,company took ov] ?is 0 
n all[$ & discipl9e became f> m h>%4 ,z 
a result1 ! ,fr5* ,canadians des]t$ !   
trade1 to be replac$ ) ,indians &       
half-bre$s4 ,! paddl+ race aga9/ "t1 to 
rea* ! de/9ation be=e ! fall freeze1 0  
labor comp>able to t ( a galley slave1 b
 9 a v h>% climate4 ,altoge!r1 if !     
brutal tru? is accept$1 ! life ( !      
canoeman 0 f> m h>d%ip ?an romance4     
,illu/ration3 ,figure #acf              
,,five-,,fa?om ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,f
 ,,brunswick ,,h\se1 "o ( ! ,hudson's   
,bay ,company po/s4  ,! c>go ( a        
fur-trade canoe 0 n plac$ directly on ! 
bottom2 light c$> or spruce poles 7 fir/
 laid 9 ! bottom ( ! canoe & !n ! c>go  
load$ abo>d4 ,! poles prev5t$ damage to 
! canoe by any undue conc5tration (     
weight4 ,! weight ( c>go c>ri$ v>i$ ) ! 
size ( ! canoe & ) ! conditions ( !     

canoe r\te4 ,! canoes 7 usually load$   
deeply1 except 9 ! case ( ! light       
express canoe1 9 :i* ! c>go 0 r$uc$ =   
sake ( rapid travell+4  ,an acc\nt      
writt5 9 #ahjj by ,alex&] ,h5ry ! y\ng] 
gives ! foll[+ li/ ( c>go 9 a trade     
canoe on ! run to ,r$ ,riv] 9 !         
,nor?we/1 :]e canoes "u #d fa?oms 7     
g5]ally us$3 ,g5]al trade m]*&ise1 #e   
bales2 tobacco1 #a bale & #b rolls2     
kettles1 #a bale or basket2 guns1 #a    
case2 h>dw>e1 #a case2 lead %ot1 #b     
bags2 fl\r1 #a bag2 sug>1 #a keg2       
gunp[d]1 #b kegs2 w9e1 #aj kegs4 ,?is   
total$ #bh pieces3 9 addition ! crew _h 
#d bales 7#a = ea* paddl]7 ( private    
prop]ty1 #d bags ( corn ( #a bu%els ea*1
 &  keg ( grease1 plus b$rolls & ! canoe
 ge>4 ,! trade goods c>ri$ to ! po/s    
includ$ su* items z canoe awls1 axes1   
%ot1 gunp[d]1 gun tools1 brass wire1    
fl9ts 7or1 lat]1 p]cussion caps71 lead1 
beads1 broo*es1 blankets1 combs1 coats1 
fire-/eels1 f+] r+s1 guns1 spruce gum1  
g>t]s1 bir* b>k1 p[d]-horns or c>tridge 

boxes1 hats1 kettles & pans1 knives1 fi%
 l9e1 hooks1 net tw9e1 look+ glasses1   
ne$les1 ribbons1 rum1 br&y1 w9e1 blue & 
r$ broadclo?1 tomahawks or hat*ets1     
tobacco1 pipes1 ?read1 v]million & pa9t1
 & false hair4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure   
#acg  ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoes ,,on ,,!   
,,miss9aibi ,,riv]1 #aija4 7,canadian   
,geological ,survey photo47  ,! t>paul9s
 us$ to cov] ! c>go 7 #h by #aj feet1   
hemm$ & fitt$ ) grommets ar\nd ! edges =
 la%+s4 ,! clo? 0 treat$ ) o*re1 oil1 & 
wax to give x a dull r$ color & to      
wat]pro( x4 ,"o ( ! t>paul9s usually    
s]v$ z ! sail4 ,! fur bales 7 ea* sack$1
 t is1 wrapp$ 9 a canvas cov] t 0 sew$  
on & /5cil$ ) id5tification & own]%ip   
m>ks4  ,! c>go manife/s 7 n always !    
same4 ,comp>e ! previ\s li/ ) ?is c>go1 
) :i* two light canoes 7 ea* load$3 #c  
cassettes1 #a travell+ case1 #b baskets1
 #a bag ( bread1 #a bag ( biscuits1 #b  
kegs ( spirits1 #b kegs ( port]1 #a t9 (
 beef1 #a bag ( pemmican = (fic]s & #b =
 ! crew1 #b t5ts = (fic]s1 cook+        

ut5sils1 canoe equipm5t1 & #a pacton =  
ea* ( ! #i m5 9 ea* canoe4  ,! rate (   
travel v>i$ a good deal1 dep5d+ ^u !    
condition ( ! wat]way & ( ! m54 ,p]haps1
 z an av]age1 #ej miles a day w\ld be ! 
common expectation dur+ a #c-mon? run   
into ! nor?we/4 ,travel+ fa/ ) good     
conditions1 an express canoe might      
av]age z mu* z #ge or #hj miles a day1 b
 ?is 0 exceptional4  ,! numb] ( m5      
requir$ to man a fur-trade canoe v>i$ ) 
! use requir$ ( ! canoe1 ) its load1 &  
its size4 ,!re 7 r>e occasions 9 :i* a  
matre canot _h #ag paddl]s & a /e]sman1 
b normally su* a canoe 0 mann$ by betwe5
 #g & #ae m51 dep5d+ ^u h[ mu* space    
abo>d 0 requir$ by c>go or pass5g]s & ^u
 ! difficulties ( ! r\te4 ,an express   
canoe1 travel+ light & at high spe$1 0  
mann$ by #d to #f paddl]s1 "o ( :om act$
 z /e]sman or /]n paddl]1 & "o z !      
equally important b[man 9 riv] "w4  ,!  
mo/ valuable in=mation on ! con/ruction 
me?ods ( fur trade canoes 0 obta9$ 9    
#aibe f ! late ,l4 ,a4 ,*ri/oph]son1 a  

retir$ ,hudson's ,bay ,company (ficial4 
,he _h jo9$ ! ,company 9 #ahgd & retir$ 
9 #aiai1 aft] #de ye>s s]vice1 #ch ( :i*
 he _h sp5t 9 we/]n ,quebec at ! po/s on
 ,lake ,b>rire & on ,gr& ,victoria4 ,^! 
7 canoe-build+ po/s1 & ,*ri/oph]son _h  
sup]vis$ ! con/ruction ( bo? ! #e-;&    
#d-;fa?om trade canoes4 ,8 po/s _h built
 ! ne>ly v]tical-end$ nad[ *iman1 !     
,iroquois1 or ,ottawa ,riv]1 type (     
,algonk9 canoe4 ,! actual build+ 0 done 
by ,indians1 b ! "w 0 direct$ by !      
,company m54  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ach
  ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,brigade1      
,,*ri/oph]son',s ,,hudson',s ,,bay      
,,company ,,po/1 ab\t #ahhe4            
,*ri/oph]son 9 :ite %irt & flat cap1    
sitt+ ) h&s clasp$4 ,five-fa?om canoes1 
,ottawa ,riv] type4  ,9 ! build+ ! eye &
 judgm5t ( ! build] 7 ! only guides1    
aid$ by ! occasional use ( a measur+    
/ick1 & ,*ri/oph]son made x abundantly  
cle> t ! ,company _h no rules or        
regulations t he knew (1 reg>d+ ! size1 
model1 & con/ruction ( ! canoes1 nor any

 /&>ds = decoration4 ,! model &         
appe>ance ( ! canoes 7 det]m9$ by !     
pref]5ces ( ! build]s & ! size by ! ne$s
 ( ! po/s4 ,= example1 ! #e-;fa?om canoe
 _h be5 built at ! ,gr& ,victoria po/   
until x 0 decid$ !re t a #d-;fa?om canoe
 w\ld s]ve4 ,! decoration1 if any1 0    
app>5tly accord+ to ! cu/om ( ! po/4  ,!
 me?od ( con/ruction describ$ by        
,*ri/oph]son seems to be l>gely t ( !   
,algonk91 modifi$ slightly by ,ojibway  
practices4 ,! canoes 7 built on a plank 
build+ b$ made ( #b-or #b-;in* ?ick     
spruce2 its middle 0 high] ?an ! ends1 z
 7 ! e>!n b$s us$ 9 ! ea/1 & holes 7    
bor$ 9 x to take ! /akes4 ,a /ake 0     
plac$ ne> ! end ( ea* ?w>t & "o betwe51 
along ! sides ( ! canoe4 ,! individual  
build]s _h _! pref]5ces z to ! me?od (  
sett+ /akes2 "s set !m v]tically :ile   
o!rs bor$ ! b$ s t ! /akes /ood ) _!    
heads po9t$ outw>d4 ,a po/ might h two  
or m build+ b$s1 "o = ea* size1 or      
model4  ,canoes 7 always built by means 
( a build+ frame4 ,?is 0 made ) f\r or  

five crosspieces t det]m9$ ! fullness or
 f95ess ( ! bottom ( ! canoe t[>d !     
ends4 ,by alt]+ ! l5g?s ( ! end         
crosspieces1 ! degree ( fullness 9 !    
l9es ( ! f9i%$ canoe c\ld be pr$et]m9$4 
,z a result ! b$1 :i* 0 usually ab\t #ah
 in*es wid] ?an ! build+ frame1 might h 
! %ape ( its frame m>k$ on x twice1 )   
two sets ( holes = /akes4 ,o!rwise1 !   
alt]ation 9 ! build+ frame w\ld require 
a special b$ to be us$4 ,9 addition to !
 alt]ation 9 ! ends ( ! build+ frame1   
!re c\ld also be v>iations 9 its wid?   
amid%ips4 ,*ri/oph]son's po/s commonly  
built canoes int5d$ = fa/ travel1 s mo/ 
( !m 7 n>r[] 9 beam at ! gunwale &      
across ! bottom ?an 7 ! fur-trade canoes
 ( ! p]iod1 & ! build+ frame 0 likewise 
n>r[]4  ,! l5g? ( ! build+ frame us$ 9  
^! canoes 0 ! same z ! bottom l5g?1 or a
 little long] ?an ! di/ance betwe5 ! two
 headbo>ds ( ! f9i%$ canoe4 ,?us1 9 a   
#e-;fa?om canoe ! bottom l5g? w\ld be   
#cj feet1 & 9 a #d-;fa?om canoe1 #bg    
feet2 ! b$s w\ld be "s #f feet long] ?an

 ^! l5g?s4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aci4 
,,=e/ ,,rang]s1 ,,lake ,,timagami1      
,,ont>io4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway  
,company photo47  ,z ! canoes at        
,*ri/oph]son's 7 built = spe$ & r>ely   
measur$ m ?an #dh in*es beam betwe5 !   
gunwale memb]s1 ! build+ frame 0 ab\t   
#cb in*es wide amid%ips1 or             
approximately two-?irds ! beam inside ! 
gunwales 9 a #e-;fa?om canoe4 ,! beam ( 
8 #d-;fa?om canoes 0 less1 say #db in*es
 inside ! gunwales & #bg or #bh in*es   
across ! build+ frame1 ) a dep?1 bottom 
to top ( rail cap1 ( betwe5 #ai & #ba   
in*es4 ,a #e-;fa?om canoe ( ?is n>r[    
model w\ld c>ry ne>ly #b %ort tons ) a  
crew ( six1 :ile ! small] model w\ld    
c>ry ne>ly #b tons4 ,h[ev]1 ! capacity (
 a wide canoe 0 mu* great]4 ,a #f-;fa?om
 canoe1 ! ,rob ,roy1 built by ano!r po/ 
ab\t #ahgf to br+ 9 ! bi%op = !         
consecration ( a *ur* at ! ,lake        
,temiscam+ po/1 0 describ$ by           
,*ri/oph]son z be+ ab\t #f feet beam on 
! gunwales4 ,consid]$ a f9e example ( a 

freight canoe1 ! ,rob ,roy 0 aft]w>ds   
load$ ) #ge bags ( fl\r1 total+ #c tons 
deadweight1 & c>ri$ z well a crew ( sev5
 & _! provisions & ge>4  ,! b>k cov] 0  
commonly 9 two l5g?s on ! bottom ( !    
canoe1 summ] b>k be+ us$4 ,! po/ ma9ta9$
 a supply ( b>k = canoe build+ & %eets  
#d fa?oms 9 l5g? & #a 9 bread? 7 n      
uncommon4 ,su* %eets w\ld h be5 ample = 
! cov] ( a small canoe b w\ld n be      
exp5d$ s ne$lessly2 h5ce1 ! canoes1 l>ge
 or small1 _h two l5g?s ( b>k 9 _!      
bottoms4 ,! lap 0 t[>d ! /]n4 ,9 :at    
appe>s to h be5 a local *>act]i/ic ( !  
canoes built at ,*ri/oph]son's po/s1 !  
b[s 7 indicat$ by mak+ ! ?w>ts t[>d t   
end slightly long] ?an ^? t[>d ! /]n1 s 
t ! =ebody 0 full] at %e] ?an !         
aft]body2 ! canoe ma/] c\ld ?us in/antly
 see :i* end 0 ! b[ )\t hav+ to exam9e !
 bottom or ! b>k cov]4  ,! two pieces ( 
b>k sewn toge!r 7 plac$ on ! build+ b$ &
 ! build+ frame plac$ on x & weight$    
d[n1 9 ! usual mann]4 ,! /akes 7 !n set 
9 ! holes 9 ! b$ & ! b>k secur$ to !m ) 

! usual inside /akes1 z well z ) !      
clo!sp9-l clamps us$ by ! ,algonk9 & o!r
 ,indian canoe build]s4 ,! end /akes 7  
set 9 a peculi> mann]3 a %ort pair 7 set
 ) _! heads slop+ inbo>d1 = use lat] to 
support ! %e]+ ( ! outwales1 & a long   
pair 7 set rak+ %>ply outbo>d to help   
support ! b>k requir$ = ! high ends4 ,z 
! b>k cov] 0 made up1 pieces 7 work$    
into ! ends to all[ ! high ends to be   
made4 ,! side panels (t5 se5 on ! ea/]n 
,indian b>k canoe 7 us$1 & ! b>k d\bl$  
at ! gunwales4 ,! d\bl+ pieces 7 put on 
ab\t #f in*es wide & trimm$ (f aft] !   
outwales 7 9 place4 ,! pieces 7 wide/   
amid%ips1 & :5 trimm$ w\ld ext5d ab\t   
two in*es or a little m bel[ ! outwales1
 n>r[+ some:at t[>d ! ends4 ,longitud9al
 batt5s to fair ! b>k along ! sides 7   
plac$ z usual 9 canoe build+4  ,! ma9   
gunwales 7 orig9ally made ( :ite c$>1 b 
:5 ?is became sc>ce at ! po/s1 :ipsaw$  
spruce 0 us$ in/ead4 ,! gunwales 7      
rectangul> 9 cross section1 ) ! out] l[]
 corn] bevel$ (f4 ,! cross section ( !  

inn] gunwale memb] 0 small]1 9          
proportion1 ?an ! outwale1 comp>$ to a  
small ea/]n ,indian canoe4 ,! gunwales 7
 b5t on ! flat 9 plan1 & 7 %e]$ edge    
b5t4 ,! t5ons = ! ?w>t ends 7 cut       
slant+1 s t :5 ! gunwales 7 made up !y  
/ood at a fl>e outw>d t[>d ! top edge4  
,! gunwales _h mu* tap] t[>d ! ends z x 
0 usual to "w 9 "s %e] 9 ^! memb]s4 ,!  
canoes built at ,*ri/oph]son's po/s1    
unlike "s o!r trade canoes1 _h a good   
deal ( %e] at ! ends1 z ! ma9 gunwales  
rose ne>ly to ! top ( ! /em4  ,! mann] (
 =m+ ! gunwales v>i$ some:at4 ,if !     
/akes ar\nd ! build+ frame _h be5 set to
 /& v]tically1 x 0 necess>y to assemble 
! gunwales ) tempor>y crosspieces1 or   
false ?w>ts1 ea* %ort] by sev]al in*es  
?an w\ld be ! f9i%$ ?w>t 9 _! place1 or 
twice ! am\nt ( fl>e desir$4 ,aft] !    
gunwale assembly _h be5 set above !     
build+ frame on ! usual po/s to det]m9e 
its height above ! build+ b$1 ! b>k cov]
 w\ld be la%$ to ea* gunwale memb]4 ,?is
 done1 ea* crosspiece w\ld be remov$ 9  

turn & replac$ ) its correspond+ ?w>t4  
,by ?is means ! gunwales w\ld be spread 
&1 9 ! process1 l[]$ 9 proportion to !  
*ange 9 beam4 ,?is w\ld usually make too
 mu* %e]4 ,!re=e1 if ! gunwales 7 to be 
spread z a result ( ! side /akes /&+    
v]tically1 !y _h to be =m$ ) "s rev]se  
%e] amid%ips4 ,?is 0 done z usual1 by   
fir/ treat+ ea* memb] ) hot wat] & !n   
weight+ x on a long plank1 or unus$     
build+ b$1 ov] a block plac$ "u x at    
midl5g?4 ,! height ( ! block w\ld       
det]m9e ! am\nt ! %e] 0 hump$ 9 !       
middle1 usually only an in* or s4 ,!    
gunwale ends 7 also treat$ ) hot wat] & 
sometimes 7 split horizontally to get ! 
requir$ %e] !re2 !y 7 !n b5t up & held1 
:ile dry+ & sett+1 by a long cord t 0   
/ret*$ betwe5 !m & plac$ "u t5sion by   
means ( a /rut1 ab\t #d feet long1 plac$
 "u ! cord at midl5g? & /epp$ on !      
gunwale memb] be+ b5t4 ,h[ev]1 if ! side
 /akes 7 set slop+ outw>d1 x 0          
unnecess>y to hump ! %e] amid%ips4  ,!  
reason :y _m build]s pref]r$ to set !   

/akes on ! b$ v]tically 0 t x made easy 
! gor+ & ! sew+ ( ! b>k cov] side       
panels2 if ! b>k available = ! cov]     
requir$ little sew+1 ! slop+ /akes might
 be pref]r$4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t ! usual
 proc$ure 0 to set ! /akes v]tically &  
to spread ! gunwales1 s9ce good b>k 0   
usually available4 ,a good deal (       
judgm5t 0 requir$ to e/imate ! am\nt (  
hump or rev]se to be work$ into !       
gunwale memb]s2 too mu* w\ld leave a    
hump 9 ! %e] ( ! f9i%$ canoe & n en\gh  
w\ld cause too mu* dip amid%ips4 ,be=e  
be+ b5t to %e]1 ! gunwale memb]s 7 work$
 smoo? ) a plane or ) scrap]s made (    
glass or /eel4 ,! build+ frame 0 tak5   
ap>t & remov$ f ! canoe aft] mo/ ( !    
?w>ts 7 9 place4  ,! ribs ,*ri/oph]son  
call$ timb]s & ! %ea?+1 la?+4 ,! ribs1  
commonly ( c$>1 7 usually  to  in* ?ick1
 & 7 #b to #c in*es wide 9 mo/ canoes1 )
 a long tap] s t ne> ! ends ! wid? 0    
ab\t half t at ! middle1 & at ! ends !y 
tap]$ almo/ to a po9t4 ,"s l>ge canoes  
_h ribs #d in*es wide at ! c5t]l9e1     

amid%ips1 b ^! appe> to h be5 unusual4  
,! ribs 7 plac$ on ! build+ frame at _! 
propos$ position & ! wid? ( ! frame at t
 po9t 0 m>k$ on ea*4 ,aft] be+ cut to   
ab\t ! requir$ l5g? & tap]$1 ! ribs 7 !n
 treat$ ) hot wat]1 & 7 !n usually b5t  
ov] ! knee 9 pairs1 ! m>ks det]m9+ :]e !
 b5d+ 0 to be done4 ,9 a freight canoe !
 ribs amid%ips w\ld be ne>ly flat across
 ! bottom b 9 a fa/ canoe !y w\ld be    
slightly r\nd$4 ,! p>ts ( ! rib ne>e/ ! 
ends 7 n b5t1 & ?us ! rib w\ld appe>    
di%-%ap$ :5 9 =m4 ,ea* pair :ile dry+ 0 
sometimes held by cords ti$ across !    
ends1 or ! ribs might be ins]t$ 9 ab\t  
_! prop] location 9 ! unf9i%$ canoe &   
held 9 place by batt5s & /ruts until !y 
took _! f9al set4 ,! ribs at ! extreme  
ends 7 (t5 sprung or brok5 at ! c5t]l9e 
to get ! ,v-section requir$ !re1        
p>ticul>ly 9 a %>p-end$ express canoe4  
,illu/ration3 ,figure #adj              
,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,/em-,,pieces1   
models made by ,adney3 #a1 ,algonk9     
type2 #b1 ,iroquois type1 ,ottawa ,riv]1

 old ,fr5*2 #c1 ,*ri/oph]son's canoes4  
,! %ea?+ 0 ab\t -in* ?ick & 0 laid      
accord+ to ! tribal practice ( ! build]2
 ,*ri/oph]son appe>s to h foll[$ !      
,algonk9 practices g5]ally 9 ?is z 9 o!r
 build+ matt]s at 8 po/s4  ,:]eas       
,malecite practice 0 to la% ! b>k cov]  
to bo? inwale & outwale1 9 ! we/]n type 
( canoe ! cov] 0 la%$ to ! ma9 gunwale  
fir/1 ow+ to ! spread gunwales1 & !     
outwale 0 !n pegg$ to ! gunwale & also  
la%$1 ! ends be+ wrapp$ ) figure-eight  
turns4 ,all gunwale la%+ 9 fur-trade    
canoes 0 9 gr\ps4 ,because ( ! %e] at ! 
ends1 ! outwales 7 split horizontally   
into f\r or m lam9ae1 & ! splitt+ ext5d$
 almo/ to ! end-?w>t positions4 ,9 a few
 canoes outwales 7 omitt$ or 7 %ort &   
did n ext5d beyond ! end ?w>ts1 b ?is   
practice 0 relatively uncommon4 ,!      
outwales 7 usually rectangul> 9 cross   
section & mu* tap]$ t[>d ! ends4  ,!    
rail caps 7 also rectangul> 9 cross     
section1 b (t5 !y _h ! outbo>d upp] edge
 r\nd$ (f or bevel$4 ,! caps 7 pegg$ at 

#a-;foot int]vals to ! ma9 gunwales1 b  
at ! ends !y c\ld only be la%$ to !     
outwale1 z bo? outwales & caps 7 s %>ply
 upswept at ! ends t !y /ood almo/      
v]tically4 ,! ends 7 squ>$ (f & /ood a  
little above ! top ( ! /ems1 s t :5 !   
canoe 0 plac$ upside d[n z a %elt] = !  
paddl]s & pack]s x re/$ ^u ^! memb]s r  
?an on ! sew+ ( ! b>k cov] on ! tops ( !
 /ems1 z 0 usual ) all ! high-end$      
,algonk9 & ,ojibway canoes4  ,!         
/em-pieces & headbo>ds 7 assembl$ into  
s+le units1 z %[n on pages #adi & #aea1 
be=e be+ in/all$ dur+ con/ruction4 ,!   
/em-pieces 7 ( :ite c$>1 ab\t f\r f+]s  
deep =e-&-aft & lam9at$1 & ab\t  to #a  
in*es wide1 dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! canoe &
 ! judgm5t ( ! build]4 ,9 ,*ri/oph]son's
 area ! /em-piece 0 relatively %ort1 !  
head com+ up & ar\nd & end+ at a po9t f>
 en\gh "u ! rail-cap ends = x to be     
securely la%$ to ^! memb]s & to !       
outwale ends4 ,x 0 b5t by use ( hot wat]
 & ! lam9ae 7 secur$ by wrapp+ ! /em    
piece ) f9e tw9e4 ,! /em 0 /iff5$ by    

/epp+ ! headbo>d on its heel 9 ! usual  
mann]1 & ! two 7 held 9 ! requir$       
position by two horizontal /ruts1 !     
outbo>d ends ( :i* 7 la%$ to ! sides ( !
 /em piece well up above ! heel2 !      
inbo>d ends 7 pegg$ at ! sides ( !      
headbo>d1 9 not*es1 or 7 pass$ ?r\gh !  
headbo>ds 9 slots & ! /rut ends secur$ )
 w$ges a?w>t%ips on ! inbo>d face ( !   
headbo>d4 ,! result 0 a rigid & /rong   
end-frame4 ,m complicat$ b5d+ 0 employ$ 
at "s po/s1 :]e ! build+ ( fur-trade    
canoes foll[$ ,algonk9 or ,ojibway      
practices4 ,9 ^!1 z has be5 m5tion$1 !  
/em-pieces 7 br\ght d[n & ar\nd "u !    
/em-head to ! back or inbo>d edge ( !   
/em-piece & la%$1 !n br\ght inbo>d      
horizontally to end 9 a hole 9 !        
headbo>d1 betwe5 /ruts plac$ z 9 !      
,*ri/oph]son-built canoes4 ,ano!r me?od 
0 to br+ ! /em-piece ar\nd ! /em head & 
d[n & ar\nd outbo>d to ! inbo>d face ( !
 /em1 :]e ! end 0 split & ea* half la%$ 
to ! sides ( ! /em-piece4 ,9 ?is case   
!re 0 a la%+ betwe5 /em-piece & !       

headbo>d1 plac$ :]e ! rev]se 0 made1    
inbo>d & bel[ ! top ( ! /em1 well up on 
! headbo>d4 ,! heel ( ! headbo>d &      
/em-piece 7 pegg$ toge!r4  ,/ruts 7 n   
requir$ ) ?is con/ruction1 describ$     
e>li] 7on p4 #abc7 z ! ,ojibway me?od4  
,9 b5d+ ! /em-piece1 ! rev]se curve     
ar\nd ! /em-head 0 =m$ ov] a %ort /rut t
 0 remov$ :5 ! /em-piece 0 dri$ & set to
 %ape4 ,z a v>iety ( =ms 7 us$ 9 %ap+ ^!
 /em-pieces1 x 0 ! +5uity ( ! build] t  
decid$ j h[ ! end ( ! /em-piece 0 be/   
secur$ & h[ ! :ole 0 to be brac$4 ,^!   
details w be bett] und]/ood by ref]5ce  
to ! plans & illu/rations on pages #acd 
to #aea4  ,! headbo>ds 7 n sprung or    
belli$1 b /ood ne>ly v]tical 9 ! canoes4
 ,! inbo>d face 0 (t5 decorat$2 9 ! old 
,fr5* canoes & 9 ^? ( ! ,nor? ,we/      
,company1 ! bo>d 0 c>v$ or pa9t$ to     
repres5t a human figure1 le petit homme1
 :i* 0 (t5 made 9 ! lik5ess ( a voyageur
 9 8 be/ clo!s4 ,9 "s canoes1 only a    
human head 0 us$1 or ! top ( ! headbo>d1
 or button1 0 decorat$ ) a ray$ compass 

drawn 9 colors4  ,! ?w>ts 7 usually r   
heavy amid%ips & 7 made 9 v>i\s =ms to  
suit ! ta/e ( ! build]4 ,!y 7 commonly (
 maple1 b ,*ri/oph]son's canoes _h      
spruce or tam>ack ?w>ts1 ! latt] be+ 8  
pref]5ce4 ,^! ?w>ts 7 n int5d$ to be us$
 z seats1 ?\gh ! /]nman1 or /e]sman1 (t5
 sat on ! aft]mo/ "o4 ,! paddl]s (t5 us$
 seats 9 ! l>ge canoes2 ^! 7 planks     
slung f ea* end by cords made fa/ to !  
gunwales4 ,^! cords all[$ ! height ( !  
seats to be adju/$2 ! paddl]s usually   
knelt on ! bottom ( ! canoe ) hips      
support$ by ! seat4 ,! seats 7 usually  
slung be=e ! ?w>ts1 except amid%ips1 :]e
 ! space 0 tak5 up by pass5g]s or c>go4 
,! factors (t5 took great pride 9 !     
appe>ance ( ! canoes f _! po/s & _m1 l  
,*ri/oph]son1 _h ! craft gaily pa9t$ 9 a
 r b>b>ic fa%ion4 ,*ri/oph]son's canoes 
did n use any ( ! circul> decoration    
=ms2 8 canoes usually _h pa9t$ on !m1 he
 recall$1 su* names z ,du*ess1 ,sir     
,john ,a4 ,mac,donald1 ,express1 ,arr[1 
& ,ivanhoe4 ,! ends 7 (t5 pa9t$ :ite1 ) 

! figures or lett]s on ?is backgr\nd4 ,!
 ,company flag 0 (t5 pa9t$ on ! /]n ) ! 
initials ( ! ,company1 ,h4,b4,c41 said  
to mean ,"h ,be=e ,*ri/ by disrespectful
 cl]ks4 ,_m po/s us$ su* figures z !    
jackfi%1 loon1 de]1 wolf1 or be>1 on !  
b[4 ,! ray$ circul> devices appe> to h  
be5 long popul> & 7 said to h be5       
introduc$ by ! ,fr5*4 ,!re is no record 
( any device be+ (ficially requir$ 9 any
 di/rict b ! cassettes ( c]ta9 di/ricts 
7 m>k$ ) di/9ctive devices at "o "t2    
,norway ,h\se us$ a de]'s head ) antl]s1
 ,saskat*ewan two buffalo1 ,cumb]l& a   
be>1 ,r$ ,riv] a gras%opp]1 & ,manitoba 
a crocus4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ada   
,,fur-,,trade ,,canoe ,,/em-,,pieces1   
models made by ,adney3 #a1 ,ttes de     
,b\le type2 #b1 ,ojibway =m2 #c1 old    
,algonk9 =m4  ,dur+ ,*ri/oph]son's long 
s]vice he knew ! canoes built 9 8       
vic9ity at su* ne>by build+ po/s z ,lake
 ,abitibi1 ,lake ,waswanipi1 & ,kipewa1 
9 we/]n ,quebec2 & ,lake ,timagami 7,be>
 ,isl&71 ,mata*ewan on ,montreal ,riv]1 

,matagama 7we/ ( ,sudbury71 &           
,miss9aibi1 9 ne>by ,ont>io4 ,^! 7 b a  
few ( ! build+ po/s1 ( c\rse1 = canoes 7
 built at num]\s po/s to ! we/ &        
nor?w>d4  ,:5 portag$1 ! l>ge canoes    
might be c>ri$ "r side up or upside d[n1
 ! =m] be+ m usual me?od4 ,! canot du   
nord 0 (t5 light en\gh to be c>ri$ by   
two paddl]s1 "o "u ea* end1 ) ! canoe "r
 side up & /eadi$ by a cord ti$ to !    
(fside gunwale & held 9 ! c>ri]'s h&4 ,!
 matre canot requir$ f\r m5 to c>ry x4  
,v>i\s me?ods 7 us$4 ,"o 0 to la% c>ry+ 
/icks across ! gunwales ne> ! ends & to 
c>ry ! canoe "r side up ) a man on ! end
 ( ea* /ick4 ,ano!r way 0 = ! m5 to     
di/ribute !mselves along ! bottom ( !   
canoe1 ne> ! ends1 & to use /eady+      
cords4 ,or ! canoe might be c>ri$ upside
 d[n ) ! m5 c>ry+ x by plac+ "o %\ld] "u
 ! gunwales at conv5i5t places4 ,:5 a   
bad place 9 ! portage 0 rea*$1 ! :ole   
crew might h to turn to4 ,! me?od (     
portag+ _h to meet ! physical limitation
 ( ! portage pa? & ! matt] 0 n s mu* "o 

( /&>d proc$ure z ( improvisation ( !   
mom5t4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #adb      
,,portag+ ,a #d-;,,fa?om ,,fur-,,trade  
,,canoe1 ,,ab\t #aijb1 ne> ! head ( !   
,ottawa ,riv]4 ,%[s an unusually l>ge   
numb] ( c>ri]s2 f\r w\ld be ! normal    
numb]4 7,canadian ,pacific ,railway     
,company photo47  ,! voyageur 0 p>ticul>
 ab\t 8 paddle2 no man 9 8 "r m9d w\ld  
use a blade wid] ?an betwe5 #d & #e     
in*es1 = any?+ wid] w\ld exhau/ him 9 a 
%ort di/ance4 ,! paddle rea*$ to ab\t ! 
us]s' *91 :5 he /ood ) ! tip ( ! paddle 
on ! gr\nd 9 front ( him4 ,long]        
paddles1 ab\t #f feet long1 7 us$ by !  
b[ & /]n m51 ! two mo/ skillful         
voyageurs 9 ! canoe & ! highe/ paid4 ,^!
 m5 _h1 also1 sp>e paddles ^: total l5g?
 0 #h feet or m2 ^! 7 us$ 9 runn+ rapids
 only4 ,! paddles 7 ( h>dwood1 :ite or  
yell[ bir* or maple1 z h>dwood paddles  
c\ld be made ?9 9 ! blade & small 9 !   
h&le )\t loss ( /r5g?1 :]eas s(twood    
paddles c\ld n4 ,! blades 7 sometimes   
pa9t$ :ite1 ! tips 9 "s color su* z r$1 

blue1 gre5 or black1 b o!r color        
comb9ations 7 (t5 us$4  ,9              
,*ri/oph]son's s]vice1 sail 0 r>ely us$1
 z ! canoem5 7 unskill$ 9 h&l+ x & loss 
_h result$4 ,9 e>ly times1 h[ev]1 x     
appe>s to h be5 mu* us$ on ! ,great     
,lakes r\tes by ! ,fr5* & ! ,nor? ,we/  
,company4 ,a s+le squ>e-sail 0 ! only   
rig employ$2 ! canoes c\ld n be work$ to
 w9dw>d "u =e-&-aft sails4  ,dur+ !     
great seasonal movem5ts ! trade canoes  
mov$ 9 fleets call$ brigades1 ! usual   
brigade 9 e>ly times be+ ?ree or f\r    
canoes1 b lat]1 :5 ! ne$s ( ! individual
 po/s _h gr[n1 ! brigade c\ld be ( any  
necess>y numb] ( canoes to c>ry 9 !     
requir$ supplies & goods or to br+ out !
 season's cat* ( furs4 ,! lead] ( !     
brigade 0 ! conducteur or guide2        
sometimes he 0 ! po/'s factor4 ,9 ,fr5* 
times ! matre canot w\ld be load$ ) #fj 
pieces1 or packs1 to ! total ( ab\t #c  
%ort tons & half a ton ( provisions1 &  
eight m51 ea* ) an all[ance ( #dj p\nds 
= ge>1 s t ! :ole weight 9 ! canoe w\ld 

be some?+ ov] #d %ort tons4 ,an example 
( su* a canoe measur$1 inside !         
gunwales1 #e fa?oms long & #d feet beam4
 ,! usual brigade ( f\r ( ^! canoes w\ld
 ?us c>ry r\ghly #ab %ort tons ( goods4 
,! ,company w\ld s5d "o brigade aft]    
ano!r1 at close int]vals ( "t1 until !  
:ole seasonal movem5t 0 9 progress4 ,^? 
brigades go+ ! greate/ di/ance 7 />t$   
fir/4 ,al?\gh c>goes left ! coa/ f e>ly 
spr+ on to late summ]1 ! great canoe    
movem5t took place t[>ds ! fall4 ,canoe 
travel nor? & nor?we/w>d f ! ,great     
,lakes _h to be c>efully tim$1 z goods  
_h to be accumulat$ at ! base po/s on ! 
,lakes & ! brigades plac$ 9 movem5t at !
 la/ safe date :i* w\ld p]mit !m to rea*
 _! de/9ation be=e ! fir/ h>d freeze-up4
 ,! base po/s 7 ^? :]e ! run ( ! matre  
canot end$ & t ( ! canot du nord began1 
! places :]e reload+ = ! individual     
trad+ po/s 9 ! ,nor?l& 0 necess>y4 ,!   
late />t 0 usually desirable 9 ord] to  
await ! arrival at ! base po/s ( all !  
goods requir$1 = movem5ts ( freight 7   

unc]ta9 be=e ! days ( railroads &       
/eam]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #adc     
,,decorations3 ,,fur-,,trade ,,canoes4  
7,wat]color sket* by ,adney47  ,9 ! late
 #ah? & e>ly #ai? c5turies1 be=e ! :ole 
canoe trade fell "u ! control ( !       
,hudson's ,bay ,company1 x 0 ! cu/om to 
di/ribute #h gallons ( rum to ea* canoe 
= consumption dur+ ! run1 & x 0 also !  
cu/om = all h&s to see h[ mu* ( ?is !y  
c\ld dr9k be=e />t+ out4 ,?is gr&iose   
und]tak+ usually began z soon z ! local 
prie/1 :o gave 8 bless+ to ! canoem51 _h
 left ! sc5e4 ,! magnific5t drunk la/$  
"o day & ! next morn+ ! crew _h to be   
und]way4 ,! fir/ day's run1 old acc\nts 
repeat$ly %[1 n only 0 %ort b 0 (t5     
beset by difficulties4  ,! era ( ! b>k  
trad+ canoe did n close ) a dramatic    
*ange4 ,its end+ 0 a long1 sl[ process4 
,by ! la/ decade ( ! #ai? c5tury ! b>k  
trad+ canoe _h disappe>$ f mo/ ( ! old  
r\tes1 & ev5 9 ! ,nor?we/ x _h be5 almo/
 :olly displac$ by ,york boats1 sc[s1   
bateaux1 & canvas or wood5 canoes (     

:ite-man con/ruction4 ,by ! beg9n+ ( !  
fir/ ,_w ,w>1 ! matre canots & canots du
 nord 7 f9i%$1 except z                 
curiosities--h>dly ev5 z ^!1 = n "o 0   
pres]v$ 9 a museum4  ,inde$1 s complete 
0 ! disappe>ance ( ! fur-trade canoe t  
any attempt to record its design1       
con/ruction1 & fitt+ w\ld h be5 almo/   
hopeless1 _h x n be5 = ! notes1 sket*es1
 & /atem5ts ( su* m5 z ,l4 ,a4          
,*ri/oph]son1 aid$ by a few models &    
pictures1 & = ! memories ( a few ,indian
 build]s :o _h work$ on ! canoes4       
,*apt] ,six  ,,nor?we/]n ,,canada       
,indians ( ! ,nor?we/ ,t]ritories & !   
,prov9ce ( ,briti% ,columbia 9 ,canada1 
& ! ,/ates ( ,alaska & ,wa%+ton1 built  
b>k canoes t may be divid$ into ?ree    
basic models4  ,! fir/ may be call$ !   
kayak model1 a flat-bottom1 n>r[ canoe  
hav+ ne>ly /raight fl>+ sides & ei!r a  
*9e or a v quick turn ( ! bilge4 ,^! b>k
 canoes 7 l[-sid$ & 7 usually p>tly     
deck$4 ,a numb] ( tribal gr\ps built    
canoes ( ?is model1 ! v>iation be+      

relatively m9or4 ,! rake & =m ( ! ends  
v>i$ some:at z did ! am\nt ( deck+2 !re 
7 also "s slight v>iations 9 /ructure & 
me?od ( con/ruction4 ,:ile ^! b>k canoes
 _h "s sup]ficial resemblance 9 g5]al   
proportions to ! ,eskimo kayaks1 x is   
necess>y to po9t out t !y did n1        
p>ticul>ly 9 ,alaska1 h ! same hull =m z
 ! seago+ kayaks 9 t area4 ,9 fact1 !   
s+le-*9e =m ( ! ,alaskan v]sion ( ?is   
canoe appe>s only 9 ! kayaks ( nor!rn   
,gre5l& & ,baff9 ,isl&4 ,! ,alaskan     
seago+ sk9 kayaks are all multi-*9e =ms 
t approximate a r\nd-bottom hull4 ,x has
 be5 ?\ght t ! flat-bottom seago+ kayak 
=m may h exi/$ 9 ! ,canadian ,nor?we/1  
at ! m\? ( ! ,mack5zie2 a kayak s       
id5tifi$ is 9 ! collections ( ! ,u4,s4  
,national ,museum 7see p4 #bjb71 b !re  
is n[ d\bt among au?orities z to !      
correctness ( ?is id5tification4 ,z w be
 %[n lat]1 x seems probable t x has be5 
improp]ly assign$ to ! ,mack5zie delta &
 is1 9 fact1 an ea/]n ,eskimo model4  ,!
 second model us$ 9 ! ,nor?we/ area 0 a 

n>r[-bottom fl>+-sid$ b>k canoe )       
elevat$ ends1 hav+1 p]haps1 a fa9t      
resemblance to ! ,algonk9-,cree canoes (
 ! old type4 ,"h too !re 0 "s v>iation  
among ! canoes ( tribal gr\ps1 mo/ly 9 !
 %ape & con/ruction ( ! ends & 9 ! fitt+
 ( ! gunwales4 ,mo/ ( ! canoes ( ?is    
type _h /em-pieces =m$ ( a              
plank-on-edge1 b 9 a few examples !     
/em-pieces 7 b5t4 ,?is model 0 built by 
! same tribal gr\ps 9 ,canada t built ! 
kayak =m1 ! explanation be+ t ! kayak =m
 0 ! hunt+ :ile ! second model 0        
commonly ! family or c>go canoe4 ,9     
,alaska1 h[ev]1 only ! kayak-=m 0 us$ & 
! family1 or c>go1 canoe 0 m]ely an     
enl>gem5t ( x4  ,! ?ird model may be    
call$ ! /urgeon-nose type2 9 ?is ! ends 
7 =m$ ) a long1 po9t$ ram c>ri$ well    
outbo>d bel[ ! wat]l9e z an ext5sion ( !
 bottom l9e ( ! canoe4 ,primitive 9 bo? 
model & con/ruction1 x 0 built 9 a r    
limit$ area 9 ,briti% ,columbia & 9 !   
,/ate ( ,wa%+ton4 ,! la/ canoes built on
 ?is =m 7 canvas-cov]$2 9 e>li] times   

spruce or p9e b>k 0 usually employ$4  ,!
 bir* 9 mo/ ( ! ,nor?we/ is a small tree
 & ! b>k is ( poor quality = canoe      
build+2 h5ce1 9 _m areas spruce b>k 0   
commonly employ$ 9 its place2 a s+le    
tribal gr\p might build its canoes (    
ei!r1 dep5d+ ^u :at 0 available ne> !   
build+ site4 ,h[ev]1 ne> ! ,alaska coa/1
 :]e kayak-=m b>k canoes 7 us$ & good   
bir* 0 usually n available1 "s tribes   
us$ seal or o!r sk9s z a sub/itute4 ,9 !
 framework spruce & fir 7 mo/ commonly  
employ$1 b occasionally c$> 0 available 
& 0 us$4  ,! canoe-build+ ,indians 9    
nor?we/]n ,canada 7 mo/ly ( ! ,a?abascan
 family & includ$ ! ,*ipewyan or        
,*ipewans1 ! ,slave or ,slavey 7        
,et*>eott9e71 ! ,beav] 7 ,tsatt9e71 !   
,dogrib 7 ,?l+*ad9ne71 ! ,tanana 7      
,t5ankut*971 ! ,l\*eux1 ! ,h>e 7        
,kaw*od9ne71 & o!rs4 ,"s ( ^! tribal    
gr\ps built n only b>k canoes b also    
dug\ts4 ,!re 7 also "s ,eskimo p :o     
built b>k canoes = riv] s]vice1 z well z
 sk9 canoes1 on ! same model z ! b>k    

kayak-=m4  ,9 ! vic9ities ( ,lake       
,a?abasca & ,great ,slave ,lake1 !      
,*ipewyan employ$ n only _! own models (
 canoes b also t ( ! we/]n ,cree4 ,!    
latt] _h invad$ ,*ipewyan t]ritory be=e 
! arrival ( ! fir/ :ite m5 9 ! ,nor?we/ 
& und\bt$ly _h influ5c$ canoe-build+    
te*nique dur+ ! long p]iod ( ! fur trade
 t foll[$4 ,x is !re=e n possible to say
 :]e ! influ5ce ( ,*ipewyan build+      
te*niques ends & t ( ! ,cree & ! ea/]n  
,indians1 z introduc$ ?r\gh ! fur-trade 
canoes1 beg9s4 ,?is raises ! "q :e!r !  
high-end$ ,a?abascan canoe is itself !  
result ( influ5ce4 ,"o may inf] f       
,samuel ,he>ne's description ( 8 travels
 9 ?is area1 9 8 ,j\rney 444 to !       
,nor!rn ,ocean1#a t only ! kayak-=m !n  
exi/$1 = ?is type is ! only "o he       
describes1 & he describes x 9 great     
detail4 ,h[ev]1 ,alex&] ,mack5zie1 9 an 
entry 9 8 j\rnal = ,june #bc1 #aghi1    
ref]s to ! l>ge canoe 9 a mann] indicat+
 t x 0 a local type4 ,x may well be t   
!n1 z lat]1 ! kayak-=m & c>go canoe     

exi/$ side by side1 or x may be t       
,mack5zie 0 ref]r+ to a l>ge kayak-=m   
canoe l ! family canoe ( ! ,alaska      
,yukon ,indians4 ,p]haps ! reason t     
,he>ne did n m5tion ! l>ge canoe is t ! 
p he met on 8 way to ! ,copp]m9e ,riv]1 
& on 8 way back by way ( ,lake ,a?abasca
 to ,hudson ,bay1 did n !n use canoes ( 
! second model4  #a ,see bibliography4  
,illu/ration3 ,figure #add  ,,*ipewyan  
#b-;,,fa?om hunt]'s canoe 7top71 ) b5t  
/em piece1 & ,a?abascan #b-;fa?om canoe 
) plank /em piece4 ,plank & b5t /em     
pieces 7 bo? employ$ 9 ,a?abascan       
canoes4 ,spruce or bir* b>k 7 us$ )\t   
alt]ation ( ! design or basic           
con/ruction me?ods4   ,n>r[-,bottom     
,canoe  ,because ! v>iations 9 ! second 
model1 ! ,algonk9-,ojibway type1 are    
relatively slight1 x w be easie/ to     
describe ?is fir/4 ,! canoe is kn[n to h
 be5 built ext5sively by ! ,*ipewyan1   
,dogrib1 & ,slave4 ,! sizes mo/ common 7
 #af to #bb feet ov] ! gunwales1 ) a    
beam ( betwe5 #cf & #dh in*es4 ,! %e] 0 

usually r /raight1 ! %>p upw>d turn to !
 end tak+ place v close to ! gunwale    
ends4 ,mo/ ( ! bottom 0 /raight2 !      
rock]1 if exi/+1 occurr$ close to ! ends
 ( ! canoe & 0 mod]ate4 ,! midsection 0 
di%-%ap$ & ne>ly flat across ! bottom1 )
 a r slack1 well-r\nd$ bilge & almo/    
/raight fl>+ sides1 ! am\nt ( fl>e be+  
usually great4 ,! bottom app>5tly 0 nev]
 dead flat a?w>t%ips1 = 9 all kn[n      
examples x 0 some:at r\nd$4 ,ne> ! ends 
! sections 7 9 ! %ape ( a ,v ) apex     
r\nd$2 ! =m ( ! ends 0 %>p & )\t holl[  
ei!r at ! gunwale or at ! level l9es4 ,!
 ends ( ! canoes 7 nev] l(ty & _m _h end
 pr(iles t 7 v long =e-&-aft & %[$ a    
m>k$ angul>ity4 ,inwales & outwales =m$ 
! gunwale /ructure2 "s canoes also _h   
gunwale caps :i* /opp$ well %ort ( ! end
 pr(iles4 ,! ends ( ! inwales 7 c>ri$ to
 ! /em-pieces2 !y 7 %>ply tap]$ & curv$ 
to %e]1 & 7 elaborately cross-wrapp$ to 
secure !m !re4 ,! end pr(iles 7 =m$ ( a 
?9 plank-on-edge 9 mo/ canoes1 b "s _h  
/em-pieces split into lam9ae 9 ! usual  

fa%ion & b5t4 ,9 all cases headbo>ds 7  
employ$2 ! heads 7 =c$ "u ! inwale ends 
& aga9/ ! inside face ( ! /em-piece4 ,! 
gunwale la%+s 7 9 gr\ps1 al?\gh "s      
canoes exi/ 9 :i* ! outwale 0 omitt$ & !
 la%+ 0 cont9u\s2 ^! canoes usually _h  
lam9at$ b5t /em-pieces & _! /em la%+ 0  
id5tical ) t ( ! ,algonk9-,ojibway      
fur-trade canoes4 ,?is dep>ture1 x is   
reasonable to assume1 0 ! result (      
outside influ5ce on ! ,a?abascan        
te*nique4 ,:5 ! /em-piece 0 ( ?9 plank1 
! b>k 0 usually fa/5$ to x by multiple  
turns ( two ?ongs pass$1 "o f ea* side1 
?r\gh ! b>k & ?r\gh holes bor$ 9 ! /em4 
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ade  ,,a?abascan 
,,c>go ,,or ,,family ,,canoes ,,) ,,b5t 
,,/em ,,pieces1 ,*ipewyan #b-;fa?om     
7top7 & ,dogrib #c-;fa?om4 ,^! canoes 7 
cov]$ ) spruce or bir* b>k4  ,! end     
pr(ile v>i$ ) ! tribe ( ! build]4       
,*ipewyan canoes _h a v long end pr(ile 
=e-&-aft2 ! heel 0 angul>1 & ! outl9e ( 
! /em !n swept =w>d 9 an easy curve to a
 height ab\t two-?irds ! dep? ( ! canoe 

amid%ips1 !n began to tumble 9 a little1
 ! curve becom+ gradually %>p] until !  
head 0 rea*$4 ,! /em-head 9 its =e-&-aft
 l5g? 0 almo/ "o ?ird ! height ( ! ends 
& 0 r\ghly p>allel to ! bottom ( ! canoe
 directly b5ea? x4 ,because ( ! rock] ( 
! bottom1 ! aft] end ( ! head 0 ?us l[] 
?an ! =e end4 ,! %e] 0 fair$ up to !    
aft] end ( ! head 9 a %ort1 quick curve4
 ,usually ! outwales 7 cut (f %ort ( ?is
 po9t1 b 9 "s canoes !y 7 br\ght up     
along ) ! inwales to ! /em-head4 ,w$ges 
7 us$ 9 mak+ up ! gunwale-end la%+s 9   
bo? ! ,*ipewyan & ,dogrib canoes2 ^!    
s]v$ to tight5 ! la%+s & =m$ a sort (   
brea/hook4 ,9 a few examples ( !        
,a?abascan type1 ! /em-pieces 7 ( c$>   
root )\t lam9ation2 ?is use ( ! roots   
enabl$ ! angul> =m ( ! plank-on-edge    
/ems to be reta9$4 ,x _c be det]m9$ :e!r
 ! root /em-pieces 7 "p ( ! old         
,a?abascan te*nique or 7 an importation 
f ! we/]n ,cree4 ,! la%+ 9 ^! canoes    
foll[$ ! =ms us$ 9 ! fur-trade          
canoes--long-&-%ort turns 9 gr\ps       

g5]ally triangul> 9 %ape1 ) a spiral    
turn betwe5 gr\ps4  ,illu/ration3       
,figure #adf  ,,plank-,,/em ,,canoes ,,(
 ,,hybrid ,,=ms1 #c-;,,fa?om ,slavey    
7top7 & #b-;fa?om ,algonk9-type         
,a?abascan1 probably ! results ( !      
influ5ce ( fur-trade canoe-build+4  ,!  
canoes ( ! ,dogrib 7 practically        
id5tical ) ^? ( ! ,*ipewyan except t !  
end pr(iles 7 usually slightly deep]    
=e-&-aft2 also ! ,dogrib canoes 7 p]haps
 m (t5 ( bir* b>k1 judg+ f ! rema9+     
canoes & models4 ,! =m ( ! ends 9 !     
,dogrib canoes 0 su* t !y (t5 appe>$    
high] ?an !y really 71 z ! /em-heads    
/ood "s di/ance above ! ends ( ! %e]1 an
 effect :i* 0 height5$ by ! small       
=e-&-aft dep? ( ! /em-heads4  ,! l>ge   
canoes ( ! ,slave _h ! same hull        
*>act]i/ics z ! o!rs b diff]$ 9 end     
pr(iles & did n h rail caps4 ,9 ! ,slave
 canoe1 ! ends 7 =m$ ( ?9 plank & 9     
pr(ile 7 almo/ upright & slightly curv$4
 ,! /em l9e came out f ! bottom 9 a %>p1
 almo/ angul> curve & asc5d$ ) a slight 

sweep to a po9t ab\t level ) ! gunwale  
amid%ips 79 "s1 to )9 a few in*es ( !   
/em-head72 f !re a tumble-home c>ri$ x  
to ! /em-head1 :i* 0 %ort =e-&-aft &    
slightly cr[n$1 ! inbo>d end dropp+     
v]tically d[nw>d inside ! gunwales4 ,!  
headbo>ds 7 "u ! gunwale ends4 ,inwales 
& outwales 7 bo? c>ri$ to ! /ems b ! end
 la%+s 7 q %ort4 ,!re 7 no rail caps4 ,!
 b>k cov] 0 la%$ to ! /em ) an 9-&-out  
/it* f side to side ?r\gh holes 9 !     
plank4 ,! %e] 0 br\ght up ne>ly to ! top
 ( ! /em 9 a r long1 easy sweep beg9n+  
inbo>d at ! endmo/ ?w>t4  ,! gunwale    
memb]s 9 all ^! ,a?abascan canoes 7 q   
light comp>$ ) _! ,ea/]n c\nt]p>ts4 ,a  
re9=c+ /rip ( b>k 0 plac$ "u ! outwales 
s z to hang d[n bel[ !m "s f\r in*es or 
s amid%ips & less t[>d ! ends2 ?is 0    
sometimes decorat$ ) a pa9t$ zigzag     
/ripe or ) widely spac$ circles4 ,! end 
la%+s ( ! gunwales 7 protect$ by %ort   
b>k deck pieces ins]t$ "u ! caps4 ,!    
edges ( ^! deck pieces 7 trimm$ flu% ) !
 outbo>d edges ( ! caps1 s t no         

wulegessis result$4  ,9 spruce-b>k      
canoes1 because ! b>k 0 /iff ! ribs 7   
spac$ #f to #h in*es1 :]eas 9 bir*-b>k  
canoes ! ribs 7 spac$ ab\t z usual1 #a  
to #b in*es edge to edge4 ,9 ! ,dogrib &
 ,slave canoes ! ribs 7 )\t tap]2 9 !   
,*ipewyan !re 0 usually a slight tap] f 
! bottom to ! gunwale end4 ,! ends ( !  
ribs 7 =c$ "u ! gunwales 9 ! usual mann]
 employ$ 9 ! ea/1 ! gunwales be+        
rectangul> 9 cross-section1 ) ! l[]     
outbo>d corn] bevel$4  ,! ?w>ts 7 all   
p>allel-sid$1 b tap]$ t[>d ! ends1 9    
elevation4 ,! ?w>t ends 7 t5on$ into !  
inn] gunwale & usually _h two holes 9   
ea* end = ! la%+s4  ,9 ! b>k cov] !     
horizontal sew+ 0 (t5 ov] root batt5s4  
,9 _m canoes ra:ide 0 us$ 9 mu* ( ! la%+
 & sew+1 & 9 ! la/-built b>k canoes !   
end la%+s ( ! gunwales 7 (t5 protect$ by
 a deck+ =m$ ( a small triangul> %eet ( 
metal1 obta9$ f a l>ge c & crimp$ along 
its edges s z to clamp ! b>k & ma9      
gunwales4 ,:5 ?is metal deck-piece 0    
us$1 ! cap & outwale end$ aga9/ ! inbo>d

 edge ( x4  ,= use 9 op5 wat] ^! canoes 
7 (t5 fitt$ ) a blanket squ>e-sail4 ,!  
sapl+ s]v+ z a tempor>y ma/ /ood 9 a    
hole 9 ! second ?w>t1 & 0 /epp$ on a    
block1 or bo>d1 pegg$ or la%$ to ! ribs4
  ,! %ea?+ ( all canoes ( ?is class 0 ( 
! same =m--wide1 %ort /rakes amid%ips1  
n>r[] %ort /rakes a=e & abaft4 ,! mid%ip
 /rakes 7 (t5 q %ort & _! ends 7 ov] !  
long] end /rakes4 ,! end /rakes 71 (    
c\rse1 tap]$ t[>d ! /ems4 ,! plac+ ( !  
/rakes 0 (t5 irregul>1 ) ! result t !   
butts 7 some:at /agg]$4 ,"s canoes _h   
f\r /rakes to ! l5g?1 b ?ree appe>s to h
 be5 mo/ common4  ,! l>ge canoe 0       
employ$ on ! l>ge lakes ( ! ,mack5zie   
region2 small] canoes ( ! same g5]al =m1
 #ad to #af feet 9 l5g? & #cj to #dj    
in*es 9 beam1 7 us$ on ! l>ge riv]s &   
/reams4 ,9 ! small] canoes ( ?is class1 
! fl>e ( ! topsides 0 (t5 less ?an 9 !  
l>g] craft4 ,! ,cree 9 ?is area1        
p>ticul>ly to ! s\? ( ,great ,slave     
,lake1 also employ$ ! ,a?abascan =m4    
,?is class ( canoe1 9 g5]al1 appe>s to h

 be5 /rongly affect$ by outside         
influ5ce2 consequ5tly ?is description   
mu/ be und]/ood to cov] exi/+ canoes &  
models1 n pure ,a?abascan canoe build+4 
,! usual con/ruction me?ods 7 employ$ 9 
build+ ?is class ( canoe2 ! /akes ar\nd 
! build+ frame 7 set v]tically1 & :5 !  
b>k cov] 0 la%$ to ! gunwale memb]s     
7inwale & outwale toge!r7 ! gunwales 7  
spread & ! ?w>ts ins]t$ 9 _! t5ons4     
,skill 0 requir$ 9 pre%ap+ ! gunwale    
memb]s1 :i*1 z 9 ! fur-trade canoes1 _h 
to be ar*$ 9 %e] amid%ips to all[ = !   
*ange 9 %e] caus$ by spread+ ! gunwales 
9 con/ruction4 ,! build+ b$ 0 also ar*$ 
at midl5g? to all[ = ! lift+ ( ! ends t 
occurr$ 9 spread+ ! gunwales ) ! b>k    
cov] atta*$4  ,a typical l>ge ,*ipewyan 
canoe ( ?is class 0 #ba feet #d in*es 9 
ov]all l5g?1 #dc in*es beam & #ad in*es 
9 dep? amid%ips4 ,a small] ,dogrib canoe
 ( ! same class 0 #ad feet #g in*es 9   
ov]all l5g?1 #ca in*es beam1 & #aa in*es
 9 dep?4 ,h[ev]1 ^! small] canoes appe> 
to h be5 relatively uncommon1 & ! av]age

 l>ge canoe 0 ab\t #bj feet long4       
,kayak-,=m ,canoe  ,! kayak-=m canoe 0  
widely employ$ 9 ! ,nor?we/ & 0 highly  
develop$ 9 bo? model & con/ruction4 ,x 0
 ess5tially a portage & hunt+ craft1    
rang+ 9 l5g? f #ab to #ah feet & 9 beam 
f ab\t #bd to #bg in*es1 ) a dep? betwe5
 #i & #ab in*es4 ,9 areas :]e ! kayak =m
 0 us$ z a family & c>go canoe1 ! l5g?  
w\ld be z great z #bj or #be feet & !   
beam might rea* #cj in*es4 ,except 9 !  
family or c>go canoe1 :i* _h none1 !re 0
 usually "s deck+ at ! ends1 mo/ ( x    
=w>d4 ,"s tribal gr\ps built ! kayak =m 
) its greate/ beam at midl5g?1 b ! mo/  
common =m _h its greate/ beam abaft     
midl5g? & its greate/ dep? !re likewise4
 ,_m ( ! kayak =ms _h unlike end        
pr(iles1 s t !re 0 a di/9ct b[ 9        
appe>ance z well z 9 fact4  ,!re 0 mu*  
v>iety 9 end pr(ile1 & ! canoes ( ea*   
tribal gr\p 7 usually id5tifiable by ?is
 means4 ,! kayak-=m b>k canoes ( ! l[]  
,yukon & neighbor+ /reams _h a %ort     
ov]hang1 =m$ 9 a curv$ rake & alike or v

 ne>ly s1 at b[ & /]n4 ,on ! upp] ,yukon
 & adjo9+ /reams ! canoes _h mu* rake at
 bo? ends1 ! rake be+ /raight f ! bottom
 outw>d = "s di/ance1 !n curv+ r m>k$ly4
 ,! b[ rake 0 usually greate/1 b ! /]n  
might be high] by "o or two in*es4 ,!   
bottom 0 )\t rock]1 be+ /raight or ev5  
slightly hogg$ 9 mo/ ( ^! canoes4 ,! %e]
 0 /raight to ! po9t :]e ! rake began1  
!n rose 9 a easy sweep to ! ends4 ,! end
 decks on ! upp] ,yukon canoes 7 %ort1  
^? on l[] ,yukon canoes 7 mu* long]2 on 
! latt] ! b[ deck 0 ne>ly a ?ird ! l5g? 
( ! canoe1 on ! =m] ab\t a fif?4 ,9 !   
,mack5zie ,bas91 ! kayak-=m canoes _h a 
mod]ate rake1 curv$ 9 pr(ile1 at b[ &   
/]n & a r l[ /em-head2 ! dep? at ! /]n 0
 noticeably great] ?an at ! b[1 & ! deck
 =w>d 0 commonly a little less ?an a    
f\r? ! l5g? ( ! canoe4 ,9 ^! canoes !   
greate/ beam 9 mo/ cases 0 abaft        
midl5g?1 & ?is 0 also true ( ! l[]      
,yukon canoes4 ,on ! upp] ,yukon & 9 "s 
( ^! canoes on ! l[] ,mack5zie1 !       
greate/ beam 0 amid%ips & ! dep? at b[ &

 /]n 7 equal4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure    
#adg  ,,eskimo ,,kayak-,,=m ,,bir*-,,b>k
 ,,canoe ,,f ,,alaskan ,,coa/1 ) long   
=$eck batt5-sewn to ! gunwales1 no      
aft]deck1 & rigid bottom frame4  ,!     
v>iation 9 dep? at b[ & /]n 9 "s ( !    
kayak-=m canoes seems to h be5 relat$ to
 ! position ( ! greate/ beam2 :5 ! beam 
0 abaft ! midl5g?1 ! greate/ dep? 0 aft1
 :]eas :5 ! greate/ beam 0 amid%ips1 !  
dep? at ! ends 0 equal4 ,) ! beam abaft 
midl5g?1 ! weight ( ! paddl] trimm$ !   
canoe by ! /]n some:at1 h5ce great] dep?
 aft ?an =w>d 0 necess>y to make ! canoe
 run easily & turn readily 9 smoo? wat]4
 ,9 ! sea kayaks ( ! ea/]n ,eskimo1 on !
 o!r h&1 ! dep? & ! draft 7 greate/     
=w>d1 to br+ !m head to ! sea :5 paddl+ 
ceas$4 ,! ,alaskan sea kayaks 7 commonly
 ( equal draft at b[ & /]n or might h a 
slightly great] draft aft ?an =w>d4  ,a 
?ird v>iation ( ! kayak =m exi/$ 9      
,briti% ,columbia 9 e>ly times1 &       
app>5tly 0 employ$ by ! ,beav]1 ,nahane1
 & ,sekani4 ,x 0 an undeck$ bateau-%ap$ 

canoe hav+ a fair %e] 9 a long sweep f  
end to end1 ! /em pr(iles 7 ne>ly       
/raight1 ! ends 7 rak$ r /rongly1 & ! b[
 0 some:at high] ?an ! /]n4 ,! beam 0   
greate/ slightly abaft midl5g?4 ,x is   
e/imat$ t canoes ( ?is type1 :i* has    
long be5 ext9ct & n[ c only be          
recon/ruct$ f a model1 7 ab\t #ad feet  
#h in*es long & #cj to #cf in*es 9 beam1
 & probably 7 built ( bo? spruce & bir*4
  ,! gunwales ( ! kayak-=m canoes 7 =m$ 
by inwales & outwales2 no caps 7        
employ$4 ,9 ! ,alaskan types & 9 !      
ext9ct ,briti% ,columbia bateau         
v>iation1 ! gunwale la%+s 7 cont9u\s1 b 
9 ! ,mack5zie models ! la%+s 7 9 gr\ps4 
,inwales & outwales 9 all ! kayak =ms   
ran to ! /em-pieces1 :i* 7 plank-on-edge
 ( a ?ickness t v>i$ accord+ to tribal  
practice4 ,no headbo>ds 7 employ$4 ,!   
gunwale memb]s 7 rectangul> 9           
cross-section & 7 b5t squ>e ) ! fl>e ( !
 sides4 ,! ends sometimes 7 swell$ &    
r\nd$1 & 9 ! bateau v>iation ! gunwales1
 9 cross section1 appe> to h be5 r\nd$4 

,six ?w>ts appe> 9 mo/ ( ! kayak =ms b !
 ,l\*eux model _h five & ! bateau       
v>iation seems to h _h b ?ree4          
,illu/ration3 ,figure #adh  ,,a?abascan 
,,hunt+ ,,canoes ,,( ,,! ,,kayak ,,=m1  
%[+ *>act]i/ic hull %ape4 ,^! canoes 7  
light1 h&y1 & fa/4  ,re9=c+ b>k 0 plac$ 
"u ! outwales 9 all ,mack5zie ,bas9     
canoes1 b n 9 ! ,alaskan or 9 ! bateau  
v>iation4 ,! ribs 9 all ^! canoes 7     
small1 usually ab\t  in* squ>e1 & widely
 spac$1 ab\t #i to #ad in*es on c5t]s4  
,no ribs 7 plac$ 9 ! rake ( ! ends4 ,!  
ends ( ! ribs 7 *isel-po9t$ & 7 =c$     
betwe5 ! inwale & outwale1 aga9/ !      
inside ( ! b>k cov]4 ,9 "s canoes1      
h[ev]1 ! ribs ne> ! ends ( ! canoe 7 =c$
 into %ort splits on ! und]side ( !     
inwale4 ,! ?w>t ends might also be =c$  
into %ort splits on ! inside face ( !   
inwales or might be t5on$ !re2 9 any    
case a s+le la%+ 0 us$ at ! ?w>t ends4  
,?w>ts 7 p>allel-sid$ 9 plan & slightly 
tap]$ t[>d ! ends 9 elevation2 no %\ld]s
 7 us$4 ,9 ! bateau v>iation1 a heavy   

?w>t 0 plac$ directly "u ! middle ?w>t )
 its ends aga9/ ! side batt5s1 app>5tly 
to act z a spread]4 ,ea* end 0 not*$ ov]
 ! side batt5s & 0 held by two la%+s to 
! bottom crosspiece bel[ x4 ,?is        
/ructure 0 probably made necess>y by !  
fragile con/ruction ( ?is =m ( canoe4 ,9
 all kayak =ms !re 0 no complete        
%ea?+--! "o1 two1 or ?ree n>r[ batt5s to
 a side above ! *9e 7 held 9 place only 
by ! sprung ribs 7)\t la%+s72 9 ! bateau
 =m1 h[ev]1 ! side batt5 0 la%$ to ea*  
frame aft] ! mann] ( ( an ,eskimo sea   
kayak4  ,! *>act]i/ic detail 9 !        
/ructure ( ! b>k kayak-canoe1 includ+ ! 
bateau v>iation1 0 ! bottom fram+4 ,x 0 
v>i\sly =m$1 accord+ to tribal          
designation4 ,! bottom fram+ 0 made up (
 five or six longitud9al batt5s 7f\r 9  
"o ext9ct =m ( canoe74 ,9 ! ,yukon      
canoes six rectangul> batt5s1 all ( ab\t
 ! same cross section1 7 us$ ) ! n>r[   
edge outbo>d4 ,^! batt5s 7 held rigidly 
to =m by ?9 crosspieces1 or spl9ts1 ab\t
  by #a in* =c$ a?w>t%ips ?r\gh %ort    

splits 9 ! batt5s & pegg$ at ! ends on !
 *9e batt5s4 ,! ends ( ! f\r inn]       
longitud9als 7 cut (f on ! snye to be>  
on ! inside face ( ! *9e batt5s 79 "s   
in/ances !y 7 cut %ort ( ?is74 ,! *9e   
ends 7 bevel$ toge!r or la%$ to ! sides 
( ! /em-pieces4 ,b 9 ! ,mack5zie =m (   
canoe1 ! longitud9als _h no cross-memb]s
 &1 l ! side batt5s1 7 held 9 place by !
 pressure ( ! sprung ribs aga9/ ! b>k   
cov]4 ,!re 0 a diff]5ce 9 ! =m (        
midsection3 9 ! ,yukon canoes ! bottom  
a?w>t%ips 0 flat1 b 9 ! ,mack5zie canoes
 !re _h to be "s r\nd+ !re4 ,at lea/ "o 
exception exi/$ 9 ! ,mack5zie ,bas91 :]e
 ! ,l\*eux canoe 0 =m$ on ! ,yukon      
bottom4 ,ano!r is to be se5 9 an old    
model ( an ext9ct ,a?abascan kayak =m1  
:i* has only f\r longitud9als & *9e     
memb]s t are v wide & r\nd$ only on !   
outbo>d face4 ,betwe5 ! *9e batt5s are  
two light rectangul> batt5s4 ,^! are all
 held toge!r by a few spl9ts & by la%+s 
:i* pass ar\nd ea* individual batt51 ?us
 s]v+ bo? z la%+ & spread]4 ,?is canoe  

has :at is app>5tly a v n>r[ bottom     
comp>$ to kn[n types4 ,9 "s ( !         
,eskimo-built bir* kayak =ms1 !         
sep>ators betwe5 ! bottom batt5s 7      
rectangul> blocks held 9 place by a ?ong
 ?read$ ?r\gh two holes 9 ea* batt5 &   
block1 to make a r\nd turn1 & ti$ at "o 
*9e4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #adi        
,,ext9ct ,,=ms ,,( ,,canoes             
,,recon/ruct$ ,,f ,,old ,,models1 %[+   
v>iations 9 ! bottom frame con/ruction &
 ! effects ( hull =m4 ,dim5sions are    
e/imat$ f ! sizes ( canoes 9 ! area (   
ea* example4  ,9 "s bateau v>iations ( !
 kayak-=m canoe1 ! longitud9als 7 secur$
 by crosspieces1 ! ends ( :i* 7 t5on$   
into ! inside faces ( ! *9e batt5s4 ,!  
?ree inn] batt5s 7 bel[ ! cross pieces4 
,z a result1 _! bottoms 7 slightly bel[ 
! bottom ( ! *9e memb]s1 s t 9 ?is canoe
 two *9e l9es %[ ?r\gh ! b>k cov] on ea*
 side ( ! canoe4  ,f tribe to tribe !   
me?od ( build+ ! kayak-=m canoe v>i$    
some:at1 b g5]ally ! foll[+ proc$ure 0  
employ$4 ,on a smoo?1 level piece (     

gr\nd ! =m ( ! canoe 0 /ak$ out 9 !     
usual mann]1 us+ a build+ frame1 ) !    
/akes slop$ outw>d at ! top to mat* !   
desir$ fl>e ( ! sides4  ,/em & /]n po/s 
7 %ap$ ( c$> by *>r+ & scrap+4 ,!       
gunwales 7 made 9 ! same mann] & 7 !n   
la%$ at ! desir$ heights on ! /akes4    
,next1 ! b>k cov] 0 =m$1 usually ( two  
or m %eets sewn toge!r4 ,?is 0 plac$    
inside ! /akes & ! build+ frame 0 =c$   
d[n on x & weight$ ) /ones4 ,! ends 7 !n
 trimm$ & ! sides 7 gor$1 sewn1 & trimm$
 to fit ! gunwales1 to :i* ! b>k 0 lac$4
 ,! /em & ! /]n po/ 7 !n plac$ & la%$ to
 ! gunwales & secur$ to ! b>k by la%+1 9
 "s in/ances ?r\gh holes 9 ! po/s4 ,!   
b>k at ?is /age 0 usually q dry & /iff &
 ! gunwales c\ld be fre$ f ! side /akes4
  ,! bottom frame1 assembl$ be=e o!r    
con/ruction _h />t$1 0 hogg$2 ! middle 0
 plac$ on a log or block & ! ends       
weight$4 ,hot wat] 0 (t5 appli$ to set !
 bottom frame4  ,next1 ! b>k cov] 0     
?or\ghly wett$ ) boil+ wat] to make x   
pliable & ela/ic4 ,! build+ frame &     

/ones 7 n[ remov$1 ! bottom frame 0     
sub/itut$1 & its ends fa/5$ or engag$ to
 ! heels ( ! /em & /]n po/s4 ,! bottom  
frame 0 !n =c$ flat & held !re by /ones4
 ,?is /ret*$ ! bottom b>k longitud9ally1
 & increas$ ! %e] slightly t[>d b[ &    
/]n4 ,! hogg$ bottom frame 0 kn[n z a   
slid+ bottom by "s ,indians4  ,!        
transv]se frames1 or ribs1 _h be5 preb5t
 9 ! usual mann] be=e assembly began2 a 
few ( ^! 7 n[ put 9 place1 ! ends be+   
=c$ "u ! gunwales betwe5 _! out] faces &
 ! b>k1 or into a groove on ! und]side (
 ! gunwale4 ,?is /ret*$ ! b>k           
transv]sely & v]tically4 ,once ! b>k _h 
be5 =c$ into =m by ?is me?od1 ! rema9+  
ribs 7 add$1 & ^! n[ held ! hogg$ bottom
 d[n s t ! weights or /ones c\ld be     
remov$4 ,! canoe 0 !n turn$ ov]1 ! seams
 gumm$1 & any te>s or r5ts repair$4     
,?is me?od ( build+ usually produc$ a   
slight hogg+ 9 bo? bottom & 9 ! %e]     
amid%ips1 b :5 ! canoe 0 afloat & load$ 
! light1 flexible con/ruction caus$ !   
hogg+ to disappe>4 ,! kayak-=m canoes ( 

! ,dn tribe appe> to be ! mo/ highly    
develop$ ( all 9 ?is type4  ,! decks (  
_m ( ! kayak-=m canoes 7 made ( a       
triangul> %eet ( b>k cut ) ! gra9 ( !   
b>k runn+ a?w>t%ips1 s t x c\ld be held 
9 place by ! curl ( its edges1 :i*      
clamp$ "u ! outwales1 z well z by ?ree  
la%+s4 ,! edges 7 curl$ by pass+ a gl[+ 
br& along !m4 ,"o la%+ 0 ar\nd !        
/em-head & two 7 at ! inbo>d end ( !    
deck1 ar\nd inwale & outwale4 ,if !     
inbo>d end ( ! deck 0 n on a ?w>t x 0   
/iff5$ by a batt5 la%$ on top ( ! deck  
a?w>t%ip1 at ! deck end1 to s]ve z an   
ext]ior deck beam & breakwat] 9 "o4 ,if 
! deck end 0 on a ?w>t1 a batt5 might be
 pegg$ a?w>t%ip on top ( ! deck2        
sometimes ?is batt5 0 roll$ 9 a %eet (  
b>k fir/4 ,ano!r me?od 0 to use a small 
%eet ( b>k tightly roll$1 ) its free    
edge tuck$ "u ! deck end & secur$ at !  
ends ( ! roll by ! deck-gunwale la%+s   
!re4 ,"s canoes _h _! decks la%$ ov]    
batt5s = a %ort di/ance along !         
gunwales4 ,9 "s ,mack5zie ,bas9 kayak   

=ms1 ! end ( ! deck at ! /em-head 0     
protect$ by a small paddle-or leaf-%ap$ 
piece ( b>k plac$ "u ! la%+ !re & %ap$  
to rea* a little ov] onto ! /em piece s 
z to seal ! seam4  ,! fitt+ ( ! b>k cov]
 ( ! kayak-=m canoes 0 n ! same 9 all   
types4 ,9 ! ,mack5zie canoes ! bottom1  
:i* might be 9 ?ree1 f\r1 or five pieces
 sewn toge!r1 0 alike on bo? sides2 to x
 ! side pieces 7 sewn at1 or j above1 ! 
*9es4 ,! sides 7 made up ( deep panels1 
five to n9e to a side4 ,!re 7 no        
horizontal seams o!r ?an ! "o ne> !     
*9es4  ,9 "s ,yukon canoes1 h[ev]1 !    
bottom %eet 0 (t5 made ( ?ree pieces &  
cov]$ n only ! bottom b also a portion1 
su* z ! aft] two-?irds1 ( "o side4 ,!   
=w>d portion ( t side w\ld !n be cov]$  
by a s+le l>ge panel or p]haps two1 s t 
! horizontal seam on t side w\ld run f !
 /em aft to ! inbo>d end ( ! =$eck &    
w\ld be j above ! *9e4 ,on ! opposite   
side a %eet w\ld cov] ! bottom !re & !  
b[ topside f ! /em aft = a %ort way4    
,deep panels w\ld !n cov] ! re/ ( t side

 to ! /]n1 s t ! horizontal seam !re    
began =w>d at ! %e]1 "s feet abaft ! b[1
 & swept d[nw>d 9 a g5tle curve to ne> !
 *9e & !n ran aft to ! /]n 9 a long %e]$
 l9e j above ! turn ( ! bilge1 ris+     
slightly z x ne>$ ! /]n4 ,h5ce ! =emo/ (
 ! panels on t side 0 ne>ly triangul> & 
! o!rs 7 ne>ly rectangul>4 ,inside1 at !
 *9e1 0 plac$ a re9=c+ /rip ( b>k wide  
en\gh to rea* #c in*es beyond bo? sides 
( ea* *9e longitud9al & runn+ ! l5g? ( !
 bottom2 or if a seam ne> ! *9e p]mitt$1
 ! side & bottom pieces 7 ov]lapp$4 ,z  
has be5 not$1 9 ! ,yukon canoes a re9=c+
 piece at ! outwale 0 n us$1 b 0 9 !    
,mack5zie canoes2 x ext5d$ d[n ! side   
ab\t #c in*es bel[ ! und]side ( !       
outwale amid%ips & ran to ! ends ( !    
canoe1 or ne>ly s1 tap]+ ) ! outwales to
 a wid? ( ab\t #a in*es at b[ & /]n4 ,9 
^! canoes mu* ( ! la%+ at /em & /]n 0   
d\ble-?ong2 ! longitud9al sew+ 0 (t5 ov]
 a batt5 9 ! usual spiral /it*1 & a     
simple spiral /it* 0 also us$ to jo9 !  
panels1 al?\gh 9-&-out /it*+ might also 

be se5 9 "s canoes4  ,9 _m ( ! kayak-=m 
canoes two ribs (t5 /ood noticeably     
close toge!r amid%ips1 & ! re/ /ood     
p>allel to ! rake ( ! end on _! side1   
respectively1 ( ! middle ribs4 ,h[ev]1 n
 all ^! canoes _h su* d\ble ribs2 "s 7  
fram$ out 9 ! usual mann]1 ) ! ribs     
widely spac$ & cant$ t[>d _! respective 
ends ( ! hull1 away f ! mid%ip ( !      
canoe4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aej      
,,kayak-,,=m ,,canoes ,,( ,,! ,,alaskan 
,,eskimos & ,canadian ,a?abascan        
,indians3 *9e =m ( ,eskimo bir*-b>k     
canoe 7above7 & ! di%-section$ =m ( !   
,canadian ,a?abascans4  ,9 mo/ ( ^!     
canoes ! paddl] sat on a %eet ( b>k     
secur$ on ! bottom2 ?is 0 held 9 place  
by "o or two false ribs hav+ _! ends "u 
! inn] gunwales & _! middle =c$ d[n     
aga9/ ! b>k on ! bottom framework4 ,9   
place ( b>k1 "s ,eskimo build]s ( ! type
 us$ ?9 spl9ts ( wood lac$ toge!r by two
 or ?ree l9es ( d\ble-?ong /it*+        
a?w>t%ips1 :i* 0 pass$ ?r\gh two holes 9
 ea* spl9t4 ,?is might be loose or held 

9 place by a false frame4  ,! paddle 0  
s+le-blad$ & ! same z t us$ ) ! second  
class ( ,mack5zie ,bas9 canoe 7fig4     
#aea74 ,! blade 0 p>allel-sid$ ) ! po9t 
=m$ 9 a %ort /raight-sid$ ,v-=m2 ,!     
blade ( ,yukon paddles 0 (t5 tap]-sid$  
t[>d ! po9t1 :i* 0 a r\nd$ ,v4 ,o!r     
v>iations 9 blade =m exi/$1 h[ev]1 & !  
n>r[ leaf-%ap$ blade 0 us$ 9 "s areas 9 
,alaska4 ,9 ! ,mack5zie paddles ! h&le  
end$ 9 a knob1 b 9 ,alaskan v]sions x   
end$ 9 a cross-grip l ^? ( paddles us$ )
 "s ,alaskan sea kayaks4 ,! ,eskimo     
d\ble-blade paddle 0 us$ ) ! kayak-=m   
canoe by "s paddl]s2 ,he>ne m5tions its 
use4  ,"s ( ! kayak-=m canoes 7         
decorat$2 9 ,alaska ?is decoration (t5  
took ! =m ( a l9e ( color$ beads sewn   
along ea* side ( ! aft]deck at !        
gunwale1 or x consi/$ ( a few oval      
panels ( r$1 blue1 or black pa9t along !
 sides or c5t]l9e ( ! aft]deck4 ,9 "s   
,mack5zie kayak =ms ! decks 7 pa9t$ 9   
v>i\s designs2 a r common "o seems to h 
be5 two or m b&s ( pa9t ar\nd ! deck    

edges1 along ! gunwales1 end+ at b[ &   
/]n ) a full r\nd sweep4 ,pa9t$ disk    
designs appe>$ on "s ( ! l>ge           
,algonk9-,ojibway canoes ( ! second     
type4  ,a numb] ( kayak =ms became      
ext9ct be=e any accurate1 detail$       
records ( _! %ape & con/ruction _h be5  
made2 models ( "s ( ^! canoes exi/ b are
 n to scale & are untru/wor?y z to      
detail1 s9ce !y are (t5 simplifi$4 ,"o  
model ( ! ext9ct ,briti% ,columbia      
bateau =m1 = example1 %[$ b ?ree        
longitud9als 9 ! bottom1 ?\gh ! probable
 size ( ! canoe und\bt$ly w\ld h requir$
 a great] numb]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! model  
may h repres5t$ a spruce-b>k canoe      
con/ruct$ = tempor>y use1 9 :i* case a  
simplifi$ con/ruction might h be5       
employ$4 ,"o c only speculate :i* x 04  
,models ( "s kayak-=m ,yukon canoes %[ !
 decks la%$ to ! gunwales ) a v co>se   
spiral /it* n record$ = any ( ! obs]v$  
full-size canoes2 ?us x may be a        
model-mak]'s me?od ( secur+ ! deck+     
firmly r ?an an actual practice us$ on  

full-size canoes4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure
 #aea  ,,kayak-,,=m ,,canoe ,,( ,,briti%
 ,,columbia & upp] ,yukon valley4 ,%[s  
hogg$ bottom1 usual 9 ! type ) a rigid  
bottom frame1 :i* becomes /raight or    
camb]$ :5 canoe is afloat & mann$4      
,orig9al 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,am]ican       
,indian1 ,new ,york4  ,x n[ rema9s only 
to give %ort descriptions ( ! v>i\s     
kayak-=m canoes t h be5 obs]v$4  ,! ends
 ( ! ,eskimo-built canoes ( ! l[] ,yukon
 _h a %ort rake1 ! heel ( ! end pr(ile  
break+ out ( ! bottom l9e at a slight   
angle & sweep+ upw>d & outw>d 9 a g5tle 
curve1 (t5 becom+ almo/ /raight ne> !   
/em head4 ,! b[ & /]n 7 ne>ly ! same    
height1 ! b[ be+ a little high]1 ab\t   
half ! mid%ip dep? above ! %e] amid%ips4
 ,! %e] at ea* end 0 almo/ dead /raight 
until )9 a few in*es ( ! end2 !nce x    
swept up %>ply ) ! inn] gunwale ends1   
broad5$1 re/+ on ! inbo>d side ( ! /em  
piece4 ,! extreme ends ( ! inn] gunwales
 7 ?us at ! extreme /em-head4 ,!        
/em-pieces 7 ( plank1 ! cutwat] portion 

outside ! b>k cov] be+ %>p5$ ! full     
height ( ! /ems4 ,^! l[] ,yukon canoes  
_h ?ree side batt5s above ! *9e piece1 b
 n all ran ! full l5g? 9 "o piece2 "s 7 
9 two1 9 :i* case ! ends m]ely ran pa/  
"o ano!r = a few rib-spaces & 7 nei!r   
butt$ nor lapp$4 ,! =w>d deck ext5d$    
ne>ly "o-?ird ! canoe's l5g? & _h a     
batt5 across ! inbo>d deck-end2 ! aft]  
deck rea*$ to ! aft] ?w>t4 ,adney's     
model ( su* a canoe %[s ! aft] deck la%$
 to ! gunwales ) spiral turns ov] a     
batt5 along ! deck edges & f9i%$ t[>d ! 
/]n ) *a9 /it*+1 b no su* arrangem5t 0  
se5 9 any full-siz$ canoe4  ,! =m ( ^!  
,eskimo-built canoes 0 ne>ly t ( a      
d\ble-end$ flat-bottom skiff2 ! bottom  
be+ flat a?w>t%ips & )\t rock] =e-&-aft4
 ,! sides fl>$ & 7 ne>ly /raight4 ,!    
turn ( ! bilge 0 q %>p1 ! *9e hav+ a v  
%ort radius4 ,9 plan1 ! canoe %[$ no    
holl[ 9 ! ends1 :i* 7 convex bo? at     
gunwale & on ! bottom frame4 ,9 "s ( !  
full-siz$ canoes inspect$ !re appe>$ to 
be a slight hog rang+ f  to  in* 9 !    

bottom1 b !re 0 no evid5ce to sugge/ t  
?is 0 a result ( ! dry+ & %r9kage ( !   
canoe /ructure ) age4 ,he>ne's draw+ ( a
 kayak-=m canoe %[s an impossible am\nt 
( hog 9 ! bottom1 & he indicates t "s   
hog 0 int5tional 9 build+4 ,?is w\ld    
disappe> :5 ! canoe 0 load$ afloat ow+  
to ! light & flexible /ructure1 & x is  
evid5t t ! build]s usually s\ght to h ! 
bottom slightly hogg$4  ,illu/ration3   
,figure #aeb  ,,con/ruction ,,(         
,,kayak-,,=m ,,canoe ( ! l[] ,yukon1 %[+
 rigid bottom frame4 7,smi?sonian       
,in/itution photo47  ,! kayak-=m canoes 
( ! l[] ,yukon & neighbor+ /reams all   
appe> to h be5 small canoes tailor$ to  
_! own]'s weight & height3 #ad to #ae   
feet 9 ov]all l5g?1 #b to #b feet wide1 
& #aj to #ab in*es deep4 ,! bottom frame
 0 f #ab to #ad in*es wide amid%ips4  ,!
 kayak-=m canoes ( ! upp] ,yukon ,valley
 & ^? us$ 9 nor!rn ,briti% ,columbia & 9
 ,yukon ,t]ritory _h ends ) a long rake 
t came up 9 a /raight l9e f an angul>   
break at ! bottom l9e to ! height ( !   

%e] amid%ips or !reab\ts2 !re a gradual 
upw>d curve cont9u$ to ! /em-head4 ,!   
/]n 0 #b in*es or s high] ?an ! b[1 & ! 
rake ( ! latt] 0 usually ab\t an equal  
di/ance long] ?an t ( ! /]n4 ,! %e] 0   
ne>ly /raight1 ) only ab\t #b in*es (   
sag f ! heel ( ! /em to t ( ! /]n4      
,beyond ! heels1 ! %e] lift$ 9 a fair   
sweep1 becom+ %>p] t[>d ! ends1 :]e !   
broad5$ inwales 7 secur$ on top ( ! /em 
& /]n pieces4 ,!re 0 no rock] 9 !       
bottom1 & "s examples %[$ z mu* z  in* (
 hog amid%ips4 ,! bottom 0 flat         
a?w>t%ips & ! almo/ /raight sides fl>$ a
 good deal4 ,! turn ( ! bilge 0 on a v  
small radius & 9 "s canoes appe>$       
angul>4 ,! b[ deck 0 usually j "u       
"o-fif? ! l5g? ( ! canoe4 ,mo/ ( !      
canoes did n h a /]n deck1 at lea/ on ! 
,yukon headwat]s1 b on ^? t did1 x 0    
ab\t "o-n9? ! l5g? ( ! canoe4 ,! greate/
 beam 0 abaft amid%ips & ! canoe 0      
usually ab\t #a in*es deep] at ! heel ( 
! /]npo/ ?an at ! heel ( ! /em4 ,9 plan1
 ! ends 7at gunwale & bottom frame7 7   

convex2 ! gunwale ends alone might appe>
 slightly holl[ close to ! po/s 9 "s    
examples4 ,! canoes 9 ,alaska & ,briti% 
,columbia & at ! headwat]s ( ! ,yukon _h
 a rigid bottom /ructure1 ) ! spl9t     
spread]s usually numb]+ five4  ,! #a-man
 hunt+ canoes 7 commonly #ah to #ai feet
 long1 #bd to #bg in*es beam1 & usually 
#aj to #aa in*es deep amid%ips4 ,! s+le 
example ( a family or c>go kayak-=m t   
has be5 measur$ f ?is area 0 #bj feet #a
 in* ov]all & #cj in*es beam ov] !      
gunwales4 ,x 0 #ah in*es wide on !      
bottom frame1 #ac in*es deep amid%ips1  
#ad in*es deep at heel ( /em1 & #af     
in*es at heel ( /em-po/4 ,height ( ! /em
 0 #bi in*es1 ( ! /]n #cj in*es1 ! aft] 
rake 0 #ch in*es1 & ! =e rake #dj in*es4
 ,! canoe _h no decks & 0 r %>p-end$4   
,! kayak-=m canoe ( ! ,a?abascan ,l\*eux
 _h a rigid bottom-frame2 ! bottom 0    
flat a?w>t%ips & x _h no =e-&-aft rock]4
 ,! sides 7 fl>+ & slightly curv$4 ,bo? 
ends 7 alike1 & ! canoe 0 unusual 9 hav+
 only five ?w>ts1 ) "o amid%ips4 ,! /em 

0 %ort 9 rake & curv$2 ! /em pr(ile came
 out ( ! bottom l9e 9 a fair1 quick     
curve :i* became v]tical at a height (  
little m ?an two-?irds ! dep? amid%ips (
 ! canoe4 ,! height ( ! /em 0 almo/     
twice ! mid%ip dep?4 ,betwe5 ! end ?w>ts
 ! %e] 0 /raight1 !nce x swept upw>d 9 a
 gradually %>p5+ curve to ! inbo>d /ems2
 ! inwale ends /ood v]tical on ! face ( 
! /em1 ) _! ends br\ght to ! top ( !    
/em-head4 ,! /em-pieces 7 ( unusually   
?ick plank1 ) ! head broad5$ & ! cutwat]
 "p outside ! b>k cov] %>p5$ until ne> !
 head1 :]e x gradually became z wide z  
inbo>d4 ,! gunwales 7 la%$ ) cont9u\s   
turns1 z 9 ! ,alaskan canoes4 ,9 plan1 !
 gunwales & bottom frame 7 full-end$ &  
convex4 ,^! canoes 7 deck$ equally at   
bo? ends4 ,! deck ext5d$ inbo>d f> en\gh
 to j cov] ! end ?w>t1 to :i*1 9 !      
example se51 x 0 la%$ ) f\r simple      
9-&-out passes ( ra:ide ?ong4 ,!        
*9e-pieces ( ! bottom 7 la%$ to ! sides 
( ! /em-pieces4 ,! cov]+ 0 bir* b>k4    
,two batt5s on ea* side 7 employ$ ) !   

usual six longitud9als 9 ! bottom frame4
 ,^! canoes 7 well-built & _! ends      
resemble ^? ( ! seago+ kayaks us$ at !  
m\? ( ! ,mack5zie1 b ^! = at lea/ ! la/ 
#gj ye>s ( _! use 7 r\nd-bottom$4 ,!    
,l\*eux canoes 7 small1 usually ab\t #ae
 feet long1 #cj in*es wide1 & ab\t #ab  
in*es deep amid%ips4  ,! ,*ipewyan      
kayak-=m canoe 0 ( loose-batt5 bottom   
frame con/ruction1 ) its beam well aft (
 amid%ips4 ,its bottom 0 slightly r\nd$ 
a?w>t%ips1 ) a slight rock] =e-&-aft2 ! 
sides fl>$ outw>d & 7 ne>ly /raight2 & !
 turn ( ! bilge 0 almo/ angul>4 ,! b[ & 
/]n 7 ( ! same g5]al %ape2 ! end pr(ile 
came out ( ! bottom l9e ) a quick h>d   
curve & !n fell outbo>d 9 a long sweep t
 gradually /raight5$ ne> ! head4 ,!     
rakes 7 %ort1 h[ev]1 & ! /em 0          
noticeably l[] ?an ! /]n1 ! diff]5ce be+
 z mu* z #f in*es 9 "s canoes4 ,! %e] 0 
ne>ly /raight to ! end ?w>ts & !nce x   
curv$ up 9 an easy sweep to ! ends ( !  
canoe4 ,! canoes 7 m>k$ly deep] at ! /]n
 ?an at ! b[2 ! diff]5ce be+ z mu* z #a 

in*es 9 "s examples4  ,?is kayak-=m 0 v 
%>p-end$2 ! gunwales 9 plan (t5 %[$ a   
slight holl[ & ! *9e memb]s came to !   
po/s 9 an almo/ /raight ,v4 ,z a result1
 ! end ribs 7 (t5 int5tionally brok5 to 
=m a n>r[-bas$1 angul> ,u4 ,9 "s        
,eskimo-built kayak =ms1 a simil> result
 9 hull section 0 obta9$ 9 ! endmo/     
frames by /epp+ %ort /ruts 9 splits1 or 
t5ons1 on top ( ! *9e memb]s & on !     
und]side ( ! ma9 gunwales4 ,?is         
con/ruction 0 occasionally f\nd 9 "s ( !
 l[] ,yukon kayak =ms4 ,! ,*ipewyan     
kayak =ms 7 deck$ at bo? ends4 ,! =e    
deck 0 slightly m ?an "o-f\r? ! l5g? ( !
 canoe & ext5d$ inbo>d to ! second ?w>t2
 ! aft] deck 0 ab\t "o-t5?1 & came      
inbo>d to ! end ?w>t4 ,no breakwat]     
batt5 or b>k 0 employ$4 ,!re 7 two      
batt5s on ! sides1 above ! bilges4  ,!  
gunwale wrapp+s 7 9 gr\ps4 ,! b>k cov] 0
 n fold$ ov] ! top ( ! inn] gunwale b1 z
 usual 9 ! ,nor?we/ canoes1 0 trimm$    
ev5ly ) ! top ( ! inwale & outwale4     
,re9=c+ b>k along ! gunwales ext5d$     

d[nw>d ab\t #a in*es bel[ ! bottom ( !  
outwales amid%ips & ab\t #a in* at !    
ends4 ,( ! bottom longitud9als1 ! keel &
 *9e-pieces 7 r\ghly rectangul> 9       
cross-section1 laid on ! flat1 & !      
int]m$iate two batt5s 7 r\nd2 ! ends ( !
 keel piece 7 m]ely butt$ aga9/ ! /ems1 
no la%+ be+ us$4 ,! /em piece 0 ?ick    
plank & 0 %>p5$ outside ! b>k cov] to =m
 a cutwat]4 ,! /em la%+ 0 ( ! usual     
two-?ong =m1 & a batt5 0 us$ 9 !        
longitud9al seams ( ! b>k cov]4 ,!      
?w>ts1 six 9 numb]1 7 t5on$ ?r\gh bo?   
inwale & outwale & pegg$ betwe5 !m4 ,no 
?w>t la%+s 7 us$4 ,! decks (t5 7 n la%$ 
into place1 be+ held only by ! curl+ ( !
 edges ( ! b>k %eets4  ,?is canoe 0 a v 
good "o2 x 0 light & 0 fitt$ to ! own]'s
 build4 ,9 size x w\ld be betwe5 #ab &  
#ad feet long & #bj & #bd in*es wide ov]
 ! gunwales1 & ! wid? ( bottom ov] ! *9e
 memb]s amid%ips w\ld be #aa to #ab     
in*es4 ,! greate/ beam w\ld occur #g to 
#h feet abaft ! /em4 ,! dep? at heel (  
/em w\ld be #h to #i in*es & at heel (  

/]n1 #aj to #aa in*es4 ,! am\nt ( bottom
 rock] w\ld be betwe5  & #a in*1 ) its  
l[ po9t ab\t amid%ips4 ,! cov] 0 usually
 bir* b>k1 b sometimes spruce b>k 0 us$4
  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aec  ,,model   
,,( ,,an ,,ext9ct ,,=m ,,( ,,bir*-,,b>k 
,,canoe1 ,a?abascan type1 ( ,briti%     
,columbia4 ,9 ,peabody ,museum1 ,h>v>d  
,univ]sity1 ,cambridge1 ,mass42 ent]$ 9 
! museum catalog z ( #ahdi4  ,ano!r     
kayak-=m canoe ( unkn[n tribal          
designation f ! ,mack5zie ,bas9 0 #ac   
feet #c in*es long1 #bg in*es beam ov] !
 gunwales1 #h in*es deep amid%ips1 #h   
in*es deep at heel ( /em1 #aj in*es deep
 at ! aft]mo/ ?w>t1 & ) ab\t  in* (     
rock] 9 ! =ebody1 none 9 ! aft]body4 ,! 
greate/ beam occurr$ #g feet #b in*es f 
! /em4 ,! wid? amid%ips ( ! bottom      
framework ( loose longitud9als 0 #ac    
in*es4 ,! l5g? ( ! rake =ew>d 0 #ab     
in*es & aft1 #ab in*es4 ,! =e deck      
ext5d$ inbo>d to ! second ?w>t1 :]e a   
roll ( b>k =m$ a breakwat]4 ,! aft] deck
 ext5d$ inbo>d to ! aft]mo/ ?w>t4       

,betwe5 ! end ?w>ts ! %e] 0 practically 
/raight2 at ! ends x rose g5tly1 becom+ 
almo/ a /raight l9e z x came to ! /em & 
/]n1 & )\t ! usual upw>d hook 9 ! ends (
 ! gunwales4  ,?is 0 a v light &        
well-built canoe ) a bir*-b>k cov]1 a   
slightly r\nd$ bottom a?w>t%ips1 slack  
bilge1 & fl>+ sides %[+ "s curve 9      
cross-section4 ,! ends 7 r %>p1 !       
gunwales com+ 9 to !m almo/ /raight1 9  
plan1 z did ! *9e memb]s4 ,! /em & /]n  
pieces 7 ( wide plank %>p5$ along _!    
outbo>d edge outside ! b>k cov]1 = _!   
:ole height1 to =m cutwat]s4 ,! /em &   
/]n pr(iles 7 ab\t ! same z ^? ( !      
,*ipewyan canoes4  ,an old model 9 !    
,peabody ,museum ( an undeck$ kayak-=m  
canoe ( ,a?abascan con/ruction repres5ts
 a high-end$ canoe hav+ ends ) a slight 
rake & a /raight cutwat]4 ,?is =m (     
canoe has long be5 ext9ct1 & no         
description ( an actual canoe ( ! =m    
exi/s4 ,judg+ by ! model x _h a v n>r[  
flat-bottom & r\nd$ fl>+ sides4  ,!     
ext9ct bateau v>iant has already be5    

describ$ 7pp4 #aei-afa72 x might be     
consid]$ a primitive =m ( ! kayak-=m b>k
 canoes1 7 x n t no int]m$iate type1    
betwe5 ! bateau & ! lat] & highly       
develop$ b>k kayak-=m1 has be5 f\nd2 z a
 result1 any su* /atem5t c be no m ?an  
speculation4   ,/urgeon-,nose ,canoe  ,9
 s\!rn ,briti% ,columbia & 9 nor!rn     
,wa%+ton1 ! ram-end$ or /urgeon-nose    
canoes 7 built4 ,^! 7 ! canoes ( !      
,kut5ai1 also spell$ ,koot5ay1 & ( !    
,sali% tribal gr\ps4 ,us$ on riv]s &    
lakes1 !y 7 con/ruct$ ( ! b>k ( bir*1   
spruce1 fir1 :ite p9e1 or balsam1 :i*ev]
 0 available at ! build+ site4 ,:]ev]   
possible a panel ( bir* b>k 0 work$ 9   
along ! :ole l5g? ( ! gunwales4 ,! hull 
=m ( ^! canoes v>i$ some:at1 p]haps by  
decision ( ! build]1 or p]haps by local 
tribal cu/om4 ,! ends 7 =m$ ) a m>k$    
ram1 ! /em pr(iles runn+ d[n & out to ! 
nose 9 a /raight or ne>ly /raight l9e4  
,9 "s examples ! /em pr(iles 7 9 a holl[
 curve1 />t+ d[n f ! gunwales r /eeply &
 !n curv+ outw>d m g5tly to ! nose4 ,mo/

 examples _h a bottom t 0 /raight or    
slightly hogg$1 :ile ^? ) ! holl[ curve 
9 ! ram (t5 _h a slight rock]4 ,x is    
believ$ t ! int5tion 0 always to h !    
bottom /raight b t 9 con/ruction ! c5t] 
( ! canoe lift$ some:at1 ?us %[+ a      
slight hog 9 ! bottom l9e4 ,! effects ( 
load+ & use on ! light & flexible       
/ructure ( ^! canoes w\ld cause ! bottom
 to rock] & ! outbo>d ends to lift1 ?us 
caus+ ! holl[ 9 ! ram pr(iles4 ,^!      
effects ( load+ are confirm$ by te/s )  
models ( ?is =m ( canoe4  ,! midsection 
0 usually q r\nd1 almo/ ,u-%ap$1 on !   
bottom1 b "s canoes %[$ ! bottom        
slightly flatt5$ & ! sides fl>$ out     
some:at4 ,t[>d ! ends1 ! ,u-%ape became 
m>k$1 & ne> ! gunwale ends ! sides ( !  
,u fell inbo>d slightly z !y came to !  
gunwales1 ! bottom ( ! ,u hav+ a h>d    
turn4 ,9 plan1 ! gunwales approa*$ !    
/ems )\t holl[1 be+ ne>ly /raight or ev5
 slightly convex4 ,! ram 0 long & %>p 9 
its l[] level l9es & ?is1 ) ! =m (      
midsection1 made ?is model a fa/-paddl+ 

canoe1 ?\gh r un/able4 ,mo/ ( ^! canoes 
_h b "o ?w>t1 plac$ at midl5g?1 b "s h  
be5 f\nd ) ?ree ?w>ts & a ?ong tie      
across ! gunwales1 close to ! /ems1 z   
well4  ,no /em-pieces 7 us$2 ! b>k ends 
7 clos$ by two outside batt5s1 "o on ea*
 side1 ^: heads 7 c>ri$ "s #c in*es     
above ! gunwales4 ,a cutwat] batt5 0    
plac$ ov] ! edges ( ! b>k betwe5 !      
batt5s1 & ! ?ree 7 la%$ toge!r1 ) ! b>k1
 by a co>se spiral wrapp+ or by gr\p    
ties4 ,! b>k cov] 0 n %ea!d inside2     
in/ead1 six batt5s1  by #a in*es1 7     
plac$ on ea* side ( ! keel piece1 :i*   
measur$ ab\t  by #c in*es & tap]$ t[>d !
 ends4 ,! batt5s1 widely spac$1 ran well
 into ! ram ends1 & 7 held 9 place1 l   
%ea?+1 by ! pressure ( ! ribs4 ,! ribs1 
spac$ #h to #ab in*es on c5t]s1 7 (t5   
split sapl+s2 sometimes !y 7 %ap$ to    
approximately  by  in*4 ,! batt5 ne>e/ !
 gunwale on ea* side 0 la%$ to e rib4 ,9
 "s canoes ! heads ( ! ribs 7 br\ght up 
betwe5 ! inwale & outwale1 inside ! b>k 
cov]1 ) _! ends aga9/ ! cap4 ,! /it*+ ( 

! longitud9al seam ( ! topside panel 0  
pass$ ar\nd ^! frames & s help$ to      
secure !m4 ,9 "o example1 ! ribs 7 pass$
 ?r\gh ! b>k cov] j bel[ ! horizontal   
seam ( ! topside panel2 !re a turn ( !  
/it*+ 0 pass$ ar\nd ea* rib2 !n ! rib 0 
br\ght inbo>d aga9 9 ! seam by be+ pass$
 betwe5 ! edges ( ! b>k cov] & ! panel4 
,9 _m canoes !re 7 no ribs 9 ! ram ends1
 b ?is 0 n univ]sal practice2 small     
light ribs 7 sometimes plac$ !re1 ) _!  
heads caught 9 ! closure la%+ ( ! end4  
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aed  ,,b>k       
,,canoe ,,( ,,! ,,kut5ai ,,& ,,%uswap1  
ab\t av]age 9 size & proportion4        
,orig9al 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,am]ican       
,indian1 ,new ,york4  ,! canoes _h #c-"p
 gunwales consi/+ ( inwale1 outwale1 &  
cap1 b 9 _m ! arrangem5t ( ^! 0 su* t   
?is nom5clature is mislead+4 ,9 ! latt] 
con/ruction1 a l[] inwale 0 us$1 z 9 !  
above draw+2 r small 9 cross section1 x 
0 almo/ squ>e1 ) r\nd$ edges4 ,! rib    
ends1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh slits 9 ! b>k    
cov] bel[ ! l[] inwale1 cont9u$ upw>d   

pa/ x1 outside ! b>k cov]4 ,above ! l[] 
inwale & inside ! b>k cov] 0 a l>g] upp]
 inwale2 ?is 0 flat on ! outbo>d &      
bottom sides1 ! top & inbo>d sides be+  
r\nd$ into "o ano!r4 ,! outwale1 r\ghly 
rectangul> 9 cross section1 clamp$ ! b>k
 cov] & heads ( ! ribs betwe5 x & ! upp]
 inwale4 ,! ribs & b>k 7 trimm$ (f flu% 
) ! tops ( ! outwale & upp] inwale4 ,!  
?w>t amid%ips 0 caught1 at ! ends1      
betwe5 ! l[] & upp] inwales4 ,! gunwale 
memb]s & b>k cov] 7 secur$ by gr\p la%+s
 ( small ext5t & r widely spac$4  ,!    
me?ods ( fitt+ ! ?w>ts diff]$ 9 ?is     
class ( canoe1 & x _c be det]m9$ )      
c]ta9ty :e!r ?is v>iation 0 tribal or ! 
*oice ( ! individual build]4 ,9 canoes  
hav+ ! l[] inwale arrangem5t !re 0 b "o 
?w>t amid%ips4 ,z has be5 said1 its ends
 7 caught betwe5 ! upp] & l[] inwales4  
,directly b5ea? x 0 a rib ^: head 0 n   
br\ght up outside ! b>k cov] b1 aft] be+
 secur$ to ! upp]mo/ %ea?+ batt51 0     
br\ght ar\nd inbo>d 9 a quick h>d turn &
 secur$ along ! und]side ( ! ?w>t ) a   

close spiral la%+4 ,"u ?is rib at !     
topmo/ batt5 0 secur$ a %ort false rib  
head by =c+ ! bevel$ foot ( ! false rib 
betwe5 ! batt5 & ! true rib1 aft] la%+2 
! head ( ! false rib 0 !n br\ght up     
?r\gh & outside ! b>k cov] 9 ! cu/om>y  
mann]1 or x might be =c$ "u ! l[]       
inwale1 inside ! b>k cov]4 ,9 ?is       
con/ruction1 ! endmo/ ribs 7 at !       
gunwale ends1 & ! heads ( ^! 7 la%$ to !
 /em batt5s outside ! gunwale ends1 on !
 outside ( ! b>k cov]4  ,illu/ration3   
,figure #aee  ,,ojibway ,,canoe         
,,con/ruction4 7,see pp4 #abb-aca47     
,peel+ b>k4  ,/ak+ out b>k4  ,assembl+  
b>k ov] on build+ site4  7,canadian     
,geological ,survey photos47  ,mak+ root
 ?ongs4  ,sett+ ribs inside b>k cov] ) a
 mallet4  ,fitt+ gunwale caps on new    
canoe4  ,9 canoes hav+ ! usual gunwales 
( inwale1 outwale1 & cap1 ! inwale &    
outwale 7 r\ghly rectangul>1 ) _! top   
sides horizontal1 & ! cap1 v small &    
light1 0 flat on ! bottom & r\nd$ on    
top4 ,9 ?is con/ruction1 ! rib heads    

usually 7 clamp$ betwe5 ! inwale &      
outwale1 inside ! b>k cov]4  ,! ribs ( !
 ends 7 light] ?an ^? ( ! ma9 body & m  
closely spac$1 say #b or #c in*es ap>t4 
,^! began ab\t #h or #i in*es inbo>d ( !
 gunwale ends2 ! heads did n rea* !     
gunwales1 b in/ead 7 caught 9 !         
horizontal seam ( ! side panel & !n cut 
(f4 ,usually ?ree ribs 7 s fitt$4 ,! re/
 ( ! end ribs1 usually eight 9 numb]1   
ei!r _h _! heads caught 9 ! /em la%+s or
 7 made up z hoops ) ! heads ov]lapp$ & 
la%$ toge!r1 ! ribs be+ plac$ s t !     
ov]lap came to "o side or ! o!r ( !     
canoe4 ,ea* hoop 0 usually caught by a  
turn 9 ! end-closure la%+4  ,to /r5g!n !
 ram1 ! l[] ends ( ! ?ree /em batt5s 7  
la%$ to ! extremities ( ! inside        
keel-piece1 :i* 0 br\ght ?r\gh ! b>k    
cov] at ?is po9t4 ,! op5+ result+ f ?is 
0 seal$ ) gum or pit*4 ,m9or v>iations 9
 con/ruction h be5 not$ 9 ! canoes      
exhibit$ 9 museums2 9 "o1 = example1    
only e f\r? rib 0 caught 9 ! topside    
panel /it*+4  ,9 canoes hav+ ! usual    

arrangem5t ( gunwale memb]s1 ) ! cap ov]
 ! ends ( ! ribs1 ! ends ( ! ?w>t 7     
sometimes c>ri$ "s #f to #h in*es beyond
 ! gunwales1 at ea* end1 & mu* r$uc$ 9  
?ickness by cutt+ away ab\t half ! dep? 
( ! ?w>t4 ,?is "p 0 !n wrapp$ tightly   
ar\nd ! inwale1 br\ght inbo>d along !   
und]side ( ! ?w>t1 & !re la%$4 ,examples
 %[ t ! am\nt ( end br\ght inbo>d "u !  
?w>t v>i$ ) ! build]4 ,x %\ld be add$ t 
! ?w>ts 7 usually no m ?an b>k$ sapl+s &
 7 obvi\sly in/all$ 9 ! canoe :5 gre5 & 
treat$ ) hot wat] s !y w\ld n break :5  
wrapp$ ar\nd ! inwales4 ,9 canoes hav+  
?ree ?w>ts1 all 7 fitt$ 9 ?is mann]1 b  
(t5 ! ?w>ts on ea* side ( ! middle 7    
also wrapp$ 9 a long spiral ) a ?ong ^: 
ends 7 ti$ to ea* gunwale4 ,9 #c-?w>t   
canoes1 !re 0 commonly a cross tie1     
locat$ r\ghly #ab in*es f ! gunwale ends
 & consi/+ ( ?ree or m turns ( cord1 or 
?ong1 ar\nd ! gunwale memb]s on ea* side
 & a?w>t%ips1 secur$ by turns ( ! ends  
ar\nd ! cross tie4 ,9 "o canoe !re 0 a  
?w>t amid%ips & "o at "o end1 ab\t      

halfway betwe5 ! middle ?w>t & ! gunwale
 ends2 at ! o!r end 7 two cross ties1 "o
 replac+ ! ?w>t & ano!r a foot inbo>d ( 
! ends ( ! gunwales4 ,9 ?is canoe ! ribs
 at ! gunwale ends 7 hoops & !re 7 only 
?ree hoop ribs 9 ! ram ends4  ,"o canoe1
 f ,/ev5s ,c\nty1 ,wa%+ton1 _h a peculi>
 d\ble fram+4 ,! %ea?+ batt5s1 in/ead ( 
be+ on ! inside ( ! b>k cov]1 re/$ on   
light ribs1 spac$ ab\t #f in*es ap>t1 t 
ran only f> en\gh up ! sides to h _!    
ends caught 9 ! /it*+ at ! bottom ( !   
topside bir*-b>k panel along ! gunwales4
 ,! longitud9al batt5s 7 plac$ inside   
^!1 ) ! batt5 ne>e/ ! gunwale la%$ to ! 
light ribs4 ,inside ^! batt5s & spac$   
ab\t a foot ap>t 0 ano!r set ( ribs ^:  
heads 7 secur$ betwe5 ! inwale & outwale
 inside ! b>k cov]2 ea* ( ^! inside ribs
 0 also la%$ to ! upp]mo/ batt54 ,only !
 keel batt5 0 "u ! small ribs4 ,! ?w>t  
ends 7 wrapp$ ar\nd ! ma9 gunwale       
memb]s1 & ! /em batt5s 7 secur$ to !    
bir* topside panels by b "o gr\p la%+1  
ne> ! gunwales4 ,! bottom cov] 0 /iff   

p9e b>k4  ,! topside panel ( bir* b>k 0 
plac$ 9 ^! canoes s t its gra9 0        
horizontal in/ead ( ! usual v]tical4    
,presumably ?is 0 done z a ma9t5ance    
solution3 ! panel 0 mu* easi] to repair 
or replace ?an ! bottom b>k2 & by hav+ !
 panel plac$ 9 ?is weak mode1 x w\ld    
split be=e ! bottom b>k if too mu*      
pressure 7 br\ght on ! framework 9      
load+4  ,^! canoes paddl$ well 9 /rong  
w9ds & 9 smoo? wat]1 & work$ quietly 9 !
 m>%es :]e !y 7 mu* us$4 ,canvas canoes 
( ! same model replac$ ! b>k canoes1    
indicat+ t ! model 0 suitable = its     
locality & use4 ,^! /urgeon-nose canoes 
7 s diff]5t f o!r ,nor? ,am]ican b>k    
canoes t !y h be5 ! subject ( mu*       
speculation1 p>ticul>ly s9ce ram-end$   
canoes1 ?\gh ( diff]5t con/ruction1     
exi/$ 9 ,asia4  ,! size ( !             
,kut5ai-,sali% /urgeon-nose canoes v>i$2
 ! mo/ common size appe>s to h be5      
betwe5 #ad & #bj feet ov] ! ends ( !    
rams1 #bd to #bh in*es beam1 & ) a dep? 
rang+ f #ab to #ac in*es amid%ips & f   

#ad to #ag in*es at ! ends ( ! gunwales4
 ,h[ev]1 records exi/ t %[ r l>ge canoes
 7 built on ?is model1 #bd feet ov] !   
rams1 #dh in*es beam & #bd in*es dep?4  
,! build+ me?ods ( ?is type ( canoe h   
nev] be5 report$4 ,probably "s k9d ( a  
r\gh build+ frame 0 us$4 ,p]haps ?is 0  
compris$ ( a c\ple ( ! batt5s & ! keel  
piece1 weight$ ) /ones4 ,! build+ b$ 0  
probably level4 ,! ma9 gunwale memb]s 7 
app>5tly made up tempor>ily & ! b>k cov]
 %ap$ & /ak$ out4 ,f t po9t ! "w may h  
foll[$ ! usual canoe-build+ practices   
except t ! ends c\ld n be clos$ until ! 
fram+ !re 0 complete1 o!rwise x w\ld h  
be5 impossible to fa/5 ! small ribs 9 ! 
rams4 ,! /ructure ( ^! canoes appe>s to 
h be5 almo/ entirely c$>1 except = ! b>k
 & lac+s :i*1 9 "s in/ances1 7 p>tly "s 
b>k fib] z well z roots4 ,9 g5]al1 !    
con/ruction ( ?is class ( canoe did n   
mat* 9 quality t ( ! o!r b>k canoes ( ! 
,nor?we/4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aef   
,,indians ,,) ,,canoe at ,al]t ,bay1 on 
,cormorant ,isl&1 ,b4,c4     ,*apt]     

,sev5  ,,arctic ,,sk9 ,,boats           
,h[>d ,i4 ,*apelle   ,among ! ?ree      
primitive wat]craft ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7!  
o!rs be+ ! dug\t & ! b>k canoe ( !      
,am]ican ,indians71 ! ,arctic sk9 boats 
( ! ,eskimos are rem>kable = effective  
design & con/ruction obta9$ "u          
conditions 9 :i* build+ mat]ials are bo?
 sc>ce & limit$ 9 selection4 ,! ,arctic 
sk9 boat is almo/ entirely to be f\nd 9 
! ,nor? ,am]ican ,arctic f ,b]+ ,sea to 
! ,ea/ ,coa/ ( ,gre5l&4 ,9 ,russian     
,sib]ia1 only 9 a small area ( ! ea/]n  
,arctic l&s adjac5t to ! ,nor? ,am]ican 
cont95t are any employ$4  ,^! craft1 an 
important & necess>y factor 9 ! hunt+   
lives ( mo/ ,eskimo tribal gr\ps1 h long
 attract$ ! att5tion ( explor]s &       
e?nologi/s1 & _m specim5s h be5 deposit$
 9 ,am]ican & ,european museums4 ,l b>k 
canoes1 !y h un=tunately prov$ difficult
 to pres]ve "u conditions ( museum      
exhibit4 ,z a result1 examples ( once   
num]\s types h become s damag$ t !y no  
long] give an accurate impression ( _!  

orig9al =m & appe>ance1 & "s h s        
det]iorat$ t !y h _h to be de/roy$4     
,among ! latt] may h be5 examples (     
types long s9ce out ( use4 ,"o su* type 
0 repres5t$ by a s+le kayak1 n[ de/roy$2
 z a result ?is =m has become ext9ct1 & 
only a poor scale model rema9s to give a
 highly unsatisfactory repres5tation (  
x4  ,9 #aidf ! late ,vilhjalmur         
,/efansson1 :o 0 !n project+ 8          
,encyclop$ia ,arctica1 ask$ me to prep>e
 = x a te*nical article on ! ,arctic sk9
 boat4 ,! decision ( ! sponsors to      
discont9ue ! publication1 aft] ! fir/   
volume _h appe>$1 prev5t$ appe>ance ( ! 
article1 b 9 #aieh1 ?r\gh ! k9dness (   
,dr4 ,/efansson1 x 0 return$ to ! au?or 
= publication by ! ,u4,s4 ,national     
,museum4 ,i h s9ce revis$ & add$ to x1  
aft] receiv+ criticisms & sugge/ions f  
,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s1 ( ! ,smi?sonian's    
,bureau ( ,am]ican ,e?nology1 f ,john   
,hea?1 & f o!r au?orities4#b  #b ,= _!  
aid to him ! au?or takes ?is occasion to
 ext5d p>ticul> ?anks4 ,he also ?anks 8 

,smi?sonian ,in/itution colleagues 9 !  
,division ( ,e?nology1 ,u4,s4 ,national 
,museum2 memb]s ( ! /affs ( ,! ,am]ican 
,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory & ,! ,museum 
( ! ,am]ican ,indian 9 ,new ,york1 ( !  
,peabody ,museum at ,h>v>d1 & ( !       
,/efansson ,libr>y at ,d>tm\?2 & !      
,wa%+ton ,/ate ,hi/orical ,society &    
,museum1 & o!rs 9 ! ,nor?we/ :o gave bo?
 aid & enc\ragem5t4  ,! object ( ! /udy1
 z w be se51 0 to measure ! sk9 boats & 
to make scale draw+s t w\ld p]mit !     
con/ruction ( a replica exact 9 details 
( appe>ance1 =m1 con/ruction1 & also 9  
work+ behavior4 ,special reg>d 0 giv5 to
 ! div]sity ( types ) respect to hull =m
 & con/ruction me?ods2 b que/ions (     
e?nic tr5ds1 tribal migrations1 & su*   
matt]s1 be+ outside ! scope ( ! /udy1 7 
n consid]$4 ,:]ev] possible1 full-size  
craft 7 us$ z ! s\rce1 b :]e only       
fragm5ts exi/$1 ^! _h to be supplem5t$  
by ref]5ce to & int]pretation ( models (
 ! same type4  ,9 spite ( ! difficulty (
 locat+ sk9 boats ( "s ,arctic areas1   

examples ( mo/ ( ^? m5tion$ by explor]s 
s9ce #ahge h be5 f\nd & record$1 s t1 z 
f> z possible1 e di/9ctive tribal type (
 ,arctic sk9 boat :i* 9 #aidf 0         
repres5t$ by museum exhibits 9 ! ea/]n  
,unit$ ,/ates is repres5t$ 9 plans "h4  
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aeg              
,,eighte5?-,,c5tury ,,l9es ,,draw+ ( a  
kayak1 f ,labrador or s\!rn ,baff9 ,isl&
 7accord+ to ,dr4 ,kaj ,birket-,smi? ( !
 ,dani% ,national ,museum74 ,note ! long
 /em t is *>act]i/ic ( pres5t day kayaks
 f ,labrador4 ,! lett]+ app>5tly reads3 
,f ,/rait's ,s4 ,david   ,a             
,canoe--,n4,b4 ,! sections are #b feet  
asund] f =w>d   ,l5g? #ba'-f   ,bread?  
#b'-a   ,dep? #j'-h  7,c\rtesy ,national
 ,m>itime ,museum1 ,gre5wi*1 ,engl&47   
,) ! mat]ial available x 0 n possible1 (
 c\rse1 to explore all ! individual     
types & =ms 9 full2 h5ce1 ! geographical
 range ( a type c be /at$ only          
approximately1 ow+ to ! ov]lapp+ (      
tribal gr\ps & ! almo/ con/ant migratory
 movem5t ( ! ,eskimo4 ,orig9ally ! #b-;&

 #c-;cockpit kayaks ( ,russian colonial 
,alaska _h be5 omitt$ z be+ probably !  
results ( ,russian influ5ce4 ,john      
,hea?1 h[ev]1 believ+ att5tion %\ld be  
giv5 to ?is type1 has v k9dly prep>$ =  
me a f9e draught ( su* a kayak1 or      
baid>ka 7o!r spell+s ( ?is "n are       
common72 ?is is %[n on page #aig4       
,al?\gh ! scale draw+s accurately       
repres5t ! =m & details ( con/ruction1  
!y necess>ily idealize some:at !        
primitive boat design4 ,also1 9 %[+ !   
hull-=m1 ! usual me?od ( project+ ! l9es
 ( ! hull 0 disc>d$ z unsuitable4       
,in/ead /ructural features h be5        
emphasiz$1 ) ! result t r\nd-bottom     
kayaks appe> z multi-*9e hulls1 z !y    
prop]ly are4 ,9 view ( ! fluid /ate (   
design 9 ,eskimo craft x is obvi\s t !  
examples %[n repres5t ! /age (          
developm5t at ! giv5 date1 ?\gh !       
alt]ation 9 mo/ designs has be5 s       
gradual t ! repres5tation c\ld s]ve to  
illu/rate ) reasonable accuracy a tribal
 or area type = a decade or m4  ,!      

,eskimos h produc$ two types ( sk9 boats
 t h prov$ rem>kably effici5t craft =   
small-boat navigation 9 ,arctic wat]s3  
an op5 boat rang+ f ab\t #ae to         
approximately #fj feet 9 l5g? = c>ry+   
c>go & pass5g]s = long di/ances1 & a    
small deck$ canoe develop$ exclusively =
 hunt+4 ,) few exceptions ^! ,arctic sk9
 boats are :olly seago+ craft4  ,! op5  
boat1 call$ ! umiak1 is propell$ by     
paddles or o>s or sail or1 9 rec5t ye>s1
 by an outbo>d gasol9e eng9e1 or x may  
be t[$4 ,:ile fundam5tally a c>go c>ri] 
! umiak has be5 employ$ by "s ,eskimo 9 
:al+ & 9 walrus hunt+4 ,= ^! purposes a 
fa/] & m develop$ design is us$ ?an t   
us$ only to c>ry families1 h\sehold     
goods1 & c>go 9 ! con/ant ,eskimo se>* =
 new hunt+ gr\nds4 ,to a f> great]      
degree ?an any o!r boat ( simil> size1  
?is ,eskimo boat is *>act]iz$ by great  
/r5g? comb9$ ) lightness4  ,! deck$     
hunt+ canoe1 ! kayak1 is propell$ by    
paddle alone :5 us$ = hunt+ & fi%+1 b is
 occasionally t[$ by ! umiak :5 ! own]  

travels4 ,! kayak is p]haps ! mo/       
effici5t example ( a primitive hunt+    
boat2 x c be propell$ at high spe$ by   
its paddl] & maneuv]$ ) ease4 ,^! hunt+ 
kayaks are commonly built to hold b "o  
p]son1 ?\gh "o gr\p ( ,eskimo built !   
kayaks to c>ry two or ?ree4 ,! kayak1   
rem>kable = its seawor?9ess1 lightness &
 /r5g?1 has be5 p]haps "o ( ! mo/       
important tools 9 ! ,eskimo fight =     
exi/5ce4 ,few tribes h be5 unacqua9t$ ) 
its use4 ,because ( its employm5t1 !    
kayak (t5 has to be design$ to meet v   
p>ticul> requirem5ts & s !re is great]  
v>iation 9 its =m & dim5sions ?an 9 !   
umiak4  ,seago+ sk9 boats h n be5 common
 outside ! ,arctic 9 hi/orical times4 ,9
 fact only ! ,european ,celts are kn[n )
 c]ta9ty to h us$ su* craft4 ,! ,iri%1 9
 p>ticul>1 employ$ l>ge seago+ sk9 boats
 z late z ! reign ( ,que5 ,elizabe? (   
,engl&2 a draw+ ( "o pres]v$ 9 !        
,pepysian ,libr>y 0 reproduc$ 9 !       
,m>9]'s ,mirror 7vol4 #h1 #aibb1 fac+ p4
 #bjj74 ,al?\gh !re c be little d\bt t  

l>ge seago+ sk9 craft _h be5 m widely   
us$ 9 prehi/oric times1 ! p]i%able      
nature ( ! sk9 cov]+ & ! light framework
 probably acc\nt = ! lack ( any         
ar*eological rema9s t w\ld indicate its 
range4 ,! availability ( ! mat]ials     
requir$ 9 its con/ruction1 h[ev]1 sugge/
 t its use c\ld h be5 v widespread4 ,!  
long voyages made by ! ,iri%1 9 ! dawn+ 
( record$ hi/ory1 c\ld well h made its  
design & con/ruction kn[n to o!rs4  ,!re
 are /ill _m sk9 boats 9 use by         
primitive p & ev5 a few survivals 9     
,europe1 b ) ! exception ( ! ,iri%      
curragh1 ^! craft are design$ = inl&    
wat]s & are ei!r r di%-%ap$1 or oval 9  
plan1 l half a walnut %ell4 ,9 design !y
 are relat$ to ! coracle ( anci5t       
,brita9 r ?an to a seago+ sk9 boat ( !  
,iri% or ,eskimo type4 ,bo? ! ,iri%     
curragh & ! ,briti% coracle1 n[1 (      
c\rse1 are cov]$ ) canvas r ?an hide4   
,traditions ( long voyages by ! anci5t  
,iri% 9 ! sk9-cov]$ curragh make x      
app>5t t su* voyages 7 relatively       

common1 & ! design & con/ruction ( exi/+
 models ( ! curragh & umiak indicate t  
^! voyages c\ld h be5 made ) reasonable 
safety4 ,comp>$ to ! dug\t canoe1 ! sk9 
boat 0 f> light] & roomi] 9 proportion  
to l5g? & s c\ld c>ry a f> great] load &
 /ill reta9 en\gh freebo>d to be safe4  
,! size ( ! e>ly sk9 boats _c be        
e/abli%$ ) c]ta9ty2 ! mod]n ,iri%       
curragh is probably debas$ 9 ?is        
respect1 b e>ly explor]s ( ,gre5l&      
report$ umiaks ne>ly #fj feet 9 l5g? &  
!re is no /ructural reason :y ! curragh 
c\ld n h be5 z l>ge or ev5 l>g]4        
,comp>$ ) ! curragh1 ! umiak is light]1 
/rong]1 & m resi/ant to %ock4 ,! curragh
 0 built ) closely spac$ b5t frames &   
longitud9al /r+]s to support ! sk9 cov]1
 :]eas ! umiak has v widely spac$ frames
 & few longitud9als1 giv+ ! sk9 cov]    
little support4 ,! diff]5ce 9           
con/ruction is und\bt$ly a result ( !   
type ( cov]+ us$1 = ! curragh 0 cov]$ ) 
cattle hides1 :i* 7 less /rong ?an !    
seal or walrus sk9s us$ by ! ,eskimo4 ,!

 /rong & ela/ic sk9 cov] ( ! umiak & !  
lack ( a rigid /ructural support gives  
?is boat an advantage 9 )/&+ ! %ocks (  
bea*+ or ( work+ 9 float+ ice2 & because
 ( its relatively light framework & !   
me?od ( secur+ ! /ructural memb]s1 its  
frame is f> m flexible ?an t ( !        
curragh1 add+ to ?is ability4  ,! sk9   
cov] ( ! curragh 0 made wat]tight by    
rubb+ ! hides ) animal fat1 & ! sewn    
seams 7 pay$ ) tall[4 ,! ,eskimo soak ! 
sk9 cov] ( ! umiak ) animal oil & pay ! 
seams ) blubb] or animal fat4 ,bo?      
treatm5ts produc$ a cov] initially      
wat]tight b requir+ dry+ & reoil+ to    
rema9 s4 ,"u mo/ climatic conditions 9 !
 ,nor? ,atlantic or ,pacific ! oil$ sk9s
 rema9 wat]tight f f\r days to a week4  
,?is p]iod c be l5g!n$ by v>i\s me?ods2 
sk9 boats travell+ 9 company c be dri$  
out 9 turn by unload+ "o & plac+ x abo>d
 a companion craft4 ,!re is evid5ce (   
o!r me?ods ( treat+ ! sk9 cov]+2        
wat]pro(+ x ) melt$ tall[1 = example1 or
 ) a vegetable gum or a res9 su* z pit*1

 w\ld enable x to rema9 wat]tight = a   
mu* long] "t1 ?\gh su* treatm5ts w\ld   
make ! cov]+ less ela/ic4 ,pit* 0 also  
us$ at "o "t 9 curragh build+1 & x w\ld 
be unwise to assume t ! oil treatm5t us$
 by ! ,eskimo 0 _! only me?od ( produc+ 
wat]tight sk9 cov]s 9 ! p]iod be=e !y 7 
fir/ obs]v$ by ,europeans4              
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aeh  ,,we/]n     
,,alaskan ,,umiak ) eight wom5 paddl+1  
,cape ,pr9ce ( ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4  
7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47          
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aei  ,,we/]n     
,,alaskan ,,umiak be+ bea*$1 ,cape      
,pr9ce ( ,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo
 by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47  ,illu/ration3  
,figure #afj  ,,repair+ ,,umiak ,,frame 
at ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,isl&1 ,alaska1 #aicj4  
7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47          
,illu/ration3 ,figure #afa  ,,eskimo    
,,woman ,,splitt+ ,,walrus ,,hide to    
make umiak cov]1 ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,isl&1    
,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4    
,coll9s47  ,! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5
 ! con/ruction ( ! curragh & t ( ! umiak

 lies 9 ! type ( longitud9al /r5g?      
memb]s & ! transv]se fram+ us$4 ,!      
curragh1 l ! bir*-b>k canoe1 dep5d$     
entirely ^u its gunwales = longitud9al  
/r5g?1 :]eas ! umiak has a /rong keel1  
or1 prop]ly1 a keelson s9ce ! keel 0    
inside ! sk9 cov]4 ,! curragh us$       
longitud9al batt5s to support ! sk9     
cov]4 ,! umiak1 on ! o!r h&1 has 9 its  
*9e timb]s r /rong longitud9al memb]s t 
give additional /r5g? to ! bottom4 ,its 
transv]se frames1 unlike ^? ( ! curragh 
:i* 7 cont9u\s f gunwale to gunwale1 are
 9 ?ree sections1 two side pieces & a   
floor1 or bottom1 memb] & ! frame memb]s
 are jo9$ to gunwale1 *9es & keelson by 
la%+s ( s9ew1 :alebone1 or hide1 a me?od
 t1 toge!r ) ?ree-"p frames1 gives great
 flexibility to ! framework4 ,! frame ( 
! e>ly curragh may h be5 la%$1 b because
 ( ! o!r fundam5tal diff]5ces 9 design &
 con/ruction x 0 less flexible ?an t ( !
 umiak4  ,! basic features ( ! umiak    
frame are n f\nd 9 ! kayak1 ! /ructure (
 :i* 9 mo/ types approa*es t ( !        

curragh4 ,! gunwale is ! /r5g? memb] 9 !
 kayak1 & "s types h a r ext5sive       
longitud9al batt5 sy/em z well4 ,9 only 
a few types ( kayak is ! keelson an     
important /r5g? memb]1 & ev5 "h !       
gunwales are ( prim>y importance4 ,!    
hypo!sis has be5 (f]$ t ?is indicates a 
diff]5t p>5tage = ! kayak ?an = ! umiak1
 & t ! umiak repres5ts ! e>li] type1 x  
be+ argu$ t ?is type ( boat 0 ! "o m    
requir$ 9 migratory p]iods1 & s w\ld be 
fir/ develop$4 ,su* !ories %\ld be      
accept$ ) caution1 h[ev]1 z !           
fundam5tally diff]5t use requirem5ts = !
 two types ( craft might readily expla9 
! v>iation 9 _! pr9ciples ( con/ruction4
 ,hunt+ w\ld also h be5 necess>y dur+   
migrations1 z exi/5ce dep5d$ ^u food2 ! 
e>li] appe>ance ( ! umiak _c be assum$  
on su* limit$ gr\nds4  ,illu/ration3    
,figure #afb  ,,fitt+ ,,split           
,,walrus-,,hide ,,cov] to umiak at ,/4  
,lawr5ce ,isl&1 ,alaska1 #aicj4 7,photo 
by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47  ,illu/ration3   
,figure #afc  ,,outbo>d ,,motor         

,,in/all$ ,,on ,,umiak1 ,cape ,pr9ce (  
,wales1 ,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,h5ry
 ,b4 ,coll9s47  ,illu/ration3 ,figure   
#afd  ,,laun*+ ,,umiak ,,9 ,,light      
,,surf1 ) crew ( #ab m54 7,note outbo>d 
motor atta*$71 ,cape ,pr9ce ( ,wales1   
,alaska1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4    
,coll9s47  ,eskimo sk9 boats possess    
rem>kable advantages = _! employm5t &   
conditions ( use4 ,_! hulls are light 9 
weight1 simple to build1 & relatively   
easy to repair1 yet !y are highly %ock  
resi/ant4 ,!y c c>ry l>ge loads1 yet are
 fa/1 !y are capable ( be+ propell$ by m
 ?an "o means1 & !y are exceptionally   
seawor?y4  ,float+ ice is consid]$ a    
major haz>d to craft ( all sizes1 b !   
umiak1 = example1 c resi/ ! %ocks (     
ramm+ ! ice to a degree beyond ! t5sile 
/r5g? ( ! sk9 cov]+1 by reason ( ! me?od
 ( atta*+ ! sk9 cov] to ! framework ( ! 
hull1 & to "s ext5t ! =m ( ! boat       
itself4 ,! sk9 cov] ( ! umiak is n      
rigidly atta*$ to ! frame 9 a numb] (   
places1 b r is a complete unit secur$   

only at ! gunwales & to ! heads ( /em & 
/]n4 ,?is p]mits ! sk9 cov] to be       
greatly di/ort$ by a bl[1 s t !         
ela/icity ( ! mat]ial at po9t ( impact  
is assi/$ by ! movem5t ( ! :ole sk9 cov]
 on ! frame4 ,also1 ! frame itself is   
flexible & all[s di/ortion & recov]y n  
only )9 ! limits ( ! ela/icity ( ! wood5
 frame b also by ! movem5t ( ! la%$     
jo9ts 9 ! transv]se frames4 ,"s kayaks h
 simil> *>act]i/ics1 ?\gh _! small size 
& ! light weight ( bo? boat & load+ make
 its resi/ance to %ock ( f> less        
importance ?an t ( ! umiak4  ,light     
weight is a highly desirable *>act]i/ic 
= small craft 9 ! ,arctic1 s9ce x p]mits
 ! boat )\t ! aid ( skids or o!r        
me*anical contrivances to be remov$ f ! 
wat] & c>ri$ ov] ob/ructions1 & to be   
transport$ ei!r by sl$ge or by manual   
portage ov] long di/ances4 ,lightness is
 obta9$ 9 ! ,eskimo sk9 boats by ! small
 numb] & small size ( ! wood5 /ructural 
memb]s us$ 9 _! con/ruction4 ,! result+ 
light weight hull p]mits heavy load+ 9  

proportion to ! size ( ! boat1 & x all[s
 build+ ) a m9imum ( mat]ial1 9 a c\ntry
 :]e su* mat]ials z wood are sc>ce & h>d
 to obta94  ,= all small craft 9 ,arctic
 wat]s1 :]e di/ances betwe5 s\rces (    
supply may be great & ! "t t ! wat] is  
op5 to navigation is relatively %ort1   
spe$ is an important & desirable        
attribute t p]mits movem5t ) a m9imum ( 
ef=t4 ,! exig5cies ( ,arctic travel make
 x fur!r desirable t small craft be     
capable ( propulsion "u paddle1 o>s1    
sail1 or l[-p[]$ gasol9e motors4 ,!     
umiak1 because ( its =m & weight1 c be  
modifi$ to meet ?is requirem5t )\t loss 
( o!r desirable attributes1 & to a      
slightly less] degree1 ! same may be    
said ( ! kayak4  ,simplicity 9          
con/ruction & repair are also basic     
requirem5ts 9 ! ,arctic1 :]e an em]g5cy 
may make x necess>y to repair or rebuild
 a damag$ boat out ( mat]ials available 
ne>by ) ! m9imum ( tools & "u adv]se    
wea!r conditions4 ,! ,eskimo has produc$
 a boat con/ruction t1 z w be se5 f !   

descriptions t foll[1 to a high degree  
meets ?is requirem5t4  ,exceptional     
seawor?9ess is requir$1 z mo/ ,arctic   
wat]s are subject to viol5t /orms2 !    
,arctic sk9 boats h be5 develop$ ) =ms &
 proportions to meet ?is condition4 ,9  
?is matt]1 ! light & flexible hull      
/ructure gives a special advantage4 ,!  
kayak1 9 its highe/ /ate ( evolution & 9
 skillful h&s is p]haps ! mo/ seawor?y (
 all primitive small craft4 ,! umiak is 
a close second1 b ( ! two1 ! kayak is   
saf] "u all conditions ( ,arctic travel4
  ,! load-c>ry+ capacity ( sk9 boats has
 be5 m5tion$4 ,! ,eskimo umiak is       
notable 9 ?is respect1 exce$+ ! curragh 
& ev5 craft produc$ by mod]n            
civilization4 ,! umiak possesses ?is    
advantage because ( its v light hull    
weight 9 comb9ation ) a ne>ly flat      
bottom & fl>+ sides4 ,! result+ hull-=m 
all[s heavy load+ ) relatively little   
increase 9 draft1 z ! fl>+ sides cause !
 displacem5t to increase rapidly ) !    
slighte/ increase 9 draft4 ,?\gh a      

simil> =m exi/s 9 ! lumb]man's drive    
boat1 ! great] hull weight ( ?is type   
makes x inf]ior to ! umiak4 ,light draft
 :5 load$ has v def9ite advantages 9 !  
,arctic1 = x all[s load+ & unload+ on ! 
bea* or afloat1 & all[s ! boat to be    
bea*$ at po9ts :]e ?is w\ld n be        
possible ) a deep] hull4 ,! light draft 
also makes ! umiak easy to propel       
manually4  ,! imp]ative ne$ = v effici5t
 wat]craft has made ! ,eskimo seek      
improvem5ts1 & z 8 ne$s alt]$1 s h 8 sk9
 boats4 ,consequ5tly ! designs ( ^!     
craft h gone ?r\gh num]\s *anges s9ce ! 
fir/ ( ! types 7 plac$ 9 ,am]ican       
museums4 ,x is noticeable t1 among o!r  
*anges1 ! am\nt ( freebo>d ( umiaks has 
be5 alt]$ z _! own]s met new conditions 
impos$ by long] voyages1 heavi] c>go1 & 
! outbo>d motor4 ,! high-sid$ umiak1    
:ile suit$ = heavy loads & v seawor?y1 0
 almo/ impossible to paddle or ev5 r[   
aga9/ a /rong gale4 ,:5 ?is condition _h
 to be met1 ! freebo>d & fl>e 7 r$uc$ to
 m9imize ! w9dage4 ,9 rec5t ye>s umiaks 

h appe>$ ) r\nd bottoms to give great]  
spe$ "u paddle1 ! result+ boat be+ an   
enl>g$ kayak 9 con/ruction4 ,^! *anges  
to meet diff]+ use requirem5ts are n    
necess>ily basic improvem5ts1 = !y      
result 9 ! sacrifice ( "s ( ! o!r       
qualities ( ! type4 ,nev]!less1 !y      
indicate ! fluid /ate ( primitive boat  
design 9 ! ,arctic1 a condition t has   
be5 acc5tuat$ 9 mo/ areas by ! increas+ 
influ5ce ( :ite m51 _! boats & _!       
motors4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #afe     
,,umiaks ,,on ,,racks1 9 front ( village
 on ,little ,diom$e ,isl&1 ,july #cj1   
#aicf4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47   
,! ,umiak  ,! umiak 0 und\bt$ly m widely
 employ$ by ! ,eskimo be=e ! com+ ( !   
:ite man ?an exi/+ records indicate4 ,x 
0 a type ( boat mo/ necess>y = family   
migration by sea1 & ) x ! e>ly ,eskimos 
c\ld e/abli% !mselves on isl&s f> f !   
ma9l& & c\ld cross l>ge bodies ( wat]4  
,f "s areas :]e e>ly explor]s m5tion    
hav+ se5 ! type1 ! umiak has disappe>$2 
?is sugge/s ! possibility t tribes n[   

unacqua9t$ ) ! umiak _h at "s "t 9 ! pa/
 rea*$ a location :]e su* a boat 0 no   
long] necess>y4  ,! umiak 0 common 9 op5
 wat]s & 0 f\nd f ,kodiak ,isl& ?r\gh ! 
,aleutians & nor? & ea/w>d along ! we/ &
 nor? coa/ ( ,alaska to ! m\? ( !       
,mack5zie ,riv]4 ,on ! ,sib]ian coa/1   
opposite ,alaska & = a %ort di/ance     
we/w>d1 ! umiak 0 also employ$4 ,f !    
,mack5zie ea/w>d to ,hudson ,bay ! umiak
 has n be5 employ$ 9 rec5t times1 ?\gh x
 is highly probable t x 0 us$ 9 !       
migrations t populat$ ?is "p ( ! ,arctic
 coa/ ) ,eskimo4 ,e>ly explor]s f\nd    
umiaks 9 use along ! nor?we/]n coa/ (   
,hudson ,bay & ,foxe ,bas92 ! umiak     
disappe>$ f ^! areas dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 
b its use cont9u$ 9 ,hudson ,/rait & 9  
,gre5l&1 :]e x became highly develop$4  
,among ! v>i\s tribes ( ,eskimo kn[n to 
h employ$ ! umiak 9 ! la/ c5tury1 ! =m (
 ! hull v>i$ a good deal1 z did its     
dim5sions4 ,9 g5]al its =m 0 some?+ l t 
( ! lumb]man's drive boat1 except t mo/ 
umiaks _h a slight ,v-bottom & 7 q      

diff]5t f x 9 ! %ape ( ! b[ & /]n4 ,!   
size ( ! umiak does n seem to h be5     
e/abli%$ by a set ( measurem5ts z di/9ct
 z t us$ 9 ! build+ ( kayaks1 b r z !   
result ( utiliz+ mat]ial available      
locally1 ) due reg>d to ! int5d$ use ( !
 craft = relatively heavy transport4    
,su* matt]s z ! fl>e ( ! sides1 rake &  
%ape ( b[ & /]n1 & wid? v>i$ f tribe to 
tribe4 ,! ,asiatic & ,alaskan umiaks 7  
usually r %>p-end$1 ) little spread to !
 gunwales at b[ & /]n2 "o ( ! ,asiatic  
types has ! gunwales br\ght r\nd 9 a    
full curve at ! ends ( ! boat4 ,9 ! ,ea/
 ! umiaks h r upright b[s & /]ns & !    
gunwales are (t5 r wide ap>t to =m squ>e
 ends to ! hull4 ,"s ( ! we/]n umiaks 7 
navigat$ ) paddles only2 ) o!rs1 be=e ! 
appe>ance ( ! ,russians 9 ! area1 bo? o>
 & sail may h be5 us$4 ,9 ! ,ea/ !      
umiaks 7 be+ paddl$1 r[$1 & sail$ :5    
:ite m5 rea*$ ! ,arctic 9 ! #ag? c5tury4
  ,! ,gre5l& umiak frame is mu* heavi] &
 m rigid ?an ! ,alaskan4 ,9 comp>+ ea/]n
 & we/]n umiaks ! frame ( ! ea/]n umiak 

seems to be some:at bett] f9i%$1 b !    
models ( ! we/]n umiak are und\bt$ly !  
bett]4 ,! ea/]n umiak is n int5d$ = use 
9 hunt+ b is prim>ily a c>go c>ri]2 its 
use has be5 conf9$ to wom5 & its *ief   
employm5t is mov+ ! family & h\sehold   
effects f "o hunt+ gr\nd to ano!r4 ,:ile
 x is highly probable t ?is condition is
 ! result ( ! disappe>ance ( :al+ 9 ?is 
region1 ! use ( ! umiak z a hunt+ boat  
ceas$ s long ago t ! ea/]n umiak model  
may h deg5]at$ to a great degree4 ,x has
 be5 o!rwise 9 ! we/]n ,arctic :]e ! use
 ( ! umiak 9 hunt+ has cont9u$ & ! boats
 h be5 manag$1 to a v great ext5t1 by ! 
m54 ,z a result1 ! boats are held 9     
great] respect by _! build]s & ! bett]  
models h surviv$4 ,! tribal di/9ctions  
betwe5 ! we/]n umiaks are !re=e m m>k$  
?an 9 ! ea/2 includ+ ,sib]ia1 at lea/   
?ree basic models & a v l>ge v>iety (   
tribal v>iations1 are to be f\nd1 z c be
 prov$ by exi/+ models4 ,9 ! ea/ only   
two basic & di/9ct umiak models are kn[n
 to h exi/$1 ! ,baff9 ,isl& type us$ on 

bo? ! nor? side & on ! ,labrador side ( 
,hudson ,/rait1 & ! ,gre5l& type4 ,9 !  
latt]1 !re 7 slight tribal di/9ctions x 
is true1 b ^! 7 m9or4  ,! ,asiatic      
umiaks may be class$ into two types1 !  
,koryak type ( ,ea/]n ,sib]ia & ! ,*uk*i
 model ( ! ,sib]ian side ( ,b]+ ,/rait4 
,! ,koryak umiaks illu/rat$ by ,jo*elson
 %[ a highly develop$ boat1 r lightly   
fram$ comp>$ to boats on ! ,am]ican     
side4 ,9 pr(ile ! b[ has a long rak+    
curve & ! /]n mu* less2 z a result !    
bottom is r %ort comp>$ to ! l5g? ov] ! 
gunwales4 ,view$ 9 plan1 ! gunwales are 
r\nd$ 9 at b[ & /]n to =m almo/ a       
semicircle4 ,at ! b[ ! gunwales are b5t 
ar\nd a horizontal headbo>d t5on$ ov] ! 
/em head b at ! /]n !re is no headbo>d4 
,! %e] is mod]ate & v graceful4 ,! fl>e 
( ! sides is great & !re appe>s to be a 
little ,v 9 ! bottom transv]sely4 ,!re  
is also a slight =e-&-aft rock] 9 !     
bottom4 ,! con/ruction is simil> to t ( 
! ,alaskan umiaks except t ! ,koryak    
umiaks h d\ble-*9e /r+]s & also a d\ble 

ris]1 or longitud9al /r+]1 halfway up ! 
sides4 ,! ris] is n back$ ) a cont9u\s  
/r+]1 z is ! *9e2 in/ead ?ree %ort rods 
are la%$ inside ! side frame memb]s4 ,! 
side /r+]s d n rea* b[ & /]n4 ,! f\r    
?w>ts are locat$ well aft1 & betwe5 !   
fir/ & second ?w>ts is a l>g] space ?an 
betwe5 ! o!rs1 = c>go4 ,! boats are r[$1
 two o>sm5 to a ?w>t4 ,! cov] 0 =m]ly   
walrus hides split & scrap$ ?9 b m      
rec5tly ! sk9 ( ! be>d$ seal has come   
into use4 ,a rectangul> sail ( de] sk9  
is sometimes la%$ to a y>d & set on a   
tripod ma/ ab\t amid%ips4 ,two legs ( ! 
ma/ are secur$ to ! gunwale on "o side1 
! rema9+ leg is la%$ to ! opposite      
gunwale4 ,judg+ by ! draw+ made by      
,jo*elson#c ?is umiak is p]haps ! mo/   
graceful ( all ^? kn[n today4  #c       
,reproduc$ 9 ,,james ,,hornell1 ,wat]   
,transport 7,cambridge3 ,univ]sity      
,press1 #aidf71 p4 #afj4  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #aff  ,,umiak ,,cov]$ ,,)       
,,split ,,walrus ,,hide1 ,cape ,pr9ce ( 
,wales1 ,alaska4 ,! framework c be se5  

?r\gh ! transluc5t hide cov]4 7,photo by
 ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47  ,! ,asiatic ,*uk*i
 umiak is some:at simil> to t us$ on !  
,am]ican coa/ b ) less beam 9 proportion
 to its l5g? & less fl>e to ! sides4 ,! 
sk9 cov] is ( be>d$ seal4 ,bogoras      
measur$ an example & f\nd h] #ce feet #i
 in*es long1 #d feet #f in*es wide      
amid%ips1 #b feet #f in*es wide on !    
bottom ov] ! *9es4 7,an ,alaskan umiak  
measur$ #cd feet #i in*es long1 #h feet 
#b in*es wide at gunwales & #b feet #h  
in*es ov] ! *9es47 ,! ,*uk*i also use a 
v small hunt+ umiak1 #ae to #ah feet    
long & hav+ two or ?ree ?w>ts1 mu* l !  
small hunt+ umiaks once us$ 9 !         
,aleutians4 ,! l>g] ,*uk*i umiaks h     
rectangul> sails set on a pole ma/2 "s  
boats c>ry a squ>e topsail4 ,! sails are
 la%$ to _! y>ds & ! l[] sail1 or c\rse1
 is controll$ by %eets & braces4 ,!     
topsail1 :5 us$1 has braces only4 ,!    
sails 7 =m]ly ( re9de] sk9s1 b n[ drill 
is us$4 ,^! umiaks 7 =m]ly paddl$1 z    
indicat$ by _! n>r[ beam1 b s9ce ! adv5t

 ( ! :ite man o>s h come into use1 & x  
is q c]ta9 t ! topsail also is ! result 
( :ite man's influ5ce1 if n ! :ole rig4 
,9 /ormy wea!r "s ( ^! umiaks & also "s 
( ^? 9 ,alaska employ wea!r clo?s1 #ah  
or #bj in*es high above ! gunwales1     
rais$ on %ort /an*ions la%$ to ! hull   
frames4 ,! ends ( ! /an*ions are ins]t$ 
9 slits 9 ! top ( ! wea!r clo?1 & 9 fair
 wea!r ! clo?s are fold$ d[n inside !   
gunwale out ( ! way4 ,also 9 "s ( ^!    
,asiatic & ,alaskan umiaks1 inflat$     
floats1 ( seal sk91 are la%$ to !       
gunwales to prev5t capsiz+ 9 a heavy    
sea4  ,! ,alaskan umiaks v>i$ mu* 9 size
 b are r simil> 9 =m4 ,! small hunt+    
umiaks us$ by ! ,aleuts are ab\t #ah    
feet long1 :ile ! l>ge c>go c>ry+ umiaks
 range up to ab\t #dj feet long1 s f> z 
available records %[4 ,!y are m>k$ by   
heavily fl>$ sides & (t5 h a r /rong    
%e]2 a few1 h[ev]1 are r /raight on !   
gunwales4 ,ne>ly all exi/+ models &     
boats 7 built s9ce #ahhj2 & no in=mation
 is n[ available on ! =ms & dim5sions ( 

e>li] craft4  ,on page #ahd is a draw+ (
 a small umiak1 us$ 9 walrus hunt+1 f ! 
,alaskan coa/ 9 ! neighborhood ( !      
,aleutians4 ,9 ! ,u4,s4 ,national       
,museum are ! rema9s ( a simil> boat    
obta9$ 9 #ahhh f ,nor!rn ,alaska4 ,?is  
type ( small umiak is also employ$ 9    
fi%+ & is r widely us$ z a passage boat 
= %ort voyages along %ore4 ,^! craft1   
propell$ by paddles1 are prim>ily fa/1  
h&y hunt+ canoes r ?an boats = migration
 or c>go-c>ry+4 ,= ?is reason !y are q  
%>p-end$ & %all[4 ,! con/ruction ( ?is  
example w s]ve to illu/rate ! me?ods    
common to ?is type4  ,! umiak %[n is #bj
 feet #h in*es ov] ! headbo>ds1 #d feet 
#i in*es extreme beam & #ag in*es       
dep?--app>5tly an av]age-siz$ boat ( h] 
class4 ,! wid? ( ! bottom ov] ! *9e     
memb]s is #b feet #g in*es4 ,! keelson  
is rectangul> 9 section & 9 two pieces1 
hook$-sc>ph$ toge!r2 ea* piece is %ap$  
out ( ! trunk ( a small tree ) ! root   
knees employ$ to =m ! b[ & /]n po/s4 ,! 
floor timb]s are q heavy & support ! *9e

 memb]s by hav+ ! floor ends t5on$ into 
! *9e pieces4 ,at b[ & /]n ! *9es are   
jo9$ to ! keelson 9 a not*$ sc>ph2 at ^!
 places ! keelson is sid$ r wide to give
 good be>+4 ,x is evid5t t ?is portion (
 ! boat's /ructure is ! fir/ built & =ms
 a rigid bottom to ! hull4 ,! floor     
timb]s are la%$ to ! keelson by lac+s ( 
s9ew1 :alebone1 or hide1 pass$ ?r\gh    
holes bor$ 9 bo?1 z indicat$ 9 ! plan4  
,! ends ( ! floors are pegg$ :]e !y t5on
 into ! *9es & ! ends ( ! *9es are pegg$
 to ! keelson1 b ?is 0 evid5tly n a     
univ]sal practice1 z !re are models %[+ 
la%+s at floor ends & at *9e ends4 ,!   
headbo>ds are c>v$ out ( blocks 9 a     
,t-%ape & are /epp$ on top ( ! /em & /]n
 po/s & la%$4 ,! fit is extremely       
accurate4 ,! b[ headbo>d is n>r[]       
a?w>t%ip ?an ! /]n headbo>d4 ,! detail (
 ! hook sc>ph 9 ! draw+ %[s a me?od (   
la%+ t is widely us$4  ,illu/ration3    
,figure #afg  ,,small ,,umiak ,,=       
,,walrus ,,hunt+1 we/ coa/ ( ,alaska1   
#ahhh-hi4 ,recon/ruct$ f damag$ umiak   

=m]ly 9 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum1 & f   
models4  ,because ( ! mann] 9 :i* !     
keelson is camb]$ & ! floor fitt$1 !    
bottom ( ! cov]$ hull %[s 9 cross       
section a slight ,v1 r$uc+ t[>d ! b[ &  
/]n1 t is typical ( ! ,alaskan umiak4 ,!
 am\nt ( deadrise seems to h be5 det]m9$
 by ! mann] ( fitt+ ! floor timb]s & x  
helps ! boat to run /raight "u paddle & 
o>s4 ,9 pres5t day umiaks ! am\nt ( ,v 9
 ! bottom is slight2 too mu* w\ld make !
 boat difficult to sl$ge ov]l& )\t      
employ+ *ocks to /eady ! hull4 ,p]haps 9
 ! pa/1 :]e sl$g+ 0 n requir$1 !        
deadrise 0 great]1 z indicat$ by "s old 
models4  ,aft] ! *9es & floor are fitt$ 
to ! keelson1 ! frames at ! ?w>ts are   
made & set up at ! desir$ fl>e & height1
 be+ held 9 place by tempor>y spread]s  
la%$ or brac$4 ,^! are sometimes /iff5$ 
by ?ongs f frame head to keelson at ea* 
pair1 to /eady ! frame :ile ! gunwale is
 be+ b5t4 ,z ! l5g?s ( ! ?w>ts are      
controll$ by ! fair+ ( ! gunwales1 !    
?w>ts are n fitt$ until aft] ! latt] are

 9 place4 ,z %[n 9 ! figure above1 !    
gunwales are r\nd poles1 slightly       
flatt5$ on ! l[] side at ! headbo>ds1   
:]e !y are secur$ by la%+s4 ,9 build+1 !
 gunwales are %ap$ & secur$ by la%+ !m  
to ^? side frames select$ to %ape !     
hull4 ,! la%+s t secure ! side frames to
 bo? gunwale & *9e are pass$ ?r\gh holes
 9 ea* memb] & are hove taut by means ( 
a %ort lev] ) a hole bor$ 9 x to take ! 
end ( ! la%+1 :i* is also wrapp$ ar\nd !
 lev] to give tempor>y pur*ase4 ,! side 
frames h saddle not*es to be> on ! *9e &
 gunwale4 ,all la%+s 9 ! frame1 x w be  
not$1 pass ?r\gh holes bor$ 9 ! memb]s &
 9 "s cases ! la%+s are let 91 s t !    
s9ew is flu% ) ! surfaces ( ! memb]s1 to
 prev5t ! la%+ f be+ damag$ by *af+4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #afh  ,,umiaks    
,,ne> ,,cape ,,pr9ce ,,( ,,wales1       
,,alaska1 %[+ walrus-hide cov] & lac+4  
,frame la%+s are walrus-hide ?ongs4     
7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47  ,) !    
gunwales fair$1 ! rema9+ frames are !n  
put 9 position & la%$ to ! gunwales &   

*9es4 ,an outside batt5 is run along ea*
 side & la%$ by turns ( s9ew ov] ! batt5
 & ar\nd ! side frames1 ) ! la%+s let   
into ea* memb] to prev5t slipp+ & *af+4 
,! batt5 is la%$ at b[ & /]n 9 "s       
umiaks1 b 9 _m x is /opp$ j %ort ( com+ 
home on ! po/s4 ,next1 ! %ort frames at 
b[ & /]n are put 9 place & ! ris]s      
secur$ inside ! side frames1 !n1 ) !    
?w>ts fitt$ & la%$ to ! ris]s1 & ! ends 
( ! gunwales are la%$ toge!r at b[ &    
/]n1 ! boat is ready to be cov]$4 ,:5   
ready to cov]1 ! frame is /iff5$ by     
diagonal ?ong ties1 ea* ( :i* has "o end
 secur$ by turns ar\nd ! gunwale1 ) !   
o!r end pass$ ?r\gh holes 9 ! keelson & 
secur$4 ,^! are commonly f\nd 9 we/]n   
umiaks2 ! small umiak has b "o pair     
plac$ amid%ips4 ,! timb] us$ 9 su* craft
 is fir1 spruce1 & will[1 & is usually  
driftwood obta9$ at riv]-m\?4  ,:5 ?is  
umiak 0 exam9$1 ! sk9 cov] 0 9 su* a    
condition t ! numb] ( hides us$ c\ld n  
be det]m9$1 b x probably is compris$ (  
?ree sea-lion sk9s sewn toge!r4 ,new sk9

 cov]s are made by remov+ ! hair & fat f
 ! sk9s & !n sew+ !m toge!r by ! me?od  
illu/rat$ on page #ahf1 to obta9 prop]  
dim5sions4 ,gre5 sk9s are g5]ally       
pref]r$1 s9ce !y /ret* into %ape bett]  
?an p>tly or :olly cur$ ones4 ,once     
/ret*$ to %ape & cur$1 ! cov] c be      
readily remov$ & replac$1 )\t resew+4 ,9
 fitt+ a new sk9 cov] ! sk9s are fir/   
?or\ghly soak$ 9 seawat]4 ,! cov] is !n 
/ret*$ ov] ! frame & work$ taut by      
lac+s4 ,x is wide en\gh to rea* f       
gunwale to gunwale & a little d[n inside
 ! boat on ea* side1 & is lac$ to ! ris+
 batt5 ) turns ( rope spac$ #c to #e    
in*es ap>t amid%ips & clos] toge!r 9 !  
ends ( ! hull4 ,at ! headbo>ds ! cov] is
 lac$ ar\nd ! gunwales & ?r\gh holes 9 !
 headbo>ds1 two indep5d5t lac+s ( two   
turns ea* be+ us$ on ea* side4 ,at !    
extreme b[ & /]n ! cov] is lac$ to !    
gunwale la%+s4 ,:]e ! cov] w n /ret*    
smoo? 9 fitt+1 gores appe> to h be5 cut 
out & ! sk9 resewn4 ,aft] be+ lac$1 !   
cov] is all[$ to %r9k until x becomes   

smoo? & tight1 !n x is heavily oil$ & ! 
seams rubb$ ) tall[ or blubb]4 ,?is     
treatm5t is repeat$ at regul> int]vals4 
,:ile ! boat is 9 s]vice c>e is tak5 to 
dry out ! sk9 cov] once a day1 if       
possible4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #afi   
,,umiak1 ,,we/ ,,coa/ ,,( ,,alaska1 ,k+ 
,isl&1 #ahhf4 ,tak5 (f umiak at ,m>9]'s 
,museum4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #agj    
,,mak+ ,,! ,,bl9d ,,seam3 two /ages (   
me?od us$ by ! ,eskimo to jo9 sk9s      
toge!r4 ,! edge ( ! sk9s are plac$ fle% 
side to fle% side ) "o ov]lapp+ ! o!r   
ab\t #b in*es4 ,!n1 by means ( a ?9     
ne$le & sl5d] s9ew1 ! sk9s are sewn     
toge!r1 ) an ov]-&-ov] /it*1 c>e be+    
tak5 n to p5etrate ?r\gh ! l[] sk94 ,:5 
?is is complet$ ! sk9s are op5$ out & ! 
second seam made on ! gra9 side to      
complete a d\ble seam )\t p5etration (  
ei!r sk94 ,! wid? ( ! seam v>ies        
some:at4  ,! sequ5ce ( con/ruction      
describ$ is n foll[$ univ]sally2        
sometimes spread]s are fix$ betwe5 !    
gunwales1 :i* are !n %e]$ by ?ongs to ! 

keelson1 aft] :i* ! side frames are put 
9 & ! side & ris+ batt5s1 & f9ally !    
?w>ts1 are add$4 ,judg+ by ! num]\s     
models se51 ! small hunt+ umiaks v>i$ a 
good deal 9 ! rake & sweep ( ! b[ & /]n1
 ev5 9 ! same village4 ,^! hunt+ umiaks 
work$ ) kayaks 9 ,aleutian walrus &     
sea-lion hunt+2 a practice t seems to h 
once be5 common along ! ,we/]n ,alaskan 
coa/ & among ! isl&s4  ,illu/ration3    
,figure #aga  ,,nor? ,,alaskan ,,:al+   
,,umiak ( ab\t #ahij4 ,drawn f damag$   
frame1 =m]ly 9 a private collection1 n[ 
de/roy$4  ,! draw+ on page #ahf         
repres5ts a l>ge ,alaskan umiak f ,k+   
,isl&4 ,two boats ( ?is model1 b ) mod]n
 metal fa/5+s1 are 9 ! ,m>9]s' ,museum1 
,newport ,news1 ,virg9ia1 b ! draw+ %[s 
! me?ods ( fa/5+s us$ 9 #ahhf4 ,! plan  
is ( a burd5some model1 su* z is us$ =  
travel or o!r heavy c>go "w4 ,! boat is 
#cd feet #b in*es ov] ! gunwales1 #h    
feet  in* extreme beam1 #b feet #c in*es
 deep & #b feet #aj in*es beam on !     
bottom ov] ! *9es4 ,! con/ruction foll[s

 ! g5]al plan ( ! small umiak j         
describ$1 except t ano!r me?od ( fitt+ !
 floor timb]s to ! *9es is employ$4 ,due
 to ! size & use ( ! umiak1 two side    
batt5s are employ$ ) a s+le ris]4 ,!    
?w>ts are n not*$ ov] ! frames1 b in/ead
 fall betwe5 !m4 ,z diagonal ?ong braces
 f gunwale to keelson w\ld be           
ineffective 9 ?is situation1 two sets ( 
wood5 braces t resi/ n only t5sion b    
also compression are us$ to take ! ?ru/ 
(f ! ?w>t la%+s4 ,^! brace-frames are   
/agg]$ slightly to all[ room to fit !m  
at ! keelson4 ,! draw+1 :i* requires no 
additional explanation1 %[s ! plan (    
con/ruction & ! important la%+s1 & !    
me?od ( fitt+ o>s ) ?ong ?ole loops4    
,boats su* z ^! c>ri$ a squ>e sail la%$ 
to a y>d1 ! ma/ be+ /epp$ 9 a block on !
 keelson4 ,no ma/ ?w>t is us$2 in/ead   
/ays & %r\ds ( hide rope support$ ! ma/1
 a me?od t made x easy to /ep or un/ep !
 ma/ 9 a seaway4 ,e>ly umiaks 9 ?is area
 are said to h _h mat sails2 lat] ones  
us$ sails ( sk9 & drill4 ,mod]n umiaks (

 ?is class (t5 h rudd]s hung on iron    
p9tles & gudgeons & ! floors fa/5$ to ! 
keelson ) iron bolts or screws4 ,!      
sc>phs are also bolt$1 b ! rema9+ fa/5+s
 are la%+s 9 ! old /yle1 to obta9       
flexibility 9 ! frame4  ,a ,nor?        
,alaskan :al+ umiak1 suppos$ to h be5   
built ab\t #ahij1 is repres5t$ 9 ! draw+
 ( figure #aga4 ,! rema9s ( ! boat 7    
suffici5t to p]mit recon/ruction ( !    
frame4 ,?is umiak is ab\t ! size (1 & 9 
pr(ile greatly resembles1 a ,new ,b$=d  
:aleboat4 ,h[ev]1 ! model is t ( !      
umiak1 r %>p-end$ & /rongly %e]$4 ,!    
boat is #bi feet #d in*es ov] !         
headbo>ds1 #e feet #aj in*es extreme    
beam1 & #b feet #a in*es deep4 ,umiaks (
 ?is model 7 us$ at ,po9t ,b>r[ &       
vic9ity 9 (f%ore :al+1 & 7 also us$ =   
travel & c>go c>ry+4 ,paddles 7 us$ 9   
:al+1 b 9 m rec5t times sail1 o>s1 &    
outbo>d eng9es h be5 employ$4 ,! boats (
 ?is class appe> to h be5 m>k$ by a v   
graceful pr(ile & /rongly rak+ ends4    
,despite ! resemblances ( ?is type (    

umiak to ! :aleboat1 x is highly d\btful
 t its model 0 influ5c$ by ! :ite man's 
boat4 ,9 fact1 x might j z well be      
claim$ t s9ce ! :aleboat appe>s to h be5
 fir/ employ$ 9 ! e>ly ,gre5l& :ale     
fi%]y1 ! latt] _h be5 influ5c$ by !     
umiaks f\nd 9 t area4 ,h[ev]1 "o might  
also po9t to ! fact t ! model ( ! e>ly  
,european :aleboat is mu* l t ( a ,vik+ 
boat1 f :i* w be se5 ! dang] 9 accept+  
*ance simil>ities 9 =m or detail z      
evid5ce ( relation%ip1 p>ticul>ly :5 x  
is n impossible t simil>ities 9 use &   
o!r requirem5ts h produc$ simil> boat   
types1 ! us]s nev] hav+ come into       
contact4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #agb    
,,baff9 ,,isl& ,,umiak4 ,drawn f model &
 detail$ measurem5ts ( a s+le boat4  ,! 
:al+ umiak has be5 mu* us$ 9 ! we/]n    
,arctic by explor]s & ,arctic travell]s1
 :o reg>d$ highly its lightness & /r5g?1
 & its ability to be easily driv54 ,x is
 mu* wid] ?an ! ,*uk*i umiak & has f> m 
fl>e4 ,f a /udy ( models & num]\s       
photographs x c be said t ! am\nt (     

=e-&-aft camb] 9 ! bottom v>ies greatly 
betwe5 individual umiaks1 "s ( :i* are  
almo/ /raight on ! bottom4 ,! light     
framework & ela/ic con/ruction (t5 cause
 ^! umiaks to camb] a good deal :5      
heavily load$2 :5 sl$g$1 !y are         
sometimes fitt$ amid%ips ) a support = a
 l9e f b[ to /]n1 t =ms a hogg+-brace1  
to prev5t ! boat f los+ its camb]4 ,x is
 also app>5t t !re is no /&>d practice 9
 fitt+ floors to ! *9es2 ,murdock#d %[s 
a r\gh sket* t indicates ! floor ends   
are (t5 t5on$ into ! *9es1 z 9 ! small  
umiak4 ,tree-nail+ ( ! floors & *9es1 & 
! keelson1 is common1 & sometimes bo?   
tre5ails & la%+s are us$ 9 sc>phs4 ,9 "s
 umiaks bo? ! s+le side batt5 & ! ris]  
are at ! same height1 b only ! ris] has 
its ends secur$ to ! po/s1 ! side batt5s
 be+ cut %ort & _! ends la%$ to ! ris] a
 few in*es inside ! po/s4  #d ,see      
bibliography4  ,! sk9 cov] ( ! nor?     
,alaskan :al+ umiak is made ( be>d$ seal
 or ( walrus hide1 :i* has to be split1 
because ( its weight4 ,occasionally     

pol>-be> sk9s are us$4 ,la%+s ( ! frame 
are ( :alebone1 s9ew1 & hide4 ,! sk9s   
are treat$ ) seal oil & c>ib\ fat1 & :5 
! :al+ umiak is tak5 a%ore x is usually 
/or$ on a /age to keep dogs f de/roy+ ! 
sk9 cov]4 ,9 travell+1 h[ev]1 x is      
sometimes propp$ upside d[n on "o edge &
 us$ z a %elt]4 ,9 w9t] ! sk9 is remov$ 
& /or$2 :5 x is necess>y to be replac$  
on ! frame1 ! sk9 cov] is soak$ 9 sea   
wat] = ?ree to five days1 aft] :i* x is 
lac$ on 9 ! usual mann]1 dri$1 & !n     
?or\ghly oil$4 ,l[1 r wide sl$ges are   
sometimes built to c>ry ! umiak ov]l&1  
or on ! ice1 b (t5 ! regul> sl$ge is    
us$4 ,! boats _c be sl$g$ aga9/ a /rong 
gale because ( _! w9dage4  ,! nor?      
,alaskan umiak is usually propell$ by   
paddles1 l ! ,*uk*i umiak4 ,^! paddles  
range 9 l5g? f ab\t #ej to #gf in*es1 & 
z a rule h a r long n>r[ blade1 ?\gh a  
%ort & wide blade is occasionally f\nd1 
p>ticul>ly at ,kotzebue ,s\nd & ,po9t   
,hope4 ,o>s = ! ,alaskan umiaks range 9 
l5g? f #f feet #c in*es to #h feet #f   

in*es1 & also h r long n>r[ blades1 #c  
to #d in*es wide4  ,! ?ree examples (   
,alaskan umiaks s]ve to %[ ! features t 
are mo/ common 9 ! area4 ,h[ev]1 models 
9 ! ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum sugge/ t   
!re 0 a great] v>iety ( =m & appe>ance 9
 ! pa/4 ,"o model %[s ! gunwale ends    
l5g!n$ by pieces %ap$ v mu* l ! project+
 gunwales ( ! ,malay prah4 ,"s %[       
extreme rake at ! b[ l t ( ! ,koryak    
umiak b )\t ! r\nd$ gunwale ends4 ,x is 
impossible to e/imate h[ f> ! we/]n     
,alaska umiak model has be5 affect$ by !
 e>ly ,russian trad]s 9 ?is area1 b x is
 q c]ta9 t ! use ( o>s c be trac$ to ?is
 influ5ce4 ,! full-siz$ umiaks1 & models
 & photographs1 f ! ,b]+ ,/rait area    
give no real clues to ! possible p>5tage
 or direction ( spread ( ! ,alaskan     
umiak types4 ,occasional details 9      
fitt+s or con/ruction1 su* z ! gunwale  
ext5sions m5tion$1 seem to duplicate    
details 9 primitive ,asiatic craft1 b ! 
evid5ce is too scanty to all[ a hypo!sis
 bas$ on design & con/ruction alone4    

,illu/ration3 ,figure #agc  ,,ea/       
,,gre5l& ,,umiak1 drawn f measurem5ts   
tak5 (f by a ,u4,s4 ,army (fic] 9 #aide4
  ,no models or photographs h be5 f\nd (
 ! ext9ct types ( umiaks once us$ 9 !   
nor!rn "p ( ,hudson ,bay & ! sket*es (  
e>ly explor]s are too crude to all[     
useful discussion4 ,f su* slight evid5ce
 x is impossible to say :e!r ! umiaks 9 
?is area 7 ( ! we/]n or ea/]n type4  ,! 
draw+ ( a ,baff9 ,isl& umiak on page    
#ahh is bas$ on measur$ dim5sions ( a   
s+le boat & ^u a small model 9 ! ,u4,s4 
,national ,museum4 ,?is model con=ms 9  
mo/ respects ) ! draw+s & sket*es made  
by ,boas4#e ,! umiak is a small "o1 #bd 
feet #g in*es long1 #e feet #h in*es    
extreme beam1 #c feet #aj in*es wide ov]
 ! *9es1 & #a foot #aj in*es deep4 ,^!  
measurem5ts %[ t ! bottom ( ?is type (  
umiak is wid] ?an t ( we/]n types4 ,!   
bottom is flat1 & %e] & camb] are bo?   
slight4 ,! /em & /]n are practically    
upright & are n =m$ ( knees2 r1 !y are  
made by fitt+ ! po/ into ! keelson ) an 

op5 t5on4 ,in/ead ( ! c>v$ block        
headbo>ds se5 9 ! ,alaskan umiaks1 !    
,baff9 ,isl& boat has v wide headbo>ds1 
& ^! are t5on$ ov] ! po/s z 9 ! ,asiatic
 ,koryak umiaks4 ,! details ( ! re/ ( ! 
fram+ are n dissimil> f ^? ( ! ,alaskan 
umiaks1 except t ! ,baff9 ,isl& umiak   
does n employ any %ort frames 9 ! end ( 
! hull4 ,! framework is r heavy & !     
squ>e-end$ appe>ance ( ?is class ( umiak
 makes x appe> m clumsy ?an is actually 
! case4 ,! side batt5s & ris]s /op %ort 
( ! po/s1 & ! ris]s us$ 9 ?is umiak are 
not*$ into ! side frames1 :]eas 9 !     
,alaskan umiak only ! la%+s ( ! ris] are
 let into ! frames4 ,! ,baff9 ,isl&     
umiaks c>ry a squ>e sail la%$ to a y>d1 
& ! ma/ is plac$ "r up 9 ! eyes ( !     
boat4 ,boas %[s t "s ( ^! umiaks h      
rudd]s hung on metal p9tles & gudgeons1 
a result ( ! influ5ce ( ! :ite trad]s1  
:al]s1 & seal]s :o _h op]at$ 9 ^! wat]s 
long be=e ,boas made 8 inve/igations4 ,!
 umiak is r[$ 9 ! usual mann]1 us+ ?ong 
loops z ?oles1 & is usually /e]$ ) an o>

 or long paddle4  #e ,see bibliography4 
,! ends ( ! gunwales ( ! ,baff9 ,isl&   
umiak are cut (f a little inside ! =w>d 
edges ( ! headbo>ds1 mak+ ?is ! only    
,am]ican type t does n h project+       
gunwales at b[ & /]n4 ,! projection ( ! 
gunwales und\bt$ly s]ve a practical     
purpose 9 lift+ ! boat out ( wat]1 b    
obvi\sly ?is is ( m9or importance4      
,probably ! real reason = ^! projections
 is t !y orig9ally made build+ easi] by 
provid+ space = a reta9+ la%+ :5 !      
gunwales 7 be+ b5t4 ,z ! headbo>ds      
became wid] & ! spr+ ( ! gunwales1 9    
pla9 view1 became less acute1 less /ra9 
0 put on ! la%+s ( ! gunwales at !      
headbo>ds1 b by !n ! project+ gunwales &
 _! reta9+ la%+s 7 be+ utiliz$ 9 la%+ on
 ! sk9 cov]+ at b[ & /]n4 ,?us1 beg9n+ z
 a practical solution ( a build+        
problem1 ! project+ gunwales may h      
ev5tually become a traditional tribal   
feature ( ! umiak 9 _m localities4  ,!  
draw+ ( an ea/]n ,gre5l& umiak on page  
#ahi 0 made f measurem5ts tak5 (f dur+  

,_w ,w> ,,ii & *eck$ aga9/ dim5sions1   
photos1 & descriptions ( boats f ! same 
t]ritory4 ,9 g5]al design & 9           
con/ruction ?is umiak diff]s little f   
umiaks ( ! s\?we/ coa/ ( ! same isl&4 ,!
 ea/]n ,gre5l& boats are1 on ! av]age1  
mu* small] ?an ^? on ! s\?we/ coa/ due  
to ! m sev]e ice conditions met 9 ! ea/4
 ,"s ( ! ,gre5l& umiaks h flat bottoms l
 ! ,baff9 ,isl& boats1 b ! ,v-bottom    
appe>s to be m common4 ,! *ief          
*>act]i/ics ( ! ,gre5l& umiaks are !    
slight rake 9 ! b[ & /]n1 ! mod]ate %e] 
& camb]1 & ! cons]vative fl>e ( ! sides4
 ,! draw+ %[s ! important /ructural     
details se5 9 mo/ ( ! ,gre5l& umiaks4 ,!
 floor timb]s are on edge in/ead ( on ! 
flat z 9 ,alaskan boats & ?is seems to  
be *>act]i/ic ( all ea/]n umiak         
con/ruction1 z is ! ar*+ ( ! und]side ( 
! floors4 ,ano!r common /ructural detail
 is ! pass+ ( ! ris]s ?r\gh ! side      
frames2 9 "s1 h[ev]1 ! ris]s lie 9 deep 
not*es fa%ion$ 9 ! inside ( ! frames4 ,!
 ea/]n ,gre5l& umiaks g5]ally h r wide  

headbo>ds & some:at m projection to !   
gunwales4 ,l ! ,baff9 ,isl& umiaks1 !   
side batt5s & ris]s ( ! ,gre5l& boats   
are cut %ort ( ! po/s1 b ! ends ( ^!    
memb]s are commonly support$ by frames  
plac$ v f> =e & aft1 & (t5 ^! frames =m 
brace-supports to ! headbo>d1 z 9 !     
draw+4 ,! headbo>ds ( ^! umiaks are     
always t5on$ ov] ! top ( ! po/s4 ,"s ( !
 ,gre5l& umiaks h curv$ side frames :i* 
cause ! side batt5s to =m knuckles 9 !  
sk9 cov]4 ,! ea/]n ,gre5l& umiaks r>ely 
if ev] c>ry sail1 b ?is is common on !  
we/]n & s\?we/]n coa/s1 :]e a squ>e-sail
 on a y>d is popul>1 ) ! ma/ usually    
well =w>d4 ,hans ,eg$e 9 #agbif f\nd    
,gre5l& umiaks fitt$ ) sails ( seal     
inte/9es & also saw boats ab\t #aj      
fa?oms 7#fj feet7 long2 ano!r e>ly      
writ]1 ,crantz#f /ates t umiaks 7       
commonly #cf1 #dh1 & ev5 #ed feet long4 
,9 ! l>g] umiaks two side batt5s 7      
employ$4 ,! ?ongs & brace-frames se5 9  
_m ,alaskan umiaks d n seem to h be5 us$
 9 ea/]n wat]s1 ! use ( brac+-frames f  

/em or /]n po/ to ! gunwales probably   
s]v+ ! purpose1 b x is noticeable t     
pictures ( ,gre5l& umiaks pres]v$ 9 "s  
,european museums %[ t ! hulls h a      
t5d5cy to twi/ n se5 9 ,alaskan boats4  
,! old ,gre5l& umiaks 7 built ) la%$    
jo9ts comb9$ ) pegg+1 or tre5ail+4 ,9   
rec5t times ! use ( pegg+ has increas$ &
 iron fa/5+s are n[ q common4 ,rigid    
fa/5+s ( ! peg & metal types are us$    
only 9 sc>phs & 9 secur+ ! *9es &       
keelson to ! floors timb]s1 z 9 ! mod]n 
,alaskan umiaks4  #f ,see bibliography4 
,! ,kayak  ,! ,eskimo hunt+ boat1 !     
kayak1 is m widely employ$ 9 ! ,arctic  
?an ! umiak1 & its v>iations 9 model1   
con/ruction1 & appe>ance are m di/9ct & 
num]\s4 ,! kayak is a long1 usually     
n>r[1 deck$ canoe & is commonly v well  
f9i%$4 ,9 ,alaska a few undeck$         
sk9-cov]$ canoes1 us$ 9 riv]s1 are built
 on kayak proportions1 b ! model ( ^! is
 q diff]5t f t ( ! ,alaskan sea-kayaks2 
! riv] canoes are ,v or flat bottom$1   
mu* l ! ,gre5l& kayaks4 ,a simil>       

kayak-type canoe1 flat bottom$ b        
bir*-b>k cov]$1 is us$ by ! ,yukon      
,indians4 ,und\bt$ly a numb] ( su* types
 once exi/$ b mo/ ( ^! became ext9ct    
be=e any attempt 0 made to pres]ve      
models or canoes 9 museums4  ,few       
,eskimo tribes are )\t kayaks1 only ^?  
liv+ inl& or :]e ! sea is r>ely op5 are 
unacqua9t$ ) ^! hunt+ craft4 ,9 v rec5t 
times "s tribes h ceas$ to use kayaks1  
employ+ pur*as$ canoes in/ead4 ,! kayaks
 ( ! ,asiatic ,eskimos1 & ^? f !        
,mack5zie to ,hudson ,bay1 are n[       
crudely built & ( inf]ior design4 ,bo? !
 ,gre5l& & ! ,alaskan kayaks are highly 
develop$4 ,! ,gre5l& kayaks are         
und\bt$ly giv5 m intricate equipm5t 9 ! 
way ( weapons & accessories ?an !       
,alaskan craft1 b x w\ld be difficult to
 decide :i* is sup]ior 9 con/ruction &  
design4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #agd     
,,frame ,,( ,,kayak1 ,nunivak ,isl&1    
,alaska1 ) "y own] b5ea?4 7,photo by    
,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s47  ,! basic models us$
 9 ,eskimo kayaks are ! multi-*9e1 !    

,v-bottom & ! flat bottom4 ,! multi-*9e 
models1 except = ! riv] kayak-canoe j   
m5tion$1 :i* probably %\ld be class$ z a
 true op5 canoe r ?an a kayak1 are      
employ$ ?r\gh\t ,alaskan wat]s4 ,!      
geographic b\nd>ies ( ea* basic hull =m 
are r ill-def9$4 ,! multi-*9e kayak     
appe>s z f> ea/w>d z ! nor?we/ coa/ (   
,hudson's ,bay4 ,9 ?is area1 h[ev]1 a   
,v-bottom kayak1 n[ ext9ct1 seems to h  
be5 9 use on ,s\?ampton ,isl&4 ,a       
flat-bottom kayak1 ) ! *9es sni$ (f mu* 
l a ,japanese sampan1 is 9 use 9 ,hudson
 ,/rait1 along ! %ores ( ,baff9 ,isl& & 
,labrador2 a flat-bottom kayak %ap$ l a 
%>pie is us$ on ! nor?we/ coa/ ( nor!rn 
,gre5l&2 & a ,v-bottom hull is employ$  
on ! ea/]n1 s\?we/1 & s\? coa/s (       
,gre5l&4                                
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,accord+ to ! ,dani% classification ( ! 
coa/s (          ,gre5l&1 ,pol> is nor? 
( ,cape ,york1 ,nor!rn is above         
,disko ,isl&1 ,c5tral is f ,fr$]ik%aab  

to nor? (         ,disko ,bay1 ,s\!rn is
 f ,julianhaab to ,cape ,f>vell1 &      
,ea/ is ,angmagsalik & vic9ity4         
----------------------------------------
-------------------------  ,!re are     
v>iations 9 ea* ( ! basic models1 (     
c\rse1 z ! tribal designs us$ v>y a good
 deal4 ,on ! :ole1 ! kayak is v c>efully
 built to meet ! local conditions (     
hunt+1 sea1 & l& or ice portag+4 ,z a   
result1 "s types are f> m seawor?y ?an  
o!rs & ! weight ( hull v>ies a great    
deal1 ev5 )9 a basic model4 ,! appe>ance
 ( all ! kayaks models1 by tribal       
classifications1 %[ ! influ5ce (        
tradition &1 9 _m cases display1 9 ei!r 
%ape or decoration1 a tribal totem or   
m>k4  ,! basic requirem5ts 9 ne>ly all  
kayaks are ! same2 to paddle rapidly &  
easily1 to "w aga9/ /rong w9d & tide or 
heavy head sea1 to be maneuv]able1 & to 
be light en\gh to be readily lift$ f !  
wat] & c>ri$4 ,! l[ freebo>d requir$    
makes deck+ a necessity4 ,9 g5]al1 !    
kayak is design$ to c>ry "o paddl]1 b 9 

,alaska are kayaks t c c>ry two or ?ree 
paddl]s1 ea* 9 a manhole or cockpit1 or 
a paddl] & "o or two pass5g]s4 ,x is    
g5]ally conc$$ t ! kayak built to c>ry  
?ree 9 ?is fa%ion is ! result ( ,russian
 influ5ce4 ,nunivak ,isl& kayaks _h l>ge
 manholes t c>ri$ two p back-to-back4   
,:]e x is desirable to portage ! kayak  
ov] ice or l& = a great di/ance ! boat  
is v light & is capable ( be+ c>ri$ l a 
l>ge basket1 by ins]t+ "o arm "u ! deck+
 at ! manhole or cockpit1 b :]e su* a   
requirem5t is n an important factor1 !  
kayaks are (t5 r l>ge & heavy4 ,9 !     
majority ( types1 ! degree ( seawor?9ess
 obta9$ is v great4 ,"s types are built 
v n>r[ & %>p-end$2 ^! usually require a 
skillful paddl]4 ,o!rs are wide & m     
/able1 requir+ less skill to use4 ,9    
areas :]e sev]e wea!r is commonly met1 !
 kayaks are usually v /rong &           
well-design$4 ,:]e ice or o!r conditions
 d n all[ a heavy sea to make up1 !     
kayaks are (t5 light1 n>r[ & v l[       
sid$--m l rac+ %ells ?an work+ canoes4  

,mo/ ,alaskan kayaks come /]n to ! w9d  
:5 paddl+ /ops1 b mo/ ( ! ea/]n craft   
come head to ! w9d4 ,ne>ly e type has   
be5 develop$ by long p]iods ( trial &   
error1 to produce ! greate/ effici5cy 9 
meet+ ! conditions ( use 9 a giv5       
locality4 ,?is has made ! kayak a m     
complicat$ & m develop$ in/rum5t ( !    
*ase ?an is to be f\nd 9 any o!r =m (   
hunt+ canoe1 due 9 "p1 p]haps1 to !     
great craftsman%ip ( ! ,eskimo4  ,!     
con/ruction ( ! kayak foll[s a basic    
plan4 ,9 all kayaks ! gunwales are ! ma9
 /r5g? memb]s1 longitud9ally4 ,a few    
designs employ1 9 addition1 a /iff keel 
memb]1 b mo/ h r sl5d] & light          
longitud9al batt5 sy/ems hav+ little    
longitud9al /r5g? value1 b :i* 9        
comb9ation ) v light frames1 give       
transv]se support to ! sk9 cov]4 ,ev5 9 
! flat-bottom models1 ! kayaks1 unlike !
 umiaks1 dep5d entirely ^u ! gunwales = 
longitud9al /r5g?4 ,! frames are b5t & 9
 "o piece f gunwale to gunwale 9 all b a
 few flat-bottom kayaks1 ( ! sampan     

cross section2 ^! employ b5t frames4 ,! 
longitud9al batt5 sy/ems %[ great       
v>iety4 ,! ea/]n kayaks ( ! flat-bottom 
& ,v-bottom models h ?ree longitud9al   
batt5s 7includ+ ! keel or keelson7 9    
addition to ! heavy & (t5 deep gunwale  
memb]s2 ^! are support$ at b[ & /]n ei!r
 by /em & /]n po/ ( %ap$ plank on edge z
 9 ! ,gre5l& ,v-bottom kayaks1 or by    
light ext5sions ( ! keelson & small     
end-blocks z 9 ! nor!rn ,gre5l&1 ,baff9 
,isl&1 & ,labrador types4 ,! multi-*9e  
types ( ! we/]n ,arctic h f sev5 to     
elev5 longitud9als 7includ+ ! keelson7 9
 addition to ! gunwales4 ,9 "s ( ^!     
kayaks !re are no /em & /]n po/s1 !     
batt5s & keelson com+ toge!r at a blunt 
po9t 9 small head blocks2 b _m types h r
 intricate /em-pieces1 c>v$ f blocks (  
wood1 & plank-on-edge /]n po/s4 ,!      
,asiatic kayaks1 curi\sly en\gh1 exhibit
 ! con/ruction ( bo? ea/]n & we/]n      
,arctic kayaks1 ! crude1 small ,koryak  
kayak hav+ a #c-;batt5 ,v-bottom1 :ile !
 ,*uk*i kayak is built l ! kayaks on !  

ea/ side ( ! ,b]+ ,/rait4 ,! deck+ (    
kayaks is ( v light con/ruction2 usually
 !re are two heavy ?w>ts to support !   
manhole & f "o to ?ree light ?w>ts a=e &
 abaft ^!4 ,! ,alaskan kayaks f         
,kotzebue ,s\nd s\?w>d h ridg$ decks    
support$ by =e-&-aft ridge-batt5s f !   
ends ( ! hull to ! manhole4 ,else:]e !  
deck ( ! kayak is flat a?w>t%ip except  
at ! manhole1 :]e !re is "s cr[n or     
ridg+ to increase ! dep? inside ! boat1 
p>ticul>ly =w>d ( ! manhole4 ,9 !       
majority ( ^! kayaks %ort =e-&-aft      
batt5s are laid on ! ?w>ts =w>d ( !     
manhole to support ! sk9 cov] 9 its     
sweep upw>d to ! manhole4 ,! transv]se  
frames d n come into contact ) ! sk9    
cov]1 to avoid transv]se ridges be+ =m$ 
9 x2 & ! longitud9al batt5s :i* support 
! sk9 cov] =m longitud9al ridges1 or    
*9es1 9 x4  ,! timb] us$ 9 ! ,eskimo    
kayak build+ is usually driftwood4 ,fir 
& p9e1 spruce or will[ are available 9  
mu* ( ! ,arctic = longitud9als4 ,b5t    
frames are commonly ( will[4 ,sc>ph+ 9 !

 framework ( kayaks 0 f> less common ?an
 9 umiaks2 ! sc>phs :5 f\nd are only 9 !
 gunwales4 ,all sc>phs are ( ! hook$    
type & are usually q %ort 7! hook$ sc>ph
 is ! be/ "o :5 ! fa/5+s are la%+s74    
,s9ew is g5]ally us$ 9 all la%+s & =    
sew+ mat]ial4 ,! heads ( frames are     
commonly t5on$ into ! und]side ( !      
gunwales & are !n ei!r la%$ or pegg$ )  
tre5ails ( wood or bone to hold !m 9    
place4 ,9 ! jo9+ ( frames &             
longitud9als1 ! la%+s are commonly      
individual1 b 9 "s types ( kayak        
cont9u\s la%+s 7connections 9 s]ies us+ 
"o l5g? ( s9ew7 are occasionally f\nd4  
,:]e possible1 ! la%+s are turn$ 9 s t !
 turns cross "r & left4 ,9 "s p>ts ( !  
framework two pieces ( timb] are sewn   
toge!r2 holes are bor$ along ! edges to 
be jo9$ & a lac+ run 9 ) cont9u\s       
ov]-&-ov] turns4 ,^! lac$ jo9ts are     
common 9 ! /ems ( ! ,alaskan kayaks4    
,gunwales & batt5s are mo/ commonly la%$
 ?r\gh holes bor$ 9 !m & 9 ! b[ & /]n   
memb]s4 ,c>e is tak5 t all la%+s are    

flu% on ! outside1 s t ! sk9 cov] is    
smoo? & *af+ w be avoid$4 ,bone knobs at
 /em & /]n heads are us$ 9 ! ,coronation
 ,gulf kayaks 9 ! we/ & 9 _m ,gre5l&    
models4 ,bone /em b&s are m widely      
employ$1 h[ev]1 be+ 9 use at ,kodiak &  
,nunivak ,isl&s1 9 ! ,aleutians1 at     
,norton ,s\nd 9 ,alaska1 & 9 ,gre5l& &  
,baff9 ,isl& 9 ! ea/4 ,x is probable t  
^! b&s 7 once 9 wid] use ?an ?us        
indicat$4 ,/rips ( bone are also us$ to 
prev5t *af+ at gunwale 9 paddl+ & =     
/r5g!n+ sc>phs 9 ! manhole rim4         
,illu/ration3 ,figure #age  ,,frame ,,( 
,,kayak ,,at ,,nunivak ,,isl&1 ,alaska1 
#aibg4 ,photo by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s4  ,x 
w be not$ t all ,eskimo sk9 boats h a   
complete fram+ sy/em1 :i* is fir/ erect$
 & !n fitt$ ) ! sk9 cov]4 ,?is is a     
me?od ( con/ruction v diff]5t f t ( !   
bir*-b>k canoes ( ! ,indians liv+ to !  
s\?w>d ( ! ,am]ican ,eskimo4 ,! bir*-b>k
 canoe is built by =c+ a fram+ sy/em    
into an assembl$ cov] & hold+ x 9 place 
!re by a rigid gunwale /ructure1 to :i* 

! b>k cov] is la%$4 ,?is basic /ructure 
is us$ ev5 9 ! ,alaskan area1 :]e !re   
are bir*-b>k canoes t 9 hull =m &       
proportions /rongly resemble !          
flat-bottom kayak4 ,! basic diff]5ce    
betwe5 ! two craft is illu/rat$ by !    
fact t :]eas ! removal ( ! sk9 cov] ( ! 
kayak leaves ! frame intact1 ! removal (
 ! b>k cov] ( ! kayak-l bir*-b>k canoes 
w\ld result 9 ! collapse ( ! framework1 
except = ! gunwale-?w>t /ructure or1 9 a
 few1 ! *9e-floor /ructure4 ,because (  
?is basic diff]5ce ! sup]ficial         
resemblance ( "s ,indian b>k canoes to  
kayaks has no mean+ful relation%ip to ! 
possibility ( ! influ5ce ( ! kayak on ! 
b>k canoe1 or vice-v]sa4 ,"s ,indian    
tribes h 9 fact built sk9-cov]$ canoes1 
z w be se5 9 *apt] #h1 b ! framework &  
/ructural sy/em us$ is always t ( ! b>k 
canoe1 nev] t ( ! ,eskimo sk9 boat4 ,nor
 is !re evid5ce t ! ,eskimo ev] us$ !   
b>k canoe frame-/ructure 9 _! kayaks or 
umiaks4 ,h5ce1 9 spite ( contact betwe5 
^! peoples1 ! wat]craft ( ea* rema9s    

basically diff]5t 9 /ructural design4   
,! almo/ univ]sal me?od ( con/ruct+ !   
kayak is fir/ to %ape & fa/5 toge!r !   
gunwales & ?w>ts1 ) /em & /]n pieces    
fitt$ z requir$1 !n to fit & place a few
 transv]se frames to control ! %ape ( ! 
craft4 ,next ! longitud9als are fitt$ &1
 f9ally1 ! rema9+ transv]se frames are  
put 9 place4 ,9 "s types ! manhole rim  
is n[ fitt$ b 9 o!rs ! manhole rim is   
put on aft] ! sk9 cov] is 9 place1 z "s 
kayaks 7! ,alaskan7 h ! sk9 cov] plac$  
ov] ! manhole rim & o!rs h x pass$ "u4  
,! sk9 cov] is /ret*$ & sewn ov] ! frame
 & is r>ely secur$ to x by la%+s except 
at ! manhole4 ,due to ! %ape ( b[ & /]n1
 9 "s types1 difficult & t$i\s sew+ is  
requir$ to /ret* ! sk9s ov] ! ends ( !  
hull4 ,mu* ( ! sew+ is complet$ aft] !  
sk9s are /ret*$ ov] ! hull & held by    
tempor>y lac+s4 ,! bl9d seam is us$ b 9 
_m kayaks ! lap is v %ort1 ab\t  in* be+
 common4  ,! cov]+ mo/ widely us$ 9     
,alaskan kayaks 0 ! be>d$ seal sk9 & ) !
 ,aleuts ! sk9 ( ! sea lion 0 ! mo/     

popul>4 ,?r\gh\t ! ea/]n ,arctic seal   
sk9 0 ! pref]r$ cov]+ ?\gh c>ib\ sk9 0  
occasionally us$ by ! c>ib\ ,eskimos 9 !
 c5tral ,arctic4 ,! heavy1 ?ick hides 7 
fir/ pil$ & sweat$1 until ! hair became 
loose !n ! sk9s 7 scrap$ until !y 7     
clean4 ,!y 7 ?9 & light & c\ld be air   
dri$ & /or$ until ready = use4 ,! sk9s  
_h to be well soak$ be=e be+ /ret*$ ov] 
! frame ( a kayak or umiak4 ,:5 dri$ out
 on ! boat frame !y 7 oil$ 9 ! usual    
mann]4 ,x is claim$ by ! ,eskimos t     
walrus sk91 ?\gh /rong1 is n z good z ! 
be>d$ seal or ! sea-lion sk9 = boat     
cov]s1 z ! latt] two held ! oil long] & 
did n become wat] soak$ z quickly z !   
walrus hide4  ,! paddl]'s seat 9 mo/    
kayaks consi/s ( a portion ( heavy sk9 )
 fur atta*$4 ,sometimes ?is is support$ 
by a few %ort1 ?9 batt5s lac$ loosely   
toge!r4 ,^!1 & ! fur seat sometimes are 
z long z ! paddl]'s legs4 ,no back re/  
is kn[n to be us$4 ,! seat1 & any batt5 
supports1 are loosely fitt$ & are n "p (
 ! p]man5t kayak /ructure4  ,! kayak is 

usually ent]$ by float+ ! boat ne> a    
/one or l[ bank & /epp+ into x ) "o     
foot1 :i* has fir/ be5 c>efully wip$4 ,)
 ! body /eadi$ by plac+ ! paddle upright
 on ! %ore1 or outside ! kayak1 ! o!r   
foot is !n wip$ & plac$ 9 ! boat4 ,!    
paddl] !n slides d[nw>d & works 8 legs  
"u ! deck until he is seat$ ) 8 hips    
jamm$ into ! manhole rim4 ,gett+ out ( a
 kayak is almo/ ! rev]se ( ?is process4 
,great c>e is ex]cis$ to avoid gett+    
dirt into a kayak1 z x might *afe ! hide
 cov]4 ,h5ce ! c>e 9 wip+ ! feet be=e   
ent]+4 ,! practice ( ent]+ ! boat a%ore 
& ?r[+ man & kayak into ! wat]1         
und\bt$ly v r>e1 is said to h be5       
practic$ n only at ,k+ ,isl& b 9 "s p>ts
 ( ,gre5l&4 ,bo? ,alaskan & ,gre5l&     
hunt]s (t5 la%$ two kayaks toge!r1 9    
ord] to re/ 9 r\gh wea!r4 ,_m kayak]s   
us+ ! n>r[ models laid ! paddle         
a?w>t%ips across ! deck to help /eady ! 
kayak :5 re/+ or ?r[+ a weapon2 ?is is  
basically ! same z hold+ ! sculls ( a   
rac+ %ell 9 ! wat]1 to /eady ! boat4    

,la%+ two kayaks side by side1 or       
p>allel ) spac+ rods1 0 commonly done to
 enable ! craft to f]ry p]sons or c>go  
across /reams4 ,"s ,alaskan ,eskimo ?us 
conv]t$ kayaks into catam>ans & !n fitt$
 a ma/ & sail1 b su* an arrangem5t 0    
nev] us$ 9 r\gh wat]4  ,! me?ods us$ by 
a paddl] to "r a capsiz$ kayak1 )\t aid 
& :ile he 0 /ill 9 ! cockpit1 h ar\s$ ! 
int]e/ ( _m canoei/s4 ,x 0 us$ by ! ,k+ 
,isl&]s1 "s ( ! ,aleuts1 & ! ,gre5l&]s1 
:o at times1 x is said1 w\ld delib]ately
 capsize _! kayak to avoid ! bl[ ( a    
heavy break+ sea1 !n "r x :5 ! sea _h   
pass$4 ,! ,eskimo are report$ to be     
gradually los+ ?is skill1 b 9 late ye>s 
,european & ,am]ican kayak]s h le>n$ ?is
 me?od1 call$ ! kayak roll1 ( right+ a  
deck$ canoe ) paddl] 9 place4 ,x foll[s 
9 g5]al ! ,gre5l& me?od4 ,9 ! ,app5dix  
7p4 #bbc7 is an illu/rat$ description ( 
! kayak roll1 suppli$ by ,john ,hea?4   
,traditionally1 ! weapons us$ by kayak]s
 7 d>ts & h>poons1 ! b[ n be+ employ$1  
s9ce wett+ w\ld damage ! weapon4 ,v>i\s 

=ms 7 us$1 & _m 7 ?r[n ) ! ?r[+-/ick to 
increase ! range & =ce4 ,an inflat$     
bladd] or sk9 0 (t5 c>ri$ to buoy !     
h>poon l9e & tire ! game4 ,bolas &      
knives 7 also c>ri$4 ,all ea/]n kayaks  
appe> to h be5 propell$ ) ! d\ble-blade 
paddle1 b folklore sugge/s t !          
s+le-blade kayak paddle may h once be5  
us$4 ,gre5l& kayaks h be5 report$ z     
c>ry+ a small squ>e sail1 b ?is 0       
actually a hunt+ scre51 or cam\flage1 to
 hide ! paddl] & cause ! seal to mi/ake 
! canoe = a cake ( ice4 ,x 0 a          
#ai?-c5tury addition1 z 0 a f9 atta*$ to
 ! kayak to c\nt]act ! effect ( ! scre5 
9 a beam w9d4 ,any effect x _h z a sail 
9 a kayak 0 un9t5tional1 ( c\rse3 x 0   
dism\nt$ 9 /rong w9ds or :5 n requir$ = 
hunt+4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #agf      
,,koryak ,,kayak1 drawn f damag$ kayak 9
 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 
#aidh4  ,%[n above is ! plan ( an       
,asiatic ,koryak kayak4 ,?is type1 us$ 9
 ! ,sea ( ,okhotsk & on ! ,sib]ian coa/ 
( ,b]+ ,sea1 is ! only di/9ctive        

,asiatic type2 ! ,*uk*i ( ! ,sib]ian    
side ( ,b]+ ,/rait uses a kayak t is on 
! same model z ! "o f\nd at ,norton     
,s\nd1 9 ,alaska4 ,! ,*uk*i kayak diff]s
 only 9 ! ends1 :i* are :olly functional
 & )\t ! h&grips t di/+ui% ! ,alaskan   
type4 ,!re is also a crude ,*uk*i riv]  
kayak1 cov]$ ) re9de] sk91 b its design 
is n repres5t$ 9 an ,am]ican museum4  ,!
 ,koryak kayak is a hunt+ boat well     
design$ = use 9 protect$ wat]s1 b is r  
weakly built4 ,9 g5]al =m x is mu* l !  
hunt+ & f[l+ skiffs =m]ly us$ 9 ,am]ica4
 ,! plan idealizes ! kayak some:at1 = ! 
boat is crude 9 f9i%4 ,! only example   
available = /udy1 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum (
 ,natural ,hi/ory1 is 9 poor condition4 
,! hull is %ort1 wide & %all[1 r ,v 9   
cross section1 & !re is a slight camb] 9
 ! deck4 ,! l5g? ( ! ,koryak kayak r>ely
 exce$s #aj feet1 ! beam is f #bd to #bf
 in*es1 & ! dep? betwe5 #h & #i in*es4  
,! manhole rim is ( l>ge diamet]1 high &
 )\t rake4 ,! gunwales1 al?\gh r slight1
 are ! /r5g? memb]s4 ,! keelson1 a ?91  

flat batt51 =ms ! /em & /]n po/s2 x is  
/iff5$ amid%ips by a %ort batt5 la%$    
inside ! frames4 ,! *9e batt5s are also 
slight & d n rea* ! /em & /]n4 ,! frames
 are widely spac$ & are wide & ?91 9 "o 
piece f gunwale to gunwale4 ,!re are b  
two ?w>ts2 ^! are /rong & support !     
manhole rim1 %[+ inside ! cockpit4 ,two 
?9 longitud9al batt5s a=e & abaft !     
manhole1 support ! deck1 9 addition to a
 light c5t]l9e ridge-batt54 ,on ! kayak 
illu/rat$ ! outbo>d batt5s appe> to h _h
 additional support at "o "t f two pairs
 ( /an*ions /&+ on frames at ! *9es1 )  
_! heads secur$ to ! deck batt5s2 a pair
 be+ plac$ be=e & abaft ! manhole4 ,a   
small plank seat appe>s to h be5 us$ & !
 boat 0 propell$ by two %ort "o-h&      
paddles1 secur$ to ! manhole rim by     
lany>ds made ( ?ongs2 ^! w\ld be only   
effici5t 9 smoo? wat]4 ,! cov] is made f
 be>d$ seal sk9s & passes "u ! manhole  
rim be+ sewn to ! rim on ! inside at !  
top1 by co>se sew+ pass$ ?r\gh holes    
bor$ 9 ! manhole rim4 ,!re are two ?ong 

lift+ h&les or loops1 "o at b[ & /]n4   
,?is kayak is ! mo/ primitive ( all     
types & ! smalle/ z well4 ,! ,koryaks   
are n d>+ canoem5 & d n v5ture into r\gh
 wat]4 ,nev]!less1 ?is type ( kayak is  
said to be fa/ & highly maneuv]able4    
,comp>$ to ! ,koryak1 ! ,alaskan kayak  
is trem5d\sly advanc$4 ,! ,aleuts are   
d>+ & accompli%$ kayak]s1 & _! craft are
 among ! f9e/ 9 ! ,arctic4 ,! ,kodiak   
,isl& kayak ( #ahhe1 %[n above1         
repres5ts "o type us$ 9 ?is area & t f  
,unalaska1 %[n bel[1 ! o!r4 ,! ,kodiak  
boat is r %ort & wide1 measur+ #ae feet 
#a in* 9 l5g?1 #bi in*es beam & #ad     
in*es dep? to ridge batt5 ( ! deck j    
=w>d ( ! manhole4 ,! boat has ! hump$   
%e] f\nd 9 _m ,alaskan kayaks & is      
int5d$ = use 9 /ormy wat]s4 ,its l>ge   
manhole1 also a feature ( ! ,nunivak    
,isl& kayak1 p]mits two p]sons to be    
c>ri$1 "o fac+ =w>d to paddle & !       
pass5g] fac+ aft1 or ! space c be us$ to
 c>ry c>go4 ,! draw+ %[s ! con/ruction &
 requires no detail$ explanation4       

,kayaks f ! ,aleutian ,isl&s ea/w>d to  
,kodiak use rod batt5s2 only ! gunwales 
& keelson are rectangul> 9 section4 ,!  
frames are ?9 flat /rips b5t 9 "o piece 
f gunwale to gunwale4 ,! ridge-batt5 ( !
 deck is lam9at$1 9 two pieces4 ,! deck 
beams & ?w>ts are not*$ into !          
ridge-batt5 & la%$4 ,! b[ piece is c>v$ 
f a block1 & ! longitud9als are la%$ to 
x1 ea* 9 a c>efully fitt$ not*4 ,!      
/]npo/ is =m$ ( a plank4 ,! sk9 cov]    
passes ov] ! manhole rim & a l9e pass$  
outside ! rim holds ! sk9 d[n en\gh to  
=m a breakwat]4 ,! sk9 cov] is sewn to !
 inside l[] edge ( ! rim1 ?us cov]+ x   
almo/ completely4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure
 #agg  ,,kodiak ,,isl& ,,kayak1 #ahhe1 9
 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm       
#gfbhe74 ,! id5tification ( ?is kayak   
has be5 que/ion$ by ,h5ry ,b4 ,coll9s & 
,john ,hea?1 b x may repres5t an old =m 
out ( use 9 ! tw5tie? c5tury4           
,illu/ration3 ,figure #agh  ,,aleutian  
,,kayak1 ,unalaska1 #ahid1 9 ,u4,s4     
,national ,museum 7,,usnm #gfbhb74  ,!  

,unalaska kayak ( #ahid 7bel[7 is a     
bett] kn[n type4 ,?is design is us$     
?r\gh\t ! ,aleutians & on ! adjac5t     
ma9l& z f> ea/ z ,pr9ce ,william ,s\nd4 
,x 0 also employ$ 9 ! ,pribil( ,isl&s & 
at ,/4 ,mat!w1 hav+ be5 us$ by ,aleuts  
engag$ 9 seal+ exp$itions !re4 ,all     
kayaks ( ?is type d n h ! same b[ & /]n 
pr(iles z ! example2 "s h ! bifid b[    
built ) ! portion above ! slit ar*$     
upw>d high] ?an ! out] /em-piece & s m  
prom95t2 !re are also m9or v>iations 9 !
 /]n4 ,! %ape ( ! hull1 h[ev]1 is       
consi/5tly ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! area 9 :i* 
?is type is us$4 ,?\gh ! deck is ridg$1 
x is relatively l[ comp>$ to t ( !      
,kodiak kayak1 & ! ?w>ts support+ !     
manhole are heavily ar*$ & 9 "o piece f 
gunwale to gunwale4 ,! con/ruction is l 
t ( ! ,kodiak kayak1 b ! gunwales & upp]
 longitud9al batt5s1 in/ead ( meet+ !   
/]n po/1 end on a crosspiece well inside
 ! /]n to give ! effect ( a transom /]n4
 ,h[ev]1 "s ,aleut kayaks h ! normal %>p
 /]n aft] ! fa%ion ( ! ,kodiak kayak1 b 

)\t ! project+ tail or h&grip1 & ne>ly  
all h two ?w>ts betwe5 ! aft] manhole   
?w>t & ! /]n & ?ree =w>d ( ! =e manhole 
?w>t4 ,! sk9 cov] passes ov] ! manhole  
rim z 9 ! ,kodiak type4 ,! b[ block is  
sometimes built up ( two blocks sewn or 
lac$ toge!r4 ,/r5g!n+ pieces ( light    
plank are sometimes fitt$ f ! b[ block  
aft2 ^! are lac$ to ! top inside edge ( 
! gunwales & p9n$ to ! /em block to =m  
long brea/-hooks4 ,9 "s kayaks ) ! squ>e
 /]n1 only ! gunwale is support$ by !   
crosspiece on ! /]n1 ! two batt5s on ea*
 side be+ support$ by ! la/ frame only1 
ab\t #f in*es inbo>d ( ! crosspiece4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #agi  ,,kayak ,,f 
,,russian ,,sib]ia1 #b-;hole ,aleutian  
type1 9 ,wa%+ton ,/ate ,hi/orical       
,society & ,museum4 ,tak5 (f by ,john   
,hea?1 #aifb4  ,?is type ( kayak is !   
only "o kn[n to h be5 built ) m ?an "o  
manhole4 ,! two-hole kayak is an ,aleut 
developm5t us$ 9 :al+ & sea-ott] hunt+1 
s f> z is kn[n2 ! paddl] sits 9 ! aft]  
manhole4 ,measurem5ts ( a two-hole kayak

 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum %[ 
x to be #bj feet #g in*es long1 #bc     
in*es beam1 & #i in*es deep to top (    
gunwale4 ,! manholes are ab\t #df in*es 
ap>t edge to edge & ! =emo/ is ab\t #h  
feet f ! b[4  ,! ?ree-hol]1 commonly    
believ$ to h be5 introduc$ by !         
,russians1 0 us$ by ,russian (fic]s1    
inspectors1 & trad]s 9 _! explorations &
 travels on ! ,alaskan coa/4 ,"o ( ^!   
boats measures #bd feet #h in*es long1  
#cj in*es beam1 & #aj in*es deep to top 
( gunwale4 ,! c5t] manhole is commonly  
l>g] 9 diamet] ?an ! o!r two & is us$ = 
ei!r a pass5g] or c>go4 ,! =e edge ( !  
=e manhole is #h feet to #h feet f ! b[ 
& ! o!r manholes are f #d to #d feet    
ap>t edge to edge4 ,a l>ge example ( ?is
 class ( kayak measures #bh feet #a     
in*es long1 #ch in*es beam & #ab in*es  
deep to top ( gunwale4 ,probably none   
exce$ #cj feet 9 l5g?4 ,bo? ! s+le-& !  
d\ble-blade paddle are us$ by ! ,aleuts1
 b ! d\ble blade is pref]r$ 9 hunt+4 ,! 
paddle blades are r n>r[ & leaf-%ap$1 ) 

po9t$ tips4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahj 
,,nunivak ,,isl& ,,kayak1 ,,alaska1     
#ahhi1 9 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum       
7,,usnm #afjcde71 %[+ pa9t$ decoration (
 ! my?ological wat] mon/] ,palriayuk4   
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aha  ,,k+ ,,isl& 
,,kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhh1 9 ,u4,s4       
,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjcbf71     
collect$ by ,capt4 ,m4 ,a4 ,healy1      
,u4,s4 ,rev5ue ,/eam] ,be>4             
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahb  ,,norton    
,,s\nd ,,kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhi1 ,u4,s4  
,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjage74  ,! 
plan ( a kayak f ,nunivak ,isl& 7ab\t   
due nor? ( ,unalaska & r\ghly halfway to
 ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,isl&7 is %[n on page #aih
 7fig4 #ahj74 ,?is type ( kayak is      
obvi\sly relat$ to t ( ,kodiak ,isl&1 = 
x has approximately ! same l9es &       
proportions4 ,only ! pr(iles ( b[ & /]n 
exhibit m>k$ diff]5ces4 ,p]haps ! mo/   
/rik+ feature ( ! ,nunivak kayak is its 
b[1 :i* might repres5t a seal's head2 a 
hole ?r\gh ! :ole b[ /ructure =ms ! eyes
 & also s]ves functionally z a lift+    

h&le4 ,! /]n pr(ile is simpl] ?an t us$ 
9 ! ,kodiak kayaks4 ,! example %[s !    
my?ological wat] mon/] ,palriayuk1 a    
pa9t$ totem t once di/+ui%$ ! ,nunivak  
kayaks2 mission>y influ5ce has long s9ce
 eras$ su* decorations f ,alaskan       
kayaks4 ,:]eas ! ,kodiak kayak has elev5
 batt5s 7includ+ ! keelson7 9 its frame1
 ! ,nunivak kayak has n9e1 & all !      
longitud9als 9 x are rectangul> 9       
section4 ,diff]5ces 9 dim5sions (       
,nunivak & ,kodiak kayaks are rem>kably 
slight1 ! greate/ l5g? report$ = ei!r   
type is ab\t #ae feet #i in*es & !      
greate/ beam is ab\t #cb in*es4 ,bo?    
types h a l>ge manhole & c>ry a pass5g] 
back-to-back ) ! paddl]4 ,! s+le-blad$  
paddle is us$4 ,! kayak is sometimes    
transport$ ov] ice by means ( a %ort    
sl$ge1 by "o man1 b x is o!rwise r heavy
 to portage4 ,highly reg>d$ by all :o h 
_h contact ) x1 ?is is g5]ally consid]$ 
"o ( ! safe/ & mo/ useful ( ! ,alaskan  
kayaks4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahc     
,,nunivak ,,isl& ,,kayak ) picture (    

my?ological wat] mon/] ,palriayuk pa9t$ 
along gunwale4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4     
,coll9s47  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahd   
,,nunivak ,,isl& ,,kayak 9 ,u4,s4       
,national ,museum 7,,usnm #gfbhc7 ) cov]
 p>tly remov$ to %[ framework4 ,collect$
 by ,ivan ,petr(f1 ,m>* #cj1 #ahid4  ,k+
 ,isl&1 at ! entrance to ,b]+ ,/rait1 is
 ! home ( ! kayak %[n on page #aih 7fig4
 #aha74 ,! ,k+ ,isl&]s are not$ z       
skillful kayak]s & _! kayak g5]ally     
foll[s ! ,nunivak patt]n1 b is n>r[] & m
 ,v-%ap$ 9 cross section1 & ! /em & /]n 
are also di/9ctly diff]5t4 ,! ,k+ ,isl& 
craft has a bold upturn$ /em end+ 9 a   
small birdlike head1 ) a small hole     
?r\gh x to repres5t eyes & to s]ve = a  
lift+ grip2 ! /]n is l[ & )\t !         
projections se5 9 ! ,nunivak type4 ,!   
fitt+ ( ! cockpit rim ( ! ,u4,s4        
,national ,museum kayak is unusual2 !   
rim is n support$ by ?w>ts b r is made  
"p ( ! sk9 cov] & !re=e c be mov$4 ,?is 
seem$ to be int5tional1 = !re is no     
evid5ce ( brok5 or miss+ memb]s1 b ,john

 ,hea? consid]s ?is n typical4 ,a       
wat]tight jacket ) ! skirt lac$ to !    
manhole rim is worn by ! kayak] to      
prev5t swamp+4 ,?is practice 0 common   
among ,eskimo work+ 9 /ormy wat]s4 ,a   
w>m-wea!r alt]nate 0 a wide wai/b&1 )   
its top support$ by /raps ov] ! %\ld]s &
 ! bottom lac$ to ! manhole4            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahe  ,,we/]n     
,,alaskan ,,kayak1 ,cape ,pr9ce (       
,wales1 #aicf4 7,photo by ,h5ry ,b4     
,coll9s47  ,a some:at simil> b slightly 
small] kayak 0 us$ at ,cape ,esp5b]g2 9 
^! ! upturn$ b[ end$ 9 a simple po9t4 ,!
 /]ns 7 alike 9 bo? types4 ,! ,cape     
,esp5b]g kayak _h a fix$ cockpit rim    
h[ev]1 z 9 ! ,nunivak type4 ,bo? types  
employ$ ! s+le-blad$ paddle4  ,a little 
to ! ,s\?1 9 ,norton ,s\nd1 ! long n>r[ 
kayak %[n on page #aih 7fig4 #ahb7 is   
popul>4 ,^! are some:at l ! ,nunivak    
kayaks 9 cross section b ) f> less beam4
 ,!y h a slight rev]se1 or hump$1 %e] & 
are v %>p end$4 ,! peculi> h&grips at b[
 & /]n are *>act]i/ic1 ?\gh ! %ape &    

size ( ! grips v>y among ! villages2 !  
/yle %[n is t ( ,/4 ,mi*aels4 ,a        
s+le-blad$ paddle is us$4 ,?is type is v
 fa/ "u paddle1 b requires a skillful   
us] 9 r\gh wat]4 ,! ,norton ,s\nd kayaks
 are v well f9i%$ & /rongly built4  ,f  
,kotzebue ,s\nd1 at ,cape ,krus5/]n1    
along ! nor? coa/ ( ,alaska to ne> !    
,mack5zie ,delta1 ! kayaks are v l[ 9 ! 
wat]1 long1 n>r[1 & sp9dle-%ap$ at !    
ends4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ by a v /rong rake
 9 ! manhole rim1 ) an accompany+       
prom95t swell 9 ! deck =w>d ( ! manhole4
 ,!y are built ) sev5 longitud9al batt5s
 7includ+ ! keelson7 9 addition to !    
gunwales4 ,9 sev]al examples se51 !     
latt] are sometimes slightly *annell$ on
 ! inside1 b ?is may h be5 ! result (   
%r9kage 9 ! pi? ( ! timb] us$ & n       
int5tional4 ,^! kayaks are v light &    
easily c>ri$4 ,bo? s+le-& d\ble-blade   
paddles are employ$2 ! s+le blade is    
usually us$ 9 travell+4  ,on page #bja  
are %[n a kayak f ,cape ,krus5/]n 7fig4 
#ahf7 & "o f ,po9t ,b>r[ 7fig4 #ahg74 ,x

 is report$ t ^! types h n[ gone out (  
use4 ,9 ^! boats no /em or /]n po/s     
exi/1 ^! usually be+ replac$ by small   
end blocks4 ,! only important diff]5ce 9
 ! two types %[n is 9 ! /yle ( cr[n+ !  
deck1 :i* is ridg$ 9 ! ,cape ,krus5/]n  
kayak b m r\nd$ 9 ! ,po9t ,b>r[ kayak4  
,9 spite ( _! n>r[ beam & obvi\sly      
un/able =m1 ^! kayaks are said to h be5 
us$ by r unskillful paddl]s4 ,9 g5]al1  
!y 7 n employ$ 9 r\gh wea!r b 7 seawor?y
 9 skillful h&s4  ,?\gh ! ,nor? ,alaska 
type ( kayak1 z illu/rat$ by ! ,po9t    
,b>r[ model 7fig4 #ahg71 may be said to 
repres5t ! /ructural design ( kayaks to 
! ea/w>d z f> z ,foxe ,bas91 ! ,mack5zie
 ,delta kayaks are on an entirely       
diff]5t model4 ,due to migration (      
num]\s gr\ps ( ,eskimo to ?is area 9 !  
la/ sev5ty ye>s1 ! design ( kayaks "h   
has und]gone a great *ange4 ,9 figure   
#ahh appe>s ! plan ( a mod]n ,mack5zie  
,delta kayak4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure    
#ahf  ,,kotzebue ,,s\nd ,,kayak 7,cape  
,krus5/]n71 ,alaska1 =m]ly 9 ,u4,s4     

,national ,museum1 n[ 9 ,m>9]'s ,museum4
  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahg  ,,po9t    
,,b>r[ ,,kayak1 ,alaska1 #ahhh1 9 ,u4,s4
 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #egggc74     
,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahh  ,,mack5zie  
,,delta ,,kayak1 9 ,museum ( ! ,am]ican 
,indian1 ,heye ,f\ndation4 ,! design is 
m>k$ by a v n>r[ flat bottom or a wide  
keel comb9$ ) ! ,v-bottom4 ,^! boats are
 well-built & are light & graceful4 ,!  
wide keel is =m$ by a ?ick plank keelson
 :i* n>r[s at b[ & /]n & is b5t up to =m
 ! /em & /]n4 ,! *9e pieces run =e & aft
 & are la%$ to ! /em & /]n ?us =m$4 ,!  
gunwales are ab\t  by #a in*es4 ,!      
frames are ab\t  by  in* b5t 9 a /rongly
 ,u-%ap$ =m1 ) _! ends t5on$ into !     
bottom ( ! gunwales4 ,! keelson is only 
ab\t  in* ?ick & ! *9es are r wide ?9   
batt5s2 ab\t  by #a in*4 ,"s kayaks h an
 additional batt5 9 ! sides above !     
*9es4 ,! deck is slightly ridg$ = ne>ly 
! l5g? ( ! boat4 ,! /em & /]n are c>ri$ 
up above ! %e] to =m prom95t po/s2 "s   
build]s c>ry !m high] ?an %[n4 ,!       

con/ruction is neat & light & ! boat is 
v easily paddl$4 ,its n>r[ beam makes x 
some:at trea*]\s1 h[ev]1 9 unskill$ h&s4
 ,a d\ble-blad$ paddle is g5]ally us$ ) 
?is kayak4 ,:ile ! =m appe>s to v>y     
little among individuals ( ?is class1 ! 
con/ruction v>ies1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! numb] 
& dim5sions ( ! longitud9als4 ,frames   
are spac$ r consi/5tly #e to #f in*es   
ap>t4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #ahi       
,,kayak ,,f ,,po9t ,,b>r[1 ,alaska1 9   
,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm        
#egggc74 ,collect$ by ,capt4 ,m4 ,a4    
,healy1 ,u4,s4 ,rev5ue ,/eam] ,be>1     
#ahhh4 7,smi?sonian photo               
,,mnh-#cii-;,a47  ,illu/ration3 ,figure 
#aij  ,,cockpit ,,( ,,kayak f ,po9t     
,b>r[ 7,,usnm #egggc71 %[+ me?od ( la%+ 
sk9 cov] to manhole4 7,smi?sonian photo 
,,mnh-#cii47  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aia
  ,,kayak ,,9 ,u4,s4 ,,national ,,museum
 7,,usnm #afjcbe7 catalog$ z f ,mack5zie
 ,riv] area1 #ahhe1 b app>5tly an ea/]n 
kayak ( unid5tifi$ orig94  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #aib  ,,coronation ,,gulf      

,,kayak1 ,canada1 p>tially recon/ruct$ f
 a damag$ privately own$ kayak 7n[      
de/roy$74  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aic   
,,c>ib\ ,,eskimo ,,kayak1 ,canada1 9    
,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aid  ,,netsilik  
,,eskimo ,,kayak1 ,k+ ,william ,isl&1   
,canada1 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural
 ,hi/ory4  ,! =ego+ design diff]s       
greatly 9 e respect f ! example 9 figure
 #aia1 collect$ by ! ,u4,s4 ,fi%        
,commission 9 #ahhe & id5tifi$ z a      
,mack5zie ,riv] kayak4 ,x is a l>ge     
heavy boat comp>$ to ! "o j describ$4 ,!
 model ( ?is old kayak1 & ! con/ruction 
too1 is on ! ea/]n patt]n1 su* z is us$ 
9 ,hudson ,/rait4 ,! /rongly upturn$ /]n
 & less ris+ b[ resembles ! old ,gre5l& 
kayaks4 ,! ,v-bottom & #c-;batt5        
con/ruction comb9$ ) heavy deep gunwales
 is n to be f\nd 9 any ( ! kn[n ,alaskan
 kayaks4 ,!re is un=tunately no record (
 ! exact location :]e ?is kayak 0 f\nd1 
nor any in=mation on ! build]s2 if x is 
f ! ,mack5zie1 ! type n[ appe>s to be   

:olly ext9ct & !re has be5 no?+ 9 rec5t 
times 9 ! vic9ity fa9tly resembl+ x4 ,! 
kayak is a well-built1 safe1 /rong boat2
 ! high /]n w\ld aid x 9 com+ head to   
sea & w9d :5 paddl+ /opp$2 & x          
resembles1 m ?an mo/1 ! e>ly explor]s'  
draw+s ( ,arctic kayaks4 ,! v high ends 
indicate t x 0 n us$ :]e high w9ds are  
common1 despite ! o!rwise seawor?y      
design & con/ruction1 & reg>dless ( !   
docum5tation1 x n[ seems c]ta9 t ?is    
kayak came f some:]e 9 ! ea/]n ,arctic4 
,to ! ea/w>d ( ! ,mack5zie1 ! kayaks are
 n>r[1 sp9dle-%ap$ & v l[ sid$1 9 !     
mann] ( ! nor!rn ,alaskan boats4 ,!     
draw+ ( figure #aib 0 made f ! rema9s ( 
a kayak f ,coronation ,gulf & to insure 
accuracy 0 comp>$ ) photographs &       
measurem5ts ( "s ,copp] ,eskimo kayaks4 
,?is kayak is *>act]iz$ by a r m>k$     
rev]se %e] & a /rongly rak$ manhole rim4
 ,! deck =w>d ( ! manhole sweeps up v   
%>ply1 b ) a diff]5t pr(ile ?an is se5  
on ! nor? coa/ ( ,alaska2 ! deck ( ^!   
ea/]n kayaks sweeps up 9 a v %ort holl[ 

curve in/ead ( ! long convex sweep      
popul> 9 ,alaska4 ,! ends ( ! hull f9i% 
9 small bone buttons2 ! sk9 cov] passes 
"u ! manhole rim1 z 9 ! ,cape ,krus5/]n 
& ,po9t ,b>r[ types4 ,a two-blad$ paddle
 is commonly us$4 ,! hull design is m   
/able ?an t at ,po9t ,b>r[ & ! ends are 
some:at full]1 giv+ ! boat a r p>allel  
sid$ appe>ance2 x has longitud9al batt5s
 f ! bottom ( ! hull1 "o ! keelson2 !   
gunwales are *annell$ on ! inside & are 
v light & neatly made4 ,! frames are    
split will[s1 r\nd on ! inside4  ,!     
,c>ib\ ,eskimo kayak pres]v$ 9 !        
,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory is !
 be/ example ( ! type f\nd4 ,! draw+ (  
figure #aic %[s ! features ( ?is        
p>ticul> type2 ! con/ruction is ab\t !  
same z t ( ! ,po9t ,b>r[ kayak b is mu* 
light] & weak]4 ,! peculi> project+ /em 
is =m$ ( a /em block1 sc>ph$ to !       
gunwales2 to x ! beak piece is atta*$ ) 
a la%+4 ,! %>ply turn$-up /]n is =m$ 9 a
 simil> mann] by two pieces jo9$ toge!r 
at ! tip & la%$ to ! /]n block2 ?is /]n 

con/ruction is simil> to t ( ! ea/]n    
,arctic kayak %[n 9 figure #aib4 ,bo?   
c>ib\ hides & seal sk9s are us$ to cov] 
! ,c>ib\ ,eskimo kayak4 ,! seams are    
rubb$ ) fi% oil & o*re1 a me?od also us$
 ext5sively along ! nor? coa/ ( ,alaska 
to pa9t ! framework ( bo? kayaks &      
umiaks4  ,! ,netsilik ,eskimo kayak is  
relat$ to ! ,c>ib\1 b is less /able &   
has diff]5t b[ & /]n pr(iles4 ,! example
 %[n 9 ! draw+ ( figure #aid requires   
little discussion2 ! cov] is ( seal sk94
 ,^! kayaks are us$ only 9 hunt+ c>ib\  
at /ream cross+s & are n employ$ 9      
seal+4 ,! v n>r[ bottom & n>r[ beam make
 ?is ! mo/ dang]\s ( all kayaks 9 ! h&s 
( a paddl] unaccu/om$ to su* craft4     
,nei!r ! ,c>ib\ nor ! ,netsilik kayaks  
are v seawor?y & _! con/ruction is      
inf]ior4 ,!y are *>act]iz$ by r heavy   
gunwales b ! o!r memb]s ( _! /ructures  
are v slight4  ,no examples rema9 ( !   
old kayaks once us$ on ! ,gulf (        
,boo?ia1 at ,fury & ,hecla ,/rait1 & on 
! we/ side ( ,foxe ,bas94 ,e>ly explor]s

 9 ?is area f\nd kayaks1 b ! types us$ h
 be5 long ext9ct4 ,"o kayak1 suppos$ to 
h be5 built at ,s\?ampton ,isl&1 _h be5 
pres]v$ by a private collector1 b :5    
measur$ 0 9 a damag$ /ate4 ,%[n 9 figure
 #aie1 x does n con=m ) ! old           
description ( kayaks f ! ,melville      
,p59sula b does agree reasonably well ) 
! ,boas model ( a kayak f ,repulse ,bay 
9 ! ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm    
#fhabf74 ,on ?is basis x w\ld appe> t 9 
,boas' "t ?is =m ( kayak 0 also us$ on !
 ea/ side ( ! ,melville ,p59sula4 ,!    
design resembles to "s ext5t ! kayaks f 
! s\?we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 b ! /]n is l t 
us$ 9 "s ,labrador craft4 ,?is old kayak
 0 v light & %>p1 r slightly built1 b v 
graceful 9 model s f> z c\ld be det]m9$ 
f ! rema9s ( ! craft4 ,! =$eck camb] is 
ridg$ & c>ri$ r f> =w>d4 ,if !          
id5tification ( ?is kayak %\ld be       
correct1 x is app>5t t ! ea/]n model ( !
 kayak once ext5d$ z f> we/ z ! we/ side
 ( ,foxe ,bas94  ,! kayak ( l[] ,baff9  
,isl&1 9 figure #aif1 is flat-bottom$1  

long1 & r heavy4 ,! gunwale memb]s are v
 deep & ! keelson & *9e batt5s are q    
heavy4 ,?is type has a slight side-batt5
 betwe5 *9e & gunwale--9 all1 five      
longitud9al memb]s besides !            
gunwales--h5ce ?is example is ! sole    
exception to ! #c-;batt5 con/ruction t  
may be said to m>k ! ea/]n kayaks4 ,!   
,baff9 ,isl& kayak is r r\ghly built & !
 two examples f\nd _h _m frames crack$  
at ! *9es4 ,h[ev]1 ?is kayak has _m     
excell5t features1 be+ easily paddl$1 v 
/able1 & seawor?y4 ,! d\ble-blade paddle
 us$ is l t ( ! ,labrador kayak1 v long 
) n>r[ blades4 ,:5 ! paddl] is seat$1 ^!
 kayaks1 l _m ( _! ea/]n si/]s1 draw m  
wat] =w>d ?an ! illu/ration w\ld        
indicate 7x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! trim ( 
! kayaks 9 ! wat] is n indicat$ by !    
base l9es us$ 9 ! plans74 ,! deep] draft
 at ! b[1 :i* all[s ! kayak to hold h]  
c\rse into ! w9d & to come head to ! w9d
 :5 at re/1 gives a long easy run 9 !   
bottom t[>d ! /]n4 ,! slight rock] 9 !  
bottom %[n 9 ! draw+ is ?us mislead+4 ,!

 /em is =m$ by ! ext5sion ( ! keelson1  
produc+ ! clipp]-b[ se5 9 _m ea/]n      
boats4 ,! /]n is %ap$ by a /]n block (  
simple =m into :i* ! gunwales1 keelson &
 *9es are not*$4 ,! batt5 betwe5 *9e &  
gunwale /ops a little %ort ( bo? b[ &   
/]n4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aie  ,,old 
,,kayak ,,f ,,vic9ity ,,( ,,s\?ampton   
,,isl&1 ,canada4 ,plan made f a mu*     
damag$ kayak1 n[ de/roy$1 once privately
 own$4  ,a some:at simil> kayak is us$  
on ! ,labrador side ( ,hudson ,/rait b1 
z %[n 9 figure #aig on page #bjg1 !     
appe>ance ( ! craft is di/9ctive4 ,!    
kayak is flat-bottom$1 ) ! sni$-(f *9es 
se5 9 ! ,baff9 ,isl& boat1 giv+ a cross 
section =m l t ( _m ,japanese sampans4  
,! #c-;batt5 sy/em is us$ 9 con/ruction1
 & ! gunwales are v heavy & deep1 /&+   
v]tical 9 ! sides ( ! boat4 ,! %e] is   
slightly rev]s$ & !re is little rock] 9 
! bottom4 ,"o ( ! mo/ obvi\s features ( 
! ,labrador kayak is ! long grab b[1 :i*
 is =m$ by a batt5 atta*$ to ! end ( !  
keelson4 ,! /]n is =m$ ) a v small block

 inside ! gunwales1 & to ?is ! keelson  
is lac$ or pegg$4 ,x w be notic$ t !    
rake ( ! manhole is v mod]ate4 ,^!      
kayaks are heavy & /rong1 paddle well1  
p>ticul>ly s aga9/ w9d & sea4 ,%[n 9 !  
draw+ is ! type ( long-& n>r[-blad$     
paddle us$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #aif 
,,baff9 ,,isl& ,,kayak1 f ,cape ,dorset1
 ,canada1 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,am]ican      
,indian1 ,heye ,f\ndation4  ,?is example
 illu/rates bett] ?an ! ,baff9 ,isl&    
kayak ! comb9ation ( deep =efoot & !    
greate/ beam well abaft ! midl5g? t m>ks
 _m ea/]n models4 ,:5 paddl$1 ! craft   
always trims s t ! kayak draws mo/ wat] 
at ! =e end ( ! keelson & ! bottom ( !  
/]n is usually j awa%4 ,?is makes !     
bottom sweep up f ! =efoot 9 a v slight 
gradual curve to ! /]n1 :5 ! boat is    
afloat4 ,z a result1 ! kayak may be said
 to be ( ! d\ble-w$ge =m t has be5      
popul> 9 fa/ l[-p[]$ motor boats1 s9ce  
hav+ ! beam f> aft gives to ! b[ a w$ge 
%ape 9 plan1 :ile ! deep =efoot & %all[ 
/]n produce an opposite w$ge 9 pr(ile4  

,x w\ld appe> t ?is =m _h be5 f\nd by   
trial & error to produce a fa/1 easily  
paddl$ r\gh-wat] kayak 9 an o!rwise     
heavy hull4 ,! ,nor? ,labrador kayaks   
are ! l>ge/ 9 ! ,arctic = a s+le p]son2 
"s are report$ z long z #bf feet4 ,!    
long-& n>r[-blad$ paddle may be expla9$ 
by ! fact t ! ,eskimo nev] produc$ a    
fea!r$ d\ble paddle1 ) blades set at "r 
angles to "o ano!r4 ,to paddle aga9/    
/rong w9ds1 he develop$ a blade t 0 v   
long & v n>r[ = a d\ble-paddle1 & !re=e 
(f]$ less resi/ance to ! w9d1 yet c\ld  
be dipp$ deep s t little propulsion     
effect 0 lo/4  ,! kayak us$ on ! nor!a/ 
coa/ ( ,labrador1 %[n 9 figure #aih1    
diff]s slightly f t ( ,hudson ,/rait4 ,!
 nor!a/-coa/ kayak has a v slight       
,v-bottom & a /rong concave %e] )       
relatively great rock] 9 ! bottom4 ,:ile
 ! craft trims by ! b[ afloat1 ! rock]  
probably makes x m maneuv]able ?an !    
,hudson ,/rait kayak1 ?\gh less easily  
paddl$ aga9/ /rong w9ds4 ,! ,v-bottom is
 =m$ by us+ a keelson t is heavi] &     

deep] ?an ! *9es4 ,! latt] are ?91 wide 
batt5s1 on ! flat4 ,! ,v-bottom appe>s  
to help ! boat run /raight "u paddle &  
may be said to c\nt]act1 to "s ext5t at 
lea/1 ! effect ( ! /rongly rock]$       
bottom4  ,! ,pol> coa/ ( ,gre5l& is !   
home ( %>pie-model kayaks hav+ flat     
bottoms & fl>+ sides2 ! kayaks 9 figures
 #aii & #bjj are repres5tative ( ^? us$ 
9 ! extreme nor?4 ,^! h clipp] b[s1 )   
/]ns ( v>y+ dep? & %ape1 concave %e] &  
v>y+ degrees ( rock] 9 ! bottom4 ,mo/ h 
_! greate/ beam well aft & draw m wat]  
=w>d1 z d ! ,labrador & ,baff9 ,isl&    
types4 ,! *ief *>act]i/ic ( !           
con/ruction ( ?is type is t ! transv]se 
frames are 9 ?ree p>ts1 some:at z 9 !   
umiak4 ,h[ev]1 ^! kayaks dep>t f umiak  
con/ruction 9 hav+ ! frame heads rigidly
 t5on$ into ! gunwales4 ,?is is done to 
give ! /ructure a measure ( transv]se   
rigidity :i* w\ld o!rwise be lack+1 s9ce
 light batt5s are us$ = ! keelson1 /em1 
& *9es4 ,figure #aii %[s ! details ( !  
con/ruction us$4  ,^! kayaks are highly 

develop$ craft--/able1 fa/1 &           
seawor?y--& ! con/ruction is light yet  
/rong en\gh to )/& ! sev]e abuse        
sometimes giv5 !m4 ,! cap on ! =e "p ( !
 manhole is a paddle hold]1 = re/+ !    
paddle across ! deck4 ,"s ,eskimos us$  
?is z a ?ole1 & :5 tir$1 r[$ ! kayak ) !
 paddle1 to ma9ta9 control4 ,x w be not$
 t oval or circul> manholes are seldom  
f\nd 9 ! ea/]n types ( kayaks already   
describ$2 ,u-%ap$ manholes1 or b5t-rim  
manholes approa*+ ?is =m1 appe> 9 ^? v  
/able types :i* d n require to be right$
 at sea by ! paddl] & 9 :i* ! wat]tight 
paddl+ jacket or wai/b& is n us$4  ,f>!r
 s\?1 on ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 &     
app>5tly also on ! opposite coa/ (      
,baff9 ,isl&1 a modifi$ design ( kayak  
is us$4 ,?is type1 illu/rat$ 9 figure   
#bje1 %[s relation%ip to bo? !          
flat-bottom kayak ( nor!rn ,gre5l& & to 
! nor!a/]n ,labrador type4 ,9 ?is model 
! clipp] b[ is reta9$ b ! /]n & cross   
section resemble ^? ( ! ,labrador       
kayaks4 ,! con/ruction1 h[ev]1 is       

fundam5tally t employ$ 9 nor!rn ,gre5l&4
 ,z 9 ! ,labrador type1 ! deadrise 9 !  
bottom is =m$ by us+ 9 ! keelson memb]s 
t are deep] ?an ^? 9 ! *9e4 ,! gunwales 
d n fl>e z 9 ! ,gre5l& model1 b /&      
v]tical 9 ! side fl>+ slightly at b[ &  
extreme /]n4 ,! frame heads are r       
loosely t5on$ & are commonly secur$ to !
 gunwales ) la%+s4 ,transv]se /iffness  
is obta9$ 9 ?is model by employ+ a r    
heavy1 rigid keelson fix$ to ! /]n      
block1 & by a tripod arrangem5t =w>d    
consi/+ ( ! /em batt5 & a pair (        
transv]se frames plac$ at ! junction (  
/em & keelson ) _! heads firmly la%$ &  
t5on$ into ! gunwales4 ,! con/ruction1  
?\gh /rong1 is r r\gh comp>$ to t ( o!r 
,gre5l& types4 ,! manhole rim 9 ?is type
 is n b5t1 b is made up ( %ort /raight  
pieces1 z %[n 9 ! draw+2 & ! d\ble-blad$
 paddle %[n resembles t us$ 9 ,labrador4
 ,?is is a r heavy kayak ( v good       
qualities b n z maneuv]able z "s ( !    
flat-bottom kayaks f\nd f>!r nor?4      
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aig  ,,kayak ,,f 

,,nor? ,,labrador1 ,canada1 9 ! ,museum 
( ! ,am]ican ,indian1 ,heye ,f\ndation4 
,illu/ration3 ,figure #aih  ,,labrador  
,,kayak1 ,canada1 9 ! ,u4,s4 ,national  
,museum 7,,usnm #beafic74  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #aii  ,,nor? ,,gre5l& ,,kayak1 
9 ! ,museum ( ! ,am]ican ,indian1 ,heye 
,f\ndation4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bjj 
,,nor? ,,gre5l& ,,kayak1 9 ! ,peabody   
,museum1 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,tak5 (f by !   
late ,norman ,l4 ,sk5e1 #aiba4          
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bja  ,,pr(ile ,,(
 ,,gre5l& ,,kayak f ,disko ,bay1 9 !    
,national ,museum 7,,usnm #gbefd74      
,collect$ by ,maj4 ,wm4 ,m4 ,beebe1     
,jr41 #ahhb4 7,smi?sonian photo         
#aegbf-;,d47  ,ross f\nd t ! ,gre5l&    
,eskimos nor? ( ,cape ,york _h ceas$ to 
use kayaks 9 #ahah4 ,n until ab\t #ahfj 
0 ! kayak re9troduc$ "h1 by ,eskimos f  
,pond ,inlet1 nor? ,baff9 ,isl&1 :o     
walk$ ov] ! sea ice4 ,?is fact probably 
acc\nts = ! v>i\s %>pie & modifi$ %>pie 
=ms us$ along ! nor!rn & ,pol> coa/s (  
,gre5l&4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bjb    

,,deck ,,( ,,gre5l& ,,kayak f ,disko    
,bay 7,,usnm #gbefd74 7,smi?sonian photo
 #aegbf-;,c47  ,! model ( ! kayak us$ on
 mu* ( ! c5tral & s\!rn coa/s ( ,gre5l& 
has *ang$ r ext5sively s9ce #ahhc1 & ?is
 *ange has app>5tly affect$ ! kayaks us$
 on ! ea/ coa/ z well4 ,9 ?is "p ( !    
,arctic1 ! ,eskimo are notable kayak]s &
 ! boat is n only well design$ b also   
c>ries highly develop$ equipm5t &       
weapons = its "w4 ,! basic model us$ is 
a graceful ,v-bottom "o1 ) rak+ ends & r
 /rong %e]4 ,9 ! old boats repres5t$ by 
! draw+s ( figures #bjf & #bjg1 ! %e] is
 /rong at b[ & /]n1 b ?is =m has be5    
gradually go+ out ( favor4 ,! kayaks are
 n>r[ b _! %ape gives !m mu* /ability4  
,pegg$ to ! b[ & /]n are plates ( bone  
to protect !m f ice2 9 r>e cases ^! bone
 /em b&s1 or bang plates1 are la%$ 9    
place4 ,! fir/ draw+ %[s ! con/ruction  
us$3 light /rong gunwales & a #c-;batt5 
longitud9al sy/em ) b5t transv]se       
frames4 ,! keelson & *9es--light1       
rectangul> 9 section & plac$ on         

edge--are %ap$ slightly to fair !       
sealsk9 cov]+4 ,! cov] passes "u !      
manhole rim4 ,b[ & /]n are made ( plank 
on edge1 %ap$ to ! requir$ pr(ile4 ,!   
gunwales are /rongly tap]$ 9 dep? =e &  
aft4 ,eight to twelve ?w>ts1 or deck    
beams1 are us$ 9 addition to ! two heavy
 ?w>ts support+ ! manhole2 usually !re  
is "o m =w>d ( ! manhole ?an !re is aft1
 & all are v light scantl+s4 ,! ?w>t    
=w>d ( ! manhole /&s slightly inside !  
cockpit & is /rongly ar*$2 ! aft] "o is 
cle> ( ! cockpit op5+ & has v little    
ar*4 ,two light1 %ort batt5s1 or c>l9s1 
#bd to #cf in*es long support ! deck1   
:]e x sweeps up to ! rak$ manhole1 &    
usually !re are two abaft ! manhole z   
well4 ,la%+s are us$ z fa/5+s except at 
! ends ( ! hull1 :]e pegs secure !      
keelson to ! /em & /]n2 at ?is po9t1 on 
"s kayaks exam9$1 s9ew la%+s are also   
f\nd4 ,! :ole framework is /rong1 light1
 & neatly made4 ,9 a few in/ances !     
gunwales d n fl>e ) ! sides ! :ole l5g? 
&1 ?us1 ne> ! /]n1 a knuckle is =m$ 9 ! 

sk9 cov]1 z 9 figure #bjg1 opposite4 ,! 
exact am\nt ( fl>e & deadrise v>ies     
village to village4 ,! old kayaks us$ 9 
ea/]n ,gre5l& _h m rake 9 ! b[ ?an !    
examples illu/rat$1 & also 7 m>k$ by a  
%e] almo/ /raight f ! b[ to )9 a foot or
 s ( ! /]n1 :]e x turn$ up %>ply to a   
high /]n1 z 9 ! draw+ 7fig4 #aia1 p4    
#bjc47 ,^! kayaks also _h less fl>e &   
deadrise ?an mo/ ( ! s\?we/]n ,gre5l&   
models4 ,! am\nt ( rock] 9 ! keelson    
v>ies a good deal1 t %[n 9 figure #bjf1 
opposite1 appe>s to h be5 ab\t !        
maximum2 a /raight keelson does n seem  
ev] to h be5 us$4 ,! manholes are fitt$ 
to all[ use ( ! wat]tight paddl+ jacket2
 ! project+ rim %[n at ! aft]-side ( !  
manhole 9 ! draw+ is prim>ily to /r5g!n 
! manhole rim1 b may also s]ve to prev5t
 ! draw/r+ hold+ ! skirt ( ! jacket to !
 rim f slipp+ ov] ! top4 ,?is old =m (  
,gre5l& kayak1 :i* has be5 widely       
describ$ & mu* admir$1 0 a fa/ & h&y    
hunt+ boat2 b x has become obsolete 9   
mo/ areas1 & seems to h gone out ( use m

 rapidly on ! ea/ coa/ ?an ! we/1 :]e ! 
type repres5t$ 9 ! draw+ 0 built z late 
z #aiei at ,umanak ,fjord4              
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bjc  ,,cockpit ( 
,gre5l& kayak f ,disko ,bay4 7,,usnm    
#gbefd74 7,smi?sonian photo #aegbf47    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bjd  ,,b[ ,,view 
( ,gre5l& kayak f ,disko ,bay 7,,usnm   
#gbefd74 7,smi?sonian photo #aegbf-;,a47
  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bje            
,,nor?we/]n ,,gre5l& ,,kayak1 9 ! ,u4,s4
 ,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjchh74    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bjf  ,,s\?we/]n  
,,gre5l& ,,kayak1 #ahhc1 9 ! ,u4,s4     
,national ,museum 7,,usnm #afjcbh74     
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bjg  ,,s\?we/]n  
,,gre5l& ,,kayak1 9 ! ,peabody ,museum1 
,salem1 ,mass4 ,tak5 (f by ! late       
,norman ,l4 ,sk5e1 #aiba4  ,illu/ration3
 ,figure #bjh  ,,s\? ,,gre5l& ,,kayak1 9
 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 
,s9ce ! #ahhj's x has be5 gradually     
replac$ by ! type %[n above4 ,! mod]n   
v]sion has ! same con/ruction z ! old b1
 z c be se51 ! model has und]gone mu*   

alt]ation4 ,! rake ( ! b[ & /]n h become
 mu* great]2 ! %e] is n[ almo/ /raight4 
,! fl>e ( ! sides has be5 increas$ & !  
deadrise 9 ! bottom has be5 r$uc$4 ,!   
new model is und\bt$ly an improvem5t ov]
 ! old type1 be+ fa/] 7p>ticul>ly aga9/ 
a headw9d7 & quick] turn+4 ,h[ev]1 x    
w\ld probably be f\nd to be some:at h>d]
 ?an ! old model to "r :5 capsiz$4 ,&   
al?\gh ! new model is m /able ?an ! old1
 x is n suit$ = unskill$ us]s2 a few    
,am]ican soldi]s dr[n$ dur+ ,_w ,w> ,,ii
 ?r\gh ra%ly v5tur+ into r\gh wat] be=e 
becom+ practic$ 9 ! use ( ^! kayaks4  ,!
 intricate arrangem5t ( deck la%+s %[n  
are requir$ to hold weapons &           
accessories4 ,j ahead ( ! paddl] a /& or
 tray on l[ legs holds ! coil$ h>poon   
l9e2 & "u ! deck la%+s are held su*     
weapons z ! lance1 d>ts1 & h>poons4     
,toggles ( bone or ivory1 (t5 c>v$1 are 
us$ to tight5 & adju/ ^! l9es4 ,!       
,gre5l& kayaks c>ry deck fitt+s & ge> t 
are f> bett] develop$ ?an ^? se5 9 any (
 ! we/]n types4     ,*apt] ,eight       

,,tempor>y ,,craft   ,use ( tempor>y    
craft seems to h be5 conf9$ to !        
,indians1 :o = ! mo/ "p built !m ( b>k1 
al?\gh "s tribes us$ sk9s4 ,h[ev]1 v    
little 9 ! way ( in=mation exi/s on !   
=ms us$ by ! individual tribes1 = e>ly  
travel]s did n always h opportunities to
 see ^! em]g5cy craft1 & :5 !y did !y   
r>ely took ! tr\ble to record _!        
con/ruction & design4   ,b>k ,canoes    
,!re is ample evid5ce to support !      
belief t a great _m ( ! tribes build+   
bir*-b>k canoes also us$ tempor>y canoes
 ( o!r b>ks su* z spruce & elm1 z has   
be5 m5tion$ 9 e>li] *apt]s4 ,inv>iably1 
! qualities ( ^! o!r b>ks1 p>ticul>ly   
spruce1 7 su* t _! use 0 (t5 some:at m  
labori\s & ! results less satisfactory  
?an ) bir*2 b ! necessities ( travel & !
 availability ( mat]ials 7 controll+    
factors1 & ) c>e spruce b>k c\ld be us$ 
to build a canoe almo/ z good z "o (    
bir* b>k4 ,! =ms ( ^! canoes d n appe>  
to h be5 z /&>diz$ z ! tribal =ms ( !   
bett]-built b>k canoes2 r1 ! model ( !  

tempor>y canoe 0 entirely a matt] to be 
decid$ by ! individual build] on ! basis
 ( ! importance ( ! tempor>y canoe to 8 
ne$s1 ! limitation on "t all[$ =        
con/ruction1 & ! mat]ial available4  ,! 
reasons = us+ sub/itute mat]ial are     
fairly obvi\s4 ,9 =e/ travel x 0 n      
always possible or practical to portage 
a canoe = a long di/ance simply to make 
a %ort wat] passage some:]e along !     
r\te4 ,w> p>ties & hunt]s1 !re=e1 (t5   
f\nd x necess>y to build a tempor>y     
canoe1 "o t c\ld be utiliz$ = a limit$  
wat] passage & !n ab&on$4 ,s9ce su* a   
limit$ use did n w>rant exp5diture ( mu*
 "t or labor on con/ruction1 ! canoe 0  
prep>$ quickly f readily available      
mat]ial & 9 ord] to meet ^! requirem5ts 
_m ,indian tribes develop$ canoe =ms &  
build+ te*niques some:at diff]5t f ! m  
elaborate con/ruction us+ bir* or spruce
 b>k4  ,x is obvi\s t mu* "t & "w c\ld  
be avoid$ by use ( a s+le l>ge %eet (   
b>k t 0 reasonably flexible & /rong4 ,b 
_m ( ! b>ks meet+ ?is specification _h a

 co>se longitud9al gra9 t split easily1 
s =m+ a canoe by cutt+ gores 0 out ( !  
"q4 ,?is difficulty 0 avoid$ by fold+1  
or crimp+1 ! b>k cov] along ! gunwales  
at two or m places on ea* side ( !      
canoe2 ?is p]mitt$ ! bottom to be       
flatt5$ a?w>t%ips & ! keel l9e to be    
rock]$1 bo? desirable 9 a canoe4  ,!    
problem ( clos+ ! ends also _h to be    
solv$4 ,?is 0 done by clamp+ ! ends ( ! 
b>k betwe5 two batt5s &1 p]haps1 a b>k  
cord z well1 & !n la%+ toge!r ! batt5s1 
b>k ends1 & cord ) wrapp+s ( root ?ongs4
 ,cord made f ! inn] b>k ( ! basswood & 
o!r trees c\ld also be us$ = ?is        
purpose4 ,! ends ( ! canoe c\ld !n be   
made wat]tight by a lib]al application (
 gum or tall[1 :ile grass1 %av+s1 moss1 
or inn] b>k mix$ ) gum or ev5 clay c\ld 
be us$ to fill ! l>g] op5+s t might     
appe> 9 hurri$ con/ruction4  ,obvi\sly1 
a simple wood /ructure 0 requir$ by !   
specifications4 ,!re=e1 ! gunwales 7    
usually made ( sapl+s ) _! butts r\ghly 
secur$ toge!r or splic$4 ,?is all[$ l5g?

 to be obta9$ )\t ! necessity ( work+   
d[n l>ge poles to usable dim5sions1 a   
labori\s & "t-consum+ und]tak+ )        
primitive tools4 ,! ?w>ts 7 commonly (  
sapl+s ) ! ends cut away s t ! ?9       
rema9d] c\ld be wrapp$ ar\nd ! ma9      
gunwales & la%$ und]nea? ! ?w>ts inbo>d4
 ,ribs 7 usually ( split sapl+s1 b !re  
is "s evid5ce t 9 v hurri$ly built      
canoes ! :ole small sapl+ 0 us$4 ,! k9d 
( %ea?+ employ$ 9 ^! canoes dur+ !      
pre-,columbian era is a my/]y4 ,x w\ld  
be q unlikely t "t 0 tak5 to split      
spl9ts su* z 7 us$ 9 ! late elm-&       
spruce-b>k canoes1 :5 /eel tools 7      
available4 ,! writ]s believe t = small  
canoes x may h be5 ! practice to use a  
second %eet ( /iff b>k inside ! fir/ &  
ext5d+ only ?r\gh ! middle two-?irds ( !
 l5g?1 across ! bottom & up above !     
bilge b %ort ( ! gunwales4 ,?is1 ) !    
ribs & a few poles la%$ to ea* rib along
 ! bottom1 w\ld h giv5 suffici5t        
longitud9al /r5g? & a /iff en\gh bottom 
= practical use4 ,h[ev]1 9 l>ge canoes (

 ! type reput$ly employ$ by ,iroquois   
w>riors1 a /rong] con/ruction seems     
necess>y1 & ^! canoes may h _h a numb] (
 split or :ole poles la%$ to ! ribs     
along ! bottom4  ,) small v>iations 9   
details1 ! g5]al con/ruction outl9$     
above 0 employ$ by _m ,nor? ,am]ican    
,indians = build+ tempor>y canoes =     
em]g5cy use4 ,9 at lea/ "o case1 h[ev]1 
x 0 also us$ 9 canoes ( some:at m       
p]man5t /atus )9 ! b\nd>ies ( ! p[]ful  
,iroquois ,conf$]ation4 ,on l>ge bodies 
( wat] )9 _! t]ritory1 ! ,iroquois us$  
dug\ts1 b = navigat+ /reams & = use 9   
raid+ _! enemies !y employ$ b>k canoes4 
,:ile "s bir* b>k 0 available !re1 x 0  
probably widely scatt]$2 !re=e ^! great 
w>riors us$ elm or o!r b>k = _! canoe   
build+4  ,e>ly ,fr5* acc\nts %[ t !     
,iroquois built b>k canoes ( great] size
 ?an ord9>y2 ,*ampla9 wrote t _! canoes 
7 ( oak b>k & 7 l>ge en\gh to c>ry up to
 #ah w>riors2 lat] ,fr5* acc\nts1 z we  
%all see1 indicate t ! ,iroquois us$ ev5
 l>g] canoes ?an ^!4 ,*ampla9 may h be5 

9 error ab\t ! ,iroquois use ( oak b>k1 
z sugge/$ e>li] 7p4 #g71 = exp]im5ts h  
%[n t ! inn] b>k ( ?is tree is too ?9 & 
weak = ! purpose2 ! canoes ,*ampla9 saw 
may h be5 built ( :ite or r$ elm b>k4 ,!
 b>ks ( ! butt]nut1 hickory1 :ite p9e1 &
 *e/nut might also h be5 employ$1 z !y 7
 usually suitable4  ,x 0 not$ by ! e>ly 
,fr5* writ]s t ! ,iroquois built _! b>k 
canoes v rapidly :5 ^! craft 7 requir$  
by a w> p>ty 9 ord] to attack _! enemies
 or to escape pursuit4 ,9 "o case at    
lea/ ! canoes = a w> p>ty 7 app>5tly    
built 9 a s+le day4 ,?is 0 accompli%$1 x
 seems1 by ! excell5t organization ( _! 
w> p>ties1 9 :i* e man 0 assign$ a duty1
 ev5 9 mak+ canoes4  ,:5 x 0 deem$      
necess>y to build a canoe1 c]ta9 w>riors
 7 to se>* out & obta9 ! necess>y       
mat]ials 9 ! ord] requir$ = con/ruction4
 ,to d ?is effectively1 !y _h to "k !   
mat]ials 9 ord] ( _! suitability = a    
giv5 purpose1 = ! mo/ desirable mat]ial 
might n be available at ! build+ site4  
,o!r w>riors prep>$ ! mat]ials =        

con/ruction1 scrap+ ! b>k1 mak+ ?ongs1 &
 r\gh-%ap+ ! wood4 ,o!rs built ! canoe1 
cutt+ & sew+ ! b>k1 & %ap+ & la%+ !     
woodwork4 ,^! duties1 too1 requir$      
intimate k ( ! diff]5t mat]ials t c\ld  
be us$ 9 canoe con/ruction4 ,x w\ld be  
natural1 ( c\rse1 to f9d t ! me?ods us$ 
to con/ruct a tempor>y craft = a w>-p>ty
 w\ld also be employ$ at home by ! hunt]
 or fi%]man1 ev5 :5 a r m p]man5t canoe 
0 desir$4 ,^! 7 small] craft & easily   
built4 ,only :5 a long-la/+ wat]craft 0 
desir$ w\ld ! b>k canoe be              
unsatisfactory2 !n ! dug\t c\ld be      
built4 ,! e>ly ,fr5* obs]v]s agree t    
?\gh ! ,iroquois occasionally us$       
bir*-b>k canoes1 ^! 7 acquir$ f _!      
neighbors by b>t] or capture & 7 n built
 by ! tribesm5 ( ! ,conf$]ation4  ,!    
details ( ! con/ruction ( elm canoes 7& 
( o!r b>k ?an bir*7 by ! ,iroquois are  
speculative1 s9ce no b>k canoe ( _!     
con/ruction has be5 pres]v$4 ,?is       
recon/ruction ( _! me?ods is1 !re=e1    
bas$ ^u ! incomplete acc\nts ( e>ly     

writ]s & ^u :at has be5 discov]$ ab\t ! 
con/ruction ( spruce-& elm-b>k tempor>y 
canoes by o!r ,ea/]n ,indians4  ,9 view 
( :at has be5 report$1 x mu/ be kept 9  
m9d t ! con/ruction 0 ha/y & t a m9imum 
( labor & "t 0 employ$2 h5ce1 !         
appe>ance ( ! elm-b>k canoe ( an        
,iroquois w>-p>ty _h none ( !           
gracefulness t is suppos$ to m>k !      
traditional w> canoe ( ! ,indians4 ,!   
ends are kn[n to h be5 squ>e1 t is1     
/raight 9 pr(ile1 & ! freebo>d l[4 ,!   
use ( sapl+s = ! gunwales w\ld cause an 
unev5 %e]1 & its am\nt mu/ h be5 small2 
! high1 graceful ends se5 9 "s bir*-b>k 
canoes did n exi/ 9 ! ,iroquois model4  
,! rock] ( ! bottom pr(ile 0 n a fair   
curve1 b 0 angul>1 made ( /raight l9es  
break+ "u ! folds1 or crimps1 9 ! b>k   
cov] at ! gunwales4 ,! am\nt ( b>k 9 ea*
 crimp & ! location ( ! crimps =e-&-aft 
w\ld det]m9e ! %ape ( ! bottom pr(ile & 
! am\nt ( rock]1 z well z ! flatness ( !
 bottom a?w>t%ips 9 ! midbody4 ,x appe>s
 t two crimps to ! side 7 employ$ 9 mo/ 

( ^! canoes1 b p]haps m1 say f\r to a   
side1 might h be5 employ$ 9 a v l>ge    
canoe4 ,! t5d5cy 9 =m+ ^! canoes mu/ h  
be5 t[>d an almo/ semicircul>           
midsection1 a condition :i* w\ld h      
produc$ an un/able craft if n *eck$4    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bji  ,,malecite  
,,& ,,iroquois ,,tempor>y ,,canoes4 ,!  
,iroquois #c-;fa?om elm-b>k canoe1 bel[1
 is design$ to c>ry t5 to twelve        
w>riors4  ,! e>ly ,fr5* writ]s agree t !
 canoes ( ,iroquois w> p>ties 7 sluggi% 
"u paddle4 ,?is 0 due to ! fact t ! hull
 =m ( ^! canoes 0 n good = spe$1 & also 
because ! bulges at ! bottom ( ! crimps 
caus$ !m to be m>k$ly unfair at & ne> ! 
wat]l9e4 ,?is h&icap 9 _! canoes may h  
be5 an inducem5t = ! ,iroquois to waylay
 _! victims at portages :5 ! travell]s 7
 usually spread out & easily cut d[n    
:ile burd5$ ) goods4 ,! ,algonk9 tribes 
c\nt]$ by mov+ 9 v l>ge numb]s :5 )9    
/rik+ di/ance ( ,iroquois raid]s4 ,h5ce 
!re 7 v few record$ in/ances ( battles 9
 canoes2 ^! took place only :5 sudd5    

meet+s occurr$ )\t prep>ation on ei!r   
side1 su* z :5 w> p>ties surpris$       
canoem5 9 n>r[ wat]s4 ,! %ortcom+s ( _! 
canoes did n s]i\sly affect ! deadl9ess 
( ! ,iroquois w>riors1 = _! usual       
practice 0 to raid 9 w9t]1 :5 !y c\ld   
travel rapidly on sn[%oes & surprise _! 
enemies 9 w9t] camps :olly unprep>$ =   
def5se1 a mo/ pleas+ prospect = !       
attack+ w>rior4  ,x w\ld be a mi/ake1   
h[ev]1 to assume t ^! factors made !    
,iroquois poor canoem52 ! ,fr5*         
repeat$ly /at$ t !y 7 capable 9 h&l+ _! 
craft & ran rapids ) great d>+ & skill1 
%[+ t ! app>5tly crude & weak elm-b>k   
canoes 7 f> bett] craft ?an !y fir/     
appe>$4  ,! !ory t ! ,iroquois type (   
canoe 0 v l ! em]g5cy or tempor>y elm-& 
spruce-b>k canoes ( neighbor+ tribes is 
support$ by "s /atem5ts ( ! e>ly ,fr5*  
writ]s1 z well z by a comp>ison ( ! r   
incomplete descriptions ( ,iroquois     
canoes by lat] travell]s ) :at is kn[n  
ab\t ! spruce & o!r tempor>y b>k canoes 
us$ 9 m rec5t times by ! ea/]n ,indians4

 ,m4 ,bacqueville de la ,pot]ie1 writ+ (
 ! adv5tures ( ,ni*olas ,p]rot 9 ! ye>s 
#affe to #afgj1 tells ( an in/ance 9 :i*
 ,p]rot's ,potawatomi mi/ook ! em]g5cy  
canoes ( "s ,outa\ais 7,ottawa7 =       
,iroquois canoes4  ,la,hontan 7#agjj7   
gives "s g5]al in=mation z well z       
specific op9ions on ! spe$ & seawor?9ess
 ( ,iroquois canoes1 say+ t--    !      
canoes ) :i* ! ,iroquois provide        
!mselves are s   unwieldy & l>ge t !y d 
n approa* ! spe$ ( ^?   :i* are made (  
bir* b>k4 ,!y are made ( elm b>k1 :i* is
   naturally heavy & ! %ape !y give !m  
is awkw>d2 !y are   s long & s broad t  
?irty m5 c r[ 9 !m1 two-by-two1   seat$ 
or /&+1 fifte5 to ea* rank1 b ! freebo>d
 is s   l[ t :5 any little w9d arises !y
 are s5sible en\gh n   to navigate !    
lakes 9 !m4  ,la,fiteau1 writ+ be=e     
#agbd1 /at$ def9itely t ! ,iroquois did 
n build any bir*-b>k canoes1 b obta9$ !m
 f _! neighbors1 & t ! ,iroquois elm-b>k
 canoes 7 v co>sely built ( a s+le l>ge 
%eet ( b>k1 crimp$ along ! gunwales1 ) !

 ends secur$ betwe5 batt5s ( split      
sapl+s4 ,he notic$ t ! gunwales1 ribs1 &
 ?w>ts 7 ( tree bran*es1 imply+ t ! b>k 
0 n remov$ f !m4 ,! mo/ detail$         
description 0 by a ,sw$i% travell]1     
,pr(essor ,ph] ,kalm1 :o gave ext5sive  
in=mation on ! con/ruction ( an elm-b>k 
canoe 9 #agdi2 ?is acc\nt is p>ticul>ly 
useful :5 int]pret$ 9 relation to !     
spruce-& elm-b>k canoes ( ! ea/]n       
,indians4 ,x is ^u ! basis ( ,kalm's    
acc\nt t ! proc$ures us$ to build an    
,iroquois w> canoe h be5 recon/ruct$4   
,! b>k mo/ favor$ by ! ,iroquois 0 t ( !
 :ite elm4 ,next mo/ favor$ 0 r$ elm1 & 
!n o!r b>ks--c]ta9 ( ! hickories &      
*e/nut are m5tion$ 9 v>i\s e>ly         
ref]5ces4 ,x 0 necess>y to f9d a tree ( 
suffici5t gir? & height to ! fir/ limbs 
to give a s\nd & fairly smoo? b>k %eet 9
 ! l5g? & bread? requir$4 ,if possible !
 b>k 0 /ripp$ f ! /&+ tree2 ev5 aft]    
/eel tools 7 available1 fell+ 0 avoid$ =
 fe> ( h>m+ ! b>k4 ,great c>e _h to be  
tak5 9 ! op]ation1 to avoid splitt+ or  

mak+ holes 9 ! b>k1 & (t5 two or m trees
 _h to be /ripp$ be=e a good %eet ( b>k 
0 obta9$4 ,9 w>m wea!r ! b>k c\ld be    
remov$ )\t mu* difficulty1 b 9 ! spr+ & 
fall x might be necess>y to apply heat2 
?is 0 app>5tly done by means ( tor*es or
 by ! application ( hot wat] to ! tree  
trunk4  ,:5 ! b>k 0 remov$ f ! tree1 !  
r\gh out] b>k 0 scrap$ away2 if ! build]
 0 hurri$ ?is scrap+ 0 conf9$ to ! areas
 to be sewn or fold$4 ,! b>k 0 !n laid  
on a cle>$ piece ( gr\nd1 ! build+ b$1 )
 ! outside ( ! b>k up1 s t x w\ld be    
inside ! f9i%$ boat4 ,! build+ b$ does n
 appe> to h requir$ mu* prep>ation2     
app>5tly n rais$ at midl5g?1 x 0 m]ely a
 plot ( reasonably smoo? gr\nd1 locat$ 9
 ! %ade ( a l>ge tree if build+ 0 to be 
done 9 summ]4  ,x is n :olly cle> f !   
descriptions :e!r ! gunwales 7 %ap$ be=e
 or aft] be+ secur$ to ! b>k4 ,h[ev]1   
ext5sive exp]im5ts 9 build+ model canoes
 %[ v pla9ly t x w\ld be easie/ to      
assemble ! ma9 gunwale frame & use x 9  
build+1 aft] ! fa%ion ( ea/]n bir*-b>k  

canoe con/ruction4 ,) ! ma9 gunwales    
assembl$1 ! /akes w\ld be plac$ on ! b$1
 ! b>k replac$1 ! frame laid on x &     
weight$1 & ! /akes !n r$riv5 9 ! usual  
way & _! heads la%$ toge!r 9 pairs4     
,ea* gunwale 0 =m$ ei!r ( two small     
sapl+s or ( split poles1 ) ! butts sc>f$
 at ! canoe's midl5g?4 ,! canoe ( an    
,iroquois w> p>ty w\ld probably h       
gunwales ( split sapl+s s t inwale &    
outwale = half ! l5g? ( "o side ( !     
canoe w\ld be f a s+le pole2 ?is w\ld   
all[ ! flat sides to be plac$ opposite  
"o ano!r1 on ea* side ( ! edge ( ! b>k1 
to =m a firm gunwale /ructure4 ,h[ev]1  
:5 a r p]man5t craft 0 be+ built1 !     
poles might be split twice1 or qu>t]$1  
to give pieces to make half ( ! gunwales
 ( a canoe2 ^! too might be work$ ne>ly 
r\nd be=e assembly4  ,t ! gunwale jo9ts 
7 sc>f$ is reasonably c]ta94 ,! elm-b>k 
canoes ( ! ,/4 ,francis ,indians are    
kn[n only f a model1 z are ! spruce-b>k 
hunt]s' canoes ( ! ,malecite1 b !       
te/imony ( old ,/4 ,francis & ,malecite 

build]s support ! evid5ce ( ! models2   
!re=e x is probable t ! use ( sc>f$     
gunwales 0 common 9 ^! canoes1 &1 h5ce1 
also 9 ! canoes ( ! ,iroquois1 :o dwelt 
ne>by4 ,! mann] ( sc>f+ is n c]ta94     
,probably ! butts 7 sni$ (f s t ! lap   
w\ld be flat face1 z 0 usual 9 !        
,malecite spruce-b>k canoes ( ?is same  
class4 ,! butts 7 secur$ toge!r by      
la%+s--app>5tly let into %all[ grooves  
ar\nd ! memb]s4 ,9 a v ha/ily built     
canoe ! butts might be m]ely lapp$ = a  
%ort di/ance1 "o butt above ! o!r1 &    
la%$2 ?is1 ( c\rse1 w\ld make a jog 9 ! 
%e]1 b d no h>m1 z ! jog w\ld occur 9   
bo? inwale & outwale1 & ! b>k w\ld lay  
up betwe5 ^! & be trimm$ to suit4  ,!   
?w>ts 7 describ$ 9 old acc\nts z v small
 sapl+s1 or tree bran*es1 ) _! ends     
%>ply r$uc$ 9 ?ickness s t !y 7 ?9 &    
pliable en\gh to be b5t ar\nd ! gunwales
 & br\ght inbo>d "u ! ?w>t1 z done by "s
 ,kut5ai 9 ! ,we/ 7see p4 #afi74 ,! ?w>t
 ends might be la%$ or1 z 9 "s ea/]n    
spruce-b>k canoes1 br\ght up ?r\gh a    

hole 9 ! ?w>ts to ! top :]e x c\ld be   
jamm$ or la%$4 ,9 ! ,iroquois canoe x   
seems probable t ! ?w>t ends pass$ ar\nd
 ! ma9 gunwales only & 7 secur$ "u !    
?w>ts =1 z not$1 ! evid5ce /rongly      
sugge/s t ! ma9 gunwale memb]s 7        
preassembl$1 a proc$ure t requires !    
?w>ts to be 9 place4 ,9 ! small hunt]s' 
canoes1 h[ev]1 "s ea/]n build]s app>5tly
 put 9 a tempor>y spread] 9 place ( a   
s+le ?w>t until ! canoe 0 complet$ to ! 
po9t :]e ! outwales 7 9 place1 !n !     
?w>ts 7 add$1 ! ends pass+ ov] & ar\nd  
bo? inwale & outwale & ?r\gh ! b>k cov] 
bel[1 to ! und]side ( ! ?w>t4  ,"o      
requirem5t 9 build+ ^! canoes 0 to crimp
 ! edges ( ! b>k at ! gunwales 9 su*    
mann] t ! bottom ( ! canoe w\ld be      
rock]$ & at ! same "t w\ld be m\ld$     
a?w>t%ips4 ,fir/ /eps 9 ! process 7 to  
set into ! build+ b$ two heavy /akes on 
ea* side ( ! /ems1 a little inbo>d ( !  
ends1 & to tie ! heads ( ea* pair toge!r
 ) a heavy b>k cord or a ra:ide ?ong4   
,!n a sl+ 0 made1 ! bight ( :i* w5t "u !

 bottom ( ! b>k cov] ne> its ends1 & !  
ends ( ! sl+ 7 made fa/ to ! heads ( !  
/akes4 ,by tak+ up on ^! sl+s1 ! ends ( 
! b>k cov] 7 %>ply lift$ & !n ! fold+ ( 
! b>k along ! gunwales c\ld be easily   
accompli%$1 z !y !n =m$ naturally1 )\t  
/ra94 ,! crimps 7 commonly locat$ a f\r?
 to a fif? ! l5g? ( ! canoe inbo>d ( !  
ends1 ab\t :]e ! end ?w>ts w\ld be      
locat$4 ,9 small hunt]s' canoes ! end   
?w>ts 7 (t5 replac$ by twi/$ cords      
across ! gunwales1 b 9 ! l>ge ,iroquois 
canoes !re 7 probably five or sev5 or   
p]haps z _m z n9e ?w>ts accord+ to l5g?4
  ,! ends ( ! gunwales 7 simply la%$    
toge!r ) cords or ?ongs 9 %all[ grooves 
to prev5t slipp+4 ,!y 7 rais$ by a small
 inside po/1 its heel plac$ on ! b>k ne>
 ! /em & its head br\ght "u ! gunwales1 
s t x s]v$ ! purpose ( a headbo>d 9 %e]+
 ! gunwales4  ,! proc$ure 9 build+ to   
?is po9t1 !n1 appe>$ to foll[ ! g5]al   
plan us$ 9 bir*-b>k con/ruction4 ,next1 
! /akes 7 r$riv5 9 ! b$ ar\nd ! gunwale 
frame1 :i* 0 weight$ on ! b>k ) /ones1 &

 ! sides ( ! b>k cov] 7 br\ght upright4 
,app>5tly only a few /akes 7 consid]$   
necess>y--?ree or f\r to a side & two   
pairs ( end /akes to raise ! /ems4 ,!   
gunwale frame 0 !n lift$ to ! requir$   
height ( side & la%$ tempor>ily to !    
side /akes1 ! ends ( ! b>k cov] 7 creas$
 to =m b[ & /]n1 & ! headbo>d po/s 7    
ins]t$ to support ! ends ( ! inwales &  
to %e] ! canoe4 ,be=e ?is1 ( c\rse1 !   
ends ( ! b>k cov] _h be5 rais$ by means 
( ! sl+s to ! end /akes4  ,! outwales ( 
split sapl+s 7 n[ put into place1 ) !   
edges ( ! b>k cov] la%$ betwe5 ! flat   
surfaces ( ! inwale & outwale1 !        
gunwales hav+ be5 assembl$ ) ! flat face
 ( ! longitud9al memb]s outbo>d4 ,!     
la%+s 7 9 small gr\ps spac$ #e to #g    
in*es ap>t s z n to split ! b>k1 & ^! n 
only secur$ ! b>k 9 place b also held ! 
inwales & outwales tightly toge!r1 to   
clamp ! edges ( ! b>k cov]4 ,at ! ?w>ts1
 ! outwales 7 not*$ on _! inbo>d face to
 all[ !m to come up aga9/ ! b>k press$  
aga9/ ! face ( ! inwales 79 "s ea/]n    

canoes ! b>k cov] 0 not*$ at ! ?w>t ends
 to lay up smoo?ly !re1 & ?is may h also
 be5 done 9 ! ,iroquois canoes74 ,9     
plac+ ! outwales1 ! crimps 7 c>efully   
=m$ & held by ! clamp+ action ( ! inwale
 & outwale1 & re9=c$ by a la%+ ?r\gh !  
crimp or by two la%+s close to ! sides (
 ! fold4 ,! fold ( ! b>k =c$ ! outwale  
away f ! inwale1 & al?\gh ?is 0         
c\nt]act$ to "s ext5t by ! la%+s1 !     
gunwales 7 unfair at ^! po9ts4 ,! crimps
 7 =m$ s t ! maximum fold 9 ! b>k took  
place at ! gunwales2 bel[ ?is ! fold    
tap]$ away to no?+1 end+ l[ 9 ! side )  
an irregul> bulge 9 ! b>k4 ,su* a bulge 
c\ld only be avoid$ by gor+1 :i* is     
impractical ) elm1 p9e1 *e/nut1 or      
hickory b>ks4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure    
#baj  ,,hickory-,,b>k ,,canoe ,,"u      
,,con/ruction1 %[+ ! sl+ ) :i* ! ends   
are elevat$ & ! crimp :i* takes up !    
slack 9 ! sides ( ! b>k4 ,excess b>k    
above ! gunwales to be trimm$ (f4       
,complet$ model 9 ,! ,m>9]s' ,museum1   
,newport ,news1 ,va4  ,illu/ration3     

,figure #baa  ,,detail ,,( ,,?w>t us$ 9 
,malecite tempor>y spruce-b>k canoe4  ,!
 ends ( ! canoe 7 clos$1 z has be5      
m5tion$1 by use ( split-sapl+ batt5s on 
! outside ( ! b>k4 ,! ,iroquois & "s o!r
 build]s also employ$ at ! /ems a ?ong  
or a twi/$ cord made ( ! inn] b>k ( "s  
su* tree z ! basswood2 ?is 0 wrapp$     
ar\nd ! ends ( ! b>k cov] abrea/ !      
headbo>d po/s inside ! canoe1 s t ! la%+
 /ood v]tically4 ,!n ! split batt5s 7   
plac$ on ea* side ( ! b>k cov]1 j       
outbo>d ( ! cord1 & ! :ole 0 secur$ by a
 co>se spiral la%+ ( root or ra:ide1 :i*
 pass$ inbo>d ( ! cord la%+ & ! headbo>d
 po/1 z well z ar\nd !m & ! split batt5s
 outside ( ! b>k cov]4 ,"s build]s      
app>5tly add$ a split-root batt5 ov] !  
edges ( ! b>k cov]1 z a sort ( /em-b&2  
?is 0 secur$ by ! turns ( ! /em closure 
la%+1 :i* pass$ ar\nd !m z well z !     
edges ( ! b>k & ! split side batt5s4 ,x 
c be se5 t ?is closure =m$ a /rong /em  
/ructure4 ,wat]tightness 0 insur$ by    
m]ely =c+ clay into ! /ems f ! inside1  

or by =c+ 9 a wad ( ! p\nd$ inn] b>k ( a
 dead r$ elm :i* w\ld swell :5 damp4    
,/ill o!r me?ods includ$ ! use ( grass  
or moss impregnat$ ) w>m tall[ f ! cook+
 pot4 ,if available1 ! /ems w\ld be     
lib]ally sme>$ ) spruce or o!r gum1 (   
c\rse4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bab      
,,iroquois ,,elm-,,b>k ,,canoe1 aft] a  
draw+ ( #ahdi1 equipp$ ) paddles = a    
crew ( six1 ) own]s' p]sonal m>ks on    
blades4 ,l5g? ( canoe #be feet1 )       
capacity = a w> p>ty ( a doz5 or m m54  
,note support+ piece ( cord ti$ 9 ) !   
end batt5s4 ,f> gunwales are improp]ly  
sket*$4  ,:ile ! ribs 7 cu/om>ily tree  
bran*es or small sapl+s1 9 "s canoes !  
sapl+s 7 split & b5t s _! flat face 0   
aga9/ ! b>k4 ,9 ! ,ea/1 hunt]s' canoes 7
 (t5 giv5 ! la?-l ribs ( ! bir*-b>k     
canoes1 = :5 /eel tools became available
 su* ribs 7 easily made dur+ ! w9t] =   
use 9 ! spr+1 :5 ! tempor>y canoe w\ld  
be ne$$4  ,accord+ to ! e>ly reports1 ! 
ribs 7 plac$ "s #f to #aj in*es ap>t 9 !
 b>k cov]1 ) ! heads =c$ "u ! inwales   

aga9/ ! b>k1 & 7 support$ !re by !      
outwales z well4 ,no m5tion is made (   
any %ea?+2 ,kalm ref]s to a piece ( b>k 
& "s sapl+s or tree bran*es laid ov] !  
ribs to protect ! bottom inbo>d4 ,9 !   
l>ge ,iroquois canoes x w\ld h be5      
possible & practical to employ a piece (
 b>k inside ! ma9 b>k cov]1 z not$ on   
page #bac2 ?is inside piece ne$$ to be  
only long en\gh to rea* to ! end ?w>ts1 
or abrea/ ! crimps1 & wide en\gh to cov]
 ! bottom & bilges up to #c or #d in*es 
%ort ( ! inwales4 ,) ! ribs ov] ?is inn]
 %eet1 a /iff bottom w\ld result4 ,9 a  
long canoe1 split poles c\ld be laid    
l5g?wise inside ! bottom ( ! canoe &    
fa/5$ !re by la%+ !m to a few ribs2 ^!  
w\ld s]ve to protect ! bottom 9 load+ & 
to /iff5 ! b>k cov]4 ,h[ev]1 9 a small  
canoe ! /iffness ( elm b>k :5 ! r\gh    
outside lay] 0 n fully scrap$ (f w\ld   
make %ea?+ ( any k9d unnecess>y1 & ! b>k
 mat inside ! ribs1 m5tion$ by ,kalm1   
w\ld be suffici5t4  ,! difficulty 9     
recon/ruct+ ! build+ me?ods ( ! l>ge    

,iroquois canoes on ! same basis is t   
,kalm's description is ( a r small      
canoe2 ! in=mation on ! tempor>y canoes 
( ! ea/]n ,indians also deals ) %ort    
craft4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t poles 7 n 
usually plac$ betwe5 ! b>k & ! ribs1 z 9
 tempor>y sk9 canoes built by ,indians4 
,x is also app>5t t spl9ts 7 n us$ by ! 
,iroquois = %ea?+ l>ge canoes4  ,! ends 
( ! outwales 9 ! ,iroquois canoes seem  
to h be5 secur$ by sny+ !m (f on !      
outside face & hold+ ^! ?9 ends by !    
cord ar\nd ! ends1 z well z by ! closure
 batt5s ( ! /ems4 ,9 "s ea/]n canoes1   
notably ! elm-b>k canoes ( ! ,/4        
,francis1 ! outwale ends project$       
slightly outbo>d ( ! /ems & 7 la%$      
across !m by a simple a?w>t%ip la%+ :i* 
pass$ ?r\gh ! b>k cov] & "u & ov] ! la%+
 at ! inwale ends4  ,9 a draw+ ( an     
,iroquois canoe made ab\t #ahdi1 ! cord 
ar\nd ! /ems is %[n toge!r ) ! outside  
/em batt5s & la%+2 ! ends ( ! outwales  
are app>5tly "u ! cord & p]haps "u ! /em
 batt5s4 ,! /em batt5 is 9 "o piece     

%>ply b5t "u ! /ems 9 ,u-=m4 ,! end la%+
 %[n seems to be 9 gr\ps & ! bottom1 = a
 little di/ance inbo>d ( ! /ems1 is also
 %[n z la%$4 ,?ree ?w>ts are %[n4 ,x may
 be t ?is draw+ 0 made n f a full-size  
canoe b f a model1 = ! proportions are  
obvi\sly incorrect4 ,?is possibility    
ca/s "s d\bt on ! picture z evid5ce ( ! 
build+ practices1 = 9 ,indian-built     
models simplifi$ con/ruction details n  
us$ 9 actual canoe build+ are (t5 f\nd4 
,accord+ to e>ly acc\nts & ! /atem5ts ( 
ea/]n ,indians1 ^! em]g5cy canoes 7 (t5 
heavy & unsuitable = portag+4 ,by #agej1
 at lea/1 ! ,iroquois 7 us+ blanket     
squ>e-sails 9 _! elm-b>k canoes4   ,sk9 
,boats  ,among ! o!r =ms ( tempor>y or  
em]g5cy canoes us$ by ,nor? ,am]ican    
,indians1 ! mo/ widespread 0 "s =m ( sk9
 boat4 ,^! w\ld n require description "h
 7 x n = ! fact t ! ,indian sk9 boats 7 
usually built by b>k-canoe me?ods (     
con/ruction r ?an by me?ods su* z us$ by
 ! ,eskimo4 ,to build _! sk9            
boats--kayaks & umiaks--! ,eskimo fir/  

con/ruct$ a complete framework1 & ?is 0 
!n cov]$ ) sk9s sewn to fit4 ,?is       
process ( build+ requir$ a rigid        
framework capable ( n only /&+ )\t a sk9
 cov]+ b also ( giv+ bo? longitud9al &  
transv]se /r5g? suffici5t to )/& load+1 
)\t ! slighte/ support f ! sk9 cov]+4   
,h5ce1 ! framework ( ! ,eskimo craft 0  
made ) ! memb]s rigidly la%$ & pegg$    
toge!r4 ,! majority ( ,indian sk9       
canoes1 h[ev]1 requir$ ! cov]+ to hold !
 framework toge!r1 z 9 a bir*-b>k canoe4
 ,an example is ! ,malecite sk9-cov]$   
hunt]s' canoe4 ,accord+ to available    
in=mation1 ! ,malecite hunt] w\ld leave 
two or ?ree moose sk9s on /ret*]s = use 
9 build+ a sk9 canoe 9 ! e>ly spr+4     
,sometimes ! hair 0 remov$ f ! hides &  
sometimes x 0 n4 ,sp>e "t dur+ ! w9t]   
hunt might be sp5t 9 prep>+ ! wood5     
framework1 b if ?is 7 n done ! delay    
w\ld n be v great4  ,! gunwale frame 0  
fir/ made ( f\r small sapl+ poles r\ghly
 sc>f$ at ! butts4 ,f a small sapl+ a   
middle ?w>t 0 made 9 ! mann] ( ! elm-b>k

 canoe ?w>ts1 ! ends tap]$ en\gh to all[
 !m to be wrapp$ ar\nd ! gunwales &     
secur$ "u ! ?w>t by la%+s4 ,! ends ( !  
gunwales 7 m]ely cross$ & la%$4 ,:]e end
 ?w>ts w\ld be plac$1 x 0 usual to use a
 cross tie made ( twi/$ ra:ide or cords 
( b>k fib]4 ,holes 7 !n drill$ at       
int]vals 9 ! und]side ( ! gunwale to    
take ! heads ( ! ribs4 ,/em-pieces ab\t 
#c feet long 7 prep>$ ( %ort sapl+s &   
b5t to ! desir$ pr(ile2 "o build] us$ a 
full-l5g? keel-piece1 in/ead ( ! %ort   
/em-pieces4 ,! ribs 7 usually ( small   
sapl+s t c\ld be b5t gre5 )\t ! use (   
hot wat]4 ,= %ea?+ a numb] ( small      
sapl+s 7 also ga!r$1 & f !m 7 made poles
 9 l5g?s ab\t equal to ?ree-qu>t]s1 or a
 little m1 ( ! int5d$ l5g? ( ! canoe1   
:i* w\ld be det]m9$ by ! size ( ! sk9s  
available4 ,! av]age canoe 0 ab\t #ab   
feet long1 r\ghly #dj in*es beam1 & #ad 
to #ai in*es 9 dep?4  ,! sk9s 7 sewn    
toge!r l5g?wise1 lapp$ ab\t #f in*es or 
a little less1 & secur$ by a d\ble r[ ( 
/it*+4 ,if ! hair _h n be5 remov$1 x _h 

to be scrap$ away along ! sewn edges4 ,9
 su* a case ! hair w\ld usually be on ! 
outside ( ! f9i%$ canoe4 ,also1 be=e "w 
0 />t$ on assembl+ a canoe1 ! sk9s 7    
work$ pliable1 & tall[ & gum 7          
accumulat$4  ,:5 an em]g5cy canoe 0     
ready to be assembl$ a smoo? place 0    
prep>$2 ei!r an op5 bit ( gr\nd or !    
floor ( ! hunt]'s hut1 if l>ge en\gh1   
might be us$4 ,! outl9es ( ! gunwales 7 
fix$ by a few /akes tempor>ily driv5    
ar\nd x & !n pull$ up4 ,! sk9s 7 !n laid
 on ! b$ & ! gunwale frame plac$ on !m &
 weight$ ) /ones4 ,!n ! sk9s 7 left to  
dry = a:ile until !y became some:at     
/iff2 ! prop] condition 0 indicat$ by ! 
curl+ ( ! edges4  ,:5 ! sk9 0           
suffici5tly /iff1 ! gunwale frame 0     
lift$ & tempor>ily secur$ to ! /akes    
r$riv5 9 ! b$1 ! sides ( ! sk9 7 turn$  
up1 ! sk9 0 gor$1 & sometimes ! ends ( !
 gunwales 7 %e]$ up slightly at ! end   
/akes2 ?is latt] 0 n always done1 = 9 "s
 canoes ! %e] 0 q flat4  ,! sk9s 7 n[   
trimm$ to ! %e] ( ! gunwales & ! edges  

la%$ to ^! memb]s ) ra:ide1 ! gores also
 hav+ be5 sewn4 ,next ! /em-pieces 7 put
 into place & ! /em heads la%$ inside ! 
apex =m$ by ! ends ( ! gunwales4 ,"s    
ribs 7 !n b5t & =c$ d[n on ! /iff sk9   
cov]1 ! rib ends be+ work$ into ! holes 
prep>$ = !m on ! und]side ( ! gunwales4 
,^! ribs usually /ood approximately     
squ>e to ! curve1 or rock]1 ( ! bottom4 
,n[ ! sk9 c\ld be trimm$ to ! /em       
pr(iles & sewn4 ,! /it*+ 0 usually done 
s z to be outside ! /em-pieces1 ) an    
occasional turn go+ ar\nd inside !m to  
help hold ! /ructure 9 place4 ,"s       
build]s fir/ put 9 ! /ems tempor>ily &  
!n trimm$ ! sk9s to mat*2 aft] ?is 0    
done ! /em-pieces 7 remov$ to all[ easy 
sew+4 ,:5 !y 7 replac$ & secur$         
p]man5tly1 a few m /it*es 7 add$ along !
 /ems to secure ! woodwork4  ,! next /ep
 0 to %ea? ! canoe inside ) ! small     
poles2 ^! 7 plac$ a few in*es ap>t      
transv]sely & _! ends work$ "u ! mo/    
inbo>d ( ! ribs on ! /em-pieces1 !n held
 9 place1 :ile ! necess>y adju/m5ts 7   

made1 by a few tempor>y ribs4 ,!n ! ribs
 7 =c$ into place1 "o by "o1 ea* preb5t 
to ! desir$ section1 j z 9 bir*-b>k     
canoe con/ruction4 ,9 ?is f9al %ap+1 !  
sk9 cov] might h to be wett$ aga9 to    
s(t5 ! mat]ial & to all[ /ret*+4 ,!     
seams 7 !n pay$ ) gum or tall[1 & !     
canoe 0 ready = laun*+4  ,! description 
is = canoes ( m9imum f9i%2 build]s (t5  
us$ split & %ap$ gunwales1 split ribs1 &
 spl9t %ea?+ if ^! c\ld be prep>$ dur+ !
 w9t]4 ,! con/ruction ( a sk9 canoe 0 n 
a specializ$ process 9 :i* a hunt]      
consi/5tly built ?is "o type2 !         
selection 0 det]m9$ by natural          
conditions4 ,if he 7 to come out ( !    
woods too e>ly 9 ! spr+ to make !       
con/ruction ( a spruce-b>k canoe easy1  
!n he w\ld resort to sk9 con/ruction2 ! 
/atem5ts ( old ,malecite hunt]s leads to
 ! conclusion t z em]g5cy craft !y us$  
spruce-b>k canoes mo/ (t54  ,p]haps !   
mo/ primitive ( ! sk9 boats built by !  
,nor? ,am]ican ,indian 0 ! s-call$      
bull-boat ( ! ,pla9s ,indians4 ,^! 7 n  

canoes b coracles--b[l-%ap$ & suitable  
only = use on /reams1 :]e f]ry+ w\ld be 
! ma9 requirem5t4 ,! boats 7 cov]$ )    
buffalo-hides & _! framework 0 usually  
made ( ! will[ %oots f\nd along !       
/reams4 ,! framework foll[$1 to "s ext5t
 at lea/1 ! basketwork pr9ciple1 a      
circul> gunwale or rim be+ us$4 ,! ribs 
7 set 9 two gr\ps1 half at "r angles to 
! o!r half 9 v irregul> fa%ion4 ,?is    
con/ruction =m$ a sort ( r\gh grat+ 9 ! 
bottom4 ,! ribs 7 la%$ toge!r ) ra:ide &
 app>5tly ! craft 0 built up on ! sk9 z 
7 ! ,malecite sk9 canoes4 ,batt5s 9     
circul> =m 7 us$ on ! sides to fair !   
cov]4 ,! =m ( ! bull-boat v>i$ some:at  
among individual build]s2 sometimes x   
assum$ almo/ a di% %ape ) %all[ fl>+    
sides1 b m commonly ! sides 7 ne>ly     
upright2 ! bottom 0 always flat1 or     
ne>ly s4 ,^! bull-boats appe> always to 
h be5 small4 ,judg+ by ! examples       
pres]v$1 a bull-boat #e feet ov] ! rim  
or gunwale1 or made ( m ?an "o sk91 0   
extremely r>e1 & mo/ examples are ne>]  

#d feet & built on a s+le sk94 ,_m 7 too
 small to c>ry a p]son2 ^! 7 int5d$ to  
be load$ ) c>go to be kept dry & t[$ by 
a swimm]4 ,:5 !y 7 l>ge en\gh to be     
paddl$1 ! paddl] work$ ov] ! b[1 z 9 a  
coracle4 ,probably all ! ,pla9s ,indians
 liv+ ne> /reams once us$ ! bull-boat1 b
 exi/+ records %[ only ! ,m&an1 ,omaha1 
,kansas1 ,hidatsa1 & ,ass9ibo9 to h us$ 
x4 ,! ,blackfoot 7,siksika7 & ,dakota   
are said to h us$ "s k9d ( a sk9 boat 9 
:i* _! tepee poles 7 employ$ z a        
tempor>y frame1 b no?+ is record$ ( _!  
=m4  ,! use ( spruce b>k z a build+     
mat]ial 9 ! ,nor?we/ & ?r\gh\t ! extreme
 nor!rn range ( ! bir*-b>k canoe has be5
 discuss$ 9 e>li] *apt]s 7pp4 #aee to   
#aeh74 ,9 ^! areas1 ! em]g5cy canoe 0   
usually built ( c>ib\ sk94 ,on !        
,alaskan coa/ seal sk9 may also h be5   
us$1 b g5]ally x 0 us$ = ! p]man5t      
kayak-type canoe & n = a ha/ily built   
tempor>y craft4 ,! c>ib\-sk9 canoe 0    
also built z a p]man5t type1 9 ei!r     
kayak =m or some:at on ! model ( !      

spruce-or bir*-b>k canoe ( ! area4      
,h[ev]1 al?\gh ref]5ces to tempor>y     
craft cov]$ ) c>ib\ sk9 exi/ 9 e>ly     
acc\nts ( ! fur trade1 !re is no record 
( _! =m or details ( _! con/ruction4    
,e>ly 9 ! pres5t c5tury "s ( ! ,indians 
( ! ,mack5zie ,riv] c\ntry built sk9    
canoes mu* l ! mod]n canvas-cov]$       
freight canoes4 ,also1 "s ( ^! sk9      
canoes 7 built s t !y resembl$ ,york    
boats or ! :aleboats ( ! :ite man4 ,no  
obs]v] has describ$ ! me?ods us$ to     
con/ruct ! em]g5cy canoe ( ! ,nor?we/2  
we d n "k :e!r !y resemble ^? us$ 9 !   
,indian b>k canoe or 9 ! ,eskimo sk9    
boat4     ,retrospect   ,9 view ( !     
inclusion ( sk9 boats 9 ?is discussion (
 b>k canoes1 x may be well to emphasize 
aga9 ! fact t ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indian's
 me?od ( con/ruct+ b>k canoes & (       
tempor>y sk9 canoes 0 on an entirely    
diff]5t pr9ciple ?an t us$ by ! ,eskimo 
9 build+ _! sk9 boats4 ,?is is ev5 true 
( ! kayak-=m b>k canoes ( ! ,nor?we/1   
despite _! sup]ficial simil>ity 9 design

 & proportions to ! ,eskimo sk9 kayak4  
,z has be5 /at$1 ! ,eskimo con/ruction  
requir$ a rigid frame1 ) all memb]s     
fa/5$ toge!r ) la%+s & pegs1 ! sk9 cov] 
be+ m]ely ! wat]tight envelope & n a    
/r5g? memb]4 ,?is sy/em ( con/ruction   
m>ks primitive sk9-boat design 9 mo/    
p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! ,indian b>k con/ruction1
 on ! o!r h&1 did n h a rigid frame1 &  
all b a few ( ! /ructural memb]s 7 held 
9 place by pressure alone3 ! %ea?+ 0    
held aga9/ ! b>k cov] by pressure ( !   
ribs2 ! /em-pieces1 9 mo/ cases1 7 held 
9 place by pressure ( ! ribs1 gunwale   
%e]+1 or headbo>ds4 ,9 fact )\t ! b>k   
cov] 9 place1 ! great] "p ( ! wood5     
/ructure ( ! b>k canoe w\ld collapse4 ,n
 only 0 ! b>k cov] ! fundam5tal basis ( 
con/ruction1 x 0 to a great ext5t a     
/r5g? memb]1 ?\gh by clev] design !     
load+ ( ! b>k 0 m9imiz$4  ,?is          
fundam5tal diff]5ce 9 con/ruction mu/ be
 recogniz$ 9 comp>isons ( ,eskimo &     
,nor? ,am]ican ,indian wat]craft4 ,"h1  
too1 x might be obs]v$ t "o %\ld view ) 

skepticism any claim t widespread       
simil>ity ( c]ta9 /ructural practices is
 evid5ce ( "s anci5t connection betwe5  
types ( canoes4 ,9 mo/ cases ^!         
simil>ities 7 impos$ by ! work+         
*>act]i/ics ( ! mat]ials employ$4       
,simil>ly1 limitations 9 mat]ials       
available = con/ruction h _! effect ^u  
build+ te*niques4  ,! practice ( employ+
 pressure memb]s 9 b>k-canoe            
con/ruction1 p>ticul>ly :]e bir* b>k 0  
employ$1 0 ! result ( ! ne$ to /ret* ?is
 mat]ial by g5tle & widespread pressure1
 :]eas ! sk9 cov] c\ld be /ret*$ by !   
conc5trat$ pull ( /it*+ alone1 or by =ce
 appli$ 9 a small area4 ,b>k canoes     
built 9 areas :]e sk9-kayak con/ruction 
is c>ri$ on ne>by %[ a great] rigidity (
 /ructure4 ,?us1 9 ! l[] ,yukon ,valley 
9 ,alaska ! bottom frame ( ! canoes     
built !re 0 a rigidly con/ruct$ unit1   
ev5 ?\gh ! side longitud9als 7 held 9   
place by rib pressure alone4 ,& x is    
reasonable to !orize t ! ,malecite1 :o  
?r\gh habit /ill employ$ b>k-canoe      

con/ruction practices 9 build+ _! sk9   
craft1 w\ld h ev5tually come to !       
,eskimo me?od ( con/ruction _h          
conditions requir$ !m to use sk9s       
exclusively4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bac
  ,,l>ge ,,moose-,,hide ,,canoe ( upp]  
,gravel ,riv]1 ,mack5zie valley4        
7,photo1 ,george ,m4 ,d\glas47          
,app5dix    ,! ,kayak ,roll             
,john ,d4 ,hea?   ,! mo/ extraord9>y    
feat ( kayak h&l+ is ! ability to "r !  
craft aft] a capsize4 ,?is maneuv]1     
call$ roll+1 is usually practic$ by     
capsiz+ on "o side & recov]+ on ! o!r4  
,"u em]g5cy conditions1 a kayak] w      
recov] on :i*ev] side is m conv5i5t4 ,:5
 roll+1 a kayak] we>s a wat]pro( jacket 
hav+ long sleeves & a hood4 ,! wai/1    
face1 & wri/ op5+s are fitt$ ) draw/r+s1
 s t :5 ! wai/ op5+ is fitt$ ov] !      
cockpit rim1 ! kayak & kayak] become a  
wat]pro( unit4 ,?us equipp$1 ! kayak is 
! mo/ seawor?y craft ( its size1 ?is    
quality be+ limit$ only by ! skill &    
/am9a ( ! kayak]4  ,! art ( kayak roll+ 

0 highly develop$ 9 ,alaska & ,gre5l&4  
,eskimos 9 bo? ( ^! regions dep5d$ ^u   
seal hunt+ by kayak z a major "p ( _!   
economy1 h5ce ! ability to roll 0 an    
important means ( survival4 ,v little   
detail$ in=mation exi/s reg>d+ ,alaskan 
kayak]s1 b ! ,gre5l&]s h be5 ! object ( 
int5sive /udy by e?nograph]s & explor]s4
 ,! e>lie/ detail$ record ( roll+ 0 t ( 
,david ,crantz1 a ,european mission>y1  
:o 9 #agfg enum]at$ t5 me?ods ( roll+ 9 
8 ,hi/ory ( ,gre5l&4#g ,8 description   
foll[s4  #g ,see bibliography4    #a4 ,!
 ,gre5l&] lays himself fir/ on "o side1 
!n on !   o!r1 ) 8 body flat ^u ! wat]1 
7to imitate ! case (   "o :o is ne>ly1 b
 n q ov]set7 & keeps ! balance   ) 8    
pautik or o>1 s t he raises himself     
aga94    #b4 ,he ov]turns himself q1 s t
 8 head hangs p]p5dicul>   und]wat]2 9  
?is dreadful po/ure he gives himself a  
sw+ )   a /roke ( 8 paddle1 & raises    
himself al(t aga9 on :i*   side he w4   
,^! are ! mo/ common cases ( mis=tune1  
:i* frequ5tly   occur 9 /orms & high    

waves2 b !y /ill suppose t !   ,gre5l&] 
reta9s ! advantage ( 8 pautik 9 8 h&1 & 
is dis5tangl$ f ! seal-lea!r /rap4 ,b x 
may easily   happ5 9 ! seal-fi%]y1 t !  
man becomes entangl$ )   ! /r+1 s t he  
ei!r _c rightly use ! pautik1 or   t he 
loses x entirely4 ,!re=e !y mu/ be      
prep>$ = ?is   casualty4 ,) ?is view    
#c4 ,!y run "o end ( ! pautik "u "o ( ! 
cross-/r+s   ( ! kajak1 7to imitate its 
be+ entangl$7 ov]set1 &   scrabble up   
aga9 by means ( ! artful motion ( ! o!r 
end (   ! pautik4    #d4 ,!y hold "o end
 ( x 9 _! m\?1 & yet move ! o!r   end ) 
_! h&1 s z to re> !mselves upright aga94
    #e4 ,!y lay ! pautik beh9d _! neck1 
& hold x !re )   bo? h&s1 or1    #f4    
,hold x fa/ beh9d _! back2 s ov]turn1 & 
by /irr+ x   ) bo? _! h&s beh9d !m1 )\t 
br++ x be=e1 rise   & recov]4    #g4 ,!y
 lay x across "o %\ld]1 take hold ( x ) 
"o h&   be=e1 & ! o!r beh9d _! back1 &  
?us em]ge f !   deep4    ,^! ex]cises   
are ( s]vice 9 cases :]e ! pautik is    
entangl$ ) ! /r+2 b because !y may also 

q lose x1   9 :i* ! greate/ dang] lies1 
!re=e1    #h4 ,ano!r ex]cise is1 to run 
! pautik ?r\gh ! wat] "u   ! kajak1 hold
 x fa/ on bo? sides ) _! face ly+ on !  
kajak1 9 ?is position ov]turn1 & rise   
aga9 by mov+ ! o>   secundum artem on ! 
top ( ! wat] f b5ea?4 ,?is is (   s]vice
 :5 !y lose ! o> dur+ ! ov]sett+1 & yet 
see   x swimm+ ov] !m1 to le>n to manage
 x ) bo? h&s f   bel[4    #i4 ,!y let ! 
o> g1 turn !mselves head d[n1 rea* _! h&
   aft] x1 & f ! surface pull x d[n to  
!m1 & s reb\nd   up4    #aj4 ,b if !y   
c't possibly rea* x1 !y take ei!r !     
h&-bo>d (f f ! h>poon1 or a knife1 & try
 by ! =ce   ( ^!1 or ev5 spla%+ ! wat] )
 ! palm ( _! h&1   to sw+ !mselves above
 wat]2 b ?is seldom succe$s4            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bad  ,,! ,,/&>d  
,,gre5l& ,,roll  ,! solid l9es repres5t 
! />t+ position = a clockwise roll      
7disreg>d ! phantom l9es until lat]74 ,!
 paddle is held blade-on-edge along !   
/>bo>d gunwale1 ) "o end ne> ! "r hip1 &
 ! o!r end t[>d ! b[4 ,! kayak] leans   

=w>d & faces slightly to />bo>d4 ,8 left
 =e>m is aga9/1 or ne>1 ! =$eck1 & 8    
left h& rea*es across ! />bo>d gunwale  
to grasp ! paddle ne>1 b %ort (1 !      
middle4 ,! "r h& holds ! paddle ne> !   
end1 ab\t ev5 ) ! hip4 ,! palms ( bo?   
h&s pass ov] ! paddle1 s t ! knuckles   
are outbo>d4 ,! kayak] takes a deep     
brea?1 leans to />bo>d & capsizes4  7,n[
 turn ! page upside d[n7  ,illu/ration3 
,figure #bad  ,! same l9es :i* repres5t$
 ! />t+ position n[ repres5t a fi%-eye  
view ( ! fully capsiz$ position4 ,!     
phantom l9es repres5t ! upright         
position1 or goal4 ,to "r himself1 !    
kayak]--  7#a7 ,flicks 8 wri/s to sw+ 8 
knuckles t[>d 8 face1 ?us caus+ !       
outbo>d edge ( ! paddle to assume a     
slight plan+ angle 7n %[n7 ) ! wat]     
surface4 ,! rema9+ /eps con/itute "o    
cont9u\s movem5t1 to be done z quickly z
 possible4  7#b7 ,) 8 hips & "r h& s]v+ 
z pivot po9ts1 he sweeps 8 =w>d paddle  
blade1 & 8 torso1 outw>d 9 a #ij-;degree
 plan+ arc on ! wat] surface1 z %[n f   

position 7#a7 to 7#c71 :ile pull+ d[n on
 8 left h& & pu%+ up on 8 "r1 ?us lift+ 
himself to ! surface4  7#c7 ,completes !
 roll by flick+ 8 wri/s to flatt5 !     
blade angle1 !n %>ply increas+ 8 oppos+ 
h& pressures1 ?us rais+ himself 9 a *9n+
 attitude z ! paddle blade s9ks & is    
drawn inw>d4 ,! roll is n[ complet$4    
,s9ce ,crantz's "t1 v>i\s au?ors h      
describ$ kayak roll+4 ,at lea/ #cj      
me?ods ( roll+ h be5 kn[n 9 ,gre5l&4    
,!re are possibly _m m1 because !       
v>iations & comb9ations are num]\s4     
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bae  ,,!         
,,critical ,,/age ,,( ,a ,,capsize      
,,recov]y  ,! />t 7solid l9es7 & f9i%   
7phantom l9es7 ( a plan+ sweep are %[n  
head-on4 ,success is almo/ c]ta9 if !   
kayak] has surfac$ by ! "t he has       
complet$ ! #ij-;degree sweep4 ,"s m9or  
ref9em5ts ( roll+ are app>5t4 ,! left   
=e>m is %[n "r aga9/ ! =$eck 7a conv5i5t
 means ( ori5tation71 ! lead+ %\ld] is  
ne>] ! surface 7to ga9 lift :5 ! torso  
is swung outw>d71 & ! hips "r ! kayak z 

f> z possible :ile ! torso is /ill p>tly
 subm]g$ 7to avoid hav+ to lift torso & 
kayak at ! same "t74  ,al?\gh kayak+ z a
 sport fir/ became popul> 9 ! #ahfj's1 x
 0 n until ! #aibj's t ! value ( le>n+  
to roll began to be fully realiz$ by !  
recreational kayak]4 ,int]e/ has gr[n   
/eadily s9ce t "t1 & roll+ in/ruction   
has be5 includ$ z a regul> "p ( _m club 
tra9+ c\rses4 ,a prelim9>y /ep 9 ma/]+ !
 roll consi/s ( us+ ! paddle to prev5t a
 capsize1 by turn+ ! blade p>allel to ! 
wat] surface & press+ d[n %>ply on !    
side t[>d :i* ! kayak is capsiz+1 :ile  
ex]t+ an upw>d pressure ) ! o!r h&4 ,?is
 produces a rot>y movem5t :i* re/ores ! 
kayak to an ev5 keel4 ,recreational     
canoei/s call ?is maneuv] a paddle      
brace4  ,mo/ kayak rolls are bas$ ^u "o 
or m ( ?ree basic movem5ts4 ,^! are !   
paddle brace1 ! scull+ /roke1 f :i* lift
 is obta9$ by mov+ ! paddle back & =?   
?r\gh a small arc ) ! lead+ edge ( !    
blade at a slight plan+ angle1 & !      
sweep1 f :i* lift is obta9$ by sweep+ ! 

blade ?r\gh a l>ge arc at a slight plan+
 angle4 ,! me?od ( roll+ %[n 9 ! sket*es
 is ! /&>d ,gre5l& roll1 s call$ because
 x is ! mo/ common roll enc\nt]$ 9      
,gre5l&4 ,a slightly modifi$ v]sion (   
?is roll is call$ by recreational       
canoei/s ! ,pawlata roll 9 honor ( !    
,european :o introduc$ x to !m4 ,_m     
skillful kayak]s c\ld n roll1 &         
sometimes a highly skill$ roll] w\ld    
fail to recov]4 ,su* m5 c\ld be rescu$  
by _! companions by ei!r ( two common   
me?ods4 ,"o me?od 0 execut$ by plac+ !  
b[ ( ! rescue craft )9 rea* ( ! capsiz$ 
paddl]'s h&1 s t he c\ld pull himself up
 by a "o-h&$ *9n+ motion4 ,! o!r me?od 0
 execut$ by br++ ! rescue kayak         
alongside ! capsiz$ kayak s t ! two     
craft 7 p>allel & ab\t two feet ap>t4 ,!
 rescu] !n laid 8 paddle across bo?     
craft & hold+ x ) "o h&1 rea*$ d[n &    
grabb$ ! capsiz$ paddl]'s arm4 ,he !n   
pull$ him up betwe5 ! two kayaks4 ,?is  
me?od enabl$ an enfeebl$ or unconsci\s  
kayak] to be rescu$4  ,illu/ration3     

,figure #baf  ,h& positions us$ ) ! /&>d
 roll3  7#a7 ,! ext5d$ paddle position  
is ! common me?od1 & x gives maximum    
lev]age4 ,x is simil> to ! ,pawlata     
,roll position us$ by recreational      
kayak]s4  7#b7 ,! normal paddl+ position
 is m conv5i5t1 b gives less lev]age4   
,?is is call$ ! ,screw ,/roke position4 
7#c-f7 ,difficult trick positions       
demon/rat$ by ,eno* ,niels5 (           
,igdlorssuit1 ,we/ ,gre5l&1 to ,k5ne?   
,taylor1 a ,scotti% canoei/1 9 #aiei4   
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bag  ,kayak      
rescue1 b[-grab me?od  ,illu/ration3    
,figure #bah  ,kayak rescue1 paddle-grab
 me?od  ,bo? ( ! above me?ods ( rescue 7
 complet$ ) ! capsiz$ victim /ill 9 8   
craft4 ,?is prev5t$ 8 kayak f swamp+ &  
also protect$ him f exposure1 s9ce 8    
wat]pro( kayak jacket rema9$ ti$ to !   
cockpit hoop4 ,little detail$ in=mation 
has be5 record$ on ! me?ods ( roll+ kn[n
 outside ( ,gre5l&1 b !re are _m        
photographs ( ,b]+ ,/rait kayak]s roll+ 
) ! s+le blad$ paddle4 ,a /udy (        

,alaskan roll+ me?ods is n[ 9 progress1 
& x is hop$ t mu* in=mation c be recov]$
 & pres]v$4  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bai 
,,prep>+ ,,= ,,demon/ration4 ,jonas     
,malakias5 puts on 8 tuvilik 7a wat]pro(
 kayak jacket1 pron\nc$ 9 ,engli%       
tooey-leek74 ,:5 x is fa/5$ tightly ab\t
 8 face1 wri/s1 & ! cockpit hoop1 he c  
capsize )\t gett+ wat] 9 ! kayak4       
,igdlorssuit1 ,we/ ,gre5l&1 summ] #aiei4
 7,photo by ,k5ne? ,taylor47            
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bbj  ,,gett+     
,,abo>d4 ,eno* ,niels51 be/ kayak roll] 
9 ! village ( ,igdlorssuit1 ,we/        
,gre5l&1 wriggles into 8 kayak on ! bea*
 be=e emb>k+ on a kayak roll+           
exhibition4 ,note t he is leav+ ! h>poon
 l9e /& & gun bag 9 place4 7,photo by   
,k5ne? ,taylor47  ,illu/ration3 ,figure 
#bba  ,,paus+ ,,on ,,surface4 ,kayak]   
supports himself on ! surface ( ! wat]  
by a scull+ /roke be=e />t+ ! roll4     
,note t ,eno* ,niels5's body is twi/$ s 
t 8 %\ld]s are p>allel ) ! surface1 ?us 
subm]g+ z mu* ( ! body z possible 9 ord]

 to ga9 buoyancy4 7,photo by ,k5ne?     
,taylor47  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bbb   
,,fully ,,capsiz$1 view f =w>d qu>t]1   
look+ aft4 ,eno* ,niels5 prep>es to roll
 up by ! /&>d me?od4 ,note ! plan+ angle
 ( 8 paddle blade z he prep>es = ! next 
/ep1 ! plan+ sweep ( ! blade across !   
surface4 7,photo by ,k5ne? ,taylor47    
,illu/ration3 ,figure #bbc  ,,em]g+ ,,f 
,,roll1 view f =w>d qu>t]1 look+ aft4 ,f
 ! position ( ,eno* ,niels5's h&s1 ?is  
appe>s to be ! /&>d roll4 ,he has j     
complet$ ! plan+ sweep & is halfway up4 
,! inbo>d h& is a pivot po9t = ! sweep &
 a fulcrum = ! lift4 7,photo by ,k5ne?  
,taylor47  ,illu/ration3 ,figure #bbd   
,,right+ ,,! ,,kayak4 ,eno* ,niels5     
em]ges f roll ) a f9al d[nw>d ?ru/ ( !  
paddle blade4 7,photo by ,k5ne?         
,taylor47     ,bibliography     ,,adney1
 ,,edw9 ,,tappan4 ,klondike /amp$e4 ,new
 ,york3 ,h>p]  ,bros41     #aijj4       
----4 ,h[ an ,indian bir*-b>k canoe is  
made4 ,h>p]'s ,"y     ,p 7,july #bi1    
#ahij74 ,supplem5t4    ,,be>d1 ,,daniel 

,,c>t]4 ,boatbuild+ & boat+4 ,new ,york3
 ,c4     ,scribn]'s ,sons1 #aiaa4       
7,*apt] #f1 pages #dh-fa1 is a revision 
(     ,adney's articles on canoe        
build+47    ,,beau*amp1 ,,william ,m4   
,aborig9al use ( wood 9 ,new ,york4     
7,new ,york     ,/ate ,museum ,bullet9  
#hi47 ,albany1 #aije1 pp4 #aci-adi4     
,,birket-,,smi?1 ,,kai4 ,e?nography ( ! 
,eg$esm9de di/rict4 7,vol4     #ff (    
,m$delels] om ,grnl&1 #ahgi-aica47      
,cop5hag53 ,c4 ,a4     ,reitzel1 #ai8   
,,boas1 ,,franz4 ,! ,c5tral ,eskimo4    
7,pp4 #dji-ffi 9 ,u4,s4 ,bureau (       
,am]ican ,e?nology1 ,six? ,annual       
,report1 #ahhd-he47 ,wa%+ton3           
,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 #ahhh4         
,,bogoras1 ,,vladimir4 ,! ,*uk*i4 ,new  
,york3 ,g4 ,e4 ,/e*]t1     #aijd-ji4    
,also z ,memoir ( ! ,am]ican ,museum (  
,natural     ,hi/ory1 vol4 #aa2 & z     
publications ( ! ,jesup ,nor? ,pacific  
,exp$ition1 vol4 #g1 issu$ 9 ?ree p>ts4 
,,c>ti]1 ,,jacques4 ,! voyages (        
,jacques ,c>ti]4 7,canadian     ,ar*ivi/

 ,publications ,no4 #aa47 ,transl4 ,h4  
,p4 ,bigg>4 #aiad4     7,ano!r edition3 
,ottawa3 ,f4 ,a4 ,acl&1 #aibd47         
,,c>twright1 ,,capta9 ,,george4 ,capta9 
,c>twright & 8 ,labrador     j\rnal4    
,edit4 ,*>les ,w4 ,t[ns5d4 ,bo/on3 ,d4  
,e/es  ,co41 #aiaa4    ----4 ,a j\rnal (
 transaction & ev5ts1 dur+ a resid5ce   
( ne>ly sixte5 ye>s on ! coa/ (         
,labrador 444 #c vols4     ,new>k1      
,engl&3 ,all9 & ,ridge1 #agib4          
,,*ampla91 ,,samuel ,,de4 ,les ,voyages 
de la n\velle ,france4 ,p>is3     ,c4   
,collet1 #afcb4    ----4 ,oeuvres de    
,*ampla94 #e vol4 9 #f4 ,quebec3 ,g4 ,e4
 ,desb>ats1     #ahgj4    ,,crantz1     
,,david4 ,! hi/ory ( ,gre5l&4 ,ed4 &    
transl4 (     "p ,john ,gambold4 #b     
vols4 ,london3 ,moravian ,bre?r5        
,society1     #agfg4    ,,dawson1       
,,george ,,m]c]4 ,notes on ! ,%uswap p (
 ,briti%     ,columbia4 ,proce$+s &     
,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society (     
,canada = ! ye> #ahia 7,montreal1       
#ahib71 vol4 #i1 sec4 #b1 pp4     #c-dd4

    ,,d5ys1 ,,nicolas4 ,! description & 
natural hi/ory ( ! coa/s     ( ,nor?    
,am]ica4 ,transl4 & edit4 ,w4 ,f4       
,ganong4 ,toronto3 ,!     ,*ampla9      
,society1 #aijh4    ,,dunb>1 ,,seym\r4  
,a hi/ory ( travel 9 ,am]ica4 #b vols4  
,new     ,york3 ,tudor ,publi%+ ,co41   
#aicg4    ,,durham1 ,,bill4 ,canoes &   
kayaks ( ,we/]n ,am]ica4 ,seattle3      
,copp] ,canoe ,press1 #aifj4    ,e>ly   
n>ratives ( ! ,nor?we/1 #afcd-afii4     
,edit4 ,l4 ,p4     ,kellogg4 ,new ,york3
 ,c4 ,scribn]'s ,sons1 #aiag4           
,,eck/rom1 ,mrs4 ,,fannie ,,h>dy4 ,!    
h&icrafts ( ! mod]n     ,indians (      
,ma9e4 7,lafayette ,national ,p>k       
,museum ,bullet947 ,b>     ,h>bor1      
#aicb4    ,,eg$e1 ,,hans4 ,a description
 ( ,gre5l&4 ,transl4 f ! ,dani%4        
,london3 ,c4 ,hit*1 #agde4    ,,elliott1
 ,,h5ry ,,wood4 ,! ,seal ,isl&s (       
,alaska4 ,wa%+ton     7,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ 
,(fice71 #ahha4    ,,franquet1 ,col4    
,voyages et mmoires sur le ,canada1 p>  
,franquet4     ,in/itut canadi5 de      

,qubec1 ,annuaire 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bi-abi4 
,,godsell1 ,,phillip ,h4 ,! ,ojibwa     
,indian4 ,canadian ,geographical        
,j\rnal4 7,janu>y #aicb74    ,,hadlock1 
,,w5dell ,s4 & ,,dodge1 ,,erne/ ,s4 ,a  
canoe f ! ,p5obscot     ,riv]4 ,am]ican 
,neptune 7,octob] #aidh71 vol4 #h1 no4  
#d1 pp4     #bhi-cja4 7,detail$         
description ( e>ly bir*-b>k canoe1 )    
l9es & num]\s draw+s ( con/ruction      
details47    ,,he>ne1 ,,samuel4 ,a      
j\rney f ,pr9ce ( ,wales =t 9 ,hudson's 
,bay to ! ,nor!rn ,ocean1 #agfi1 #aggj1 
#agga1 #aggb4 ,dubl93 ,p4     ,byrne &  
,j4 ,rice1 #agif4    ,,h5ry1 ,,alex&]1  
,jr4 ,new light on ! e>ly hi/ory ( !    
great] ,nor?we/4 ,! manuscript j\rnals (
 ,alex&] ,h5ry     444 & ( ,david       
,?ompson 444 #agii-ahad4 ,ed4 ,elliott  
,c\es4 ,new     ,york3 ,f4 ,p4 ,h>p]1   
#ahig4    ----4 ,travels & adv5tures 9  
,canada & ! ,indian     t]ritories4 ,ed4
 ,james ,ba94 ,bo/on3 ,little1 ,br[n &  
,company1     #aija4    ,,h(fman1       
,,walt] ,,james4 ,! ,m5om9i ,indians4   

,"p #a1 7pp4 #c-cbh     ( ,u4,s4 ,bureau
 ( ,am]ican ,e?nology3 #ad? ,annual     
,report1 pt4 #a1     #ahib-ic47         
,wa%+ton3 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1      
#ahif4    ,,holm1 ,,gu/av ,,fr$]ik4 ,!  
,ammassalik ,eskimo1 contributions to ! 
e?nology ( ! ,ea/ ,gre5l& natives4 ,vol4
 #a4 ,ed4 ,william     ,?albitz]4       
,cop5hag53 ,b4 ,luno1 #aiad4 ,also z    
vols4 #ci-dj1     ,m$delels] on ,grnl&4 
,,hornell1 ,,james4 ,briti% ,coracles & 
,iri% ,curraghs4 ,london3     ,society =
 ,nautical ,rese>*1 #aich4    ----4     
,wat] transport1 orig9s  e>ly evolution4
 ,cambridge3 ,!     ,cambridge          
,univ]sity ,press1 #aidf4    ,,h[ley1   
,,james ,,patrick4 ,! ,beo?ucks1 or r$  
,indians4 ,cambridge3     ,cambridge    
,univ]sity ,press1 #aiae4 7,a v complete
 /udy47    ,,j5ness1 ,,diamond4 ,!      
,indians ( ,canada4 7,bullet9 #fe1      
,an?ropological ,s]ies ,no4 #ae1        
,national ,museum ( ,canada47 #e?       
ed4 #aifj4    ,! ,jesuit relations &    
alli$ docum5ts1 #afaj-agia4 ,ed4 ,r4 ,g4

     ,?waites4 ,clevel&3 ,burr[s ,bros4 
,co41 #ahif-aija4    ,,jo*elson1        
,,waldem> ,,vladimir4 ,! ,koryak4 ,new  
,york3 ,g4 ,e4     ,/e*]t1 #aijh4 ,also 
z ,memoir ( ! ,am]ican ,museum (        
,natural     ,hi/ory1 vol4 #i2 & z      
,publications ( ! ,jesup ,nor? ,pacific 
,exp$ition1 vol4 #f1 publi%$ 9 two p>ts1
 #aije-jh4    ,,kalm1 ,,pehr4 ,travels  
into ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,transl4 ,john ,r4  
,=/]4     #b vols4 ,london1 #aggj-ga4   
,,kroeb]1 ,,alfr$ ,,l\is4 ,! ,eskimo (  
,smi? ,s\nd4 ,bullet9 ( !     ,am]ican  
,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory 7,feb4 #ai1  
#aijj71 vol4 #ab1     art4 #ba1 pp4     
#bfe-cbg4    ,,lafiteau1 ,,joseph       
,,fran,,ois4 ,moeurs des sauvages       
,am]iqua9s4     ,p>is3 ,saugra91 #agbd4 
,,lahontan1 ,,l\is ,,arm&1 ,,b>on ,,de4 
,n\veaux voyages de ,m4 le b>on     de  
,la,hontan1 dans l',am]ique             
sept5trionale4 ,la ,haye3 ,*ez les      
,frres l',honore1 #agjc4    ,,lecl]q1   
,fa!r ,,*r,,ti54 ,n\velle relation de la
 ,gaspesie4     ,p>is1 #afia4    ,,lyon1

 ,,george ,,francis4 ,! private j\rnal (
 ,capta9 ,lyon ( ,n4 ,m4     ,s4 ,hecla4
 ,bo/on3 ,wells & ,lilly1 #ahbd4        
,,mack5zie1 ,sir ,,alex&]4 ,voyages f   
,montreal1 444 to ! froz5     & ,pacific
 ,oceans2 444 #aghi & #agic4 #b vols4 ,f
 ,york3 ,new     ,am/]dam ,book ,co41   
#aijc4    ,,mason1 ,,otis ,t4 & ,,hill1 
,,m]id5 ,s4 ,po9t$ b>k canoes ( !       
,kut5ai & ,amur4 7,pp4 #ebc-ecg (       
,report ( ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum     =
 #ahii47 ,wa%+ton3 ,smi?sonian          
,in/itution1 #aija4    ,,mitman1 ,,c>l  
,,weav]4 ,catalogue ( ! wat]craft       
collection 9 !     ,unit$ ,/ates        
,national ,museum4 7,u4,s4 ,national    
,museum ,bullet9     #abg47 ,wa%+ton3   
,smi?sonian ,in/itution1 #aibc4         
,,morgan1 ,,lewis ,,h5ry4 ,league ( !   
,ho-,de-,no-,sau-,nee1 or ,iroquois4    
,new ,york3 ,m4 ,h4 ,newman  ,co41      
#ahea4    ,,murdo*1 ,,john4 ,e?nological
 results ( ! ,po9t ,b>r[     exp$ition4 
7,pp4 #c-dda ( ,u4,s4 ,bureau ( ,am]ican
 ,e?nology1 #i?     ,annual ,report1    

#ahhg-hh47 ,wa%+ton3 ,smi?sonian        
,in/itution1     #ahib4    ,,murray1    
,,alex&] ,,hunt]4 ,j\rnal ( ! ,yukon1   
#ahdg-dh4 ,ottawa     7,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ 
,bureau71 #aiaj4    ,,nans51 ,,friotj(4 
,! fir/ cross+ ( ,gre5l&4 #b vols4      
,transl4 ,nub]t ,m4 ,gepp4 ,london3     
,longmans1 ,gre5 & ,co41 #ahgj4    ----4
 ,! ,norwegian nor? pol> exp$ition1     
#ahic-ahif4 #f vols4     ,london3       
,longmans1 ,gre5 & ,co41 #aijj-jf4      
----4 ,9 nor!rn mi/s4 ,transl4 ,ar?ur   
,g4 ,*at]4 #b vols4 ,new     ,york3     
,fr$]ick ,a4 ,/okes ,co41 #aiaa4        
----4 ,f>!/ nor?4 #b vols4 ,new ,york3  
,h>p] ,bro!rs1 #ahig4    ,,nelson1      
,,edw>d ,,william4 ,! ,eskimo ab\t      
,behr+ ,/rait4 7,pp4     #c-eah ( ,u4,s4
 ,bureau ( ,am]ican ,e?nology1 #ah?     
,annual ,report1     #ahif-ig47         
,wa%+ton3 ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1      
#ahii4    ,,p>is1 ,,edmond4 ,essai sur  
la con/ruction navale des peuples       
extra-europens4 ,p>is3 ,a4 ,b]tr&1 n4d44
    ,,p>ry1 ,sir ,,william ,,edw>d4     

,j\rnal ( a second voyage = !           
discov]y ( a nor?we/ passage4 ,london3  
,j4 ,murray1 #ahbd4    ,,patt]son1 ,rev4
 ,,george4 ,! ,beo?iks or r$ ,indians ( 
,newf\ndl&4 ,proce$+s & transactions ( !
 ,royal ,society     ( ,canada = ! ye>  
#ahia 7,montreal1 #ahib71 vol4 #i1 p4   
#acg4    ,,pot]ie1 ,,claude ,,*>les ,,le
 ,,roy ,,bacqueville ,,de ,,la4 ,hi/orie
 de     l',am]ique sept5trionale 444 #b 
vols4 ,p>is1 #agbb4    ,,ri*>dson1 ,sir 
,,john4 ,arctic se>*+ exp$ition3 ,a     
j\rnal (     a boat voyage 444 9 se>* ( 
discov]y %ips 444 ( ,sir ,john          
,frankl94 ,london3 ,longman1 ,br[n1     
,gre51 & ,longmans1 #ahea4              
,,ritz5halt]1 ,,rob]t ,,eug5e4 ,! build+
 ( a ,*ippeway ,indian     bir*-b>k     
canoe4 ,bullet9 ( ! ,public ,museum ( ! 
,city     ( ,milwaukee 7,novemb] #aiej71
 vol4 #ai1 no4 #b1 pp4 #ec-ij4 7,!      
mod]n me?od ( build+47    ,,rosi]1      
,,james4 ,a true relation ( ! mo/       
prosp]\s voyage made     ?is pres5t ye>1
 #afje1 by ,capta9 ,george ,waym\? 9 !  

l&     ( ,virg9ia4 ,lond9i2 #afje4      
,,ross1 ,,alex&]4 ,! fur hunt]s ( ! ,f> 
,we/4 ,london3 ,smi?1     ,eld] & ,co41 
#ahee4    ,,s*oolcraft1 ,,h5ry ,,r[e4   
,in=mation respect+ ! hi/ory            
conditions & prospects ( ! ,indian      
tribes ( ! ,unit$     ,/ates4 #f vols4  
,philadelphia3 ,lipp9cott1 ,grambo1     
#aheb-eg4    ,,s*oolcraft1 ,,h5ry ,,r[e4
 ,! ,indian tribes ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4   
#b vols4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4         
,lipp9cott  ,co41 #ahhd4    ,,sk9n]1    
,,alanson ,,buck4 ,notes on ! ea/]n     
,cree & nor!rn     ,saulteaux4          
7,an?ropological ,pap]s ( ! ,am]ican    
,museum (     ,natural ,hi/ory1 vol4 #i1
 pt4 #a74 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4    ,,snell1
 ,,george ,f41 ,jr4 ,p9e c\ntry         
,hiawa?a4 ,sports ,afield     7,augu/   
#aide71 vol4 #abj1 no4 #b4 7,describes  
mod]n ,ojibway canoe     build+47       
,,/efansson1 ,,vilhjalmur4 ,my life ) ! 
,eskimo4 ,new ,york3 ,!     ,macmillan  
,company1 #aiac4    ----4 ,ultima ,?ule4
 ,new ,york3 ,macmillan ,company1 #aidj4

    ,,turn]1 ,,luci5 ,,mc%aw4 ,e?nology 
( ! ,ungava ,di/rict3 ,hudson     ,bay  
,t]ritory4 ,edit4 ,john ,murdo*4 7,pp4  
#aei-cej ( ,u4,s4     ,bureau ( ,am]ican
 ,e?nology1 #aa? ,annual ,report47      
,wa%+ton3     ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1  
#ahid4    ,,w>r51 ,,william ,,:ipple4   
,hi/ory ( ! ,ojibways4 ,/4 ,paul3       
,m9nesota ,hi/orical ,society           
,collections1 #ahhe4 ,vol4 #e1 pp4      
#ba-cid4    ,,:itb\rne1 ,sir ,,ri*>d4   
,we/w>d hoe = ,avalon 9 !               
new-f\nd-l&4 ,edit4 & illus4 ,t4        
,:itburn4 ,london3 ,s4 ,l[ &     ,m>/on1
 #ahgj4    ,,will\ghby1 ,,*>les ,,cl>k4 
,antiquities ( ! ,new ,engl&            
,indians4 ,cambridge1 ,mass43 ,peabody  
,museum ( ,am]ican     ,ar*aeology1     
,h>v>d ,univ41 #aice4    ,,wissl]1      
,,cl>k4 ,indians ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,new
 ,york3     ,d\bl$ay1 ,doran  ,co41     
#aidj4    ,wood3 ,a manual = its use 9  
wood5 %ips4 ,wa%+ton3 ,u4,s4            
,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #aide4        
,wood h&book4 ,wa%+ton3 ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t

 ( ,agriculture1 #aiee4     7,basic     
in=mation on wood z a mat]ial =         
con/ruction47     ,index     ,abitibi1  
,lake1 ,po/ 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71  
#aea    ,abitibi ,riv]1 #acb    ,abnaki 
7,indians71 #ab     canoe1 #hh-hi2      
dim5sions1 #hi1 #aad-aae    ,admiralty  
,collection ( ,draughts1 #ab1 #ac       
,adney1 ,edw9 ,tappan1 #d-e1 #eg1 #ajj2 
pap]s1 #d1 #e1 #f2     p>5ts1 #d2       
wife1 #d2     "w & c>e]1 #d-e    ,adney1
 ,gl5n 7son ( ,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d          
,adney1 ,h4 ,h4 7fa!r ( ,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d
    ,adney1 ,m9nie ,bell ,%>p 7wife (   
,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d    ,adney1 ,ru? ,%aw   
7"m ( ,e4 ,t4 ,a471 #d    ,adney pap]s1 
#d1 #e1 #f    ,alaska1 #e1 #aha1 #ahb   
,alaskan canoe1 #ee    ,alaskan kayak1  
#aed1 #aij1 #aia1 #aib1 #aie1 #aif      
,alaskan umiak1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg ff4    
,albany boat1 #ac    ,alb]ta1 #acb      
,aleutian ,isl&s1 #aha1 #ahc1 #aid ff4  
,aleutian kayak1 #aie ff4    ,algonkian 
,family1 #ii    ,algonk9 7,indians71    
#ii1 #ajg1 #aac2     canoe1 #aac-abb    

,am]ica 7#dd-;gun %ip1 ,,rn71 #fe       
,am]ican ,neptune 7p]iodical71 #gd      
,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1    
#hi1 #aie1 #bjd    ,&roscogg9           
7,indians71 #hh    ,anson1 ,"l1 #ab     
,art ,/ud5ts' ,league ( ,new ,york1 #d  
a%1 :ite1 #ag2     black1 #ag2          
splitt+ qualities1 #ag    ,asiatic      
kayak1 #aib1 #aie    ,ass9ibo9e 7,indian
 tribe71 #acb    ,a?abaska1 ,lake1 #acb1
 #aee    ,a?abascan ,indians1 #aed1 #aef
    awl1 bone1 #ai2     /eel 7canoe71   
#ba    axe1 /eel1 #bj1 #ba2     c$>1 #ba
     ,baff9 ,isl&1 #hb1 #ahi1 #aia1     
#aib1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh2     umiak1 #ahi1
 #aij2     kayak1 #bjd ff4    baid>ka   
7,russian kayak71 #age    bang plate1   
#bjh    b>k1 basswood1 #ae     bir*1 #i1
 #ee1 #fj1 #fc1 #if1 #abj1 #acb1 #adg1  
#adh1 #aed2       description1 #ad-ae2  
selection & prep>ation1 #bd-bf2         
h&l+1 #bi-ca2       use 9 build+ canoes1
 #da-ea     butt]nut1 #bac     *e/nut1  
#ae1 #bac     cottonwood1 #ae     elm1  
#ae1 #bab ff4     hickory1 #ae1 #bac1   

#bag     spruce1 #ae1 #ag1 #bd1 #acb1   
#aeh1 #bab1 #bac1 #baf     :ite p9e1    
#bac    b>k cov]1 piec+1 #db1 #dc1 #de1 
#ee2     ,micmac1 #fc2     ,beo?uk1 #ih2
     ,algonk91 #abj2     ,we/]n ,cree1  
#acb1 #acc2     fur-trade1 #adg1 #adh2  
kayak-=m1 #afb    ,b>rire1 ,lake1 #ajg1 
#adf    basket 7pack71 9 fur trade1 #adc
    basswood1 b>k1 #ae    bateau1 #ac   
bateau-%ape canoe1 #aei-afa    batt5 79 
sk9 boat con/ruction71 #ahf1 #ahh ff41  
#aie ff41 #aii1     #bjd ff41 #bjh      
,be>d1 ,daniel1 #d    ,beav] 7,indians71
 #aed2     kayak-=m canoe1 #aei         
,beo?uk 7,indian tribe71 #f1 #id-ih     
canoe1 #id1 #ie2       dim5sions1 #id1  
#ih2       =m1 #if2       keel1 #if1    
#ig1 #ih2       recon/ruction (1 #if ff4
    ,b]+ ,sea1 #aie    ,b]+ ,/rait1     
#ahb1 #ahi1 #aii    bifid b[1 #aif1 #aig
    big riv] canoe1 #eh1 #fe    bir*    
b>k1 #i1 #ee1 #fj1 #fc1 #if1 #abj1 #acb1
 #adg1 #adh1 #aed2     description1     
#ad-ae2     selection & prep>ation1     
#bd-bf2     h&l+1 #bi-ca2     use 9     

build+ canoes1 #da-ea    bladd]1 sk9    
7float71 #aid    ,boas1 ,franz1 #ahi1   
#bjd    boat1 ,arctic sk91 #agd-bab2    
,vik+1 #ahg2     tempor>y sk91 #bai-bbj2
     bull1 #bbj    ,bogoras1 ,vladimir1 
#ahc    bola 7hunt+71 #aid    bone      
fitt+s1 kayak1 #aic1 #bjd1 #bjh1 #baa   
,bon%]e ,riv]1 ,ont>io1 #aac            
bottom-frame1 kayak-=m canoe1 #afj ff4  
b[ drill1 #ai1 #bj    breakwat]1 canoe1 
#afb1 #aff1 #afg2     kayak1 #aif       
,briti% ,columbia1 #e2     kayak-=m     
canoe1 #afe2     /urgeon-nose canoe1    
#afh    bucksaw1 #bc    build+ b$1      
locat+1 #cg2     prep>ation (1 #cg2     
/akes1 #dj1 #da1 #de ff41 #adf1 #adh2   
repair to1 #da2     ( plank1 #ef1 #adf1 
#adg2     ,micmac1 #fb1 #fc2            
,malecite1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd2     ,/4       
,francis1 #ia1 #ib2     ,beo?uk1 #if1   
#ig2     ,ea/]n ,cree1 #aja2            
,algonk91 #aaf2     ,ojibway1 #abg2     
,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2     fur-trade1 #adf1
 #adg2     n>r[-bottom1 #aeh2           
kayak-=m1 #afa2     /urgeon-nose1 #agc2 

tempor>y canoe1 #baf1 #bai    build+    
frame1 #bf1 #cg1 #ed ff42     ,ea/]n    
,cree1 #aja2     ,algonk91 #aae1 #aaf2  
,ojibway1 #abg2     ,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2 
fur-trade1 #adj1 #ada1 #adf1 #adg2      
n>r[-bottom1 #aeh2     kayak-=m1 #afa2  
/urgeon-nose1 #agc    bull-boat1 #bbj   
butt]nut b>k1 #bac     camb] 7rock] (   
bottom71 #bh1 #cg1 #ch1 #da 7see also   
rock]7    canoe1 bir* b>k1 ,adney on1 #d
 ff42       scale models (1 #d1 #e2     
plans (1 #e1 #f2       spe$ (1 #g1 #bi1 
#acg2       orig9 ( "n1 #ac2            
requirem5ts =1 #bg2       types1 #bg2   
=ms discuss$1 #bg-cf ff41 #ei 7see also 
"u tribal types72       tribal          
classification1 #bg ff4 7see "u tribal  
names72       effects ( b>k *>act]i/ics 
on1 #bi ff42       con/ruction discuss$1
 #cf-eg 7see also "u tribal types72     
comp>$ ) ,eskimo sk9 boat1 #aic     elm 
b>k1 #bab1 #bai     hickory b>k1 #bac1  
#bag     sk91 #bai-bba2       moosehide1
 #gb1 #bai2       tempor>y1 #bai-bba    
spruce b>k1 #acb1 #aeh1 #bab1 #bac1 #baf

     tempor>y1 #bai-bba    canoe awl1   
#ba    canoe bir* 7see "u b>k7    canoe 
brigade1 #aeb    canoe build+1 ,trois   
,rivires factory1 #ac1 #ace1 #acf2     =
 fur trade1 #ace1 #acf1 #adf ff41 #adh  
ff42     at ,hudson's ,bay ,company     
,po/s1 #aea    canoe ends1 details (    
con/ruction1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf2     ,micmac1
 #eh1 #ei2     ,malecite1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg1
 #aee1 #aef2     ,*ipewyan1 #aef1 #aeg2 
,dogrib1 #aef1 #aeg2     slave1 #aeg1   
#aeh2     kayak-=m1 #aeh1 #aei2         
/urgeon-nose1 #afh    canoe load+1      
fur-trade1 #add1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aec       
canoe portag+1 #abb1 #aea1 #aeb    canoe
 roads1 #ach    canoe sails 7see sails7 
canoe %oes1 ,malecite1 #gi1 #hj    canoe
 types1     ,abnaki1 #hh-hi             
,alaskan1 #ee     ,algonk91 #aac-abb    
,beav]1 #aei     ,beo?uk1 #id-ih        
,big ,riv]1 #eh1 #fe     bateau-%ape1   
#aei-afa     ,briti% ,columbia1 #afe1   
#afh     ,*ipewyan1 #aee-aeh     ,cree1 
,c5tral1 #cd2       ,ea/]n1 #aja-ajf2   
,we/]n1 #acb-acd1 #aee     crook$1 #ii1 

#ajj1 #ajf     ,dogrib1 #aee-aeh        
express1 #acg1 #ada     fur-trade 7see  
"u fur-trade7     hunt+ 7,micmac71 #eh1 
#fe1 #gj     kayak-=m 7see "u kayak-=m7 
light1 #acg1 #ada     long nose1 #abe1  
#acj1 #acb     ,l\*eux1 #afa1 #aff      
,mack5zie ,bas91 #aei1 #afa1 #afb       
,montagnais1 #cd1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajf       
,malecite1 #cd1 #cf-eg1 #gj-ic1 #aad1   
#aae1 #bai1 #bba     ,micmac1 #ab1 #bg1 
#cd1 #eh-fi     ,nahane1 #aei           
n>r[-bottom1 #aac1 #aad1 #ace1 #aed-aeh 
,nor?we/1 #aed1 #aee-aeg 7n>r[-bottom72 
#aeh-afh 7kayak-=m7     ,ojibway1       
#abb-aca     "o-piece1 #bab             
op5-wat]1 #eh1 #fd1 #fe                 
,passamaquoddy1 #gd1 #ge1 #hb1 #hc      
,pet]bor\gh1 #fe     porpoise hunt+1    
#gd1 #ge     portage1 #eh1 #fe1 #abc    
,re/ig\*e1 #fe     riv] 7,malecite71    
#gj-gi     ,/4 ,francis1 #hh-ic1 #aad1  
#aae     skiff-canoe1 #fe     ,slave1   
#aee-aeh     /raight-bottom1 #ajj1 #aja1
 #ajf1 #aee     /urgeon-nose1 #aed1     
#afh-agc     tempor>y1 #bab-bai         

,ttes de ,b\le1 #cd1 #ajg-aab1 #aaf1    
#abb     ,v-bottom1 #gd ff41 #hi1 #if1  
#ih1 #ajj1 #ajg1 #aac     w>1 #aj1 #eh1 
#fe1 #gj     wide-bottom1 #ed     woods1
 #eh1 #fe     ,we/]n ,cree1 #gb1        
#acb-acd1 #aee     ,yukon ,riv]1 #aei1  
#afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #aij    canot 7canoe71
 #ac2     du matre 7see fur-trade       
canoe71 #ii1 #ajf1 #ace2     du nord    
7see fur-trade canoe71 #aea1 #aec2      
lg] 7see light canoe71 #acg    ,cape    
,york1 #bjh    ,c>ib ,indians1 #ac      
,c>ib\ ,eskimo kayak1 #bjd    c>ib\-sk9 
boat1 #bbj    ,c>ti]1 ,jacques1 #g1 #fh 
,c>twright1 ,lieut4 ,john1 #id1 #ie     
c$>1 nor!rn :ite1 roots1 #af2           
splitt+ qualities1 #ag1 #ah    ,celts1  
#agf    ,*ampla91 ,samuel de1 #g1 #aj1  
#bac    ,*ampla91 ,lake1 #g    ,*a?am   
docky>d1 #ab    *e/nut b>k1 #ae1 #bac   
*9e1 #afd1 #aff1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aie1
 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf    ,*ippewa     
7,*ippeway2 ,indian tribe71 #abb        
,*ipewyan 7,indian tribe71 #aed1 #aee   
canoe1 #aee-aeh2       ends1 #aef1 #aeg2

       spread+ gunwales1 #aeh2          
dim5sions1 #aeh2       kayak-=m1 #aff1  
#afg    *isel1 #bc    ,*ri/oph]son1 ,l4 
,a4 7,hudson's ,bay ,company ,factor71  
#ade1 #adf2     on fur-trade canoe      
con/ruction1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1    
#aej1 #aea    ,*uk*i umiak1 #ahb1 #ahc1 
#ahh2     kayak1 #aie    cockpit1 kayak1
 #age1 #agf1 #aib1 #aie ff41 #aig1 #aii1
 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjh1 #baa    ,c(f91 
,samuel1 #ie    ,coll9s1 ,h5ry ,b4      
7,bureau ( ,am]ican ,e?nology71 #agd    
,colli]s 7magaz9e71 #d    con/ruction   
me?ods1 ,malecite1 #cf-eg1 #gb-gd2      
,micmac1 #eh1 #ei-fd2     ,/4 ,francis1 
#ij-ic2     ,beo?uk1 #if-ih2     ,ea/]n 
,cree1 #ajd-ajf2     ,ttes de ,b\le1    
#ajh-aab2     ,algonk91 #aae-abb2       
,ojibway1 #abe1 #abg ff42     ,we/]n    
,cree1 #acb1 #acc2     fur-trade1       
#adf-aea2     n>r[-bottom1 #aee ff42    
kayak-=m1 #afj ff42     /urgeon-nose1   
#afh-agb2     umiak1 #agf ff41 #ahb1    
#ahd-ahg2     kayak1 #aib-aid2          
tempor>y canoes1 #bab-bah2     tempor>y 

sk9 boats1 #bah-bbj    ,copp] ,eskimo   
kayak1 #bjd    ,copp]m9e ,riv]1 #aee    
coracle1 #agf    ,coronation ,gulf1     
#aic1 #bjd    ,coronation ,gulf kayak1  
#bjd    cottonwood b>k1 #ae    ,c[assek 
7,coosuc2 ,indian tribe71 #hh           
,crantz1 ,david 7mission>y71 #aij1 #bbc 
,cree ,indians1 c5tral1 #cd2     ea/]n1 
#ii1 #aja-ajf2     we/]n1 #acb-acd1 #aee
    crew1 fur-trade canoe1 #ade         
crimp+ b>k 79 canoe build+71 #bi1 #cj1  
#bab1 #bad1 #baf1 #bag    crook$ canoe1 
#ii1 #ajj1 #ajf    crook$ knife 7tool71 
#ba1 #bc    curragh1 #agf1 #agh2        
wat]pro(+ sk9s =1 #agf2     comp>$ )    
umiak & kayak1 #agh    ,coosuc 7,indian 
tribe71 #hh     d>t 7= hunt+71 #aid     
deck1 kayak-=m canoe1 #aei1 #afb1 #afc1 
#afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg2     kayak1 #agf1
 #aie ff41 #aii1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #baa       
decorations1 #ec2     ,micmac1 #fg1 #fh2
     ,malecite1 #hb ff42     ,/4        
,francis1 #ij1 #ia2     ,ttes de ,b\le1 
#aab2     ,algonk91 #abb2     fur-trade1
 #adf1 #aej1 #aea2     kayak-=m1 #afc2  

kayak1 #aig1 #aii    ,dn 7,indian       
tribe71 #afb    ,d5ys1 ,nicolas1 #eg1   
#fh1 #fi    ,dibble1 ,lt4 ,col4 ,h]b]t1 
#ge    dim5sions1 canoe 7see "u tribal  
type72 old canoes1 #g ff4    ,dogrib    
,indians1 #aed1 #aee2     canoe1        
#aee-aeh    drill 7tool71 #ai    dug\t1 
#aj1 #bac     ea/]n canoe con/ruction1  
#ed    ,ea/]n ,cree ,indians1 #ii1 #ajj1
 #aja-ajf     canoe1 #aja-ajf2          
dim5sions1 #ajf    ,ea/port 7,ma9e71 #ge
    ,eg$e1 ,hans 7mission>y71 #aij      
elm b>k1 #h1 #ae1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae
    ,encyclop$ia ,arctica1 #f    ends   
7canoe71 #ca1 #cb1 #ee1 #ef1 #gj1 #gb1  
#gf1 #gg1 #aee ff41 #afh1 #bag    eng9e1
 outbo>d gasol9e1 #age1 #ahg    ,eskimo1
 #aed1 #aei1 #age1 #agf1 #ahb1 #aij1    
#aia1 #aie    ,eskimo roll1 #aid1       
#bbc-bbg    ,eskimo sk9 boat 7see kayak1
 umiak7    ,esp5b]g1 ,cape1 kayak1 #bjj 
express canoe1 #acg1 #ada     ,=t ,*imo1
 #ii1 #ajj    ,foxe ,bas91 #ahb1 #bjd   
frames 7ribs71 #ai1 #cb2     numb] (1   
#ea2     mak+ & b5d+1 #ea2     fitt+1   

#ea1 #eb1 #ef2     tempor>y1 #ea1 #eb2  
,micmac1 #fj1 #fb2     ,malecite1 #gc1  
#gg2     ,/4 ,francis1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib2   
,ea/]n ,cree1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf2         
,ttes de ,b\le1 #aaj1 #aab2             
,algonk91 #abb2     ,ojibway1 #acj2     
,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2     fur-trade1 #adh1
 #adi2     n>r[-bottom1 #aeh2           
kayak-=m1 #afj1 #afb ff42               
/urgeon-nose1 #afh1 #agb2     umiak1    
#ahd ff41 #ahi1 #aij2     kayak1 #aib1  
#aid ff41 #bjb1 #bjd ff41 #baa2     r\gh
 con/ruction (1 #bac2     = tempor>y b>k
 canoe1 #bah2     = tempor>y sk9 canoe1 
#bai    ,franquet1 ,colonel 7,fr5*      
milit>y eng9e]-9-*ief71 #ac    froe     
7/eel tool71 #bj1 #ba    frog 7headbo>d 
support71 #ce1 #fa    fur trade1 canoe  
c>goes 91 #adb1 #ade1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aec2 
h&l+ furs1 #adb2     pack loads1 #adb   
ff42     bundles & boxes1 #adb1 #adc2   
brigades1 #aeb1 #aec    fur-trade canoe1
 #e1 #aj ff41 #cf1 #cg1 #ii1 #aab1 #aac1
 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #acj1       #ace-aec1
 #aef2     describ$1 #ace1 #aec2        

names appli$ to1 #ace1 #adg1 #aej2      
=ms & categories1 #acf2     dim5sions (1
 #ach1 #ada1 #adb2     con/ruction      
me?ods1 #adf ff42     gunwales1 #acf1   
#adh1 #aej2     %ea?+1 #adi2            
/em-pieces1 #aej2     headbo>ds1 #aej2  
pa9t1 #aej1 #aea    ,fury ,/rait1 #bjd  
,gay1 ,john1 #id1 #if    ,gilb]t1 ,sir  
,humphrey1 #id    gimlet 7tool71 #ba    
,gold5 ,lake ,algonk9 ,res]ve 7,canada71
 #aac    gores 7b>k canoes71 #cj1 #ca1  
#da1 #db1 #dh1 #ej2     spac+1 #eg2     
,micmac1 #fj2     ,ea/]n ,cree1 #aja2   
,ttes de ,b\le1 #ajh2     ,algonk91     
#aag2     fur-trade1 #adh2     9 umiak1 
sk9 cov]1 #ahf    ,gr& ,victoria ,lake1 
#ajg1 #adf    great canoe 7see fur-trade
 canoe71 #ace    ,great ,lakes1 #e1 #h1 
#aj1 #ab    ,great ,slave ,lake1 #aee   
,gre5l&1 #agf1 #aha1 #ahg1 #aia1 #aid   
,gre5l& kayak1 #aij ff41 #aie1 #bjb1    
#bje2     #bjf 7nor!rn coa/1 ,pol>      
coa/71 #bjh 7s\!rn coa/71 #baa  7mod]n7 
,gre5l& roll1 #bbc ff4    ,gre5l& umiak1
 #ahb1 #aij    ,gulf ( ,boo?ia1 #bjd    

gum1 #ag2     spruce1 #ag1 #bd1 #be2    
temp]+1 #bd1 #be2     repairs )1 #be1   
#bf2     pay+ seams )1 #ej1 #ec         
gunwale1 mak+1 #ai1 #ch2     pr(ile (1  
#bh1 #bi2     plan view (1 #bi2     =ms 
(1 #ca2     ends (1 #ca1 #ch2     inn]1 
#ca2     out]1 #ca1 #dg ff41 #ee1 #fj1  
#gb1 #gc1 #aah1 #aai1 #aej1 #aee1 #aef1 
#afi2     la%+1 #ca ff41 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 
#fj1 #ajh1 #aji1 #abj1 #adi1 #aee1 #aef1
 #aei1       #afi 7see also "u la%+72   
secur+ b>k to1 #ca1 #cc2     sett+ up1  
#cg2     use z build+ frame1 #cg1 #ch1  
#dj1 #da2     size (1 #ch2     v>iations
 9 con/ruction (1 #ee2     ,micmac1 #fj1
 #fa2     hogg$1 #ee1 #ei1 #fb1 #fc2    
,malecite1 #gb ff42     ,/4 ,francis1   
#hi2     ,beo?uk1 #ig1 #ih2     ,ea/]n  
,cree1 #aja2     ,ttes de ,b\le1 #ajh1  
#aab2     spread+1 #aag1 #aah1 #abg1    
#adh1 #aeh2     ,algonk91 #aaf1 #aag1   
#aah1 #aai2     ,ojibway1 #abg2         
,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2     fur-trade1 #acf1
 #adh1 #aej2     n>r[-bottom1 #aee1     
#aef2     kayak-=m1 #aei1 #afj1 #afd    

ff42     /urgeon-nose1 #afh1 #afi1 #agb2
     umiak1 #ahb1 #ahd ff41 #aij2       
kayak1 #aib ff41 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjf1
 #bjh1 #baa2     tempor>y canoe1 #bab1  
#bac1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbj    gunwale cap1  
mak+ & fitt+1 #eb1 #ec2     ,micmac1    
#fj1 #fa2     ,malecite1 #gc2     ,ea/]n
 ,cree1 #ajd2     ,ttes de ,b\le1 #ajh1 
#aji2     ,algonk91 #aah1 #aai2         
fur-trade1 #acf1 #aej2     n>r[-bottom1 
#aee2     /urgeon-nose1 #agb     h&grip1
 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj    ,h>e 7,indian      
tribe71 #aed    ,h>p]'s ,weekly1 #d     
,h>p]'s ,"y ,p ,magaz9e1 #d    h>poon   
7hunt+ weapon71 #aid    headbo>d1 #ce1  
#cf2     support1 #ce1 #fa2     mak+ &  
fitt+1 #eb2     ,micmac1 #fa2           
,malecite1 #gd1 #gh1 #gi2     ,/4       
,francis1 #hi2     ,ea/]n ,cree1 #aja2  
,ttes de ,b\le1 #aji1 #aaj2             
,algonk91 #aac1 #aai2     ,ojibway1     
#abc1 #abe1 #abg2     fur-trade1 #aej2  
n>r[-bottom1 #aee1 #aeg2     umiak1     
#ahb1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aij2     po/   
us$ z1 #bag    ,he>ne1 ,samuel          

7explor]71 #aee1 #afd    ,hea?1 ,john1  
#agd1 #age1 #aid1 #aii1 #bbc    ,hecla  
,/rait1 #bjd    ,h5ry1 ,jr41 ,alex&]1   
#ac    hickory b>k1 #ae1 #bac    ,hill1 
,fr$]ick 7,director1 ,m>9]s' ,museum71  
#d    hogg$ bottom 7c5t] upcurv$        
l5g?wise71 #cj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afd1 #afe1 
#afh    hogg$ gunwale1 #ee1 #ei1 #fb1   
#fc    hogg+ brace1 umiak1 #ahh    hot  
wat]1 use ( 9 b5d+ wood1 #bj1 #aag      
,h[ley1 ,james ,patrick1 #ie1 #if       
,hudson ,bay1 #e1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahi1 #aia
    ,hudson ,/rait1 #ahb1 #aia1 #bjb1   
#bje    ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 #d1    
#ac1 #ii1 #ajg1 #acf1 #add1 #aea        
hunt+ canoe1 ,micmac1 #eh1 #fe1 #gj2    
kayak-=m1 #afe    hunt+ scre51 kayak1   
#aie    ,huron ,indians1 #acb    ,huron1
 ,lake1 #aac     ,indian migrations1 #e1
 #bg 7see also "u tribal names7    ice1 
sk9-boats 91 #ahj    ,ill9ois ,indians1 
#acb    ,iri%1 #agf2     curragh1 #agf1 
#agh    ,iroquois canoe1 9 fur trade1   
#acf 7see fur-trade canoe7    ,iroquois 
,indians1 #g1 #aj1 #ii1 #aad     canoe  

7tempor>y71 #bac-bai     jack p9e roots 
7= canoe la%+s71 #af    jacket1         
wat]tight1 #aii1 #baa    ,james ,bay1   
#ii1 #acb    ,japanese sampan1 #aia1    
#aib1 #bje1 #baa    ,jo*elson1 ,waldem>1
 #ahb    ,joliet1 ,l\is1 #h     kayak1  
#agd1 #agf1 #aij-baa2     multi-*9e     
hull1 #age1 #aia1 #aii2     cockpit1    
#age1 #agf1 #aib1 #aie ff41 #aii1 #bjj1 
#bje1 #bjh1 #baa2     deck1 #agf1 #aib1 
#aie ff41 #aii1 #bjd1 #baa2             
/ructure1 #agh1 #ahj2     keelson1 #agh1
 #aib1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #baa2    
gunwales1 #agh1 #aib ff41 #bjb1 #bjd1   
#bje1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa2     geographic  
di/ribution1 #aij1 #aia2     v-bottom1  
#aij ff41 #aie1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa2 
ris]s1 #aij2     flat bottom1 #aij ff41 
#bjd ff42     ,alaskan1 #aij ff41 #aie1 
#aif2     di/ribution1 #aij1 #aia2      
design1 #aia1 #aib2     h&l+ & use1     
#aia1 #aid1 #aie1 #aii2     portag+1    
#aia1 #aii2     con/ruction1 #aib-aid2  
keel1 #aib2     frames1 #aib1 #aid ff41 
#bjb1 #bjd ff41 #baa2     bone fitt+s1  

#aic1 #bjd1 #bjh1 #baa2     seat1 #aid2 
sk9 cov]1 #aid2     paddle1 #aid1 #aie1 
#aig1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bje2     z catam>an1 
#aid2     right+1 #aid1 #bbc-bbg2       
hunt+ scre51 #aie2     ?w>ts1 #aie ff41 
#aii1 #bjh2     ,koryak1 #aie2          
,kodiak ,isl&1 #aie1 #aif2              
breakwat]1 #aif2     decorations1 #aig1 
#aii2     ,aleutian1 #aif1 #aig2        
,unalaska1 #aif1 #aig2     two-pass5g]1 
#aig2     ?ree-pass5g]1 #aig2           
,nunivak ,isl&1 #aig1 #aii2     ,k+     
,isl&1 #aii1 #bjj2     ,cape ,krus5/]n1 
#bjj2     ,cape ,esp5b]g1 #bjj2         
,po9t ,b>r[1 #bjj2     ,norton ,s\nd1   
#bjj2     ,mack5zie ,delta1 #bjj1 #bjb2 
,kotzebue ,s\nd1 #bjj2     %e]1 #bjj1   
#bjd ff41 #bjh1 #baa2     ,copp]        
,eskimo1 #bjd2     ,coronation ,gulf1   
#bjd2     ,c>ib\1 #bjd2     ,netsilik1  
#bjd2     ,baff9 ,isl&1 #bjd1 #bje2     
,labrador1 #bje1 #bjf2     rock] 7camb]7
 ( bottom1 #bje1 #bjf1 #baa2            
,gre5l&1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa2     fl>e1    
#bjf2     rake ( ends1 #bjh    kayak-=m 

canoe1 #aed1 #aeh-afh2     ,sekani1     
#aei2     ,nahane1 #aei2                
bateau-%ap$1 #aei2     rake ( ends1     
#aei1 #afd2     ,l\*eux1 #afa1 #aff2    
bottom frame (1 #afj ff42     paddl]'s  
seat1 #afc2     hunt+1 #afe2     ,briti%
 ,columbia1 #afe2     family1 #afe1     
#aff2     keel1 #aff2     ,*ipewyan1    
#aff1 #afg    keel1 ,beo?uk canoe1 #if1 
#ig1 #ih2     kayak-=m canoe1 #aff2     
kayak1 #aib    keelson1 umiak1 #ahd1    
#ahf1 #ahh2     kayak1 #aib1 #aie1 #bjj1
 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #baa    keg 79 fur   
trade71 #adb    ,k5nebec ,indians1 #gj  
,k+ ,isl& kayak1 #aid1 #aii1 #bjj    ,k+
 ,isl& umiak1 #ahg    ,kipewa ,po/      
7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea         
knife1 /one1 #ai2     crook$1 #ba1 #bc  
,kodiak ,isl&1 #aha1 #aib    ,kodiak    
,isl& kayak1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #aii     
,koryak umiak1 #ahb1 #ahi    ,koryak    
kayak1 #aib1 #aie    ,kotzebue ,s\nd1   
#ahh1 #bjj2     kayak1 #bjj             
,krus5/]n1 ,cape1 #bjj1 #bjd            
,krus5/]n kayak1 #bjj1 #bjd    ,kut5ai  

7,koot5ay7 ,indians1 #afh1 #agb         
,labrador1 #ii1 #aia1 #aib1 #bje1 #bjf  
,labrador kayak1 #bje1 #bjf    ,laet1   
,joann de1 #id    ,la,fiteau1 #ab1 #bae 
,la,hontan1 ,b>on de1 #h1 #aj1 #bae     
l>*1 splitt+ qualities1 #ag    ,la      
,salle1 ,rob]t ,cavali] de1 #h    la%+1 
canoe gunwale1 #ca ff41 #dd1 #de1 #dh2  
,micmac1 #fj2     ,ttes de ,b\le1 #ajh1 
#aji2     ,algonk91 #abj2     fur-trade1
 #adi2     n>r[-bottom1 #aee1 #aef2     
kayak-=m1 #aei1 #afj-aff2               
/urgeon-nose1 #afi    la%+ sk9 cov]1    
#ahf1 #ahh1 #aij 7see also sew+1 /it*+7 
la?+ 7see %ea?+7    light 7express7     
canoe1 #acg1 #ada    ,london ,*ronicle1 
#d    long-nose canoe1 #abe1 #acj1 #acb 
longitud9al /r5g? 7see gunwale1 keelson 
*9e1 keel1 /r+]s1 etc47    ,l\*eux      
,indians1 #aed2     kayak-=m canoe1     
#afa1 #aff     ,mac,kenzie1 ,alex&]1 #ac
    ,mac,kenzie ,bas9 canoe1 #aei1 #afa1
 #afb    ,mack5zie ,riv]1 #aed1 #aha1   
#aia    ,mack5zie ,riv] kayak1 #bjb1    
#bjd    matre canot 7see fur-trade      

canoe71 #ii1 #ajf1 #abb1 #ace1 #ach1    
#aea1 #aec    ,malecite ,indians1 #d1   
#aj2     composition ( tribe1 #gj2      
canoe1 #aad1 #aae2     %ea?+1 #cd2      
con/ruction1 #cf-eg2     b>k cov]s ov]  
gunwale ends1 #dh2     describ$1 #gj-hh2
     ends1 #gj1 #gf1 #gg2     ( spruce  
b>k1 #gb2     tempor>y 7sk971 #bai1     
#bba2     dim5sions (1 #gc ff41 #gh1 #gi
    ,manitoba1 #ii1 #acb    maple1 h>d1 
splitt+ qualities1 #ag    ,m>quette1    
,fa!r ,jacques1 #h    ,m>9]s' ,museum   
7,newport ,news1 ,va471 #d1 #e1 #ahg    
ma/1 ,micmac1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg2     tripod1
 #ahb    ,mata*ewan ,po/ 7,hudson's ,bay
 ,company71 #aea    ,matagama ,po/      
7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea    maul1
 #ai1 #bc    ,mc,gill ,univ]sity        
,museum1 #d    measurem5t1 ( canoes1    
e>ly1 #g1 #h1 #i2     units ( 7,fr5*71  
#h1 #cf2     ,indian1 #cf1 #cg1 #ej1    
#ea1 #ib1 #ic    ,melville ,p59sula1    
#bjd    ,memphremagog1 ,lake1 #hh       
,m5om9ee ,indians1 #abb1 #abc    ,micmac
 ,indians1 #aj1 #ab1 #eh     canoe1 #ab1

 #bg2       %ea?+1 #cd2       describ$1 
#eh-fi2       ends1 #eh1 #ei2       =m1 
#ei2       con/ruction1 #fb1 #fc2       
range1 #fe    migrations1 ,indian1 #e2  
effect on canoes1 #bg    ,miss9aibi     
,riv]1 #acb    ,miss9aibi ,po/          
7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 #aea         
,mohigan ,indians1 #hh    ,montagnais   
,indian canoe1 #cd1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajf     
,montreal1 #h1 #aj1 #ac    ,moose       
,factory 7,hudson's ,bay ,company ,po/71
 #acb    moosehide canoe1 #gb1 #bai     
multi-*9e hull1 kayak1 #aed1 #age1 #aia1
 #aii     nabiska 7rabeska2 see         
fur-trade canoe71 #abb1 #ace    nad[    
*iman 7see fur-trade canoe71 #acf       
,nahane ,indian kayak-=m canoe1 #aei    
nail1 9 canoe con/ruction1 #ff1 #fi1    
#aag    n>r[-bottom canoe1 #aac1 #aad1  
#ace1 #aed-aeh2     ,nor?we/1 #aee1     
#aeg2     spruce b>k1 #aeh    ,nascapee 
,indians1 #ii1 #ajj    ,national        
,m>itime ,museum 7,gre5wi*1 ,engl&71 #ab
    ,netsilik kayak1 #bjd    ,new ,b$=d 
:aleboat1 #ahg    ,nipigon1 ,lake1 #abc 

,nor? ,alaskan :al+ umiak1 #ahg1 #ahh   
,nor? ,bay 7,ont>io71 #abe    nor? canoe
 7see fur-trade canoe71 #ace    ,nor?   
,we/ ,company1 #acf1 #ach1 #adc1 #aeb   
,nor? ,we/ n>r[-bottom canoe 7see       
n>r[-bottom71 #aee-aeg    ,norton ,s\nd 
kayak1 #bjj    ,nunivak ,isl& kayak1    
#aib1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj     ,o>1 umiak1  
#ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg ff4    ,ojibway        
,indians1 #abb     canoe1 %ea?+1 #cd2   
con/ruction1 #abb-aca1 #aga    ,oka1    
,lake1 #aac    "o-piece b>k canoe1 #bab 
op5-wat] canoe1 #eh2     sails1 #fd2    
dim5sions1 #fe    ,ossipee ,indians1 #hh
    ,ottawa ,riv]1 #ab1 #aac    ,out+   
,magaz9e1 #d    outwale 7see gunwale7   
own]'s m>k1 #hc1 #hd1 #he    ov]hang1 9 
ends ( kayak-=m canoe1 #aei     paddle1 
mat]ial & manufacture1 #ec2     ,micmac1
 #ff1 #fg1 #fi2     ,malecite1 #hj1 #ha1
 #hb2     ,beo?uk1 #if2     ,ea/]n      
,cree1 #aaf2     ,ttes de ,b\les1 #aab2 
,algonk91 #abb2     ,ojibway1 #acj2     
,we/]n ,cree1 #acc2     fur-trade1 #aeb2
     kayak-=m1 #afc2     umiak1 #ahb1   

#ahc1 #ahg ff42     kayak1 #aie         
paddle gu>d1 ,micmac1 #fd    paddl]'s   
seat1 kayak-=m canoe1 #afc2     kayak1  
#aid    pa9t 7on canoes71 ,malecite1    
#gg2     fur-trade1 #aej1 #aea          
,passamaquoddy ,indians1 #gj     canoe1 
#gd1 #ge1 #hb1 #hc    ,peabody ,museum  
7,salem1 ,mass471 #e1 #gd1 #afh    peg1 
outwale1 #dh1 #aag2     keel1 #if       
,pet]bor\gh canoe1 #fe    ,p5nacook     
,indians1 #hh    ,p5obscot ,bay1 #g     
,p5obscot ,indians1 #gj    ,pepysian    
,libr>y1 #agf    ,pequawket ,indians1   
#hh    ,p]rot1 ,ni*olas1 #bae           
,pillag]s 7,indian tribe71 #abb    p9e1 
:ite1 b>k1 #bac    plane1 smoo?+ 7tool71
 #ba    plank+ 7see %ea?+7    ,pla9s    
,indians1 #bbj    ,po9t ,b>r[ 7village71
 #ahg    ,po9t ,b>r[ kayak1 #bjj1 #bjd  
,po9t ,hope 7village71 #ahh    ,pond    
,inlet1 #bjf    porpoise-hunt+ canoe1   
#gd1 #ge    portage canoe1 #eh1 #fe1    
#abc 7,ojibway7    portag+1 canoe1 #abb1
 #aea1 #aeb2     ,umiak1 #ahh2          
kayak1 #aia1 #aii    ,pot]ie1           

,bacqueville de la1 #ab1 #bae    prah1  
,malay1 #ahi    ,pribil( ,isl&s1 #aif   
,pr9ce ,william ,s\nd1 #aif     quill   
decoration1 ,micmac1 #fh     rabeska    
7see fur-trade canoe71 #abb1 #ace       
rake ( ends1 kayak-=m canoe1 #aei1 #afd2
     umiak1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #aij2     kayak1
 #bjh    ram-=m1 #cd1 #afh    ,ramezay1 
*ateau de1 #gh    ra:ide1 sew+ )1 #acb1 
#aeh 7see sew+2 /it*+2 la%+7    ,r$     
,pa9t ,p 7,indian tribe71 #id           
,repulse ,bay1 #bjd    ,re/ig\*e canoe1 
#fe    ribs 7see frames7    ris]s1      
umiak1 #ahb1 #ahg ff41     kayak1 #aij  
riv] canoe1 ,malecite1 #gj-gi    ,rivire
 du ,l\p1 #gh    rock] 7camb]2 convex   
l5g?wise curve ( keel71 #bh1 #cg1 #ch1  
#da2     effect ( gores on1 #eg2        
,micmac1 #ei1 #fc3     ,labrador1 #ii1  
#ajj2     ,ea/]n ,cree1 #aja2           
,algonk91 #aac2     ,ojibway1 #abe2     
,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2     fur-trade1 #acf2
     ,nor?we/1 #aee2     kayak-=m1 #aei1
 #afd2     umiak1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahh1     
#ahi2     kayak1 #bje1 #bjf1 #baa2      

elm-b>k canoe1 #bad    roots1 = sew+1   
#ae1 #af2     v>ieties us$1 #af2        
splitt+ & peel+1 #bj    ,ross1 ,sir     
,james ,cl>k1 #bjh    rudd]1 umiak1     
#ahg1 #ahi    ,russian influ5ce on sk9  
boat design1 #age1 #ahi1 #aib1 #aig     
,sag9aw 7,mi*igan71 #abc    ,sagu5ay    
,riv]1 #ii    sails1 canoe1 ,micmac1    
#fe1 #ff1 #fg2       ,passamaquoddy1    
#ge2       ,malecite1 #ge2       ,ea/]n 
,cree1 #ajf2       fur-trade1 #aeb2     
n>r[-bottom1 #aeh2       blanket        
7,iroquois71 #bai2       umiak1 #age1   
#ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #ahi     kayak1 #aie  
umiak1 #age1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #ahi1    
#aij    ,/4 ,croix ,riv]1 #gj    ,/4    
,francis ,abnaki ,indians1 #hh          
canoe1 #hh-ic2       dim5sions1 #hi1    
#aad1 #aae    ,/4 ,john ,lake1 #ii      
,/4 ,john ,riv]1 #gj    ,/4 ,joseph     
,lake1 #acb    ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,isl&1 #aig 
,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv]1 #e1 #ac1 #gj1 #gh   
,/4 ,mat!w 7,alaska71 #aif    ,/4       
,maurice ,riv]1 #ajg    ,/4 ,mi*aels    
kayak1 #bjj    ,sali% ,indians1 #afh1   

#agb    ,saltreaux 7,indian tribe71 #abb
    sampan1 #aia1 #aib1 #bje1 #baa      
scale-model canoe1 #d1 #e    ,s*5ectady 
boat1 #ac    sc[1 #ac    scrap] 7tool71 
#ai    sea ott] hunt+1 #aig    seal1    
be>d$1 #ahh1 #aie    ,sekani ,indians1  
kayak-=m canoe1 #aei    sett+ up canoe  
7on build+ b$71 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #dd1 #de 
,seton1 ,erne/ ,?ompson1 #d    sew+     
7/it*+1 la%+71 #ae1 #bi1 #cj2     on    
build+ b$1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 #di1
 #ej2     ,micmac1 #fc2     ,malecite1  
#gi2     ,/4 ,francis ,abnaki1 #ia2     
,ea/]n ,cree1 #aja2     ,ttes de ,b\le1 
#ajh1 #aji2     ,algonk91 #abj2         
ra:ide1 #acb1 #aeh2     n>r[-bottom1    
#aeh2     kayak-=m1 #afb2               
/urgeon-nose1 #afh2     sk9 cov]1 #ahf1 
#ahh1 #aij2     kayak1 #aic1 #aid1 #aif2
     tempor>y canoe1 #bbj    ,%>p1      
,m9nie ,bell 7,mrs4 ,edw9 ,tappan       
,adney71 #d    ,%>pie 7boat type71 #aia1
 #bjf1 #bjh    %av+ horse 7tool71 #bb   
%ea?+1 #ai1 #gc1 #gg2     fitt+ (1 #cb  
ff41 #ea1 #eb2     ,malecite1 #ej1 #ea1 

#ge2     ,micmac1 #fc1 #fd2     ,/4     
,francis1 #ij2     ,ea/]n ,cree1 #aje2  
,ttes de ,b\le1 #aaj2     ,algonk91     
#aba1 #abb2     fur-trade1 #adi2        
n>r[-bottom1 #aeh2     /urgeon-nose1    
#afh1 #agb2     tempor>y canoe1 #bah1   
#bbj    %e] 7rise 9 l5g?wise l9e (      
gunwale71 #dg1 #eb1 #ef2     hogg$1 #ee1
 #fb1 #fc2     ,micmac1 #ei2            
,malecite1 #gj2     ,beo?uk1 #id1 #if   
ff42     ,algonk91 #aad1 #aag2          
fur-trade1 #acf1 #adh2     ,nor?we/1    
#aee1 #aef2     kayak-=m1 #aei1 #afd1   
#afe1 #aff1 #afg2     umiak1 #ahb1 #ahc1
 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aij2     kayak1 #bjj1 #bjd
 ff41 #bjh1 #baa    %elt]1 ,malecite    
canoe z1 #ga1 #gb    ,si\x 7,dakotas71  
#abb1 #acj1 #acc    skiff-canoe         
7#c-;bo>d71 #fe    sk9 boat arctic1     
#agd-baa2     seago+1 #agd1 #age2       
voyages1 #agf2     %ape & size1 #agf2   
9 ice1 #ahj2     load+1 #ahj1 #aha2     
umiak1 #aha-ahi2     kayak1 #aij-baa2   
comp>$ ) b>k canoe1 #aic1 #bba2         
tempor>y1 #bai1 #bba2     c>ib\ sk91    

#bbj    sk9 cov]1 umiak1 #agf1 #agh1    
#ahf1 #ahh2     kayak1 #aib ff41 #aig1  
#aii1 #bjj1 #bjd2     = tempor>y canoe1 
#bai    sk9 canoe1 tempor>y1 con/ruction
 (1 #bai-bba    ,sib]ia1 #aha    ,slave 
,indians1 #aed1 #aee2     canoe1        
#aee-aeh    sl$ge1 = transport+ umiak1  
#ahh2     = transport+ ,nunivak ,isl&   
kayak1 #aii    ,sokoki ,indians1 #hh    
,s\?ampton ,isl&1 #aia1 #bjd    ,sp>s1  
,micmac1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg    ,spruce1      
black1 b>k1 #ae1 #ag1 #bd1 #bab1 #bac2  
roots = sew+1 #ae1 #af2       splitt+   
qualities1 #ag1 #ai2       9 kayaks1    
#aib     r$1 #ag    spruce-b>k canoe1   
,malecite1 #gb2     ,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2 
n>r[-bottom1 #aeh    spruce gum1 #ag2   
prep>ation1 #bd2     temp]+1 #bd1 #be   
/akes1 build+ b$1 #dj1 #da1 #de ff41    
#adf1 #adh    /an*ion1 #aie             
,/efansson1 ,vilhjalmur1 v1 #agd        
/em-piece1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf2               
con/ruction1 #dh1 #di2       root z1    
#ee1 #acb2       ,micmac1 #fj2          
,ea/]n ,cree1 #aja1 #ajd2       ,ttes de

 ,b\le1 #aji2       ,algonk91 #aac1     
#aad1 #aai     ,ojibway1 #abc1 #abe1    
#abg2       plank1 #abe1 #aee1 #aef1    
#afj1 #afd2     ,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2     
fur-trade1 #aej2       n>r[-bottom1     
#aef1 #aeg2       kayak-=m1 #afd2       
/urgeon-nose1 #afh1 #afi2       tempor>y
 sk9 canoe1 #bah    /it*+ b>k cov]1 #dc1
 #dd2     tempor>y canoe1 #bbj 7see also
 sew+1 la%+7    /one tools1 #ag-bj2     
use (1 #ah2     cutt+ edge1 #ah         
/raight-bottom canoe1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajf1 
#aee    ,/rut 7headbo>d brace71 #abc1   
#aej    /urgeon-nose canoe1 #aed1       
#afh-agc2     ,briti% ,columbia1 #afh2  
ends1 #afh2     size1 #agb1 #agc        
,sup]ior1 ,lake1 #aac1 #abb1 #abc1 #abe 
,taconnet ,indians1 #hh    tam>ack      
7hackmatack71 9 canoe con/ruction1 #af  
,tanana ,indians1 #aed    tap]+ wood5   
memb]s1 #ai1 #aah    t>paul9 79 fur     
trade71 #adb1 #adc    ,temiscam+1 ,lake1
 #adg    tempor>y canoe1 #bab-bai       
,ttes de ,b\le ,indians1 #ajg     canoe1
 #ajg-aab1 #aaf1 #abb2       %ea?+1 #cd2

       describ$1 #ajg-aab2              
dim5sions1 #ajg2       con/ruction1 #ajh
 ff41 #aab    ,teton ,indians1 #acc     
?ong braces1 umiak1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #aij    
?r[+ /ick1 #aid    ?w>ts1 #ai1 #ch1 #dj2
     fitt+ ( ends1 #cb1 #ef2            
location1 #cb1 #cg1 #dj2     support+ on
 build+ b$1 #df1 #dg2     ,micmac1 #fa1 
#fb2     ,/4 ,francis1 #ij2     ,ea/]n  
,cree1 #aja2     ,ttes de ,b\le1 #aaj2  
,algonk91 #aag1 #aba2     ,ojibway1     
#abg2     ,we/]n ,cree1 #acb2           
fur-trade1 #adg1 #aej2     n>r[-bottom1 
#aeh2     kayak-=m1 #afj1 #afb1 #aff1   
#afg2     /urgeon-nose1 #afi2     umiak1
 #ahb1 #ahg2     kayak1 #aie ff41 #aii1 
#bjh2     r\gh con/ruction (1 #bac1     
#baf2     tempor>y sk9 canoe1 #bai      
,timagami 7,ont>io71 ,lake1 #abe1 #aca1 
#aea    tomahawk1 #ba    tongs1 wood51  
#bj    topsail1 umiak1 #ahc    ,tonti1  
,*evali] ,h5ri de1 #h    tools1         
primitive1 #ag-bj2     mod]n1 #bj-bd    
tree fell+1 #ah    tre5ail1 #aij1 #aib  
,trois ,rivires1 #ac    tumble-home     

7incurv+ ( upp] sides ( canoe71 ,micmac1
 #fj2     ,malecite1 #gc1 #ge1 #gh      
tump l9e1 #abb1 #adc    ,two ,m\nta9s1  
,lake (1 #aac     ,umiak1 ,eskimo1 #agd1
 #aha-aij2     qualities1 #age1 #agf1   
#agh2     use1 #age1 #agf2     design1  
#agf1 #agh1 #ahb-ahc2     comp>$ )      
curragh1 #agf1 #agh2     sk9 cov]1 #agf1
 #agh1 #ahf1 #ahh2     con/ruction1     
#agf1 #agh1 #ahj1 #ahb1 #ahc-ahg1 #ahh2 
o>s & paddles1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg ff42    
headbo>ds1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aij2
     fl>e ( sides1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahh2    
%e]1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aij2      
rake ( ends1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #aij2     rock]
 ( bottom 7camb]71 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahh1    
#ahi2     ?w>ts1 #ahb1 #ahg2     ris]s1 
#ahb1 #ahg ff42     v-bottom1 #ahb1     
#ahd1 #ahi2     gunwales1 #ahb1 #ahd    
ff41 #aij2     ,alaskan1 #ahb1 #ahc1    
#ahg ff42     ,*uk*i 7,asiatic71 #ahb1  
#ahc1 #ahh2     ,koryak1 #ahb1 #ahi2    
,gre5l&1 #ahb1 #ahi2     frames 7ribs71 
#ahd ff41 #ahi1 #aij2     keelson1 #ahd1
 #ahf1 #ahh2     ?ong brace1 #ahf1 #ahg1

 #aij2     rudd]1 #ahg1 #ahi2     :al+1 
#ahg1 #ahh2     ,k+ ,isl&1 #ahg2        
hogg+ brace1 #ahh2     portag+1 #ahh2   
,baff9 ,isl&1 #ahi1 #aij    ,unalaska   
kayak1 #aif    ,unit$ ,/ates ,fi%       
,commission1 #bjb    ,unit$ ,/ates      
,national ,museum1 #ahc1 #ahh1 #ahi1    
#aig1 #aii1 #bjd     ,v-bottom canoe1   
,malecite1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg2       ,/4
 ,francis1 #hi2       ,beo?uk1 #if1 #ih1
 #ajj2       ,ttes de ,b\le1 #ajg2      
,algonk91 #aac     kayak1 #aij ff41     
#aie1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa     umiak1 
#ahb1 #ahd1 #ahi    ,v-,=m 7see         
,v-bottom7    ,vik+ boat1 #ahg          
voyageur1 #adc2     loads c>ri$ by1     
#adc1 #add2     numb] requir$ = a canoe1
 #ade2     paddle requirem5t1 #aeb      
wab9aki *iman 7,algonk9 canoe71 #aad1   
#aai1 #aca    walrus sk91 = umiak1 #ahc2
     = kayak1 #aid    w> canoe1 #aj2    
,micmac1 #eh1 #fe2     ,malecite1 #gj   
w> p>ty1 ,malecite1 #ga2     travel+1   
#bab2     ,iroquois1 #bad    ,waswanipi1
 ,lake1 ,po/ 7,hudson's ,bay ,company71 

#aea    wat]1 ,indian me?ods ( boil+1   
#bj    weapons1 = kayaks1 #aid1 #baa    
wea!r clo?1 #ahc    w$ge1 #ch1 #aef     
,we/]n ,cree ,indians1 #acb1 #aee2      
canoe1 #gb1 #acb-acd1 #aee    ,wew5oc   
,indians1 #hh    ,weym\?1 ,capta9       
,george1 #g    :aleboat1 #ahg    :al+   
umiak1 #ahg1 #ahh    ,:itb\rne1 ,capta9 
,ri*>d1 #id    ,:ite ,fi% ,p 7,indian   
tribe71 #ajg    wide-bottom canoe1 #ed  
will[1 #ag    ,w9nipeg1 ,lake1 #acb     
wood 7= kayaks71 #aib1 #bjj1 #bjd       
wood b5d+1 by hot wat]1 #bj2     ov] a  
fire1 #fi    wood splitt+1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai
    woods canoe1 #eh1 #fe    ,wood/ock1 
,new ,brunswick1 #d1 #ge    wulegessis1 
#gb1 #gc1 #gg1 #hb1 #ij1 #abj1 #aba     
,york boat1 #bbj    ,yukon ,indians1    
#aij    ,yukon ,riv] canoe1 #aei2       
kayak-=m1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #aij        
,u4,s4 ,,gov]nm5t ,,pr9t+ ,,(fice3 #aigc
 ,o--#dia-bcj           99      99      
99      99      99      99              
,transcrib]'s note3    ,sil5tly correct$
 simple spell+1 gramm>1 & typographical 

errors4    ,reta9$ ana*roni/ic &        
non-/&>d spell+s z pr9t$4